Skip to main content

Full text of "Encyclopaedia britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information"

See other formats 


Google 


This  is  a  digital  copy  of  a  book  that  was  preserved  for  generations  on  library  shelves  before  it  was  carefully  scanned  by  Google  as  part  of  a  project 

to  make  the  world's  books  discoverable  online. 

It  has  survived  long  enough  for  the  copyright  to  expire  and  the  book  to  enter  the  public  domain.  A  public  domain  book  is  one  that  was  never  subject 

to  copyright  or  whose  legal  copyright  term  has  expired.  Whether  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  may  vary  country  to  country.  Public  domain  books 

are  our  gateways  to  the  past,  representing  a  wealth  of  history,  culture  and  knowledge  that's  often  difficult  to  discover. 

Marks,  notations  and  other  maiginalia  present  in  the  original  volume  will  appear  in  this  file  -  a  reminder  of  this  book's  long  journey  from  the 

publisher  to  a  library  and  finally  to  you. 

Usage  guidelines 

Google  is  proud  to  partner  with  libraries  to  digitize  public  domain  materials  and  make  them  widely  accessible.  Public  domain  books  belong  to  the 
public  and  we  are  merely  their  custodians.  Nevertheless,  this  work  is  expensive,  so  in  order  to  keep  providing  tliis  resource,  we  liave  taken  steps  to 
prevent  abuse  by  commercial  parties,  including  placing  technical  restrictions  on  automated  querying. 
We  also  ask  that  you: 

+  Make  non-commercial  use  of  the  files  We  designed  Google  Book  Search  for  use  by  individuals,  and  we  request  that  you  use  these  files  for 
personal,  non-commercial  purposes. 

+  Refrain  fivm  automated  querying  Do  not  send  automated  queries  of  any  sort  to  Google's  system:  If  you  are  conducting  research  on  machine 
translation,  optical  character  recognition  or  other  areas  where  access  to  a  large  amount  of  text  is  helpful,  please  contact  us.  We  encourage  the 
use  of  public  domain  materials  for  these  purposes  and  may  be  able  to  help. 

+  Maintain  attributionTht  GoogXt  "watermark"  you  see  on  each  file  is  essential  for  in  forming  people  about  this  project  and  helping  them  find 
additional  materials  through  Google  Book  Search.  Please  do  not  remove  it. 

+  Keep  it  legal  Whatever  your  use,  remember  that  you  are  responsible  for  ensuring  that  what  you  are  doing  is  legal.  Do  not  assume  that  just 
because  we  believe  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  the  United  States,  that  the  work  is  also  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  other 
countries.  Whether  a  book  is  still  in  copyright  varies  from  country  to  country,  and  we  can't  offer  guidance  on  whether  any  specific  use  of 
any  specific  book  is  allowed.  Please  do  not  assume  that  a  book's  appearance  in  Google  Book  Search  means  it  can  be  used  in  any  manner 
anywhere  in  the  world.  Copyright  infringement  liabili^  can  be  quite  severe. 

About  Google  Book  Search 

Google's  mission  is  to  organize  the  world's  information  and  to  make  it  universally  accessible  and  useful.   Google  Book  Search  helps  readers 
discover  the  world's  books  while  helping  authors  and  publishers  reach  new  audiences.  You  can  search  through  the  full  text  of  this  book  on  the  web 

at|http: //books  .google  .com/I 


Gift  of 


John  Raw] ings 


STANFORD  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


EUEVENTH    EDITION 


FIRST 

SECOND 

THIRD 

FOURTH 

FIFTH 

SIXTH 

SEVENTH 

EIGHTH 

NINTH 

TENTH 

ELEVENTH 


cditioa,  publii 


«Im<I  in  thra* 
ten 


w 


tf 


volumes, 


eighteen 
twenty 
twenty 
twenty 
twenty-one 
iwenty-two 
twenty-five  ,. 

ninth  edition  and  eleven 
supplementary  volumes, 
publisbcd  ia  tweoty-oioe  volumes. 


•> 


it 


1768- 
1777- 
1788- 

i8ot- 

181s- 
1823- 
1830- 

»853 
1875- 


t77r. 
1784. 

•1707. 
1810. 
t8i7. 
1834. 
1842. 
-i860. 
1889. 


1902— 1903. 
1910^1911. 


(  . 


THE 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS,    SCIENCES.    LITERATURE    AND    GENERAL 

INFORMATION 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  XXI 

PAYN  to  POLKA 


NEW  YORK 

THE  ENCYCLOPiEDIA  BRITANNICA  COMPANY 

1911 


r 


i    "'-  if  '  '  ^    ^    ^'  \    T  #  - .  ■  T  •  ■"•  "^  .«  '  - 


!.    . 


r 


1    : 


Cbpyrigbt,  in  the  United  States  of  America.  1911* 

by 
.,Tli»Xnnt^^ia  BrikApnip^  (Cotfi»n|. 


W  M         •  .  »  •  • 


*         f  I 


•  t    '. 


INITIALS  USED  IN  VOLUME  XXL  TO  IDENTIFY  INDIVIDUAL 
CONTRIBUTORS,^  WITH    THE  HEADINGS  OF  THE    . 
ARTICLES  IN  THIS  VOLUME  SO  SIGNED. 


A.B.R. 


A.P.P. 


A.O. 

A.G.T. 

A.H.* 


A.H.a 

A*  H*  H* 

A.H.8. 
A.J.O. 

iLl.ft 


A.I.L. 


A.I. 


ficai 


EQ  B4«T0tl  RSM>LB,.M.A^  t>Sc..  F.1t.$.,  F.i.S. 
eeper,  DeMrtmcat  o|  Botany.  Briliili  lAuwim.    Autl|or 
'joiton  of  Fhwthng  Pkm$$i  &B. 


{ 


of  TfXt  Beck  M  Oassi'  i  Hufi:  ClassiJUaUaik 


AUSRT  FSEDSKICK  POLLAIO,  If  .A.,  F.R.HltT.S. 

Profenor  of  English  History  in  the  Umvcnity  «ff  Uodeo.    Fdkw  tiC  'AU 
College.  OxfonL    A«ktatt  Editor  of  the  £Ndlbfi«7  «f  M«I|MmI  Mm^ 


IQOI.     LotUnn  Plriaemaiir  OKfonl,  1M09;    AnM  PrfaemMi»  iS9C_  'Anchor'  of 


PttM^  Aimwa 


Major  Artbitr  George  Frederick  GRxmTE9  (d.  1008). 

AuCUr  of 


«U«M.  InuMCtor  of  Prisons,   1878-1896. 
S^ctOs  ^  As  Fri^m  House;  &c. 


JIU  CknkUU*  nf  iVtofMin  Ml*^ 


'{ 


Arthxtr  Georoe  Tansley,  M^.,  F.L.S. 
tectmtr  in  Botany  in  the  Vnf 
of  Botany,  University  College, 


If^mtr  in  Botany  in  the  VnK«nir^  of  Caintrii%ei   FortMily 
*"  .     —  ..     ^  Lonqon. 


Pkot4 


{ 


PbBti:  Anaimf, 


A  ... 


Albert  Hauck,  D.Th.,  D.Ph. 

Pirofessur  of  Church  Histery  ia  fhe  VoivcrNCy  Of  hdpmg**BA  Director  of  tjie  Museum 
of  Ecclesiasdcal  Archaeology.    Geheimer  Kirchenrat  of  the  Kingdom  ol  Saxony. 
Member  of  the' Royal  Saxon  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Corresponditt  Member  ef ' 
the  Acjtdemiei  of  Bariin  ami  Munich.    Aucbor  of  JiiHlieniiuMdm  JhuUikJ^fdi ; 
oe.    Eator  of  Ihe  new  editioa  of  Henoi'a  lUt^iteyUopfidio  Uir  pfHotlamituke 


Tkoologit  mud  Kircke, 


Sir  Arthur  Herbert  Churcb«  M.A^  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.  f  -1..^^^ 

ProCcMor  of  Chemistry,  Royal  Academy  of  Arts^  London.    Author  of  Chemistry  \  "*'**■" 
tff  Paints  end  Pauamg ;  EMfiisk  Bartkenvme ;  Enpi^  Porfdam  \  &c  I 

Arthur  Horsley  Hintom  (1863-1908).  f  _,.        ,^  _.^   .  . 

Bdlter  of  The  Amokur  Pholotrapher,  1897-190O.  and  the  Phetog^fkk  Ttodet\  ramognft^  PkUnti. 
<;a«i#s,  1904-1908.   Author  of  Pra«flca/P«f0Ha//«ator»^;  Ac.  \ 


Sir  a.  Houtum-Schindler,  CLE. 

General  in  the  Pernan  Army.   Author  of  Baslem  Persian  Irak, 

Rev.  ARCHiBAto  Henry  Sayce,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Lxtt.D. 
See  the  bio^raphicil  article:  Saycb,  A.  H. 

Rev.  Alexander  Jakes  Grvbve,  MA,  B J>. 


/  Panto:  Ceopropky  and 
\     SloHtHet. 

{pttwpoBi  {in  part). 


Professor  of  New  Testament  and  Church  History.  Yorkshire  Vtiiiei  Independent  1  tn,,. .,...»   tt^#i,^,  12^  -^_-\ 
College.  Jradfqrd.  .  Sometune  Registrar  of  Madras  University,  and  Member  oTl  PV"»«»  BwttWl  (m  part). 

Fonneriy  Member  of  Council  ancTHon.  Curator  of  the  Royal  CoUcge  of  Music.     Pianoforte  (in  part); 


Mysore  Educatioiial  Service. 
Altreo  7.  ^RiPKiNS.  F.S.A.  (iSai^Mon). 


I 


London. 


»odon.    Member  of  OMnmittee  of  the  InveMions  and  Mosic  Exhftition,  188s  r  iwjth 
-   wJ*^  Vtenaa  Exhibition/ 4893;  and  of  tlie.Puia  Exhibition.  1900.    Author  of    "^T^ 

Andrew  Jacison  Laxoureux.  f         ^  .    . 

Ubcarian.  Coikge  of  Agricttltare,  CorveH  Unlvcnity.    Editor  of  tbe  Rio  News  {  P^m:  Geography  and  StaHMa, 
(Rio  de  Janeiro),  187^1901,  (  •      -  . 

Alexander  Macalister,  M.A..  LL.D..  M.D..  D.Sc..  F.R.S.  f  PineDollgj; 

Professor  o(  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  Fellow  of  St  John's  \  Phvilnraoinv 
College.   Authorof  f«xld«o*t^HiMMiri«ea/iMy:Ac!  ^  rBynognpi^.  .     - 

PMfooek;  PiDaui; 
PMnl; 


Altreo  Newton.  F.R.S. 

See  the  biegrspbical  article:  Newton.  Alfrba 

Pipit;  nttB; 

*  A  complete  list,  showhig  all  Individuat  eontribuion.  Rplwen  h  the  tntX  votume. 


VI 
A.  86.* 

A.8L 

A.8.P^P. 

A.  8.  Wo. 
A.T.L 


C.BL 


CB.* 
G.B.A. 

C.B.1I. 
CO.K. 

C.L.K. 

CM. 

CPL 

C.  P.  J. 

C*  R*  H* 
C.8.P. 

CT* 
CW.R. 

D.O.B. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

AoAK  Sedgwick,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Pvofenor  of  Zoolofv  mt  the  Imperial  College  of  Science  and  Technology.  London. 
Fellow,  and  fonnerly  Tutor,  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Pvofemor  of  Zoology 
in  the  univenity  of  Cambridge.  1907-1909. 

AtfBUK  Sbadwzll,  M.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D. 

Member  of  Council  of  Epidemiological  Society.  Author  of  Tkt  Lmdrnt  Waltt' 
Supply;  Industrial  Effickucyi  Drink,  Ttmptnmu  mid  Upd^Uon, 

Andrew  Seth  PuNOLB-PAmsoN.  M.A.,  LL.D..  D.C.L. 

Profetaor  of  Logic  and  MeUphyrics  in  the  Univenity  of  Edinburgh.  Gifford 
Lecturer  in  the  Univenity  of  Aberdeen.  191 1.  Fellow  of  the  Britiih  Academy. 
Author  of  Man's  Plata  in  Ika  Cosmas;  Tka  Pkilasapkkal  Radicals;  Ac 

AanvR  SiOTB-  Wooowasd,  LL.Dn  F.R^. 

Keeper  of  Geology,  Natural  Hbtory  Muttum,  So«di  KcaeiagttM.  Seovctacy  of 
the  Geological  Society  of  London. 

Alexander  Taylor  Inkcs,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

Scotch  Advocate^  Author  of  Jakn  K90X;  lam  ^  Cmds  m  StaOasid;  Sludia  in 
ScoUisk  ffisUfy;  Ac 

Sa  BovsRTON  Redwood,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.(EdiB.),  F.I.C.,  AssocJmst.CE., 
M.INST.M.E. 
Adviser  on  Petroleum  to  the  Admiralty.  Honie  Oflke,  India  Oflke.  Corporation  of 
London,  and  Port  of  London  Authonty,  Pitiident  of  the  Soc^  01  Chemical 
Industry.  Member  of  the  Coandl  of  the  Chemteel  Society.  Member  of  Coondl  of 
Institute  of  Chemistry.  Author  of  "  Cantor  "  LaOuns  an  Fstroleum;  PiUvtaum 
and  its  Produds;  Chemical  Ttekntloiy;  Ac. 

Rsv.  Charles  Bioo,  M.A.,  DJD»  (i8a»-i^). 

Rc|^s  Piufeasdi'  of  EodesiaaticBi  Hiatory.in  the  Univenity  of  Oxford,  and  Canon 
of  Christ  Church,  i^oi-i^ot.   Formcvly  Sei'     ~     ' 
Headmaster  o( 
Ac.  % 


(«"  par0, 


POftl^ 


nior  Studeniand  Tutor  of  Christ  Church. 
iA  na  Christen  PlaitmisH  tf  Alexandria: 


Pbflo  (m  paHi. 


CsARLBS^VERiTT,  M.A.,  F.C.S.»  F.G.S.»  F.R.A^. 
Sometime  Schdar  of  Magdalen  Collie,  Oxford. 

Charles  Edward  Axsrs. 

Fomwriy  Times  CoRcipoMdent  In  Dotooe  Aiiel.    Anther  of  A 
America,  $854-1904, 

Charles  Edward  Moss,  D.Sc. 

Emmanuel  College,  Canibridge.   Curator  of  the  UnNcnity  Herbarium. 

Caxgtll  Gilston  Knott,  D.Sc. 

Lecturer  on  Applied  Mathematia.  Edinbuivh  University,  ftofessor  of  Physics, 
Imperial  University  of  Japan,  Tokyo,  18^1891.  Author  of  Ekttricity  and 
Magnetism;  Physics;  Ac 

Charles  Lbtbbridge  Kingsford,  M.A.,  F.R.Hist.S.,  F.S.A.  f  ^^ 

Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.   Author  of  Life  pf  Henry  V.  Eifitdr  <  nfl^  PshT* 
of  Chronicles  of  London  and  Stow's  Swroey  ef  tendon.  t 


{ 

of  South  J  Pant:  History  (in  part), 
•[  Plaats:  £cotogy. 


'{ 


Photonttif. 


Carl  Tbxodor  Mirbt,  D.Tb. 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Marburg.    Author  of  Publisist; 
im  Zeitalter  Crtgor  VIL;  Quelkn  tor  Ceschichte  des  PapsUhums;  Ac 


"{ 


Plm  DC.; 

Poliqr»  CoDoqvy  oi* 


CHRisnAa  PfisTER,  D.  is.  L.  .  .    .         f 

Professor  at  the  Sorbonne.  Pkris.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  i  pfppiii  L-m. 
Juudes  sur  le  rhgne  de  Robert  le  Pieux.  ( 

Charles  Pierpoint  Johnson  (i7gx'i88o).  ^^       ......  f 

Lecturer  on  Botany,  Guy's  Hospital.  London,  i8lo>i873-   EfBtor  of  J.  A.  Soncrby^s  \  ffg^ 
&fifish  Botany;  Bdc  haxhot^Pems  of  Great  Brilasn;  doc  [ 

Sir  Clements  Robert  Mareham,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.  f  «.«.«•--      /•    ..^^ 

See  the  biographical  article:  Markbam.  Sir  Clbmsnts  RoHRt.  S  Vwn:  Htsfory  (w  pmO* 

Tn.  Rt.  Hon.  Charles  Stvart  Parker,  LL.D^  I>.C:L.  (iSs^ioxo).  f 

M.P.  for  Perthshire,  i86»-i«74;  M.P.  for  Perth  Cky.  1879-1899.  Honorary  Feflow,  ]  -j,^  -,.  b*k— * 
formeriy  FeUow  of  Univenity  CoUege.  QifonL    Author  of  Life  of  Sir  Robert  Peel;  i  "•^  ■*  HORSn. 

*^  ,        .  .  I 

Rev.  Charles  Taylor,  M.A.,  D.D..  LL.D.  (1840-1008).  e  • 

Master  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1881-1908.    Vioe-Chancellor,  1887-1888.  J  Pirks  Abolh. 
Authorof  GsoNMlrica/ Crates:  Ac  \ 

MA]OR-GENtRAL  Charles  Walker  Robinson,  CB.,  O.CX. 

■Assisunt  Military  Secretary,  Headquarten  of  the  Army,  1890-1893. 
Govtraor  and  Sedrctary,  Royal  Military  Hospital,  Chelsea.  1895-1898. 
Slra9aty9f  the  Peninsular  War;  Ac 


Lieut 
Author 


Jeut..] 
lor  of  i 


PiBiiiniltf  War. 


David  George  Hogarth,  M.A. 

Keeper  6f  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  Magdalen  College.  Oxford 
FeUmr  ^  the  British  Academy.     Excavated  at  Paphos,  1888:  Naucntis,  1899. 
and  1903;  Epbesus,  1904-1905;  Afsiut,  I906-I907'    Director,  British  School  at 
Athens,  1897-1900.   Director,  Cretan  Explbratlon  Fond,  1899. 


Pnga; 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OP  ARTICLES 


vH 


D.a 


B.A.1. 
B.A.8a. 

B.Gr. 
Ed.a. 


B.OX 


B.B.B. 
B.8.* 

B.Tta* 

r.A.p. 

P.O.P. 

p.j.a 
p.iia 


P.I. 

P.W.te. 


David  Hamnay. 

Formeriy  British  Vioe-Consiil  mt  BanxkNUL    Antbar  of  Skart  HiOtiy  tt  ll<  iCfyaf' 


PaMua.  Maiqoii  of; 

Pstor  L-IV.  of  AiagOB; 

PMCTtfCaHOt; 

Pint*  and  Plncf:  HisUfry; 

Po^  Btett  ADui: 

Potand:  ffiilpry  (in  ter(). 


S.  AmCO  JtfNES.  r 

Author  of  (M  S»tli$h  Octi  Plain  OU  Ckmdk  Ptak  tf  Ike  IsU  of  ii^m:  OU  SOter 
S^emmtmai  Vessth  vj  Fvftipi  Pnkslami  Omnket  tn  BmHand;  IBmstrated  Cata-  <  Plato  fill  *arA. 
lottu  tfLwpeU  ^  RothsekUi-a  CdUeUM  cf  OU  Plak;  A  PMt  CdetogM  0/  lit  ^     '^ 

Royal  Plat*  aiWimUorCttSlU'.ac  t 

Edwasd  Adolt  Sonnbnscrein,  M.A.f  Lm.D.  f 

PjrofBWQf  of  Grade  and  Utia  ia  the  Unhpenitr  of  Binaifltfaaiii.    Hon.  Sacrauiy  J  muMtm 
of  theCUaacvl  Anocktaon.    Pftdcnor  of  Giaek  ud  Utia  in  Muo«  Colkge,!  ''^'"^ 
Birmingham,  ^883-1900.   Editor  of  aevoal  of  the  plays  of  Plautua.  t> 

Btmsr  Baskcr,  M.A.  f 

fjOkm  aadJLectum-Jn  Modern  Hiitmy,  St  John's  College.  Mocd.    FonieHy'|  PM«r  th$  Hlintt. 


FeUow  and  Tutor  of  Mertoa  CoUcge.  Cvavea 

SraitrMD  CossE,  LL.D.,  D.CX. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Comb,  EDnnnm. 

Ekrbst  Amnn  Gaedner,  M.A. 

See  the  biogrephkal  article:  Oaronbb,  Pbict. 

EowASD  Joseph  Bent.  M.A.,  Mus.BAa 

Formerly  Fdhnr  of  Kii^'a  CoUcge.  Cambridge. 


.x«9». 


{ 

{PBIfOM. 


EouAKD  Meyse,  Ph.D.,  DXxtt.,  LL.D. 

ProfeMor  of  Andrnt  History  in  the  University  of  Berlin.    Author  of  Ctsckuklt  < 
imAlltrtktmsi  GtukkkU  drt  cUm  Atgyptmsi  D%»  IsradOen  und  ikn  NachbantdmHu, 


PIfvlJ 

FMBia:  Andeni  History; 


{ 


Edwaid  Morell  Holmes. 

Quator  ef  the  Museum  of  the  Fharmaoeutical  Society,  Londoo. 

Edhxind  Owev,  F.R.C.S.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.  r««i**«i*i.. 

ConsulUog  Surnon  to  St  Mary's  Hospital.  London,  and  to  the  Children's  Hospital.     lr'*^'r?* 
Great  OnnondStrtct,  London.   Chevalier  of  the  Lkkni  of  Honour.   Late  Examuwr  1 '°*nniCU>iS 
in  Surgery  at  the  (Jniversitics  of  Cambridge,  London  and  Divham.    Author  01  4  I  PUabitil. 
ilennoi  of  Anatomy  for  Senior  Smdenis,  ^ 

EuzABBTB  O'Neiix,  M.A.  (Mrs  H.  0.  O^eol); 

Formerly  University  Fello«r  and  Jones  Fellow  of  Manrjicstrr  Uaivcnity. 

Edgar  Prestace. 

of  Manchester.    Ex* 


{ 


Spedal  Lecturer  in  Portuguese  Literature  fat  the  University 

andaer  in  Portuguese  in  the  Uoiverdties  of  London.    Maadiestcr,  Ac.    Com- 


PlBS*  Roy  dt; 
Portiq^ocae  Order  of  S.  Tbiago.     Correspondins  Member  (^  Lisbon  1  Plnto^  Fsniis 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  Lisbon  Geographical  Society;  oc    Editor  of  Letters 
«f  •  PortnpuM  Nun;  Axurara's  Ckronick  of  Grnhuai  Ac. 

Edwtm  Robert  Sevan,  M.A.  I  ^-_^  ,    .,    ._.  „    - 

New  Cblkce,  Oxford.    Author  of  Tho  Homo  ef  SeUwcmi  Jenuaiem  nndrr  tkei  PnuiPj-'  "••  •>»  v.  Of 

Emz^ScBOEtR^  D.PR.  (i844'i9x^ 

of  H 


Formerly 

Kid  and  GOttingen. 

Ckrud\9te^ 


of  Giessen 


New  Testament  Eaegesn  hi  the  irmicnitits  01  Giessen.  I  m»nA  is^  a,-^\ 
Author  of  CesckidlkZs  jAdiscken  VoUtet  imZeitoUer  Jesu]  ™™  ^"^  '^'' 


■■{ 


Rev.  E«hblrb>  Lvkb  TAUNimr  (d.  1907). 


httthoe  61  The  Emt^iskBiaek  Monks  ef  Si  Benedict;  History  of  Ike  JesuiUimBntfand,\  C*rtlB«L 

J  PIstonh  (m  fart). 


={ 


Frederick  Afiborv  Paixy.  LL.D. 

See  tiie  biographical  article,  Paley,  P.  A. 

Frederick  Gtmer  Parsons,  F.R.C.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.R.Anthrop.Tnst. 

Vice-President,  Anatomical  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.     Lactuier  on  1  PhsqFia; 
Aaatoo^  at  St  Thomas's  Hospital  and  the  London  School  of  Medidne  for  Women 
London.   Formeriy  Hunterian  Professor  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

Major-Gemxxal  Sn  Frederic  John  Goidskd. 
•  See  the  bkgraphical  artade:  Goldshio  (family).  "^     ^^ri). 

Francis  Llewellyn  GRmrrR,  M.A.,  Pb.D.,  F.S.A.  « 

Reader  In  Egy^oloe/.  Oxford  University.    Editor  of  the  Archaeological  Survey    Psloslam; 
and  Archaeological  Reports  of  the  ^ypt  Exploration  Fund.   Fellow  of  Imperial     Pbaisoh: 
German  Ainchaeological  Institute.     rormerTy  Assistant  Professor  of  Egyptdogy '  bmwm 
in  Univenity  College,  London.   AathfOe  <A  SUfries  of  tke  Higk  Priests  ^empHs;    fTT*^ 
Ac  I^FhIMMIL 

pRffitjoy  Namsen. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Namsbn,  Fridtjot. 

Fbioerick  Wiuiax  Gamble.  D.Sc.,  M.Sc.,  F.R.S. 


r  Hakki  Biitory,  1495^8^4  {U 


•[pohr  BtgloM  {in  pott). 


Professor  of  Zoology,  Bimun^m  Univenity.  Formeriy  Aanstant  Director  of  the  J 
Zoological  Laboratories,  and  Lecturer  in  Zoology,  University  of  Manchester.  ] 
Author  of  it»MM/L</ir.   Editor  of  MarshaU  and  Hurst's  ProAhica/Zestegy:  ac         I 


Pbtitbnls. 


O.H.|l«. 


viii  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OP  ARTICLES 

P.W.&*  -      FUDSUCK  William  RuDLZR,  I.S.O.,  F.G.S.  rFwMol:  Phontelii; 

Cuntor  «ad  LibcaYian  of  the  Muteuin  of  Pmcticml  Geology,  London,  1879-1909.1      if*«i«/PjJ«Ijmi./i-A-.rt 
Pleddait  of  the  Geologutt'AaMdataon.  1887-1889.   ^^'   ™~-.      ty- tt^  ^     MtncralFMotpMetimfort), 

0.  A.  C*  Rxv.  GiOBGE  Albert  Goose.  IXD. 

Oriel 'Profeanr  of  the  InU 
Oriel  College.     Canon  of 
Edinburgh.   Author  of  Ttxl  Book  0/  North  Stmitk  Iu$criptionsi  Ac 

O.  A.  Gr.  George  Absabam  Gueison,  C.I.E.,  Ph.D.,  D.LnT. 

Indian  Civil  Scrvioe,  1873-1 
1903.    Gold  M      " 

Aaiatic  Society.  _  .  . 

tf  India;  dtc  '  '  "I 

O.  Ck  Geoxcb  Chxvstal,  M.A.,  LL.D.  f  .c 

ProfeaMr  of  Mathenatitt  and^  Dean  ^^thc  Faciit^  of  Arts,  Edmbingh  Univenity.  4  Bvptloal  MOtlOIL 


CE,  IXD.  f 

iternetation  of  Holy  Scripture.  Oxford,  and  FcUoiw  of  J 
A  Rocfaester.  Hon.  Canon  of  St  Mary'e  Cathedral,  | 
txt  Book  0/  North  Somitie  luseriptions;  Ac  I 


LBAM  UUEISON,  U.l.E.,  l^.D.,  U.LITT.  f 

ril  Scrvioe,  187^1903.  In  clwrge  of  Ungoietic  Survev  of  India,  1898-  j 
Id  Medallist.  RoyaJ  Aiiatic  Society.  1909.  Vice-President  of  the  1U!yal  < 
aety.  Formeriy  Fellow  of  Calcutta  Uaivcmty.   Author  of  Tk*  t^utmMU  \ 


Hon.  FeDow  •adlonacriy  Fellow  and  Leotuier,  Corpus  Christi  College,  ( 

aCW.  Gv>|W:  Charles  WiLUAMSOH,  IJTT.D.  f  SSSl^SSJ!^?'^*^ 

ChevaHer  of  Che  Legion  of  Honour.   Author  of  Porlratf  Jf*iitoAi«»;  Lt/«o/J«dbfd  J  ™"^f^^ '•^ 
Cosway,  R.A.;  Ctorft  EntUkeart;  PortfoU  DntrimgS'.'Scc    Editor  of  New  Edition  1  VllMr*  AUDtv; 
■    Pa 


of  Bryan's  DicHonary  of  Painters  and  Bngnotrs. 

iHimlwgo  Dnwlnp. 

0.  IL  Rev.  Gsokce  EDinTNDSON,  lii.A..  F.R.Hist.S.  f 

Formeriy  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Brasenose  College.  OxCprd.  Fonfs  Lecturer,  J900.  J 

Hon.   Member,   Dutch  Historical  Society;  and  Foreign  Member,   Netherlands  1 
Association  of  Litenture.  t 


Pm:  History  (tii  pari^. , 


Q.  B.*  Robert  Geoivret  Ellb.  f 

PeterhoH^  Cambridge.    Baxrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.    Joint-editor  of  EngUsk  ■{  Psenct. 

Reports.   Author  oi  Peerage  Lam  aeid  History.  i. 

G.  B.  C.  George  Earl  Church.  /  9%^  Ho  It  It. 

See  the  biogrephical  article:  Church,  G.  E.  \ 

G.  G.  P^  George  Ceenvillb  Prillimore,*M.A.,  B.CL.  /piiAt  tzm  a^m^^ 

Christ  Church,  Oxford.   Barrister-at-Uw,  Middle  Tempile.  \  "^  ^•"  '^'• 

G.  H.  Bo.  Rev.  Geoboe  Herbert  Box,  M.A. 


t.  Geoboe  Herbert  Box,  M.A.  f 

Rector  of  Sotton  Sandy.  Beds.    Formeriy^  Hebrew  Master.  Merchant  Tiylors*  l-«h-i_|_p-  /^  ^„^ 
School,  London.    Lecturer  in  Faculty  of  Theology.  University  of  Oxford.  1908- 1  '«y««"y  V«l  fon}, 
1909.    Author  of  TranslotioH  of  Book  of  Isot^i  Ac  t 

George  Herbert  Fowler,  F.Z.S..  F.L.S.,  PB.p.  t 

Focmerly  Berkeley  Research  Fellow,  Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  Assistant  J  PbUklOtt. 
Professor  of  Zoology  at  Umvereity  College,  London.  | 

G.W.R.  George  WiluamRedway.  ^     ^  rptttnhaf  CunptigB: 

Author  of  Tke  War  of  Secesnoui  i86t-iB6a',  Fredericksburg:  a  Study  in  War^  \     {j8&^j86sh 

H.  BL  HiRAH  BtNGBAH,  A.M.,  Pb.D.  I 

Assistant  Professor  of  Latin-American  Hbtory,  Yale  University.  Albert  Shaw  J 
Lecturer  on  Diplomatic  Histo^,  Johns  Hopkins  University.  Author  <rf  Jotumali 
of  an  Expedition  across  Veneanela  md  Colombia;  Ac  [ 

H.  CL  Sir  Hugh  Charles  CurroRo,  K.C.M.G.  1 

Colonial  Secretary.  Ccvlon.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Colonial  Institute.  Formeriy  I 
Resident,  Pahang.  Colonial  Secretary,  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  1903^1907.  Author^ 
of  Studios  in  Bromn  Humamty;  Further  India;  Ac.  Joint-author  of  A  Diaion&ry  | 
ef  tke  Malay  Ldmguaae.  I 

H.Dt.  Hippolyte  Delehaye,  S.I.  f«.^^     ^ 

Asrisuot  hi  die  compilation  of  the  BoOandist  pubUcttiom:  Analeeta  BdhuHoMaA  PlllHi^  9L 
and  Acta  Sanctorum*  I 


H.  K  Karl  HERMAt«N  EtbI.  M.A.,  Pb.D. 

Profcseor  of  Oriental  Languages.  Universtty  ^.oiiege.  Aoeryscwyui  lyinvfTsiiy  oi  1  fL)„|,     riUM^oo. 
^ij^\     Author  of  ^'<''^— '- -f  B - ^ ^.^j^>  .*..  tLm  tijn»  rue^m  rAJm»»,  i  awn*  e^uuuemwm 

London  (Clarendon 
B.  P.  0.  Hans  Frjedricb  Oaoow,  F.R.S.,  Ph.D. 


iTHi,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  ^.  .  f 

riental  Languages.  University  College.  Aberystwyth  (Universily  of  1 
9r  of  Catalogue  ef  Persian  Manuscrtfts  in  m  india  QgUe  LSbrary,  1  ' 
tdon  Press);  Ac  I 

m  PtaEDRior  Oaoow,  F.R.S.,  Ph.D.  f 

StiicUand  Curator  and  Lecturer  on  Zooloey  In  the  Unfvefxity  of  Cambridge.  J  PlloroitWOi. 
Audior  of  "  Amphibia  and  ReptUca  '*^  In  the  CmiMiie  Natural  Bsstory,  \ 


H.  G.  it  W.      Herhann  G.  de  Watteville. 


H.  H.  T.  Herbert  Hall  Turner.  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.9.  r  _  ,       ..     

SavlHaa  Professor  of  Astronomy  In  the  University  of  Oxford  and  F^ow  of  New!  PnolOfrapQf.  OtMOU; 
CoUcgfe.    President  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  1903-1904.    Author  cfl  Pbototntliy*  GdatHaL 
Modmt  Astronomy;  Ac  \ 


H.  L.  H.  Harriet  L.  Hemnessy,  MJ>.  (Bnix.)^  L.R.C.PJ.,  LJLC.SX  {piKiit  {in  part)* 

PIttIt:  FttMogy, 


H.H.W.       •  Harry  tfARSHALL  Ward,  M.A.,D.Sc.,F.R.S.  (^.1905).  • 

Formerly  Professor  of  Botany,  University  of  Cambridge,  and  FeOow  of  Sidney 
Suaex  College.    President  of  die  British  Mycological  Society.    Author  of  ThiU>er. 
and  Some  ofUs  Diseases;  The  Oak;  SUdfs  Lectures  on  tke  Pkyetohgy  of  Plants; 
Oiseaut  m  Plants;  Ac 


Ha  IL  Ha 


H.  8ipK> 


INITIALS  AHD  HEADINGS  Or  ARTICLES  tx 

BaUTT  RSGINAtD  ROUAND  RAUf  M«A.         '  ..  J        ^         '  T  .  *:   /, 

Author  orritfOU^CM/iMtf*Mi;f6r«M«;  Ac    '  ^       .  i,  '^ 


H.  R.  K.  Haxxt  Robert  Kzmpe,  M  Jnst.CE.  f 

EliottiGiM  to  the  Geocnl  Poet  Office^  Ifladoa,   Author  U  Th  Bn^mtr's  Tmri  Tmmn/i\e 
Book;  Ike.  i 

H.  B.  ■•  HvOB  RoBEKT  Miu.  n.Sc.,  1L.1>. 

Diaeesor  of  Bfftitli  RunfeH  OrgenieiB6ii.    Editor  of  BriHsk  Ptarnfoa.    Fktndem 

ol  the  JRoyel  Meteorolbskal  Society,  1907^^.    Hoo.  Member  of  Vieniift  Geo*^  p^j^  1!f|t«>M. 


fiTBphlcal  Sofaety.  Hon.  CorrMponcutig  Meifiper  of  Geographical  Societies  of  Peri*, 
Berlin,  Budapest.  St  Petersburg,  AmetenSsrii,  Ac.  Authonof  T%o  Xaatm  of  V^hiHS 
TkfiJntenioi$onatGeograpkyidac 


H.B.T.  Hewiy  Ricw<^W)  TBJDEt,  F.S:A.  IvrntloiSBak. 

Secretary  and  Librarian  o£  the  Athenaeuiii  Qub,  Loodoa.  \  '""«"'"■" 

H.  8e.  HEintT  ScBEKSEN,  FXS.  ■      f  '    ^ 

AsmstaAt  Natural  Hlstoiy  Editor  oC  The  Ftdd.    Author  oT  Popvhr  HiOory  of<  Fk^Fpv  (m  ^orO. 
Animtsjar  Young  Peopk;  Pond  and  Rxk  Pools ;  ftc  •  t 

H.  8w.  Henky  Sweet^M.A.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

jtowidy  ^ite  ^  .fiewlkrt  Pirierf » A-  Primer  ^Pkomtia ;  Ac 

Sn  Hensy  SETOft-CARs,  C.U.G.,  M^  /plitoL 

M.P.  for  St  Helen's,  1835-1906.   Author  orj/>.S>vffiicir«r«lay«:ae.  i^rawi. 

H.  8.  J.  Henry  Stuart  Tones,  M.A. 

Formerly  Fellow 
School  at  Rome 
Author  Q<  TV /Semes  £m^;  Ac. 

H.W^  '  |iAwiu>  W.  T.  Wager,  F.R.S.       '      •»    .        .  r 

H.M^.  Inspector  of  Secondary  Schools,  Board  of  Education.  London.    Pireddent,  J  fllitts'  C^lolon, 
Betenical  Section,  British  Association,  1905.    Author  of  Momoirs  en  tho  Structure 

H.W«4rI>*      HsNftY  Wiuviii  Cahiss  DaviS)  M/A.. f  ■*«*.  «*.  i»«Ji^ 

FeHour  and  Tutor  of  Ballaol  Colleger  OtfonL   Fdknr  of  Afl  Souls*  CoUege.  Oafor^lO  "^  ^  RoeHei. 
1895- 1900,  Authorof  £eitoiMf«iMcr  like  iVirManf  end  ^n|«v>iM;  CAeWe^  I 

L  A.  Israel  Abrahams,  M.A. 

Reader  ihJTalflMldie  and  ^Rabbinic  ii1|eratarft  in  die  Umveruty^of  Cainbrulge.  \  Pvles^  JOK^Ikh; 

Formerly  '  «»-  - 

History 
L  0.  Israel  Gollancz,  M.A.,  Lm.D. 


NRY  Sweet,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.  f 

University  Reader  in  Phonetics,  Oxford.  CorrespomSiw  Member  «f  the- Acedemaes  J 
of  Munich.  BeriiA«  Cppeithaaen  hnd  HchiMfoes.  Author  nM  Bitforj  4  /mj/uA  1 
Smmdi  Miau  tke  Smiieet  Ptrtod  i  A-  Primer  ^Pkomtia ;  Ac  L 

Carr,  C.M.G.,  M^  /] 

n's,  1885-1906.   Author  U  Uj  Sporttni  Sottdays ;  Ae.  \ 

ES,  M.A.  I  y 

and  Tutor  of  Trinity  CoOcBe,  OvfonL  and  Din^ctor  of  the  British  J  bu«»  /^  a..^ 
.     Member  of  the  Geiman  Imp^^MaeoIbgical  lAsUtute.1  "•*  ^*»  ^^'' 
mum  Empire;  Ac  I 


RAHAMS,  M.A.  r. 

ill  Talmudie  and  Rabbinic  iiterature  la  the  tTuiveruty  of  Cambridge.  J  Pvles. 
fy  President^  Jewish  Hi»taricai  Society  of  Eogland.    Author  of  A  Skort  ] 
ef  Jtwiik  Literature ;  Jeurish  Life  in  ike  Middle  Aies;  Judaism ;  &&  <> 

AEL  Gollancz,  M.A.,  Lm.D.  r 

Professor  of  English  tanguace  and  Lkqrature«*  Khif 'e  Collcce,  Loudon,  and  Dean  J  «^_|  irh* 
of  the  Faculty^  Arto  JLTni^nlty  ofUddon.    Ktow  and  Swetary  of  the  B^tisb  1  ""'•  "•• 
Academy.   Editor  of  The  Pearl-,  The  "  Temple  **  Shakespeeie;  Ac  I 


J.  A.  H»  JOBir  AuAM  Howe,  B5a  f  ^**'^*5_     ^ 

Curator  and  Ubnrlan  of  the  Mnaenm  «C  Firaiatieal  Geology.  Lovdeni    Author  of  ■{  PleMo«eil0; 
The  Geology  rf  Buildimg  Stones,  ■  [  (Vosnt. 

LJktS^  Joav  AoMKOTOir  Syvonds,  LL.D.,  D.CX.  fFMnreh;  Pogglo; 

ScctheUographical«rticle:STMONDs,  J.  A.,  IPoUttML 

J.  Bt  Iahes  Bartlett.  ^    .      ^      .  ^  r 

Lecturer  on  Construction.  AreMteetutv.  SMiitatiea,  Qnaatitiee,  Ac,  at  lOim'e  J  rt,*t>ii_mrtA 


Cblkge,  Loodon.    Member  of  Society  of  Airhttects.    Member  of  Institute  of  junior ' 
EnginecTB.  Author  of  Quantities, 


*   — 


I.  D.  &  Jambs  Djmid  BouicnEEt  MAm  F.R.G.S..  r 

King'e  College^  Cambridge*  Coqapoudentof  The  Tiuies  in  Sourti-Eastem  Europe.  J  awm— ■ 
Commander  of  the  Orders  of  Pnnce  Danilo  of  Montenegro  and  of 'the  Saviour  of  |         *■ 
Greece,  aad  Officer  of  the  Order  of  St  Alexander  of  Bulgaria.  i 

J.  E.  8.*  John    EmaM  Sandys,  M.A.,  tiTT.D.,  LL.D,  ,  ( niM  n^  EMen 

Public  Oratn:  in  the  Univtnity.of  Cambridge,  and  Fellow  of  St  John'*  College.  ■{  nin.  mm  VnunMr 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy/ Author  of  irSdrye/ao«»cfl;5dk4"*»>:&<^^  l^  ^  xoungw. 

J.F^K.  j4ip|ftFmMB0]ac&KEUY,taTJ)^F.R.HiST.S.  .  ■  fiw,^.    1^  W.*ta  «.. 

^^ilmour  PfoTessor  of  Spanish  Upguage  hnd  Uteratunt,  Livcmol  Vniverrity.     "Itdl,  iOS«  BariA  it; 
Norman  McCoU  Lecturer.  Cambridge  UnlvefsltY.    Fellow  of  the  Brithh  Aeademy.  A  Mr»  CtMos,  Btnilo; 
Member  of  the  Royal  Spanish  Academy.    Kmght  Commander  of  the  Order  of  I  riHflilMia  AfsL  TlM>  * 
AlpbonsoXIL  hnOStJTAHiskwjefSim^AlitNi^  l^^^^     -^^ 

J.  F.  F.    '         foSEra  Frank  Payne,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.  (1840-X910),  f 

Formeriy  Harveian  Librarian,   Royal  College  of  Physicians.     Hon.  Fellow  of  J  — /.    ^^^\ 

Magdalen  Collep,  Oxford.    Fellow  <tf  UniTcrsity  of  London.    Author  of  Lectures^  n>fM  (tn  forth 
onAn^o-^axon  Medicine ;  Ac.  I 

J.  0.  C  A.        John  George  Clark  Anderson.  M.A.  f  n^HmM 

Student,  Censor  and  Tutor  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.    Formerly  Fellow  of  Unooltt  <  "«™-^ 
College.    Craven  Fellow  (Oxford).  1896.   Goniagton  IViaemaa^  lag^*  [ 


z 

J.  G.  ft. 

J.H.A.S< 

J.H.1L 

J.H.B. 

J.H.?.a 

J.B.Gr. 


XT.G. 


J.W. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

James  Geokcx  Frazek,  M.A.,  D.C.L..  LL.D.,  Lm.'D.  f 

'" "  ~  J. 


PrbfeaMr  of  Social  AiUftropofeogy,  Liv«mo1  Uaivfoiity,  mod  Fdlow  of  Trinity  J  «....«».  /x.  a— a 
CaHlen,  Cambridge.    Fellow  of  the  British  Acailemy.    Author  oC  The  Coldml  '^'>>*"'  V**  P^lV* 
B9ugk;  Ac.  I 

John  Hsnsy  Abxhvx  Hast,  1I.A.  f ..  _^ 

Fdlow.  TheoloBical  Lecturer  and  Ubrarian,  St  John's  College,  CkmMdge.  \  "UMM. 

John  Henky  Middueton,  MA.,  Litt.D.,  F.S.A.,  D.C.L.  (1846^896). 

Slade  IVofesur  of  Fine  Art4a  the  Ualvenity  of  Cambridge.  1886-189$.    Director    milMH*  /im  a/.^. 
of  the  FitswUUam  Museum.  Cambridge.  1889-1802.    ArtTMiectorlTthe  South  -  21£2.w^  ^^' 
Kensington  Museum,   1892-1896.     Author  of  7m  Engnaed  Ceau  ^  Qassical    rUnonMlllo. 
Tiaus :  lUumimattdMaMMMcriMs  in  /Tt«n^/i/  end  Mfttiaevnl  Taaul. 

John  Horace  Round.  M.A.,  LL.D.  ^  -T  «!•■««.  /..•..•/<.  /-•-  a— #%. 

BaUiot  College,  Moid.   Autint  U  Fnddi  Eugfimd;  Stadks  im  Peeratt  and  Fam9yi  l!!^/  J ^ 
■BistoryiPeengtaMdFedigr^  -^  J^PIllltigtllft, 

John  Henby  Versindek  Csowe. 

Lieiit.^COlDod.  Royal  Artillery.    Commandant  of  the  Royal  Military  College  of 
Canada.    Formeriy  Chief  Instructor  in  Militafy  Topooaphy  and  Military  History  ^  PkYBB. 
and  Tactics  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy.  Woolwich.    Author  of  Epitome  ef  Ot 
Russo-Turkish  War,  1877-18781  Ac 

J«L.  M.  John  Lnrroif  My«£9,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.G.S. 

Wykeham  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  UniveRity  of  Oxford,  and  FeBow 
of  Magdalen  College.    Fomieriy  GlatMone  Plofessor  of  Greek  and  Lecturer  in 


Andent  Geography,  University^  of  Liverpool^  Lecturer^  in  fhi^iral  Archaeology  1  *«'"V"na» 
in  Univenrity  of  Oxfon* 
A  History  0/Rom$i  Ac. 


in  University  of  Uxford,  and  Student  and  Tutor  of  Christ  Chnrdi.    Authoroc 


J.  L.  W.  Jxssn  Laxdlay  Weston.  f  «^iM«aL 

Author  of  Arthurian  Komonees  unnprmnkd  in  Udory,  \  ""'*  "^ 

J.  ML  James  MorvATt,  M.A.,  D.D.  f  «,iumAvi- 

Minister  of  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland.   Author  of  Hisisrim/ Ahs  ra(a.-|  lPHP?°^ 


J.  H.  B.  John  Malcolm  Mxtcheli. 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Queen's  CoRm,  Oxford.    Lecturer  in  Qassks,  East  London 
College  (University  oiLondon).   Jointoeditor  of  Grom's  History  of  Crttu. 


nuilpjpluis,  E^bfls  to  fha 

P^Uftntni; 

Moponmslm  War; 

Pwsift:    Hishry    (Trmtsiium 

Period); 
Plataseh  (in  part). 


J.  P.  P.  John  Percival  P08tgats,M.A.^Litt.D. 

Professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  Liverpool.    Fellow  of  Trinity  College,!  i>i,-^>_,. 
Cambridge.    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.    Editor  of  the  Oassiad  Quarkrty.  1  '^«*^»'^'*- 
Editor-ia-datici^bit  Corpus  PodarumLttUnornmi^oc,  t 

J.  R.  G.  Joseph  Rogesson  Cotter,  M.A.  r 

Astistant  to  the  Professor  of  Natural  and  Experimental  PhOosophy.  Trinity  College,  •(  PhCSphonBeeaoSd 
Dublin.    Editor  of  2nd  edition  of  Pkcston^s  TJkory  of  Hoot.  \ 

, ^ ., . iSl?^i  "*»<»•  Phyti^gy. 

BcianyidBc  '       **  '  I 


4. 8.  F.  John  Smitb  Flett,  D.Sc.,  F.G.S. 

Petrographer  to  the  Geolosical  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Formerly  Lecturer 
on  Petrology  in  Edinburgh  University.  Ncill  Medallist  of  the  Royal  bociety  of 
Edinburgh.   Bigsby  MedaUlst  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London. 


FsgiiiRtlte;  Peridotite; 
Ptrlite;  PMrology;  PbOMllle; 
Phosphates:  Mineral  Pkos- 
pkaSes  {in  part);  Phyllita; 
Pltfite;  PltehstoD«; 
Pntnmatolysis. 


J.  T.  Bi.  John  Tbomas  Bealby.  f  P*™>  (»»»  P^^  *»  ^ 

Joint-author  of  Stanford's  Europe,    Formedy  Editor  of  the  SeoUisk  CeorrupkicalA  PodoDa  {in  pari); 
Ma^tdau,   Translator  of  Svtn  Hedin's  Tkr&uih  AsiOt  Centrat  Asia  and  ribeti  Ac.  I  F^hod,  Russian  {in  part), 

Joseph  Thomas  Cunningham,  M.A.,  FJZ.S.  f  -.     . 

Lecturer  on  Zoology  at  the  South-western  Polytechnic,  London.    Formerly  Fellow  J  rWXt', 


of  Univenity  College,  Oxford.     Assistant  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  |  PUehard. 
Univenity  01  Edinbmgh.   Naturalist  to  the  Marine  Biological  Assodatioa.  I 


Fsnooa]  Ptopsrtj. 


Photography:  Apparatus, 


James  Wiluams,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.  f 

All  Soola'  Reader  in  Roman  Law  in  the  Univenity  of  Oxford,  and  Fdlow  of  Lincoln  < 

.     CoUcge.   Barrister  of  Lincoln's  Inn.   Kutiibr  at  WiUs  and  Succession;  Ac  [ 

J.  W&  '  James  Waterhousb. 

Major-Gcneral,  Indian  Army  (retired).    Assistant  Sorveyor*Gefieral  of  India  in 
charge  of  Flwtqgraphic  and  LitJiographic  Branch,  Calcutta,  1866-1897.    President  • 
of  the  Roval  FhoMigm|>bic  Society,  1905-190^    Author  of  The  Preparahon  of 
Dnmduis  for  PhotogroPkic  Purposes  i&c 

J«  WaL*  James  Walker  M.A.  f 

Christ  Church.  Oxford.    Demonstrator  in  the  Clarendon  Laboratonr.    Formerly  I  polgriattOD  •!  Ugbt 
Vice.Pk«3dent  of  the  Physical  Society.    Author  of  The  Analytical  Theory  of  Ltglw,  1  ""^ 

Ac  ^ 

Y.  W.  a  J.  Whttly  Dixon.  /  Pilot  {in  pari). 

Captain.  R.N.    Nautical  Assessor  to  the  Court  of  Appeal.  L 


INITIALS  AND. HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


ym 


&H.V.* 


8.H. 
T.As. 


T.Ba. 

T.p.a 

T.  G.  Br- 


T.H.L. 

TIlN. 
T.8.* 

T.Ww-a 

T.W.H. 
T.  W.  R.  D. 


W.G.8C 


W.  D.  G. 


W.  D.  W. 

W.dtW.A. 

W.B.G.P. 

W.ft. 

w.p.c 

W.Gl. 

W.HL 

W.H.F. 

PtanlK  M^pkohcf, 


rpfauwt; 
IPUuMto.  lliaor. 


Perugia; 

PtoeBam  (m  part); 
Plpeno, 


P«»ce; 

Pwc*  ConltreneM; 

Pinto  and  Piiaey:  Law. 

Pius  UU  IV.  and  V. 


SvoMBV  HowABD  ViNES,  M.A.,  D.Sc..  F.R.S. 

3ierardlan  Profesaor  of  Bounjf.  Univeraty  of  Oxford  «nd  Fellow  of  Magdalen 
College.  Fellow  of  the  University  of  London.  President  of  the  Linnean  Society, 
igoo-1904.  Formerly  Reader  in  Botamy  in  the  Univtrsitv  of  Cambrid^  and 
F%w  and  Lectura-  of  Christ's  College.  Author  of  A  Studtult  Textbook  c^  Bolamy; 
&c 

Simon  Newcoicb,  D.Sc.,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Ni^wcomb.  Simon. 

THOMAS  AsBBY,  M.A.,  D.Lrrt. 

Director  of  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Rome.  Fomerly  Scholar  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  Craven  Fellow.  1807.  Conington  Prixeman,  1906.  Member  of 
the  Imperial  German  Archaeological  Institute.  Author  of  The  CUusictU  Topo- 
pa^^Ae  Roman  Campagaa, 

Sot  Thomas  Barclay. 

Member  of  the  Institute  of  International  Law.  Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
Author  of  Frohlems  of  JftOgmatiomU  Pnutico  and  IHpUmaey;  &c.  M.P.  for 
Blackburni  191a 

TtoODOUC  FsEYUNCRVYSgN  CotLIER.  Ph.D. 

Assisunt  Professor  of  History, -WUfians  CoOege,  V^IHamstown.  Mast.,  U.S.A. 

TkiOMAS  Greoor  Brooie,  M.D.»  F.R.S. 

Professor  Superintendent.   Brown  Animal  Sanatory   Institution.   University  of 
London.    Professor  of  Physiology,  Royal  Veterinary  CoIJcffe.  London.    Lecturer' 
on  Physiology.  London  Scnool  <m  Medicine  for  Women.    Felbw  of  Kbig's  College, 
London.    Author  oi  EsseiMaU  of  Experimental  Pkysiokfgy. 

Rev.  Thomas  Martin  Lindsay,  LL.D.,  D.D.  r 

Principal  of  the  United  Free  Church  College.  Gbegow.  Formeriy  Assistant  to  the  I  pfomfralli  Rnthran  (in  hart\ 
ProfeMor  of  Logic  and  Metaphysics  »  the  Uuvosity  of  Edinburgh.  Author  oil  'VmwwB  snumn  \tn  part) 
History  of  ike  Ryormation ;  Life  of  Lutker ;  &c  I 

TBEODOR  N5LDEXE,  Pr.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  NOldekb.  Tubooor. 

Sir  Thomas  Stevenson,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.  (1818-1908). 

Formerly  Semor  Scientific  Analyst  to  the  rfome  OfBee.''^Lecturtf  on  Chemistry 
and  Forensic  Medicine  at  Guy's  Hospital,  London. 

Walter  Theodore  Watts-Dunton. 

See  the  biographical  article:  WATts-DOVTOM,  WaITBB  THEODOfeB. 

TBOMAS  yiVfT^fORTH  HiGCINSON,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

Author  of  Atlantic  Essays;  Ckeerful  Yesterdays;  History  of  tke  United  States;  &c  ' 

Tbomas  WiiUAM  Rhys  Davids,  LL.D.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Comparative  Religion,  Maiichester  University.  President  of  the 
Pali  Text  Society.    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.    Secretary  and  Librarian  of 


Pluvoeytosli. 


I  Powpoill  {in  pari), 
POiNB* 

jPootiy. 
{phffllp8»  WtnddL 


{ 


Royal  Auatic  Society.  iSS^-iooa.  Author  of  Buddkism;  Sacred  Books  of  tke 
Buadkisls ;  Early  Buddkism ;  Bnidkist  India ;  Diaiogues  of  tke  Bnddka ;  ftc. 

Walter  Coventry  Summers,  M.A. 

Professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  Sheffield.  Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's 
College.  Cambridge.  Craven  Scholar,  1890.  Chancellor's  Medallist.  189a.  Autho« 
9IL  A  Stndy  of  Vaierius  Flauus;  &c 

William  Douglas  CarOe,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.I.B.A. 

Trinity  Colfege.  Cambridge.  Architect  to  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission  mad  the 
Charity  Commisson,  London. 

WiLUAM  Dwictrr  Whitkey. 

Sec  the  biographical  article:  Whitney,  William  Dwicht. 

Sir  Wiluam  de  Wivelesue  Abney,  R.C.B.,  D.C.L.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 

Adviser  in  Science  to  the  Board  of  Education  for  England.  Member  of  the 
Advisory  Council  for  Education  to  the  War  Office.  Formerly  President  of  Royal 
Astronomical  Society.  Physical  Society  and  Royal  Pbotogiaphic  Society.  Author 
of  Instruction  in  Pkolopapky;  Colour  Vision;  Ac. 

William  Edward  Garrett  Fisber,  M.A. 
Author  of  Tke  Transvaal  and  tke  Boeru 

William  Fream,  LL.D.  (d.  i^). 

Formerly  Lecturer  on  Agricultural  Entomology,  University  of  Edinburgh,  and 
Agricultural  Correspondent  6f  Tke  Times, 

WzLUAM  Feiloen  Crates,  M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law.  Inner  Temple  and  Lecturer  on  Criminal  Law,  King's  College. 
London.    Editor  of  Archbold's  Criming  Pleading  (23rd  edition). 

Walter  Garstang,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of  Leeds.  Formerly  Fellow  of  Lincoln 
College.  Oxford.  Scientific  Adviser  to  H.M.  Delegates  on  the  international  Council 
for  the  ExploiRtaon  of  the  Sea,  1901-1907.  AutKor  of  Tke  Jmpoveriskment  of  tke 
Sea;Stc» 

Wreelton  Hind.  M.D.,  F.R.C.S.,  F.G^S. 

Surgeon.  North  Staffs  Infirmary.  Ly^Medallist,  Geological  Society.  1903.  Author 
of  Britiak  Carboniferous  Lambmibranckiata;  &c 

SXK  WiLLUM  Henry  Flower,  F.R.S. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Flower.  Sir  W.  H. 


PIpiiwa. 


Perslns; 

Petronlus  (in  part). 


{ 

•j  Peanon,  John  l4HiglihaiOBgh. 
I  PhOoIogy  (in  part). 

Photogiapliy. 

I  Pliylloiara. 
I  Pig  (in  part). 

j  Pleading. 


PfseicttltOM. 


( 


PBBdtasMt  SsriM, 

I  Plft^ypus  (w  part). 


XIV 

W.ILR. 

W.lLBft. 

W.  P.  C. 

W.R.1L 

W.R.8. 

W.11.S.* 

Inr*  9*  K* 

W.  T.  T..D. 

W.  W.  R* 

W.Y.8. 

INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


WiLUAU  Michael  Rossetti. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Rosssm,  Dantb  G. 

Sir  WR.UAM  Mitcheli  Ramsay,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  D.Lxtt. 
See  the  biographical  article:  Ramsay.  Sun  W.  M. 

WiLUAM  PSXDEAUX  COUITNEY. 

See  the  artide:  Couetmby,  Baron. 

WiLUAM  RlCRASD  MOKTILL,  M.A.  (d.  XQIO). 

Formerly  Professor  of  Riusian  and  the  other  Slavonic  Languages  in  the  University 
of  Oxford.  Curator  of  the  Taybrian  Institution,  Oxfora.  Author  of  Russta; 
Slm99Hic  LiteralMFe;  Sec 

William  Robertson  Smith,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  Smith,  William  Robbrtsom. 

William  Roy  Smith,  M.A..  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  History.  Brvn  Mawr  College,  Pennsylvania.  Author  of 
StcHoualism  tn  Peunsyivauia  during  the  Repolution ;  &c. 

WiLUAM  Smyth  Rockstro. 

-     Author  of  A  Great  UisUn^  pf  Musie  from  Ike  Infatuy  «/  the  Greek  Drama  to  ike 
Present  Period',  and  other  works  on  the  history  of  music 

Sir  Willum  Turner  Tbxsslton-Dyer,  F.R.S.,  K.C.M.G.,  CLE,  D.Sc.,  LL.D., 

Pb.D.,  F.L.Sk 
Hon.  Student  of  Christ  Church.  Oxfiord.    Director,  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew. 
1885-1905..  Botanical    Adviser   to   Sccrstary  of  State  for.Cobnies,  1903-1906. 
Joint-author  of  Flora  0/  Middlesex, 

WiLUAM  Walicer  Rockwell,  LicTheol. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Church  History,  Unioo  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 

William  Young  Sellar,  LL.D. 

See  the  Upgraphical  article:  Ssllar,  W.  Y. 


r  Ferine  dtl  Vaga; 
IPttrugUio,  Pletro. 


Phrygia;  PiiMia. 


{ 


fPtterborough  and  MoBmootti, 
I     Eari  oL 

F^famd:  Literature, 

•f  Pliylaeteiy  {in  part). 
Polk,  JaniH  Kmi. 
Plain  Song. 


Plants:  DistribtUion, 


{ 


Pia  VI^  VIL,  and  VOL 


4  Peironlus  {in  part). 


PRINCIPAL  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES. 


Pml 

Pewer^ 

Phlloetntos. 

Piqnet 

Psaeli. 

Peppennlnt. 

Phonograph. 

Plstola. 

Pear. 

Perfome^. 

Fiteher  Plaab.    . 

Pwt 

Purler. 

PhosphoiiBk 

Pittsburg. 

PMbksBUn. 

Ferlgnenz. 

Photins. 

Plantation. 

Pttmbroks,  Barli  oL 

Photochamlstiy. 

Platinum. 

Pembroke. 

Physioeratio  SchooL 

Pleurisy. 

Pembrokeshfn. 

Physlotogos. 

Pleuro-Pneumonla. 

Pen. 

Perraott. 

Plaeensa. 

Ploek. 

PenefL 

Perrot 

PIcardy. 

Plough  and  PloughUig. 

PenitentlaL 

PenonaUtj. 

PloeohtolnL 

Plam. 

mu<ii>  CtaakL 

Perth  (N.B.). 

Plehegro. 

Plymouth  (U3.A.). 

Pennqflvanla. 

Perthshire. 

Pietism. 

Pneumatic  Gun. 

Pennqflvania,   Univutitgr  «f« 

Plgeon-flylng. 

Pneumonia. 

Pensaeola. 

Peterborough. 

Pngrim. 

Pnom*Penh. 

Pension. 

Petttton. 

Pin. 

Poltien. 

Penianea. 

Philadelphia. 

Pink. 

Poker. 

Peoria. 

Philately. 

Pipe. 

Pohu 

ENCYCLOP-^DIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  XXI 


PATN.  JAMES  (1830-1898),  English  novelist,  was  born  at 
Cheltenham,  on  the  28th  of  February  1830,  his  father  being 
clerk  to  the  Thames  Commissioners  and  treasurer  to  the  county 
of  Berkshire.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  afterwards 
entered  the  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich;  but  his  health  was 
not  equal  to  the  demands  of  a  military  career,  and  he  proceeded 
in  1847  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  among  the 
most  popular  men  of  his  time,  and  served  as  president  of  the 
Union.  Before  gving  to  Cambridge  he  had  published  some 
verses  in  Leigh  Hunt's  Journal,  and  while  still  an  undergraduate 
put  forth  a  volume  of  Stories  from  Bouaccio  in  1853,  and  in 
1S53  a  volume  of  Poems.  In  the  same  year  he  left  Cambridge, 
and  shortly  afterwards  married  Miss  Louisa  Adelaide  Edlin, 
sister  of  Sir  Peter  Edlin.  He  then  satled  down  in  the  Lake 
district  to  a  literary  career  and  contributed  regularly  to  HoMsehold 
Words  and  Chombers^s  Journal.  In  1858  be  removed  to  Edin- 
bui;^  to  act  as  joint-editor  of  the  latter  periodical.  He  became 
sole  editor  in  1859,  and  conducted  the  nugaane  wtlh  much 
success  for  fifteen  years.  He  removed  to  London  in  x86x.'  In 
the  pages  of  the  Journal  he  published  in  2864  his  roost  popular 
story,  Lost  Sir  Jdassiniherd,  From  this  time  he  was  always 
engaged  in  novel-writing,  among  the  most  popular  of  his 
productions  being  Married  Beneath  Him  (1865),  Carlvon's  Year 
(1868),  By  Proxy  (1878),  and  The  Talk  of  the  Town  U885).  In 
1883  he  succeeded  Leslie  Stephen  as  editor  of  the  ComhiU 
Magatine  and  continued  in  the  post  until  the  breakdown  of  his 
health  in  1896.  He  was  also  literary  adviser  to  Messrs  Smith, 
Elder  &  Compfuiy.  His  publications  included  a  Handbook 
to  the  Enilish  Lakes  (1859),  and  various  volumes  of  occasional 
essays,  Maxims  by  a  Man  of  Ike  World  (1869),  Some  Private 
Views  (1881),  Some  Literary  XecoUections  (1884).  A  posthumous 
work.  The  Backwater  of  Life  (1899),  revealed  much  of  his  own 
personality  in  a  mood  of  kindly,  sensible  reflection  upon  familiar 
topics.    He  died  in  London,  on  the  25th  of  March  1898. 

A  biographical  introduction  to  The  Backwater  of  Life  was  fumbhed 
by  Sir  Lethe  Stephen. 

PATMB.  PETER  {c.  X38o-Z455)t  English  Lollard  andTaborite, 
the  son  of  a  Frenchman  by  an  English  wife,  was  bom  at  Hough)* 
on-the-HUl  near  Grantham,  about  1380.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  where  he  adopted  Lollard  opinions,  and  had  graduated 
as  a  master  of  arts  before  the  6th  of  Octob^  1406,  when  he  was 
concerned  in  the  inegular  proceedings  through  which  a  letter 
declaring  the  empathy  of  the  university  was  addressed  to  the 
Bohemian  reformers.  Trom  1410  to  14x4  Pasme  was  principal 
of  St  Edmund  Hall,  and  during  these  years  was  engaged  in 
controversy  with  Thomas  l^etter  of  Walden,  the  Carmelite 
defender  of  Catholic  doctrine.  In  14 14  he  was  compelled  to 
leave  Oxford  and  taught  for  a  time  in  London.    Ultimately 


he  had  to  flee  from  England,  and  took  refuge  fn  Bohemia,  where 
he  was  received  by  the  university  of  Prague  on  the  13th  of 
February  14x7,  and  soon  became  a  leader  of  the  reformers. 
He  joined  the  sect  of  the  "  Orphans,"  and  bad  a  prominent  part 
In  the  discussions  and  conferences  of  the  ten  years  from  1420 
to  X430.  When  the  Bohemians  agreed  to  send  representatives 
to  the  Council  of  Basel,  Payne  was  naturally  chosen  to  be  one 
of  their  delegates.  He  arrived  at  Basel,  on  the  4th  of  January 
i433i  stnd  his  unyielding  temper  and  bitter  words  probably 
did  much  to  prevent  a  settlement.  The  Bohemians  left  Base! 
in  April.  The  party  of  the  nobles,  who  had  been  ready  to  make 
terms,  were  attacked  In  the  Diet  at  Prague,  by  the  Orphans 
and  Taboritcs.  Next  year  the  dispute  led  to  open  war.  The 
nobles  were  victorious  at  Lip>au  on  the  39th  of  May  1434,  and 
it  was  reported  in  England  that  Payne  was  killed.  When  soon 
afterwards  the  majority  of  the  Oiphans  joined  the  moderate 
party,  Payne  dlied  himself  with  the  more  extreme  Taboritcs. 
Nevertheless  his  reputation  was  so  great  that  he  was  accepted 
as  an  arbitrator  in  doctrinal  disputes  amongst  the  reformers. 
In  February  1437  the  pope  desired  the  emperor  Sigismund 
to  send  Payne  to  be  tried  for  heresy  at  Basel.  Paiyne  had  to 
leave  his  pastorate  at  Saas,  and  took  refuge  with  Peter  Cheldcky, 
the  Bohemian  author.  Two  years  hiter  he  was  captured  and 
imprisoned  at  Gutenstein,  but  was  ransomed  by  his  Taborite 
friends.  Payne  took  part  in  the  conferences  of  the  Bohemian 
parties  in  X443-X444,  snd  agahi'  in  1452.  He  died  at  Prague  in 
1455.  He  was  a  learned  and  eloquent  controversialist,  and  a 
faithful  adherent  to  Wycliffe's  doctrine.  Payne  was  also  known 
as  Clerk  at  Oxford;  as  Peter  English  in  Bohemia,  and  as  Frtyng, 
after  his  French  father,  and  Hough  from  hb  birth  place. 

Bibliography. — The  chief  facts  of  Payne's  English  career  are 
given  in  the  loci  e  libra  veritaium  oi  T.  Cascoigne  (ed.  Thorold 
Rogers,  Oxford,  1881}.  For  his  later  life  the  principal  sources  are 
contained  in  the  Monumenta  ccndliorum  generaltum  saeciUi  v., 
Sauuli  XV.,  or  taeeuli  quintodeeimL  vol*.  i.-iiL  (Vienna.  1857-1894). 
For  modem  authorities  consult  Palacky,  Ceschiekte  von  Bdhmen, 
vii.-ix.,  and  Creighton's  History  of  the  Pafocy.  The  biography 
1^  James  Baker,  A  Forgotten  Great  Bngfiskman  (Lopdon,  1894) 
is  too  partiaL  (C.  L.  K7) 

FATHTBa  (or  Painter),  WHXIAX  (c.  1540-1 594),  English 
author,  was  a  native  of  Kent  He  matriculated  at  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1554*  In  1561  he  became  clerk  of  the 
ordnance  in  the  Tower  of  London,  a  position  in  which  hq 
appears  to  have  amassed  a  fortune  out  of  the  public  funds.  In 
X  586  he  confessed  that  he  owed  the  government  a  thousand 
pounds,  and  in  the  next  year  further  charges  of  peculation  were 
brought  against  him.  In  isox  his  son  Anthony  owned  that 
he  and  his  father  had  abused  their  trust,  but  Paynter  retaioed 
his  office   until  his  death.     This  event   probably   followed 

2a 


PAYSANDU— PEA 


Immediately  upon  his  will,  which  was  nuncupative  and  was 
dated  the  14th  of  February  1594.  The  first  volume  of  his  Palace 
oj  Pleasure  appeared  in  1566,  and  was  dedicated  to  the  carl  of 
Warwick.  It  included  sixty  tales,  and  was  followed  in  the  next 
year  by  a  second  volume  containing  thirty-four  new  ones.  A 
second  improved  edition  in  1575  contained  seven  new  stories. 
Paynter  borrows  from  Herodotus,  Plutarch,  Aulus  Gellius, 
Aelian,  Llvy,  Tacitus,  Quintus  Curtius;  from  Giraldi  Cinthio, 
Matteo  Bandello,  Ser  Giovanni  Fiorcntino,  Straparola,  Queen 
Margaret  of  Nav^ri^  and  others.  To  the  vogue  of  .this  and 
similar  coUcctiods  we  owe  the  ItaHan  setting  of  so  tai^c  a  pro- 
portion of -the  £llzabet4ian  <hama.  The  early  tragedies  of 
Ap^ius  and  Virginia^  and  Tancred  and  GUmund  were  taken 
from  The  Palace  of  Pleasure)  and  among  better-known  plays 
derived  from  the  book  are  the  Shakespearian  Tim^n  iff  Athens, 
All's  Well  that  Ends  Well  (from  Giletta  of  Ntiibonne),  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher's  Triumph  of  Death  and  Shirley's  Love's  Cruelty, 

The  Palace  of  Pleasure  was  edited  by  Joseph  Haslewood  in  1813. 
This  edition  was  collated  (1890)  with  the  British  Muaeuga  copy  of 
<575  by  Mr  Joseph  Jacobs,  who  added  further  prefatofy  foatter. 
including  an  introduction  dealing  with  the  importance  of  Italian 
novelle  in  Elizabethan  drama. 

PAYSANDC,  or  PAiSANot;,  a  town  and  river  port  of  Unigaay 
and  capital  of  a  department  of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Uruguay  River  about  214  m.  N.W.  of  Montevideo,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail  Pop.  (1908  estimate),  15,000.  It 
has  railway  connexion  with  Rio  Negro  and  Montevideo  to  the 
south-east,  and  with  Salto  and  Santa  Rosa,  on  the  Brazilian 
frontier,  on  the  north;  it  is  at  the  head  of  low  water  navigation 
on  the  Uruguay  River,  and  is  in  regular  steamer  communication 
with  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires. 

There  are  some  good  public  buildings,  including  two  churdies, 
a.  hospital,  a  theatre  and  the  government  offices.  Paysandii 
exports  cattle  and  sheep  and  salted  meats,  hides,  ox 
tongues,  wool  and  other  animal  products.  There  is  a  meat- 
curing  establishment  {saladcro)  at  Gua\iyii,  in  the  vicinity. 
The  town  was  named  in  honour  of  Pay,  or  Pai  (Father)  Sandfi, 
a  priest  who  settled  there  in  1772.  It  has  suffered  severely 
from  revolutionary  outbreaks,  was  bombarded  by  Rivera 
in  1846,  and  was  partly  destroyed  in  1865  by  a  Brazilian 
bombardment,  after  which  its  gallant  defenders,  Leandro 
Gomez  and  his  companions,  were  butchered  in  cold  blood. 

The  department  of  Paysandd — area  5117  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1907, 
estimate),  54,097— is  one  of  the  richest  stock-raising  regions 
of  the  republic 

PAYSON.  EDWARD  (x 783-1  Sa?),  American  Congregational 
preacher,  was  bom  on  the  25th  of  July  1783  at  Rindge,  New 
Hampshire,  where  hb  father,  Scth  Payson  (1758-1820),  was 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church.  His  uncle,  Phillips  Payson 
(1736-1801),  pastor  of  a  church  in  Chelsea,  Massachusetts, 
was  a  physicist  and  astronomer.  Edward  Payson  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1803,  was  then  principal  of  a  school  at  Portland, 
Maine,  and  in  1807  became  junior  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  Portland,  where  he  remained,  after  x8xx,  as  senior 
pastor,  until  his  death  on  the  22nd  of  October  1827. 

The  most  complete  collection  of  his  sermons,  with  a  memoir  by 
Asa  Cumminga  originally  published  in  1828,  is  the  Memoir,  Sdeci 
Thoughts  and  Sermons  of  the  late  Rev.  Edward  Payson  (3  vols.,  Port- 
land, 1846;  Philadelphia.  1859).  Based  on  this  is  the  volume. 
Mementos  of  Edward  Payson  (New  York.  1873),  by  the  Rev.  E.  L. 
Janes  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

PAZKAlfT,  P^TER  {lS1o-^6i^),  Hungarian  cardinal  and 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Nagyv&rad  on  the  4th  of  October  1570, 
and  educated  at  Nagjrv&rad  and  Kolozsv&r,  at  which  latter 
place  he  qtdtted  the  CaMnist  confession  for  the  Roman  com- 
munion (1583).  In  1587  he  entered  the  Jesuit  order.  Pizm&ny 
went  through  his  probation  at  Cracow,  took  his  degree  at' 
Vienna,  and  studied  theology  at  Rome,  and  finaQy  completed  his 
academic  course  at  the  Jesuit  college  at  Graz.  In  1601  he  was 
sent  to  the  order's  establishment  at  Sdlye,  where  his  cloquencek 
and  dialectic  won  back  hundreds  to  Rome,  incltidfng  many 
of  the  noblest  families.  Prince  Nicholas  Esterli&zy  and  Paul 
Rik6czy  were  among  his  converts.    In  1607  he  was  attached 


to  the  archbishop  of  Esztergom,  and  in  the  following  year 
attracted  attention  by  hb  denunciation,  in  the  Diet,  of  the  8th 
point  of  the  peace  of  Vienna,  which  prohibited  the  Jesuits  from 
acquiring  landed  property  in  Hungary.  At  about  the  same 
time  the  pope,  on  the  petition  of  the  emperor  Matthias  U., 
released  P&zminy  from  hb  monkish  vows.  On  the  35th  of 
April  1616  he  was  made  dean  of  Tur6cz,  and  on  the  28th  of 
September  became  primate  of  Hungary.  He  received  the  red 
hat  from  Urban  VIII.  in  1629.  P&zm&ny  was  the  soul  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  reaction  in  Hungary.  Particularly  lemarkable 
b  his  Iiazadgra  teuta  Kalaut  {GuuU  l»  trulk),  vrlSch  appeared 
in  16x3.  l^b-manuid  united  aU  the  advantages- df  scientific 
depth,  methodical  arrangement  and  popular  style.  As  the  chief 
pastor  of  the  Hungarian  chtirch  P&zmAny  used  every  means 
in  hb  power,  ahoit  of  absolute  contravention  of  the  laws,  to 
ob«.nict  and  ^'eaken '  Prttestantism,  which  had  risen  during 
the  x6th  century.  In  X619  he  founded  a  seminary  for  theological 
candidates  at  Nagyazombat,  and  in  X623  laid  the  foundations 
of- a  similar  institution  at  Vienna,  the  still  famous  Pazmanaeura, 
at  a  co^t  of  300,000  florins.  In  1635  he  contributed  xoo,ooo 
florins  towards  the  foundation  of  a  Hungarian  university. 
He  also  built  Jesuit  colleges  and  schoob  at  Pressburg,  and 
Franciscan  monasteries  at  £rs6kijjv&r  and  KdrmOczb&nya. 
In  politics  he  played  a  considerable  part.  It  was  chiefly  due 
to  him  that  the  diet  of  x6x8  elected  the  archduke  Ferdinand 
to  succeed  the  childless  Matthias  II.  He  also  repeatedly 
thwarted  the  martial  ambitions  of  Gabriel  Bethlcn,  and  prevented 
George  R&k6czy  I.,  over  whom  he  had  a  great  influence,  from 
combining  with  the  Turks  and  the  Protestants.  But  P&zm£ny's 
most  unforgetable  service  to  hb  covmtry  was  his  creation  of  the 
Hungarian  literary  language.  As  an  orator  be  well  deserve! 
the  epithet  of  "  the  Hungarian  purple  Cicero,"  Of  his  numerous 
works  the  chief  are:  The  Pour  Books  of  Thomas  d  Kempis 
on  the  imitation  of  Christ  (Hung.»  1603),  of  which  there  are 
many  editions;  Diatribe  thcologica  de  visibUi  ChrisH  in  terris 
ecelcsia  (Craz,  16x5);  Vindiciae  ecdesiasticae  (Vienna,  1620); 
Sermons  for  every  Sunday  in  the  Year  (Hung.,  Pressburg,  1636); 
The  Triumph  of  Truth  (Hung.,  Pressburg,  X614). 

See  Vilm6s  Fnikn6i,  Prtw  Pdsmdny  and  his  Times  (Hung.  Peat, 
1 868-1 872 ) :  Correspondence  of  Pdtmdny  (H ung.  and  Latin ),  published 
by  the  Hungarian  Academy  (Pest,  1873).  (R.  N.  B.) 

P(LZ  80LDAN.  MARIANO  PEUPB  (182X-X886),  Peruvian 
historian  and  geographer,  was  bora  at  Arequipa,  on  the  22nd 
of  August  x82x.  He  studied  law,  and  after  holding  SQme  minor 
judicial  offices,  was  minbter  to  New  Granada  in  1853.  After  hb 
return  he  occupied  himself  with  plans  for  the  establbhment 
of  a  model  penitentiary  at  Lima,  which  he  was  enabled  to 
accomplish  through  the  support  of  General  Castilla.  In  i860 
Castilla  made  him  director  of  pubUc  works,  in  which  capacity 
he  supcrintehdcd  the  erection  of  the  Lima  statue  of  Bolivar. 
He  was  also  concerned  in  the  reform  of  the  currency  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  debased  Bolivian  coins.  In  x86i  he  publbhed 
his  great  atUiS  of  the  republic  of  Peru,  and  in  1868  the  first 
volume  of  hb  hbtory  of  Peru  after  the  acquisition  of  her  inde> 
pendence.  A  second  volume  followed,  and  a  third,  bringing 
the  history  down  to  1839,  was  published  after  his  death  by  his 
son.  In  1870  he  was  minister  of  justice  and  worship  under 
President  Balta,  but  shortly  afterwards  retired  from  publit 
life  to  devote  himself  to  hb  great  geographical  dictionary  of. 
Peru,  which  was  publbhed  in  1877.  During  the  disastrous 
war  with  Chile  he  sought  refuge  at  Buenos  Aires,  where  he  was 
made  professor  in  the  National  Cc^ege,  and  where  he  wrote 
and  published  a  history  of  the  war  (1S84).  He  died  on  the 
3xst  of  December  x886. 

PEA  iPisum),  a  genus  of  the  order  leguminosae,  condsting 
of  herbs  with  compound  pinnate  leaves  ending  in  tcndrib,  by 
means  of  which  the  weak  stems  are  enabled  to  support  themselves, 
and  with  large  leafy  stipules  at  the  base.  The  flowers  (fig.  i) 
are  typically  "  papilionaceous,"  with  a  "  standard  '*  or  large 
petal  above,  two  side  petals  or  wings,  and  two  front  petals 
bdow  forming  the  keel.  The  stamens  are  ten—^nine  united, 
the  tenth  usually  free  or  only  slightly  joined  to  the  otben. 


PEABODY,  A;  P. 


Fio.  I. — Flower  of  Pea. 
c,  Calyx. 

a,  Alae,  or  winn. 
car « Cariii«b  or  KceU 


Uns  flBpmtioB  iJIOiRi  mpiMich  to  the  huocf  wUch  fli  wcwt<B 
mt  the  hut  of  the  ftaminal  tube.    The  ov>ry  b  proloQ0Bd 

into  m  long,  Uiick»  beet  e(>ie»  coa»- 
-preasod  from  efde  to  aide  at  the  tip 
end  fainged  mth  heiiy.  Tlie  fruit  ig 
a  ckartcteriatlo  Viegome^'  or  pod 
(fig.  e),  burning  when  ope  into  helves, 
which  bear  the  iaige  globular  aeecb 
(peas)  on  their  edges.  >  These  seeds 
are  on  short  stalks,,  the  upper  es- 
treaiity  of  which  is  dilated  into  a 
shallow  Clip  (eriO:  the  two  seed-leaves 
{colyUdons)  are  thick  and  fleshy,  with 
a  radicle  bent  ehng  their  .e(^  on 
side.  The  genus  is  exceedingly  dose  to  Latkyms,  being 
only  distinguished  tecfanicalfy  by  the  styles  which  in  the  letter 
genus  is  eompiessed  from  above  downwards  and  not  thick. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  under 
the  general  name  "  pea  "  speciey  botk  of 
Piaum  and  of  Laikynu  are  included.  The 
coRUnoii  field  pea  with  tan-coloured  or 
dompicsBcd  mottled  seeds  and  two  to  four 
ieaflets  is  Pisum  arvmstt  which  v%  culti- 
vated in  all  temperate,  ports  of  the  globe, 
but  wfakh»  scirordtng  to  the  Italian 
botanists,  is  tfuiy  a  native  of  central  and 
southem  Italy:  it  has  puiple  floweis. 
The  garden  pea.  P.-  saimtm,  which  he* 
white  flowers,  is  more  tendier  than  the 
preceding,  and  its  origin  is  not  known. 
It  has  not  been  found  in  a  wild  stete 
anywhere^  and  it  is  considered  that  it 
may  be  a  form  of  P,  cntnsf,  having, 
however*  from  four  to  sit  leaflets  to 
each,  leaf  and  glohidar  Meds  of  uniform 
oaiour. 

F.  'saiinm  was  iknown  to  Tbeophcasiu*: 
and  De  CandoUe  (OriM'e  tfCuUmUtd  Plants, 
P>  3^9)  points  out  inat  the  word  "pison" 
or  its  equivalent  occurs  in  the  Albanian 
tonnie  as  well  as  in  Latin,  whence  he  con- 
cludes chat  the  pea  was  known  to  the  iUyaoa. 
aad  wae  periiapa  bmught  by  them  into 
Greece  ana  Italy.  Peas  have  been  found 
in  the  Swiss  take-dwellings  of  the  bronze  period.  The  garden 
peas  differ  considerably  in  size,  shape  of  pod,  degree  of  productive- 
fleas,  form  and  colour  Of  seed,  Ac.  The  sugar  peasaie  those  id  which 
Che  inner  lining  of  the  nod  is  very  thin  ■nafcad  of  being  aomewhac 
horny,  so  that  the  whole  pod  can  be  eaten.  Unlike  most  papilion- 
aceous plants,  peaflowcrs  are  perfectly  fertile  without  the  aid  of 
Insects,  and  thus  do  not  intercross  so  fn^ly  as  most  simitar  plants  do. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  ease  is  known  wherein  the  pollen  fnom  a  purple- 
podded  pea  applied  to  the  stigma  of  one  of  the  gfcen^poddra  sugar 
peas  produced  a  purple  pod,  showing  tbat^npt  only  the  ovule  l^c  even 
the  ovary  was  affected  by  the  cross.  The  numerous  vancties  of 
peas  in  cultivadon  have  bten  obtained  by  croos-fertinzatton,  but 
chiefly  by  selection.  Peas  constftutc  a  highly  nutritious  arttcle  of 
diet  from  the  large  quantity  of  nitsogenoue  materials  they  contain 
in  addition  to  surchy  and  saccharine  maticrk 

The  sweet  pee,  cultivated  for  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  its 
flowers,  is  a  species  of  the  allied  genus  Latkyms  (L.  oi&ratms}f  a 
native  of  southem  Europe.  The  chick  pea  (q.Vi)  (Cieer  aneti- 
num),  not  cultivated  in  E^ngland,  is  still  farther  removed  from 
the  true  peas.  The  everlasting  pea  of  gardens  is  a  species  of 
Latkyrvs  (L.  talifoiitu)  wfth  very  deep  fleshy  rotots,  boU  foliage, 
and  beautiful  but  scentless 'flowets;  the  field  pea  \PiMtim  anemse) 
b  better  adapted  than  the  bean  to  light  soils,  and  is  best  culti- 
vated In  tows  of  such  a  width  as  to  admit  of  hone-hoeing- 
The  early  stage  at  which  the  plants  fall  over,  and  forbid  further 
culture,  renders  it  even  more  needful  than  in  the  case  of  beans 
*to  sow  them  only  on  land  already  clean.  If  annual  weeds  can 
be  kept  in  check  untH  the  peas  once  gel  a  close  cover,  they  then 
occupy  the  ground  so  completely  that  nothing  else  can  live 
under  them;  and  the  ground,  after  their  removal,  is  found  in 
the  choicest  condition.  A  thin  crop  of  peas  should  never  be 
sUowed  to  stand,  as  the  land  b  sure  to  get  perfectly  wild.    The 


Pram  ^^jw^    Btudenu" 
pcnaiMkm  of  Swaa.  Soo> 


Fia  a.— The  Pbd 
(legume)  of  thePeeu 
r.  The  dorml  suture, 
^llie  veotiai. 
c.  Calyx. 
J,  Seeds. 


dilBcttlty  of  getting  this  crop  well  harvested  rendcii  it  peculuul^ 
«dvisaUe  to  spw  only  the  early  varieties. 

The  pea  fireiem  a  friable  rales rsons  team,  deeply  worhed,  am!  wei 
enriched  with. good  hotbed  or  fana-vard  manure.  The  early  crops 
require  a  warm  sheltered  situation,  but  the  later  are  better  growo 
6  or  8  ft.  apart,  or  more,  in  the  open  quarters,  dwarf  crops  being  tn- 
troduced  between  the  rows.  The  dwnf  or  eariy  sorts  may  be  sown 
3  or  ^  ft.  apart.  The  deep  working  of  the  soil  la  of  importance, 
lest  the  plants  ahoeki  suffer  in  hot  dry  weather  from  mildew  or 
arrest  of  growth.  The  first  sowing  may  be  made  about  the  beginning 
or  middle  of  November,  in  front  of  a  south  widl,  the  piams  being 
defended  by  spruce  fir  t>ranchesor  other  spray  thro«4:hout  the  winter. 
In  Febrmiry  aowingsare  someiloiesmade  mprivategarden^  in  flower- 
pocs  or  boxes,  and  the  young  plants  afterwards  planted  out  The 
main  crop  should  be  sown  towards  the  end  of  February,  and  moder- 
ate sowings  should  be  made  twice  a  month  afterwards,  up  to  the 
beginning  of  luly  for  the  north,  and  about  the  third  week  m  July 
for  warmer  districts.  During  dry  hot  weather  lata  peas  derive 
grmt  benefit  from  mukhtng  and  watering.  The  latest  sowings, 
at  the  middle  or  end  of  August,  should  oonidst  of  the  be<t  eariy  sorts, 
as  they  are  not  so  long  in  producing  pods  as  the  laner  and  finer 
sorts,  and  by  this  means  the  supply  may  be  prolongeu  till  October 
or  November.  As  they  crow  the  earth  is  drawn  up  |o  the  siem% 
which  am  also  supported  by  sukes,  a  practice  which  in  a  well-kept 
garden  is  always  advisable,  although  it  is  said  that  the  early  varieties 
arrive  sooner  at  maturity  when  recumtient. 

Peas  nown  lato  in  autumn  are  subject  to  mildew,  to  obviate 
which  it  has  been  proposed  to  dig  over  the  ground  in  the  usual  wav, 
and  to  soak  the  spaces  to  be  occ^vicd  by  the  row's  of  peas  thoroughly 
with  water — the  earth  on  each  side  to  tw  then  collected  so  as  to 
form  ridges  7  or  8  in:  hi^ h,  these  rklgcs  being  well  watered,  and  the 
seed  sown  on  them  in  single  rows.  If  dry  weather  at  any  time  set 
in,  water  should  be  sopf4ied  profusely  once  a  week. 

To  produce  very  eariy  crops  the  French  mar1cet-^i  Jfcnei  s  Used  to 


ground  inside  being 
dug  out  so  as  to  be  18  or  20  in.  below  the  mahcs.  and  the  earth  thus 
removed  olaced  agmnst  the  outside  of  the  frames^    The  yooag 

f>laa{ts,  when  3  or  4  in.  high,  are  pbmted  in  patches  of  three  or 
our,  8  in.  asu ndcr,  in  four  longitudinal  rows.  The  sashes  are  covered 
at  night  with  straw  mats,  and  opened  whenever  the  weather  is 
sufficientty  mild.  When  8  or  to  in.  high  the  stems  are  indiaed 
towards  the  back  of  the  frkme^  a  Utile  earth  beieg  dmwn  to  (heir 
base,  and  when  the  plants  comeinm  blossom  the  tops  are  pinched  out 
above  the  third  or  fourth  flower  to  force  them  into  bearing.  As 
soon  as  they  I)egin  to  pod,  the  soil  may  have  a  gentle  uratering, 
whenever  Sufficiently  wanned  by  the  sun,  but  a  too  vigorous  growUI 
at  an  earlier  period  would  be  detrimental.  Thua  treated  the  plantH 
bear  pods  fit  for  gathering  in  the  first  fortnight  in  ApriL 

A  very  convenient  means  of  obtaining  an  earty  crop  Is  to  sow  in 
S-in.  pots,  a  few  seeds  in  each,  the  plants  to  be  ultimately  planted 
out  on  a  warm  border.  fVas  may  also  be  obtained  eariy  if^  gently 
forced  In  frames^  m.  the  mme  way  as  kidney  beaaa,  the  dwarfest 
varieties  being  prefemble. 

For  the  very  early  peas  the  rows  should  range  east  and  west, 
but  for  the  main  crops  north  and  south.  The  average  depth  of  the 
drills  should  t>e  about  7  in.  for  small  sorts,  and  a  trifle  more  for 
the  larger  kinds.  The  drills  should  be  made  wide  and  ihit  at  bottom 
so  that  the  seeds  may  be  better  separated  In  sowing.  .  The  large 
sorts  are  the  better  for  being  sown  3  in.  apart.  Chopped  furze 
may  be  advantageously  scattered  in  the  dnil  tjcfore  covering  in, 
to  check  the  depredations  of  mice,  and  tjefone  levelling  the  surface 
the  soil  should  be  gently  trodden  down  over  the  seeds. 

A.good  selcctioa  of  sorts  may  he  made  f ipm  the  following : — 

Eari^.—WiUiam  Hurst;  Chelsea  Gem;  Sutton's  Bountiful  and 
Excelsior;  Cradus. 

Second  £«r/y.— Stratagem ;  Telephone;  Telegraph ;  Carter's  Daisy; 
Duke  of  York ;  Vdtch's  Autocrat. 

Z.fll#.— Veiich's  Perfection;  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  the  finest  of  all  late 
peas,  but  a  little  delicate  in  coM  wet  soils ai)d  seasons;  British  Queen ; 
Champion  of  England ;  Duke  of  Albany. 

PBABODY,  ANDREW  PRBStOlT  (iSi  1-2893),  American 
clergyman  and  author,  was  bom  in  Beverly,  Massachusetts 
on  the  19th  of  March  181 1»  and  was  descended  from  Lieut. 
Francis  Peabody  of  St  Albans,  who*emigratcd  to  Massachusetts 
in  1635.  He  learned  to  read  before  he  was  three  years  old, 
entered  Harvard  College  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  graduated 
in  1826,  with  the  single  exception  of  Paul  Dudley  (class  of  1690) 
the  youngest  graduate  of  Harvard.  In  1833  he  became  assistant 
pastor  of  the  South  Parish  (Unitarian)  of  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire;  the  senior  pastor  died  before  Peabody  had  been 
preaching  a  month,  and  be  succeeded  to  the  charge  of  the  church, 
which  he  heU  until  i86a  la  1852-1860  he  was  proprietor  and 
editor  of  the  North  American  Review.    He  was  preacher  to 


peabody,  e.  p.— peace 


Harvard  TTniversity  and  Phxmmer  professor  of  Christian  morals 

from  x86o  to  x88i,  and  was  professor  emeritus  from  i8Sx  until 

bis  death  in  Boston,  Massachtiaetts,  on  the  xoth  of  March  1893. 

On  the  walls  of  Appleton  Chapel,  Cambridge,  U.SJV.,  isabronxe 

tablet  to  his  memory. 

Besides  many  brief  ra^mcan  and' articles,  he  wrote:  ChristUnity 
the  Rdigiou  of  Nature  (attd  cd.,  1864),  Lowell  Institute  Lectures: 
Reminisctnfes  of  European  Traod  (1868);  A  Makual  of  Moral 
Philesopky  (1873):  Christian  BdU!  and  L%S*  (187O,  and  Harvard 
RemintsctnceM  (1888).  See  the  Utwwr  (Cambridge,  1896)  by 
Edward  J.  Young. 

PEABODY,  BUZABBTH  PALMBR   (X804-1894),  American 

educationist,  was  bom  at  Billerica,  Massachusetts,  on  the  x6th 

of  May  1804.    Early  in  life  she  was  assistant  in  A.  Bronson 

AksDtt's  school  in  Boston,  Mass.,  the  best  account  of  which  is 

probably  her  Rtcord  vf  Mr  Alcolfs  School  (183s).   She  had  been 

instructed  in  Greek  by  Emerson  at  Concord  when  she  was 

eighteen  yean  old.    She  became  interested  in  the  educational 

methods  of  Frodoel,  and  in  i860  opened  in  Boston  a  small  school 

resembling  a  kindergarten.    In  1867  sho  visited  Germany  for 

the  purpose  of  studying  Froebd's  methods.    It  was  largely 

through  her  efforts  that  the  fixst  public  kindergarten  in  the 

United  States  was  established  in  Boston  in  1870.    She  died  at 

Jamaica  Plain,  Boston,  on  the  3ni  of  January  1894.    She  was 

the  sister-in-law  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  of  Horace  Mann. 

Among  her  publications  are:  Kindergqjten  in  Italy  (1872); 
RemiHisceuces  of  William  ElUry  Ckanning  (1880);  Lectures  in  the 
Training  Schools  for  Kindergartners  (1888J;  and  Last  Boening  with 
AUsian,  and  other  Papers  (1886). 

PBABODT,  GBORGB  (1795-1869),  American  philanthropist, 
was  descended  from  an  old  yeoman  family  of  Hertfordshire, 
England,  named  Pabody  or  Pebody.  He  was  bom  in  the  part 
of  Da'nvers  which  is  now  Peabody,  Mass.,  on  the  x8th  of  February 
1795.  When  eleven  ypars  old  he  became  apprentice  at  a 
grocery  store.  At  .the  end  of  four  years  he  became  assistant  to 
his  brother,  and  a  year  afterwards  to  his  uncle,  who  bad  a 
business  in  Georgetown,  District  of  Cohimbia.  After  serving  as  a 
volunteer  at  Fort  Warburton,  Maryland,  in  the  War  of  18x2,  be 
became  partner  with  Elisha  Riggs  in  a  dry  goods  store  at  George- 
town, Riggs  furnishing  the  capital,  while  Peabody  was  manager. 
Through  his  energy  and  skill  the  business  increased  with  astound- 
ing rapidity,  and  on  the  retirement  of  Riggs  about  1850  Peabody 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  largest  mercantile  con- 
cerns in  the  world.  About  1837  he  established  himself  in  London 
as  merchant  and  money-broker  at  Wanford  Court,  in  the  city, 
and  in  1843  he  withdrew  from  the  American  bosiness.  The 
number  of  his  benefactions  to  public  objects  was  very  large. 
He  gave  £50,000  for  educational  purposes  at  Danvers;  £2oo/x>o 
to  found  and  endow  a  scientific  Institute  in  Baltimore;  various 
sums  to  Harvard  University;  £700,000  to  the  trustees  of  the 
Peabody  Educational  Fund  to  promote  education  in  the 
southern  states;  and  £500,000  for  the  erection  of  dwelling-houses 
for  the  working-classes  in  London.  He  received  from  Queen 
Victoria  the  offer  of  a  baronetcy,  but  decUned  it.  In  1867  the 
United  States  Congress  awarded  him  a  special  vote  of  thanks. 
He  died  in  London  on  the  4th  of  November  1869;  his  body 
was  carried  to  America  in  a  British  warship,  and  was  buried 
in  his  native  town. 

See  the  Life  (Boston,  1870)  by  Phebe  A.  Hanaford. 

PEABODY,  a  township  of  Essex  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  2  m.  N.W.  of  Salem. 
Pop.  (1905)  13,098;  (1910)  15,721.  It  is  setved  by  the  Boston  & 
Maine  railroad.  The  township  covers  an  area  of  r7  sq.  m.  Its 
principal  village  is  also  known  as  Peabody.  It  contains  the 
Peabody  institute  (1857),  a  gift  of  George  Peabody;  in  1909  the 
institute  had  a  library  of  43,200  vols.,  and  in  connexion  with  it  is 
the  Ebon  Dale  Sutton  reference  library,  containing  4100  vols, 
in  1909.  In  the  institute  is  the  portrait  of  Queen  Victoria  given 
by  her  to  Mr  Peabody.  Among  the  places  of  interest  in  the 
township  are  the  birthplace  of  George  Peabody,  the  home  of 
Rufus  Choate  (who  lived  here  from  1823  to  1828),  and  the  old 
burying-ground,  where  many  soldiers  of  the  War  of  Indepen- 
dence are  buried;  and  the  town  has  a  Lexington  monument. 


dedicated  in  1835,  and  a  loldiert'  nxoDQineBt,  dedknted  in  i88t. 

Manufacturing  is  the  principal  indnstry,  and  leather  is  the 

principal  product;  among  other  manufactures  are  shoes,  gloves, 

glue  and  carriages.     Hie  value  of  the  factory  products  in 

1905  was  $10,236,669,  an  increase  of  47*4%  over  that  for  X900, 

and  of  the  total  the  leather  product  represented  77*3%. 

Peabody  was  originally  a  part  of  the  township  of  Salem.    In 

X  751  the  district  of  Danvers  was  created,  and  in  x  757  this  dbtrict 

was  made  a  separate  township.  In  x  855  the  township  was  divided 

into  Danvers  and  South  Danvers,  and  in  1868  the  name  of  South 

Danvers  was  changed  to  Peabody,  in  honour  of  George  Peabody. 

See  OM  Naumheag  (Salem.  1877).  by  C.  H.  Webber  and  W.  H. 
.Nevina. 

PBACB,  a  river  of  western  Canada.  It  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Moontains  near  55"  N.,  and  breaking  througji  the  moniitaina, 
flows  N.E.  into  Slave  River,  near  lake  Athabasca.  The  disttia 
between  56"  40'  and  60*  N.,  and  between  x  ra*  W.  and  the  Rod^ 
Mountains  is  usually  known  as  the  Peace  River  district. 

PBACB  (Lat.  pax;  Fr.  paix;  Ger.  Wriede),  the  contrary  of 
war,  conflict  or  turmoil,  and  the  condition  which  follows  their 
cessation.  Its  sense  in  international  law  is  the  condition  of 
not  being  at  war.  The  word  is  also  used  as  an  abridgment  for 
a  treaty  of  peace,  in  such  cases  as  the  Peace,  of  Utrecht  (17x3) 
and  the  Peace  of  Amiens  (1802). 

Inlrodndion.'^Tta.ot  until  quite  recently  was  merely  the 
political  conditi(»  which  prevailed  in  the  intervals  between 
wars.  It  was  a  purely  negative  condition.  Even  Grotius,  who 
reduced  the  tendencies  existing  in  his  time  to  a  sort  of  orderly 
expression,  addressed  himself  to  the  law  of  war  as  the  positive 
part  of  international  jurisprudence  and  dealt  only  with  peace 
as  its  negative  alternative.  The  very  name  of  his  historic 
treatise,  D«  jure  belli  ac  pacts  (X625),  shows  the  subordination 
oi  peace  to  the  main  subject  of  war.  In  our  own  time  peace  has 
attained  a  higher  status.  It  is  now  customary  among  writers 
on  international  law  to  give  peace  at  any  rate  a  volume  to  itself. 
Peace  in  fact  has  become  a  separate  branch  of  the  subject.  The 
rise  of  arbitration  as  a  method  of  settling  international  difficulties 
has  carried  it  a  step  further,  and  now  the  Hague  Peace  Con- 
ventions have  given  pacific  methods  a  standing  apart  from  war, 
and  the  preservation  of  peace  has  become  an  object  of  direct 
politiod  effort.  The  m^ods  for  ensuring  such  preservation 
are  now  almost  as  precise  as  the  methods  of  war.  However 
reluctant  some  states  may  1^  to  bind  themselves  to  any  rules 
excluding  recourse  to  brute  force  when  diplonlalic  negotiations 
have  failed,  they  have  nevertheless  unanimously  at  the  Hague 
Conference  of  X907  declared  their  "  firm  determination  to  co- 
operate in  the  maintenance  of  general  peace  '*  {la  ferme  w/hnU 
de  conclrurir  au  mainlien  de  la  paix  giniraUy,  and  their  resolution 
"  to  favour  with  all  their  -efforts  the  amicable  settlement  of 
international  conflicts  "  (preamble  to  Peace  Convention).  The 
offer  of  mediation  by  independent  powers  is  provided  for  (Peace 
Convention:  art.  3),  and  it  is  specifically  agreed  that  in  matters 
of  a  "  legal  character  "  such  as  "  questions  of  interpretation  and 
application  "  of  international  conventions,  arbitration  is  the 
"  most  efficacious  and  at  the  same  time  mos^  equitable  method  " 
of  settling  differences  which  have  not  been  solved  by  diplomacy 
(Peace  Convention:  art.  38).  In  the  final  act,  the  conference 
went  farther  in  agreeing  to  the  "  principle  of  compulsory  arbi- 
tration," declaring  that  "  certain  disputes,  in  particular  those 
relating  to  the  interpretation  and  appUcaiion  of  the  provisions 
of  international  agreements,  are  suiuble  (susceptible)  to  be 
submitted  to  compulsory  arbitration  without  any  restriction." 

These  declarations  were  obviously  a  concession  to  the  wide- 
spread feeling,  among  civilized  nations,  that  peace  is  an  object 
in  itself,  an  international  political  condition  requiring  its  code  of 
methods  and  laws  just  as  much  as  the  domestic  political  conditions 
of  nations  require  their  codes  of  methods  and  laws.  In  othef 
words  peace  among  nations  has  now  become,  or  is  fast  becoming, 
a  positive  subject  of   international  regulation,  while  war  is 

*  This  has  been  incorrectly  rendered  in  the  English  crfliciat  trans- 
lation as  "  the  dncere  desire  to*  work  for  the  maintenaarr  of  ^nelal 
peace;" 


PEACB 


ooning,  amoag  pwgttrive  peoffles,  to  be  regudrf  mcRiy  m  aa 
Mcide&tal  distuibsaoe  of  that  hanaony  and  conoord  among 
mankiiMi  which  nations  fequiie  for  the  fottaring  of  their 
domestic  welfare. 

Tbdngh  the  idea  of  preserving  peaoeby  gensial  inteniational 
ngdation  has  had  several  exponents  m  the  ooufse  of  ages,  no 
deliberate  plan  has  ever  yet  been  canied  into  effect.  lodkectly, 
however,  there  have  been  many  agencies  which  have  operated 
towards  this  end.  The  evliest,  known  to  history,  is  the  Amphi- 
ctyonic  Council  (f.v.)  which  grew  out  of  the  oommon  worship 
of  the  Hellenes.  It  was  not  so  much  a  political  as  a  religious 
body.  "  If  it  had  any  claim,"  says  Freeman.^  '^  to  the  title  of  a 
geaeiml  council  of  Greece,  it  was  wholly  in  the  lenie  in  which  we 
speak  of  general  councils  in  modem  Europe.  The  Ampfaictyonic 
Council  represented  Greece*  as  an  eccleuastioal  synod  repre- 
sented western  Christendom.  Its  primary  business  was  to 
regulate  the  concerns  of  the  temple  of  ApoUo  at  Delphi.  The 
Amphictyonic  Council  wUch  met  at  Delplu  was  only  the  most 
famous  of  several  bodies  of  the  same  kind."  "  It  is  «uy, 
however,"  adds  Freeman,  "to  understand  how  the  religious 
fonafons  of  such  a  body  might  assume  a  political  chaiacter. 
Thus  the  old  Amphictyonic  oath  forbade  certain  extreme 
measures  of  hostility  against  any  dty  sharing  in  the  common 
Amphictyonic  worship,  and  it  was  forbidden  to  rase  any  Amphl^ 
ayonic  dty  or  to  cut  off  iu  water.  As  the  only  deUberati^ 
body  in  which  most  Greek  oommunities  were  represented,  its 
decisions  were  those  of  the  bulk  of  the  Hellenic  people.  It  sank 
eventually  into  a  mere  political  tool  in  the  hands  fiist  of  Thebes, 
and  then  under  Philip  of  Macedonia." 

The  so-adled  pox  tomama  was  merdy  peace  withi&  an 
empire  governed  from  a  central  authority,  the  constituent 
parts  of  which  were  held  together  by  a  network  of  oeotraliaed 
authority. 

The  feudal  system  again  was  a  system  of  offence  and  defence, 
and  its  object  was  efficiency  for  war,  not  the  organised  regulatioQ 
of  peace.  Yet  it  had  elemenu  of  federation  within  the  bonds  of 
its  hierarchy 

The  spiritual  influence  of  the  Church  again  was  exerted  to 
preserve  relative  peace  among  feudal  princes.  The  "  Truce  of 
God  "  was  established  by  the  deigy  (oripnally  in  Guyenne  in 
103 1)  to  take  advantage  of  holy  days  arid  festivals  for  the  purpose 
of  restricting  the  time  available  for  bloodshed. 

The  "grand  design"  of  Henry  IV.  (Frattce),  which  some 
historians  regard  merdy  as  the  fantastic  idea  of  a  visionary,  was 
probably  a  scheme  of  his  great  minister  Sully  to  avert  by  a 
federation  the  conflict  which  he  probably  foresaw  would  break 
out  sooner  or  later  between  Catholic  and  Protestant  Europe, 
and  which,  in  fact,  broke  out  some  fifteen  years  later  in  the 
Thirty  Years*  War. 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire  itself  was  in  some  respects  an  agent 
for  the  preservation  of  peace  among  its  constituent  states.  In 
the  same  way  the  federation  of  Swiss  cantons,  of  the  states  of  the 
North  American  Union  and  of  the  present  German  Empire  have 
served  as  means  of  redudng  the  number  of  possible  parties  to  war, 
and  consequently  that  of  its  possible  occasions. 

Not  only  the  number  of  possible  war-making  states  but  also 
the  territorial  area  over  which  war  can  be  made  has  been 
reduced  in  recent  times  by  the  creation  of  neutralized  states  such 
as  Switserland,  Belgium,  Luxemburg  and  Norway,  and  areas 
such  as  the  Congo  basin,  the  American  lakes  and  the  Sues  Canal. 

The  "  balance  of  power/'  which  has  played  in  the  history  of 
modem  Europe  such  an  important  piart,  is  inherent  hi  the 
notion  of  the  independence  and  stability  of  states.  Just  as  in 
Italy  the  common  weal  of  the  different  republics  which  were 
crowded  within  the  lihilted  area  of  the  peninsula  required  that 
IK>  one  of  them  should  become  so  powerful  as  to  threaten  the 
independence  of  the  others,  so  western  Europe  had  a  similar 
danger  to  counteract.  France,  Spain  and  the  Empire  were 
competiflg  with  each  other  in  power  to  the  detriment  of  smaller 
states.   Great  Britain  and  the  Netherlands,  Prussia  and  Russia, 

^Hislory  of  Fideral  Copemtmnt  in  Cruce  and  Tidy  (and  ed., 
London.  1893),  p.  97. 


had  Interests  la  the  preservatioik  of  the  itolKt  fii^,  and  wits  wera 
waged  and  treaties  condudad  to  adjust  the  strength  of  states  in 
the  common  teterest  of  preventing  anyone  of  them  from  obtain- 
ing undue  predominaaoe.  Then  ckme  the  break  up  of  what 
remained  of  feudal  Europe  and  a  readjustment  under  Napoleon, 
which  left  the  western  world  with  five  fairly  balanced  liomo> 
geneotts  nations.  These  now  took  the  place  of  the  old  hetero- 
geneoia  areas,  governed  by  tiieir  respective  soverd^u  without 
reference  to  any  idea  of  nationality  or  of  national  representatlcm. 
The  leading  nations  assumed  the  hegemony  of  the  west,  and  in 
more  recent  times  this  combination  has  become  known  as  the 
"  concert  of  Europe."  TUs  concert  of  the  great  powers,  as 
its  name  implies,  in  contradistinction  to  Ae  **  balsnee  of 
power,"  was  essentially  a  factor  for  the  preservation  of  peftcew 
For  a  century  back  it  has  played  the  part  of  an  upper  coandl  in 
the  management  of  Europe.  In  all  matters  affecting  the  Near 
East,  it  considers  itself  supreme.  In  matters  of  general  interest 
It  has  frequently  called  conferences  to  which  the  minor  states 
have  been  hwitcd,  such  as  the  West  African  Conierenee  m  Berlin 
in  1885,  and  the  Anti-Slavery  Conference  at  Brands  in  1889- 
1890,  and  the  Conference  of  Algedras  in  1906.  Meamriifle  the 
concert  has  admitted  among  its  members  fint  in  1856  Turkey, 
later  In  r878  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin  the  United  Sutcs,  and 
now  undoubtedly  Japan  will  expect  to  be  induded  as  a  great 
power  in  this  tositrcdling  body.  The  essential  feature  of  the 
concert  has  been  reoognitkm  of  the  advantage  to  all  the  great 
powers  of  common  action  in  rderence  to  territorial  changes  in 
the  Near  East,  of  meeting  together  as  a  councfl.  In  preference 
to  uncOBcerted  negotiation  by  the  powers  acting  severally. 

A  departure  of  more  recent  origin  has  been  the  calling  together 
of  the  smaller  powers  for  the  settlement  of  matters  of  general 
administrative  interest,  conferences  such  as  those  which  led  to 
the  condusion  of  the  conventions  creating  Uie  Postal  Unioo, 
the  Copyright  and  Industrial  Property  Unions,  8Ee. 

These  CMiferences  of  all  the  powers  serve  in  practice  asa  sort 
of  common  council  in  the  commnnity  of  states,  just  as  Uie 
concert  of  the  great  powers  acts  as  a  kmd  of  senate.  We-have 
thus  the  nucleus  of  that  International  parliament  which  idealist 
peacemakers  have  dreamt  of  sbce  the  time  of  Henry  IV.Is 
"  grand  dedgn." 

This  brings  us  down  to  the  greatest  deliberate  effort  ever  made 
to  secure  the  peace  of  the  world  by  a  general  convention.  It 
was  due  to  the  initiative  of  the  young  tsar  Nicolas  n.,  who, 
in  his  famous  rescript  of  the  94th  of  August  r898,  stated  that 
he  thought  that  the  then  moment  was  "  very  favourable  for 
seeking,  by  means  of  international  discussion,  the  most  effectual 
means  of  assuring  to  all  peoples  the  benefits  of  a  real  and  durable 
peace;"  **  In  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years,*'  added  the 
rescript,  **  the  preservation  of  peace  had  become  an  object  of 
intemationsl  policy."  Economic  crises,  due  in  great  part  to  the 
exbting  system  of  excesdve  armaments,  were  transforming 
armed  peace  into  a  crushing  burden,  which  peoples  had  more  and 
more  difficulty  in  bearing.  He  therefore  proposed  that  there 
should  be  an  international  conference  for  the  purpose  of  focusing 
the  efforts  of  all  states  which  were  "  dncerdy  seeking  to  make 
the  great  idea  of  universal  peace  triumph  over  the  elements 
of  trouble  and  discord."  The  first  conference  was  held  in  r899» 
and  another  followed  it  in  1907:  at  the  earlier  one  twenty-six 
powers  were  represented;  at  that  of  1907  there  were  forty-four, 
this  time  practically  the  uriiole  world.  The  conventions  drawn 
up  at  the  second  conference  were  a  ddibecate  codification  of 
many  branches  of  international  law.  By  them  a  written  law 
has  been  substituted  for  that  nawritten  hw  idiich  nations  had 
been  wont  to  oonstme  with  a  latitude  more  or  less  corjo- 
spondlng  to  their  power.  At  the  conference  of  1899,  moreover, 
a  court  of  arbitratimi  was  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  dealing 
judicially  with  siidi  matters  m  diqnite  as  the  powers  sgreed  to 
submit  to  it. 

In  the  interval  between  the  two  Hague  Conferences,  Great 
Britain  and  France  cooduded  the  first  trwty  appUcaUe  to 
future  difficulties,  as  distinguished  from  the  treaties  which  had 
preceded  it,  treaties  which  related  in  all  cases  to  difficulties  already 


PEACE 


cxttting  and  confined  to  them-  TUa  tratty  Brnde  arbiUatioa 
applicable  to  «U  maiurs  not  affecting  **  national  honour  or  vital 
interests."  Since  then  a  network  «C  aiailar  treaties,  adopted 
by  different  nations  with  each  other  and  based  on  the  An^o- 
French  model,  has  made  reference  to  the  Hague  Court  of  Arbitra- 
tion practically  compulsory  for  all  matters  which  can  be  set  tied  by 
an  award  of  damages  or  do  not  affect  any  vital  national  interest 

The  third  Hague  Conference  is  timed  to  be  held  in  1917. 
Meanwhile  a  conference  of  the  maritinte  powers  was  held  in 
tendon  in  1908-1909  for  the  elaboration  of  a  code  of  international 
maritime  law  in  time  of  war,  to  be  applied  in  the  international 
Court  of  Prize,  which  had  been  proposed  in  a  oonventioa  ugned 
9d  referendum  at  the  Hague  Coiiference  of  1907. 

A  further  development  in  the  common  efforts  which  have 
been  made  by  different  powers  to  assure  the  neign  of  justice 
and  judicial  methods  among  the  states  of  the  world  was  the  pro- 
posal of  Secretary  Knox  <^  the  United  States  to  insert  in  the 
instrument  of  ratification  of  the  International  Prise  Court 
Convention  (adopted  at  the  Hague  in  1897)  a  clause  stating 
that  the  International  Prize  Court  shall  be  invested  with  the 
duties  and  functions  of  a  court  of  arbitral  justice,  such  as 
recommended  by  the  first  Voeu  of  the  Final  Act  of  the  con- 
ference. The  object  of  this  pn^Kisal  was  to  give  effect  to  the 
idea  that  the  existing  ''  permanent "  court  lacked  the  essential 
characteristics  of  national  courts  of  justice  in  not  being  ready 
at  all  times  to  hear  cases,  and  in  needing  to  be  spedally  con- 
stituted for  every  case  submitted  to  it.  The  new  court  would 
be  permanently  in  session  at  the  Hague,  the  fuH  panel  of 
judges  to  assemble  in  ordinary  or  extraordinary  session  once 
a  year. 

Thus,  while  armaments  are  increasing,  and  wars  are  being 
fought  out  in  the  press  and  in  puUic  discussion,  the  great 
powers  are  steadily  working  out  a  system  of  written  law  and 
establishing  a  judiciary  to  adjust  their  differences  in- accordance 
with  it.^ 

The  CurrerU  Crou^ng  ef  Mankind  and  Natimhmaking.-^ 
In  the  consolidation  of  peace  one  of  the  roost  important 
factors  is  unquestionably  the  grouping  of  mankind  in  accordance 
with  the  final  territorial  and  racial  limitations  of  their  a^Mirent 
destiny.  Language  has  played  a  vital  part  in  the  formation 
of  Germany  and  Italy.  The  language  question  still  disturbs 
the  tranquillity  of  the  Near  East.  The  Hungarian  government 
U  regarded  by  the  Slav,  Rumaa  and  Gennan  inhabitants 
of  the  monarchy  as  an  oppressor  for  endeavouring  to  force  every- 
body within  the  realm  to  learn  the  Magyar  language.  The 
**  Young  Turkish  "  govenmient  has  problems  to  face  which  will 
be  equally  difficult,  if  it  insists  on  endeavouring  to  institute 
centralized  government  in  Turkey  on  the  French  modcL 

Whereas  during  the  X9th  century  states  were  being  cut  out 
to  suit  the  existing  distribution  of  language,  in  the  aoth  the 
tendency  seems  to  be  to  avoid  further  rearrangement  of  boun- 
daries, and  to  complete  the  homogeneity,  thus  far  attaued,  by 
the  artificial  method  of  forcing  reluctant  populations  to  adopt 
the  language  of  the  predominant  or  governing  race.  In  the 
United  States  this  artificial  method  has  become  a  necessity,  to 
prevent  the  upgrowth  of  alien  communities,  which  might  at  some 
Uter  date  cause  domestic  trouble  of  a  perilous  character.  For 
example,  when  a  community  of  French  Canadians,  discontented 
with  British  rule,  many  years  ago  migrated  and  settled  in 
Massachusetts,  they  found  none  of  the  tolerance  they  had 
been  enjoying  in  Canada  for  their  French  schools  and  the 
French  language  they  wished  to  preserve.  In  Alsace-Lorraine 
German-speaking  immigrants  are  gradually  displacing,  under 

*  Schemes  of  thinkers,  like  Wtlliam  Penn's  European  Parliament 
<>693);  the  Abb6  St  Pierre's  elaboration  (e.  1700)  of  Henry  IV..'8 
** grand  design"  (we  tnpra):  Jeremy  Bentham's  InUmaUonel 
Trtbunal  (1786-1789);  Kant's  Permanent  Congreu  of  Nations  and 
Perpetual  Peace  (1796);  John  Stuart  Mill's  Federal  Su/reme  Court; 
Scelty't,  Bluntschb's,  David  Dudley  Field's.  Professor  Leone  Levi's, 
Sir  »imand  Hornby's  co-operative  schemes  for  promoting  law  and 
order  among  nations,  have  all  contributed  to  ponalarising  in 
diffierent  countries  the  idea  of  a  federation  of  aaakitid  for  the 
preservatioa,df  peace. 


govenuheat  encouragement^,  the  Fkendi-apcakiag  pwpiTf***"^, 
Poland  is  another  case  of  the  diflbnilty  of  managinga  piyilirtiffa 
which  speaks  a  language  not  that  of  the  governing  majority,  and 
Russia,  in  trying  to  solve  one  problem  by  abaocfaing  Finland 
into  the  national  system,  is  burdeniag  henelf  with  another 
which  may  work  out  in  centuries  of  unrest,  if  not  in  domestic 
violence.  Not  very  long  ago  Pan-Germana  wete  paying  much 
attention  to  the  German  settlers  in  the  Brazilian  provimx  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul^  where  Lirge  villagesspoke  nothing  but  Gemaa, 
and  German,  as  the  only  language  known  on  the  spot,  had  become 
the  tongue  in  which  municipal  busaaess  was  transacted.  The 
Brazilian  government,  in  view  of  the  danger  to  which  such  a 
state  of  things  might  give  rise,  ioUowed  the  example  of  the 
United  States  in  dealing  with  the  language  question. 

Thus  while  in  the  one  case  homogendty  of  language  within 
state  boundaries  seems  to  be  one  of  the  conditions  making  ioc 
peace,  the  avoidance  of  intecference  witli  a  weU-marited  homo* 
geneous  area  like  Finland  would  seem  to  contribute  equal^  to 
the  same  end. 

Meanwhile  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  contemporary  nation* 
making  are  fostered  by  many  extraneous  influences,  as  well  a$ 
by  dogged  resistance  of  the  races  in  question.  Not  the  least 
important  of  these  influences  is  the  sentimental  sympathy  fck 
for  those  who  are  supposed  to  be  deprived  of  the  use  of  their 
motherHoague,  and  who  are  subjected  to  the  hardship  of  learning 
an  alien  one^  The  hardship  inflicted  on  those  who  have  to 
learn  a  second  language  is  very  easily  exaggerated,  though  it 
is  to  be  regretted  that  in  the' case  of  Hungary  the  second  language 
is  not  one  more  useful  for  international  purposes. 

Contemporary  iSte/lfcrq/ir.-^Natiott-making  has  hitherto  been 
more  or  less  unconscious— the  outcome  of  necessity,  a  natural 
growth  due  to  the  play  of  circumstance  and  events.  But  in 
our  own  age  conscious  statecraft  is  also  at  work,  as  in  Canada^ 
where  the  genius  of  statesmen  is  gradu^y  endowing  that 
dominion  with  all  the  attributes  of  independence  and  power« 
Australia  has  not  learnt  the  lesson  of  Canada  in  vain.  Whiatevec 
value  may  attach  to  the  consolidation  of  the  British  Empii* 
itself  as  a  factor  in  spreading  the  peace  which  reigns  within  it, 
it  is  also  a  great  contribution  to  the  peace  of  the  world  that  the 
British  race  should  have  founded  practically  independent  states 
like  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia^ 
the  South  African  Union  and  the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand. 
These  self-governing  colonics  with  their  spheres  of  influence, 
with  vast  areas  still  unpeopled,  have  a  future  before  them 
which  is  dissociated  from  the  methods  of  an  over-peopled 
Europe,  and  among  them  the  preservati^m  of  peace  is 
the  direct  object  and  condition  of  their  progressive  develop- 
ment. Like  the  United  Stales,  they  have  or  wiU  have  their 
Monroe  doctrine.  Colonized  by  the  steady  industrial  peoples 
of  northern  Europe,  there  is  no  danger  of  the  turbulence 
of  the  industrially  indolent  but  more  passionate  peoples  of 
Central  and  South  America.  As  in  Europe,  these  northern 
peoples  will  hold  the.  power  which  intelligent  democracies  are 
consciously  absorbing,  and  the  British  (acuity  for  statecraft  is 
gradually  welding  new  nations  on  the  British  model,  without  the 
obsolete  traditions  and  without  that  human  sediment  which  too 
frequently  chokes  the  currents  of  national  vitality  in  the  older 
communities  of  Europe. 

UUUarism.—'li  is  often  stated,  as  if  it  were  incontrovertible, 
that  conscription  and  large  standing  armies  are  a  menace  to 
peace,  and  yet,  although  throughout  the  civilized  world,  except 
in  the  BritUh  Empire  and  the  United  States,  conscription  is 
the  system  employed  for  the  recruiting  of  the  national  forces 
of  both  defence  and  offence,  few  of  these  countries  show  any 
particular  disposition  to  make  war.  The  exceptional  position 
of  the  United  States,  with  a  population  about  equal  to  that  of 
the  rest  of  the  American  continent,  and  of  Great  Britain,  aa 
island  state  but  little  exposed  to  military  invasion,  places  both 
beyond  absolute  need  of  large  standing  armies,  and  renders  aa 
enlisting  system  feasible  which  would  be  quite  inadequate  for 
the  recruitment  of  armies  on  the  French  or  C>erman  scale.  Demo- 
cratic progress  on   the   Continent  has,    however,   absorbed 


PBACE 


ooascription  as  a  feature  In  the  equaKntlon  of  tbe  dtfEcn't  rqifats 
and  liabilities.  Just  as  in  Anglo-Saxon  lands  a  national  ideal 
is  gradually  materidizing  in  tlie  principle  of  tbe  e<)uaIi2ation  of 
chances  for  all  citizens,  so  in  continental  Europe,  along  with 
this  equalization  of  chances,  has  still  more  rapid^  developed 
the  ideal  of  an  equalization  of  obligations,  which  in  turn* leads  to 
the  claim  for  an  enlargement  of  political  ri^ts  oo-extensive 
with  the  obligations.  Thus  universal  conscription  and  universal 
suffrage  tend  to  become  in  continental  poJitical  development 
complementary  conditions  of  the  citizen's  political  bdng.  In 
Germany,  moreover,  the  milltaxy  service  h  designed  not  only  to 
make  the  recruit  a  good  soldier,  but  also  to  give  him  a  healthy 
physical,  moral  and  mental  training.  German  statesmen,  under 
the  powerful  stimulus  of  the  emperor  William  n.,  have,  in  the 
eyes  of  some  critics,  carried  thb  s»»ndaty  object  of  conscript 
training  to  such  excess  as  to  be  detrimental  to  miHtaxy  efficiency. 
To  put  it  shortly,  the  Germans  have  taught  their  solifiers  to 
think,  and  not  merely  to  obey.  The  French,^  who  naturally 
looked  to  German  methods  for  inspiration,  have  oome  to  aj^ly 
them  more  particularly  in  the  development  of  their  cavaliy  and 
artillery,  especially  in  that  of  the  former,  which  has  taken  in  the 
French  army  an  ever  higher  place  as  its  observing  and  thinking 
organ. 

Militarism  on  the  Continent  has  thus  become  allied  wfith  the 
very  factors  which  made  for  the  reign  of  reason.  No  agitation 
for  the  development  of  national  defences,  no  beating  of  drums 
to  awaken  the  military  spirit,  no  anti-fore^  damour  or 
invasion  panic,  no  parading  of  uniforms  and  futile  dash  of 
arms,  are  necessary  to  entice  the  groundling  and  the  bumpkin 
into  the  service.  In  Germany  patriotic  waving  of  the  flag,  as  a 
political  method,  is  directed  more  especially  to  the  strengthen'^ 
ing  of  imperial,  as  distinguished  from  local,  patriotism.  Where 
conscription  has  existed  for  any  i^preciable  time  it  has  sunk 
Into  the  national  economy,  and  men  do  their  military  service 
with  as  little  concern  as  if  it  were  a  dvil  apprenticeship. 

As  implied  above,  military  training  under  conscription  does 
not  by  any  means  necessarily  tend  to  the  promotion  of  the 
military  spirit.  In  France,  so  far  from  taking  this  direction, 
it  has  resulted,  under  democratic  government  and  universal 
B'.iilrage,  in  a  widespread  abhorrence  of  war,  and,  in  fact,  has 
converted  the  French  people  from  being  the  most  militant 
into  being  the  most  padfic  nation  in  Europe.  The  fact  that 
every  family  throughout  the  land  is  a  contributory  to  the 
military  forces  of  the  country  has  made  peace  a  famfly,  and 
hence  a  national,  ideal.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  it  h  the 
logical  conclusion  of  such  comparisons  that  militarism  only 
exists  in  countries  where  there  ate  no  dtizen  armies^  and  that, 
where  there  are  citizen  armies,  they  are  one  of  the  etements 
which  liiake  for  permanent  peace. 

Normal  Nature  of  Peace. — ^America  has  been  the  pioneer  of 
the  view  that  peace  is  the  normal  condition  of  maiddnd,  and 
that,  when  the  causes  of  war  are  eliminated,  war  ceases  to  have 
a  raison  d'Ure,  The  objects  and  causes  of  war  are  of  many  kinds. 
War  for  fighting's  sake,  although  in  the  popular  mind  there  may 
be,  during  most  wars,  only  the  exdtement  and  the  emotion  of 
a  great  gamble,  has  no  conscious  place  among  the  motives  of 
those  who  determine  the  destinies  of  peoples.  Apart,  however, 
from  self-defence,  the  main  causes  of  war  are  four:  (i)  The 
desire  for  territorial  expansion,  due  to  the  overgrowth  of 
population,  and  insufiidency  of  the  available  food-supply;  if 
the  necessary  territory  cannot  be  obtained  by  negotiation, 
conquest  becomes  the  only  alternative  to  emigration  to  foreign 
lands.  (2)  The  prompting  of  national  ambition  or  a  desire  to 
wipe  out  the  record  of  a  humiliating  defeat.  (3)  Ambitious 
potentates  again  may  seek  to  deflect  popular  tendencies  into 
channels  more  satisfactory  for  thdr  dynasty.  (4)  Nations,  on 
the  other  hand,  may  grow  jealous  of  each  other's  comniercial 
aucccss  or  material  power.  In  many  cases  the  apparent  cause 
may  be  of  a  nobler  character,  but  historians  have  seldom  been 
content  to  accept  the  allegations  of  those  who  have  daimed  to 
raxry  on  war  from  disinterested  motives. 

On  the  American  continent  South  and  Cditral  Americas 


states  have  had  many  waiSi  and  the  dfsastiiras  effects  of  tlMn 
not  only  in  retarding  their  own  development,  but  in  impair- 
ing their  national  credit,  have  led  to  earnest  endeavouts  on 
the  part  of  their  leading  statesmen  to  arrive  at  such  an  under 
standing  as  will  banish  from  their  international  polity  all 
excuses  for  resorting  to  armed  conflicts.    In  1881  Mr  Blaine, 
then  U.S.  secretary  Of  state,  addressed  an  instruction  to  the 
ministers  of  the    Um'ted  States  of  America  aooedlted  to 
the  various  Central  and  South  American  nations,  directing 
them  to  invite  the  governments  of  these  countries  to  par> 
Hdpate  in  a  congress,  to  be  hdd  at  Washington  ia  x88a, 
"  for  the  purpose  of  considering  and  discussing  the  methods 
of  preventing  war  between  the  nations  of  America."    Owing 
to  different  circumstances  the  conference  was  delayed  till  the 
autumn  of  1889.    At  this  conference  a  plan  of  arbitratioa 
was  drawn  up,  under  which  arbitration  was  made  obUgatoi^ 
in  an  controversies   whatever  their  origin,  with    the  single 
exception  that  it  should  not  apply  where,  in  the  judgment  of 
any  one  of  the  nations  involved  in  the  controversy,  ita  national 
Independence  was  imperilled,  and  even  in  this  case  arbitntion, 
though  optional  for  die  nation  so  judghig,  was  to  be  obligatory 
for  the  adversary  power.   At  the  second  International  Catiki^ 
enee  of  American  States,  which  sat  in  the  dty  of  Mexico  from 
the  2snd  of  October  xqox  to  the  jxst  of  January  1902,  the  same 
subject  was  ag^n  discussed,  and  a  scheme  was  finally  adopted  as 
a  compromise  which  confmed  authority  on  the  government  of 
Mexico  to  ascertain  the  views  of  the  different  governments 
represented  In  the  conference,  regarding  the  most  advanced 
form  in  wlncb  a  general  arbitration  convention  could  be  drawn 
up  that  would  meet  with  the  approval  and  secure  ratificalioa 
by  all  the  countries  represented,  and  afterwards  to  prepare  a 
plan  for  such  a  general  treaty.     The  third  Pan-American 
Coirference  was  hdd  in  the  months  of  July  and  August  Z906, 
and  was  attended  by  the  United  States,  Attsentina,  Bolivia, 
Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  the  Dominican 
Republic,  Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Mexico,  Nicaragua, 
Panama,    Paraguay,   Peru,    Salvador   and    Uruguay.     Only 
Haiti  and  Venezuela  were  absent.   The  conference,  betog  held 
only  a  3rear  before  the  time  fixed  for  the  second  Hague  Conference, 
applied  itself  mainly  to  the  question  of  the  extent  to  which 
force  might  be  used  for  the  collection  of  pecunliry  claims  against 
defaulting  governments,  and  the  forwarding  oif  the  prindple 
of  arbitration  under  the  Hague  Conventkms.    The  possible 
causes  of  war  on  the  American  continent  had  meanwhUe  been 
considerably  reduced.     Different  states  had  adjusted  their 
frontiers.  Great  Britain  In  British  Guiana  had  settled  an  out* 
standing  question  with  Veneeuda,  France  in  Fktnch  Guiana 
another  with  Brazil,  Great  Britmn  in  Newfdmdlandf  had  re- 
moved time-honoured  grievances  with  FYanoe,  Great  Britain  in 
Canada  others  with  the  United  States  of  America,  and  now  the 
most  difficult  kind  of  international  questions  which  can  aiisa, 
so  far  as  the  American  continent  is  concerned,  have  been  removed 
from  among  existing  dangers  to  peace.    Among  theSoatfacin 
Republics  Argentina  and  Chile  oonduded  in  1909  a  treaty  of 
arbitntion,  for  the  settlement  of  all  difficulties  without  dis- 
tinction, combined  with  a  disarmament  agreement  of  tbe 
same  date,  to  which  more  ample  reference  will  be  made 
hereafter.    Thus  in  America  progitts  is  bdng  rapidly  made 
towards  the  realisation  of  the  idea  that  war  can  be  super- 
annuated by  elimination  of  its  causes  and  the  development  of 
positive  methods  for  the  preservation  of  peace  (see  Pam- 
AmnucAN  Comtxtucts). 

With  the  American  precedent  to  ioispire  him,  the  emperor 
Nicolas  n.  of  Russia  in  1898  issued  his  invitation  to  the  powers 
to  hold  a  similar  conference  of  European  states,  with  a  more  or 
less  simihir  object.  In  1899  twenty-six  states  met  at  the  Hague 
and  b^an  the  work,  which  was  continued  at  the  second  con- 
ference In  1907,  and  furthered  by  the  Maritime  Conference 
of  London  of  1908-1909.  The  creation  of  the  Hague  C6urt  and 
of  a  code  of  law  to  be  applied  by  it  have  further  cHmiaatcd 
causes  of  difference. 
These  efibru  in  the  two  hemispherss  ace  based  on  the  idea 


€ 


PEACE 


tiiat  Interofttionid  differencea  can  be  adjusted  without  war, 
where  the  parties  are  honestly  aggrieved.  With  this  adjust- 
ment of  ezisting  cases  the  number  of  possible  pretests  for  the 
employment  of  force  is  bdng  rapidly  diminished. 

Pioee  Procedure  under  the  Hague  ConvenHons.-^The  Hague 
Peace  Convention  of  1907,  which  re-enacts  the  essential  parts  of 
the  earlier  one  of  1899,  sets  out  five  ways  of  adjusting  inter- 
national conflicts  without  recourse  to  war.  Firstly,  the  signatory 
powers  have  undertaken  to  use  their  best  efforts  to  ensure  the 
padfic  settlement  of  international  difficulties.  This  is  a  general 
declaration  of  intention  to  lend  themselves  to  the  peaceable 
adjustment  of  difficulties  and  employ  their  diplomacy  to  this 
end.  Secondly,  in  case  of  serious  disagreement,  diplomacy 
havmg  failed,  they  agree  to  have  recourse,  as  far  as  circumstances 
allow,  to  the  good  offices  or  mediation  of  one  or  more  friendly 
powers.  Thirdly,  the. signatory  powers  agree  that  it  shall  not 
be  regarded  as  an  unfriendly  act  if  one  or  more  powers,  strangers 
to  the  dispute,  on  their  own  initiative  offer  their  good  offices  or 
mediation  to  the  states  in  disagreement,  or  even  during  hostili- 
ties, if  war  has  already  broken  out.  Fourthly,  the  convention 
recommends  that  in  disputes  of  an  international  nature,  involving 
neither  national  honour  nor  vital  interests,  and  arising  from  a 
difference  of  opinion  on  points  of  jFact,  the  parties  who  have  not 
been  able  to  come  to  an  agreement  by  means  of  diplomacy 
should  institute  an  international  commission  of  inquiry  to 
facilitate  a  solution  of  these  disputes  by  an  investigation  of  the 
facts.  Lastly,  the  high  contracting  parties  have  agreed  that 
in  questions  of  a  legal  nature,  and  eq>ecially  in  interpretation 
or  application  of  international  conventions,  arbitration  is  reoog- 
nittd  as  the  most  effective,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most 
equitable,  means  of  settling  dilutes  which  diplomacy  has  failed 
to  adjust. 

Down  to  19x0  no  suggestion  of  mediation  had  actually  been 
carried  out,  but  a  number  of  cases  of  arbitration  had  been  tried 
by  the  Hague  Court,  created  by  the  Hague  Peace  Convention 
(see  Arbitratiok,  Intebnational),  and  one  case,  vis.  that  of  the 
Dogger  Bank  incident,  was  submit  ted  to  a  commission  of  inquiry, 
which  sat  in  January  xqos-^ 

If  Secretary  Knox's  proposal  (see  su^a)  to  convert  the 
International  Prize  Court  into  a  permanently  sitting  court  of 
arbitration  is  adopted,  a  detailed  procedure  and  jurisprudence 
will  no  doubt  grow  out  of  a  continuity  which  is  lacking  in  the 
present  system,  under  which  the  court  is  recruited  from  a  large 
panel  for  each  special  case.  Secretary  Knox's  idea,  as  expressed 
in  the  identical  circular  note  addressed  by  him  on  the  z8th  of 
October  1909  to  the  powers,  was  to  invest  the  International  Prize 
Court,  proposed  to  be  established  by  the  convention  of  the  z8th 
of  October  1907,  with  the  fimctions  of  a  **  court  of  arbitral 
justice."  The  court  contemplated  by  the  convention  was  a 
court  of  appeal  for  reviewing  prize  decisions  of  national  courts 
both  as  to  facts  and  as  to  the  law  applied,  and,  in  the  exercise 
of  its  judicial  discretion,  not  only  to  confirm  in  whole  or  in  part  the 
national  decision  or  the  contrary,  but  also  to  certify  its  judgment 
to  the  national  court  for  enforcement  thereof.  The  adoption  of 
this  jurisdiction  would  have  involved  a  revision  of  the  judicial 
systems  of  probably  every  country  accepting  it.  The  Um'ted 
States  government  therefore  proposed  that  the  signatories  should 
insert  in  the  act  of  ratification  a  reservation  to  the  effect  that 
resort  to  the  International  Prize  Court,  in  respect  of  decisions  of 
their  national  tribunals,  should  take  the  form  of  a  direct  claim 
for  compensation.  This  in  any  case  would  remove  the  United 
States'  constitutional  objection  to  the  establishment  of  the 
proposed  court.    In  connexion  with  this  enabling  clause  Mr 

» The  procedure  adapted  by  the  comroUsion  was  afterwar^ 
incorporated  in  the  convention  of  1907.  Under  the  rules  adopted, 
the  examination  of  witneasea  is  conducted  by  the  pre«dent^  in 
accordance  with  the  system  prevailing  in  most  continental  oountnes; 
members  of  the  commission  may  only  put  questions  to  witnesses  lor 
.the  eliciting  of  further  information;  and  they  may  not  interrupt 
the  witness  when  he  is  in  course  of  roakine  his  statement,  but  they 
may  ask  the  president  to  put  any  additional  questions.  This 
•eems  likely  to  become  the  procedure  also  in  cases  before  the  Hague 
Court,  where  witftesset  are  numinwl. 


Secretary  Knox  also  proposed  that  a  further  enabling  clause  be 
inserted  providing  that  the  International  Court  of  Prize  be 
competent  to  accept  jurisdiction  in  all  matters,  arising  between 
signatories,  submitted  to  it,  the  Court  to  ut  at  fixed  periods 
every  year  and  to  be  composed  according  to  the  panel  which 
was  dxawn  up  at  the  Hague.  This  court,  which  the  American 
government  proposed  to  call  a  "  Court  of  Arbitral  Justice," 
would  take  the  place  of  that  which  it  was  proposed  to  institute 
under  Vcbu  No.  z  of  the  Final  Act  of  the  conference  of  1907. 
The  intention  of  the  Hague  draft  annexed  to  the  Vctu  was  to 
create  a  permanent  court  as  distinguished  from  that  established 
in  Z899,  which,  though  called  permanent,  was  not  so,  having  to 
be  put  toipther  oif  Jbc  as  the  occasion  arose.  The  new  court,  if 
adopted,  would  hold  regular  and  continuous  sessions,  consist  of 
the  same  judges,  and  pay  due  heed  to  the  precedents  created  by 
its  prior  decisions.  The  two  courts  would  have  separate  spheres 
of  activity,  and  litigants  would  practically  have  Ihe  option  of 
submitting  their  differences  to  a  judicial  court  which  would  regard 
itself  as  being  boimd  by  the  letter  of  the  law  and  by  judicial 
methods  or  to  a  special  court  created  ad  hoc  with  a  purely 
arbitrative  character. 

The  Place  oj  Diplomacy, — ^The  utility  of  the  diplomatic  service 
has  been  considerably  diminished  through  the  increasing 
efficiency  of  the  public  press  as  a  medium  of  information.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  at  the  present  day  an  experienced 
journalist,  in  a  place  like  Vienna  or  Berlin,  can  give  more 
information  to  an  ambassador  than  the  ambassador  can  give  to 
him.  It  is  even  true  to  say  that  an  ambassador  is  practically 
debarred  from  coming  into  actual  touch  with  currents  of  public 
feeling  and  the  passing  influences  which,  in  this  age  of  democracy, 
determine  the  course  of  events  in  the  political  life  of  peoples. 
The  diplomatist  has  therefore  lost  one  of  his  chief  functions  as 
an  informant  of  the  accrediting  government.  The  other  chief 
function  of  diplomacy  is  to  be  the  courteous  medium  of  conveying 
messages  from  one  government  to  another.  Even  this  function 
is  losing  its  siffoificance.  The  ciphered  telegram  leaves  little 
discretion  to  the  envoy,  and  written  notes  are  exchanged  which 
are  practically  a  mere  transcription  of  the  deciphered  telegram 
or  draft  prepared  at  the  instructing  foreign  office.  Neverthe- 
less, the  personality  of  an  ambassador  can  play  a  great  part,  if  he 
possesses  charm,  breadth  of  understanding  and  interest  in  the 
social,  intellectual  and  industrial  life  of  the  country  to  which  he 
is  accredited.  There  are  several  instances  of  such  men  in  Europe 
and  America,  but  they  are  so  rare  that  some  reformers  consider 
them  as  hardly  justifying  the  large  expenditure  necessary  to 
TTi^ntAJn  the  existing  system.  On  the  other  hand,  the  utility 
of  the  consular  service  has  concurrently  increased.  Adminis- 
trative indifference  to  the  eminently  useful  officials  forming  the 
service  has  led,  in  many  cases,  to  diminishing  instead  of  increas- 
ing their  number  and  their  salaries,  but  it  is  obvious  that  the 
extension  of  their  duties  and  a  corresponding  raising  of  their 
status  would  be  much  more  in  accordance  with  the  national 
interest.  The  French,  with  that  practical  sense  which  distin- 
guishes so  much  of  their  recent  administrative  work,  have 
connected  the  two  services.  A  consul-general  can  be  promoted 
to  a  diplomatic  post,  and  take  with  him  to  his  higher  office  the 
practical  experience  a  consul  gains  of  the  material  interests  of 
the  country  to  which  he  belongs. 

There  is  thus  still  good  work  for  diplomacy  to  do,  and  if,  in  the 
selection  of  diplomatic  representatives,  states  followed  on  the 
one  hand  the  above-mentioned  French  example,  and  on  the 
other  hand  the  American  example  of  selecting  for  the  heads  of 
diplomatic  missions  men  who  are  not  necessarily  rfe  lacarriite, 
diplomacy  might  obtain  a  new  lease  of  activity,  and  become  once 
more  an  extremely  useful  part  of  the  administrative  machinery 
by  which  states  maintain  good  business  relations  as  well  as 
friendly  political  intercourse  with  one  another. 

IntemaiumaJ  Regulation  by  Treaty.— It  seems  a  truism  to  say 
that  among  the  agencies  which  most  effectively  tend  to  the 
preservation  of  peace  are  treaties  which  regulate  the  relations 
of  states  in  their  intercouisc  with  other  states.  Such  treatW, 
however,  are  of  quite  recent  origin.   The  first  of  a  comprehcnMve 


PEACE 


eharacter  was  the  f^nerci  act  adq;>ted  dt  the  South  African 
Conference  at  Berlin  in  1885,  which  laid  down  the  principle, 
which  has  since  become  of  still  wider  application,  that  "  any 
Power  which  henceforth  takes  possession  of  t  tract  of  land  oA 
the  coast  of  the  African  continient  outside  of  its  present  pos- 
sessions or  which,  being  hitherto  without  such  possessions,  diall 
acquire  them . . .  shall  accompany  the  act  relating  to  it  with  a 
notification  thereof,  addressed  to  the  other  Signatory  Powers 
of  the  present  act,  in  order  to  enable  them,  if  need  be,  to  make 
good  any  claims  of  their  own,"  and,  furthermore,  that  "the 
Signatory  Powers  of  the  present  act  recognize  the  obligation 
to  ensure  the  establishment  of  authority  in  the  regions  occupied 
by  them  on  the  coasts  of  the  African  conthient  sufficient  to 
protect  existing  rights,  and,  as  the  case  may  be,  freedom  of  trade 
and  transit  under  the  conditions  agreed  upon."  Under  these 
articles  occupation  of  unoccupied  territory  to  be  legal  had  to  be 
effective,  lliis  led  to  the  creation  and  determination  of  spheres 
of  inftuenee.  By  fixing  the  areas  of  these  spheres  of  influence 
rival  states  in  western  and  central  Africa  avoided  conflicts  and 
preserved  their  rights  until  they  were  able  to  take  a  more 
effective  part  in  their  development.  The  idea  of  "  spheres  of 
Influence  "  has  in  turn  been  applied  even  to  more  settled  and 
dvilized  countries,  such  as  China  and  Persia. 

Other  cases  of  regulation  by  treaty  are  certain  contractual 
engagements  which  have  been  entered  into  by  states  for  the 
preservation  of  the  stalus  quo  of  other  states  and  territories. 

The  Anglo- Japanese  Treaty  of  the  Z2th  of  August  2905  sets 
out  its  objects  as  foUows^— 

a.  "The  consolidation  and  maintenance  of  the  general  peace 
in  the  regions  of  Eastern  Asia  and  India; 

h.  "  The  preservation  of  the  common  interests  of  the  Powers  in 
China,  of  insuring  the  independence  and  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese 
empire,  and  the  principle  of  equal  opportunities  for  the  commerce 
ana  industry  of  all  nations  in  Cnina; 

c,  "  The  maintenance  of  the  territorial  rights  of  the  high  con- 
tracting parties  in  the  regions  of  Eastern  Asia  and  of  India*  and 
the  defence  of  their  special  interests  in  such  regions." 

It  is  a  treaty  for  the  maintenance  of  the  status  quo  in  certain 
parts  of  Asia  in  which  the  parties  to  it  have  dominant  interests. 
The  same  principle  underlies  different  other  self-denying  arrange- 
ments and  declarations  made  by  the  powers  with  reference  to 
Chinese  integrity. 

The  Treaty  of  Algedras  is  essentially  a  generalization  of  the 
Franco-German  agreement  of  the  28th  of  September  1905.  By  it 
all  the  powers  represented  agree  to  respect  the  territorial  Integrity 
of  Morocco,  subject  to  a  possible  intervention  limited  to  the 
purpose  of  preserving  order  within  it. 

Differing  from  these  general  acts  in  not  being  oontiactua]  is 
the  Monroe  doctrine,  which  is  a  policy  of  ensuring  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  territorial  status  quo  as  regards  non-American 
powers  throughout  the  American  continent.  If  necessary,  the 
leading  republics  of  South  and  Central  America  would  no  doubt, 
however,  further  ensure  respect  for  it  by  treaty. 

With  these  precedents  and  current  instances  of  tendency  to 
place  the  territorial  relations  of  the  powers  on  a  permanent 
footing  of  respect  for  the  existing  status  quo,  it  seems  possible 
to  go  beyond  the  mere  enunciation  of  principles,  and  to  take 
a  step  towards  their  practical  realization,  by  iigroeing  to  respect 
the  territorial  status  quo  throughout  still  larger  tracts  of  the  world, 
neutralize  them,  and  thus  place  them  outside  the  area  of  possible 
wars. 

A  third  contractual  method  of  avoiding  confficts  of  Interest 
has  been  the  signing  of  agreements  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
" open-door."  The  discussion  on  the  question  of  the  "open- 
door"  in  connexion  with  the  Morocco  difficulty  was  useful 
in  calling  general  public  attention  once  more  to  the  undesir- 
ability  of  allowing  any  single  power  to  exclude  other  nations 
from  trading  on  territory  over  which  it  may  be  called  to  exerdse 
a  protectorate,  especially  if  equality  of  treatment  of  foreign 
trade  had  been  practised  by  the  authority  ruling  over  the 
territory  in  question  before  its  practical  annexation  under  the 
name  of  protectorate.  The  habitable  parts  of  the  world  are  a 
limited  area,  exclusion  from  any  of  which  is  a  diminution  of 


the  available  markets  of  the  nations  excluded.  Every  power, 
is,  therefore,  rightfully  interested  in  the  prevention  of  such 
exclusion. 

The  United  States  government  in  1899  called  attention  to 
the  subject  as  regards  China,  without,  however,  going  into  any 
question  of  principle.  It  thought  that  danger  of  internation^ 
irritation  might  be  removed  by  each  power  making  a  dedaration 
respecting  the  "  sphere  of  interest "  in  China  to  which  it  laid 
claim.  Lord  Salisbury  informed  Mr  Choate  that  H.M.  govern- 
ment were  prepared  to  make  a  declaration  in  the  sense  desired. 
All  the  powers  concerned  eventually  subscribed  to  the  declara" 
tion  proposed  by  the  United  States  government. 

The  principle  of  the  "  open-door  "  in  fact  has  already  been 
consktently  applied  in  connexion  with  certain  non-European 
areas.  As  these  areas  are  practically  the  only  areas  which  of 
late  years  have  come  within  the  scope  of  European  regulation, 
the  time  seems  to  be  approaching  when  the  principle  may  be 
declared  to  be  of  general  application.  From  the  point  of  view 
of  diminishing  the  possible  causes  of  conflict  among  nations, 
the  adoption  M  this  principle  as  one  of  international  contractual 
obligation  would  be  of  great  utOity.  While  putting  an  end 
to  the  injustice  of  exclusion,  it  would  obviously  reduce  the  danger 
of  nations  secddng  colonial  aggrandizement  with  a  view  to  im- 
posing exclusion,  and  thus  one  of  the  chief  temptations  t4> 
colonial  adventure  would  be  eliminated. 

In  the  fourth  place,  there  is  the  self-denying  ordinance  against 
employment  of  arms  for  the  enforcement  of  contractual  obliga- 
tions adopted  at  the  Hague  Conference  of  1907.  Under  it  the 
high  contracting  powers  have  agreed  not'  to  have  recourse  to 
aimed  force  for  the  recovery  of  contractual  debts  daimed  from 
the  government  of  one  country  by  the  government  of  another 
country  as  due  to  its  subjects.  The  only  qualification  admitted 
under  the  new  convention  is  that  it  shall  not  apply  when  the 
debtor-state  refuses  or  leaves  unanswered  an  offer  of  arbitration, 
or  in  case  of  acceptance  renders  the  settlement  of  the  terms  of 
arbitration  impossible,  or,  after  arbitration,  fails  to  comply  with 
the  award.  The  theory  on  which  this  convention  is  based  is 
known  as  the  Drago  theory,  having  taken  a  practical  form  during 
the  administration  of  Dr  L.  M.  Drago,  when  he  filled  the  post 
of  Argentine  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  The  doctrine,  however, 
is  not  new,  having  already  been  enunciated  a  century  before 
by  Alexander  Hamilton  and  reiterated  since  then  by  several 
American  statesmen,  such  as  Albert  Gallatin,  William  L.  Marcy 
and  F.  T.  Frclinghuysen,  as  the  view  prcvaHing  at  Washington 
during  their  respective  periods  of  office. 

Limitations  of  Disarmament. — Disarmament,  or  to  speak 
more  correctly,  the  contractual  limitation  of  armaments,  has 
become,  of  late  years,  as  much  an  economic  as  a  humanitarian 
peace-securing  object. 

"  The  maintenance  of  universal  peace  and  a  possible  reduction 
of  the  excessive  armaments  which  weigh  upon  all  nations, 
represent,  in  the  present  condition  of  affairs  all  over  the  world, 
the  ideal  towards  which  the  efforts  of  all  governments  shduid 
be  directed,"  were  the  opening  words  of  the  Note  which  the 
Russian  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Cotmt  Mouraviev,  handed 
to  the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the  different  powers 
suggesting  the  first  Hague  Conference. 

*'  The  ever«increasing  financial  burdens,"  the  Note  went  on, 
"strike  at  the  xt>ot  of  public  prosperity.  The  physical  and 
intellectual  forces  of  the  people,  labour  and  capital,  are  diverted 
for  the  greater  part  from  their  natural  application  and  wasted 
unproductively.  Hundreds  of  millions  are  spent  in  acquiring 
terrible  engines  of  destruction,  which  are  regarded  to-day  as 
the  latest  inventions  of  science,  but  are  destined  to-morrow  to 
be  rendered  obsolete  by  some  new  discovery.  National  culture, 
economic  progress  and  the  production  of  wealth  arc  either 
paralysed  or  developed'  in  a  wrong  direction.  Therefore  the 
more  the  armaments  of  each  power  increase  the  less  they  answer 
to  the  objects  aimed  at  by  the  governments.  Economic  dis- 
turbances are  caused  in  great  measure  by  this  system  of  excessive 
armaments;  and  the  constant  danger  involved  in  this  accumula- 
tion of  war  material  renders  the  armed  peace  of  to-day  a  crushing 


lO 


PEACE 


burden  more  and  more  difficult  for  n&Uons  to  bear.  It  consc> 
<)uently  seems  evident  that  if  this  situation  be  prolonged  it  will 
inevitably  result  in  the  very  disaster  it  is  sought  to  avoid,  and 
the  thou^t  o£  the  horrors  of  which  makes  every  humane  mind 
shudder.  It  is  the  supreme  duty,  therefore,  of  all  states  to  place 
some  limit  on  these  increasing  armaments,  and  find  some  means 
of  averting  the  calamities  which  threaten  the  whole  world." 

A  further  Note  submitting  the  programme  proposed  gave 
more  precision  to  this  item,  which  thereupon  took  the  following 
form:  "  An  imderstanding  not  to  increase  for  a  fixed  period 
the  present  effectives  of  the  armed  military  and  naval  forces, 
and  at  the  same  time  not  to  increase  the  budgets  pertaining 
thereto;  and  a  preliminary  examination  of  the  means  by  which 
even  a  reduction  might  be  effected  in  future  in  the  forces  and 
budgets  above  mentioned." 

When  the  subject  came  on  for  discussion  at  the  conference 
the  German  military  delegate  stated  his  view  that  the  question 
of  effectives  could  not  be  discussed  by  itself,  as  there  were  many 
others  to  which  it  was  in  some  measure  subordinated,  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  length  of  service,  the  number  of  cadres 
whether  existing  in  peace  or  made  ready  for  war,  the  amount 
of  training  received  by  reserves,  the  situation  of  the  country 
itself,  its  railway  system,  and  the  number  and  position  of  its 
fortresses.  In  a  modern  army  all  these  questions  went  together, 
and  national  defence  included  them  aU.  In  Germany,  moreover, 
the  military  system  "  <fid  not  provide  for  fixed  numbers  annually, 
but  increased  the  numbers  each  year." 

After  many  eiq;>ressions  of  regret  at  finding  no  method  of 
giving  effect  to  the  proposal,  the  commission  confined  itself  to 
recording  its  oi^nion  that "  a  further  examination  of  the  question 
by  the  Powers  would  prove  a  great  benefit  to  humanity." 

The  Conference,  however,  were  unanimous  in  the  adoption 
of  the  following  resolution: — 

"  The  Conference  is  of  ofMnion  that  the  restriction  of  military 
budgets,  which  are  at  present  a  heavy  burden  on  the  world,  » 
extremely  desirable  for  the  increase  of  the  material  and  moral 
welfare  of  mankind ;" 

and  it  passed  also  the  following  vent : — 

"  That  governments,  taking  into  account  the  proposals  made  at 
the  Conference,  should  examine  the  possibility  of  an  understanding 
concerning  the  limitation  of  military  and  naval  armaments,  and 
of  war  budgets." 

The  general  public,  more  particularly  in  Great  Britain  and 
France,  shows  an  ever-increasing  distrust  of  the  rapid  growth 
of  armaments  as  a  possible  cause  of  grave  economic  troubles. 
A  high  state  of  military  preparedness  of  any  one  state  obliges 
all  the  others  to  endeavour  to  be  prepared  on  the  same  level. 
This  process  of  emtUation,  very  appropriately  called  by  the  late 
Sir  H.  Campbell-Bannerman  "  a  policy  of  huge  armaments," 
unfortunately  is  a  policy  from  which  it  is  impossible  for  any 
country  to  extricate  itself  without  the  co-operation,  direct  or 
indirect,  of  other  nations. 

The  subject  was  brought  forward  in  view  of  the  second  Hague 
Conference  in  both  the  French  and  Italian  parliaments. 

The  declaration  of  the  French  government  stated  that: — 

*'  France  hoped  that  other  nations  would  grow,  as  she  had  done, 
more  and  more  attached  to  solutions  of  international  difficulties 
based  upon  the  respect  of  justice,  and  she  trusted  that  the  progress 
of  universal  opinion  in  this  direction  would  en^le  nations  to 
regard  the  lessening  of  the  present  military  budgets,  declared  by 
the  states  represented  at  the  Hafuc  to  be  greatly  deurable  for  the 
benefit  of  the  material  and  moral  state  of  humanity,  as  a  practical 
possibility."    (Chamber  of  Deputies,  June  I3, 1906.} 

In  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies,  tn  interpellation  was 
addressed  to  the  minbter  of  foreign  affairs  about  the  same  time 
asking  "  whether  the  Government  had  knowledge  of  the  motion 
approved  by  the  British  House  of  Commons,  and  of  the  under- 
taking of  the  British  government  that,  in  the  programme  of  the 
coming  Hague  Conference,  the  question  of  the  reduction  of 
armaments  should  be  inserted,  and  in  what  spirit  the  Italian 
government  had  taken  or  proposed  to  take  the  propositions  of 
the  British  government,  and  what  instructions  it  would  give  to 
the  Italian  representatives  at  the  conference." 


The  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  M  Tittoni,  in  reply  expnaaoX 
the  adhesion  of  the  Italian  government  to  the  humanitarian 
ideas  which  had  met  with  such  enthusiasm  in  the  historic 
House  of  Parliament  at  Westminster.  "  I  have  always  believed," 
he  said, "  that,  as  far  a3  we  are  concerned,  it  would  be  a  national 
crime  to  weaken  our  own  armaments  while  we  are  surrounded 
by  strongly  armed  European  nations  who  look  upon  the  improve- 
ment of  armaments  as  a  guarantee  of  peace.  Nevertheless,  I 
should  consider  it  a  crime  against  humanity  not  to  sincerely 
co-operate  in  an  initiative  having  for  object  a  simultaneous 
reduction  of  armaments  of  the  great  powers.  Italian  practice 
has  always  aimed  at  the  maintenance  of  peace;  therefore,  I  am 
happy  to  be  able  to  say  that  our  delegates  at  the  coming 
Hague  Conference  will  be  instructed  to  further  the  English 
initiative." 

The  only  existing  case  of  contractual  reduction  -of  armaments 
is  that  of  the  Disarmament  Agreement  of  the  28th  of  May  190a 
between  the  Chilian  and  Argentine  republics,  adopted  "  owing 
to  the  initiative  and  good  offices  of  His  Britannic  Majesty," 
which  is  as  follows: — 

Art.  I. — In  order  to  remove  all  cause  of  fear  and  distrust  between 
the  two  countries,  the  governments  of  Chile  and  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  agree  not  to  take  possession-  of  the  warships  which  they 
are  having  built,  or  for  the  present  to  make  any  other  acquisitions. 
The  two  governments  furthermore  agree  to  reduce  their  respective 
fleets,  according  to  an  arrangement  establishing  a  reasonable 
projportion  between  the  two  fleets.  This  reduction  to  be  made 
within  one  year  from  the  date  at  which  the  present  agreement  shall 
be  ratified. 

Art.  II. — The  two  governments  respectively  promise  not  to 
increase  their  maritime  armaments  dunng  five  years,  unless  the 
one  who  shall  wish  to  increase  them  shall  give  the  other  eighteen 
months'  notice  in  advance.  This  agreement  does  not  include  any 
armaments  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  shore  and  ports,  and 
each  party  will  be  at  liberty  to  acquire  any  vessels  (maquinaJl^MU) 
Intended  for  the  protection  thereof,  such  as  submarines,  &c. 

Art.  III. — ^The  reductions  {i^.  ships  disposed  of)  resulting  from 
this  agreement  will  not  be  parted  with  to  countries  having  any 
dispute  with  either  of  the  two  contracting  parties. 

Art.  IV. — In  order  to  facilitate  the  transfer  of  the  pending  orders 
the  two  governments  agree  to  increase  by  two  months  the  time 
stipulated  for  the  beginning  of  the  construction  of  the  respective 
ships.   They  will  give  instructions  accordingly. 

An  agreement  of  this  kind  is  obviously  more  feasible  as  among 
states  whose  navies  are  small  and  of  comparatively  recent 
origin  than  among  states  whose  navies  are  composed  of  vessels 
of  many  and  widely  different  ages.  It  may  be  difficult  to  agree  in 
the  latter  case  on  a  principle  for  assessment  of  the  proportionate 
fighting  value  of  the  respective  fleets.  The  break-up  or 
sale  of  obsolete' warships  is  a  diminution  of  the  paper  effective 
of  a  navy,  and  their  purchase  by  another  state  a  paper  increase 
of  theirs.  Even  comparatively  slight  differences  in  the  ages  of 
ships  may  make  great  differences  in  their  fighting  value.  It 
would  be  a  hard,  though  probably  not  insurmountable,  task  to 
establish  "a  reasonable  proportion,"  such  as  provided  for  in 
Art.  II.  of  the  Chile-Argentina  Agreement,  as  between  large 
and  old-standing  navies  like  those  of  Europe. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  regards  military  power,  it  seems  some- 
times forgotten  in  the  discussion  of  the  question  of  armaments, 
that  the  conditions  of  the  present  age  differ  entirely  from  those  of 
the  time  of  the  Nj^)oleonic  wars.  With  conscription  a  national 
army  corresponds  more  or  less  numerically  to  the  proportion  of 
males  in  the  national  population.  Great  Britain,  without  con- 
scription, has  no  means  of  raising  troops  in  any  such  proportion. 
Thus,  so  long  as  she  refrains  from  adopting  conscription,  she 
can  only  carry  on  defensive  warfare.  The  object  of  her  navy  is 
therefore  necessarily  defen^ve,  imless  it  act  in  co-operation 
with  a  foreign  conscript  army.  As  there  are  practically  only 
three  great  armies  available  for  the  purpose  of  a  war  of  aggression, 
the  negotiation  of  contingent  arrangements  does  not  seem  too 
remote  for  achievement  by  skilful  and  really  well-meaning 
negotiation.  The  Hague  Conference  of  1907,  owing  to  difQcultiea 
which  occurred  in  the  course  of  the  preliminary  negotiations 
for  the  conference,  did  not  deal  with  the  subject. 

Principe  and  Capabilities  of  NetUralizalion. — Among  the 
different  methods  which  have  grown  up  practically  in  our  own 


PEACE 


IX 


time  for  the  exclusion  of  war  is  neutralization.  We  bsve  been 
dealing  hitherto  with  the  eHmmation  of  the  causes  of  war; 
neutralization  is  a  curtailment  of  the  areas  of  war  and  of  the 
factors  in  warfare,  of  territory  on  the  onehand  and  states  on  the 
other.  The  neutralization  of  territory  belonging  to  states 
which  are  not  otherwise  neutralized  includes  the  neutralisation 
of  waterways  such  as  the  Suez  and  Panama  canab. 

Under  the  General  Act  of  Berlin  of  the  26th  of  February  1S85, 
"  in  case  a  power  exercising  rights  of  soverdgnty  or  protec- 
torate "  in  any  of  the  regions  forming  the  basin  of  the  Congo 
and  its  affluents,  Including  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  extending  away 
to  the  Indian  Ocean,  should  be  involved  in  a  war,  the  parties 
to  the  General  Act  bound  themselves  to  lend  their  good  offices 
in  order  that  the  territories  belonging  to  .this  power  be  placed 
during  the  war  "under  the  rule  of  neutrality  and  considered 
as  belonging  to  a  neutral  state,  the  belligerents  thenceforth 
abstaining  fjrom  extending  hostilities  to  the  territories  thus 
neutralized,  and  from  using  them  as  a  basis  for  warlike 
operations  "  (art.  2). 

Neutralization  is  not  necessarily  of  general  application. 
Thus  two  states  can  agree  to  neutralize  specific  territory  as 
between  them.  For  example  between  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua 
by  a  treaty  of  the  isth  of  April  1858  the  parties  agreed  that  "  on 
no  account  whatever,  not  even  in  case  of  war/'  should  "  any 
act  of  hostility  be  allowed  between  them  in  the  port  of  San 
Juan  del  Norte  nor  on  the  river  of  that  name  nor  on  Lake 
Nicaragua  "  (art.  a).* 

Again,  the  Straits  of  Magellan  are  neutralized  as  between 
Argentina  and  Chile  under  a  treaty  of  the  23rd  of  July  i88f . 
Article  5  provides  that  they  are  "  neutralized  for  ever  and  their 
free  navigation  Is  guaranteed  to  the  flags  of  all  nations.  To 
ensure  this  neutrality  and  freedom  it  is  agreed  that  no  fortifica- 
tions or  military  defences  which  might  interfere  therewith  shall 
be  erected." 

Luxemburg  was  declared  by  the  Treaty  of  London  of  the  nth 
of  May  1867  (art.  i)  to  be  a  perpetually  neutral  state  under  the 
guarantee  of  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia.  Swit- 
zerland, by  a  declaration  confirmed  by  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  of 
jS IS  (art.  84)  •likewise  enjoys  perpetual  neutrality.  And  now 
Norway  has  pbced  herself  under  a,  neutral  ri^ime  of  a  amilar 
character. 

A  neutralized  state  does  not  mean  a  state  which  Is  forbidden 
to  have  fortifications  or  an  army;  in  this  it  differs  from  neu- 
tralized territory  of  a  state  not  otherwise  neutralized.  Thus 
Belgium,  which  is  a  neutralized  state,  not  only  has  an  army  but 
has  fortifications,  although  by  the  treaties  of  1831  and  1839 
she  was  recognized  as  a  *'  perpetually  neutral  state,  bound  to 
observe  the  same  neutrality  with  reference  to  other  states." 

Of  waterways,  international  rivers  have  been  the  chief  subfect 
of  neutralization.  It  has  long  been  an  established  principle 
in  the  intercourse  of  nations,  that  where  the  navigable  parts  of 
a  river  pass  through  different  countries  their  navigation  is  free 
to  all.  The  rivers  Scheldt  and  Meuse  were  opened  up  in  this 
way  to  riparian  states  by  a  decree  of  the  French  Convention  of 
the  x6th  of  November  1 792.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna  of  the  9th  of 
June  x8x5,  the  powers  whose  territories  were  separated  or  traversed 
by  the  same  navigable  river,  undertook  to  regulate  by  common 
consent  all  that  regarded  its  navigation,  and  for  this  purpose  to 
name  commissioners  who  should  adopt  as  the  bases  of  their 
proceedings  the  principle  that  the  navigation  of  such  rivers 
along  their  whole  course  "  from  the  point  where  each  of  them 
becomes  navigable  to  its  mouth,  shall  be  entirely  fiee,  and  shall 
not  in  respect  of  commerce  be  prohibited  to  anyone."  The  only 
case  in  Europe  in  which  this  internationalization  of  rivers  has 
been  maintained  is  that  of  the  Danube:  On  the  other  hand 
neutralization  has  made  progress  in  respect  of  waterways, 

>  Under  the  treaty  of  the  29th  of  March  1864,  the  courts  of 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Riissu  in  their  character  of  guaranteeing 
powers  of  Greece  declared  with  the  assent  of  the  courts  of  Austria 
and  Prunja  that  the  islands  of  Corfu  and  Paxo  a«  well  as  their 
dependencies  should,  after  their  union  to  the  Hellenic  lrinf[dom,  enjoy 
the  advantages  of  perpetual  neutrality,  and  the  king  of  the  Hellcnea 
undertook  on  his  part  to  maintain  such  neutrality-     (Art.  t). 


natural  as  wefl  as  artSiciaL  Thus  the  Bosporus  a^d  Dardaael]«» 
under  the  Treaty  of  Paris  of  1856  and  by  the  Treaty  of  London 
1 871  were  and  remain  closed  to  the  passage  of  foreign  armed 
vessels  in  time  of  war,  though  the  Porte  may  permit  their  passage 
in  time  of  peace  in  certain  cases.  The  Sues  and  the  Panama 
canals  have  been  permanently  neutralised,  the  iomcr  by  « 
convention  among  the  great  powers,  and  the  Utter  by  a  ticaty 
between  Great  Britain  «nd  the  United  States. 

Alongside  this  neutralizaticm  bas  grown  up  *  ooQateral 
institution,  the  puipose  of  which  is  in  some  respects  similar. 
We  refer  to  "Imffer"  zones.  "Buffer"  zones  are  of  quite 
recent  origin  as  a  political  creation,*  t .«.  wbiere  their  object  is 
to  establish  upon  the  texritoory  of  two  contiguous  states  a  strip 
or  zone  on  cither  side  ol  the  frontier  which  the  respective  states 
agri€  to  regard  as  neutjal,  on  which  the  parties  undertake  to 
erect  no  fortifications,  and  maintain  no  armed  forces  but  those 
necessary  to  enforce  the  ordinary  respect  of  government.  The 
word  "  neutral "  does  not  correctly  describe  the  character  of  the 
tofoe.  It  Is  not  neutral  in  the  sense  of  being  recognized  as  such 
by  any  third  state,  and  it  neoessatfly  cseoaes  to  be  netttnd  in 
case  of  war  between  the  states  concerned.  The  word  "  iMiffer  " 
oomcs  nearest  to  the  object,  but  even  this  tenn  implies  more  than 
ismeanu  Between  Spain  and  Morocco  a  tre«ty  of  tbe  5th  of  March 
1894  established  between  the  Camp  of  MdiUa  and  Moroccan 
territory  a  zone  within  which  no  new  roads  were  to  be  made, 
iK>  herds  to  be  allowed  to  grazes  no  land  to  be  cultivated,  no 
troops  of  either  party,  or  even  private  persons  canryixig  armi» 
to  set  foot,  no  inhabitants  to  dwell,  and  all  habitations  to  be 
razed.  The  aone  between  Bunna  and  Siam»  ftrtuMifthiMl  by  an 
agreement  between  Great  Britain  and  France  dated  the  15th  of 
Jamiaxy  1896,  dcdated  '*  the  portion  of  Siam  which  is  comprised 
within  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Menain,and  of  the  coast  streams 
of  a  corresponding  longitude,"  neutni  as  between  them.  Within 
this  area  the  two  powers  ondertodc  not  to  "  opei:iate  by  their 
military  or  naval  forces,  except  in  so  far  as  they  might  do  so  in 
concert  for  any  purpose  requisite  for  mafataiwing  the  indepen- 
dence of  Siam."  They  also  undertook  not  to  acquire  within 
that  area  any  privileges  or  commercial  farilitles  not  eactended 
to  both  of  them. 

*'  Bufler  "  tones  might  fulfil  a  nsefnl  purpooe  even  in  Europe. 
They  would  obviously  react  against  the  feeling  known  as 
'*  esprit  de  fronti^,"  and  diminisb  the  danger  of  inddenls 
arising  o«t  of  this  feeling,  and  might  attenuate  the  rivolxy  of 
neighbouring  counter-armaments. 

These  considerations  no  doubt  led  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian 
governments,  in  their  settlement  of  September  1905,  to  establish 
a  **  bufler  "  zone  of  15  kilometres  on  either  side  of  the  frontier 
between  the  two  stales  in  question.  Within  these  50  kilometres 
oil  existing  fortresses  axe  dismantled,*  no  new  ones  ore  to  be 
erected,  and  no  armed  troops  to  be  maintained;  any  question 
between  the  two  states  relative  to  the  .provisions  req>ecting 
the  ''buffer"  zone  to  be  decided  by  orbitratioA. 

A  rather  special  case  of  ncutraliaation  oi  a  territoxial  area 

*The  institution  of  "buffer**  zones  In  a  more  strictly  correct 
sense  of  the  term  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  One  is  mentioned  in  the 
annab  of  China  two  eentoiiea  before  our  era,  bctMreen  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Huns  in  the  west  and  thoae  of  the  Tunguses  in  the 
cast— 'a  vast  area  of  some  300  to  400  m..  on  the  opposite  margin 
of  which  the  two  peoples  kept  watch.  In  Europe,  bands  of  territory 
from  time  to  time  have  been  made  desert  to  nettcr  estabii^  *^' 
ratioo.  The  Romans  and  Germaas  protected  themselves  in  this 
way.  In  the  middle  apes  the  Teutonic  Order  eatablislied  a  frontier 
belt  on  the  ride  of  Lithuania.  Later,  Austria  dealt  in  the  same 
way  io  her  policy  in  regard  to  Turkey  in  the  organization  of  a 
"  military  frontier."  See  Nys,  Drml  liOemaHcnal  (Brussels,  1904), 
i.  ai8. 

*  It  was  stipuhtcd  that  the  dismantling  should  be  controlled 
by  a  technical  oommission  of  throe  officers  of  foreign  nationality, 
to  be  chosen,  one  by  each  of  the  contracting  powers  and  the  third 
by  the  two  officen  thus  appointed,  or,  in  default  of  an  agreement 
on  their  part,  by  the  |>ratdent  01  the  Swiss  Confcdention.  The 
dismantling  of  the  forts  in  question  has  now  been  carried  out.  The 
Commission  was  composed  on  the  part  of  Sweden  of  an  engineer 
on  the  staff  of  the  Austrian  army,  and  on  the  part  of  Norway  ol 
a  colonel  in  the  German  army,  and,  by  agreement  of  these,  of  a 
colonel  in  the  Dutcbarmy. 


ts 


PEACE 


U  that  of  tlie  pxactical  ncutraUzatioii  of  tho  Great  Lakes  in 
America.  In  1817,  at  the  instance  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  the 
United  StatM  and  Great  Britain  entered  into  a  compact  whexeby 
the  Goeat  Lakes,  and  the  waterways  from  them  to  the  ocean  by 
the  St  Lawrence  river,  which  divide  the  United  States  from  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  weve  practically  excluded  from  any 
possible  hostilities.  Through  a  simple  agrceaaent,  "  conditions 
which  make  for  peace  and  prosperity,  and  the  absence  of  those 
which  so  often  lead  to  disa^roua  war,  have  for  nearly  a  century 
reigned  over  these  great  inland  waters,  whose  commerce,  con- 
ducted for  the  benefit  of  the  states  and  nations  of  Eiuxipe  and 
America,  rivals  that  which  passes  through  the  Sues  Canal  or 
over  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  with  a  result  foreshadowed 
in  these  words  of  President  Monroe  in  his  communication  to  the 
Senate  Mmmending  the  proposed  agreement:  'In  order  to 
avoid  collision  and  save  expense.'  Forts  which  had  been  erected 
.  at  salient  points  on  either  skle  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  dividing 
the  United  States  from  Canada,  which  but  for  this  agreement 
would,  in  the  natural  course  of  events,  have  been  e&laigied, 
increasingly  garrisoned^and  provided  with  modem  implements 
of  destruction,  at  large  expense,  have  remained  substantially 
as  when  the  agreement  was  made,  or  now  constitute  but  inter- 
esting or  picturesque  ruins;  and  the  great  cost  of  constructing 
and  maintaining,  through  a  long  series  of  years,  naval  armaments 
of  ever-increasing  power  has  been  avoided."  ^ 

As  wo  have  already  said,  the  Monroe  doctrine  is  a  means  of 
excluding  European  warfare  from  the  American  continent  and 
therefore  is  in  the  nature  of  a  form  of  neutralization.  A  sort  of 
Monroe  doctrine  is  growing  into  popular  favour  also  throughout 
the  Australian  Commonwealth,  where  it  is  felt  that  a  continent 
so  far  removed  from  Europeux  rivakies  ought  not  to  be  exposed 
to  complications  on  account  of  them.   ^ 

From  time  to  time  questions  of  adding  to  existing  neutralized 
areas  are  raised.  When  it  was  announced  in  rgos  that  a  British 
fleet  was  about  to  manoeuvre  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  several  German 
newspapers  suggested  that  Germany  should  combine  with  other 
Baltic  powers  to  assure  its  neutralization.*  No  official  observa- 
tion on  the  subject,  however,  was  made  on  the  part  of  any 
Baltic  power.  The  Baltic  is  still  an  open  sea  for  the  whole 
world,  without  restriction  of  any  kind;  and  even  hostilities 
between  any  two  non-Baltic  powers  could  be  carried  on  in  the 
Baltic,  as  elsewhere  on  the  high  sea,  under  the  exilting  practice. 
When  the  Dogger  Bank  incident  occurred,  the  possibility 
of  operations  of  war  being  carried  on  within  a  few  miles  of 
British  home  ports,  and  amid  the  busy  traffic  of  the  North  Sea, 
was  brouftht  vividly  home  to  British  minds.  ^ 

A  movement  set  on  foot  at  the  instance  of  Edward  Atkinson, 
the  well-known  Boston  economist,  and  warmly  supported  by 
the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Trade,  seeks  to  establish  by 
treaty  neutral  zonea  from  the  ports  of  North  America  to  the 
ports  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  the  oontmcnt  of  Europe, 
within  which  zones  steamship  and  saifing  vessels  in  the  conduct 
of  lawful  commerce  should  be  free  to  pass  without  seizure  or 
interruption  in  time  of  war.  There  is  however  no  precedent  of 
neutralisation  of  any  such  area  of  the  high  sea,  and  international 
rivers,  ocean  canals  and  neutralized  states  are  obviously  no 
criterion  in  discussing  a  proposal  to  neutralize  a  strip  of  the 
ocean,  which  may  be  defined  accurately  enough  on  the  map 
and  which  skilful  navigators  could  approximately  determine, 
but  which  might  be  violated  without  any  practical  means  of 
detection  by  a  belligerent  commander  whenever  he  misread, 
or  it  suited  him  to  misread,  his  bearings. 

Connected  with  the  principle  of  neutralization  is  that  of 
guaranteeing  the  integrity  of  states.  Several  such  guarantees 
have  been  given  in  quite  recent  times.  In  November  1907  a 
treaty  was  concluded  between  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain 
and  Russia  on  the  one  part  and  Norway  on  the  other,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  integrity  of  Norway.    This  treaty  differed 

'  Maiwir  tif  Massachusetts  SlaU  Board  0/  Tradt  (Feb.  13, 1905). 

'This  was  merely  reviving  an  idea  which  had  come  and  gone 
many  times  before.  See  Barclay,  Problems  ef  International  Practiu 
and  Diplomacy  (1907). 


from  the  older  one  of  1855  in  which  France  and  Great  Britain 
guaranteed  the  integrity  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  in  the  fact  that 
whereas  the  older  treaty  was  for  the  protection  of  these  two 
states  against  Russia,  the  new  treaty  is  intended,  if  it  is  to  serve 
at  all  as  a  protection  against  invasion,  to  protect  Norway  against 
Sweden. 

Another  such  guarantee  of  a  iraguer  character  is  that  which 
the  North  Sea  powers  recently  entered  Into  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  slatiu  quo  of  their  respective  North  Sea  territories;  and 
the  similar  one  entered  into  by  the  Mediterranean  powers  for 
the  same  objects  in  the  ^lediterranean.  Lastly  in  the  same 
order  of  ideas  Austria-Hungary  and  Russia  are  said  to  have 
concluded  an  arrangement  between  them  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  status  quo  in  the  Balkans. 

The  future  has  no  doubt  still  other  extensions  of  the  principle 
of  neutralization  in  store  for  us.  Not  the  least  interesting  of 
existing  possibilities  is  the  limitation  of  the  area  of  ym\.  and  search 
in  time  of  war  itself,  as  a  restriction  of  belligerent  right.  It  seems 
contrary  to  common  sense  that  neutral  ships  should  be  exposed 
to  being  detained,  taken  out  of  their  course,  and  overhauled 
on  mere  suspicion  of  carrying  contraband,  when  they  are  so  far 
from  the  seat  of  war  that  there  can  be  no  presumption  as  to  their 
destination.  Neutrals  have  a  right  to  carry  on  their  ordinary 
business  unmolested  in  so  far  as  they  do  nothing  to  assist  either 
belligerent.  When  they  are  beyond  a  certain  distance  from  the 
seat  of  war  it  seems  reasonable  that  the  presumption  that  they 
are  merely  carrying  on  their  legitimate  business  should  be 
conudered  absolute.  Such  a  limitation  of  the  area  of  hostilities 
is  not  only  feasible,  but  it  was  actually  put  in  practice  by  the 
British  government  during  the  Boer  War.* 

In  the  course  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  the  question  came 
up  again,  being  raised  this  time  by  Great  Britain.  Lord  Lans- 
downe  called  the  attention  of  the  Russian  foreign  office  to  the 
extreme  inconvenience  to  neutral  commerce  of  the  Russian 
search  for  contraband  not  only  in  the  proximity  of  the  scene  of  war, 
but  over  all  the  world,  and  especially  at  places  at  which  neutral 
commerce  could  be  most  effectually  intercepted.  H.M.  Govern- 
ment had  become  aware  that  a  large  addition  was  likely  to  be 
made  to  the  number  of  Russian  cruisers  cmployef^in  this  manner, 
and  they  had,  therefore,  to  contemplate  the  possibility  that 
such  ve^els  would  shortly  be  found  patrolling  the  narrow  seas 
which  lie  on  the  route  from  Great  Britain  to  Japan  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  render  it  virtually  impossible  for  any  neutral 
vessel  to  escape  their  attention.  The  effect  of  such  interference 
with  neutral  trade,  he  said,  would  be  disastrous  to  legitimate 
commerce  passing  from  a  British  port  in  the  Um'ted  Kingdom 
to  a  British  port  in  the  Far  East.  The  British  government 
had  no  desire  to  place  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  belligerent 
desiring  to  take  reasonable  precautions  in  order  to  prevent  the 
enemy  from  receiving  supplies,  but  they  in^sted  that  the  right 
of  taking  such  precautions  did  not  imply  a  "  consequential  right 
to  intercept  at  any  distance  from  the  scene  of  operations  and 
without  proof  that  the  supplies  in  question  were  really  destined 
for  use  of  the  enemy's  forces,  any  articles  which  that  belligerent 
might  determine  to  regard  as  contraband  of  war.*' 

'  In  January  1900  it  was  rct>ortcd  that  the  British  govemmeot 
had  issued  instnicrions  to  British  naval  commanders  not  to  stop 
or  acarch  German  merchant  vessels  at  any  places  not  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  seat  iA  war.  ^  There  b  no  profxr  statement  of  the  Britiso 
position  on  this  subject,  the  only  official  information  having  been 

X'ven  by  the  German  chancellor  in  a  speech  to  the  Reichstag, 
ccording  to  this  information,  the  area  was  ultimately  limited  as 
north  of  Aden,  and  afterwards  it  was  agreed  that  the  immunity 
from  seardi  should  be  extended  to  all  places  beyond  a  distance 
from  the  seat  of  war  equal  to  the  distance  from  it  of  Aden.  This 
was  substantially  correct,  though  the  telegrams  sent  by  the  Admiralty 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  fixed  any  precise  area.  As  a  fact,  tte 
commanders-in-chief  on  the  East  Indies  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
stations  were  instructed  that  in  consequence  of  the  great  practical 
difficulty  of  proving— 0/  ports  so  remote  from  the  scene  of  toar 
operations  as  Aden  and  Perim — the  real  destination  of  contraband 
ot  war  carried  by  vessels  visiting  those  parts,  directions  were  to  be 
given  to  the  officers  concerned  to  cease  to  search  such  vessels,  and 
to  merely  report  to  the  commander-in-chief  at  the  Cape  the  names 
of  ships  suspected  of  carrying  contraband,  and  the  date  of  clearance. 


Tie  pdiition  Ihiu  uwacd  ii  sot  cku.    Oa  the  sot  bud 

tbc  Biiliih  (Uiia  did  Bot,  it  ii  mn,  co  Ibe  knrh  ol  the 
mliictiaa  Great  Briuin  cenieoled  to  [du*  •»  bet  own 
li|ht  o!  lunli  during  tbl  B<«  Wu,  wtmiiig  to  ipply  only 
to  the  case  o[  ship«  cvryinf  condLlioiul  coatnbud.  On  the 
othec.  the  coniplaiiit  ii  bucd  on  Ibe  "  inUilercBce "  >itb 
seulial  trade,  whkh  nmu  the  Ugpp»te  lod  (cueb  of  vomIi 
to  ucenain  whetlKi  tbey  b«ve  motuband  of  any  kind  on 
board  Di  not. 

h  miut  not  be  loiEOtlca  in  tbia  connenion  that  reUriciien 
bI  ibe  rigblt  ol  the  bLUigcrcnt  netcuariiy  entniii  eatemioB  of 
the  duties  of  Ihe  ncultal.    The  belligcient  hai  an  unqueiiioned 


Klton  of  Ii 


:  lUh  of  February  i< 


aifylng  any 
Under  the  Dedaraiion  of  London 
tt  it  provided  under  arlt.  ji  an- 
Concluive  prwf  ai  to  the  voyage  on  which  she  i>  eng«cvd 
■nltu  ibe  is  clearly  out  ol  the  course  indiciied  by  ber  papen 
■nd  is  unable  to  give  adequate  reasons  la  justify  her  deviation. 
Tbui  Ibe  inuifeicnce,  if  the  declaration  is  ratified,  viU  be 
conhncd  to  an  ciaminatiun  of  the'ship's  papCTS  wh«r*  the  shrp 
Ii  not  bound   for  a  bcUigeTent  pan    (tf,  an.   jo  of  the  same 

Slanding  Pcm  direejUMJi/r.— Foreinosl  among  iluiding  peace 
agrecDMnti  are,  of  courK,  the  Intenuliuna]  Hague  Convvnlions 
relating  directly  to  peace,  agrctmcnis  which  hare  not  only  eiralcd 
a  special  peace  iurisdiclion  for  the  sctllement  of  inlcmalional 
dilTiciiUics  by  judicial  methods  but 
within  the  Kopc  of  this  jurisdiction. 

Alongside  Ihe  Hague  Peace  Conventions  and  more  or  kss 
connected  with  then  are  Handing  Itcalics  of  arbitration  vhich 
have  been  entered  into  by  different  nations  for  lernii  of  yean 
Mpatalely.    The  first  of  what 


Lo  apply 


»tbet«eei 

ly  over  a  hundred  others  forming  »,  m 
elationships  which  shows  thai,  at  any  i 
I  universal  Among  maolund.' 

■  The  fotlowing  liM  of  tunding  arbltn 


..^       PonuBal.Ausu«i7,  roo,. 
Brt»iiiie-Deniiiai*,  April  a6,  rooj. 

Rniila.  delober  jo,  1904. 
„       Spain,  JaiuuKv  f^.  1905. 
SwitiHland.  Navcnibci  IJ. 
Braiil-Ponu^  March  IJ,  1909. 
..    Spain,  April  B,  t<|Dit. 
„    Meiico,  April  1 1 .  ifoq. 
..    Hoaduns.  April  I&.  ifoo. 
.  „    Venewih- Ajjril  Jo,  190^ 

Eeuador,  M^  13, 1909- 
„    Ce«a  Riea,  May  Ii,  1909, 
..    Cuba,  June  19, 1909. 
„    B«Uvia,JuDf>S.  I9e9- 
„     NKangua,  June  18,  19091 


iwbeenf. 


lowed 


.    Sahndor, 


d.r£S<^ 

DecoBtKr  7,  19 


■-BJ,  I9< 
1909. 


Cotombia-Peni,  September  u,  1905, 

France.  Dercnibrr  16.  igoS. 
Dtamark-FiaiKa.  Scpitmbcr  15, 1905. 

".  Netkrlandi.  February  11,  1904. 

..  Spnin.  December  i,  1905. 

fJo^ay.  October  8. 19*. 

France-Italy,  Otcx^bmb.  1903. 

Neihcrland*.  April  6,  1904. 

.,      Nor-ay  and  Sweden,  July  9,  1904. 

.      Spaia.  February  W.  I9B4. 


Tbcia  «e,  homver,  ataige  uiaibar  of  a 
although  not  conduilcd  wiih  ihe  direct  object  ol  osuiiDg  peaa 
when  diffiodtics  have  aiiaeo,  lead  in  a  very  practical  inaanei 
tocontnctthearcaofpoisiblediflkullies.  These  are  conventiin 
lortheregulation  ol  intenoursc  bet  ween  tbeHibjccti  azid  cititeni 

for  Iriclioa  lod  are  therefore  among  the  oioit  efleoive  tgencia 

peoples.  In  matt  cases  luch  coaventiotB  have  created  inter 
national  unions  of  slates  for  all  mttlen  which  lend  tbemsclvei 
to  interoalional  co-opcimtion.  The  fir^  in  order  of  date  vu 
the  postal  union.  The  tystcm  it  Lnaufurated  has  now  extendec 
ils  scope  to  telegraphs,  copyright,  industriat  property,  rsiltaj 
traffic,  the  pvUicaiioo  ti  cutloma  lariRa,  metric  measum 
nonetary  aystenu  and  agriculture.  Bente,  being  the  capilal 
of  the  most  central  of  Ihe. neutral  European  stares,  it  the  adminis 


cnlnliie 


'.July  9, 


FniKe-Snden  and  Hon 

„      Braail,  April  7,  1909. 

Coat  BriDin-Fiancc,  Oclober  I. 

„        „       Germany  July  IJ 


Colombia,  December  30.  190*, 

i         ..        Denmark,  Oclober  15,  1904. 
..        Ponogal.  November  1*.  1904. 

Spain,  February  17,  1904. 
„       „       SwiixHand.  November  i4,  190^ 

tloiied  Slaies.  April  4,  I90& 

HD^un>s-Spiin?Way  "<!i9<>3- 
llaly-Af^niine.  SBpiemtef  18.  1907. 

!!    l>inuaarMay  II,  r905. 

,.   Swiiuiland.  ttanmhiiti.  1904. 

„    MeihcrVandb,  Navrrnberar,  I9rp9. 

NetheilliHle-pDnueBl.  October  JO.  rgos. 

N^y  and  Swc;deii-Ru.ui,'l^ber  9.  190*. 

Spain,  j»nuary»3,l9C.S. 

„  Swilierbnd,  December  17. 1901 

PDrtutil-Spain,  May  31. 1951.  _ 

ABMrB-HniMarv,  Fetmiary  i],  1906. 

Dennurk,  ManDi  90, 1907. 


Norway  and  Sweden.  Mav  «,  190].  (Swendad  lor 

Norway  by  a  new  one  dated  Dncrnber  S,  ■90a.) 

Spain.  Miy  31.  1904. 


awiTiemno,  nugow  in.  1905. 
NiangiB.  luty  IT.  1909- 
■Nonra^aad  Swwlen,  November  at 


',28 

Peru.  Decrmber  y  1908. 
Salvodor.  Dweiiiber  *1,  l9ot, 
Neiway.  ApiD  4.  IVIt. 
Meiiee.  March  a4,190«- 
FrancT,  February  1.  1908. 
Ecaidor,  J,inojry  7,  "909- 
BoUvia.  Janoary  7.  1909. 

Uruguay,  JanoaiV  9.  1909. 

Coua  Rki,  Janua'ry  Ij.  1909. 
Auflria-Hungary,  January  ig.  19a 


»4 


PEACE 


the  wcighu  ftnd  measutes  tmfoo  in  Paris  and  the  agricultural 
institute  at  Roane. 

The  general  postal  union  was  created  by  a  convention  signed 
at  Berne  in  1874.  A  convention  for  a  similar  union  for  telegraphs 
was  signed  in  Paris  in  1875  (revised  at  St  Petersburg  and  replaced 
by  another  the  same  year).  Botli  unions  issue  monthly  bulletins 
and  other  publications  giving  useful  information  about  these 
two  services.^ 

The  international  bureau  of  weights  and  measures  at  Paris 
was  created  by  a  convention  signed  there  in  1875,  for  the  putpose 
of  comparing  and  verifying  weights  and  measures  on  the  metric 
system,  and  preserving  their  identity  for  the  contracting  states. 

The  double*standard  Latin  union  monetary  system  was 
founded  by  a  convention  of  1865,  between  Belgium,  France, 
Italy  and  Swiuerland.  In  1868  it  was  Joined  by  Greece.  A 
single  standard  union  eusts  between  Sweden,  Norway  and 
Denmark  under  a  convention  of  1873. 

The  copyright  union  was  created  by  an  mtematlonal  con- 
vention signed  in  1874.  The  official  bureau  of  the  imion  is 
at  Berne.  It  issues  a  periodical  publication  called  Le  Droit 
d'auUur  giving  information  respecting  the  laws  of  different 
states  relating  to  published  matter  of  all  kinds. 

The  term  "  industrial  property  "  covers  patents,  trade  marks, 
merchandise  marks*  trade  names,  designs  and  models.  The 
convention  dealing  with  them  signed  in  1885  created  a  union 
with  its  central  office  at  Berne.  It,  too,  issues  a  bulletin  and 
other  publications  which  help  to  prevent  misunderstandings. 

The  railway  traffic  union  was  formed  by  a  convention  of 
1890.  The  central  bureau  at  Berne  issues  a  monthly  bulletin. 
A  subsequent  convention  was  signed  at  Berne  in  1886  reUting 
to  matters  of  technical  unification. 

I A  subsidiary  convention  not  ouite  falling  within  the  scope  of 
the  above  convention  is  the  submarine  telegraphs  convention, 
which  was  signed  in  1884.  It  applies  outside  territorial  waters 
to  all  legally  established  submarine  cable*  landed  on  the  territories, 
colonics  or  poswssions  of  one  or  more  of  the  high  oontracting 
parties.  Under  its  provisions  it  is  a  punishable  offence  "  to  break 
or  injure  a  submarine  cable  wilfully  or  by  culpable  negligence  in 
such  manner  as  might  interrupt  or  obstruct^  telegraphic  communi> 
cation  either  wholly  or  partially,  such  punishment  being  without 
prejudice  to  any  civil  action  for  damages.  It  also  iKovidcs  that: — 
Vessels  engaged  in  laying  or  repairing  submarine  cables  shall 
conform  to  the  regulations  as  to  signals  which  have  been,  or  may 
be,  adopted  by  mutual  agreement  among  the  high  contracting 
parties  with  tne  view  of  preventing  collisions  at  sea.  When  a 
ship  engaged  in  repairing  a  cable  exhilMts  the  said  signals,  other 
vessels  which  see  tnem  or  are  able  to  see  them  shall  withdraw  to 
or  keep  beyond  a  distance  of  one  nautical  mile  at  least  from  the 
ship  in  question  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  her  operations  "  (art.  5). 
"  Owners  of  ships  or  veascls  who  can  prove  that  they  have  sacrificed 
an  anchor,  a  .net  or  other  fishing-gear  in  order  to  avoid  injuring  a 
submarine  cable  shall  receive  compensation  from  the  owner  of  the 
cable."  and  **  in  order  to  establisn  a  claim  Co  such  compensation 
a  statement  supported  by  the  evidence  of  the  crew  should  whenever 
possible  be  drawn  up  immediately  after  the  occurrence  and  the 
master  must  within  twenty-four  hours  after  his  return  to  or  next 
puttine  into  port  make  a  declaration  to  the  proper  authorities  *' 
(art.  7;.  "  The  tribunals  competent  to  takecogniianoeof  infractions 
of  the  present  convention  are  those  of  the  country  to  which  the 
vessel  on  board  of  which  the  offence  was  committed  belongs" 
(art.  8).  By  art.  15  it  b  provided  that  the  stipulations  of  the  con- 
vention do  not  in  any  way  restrict  the  action  of  belligerents.  It 
may  be  remarked  that  the  British  representative  at  the  time  of 
signing  the  convention  declared  that  nts  government  understood 
that  in  the  time  of  war  a  belligerent  would  be  free  to  act  in  re^rd 
to  submarine  cables  aa  though  the  convention  did  not  exist.  The 
act  to  carry  into  effect  the  above  convention  is  the  Submarine 
Telegraph  Act  1885  (48  &  40  Vict.  e.  49)  which  was  slightly 
modified  by  50  Vict.  c.  3.  Section  3  of  the  earlier  act  provides  that 
a  person  who  Injures  the  cable  either  wilfully  or  by  culpable  negli- 
gence is  "  euilty  of  a  raisdemttnour  and  on  conviction :  (a)  if  he 
acted  wilfully,  shall  be  liable  to  penal  servitude  for  a  term  not 
exceeding  five  years,  or  to  imprisonment  with  or  without  hard 
labour  for  a  term  not  exceeding  two  years,  and  to  a  fine  either  in 
lieu  of  or  in  addition  to  such  penal  servitude  or  imprisonment; 
and  (b)  if  he  acted  by  culpable  negligence  shall  be  liable  to  im- 
prisonment for  a  term  not  exceeding  three  months  without  hard 
labour,  and  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  £100  either  in  lieu  of  or  in  addition 
to  such  imprisonment." 

Sec  Boara  of  Trade  Correspondenoe  on  Protection  of  Submarine 
Cabk».  printed  on  the  24th  oc  July  188a:  and  Pariiaroenury  Paper 
C.  5910:  1890. 


Undel'  the  convention  creating  the  customs  tariffs  union, 
signed  in  i8qo,  thirty  States,  including  Great  Britain  and 
most  British  colonies,  are  associated  for  the  purpose  of  prompt 
publicalion  of  custom  tariffs  and  their  modifications. 

The  agricultural  institute,  created  by  a  convention  of  1905 
with  its  seat  at  Rome,  as  the  latest  in  date  b  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  of  the  series.  It  ^shows  How  deep  and  widespread 
the  sense  of  the  utility  of  international  state  co-operation  has 
become.  The  convention  sets  out  the  scope  and  objects  of  the 
institute,  which  a  recent  British  official  publicatbn  states  has 
been  joined  by  38  states,  inchiding  (}reat  Britain  and  all  other 
great  powers,  as  followsN 

Whtlst  limiting  its  action  to  international  questbns,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  institute:  (a)  To  collect,  eb borate  and  publish, 
with  as  little  delay  as  possible,  statistical,  technical,  or  economic 
information  rvgarding  tne  cultivation  of  the  soil,  its  productions, 
whether  animal  or  vegetable,  the  trade  in  agricultural  products, 
and  the  prices  obtained  on  the  various  markets,  (b)  To  communis 
cate  to  interested  parties,  also  without  dcby,  fuH  information  of 
the  nature  above  mentioned,  (c)  To  indicate  the  wages  of  rural 
labour,  (d)  To  notify  all  npw  diseases  of  plants  which  may  appear 
in  any  part  of  the  wond,  indicating  the  districts  affected,  the  spread 
of  the  disease,  and,  if  possible,  the  efficacious  means  of  resistance, 
(r)  To  consider  nucstions  rrlatlng  to  agricultural  co-operation, 
insurance  and  credit,  in  all  their  rorins,  collecting  and  publishing 
information  which  may  be  useful  in  the  various  countries  for  the 
organization  of  undertaking  rebting  to  agricultural  co-opcratlon, 
insurance  and  credit,  if)  To  present,  if  expedient,  to  the  govcm- 
mcnts,  for  their  approval,  mcasones  for  the  protection  of  the  common 
interests  of  agriculturista  and  for  the  improvement  of  their  cwv- 
dition,  after  having  previously  taken  every  means  of  obtainina 
the  necessary  information,  e.g.  resolutions  passed  by  international 
conercsses  or  other  congresses  relating  to  apiculture  or  to  sciences 
applied  to  agriculture,  agricultural  societies,  academiest  learned 
societies,  Ac. 

All  questions  rebting  to  the  economic  interests,  the  legisbtioa 
and  administration  of  any  particubr  slate,  must  be  exclqcKd  from 
the  sphere  of  the  institute.    (Art.  9). 

Lastly,  there  k  a  class  of  difficulties  which  might  arise  from 
preferential  treatment  of  trade  from  different  countries.  To 
obviate  them  statesmen  have  been  led  to  adopt  the  principle 
of  the  **  most-favoured-nation-cbusc  " — that  is  to  say,  a  dause 
providing  that  if  any  reductions  of  tariff  or  other  advantages  are 
granted  by  either  contracting  state  to  any  third  state,  the  others 
shall  have  the  benefit  of  it.  In  Europe  this  clause  has  been 
uniformly  treated  as  applying  to  all  reductions  of  tariff  without 
distinction.  The  United  States  interpretation,  on  the  other 
hand,  distinguishes  between  reductions  of  a  general  character 
and  reductions  made  specifically  in  return  for  reductions  by 
some  other  state.  The  bttcr  do  not  come  within  the  operation 
of  the  cbuse,  and  a  co-contracting  state  is  only  entitled  to 
obtain  extension  of  them  to  itself  on  granting  similar  concessions. 
In  other  words,  concessions  to  any  co-contracting  state  are 
only  allowed  gratuitously  to  a  third  co-contracting  state  when 
nothing  has  been  given  for  them,  the  clause  not  covering  advan- 
tages granted  in  return  for  advantages.  It  u  to  be  hoped  that 
this  special  view  of  the  meaning  of  the  cbuse  will  be  met  in  the 
future,  as  in  some  recent  treaties,  by  specifically  dealing  with  the 
exceptions.* 

The  UtaUy  of  Popular  ^/wf.— Until  quite  recently  it  had  been 
a  dbtinctive  mark  of  practical  wisdom  to  treat  private  efforts  for 
the  improvement  of  international  rebtions  for  the  preservation 
of  peace,  with  the  patronizing  tolerance  courteous  people  of  the 
world  extend  to  half-crazy  ideaUsts.  Since  the  opening  of  the 
century,  an  immense  change  has  taken  place  in  the  attitude  of 
the  leaders  of  popular  opinion  towards  the  advocacy  of  peace. 
Thb  new  attitude  has  been  contemporary  with  the  greater 
interest  dbplayed  by  the  mercantile  classes  of  England  and  the 
United  States  in  the  improvement  of  their  political  rebtions  with 
their  neighbours.  It  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  the  visit 
of  the  Assodation  of  British  Chambers  of  Commerce  to  Parb 
in  1900,  at  a  time  when  France  was  still  smarting  from  the 
humiliation  of  the  Fashoda  affair,  and  the  Boer  War  was  exciting 
hostile  demonstrations  against  Great  Britain  throughout  theconti* 
nent  of  Europe.   That  some  four  hundred  British  manufacturers 

*  See  Barcby,  Problems  of  InUmoiiotud  PracUct  Md  Diphmacy 

(1907).  p.  137  «eq- 


PEACE 


«S 


hnd  merchants,  representing  about  eighty  chambers  of  commerce 
o£  tbq.  United  Kingdom,  -should  hav«  swept  aside  all  political 
objections,  and' have  boldly  trusted  to  the  efficacy  of  friendly 
advances  ai  between  jnrian  and  man,  appealed  to  the  f  rench 
people.  It  Seems  to.  have  been  the  first  great  popular  effort 
ever  made  deliberately  by  a  representative  body  of  the  middle 
class'  of  a  nation  lor  the  promotion  of  international  friendship 
without  the  aid  of  djploi^a^  and  without  official  assistance  or 
even  countenance  of  any. kind. 

Otherwise, 'private  agendes  bl  a  standing  character  which 
contribute  tovnirds  the  promotion  oi  peace  may  be  divided  into 
four  classes,  viz.  (i)  those  which,  without  having  peace  for  their 
direct  object,  promote  friendship  among  men  of  different  races 
and  nationalities;  (2)  those  whic^  directly  address  themselves 
to  the  promoting  of  friendship  and  goodwill  among  peoples; 
(5)  those  which  regarding  peace  as  the  immediate  object  of  their 
efforts,  endeavour  to  educate  deipocracy  in  this  sense;  (4)  those 
which  endeavour  to  remove  the  causes  of  international  friction 
by  the  codification  of  international  law  and  the  promotion  of  the 
international  regulation  of  common  interests.  Lastly,  there  are 
two  agencies  which  cannot  be  classed  among  the  foregoing; 
one  is  the  International  Parliamentaiy  Union  and  the  other  the 
Nobel  Prixe  Committee. 

1.  Agencies  which  are  indirectly  making  for  peace  are  of 
many  kinds.  Science  and  medicine  nowbring  men  of  all  nations 
together  in  periodical  congresses.  Technology,  electricity, 
mining,  railvrays,  navigation  and  many  other  subjects  are  now 
dealt  with  in  international  congresses.  International  exhibitions 
are  always  used  as  an  occasion  for  holding  many  such  meetings. 

3.  One  of  the  most  notable  efforts  directed  to  the  deliberate 
cementing  of  friendship  has  been  the  interchange  of  official 
visits  by  municipal  bodies.  In  the  course  of  the  Anglo-French 
agitation  which  culminated  in  March  1903  with  the  visit  of  King 
Edward  to  Paris,  the  French  municipal  councils  passed  many 
resolutions  In  favour  of  the  erUetde.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
Anglo-French  standing  treaty  of  arbitration  (Oct.  14,  1903) 
and  the  arrangements  for  the  general  settlement  of  outstanding 
difficulties  with  France  (April  8,  1904),  the  municipal  bodies  in 
France  were  prepared  to  go  a  step  farther, and  in  iqo6  the  Muni- 
cipal Council  of  Paris  was  invited  by  the  London  County  Council 
to  pay  an  official  visit  to  England.  This  visit  was  followed  by 
a  return  visit  to  Paris  and  a  similar  exchange  of  visits  between 
the  London  City  Corporation  and  the  Paris  Municipal  Council, 
exchange  visits  of  the  city  corporations  of  Manchester,  Glasgow 
and  Edinburgh  and  Lyons,  and  a  visit  of  the  Manchester  Corpora- 
tion to  DUsseldorf,  Barmen  and  Cologne.  A  society,  numbering 
many  thousands  of  working  men  among  its  members,  which  has 
set  itself  the  more  special  task  of  promoting  the  interchange  of 
visits  between  working  men  of  different  nations,  is  called  the 
**  International  Brotherhood  Alliance," or, after  the  initials  of  its 
motto,  FroUrnitas  inter  gentes^  the  F.I.G.  Another  agency, 
called  the  "American  Association  for  International  Concili- 
ation," seeks  by  the  publication  of  essays  on  the  different  aspects 
of  intemationd  friendship  to  promote  the  same  cause. 

3.  The  "  peace  societies,"  which  are  scattered  over  the  whole 
world,  number  several  hundreds.^  Their  first  International 
0>ngress  was  held  in  London  at  the  suggestion  of  Joseph  Sturge 
in  1843.  In  1848  a  second  congress  was  held  at  Brussels.  The 
third  in  1849  took  place  in  Paris,  and  was  presided  over  by  Victor 
Hugo.  Other  congresses  were  held  at  Frank  f  urt ,  again  in  London, 
and  in  1853  at  Manchester,  where  Richard  Cobden  and  John 
Bright  took  part  in  the  discussions.  Then  followed  an  Interval 
of  wars  during  which  the  Pacifists  were  unable  to  raise  their 
voices.  At  length  in  1878  a  congress  was  held  at  the  Paris 
International  Exhibition  of  that  year,  but  it  was  not  till  the  next 
Paris  International  Exhibition  of  1889  that  these  international 
peace  congresses  became  periodical.  Since  then  numerous  con* 
gresses  have  been  held,  the  seventeenth  having  sat  in  London 
in  1908,  and  the  eighteenth  at  Stockholm  in  1910.  These 
congresses  have  been  supplemented  by  national  congresses  in 

*'See  Annuaire  du  motaiement  tacthsle  pour  Tannie  tgto,  published 
by  the  Bureau  Intematioinal  de  la  Paix,  at  Bern. 


both  Great  Britain  and  France.  Such  congresses  are  doing 
admirable .  work  in  the  popularixing  of  thought  upon  the 
numerous  •  questions  which  are  discussed  at  the  meetings, 
such  as  compulsory  arbitration,  the  restriction  of  armaments, 
private  property  at  sea  in  time  of  war,  the  position  of  subject 
races,  airships  in  war,  &c.' 

4.  First  among  the  bodies  which  try  to  remove  the  causes 
of  International  friction  is  the  Institute  of  International  Law. 
This  is  a  body  of  mternational  lawyers,  consisttng  of  sixty  mem- 
bers and  sixty  associates  recruited  by  election— the  members  from 
those  who  **  have  rendered  services  to  international  law  in  the 
domain  of  theory  or  practice,"  and  associates- from  those  "  whose 
kriowledge  may  be  useful  to  the  Institute."  It  was  formed 
in  1873,  chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  M.  ^Rolin-Jaequcmyn?. 
The  official  language  of  the  Institute  is  French,  and  i(s  annual 
meetings  are  held  wherever  the  members  at  the  previous  meeting 
decide  to  assemble.'  Its  mode  of  operation  is  td  work  out  the 
matters  it  deals  with  during  the  intervals  between  the  sessions, 
in  permanent  commissions,  among  which  the  whole  domain  of 
international  law  is  divided  up.  .  The  commissions,  under  the 
direction  of  their  rapporteurs  or  conveners,  prepare  reports 
and  proposals,  which  are  printed  and  distributed  among  the 
members  some  time  before  the  plenary  sittings  at  which  they 
are  to  be  discussed.  If  the  members  are  not  agreed,  the  subject 
is  adjourned  to  another  session,  and  still  another,  until  they  do 
agree.  Thus  the  resolutions  of  the  Institute  have  the  authority 
attaching  to  a  mature  expression  of  the  views  of  the  leading 
internatioiuil  jurists  of  Europe.  Another  body  having  a  more  or 
less  similar  purpose  is  the  International  Law  Association,  which 
was  founded  in  1873  as  the  "  Association  for  the  Reform  and 
Codification  of  the  Law  of  Nations,"  with  practically  the  same 
objects  as  those  which  led  to  the  constitution  of  the  Institute 
of  International  Law.  It  alao  meets  in  different  countries,  but 
it  differs  from  the  Institute  in  the  number  of  its  meifibers  being 
unlimited  and  in  all  respectable  persons  being  eligible  for  mem- 
bership. A  report  is  published  after  each  meeting.  There  are  now 
numerous  volumes  of  such  reports,  many  of  them  containing  most 
valuable  materials  for  international  jurists.  In  1895  the  name 
was  changed  to  International  Law  Association. 

A  new  society  was  recently  (1906)  formed  in  America  called  the 
American  Society  of  International  Law,  "  to  foster  the  study  of 
international  law  and  promote  the  establishment  of  international 
relations  on  the  basis  of  law  and  justice."  "  Membership  in  the 
society  is  not  restricted  to  lawyers,  and  any  man  of  good  moral 
character  interested  in  the  objectsof  the  society  may  be  admitted 
to  membership."  The  publications  of  this  society  have  already 
taken  an  important  place  among  the  literature  of  international 
law. 

Still  more  recently  yet  another  society  cante  into  being  in 
Switzerland  with  objects  *hich  seem  to  be  sUnilar  to  those  of  the 
Institute  of  International  Law. 

The  Inter-Parliamentary  Union,  which  dates  back  to  1887, 
owes  its  origin  to  the  initiative  of  the  late  Sir  W.  R.  Cremer. 
It  is  comp(»ed  of  groups  of  the  different  parliaments  of  the 
world,  who  meet  periodically  to  "  bring  about  the  acceptance 
in  their  respective  countries,  by  Votes  in  parliament  and  by  means 
of  arbitration  treaties,  of  the  principle  that  differences  between 
nations  should  be  submitted  to  arbitration  and  to  consider 
other  questions  of  international  importance."*  The  sixteenth 
conference  was  held  at  Bruascls  in  August-September,  1910. 

*  At  the  third  congress  of  the  new  series,  held  at  Rome  in  1891, 
was  created  the  Bureau  International  de  la  Faix.  This  moat  useful 
institution,  which  has  its  offke  at  Bern,  aervea  as  a  means  of  bringing 
and  keeping  together  all  the  known  peace  societies.  Its  Corre* 
spondanee  btmensuelte  and  Annuaire  du  mouvement  pacifiste  arc  well 
known,  and  its  obItg[ing  hon.  secretary,  Dr  A.  Gobat,  is  always  mtdy 
to  supply  information  from  the  now  eonstderable  archives  of  the 
Bureau.  In  this  connexion  we  may  mention  that  the  aecrcCary 
of  the  London  Peace  Society,^  Dr  Evans  Darby,  has  edited  an 
exhaustive  collection  of  materials  called  Jnlernationat  TribuMis. 
His  statements  every  two  years  on  the  progress  of  arbitration  at 
the  International  Law  Association  meetings  also  form  an  excellent 
source  of  materials  for  reference. 

*  Art.  I  of  Statutes  revised  Sept.  1908. 


i6  PEACE,  BREACH  OF  THE— PEACE  CONFERENCES 


The  Nobel  Committee  owe*  Us  existence  to  the  witt  of  the 
late  Alfred  B.  Nobel  (1833-1896),  the  inventor  of  dynamite,  who 
left  a  considerable  fortune  for  the  encouragement  of  men  who 
work  for  the  benefit  of  humanity.  The  interest  of  this  money 
was  to  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  to  be  distributed  every 
year  as  rewards  to  the  persons  who  had  deserved  best  of  mankind 
in  five  departments  of  human  activity.  The  cUuses  of  tiie  will 
governing  the  distribution  of  these  prices  are  as  foUows^^ 

"  The  entire  sum  shall  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  one  to 
go  to  the  man  who  shall  have  made  the  most  important  discovery 
or  invention  in  the  domain  of  physical  science;  another  to  the  man 
who  shall  have  made  the  most  important  discoveiv  or  introduced 
the  greatest  improvement  in  chemistry;  the  third  to  the  author 
of  the  mo6t  important  discovery  in  the  dcmiain  of  phyMology  or 
medicine;  the  fourth  to  the  man  who  shall  have  produced  the 
most  remarkable  work  of  an  idealistic  nature;  and,  finallv,  the 
fifth  to  the  man  who  shall  have  done  the  most  or  best  work  for  the 
fraternity  of  nations,  the  suppression  or  reduction  ol  standing 
armies,  and  the  formation  ana  propagation  of  peace  congresses. 
The  prizes  shall  be  awarded  as  follows:  For  physical  science  and 
chemistry,  by  the  Swedish  Academjr  of  Sciences;  for  physiological 
or  medical  work,  by  the  Caroline  Institution  at  Stockholm;  for  litera- 
ture, by  the  Stockholm  Academy,  and  for  peace  work,  by  a  com- 
mittee of  five  members  elected  by  the  Norwegian  Storthing'  It 
is  my  express  desire  that,  in  awarding  the  prizes,  no  account  shall 
be  taken  of  nationality,  in  order  that  the  prize  may  fall  to  the  lot 
of  the  roost  deserving,  whether  he  be  Scandinavian  or  not." 

Peace  v.  War. — Peace  ts  the  ultimate  object  of  all  statecraft 
•—peace  in  the  development  of  the  domestic  activities  of  the 
nation  administered,  and  peace  in  the  relations  of  states  with 
one  another.  For  the  purpose  of  ensuring  peace  an  expensive 
diplomacy  is  maintained  by  all  states,  and  to  perpetuate  it 
treaties  are  entered  into  by  states  with  one  another.  Even  war 
has  no  other  avowed  purpose  than  that  of  placing  specific 
international  relations  on  a  definite  footing.  Ultimate  peace 
is  uniformly  proclaimed  by  every  dictator  at  home,  by  every 
conqueror  abroad,  as  the  goal  to  which  he  is  directing  his  efforts. 
And  yet  dissentient  voices  are  sometimes  heard  defending  war 
as  if  it  were  an  end  in  itself.  Without  going  back  to  the  well- 
known  refrfy  of  Count  Moltke  to  Professor  Bluntschli  respecting 
the  Manual  ef  Ike  Laws  oj  War  drawn  up  by  the  Institute  of 
International  Law  in  1880,*  we  need  only  quote  that  highly 
up-to-date  philosopher,  Niettsche: "  It  is  mere  illusion  and  pretty 
sentiment/'  he  olMcrves,  **  to  expect  much  (even  anything  at 
all)  from  mankind  if  it  forgets  how  to  makb  war.  As  yet  no 
means  are  known  which  call  so  mudi  into  action  as  a  great  war, 
that  rough  energy  bom  of  the  camp,  that  deep  impersonality 
bom  of  hatred,  that  consdcnce  bom  of  murder  and  cold-blooded- 
ness, that  fervour  bom  of  effort  in  the  annihihition  of  the  enemy, 
that  proud  indifference  to  loss,  to  one's  own  existence,  to  that 
of  one's  fellows,  to  that  earthquake-like  soul-shaking  which  a 
people  needs  when  it  is  losing  its  vitality."  * 

It  is  pleasant  to  contrast  this  neurotic  joy  of  one  onlooker 
with  the  matter-of-fact  reflexions  of  another,  the  late  W.  E.  H. 
Lecky.  "  War  "  he  says  "  is  not,  and  never  can  be  a  mere 
passionless  discharge  of  a  painful  duty.  It  is  in  its  essence, 
and  it  is  a  main  condition  of  its  success,  to  kindle  into  fierce 
exercise  among  great  masses  of  men  the  destructive  and  com- 
bative passions — passions  as  fierce  and  as  malevolent  as  that 
with  which  the  hound  hunts  the  fox  to  its  death  or  the  tiger 
springs  upon  its  prey.  Destmction  is  one  of  its  chief  ends. 
Deception  is  one  of  its  chief  means,  and  one  of  the  great  arts 
<A  skilful  generalship  is  to  deceive  in  order  to  destroy.  Whatever 
other  elements  may  mingle  with  and  dignify  war,  this  at  least 
is  never  absent;  and  however  reluctantly  men  may  enter  into 
war,  however  conscientiously  they  may  endeavour  to  avoid  it, 
they  must  know  that  when  the  scene  of  carnage  has  once  opened, 
these  things  must  be  not  only  accepted  and  condoned,  but 
stimulated,  encouraged  and  applauded.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  conceive  a  disposition  more  remote  from  the  morals  of 
ordinary  life,  not  to  speak  of  Christian  ideals,  than  that  with 

*  **  Pemetual  peace,"  he  said,  *'  is  a  dream,  and  it  is  not  even 
a  beautiiul  dream.  War  is  an  clement  in  the  order  of  the  world 
ordained  by  God  .  .  .  Without  war  the  world  would  stagnate 
and  lose  it^^lf  in  materialism." 

'  Menschliches,  AUzumenschlicha,  No.  477. 


which  the  soldiers  most  animated  with  the  fire  and  passion  that 
lead  to  victory  rush  forward  to  bayonet  the  foe.  ...  It  is  allow- 
able to  deceive  an  enemy  by  iabricatcd  despatches  purporting 
to  come  from  his  own  side;  by  tampering  with  telcgraf^  mes- 
sages; by  spreading  false  intelligence  in  newspapers;  by  sending 
pretended  spies  and  deserters  to  give  him  untrue  rcporU  of  the 
numbers  or  movements  of  the  troops;  by  employing  false  signals 
to  lure  him  into  an  ambuscade.  On  the  use  of  the  flag  and 
uniform  of  an  enemy  for  purposes  of  deception  there  has  been 
some  controversy,  but  it  is  supported  by  high  military  authority. 
«  .  .  Hardly  any  one  will  be  so  confident  of  the  virtue  of  his 
rulers  as  to  believe  that  every  war  which  his  country  wages  in 
every  part  of  its  dominions  with  uncivilized  as  well  as  civilized 
populations,  is  just  and  necessary,  and  it  is  certainly  prima, 
facie  not  in  accordance  with  an  ideal  morality  that  men  should 
bind  themselves  absolutely  for  life  or  for  a  term  of  yean  to  kiU 
without  question,  at  the  command  of  their  superiors,  those  who 
have  personally  done  them  no  wrong."* 

Surely  with  all  the  existing  activity  in  the  removal  of  causes 
of  war,  in  the  reduction  to  precise  expression  of  the  ndcs  of  law 
governing  the  relations  of  states  with  one  another,  in  the  creation 
of  international  judicatures  for  the  application  of  these  rules,  in 
the  concluding  of  treaties  specifically  framed  to  facilitate  the 
pacific  settlement  ol  difficulties  diplomacy  may  have  failed  to 
adjust,  in  the  promotion  of  democratic  civilian  armies  with 
everything  to  lose  by  war,  and  all  the  other  agencies  which  have 
been  described  abovci  the  hope  seems  warranted  that,  in 
no  distant  future,  life  among  nations  will  become  still  more 
closely  assimilated  to  life  among  citizens  of  the  same  nation, 
with  legislation,  administration,  reform  all  tending  to  the  one 
great  object  of  law,  order  and  peace  among  men.        (T.  Ba.) 

PEACE,  BREACH  OF  THE.  Theoretically  all  criminal  offences 
cognizable  by  English  bw  involve  a  breach  of  the  king's  peace, 
and  all  indictmenU  whether  for  offences  against  the  common 
law  or  by  sutute  conclude  "  against  the  peace  of  our  lord  the 
king,  his  crown  and  dignity."  Historically  this  phrase,  now 
legally  superfluous,  represents  the  last  trace  of  the  process  by 
which  the  royal  courts  assume  jurisdiction  over  all  offences,  and 
gra(]iudly  extruded  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sheriff  and  of  lords 
of  manora  and  franchises,  making  crime  a  matter  of  national 
concern  as  distinguished  from  dvil  wrongs  or  infractions  of  the 
rights  of  local  magnates,  or  of  the  rights  of  the  tribal  chiefs  of 
the  Teutonic  conqueron  of  Britain.  The  peace  of  the  king  was 
swom  on  his  accession  or  full  recognition,  and  the  jurisdiction  <A 
his  courts  to  pimish  all  violations  of  that  peace  was  gradually 
asserted.  The  completion  of  this  process  is  marked  by  the 
institution  of  the  office  of  justice  of  the  peace. 

In  modem  times  theexpression"  breach  of  thepeace"  is  usually 
limited  to  offences  involving  actual  tumult,  disturbances  or  dis- 
order. As  regards  such  offences,  although  they  do  not  fall  into 
the  class  of  grave  crimes  described  as  felonies,  officers  of  police 
and  even  private  persons  have  larger  powers  and  duties,  as  to 
Immediate  arrest  without  waiting  for  judicial  warrant,  than  they 
possess  as  to  other  minor  offences  (see  Arrest).  Justices  of  the 
peace  have  imder  early  statutes  and  the  commission  of  the 
peace  power  to  take  stircties  of  the  peace  from  persons  who  are 
threatening  to  commit  a  breach  of  the  peace,  and  it  b  within 
the  power  of  any  court  on  conviction  of  any  misdemeanour 
and  of  many  febnies  to  require  the  offender  to  enter  into  a 
recognizance  {q.v.)  to  keep  the  peace. 

PEACE  CONFERENCES,  the  official  title  of  the  two  inter- 
national conferences  held  at  the  Hague  in  1899  and  1907.  Both 
were  organized  at  the  instance  of  the  emperor  Nicholas  II.  of 
Russia.  The  chief  object  of  the  first  conference,'as  set  out  in  the 
note  of  Count  Mouraviev,  the  Russian  minister  ol  foreign  affairs 
(Jan.  iz,  1899),  was  to  arrive  at  an  "understanding  not 
to  increase  for  a  fixed  period  the  present  effectives  of  the 
armed  military  and  naval  forces,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to 
increase  the  budgets  pertaining  thereto;  and  a  preliminary 
examination  of  the  means  by  which  even  a  reduction 
might  be  effected  in  future  in  the  forces  and  budgets  above 
*  TU  Map  of  UJe^  1903,  pp.  92-97* 


PEACH,  C.  W. 


17 


."*  Hie  cQDfefenoe,  which  wu  attended  by  lepre- 
lentatives  of  26  states,  sat  from  the  i8th  of  May  to  the  39th 
of  July  1899. 

When  the  subject  of  excessive  annaments  came  up  for  dis- 
cussioD,  the  objections  of  the  German  military  del^ate  led  to 
its  abandoomcnt.  Other  veiy  unportant  matterSi  however,  were 
dealt  with,  and  three  momentous  conventions  wereadopted,viz. — 

I.  A  coavention  for  the  pacific  .settlement  of  international 


fl.  A  conventioa  rdatxng  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  war  by  land. 

III.  A  convention  for  the  adaptation  to  maritime  warfare  of  the 
principles  of  the  Geneva  Convention  of  the  22nd  of  August  t86d. 

Three  declarations  on  the  following  matters  were  alao  adopted: — 

a.  Prohibkton  of  the  launchine  of  projectiles  and  explosives  from 
balloons  or  bv  other  sinmsr  new  methods.* 

6.  Prohibition  of  Ote  use  of  projectiles  the  only  object  of  which 
is  the  diffusion  of  aisphyxiating  or  deleterious  gases. 

€.  Prohibition  of  the  use  of  bullets  which  expand  or  ftattcrr  eanly 
in  the  human  body,  such  as  bullets  with  a  hard  envelope,  of 
which  the  envelope  does  iK>t  entirely  cover  the  core,  or  is 
pierced  with  incisions. 

The  conference  furthermore  passed  the  following  resolutions: — 

"  The  Conference  is  of  opinion  that  the  restriction  of  military 
budgets,  which  are  at  present  a  heavy  burden  on  the  world,  is 
extremely  desirable  for  the  increase  of  the  material  and  moral  wdure 
of  mankind." 

"The  Conference,  taking  into  consideration  the  preliminary 
steps  taken  by  the  Swiss  Federal  Government  for  the  revision  of 
the  Geneva  Convention,  expresses  the  wish  that  steps  may  be  shortly 
taken  for  the  assembling  of  a  special  Conference,  having  for  its 
objert  the  revision  of  that  Convention." 

The  following  vaux  were  adopted,  but  not  unanimously: — 
'    "I.  The  Conference  expresses  the  wish  that  the  question  of  the 
rights  and  duties  of  neutrals  may  be  inserted  in  the  programme  of  a 
conference  in  the  near  future. 

"  2.  The  Conference  expresses  the  wish  that  the  questions  with 
regard  to  rifles  and  naval  guns,  as  considered  by  it.  may  be  studied 
by  the  Governments  with  the  object  of  comin?  to  an  agreement 
respecting  the  employment  of  new  types  and  calibres. 

'^3.  The  Conference  expresses  the  wish  that  the  Governments, 
taking  into  consideration  the  proposals  made  at  the  Conference, 
may  examine  the  possibility  of  an  agreement  as  to  the  limitation  of 
armed  forces  by  land  and  sea,  and  of  war  budgets. 

"  4.  The  Conference  expresses  the  wish  that  the  proposals  which 
contemplate  the  declaration  of  the  inviolability  of  private  property 
in  naval  warfare  may  be  referred  to  a  subsequent  conference  for 
consideration. 

"  5.  The  Conference  expresses  the  wish  that  the  proposal  to  settle 
the  question  of  the  bombardment  of  ports,  towns  and  villages  by 
naval  forces  may  be  referred  to  a  sutracquent  conference  for 
consideration." 

Great  Britain  signed  and  became  a  party  to  the  three 
Conventions,  but  not  to  all  the  declarations,  &c 

The  Conference  of  1907,  which  was  attended  by  representatives 
of  forty^four  states,  sat  from  the  15th  of  June  to  the  i&th  of 
October.  Again,  in  spite  of  the  resolution  and  vow  on  arma- 
ments handol  down  from  the  Conference  of  1899  this  subject 
was  waived,  but  still  more  important  conventions  than  in  1899 
were  adopted  on  other  matters.    These  were  as  follows: — 

I.  Convention  for  the  pacific  settlement  of  international 
di«>utes.'  ^  , 

n.  Convention  respecting  the  limitation  of  the  employment  of 
force  for  the  recovery  of  contract  debts. 

III.  Convention  relative  to  the  commencement  of  hostilities. 

tV.  Conventions  concerning  the  laws  and  customs  of  war  on 
land.' 

V.  Convention  respectiiu;  the  rights  and  duties  of  neutral  powen 
and  persons  in  war  on  landT 

Vf.  Convention  relative  to  the  status  of  enemy  merchant-ships 
at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities. 

>  At  the  Conference  the  Russian  government,  further  develoi»ng 
the  proposal,  submitted  the  following  details  ^— 

"  I.  Establishfflent  of  an  international  understtoding  for  a  term 
of  five  years,  edpulathig  nbifincreaae  of  the  present  fiqgures  of  the 
peace  effective  of  the  troc^  ke(H  up  for  home  use. 

"  2.  Fixation,  in  case  of  this  understanding  being  arrived  at, 
and,  if  possible,  of  the  figures  of  the  peace  effective  of  all  the  powers 
exceptine  colonial  troops. 

"  5.  Maintenance  for  a  like  term  of  five  yean  of  the  asaoont  of 
the  military  budgets  at  pceseat  in  force." 

'  This  Conference  was  held  at  Geneva  in  June-July  1906.  The 
Tcvised  Convention,  composed  of  33  articles,  is  dated  July  6,  1906. 

*TIh8  is  an  amended  edition  of  that  of  18991 

XXI    I* 


VII.  .CoBVentios  rdafive  to  the  eonTeraioB  of  hMtchant-chipe 
into  war-^ips. 

Vlli.  Convention  reladve  to  the  laying  of  automatic  submarine 
contact  mines. 

IX.  Conventioo  respecting  bombardment  by  naval  forces  In 
time  of  war. 

X.  Conventions  for  the  adaptation  of  the  principles  of  the  Geneva 
Convention  to  maritime  war.* 

XI.  (invention  relative  to  certain  restrictions  on  the  exercise 
of  the  right  of  capture  in  maritime  war.* 

XII.  Convention  relative  to  the  establishment  of  an  international 
prize  court. 

XIII.  Convention  respecting  the  rights  and  duties  of  neutral 
powers  in  maritime  war. 

XIV.  Declaration  prohibiting  discharge  of  projectiles,  &c..  'rom 
balloons.* 

A  draft  CoDventton  relative  to  the  creation  of  a  judicial 
arbitration  court  was  also  drawn  up  hi  connexion  with  Uie  first 
of  the  four  following  1Mwx^^ 

I.  The  Conference  calb  the  attention  of  the  signatory  jpowera 
to  the  advisability  of  adopting  the  annexed  draft  convention  for 
the  creation  of  a  judicial  arbitration  court,  and  of  bringing  it  into 
forae  as  soon  as  an  agreement  has  been  reached  respecting  the  selec- 
tion  of  the  judges  and  the  constitution  of  the  court. 

2.  The  Conference  expresses  the  ocnnion  that,  in  case  of  war,  the 
responsible  authorities,  civil  as  well  as  military,  should  make  it 
their  special  duty  to  ensure  and  safeguard  the  maintenance  of  pacific 
relations,  more  .especially  of  the  oommereial  and  industrial  relations 
between  the  inhabitants  of  the  belligerent  states  and  neutral 
countries. 

3.  The  Confei^nce  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  powers  should 
regulate,  by  special  treaties,  the  position,  as  regards  military  charges, 
of  foreignera  residing  within  their  territories. 

4.  The  Conference  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  preparation 
of  regulations  relative  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  naval  war  should 
figure  in  the  programme  of  the  next  conference,*  and  that  in  any 
case  the  powers  may  apply,  as  far  as  possible,  to  war  by  sea  the 
principles  of  the  Convention  rdative  to  the  laws  and  customs  of 
war  <m  land. 

Finally,  the  Conference  recommended  to  the  powers  the 
assembly  of  a  Third  Peace  Conference,  and  it  called  their  atten- 
tion to  the  necessity  of  preparing  the  programme  of  this  Third 
Conference  a  sufficient  time  in  advance  to  ensure  its  deliberations 
being  conducted  with  the  necessary  authority  and  expedition. 

In  order  to  attain  this  object  the  Conference  considered  that  it 
"  would  be  very  desirable  that,  some  two  years  before  the  probable 
date  of  the  meeting,  a  preparatory  committee  should  be  charged 
by  the  governments  with  the  task  of  collecting  the  various 
proposals  to  be  submitted  to  the  Conference,  of  ascertaining  what 
subjects  are  ripe  for  embodiment  in  an  international  regukition, 
and  of  preparing  a  programme  which  the  governments  should 
decide  upon  in  sufficient  time  to  enable  it  to  be  carefully  examined 
by  the  countries  interested,"  and  that  this  committee  should 
further  be  entrusted  with  the  task  of  proposing  a  system  of 
organixation  and  procedure  for  the  Conference  itself.  (T.  Ba.) 

PEACH,  CHARLES  WILLIAM  (1800-1886),  British  naturaUst 
and  geologist,  was  bom  on  the  30th  of  September  1800  at  Wans- 
ford  in  Northamptonshire;  his  father  at  the  time  was  a  saddler 
and  harness-maker,  and  afterwards  became  an  innkeeper 
farming  about  80  acres  of  land.  He  received  an  elementary 
education  at  Wansford  and  at  Folkingham  in  Lincolnshire;  and 
assisted  for  several  years  in  the  inn  and  farm.  In  1824  he  was 
appointed  riding  officer  in  the  Revenue  Coast-guard  at  Weybourn 
in  Norfolk.  Sea-weeds  and  other  marine  organisms  now 
attracted  his  attention,  and  these  he  zealously  collected.  His 
duties  during  the  next  few  years  led  him  to  remove  successively 
to  Sheringham,  Hasboro  (Happisburgh),  Cromer  and  Cley,  all  in 
Norfolk.  In.  the  course  of  his  ramUes  he  met  the  Rev.  James 
Layton,  curate  at  Catfield,  who  lent  him  books  and  assisted  in 
laying  the  foundations  of  accurate  knowledge.  About  the  year 
1830  he  was  transferred  to  Charmouth  in  Dorset,  thence  to  Beer, 
and  Paignton  in  Devon,  and  to  Gortan  Haven  near  Mevagissey 
in  Cornwall.   Here  he  continued  to  pursue  his  zoological  studies 

*  This  is  an  amended  edition  of  that  of  i899> 

*  This  was  practically  a  re<«nactment  of  that  of  1899. 

*  This  has  since  been  done  to  a  large  extent  by  the  Conference  of 
London  (1908-1909).  See  Blockade,  CoNTEAB AND,  Intbenatiokal 
Law  pBACt. 


picpiring  hii  History  e/  lit  Briiiik  Zoapkyltl  (iSiS).  Il  »u 
here  IDO  that  he  £nl  (ound  tresili  in  ume  ol  the  alder  rocks 
pieviouiJy  reguded  u  UDfaauliferoiu — Lhe  dlicoveiy  of  which 
prgved  (he  preHcce  o[  Biii  Beds  (Ordaviciin  or  Lower  Silurian) 
in  the  nei^bourlwod  o(  Gomn  Haven.  In  1S41  hereadapq>«r 
before  Ibe  British  Association  at  Plymouth  "On  Ihe  Fossil 
Organic  Remains  lound  on  the  soulh'Cut.  coast  <A  Cornwall." 
and  in  t&«J  he  brought  before  the  Royal  Ceato(ical  Socict 


ivey;  and  In  1 
(i8sj),  ~hei 


ount  of  hi 
I  Polperro. 


'eryofhahrci 


a  fttaY 


.e[)evo 


a  sojourn  at  Durness  he  lirst  found  fosu 

linieslonc(i354).    Peich  retired  from  the  (ovcmnHni  service  in 

1B61.  and  died  at  Ediabutih  on  the  iSlh  ol  February  iS3«. 

Bio^apSical  ncrilcCp  vith  portrait.  In  5.  Smilcs's  RjAert  Did, 
Buttr.  4  Tliurio,  GnltiisI  tni  Baania  (1878), 

PBACH.  the  name  of  a  fruit  ln!e  which  Is  included  by  Beniham 
and  Hooker  (Ceitfa  flanliiriim,  I.  610)  under  the  genu]  PrMHia 
{Prunm  pmiia).  its  resemblance  to  the  plum  is  Indeed  obvious. 
Olhen  have  ckued  ii  with  the  almond  as  a  distinct  genus. 
Aniyt4i!liit-.  while  olhcis  again  have  considoed  il  suffidendy 


general  lerma  tbe  peach  may  be  said  to  be  a  mediuirt-slMd 
with  lanceolate,  stipulate  leaves,  borne  on  long,  tlender, 
relatively  unbranched  shoots,  and  with 
the  flowers  arranged  singly,  or  In  groups 
ol  two  or  more,  at  intervals  along  the 
shoots  of  the  previous  yeu'i  growih. 

base  baring  at  ill  free  edge  five  sepals. 
an  equal  number  of  petals,  usually  con- 
cave  ot  spoon-shaped,  ^ak  or  white, 
and  a  great  number  ol  itameiu.    Tbe 
its  of  a  single  carpel  with  ill 
.  ovary,  style,  stigma  and  sojjEaiy  ovule 
';  or  twin  ovules.     The  fruit  is  ■  drufw 
(fig.  t)  having  a  thin  outer  skin  (epi- 
rp.        carp)  enclosing  the  flesh  of  the  peach 
xaip.  (mesaciipj.lheiBnerlayersof thecarpd 
^^  li  ine  becoming  woody  to  form   the  stone. 

■etaornrnei.  KK\e  the  ovule  ripens  into  the  kernel 

or  s«d.  This  is  exactly  the  structure  ol 
the  plum  or  apricot,  and  differs  from  that  of  the  almond,  which  is 
identical  in  the  first  instance,  only  in  the  dicumslance  that  the 
fleshy  put  of  the  latter  eventually  becomes  dry  and  leathety  ud 
cracks  open  along  a  Bne  called  the  suture. 

The  nectarine  is  a  variation  from  the  peach,  mainly  chaiac- 
tericed  by  the  drcumstance  that,  whGe  the  skin  of  the  ripe 

the  nectarine.    Thai  there  is  no  essential  difference  between  the 
two  is,  however,  shown  by  the  foctsthat  the  seeds  of  the  peach 


n,    though 

ill    eiceptlonal,    to    see    peaches 

and 

nectarine! 

ontbesarne 

ranch,  and  fn 

cs  of  both  ne< 

tarioes  and  peoches 

The 

ol  the  peach 

re  formed  th 

and  this  tac 

.  together  w. 

h  the  peculiarities  0 

their 

3  and 

position,  requ 

ret  to  be  bor 

B,  in  mind  by  the  ga 

In  his  pruning  and  train 

ng  operations. 

Tbe  only  pomt  of  pract  ical 

...  _      .      m  here  is  the  very  singular  fact  attested 

by  all  peach-growers,  that,  while  certain  peaches  are  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  mildew,  others  are  not.  In  the  cose  ot  the  peach  this 
peculiarity  is  in  some  wsy  connected  with  the  pretence  of  small 
glandular  outgrowths  on  the  stalk,  or  at  the  base  of  the  leaf. 
Some  peaches  have  globular,  others  reniform  glands,  others  none 
■        re  aubject  to  mildew 


Tlw  hi 


with  glands. 


h  diHercni^hspol 


and,l.evin- 

I  -'  bWtn." 
wnd.    Tba 


I  in  other  wrilvofs 
4u^ion  makea  do 


■  peiioiL     Once 


>  like  a  wild  peach 
I  both  peach  and 


Hi  necurine  is  the 
iltiply  tbe  cholcB 

:ks  are  preferable, 
clayey  loams  it  If 
-working  is  »me- 


PEACH 


hum,  HtA  u  i*  lolUfile  for  tbt  vine  iiid  tb*  6t:  thJuHiatM  he 
ncd  Id  u  rough  ■  Mmle  u  possibte,  or  not  bnikai  uuU  and  Sne. 
Tlw  boltom  should  slope  toward*  the  outer  edge,  where  a  dniH 
•bould  be  nt,  wHh  an  ouUct,  and  on  this  ilnfHng  botton  should 
b«  kid  a  thjckuess  of  from  g  m.  to  11  En.  of  rough 
ntch  u  broken  bricks  01  monn  rubblib,  over  which 
ptaced  a  layrr  of  toUKh  tuif  with  the  grassy  side  downwards,  and 
Um  the  good  ]i»my  toil  to  form  the  border,  which  iboutd  hai 
4qKh  of  aboul  9  It.  6  in.  The  pacb-lree  is  moil  prodnetive 
when  tb«  toou  ttt  kepi  neat  the  lurface,  and  the  borders,  whicb 
tbould  belnHnRtl,  to  itll.  wide,  should  not  be  cropped  heaviljr 
•ilh  cnUnary  mgttlbhsi  u  deep  Irenchiog  is  very  injurfoui. 
Sickly  nd  unlrulilul  irea  mar  often  be  revived  by  brining  up 
Ihcir  roots  within  ;  or  fi  in.  of  lh«  sutfacT.  It  is  questlMiable 
whether  ii  ii  not  beLier,  in  mid  aoil)  and  blak  silualioas,  (o 
abandon  oatdooi  peach  culture,  and  to  rover  ibe  wiBt  otLb  ■ 
cuing  ol  fjass,  so  that  Ihe  trees  may  be  onder  aheller  dtiring  the 

The  fnik  of  the  jitmch  <•  produced  en  the  lipened  rf>09M  of  the 

pwcdiic  Ifnar.    If  ihno  be  too  lumiBat.  Ihcy  yield  luxhia  bsi 
kaves;  aod  if  too  vnak,  tbry  on  incagable  ta  devtiopinf  now 


00  vnak,  tbry  on  incagable  of  devtiopin^ 

^renrth,  11  Ibe  Ercflt  ot>ject  at  pcaeb  iraininff  and  pnioinv 

landW-mwini,  iwifgy  habil  naturall)'  (alT  moK  tndif 

a  form  of  tmlning,  andaccordinsly  this  has  Bncralty  bun 

.  >     adopred  io  the  culiure  0 

'      peachcft  ami  r>ecUiiite»  (fig 

I).    The  yoking  tt»  <>.  11 

il'Ks^oTniiTied"  (o 

_    aliP^et  10  bUn  ihM 
—    makten   pla-11— llial   i.,    , 

£h».bcen  budded  %^ 


In  (he  following 


I  ncbc*  are  obtained,  formi  At  ■ 
tRC.  ThcbniKhesny,be 


r  adopted,  the  m 


tkK  buds,  and  in  the  foIlDw] 
acoading  to  the  vigour  of  1 
fiDB  wbidi,  if  any.  are  Ihhia 
vr  four  branches,  the  two  c 

aim  being  laid  in  nearly  at 
addhibnal  shooii  are  aent  fa 
•ighl  or  Itn  principcl  limbs  or 

depreucd  or  clcvaicd^  ao  as  ti 


being  from  Ibe  fint  laid  ii 

•horttned.    The  pruning  l_.  „ ... , ,.,, 

hlersls  which  had  been  nailrd  in  K  <he  diibuddini.  or  tonmicr 
inning,  thdr  leriEtti  depending  en  their  individual  vironr  and  the 
Iiuuriancc  of  the  tree.  In  weli-devtloptd  gheots  rhe  buda  are 
pnerally  double,  or  rather  triple,  a  wood  bud  growing  between  two 
fruit  budi:  the  >hixii  must  be  cut  back  to  one  of  ihesc,  or  die 
to  a  wood  bod  alone,  so  that  n  ^una  ^oot  may  be  produced  Id 
draw  irp  the  Bp  beyond  Ihe  Iruir,  thj&  beiizr  geneiaAy  dennble 
to  leciire  ill  pf^rr  ■welling.  The  point  ol  lhi>  Icadini  shoot 
u  luhHquFntly  pinched  oOT  that  it  may  not  draw  away  too 

when  as  laige  as  nuts  to  didntnite  the  crop  equalty:  lire  ot- 
leai  of  the  thinning  muet  depend  on  the  vigour  of  the  tree, 
but  one  or  two  Ituiti  ultimately  kfl  10  cnch  square  foot  of  wall 
is  a  full  ivnage  crop.    The  final  thinning  ihould  lake  place  alter 

The  brM'pIaced  health];  young  shoot  i>Iodut^ed  from  the  wood 


which  constitutes  the  principal  fault  in  eartying  nut  t 
fan  tyslein.  ai  it  ia  uiually  praetiwrf.  Sewral  times  duri 
the  Inei  ov^  to  be  iieiilarHr  cnuninsd,  and  Ibg  yo 
ttiMcuvely  topped  or  thinanl  oat;  Ibose  that  remain 
nailnl  to  the  wall,  or  bnccd  In  wilh  pirces  of  ijendcr  l*i 
trees  ought  occnsionally  10  be  wished  wilh  the  satdcii 
rtiorooghly  syringed,  espenaly  during  very  hoi  aumni 
(■thnrng  the  fnm  aU  the  woid  not  needed  let  meniSi 


re  lathe  lu,^. 

. .  .Mian  of  four,  ac 

M  wall  thai  the  eeattal  angle  eo 


w  otHection  thai,  if  the  under  branch  should  di., 
nnot  be  bronghi  down  into  iti  place. 
1  la  Dumouthr  Ifig.  a),  in  tailed  from  its  taventor 
taKmenl  on  the  MoDtmiil  method.    The  format 


S'nching  off  Ihe  poults  of  thoae  which  arr  necowar 
nit,  A  replacing  shoot  is  thus  obtained,  to  whii 
invariably  shortened  at  Ihe  end  if  the  year. 

Seymoor'i  form  (fig.  5)  appnaches  more  nearly 
nwrhmi  than  aay  Dther  pnctiacd  ia  Engbod ;  but  it 


Fio.  J.— Seymour's  Fan  Training. 
ia  pet  suppmaad,  BAd  Ihis  rvulta  in  the  pndDctn  a 
f  unoqual  vigour,  which  is  very  ondcsirabie. 
and  late  situations  Thomas  Andrew  Knigtit  reon«piai4cd 
agement  of  spurs  on  the  young  mod,  as  such  spurs,  when 
K  wad,  pneraie  Ihe  but  ornniced  and  most  vigomua 


wood,  only  pinching  off  the  minul 


■  diibiiildUff. 


lice  ii  well  adapted  id  cold  dtuationi 
rctnn.  eapecially   at   tha  period  of 
nonh  si  En^and  and  in  5rMlxid.    v-~'p- 
^ — .  ^fl_^.._i      n..  -ipplying  these  early  in  i 


Cuiiling  icteent  are  nun  effectual.    _.     ...    .. 

in.  great  bcneht  may  be  derived  from  retatdinE  >-n.- 

:hF  iToely  nights  of  spring  have  passed.  Wooden  a 
cDpingi  are  alw  very  useful  in  wardiat  off  frosts.  Can 
taken  (hat  the  iDoli  ahriys  hav*  a  wfbdtnt  svpply  of 


■heptuninj 
differ  <n>t> 


whoever,  the  r 
Ited'hen 

L.4"neMT^h«"rI 


ed  aad  forced 

commonly  applini  about 


PEACHAM— PEACOCK,  G. 


tndiully,  and  at  fiiR  Us  luMB  ikould  be  SKrcty  kcoi  OnuA  ■! 
lerDpenlun  of  about  4S*.  bat  ^  heat  ■bould  gniJually  inmue 
50*  al  oiiht  by  the  tinie  ttt  treo  uc  in  Aavcr,  iwd  u>  »  when  tl 
fniil  i>  HI,  alts  wbidi  the  hWKibould  belnot  mout  by  ipcii '  " 
the  walla  and  paiha.or  by  pUdas  water  tnucki  on  tbs  return 
and  the  te  '        ' 


»y  pUda£  water  troucBi 
ouCd  nnie  Irom  dfl*  by 


Lure  ifaoukl  nnie  Irom  (iflMiy  day  to  70*  or  n 
J  IB  ihe  f  tult  baa  Bel,  tfae  foliacc  ahould  be  refre*] 


lornKd— Che  tempantuie  dwaM  be  niml  IDabaui6s°uaiiuiuniun> 
■nd  to  70',  with  H*  by  aoa  hnt. «  a  muiniuni.  Water  mun  m* 
becajMiulyiupplied  to  Ifae  border,  and  air  admitted  in  abundaim 
bul  cold  dnugbu  wluch  favour  the  attack  of  BiildcD  muu  b. 
avoided.  After  the  end  at  Aixillilde  fin  heat  i>  required.  Whei 
'*"  ''  it  brvina  to  ripen,  ayrindnE  raurt  be  diicr~~'~'  ""  ''"  ^'- 


durioE  tbe  ripenlH  ptoceaa  but  at  any  tir.-^  ^ —   _ 

Kriod,  tbey  mndafac  ffeBdr  cumed  aifde,  lor,  in  orda 
lit  nay  acquire  nod  colour  and  lavour,  it  tiiouid 
eApoHd  to  Ufht  and  air  when  ripening:  it  inil  bear  the  d 


ifter  the  eioni 
■«  (hat  [ 
i  _be  ire. 

rhidi  ia  bat  preYented  by  keeptpa  (be  harden  of  t 
Rclear  and  nRklently  nioiit  and  thelicuic  well  ventilair 
KHild  appear  the  tieei  iltDuld  be  rprnyed  wlih  1  oa.  poti 
lide  devolved  in  3  EDlkma  c(  water-  Care  niiut  ba  taken 
fungicide  not  to  wet  the  punted  wood,  aa  it  ia  anre 


bccimK  diKolouTcd. 

Peacha  and  uectatinea  an  frequinlly  cnlllvattd  In 
pDii,  and  ire  then  aiually  trained  ai  pynmida,  and  Is 
ai  hatf-standardi.  The  pottins  muiE  be  done  very  t 
turfy   loam  with   which   a   lillfe  mortar   lubble  has  I 


et  of  their  ripenlnf  ^-^ 


Halea'iEariy  .  .  b. 
Rivera-a  Early  YoA  b. 
AIkc  .  .  .  .  m 
Crimun  Galande  .  e. 
Crawford'.  Early  .  j  ^ 
Gtouc  Mtgnoone      j  t' 


Cardinal  (under  ElaH)e 


Royal  GeoTfis  , 

Bellenrde    .  .' 
Beile^auca 

Dymood,     .  . 


m.    Sept. 


,  SnEaile 

■  WatbuitonAdiairaMe}^  ^■ 

■■  s»i«y  .    .    .■    .  ]£-.  g^, 

.  PiinceHslWaka    .      •-.  Oct; 


)e.     Am 
Stanw<cli(u 


Pitnuaton  Orange 

:  vi.k«.inu«.    .|E;    gji 

.    Victoria  (under  glan)  Sept. 

.     Pineapple      .       .       -     b.      Sef^- 

Stanwiclr  Elnige       ;    b.     Sept- 

.    Humbolt      .      .      .     m.    Sept 

iderglaa.)ni*SepI.. 

PBACBAH,  BEHRT  (<.  iil6-t.  1643),  Engliah  wiiler,  waa 

the  Eon  ol  Henry  PcBChain,  cuiate  of  Nutlh  Mimma.  Ilettlord- 

shire,  and  author  of  a  book  on  rhetoric  called  the  Caritn  ef 

ic  (1577)-    The  elder  Pcacham  becar 


Levert 


t   Trinity 


College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  iS5«-'i9S 
M.A.  in  is^a.  Hcwasfar»mcliineBschiMlniailctat  Wymond- 
ham,  Norfolk,  but  utiled  in  London  in  iGii,  earning  hia  living 
aa  tutor  to  young  tncn  prepariog  for  the  univemtiea.  His  fiiat 
book  was  Crapkia  (1606),  a  IrrallK  on  pen  and  waler-colour 
dlawiag.  which,  as  The  CtMcman'!  Earcisc,  passed  through 
three  edi  lions.  The  years  161  j- 161 4  he  spent  abroad,  part  of 
the  time  *a  tutor  to  Ibe  Ibree  young  sons  of  Thomai  Howard 
( I  ;8;-i64fi},  earl  of  Arundel,  «nd  partly  on  his  uwn  account.  He 
IravcUed  in  Italy,  France,  Westphalia  and  the  Netherlands. 
The  table  of  Sir  John  Ogle,  Engliah  governor  of  Utrecht,  was,  he 
says,  a  "  liitte  academy."  whei«  be  met  soMicn  and  Khalaia  of  all 
nnlionalities.  When  he  returned  to  London  he  was  accused  of 
libel  on  the  king.    Incriminating  papeiE  had  been  discovered  in 

who,  on  being  charged  wiib  an  attack  on  the  king  dcmed  tb« 


re  vrittca  by  > 


Is  in  London,  amoci 
'  Jonea,  and  lAvtii 
ippearad   Peacham'i 

rns  rqjrintcd  in 


authorahip,  stating  Ihat  tbey  wa 
divine,  a  scholar  and  a  traveller, 
easily  rebutted.  Peacham  had  m 
them  Thomas  Dowland  the  mosii 
Wright  the  nuthcmatidaiu  I 
magnum  opus,  the  Camfltal  C 
appeared  in  1616  and  liij.    The  iC 

1634,  and  a  third,  with  additional  notea  on  blaaoniy  l^  11 

Blount  (1617-1670],  aj^MBied  ia  i6&i.  The  book  i>  &  teat-book 
of  tnanoeifl  and  polite  leonungj  it  iodudei  chapter!  on  cumo* 
gtapby,  geometry,  poetry,  music,  antiquities,  painting,  the  liva 
of  the  painters,  the  "  art  of  limming  "  (Pcacham  himacU  was  a 
proEcicnt  engraver),  and  the  military  art,  including  the  order  of 
"  a  maine  battaHe  or  pitched  field  in  ogFlt  aevendl  wayea." 
The  book  diffen  from  the  Cmrlia  of  Castiglione,  which  bad  been 
the  guide  of  an  oatliei  generation.  Peacbam  wu  ■  Cavalier, 
even  an  ardent  polemist  in  the  royal  cause,  bul  the  (cnttal  point 
of  his  book  is  a  more  or  leas  Puritan  aentiment  of  duty.  Id  lua 
l4iter  yeaia  Peacham  waa  reduced  to  extreme  poverty,  and  is  said 
to  have  written  children's  books  at  a  penny  each.  His  list  boot 
was  published  in  1641,  and  it  may  be  concluded  (hat  he  died  soon 
afterwards. 

Ki>  other  worka  include:  tfrnm  BtUawnt  (1611),  deiUca><vl  •" 
Henry,  prince  of  Wak>;  TU  Paiod  a/  itmnini  (1613),  in  1 

.f  ^i- — ■ T^kaiig'r  BaivutI  (I*"- ^  -  ».-*»-  "I  — .i- 

>  LoKio*  (1641)    a 


{■6iO,,dK.    Ther 
tranilalion  by  Pa 

0(voLvi 


a  boA  of 


B.  of  JaiOM 


..  ,  .._   _l>lteclbn  of  P- 
Haildan  MS.  6B5}  u 


1B83). 


don  Preia;  the  A,l  0/  Lmiu  Is  reprinted 
-iTIulVMko/ n  Pay  ia  E.AAa-nEiiitiik 


PEACOCK,  EIS  BAMIES  (iSio-iSgo),  English  Judge,  wu  born 
in  lEio,  the  son  of  Lewis  Peacnck,  >  sdicitor.  After  paciisliig 
as  a  special  pleader,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  iSjC,  and  in 
1S44  obtained  great  reputation  fay  pointing  out  the  flaw  wbicb 
invalidated  the  conviction  of  Daniel  O'Conndl  and  his  fdlow 
defendants.  In  iBji  he  went  to  India  as  legil  member  ol  the 
govcmor-gcneml'a  council    He  here  displayed  great  activity  a*  » 

lor  native  susceptibilitia.  The  legislative  council  was  eatabHshed 
soon  after  his  arrival,  and  although  no  orator,  he  was  so  f  requenc 
a  speaker  that  legislation  enjoining  councillora  to  deliver  ihcit 
speecbes  sitting  was  said  to  have  been  devised  with  the  sole 
object  of  RstTaining  him.  Aa  a  member  of  Lord  Dalhoune'l 
council  he  supported  the  anneiation  of  Oudh,  and  be  stocd  by 
Lord  Canning  all  through  the  Mutiny.  In  tSj9  he  became  dud 
Justice  uf  the  Supreme  Court.  He  rctiuned  to  England  in  1870^ 
privy 


h  of  April  1; 


I  Hall,  I 


leied  bim 


.  near  Darlington, 


uable. 


1  Ibe 


Richmond,  Yorkshire, 
anaentereu  1  tinny  CoQege,  Cambridge,  in  1(109.  Hewaiiccond 
wrangler  in  iSi  >  (Sir  J.  F.  W.  Herschel  being  senior),  was  elected 
(etlon  of  bis  ctdlege  in  1814,  became  assistant  tutor  in  1815  and 
full  tutor  in  iSjj.  While  still  an  undergraduate  he  farmed  ■ 
league  with  John  Herechcl  and  Charles  Babbage,  to  conduct  the 
famous  struggle  of  "d-bm  ttfiics  dot-age."  which  ended  in  the 
iniToduciion  into  Cambridge  of  the  continental  notation  in  the 
infinitesinial  calculus  to  the  exclusion  of  the  fluxional  notation 
ol  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  This  was  an  important  reform,  not  so 
much  on  account  of  the  mere  change  of  notation  (lor  mathe- 
maticians f<^ow  J.  L.  Lagrange  in  using  both  these  notatioBS), 
but  because  it  ugnilied  the  opening  to  the  mathematicians  ol 
Cambridge  of  the  vast  storehouse  of  ointinental  discovaies. 
The  analytical  society  thus  formed  In  iSij  publisfaed  vaiiout 
memoirs,  and  tnnslsted  S.  F,  Loctrrii's  DiftrtuHal  Catnlni  In' 
1S16.  Peacock  powerfully  aided  the  movcraenl  by  publishing  la 
liio  A  CdUctie*  efExamfla  •flktAplikelion  a/ Us  Dijtraluil 
and  lultffl  Cofnilw.    In  1B41  he  published  a  pamphlet  oo  the 


PEACOCK,  T,  L. 


21 


MAhfvniiy  statutes,  in  which  h«r  indicated  tbe  mcasity  lor 
•  reiofiD'sand  ill  iSsoand  i35s  hcvras  amemberof  the  commision 
oC  inqoiiy  rdatfve  ip  the  vnfversity  of  Cambridge.  In  1837  he 
wa*  apfxyinted  Lowodean  profenor  of  astroaomy.  lb  1839  he 
took  the  d^KTee  of  D.D.,  and  the  same  ytur  was  appointmi  by 
Lord  Melbourne  10.  the. deanery  of  Ely.  Peacock  threw  UmaeU 
with  characteristic  ardour  into  the  duties  of  this  new  position. 
He  improved  the  sanitation  of  £iy,  published  in  1840  (MMrso/ioiu 
tm  Finns  for  Catkedrai  Keform,  and  carried  out  extensive  .works 
of  restoration  in  his  own  cathedral.  He  was  twice  prolocutor  of 
the  tower  house  of  convocation  for  tbe  province  of  Canterbury. 
He  was  also  a  prime  mover  in  the  establishment  of  the  Cambridge 
Astronomical  Observatory,  and  in  the  founding  of  the  Cambridge 
Philosophical  Society.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal,  Ro3rial 
Astronomical,  Geological  and  other  scientific  societies.  In  1838, 
and  again  in  1843,  ^^  ^^s  one  of  the  commissioners  for  standards 
of  weights  and  measures;  and  he  also  furnished  valuable  infor- 
mation Id  the  commissioners  on  dedmal  cdnage.  He  died  on 
the  8th  of  November  1858. 

Peacock's  original  contributibns  to  mathematical  science  were 
concerned  chiefly  with  the  philosophy  of  its  first  principles.  He 
did  good*  service  in  systematixing  the  operational  laws  of 
algebra,  and  in  throwing  light  upon  the  nature  and  use  of 
imaginarles.  He  published,  first-  in  1830,  and  then  in  an  enlaiiged 
form  in  1842,  a  Treatise  on  Aigebro^  in  wh^h  he  applied  his 
philosophical  ideas  concerning  algebnucal  analysia  to  the  chid* 
dation  of  Its  elements.  A  second  great  service  was  the  ptiUka* 
lion  in  the  Britisk  Association  Reports  for  1833  of  his  "  Report 
on  the  Recent  Progress  and  Present  State  of  certain  branches  of 
Analysis."  Modern  Ihathcmaticians  may  find  on  reading  this 
brilliant  summary  a  good  many  dicta  which  they  will  all  la 
question,  but,  whatever  its  defects  may  be,  Peacock's  report 
remains  a  work  of  permanent  value.  In  1855  he  publtthec^  a 
memoir  of  Thomas  Young,  and  about  the  same  tfane  there 
appeared  Young's  collected  works  in  three  volumes^  for  the  first 
two  of  which  Peacock  was  responsible. 

PBAOOCK,  THOMAS  LOVB  (r78s-i866),  English  novelist  and 
poet,  was  bom  at  Weymouth  on  the  18th  of  October  r785.  He 
was  the  only  son  of  a  London  glass  merchant,  who  died  soon  after 
the  child's  birth.  Young  Peacock  was  educated  at  a  private 
school  at  Englcfield  Green,  and  after  a  brief  experience  of  business 
determined  to  devote  himself  to*  literature,  whHe  living  with  his 
mother  (daughter  of  Thomas  Love,  a  naval  man)  on  their  private 
mestns.  His  first  books  were  poetical,  The  Monks  of  St  Ucrk 
(1804),  Palmyra  <i8o6),  The  Genius  of  Ike  Tkames  (1810),  Tke 
Pf^osopky  of  iieiandtoiy  (i8ia)  wotks  of  no  great  merit.  He 
also  made  several  draaiatic  attempts,  which  were  never  acted. 
He  served  for  a  short  time  as  secretary  to  Sir  Home  Pof^am  at 
Flushing,  and  paid  several  visits  to  Wales.  In  1812  he  became 
acquainted  %rith  Shelley*  In  i8r5he  evinced  his  peculiar  power 
by  writing  his  novel  Headlong  Hall,  It  was  published  in  1816, 
and  iidinconrt  followed  in  the  ensuing  year.  Daring  1817  he 
lived  at  Great  Marlow,  enjoying'  the  almost  daily  society  of 
Shelley,  and  writing  Nightmare  Abbey  and  Rkaiadapkm,  by  far 
the  IxMt  of  his  long  poems.  In  1B19  he  was  appointed  assistant 
examiner  at  the  India  House.  Peacock's  nomination  appears  to 
have  been  due  to  the  Influence  of  hts  old  schoolfellow  Peter 
Auber,  secretary  to  the  East  India  Company,  and  the  papers  be 
prepared  as  tests  of  his  ability  were  returned  with  the  comment, 
**  Nothing  Superfluous  and  nothing  wanting."  This  was  char- 
acteristic of  the  whole  of  his  Intellectual  work;  and  equally 
characteristic  of  Che  man  was  his  aiarriage  about  this  time  to 
Jane  Griflitb,  to  whom  he  proposed  by  letter,  not  hahdng  seen 
her  for  eight  years.  They  bad  four  children,  only  one  of  whom, 
a  son,  survived  his  father;  one  daughter  was  the  Aist  wife  of 
George  Metedlth.  His  novel  Udd  Marian  appeared  in  1822, 
Tke  Misfortunes  ofEifkin  fai  1829,  and  CroUket  CasUe  hi  1831; 
and  he  would  probably  have  written  more  but  for  the  death  in 
X833  of  his  mother.  He  also  contribated  to  the  Westminsler 
Reriew  and  the  Examiner.  Hisservkes  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, outside  the  usual  olBdal  routine,  were  considerable.  He 
it  aittOsfuUy  against  the  attacks  of  James  Silk 


BttcUni^afli  and  th&  Liverpool  salt  interest,  aad  made  the  sobfed 
of  steam  navigation  to  IncUa  peculiarly  his  own.  He  represented 
the  company  before  the  various  parliamentary  conmiittecs  on 
this  qu^ion;  and  in  1839  and  1840  superintended  the  con* 
structioa  of  iron  steamers,  which  not  only  made  the  voyage  round 
tbe  Cape  aooceasfully,  but  proved  very  useful  in  the  Chinese  War. 
He  also  drew  up  the  instructions  for  the  Euphrates  expedition 
of  1835,  subsequently  pronounced  by  its  commander.  General 
F.  R.  Chesney,  to  be  models  of  sagacity.  In  tSjd  he  succeeded 
James  Mill  as  chief  examiner,  and  in  1856  he*  retired  upon  a 
penston.  During  his  later  years  he  contributed  seveni  papers  to 
Praser*s  Magazine^  including  reminiscences  of  Shelley,  whose 
executor  he  was.  He  also  wrote  in  the  same  magaxine  his  last 
novel,  CryU  Grange  (i860),  inferior  to  his  earlier  writings  in 
humour  and  vigour,  but  sttti  a  surprising  effort  for  a  man  <rf  bis 
age.  He  died  on  the  23rd  of  January  1866  at  Lower  Halliford, 
near  Chertsey,  where,  so  far  as  his  London  occupatioiiis  would 
allow  him,  he  had  resided  for  more  than  forty  yean. 

Peacock's  position  in  Ehj^ish  literature  is  unique.  There  was 
nothing  like  his  type  of  novel  before  his  time;  though  there 
might  have  been  if  it  had  occurred  to  Svrift  to  invent  a  story  as  a 
vcMde  for  t  he  dialogue  of  his  Polile  Conversation.  Peacock  speaks 
as  well  in  his  own  person  as  through  his  puppets;  and  his  pithy 
wit  and  sense,  combined  with  remarkable  grace  and  accuracy 
of  natural  description,  atone  for  the  primitive  simplicity  of  plot 
and  chartcter.  Of  his  seven  fictions,  Nigktmare  Abbey  and 
Crolcket  CcMie  are  perhaps  on  the  whole  the  best,  the  former 
displaying  the  most  vis  comica  of  Situation,  the  latter  the  fullest 
maturity  of  intellectual  power  and  the  most  skilful  grouping  of 
the  motley  crowd  of  "  pcricctibilians,  dctcriorationists,  statu- 
quo-itcs,  phrenologists,  transccndcntalisls,  political  economists, 
theorists  in  all  sciences,  projectors  in  all  arts,  morbid  visionaries, 
romantic  enthusiasts,  lovers  of  music,  lovers  of  the  picturesque 
and  lovers  of  good  dinners,"  who  constitute  the  dramatis  personae 
of  tbe  Peacockian  noveL  Maid  Marian  and  Tke  Misfortunes  of 
Elpkin  are  hardly  less  entertaining.  Both  contain  descriptive 
passages  of  extraordinary  beauty.  Mdincourt  is  a  comparative 
failure,  the  excellent  idea  of  an  orang-outang  mimicking  humanity 
being  insufficient  as  the  sole  groundwork  of  a  novel.  Hoadiong 
Hall,  though  more  than  foreshadowing  the  author's  subsequent 
excellence,  is  marred  by  a  certain  bookish  awkwardness  char- 
acteristic of  the  redusc  student,  which  reappears  in  Gr^  Grange 
as  the  pedantry  of  an  old-fashioned  scholar,  whose  likes  and 
dislikes  have  become  inveterate  and  whose  sceptical  liberalism, 
always  rather  inspired  by  hatred  of  cant  than  enthusiasm  for 
progress,  has  petrified  into  only  too  earnest  conservatism.  The 
book's  quaint  resolute  pa^nism,  however,  is  very  refreshing  in 
an  age  eaten  up  with  introspection;  it  is  the  kindliest  of  Peacock's 
writings,  and  contains  the  most  beautiful  of  his  poems,  "  Years 
Ago,"  the  reminiscence  of  an  early  attachment.  In  general  the 
ballads  and  songs  interspersed  through  his  tales  are  models  of 
exact  and  melodious  diction,  and  instinct  with  true  feeling.  His 
more  ambitious  poems  are  worth  little,  except  Rkododapkne, 
attractive  as  a  story  and  perfect  as  a  composition,  but  destitute 
of  genuine  poetical  Inspiration.  His  critical  and  miscellaneous 
writings  are  always  Interesting,  especially  the  restorations  of 
tost  classical  plays  in  the  Horae  dramaticae,  but  the  only  one  of 
great  mark  is  the  witty  and  crushing  exposure  in  the  Weslmnster 
Reoiem  of  Thomas  Moore's  ignorance  of  the  manners  and  belief 
he  has  ventured  to  poitray  in  his  Epicurean.  Peacock  resented 
the  misrepresentation  of  bis  favourite  sect,  the  good  and  ill  of 
whose  tenets  were  fairly  represented  in  his  own  person.  Some- 
what sluggish  and  self-indulgent,  incapable  of  enthusiasm  or  self- 
sacrifice,  he  yet  possessed  a  deep  undemonstrative  kindliness  of 
nature;  he  could  not  bear  to  see  anyone  near  him  unhappy 
or  uncomfortable;  and  his  sympathy,  no  lesa  than  his  genial 
humour,  gained  him  the  attachment  of  children,  dependants, 
and  friends.  In  oflidal  life  he  waa  upri^t  and  oonsdeatious;  his 
judgment  *m$  shrewd  and  robust.  What  Shelley  justly  termed 
*'  the  lightness,  strength  and  chastity  "  of  his  diction  secures  him 
an  honourable  rank  among  those  English  writers  whoso  claims  to 
remembrance  depend  not  only  upon  matter  but  upon  style. 


i2 


PEAGOCK— PEALE,  C.  W. 


Intcd,  llanili  not  campludy.  ud  pub; 
unDD  m  inm  vnunir*  in  itJS,  At  tiw  ckpvlllc  ol  hii  Intnd  and 
former  prMte^  Sir  Henry  Cw.  wiLh  Wl  cnreUrm  incinotr  by  hii 
cranddaueKlcT  Mn  Clirlic,  lola  Irilful  way  by  Uid  Houa^ion. 
His  pra»  inirlii  »CR  (aliened  by  Rkliard  CarnRt  in  tn  voluniH 
(iSqi).  Se«ra»  noveli  ait  included  in  "  Macininin'i  [Jluiiraicd 
Sumflid  Ndvi-Ii."  with  inUoduclioBl  by  Mr  Saintiboiy.     For  an 

Bi™Mlf[!8e^  '™"'  "        ""  Tr-C.)  ' 

PEACOCK  (Lit.  Faa,  O.  Eng.  PaiH,  Du.  fauyw,  Ca.  P/a*. 

Fr.  Fmh),  ihe  bird  to  wdl  known  iroir  the  ipkndid  plmnige  ol 


by  Sokiioon  (t  Kings  >. 


though  ll  a  mcnttonci 
IIiFil  knowledge  of  it 
(snquuit  ol    Alciai 


pmution  to  Paleiiin 
ii),  lis  luignmenl  i 
ll  Hen  tnli£n  lo  Ih 
vt  had  with  it;  hm 


T.     Throu^ut    all    suuzeding    time 

Vi  highly  e&leemcd  for  the  table,'  it  U  m 
Ijucy  it  was  once  thought ;  tbe  young  o 
iir.  siiU  esteemed  in  the  Eail. 


[k-ibDnlderHt'lValawb. 

imab,  pied  or  wbiti 


t  J*!- 


peacock,  a  iorm  whiih  his  iRsived  the  n: 

as  though  It  Meie  i  dittincl  species.     In  this  form  the  cock, 

wing-uvens  ol  a  deep  lustrous  Uue  instead  of  being  oolilcd 
with  hrown  and  nhile,  while  the  ben  is  of  ■  num  or  leu  gtJKled- 
while.  It  "  breeds  true  ";  but  occuioiuUy  a  prcURiihly  pure 
slock  ol  lurdi  ol  Ihe  usual  caloration  throw*  out  one  or  moic 
having  the  Japan  plumage.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  male 
has  in  Ihe  c^oration  ol  tbe  parts  mcnlioiied  no  little  resemblance 
lo  Ihat  ol  the  second  indubitably  good  ^ficcici.  the  P.  mtliiui 
(or  P.  ipiairr  ol  some  wiitcia)  of  Burma  and  Java,  Uunigh  the 
chaiicltr  o<  the  tiller's  cnl— the  iealbcn  ol  which  art  barbed 
along  thor  whde  length  instead  of  at  tbe  tip  only— and  >» 
■  Cksijcil  authors  contain  many  allunons  tp  Its  high  appreeiation 
■I  the  most  sumpluous  banoueli;  and  medieval  bill>  of  fare  «i  state 


rniihed  wi 


ly  plumjie. 


golden  green  n«li  and  bteasi  furnish  a  ready  means  of  dtstintllon. 
Sir  R.  Heron  was  conMenl  that  Ihe  Japan  breed  had  aibu  b  ■ 
England  wiihia  his  memgry,'  and  C.  Danula  (;imntls  n4 
PkuUi  nii^  DmnalUalion.  i.  190-191)  was  inchned  to  believe  ll 
only  a  variety;  bul  its  abrupt  appearance,  which  rem  on  Indls- 
puuble  evidence,  is  most  suggestive  in  Ihe  light  that  it  may  ow 
day  throw  on  the  question  o[  evolution  as  eahibited  in  Ihe  origin 
ol  "  qwdes."  !l  should  be  suted  that  the  Japan  biiet  Is  k* 
known  to  eiist  anywhere  u  1  wild  race,  though  apparently  kept 
m  Japan.  The  accompanying  illustntion  is  copied  liom  ■  plate 
drawn  by  J.  Woll,  pnn  in  D.  O.  Elliot's  Uantpip*  tf  lie 


The  pealowli  belong  to  Ihe  gmup  Cniliiut,  fnjii 
tiers  ol  which  Ihey  da  not  mHeriafli;  dilTcr  in  slru 


Ihenc 


pcellaLed  pIunasB,  and  liie  eunorJiAarv  length  tk  ihe  secondai} 
liiills  ol  ificir  wings,  ai  well  ■■  ol  Ihe  ta  It-feat  hen.  Ii  muit  jlways 
le  remembrred  that  the  scKilled  "  cad  "  of  the  pwcocli  It  rormed 
rue  tail-fcalbem,  but  by  theainguUrdevelop- 

;h  table-bnd  in  tfae  DORb  «l  Dabysbire, 

Ihe  Pennine  range  of  bills.    The  name, 

"  tt  the  whole 


ment  of  the  uil-iovert 
PEAK,  THB,  a  hi) 
England,  included  ir 
however,  is  eilended, 
of  Ihe  hilly  district  ni 


.    Thet 


(levslion  of  30SS  ft.  in  Kinder  Seoul.  The  geologiivl  [nmalion 
ihe  underlying  beds  are  not  domed,  but 
cup-shaped^  dipfnng  inward  from  the  flanks  of  Ihe  mass.  The 
nmmit  is  a  pialy  moorland,  through  which  masoei  ol  rock 
peoject  al  inlervals.  The  name  ol  Ihil  high  plateau  has  Imm  the 
17th  centuiy  been  idcniilied  with  "  peak,"  the  pointed  or  conical 

and  certain  places  in  it  show  dearly,  as  the  Netp  EngtUk 
DUliimtry  points  out,  that  this  conneiion  ii  unwarruted.  Tbe 
name  ippein  in  the  Oid  Enttisk  \~ _     .     .     . 


Iglth 


k  (» 


Dekbvshue).  and  also  in 
at  Castleton,  Ptac's  Ant.  Piac,  II  has  been  suggested,  is  the 
ntme  ol  a  local  deity  or  demon,  and  possibly  tnay  be  Indeniifed 
with  Puck.  For  Ibe  etymology  of  ■'  peak,"  poinl,  &c.,  and  its 
variaals  or  related  words,  "  pick  "  and  "  pike,"  see  Fikc 
PULE,  CHARLES  WIU£OM  (i74i-i8]«).  American  portrait 
painter,  celchraled  especially  lot  hit  poni*it9  ol  Walhinglan, 
was  bom  in  Queen  Anne  county,  Maiyluad,  on  the  i«Lb  of  April 
1741.  Outing  his  inluicy  the  family  removed  to  Cheslerlown, 
ity.  Maryland,  i 


unity  a< 


olheyn 


Here,attbeageof  t],  he 

was  apprenticed  to  a  saddler 

About 

1764  he  began  aeriooily  U 

study  ut. 

He  got  some  ». 

Inm  Custavus  HesseUus, 

Swedish  portrait  painter  th 

nhving 

near  Amupolla.  vid  troi. 

JohnSingI 

ion  Copky  in 

Boiioo; 

jamin  West  in 

London. 

[a  1770  he  opened  a  11 

et  with 

1,  at  Moua 

Vernon.  Peale 

painted 

a  Ihtee-quorten-lenglh  stu 

y  of  Washin 

Stoa  (the  earliest  knows 

ponraiiolbimj.inlhenn 

nnel  ol  Virginia 

n>iUli>. 

This  canvas  is  now  in  tbe 

Ch.pel  of  Washington 

and  Lee  Universily.    He 

painted  va 

ous  other  poO 

in  a  fuU-lenglh,  which 

if  which  Pesle  made  many 
portrait  had  been  onlcred  by  the  Conlinenlal  Congress,  which, 
however,  made  no  appropriation  for  it.  and  eventually  it  »u 
boi^hl  lor  a  private  coUeciioD  in  Philadelphia.  Peale  painted 
inialuretof  MrsWashingun(i77iand  1777),  and  ponnili 
ny  of  the  famous  men  of  tbe  time,  a  number  of  which 
1  Independence  Hall,  FhiladelpbU.  His  ponraiU  ol 
Washington  do  not  appeal  so  llroogly  to  Americani  as  do  Ihoae 
ol  Gilbert  Stuart, bul  hisadmiiteitikilluadiaughtanian  givttls 
all  at  hii  work  comiilerable  historical  value.    Pale  removtd  to 


PEALE,  R.— PEAR 


ol  Titi 


idiflen 


>-i;Sahe 


T  of  Ibc  Pcnntylvuii*  uumbly,  wbcrc  be  voted  Ic 
ibe  jbolition  of  iliverjF — be  freed  hit  own  iIito  wbpm  be  bi 
broujbt  from  Mirylind.    In  iBoi  he  undertook,  Iirjely  at  hi> 

in  ULiIei  and  Onnge  counlies,  New  York,  and  in  1B02  be  eslxb- 
llihed  el  Phikdclphla  Peilc's  Muieuni.  He  «u  nne 
lounden,  in  iSoJ,  of  ihc  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fi 
at  Pbiladelphia.  At  Ibe  age  of  eighly-one  Pcale  painted  a  large 
canvtt,  "  Christ  Healing  iht  Sick  at  Bethsda,"  and  al  eighty- 
three  a  fuU-lengtb  portrait  of  bimaelf,  now  in  ibe  Andcny  of  tbe 
Fine  Arta.    He  died  at  his  country  home,  " 

Fenaiylvania,  on  the  imd  of  February  1B96. 

Hiibiotber,  Jakes  Feale  (1749-1!}!),  lis 
two  poiti^ti  of  Wasbinglao  (one  now  the  p 
York  HiUDricil  Society,  and  the  other  in  ] 
PbiUdclpbia),  bsidM  landicapet  tnd  hiilot 

)r(ri)8-iMo),Amerii 


Buck!  county,  Penniylvan 

a,  on  the  >ind  of  February  njS 

ton  of  Cb>He>  W;UH>n  F 

eale(,.p.).    He  .tadicd  under  hi. 

in  LonduB  (.80^.803),  and  in 

[ilia  i&i;  and  iSoi}.    Aaei 

rlyait74s  he  had  begun  from  life 

orlrait  of  Waihinglon.    0 

this  he  made  many  re[dicai,  tbe 

in  iSj],  and  now  in  tbe  Capittri  of  Washington.  Fealc 
of  tb<  Gnt  ol  Anwriuo  lilhograptiert.  He  was  an 
draugbtiman,  but  In  colour  hia  work  cinaoi  rank  with  hi: 
In  1843  he  devised  (01  the  Philadelphia  public  schools 
of  leaching  drawing  and  petunanthip.  His  portraili 
tboK  of  i>[e*idcnt  Jeflenon,  Mn  Madison.  CoinmodDr 
Deatur.  md  Bainbridge,  Houdon,  the  sculptor,  General  A 


b  IndependcrKe  Hall 


.  of  G 


ifaiagLon 


is  "  Couil  of  Death  " 
rt  Gallery.  In  iSij  Feale  succeeded 
John  Trumbull  as  president  of  the  American  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts(f«ind(din  iSoi  as  the  New  York  Academy  ol  Fine  Arts), 
and  be  was  one  of  lb*  original  members  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design.  He  wrote  leverHl  books,  among  them 
KMi  M  Ilaiy  (iSji),  Kimixiunua  ej  AH  imd  ArliiU  (i&tj). 
He  died  in  Philadelphia  on  the  jrd  ol  October  i860. 

A  brolher,  RariUELLE  PEas  (i774-i8>s),  was  one  of  tbe 
earliest,  of  American  itill-Ufe  painters;  and  aootlier  brolber, 
TlIUH  Rahsev  Peale  (i8ao-iS8s),  made  numerous  dcawinm 

See  "  Rembiandt  Pealr."  panly  autabiogiaphicil,  in  C.  E.  I-eMer'i 
r*!  AttitUtjAmi'Ua  (New  York,  liifi). 

PS4B  {Pynu  aPimu^u). 
Roaaceae,  belonging  10  the  ti 

called  frail  is  composed  of  the  receptacle  or  upper  end  of  the 
flower-ilalk  (the  so^allcd  cstyi  tnbe)  ftally  dilated,  and  tn- 
ckwing  within  its  cellular  lleih  the  Gvecartilaginouscsipek  which 
constitute  tbe  "  core  "  and  are  really  the  Irae  fruit.  From  the 
npper  rim  of  Ifae  receptacle  are  given  oU  the  live  sepals,  tbe  hve 

and  of  Ibe  apple  lespectivdy,  altbough  usually  characteristic 
enough,  ii  not  by  itself  lullicleni  to  diuinguith  ihem,  for  there 
are  peart  which  cannot  by  form  alone  be  dislingu^bed  Irom 
apples,  and  apple*  which  cannsl  by  lupetlici 


in  the  tissue  of  tbe  fruit,  B 
Uled  vilh  hard  woody  dqMtit  in  1 
[he  '■  giit,"  while  in  the  apple  M 


is  the  D( 
.blheHud,Dtclustmo(celU 
e  cax  of  the  pear,  constituting 


e  flowers'— is,  however,  usually  quite  charac 
10  spcdes.    Cultivated  pears,  whose  number  is 


where  the  pear  is  somelimei  considered  wild,  llMrt  it  alwaya 
tbf  doubt  that  it  may  not  really  be  so,  but  the  produce  of  soma 
[ted  of  a  cultivated  tiee  depoailed  by  birds  or  otherwise,  which 
has  degenerated  into  tbe  wild  tpine-bearing  tree  knosm  a* 


'e  been  found  in  the  Swis 


luity. 


mentiooed  bl  the  oldest  Creek  writings,  and  was  cultivated  by 
the  Romans.  Tbe  word  "  pear  "  or  its  equivalent  occurs  in  all 
the  Celtic  languages,  while  in  Slavonic  and  other  diatecls  difleieni 
appellalioos,  but  ilil]  leferriag  to  the  ume  thing,  are  found— a 
diversity  and  multiplicity  of  nomendniure  which  led  Alphonse 
de  CandoUe  to  infer  a  very  ancient  cultivation  of  the  tree  from 
the  sboio  el  Ibe  Caspian  to  Iboie  of  the  Atlantic.  A  certain 
race  of  pears,  with  white  down  on  tbe  under  surface  of  their 
leave*,  it  tuppoaed  10  have  origiiwted  from  P.  tuwuiii,  and  Ihcii 
fruit  is  chiefly  used  in  Fmnce  in  the  manufacture  of  Ferry  (see 
CiDEa).  Other  small-fruited  pean,  distinguished  by  their 
precocity  and  apple-like  fruit,  may  be  referred  to  A  ardalat  a 
tpeciet  found  liild  in  weuem  Fnuice,  and  in  Devnosbire  and 
ComwaU. 

Karl  Koch  Djntidered  that  cultivated  pc""  ""^  iv- 'i-"--"H.n.. 
of  three  •pedes — p.  f 


of  thiw  tpecie* — P.  ftrsiia  (Irom  which   the  Ijeegimoi*  have 
descemfrd),  P.  (fomfn/oliii  and  P.  linfniii.    J.  Dcesisnc,  who  mad* 


should  be  fertilized  with  a  view  to  combine,  in  the  seedlings 
which  reaull  from  the  union,  the  desirable  qualiliesol  the  paicnls. 
Tbe  dwarf  and  pyramid  trees,  more  usually  planted  in  gardens, 
are  obtained  by  grafting  on  the  quince  slock,  the  Portugal  quince 
being  the  best;  but  Ibis  stock,  from  its  surracc-rooling  habit, 
is  most  suitable  for  toils  of  a  cold  damp  nature.  The  pcai-stock. 
havhig  an  indioation  to  send  its  roau  down  deeper  into  the  soil, 
is  the  best  for  light  dry  soils,  ss  the  plants  are  not  then  so  likely 
to  suffer  in  dry  seasons.    Some  of  the  bner  pears  do  not  unite 

resorted  to;  thai  is  to  say,  a  vigoroii5.growing  peat  is  firtl 

gralted  on  the  quince,  and  tben  the  choicer  pear  is  grafted  en 

the  pear  inlreduccd  as  ill  foster  paienl. 

In  selecting  young  pear  trees  lor  walls  or  espaliers,  some 

prefer  plajtis  one  year  old  from  the  graft,  but  trees  two 


or  Ibree  . 

are  trained  as  pyramid*  n 


qually  good.    The  t 


IS  they 
orchards  should  br 
dwarf  busb  trees  half  that  distincr 
the  formation  of  the  trees  the  ume  p 
c  case  of  Ihe  apple.  For  the  pcir  ore 
ry  desirable,  with  a  soil  deep,  subsli 
ed.    Any  good  free  loam 


*aifed.  Where  the  ireci 
nay  stand  8  or  10  ft. 
allowed  at  h:ast  JO  ft.. 


Pear  t 


with  the 


^aft.  This  it  ellccied 


PEARCE 

rd  or  ba^'bound. 
faipporondwali 
omnmBly  idi^Itd 


0  be  prefsred,  whils  foi 


It  the  horiioniil  is 


ilablc. 


ind  bKome  Kraggy,  to  iv«d  which  i  poftion  ol  the  old  ipun 
sboutd  be  cut  out  annually. 

The  lummcr  pruning  ol  istibliahed  wiU  or  cqiilier-rai]  Iks 
convilt  chiefly  Ln  th«  timely  dupladng, 
lufabing  dB  of  the  lupcrfliious  ifaooti,  90  thi 
in  horizontal  tiajning.  a  Little  more  than  adjioting  the  leading 
■hoot!  and  thinning  nut  the  qiiin,  ■hicfa  ihould  be  kepi  ck«  ~ 

Tn  fan-training  the  lubordinate  bnncbes  niuti  be  regulalcd»  ll 
spun  thinned  out,  and  tbe  young  laterals  finally  fatabli$hcd 
Ihdr  pbces.    When  horizontal  lieei  have  fallen  into  dtsoidei,  the 
btancho  nay  be  cut  back  to  Kilhin  g  ia.  ol  the  vertical  (lem 
and  branch,  and  trained  in  afresh,  or  they  may  be  grafted  with 

Summer  and  aulumn  pean  sboutd  be  gathered  before  they  aie 
fully  lipe,  olherwiK  Ih(^  will  not  in  general  keep  more  than  a 
lew  dayi.  The  Jargonelle  iboutd  be  allowed  (o  lemain  on  the 
tree  and  be  pulled  daily  as  wanled.lhe  fruil  from  tiandatd  Urta 
thus  succeeding  (he  produce  of  the  wall  trees.  In  the  case  of 
the  Crassane  the  crop  should  be  gathered  St  thicc  different 
timet,  the  fiiti  a  lorinighi  or  more  before  it  i>  ripe,  the  second 
a  week  or  ten  days  alter  thai,  and  the  third  when  fully  ripe. 
The  first  gathering  will  come  into  eating  latest,  and  thus  [he 

evident  that  the  same  method  may  he  followed  with  olbcr 
sort!  which  continue  only  a  short  time  in  a  mature  llate. 

[■iKaifl.— The  peai  i»  lubjcct  to  levml  dlvim  caaint  by  tungi. 
Cy^umft^tntium  lahiur,  one  ol  the  rii«>  (UredinFlc)  pauci  one 
stage  of  its  blc.UitOjy  on  living  pear  Jeavn.  lomiing  large  raised 
spots  or  patches  irhkh  arc  at  iirsl  wJInw  hut  wui  hemmp  rrd  an,i 

are  viublc  on  both  (acci:  on  the  Iv 


ilc-hifttoiT  was  tomierlr  regarded  ai 


a— »hidi  live  rp>e  to  llie  aetLi 
ir  leava  thiuld  be  picked  oR 

^vcloped  should  DC 


wry  (Lowly  allied  ai 


E  eus; 


«Uyln=™l 


'nt     of     the     Iruil 


injiind  by  the  pearl  o] 


-PEARL 

nay  be  removed  by  w 


winter  moth  {OirtmnJabia  brtima4a]  mjvt  bekeplincheclt  by  puCling 
■Tvasy  bands  round  the  trunks  from  (klober  till  [)cceinber  or 
January,  to  eaith  the  »Lnileni  females  thai  crawl  up  and  depoiit 
'bei'  egg"  in  the  etacks  and  crevices  in  Ihc  bark.    The  catefnllan 

jVip^?'»om™i',!lel^bJ^JhSrMy".o''lh^l!SIks'^dieUray 
ibe  aip  channels.     II  badly  bored,  the  trees  aie  useless;  but  in 


I.  Leaf  showing  groups  ol  cups  or  aeeidia.    3,  Early  auga  of 

ihenriy  Btuesil  tbe  cntrorKe  of  the  caterpiltan  hasbeeA  detected, 

ol  pear  trees  IS  the  pear  mtdflc^  known  ai  Diphiii  pytimtc  ch 
Cn klinnyu  mini,  Ihc  temalei  oF  mhieh  lay  tbeir  eggs  In  the  flower- 
buds  before  they  open.  The  ycUsw  maggnu  devour  ibc  latds  and 
thus  ruia  the  crop.  Wbin  dei«med  fmus  an  noticed  Ihry  akoaM 
be  picked  off  and  burned  immediately.  Specki  of  aphides  may  bt 
removed  by  tobacco  Lnlusiod.  sospsuds  or  other  sotutions.  A  gait 
mite  tPkytffplHi  P^fri)  sometimes  severely  injures  (he  leaves,  on 
which  it  forms  Iriirtcrs — tbe  best  remedy  Ls  u  cut  off  and  bum 

The  AHigilor  or  Avotido  Pear  Is  Perus  frodiiiiH,  a  nenbct 
of  the  natural  order  Lauraceae,  and  a  native  of  the  Weit  Indlci 
and  olhcr  parts  of  tropical  America.  It  Is  a  Irae  of  35  10  30  ft. 
high  and  bears  large  pear-shaped  fruits,  green  or  deep  purfile  ia 
colour,  with  a  Arm  ydlowish-green  marrow-like  pulp  surnHindLug 
a  large  seed.  The  pulp  i<  much  eteemed  in  the  Wcitlndisaod 
is  ealen  al  a  uLad,  uiuaLly  vith  the  addition  of  pepper,  salt  and 
vinegar.  The  pulp  conlainl  much  oil,  which  is  used  lor  lighting 
and  soap-making,  and  the  seeds  yidd  1  deep  inddihle  black 
slain  which  a  used  for  marking  linen. 

Piickly  pear  is  the  popular  name  for  apedo  of  Ofmilia  <iec 


IS  of  Xyhmilim 
which  ^itit  into  too 


:  name  wooden  pear  is  a|>plied  10  lh< 
ord.  Proleaceae),  an  AuitrtLiin  genu 
[hick,  woody,  inversely  pear-shaped  ft 
parts  when  ripe- 

PUHCB,  CHARLES  SPSAQDE  (1S51-  ).  Amcrku  artist, 
rasbom  at  Boston,  Masuchuselts,  on  the  iJthofOcteiicr  1851. 
n  tg7]  he  became  a  pupil  ol  Uon  Bonnal  in  Paris,  and  alia- 
BBS  he  lived  in  raiis  and  at  Auvers-sur-Oise.  He  painted 
!;gyplian  and  AlEftian  (ccns,  French  peasants,  and  poitraitt, 
ind  alu  decorative  work,  notably  for  the  Congrewional  Library 
1  Washington.  He  received  medals  al  the  Parii  Salon  and 
eLsewhtre,  and  was  decorated  wi[ 
order  ol  Leopold,  Belgium,  the  01 

■  the  order  of  Danncbtog,  Denmark.    Among  bis  beat  known 

Aings  are  "  The  Decapitation  of  St    John  the  BaptiM  " 

!t),in  Ihc  Art  Institute  of  Chicogo;  "  Prayer  "  (1884),  owned 

by  the  Massachusetts  Charitable   Mechanic  Association ;   "The 

Return  of  Ibe  Flock,"  in  (be   Bohemias  Club^  San  FiiDasco: 

ind  "  Meditation,"  in  tbe  New  York  MelropoKIsn  Uuseum. 

PBARL  Pearls  are  ctdcarcoua  ooncretions  of  pecuhar  hislre, 
produced  by  certain  molliws,  and  valued  as  Dbjecti  of  penonal 
imament.  The  eiperienre  of  peail-hshen  sbowi  that  tbose 
ihells  which  arc  irregular  In  shape  and  itualed  Ln  gnwtk,  a 


PEARL 


*5 


iihickbeftr«ieRKenoci»  or  are  honeycombed  by  boring  parasites^ 
are  thoae  most  likely  to  yield  pearls. 

The  substance  of  a  pearl  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  which 
fines  the  interior  of  many  shells  and  is  known  as  "  mothcr-of- 
pearL"  Sir  D.  Brewster  first  showed  that  the  iridescence  of  this 
substance  was  an  optical  phenomenon  due  to  the  interference  of 
rays  of  light  reflected  from  microso^ic  corrugations  of  the  surface 
— an  effect  which  may  be  imitated  by  artificial  striations  on  a  suit- 
able medium.  When  the  inner  laminated  portion  of  a  nacreous 
shell  is  digested  in  add  the  calcareous  layers  are  dissolved  away, 
leaving  a  very  delicate  membranous  pellicle,  whlch»  as  shown 
by  Dr  Carpenter,  may  retain  the  iridescence  as  long  aa  it  ia 
undisturbed,  but  which  loses  it  when  pressed  or  stretched. 

It  is  obvioas  that  if  a  pearl  presents  a  perfectly  spherical  form 
it  must  have  remained  loose  in  the  substance  of  the  musdca  or 
other  soft  tissues  of  the  mollusc  Frequently,  however,  the  pearl 
becomes  cemented  to  the  interior  of  the  shell,  the  pomt  <rf  attach- 
ment  thus  ihterfering  with  its  symmetry.  In  this  position  it  may 
receive  successive  nacreous  deposits,  which  ultimately  form  a 
pearl  of  hemispherical  shape,  so  that  when  cut  from  the  shell  it 
may  be  flat  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other,  loaning  what 
jewelers  know  as  a  "  perle  bouton."  In  the  course  of  growth 
the  peari  may  become  involved  in  the  general  deport  of  mother- 
of-pearl,  and  be  ultimately  buried  in  the  substance  of  the  shell. 
It  has  thus  happened  that  fine  pearls  have  occasionally  been 
unexpectedly  brought  to  light  in  cutting  up  mother-of-pearl  in 
the  workshop. 

VJhen  a  pearl  oyster  is  attacked  by  a  boring  parasite  the 
moUusc  protects  itself  by  depositing  nacreous  matter  at  the  point 
of  invasion,  thus  forming  a  hollow  body  of  irregular  shape  known 
aa  a  "  blister  peari."  Hollow  warty  pearl  is  sometimes  termed 
in  trade  "  coq  de  perle."  Solid  pearls  of  irregular  form  are  often 
produced  by  dqMsition  on  rough  objects,  such  as  small  fragments 
of  wood,  and  these,  and  in  fact  all  irr^Eular-shaped  pearls,  are 
termed  "  perles  baroques,"  or  "  barrok  pearls«"  It  appears  that 
the  Romans  in  the  period  of  the  Decline  restricted  the  name  unto 
to  the  globular  pearl,  and  termed  the  baroque  margaritum.  It 
was  fashionable  in  the  i6th  and  z  7th  centuries  to  mount  curiously 
shaped  baroques  in  gold  and  enamel  so  as  to  form  ornamental 
<^jects  of  grotesque  character.  A  valuable  coUectk>n  of  such 
mounted  pearis  by  Dinglinger  is  preserved  in  the  Green  vaults  at 
Dresden. 

A  pearl  of  the  first  water  should  possess,  in  jewekis'  language, 
a  perfect "  akin  "  and  a  fine  **  orient  ";  that  is  to  say,  it  must  be 
of  delicate  texture,  free  from  sptck.  or  flaw,  and  of  clear  almost 
translucent  white  colour,  with  a  subdued  iridescent  sheen.  It 
should  also  be  perfectly  spherical,  or,  if  not,  of  a  symmetrical 
pear-shape.  On  removing  the  outer  layer  oi  a  pearl  the  sub- 
jacent surface  is  generally  dull,  like  a  dead  fish-eye,  but  it 
oixasionally  happens  that  a  poor  pearl  encloses  a  "lively  kernel," 
and  may  therciore  be  improved  by  careful  peeling.  The  most 
perfect  pearl  in  existence  is  said  to  be  one,  known  as  "  La  Pelle- 
grina,"  in  the  museum  of  Zosima  in  Moscow;  it  is  a  perfectly 
globular  Indian  pearl  of  angular  beauty,  weighing  aS  carat& 
The  largest  known  pearl  is  one  of  irregular  shape  in  the  Beresford 
Hope  collection  at  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  This 
magnificent  pearl  weighs  3  oz.,  has  a  circumference  of  4)  in.,  and 
is  surmounted  by  an  enamelled  and  jewelled  gold  crown,  forming 
a  pendant  of  great  value. 

Ptarl  Fisheries, — ^The  ancients  obtained  their  pearls  chiefly 
from  India  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  but  at  the  i»esent  time  they  are 
also  procured  from  the  Sulu  seas,  the  coast  of  Australia,  the  shores 
of  Central  America  and  some  of  the  South  Pacific  Islands. .  The 
andent  fisheries  of  Ceylon  (Taprobane)  are  situated  in  the  Gulf 
of  Manaar,  the  fislung-banks  lying  from  6  to  8  m.  off  the  western 
shore,  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  isle  of  Manaar.  The  Tinnevelly 
fishery  is  on  the  Madras  side  of  the  strait,  near  Tuticorin.  These 
Indian  fishlng-groimds  are  under  the  control  of  government 
inspectors,  who.  regulate  the  fisheries.  The  oysters  yidd  the 
beat  pearls  at  about  four  years  of  age.  Fishing  generally  com- 
mences in  the  second  week  in  March,  and  lasts  for  from  four  to  six 
weeks,  according  to  the  season.    The  boats  are  grouped  in  fleets 


of  from  sixty  to  feventy,  and  start  usually  at  midnight  so  as  to 
reach  the  oyster-banka  at  sunrise.  Each  boat  generally  carries 
tendiv^^  On  reaching  the  bank  a  signal-gun  is  fired,  and  diving 
commences.  A  stone  weighing  about  40  lb  Is  attached  to 
the  cord  by  which  the  diver  is  let  down.  The  divers  work  ia 
pairs,  one  man  diving  while  the  other  watches  the  signal-cord, 
drawing  up  the  sink-stone  first,  then  haulmg  up  the  baskets  of 
oysters,  and  finally  raising  the  diver  himself.  On  an  average  the 
divers  remain  under  water  from  fifty  to  eic^ty  seconds,  though 
exceptional  instances  are  dted  of  men  remaining  below  for  aa 
long  aa  six  minutes.  Alter  resting  for  a  minute  or  two  at  the 
surface,  the  diver  descends  again;  and  so  on,  until  exhausted, 
when  he  comes  on  board  and  watches  the  rope,  while  his  comrade 
relieves  him  aa  diver.  The  native  descends  naked,  carrying  only 
a  girdle  for  the  support  of  the  basket  in  which  he  places  the  pearl 
oysters.  In  his  submarine  work  the  diver  makes  skilful  use  of  his 
toes.  To  arm  himself  against  the  attacksof  the  sharks  and  other 
fishes  which  infest  the  Indian  waten  he  carries  spikes  of  iron* 
wood;  and  (he  genuine  Indian  diver  never  descends  without  the 
incantations  of  shark-charmers,  one  of  whom  accompanies  the 
boat  while  others  remain  on  shore.  As  a  rule  the  diver  is  a  short* 
lived  man. 

The  diving  continues  from  sunrise  to  about  noon,  when  a  gun 
is  fired.  On  the  arrival  of  the  fleet  at  shore  the  divers  carry  their 
oysters  to  a  shed,  where  they  are  made  up  into  four  heaps,  one 
of  which  is  taken  by  the  diver.  The  oysters  are  then  sold  by 
auction  in  lots  of  xooo  each.  The  pearls,  after  removal  from  the 
dead  oysters,  are  "  Classed  "  by  passing  through  a  munber  of 
small  brass  colanders,  known  as  "  ba^ets,"  the  holes  in  the 
successive  vessels  bdng  smaller  and  smsller.  Having  been  sized 
in  this  way,  they  are  sorted  as  to  colour,  weighed  and  valued. 

Since  the  days  of  the  Macedonians  pearl-fishing  has  been 
carried  on  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  said  that  the  oyster-beds 
extend  along  the  entire  Arabian  coast  of  the  gulf,  but  the  most 
important  are  on  sandbanks  off  the  islands  of  Bahrein.  The  chief 
centre  of  the  trade  is  the  port  of  Lingah.  Most  of  the  produtts 
of  this  fishery  are  known  as  "  Bombay  pearls,"  from  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  best  are  sold  there.  Tlie  shells  usually  present  a 
dark  colour  about  the  edges,  like  that  of  "  smoked  pearL"  The 
ydlow-tmted  pearls  are  sent  chiefly  to  Bombay,  while  the  whitest 
go  to  Bagdad.  Very  small  pearls,  much  bdow  a  pea  in  size, 
are  generally  known  aS  "  seed-pearls,"  and  these  are  vaJued  in 
India  and  China  as  constituents  of  certain  dectuaries,  while 
occaalonally  they  are  caldned  for  cktmam^  or  lime,  used  with  betel 
as  a  masticatory.  There  is  a  small  peatl-fisheiy  near  Slarachi 
on  the  coast  of  Bombay. 

From  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  pearl-fishing  has  been 
prosecuted  afong  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  espedally  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Jiddah  and  Koseir.  This  fishery  is  now 
insigidficant,  but  the  Arabs  still  obtain  from  this  district  a 
quantity  of  mother-of-pearl  shells,  which  are  shipped  from 
Alexandria,  and  come  into  the  market  aa  "  Egyptians." 

Very  fine  pearis  are  obtained  from  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  on 
the  north-east  of  Borneo.  The  mother-of-pearl  shells  from  the 
Sulu  seas  are  characterized  by  a  yellow  colour  on  the  border  and 
back,  which  unfits  them  for  many  ornamental  purposes.  Peari 
oysters  are  also  abundant  in  the  seas  around  the  Aru  Islands  to 
the  south-west  of  New  Guinea.  From  Labuan  a  good  many 
pearl-shells  are  occasionally  sent  to  Singapore.  They  are  also 
obtained  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Timor,  and  from  New 
Caledonia.  The  pearl  oyster  occurs  throughout  the  Padfic, 
mostly  in  the  dear  water  of  the  lagoons  within  the  atolls,  though 
fine  shells  are  also  found  in  deep  water  outside  the  coral  reefs. 
The  Pol3me8fan  divers  do  not  employ  sink-stones,  and  the  women 
are  said  to  be  more  skilful  than  the  men.  They  anoint  thdr 
bodies  with  oil  before  diving.  Fine  pearl-shells  are  obtained 
from  Navigators'  Islands,  the  Sodety  Islands,  the  Low  Archi- 
pdago  or  Paumota  Isles  and  the  Gambler  Islands.  Many  of 
the  Gambler  pearls  present  a  bron^  tint. 

Pcari-fishmg  is  actively  prosecuted  along  the  western  coast  of 
Central  America,  especially  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  to  a  less 
extent  around  the  Pearl  Islands  in  the  Bay  of  Panama.    The 


l6 


bhins^gmiBdi  uc  Id  wiUt  ihoni  40  ft.  decA  >nd  Ihc  Ku 
luu  f«  lour  Dionlbs.  An  ordinary  fisbing-puty  ccpRU 
(Alain  ibogt  Lhm  lomofihcUi  padi/.ind  iiiiaiinuied  tl 
one  (hell  in  >  (bouund  conUini  I  pearl.  Tbe  peaila  are  ihipped 
In  barreb  frDm  Sao  Fnncbn>  and  Panama.  Some  pearta  of 
beauty  have  been  obtained  Irom  ibe  Bay  d[  Mulcgi,  near 
Coyeles, in  theguUid California; and ifliSSiaporiol  7;cii 
the  laisiat  on  record  Irom  thii  dislria.  ns  found  DMt  L*  Fu 
in  California.  The  coau  of  Guayaquil  atw  yidda  po"!^ 
ColuRibiu  found  that  pearl.fishing  wai  carried  on  iQ  hit  time  in 
the  GuH  of  Mexico,  and  pevli  are  atlll  obtained  from  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.  Id  the  Wcat  Indiea  tb«  beat  pearli  are  obtained  from 
St  Thotnaa  and  Irom  Ibe  island  of  Margarita,  oO  the  coaU  of 
VcbfukU.  Fnm  Maigaiils  I^iilip  II.  of  Spain  ia  aaid  to  have 
obtabied  in  ijrg  a  (amoui  pearl  of  isocataU. 

Of  late  yean  good  peuls  have  been  found  in  Sbark'i  Bay,  on 
tbe  coast  of  West  Auttnlia,  espedally  In  an  tnlel  lenoed  Usalda 
Haibour,  Moiber4f.pntI  shells  (te  also  fished  at  Diany  otber 
poinia  along  Ibe  western  coait,  betmen  Ibe  15th  and  ijth 
parallels  of  south  latitude.  An  Inportuit  ptail-Gsbery  la  alia 
established  in  'n>tTes  Strait  and  on  ilie  mast  ol  QueenUand, 
The  thelb  occur  in  water  from  four  10  six  filhomsdeep,aI>d'tbt 
diTtTB  are  generally  Malaya  and  Papuans,  though  tometlmea 
Dfttive  AuBtnliiuu.  On  the  waiera  eoast  o(  Australia  tbe 
pearl-shells  are  obtained  by  dredging  rather  than  by  divtng. 
Pearl-shells  bave  also  been  found  at  Pon  Darwin  and  in 
OaUey  Creek.  New  ZeaUnd, 

lUvet  pearli  an  pmduced  by  the  apeciea  ol  Vnic  and  itwrfnla. 
eapedally  by  Unio  margaritifyna.  Tboc  ipecita  bclou  to  tbe  iunily 

espnially  in  ScDillMl,  Wain.  Iirland,  Sanny,  Bohcniia,  Bavaria. 

Tadlui  and  by  Pliny,  and  a  bnulplate  iludded  with  Britiih  pearb 
wai  dedicated  by  Julius  Caenr  ID  Venus  Ceneliii.  As  miy  as 
J3S5  Scotch  pcaill  ai        '        '  ■     ' '  -■         "       ■' 


PEARL 


In  Ibe  reiin  of  Cbarln  II.  the  Scotch  peart 
■uflidently  lieporlaiit  to  attract  the  attvnllon  of  parliam 
Scotch  pearl.Eisheiy,  after  having  decTiaed  ''  ~ 


Ungcr.  who  VLsiled  Scotland 
nd  in  thehandsof  thcpeasan. 


L     to. 


«on!y 


obtaioed  at  irregular 

Scotland  wliich  have  yielded  pearls  aie 

....SoulhEsk  --'--■ ■    " 

Ythan,  the  T( 

lor  its  pearli;  and  it  is  rdated  that  Sir  Richard  Wynn,  chamberlain 
to  the  Queen  of  Charles  IT.,  pteaeBtcd  her  with  a  Conway  peari 
srhicK  is  oelieved  to  oecupy  a  place  in  the  British  ctovl    In  Ireland 

»e  rivers  ol  Done^  Tyrone  and  Weiford  hive  yielded  pearls, 
is  Kud  that  Sir  John  Hawkins  the  circumnaviintor  bad  a  patcnl 
foe  peari'Rihing  in  the  Irt  in  Cumberland.    ATcbouah  the  peari- 


he  Tay  and  the  South  Esk:  ai 


Gernuoy.   The  most  iraportani  of  theware  i 

Bavitis.  between  RatliEon  and  Peasnu.    T 

chirfly  confined   to  Ihc  lasin  of  the  While  Uder.  and  those  ol 

Bohemia  tn  the  Horaidiowiu  dlHrici  of  Wouwa.    For  more  Ihao 

two  centuries  the  Ssaon  fisheriea  have  been  eanllilly  nsutaled 

by  ioipeccon,  who  enmine  (be  streami  every  seeing,  and  deurmine 

valves  o(  the  mussels  with  an  Imn  instnmient,  and  if  they  find  no 

Riva  iieaili  ace  Imnd  in  many  parts  n(  tbe  United  State*,  aad 
have  been  lyKemaiieally  wnrkod  in  the  Utile  Miaoii  river.  Wania 
counlv.  Ohio,  and  alto  on  the  Misaisappi,  osjadallysbout  Musca- 

proliioes  Iresh-waier  pearh.  found  espedally  la  (ha  jfnabua 
fipnia.  But  it  Is  in  China  that  the  cullur«  of  (he  pcwi-inusael 
IS  earned  to  the  greamiptffeclion.  TbeChinesealioobtain  marine 
pearia,  and  UH  a  laije  quantity  of  molher-of^jMrT  foe  decorative 
purposes.  More  thin  twenty-two  centuries  before  our  era  pearia 
are  Enamenied  as  a  tribute  or  tan  In  Oiinai  and  Ihey  are  mentioned 
as  products  0*  (he  western  part  ol  the  emigre  Id  the  Wyo,  a 
dictionmcoBipikd  earlier  than  1000  «,c.    A  process  for  promoiini 


o(  Teh-tili«.  where  it  farm  the  stapb  InhMry  el  teMrd  vBbHh 
andissud  topveemployniennosboiltsooOMOIlla.  Lan*  a<is» 
ben  of  the  muaels  are  cnlkclcd  in  May  and  JaaeTind  the  valva 
of  each  are  aenily  opened  with  a  spatula  10  allow  ol  the  intniductioa 
ol  vanous  lortiin  bodies,  which  are  inserted  by  mnns  ol  a  forked 
bamboo  auefc.  Tlwe  "  mairicns  "  arc  (enenlly  pellets  ol  pnpucd 
mud.  but  may  be  laiall  boasrsoi  bone,  brass  or  wood.  Altsiun- 
her  of  these  objects  have  been  placed  10  conveniest  positioni  on  one 

repaied  on  the  other  nive.  The  mussels  ^tAn  tiacedm'rtXII 
("™  e^neded  with  the  canals,  and  are  BCHnisbed  by  tubaol  irieht- 
•lal  being  thrown  in  from  time  10  ume.  Alter  sesvil  aealhs,  ia 
some  can  two  ot  thiee  yon,  tbe  mussels  are  icmovcd.  and  the 
pMris  ■'hich^have  lormed^^ov*/  the  matricEs  aie  cut  from  the  shells. 


icted  fron  tbe  pearl  and  (b* 
tun  being  Diatty  lealed  up  so 
1  as  perfect  ■s_paMlbl*  Mil 
at  Son-chow.  'PienK 


■afoed.  Tbe 

ivlty  itled  wiin  white  wai.  (hi 
I  CO  render  the  apaarase  al  thi 
a  ol  BiKh_prsr(l  are  annusll) 


the  fotin  of  smaUnted  images  of  buddha.  The 

lead,  or  stamud  in  tin.and an  Inserted 

leos^ol  ibitt  Buddha  peath  b  lb* 


reCened  (1 

(hat  Unnaeus.  p 
ed  In  China,  demc 


1,  ^lOM^  (I'loi,  l-:Eut  these,  ihouihmucb 


U(tle 


Becreted.    The  pi 


k  pearls,  which  air  very  hijhiy  valued,  are  obUined  chiefly 
ihepearioysierof  theCulf  otMesico.  The  common  marinJ 
el  MyiJu  adtlu  also  produces  pearls,  which  are,  however,  ol 

According  to  tbe  latest  noeardiea  the  canst  of  pearl.formalion 

■ cases,  pcthips  In  afl.  the  dead  body  ol  a  minute  parasite 

e  tissues  of  a  mollusc,  around  which  nacreous  deposit  is 

itage  In  the  life  history  of  a  Trema- 

in  same  cases,  m  otners  of  a  Ceslode;  Ibal  is  id  say  of  a  form 

ibling  tbe  common  bver-flnke  of  the  aheep,  or  of  a  tape- 

I.    As  loDg  ago  as  1851  Filippi  of  Turin  showed  (hit  the 

B  of  TYemalode  Diilamiai  inflitahim  was  the  cause  of  t 

pearl  formation  in  tbe  fnsb-waler  mussel  AtuiotUa.    KucAen- 

isICT  lubsequCDtly  investigated  (be  queatioD  at  Eliler  in 

lony  and  came  to  a  diHerent  eondujion,  namely  that  the 

ittal  body  ol  tbe  pearl  was  a  amaU  ipedmen  of  a  ^wda  of 

ternu'tewhicliisaveryconimonpirasileof^nodaimi.    Filippf 

however  slates  that  (be  mite  is  only  rarely  found  within  a 

pearl,  the  Tnmatsde  occunlng  in  the  great  majotily  of  cases. 

R.  Dubois  and  Dr  II.  Lyster  Jameson  have  made  ipedal  Invesli- 

gitioDS  of  tbe  piocess  in  tbe  common  nussel  UylUui  iJalit, 

Tbe  tatter  states  that  the  peiii  is  pnduced  in  a  sac  which  h 

iluaied  beneath  the  epidermis  of  (he  mantle  and  Is  lined  by  an 

epiihelium.    This  epithelium  is  not  derived  fnm  tbe  celh  of  tha 

:pldemils  but  from  tbe  Inlemal  connectlve-lfssBt  cells.    This 

itatemenl,  if  correct,  b  contrary  to  what  would  be  expected,  for 

oUcareoui  nutlet  is  usually  secreted  by  Ibe  external  epidermis 

only.    The  sac  or  cyst  is  formed  by  the  lirva  of  a  species  of 

Trnnatode  bdonglng  to  tbe  geous  Lead/^laifndrniin,  a  species 

dosely  lesembllng  and  probably  ideotical  wiih  £.  ii7fiiirieri«, 

which  liva  in  the  adult  state  m  Ibe  eider  duck.    At  Billlers, 

Morbfhan.  in  France,  the  host  of  the  adult  Trematode  Is  anotbet 

1  of  dock,  namely  the  common  Scoter,  OtJcwiia  Hipa,  which 

)rious  In  tbe  locality  for  its  avidity  for  musseb.    T^ema- 

lodes  of  Ihe  famDy  Distomidae,  to  which  the  paradte  under 

consideration  belongs,  nsuaUy  bave  three  hosts  In  each  of  whicb 

Lhey  pais  dffierent  stages  of  Ibe  bfe  hstory.    In  this  case  the  first 


Billicrsi 
Id  Laocashin 


e  foui 


rnmbi^e    S'% 


.  Csstmpod  bel( 

'Ihe  shores 
sUioeUibniKte 


called  T3pa  Sauiialm, 
Tapes  and  the  Ant  stages  of  (ha 
imon  cockle.  The  TVemalode 
te  newly  hatched  embryo  and 
..jpod  belorjlnj  to  iJie  lamBy 
IbnncUa.     ftuIiaiJIs  Kdymia, 

the  family  Anomiidui  it  Is 
Mediienanean.    Both 


PEARL,  THE 


pnvioiMlj  dtfcribetL    II  the  oi 


d  u  ihcQ  AmUomd  by  tlu 


d1  tkt  UnL   Ib  Ihe  muMcb  whicb  aape  beuq 
Ik  puititM  cuuwt  dntlop  Juitfact,  tad  tfaey  dia  ud 
in  dtiMilt  «Uck  fonn*  ft  ptuL 


■nfdinlifiiL 

Tha^nt  ■BOHtioB  that  the  a 
from  peul  oyilcn  In  (topical  oaaaa  might  bo  due  to  oanika 
mi  Bade  by  Kdaait  in  npoiti  to  tbe  ■mrraainit  of  Ccyko  b 
■8ST-iBig.  Rtceetiy  a  *pedal  mvcMitatioa  id  Ibe  Ceyien  pcari 
fiihay  hat  been  npaittd  by  PrefeMoi  Herdouo.  Herdauu  and 
Httadf  Ibid  llut  ia  Ibe  peul  oyKcr  of  Ceylm  UntariiiStia 
(■'(grJi,  Scfaun.  the  uudtui  (4  the  poari  i*.  in  all  ipecimeH 
enmiiKd,  the  krva  of  a  Cotod*  or  tapeoDm.  TUi  larva  ii  of 
(lobulaj  form  oiul  ii  ol  Ibe  type  Imawn  u  a  cyiticflnu.  A«  in 
the  caie  of  the  nuMd  tht  laiva  die*  in ' 


i<  iBsodaled  bi  aQ  agca  irith  beanly  at 
ul  the  biUliant  urcophigui  of  >  •iDrm. 

lu  deicnbcd  by  Ilcrdmu  and  HorneU  ba)  on  tbt 
»ui£Bce  a  Doacular  mne  witbin  wbidi  b  a  dcprnaion  coDtaJntng 
a  papilla  irinch  can  be  piotnidcd.  It  wu  at  bnn  MmtUed  at 
the  larva  of  a  tapewimi  called  Tetnirhynchus,  and  Piolcasor 
Hcrdman  concluded  tbat  the  Ufe-bislory  of  tbe  pcail  paruite 
anuiated  of  lour  •tt(e>.  the  Grit  being  eibtbiled  by  free  larrie 
wUcb  mre  taken  at  Ihe  nirface  of  the  te).  tbe  ■ei:Diid  that  in  the 
peail  eyiter,  the  thiid  a  totm  found  in  tbe  bo<fi(t  of  6]e-Esba 
which  feed  on  tbe  oyBtcn,  and  Ibe  lounh  or  adult  itage  living  in 
loma  vedet  of  large  ray.  It  b«a  not  however  been  proved  that 
the  pe»I  panifie  i>  a  Teinrhynchut.  nor  that  It  it  eonoecied 
witb  the  fne  larva  orthe  form  found  in  (be£le-£ib.Bali3(es;not 
haa  the  aduh  tonn  been  identified.  All  that  is  certain  li  that 
Ibe  pcarla  are  due  to  Ihe  presence  ol  a  poiasto  which  ia  the  larva 
of  a  Ccttode;  all  the  rest  ii  piobiihilily  or  posdhility.  A  Fmch 
naluraliit,  M.  Seurat.  itudylng  Ibe  pearl  oytler  of  Ihe  Gambler 
Aichipelngo  in  Ihe  Farific.  found  (hit  peul  FcrniaiiaD  wu  due 
to  a  ptrtsite  quite  aimllu  to  thai  dacribed  by  Herdman  and 
HomcU.  Tbia  paraaile  was  described  by  Professor  Giard  aa 
cbDrtcleriied  by  a  Tostmm  armed  with  a  single  tennlnal  (ucker 


Ccndne  predouB  purU  and  the  moal  v 


X™ 


I  mil  oirls  dT  ti>F  mctd.    I<  brbnn  lo  tbe  family  Avkoltdae, 
.n^».k.  ik^ — __,u_.Lji.,    In  ihi  lamily  lh« 


ia  icimight  and  protoiiged  inl 

,^,  „  -,-j  _xut  byvus.    Mtintn'^  >>  d -.^ ,  — 

•iic  or  csnpltte  ab«nce  of  the  poneiior  auricula.  Tbespcoesaic 
ai  follawt,  Tlie  Ivpe  ipeciet  it  M^npina  utorfuriJiJeTtt  which  has 
iH  teeth  on  the  hince.  Gcovnphicai  races  are  dadniulkhed  by 
iathelrade.  Specunena  from  the  Malay  Afchrprlafo 


bU'cii«l(ed  BandT^ir:  ib«eTroai  . 
and  the  wghbourfng  lilaitdi  of  [be 
AoHrallan  and  New  Cui"    "    '  " 
T^Wtl.  - 


New  Cuiaaa  blaeltlip.    Anotber  variety  ecxnn  in 
r  Islands  and  Eatttm  Pnlyne>ia  leBenlly,  yleldini 
bnarlsaBdihell.   lloccun>l«i<iiChiiia,Cay1on.ih(Andaniaa 
iHandtaadlbtMaldivet.  AnotberfsnoiiuUnalZsnilUr.Mada- 

Btcar.  and  the  netlbbauriiw  islandt.  aad  is  ciDed  Zaiulbar  and 
adifucar  >hell.   ^mbay  (hell  It  another  locaP  lorn  bhed  ia 
tbe  Persian  Culi  aid  shipped  via  Bombay.    Tbe  Red  &■  nhety 

it  koomi  at  Enpiian  ibelf.    Another  nriety  eccun  nloai  tb 

raw  of  Amenci  aod  fnnaPtniina  M  ytncouver,  and  n 


ime  peerlt.    A  larger  torn,  attaliiing  a  fool 
hi  of  lo  lb  ««;  J>a<r  of  •he^lt.  h  cMaldaed  at 

the  Malay  Ardupelago.    The  u 


wilhost  Ibe  black  or  dii%  marcin  of  Ihe  common  ip 
known  hi  the  trade  at  the  AvtMlp.  goU.lp  and  by  ot 
Ii  h  the  matt  i^utblt  wtttetol  >othiHd.re«ri  oyttti. 


iD  I  hew  havr  nnHmenUry 
lant  loeeln  is  Mtlii^tm 
K  ol  Cevloa  and  iDiilbtnl 
jU  and  the  pearl  oyiier  of 
Miei  Caoal  the  liner  form 
ent  having  been  laken  at 

naltoonthecoasttolihe 
ixa.wbnititG>liadbe«h 

no  nailiet  vahit^  Uilca- 
iM  of  Ihe  London  market 
t  Bay,  Wcttera  Auunlia, 
i  pearlt  of  hiEeridi  qualiiy 
Lpan  lir^h,  it  prubtbly  i 


^Wc« 


earl  it  a  distlacLin 
Sclhlebem.   Anonf 


it  Ibcn  filled  with 


Aedriwt'be 


tk,  '■  Pearl  Fithery  in  the 
79»),  V,  J93;.K.  MObiui. 

cm. "  On  the  Tdeniily  and 


manuscript  Cotton  Nero 
ne  are  contained  also  the 
yiu  anJife  CrtcH  Kni/U. 


all  by  ibe  tame  author. 
I,  belongs  to  the  end  of 
century,  and  tppean  lo 
wsilion;nolineof  i>(a>J 

a  of  (  girl-chDd,  "who 


1.  eipoundl  lo  him  the 
I  bin  10  a  glimpse  of  the 
it  Glled  with  gtorioui 
towudi  the  tbroue,  all 
robes  a>  Pearl  bcrMlf. 
|ueen."     A  great   love- 


28 


PEARSAIL— PEARSON,  C.  H. 


into  tbe  stream  that  keet>8  him  from  her.  In  the  very  effort 
the  dreamer  awakes,  to  find  himself  resting  upon  the  little 
mound  where  hit  Pearl  had  "strayed  below": —  ** 

"  I  roused  me,  and  fell  in  mat  dismay, 
And»  sighinG^,  to  myself  I  said: 
Now  all  be  to  that  Prince's  pleasure." 

The  poem  consists  of  one  hundred  and  one  stanzas,  each  of 
twelve  lines,  with  four  accents,  rhymed  aft,  oft,  afr,  ab,  be,  be; 
the  versificEition  combines  rhyme  with  alliteration;  trisyllabic 
effects  add  to  the  easy  movement  and  lyricel  charm  of  the  lines. 
Five  stanzas  (in  one  case  six),  with  the  same  refrain,  constitute 
a  section,  of  which  accordingly  there  are  twenty  in  all,  the  whole 
sequence  being  linked  together  by  the  device  of  making  the 
first  line  of  each  stanza  catdi  up  the  refrain  of  the  previous 
verse,  the  last  line  of  the  poem  re-echoing  the  first  line.  The 
author  was  not  the  creator  of  this  form,  nor  was  he  the  last  to 
use  it.  The  extant  pieces  in  the  metre  are  abort  religious  poems, 
some  of  the  later  (e.g.  God*s  Complaini,  falsely  attributed  to 
Scottish  authorship)  revealing  the  influence  of  Peai4. 

The  dialect  is  West  Midland,  or  rather  North- West  Midland, 
and  the  vocabulary  is  remarkable  for  the  blending  of  native 
speech  with  Scandinavian  and  Romance,  elements,  the  latter 
partly  Anglo-French,  and  partly  learned  French,  due  to  the 
author's  knowledge  of  Frendi  literature. 

"  While  the  main  part  of  the  poem,"  according  to  Gollanca. 
"  is  a  parai^irase  of  the  dosing  chaptefs  of  the  Apocalypse  and 
the  parable  of  the  Vineyard,  the  poet's  debt  to  the  Romaunt  of 
the  Rose  is  noteworthy,  more  particularly  in  the  description  of 
the  wonderful  land  through  which  the  dreamer  wanders;  and  it 
can  be  traced  throughout  the  poem,  in  the  personification  of 
Pearl  as  Reason,  in  the  form  of  the  coUoquy,  in  the  details  of 
dress  and  ornament,  in  many  a  characteristic  word,  phrase  and 
reference.  ^The  river  from  the  throne,'  in  the  Apocalypse, 
here  meets  '  the  waters  of  the  wells '  devised  by  Sir  Mirth  for 
the  Garden  of  the  Rose.  From  these  two  sources,  the  Book  of 
Revelation,  with  its  almost  Celtic  glamour,  and  The  Romaunt  of 
the  Rose,  with  its  almost  Oriental  allegory,  are  derived  much  of 
the  wMlth  and  brilliancy  of  the  poem.  The  poet's  fancy  revels 
in  the  richness  of  the  heavenly  and  the  earthly  paradise,  but 
his  fancy  is  subordinated  to  his  earnestness  and  intensity." 

The  leading  motifs  of  PeaH  axe  to  be  found  in  the*  Gospd— • 
in  the  allegory  of  the  merchant  who  sold  his  all  to  purchase  one 
pearl  of  great  price,  and  in  the  words,  so  fraught  with  solace  for 
the  child-bereft,  "for  of  such  is  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven." 
Naturally  arising  from  the  theme,  and  from  these  motifs,  some 
theological  problems  of  the  time  are  touched  upon,,  or  treated 
somewhat  too  elaborately  perhaps,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  demonstrate  that  Pearl  is  merdy  allegorical  and  theological, 
and  not  really  a  lament.  Those  who  hold  this  view  surely  ignore 
or  fail  to  recognize  the  subtle  personal  touches  whereby  the 
poem  transcends  all  its  theological  interests,  and  makes  its 
simple  and  direct  appeal  to  the  human  heart.  Herein,  too,  lies 
its  abiding  charm,  over  and  above  the  poetical  talent,  the  love 
of  nature,  colour  and  the  picturesque,  the  tedmical  skill,  and 
the  descriptive  power,  which  in  a  high  degree  belonged  to  the 
unknown  poet. 

Various  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  authotship  of 
Pearl  and  the  other  poems  in  the  manuscript.  The  daims  of 
Huchowh  ''of  the  Awle  Ryale"  have  been  vigorously  (but 
unsuccessfully)  advocated;  the  case  in  favour  of  Ralph  Strode 
(Chaucer's  "  philosophical  Strode  ") — the  most  attractive  of  all 
the  theories — ^is  stiH,  unfortunatdy,  "  not  proven."  By  piecing 
together  the  personal  indications  to  be  found  in  the  poems 
an  imaginary  biography  of  the  poet  may  be  constructed.  It 
may  safdy  be  inferred  that  he  was  bom  about  1330,  somewhere 
in  Lancashire,  or  a  little  to  the  north;  that  he  delighted  in  open- 
air  life,  in  woodcraft  and  sport;  that  his  eariy  life  was  passed 
amid  the  gay  scenes  that  brightened  existence  in  medieval  ball 
and  bower;  that  he  availed  himself  of  opportunities  of  study, 
theology  and  romance  alike  claiming  him;  that  he  wedded,  and 
bad  a  child  named  Margery  or  M^guerite— the  Daisy,  or  the 


Peatl--«t  whose  death  his  happiness  dvooped  and  lire%  jqy 
ended. 

The  four  poems  are  dosdy  linked  and  belong  to  one  pttiod 
of  the  poet's  career.  In  Cawayne,  probably  the  first  of  the  four» 
the  poet  is  still  the  minstrel  rejoicing  in  the  glamour  of  the 
Arthurian  tale,  but  using  it,  in  almost  Spenserian  spirit,  to  point 
a  moraL  In  Pearl  the  minatrd  has  become  the  degiac  poet, 
harmonizing  the  old  Teutonic  form  with  the  newer  Romance 
rhyme.  In  Qeatmess  he  has  discarded  all  attractions  of  form, 
and  writes,  in  direct  alliterative  metre,  a  ston  homily  on  chastity. 
In  PaHence — a  homiletic  paraphrase  of  Jonah — ^he  appears  to 
be  autobiographical,  reminding  himself,  while  teaching  others, 
that  '*  Poverty  and  Patience  are  needs  playfellows."  He  had 
evidently  fallen  on  evil  days. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  soon  after  1358  Boccacdo  wrote  Jiis 
Latin  edogue  Olympia  in  memory  of  his  young  daughter 
Violante.  A  comparative  study  of  the  two  poems  is  full  of 
interest;  the  direct  influence  of  the  Latin  00  the  EngUsl^  poem 
is  not  so  dear  as  has  been  maintained.  Pearl  cannot  be  placed 
earlier  than  1360;  it  Is  most  probably  later  than  Olympia, 

BiBLiOGRAPRT. — Texts  and  Translatumsx  Earfy  AUHeraHot 
Poems  iu  the  West  Midland  Dialect  of  the  Feitfieenth  tSmtury  (edited 
by  Richaid  Morris,  Early  English  Text  Society  I,  1864:;  revised. 
1869,  1885.  1896.  1901):  Pearl,  am.  Emg^tsk  Poem  of  the  Fomrteentk 
Century,  edited,  vnth  a  Modern  Rendering,  by  Israel  GoQancz  (with 


191 1*.  Facamile  of  MS.  Cotton  Nero  Ax,  i9io-i()xx;  The  Pearly 
(edited  by  C.  G.  Osgood;  Boston,  1906).   Trandations  by  OoIIancs 
(as  above) ;  G.  G.  Coulton  (1906) ;  O^ood  (1907)  •  Miss  Mead  (1908) ; 
Miss  Jewett  (1908);  part  of  thejpoem,  by  S.  Weir  MitdieU  (1006). 
Literary  History;  Tenbiiak.  History  of  En^ish  Literature  (tnv^ 


(publications  of  the  Modem  Languages  Association  of  America, 


(publications  of  tne  Modem  Languages  Association  01  America, 
Jdx.  115-153;  1904):  W.  G.  Schofieid,  The  Nature  and  Pabne  of  the 
Pearl  (ilMcL  pp.  154-^2x5;  1904);  also  Symbt^um,  AUapry  and 
Aulobtogrophy  ^ibid.  xxiv.  585-^7^;  1909);  I.  GoUancz,  Camhridge 
History  of  English  Literature,  vol.  l  ch.  xv. 

Worhs  conntcted  mtk  Pearl:  Sir  Cawayne,  a  CeUeOion  of  Aue&eiA 
Romanee  Poems  (edited  by  Sir  F.  Madden;  London,  1839);  Sir 
Gawayne  (re-edited  by  iUchard  Morris,  E.E.T.S.,  1864,  1869;  text 
revised  by  1.  (GoUancz.  189A);  The  Parlement  of  the  Thre  Ages,  and 
Wynnere  and  Wastoure  (eoited  by  I.  Gollancz:  London,  1897); 
Hymns  to  the  Virtin  and  Cknst  (edited  by  F.  J.  Fumivall,  E.E.T.S., 
1867):  P^ittcal,  Religious  and  Lose  Poems  (edited  by  F.  J.  FumivaU* 
E.E.T.S.,  1866,  1903).  -  ,  . 

J/e{re.— Clark  Sw  Northup,  Study  of  the  Metrical  Structure  of  the 
Pearl  (publications  of  the  Modem  Languages  Association,  xii. 
326-340). 

Phonology.^'W,  Fide,  Zum  mUteleneKKhen  Cedieht  von  der  Perk 
(Kid,  1885).  a.  G.) 

PBABSALL,  ROBERT  LUCAS  DB  (1795-1856).  English 
composer,  was  bom  on  the  14th  of  March  1795,  at  Clifton. 
Educated  for  the  bar,  he  practised  till  1825,  when  he  left  England 
for  (krmany  and  studied  composition  under'  Panny  of  Maixue; 
with  the  exception  of  three  comparatively  short  visits  to 
England,  during  one  of  which  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
the  English  school  of  madrigals,  he  lived  abroad,  selling  his 
family  property  of  Willsbridge  and  settling  in*  the  castle  of 
Wartensee,  on  the  lake  of  Constance.  He  produced  many  works 
of  lasting  beauty,  nearly  all  of  them  for  voices  in  combination: 
from  his  part  songs,  such  as  "Oh,  who  will  o'er  the  downs?"  to 
his  elaborate  and  scholarly  madrigals,  such  as  the  admL-able 
eight-part  compositions,  "  Great  God  of  Love  "  and  "  Lay  a 
Garhmd,"  or  the  beautiful  **  Light  of  my  Soul."  His  reception 
into  the  Roman  Church  in  his  later  years  may  have  suggested 
the  composition  of  some  beautiful  sacred  music,  among  other 
thingi  a  fine  **  Salve  Regina,"  He  wrote  many  valuable 
treatises  on  music,  and  edited  a  Roman  Catholic  hymn-book. 
He  died  on  the  5th  of  August  1856. 

PBARSOB,  CHARLES  HENRY  (1830-1894).  British  historian 
and  colonial  sUtesman,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  7th  of 
September  1830.  After  receiving  his  early  education  at  Rugby 
and  King's  College,  London,  he  went  up.  to  Qzfoid,  where  he 


PEARSON,  J— PEARSON,  J.  L. 


29 


tiflft  gcncftOy  regarded  as  tbe  most  briUiaiit  of  an  exceptionally 
able  set,  and  in  1854  obtained  a  feUowahip  at  Oriel  CoUege. 
His  constitutional  weakness  and  bad  eyesight  forced  him  to 
abandon  medicine,  which  he  had  adopted  as  a  caseer,  and  in 
1855  be  retnmedto  Kii^s  College  as  lecturer  in  English  fauiguagc 
and  literature,  a  post  which  he  ahnost  immediately  quitted 
for  the  professordkip  of  modem  history.  He  made  numerous 
journeys  abroad,  the  most  important  bdng  his  vi«t  to  Russia 
in  1858,  his  account  4rf  whidi  was  published  anonymously  in 
1859  under  tbe  title  of  RtusiCt  by  «  Reeeta  TroBeUer;  an  adve»« 
turous  journey  through  Poland  <ktfing  the  insurrection  of  1863, 
of  wbidi  he  gave  a  sympathetic  and  much  pmised  account  in 
the  Spedttori  and  a  vkit  to  the  United  States  in  1868,  where 
he  gathered  materials  for  his  subsequent  discussion  of  the  negro 
problem  in  Us  NtH^nal  Lift  ami  Ckarteler.  In  the  meantime, 
besides  contributing  regularly,  int  to  the  Saturday  Rnitw  and 
then  to  the  Sptetafr^  and  editing  the  NaHoaal  Renew^  he  wrote 
the  fint  vohime  of  Tkt  Bariy  and  Middle  Agtt  of  Bm^amd  (1861). 
The  work  was  bitterly  attadccd  by  Freeman,  whose  **  cxtmva- 
gant  Saxonism  "  Pearson  had  been  unable  to  adopt.  It  appeared 
in  1868  In  a  revised  form  with  the  title  of  History  of  EngUnd 
during  tkt  Bariy  and  Middle  Ages,  accompanied  by  a  second 
volume  which  met  with  general  recognition.  Still  better  was 
the  teoeptlbn  of  his  admirable  Maps  of  England  its  ike  First 
Tklrtetn  Ceniuries  (1870).  But  as  the  result  of  these  labouis  he 
was  threatened  with  total  blindness;  and,  dissppoimted  of 
receiving  a  professorship  at  Oxford,  in  1871  he  emigrated  to 
Australia.  Here  he  married  and  settled  down  to  the  life  of  a 
sheep-farmer;  but  finding  his  health  and  eyesight  greatly 
improved,  he  came  to  Melbourne  as  lecturer  on  history  at  the 
univeislty.  Soon  afterwards  he  became  head  master  of  the 
Presbjrterian  Ladies'  College,  and  in  this  position  practically 
organised  the  whole  system  of  higher  education  for  women  in 
Victoria.  On  his  election  in  1878  to  the  Legislative  Assembly 
be  definitely  adopted  politics  as-  his  career.  His  views  on  the 
land  question  and  secidar  education  aroused  the  bitter  hostility 
of  the  rich  squatters  and  the  detgy;  but  hte  singular  nobility 
of  character,  no  less  than  his  powers  of  mind,  made  him  one 
of  the  most  infiuential  men  in  the  Assembly.  He  was  minister 
without  portfolio  in  the  Berry  cabinet  (1880-1881),  and  as 
minister  of- education  in  the  coalition  government  of  1886  to  1890 
he  was  able  to  pass  into  law  many  ol  the 'recommendations  of 
his  report.  His  reforms  entirely  remodelled  state  education  ia 
inctorift.  In  1893  a  fr^  attack  of  illness  decided  him  to  return 
to  England.  Here  he  published  in  2895  the  best  known  of  his 
works.  National  Life  and  Ckaracier.  It  ii  an  attempt  to  show 
that  tbe  white  man  can  flourish  only  In  the  temperate  aones^ 
that  the  yeUow  and  black  races  must  increase  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  white,  and  must  in  time  crush  out  his  civilisation. 
He  died  in  London  on  the  SQth  of  May  1894. 

A  volume  of  his  Renews  and  Crilieal  Rssap  was  pobltshed  In 
1896,  and  wst  followed  in  1900  by  his  awtobiogrephy.  a  work  of 
great  interac 

PBARSOK,  iOHW  (i6t3-x686),  English  divine  and  sdwUir, 
was  bom  at  Great  Snoring,  Norfolk,  on  the  <8th  of- February 
1613.  From' Eton  he  passed  to  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
was  elected  a  scholar  of  King's  in  April  1632,  and  a  felkiw  in 
1634.  On  taking  orders  in  1639  he  was  collated  to  the  Salisbury 
prebend  of  Nether-Avon.  In  1640  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to 
the  lord-keeper  Finch,  by  whom  he  was  presented  to  the  living 
of  Thorington  in  Sufifidk.  In  tbe  Civil  War  he  acted  as  ebapfadn 
to  George  Goring's  forces  in  the  west.  In  1654  he  was  made 
weekly  preacher  at  St  Clement's,  Eastcheap,  in  London.  Vfiih 
Peter  Gunning  he  disputed  against  two  Roman  Catholics  on  the 
subject  of  schism,  a  one-sided  account  of  which  was  printed  in 
Paris  by  one  of -the  Roman  Catholic  disputants,  under  the  title 
Scisme  Unmask*t  (1658).  Pearson  also  argued  against  the 
Puritan  party,  and  was  much  interested  in  Brian  Walton's 
polyglot  Bible.  In  1659  he  published  in  London  his  celebratM 
Exposition  of  Ike  Crud,  dedicated  to  his  parishioners  of  St 
Clement's,  Eutchcap,  to  whom  the  substance  of  the  work  had 
been  preached  several  years  before.    In  the  same  year  be 


published  the  Golden  Remaku  of  Ike  eser'inemoratle  Mr  Jakm 
Holes  of  Eton^  with  an  interesting  memoir.  Soon  after  the 
Restoration  he  was  presented  by  Ju«m,  bishop  ai  London,  to 
the  rectory  of  St  Christopher-le-Stocks;  and  in  1660  he  was 
created  doctor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  appointed  a  royal 
chaplain,  prebendary  of  Ely,  archdeacon  of  Surrey,  and.  master 
of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  In  1661  he  was  appointed  Lady 
Margaret  profeasof  of  divinity;  and  on  the  fint  day  of  the 
ensuing  year  he  was  nominated  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
the  review  of  the  liturgy  in  the  conference  held  at  the  Savoy. 
There  he  won  tbe  esteem  of  his  opponents  and  high  praise  from 
Richard  Baxter.  On  the  14th  of  April  166a  he  was  made  master 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In  1667  he  was  admitted  a. 
feDew  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1673  he  published  at  Cambridge 
Vindieiae  epistelarum  S.  Ignatii,  in  4to,  in  answer  to  Jean 
Daill6.  His  defence  of  the  authenticity  of  the  letters  of  Ignatius 
has  been  confirmed  by  J.  B.  Lighlfoot  and  other  recent  scholars. 
Upon  the  death  of  John  Wilkins  in  1672,  Pearson  was  appointed 
to  the  bishopric  of  Chester.  In  1 682  his  ^4  nnales  cyprianici  were 
published  at  Oxford,  with  John  Fell's  edition  of  thiit  father's 
works.  He  died  at  Chester  on  the  16th  of  July  1686.  His  last 
work,  the  Two  Dissertations  on  the  Succession  and  Times  of  tka 
First  Bishops  of  Rome,  formed  with  the  Annales  Faulini  the 
principal  part  of  his  Opera  postkuma,  edited  by  Henry  Dodwell 
in  1688. 

See  the  memoir  in  Biograpkia  Britannica,  and  another  by  Edward 
Churton,  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  Pearson's  Minor  Tkeoiogical 
Works  (7  vols.,  Oxford,  1844)'  Churton  also  edited  almost  the 
whole  of  the  theological  writings. 

PSARSOIf,  JOHN  LOUaBBOHOOGH  Ct8i7-r897),  English 
architect,  son  of  WilUam  Pearson,  etcher,  of  Durham,  was  bom 
In  Brussels  on  the  5th  of  July  1817.  He  was  articled  at  the  age 
of  fourteen  to  Ignatius  Bonomi,  architect,  of  Durham,  but  soon 
removed  to  London,  and  worlced  under  the  cider  Hardwicke. 
He  revived  and  practised  largely  the  art  of  vaulting,  and  acquired 
in  it  a  proficiency  unrivalled  in  his  generation.  He  was,  boweveri 
by  no  means  a  Gothic  purist,  and  was  also  fond  of  Renaissance 
and  thoroughly  grounded  in  classical  architecture.  From  the 
erection  of  his  first  church  of  Ellerker,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1843, 
to  that  of  St  Peter's,  Vauxhall,  in  1864,  his  buildings  are 
Geometrical  in  manner  and  exhibit  a  close  adherence  to  pre- 
cedent, but  elegance  of  proportion  and  refinement  of  detail  lift 
them  out  of  the  commonplace  of  mere  imitation.  Holy  IVinity, 
Westminster  (1848),  and  St  Mary's,  Dalton  Holme  (1858),  are 
notable  examples  of  this  phase.  St  Peter's,  Vauxhall  (i86#)» 
his  first  groined  church,  was  also  the  first  of  a  series  of  buildings 
whidi  brought  Pearson  to  the  forefront  among  his  contempor- 
aries. In  these  he  applied  the  Eariy  English  style  to  modem 
seeds  and  modem  economy  with  unrivalled  success.  St  Augua- 
thie's,  Kilbum  (1871),  St  John's,  Red  Lion  Square,  London 
<i874),  St  Alban's,  Birmingham  (1880),  St  Michael's,  Croydon 
tx88o),  St  John's,  Norwood  (i88t),  St  Stephen's,  Bournemouth 
(1889),  and  All  Saints',  Hove  (1889),  arc  characteristic  examples 
of  his  matured  work.  He  b  best  known  by  Truro  Cathedrsl 
(z88o),  vrhich  has  a  special  interest  in  its  apt  incorporation 
of  the  south  aisle  of  the  ancient  church.  Pearson's  conservative 
spirit  fitted  him  for  the  reparation  of  ancient  edifices,  and  among 
cathedrals  and  other  historical  buildings  placed  under  his 
care  were  Lincoln,  Chichester,  Peterborough,  Bristol  and 
Exeter  Cathedrals,  St  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  Westminster 
Hall  and  Westminster  Abbey,  in  the  surveyorship  of  which 
last  he  succeeded  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  Except  *b  to  the  porches, 
the  work  of  Scott,  he  re-faced  the  north  transept  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  also  designed  the  vigorous  oigan  cases.  In  his  hand- 
ling of  ancient  buildings  he  was  repeatedly  opposed  by  the  ultra 
anti-restorers  (as  in  the  case  of  the  west  front  of  Peterborough 
Cathedral  in  1896),  but  he  generally  proved  the  soundness 
of  his  judgment  by  his  executed  work.  Pearson's  practice  was 
not  confined  to  church  buikUng.  Tieberiydd  House  (1850), 
Quar  Wood  (i8s8),  Lechbde  Manor,  an  Elizabethan  house 
('873),  Westwood  House,  Sydenham,  in  the  French  Renaissance 
style  <i88o),  the  Astor  esute  offices  (189s)  upon  the  Victoriis 


JO 


PEARY 


Embankment,  Londoo,  tbe  remodeUiog  of  the  intefiors  of 
Clleveden  House  (1893)  and  No.  18  Carlton  Hooae  Tertace  (1894), 
with  nuny  parsonages,  show  his  aptitude  for  domestic  architec- 
ture. In  general  design  he  first  aimed  at  form,  embracing  both 
proportion  and  contour;  and  his  work  may  be  recognized  by 
accurate  scholarship  coupled  with  harmonious  detail.  Its  key- 
notes are  cautiousness  and  refinement  rather  th^n  boldness. 
He  died  on  the  nth  of  December  1897,  and  was  buried  in  the 
nave  of  Westminster  Abbey,  where  his  grave  is  marked  by  the 
appropriate  motto  Sustinuit  d  abstinuiL  He  was  elected  A.R  Jl. 
in  1874,  R'A.  in  1880,  was  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
and  .a  fellow  and  member  of  the  Cbuncil  of  the  Royal  Institute 
of  BrKish  Architects. 

The  following  are  some  of  Pearson's  more  important  works, 
not  already  named:  Ferriby  church  (18^6);  Stow,  Lincolnshire 
(restoration,  1850);  Wcybridge.  St  lamcs's  (i853);.Frccbnd  church, 
parsonage  and  schools  (1866);  Kilburn,  St  Peter's  Home  (1868); 
Wentworth  church  (1872):  Horsforth  church  (1874);  Cullcrcoats, 
St  George's  (1882) ;  Chiswick,  St  Michael's  (restoration.  1882) ;  Great 
Yarmouth  church  (restoration,  1883);  Liverpool,  St  Agnes'  (1883); 
Woking  Convalescent  Home  (i88d.);  Heaaingtcjr  church  (1884); 
Torquay,  All  Saints  (1884);  Maidstone,  All  Saints  (restoration, 
1885);  Shrewsbury  Abbey  (1886);  Ayr.  Holy  Trinity  (1886);  Hythe 
church  (restoration,  1887);  Oxford,  New  College,  rcrcdos  (com- 

fletion,  1889);  Cambridge  Univcrsitv  Library  (additions,  1889); 
riern  Bamct,  St  John's  (1890);  Cambridge,  Sidney  Sussex  College 
(additions,  1890):  Middlesex  Hospital  chapel  (1890);  Bishop^atc, 
St  Helen's  (restoration,  1891 };  Maida  Hill  (Irvingitc)  church  (i^i); 
Barking,  All  Hallows  (restoration,  1893);  Cambridge,  Emmanuel 
College  (addttkms.  1803):  Ledbury,  St  Michael's  (restoration, 
l894){  Malta,  Memorial  church  (1894);  Port  Talbot  church  (1895). 

(W.  D.  C.) 

PEART,  ROBERT  EDWIN  (i8'56-  ),  American  Arctic 
explorer,  was  bom  at  Crcsson,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  6th  of  May 
1856.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  CV>Ilege  in  1877,  and  in  x88i 
became  a  civil  engineer  in  the  U.S.  navy  with  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant. In  1884  he  was  appointed  assistant-engineer  in  conaezion 
with  the  surveys  for  the  Nicaragua  Ship  Canal,  and  in  1887-1888 
he  was  in  charge  of  these  surveys.  In  t886  he  obtained  leave  of 
absence  for  a  summer  excursion  to  Disco  Bay  on  the  west  coast 
of  Greenland.  From  this  point  he  made  a  journey  of  nearly  a 
hundred  miles  into  the  interior,  and  the  experience  impressed 
him  with  the  practicability  of  using  this  sooJfed  inland  ice-cap 
as  a  highway  for  exploration.  In  1891  he  organized  an  e]q>cdi'' 
tion  under  the  ausfMCes  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sdences  of 
PhiUidelphia.  The  party  of  seven  included  Lieut.  Peary's 
wife,  the  first  white  woman  to  accompany  on  Arctic  ex- 
pedition. After  wintering  in  Inglefield  CuU  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  Greenland,  in  the  foUowing  spring  Lieut.  Peary, 
with  a  young  Norwegian,  Eivind  Astrup,  crossed  the  inland 
ice-cap  along  its  northern  limit  to  the  north-east  of  Greenland 
and  back.  The  practical  geographical  result  of  this  journey 
was  to  establish  the  insularity  of  Greenland.  Valuable 
work  was  also  performed  by  the  expedition  In  the  dose 
study  which  was  made  of  the  isolated  tribe  of  the  Cape 
York  or  Smith  Sound  Eskimos,  the  most  northerly  peopk  in 
tbe  world.*  Lieut.  Peary  was  able  to  fit  out  another  Arctic 
'  expedition  in  1893,  and  was  again  accompanied  by  Mrs  Peary, 
who  gave  birth  to  a  daughter  at  the  winter  quarters  in  Inglefield 
Gulf.  The  expedition  returned  in  the  season  of  1894,  leaving 
Peary  with  his  coloured  servant  Henson  and  Mr  Hugh  G.  Lee 
to  renew  the  attempt  to  cross  the  inland  ice  in  the  next  year. 
This  they  succeeded  in  doing,  but  without  being  able  to  carry 
the  work  of  ezpbration  any  farther  on  the  opposite  side  ci 
Greenland.  During  a  summer  excursion  to  Melville  Bay  in 
1894,  Peary  discovered  three  large  meteorites,  which  suH>lied 
the  Eskimos  with  the  material  for  their  iron  impdements,  as 
reported  by  Sir  John  Ross  in  x8i8,  and  on  his  return  in  1895 
he  brought  the  two  smaller  pnes  with  him.  1^  remaining 
meteorite  was  brought  to  New  York  in  1897.  In  1898  Lieut. 
Peary  published  Northward  aver  Ike  Greal  Ice,  a  record  of  all  his 
expeditions  up  to  that  time,  and  in  the  same  year  be  started 

*  A  narrative  of  the  expedition  written  by  Mrs  Pcaiy,  and  con- 
taining an  account  of  the  "  Great  White  Journey  across  Greenland," 
py  her  husband,  was  published  under  the  title  ojf  My  Arctic  JowntoL 


on  another  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regioni.  la  tUs  and  nib- 
sequent  expeditwns  he  received  financial  aid  from  Mr  Morris 
Jesup  and  the  Peary  Arctic  Club.  The  grcauest  forethouf^t 
was  bestowed  upon  the  organisation  of  the  expedition,  a  four* 
years'  programme  being  laid  down  at  the  outset  and  a  system 
of  relief  expeditions  provided  for.  A.  distinctive  feature  was 
the  utilization  of  a  company  of  Eskimos.  Although  unsuccessful 
as  regards  the  North  Pole,  the  expedition  achieved  the  accurate 
survey  (1900)  of  the  northern  limit  of  the  Greenland  continent 
and  the  demonstration  that  beyond  it  lay  a  Polar  ocean. 
In  190X  Peary  with  Henaoo  and  an  Eskimo  advanced  as 
far  north  as  lat.  84*  17'  37%  the  highest  point  then  reached 
in  the  western  hemisphere.  Lieut.  Peary  had  now  been 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  Commander,  and  on  his  return  he 
was  elected .  president  of  the  American  (geographical  Sodety. 
In  November  1903  he  went  to  England  on  a  naval  comnussion 
to  inquire  into  the  system  of  naval  barracks  in  Great 
Britain,  and  was  presented  with  the  Livingstone  0)ld  Medal 
of  the  Royal  Scottish  Geographical  Society,  Commander  Peary 
then  began  prcparaUons  for  another  expedition  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  special  ship,  named  the  "  Roosevelt,"  the  first 
ever  built  in  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of  Arctic 
exploration.  He  sailed  from  New  York  on  the  i6th  of  July 
Z905,  ha^wg  two  years'  supplies  on  board.  The  "  Roosevelt  " 
wintered  on  the  north  ooast  of  Grant  Land,  and  on  the  21st  of 
February  a  start  was  made  with  sledges.  The  party  experienced 
serious  delay  owing  to  open  water  between  84^  and  85*,  and 
farther  north  the  ice  was  opened  up  during  a  six  days'  gale, 
which  cut  off  communications  and  destroyed  the  d6p6ts  which 
had  been  established.  A  steady  easterly  drift  was  experienced. 
But  on  the  aist  of  April,  1906,  87  V  was  reached— the  "farthest 
north  "  attained  by  man— by  which  time  Peary >.  and  his  com- 
panions were  suffering  severe  privations,  and  had  to  make  the 
return  journey  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties.  Tliey  reached 
the  north  coast  of  Greenland  and  subsequently  rejoined  the  ship, 
from  which,  after  a  week's  rest,  Peary  iaade  a  sledge  journey 
abng  the  north  cosst  of  Grant  Land.  Returning  home,  the 
expedition  reached  Hebron,  Labrador,  on  the  13th  of  October, 
the  "  Roosevelt "  having  been  nearly  wrecked  en  route.  In  1907 
the  narrative  of  this  journey.  Nearest  the  Poie,  was  published. 

In  1908  Peary  started  in  the  "  Roosevelt "  on  the  journey 
which  was  to  bring  him  bis  final  sucGess.  He  left  Etah  00  the 
18th  of  August,  wintered  in  Grant  Land,  and  set  forward  over  the 
ice  from  Cape  Columbia  on  the  tst  of  March  1909.  A  party  of 
six  started  with  him,  and  moved  in  sections,  one  in  front  of 
another.  They  were  gradually  sent  bade  as  supplies  diminished. 
At  the  end  of  the  month  Captain  Bartleit  was  the  only  white 
man  left  with  Peary,  and  he  turned  back  in  87*  48'  N.,  the  highest 
latitude  then  ever  reached.  Peary,  with  his  negro  servant  and 
four  Eskimos,  pushed  dn,  and  on  the  6tb  of  April  1909  reached 
the  North  Pole.  They  remained  some  thirty  hours,  took  obser- 
vations, and  on  sounding,  a  few  miles  from  the  pole,  found  no 
bottom  at  1 500  fathoms.  The  party,  with  the  exception  of  one 
drowned,  returned  safely  to  the  "  Roosevelt."  which  left  her 
winter  quarters  on  the  i8th  of  July  and  reached  Indian  Harbour 
on  the  5th  of  SepUmber.  Peary's  The  North  Pole:  Its  Discovery 
in  igofi  was  published  in  191a 

Just  before  the  news  came  of  Peary's  success  another 
American  explorer,  Dr  F.  A.  Cook  (b.  1865),  returning  from 
Greenland  to  Europe  on  a  Danish  ship,  claimed  that  he 
had  reached  the  North  Pole  on  the  91st  of  April  1908.  He  had 
accompanied  an  expedition,  northward  in  1907,  prepared  to 
attempt  to  reach  the  Pole  if  opportunity  offered,  and  according 
to  his  own  story  had  done  so,  leaving  his  party  and  taking  only 
some  Eskimos,  early  in  1908.  Nothing  had  been  beard  of  him 
since  March  of  that  year,  and  it  was  supposed  that  he  bad 
perished.  Cook's  claim  to  have  forestalled  Peary  was  at  first 
credited  in  various  circles,  and  he  was  given  a  rapturous 
reception  at  Copenhagen;  but  scientific  opinion  in  England  and 
America  was  more  reserved,  and  eventually,  after  a  prolonged 
dispute  a  special  committee  of  the  university  of  Copenhagen, 
to  whom  his  documents  were  submitted,  declared  that   Uiey 


PEASANT— PfCAUT 


conUined  oo  proof  that  lie  bad  reached  the  Pole.  By  that  time 
most  other  people  had  come  to  an  adverse  conclusion  and  the 
sensation  was  over. 

PBASANT  (O.  Fr.  paysant.  Mod.  paysan;  Lat.  pagensis, 
belonging  to  the  pagus  or  country;  cf. "  pagan  "},  a  countryman 
or  rustic,  either  working  for  others,  or,  more  spcdfically,  owning 
or  renting  and  working  by  his  own  labour  a  small  plot  of  ground. 
Tliough  a  word  of  not  vtry  strict  application,  it  is  now  frequently 
tised  tat  the  rural  popuUtion  of  such  countries  as  France,  where 
the  land  is  chiefly  held  by  small  holders,  *'  peasant  proprietors." 
<See  Allotments  and  Metayage). 

PBA8B,  EDWARD  (xTiSy-iSsS),  the  founder  of  a  famous 
industrial  Quaker  family  in  the  north  of  England,  was  bom  at 
Darlington  on  the  31st  of  May  1767,  hb  father,  Joseph  Pease 
(1737^1808),  being  a  woollen  manufacturer  in  that  town.  Having 
retired  from  this  business  Edward  Pease  made  the  acquaintance 
of  George  Stephenson,  and  with  him  took  a  prominent  part  in 
constructing  the  railway  between  Stockton  and  Darlington. 
He  died  at  Darlington  on  the  31st  of  July  1858.  His  second 
son,  Joseph  Pease  (1799^1873),  who  assisted  his  father  in  his 
nilway  enterprises,  was  M.P.  for  South  Duriiam  from  183a  to 
1841,  being  the  first  Quaker  to  sit  in  parliament.  He  was 
interested  in  CQltieries,  quarries  and  ironstone  mines  in  Durham 
and  North  Yorkshire,  as  well  as  in  cotton  and  woollen  manu- 
factures; and  he  was  active  in  educational  and  philanthropic 
work.  Another  son,  Henry  Pease  (1807-1881),  was  M.P.  for 
South  Durham  from  1857  to  1865.  Like  all  the  members  of 
bis  family  he  was  a  supporter  of  the  Peace  Society,  and  in  its 
interests  he  visited  the  emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  just  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War,  and  later  the  emperor  of  the 
French,  Napoleon  III. 

Joseph  Pease's  eldest  son,  Sir  Joseph  Whitwell  Pease  (1828^ 
'903) I  was  made  a  baronet  in  1882.  He  was  M.P.  for  South 
Durham  from  1865  to  1885  and  for  the  Barnard  Castle  division 
of  Durham  from  1885  to  1903.  His  elder  son,  Sir  Alfred  Edward 
Pease  (b.  1857),  who  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy,  became  famous 
as  a  hunter  of  big  game,  and  was  M.P.  for  York  from  T885  to 
1892  and  for  the  Cleveland  division  of  Yorkshire  from  1897  to 
1902.  A  younger  son,  Joseph  Albert  Pease  (b.  x86o),  entered 
parliament  in  1892,  and  in  1908  became  chief  Liberal  whip, 
being  advanced  to  the  cabinet  as  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster  in  1910. 

Another  son  of  Joseph  Peise  was  Arthur  Pease  (1837-1898), 
member  of  parliament  from  1880  to  1885  and  again  from  1895 
to  1898.  His  son,  Herbert  Pike  Pease  (b.  1867),  M.P.  for 
Dariington  1898-19x0,  was  one  of  the  Unionist  Whips. 

The  Diaries  oj  Edward  Pease  were  edited  by  Sir  Alfred  Pease  in 
1907. 

PBAT  (possibly  connected  with  Med.  Lat.  petia,  pecia^  piece, 
ultimately  of  Celtic  origin;  cf.  O.  Celt,  pet,  O.  Ir.  pit,  Welsh  petk, 
portion),  a  product  of  decayed  vegetation  found  in  the  fortn  of 
bogs  in  many  parts  of  the  wodd.  The  continent  of  Europe  is 
estimated  to  contain  2x2,700  sq.  m.  of  bog;  Ireland  has  2,858,150 
acres,  Canada  30,000,000  acres,  and  the  United  States  30,000,000 
acres.  The  plants  which  give  origin  to  these  deposits  are  mainly 
aquatic,  including  reeds,  rushes,  sedges  and  mosses.  Sphagnum 
Is  present  in  most  peats,  but  in  Irish  peat  Thacomitrum  lanugino- 
sum  predominates.  It  seems  that  the  disintegration  of  the 
vegetable  tissues  is  effected  partly  by  moist  atmospheric  oxida- 
tion and  partly  by  anaerobic  bacteria,  yeasts,  moulds  and  fungi, 
in  depressions  containing  fairly  still  but  not  stagnant  water, 
which  is  retained  by  an  impervious  bed  or  tmderiying  strata. 
As  decomposition  proceeds  the  products  become  wateriogged 
and  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  pool;  in  the  course  of  time  the 
deposits  attain  a  considerable  thickness,  and  the  lower  layers, 
under  the  superincumbent  pressure  of  the  water  and  later 
deposits,  are  gradually  compressed  and  carbonized.  The  most 
favourable  conditions  appear  to  be  a  moist  atmosphere,  and  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  about  45*  F.^  no  bogs  are  found 
between  latitudes  45*  N.  and  4$"  S. 

Peat  varies  from  a  pale  yellow  or  brown  fibrous  substance, 
ibling  turf  or  compressed  hay,  containing  conspicuous  plant 


3J 

remanis,  to  a  compact  dark  bmwn  macerlal,  retemblhig  bUck 
clay  when  wet,  and  some  varieties  of  lignite  when  dry.  Two 
typical  forms  may  be  noticed:  "  HiU  peat "  (the  mountain  or 
brown  bogs  of  Ireland),  found  in  mountainous  districts,  and 
consbting  mainly  of  Sphagnum  and  Anirameda\  and  "  Bottom 
peat "  (the  k>wland  or  red  bogs  of  Ireland),  found  in  lakes, 
rivers,  and  brodis,  and  containing  Hypnmm.  It  always  contains 
much  water,  up  to  90%,  which  it  is  necessary  to  remove  before 
the  product  can  be  effideotly  employed  as  a  fuel,  and  for  most 
other  purposes.  A  specimen  dried  at  100*  C.  had  the  -composi* 
tion:  carbon "•60*48%,  hydrogen" 6- 10%,  oxygen >*33'55%, 
nitrogen  •*o*88%,  ash  «■  3*30%;  the  ash  is  very  variable— from 
X  to  65% — and  consists  principally  of  clay  and  sand,  with  lesser 
amounts  of  ferric  oxide,  lime,  magnesia,  &c.  The  specific  gravity 
has  been  variously  given,  owing  to  the  variable  water  content 
and  ah*  spaces;  when  dried  and  comfMpessed,  however,  it  is  denser 
than  water. 

Peat-winning  presents  certain  special  features.  The  general 
practice  is  to  cut  a  trench  about  a  foot  deep  with  a  peculiarly 
shaped  spade,  termed  in  Ireland  a  **  slane,**  and  remove  sods 
from  3  to  4  ft.  long.  When  one  layer  has  been  removed,  the 
next  is  attacked,  and  so  on.  If  the  deposit  be  more  solid  step- 
working  may  be  adopted,  and  should  water  be  reached  recourse 
may  be  had  to  long-handled  slanes.  The  sods  are  allowed  to 
drain,  and  then  stacked  for  drying  in  the  air,  being  occasionally 
turned  so  as  to  dry  equally;  this  process  may  require  about  six 
weeks.  The  dried  sods  are  known  as  *'  dug  peat."  Excavators 
and  dredges  aro  now  extensively  used,  and  the  drying  is  effected 
in  heated  chambers,  both  fixed  and  revolving. 

The  tow  value  of  ordinary  dug  peat  as  a  fuel  has  led  to  processes 
for  obtaining  a  more  useful  product.  In  M.  Ekcnbcrg's  process 
the  wet  peat  is  pulped  and  milled  so  as  to  make  it  of  uniform 
coniposition.  and  the  pulp  oasscd  into  an  oven  maintained  at 
180  -aoo*  F.,  where  it  is  carbonized  by  superheated  water.  The 
pressed  product,  which  resembles  lignite,  still  contains  8  to  14%  of 
water;  tnis  is  driven  off  by  heat,  and  the  residue  briquetted.  The 
final  product  is  neariy  equal  to  coal  in  calorific  value,  and  has  the 
additional  advantage  of  a  lower  sulphur  content— 0*2  to  0-4  % 
against  about  2%  in  ordinary  coal.  M.  Zcigler*s  method  leads  to 
the  production  of  a  useful  coke.  Both  these  processes  permit  the 
recovery  of  valuable  by-products,  especially  ammonium  sulphate. 
Experiments  for  obtaining  a  gas  suitable  for  consumption  in  gas- 
engines  have  been  followed  by  commercial  processes  devised  by  the 
Mond  Gas  Corporation,  London,  and  Crossley  Bros^  of  Manchester, 
and  by  Caro  and  Frank  in  Germany.  The  processes  essentially 
consist  in  destructively  distilling  peat  in  special  retorts  and  under 
specified  conditions,  and,  in  addition  to  the  gas,  there  is  recovered 
a  useful  coke  and  also  the  nitrogen  as  ammonium  sulphate. 

The  conversion  of  the  nitrogen  into  ammonia  has  been  the  subject 
of  much  work,  and  is  commercially  pureucd  at  a  works  at  Cam- 
kragh,  Co.  Antrim,  under  patents  held  by  H.  C.  Woltercclc.  The 
peat  is  treated  with  a  mixture  of  air  and  water  vapour  in  special 
furnaces,  and  the  gaseous  products,  including  paraffin  tar,  acetic 
acid  and  ammonia,  are  led  through  a  special  scrubber  to.  remove 
the  tar,  then  through  a  tower  conuining  milk  of  lime  to  absorb 
the  acid  (the  caldum  acetate  formed  being  employed  lor  the  manu* 
facture  of  acetone,  &c.),  and  finally^  through  a  sulphuric  acid  tower, 
where  the  ammonia  is  converted  into  ammdnium  sulphate  which 
is  recovered  by  crystalllxation. 

Peat  has  also  been  expkMted  as  a  source  of  commercial  alcoholt 
to  be  employed  in  motors.  In  the  process  founded  on  the  eiq)eri> 
mcnts  of  R.  W.  Wallace  and  Sir  W.  Ramsay,  which  gives  25  to  26 
gallons  of  spirit  from  a  ton  of  peat,  the  peat  is  boiled  with  water 
containing  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  the  product  neutrafiaed  with 
lime  and  then  distilled;  the  ammonia  is  also  recovered.  In  another 
process  a  yield  of  40  ^llons  of  spirit  and  66  lb  of  aaiaioniuro 
salphate  per  ton  of  pieat  is  claimed. 

Of  other  applicatKxis  we  may  notice  C.  E.  NeI$on*s  process  for 
making  a  paper,  said  to  be  better  than  ordinary  wrapping;  the  first 
factory  to  exploit  this  idea  was  opened  at  Capac,  Michigan,  in  1906. 
Peat  has  been  empkiyed  as  a  manure  for  many  years,  and  recently 
attempts  have  been  made  to  convert  artificially  its  nitrogen  into 
assimilable  nitrates;  such  a  process  was  patented  by  A,  MQnts 
and  A.  G.  Girard  of  Paris,  in  1907. 

See  P.  R.  BjOriing  and  F.  T.  Gissing,  Peat  and  its  Uanufaeiw 
(I9<y7):  P-  T.  Gissing,  Commercial  Peal  (1909);  E.  Nystnmi.  Peat 
tfad  LiptHa  (1906).  published  t»y  Department  of  Mines  of  Canada. 

nICAUT,    FBUZ    (18S8-1898),    French    educationalist, 
member  6f  an  old  Huguenot  family,  was  born  at  Sabcs  de  B^tfD, 
m  1828.    He  was  for  some  months  evangelical  pastor  at  Salies, 
but  he  bad  no  pretence  of  sympathy  with  ecclesiastical  authority. 


32 


PECCARY— PECK 


He  ■*»  aitti«iaaill]>  Goopdlcd  tORdcn  Iiit  puiorilf ,  and  fiu 
Mi»  ycu*  occupied  hlmtcU  by  utging  the  claims  ol  a  libcnl 
Chriuianily.     In   1879  he  conducted  a  general  inipecUoB  of 

linaUr  miutiHu  (dlomd.  Hii  fame  chietly  iBti  in  his  lucceulul 
ai|aiui«1iiH>  ol  the  tiaiaiog  school  tin  women  icachei*  at 
Fontasoy-aui'Raaes,  to  which  he  devoted  hfteen  yean  of 
ceaiekn  toiL    Hedicd  on  the  jiU  o(  July  1S9S. 

A  HtaiiBary  id  ha  cducaiiiiiul  viem  is  given  ia  his  Ptl/ic  Simtt- 
litt  ajU  Hatumal  Lift  [1S97). 

FBGCART,  the  naioe  of  tbc  New  World  reprcscnUtiva  of 
the  twine  (5iiUa<}  of  the  E.  hemisphere,  ol  which  they 
lhesub-(uniiyZ>i««y>H((ai7'a{iuni'>Hie).  (See    ' 

The  leetb  of  Ibe  peccaries  diBei  f  torn  those  of  the  typical  Old 
Worid  pip  (5u),  nanKrically,  in  wsntingUie  upper  outer  indwl 

formuU  being:  L  j,  c  (,  p.  |,  m.  ),  total  jS.    From  those  of  ill 

in  having  Uuir  poinli  directed  downward 


The  CollamI  Peccary  IDiilljIts  lajon). 
upwardsi  Ibcse  being  very  sharp,  with  cuttbig  hinder  edges, 
and  completely  covered  with  enamel  until  worn.  The  lower 
canines  nt  large  and  directed  upwaidi  and  outwards,  a 
slightly  curved  backwards.  The  cheek-teeth  form  1  conliDiK 
Mries,  graduaUy  increasing  in  size  from  the  lint  to  the  lail:  t 
molars  having  square  four-cusptd  crowns.  The  stomach 
much  more  annplea  Ifaan  in  the  true  pigs,  almost  approaching 


fourth)  metacarpal  ai 
separate  in  the  pigs, 

developed  at  in  pigt,  but  01 


e  (third 
nal  botus,  whicli  aic  completely 
d  at  their  npffer  ends.  On  the 
i  Efth}  outer  toes  are  equnlly 
n  the  hind-foot,  although  the  inner 
lor  seconaj  is  present,  tne  outer  or  fifth  toe  b  entirely  wanting. 
As  in  all  SmJar  the  snout  is  trunoiled,  and  the  oostrili  are 
iiluated  in  its  Dal,  cipanded,  disk-like  termination.  The  ears 
are  rather  SDaU.  ovate  and  eiecti  and  tliere  is  no  eilemal 
appeannceol  a  taiL 

PMcaries,which  range  fromNewMeiica  aadTeias  to  Patagonia , 
ue  represented  by  two  main  types,  of  which  the  fitst  is  the 
coUaied  pecoicy.  DitaljUi  (or  Taiaisn)  bijacu,  which  has  an 
ejitensve  range  in  Souih  America.    Generally  it  is  found  singly 

cidotir  is  dark  grey,  with  a  while  or  whiti^  band  passing  across 
the  chest  from  slioulder  <o  shoulder.  The  length  of  tbc  head 
and  body  is  about  36  in.  The  second  fona  it  typi&ed  by  tbc 
whiIe-lip(Kd  pcccaiy  or  warii,  D.  (at  T.)  latialmi,  or  fari, 
representing  the  suh-geniti  Otidaaa.  Typically  it  is  lathu 
la^er  than  the  ndlared  species,  being  about  40  in.  \a  length, 
ol  a  UacUih  cohnr.  with  the  Hps  and  lower  Jaw  while.     Ii  i> 


not  found  farther  mrtli  t)ua  Caiteciala,  or  soatli  of  Pangiiar. 
Generally  met  with  in  large  diaves  of  from  Gfly  to  a  hundred,  it 
is  of  a  more  piignxdous  disposition  than  the  former  species, 
and  a  hunter  who  encounters  a  herd  in  a  forest  has  oflcxi  to  dimb 
a  tree  ax  his  only  chance  of  lalety.  Peccaiies  are  omnivoiou^ 
living  on  looli.  fallen  fruits,  woruis  and  cainoo,  and  often  inflict 
great  devasutiou  upon  crops.  Both  types  aie  lo  nearly  allied 
tltat  they  will  breed  Losethei  tredy  in  captivity.  Unlike  pifi, 
they  never  appear  to  produce  dor  than  two  young  ones  at  a 

Remains  ol  eitinct  peccaries  refeiable  lo  the  modem  genus 
caverns  and  superficial  deposits  of  South  America, 
■he  earlier  formations.     This,   coupled  with  the 

noithem  one.  Of  the  eitinit  North  American 
le  typical  Dkulyla  ocrur  in  the  Pbotene  while  the 
wbich  lias  tu&ls  of  the  peccary  type, 
4  in  toe  SLTUcturt  of  its  cheek-teeth  to  the  European 
usamong  the  Sw'mu.  From  this  it  may  be  iifened 
ureslnil  peccuies  entered  America  in  tbe  Upper 
Ptaiyiimms  is  an  alicnani  type  which  died  out  in 
ae.  (R.L.1 

.  KARL  FREDRIK  (iiao-i7«6),  Swedish  potiticiao 
...  of  tbe  Holslein  minister  at  Stockholm,  was 
educated  in  Sweden,  and  entered  the  Swedish  umy.  He  rose 
to  tbe  rank  of  maiar-gcneial.  but  became  famous  by  being  the 
type  f<iT  £xitUaut  of  the  conupt  and  egoistic  Swedish  parlia- 
mentarian of  the  final  period  of  the  Frihetsliden  [see  Svidlk^ 
Hiiltry) ;  he  received  lor  many  years  the  sobriquet  of  "  General 
of  the  Riksdag."  Pechlin  fiiit  appears  prominently  in  Swedish 
politics  in  1760,  when  by  suddenly  changing  sides  he  contrived 
to  save  tbe  "Hats"  from  impachmcnt.  Enraged  at  being 
thus  ^excluded  from  power  by  theii  former  friend,  tbe  "  Caps  " 
procured  Pechlin's  riputsian  fiom  the  two  following  Riksdags, 
In  1769  Pechlio  sold  the  "  Hats  "  as  he  had  formerly  sold  the 
"  Ca|B,  "  and  was  largely  instrumental  in  pitvcoling  the  pr» 
jected  indispensable  reform  of  the  Swedish  constitution.  During 
the  revolution  ol  I7;>  he  escaped  from  Stockhobn  and  kept 
quietly  in  tbe  backgrouod.  In  17S6,  when  the  opposilion 
against  GustavusIU.  was  gathering  strength,  Pecldin  reappeared 
in  tbe  lUksdag  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  malcontents,  and  \i 

court.  In  ijSg  be  was  Oncol  the  deputies  whom  GustavusIU. 
kept  under  lock  and  iwy  till  he  bad  changed  the  goverrimrnt 

was  at  the  bottom  of  the  plot  for  murdering  Custavus  in  ngj. 
On  Ibe  eve  of  the  assusinalion  (Uacch  16)  the  principal 
conspiratus  met  at  his  house  to  make  their  final  preparations 
the  form  of  government  which  should  be  adopted 


alter  the  king's  death.    Pechlin  undertook  to  crowd  the  fatal 

personally.    He  was  arrested  on  the  i;tb  of  March,  but  nothing 
defirdte  could  ever  be  proved  against  bLii.    Nevertheless  be 

where  he  died  four  years  Uiet. 

FECBORA,. 

on  6,'  N.,  in  th 

rivet  of  N.  Russia 

government  of  Pe 

riang  in  the  Hmts,  almost 
■m.    It  flow)  W.  for  a  short 

I.  >nd 


66°  jo'  N-     I'  tben  describes  a  double  loop,  to  N.  and 

and  alter  ihaX  resumes  its  N.  course,  finally  emptying 

lie  Gulf  of  Pechora,  atuated  betw.^en  the  While  Sea  and 

,«,jraSea.    Its  total  length  is  9IO  m.   At  its  mouth  it  forms 

an  elongated  delta-     Although  Iroien  in  its  upper  reaches  lo 


r  138  days  in 
e  greater  part  oi 


:,  In 


ivigable  lbrou«»>oul  tl 

Ibe  right,  the  tlych  and  the  Usa,  and  on  the 
leftlhelshm.',  the  TsylnaandtheSula. 
PSCK.  .  H™  rocMun  of  capacity,  espeorfly  usid  tor  gt«n, 
S,^  S%u"t*  <«  '  «^'»"*-  ■"*  "  *  -^  '>™*d-    The 


PECKHAM— PECORA 


85 


imperial  peck  contains  554*548  ctib.  in.,  !n  the  United  States 
of  America  537-6  cub.  in.  The  word  is  in  M.E.  Pekj  and 
is  found  latinized  as  peuum  or  pekka.  In  Med.  Lat.  are  found 
pieotinus,  "roensura  frumentaria,"  and  ficotus,  "mensuia 
liquidorum  "  (Du  Cange,  doss.  s.m.).  These  words  seem  to  be 
connected  with  the  Fr.  picoicTt  to  pedi,  of  a  bird,  and  this  would 
identify  the  word  with  "  peck,"  a  variant  of  "  pick,"  a  tap  or 
stroke  of  the  beak,  espedally  used  of  the  action  of  a  bird  in 
picking  up  grain  or  other  food.  The  sense-development  in  this 
easels  very  obscure,  and  the  name  of  the  measure  is  found  much 
earlier  than  "  peck  "  as  a  variant  form  of  "  pick." 

PECKHAM»  JOHN  (d.  1393),  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
probably  a  native  of  Sussex,  and  received  iiis  early  education 
from  the  Cluniac  monks  of  Lewes.  About  1250  he  joined  the 
Franciscan  order  and  studied  in  their  Oxford  convent.  Shortly 
afterwards  he  proceeded  to  the  university  of  Paris,  where  he 
took  hb  degree  under  St  Bonaventure  and  became  regent  in 
theology.  For  many  years  Peckham  taught  at  Paris,  coming 
into  contact  with  the  greatest  scholars  of  the  day,  among  othtfs 
St  Thomas  Aquinas.  About  1270  he  returned  to  Oxford  and 
taught  there,  being  elected  in  1275  provincial  minister  of  the 
Franciscans  in  England,  but  he  was  soon  afterwards  called 
to  Rome  as  lector  sucri  palatii,  or  theological  lecturer  in  the 
schools  of  the  papal  palace.  In  1279  he  returned  to  England  as 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  being  appointed  by  the  pope  on  the 
rejection  of  Robert  Buniell,  Edward  I.'s  candidate.  Peckham 
was  always  a  strenuous  advocate  of  the  papal  power,  espedally 
as  shown  in  the  council  of  Lyons  in  1274.  His  enthronement 
in  October  1279  marks  the  l)eginning  of  an  important  epoch 
in  tlie  history  of  the  English  primacy.  Its  characteristic  note 
was  an  insistence  on  discipline  which  offended  contemporaries. 
Peckham's  zeal  was  not  tempered  by  discernment,  and  he 
bad  little  gift  of  sympathy  or  imagination.  His  first  act  on 
arrival  in  England  was  to  call  a  council  at  Reading,  which  met  in 
July  X  379.  Its  main  object  was  ecclesiastical  reform,  but  the  pro- 
vision that  a  copy  of  Magna  Carta  should  be  hung  in  all  cathedral 
and  collegiate  churches  seemed  to  the  king  a  political  action, 
and  parliament  declared  void  any  action  of  this  council 
touching  on  the  royal  power.  Nevertheless  Peckham's  relations 
with  the  king  were  often  cordial,  and  Edward  called  on  him  for 
help  in  bring^g  order  into  conquered  Wales.  The  chief  note 
of  his  activity  was,  however,  certainly  ecdesiasticaL  The 
crime  of  "  plunlity,"  the  holding  by  one  cleric  of  two  or  more 
benefices,  was  especially  attacked,  as  also  clerical  absenteeism 
and  ignorance,  and  laxity  in  the  monastic  life.  Peckham's 
main  instrument  was  a  minute  ^stcm  of  "  visitation,"  which  he 
used  with  a  frequency  hitherto  unknown.  Disputes  resulted, 
and  on  some  points  Peckham  gave  way,  but  his  powers  as  papal 
legate  complicated  matters,  and  be  did  much  to  strengthen 
the  court  of  Canterbury  at  the  expense  of  the  lower  courts. 
The  famous  quarrel  with  St  Thomas  of  Cantilupe,  bishop  of 
Hereford,  arose  out  of  siinilar  causes.  A  more  attractive  side 
of  Peckham's  career  is  his  activity  as  a  writer.  The  numerous 
manuscripts  of  his  works  to  be  found  in  the  libraries  of  Italy, 
England  and  France,  testify  to  his  industry  as  a  philosopher 
and  «>mmentator.  In  philosophy  he  represents  the  Franciscan 
school  which  attacked  the  teaching  of  St  Thomas  Aquinas 
on  the  "  Unity  of  Form."  He  wrote  in  a  quiunt  and  daborate 
style  on  scientific,  scriptural  and  moral  subjects  and  engaged 
in  much  controversy  in  defence  of  the  Franciscan  ruk  and 
practice.  He  was  "an  excellent  maker  of  songs,"  and  his 
hymns  are  characterized  by  a  lyrical  tenderness  which  seems 
typically  Franciscan.  Printed  examples  of  his  work  as  com- 
mentator and  hymn  writer  respectively  may  be  found  in  the 
Firamentum  frium  ordinum  (Paris,  15x2),  and  his  oflSce  for 
Trinity  Sunday  in  the  "  unrcformed  "  breviary. 

The  ehicf  authority  on  Peckham  as  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
is  the  Registrum  fratrit  Jokannis  Peckkam,  edited  by  C.  Trice 
Martin  for  the  Rolls  Series  (London,  18B3-1885).  A  sympathetic 
account  of  his  life  as  a  Franciscan  is  to  be  found  in  L.  Wadding. 
Annates  minorum  (Lyons.  1625.  1654).  Sec  also  the  article  by 
C.  L.  Kingsfotd  in  Diet.  Nal.  Biot-t  and  Wilkin's  Concilia  mamae 
BrUmtniat  (London.  17)7).  (E.  O'N.) 


PBOOCK  (or  Peacock),  REOIHALD  {c,  1395-c.  1460),  English 
prelate  and  writer,  was  probably  bom  in  Wales,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Having  been  ordained  priest 
in  1421^  he  secured  a  mastership  in  London  in  1431,  and  soon 
became  prominent  by  his  attacks  upon  the  religious  position 
of  the  Lollards.  In  1444  he  became  bishop  of  St  Asaph,  and 
six  years  later  bishop  of  Chichester.  He  was  an  adherent  of 
the  house  of  Lancaster  and  in  1454  became  a  member  of  the  privy 
counciL  In  attacking  the  Lollards  Pecock  put  forward  religious 
views  far  in  advan(x  of  his  age.  He  asserted  that  the  Scriptures 
were  not  the  only  standard  of  right  and  wrong;  he  questioned 
some  of  the  articles  of  the  creed  and  the  infaUibiUty  of  the 
Church;  he  wished  "  bi  deer  witte  drawe  men  into  consente  of 
trewe  feith  otherwise  than  bi  fire  and  swerd  or  hangement "  and 
in  general  he  exalted  the  authority  of  reason.  Owing  to  these 
views  the  ardibishop  of  Canterbury  .Thomas  Bourchier,  ordered 
his  writings  to  be  examined.  This  was  done  and  he  was  found 
guilty  of  heresy.  He  was  removed  from  the  privy  council  and 
he  only  saved  himself  from  a  painful  death  by  privately, 
and  then  publidy  (at  St  Paul's  Cross,  Dec.  4,  X457),  renounc- 
ing his  opinions.  Pecock,  who  has  been  called  "the  only 
great  EngUsh  theologian  of  the  X5th  century,"  was  then 
forced  to  resign  his  bishopric,  and  was  removed  to  Thomey 
Abbey  in  Carnbridgeshire,  where  he  doubtless  remained  untH  his 
death.  The  bishop's  chief  work  is  the  famous  Repressor  of 
over-muck  weeiing  [blaming]  of  the  Clergie,  which  was  issued 
about  1455.  ^  addition  to  its  great  importance  in  the  liistory 
of  the  Lollard  movement  the  Repressor  has  an  exceptionad 
interest  as  a  modd  of  the  English  of  the  time,  Pecock  being 
one  of  the  first  writers  to  use  the  vernacular.  In  thought  and 
style  alike  it  is  the  work  of  a  man  of  learning  and  ability. 

A  biography  of  the  author  is  added  to  the  edition  of  the  Repressor 
publish^  by  C.  Babington  for  the  Rolls  Series  in  i860.  Pccock's 
other  writings  include  the  Book  or  Rule  of  Christian  Rdipon',  the 
Donet,  "  an  introduction  to  the  chief  truths  of  the  liristian  ialth 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  father  and  son  ";  a.  d  the  Fokwer 
to  the  Donel.  The  two  last  worles  ane  extant  in  manuscript.  His 
Book  qf  Faith  has  been  edited  froni,  the  manuscript  in  the  library 
of  Trinity  College.  Cambridge,  bv  T.  L.  Morison  (Gla^ow,  1909). 
See  also  John  Lewis,  Life  of  Fecock  (1744;  new  ed.,  1820). 

PECORA  (plural  of  Lat«  PecuSf  cattle),  a  term  employedr-in  a 
more  restricted  sense— in  place  of  the  older  title  Ruminantia, 
to  designate  the  group  of  ruminating  artiodactyle  ungulates 
represented  by  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  antelopes,  deer,  gplraffes,  &c. 

The  leading  diaracteiistics  of  Uie  Pec»ra  ace  fi^ven  .in  some 
detail  in  the  article  Aihodactyia  (^.v.);  but  it  is  necessary  to 
aUude  to  a  few  of  these  here.  Pecora^  or  true  ruminants  Ai 
they  may  be  conveniently  called,  have  complex  stomachs  and! 
chew  the  cud;  they  have  no  upper  incisor  teeth;  and  the  lower 
canines  are  approximated  to  the  outer  indsors  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  three  indsors  and  the  one  canine  of  the  two  taden 
coUectivdy  form  a  continuous  semicircle  of  four  pairs  of  nearly 
similar  teeth.  In  the  cheek-teeth  the  component  columns  are 
crescent-shaped,  constituting  the  sdenodont  type.  In  the  fore- 
limbs  the  bones  corresponding  to  the  third  and  fourth  metacar' 
pals  of  the  pig's  foot  are  fused  into  a  cannon-bone;  and  a  similar 
condition  obtains  in  the  case  of  the  corresponding  metatarsals 
in  the  hind-limbs.  There  is  generally  no  sagittal  crest  to  the 
skull;  and  the  condyle  of  the  lower  jaw  is  transversely  dongatcd. 
Another  general,  although  not  universal,  characteristic  of  the 
Pecora  is  the  presence  of  simple  or  comfdex  appendages  on  the 
forehead  commonly  known  as  liorns.  In  a  few  existing  qtecies, 
such  as  the  musk-deer  and  the  water-deer,  these  appendages 
are  absent,  and  they  are  likewise  lacking  in  a  large  number 
of  extinct  members  of  the  group,  in  fact  in  all  the  earlier  ones. 
They  are,  therefore,  a  spcdalixed  feature,  which  has  only  recently 
attained  its  full  development. 

These  horns  present  several  distinct  stmctural  types,  which  may 
be  classified  as  follows  >— 

I.  The  simplest  type  is  that  of  the  giraffe,  in  which  three  bony 

prominences— «  single  one  in  front  and  a  pair  behind— quite 

separate  from  the  underlying  bones  and  covered  during^  life  witli 

skin,  occupy  the  front  surface  of  the  skull.    The  summits  of  the 

I  hind   pair  aro  surmounted   by   bristly   hairs.     In   the  extinct 


guifle,  iltbaiish  wckkd 


y  be  a  deKCOcrau  charvrter. 
pedida, '  CDtrapDndipB  to  tl 


outmwthf.  at  lirat  covered  wi 


nuoEiac  ihc  Ltan  bor 


bopy  part,  ot  "  taxU 
pcdiirle^  and  lioipje 


r  leu  branched.  Owiu  to  liability  (g  mavsi. 
tion  of  luch  ■  ■«■  at  dHd  bene  nuU  be 
anitcn  an  coiucqitenlly  thed  inniuUy  ter 
be  itiLCwed  tbe  Eollowing  year,  when,  EuL  the 

aniirial  becomes  post  lu  prime,  ihey  aie  br^er  tban  iK^r  prrdecet' 

•on.   The  perioifcil  UwddinB  ii  «1« 


d  by^the  Ame 


III.   Tie  third  type  o(  born 
ptonibijck,orproBaliom,ini(1iu:h  uuiir  iiiuti.™^.™     Lutc,   tunc- 
•poiidinf  to  tlie  hoRU  of  tbe  ginflc.  have  aoqulnd  a  botny  ilieatb, 
idpUcTitfiUn;  the  ■>i«thbeiA|  In  ttii»in«ance  for liedt  and  annually 

■nraiountinf  the  gkraffe'i  homt.    Feinalc  prongbuck  may  or  may 


[  bv  Dr  ( 
eariy  an. 


y  relaltdi  But  Dt 


hu  brovEbt 


The  abore-aenlxHied  (our  lypei  of  ikuU  appendant  aie  tener- 
aDy  regarded  at  leiierally  chancieriuic  ol  ai  many  fimily  tniun 
■BiDdy  the  Ctraffidat,  Ctmdac,  Aniilxaptiiitu  and  Sff"aee,  Tht 
tm  lait  an,  howver.  much  mont  clotely  connected  than  an  either 
of  the  olben,  and  ahould  perhape  be  united. 

CinfiJtt. — In  the  Gir^$dit,  which  iDclvde  not  only  praffe* 
Ktnfe)  bul  al»  the  irt^pi  {Ocapia)  and  a  number  a  cilincl 
ipecin  irorn  the  Lokct  Pliocene  Tertiary  depmiu  of  louthern 
'  '        '  "    'h  ATrica.  the  appendafn  on  the  aliult  are  of 


Europe,  A 
type  Ho.  1 


(brachyodont)  with 

>Uq  of  a  •luE  in  character.  TTie  f«t  have  only  two  hoofi 

of  the  umiB  Utenl  pair  found  i*  many  other  ruialna 

TbegiraHe.  (Cim/ii)  ate  now  an  cKluBvely  African 

^a'°^r|^^"i^:!^'^-.■5."?.'!^^!!!^A"!!!  - 


nd— HppleinenKd  in  loav 
jfie"a£S  (Oeofia)..  .fhich  U  alw  Afric 


D  but  reHricled  Ic 

>',"chir»"rria:<rb> 


Flo.  ).— Head  of  Ci 


:'•  Caielle  (CurUo  (raili),  iluwliif  borna. 
girafTe,  aad  penelratini  lbs  iliia  U  tbeli 


-e  have  been  obuinid  ikutL 


=,W 


PECORA 


Brtrntlhaimm  ud  HyiUfmrinm  el  InAk  tbr  kiru  al  tbe  atltt 

whik  th(H  st  tiK  lliwr  «iK  fnini  lonnmon  but    In  both 

Liiicit  al  tH'a  Smlitriim,  typicallr  Inn  tlit  Lower  Pliocene  of 
Nortben  liidia»  bm  alio  ncordid  tnm  Adrianoplr.  ia  whk^  the 
«l[ull  ol  tbe  mUe  u  tkon  aod  widcp  wich  »  pair  of  Hinple  (jjucbI 
horv  *bove  the  eye,  and  a  hu£t  branching  uir  at  tbe  vertex 
tttjUuriim  k  an  attied  locm  [n>m  tianh  AfVkii.  Whether  the 
CmJUai  wen  oriffnaBy  an  Afritan  or  a  Eun-Ailaiie  Eioup  ibrre 
■  not  >«t.uSEiBm  endmcc  la  dcddE.  l]!*  bunilTla  anra|ii«> 
(caied  HI  ibe  wamni  benHaphn. 

CfmiM.— In  the  deer-true,  or  Cervidu,  lAc  Igwcr  caniae,  as  m 
the  tm  follovfnf  familief,  it  ^mple  and  ^milir  to  tbe  iitdun. 
The  fnjfltaf  appendago,  wben  present,  are  confined  (ocept  In  the 
tsM  of  the  reindeer)  to  the  malM,  and  take  die  form  o(  anUen.  that 
u  to  my  of  type  No.  II.  in  tbe  forccoiac  deacilption.  As  a  leDenl 
nik,  tM  nolin,  aod  mare  especially  the  &at,  are  panially  brachy- 
odont  {ibflrt-cnwned)  -,  aLthough  they  are  talkr  in  the  chilal  iCVmu 
axil).  In  the  skull  there  are  tso  orifices  (o  the  bchiymal  duct, 
•Inatcd  oa  or  iniide  the  rim  of  the  oibit.  A  pnotbilal  vacvity  of 
such  dJdwnsbDS  as  to  eiclirde  the  kchrymal  bone  from  articulation 
with  ihe  aauL  Upper  canines  usually  iHEienI  in  both  sc>es,  and 
foDetlnies  attainiog  a  very  great  aue  in  the  male  (see  fig-  3J. 


leNew 


and  in  I 


Evidently  ll 
Old  World,  f 
Sitait  ioto  I 

suth  as  tbe 
Old  World  St 
dcerWusn 


htUtai  et  the  fami^.     It  a 
Plloeene  Eoropein  deer  (Attoi 


uvfl  sinpfer  aBtlen*  as  in  the  European 
It  In  Ihe  OI«Dcena  ^laAbJnnlu,  Drtwia- 
E.  constiluling  tbe  ramily  Paliu^mrrycidat, 
Ihe  crowns  of  the  ouIaTi  »  low  Ihal  the 


Hd  long  upper  car 
*hUe  in  all  tfien  <ra 
Finn  North  Am 
nminaati  which  se< 
■nd  the  pningbuck. 
obtalnad  in  1901  Iroi 
Colorado,  and  as  a> 
With  the  sceptioii  1 
aborted,  and  that  I 
the  iVcleton  is  pcad 
a  weU- marked  bim 
lotks.  Alter  fhUth 
productnc  three  tin 


r.  IIM  A*  skelMOB  d 

a.  dUIen  nariadhr  fma  tbat  el  aU  dcv. 

Mcwonhy  point  d  diriiactioa  la  in  tbe  skull.  In  nUdi 
racui  portioa  as  shar[^  bent  down  on  ^e  posterior  basal  aJds 
le  {Hhua  cbancleriHic  el  ibe  boUow-hamed  nimiBiifa  (uB, 
lopei,  tti;.),  aad  the  Ameticaii  pfDngbocfc,  Intead  of  luaobf 
a  or  leu  nevly  parallel  to'Oe  same,  as^iD  deer.    Afstn,  the 

'presentatlves  of  the  first  fn 
laa  that  Uayctim  can  ac 
.  Aa  regards  the  Bencfui  ft 
Lul  suffice  10  say  that  this  ai 
'  '-''  'he  prungt"-''   — ■■ 


pmlcback,  (hei^ 
M«  .««aiiled  aa  a  pdoltrT* 
KiAiSt  nst  ol  ibokelctoa 

us  aarm  closely  with  that  oC  tbe  ante- 
.ind  Bilfen  markedly  from  the  rrrvinc 
iy  trare  of  the  lower  Mlieuitiea  dI  the 

omen  iroai  tne  Amencan  deer.  hkI  mcmblea  thoae  hoUavbgncd 
ruminants  io  which  thev  toes  penist. 

As  a  whole  tlirycnlia  wraenis  a  curfous  mnrtuie  of  cetvloe 
and  antilopioe  character.  To  ei[bin  these,  two  aNemathes  an 
offered  by  the  deacriber.  Eilho-  we  must  legard  ifiiyrodai  as 
a  deer  which  paralMs  (he  amdopea  and  tbe  pnmgbuck  in  every 
detail  ol  ikdcul  structure,  or  tiK,  like  the  pron^huck,  an  antelope 
lepAFated  from  the  main  itock  at  a  date  SQfficicnrly  eariy  to  have 
permitted  the  devefopmeni  of  a  cOslincl  type  of  cranial  appendBEex^ 
namely,  anilen  in  plao  of  true  faema.  Th«  fonner  aUcnativn 
it  is  urged,  involvea  a  piralMiam  Ion  dose  and  too  luilor^  bctweca 
unrelated  type*  to  have  been  profaahle.  On  the  latter  view  Utiy- 
codui,  the  prongbuck  {AHiilacaffra)  and  Ihe  antelopes  must  be 
TcgJrded  as  representing  three  UraiH-hes  from  an  origloBi 
■tack.  tUwirent  as  re^rds  the  atracture  of  their  cnnial  1 
but  paraneTln  other  respecti 
to  be  MMiattd  u  *  laaiUy  bi 
be  refused  lar  Uirycadiu.  E 
Indicate  signs  el  Intimate  re 
back  and  deer.       '  ' 


II.  therdon 


able  to  SHBrd  Uerytadm  either  as  [epmeniing  a  dijtlncl  sub. 
lamDy  liAiuatapraiu  or  a  family  t^  iUeif,  the  laUer  count 
being  adopted  by  Kir  Matlbtw. 

whatever  bs  the  uUimat*  veidln,  Aa  aisBciallDa  cf  antler*— 
and  these,  be  it  nHieed,  canfotmiag  ahaosi  eawnly  with  the  forked 
type  chancteriitic  o4  American  deer— with  an  antilopiae  type  of 
slulf,  ikelelon  and  teeth  in  UcrycoJui  ii  a  most  tolerening  and 
unerpcitcd  feature.  Urryindiii  wai  named  many  vents  ago  by 
ProfesaorJ-  Leidy  an  the  evidence  of  Imperfect  materials,  andothcr 
. '-'jng  totboaame  typewem  lubaa^urnll* 

buck,  prangborn  or  '' antolnp*."  alone  brming  the  nnus  JhifiS- 
afra.  is  regarded  as  npreseaiiag  merely  a  sub-laiaity  of  the  BttUai, 
to  which  latter  group  Ihe  anlnal  Ir  structurally  akin.  In  view  of 
what  hat  been  stated  ia  the  preeedlag  paragraph  with  Hgaid  u 

pnrviiianally  adVleabte  to  allow  llu  prongbuck  10  leauia  aa  Ihe 

type  of  a  family — jlrrlitocopnJa*.    Tbe  chai '-•■-  -'  ■"■"  ' — -"^- 

— ai  represented  by  Ihr ■— -■-    '-  ■'■— 


:k— is  that  the  sheath  of  the  homi 

UenwDcd  [hypndont}.  aad  laloal  bcola  are  waaluig 

-L^tJy.  we  have  the  great   family  d  boliow-homed 
r  Bmndai.  in  which  the  hDmi  Ipretent  hi  the  males  at 

..le  Rtislinf  species)  take  the  form  of  simpfo  non-<lecldDavs 

sheaths  annnnK  upoa  bony  core*.  Aa  a  nde  Ibe  molars 
|.cniwned  fhypBdoat}.  Usually  only  one  orifice  to  the 
ul  canal,  situated  inside  Ihe  rim  of  the  orbit.    Lachrymal 

_lmiHt  alinvs  anicuUtlng  with  the  naul.    Cininei  tbtenl 

In  both  sens.  Tlw  lateral  loes  may  be  completely  absent.  b«( 
mesv  often  aia  repetsented  by  (he  hoofs  alone,  aupfwted  soffetinea 
byavBV  rudimentary  ^teteton,  consisting  of  mere  imsulsr  nodulea 
of  boni.  Lower  ends  of  the  literal  metacarpals  and  meiatiiials 
never  present.  Gallbladder  almost  always  present.  PUienta 
•rith  many  cotyledons. 

The  JleHdaf  form  a  noat  eirteneive  family,  with  memboa  wkMy 
dislribuled  throBgboul  the. Old  World,  with  the  aueptiaa  el  th* 
Australian  region:  but  in  America  they  are  less  nurwrovs,  and 
confined  to  the  Arctic  and  oorthem  temperate  ngloi 
bring  bidigenovs  rilher  to  South  or  Central  America 
c(  ihi  iaiuly  watrvideoil)r  the  Old  VKirid,  whence  a 


■™ia  ^j 


ly  of  whal  is 

,  __...   __  out  that  ihe 

fginaied  in. Ihe  nonhcm  conlinenl  ol  the  Old  World: 

tieen  suggested  thai  Ihe  3miat  were  rfeveloped  in 

Unfortunalely.   we   know  ai   prescnl   practiCsUy  DOtbing 


at  to  the  put  history  of  the  j 
discovered  tHiroiiniating  mr 
While  admllfing,  therefor  ■ 
of  the  tbeoiy  'i  an  Alik 


origin  of  tbe  fimdae.  finl  jwlgnKBl 


36 


P£CS— PEDANT 


most  for  the  pKsnt  be  Mspdaded.  For  the  various  generic 
types  see  Bovioab.  and  the  apedal  article*  referred  to  under  that 
headings  (R.  L.*) 

pfiCS  (Ger.  PUnfkireken)^  a  town  of  Hanguy,  capital  of 
the  country  of  Baranya,  t6o  m.  S.S.W.  of  Budapest  by  rail. 
Pop.  (i9oo),42,3S2.  It  lies  on  the  outskirts  of  the  Mecsek  Hills, 
and  ii  composed  of  the  inner  old  town,  which  is  laid  out  in  an 
almost  regular  sqaare,  and  four  suburbs.  P6oi  is  the  see  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bbhop,  and  its  cathedral,  reputed  one  of  the 
oldest  churches  in  Hungary,  is  also  one  of  the  finest  medieval 
buildings  in  the  country.  It  was  built  in  the  nth  century  in 
the  Romanesque  style  with  four  towers,  and  completely  restored 
in  1881-1891.  In  the  Cathedral  Square  is  situated  the  SaceUum^ 
a  subterranean  brick  structure,  probably  a  burial-chapel,  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  4tb  or  the  begiiming  of  the  sih  century. 
Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  parish  church,  formerly  a 
mosque  of  the  Turkish  period;  the  hospital  church,  also  a  former 
mosque,  with  a  minaret  88  ft.  high,  and  another  mosque,  the 
bislx^'s  palace,  and  the  town  and  county  halL  P£cs  has 
manujfact<mes  of  lAoollens,  pcrcelain,  leather  and  paper,  and 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  tobacco,  gall-nuts  and  wine. 
The  hills  around  the  town  arc  covered  with  vineyards,  which 
produce  one  of  the  best  wines  in  Hungary.  In  the  vicinity  are 
valuable  coaUmines,  which  since  1858  are  worked  by  the  Danube 
Steamship  Company. 

.\ccordlng  to  tradition  Pfcs  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Romans 
under  the  name  otSampiana,  and  several  remains  of  the  Roman 
and  cariy  Christian  period  have  been  found  here.  In  the 
Frankish-German  period  it  was  known  under  the  name  of 
Quinque  ccdesioex  its  bishopric  was  founded  in  xoog.  King 
Ludwig  I.  founded  here  in  1367  a  university,  which  existed 
until  the  battle  of  Moh&cs.  In  1 543  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks, 
who  retained  possession  of  it  till  1686. 

PBCTORAL,  a  word  applied  to  various  objects  worn  on  the 
breast  (Lat.  pectus)  \  thus  it  is  the  name  of  the  ornamental  plate 
of  metal  or  onbroidery  formerly  worn  by  bishops  of  the  Roman 
Church  during  the  celebration  of  mass,  the  breastplate  of  the 
Jewish  high  priest,  and  the  metal  plate  placed  on  the  breast  of 
the  embalmed  dead  in  Egyptian  tombs.  The  **  pectoral  cross," 
a  small  cross  of  predous  metal,  is  worn  by  bish<^  and  abbots 
of  the  Roman,  and  by  bishops  of  the  Anglican,  communion. 
The  term  has  also  been  used  for  the  more  general  **  poitrd  "  or 
**  pcitrcl  **  (the  French  and  Norman  Frendi  forms  respectively), 
the  piece  of  armour  which  protected  the  breast  of  the  war-horse 
of  the  middle  ages. 

PECULIAR,  a  word  now  generally  used  in  Che  sense  of  that 
which  solely  or  exclusively  bdongs  to,or  is  particularly  character- 
istic of,  an  individual;  hence  strange,  odd,  queer.  The  Lat. 
ptctdiaris  meant  primarily  "bebngingto  private  property," 
and  is  formed  from  peculium,  private  property,  particululy 
the  property  given  by  a  paterfamilias  to  his  children,  or  by  a 
master  to  his  slave,  to  enjffy  as  their  own.  As  a  term  of  ecclesias- 
tical law  "  peculiar  "  is  applied  to  those  ecclesiastical  districts, 
parishes,  chapds  or  churches,  once  numerous  in  England,  which 
were  outside  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in 
which  they  were  situated,  and  were  subject  to  a  jurisdiction 
"  peculiar  "  to  themselves.  They  were  introduced  originally, 
in  many  cases  by  papal  authority,  in  order  to  limit  the  powers 
of  the  bishop  in  his  diocese.  There  were  royal  peculiars,  e^. 
the  Chapel  Royal  St  James's,  or  St  George's  Windsor,  peculiars 
of  the  archbishop,  over  certain  of  which  the  Court  of  Peculiars 
exercised  jurisdiction  (see  Archbs,  CotrsT  of),  and  peculiars 
of  bishops  and  deans  (sec  Dean).  The  jurisdiction  and  privi- 
leges of  the  "  peculiars  "  were  abolished  by  statutory  powers 
given  to  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners,  by  the  Ecclesiastical 
Commissionen  Acts  1836  and  1850,  by  the  Pluralities  Act  1838, 
the  Ecclesiastical  Jurisdiction  Act  1847,  and  other  statutes. 

PECULIAR  PEOPLE,  a  small  sect  of  Christian  faith-healers 
founded  in  London  in  1838  by  John  Banyard.  They  consider 
themselves  bound  by  the  literal  interpretation  of  James  v.  14, 
and  in  cases  of  sickness- seek  no  medical  aid  but  rely  on  oil, 
prayer  and  nursing.    The  community  is  in  the  main  composed 


of  simple  working  people,  who,  apart  ffoni  their  peculiarity, 
have  a  good  reputation;  but  their  avoidance  oi  professioiuil 
medical  attendance  has  led  to  severe  criticism  at  inquests  on 
children  who  have  died  for  want  of  it. 

PBDAQOOUE,  a  teacher  or  schoolmaster,-  a  term  usually  now 
applied  with  a  certain  amount  of  contempt,  implying  pedantry, 
dogmatism  or  narrow-mindedness.  The  Gr.  vatSay(ay6i  (xa7s, 
boy,  &Y(firy6t,  leader,  feyttp,  to  lead),  from  which  the  English 
wocd  is  derived,  was  not  strictly  an  instructor.  He  was  a 
slave  in  an  Athenian  household  who  looked  after  the  personal 
safety  of  the  sons  of  the  master  of  the  house',  kept  them  from 
bad  company,  and  took  them  to  and  from  school  and  the 
gymnasium.  He  probably  sat  with  his  charges  in  school  The 
boys  were  put  in  his  charge  at  the  age  of  she.  The  iraija7ciry6r*, 
bdng  a  slave,  was  necessarily  a  foreigner,  usually  a  Thracian  or 
Asiatic.  The  Romans  adopted  the  paedagogus  or  pedagogus 
towards  the  end  of  the  republic.  He  probably  took  some  part 
in  the  instruction  of  the  boys  (see  Schools).  Under  the  empire, 
the  pedagogus  was  specifically  the  instructor  of  the  boy  slaves, 
who  were  being  trained  and  educated  in  the  household  of  the 
emperor  and  of  the  rich  nobles  and  other  persons;  these  boys 
lived  together  in  a  paedagogium,  and  were  known  as  pueri 
paedagopanif  a  name  which  has  possibly  developed  into 
"  page  "  (q.9.). 

PEDAL  CLARINET,  a  contrabass  instrument  invented  in 
189 1  by  M.  F.  Besson  to  complete  the  quartet  of  clarinets,  as 
the  oontrafagotto  or  double  bassoon  completes  that  of  the 
oboe  family;  it  is  constructed  on  practically  the  same  principles 
as  the  clarinet,  and  consists  of  a  tube  xo  ft.  long,  in  which  cylin- 
drical and  conical  bores  are  so  ingeniously  combined  that  the 
acoustic  principles  remain  unchanged.  The  tube  is  doubled  up 
twice  upon  itself;  at  the  upper  end  the  beak  mouthpiece  stands 
out  like  thehead  of  a  V4)er,  while  at  the  lower  a  metal  tube,  in  the 
shape  of  a  U  with  a  wide  gtoxinea-shaped  bell,  is  johied  to  the 
wooden  tube.  The  beak  mouthpiece  is  exactly  like  that  of  the 
other  clarinets  but  of  larger  size,  and  it  is  furnished  with  a  single 
or  beating  reed.  There  are  13  keys  and  2  rings  on  the  tube,  and 
the  fingering  is  the  same  as  for  the  B  flat  clarinet  except  for  the 
eight  highest  semitones.  The  compass  of  the  pedal  darinet  Is 
as  follows: — 


Notation— 


Real  Sounds-^ 


to: 


m 


-to- 


fnm 


ami 


The  instrument  is  in  B  flat  two  octaves  below  the  B  flat 
darinet,  and,  like  it,  it  is  a  transposing  instrument,  the  music 
being  written  in  a  key  a  tone  higher  than  that  of  the 
composition,  and  in  order  to  avoid  ledger  lines  a  whole  octave 
higher  besides.  The  tone  is  rich  and  full  except  for  the  lowest 
notes,  which  are  unavoidably  a  little  rough  in  quality,  but  much 
more  sonorous  than  the  corresponding  notes  on  the  double 
bassoon.  The  upper  register  resembles  the  chalumeau  register 
of  the  B  flat  clarinet,  being  reedy  and  sweet.  The  instrument 
is  used  as  a  fundamental  bass  for  the  wood  wind  at  Kneller 
Hall,  and  it  has  also  been  used  at  Covent  Garden  to  accompany 
the  music  of  Fafner  and  Hunding  in  the  Nibdtmgen  King. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  since  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  to  coosatruct  contra  clarinets,  but  all  possessediahcrent 
faults  and  nave  been  diicardcd  (see  Batyphons).  A  contrabass 
clarinet  in  F,  an  octave  below  the  basset  horn,  constructed  by 
Albert  of  BrusseU  in  1890,  was,  wc  believe,  considered  succcs^ui, 
but  it  differed  ia  design  from  the  pedal  clarinet*  (K.  S.) 

PEDAMT,  one  who  exaggerates  the  value  of  detafled  eruditioa 
for  its  own  sake;  also  a  person  who  delights*  in  a  display  of  the 
exact  niceties  of  Icarm'ng,  in  an  excessive  obedience  to  theory 
without  regard  to  practical  uses.  The  word  came  into  English 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  century  in  the  sense  of  schoofanaster, 
the  original  meaning  of  Ital.  pedante^  from  which  it  is  derived. 
The  word  is  usually  taken  to  be  an  aidaptation  of  Gr.  irai5<i«ty« 


PEDEN--PEEaPALPI 


37 


to  teach.  Othors  oonoeet  whb  An  O.  Ital.  pei4urt^  to  tramp  about 
(Laf .  pes^  foot),  of  an  usher  trampiDg  about  with  his  pupils. 

PEDEN,  ALEXAlCDER  {p.  i626-i686)»  Scottish  divine,  one  of 
the  leading  forces  in  the  Cov«nant  movement,  was  bom  at 
Auchindoich,  Ayrshire,  about  1626,  and  was  educated  at 
Glasgow  University.  He  was  ordained  minister  of  New  Luce 
in  Galloway  in  1660,  but  had  to  leave  bis  parish  under  Middkton's 
Ejectment  Act  in  i66j  For  33  years  he  wandered  far  and  wide, 
bringing  comfort  and  succour  to  (is  co-religionists,  and  often 
very  narrowly  escaping  capture  He  was  mdeed  taken  in  June 
1673  while  holding  a  conventicle  at  Knockdow,  and  condemned 
by  the  privy  council  to  4  years  and  3  months'  imprisonment  on 
the  Bass  Itxk  and  a  further  15  months  in  the  Tolbooth  at 
Edinburgh.  In  December  1678  he  was,  with  sixty  others, 
sentenced  to  banishment  to  the  Amencan  plantations,  but  the 
party  was  liberated  in  London,  and  Peden  made  his  way  north 
again  to  divide  the  remainmg  years  of  his  life  between  his  own 
country  and  the  north  of  Ireland  His  last  days  were  spent  in 
a  cave  in  the  parish  of  Sorn,  near  bis  birthplace,  and  there  he 
died  in  1686,  worn  out  by  hardship  and  privation. 

See  A.  Smdlie,  Hen  of  the  Gwraan/,  en.  xxxiv. 

PBDERSEN,  CHRISTIERII  (c.  1480-1554),  Danish  writer, 
known  as  the  "  father  of  Danish  literature, "  was  a  canon  of  the 
cathedral  of  Lund,  and  in  1510  went  to  Paris,  where  he  took  his 
master's  degree  in  1 5 1 5  In  Partt  he  edited  the  proverbs  of  Peder 
Laale  and  (1514)  the  Hisiorui  4anic9  of  Saxo  GramRutticuSb 
He  showed  signs  of  the  spirit  of  reform,  asserting  that  the 
gospels  should  be  translatcxl  into  the  vernacular  so  that  the 
common  people  might  understand. .  He  worked  at  a  ooBtaiuation 
of  the  history  of  Saxo  Grammaticus,  and  became  secretary  to 
Christian  II.,  whom  he  followed  into  exile  in  1525.  In  Holland 
^e  translated  the  New  Testament  (1529)  and  the  Psalms  (1531) 
from  the  Vulgate,  aiMl,  becoming  a  convert  to  the  reformed 
opinion,  he  issued  several  Lutheran  tr|^cts.  After  bis  return  to 
Denmark  in  1532  he  set  up  a  printing  press  at  MelmO.  He 
published  a  Danish  version  {Kriuikt  om  Holgcr  Danske)  of 
the  French  romance  of  Ogier  the  Dane,  and  another  of  the 
Charlemagne  legends,  which  is  probably  derived  immediately 
from  the  Norwegian  KArlantainus  saga.  His  greatest  work,  the 
Danish  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  is  known  generally 
as  "  Christian  III/s  Bible,  '*  b  an  important  landmark  in 
Danish  literature.    It  was  founded  on  Luther's  version,  and 

was  edited  by  Peder  Palladius.  bishop  of  Zealand,  and  others. 

See  C.  Pedcrscn's  Danskt  Skrifter,  edited  by  C  j.  Brandt  and 
B.  T.  Fenger  (5  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1850-1856). 

PEDESTAL  {Ft.'' piedeslal,  Ital.  piedcstallo,  foot  of  a  sUU),  a 
term  generally  applied  to  a  support,  square,  octagonal  or 
circular  on  plaii,  provided  to  carry  a  statue  or  a  vase.  Although 
in  Syria,  Asia  Minor  and  Tunisia  the  Romans  occasionally 
raised  the  columns  of  their  temples  or  propylaea  on  square 
pedestals,  in  Rome  itself  they  were  employed  only  to  give 
greater  importance  to  isolated  columns,  such  as  those  of  Trajan 
and  Antoninus,  or  as  a  podium  to  the  columns  employed  decor- 
atlvely  In  the  Roman  triumphal  arches.  The  architects  of  the 
Italian  revival,  however,  conceived  the  idea  that  no  order  was 
complete  without  a  pedestal,  and  as  the.  orders  were  by  them 
employed  to  divide  up  and  decorate  a  building  in  several  storeys, 
the  cornice  of  the  pedestal  was  carried  through  and  formed  the 
sills  of  their  windows,  or,  in  open  arcades,  round  a  court,  the 
balustrade  of  the  arcade.  They  also  would  seem  to  have 
considered  that  the  height  of  the  pedestal  should  correspond  in 
its  proportion  with  that  of  the  column  of  pilaster  it  supported , 
thus  in  the  church  of  St  John  Lateran,  where  the  applied  order 
is  of  considerable  dimensions,  the  pedestal  is  13  ft  high  instead 
of  the  ordinary  height  of  3  to  5  ft. 

PEDICULOSIS,  or  Phthiriasis,  the  medical  term  for  the 
pathological  symptoms  in  man  due  to  the  presence  of  lice 
Ipediculi),  either  on  the  head  {pcdicuSus  capitis),  body  {ptdicMlus 
corporis^  or  vcitinicntorum)^  or  pubes  {pcdiculns  pubis) 

PEDIGREE,  a  genealogical  tree,  a  tabubr  statement  of  descent 
'see  Genealogy)  The  word  first  appears  at  the  beginning  of 
the  15th  century  and  takes  an  extraordinary  variety  of  forms. 


9.1,  ptii€net  p^dtfft,  pettegrim,  pefygrUf  ftc  It  it  generally 
accepted  that  these  point  to  a  comqytion  of  Fr.  pitd  d*  t/rmt^  foot 
of  a  crane,  and  xhUL  the  probable  relerence  is  to  the  marfci 
rcseabling  -the  claw  of  a  b&rd  found  in  old  genealogies  showing 
the  lines  of  descent.  Such  etymologies  as  Minshea's  far  dtgrist 
by  degrtesk  or  pb^i  depiSt  descent  by  the  father,  se  mera 


PBDIMBMT  (efiuivaknta,  Or.  AcrAr,  Lat.  fastigiumt  Fr. 
^Nfofi),  in  clasric  arrhUecture  the  triangular.«haped  portion  ol 
the  wall  above  the  conke  which  formed  the  termination  of  the 
roof  behind  it.  The  projecting  mouldmgs  of  the  cornice  which 
surround  it  endose  the  tympanum,  which  ia  sometimes  decorated 
with  flculpttire.  The  pediment  in  classic  architecture  corre- 
sponds to  the  gable  in  Gothic  architecture,  where  the  roof  is  of 
loftier  pitch.  It  was  employed  by  the  Greeks  only  as  the  front 
of  the  roof  which  covered  the  main  building;  the  Romans,  how- 
ever, adopted  it  as  a  decorative  terminatkra  to  a  doorway,  niche 
or  window,  and  occasionally,  in  a  nvw  of  windows  or  mchcs, 
alternated  the  triangular  with  a  segmental  pediment.  It  was 
reserved  for  the  ItalUn  architects  of  the  decadence  to  hnaHn  the 
pediment  in  the  centre,  thus  destroying  its  original  purpose. 
The  eadiest  English  focm  of  the  woixl  is  perimetU  or  pertminU^ 
probably  a  workman^s  corruption  of  **  pyramid. " 

PBDIPALPI,  Arachnida  (99)  related  to  the  spiders,  and 
serving  in  a  measure  to  bridge  over  the  structural  Interval 
between  the  latter  and  the  scorpions.  The  appendages  of  the 
second  pair  are  large  and  prehensile,  as  in  scorpions,  but  are 
armed  with  spines,  to  impale  and  hold  prey.  The  appendages  of 
the  third  pair,  cqweaenting  the  fust  pair  of  walking  legs  fti  ^ders 
and  scorpions,  are,  <m  the  contrary,  long,  attenuated  and  many- 
jointed  at  the  end..  like  <the  antennae  of  insects,  they  act  as 
feelen.  It  is  from  this  structural  feature  that  the  term  **  pedi^ 
palpi "  has  been  derived.  In  the  tailless  division  of  the  Pedlpalpi, 


Mexican  laileU  rtMiipitlp  {.J^laiHgopfomu  g^ganltus). 

namely  the  Amblypygi  of  w^ich  Phrynus  is  a  commonly  cited 
t>'pe,  these  tactile  appendages  are  exceedingly  long  and  lash- 
like, whereas  in  the  tailed  division,  the  Uropygi,  of  which  TJuly- 
phonus  is  best  known,  the  hmb  is  much  shorter  and  less  modified. 
Thdyphonus  and  its  allies,  however,  have  a  long  tactile  caudal 
flagellum.  the  homologue  of  the  scorpion's  sting;  but  its  exact 
use  is  unknown.  A  third  division,  the  TarUrides,  a  subordinate 
group  of  the  Uropygi,  contains  minute  Arachnida  diflering 
principally  from  the  typical  Uropygi  in  having  the  caudal  process 
iinjoinLed  and  shoru    Apart  from  tbp  Tartaridcs,  the  Pedipalpi 


38 


PEDOMETER-^PEEBLESSHIRE 


are  hige  or  m^om-sittd  Anchnida,  nocturnal  in  habits  and 
spending  the  day  under  stones,  bgs  of  wood  or  loosened  bark. 
Some  species  of  the  Uropygi  (Tlielyphonidae)  dig  burrows;  and 
in  the  east  there  is  a  family  of  AmUypygi,  the  Charontidae,  of 
which  many  of  the  species  live  in  the  recesses  of  deep  eaves. 
Specimens  of  another  species  have  been  found  under  stones 
between  tide  marks  in  the  Andaman  Islands.  The  Pedipaipi 
feed  upon  insects,  and  like  aiders,  are  oviparous.  The  eggs 
after  being  laid  are  carried  about  by  the  mother,  adhering  in  a 
glutinous  mass  to  the  underside  of  the  abdomen. 

Pedipaipi  date  back  to  the  Carboniferoos  Period,  occurring  in 
deposits  of  that  age  both  in  Europe  and  North  America.  More- 
over, the  two  main  divisions  of  the  order,  which  wereasshaiply 
differentiated  then  as  they  are  now,  have  existed  practically 
unchanged  from  that  remote  epoch. 

In  spite  of  the  untold  i^es  they  have  been  in  existence,  the 
Pedipaipi  are  more  restricted  in  range  than  the  scorpions.  The 
Uropygi  are  found  only  in  Central  and  South  America  and  m 
south  and  eastern  Asia,  from  India  and  south  China  to  the  Solo- 
mon Islands.  The  absence  of  the  entire  order  from  Africa  is  an 
interesting  fact.  The  distribution  of  the  Amblypygi  praaically 
covers  that  of  the  Uropygi,  but  in  addition  they  extend  from  India 
through  Arabia  into  tropical  and  southern  Africa.  Both  groups 
are  unknown  in  Madagascar,  in  Australia,  with  the  exception 
possibly  of  the  extreme  north,  and  in  New  Zealand.  Very  little 
can  be  said  with  certainty  about  the  distribution  of  the  Tartar- 
ides.  They  have  been  recorded  from  the  Indian  Region,  West 
Africa  and  sub-tropical  America.  (R.  I.  P.) 

PBDOIIETER  (Lat.  pes,  foot,  and  Gr.  lArpmt  measure),  an 
apparatus  in  the  form  of  a  watch,  wliich,  carried  on  the  person 
of  a  walker,  counts  the  number  of  paces  he  makes,  and  thus 
indicates  approximately  the  distance  travelled.  The  ordinary 
form  has  a  dial*plate  marked  for  yards  and  miles.  The  regis* 
tration  is  effected  by  the  fall  of  a  heavy  pendulum,  caused  by  the 
percussion  of  each  step.  The  pendulum  is  forced  back  to  a 
horizontal  position  by  a  delicate  spring,  and  with  each  stroke  a 
fine-toothed  ratchet -wheil  connected  with  it  is  moved  round  a 
certain  length*  The  ratchet  communicates  with  a  train  of  wheels 
which  work  the  dial-hands.  In  using  the  apparatus  a  measured 
mile  or  other  known  distance  is  walked  and  the  indication 
thereby  made  on  the  dial-plate  observed.  According  as  it  b  too 
great  or  too  small,  the  stroke  of  the  pendulum  is  shortened  or 
lengthened  fay  a  screw.  Obviously  the  pedometer  is  little  better 
than  an  ingenious  toy,  depending  even  for  rough  measurements 
on  the  uniformity  of  pace  maintained  throughout  the  journey 
measured. 

PEDRO  II.  (1825-1891),  emperor  of  BrazQ,  came  to  the  throne 
In  childhood,  having  been  bom  on  the  and  of  December  1835, 
and  proclaimed  emperor  in  April  1831,  upon  the  abdication  of 
his  father.  He  was  declared  of  full  age  in  1840.  For  a  long 
period  few  thrones  appeared  more  secure,  and  his  prosperous 
and  beneficent  rule  might  have  endured  throughout  his  life 
but  for  his  want  of  energy  and  inattention  tc  the  signs  of  the 
times.  The  rising  generation  had  become  honeycombed  with 
republicanbm,  the  pro^>ects  of  the  imperial  succession  were 
justly  r^arded  as  unsatisfactory,  the  higher  classes  had  been 
estranged  by  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  and  all  these  causes 
of  discontent  found  expression  in  a  military  revolt,  which  in 
November  1889  overthrew  the  seemingly  solid  edifice  of  the 
Brazilian  Empire  in  a  few  hours.  Dom  Pedro  retired  to  Europe, 
and  died  in  Paris  on  the  5th  of  December  iS^r.  The  chief 
events  of  his  reign  had  been  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves, 
and  the  war  with  Paraguay  in  x864'7a  Dom  Pedro  was  a 
model  constitutional  sovereign,  and  a  munificent  patron  of 
science  and  letters.  He  travelled  in  the  United  States  (1876), 
and  thrice  visited  Europe  (i87i-i87a,  1876-1877, 1886-1889). 

PEBBLES,  a  royal  and  police  bur^  and  county  town  of 
Peeblesshire,  Scotiand,  situated  at  the  junction  of  Eddleston 
Water  with  the  Tweed.  Pop.  (t^oi),  5266.  It  is  27  m.  south  of 
Edinburgh  by  the  North.  British  Railway  <2«  m.  by  road),  and 
is  also  the  terminus  of  a  branch  line  of  the  Caledonian  system 
from  CarsUirs  in  Lanarkshire.    The  burgh  consisU  of  the  new 


town,  the  principal  quarter,  on  the  south  of  the  Eddleston,  and 
the  old  on  the  north,  the  Tweed  is  crossed  by  a  handsome  five- 
arched  bridge.  Peebles  is  a  noted  haunt  of  anglers,  and  the 
Royal  Company  of  Archers  shoot  here  periodically  for  the  silver 
arrow  given  by  the  burgh.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the 
town  and  connty  haDs,  the  com  exchange,  the  hospital- and 
Chambers  Institution.  The  last  was  once  the  town  house  of  the 
earb  of  March,  but  was  presented  fo  Peebles  by  WiHiam  Chambers, 
the  publisher,  in  1859.  The  site  of  the  castle,  which  stood  lil! 
the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  is  now  occupied  by  the  parish 
church,  built  in  1887.  Of  St  Andrew'^  Church,  founded  in  1 195, 
nothmg  remains  but  the  tower,  restored  by  William  Chambers, 
who  was  buried  beside  it  in  1883.  The  church  of  the  Holy 
Rood  was  erected  by  Alexander  III.  in  1261,  to  contain  a 
supposed  remnant  of  the  true  cross  discovered  here.  The 
building  remained  till  1784,  when  it  was  ncariy  demolished  to 
provide  stones  for  a  new  parish  church.  Portions  of  the  town 
walls  still  exist,  and  there  are  also  vaulted  cellars  constructed 
in  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  as  hiding-places  against  Border 
freebooters.  The  old  cross,  which  had  stood  for  several  ycats  in 
the  quadrangle  of  Chambers  Institution,  was  restored  and 
erected  in  High  Street  In  1895.  The  industries  Consist  of  the 
manufactures  of  woollens  and  tweeds,  and  of  meal  and  flour 
mills.    The  town  is  also  an  important  agticultaral  centre. 

The  name  of  Peebles  b  said  to  be  derived  from  the  pebytls,  or 
tents,  which  the  Gadcni  pitched  here  in  the  days  of  the  Romans. 
The  place  was  early  a  favourite  residence  of  the  Scots  kings  when 
they  came  to  hunt  in  Ettrick  forest.  It  probably  received  its 
charter  from  Alexander  III.,  was  created  a  royal  burgh  in  1367 
and  was  the  scene  of  the  poem  of  Pcbiis  to  the  Play,  ascribed  to 
James  I.  In  1544  the  town  sustained  heavy  damage  in  the 
expedition  led  by  the  ist  eari  of  Hertford,*  afterwards  the 
protector  Somerset,  and  in  1604  a  large  portion  of  it  ^was 
destroyed  by  fire.  Though  James  VI.  extended  its  charter, 
Peebles  lost  its  importance  after  the  union  of  the  Crowns.     '' 

On  the  north  bank  of  the  Tweed,  one  mile  west  of  IVcbles,  stands 
Neidpatb  Castle.  The  anctcnt  peel  tower  dates  probably  from  the 
13th  century.  Its  first  owners  were  Twccddale  Frawrs  or  Frisels. 
from  whom  it  passed,  by  marriage,  to  the  Hays  of  Ycster  in  Had- 
dingtonshire, carts  of  Twccddale.  It  was  besieged  and  taken  by 
Cromwell  in  165a  The  third  carl  of  Twccddale  (16^5-1713')  sold 
it  to  the  duke  of  Quecnsberry  in  1686.  The  eari  of  Wemyss  sue- 
cecdcd  to  the  Neidpath  property  in  1810. 

PEBBLBSSHIRB,  or  Tweeooalb,  a  southern  Inland  county  of 
Scotland,  bounded  N  and  N.£.  by  Edinburghshire,  E.  and  S.E. 
by  Selkirkshire,  S.  by  Dumfriesshire,  and  W.  by  Lanarkshire. 
Its  area  is  222,599  acres  or  547-8  sq.  m.  The  surface  consists 
of  a  succession  of  hills,  which  arc  highest  in  the  south,  broken 
by  the  vale  of  the  TWeed  and  the  glens  formed  by  its  numerous 
tributaries.  Souih  of  the  Tweed  the  highest  points  are  Broad 
Law  and  Cramalt  Craig  on  the  confines  of  Selkirkshire  (each 
2723  ft.),  while  north  of  the  river  are,  in  the  west  centre,  Brough- 
ton  Heights  (1872),  Trahenna  Hill  (1792),  Penvalla  (1764)  and 
Ladyurd  Hill  (1724),  and  in  the  north-west  the  Penlland  emin- 
ences of  Mount  Maw  (1753),  Byrchope  Mount  (1752)  and  King 
Seat  (1521).  The  lowest  point  above  sea-level  is  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tweed,  where  it  passes  into  Selkirkshire  (about  450  ft.). 
The  prindpal  river  is  the  Tweed,  an(f  from  the  fact  that  for  the 
first  36  m.  of  Its  course  of  97  m.  It  flows  through  the  south  of 
the  shire,  the  county  derives  its  alternative  name  of  Tweeddale. 
Its  affluents  on  the  right  are  the  Stanhope,  Drummelzier,  Manor 
and  Qualr;on  the  left,  the  Biggar,Lyne,  Eddlestone  and  Leilhen. 
The  North  Esk,  rising  in  Caimmuir,  forms  the  boundary  Fme 
between  Midlothian  and  Peeblesshire  for  about  four  miles, 
during  which  it  presents  some  very  charming  pictures,  especially 
at  Habbie's  Howe,  where  Allan  Ramsay  laid  the  scene  of  the 
GeiUU  Shepherd.  For  4  m.  of  its  course  the  South  Medwin 
divides  the  south-western  part  of  the  parish  of  Linton  from 
Lanarkshire.  Portmorc  Loch,  a  small  sheet  of  water  2  m.  north- 
cast  of  Eddlestone  church,  lies  at  a  height  of  tooo  ft.  above  the 
sea,  and  is  the  only  lake  in  the  county.  The  shire  is  In  favour  with 
anglers,  its  streams  being  well  stocked  and  unpolluted,  and  few 
restrictions  being  placed  on  the  fishing. 


PEEKSKILL— PEEL,  VISCOUNT 


39 


GM^c^.-'Tbc  KMithcrn  elevated  portioa  of  the  county  u  occupied 
by  Siturian  rocks,  mainly  bv  shales  and  Brits  or  grcywackes  of 
Llandovery  age.  Owing  to  tne  repeated  folding  and  crumpling  of 
the  rocka  in  this  region  there  are  numerous  elliptical  exfMsures 
of  Ordovician  strata  wtthan  the  Siluriad  tmct;  bwt  the  principal 
area  of  Ordovician  rocks  lies  north  of  a  line  running  south-west 
from  the  Moorfoot  Hills  through  Lyne  and  Stobo.  Here  these 
rocks  form  a  belt  some  four  to  five  miles  In  breadth ;  they  a,re  com- 
IMsed  of  radiolarian  cherts  and  mudstonci  with  associated  con- 
temporaneous volcaoic  rocks  of  Accnig  age*  and  of  shales,  gnts 
fMd  Umestoncs  of  Uandcllo  and  Caradoc  age.  The  general  direction 
of  strike  of  all  these  formations  is  south-west-north-east,  but  the 
dips  are  sometimes  misleading  through  occasional  inversion  of  the 
strata.  Patches  of  higher  Slurian,  with  WenkKk  and  Ludk>w 
fossils,  are  found  in  the  north  of  the  country  in  the  XVmtland  Hills, 
and  resting  conformably  upon  the  Silurian  in  the  same  district  is 
the  Lower  Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  here 
consists  of  a  lower  division,  red  and  chocolate  maris  and  sandstones; 
a  middle  division,  volcanic  rocks,  porphyrites,  tufis,  &c.,  which  ate 
unconforioable  on  the  tower  marls  ia  this  area;  and  an  upper 
divisiofu  sandstones  and  conglomenrtes.  The  south-west  extremity 
of  the  Edinburgh  coalfield  just  enters  this  county  over  the  north- 
west border  where  a  slice  or  Carboniferous  strata  is  found  let  down 
between  Silurian  and  Old  Red  locks  hy  two  important  faults. 
Both  Calciferoas  aandaUMie  and  Carboniferous  linKstone  occur, 
with  useful  beds  of  coaL  limestone,  ironstone,  fireclay  and  alum 
shale  An  outlier  of  Carboniferous  limestone,  surrounded  by 
Lover  Old  Red  Sandstone,  lies  south  of  Linton.  Much  glacial 
boulder  clay  with  gravel  and  sand  rests  upon  the  higher  ground, 
while  morainic  deposits  are  found  in  the  valleya. 

Climate  and  Industries. — ^Thc  annual  rainfall  avcfages  from 
53  to  4K  in.;  the  mean  temperature  for  the  year  is  47  $**  F., 
for  January  38*  F.,  and  for  July  59*^  F.  The  character  of  the 
soil  varies  considerably,  peat,  gravel  and  clay  being  alt  repre- 
sented. The  low-lying  lands  consist  generally  of  rith  loam, 
composed  of  sand  and  clay  The  farming  is  pastoral  rather  t  han 
arable.  The  average  holding  is  about  mo  acres  of  arable  land, 
with  pasturage  for  from  600  to  800  sheep.  Roughly  speaking, 
one-fifth  of  the  total  area  is  under  cultivation.  O^ts  are  the 
chief  grain  and  tumipe  the  chief  root  crop.  The  hill  pastures  are 
belter  suited  to  sheep  than  to  cattle,  but  both  flocks  and  herds  are 
comparatively  large.  Cheviots  and  half -breds  arc  preferred  for 
th^  grass  lands,  the  heathery  ranges  being  stocked  with  black- 
faced  sheep.  Classes  of  Cheviots,  black-faced  and  half-bred 
ewes  with  Leicestershire  rams  are  common.  The  favouritie 
breed  of  cattle  is  a  cross  between  Ayrshires  and  shorthorns,  the 
cows  being  Ayrshire.  Many  of  the  horses  are  Clydesdales  bred 
in  the  county.  Pig-keeping  is  on  the  decline.  A  few  acres  have 
been  laid  down  as  nurseries  and  market  gardens,  and  about 
10,000  acres  are  under  wood,  especially  at  Dalwick,  where  larch 
and  horse-chestnut  were  first  grown  in  Scotland.  Apart  from 
agnculture,  the  only  industries  are  the  woollen  factories  and  flour 
mills  at  Peebles  and  Innerieitfaen. 

^The  North  British  railway  crosses  the  county  in  the  north  from 
Leadburn  to  Dolphinton,  and  runs  down  the  Eddlestone  valley 
from  Leadbum  to  Peebles  and  Tbomielee,  while  in  the  south  the 
Caledonian  railway  connects  the  county  town  with  Baggar  in 
Lanarkshire. 

PopnlalUm  and  Administration, — In  igot  the  population 
numbered  1 5.066  or  43  persons  to  the  sq.  m.  In  1901  one  person 
spoke  Gaelic  only,  7a  Gaelic  and  English.  The  chief  towns  are 
Peebles  (pop  5266)  and  Innerleithen  (21S1)  West  Linton,  on 
Lyne  Water,  Is  a  holiday  resort.  The  shire  combines  with 
Selkirkshire  to  return  one  member  to  parliament,  the  electors 
of  Peebles  town  voting  with  the  county  Peeblesshire  forms  a 
sheriffdom  with  the  Lothians  and  a  sheriff-substitute  sits  in 
the  county  town.  There  is  a  high  school  in  Peebles,  and  one 
or  more  schools  in  the  county  usually  earn  grants  for  secondary 
education. 

Histarj. -^Tht  country  wis  originally  occupied  by  the  Gadcni, 
a  British  tribe,  of  whom  there  arc  many  remains  in  the  shape  of 
camps  and  sepulchral  mounds  (in  which  stCMie  coffins,  axes  and 
hammers  have  been  found),  wldle  several  place-names  (such  as 
Peebles,  Dalwick  and  Stobo)  also  attest  their  presence  The 
standing  stones  near  the  confluence  of  the  Lyne  and  Tweed  are 
stipposed  to  commemorate  a  Cymric  chief  The  natives  were 
reduced  by  the  Romans,  who  have  left  traces  of  their  military 
nile  in  the  fine  camp  at  Lyne.  locally  known  as  Randal's  Walls. 


The  hill-side  terraces  at  Romanno  are  conjectured,  somewhat 
fancifully,  to  be  remains  of  a  Roman  method  of  cultivation.  On 
the  retreat  of  the  Romans  the  Gadeni  came  into  their  own  again, 
and  although  they  axe  said  to  have  been  defeated  by  King  Arthur 
at  Cademuir  ia  530,  they  held  the  district  until  the  consolidation 
of  the  kingdom  after  Malcolm  II. 's  victory  at  Carham  in  xoid, 
before  which  the  land,  constantly  hariied  by  Danes,  was  nomi- 
nally included  in  the  territory  oi  Nonhumbria.  This  tract  of 
Scotland  is  closely  associated  with  the  legend  of  Merlin.  David  I. 
made  the  district  a  deanery  in  the  arehdcaconry  of  Peebles, 
and  it  afterwards  formed  pan  of  the  diocese  of  Glasgow. 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  lath  century  It  was  placed  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  two  sheriff^  one  of  whom  was  settled  at 
Traquair  and  the  other  at  Peebles.  At  Happrew,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Lyne,  the  English  defeated  Wallace  in  1304.  The  Scottish 
sovereigns  had  a  lodge  at  Polmood,  and  often  hunted  in  the 
uplands  aqd  the  adjoining  forests.  English  armies  occasionally 
invaded  the  county,  but  more  frequently  the  people  were  harried 
by  Border  raiders.  Many  castles  and  peels  were  erected  In  the 
valley  of  the  Tweed  from  the  Bield  to  Berwick.  Several  were 
renowned  in  their  day,  ampng  them  Oliver  Castle  (built  by  Sir 
Oliver  Eraser  in  the  reign  of  David  I.),  Drumelzier,  Tinnis  or 
Thane's  Castle,  and  Neidpath.  Three  miles  south  of  Romanno 
stand  the  ruin»  of  Drochil  Castle,  designed  for  the  Regent 
Morton  who  was  beheaded  at  Edinburgh  in  is8i,  and  the 
building  was  kievcr  completed.  Memories  of  the  CovenanleiB 
duster  around  Tweedhopefoot,  Tweedshaws,  Corehead,  Tweeds- 
muir,  Talla  Linns  and  other  spots.  In  the  churchyard  of 
Twecdsmuir  is  the  tombstone  of  John  Hunter,  the  martyr, 
which  was  reletlcred  by  "  Old  Mortality  *'  The  "  men  of  the 
moss  hags  "  did  little  fighting  in  IVeblesshhre,  but  Montrose  first 
drew  rein  at  Traquair  House  after  he  was  defeated  at  Philip- 
haugh  on  the  Yarrow  in  1645.  1'he  plain  of  Sheriffmulr  near 
Lyne  is  the  place  where  the  Tweeddale  wapinschaws  used  to  be 
held  in  the  X7th  century.  The  Jacobite  risings  left  the  county 
untouched,  and  since  the  beginning  of  the  iQth  century  the  shire 
has  been  more  conspictious  in  literature  than  in  politics. 

BiBLioCRAPnY.*— Pennecuick,  Descriplion  of  Tweeddak  (1715); 
William  Chambers,  History  of  PttbUsskire  (Edinburgh,  1864); 
Dr  C.  B.  Gunn.  Innerlathen  and  Traquair  (Innerleithen.  1867); 
Sir  George  Rcid.  The  River  Tweed  from  its  Source  to  the  Sea  (Text 
by  Professor  Veitch)  (Edinburgh.  1884);  Professor  Vcitch,  History 
and  Poetry  of  ttu  Scoliiih  Border  (Edinburgh,  1893);  Border  Essays 
(Edinburgh.  1896);  Rev  W.  S.  Crockett.  The  StoU  Country  (Edin- 
burgh, 1902). 

PBBKSKILU  a  village  of  Westchester  county,  New  York, 
U  S  A.,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  about  41  m.  N. 
of  New  York  City.  Pop.  (1910,  census),  15,245-  It  Is  served 
by  the  New  York  Central  ft  Hudson  river  railway,  and  by 
passenger  and  freight  steamboat  lines  on  the  Hudson  river. 
The  vUIage  is  the  home  of  many  New  York  business  men. 
At  Pcekskill  are  the  Peekskill  military  academy  (1833,  non* 
sectarian);  St  Mary's  school,  Mount  St  Gabriel  (Protestant 
Episcopal),  a  school  for  girls  established  by  the  sisterhood  of 
St  Mary:  the  Field  memorial  library;  St  Joseph's  home  (Roman 
Catholic);  the  Peekskill  hospital,  and  several  sanatoria. 
Near  the  village  is  the  state  military  camp,  where  the  national 
guard  of  the  state  meets  in  annual  encampment.  Peekskill  has 
many  manufactures,  and  the  factory  products  were  valued  in 
1905  at  $7,351,897,  an  increase  of  3067%  since  1900.  The  site 
was  settled  early  in  the  i8th  century,  but  the  village  itself  dates 
from  about  1 760,  when  it  took  its  present  name  from  the  adjacent 
creek  or  "  kill,"  on  which  a  Dutch  trader,  Jans  Peck,  of  New 
York  City,  had  established  a  trading  post.  During  the  latter 
part  of  the  War  of  Independence  Peekskill  was  an  important 
outpost  of  the  Continental  Army,  and  in  the  neighbourhood 
several  small  engagements  were  fought  between  American  and 
British  scouting  parties.  The  village  was  incorporated  in  t8i6, 
Peekskill  was  the  country  home  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 

PEEU  ARTHUR  WEUBSLEY  PEBL,  tST  ViscovNt 
(182^  ),  English  statesman,  youngest  son  of  the  great 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  August  1829,  and  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  unsuccessfully 


40 


PEEL,  SIR  ROBERT 


contested  Coventry  in  1863;  in  1865  he  was  elected  in  the 
liberal  interest  for  Warwick,  for  which  he  sat  until  his  elevation 
to  the  peerage.  In  December  1 868  he  was  appointed  parliamentary 
secretary  to  the  poor  law  board.   This  office  he  filled  until  187 1, 
when  he  became  secretary  to  the  board  of  trade,  an  appointment 
which  he  held  for  two  years.    In  1873-1874  he  was  patronage 
secretary  to  the  treasury,  and  in  1880  he  became  under- 
secretary for  the  home  department.    On  the  retirement  of  Mr 
Brand  (afterwards  Viscount  Hampden)  in  1884,  Peel  waselected 
Speaker.   He  was  thrice  re-elected  to  the  post ,  twice  in  1 886,  and 
again  in  1892.    Throughout  hts  career  as  Speaker  be  exhibited 
conspicuous  impartiality,  combined  with  a  perfect  knowledge  of 
the  traditions,  usages  and  forR&  of  the  house,  soundness  of  judg- 
ment, and  readiness  of  decision  upon  all  occasions;  and  he  will 
always  rank  as  one  of  the  greatest  holders  of  this  important 
office    On  the  8th  of  April  189s  he  announced  that  for  reasons 
of  health  he  was  compelled  to  retire.  The  farewell  ceremony 
was  of  a  most  impMSsive  charaaer,  and  warm  tributes  were  paid 
from  all  parts  of  the  house.    He  was  created  a  viscount  and 
granted  a  pension  of  £4000  for  life.    He  was  presented  with  the 
freedom  of  the  City  of  London  111  July  1895.   The  public 
interest  in  the  ex-Speaker's  hiter  life  centred  entirely  in  his  some- 
what controversial  connexion  with  the  drink  traffic.  A  royal 
commission  was  appointed  in  April  1896  to  Inquire  into  the 
operation  and  admmistration  of  the  licensing  laws,  and  Viscount 
Peel  was  appointed  chairman.    In  July  1898  Lord  Peel  drew  up 
a  draft  report  for  discussion,  in  five  parts.    Some  diflfcrences  of 
opinion  arose  in  connexion  with  the  report,  and  at  a  meeting  of 
the  commissioners  on  the  X2th  of  April  1899,  when  part  5  of  the 
draft  report  was  to  be  considered,  a  proposal  was  made  to 
substitute  an  alternative  draft  for  Lord  Peel's,  and  also  a  series 
of  alternative  drafts  for  the  four  sections  already  discussed. 
Lord  Peel  declined  to  put  these  proposals,  and  left  the  room 
Sir  Algernon  West  was  elected  to  the  chair,  and  ultimately  two 
vaain  reports  were  presented,  one  section  agreeing  with  Lord 
Peel,  and  the  other— including  the  majority  of  the  commiS' 
sioncrs— presenting  a  report  which  differed  from  his  in  several 
important  respects.     The  Peel  report  recommended  that  a 
large  reduction  in  the  number  of  licensed  houses  should  be 
immediately  effected,  and  that  no  compensation  should  be  paid 
from  the  public  rates  or  taxes,  the  money  for  this  purpose 
being  raised  by  an  annual  Iicence*rental  levied  on  the  rateable 
value  of  the  licensed  premises;  it  at  once  became  a  valuable 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  advanced  reformers. 

Lord  Peel  married  in  1 862,  and  had  four  sons  and^wo  daughters 
(married  to  Mr  J.  Rochfort  Maguire  and  to  Mr  C.  S.  Goldman). 
His  eldest  son,  William  Robert  Wellesley  Peel  (b.  1866),  married 
the  daughter  of  Lord  Ashton;  he  was  Unionist  M.P.  for  South 
Manchester  from  1900  to  1905,  and  later  for  Taunton,  and  also 
acted  as  Municipal  Reform  leader  on  the  London  Cotinty 
Council. 

PEEL,  SIR  ROBERT,  Bast,  (i 788-1850),  English  statesman, 
was  born  on  the  sth  of  February  1788  at  Chamber  Hall,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Bury,  Lancashire,  or,  less  probably,  at  a 
cottage  near  the  Hall.  He  was  a  scion  of  that  new  aristocracy 
of  wealth  which  sprang  from  the  rapid  progress  of  mechanical 
discovery  and  manufactures  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th 
century,  His  ancestors  were  Yorkshire  yeomen  in  the  district 
of  Craven,  whence  they  migrated  to  Blackburn  in  Lancashire. 
His  grandfather,  Robert  Ped,  first  of  Peelfold,  and  afterwards  of 
Brookside,  near  Blackburn,  was  a  calico-printer,  who,  appre- 
ciating the  discovery  of  his  townsman  Hargreaves,  took  to 
cotton-spinning  with  the  spinning- jenny  and  grew  a  wealthy  man. 
His  father,  Robert  Peel  (1750-1830),  third  son  of  the  last-named, 
carried  on  the  same  business  at  Bury  with  still  greater  success. 
In  partnership  with  his  uncle,  Mr  Ha  worth,  and  Mr  Yates,  whose 
daughter,  Ellen,  hq  married.  He  made  a  princely  fortune, 
became  the  owner  of  Drayton  Manor  and  member  of  pariia- 
tnent  for  the  neighbouring  borough  of  Tamworlh,  was  a  trusted 
and  honoured,  as  well  as  ardent,  supporter  of  Pitt,  contributed 
munificently  towards  the  support  of  that  leader's  war  policy, 
and  was  rewarded  with  a  baronetcy  (1800). 


At  Harrow,  according  to  the  accounts  of  his  contemporaries, 
Peel  was  a  steady  industrious  boy,  the  best  scholar  in  the  school, 
fonder  of  country  walks  with  a  friend  than  of  school  games, 
but  reputed  one  of  the  best  football  players.  At  Christ  Church, 
where  he  entered  as  a  gentleman  commoner,  he  was  the  first  who, 
under  the  new  examination  statutes,  took  a  first  class  both  in 
classics  and  in  mathematics.  His  examination  for  his  B.  A.  degree 
in  1808  was  an  academical  ovation  in  presence  of  a  numerous 
audience,  who  came  to  hear  the  first  man  of  the  day.  From 
his  classical  studies  Robert  Peel  derived  not  only  the  classical, 
though  somewhat  pompous,  character  of  his  speeches  and  the 
Latin  quotattons  with  which  they  were  often  hai^ily  interspersed 
but  something  of  his  lofty  ideal  of  political  Jimbition.  To  his 
mathematical  training,  which  was  then  not  common  among 
public  men,  he  no  doubt  owed  in  part  his  method,  his  clearness, 
his  great  power  of  grasping  steadily  and  working  out  difficult 
and  complicated  qucstrans.  His  speeches  show  that,  in  addition 
to  his  academical  knowledge,  he  was  well  versed  in  English 
literature,  in  history,  and  in  the  principlesof  law,  in  order  to  study 
which  he  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  But  while  reading  hard  he 
did  not  neglect  todcvelop  his  tall  and  vigorous  frame,  and,  though 
he  lost  his  life  partly  through  his  bad  riding,  he  was  always  a 
good  shot  and  an  untiring  walker  after  game.  His  Oxford 
education  confirmed  his  atachment-to  the  Church  of  England. 
His  practical  mind  remained  satisfied  with  the  doctrines  of  his 
youth,  and  he  never  showed  that  he  had  studied  the  great 
religious  controversies  of  his  day. 

In  1809,  being  then  in  his  twenty-second  year,  he  was  brought 
into  parliament  for  the  close  borough  of  Cashel,  which  he  after* 
wards  exchanged  for  Chippenham,  and  commenced  his  parlla^ 
mentary  career  under  the  eye  of  his  father,  then  member  for 
Tamworth,  who  fondly  saw  In  him  the  future  leader  of  the  Tory 
party.  In  that  House  of  Commons  sat  Wilberforce,  Windham, 
Tierhey,  Grattan,  Perceval,  Castlcreagh,  Plunkett,  Romilly, 
Mackintosh,  Burdett,  Whitbread^  Horner,  Brougham,  ParncU, 
Husklsson,  and,  above  all,  George  Canning.  Lord  Palmerston 
entered  the  house  two  years  eariier,  and  Lord  John  Russell 
three  years  later.  Among  these  men  younp'Peel  had  to  rise. 
And  he  rose,  not  by  splendid  eloquence,  by  profound  political 
philosophy  or  by  great  originality  of  thought,  but  by  the  closest 
attention  to  all  his  parliamentary  duties,  by  a  study  of  all  the 
business  of  parliament,  and  by  a  style  of  speaking  which  owed 
its  force  not  to  high  flights  of  oratory,  but  to  knowledge  of  the 
subject  in  hand,  clearness  of  exposition,  close  reasoning,  and  tact 
in  dealing  with  a  pariiamcntary  audience*  With  the  close  of 
the  stnigg^  against  revolutionary  France,  political  progress  in 
England  was  soon  to  resume  the  march  which  that  struggle  had 
arrested.  Young  Peel's  lot,  however,  was  cast,  through  his 
father,  with  the  Tory  party.  In  hts  maiden  speech  in  i8to, 
seconding  (he  address,  he  defended  the  Walchercn  expedition, 
which  he  again  vindicated  soon  afterwards  against  the  report  of 
Lord  Porchcster's  committee.  It  is  said  that  even  then  his  father 
had  discerned  in  him  a  tendency  to  think  for  himself,  and  told 
Lord  Liverpool  that  to  make  sure  of  his  support  it  would  be  well 
to  place  him  early  in  harness.  At  ail  events  he  began  official 
life  in  1810  as  Lord  Liverpool's  under-secretaTy  for  war  and  the 
colonies  under  the  administration  of  Perceval.  In  z8i3  he  was 
transferred  by  Lord  Liverpocd  to  the  more  important  but 
unhappy  post  of  secretary  for  Ireland.  There  be  was  engaged 
till  1818  in  maintaining  English  ascendancy  over  a  country 
heaving  with  discontent,  teeming  with  conspiracy,  and  ever  ready 
to  burst  into  rabellion.  A  middle  course  between  Irish  parties 
was  impossible,  and  Peel  plied  the  established  engines  of  coercion 
and  patronage  with  a  vigorous  hand.  At  the  same  time,  it  was 
his  frequent  duty  to  combat  Grattan.  Plunkett,  Canning  and 
the  other  movers  and  advocates  of  Roman  Catholic  emancipation 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  He,  however,  always  spcke  on  this 
question  with  a  command  of  temper  wonderful  in  hot  youth, 
with  the  utmost  courtesy  towards  his  opponents,  and  with  warm 
expressions  of  sympathy  and  even  of  admiration  for  the  Irish 
people.  He  also,  thtxs  early,  did  his  best  to  advocate  and 
promote  joint  education  in  Ireland  as  a  means  of  recondlio^ 


PEEL,  SIR  ROBERT 


sects  ftnd  raising  the  character  of  the  people.  Bvt  his  greatest 
service  to  Ireland  as  secretary  was  the  institution  of  the  regular 
Irish  constabtUary,  nicknamed  after  him  "Feelers,"  for  the 
protection  of  life  and  property  in  a  country  where  both  were 
insecure.  Bii  moderation  of  tone  did  not  save  him  from  the 
violent  abuse  of  O'Connell,  whom  he  was  ill  advised  enough  to 
challenge — an  affair  which  covered  them  both  with  ridicule. 
In  18x7  he  obtained  the  highest  parliamenUry  distinction  of  the 
Tory  party  by  being  elected  member  for  theunivetsity  of  Oxford 
— an  honour  for  which  he  was  chosen  in  preference  to  Canning  on 
account  of  his  hostility  to  Roman  Catholic  emancipation, 
Loid  Eldon  lending  him  his  best  support.  In  the  following 
year  he  resigned  the  Irish  secretaryship,  of  which  he  had  long 
been  very  weary,  and  remained  out  of  office  till  z8si.  But  he 
still  supported  the  ministers,  though  in  the  affair  of  Queen 
Caroline  he  stood  aloof,  disapproving  some  steps  taken  by 
the  government,  and  sensitive  to  popular  opinion;  and 
when  Canning  retired  on  account  of  this  affair  Peel  declined 
Lord  Liverpool's  invitation  to  take  the  vacant  place  in  the 
cabinet.  During  this  break  in  his  tenure  of  office  he  had  some 
time  for  reflection,  which  there  was  enough  in  the  aq)ect  of  the 
political  world  to  move.  But  early  office  had  done  its  work. 
It  had  pven  him  excellent  habits  of  business,  great  knowledge 
and  a  high  position;  but  it  had  left  him  somewhat  stiff  and 
punctilious,  too  cold  and  reserved  and  over  anxious  for  formal 
justifications  when  he  might  well  have  left  his  conduct  to  the 
judgment  of  men  of  honour  and  the  heart  of  the  pe<^le.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  no  pedant  in  business;  in  coneqx>nding  on 
political  subjects  he  loved  to  throw  off  official  forms  and  com- 
municate his  views  with  the  freedom  of  private  correspondence; 
and  where  his  confidence  was  given,  it  was  given  without 
reserve. 

At  this  period  he  was  made  chairman  of  the  bullion  committee 
on  the  death  of  Homer.  He  was  chosen  for  this  important 
office  by  Huskisson,  Ricardo  and  their  fcllow-<ecenomists,  who 
saw  in  him  a  mind  open  to  conviction,  though  he  owed  hereditary 
allegiance  to  Pitt's  financial  polity,  and  had  actually  voted  with 
his  Pittite  father  for  a  resolution  of  Lord  Liverpool's  government 
asserting  that  Bank  of  England  notes  were  equivalent  to  legal 
coin.  The  choice  proved  judicious.  Peel  was  converted  to  the 
currency  doctrines  of  the  economists,  and  psodaimed  his  con- 
version in  a  great  speech  on  the  24th  of  May  1819,  in  which  he 
moved  and  carried  four  resolutions  embodying  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  bullion  committee  in  favour  of  a-  return  to  cash 
payments.  This  laid  the  foundation  of  his  financial  reputation, 
and  his  aM>peration  with  the  economists  tended  to  give  a  liberal 
turn  to  his  commercial  principles.  In  the  course  he  took  he 
somewhat  diverged  from  his  party,  and  particularly  from  his 
father,  who  remained  faithful  to  Pitt's  dqireciated  paper,  and 
between  whom  and  bis  schismatic  son  a  solemn  and  touching 
passage  occurred  in  the  debate.  The  author  of  the  Cash  Pay- 
ments Act  bad  often  to  defend  his  policy,  and  he  did  so  with 
vigour.  The  act  is  sometimes  said  to  have  been  hard  on  debtors, 
including  the  nation  as  debtor,  because  it  required  debts  to  be 
paid  in  cash  which  had  been  contracted  in  depreciated  paper; 
and  Peel,  as  heir  to  a  great  fundholder,  was  even  charged  with 
being  biased  by  his  personal  interests.  But  it  is  answered  that 
the  Bank  Restriction  Acts,  under  which  the  depreciated  paper 
had  drcnlated,  themselves  contained  a  provision  for  a  return  to 
cash  payments  six  months  after  peace. 

In  1820  Peel  married  Julia,  daughter  of  General  Sis  John 
Floyd,  who  bore  him  five  sons  and  two  daui^ters.  The  writers 
who  have  most  severely  censured  Sir  Rob«t  Peel  as  a  public 
man  have  dwelt  on  the  virtues  and  happiness  of  his  private 
and  domestic  life.  He  was  not  only  a  moat  loving  husband  and 
father  but  a  true  and  warm-hearted  friend,  In  Whitehall 
Gardens  or  at  Drayton  Manor  he  gathered  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  intellects  of  the  day.  He  indulged  in  free  and 
cheerful  talk,  and  sought  the  conversation  of  men  of  science;  he 
took  delight  in  art,  and  was  a  great  collector  of  pictures;  he  was 
fond  of  farming  and  agricultural  improvemenu;  he  actively 
promoted  useful  works  and  the  advancement  of  lutowledge;  he 


loved  making  his  friends,  dependants,  tenants  and  neighbours 
happy.  And,  cold  as  he  was  io  public,  few  men  could  be  more 
briight  and  genial  in  private  than  Sir  Robert  PeeL 

In  18a  t  Peel  consented  to  strengthen  the  enfeebled  ministty 
of  Lord  Uverpool  by  becoming  home  secr^iy;  and  in  thirt 
capacity  he  had  again  to  undertake  the  office*  of  ooerdog  the 
growing  discontent  in  Ireland,  of  which  he  remained  the  real 
adminbtrator,  and  had  again  to  lead  in  the  House  of  Commons 
the  opposition  to  the  rising  cause  of  Ronum  Catholic  emandpa- 
tion.  In  1825,  being  defeated  on  the  Roman  Ostholic  question 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  be  wished  to  resign  office,  but  Lord 
Liverpool  pleaded  that  Ids  resignation  would  break  up  the 
government.  He  found  a  congenial  task  In  leforming  and 
humanizing  the  criminal  law,  especially  those  parts  of  it  which 
related  to  offences  against  property  and  offences  punishable  by 
death.  The  five  acts  in  which  Bed  accompSslMd  this  great 
work,  as  well  as  the  great  speech  of  the  gth  of  March  1836,  in 
which  he  opened  the  subject  to  the  house,  will  form  one  of  the 
most  solid  and  enduring  monuments  of  his  fame.  Criminal  latr 
reform  was  the  reform  of  RomiOy  and  Mackintosh,  from  the 
hands  of  the  latter  of  whom  Ped  reodved  it.  Bat  the  masterly 
bills  in  which  it  was  embodied  were  the  biUs  of  Peel^not  himseU 
a  creative  genius,  but,  like  the  founder  of  his  house,aprofoiufd 
appredator  of  other  men's  creations,  and  unrivalled  in  the  power 
of  giving  them  practical  and  complete  effect. 

In  1827  the  Liverpool  ndnistxy  was  broken  up  by  the  fatal 
illness  of  its  chief,  and  under  the  new  premier,  George  Canning, 
Peel,  like  the  dulue  of  Wellington  and  other  high  Tory  members 
of  Lord  Liverpool's  cabinet,  refused  to  serve.  Canning  and  Ped 
were  rivals;  but  we  need  not  interpret  u  mere  penonal  rivalry 
that  which  was  certainly,  in  part  at  least,  a  real  difference  of 
connexion  and  opinkm.  Canning  took  a  liberal  line,  and  was 
supported  by  many  of  the  Whigs;  the  seceders  were  Tories,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  their  position  In  Canning's  cabinet  could 
have  been  otherwise  than  a  false  one.  Separation  led  to  public 
coolness  and  occsaional  approaches  to  bitterness  on  both  ddes  in 
debate.  B^it  there  seems  no  ground  for  exaggerated  complaints 
against  Peel's  Mnduct*  Canning  himself  said  to  a  Mend  that 
"  Ped  was  the  on!^  man  who  had  behaved  deceatly  towardi 
him."  Their  private  interamne  remained  uninterrupted  to 
the  end;  and  Canning's  son  afterwards  entered  public  life  under 
the  auspices  of  Fed.  The  charge  of  having  urged  Rnnan 
Catholic  emandpation  on  Lord  Liverpool  in  1835,  and  opposed 
Canning  for  bciog  a  friend  to  it  in  1837,  made  against  Shr  Robert 
Ped  in  the  fierce  corn-law  debates  of  1846,  has  been  withdrawn 
by  those  who  made  it. 

In  January  i8s8,  after  Canning^  death,  the  duke  of  Welling4 
ton  formed  a.  Tory  govemaicnt,  in  which  Ped  was  home  secretary 
and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  This  cabinet,  Tory  as  it 
was,  did  not  Indude  the  impracticable  Lord  Eldon,  and  did 
include  Huskisson  and  three  more  friends  of  Canning.  Its 
policy  was  to  endeavour  to  starve  off  the  growing  demand  for 
organic  change  by  administrative  reform,  and  by  lightening 
the  burdens  of  the  peopte.  The  dvil  list  was  retrenched  with  an 
unsparing  hand,  the  public  expenditure  was  reduced  lower  than 
it  had  been  since  the  Rievohitionary  war,  and  the  import  «f  com 
was  permitted  under  a  sliding  scale  of  duties.  Ped  also  Intro* 
duced  into  London  the  improved  system  of  police  which  he  had 
previously  established  with  so  ptuch  success  In  Ireland.  But 
the  tide  ran  too  strong  to  be  thus  headed.  First  thegoveriimenf 
were  compelled,  after  a  defeat  in  the  House  of  Commons,  to 
acquiesce  in  the  repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporatfon  Acts,  Ped 
bringing  over  thdr  Hi^  Church  supporters,  as  far  as  he  could. 
Immediately  afterwards  the  question  of  Roman  Catholic  emanci* 
pation  was  brought  to  a  crisis  by  the  election  of  O'Conndl  for 
the  county  of  Ckre.  In  August  Fed  expressed  to  the  duke  of 
Wellington  hb  convictioq  that  the  question  must  be  settled* 
He  wrote  that  out  of  office  he  wonld  oo-opeiatein  the  settlement 
but  in  his  judgment  it  should  be  committed  to  other  hands  than 
his.  To  this  the  duke  assented,  but  in  January  1839,  owing  to 
the  declared  opinions  of  the  king,  of  the  House  of  L4urids,  and  o# 
the  Church  against  a  diaage  of  policy,  Wellington  came  4o  th« 


+3 


SIR  ROBERT 


conclusion  that  without  Peel's  aid  in  oSioe  there  was  no  prospect 
oi  succesB.  Under  that  pressure  Peel  consented  to  remain,  and 
all  the  cabinet  appibved.  The  consent  of  the  king,  which  could 
scarcely  have  been  obtained  except  by  the  duke  and  Peel,  was 
extorted,  withdrawn  (the  ministeis  bdng  out  for  a  few  hours), 
and  again  extorted;  and  on  the  $thof  March  1829  Peel  proposed 
Rooian  Catholic  emancipbtioB  in  a  speech  of  more  than  foor 
hour*.  The  apostftte  was  overwhelmed  with  obloquy.  Having 
been  elected  for  the  vniv^ty  of  Oxford  as  a  leading  opponent 
of  the  Roman  Catholics,  he  had  thought  it  right  to  resign  his 
seat  on  being  converted  to  emandpation.  His  friends  put  him 
again  in  nomination,  but  he  was  defeated  by  Sir  R.  H.  Inglis. 
He  took  refuge  in  the  dose  borough  of  Westbury,  whence  he 
afterwards  removed  to  Tamworth,  for  which  he  sat  till  his  death. 
Catholic  emancipation  was  forced  on  Peel  by  circumstances; 
but  it  was  mainly  owing  to  him  that  the  measure  was  complete, 
and  based  upon  equality  of  civil  rif^ts.  This  great  concessiott, 
however,  did  not  save  the  Tory  government.  The  French 
Revolution  ef  July  1830  gave  fresh  strength  to  the  movement 
against  them,  though,  schooled  by  the  past,  they  promptly 
reoognittd  King  Louis  Philippe.  The  parhamentaty  reform 
movement  was  joined  by  some  of  their  offended  I^testant 
supporters.  The  duke  of  Wellington  committed  them  fatsUy 
against  all  reform,  and  the  elections  went  against  them  on  the 
demise  of  the  Crown;  -they  were  beaten  on  Sir  H.  Pamdl's 
tttOtSon  for  a  committee  on  the  civil  list,  and  Wellington  took  the 
opportunity  to  resign  rather  than  deal  with  reform. 

While  in  office.  Peel  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy,  Drayton 
Manor  and  a  great  estate  by  the  death  of  his  father  (May  3, 
1830).  The  old  man  had  lived  to  see  his  fondest  hopes  fulfilled  in 
the  greatness  of  his  son;  but  he  had  also  lived  to  see  that  a  father 
must  not  expect  to  fix  his  son's  opinions— «bove  all,  the  opinions 
of  such  a  son  as  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  in  such  an  age  as  that  which 
followed  the  French  Revolution.    . 

Sir  Robert  Peel's  resistanoe  to  the  Reform  Bill  won  back  for 
him  the  alle^nceof  his  party.  His  opposition  was  resolute  but 
it  was  temperate,  and  once  only  he  betrayed  the  suppressed  fire 
oC  his  temper,  in  the  historical  debate  of  the  arad  of  April  1831; 
when  his  speech  was  broken  off  bythe  arrivd  of  the  king  to 
dissolve  the  parliament  which  had  thrown  out  reform.  He  refused 
to  join  the  duke  of  Wellington  in  the  desperate  enterprise  of 
forming  a  Tory  government  at  the  height  of  the  storm,  when  the 
Grey  ministry  had  gone  out  on  the  refusal  of  the  king  to  promise 
Uiem  an  unlimited  creation  of  peers.  By  this  conduct  he  secured 
for  hb  psrty  the  full  benefit  of  the  reaction  which  he  no  doubt 
knew  was  sure  to  ensue.  The  general  election  of  1832,  after  the 
passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  left  him  .with  barely  150  fottowers  in 
the  House  of  Commons;  but  this  handful  rapidly  swdled  under 
bis  management  into  the  great  Conservative  party.  He  frankly 
accepted  the  Reform  Act  as  irrevocable,  taught  his  patty  to 
regbter  instead  of  despairing,  appealed  to  the  intelligence  of  the 
middle  classes,  whose  new-born  power  he  appreciated,  steadily 
supported  the  Whig  ministers  agaiiist  the  Radicals  and  O'Conndl, 
and  gained  every  moral  advantage  which  the  most  dignified 
and  constitutioul  tactics  could  afford.  To  this  policy,  and  to  the 
great  parliamentary  powers  of  its  author,  it  was  mainly  due  that, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  the  Conservatives  were  as  strong  in 
the  reformed  parliament  as  the  Tories  bad  been  in  the  unre- 
hKmed.  It  is  vain  to  deny  the  praise  of  genius  to  such  a  leader, 
though  the  skill  of  a  pik>t  who  steered  for  many  years  over  such 
waters  may  sometimes  have  resembled  craft.  But  the  duke  of 
Wellington's  emphatic  eubgy  on  hito  was,. "  Of  all  the  men  I 
ever  knew,  he  bad  the  greatest  regard  for  truth."  The  duke 
might  have  added  that  his  own  question,  "How  istheking's 
government  to  be  carried  on  in  a  reformed  parliament  ?"  was 
Biainly  solved  by  the  tempesaie  and  constitutional  policy  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  and  \xy  his  personal  influence  on  the  debates  and 
proceedings  of  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  years  which 
followed  the  Reform  Act. 

In  X834,  on  the  dismissal  of  the  Melbourne  ministry,  power 
tame  to  Sir  Robert  Peel  before  be  expected  or  desired  it.  He 
hurried  from  Rome  at  the  call  of  the  duke  of  Wcllmgton.  whose 


sagacious  mo<lesty  yielded  him  the  first  place,  and  became  prime 
minister,  holding  the  two  offices  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  vainly  sought  to  include  in  his 
cabinet  two  recent  aeceders  from  the  Whigs,  Lord  Stanley  and 
Sir  James  Gmham.  A  dissolution  gave  him  a  great  increase  of 
strength  in  the  house,  but  not  enough.  He  was  outvoted  on 
(he  election  of  the  speaker  at  the  opening  of  the  session  of  1835, 
and,  after  struggling  on  for  she  weeks  longer,  resigned  on  thcf 
question  of  appropriating  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  Church  in 
Ireland  to  nathmal  education.  His  time  had  not  yet  come;  but 
the  capacity,  energy  ahd  resource  he  dbplayed  in  this  short 
tenure  of  office  raised  him  immensely  In  the  estimaiton  of  the 
house,  his  party  and  the  country.  Of  the  great  budget  of 
practical  reforms  which  he  brought  forward,  the  plan  for  the 
commutation  of  tithes,  the  ecclesiastical  commission,  and  the 
plan  for  settling  the  question  of  dissenters'  marriages  bore  fruit. 

From  r835  to  1840  he  pursued  the  same  course  of  patient  and 
far-sighted  opposition.  In  1837  the  Conservative  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons  gave  their  leader  a  grand  banquet  at 
Merchant  Taylors'  Hall,  where  he  proclaimed  in  a  great  speech 
the  creed  and  objects  of  his  party.  In  1839,  the  Whigs  having 
resigned  on  the  Jamaica  Bill,  he  was  called  on  to  form  a  govern- 
ment, and  submitted  names  for  a  cabinet,  but  resigned  the 
commission  owing  to  the  young  queen's  persistent  refusal  to  part 
with  any  Whig  ladies  of  her  bedchamber  (see  Victoria,  Queen). 
In  1840  he  was  hurried  Into  a  premature  motion  of  want  of  con- 
fidence. But  in  the  following  year  a  similar  motion  was  carried 
by  a  nuijority  of  one,  and  the  Whigs  ventured  to  appeal  to  the 
country.  The  result  was  a  majority  of  ninety-one  against  them 
on  a  motion  of  wsntof  confidimce  in  the  autumn  of  1841,  upon 
which  they  resigned,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel  became  first  lord  of 
the  treasury,  with  a  commanding  majority  in  both  Houses 
of  Parliament. 

The  crisis  calkd  for  a  master-hand.  The  finances  were  in 
disorder.  For  some  years  there  had  been  a  growing  defidt, 
estimated  fof  X84S  at  more  than  two  millions,  and  attempts  to 
supply  this  by  additions  to  assessed  taxes  and  customs  duties 
had  failed.  The  great  financier  took  till  the  spring  of  1842  to 
mature  his  plans.  '  He  then  boldly  supplied  the  deficit  by  im- 
posing an  income-tax  on  all  incomes  above  £150  a  year.  He 
accompanied  this  tax  with  a  reform  of  the  tariff,  by  which  pro- 
hibitory duties  were  removed  and  other  duties  abated  on  a  vast 
numberof  articles  of  import,  especially  the  raw  materials  of  manu- 
fiaclures  and  prime  articles  of  food.  The  increased  consumption, 
as  the  reformer  expected,  countervailed  the  reduction  of  duty. 
The  Income-^tax  was  renewed  and  the  reform  of  the  tariff  carried 
still  farther  on  the  same  principle  b  1845.  The  result  was,  in 
place  of  a  deficit  of  upwards  of  two  millions,  a  surplus  of  five 
millions  In  1845,  and  the  removal  of  seven  millions  and  a  half  of 
taxes  up  to  1847,  n<>t  only  without  loss,  but  with  gain  to  the 
ordinary  revenue  of  the  country.  The  prosperous  state  of  the 
finances  and  of  public  affairs  also  permitted  a  reduction  of  the 
interest  on  a  portion  of  the  national  debt,  giving  a  yearly  saving 
at  once  of  £625,000,  and  ultimately  of  a  million  and  a  quarter  to 
the  public.  In  X844.  another  great  financial  measure,  the  Bank 
Charter  Act,  was  passed  and,  though  severely  controverted  and 
thrice  suspended  at  a  desperate  crisis,  has  ever  since  regulated 
the  currency  of  the  country.  In  Ireland  O'Connell's  agitation 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Union  had  now  assumed  threatening  pro- 
portions, and  verged  upon  rebellion.  The  great  agitator  was 
prosecuted,  with  his  chief  adherents,  for  conspiracy  and  sedition; 
and,  though  the  conviction  was  quashed  for  informality,  repeal 
was  quelled  in  its  chief.  At  the  same  time  a  heaUng  hand  was 
extended  to  Ireland.  The  Charitable  Bequests  Act  gave  Roman 
Catholics  a  share  in  the  administration  of  charities  and  legal 
power  to  endow  theh*  own  reb'gion.  The  alk>wance  to  Maynooth 
was  largely  incTMsed,  notwithstanding  violent  Protestant 
opposition.  Three  queen's  colleges,  for  the  hi^er  education  of 
all  the  youth  of  Ireland,  without  distinction  of  religion,  were 
founded,  notwithstanding  violent  opposition,  both  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic.  The  principle  of  toleration  once  accepted,  was 
thoroughly  carried  out.    The  last  remnants  of  the  penal  laws 


Sm  ROBERT 


43 


wtit  awepi  ffom  the  sutute-teoii^  iad  jostlte  was  aztendfld  te 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Canada  and  Malta4  In  the  same 
ipirit  acts  were  passed  for  clearing  from  doubt  Iriah  Presbyterian 
marriages,  for  settling  the  tltka  of  a  large  Bumber  of  dianntexa' 
chapeU  in  En^and,  and  retnoying  the  munSdpd  disabilities  of 
the  Jews-  The  grant  for  national  education  was  trebkd^  and 
»n  attempt  was  made,  though  in  vain,  to  introduce  effective 
education  dauscs  into  the  factory  bills*  To  the  alienation  of  any 
part  oi  the  vevenues  of  the  Established  Chutch  Sir  Robert  Fed 
never  would  consent;  but  he  had  issued  the  ecrleaiastiftil  oom* 
mission,  and  he  now  made  better  provision  fer  a  number  of 
populous  parishes  by  a  redistributioa  of  part  of  the  revenues  of 
the  Church.  The  weakest  part  of  the  conduct  ol  this  great 
govcrnmoit,  perhaps,  was  its  failure  to  oontxol  the  railway 
mania  by  promptly.  laying  down  the  lines  on  a  government  plan. 
It  passed  an  act  in  1844  which  gave  the  government  a  rii^t  of 
purchase,  and  it  had  prepared  a  palliative  measure  in  1846,  but 
was  compcll^  to  sacrifice  this,  like  all  other  aeeondary  measures, 
to  the  repeal  of  the  oom  laws.  It  failed  also,  though  jiot  without 
an  effort,  to  avert  the  great  schism  in  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
Abroad  it  was  as  prosperous  as  at  home.  It  had  found  disaster 
and  disgrace,  in  Afghanistan.  It  speedily  ended  the  war  there, 
and  in  India  the  invading  Sikhs  were  destroyed  upon  the  Suilej. 
The  sore  and  dangerous  questions  with  France,  touching  the 
right  of  search,  the  war  In  ftforbbco,  and  the  Tahiti  affair,  and 
with  the  United  States  touching  the  Biaine  boundaiy  and  the 
Oregon  territory,  were  settled  by  negotiation. 

Yet  there  were  malcontents  in  Sir  Robert  Peel's  pttAy.  The 
Young  Englandecs  diaUked  him  because  he  had  hoisted  the  flag 
of  Conservatism  instead  of  Toryism  on  the  morrow  of  the  Reform 
Bill  The  strong  philanthropists  and  Tory  Chartists  disliked 
him  because  be  was  a  strict  economist  and  an  upholder  of  the 
new  poor  Uw.  But  the  fatal  question  was  protection.  That 
question  was  being  fast  brought  to  a  criaSs  by  public  opinion  and 
the  Anti-Corn-Law  League.  Sir  Robert  Peel  lud  been  recognized 
in  1841  by  Cobden  as  a  Free  Trader,  and  after  experience  in 
•ifice  he  had  become  in  principle  more  and  moie  so.  Sinice  his 
accession  to  power  he  had  lowered  the  duties  of  the  sliding  scaler 
and  thereby  caused  the  secession  from  the 'cabinet  of  the  duke  of 
Buckingham.  He  had  alarmed  the  farmers  by  admitting  foreign 
cattle  and  meat  under  his  new  uriff ,  and  by  admitting  Canadian 
corn.  He  had  done  his  best  in  his  speeches  to  put  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  com  laws  on  low  ground,  and  to  wean  the  landfed 
interest  from  their  reliance  on  protection.  The  approach  of 
the  Irish  famine  in  184s  tamed  decisively  the  wavering  balance: 
When  at  first  Sir  Robert  propoaed  to  his  cabinet  the  nviaion  of 
the  com  kws.  Lord  Stanley  and  the  duke  of  Buccleuch  dis- 
aented,  and  Sir  Robert  resigned.  But  Lord  John  Russell  failed 
to  foRS  a  new  govemm^t.  Sir  Robert  again  name  into  office; 
and  now,  with  the  eonsent  of  all  the  cabinet  but  Lord  Stanley, 
who  retired,  he,  in  a  great  speech  on  the  »7th  of  January  1846, 
brought  the  repeal  of  the  com  laws  befora  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  the  hmg  and  fierce  debate  that  ensued  he  was  assailed,  both 
by  politiaU  and  perronal  enemies,  with  the  most  virulent 
invective^  which  he  bore  with  his  wonted  calmneis,  and  to  which 
he  made  no  retofts.  Hismeasure  was  carried;  but  immediately 
afterwards  the  offended  protectionists,  led  by  Lord  George 
Bentinck  and  Benjamin  Disraeli,  coalesced  with  the  Whigs, 
and  threw  him  out  on  the  Irish  Coercion  Bill.  He  went  home 
from  his  defeat,  escorted  by  a  great  crowd,  who  uncovered  as 
he  passed,  and  he  immediately  resigned.  So  fell  a  Conservative 
government  which  would  othetwisc  have  probably  ended  only 
with  the  life  of  its  chief. 

Though  out  of  office  he  wasnot  out  of  power.  He  had  "  lost 
a  paxty,but  wona  nation."  The  Whig  ministry  which  succeeded 
him  leant  much  on  his  support,  with  which  he  never  taxed  them. 
He  joined  them  in  carrying  forward  free-trade  principles  by  the 
repeal  of  the  navigation  laws.  He  helped  them  to  promote  the 
principle  of  reli^ous  liberty  by  the  biU  for  the  emancipation  of 
the  Jews.  One  important  measure  was  his  owoi.  While  in 
ofike  he  iMid  probed,  by  the  Devon  commission  of  inquiry,  the 
•Dtet  of  Ireland  connected  with  the  ownership  and  occupation  ol 


land.  In  1849,  in  a  speech  on  the  Irish  Poor  Laws*  ha  first 
suggested,  and  in  the  next  year  he  aided  in  establishiilg,  a  com- 
mission to  facilitate  the  sale  of  estates  in  a  hopeless  state  of 
encumbrance.  The  Encumbered  Estates  Act  made  no  attempt, 
like  later  legislation,  to  secure  by  law  the  uncertain  customary 
rii^ts  of  Irish  tenants,  but  it  transferred  the  land  from  ruined 
landlords  to  solvent  ovraera  capable  of  performing  the  duties  of 
property  towards  the  people.  On  the  aSth  of  June  1850  Sir 
Robert  Pcd  made  a  great  speech  on  the  Greek  question  against 
Lord  Palmerston's  foreign  policy  of  interference. .  This  speech 
was  thought  to  show  that  if  necessary  he  would  return  to  office. 
It  was  his  Isst.  On  the  following  day  he  was  thrown  from  his 
horse  on  ConstitutiMi  Hill,  and  mortally  injured  by  the  fall. 
Three  ^ys  he  lingered  and  on  the  fourth  (July  a,  1850)  he 
died.  All  the  tributes  which  respect  and  gratitude  could  pay 
were  paid  to  him  by  the  sovereign,  by  parliament,  by  public  men 
of  all  parties,  by  the  country,  by  the  press,  and,  above  all,  by 
the  great  towns  and  the  masses  of  the  people  to  whom  he  had 
given  "  bread  unleavened  with  injustice."  He  would  have  been 
burieid  among  the  great  men  of  England  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
but  his  will  desired  that  he  might  be  laid  in  Drayton  church.  It 
also  renounced  a  peerage  for  his  famiiiy,  as  he  had  before  declined 
the  garter  lor  himself  when  it  was  offered  him  by  the  qqeen 
through  Lord  Aberdeen. 

Those  who  judge  Sir  Robert  Peel  will  remember  that  he  was 
bred  a  Tbry  in  days  when  party  was  a  reHgion;  that  he  entered 
parliament  a  youth,  was  in  office  at  twenty-four  and  secretary 
for  Ireland  at  twenty-five;  that  his  public  life  extended  over  a 
long  period  rife  with  change;  and  that  bb  own  cfaani^  were  aU 
forward  and  with  the  advancing  intellect  of  the  time.  They  will 
enumerate  the  great  practical  improvements  and  the  great  acts 
of  legislative  justice  of  those  days,  and  note  how  large  a  share 
Sir  Robert  Peel  had,  if  not  in  originating,  ui  giving  thorough 
practical  effect  to  aU.  They  win  reflect  that  as  a  parliamentary 
statesman  he  could  not  govern  without  a  partv,  and  that  it  is 
difficult  to  govern  at  once  for  a  party  and  for  the  whole  people^ 
They  wiH  think  of  his  ardent  love  of  Ids  country,  of  his  abstinence 
from  intrigue,  violence  and  faction,  of  his  boundless  labour 
throui^  a  long  life  devoted  to  the  public  service.  Whether  he 
was  a  model  of  statesnj^mship  may  be  doubted.  Models  c| 
statesmanship  are  rare,  if  by  a  modd  of  statesmanship  is  meant 
a  great  administrator  and  party  leader,  a  great  political  phikv 
sopber  and  a  great  independent  orator,  all  in  one.  But  if  the 
question  is  whether  he  was  a  ruler  loved  and  trusted  by  the 
English  people  there  is  no  arguing  agahist  the  tears  of  a  nation. 

Those  vdio  wish  to  know  more  of  hhn  will  oonsuh  his  own  post>> 
humous  Memws  (1856),  edited  by  his  fiterary  executors  Eari 
Stanhope  and  Viacount  Cardwell;  his  private  comspondence, 
edited  by  C.  S.  Parker  (1801-1899) :  the  four  volumes  of  his  speeches; 
a  skefch  of  his  life  and  cbancter  by  Sir  Lawrence  Peel  (i860);  an 
historical  sketdi  by  Lord  Dalling  6874):  Guisot's  Sir  Robtrt  Ftd 
"       ~        i.  c.      _   .    .  .    .   Disraelis 

roono> 
and  the 


gra; 


caff  of  ftoseberv  <i8q9);  Ptd  and  (yCffmnett,  by  Loni  Evenlcy; 
the  Life  pfSirJ,  Craham  (1907),  by  C.  S.  Parker;  Lord  Stanmore's 
Lift  <4  lird  Aberdem  (1893};  and  the  general  histories  of  the 


time.  (C.  S.  P.) 

Four  of  Sir  Robert's  five  sons  attained  distinctkm.  The 
eldest,  $nt  Robsst  Peel  (tSaa-iSgs),  who  became  the  $t4 
baronet  on  his  father's  death,  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  in  the  diplomatic  service  from 
1844  to  1850,  when  he  succeeded  his  father  as  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Tamworth,  and  he  was  chief  secretary  to  the  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  from  186 1  to  1865.  He  represented  Tam- 
worth  until  the  general  election  of  x8So;  in  18814  he  became 
member  for  Huntingdon  and  in  1885  for  BUckbnm,  but  after 
1886  he  ceased  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons.,  Sir  Robert 
described  himself  as  a  Liberal-Conservative,  but  in  his  later  years 
he  opposed  the  policy  of  Gladstone,  although  after  1886  be 
championed  the  cause  of  home  rule  for  Ireland.  In  1871  he  sold 
his  father's  collection  of  pictures  to  the  National  Gallery  for 
£75,000,  and  in  his  later  life  he  was  troubled  by  financial  difficul- 
ties.  Sir  Robert  was  interested  in  racing,  and  was  known  on  the 


44 


PEEl^-PEELE 


turf  <s  Mr  F.  Rotrinson.  He  died  in  London  on  the  9tb  of  May 
1895,  and  was  succeeded  as  4th  baronet  by  his  son,  Sir  Robert 
Ped  (b.  t867). 

Sit  Fksoesick  Peel  {1923^1906),  the  prime  minister's  second 
son,  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
becoming  a  barrister  in  1849.  He  entered  parliament  in  that 
year,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  period  between  1857  and  1859 
he  remained  in  the  House  of  Commons  until  1865.  In  1851-1852 
and  again  in  1853-1855  he  was  under-aecretaiy  for  the  colonics; 
from  1855  to  1857  he  was  under<-secretary  for  war;  and  from 
1859  to  1865  he  was  secretary  to  the  treasury.  He  became 
a  privy  councillor  in  1857  and  was  knighted  in  1869.  Sir 
Frederick  Peel's  chief  service  to  the  state  was  in  connexion  with 
the  railway  and  canal  commis^n.  He  was  appointed  a  com- 
missioner on  the  inception  of  this  body  in  1873,  and  was  its 
president  until  its  reconstruction  in  1888,  remaining  a  member 
of  the  commission  untQ  his  death  on  the  6th  of  June  1906. 

The  third  son  was  Sir  Williak  Peel  (1824-18^8),  and  the 
youngest  Viscount  Peel  (q.v.).  Sir  William  was  a  sailor,  who 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Crimea,  where  he  gained  the  Victoria 
Cross,  and  also  during  the  Indian  Mutiny,  being  wounded  at  the 
relief  of  Lucknow.  He  died  on  the  37th  of  April  1858.  Sir 
William  wrote  A  Ride  through  the  Nubian  Desert  (1852),  giving 
an  account  of  his  travels  in  1851. 

Two  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  brothers  were  also  politicians  of 
note.  William  Vates  Peel  (1789-1858).  educated  at  Harrow  and 
at  St  John's  College,  Cambrime,  was  a  member  of  parliament 
fiom  1817  to  1837,  and  asain  irom  1847  to  1852:  he  was  underw 
secretary  for  home  affairs  in  1828,  and  was  a  lord  of  the  treasury 
in  1830  and  again  in  1834-1835.  Jonathan  Peel  (17^1879)  was 
first  a  soldier  and  then  a  member  of  parliament  during  the  long 

Briod  between  1826  and  1868,  first  representing  Norwich  and  then 
untingdon.  From  1841  to  1846  he  was  surv^or-general  of  the 
«dnanoe,  and  in  1858-1859  and  again  in  1866-1867  he  was  a  very 
competent  and  succeaaful  secretary  of  state  for  war.  General 
Peel  was  also  an  owner  of  racehorses,  and  in  1844  his  horse  Orlando 
won  the  Derby,  after  another  horse,  Running  Ran,  had  been 
dugoalified. 

For  the  history  of  the  Peel  family  see  Jane  Haworth,  A  Memoir 
of  the  <FamUy  oj  reel  from  the  year  1600  (1836}. 

PBEX^  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  6n 
the  W.  coast,  xxi  m.  W.N.W.  of  DdugUs  by  the  Isle  of  Man 
railway.  Pop.  (1901),  3304.  It  lies  on  Ped  Bay,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  small  river  Neb,  which  forms  the  haibour.  The  old 
town  consists  of  narrow  streets  and  lanes,  but  a  modem  resi- 
dential quarter  has  grown  up  to  the  east.  On  the  west  side  of  the 
river-mouth  St  Patrick's  Lile  is  connected  with  the  mainland 
by  a  causeway.  It  Is  occupied  almost  wholly  by  the  ndns  of 
Peel  castle.  St  Patrick  is  said  to  have  founded  here  the  first 
church  in  Man,  and  a  small  chapel,  dedicated  to  him,  appears 
to  date  from  the  8th  or  loth  century.  There  is  a  round  tower, 
also  of  very  eariy  date,  resembling  in  certain  particulaa  the 
round  towers  of  Ireland.  The  ruined  cathedral  of  St  German 
has  a  transitional  Norman  choir,  with  a  very  early  crypt  beneath, 
a  nave  with  an  early  English  triplet  at  the  west  end,  transepts, 
and  a  low  and  massive  central  tower  still  standing.  There 
are  remains  of  the  bishops'  palace,  of-  the  so-called  Fenella's 
tower,  famous  through  Scott's  Peveril  of  the  Peakf  of  the  palace 
of  the  Lords  of  Man,  of  the  keep  and  guardroom  above  the 
entrance  to  the  castle,  and  of  the  Moare  or  great  tower,  while 
the  whole  is  surrounded  by  battlements.  There  are  also  a  large 
artificial  mound  supposed  to  be  a  defensive  earthwork  of  higher 
antiquity  than  the  castle,  and  another  motmd  known  as  the 
Giant's  Grave.  The  guardroom  is  associated  with  the  ghostly 
apparition  of  the  Moddey  Dhoo  (black  dog),  to  which  reference 
is  made  in  Peveril  of  the  Peah.  In  1397  Richard  H.  condemned 
the  earl  of  Warwick  to  imprisonment  in  Peel  Castle  for  ton- 
spiracy,  and  In  1444  Eleanor,  duchess  of  Gloucester,  received 
a  like  sentence  en  the  ground  of  having  compsssed  the  death 
of  Henry  VI.  by  magic.  Peel  has  a  long-established  fishing 
industry,  which,  however,  has  declined  in  modem  times.  In 
the  town  the  most  notable  building  is  the  church  of  St  German, 
with  a  fine  tower  and  spire.  Peel  was  called  by  the  Northmen 
Holen  (island.  i.e.  St  Patrick's  Isle);  the  existing  name  is  Celtic, 


meaning  "  fort "  (cf.  the  ped  tcfwcn  of  the  berdeilaiid  of  Eii||ttid 
and  Scotland). 

FBEU  (t)  The  skin  or  rind  of  a  fruit;  thus  "  to  ped  "  it 
to  remove  the  outer  covering  of  anything.  The  etymology 
of  the  wotd  Is  dosdy  tonnected  with  that  of  *'  pill,"  to  plunder, 
survivmg  In  "pillage."  Both  words  ara  to  be  referred  to 
French  and  thence  to  Latin.  In  French  peler  and  piUer,  thoti^ 
now  distinguisbed  hi  meaning  (the  tnt  used  of  stripping  bark 
or  rind,  the  second  meaning  to  rob),  were  somewhat  confused 
in  implication,  and  a  similu:  confusion  occuis  in  EagUsh  till 
comparativdy  late.  The  Latin  words  from  which  they  ara 
derived  are  peUis^  akin,  and  pitora,  to  strip  of  hair  (pUus)» 
(3)  The  name  of  a  class  of  small  fortified  dweUlng-houaes  built 
during  the  i6th  centuiy  on  the  borders  between  Scotland  and 
England.  They  are  also  known  as  **  bastd-houses,"  <a 
"  b^tille-houses,"  and  consist  of  a  square  massive  tower  with 
high  pitched  roof,  the  lower  part  being  vaulted,  the  upper 
part  containing  a  few  living  rooms.  The  entrance  la  on  the 
upper  floor,  access  bdng  gained  by  a  movable  ladder.  The 
vaulted  ground>floor  chamber  served  for  the  cattle  when  there 
was  danger  of  attack.  The  word  appears  in  various  forms, 
e.g.  pele,  peil^  and  Latinised  as  pelum^  8tc.; "  pile  "  Is  also  found 
used  synonymously,  bat  the  New  En^ish  Dictionary  {s.v.  pile) 
considers  the  two  words  distinct.  It  seems  moro  probable 
that  the  word  is  to  be  identified  with  "  pale,"  a  sUke  (Lat. 
pMlus)^  The  eariier  meaning  of  "  peel "  b  a  palisaded  enclosure 
used  as  an  additional  ddence  for  a  fortified  post  or  at  an 
independent    stronghold. 

PBBLB,  OBOROB  (X558-A  1598),  English  dramatist,  wat 
bora  in  London  in  1558.  His  father,  who  appears  to  have 
belonged  to  a  Devonshire  family,  wat  derk  of  Christ's  Hospital, 
and  wrote  two  treatises  on  book-keeping.  George  Peele  wat 
educated  at  Christ't  Hospital,  and  entered  Broadgates  Hall 
(Pembroke  College),  Oxford,  in  1571.  In  1574  he  removed 
to  Christ  Church,  taking  his  B.A.  degree  in  1577,  and 
proceeding  M.A.  In  1579.  In  1579  the  governors  of  Christ't 
Hospital  requested  thdr  clerk  to  "  dHachaxffi  his  house  of  hit 
son,  George  Peele."  It  is  not  necessary  to  vead  into  thit 
anything  more  than  that  the  governors  insisted  on  his  beginning 
to  earn  a  livelihood.  He  went  up  to  London  about  1580,  but 
in  X583  when  Albert  us  Alasco  (Albert  Laski),  a  Polish  nobleman, 
wat  entertained  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  Pede  was  entrusted 
with  the  arrangement  of  two  I^tin  plays  by  William  Gager 
(jf.  1580-1619)  presented  on  the  occasion.  He  wat  atoo  complf* 
roented  by  Dr  Gager  for  an  English  verse  trantbcion  of  one 
of  the  Iphigenittt  of  Euripides.  In  1585  he  was  employed 
to  write  the  Device  of  the  Pageant  borne  before  WooUton  Dixie^ 
and  in  i59r  he  devittd  the  pageant  in  honour  (tf  another  lord 
mayor.  Sir  William  Webbe.  This  was  the  Descensus  Astraeae 
(printed  in  the  Harteian  Miscellany ,  t8o8),  in  which  Queen 
Eliaabeth  is  honoured  as  Astraea.  Pede  had  married  as  early 
as  1583  a  lady  who  brought  him  some  property,  wbidi  be 
speedily  dissipated.  Robert  Greene,  at  the  end  of  liis  Groals- 
worth  of  Witt  exhdrts  Pede  to  repentance,  saying  that  be  hat, 
like  himself,  "  been  driven  to  extreme  shifts  for  a  living."  The 
sorry  traditions  of  his  reckless  life  were  emphasised  by  the  use 
of  his  name  in  connexion  with  the  apocryphal  Merrie  conceited 
Jests  of  George  Peele  (printed  in  1607).  Many  of  the  storica 
had  done  service  before,  but  there  are  personal  touches  that 
may  be  biographical.  He  died  before  1598,  for  Francis  Meres^ 
writing  in  that  year,  speaks  of  his  death  in  hib  PaUadis  Tamia. 

His  pastord  comedy  of  The  AraygnemenI  of  Paris ^  presented 
by  the  Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  before  Queen  Elitabeth 
perhaps  as  early  as  1581,  ws»  printed  anonymously  in  1584. 
Charies  Lamb,  sending  to  Vuicent  Novello  a  tong  from  thit 
piece  of  Pede's,  saM  that  if  it  had  been  less  uneven  in  execution 
Fletcher's  Faithful  Shepherdess  "  bad  been  but  a  second  name 
in  this  sort  of  writing."  Peele  shows  considerable  art  in  Ua 
flattery.  Paris  b  arraigned  before  Jupiter  for  having  assigned 
the  apple  to  Venus.  Diana,  with  whom  the  final  decision 
resu,  gives  the  apple  to  none  of  the  competitora  but  ton 
nymph  called  Eliaa,  whose  identity  b  confirmed  by  the  furthei 


PEEP-OF-DAY  BOYS— PEERAGE 


45 


«xplantlioii,  "  wbom  some  ZibtU  tall."  Tki  Pamaus  CkrMtde 
€f  King  Edward  tkejifsi,  nrmmtd  Edward  Ltmishankts^  wUk  kis 
nhtfmefhm  Ike  kofy  kmd.  Also  Ike  Hfe  of  Utudkn,  rtbeU 
iM  W4iUs,  LasUy,  Ike  sinking  of  Queen  BHnor,  wko  suneke 
at  Ckaringarosse,  amd  rose  again  at  P0Uer»-kilk,  now  named 
Queenekitk  (printed  iS93)-  'H^  "  cbronicte  history,"  formless 
'enough,  as  the  rambling  title  shows,  Is  nevertheless  an  advance 
<m  the  old  chfonide  plays,  and  marks  a  step  tolvaida  the  Shake- 
spcarian  historical  drama.  The  BaUeU  of  AUatttr—witk  Ike  deatk 
efCaplmne  Slukeley  (acted  xsSft-isSg,  printed  X594),  published 
anonymously,  is  attributed  with  mudi  piobabiliiy  to  Peele. 
Tke  Old  Wisfes  TaU,  registered  in  SuUonen'  Hiall,  perhaps 
more  correctly,  as  **  The  Owlde  wiles  tala "  (printed  xs9S)» 
was  followed  by  Tke  Love  of  King  Damd  and  fair  Setksabe 
(written  c.  xsS8»  printed  X5^)»  which  Is  notable  as  an  example 
of  EUsabethan  drama  drawn  entirely  from  scriptural  sources. 
Mr  Fleay  sees  in  it  a  political  satire,  and  identifies  Elizabeth 
and  Leicester  as  David  and  Bathsheba,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
as  Absalom.  5tr  Clyomon  and  Sir  Clamydes  (printed  1599) 
has  been  attributed  to  Peele,  but  <m  insufficient  grounds. 
Among  his  occasional  poems  are  "  The  Honour  of  the  Garter," 
which  h»  a  prologue  containing  Peele's  judgments  on  his 
contempottiries,  and  "Polyhymnia"  (1590),  a  blank-verse 
description  of  the  ceremonies  attending  the  retirement  of  the 
queen's  champion.  Sir  Henry  Lee.  T^  Is  conduded  by  the 
"Sonnet,"  V  His  gdden  kxdcs  thne  hath  to  silver  tum'd," 
quoted  by  Thackeray  in  the  76th  chapter  of  Tke  Newcomes. 
To  the  Pkoenix  Nest  in  1593  be  contributed  "  The  Praise  of 
Chastity."  Mr  F.  G.  Fleay  (Biog.  Chron.  of  the  Drama)  crediU 
Peele  with  Tke  Wisdom  of  Doctor  DoddipoU  (printed  x6oo), 
WUy  Beguiled  (printed  x6o6),  Tke  Lifo  and  Deatk  of  Jack 
Straw,  a  notable  rdet  (1587?),  a  share  in  the  First  and  Second 
Parts  of  Henry  VI. ,  and  on  the  authority  of  Wood  and 
WiAstanl^,  Alpkonsus,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Peete.  belonged  to  the  group  of  university  scholars  who,  in 
Greene's  phrase,  '*  spent  their  wits  in  making  playes."  Greene 
went  on  to  say  that  he  was  **  In  some  things  rarer,  in  nothing 
inferior,"  to  Marlowe.  Nashe  in  his  preface  to  Greene's  Afena- 
pkon  called  him  **  the  chief  supporter  of  pleasance  now  living, 
the  Atlas  of  Poetrie  and  primus  verborum  artifex^  whose  fint 
encrease,  the  Arraignement  of  Paris,  might  plead  to  your 
opinions  his  pregiuint  dcxteritic  of  wit  and  manifold  varietie 
of  invention,  wherein  (me  fudice)  hee  goeth  a  step  beyond  all 
that  write."  This  praise  was  not  unfounded.  The  credit 
given  to  Greene  and  Marlowe  for  the  increased  dignity  of 
English  dramatic  diaion,  and  for  the  new  smoothness  infused 
into  blank  verse,  must  certainly  be  shared  by  Peele.  Professor 
F.  B.  Gummere,  in  a  critical  essay  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Tke 
Old  Wives  Tale,  puts  in  another  claim  for  Peele.  In  the  contrast 
between  the  romantic  story  and  the  realistic  dialogue  he  sees 
the  first  instance  of  humour  quite  foreign  to  the  comic  *'  business  " 
of  earlier  comedy.  Tke  Old  Wives  Tale  is  a  play  within  a  play, 
slight  enough  to  be  perhaps  better  described  as  an  interlude. 
Its  background  of  rustic  folk-lore  gives  it  additional  interest, 
and  there  is  much  fun  poked  at  Gabriel  Harvey  and  Stanyhurst. 
Perhaps  Houiebango,'  who  parodies  Harvey's  hexameters, 
and  actually  quotes  him  on  one  occasion,  may  be  regarded  as 
representing  that  arch-enemy  of  Greene  and  ha  friends. 

Peele's  Works  were  edited  bv  Alexander  Dyce  (1828,  1829^-1839 
and  1861):  by  A.  H.  BuHcn  (2  vols.,  1888).  An  examination  of 
the  metrical  peculiarities  of  his  work  u  to  be  found  in  F.  A  R. 
Lammerhirt's  Ceorg  PeeU,  Vnlersuckungen  uber  sein  Lehen  umd 
seine  Werke  (Rostock,  1882).  See  alio  Professor  F.  B.  Gummere.  in 
RepresentaHne  Englism  Comedies  (1903);  and  an  edition  of  The 
BatleU  of  Alcazar,  printed  (or  the  Malone  Society  in  1907. 

PBEP-OF-OAY  BOYS,  an  Irish  Protestant  secret  society, 
formed  about  1785.  Its  object  was  to  protect  the  Protestant 
peasantry,  and  avenge  thcif  wrongs  on  the  Roman  Catholics. 
The  "  Boys  "  gained  their  name  from  the  hour  of  dawn  which 

*  Mc  Fk^ay  goes  so  far  as  to  see  in  the  preposterous  names  of 
Huanebangos  kith  and  kin  puns  on  Harvey's  father's  trade. 
'^  Polyniacnaeroplacidus "  he  mterprets  as  "  Polly-make^-rope- 
lass    1 


they  chose  for  their  raids  on  the  Roman  CathoBc  vQlageis. 
The  Roman  Catholics  in  return  formed  the  society  of  "Th^ 
Defenders." 

PEBPUL.  or  PiPtTi.  {Pitus  religiosa),  the  "sacred  fig"  trtt 
of  India,  also  called  the  Bo  tree.  It  is  not  unlike  the  banyan, 
and  is  venerated  both  by  the  Buddhists  of  Ceylon  and  the 
Vaishnavite  Hindus,  who  say  that  Vishnu  was  bom  beneath  its 
shade.  It  is  planted  near  temples  and  houses;  its  sap  abounds 
hi  au>otchouc,  and  a  good  deid  of  lac  is  obtained  from  insects 
who  feed  upon  the  branches.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a 
walnut  and  is  not  much  eaten. 
'PBBRAOB  (Fr.  pairage,  med.  Lat.  paraginm;  MS.  pert, 
O.  Fir.  per,  peer,  later  pair\  Lat.  parts,  **  equal ").  Although 
in  England  the  terms  "  peerage,"  **  nobility,"  **  House  of  Lords  " 
are  in  common  parlance  frequently  regarded  as  synonymous, 
in  reality  each  expresses  a  different  meaning.  A  man  may  be 
a  peer  and  yet  not  a  member  of  the  House  of  Lords,  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Lords  and  yet  not  strictly  a  peer;  though  all 
peeiA  (as  the  term  Is  now  understood)  are  members  of  the 
House  of  Lords  either  in  esse  or  in  posse.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  the  rights,  duties  and  privileges  of  peerage  are 
centred  In  an  individual;  to  the  monarchial  nations  of  the 
Continent  nobility  conveys  Uie  idea  of  family,  as  opposed  to 
personal,  privilege. 

EtymoiogicaUy  *'  peers  "  are  "  equals  "  (^tats),  and  In  Anglo* 
Norman  days  the  word  was  Invariably  so  understood.  Th<i 
feudal  tenants-in-chief  of  the  Crown  were  all  the  _ 
peers  of  each  other,  whether  lords  of  one  manor  or  ^J^J" 
of  a  hundred;  so  too  a  b»hop  had  his  ecclesiastical 
peer  in  a  brother  bishop,  and  the  tenants  of  a  manor  their 
peers  in  their  fellow-tenants.  That  even  so  late  as  the 
reign  of  John  the  word  was  still  used  in  this  general  sense  is 
clear  from  Magna  Oirta,  for  the  term  "  judidum  parium  " 
therein  must  be  understood  to  mean  that  every  man  had  a  right 
to  be  tried  by  his  equals.  This  very  right  was  asserted  by  the 
barons  as  a  body  in  1233  on  behalf  of  Richard,  eari  marshal, 
who  had  been  declared  a  traitor  by  the  king's  command,  and 
whose  lands  were  forfeited  without  proper  trial.  In  1233  ^^^ 
French  bishop  Peter  des  Roches,  Henry  III.'s  minister,  denied 
the  barons'  right. to  the  claim  set  up  on  the  ground  that  th6 
king  might  judge  all  his  subjects  alike,  there  being,  he  said,  n6 
peers  in  England  (Math.  Paris.  389).  The  English  barons 
undoubtedly  were  using  the  word  in  the  sense  it  held  in  Magna 
Carta,  while  the  bishop  probably  had  m  his  mind  the  French  peers 
{pairs  de  France),  a  small  and  select  body  of  feudatories  possessed 
of  exceptional  privileges.  In  England  the  term  was  general, 
in  Fmnce  technical.  The  change  in  England  was  gradual, 
and  probably  gathered  force  as  the  gulf  between  the  greater 
barons  and  the  lesser  widened,  until  in  course  of  time,  for  judicial 
purposes,  there  came  to  be  only  two  classes,  the  greater  barons 
and  the  rest  of  the  people.  The  barons  remained  triable  by 
their  own  order  {t.e.  by  their  peers),  whilst  the  rest  of  the  people 
rapidly  became  subject  to  the  general  practice  and  procedure 
of  the  king's  justices.  The  first  use  of  the  word  "  peers  "  as 
denoting  those  members  of  the  baronage  who  were  accustomed 
to  receive  regularly  a  writ  of  summons  to  parliament  is  found 
in  the  record  of  the  proceedings  against  the  Despensers  in  132  x 
(Stubbs,  Const.  Hist.  ii.  347),  and  from  that  time  this  restricted 
use  of  the  word  has  remained  its  ordinary  sense. 

Properly  to  understand  the  growth  and  constitution  of  the 
peerage  it  is  necessary  to  trace  the  changes  which  occurred  in 
the  position  of  the  Anglo-Norman  baronage,  first 
through  the  gradual  strengthening  of  royal  supre- 
macy with  the  consequent  decay  of  baronial  power 
locally,  and  subsequently  by  the  consolidation  of  parliamentaiy 
Institutions  during  the  reigns  of  the  first  three  Edwards. 

Before  the  conquest  the  national  assembly  of  England  (see 
pAaUAlCE^^^)  was  the  Witan,  a  gatheriog  of  notables  owing 
their  presence  only  to  personal  influence  and  standing.  rkoSaxom 
The  imposition  of  a  modified  feudal  system  resulted  wkcb«- 
in  a  radical  alteration.     Membership  of  the  Great  *""*• 
Cbundb  of  the  Norman  kings  was  primarily  tn  incident  of 


46 


PEERAGE 


tenure,,  one  of  tbe  obUgations  ibe  teaants-in<luef  were  bound 
to  perform,  although  this  membership  gradually  became  restricted 
by  the  operation  of  the  Royal  prerogative  to  a  small  section 
of  the  Baronial  class  and  eventually  hereditary  by  custom.  The 
Korman  Councils  may  have  arisen  from  the  ashes  of  a  Saxon 
'Witenagemot,  but  there  is  iiltJe  eWdence  of  any  historical 
continuity  between  the  two. .  The  Church  in  England,  as 
in  Christendom  generally,  occupied  a  position  of.  paramount 
importance  and  far-reaching  influence;  its  leaders,  not  alone 
from  their  special  sanctity  as  ecclesiastics,  but  as  practically 
the  only  educated  men  of  the  period,  of  necessity  were  among 
the.  chief  advisers  of  every  ruler  in  Western  Europe.  In 
England  churchmen  formed  a  large  proportion  of  the  Witan, '. 
the  more  influential  of  the  great  landowners  making  up  the' 
rest  of  its  membership- 

In  place  of  the  scattered  individual  and  absohite  ownership 
of  Saxon  days  the  Conqueror  became  practically  the  sole 
AbnoM  owner  of  the  soil.  The  change,  though  not  Imme- 
PtpdMl  diately  complete,  followed  rapidly  as  the  country 
Ttaun.  settled  down  and  the  power  of  the  Crown  extended 
to  its  outlying  frontiers.  As  Saxon  land  gradually  passed 
into  Norman  hands  the  new  owners  became  direct  tenants 
of  the  king.  Provided  their  loyal  and  military  obligations 
were  duly  performed  they  had  fixity  of  tenure  fqr  themselves 
and  their  heirs.  In  addition  fixed  money  payments  were  exacted 
on  the  succession  of  the  heir,  when  the  king's  eldest  son  was 
knighted,  his  eldest  daughter  married,  or  his  person  ranspmed 
^m  captivity.  In  like  manner  and  under  similar  conditions 
the  lung's  tenants,  or  as  they  were  termed  tenants-in-chicf, 
sub-granted  the  greater  portion  of  their  holdings  to  their  own 
immediate  followers.  Under  Norman  methods  the  manor  was 
the  unit  of  local  government  and  jurisdiction,  and  when 
land  was  given  away  by  the  king  the  gift  invariably  took  the 
form  of  a  grant  of  one  or  more  manors. 

When  he  brought  England  into  subjection  the  Conqueror's 
main  idea  was  to  exalt  the  central  power  of  the  Crown  at  the 
expense  of  its  feudatories,  and  the  first  two  centuries  following 
tbe  conquest  tcU  one  long  tale  of  opposition  by  the  great  tcoants- 
in-chief  to  a  steadily  growing  and  unifying  royal  pressure.  With 
this  idea  of  royal  supremacy  firmly  fixed  in  his  mind,  William's 
grants,  excepting  outlying  territory  such  as  the  marches  of 
Wales  or  the  debateable  ground  of  the  Scottish  border,  which 
needed  special  consideration,  were  seldom  in  bulk,  but  took  the 
form  of  manors  scattered  over  many  counties.  Under  such 
conditions  it  was  practically  impossible  for  a  great  tenant  to 
set  up  a  powerful  impcrium  in  imperio  (such  as  the  fiefs  of 
Normandy,  Brittany  and  Burgundy),,  as  his  forces  were  dis- 
tributed over  the  country,  and  could  be  reached  by  the  long 
arm  of  royal  power,  acting  through  the  sheriff  of  every  county, 
long  before  they  could  effectively  come  together  for  (ighling 
purposes.  The  tenants-in-chief  were  termed  generally  batons 
(see  Baron)  and  may  be  regarded  historically  as  the  parents 
of  the  peers  of  later  days.  The  pages  of  Domesday  (1086), 
the  early  Norman  fiscal  record  of  England,  show  how  unevenly 
the  land  was  distributed;  of  the  fifteen  hundred  odd  tenants 
mentioned  the  majority  held  but  two  or  three  manors,  while 
a  favoured  few  possessed  more  than  a  hundred  each.  Land 
was  then  the  oi^y  source  of  wealth,  and  the  number  of  a 
baron's  manors  might  well  be  regarded  as  a  correct  index  of  his 
importance. 

The  king's  tenants  owed  yet  another  duty,  the  service  of 
attending  the  King's  Court  {curia  rciis),  and  out  of  this  custom 
grew  the  parliaments  of  later  days.  In  theory  all 
n^i  '  the  king's  tenants-in-chief,  great  and  small,  had  a 
right  to  be  present  as  incident  to  their  tenure. 
It  has  therefore  been  argued  by  some  authorities  that  as  the 
Conqueror's  system  of  tenure  constituted  him  the  sole  owner 
of  the  land,  Attendance  at  his  courts  was  solely  an  incident  of 
tenure,  the  Church  having  been  compelled  to  accept  the  same 
conditions  as  those  imposed  on  laymen.  But,  as  already  pointed 
out,  the  change  in  tenure  had  nqt  been  immediate,  and  there 
Jliad  beeo  no  general  forfeiture  sufiercd  by  ecclesiastical  bodies; 


consequently  throoghotirlbe  eiffy  years  of  WilUam's  rdgn 
some  of  the  English  bishops  and  abbou  attended  his  courts 
as  much  by  virtue  of  their  personal  and  ecdeaSastical  importance 
as  by -right  of  tenure.  The  King's  Court  was  held  regularly 
at  the  three  great  festivals  of  the  Churck  and  at  such  other 
times  as  were  deemed  advisable.  The  assembly  for  several 
generations  neither  possessed  nor  pcetended  to  any  legislative 
powers.  Legishitive  power  was  a  product  of  later  years,  and 
grew  out  of  the  custom  of  the  Estates  granting  supplies  only 
on  condition  that  their  grievances  -were  first  radrHsed.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  tenants  were  present  for  the  purpose  of  assenting 
to  special  taxation  above  and  beyond  their  ordinary  feudal 
dues.  When  necessary  a  general  summons  to  attend  was  sent 
through  the  sheri0  of  every  county,  who  controlled  a  system 
of  local  government  which  enabled  him  to  reach  every  tenant. 
In  course  61  time  to  a  certain  number  of  barons  and  hi|^ 
ecctesiastics,  either  from  the  great  extent  ef  their  possessions, 
their  official  duties  about  the  king  or  their  personal  importance, 
it  became  customary  to  issue  a  personal  writ  of  summons,  thus 
distinguishing  them  from  the  general  mass  summoned  through 
the  sheriff.  That  (his  custom  was  in  being  within  a  centuiy 
of  the  Conqticst  is  clear  from  an  incident  in  the  bitter  fi^t  for 
supremacy  between  Archbishop  Beckct  and  Henry  II.  in  E164 
(Stubbs,  Const.  Hist.  i.  504),  it  being  recorded  that  the  king 
withheld  the  Archbishop's  personal  summons  to  parliament, 
and  put  upon  him  the  indignity  of  a  summons  through  the  sheriff. 
During  the  succcccUng  fifty  years  the  line  becomes  even  more 
definite,  though  it  is  evident  that  the  Crown  sometimes  dis- 
regarded the  custom,  as  the  barons  are  found  compbining  that 
many  of  their  number  deemed  entitled  to  a.  personal  summons 
had  frequently  been  overlooked. 

The  sequel  to  these  complaints  is  foulid  in  Magna  Carta, 
wherein  it  is  provided  that  the  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots, 
carls  and  greater  barpns  are  to  be  called  up  to  the  jfj^^^  cartm 
council  by  writ  directed  to  each  severally;  and  all  amdPwaai 
who  hold  of  the  king  in  chief,  below  the  rank  of  Sufiwtom 
greater  barons,  are  to  be  summoned  by  a  general  %j,i0f^ 
writ  addressed  to  the  sheriff  of  their  shire.*     Magna  saroaet. 
Carta  thus  indicates  the  existence  of  two  definite 
sections  of  the  king's  tenants,  a  division  which  had  evidently 
persisted  for  some  time.      The  "greater  barons"  are  the 
immediate  parents  of  the  peerages  of  later  days,  every  member 
of  which  for  more  than  four  centuries  had  a  scat  in  the  House 
of  Lords.     As  for  the  rest  of  the  tcnants-in-chlef,  poorer  in 
estate  and  therefore  of  less  consequence,  it  is  sufficient  here  lo 
note  that  they  fell  back  into  the  general  mass  of  country  families, 
and  that  their  representatives,  the  knights  of  the  shire,  after 
some  hesitation,  at  length  joined  forces  with  the  city  and  burgher 
representatives  to  form  the  House  of  Commons. 

In  1254,  instead  of  the  general  summons  through  the  sheriff 
to  all  the  ksser  tenants-in-chicf,  the  king  requires  them  tQ  elect 
two  knights  for  each  shire  to  attend  the.  counciji  as 


the  accredited  representative  of  their  fellow&  In  ^a34» 
the  closing  days  of  1264  Simon  de  Montfort  sum- 
moned  to  meet  him  early  in  1 365  the  first  parliament  worthy  of 
the  name,  a  council  in  which  prelates,  earls  and  greater  barons, 
knights  of  the  shire,  citizens  and  burghers  were  present,  thus 
constituting  a  representation  of  all  classes-  of  people.  It  has  been 
argued  that  this  assembly  caimot  be  regarded  as  a  full  parlia- 
ment, inasmuch  as  Simon  de  Montfort  summoned  personally 
only  such  members  of  the  baronage  as  were  favourable  to  his 
cause,  and  issued  writs  generally  only  to  those  counties  and 
cities  upon  which  he  could  rely  to  return  representatives  in 
support  of  his  policy.  Stubbs  holds  the  view  that  the  first 
assembly  we  ought  to  regard  as  a  full  paxliament  was  the  Model 
Pariiamcnt  which  met  at  Westminster  in  1 295.  This  jfa^ai 
parliament,  unlike  Simon's  partisan  assembly  of  ParHaofat 
1 265^  was  free  and  representative.   To  every  s[>iritua1  •"^•*' 

*  bt  ab  habendum  commune  consilium  rcgni  .  .  .  summoneti 
facicmus  archicpisconoa,  epiacopoa.  abbatea.  comitca  eC  ina/ares 
b^Tonei  atffillatim  per  fittcras  nostras  ct  pcaeierea  lademua  aumnKMCti 
ill  {{cnerali  per  vicccomcs  cl  ballivoa  nostroa  onuwa  iUoa  4|ai  Qt 
nobis  tcnent  in  capite  (cited  in  Stubbs,  Const,  Ilia.  i.  547  n.).' 


PEERAGE 


47 


Ondnoi 


and  temporal  baron  accostomed  to  receive  an  individual 
writ,  one  was  issued.  Every  county  elected  its  itnights  and 
every  city  or  borough  of  any  importance  was  insiniclcd 
by  tlie  sheriflf  to  elect  and  to  return  its  allotted  number  of 
representatives.  Stubbs'S  view  {CciuL  Hist.  ii.  223)  may  prob- 
ably be  regarded  as  butboritative,  inasmuch  as  it  was  ad^cd 
by  Loid  Ashbourne  in  the  Norfolk  peerage  case  of  1906  {Law 
Reports  (1907],  A.C.  at  p.  15).  Edward  I.  held  frequent  parlia- 
ments throughout  his  reign,  and  although  many  must  be 
regarded  as  merely  baronial  oouncils,  nevertheless  year  after 
year,  on  all  important  occadons,  the  knights  of  the  shire  &nd 
the  citixens  appear  in  thdr  places.  The  parliament  of  Shrews- 
bury in  1263,  for  Instance,  has  been  claimed  as  a  full  parliament 
in  several  peerage  cases,  but  no  clear  decision  on  the  point 
has  ever  been  given  by  the  Committee  for  Privileges.  It  inay 
be  taken  for  granted,  however,  that  any  assembly  held 
since  1295,  which  did  not  conform  substantially  to  the  model 
of  that  year,  cannot  be  regarded  constitutionally  as  a  full 
parliament.  The  point  is  even  of  modem  importance,  as  In 
order  to  esUblish  the  existence  of  a  barony  by  writ  it  must 
be  proved  that  the  claimant's  ancestor  was  summoned  by 
individual  writ  to  a  full  parliament,  and  that  either  he  himself 
or  one  of  his  direct  descendants  was  present  in  parliament. 
It  »  now  convenient  to  consider  the  various  grades  into 
which  the  members  of  the  peerage  are  grouped,  and  their 
."clative  positions.  An  examination  of  the  eariy  writs 
issued  to  individuals  shows  that  the'  baronage  con- 
sisted of  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  priors,  earls 
and  barons.  In  course  of  time  every  member  of  these  cUisses 
came  to  hold  bis  land  by  feudal  tenure  from  the  Crown,  and 
eventually  in  every  instance  the  writs  issued  as  an  incident 
of  tenure.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  discover,  if  possible, 
what  combination  of  attributes  clothed  the  greater  baron  with 
a  right  to  receive  the  king's  personal  writ  of  summons.  While 
the  archbishops  and  bishops  received  their  writs  with  regularity, 
the  summonses  to  heads  of  ecclesiastical  houses  and  greater 
barons  were  intermittent.  The  prelate  held  an  office  which 
lived  on  rcgardlesSs  of  the  fate  of  its  temporary  holder,  and  if 
by  reason  of  death,  absence,  or  translation  the  office  became 
vacant,  a  writ  still  issued  to  the  "  Guardian  of  the  Spiritualities." 
The  abbot,  on  the  other  hand,  often  outside  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  English  Church,  and  owing  allegiance  to  a  foreign  order, 
was  but  the  personal  representative  of  a  land-holding  community. 
It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  amount  of  land  held 
direct  from  the  king  by  individuals  varied  greatly,  and  that 
the  extent  of  his  holding  must  have  had  something  to  do  with 
a  man's  importance.  A  landless  noble  in  those  days  was 
inconceivable.  The  conclusion,  then,  may  be  drawn  that  in 
theory  the  issue  of  a  writ  was  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Crown,  and 
that  in  practice  the  moving  factor  in  the  case  of  the  prelates 
was  office  and  personal  importance,  and  in  the  case  of  abbots 
and  barons  probab^,  in  the  main,  extent  of  possession.  There 
is  nothing  however  to  show  that  in  the  early  3rears  of  the  custom 
any  person  had  a  right  to  claim  a  writ  if  It  were  the  king's 
pleasure  or  caprice  to  withhold  It  and  to  treat  everyone  not 
summoned  individually  as  being  duly  summoned  under  the 
general  writs  issued  to  the  sheriff  of  the  county. 

The  next  point  for  consideration  is  vhen  did  the  peerage, 
as  the  baronage  subsequently  came  to  be  called,  develop  into 
a  body  definitely  hereditary  ?  Hene  again  growth 
Kzs  gradual  and  somewhat  obscure.  Throughout 
the  reigns  of  the  Edwards  summonses  were  not 
always  issued  to  the  same  individual  for  successive  parliamentsi 
and  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  king  never  considered  the  issue 
of  one  writ  to  an  individual  bound  the  Crown  to  its  repetition 
for  the  rest  of  his  life,  much  less  to  his  heirs  in  perpetuity. 
Again. we  must  look  to  tenure  for  an  explanation.  The  custom 
of  primogeniture  tended  to  secure  estates  in  strict  family 
succession,  and  if  extent  of  possession  had  originally  extracted 
the  acknowledgment  of  a  personal  summons  frorh  the  Crown 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  as  successive  heirs  came  into  their 
inheritance  they  too  would  similarly  be  acknowledged.    In 


I  early  days  the  snmmoiis  was  a  burden  to  be  suffered  of  neeesaity, 
an  unj^easant  incident  of  tenure,  in  itself  undesirable,  and 
probably  so  regarded  by  the  majority  of  recipients  during  at 
leas^  the  two  centuries  following  the  Conquest.  The  age  of  the 
Edwards  was  in  the  main  a  rule  of  settled  law,  of  increase  in 
population  generally,  of  growing  power  in  the  lojge  landowners 
and  of  opportunities  for  those  about  the  person  of  the  king. 
The  times  were  changing,  and  in  place  of  the  idea  of  the  writ 
'  being  a  burden,  its  receipt  gradually  came  to  be  looked  upon 
as  a  mark  of  royal  favour,  a  recognition  ol  poaition  and  an 
opportunity  leading  on  to  fortune.  Once  such  a  view  was 
established  it  is  easy  to  understand  bow  desirous  any  individual 
would  be  to  preserve  so  valuable  a  privilege  for  his  posterity; 
and  primogeniture  with  its  strict  settlement  of  estates  pointed 
out  an  easy  way.  The  Qrown  was  itself  an  hereditary  dignity; 
and  what  more  natural  than  that  it  shbald  be  surrounded  by  an 
hereditary  peerage  ?  Thus  the  free  and  indiscriminate  choice 
of  the  Crown  beoime  fettered  by  the  amtom  that  once  a 
summons  had  been  issued  to  an  bidividual  to  sit  in  parliament 
and  he  had  obeyed  that  summons  he  thereby  acquired  a  right 
of  summons  for  the  refet  of  his  lifetime;  and  in  later  years  when 
the  doctrine  of  nobility  <rf  blood  became  established  his 
descendants  were  held  to  have  acquired  the  same  privflege  by 
hereditary  righL 

The  eari's  position  in  the  baronage  needs  some  explanation. 
Various  suggestions  have  been  made  as  to  Saxon  or  Norman 
oriipn  of  a  mgh  oflkial  luiture,  but  historical  opinion  gg,up„g, 
seems  generally  to  incline  towards  the  theory  that 
the  term  was  a  name  of  dignity  conferred  by  royal  prerogative 
oi>  a  person  already  classed  among  the  greater  barons.  At  first 
the  dignity  was  official  and  certainly  not  hereditary,  and  the  name 
of  a  cotinty  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  an  officer  in  the  king's 
name  was  not  essential  to  his  dignity  as  an  earl.  There  were 
also  men  who,  though  Scottish  and  Norman  earls,  and  commonly 
90  addressed  and  summoned*  to  parliament,  were  rated  in 
England  as  barons  (Lords  Reports,  ii.  n6,  120;  Eartiom  0/ 
Norfolk  Peerage  Case^  Law  Reports  figo?!,  A'.C.  p.  18).  Earls 
recrived  individual  summonses  to  parliament  by  the  name  of 
Earl  ((r>v.);  but  there  is  reason  to  beh'evc,  as  already  mentioned, 
that  in  eariy  days  at  any  rate  they  sat  not  in  right  of  their 
earidoms  but  by  tenure  as  members  of  the  baronage, 

If  we.review  the  pob'tical  ^tuation  at  the  beginning  of  the. 
X4th  century  a  great  change  is  evident.  The  line  between 
those  members  of  the  baronage  in  parliament  and  h^v 
the  rest  of  the  people  is  firmly  and  clearly  drawn.  Saptrwtito 
Tenure  as  the  sole  qualification  for  presence  in  the  '"•••'*• 
luiticnal  assembly  has  disappeared,  and  in  its  place  there 
appears  for  the  baronage  a  system  of  royal  selection  and  for 
the  rest  of  the  people  one  of  representation.  The  rules  and 
customs  of  law  relating  to  the  baronage  slowly  crystallized  so 
as  to  provide  the  House  of  Lords,  the  history  of  which  for 
generations  is  the  history  of  the  peerage  of  England,  whilst 
the  representative  part  of  parliament,  after  shedding  the  lower 
clergy,  ultimately  became  the  House  of  Commons. 

Until  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  there  is  no  trace  of  any  use 
of  the  term  baron  {q.v.)  as  importing  a  personal  dignity  existing 
apart  from  the  tenure  of  land,  barons  owing  their  seats  in  parlia- 
ment to  tenure  and  writ  combined.  This  is  borne  out  by  the 
fact  that  a  husband  it^'as  often  summoned  to  parh'ament  in  his 
wife's  right  and  name,  and  while  she  lived  fulfilled  those  feudal, 
military  and  parliamentary  obligations  attached  to  her  lands 
which  the  physical  disabiUties  of  sex  prevented  her  from  carrying 
out  in  her  own  person  (Pike,  Ifoitse  of  Lords,  p.  103). 

Primogeniture,  a  custom  somewhat  uncertain  in  eariy  Anglo- 
Norman  days,  had  rapidly  developed  into  a  definite  rule  of  law. 
As  feudal  dignities  were  in  their  origin  inseparable 
from  the  tenure  of  land  It  is  not  surprising  that  they 
too  followed  a  similar  course  of  descent,  although 
as  the  idea  of  a  dignity  being  exclusively  personal  '^'f''^' 
gradually  emerged,  some  necessary  deviations  from  the  rules  of 
law  relating  to  the  descent  of  land  inevitably  resolted.  In  the 
eleventh  year  of  his  leign  Richard  II.  created  by  letters  patenf 


49 


PEERAGE 


John  Beaucfaamp  "  Lord  de  Beaocfaamp  and  baron  of  Kyddcr- 
mynster,  to  hold  to  him  and  the  heirs  of  his  body^"  These  letters 
patent  were  not  founded  on  any  right  by  tenure  of  land  possessed 
by  Bcauchamp,  for  the  king  makes  him  "  for  his  good  services  and 
in  respect  of  the  place  which  he  had  holden  at  the  coronation  (<.«. 
stewaid  of  the  household)  and  might  in  future  hold  in  the  king's 
councils  and  parliaments,  and  for  his  noble  descent,  and  his 
abilities  and  discretSon,  one  of  the  peers  and  barons  of  the  king- 
dom  of  England;  willing  that  the  said  John  and  the  heirs-male 
of  his  body  issuing,  should  have  the  state  of  baron  and  should 
be  called  by  the  name  of  Lord  de  Beauchamp  and  Baron  of 
Kyddem\ynster."  The  grant  rested  wholly  on  the  grace  and 
favour  of  the  Crown  and  was  a  personal  reward  for  services 
rendered.  Here  then  is  a  barony  entirely  a  personal  dignity 
and  quite  unconnected  with  land.  From  Richard's  rei^pa  to 
the  present  day  baronies  (and  indeed  aU  other  peerage  honours) 
have  continued  to  be  conferred  by  patent.  The  custom  of 
summons  by  writ  was  not  in  any  way  interfered  with,  the  patent 
operating  merely  to  declare  the  dignity  and  to  define  its  devolu- 
tion. Summons  alone  stiU  continued  side  by  side  for  many 
generations  with  summons  founded  on  patent;  but  after  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the  former  method  fell  into  disuse,  and 
dMring  the  lost  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  there  have  been 
no  new  creations  by  writ  of  summons  alone.'  So  from  the 
reign  of  Richard  II.  barons  were  of  two  cbisses,  the  older,  and 
more  ancient  in  lineage  summoned  by  writ  alone,  the  honours 
descending  to  heirs-general,  and  the  newer  created  by  letters 
patent,  the  terms  of  which  governed  the  issue  of  the  summons 
and  prescribed  the  devolution  of  the  peerage  in  the  line  almost 
invariably  of  the  direct  male  descendants  of  the  person 
first  ennobled.  The  principle  of  hereditaiy  succession  so  clearly 
recognized  in  the  Beauchamp  creation  is  good  evidence  to  show 
that  a  prescriptive  right  of  hereditary  summons  probably  existed 
in  those  families  whose  members  had  long  been  accustomed  to 
receive  individual  writs.  By  the  time  the  House  of  Lancaster 
was  firmly  seated  on  the  throne  it  may  be  taken  that  the  peerage 
had  become  a  body  of  men  possessing  well-defined  personal 
privileges  and  holding  personal  dignities  capable  of  descending 
to  their  heirs. 

The  early  origin  of  peerages  was  so  closely  connected  with 
the  tenure  of  land  that  the  idea  long  prevailed  that  there  were 
originally  peerages  by  tenure  only,  i.e.  dignities 
or  titles  annexed  to  the  possession  (and  so  following 
it  on  aUcnalion)  of  certain  lands  held  in  chief  of  the 
king.  The  older  writers,  Glanville  (bk.  ix.  cc.  4,  6)  and  Bracton 
(bk.  iL  c.  16),  lend  some  colour  to  the  view,  lliey  are  followed, 
but  not  very  definitely,  by  Coke,  Seldcn  and  Madox.  Blacks 
stone,  who  discusses  the  question  in  his  CommetUaries  (bk.  i. 
c.  xii.),  seems  to  believe  that  such  dignities  existed  in  pre- 
parliamentary  days  but  says  further:  "  When  alienations  grew 
to  be  frequent,  the  dignity  of  peerage  was  confined  to  the  lineage 
of  the  party  ennobled,  and  instead  of  territorial  became  per- 
sonal. "  The  Earldom  of  Arundel  case,  in  1433,  at  first  sight  seems 
to  confirm  the  theory,  but  it  may  be  noted  that  when  in  later 
years  this  descent  came  to  be  discussed  the  high  authority  of 
an  act  of  parliament  was  found  necessary  to  confirm  the  succes- 
sion to  the  dignity.  The  case  is  discussed  at  some  length  in  the 
Lords  Reports  (ii.  115),  the  committee  regarding  it  as  an  anomaly 
from  which  no  useful  precedent  can  be  drawn.  Other  cases 
discussed  in  the  same  Report  are  those  of  De  Lisle,  Abergavenny, 
Filzwalter  and  Berkeley.  The  Berkeley  case  of  1858-1861  (better 
reported  8  H.L.C.  21)  is  essential  for  the  student  who  wishes 
to  examine  the  question  carefully;  and  may  be  regarded  as 
finally  putting  an  end  to  any  idea  of  bare  tenure  as  an  existing 
means  of  establishing  a  peerage  right  (see  also  (bruise  on  Dignities^ 
and  ed.  pp.  60  et  seq.). 
The  main  attribute  of  a  peerage  is  that  hereditaiy  and  inalien- 
'  Not  intentional  at  any  rate.  In  some  cases  who'e  it  was  in- 
tended to  call  a  son  up  in  fiis  father's  barony,  a  mistake  in  the  name 
has  been  made  with  the  rewlt  that  a  new  peerage  by  writ  of  sum- 
tnoBs  has  been  created.  The  barony  of  Buller,  or  Moore  Park 
<cr.  1663),  now  in  abeyance,  is  said  to  be  an  tnsuncc  of  such  a 
mistake. 


I^MftlftS  w^ 


able  quality  which  e&nobks  the  blood  of  the  holder  and  hit 
heirs,  or,  as  a  great  judge  put  it  in  1625  in  the  Earldom  of 
Oxford  case,  "  he  cannot  alien  or  give  away  this  in- 
heritance  because  it  is  a  personal  dignity  annexed  ibJ^MML 
to  the  pofiterity  and  fixed  in  the  blood  "  (Dodridge, 
J.,  at  p.  1 23,  Sir  W.  Jones's  Reports),  Were  the  theory  of  barony 
by  tenure  accepted  it  would  be  possible  for  the  temporary 
holder  of  such  a  barony  to  sell  it  or  even  to  will  it  away  to  a 
stranger  possessing  none  of  the  holder's  blood,  with  the  effect 
that,  in  the  words  of  Lord  Chancellor  Campbell  (Berkeley  case, 
8  H.L.C.  77),  "  there  might  be  various  individuals  and  various 
lines  of  peers  successively  ennobled  and  created  peers  of  parlia- 
ment by  a  subject,"  an  impossible  condition  of  affairs  in  a 
country  where  the  sovereign  has  always  been  the  fountain  of 
honour.  Moreover,  while  no  peerage  honour  can  be  extinguished 
or  surrendered,  the  owner  of  lands  can  freely  dispose  of  such 
rights  as  he  possesses  by  sale  or  transfer.  Finaliy  we  may  accept 
the  verdict  in  the  Fit2waller  case  of  1669  (Cruise,  ibid.  p.  66), 
which  was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  Berkeley  case: 
"and  the  nature  of  a  barony  by  tenure  being  discussed,  it 
was  found  to  have  been  discontinued  for  many  ages,  and  not  in 
being,  and  so  not  fit  to  be  revived  or  to  admit  any  pretence  or 
right  of  succession  thereupon." 

Until  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  the  peerage  consisted  only  of 
high  ecclesiastics,  earls  and  barons.  The  carls  were  barons 
with  their  special  name  of  dignity  added,  and  their  ooam. 
names  always  appear  on  the  rolls  before  those  of  the 
barons.  In  1337  King  Edward  created  his  son,  the  Black 
Prince,  duke  of  Cornwall,  giving  him  precedence  over  the  rest 
of  the  peerage.  The  letters  patent  (under  which  the  present 
heir  to  the  throne  now  holds  the  dukedom)  limited  the  dignity 
in  perpetuity  to  the  first-born  son  of  the  king  of  England.' 
Subsequently  several  members  of  the  royal  family  were  created 
dukes,  but  no  subject  received  such  an  honour  until  fifty  years 
later,  when  Richard  II.  created  his  favourite  Robert  de  Vcre, 
earl  of  Oxford,  duke  of  Ireland  (for  life).  The  original  intention 
may  have  been  to  confine  the  dignity  to  the  blood  royal,  as  with 
the  exception  of  de  Vere  it  was  some  years  before  a  dukedom 
was  again  conferred  on  a  subject. 

In  1385  Richard  II.  had  created  Robert  de  Vere  marquess  of 
Dublin,  thus  importing  an  entirely  new  and  unknown  title  into 
the  peerage.  The  grant  was,  however,  only  for  life,  ^i^mmyj, 
and  was  in  fact  resumed  by  the  Crown  in  1387,  when 
its  recipient  was  created  duke  of  Ireland.  It  was  not  until  1397 
that  another  creation  was  made,  this  time  in  favour  of  one  of 
the  blood  royal,  John  dc  Beaufort,  eldest  legitimated  son  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  who  became  marquess  of  Dorset.  His  title  was 
shortly  afterwards  taken  away  by  Henry  IV  's  first  parliament* 
Subsequently  creations  were  made  only  at  long  intervals,  that 
of  Winchester  (1551)  being  the  only  one  (of  old  date)  under 
which  an  English  marquess  at  present  sits  in  the  House  of  Lords 
(see  Masquess). 

Under  the  name  of  viscount  (q.v.)  Henry  VI.  added  yet  another 
order,  and  the  last  in  point  of  time,  to  the  peerage,  creating  in 
X440,  John,  Baron  Beaumont,  Viscount  Beaumont 
and  giving  him  precedence  next  above  the  barons. 
The  name  of  this  dignity  was  also  borrowed  from  the  Continent, 
having  been  in  use  (or  some  time  as  a  title  of  honour  in  the  king's 
French  possessions.  None  of  the  new  titles  above  mentioned 
ever  carried  with  them  any  ofllicial  position;  they  were  conferred 
originally  as  additional  honours  on  men  who  were  already 
members  of  the  peerage. 

The  application  of  the  hereditary  principle  to  temporal 
peerages  early  differentiated  their  holders  from  the  spiritual 
peers.  Both  spiritual  and  temporal  peers  were 
equally  lords  of  parliament,  but  hereditary  prcten-  pUn^^ 
stons  on  the  one  side  and  ecclesiastical  exclusiveness 
on  the  other  soon  drew  a  sharp  line  of  division  between  the  two 
orders.  Gradually  the  temporal  peers,  strong  in  their  doctrine 
of  "  ennobled  "  blood,  came  to  consider  that  theirs  was  an  order 

' .  .  .  .  principi  et  tp^us  ct  hacredum  suonim  Rcgum  Aagfiae 
fiUis  primogenitis  {Tht  rritue's  Case^  S  Co.  Repf  27a;  77  E.R.  513). 


FEERAGB 


4^ 


above  and  bayoAd  all  other  lordaof  paiUaiiitat«  and  before  long, 
arrogated  to  themselves  the  exclusive  right  to  be  called  peers, 
and  as  such  the  only  persons  entitled  to  the  privikgea  of  peerage. 

In  early  parliamentary  days  it  had  been  the  custom  to  summon 
regularly  to  attend  the  Lords  for  deliberative  purposes  another 
body  of  men — the  judges*  Less  important  than  the  prelates, 
they  also  owed  their  summons  to  official  position,  and  like  them 
were  eventually  ovenhadowed  by  the  hereditary  principle. 
The  force  of  hereditaiy  right  gave  to  ennobled  blood  a  positvon 
never  possessed  by  either  judge  or  prelate.  It  is  true  the  prelate, 
in  point  of  antiquity^  was  senior  to  both  earl  and  baron,  and  in 
many  cases  superior  in  extent  of  poascssioos^  but  these  attributes 
belonged  to  hit  offioe,^  the  mignatioa  or  deprivation  of  which 
would  at  any  time  have  caused  him  to  lose  Ub  writ  of  summons. 
The  writ  issued  really  to  the  office.  The  judge's  position  was 
even  worse.  His  judicial  office  evoked  the  writ,  but  at  any 
moment  he  might  be  deprived  of  that  offioe  at  the  arbitrary 
pleasure  of  the  Crown.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  judges  ever 
had  voke  and  vote  in  the  same  sense  as  the  other  lords  of 
parliament,  and  even  If  they  had  they  soon  came  to  be  regarded 
merely  as  counsellors  and  assessors. 

The  pretensions  of  the  lay-  peers  were  not  admitted  without 
a  strugglo  on  the  part  of  the  prelates,  who  made  the  mistake 
of  aiming  at  the  establishment  of  a  privileged  position  for  their 
own  order  while  endeavouring  to  retain  every  right  possessed 
by  their  lay  brethren.  They  fell  between  two  stook,  lost  their 
position  as' peers,  and  were  beaten  bode  in  their  fight  for  eccle- 
siastical privilege.  In  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  the  prelates  are 
found  clearly  defining  their  position.  Neville,  archbishop  of 
York,  de  Vere*  duke  of  Ireland  and  others,  were  '*  appealed  " 
for  treason^  and  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  took  the  oppor* 
tnnity  in  parliament  of  making  clear  the  rights  of  his  oidcr. 
He  said  "  of  right  and  by  the  custom  of  the  realm-  of  England 
it  belongeth  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  for  the  time  being 
as  well  as  others  his  suffragans,  brethren  and  fellow  bishops, 
abbots  and  priors  and  other  prelates  whatsoever,  holding  of 
our  Ictfd  the  king  by  barony,  to  be  present  in  person  in  all  the 
king's  parliaments  whatsoever  as  Peers  of  the  Realm  aforesaid, 
and  there  with  the  other  Peers  of  the  Realm,  and  with  other 
persons  having  the  rii^t  to  be  there  present,  to  advise,  treat, 
ordain,  establ^  uid  determine  as  to  the  affairs  of  the  realm 
and  other  matters  there  wont  to  be  treated  and  to  do  all  else 
which  there  presses  to  be  done.'^  After  this  he  went  on  to  say 
that  as  to  the  particular  matters  In  question  they  intended  to 
be  present  and  to  Ukc  their  part  in  all  matters  brought  before 
parliament  "  save  our  estate  and  order  and  that  of  each  of  the 
prelates  in  all  things.  But  because  in  the  present  parliament 
there  is  question  of  certain  matters,  in  which  it  is  not  lawful 
for  us  or  anyone  of  the  prelates  according  to  the  institute  of  the 
Holy  Canons  in  any  manner,  to  take  part  personally  "  we  intend 
to  retire  "  saving  always  the  rights  of  our  peerage  "  (Rot.  Part. 
II  Rich.  II.  No.  6— printed  ili.  936-2^7).  At  the  desire  of  the 
prelates  this  statement  of  their  rights  was  duly  enrolled  in  parlia* 
ment ,  but  their  claim  to  be  peers  was  neither  denied  nor  admitted, 
and  the  proceedings  went  on  without  them.  For  themselves 
Churchmen  never  claimed  the  privilege  of  trial  by  peers. 
Whenever  they  were  arraigned  they  claimed  to  be  altogether 
outside  secular  jurisdiction,  and  it  wtss  therefore  a  matter  of 
small  concern  to  them  whether  they  were  hi  the  hands  of  peers 
or  peasants.  Such  was  the  attitude  of  Beckct  towards  Henry  II. 
(Stubbs,  Const.  Hist.  1.  504),  of  Archbishop  Stratford  towards 
Edward  III.  (Pike,  pp.  188  seq.),  and  it  was  probably  with 
the  history  of  these  two  cases  in  his  mind  thai  the  archbishop 
of  Richard  II.'s  reign  speaks  of  the  savfbg  rights  of  his  order. 
These  rights  were  never  willingly  admitted  in  England,  and  as 
the  pope's  power  for  interference  waned  so  the  prelates  were 
forced  under  the  ordinary  law  of  the  land.  Henry  VIII.  cer* 
tainly  never  regarded  ccdesiastlcs  as  peers,  as  may  be  gathered 
from  a  grant  early  in  his  reign  to  the  then  abbot  of  Tavistock 
for  himself  and  each  succeeding  abbot  the  right  to  be  "  one  of 
the  spiritual  and  religious  lords  of  parliament."    As  to  abbots, 

the  subsequent  dissolutloii  of  the  monasteries  put  an  end  to  the 
XXI  a 


Id  this  reign  also  Ctaamer  and  Fisher,  tliough  the 
former  was  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  were  tried  by  a  common 
jury,  and  they  certainly  claimed  no  privilege  of  peerage.  The 
Standing  Orders  of  the  House  of. Lords  for  162$  contain  the 
statement  that  "  Bishops  are  only  Lords  of  Parliament  and  not 
Peers  *'  {Lor^  Jourwds,  iii.  349).  In  r64o  the  "  Lords  Spiritual " 
were  altogether  excluded  from  the  House  of  Lords  by  act  of 
parliament,  and  were  not  brought  back  until  the  second  year 
of  the  Restoration.  From  tbat  period  there  has  been  no  ques- 
tion as  to  their  position.  Peers  and  holders  by  barony  when 
parliaments  first  met,  by  the  end  of  the  x  5th  century  they  had  put 
themselves  outside  the  pale  of  the  peerage.  To-day  their  ancient 
lands  are  vested  in  trustees  (EcclesiasUcal  Commissioners), 
and  office  alone  constitutes  a  bishop's  qualification,  and 
that  only  if  be  occupies  oneof  the  five  great  s^es  of  (Tanterbnry, 
York,  London,  Durham  and  Winchester,  or  is  of  sufficient 
seniority  in  appointment  to  fill  one  of  the  remaining  twenty-one 
places  on  the  bench  of  bishops  in  the  house — ^foi  there  are  now 
only  twenty-six  scats  for  thirty-six  prelates. 

The  reign  of  Henry  Vin.  brought  about  far-reaching  changes 
in  the  position  of  the  peerage.  When  that  king  ascended  the 
throne  the  hereditary  element  was  in  a  decided  HeatyvuL 
minority,  but  the  balance  was  gradually  redressed  ^adib» 
until 'at  length  a  bare  hereditary  majority  was  ^■•'<v«> 
secured  and  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  made 
possible.  The  peers,  many  now  grown  fat  on  abbey  lands, 
at  onoc  began-  to  consolidate  their  position  r  precedents  were 
:eagerly  sought  for,  and  the  doctrine  of  ennobled  blood  began 
to  find  definite  and  vigorous  expression.  So  longi  the  peers 
declared,  as  there  is  any  ennobled  blood,  a  peerage 
must  extet;  and  it  can  be  extinguished  only  by  act 
of  parliament,  failure  of  heirs,  or  upon  corruption 
of  blood  by  attainder.  Stubbs  writes  with  some  contempt  of 
the  doctrine  {Const.  Hist.  iiL  458  n.),  apparently  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  absurd  to  speak  of  ennobled  blood  so  long  as  the  children 
;of  a  peer  still  remain  commoners.  The  doctrine  is  neither 
unreasonable  nor  illogical.  By  it  is  meant  blood  in  whicb 
there  always  exists  a  capacity  to  inherit  a  particular  peerage, 
and  every  person  in  whose  veins  the  eimoblcd  blood  runs  is 
competent  to  occupy  the  peerage  if  the  chances  of  nature  should 
remove  those  who  are  senior  to  him  in  the  line  of  descent.  A 
good  iUustration  is  the  popular  use  of  the  term  '*  blood  royal," 
which  of  course  does  not  mean  that  an  individual  of  the  blood 
royal  necessarily  occupies  a  throne  but  that  he  or  she  is  in  the 
line  of  succession  to  it.  Similarly,  persons  of  "  ennobled  blood  " 
are  not  necessarily  peers  but  in  the  line  of  descent  to  peerages/ 
Co  which  they  may  or  may  not  sueceed.     (See  Nobiuty.) 

The  English  peer  is  not  like  the  continental  noble  the  member 
of  a  caste,  but  the  holder  for  life  of  an  office  clothed  with  high 
and  exceptional  legislative  and  judicial  attributes  entirely 
dependent  on  his  office  and  exerdsable  only  in  conjunction 
with  his  fellow  peers  in  parliament  assembled.  Such  privileges 
as  he  pofiesses  are  due  primarily  to  his  office  rather  than  to  his 
blood.  His  children  are  commoners,  who  though  accorded 
courtesy  tKles  by  the  usage  of  society  have  no  legal  privileges 
not  shared  with  the  humblest  of  British  subjects.  It  is  this 
peculiar  official  quality  of  an  English  peerage  which  saved 
England  from  the  curse  of  a  privileged  noble  cdste  such  as  that 
which  so  long  barred  all  progress  in  FVance  and  Germany.  As 
a  result  there  are  hundreds  of  famiHes  hi  the  tFnited  Kingdom 
who,  commoners  there,  would  yet,  from  their  purity  of  blood, 
position  and  influence,  be  accounted  noble  In  any  continental 
country. 

From  the  doctrine  of  nobility  of  blood  is  derived  the  rule" 
of  law  that  no  peerage  (a  Scots  peerage  is  tmder  Scots  Law) 
can  be  surrendered,  extinguished,  or  in  any  way  got 
rid  of  unless  the  blood  be  corrupted.    TTie  rule  is  otp^^nau. 
.well  illustrated  by  the  earldom  of  Norfolk  case 
{Lam  Reports  [1967I,  A.  C.  10)  in  which  its  development  was 
traced,  and  the  principle  authoritathrely  confirmed.    In  1302 
the  hereditary  earldom  of  Norfolk  (created  in  1135)  was  in  thb 
possession  of  Hugh  Bygod,  one  of  the  most  powerful  nobfes  of. 

2a 


50 


PARAGE 


Pkmtagenet  dajrs.  The  carl  got  into  difficulties,  and  as  some 
say,  for  a  consideration,  and  othen,  to  spite  his  brother  and 
debtor,  surrendered  his  earldom  and.  all  the  lands  thereto 
belonging,  to  King  Edward  I.  from  whom  he  subsequently 
received  it  back  with  an  altered  limitation  to  himself  and  the 
heirs  of  his  body.  As  he  was  a  childless  old  man  thia  was  practi- 
cally a  short  life  interest  to  the  exclusion  of  all  his  relatives,  the 
nearest  of  whom  but  for  the  surrender  would  have  succeeded. 
Soon  after  Bygod  died,  and  the  earldom  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Edward  II.  who  granted  it  to  his  brother  Thomas  of  Bcotherton 
in  131 2.  Lord  Mowbray,  the  lineal  descendant  of  this  Thomas, 
recently  came  forward  and  claimed  the  earldom,  but  in  1906 
the  House  of  Lords  decided  against  his  claim  on  the  ground 
that  in  law  Bygod's  surrender  was  invalid,  and  that  therefore 
Edward  II.  had  no  valid  power  to  grant  this  particular  earldom 
to  Thomas  of  Brothcrton.  Historically  there  is  little  to  support 
such  a  decision,  and  indeed  this  rigid  application  of  the  Uw  is 
of  comparatively  recent  date.i  Without  doubt  king,  nobles  and 
lawyers  alike  were  all  agreed,  right  down  to  Tudor  days,  that 
such  surrenders  were  entirely  valid.  Mai^  certainly  were  made, 
but,  according  to  the  decision  of  1906,  any  living  heirs  of  line 
of  those  nobles  who  thus  got  rid  of  their  peerage  honours  can, 
if  their  pedigrees  be  provable,  come  to  the  House  of  Lords  with  a 
fair  chance  of  reviving  the  ancient  honours.  Even  as  late  as 
1663  we  find  the  Crown,  naturally  With  the  concurrence  of  its 
legail  advisers,  stating  in  the  barony  of  Lucas  patent  (1663)  that, 
on  the  appearance  of  co-heirs  to  a  barony,  the  honour  may  be 
suspended  or  extinguished  at  the  royal  pleasure.  The  royal  view 
of  the  law  (at  any  rate  as  to  extinction)  was  strongly  objected 
to  by  the  Lords,  who  guarded  their  privileges  in  Stuart  days 
even  more  strictly  than  did  the  Commons.  As  early  as  1636, 
in  the  celebrated  dispute  over  the  earldom  of  Oxford,  the  lord 
great  chamberlainship  and  the  Wronies  of  Bolebec*  Badlesmere 
and  Sandford,  Mr  Justice  Dodridge,  who  had  been  called  in  by 
the  Lords  to  advise  them,  said  that  an  earl  could  not  give  away 
or  alien  his  inheritancei  because  it  was  "  a  personal  dignity 
annexed  to  the  posterity  and  fixed  in  the  blood."  Fourteen 
years  later,  in  the  Grey  de  Ruthyn  case,  the  Lords  solemnly 
resolved,  "  That  no  peer  of  the  realm  can  drown, or  extinguish 
his  honour  (but  that  it  descends  unto  his  descendants),  neither 
by  surrender,  grant,  fine  nor  any  other  conveyance  to  the  king." 
In  1678  the  Lords  became,  if  possible,  even  more  definite,  in 
view  probably  of  the  fact  that  the  Crown  had  disregarded  the 
Grey  de  Ruth3rn  resolution,  having  in  z66o  taken  into  its  hands, 
by  surrender  of  Robert  Villicrs,  and  viscount,  the  viscounty 
of  Purbeck.  In  1676  the  son  of  the  second  viscount  applied 
for  his  writ  of  summons,  and  on  the  advice  of  Sir  William  Jones, 
the  attorney-general,  who  reported  that  "  this  (surrender)  'was 
a  considerable  question,  never  before  resolved  that  he  knew  of," 
the  king  referred  the  whole  matter  to  the  Lords.  The  Lords 
were  very  explicit,  being  "  unanimously  of  the  opinion,  and  do 
resolve  that  no  fine  now  levied,  or  at  any  time*hereafter  to  be 
levied  by  the  king,  can  bar  such  title  of  honour  (».«.  of  a  peer 
of  the  realm),  or  the  right  of  any  person  claiming  under  him  that 
levied,  or  shall  levy  such  fine."  On  these  resolutions  passed  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  Lords  of  x  906  find  illegal  a  surrender 
of  X302.  The  result  seems  strange,  but  it  is,  at  any  rate,  logical 
from  the  legal  point  of  view.  It  was  urged  that  in  1302  no 
real  parliament,  in  the  sense  applied  to  those  of  later  years, 
was  in  existence;  and  consequently,  a  resolution  founded  on 
parliamentary  principles  should  not  apply.  To  this  answer 
was  made:  Although  it  may  be  true  that  the  law  and  practice 
of  pariiamcnt  had  not  then  crystallized  into  the  definite  shape 
of  even  a  hundred  years  later,  the  "  Model  Pariiament  "  was 
summoned  seven  years  before  Bygod's  surrender,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  some  definite  occurrence  from  which  to  date  a 
legal  beginning— a  point  of  law  with  which  an  historian  can  have 
little  sympathy. 

Briefly,  perhaps,  from  the  teaching  of  the  case  it  may  be 
permissible  to  state  the  rule  as  follows:  In  early  days  the 
Norman  and  Plantagcnet  kings  took  upon  themselves  to  deal 
with  the  barons  in  a  manner  which,  though  iUcgal,  was  suffered 


because  no  one  dared  oppote  them;  but  as  time  went  on,  becom- 
ing stronger  and  more  determined  to  enforce  their  privileges 
and  exalt  their  order  the  peers  were  able  to  compel  recognition 
of  their  rights,  and  their  re^lutions  in  Stnart  days  were  only 
declaratory  of  law  which  had  always  exuded,  but  had  been 
systematiodly  disregarded  by  the  Crown.  This  being  so, 
resolutions  of  the  peers  deliberately  and  expressly  laid  down 
must,  when  in  point,  always  be  followed. 

The  application  of  the  doctrine  of  corruption  of  blood  to 
peerages  arises  out  of  their  close  connexion  with  the  tenure 
of  laikl,  peerage  dignities  never  having  been  regarded  j^,tMicdfr 
as  personal  until  well  on  into  the  14th  century.  amdCet* 
Conviction  for  any  kind  of  felony — ^and  treason  wy<iB»«f 
originally  was  a  form  of  fclony^was  alwa3rs  followed  "'"'^ 
by  attainder.  This  resulted  in  the  immediate  cormption  of 
the  blood  of' the  offender,  and  its  capacity  for  inheritance  was 
lost  for  ever.  Such  corruption  with  all  its  consequences  could 
be  set  aside  only  by  act  of  parliament.  This  stringent  rule  of 
forfeiture  was  to  some  extent  mitigated  by  the  passing  in  1285 
of  the  statute  De  Donis  Conditionalibus  (Blackstbne's  CoMM^fi- 
tarieSt  ii.  116)  which  made  possible  the  creation  of  estates  tail, 
and  when  a  tenant-in*tail  was  attainted  forfeiture  extended  only 
to  his  life  interest.  The  ^atutc  De  Donis  was  soon  applied 
by  the  judges  to  such  dignities  as  were  entailed  (e.g.  dignities 
conferred  by  patent  with  Umitationa  in  tail),  but  it  never  affected 
baronies  by  writ,  which  were  not  estates  in  tail  but  in  the  nature 
of  estates  in  fee  simple  descendible  to  heirs  general.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  an  act  was  passed  (1534)  which  brought 
estates  tail  within  the  law  of  forfeiture,  but  for  high  treason  only. 
The  position  then  became  that  peerages  of  any  kind  were  for- 
feitable by  attainder  following  on  high  treason,  while  baronies 
by  writ  remained  as  before  forfeitaUe  for  attainder  following 
on  felony.  In  1708,  just  after  the  Union  with  Scotland,  an 
act  was  passed  by  which  on  the  deathof  the  Pretender  and  three 
years  after  Queen  Anne's  death  the  effects  of  corruption  of  blood 
consequent  on  attainder  for  high  treason  were  to  be  abolished, 
and  the  actual  offender  only  to  be  punished  (stat.-7  Aiine, 
c.  21,  §  xo).  Owing  to  the  X745  rising,  the  operation  of  this  act 
was  postponed  until  the  decease  of  the  Pretender  and  all  his 
sons  (stat.  17  Geo.  II.  c.  39,  §  3).  In  18x4  fcnrfeiture  for  every 
crime  other  than  high  and  petty  treason  and  murder  was  re- 
stricted to'  the  lifetime  of  the  person  attainted  (stat.  54  Geo. 
Ill,  c.  X4s).  Finally  in  1870  forfeiture,  except  upon  outla«Ty, 
was  altogether  abolished  and  it  was  provided  that "  no  judgment 
of  or  for  any  treason  or  felony  should  cause  any  attainder  or 
corruption  of  blood,  or  any  forfeiture  or  escheat."  The  necessity 
for  ascertaining  the  exact  condition  of  the  law  with  regard  to 
attainder  throughout  the  whole  period  of  English  parliamentary 
history  will  be  realized  when  it  is  remembered  that  there  still 
exist  dormant  and  abeyant  peerages  dating  from  X295  onwards 
which  may  at  any  time  be  the  subject  of  claim  before  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  if  any  attainders  exist  in  the  history  of  such  peerages 
the  law  governing  their  consequences  is  not  the  law  as  it  exists 
to-day  but  as  it  existed  when  the  attainder  occurred.  The 
dukedom  of  Atholl  case  of  1764  is  interesting  as  showing  the 
effect  of  attainder  on  a  peerage  where  the  person  attainted  does 
not  .actually  succeed.  John  first  duke  of  Atholl  died  in  1725 
leaving  two  sons  James  and  George.  George  the  younger  was 
attainted  of  treason  in  1745  and  died  in  1760,  leaving  a  son  John. 
James,  the  second  son  of  the  first  duke,  who  had  succeeded  his 
father  in  1725  died  in  X764  without  issu&.  John  his  nephew  then 
claimed  the  dukedom,  and  was  allowed  it  on  the  ground  that 
his  father  never  having  been  in  the  possession  of  the  dukedom 
his  attainder  could  not  bar  his  son,  who  succeeds  by  reason 
of  his  heirship  to  hb  imde.  It  would  have  been  otherwise 
had  the  younger  son  outlived  his  brother,  for  he  would  then  have 
succeeded  to  the  dukedom  and  so  destroyed  it  by  his  attainder. 

In  many  cases  there  have  been  passed  special  parliamentary 
acts  of  attainder  and  forfeiture,  and  these,  of  course,  operate 
apart  from  the  general  law.  In  any  event,  attainder  and 
forfeiture  of  a  dignity,  whether  resulting  from  the  rules  of  the 
common  Uw  or  from  special  or  general  acts  of  parliament  can 


PEERAGE 


S» 


telly  be  reversed  by  act  of  pariiamcnt.  The  )>rocedare  in 
leveniiig  an  attaindcf  and  recovering  a  dignity  is  as  follows. 
The  Crown  signifies  its  pleasure  that  a  bill  of  restoration  shall 
be  prepared  and  signs  it.  The  bill  is  then  brought  in  to  the 
House  of  Lords,  passed  there,  and  sent  to  the  Commons  for 
assent.  The  last  bills  of  the  kind  became  law  in  1876,  when 
Earl  Cowper  procured  the  removal  of  the  attainder  en  one  of  his 
Ormond  ancestors  and  so  by  purging  the  blood  of  corruption 
became  entitled  to,  and  was  allowed,  the  barony  of  Butler  of 
Moore  Park  (created  in  1663).  There  should  also  be  noted  the 
Earldom  of  Mar  Restitution  Act  1885,  which,- while  mainly  con- 
firmatory of  a  disputed  succession,  at  the  same  time  reversed 
any  attainders  that  existed. 

The  House  of  Lords  grew  steadily  throughout  theTiidor 
period,  and  during  the  reign  of  the  first  two  Stuarts  underwent 
a  stfll  greater  increase.  In  the  Great  Rebellion  the  majority  of 
the  peers  were  the  king's  stoutest  supporters  and  thus  inevitably 
involved  themselves  in  the  ruin  of  the  royal  ^use.  Immediately 
after  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  the  Republicans  proceeded 
Cbvarafl^  to  sweep  away  everything  which  savoured  of  mon- 
wMit*  archy  and  aristocracy.  The  House  of  Commons 
^•J'***'  voted  the  Lords  "  useless  and  dangerous,"  got  rid  of 
*"^^  them  as  a  part  of  pariiamcnt  by  the  simple  expedient 
of  a  resolution  {ComMs.  Joums,  1648-1649,  vi.  in)  and  placed 
the  sole  execntive  power  in  Cromwell's  hands,  but  there  was 
no  direct  aboliti<Mi  of  the  peerage  as  such.  Evidently  it  took 
Cromwell  but  little  time  to  reafixe  the  fallacy,  in  practice,  of 
OMnpciTa  single-chamber  government,  as  he  is  found  ten 
Hmfvi  years  after  the  "  useless  and  dangerous "  resolu- 
*'•'''*-  tion  bttsy  establishing  a  second  chamber.*  What 
to  call  it  aroused  much  discussion,  and  eventuafly  the  unruly 
Commons  consented  to  speak  of  and  deal  with  "  the  other 
house."  It  is  very  difficult  to  realize  what  was  the  constitution 
of  this  body,  so  short  was  its  life  and  so  contemptuous  its  treat" 
ment  by  the  Commons.  The  members  of  "  the  other  house  " 
were  summoned  by  writs  under  the  Great  Seal,  similar  in  form 
to  those  used  to  summon  peers  of  past  days.  Some  sixty  writs 
were  issued,  and  presumably  their  recipients  were  entitled 
thereby  to  sit  for  the  duration  of  the  parliament  to  which  they 
were  summoned;  but  it  may  be  considered  as  certain  that 
Cromwell's  lords  were  never  regarded  as  hereditary  peers. 
They  were  entitled  to  the  courtesy  appellation  '*  Lord  "  and 
appear  to  have  been  in  the  main  substantial  men — existing 
peers,  judges,  distinguished  lawyers  and  members  of  well-knol/irn 
county  families.  Judging  from  Cromwell's  speech  at  the 
opening  of  parliament,  and  subsequent  entries  in  Whitelock's 
diaries,  the  new  house  appears  to  have  had  revising  functions 
both  of  a  legislative  and  judicial  nature  and  also  the  duty  of 
taking  cognizance  of  foreign  affairs.  Cromwell  certainly  issued 
two  patents  of  hereditary  peerage — the  barony  of  Bumell 
and  the  barony  of  Gilsland  (with  which  went  the  viscounty  of 
Howard  of  Morpeth),  but  neither  title  was  recognized  oh  the 
Restoration,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  possession  of  these 
titles  ever  conferred  on  their  holders  any  hereditary  right  to  a 
writ  of  summons  to  sit  in  "the  other  house."  M^itelock 
himself  was  promised  a  viscounty  by  Cromwell,  but  no  patent 
ever  appears  to  have  passed  the  Great  Seal.  Eventually  business 
between  the  two  houses  grew  impossible,  and  Cromwell  was 
compelled  to  dissolve  parliament.  Richard's  first  parliament 
also  contained  Lords  as  well  as  Commons,  the  latter  considerately 
voting  "  to  transact  business  with  the  persons  sitting  in  the 
other  house  as  an  House  of  Pariiamcnt,  saving  the  right  of  the 
peers  who  had  been  faithful  to  the  pariiamcnt,"  the  saving 
dause  evidently  a  loophole  for  the  future.  The  dissolution 
of  this  pariiamcnt  and  the  retirement  of  the  protector  Richard 
into  private  life  preceded  by  only  a  few  months  the  restoration 
to  the  throne  of  Charles  II.  With  the  king  the  peers  returned 
to  their  ancient  places. 

From  the  reign  of  Wmiam  of  Orange  the  peerage  has  been 
freshened  by  a  steady  stream  of  men  who  as  a  rule  have  served 

*  Whitelock's   Memorials   of  Entlish  Affairs   (In   the   reign   of 
Chartet  I.  and  up  to  the  Restoration)  (1853  ed.  iv.  313). 


their  country  as  statesmen,  lawyers  and  solcfiers.  'Little  of 
note  occurred  in  the  history  of  the  peerage  until  the  reign  of 
Anne.  By  the  Act  of  Union  with  Scotland  (1707)  seatoah 
the  Scottish  parliament  was  abolished;  but  the  Ktpmfmta' 
Scottish  peerage  were  given  the  privilege  of"**^*"' 
electing,  for  each  parliament  of  Great  Britain,  shrteen  of 
their  number  to  represent  them  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
Further  creations  in  the  Scottish  peerage  were  no  longer  to  be 
made.  The  effect  of  this  act  was  to  leave  the  great  majority 
of  the  Scottish  peers  outside  the  House  of  Lords,  9s  only  sixteen 
of  their  number  wetv  to  become  lords  of  parliament.  Gose 
upon  a  hundred  years  later  Ireland  was  united  with  Great 
Britain,  the  Irish  parliament  being  merged  In  the  Mb*  Ktpi^ 
parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  **fff^ 
and  Ireland.  Twenty-eight  Irish  peers  were  to  be  '*■'* 
elected  for  life  by  their  order  to  represent  it  in  the  House  Of 
Lords.  One  archbishop  and  three  bishops  were  also  chosen  in 
turn  to  represent  the  Irish  Church  in  the  House  of  Lords,  but 
when  that  Church  was  disestablished  in  1867  the  spiritual 
lords  lost  their  seats.  The  merger  of  the  three  kingdoms  had 
an  important  effect  on  their  peerages.  Every  peer  in  his 
own  country  had  been  a  lord  of  parliament  by  hereditary  right. 
The  English  peer  (and,  as  the  Acts  of  Union  were  passed,  the 
peer  of  Great  Britain  and  the  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom) 
continued  by  hereditary  right  a  lord  of  parliament.  The 
Scottish  and  Irish  peers  lost  this  right  though  by  the  two  Acts 
of  Union  they  retained  every  other  privilege  of  peerage.  Hence*- 
forth  they  were  lords  of  parliament  only  as  and  when  their 
feHow  peers  elected  them.  Thus  though  not  all  were  lords  of 
parliament  tfi  ase,  every  one  was  always  so  in  posse^  and  in  any 
case  it  was  the  hereditary  quality  of  the  peerage  which  either 
actually  seated  its  holder  in  the  House  of  Lords  or  made  it 
possible  for  him  to  get  there  by  the  votes  of  his  fellows. 

It  now  becomes  possible  to  arrive  at  the  modem  meaning  of 
the  term  "  a  peerage,"  and  we  may  define  it  as  a  dignify  of 
England,  Scotland  or  Ireland,  which,  by  its  hercdi-  MoArm 
tary  quality,  confers  on  its  holder  for  the  time  Mta^mgtf 
being  the  right  to  be  or  not  to  be  elected  a  lord  of  '*'^»"nw».'* 
parliament.  The  term  "  peerage  ''  Is  also  used  in  a  collective 
Sense. 

The  reign  of  Anne  is  remarkable  for  an  attempt  made  by  th^ 
House  of  Lords  to  limit  its  numbers  by  law.  The  queen, 
in  order  to  secure  a  majority  for  the  court  party,  Q^faAaao 
had  created  a  batch  of  twelve  peers  at  one  time,  a  mmdfifnf 
considerable  number  in  relation  to  existing  peerages;  '^•*"'*» 
and  it  was  feared  this  expedient  might  be  used  as  a 
precedent.  A  peerage  limitation  bill  was  introduced  into  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1719.  Six  new  creations  were  to  be  allowed, 
but  after  these  the  Crown,  except  in  the  case  of  royal  princes, 
was  to  create  a  new  peerage  only  when  an  old  one  became 
extinct.  Twenty-five  hereditary  peerages  in  Scotland  were 
to  take  the  place  of  the  sixteen  representative  peers  for  all  time. 
The  bill  passed  the  Lords,  but  was  eventually  thrown  out  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  though  not  by  an  overwhelmfng  majority. 

In  1856  it  was  desired  to  strengthen  the  judicial  element 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  Crown  issued  letters  patent 
creating  Sir  James  Parke,  one  of  the  barons  of  the  „^^^,.  ^^ 
exchequer.  Baron  Wensleydale  and  a  peer  "  for  ^^y^ 
and  during  the  term  of  his  natural  I^e."  The 
burden  of  an  hereditary  peerage  is  heavy,  and  many  men 
thoroughly  well  qualified  in  legal  attainments  have  been  known 
to  refuse  it  on  the  ground  of  expense  alone.  This  life-peerage 
was  thought  to  be  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty,  and  ft  was  on 
Lord  Chancellor  Cranworth's  advice  that  the  Crown  issued  the 
Wensleydale  patent.  The  House  of  Lords  at  once  realized 
that  the  creation  of  life-peers,  at  the  will  of  the  ministry  of  the 
day,  might  put  the  hereditary  section  into  an  absolute  minority; 
and  possibly  in  time,  by  form  of  law,  get  rid  of  It  altogether. 
Eventually  it  was  decided  by  the  house  that  "  neither  the  said 
letters  patent  nor  the  said  letters  patent  with  the  usual  writ  of 
Summons  enable  the  grantee  to  sft  and  vote  in  pariiamcnt," 
a  formal  resolution  which  dosed  the  door  in  the  fkC6  of  every 


iS« 


PEERAGE 


person  whom  the  Croim  might  endeavour  to  make  a  ]i(e-peer. 
The  government  of  the  day  accepted  the  situation,  and  soon 
afterwards  a  new  patent  was  made  out  which  followed  the  usual 
limitation  to  heirs-male.  The  precedents  in  favour  of  the 
Crown's  actloii  were  not  strong.  The  essential  and  outstanding 
attribute  of  the  house  was  its  hereditary  character.  The  whole 
balance  of  the  constitution  worked  on  the  pivot  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  peers.  They  existed  as  a  moderating  force  in  the 
counsels  of  parliament,  and  the  alteration  of  the  hereditary 
character  of  the  House  of  Lords  might  easily  have  rendered 
it  amenable  to  whatever  pressure  the  government  of  the  day 
might  see -fit  to  exercise.  In  such  circumstances  its  position 
as  arbiter  between  people  and  government  would  tend  to  dis- 
appear. A  change  fraught  with  so  many  scrioua  possibilities 
ought  not,  it  was  said,  to  be  made  by  the  simple  prerogative 
of  the  Crown.  If  so  far-reaching  an  alteration  in  the  law  were 
justifiable  it  was  for  parliament  to  make  it.  Further,  it  was 
pointed  out,  there  had  been  no  life-creations  for  centuries,  and 
those  that  are  recorded  to  have  been  conferred  since  the  crys- 
tallization of  our  parliamentary  system  were  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  grantees  never  sat  in  the  house  by  virtue  of  their  life- 
honours,  inasmuch  as  they  were  existing  peers  or  women.  Soon 
after  the  Wensleydale  debates  the  government 
introduced  a  bill  into  the  House  of  Lords  to  authorize 
the  creation  of  two  lifc-pccrs,  who  were  to  be  persons 
of  at  least  five  years'  standing  as  judges.  They  were  to  sit  as 
lords  of  appeal  but  to  be  peers  for  life.  Eventually  the  bill 
disappeared  in  the  House  of  Commons.  In  1869  ^^^  Russell 
introduced  another  lifc-pecragc  bill  of  far  wider  scope.  Twenty- 
eight  life-peerages  might  be  in  existence  at  any  one  time,  but 
not  more  than  four  were  to  be  created  in  any  one  year.  The 
life  peers  would  be  lords  of  parliament  for  life.  They  were  to  be 
selecte<f  by  the  Crown  from  the  peerages  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
persons  who  had  sat  for  ten  years  in  the  Commons,  distinguished 
soldiers,  sailors,  civil  servants  and  judges  or  persons  distinguished 
in  science,  literature  or  art.  The  bill  received  a  rough  handling 
In  committee  of  the  Lords,  and  the  time  was  evidently  not  ripe 
for  change,  as  the  bill  failed  to  pass  its  third  reading. 

In  1870  attempts  were  made  in  the  House  of  Lords  to  alter 
the  position  of  the  Scottish  and  Irish  representative  peers.  In 
ffminfttf  XS76  the  need  of  farther  judicial  strength  in  the 
mttormaaad  Lords  was  tardily  admitted,  and  an  act  was  passed 
AMeraOoaM.  authorizing  the  creation  of  two  lords  of  appieal  in 
ordinary,  and  power  was  reserved  to  appoint  two  more 
as  certain  judicial  vacancies  occurred.  They  yfcrt  to  be 
entitled  to  the  rank  of  baron  during  their  lives  but  were  to  sit 
and  vote  in  parliament  only  so  long  as  they  held  their  judicial 
office.  Their  dignities  lasted  for  life  only.  Eleven  years  later 
another  act  enabled  all  retired  lords  of  appeal  to  sit  and  vote  as 
members  of  the  House  of  Lords  for  life.  To  those  intierested 
in  House  of  Lords  reform  the  pages  of  Hansard's  Parliamm" 
tary  Debates  are  the  best^ authority.  In  x888  reform  bills  were 
introduced  by  Lords  Dunraven  and  Salisbury,  and  in  1907  by 
Lord  Newton.  In  December  1908  the  publication  of  a  long 
report  with  sweeping  recommendations  for  reform  ended  the 
labours  of  a  House  of  Lords  committee  which  had  been  appointed 
to  consider  the  question  in  detail.  In  the  session  of  19x0, 
following  the  general  election,  long  discussions  took  place  in 
both  houses  of  parliament.  Opinion  generally  was  freely 
expressed  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  diminishing  the  number 
of  lords  of  parliament  and  for  putting  into  practice  the  principle 
that  hereditary  right  alone  should  no  longer  confer  lordship  of 
parliament.    (See  Pakuamxnt.) 

The  Scottish  peerage,  like  that  of  £ngland,~owcs  its  origin 
to  feudalism.  In  Anglo-Norman  days  Scotland  was  a  small 
country,  and  for  some  generations  after  England 
was  settled  the  Scottish  king's  writ  ran  little  beyond 
the  foot  of  the  Highlands,  and  even  the  Lord  of  the 
Isles  reckoned  himself  an  independent  sovereign  until  the 
beginm'ng  of  the  15th  century.  The  weak  and  usually  ineffective 
control  of  the  Crown  resulted  in  (^tportunities  for  acquiring 
{wnonal  power  which  the  nobles  were  not  slow  to  take  advantage 


ScoUMt 


of.  Seldom  accustomed  to  act  in  concert,  tlhey  soon  devdoped 
particularist  tendencies  which  steadily  increased  the  ctrengtfa 
of  their  territorial  position.  These  conditions,  of  existence 
were  entirely  unfavourable  to  the  establisbnent  of  any  system 
of  parliamentary  government  such  as  centralisation  had  made 
possible  in  England,  therefore  it  is  not  suiprirfng  to  find  that  the 
leaser  barons  were  not  relieved  of  their  attendance  at  the  natienal 
assemblies  until  well  on  in  the  xsth  century  (Burton's  SeatUnd, 
iii.  ixx).  Again,  when  the  Scottish  earls  and  barons  came  to 
parliament,  they  did  not  withdraw  themselv«!s  from  the  rest 
of  the  people,  it  being  the  custom  for  the  estates  of  Scotland 
to  deliberate  together,  and  this  custom  persisted  until  the 
abolition  of  their  parliament  by  the  Act  of  Union  in  1707.  The 
territorial  spirit  of  the  nobles  inevitably  led  them  to  regard  the 
honour  as  belonging  to,  and  inseparable  from,  their  luid,  and 
until  comparatively  kite  in  Scottish  history  there  is  nowhere 
any  record  of  the  conferment  of  a  personal  dignity  unattached 
to  land  such  as  that  confened  in  England  on  Beauchamp  by 
Richard  II.  This  exphiins  the  frequent  surrenders  and  altered 
grants  which  are  so  common  in  Scottish  peerage  history,  and 
which,  in  sharp  distinction  to  the  English  rule  of  law,  are  there 
regarded  as  perfectly  legal.  To-day  there  exists  no  Scottish 
dukedom  (except  the  royal  dukedom  of  Rothesay),  marqucssate 
or  viscounty  created  before  the  reign  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland 
(and  I.  of  England).  Of  the  existing  Scottish  peerages  sixty> 
three  were  created  in  the  period  between  James's  accession  to 
the  English  throne  and  the  Act  of  Union.  Theie  are  now  only 
eighty-seven  in  all.  Unlike  one  of  the  English  peerages  owing  ita 
origin  exclusively  to  a  writ  of  summons,  ancient  Scottish 
peerages  do  not  fall  into  abeyance,  and  when  there  are  only 
heirs-general,  the  eldest  heir  of  line  succeeds. 

Whenever  a  new  parliament  is  summoned,  proclamation  is 
made  in  Scotland  summoning  the  peers  to  meet  at  Holyrood 
to  elect  sixteen  of  their  number  to  represent  them  in  such 
parliament.     The  Scottish  peerages  are  recorded  on  is  roll, 
and  this  is  called  over  by  the  lord  derk  register  before  the 
assembled  peers  seated  at  a  long  table.    Each  peer  answers  to 
the  xmme  of  the  peerage  (it  may  be  one  or  more)  he  possesses. 
The  roll  is  then  read  again  and  each  peer  in  turn  (but  only  once) 
rises  and  reads  out  the  list  of  those  uxtecn  peers  for  whom  he 
voles.    Proxies  are  allowed  for  absent  peers  and  are  handed  in 
after  the  second  roll-call. ,  The  votes  are  counted  and  the  loM 
clerk  register  reads  out  the  names  of  those  elected,  makes  a 
return,  and  signs  and  seals  it  in  the  presence  of  the  peers 
assembled.   The  return  eventually  finds  its  way  to  the  House  of 
Lords.    The  Scottish  representative  peer  so  elected  receives  no 
writ  of  summons  to  parliament,  but  attends  the  House  of  Lords 
to  take  the  oath,  his  right  to  sit  being  evidenced  by  the  return 
made.    It  might  be  thought  that  the  rules  of  election  in  so 
important  a  matter  -would  be  more  stringent,  but  the  fact 
remains  that  it  is  quite  possible  for  an  entirely  unqualified  person 
to  attend  and  vote  at  Holyrood.    No  evidence  of  identity  or 
of  a  man's  right  to  be  present  is  required  and  the  lord  clerk 
register  is  compelled  to  receive  any  vote  tendered  except  in 
respect  of  peerages  for  which  no  vote  has  been  given  since  1800, 
these  being  struck  off  the  roll  (10  &  11  Vicl.  c.  52).    Any 
person  claiming  to  represent  such  a  peerage  must  prove  his 
right  before  the  House  of  Lords,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  the 
barony  of  Fairfax  in  1908.    It  is  true  that  by  the  act  last  dted 
any  two  peers  may  protest  against  a  vote  at  Holyrood,  and  the 
lord  derk  register  thereupon  reports  the  proceedings  to  the 
House  of  Lords,  who  will  consider  the  question  if  application 
be  made  for  an  inquiry,  but  nothing  is  done  unless  an  application 
is  made.    The  right  to  vote  certainly  needs  better  proof  than 
that  now  accepted.    For  many  years  the  House  of  Lords  main- 
tained that  the  Croivn  could  not  confer  a  new  peerage  of  Great 
Britain  on  a  Scottish  peer,  the  ground  being  that  the  Scottish 
peerage  was  only  entitled  to  the  sixteen  representative  peers 
given  it  by  the  Act  of  Union*  but  eventually  in  1782  in  the  case 
of  the  duke  of  Hamilton  this  contention  was  given  up.  ^ 

The  Anglo-Norman  conquerors  of  Ireland  carried  with  them 
the  laws  and  the  system  of  tenure  to  which  they  were  accustomed 


PEERAGE 


53 


MM 


in  Snghnd,  and  consequently  tlie  gtowtli  of  tht  baronage 
and  the  establishment  of  jiaiiianientary  government  in  Ireland 
proceeded  on  jxirallcl  lines  with  the  changes  which 
occurred  hi  England.  Until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  Irish  were  without  representation  in  par- 
liament, but  gradually  the  Irish  were  admitted,  and  by  the 
creation  of  new  parliamentary  counties  and  boroughs  were 
enabled  to  elect '  representatives.  In  1613  the  whole  country 
shared  in  representation  (Ball's  Legislative  Systems  of  Irdand). 
Just  as  James  I.  bad  added  many  members  to  \^  Scottish 
peerage,  so  he  increased  the  miznbcr  of  Irish  peos. 

In  iSoo  the  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  abolished 
the  parliament  of  Ireland.  By  the  Act  of  Union  the  Irish  peers 
became  entitled  to  elect  twenty-eight  of  their  number  to  repre- 
sent them  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  election  is  for  life,  and 
only  those  peers  are  entitled  to  vote  at  elections  of  representative 
peers  who  have  proved  their  right  of  succession  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  lord  chancellor,  who  issues  his  notice  to  that  effect  after 
each  individual  proof.  The  names  of  sucSi  peers  are  added  to 
the  voting-roll  of  the  peerage,  and  when  voting  papers  are 
distributed — ^the  Irish  peers  do  not  meet  for  dection  purposes 
as  do  those  of  Scotland — they  are  sent  only  to  those  peers  who 
have  proved  their  right  to  vote.  If  any  daim  to  the  right  to 
vote  is  rejected  by  the  lord  chancellor  the  daimant  must  prove 
his  case  before  the  Committee  for  Privileges  (barony  of  Graves, 
1907).  When  an  Irish  peer  has  been  elected  a  representative 
peer  he  receives,  as  a  matter  of  course,  a  writ  of  summons  at 
the  beginning  of  each  parliament.  The  great  bulk  of  the  Irish 
peerage  owes  its  existence  to  creations  during  the  last  two 
centuries,  only  seven  of  the  existing  peerages  dating  back 
beyond  the  X7th  century;  of  the  rest  twenty-two  were  created 
during  the  year  of  Union,  and  thirty-three  have  been  added 
since  that  date.  Some  hundred  or  moro  years  ago  ministers 
found  the  Irish  peerage  a  useful  means  of  political  reward,  in 
that  it  was  possible  to  bestow  a  title  of  honour,  with  all 
its  sodal  prestige,  and  yet  not  to  increase  the  numbers  of  the 
House  of  Lords. 

On  the  death  of  a  representative  peer  of  Scotland  or  Ireland 
«  vacancy  occurs  and  a  new  election  takes  place,  but  in  accor- 
dance with  modem  practice  promotion  to  a  United  Kingdom 
peerage  docs  not  vacate  the  holder's  representative  position 
(May's  Pdrliantentary  Fradiee,  p.  11  n.).  Scottish  and  Irish 
peers,  if  representative,  possess  all  the  privfleges  of  peerage 
and  parliament  enjoyed  by  peers  of  the  United  Kingdom;  if 
non-representative  all  privileges  of  peerage,  except  the  right  to 
a  writ  of  summons  to  attend  parliament  and  to  be  present  at  and 
vote  in  the  trial  of  peers.  A  Scottish  peer,  if  non-representa- 
tive, is  in  the  anomalous  position  of  being  disabled  from  serving 
his  country  in  either  house  of  parliament,  but  an  Irish  peer 
may  sit  for  any  House  of  Commons  constitu<mcy  out  of  Ireland, 
though  while  a  member  of  the  Commons  his  peerage  privileges 
abate. 

Though  many  peers  possess  more  than  one  peerage,  and 
frequently  of  more  than  one  country,  only  that  title  is  pubbcly 
used  which  is  first  in  point  of  precedence.  It  was  once  argued 
that  whenever  a  barony  by  writ  came  into  the  possession  of  a 
person  already  a  peer  of  higher  rank,  the  higher  peerage  "  at* 
tracted"  or  overshadowed  the  lower,  which  thenceforth  followed 
the  course  of  descent  of  the  dignity  which  had  attracted  it. 
This  doctrine  is  now  exploded  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  apply- 
ing to  any  case  except  that  of  the  Crown  {Baronies  of  Fitzwalter, 
x66o,  and  De  Ros,  x666;  CoUins's  Claims,  168,  361).  Every 
peerage  descends  according  to  the  limitations  prescribed  in  its 
patent  of  creation  or  its  charter,  and  whcro  these  are  non- 
existent (as  in  the  case  of  baronies  by  writ)  to  heirs-general. 
(See  Abeyancs.) 

In  dealing  with  English  digm'tics  it  is  essential  to  realize 
the  difference  between  a  mere  title  of  honour  and  a  peerage. 
The  Crown  as  the  fountain  of  honour  is  capable  of  conferring 
upon  a  subject  not  only  any  existing  title  of  honour,  but 
may  even  invent  one  for  the  purpose.  So  James  I.  instituted 
an  order  of  hereditaiy  knights  which  he  termed  baronets^ 


and  Edward  VII.  created  the  -duchess  of  Fife  "Princess 
Royal  "-~a  life  dignity.  The  dignities  of  prince  Of  Wales, 
earl  marshal  and  lord  great  chamberlain  have  been  cnatiotu 
for  centuries  hereditary,  and  though  of  high  court  and  mmat  a* 
Godal  precedence,  of  themsdves  confer  no  ri^t  to  ^onrtfi^r 
a  scat  in  the  House  of  Lords — they  are  not  peerages.  ^  ''**'• 
The  grant  of  a  peerage  Is  a  very  different  matter;  its  holder 
becomes  thereby  a  member  of  the  Upper  House  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  therefore  the  prerogative  of  the  Crown  in  creat- 
ing such  an  office  of  honour  miist  be  exercised  strictly  m 
accordance  with  the  kw  of  the  land.  The  Crown's  prerogative 
is  limited  in  several  directions.  The  course  of  descent  must  be 
known  to  the  law;  and  so,  in  the  first  place,  it  follows  that  a  peer 
cannot  be  created  for  life  with  a  denial  of  succession  to  his 
descendants  (xmless  it  be  as  one  of  the  lords  of  appeal  in  ordinary 
under  the  acts  of  1876  and  ^887).  The  courses  of  descent  of 
modem  patents  are  invariably  so  marked  out  as  ultimately 
to  fix  the  peerage  in  sdme  male  line  according  to  the  custom  of 
primogeniture,  though  the  immediate  successor  of  the  first  holder 
may  be  a  woman  or  even  a  stranger  in  blood.  The  following 
instances  may  be  dted;  Amabell,  Baroness  Lucas,  was  in  1816 
created  Countess  de  Grey  with  a  limitation  to  the  heirs-male  of 
her  sbter;  a  nephew  afterwards  succeeded  her  and  the  earidom 
£s  now  held  by  the  marquess  of  Ripon.  Other  coiirses  of  descent 
known  to  the  law  are  as  follows:  Fee  simple,  which  probably 
operates  aa  If  to  heirs-general,  earldoms  of  Oxford  (riss)  and 
Norfolk  (xrjs),  both  probably  now  in  abeyance;  and  Bedford 
(r367),  extinct;  to  a  second  son,  the  eldest  being  dive,  dukedom 
of  Dover  (X708),  extinct,  and  earldom  of  Cromartie  (x86i)  called 
out  of  abeyance  in  1895;  a  son-in-law  and  his  hcits-mde  by  the 
daughter  of  the  first  grantee,  earldom  of  Northumberland  (1747); 
to  an  elder  daughter  and  her  heirs-male,  earldom  of  Roberts 
(xgoi);  to  an  dder  or  yoimger  brother  and  hb  heirs*mde, 
vi$cotmty  of  Kitchener  (1902)  and  barony  of  Grimthorpe  (i88<S). 
It  b,  however,  not  lawful  for  the  Crown  to  make  what  is  called 
a  shifting  limitation  to  a  peerage,  i.e.  one  which  might  vest  a 
peerage  in  an  individual,  and  then  on  a  certain  event  happening 
{e.g.  his  succession  to  a  peerage  of  higher  rank)  shift  it  from  him 
to  the  representative  of  some  other  line.  Such  a  limitation 
was  held  illegal  in  the  Buckhurst  case  (1864).  A  peerage  may 
not  be  limited  to  the  grantee  and  "  his  heirs-male  for  ever." 
Such  a  grant  was  that  ol  the  earldom  of  Wiltes  in  T39S.  The 
original  grantee  died  without  issue,  but  left  a  male  hdr*at-1aw, 
whose  descendants  in  1869  claimed  the  earldom,  but  the  original 
limitation  was  held  invalid. 

There  Is  no  limitation  on  the  power  of  the  Crown  as  to  the 
number  of  United  Kingdom  peerages  which  may  be  created. 
As  to  Scotland,  the  Act  of  Union  with  that  country  operates  to 
prevent  any  increase  in  the  number  of  Scottish  peerages,  and 
consequently  there  have  been  no  creations  since  1707,  with  the 
result  that  the  Scottish  peerage,  as  a  separate  order,  is  gradually 
approaching  extinction.  The  Irish  peerage  is  supposed  always 
to  consist  of  one  hundred  exdusivdy  Irish  peers,  and  the  Crown 
has  power  to  grant  Irish  peerages  up  to  the  Umlt.  When  the 
limit  is  reached  no  more  peerages  may  be  granted  until  existing 
ones  become  extinct  or  their  holders  succeed  to  United  Kingdom 
peerages.  Only  four  lords  of  appeal  In  ordinary  may  hold 
office  at  any  one  time.  The  number  of  archbishops  and  bishops 
capable  of  sitting  in  the  House  of  Lords  is  fixed  by  various 
statutes  at  twenty-six,  but,  as  pomted  out  previously,  the 
spiritual  lords  are  not  now  regarded  as  peers. 

Since  party  government  became  the  rule,  the  new  peerages  have 
usually  been  created  on  the  recommendation  of  the  prane 
minister  of  the  day,  though  the  Crown,  especially 
In  considering  the  claims  of  royal  blood,  is  believed 
In  some  instances  to  take  its  own  course;  and 
constitutionally  sudi  action .  is  entirely  legal.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  peerage  honours  granted  during  the  last 
two  centuries  have  been  rewards  for  political  services.  Usually 
these  services  are  well  known,  but  there  exists  several  instantes 
in  which  the  reasons  for  conferring  the  honour  have  not  been 
quite  clear.    Until  the  reign  of  George  III.  the  peerage  was 


Givwltte 


54 


PEERAGE 


conipamtively  small,  but  that  mo&arcb  issued  no  fewer  than 
j38  patents  of  peerage.  Many  ol  these  have  become  eoctinct 
or  obscured  by  hij^er  titles,  but  the  general  tendency  is  in  the 
direction  of  a  steady  increase,  and  where  the  peers  of  Tudor  times 
might  be  counted  by  tens  their  successors  of  19x0  were  numbered 
in  hundreds.  The  full  body  would  be  546  English  peers. 
There  are  also  za  ladies  holding  English  peerages.  The  Irish 
peerage  has  175  members,  but  82  of  these  are  also  peers  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  leaving  aS  representative  and  65  without 
seats  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Of  87  Scottish  peers  51  hold  United 
Kingdom  peerages,  the  remainder  consisting  of  x6  representative 
and  20  without  seats. 

As  centuries  have  gone  by  and  customs  changed,  many 
privileges  once  keenly  asserted  have  either  dropped  out  of 
PHvUett  "^  ^^  '^^^  forgotten.  The  most  important  now 
•iiSSm  ^  being  are  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  and  the 
nght  to  trial  by  peers.  The  right  to  a  scat  in 
parliament  is  one  sanctioned  by  centuries  of  constitutional 
usage.  The  right  of  a  peer  in  England  to  a  seat  in  parliament 
was  not,  as  pointed  out  in  the  early  part  of  this  article,  entirely 
admitted  by  the  Crown  xmtil  late  in  the  Plantagenet  period, 
the  king's  pleasure  as  to  whom  he  should  summon  always 
having  been  a  very  material  factor  in  the  question.  Charles  I. 
made  a  deliberate  attempt  to  recover  the  ancient  discretion 
of  the  Crown  in  the  issue  of  writs  of  summons.  The  earl  of 
Bristol  was  the  subject  of  certain  treasonable  charges,  and 
though  he  was  never  put  on  his  trial  the  king  directed  that 
his  writ  of  summons  should  not  issue.  The  excluded  peer 
petitioned  the  Lords,  as  for  a  breach  of  privilege,  and  a  com- 
mittee to  whom  the  matter  was  referred  reported  that  there 
was  no  instance  on  record  in  which  a  peer  capable  of  sitting  in 
pariiament  had  been  refused  his  writ.  There  was  a  little  delay, 
but  the  king  eventually  gave  in,  and  the  earl  had  his  writ 
{Lords  JourndSf  iii.  544). 

At  the  beginning  of  a  new  parliament  every  peer  entitled 
receives  a  writ  of  summons  issued  under  the  authority  of  the 
Great  Seal;  he  presents  his  writ  at  the  table  of  the  House  of 
t^rds  on  his  first  attendance,  and  before  taking  the  oath.  If 
the  peer  be  newly  created  he  presents  his  letters-patent  creating 
the  peerage  to  the  lord  chancellor  on  the  woolsack,  together 
with  the  writ  of  summons  which  the  patent  has  evoked.  A 
peer  on  succession  presents  his  writ  in  the  ordinary  way,  the 
Journals  recording,  e.|.  that  Thomas  Waller,  Viscount  Hampden, 
sat  first  in  Parliament  after  the  death  of  his  iaxYiex  {Lords 
Journals^  cxxxix.  4).  The  form  of  writ  now  issued  (at  the 
beginning  of  a  parliament:  for  the  variation  when  parliament 
is  sitting  see  Lords  Journals^  cxxxix.  185)  corresponds  closely 
to  that  in  use  so  long  ago  as  the  Z4th  century.  It  runs  as 
follows: — 

G«orge  the  Fifth  by  the  Grace  of  God  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and. Ireland  and  of  the  British  Dominions  beyond 
the  seas  King  Defender  of  the  Faith  to  our  right  trusty  and  wcll- 
bclovcd  Greeting  Whereas  by  the  advice  and  consent  of  our  Council 
for  certain  arduous  and  urgent  affairs  concerning  us  the  state  and 
the  defence  of  our  said  United  Kingdom  and  the  Church  we  have 
ordered  a  certain  Parliament  to  be  h<Mdcn  at  our  City  of  Westminster 
on  the  .  .  .  day  of  .  .  .  next  ensuing  and  there  to  treat  and 
have  conference  with  the  prelates  great  men  and  peers  of  our  realm 
We  strictly  enjoining  command  you  upon  the  faith  and  allegiance 
by  which  you  are  bound  to  us  that  the  weightiness  of  the  said 
affairs  and  imminent  perils  considered  (waiving  all  excuses)  you  be 
at  the  said  day  and  place  personally  present  with  us  and  with  the 
said  prelates  {pxat  men  and  peers  to  treat  and  give  your  counsel 
upon  the  affairs  aforesaid.  And  this  as  you  regard  us  and  our 
honour  and  the  safety  and  defence  of  the  said  United  Kingdom 
and  Church  and  despatch  of  the  said  affairs  in  no  wise  do  you  omit^ 

Formerly  all  peers  were  roquirpd  to  attend  parliament,  and 
there  are  numerous  recorded  instances  of  fecial  grants  of  leave 
of  absence,  but  nowadays  there  is  no  compulsion. 

After  the  right  to  a  summons  the  principal  privilege  possessed 

jy^^  j^^^  by  a  peer  is  his  right  to  be  tried  by  his  peers  on  a 

»»if^$a.      charge  of  treason  or  felony.    Whatever  the  origin 

of  this  right,   and  some  writers   date  it  back  to 

"^xon  times  (Trial  of  Lord  Morlcy,  1678,   State   Trials  vii. 


145),  Magna  CarU  has  always  been  regarded  is  fta  con- 
firmatory  authority.    The  important  words  are: — 

"  nulhis  Hbcr  homo  capiatur  imprisonetur  aut  disseWatwr  de  Ubero 
tcnemento  suo  vel  lioertatibus  seu  liberis  consnetudtnibus  suis, 
aut  utlagetur  aut  exuletur  nee  aliquo  modo  distniatur  nee  dominns 
rex  super  ipsum  ibit  nee  super  eum  mittet  nisi  per  leg^  judicium 
parium  suorum  vel  per  legem  terrae." 

The  peers  have  always  strongly  insisted  on  this  privilege 
of  trial  by  their  own  order,  and  several  times  the  heirs  of  those 
wrongly  condemned  recovered  their  rights  and  heritage  on  the 
ground  that  there  had  been  no  proper  trial  by  peers  iR.D,P., 
v.  34).  In  1442  the  privilege  received  parliamentary  con- 
firmation (stat.  ao  Henry  VI.  c.  9).  If  parliament  is  sitting 
the  trial  takes  place  before  the  House  of  Lords  in  full  session, 
».e.  the  court  of  oiu:  brd  the  king  in  parliament,  if  not  then 
before  the  court  of  the  lord  high  steward.  The  office  oi  lord 
high  steward  was  formerly  hereditary,  but  has  not  been  so  for 
centuries  and  is  now  only  granted  ^0  Mac  vice.  When  neoeaaity 
arises  the  Crown  issues  a  special  commission  naming  some  peer 
(usually  the  lord  chancellor)  lord  high  steward  pro  hoc  vice 
(Blackstone's  Comm,  iv.  258).  When  a  trial  takes  place  in 
full  pariiament  a  lord  high  steward  is  also  appointed,  but  his 
powers  there  are  confined  to  the  presidency  of  the  court,  all 
the  peers  sitting  as  judges  of  law  as  well  as  of  facL.  Should 
the  lord  high  steward  be  sitting  as  a  court  out  of  parliament 
be  summons  a  number  of  peers  to  attend  as  a  jury,  but  rules 
alone  on  all  points  of  law  and  practice,  the  peers  present  being 
judges  of  fact  only.  Whichever  kind  of  trial  is  in  piagress  it 
is  the  invariable  practice  to  summon  all  the  judges  to  attend 
and  advise  on  points  of  law.  The  distinction  between  the  two 
tribunals  was  fully  discussed  and  recogni^  in  1760  (Trial  of 
Earl  Ferrers,  Foster's  Criminal  CascSri^g).  The  most  recent  trial 
was  that  of  Earl  Russell  for  bigamy  (reported  1901,  A.C.  446). 
Among  others  are  the  KiUnamock,  Cromarty  and  Bahnerino 
treason  trials  in  parliament  in  x  746  {State  Trials  xviii.  441),  and 
in  the  court  of  the  lord  high  steward,  Lord  Morley  (Ueason,  x666, 
StaU  Trials  vL  777),  Lord  ComwaUis  (murder,  1678  StoU 
Trials  vii.  145),  Lord  Delamere  (z686,  treason,  StaU  Trials  sL 
5x0).  Recently  some  doubt  has  been  expressed  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  court  of  the  brd  high  steward.  It  is  paid  that 
the  historical  document  upon  which  the  practice  is  founded 
is  a  forgery.  The  conflicting  views  are  set  forth  in  Vemoa 
Harcourt's  Bis  Grace  tlu  Steward  and  Trial  of  FeerSt  p.  429* 
and  in  Pike's  Constitutional  History  qf  the  Home  of  Lords,^  2x3; 
In  any  case,  whatever  its  historical  origin,  the  court  for 
centuries  as  a  matter  of  fact  has  received  full  legal  recognition 
as  part  of  the  constitution.  The  eight  to  trial  by  peers 
extends  only  to  cases  of  treason  and  felony,  and  not  to  those 
of  misdemeanour;  nor  can  it  be  waived  by  any  peer  (Co.  3 
Inst.  29;  Kelyng's  Rep.  56).  In  the  case  of  R.  v.  Lord  Graves 
(1887),  discussed  in  Hansard's  Parliamentary  Debates,  3rd  serieik, 
vol.  cccx.  p.  246,  Lord  Halsbury  points  out  that  the  question 
of  trial  by  peers  is  one  of  jurisdiction  established  by  law  rather 
than  a  claim  of  privilege  in  the  discret^n  of  the  accused. 
Scottish  and  Irish  peers,  whether  possessing  seats  in  the  House 
of  Lords  or  not,  are  entitled  to  trial  by  peers,  the  same  procedure 
being  followed  as  in  the  case  of  members  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

Peers  with  a  scat  in  the  House  of  Lords  possess  practically 
the  same  parliamentary  privileges  as  do  members  ol  the  House 
of  Commons.  Among  other  privileges  peculiar  to  themselves 
they  have  the  right  of  personal  access  to  the  sovereign  (Anson's 
Law  of  the  Constitution,  i.  227).  In  the  House  of  Lords, 
when  a  resolution  is  passed  contrary  to  his  sentiments,  any  peer, 
by  leave  of  the  house,  may  "  protest,"  that  is,  enter  his  dissent 
on  the  journals  of  the  house  (Blackstone,  Comm.  i.  162). 
Formerly  a  peer  might  vote  by  proxy  (Blackstone,  ibid.),  but 
since  1868  there  has  been  a  standing  order  discontinuing  this 
right.  In  accordance  «ith  resolutions  passed  by  the  two 
houses,  neither  house  has  power  by  any  vote  or  declaration 
to  clothe  itself  with  new  privileges  unknown  to  the  Uw  and 
customs  of  parliament  {Commons  Journal,  xiv.  555).  Peeresses 
and  non-representative  peers  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  have, 


PEERLKAMP— PEE8EMSKY 


55 


witb  tbc  exception  of  tlie  right  to  sit  In  the  Hottte  of  Lords  «nd 
its  attendant  parliamentary  privileges^  every  peerage  privilege: 
a  widowed  peeress  retains  ber  privilege  of  peerage  while  un- 
married, but  k)ses  it  if  she  marries  a  commoner  (Co.  Litt.  x66; 
C^fvUy  V.  Cmoity  [1901]  A.C.  450).  Dissolutioii  of  marriage 
probably  deprives  a  peeress  of  ^  peerage  privileges  which  she 
acquired  by  marriage. 

The  chfldren  of  peers  are  commoners.  The  eldest  son  of  a  peer 
of  the  rank  of  earl  (and  above)  is  usually  known  socially  by  the 
p^tMioaci  nanie  of  his  father's  next  peera^,  but  the  courte^ 
FmmUn  9t  nature  of  such  title  is  doariy  indicated  in  every  public 
j%gg^         or  legal   document*   the   phraseology  employed   being 

"John  Smith,  Esq.,  commonly  known  as  Viseount 
Blackacre.'*  Several  cases  are  oa  record  in  which  peers*  eldest 
sons  have  actually  borne  courtesy  titles  not  posMsscd  as  peerage 
honours  by  their  fathers,  but  inasmuch  as  such  are  onlv  accorded 
by  eourtcsy,  no  question  of  peerage  privilege  arises.  Tne  younger 
sons  of  dulces  and  marquesses  are  cntitleato  the  prefix  Lord  " 
before  their  Christian  names,  and  all  the  dau|;hters  of  carls  as  well 
as  of  dukes  and  marquesses  are  entitled  similarly  to  style  them* 
selves  "  Lady,"  on  the  prindfrfe  that  all  the  daughten  art  equal 
in  rank  and  precedence.  The  younger  sons  of  earis  and  all  the 
younger  children  of  viscounts  and  bsirons  are  entilled  to  the  prtfix 
Honourable."  Usually  when  the  direct  heir  of  a  peer  dies  has 
children  are  given,  by  the  Crown,  on  the  death  of  the  peer,  the 
courtesy  titles  and  precedence  they  would  have  enjoyed  nad  their 
father  actually  succeeded  to  the  peerage. 

An  alien  may  be  created  a  peer,  but  while  remalnine  an  alien 
cannot  kit  in  the  House  of  Lords,  nor,  if  a  Scottish  or  Irish  peer, 

can  he  Vote  at  elections  for  representative  peers.    Pecr- 
2**  ages  may  be  created  (i)  by  writ  of  summons,  (2)  by 

Putniga.  patent.  •  The  writ  of  summons  method  b  not  now  used 
except  in  the  case  of  calling  up  an  eldest  son  in  the  barony  of  bis 
father.  This  docs  not  create  a  new  peerage  but  only  accelerates 
the  heir's  appearance  in  the  House  of  Lords.  On  the  father^s 
death  the  f>eerage  remains  vested  in  the  son.  Should  the  son  die 
without  heir  the  pieenge  reveau  in  the  father.  The  invariable 
method  of  creation  in  all  ordinary  cases  is  by  patent.  The  lettere 
patent  describe  the  name  of  the  dignity,  the  person  upon  whom  it 
IS  conferred,  and  specify  its  course  0?  descent. 

Claims  to  peerages  are  of  two  kinds:  (i)  of  right,  (a)  of  grace. 
In  theory  the  Crown,  as  the  fountain  of  honour,  might  settle  any 

claim  without  reference  to  the  House  of  Lords  and 
"*    issue  a  writ  of  summons  to  its  petitioner.    This  would 

not  in  any  wav  prevent  the  House  of  Lords  fmm 
imlfting  the  patent  ana  writ  of  summons  when  the  favoured 
petitioner  or  any  heir  claiming  through  him  came  to  take  his 
seat.  If  of  opinion  that  the  patent  was  ilicval  the  house  mighc 
refuse  admittance,  as  it  did  in  the  Wenslcydale  case.  In  the  case 
oif  a  petitioner  who  has  persuaded  the  Crown  to  terminate  in  his 
favour  as  a  co-heir  the  abeyance  of  an  andent  barony  and  who 
has  rscctved  his  writ  of  summons,  the  matter  is  more  difficult. 
'The  house  cannot  refuse  to  admit  any  person  prapcriy  summoned 
by  the  Crown,  as  the  prerogative  Is  unlimited  in  noint  of  numbers; 
but  it  can  take  into  account  the  precedence  of  the  newcomer.  If 
he  has  an  old  barony  he  naturally  expects  Its  proper  ()lace  on  the 
beach  of  bsfDas;  but  if  the  house  thought  fit  they  might  compel 
him  to  prove  his  pedigree  before  according  any  precodenoe.  H 
he  refused  to  do  this  they  would  still  be  bound  to  admit  him,  but 
H  would  be  as  the  junior  oanon  of  the  house  with  a  peerage  dating, 
for  parliamentary  purposes,  from  the  day  of  hb  summons.  The 
general  result  is  that  the  Crown,  unless  there  can  be  no  qucstmn 
as  to  pedigree,  seldom  terminates  an  abeyance  without  referring 
the  matter  to  the  House  of  Lords,  and  invariably  so  refers  all 
claims  which  are  disputed  or  which  involve  any  question  of  law.* 
The  procedure  a  as  follows:  The  claimant  petitions  the  Crown 
through  the  home  secretary,  setting  forth  his  pedigree  and  stating 
the  nature  of  his  claim.  The  Crown  then  refers  the  petition  to  its 
legal  adviser,  the  attomey-generaL  The  petitioner  then  in  course 
ottime  appears  before  the  attomey*|^neraI  with  his  proofs.  Finally 
the  attorney-general  reports  that  a  prima  fade  case  b,  or  b  not,  made 
out.  Jf  a  case  be  made  out,  the  Crown,  if  it  does  not  take  immedbte 
action,  refers  the  whole  matter  to  the  House  of  Lards,  who  pass  it  00 
to  their  Committee  for  Privileges  for  caamination  aad  report. 

The  Committee  for  PrivitegeSt  which  for  peerage  claims  is  usually 
consrituted  of  the  law  lords  and  one  or  two  other  lords  interested 
CMimktt9  in  peerage  hbtory,  sits  as  an  ordinary  court  of  justice 
t^f^j9t-  ^^  follows  all  the  rules  of  law  and  evidence.  The 
iggf^  attorney-general  attends  as  adviser  to  the  committee 

^^  and  to  watch  the  interests  of  the  Crown.    According  to 

the  nature  of  the  case  the  Committee  reports  to  the  house,  and 
the  house  to  the  Crown,  that  the  petitioner  (if  successful)  (i)  has 
flude  out  hb  claim  and  b  entitled  to  a  writ  of  sommoas,  or  (a) 

*Thb  was  not  done  in  the  case  of  the  earldom  of  Cromartie 
called  out  of  abeyance  in  1893.  The  holder  of  the  title  being  a 
lady  the  house  has  had,  as  yet.  ao  oppartuoity  of  coasidering  the 
vahdiry  of  the  Crowa's  action* 


has  proved  hb  co-heirship  to  an  cxistiag  peerage,  and  has  also 
proved  the  descent  of  all  existing  co-beira.  In  the  first  case  the 
writ  of  summons  b  issued  forthwith,  but  the  second,  being  one  of 
abeyance,  b  a  matter  for  the  pleasure  of  the  Crown,  which  need 
rtot  he  exercised  at  all,  but,  if  exereised,  may  terminate  the  abeyance 
in  favour  of  any  one  of  the  co-heirs.  The  seniority  of  a  co-heir 
(though  this  alone  b  of  little  moment),  hb  power  to  support  the 
dignity,  and  the  number  of  exbting  co-heirs,  are  all  facton  whi<^ 
count  in  the  chances  of  success. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  m  the  eariier  part  of  thb  article 
to  the  reply  of  Bishop  Peter  de  Roches  to  the  English  baroas 
who  claimed  trial  by  their  peers,  and,  as  was  sunestcd  fUMiuMt 
the  bishop  probably  had  in  nb  mind  the  peers  of  France,  g^r^t^ 
Possibly  the  word  pares,  as  eventually  used  in  England, 
was  borrowed  from  thb  source,  but  thb  b  uncertain.  The  great 
men  known  originally  as  the  twelve  paira  de  France,  were  the  feudal 
holders  of  large  territories  under  the  nominal  sway  of  the  king  of 
France.  They  were  the  (archbishop)  duke  of  Rheims,  the  (bishop) 
dukes  of  Langres  and  Laon,  the  (bishop)  counts  of  Beauvais,  Noyon 
and  Chalons,  the  dukes  of  Bumindy,  Normandy  and  Aquitaine* 
and  the  counts^  of  Flanders,  Toulouse  and  Champagne.  These 
magnates,  nominall)^  feudatories,  were  practically  independent 
rulers,  and  their  position  can  in  no  way  be  compared  to  that  of 
the  Enghsh  baronage.  It  is  said  that  thb  body  of  peers  was  in- 
stituted in  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus,  though  some  writers  cvea 
ascribe  its  origin  to  Charlemagne.  Some  of  the  peers  were  present 
at  Phil'p's  coronation  in  Ii7^.  and  later  again  at  the  alleged  trial 
of  Tohn  of  England  when  nb  fief  of  Normandy,  was  adjudged 
forfeit  to  the  French  Crown. 

As  the  central  power  of  the  French  Idngs  grew,  the  various  fiefs 
lost  thdr  independence  and  became  united  to  the  Crown,  witb  the 
exception  of  Flanders  which  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  In  the  i^tn  century  the  custom  arose  for  the  sovereign 
to  honour  hb  more  important  nobles  by  granting  them  the  tiile 
of  Peer  of  France.  At  first  the  grant  was  confined  to  the  royal 
dukes,  but  bter  it  was  conferred  on  others,  amongst  whom  late 
in  the  17th  century  appears  the  arehbishop  of  Pans.  To  several 
counties  and  baronies  the  honour  of  a  peerage  was  added,  but 
most  of  these  eventually  became  reunited  with  the  Crown,  As  a 
legblatlve  body  a  chamber  of  peers  in  France  was  first  founded 
by  Louis  XVIiI.  in  1814;  it  was  hereditary  and  moddled  on  the 
English  House  of  Lords.  The  revolution  of  >By>  reduced  its 
hereditary  quality  to  life  tenure,  and  in  the  troubles  of  1848  the 
chamber  itself  finalfy  disappeared. 

Austria*  Hungary  and  Portugail  are  other  coontries  possessing 

Kwrages  which  to  some  extent  follow  the  English  niodd.  In 
ustna  there  b  a  large  hereditary  nobility  and  those 
members  of  it  in  whose  families  tne  legislative  dignity 
b  hereditary  by  nomination  of  the  emperor  sit  in  the 
Hcnenhaus  or  Anstrbn  Upper  Chamber,  together  with  certain  pre* 
lates  and  a  laige  nuniber  of  nominated  lire*membersb  In  Hungary 
all  those  nobles  who  possess  the  right  of  hereditary  peerage  (as 
admitted  by  the  act  of  1885  and  subsequent  acts)  and  who  pay 
a  bnd  tax  of  certain  value,  are  members  of  the  House  of  Magnates, 
of  which  they  form  a  large  majority,  the  remainder  of  the  mem* 
here  being  Roman  Catholic  prdatcs,  representatives  of  Protestant 
churches  and  life  peers.  In  Portugal  until  recent  yean  the  House 
of  Pecra  was  an  hereditary  body,  but  it  b  now  practically  a 
chamber  of  life-peers.  (G.  £.*) 

PEERLKAHP.  PETRUS  HOFHAN  (1786-1865),  Dutch 
classical  scholar  and  critic,  descended  from  a  family  of  French 
refugees  named  Perlechamp.  was  bom  at  Gioningen  on  the 
2nd  of  February  1786.  He  was  professor  of  andent  literature 
and  universal  history  at  Leiden  from  i8aa  to  1849,  vhea 
be  resigned  his  po5t  and  retired  to  Hilvcrsum  near  Utrecht, 
where  be  died  on  the  37th  of  March  1865.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  subjective  method  of  textual  criticism,  which  consbted 
in  rejecting  in  a  classical  author  whatever  failed  to  come  up  to 
the  standard  of  what  that  author,  in  the  critic's  opinion,  ought  to 
have  written.  Hb  ingenuity  in  thb  direction.  In  which  he  went 
much  farther  than  Bentley,  was  chiefly  exercised  on  the  Odes 
of  Horace  (the  greater  part  of  which  he  declared  spurtous), 
and  the  Avmi  of  YintiL  He  also  edited  the  Ats  poetka  and 
Satires  of  Horace,  the  Ag^Upla  of  Tadtus,  the  romaiKo  of 
Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  and  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  the 
Latin  poets  of  the  Netherlands  {Dt  vita,  ioOnna,  tt  facmltak 
NederUmdorum  qui  carmina  latina  eomposuerufUt  1838). 

Sec  L.  Mailer.  G*seh.  der  UassisckenPhiMovemdemNiedertanien 
(1869).  and  J.  E.  Sandys.  HiH,  e/  Class.  Schel.  (1908).  iil  276. 

PEESEMSKT.  ALBZBY  FBOnUCTOVICH  (18SO-1881), 
Russian  novelist,  was  bom  on  hb  father's  estate,  in  the  province 
of  Kostroma,  on  the  loih/aand  of  March  1820.  In  hb  auti^ 
biography  he  describes  fab  family  as  belonging  to  the  andent 


56 


PEGASUS— PEGMATITE 


Russuui  nobility,  but  Bis  more  ImiDediate  progenitors  were  all 
very  poor,  and  unable  to  read  or  write.  His  grandfather 
ploughed  the  fields  as  a  simple  peasant,  and  his  father,  as 
Peesemsky  himself  said,  was  washed  and  clothed  by  a  rich 
relative,  and  placed  as  a  soldier  in  the  army,  from  which  he  retired 
as  a  major  after  thirty  years'  service.  During  childhood 
Peesemsky  read  eagerly  the  translated  works  of  Walter  Scott 
end  Victor  Hugo,  and  later  those  of  Shakespeare,  Schiller, 
Goethe,  Rousseau,  Voltaire  and  George  Sand.  From  the 
gymnasium  of  Kostroma  he  passed  through  Moscow  University, 
and  In  18S4  entered  the  government  service  as  a  clerk  in  the 
office  of  the  Crown  domains  in  his  native  province.  Between 
i8s4  and  1872,  when  he  finally  quilted  the  civil  service,  he 
occupied  sincdlar  posts  in  St  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  His 
early  works  exhibit  a  profound  disbelief  in  the  higher  qualities 
of  humanity,  and  a  disdain  for  the  other  sex,  although  he  appears 
to  have  been  attached  to  a  particularly  devoted  and  sensible 
wife.  Hi^  first  novel,  Boyantchina,  was  forbidden  for  its 
unflattering  description  of  the  Russian  nobility.  His  principal 
novels  are  Tufak  ("A  Muff").  1850;  Teesicha  dousk  ("A 
Thousand  Souls  "),  1863,  which  is  considered  his  best  work  of 
the  kind;  and  Vzbalonwttchetuoe  more  ("  A  Troubled  Sea  ")• 
giving  a  picture  of  the  excited  state  of  Russian  society  about, 
the  year  1862.  He  also  produced  a  comedy,  Corkaya  swdbma 
("  A  Bitter  Fate  *'),  depicting  the  dark  sides  of  the  Russian 
peasantry,  which  obtained  for  him  the  Ouvaroff  prize  of  the 
Russian  Academy.  In  1856  he  was  sent,  together  with  other 
literary  men,  to  report  on  the  ethnographical  and  commercial 
condition  of  the  Russian  interior,  his  particular  field  of  inquiry 
having  been  Astrakhan  and  the  region  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
His  scepticism  in  regard  to  the  liberal  reforms  of  the  'sixties 
made  him  very  unpopular  among  the  more  progressive  writers 
of  that  time.  He  died  at  Moscow  on  the  2nd  of  February  x88x 
(Jan.  21,  Russian  style). 

f  PEGASUS  (from  Gr.  rny^*  compactj"  strong),  the  famous 
winged  horse  of  Greek  fable,  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  trunk 
of  the  Gorgon  Medusa  when  her  head  was  cut  off  by  Perseus. 
BeUerophon  caught  him  as  he  drahk  of  the  spring  Peirene  on 
the  Acrocorinthus  at  Corinth,  or  received  him  tamed  and 
bridled  at  the  hands  of  Athena  (Pindar,  01.  xiii.  63;  Pausanias 
ii.  4).  Mounted  on  Pegasus,  BeUerophon  slew  the  Chiroaera 
and  overcame  the  Solymi  and  the  Amazons,  but  when  he  tried 
to  fly  to  heaven  on  the  horse's  back  he  threw  him  and  continued 
his  heavenward  course  (Apollodorus  il  3).  Arrived  in  heaven, 
Pegasus  served  Zeus,  fetching  for  him  his  thunder  and  lightning 
(Hesiod,  Theog.  281).  Hence  some  have  thought  that  Pegasus 
is  a  symbol  of  the  thundercloud.  According  to  O.  Gruppe 
{Griechische  Myfhologie,  i.  75,  123)  Pegasus,  like  Arion  the 
fabled  offspring  of  Demeter  end  Poseidon,  was  a  curse-horse, 
symbolical  of  the  rapidity  with  which  curses  were  fulfilled.  In 
later  legend  he  is  the  horse  of  Eos,  the  morning.  The  erroneous 
derivation  from  inn^,  "  a  spring  of  water,"  may  have  given 
birth  to  the  legends  which  connect  Pegasus  ^ath  water;  e.g. 
that  his  father  was  Poseidon,  that  he  was  bom  at  the  springs 
of  Ocean,  and  that  he  had  the  power  of  making  springs  rise 
from  the  ground  by  a  blow  of  his  hoof.  When  Mt  Helicon, 
enchanted  by  the  song  of  the  Muses,  began  to  rise  to  heaven, 
Pegasus  stopped  its  ascent  by  stamping  on  the  ground  (Antoninus 
Liberalis  9),  and  where  he  struck  the  earth  Hippocrene  (horse* 
spring),  the  fountain  of  the  Muses,  gushed  forth  (Pausanias 
it.  3 1 ,  ix.  31).  But  there  are  facts  that  speak  fbr  an  independent 
mythological  connexion  between  horses  and  water,  e.g.  the 
sacrcdness  of  the  horse  to  Poseidon,  the  epithets  Hippios  and 
Equester  applied  to  Poseidon  and  Neptune,  the  Greek  fable 
of  the  origin  of  the  first  horsb  (produced  by  Poseidon  striking 
the  ground  with  his  trident),  and  the  custom  in  Argolis  of 
sacrificing  horses  to  Poseidon  by  drowning  them  in  a  well. 
From  his  connexion  with  Hippocrene  Pegasus  has  come  to  be 
regarded  as  the  horse  of  the  Muses  and  hence  as  a  symbol  of 
poetty.  But  this  is  a  modem  attribute  of  Pegasus,  iMt  known 
to  the  ancients,  and  dating  only  from  the  Orlando  innamorato 
of  Boiardo.^' 


See  monoeraph  by  F.  Hoanig,  Breianur  pMMogUeke  Ahhand- 
lungen  (X9037t  vol.  viii.,  pt.  4. 

PBOAU,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
situated  in  a  fertile  country,  on  the  Elster,  18  m.  S.W.  from 
Letpcig  by  the  railway  to  Zeita.  Pop^  (1905),  5656.  It  has 
two  Evangelical  churches,  that  of  St  Lawrence  being  a  fine 
Gothic  stmcture,  a  16th-century  town-hall;  a  very  old  hospital 
and  an  agricidtuxal  school.  Its  industries  embrace  tlie  manu- 
facture of  felt,  boots  and  metal  wares. 

Fegau  grew  up  round  a  monastery  foimded  in  1096,  but  doe$ 
not  appear  as  a  town  before  the  close  of  the  X2th  century. 
Markets  were  held  here  and  ita  proH>crity  was  further  enhanced 
by  its  position  on  a  main  road  running  east  and  west.  In  the 
monastery,  which  was  dissolved  in  1539,  a  valuable  chronicle 
was  compiled,  the.  AhmoUs  pegaviatsest  covering  the  period 
from  xo39to  1227. 


aus  rcMu  (L.eipcig,  190s;-    ine  Annates  pegattenses  are  pubii 
in  Bd.  XVI.  of  the  Monumenta  Gemtaniat  kutorica.  Scriptores, 

PBGMATITB  (from  Gr.  virr/ia,  a  bond),  the  name  given  by 
HaQy  to  those  masses  of  graphic  granite  which  frequently  occur 
in  veins.  They  consist  of  quartz  and  alkali  feldspars  in  crystalline 
intergrowth  (see  Petsology,  Plate  II.  fig.  6).  The  term  waai 
subsequently  used  by  Naumann  to  signify  also  the  coarsely 
crystalline  veins  rich  in  quartz,  feldspar  and  muscovite,  which 
often  in  great  numbers  ramify  through  outcrops  of  granite  and 
the  surrounding  rocks.  This  application  of  the  name  has  now 
obtained  general  acceptance,  and  has  been  extended  by  many' 
authors  to  include  vein-rocks  of  similar  structure  and  geological 
relationships,  which  occur  with  syenites,  diorites  and  gabbros. 
Only  a  few  i4  these  p^matites  have  graphic  structure  or  mutual 
intergrowth  of  their  constituents.  Many  of  them  are  exceedingly 
coarse-grained;  in  granite-pegmatites  the  feldspars  may  be 
several  feet  or  even  yards  in  diameter,  and  tother  minerals  such 
as  apatite  and  tounnaUnc  often  occur  in  gigantic  crystals.  Peg-' 
matites  consist  of  minerals  which  are  found  also  in  the  rocks 
from  which  they  are  derived,  e.g.  granite-pegmatites  contain 
principally  quartz  and  feldspar  while  gabbro-pcgaiatitea 
consist  of  diallage  and  plagiodase.  Rare  minerals,  however; 
often  occur  in  these  veins  in  exceptional  amount  and  as  very 
perfect  crystals.  The  minerals  of  the  pegmatites  are  always 
those  which  were  last  to  separate  out  from  the  parent  rock. 
As  the  basic  minerals  are  the  first  formed  the  pegmatites  contain 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  acid  or  more  siliceous  components 
which  were  of  later  origin;  In  granite-pegmatites  there  is  little 
hornblende,  biotite  or  sphene,  but  white  mica,  feldspar  and  quart* 
make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  veins.  In  gabbro-pegmatitea 
olivine  seldom  occurs,  but  diallage  and  plagiodase  occur  in 
abundance.  In  this  respect  the  pegmatites  and  aplites  agree; 
both  are  of  more  acid  types  than  the  average  rock  from  which 
'they  came,  but  the  pegmatites  are  coarsely  cxystalUne  while 
the  aplites  are  fine-grained.  Segr^pations  of  the  early  minerals 
of  a  rock  are  frequent  as  nodules,  lumps  and  streaks  scattered 
through  its  mass,  and  often  dikes  of  basic  character  (lampro- 
phyres,  &c.)  are  injected  inio  the  surrounding  countiy.  These 
have  been  grouped  together  as  intrusions  of  mdanocrate  fades 
(/yiXas,  black,  kp6tos,  strength,  predominance)  because  in 
them  the  dark  basic  minerals  preponderate.  The  aplites  and 
pegmatites,  on  the  other  hand,  are  leucocraU  (Xcvx^  white); 
since  they  are  of  acid  character  and  contain  rdatjvdy  large 
amoxmts  of  the  white  minerals  quartz  and  feldspar. 

Pegmatites  are  associated  with  plutonic  or  intrusive  rocks  and 
were  evidently  formed  by  slow  crystallization  at  considerable 
depths  bdow  the  surface:  nothing  similar  to  them  is  known 
in  lavas.  They  are  very  characteristic  of  granites,  especially 
those  which  contain  muscovite  and  much  alkali  feldq;>ar;  in 
gabbros,  diorites  and  syenites  pregmatite  dikes  are  comparalivdy 
rare.  The  ooarsdy  crystalline  structure  may  be  ascribed  to 
slow  crystallization;  and  is  partly  the  result  of  the  rocka,  in 
which  the  veins  lie,  having  been  at  a  high  temperature  when  the 
minerals  of  the  pegmatites  8eparat«i  out.  In  accordance 
with  this  we  find  that  pegmatite  veins  are  nearly  always  restricted 


PEGNITZ— PEGOLOTTl 


57 


to  the  «ieft  occupied  by  the  parent  nx^  (.€.g.  the  granite),  or 
to  its  immediate  vicinity,  and  within  the  2one  which  has  been 
greatly  heated  by  the  plutooic  intrusion,  viz.  the  contact  aureole. 
Another  very  important  factor  in  producing  the  coarse  crystal- 
lization o£  the  pegmatite  veins  is  the  presence  of  abundant 
water  vapour  and  other  gases  which  served  as  mineralizing 
agents  and  facilitated  the  building  together  of  the  rock  molecules 
in  large  crjrstalline  individuals. 

Proof  that  these  vapours  were  important  agents  in  the  forma- 
tion of  pegmatites  is  afforded  by  many. of  the  minerals  con- 
tained in  the  veins.  Boron,  fluorine,  hydrogen,  chlorine  and 
other  volatile  substances  are  essential  components  of  some  of 
these  minerals.  Thus  toyrmaline,  which  contains  boron  and 
fluorine,  may  be  common  in  the  pegmatites  but  rare  in  the 
granite  itself.  Fluorine  or  chlorine  are  present  in  apatite, 
another  frequent  ingredient  of  granite  pegmatites.  Muscovite 
and  gilbertite  both  contain  hydrogen  and  fluorine;  topaz  is 
ricb  in  fluorine  also  and  all  of  these  are  abundant  in  some 
pegmatites.  The  stimulating  effect  which  volatile  substances 
exert  on  crystallizing  molten  masses  is  well  known  to  experi- 
mental geologists  who,  by  mixing  tungstates  and  fluorides  with 
(used  powders,  have  been  able  to  prodtice  artificial  minerals 
which  they  could  not  otherwise  obtain.  Most  pegmatites  are 
truly  igneous  rocks  so  far  as  their  composition  goes,  but  in  their 
structure  they  show  relations  to  the  aqueous  mineral  veins. 
Many  of  them  for  example  have  a  comby  structure,  that  is  to 
say,  their  minerals  are  columnar  and  stand  perpendicular  to  the 
walls  of  the  fissure  occupied  by  the  vein.  Sometimes  they  have 
a  banding  owing  to  successive  deposits  having  been  laid  down 
of  different  character;  mica  may  be  external,  then  feldspar,  and 
in  the  centre  a  leader  or  string  of  pure  quartz.  In  pegmatite 
veins  also  there  are  very  frequently  cavities  or  vugs,  which  are 
lined  by  crystals  with  very  perfect  faces.  These  bear  much 
resemblance  to  the  miarolitic  or  drusy  cavities  common  in 
^anile,  and  like  them  were  probably  filled  with  the  residual 
liquid'  which  was  left  over  after  the  mineral  substances  were 
deposited  in  crystals. 

Pegmatites  are  very  irregular  not  only  in  distribution,  width 
and  persistence,  but  also  in  composition.  The  relative  abun- 
dance of  the  constituent  minerals  may  differ  rapidly  and  much 
from  point  to  point.  Sometimes  they  are  rich  in  mica,  in 
enormous  crystals  for  which  the  rock  is  mined  or  quarried 
(India).  Other  pegmatites  are  nearly  pure  feldspar,  while  others 
are  locally  (espcciaUy  near  their  terminations)  very  lull  of 
quartz,.  They  may  in  fact  pass  into  quartz  veins  (alaskitos) 
some  of  which  are  auriferous  (N.  America).  Quanz  veins  of 
another  type  are  very  largely  developed,  especially  in  regions 
of  slate  and  phyllite;  they  are  produced  by  segregation  of 
dissolved  silica  from  the  country  rock  and  its  concentration 
into  cracks  produced  by  stretching  of  the  rock  masses  during 
folding.  In  these  segregation  veins,  especially  when  the  beds 
are  of  feldspathic  nature,  crystals  of  albite  and  ortboclase  may 
appear,  in  large  or  small  quantity.  In  this  way  a  second  type 
of  pegmatite  (segregation  pegmatite)  is  formed  which  is  very 
difficult  to  distinguish  from  true  igneous  veins.  These  two 
have,  however,  much  in  common  as  regards  the  conditions 
uiuier  which  they  were  formed.  Great  pressures,  presence  of 
water,  and  a  high  though  not.  necessarily  very  high  temperature 
were  the  principal  agencies  at  work. 

Granite  pegmatites  arc  laid  down  after  their  parent  mass  had 
solidified  and  while  it  was  cooling  down:  fooietiniea  thev  contain 
such  minerals  as  garnet,  not  found  In  the  main  mass,  ana  lowing 
that  the  temperature  of  crystallization  was  comparatively  low. 
Another  special  feature  of  these  veins  is  the  presence  of  minerals 
containing  precious  metals  or  rare  earths.  Gold  occurs  in  not  a  few 
cases;  tin  in  others,  while  sulphides  such  as  copper  pyrites  arc  found 
also.  Beryl  is  the  commonest  of  the  minerals  of  the  second  group: 
spodiimene  is  another  example,  and  there  is  much  reason  to  hold 
that  diamond  is  a  native  oC  some  of  the  pegmatites  of  Brazil  and 
Ifldia,  though  this  Is  not  yet  incootestably  proved.  The  sycnite- 
pcf matitcs  of  south  Norway  are  remarkable  both  for  their  coarse 
crystallization  and  for  the  great  number  of  rare  minerals  they  have 
yielded.  Amoiig  these  may  be  mentioned  laavenite,  rinkitc,  roaen- 
buBchtte.  mottndrite,  pyrochlore,  pevofsklte  and  lampitmhyllite. 


PBQinTZ,  a  river  of  Germany. '  It  xises  near  liodenhard 

in  Upper  Franconia  (Bavaria)  from  two  sources.    At  first  it 

is  called  the  Fichtenofae,  but  at  Buchau  it  takes  the  name  of  the 

Pegnitz,  and  flowing  in  a  south-westerly  direction  disappears 

betow  the  small  town  of  Pegnitz  in  a  mountain  cavern.  It 

emerges  through  three  orifices,  enters  Middle  Franconia,  and 

after  flowing  through  the  heart  of  the  city  of  Nuremberg  falls 

into  the  Regnitz  at  FUrth. 

See  Spedit,  Das  Peptittiebiet  in  Besu^  auf  seinen  WasTsrhausludt 
(Munkh,  1905). 

The  Pegnitz  Order  (Order  oi  the  society  of  Pegnitz  shepherds), 
also  known  as  "  the  crowned  flower  order  on  the  Pegnitz,"  was 
one  of  the  societies  founded  in  Germany  in  the  couise  of  the  tyth 
century  for  the  purification  and  imptoyement  of  the  German 
language,  especially  in  the  domain  of  poetry.  (Scorg  Phillip 
Harsddrffer  and  Johann  Klaj  instituted  the  order  in  Nuremberg 
in  1644,  and  named  it  after  the  river.  Its  emblem  was  the  passion 
flower  with  Pan's  pipes,  and  the  motto  Mil  Nulun  erjreulick, 
OS  Alktu  tinem  Ton  einsiimmig.  The  members  set  themselves 
the  task  of  counteracting  the  pedantry  of  another  school  of 
poetry  by  imagination  and  gaiety,  but  lacking  imagination 
and  broad  views  they  took  refuge  In  allegorical  subjects  and 
puerile  trifling.  The  result  was  to  debase  rather  than  to  raise 
the  standard  of  poetic  art  in  Germany.  At  first  the  meetings 
of  the  order  were  held  in  private  grounds,  but  in  i68x  they  were 
transferred  to  a  forest  near  Kraftshof  or  Naunhof.  In  1794 
the  order  was  reorganized,  and  it  now  exists  merely  as  a  literary 
society. 

See  Tittsaan,  Die  nUmherier  DickeruhuU  (Gdttingen,  1847); 
and  the  Festschrift  sur  iSO'j&hrigtn  JtMfeier  dts  pegnesiscien 
Blumenordens  (Nuremberg,  1894). 

PEGOLOm,  FRANCESCO  BALDUCa  {fi,  1315^x340), 
Florentine  merchant  and  writer,  was  a  factor  in  the  tervioe 
of  the  mercantile  bouse  of  the  Bardi,  and  in  this  capacity  we 
find  him  at  Antwerp  from  13x5  (or  eariier)  to  X317;  in  London 
in  13x7  and  apparently  for  some  time  after,  in  Cyprus  from 
1324  to  X327,  and  again  (or  perhaps  in  unbroken  continuation 
of  his  former  residence)  in  133  s*  In  this  last  year  he  obtained 
from  the  king  of  Little  Armenia  (^e.  medieval  Cilicia,  &c.)  a  grant 
of  privileges  for  Florentine  trade.  Between  1335  and  1343, 
probably  in  X339-X340,  he  compfled  his  Ubro  di  divisamatH 
di  paesi  e  di  misuri  di  nurcataniU  t  d^allre  cou  Inscgnettdi  di 
sapere  a'  mercatanti^  commonly  known  as  the  Prclica  detta 
mercalura  (the  name  given  it  by  Pagnini).  Beginning  with  a 
sort  of  ^osaaiy  of  foreign  terms  then  in  use  for  all  kinds  of  taxes 
or  payments  on  merchandise  as  well  as  for  "  every  kind  of  place 
where  goods  might  be  bought  or  sold  in  cities,"  the  Praiica 
nextdncribes  some  of  the  chief  trade  routes  df  the  14th  century, 
and  many  of  the  principal  markets  then  known  to  Italian 
merchants;  the  imports  and  exports  of  various  important 
commercial  regions;  the  business  customs  prevalent  in  each  bf 
those  regions;  and  the  comparative  value  of  the  leading  moneys, 
wdfl^ts  and  measures.  The  most  distuit  and  extensive  trade 
routes  described  by  Pegdotti  are:  (x)  that  from  Tana  or  Azov 
to  Peking  via  Astrakhan,  Khiva,  Otrar,  Kuija  and  Kanchow 
(Gittaichan,  Organd,  Ottrarre,  Armaleoco  and  Camexu  in  the 
Praiica);  (2)  that  from  Lajazzo  on  the  Cilician  coast  to  Tabris 
in  north.  Persia  via  Sivas,  Erangan  and  Erzerum  (Salvastro, 
Arzinga  and  Arzerone);  (3)  that  from  TrebizMid  to  Tabriz. 
Among  the  marketa  enumerated  are:  Tana,  Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  Damietta,  and  the  ports  of  Cyprus  and  the  Crimea. 
Pcgolotti's  notices  of  ports  on  the  north  of  the  Black  Sea  are  very 
valuable;  his  works  show  us  that  Florentine  exports  had  now 
gained  a  high  rcfiutation  in  the  Levant.  In  other  chapters 
an  account  is  given  of  14th-century  methods  of  paddng  goods 
(cIl  29);  of  assaying  gdd  and  silver  (ch.  35);  of  shipment; 
of  "London  in  £n^nd  in  itself"  (ch.  6i);  of  monasteries 
in  Scotland  and  England  ("  Scotknd  of  England)"  Stnia  di 
IngkUUrra)  that  were  rich  in  wool  (ch.  63).  Among  the  latter 
are  Newbattle,  Balmerino^  Cupar,  Dunfermline,  I>undrennan, 
Gleniuce,  Coldingham,  Kdso,  Newminster  near  Morpeth, 
FumeiB,  Fountains,  Kixkstall,  Kirstead,  SwiaesJkttid,  Sawley 


s^ 


PEGU— PEIRCE 


and  Caider.    PfegolotUli  inteKtt  in  fingland  and  Sbotfauid  is 
chiefly  connected  with  the  wool  trade. 

There  is  only  one  MS.  oC  the  ProHca^  vis.  No.  ^441  in  the  Ricear- 
dian  Library  at  Flerenoe  (241  folt.,  occupying  the  whole  volume), 
written  in  147 1 ;  and  one  edition  of  the  text,  in  vol.  iii,  o(  Gian 
Francesco  Pagnioi's  Delia  Decima  e  dcUe  altre  gravetze  imposU  dal 
commune  di  rirenze  (Lisbon  and  Lucca — really  Florence — 1766): 
Sir  Henry  Yule.  Caibay,  It.  279-508,  translated  into  English  the 
most  interesting  sections  of  Pegofotti,  with  valuable  commentary 
(London,  Hakluyt  Society,  1866).  See  also  W.  Heyd,  Commerce 
du  Levant,  ii.,  12,  50,  58,  78-79.  8s-86,  112-110  (Leipng.  1886):  H. 
Kiepert,  in  Siizuntsberickte  aer  fMlos.'kist.  CL  der  beniner  Akad., 
p.  901,  &c.  (Berlin.  1881);  C.  R.  Beaxlcy,  Dawn  of  Modern 
Geography,  iii.  324-33^1 55o<  SS5  (Oxford,  1906). 

PEGU,  a  town  and  former  capital  of  Lower  Bttrma,  giving 
iU  name  to  a  district  and  a  division.  The  town  is  situated 
on  a  river  c^  the  same  name,  47  m.  N.E.  of  Rangoon  by  rail; 
pop.  (1901),  14,133.  It  ts  still  surroimded  by  the  old  walls, 
about  40  ft.  wide,  on  which  have  been  built  Uie  residences  of 
the  British  offidals.  The  most  conq[Mcuous  object  is  the  Shwe- 
mawHiaw  pagoda,  314  ft.  high,  considerably  larger  and  even 
more  holy  than  the  Shwe-dagon  pagoda  at  Rangoon.  Pegu 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  In  573,  as  the  fifst  capital  of  the 
TWaings;  but  it  was  as  the  capital  of  the  Toungoo  dynasty 
that  it  became  known  to  Europeans  in  the  x6th  century.  About 
the  middle  of  the  x8th  century  it  was  destroyed  by  Alompra; 
but  it  rose  again,  and  was  important  enough  to  be  the  scene 
of  fighting  in  both  the  first  and  sc<x>nd  Burmese  Wars.  It  gave 
its  name  to  the  province  (including  Rangoon)  vdiich  was  annexed 
by  the  British  in  1852. 

The  district,  which  was  formed  in  1883,  consists  of  an  alluvial 
tract  between  the  Pegu  Yoma  range  and  the  Sittang  river: 
area,  4276  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901),  339,572,  showing  an  increase  of 
43%  in  the  decade.  Christians  numbered  nearly  9000,  mostly 
Karens.  Almost  the  only  crop  grown  is  rice,  which  is  exported 
in  laxge  quantities  to  Rangoon.  The  district  is  traversed  by 
the  railway,  and  also  crossed  by  the  Pegu-Sittang  canal,  navi- 
gable for  85  m.,  with  locks. 

The  division  of  Pq^u  comprises  the  five  districta  of  Rangoon 
city,  Hanthawaddy,  Tharrawaddy,  Pegu  and  Prome,  lying  east 
of  the  Irrawaddy:  area  13,084  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901),  1,820,638. 

Pegu  has  also  given  its  name  to  the  Tegui  Yoma,  a  range  of  hills 
running  north  and  south  for  about  200  m.,  between  the  Irrawaddy 
and  Sittang  rivers.  The  height  nowhere  exceeds  sooo  ft. 
but  the  slopes  are  steep  and  rugged.  The  forests  yield  teak 
and  other  valuable  timber.  The  Pego  river,  which  rises  in 
this  range,  falls  into  the  Rangoon  river  just  below  Rangoon 
city,  after  a  coarse  of  about  180  m. 

PBIL^  JOHH  (1838-X910),  English  phlfelogist,  wis  bom 
at  Whitehaven  on  the  24th  of  Aprfl  1838.  He  was  educated  at 
Rcpton  and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  After  a  distinguished 
career  (Craven  scholar,  senior  classic  and  chancellor's  medallist), 
he  became  fcUow  and  tutor  of  his  college,  reader  of  comparative 
philology  in  the  university  (1884-1891),  and  in  1887  was  elected 
master  of  Christ's.  He  took  a  great  interest  in  the  higher 
education  of  women  and  became  president  of  Ncwnham  College. 
He  was  the  first  to  introduce  tLe  great  philological  works  of 
George  Curtius  and  Wilhehn  Orsscn  to  the  English  student 
in  his  Introduction  to  Creek  and  Latin  Etymahgy  (1869).  He 
died  at  Cambridge  on  the  9th  of  October  1910,  leaving 
practically  completed  his  exhaustive  history  of  Christ's  College. 

PBINI^  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  x6  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Brunswick,  on  the  railway  to 
Hanover  and  Hamburg.  Pop.  (1905),  i5,43x*  The  town  has 
a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  church  and  several  schools, 
lu  industries  indnde  iron  and  steel  works,  breweries,  distilleries 
and  brid^rards,  and  the  manufacture  of  stardi,  sugar,  malt, 
madiinery  and  artificial  manure.  There  are  also  large  horse 
and  cattle  markets  hdd  here.  Peine  was  at  one  time  a  strongly 
fortified  place,  and  untfl  1803  bdonged  to  the  bishopric  oif 
Hildesbdm. 

PBUfB  FORTE  BT  DURE  (French  for  "hard  and  severe 
punishment  "),  the  term  for  a  barbarous  torture  inflicted  on  those 
who,  arraigned  of  fdony,  refused  to  plead  and  stood  silent,  or 


challenged  more  than  twenty  jurors,  which  was  deemed  a  con- 
tumacy equivalent  to  a  refusal  to  plead.  By  early  English  law 
a  prisoner,  before  he  could  be  tried,  must  plead  "  guilty  "  or 
**  not  guilty."  Before  the  13th  century  it  was  usual  to  imprison 
and  starve  till  submission,  but  in  Henry  IV. 's  reign  the  peine 
was  empbycd.  The  prisoner  was  stretched  on  his  back,  and 
stone  or  iron  weights  were  placed  on  him  till  he  either  submitted 
or  was  pressed  to  death.  Pressing  to  death  was  abolidicd  in 
1772;  "  standing  mute"  on  an  arraignment  of  felony  being  then 
made  equivalent  to  conviction.  By  an  act  of  1828  a  plea  of 
*'  not  gtiilty  "  was  to  be  oitered  against  any  prisoner  refusing 
to  plead,  and  that  is  the  rule  to-day.  An  alternative  to  the 
peine  was  the  tying  of  the  thumbs  tightly  together  with  whip- 
cord until  pain  for^  the  prisoner  to  ^eak.  This  was  said  to  be 
a  common  practice  at  the  Old  Bailey  up  to  the  19th  century. 

Among  recorded  instances  of  the  infliction  of  the  Peine  a^i 
Juliana  Quick  (1442)  for  high  treason  in  speaking  derisively  of 
Henry  Vl.;  Margaret  Clitherow,  "  the  martyr  of  York  "  (is86); 
Walter  Calverly,  of  Calverly,  Yorks.  for  the  murder  of  his  childrea 
(1605) ;  and  Major  Strangways  at  Newgate,  charged  with  murder  of 
his  brother-in>Uw  (16^7).  In  this  last  ca«:  it  is  said  that  upon  the 
weights  being  placed  m  position  several  cavalier  friends  of  Strang- 
ways sprang  .on  his  body  and  put  him  out  of  his  pain.  In  1721  one 
Nathaniel  Hawes  lay  under  a  we^ht  of  250  lb  ior  seven  minutes, 
finally  submitting.  The  peine  was  last  employed  in  1741  at 
C^amoridge  assizes,  when  a  prisoner  was  so  put  to  death ;  the  penalty 
of  thumb'tying  having  first  been  tried.  In  1692  at  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, Giles  Corey,  accused  of  witchcrraft,  refuBin|(  to  plead,  waa 
pressed  to  death.  This  is  believed  to  be  the  only  instanoe  of  the 
mfliction  of  the  penalty  in  America. 

PBIPUS,  or  OnTOSKOYE  OttRO,  a  lake  of  north-west  Russia, 
between  the  governments  of  St  Petersburg,  Pskov,  Livonia  and 
Esthonla.  Induding  its  southern  extension,  sometimes  known 
as  Lake  Pskov,  it  has  an  area  of  1356  sq.  m.  Its  shores  are 
flat  and  sandy,  and  in  part  wooded;  its  waters  deep,  and  they 
afford  valuable  fishing.  The  lake  is  fed  by  the  Velikaya,  which 
enters  it  at  its  southern  extremity,  and  by  the  Embach,  which 
flows  in  half  way  up  its  western  ^re;  it  drains  into  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  by  the  Narova,  which  issues  at  its  north-east  comer. 

PBIRAEU8,  or  Pzsabus  (Gr.  Uupauvf),  the  port  town 
of  Athens,  with  which  its  Ustory  is  inseparably  connected. 
Pop.  (1907),  67,982.  It  consists  of  a  rocky  promontory,  contain- 
ing three  natural  harboun,  a  large  one  on  the  north-west  which 
is  still  one  of  the  chief  commercUl  harbours  of  the  Levant,  and 
two  smaller  ones  on  the  east,  which  were  used  chiefly  for  naval 
purposes.  Themistodes  was  the  first  to  urge  the  Athenians 
to  take  advantage  of  these  harbours,  instead  of  using  the  sandy 
bay  of  Phaleron;  and  the  fortification  <rf  the  Peiraeus  was  begun 
in  493  B.C.  Later  on  it  was  connected  with  Athens  by  the  Long 
Walli  in  460  B.C.  The  town  of  Pdraeus  was  laid  out  by  the 
architect  Hippodamus  of  Miletus,  probably  in  the  time  of 
Pericles.  The  promontory  itsdf  consisted  of  two  part»— the 
hill  of  Munychia,  and  the  projection  of  Acte;  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  great  harbour  was  the  outwork  of  Eetionda.  The 
most  stirring  episode  in  the  history  of  the  Pdraeus  is  the  feeizura 
of  Munychia  by  Thrasybulus  and  the  exiles  from  Phyle,  and  the 
consequent  destruction  of  the  "  30  tyrants  "  in  404  B.C.  The 
three  chief  arsenals  of  the  Pdraeus  wera  nam«i  Munychia, 
Zea'  and  Cantharus,  and  thQr  contained  galley  slips  for  83,  196 
and  94  ships  re^>ectivdy  in  the  4th  century  b.c. 

See  under  Athens.  Also  Angelopoulos,  11^  I|im«<Ai  ««t  *A» 
Xyiirav  ubreS  (Athens,  1 898). 

PEIRCB,  BENJAMIN  (1809-1880),  American  mathematidan 
and  astronomer,  was  bom  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
4th  of  April  1809.  Graduating  at  Harvard  College  in  1829, 
he  became  mathematical  tutor  there  in  1831  and  professor  in 
X833.  He  had  already  assisted  Nathaniel  Bowditch  in  his 
translation  of  the  iiUanique  cilesle,  and  iu>w  produced  a  series 
of  mathematical  textbooks  characterized  by  the  brevity  and 
terseness  which  made  his  teaching  unattractive  to  inapt  pupils. 
Young  men  of  talent,  on  the  contrary,  found  his  instruction 
most  stimulating,  and  after  Bowditch 's  death  in  1838  Pcirce 
stood  first  among  American  mathematicians.  His  researches 
into  the  perturbations  of  Uranus  and  Neptune  {Proe.  Amer. 


PEISANDER-^PEISISTRATUS 


59 


Atad,,  X848)  g&vt  liim  a  wider  fame;  he  became  in  1849  eon* 
suiting  astronomer  to  the  AhuHcoh  NatUicdi  Almanac^  and  for 
this  work  prepared  new  tables  of  the  moon  (185a).  A  discussion 
of  the  equilibrium  of  Saturn's  rings  led  him  to  conclude  in  1855 
that  they  must  be  of  a  fluid  nature.  From  2867  to  1874  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  G>ast  Survey.  In  1857  he  published  his 
best  known  work,  the  System  of  Atuifyiicai  Mechanics,  which 
was,  however,  surpassed  in  br^fiant  originality  by  his  Linear 
Associative  Algebra  (lithographed  privately  in  a  few  copies, 
1870;  reprinted  in  the  Awter.  Journ.  Math.,  1882).  He  died  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  the  6th  of  October  x88o. 

See  New  Amer.  Cyclopaedia  (Rifley  and  Dana),  toL  mL  (1661); 
T.  J.  J.  See.  Popular  Astrouomyt  iii.  49;  Nature,  zxii.  607;  R.  Grant, 
Hist,  of  Pkys.  Astronomy,  po,  205,  292;  J.  C.  Poggendorff.  Biog. 
tit.  Uandwdrterbuck;.  Month,  Notices  Roy.  Astr,  Society,  xli.  191. 

PEISANDBR,  of  Camlrus  in  Khodcs,  Greek  efnc  poet,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  about  640  b.c  He  was  the  author 
of  a  Heracteia,  in  which  he  introduced  a  new  conception  of  the 
hero,  the  lion's  skin  and  dub  taking  the  place  of  the  older 
Homeric  equipment.  He  is  also  said  to  have  fixed  the  number 
of  the  "  labours  of  Hercules  "  at  twelve.  The  work,  which  accord- 
ing to  Clement  of  Alexandria  {Stromata,  vi.  cb.  2)  was  simply 
a  plagiarism  from  an  unknown  Pislnus  of  Lindus,  enjoyed 
so  hlf^  a  reputation  that  the  Alexandrian  critics  admitted  the 
author  to  the  epic  canon.  From  an  epigram  (20)  of  Theocritus 
we  learn  that  a  statue  was  erected  in  honour  of  Peisander  by 
his  countrymen.  He  is  to  be  distinguished  from  Peisander 
of  Laranda  in  Lyda,  who  lived  during  the  reign  of  Alexander 
Sevenis  (a.d.  222-235),  and  wrote  a  poem  on  the  mixed  marriages 
of  gods  and  mortals,  after  the  manner  of  the  Eoiai  of  Hcsiod. 

See  fragments  in  G.  KinM.Epicorum  graecerumfragmenta  (1878): 
also  F.  G.  Wcldcer,  Kleine  Sckr^len,  vol.  i.  (1844),  on  the  twdve 
labours  of  Hercules  in  Peisander. 

FBISISTRATUS,  (6o5?-S27  B.C.),  Athenian  statesman,  was 
the  son  of  Hippocrates.  He  was  named  after  Peinstratus,  the 
youngest  son  of  Nestor,  the  alleged  ancestor  of  his  family;  he 
was  second  consin  on  his  mother's  side  to  Sbkm,  and  numbeitd 
among  his  ancestors  Codrus  the  last  great  king  of  Athens.  Thus 
among  those  who  became  "tyrants"  in  the  Greek  werid  he 
gained  his  position  as  one  of  the  old  nobility,  like  Phalaris  of 
Agrigentvm,  and  Lygdamis  of  Kaxos;  but  unlike  Orthagoras  of 
Sicyon,  who  had  previously  been  a  cook.  Peisistratus,  though 
Solon^  junior  by  thirty  years,  was  his  lifelong  friend  (though  this 
is  denied),  nor  did  their  friendship  suffer  owing  to  their  political 
antagonism.  From  this  widely  accepted  bdief  arose  the  ahnost 
certainly  false  statement  that  Peisistratus  took  part  in  Solon's 
successful  war  against  Mcgam,  which  necessarily  took  place 
before  Solon's  archonshrp  (probably  in  600  B.C.).  Aristotle's 
Constitution  of  Athens  (ch.  17)  carefully  distinguishes  Solon's 
Megarian  War  from  a  second  in  which  Peisistratus  was  no  doubt 
in  command,  undertaken  between  570  and  565  to  rec2q[>ture 
Nisaea  (the  port  of  Megara)  which  had  apparently  been  recovered 
by  the  Megarians  since  Sokm's  victory  (see  Sandys  on  Th^ 
Constitution  of  Athens,  cb.  14,  i,  note,  and  E.  Abbott,  History 
of  Greece,  vol.  i.  app.  p.  544).  Whatever  be  the  true  explanation 
of  this  proUem,  it  is  certain  (f)  that  Peiustratus  was  regarded 
as  a  leading  soldier,  and  (2)  that  his  position  was  strengthened 
by  the  prestige  of  his  family.  Furthermore  (3)  he  waa  a  man 
of  great  ambition,  persuasive  eloquence  and  wide  generosity; 
qualities  which  especially  appealed  at  that  time  to  the  classes 
from  whom  he  was  to  draw  his  support— whence  the  wanung  of 
Sokm  (Frag.  II.  B):  "  Fools,  you  are  treading  in  the  footsteps 
of  the  fox;  can  you  not  read  the  hidden  meaning  of  these  charm- 
ing  words?"  Lastly,  (4)  and  most  important,  the  times  were 
ripe  for  revolution.  In  the  article  on  SoLoN  (fldfim.)  it  is  shown 
that  the  Solonian  reforms,  though  they  made  a  great  advance 
in  some  dircctionB,  failed  on  the  whole.  They  were  too  modefate 
to  please  the  people,  too  democratic  for  the  nohlct.  It  was 
found  that  the  government  by  BoulE  and  Ecdesia  did  not  mean 
Itopukr  control  in  the  full  sense;  it  meant  goveimmcnt  by  the 
Icbured  dasscs,  inasnracfa  as  the  industrious  fanner  or  henhman 
could  not  leave  his  work  to  ipve  his  vote  at  the  Ecdesia,  or  do 
his  duly  a$  •  conndllor.    Partly  owing  to  Uus,  and  pixlly  to 


ancient  fends  whose  origin  we  cannot  ttmoe,  the  Athenian  peopio 
was  split  up  into  three  great  factions  known  as  the  Plain  (Pedieis) 
led  by  Lycurgus  and  Miltiadcs,  both  of  noble  families;  the  Shore 
(Parali)  led  by  the  Alcmaconidae,  represented  at  this  time  by 
Megadcs,  who  was  strong  in  his  wealth  and  by  his  recent  marriage 
with  Agariste,  daughter  of  Cldsthenes  of  Sicyon;  the  Hill  or 
Upland  {DiacreiSi  Diacrii)  kd  by  Peisistratus,  who  no  doubt 
owed  his  infloenoe  among  these  hillmen  partly  to  the  possessMn 
of  large  estates  at  Marathon.  In  the  two  former  divisions 
the  influence  of  wealth  and  birth  predominated;  the  hillmen 
were  poorly  housed,  poorly  dad  and  unable  to  make  tise  of  the 
privileges  which  Solon  had  given  them.^  Hence  their  attachment 
to  Peisistratus,  the  "  man  of  the  people,"  who  called  upon  them 
to  sweep  away  the  last  bozrieis  which  separated  rich  and  poor, 
nobles  and  commoners,  dty  and  countryside.  Lastly,  there 
was  a  class  of  men  who  were  discontented  with  the  Solonian- 
constitution:  some  had  lost  by  his  Seisachthda,  others  had 
vahdy  hoped  for  a  general  redistribution.  These  men  saw  their 
only  hope  in  a  revolution.  Such  were  the  factors  which  enabled 
him  to  foond  his  tyranny. 

To  enter  here  into  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  various  theories 
which  even  before,  though  espedally  after,  the  appearance  of 
the  Constitution  of  Athens  have  been  propounded  as  to  the 
chronology  of  the  Peisistntean  tyranny,  is  impossible.  For 
a  summary  of  these  hypotheses  see  J.  E.  Sandys's  editwn  of  the 
Constitution  of  Athens  (p.  56,  c  14  note).  The  following  is  in 
brief  the  sequence  of  events:  In  560  b.c  Peisirtratos  drove 
into  the  market-place,  showed  to  an  faidignant  assembly  marks 
of  violence  on  himsdf  and  his  mules,  and  claimed  to  be  the 
victim  of  assault  at  the  hands  of  political  enemies.  The  people 
unhesitatingly  awarded  their  **  champion "  a  bodyguard  of 
fifty  men  (afterwards  four  hundred)  armed  with  dubs.  With 
this  force  he  proceeded  to  make  himself  master  of  the  Acropolis 
and  tyrant  of  Athens.  The  Alcmaeonids  fled  and  Petsistratns 
remained  in  power  for  about  five  years,  during  which  Solon's 
death  occurred.  In  555  or  554  B.C.  a  coalition  of  the  Plain 
and  the  Coast  succeeded  In  espelling  him.  His  property  was 
confiscated  and  sold  by  auction,  but  in  hn  absence  the  strife 
between  the  Plain  and  the  Coast  was  renewed,  and  Mcgades, 
unable  to  hold  his  own,  invHed  him  to  return.  The  condition 
was  that  their  families  should  be  allied  by  the  marriage  of 
Pdsistratus  to  Megades'  daughter  Cocsyra.  A  second  coup  d'itai 
was  then  effected.  A  beautiful  woman,  it  is  said,  by  name 
Phya,  was  disguised  as  Athena  and  drove  into  the  Agora  with 
Peisistratus  at  her  side^  while  prodamations  were  made  that 
the  goddess  henclf  was  restoring  Peisistratus  to  Athens.  The 
ruse  was  successful,  but  Peisistratus  soon  quarrelled  with 
Mcgades  over  Cocsyra.  By  a  former  marriage  he  already  had 
two  sons»  Hippias  and  Hipparcbus,  now  growing  up,  and  in  his 
fint  tyranny  or  his  first  exile  he  married  an  Argive,  Tunonassa, 
by  whom  he  had  two  other  sons  lophon  and  Hegesistratus,  the 
latter  of  whom  Is  said  to  be  identical  with  Thcssalus  (A  tit.  PoL 
c.  17),  though  from  Thucydldes  and  Herodotus  we  gather  that 
they  were  distina— «.f.  Herodotus  describes  Heg^istratus  as 
a  bastard,  and  Thucydides  says  that  llieasalus  was  legitimate. 
Fnnher  it  is  suggested  that  PdsistTatus  was  unwiHing  to  have 
children  by  one  on  whom  lay  the  cmse  of  the  Cylonian  outrage. 
The  vesult  was  that  in  the  seventh  year  (or  month,  see  Ath.  Pot. 
c.  15.  I,  Sandys's  note)  Megades  accused  him  of  neglecting  his 
daughter,  combined  once  more  with  the  third  factkMi,  and 
drove  the  tyrant  into  an  eiile  bating  apparently  for  ten  or  eleven 
yens.  During  this  period  he  lived  fint  at  Rhaecehis  and  later 
near  Mt  Pangaeus  and  on  the  Strymon  collecting  resources  of 
men  and  money.  He  came  finally  to  Eretria,  and,  with  the  help 
of  the  Tbebans  and  Lygdanis  of  Nasos,  whom  he  afterwards 
made  ruler  of  that  island,  he  passed  over  to  Attica  and  defeated 
the  Athenian  forces  at  the  battle  of  Pallenis  or  Pdlene.  Fronr 
Ihis  time  till  his  death  he  remained  undisputed  master  of  Athens. 
The  Alcmaeonids  were  compelled  to  Irave  Athens,  and  from 

^  It  is  suggested  with  probability  that  the  Diacrii  were  rather 
the  miners  of.  the  Lawium  district  (P.  M.  Ure,  Joum.  HeU.  Stud., 
1906,  pp.  131*142). 


^o 


PEKIN 


ihe  otber  noUe  families  which  icmained  he  exacted  400  hostages 
whom  he  put  in  the  caie  of  his  ally  Lygdamis. 

In  the  heyday  of  the  Athenian  democracy,  dtixens  both 
conservative  and  progresaive,  politicians,  philosophers  and 
historians  were  unanimous  in  their  denunciation  of  "  tyranny." 
Yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  rule  of  Peisistratus  was  most 
beneficial  to  Athens  both  in  her  foreign  and  in  her  internal 
relations.  <x)  During  his  enforced  absence  from  Athens  he 
had  evidently  acquired  a  far  more  extended  idea  of  the  future 
of  Athens  than  had  hitherto  dawned  on  the  somewhat  parochial 
minds  of  her  leaders.  He  was  friendly  with  Thcbei  and  Aigos; 
his  son  Hegesistratus  he  set  in  power  at  Sigeum  (see  E.  Abbott, 
His(.  of  Gr.  voL  i.  xv.  9)  and  his  friend  Lygdamis  at  Naxok 
From  the  mines  of  Thrace,  and  perhaps  from  the  harbour  dues 
and  from  the  mines  of  Laurium,  he  derived  a  large  revenue; 
under  his  encouragement,  JMiltiades  had  planted  an.  Athenian 
coJony  on  the  shores  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese;  he  had  even 
made  friends  with  Tbessaly  and  Macedonia,  as  is  evidenced  by 
the  hospitality  extended  by  them  to  Hippias-on  his  final  ex- 
pulsion. Finally,  he  did  not  allow  his  friendliness  with  Argos 
to  involve  him  in  war  with  Sparta,  towards  whom  he  pursued  a 
policy  of  moderation,  (a)  At  home  it  is  admitted  by  aU  authori* 
ties  that  his  rule  was  moderate  and  beneficent,  and  that  he  was 
careful  to  preserve  at  least  the  form  of  the  established  constitu- 
tion. It  is  even  said  that,  being  accused  of  murder,  he  was  ready 
to  be  tried  by  the  Areopagus.  Everything  which  he  did  during 
his  third  period  of  rule  was  in  the  interests  of  discipline  and  order. 
Thus  he  hired  a  mercenary  bodyguard,  and  utilized  for  his  own 
purposes  the  public  revenues;  he  kept  the  chief  magistracies 
(through  which  he  ruled)  in  the  hands  of  his  family;  he  imposed 
a  general  tax*  of  10%  (perhaps  reduced  by  Hippias  to  5%) 
on  the  produce  of  the  land,  and  thus  obtained  control  over  the 
fleet  and  spzead  the  burden  of  it  over  all  the  citixens  (see  the 
spurious  letter  of  Peisistratus  to  Solon,  IHog.  LairL  i.  53;  Tliuc. 
vi.  54.  and  Amold^s  note  ad  loc.;  Boeckh  iii.  6;  ThirlwaU  c.  xi., 
pp.  73-74;  and  Grote).  But  the  great  wisdom  of  Peisistratus  is 
shown  most  deariy  in  the  skill  with  which  he  blinded  the  people 
to  his  absolutism.  Pretending  to  maintain  the  Solonian  con- 
stitution (as  he  could  well  afford),  he  realized  that  people  would 
never  recognize  the  deception  if  a  sufficient  degree  of  prosperity 
were  ensured.  Secondly,  he  knew  that  the  greater,  the  propor- 
tion of  the  Athenians  who  were  prosperottsly  at  work  in  the 
country  and  therefore  did  not  trouble  to  interfere  in  the  work 
of  government  the  less  would  be  the  danger  of  sedition,  whose  seeds 
are  in  a  crowded  dty.  Hence  he  appean  to  have  encouraged 
agriculture  by  abating  the  tax  on  small  farms,  and  even  by 
assisting  them  with  money  and  stock.  Secondly,  he  established 
deme  law-courts  to  prevent  people  from  having  recourse  to 
the  dty  tribunals;  it  is  said  that  he  hhnself  occasionally  *'  went 
on  circuit,"  and  on  one  of  these  occasions  was  ao  strudi  by  the 
I^nts  of  an  old  farmer  on  Hymettus,  that  he  remitted  all 
taxation  on  his  land.  Thus  Athens  enjoyed  immunity  from 
war  and  intemedne  struggle,  and  for  the  first  lime  for  years 
was  in  enjoyment  of  settled  finandal  prosperity  (see  ConstiltAwn 
cf  Athens,  c.  x6.  T  hhcl  Kp&irw  fiios)» 

The  money  which  he  accumulated  he  put  to  good  use  in  the 
construction  of  roads  and  public  buildings.  Like  Cleisthenes 
of  Sicyon  and  Periander  of  G>rinth,  he  realized  that  one  great 
source  of  strength  to  the  nobles  had  been  their  presidency  over 
the  local  cults.  This  he  diminished  by  increasing  the  splendour 
of  the  Panathenaic  festival  every  fourth  year  and  the  Dionysiac' 
rites,  and  so  created  a  national  rather  than  a  local  religion. 
With  the  same  idea  he  built  the  temple  of  thjc  Pythian  ApoUo  and 
began,  though  he  did  not  finish,  the  temple  of  Zeus  (the  magni- 
ficent columns  now  standing  belong  to  the  age  of  Hadrian). 

'  It  should  be  noted  as  against  this,  the  genera!  account,  that 
Thucydides,  speaking  apparently  with  accuracy,  describes  the  tax 
as  daoT^  ($%):  the  Constiiutim  of  Athens  speaks  of  (the  familiar) 
imvri  {10%). 

*  Dionysus,  as  the  god  of  the  rustics,  was  especially  worshipped 
at  Icaria,  near  Marathon,  and  so  was  the  god  of  the  Diacrii.  It 
aeema  likely  tlat  Peisistratus,  to  please  hia  supporters,  origiBated 
the  City-Dionysia. 


To  him  are  ascribed  also  the  oiigimil  Partbenon  on  the  Acropolisb 
afterwards  burned  by  the  Persians,  and  replaced  by  the  Partbeoon 
of  Peridies.  It  is  said  that  he  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the 
dranui.tlc  representatioos  which  belonged  to  die  Diouysiac 
cult,  and  that  it  was  under  his  encouragonent  that .  Thcspia 
of  Icaria,  by  impersonating  diaracter,  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  great  Greek  drama  of  the  5th  and  4th  centuries.  Lastly-. 
Peisistratus  carried  out  the  purification  of  Delos,  the  sacrMi 
island  of  Apollo  of  the  lonians;  all  the  tombs  were  reniove4 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  duiney  th$  abode  U.  the  god  ol 
light  and  joy. 

We  have  spoken  of  his  services  to  the  states  to  the  poor,  to 
religion.  It  remains  to  mention  his  alleged  services  to  literature. 
All  we  can  reasonably  believe  Is  that  he  gave  encouragement 
to  poetry  as  he  had  done  to  architecture  and  the  drama;  Onoma- 
critus,  the  chief  of  the  Orphic  succession,  and  collector  of  the 
orad^  of  Musaeus,  was  a  member  of  his  household.  Honestly, 
or  to  impress  the  people,  Peisistratus  made  considerable  use  of 
oracles  {e.g.  at  the  battle  of  Pellene),  and  his  descendants,  by 
the  oracles  of  Onomacritus,  persuaded  Darius  to  undertake 
their  restoration..  As  to  the  library  of  Peisistratus,  we  have  no 
good  evidence;  it  may  perhaps  be  a  fiction  of  an  Alexandrian 
writer.  There  b  strong  reason  for  believing  the  story  that  he 
first  collected  the  Homeric  poems  and  thaf  his  was  the  tpxt 
which  ultimatdy  prevailed  (see  Homck). 

It  appears  that  Pdsistratus  was  benevolent  td  the  last,  and, 
like  JfuUus  Caesar,  showed  no  resentment  against  enemies  and 
calumniators.  What  Solon  said  of  him  in  his  youth  was  true 
throughout,  **  there  is  no  better-disposed  man  in  Athens,  save 
for  his  ambitioQ."  He  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Hippias 
and  Hipparchus,  by  whom  the  tyranny  was  in  various  ways 
brought  into  disrepute. 

It  should  be  observed  ^at  the  tyranny  of  Pewistrstus  isvne 

of  the  many  epochs  of  Greek  history  on  which  opinion  has  almost 

entirdy  dumged  since  the  age  of  Grote.    Shortly,  his  services 

to  Greece  and  to  the  wodd  may  be  summed  up  under  three  heads: 

In  JForeign  policy,  he  sketched  out  the  plan  on  which  Athens 

was  to  act  in  her  external  relations.    He  advocated  (a)  alliances 

with  Aigos,  Thessaly  and  Maccdoa,  {b)  ascendancy  in  the  Aegean 

(Naxos  and  Delos),  (c)  control  of  the  Hellespontine    route 

(Sigeum  and  the  Chersonese),  (iQ  control  of  the  Strymon  valley 

(Mt  Pangaeus  and  the  Strymon).    Further,  his  rule  exemplifies 

what  is  characteristic  of  all  the  Greek  tyrannies — the  advantage 

which  the  andent  monarchy  had  over  the  republican  form 

of  government.    By  means  of  his  sons  and  his  deputies  (or 

viceroys)  and  by  his  system  of  matrimonial  alliances  he  gave 

Athens  a  widespread  influence  in   the  centres  of  commerce, 

and  brought  her  into  connexion    with  the  growing  sources 

of  trade  and  production  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the   Greek 

worldr    (a)  His  importance  in  the  sphere  of  domestic  policy 

has  been  frequently  underrated.    It  may  fairly  be  held  that 

the  reforms  of  Solon  would  have  been  futile  had  they  not  been 

fulfilled  and  amplified  by  the  genius  of  Peisistratus.    (3)  It 

was  under  his  auspices  that  Athens  began  to  take  the  lead  in 

literature.     From  this   period  we  must  date    the  beginning 

of  Athenian  literary  ascendancy.    But  see  Athens. 

AVTHOUTiBS.'^AncietU:  Herod,  i.  50;  Pint.  Sehn  30;  Arist. 
Politics^  V.  12,  V  i;)is  b. ;  Constitution  of  Athens  {Ath.  JPol.)  cc  14-19- 
On  the  chronological  problems  see  also  P.  Meyer,  Arist.  Pol.  and 
the  Ath.  Pol.  pp.  46-9;  Gompers,  Die  Schrift  9.  Staatswesen.  Sec. 
(1891);  Bauer,  Lit,  und  hist,  Forsch.  a.  Arist.  Ath.  Pd.  (50  sc^q.). 
On  the  characteristics  of  the  Peisistratid  tyranny  see  Grceniugc. 
Handbooh  qfCreeh  Conslituiional History,  pp.  26  sqq. ;  and  the  histories 
of  Greece.  On  the  question  of  the  family  of  Peisistratus  see  Wilamo- 
witc-Moellendorif,  Aristoteles  undAlhen  (Berlin,  1893)  and  a  criticism 
by  E.  M.  Walker  in  the  Classical  ReoieVt  vol.  viii.  p.  206,  col.  2. 

(J.  M.M.) 

PEKIIf,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Tazewell  county, 
Illinois,  U^.A.,  on  the  Illinois  river,  in  the  central  part  of  the 
state,  about  11  m.  S.  of  Peoria,  and  about  56  m.  N.  of  Springfield. 
Pop.  (1910),  9897.  It  is  served  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  Ti^  the  Chicago  &  Alton,  the  Chicago,  Peoria  &. 
St  Louis,  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Clevdand,  Cincinnati,  Chicago 
&  St  Louis*  the  Peoria. Railway  Terminal  Company,  the  Peoiia 


PEKING 


6i 


&  Fekitt  Union  ami  (for  fretsht  between  Peoxia  and  Pekin)  the 
Illinois  Valley  Belt  railways.  Situated  in  a  xich  agrictthural 
cegk>n  and  in  the  Illinois  coalfields,  Pekin  is  a  shipping  point 
and  grain  market  of  considerable  importance,  and  has  various 
manufactures.  The  valne  of  the  factory  products  in  1905  was 
$i,iix,i30.  Pekin  was  first  settled  about  1830,  was  incorpor- 
ated in  XS39,  and  re-incorporated  in  1874. 

PBKUiG,  or  Pekin,  the  capital  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  situated 
lA  39*  57'  N>  and  116^  29'  £.,  on  the  northern  ektremity  of  the 
great  alluvial  delta  which  extends  southward  from  Its  walls  for 
700  m.  For  nine  centuries  Peking,  under  various  names  and 
under  the  doqunion  of  successive  dynasties,  has,  with  some 
diort  itttervab,  remained  aa  Imperial  city.  Its  situation  near 
the  northern  frontier  reoomniended  it  to  the  Tatar  invaders  as 
a  convenient  centre  for  their  power,  and  its  peculiarly  fortunate 
position  as  regards  the  supernatural  terrestrial  inl^ences  per- 
taining to  it  has  inctined  succeeding  Chinese  monarchs  to  accept 
it  as  the  seat  of  their  courts.  In  986  it  was  taken  by  an  Invading 
force  of  Khitan  Tatars,  who  adopted  it  as  their  headquarters 
and  named  it  Nanking,  or  tfae  "  southern  capitaL"  During  the 
early  part  of  the  1 2th  century  the  Chinese  recaptured  it  and  re- 
duced it  from  the  rank  of  a  metropolis  to  (hat  of  a  provincial 
city  of  the  first  grade,  and  called  k  Ycn-rium  Fu.  In  1x51  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Kin  Tatars,  who  made  it  a  loyal 
residence  under  the  name  of  Chung-tu,  or  "  central  capitsd." 
has  than  a  century  later  it  became  the  prise  of  Jenghiz  Khan, 
who,  having  his  main  interests  centred  on  the  Mongolian  steppes, 
declined  to  move  his  court  southwards.  His  great  successor, 
Kublai  Khan  (x38o-xa94),  rebuilt  the  town,  which  he  called 
Yenking,  aiKl  which  became  known  in  Chinese  as  Ta-tu,  or 
"  great  court,"  and  in  Mongolian  as  Khanbalik  (Cambaluc),  or 
"  city  of  the  khan."  •  During  the  reign  of  the  first  emperor  of 
the  d3masty  (x568-r399}  which  succeeded  that  founded  by 
Jen^is  Khan  the  court  resided  at  the  nuxiem  Nankingt  but 
the  suoceedinig  sovereign  Yung-lo  (1403-1425)  transferred  his 
court  to  Pe-king  (ijc. "  north-court "),  which  has  ever  since  been 
the  seat  of  government.    For  further  iHstory  see  CXxBALua 

During  the  periods  above  mentioned  the  extent  and  boundaries 
of  the  city  varied  considerably.  Under  the  Kin  dynasty  the 
walls  extended  to  the  south-west  of  xhc  Tatar  portion  of  tfae 
present  city,  and  the  foundations  of  the  northern  ramparts  of 
the  Khan*4>alik  of  Kublai  Khan  are  still  to  be  traced  at  a  distance 
of  about  2  m.  north  beyond  the  odsting  walls.  The  modem 
city  consists  of  the  ttei  ch'  Ins,  or  inner  city;  commonly  known  to 
foreigners  as  the  **  Tatar  dty,'*  and  the  wtU  cVing,  or  outer 
city,  known  in'  the  same  way  as  the  *'  Chinese  city."  These 
names  are  somewhat  misleading,  as  the  inner  dty  is  not  enclosed 
within  the  outer  dty,  but  adjoins  its  northern  wall,  which,  being 
longer  than  the  nci  ch'ing  is  wide,  outflanks  it  considerably  at 
both  mds.  The  outer  walls  of  the  double  dty  contain  an  area 
of  about  25  sq.  m.,  and  measure  30  m.  in  drcumfcrence.  Unlike 
the  walls  of  most  Chinese  dties,  those  of  Peking  are  kept  in 
perfect  order.  Those  of  the  Tatar  poriron,  which  is  the  oldest 
part  of  the  dty,  are  50  ft.  high,  with  a  width  of  60  ft.  at  the  base 
and  40  ft.  at  the  topt  while  those  «f  the  Chinese  dty,  which  were 
built  by  the  emperor  Kia-tsing  in  1543,  measure  30  ft.  in  bdght, 
and  have  a  width  of  35  ft.  at  the  base  and  x  5  ft.  at  the  top.  The 
terre-plein  is  well  and  smoothly  paved,  and  is  defendixi  by  a 
crenellated  parapet.  The  outer  fac^s  of  the  walls  are  strength- 
ened by  square  buttresses  built  out  at  intervab  of  60  yds.,  and 
on  the  summits  of  these  stand  the  guard-houses  for  the  troops 
on  duty.  Each  of  the  sixteen  gates  of  the  city  is  protected  by 
a  semi-drcular  eiKeinte,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  high  tower 
built  in  galleries  and  provided  with  countless  kx^oles. 

Peking  sufleied  severely  during  the  Boxer  movement  and  the 
siege  of  the  legations  in  the  summer  of  1900.  Not  only  were 
most  of  the  foreign  buildings  destroyed,  but  also  a  large  number 
of  important  Chinese  buildings  in  the  vicinity  of  the  foreign 
quarter,  induding  the  andcnt  Hanlin  Yuen,  the  boards  of  war, 
rites,  ftc.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  business  quarter,  the 
wealthiest  part  of  the  Chinese  city,  was  laid  in  ashes  (ate 
China:  Bistwy). 


The  population  of  Peking  Is  leckoned  to  be  about  1,000,000', 
a  number  which  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  immense  area 
endosed  within  its  walls.  This  disparity  is  partly  accounted 
for  by  the  facts  that  large  spaces,  notably  in  the  Chinese  city, 
are  not  built  over,  and  that  the  grounds  surrounding  the  imperial 
palace,  private  residences  and  temples  are  very  extensive.  One 
of  such  endosures  constitutes  the  British  legation,  and  most 
of  the  other  foreign  legatioia  are  similarly,  though  not  so 
sumptuously,  lodged.  Viewed  from  the  walls  Pddng  looks  like 
a  city  of  gardens.  Few  crowded  ndghbourboods  are  visible, 
and  the  characteristic  features  of  the  scene  which  meeu  the  eye 
are  the  upturned  roofs  of  temples,  palaces,  and  mansions,  gay 
with  blue,  green  and  yellow  glased  tiles,  gUtteiing  among  the 
groves  of  trees  with  which  the  dty  abounds.  It  is  fortunate 
that  the  dty  is  not  dose^nult  or  crowded,  for  since  the  first 
advent  of  foreigners  in  Peking  m  x86o  nothing  whatever  had  been 
done  untfl  1900  to  improve  the  streets  or  the  dialnage.  The 
streets  as  originally  hiid  out  were  wide  and  spacious,  but  being 
unpaved  and  undrained  they  were  no  better  than  mud  tracks 
diversified  by  piles  of  garbage  and  foul-smelling  stagnant  pools. 
Such  drainage  as  had  at  «ne  time  existed  was  allowed  to  get 
choked  up,  giving  rise  to  typhoid  fever  of  a  virulent  type.  Some 
attempt  has  been  nuule  to  tmpiove  matters  by  nutcadamizing 
one  of  the  prindpal  thoroughfares,  but  it  wiU  be  the  labour  of  a 
Hercules  to  deanse  this  vast  dty  from  the  accumulated  fltb  of 
ages  of  neglect. 

Endosed  within  the  Tatar  dty  is  the  Hwang  ch*Hg,  or 
"  Imperial  city,"  which  in  its  turn  encloses  the  Tsu-kin  tk*Hg, 
or  "Forbidden  city,"  in  which  sUndsthe  emperor's  palace. 
On  the  north  of  the  Tac-kin  e^htg,  and  separated  from  it  by 
amoat,isanartifidalmoundknownastheiiC»»gjAaf»,  or  "  Pros- 
pect Hill."  This  mound,  which  forms  a  ptomineiit  object  in 
the  view  over  the  dty,  is  about  150  ft.  high,  and  is  topped  with 
five  summits,  on  each  of  which  stands  a  temple.  It  ii  endrcled 
by  a  wall  measuring  upwards  of  a  mile  in  drcumfcrence,  and  is 
prettily  planted  with  trees,  on  one  of  which  the  last  emperor 
of  the  Ming  dynasty  (X644),  finduig  escape  from  the  Mancbu 
invaders  impossible,  hanged  himsdf.  On  the  west  of  Pto^p^ei 
Hill  is  the  Si  yuan,  or  '^Western  Park,"  ivhicfa  forms  part  of 
the  palace  grounds.  Tliis  patlc  is  tastefully  laid  out,  and  is' 
traversed  by  a  lake,  which  is  mainly  noticeable  from  the  remarfc-^ 
ably  handsome  marblo  bridge  which  crosses  it  from  east  to  west. 
Directly  northwards  from  Prospect  Hill  stands  the  residence  of 
the  Titu,  or  "governor  of  the  dty,"  and  the  Bell  and  the  Drum 
To^vers,  both  of  which  have  attained  celebrity  from  the  nature 
of  thdr  oontents^-'the  first  from  the  huge  bdl  which  hangs  in  it, 
and  the  second  from  the  appliances  it  contains  for  maildiig  the 
time.  The  bellis  one  of  five  which  the  emperor  Yung-Io  ordered 
to  be  cast.  In  common  with  the  others,  it  weighs  120,000  lb, 
is  X4  ft.  high,  34  ft.  in  drcuxnferenceat  the  rim,  and  9  in.  thick. 
It  is  struck  by  a  wooden  beam  swung  on  the  outside,  and  only 
at  tfae  changes  of  the  night-watches,  when  its  deep  tone  may  be 
heard  in  all  parts  of  the  dty.  In  the  Drum  Tower  incense-sticks, 
specially  prepared  by  the  astronomical  board,  aie  kept  burning 
to  mark  the  passage  of  time,  in  which  important  duty  their 
accuracy  is  checked  by  a  depsydra.  Another  of  Yung-lo*s 
bells  is  hung  in  a  Buddhist  temple  outside  the  north-west  angle 
of  the  dty  wall,  and  is  covered  both  on  the  inside  and  outside 
with  the  Chinese  texts  of  the  LankdvaUra  SiUra,  and  the  Sad^ 
dkarma  pimdarika  SiUra. 

Turning  southwards  we  come  again  to  the  Forbidden  City,  the 
central  portion  of  which  forms  the  imperial  palace,  where,  in  halls 
which  for  the  magnificence  of  their  proportions  and  barbaric 
splendour  are  probably  not  to  be  surpassed  anywhere,  the  S>on 
of  Heaven  holds  hb  court.  In  the  eastern  axui  western  portions 
of  this  dty  are  situated  the  residences  of  the  higfaest  dignitaries 
of  the  empire;  while  beyond  its  confines  on  the  sooth  stand  the 
offices  of  the  six  official  boards  which  direct  the  affairs  of  the 
eighteen  provinces.  It  was  in  the  "  yamte  "  of  one  of  these 
boards — the  If  Pu  or  board  of  rites — that  Lord  Elgin  signed 
the  treaty  at  the  condnsion  of  the  war  in  i860— an  event  which 
derives  etpedal  interest  from  the  fact  of  its  having  been  the  first 


6a 


PELAGIA,  ST— PELAGIUS  (POPES) 


occaskm  on  which  a  Euroixan  plenipotentiary  ever  entered 
Peking  accompanied  by  all  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  his 
fank. 

Outside  the  Forbidden  City  the  most  noteworthy  building  is 
the  Temple  ol  Heaven,  which  stands  in  the  outer  or  Chinese 
city.  Here  at  early  morning  on  the  21st  of  December  the 
emperor  offers  sacrifice  on  an  open  altar  to  Shang-ti,  and  at 
periods  of  drought  or  famine  presents  prayers  for  rdicf  to  the 
same  supreme  deity.  The  altar  at  which  these  solemn  rites 
are  performed  consists  of  a  triple  circular  marble  terrace,  210  ft. 
wide  at  the  base,  150  in  the  middle  and  90  at  the  top.  The 
uppermost  surface  is  paved  with  blocks  of  the  same  material 
forming  nine  concentric  circles,  tlw  innermost  consisting  of  nine 
blocks,  and  that  on  the  outside  of  eighty-one  blocks.  On  the 
central  stone,  which  is  a  perfect  circle,  the  emperor  kneels. 
In  the  same  temple  stands  the  altar  of  prayer  for  good  harvests, 
which  is  surmounted  by  a  triple-roofed  circular  structure  99  ft. 
in  height.  The  tiles  of  these  roofs  are  glazed  porcelain  of  the 
most  exquisite  deep-blue  colour,  and  add  a  conspicuous  element 
of  splendour  to  the  shrine. 

The  other  powers  of  nature  have  shrines  dedicated  to  them  in 
the  altar:  to  the  Earth  on  the  north  of  the  city,  the  altars  to  the 
Sun  and  Moon  outside  the  north-eastern  and  north-western 
angles  respectively  of  the  Chinese  city,  and  the  altar  of  agricul- 
ture inside  the  south  gate  of  thd  Chinese  dty.  Next  to  these 
in  religious  importance  comes  the  Confucian  temple,  known  as 
the  Kwhlsae-kien,  Here  there  is  no  splendour;  everything  is 
quite  plain;  and  one  hall  contains  all  that  is  sacred  in  the 
building.  There  the  tablets  of  "the  soul  of  the  most  holy 
ancestral  teacher,  Confucius,"  and  of  his  ten  principal  disdples 
stand  as  objects  of  w<»ship  for  their  countless  followers.  In  one 
courtyard  of  this  temple  are  deported  the  celebrated  ten  stone 
drums  which  bear  poetical  inscriptions  commemorative  of  the 
hunting  expeditions  of  King  SOan  (827-781  B.C.),  in  whose  reign 
they  are  believed,  though  erroneously,  to  have  been  cut;  and 
in  another  stands  a  series  of  stone  tablets  on  which  are  inscribed 
the  names  of  all  those  who  have  obtained  the  highest  literary 
degree  of  Tsinski  for  the  last  five  centuries. 

In  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  Tatar  city  used  to  stand 
the  observatory,  which  was  built  by  order  of  Kublai  Khan  in 
1296.  During  the  period  of  the  Jesuit  ascendancy  in  the  reign 
of  K'ang-hi  (1661-1721),  the  superintendence  of  this  institution 
was  confided  to  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  Under  whose 
guidance  the  bronze  instruments  formerly  existing  were  con- 
structed. The  inhabitants  of  Peking  being  consumers  only, 
and  in  no  way  producers,  the  trade  of  the  city  is  very  small, 
though  the  city  is  open  to  foreign  commerce.  In  1897  a  railway 
was  opened  between  Tientsin  and  Peking.  This  was  only 
effected  after  great  opposition  from  the  ultni'Cxmservatives, 
but  once  accomplished  the  facilities  were  gladly  accepted  by  all 
classes,  and  the  traffic  both  in  goods  and  passengers  is  already 
enormous.  Out  of  deference  to  the  scruples  of  the  ultra-Conser- 
vatives, the  terminus  was  fix«]  at  a  place  called  Lu-Kou-ch'iao, 
some  4  m.  outside  the  walls,  but  this  distance  has  since  been 
covered  by  an  electric  tramway.  The  trunk  line  constructed 
by  the  Franco>Belgian  syndicate  connects  Lu-Kou-ch'iao,  the 
ori^nal  terminus,  with  Hankow — ^hence  the  name  Lu-Han  by 
which  this  trunk  line  is  generally  spoken  of,  Lu  being  short  for 
LU'Kou-ch'iao  and  Han  for  Hankow. 

BiBLiOGRAPny. — A  Williamson,  Journeys  in  North  China,  Man- 
chmria  and  EasUm  Mongolia  (2  vols.,  London.  1870) ;  S.  W.  WilUams. 
The  Middle  Kingdom,  revised  cd.  ^New  York,  1883);  A  Favicr, 
Pkking,  histoire  et  description  (Peking,  1900 — contains  over  800 
illu&trations,  most  of  them  reproductions  of  the  work  of  Chinese 
artists) ;  N.  Oliphant,  A  Diary  of  the  Siegfi  of  the  Legations  in  Peking 
during  the  Summer  oifjpoo  (London,  1901);  A.  H.  Smith,  China  in 
ContMsion  (2  vols.,  ^mburgbt  1902).  (R.  K.  D.) 

PBLAOIA,  ST.  An  Antiochene  saint  of  this  name,  a  virgin  of 
fifteen  years,  who  chose  death  by  a  leap  irom  the  housetop 
rather  than  dishonour,  is  mentioned  by  Ambrose  {De  virg.  iii. 
7f  33*  Ep.xxxvU.  ad  Simplic.),  and  is  the  subject  of  two  sermons 
by  Chrysostiwi.  Her  festival  was  celebrated  on  the  8th  of 
Octob^  (Wright's  Syrioc  Martyrahgy).   In  the-Greek  fynaxaria 


the  same  day  is  assigned  to  two  other  saints  of  the  name  of 
Pelapa — one,  also  of  Antioch,  and  sometimes  called  Margarito 
and  also  "  the  sinner  "\  the  other,  known  as  Pelagia  of  Tarsus, 
in  Cilicia.  The  legend  of  the  former  of  these  two  is  famous. 
She  was  a  celebrated  dancer  and  courtesan,  who,  in  the  full 
flower  of  her  beauty  and  guilty  sovereignty  over  the  youth  of 
Antioch,  was  suddenly  converted  by  the  influence  of  the  holy 
bishop'  Nonnus,  whom  she  had  heard  preaching  in  front  of  a 
church  which  she  was  passing  with  her  gay  train  of  attendants 
and  admirers.  Seeking  out  Nonnus,  she  overcame  his  canonical 
scruples  by  her  tears  of  genuine  penitence,  was  baptized,  and, 
disguising  herself  in  the  garb  of  a  male  penitent,  retired  to  a 
grotto  on  the  Mount  of  Ofives,  where  she  died  after  three  years 
of  strict  penance.  Tins  story  seems  to  combine  with  the  name 
of  the  older  Pelagia  some  traits  from  an  actual  history  referred 
to  by  Chrysostom  iHom.  in  MaUh.  Ixvii.  3).  In  associating 
St  Pelagia  with  St  Marina,  St  Margaret  (?.v.),  and  others,  of 
whom  either  the  name  or  the  legend  recalls  Pelagia,  Hermann 
Uscner  has  endeavoured  to  show  by  a  series  of  subtle  deductions 
that  this  saint  is  only  a  Christian  travesty  of  Aphrodite.  But 
there  is  no  doubt  of  tiie  existence  of  the  first  Pelagia  of  Antioch, 
the  Pelagia  of  Ambrose  and  Chrysostom.  The  legends  which 
have  subsequently  become  connected  with  her  name  are  the 
result  of  a  very  common  development  in  literary  history. 

See  Acta  sanctorum,  October,  iv.  348  seq.;  H.  Usenet,  Legienden 
der  heiligen  Pelagia  (Bonn,  i879><  H.  Dekhayc,  Tke  Legends  of  tise 
Saints  (London,  1907),  pp.  197-205.  (H.  Db.) 

PELAGIUS.  the  name  of  two  popes. 

PELACitJS  I.,  pope  from  555  to  561,  was  a  Roman  by  birth, 
and  first  appears  in  history  at  Constantinople  in  the  rank  of 
deacon,  ^nd  as  apocrisiarius  of  Pope  Silverius,  whose  over- 
throw in  favour  of  Vigilius  his  intrigues  promoted.  VigiUus 
continued  him  in  his  diplomatic  appointment,  and  he  was 
sent  by  the  emperor  Justinian  in  542  to  Antioch  on  eccle- 
siastical business;  he  afterwards  took  part  in  the  synod  at 
Gaza  which  deposed  Paul  of  Alexandria.  He  had  amassed  some 
wealth,  which  on  his  return  to  Rome  he  so  employed  among  the 
poor  as  to  secure  for  himself  great  popularity;  and,  when  Vigilius 
was  summoned  to  Byzantium  in  544,  Pelagius,  now  archdeacon, 
was  left  behind  as  his  vicar,  and  by  his  tact  in  dealing  with  Totila, 
the  (jothic  invader,  saved  the  citizens  from  murder  and  outrage. 
He  appears  to  have  folk>wed  his  master  to  Constantinople,  and 
to  have  taken  part  in  the  Three  Chapters  controversy;  in  553, 
at  all  events,  he  signed  the  "  constitutum  "  of  Vigilius  in  favour 
of  these,  and  for  refusing,  with  him,  to  accept  the  decrees  of  the 
fifth  general  council  (the  2nd  of  ConstanliiK>ple,  553)  shared 
his  exile.  Even  after  Vigilius  had  approved  the  comdemnation 
of  the  Three  Chapters,  Pelagius  defended  them,  and  even  pub- 
lished a  book  on  the  subject.  But  when  Vigilius  died  (June  7, 
555),  he  accepted  the  council,  and  allowed  himself  to  be  desig- 
nated by  Justinian  to  succeed  the  late  pope.  It  was  in  these 
circumstances  that  he  returned  to  Rome;  but  most  of  the  clergy, 
suspecting  his  orthodoxy,  and  believing  him  to  have  had  some 
share  in  the  removal  of  his  predecessor,  shunned  his  fellowship. 
He  enjoyed,  however,  the  support  of  Narses,  and,  after  he  had 
publicly  purged  himself  of  complicity  in  Vigillus's  death  in  the 
church  of  St  Peter,  he  met  with  toleration  in  hisown  immediate 
diocese.  The  rest  of  the  western  bisihops,  however,  stUl  held 
aloof,  and  the  eplscc^ate  of  Tuscany  caused  his  name  to  be 
removed  from  the  diptychs.  This  elicited  from  him  a  circular, 
in  which  he  asserted  his  loyalty  to  the  four  general  councils, 
and  declared  that  the  hostile  bishops  had  been  guilty  of  schism. 
The  bishops  of  Liguria  and  Aerailia,  headed  by  the  archbishop 
of  Milan,  and  those  of  Istria  and  Venice,  headed  by  PauUnus  of 
Aquileia,  also  withheld  their  fellowship;  but  Narses  resisted 
the  appeals  of  Pelagius  who  would  have  invoked  the  secular 
arm.  Chlldebert,  king  of  the  Franks,  also  refused  to  interfere. 
Pelagius  died  on  the  4th  of  March  $61,  and  was  succeeded  by 
John  III. 

Pelagius  II.,  a  native  of  Rome^  but  of  Gothic  descent,  was 
pope  from  579  to  590,  having  been  consecrated  successor  of 
Benedict  I.,  without  the  sanction  of  the  emperor,  on  the  26th  of 


FELACaUS 


63 


November.  To  make  his  apologies  for  this  irregularity  he  sent 
Deacon  Gregory,  who  afterwards  became  Pope  Gregory  the  Great, 
as  his  apocrisiarius  to  Constantinople.  In  585  he  sought  to 
beat  the  sdiism  which  had  subsisted  since  the  time  of  Pelagius  I. 
in  connexion  with  the  Three  Chapters,  but  his  efforts  were 
without  success.  In  588  John,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by 
reviving  the  old  and  disputed  claim  to  the  title  of  oecumenic 
patriarch,  elicited  a  vigorous  protest  from  Felagius;  but  the 
decretal  which  professes  to  convey  the  exact  words  of  the 
document  is  now  known  to  be  false.  He  died  in  January  590, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  L 

PBL40IU5  (c.  360-  c  4m),  early  British  theologian.  Of  the 
origin  of  Pehigius  almost  nothing  is  known.  The  name  is 
supposed  to  be  a  graecized  form  of  the  Cymric  Morgan  (sea- 
begotten).  His  contemporaries  understood  that  he  was  of 
British  (probably  of  Irish)  birth,  and  gave -him  the  appellation 
Brito.  He  was  a  large  ponderous  person,  heavy  both  in  body 
and  mind  (Jerome,  "stolidissimus  et  Scotorum  pultibus  prae^ 
gravatus "),  He  was  influenced  by  the  monastic  enthusiasm 
which  had  been  kindled  in  Gaul  by  Atbanasius  {336),  and  which, 
through  the  energy  of  Martin  of  Tours  (361),  ntfudly  communi- 
cated itself  to  the  Britons  and  Scots.  For,  though  Pelagius 
remained  a  layman  throughout  his  life,  and  though  he  never 
appears  in  any  strict  connexion  with  a  coenobite  fraternity, 
he  yet  adhered  to  monastic  discipline  ("veluti  monochus"), 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  purity  of  life  and  exceptional 
sanctity  ("  egrcgie  Christianus  "),  He  seems  to  have  been  one 
of  the  earliest,  if  not  the  veiy  earliest,  of  that  remarkable  series 
of  men  who  issued  from  the  monasteries  of  Scothind  and  Ireland, 
and  carried  back  to  the  Continent  in  a  purified  form  the  religion 
they  had  received  from  it.  Coming  to  Rome  in  the  beginning  of 
the  5th  century  (his  earliest  known  writing  is  of  date  405),  he 
found  a  scandalously  low  tone  of  morality  prevalenL  But  his 
remonstrances  were  met  by  the  plea  of  human  weakness.  To 
remove  this  plea  by  exhibiting  the  actual  powers  of  human 
nature  became  his  first  objecL  .  It  seemed  to  him  that  the 
Augustinian  doctrine  of  total  depravity  and  of  the  consequent 
bondage  of  the  will  both  cut  the  sinew  of  all  human  effort  and 
threw  upon  God  the  blame  which  reaUy  belonged  to  man.  His 
favourite  maxim  was,  "  If  I  ought,  I  can." 

The  views  of  Pelagius  did  not  originate  in  a  conscious  maction 
against  the  influence  of  the  Augustinian  theology,  although  each 
of  these  systems  was  developed  into  its  ultimate  form  by  the 
opposition  of  the  other.  Neither  must  too  much  weight  be 
allowed  to  the  circumstance  that  Pelagius  was  a  monk,  for  he  was 
unquestionably  alive  to  the  delusive  chamcter  of  much  that 
paired  for  monkish  sanctity.  Yet  possibly  his  monastic  training 
may  have  led  him  to  look  more  at  conduct  than  at  character, 
and  to  bdieve  that  holiness  could  be  arrived  at  by  rigour 
of  discipline.  This  view  of  things  suited  his  matter«f-fact 
temperament.  Judging  from  the  general  style  of  his  writings, 
his  religious  development  had  been  equable  and  peaceful,  not 
marked  by  the  prolonged  mental  conflict,  or  the  abrupt  transi- 
tions, which  characterized  the  experience  of  his  great  opponenL 
With  no  great  penetration  he  saw  very  dearly  the  thing  before 
him,  and  many  of  his  practical  counsels  are  marked  by  sagacity, 
and  are  expressed  with  the  succinctne&s  of  a  proverb  {"  corpus 
non  frangendum,  sed  regendum  est").  His  interests  were 
primarily  ethical;  hence  his  insistence  on  the  freedom  of  the  wiU 
and  his  limitation  of  the  action  of  divine  grace. 

The  peculiar  tenets  of  Pelagius,  thou^  indicated  in  the 
commentaries  which  he  published  at  Rome  previous  to  409, 
might  not  so  speedily  have  attracted  attention  had  they  not 
been  adopted  by  Coelestius,  a  much  younger  and  boldermanthan 
his  teacher.  Coelestius,  probably  an  Italian,  had  been  trained 
as  a  lawyer,  but  abandoned  his  profession  for  an  ascetic  life. 
When  Rome  was  sacked-  by  the  Goths  (410)  the  two  friends 
crossed  to  Africa.  There  Pelagius  once  or  twice  met  with 
Augustine,  but  very  shortly  sailed  for  Palestine,  where  he  justly 
expected  that  hb  opinions  would  be  more  cordially  received. 
Coelestius  remained  in  Carthage  with  the  view  <rf  receiving 
ordination.    But  Aurelius,  bishop  of  Carthage,  being  warned 


against  him,  summoned  a  synod,  at  whkfa  PnuUnos,  a  deacon 
of  Milan,  charged  Coelestius  with  holding  the  following  six 
errors:  (i)  that  Adam  would  have  died  even  if  he  had  not  sinned; 
(3)  that  the  sin  of  Adam  injured  himself  alone,  not  the  human 
race;  (3)  that  new-bom  children  are  an  the  same  ooncfition  in 
which  Adam  was  bdore  the  fall;  (4)  that  the  whole  human  race 
does  not  die  because  of  Adam's  death  or  sin,  nor  will  the  race 
rise  again  because  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ;  (5)  that  the  law 
gives  entrance  to  heaven  as  well  as  the  gospel ;  (6)  that  even  before 
the  coming  of  Christ  there  were  men  who  were  entirely  without 
sin.  To  these  propositions  a  seventh  is  sometimes  added,  **  that 
iafantSr  though  unbaptizcd,have  eternal  life,"  a  corpUaQr  from 
the  third.  Coelestius  did  not  deny  that  he  hdd  these  opinions, 
but  he  maintained  that  they  were  open  questions,  on  which  the 
Church  had  never  pronounced,  llie  synod,  notwithstanding, 
condemned  and  excommunicated  him.  Coelestius,  after  a  futile 
i^peal  to  Rome,  went  to  £phesus,and  there  received  ordination. 
In  Palestine  Pelagius.lived  unmolested  and  revered,  until  In 
415  Orosuis,  a  Spanish  priest,  came  from  Augustine,  who  in  the 
meantime  had  written  his  De  peudUrrum  meriliSf  to  warn  Jerome 
against  him.  The  result  was  that  in  June  of  that  year  Pelagius 
was  cited  by  Jerome  before  John,  bish<^  of  Jerusalem,  and 
charged  with  holding  that  man  may  be  without  sin,  if  only  he 
desires  it.  This  prosecution  broke  down  and  in  December  of 
the  same  year  Pelagius  was  simimoned  before  a  synod  of  fourteen 
bUliops  at  Diospolis  (Lydda).  The  prosecutors  on  this  occasion 
were  two  deposed  Gallican  bishops,  Hcros  of  Aries  and  Laxarus 
of  Aix,  but  on  account  of  the  illness  of  one  of  them  neither  could 
appear.  The  proceedings,  being  conducted  in  various  languages 
and  by  means  of  interpreters,  lacked  certainty,  and  justified 
Jerome's  application  to  the  synod  of  the  epithet  "  miserable." 
But  there  is  no  doubt  that  Pelagius  repudiated  the  assertion  of 
Coelestius,  that  "  the  divine  grace  and  help  is  not  granted  to 
individual  acts,  but  consists  in  free  will,  and  in  the  giving  of  the 
law  and  instruction."  At  the  same  time  he  affirmed  that  a 
man  is  able,,  if  he  likes,  to  live  without  sin  and  keep  the  command- 
ments of  God,  inasmuch  as  God  gives  him  this  ability.  The 
synod  was  satisfied  with  these  statements,  and  pronounced 
Pelagius  to  be  in  agreement  wrth  Catholic  teaching.  Pek^us 
naturally  plumed  himself  on  his  acquittal,  and  provoked  Augus- 
tine to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  synod,  in  which  he  shows 
that  the  language  used  by  Pelagius  was  ambiguous,  but  that, 
being  interpreted  by  his  previous  written  statements,  it  involved 
a  denial  of  what  the  Church  understood  by  grace  and  by  man's 
dependence  on  it.  The  North  African  Church  as  a  whole 
resented  the  decisions  of  Diospolis,  and  in  416  sent  up  from 
their  synods  of  Carthage  and  Milcve  (in  Numidia)  an  appeal  to 
Innocent,  bishop  of  Rome,  who,  flattered  by  the  tribute  thus 
paid  to  the  see  of  Rome,  decided  the  question  in  favour  of  the 
African  synods.  And,  though  his  successor  Zosimus  wavered 
for  some  time,  he  at  length  fell  in  with  what  he  saw  to  be  the 
general  mind  of  both  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  civil  powers. 
For,  simultaneously  with  the  largely  attended  African  synod 
which  finally  condcnwed  Pelagianism  in  the  West,  an  imperial 
edict  was  issued  at  Ravenna  by  Honorius  on  the  30th  of  April 
418,  peremptorily  determining  the  theological  question  and 
enacting  that  not  only  Pelagius  and  Coelestius  but  all  who 
accepted  their  opinions  should  suffer  confiscation  of  goods 
and  irrevocable  banishment.  Thus  prompted,  Zosimus  drew 
up  a  circular  inviting  all  the  bishops  of  Christendom  to  subscribe 
a  condemnation  of  Pelagian  opinions.  Nineteen  Italian  bishops 
refused,  among  them  Julian  of  Edanum  in  Apulia,  a.man  of  good 
birth,  approved  sanctity  and  great  capacity,  who  now  becanie 
the  recognized  leader  of  the  movement.  But  not  even  his 
acutencss  and  zeal  could  redeem  a  cause  which  was  rendered 
h(H>eless  when  the  Eastern  Church  (Ephesus,  431)  confirmed  the 
decision  of  the  West.  Pelagius  himsdf  disaf^ars  after  430; 
Coelestius  was  at  Constantinople  seeking  the  aid  of  Nestorius 
in  428. 

Pdatianism.-^Tlit  oyctem  of  Pdagius  is  a  connstent  whole, 
each  part  involving  the  existence  of  every  other.  Starting  from 
the  idea  that  "  ability  limits  obligation,"  and  resolved  that  men 


64 


FELAGIUS 


•hoiild  feel  thdr  respodsibility.  he  iosiBted  that  man  la  able  to  do 
all  that  Cod  commands,  and  that  there  ia^  and  can  be*  no  sin  where 
the  will  is  not  absolutely  free — able  to  choose  good  or  evil.  The 
favourite  Pelagian  formula,  "  St  necesntatis  est,  peccatum  non  est ; 
•i  voluntatis,  vitari  potest/*  had  an  appearance  of  finality  which 
imposed  on  superficial  minds.  The  theory  of  the  will  involved  in 
this  fundamental  axiom  of  Pclagianism  is  that  which  is  commonly 
known  as  the  '*  liberty  of  indifTcrence,"  or  "  power  of  contrary 
choice  '* — a  theory  which  affirms  the  freedom  of  the  will,  not  in  the 
sense  that  the  individual  is  self-determined,  but  in  the  sense  that  In 
each  volition  and  at  each  moment  of  life,  no  nutter  mhMt  the  praviooa 
career  of  the  individual  has  been,  the  will  is  in  equipoise,  able  to 
choose  good  or  evil.  We  are  born  characterless  (non  picni),  and  with 
no  bias  towards  good  or  evil  (ut  ane  virtute,  ita  et  sine  vitio).  It 
follows  that  we  are  uninjured  by  the  sin  of  Adam,  save  in  so  far  as 
the  evil  example  of  our  predecessors  misleada  and  influencea  ua  (non 
ftropag^ne  aed  cxemplo).  There  is,  in  fact,  no  such  thing  as  original 
sin,  sin  being  a  thing  of  will  and  not  of  nature;  for  if  it  could  be  of 
nature  our  sin  would  be  char|;eable  on  God  the  creator.  This  will, 
capable  of  good  as  of  evil,  being  the  natural  endowment  of  man,  is 
found  in  the  Jieathen  as  wdl  as  in  the  Christian,  and  the  heathen  may 
therefore  perfectly  keep  such  law  as  they  know.  But,  if  all  men  have 
this  natural  ability  to  do  and  to  be  all  that  is  required  for  perfect 
righteousness,  what  becomes  of  erace,  of  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Sprit, 
and,  in  a  word,  of  Christianity?  Pelagtus  vacillates  considerably 
in  hia  use  of  the  word  **  grace.  Sometimca  be  makes  it  equivalent 
to  natural  endowment.  Indeed  one  of  hia  moat  careful  statements 
is  to  this  effect :  "  We  distingui^  three  things — the  ability,  the  will, 
the  act  (posse,  velle,  esse).  The  ability  ia  in  nature,  ana  must  be 
referred  to  God,  who  has  bestowed  this  on  His  creature;  the  other 
two,  the  will  and  the  act,  must  be  referred  to  man,  because  they  flow 
from  the  fountain  of  free  will  "  (Aug.,  De  gr*  Chritti,  ch.  4).  But  at 
other  times  he  admits  a  much  wider  ranjge  to  grace,  so  as  to  make 

Sugustine  doubt  whether  his  meaninj^  is  not,  after  all,  orthodox, 
ut,  when  he  speaks  of  grace  "sanctifying,"  "assisting,"  and  so 
forth,  it  is  only  that  man  may  "  tnan  easily  "  accomplish  what  he 
could  with  more  difficulty  accomplish  without  grace.  A  decisive 
passage  occurs  in  the  letter  he  sent  to  the  see  of  Rome  along  with  his 
Confessio  Jldei:  "  We  maintain  that  free  will  exists  gencialty  in  all 
mankind,  in  Christians,  Jews  and  Gentiles;  they  have  all  equally 
received  it  by  nature,  but  in  Christians  only  is  it  assisted  by  grace. 
In  others  this  ^ood  of  their  oriRinal  creation  u  naked  and  imarmed. 
They  shall  be  ludgcd  and  condemned  because,  though  possessed  of 
free  will,  by  wnich  they  might  come  to  the  faith  and  merit  the  grace 
of  Cod,  they  make  an  ill  use  of  their  freedom;  while  Christians  shall 
be  rewarded  because,  by  utinf  their  free  will  aright,  they  merit  the 
flnace  of  the  Lord  and  keep  His  conunandmenta '  (ibid.  cha.  33, 3^). 
Pel^us  allowed  to  grace  everything^  but  the  initial  determining 
movement  towards  salvation.  He  ascribed  to  the  unassisted  human 
will  power  to  accept  and  use  the  proffered  salvation  of  Christ.  It 
was  at  this  point  nis  departure  from  the  Catholic  creed  could  be 
made  ai>parent:  Pelagius  maintains,  expressly  and  by  implication, 
that  it  is  the  human  will  which  takes  the  initiative,  and  ia  the 
determining  factor  in  the  salvation  of  the  individual;  while  the 
Church  maintains  that  it  is  the  divine  wilt  that  takes  the  initiative 
by  renewing  and  enabling  the  human  will  to  accept  and  use  the 
aid  or  grace  offered. 

SemtpelagioHisM.'^lt  was  easy  for  Au^stine  to  show  that  this 
was  an  "  impia  opinio  " ;  it  was  easy  for  him  to  expose  the  defective 
character  of  a  theory  of  the  will  which  implied  that  God  was  not 
holy  because  He  is  necessarily  holy;  it  was  easy  for  him  to  show  that 
the  positions  of  Pelagius  were  anti-Scriptural  (see  Augustine); 
but.  though  bis  an^ments  prevailed,  they  did  not  wholly  convince, 
and  the  rise  of  Semipetagianism — an  attempt  to  hold  a  middle  course 
between  the  harshness  of  Augustiniani&m  and  the  obvious  errors  of 
Pciagianism — is  full  of  ngnlncance.  This  earnest  and  conciliatory 
movement  dilcovered  itself  simultaneously  in  North  Africa  and  in 
southern  Gaul.  In  the  former  Church,  which  naturally  deaircd  to 
adhere  to  the  views  of  its  own  great  theologian,  themonloi  of  Adnim- 
etum  found  themselves  either  sunk  to  the  verge  of  deq>atr  or  pro- 
voked to  licentiousness  by  his  predestinarian  teaching.  When  this 
was  reported  to  Augustine  he  wrote  two  elaborate  treatises  to  show 
that  when  Cod  ordains  the  end  He  also  ordaina  the  means,  and  if 
any  man  is  ordained  to  life  eternal  he  is  thereby  ordained  to  holiness 
and  zealous  elTort.^  But  meanwhile  some  of  the  monks  themselves 
had  struck  out  a  via  media  which  ascribed  to  God  sovereign  grace 
and  yet  left  intact  man's  re^wnsibility.  A  aimilar  scheme  waa 
adopted  by  Caaaian  of  Maraeillea  (hence  Semipelagiana  are  often 
apokan  of  aa  Massilians),  and  was  afterwards  ably  advocated  by 
Vincent  of  ILerins  and  Faustus  of  Rhegium.  Tnese  writers,  in 
opposition  to  Pelagtus,  maintained  that  man  was  damaged  by 
the  fall,  and  seemed  iiidced  di«x»ed  to  purchase  a  certificate  of 
orthodoocy  by  the  abuaive  ecMtneta  they  heaped  upon  Pelagians 
jranae,  muscae  moriturae,  &c.).  The  differentia  of  Semipelagianism 
is  the  tenet  that  in  regeneration,  and  all  that  results  from  it,  the  divine 
and  the  human  will  are  co-operating  (synergistic)  coefficient  factors. 
After  finding  considerable  acceptance,  this  theory  was  ultimately 
condemned,  because  it  retained  the  root-principle  of  Pelafi^ianism — 
that  man  has  some  ability  to  will  good  and  that  the  beginning  of 
aalvatk>n  may  be  with  man.    The  Councils  of  Oranfe  and  Valence 


(539)*  however,  which  condemned  SemiQebfiamsm,  did  ao  with 
the  significant  restriction  that  predestination  to  evil  was  not  to  be 
taught — a  restriction  so  agreeable  to  the  general  feeling  of  the 
Church  that,  throe  centuries  after,  Cottschalk  was  sentenced  to  be 
degiaded  from  the  priesthood,  scourged  aad  imprisoned  for  teachinf 
reprobation.  The  questions  raised  by  Pelagius  continually  recur, 
but,  without  tracing  the  strife  as  sustained  by  Thomists  and  Jansen- 
ists  on  the  one  side  and  the  Jesuits  and  Armtnians  on  the  other,  this 
article  can  only  indicate  the  general  bearing  of  the  controversy  on 
society  and  the  Church. 

The  anthropology  of  Pelagiua  waa  essentially  naturalistic  It 
threatened  to  aupcraede  grace  by  nature,  to  deny  all  immediate 
divine  influence,  and  so  to  make  Christianity  practically  useless. 
Pelagius  himself  did  not  carry  his  rationalism  through  to  its  issues; 
but  the  k>gical  conseqacnce  gf  his  system  was,  aa  Augustine  per- 
ceived, the  denial  of  the  atonement  and  other  central  trutha  of 
revealed  religion.  And,  white  the  Pelagians  never  existed  as  a  sect 
separate  from  the  Church  Catholic,  yet  wherever  rationalism  has 
infected  any  part  of  the  Church  there  Pelagianism  has  sooner  or 
later  appeared;  and  the  term  "  Pelagian  "  hias  been  continued  to 
denote  views  whkh  minimise  the  enecta  of  the  fail  and  uoduly 
magnify  man's  natural  ability.  These  views  and  tendencies  have 
appeared  in  theologies  which  are  not  in  other  respects  rationalistic, 
as,  e.g.  in  Arminianism;  and  their  presence  in  such  theologies  is 
explained  by  the  desire  to  tcmove  e^^erything  which  might  seem  to 
discourage  human  effort. 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  bow  far  the  vices  which  ate  so  deeply 
into  the  life  of  the  Church  of  the  middle  ages  were  due  to  the  sharp- 
ness with  which  some  of  the  severer  features  of  the  Augustinian 
theology  were  defined  during  the  Pektgian  controversy.  The 
pernicioua  belief  in  the  magical  efficacy  of  the  aacmmcnts  and  the 
consequent  defective  ethical  power  ot  religion,  the  supcrstrtious 
eagerness  to  accept  the  Church's  creed  without  examining  or  really 
bcucving  it,  the  falsity  and  cruelty  engendered  and  propagated 
by  the  idea  that  in  the  Church's  cause  all  weapons  were  justimble. 
these  vices  were  undoubtedly  due  to  the  belief  that  the  visible  churrh 
was  the  sole  divindy-appointed  repository  of  grace.  And  the 
sharply  accentuated  tone  in  which  Augustinianism  affirmed  man's 
inability  quickened  the  craving  for  that  grace  or  direct  agency  of 
God  upon  the  soul  which  the  Charch  declared  to  be  needful  and 
administered  through  her  divinely  appointed  persons  and  aacr»- 
ments,  and  thus  brought  a  decided  impulse  to  the  devek^Niient  of 
the  sacerdotal  system. 

Again,  although  it  may  fairly  be  doubted  whether,  as  Baur 
supposes,  Augustine  was  permanently  tainted  with  the  Mank:haean 
notion  of  the  inherent  evil  of  matter,  it  can  acarcely  be  questioned 
that  hia  views  on  marriage  aa  elicited  by  the  Pelagian  controversy 
gave  a  considerable  impulse  to  the  already  prevalent  idea  of  the 
superiority  of  virginity.  When  the  Pelagians  declared  that  Augus- 
tine's theory  of  original  sin  discredited  marriage  by  the  implication 
that  even  the  chilorcn  of  the  regenerate  were  bom  in  sin,  he  could 
only  reply  (De  nuptiis  et  concuptteaUia)  that  marriage  now  cannot 
partake  of  the  spotless  purity  of  the  marriage  of  unfallen  man,  and 
that,  though  what  is  evil  in  concupiscence  is  made  a  good  use  of  in 
marriage,  it  is  still  a  thing  to  be  ashamed  of — not  only  with  the 
shame  of  natural  modesty  (whkh  he  doei  not  take  Into  account) 
but  with  the  shame  of  guilt.  So  that,  even  although  he  ia  careful 
to  point  out  the  advantages  of  marriage,  an  indelible  stigma  ia  still 
left  even  on  the  lawful  procreation  of  children. 

"The  I^lagians  deserve  respect,"  says  Hamack,  "for  their 
purity  of  motive,  their  horror  of  the  Manichaean  leaven  and  the 
ofnu  9pemtum,  their  insisteace  on  clearness,  and  their  intention 
to  defend  the  Dei^.  But  we  cannot  but  decide  that  their  doctrine 
fails  to  recognise  the  misery  of  sin  and  evil,  that  in  its  deepest  roots 
it  is  godless,  that  it  knows,  and  seeks  to  know,  nothing  of  redemption 
and  that  it  is  dominated  by  an  empty  formalism  (a  notional  mytho- 
logy), which  does  justice  at  no  aingle  point  to  actual  quantities, 
and  on  a  closer  examination  consists  of  sneer  contradlctiona.  In  the 
form  in  which  this  doctrine  was  expressed  by  Pelagius — ^and  in  fact 
also  by  Julian — i.c.  with  all  the  accommodations  to  which  he 
condescended,  it  was  not  a  novelty.  But  id  its  fundamental 
thought  it  waa;  or  rather,  it  was  an  innovation  because  it  abandoned 
in  sfMte  of  all  aocomniodations  in  expression,  the  pole  of  the 
mystical  doctrine  of  redemption,  which  tne  Church  had  steadfastly 
maintained  side  by  side  with  the  doctrine  of  freedom." 

In  the  Pelagian  controwrsy  some  of  the  fundamental  ^fferenees 
between  the  Eastern  and  Western  theoAogies  appear.  The  former  bkl 
stress  OQ  "  the  aupematuial  character  of  Christianity  as  a  fact  in 
the  objective  worid  "  and  developed  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and 
the  Incarnation;  the  Western  emphasized  "  the  supernatural  charac- 
ter of  Christianity  as  an  agency  in  the  subjective  worW  "  and 
developed  the  doctrines  of  sin  and  ^race.  All  the  Greek  fathers 
from  Origen  to  Chrysostum  had  been  jealous  for  human  freedom  aod 
loath  to  make  sin  a  naturalpower.  though  of  course  admitting  a 
general  state  of  sinfulness.  The  early  Briti^  monasteries  had  been 
connected  with  the  Orient.  Pelagius  was  familiar  with  the  Greek 
language  and  theology,  and  when  he  came  to  Rome  he  was  much  m 
the  company  of  Rutinus  and  his  circle  who  were  endeavouring  lo 
propagate  Greek  theology  in  the  Latin  Church. 

LiTBRATURE.— Pclagius's  CommenUtrii  tn  epiOoUu Paidi^Lihtttiu 


PELASOIANS-^FBLEUS 


fda  ad  JuMOUMtimm  and  Bfitkia  ad  DfmttfMtm  *w  nfMcrvtd 
la  Jerome's  works  (vol.  v.  of  Martiani's  ed.,  vol.  xi.  of  Vallani's). 


yucUBtine.   Un  the  Commauarus  see  Journal  tf 
Studi€$f  vU.  568.  vtu.  526;  an  edition  is  being  prcpBred  for  the 
Cambridge  Texts  an4  Studies  by  A.  Souter. 

See  also  F.  Wiggers,  Darstdhmg  dts  Augustinismus  und  Pefagianis- 
mus  {»  vols.,  Berlin,  1831-18^ ;  £n^.  trans,  of  vol.  i.,  by  R.  Emerson, 
Andover.  i8^>;  )•  t.  Jacobi,  Die  Lekft  d.  Pttanus  (Lcipzie .  1843): 
F.  Klaseo,  Die,  muere  Butwickelung  des  Petatiamsmus  (Freiburg, 
.1883) ;  B.  B.  Warlield,  Two  Studies  t»  the  History  of  Doctrine  (New 
York,  1893);  A.  Harnack,  History  of  Dogma ^  Eng.  trans.,  v.  168-^02: 
F.  Loofs,  Dopnatteschisckte  and  art.  in  Hauck-Hcrzog*s  Real- 
tucykio^  fwr  proi.  iMeotogia  li.  Kircka  (end  <^  vol.  xv.),  where  a  full 
bibliography  is  given.  (M.  D.) 

FELASGIANS,  a  name  applied  by  Greek  writen  to  a  pre- 
hiitoric  peaplewho&e  traces  were  beUeved  to  exist  in  Greek  lands. 
If  the  statomeiits  of  ancient  avtboritlcs  are'  manfaallcd  in  order 
of  their  date  it  will  be  seen  that  certain  beliefs  cannot  be  traced 
back  beyond  the  age  of  this  or  that  author.  Though  this  does 
not  prove  that  the  bdleb  tfaetnsdves  were  not  held  earlier,  it 
suggests  caution  in  assuming  that  they  were.  In  the  Homeric 
poems  there  are  Pehsgians  among  the  allies  of  Ttoy  in  the 
catak>gue,  Jiiad,  ii.  840-843,  which  is  otherwise  in  strict  geogra- 
phical order,  they  stand  between  the  Hellespontine  towns  and 
the  Thracians  of  south-east  Europe,  i.e.  on  the  Hellespontine 
border  of  Thrace.  Their  town  or  district  is  called  Larissa  and 
is  fertile,  and  they  are  cdebrsted  for  their  spearmanship.  Their 
diiefs  are  Hippothous  and  Pylaens,  sons  of  Lethus  son  of 
Tcutaraus.  Iliads  x.  41^439,  describes  their  camping  ground 
between  the  town  of  T^  and  the  sea;  but  this  obvioually 
proves  nothing  about  their  habitat  in  time  of  peace.  Odyssey, 
zvii.  175-^77,  notes  Pclasgians  in  Crete,  together  with  two  appa- 
rently indigenous  and  two'  immigrant  peoples  (Achacans  and 
Dorians),  but  gives  no  indication  to  which  dass  the  Pclasgians 
belong.  In  Lemnos  {Iliads  vn.  467;  xiv.  230)  there  are  no 
Peiasgians,  but  a  Minyan  dynasty.  TWo  other  passages  {Hiad, 
ii.  681-684;  xyi.  233-235)  apply  the  epithet  **  Pclasgic  **  to  a 
district  called  Argos  about  Mt  Othrys  in  south  Thcssaly,  and 
to  Zeus  of  Dodona.  But  in  neither  case  are  actual  Peiasgians 
mentioned;  the  Thessalian  Argos  is  the  specific  home  of  Hellenes 
and  Achacans,  and  Dodona  is  inhabited  by  Perrhacbians  and 
Acniancs  (tlicdf  ii.  750)  who  are  nowhere  described  as  Pelasgian. 
It  looks  therefore  as  if  "Pelasgian"  were  here  used  connota- 
lively,  to  mean  either  "formerly  occupied  by  Pelasgian"  or 
simply  "  of  immemorial  age." 

Hesiod  expands  the  Homeric  phrase  and  calls  Dodona  "  seat 
of  Pcbsgians  "  (fr.  225);  he  speaks  also  of  a  personal  Pclasgus 
as  father  of  Lycaon,  the  culture-hero  of  Arcadia;  and  a  later 
epic  poet,  Asius,  describes  Pclasgus  as  the  first  man,  whom 
the  earth  threw  up  that  there  might  be  a  race  of  men.  Hccataeus 
makes  Pclasgus  king  of  Thessaly  (expounding  Hiad,  ii.  681-684); 
Acusilaus  applies  this  Homeric  passage  to  the  Peloponncsian 
Argos,  and  engrafts  the  Hesiodic  Pelas;ois,  father  of  tycaon, 
into  a  Peloponncsian  gencalog}-.  Hellanicus  a  generation  later 
repeats  this  blunder,  and  identifies  this  Argive  and  Arcadian 
Pclasgus  with  the  Thessalian  Pelasgys  of  Hccataeus.  For 
Acsc^lus  {Supplices  z,  sqq.)  Pclasgus  is  earthbom.  ^s  in  Asius, 
and  rules  a  kingdom  sirctching  from  Argos  to  Dodona  and  the 
Stryraon;  but  in  Prometheus  879,  the  "  Pelasgian  "  land  simply 
means  Argos.  Sophocles  takes  the  same  view  {tnachus,  fr.  256) 
and  for  the  first  time  introduces  the  word  ''  Tyrrhenian  "  into 
the  story,  apparently  as  synonymous  with  Pelasgian. 

Hcrodotusi  like  Homer,  has  a  denotative  as  well  as  a'conno- 
tative  use.  He  describes  actual  Pclasgians  surviving  and 
mutually  intelligible  (a)  at  Plade  and  Scylace  on  the  Asiatic 
shore  of  the  Hellespont,  and  (6)  near  Creston  on  the  Strymon; 
in  the  latter  area  they  have  "  Tyrrhenian  "  neighbours.  He 
alludes  to  other  districts  where  Pelasgian  peoples  lived  on  under 
changed  names;  Samothrace  and  Antandrus  in  Troas  are 
probably  instances  oif  this.  In  Lemnos  and  Imbros  he  describes 
a  Pelasgian  popubtion  who  were  only  conquered  by  Athens 
shortly  before  500  B.C.,  and  in  this  connexion  he  tells  a  story  of 
earlier  raids  of  these  Peiasgians  on  Attica,  and  of  a  temporary 


settlement  there  of  Hdle^ponttne  Peiasgians,  all  d  1 
time  "  when  the  Athenians  were  first  beginning 
Greeks."     Elsewhere    "  Pdasj^n "    in    Herodot 
anything  typical  of,  or  surviving  from,  the  state 
Greeee  before  the  combg  of  the  Hellenes.    In  1 : 
Greece  was  once  "  Pelasgic  ";  Ibe  clearest  instances 
survival  in  'ritual  and  ctistdms  and  antiquities  an 
the  "  Ionian  "  districts  of  north-west  Pdoponnese, 
which  have  suffered  least  from  hcUeniaation.    In  J 
the  prehistoric  wall  of  the  citadel  and  a  plot  of  | 
below  it  were  venerated  in  the  5th  century  as  "  P«! 
too  Thucydides  (ii.  17).    We  may  note  that  all 
examples  of  aclud  Pelasgi  lie  round,  or  near,  the  a\ 
of  Homeric  Thrace;  that  the  most  distant  of  these 
by  the  testimony  of  Thucydides  Ov.  106)  as  to  tl: 
and  Tyrrhenian  population  of  the  adjacent  sea 
that  lliucydides  adopts  thfe  same  general  Pelasgi; 
early  Greece,  with  the  refinement  that  he  regards  tl 
name  as  originally*  specific,  and  as  having  come  gr, 
this  generic  uSfC. 

Ephorus,  relying  on  Hesiodic  tradition  of  an  abori 
gian  type  in  Arcadia,  elabonited  a  theory  of  the  Pc 
warrior- people  spreading  (like  "  Aryans  ")  from  a 
home,"  and  annexing  and  colonizing  all  the  part 
where  earlier  writers  had  found  allusions  to  them,  fi 
to  Crete  and  the  Troad,  and  even  as  far  as  Italy, 
their  settlements  bad  been  recognized  as  early  as 
Hellanicus,  in  Close  connexion  once  more  with  "  Ty: 

The  copious  additional  information  s^ven  by  ] 
is  all  by  way  either  of  interpretation  of  local  legends 
of  Ephorus's  theory,  or  of  explanation  of  the  name' 
as  when  Philochorus  expands  a  popular  etymology  " 
(ircXacryof— ircXop^of)  into  a  theory  of  their  seasonal 
or  Apollodorus  says  that  Homer  calls  2^us  Pclosgia 
he  is  not  far  from  every  one  of  us,"  ^t  t%  7^  1 
The  connexion  with  Tyrrhenians  vfbA<:h  began  with 
Herodotus  and  Sophocles  becomes  confusion  with  t 
3rd  century,  when  the  Lemnian  pirates  and  their  Ai 
are  plainly  styled  Tyrrhenians,  and  early  fortress-iv 
(like  those  on  the  Palatine  in  Rome)  are  quoted  as ' 
colonies. 

Modem  writers  have  either  been  content  to  restat 
the  view,  ascribed  above  to  Ephorus,  that  "  Pelasgi 
means  '*  prehistoric  Greek,"  or  have  used  the  nan 
at  their  pleasure  to  denote  some  one  element  in 
population  of  the  Aegean — ^Thracion',  lUyrian  (A 
Semitic  G.  Sergi  {Origine  e  dijffusione  delta  stl 
rattea,  Rome,  1895;  Eng.  trans.  The  Mcditcm 
London,  1901),  followed  by  many  anthropologist 
as  **  Pelasgian  "  one  branch  of  the  Mediterranean  or 
race  of  mankind,  and  one  group  of  types  of  skull  witb 
The  character  of  the  ancient  citadel  wall  at  Ath 
mentioned,  has  given  the  name  "  Pelasgic  inasor 
constructions  of  large  unhewn  blocks  fitted  rougl 
without  mortar,  from  Asia  Minor  to  Spain. 

For  another  view  than  that  here  taken  see  Aa 
Greece:  Ancient  History,  %  3,  "  Homeric  Age." 

BiBLiDGKAFHY.— Besides  sections  on  the  subject  in 
histories  of  Greece  and  biblioeraphios  in  G.  Busolt,  G 
i«  (Gotha,  i8Q3,  164-182) ;  and  K.  F.  Hermann  (Thumse 
alterlhimer,  |  6,  see  S.  Bruck,  Quae  oeteres  de  Pelasg 
(Brcslau.  1B84);  B.  Giaeke,  Tkrakiieh^laszische  Std 


icpcrt 
sqq.:  K.  Pauh,  Eine  vorgriechiscke  Insckrifl  auf  Lem 
1886);  E.  Meycr«  "  Die  n^lasger  "  in  Porschungpi  t.  al\ 
(Halle,  1892).  i.  124:  W.  Rid»;wav,  J5ar/y  Agfof  Greeee 
rooi),  voL  i,;  J.  L.  Myres,  "  A  History  of  the  Pclas« 
(in  Journal  0/  Hellenic  Studies,  xXvil.  r70);  H.  R 
pelasgicae  (Cambridge,  1815);  L.  Benloew,  La  Crice  a\ 
(Pans,  1877). 

PEtEUS,  in  Creek  legend,  king  of  the  Myrmidon 
in  Thcssaly,  sod  of  Aeacus»  king  of  Aegina,  and 


66i 


PELEW  ISLANDS— PELHAM  (FAMILY) 


intimate  Iriend)  of  TeUxnoa.   Tbetwo  brothers,  jealous  of  the 

athletic  prowess  of  their  step-brother  Pbocus,  slew  him;  but  the 

crime  was  discovered,  and  Peleus  and  Telamon  were  banished. 

Peleus  took  refuge  in  Phthia  with  his  unde  Eurytion,  who 

purified  him  from  the  guUt  of  murder,  and  gave  him  his  daughter 

Antigone  to  wife,  and  a  third  of  the  kingdom  as  her  dowry. 

Having  accidentally  killed  his  father-in-)aw  at  the  Calydonian 

boar-hunt,  Peleus  was  again  obliged  to  Hee,  this  time  to  lolcus, 

where  he  was  purified  by  Acastus.    The  most  famous  event  in 

the  life  of  Peleus  was  his  marriage  with  the  sea-goddess  Thelis» 

by  vhom  he  became  the  father  of  Achilles.    The  story  ran  that 

both  Zeus  and  Poseidon  had  sought  her  hand,  but,  Themis 

(or  Prometheus  or  Proteus)  having  warned  the  former  that  a 

son  of  Thetis  by  Zeus  would  prove  mightier  than  his  father, 

the  gods  decided  to  marry  her  to  Peleus.    Thetis,  to  cscapie  a 

distasteful  union,  changed  herself  into  various  forms,  but  at 

last  Peleus,  by  the  instructions  of  Chiron,  seized  and  held  her 

fast  till  she  resumed  her  original  shape,  and  was  unable  to 

ofTer  further  resistance.    The  wedding  (described  in  the  fine 

Epllhalamium  of  Catullus)  took  place  in  Chiron's  cave  on  Mt 

Pelion.    Peleus  survived  both  his  son  Achilles  and  his.g^ndson 

Neoptolcmus,  and  was  carried  away  by  Thetis  to  dwell  for  ever 

among  the  Nereids. 

See  ApoUodorus  iit.  I2,  13:  Ovid,  Mdam.  xi.  Pindar.  Isthmia, 
viii.  70,  Nemea,  iv.  loi ;  Catullus,  Ixiv.;  schol.  Apoll.  Rhod.  iv.  816; 
Euripides,  Andromache,  1242-1260. 

PELEW  ISLANDS  (Gcr.  Pahuinsdn,  ako  Paho),  a  group  of 
twenty-six  islands  in  the  western  Pacific  Ocean,  between  2"  35' 
and  9*  N.,  and  130"  4'  and  134*^  40'  E.,  belonging  to  Germany. 
They  lie  within  a  coral  barrier  reef,  and  in  the  south  the  islands 
are  of  coral,  but  in  the  north  of  voleam'c  rocks.  They  are  well 
wooded,  the  climate  is  healthy, ^nd  the  water-supply  good. 
A  few  rats  and  bats  represent  the  indigenous  mammals,  but  the 
sea  is  rich  in  fish  and  molluscs;  and  Pr  Otto  Finsch  ijourn.  dcs 
Museum  Codcjroy,  1875)  enumerated  $6  species  of  birds,  of 
which  12  are  peculiar  to  the  group.  The  total  area  is  175  sq.  m., 
tlie  largest  islands  being  Babcltop  (Dabelthuap,  Baobeltaob  and 
other  variants),  Uruktapi  (Urukthopel),  Xorror,  Nyaur,  Pdcliu 
and  Eilmalk  (Irakong).  The  population  is  about  3100.  The 
natives  are  Micronesians,  and  are  darker  and  shorter  than  their 
kinsmen,  the  Caroline  Islanders.  They  usually  have  the  frizzly 
hair  of  the  Melanesians,and  paint  their  bodies  in  brilliant  colours, 
e^>ecially  yellow.  The  men  vary  in  height  from  5  ft.  to  5  ft.  5  in., 
the  women 'from  4  ft.  .9  to  5  ft.  2  in.  The  skull  shows  a  strong 
tendency  to  brachycephalism.  Two  curious  customs  may  be 
noted — the  institution  of  an  honourable  order  bestowed  by  the 
king,  called  klilt\  and  a  species  of  mutual  aid  society,  sometimes 
confined  to  women,  and  possessing  considerable  potitical  influ- 
ence. There  arc  five  kinds  of  currency  in  the  islands,  consisting 
of  beads  of  glass  and  enamd,  to  which  a  supernatural  origin  is 
ascribed. 

The  islands  were  sighted  In  1543  by  Ruy  Lopez  de  Villalobos, 
who  named  them  the  Arrecifos.  The  origin  of  the 
name  Islas  Palaos  is  doubtfuL  The  islands  were  bought  by 
Germany  from  Spain  in  1899,  and  are  administered  together 
with  the  western  CaroHines.  Yap  being  the  administrative 
centre. 

See  K.  Semper,  Die  Pdau-lnidn  (Leipzig.  1873) ;  T.  S.  Kubaryi 
Die  sonaien  Bmrichtuneen  der  Palauer  (Berhn,  1885);  A.  A.  Marche, 
Lufon  et  PaUuan  (Pans,  1687). 

PELF,  a  term  now  chiefly  used  of  money  and  always  in  a 
derogatory  sense.  The  word  originally  meant  plunder,  pillage 
(O.  Fr.  pclfrCf  probably  from  Lat.  pUart,  to  deprive  of  hair,  pUm)^ 
and  this  significance  is  stlU  kept  In  the  related  word  "  pilfer,"  to 
make  petty  thefts. 

PBLHAit,  the  name  of  an  English  family,  derived  from  Pelham 
in  Hertfordshire,  which  was  owned  by  a  certain  Walter  de 
Pelham  under  Edward  I.,  and  is  alleged  to  have  been  in  the 
possession  of  the  same  family  before  .the  Norman  conquest, 
l^e  family  dignities  included  the  barony  of  Pelham  of  Laughton 
(i 706-1 768),  the  earldom  of  Gare  (1714-1768),  the  dukedom  of 
Newcastle  (1715-1768),  the  barony  of  Pelhani  of  Statimer  from 


1762,  the  eaifdom  of  Chichester  from  i8tox  and  the  «arKlom  of 
Yarborough  from  1837. 

John  de  Peluam,  who  was  one  of  the  captors  of  John  11.  of 
France  at  Poitiers,  acquired  land  at  Winchelsea  by  his  marriage 
with  Joan  Herbert,  or  Finch.  His  son,  John  dc  Pelham  (d. 
1429),  was  attached  to  the  party  of  John  of  Gaunt  and  his  son 
.Henry  IV.  In  1393  he  received  a  life  appointment  as  constable 
of  Pevensey  Castle,  an  honour  subsequently  extended  to  his 
heirs  male,  and  he  joined  Henry  on  his  invasion  in  1399^  if  he 
did  not  actually  land  with  him  at  Ravenspur.  He  was  knighted 
at  Henry's  coronation,  and  represented  Sussex  in  parliament 
repeatedly  during  the  reign  of  Heniy  IV.,  and  again  in  1422  and 
1427.  As  constable  of  Pevensey  he  had  at  different  tincB  the 
charge  <^  Edward,  duke  of  York,  in  1405;  Edmund,  eail  oC 
March,  with  his  brother  Roger  Mortimer  in  1406;  James  L  of 
Scotland  in  1414;  Sir  John  Mortimer  in  1422,  and  the  queen 
dowager,  Joan  oi  Navarre,  from  1418  to  1422.  He  was  con- 
stantly employed  in  the  defence  of  the  southern  ports  against 
French  invasion,  and  his  powers  were  increased  in  1407  by  his 
appointment  as  chief  butler  of  Chichester  and  of  the.  Sussex 
ports,  and  in  141 2  by  the  grant  of  the  rape  of  Hastings.  He 
was  treasurer  of  England  in  141 2-1413,  and  although  he  was 
superseded  on  the  accession  of  Henry  V.  he  was  sent  in  the 
next  year  to  negotiate  with  the  French  court.  He  was  included 
among  the  cxeputors  of  the  wills  of  Heniy  IV.,  of  Thomas»  duke 
of  Clarence,  and  of  Henry  V.  He  died  00  the  X2th  of  February 
1429,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John,  who  took  part  in 
Henry  V.'s  expedition  to  Normandy  in  141 7. 

In  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  Sir  William  Pelham  (c.  X53<^ 
1587),  third  son  of  Sir  WiUiam  Pelham  (d.  15^8)  of  Laughton, 
Sussex,  became  lord  justice  of  Iceland.  He  was  captain  of 
pioneers  at  the  siege  of  Lcith  in  1560,  and  served  at  the  siege 
of  Havre  in  1562,  and  with  Coligny  at  Caen  in  1563.  He  then 
returned  to  Havre,  at  that  tinae  occupied  by  English  troops 
and  was  one  of  the  hostages  for  the  fulfilment  of  its  surrender 
to  Charles  IX.  in  1564.  After  his  return  to  England  he  fortified 
Berwick  among  other  placeSy  and  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  of  ordnance.  He  was  sent  to  Ireland  in  1579,  when  he 
was  knighted  by  Sir  William  Brury,  the  lord  justice.  Drury 
died  in  October,  and  Pelham  was  provisionally  made  his 
successor,  an  appointment  subsequently  confirmed  by  Elizabeth. 
Alarmed  by  the  proceedings  of  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  istfa  earl  of 
Desmond,  and  his  brother  John  Desmond,  he  proclaimed  the 
earl  a  traitor.  Elizabeth  protested  strongly  against  Pelham^s 
action,  which  was  justified  by  the  sack  of  Youghal  by  Desmond. 
Thomas  Butler,  loth  earl  of  Ormonde,  was  entrusted  with  the 
campaign  in  Munster,  but  Pelham  joined  him  in  February  1580, 
when  it  was  believed  that  a  Spanish  descent  was  about  to  be 
made  in  the  south-west.  The  English  generals  laid  waste 
northern  Kerry,  and  proceeded  to  besiege  Carrigafoyle  Castle, 
which  they  stormed,  giving  no  quarter  to  man,  woman  or  child. 
Other  strongholds  submitted  on  learning  the  fate  of  Carrigafoyle, 
and  were  garrisoned  by  Pell>am,  who  hoped  with  the  concourse 
of  Admiral  Winter's  fl^ct  to  limit  the  struggle  to  Kerry.  He 
vainly  sought  help  from  the  gentry  of  th^  county,  who  sym- 
pathized with  Desmond,'and  were  only  brought  to  submisMon  by 
a  series  of  "  drives."  After  the  arrival  of  the  new  deputy,  Lord 
Grey  of  Wilton,  Pelham  returned  to  England  on  the  ground  of 
health.  He  had  retained  his  office  as  lieutenant-general  of 
ordnance,  and  was  now  made  responsible  for  debts  incurred 
during  his  absence.  Leicester  desired  his  services  in  the  Nether- 
lands, but  it  was  only  after  much  persuasion  that  Elizabeth  set 
him  free  to  Join  the  army  by  accepting  a  mortgage  on  his  estates 
as  security  for  his  liabilities.  The  favour  shown  by  Leicester 
to  Pelham  caused  serious  jealousies  among  the  English  officers, 
and  occasioned  a  camp  brawl  In  which  Sir  Edward  Korris 
was  injured.  Pelham  was  wounded  at  Doesburg  in  1586,  and 
accompanied  Leicester  to  England  in  1587.  Returning  to  the 
Nethcriands  in  the  same  year  he  died  at  Flushing  on  the  24th  of 
November  1587.  His  half-brother,  Sir  Edmund  Pelham  (d. 
1606),  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  Ireland,  was  the  first 
English  judge  to  go  on  circuit  in  Ulstet. 


?ELHAM,  H,--PgI,lAS 


67 


Sir  WiUlam  maniefl  Eka&or,  daughter  of  Henry  Neville, 
earl  of  Weslmorlaod,  and  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Pelharos  of 
Brocklesby,  Liacolnshire.  In  the  fourth  generation  Charles 
Pelham  died  in  1763  without  heirs,  leaving  his  estates  to  his 
grcat-nephcw  Charles  Anderson  (1749^x833),  who  thereupon 
assumed  the  additional  name  of  Pelham,  and  was  created  Baron 
Yarborvugh  in  2794.  His  son  Charles  (1781-1846),  who  was 
for  many  yean  commodore  of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron,  was 
created  earL  of  Yarborough  and  Baron  Worslcy  in  1837.  Charles 
Alfred  Worsley,  the  4th  carl  (b.  1859),  exch<uiged  the  name  of 
Anderaon-Pelbam  for  that  of  Pelham  in  1905.  He  married  in 
1886  Marcia  Lane-Fox,  eldest  daughter  of  the  lath  Baron 
Conyers,  who  became  in  1892  Baroness  Conyers  in  her  own 
eight. 

Sir  Nicholas  Pelham  (i  517-1 560),  an  elder  half<brother  of 
Sir  WiHiaro  Pelham,  defended  Seaford  against  the  French  in 
1545,  and  sat  for  Arundel  and  for  Sussex  in  parliament.  He 
was  the  ancestor  of  the  earls  of  Chichester.  His  second  son, 
Sir  Thohas  Pelham  (d>  1634),  was  created  a  baronet  in  161  x.  His 
descendant,  Sir  Thomas  Pelham,  4th  baronet  (c.  1650-17x2), 
represented  successively  East  Grinstead,  Lewes  and  Sussex  in 
parliament,  and  was  raised  to  the  House  of  Lords  as  Barop 
Pelham  of  Laughton  in  1706.  By  his  second  marriage  with 
Gfface  (d.  1700),  daughter  of  Gilbert  Holies,  3rd  earl  of  Clare, 
and  sister  of  John  Holies,  duke  of  Newcastle,  he  had  five  daugh- 
ters, and  two  sons — Thomas  Pelham,  earl  of  Clare,  duke  of 
Newcastle-on-Tyne  and  1st  duke  of  Newcastlc-undcr-Lyrae  (see 
Newcastle,  Dukes  op),  and  Henry  Pelham  (q.v,).  The  duke 
of  Newcastle  died  without  heirs, and  the  dukedom  of  Newcastle- 
ttnder-Lyme  descended  to.  his  nephew,  Henry  Fiennes  Clinton, 
afterwards  known  as  Pelham-CUnton,  and  his  heirs,  but  the 
barony  of  Pelham  of  laughton  became  extinct.  In  1762 
Newcastle  had  been  created  Baron  Pelham  of  Stanmer,  with 
Kveraion  to  his  cousin  and  heir-male,  Thomas  Pelham  (1728- 
1805),  who  became  commissioner  of  trade  (i754)>  lord  of  the 
•dmirally  (1761-1764),  comptroller  of  the  household  (1765- 
t774)«  privy  councillor  (1765),  surveyor-general  of  the  customs 
of  London  (1773-1805),  chief  justice  in  eyre  (i774'i775)  and 
keeper  of  the  wardrobe  (1775-1782),  and  was  created  earl  of 
Chichester  in  1801.  His  third  S0A»  (korgc  (1766-1827),  was 
successively  bishop  of  Bristol,  Exeter  and  Lincoln.  Thomas 
Pelham,  and  carl  of  Chichester  (1756-1836),  «oo  of  the  ist 
earl,  was  sarveyor-general  of  ordnance  in  Lord  Rockingham's 
mim'stry  (178a),  and  chief  secrefcaxy  for  Ireland  in  the  coalition 
ministry  of  1783.  la  1795  he  bectime.  Irish  chief  secretary 
under  Pitt's  goveromenti  retiring  in  1796;  he  was  home  secre- 
tary from  July  1801  to  August  1803  under  Addington,  who 
made  htm  cfaancelbr  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  in  18^3. 
Pelham  went  out  of  office  in  1804,  and  in  the  next  year 
succeeded  to  the  earidom.  He  waa  joint  postmaster-general 
from  1807  to  1823,  and  for  the  remaining  three  yenrs  of  his 
life  postmaster-general.  His  ton  and  heir,  HfNav  Thomas 
Pelhau  (1804-T886),  3rd  earl,  was  an  ecclesiastical  oommisiioner 
from  1850  until  his  death, and  was  greatly  interested  in  various 
ieKgi6us.  philanthropic  and  educational  movements^  and  two 
other  sons  wen:  well-known  men — Frederick  Thomas  Pelham 
(t8o8-i86t),  who  became  a  rear^idmlral  in  1856,  and  subse- 
quently k>rd-commissIoner  of  the  admh^ty,  and  John  Thomas 
Pelham  (1811*1894),  who  was  bishop  of  Norwich  from  1857  to 
1893.  The  third  cari's  son,  Walter  John  Pelham  (1838-1892), 
Bucrccded  his  father  in  x886,  and  his  nephew Jocelyn  Bfudenell 
Pelham  (b.  1871)  became  6th  earl  of  Chichester  in  1905. 

PELHAM,  HENRY  (1696-1754),  prime  minister  of  England, 
younger  brother  of  Thomas  Holies  Pelham,  duke  of  Newcastle, 
wns  lx)rn  in  1606.  He  was  a  younger  son  of  Thomas,  ist  Baron 
Pelham  of  Laughloo  (r6so-i7i2;  cr.  I706)  and  of  Lady  Grace 
Holies,  daughter  of  the  3rd  cari  of  Clare  (sec  above).  lie  was 
educated  by  a  private  tutor  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
which  he  entered  in  July  1710  As  a  volunteer  he  served  in 
Dormer's  regiment  at  the  battle  of  Preston  in  171 5.  spent  some 
time  on  the  Continent,  and  in  1717  entered  parliament  for 
Seaford,  Sussex      Through   ftirong  family  influcnfle  ainl  (be 


reoprnmeiidatioii  of  •Walpole  he- was  chosen  in  x;^  a  lord  of  the 
Treasury.  The  following  year  he  was  returned  for  Sussex  county. 
In  1724  he  entered  the  ministry  as  secretary  of  war,  but  this 
ofiice  he  exchanged  m  1730  for  the  more  lucrative  one  of 
paymaster  of  the  forces.  He  made  himself  conspicuous  by 
bis  support  of  Wolpole  on  the  question  of  the  excise,  and  in 
1743  a  union  of  parties  resulted  in  the  formation  of  an  adminis- 
tration in  which  Pelham  was  prime  minister,  with  the  office  of 
chancellor. of  the  exchequer i  but  rank  and  influence  made  his 
brother,  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  very  powerful  in  the  cabinet, 
and,  in  spite  of  a  genuine  attachment,  there  were  occasional 
disputes  between  them,  which  led  to  difficulties.  Being  strongly 
in  favour  of  peace,  Pelham  carried  on  the  war  with  languor  aqd 
indifferent  success,  but  the  country,  wearied  of  the  interminable 
struggle,  was  disposed  to  acquiesce  in  his  foreign  policy  almost 
without  a  murmur.  The  king,  thwarted  .in  his  favourite 
schemes,  made  overtures  in  1746  to  Lord  Bath,  but  his  purpose 
was  upset  by  the  resignation  of  the  two  Pclhams  (Henry  and 
Newcastle),  who,  however,  at  the  king's  request,  resumed  office. 
Pelham  remained  prime  minister  till  his  death  on  the  6th  of 
March  1754,  when  his  brother  succeeded  him.  His  very  defects 
were  among  the  chief  elements  of  Pelham 's  success,  for  one  with 
a  strong  personality,  moderate  self-respect,  or  high  conceptions 
of  statesmanship  coiUd  not  have  restrained  the  discordant 
elements  of  the  cabinet  for  any  length  of  time.  Moreover,  he 
possessed  tact  and  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  forms  of  the 
house.  Whatever  quarrels  or  insubordination  might  exist 
within  the  cabinet,  they  never  broke  out  into  open  revolt.  Nor 
can  a  high  degree  of  praise  be  denied  to  his  fiiuincial  policy, 
especially  his  plans  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt  and 
the  simplification  and  consolidation  of  its  di/tcrcnt  branches. 
He  had  married  in  1726  Lady  Catherine  Manners,  daughter  of  the 
2nd  duke  of  Rutland;  and  one  of  his  daughters  marri^l  Heniy 
Fiaincs  Qinton,  2nd  duke  of  Newcastle. 

Sec  W.  Coxe.  Memoirs  df  th«  Pdham  AdministmHM.  (a  vols., 
1829).  For  the  family  history  ace  Lower,  Ptlkam  Family  (1873): 
also  the  Pelham  and  IScwcofitlc  MSS.  In  the  British  Museum. 

PELHAM,  HENRY  FRANCIS  (1846-1907),  English  scholar 
and  historian,  was  born  at  Berg  Apton,  Norfolk,  on  the  19th 
of  September  1S46,.  son  of  the  Hon.  John  Thomas  Pelham 
(181X-1894),  bishop  of  Norvi'ich,  third  son  of  the  2nd  earl  of 
Chichester.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  took  a  first  class  in  liUrae  humaniores  in 
1869.  He  was  a  tutor  of  Exeter  College  from  1S69  to  1890.  In 
1887  he  became  university  reader  in  ancient  history,  and  two 
ycaxs  later  was  elected  to  the  Camden  professorship.  He 
bfcaroe  curator  of  the  Bodleian  library  in  1892,  and  in  1897 
president  of  Trinity  College.  He  was  also  a  fellow  of  Brasenose 
College,  honorary  fellow  of  Exeter,  a  fellow  of  the  Britbh 
Academy  and  of  other  learned  societies,  and  a  governor  of 
Harrow  SchooL-  His  chief  contribution  to  ancient  history  was 
his.  article  on  Roman  history  in  the  9th  edition  of  the  Encyclo' 
pfudia  Britanuica  (1S86),  which  was  republished  with  additions 
as  the  Outiiiies  of  Roman  History  (1890).  His  university  lectures, 
though  perhaps  lacking  in  inspiration,  were  full  of  original 
research  and  learning.  His  death  on  the  X3th  of  February  1907 
not  only  prevented  the  publication  in  systematic  form  of  his  own 
important  researches,  but  also  delayed  the  appearance  of  much 
that  had  been  left  in  MS.  by  H.  Fumeaux  and  A.  H.  J.  Greenidge, 
and  was  at  the  time  under  his  charge.  Apart  from  the  OutiiHfs 
he  published  onl^  The  Imperial  Domains  and  the  Colonale  (1890), 
The  Roman  Frontier  Syslem^  (1895),  and  articles  in  periodicals 
of  which  the  m^st  important  was  an  article  in  the  Quarterly 
JRcviav  on  the  early  Caesars  (April,  1905).  He  did  much  for  the 
study  of  archaeology  at  Oxford,  materially  assisted  the  Hellenic 
Society  and  the  British  School  at  Athens,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  (he  British  School  at  Rome.  He  married  in  1873 
Laara  Priscilla,  daughter  of  Sir  Edward  North  Buxton. 

PSLIAS,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Poseidon  and  Tyro,  daughter 
of  Salmoneus.  Because  Tyro  afterwards  married  her  father's 
brother  Cfethcus,  king  of  lolcus  in  Thessaly,  to  whom  she  bore 
Aeson,  Pheres  and  Amylliaon,  I^lias  la-as  by  some  thought  to  be 


6S 


PELICAN— PfeLlSSIER 


the  son  of  Cretheus.  He  and  lits  twin-brother  Neleus  were 
exposed  by  their  mother,  but  were  nurtured  by  a  herdsman. 
When  grown  to  manhood  they  were  acknowledged  by  their 
mother.  After  the  death  of  Cretheus,  Pctias  made  himself  master 
of  the  kingdom  of  lolous,  having  previously  quarrelled  with 
Neleus,  who  removed  to  Messenia,  where  he  founded  Pylos. 
In  order  to  rid  himself  of  Jason,  Pelias  sent  him  to  Colchis  in 
quest  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  took  advantage  of  his  absence 
to  put  to  death  his  father,  Aeson,  his  mother  and  brother. 
When  Jason  returned  he  sought  to  avenge  the  death  of  his 
parents,  and  Medea  persuaded  the  daughters  of  Pelias  to  cut  in 
pieces  and  boil  their  father,  assuring  them  that  he  would  thus 
be  restored  to  youth.  Acastus,  son  of  Pelias,  drove  out  Jason 
and  Medea  and  celebrated  funeral  games  in  honour  of  his  father, 
which  were  celebrated  by  the  poet  Stcsichonis  and  represented 
on  the  chest  of  Cypselns.  The  death  of  Pelias  was  the  subject 
of  Sophocles'  RkizoUmoi  (Root>culters),  and  in  the  Tyro  he 
treated  another  portion  of  the  legend.  Pdiades  (the  daughters 
of  Pelias)  was  the  name  of  Euripides'  first  play. 

PEUCAR  (Fr.  PHican;  Lat.  Pdecanus  or  Pdicanus),  a  large 
fish-eating  water-fowl,  remarkable  for  the  enormous  pouch 
formed  by  the  extensible  skin  between  the  bwer  jaws  of  its  long, 
and  apparently  formidable  but  in  reality  very  weak,  bill.  The 
ordinary  pelican,  the  Onocrotalus  of  the  ancients,  to  whom  it  was 
well  known,  and  the  Pdecanus  onocriHalus  of  ornithologists, 
is  a  very  abundant  bird  in  some  districts  of  south-eastern 
Europe,  south-western  Asia  and  north-eastern  Africa,  occasionally 
straying,  it  is  believed,  into  the  northern  parts  of  Germany  and 
France;  but  the  possibility  of  such  wanderers  having  escaped 
from  confinement  is  always  to  be  regarded,*  since  few  zoological 
gardens  are  without  examples.  Its  usual  haunts  are  the  shallow 
margins  of  the  larger  lakes  and  rivers,  where  fishes  are  plentiful, 
since  it  requires  for  its  sustenance  a  vast  supply  of  them.  The 
nest  is  formed  among  reeds,  pbccd  on  the  ground  and  lined  with 
grass.  Therein  two  eggs,  with  white,  chalky  shclb,  are  com- 
monly laid.  The  young  during  the  first  twelvemonth  are  of  a 
greyish-brown,  but  when  mature  almost  the  whole  plumage, 
except  the  bbck  primaries,  is  white,  deeply  suffused  by  a  rich 
blash  of  rose  or  salmon-colour,  passing  into  yellow  on  the  crest 
and  lower  part  of  the  neck  in  front.  A  second  and  somewhat 
larger  species,  Pdecanus  crispns,  also  inhabits  Europe,  but  has 
a  more  eastern  distribution.  This,  when  adult,  is  readily  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  ordinary  bird  by  the  absence  of  the  blush 
from  its  plumage,  and  by  the  curled  feathers  that  project  from 
and  overhang  each  side  of  the  head,  which  with  some  difference 
of  coloration  of  the  bill,  pouch,  bare  skin  round  the  eyes  and 
irides  give  it  a  wholly  distinct  expression.  Two  specimens  of  the 
humerus  have  been  found  in  the  English  fens  (/6/5,  x868,  p.  363; 
Proc.  Zoci.  Society t  187 1,  p.  702),  thus  proving  the  existence  of 
the  bird  in  England  at  no  very  distant  period,  and  one  of  them 
being  that  of  a  young  example  points  to  its  having  been  bred 
!n  this  country.  It  is  possible  from  their  large  size  that  they 
belonged  to  P  crispus.  Ornithologists  have  been  much  divided 
In  opinion  as  to  the  number  of  living  species  of  the  genus  Pde- 
canus (cf.  op.  cit.f  x868,  p.  264;  1869,  p.  571;  1871,  p.  631) — the 
estimate  vaiying  from  sx  to  ten  or  eleven;  but  the  former  is  the 
number  recognized  by  M.  Dubok  (Bnff.  Afus.  de  Bdgique^  1883). 
North  America  has  one,  P,  erythrorhynckiis^  very  similar  to 
P.  onocrotalus  both  in  appearance  and  habits,  but  remarkable 
for  a  triangular,  horny  excrescence  developed  on  the -ridge  of  the 
male's  bill  in  the  breeding  season,  which  falls  off  without  leaving 
trace  of  its  existence  when  that  b  over.  Australia  has  P. 
(onspiciUatus,  easily  distinguished  by  its  blaek  tail  and  wing- 
coverts.  Of  more  marine  habit  are  P.  phUippensis  and  P.fuscus, 
the  former  having  a  wide  range  in  Southern  Asia,  and,  it  is  said, 
reaching  Madagascar,  and  the  latter  common  on  the  coasts  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  both  North  and  South  America. 

The  genus  Pdecanus  as  instituted  by  Linnaeus  included  the 
*  This  caution  was  not  neglected  by  the  prudent,  even  bo  long  ago 
as  Sir  Thomas  Browne's  days;  for  be.  recording  the  occurrence  oia 
pdican  in  Norfolk,  was  cannul  to  notice  that  about  the  same  time  one 
of  the  pelicans  kept  by  the  king  (Charlet  II.)  in  St  James's  Park, 
had  been  lost. 


cormorant  (q.v.)  and  gannet  (q.v,)  as  well  as  the  true  pelicans, 
and  for  a  long  while  these  and  some  other  distinct  groups,  as  the 
snake-birds  (q.v.),  frigate-birds  {q.v.)  and  tropic-birds  {q.v.), 
which  have  all  the  four  toes  of  the  foot  connected  by  a  web,  were 
regarded  as  forming  a  single  family,  Pdecanidae;  but  this  name 
has  now  been  restricted  to  the  pelicans  only,  though  all  are 
still  usually  associated  in  the  suborder  Steganopodes  of  Clconii* 
form  birds.  It  may  be  necessary  to  state  that  there  is  no  founda- 
tion  for  the  venerable  legend  of  the  pelican  feeding  her  young 
with  blood  from  her  own  breast,  which  has  given  it  an  important 
place  in  ecclesiastical  heraldry,  except  that,  as  A.  D.  Bartlett 
suggested  {Proc.  Zoct.  Socidy,  1869,  p.  146),  the  curious  bloody 
secretion  ejected  from  the  mouth  of  the  flamingo  may  have 
given  rise  to  the  belief,  through  that  bird  having  been  mistaken 
for  the  "  Pelican  of  the  wfldemess.""  (A.  N.) 

PBUON,  a  wooded  mountain  in  Thessaly  in  the  dbtrict  of 
Magnesia,  between  Volo  and  the  east  coast.  Its  highest  point 
(mod.  Plcssidi)  b  5340  ft.  It  is  famous  in  Greek  mythology; 
the  giants  are  said  to  have  piled  it  on  Ossa  in  order  to  scale 
Olympus,  the  abode  of  the  gods;  it  was  the  home  of  the  centaurs, 
especially  of  Chiron,  who  had  a  cave  near  its  summit,  and 
educated  many  youthful  heroes;  the  ship  "  Argo  "  was  built 
from  its  pine-woods.  On  its  summit  was  an  altar  of  Zeus 
Actaeus,  in  whose  honour  an  annual  festival  was  held  in  the 
dog-days,  and  worshippers  clad  themselves  in  skins. 

PEUSSB  (through  the  Fr.  from  Lat.  pdlkiaz  sc.  testis,  a 
garment  made  of  fur,  pdlis,  skin),  properly  a  name  of  a  cloak 
made  of  or  lined  with  fur,  hence  particularly  used  of  the  fui<« 
trimmed  "  dolman  "  worn  slung  from  the  shoulders  by  hussar 
regiments.  The  word  b  now  chiefly  employed  as  the  name  of  » 
long-sleeved  doak  Of  any  material  worn  by  women  and  children. 

PfiUSSIER,  AIMABLE  JBAN  JACQUBS  <i  794-1864),  duke 
of  Malakoff ,  marshal  of  France,  was  bom  on  the  6lh  of  November 
X794  at  Maromme  (Seine  Inf^rieure),  of  a  family  of  prosperous 
artisans  or  yeoman,  hb  father  being  employed  in  a.  powder* 
magazine.  After  attending  the  military  college  of  La  Flkbe 
and  the  special  school  of  St  Cyr,  he  in  1815  entered  the  army  as 
sub-lieutenant  in  an  artillery  regiment.  A  brilliant  examination 
in  X819  secured  hb  appointment  to  the  staff.  He  served  as 
aide-de-camp  in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1823,  and  in  the 
expedition  to  the  Morea  in  1838-39.  In  1830  he  took  part  in 
the  expedition  to  Algeria,  and  on  hb  return  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  chef  ^escadrom.  After  some  years'  staff  service  in 
Paris  he  was  again  sent  to  Algeria  as  chief  of  staff  of  the  province 
of  Oran  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  remained  there 
till  the  Crimean  War,  taking  a  prominent  port  in  many  important 
operations.  Hie  severity  cA  hb  conduct  in  suffocating  a  whole 
Arab  tribe  in  the  Dahra  or  Dahna  caves,  near  Mustaganem,  where 
they  had  taken  refuge  (June  18,  1845),  awakened  such  indig- 
nation in  Europe  that  Marshal  Soult,  the  minister  of  war,  publicly 
expressed  hb  regret;  but  Marshal  Bugeaud,  the  govemoT'general 
of  Algeria,  not  only  gave  it  hb  approval,  but  secured 
for  P^lissier  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  which  he  heU  till 
1850,  when  he  was  promoted  general  of  division.  After  the 
battles  of  October  and  November  1854  before  Sevastopol* 
Pelissier  was  sent  to  the  Crimea,  where  on  the  x6th  of  May  1855 
he  succeeded  Marshal  Canrobert  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
French  forces  before  Sevastopol  (see  Crimean  Was).  His 
command  was  marited  by  relentless  pressure  of  the  en^nyand 
unalterable  determination  to  conduct  the  campaign  without 
interference  from  Paris.    Hb  perseverance  was  crowned  with 

*The  legend  was  commonly  believed'  In  the  middle  a^ 
Epiphanius.  bishop  of  Constantia.  In  his  Pkysiolot^s  (1588),  wntes 
that  the  female  bird*  in  cherishing  her  young,  wounds  them  wiik 
kyving.  and  pierces  their  sides,  andf  they  die.  After  three,  days  the 
male  pelkan  comes  and  finds  them  dead,  and  hiA  heart  is  pained. 
He  smites  his  own  Mde,  and  as  he  stands  over  the  wounds  of  the  dead 
young  ones  the  blood  trickles  down,  and  thus  are  they  made  alive 
again.  The  pelican  "  in  hb  piety  "^4^.  in  thb  pious  act  of  reviviag 
his  offspring— was  a  common  subject  for  15th-century  emblem 
books;  It  became  a  symbol  of  seli-sacrifke.  a  type  of  Christian 
redemption  and  of  tlic  Eucharbtlc  doctrhic.  The  device  wm 
adopted  by  Bishop  Fox  in  1316  for  hb  new  colkge  of  Corpus  Chrbtl, 
OxfonL^H.  Ch.1 


PELt^^FCLLJBTAN 


69 


tuccess  fn  ttie  stonning  ef  the  Mahkoff  on  the  8th  of  September. 
On  the  1 2th  he  was  promoted  to  be  marshal.  On  his  return  to 
Paris  he  was  named  senator,  created  dulce  of  Mabkoff  (July  27, 
1856),  and  rewarded  with  a  grant  of  loe.poo  francs  pejc  annum. 
From  March  1858  to  May  1859  he  was  French  ambassador  in 
London,  whence  he  was  recalled  to  take  command  of  the  army 
of  observation  on  the  Rhine.  In  the  same  year  he  became 
grand  chancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  i860  he  was 
appointed  govemor>general  of  Algeria,  and  he  died  there  on  the 
22nd  of  May  1864. 

See  Marbaud.  U  Marickal  PSlissier  (1863):  CasttUc,  Portraits 
historiques,  2nd  series  (1859). 

PEUU  JOHN  (X6XO-X685),  English  mathematician,  was  bom 
on  the  kst  of  March  x6io  at  Southwick  in  Sussex,  where  his 
father  was  minister.  He  was  educated  at  Steyning,  and  entered 
Trim'ty  College,  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  During  his 
univenity  career  he  became  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  even 
before  be  took  hia  M.A.  degree  (in  1630)  cortesponded  with 
Henry  Briggs  and  other  mathematicians.  His  great  reputation 
and  the  influenced  Sir  Waiiam  BotweU,  the  EngUth  ittidint, 
with  the  states-general  pracored  hfs  dection  in  1643  to  the  chair 
of  mathematics  in  Anisterdam,  whence  he  removed  in  1646, 
on  the  ioviutioa  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  to  Breda,  wlieie  he 
tcmained  till  1653. 

Fh>m  1654  to  1658  Pell  acted  as  Cromwell'a  pditical  agent 
to  the  Protestant  caontons  of  SwiimlaBd.  On .  his  return  to 
England  he  took  orders  and  was  appdnted  by  CbariesIL.to 
the  rectory  of  Fobbing  in  Essex,  and  in  1673  he  was  presented 
by  Bishop  Shddon  to  the  rectory  of  Laindon  in  the  same  county. 
His  devotion  to  mathematical  acionoe  seema  to  have  interfered 
•like  with  his  advancement  in  the  Chuidi  and  with  the  proper 
management  of  his  private  affaicB.  For  a  txmebe  was  amfined 
as  a  debtor  in  the  king's  bench  priwn.  He  lived,  on  the 
invitation  of  Dr  Whistler,  for  a  short  time  in  1682  at  the  College 
of  Physidaris,  but  died  on  the  istfa  of  Decsember  1685  at  the 
house  of  Mr  Cotbome,  reader  of  the  ohturch  of  St  Giles-ln-the 
Fickls.  Many  of  Pell'fe  manuscripts  feO  into  the  hands  of  Dr 
Busby,  master  of  Westminster  ScIumI,  and  aftetwaida  came  into 
the  possession  ci  the  Royal  Society;  they  are  still  preserved  in 
•omething  like  forty  folio  volumes,  wUch  contain,  pot  only 
FeU*s  own  memoirs,  but  much  of  his  00Rcqx>ndence-.with  the 
mathematicians  of  his  time. 

The  DIophandne  analyris  was  a  favourite  aUbjeet  with  PtoO; 
be  Icctuied  on  it  at  Amsterdam;  and  he  ia  now  best  remembered 
for  the  indeterminate  equation  tufi+t"^,  which  is  known  by  his 
name.  This  problem  was  proposed  by  Pierre  de  Ferroat  first  to 
Bemhard  Flnenicle  de  Bessy,  and  in  1657  to  all  mathematicians. 
Pell's  comienoA  with  the  problem  simply  consists  of  the  publication 
oC  the  solutions  of  John  Wallis  and  Lord  finmnker  in  his  edition  of 
BroHitr's  TratuUttm  of  Rkonius's  Algebra  (1668).  His  chtcC  worl» 
are:  Astronomical  History  of  Observations  of  Heavenly  Motions  and 
Appearances  (1634);  Bdiphca  prognostica  (1634);  Controversy  tritk 
LoHionumianus  conaming  tk$  Quadrature  of  tkg  CireU  (1646?); 
An  Idea  of  the  Mathtmaiies,  lamo  (1690);  A  TaUa  of  Ten  Tknaaud 
Square  Nuiftbers  (foL;  1672). 

PBLLA,  the  capital  of  ancient  Macedonia  under  Philip  IL 
(who  transfentd  the  scat  of  government  hither  fidm  Edcaaa) 
And  Alexander  the  Gseat,  who  was  bom  here;  It  seems  to  have 
retained  some  importance  up  to  the  time  of  Hadrian.  Sonty 
cemains  exist  and  some  springs  in  the  neighbourhood  are  stiU 
known  as  the  baths  of  Pel  The  site  (identified  by  Leake)  is 
occupied  by  the  village  of  Neocbori  (Turk.  Yeni-KettO  about 
33  m.  north-west  of  Salonika. 

PELLAGRA  (ItaL  pelU  agra,  amacting  skin>,  the  name  given, 
from  one  of  its  early  symptoms,  to  a  peculiar  disease  of  com- 
paratively modem  oriji^  For  some  time  it  was  suppesed  to 
be  practically  ooniined  to  the  peasantry  in  parts  of  Italy  (particu- 
larly Lombardy)  and  France,  and  in  the  Asturiaa  {mal  ie  la 
r0ia),  Rumania  and  Corfu.  But  it  baa  recently  been  identified 
in  various  outlying  paru  of  the  Britiah  Empire  (Barbadoes, 
India)  and  in  both  Lower  and  Upper  Egypt;  also  among  the 
Zulus  and  Basutos.  In  the  United  States  sporadic  cases  had 
been  observed  up  to  X906,  but  since  then  numerous  cases  have 
been  reported.    It  it  in  Italy,  bowcvec,  that  it  has  been  most 


prevalent.  The  malady  is  esentially  chronic  in  character. 
The  indicatiooA  usually  begin  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  declining 
towards  autamn,  and  recurring  with  increasing  intensity  and 
permanence  in  the  spring  seasons  following.  A  peasant  who 
is  acquiring  the  malady  forls  unfit  for  work,  suffers  from  head- 
aches, gidcfiness,  singing  in  the  ears,  a  burning  of  the  skin, 
especially  in  the  hands  and  feet,  and  dianboea.  At  the  same 
time  a  red  rash  appears  on  the  skin,  of  the  nature  of  erysipelas, 
the  red  or  livid  spoU  being  tense  and  painful,  especially  where 
they  are  directly  exposed  to  the  sun.  About  July  or  August 
of  the  first  aeason  these  symptoms  disappear,  the  spots  on  the 
skid  letnaining  rough  and  dry.  The  spring  attack  of  the  year 
Mlowing  will  probably  be  more  severe  and  more  likely  to  leave 
tracea  behind  it;  with  each  successive  year  the  patient  becomes 
more  like  a  mummy,  his  akin  shriv^ed  and  sallow,  or  even 
black  at  certain,  spots,  aa  in  Addison^  disease,  his  ani^  pro> 
trading,  his  musdies  wasted,  hia  movements  slow  and  languid, 
and  his  sensibility  diminished.  Meanwhile  there  are  more  special 
symptoms  relating  to  the  nervous  system,  including  drooping 
of  the  eyelid,  dilatation  of  the  pupU,  and  other  d^rdcrs  of 
vision,  together  with  tyrapioaa  relating  to  the  digestive  system, 
such  as  a  red  and  dry  tongue^  a  burning  feeling  in  the  mouth, 
pain  on  swallowiog,  and  diarrhoea.  After  a  certain  stage  the 
disease  passes  into  a.  profound  discMiganixation  of  the  nervous 
system;  there  is  a  tendoicy  to  melaiicho^,  imbecility,  and  a 
curious  mommtfied  omdition  of  body.  After  death  a  general 
tissue  dagenecalion  is  observed. 

The  causation  ef  this  obscure  disease  has  recently  come  op 
for  new  investigation  in  connexion  with  the  new  work  done  in 
relation  to  aleeping-sicknesa  and  other  tropical  diseases.  So 
long  as  it  was  suppened  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Italian  peasantry, 
it  was  asBodated  simply  with  their  ataple  diet,  and  was  regarded 
as  due  to  the  eating  of  mouldy  maiae.  It  was  by  his  views  in 
this  regard  that  Lombroao  {q,v.)  fii^  nude  his  scientific.reputa- 
tion.  Bui  the  area  of  naise  consumption  is  now  known  to  be 
wider  than  that  of  peUagra,  and  pellagra  is  found  where  maiae 
is  at  least  not  an  ordinary  dieL  In  K905  Dr  L.  W.  Saxnbon,  at 
the  meeting  of  the  British  Medical  Amodation,  suggested  that 
peUagra  was  probably  protosoal  in  origin,  and  subsequently 
be  announced  hm  bdief  that  the  protoaoon  waa  communicated 
by  sandoflies,  just  as  sleeping-skknes  by  the  tsetse  Ay;  and  this 
opinion  waa  supported  by  the  favourable  action  of  arsenic  in 
the  treatment  ol  the  disease.  His  l^pothesis  was  endorsed 
by  Sir.  Patrick  Mansdn,  and  in  January  19x0  an  influential 
committee  was  formed,  to  enable  Dr  Sambon  to  pursue  his 
investigations  in  a  pellagrous  ansa. 

PBUJBfAN,  CHARUn  «AK1UJB  (1846-  ),  French 
politician  and  journalist,  waa  bom  in  Paris  on  the  a8th  of  June 
1846,  the  son  oi  Engine  PtUetan  (1B13-K884),  a  writer  of  some 
distinction  and  n^  noted  opponent  of  the  Second  Empire. 
Camiile  Pelletan  was  educated  in  Paris,  passed  as  licentiate 
in  laws,  and  was  qualified  as  an  "archiviste  paUographe." 
At  the  age-  of  twenty  he  became  an  active  contributor  to 
the  press,  and  a  bitter  critic  of  the  Imperial  Government. 
After  the  war  of  '1870-7Z  he  took  a  leading  place  among 
the  most  radical  section  of  French  politicians,  as  an  opponent 
of  the  "  opportunista ''  who  oontinned  the  policy  of  Gambeita. 
In  1880  he  became  editor  of  JusUUf  and  wprkcd  with  success 
to  bring  about  n  leviaian  of  the  aentenoes  passed  on  the 
ConununardSk  In  1881  he'  was  chosen  member  for  the  tenth 
anrondissement  of  Paris,  and  in  i88s  for  the  Bouches  du 
Rhone^  bang  re-eiccted  in  i88p,  K893  and  1898;  and  he  was 
repeatedly  chosen  as  "  lepoiter  "  totke  various  bureaus.  Dur- 
ing the  Nationalist  and  DrsyfoS  agitations  he  fought  vigonous^ 
on  behalf  of  the' Republican  govanuattit  and  when  the  coalition 
known  as  the  "Bloc"  wnafoimed  he  took  his  pkce as  aRadio»l 
leader.  He  was  made  minister  ol  marine  in  the  cabinet  ^f 
M.  Combes,  Jnne  X9oa  to  January  190s,  but  his  administration 
wasaeverelyaitidflBd,  notably  by  M.  deLanwsan  and  other  naval 
experts.  During  the  great  sailors'  strike  at  Marseilles  in  1994 
he  showed  pronounced.  syn^Mthy  with  the  socialistic  aims  and 
methods  of  the  striken,  and  a  strong  feeling  was  aroused  that 


■ft 


PELLICANCS— PELUCO 


hb  Radical  sympathies  tended  to  a  urious  weakening  of  the 
navy  and  to  dettructioa  of  discipline.  A  somewhat  violent 
controversy  resulted,  in  the  course  of  which  M.  PeUetan*8 
indiscreet  speeches  did  him  no  good;  and  he  became  a  common 
subject  for  ill-natured  caricatures.  On  the  fall  of  the  Combes 
ministry  he  became  less  prominent  in  French  politics. 

PELUCANUS,  OONRAD  (1478-1556),  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Ruffach  in  Alsace,  on  the  8th  of  January  1478. 
His  German  name,  Klirsner,  was  changed  to  PeUicanus  by  his 
mother's  brother  Jodocus  Gallus,  an  ecclesiastic  connected  with 
the  university  of  Heidelberg,  who  supported  his  nephew  for  sixteen 
months  at  the  university  in  1491-1492.  On  returning  to  RuiTach, 
he  taught  gratis  in  the  Minorite  convent  school  that  he  might 
borrow  books  from  the  library,  and  in  his  sixteenth  year  resolved 
to  become  a  friar.  This  step  helped  his  studies,  for  he  was  sent 
to  Tubingen  in  1496  and  became  a  favourite  pupil  of  the  guardian 
of  the  Minorite  convent  there,  Paulus  Scriptoris,  a  man  of 
considerable  general  learning,  lliere  seems  to  have  been  at 
that  time  in  south-west  Germany  a  considerable  amount  of 
sturdy  Independent  thought  among  the  Franciscans;  Pellicanus 
hims^  became  a  Protestant  very  gradually,  and  without  any 
such  revubion  of  feeling  as  marked  Luthcr't  conversion..  At 
Tfibingen  the  future  "  apostate  in  three  languages  **  was  able 
to  begin  the  study  of  Hebrew.  He  had  no  teacher  and  no 
grammar;  but  Paulus  Scriptoris  carried  him  a  huge  codex  pf 
the  prophets  on  his  own  shoulders  all  the  way  from  Mainz.  He 
learned  the  letters  from  the  transcription  of  a  few  verses  in  the 
Star  of  the  Messiah  of  Petrus  Niger,  and,  with  a  subsequent  hint 
or  two  from  Reuchlin,  who  also  lent  him  the  grammar  of  Moses 
liLimbT,  made  his  way  through  the  Bible  for  himself  with  the  help 
of  Jerome's  Latin.  He  got  on  so  well  that  he  was  not  only 
a  useful  helper  to  Reuchlin  but  anticipated  the  manuals  of  the 
great  Hebraist  by  ccmiposing  in  1501  the  fiist  Hebrew  grammar 
in  the  European  tongue.  It  was  printed  in  1503,  and  afterwards 
included  in  Reysch's  Margarita  pkUosefhUa,  Hebrew  remained 
a  favourite  study  to  the  last.  Pellican's  autobiogn^hy  de- 
scribes the  gradual  multiplication  of  accessible  books  on  the 
subjects,  and  he  not  only  studied  but  translated  a  vast  mass  of 
rabbinical  and  Talmudic  texts,  his  interest  in  Jewish  literature 
being  mainly  philological.  The  chief  fruit  of  these  studies  is 
the.vast  commentary  on  the  Bible  (Ztirich,  7  vok.,  X533*'i559)» 
which  shows  a  remarkably  sound  judgment  on  questions  of  the 
text,  and  a  sense  for  historical  as  opposed  to  typological  exegesis. 

Pellicanus  became  priest  in  1 501  and  continued  to  serve  his 
order  at  Ruffach,  Pforzheim,  and  Basel  till  1536.  At  Basel 
he  did  much  kborious  work  for  Froben's  editions,  and  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  Church  taught  many  doctrines  of  which 
the  early  doctors  of  Christendom  knew  nothing.  He  spoke  his 
views  frankly,  but  he  disliked  polemic;  he  found  also  more 
toleration  than  might  have  been  expected,  even  after  he  became 
active  in  circulating  Luther's  books^  Thus,  supported  by  the 
dvic  authorities,  he  remained  guardian  of  the  convent  of  his 
order  at  Basel  from  1519  till  15241  •nd  even  when  he  had  to 
give  up  his  post,  remained  in  the  monastery  for  two  years, 
professing  theokigy  in  the  university.  At  length,  when  the 
position  was  becoming  quite  untenable,  he  received  through 
Zwingli  a  call  to  Zurich  as  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and 
formally  throwing  off  his  monk's  habit,  entered  on  a  new  life. 
Here  he  remained  till  his  death  on  the  6th  of  April  1556. 

Pellicanus's  scholarship,  though  not  brilliant,  was  really 
extensive;  his  sound  sense,  and  his  singularly  pure  and  devoted 
character  gave  him  a  great  influence.  He  was  remarkably  free 
from  the  pedantry  of  the  time,  as  is  shown  by  his  views  about 
the  use  of  the  German  vernacular  as  a  vehicle  of  culture  {Chron. 
i3Sf  3^)-  As  a  theobi^  his  natural  affinities  were  with 
Zwingli,  with  whom  he  shared  the  advantage  of  having  grown 
up  to  the  views  of  the  Reformation,  by  the  natural  progress 
of  his  studies  and  rdij^us  life.  Thus  he  never  lost  his  sym- 
pathy with  humanism  and  with  its  great  German  representative, 
Erasmus. 

PclHcanus's  Latin  autobiography  (Chronicon  C.P.R.)  is  one  of  the 
most  interesring  documents  of  the  period.    It  was  hfst  published 


by  Riggenbach  in  1877.  and  in  thb  volume  the  other  sounQts  for  Ua 
life  are  rtgiateied.  See  also  Emil  SUberstein,  Conrad  PeUicanus; 
ein  Beilrag  zur  Cesckuhte  des  Studiums  der  kebr.  Spracke  (Beriin, 
1900). 

PBLUCIBR,  GUILLAUMB  (<:.  1490-1568),  French  prelate 
and  diplomatist,  was  educated  by  his  uncle,  the  bishop  of 
Maguclonne,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1529.  In  1536  he  had 
the  seat  of  his  bishopric  transferred  to  MontpcUicr.  Appointed 
ambassador  at  Venice  in  1539,  he  fulfilled  his  mission  to  the 
entire  satisfaction  of  Ftancis  I.,  but  on  the  discovery  of  the 
system  of  espionage  he  had  employed  the  king  had  tol'ccall  him 
in  1542.  Returning  to  his  diocese,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
chAtcau  of  Bcaucaire  for  his  tolerance  of  the  Reformers,  so  he 
replaced  his  former  indulgence  by  severity,  and  the  end  of  his 
episcopate  was  disturbed  by  religious  struggles.  He  was  a 
man  of  wide  learning,  a  humanist  and  a  friend  of  humanists, 
and  took  a  keen  interest  in  the  natural  sciences. 

SeeJ.Zeller, La Diptomaiiefran^ise  .  .  .  d'apresleeorrespondatue 
de  G.  PeUider  (Paris.  1881) ;  and  A.  Tansscrat-Radel,  Cerrespoudance 
politique  de  Cuillaume  Pdlicier  (Paris,  1899). 

PBLUCO,  SILVIO  (1788-1854),  Italian  dramatbt,  was  bom 
at  Saluzzo  in  Piedmont  on  the  24th  of  June  1788,  the  earlier 
portion  of  hb  life  being  passed  at  Pinerolo  and  Turin  under 
the  tuition  of  a  priest  named  Manavcila.  At  the  age  of  ten 
he  composed  a  tragedy  under  the  inspiration  of  Cacsarotti's 
translation  of  the  Osianic  poems.  On  the  marriage  of  his  twin 
sbter  Rosina  with  a  maternal  cousin  at  Lyons  he  went  to  reside 
in  that  dty,  devoting  himself  during  four  years  to  the  study  of 
French  literature.  He  returned  in  16 10  to  Milan,  where  he 
became  professor  of  French  in  the  Collegio  degli  Orfani  Militari. 
Hb  tragedy  Francesca  da  Riminit  was  brought  out  with  success 
by  Carlotta  Marchionni  at  Milan  in  1818.  Its  publication  was 
followed  by  that  of  the  tradcgy  Eufemto  da  Messina,  but  the 
representation  of  the  latter  was  forbidden.  Pellico  had  in  the 
meantime  continued  hb  work  as  tutor,  first  to  the  unfortunate 
son  of  Count  Biiche,  and  then  to  the  two  sons  of  Count  Porro 
LambertenghL  He  threw  himself  heartily  into  an  attempt  to 
weaken  the  hold  of  the  Austrian  dcspotbm  by  indirect  educa- 
tional means.  Of  the  powerful  literary  executive  which  gathered 
about  Counu  Porro  and  Confalonieri,  Pellico  was  the  able 
sccretary-Hhe  management  of  the  Conciliatore,  which  appeared 
in  1818  as  the  organ  of  the  association,  resting  largely  upon  hitlu 
But  the  paper,  under  the  censorship  of  the  Austrian  oflkiabr 
ran  for  a  year  only,  and  the  society  itself  was  broken  up  by  the 
government.  In  October  1820  Pellico  was  arrested  on  the 
charge  of  carbonarism  and  conveyed  to  the  Santa  Margherita 
prison.  After  his  removal  to  the  Piombi  at  Venice  in  February 
182 1,  he  composed  several  CatUiche  and  the  tragedies  Ester  d'EH" 
gaddi  and  Iginia  d'Asti.  The  sentence  of  death  pronounced 
on  him  in  February  1822  was  finally  commuted  to  fifteen  years 
carcere  dura,  and  in  the  following  April  he  was  placed  in  the 
Spielberg  at  Brilnn.  Hb  chief  work  during  Ihb  part  of  hit 
imprisonment  was  the  tragedy  Leeniero  da  Dertona,  for  the 
preservation  of  which  he  was  compelled  to  rely  on  his  memory. 
After  hb  release  in  1830  he  commenced  the  publication  of  his 
prison  compositions,  of  which  the  Ester  was  pUyed  at  Turin 
in  1831,  but  immediately  suppressed.  In  1832  appeared  hb 
Cismonda  da  Mendritio,  Erodiade  and  the  LeoHiero,  under  the 
title  of  Tre  nfion  tragedie,  and  in  the  same  year  the  work  which 
gave  him  hb  European  fkme,  Le  Mie  prigioni,  an  account  of 
hb  sufferings  in  prison.  The  last  gained  him  the  friendship 
of  the  Marchess  di  Barolo,  the  reformer  of  the  Turin  prisons, 
and  in  1834  he  accepted  from  her  a  yearly  pension  of  1 200  francs. 
Hb  tragedy  Tomtnaso  Mora  had  been  published  In  1833,  hb 
most  important  subsequent  publication  being  the  Opere  ineditt 
in  1837.  On  the  decease  of  hb  parents  in  1838  he  was  received 
into  the  Casa  Barolo,  where  he  remained  till  hb  death,  assisting 
the  marchesa  in  her  charities,  and  writing  chiefly  upon  religious 
themes.  Of  these  works  the  best  known  is  the  Dei  Dcnnde^ 
^lotnini,  a  series  of  trite  maxims  which  do  honour  to  his  piety 
rather  than  to  hb  critical  Judgment.  A  fragmentary  biography 
of  the  marchesa  by  Pellico  was  published  in  Italian  and  English 
after  her  death.    He  died  on  the  3i8t  of  January  1854,  and  was 


PELLISSON— PELOP(M«NESIAN  WAR 


71 


btiried  in  the  Campo  SanAo  At  Turin,  flit  inhtngs  weidelrctive 
in  virility  and  breadth  of  thought,  and  his  tngedkt  dispUy 
neither  the  insist  into  chanurter  nor  the  constmctive  pover 
ot  a  great  dnmatist.  It  is  in  the  ainple  nartatlve  and  naive 
egotism  of  la  Mi*  prigiom  that  he  hat  eitablisbed  his  strongest 
cUim  tp  lemembiance,  winning  fame  by  his  fflisfortuncs  latlmr 
than  by  his  gemns. 

See  PSeto  Mafoncdlt,  Adikiatti  eOe  nne  prighiti  (Plarie,  1^): 
the  bfogiaphies  by  Latdiir;  Gabricle  Roiielii:  Didier,  Kewtig  in 
dc$ix  mSntUs  (September  1943);  Oe  Lom^nie.  GakrU  dcs  contcm^ 
iUustr.  iv.  (1842):  Chiala  (Turin,  1853):  NoUtrt-fabcrt  (1854); 
Gior^o  Briano  (1854):  Bourdon  (1868):  Rivieri  (1899-1901). 

PELU880N.  PAUL  (1624-1693),  French  author,  was  bom  at 

Bfsiers  on  the  30th  of  October  1694,  of  a  distingui^ed  (Zalvtniat 

family.    He  studied  law  at  Toulouse,  and  practiMd  at  the  bar 

of  Castres.     Going  to  Paris  with  letters  of  introduction  to 

Valentin  Conrart,  who  was  a  co^reUgionist,  he  became  through 

him  acquainted  with  the  members  of  the  academy.    Bellisson 

undertook  to  be  their  historian,  and  in  165s  published  a  Relation 

comUMuU  VkUUnre  dt   VacadimU  froM^aut,     This  panegjoic 

was  rewarded  by  a  promise  of  the  next  vacant  place  and  by 

permission  to  be  present  at  their  meetings.    In  1657  Pellisaon 

became  secretary  to  the  minister  of  finance,  Nicolas  Fou<|uet, 

and  when  in  i66z  the  minister  was  anested,  his  secretary  was 

imprisoned  in  the  Bastille.    PeUisaon  had  the  coucige  to  stand 

by  his  fallen  patron,  in  whose  defence  he  issued  his  oelebiatcd 

Minuire  in  1661,  with  the  title  Discoms  au  rci,  par  %ndc  ses 

fiddet  Sleets  snr  It  prods  de  M.  dt  Fomqueif  in  which  the  facta 

in  favbur  of  Fouquet  are  mafshaUed  with  gseat  skilL    Another 

pamphlet,  Setonde  difenao  do  M.  Pouqiuif  followed.    Pellason 

was  releaaed  in  x666,  and  from  this  date  sought  the  royal  favoor. 

He.  became  historiographer  to  the  king,  and  in  th^  capacity 

wrote  a  fragmentary  Histoire  do  Louis  XI V.,  covering  the  years 

1660  to  1670.    la  1670  he  was  converted  to  Catholicism  and 

obtained  rich  ecclesiastical  preferment    He  died  oin  the  7  th 

of    February    1693.    He   was  veiy  intimate   with   Mile  de 

Scud£ry,  in  whose  novels  he  figures  as  Hermioiua  and  Acante. 

His  sterling  worth  of  character  made  him  many  friends  and 

justified  fiuss3^Rabutin's  description  of  him  ss  "encoro  plus 

honntte  homme  que  bel  esprit." 

See  Satiite>Bcttve,  Camserios  ditlumdi,  vol.  xiv.;  and  P,  L.  Maccon, 
Etude  sur  la  vio  «t  Ui  ttoorts  dt  PtUisson  (1859). 

PBLUTORYi  in  botany,  the  common  name  for  a  small  haiiy 
perennial  heri>  which  grows  on  old  walls^  hedgebanks  and 
similar  localities,  and  is  known  botanically  as  Paridaria  ttffid' 
nalis  (Lat.  parios,  a  wall).  It  has  a  short  woody  xootstock  from 
which  spring  etect  or  spreading  stems  x  to  3  ft.  long,  bearing 
slender  leafy  bnnchcs,  and  axillary  clusters  of  snmll  green 
flowers.  It  belongs  to  the  nettle  order  (Urtuacoao),  and  Is 
nearly  allied  to  the  nettle,  UrticOt  but  its  haurs  are  not  stinging. 

PBUdOUX.  LUIOI  (1839-  ),  Italian  general  and  politician, 
was  bom  mi  the  ist  <rf  March  1839,  at  La  Roche,  in  Savoy,  of 
parents  who  retained  their  Italian  nationality  when  Savoy  was 
annexed  to  France.  Entering  the  army  as  lieutenant  of  artillery 
in  1857,  he  gained  the  medal  for  military  vakur  at  the  battle 
of  Custozza  in  1866,  and  in  1870  commanded  the  brigade  of 
artillery  which  battered  the  breach  in  the  wall  of  Rome  at  Porta 
Pia.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  in  i88x  aS  deputy  for 
Leghorn,  which  he  represented  until  1895,  and  joined  Ukc  party 
of  the  Left.  He  had  entered  the  war  office  in  1870^  and  in  1880 
became  general  secretary,  in  which  capacity  be  introduced  many 
useful  refoms  in  the  army.  After  a  succession  of  high  militaiy 
commands  he  received  the  appointment  of  chief  of  the  general 
suff  in  1896.  He  was  minister  of  war  in  the  Rudini  and  CioUtti 
cabinets  of  X89X-X893.  In  July  1896  he  resumed  the  portfolio 
of  war  in  the  Rudini  cabinet,  and  waa  appointed  senator.  In 
May  1897  he  secured  the  adoption  of  the  Army  Reform  Bill, 
fixing  ItaBan  military  expenditure  at  a  maximum  of  £9,560^000 
a  year,  but  in  December  of  that  year  he  was  defe^ed  in  the 
Chamber  on  the  question  of  the  promotion  of  ofiicers.  Resigning 
office,  he  was  in  May  1898  sent  as  royal  commissioner  to  Bari, 
where,  without  iccoune  to  maittal  law,  he  succeeded  in  restoring 


public  order.  Upon  the  fall  of  Rudini  in  June  1898, 
Pelloux  was  entrusted  by  King  Humbert  with  the  fomiatioa 
of  a  cabinet,  and  took  for  himself  the  post  of  minister  of  the 
interior.  He  resigned  office  in  May  1899,  but  was  again  en- 
trusted with  the  formation  of  the  ministry.  He  took  stem 
measures  against  the  xtevolutionaxy  elements  in  southern  Italy, 
and  his  new  cabinet  waa  essentially  militaiy  and  conservative. 
The  Public  Safety  Bio  for  the  reform  of  the  pdice  laws,  taken 
over  by  him  from  the  Rudini  cabinet,  and  eventu^y  promul* 
gated  by  xoyal  decree,  was  fiercely  obstracted  by  the  Socialist 
party,  which,  with  the  Left  and  Extreme  Left,  succeeded  in 
forcing  General  PeUoux  to  dissolve  the  Chamber  in  May  1900, 
and  to  resign  office  after  the  general  election  in  June.  In  the 
autumn  of  1901  he  waa  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Turin 
army  corps. 

PBU>IIYXA«  so  named  by  R.  Greeff,  a  genus  of  Lobose 
Rhixopoda  (f.v.),  naked,  multinucleate,  with  veiy  Uunt  rounded 
pseudopodia,  fomicd  by  eruption  (see  Amoeba),  <rften  containing 
peculiar  vesidea  (glycogen?),  and  full  of  a  symbiotic  bacterium. 
It  inhabita  the  oooe  of  decomposing  organic  matter  at  the 
bottom  of  ponds  and  lakes. 

PELQPIO1A8  (d.  364  B.C.),  Theban  sUtesman  and  generaL 
He  was  a  member  of  a  distinguished  family,  and  possessed 
great  wealth  which  he  expended  on  his  friends,  while  content 
to  lead  the  life  of  an  athlete.  In  38  j  B.C.  he  served  in  a  Theban 
oontingent  sent  to  the  support  of  the  Spartans  at  Mantineia, 
where  he  was  saved,  when  dangcroudy  wounded,  by  Epami- 
nondas  iq.v.).  Upon  the  seizure  of  the  Theban  citadel  by  the 
SpsitaBs  (383  or  38a)  be  fled  to  Athens,  and  took  the  lead  in  a 
conspiracy  to  liberate  Thebes.  In  379  his  party  surprised  and 
killed  their  chief  political  opponents,  and  roused  the  people 
against  the  Spartan  garrison,  which  surrendered  to  an  army 
gathered  by  Pdopidos.  In  this  and  subsequent  years  he  was 
elected  boeotarcA^  and  about  375  he  routed  a  much  laiyer  Spartan 
force  at  Tegyra  (near  Orcbomenus).  This  victory  he  owed 
mainly  to  the  valour  of  the  Sacred  Band,  a  picked  body  of  300 
infantry.  At  the  battle  of  Leuclra  (371)  he  contributed  greatly 
to  the  success  9f  Epaminondas's  new  tactics  by  the  rapidity 
with  which  he  made  the  Sacred  Band  dose  with  the  Spartans. 
In.  370  he  accompanied  his  friend  Epaminondsa  as  boootarck 
into  Peloponnesus.  On  thcfr  return  both  generals  were  unsuc- 
cessfully accused  of  having  retained  their  command  beyond 
the  legal  term.  In  369,  in  response  to  a  petition  of  the  Thessa- 
lians,  Pebpidas  was  sent  with  an  army  against  Alexander, 
tyrant  of  Pherae.  After  driving  Alexander  out,  he  passed  into 
Macedonia  and  arbitrated  between  two  claimants  to  the  throne. 
In  order  to  secure  the  influence  of  Thebes,  he  brought  home 
hostages,  including  the  king's  brother,  afterwards  Philip  II., 
the  conqueror  of  Greece.  Next  year  Pelopidas  was  again 
called  upon  to  interfere  in  Macedonia,  but,  bentg  deserted  by 
his  mercenaries,  waa  compelled  to  niake  an  agreement  with 
Ptolcmaeus  of  Alorus.  On  his  return  through  Thessaly  he  was 
seized  by  Alexander  of  Pherae,  and  two  expeditions  from 
Thebes  were  needed  to  secure  his  release.  In  367  Pelopidas 
Went  on  an  embassy  to  the  Persian  king  and  induced  him  to 
prescribe  a  settlement  of  Greece  according  to  the  wishes  of  the 
Thebans.  In  364  be  received  another  appeal  from  the  Thessalian 
towns  against  Alexander  of  Pherae.  lliough  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  prevented  his  bringing  with  him  more  than  a  handful  of 
troops,  he  overthrew  the  tyrant's  far  superior  force  on  the  ridge 
of  Cyhoacephalae;  but  wishing  to  slay  Alexander  with  his  own 
hand,  he  mshed  forward  too  eagerly  and  was  cut  down  by  the 
tyrant's  guards. 

I*lutarch  and  Nepos,  Pelopidas*,  Diodorus  xv.  6(t^i;  Xenopl»>a, 
HeUenka,  vii.  1.  See  aUo  Thebbs.  (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

PBLOPOVNESIAN  WAR,  hi  Greek  history,  the  name  given 
specially  .to  the  struggle  between  Athens  at  the  head  of  the 
Delian  League  and  the  confederacy  of  which  Sparta  was  the 
leading  power.^   According  to  Thucydides  the  war,  which  was 

*  Some  historiaos  prefer  to  call  it  the  Second  Petoponnaian  War, 
the  fint  being  (hat  «f  457*  which  eodcd  with  the  Thirty  Years' 
Peace. 


72 


PELOPONNE8IAN 


in  lus  Vieir  the  greitcat  thtt  had  erer  occurred  In  Greece,  bsted 
from  451  to  the  downfall  of  Athens  in  404.  The  genius  of 
Thucydides  has  given  to  the  struggle  the  importance  of  an 
epoch  in  world  history,  but  his  view  is  open  to  two  main  criti- 
ctsms'^(])  that  the  war  was  in  its  ultimate  hfaringt  little 
more  than  a  local  disturbance,  viewed  from  the  stanc^int 
of  universal  history;  (2)  that  it  cannot  be  called  a  war  in  the 
strict  sense.  The  iMmer  of  these  criticisms  is  Justified  in  the 
article  on  Gxzece:  History  {q.v.).  Unless  we  are  to  believe 
that  the  Macedonian  supremacy  is  directly  traceable  to  the 
mutual  weakening  of  the  Greek  cities  in  43r<-403,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  what  lasting  important  attaches  to  the  war.  As  regards 
the  second,  a  few  chief  difficulties  may  be  indicated.  The  very 
narrative  even  of  Tliucydidea  himself  shows  that  the  "  war " 
was  not  a  connected  whole.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  mafan 
periods-«<i)  from  431  to49r  (Lysias  calls  it  the  "  Aichidamian  " 
War),  vriien  the  Peace  of  Nidas,  not  merely  formally,  but  actually 
produced  a  cessatran  of  hostilities;  (a)  from  421  till  the  inter- 
vention of  Sparta  in  the  Sicilian  War;  during  these  years  there 
was  no  "  Peloponnesian  War,"  and  there  were  several  years  in 
which  there  was  in  reality  no  fighting  at  all:  the  Sidiian  expedi- 
tion was  in  faa  a  side  issue;  (3)  from  4x3  to  404^  when  fighting 
was  carried  on  mainly  in  the  Aegean  Sea  Clsooates  calls  this 
the  "  Decdean  "  War).  The  disjointed  character  of  the  struggle 
is  so  obvious  from  Thucydides  hhnself  that  historians  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  idea  of  (renting  the  whole  struggle  as 
a  sin^e  unit  was  tx  post  facto  (see  Greece:  History,  |  A, 
"  Ancient  "  ad  fin.). 

The  book  itsdf  affords  evidence  which  goes  far  to  Justify  this 
view.  A  very  important  problem  is  presented  by  bk.  v.,  which  is 
obvious^  put  in  as  a  connecting  link  to  prove  a  theory.  Thucy- 
dides expressly  warns  us  not  to  regard  the  period  of  this  book 
as  one  of  peace,  and  y«t  the  very  contenU  of  the  book  refute 
his  argument.  In  419  and  417  there  Is  practically  no  fighting: 
the  Mantincan  War  of  418  is  a  disconnected  episode  which  did 
not  lead  to  a  resumption  of  hostilities:  in  420  there  are  only 
obscure  battles  in  Thrace:  in  416  there  is  only  the  expedition 
to  Melos;  and  finally  from  4»r  to  413  there  is  official  peace. 
Other  details  may  be  dted  in  corroboration.  Book  v.  (di.  96) 
contains  a  second  introduction  to  the  subject;  Ut  6  -wHKettm  in 
i.  a$  and  iv.  48  Is  the  Archidamian  or  Ten  Years'  War;  in  v.  s6 
we  read  of  a  vfiQrot  ir6Xf/<of ,  a  tcrtpot  v6Xc/iet  and  an  dya««x^. 
Some  critics  think  on  these  and  other  grounds  that  Thucydides 
wrote  and  published  bks.  i.*^.  95  by  itself,  then  bks.  vi.  and 
vii.  (Sidlian  expeditton),  and  finally  revising  his  view  Joined 
them  into  one  whole  by  the  somewhat  unsatisfactory  bk.  v.  26 
and  foUowhig  chapters,  and  began  to  round  off  the  story  with 
the  incomplete  bk.  vili.  (on  this  see  Gbeece:  History,  as  above). 
It  is  perhaps  most  probable  that  he  retained  notes  made  con- 
temporarily and  worked  them  up  some  time  after  404,  in  a  few 
passages  failing  to  correct  inconsistencies  and  dying  before 
bk.  viii.  was  completed.  The  general  introduction  in  bk.  i. 
was  unquestionably  written  shortly  after  404. 

The  causes  of  the  war  thus  understood  are  complex.  The 
view  taken  by  Thucydides  that' Sparta  was  the  real  foe  of 
Athens  has  been  much  modified  by  modem  writers.  The  key 
to  the  situation  is  in  fact  the  commercial  rivalry  of  the  Corin- 
thians, whose  trade  (mamly  in  the  West)  bad  been  seriously 
limited  by  the  naval  expansion  of  the  Delian  League.  This 
rivalry  was  roused  to  fever  beat  by  the  Athenian  intervention 
in  434-33  on  behalf  of  Corcyra,  Corinth's  rebellious  cok>ny  (see 
Corfu)  and  from  that  time  the  Corinthians  fdt  that  the  Thirty 
Years'  Truce  was  at  an  end.  An  opportunity  soon  offered  for 
making  a  counter  attack.  Potidaea,  a  Dorian  town  on  the 
western  promontory  of  Chalcidice  in  Thrace,  a  tributary  ally 
of  Athens— to  which  however  Corinth  as  metropolis  stOl  sent 
annual  magistrates— was  induced  to  revolt,'  with  the  support 
of  the  Macedonian  king  Perdiccas,  forraeriy  an  Atbenkn  ally. 
The  Athenian  Phormio  succeeded  in  blockading  the  dty  so  that 

■  The  importance  of  this  revolt  lay  in  the  fact  that  It  immediately 
involved  danger  to  Athens  throughout  the  Cfaalddic  promontories, 
and  her  north-east  possessions  generally. 


its  captve  was  merely  a  question  of  tiiM,  and  this  pwvided  the 
Corinthians  with  an  urgent  reason  for  declaring  war. 

Prior  to  these  episodes  Athens  had  not  been  in  hostile  contact 
with  any  of  the  Pdoponnesian  confederate  stales  for  more  than 
ten  years,  and  Perides  had  abandoned  a  great  part  of  his  imperial 
policy.  He  now  laid  an  embargo  upon  M(^ra  by  which  the 
Megarians  were  forbidden  on  pain  of  death  to  pursue  trading 
operations  with  any  part  of  the  Athenian  Empire.  The  drcum- 
stances  of  this  decree  (or  decrees)  are  not  material  to  the  present 
argument  (see  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  ed.  1O07,  p.  370 
note)  except  that  it  turned  special  attention  to  the  commercial 
supremacy  which  Athens  claimed  to  enjoy.  In  432  a  conference 
of  Pek^Mmnesian  allies  was  summoned  and  the  Corinthian  envoys 
urged  the  Spartans  to  dedare  war  on  the  ground  that  the  power 
of  Athens  was  becoming  so  great  as  to  constitute  a  danger  to  the 
other  states.  This  might  have  been  urged  with  justice  bdore 
the  Thirty  Years'  Truce  (447) ;  but  by  that  truce  Athens  gave 
up  all  her  conquests  in  Greece  proper  except  Naupactus  and 
Plataea,  while  her  solitary  gains  in  Amphipolis  and  Thurii 
were  compensated  by  other  losses.  The  fact  that  the  Coriatfaiatt 
argument  failed  to  impress  Sparta  and  many  of  the  ddegatcs 
b  shown  by  the  course  of  the  debate.  What  finally  impelled 
the  Spartans  to  agree  to  the  war  was  the  veiled  threat  by  the 
Corinthians  that  they  would  be  driven  into  another  alhance 
(i.e,  Argos,  i.  71).  We  can  hardly  regard  Sparta  as  the  <feter> 
mined  enemy  of  Athens  at  this  time.  Only  twice  since  461  had 
she  been  at  war  with  Athens — in  457  (Tanagra)  and  447,  when  she 
deliberately  abstained  from  pushing  the  advantage  which  the 
revolt  in  Euboen  provided;  she  hul  refused  to  help: the  oli* 
garchs  of  Samoa  in  44a  Corinth  however  had  not  only  strong, 
but  dso  immediate  and  urgent  reasons  (Potidaea  and  Coecyra) 
for  desiring  war.  It  has  been  argued  that  the  war  was  ulti- 
mately a  struggle  between  the  prindples  of  olipudiy  and 
democracy.  This  view,  however,  cannot  be  taken  of  the  early 
stages  of  the  war  when  there  was  democracy  and  oligarchy  on 
both  sides  (see  ad  fin.);  it  is  only  in  the  later  stages  that  the 
political  difference  is  prominent. 

The  Opposing  Porces.-^The  permanent  Strength  of  the 
Peloponnesian  confederacy  lay  in  the  Peloponnesian  states,  all 
of  which  except  Argos  and  Achaea  were  united  under  Sparta's 
leadership.  But  it  induded  also  extra-Pdoponnerian  state»— 
viz.  Megan,  Phocis,  Boeotia  and  Locris  (which  had  formed 
part  of  the  Athenian  land  empire),  and  the  maiitiine  cohmies 
round  the  Ambradan  Gulf.  The  organisation  was  not  elaborate. 
The  federal  assembly  with  few  exceptions  met  only  in  time  of 
war,  and  then  only  when  Sparta  agreed  to  summon  it.  It 
met  in  Sparta  and  the  dehsgates,  having  stated  thdr  views 
before  the  Spartan  Apella,  withdrew  till  the  Apella  had  oome 
to  a  decision.  The  ddegates  were  then  invited  to  return  and 
to  confirm  that  decision.  It  is  dea^  that  the  link  was  purely 
one  of  common  interest,  and  that  Sparta  had  little  or  no  control 
over,  e.g.  so  powerful  a  confederate  as  Corinth.  Sparta  was 
the  chief  member  of  the  confederacy  (kegemon),  but  the  states 
were  autonomous.  In  time  of  war  each  had  to  provide  two-thirda 
of  its  forces,  and  that  state  in  whose  territory  the  war  was  to  take 
phce  had  to  equip  its  whole  force. 

The  Athenian  Empire  is  described  elsewhere  (Dehak  Lcacvb, 
Athens).  Here  it  must  suffice  to  pomt  out  that  there  was 
among  the  real  and  technical  allies  no  true  bond  of  interest,  and 
that  many  of  the  sutes  were  in  faa  bound  by  dose  tics  to 
members  of  the  Peloponnesian  confederacy  {e.g.  Potidaea  to 
Corinth).  Sparta  could  not  only  rely  on  voluntary  co-operation 
but  could  undermine  Athenian  influence  by  posing  as  the 
champion  of  autonomy.  Further,  Thucydides  is  wrong  on  his 
own  showing  in  saying  that  Sparta  refused  to  tolerate  democratic 
government  in  confederate  cities:  it  was  not  till  after  418  that 
this  policy  was  adopted.  Athens,  on  the  other  hand,  had  un- 
doubtedly interfered  in  the  interest  of  democracy  in  various 
aified  states  (see  Deuan  League). 

No  detailed  examination  of  the  comparative  military  and 
naval  resources  of  the  combatants  can  here  be  attempted.  On 
land  the  Pdoponncsians  were  superion  they  had  it  teast  30,000 


boplites  not  jUiduding  lOiiOoo  inm  Centrnl-  Otteee  and  Boeotw: 
these  abldiera  were  highly  tnuAed.  The  Athenian  anny  was 
undoubtedly:  smaller.  There  hsa  been  considerable  discussion 
as  to  the  exact  figures,  the  evidence  in  Thuqfdides  being  highly 
cooljosing,  but  it  is  most  probable  that  the  a,vailable  fighting 
force  was  not  more  than  half  that  of  the  PelopoancaiaB  confed- 
eracy. Even  of  these  weJeaa  (Thuc  iii.  87)  that  4400  died 
in  the  great  plague*  The  only  light-armed  foice  was  that  of 
^oeotia  at  Ddium  (io»ooo  with  joo  peltasta)*  Of  cavaiiy  Athens 
had  xooo,  Boeotia  a  similar  number.  The  only  othar  cavalry 
force  was  that  of  Thcssaly,  which»  had  it  been  loyal  toAthens, 
would  have  meant  a  distinct  supeBority*  In  naval  power  the 
Athenians  uxtdoubtedly  had  an  overwhelming  advantage  at  the 
beginning,  both  in  numbers  and  in  trainhig. 
.  Financially  Athens  had. an  enomKNU  appaaent  advantage. 
She  began  with  a  revenue  of  1000  talents  (including  600  from 
vOlittaxoO,  and  had  also,  in  apite  of  the  hcaivy  expense  which 
the  building  schemes  of  Ferictes  had  invdved,  a  reserve  of  6000 
talenU.  The  Peloponncsiana  had  no  leseive  and  no  fixed 
revenue  assessment.  On  the  other  hand  the  Feloponncaian 
armies  were  unpaid,  while  Athena  had  to  spend  considefable 
sums  on  the  payment  of  crenrs  and  mercenaties.  In  the  last 
stages  of  the  war  the  issue  was  determined  by  the  povertjr  of 
Athens  and  Persian  gold. 

The  events  of  the  struggle  from43r  to  404  may^be summarised 
in  the  three  periods  distinguished  above. 

I.  The  Ten  Years*  or  ArckidamUn  War^^'Tbe  Spartans  sent 
to  Athens  no  formal  declaration  of  war  but  Bather  sought  first 
to  create  some  specious  casus  belli  by  sending  requisitions  to 
Athens.  The  first,  intended  to  inflame  the  existing  hostilities 
against  Pericles  iq.v.)  in  Athena,  was  that  he  should  be  expelled 
the  city  ss  being  an  Alcmaeonid  (gmnd*nephew  of  Cleisthescs) 
and  so  implicated  in  the  curse  pronounced  on  the  mnxdereis 
of  Cylon  nearly  200  years  before.  This  outrageous  deraaad 
was  followed  by  three  others^that  the  Athnians  should  <r) 
withdraw  from  Potidaea,  (2)  restoro  autonomy  to  Aegfaia,  and 
(3)  withdraw  the  embargo  on  Mcgarian  commerce.  Upon  the 
refusal  of  all  these  demands  Sparta  finally  made  the  mainienafnee 
of  peace  contingent  upon  the  restoratioa  by  Athens  of  autonomy 
to  aU  her  allies.  Under  the  guidance  of  Perides  Athens  replied 
that  she  would  do  nothing  on  compulsion,  but  was  prepared 
to  submit  difficulties  to  amicable  axbitration  on  the  basis  of 
mutual  concessions,  before  anything  could  come  of  this 
proposal,  matters  were  pMcipitated  (end  of  March  431)  by  the 
attack  of  Thebes  upon  Plataea  (9.V.),  which  immediately  sought 
and  obtained  the  aid  of  Athens.  War  was  begun.  The  Spartan 
king  Archidamus  assembled  his  army,  sent  a  bcrakl  to  aanooace 
his  approach,  marched  into  Attica  and  besieged  Ocnoe. 

Meanwhile  Pericles  had  decided  to  act  on  the  defensive,  ije. 
to  abandon  Attica*  collect  all  its  residents  in  AtheiM  and  treat 
Athens  as  an  island,  retaining  meanwhile  command  of  the  sea 
and  making  descents  on  Peloponncsian  shores.  The  policy, 
which  Thucydides  and  Grote  commend,  had  grave  defects — 
though  it  Is  by  no  means  easy  to  suggest  a  better;  e.g,  it  meant 
the  ruin  of  the  landed  class,  it  tended  to  spoil  the  moral  of  those 
who  from  the  walls  of  Athens  annually  watched  the  wasting  of 
their  homesteads,  and  it  involved  the  many  perils  <rf  an  over- 
crowded dty^-^a  pern  increased  by,  if  not  also  the  causa  of,  the 
plague.  Moreover  sea  power  was  not  everything,  and  delay 
exhausted  the  financial  reserves  of  the  state,  while  financial 
considerations,  as  we  have  seen,  were  comparatively  unimportant 
to  the  Peloponnesians.  The  descents  on  the  Peloponnese  were 
futile  in  the  extreme; 

- .  Archidamus,  having  wasted  much  territory,  including  Achar- 
nae,  retired  at  the  end  of  July.  The  Athenians  retaliated  by 
attadung  Methone  (which  was  secured  by  Bnsidss),by  sucoesses 
in  the  West,  by  expelling  all  Aeginetans  from  Aegma  (which  iras 
made  a  cleruchy),  and  l^  wasting  the  Megarid. 

In  430  Archidamus  again  invaded  Attica,  systematically 
wasting  the  country.  Shortly  after  he  entered  Attica  plague 
broke  out  in.  Athens,  borne  thither  by  traders  from  Carthage 
or  Egypt  (Holm,'  Greek  History,  ii.  346  note).    The  effect  upon 


73 

the  overcrowded  populatihn  of  the  city  was  teirible.  Of  the 
1 200  cavalry  (including  mounted  archers)  300  died,  together  with 
4400  hopUtea;  altogetbier  the  estimate  of  Diodonis  (xii.  58}  that 
more  than  10,000  citizens  and  slaves  succumbed  »  by  no  means 
excessive.  None  the  less  Perides  sailed  with  zoo  triremes,  and 
ravaged  the  territory  near  Epidaurus.  Subsequently  he  re- 
turned and  the  expedition  proceeded  to  Pbtldaea.  But  the  plague 
went  with  them  and  no  resulu  were  achieved.  The  enemies  of 
Perides,  who  even  with  the  aid  of  Spartan  intrigue  had  hitherto 
failed  to  harm  his  prestige,  now  succeeded  in  indudng  the 
desperate  dtisens  to  fine  him  for  alleged  malversation.  The 
venlict,  however,  shocked  public  feeling  and  Perides  was 
reinstated  in  popular  favour  aa  strategus  (c.  Aug.  430).  About 
a  year  later  he  died.  In  the  autumn  of  430  a  Sputan  attack 
on  Zacynthus  failed  and  the  Ambradots  were  repulsed  from 
Amphilochian  Argos.  In  reply  Athens  sent  Phormio  to  Nau- 
pattus  to  watch  her  interests  in  that  quarter.  In  the  winter 
Poti<fauea  capitulated,  recdving  extremdy  favoursble  terms. 

In  429  the  Pdopannesians  were  deterred  by  the  plague  from 
Invading  Attica  sjid  laid  siege  to  Plataea  in  the  interests  of 
Thebes.  The  Athenians  failed  in  an  expedition  to  Cfaakidice 
under  Xenophon,  white  the  spartan  Cnemus  with  Chaenian 
and  Epirot  alhcswas  repulsed  from  Stratus,  capital  of  Acarnania, 
and  Phormio  with  only  20  ships  defeated  the  Corinthian  fleet 
of  47  sail  in  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  Orders  were  at  dnce  sent  from 
Sparta  to  repair  this  disaster  and  77  ships  were  equipped.  Help 
sent  from  Athens  was  diverted  to  Crete,  and '  aSier  much 
manoeuvring  Phormio  waa  compelled  to  fight  off  Naupactus. 
Nine  of  his  ships  wera  driven  sshore,  but  with  the  other  11  he 
subsequently  defeated  the  enemy  and  recovered  the  lost  nine. 
With  the  reinforcement  wMch  arrived  afterwards  he  established 
complete  control  of  the  westetta  seas.  A  scheme  for  oper&ting 
with  Sitakcs  sgalnst  the  Chaldcfians  of  Thrace  feU  through, 
and  Sitalces  joined  Perdiccas. 

The  year  428  was  marked  by  a  third  invasion  of  Attica  and 
by  the  revolt  of  Lesbos  from  Athens.  After  dday  in  fruitless 
negotiatioos  the  Athenian  Qefppides,  and  afterwards  Paches, 
besieged  Mytilene,  which  appealed  to  Sparta.  The  Pelopoi»- 
nesian  confederacy  resolved  to  aid  the  rebels  both  directly  and 
by  a  counter  demonstfation  against  Athens.  The  Atheniana, 
though  their  rcMrve  of  6000  talents  wss  by  now  almost  ahausted 
(except  for  xooo  talents  in  a  spedal  reserve),  made  a  tremendous 
effort  (raising  200  talents  by  a  special  property  tax),  and  not 
only  prevented  an  Invasion  by  a  demonstration  of  100  triremes 
at  the  Isthmus,  but  sent  Asoptus,  son  of  Phormio,  to  take  his 
place  in  the  western  seas.  In  spring  427  the  Spartans  again 
invaded  Attica  without  result.  The  winter  of  42^-427  was 
masked  by  the  daring  escape  of  half  the  Plataean  garrison  under 
cover  of  a  stormy  night,  and  by  the  capitulation  of  Mytilene,  which 
was  forced  upon  the  oUgarchfc  rulers  by  the  democracy.  The 
Spartan  fleet  arrived  too  late  and  departed  without  attempting 
to  recover  the  town.  Pathes  deared  the  Asiatic  seas  of  the 
enemy,  reduced  the  other  towns  of  Mytilene  and  returned  to 
Athens  with  upwards  of  rooo  prisoners.  An  assembly  was 
hdd  and  under  the  invective  of  Deon  (q.9.)  it  was  decided  to  kiO 
all  male  Mytilencans  of  military  age  and  to  sell  the  women  and 
children  as  slaves.  This  decree,  though  in  accordance  with  the 
rigorous  customs  of  ancient  warfare  as  exemp^'fied  by  the  treat- 
ment which  Sparta  shortly  afteiwards  meted  out  tothePlataeans, 
shocked  the  feelings  of  Athens,  and  on  the  next  day  it  was 
(illegally)  resdnded  just  In  time  to  prevent  Paches  carrying  it 
out.  The  thousand^  oligarchic  prisoners  were  however  executed, 
and  Lesbos  was  made  a  cleruchy. 

Meanwhile  there  occuncd  dvil  war  in  Corcyra,  in  which 
ultimately,  with  the  aid  of  the  Athenian  admiral  Euiymedon, 
the  democracy  triumphed  amid  scenes  of  the  wildest  savagery. 
In  the  autumn  of  the  year  Nicias  fortified  MInoa  at  the  mouth 
of  the  harbour  of  Megara.    Shortly  afterwards  the  Spartans 

>  So  Thuc.  iii.  5a  It  is  suggested  that  this  number  is  an  error 
for  30  Of  90  (t.e.,  A  or  N  for  a).  It  aeenu  incredible  that  1000 
could  be  deacribed  as  "  ringleaders  "  out  of  a  population  of  perhaps 

COOOh  ■  • 


74 


PELOPONNESIAN  WAR 


pUnted  an  wpmectmlvl  colooy  at  Hendea  in  Uw  Tkicbiniaa 
territory  north-west  of  Thermopylae. 

In  the  summer  of  426  Nidas  led  a  predatory  expedition  along 
the  north-west  coast  without  achieving  any  positive  viaory. 
More  important,  though  equally  ineffective,  was  the  scheme  of 
Demosthenes  to  march  from  Naupactus  through  AetoUai  sub- 
duing the  wild  hill  tribes,  to  Cytinium  in  Doris  (in  the  upper 
valleys  of  the  Cephissus)  and  thence  into  Boeotia,  which  was 
to  be  attacked  simultaneoosly  from  Attica.  The  scheme  was 
crushed  by  the  courage  and  skill  of  the  Aetdiana,  who  thereupon 
summoned  Spartan  and  Corinthian  aid  for  a  counter  attack  on 
Naupactus.  Demosthenes  averted  this,  and  immediately  after- 
wards by  superior  tactics  inflicted  a  complete  defeat  at  (Mpae 
in  Acamania  on  Eurylochus  at  the  head  of  a  Spartan  and 
Ambracian  force.  AnAmbracian  reinforcement  was  annihilated 
atone  of  the  peaks  called  Idomene,and  a  disgraceful  truce  was 
accepted  by  the  surviving  Spartan  leader  Menedaeus.  This 
was  not  only  the  worst  disaster  which  befell  aiqr  powerful  state 
up  to  the  peace  of  Nidas  (as  Thucydides  says),  but  was  a  serious 
blow  to  Corinth,  whose  tnde  on  the  West  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  war. 

The  year  425  is  remarkable  for  the  Spartan  disaster  of  Pylos 
(q.v.).  The  Athenians  had  despatched  40  triremes  under 
Eurymedon  and  Prodes  to  Sicily  with  orders  to  call  first  at 
Corcyra  to  prevent  an  expected  Spartan  attack.  Meantime 
Demosthenes  had  formed  the  plan  of  planting  the  Measenians  of 
Naupactus  in  Messenia — now  Spartan  territory— and  obtained 
permission  to  accompany  the  expedition.  The  fleet  was,  as  it 
chanced,  delayed  by  a  storm  in  the  Bay  of  Navarino,  and  rough 
fortifications  were  put  up  by  the  sailors  on  the  promontory  of 
Pylos.  Demosthenes  was  left  behind  in  this  fort,  and  the 
Spartans  promptly  withdrew  from  their  annual  raid '  upon 
Attica  and  their  projeaed  attack  on  Corcyra  to  dislodge  i^m. 
After  a  naval  engagement  (see  Pylos)  a  body  of  Spartan  hoplites 
were  cut  off  on  Sphacteria.  So  acutdy  did  Sparta  feel  thdr 
position  that  an  offer  of  peace  was  made  on  condition  that  the 
hoplites  should  go  free.  The  ekx^uence  of  deon  frustrated  the 
peace  party's  desire  to  accept  these  ttfms,  and  ultimately  to  the 
astonishment  of  the  Greek  world  the  Spartan  hoplites  to  the 
number  of  392  surrendered  unconditionally  (see  Cleon). 

Thu^  in  424  the  Athenians  had  seriously  danuiged  the  prestige 
of  Sparta^  and  bn^en  Corinthian  supremacy  in  the  north-west, 
and  the  Peloponnesiaos  had  no  fleet.  This  was  the  senith  of 
their  success,  and  it  was  unfortunate  for  them  that  they  declined 
the  various  offers  of  peace  which  Sparta  made.  The  next 
two  years  changed  the  whole  position.  The  doubling  of  the 
tribute  in  425  pressed  hardly  on  the  allies  (see  Deuan  League)  : 
Nicias  failed  in  a  plot  with  the  democratic  party  in  Megara  to 
seize  that  town;  and  the  brilliant  campaigns  of  Brasidas  f^.v.) 
in  the  north-east,  culminating  in  the  capture  of  AmphipoUs  (422), 
finally  destroyed  the  Athenian  hopes  of  recovering  their  land 
empire,  and  entirdy  restored  the  balance  of  success  and  Spartan 
prestige.  Moreover,  the  admirably  ooncdved  scheme  for  a 
simultaneous  triple  attack  upon  Boeotia  at  Chaeronea  in  the 
north,  Ddium  in  the  south-east,  and  Siphae  in  the  south-west 
had  fallen  through  owing  to-  the  inefficiency  of  the  generals. 
The  scheme,  which  probably  originated  with  the  atticidng  party 
in  Thebes,  resulted  in  the  severe  ddeat  of  Hippocrates  at  Delium 
by  the  Boeotians  under  Pagondas,  and  was  a  final  blow  to  the 
policy  of  an  Athenian  land  empire. 

These  disasters  at  Megara,  AmphipoUs  and  Delium  left  Athens 
with  only  one  trump  card — the  possession  of  the  Spartan  hoplites 
captured  in  Sphacteria.  This  solitary  success  had  ahready  in 
the  spring  of  423  induced  Sparta  in  spite  of  the  successes  which 
Brasidas  was  achieving  in  Thrace  to  accq>t  the  "  truce  of 
Laches  " — which,  however,  was  rendered  abortive  by  the  rdusal 
of  Brasidas  to  surrender  Sdooe.  The  final  success  of  Brasidas 
at  AmphipoUs,  where  both  he  and  Qeoo  were  lulled,  psved 
the  way  for  a  more  permanent  agreement,  the  peace  parties  at 
Athens  and  Sparta  being  in  the  ascendant. 

2.  Fr0m  42r  to  413. — Peace  was  signed  in  March  421  on  the 
basis  of  each  aide*s  surrendering  what  had  been  acquired  by 


the  war,  not  induding  those  dties  which  had  been  acqmred  by 
capitiUation.  It  was  to  last  for  fifty  years.  lu  weak  points, 
however,  were  numerous.  Whereas  SparU  had  been  Inst  of 
aU  the  allies  interested  in  the  war,  and  apart  from  the  campaigns 
of  Brsaidas  had  on  the  whole  taken  Uttle  part  in  it,  her  allies 
benefited  least  by  the  terms  of  the  Peace.  Corinth  did  not 
regain  SoUium  and  Anactorium,  while  Megara  and  Thebes 
respectivdy  were  Indignant  that  Athens  should  retain  Nisaea 
and  recdve  Panaaum.  These  and  other  reasons  rapidly  led 
to  the  isolation  of  Sparta,  and  there  was  a  general  refusal  to 
carry  out  the  terms  of  agreement.  The  history  of  the  next 
three  years  is  therefore  one  of  complex-  inter-state  intrigues 
combined  with  internal  poUtical  convulsions.  In  421  Sfuirta 
and  Athens  concluded  a  defensive  alliance;  the  Sphacterian 
captives  were  released  and  Athens  promised  to  abandon  Pylos. 
Such  a  peace,  giving  Sparta  everything  and  Athens  nothing 
but  SparU's  bare  alUance,  was  due  to  the  fact  that  Nidas  and 
Aldbiades  were  both  seeking  Sparta's  friendship.  At  this 
time  the  Fifty  Years'  TVuce  between  Sparta  and  Argos  was 
expiring.  The  Pdoponnesian  malcontents  turned  to  Argos 
as  a  new  leader,  and  an  alliance  was  formed  between  Argos, 
Corinth,  Elis,  Mantinea  and  the  Thraceward  towns  (420). 
This  coalition  betwem  two  different  elements — an  anti-oligarchic 
party  and  a  war  party — had  no  chance  of  permanent  existence. 
The  war  party  in  Sparta  regained  its  strength  under  new  ephors 
and  negotiations  began  for  an  alliance  between  Sparta,  Argos 
and  Boeotia.  The  details  cannot  here  ht,  discussed.  The  result 
was  a  re-shufl9ing  of  the  cards.  The  democratic  states  of  the 
Peloponneae  were^d  riven,  partly  by  the  intrigues  of  Aldbiades, 
now  anti-Laconian,  into  alliance  with  Athens,  with  the  object  of 
establishing  a  democratic  Pdoponnese  under  the  leadership  of 
Argos.  These  unstable  comfaiaatiohs  were  soon  after  upset 
by  Aldbiades  himsdf ,  who,  having  succeeded  in  displacing 
Nicias  *as  strategus  in  4x9,  allowed  Athenian  troops  to  hdp  in 
attacking  Epidaurus.  For  a  cause  not  easy  to  detennine 
Aldbiades  was  defeated  by  Nicias  in  the  election  to  the  post  of 
strategus  in  the  next  year,  and  the  suspidons  of  the  Pdopon* 
nesian  coaUtion  were  roused  by  the  inadequate  assistance  sent 
by  Athens,  which  arrived  too  late  to  assbt  Argos  when  the 
Spartan  king  Agis  marched  against  it.  Ultimaldy  the  Spartans 
were  successful  over  the  coalition  at  Mantinea,  and  soon 
afterwards  an  oligarchic  revolution  at  Argos  led  to  an  alliance 
between  that  dty  and  SparU  (c.  Feb.  417).  This  oUgarchy 
was  overthrown  again  in  June,  and  the  new  democracy  having 
vainly  sought  an  agreement  with  Sparta  rejoined  Athens. 
It  was  thus  Idt  to  Athens  to  expend  men  and  money  on 
protecting  a  democracy  by  the  aid  of  which  die  had  hoped 
practically  to  control  the  Peloponnesus.  AU  this  time,  however, 
theaUiance  between  her  and  Sparta  was  not  ofiidaUy  broken. 

The  unsatisfactory  character  of  the  Athenian  Pek>ponnesian 
coaUtion  waa  one  of  the  negative  causes  which  led  up  to  the 
SiciUan  Expedition  of  415.  Another  negative  cause  may  be 
found  in  the  failure  of  an  attempt  or  attempts  to  subdue  the 
Thraceward  towns.  By  combining  the  evidence  of  Plutarch  (in 
his  comparison  of  Nidas  and  Crassus),  Thuc.  v.  83,  and  the  in- 
scription which  gives  the  treasury  payments  for  4x8-4x5  (Hicki 
and  HiU,  (7r.  Hut.  Inscr.  70),  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  there 
were  expeditions  in  4x8  (Euthydemus)  and  the  summer  of  417 
(Nidas),  and  that  in  the  winter  of  4x7  a  blockading  squadnm 
under  Cbaeremon  was  despatched.  This  poUcy— which  was 
presumably  that  of  Nidas  m  opposition  to  Aldbiades— having 
failed,  the  way  was  deared  for  a  reassertion  of  that  policy  of 
western  conquest  which  had  always  had  advocates  from 
Themistodes  onward  in  Athens,^  and  was  part  of  the 
democratic  programme. 

The  tragic  fiasco  of  the  SidUan  expedition,  involving  the  desth 

*  In  454  Athens  made  a  treaty  with  SegeSta  (inscr.  Hicks  and 
Hill,  Gruk  Hist.  Inscr.  34):  in  433  with  Rhegium  and  Leontiai 
(Hicks  and  HUl.  51  and  52;  d.  Thuc  iti.  86.  vcjU<4  ^iip«x<«  with 
Chalddic  towns  in  Sidly) :  in  444  the  colony  of  Thurii  waa  founded: 
in  427  (see  above)  ^  ships  were  sent  to  Sidly;  and  if  we  may 
believe  Aristophanes  CEg.  1302)  Hyperbdus  asked  for  too  triremes 
for  Carthage. 


PELOPONNESIAN  WAR 


is 


of  Niditf  sad  the  hm  of  tbooaanda  of  men  and  hufldredi  of  ships, 
was  a  blow  from  which  Athena  novcr  recovered  (see  under 
SvRikCUSE  and  6icii.y).  Even  before  the  final  catistittphe 
the  Spartans  had  re<VMned  hoitilities.  On  the  advice  d 
AlcUnades  (f.y.),  exiled  horn  Athens  in  4x5,  th^  had  fortified 
Deceka  in  Attica  within  fifteen  mites  of  Athens.  Thu  place 
not  only  served  as  a  pemanent  headquaitexs  for  pndatoiy 
expeditions,  but  cut  off  the  revenue  from  the  Lauitum  mines, 
furnished  a  ready  asylum  for  runaway  slaves,  and  rendered  the 
transference  of  supplies  from  Euboea  oonsiderably.more  difficidt 
(s.c.  by  the  sea  round  Cape  Sunium).  Athens  thus  entered 
upon  the  third  stage  of  the  conflict  with  exceeding  poor 
prospects. 

3.  Tkt  IdHtan  or  Decdeon  TTor.— From  the  Athenian  stand- 
point this  war  may  be  broken  up  into  three  periods:  (x)'peiiod  of 
revolt  of  allies  (4x3-411),  (3)  the  rally  (4x0-408),  (3)  the  relapse 
(407-404).  As  contrasted  with  the  Archidamian  War,  this 
war  was  fought  almost  exclusively  in  the  Aegesn  Sea,  the  enemy 
was  primarily  Sparta,  and  the  deciding  factor  was  Persiatt  ^Id. 
Furthermore,  apart  from  the  gradual  (^integration  of  the 
empire,  Athens  was  duturbed  by  political  strife. 

In  413  many  Ionian  towns  revolted,  and  appealed  either  to 
Agis  at  Decdea  or  to  Sparta  direct.  Euboea,  Lesboe,  Cldos, 
Erythrae  led  the  way  in  negotiation  and  revolt,  and  simul- 
taneously the  court  of  Susa  instructed  the  satraps  Phamabazus 
and  Tissapbernes  to  renew  the  collectifm  of  tribute  from  the 
Greek  dties  of  Asia  Minor.  The  satraps  likewise  niade  over- 
tures to  Sparta.  The  revolt  of  the  Ionian  allies  was  due  in  pert 
to  Aldbiades  also,  whose  prompt  action  in  co-opemtion  with  his 
friend  the  ephor  Endius  finally  confirmed  the  Chian  oUgacchs 
in  their  purpose.  In  4x1  a  treaty  was  signed  by  Sparta  and 
Tissaphcrncs  against  Athens:  the  treaty  formally  suzreodered 
to  the  Persian  king  all  territory  which  he  or  his  predecessors 
had  held.  It  was  subsequently  renewed  in  a  form  somewhat 
less  dtagrsceful  to  Greek  patriotism  by  the  Spartans  Astyocfaus 
and  Thenunenes.  On  the  other  hand,  a  democratic  rising  in 
Samos  prevented  the  rebdlion  of  that  island,  wUch  for  the 
remainder  of  the  war  was  invaluable  to  Athens  as  a  stfoaf^ld 
lying  between  the  two  great  centres  of  the  struggle. 

After  the  news  of  the  Sicilian  disaster  Athens  wai  compelled 
at  last  to  draw  on  the  reserve  of  xooo  taknts  which  had  lain 
untouched  in  the  treasury.*  The  revolt  of  the  Ionian  allies, 
and  (in  4x1)  the  loss  of  the  Hellespontine,  Thradan  and  Island 
tributes  (see  Deliait  League),  very  seriously  crippled  her 
finances.  On  the  other  hand,  Tissapbernes  undertook  to  pay 
the  Peloponnestan  sailors  a  daily  wage  of  one  Attic  drachma 
(afterwards  reduced  to  \  drachma).  In  Attica  itself  Athens 
lost  Oenoe  and  Oropus,  and  by  the  end  of  4x1  only  one  quarter 
of  the  emfwc  remained.  In  the  meanwhile  Tissaphemes  began 
to  pUy  a  double  game  with  the  object  of  wasting  the  strength 
of  the  combatants.  Moreover  Alcibiades  lost  the  confidence 
of  the  Spartans  and  passed  over  to  Tissaphemes,  at  whose 
disposal  he  placed  his  great  powers  of  dif^macy,  at  the  same 
time  scheming  for  his  restoration  to  Athens.  He  opened 
negotiations  with  the  Athenian  leaders  in  Samos  and  urged 
them  to  upset  the  democracy  and  eatabluh  a  phik><Perrian 
oligarchy.  After  elsborate  intrigues,  in  the  course  of  which 
Aldbiades  played  false  to  the  conspirators  by  forcing  them  to 
abandon  the  idea  of  friendship  with  Tissaphemes  owing  to  the 
exorbitant  terms  proposed,  the  new  government  by  ^  Four 
Hundred  was  set  up  in  Athens  (see  Tresamznes).  This 
government  (which  recdved  no  support  from  the  armament  in 
Samos)  had  a  brief  hfe,  and  on  the  final  revolt  of  Euboea  was 
replaced  by  the  old  democratic  system.  Alcibiades  (f.e.)  was 
soon  afterwards  invited  to  return  to  Athens^ 

The  war,  which,  probably  because  ol  financial  trouble,  the 
Spartans  had  neglected  to  pursue  when  Athens  was  thus  in  the 
throes  of  political  convulskm,  was  now  resumed.  After  much 
manoeuvring  and  intrigues  a  naval  battle  was  fou^t  at  Cynos* 

*  She  had  already  abolished  the  system  of  tribute  in  favour  of 
a  5%  o^  valorem  tax  on  all  imports  and  exports  carried  by  sea 
between  her  pom  and  those  of  the  aUies. 


sema  fai  the  Hellespont  In  which  victory  on  the  whole  retted 
with  the  Athenians  (Aug.  411),  though  the  xiet  result  was 
inconsiderable.  About  this  time  the  dupMdty  of  Tissaphemci  ■ 
who  having  again  and  agam  promised  »  Ilnenidan  fleet  and 
having  actually  brought  it  to  the  Aegean  finalty  ^i«mtf^^  it 
oa  the  excuse  cf  trouble  in  the  Levant— isiid  the  vigorous  honesty 
of  Phanabasus  definitely  transferred  the  Pekp^mesian  foroes 
to  the  north-west  coast  of  Asia  Miiwr  and  the  Hellapont. 
Thene  they  were  regularly  financed  by  Phamabazus,  while  the 
Athenians  were  compelled  to  rely  on  forced  le^dcs.  In  spite  of  this 
handicap  Aldbiades,  who  had  been  seized  and  imprisoned  by 
Tissapbernes  atSardis  but  effected  his  escape,  achieved  a  remark- 
able  victory  over  the  Spartan  Mindarus  at  C^cus  (about  April 
410).  So  complete  was  the  destruction  of  the  Peloponne^aii- 
fleet  that,  acci)rdmg.to  Diodorus,  peace' was  offered  by  Sparta 
(see  ad  )lfi.)and  would  have  been  accepted  but  for  the  warlike 
speeches  of  the  "demagogue"  Cleophon  representing  the 
extreme  democrats.*  Another  result  was  the  return  to  allegiance 
(409)  of  a  number  of  the  north-east  dties  of  the  empire.  Great 
attempu  were  made  by  the  Athenians  to  hold  the  Hellespont 
and  then  to  protect  the  cora-suppIy  from  the  Black  Sea.  In 
Greece  these  gains  were  compensated  by  the  loss  of  Pylos  and 
Nisaea. 

In  408  Aldbiades  effectively  invested  Chalcedon,  which 
surrendered  by  agreement  with  Phamabazus,  and  subsequently 
Byzantium  also  fell  into  his  hands  with  the  aid  of  some  of  its 
inhabitants. 

Phamabazus,  weaiy  of  bearing  the  whole  cost  of  the  war  for 
the  Pdoponncsians,  agreed  to  a  period  of  truce  so  that  envoys 
might  visit  Susa,  but  at  this  stage  the  whole  position  was  changed 
by  the  appointment  of  Cyrus  the  Younger  as  satrap  of  Lydu, 
Greater  Phrygia  and  Cappadoda.  His  arrival  coindded  with 
the  appointment  of  Lysander  (c.  Dec.  408)  as  Spartan  admiral— 
the  third  of  the  three  great  commanders  (Brasidas  and  Gylippus 
bdng  the  others). whom  Spaxtaproducedduxing  the  war.  Cyrus 
promptly  agreed  on  the  spedal  request  of  Lysander  {q.v.)  to  pay 
slightly  increased  wages  to  the  sailors,  while  Lysander  esublishcd 
a  system  of  anti-Athenian  dubs  and  oligarchic  governments 
in  various  dties.  Meanwhile  Aldbiadea  (Iday  407),  having 
exacted  levies  in  Caria^  returned  at  length  to  Athens  and  was 
elected  strategus  with  full  powers  (see  Strategus).  He  raised 
a  large  force  of  men  and  ships  and  endeavoured  to  draw  Lysander 
(then  at  Ephesus)  into  an  engagement.  But  Cyrus  and  Lysander 
were  resolved  not  to  fight  till  they  had  a  clear  advantage,  and 
Alcibiades  took  a  small  squadron  to  Phocaea.  In  spite  of  his 
express  orders  his  captain  Antiochus  in  his  alnence  provoked  a 
battle  and  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Notium.  Thb  failure  and 
the  refusal  of  Lysander  to  fight  again  destroyed  the  confidence 
which  Aldbiades  had  so  recently  regained.  Ten  strategi  were 
appointed  to  supersede  him  and  he  retired  to  fortified  ports  in 
the  Chersonese  which  he  had  prepared  for  such  an  emergency 
{c.  Jan.  406).  At  the  same  time  Lysander's  year  of  office  expired 
and  he  was  superseded  by  Callicratidas,  to  the  disgust  of  all  those 
whom  he  had  so  carefully  organized  in  his  service.  Callicratidas, 
an  honourable  roan  of  pan-Hellenic  patriotism,  was  heavily 
handicapped  in  the  fact  that  Cyrus  declined  to  afford  him  the 
help  which  had  made  Lysander  powerful,  and  had  recourse  to 
the  Milesians  and  Chians,  with  whose  aid  he  fitted  out  a  fleet  of 
X40  triremes  (only  xo  Spartan).  With  these  he  pursued  Conon 
(chief  of  the  ten  new  Athenian  strategi),  captured  30  of  his  70 
ships  and  besieged  him  in  Mytilene.  Faced  with  inevitable 
destruction,  Conon  succeeded  in  sending  the  news  to  Athens, 
where  by  extraordinary  efforts  a  fleet  <^  xxo  ships  was  at  once 
equipped.  Callicratidas,  hearing  of  this  fleet's  approach,  with* 
drew  from  Mytilene,  leaving  Eteonicus  in  charge  of  the  blockade. 
Forty  more  ships  were  collected  by  the  Athenians,  who  met 
and  defeated  Callicratidas  at  Arginusae  with  a  loss  of  more  than 
half  his  fleet.  The  immediate  result  was  that  EtecHiicus  left 
Mytilene  and  Conon  found  himself  free.  Unfortunately  the 
victorious  generals  at  Arginusae,  through  ne^igence  or  owing 

^Xenopfion.  Hdl.  does  not  mention  it:  Tlujcydides*s  history 
had  by  this  time  cone  to  an  end. 


76 


PELOPONNESUS— PELOTA 


to  a  stonB,  failed  to  recover  the  bo£esof  thoseof  their  crewt 
wbo  were  drowned  or  killed  in  tbe  action.  They  were  therefore 
recalled,  tried  and  condemned  to  death,  except  two  who  had 
disobQred  the  orderto  return  to  Atheitt. 

At  this  point  Lyeander  was  again  sent  out,  nominally  as 
secretary  to  the  official  admiral  Aracus.  Cyrus,  recalled  to 
Susa  by  the  illness  of  Datiua,  left  him  in  entire  control  of  his 
satrapy.  Thus  strengthened  he  sailed  to  Lampaacus  on  the 
Hellespont  and  laid  siege  to  iL  Conon,  now  in  charge  of  the 
Athenian  fleet,  sailed  against  him,  but  the  fleet  was  entirely 
destroyed  while  at  anchor  at  Aegospotami  (Sept.  405),  Conon 
escaping  with  only  12  out  of  x8o  safl  to  Cyprus.  In  April  404 
Lyaander  sailed  into  the  Pdraeus,  took  possession  <^  Athens, 
and  destroyed  the  Long  Walls  and  the  fortifications  of  Peiraeus. 
An  oligarchical  government  was  set  up  >(see  Cutias),  and 
Lysander  having  compelled  the  capitulation  of  Samos,  the  last 
Athenian  stronghold,  sailed  in  triumph  to  Sparta. 

Two  ouestions  of  considerable  tniportafioe  for  the  full  understand- 
tnc  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  may  be  selected  for  special  notice: 
UT  bow  Car  wa*  it  a  war  between  two  aotagonistic  theories  of  govern- 
ment, oligarchic  and  democratic  ?  and  (2)  bow  far  was  Athenian 
statesmanship  at  fault  in  declining  the  offers  of  peace  which  Sparta 
made? 

I.  A  common  theory  is  that  Sparta  fought  throughout  the  war 
as  an  advocate  of  oligarchy,  while  Athens  did  not  seek  to  interfere 
with  the  constitutional  preferences  of  her  allies.  The  view  is  baaed 
partly  on  Thuc.  i.  19,  according  to  which  the  Spartans  took  care  that 
their  alliA  should  adhere  to  a  policy  convenient  to  themselves.  This 
idea  is  disproved  by  Thucydidcs'  own  narrative,  which  shows  that 
down  to  418  ^the  battle  of  Mantinea)  Sparta  tolerated  democratic 

Sovernments  m  Peloponnesus  itself — e.g.  Elis,  Mantinea,  Si<^on, 
Lchaea.  It  was  only  after  that  date  that  democracy  was  suppressed 
in  the  I^doponnesian  Leoeue,  and  even  then  Mantinea  remained 
democratic.  In  point  of  tact,  it  was  only  when  JLysander  became 
the  representative  of  Spartan  foreign  policy — i^.  in  the  last  years 
of  the  war — that  Sparta  was  identified  with  the  oligarchic  policy. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  strong  evidence  that  the  Atnenian 
Empire  at  a  much  earUer  date  was  ba^  upon  a  uniform  democratic 
type  of  government  <cf.  Thuc.  i.  19,  vtii.  64;  Xeo.  Pol.  i.  14.  Hell, 
uu  47:  Arist.  Pol,  viii.  te).  it  b  true  that  we  find  oligarchic  govern' 
ment  in  Chios  and  Lesbos  (up  to  428)  and  in  Samos  (up  to  440}, 
but  this  is  discounted  by  the  fact  that  all  three  were  "  autonomous  " 
allies.  Moreover,  in  tiie  case  of  Samos  there  was  a  democracy  in 
439,  though  in  412  the  government  was  again  oligarchic.  The 
case  of  Selymbria  (see  Hicks  and  Hill.  op.  cU.  77)  is  of  little  account, 
because  at  that  time  (409)  the  Empire  was  in  extremis.  In  general 
we  find  that  Athenian  orators  take  special  crcdit«on  the  ground  that 
the  Athenian  had  given  to  her  allies  the  constitutional  advantages 
which  they  themselves  enjoyed. 

3.  In  view  of  the  disastrous  issue  of  the  war,  it  is  imporUnt  to 
notice  that  on  three  occasions— (a)  after  Pylos,  {h)  after  Cyzicus, 
(c)  after  Arginusae — ^Athens  refused  formal  peace  proposals  from 
Sparta,  (a)  Though  Cicon  was  probably  wise  in  opposing  peace 
negotiations  before  the  capture  of  the  Sparuns  in  Sphactena.  it 
seems  in  the  light  of  subsequent  events  that  he  was  wrong  to  refuse 
the  terms  which  were  offered  after  the  hoplites  had  been  captured. 
No  doubt,  however,  the  temper  in  Athens  was  at  that  time  pre- 
dominantly warlike,  and  the  surrender  of  the  hoplites  was  a  unique 
triumi^.  Possibly,  too,  Cleoa  foresaw  that  peace  would  have 
meant  a  triumph  for  the  phik>>Laconian  party  ih)  The  peace 
proposals  of  410  are  given  by  Diodorua,  who  says  that  the  ephor 
Endius  proposed  that  a  peace  should  be  made  on  the  basis  ot  u/i 
possidetis,  except  that  Athens  should  evacuate  Pylos  and  Cythera, 
and  Sparta.  Decelea.  Cleophon,  however,  perhaps  doubting 
whether  the  offer  was  sincere  (cf.  Philochorus  in  Schol  ap  Eunp. 
Orest.  371:  FraeiM.  ed.  Didot,  117,  118),  demanded  the  status  am 
ante  (413  or  431).  (c)  The  proposals  of  406,  mentioned  by  Ath.  Pol. 
34.  were  on  the  same  lines,  except  that  Athens  no  longer  had  Pylos 
and  Cythera,  and  had  lost  practically  half  her  empire.  At  this  time 
peace  must  therefore  have  been  advanugeous  to  Athens  as  showing 
the  world  that  in  spite  of  her  losses  she  was  still  one  of  the  great 
powers  of  Greece.  Moreover,  an  alliance  with  SparU  would  have 
meant  a  check  to  Peraan  interference.  It  is  probable,  again,  that 
party  ihtetest  was  a  leading  motive  in  Cfeophon's  mind,  since  a 
peace  would  have  meant  the  return  of  the  oligarchic  exiles  and  the 
establishment  of  a  moderate  oligarchy. 

..  Authorities.— C.  Busolt,  Grieck.  GescK  Bd.  ui.,  Tcil  ii.  (1904), 
Der  Peloponnesische  Krieg  "  is  essential.    All  histories  o(  Gieece 
may    be    corsulted    (see    Gebece:    History,    Ancient,    section 
"  Anthonties  ").  (j.  M.  M.) 

PELOPONNESUS  ("IsUnd  of  Pclops "),  the  ancient  and 
modern  Greek,  official  name  for  the  part  of  Greece  south  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth.    In  medieval  times  it  was  called  the  Morta, 


from  its  lesembUnce  to  a  mulbeny-leaf  in  shape,  and  thb  name 
is  still  current  in  popubr  speech. 

FBbOISi  in  Greek  legend,  the  grandson  of  Zeus,  son  of  Tantalus 
and  Dione,  and  Inbther  of  Nk>be.  His  father^  home  was  on 
Mt  Sipyhis  in  Asia  Minor,  whence  Pelops  is  spoken  of  as  a 
Indian  or  a  Phry^an.  Tantalus  one  day  served  up  to  the 
gods  his  0¥m  son  Pelops,  boiled  and  cut  in  pieces.  The  gods 
detected  the  crime,  and  none  of  them  would  touch  the  food 
except  Demeter  (aoooiding  to  others,  Thetis),  who,  distiacted  by 
the  loss  of  her  daughter  Ptenephone,  ate  of  the  shoulder.  The 
gods  restored  Pd<^  to  life,  and  the  shoulder  consumed  by 
Demeter  was  replaced  by  one  of  ivory.  Wherefore  the  descen- 
dants of  Pelops  had  a  white  mark  on  their  shoulder  ever  after 
(Ovid,  Metam.  vi.  404;  Virgil,  Crc^rg^,  lil.  7).  This  tale  is 
perhaps  reminiscent  <rf  human  sacrifice  amongst  the  Greeks. 
Poseidon  carried  Pelops  off  to  Olympus,  where  he  dwelt  with  the 
gods,  till,  for  his  father's  sins,  he  was  cast  out  from  heaven. 
Then,  taking  much  wealth  with  him,  he  crossed  over  from  Asia 
to  Greece.  He  went  to  Pisa  in  Elis  as  suitor  of  HIppodameia, 
daughter  of  king  Oenomaus,  who  had  already  vanquished  in 
the  cbariot-race  and  Shiin  many  suitors  for  his  daughttf 's  hand. 
Bat  by  the  help  of  Poseidon,  who  lent  him  winged  steeds,  or 
of  Oenomaiis's  charioteer  Myrtilus,  whom  he  or  Hippodameia 
bribed,  Pelops  wa^  victorious  in  the  race,  wedded  Hippodameia, 
and  became  king  of  Pisa  (Hyginus,  Fah.  84).  llie  race  of 
Pelops  for  his  wife  may  be  areminiscence^f  the  early  practice  of 
marriage  by  capture.  When  Mjrrlilus  claimed  his  promised 
reward,  Pelops  flung  him  into  the  sea  near  Geraestus  in  Euboea, 
and  fn>m  his  dying  curse  sprang  those  crimes  and  sorrows  of  the 
house  of  Pelops  which  supplied  the  Greek  tragedians  with  suc^ 
fruitful  themes  (Sophocles,  Electra,  505,  with  Jebb's  note). 
Among  the  sons  of  Pelops  by  Hippodameia  were  Atreus,  Thyestes 
and  Chrysippus.  From  Pisa  Pelops  extended  his  sway  over  the 
neighbouring  (Mympia,  where  he  celebrated  the  Olympian  games 
with  a  qtlendour  unknown  before.  His  power  and  fame  were  so 
great  tlmt  henceforward  the  whtde  peninsula  was  known  to  the 
ancients  as  Peloponnesus,  "  island  of  Pelops  "  (r^oot,  island). 
In  after  times  Pelops  was  honoured  at  Olympia  above  all  other 
heroes;  a  temple  was  built  for  him  by  Herades,  his  descendant 
in  the  fotirth  generation,  in  which  the  annual  naagistrates  sacri- 
ficed to  him  a  bfaick  ram. 

From  the  reference  to  Asia  in  the  tales  of  Tantalus,  Niobe  and 
Pelops  it  has  been  conjectured  that  Asia  was  the  original  seat  of 
these  legends,  and  that  it  was  only  after  emigration  to  Greece  that 
the  poople  localized  a  part  of  the  tale  of  Ptwpt  in  their  new  home. 
In  the  time  of  Pausanias  the  throne  of  Pelops  was  still  shown  on 
the  top  of  Mt  Sipylus.  The  story  of  Pelops  is  told  in  the  first 
Olympian  ode  of  Pindar  and  in  prose  by  Nicolaus  Damascenus. 

PBLOTA  (Sp.  "  little  baU."  from  Lat.  pila),  a  baU  game  which, 
originating  centuries  ago  in  the  Basque  provinces,  has  devdoped 
into  several  forms  of  the  sport.  Epigrams  of  Martial  show  that 
there  were  at  least  three  kinds  of  pdota  played  in  his  time. 
J3/a«f,  practically  hand  fives  against  the  back  wall  of  a  court,  is 
still  played  on  both  sides  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  so  popular  that 
the  authorities  had  to  forbid  its  being  played  against  ihe  waUs 
of  the  cathedral  at  Barcelona.  In  uncovered  courts  of  large  sire 
there  are  two  varieties  of  pelota.  One,  the  favourite  pastime  of 
the  Basque,  is  pbyed  against  a  front  wall  (fronton),  either  bare- 
hatided,  with  a  leather  or  wooden  long  glove-like  protector 
(cesta),  or  with  a  ckistera  strapped  to  the  wrist,  a  sickle-shaped 
wicker-work  implement  three  feet  long,  much  like  a  hansom-whed 
basket  mud-guard,  in  the  narrow  groove  of  which  the  ball  is 
caught  and  from  which,  thanks  to  the  leverage  afforded,  it  can 
be  hurled  with  tremendous  force.  There  are  several  playen  to  a 
side,  frequently  an  uneven  number  to  aDow  a  handicap.  The 
score  is  announced  by  a  cantata,  whose  melodious  vocal  efforts 
make  him  not  the  least  appreciated  participant  in  the  game.  In 
the  other  form  of  the  game,  played  neariy  exclusively  by  profes- 
sionals ipdotmis),  there  are  usually  three  players  on  each  side, 
two  forwards  and  a  back,  distinguished  by  a  coloured  sash  or  cap. 
The  server  {biUteur)  slips  off  Ms  ckiskra  to  serve,  bouncing  the 
ball  on  the  but,  a  kind  of  stool,  about  30  ft.  from  the  wall,  and 


PELOTAS— PEMBA 


77 


■tiiluogitlowagaiiiU-UwvalL  The  side  that  wins  the  lost  iuis 
the  fiiist  service.  The  ball  must  be  rq>byc<l  by  the  oppeaing 
side  at  the  wall,  which  it  must  hit  over  a  line  3  (t.  from  the 
base  of  the  wall  and  under  the  net  fixed  at  the  lop  of  the  wail. 
The  game  is  counted  15,  30,  40,  game,  reckoned  by  the  number 
of  faults  made  by  the  opposing  side.  A  fault  is  scored  (a)  when 
after  the  service  the  ball  is  not  caught  00  the  voUcy  or  first 
bounce,  (6)  \vhcn  it  does  not  on  the  return  strike  the  wall  within 
the  prescribed  limits,  (c)  when  it  goes  out  of  the  prescribed  limits 
of  the  court,  (^  when  it  strikes  the  net  fixed  at  the  top  of  the 
court.  The  side  making  the  fault  loses  the  service.  A  game  like 
this  has  been  played  in  England  by  Spanish  professionals  on  a 
court  250  f L  long,  against  a  wall  jo  fL  high  and  S5  ft*  wide.  The 
ball  used,  a  trifie  smaller  than  a  base>ball,  is  hard  rubber  wound 
with  yam  and  leather-covered,  weighing  5  ounces^  The  server 
bounces  the  ball  on  the  concrete  floor  quite  near  ihc  JroiUon,  and 
hits  it  with  his  ckisiera  against  the  wall  with  a  force  to  make  it 
rebound  beyond  a  line  80  ft.  back.  It  usually  goes  treble  that 
distance. 

PELOTAS,  a  city  of  the  sUte  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  S&o  Concalo  river  near  its  entrance  into 
the  Lag(ki  dos  Patos,  about  30  m.  N.W.  of  the  city  of  Rio 
Grande.  Pop.  (xgoo),  city,  about  24,000;  mMii»cf>i0  (commune, 
1037  sq.  m.),43>09X.  The  Rio  Grande  Bogi  railway  communis 
cates  with  the  city  of  Rio  Grande,  and  with  the  railways  extend- 
ing to  Bag^  Caccquy,  Santa  Maria,  Passo  Fundo  and  Porto 
Alegre.  The  S&o  Gongilo  river  is  the  outlet  of  LagAa  Mirim, 
and  Pelotas  is  therefore  connected  with  the  inland  water  routes. 
The  city  is  built  on  an  open  grassy  plain  {campo)  little  above  the 
level  of  the  lake  (ad  ft.  above  sea-level).  The  public  buildings 
include  the  church  of  Sio  Francisco,  dating  from  the  early  .part 
of  the  19th  century,  the  municipal  hall,  a  fine  theatre,  the 
Misericordia  hospital,  a  public  library  containing  about  25,000 
volumes  and  a  great  central  market.  Pelotas  is  the  centre  of  the 
xarque  or  cartu  .secca'Qcrkedbeef)  industry  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 
In  its  outskirts  and  the  surrounding  counliy  are  an  immense 
number  of  xarqucadas  (slaughter-houses),  with  large  open  yards 
where  the  dressed  beef,  lightly  salted,  is  exposed  to  the  sun  and 
air.  There  are  many  factories  or  packing  hoii^  where  the  by" 
products  are  prepared  ior  market.  Pelotas  was  only  a  small 
settlement  at  the  beginning  of  the  xpth  century  and  had  no 
parochial  organization  until  18x2.  It  became  a  vitfa  in  1830  and 
a  dty  in  X835. 

PELOUZ^  TBBOPHILE  JXTLBS  (1807-1867),  French  chemist, 
was  bom  at  Valognes,  in  Normandy,  on  the  26th  (or  13th)  of 
February  1807.  Mis  father,  Edmond  Pclouze  (d.  1847),  was  an 
industrial  chemist  and  the  author  of  several  technical  handbooks. 
T^  son,  after  spending  some  time  in  a  pharmacy  at  La  Fdre, 
acted  as  laboratory  assistant  to  Gay-Lussac  and  J.  L.  Lassalgne 
(1800-1859)  at  Paris  from  X827  to  1829.  In  1830  he  was  ap- 
pointed associate  professor  of  chemistry  at  Lille,  but  returning 
to  Paris  next  year  became  rep^titeur,  and  subsequently  professor, 
at  the  £cole  Poly  technique.  He  also  held  the  chair  of  chemistry 
at  the  CoU&ge  de  France,  and  in  X833  became  assayer  to  the  mint 
and  in  1848  proident  of  the  Commission  des  Monnaies.  After 
the  coup  d^ilat  in  X851  he  resigned  his  appointments,  but  con- 
tinued to  conduct  a  laboratory-school  he  had  started  in  1846. 
He  died  in  Paris  on  the  ist  of  June  1867.  Though  Pelouze  made 
no  discovery  of  outstanding  importance,  he  was  a  busy  investi- 
gator, his  work  including  researches  on  sah'cin,  on  beetroot  sugar, 
on  various  organic  acids— gallic,  malic,  tartaric,  butyric,  lactic, 
&c. — on  oenanthic  ether  (with  Liebig),  on  the  nltrosulphates,  on 
gun-cotton,  and  on  the  composition  and  manufacture  of  glass. 
He  also  carried  out  determinations  of  the  atomic  weights  of 
several  elements,  and  with  E.  Fr£my,  published  TraiU  de  ckimk 
gMraU  (x847-t85o);  AhrigS  de  cAimie  (X848);  and  Nolietu 
phtirales  de  ckimie  (1853). 

PBLTIBIC  JBAM  CHARLES  ATHANAIB  (X785-X845).  French 
physidst,  was  bora  at  Ham  (Somme)  on  the  22nd  of  February 
1783.  He  was  originally  a  watchmaker,  but  retired  from 
business  about  the  age  of  thirty  and  devoted  himself  to  experi- 
mental and  observational  Kience.^His   papers,   which  are 


mainerous,  ana  devoted  in  great  past  to  atiiiospheiic  dectncity, 
waterspouts,  cyanometry  and  polarization  of  skylight,  the 
temperature  of  wa^er  in  the  spheroidal  state,  and  the  boiling- 
point  at  great  elevations.  There  are  also  a  few  devoted  to  curious 
points  of  natural  history.  But  his  name  will  always  be  associ- 
ated with  the  thermal  effects  at  junctions  in  a  voltaic  arcuit 
His  great  experimental  discovery,  known  as  the  "  Peltier  effect." 
was  that  if  a  current  pass  from  an  external  source  through  a 
circuit  of  two  metals  it  coUs  the  junction  through  which  it  passes 
in.  the  some  direction  as  the  thermo-electric  current  which  would 
be  caused  by  directly  heating  that  juoctioo,  while  it  heats  the 
other  junction  (sec  THsaMO-EucxuaTY).  Peltier  died  in  Paris 
on  the  27th  of  October  1845* 

PELTUIKUM  [mod.  CiviU  Ansulonia],  a  town  of  the  Vcstini, 
on  the  Via  Claudia  Nova,  12  m.  E.S.E.  of  Aquila.  It  was 
apparently  the  chief  tovm  of  that  portion  of  the  Vcstini  who 
dwelt  west  of  the  main  Apenniae  chain.  Remains  of  the  town 
walls,  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  of  other  buildings  still  exist. 

PELUSIUM,  an  ancient  city  and  port  of  Egypt,  now  repre- 
sented by  two  largo  mounds  close  to  the  coast  and  the  edge  of 
the  desert,  20  m.  £.  of  Port  Said.  It  lay  in  the  marshes  at  the 
mouth  of  the  most  easterly  (Pctusiac)  branch  of  the  Nile,  which 
has  long  since  been  silted  up,  and  was  the  key  of  the  land  towards' 
Syria  and  a  strong  fortress,  which,  from  the~ Persian  invasion  at 
least,  played  a  great  part  in  aU  wars  between  Egypt  and  the  East. 
Its  name  has  not  been  found  on  Egyptian  monuments,  but  it  may 
be  the  Sin  of  the  Bible  and  of  Assur-bani-pal'a  inscription. 
Pelusium  ("  the  muddy  ")  is  the  Faraml  of  the  Arabs,  Pere> 
moun  in  Coptic;  the  name  Tina  which  clings  to  the  locality  seems 
etymologicadly  connected  with  the  Arabic  word  for  clay  or  mud. 
The  site,  crowned  with  extensive  ruins  of  burnt  brick  of  the 
Byzantine  or  Arab  perk)d,  has  not  yielded  anv  important 
remains.  (F.  Ll.  G.) 

PELVIS  (Lat.  for  "  basin,"  cf.  Or.  rlXXis),  in  anatomy,  the 
bony  cavity  at  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  in  which  much  of 
the  genito-urinary  apparatus  and  the  lower  part  of  the  bowels  ore 
contained  (see  Sk£LETON,  \  Appendicidv). 

PEHBA,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean  off  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  forming  part  of  the  sultanate  of  2^anzibar.  Pemba  lies 
30  m.  N.N.E.  of  Zanzibar  island  between  4^  80'  and  s*  30'  S^ 
and  39*  35'  and  39*  50'  £.  It  as  some  40  m.  long  and  10  across 
at  its  broadest  part,  and  has  an  area  of  380  sq.  m.  It  is  of  coral- 
line formation.  Otk  the  side  fadqg  the  mainland  the  coast  is 
much  indented.  From  its  luxuriant  vegetation  it  gets  its  Arabic 
name  of  Al-huthera — "  The  Green."  The  interior  is  diversified 
by  hUls,  some  of  which  exceed  600 IL  The  land  is  chiefly  owned 
by  great  Arab  proprietors,  who  work  their  plantations  with 
Swahili  labour,  and  with  negroes  from  the  mainland.  Prior  to 
X897  the  labourers  were  all  dbuves.  Their  gradual  manumission 
was  accomplished  without  Injuxy  to  the  prosperity  of  the  island. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  between  50,000  and  60,000,  of 
whom  2ogp  to  3000  are  Arabs.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  of 
Bantu  stock,  and  are  known  as  Wapemfaa.  In  the  ports  there 
are  maqy  Hiodu  traders  and  a  few  BUuopeans.  The  plantations 
are  nearly  all  devoted  to  cloves  (the  annual  average  out|>ut  being 
10,000^000  lb)  and  cooo-nut  palms  (for  the  preparation  of 
copra).  The  number  of  0000-out  plantations  is  very  small 
compared  with  those  devoted  to  cloves.  Yet  cloves  neeid  nuich 
care  and  attention  and  yield  small  profit,  while  the  coco-nut 
palm  yields  a  iairiy  uniform  crop  of  nuts  and  will  grow  almost 
anywhere.  The  preponderance  of  dove  plantations  dates  from 
a  cyclone  which  in  1872  destroyed  nearly  all  the  dove-trees  in 
the  island  of  Zanzibar.  Thereupon,  to  benefit  from  the  great 
rise  in  the  price  of  doves,  tho  Pemba  planters  cot  down  their 
palms  and  planted  cbves.  The  value  of  the  doves  exported  in 
1907  was  jC}39tOoo,  or  92  %  of  the  total  ej^rts.  India,  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  are,  In  the  order  named,  the  chief  purchasers. 
Other  exports  iodude  fire-wood,  skins  and  hides,  mother-of-pearl, 
wax  and  small  quantities  of  mbber,  cowries,  tortolsesheU  and 
so-called  tortoise-nail  The  "  tortoise-nail "  is  the  valve  with 
which  a  shell-fish  doses  iu  shell.  The  Uandolphia  rubber-vine 
is  indigenous,  and  since  1906  Ceaia  rubber-trees  have  been 


78 


PEMBROKE,  MRLS  OF 


eztensEvdy  planted.  Rice,  the  chief  of  Pemba's  imports,  couTd 
easily  be  grown  on  the  island.  Cotton  cloths  (Kangas)  form  the 
next  most  considerable  item  in  the  imports. 

Pcmba  has  three  ports,  all  on  the  west  side  of  the  island. 
Shaki'Shaki,  the  capital  and  the  centre  of  trade,  is  centrally 
situated  at  the  head  of  a  shallow  tidal  creek  partly  blocked  by 
dense  growtlis  of  mangroves.  Mkoani  is  on  the  south-west 
coast,  Kishi-Kashi  on  the  north-west  coast;  at  the  last-named 
port  there  is  a  deep  and  well'Sheltered  harbour,  approached 
however  by  a  narrow  and  dangerous  channel 

Pemba  is  administered  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Zanzibar 
dominions,  and  yields  a  considerable  surplus  to  the  exchequer, 
mainly  from  a  25%  duty  imposed  on  dovCs  exported.  There  is 
a  weekly  steamship  service  to  Zanzibar,  and  in  1007  the  two 
blands  were  connected  by  wirdess  telegraphy  (see  ZASttBktL). 

PEMBROKE.  EARLS  OF.  The  title  of  earl  of  Pembroke 
has  been  held  successively  l^  several  English  families,  the 
jurisdiction  and  dignity  of  a  palatine  eiarldom  being  originally 
attached  to  it.  The  first  creation  dates  from  1138,  when  the 
earldom  of  Pembroke  was  conferred  by  King  Stephen  on  Gilbert 
dc  Clare  (d.  1148),  son  of  Gilbert  Fitz*Richard,  who  possessed 
the  lordship  of  Strigul  (Estrigholcl,  fn  Domesday  Book),  the 
modem  Chepstow.  After  the  Imtllc  of  Lincoln  (1 141),  in  which 
he  took  part,  the  earl  joined  the  party  of  the  empress  Matilda, 
and  he  married  Henry  I.'s  mistress,  Isabel,  daughter  of  Robert 
de  Beaumont,  eari  of  Leicester. 

Richard  de  Clare,  2nd  earl  of  Pembroke  (d.  1x76), commonly 
known  as  *'  Slrongbow,"  son  of  the  first  earl,  succeeded  to  his 
father's  estates  in  1148,  but  had  forfeited  or  lost  them  by  zi68. 
In  that  year  Dermot,  king  of  Leinster,  driven  out  of  his  kingdom 
by  Roderick,  king  of  Connaught,  came  to  solidt  help  from 
Henry  11.  He  secured  the  services  of  Earl  Richard,  promising 
him  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Eva  and  the  succession  to  Leinster. 
The  carl  crossed  over  in  person  (nyo),  took  both  Waierford  and 
Dublin,  and  was  married  to  Eva.  But  Henry  II.,  jealous  of 
this  success,  ordered  all  the  troops  to  return  by  Easter  1171. 
In  May  Dermot  died;  this  was  the  signal  of  a  general  rising,  and 
Richard  barely  managed  to  keep  Roderidt  of  Connaught  out  of 
Dublin.  Immediately  afterwards  he  hurried  to  England  to 
solicit  help  from  Henry  H.,  and  surrendered  to  him  all  his  lands 
and  castles.  Henry  crossed  over  in  Ortobcr  1172;  he  stayed  in 
Ireland  six  months,  and  put  his  own  men  into  ncariy  all  the 
important  places,  Richard  keeping  only  Kildarc.  In  11 73  he 
went  in  person  to  France  to  help  Henry  11.,  and  was  present  at 
Verneuil,  being  reinstated  in  Leinster  as  a  reward.  In  1174  he 
advanced  into  Connaught  and  was  severely  defeated,  but  for- 
tunately Raymond  le  Gros  re-established  his  supremacy  in 
Leinster.  Early  in  1x76  Richard  died,  just  as  Raymond  had 
taken  Limerick  for  him.  Strongbow  was  the  statesman,  as  the 
Fitzgeralds  were  the  soldiers,  of  the  conquest.  He  is  vividly 
described  by  Gifaldus  Cambrensis  as  a  tall  and  fair  man,  of 
pleasing  appearance,  modest  in  his  bearing,  delicate  jn  features, 
of  a  low  voice,  bnt  sage  in  council  and  the  idol  of  hb  soldiers. 
He  was, buried  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Dublin,  where  his 
effigy  and  that  of  his  wife  are  still  preserved. 

See  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  Expugn^io  M>emica;  and  the  Song  of 
Dtrmoii  edited  by  G.  H.  Orpcn  (1893). 

Strongbow  having  died  without  male  issue,  his  daughter 
Isabel  became  countess  of  Pcxnbroke  in  her  own  right,  and  the 
title  was  borne  by  her  husband.  Sir  Wiluam  Siarshal,  or 
Le  Mar^chal,  second  son  of  John  le  Mar6chal,  by  Sibylle,  the 
sister  of  Patrick,  earl  of  Salisbury,  John  le  Mar^chal  was  a 
partisan  of  the  empress  Matilda,  and  died  about  X164. 

The  date  of  Sir  William  Marshal's  birth  is  uncertain,  but  his 
parents  were  married  not  earlier  than  1141,  and  he  waS  a  mere 
diild  in  1152,  when  he  attracted  the  notice  of  King  Stephen. 
In  1170  he  was  sel^ted  for  a  position  in  the  household  of  Prince 
Henry,  the  heir-apparent,  and  remained  there  until  the  death 
of  his  jroung  patron  (1x83).  He  undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  where  he  served  as  a  crusader  with  distinction  for 
two  years.  Although  he  had  abetted  the  prince  in  rebellion  he 
was  pardoned  by  Henry  It.  and  admitted  to  the  royal  service 


about  1x88.  In  1x89  he  covered  the  flight  of  Henry  IT.  from 
Le  Mans  to  Chinon,  and,  in  a  ddrmisfa,  unhorsed  the  undutifol 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion.  None  the  less  Richard,  on  his  accession, 
promoted  Marshal  and  confirmed  the  old  king's  Uoence  for  his 
marriage  with  (he  heiress  of  Stzigul  and  Pembroke.  This  match 
gave  Marshal  the  rank  of  an  earl,  with  great  estates  in  Wales 
and  Ireland,  and  ho  was  included  in  the  council  of  regency  which 
the  king  appointed  on  his  departure  for  the  third  crusade  (ztgo). 
He  took  the  side  of  Prince  John  when  the  latter  expelled  the 
justiciar,  William  Longchamp,  from  the  kiiigdom,  but  he  soon 
discovered  that  the  interests  of  John  were  different  from  those 
of  Richard.  Hence  in  1193  he  joined  with  the  loyalists  in 
making  war  upon  the  prince.  Richard  forgave  Marshal  his  first 
error  of  judgment,  allowed  him  to  succeed  his  brother,  John 
Marshal,  in  the  hereditary  marshakhip,  and  on  his  deatli-bed 
designated  him  as  custodian  of  Rouen  and  of  the  royal  treasure 
during  the  interregnum.  Though  he  quarrelled  more  than  once 
with  John,  Marshal  was  one  of  the  few  English  laymen  who  dung 
to  the  royal  side  through  the  Barons'  War.  He  was  one  of  John's 
executors,  and  was  subsequently  elected  regent  of  the  king  and 
kingdom  by  the  royalist  barons  in  1 2  x  6.  In  spite  of  his  advanced 
age  he  prosecuted  the  war  against  Prince  Louis  and  the  rebds 
with  remarkable  energy.  In  the  battle  of  Lincoln  (May  12x7) 
he  charged  and  fought  at  the  head  of  the  young  king's  army,  and 
he  was  preparing  to  besiege  Louis  in  London  when  the  war  was 
terminated  by  the  naval  victory  of  Hubert  de  Burgh  in  the 
straits  of  Dover.  He  Was  critidzed  for  the  generosity  of  the 
terms  he  accorded  to  Louts  and  the  rebds  (September  121 7}; 
but  his  desire  for  an  expeditious  settlement  was  dictated  by 
sound  statesmanship.  Self-restraint  and  compromise!  were  the 
key-notes  of  Marshal's  policy.  Both  before  and  after  the  peace 
of  1 217  he  reissued  Magna  Carta.  He  fell  ill  early  in  the  year 
X2IQ,  and  died  on  the  i4tb  of  May  at  his  manor  of  Caversham 
near  Reading.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  regency  by  Hubert  de 
Burgh,  in  his  earldom  by  his  five  sons  in  succession. 

See  the  metrical  French  life,  Uisioire  do  Cuillaume  le  Marickal 
(ed.  P.  Meyer,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1891-1901) ;  the  Minority  oj Henry  til., 
by  G.  j.  Turner  {Trons.  Royal  Hist.  Soc.,  new  series,  vol.  xvifi. 
pp.  245-295);  and  W.  Stubba,  ConsiUtUiomU  History,  cbs.  zi.  and* 
xiv.  (Oxford,  1896-1897). 

Marshal's  eldest  son,  WaUAU  Marshal  (d.  1231),  2nd  eari  of 
Pembroke  of  this  line,  passed  some  years  in  warfare  in  Wales  and 
in  Ireland,  where  he  was  juslidar  from  1224  to  1226;  be  also 
served  Henry  III.  in  France.  His  second  wife  was  the  king's 
sister,  Eleanor,  afterwards  the  wife  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  bnt 
he  left  no  children.  His  brother  RicaiASD  Marshal  (d.  1234), 
3rd  earl,  came  to  the  front  as  the  leader  of  the  baronial  party, 
and  the  chief  antagonist  of  the  foreign  friends  of  Henry  HI.. 
Kearing  treachery  he  refused  to  visit  the  king  at  Gloucester  in 
August  1233,  and  Henry  declared  him  a  traitor.  He  crossed  to 
Ireland,  where  Peter  des  Roches  had  instigated  hb  enemies  to 
attack  him,  andin  April  1234  he  was  overpowered  and  wounded, 
and  died  a  prisoner.  'His  brother  Gilbert  (d.  1241),  who 
became  the  4th  carl,  was  a  friend  and  ally  of  Richard,  earl  of 
Cornwall.  When  another  brother,  Anselm,  the  6th  eari,  died 
in  December  1245,  the  male  descendants  of  the  great  earl  marshal 
became  exxinct.  The  extensive  family  possessions  were  now 
divided  among  Ansdm's  five  sisters  and  their  descendants,  the 
earidom  of  Pembroke  reverting  to  the  Crown. 

The  next  holder  of  the  lands  of  the  earldom  of  Pembroke  was 
William  de  Valence  (d.  1 296),  a  younger  son  of  Hugh  de  Luslgnan, 
count  of  La  Marche,  by  fais  marriage  with  Isabella  of  AngouUme 
(d.  1246),  widow  of  the  English  king  John,  and  was  bom  at 
Valence,  near  Luslgnan.  In  1247  William  and  his 'brothers, 
Guy  and  Aymer,  crossed  over  to  Eqgland  at  the  invitation  of  thdr 
half-brother,  Hemy  III.  In  1250  Aymer  (d.  1260)  was  dected 
bishop  of  Winchester,  and  in  1247  Henry  arranged  a  marriage 
between  Wilfiam  and  Joan  dc  MunchensI  (d.  1307)  a  grand- 
daughter of  \rilliam  Marshal,  ist  eari  of  Pembroke.  The 
custody  of  Joan's  property,  which  induded  the  castle  and  lordship 
of  Pembroke,  was  entrusted  to  her  husband,  w^o  in  1295  was 
summoned  to  parliament  as  earl  of  Pembroke.    In  South  Wales 


VEUBBsmEy  :earls  of 


79 


Valence  tried  to  tigfdn  Utt*  palfttioe  lights  which  'bad  been 
attached  to  the  earldom  of  Betnbrohc,  But  hia  eoecgict  were 
not  confined  to  South  Wales.  Henry  III.  heaped  lan<fti  and 
hoDMn  upon  hioi,  and  be  was  soon  thoroughly  hated  as  otie  of 
the  most  prominent  of  the  xapaciouafordgaefs.  Mortovee,  some 
trouble  in  Wales  led  to  a  quarrel  between  him  and  Simon  de 
Montfiort,  and  thi^  soon  grew  more  violent.  Ue  would  not 
comply  with  the  piovisionsoC  Oxford,  and  took  refuge  in  WolvcsQr 
Castle  at  Winchcstcr>  where  he  was  besibgcd  aad  compelled  to 
sorrcrder  and  leave  the  country.  In  ns9  he  and  £atl,Simon 
were  focmally  reconciled  in  Paria»  and  in  1261  he  was  again  in 
England  and  once  more  enioying  the  royal  favour.  He  fought 
for  Heary  at  the  battle  of  Lewes,  and  then,  after  a  stay  in  France, 
he  landed  in  Pembrokeshire,  aad  took  part  in  126s. in  the  siege 
of  Gloucester' and  the  battle  of  Eveihank  After  the  royalist 
victory  he  was  restored  to  his  estates  and  aoc<vnpaBied  Prince 
Edward,  afterwards  £dwsffd  L,  to  Palestine.  He  went  several 
times  to  France  on  public  business;  he  assisted  in  the  a>nquest  of 
North  Wdes;  and  he^  w&s  one  of  Edward's  rcpresctitativcs  in 
the  famous  suit  over  the  succession  to  the  crown  of  Scotland  in 
1291  and  1292.  HediedatBayotme  on  the  sathof  June  1296, 
his  body  being  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  eldest 
surviving  son»  Avmex  <«.  1265-1324),  succeeded  to  his  fa&her's 
estates,  but  was  not  formally  recognised  as  earl  of  Piembroke 
until  after  the  death  of  his  mother  Joan  about  1507.  He  was 
appointed  guardian  of  Scotland  in  1306V  but  with  the  accession 
of  Edwaiki  II.  to  the  throne  and  the  cmisequent  rise  of  Piers 
Gavcston  to  power,  his  influence  sensibly  dccUned;  ht  became 
prominent  among  the  discontented  nobles  and  wis  one  of  those 
who  were  appointed  to  selecuahe  lord  ordainers  in  131 1.  In 
13x2  hecaptund  Gaveston  at  Scarborough,  giving  the  favourite 
a  promise  that  his  life  should  be  spared^  Ignoring  this  under- 
taking, however,  Guy  Beaudiamp^  earl  of  Warwkrk,  put  Gaveston 
to  death,  and  conseqaently  Pembroke  left  the  allied  lords  and 
attached  himself  to Edwardll.  Valence  was  present  at  Bannock- 
bum;  in  1317,  when  returning  to  England  from  Rome,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  was  kept  in  Germany  until  a  large  ransom  was 
paid.  In  13  iB  he  again  took  a-oonspicuous  part  in  making  peace 
between  Edward  aad  his  nobles,  and  in  1322  assisted  at  the 
Inrmal  condemaatioo  of  Earl  Thomas  of  Lancaster,  and  received 
some  of  his  lands.  His  wife,  Mary  de  ChiUillon,  a  descendant 
of  King  Henry  lU.,  was  the  founder  of  Ptmbrofce  College, 
Cambridge. 

In  I33Q  Laubemce,  Lokro  Hastincs  (d.  1348),  a  great-grand- 
son of  William  de  Valence,  having  inherited  through  the  female 
Une  a  portion  of  the  estates  of  the  Valence  eails  of  Pembroke 
was  created,  or  recognised  «s,ead  of  Pembroke.  Hia  son  John 
(d.  X376)  married  Margaret  Pkntagenet,  daughter  of  King 
Edward  III.,  and  on  the  death  without  issue  of  his  grandson 
in  X389  the  earldom  of  Pcmbcbke  reverted  aghin  to  the  Crown, 
while  the  barony  ol  Hastings  became  docnunt  and  so  remained 
till  X840. 

In  14x4  Humphrey  Plantagenet,  fourth  son  <rf  King  Henry 
IV.,  was  created  duke  of  (Soucester  and  earl  of  Pembroke  for 
life,  these  titles  being  subsequently  made  hereditary,  with  a 
veversioii  as  regards  the  earidom  of  Pembroke,  in  default  of 
hdrs  to  Humphrey,  to  William  de  la  Pole,  taxi  of  Suffolk. 
Accordingly,  on  the  death  of  Hampfarcy,  without  issue,  in  X447 
this  nobleman  became  earl  of  Pembroke.  He  was  beheaded  in 
X4S0  and  his  titles  were  forfeited.  In  X453  the  title  was  given  to 
Sir  Jasper  Tudor,  half-brother  of  King  Henry  VI.  Sir  Jasper 
bdng  a  Lancastrian,  his  title  was  forfeited  during  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  house  of  York,  but  was  restored  on  the, 
accession  oC  Henry  VII.  On  bis  death  without  heirs  in  1495, 
his  title  became  extinct. 

During  his  attainder  Sir  Jasper  was  taken  prisoner  by  S]K 
William  HEasBaT  (d.  1469),  a  zealous'  Yorkist,  who  had  been 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Herbert  by  Edward  IV.,  luid  for 
this  service  Lord  Herbert  was  created  earl  of  Pembroke  in  .1468. 
His  son  William  (d.  1491)  received  the  earldom  of  Huntingdon 
in  lieu  of  that  of  Pembroke,  which  he  surrendered  to  Edward  IV., 
who  thereupon  conferred  k  (1479)  <m  bis  son  £dward«  prince 


of  Wales;  and  when  this  prince  aueceeded  to  the  ihriNio.  aa 
Edward  V»»  the  earidom  of  Pembroke  meiged  in  the  oown. 
Anne  Boleyn,-  a  few  months  previous  to  her  marriage  with 
Henry  VUI.,  was  crea^  mardiioness  of  Pembroke  in  1539. 
It  is  doubled  by  authorities  oni  peerage  law  whether  the  title 
merged  in  the  noyal  dignity  on  the  marriage  of  the  FF^ftrchiffmaii 
to  the  king,  or  became  extinct  on  her  death  in  1536. 

The  title  of  earl  of  Pembroke  was  next  revived  in  favour  of 
Sir. William  HsuBEax  (c.  X5QX-1370),  whose  father,  Richard, 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  ist  earl  of  Pembroke  of  the  house 
of  Herbert.  He  had  married  Anne  Parr,  sister  of  Henry  VIII/s 
sixth  wife,  and  was  created  carl  in  tssi •  The  title  has  aiace  been 
hel4.by  his  descendants. 

An  executor  of  Henry  VUL's.  will  aad  the  recipient  of  valuable 
grants  of  Umd,  Herbert  was  a  prominent aiKl  powerful  personage 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  both  the  proteaor  Somerset  and 
his  rival,  John  Dudley,  aftei^atds  duke  of  Northumberland, 
angling  for  his  support.  He  threw  in  his  lot  with  Dudley,  and 
after  Somerset's  fail  obtained  some  of  bis  lands  in  Wiltshire  and 
a  .pee^e.  It  has  been  asserted  that  he  devised  the  scheme  for 
settling  the  En^sh  crown  on  Lady  Jane  Grey;  at  all  events, he 
was  one  of  her  advisers  during  her  dion  reign,  but  he  declared  for 
Mary  when  he  saw  that.  Lady  Jane's  cause  was  lost.  By  Maiy 
and  her  friends  Pembroke's  loyahy  was  at  times  suspected,  but 
he  was  employed  as  governor  of  Calais,  as  president  of  Wales 
and  in  other  ways.  He  was  also  to  some  extent  in  the  confidence 
of  Philip  11.  of  SpaiOi  The  earl  rctairaKl  his  place  at  court  under 
Elisabeth  until  1569,  when  he  was  suspected  of  favouring  the 
projected  marriage  between  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  and  the  duke 
of  Norfolk.  Among  the  monastic  lands  granted  to  Herbert  was 
the  estate  of  Wilton,  near  Salisbury,  still  the  rcsidenqs  of  the 
earls  of  Pembroke. 

His  ekif^  son  Henry  (c.  x534:-i(5ox),  who  succeeded  as  2nd  eari, 
was  president  of  Wales  from  2586  until  his  death.  He  married 
in  1577  Mary  Sidney,  the  famous  countess  of  Pembroke  (c.  i  $6x- 
1621),  third  daughter  of  Sir  Heary  Sidney  and  bis -wife  Mary 
DudlQT.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  to  wlionl  she  was  deeply  attached 
through  life,  was  her  eldest  brother.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  spent  the 
summer  of  1580  with  her  at  Wilton,  oc  at  Ivychurch,  a  favourite 
retreat  of  hers  in  the  neighbourhood.  Here  at  her  request  be 
began  the  CounUss  af  Pembroke's  Arcadia^  which  was  intended 
for  her  pleasure  alone,  not  for  publication.  The  two  also  worked 
at  a  metrical  edition  of  the  F^Ims.  When  the  gseat  terrow  of 
her  brother's  death  came  upon  her  she  ooiade  herself  his  literary 
executor,  correcting  the  unauthorized  editions  of  the  Arcadia 
and  of  his  pocms^  which  appeared  in  1590  and  15911  She  also 
todk  under  her  patronage  the  poeta  who  had  looked  to  her  brother 
for  protection.  Spenser  dedicaled  his  Rmnet  of  Time  to. her, 
and  refers  to  her  as  Urania  in  C4)lin  Clout's  come  home  againe;  in 
Spenser's  A  strepAd  she  is  "  Clorinda."  In  x  590  Queen  Elizabeth 
was  her  guest  at  \^^ton,  and  the  countess  composed  for  the 
occasion  a  pastoral  dialogue  in  praise  of  Astraea.  After  her 
husband's  death  she  lived  chiefly  in  London  at  Crosby  Hall, 
where  £he  died. 

The  Counteas's  other  Works  indude:  A  Diseomru  of  Life  and 
Death,  translated  from  the  French  of  Plcs^s  du  Momay  (1593),  and 
AfUoine  (1592),  a  verstop  of  a  tragedy  of  Robert  Gamier. 

WiLUAM  Hesbskt,  3rd  earl  of  Pembroke  (x58o>x63o),  son  of 
the  and  earl  and  his  famous  countess,  was  a  conspicuous  fi^i/e 
in  the  society  of  hia  time  and  at  the  court  of  James  I.  Several 
times  he  found  himself  opposed  to  the  flchemea  of  the  duke  of 
Buckingham,  and  be  was  keenly  interested  in  the  cokmiaation 
of  America.  He  was  lord  chamberlain  of  the  royal  household 
from  16x5  to  x6a5  and  lord  steward  from  i6a6  to  1630.  He  was 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford  in  1624  when  Thomas 
Tesdale  and  Richard  Wightwick  rcfounded  Broadgatcs  Hall  and 
named  it  Pembroke  College  in  his  honour.  By  some  Shake- 
spearian Gommcotatois  Pembroke  Jias  been  identlAed  with  the 
"  Mr  W.  H. "  referred  to  as  "  the  oah'e  begetter  "of  Shakespeare's 
sonnets  in  the  dedicaiioQ  by  Thomas  Thorpe,  the  owner  of  the 
published  manuscript,  wh3e  his  mistress,  Mary  Htton  (f^s.),  has 
been  identified  with  the  "dark  lady  "of  the  sonnets.    In  both 


8d 


PEMBROKE 


cases  the  identificatioD  rests  on  very  quesUomble  evidence  (see 
Sbakbspbaxx,  WniiAM).  He  and  hk  brother  Philip  ue  the 
**  inoonpaimble  pair  of  brethren  **  to  whom  the  fint  folio  of 
Shakespeare  is  inscribed.  The  eari  left  no  sons  when  he  died  in 
London  on  the  zoth  of  April  i6jo.  CSarendon  gives  a  veiy 
eulogistic  account  of  Pembroke,  who  appeaxs,  however,  to  have 
been  a  man  of  weak  character  and  dissolute  life.  Gardiner 
describes  him  as  the  Hamlet  of  the  English  court.  He  had 
literary  tastes  and  wrote  poems;  one  of  his  dosest  friends 
was  the  poet  Donne,  and  he  was  generous  to  Ben  Jonson, 
Massinger  and  others. 

His  brother,  Pmup  Hebbebt,  the  4th  earl  (X5S4-X6S0),  was 
for  some  years  the  chief  favourite  of  James  I.,  oiring  this  position 
to  his  comdy  perK>n  ind  his  pssdon  for  hunting  and  for  field 
sports  generally.  In  1605  the  king  created  him  eari  of  Montgomery 
and  Baron  Herbert  of  Shuiland,  and  since  1650,  when  he  succeeded 
to  the  earklom  of  PembrcAe,  the  head  of  the  Herbert  family  has 
carried  the  double  title  of  earl  of  Pembroke  and  Montgomery. 
Although  Philip's  quarrelsome  di^xisition  often  led  him  into 
trouble  he  did  not  forfeit  the  esteem  of  James  I.,  who  heaped 
hinds  and  offices  upon  him,  and  he  was  also  trusted  by  Charles  I., 
who  made  hiln  lord  diambeiiain  in  1626  and  frequently  visited 
him  at  Wilton.  He  worked  to  bring  about  peace  between  the 
king  and  the  Scots  in  1639  and  1640,  but  when  in  the  latter  year 
the  quarrel  between  Ctuirles  and  the  En^ish  parliament  was 
renewed,  he  deserted  the  king  who  soon  deprived  him  of  his  office 
of  chamberlain.  Trusted  by  the  pc^iular  party,  Pembroke  was 
made  governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  he  was  one  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  pariiament  on  several  occasions,  notably  during 
the  nqsotiations  at  Uxbridge  in  1645  '^^  *^  Newport  in  1648,  and 
when  the  Scots  surrendered  Charles  in  1647.  From  1641  to  1643, 
and  again  from  1647  to  1650,  he  was  chancellor  of  the  university 
of  Oxford;  in  1648  he  removed  some  of  the  heads  of  houses  from 
their  positions  because  they  would  not  take  the  solemn  league 
and  covenant,  and  his  foul  lamguage  led  to  the  remark  that  he  was 
more  fitted  "  by  his  eloquoice  in  swearing  to  preside  over  Bedlam 
than  a  learned  academy."  In  164O1  although  a  peer,  he  was 
elected  and  took  his  scat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  member  for 
Berkshire,  this  **  ascent  downwards  "  calling  forth  many  satirical 
writings  from  the  royalist  wits.  The  earl  was  a  great  collector 
of  pictures  and  had  some  taste  for  architecture.  His  eldest 
surviving  son,  Philip  (162x^1669),  became  sth  eari  of  Pembroke, 
■and  and  earl  of  Montgomery;  he  was  twice  married,  and  was 
succeeded  in  turn  by  three  of  his  sons,  of  whom  Thomas,  the  Sth 
eari  (c.  1656-1733),  was  &  person  of  note  during  the  reigns  of 
William  III.  and  Anne.  From  X690  to  1692  he  was  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty;  then  he  served  as  lord  privy  seal  until  1699, 
being  in  1697  the  first  plenipotentiary  of  Great  Britain  at  the 
congress  of  Ryswick.  On  two  occasions  he  was  brd  hi^  admiral 
for  a  short  period;  he  was  also  lord  president  of  the  council  and 
lord>licutenant  of  Irdand,  while  he  acted  as  one  of  the  lords 
justices  seven  times;  and  he  was  president  of  the  Royal  Soacty 
in  i689-z69a  His  son  Henry,  the  9th  earl  (e.  1689-x  750) ,  was  a 
soldier,  but  was  better  known  as  the  "  architect  earl"  He  was 
largely  responsible  for  the  erection  of  Westminster  Bridge.  The 
title  descended  directly  to  Henry,xoth  eari  (1734-1794),  a  soldier, 
who  wrote  the  Method  of  Breaking  Horses  (Z76a);  George 
Augustus,  irth  eari  (1759-1817),  an  ambassador  extraordinary  to 
Vienna  in  1807;  ftnd  Robert  Heniy,  i3th  eari  (1791-1862),  who 
died  without  issue.  George  RQi>ert  C^haries,  the  X3th  earl 
(i85o*i895),  was  a  grandson  of  the  nth  eari  and  a  son  of  Baron 
Herbert  of  Lea  (q.t.),  whose  second  son  Sidney  (b.  1853)  inherited 
all  the  family  titles  at  his  brother's  death. 

See  G.  T.  Clarit.  The  Earls,  Earldom  and  CasOe  of  Pembroke  (Tenby. 
1880):  t.  R.  Phmch6.  "The  Earis  of  Strigul ''  in  vol.  x.  of  the 
Proutdtnts  of  Iho  British  Arehapdotieal  Assoeiaiion  (1855):  and 
C.  £.  C(okayne),  Complete  Peerois,  vol.  vi.  (Loodoot  t896)> 

PIHBROKB,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada,  capital  of  Renfrew 
county,  74  m.  W.N.W.,  of  Ottawa  l^  rail  on  the  south  shore  of 
Allumette  Lake,  an  expansion  of  the  Ottawa  river,  and  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  Canada  Atlantic  railways.  Pop.  (1901), 
5156.    It  is   the  stet  of  a  Roman    Catholic   bishopric,   on 


important  centre  in  the  lumber  trade,  and  rtmfmmmm  tarn,  gixst 
and  woollen  mills,  axe  factory,  8rc.  The  Muskrat  river  affords 
excellent  water-power. 

PBMBROKB  {Pes^ro),  an  ancient  municipal  boronili,  a 
contributory  parliamentaiy  bocou^  and  county-town  oi  Pem- 
brokeshire, Wales,  situated  on  a  narrow  peninsula  at  the  head  of 
the Pennar tidal inkt or "piU" of Milford Haven.  Pop.(i9ox), 
4487;  together  with  Plembroke  Dock  15,853.  Pembioke  is  a 
stxtien  on  the  South  Wsles  system  of  the  Great  Western  railway. 
The  old^ashioned  town,  consisting  chiefly  of  one  loog^  beoad 
street,  retains  portions  of  its  ancient  walls.  A  large  miU-dam  is 
a  conspicuous  feature  on  the  north  of  the  town.  St  'hixxy'% 
church  in  theoentxeof  the  town  possesses  a  massive  tower  of  the 
X3th  century.  Near  the  rained  West  Gate  is  the  entrance  to 
Pembroke  CasUe,  a  splendid  specimen  of  medieval  fortified 
architecture.  The  circular  vaulted  keep  erected  by  Eari  William 
Marshal  (c.  isoo),  remains  almost  intact.  Close  to  the  keep 
stands  the  ruined  chsmhrr  wherein,  according  to  local  tfaditioo, 
Henry  VII.  was  bom  in  X457.  Beneath  the  fine  banqueting  hall, 
a  flight  of  steps  descends  into  "  the  Wogan,"  a  vast  subterranean 
chamber  giving  access  to  the  harbour.  Facing  the  castle,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  pill,  stand  the  considerable  remaiits  of 
Monkton  Priory,  a  Benediction  house  founded  by  Eari  WiUiam 
Maxshal  as  a  cell  to  the  abbey  of  Sto  or  Sayes  in  Normsaidy, 
but  under  Henry  VI.  transferred  to  the  abbey  of  St  Albans. 
The  priory  church,  now  the  parish  church  of  the  suburb  of 
Monkton,  contains  monuments  of  the  families  of  Meyrick  of 
Bush  and  Owen  of  Orielton.  St  Daniel's  chapel  forms  a 
prominent  landmark  on  the  ridge  south  of  the  town. 

Peicbkoke  Dock  (formcriy  known  as  Pater,  or  Psierchurch), « 
naval  dockyard  and  garrison  town,  is  situated  dose  to  Hold's 
Point,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Milford  Haven*  It  forms  the 
Pater  Ward  of  Pembroke,  from  winch  it  is  distant  s  m.  to  the 
north-wcsL  The  place  owes  its  origin  to  the  decision  of  the 
government  in  18x4  to  form  a  naval  d£p6t  on  Miliord  Haven. 
The  dockyard,  enclosed  by  high  walls  and  covering  80  acres,  is 
protected  by  a  powerful  fort — the  construction  and  repairing  of 
ironclads  arc  extensively  carried  on  here.  There  is  a  submarine 
d£p6t  at  Pennar  Gut,  and  also  accommodation  for  artillery  and 
infantry.  Ferry  boats  ply  frequently  between  Pembroke  Dock 
and  Neylaiui  on  the  <HPposite  shore  of  the  Haven. 

Pembroke  is  probably  an  Ang^Norman  fofm  of  the  Cymric 
PenfrOf  the  territory  lying  between  Milford  Haven 'and  the 
Bristol  Chaimd,  now  known  as  the  Hundred  of  Castlemartin. 
During  the  invasion  of  South  Wales  under  William  Rufus, 
Amulf  de  Montgomeri,  fifth  son  of  Roger  eari  of  Shrewsbury, 
seems  to  have  erected  a  fortress  of  stone  (c  1090)  on  the  site  of 
the  castle.  The  first  castellan  of  this  new  stronghold  was 
Giraldus  de  Windsor,  husband  of  the  Princess  Nest  of  South 
Wales  and  grandfather  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis.  Throughout 
the  xath  and  X3tl&  centuries  the  castle  was  strengthened  and 
enlarged  under  successive  earls  pialatine  of  Pembroke,  who  made 
this  fortress  their  diicf  seat.  As  the  capital  of  the  palatinate 
and  as  the  nearest  port  for  Ireland,  Pembroke  was  in  Plantagenet 
times  one  of  the  most  important  fortified  dtles  in  the  kingdom. 
The  town,  which  had  grown  up  under  the  shadow  of  the  almost 
impregnable  castle,  was  fiift  incorporated  by  Henry  I.  id  1109 
and  again  by  Eari  Richard  de  Clare  in  XX54  (who  also  encirded 
the  town  with  walls),  and  these  privileges  were  confirmed  and 
extended  under  succeeding  earls  palatine  and  kings  of  England. 
In  1835  ^l^e  corporation  was  remodelled  under  the  Municipal 
Corporations  Act.  Henry  II.  occasionally  visited  Pembroke, 
notably  in  1x79,  and  until  the  dose  of  the  Wars  of  the  Rosea, 
both  town  and  castle  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  history  of 
Britain.  With  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Union  of  Wales  and 
England  in  1536  however,  the  yum  refdia  of  the  county  poktine 
of  Pembroke  were  abolished,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  town 
began  to  decline.  Although  acknowledged  as  the  county  town 
of  Pembrokeshire,  Pembroke  was  superseded  by  Haverfordwest 
as  the  judicial  and  administrative  centre  of  the  shire  on  accoui* 
of  the  more  convenient  position  of  the  latter  place.  By  the  act 
of  1536  Pembroke  was  dedaxcd  the  leading  borough  m  the 


I^MBROEESHIRE 


dockyini  ud 
Civil  Win  the 
by  tbc  Duyiu, 


LD  defection  In  T647, 


ftmbrakc  pirtiaBMBUry  dtslr 

dirtodle  aalU  [he  letitement  o 

vsrboa  HUFoid  Haven.     Al  tfatoutbreok  et  t. 

tovB  and  cmille  wen  ganitoned  loi  pulimei 

John  Foyer,  ■  leading  iiKshytcriad,  nho  wu  lali 

Bovenlor.  with  KooUDd  Laugharne  ol  St  Bridei 

Icuit.     Bui  at  tiu  line  ol  the  Piobyti 

Payer  and  hii  lieuienani-goYenjon.    Lau(hame 

dedand  For  CharLea  and  hdd  the  caslle  In  tbe  king  1  name^     in 

June  1648  Cromwell  hinucll  ptoccedtd  la  Invol   Paabnikr 

Cattle,  ^hich  milled  with  peat  obUtnaer,     But  after  ihe 

•nler-aupply  of  ibe  garfiun  hid  been  cat  vfl,  lb*  bokgHl  were 

lomd  tacapilulate.aniheiithor  July  1648,  anihccwKtiiioDal 

■■rrendering  up  the  three  chief  defender!  of  the  castle.     Foyer, 

Laughana  and  Fowell  were  accordingly  brought  to  London, 

but  finally  only  Foyer  wai  ejiccuted.     Tlte  magnificent  ruin  of 

Fcmbnlie  Caille  li  the  Domlnal  property  of  the  Crown,  bat  has 

btcQ  held  on  lease  lince  the  nign  of  James  II.  by  the  family  of 

Pryw  of  Cogerddan  in  CanUgaiuhite. 

PBMBROKnBIRB  (Sir  Am/ro,  Oy/af},  the  most  weatnly 
county  of  South  Wales,  bouoded  N.E.  byCardigui,  E.byCinnir. 
then.  S.  by  Ihe  Bristol  Channel  and  W.  and  N.W.  by  St  Bride's 
Bay  and  Cardigan  Bay  of  St  George's  Channel.    Area  615  k|.  m. 

length.  The  principal  inlets  arc  ftlltford  Haven,  St  Bride's  Bay, 
FrMhwaier  Bay,  Fiihguiid  Bay  and  Newport  Bay.  The  chief 
ptomonloiles  ate  Cemmao,  Dinas,  Slnimble.  St  David'l,  St 
Ann's  and  St  Cowan's  Heada.  Five  itlands  of  nioderale  size  lie 
off  the  coast,  vie  Ramsey.  Graisholni,  SkanKr  and  Skokholm 
In  St  Bride's  Bay,  and  Caldy  Island  (Vnys  Fyi)  opposite  Tenby ; 
tbe  last  named  having  a  populatioD  of  abont  70  persons.  Rare 
birds,  such  as  peregtlne  latcDU,  ravens  and  choughs  are  not 
uncommon,  while  guillemots,  puffins  and  other  sea-fowl  breed  in 
Immense  numbers  on  the  Stack  Rocks,  on  Ramsey  Island  and  at 
vnriaut  pDlnii  of  Ihe  coast.  Seals  are  plentiful  in  the  caves  ol 
St  Bride's  Bay  and  Cardigan  Bay.  The  county  is  undulating, 
ind  large  tract)  are  bare,  bat  Ihe  valieyi  of  the  CItddau,  the 
Nevern,  Ihe  Telfi  and  the  Gwaun  nre  well-wooded.  The 
Preselley  Mountains  stretch  from  Fishguard  to  the  border  of 
Carmarthen.  Ihe  principal  heightt  being  Ptcselley  Top  (1760  ft.) 
and  Cam  Englyn  (ton  ft.).  Tleffgara  Rock  in  the  Plunulaiie 
Mountains  is  popularly  supposed  to  mariL  Ihe  northern  Emit  of 
Ihe  ancient  set tiemeni  of  the  Flemings.  The  principal  riven  are 
the  Teifi.  forming  Ihe  northern  boundary  of  Ihe  county  (torn 
\bercych  to  Cardigan  Bay;  the  Nevern  and  the  Gwauo,  both 
falling  inlo  Cardigan  Bay;and  the  Eastern  and  Western  Qeddau, 
forming  the  Diuglcddau  alter  their  junction  below  Haverford- 
weH,  All  these  slreims  conlain  trout  and  salmon.  Then  are 
no  lakes,  but  the  broad  tidal  estuarin  of  the  Daugleddau  and 
other  riven,  which  fall  into  Milfard  Haven  and  aie  iDcilly  nlled 


Ordovidaa  and  Silurian  racks  etlead  aiKjIhinnl  to  ibe  neiahbDur. 
hood  of  Narbenh  aad  Havertordwni.  where  Anxiig,  LbodSia  and 
Bala  beds  (Slide  lad  Red  Hill  btdi:  Shole^aok  and  Robnt. 
Wilthen  Limewone)  ind  Ltandovtry  beds  are  reeorfcd.  The  C< 
MMsans.  hliMy  IncUMd  and  aiohncltk.  Mitleh  .civm  Ik... 
Omanhaa  Sty  10  the  shon  of  St  Bride's  Bay:  ihcy  an  bordered 

M  tlie  noelh  aid  leuilHaK  ^  tl-  "■" '■-'-  ''•-^— ■' 

UmesloH  aeikt  and  Old  RedSini 
XXI   1* 


le  Grila.  Caftewifero 


rf  hi'ilfoIS'H^ 


A  of  Ihe  re 


II  I^tmhn^.  Clidy 


aialaff  and  TiufiirlrKi.— The  climate  is  everywhere  mild,  and 

nourishes  in  Ihe  open  air.  In  Ihe  south  [he  lainfall  is  small,  and 
the  dislricls  nnind  Pembroke  sulTer  from  occasional  droughts. 
The  chief  Industry  is  agriculture,  wherein  tioik-raising  is 
preferred  to  the  growing  of  cereals.  Of  cattle  the  long-homed, 
jet-black  CaslTeitiartin  breed  is  everywhere  conspicuous.  South 
PembnikE  hat  long  been  celebrated  for  its  horses,  which  are  bred 
In  great  numbers  by  the  firmera.  The  deep-sea  fisheries  ol 
Tenby  and  Milford  are  valuable;  and  fresh  fish  of  good  quality 
Is  eiported  by  raQ  to  the  large  towni.  Oyslets  are  found  at 
langwm  and  near  Tenby;  lobslets  and  crabs  abound  on  the 
western  coast.  The  South  Wales  coalfield  extends  into  touth 
Pembroke,  and  coal  is  worked  al  Saundenloot,  Begelly,  Temple- 
ton,  Kilgetty  and  other  places.  There  are  stale  quarries  at 
Glogue,  ClJgerran  and  elsewhere;  copper  has  been  worked  near  St 
Davids,  and  lead  at  Uanfymach. 
Canniimtcalioiu.— The  South   Wale 


Clynd 


:ii  Jun 


:   Iroi 


the 


ctian,  whence  the  main  line  leads  to  Fishguard 

to  Heyland  and  Millord  Haven  by  way  of  HaveKordwrsi,  and 
a  branch  line  fmm  ClyndctweQ  to  Goodwick  joins  the  main  line 
at  LeILenlen.  The  WhiLland. Cardigan  branch  traverses  the 
north-east  by  way  of  Crymmych  and  Cilgerran.  Another  liDc 
tunning  toulb-wesl  fmm  Whftland  proceeds  by  way  of  Naiberth 
and  Tenby  to  Pembroke  Dock. 

Ftfttlalim  and  Aininiilnliim.—Tia!  area  of  Pembrokeshire 
is  J9S,i5i  acres  with  a  population  in  1S91  of  Sg.ijg  and  igei 
of  S3,7]],  thawing  a  slighl  decrease.  The  municipal  borough* 
are  Pembroke  {pop.  15,^53};  Haverfordwest  (Aoo;);  and 
Tenby  Cmob),  The  bamlet  of  Bridgend  and  a  part  of  St 
Dogmell's  parish  are  Included  within  the  rauolcipal  h'mils  of 
Cardigan.  Newport  {Tr«ldraelh)  (1111),  the  chief  town  of 
the  barony  of  Ketoes,  or  Cemmaes,  sfill  possesses  a  mayor  and 
carpoiaiion  under  a  charier  gnuiled  in  iiij  by  Sir  Nicholas 
Maneine.   lard   of   Kernel,    whose   hereditary    representative 


:   Welsh 


munici 

pal  privileges 

are  pract 

-aUy  honorary 

.    Mllford  Hav 

{S.=.) 

Narbenh  (i 

70)  .nd  Fishguard  (jooi) 

BR  urban  diitric 

Other 

owns  are  St  Davids  (1 

10),  St  Dogn 

ells  aiandudoc 

(r2R61 

and  Cilgem 

n  C.oi«). 

Pembmkeshi 

c  Lie*  in  the  Sou 

ed  to  pari 

ameni;  one  1 

Tenby 

Fishguard, 

Narbenh, 

Neyland.  Wilfotd  «.d  Wis 

(Castell    Cwys).     Ecclesiastically, 

parishes  and  tics  wholly  in  the  diocese  of  St  Davi 

HJiisry.— Pembrokeshire,  anciently  known 
as  Dyfed.  was  originally  comprised  in  Ihe  territory  01  ine 
Dimelae.  conquered  by  Ihe  Romans.  During  ibe  (llh  cenluiy 
St  David,  or  Dew!  Sani.  moved  the  chief  scat  of  South  Welsh 
monastic  and  ecclesiastical  life  from  Caerleon-on.Vik  to  his 
native  place  Menevia,  which,  known  In  consequence  as  Tyddewi, 
or  St  Davidi,  continued  a  centre  of  religious  and  educational 
acltvity  until  the  Reformation,  a  period  of  looe  years.  On 
the  death  of  Rhodri  Mawr  in  E77.  Dyfed  fell  nominally  under  the 
sway  of  Ihe  princes  of  Dehcubarlh,  or  South  Wales;  but  their 
hold  was  never  very  secure,  nor  were  they  able  to  prelect  (he 
coast  towns  from  Ihe  ScBBdlnavian  pirates.  In  loSi  William 
the  Conqueror  penetrated  west  a!  far  as  St  Davids,  where  he  ii 
said  to  have  visiied  St  David's  shrine  as  a  devout  pDgTim. 
In  10?)  AmulfdeMonigooieri.  son  of  Roger,  earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
did  homage  to  the  king  lor  Ihe  Welsh  lands  of  Dyfed.  With 
the  building  of  Pembroke  Castle,  of  which  Gerald  de  Windsor 
was  appointed  castellan.  Ihe  Normans  began  to  spread  over 
(outhm  Dyfed;  whilst  Martin  de  Tours,  lattding  b  Fishguard 


82 


PEMBROKESHIRE 


Bay  and  building  tha  castle  of  Newport  at  Trifdraeth,  won  for 
himself  the  extensive  lordship  of  Kemes  (Cemmaes)  between 
the  river  Teifi  and  the  Preselley  Mountains.  The  systematic 
planting  of  Flemish  settlers  in  the  hundred  of  Rh6s,  or  Roose, 
in  or  about  the  years  1106,  1108  and  11  ti  %nth  the  approval 
of  Henry  I.,  and  again  in  1156  under  Henry  IL,  marks  an 
all-important  episode  in  the  history  of  Pembrokeshire.  The 
castles  of  Haverfordwest  and  Tenby  were  now  erected  to  protect 
these  aliens,  and  despite  the  fierce  attacks  of  the  Welsh  princes 
their  domain  grew  to  be  known  as  "  Little  England  beyond 
Wales/*  a  district  whereof  the  language,  customs  and  people 
still  remain  characteristic.  In  1138  Gilbert  de  Clare,  having 
previously  obtained  Henry  I.'s  permission  to  enjoy  all  lands 
he  might  win  for  himself  in  Wales,  was  created  earl  of  Pembroke 
in  Stephen's  reign  with  the  fuU  powers  of  an  earl  palatine  in 
Dyfed.  The  devolution  of  this  earldom  is  dealt  with  in  a 
separate  article. 

In  1536,  by  the  Act  of  Union  (27  Heniy  VIIL),  the  king 
abolished  all  special  jurisdiction  in  Pembrokeshire,  which  he 
placed  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  remaining  shires  of  Wales, 
while  its  borders  were  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Kemes, 
Dcwisland  and  other  outlying  lordships.  By  the  act  of  1536 
the  county  returned  to  parliament  one  knight  for  the  shire 
and  two  burgesses;  one  for  the  Pembroke  boroughs  and  one 
for  the  town  and  county  of  Haverfordwest,  both  of  which  since 
1885  have  been  merged  in  the  Pembroke-and-Haverfordwest 
parliamentary  division.  The  Reformation  deprived  the  county 
of  the  presence  of  the  bishops  of  St  Davids,  who  on  the  partial 
dismantling  of  the  old  episcopal  palace  at  St  Davids  removed 
their  chief  seat  of  residence  to  Abergwiliy,  near  Carmarthen. 
Meanwhile  the  manor  of  Lamphey  was  granted  to  the  family 
of  Devereux,  earls  of  Essex,  and  other  episcopal  estates  were 
alienated  to  court  favourites,  notably  to  Sir  John  Perrot  of 
Haroldstone  (1517-1592),  afterwards  lord-deputy  of  Ireland. 
During  the  Civil  Wars  the  forces  of  the  parliament,  commanded 
by  Colonel  Laughame  and  Captain  Swanlcy,  reduced  the  royal 
forts  at  Tenby,  Milford  and  Haverfordwest.  In  February 
1797  some  French  frigates  appeared  off  Fishguard  Bay  and 
landed  about  1400  Frenchmen  at  Llanwnda.  The  invaders 
soon  capitulated  to  the  l^cal  militia,  practically  without  striking 
a  blow.  The  19th  century  saw  the  establishment  of  tht  naval 
dockyard  at  Patercburch  and  the  building  of  docks  and  quays 
at  Neyland  and  Milford.  In  1906  extensive  works  for  cross- 
traffic  with  Ireland  were  opened  at  Fishguard  Harbour. 

Many  of  the  old  Pembrokeshire  families,  whose  names  appear 
prominent  in  the  county  annals,  are  extinct  in  the  county  itself. 
Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  Perrot  of  Haroldstone, 
Devereux  of  Lamphey,  Barlow  of  Slebech,  Barrett  of  Gilliswick, 
Wogan  of  Wiston,  EUiot  of  Amrotb  and  Owen  of  Henllys. 
Amongst  ancient  families  still  existing  are  Philipps  of  Lydstep 
and  Amroth  (descendants  of  the  old  Welsh  lords  of  Cilsant); 
Philipps  of  Picton  Castle  (a  branch  of  the  same  house  in  the 
female  line) ;  Lort  of  Stackpole  Court,  now  represented  by  Earl 
Cawdor;  Scourfield  of  Moate;  Bowen  of  Llwyngwiur;  Edwardcs, 
Lords  Kensington,  of  St  Brides;  Meyrickof  Bush;  Lort-Philipps 
of  Lawrenny;  Colby  of  Ffynone;  Stokes  of  Cuffern;  Lloyd  of 
Newport  Castle  (m  which  family  is  vested  the  hereditary  lord- 
ship of  the  barony  of  Kemes);  Satmders-Davies  of  Pentre;  ami 
Cower  of  Castle  Malgwyn. 

.  Antiquities. — ^There  are  few  remaining  traces  in  the  county 
of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Dimetia,  but  in  British  encamp- 
ments, tumuli,  cromlechs  and  monumental  stones  Pembrokeshire 
b  singularly  rich.  Of  the  cromlechs  the  best  preserved  are  those 
at  Longhouse,  near  Mathry;  at  Pentre  Evan  in  the  Nevem 
Valley;  and  at  Llech-y-dribedd,  near  Moylgrove;  whilst  of  the 
many  stone  circles  and  alignments,  that  known  as  Pare-y-Marw, 
or  "  The  Field  of  the  Dead,"  near  Fishguard,  is  the  least  injured. 
Stones  inscribed  in  Ogam  characters  are  not  uncommon,  and 
good  examples  exist  at  Caldy  Island,  Bridell,  St  Dogmells 
and  Cilgerran.  There  are  good  specimens  of  Celtic  floriated 
churchyard  crosses  at  Carew,  Penally  and  Nevern.  Interesting 
examples  of  medieval   domestic  architecture  are  the  ruins 


of  the  former  .episcopal  mansions  at  Llawbadcik  St  Diavidt 
and  Lamphey,  the  two  latter  ol  which  wece  erected  by  Bidnp 
Cower  between  the  yean  1328* ij47-  With  the  tiCceptioa  of 
the  cathedral  at  St  Davids  and  the  principal  churclies  of  Haver- 
fordwest and  Tenby,  the  parish  churches  of  Pembrakeshiie 
are  for  the  most  part  small,  but  many  are  ancient  and  possess 
fine  mooumeots  or  other  objects  of  ioierest.  especially  in 
"  Little  England  beyond  Wales."  Amongst  the  more  note- 
worthy are  the  churches  at  Stackpole  Elidur,  Carew.  Button, 
Cumfreston,  Nevern,  Si  Petrox  and  Rudbaxion,  the  last-named 
containing  »  fine  Jacobean  monument  of  the  Haywac^  fsmily,. 
Pembrokeshire  has  long  been  famous  for  iu  castles,  of  which  the 
finest  examples  are  to  be. observed  at  Pembroke;  Manocbier, 
built  in  the  lath  century  and  interesting  as  the  birthf^ce  and 
home  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis;  Carew,  exhibiting  many  interest- 
ing features  both  of  Norman  and  Tudor  itrchitectiire;  and 
Pictoo,  owned  and  inhabited  by  a  branch  of  the  Philipps  family. 
Other  castles  are  the  ke^  of  Haverfordwest  and  the  ruined  for- 
tresses at  Narberth,  Tenby,  Newport,  Wiston,  Benton.  Upton  and 
Cilgerran.  There  are  some  remains  of  monastic  houses  st  Tenby 
and  Pembroke,  but  the  most  important  religious  coromunilics 
were  the  priory  of  the  Augustioiaa  friars  at  Haverfordwest 
and  the  abbey  of  the  Benedictines  at  St  Dogmells.  Of  this 
latter  house,  which  was  founded  by  Martin  de  Tours,  first  lord 
of  Kemes,  at  the  close  of  the  nth  century,  and  who  owned  the 
{triories  of  Pill  and  Caldy,  considerable  ruins  exist  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Teifi  about  z  m.  below  Cardigan.  Of  the  ancient 
preceptory  of  the  Knights  of  St  John  at  Slebech  scarcely  a  trace 
remains,  but  of  the  college  of  St  Mary  at  St  Davids  founded  by 
Bishop  Houghton  in  1377,  the  shell  of  the  chapel  survives  in 
fair  preservation.  Pembrokeshire  contains  an  unusually  large 
number  of  county  seats,  particularly  in  the  south,  which  includes 
Stackpole  Court,  the  residence  of  Earl  Cawdor,  a  fine  mansion 
erected  in  the  i8th  century;  Picton  Castle;  Slebech,  once  the 
seat  of  the  Barlows;  Orielton,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Owens; 
and  Fiynone,  the  residence  of  the  Colby  family. 

Customs,  £rc.— The  division  of  Pembrokeshire  ever  since  the 
1 2th  century  into  well-defined  Englisliry  and  Welshry  has 
produced  two  distinct  sets  of  languages  and  customs  within  the 
county.  Roughly  speaking,  the  English  division,  the  Anglia 
Transwaiiiana  of  Camden,  occupies  the  southeastern  half  and 
comprises  the  hundreds  of  Roose,  Castlemartin,  Narberth  and 
Dungleddy.  In  the  Welshry,  which  includes  the  hundreds  of 
Dewisland  and  Cilgerran  together  with  the  old  barony  of  Kemes, 
the  language,  customs,  manners  and  folk-lore  of  the  inhabitants 
are  almost  identical  with  those  of  Cardigan  and  Carmarthen, 
The  old  Celtic  game  of  Knappau,  a  pastime  partaking  of  the 
nature  both  of  football  and  hockey,  in  which  whole  parishes 
and  even  hundreds  were  wont  to  taikt  an  active  part,  was  pre- 
valent in  the  barony  of  Kemes  so  late  as  the  i6th  century, 
as  George  Owen  of  Henllys,  the  historian  and  antiquary,  records; 
and  the  playing  of  knappan  lingered  on  after  Owen's  day. 
Amongst  the  settlers  of  the  Englishry,  who  are  of  mingled  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Flemish,  Welsh  and  perhaps  Scandinavian  descent, 
many  interesting  superstitions  and  customs  survive.  The 
Englbh  spoken  by  these  dwelleis  in  "  Little  England  beyond 
Wales  "  contains  many  curious  idioms  and  words  apd  the  pronun- 
ciation of  some  of  the  vowels  is  peculiar.  Certain  picturesque 
customs,  many  of  them  dating  from  pre-Reformation  times, 
are  still  observed,  notably  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tenby. 
Such  are  the  sprinkling  of  persons  with  dewy  evergreens  oe 
New  Year's  morning;  the  procession  of  the  Cutty  Wren  on  St 
Stephen's  di^^,  and  the  constructing  of  little  huts  at  Lammastlde 
by  the  farm  boys  and  girls.  As  eariy  as  the  opening  years  oC 
the  19th  century,  cripples  and  ophthalmic  patients  were  in  the 
habit  of  visiting  the  ancient  hermitage  at  St  Cowan's  Head  to 
bathe  in  its  sacred  well;  and  Richard  Fenton.  the  county  historian 
alludes  {c.  1808)  to  the  many  cnuches  left  at  St  Gowan's  chapel 
by  grateful  devotees.  Belief  in  ghosts,  fairies,  witches,  &c., 
is  still  prevalent  in  the  more  remote  places,  and  the  dress  ol 
the  fishwives  of  Langwm  near  Haverfordwest  is  highly  picturesque 
with  its  short  skirt,  scarlet  shawl  and  buckled  shoes. 


PEMMICAN— PEN 


83 


AVTHOhnTiss.^Richard  Fenton.  A  HiatoHcol  TnUr  tkfMgk 
PnArpkfaHire  (London,  i9io):  Edward  Law*.  Hittory  cf  LittU  Bmg- 
lamd  beyond  Wales  (London.  1888):  Basil  Jones  and  £.  A.  Freeman, 
History  and  Anii^tiies  of  St  David's  (London.  1856),  sc. 

PEMMICAN,  a  North  American  Indian  (Cree)  word  for  a 
meat  prepared  in  such  a  way  as  to  contain  the  greatest  amount 
of  nourishment  in  the  most  compact  form.  As  made  by  the 
Indians  it  was  composed  of  the  lean  parts  of  the  meat,  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  pounded  or  shredded  and  mixed  into  a  paste  with 
melted  fat.  It  is  flavoured  with  acid  berries.  If  kept  dry  it 
will  keep  for  an  indefinite  time,  and  is  thus  particularly  service- 
able in  araic  or  other  explorations. 

PEMPHIGUS  (Gr.  irifi<tnt  a  bubble), a  skin  disease,  in  which 
Urge  bleb»  appear,  on  a  red  base,  containing  a  dear  or  yellowish 
fluid;  the  blebs  occasion  much  irritation,  and  when  they  burst 
leave  raw  ulcerated  surfaces.  The  disease  is  principally  known 
in  unhealthy  or  neglected  children.  A  variety  of  the  maUdy, 
pemphigus  foliaceoiu,  aflfccts  the  whole  body,  and  gradually 
proves  fatal.  Pemphigus  of  an  acute  seplicaemic  type  occurs 
in  butchers  or  those  who  handle  hides,  and  a  diplococcus  has 
been  isolated  by  William  BuUock.  The  treatment  is  mainly 
constitutional,  by  means  of  good  nourishment,  warm  baths, 
local  sedatives  and  tonics.  In  chronic  pemphigus,  streptococci 
have  Wen  found  in  the  blebs,,  and  the  opsonic  index  was  low 
to  streptococci.  Improvement  has  been  known  to  take  place 
on  the  injection  of  a  vacdne  of  streptococci. 

PEN  (Lat.  penna,  a  feather,  pen),  an  instrument  for  writing 
or  for  forming  lines  with  an  ink  or  other  coloured  fluid.  The 
English  word,  as  well  as  its  equivalents  in  French  {ptume)  and  in 
German  (Feder),  originally  means  a  wing-feather,  bot  in  ancient 
times  the  implements  used  for  producing  written  characters 
were  not  quills.  The  earliest  writing  implement  was  probably 
the  stilus  (Gr.  ypa^s),  a  pointed  bodkin  of  metal,  bone  or  ivory, 
used  for  produdog  incised  or  engraved  letters  on  boxwood 
tablets  covered  with  wax.  The  calamus  (Gr.  cdXa/tos)  or  arundo, 
the  hoUow  tubular  stalk  of  grasses  growing  in  marshy  lands, 
was  the  true  andent  representative  of  the  modem  pen;  hollow 
joints  of  bamboo  were  similarly  employed. 

An  early  specific  allusion  to  the  quill  pen  occurs  in  the  writ  ings 
of  St  Isidore  of  Seville  (early  part  of  the  7th  century),'  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  assume  that  it  was  not  in  use  at  a  still  more 
remote  date.  The  quills  still  largely  employed  among  Western 
communities  aa,  writing  instruments  arc  obtained  principally 
from  the  winp  of  the  goose  (see  Feather).  In  1809  Joseph 
firamah  devised  and  patented  a  machine  for  cutting  up  the 
quill  into  separate  nibs  by  dividing  the  barrel  into  three  or  even 
four  parts,  and  cutting  these  transversely  into  "  two,  three, 
four  and  some  into  five  lengths."  Brainah*a  invention  first 
familiarized  the  public  with  the  appearance  and  vse  of  the  nib 
slipped  into  a  holder.  In  1818  Charies  Watt  obtained  a  patent 
for  gilding  and  preparing  quills  and  pens,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  precursor  of  the  gold  pen.  But  a  more  distinct  advance 
was  effected  in  1822,  when  J.  I.  Hawkins  and  S.  Mordan  patented 
the  application  of  horn  and  tortoise-shell  to  the  formation  of 
pen-nibs,  the  points  of  which  were  rendered  durable  by  small 
pieces  of  diamond,  ruby  or  other  very  hard  sul»lance.  or  by 
lapping  a  small  piece  of  thin  sheet  gold  over  the  end  of  the 
tortoise-shell. 

Metallic  pens,  though  not  unknown  in  classical  times— a 
bronze  pen  found  at  Pompeii  is  in  the  Naples  Museum — were 
little  used  until  the  19th  century  and  did  not 
become  common  till  near  the  middle  of  that  cen- 
tury. It  b  recorded  that  a  Birmingham  split-ring  manufacturer, 
Samuel  Harrison,  made  a  steel  pen  for  Dr  Joseph  Priestley 
in  1780.  Steel  pens  made  and  sold  in  London  by  a  certain 
Wise  in  1803  were  in  the  form  of  a  tube  or  barrel,  the  edges  of 
which  met  to  form  the  slit,  while  the  sides  were  cut  away  as  in 
the  case  of  an  ordinary  qoiil.  Their  price  was  about  five  shillings 
each,  and  as  they  were  hard,  stiff  and  unsatisfactory  instruments 
they  were  not  in  great  demand,'    A  metallic  pen  patented  by 

*['  Instrvmenta  scribae  calamus  ct  penna;  ex  his  enim  verba 
~~inU  infiguntur ;  sed  calamus  arboris  est,  penna  avis,  cujus  acumen 


ss; 


litur  in  duo.* 


Biy«n  Deiakiii  in  1608  was  made  of  two  separate  paru,  flat  or 
nearly  so,  with  the  flat  sides  placed  o|^)osite  eadi  other  to  form 
thesht,  or  alternatively  of  one  piece,  flat  and  not  cylindrical  as  in 
the  usual  form,  bent  to  the  proper  angle  for  insertion  in  the 
tube  which  constituted  the  holder.  To  John  Mitchell  prob- 
ably belongs  the  credit  of  introducing  machine-made  pens, 
about  1822,  and  James  Perry  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first 
maker  of  steel  slip  pena.  In  1828  Jostah  Mason,  who  had  been 
associated  with  Samuel  Harrison,  in  the  manufacture  of  split 
rings,  aaw  Perry's  pens  on  sale  in  Birmingham,  and  after  examin* 
ing  them  saw  his  way  both  to  improve  and  to  cheapen  ibe  process 
of  making  thnm.  He  therefore  put  himself  in  communication 
with  Periy,  and  the  result  was  that  he  began  to  make  barrel 
pens  for  him  in  1828  and  slip  pens  in  1829.  Perry,  who  did  much 
to  popularize  the  steel  pen  and  bring  it  into  general  use,  in  hia 
patent  of  1830  sought  to  obtain  greater  flexibility  by  forming 
a  central  hole  between  the  points  and  the  shoulders  and  by 
cutting  one  or  more  lateral  sliu  on  each  side  of  the  central 
slit;  and  Joseph  Gillot.  in  1831  described  an  improvement 
which  consisted  in  forming  elongated  points  on  the  nibs  of 
the  pens. 

The  metal  used  consists  of  rolled  sheets  of  cast  steel  of  the 
finest  quality  made  from  Swedish  charcoal  iron.    These  sheets, 
after  being  cut  into  strips  of  suitable  width,  annealed  in  a  muffle* 
furnace  and  pkkied  in  a  bath  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  free 
the  surface  from  oxidized  scale,  are  rolled  between  steel  rollers  till 
they  are  lediicod  to  ribbons  of  an  even  thickness,  about  tIt  in. 
From  these  ribbons  the  pen  blanks  are  next  punched  out,  and 
then,  after  being  embossed  with  the  name  of  the  maker  or  other 
marks,  are  pierced  with  the  central  perforation  and  the  side  or 
shoulder  slits  by  which  flexibility  is  obtained.    After  another 
annealing,  the  blanks,  which  up  to  this  point  are  flat,  arc 
"raffecd"  or  rounded  between  diet  into  the  familiar  semi- 
cylindrical  shape.    The  next  process  is  to  harden  and  temper 
them  by  heating  them  in  iron  boxes  in  a  muffle^fumaoe,  plunging 
them  in  oil,  anid  then  heating  them  over  a  fire  in  a  rotating 
cylindrical  vessel  till  their  surfaces  attain  the  dull  blue  tint 
cbanctetfatie   of   spring^atoel    elastidty.    Subsequent^    they 
are  **  scoared "  in  a  bath  of  dilute  add,  and  poUshed  in  a 
revolving  cylinder.    The  grinding  of  the  points  with  emery 
foltows,  and  then  the  central  slit  is  cut  by  the  aid  of  two 
vety  fine-edged  cotters.     Finally  tlw  pens  are  again  polished, 
are  ooloufed  by  being  heated  over  a   fire  in   a   revolving 
cylinder,  and  in  tome  cases  are  coated  with  a  varnish  of  sbelUo 
dissolved  in  alcohol.    Birmingham  was  the  first  borne  of  the 
steel-pen  industry,  and  contitiues  its  prindpal  centre.    The 
manufacture  on  a  large  scale  was  begun  in  the  United  States 
aboot  1860  at  Camden,  N.  J.,  where  the  Esterbrook  Sled  Pea 
Manufurturing  Company  was  incorporated  in  &866^ 

Metals  other  than  sted  have  frequently  been  suggested  by 
itoventois,  those  most  commonly  proposed  bdng  gold,  silver, 
dnc,  Gorman  silver,  aluminium  and  aluminium  ^^.^^ 
bronze.  Dr  W.  H.  WoUaston,  it  is  recorded,  had  **"'*■*• 
a  gold  pen  composed  of  two  thin  strips  of  gold  tipped 
with  rhoNdinm,  apparently  made  on  the  principle  patented  by 
Donkin  in  1808,  and  Lord  Byron  used  one  in  181a  Gold 
being  extremdy  resistant  to  corrosion,  pern  made  of  it  are  very 
durable,  but  the  metal  is  too  soft  for  the  points,  which  wear 
quickly  unless  protected  by  some  harder  material  For  this 
purpose  iridium  is  widely  employed,  by  fuiii«  the  gold  round 
it  with  a  blowpipe. 

VaricQS  devices  have  been  adopted  in  order  to  increase  the 
time  for  which  a  pen  can  be  used  without  a  ircsh  supp(y  of  iok. 
These  fall  imo  two  main  dassea.  In  one;  the  form 
of  the  nib  itsdf  is  modified,  or  some  attachment 
is  added,  to  enlarge  the  ink  capacity;  in  the  other, 
which  is  by  far  the  more  important,  the  holder  of  the  pen  is 
utiKzed  as  a  cisteni  or  reservoir  from  which  ink  is  supplied 
to  the  nib.  Pens  of  the  second  class,  which  have  the  further 
advantage  of  bdng  portable,  are  heard  of  under  the  name  of 
'*  fountain  inkhoms  '*  or  **  fountain  pens  "  so  far  back  as  the 
beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  but  it  was  not  till  a  hundred 


^4 


PENALTY— PENANG 


yean  later  that  iuventon  applied  tfaemsdva  serioialy  to  their 
constnxtion.  Joseph  Bnunah  patented  several  plans;  one  was 
to  employ  a  tube  of  silver  or  other  metal  so  thin  that  it  could 
be  readily  squeezed  out  of  shape,  the  ink  within  it  being  thus 
forced  out  to  the  nib,  and  another  was  to  fit  the  tube  with  a 
piston  that  couid  dide  down  the  interior  and  thus  eject  ink. 
In  modem  fountain  pens  a  feed  bar  conveys,  by  capillary  action, 
a  fresh  supply  of  ink  to  replace  that  which  has  been  left  on  the 
paper  in  the  act  of  writing,  means  being  also  provided  by  which 
air  can  pass  into  the  reservoir  and  fill  the  space  left  empty  by 
the  outflowing  ink.  In  another  form  of  reservoir  pen,  which 
is  usualty  distinguished  by  the  name  styk)gTaph,  there  is  no 
nib,  but  the  ink  flows  out  through  a  minute  hole  at  the  end 
of  the  holder,  which  terminates  in  a  conical  pdnt.  An  iridium 
needle,  held  in  pUce  by  a  fine  spring,  projects  slightly  through 
the  bole  and  normally  keeps  the  aperture  closed;  but  when 
the  pen  is  pressed  on  the  paper,  the  needle  is  pushed  back  and 
allows  a  thin  stream  of  ink  to  flow  ouL 

See  J.  P.  Maginriis.  "  Reservoir.  Stylomphic  and  Fountain 
Pens,"  Cantor  Lectures^Soatty  of  Arts  (1905). 

PENALTY  (Lat.  poena,  punishment),  in  its  original  meaning, 
a  punishment  inflicted  for  some  violation  of  the  law  or  rule 
of  conduct.  Although  still  freely  used  in  its  original  sense  in 
such  phrases,  for  example,  as  '*  the  death  penalty,"  "  the  penalty 
of  rawness,"  &c.,  the  more  usual  meaning  attached  to  the  word 
is  that  of  a  pecuniary  mulct.  Penalty  is  used  specifically  for 
a  sum  of  money  recovered  by  virtue  of  a  penal  statute,  or  re- 
coverable in  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  for  infringement 
of  a  statute.  A  sum  of  money  agreed  upon  to  be  paid  in  case 
of  non-performance  of  a  condition  in  a  bond  or  in  breach  of  a 
contraa  or  any  stipulation  of  it  is  also  termed  a  penalty  (see 
Damacks). 

PBNAMCB  (Old  Fr.  penance,  fr.  Lat.  poenilenlia,  penitence), 
strictly,  repentance  of  sins.  Thus  in  the  Douai  version  of  the 
New  TesUment  the  Greek  word  /lerdMca  to  rendered  "  penance," 
where  the  Authorized  Version  haa  "repentance."  The  two 
words,  similar  in  their  derivation  and  original  sense,  have 
however  come  to  be  symbolical  of  conflicting  views  of  the  essence 
of  repentance,  arisingout  of  the  controversy  as  to  the  respective 
merits  of  '*  faith  "  and  "  good  works."  The  Reformers,  uphold- 
ing the  doarine  (rf  justificatioa  by  faith,  held  that  repentance 
cottstsfed  in  a  change  <rf  the  whole  moral  attitude  of  the  mind 
and  soul  (kutiffrpf^eoSat,  Matt.  niL  15;  Luke  zzti.  3a),  and  that 
the  Divine  forgiveness  followed  true  repentance  and  confession 
to  God  without  any  reparation  of  "  works."  This  is  the  view 
generally  held  by  ProtesUnts.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
the  sacrament  of  penance  consists  of  three  parts:  contritio, 
tonfessio,  saHsfatlio.  ConirUio  u  in  fact  repentance  as  Protestant 
theologians  understand  it,  i.e.  sorrow  for  sin  arising  from  tove 
of  God,  and  tong  before  the  Reformation  the  achoolmea  debated 
the  question  whether  complete  "contrition"  was  or  was  not 
in  itself  sufficient  to  d>tain  the  Divine  pardon.  The  Council 
of  Trent,  however,  decided  that  "reconciliation"  could  not 
follow  such  contrition  without  the  other  parts  of  the  sacrament, 
whichiorm  part  of  it  {sine  saeramenti  volo,  quod  in  ilia  indmdalur). 
Contrition  is  also  distinguished  from  "  attrition  "  {aUrilio),  tjt. 
repentance  due  to  fear  of  punishment.  It  was  questioned 
whether  a  state  of  mind  thus  produced  would  suffice  for  obtaining 
the  benefits  of  the  sacrament;  this  point  was  also  set  at  rest  by 
the  Council  of  Trent,  which  decided  that  attrition,  though  not 
in  itself  capable  of  obtaining  the  justification  of  the  sinner,  to 
also  inspired  by  God  and  thus  disposes  the  soul  to  benefit  by 
the  grace  of  the  sacramenL 

The  word  "  penance,"  applied  to  the  whole  sacrament,  to 
also  used  of  the  works  of  satisfacUon  imposed  by  the  priest  on 
the  penitent,  i.e.  the  temporal  punishment  {poena).  This 
varies  with  the  character  and  heinousness  of  the  offences  com- 
mitted. In  the  middle  ages  "  doing  penance  "  waa  often  a 
process  as  terrible  and  humiliating  to  the  penitent  as  it  was 
possibly  edifying  to  the  Church.  Public  penances  have,  how- 
ever, long  been  aboltohed  in  all  branches  of  the  Christian 
Chuith.  (See  CONTCsnoM.) 


PBIANO  (PiJon  A'MMg,  i^  Aieca-iuit  bland),  the  town 
and  island  which,  after  Singapore,  form  the  most  important 
portion  of  the  crown  c(^ony  of  the  Straits  Settlements.  The 
island  to  situated  in  5*  24'  N.  and  too*  31'  E.,  and  distant  about 
3|  m.  from  the  west  coast  of  the  Mahiy  Peninsula,  llie  island  to 
about  I  si  m.  long  by  to}  m.  wide  at  its  broadest  point.  Its  area 
to  something  over  107  sq.  m.  The  town,  which  to  built  on  a  pro- 
montory at  a  point  nearest  to  the  mainland,  to  largely  occupied  by 
Chinese  and  Tamils,  though  the  Malajrs  are  also  well  represented. 
Behind  the  town,  Penang  Hill  rises  to  a  height  of  some  2700  ft., 
and  upon  it  are  built  several  government  and  private  bungalows. 
The  town  possesses  a  fine  European  club,  a  racecourse,  and  good 
golf  links.  OKo-nuts  are  grown  in  considerd>)e  quantities 
along  the  seashore,  and  rice  is  cultivated  at  Bftlek  PfUau  and  in 
the  interior,  but  the  jungle  still  spreads  over  wide  areas.  Penang 
has  an  excellent  harbour,  but  has  suffered  from  its  proximity 
to  Singapore.  There  are  a  Church  of  England  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  church  in  the  town,  and  a  training  college  under  the 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries  of  the  Sod6t6  des  Missions 
£trang£res  at  PQlau  Tikus,  a  few  mUes  outside  the  town. 

Administralion.—Sxnct  1867  Penang  has  been  under  the 
administrative  control  of  a  resident  councillor  who  to  responsible 
to  the  governor  of  the  Straits.  He  to  aided  in  hto  duties  by 
officers  of  the  Straits  Civil  Service.  Two  unofficial  members 
of  the  legislative  council  of  the  colony,  which  holds  its  sittings 
in  Singapore,  are  nominated  by  the  governor,  with  the  sanction 
of  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  to  represent  Penang. 
Their  term  of  office  to  for  five  years.  The  official  name  of  the 
island  to  Prince  of  Wales  Island  and  that  of  the  town  to  George- 
town; neither  of  these  names,  however,  to  in  general  use.  Among 
the  Malays  Penang  to  usually  spoken  of  as  Tonjong  or  "  The 
C^pe,"  on  account  of  the  promontory  upon  which  Uie  town  to 
situated.  The  town  to  admintotered  by  a  municipal  council 
composed  of  ex  officio,  nominated,  and  elected  members. 

Population. — ^The  population  of  Penang  at  the  time  of  the 

census  of  igox  was  128,830,  otwhom  85,070  were  males  (69,210 

over  and  r 5,860  under  15  years  of  age),  and  43,760  were  females 

(28,725  over  and  15,035  under  15  years  of  age).   The  population 

was  composed  of  71,462  Chinese,  34,286  Malays,  18,740  Tamils 

and  other  natives  of  India,  1649  Eurasians,  993  Europeans  and 

Americans,  and  1699  persons  of  other  nationalities.   As  in  other 

parts  of  the  Straits  Settlements  the  men  are  far  more  numerous 

than  the  women.    The  total  population  of  the  settlen^ent  of 

Penang,  which  includes  not  only  the  iidand  but  Provhice 

Wellesley  and  the  Bindings,  was  248,207  in  1901. 

Skipping. — ^The  number  of  ships  which  entered  and  left  the  port 
of  Penang  during  1906  was  3^24  with  an  aggregate  fohnag*  of 
3,868459.  Of  these  1803  were  Bntish  with  an  anrcgate  tonnage  of 
i,966,28&  These  figures. reveal  a  considerable  faning«off  during  the 
past  decade,  the  number  of  vessels  entering  and  leaving  the  port 
m  1898  being  51 14  with  an  a^regate  tonnage  of  3,761.094.  This 
to  mamly  due  to  the  construction  of  the  railway  wmch  runs  from  a 

Kint  on  the  mainland  opposite  to  Penang,  through  the  Fcdeiated 
ahy  States  of  PCrak.SelanKOr  aod  the  Nigri  SCmbilan  to  Matocca. 
and  has  diverted  to  other  ports  and  eventually  to  Singapore  much 
of  the  coastal  traffic  which  formerly  visited  Penang. 

Finance  and  Trade.-^Tht  revenue  of  Penang,  that  w  to  tay,  not 
only  of  the  istond  but  of  the  entire  settlement,  amounted  in  i9Q6r 
to  (6,031,017.  of  which  $3,014,033  was  derived  from  the  revenue 
farms  for  the  collection  of  import  duties  on  opium,  wine  and  spirits; 
$160,047  from  postal  revenue;  $1  I9i58s  from  land  revenue:  $139,151 
from  stamps.  The  expenditure  for  1006  amounted  to  $5,07^406. 
of  which  $836,097  was  spent  on  aoministrative  cstabfiahmenttw 
$301,353  on  the  upkeep  of  existing  public  works;  $415,175  on  th« 
construction  of  works  and  buildings,  and  of  new  roads,  streets, 
bridges.  &c.  The  imports  in  1006  were  valued  at  $94,^.113. 
the  exports  at  $00,700.33^.  Oi  the  imports  $^7,880,889^  worth 
came  Irom  the  United  Kingdom  or  from  British  poascsiiions  or 


protectorates;  $33,937.7^  worth  came  from  foreign  countries: 
and  $3,906,341  from  the  Dindinn,  Malacca  and  Singapore.  Of  the 
exports,  $23,133,947  went  to  the  United  Kingdom,  or  to  Britidi 
possessions  or  protectorates;  $37,671,033  went  to  foreign  countries; 
and  $3,754,338  went  to  the  Dindings.  Malacca  or  Singspore. 

Hi'i/ory— Penang  was  founded  on  the  17th  of  July  1786, 
having  been  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  by  the  Suhan 
of  RUah  in  1785  by  an  agreement  with  Captain  Light,  for  an 
annuity  of  |io,ooo  for  eight  years.    In  179X  the  subsidy  iit$ 


PENARTH—PENATES 


»S 


changed  to  96ooo^  In  perpetolty;  for  some  yean  later  thia  waa 

raised,  to  Sio,ooo,  and  b  siill  annually  paid.   This  final  addition 

was  made  when  Province  Wellesley  was  pnrchased  by  the  East 

India  Company  for  $^aoo  in  1798.    At  the  time  of  the  cession 

Penang  was  almost  unh\habited.    In  1796  it  was  made  a  penal 

settlement,  and  700  convicts  were  transferred  thither  from  the 

Andaman  Islands.     In  2805   Penang  was  made  a  separate 

presidency,  ranking  with  Bombay  and  Madras;  and  when  in 

1826  Singapore  and  Malacca  were  incorporated  with  it,  Penang 

continued  to  be  the  scat  of  government.    In  1829  Penang  was 

reduced  from  the  rank  of  a  presidency,  and  eight  years  later 

the  town  of  Singapore  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Settlements. 

In  1867  the  Straits  Settlements  were  created  a  Crown  colony, 

in  which  Penang  was  included. 

See  Straits  SeUtemenis  Blue  Book  igo6  (Singapore,  1907);  The 
Straits  Directory  (Singapore,  1907) ;  Sir  P«ank  SWettenham,  British 
IlaUya.  (London,  1906).  (H.  Cl.) 

PENARTR,  an  urban  district  and  seaport  In  the  southern 
parliamentary  division  of  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  166  m.  by  rail 
from  London,  picturesquely  situated  on  rising  ground  on  the 
south  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Ely  opposite  Cardiff,  from  which 
it  is  4  m.  distant  by  rail  and  2  m.  by  steamer.  Pop.  (1901),  14,328. 
The  place  derives  its  name  from  two  Welsh  words, "  pen,"  a  head, 
and  "  ganh,"  an  enclosure.  Penarth  was  a  small  and  unimpor- 
tant village  until  a  tidal  harbour  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ely  was 
opened  in  1859,  and  a  railway,  6  m.  long,  was  made  about  the 
same  time,  connecting  the  harbour  with  the  Taff  Vale  railway 
at  Radyr.  A  dock,  authorized  in  1857,  was  opened  in  1865, 
when  all  three  undertakings,  which  had  cost  £775,0001  were 
leased  in  perpetuity  to  the  taff  Vale  Railway  Company.  The 
monopoly  which  the  Bute  Docks  at  Cardiff  had  previously 
enjoyed  in  shipping  coal  from  the  valleys  of  the  Taff  and  Rhondda 
was  thus  terminated.  The  town  is  frequented  in  sunmier  as  a 
bathing-place,  and  the  Rhactic  beds  at  the  head  are  of  special 
interest  to  geologists.  On  this  head  there  stood  an  old  church, 
probably  Norman,  which  served  as  a  landmark  for  sailors. 
The  remains  of  an  old  chantry  have  been  converted  into  a  bam. 
Besides  two  Established  and  one  Roman  Catholic  church,  the 
principal  buildings  of  Penarth  are  its  various  Nonconformist 
chapds,  intermediate  and  technical  school  (1894),  custom  house, 
dock  offices,  and  Turner  House  with  a  private  art  gaUexy  which 
is  thrown  open  on  certain  days  to  the  public.  Three  miles  to 
the  west  is  Dinaj  Powis  Castle.  In  x88o~z883  gardens  were 
laid  out  along  the  cliff,  in  1894  a  promenade  and  landing-piec 
with  « length  of  630  ft.  were  constructed,  and  in  1900  a  marine 
subway  open  at  all  times  for  foot  passengers  was  made  under 
the  river  Ely.  The  dock,  as  first  constructed,  comprised  17) 
acres,  was  extended  in  1884  at  a  cost  of  iisofioo,  and  now 
covers  23  acres  with  a  basin  of  3  acres.  It  is  2900  ft.  In  length, 
has  a  minimum  depth  of  26  ft.,  and  is  furnished  with  every 
modem  appliance  for  the  export  of  coal,  of  which  from  ao^ooo 
to  30,000  tons  can  be  stowd  in  the  skiings  near  by.  The 
Penarth-Ely  tidal  harbour  has  a  water  area  of  55  acres  with 
a  minimum  depth  of  ao  ft.,  and  a  considerable  import  trade  is 
carried  on  here  mainly  by  coasting  yesseb;  but  as  only  one  of 
Its  sides  has  wharves  (about  3000  ft.  along)  scarcely  mote  than  5  % 
of  the  total  shipping  of  the  port  it  done  here.  It  has  commo* 
dious  warehouses,  also  tanks  to  hold  about  6000  tons  of  oIL 

PBKAnS  (from  Lat.  penus^  eatables,  food),  Roman  gods  of  the 
store-room  and  kitchen.  The  store-room  over  which  they 
presided  was,  in  old  times,  beside  the  atrium,  the  room  which 
served  as  kitchen,  parfour,  and  bedroom  In  one;  but  In  later 
times  the  store-room,  was  in  the  back  part  of  the  house.  It  was 
sanctified  by  the  preseixe  of  the  Penates,  and  none  but  pure 
and  chaste  persons  might  enter  it,  just  as  with  the  Hindus 
the  kitchen  is  sacred  and  inviolable.  They  had  no  individual 
names,  but  were  always  known  under  the  general  designation, 
Penates.  Closely  associated  with  the  Penates  were  the  Lares 
(q.v.)  another  species  of  domestic  deity,  who  seem  to  have 
been  the  deified  spirits  of  deceased  ancestors.  But  while  each 
family  had  two  Penates  it  had  but  one  Lar.  In  the  household 
shrine  the  image  of  the  Lar  (dressed  hi  a  toga)  was  placed 


between  the  two  laiegeiof  the  Penila,  ivificA  wovreprescntfld 
as  dancing  and  elevating  a  drinking-hom^in  token  of  joy  and 
plenty.  The  three  images  together  were  sometimes  called 
Fenates,  sometimes  Lares,  and  dthcr  name  was  used  metaphori- 
cally for"  home."  The  shrine  stood  originally  in  the  cirntm, 
but  when  the  hearth  and  the  kitchen  were  separated  from  the 
iUrium  and  removed  to  the  back  of  the  house,  and  meals  were 
taken  in  an  upper  storey,  the  position  of  the  Shrine  was  also 
shifted.  In  the  houses  at  Pompeii  it  is  sometimes  in  the  kitchen, 
sometimes  in  the  rooms.  In  the  later  empire  It  was  placed 
behind  the  house-door,  and  a  taper  or  kmp  was  kept  burahig 
before  it.  But  the  worship  in  the  interior  of  the  honse  was  also 
kept  up  even  into  Christian  times;  it  was  forbidden  by  an 
ordinance  of  Tbeodosius  (aj>.  392).  The  old  Roman  used,  in 
company  with  his  children  and  slaves,  to  offer  a  morning  sacrifice 
and  prayer  to  his  household  gods.  Before  meals  the  blessing 
of  the  gods  was  asked,  and  after  the  meal,  but  before  dessert, 
there  was  a  short  nlence,  and  a  portion  of  food  was  placed  on 
the  hearth  and  burned.  If  the  hearth  and  the  images  were  not 
In  the  eating-room,  either  the  images  were  brought  and  put 
on  the  table,  or  before  the  shrine  was  placed  a  table  on  which 
were  set  a  salt-ccIIar,  food  and  a  burning  lamp.  Three  days 
in  the  month,  viz.  the  Calends,  Nones  and  Ides  {i.e,  the  first, 
the  fifth  or  seventh,  and  the  thirteenth  or  fifteenth),  were  set 
apart  for  ^>ecial  family  worship,  as  were  also  the  Caristia 
(Feb.  22)  and  the  Saturnalia  in  December.  On  these  days  as 
well  as  on  such  occasions  as  birthdays,  marriages,  and  safe 
returns  from  journeys,  the  images  were  crowned  and  offerings 
made  to  them  of  cakes,  honey,  wine,  Incense,  and  sometimes  a 
pig.  As  each  family  had  its  own  Penates,  so  the  state,  as  a 
collection  of  families,  had  its  public  Penates.  Intermediate 
between  the  worship  of  the  public  and  private  Penates  were 
probably'  the  rites  isacra)  observed  by  each  clan  igens)  or  collec* 
tion  of  families  supposed  to  be  descended  from  a  common 
ancestor.  Tie  other  towns  of  Latium  had  their  public  Peiutcs  as 
well  as  Rome.  The  sanctuary  of  the  whde  Latin  league  was  at 
Lavinium.  To  these  Penates  at  Laviniura  the  Roman  priests 
brought  yearly  offerings,  and  the  Roman  consuls,  praetors 
and  dictators  sacrificed  both  when  they  entered  on  and  whan 
they  laid  down  their  office.  To  them,  too,  the  generals  sacrificed 
before  departing  for  their  province.  Alba  Longa,  the  real 
mothcr-dty  qf  Latium,  had  also  its  ancient  Penates,  and  the 
Romans  maintained  the  worship  on  the  Alfaan  mount  long  after 
the  destruction  of  Alba  X<onga.  The  Penates  had  a  temple  of 
their  own  at  Rome.  It  was  on  the  Vclia  near  the  Forum,  and 
has  by  some  been  identified  with  the  round  vestibule  of  the 
church  of  SS.  Cosmae  Damiano.  In  this  and  many  other  temples 
the  Penates  were  represented  by  two. Images  of  youths  seated 
holding  spears.  The  Penates  were  also  worshipped  in  the  neigh- 
bouring temple  at  Vesta.  To  distinguish  the  two  worships 
It  has  been  supposed  that  the  Penates  in  the  former  tcmj^e 
were  those  of  Latium,  while  those  in  the  temple  of  Vesta  were 
the  Penates  proper  of  Rome.  Certainly  the  worship  of  the 
Penates,  whose  altar  was  the  hearth  and  to  whom  the  kitchen 
Was  sacred,  was  closely  connected  with  that  of  Vesta,  goddess 
of  the  domestic  hearth. 

The  origin  and  ni^ure  of  the  Penates  was  a  subject  of  mudi 
discussion  to  the  Romans  themselves.  They  were  traced  to  the 
mysterious  worship  of  Samothzacc;  Dardanus,  it  was  said,  took 
the  Penates  from  Samothraoe  to  Troy,  and  after  the  destruction 
of  Troy,  Aeneas  brought  them  to  Italy  and  established  them  at 
Lavinium.  From  Lavinium  Ascanius  carried  the  worship  to 
Alba  Longa,  and  from  Alba  Longa  it  was  brought  to  Rome. 
Equally  unsatisfactory  with  this  attempt  to  connect  Roman 
religion  with  Greek  legend  are  the  vague  and  mystic  speculations 
in  which  the  later  Romans  indulged  respecting  the  nature  «f 
the  Penates.  Some  said  they  were  the  great  gods  to  whom  we 
owe  breath,  body  and  reason,  via.  Jupiter  representing  the 
middle  ether,  JtAio  the  lowest  air  and  the  earth,  and  Minerva 
the  h^hest  ether,  to  whom  some  added  Mercury  as  the  god 
of  speech  (Servius,  on  Aen.  ii.  296;  Macrobivs,  Sat.  In.  4,  8; 
Amobius,  Adv.  NaL  ill.  40).    Others  Identified  them  with  Apollo 


86 


PENGIL-^PENDA 


and  Neptun«  (Macrob.  iii.  4,  6;  Amob^  he.  cU.;  Servius,  on 
Actt,  iii.  119).  The  Etruscans  held  the  Penates  to  be  Ceres,  Pale9 
and  Fortuna,  to  whom  others  added  Genius  Jovialis  (Servius  on 
Aen.  ii.  325;  Amob.  loc.  <it.).  The  late  writer  Martianus  Capella 
records  the  view  that  heaven  was  divided  into  sixteen  regions,  in 
ihe  first  of  which  were  placed  the  Penates,  along  with  Jupiter, 
the  Lares,  &c  More  fruitful  than  these  misty  speculations  is 
the  suggestion,  made  by  the  ancients  themselves,  that  the 
worship  of  these  family  gods  sprang  from  the  ancient  Roman 
custom  (common  to  many  savage  tribes)  of  btuying  the  dead 
in  the  house.  But  this  would  account  for  the  worship  of  the 
Lares  rather  than  of  the  Penates.  A  comparison  with  other 
primitive  religious  beliefs  suggests  the  conjecture  that  the 
Penates  may  be  a  remnant  of  fetishism  or  animism.  The  Roman 
genii  seem  certainly  to  have  been  fetishes  and  the  Penates  were 
perhaps  originally  a  q>ecies  of  genii  Thus  the  Penates,  as 
simple  gods  of  food,  are  probably  much  more  andent  than 
deities  lijie  Jupiter,  Kcptune,  Apollo  and  Minerva. 

With  the  Penates  we  may  compare  the  kindly  household  gods 
of  old  Germany;  they  too  had  their  home  on  the  kitchen  hearth 
and  received  offerings  of  food  and  ck>thmg.  In  the  castle  of 
Hudemilhlen  (Hanover)  there  was  a  kobold  for  whom  a  cover 
was  always  set  on  the  table.  In  Lapland  each  house  had  one 
or  more  spirits.  The  souls  of  the  dead  are  regarded  as  house- 
spirits  by  the  Russians;  they  are  represented  as  dwarfs,  and  are 
served  with  food  and  drink.  Each  house  in  Servia  has  its 
patron-saint.  In  the  mountains  of  Mysore  every  house  has  its 
bhuta  or  guardian  deity,  to  whom  prayer  and  sacrifices  are 
offered.  "Hie  Chinese  god  of  the  kitchen  presents  some  curious 
analogies  to  the  Penates:  incense  and  candles  are  burnt  before 
him  on  the  first  and  fifteenth  of  the  month;  some  families  bum 
incense  and  candles  before  him  daily;  and  on  great  festivals, 
one  of  which  is  at  the  winter  solstice  (nearly  corresponding  to 
the  SatumaUa),  he  is  served  with  cakes,  pork,  wine,  incense, 
&c.,  which  arc  placed  on  a  table  before  him. 

See  Roman  Religion.  (J*  G.  Fa.;  X.) 

PENCIL  (Lat.  peniciUus,  brush,  literally  Gttle  Uil),  a  name 
originally  applied  to  a  small  fine-pointed  brush  used  in  painting, 
and  still  employed  to  denote  the  finer  camel's-halr  and  sable 
brushes  used  by  artists,  but  now  commonly  signifying  solid 
cones  or  rods  of  various  materials  used  for  writing  and  drawing. 
It  has  been  asserted  that  a  manuscript  of  Theophilus,  attributed 
to  the  13th  century,  shows  signs  of  having  been  ruled  with  a 
black-lead  pencil;  but  the  first  distinct  allusion  occurs  in  the 
treatise  on  fossils  by  Conrad  Gesner  of  Zurich  (1565),  who 
describes  an  article  for  writing  formed  of  wood  and  a  pietfe  of 
lead,  or,  as  he  believed,  an  artificial  composition  called  by  some 
tlimmi  anglkanrnm  (English  antimony).  The  famous  Borrowdale 
mine  in  Cumberland  having  been  discovered  about  that  time, 
it  is  probable  that  we  have  here  the  first  allusion  to  that  great 
find  of  graphite.  While  the  supply  of  the  Cumberland  n^ne 
lasted,  the  material  for  English  pencils  consisted  simply  of  the 
native  graphite  as  taken  from  the  mine.  The  pieces  were 
sawn  into  thin  sheets,  which  again  were  cut  into  the  slender 
square  rods  forming  the  *'  lead  "  of  the  pencil. 

Strenuous  efforts  were  made  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and 
in  England  to  enable  manufacturers  to  become  independent 
of  the  product  of  the  Cumberland  mine.  In  Nuremberg,  where 
the  great  pencil  factory  of  the  Faber  family  {q.v.)  was  established 
in  1760,  pencils  were  made  from  pulverized  graphite  cemented 
into  solid  blocks  by  means  of  gums,  resins,  ^ue,  sulphur  and 
other  such  substances,  but  none  of  these  preparations  jrielded 
Qseftd  pencils.  In  the  year  1795  N.  J.  Contfi  (?.v.),  of  Paris, 
devised  the  process  by  which  now  all  black-lead  pencils,  and 
indeed  pencils  of  aU  sorts,  are  manufactured.  In  1843  William 
BrockedoD  patented  a  process  for  compressing  pure  black4ead 
powder  into  solid  (»mpact  blocks  by  which  he  was  eniibkd  to 
use  the  dusti  fragments,  and  cuttings  of  fine  Cumberland  lead. 
Brockedon's  process  would  have  proved  suraessful  but  the 
exhatistion  of  the  Borrowdale  supplies  and  the  excellence  of 
Cont^'s  process  rendered  it  more  of  adentific  intenest  than  of 
cocnmerdal  value. 


The  pencil  leads  prepared  by  the  Conci  process  consist  of  a 
mixture  of  graphite  and  clay.  The  graphite,  having  been  pulver- 
ized and  aubjected  to  any  necessary  purifying  processes,  is 
*'  floated  "  through  a  series  of  settling  tanks,  in  esich  of  which 
the  comparatively  heavy  particles  sink,  and  only  the  still  finer 
particles  are  carried  over.  That  which  sinks  in  the  last  of  the 
series  is  in  a  condition  of  extremely  -fine  division,  and  is  used 
for  pencils  of  the  highest  quality.  The  clay,  which  must  be  free 
from  sand  and  iron,  is  treated  in  the  same  manner.  Clay  and 
graphite  so  prepared  are  mixed  together  in  varying  propor- 
tions witii  water  to  a  paste,  passed  repeatedly  throu^  a 
grinding  mill,  then  placed  in  bags  and  squeezed  in  a 
hydrauUc  press  till  they  have  the  consistency  of  stiff  dough, 
in  which  condition  they  are  ready  for  forming  pencil  rods.  For 
this  purpose  the  plastic  mass  is  placed  in  a  strong  upright 
Cylinder,  from  which  a  plunger  or  piston,  moved  by  a  screw, 
forces  it  out  through  a  perforated  base-plate  in  a  continuous 
thread.  This  thread  is  finally  divided  into  suitable  lengths, 
which  are  heated  in  a  closed  crucible  for  some  hours.  The  two 
factors  which  determine  the  comparative  hardness  and  blackness 
of  pencils  are  the  proportions  of  graphite  and  clay  in  the  leads 
and  the  heat  to  which  they  are  raised  in  the  crucible.  According 
as  the  proportion  of  graphite  is  greater  and  the  heat  lower  the 
pencil  is  soifter  and  of  deeper  black  streak. 

The  wood  in  which  the  leads  are  cased  is  pendl  cedar  from 
Juniperus  virginicna  for  the  best  qualities,  and  pine  for  the 
cheaper  ones.  A  board  of  the  selected  wood,  having  a  thickness 
about  eq\ial  to  half  the  diameter  of  the  finished  pencil  and  as 
wide  as  four  or  six  pencils,  is  passed  through  a  machine  which 
smooths  the  surface  and  cuts  round  or  square  grooves  to  receive 
the  leads.  The  leads  being  placed  in  the  grooves  the  board  is 
covered  with  another  similarly  grooved  board,  and  the  two 
are  fastened  together  with  glue.  When  dry  they  are  taken 
to  rapidly  revolving  cutters  which  remove  the  wood  between 
the  leads.  The  individual  pencils  thus  formed  only  need  to 
be  finished;  by  being  dyed  and  varnished  and  stamped  with 
name,  grade,  &c.  Instead  of  wood,  paper  has  been  tried  for 
the  casings,  rolled  on  in  narrow  strips  which  are  torn. off  to 
expose  fresh  lead  as  the  point  becomes  Worn  down  by  tise. 

Black  pencils  of  an  inferior  quality  are  made  from  the  dust  of 
graphite  melted  up  \rith  sulphur  and  run  into  moulds.  Such,  with 
a  Httle  tallow  added  to  give  them  softness,  are  the  pencils  commonly 
used  by  carpenters.^  Coloured  pencils  consist  of  a  mixture  of  day, 
with  appropriate  mineral  colounn^  matter,  wax,  and  tallow,  treat«l 
by  the  Cont6  method,  as  in  making  lead  pencils.  In  indelible  and 
copying  pencils  the  colouring  matter  is  an  aniline  preparation  mixed 
with  cuiy  and  gum.  The  mixture  not  only  makes  a  streak  which 
adheres  to  the  paper,  but,  when  the  writing  is  moistened  with  water, 
it  dissolves  and  assumes  the  appearance  and  properties  of  an  ink. 

PENDA,  king  of  Mercia  (d.  654  or  655),  son  of  Pybba,  probably 
came  to  the  throne  in  626,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  actually 
became  king  of  Merda  until  633,  the  year  of  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Edwin  of  Northumbria.  According  to  the  Angk-Saxon 
Chronicle  he  was  eighty  years  old  at  his  death,  but  the  energy 
of  his  administration  and  the  evidence  with  regard  to  the  ages 
of  hb  thildren  and  relatives  render  it  almost  imposable.  In 
628  the  Chronicle  records  a  battle  between  him  and  the  West 
Saxons  at  Cirencester  in  that  year.  In  633  Penda  and  Ceadwalla 
oveithrew  Edwin  at  Hatfield  Chase;  but  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Welsh  king  at  Oswald  at  "  Hefenfelth  "  in  634,  Merda 
seems  to  have  been  for  a  time  subject  to  Northumbria.  In 
642  Penda  slew  Oswald  at  a  place  called  Maerfeld.  He  was 
continually  raiding  Northumbria  and  once  almost  snoceeded 
in  reducing  Bamborough.  He  drove  CeAwaih  of  Wessex,  who 
had  divorcxd  bis  sister,  from  hb  throne.  In  654  he  attacked  the 
East  Angles,  and  slew  their  king  Anna  (see  East  Ancua). 
In  654  or  65s  he  invaded  Northumbria  in  spite  of  the  attempts 
of  Oswio  to  buy  him  off,  and  was  defeated  and  slain  on  the 
banks  of  the  "  Wtnwaed."  In  the  reign  of  Penda  the  districts 
corresponding  to  Cheshire,  Shropshire  and  Herefordshire  were 
probably  acquired,  and  he  estaUished  his  son  Peada  as  a 
dependent  prince  in  Middle  Anglia.  Although  a  pagan,  he 
allowed  his  daughter  Cyneburg  to  marry  Alcbfriib,  the  aoa  oC 


Pendant— PBNDLETTON,  b: 


«7 


Oswio,  and  it  was  fn  his  reign  that  Christianity  was  introduced 
inio  Middle  Angiia  by  his  son  Peada. 

See  Bede,  Hii/.  Eccl  (c6.  C.  Plummcr,  Oxford,  1896);  Angt&'SaxoH 
Ckronide  (ed.  Earle  and  Ptummer,  Oxford,  1899). 

rafDAMT  (through  Fr.  from  Lat.  pendere,  to  hang),  any  hang- 
ing object,  such  as  a  Jewel  or  other  ornament  hanging  from 
a  brooch,  bracelet,  &c.,  or  ihe  loose  end  of  a  knight's  bdt  left 
hanging  after  passing  through  the  buckle,  and  terminating  in 
an  ornamental  end.  In  architecture  the  word  is  applied  to  an 
elongated  boss,  either  moulded  or  foliated,  such  as  hangs  down 
from  the  intersection  of  ribs,  especially  in  fan  tracery,  or  at  Ihe 
end  of  hammer  beams.  Sometimes  long  corbels,  under  the  wall 
pieces,  have  been  so  called.  The  name  has  also  been  given  to 
the  large  masses  depending  from  enriched  ceifings,  in  the  later 
works  of  the  Pointed  style.  "  Pendants  "  or  "  Pendent  posts  " 
are  those  timbers  which  are  carried  down  tfie  side  of  the  wall 
from  the  plate,  and  receive  the  hammer  braces. 

PENDENT! VB,  the  term  given  in  architecture  to  the  bridging 
across  the  angles  of  a  square  hall,  so  as  to  obtain  a  circular  base 
for  a  dome  or  drain.  This  may  be  done  by  corbelling  out  in 
the  angles,  in  which  case  the  pendehtive  may  be  a  portion  of  a 
hemisphere  of  which  the  half  diagonal  of  the  square  hall  is  the 
radius;  or  by  throwing  a  series  of  arches  across  th6  angle,  each 
ring  as  it  rises  advandng  in  front  of  the  one  below  and  being 
carried  by  it  during  its  construction;  !n  this  case  the  base 
obtained  is  octagonal,  so  that  corbels  or  small  pendentlves 
are  required  for  each  angle  of  the  octagon,  unless  as  in  thechureh 
of  SS.  Sergius  and  Bacchus  at  Constantinople  a  portion  of  the 
dome  k  set  back;  or  again,  by  a  third  method,  by  sinking  a 
semicircular  niche  in  the  angle.  The  first  system  was  that 
employed  in  Si  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  and  in  Byzantine 
churches  generally,  also  in  the  domed  churches  of  Perigord  and 
Aquitaine.  The  second  is  found  in  the  Sassanian  palaces  of 
Serbistan  and  Firuzabad,  and  in  medieval  architecture  in 
England,  France  and  Germany,  where  the  arches  are  termed 
"  squinchcs."  The  third  system  is  found  in  the  mosque  at 
Damascus,  and  was  often  adopted  in  the  churches  in  Asb 
Minor.  There  is  still  another  method  in  which  the  pendcntivc 
and  cupola  are  part  of  the  same  hemispherical  dome,  and  in 
this  case  the  ring  courses  lie  in  vertical  instead  of  horizontal 
planes,  examples  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  vault  of  Magnesia 
on  Macandcr  in  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  tomb  at  Valence  known 
as  le  pendenlif  dt  VaUtice.  The  problem  is  one  which  has  taxed 
the  ingenuity  of  many  builders  in  ancient  times;  the  bas-reliefs 
found  at  Nimrud  show  that  in  the  9th  century  B.C.  domes  were 
evidently  built  over  square  halls,  and  must  have  been  carried 
on  pcndentivcs  of  some  kind. 

PENDER,  SIR  JOHN  (18 16-1896),  British  cable  pioneer,  was 
born  in  the  Vale  of  Leven,  Scotland,  on  the  xoth  of  September 
1816,  and  after  attending  school  in  Glasgow  became  a  successful 
merchant  in  textile  fabrics  in  that  city  and  in  Manchester. 
His  name  is  chiefly  known  in  connexion  with  submarine  cables, 
of  which  on  the  commercial  side  he  was  an  important  promoter. 
He  was  one  of  the  345  contributors  who  each  risked  a  thousand 
pounds  in  the  Transatlantic  Cable  in  1857,  and  when  the  Atlantic 
Telegraph  Company  was  rained  by  the  loss  of  the  1865  cable  he 
formed  the  Anglo-American  Telegraph  Company  to  continue 
the  work,  but  it  was  not  tiU  he  had  given  his  personal  guArantee 
for  a  quarter  of  a  million  pounds  that  the  makers  would  under- 
take the  manufacture  of  a  new  cable.  But  in  the  end  be  was 
justified,  and  tdegraphic  communication  with  America  became 
a  commercial  success.  Subsequently  he  fostered  cable  enter- 
prise in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
which  occurred  at  Footscray  Place,  Kent,  on  the  7th  of  July 
1896,  he  controlled  companies  havrog  a  capita]  of  xs  millions 
sterling  and  owning  73,640  nautical  miles  of  cables.  He  repre- 
sented Wick  Burghs  in  parliament  from  1872  to  1885  and  from 
189a  to  1896.  He  was  made  a  K.C.M.G.  in  x888  and  was  pro- 
moted in  1892  to  be  G.C.M.G.  His  eldest  son  James  (b.  1841), 
who  was  M.P.  for  Mid  Northamptonshire  in  1895-1900,  was 
created  a  bfronet  in  1897;  and  his  third  son,  John  Denison 
(b.  1855),  was  created  a  K.C.M.G.  in  1901. 


FBHDUnoi  SBUBS,  in  gedogy,  ft  series  of  ahakt  ben 
the  upper  divisJon  of  the  Carbonifewos  Limestone  and  the 
Millstone  Griu  occurring  in  the  Midlands  between  Stoike^>n- 
Trent  and  Settle.  It  ccmists  of  bbck  limestones  at  the  base, 
followed  by  black  shales  with  calcareous  nodules,  whtcb  pass 
into  sandy  shales  with  gaaister-like  sandstonea.  In  places 
the  series  attains  a  thkknesaof  xsoo-xooo  ft.,  and  where  it  is 
thickest  the  Millstone  Grits  also  attain  their  nuudmiim  thickneas. 
The  peculiarities  of  the  series,  which  is  chanderiaed  by  a  ridi 
fauna  with  Pfodudua  gigantem,  P.  siriatust  Dtbunc^kyUum, 
Cyathastoma^  comu  and  Lonsdckia  ftor^crmist  can  be  beat 
studied  on  the  western  stope  of  Pendle  Hill,  Lancashire,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Hodder,  divMing  the  oountics  of  Lancashire  and 
Yorkshire,  at  Mam  Tor  and  the  Edale  valky  in  Derbyshire,  and 
Morredge,  the  Dane  valley  in  north  Stafilbrdshire,  Bagillt  and 
Teilia  in  North  Wales,  and  ScatlCtt  and  Pbolvash»  Ue  of  Man. 
The  limestones  af  the  base  are  bard,  coapact  and  fissile,  often 
cherty,  and  vary  much  in  the  amoimt  of  calcium  carbonate  which 
they  contain,  at  limes  passing  into  calcareous  shales. 

These  limestones  and  shales  cootatn  a  distinct  fauna  which 
appears  for  the  first  time  in  the  Midlands,  chniacteriaed  by 
PUrinopedeu  papyraceust  PosidmiUUa  laevis,  PMdomomya 
Becheri,  Posidcnomya  mmbrauacta,  Nomiamoctras  tMifcfm* 
and  Gypkiocens  9iriatu$.  Immediately  below  beds  with  this 
fauna  are  thin  limestones  with  PtcUcanUes  compretsHs,  SUoho- 
€eras  hisukatuSt  many  txilobites,  and  corals  rderahle  to  the 
genera  CyoikaxcniOy  ZapkrwUs  and  AmpUxa^pkrenHs,  The 
fauna  diaracteristic  of  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  becomes 
largely  extinct  and  n  repboed  by  a  shale  faana,  but  the 
oncoming  of  the  age.  of  Goniatites  is  shown  by  the  prosenoe 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  of  numerous 
species  and  genera  of  this  group,  dypkiocftus  trenestria  being 
the  most  common  and  having  the  wider  horizontal  range. 
The  whole  Pendleside  series  can  be  divided  into  zones  by  tlse 
dilferent  species  of  GoatatJtcs.  At  the  base  PrMecaitiles  anH' 
pressMS  ^hancteriaeathe  passage  beds  between  the  Carboniferous 
Limestone  and  the  Pendlcsides;  Ntmismoceras  roliformi  and 
Glypkiauras  Uriaiut  are  lound  in  a  nnnow  woe  immediately 
above.  Then  Clypkioearas  retieidaitim  appears  and  reacha 
its  masimiim,  and  is  succeeded  by  Gypkioceras  dhdewia 
and  Clypkiocerma  spirak^  while  imtmecUately  below  the 
Milbtone  Grits  Gypkioceras  hUingue  spears  and  passes  up  in 
that  series.  The  MilUtoae  Grits  are  characterisrd  by  the 
presence  of  CaslFUKtrat  LukH,  The  Pendleside  series  is 
therefore  dmracteriaed  by  an  Upper  Carboniferous  fauna, 
Ptcriitopeden  papyraetust  Posidonidia  hens  and  some  other 
species  which  piass  up  right  through  the  Coal  Measuies  appearing 
for  the  first  time;  and  the  base  of  the  series  narks  the  division 
between  Upper  and  Lofwer  Carboniferous  times. 

The  series  passes  eastward  into  Belgium  and  thence  inM> 
Germany,  when  ihe  same  fossil  aones  are  fonnd  in  the  basin  of 
Namur  and  the  vaHcy  of  the  Dill.  Traced  westward  the  series  is 
wdl  developed  in  Co.Dublinand  on  the  west  coast  of  Cos.  Clare 
and  Limerick.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Pokdlcside  aeries 
of  the  Midlands  represents  the  Lower  Culm  of  Codden  Hill, 
north  Devon,  and  the  Lower  Culm  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 
The  fatmas  in  these  localities  have  the  same  biological  succession 
as  ia  the  midlands. 

See  Wheelton  Hind  and  J.  Allen  Howe,  QmH.  J^um,  Gesf. 
Sec>  voU  IviL  (1901),  and  numerous  other  papery  by  the  firvt^named 
author.  (W.  Mt.) 

PENDLETON,  EDMUND  (i72i't8o3),  American  hwyer  and 
statesman,  was  bom,  of  English  Royalist  decent,  in  Caroline 
county,  Virginia,  on  the  9th  of  September  1721.  He  was 
aelfocduoated,  but  after  reading  law  and  being  admitted  to  the 
bar  (1744)  his  success  was  immediate.  He  served  in  the 
Virgiiiia  House  of  Burgesses  from  1752  until  the  organixation 
of  the  state  government  in  1776,  was  the  recognised  leader  of 
the  conservative  Whi^i,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  opposing 
the  British  government.  He  was  a  member  of  the»  Virginia 
committee  of  corriespondence  in  1773*  in  1774  was  president 
of  the  Virginia  pfovincial  contention,  and  a  member  of  thefint 


«8 


PENDLETON,  G.  H.-~PENGyiN 


Continental  Congren.  In  1776,  as  praidait  of  tbe  pravlncial 
convention,  which  adopted  a  state  constitution  (or  Virginia, 
he  drew  up  tbe  instructions  to  the  Virginia  members  of  Congress 
directing  them  to  advocate  the  independence  of  the  American 
colonics.  In  the  same  year  he  became  president  of  the  Virginia 
committee  of  safety,  and  in  October  was  chosen  the  first 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Delegates.  With  Jefferson  and  Chan- 
cellor George  Wythe  he  drew  up  a  new  hiw  code  for  Virginia. 
He  was  pre»dent  of  the  court  of  chancery  in  177  7-1 788,  and 
from  1779  until  his  death  was  president  of  the  Virginia  court  Of 
appeals.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  Federal  consti- 
tution, and  in  178$  exierted  strong  influence  to  secure  its  ratifi- 
cation by  his  native  state.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Federalist 
party  in  Virginia  until  his  death  at  Richmond,  Va.,  on  the 
ajrd  of  October  1803.  

PENDLETOll,  0E0R6B  HUHT  (1825-1889),  American  lawyer 
and  legislator,  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohfo,  on  the  25th  of 
July  1825.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Heidelberg, 
studied  law,  vnas  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  to  practise 
at  Cincinnati.  He  was  a  member  d  tbe  Ohio  Senate  in  1854 
and  1855,  and  from  1857  to  1S65  was  a  Democratic  member  of 
the  national  House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  opposed 
the  war  policy  of  Lii\coIn.  In  1864  he  was  the  Democratic 
candidate  for  vice*president.  After  leaving  Congress  he  became 
one  6f  the  earliest  champions  of  the  "Ohio  idea"  (wluch 
he  is  said  to  have  originated),  demanding  that  the  government 
should  pay  the  principal  of  its  s-io-year  6%  bonds  in  the 
"  greenback  "  currency  instead  of  in  coin.  The  agricultural 
classes  of  the  West  regarded  this  as  a  means  of  relief,  and 
Pendleton  became  their  recc^ntsed  leader  and  a  candidate  for  the 
Democratic  nomination  to  the  presidency  in  x868,  but  he  failed 
to  receive  the  requisite  two-thinls  majority.  In  1869  he  was  the 
Democratic  candidate  for  governor  of  Ohio,  but  was  defeated 
by  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  practice  of  law  and  to  the  supervision  d  the 
Kentucky  Railroad  Company,  of  which  he  had  become  president 
in  1869.  From  1879  to  1885  he.  was  a  Democratic  member  of 
the  United  States  Senate,  and  introduced  the  so-called  Pendleton 
Act  of  1883  for  reforming  the  civil  service,  hostility  to  which 
lost  him  his  scat  in  1S85.  He  was  minister  to  Germany  from 
1885  to  the  summer  of  1889,  and  died  at  Brassels  on  the  34th 
of  November  1889. 

PENELOPE,  in  Greek  legend,  wife  of  Odysseus,  daughter  of 
Icorius  and  the  nymph  Periboea.  Daring  the  long  absence 
of  her  husband  after  the  fall  of  Troy  many  chieftains  of  Ithaca 
and  the  islands  round  about  became  her  suitors;  and,  to  rid 
herself  o(  the  importunities  of  the  wooers,  she  bade  them  wait 
till  she  had  woven  a  winding*shcet  for  old  La&tes,  the  father 
of  Odysseus.  But  every  night  she  undid  the  piece  which  she 
had  woven  by  day.  This  she  did  for  three  years,  till  her  maids 
revealed  the  secret.  She  was  relieved  by  the  arrival  of  Odysseus, 
who  returned  after  an  absence  of  twenty  years,  and  slew  the 
wooers.  The  character  of  Penelope  is  less  favourable  in  late 
writers  than  in  the  Homeric  story.  During  her  husband's  absence 
she  is  said  to  have  become  the  mother  of  Pan  by  Hermes,  and 
Odysseus,  on  his  returUi  repudiated  her  as  unfaithful  (Herodotus 
ii.  T4S  and  schol.).  She  thereupon  withdrew  to  Sparta  and 
thence  to  Maiitineia,  where  she  died  and  where  her  tomb  was 
shown.  According  to  another  accoui(^t  she  married  Telegonus 
the  son  of  Odysseus  and  Circe,  after  he  had  killed  his  father, 
and  dwelt  with  him  in  the  island  of  Aeala  or  in  the  Islands  of 
the  Blest  (Hyginus,  Feb.  127). 

PENGELLY.  WILUAH  (i8i»-i894).  EngUsh  geologist  and 
anthropologist,  was  bom  at  East  Looe  In  Cornwall  on  the  i3th 
of  January  x8i  2,  the  son  of  the  captain  of  a  small  coasting  vrasel. 
He  began  life  as  a  sailor,  after  an  dementaiy  education  in 
his  native  village,  but  in  1828  he  abandoned  a  seiafaring  life. 
He  had  developed  a  passion  for  learning,  and  about  1836  he 
removed  to  Torquay  and  started  a  school;  in  1846  he  became 
a  private  tutor  in  mathematics  and  natural  sdence.  Geology 
had  in  eariy  years  attracted  his  attention,  but  it  was  not  until 
!i0  was  about  30  years  of  age  that  he  b^an  seriously  to  cultivate 


the  study.  In  2857  he  was  instrumental  in  the  reocganizatioa 
of  the  Torquay  Mechanics'  Institute,  in  1844  mainly  owing  to 
his  energy  the  Torquay  Natural  History  Society  was  founded, 
and  in  1862  he  assisted  in  founding  the  Devonshire  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Literature,  Science  and  Art.  Meanwhile 
he  had  been  occupied  in  collecting  fossils  from  many  parts 
of  Devon  and  Cornwall,  and  in  i860  the  Baroness  Burdett- 
Coutts  acquired  and  presented  them  to  the  Oxford  Museum, 
where  they  form  ''The  Pengelly  Collection."  Through  the 
generosity  of  the  same  lady  he  was  called  upon  to  examine 
the  lignites  and  days  of  Bovey  Tracey,  in  conjunction  with 
Pr  Oswald  Hccr,  who  undertook  the  determination  of  the 
plant-remains.  Their  report  was  published  by  the  Royal 
Society  (1862),  and  Pengelly  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1863.  He 
aided  in  the  investigations  of  the  Brixham  bone<avern  from 
the  date  of  its  discovery  in  1858,  the  full  report  being  issued 
in  1873;  and  he  was  the  main  explorer  of  Kent's  Hole,  Torquay, 
and  from  1864  for  nnore  than  fifteen  years  he  laboured  with 
unflagging  energy  in  examining  and  recording  the  exact  position 
of  the  numerous  organic  remains  that  were  disinterred  during 
a  systematic  investigation  of  this  cave,  carried  on  with  the  aid 
of  grants  from  the  British  Association.  He  first  attended  the 
British  Association  at  the  Cheltenham  meeting  in  1836,  and  was 
present  at  subsequent  meetings  (except  that  at  Montreal  in 
1884)  until  1889.  His  observations  assisted  in  establishing 
the  iraportacft  fact  of  the  contemporaneity  of  Palaeolithic  man 
with  various  Pleistocene  mammalia,  such  as  the  mammoih, 
cave-bear,  cave-lion,  &c.  He  was  awarded  the  Lyell  medal 
by  tbe  Geological  Society  of  London  in  1886.  He  died  at 
Torquay  on  the  i6th  of  March  1894. 

See  Mem&ir  0/  WiUiam  PenteUy,  edited  by  his  daughter  Hester 
Pengelly,  with  a  summary  of  his  scientific  work  by  the  Rev.  Pro- 
fessor T.  G.  Bonney  (1897). 

fENOmM.  tbe  name  of  a  flightless  sea-b!cd,<  but,  so  far  as 
is  known,  first  given  to  one  inhabiting  the  seas  of  Newfound- 
land as  in  Hore*s  "  Voyage  to  Cape  Breton,"  1536  (Hakluyt. 
Researches,  Ui.  168-170),  which  subsequently  became  known 
as  the  great  auk  or  garefowl  {q.v.)\  though  the  French  equiva- 
lent Pingouin*  preserves  its  old  application,  the  word  penguin 
is  by  English  ornithologists  always  used  for  ceitain  birds 
inhabiting  the  Southern  Ocean,  called  by  the  French  Manehots, 
the  Spheniscidae  of  ornithologists.  For  a  long  while  their 
position  was  very  much  misimderstood,  some  systematists 
having  placed  them  with  the  Alcidae  or  Auks,  to  which  they 
bear  only  a  relationship  of  analogy,  as  indeed  had  been  perceived 
by  a  few  ornithologists,  who  recognized  in  the  penguins  a  very 
distinct  order,  Tmpennes.  L.  Stejnegcr  {Standard  Nat.  Hist. 
vol.  Iv.,  Boston,  1885)  gave  the  Impcnnes  independent  rank 
equivalent  to  the  rest  of  Carinate  birds;  M.  A.  Menzbier 
{Vergl.  Osteal,  d.  Penguint,  Moscow,  1887)  took  a  similar 
view;  M.  FUrbringer  was  first  to  show  their  relation  to 
Procelhrtformcs,   and    this   view  is  now  generally  accepted. 

'  Of  the  three  'derivations  assigned  to  this  name,  the  first  b  by 
Drayton  in  1613  {Polyolhion.  Song  9},  where  it  is  said  to  be  tbe  Welso 
pen  gwyn,  or  ^*  white  head";  tne  second,  which  seems  to  meet 
with  Littri's  BfrprovtA,  deduces  it  from  the  Latin  pinguit  (fat), 
mhkh  idea  has  given  origin  to  the  German  name,  feUginse,  for  thcae 
birds:  the  third  supposes  it  to  be  a  corruption  of  "  pin-wing  "  {Anm. 
Nat.  History,  4th  senes,  vol.  iv.  p.  133),  meaning  a  bird  that  has  under- 
gone the  operation  of  pinioning  or,  as  in  oncpart  at  least  of  England 
It  is  commonly  called,  "  pin-winging.*'  The  first  hypothesis  has 
been  supported  on  the  grourid  that  Breton  sailors  spesking  a  kngnage 
closely  allied  to  Welsh  were  acquainted  with  the  great  auk,  and 
that  the  conspicuous  white  patches  on  the  head  of  that  bird 
justified  the  name  "  white  head."  To  the  second  hvpothesis  Skeat 
{Dktwnary,  p.  433)  objects  that  it  *'  will  not  account  for  the  suffix  •?». 
and  is  thereiore  wrong;  besides  Which  the  *  Dutchmen '  iwho  were 
asserted  to  be  the  authors  of  tbe  name]  turn  out  to  be  Sir  Francis 
Drake  "and  his  men.  In  support  of  the  third  hypothesis  Mr  Recks 
wrote  (Zoologist,  2nd  series,  p.  18^)  that  the  people  in  Newfoundland 
who  used  to  meet  with  this  bird  always  pronounced  its  name 
"  pin  wing."  Skeat's  inquiry  (Jec.  H/.),  whetner  the  name  majr  not 
after  all  be  South  American,  is  to  be  answered  in  the  negative,  sioce, 
so  far  as  evidence  goes,  it  waa  given  to  the  North-American  bird 
before  the  South-American  was  imown  in  Europe. 

*  Gordon  has  also  been  used  by  some  French  writers,  being  » 
corruption  of  Geirjng^  or  GarefowL 


Tbeit  it  ■  total  «ul  of  quiUl  <il  tfadc  wisl 
oE  fleiun,  though  Ihey  mava  frcdy  ii  tl  .       . 

lone  U  laut  of  Ihc  ipaics  occuoiuJly  duIw  uk  of  them  Jor 
progroting  on  land.  In  Ihe  wilti  (bey  vt  bum  tfidint 
piddJu.  The  plumisc,  whkh  clolhct  the  whole  body,  ■cNnlly 
coiuitu  of  tmidl  H*lc-lilEC  Icilhci^  HUny  d(  ibua  coniiuing 
OBly  ol  ■  linplc  tliaft  wittuut  the  devtlf^menL  oJ  bubs;  but 
>evenl  of  the  tpocia  luvc  thC'head  dccomnl  with  long  turhous 
-tufie,  and  in  umc  itie  uil-quilli,  *hkh  ire  vciy  nuiscroui, 
■K  also  Long,'     In  Handing  thcv  birds  prncrve  an  upright 


PENJHALLOW-^raNINOION 

win^,  vhlch  are  [ncapabli 


walking  or  miming  ihii  it  kept  nearly  vertical,  and  Ibcir 


•ighi 


iwnb«Iy  limit 

of  the  penguin*'    range   in   Ihe 

nan  d'Acunha,  and  in  Ihe  Indian  Ocean  Amucrdam 

ty  also  ociuc  oil 

the  Cape  oI  Good  Hope  and  along 

at  on  Ihe  ».ih  and  ea>t  of  Ne» 

e  in  the   Facil 

t  naat  of  Soul 

America  and  to  the  Caispagos; 

Ihe  equator  n 

■tie  are  found.     In  ibe  breeding 

aorl  10  Ihe  mM 

desolile  lands  in  higher  southern 

indeed  have  be 

-en  met  with  as  far  lo  the  »ulh- 

Kit  on  have  pe 

elraled.     Pouibly  Ihe  Falkland 

Kinf-Pmguln  {Aplnu^ylap. 


an  not 

nearly 

10  numer 

ui  there 

as  in  many  olhe 

places. 

The 

food  of 

pengu 

3  of  crust 

accans,  eepbalopodiandothrt 

n»nux 

ed  by  fi 

b    and    V 

egclahlf  mi  tier 

fonnin 

hre«i:ng 

colonics, 

eries." 

The 

■KM  of 

gra» 

leave*,  o 

where 

cgTitliori.  ^ 

ly  olsl 

placed  o 

nd  or  in  holes. 

Two  eh 

alky 

while 

The  young  p. 

elad 

in  tbic 

down 

"■^e'^ 

blind  a 

d  are  fed  by  the  parent 

uiUy 

ong  linu 

before  t 

king  to  the  wau 

r.     Pen 

hile  u 

vagcly 

when   n 

olesled. 

hul    are   easily 

trained 

and 

disphiy 

lligence. 

■ntSpkiau 

tida  have  been  divided  into  at  least 

eight  ge 

era. 

II  W">c.  Btutn  Sx.  Nil.  IIiM 

..- xd   lf<«.   ZmI.   r 

narnd  of  nmliing  in  the  way  that  bi 

the  >h>ni  Ki)e-like  fcathen  from  ihcir  wlngi  in  a  manner  ih<t  h 
comrarti  (p  '■  the  theddiag  of  Ihe  ilcin  In  a  lerptni." 
■TheihiTc-inctmnalirnThepeiiCHiniireiiDi.aiiii  other  trinfi 

prevT^4ng  a  portiAii  of  their  oTMnally  diHtael  niitcnee.  a  fjc 
probably  attrabulabte  u  arrett  of  devcMmcflt,  lince  Ihe  leiearche 
of  C.  GqcntBur  ihow  Ihat  theembryoioraU  birds,  u  far  at  it  knowi 
poiaeia  ibeie  bonei  in  an  independent  eonditkm. 


three  can  he  well  dislinguithcd,  at  pnnUd  out  by  E.  Coon  iD 
Prtc.  Aiad.  tj  Nat.  Sti.  o/  Piiiadtlfkim.  iSn  (pp.  iio-iii), 
by  anatomical  as  wdl  as  by  external  characlei*.  Tbey  art:  (i) 
AtUndyta,  easily  rccogniacd  by  its  long  and  this  bill,  lliohtly 
decunred,  from  which  PytQuiiit,  as  M.  Watson  has  showit, 
ii  hardly  diitioguithable^  (i)  Ewlypla,  in  which  tke  bill  is 
much  shorter  and  itiber  broads  anid  U)  Sp^iaiiMttttt  in  which 
the  sboniih  bill  is  atmpreued  and  the  maxilla  ends  in  a  conspi- 
cuous hook.  ApltreitUi  conlaios  the  largest  speciea,  aDODg 
Ibem  those  known  as  the  "  Emperor  *'  and  "  King  "  penguijia 
A.  paiagonUa  and  A.  hnprottrit.  Three  olhen  belong  alio 
to  this  genus,  if  Pyimtlii  be  not  ttcogniud.  but  they  seem 
not  Id  require  any  particular  ttmark.  Eadyplci,  containing 
the  crested  penguins,  known  to  lailon  as  "  Rock-happen" 
or"  Macaronis,"  would  appear  lo  have  five  ^lecies,  and  Sftmil- 
cvi  [out.  among  which  S.  mtndicidn,  which  octun  in  the 
Galapaeol,  and  tbcrrfore  bat  the  most  northeriy  range  of  the 
whole  group,  alone  aeeds  notice  here.  (A.  NJ 

The  eenerk  artd  ipeci  fie  ifiitHbu  lion  of  the  penguins  Is  the  subject 
of  an  exctlkni  e4ay  by  Alphonae  Mdnc-Eawvos  la  rhe  Awiutti 
iaiiitmrt  MaUi'lUii  for  1880  (vol.  ii. an.  9,  (jp. 3j-8i);  tee  alio. 
the  Records  ol  the  Anurciic  Eipedilioo,  1901-1904. 

PBHBAUjDW,  SAMOn,  (ii65-i7i«),  Amerlcui  cotonist 
a^  historian,  was  horn  at  St  UaboD,  Cornwall,  England, 
OR  the  9nd  of  Ju^  iM;.  From  ifiSj  to  16M  he  attended  > 
school  at  Newjngior  Green  (near  LondSn)  conducted  by  the 
Rev.  Chirlc*  MoKm  (ibij-it-tS),  a  diiicnting  clergyman, 
with  whom  he  enignted  to  Massachusetts  in  16S6.  He  was 
comDiiialoncd  by  the  Eocicty  fcf  the  Prf^gation  of  Ihe  Gospel 
in  New  England  lo  tludy  the  Indian  languages'  and  10  preach 
to  Ihe  Indiana;  but  ks  was  khO  diverted  from  this  work. 
Removing  ta  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshfre,  he  there  married  a 
daughter  of  John  Cut!  (1615-1681),  president  ol  the  province 
of  New  ]-tampshire  in  1679-1680,  a  successful  merchant  and 
mill-owner,  and  thut  came  into  potsestioit  ol  considerable 
piopeny  (including  much  of  the  prtKnl  tile  of  Portsmouth). 
fn  I  TOO  he  w.is  speaker  of  the  Asaemhiy  and  in  1 707  became  a 
member  of  Ihe  Provincial  Council,  but  was  suspended  by 
Uiui.-Covenror  Coorge  Vaughan  (ie7«~i7i4}.  Penhallow, 
however,  waaiutlaintd  by  Govemoi  Samuel  Shute  (iW)-i74i), 
and  Vaughan  was  reoiond  Irom  ofhce  in  ijiS.  In  1714 
Penhallow  was  appointed  a  justice  of  ihe  soperior  court  of 
JHdicuure.andftain  1717  unill  hit  death  was  chief  juttice  of  that 
oourti'tad  he  also  served  at  Ireaturer  of  the  province  in  ibo?" 
1716,  and  at  secretary  of  the  province  in  1714-1716.  He  died  at 
Poittaioathontheindof  December  1796.  He  wrote  ■  vihiahle 
HuWry  tf  iIh  Wu  tf  iVew  Enifand  wilk  Uu  Easlm  luiima, 
tr  a  Nartalm  tf  IMt  CsMiHxd  Prrfidy  inii  Crmlly  (1716; 
reprinted  in  the  CcllnllaHi  of  the  New  Hampshire  HistoiictI 
Society,  vol:  I.,  1814,  and  again  at  Cincinnati  in  iSjo),  which 
coven  the  period  Irom  i;o]  to  1716,  and  is  a  standard  conlen- 
porary  aulhorlly. 

PEHIHOTON.IIRIIAACd.  i5G7-i6«i], lord  Biiyot of  London, 
cWcst  ton  of  Roben  Peninglon,  ■  London  fishmonger,  was  bora 
piobabty  in  1S87.  His  father  besides  his  London  businesB  had 
landed  estates  [n  Noifalk  and  Suffolk,  which  Isaac  inherited 
in  addition  toa  property  in  Buckinghamshire  which  he  himself 
purchased.  In  163S  Isaac  became  an  alderman  and  high 
tberlS  of  London.  In  1640  be  Wat  elected  to  the  House  of 
Commou  11  member  for  the  city  of  London,  and  immedluely 
took  a  prominent  place  among  the  Puritan  pany.  In  1641 
he  was  elected  lord  mayor  of  London,  but  retained  his  seal  in 
parfianient  by  qiecial  leave  of  Ihe  Commons;  and  he  was 
elected  lord  mayor  k*  a  second  term  in  the  loltowing  year. 
continuing  while  In  oAice  to  nite  large  lams  of  money  for  the 
opposilioii  to  the  Court  party.  From  1641  10  i6ij  he  was. 
of  the  Tower,  In  which  capadly  he  was  present  al 


the  I 

for  the  trial  of  C 


.  of  Laudi  but.  t 
3  L,  he  df 


rt  sign  tl 


m  Itwatded  by  conmlenble  granii  of  land,  i 


90 


PENINSULA— PENINSULAR  WAR 


knighthood  cmferred  in  1649.  He  was  tried  and  convicted 
of  treason  at  the  Restoration,  and  died  while  a  prisoner  in  the 
Tower  on  the  17th  of  December  x66i.  He  was  twice  married, 
and  had  six  children  by  his  first  wife,  several  of  whom  became 
Quakers. 

Isaac  Penincton  (1616-1679),  Sir  Isaac's  eldest  son,  was 
one  of  the  most  notable  of  the  17th-century  Quakers^  He 
was  early  troubled  by  religious  perplexities,  which  found  expres- 
sion  in  many  voluminous  writings.  No  less  than  eleven  religious 
works,  besides  a  political  treatise  in  defence  of  democratic 
principles,  were  published  by  him  in  eight  years.  He  bel<Miged 
for  a  time  to  the  sect  of  the  Independents;  but  about  1657, 
influenced  probably  by  the  preaching  of  George  Fox,  whom  he 
heard  in  Bedfordshire,  Peningtott  and  his  wife  joined  the  Society 
of  Friends.  His  wife  was  daughter  and  heiress  ci  Sir  John 
Proude,  and  widow  of  Sir  William  Springett,  so  that  the  worldly 
position  of  the  couple  made  them  a  valiable  acquisition  to  the 
Quakers.  Isaac  Pem'ngton  was  himself  a  man  of  very  consider- 
able gifts  and  sweetness  of  character.  In  x66i  he  was  imprisoned 
for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  on  several  subse- 
quent occasions  he  passed  long  periods  in  Reading  and  Aylesbury 
gaols.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  October  1670;  his  wife,  who  wrote 
an  account  of  his  imprisonments,  surviv^  till  X6S2..  In  168 1 
Penington's  writings  were  published  in  a  collected  edition, 
and  several  later  editions  were  issued  before  the  end  of  the  tSih 
century.  His  son  John  Penington  (1655-17 10)  defended  Ms 
father's  memory  against  attack,  and  published  some  con* 
troversial  tracts  against  George  Keith.  Edward  Penington 
(1667-17x1),  another  of  Isaac  Penington's  sons,  emigrated  to 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  founded  a  family.  Isaac  Penington's 
stepdaughter,  Guliclma  Springett,  married  William  Penn. 

See  Maria  Webb.  The  Penns  and  Piningtoms  of  the  tjth  Century 
(London,  1867);  Lord  Clarendon,  History  of  the  RebcUion  and  Citd 
Wars  in  England  (7  vols.,  Oxford.  1839):  Bulstrodc  Whiu-locke, 
Memorials  of  English  Affairs:  Charles  I,  to  the  Restoration  (London, 
1753):  J-  <^urney  Bevan,  Life  of  Isaac  Penington  (London,  1784); 
Thomas  Ellwood.  History  of  the  Life  of  EUwood  by  his  mqn  hand 
(London,  1765):  Willcni  Scwcl,  History  of  the  Quakers  (6th  ed.,  z 
vols.,  London,  1834). 

PENINSULA  (Lat.  paeninsida,  from  Patne^  almost,  and  ituttla, 
an  island),  in  physical  geography,  a  piece  of  land  nearly  sur^ 
rounded  by  water.  In  its  original  sense  it  connotes  attachment 
to  a  larger  land-mass  by  a  neck  of  land  (isthmus)  narrower  than 
the  peninsula  itself,  but  it  is  often  extended  to  apply  to  any 
long  promontory,  the  coast-line  of  which  is  markedly  longer  than 
the  landward  boundary. 

PENINSULAR  WAR  (1808-14).  This  important  war,  the 
conduct  and  result  of  which  greatly  enhanced  the  prestige  of 
British  arms,  had  for  its  main  object  tbe  freedom  of  the  Peninsula 
of  Spain  and  Portugal  from  the  domination  of  Napoleon;  and 
hence  it  derives  its  name,  though  it  terminated  upon  the  soil 
of  France. 

Nelson  having  destroyed  the  French  fleet  at  Trafalgar, 
Napoleon  feared  the  possibiUty  of  a  Brxtish  army  being  landed 
on  the  Peninsular  coasts,  whence  in  conjunction  with  Portuguese 
and  Spanish  forces  it  might  attack  France  from  the  south.  He 
therc/ore  called  upon  Portugal,  in  August  1807,  to  comply  with 
his  Beriin  decree  of  the  31st  of  November  1806,  under  which 
continental  nations  were  to  close  their  ports  to  British  subjects, 
and  have  no  communication  with  Great  Britain.  At  the  same 
time  he  persuaded  the  weak  king  of  Spain  (Charles  IV.)  and 
his  corrupt  minister  Godoy  to  permit  a  French  army  to  pass 
through  Spain  towards  Portugal;  while  under  a  secret  treaty 
signed  at  Fontainebleau  on  t)ie  S7tb  of  October  1807  Spanish 
troops  were  to  support  the  French.  Portugal  was  to  be  sub- 
sequently divided  between  Spain  and  France,  and  a  new  princi- 
pality of  the  Algarve  was  to  be  carved  out  for  Godoy.  Portuesl 
remonstrated  against  Napoleon's  demands,  and  a  French  corps 
(30.000)  under  General  Junot  was  instantly  despatched  lo 
Lbbon.  Upon  its  approach  the  prince  regent  ikd,  and  the 
country  was  occupied  by  Junot,  most  of  the  Portuguese  troops 
being  disbanded  or  sent  abroad.  Napoleon  induced  the  king 
of  Spain  to  allow  French  troops  to  occupy  the  country  and  to 


send  the  flower  of  the  Spanish  forces  (1  s,ooo)  nnder  the  marquis 
of  Romana  *  to  assist  the  French  on  tbe  Baltic.  Then  Dupont 
de  I'Etang  (25,000)  was  ordered  to  cross  the  Bidaasoa  on  the 
sand  ol  November  1807;  and  by  the  8th  of  Januaiy  x8o8  he  had 
reached  Burgos  and  Valiadolid.  Marshal  Mctncey  with  a  corps 
occupied  Biscay  and  Navarre;  Duhesme  with  a  division  entered 
Catalonia;  and  a  little  later  Bessi^res  with  another  coips  had 
been  brought  up.  There  were  now  about  xoo,ooo  French 
soldiers  In  Spain,  and  Murat,  grand  duke  of  Berg,  as  **  lieutenant 
for  tlie  emperor,"  entered  Madrid.  During  Februaiy  and 
March  1808  the  fr<mtier  fortresses  of  Pampeiuna,  St  Sebastian, 
Barcelona  and  Figueras  were  treacherously  occupied  and  ^)aiii 
lay  at  the  feet  of  Napoleon.  The  Spanish  people,  in  an  outburst 
of  fury  against  the  king  and  Godoy,  forced  the  former  to  abdicate 
in  favour  of  his  son  Ferdinand;  but  (he  inhabitants  of  Madrid 
having  (May  2, 1S08)  risen  against  the  French,  Napolc<Hi  refused 
to  rccogniM  Ferdinand;  both  he  and  the  king  were  compelled 
to  renounce  their  rights  to  the  throne,  and  a  mercenary  council 
of  regency  having  been  induced  to  desire  the  French  emperor  to 
make  his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  king,  he  atceded  to  their 
request.* 

The  mask  was  now  completely  thrown  off,  and  Spain  and 
Portugal  rose  against  the  French.  Provincial  **  juntas  '*  (com- 
mittees of  government)  were  organised;  appeals  for  assistance 
made  to  the  British  government,  which  granted  arms,  money 
and  supplies,  and  it  was  resolved  to  despatch  a  British  force 
to  the  Peninsula.  Before  it  landed,  the  French  under  Dupont, 
Monccy  and  Marshal  Bcsslcres  (75,000)  had  occupied  parts 
of  Biscay,  Navarre,  Aragon  and  the  Castilcs,  holding  Madrid 
and  Toledo,  while  General  Duhesme  (14,000)  was  in  Catalonia. 
Monccy  (7006)  had  marched  towards  the  city  of  Valencia,  but 
been  repulsed  in  attempting  to  storm  it  (June  aS);  Bessicrcs 
had  defeated  the  Spanish  general  Joachim  Blake  at  Medina 
de  Rio  Seco  (June  14,  1808)  and  Dupont  (13,000)  had  been 
detached  (May  24)  from  Madrid  to  reduce  Seville  and  Cadiz  in 
Andalusia.  Spanish  levies,  numbering  nearly  100,000  regulars 
and  militia,  brave  and  enthusiastic,  but  without  organization, 
sufficient  training,  or  a  commander-in-chief,  had  collected 
together;  30,000  being  in  Andalusia,  a  similar  number  In  Galicia, 
and  others  in  Valencia  and  Estremadura.  but  few  in  the  central, 
portion  of  Spain. 

At  this  juncture  Dupont,  moving  upon  Cadiz,  met  with  a  reverse 
which  greatly  influenced  the  course  of  the  Peninsular  War.  On 
the  7th  of  June  1808  he  had  sacked  Cordova;  but  while  he  was 
laden  with  its  spoils  the  Spanish  general  CastaAos  with  the  army 
of  Andalusia  (30,000),  and  also  a  large  body  of  armed  peasantry, 
approached.  Falling  back  to  Andujar,  where  he  was  reinforced 
to  a 2,000  strong,  Dupont  detached  a  force  to  hold  the  mountain 
passes  in  his  rear,  whereupon  the  Spaniards  interposed  between 
the  detachment  and  the  main  body  and  seized  Baylen.  Failing 
to  dislodge  them,  and  surrounded  by  hostile  troops  and  an 
infuriated  peasantry,  Dupont  capitulated  with  over  B«<tlr*f 
20,000  men.  This  victory,  together  with  the  in-^^^'*'fr 
trcpid  defence  of  Saragossa  by  the  Spanish  general '^'''^ 
Jos6  Palafox  (June  15  to  August  13,  180S)  temporarily 
paralysed  the  French  and  creat^  unbounded  enthusiasm  in 
Spain.  Duhesme,  having  failed  to  take  Gerona,  was  blockaded 
in  Barcelona,  Joseph  fled  from  Madrid  (Aug.  x,  1808),  and  the 
French  forces  closed  to  their  rear  to  defend  their  communications 
with  France.  The  British  troops  were  directed  towards  Lisbon 
and  Cadiz,  in  order  to  secure  these  harbours,  to  prevent  the 
subjugation  of  Andalusia,  and  to  operate  up  the  basins  of  the 
Guadiana,  Tagus  and  Douro  into  Spain.  The  British  force 
consisted  of  9000  men  from  Cork,  under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley— 
at  first  in  chief  command;  5000  from  Gibraltar,  under  General 
(Sir  Brent)  Spencer;  and  10,000  under  Sir  John  Moore  coming 
from  Sweden:  Wellesley  and  Moore  being  directed  towards 
Portugal,  and  Spencer  to  Cadiz.    On  the  ist  of  Au^t  180B 

*  They  subsequently  escaped  from  Jutland,  on  British  vcskIi* 
am!  Tvachcd  Santandcr  in  October  1808. 

*  The  king,  the  quccn  and  Godoy  were  eventually  removed  to 
Rome,  and  Ferdinand  to  ValcD^ay  in  France. 


PENINSULAR  WAR 


391 


Wellesley  began  to  land  his  troops,  unopposed,  near  Rgueba  dn 
Foz  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mondcgo;  and  the  Spanish  vktory  of 
Baylen  having  relieved  Cadiz  /rom  danger,  Spencer  now  joined 
hioy,  and,  without  waiting  for  Moore  the  anny/under  15,000  in 
all  (which  included  some  Portuguese)*  with  z8  gons,  advanced 
towards  Lisbon. 

Campaign  in  Portugal,  /^O^.— The  first  skirmish  took  place 
at  Obidos  on  the  15th  of  August  180S,  against  Delaborde's 
division  (sooo  men  with  5  guns),  which  fdl  back  to  Roieia 
(Rori^  or  Roh'ca).  A  battle  took  place  here  (Aug.  17)  in  which 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  attacked  and  drove  him  from  two  successive 
positions.  The  allied  loss  was  about  500:  the  French  teo  and 
three  guns.*  On  the  20th  of  August  the  AUies,  strengthened 
by  the  arrival  of  two  more  brigades  (4000  men),  occupied  some 
heights  north  of  Vimiera  (Vimeira  or  Vimeiro)  where  the  roads 
branch  off  to  Torres  Vedras  and  Mafra.  Wellesley  meant  to 
turn  the  defile  of  Torres  Vedras  by  Mafra  at  once  if  possible; 
but  on  this  night  Sir  Harry  Burrard,  his  senior,  arrived  olT 
Vimiera,  and  though  he  did  not  land,  gave  instructions  to  wait 
for  Sir  John  Moore.  On  the  ant  of  August  the  Allies  wect 
atucked  by  Junot  at  Vimiera,  who,  leaving  a  force  at  Lisbon, 
had  come  up  to  reinforce  Dclaborde.  In  this  battle  the  Allies 
BMtthof  numbered  about  18,000  with  18  guns,  French  nearly 
vimhrm,  14,000,  with  lo  guns.  Junot,  believing  the  allied 
AmgiutJh  left  to  be  weakly  held,  attacked  it  without  recon* 
''^^  noitring,  but  Wellesley's  regiments,  marched  thither 

behind  the  heights,  sprang  up  in  line;  and  under  their  volleys 
and  bayonet  charge,  supported  by  artillery  fire,  Junot 's  deep 
columns  were  driven  off  the  direct  road  to  Lisbon.  The  losses 
tvefc:  Allies  about  800,  French  aooo  and  13  guns.  It  was  now 
again  Wellesley's  wish  to  advance  and  seize  Torres  Vedras;  but 
Sir  Hew  Dalrymple,  having  at  this  moment  assumed  command, 
decided  otherwise.  On  the  and  of  August  Junot,  knowing 
of  the  approach  of  Moore  with  reinforcements,  and  afraid  of 
a  revolt  in  Lisbon,  opened  negotiations,  which  resulted  in  the 
Convention  of  Cintra*  (Aug.  30,  x8o8),  under  which  the  French 
evacuated  Portugal,  on  condition  that  they  were  sent  with 
their  artillery  and  arms  to  France.  Thus  this  campaign  had  been 
rapidly  brought  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion;  and  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  had  already  given  proof  of  his  exceptional  gifts  ai 
a  leader.  In  England  however  a  cry  was  raised  that  Junot 
should  have  been  forced  to  an  absolutely  unconditional  surrender; 
and  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  Sir  Hew  Dalrymple  and  Sir  Hany 
Burrard'  were  brought  before  a  court  of  inquiry  in  London. 
This  acquitted  them  of  blame,  and  Sir  John  Moore  in  the  mean* 
time  after  the  departure  of  Dalrymple  (Oct.  6, 1808)  had  assumed 
command  of  the  allied  army  in  Portugal,  now  about  39,000 
strong. 

Moore*s  Campaign  in  Spain,  i^o*-^.— The  British  govern- 
ment notified  to  Sir  John  Moore  that  some  10,000  men  were 
to  be  sent  to  Corunna  under  Sir  David  Baird;  that  he,  with 
30,000,  was  to  join  him,  and  then  both  act  in  concert  with  the 
Spanish  armies.  As  the  conduct  of  this  campaign  was  largely 
influenced  by  the  operations  of  the  Spanish  forces,  it  is  necessary 
to  mention  their  positions,  and  also  the  fact  that  greater  reliance 
had  been  placed,  both  in  England  and  Spain,  upon  them  than 
future  events  justified.  On  the  »6lh  of  October  1808,  when 
Moore's  troops,  had  left  Lisbon  to  join  Baird,  the  French  still 
held  a  defensive  position  behind  the  Ebro;  Bcssiircs  being  in  the 
basin  of  Vitoria,  Marshal  Ncy  north-wf  st  of  Logrofto,  and  Monccy 
covering  Pampcluna,  and  near  Sanguessa.  With  the  garrisons 
of  Biscay,  Navarre,  and  a  reserve  at  Bayonne,  their  strength 
was  about  75,000  men.  Palafox  (ao.ooo)  was  near  Saragossa  and 
observing  Sanguessa;  Castaflos  with   the   victors  of   Baylen 

» In  this  acxount  of  the  war  the  lo»»c$  and  numbers  cngaRcd  in 
different  battles  are  given  approximately  only;  and  the  former 
include  killed,  wounded  and  missing.  Historians  differ  much  on 
thcae  matters.  ^.  ,  , .  ^  . 

« It  was  not,  however,  signed  at  Cmtra.  byt  at  Lisbon,  ana  was 
mainly  negotiated  near  Torres  Vedras.  . 

•The  two  laiter  were  recalled  from  the  Penmsula;  Sir  Artnur 
Wellesley  had  proceeded  to  London  upon  leave,  and  had  only  signed 
Che  armMtioe  with  Junot,  not  the  convention  itself. 


(34;eoo)  west  and  south  of  Tudela  and  near  Logrofio;  Blake 
(32^000)  east  of  Reynosa,  having  captured  Bilbao;  Count  de 
Belvedere  (11,000)  near  Burgos;  reserves  (57,000)  were  assem- 
bling about  S^ovia,  Talavera  and  Cordova;  Catalonia  was  held 
by  23,000,  and  Madrid  had  been  reoccupied. 

Mooro  had  to  decide  whether  to  join  Baird  by  sea  or  land. 
To  do  so-  by  sea  at  this  season  was  to  risk  delay,  while  in  moving 
by  land  he  would  have  the  Spanish  armies  between  him  and  the 
French.  For  these  reasons  he  marched  by  land;  and  as  the 
roada  north  of  the  Tagus  were  deemed  impassable  for  guns,  while 
transpoit  and  supplies  for  a  large  force  were  also  difficult  to 
procure,  he  sent  Sir  John  Hope,  with  the  artillery,  cavalry  and 
reserve  ammunition  column,  south  of  the  river,  through  Badajoe 
to  Almaraz,  to  move  thence  through  Talavera,  Madrid  and  the 
Escurial  Pass,  involving  a  considerable  d£tour;' while  he  himself 
with  the  infantjy;  marching  by  successive  divisions,  took  the 
shorter  roads  north  of  the  Tagus  through  Coimbra  and  Almeida, 
and  also  by  Alcantara  and  Coria  to  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Sala- 
manca. Baird  was  to  move  south  through  GaUcia  to  meet  him, 
and  the  army  vras  to  concentrate  at  Valladolid,  Burgos,  or 
whatever  point  might  seem  later  on  to  be  best.  But  as  Moore 
was  moving  forward,  the  whole  situation  in  Spain  changed. 
Napoleon's  forces,  now  increased  to  some  200,000  men  present 
and  more  following,  were  assuming  the  offensive,  and  he  himself 
on  the  30th  <rf  October->had  left  Paris  to  place  himself  at 
their  head.  Before  them  the  Spaniards  were  routed  in  every 
direction:  Caslaftos  was  defeated  near  Logrofto  (Oct.  27); 
Castaftos  and  Palafox  at  Tudcla  (Nov.  23);  Blake  at  Zomoza 
(Oct.  29),  Espinosa  (Nov.  ii)  and  Reynosa  (Nov.  13);  and 
Belvedere  at  Gamonal,  near  Burgos  (Nov.  to).  Thus  when 
Moore  reached  Salamanca  (Nov.  28)  Baird  was  at  Astorga; 
Hope  at  the  Escurial  Pass;  Napoleon  himself  at  Aranda;  and 
French  troops  at  Valladolid,  Arevalo  and  Segovia;  so  that  the 
French  were  nearer  than  either  Baird  or  Hope  to  Moore  at 
Salamanca.  Moore  was  ignorant  of  their  exact  position  and 
strength,  but  he  knew  that  Valladolid  had  been  occupied,  and 
60. his  first  orders  were  that  Baird  shotild  fail  back  to  Calicia 
and  Hope  to  Portugal.  But  these  were  soon  changed,  and  he 
now  took  the  important  resolution  of  striking  a  blow  for  Spain, 
and  for  the  defenders  of  Madrid,  by  attacking  Nap<4eon's 
communications  with  France.  Hope  having  joined  him  through 
Avila,  and  magaaincs  having  been  formed  at  Benavcnle,  Astorga 
and  Lugo,  in  case  of  retreat  in  that  direction,  he  moved 
forward,  and  on  the  13th  of  December  approached  the  Douro, 
at  and  near  Rueda  east  of  Toro.  Here  he  feamt  that  Madrid 
had  fallen  to  Napoleon  (Dec.  3)  after  he  had  by  a  brilliant 
charge  of  the  Polish  lancers  and  chasseurs  of  the  Guard  forced 
the  Somosicrra  Pass  (Nov.  30)  and  in  another  action  stormed 
the  Retiro  commanding  Madrid  itself  (Dec.  3) ;  that  the  French 
were  pressing  on  towards  Lisbon  and  Andalusia;  that  Napoleon 
was  unaware  of  his  vicinity,  and  that  Soult's  corps,  isolated  on 
the  Carrion  River,  had  been  ordered  towards  Benavente.  He 
then  finally  decided  to  attack  Soult  (intcncfing  subsequently  to 
fall  back  through  (iaiicia)  and  ordered  up  transports  from 
Lisbon  to  Conmna  and  Vigo;  thus  changing  his  base  from 
Portugal  to  the  north<west  of  Spain;  Blake^s  Spanish  army, 
now  rallying  under  the  marquis  de  la  Romafia  near  Leon,  was 
to  co-operate,  but  was  able  to  give  little  effective  aid. 

On  the  70th  of  DeceVibcr  Baird  joined  Moore  near  Mayorga, 
and  a  brilliant  cavalry  combat  now  took  place  at  Sahagun,  in 
which  the  British  hussatr  brigade  distinguished  itself.  But  on 
the  23rd  of  December,  when  Moore  was  at  Sahagun  and  about 
to  attack  Soult,  he  learnt  that  overwhelming  French  forces 
were  hastening  towards  him,  so  withdrew  across  the  Esia,  near 
Benevente  (Dec.  28),  destroying  the  bridge  there.  Napoleon, 
directly  he  realized  Moore's  proximity,  had  ordered  Soult  to 
Astotga  to  cut  him  off  from  Galicia;  re<ralled  his  other  troops 
from  their  march  towards  Lisbon  and  Andalusia,  and,  with 
So.ooo  men  and  150  guns,  had  left  Madrid  himself  (Dec.  22).  He 
traversed  over  100  m.  in  less  than  five  days  across  the  snow>- 
covered  I^urial  Pass,  reaching  Tordcsillas  on  the  Douro  on  the 
I  96th  of  December.    Hence  he  wrote  to  Soulti  "  If  the  English 


9* 


PENINSULAR  WAR 


pass  to-day  in  their  position  (whfch  he  beUevcd  to  be  Sahagun) 
they  arc  lost."  But  Moore  had  passed  Astorga  by  the  31st  of 
December,  where  Napoleon  arrived  on  the  ist  of  January  x8og. 
Thence  he  turned  back,  with  a  large  portion  of  his  array  towards 
France,  leaving  Soult  with  over  40,000  men  to  follow  Moore. 

On  the  "  Retreat  to  Corunna  "  fatigue,  wet  and  bitter  cold, 
combined  with  the  sense  of  an  enforced  retreat,  shook  the 
discipline itf  Moore's  army;  but  he  reached  Corunna  on  the  nth 
•yt  January  iSoq,  where  he  took  up  a  position  across  the  road 
from  Lugo,  willr  his  left  on  the  river  Mero.  On  the  14th  of 
January  the  transports  arrived;  and  on  the  x6th  Soult  attacked. 
ggttft  oi  I^  ^^  battle  the  French  numbered  about  20,000  with 
CbntaaM,  40  guns;  the  British  15,000  with  9  very  light  guns. 
jMttuuyU,  Soult  faUed  to  dislodge  the  British,  and  Moore  was 
''^  about  to  deliver  a  counter-attack  when  he  himself 

fell  mortally  wounded.  Baird  was  also  wounded*  and  as  night 
was  approaching,  Hope  suspended  the  advance,  and  subse- 
quently embarked  the  army,  with  scarcely  any  further  loss.  The 
British  casualties  were  about  xooo,  the  French  aooa  When  the 
troops  landed  in  England,  half  clothed  and  half  shod,  their 
leader's  conduct  of  the  campaign  was  at  first  blamed,  but  bis 
lepuution  as  a  general  rests  solidly  upon  these  facts,  that 
when  Napoleon  in  person,  having  neariy  300,000  men  in  Spain, 
had  stretched  forth  his  hand  to  seize  Portugal  and  Andalusia, 
JMoore  with  30,000,  forced  him  to  withdraw  it,  and  follow  him  to 
Corunna,  escaping  at  the  same  time  from  bis  grasp.  Certainly  a 
notable  achievement. 

Campaign  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  1809.— Oo.  the  asndof  April 
180Q  Sir  Arthur  Wclicslcy  reached  Lisbon.  By  this  time, 
French  armies,  to  a  great  extent  controlled  by  Kapolcon  from  a 
distance,  had  advanccd—SouIt  from  Galicia  to  capture  Oporto 
and  Lisbon  (with  General  Lapisse  from  Salamanca  moving  on 
bis  left  towards  Abrantcs)  and  Marshal  Viaor,  still  farther 
to  the  left,  with  a  siege  train  to  take  Badajoz,  Mcrida  and  subse- 
quently Cadix.  Soult  (over  20,000),  leaving  Ney  in  Galicia,  had 
taken  and  sacked  Oporto  (March  29, 1809);  but  the  Portuguese 
having  closed  upon  his  rear  and  occupied  Vigo,  he  halted, 
detaching  a  force  to  Amarante  to  keep  open  the  road  to  Braganxa 
and  asked  for  reinforcements.  Victor  had  crossed  the  Tagus,  and 
defeated  Cuesta  at  Medellin  (March  38,  1809):  but,  surrounded 
by  insurgents,  he  also  had  halted;  Lapisse  had  joined  him,  and 
together  they  were  near  Merida,  30,000  strong.  On  the  allied 
side  the  British  (25,000),  including  some  German  auxiKaries» 
were  about  Leiria:  the  Portuguese  regular  titoops  (x6,ooo)  near 
Thomar;  and  some  thousands  of  Portuguese  militia  were  observ- 
ing Soult  in  the  north  of  Portugal,  a  body  under  Silvcira  being 
at  Amarante,  which  Soult  was  now  approaching.  Much  progress 
had  been  made  in  the  organization  and  training  of  the  Portuguese 
levies;  Major-General  William  Canr  Beresford,  with  the  ra^k  of 
marshal,  was  placed  at  their  head.  Of  the  Spaniards,  Palafox, 
after  his  defeat  at  Tudela  had  most  gallantly  defended  Saragossa 
a  second  time  (Dec.  20,  i8o8-Feb.  30,  1809);  the  Catalonians, 
after  reverses  at  Molins  dc  Rey  (Dec.  21,  180S)  and  at  Vails 
(Feb.  25,  1809)  had  taken  refuge  in  Tarragona;  and  Rosas  had 
fallen  (Dec.  5, 1808)  to  the  French  general  Gouvion  St  Cyr  who, 
having  relieved  Barcelona,  was  besieging  Gcrona.  Romafia's 
force  was  now  near  Orcnse  in  Galicia.  A  supreme  junta  had  been 
formed  which  could  nominally  assemble  about  100,000  men, 
htut  jealousy  among  its  members  was  rif?,  and  they  stiU  declined 
to  appoint  any  oommander4n-chief. 

On  the  5th  of  May  1809,  Wellesley  moved  towards  the 
river  Douro,  having  detached  Beresford  to  sciae  Amarante, 
from  which  the  French  had  now  driven  Silveira.  Soult 
AMM^of  expected  the  passage  of  the  Douro  to  be  attempted 
«a«AMH«to  near  its  mouth,  with  fishing  craft;  but  WcUesley,  by 
MMyi2,U09.^  daring  surprise,  crossed  (May  12)  dose  above 
Oporto,  and  also  by  a  ford  higher  up.  After  some  fighting 
Oporto  was  taken,  and  Soult  driven  back.  The  Portuguese 
being  in  his  rear,  and  Wellesley  closing  with  him,  the  only  good 
road  of  retreat  available  lay  through  Amarante,  but  he  now 
learned  that  Beresford  had  taken  this  important  point  from 
SUvein;  so  be  was  then  compelled,  abandoning  his  guns  and 


much  baggage,  to  escape,  with  a4o85  of  some  5000  men,  over  the 
mountains  of  the  Sierra  Cataiina  to  Salamonde,  and  ihence  to 
Orense. 

During  the  above  operations,  Victor,  with  Lapisse,  had  forced 
the  passage  of  the  T^ias  at  Alcantara  but,  on  Wellesley  relum- 
ing to  Abrantes,  he  retired.  News  having  been  received  that 
Napoleon  had  suffered  a  serious  check  at  the  battle  of  Aspem, 
near  Vienna  (May  32, 1809),  Wellesley  next  determined — cleaving 
Beresford  (20,000)  near  Ciudad  Rodrigo — to  move  with  32^000 
men,  in  conjunction  with  Cuesta's  Spanish  army  (40,000) 
towards  Madrid  against  Victor,  who,  with  25,000  supported 
by  King  Joseph  (50^000)  covering  the  capital,  was  near  Talavera. 
Sir  Robert  WUsm  with  4000  Portuguese  from  Salamanca,  and 
a  Spanish  force  under  Vencgas  (35,000)  from  Carolina,  were  to 
coH^rate  and  occupy  Joseph,  by  dosing  upon  Madrid.  Cuesta, 
during  the  advance  up  the  valley  of  the  Tagus,  was  to  occupy 
the  pass  of  Baftos  on  the  left  flank;  the  Sparush  authorities  were 
to  supi^y  provisions,  and  Venegas  was  to  be  at  Arganda,  near 
Madrid,  by  the  92Dd  or  33rd  of  July;  but  none  of  these  arrange- 
ments were  duly  carried  out,  and  it  was  on  this  that  the  remain- 
der of  the  campaign  turned.  Writing  to  Soult  from  Austria, 
Napoleon  had  placed  the  corps  of  Ney  and  Mortier  under  his 
orders,  and  said:  "  Wellesley  will  most  likely  advance  by  the 
Tagus  agaiikst  Madrid;  in  that  case,  pass  the  mountains,  fall  oo 
his  Hank  and  rear,  and  crush  him." 

By  the  aoih  of  July  Cuesta  had  joined  WcUesley  at  Oropesa; 
and  both  then  moved  forward  to  Talavcra,  Victor  falling  back 
before  them:  but  Cuesta,  irritable  and  i^^^^*  omtth mf 
would  nol  work  cordially  with  WcUesley;  Venegas —  Tmtarerm, 
counter-ordered  it  is  said  by  the  Spanish  junta—did  Jmfy2r»2i, 
not  go  to  Arganda,  and  Wilson,  though  he  advanced  '^^^ 
close  to  Madrid,  was  forced  to  retire,  so  that  Joseph  joined 
Victor,  and  the  united  force  attacked  the  Allies  at  Talavera 
de  la  Rcina  on  the  Tagus.  The  battle  lasted  for  two  days, 
and  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  French,  who  fcU  back  towards 
Madrid.*  Owing  to  want  of  supplies,  the  British  had  fought 
in  a  half -starved  condition;  and  WcUesley  now  Icamt  to  his  sur- 
prise that  Soult  had  passed  the  mountains  and  was  in  his  rear. 
Having  turned  about,  he  was  on  the  march  to  attack  him,  when 
he  heard  (Aug.  23)  that  not  Soult's  corps  alone,  but  three  French 
corps,  had  come  through  the  pass  of  Bafios  without  opposition; 
that  Soult  himself  was  at  Naval  Moral,  between  him  and  the 
bridge  of  Aimaraz  on  the  Ti^us,  and  that  Cuesta  was  retreating 
from  Talavera.  Wcllcslcy's  force  was  now  in  a  dangerous 
position:  but  by  withdrawing  at  once  across  the  Tagus  at 
Arzobispo,  he  reached  Jaraicejo  and  Aimaraz  (by  the  south 
bank)  blowing  up  the  bridge  at  Aimaraz,  and  thence  moved, 
through  Merida,  northwards  to  the  banks  of  the  Agucda, 
commencing  to  fortify  the  country  around  Lisbon. 

Elsewhere  in  the  Peninsula  during  this  year,  Blake,  now 
in  Catalonia,  after  footing  Suchet  at  Alcaniz  (May  33,  1809), 
was  defeated  by  him  at  Maria  (June  15)  and  at  Bclchitc  (June 
18);  Vencgas,  by  King  Joseph  and  Sibasiiani,  at  Almonacid 
on  the  nth  of  August;  Dd  Parque  (20,000),  sif icr  a  previous 
victory  near  Salamanca  (Oct.  18),  was  overthrown  at  Alba  de 
Tormes  by  General  Marchand  (Nov.  28) :  the  old  forces  of  Vencgas 
and  Cuesta  (50,000),  now  united  under  Arcizaga,  were  decisively 
routed  by  King  Joseph  at  Ocafia  (Nov.  19);  and  Oerona  after 
a   gallant  ddcnce,  had  surrendered  to  Augcreau  (Dec.  10). 

Sir  Arthur  WcUesley  was  for  this  camfuiign  created  Baron 
Douro  and  Viscount  Wellington.  He  was  made  captain-general 
by  Spain,  and  marshal-general  by  Portugal.  But  his  experience 
after  Talavcra  had  been  akin  to  that  of  Moore;  his  expectations 
from  the  Spaniards  had  not  been  realized;  he  had  been  almost 
intercepted  by  the  French,  and  he  had  narrowly  escaped  from  a 
critical  position.  Henceforth  he  resisted  all  proposals  for  joint 
operations,  on  any  targe  scale,  with  Spanish  armies  not  under 
his  own  direct  command. 

'  After  the  battle  the  Light  Division,  under  Robert  Cranfurd.- 

t'oined  Wellesley.    la  the  endeavour  to  reach  the  field  in  time  it 
lad  covervd.  in  heavy  marching  order,  over  50  m.  io  2$  hours,  in 
hot  July  weather. 


PENINSULAR  WAR 


93 


Campaign  in  Portugal^  tSio. — ^Napoleon,  having  avenged 
Aspern  by  the  victory  of  Wagram  CJuly  6,  tSog),  dcHMttched  to 
Spain  lai^  Tetnforcements  destined  to  increase  hia  army  there 
to  about  370,000  men.  Marshal  Masfi6na  'with  iao,ooo,  induding 
the  corps  of  ifey,  Jonot,  Reynier  and  some  of  the  Imperial 
Guard,  was  to  operate  from  Salamanca  agunst  Portugal;  but 
first  Sdult,  appointed  major-general  of  the  army  in  Spain 
(equivalent  to  chief  of  the  staff),  was,  with  the  corps  of  Victor, 
Mortier  and  S^astiani  (70,000),  to  reduce  Andahi^a.  Soult 
(Jan.  31, 1810)  occupied  Seville  and  escafung  thence  to  Cadiz, 
the  Supreme  Junta  resignedi  its  powers  to  a  regency  of  five 
members  (Feb.  2,  iSio).  Cadia  was  invested  by  Victor's  oorps 
(Feb.  4),  and  then  S^t  halted,  waiting  for  Mass^na,  who  arrived 
at  Valladolid  on  the  xsth  of  May. 

In  £agland  a  party  in  parliament  were  urging  the  withiJbrawal 
of  the  British  troops,  and  any  reverse  to  the  allied  arms  would 
have  strengthened  its  hands.  Welfington*^  policy  was  thus 
cautious  and  defensive,  and  he  had  already  commenc6d  the  since 
famous  lines  of  Torres  Vedras  round  Lisbon. '  In  June  x8xo  his 
headquarters  were  at  Celorico.  With  about  35,000  British, 
^0,000  Portuguese  regular  troops  and  30,doo  Portuguese  militia, 
be  watched  the  roads  leading  into  Portugal  past  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
to  the  north,  and*  Baidajoz  to  the  south  of-  the  Tagus,  as  also  the  line 
of  tiie  Douro  and  the  country  between  the  Elgaand  the  PonsuL 

Soult  having  been  instructed  to  cooperate  by  taking  Badajos 
and  Elvas,  MassCna,  e^ly  in  June  x8io,  moved  forward,  and 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  sxirrendered  to  him  (June  xo).  Next  pushing 
back  a  British  force  under  Craufurd,  he  invested  Almeida, 
taking  it  on  the  27th  of  August.  Then  calling  up  Reynier, 
who  during  thb  had  moved  on  his  left  towards  Alcantara, 
he  marched  down  the  right  bank  of  the  Mondego,  and 
entered  Viseu  (Sept.  ax).  Wellington  fell  back  before  him 
down  the  left  bank,  ordering  up  Rowland  HiIFs  force  from 
the  Badajoz  road,  the  peasantry  liaiving  been  previously 
call^  upon  to  destrov  their  crops  and  retire  within  the  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras.  A  uttle  nohh  of  Coimbra,  the  road  which 
Mass^na  followed  crossed  the  Sierra  de  Bussaca  (Budaco),  a  very 
strong  position  where  Wellington  resolved  to  offer  him  battle. 
Ma5s6na,  superior  In  numbers  and  over-confident,  made  a  direct 
attack  upon  the  heights  on  the  ajth  of  September  x8to:  his 
Batth  0/  Strength  being  about  60,000,  white  that  of  the  Allies 
BuMseo,  Was  about  50,000,  of  whom  nearly  half  were  Portu- 
guese. After  a  stem  conflict  the  French  were 
repulsed,  the  loss  being  five  generals  and  nearfy  5000 
men,  while  the  Allies  lost  about  rjoo.  The  next  day  Ma^na 
turned  the  Sierra  by  the  Boyalvs  Pass  and  Sardao,  iriiich  bitter 
place^  owing  to  an  error,  had  not  been  occupied  by  the  Pbrtu^ 
gucse,  and  Wellington  then  retreat^  by  Counbra  and  Leiria 
to  the  Un^,  which  he  entered  on  the  xtth  of  October,  having 
within  them  fully  100,000  able-bodied  men. 

The  celebrated  **  Lines  of  Torres  Vedras  "  were  defensive 
works  designed  to  resist  any  army  which  Napoleon  could  send 
Uaaaot  «*^n**  them.  They  consisted  of  three  great  lines, 
Tonta  Strengthened  by  about  150  redoubts,  and  earthworks 
tMnii,  of  various  descriptions,  mounting  some  600  cannon; 
•■*^'''  the  outer  Unc,  nearly  30  m.  long,  stretching  over 
heights  n6rth  of  Lisbon,  from  the  Tagus  to  the  sea.  As  Mass£na 
advanced,  the  Portuguese  closing  upon  his  rear  retook  Coimbra 
(Oct.  7),  and  when  he  ncared  the  lines,  astounded  at  their  strength, 
he  sent  General  Foy  to  the  emperor  to  ask  for  reinforcements. 
After  an  effort,  defeated  by  Hill,  to  cross  the  Tagus,  he  withdrew 
(Nov.  15)  to  Santarem.  This  practically  closed  WelUngton's 
operations  for  the  year  x8io,  Ms  policy  notr  being  not  to  l<»e 
men  in  battle,  but  to  reduce  iMass^na  by  hunger  and  distress. 

In  other  parts  of  Spun,  Augereau  had  taken  Hostalrich  (May 
10);  captured  Lcrida  (May  14);  Mequinenza  (June  6);  and 
invested  Tortosa  (Dec.  15).  The  Spanish  levies  had  been  unable 
to  contribute  much  aid  to  the  Allies;  the  French  having  subdued 
^Imost  all  Spain,  and  being  now  in  possession  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
and  Almeida.  On  the  other  hand  Wellington  still  held  Lisbon 
with  parU  of  Portugal,  Elvas  and  Badajoz,  for  Sotilt  had  not 
lelt  dbpkned  to  attempt  the  capture  of  the  last  two  fortresses. 


«i;mm. 


BMtthot 


Campaign  of  i^/r.—Napoleon,  whose  attention  was  now 
directed  towards  Russia,  refused  to  reinforce  Mass^na,  but 
enjoined  Soult  to  ud  him  by  moving  against  Badajoz.  Soult, 
therefore,  leaving  Victor  before  Cadiz,  invested  Badajoz  (Jan. 
96, 181  x)  and  took  it  from  the  Spaniards  (Macch  to).  With  the 
hope  of  Raising  the  bh>ckade  of  Cftdiz,  a  force  under  Sir  Thomas 
Graham  (afterwards  Lord  Lynedoch  Iq-v.])  left  that  harbour  by 
sea,  and  joining  with  Spanish  troops  near  Tarifa,  advanced  by 
land  against  Victor^  blockading  force,  a  Spanish  general.  La 
Pefia,  being  in  chief  command.  As  they  neared  Banosa,  Victor 
attacked  them,  the  Allies  numbering  in  the  battle  about  13,000 
with  34  guns,  4000  being  British;  the  French  9000,  actually 
engaged,  with  X4  guns;  but  with  5000  more  a  few  miles  off  and 
others  in  the  French  fines.  Hard  fighting,  chiefly 
between  the  French  and  British,  now  ensued,  -and 
at  one  time  tlie  Banosa  ridge,  the  key  of  the  position 
left  by  La  Pefia's  orders,  practicdiy  undefended,  '^"' 
fell  into  the  French  hands:  but  Graham  by  a  lesolnto 
countff-attaek  regained  it,  and  Victor  was  in  the  end  driven 
back.  La  Pefia,  who  had  in  the  battle  itself  failed  to  give 
proper  support  to  Graham,  would  not  pursue,  and  Gx^am 
declining  to  carry  on  further  operations  with  him,  reentered 
Oidiz.  The  French  afterwards  resumed  the  blockade.  So  that 
although  Barrosa  was  an  allied  Victory,  its  object  was  not 
attuned.  The  British  lota  was  about  xaoo;  the  French  3000, 
6  guns  and  an  eagle. 

On  the  day  of  the  above  battle  Mass^na,  having  destroyed 
what  guns  he  coiild  not  horse,  and  skilfully  gained  time  by  a 
feuit  against  Abrantes,  began  his  retreat  from  before  Ua^m 
the  lines,  through  Coimbra  and  Espinhal.  His  jiXvmL 
army  was  in  serious  distress;  he  was  in  want  of  food 
and  supplies;  most  of  hh  horses  were  dead,  and  his  mtn  wete 
deserting.  Wellington  followed,  directing  the  Portuguese  to 
remove  all  boats  from  the  Mondego  and  Douro,  and  to  break 
up  roads  north  of  the  former  river.  Beresford  was  detached 
to  succour  Badajoz,  but  was  soon  recalled,  as  it  had  fallen  to 
Soult.  Ney,  commanding  Mass^na's  rearguard,  conducted 
the  retreat  with  great  ability.  In  the  pursuit,  Wellington 
adhered  to  his  policy  of  husbanding  his  troops  for  future  offen»ve 
operations,  and  let  sickness  and  hunger  do  the  work  of  the  swoid. 
This  they  effectually  did.  Nothing  could  well  exceed  the  horrors 
of  Massfoia's  retreat.  Rearguard  actions  were  fought  at  Pombal 
(March  10) ,  Redinha  (March  x  2)  and  Condeixa  (March  13) .  Here 
Ney  was  directed  to  make  a  firm  stand;  but,  ascertaining  that  the 
Portuguese  were  at  Coimbra  and  the  bridge  there  broken,  and 
fearing  to  be  cut  off  ako  from  Murcella,  he  burnt  Condeixa, 
and  marched  to  Cazal  Nova.  An  action  took  place  here  (March 
14)  and  at  Foz  d'Arouce  (March  15).  Wellington  now  sent  off 
Beresford  with  a  force  to  retake  Badajoz;  and  Mass6na,  sacri- 
ficing much  of  his  baggage  and  ammunition,  reached  Celorico 
and  Guarda  (March  31).  Here  he  was  attacked  by  Wellington 
(March  29)  and,  after  a  further  engiigcment  at  Sabugal  (April  3, 
x8ii),  he  fell  back  through  Ciudad  to  Salamanca,  having  lost 
in  Portugal  nearly  30,000  men,  diiefiy  from  want  and  disease, 
and  6000  in  the  retreat  alone. 

,  The  key  to  the  remaining  operations  of  i8rx  lies  in  the  impor* 
tancc  attached  by  both  Allies  and  French  to  the  possession  of 
the  fortresses  which  guarded  the  two  great  roads  from  Portugal 
into  Spain — Almeida  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo  on  the  northern,  and 
Badajoz  and  Elvas  on  the  southern  road;  all  these  except  Elvas 
were  in  French  hands.  Wellitigton,  on  the  9th  pf  April  i8xr, 
directed  General  Spencer  to  Invest  Almeida;  he  then  set  off 
himself  to  join  Beresford  before  Badajoz,  but  after  reconnoitring 
the  fortress  with  his  lieutenant  he  had  at  once  to  return  north 
on  the  news  that  Mass^na  was  moving  to  relieve  Almeida.  On 
the  3Td  of  May  Loison  attacked  him  at  Fuentes  d'Onor  near 
Almeida,  and  Mass^na  coming  up  himself  made  a  more  serious 
attack  on  the  5th  of  May.  llie  AlUes  numbered  ggff/,  ^ 
about  33,000,  with  43  guns;  the  French  45,000  with  puta^a 
30  guns.  The  battle  is  chiefly  notable  for  the  steadi- ^"^>»*v 
ness  with  which  the  allied  right,  covered  by  the  Light  ^'*'*''"'' 
Division  io  squares,  changed  position  in  presence  of  the  French 


VT 


PENINSULAR  WAR 


cavalry;  and  for  the  eztxaordrnvy  feat  of  arms  of  Captain 
Norman  Ramsay,  RJl-A.,  in  chargiog  through  the  French  cavaliy 
with  his  guns.  Mass^na  failed  to  dislodge  the  Allies,  and  on 
the  £th  of  May  withdrew  to  Salamanca,  Almeida  faUing  to 
Wellington  on  the  nth  of  May  1811.  The  allied  loss  in  the 
fighting  on  both' days  at  Fueates  d'Onor  was  about  X500:  the 
French  3000. 

In  the  meantime  Soult  (with  35,000  men  and  50  guns),  ad- 
vancing to  relieve  Badajoz,  compdled  Beresford  to  suspend 
n^i^  ^  the  siege,  and  to  take  up  a  position  with  about  30,000 
ABMim,  men  (of  whom  7000  were  British)  and  38  guns 
Maty  16,  behind  the  river  Albuhera  (or  Albuera).  H^e 
^"'  Soult  attacked  him  on  the  i6th  of  May.    An  unusu- 

ally bloody  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  French  efforts  were 
chiefly  directed  against  the  allied  right,  held  by  the  Spaniards. 
At  one  time  the  right  aiH>eared  to  be  broken,  and  6  guns  were 
lost,  when  a  gallant  aidvance  of  Sir  I>owiy  Cole's  division' 
restored  the  day,  Soult  then  falling  back  towards  Seville.  The 
allied  loss  was  about  7000  (including  about  half  the  British 
force);  the  French  about  8000. 

After  this  Wellington  from  Almeida  rejoined  Beiesford  and 
the  siege  of  Badajoz  was  continued:  but  now  Marshal  Marmont, 
having  succeeded  Mass£na,  was  marching  southwards  to  join 
Soult,  and,  two  allied  assaults  of  Badajoz  having  failed,  WeUing; 
ton  withdrew.  Subsequently,  leaving  Hill  in  the  Alemtejo,  he 
returned  towards  Almeida,  and  with  40,000  men  commenced 
a  blockade  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  his  headquarters  being  at  Fuente 
Guinaldo.  Soult  and  Marmont  now  fell  back,  the  former  to 
Seville,  the  latter  to  the  valley  of  the  Tagus,  south  of  the  pass  of 
Bafios. 

In  September,  Marmont  joined  with  the  army  of  the  north 
under  General  Dorsenne,  coming  from  Salamanca — their  total 
force  being  60,000,  with  100  guns — and  succeeded  (Sept.  25)  in 
introducing  a  convoy  of  provisions  into  Ciudad  Rodrigo.  Before 
BO  superior  a  force,  Wellington  had  not  attempted  to  maintain 
the  blockade;  but  on  Marmont  afterwards  advancing  towards 
him,  he  fought  a  rearguard  action  with  him  at  £1  Bodon  (Sept. 
25),  notable,  as  was  Fuentes  d'Onor,  for  the  coolness  with  which 
the  allied  squares  retired  amidst  the  enemy's  horsemen;  and 
again  at  Fuente  Guinaldo  (Sept.  25  and  26)  he  maintained  for 
30  hours,  with  r  5,000  men,  a  bold  front  against  Marmont's 
army  of  60^000,  in  order  to  save  the  Light  Division  from  being 
cut  off.  At  Aldea  de  Ponte  there  was  a  further  sharp  engage- 
ment (Sept.  27),  but  Wellington  taking  up  a  strong  position  near 
Sabugal,  Marmont  and  Dorsenne  withdrew  once  more  to  the 
valley  of  the  Tagiis  and  Salamanca  respectively,  and  Wellington 
again  blockaded  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

Thus  terminated  the  main  operations  of  this  year.  On  the 
28th  of  October  181  x.  Hill,  by  a  very  skilful  surprise,  captured 
Arroyo  de  los  Molinos  (between  Badajoz  and  Trujillo),  almost 
annihilating  a  French  corps  under  Gerard;  and  in  December  i8r  x 
the  French  were  repulsed  in  their  efforts  to  capture  Tarifa  near 
Cadiz.  In  the  east  of  Spain  Suchet  took  Tortosa  (Jan.  i,  x8ii); 
Tarragona  (June  28) ;  and  Murviedro  (Oct.  26),  defeating  Blake's 
relieving  force,  which  then  took  refuge  in  Valencia.  Macdonald 
abo  retook  Figucras  which  the  Spaniards  had  taken  on  the  glh 
of  April  x8ii  (Aug.  19).  Portugal  had  now  been  freed  from  the 
French,  but  they  still  held  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz,  the 
two  main  gates  into  Spain. 

Campaign  in  Spain,  1812. — The  campaign  of  x8i2  marks  an 
important  stage  in  the  war.  Napoleon,  with  the  Russian  War  in 
prospect,  had  early  in  the  year  withdrawn  30,000  men  from 
Spain;  and  Wellington  had  begun  to  carry  on  what  he  termed  a 
war  of  "  magazines."  Based  on  rivers  (the  navigation  of  which 
greatly  improved)  and  the  sea,  he  formed  d6p6ts  or  magazines 
pf  provisions  at  many  points,  which  enabled  him  always  to  take 
and  keep  the  field.  The  French,  on  the  other  hand,  had  great 
dlflicuUy  in  establishing  any  such  reserves  of  food,  owing  to 
their  practice  of  depending  for  sustenance  entirely  upon  the 
country  in  which  they  were  quartered.  Wellington  assumed 
the  offmsive,  and  by  various  movements  and  feints,  aided  the 
gueniUa  bands  by  forcing  the  French  corps  to  assemble  in  their 


districts,  which  not  only  greatly  h«ra5s<id  them  but  also  materi- 
ally hindered  the  combination  of  their  corps  for  concerted  actioiL 
Having  secretly  got  a  battering  train  into  Almeida  and  directed 
Hill,  as  a  blind,  to  engage  Soult  by  threatening  Badajoi,  ht 
suddenly  (Jan.  8,  x8x2)  btfieged  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

The  French,  still  numbering  nearly  200,000,  now  held  the 
following  positions:  the  Army  of  the  Novtlt— Dorseime  (4^,000) — • 
was  about  the  Pisuerga,  in  the  Asturiaa»  and  along  the  northern 
coast;  the  Army  of  Portugal — Marmont  (50,000) — mainly  in 
the  valley  of  the  Tagus,  but  ordered  to  Salamanca;  the  Army  of 
the  South— ^ult  (55.000) — in  Andalusia;  the  Army  of  the  Centre 
— ^Joseph  (19,000) — about  Madrid. 

The  siege  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  was  calculated  in  the  ordinary 
course  to  require  twenty-four  days :  but  on  it  becoming  known  that 
Marmont  was  moving  northward,  the  assault  was  jg^^af 
cklivered  after  twelve  days  only  (Jan.  19).     The  CkdM 
*gallantry  of  the  tro<^  made  i(  successful,  though  with  Rodrigo, 
the  loss  of  Generals  Craufucd  and  McKjimon,and  1300  'fjf'jM^ 
men,  and  Marmont's  battering  train  of  X50  guns  here     ' 
fell  into  the  allied  hands.   Then,  after  a  feint  of  passing  on  into 
Spain,  Wellington  rapidly  inarched  south  and,  with  22,000  men, 
laid  siege  to  Badajoz  (March  x?,  1^1 2)^  Hill  with  30,000  covering 
the  siege  near  Merida.    WeUiiogton  was  hampered  by  want  of 
time,  and  had  to  assault  premalurely.    Soult  and  Marmont 
having  begun  to  move  to  relieve  the  garrison,  the  assault  was 
delivered  on  the  night  of  the  7th  of  April,  and  sitgt^ 
though  the  assailants  failed  at  the  breaches,  the  BaHah** 
carnage  at  which  was  terrible,  a  very  daring  escalade  Ma^b  tif 
of  one  of  the  bastions  and  of  the  castle  succeeded,  ^*^"'"»**'» 
and  Badajoz  fell,  Soult's  pontoon  train  being  taken  in  it.   After 
the  assault,  some  deplorable  excesses  were  committed  by  the 
victorious  troops.   The  allied  loss  was  3600  in  the  assault  alone 
and  5000  in  the  entire  siege. 

The  Allies  had  now  got  posses^n  of  the  two  great  gates  into 
Spain:  and  Hill,  by  an  enterprise  tnost  skilfuUy  carried  out, 
destroyed  (May  x^  the  Tagus  bridge  at  Almaraz,  by  which 
Soult  to  the  south  of  the  river  chiefly  conmiumcated  with  l^Iar- 
mont  to  the  north.  Wellington  then,  ostentatiously  making 
preparations  to  enter  Spain  by  the  Badajoz  line,  once  more 
turned  northward,  crossed  the  Tormes  (June  X7,  18x2),  and 
advanced  to  the  Douro,  behind  which  the  French  were  drawn 
up.  Marmont  had  erected  at  Salamanca  some  strong  forts, 
the  reduction  of  which  occupied  Wdlington  ten  days,  sad  cost 
him  600  men.  The  Allies  and  French  now  faced  each  other  along 
the  Douro  to  the  Pisuerga.  The  river  was  high,  and  Wdlington 
hoped  that  want  of  siq>plies  would  compel  Marmont  to  retire, 
but  in  this  he  was  disappointed. 

On  the  15th  of  July  1812,  Marmont,  after  a  feint  agui»t 
Wellington's  left,  suddenly,  by  a  forced  march,  turned  his 
right,  and  made  rapidly  towards  the  fords  of  Huerta  and  Alba 
on  the  Tormes.  Some  interesting  manoeuvres  now  took  place, 
Wellington  moving  parallel  and  close  to  Marmont,  but  more 
to  the  north,  making  for  the  fords  of  Aldea  Lengua  and 
Santa  Marta  on  the  Tormes  nearer  to  Salamanca,  and  being 
under  the  belief  that  the  Spaniards  held  the  castle  and  ford  at 
Alba  on  that  river.  But  Marmont's  mananivring  and  m*rritM^ 
power  had  been  underestimated,  and  on  the  21st  of  July  whilt 
Wellington's  position  covered  Salamanca,  and  but  indirectly 
his  line  of  communications  through  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Marmont 
had  reached  a  point  from  which  he  hoped  to  interpose  between 
Wellington  and  Portugal,  on  the  Ciudad  Rodrigo  road.  This 
he  endeavoured  to  do  on  the  22nd  of  July  181 2,  which  brought 
on  the  important  battle  of  Salamanca  {q.v.)  in  which  satHa^i 
Wellington  gained  a  decisive  victory,  the  French  Smiamaan, 
falling  back  to  Valladolid  and  thence  to  .Burgos.  *£^' 
Wellington  entered  Valladolid  {JvAyjo),  and  thence  ^^ 
marched  against  Joseph,  who  (July  2x)  had  reached  Blasco 
Sancho  with  rdnforcemcnts  for  Marmont.  Joseph  retired 
before  him,  and  Wellington  entered  Madrid  (Aug.  X2,  iSxa), 
where,  in  the  Retiro,  1700  men,  180  cannon,  two  eagles,  and  x 
quantity  of  stores  were  c^tured.  Soult  now  raised  the  siege 
of  Cadiz  (Aug.  26),  and  evacuating  Andalusia  joined  Sucb^ 


PENINSULAR  WAR 


95 


with  some  ^5,000  men.  Wellington  then  brought  op  HHl  to 
Madrid. 

On  the  1st  of  September  1812,  the  French  annies  having  begun 
once  more  to  collect  together,  Wellington  marched  against  the 
SiggfoiO^^f^y  of  the  North,  now  under  General  Clansel,  and 
CMMtift  laid  siege  to  the  castle  of  Burgos  (Sept  19)  to  secure 
Biatm,  the  road  towards  Santander  on  the  coatt.  But  the 
oS'm^  strength  of  the  castle  had  been  undemted; 
Wellington  had  insufficient  siege  equipment  and 
transport  for  heavy  guns;  five  assaults  failed,  and  Soult  (having 
left  Suchet  in  Valencia)  and  also  the  Army  of  Portugal  were 
both  approaching,  so  Wellington  withdrew  on  the  lat^i  of  the 
a  I  St  of  October,  and,  directing  the  evacuation  of 
Madrid,  commenced  the  "  Retreat  from  Buigos." 
In  this  retreat,  although  military  operations  were 
akilfn^y  conducted,  the  Allies  lost  7000  men,  and  disciptine,  los 
in  that  to  Corunna,  became  much  relaxod. 

By  November  1S13,  Hill  having  joined  him  at  Salamanca, 
Wellington  once  more  had  gone  into  cantonments  near  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  and  the  Fkench  armies  had  again  scattered  for  con- 
venience of  supply.  In  S{ute  of  the  failure  before  Burgos,  the 
successes  of  the  campaign  had  been  brilliant.  In  addition  to 
the  decBUve  victory  of  Salamanca,  Madrid  had  been  occupied, 
the  siege  of  Cadiz  raised,  Andalusia  freed,  and  Gudad  Rodrigo 
and  Bedajoc  stormed.  Early  in  January  also  the  French  had 
abandoned  the  siege  of  Tarifa,  thou^  V«denda  had  ntrrendered 
to  them  (Jan.  9).  One  important  result  of  the  campaign  was 
that  the  Spanish  Cortes  nominated  Wellington  (SepL  a  2, 1812) 
to  the  unfettered  tommand  of  the  Spanish  annies.  For  the 
qc»erations  of  this  campaign  Wellington  was  created  eari,  and 
subsequently  marquess  of  Wellington;  duke  of  Ciudad  Roidxigo 
by^pain,  and  manquis  of  Torres  Vedias  by  Portugal. 

Campaign'  in  Sfain  and  the  South  of  Pranct^  18x3. — At  the 
opening  of  1813,  Suchet,  with  63,000  men,  had  been  left  to  hold 
Valencia,  Aragon  and  Catalonia;  and  the  icmainder  of  the 
French  (about  137,000)  occupied  Leon,  the  central  provinces  and 
Biscay,  guarding  abo  the  communications  with  France.  Of 
these  about  60,000  under  Jpteph  were  more  immediately 
opposed  to  Wellington,  and  posted,  in  scattered  detachments, 
from  Toledo  and  Madiid  behind  the  Tonnes  to  the  Dour9,  and 
along  that  river  to  the  Esla.  Wellington  had  further  organized 
the  Spanish  forces — Castafios  (40,000),  with  the  guecriUa  bands 
of  Mina,  Lenga  and  others,  was  in  Galicia,  the  Aaturlas  and 
nbrtherd  Spain;  Copoos  (loyooc^  in  Catalonib;  £lio  (20,000)  in 
Murda;  Del  Plarque  (r  a^ooo)  in  the  Sierra  Morenn,  and  G^DoneU 
(15^000)  in  Andalusia.  Morri  Portuguese  troops  biid  been 
raised^  and  reinforcements  received  from  England,  so  that  the 
AlUes,  without  the  Spaniards  above  aUudod  to,  now  'nttmbercd' 
some  75>ooo  men,  and  from  near  the  Goa  watchol  the  Douro  and 
Tormes,  their  fa'ne  stretching  from  their  kit  near  Lamego  to  the 
pass  of  Bafios,  Hill  being  <m  the  right.  The  district  of  the  Tras- 
oa«Montes,  north  of  the  Douro,  about  the  Tarocgft,  Tua  and 
Sabor,  was  so  rugged  that  Wetiington,  was  convinced  thai 
Joseph  would  expect  him  to  advance  by  the  sooth  of  the  rivei. 
He  therefore,  moving  by  the  south  bank  himself  witb  Hill,  to 
ceeiirm  Joseph  in  this  expectation,  crossed  fehe  Tonnes  near  and 
above  Salamanca,  having  previously^which  was  to  be  the 
decisive  movemeni— detached  GrabMi,  with  40^000  men.  to 
make  hia  way,  through  the  diflicult  district  above  meiiUoned« 
towards  Bragansa,  and  then,  joining  with  the  Spaniards^  to  turn 
Joseph^A  right.  Grahaoh,  crossing  the  Douro  near  Lanugo, 
carried  out  his  laborioua  march  with  great  caeigy,  and  Joseph 
ictired  precipitately  from  the  Douro,  behind  tlie  Pisueiga.  The 
allied  army,  raised  by  the  junction  of  the  Spanish  troops  in 
Galicia  to  90,000,  now  concenirtted  near  Toro,  and  moved  to* 
wards  the  Pisuerga,  when  Joseph,  blowing  up  the  castle  of 
Burgos,  fell  back  behind  the  Ebro.  Once  more  Wellington 
turned  his  right,  by  a  sweeping  movement  through  Rocamunde 
and  Puente  Arenas  near  the  source  of  the  Ebro,  when  he  reUcated 
behind  the  Zadorra  near  the  town  of  Vitoria. 

Santander  was  now  evacuated  by  the  French,  and  the  allied 
lint  of  communications  was  changed  to  that  port.   On  the  Mlh 


of  June  WeUiagton  encamped  akmg  the  river  Bayas,  koA  the 
next  day  attacked  Joseph.  For  a  description  of  the  decisive 
battle  of  Vitoria  Qnnt  ai,  1813),  see  Vxtoru.  In  it  Bmuh^t 
King  Joseph  met  with  a  crushing  defeat,  and,  after  kmmi^ 
it,  the  wreck  of  his  army,  cut  o0f  from  the  Vitoria-  Jmm92U 
Ba^onne  road,  escaped  towards  Pampeluna.  Within  '**** 
a  few  diQ»  Madrid  was  evacuated,  and  aU  the  French  forces, 
with  the  exception  of  the  garriaons  of  San  Sebastian  (3000), 
Pampeluna  (3000),  Santona  (1500),  and  the  troops  under  Suchet 
holding  posts  in  Catalonia  and  Valencia,  had  retired  across  the 
Pyicoees  into  France.  >  The  Spanish  peninsula  was,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  free  from  foreign  domination,  although 
the  wac  was  yet  far  from  concluded.  The  French  struggled 
gallantly  to  the  close:  but  now  a  long  succession  of  their  leaders 
— ^Junot,  Soult,  Victor,  Mass^a,  Marmont,  Joscpb~-had  been 
in  turn  forced  to  recoil  before  Wellington);  and  while  their  troops 
fought  henceforward  under  the  depressing  memory  of  many 
defeats,  the  Allies  did  so  under  the  inspiriting  influence  of  great 
sncccsses,  and  with  that  absolute  confidence  in'  their  chief 
which  doubled  their  flighting  power. 

For  this  decisive  can^>aign,  Wellington  was  made  s  field 
marshal  in  the  British  army,  and  created  duke  of  Victory* 
by  the  Portuguese  goverament  in  Bnueil.    He  now,  with  about 
80,000  men,  took  up  a  position:  with  his  left  (the  Spaniards)  on 
the  Bidasaoa  near  Sad  Sebastian.    Thence  his  line  stretched 
along  the  Pyrenees  by  the  passes  of  Vera,  Echallar,  Maya  and 
Ronoesvalles,  to  Altobiscar;  htt  immediate  object  sow  being 
to  reduce  the  fortresses  of  San  Sebastian  s&d  Pampefaina.    Not 
having  sufficient  ikatiriet  for  two  sieges,  he  hdd  siege  to  San 
Sebastian  only,  and  blockaded  Pampeluna.    Sir  ThosMs  Graham 
commenced  the  active  siege  of  San  Sebastian  on  the  xoth  of 
July.  i8r3,  but  as  Soult  was  approaching  to  its  relief,  the  assault 
was  ordered  for  dasrlight  on  the  S4th.    Unfortunately  shfv«/SM 
a   conflagration   breaking  out    near   the  breadies  SttaaHaa, 
caused  it  to  be  postponed  until  nightfaH,  when,  the*'^'^-^^ 
bseaches  in  the  intoval  haiving  been  strengthened,  "'"^ 
it  was  delivered  unsuccessfully  and  with  heavy  loss.    Wellington 
then  suspended  the  siege  in  order  to  meet  Soult,  who  endeavoured 
(July  25)   to  turn  the  allied  ri|^t,  and  reach  Pampelunas 
Attacking  the  passes  of  Maya  and  Roncesvallcs,  he  obliged  their 
defenders  to  retire,  after  sharp  fighting*  to  s  position  g^ukg  «f 
ckae   to  Sorauren,   which,   with   25,000  men,  hefiwf>w 
attempted  to  cany  Quly  28).    By  this  lime  Welling-  mm^^Myn 
ton  Jiad  reached  it  from  the  allied  left;  reinforcements  j^^*^"'* 
were  pressing  up  on  both  sides,  and  about  1 9 ,000  allied 
troops  faced  the  French.   A  struggle,  described  by  Wellington  as 
**  bludgeon  work,"  now  ensued,  but  all  effons  to  dislodge  the 
Aihes  having  failed,  Soult,  withdrawing,  manoeuvred  to  hb  right 
towards  San  Sebastian.    WcUington  now  assumed  the  offensive, 
and,  in  a  scries  of  engagem«its,  drove  the  French  back  (Aug.  a) 
beyond  the  Pyrenees.    These  included  Roncesvallcs  and  Maya 
(July  as);  Scauuren  (July  s8  and  30);  Yansi  (Aug.  t);  and 
Echallar  and  Ivantelly  (Aug.  2),  the  total  losses  in  them  being 
about*— Allies  under  7000,  Frendi  xOkOoo.  After  this,  Wellington 
renewing  the  siege  of  San  Sebastian  carried  the  place,  excepting 
the  castle,  after  a  heavy  expenditure  of  life  (Aug.  31).    Upon 
the  day  of  its  fall  Soult  attempted  to  relieve  it,  but  stofmoOmm 
in  the  combats  of  Veta  and  St  Marcial  was  repulsed,  sebtuuam. 
The  castle  surrendered  on  the  9th  of  September,  'JJ2'*''"* 
the  losses  ih  thie  entire  siege  having  been  about — 
Allies  4O00,  French  2000.    Wellington  next  determined  to  throw 
hn  left  across  the  river  Bidassoa  to  strengthen  his  own  position, 
and  secure  tbc  port  of  Fuentetiabia. 

Now  commenced  a  series  of  celebmted  river  passages,  which 
had  to  be  effected  prior  to  the  further  invasion  of  France.  At 
daylight  on  the  7th  of  October  <8i3  be  crossed  the  Bidassoa  m 
seven  cohimns,  and  attacked  the  entire  French  position, 
which  stretched  in  two  henvily  entrenched  lines  from  north 

^  Duoue  da  Vicloria,  often  incorrectly  duke  of  Vitoria.  The 
coincidence  of  the  title  with  the  pldce-name  of  the  battle  which  had 
not  yet  been  fonght  when  the  title  was  confcmtd,  is  curious,  but 
accidentaL 


9^ 


PENINSULAR  "WJm 


of  the  Inu-Payome  road,  along  mocntain  span  to  the  Gfeat 
Rhunei  aSoo  fL  high.  The  decisive  movement  wu  a  passage  in 
strength  near  Fuentenabia,  to  the  astonishmeiit  of 
the  enemy,  who  in  view  of  the  width  of  the  liver 


e/A* 


0MiMM^  and  the  shifting  sands,  had  thought  the  crossing 
0et9Ui^r,  impossible  at  thu  point.  The  French  right  was 
'"^  then  rolled  back,  and  Soult  was  unable  to  reinforce  his 

right  in  time  to  retrieve  the  day.  His  works  fell  in  successon 
after  hard  fighting,  aiid  he  withdrew  towards  the  river  Nlvelle. 
The  loss  was  about— Allies,  1600;  French,  1400.  The  passage 
of  the  Bidassoa  "was  a  general's  not  a  soldiera'  battle" 
(NapifeiO. 

On  the  3tst  of  October  Fampduna  surrendered,  and  Welling 
ton  was  now  anxious  to  drive  Suchet  from  Catalonia  before 
further  invading  France.  The  British  government,  however, 
in  the  interests  of  the  continental  powers,  urged  an  immediate 
advance,  so  on  the  ni^t  of  the  9th  of  November  1813  he 
brought  up  his  right  from  the  Pyreneaa  passes  to  the  northward 
of  Maya  and  towards  the  Nivelle.  Soult's  army  (about  79i<»o)» 
in  three  entrenched  lines,  stretched  from  the  sea  in  front  of  St 
Jean  de  Luz  along  commanding  ground  to  Amotx  and  thence, 
behind  the  river,  to  Mont  Mondarin  near  the  Nive.  Each  annjr 
had  with  it  about  100  guns;  and,  during  a  heavy  cannonade, 
Wellington  on  the  xoth  of  November  1813  attacked  this  extended 
AnHc*  o#  position  of  16  m.  in  five  columns,  these  being  so 
M»JViMdbk  directed  that  after  carrying  Sooh's  advanced  works 
M»r,tQ,  a  mass  of  about  50,000  men  converged  towards  the 
MU>  French  centre  near  Amotz,  where,  after  hard  fighting, 

it  swept  away  the  x8;ooo  of  the  second  line  there  opposed  to  it, 
cutting  Soult's  army  in  two.  The  French  right  then  fdl  back  to 
St  Jean  de  Luz,  the  left  towards  points  on  the  Nive.  It  was  now 
late  and  the  Allies,  after  moving  a  few  miles  down  both  banks 
of  the  Nivelle,  bivouacked,  while  Soult,  taking  advantage  of  the 
respite,  withdrew  in  the  night  to  Bayonne.  The  allied  loss  was 
about  3700;  that  of  the  French  4000,  51  guns,*  and  all  their 
magazines.  The  nett  day  Wellington  closed  in  upon  Bayonne 
from  the  sea  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Nive. 

After  this  there  was  a  period  of  comparative  inaction,  though 
during  it  the  French  were  driven  from  the  bridges  at  UrdaSns 
and  Cambo.  The  weather  had  become  bad,  and  the  Nive 
unfordable;  but  there  were  additional  and  serious  causes  of 
delay.  The  Portuguese  and  Spanish  authorities  were  neglecting 
the  payment  and  supply  of  tbdr  troops.  Wellington  had  also 
difficulties  of  a  similar  kind  with  his  own  government,  and  also 
the  Spanish  soldiers,  in  revenge  for  many  French  outrages,  had 
become  guilty  of  grave  excesses  in  France,  so  that  WelUngton 
took  the  extreme  step  of  sending  25,000  of  them  back  to  Spain 
and  resigning  the  command  of  their  army,  though  his  resignation 
was  subsequently  withdrawn.  So  great  was  the  tension  at 
this  crisis  that  a  rupture  with  Spain  seemed  possible.  These 
matters,  however,  having  been  at  length  adjusted,  Wellington, 
who  in  his  cramped  position  between  the  sea  and  the  Nive  could 
not  use  his  cavalry  or  artillery  effectively,  or  interfere  with  the 
French  supplies  coming  thnm^  St  Jean  Pled  de  Port,  deter- 
mined to  occupy  the  right  aswell  as  the  left  bonk  of  the  Nive. 
He  could  not  pass  to  that  bank  with  his  whole  force  while  Soult 
held  Bayonne,  without  exposing  his. own  communications 
through  Inin.  Therefore,  on  the  gth'  of  December  18x3,  after 
making  a  demonstrarion  elsewhere,  he  effected  the  passage  with 
Pmaagt^  a  portion  of  Us  force  only  under  Hill  and  Beresford, 
fteMTrg^  near  Ustaritz  and  Cambo,  his  loss  being  slight,  and 
D»e>9,  thence  pushed  down  the  river  towards  Villefranque, 
'^^  where  Soult  barred  his  way  across  the  road  to 

Bayonne.  The  allied  army  was  now  divided  into  two  portions 
by  the  Nive;  and  Soult  frmn  Bayonne  at  once  took  advantage 
of  his  central  position  to  attack  it  with  all  his  available  force, 
first  on  the  left  bank  and  then  on  the  right*  On  the  morning 
of  the  xoth  of  December  he  fell,  with  60,000  men  and  40  guns, 
upon  Hope,  who  with  30,000  men  and  24  guns  held  a  position 
from  the  sea,  3  m.  south  of  Biarritz  on  a  ridge  behind  two  lakes 
(or  tanks)  through  Arcangues  towards  the  Nive.  Deq;>crate 
fighting  now  ensued,  but  fortunately,  owing  to  the  interKCted 


gnound,  Soult  was  cpmpdled  to  advance  slowly,  and  in  the  end» 
Wellington  coming  up  with  Beresford  from  the  right  bank,  the 
French  retired  baffled.    On  the  xxth  and  12th  of  Batma 
December  there  were  engagements  of  a  less  severe  jjff^^ 
character,  and  finally  on  the  13th  of  December  Soult  pS^^j^^ 
with  35,000  men  made  a  vehetnent  attack  up  the  iteMw^ 
right  bank  ci  the  Nive  against  Hill,  who  with  about  Dte,  m-ig, 
x4,ooo  men  occupied  some  heights  from  V:31eftanque  J'Jft 
past  St  Pierre  (Lostenia)  to  Vieuz  Moguerre.  The  conflict  about 
St  Pierre  (Lostenia)  was  one  of  the  most  bloody  of  the  war;  but 
for  hours  Hill  maintained  his  ground,  and  finally  repulsed  the 
French  before  Wellington,  delayed  by  his  pontoon  hMgft  over 
the  Nive  having  been  swept  away,  arrived  to  his  aid.  The  losses 
in  the  lonr  days'  fighting  in  the  battles  before  Bayotme  (or  battles 
of  the  Nive)  werc-~Allies  about  5000,  French  about  700a  Both 
the  British  and  Portuguese  artillery,  as  vfdl  aS  Infatntry,  greatly 
distinguished  themselves<in  these  battles. 

In  eastern  Spain. Suchet  (April  xx,  x8x3)  had  defeated' Elio's 
Murcians  at  Yeda  and  ViUena,  but  was  subsequently  routed 
by  Sit  John  Murray'  near  Castalla (April  X3),  who  then  besieged 
Tarragona.  The  siege  was  abandoniisd  after  a  time,  but  was 
later  on  renewed  by  Lord  W.  Bentinck.  Suchet,  after  the 
battle  of  Vitoria,  evacuated  Tarragona  (Aug.  17)  but  defeated 
Bentindc  in  the  combat  of  Ordal  (Sq>t.  13). 

Campaign  in  the  South  of  Francct  18x4.— >When  operations  re* 
conmienced  in  February  x8i4  the  Fxench  line  extended  from 
Bayoime  up  the  north  bank  of  the  Adour  to  the  Fau,  thenoe 
bendmg  south  along  the  Bidouze  to  St  lUais,  with  advanced 
posts  on  the  Joyeuse  and  at  St  Jean  Pied  de  Port.  Wdlington's 
left,  under  Hope,  watched  Bayoniie,  while  Beresford,  with  Hill, 
observed  the  Adour  and  the  Joyeuse,  the  rig^t  trending  back 
till  it  reached  Uroiray  on  the  St  Jean  Pied  de  Port  road.  Exdu* 
sive  of  the  garrison  of  BayOime  and  bther  places^  the  availafaie 
field  force  of  Soult  numbered  about  41,000,  while  that  of  the 
Allies,  deducting  Hope's  force  obsoving  Bayonne,  was  of  much 
the  same  strength.  It  had  now  become  Weliixigton^s  bbfect 
to  draw  Soult  away  from  Bayonne,  in  order  that  the  allied  aimy 
might,  trith  less  loss,  cross  the  Adour  and  lay  siege  to  the  pUoe 
on  both  banks  of  the  river. 

At  its  mouth  the  Adour  was  about  500  yds.  wide,  and  its 
entrance  frtmi  the  sea  by  smaH  vessels,  except  in  tlw  finest 
weather,  was  a  perilous  undertaking,  owii^  to  the  shifting  sands 
and  a  dangerous  bar.  On  the  other  hand,  the  deep  tandy  Soil 
near  Its  banks  made  the  transport  of  bridging  waiirid  by  land 
laborious,  and  almost  certam  of  discovery;  Wellington,  coi»- 
vinced  that  no  effort  to  bridge  below  Bayoxrae  would  be  expected, 
decided  to  attempt  it  there,  and  oaUccted  at  &  Jean  Pied  de 
Port  and  Passages  a  large  number  of  country  vesaelk  (termed 
chasse^maries).  Then,  leaving  Hope  with  30,000  men  to  watch 
Bayonlh^  he  began  an  enveloping  movement  round  Soult's 
left.  Hfll  on  the  X4th  and  xsth  of  Fdvuary,  after  a  combat 
at  Garrb,  drove  the  French  posts  beyond  the  Joyeuse;  and 
Wellington  then  pressed  these  troops  back  over  the  Bidouze 
and  Gave*  de  Maiileon  to  the  Gave  d'Oleron.  Wellington's 
object  in  this  was  at  once  attained,  for  Soult,  leaving  only  xo,ooo 
men  In  Bayonne,  came  out  and  concentrated  at  C^hes  on  the 
Pau.  Then  Wellington  (Feb.  19)  proceeded  to  St  Jean  de  Lux 
to  superintend  the  despatch  of  boats  to  the  Adour.  Unfavour- 
able weather,  however,  compelled  him  to  leave  this: to  Sir 
John  Hope  and  Admiral  Peiuroae,  so  returning  to  the  Gave 
d'Oleron  he  crossed  it,  and  faced  Souh  on  the  Pau  (Feb.  25). 
Hope  in  the  meantime,  after  feints  higher  op  the  Adour,  suc- 
ceeded (Feb.  22  and  23)  in  passing  600  men  across  pmatfof 
the  river  in  boats.  The  nature  of  the  ground,  iifi»vi#Mr, 
and  there  being  no  suspicion  of  an  attempt  at  this  A&tf «» 
point,  led  to  the  French  coming  out  very  tardily  to  •*»'*'* 
oppose  them;  and  when  they  did,  some  COngreve  rockets 
(then  a  novelty)  threw  them  into  coxifusion,  so  that  the  right 
bank  was  held  until,  on  the  morning  of  the  94th,  the  flotilla  of 

'Commander  of  a  British  expedition  from  the  Mcdherranean 
islands. 
*  "Gave"  in  the  Pyrenees  means  S  mountaia  stream  er  toiisaft. 


Pe«NSULAR  WAR 


97 


ckasse-marits  appeared  from  St  Jean  de  Lux,  preceded  by  menh 
of-war  boats.  Several  men  and  vesseb  were  lost  in  crossing  the 
bar;  but  by  noon  on  the  26th  of  February  the  bridge  of  36 
vessels  had  been  thrown  sjid  secured;  baUerus  and  a  boom 
placed  to  protect  it,  8000  troops  passed  over,  and  the  enemy's 
gunboats  driven  up  the  river.  Eayonne  was  then  invested  on 
both  banks  as  a  preliminary  to  the  siege. 

Ob  the  27th  of  Febiuaxy  WeUington,  having  with  little  loss 
effected  the  passage  of  the  Fau  below  Orthes,  attacked  Soult. 
In  this  battle  the  Allies  and  French  were  of  abont  equal  strength 
(37,000):  the  former  having  4S  guns,  the  latter  40.  Soult  held 
gfgMim  of  ^  strong  position  behind  Orthes  on  heights  command- 
OrtbM,  ing  the  roads  to  Daz  and  St  Sever.  Beresford  was 
F9t.2f,  directed  to  turn  his  right,  if  possible  cutting  him  off 
^'^  from  Dax,  and  Hill  his  left  towards  the  St  Sever  road. 

Beresford's  attack,  after  hard  fightmg  over  difficult  ground>  was 
repulsed,  when  Wellington,  perceiving  that  the  pursuing  French 
haid  left  a  central  part  of  the  heighu  unoccupied,  thrust  up  the 
Light  Division  into  it,  between  Soult*s  right  and  centre.  At  the 
same  time  Hill,  having  found  a  ford  above  Orthes,  was  turning 
the  French  left,  when  Souh  retreated  just  in  time  to  save  bemg 
cut  off,  withdrawing  towards  St  Sever,  which  he  reached  on  the 
28tfa  of  February.  Ihe  allied  loss  was  about  2000;  the  French 
4000  and  6  guns. 

From  St  Sever  Soult  turned  eastwards  to  Aire,  where  he 
covered  the  roads  to  Bordeaux  ^nd  Toulouse.  Beresford,  with 
I  s,obo  men,  was  now  sent  to  Bordeaux,  which  opened  its  gates  as 
l^omised  to  the  Allies.  Driven  by  Hill  from  Aire  on  the  and  of 
March  1814,  Soult  retked  by  Vic  Bigorre,  where  there  was  a 
combat  <March  rp),  and  Tarbes,  where  there  was  a  severe  action 
(March  so),  to  Toulouse  behind  the  Garonne.  He  endeavoured 
also  to  rouse  the  French  peasantry  against  the  Allies,  but  in 
vain>  for  Wellington's  justice  and  moderation  afforded  them  no 
grievances.  Wellington  wished  to  pass  the  Garonne  above 
Toukmse  in  order  to  attack  the  city  from  the  south — its  weakest 
side — and  interpose  between  Soult  and  Suchet.  But  finding  it 
impracticable  to  operate  in  that  direction,  he  left  Hill  on  the 
vest  side  and  crossed  at  Grenade  below  Toulouse  (April  3). 
When  Beresford,  who  had  now  rejoined  WeUington,  had  passed 
dver,  the  bridge  was  swept  away,  which  left  him  isolated  on  the 
right  bank.  But  Soult  did  not  atUck;  the  bridge  (April  8) 
was  restored;  WeUington  crossed  the  Garonne  and  the  Brs,  and 
attacked  Soolt  on  the  toth  of  April.  In  the  battle  of  Tooloose 
the  French  number«d  about  40,000  (exclusive  of  the  local 
National  Guards)  with  80  guns;  the  AUllis  under  59,000  with  64 
BaUhoi  gtins.  Soult's  position  to  the  north  and  easft  of  the 
To^tmm,  dty  was  exceedingly  strong,  consuting  of  the  canal 
^J^'^  of  Linguedoe,  some  fortified  suburbs,  and  (to  the 
extreme  east)  the  commanding  ridgtt  oif  Mont  Rave, 
crowned  with  redoubts  and  earthworks.  W^ington's  cotumns, 
under  Beresford,  were  now  called  upon  to  make  a  fiank  march 
of  some  two  mQes,  under  artillery,  and  occastonally  musketryj 
fire,  befaig  threatened  also  by  cavafary,  and  then,  while  the 
Spuiish  troops  assaulted  the  north  of  the  ridge,  to  wheel  tip, 
mount  the  eastern  slope,  and  carry  the  works.  «The  Spaniards 
were  repulsed,  but  Beresford  gallantiy  took  Mont  Rave  and 
Sonlt  1€El  back  behind  the  canal.  On  the  xsth  of  April  WeQing- 
ton  advanced  to  invest  Tbulouse  from  the  south,  but  Soult  on 
the  night  of  the  xxth  had  retreated  towards  Villefranque,  and 
Wellington  then  entered  the  dty.  The  allied  loss  was  about 
5000;  the  French  3000.  Thus,  in  the  last  great  battle  of  the 
war,  the  courage  and  resolution  of  the  soldiers  of  the  Peninsular 
army  were  conspicuoudy  illustrated. 

Cki  the  X3th  of  April  18x4  officers  arrived  with  the  announce- 
ment to  both  armies  of  the  capture  of  Paris,  the  abdication  of 
Napoleon,  and  the  practical  conclusion  of  peace;  and  on  the 
xSth  a  convention,  which  included  Suchet's  force,  was  entered 
into  between  WeUington  and  Sotilt.  Unfortunately,  after 
Toulouse  had  faUen,  the  Allies  and  French,  in  a  sortie  from 
Bayonne  on  the  14th  of  April,  cadx  lost  about  tooo  men:  so 
that  some  10,000  men  feQ  after  peace  had  virtuaUy  been  made. 

In  the  east,  during  this  year  (18x4),  Sir  W.  Clinton  had,  on 


the  16th  of  January,  attacked  Suchet  at  Molins  de  Rey  and 
blockaded  Barcelona  (Feb.  7);  the  French  posts  of  Lerida, 
Mequinenxa  and  Monzon  had  also  been  yielded  up,  and  Suchet, 
on  the  3nd  of  March,  had  crossed  the  Pyrenees  into  France 
Figueras  surrendered  to  Cucsta  before  the  end  of  May;  and  peace 
was  formaUy  signed  at  Paris  on  the  30th  of  May. 

Thus  terminated  the  long  and  sanguinary  struggle  of  the 
Peninsubr  War.  The  British  troops  were  partly  sent  to  England, 
and  partly  embarked  at  Bordeaux  for  America,  with  which 
country  war  had  broken  out  (see  American  Was  of  1812-15): 
the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  recrossed  the  Pyrenees:  the  French 
army  was- dispersed  throughout  France:  Louis  XVIII  was 
restored  to  the  French  throne:  and  Napoleon  was  permitted 
to  reside  in  the  island  of  Elba,  the  sovereignty  of  which  had  been 
conceded  to  him  by  the  allied  powers.  For  the  operations 
of  this  campaign  WeUington  was  created  mar<)ucss  of  Doura 
and  duke  of  Wellington,  and  peerages  were  conferred  upon 
Beresford,  Graham  and  HiU. 

The  events  of  the  Pcninsidar  War,  especiaUy  as  narrated 
in  the  WeUington  Despatches,  are  replete  with  instruction  tiot 
only  for  tbe  soldier,  but  also  for  the  dvil  administrator.  Even 
in  a  brief  summary  of  the  war  one  salient  fact  is  noticeable, 
that  aU  WeUington's  reverses  were  in  connexion  with  his  sieges, 
for  which  his  means  were  never  adequate.  In  his  many  battles 
he  was  always  victorious,  his  strategy  eminently  successful, 
his  organixing  and  administrative  power  exceptionally  great, 
his  practical  resource  unlimited,  his  soldiers  most  courageous; 
but  he  never  had  an  army  fully  complete  in  its  departments 
and  warUke  equipment.  He  had  no  adequate  corps  of  sappers 
and  miners,  or  transport  train.  In  181 2  tools  and  material 
of  war  for  his  sieges  were  often  insufficient.  In  1813,  when  he 
was  before  San  Sebastian,  the  ammunition  ran  short;  a  battering 
train,  long  demanded,  reached  him  not  only  some  time  after 
it  was  needed,  but  even  then  with  only  one  day's  providon  of 
shot  and  shcU.  For  the  siege  of  Buigos  heavy  guns  were  avail- 
abl«  in  store  on  the  coast;  but  he  neither  had,  nor  could  procure, 
the  transport  to  bring  them  up.  By  resource  and  dogged 
determination  WeUington  rose  superior  to  almost  every  diS- 
cuky,  but  he  could  not  overccnne  all;  and  the  main  teaching  of 
the  Peninsular  War  turns  upon  the  value  of  an  army  that  is 
completely  organized  In  its  various  branches  before  hostiUties 
breakout.  (C.  W.  R.) 

AtrrnORfTifeS. — T%»  WdUntUm  Despatches,  ed.  Gurwood  (London, 
x834->i839);  Supplementary  WeUington  Despaiehes  (Londoa.  xSsS^ 
x86x  and  1867-1872) :  Sir  W.  Napier,  History  of  War  m  the  Pemnwia 
and  South  of  Prance  (London,  1&8-X840):  C.  W.  C.  Oman.  History 
of  the  Peninsular  War  (London.  1902) ;  Sir  J.  Jones,  Journals  and 
Sieres  in  Spain,  2811-12  (London,  1814):  and  Account  of  the  War 
in  Spain,  Portneal  and  South  of  Franu,  1808^14  (London,  xSai);  Sir 
J.  F.  Maurice,  l>iary  of  Sir  John  Moore  (London,  1904) ;  Command- 
ant Bak^ny,  Campagne  de  I'Emperewr  NapoUon  en  Bspasne^  x8o8r- 
1809  (Paris,  1902;;  Major-General  C.  W.  Robinson,  Wellington's 
Campaigns  (London,  1007) ;  Sir  A.  AUson,  History  df  Europe,  178^ 
i8ts  (London,  x8«5-l842);  T.  Choumara,  C&nsid4rations  nnlUairos 
sur  les  nUmoirts  du  Marichal  Snektt  el  stw  la  bataHle  de  Touiouae 
(Paris.  1838);  Commandant  Clerc,  Campagne  du  Marichal  Soult 
dans  les  Pyrtnies  ouidentales  en  J81J-14  (Paris,  1894I;  Mhnoires 
du  Baron  Marhot  (Paris,  x8qi  ;  En^.  trans,  by  A.  J.  Butler,  London, 
roo2):  H.  R.  Clinton,  The  War  in  tho  Poninsula,  Sfc.  (London.  18891); 
Martial  Socket's  Mhnoires  (Paris,  1826;  London,  1820):  Captain  L. 
BudeTi  Wellissgton's  Operaiiotu  in  the  Peninsula,  1808-14  (London. 
1904);  Batty,  Campaign  of  the  Left  Wing  of  the  Allied  Army  in  the 
Western  Pyrenees  ana  South  of  France,  1813-14  (London,  1823): 
Foy,  Histotre  de  la  guerre  de  la  Ptninsule,  6fe.,  soiu  NapoUon  {Pnm 
and  London,  1827);  Lord  Londonderry,  Narratae  of  the  Penittsitlar 
War,  i8o8-i3  (London,  1820) ;  R.  Southey,  History  of  the  Peninsular 
B^oKLondon,  1823-1832) ;  Major  A.  Grimths,  WeUington  and  Water- 
loo (illustrated;  London.  1898);  Thiers,  Histoire  du  consulat  el  de 
Vempire  (Paris,  j 845-1 847;  and  translated  by.D.  F.  Campbell. 

London,    "    '  ^     -   • 

(London, 

A.  S.  Fra 

(ed.  by  Major-Ccncral  ET  Sabine,  London,  1859):  Lieut.-Ccloncl 
W.  Htn-James,  Baitles  round  Biarrits,  Nroelle  and  the  Nive  (London 
1896);  Batiks  round  Biarrita,  Carres  and  the  Bridge  0/  Boats  (Edii)- 
bunfa.  1897);  H.  B.  Robinson,  Memoirs  of  Lieulenant-Cenerai  Str 
r.  Picton  (London.  18A5):  G.  C.  Moore-Smith,  AuiobiograMv  of 
Lieutenant-General  Sir  Harry  Smith  (London,  1901);  Life  of  John 
Colbomt  {F,-M.  Lord  Staton)  (London,  X903):  Rev.  A.  H,  Craoford. 


98 


PENI8COEA-r-PENITENTlARY 


General  CroM/urd  and  his  Lif^  Division  (London,  iSoi);  Sir  Geone 
Larpcnt,  Prtvale  Journal  of  F.  S.  Larpent  during  the  Peninsular  War 
(London,  1853):  Major-Gciieral  H.  D.  Hutchinson,  Orations  in 
ike  Peninsula,  i8o8-g  (London,  1905);  The  Dickson  MSS.,  hetng 
Journals  of  Major-General  Sir  Alexander  Dickson  during  lft«  Pentn- 
sular  War  (Woolwich,  1907). 

PEfilS(X)LA,  a  town  of  eastena  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cas- 
t«U6n  de  la  Plana,  and  on  the  Mediterraaean  Sea,  5  m.  by  road 
S.  of  Benicarl6.  Pop.  (1900),  3142.  Pefliscola,  often  called  the 
Gibraltar  of  Valencia,  is  a  fortified  seaport,  with  a  lighthouse, 
built  on  a  rocky  headland  about  azo  ft.  high,  and  only  joined 
to  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  strip  of  sand.  Originally  a 
Moorish  stronghold,  it  was  captured  in  1233  by  James  1.  of 
Aragon,  who  entrusted  it  to  the  Knights  Templar.  In  the 
I4tb  century  it  was  garrisoned  by  tbe  knights  of  Montesa,  and 
in  1420  it  reverted  to  the  Crown.  From  1415  it  was  the  home 
of  the  schismatic  pope  Benedict  Xjfll.  (Pedro  de  Luna),  whose 
name  is  commemorated  in  the  Bufador  de  Papa  Luna,  a  curious 
cavern  with  a  landward  entrance  throu^  which  the  sea-water 
escapes  in  clouds  of  spray. 

PENITENTIAL  (Lat.  poeniUntiale,  libtUus  poenUenHahs, 
&c.),  a  manual  used  by  priests  of  the  Catholic  Church  for 
guidance  in  assigning  the  penance  due  to  sin&  Such  manuals 
played  a  large  r61e  in  the  early  middle  ages,  particularly  in 
Ireland,  England  and  Frankland,  and  their  influence  in  the 
moral  education  of  the  barbarian  races  has  not  received 
sufficient  attention  from  historians.  They  were  mainly  com- 
posed of  canons  drawn  from  various  councils  and  of  dicta  from 
writings  of  some  of  the  fathers.  Disciplinary  regulations  in 
Christian  communities  are  referred  to  from  the  very  borders  of  the 
apostolic  age,  and  a  system  of  careful  over^ht  of  those  admitted 
to  the  mysteries  developed  steadily  as  the  membership  grew 
and  dangers  of  contamination  with  the  outside  world  increased. 
These  were  the  elaborate  precautions  of  the  catechumenate,  and 
— ^as  a  bulwark  against  the  persecutions — the  rigid  system  known 
as  the  Discipline  of  the  Secret  (disci^ina  arcant).  The  treat* 
ment  of  the  lapsed,  which  produced  the  Novatian  heresy,  was 
also  responsible  for  what  has  frequently  been  referred  to  as 
the  first  penitential  This  is  the  libeUus  in  whi^h,  according 
to  Cyprian  {Ep,  51),  the  decrees  of  the  African  synods  of  251 
and  255  were  embodied  for  the  guidance  of  the  dersy  ui  dealing 
with  their  repentant  and  retMiniog  flocks.  This  manual, 
which  has  been  lost,  was  evidently  not  like  the  code-like  com- 
pilations of  the  8th  century^  and  it  is  somewhat  misleading  to 
^>eak  of  it  as  a  penitentiaL  Jurisdiction  in  penance  was  still 
too  closely  limited  to  the  upper  ranks  of  the  clergy  to  odl  forth 
such  literature.  Besides  the  bishop  an  official  well  versed 
in  the  penitential  regulations  of  the  CHiurch,  called  the  poenl- 
ienliariuSf  assigned  due  penalties  for  sins.  For  their  guidance 
there  was  considerable  condliar  legislation  (e.g.  Ancyra,  Nicaea, 
Neocacsarea,  &c.),  and  certain  patristic  letters  which  had 
acquired  almost  the  force  of  decretals.  Of  the  latter  the 
most  important  were  the  three  letters  of  St  Basil  of  Caesarea 
(d.  379)  to  Bishop  Amphilodius  (rf  loonium  oontainxng  over 
eighty  headings. 

Three  things  tended  to  devel<^  these  rules  into  something 
like  a  system  of  penitential  law.  These  were  the  development 
of  auricidar  confession  and  private  penance;  the  extension  of 
the  penitential  jurisdiction  among  the  clergy  owing  to  the 
growth  of  a  parochial  priesthood;  and  the  necessity  of  adapting 
the  penance  to  the  primitive  ideas  of  law  prevailing  among  the 
newly  converted  barbarians,  especially  the  idea  of  compensation 
by  the  vfergild.  In  Ireland  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  century 
appeared  the  "  canons  of  St  Patrick."  In  the  first  half  of  the 
next  century  these  were  followed  by  others,  notably  those  of 
St  Finian  (d.  552).  At  the  same  time  the  Celtic  British  Church 
produced  the  penitentials  of  St  David  of  Menevia  (d.  544)  and 
of  Gildas  (d.  583)  in  addition  to  synodal  legishition.  These 
furnished  the  material  to  Columban  (d.  615)  for  his  Liber  dt 
poeniletUia  and  his  monastic  rule,  which  had  a  great  influence 
upon  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  An^o-Saxon  Church 
was  later  than  the  Irish,  but  under  Theodore  of  Tarsus  (d.690), 
archblsbop  of  Canterbury,  the  practice  then  in  force  was  made 


the  basis  of  the  most  important  of  all  penitentiah.  The 
PoenUerUude  Theodon  became  the  authority  in  the  Church's 
treatment  of  sinners  for  the  next  four  centuries,  both  in  England 
and  elsewhere  in  Europe.  The  original  text,  as  prepared  by 
a  disciple  of  Theodore,  and  embodying  his  decisions,  is  given 
in  Haddan  and  Stubbs's  Councils  and  EccUHastical  Documenh 
rdating  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (ilL  173  acq.).  A 
PettitetUiale  Commeani  (St  Cumian),  dating  apfuirently  from 
the  early  8th  century,  was  the  third  main  source  of  Prankish 
penitentials.  The  extent  and  variety  of  this  literature  led  the 
Gallican  Church  to  exetcise  a  sort  of  censorship  in  order  to 
secure  uniformity.  After  numerous  synods.  Bishop  Haltigar 
of  Cambrai  was  commissioned  by  £bo  of  Reims  in  829  to  prepare 
a  definitive  edition.  Haltigar  used,  among  his  other  materials, 
a  so-called  paenilentiale  romanunty  which  was  really  of  Frankish 
origin.  The  canons  printed  by  David  Wilkins  in  his  Concilia 
(1737)  as  being  by  Ecgbert  of  York  (d.  767)  axe  largely  a  transla- 
tion into  Anglo-Saxon  of  three  books  of  Haltigar 's  penitentials. 
In  841  Hrabanus  Maurus  undertook  a  new  Liber  poenitcniium 
and  wrote  a  long  letter  on  the  subject  to  Heribald  of  Auxerre 
about  853.  Then  followed  the  treatise  of  Reginon  of  Prum 
in  906,  and  finally  the  collection  made  by  Burchard,  bishop  of 
Worms,  between  1012  and  1023.  The  codification  of  the  canon 
law  by  Gratian  and  the  change  in  the  sacramental  position  of 
penance  in  the  xath  century  closed  the  history  of  penitentials. 

Much  controversy  has  arisen  over  the  question  whether 
there  was  an  official  papal  penitential.  It  is  claimed  that 
(quite  apart  from  HalUgar's  poeuitentiaU  rontanum)  such  a 
set  of  canons  existed  early  in  Rome,  and  the  attempt  has  been 
made  by  H.  J.  Schmita  in  his  learned  treatise  on  penitentials 
iBuszhiicier  und  das  kanonische  Bussterjahren,  1883  and  1898) 
to  establish  their  pontifical  character.  The  matter  is  still  m 
dispute,  Schmiu's  thesis  not  having  met  with  universal 
acc^tance. 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  above  the  one  important  work 
on  the  peniteotials  was  L.  W-  H.  VVaaserichlebea's  epoch-making 
study  and  collection  of  texts.  Die  Buszordnungen  der  abendldndischen 
Ktrche  nebst  etner  rechlsgeschuhtlichen  Einlettung  (Hallc,  1851). 
See  articles  in  Wetxcr  and  Welte's  Kirchenlexikon,  Hauck's  Reat- 
eneyklopddiie,  and  Haddan  and  Stubbs's  Councils.  See  also  Secbass 
in  Z€*tKhnSi  fur  Ktrckengesehtcklet  xviii.  58.  On  the  canons  o( 
St  Patrick  see  the  Life  ofSt-Patrick  by  J.  B.  Bury  (pp.  233-275). 

.  PENrrSNTURY  (med.  Lat.  poenitenltarius^  from  poeuittniia, 
penance,  paenOf  punishment,  a  term  used  both  as  adjective  and 
substantive,  referring  eith^  to  the  means  of  icpentance  or 
that  of  punishment.  Xn  its  ecclesiastical  use  the  word  is  used 
as  the  equivalent  both  of  the  Latin  poenitentiarhtSt "  penitentiary 
priest,"  and  poeniUHliariat  the  dignity  or  office  of  a  pomiUnit^ 
ariux.  By  an  extension  of  the  latter  sense  the  name  is  applied 
to  the  department  of  the  Roman  Curia  known  as  tLe  apostolic 
penitentiary  {sacra  poeniieniiaria  apostolica),  presided  over 
by  the  cardinal  grand  penitentiary  (major  pocmtentiarius, 
Ital.  penilensierc  maggiore)  and  having  jurisdiction  more  particu- 
larly in  all  questions  in  faro  intemo  reserved  for  the  Holy  See 
(see  CmiA  Rokama).  In  general,  the  ppeniteKUiarius,  or  peni- 
tentiary priest,  is  in  each  diocese  what  the  grand  penitenliaiy 
is  at  Rome,  i.e.  he  is  appointed  to  deal  with  all  cases  of  conscience 
reserved  for  the  bishop.  In  the  Eastern  Church  there  axe  very 
early  notices  of  such  appointments;  so  far  as  the  West  is  con- 
cerned, Hinschius  (Kirchenrechli  L  428,  note  2)  quotes  from 
the  chronicle  of  Bemold,  the  monk  of  St  Blase  (c,  1054-1x00), 
as  the  earliest  record  of  such  appointment,  that  made  by 
the  papal  legate  Odo  of  Ostia  in  1054.  In  1215  the  fourth 
Lateran  Council,  by  its  zoth  canon,  ordered  suitable  men  to 
be  ordained  in  all  cathedral  and  conventual  churches,  to  act 
as  coadjutors  and  a«sis>flnts  to  the  bishops  in  hearing  confessbna 
and  imposing  penances.  The  rule  was  not  immediately  nor 
universally  obeyed,  the  bishops  h&Dg  alow  to  delegate  their 
special  powers.  Finally,  however,  the  council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
xxiv.  cap.  viii.  de  reform.)  ordered  that,  "  wherever  i|.  could 
conveniently  be  done."  the  bishop  should  appoint  in  his  cathedral 
a  pocnitentiarius^  who  should  be  a  doctor  or  licentiate  in  theology 
or  canon  law  and  at  least  forty  years  of  age< 


PENKRIDGB-^PENN,  WILLIAM 


99 


See  P.  Hiiudiiat,  Kirtkemnekl,  I  4J7,  te.  (BcrKn,  1869);  Du 
Canee,  Ghssarium  sjf.  "  Poeiutentiarius " ;  Henog-Hauck,  JUal- 
emcyUopddie  (ed.  1904),  s.v.  **  P5nitentiarius." 

PBMKRIDGB,  a  town  In  the  western  parlienientnry  diviaion 
of  Staffordshire,  England;  134  m.  N.W.  from  Lbndon  by  the 
I/>ndon  ft  North-Westem  raHway,  on  the  small  river  Penk. 
Pop.  (xgox),  2347. '  Trade  is  chiefly  agricultural  and  there  are 
stone^narrics  in  the  vicintty.  The  church  of  St  Michad  and 
AH  Angels,  formvly  collegiate  and  dedicated  to  St  Mary,  is  a 
fine  building  principally  Perpendicular,  but  with  earlier  pbrtions. 
The  Roman  Watling  Street  passes  from  cast  to  west  3  m.  south 
of  Penkridge.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  Pillaton  Hall,  retaining 
a  picturesque  chapel  of  th6  15th  century. 

PBNLBT.  WIUJAM  8YD1IBT  (i8j2-  ),  English  actor, 
was  bom  at  Broadstairs,  and  educated  io  London,  when  his 
father  had  a  school.  He  first  made  his.  mark  as  a  comedian 
by  his  exceedingly  '""""c  performance  as  the  curate  in  The 
PrivaU  Secretary^  a  part  in  which  he  succeeded  Beerbohm 
Tree;  but  he  is  even  more  associated  with  the  title  tt\e  in 
Brandon  Thomas's  Charleys  Aunt  (1892),  a  farce  which  had 
an  unprecedentedly  long  run  and  was  acted  all  over  the.worid* 

PBHMARC*!!,  a  vilbge  of  western  France  in  the  department 
of  Finistfoe,  18  m.  S.W.  of  Quimper  by  road.  Pop.  (1906),  of 
the  village,  387;  of  the  commune,  5703.  On  the  extremity  of 
the  peninsula  on  which  it  is  situated  are  fortified  remains  of  a 
town  which  was  of  cmisiderable  Importance  from  the  14th  to 
the  x6th  centuries  and  included,  besides  Penmarc'h,  St  Gu6nol6' 
and  Keiity.  It  owed  its  prosperity  to  its  cod-banks,  the  dis- 
appearance of  which  together  with  the  discovery  of  the  New* 
foundland  cod-banks  and  the  pillage  of  the  place  by  the  bandit 
La  Fontenelle  in  1595  contributed  to  its  decadence.  The 
church  of  St  Nouna,  a  Gothic  building  of  the  eariy  i6th  century 
at  Penmarc  'h,  and  the  church  of  St  Gu£nol6,  an  unfinished 
tower  of  the  xsth  century  and  the  church  of  Kerity  (xsth 
century)  are  of  interest.  The  coast  is  very  dangerous.  On 
the  Point  de  Penmarc  'h  stands  the  Phare  d'Eckmuhl,  with  a 
light  visible  for  60  miles.'  There  are  numerous  megaiithic 
monttments  in  the  vicinity. 

PBm,  WILUAH  (x6ax>x67o),  British  adsural,  was  the 
son  of  Oiks  Penn,  merchant  and  seaman  of  Bristol.  He  served 
his  apprenticeship  at  sea  with  his  father.  In  the  first  Civil 
War  he  fought  on  the  side  of  the  parliament,  and  was  in  com- 
mand of  a  ship  in  the  squadron  maintained  against  the  king 
in  the  Ixish  seas.  The  service  was  arduous  and  called  for  both 
cneigy  and  good  seamanship.  In  i(i4S  be  was  arrested  and 
sent  to  London,  but  was  soon  released,  and  sent  back  as  rear 
admiral  in  the  "  Assurance  "  (32).  The  exact  cause  o£  the 
arrest  is  unknown,  but  it  may  be  presumed  to  have  beett  that 
he  was  subjected  of  being  in  correspondence  with  the  king's 
supporters.  It  is  highly  probable  that  he  was,  for  until  the 
ReMoratioQ  he  was  regulariy  in  communication  with  the  Royal- 
ists, while  serving  the  parliament,  or  Cromwell,  so  long  as  their 
service  was  profitable,  and  making  no  Kruple  of  applying  for 
grants  of  the  confiscated  lands  ol  the  king's  Irish  friends. 
The  character  of  "  mean  fellow  "  given  him  by  Pepys  is  borne 
out  by  much  that  is  otherwise  known  of  him.  But  it  is  no  less 
ceitaih  that  he  was  an  excellent  seanuin  and  a  good  fighter. 
After  1650  he  was  employed  in  the  Ocean»  and  in  the  Mediter* 
ranean  in  pursuit  of  the  Royalists  under  Prince  Rupert.  He 
was  so  Active  on  this  service  that  when  he  returned  home  on 
the  i8th  d  March  1651  he  could  boast  that  he  had  not  put  foot 
on  shore  for  more  than  a  year.  When  the  first  Dutch  War 
broke  out  Penn  was  appointed  vice-admiral  to  Blake,  and  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  the  28th  of  September  off  the  Kentish 
Knock.  In  the  three  days'  battle  off  Portland,  February 
i6S3,  be  commanded  the  Blue  squadron,  and  he  also  Served 
with  distinction  in  the  final  battles  of  the  war  in  June  and  July. 
In  December  be  was  included  in  the  commiasioB  of  admirals 
and  generals  at  sea,  who  exercised  the  military  command  of 
tha  fleet,  as  well  ss  "  one  of  the  commissioners  for  ordering  and 
managing  the  affairs  of  the  admiralty  and  navy."  In  1654  be 
offcsed  to  carry  the  fleet  over  to  the  king,  but  in  October  ol 


the  same  year  he  had  no  scruple  in  acceptiBg  the  naval  command 
in  the  expedition  to  the  West  Indies  sent  out  by  Cromweit, 
which  conquered  Jamaica.  He  was  not  responsible  for  the 
shameful  repulse  At  San  Domingo,  which  was  due  to  a  panic 
among  the  troopa.  On  their  reUim  he  and  his  military  ooUnigue 
Venables  were  sent  to  the  Tower.  He  made  humble  sUbmisaaon, 
and  when  released  retired  to  the  estate  he  had  received  from 
confiscated  land  in  Ireland*  He  oontinued  in  comnnmcation 
with  the  Royahsts,  and  in  1660  had  a  rather  obscure  share  in 
the  Restoration.  He  waa  reappointed  commissioner  of  the 
navy  by  the  king^  and  in  the  second  Dutch  War  served  as 
"great  captain  commander"  or  captain  of  the  fleet,  with 
the  duke  of  York  (afterwards  King  James  II.)  at  the  battle 
of  Lowestoft  Qwat  3,  1665).  When  the  duke  withdrew  from 
the  command,  Peim's  active  service  ceased.  He  continued 
however  to  be  a  conumssioner  of  the  nav/.  His  death  occurred 
on  the  x6th  of  September  1670,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  St  Mary  Rcddiffe,  Bristol.  Has  portrait  by  Lely  is  in  the 
Painted  Hall  at  Greenwich.  By  his  wife  Margaret  Jasper,  he 
was  the  father  of  William  Penn,  the  founder  of  Pennsylvania. 
Thous^  Sir  William  Penn  was  not  a  high-minded  man,  he  is 
a  figure  of  considerable  importance  in  British  naval  history. 
As  admiral  and  general  for  the  parliament  he  helped  in  1653 
to  draw  up  the'first  code  of  tactics  provided  for  the  navy.  It 
was  the  base  Of  the  "  Duke  of  York's  Sailing  and  Fighting 
Instructions,"  which  continued  for  long  to  supi^y  the  orthodox 
tactical  creed  of  the  navy. 

See  the  Memeriab  ef  the  Profmiama  Life  and  Timet  efSirWiUium 
P$$m,  by  Granville  Pcaa.  (D.  H.) 

PENH,  WILLIAM  (X644-X7X8),  £n^  Quaker  and  founder 
of  Pennsylvania,  son  of  Admiral  Sir  William  Penn  (1621-1670) 
and  Margaret  Jasper,  a  Dutch  hidy,  was  bom  at  Tower  Hill, 
London,  on  the  14th  of  October  1644.  During  his  father's 
absence  at  sea  he  lived  at  Wanstead  in  Essex,  and  went  to  school 
at  Chigwell  dose  by,  in  which  places  he  was  brou^  under 
strong  Puritan  influences.  Like  many  duldren'of  sensitive 
temperament,  be  had  timesof  spiritual  excitement;  when  about 
twelve  he  was  "  suddenly  surprised  with  an  inward  comfort, 
and,  as  he  thought,  an  external  gloiy  in  the  room,  which  gave 
rise  to  reUglous  emotions,  during  which  he  had  the  strongest 
conviction  of  the  being  of  a  God,  and  that  the  soul  of  man  waa 
capable  of  enjoying  communication  with  Him."  Upon  the 
death  of  Cromwell,  Peim's  father,  who  had  served  the  Protector 
because  there  was  no  other  career  open,  remained  with  his  fandly 
on  the  Irish  estates  whkh  Cromwell  had  given  him,  of  the  value 
of  £300  a  year.  On  the  resignation  of  Richard  Cromwdl  he 
at  onoe  declared  for  the  king  and  went  to  the  court  in  Holland, 
where  he  was  received  into  favour  and  hnighted;  and  at  the 
elections  for  the  convention  parliament  he  was  returned  for 
Weymouth.  Meanwhile  young  Penn  studied  under  a  private 
tutor  On  Tower  Hill  until,  in  October  1660,  he  was  entered  as  a 
gentleman  commoner  at  Christ  Church.  He  appears  in  the 
same  year  to  have  contributed  to  the  Tkrenedia,  a  coilection 
of  elegies  on  the  death  of  the  young  duke  of  .Gloucester. 

The  rigour  with  which  the  Anglican  statutes  were  revived, 
and  the  Puritan  heads  of  colleges  supplanted,  roused  the  ^nrit 
of  rpsistance  at  Oxford  to  the  uttermost.  With  this  spint  Penn, 
who  was  on  familiar  terms  with  John  Owen  (16x6-1683),  and 
who  had  already  fallen  under  the  Influence  of  Thomas  Loe 
the  (Quaker,  then  at  Oxford,  actively  sympathized.  He  and 
others  refused  to  attend  chapel  and  church  service,  and  were 
fined  in  consequence.  How  far  his  leaving  the  university 
resulted  from  this  cannot  be  deariy  ascertained.  Anthony 
Wood  has  nothing  regarding  the  cause  of  his  leaving,  but  says 
that  be  stayed  at  Oxford  for  two  years,  and  that  he  was  noted 
for  proficiency  in  manly  sports.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in 
January  1 662  his  father  was  anxious  to  remove  him  to  Cambridge, 
and  consulted  Pepys  on  the  subject;  and  in  later  years  he  speaka 
of  being  "  banished  "  the  college,  and  of  being  whipped,  beaten 
and  turned  out  d  doma  on  his  return  to  his  father,  in  tlw 
anger  of  the  latter  at  his  avowed  Quakerism.  A  reconciliation, 
however,  was  effected;  and  Penn  was  sent  to  France  to  fbiset  this 


JOO 


PENNj  WILUAM 


foUy.  The  plan  waslor  a  tiaie  saccessfol.  Penn  appears  to  have 
CDtered  more  or  less  into  the  gaieties  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  while  there  to  have  become  acquainted  with  Robert  Spencer, 
afterwards  eari  of  Sunderland,  and  with  Dorothy,  sister  to 
Algernon  Sidney.  What,  however,  is  more  certain  is  that  he 
somewhat  later  [^ced  himself  under  the  tuition  of  Moses 
Amyraut,  the  celebrated  president  of  the  Protestant  college 
of  Saumur,  and  at  that  time  the  exponent  of  liberal  Calvinism, 
from  whom  he  gained  the  patristic  knowledge  which  is  so 
prominent  in  his  controversial  writings  He  afterwards  travelled 
in  Italy,  returning  to  England  in  August  i664»  with  "  a  great 
deal,  if  not  too  much,  of  the  vanity  of  the  French  garb  and 
a£fcGted  manner  of  speech  and  gait."^ 

Until  the  outbreak  of  the  plague  Penn  was  a  student  of 
Lincoln's  Inn.  For  a  few  days  also  he  served  on  the  staff  of 
his  fathers—now  great  captain  commandeF'-and  was  by  him 
sent  back  in  April  1665  to  Charles  with  despatches.  Ketnming 
after  the  naval  victory  off  Lowest<^t  in  June,  Admiral  Penn 
found  that  his  son  had  again  become  settled  in  seriousness  and 
Quakerism.  To  bring  him  once  more  to  views  of  life  not  incon- 
sistent with  court  preferment,  the  admiral  sent  him  in  Fd>ruary 
1666  with  introductions  to  Ormonde's  pure  but  brilliant  court 
in  Ireland,  and  to  manage. his  estate  in  Cork  ronnd  Shannan- 
garry  Castle,  his  title  to  which  was  (fisputed.  Penn  appears 
alsb  later  in  the  year  to  have  been  "  deric  of  the  cheque  '* 
at  Kinsale,  of  the  castle  and  fort  of  which  his  father  had  the 
command.  When  the  mutiny  broke  out  in  Carrickfergus  Penn 
volunteered  for  service,  and  acted  under  Arran  so  as  to  gain 
considerable  reputation.  The  result  was  that  in  May  1666 
Ormonde  offered  him  his  father's  company  of  foot,  but,  for 
some  unexplained  reason,  the  admiral  demurred  to  this  arrange- 
ment. It  was  at  this  time  that  the  well-known  portrait  waa 
painted  oi  the  great  Quaker  in  a  suit  of  armour;  and  it  was  at 
this  time,  too>  that  the  conversion,  begun  when  he  was  a  boy 
by  Thomas  Loe  in  Ireland,  was  completed  at  the  same  place 
by  the  same  agency.' 

On  the  3Td  of  September  1667  Penn  attended  a  meetfaig  of 
Quakers  in  Cork,  at  which  he  assisted  to  expel  a  soldier  who 
bad  disturbed  the  meeting.  He  was  in  consequence,  with 
others  present,  «ent  to  prison  by  the  magistrates.  From  prison 
he  wrote  to  Lord  Orrery,  the  president  of  Munster,  a  letter, 
in  whkh  he  first  publicly  makes  a  daim  for  perfect  frc^om  of 
oonadence.  He  was  immediately  rdeased,  and  at  once  returned 
to  his  father  in  London,  with  the  distinctive  marks  of  Quakerism 
strong  upon  him.  Penn  now  became  a  minister  of  the  denomi* 
nation,  and  at  once  entered  upon  controversy  and  authorship. 
His  first  book.  Truth  Exalted^  was  violent  and  aggressive  in  the 
extreme.  The  same  offensive  personality  is  shown  in  The  Guide 
MistokcHf  a  tract  written  in  answer  to  John  Clapham's  Guide 
to  the  True  Religion.  It  was  at  tins  time,  too,  that  he  appealed, 
not  unsuccessfully,  to  Buckingham,  who  on  Clarendon's  fall 
was  posing  as  the  protector  of  the  Dissenters,  to  use  his  efforts 
to  procure  parliamentary  toleration. 

Penn's  first  public  discnssion  was  with  Thomas  Vincent,  a 
London  Presbyterian  minister,  who  had  reflected  on  the 
"  damnable  "  doctrines  of  the  Quakers.  The  discussion,  which 
had  turned  chiefly  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  ended 
uselessly,  and  Penn  at  once  published  The  Sandy  Poundatum 
Shaken,  a  tract  of  ability  suffident  to  excite  Pepys's  astonish- 
ment, in  which  <»rthodox  views  were  so  offensively  attacked 
that  Penn  was  placed  in  the  Tower,  where  he  remained  for  neariy 
nine  months.  The  imputations  upon  his  opinions  and  good 
dtizenship,  made  as  well  by  Dissenten  as  by  the  Church,  he 
repdicd  in  Inneceney  with, her  Open  Pace,  in  which  he  asserts 
his  full  belief  in  the  divinity  of  Christ,  the  atonement,  and 
justification  through  faith,  though  insisting  on  the  necessity 
of  good  works.  It  was  now,  too,  that  he  published  the  most 
important  of  his  books.  No  Crout  No  Crown,  which  contained 
an  able  defcoce  of  the  Quaker  doctrines  and  practices,  and  a 
attadc  on  the  feose  and  unchristian  lives  of  the  dergy. 

•  Ftpys,  August  30,  1664. 

•Webb,  The  Penns  and  PemrintUms  (1867).  p.  174. 


While  completely  lefu^ng  to  recant  Penn  addressed  a  letter 
to  Arlington  in  July  i66<},  in  which,  on  grounds  of  religious 
freedom,  he  asked  him  to  interfere.  It  is  noteworthy,  as 
showing  the  views  then  predominant,  that  be  waa  almost  at 
once  set  at  liberty. 

An  informal  reconciliation  now  took  place  with  his  father, 
who  had  been  impeached  through  the  jealousy  of  Riqwit  and 
Monk  (in  April  1668),  and  whose  conduct  in  the  operations  of 
X665  he  had  publidy  vindicated;  and  Penn  was  again  aent  om 
family  busmess  to  Irdand.  At  the  desire  of  his  father,  whose 
health  was  fast  failmg,  Penn  returned  to  London  in  1670. 
Having  found  the  usual  place  of  meeting-  in  Gracechurch  StrcA 
dosed  by  soldiers,  Penn,  as  a  protest,  preadied  to  the  people 
in  the  open  street.  With  William  Mead  he  was  at  onoe  anested 
and' indicted  at  the  Old  Bailey  on  the  ist  of  September  for 
preaching  to  an  unlawful,  seditious  and  riotoiB  assembly, 
which  had  met  together  with  force  and  aims.  The  Conventicle 
Act  not  touching  thdr  case,  the  trial  wluch  followed,  and  which 
may  be  read  at  length  in  Penn's  Peoples  Ancient  and  Just 
Liberties  Asserted,  was  a  notable  one  in  the  history  of  trial  by 
jury.  With  extreme  courage  and  skill  Penn  exposed  the 
illegality  of  the  prosecution,  while  the  jury,  for  the  first  time, 
asserted  the  right  of  juries  to  decide  in  (^position  to  the  rufing 
of  the  court.  They  brought  in  a  verdict  declaring  Penn  and 
Mead  "  guilty  of  qseaking  in  Gracechurch  Street,"  but  refused 
to  add  **  to  an  unlawful  assembly  ";  then,  as  the  pressure  upon 
them  mcreased,  they  first  acquitted  Mead,  while  returning 
their  original  verdict  upon  Penn,  and  then,  when  that  verdict 
was  not  admitted,  returned  their  final  answer  '*  not  guilty  '* 
for  both.  The  court  fined  the  jntymen  40  marks  each  for  their 
contumacy,  and,  in  default  of  payment,  imprisoned  them, 
whereupon  they  vindicated  and  established  for  ever  the  right 
they  had  claimed  in  an  action  (known  as  Bushell's  case  from  the 
name  of  one  of  the  jurymen)  before  the  ooiut  of  conunon  pleas, 
when  all  twelve  judges  unanimously  dechued  their  imprisonment 
illegal. 

Penn  himself  had  been  fined  for  not  removing  Ins  hat  in  court, 
had  been  imprisoned  on  his  refusal  to  pay,  and  had  earnestly 
requested  his  family  not  to  pay  for  him.  The  fine,  however, 
was  settled  anonymously,  and  he  was  rdeased  in  time  to  be 
present  at  his  faUier's  death  on  the  i6th  of  September  1670, 
at  the  eariy  age  of  forty-nine.  Penn  now  found  himself  in 
possession  of  a  fortune  of  £1500  a  year,  ahd  a  daim  en  the 
Crown  for  £16,000,  lent  to  Charles  II.  by  his  father.  Upon  his 
release  Penn  at  once  plunged  into  ccmtroversy,  challenging  a 
Baptist  minister  named  Jeremiah  Ives,  at  High  Wycombe,  to 
a  public  dispute  and,  according  to  the  (Quaker  account,  easily 
defeating  hink  No  account  is  forthcoming  from  the  othor 
side.  Hearing  at  Oxford  that  students  who  attended  Friends' 
meeting  were  rigorously  used,  he  wrote  a  vehement  and  abusive 
remonstrance  to  the  vice-chancellor  in  defence  of  rellgfous 
freedom.  This  found  still  more  remarkable  expression  In  the 
Seasonable  CqMot  against  Popery  (Jan.  167 1). 

In  the  beginning  of  167 1  Penn  was  again  arrested  fot  preaching 
in  Wheeler  Street  meeting-house  by  Sir  J.  Robinson,  the 
lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  formerly  lord  mayor,  and  known  as  a 
brutal  and  bigoted  churchman.  Legal  proof  being  wanting 
of  any  breach  of  the  Conventide  Act,  and  the  Oxford  or  Five 
Mile  Act  also  proving  inapplicable,  Robinson,  who  had  some 
special  cause  of  enmity  against  Penn,  urged  upon  him  the  oath 
of  allegiance.  This,  of  course,  the  Quaker  would  not  take, 
and  consequently  was  imprisoned  for  six  months.  During  this 
imprisonment  Penn  wrote  several  works,  the  most  important 
being  The  Great  Case  of  Liberty  of  Consciknce  (Feb.  1671), 
a  noble  defence  of  complete  toleration.  Upon  his  release  he 
started  upon  a  missionary  journey  through  Holland  and 
Germany;  at  Emden  he  fotmded  a  (^ker  sodety,  and 
established  an  intimate  friendship  with  the  princess  iMJatine 
Elizabeth. 

Upon  his  return  home  in  the  spring  of  1672  Penn  niarried 
Guliclma  Springett,  daughter  of  Mary  Pennington  by  her  first 
husband,  SKr  William  ^ringett;  she  appears  to  have   been 


PENNj  WILLIAM 


lOt 


equally  remarkable  for  beauty,  devolioa  to  her  husband,  and 
firmness  to  the  religious  phnciplcs  which  she  had  adopted  yfhen. 
little  morn  than  a  child.^  He  now  settled  at  Rickmansworth 
in  Hertfordshire,  and  gave  himself  up  to  controversial  writing. 
To  this  year,  1672,  belong  the  Treatise  on  Oath&  bxA  England's 
Preseni  Interest  Considered.  In  the  year  1673  Penn  was  still 
more  active.  He  secured  the  release  of  George  Fox,  addressed 
the  Quakers  in  Holland  and  Germany,  carried  on  pubhc 
controversies  with  Thomas  Hicksi  a  Baptist,  and  John  Faldo,  an 
Independent,  and  published  his  treatise  on  the  Christian  Quaker 
and  his  Divine  Testimony  Vindicated^  the  Discourse  o/tlie  General 
Rule  of  Faith  and  Practice?  Reasons  against  Railing  (in  answer 
to  Hicks),  Counterfeit  Christianity  Detcctcdf  and  a  Just  Rebuke 
to  One-and-twenty  Learned  Divines  (an  answer  to  Faldo  and  to 
Quakerism  no  Christianity),  His  last  public  controversy  was 
in  1675  with  Richard  Baxter,  in  which,  of  course,  each  party 
claimed  the  victory. 

At  this  point  Pcnn's  connexion  with  America  begins.  The 
province  of  New  Jersey,  comprising  the  country  between  the 
Hudson  and  Delaware  rivers  on  the  east  and  west,  had  been 
granted  in  March  1663-1664  by  Charles  II  to  his  brother,  James 
in  turn  had  in  June  of  the  same  year  leased  it  to  Lord  Berkeley 
and  Sir  G.  Carteret  in  equal  shares.  By  a  deed,  dated  18th 
of  March  1673-1674,  John  Fenwick,  a  Quaker,  bought  one  of 
the  shares,  that  of  Lord  Berkeley  (Stoughton  erroneously  says 
Carteret's)  in  trust  for  Edward  Bylhnge,  also  a  Friend,  for 
£1000.  This  sale  was  confirmed  by  James,  after  the  second 
Dutch  War,  on  the  6th  of  August  1680.  Disputes  having  arisen 
between  Fenwick  and  Byllinge,  Penn  acted  as  arbitrator;  and 
then,  Byllinge  being  in  money  diihculties*  and  being  compelled 
to  sell  his  interest  in  order  to  satisfy  his  creditors,  Penn  was 
added,  at  their  request,  to  two  of  themselves,  as  trustee.  The 
disputes  were  settled  by  Fenwick  receiving  ten  out  of  the  hundred 
parts  into  which  the  province  was  divided,*  with  a  considerable 
sura  of  money,  the  remaining  ninety  parts  being  afterwards 
put  up  for  sale.  Fenwick  sold  his  ten  parts  to  two  other  Friends, 
Eldridge  and  Warner,  who  thus,  with  Penn  and  the  other  two, 
became  masters  of  West  Jersey,  West  New  Jersey,  or  New  West 
Jersey,  as  it  was  indifTcrcntly  called/  The  five  proprietors 
appointed  three  commissioners,  with  instructions  dated  from 
London  the  6th  of  August  1676,  to  settle  disputes  with  Fenwick 
(who  had  bought  fresh  land  from  the  Indians,  upon  which  Salem 
was  built,  Penn  being  himself  one  of  the  settlers  there)  and  to 
purchase  new  territoriesi  and  to  build  a  town — New  Beveriey, 
or  Burlington,  being  the  result.  For  the  new  colony  Penn  drew 
up  a  constitution,  under  the  title  of  "  Concessions."  The 
greatest  care  is  taken  to  make  this  constitution  "  as  near  as 
may  be  conveniently  to  the  primitive,  ancient  and  fundamental 
laws  of  the  nation  of  England."  But  a  democratic  elcmctit 
is  introduced,  and  the  ne^v  principle  of  perfect  religious  freedom 
stands  in  the  first  place  (ch.  xvi.).  With  regard  to  the  liberty 
of  the  subject,  no  one  might  be  condemned  in  life,  liberty  or 
estate,  except  by  a  jury  of  twelve,  and  the  right  of  challoiging 
was  granted  to  the  uttermost  (ch.  xviL).  Imprisonment  for 
debt  was  not  abolished  (as  Dixon  states),  but  was  reduced  to  a 
minimum  (ch.  xviii.),  while  theft  was  punished  by  twofold 
restitution  either  in  value  or  in  Uibour  to  that  amount  (ch. 
xxviii.).  The  provisions  of  ch.  xix.  deserve  special  notice. 
All  causes  were  to  go  before  three  justices,  with  a  jury.  "  They, 
the  said  justices,  shall  pronounce  such  judgment  as  they  shall 
receive  from,  and  be  directed  by  tho  said  twelve  men,  in  whom< 
only  the  judgment  resides,  and  not  otherwise.  And  in  case  of 
their  neglect  and  refusal,  that  then  one  of  the  twelve,  by  consent 
of  the  rest,  pronounce  their  own  judgment  as  the  justices  should 
have  done."    The  justices  and  constables,  moreover,   were 

'  For  a  very  charraine  account  of  her,  and  the  whole  Pennington 
connexion,  'mx  Maria  Webb's  Tlie  Penns  and  Penninglons. 

'  See  on  this  Stoughton's  /Vnn,  p.  1 13. 

'  The  deed  by  which  Fenwick  and  ByUinge  conveyed  West  New 
ler^y  to  Penn,  Lawry  and  Nicholas  Lucas  is  dated  the  leth  of 
February  1674-1675. 

*The  line  of  partition  was  "from  the  east  side  of  Little  Egg 
Harbour,  straight  north,  through  the  eoantry,to  the  utmost  branch 
of  Delaware  RiverJ' 


elected  by  the  people,  the  former  for  two  yeais  only  (cb.  xli  > 
Suitors  might  plead  in  person,  and  the  courts  were  pubhc 
(ch.  xxii.).  (jUMtaons  between  Indians  and  settlers  were  to  be 
arranged  by  a  mixed  jury  (ch.  xxv).  An  assembly  was  to 
meet  yeariy,  consisting  of  a  hundred  persons,  chosen  by  the 
inhabitants,  freeholders  and  proprietors,  one  for  each  division 
of  the  province.  The  election- was  to  be  by  ballot,  and  each 
member  was  to  receive  a  shilling  a  day  from  hb  divisi<m,  *'  that 
thereby  he  may  be  known  to  be  the  servant  of  the  people." 
The  executive  power  was  to  be  in  the  hands  of  ten  conimissidners^ 
chosen  by  the  assembly.  Such  a  constitution  soon  attracted 
large  numbers  of  Quakers  to  West  Jersey. 

It  was  shortly  before  these  occurrence^  that  Penn  inherited 
through  his  wife  the  estate  of  Womunghursl  in  Sussex,  whither 
he  removed  from  Rickmansworth.  He  now  (July  25,  1677) 
undertook  a  second  missionary  journey  to  the  continent  along 
with  George  Fox,  Robert  Barclay  and  George  Keith.  He 
visited  particularly  Rotterdam  and  ail  the  Holland  towns, 
renewed  his  intimacy  with  the  princess  £li2abeth  at  Herwerden, 
and,  under  considerable  privations,  travelled  through  Hanover, 
Germany,  the  Iovqt  Rhme  and  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg, 
returning  by  Bremen  and  the  Hague  It  is  worthy  Of  recollec- 
tion that  the  Gcrmantown  (Philadelphia)  settlers  from  Kirch- 
hetm,  one  of  the  places  which  responded  in  an  especial  degree 
to  Pcnn's  teaching,  are  noted  as  the  first  who  declared  it  wrong 
for  Christians  to  hold  slaves.  Penn  reached  England  again  on 
the  24th  of  October.  He  tried  to  gain  the  insertion  in  the  bill 
for  the  relief  of  Protestant  Dissenters  of  a  clause  enabling  Friends 
to  affirm  instead  of  taking  the  oath,  and  twice  addressed  th6 
House  of  Commons'  committee  with  considerable  eloquence 
and  effect.  The  bill,  however,  fell  to  the  ground  at  the  sudden 
prorogation. 

In  1678  the  popish  tenor  came  to  a  head,  and  to  calm  and 
guide  Friends  in  the  prevailing  excitement  Penn  wrote  his 
Epistle  to  the  Children  of  Light  in  this  Generation.  A  far  more 
important  publication  was  An  Address  to  Protestants  of  alt- 
Persuasions,  by  William  Penn,  Protestant,  in  1679;  a  poweriu! 
exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  pure  tolerance  and  a  protest  against 
tho  enforcement  of  c^inions  as  articles  oC  faith.  This  was 
succeeded,  at  the  general  election  which  followed  the  dissolulioii 
of  the  pensionary  parliament,  by  an  important  political  manifesto, 
Ett^and's  Great  Interest  in  the  Choice  of  this  New  Parliametai  in 
which  he  insisted  on  the  following  points:  the  discovery  aikl 
punishment  of  the  plot,  the  impeachment  of  corrupt  ministers 
and  councillors,  the  punishment  of "  pensioners/'  the  enactment 
of  frequent  porhaments,  security  from  popery  and  slavery,  ahd 
ease  for  Protestant  Dissenters.  Next  came  One  Project  for  the 
Good  of  England,  perhaps  the  most  pungent  of  all  his  political 
writings;  But  he  was  not  merely  active  with  his  pen.  He  was 
at  thk  time  in  close  intimacy  with  Algernon  Sidney,  who  stood 
successively  for  Guildford  and  Bramber.  In  each  case,  owing 
in  a  great  degree  to  Perm's  eager  advocacy,  Sidney  was  elected, 
only  to  have  his  elections  annulled  by  court  influence.  Toleration 
for  Dissenters  seemed  as  far  off  as  ever.  Encouraged  by  his  sue- 
cess  in  the  West  Jersey  province,  Penn  again  turned  his  thoughts 
to  America.  In  repayment  of  the  debt  mentioned  above  he 
now  asked  from  the  Crown,  at  a  council  held  on  the  24th  of  June 
1680,  for  "  a  tract  of  land  in  America  north  of  Maryland,  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Delaware,  on  the  west  h'mited  as  Maryland 
[i.e,  by  New  Jersey],  northward  as  far  as  plantable";  this 
latter  limit  Perm  explained  to  be  "  three  degrees  northwards." 
This  formed  a  tract  of  300  m.  by  160,  of  extreme  fertility, mineral 
wealth  and  richness  of  all  kinds.  Disputes  with  James,  duke 
of  York,  and  with  Lord  Baltimore,  who  had  rights  over 
Maryland,  delayed  the  matter  until  the  14th  of  March  168  r, 
when  the  grant  received  the  royal  signature,  and  Penn  was  made 
master  of  the  province  of  Pennsylvania.  His  own  account  of 
the  name  is  that  he  suggested  "  Sylvania,"  that  the  king  added 
the  "Penn "  in  honour  of  his  father,  and  that,  although  he 

*  Penn's  letter  of  the  36th  of  August  1676  says  twelve,  and  Clark- 
son  has  followed  this;  but  the  Concessions,  which  were  not  assented 
I  to  by  the  inhabitants  until  the  3rd  of  March  1676-1677,  ^y  ten. 


to  2 


PENN,  WILLIAM 


Strenuously  objected  and  even  tried  to  bribe  the  secretaries,  he 
could  not  get  the  name  altered*  It  should  be  added  that  early 
in  16S2  Carteret,  grandson  of  the  original  proprietor,  transferred 
his  rights  in  East  Jersey  to  Pcnn  and  eleven  associates*  who 
soon  afterwards  conveyed  one-half  of  their  interest  to  the  eari 
of  Perth  and  eleven  others.  It  is  uncertain  to  what  extent 
Pcnn  retained  his  interest  in  West  and  East  Jersey,  and  when 
It  ceased.  The  two  provinces  were  united  under  one  governor 
in  1699,  and  Pcnn  was  a  proprietor  in  1700.  In  1702  the 
government  of  New  Jersey  was  surrendered  to  the  Crown. 

By  the  charter  for  Pennsylvania  Penn  was  made  proprietary 
of  the  province.  He  was  supreme  governor;  he  had  the  power 
of  making  laws  with  the  advice,  assent  and  approbation  of  the 
freemen,  of  appointing  officers,  and  of  grantmg  pardons.  The 
laws  were  to  contain  nothing  contrary  to  English  hiw,  with  a 
saving  to  the  Crown  and  the  privy  council  in  the  case  of 
af^als.  Parliament  was  to  be  supreme  in  ail  questions  of 
trade  and  commerce;  the  right  to  levy  taxes  and  customs  was 
reserved  to  England;  an  agent  to  represent  Penn  was  to  reside 
in  London;  neglect  on  the  part  of  Penn  was  to  lead  to  the  passing 
of  the  government  to  the  Crown  (which  event  actually  took  place 
in  1692);  no  correspondence  might  be  carried  on  with  countries 
at  war  with  'Great  Britain.  The  importunity  of  the  bishop  of 
London  extorted  the  right  to  appoint  Anglican  ministers, 
should  twenty  members  of  the  colony  desire  it,  thus  securing 
the  very  thing  which  Pens  was  anxious  to  avmd— -the 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  an  establishment. 

Having  appointed  Colonel  (Sir  William)  Markham,  his  cousin, 
as  deputy,  and  having  in  October  sent  out  three  commissioners 
to  manage  his  affairs  until  his  arrival,  Pcnn  proceeded  to  draw 
up  proposals  to  adventurers,  with  an  account  of  the  resources  of 
the  colony.  He  negotiated,  too,  with  James  and  Lord  Balti- 
more  with  the  view,  ultimately  successful,  of  freeing  the  mouth 
of  the  Delaware,  wrote  to  the  Indiana  in  conciliatory  terms, 
and  encouraged  the  formation  of  companies  to  work  the  infant 
<tolony  both  in  England  and  Germany,  especially  the  "  Free 
Society  of  Traders  in  Pennsylvania,"  to  whom  he  sold  20,000 
acres,  absolutely  refusing,  however,  to  grant  any  monopolies 
In  July  he  drew  up  a  body  of  "  conditions  and  concessions. 
This  constitution,  savouring  strongly  of  Harrington's  Oceanaj 
was  framed,  it  is  said,  in  consultation  with  Sidney,  but  the 
statement  is  doubtful.  Until  the  council  of  seventy-two  (chosen 
by  universal  suffrage  every  three  years,  twenty-four  retiring 
each  year),  and  the  assembly  (chosen  annually)  were  duly  elected, 
a  body  of  provisional  laws  was  added. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of  this  extreme  activity  that  Penn  was 
made  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Leaving  his  family 
behind  him,  Penn  sailed  with  a  hundred  comrades  from  Deal 
in  the  *'  Welcome  "  <hi  the  zst  of  September  x68a.  His  Last 
Farewdl  to  England  and  his  letter  to  his  wife  and  children  contain 
a  beautiful  expression  of  his  pious  and  manly  nature.  He 
landed  at  New  Castle  on  the  Delaware  on  the  37th  of  October, 
his  company  having  lost  one^third  of  their  number  by  small-pox 
during  the  voyage.  After  receiving  formal  possession,  and 
having  visited  New  York,  Penn  ascended  the  Delaware  to  the 
Swedish  settlement  of  Upland,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Chester.  The  assembly  at  once  met,  and  on  the  7th  of  December 
passed  the  "  Great  Law  of  Pennsylvania."  The  idea  which 
informs  this  law  is  that  Pennsylvania  was  to  be  a  Christian  state 
on  a  Quaker  model.  Philadelphia  was  now  founded,  and  within 
two  years  contained  300  houses  and  a  population  of  2500.  At 
the  same  time  an  act  was  passed,  uniting  under  the  same  govern- 
^  ment  the  territories  which  had  htcn  granted  by  feoffment  by 
*  James  in  1682.  Realistic  and  entirely  imaginative  acxounts  (cf. 
Dixon,  p..  270),  inspired  chiefly  by  Benjamin  West's  picture, 
have  been  given  of  the  treaty  which  there  seems  no  doubt  Penn 
actually  made  in  November  i68j  with  the  Indians.  His  con- 
nexion with  them  was  one  of  the  most  successful  parts  of  his 
management,  and  he  gained  at  once  and  retained  through  life 
their  intense  affection. 

Penn  now  wrote  an  account  of  Pennsylvania  from  his  own 
observation  for  the  "  Free  Society  of  Traders,"  in  which  he 


n 


shows  considerable  power  of  artistic  description.  Tales  of 
violent  persecution  of  the  (fakers,  and  the  necessity  of  settling 
disputes,  which  had  arisen  with  Lord  Baltimore,  his  neighbour 
in  Marybnd,  brought  Pcnn  back  to  England  (Oct.  2,  1684) 
after  an  absence  of  two  years.  In  the  spring  of  1683  he  had 
modiBcd  the  original  charter  at  the  desire  of  the  assembly,  but 
without  at  all  altering  its  democratic  character.^  He  was,  in 
reference  to  this  alteration,  charged  with  sclhsh  and  deceitful 
dealing  by  the  assembly.  Within  five  months  after  his  arrival 
in  England  Charles  II.  died,  and  Pcnn  found  himself  at  once  in 
a  position  of  great  influence.  Penn  now  took  up  his  abode 
at  Kensington  in  HoUand  House,  so  as  to  be  near  the  court 
His  influence  there  was  great  enough  to  secure  the  pardon  of 
John  Locke,  who  had  been  dbmissed  from  Oxford  by  Charles, 
and  of  1 300  Quakers  who  were  in  prison.  At  this  time,  too, 
he  was  busy  with  his  pen  once  more,  writing  a  further  account 
of  Pennsylvania,  a  pamphlet  in  defence  of  Buckingham's  essay 
in  favour  of  toleration,  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  had  some 
share,  and  bis  Ptrsudshe  to  Moderation  to  Dissenting  Christians^ 
very  similar  in  tone  to  the  One  Project  for  the  Good  oj  England. 
When  Monmouth's  rebellion  was  suppressed  he  appears  to  have 
done  his  best  to  mitigate  the  horrors  of  the  western  commission, 
opposing  Jeffreys  fo  the  uttermost.*  Macauby  has  acciised 
Penn  of  being  concerned  in  some  of  the  worst  actions  of  the  court 
at  this  time.  His  complete  refutation  by  Forster,  Paget. 
Dixon  and  others  renders  it  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  allude 
to  the  cases  of  the  Maids  of  Taunton,  Alderman  Kifhn.  and 
Magdalen  College  (Oxford). 

In  1686,  when  making  a  third  missionary  journey  to  Holland 
and  Germany,  Penn  was  charged  by  James  with  an  informal 
mission  to  the  prince  of  Orange  to  endeavour  to  gain  his  assent 
to  the  removal  of  religious  tests.  Here  he  met  Burnet,  from 
whom,  as  from  the  prince,  he  gained  no  satisfaction,  and  who 
greatly  disliked  him.  On  his  return  he  went  on  a  preaching 
mission  through  England.  His  position  with  James  was 
undoubtedly  a  compromising  one,  and  it  is  not  strange  that, 
wishing  to  tolerate  Papists,  he  should,  in  the  prevailing  temper  of 
England,  be  once  more  accused  of  being  a  Jesuit,  while  he  was 
in  constant  antagonism  to  their  body.  Even  Tillotson  took  up 
this  view  strongly,  though  he  at  once  accepted  Penn's  vehement 
disavowal.  In  1687  James  published  the  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence, and  Penn  probably  drew  up  the  address  of  thanks  on 
the  part  of  the  (fakers.  It  fully  reflects  his  views,  which  are 
further  ably  put  in  the  pamphlet  Good  Advice  to  the  Church 
of  England,  Roman  CatholicSf  and  Protestant  Dissenters,  in 
which  be  showed  the  wisdom  and  duty  of  repealing  the  Test 
Acts  and  Penal  Laws.  At  the  Revolution  be  behaved  with 
courage.  He  was  one  of  the  few  friends  of  the  king  who  remained 
in  London,  and,  when  twice  summoned  before  the  council,  spoke 
boldly  in  his  behalf.  He  admitted  that  James  had  asked  him 
to  come  to  him  in  France;  but  at  the  same  time  he  asserted  his 
perfect  Royalty.  During  the  absence  of  William  in  1690  he  was 
proclaimed  by  Mary  as  a  dangerous  person,  but  no  evidence  of 
treason  was  forthcoming.  It  was  now  that  he  lost  by  death 
two  of  his  dearest  friends,  Robert  Barclay  and  George  Fox. 
It  was  at  the  funeral  of  the  latter  that,  upon  the  information 
of  the  notorious  informer  William  Fuller  (i670-t7i7?),  an 
attempt  was  made  to  arrest  him, but  he  had  just  left  the  ground; 
the  fact  that  no  further  steps  were  then  taken  shows  how  little 
the  government  believed  in  his  guUt.  He  now  lived  in  retire- 
ment in  London,  though  his  address  was  perfectly  well  known 
to  his  friends  in  the  council.  In  1691,  again  on  Fuller's  evidence, 
a  proclamation  was  issued  for  the  arrest  of  Pcnn  and  two  others 
as  being  concerned  in  Preston's  plot.  In  1692  he  began  to  write 
again,  both  on  questions  of  (^aker  discipline  and  in  defence  of 
the  sect.  Just  Measures  in  an  Epistle  of  Peace  and  Love^  The 
New  Athenians  (in  reply  to  the  attacks  of  the  Athenian  Mercury), 
and  A  Key  opening  the  Way  to  every  Capaeity  are  the  principal 
publications  of  this  year. 

Meantime  matters  had  been  going  bad^  in  Pennsylvania. 

^  Dixon,  p.  276. 

*  Burnet,  iiL  66;  Dahymple,  L  a8a. 


PENN,  WILLIAM 


103 


Penn  had,  in  16M,  been  obli^  to  make  changes  in  the  com- 
position of  the  executive  body,  though  in  1689  it  reverted  to 
the  original  constitution;  the  legislative  bodies  had  quarrelled; 
and  Penn  could  not  gain  his  rents.  The  chief  difficulty  in 
Pennsylvania  was  the  dispute  between  the  province-W.c.  the 
country  given  to  Penn  by  the  charter — and  the  "  territories," 
or  the  lands  granted  to  him  by  the  duke  of  York  by  feoffment  in 
August  1682,  which  were  under  the  same  government  but  had 
diflering  interests.  The  difficulties  which  Quaker  principles 
placed  in  the  way  of  arming  the  colony^— a  matter  of  grave 
importance  in  the  existing  European  complications^ought 
most  hardly  against  Penn's  power.  On  the  21st  of  October 
1692  an  order  of  council  was  issued  depriving  Penn  of  the 
governorship  of  Pennsylvania  and  giving  it  to  Colonel  Benjamin 
Fletcher,  the  governor  of  New  York.  To  this  Mow  were  added 
the  illness  of  his  wife  and  a  fresh  accusation  of  treasonable 
correspondence  with  James.  In  his  enforced  retirement  he 
wrote  the  most  devotbnal  and  most  charming  of  bis  works — 
the  collection  of  maxims  of  conduct  and  religion  entitled  The 
Fruits  of  Solitude.  In  December,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of  his 
friends  at  court,  among  whom  were  Buckingham,  Somers, 
Rochester,  and  Henry  Sidney,  he  received  an  intimation  that 
no  further  steps  would  be  taken  against  hint.  The  accusation, 
however,  had  been  public,  and  he  insisted  on  the  withdrawal 
being  equally  public.  He  was  therefore  beard  in  full  council 
before  the  king,  and  honourably  acquitted  of  all  charges  of  trea- 
son. It  was  now  that  he  wrote  an  Essay  towards  the  Presait 
and  Future  Peace  of  Europe^  in  which  he  puts  forth  the  idea  of 
a  great  court  of  arbitration,  ^,  principle  which  he  had  already 
carried  out  in  Pennsylvania. 

In  1694  (Feb.  ii)  his  wife  Gulielma  died,  leaving  two 
sons,  Springett  and  William,  and  a  daughter  Letitia,  afterwards 
married  to  William  Aubrey.  Two  other  dau^ters,  Mary  and 
Hannah,  died  in  infancy.  He  consoled  himself  by  writing  his 
Account  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  People  aUlcd  Quakers. 
The  coldness  and  suspicion  with  which  he  had  been  regarded  by 
his  own  denomination  jiad  now  ceased,  and  he  was  once  moi^ 
regarded  by  the  Quaker  body  as  their  leader.  About  the  same 
time  (Aug.  20)  he  was  restored  to  the  governorship  of 
Pennsylvania;  and  he  promised  to  supply  money  and  men  for 
the  defence  of  the  ftontien.  In  1695  he  went  on  another 
preaching  mission  in  the  west,  and  in  Mardt  1696  he  formed 
a  second  marriage,  with  Hannah  CaUowhill,  his  son  Springett 
dying  five  wrecks  later.  In  this  year  he  wrote  his  work  Oh  Printi- 
the  Chrisiianity/in  which  he  argues  that  the  faith  and  practice  of 
the  Friends  were  those  of  the  eariy  Church.  In  1697  Penn  removed 
to  Bristol,  and  during  the  greater  part  of  1698  was  preaching 
with  great  success  against  oppression  in  IreUnd*  whither  he 
had  gone  to  look  after  the  property  at  Shannangarry. 

In  1699  he  was  back  in  Pennsylvania,  landing  near  Chester 
on  the  30th  of  November,  where  the  success  of  Cok>ncl  Robert 
Quary,  judge  of  the  admiralty  in  Pennsylvania — who  was  in  the 
interests  of  those  who  wished  to  make  the  province  an  imperial 
colony — and  the  high-handed  action  of  the  deputy  Markham  in 
opposition  no  the  Crown,  were  causing  great  difficulties.  Penn 
carried  with  him  particular  instructions  to  put  down  piracy, 
which  the  objections  of  the  Quakers  to  the  use  of  force  had 
rendered  audacious  and  concerning  which  Quary  had  made 
strong  representations  to  the  home  government,  while  Markham 
and  the  inhabitants  apparently  encouraged  it.  Penn  and 
Quary,  however  came  at  once  to  a  satisfactory  understanding 
on  this  matter,  and  the  illegal  traffic  was  vigorously  and  success- 
fully attacked.  In  1696  the  Philadelphian  Yearly  Meeting 
had  passed  a  resolution  declaring  slavery  contrary  to  the  first 
principles  of  the  gospel.  Penn,  however,  did  not  venture  upon 
emancipation;  but  he  insisted  on  the  instruction  of  negroes, 
pcrmis^on  for  them  to  marry,  repression  of  polygamy  and 
adultery,  and  proposed  regulations  for  their  trial  and  punishment. 
The  assembly,  however,  a  very  mixed  body  of  all  nations,  now 
refused  to  accept  any  of  these  proposals  except  the  last-named. 
His  great  success  was  with  the  Indians;  by  their  treaty  with 
him  in  1700  they  promised  not  to  help  any  enemy  of  England, 


to  traffic  only  with  those  approved  by  the  governor,  and  to  sell 
furs  or  skins  to  none  but  inhabitants  of  the  province.  At  the 
same  time  he  showed  his  capacity  for  legislation  by  the  share 
he  took  with  Lord  Bellomont  at  New  York  in  the  consolidation 
of  the  laws  in  use  in  the  various  parts  of  America. 

Affairs  now  again  demanded  his  presence  in  England.  The  king 
had  in  1701  written  to  urge  upon  the  Pennsylvania  government 
a  union  with  other  private  colonies  for  defence,  and  had  asked 
for  money  for  fortifications.  The  diffculty  felt  by  the  Crown 
in  this  matter  was  a  natural  one.  A  bill  was  brought  into  the 
lords  to  convert  private  into  Crown  colonies.  Penn's  son 
appeared  before  the  committee  of  the  house  and  managed  to 
delay  the  matter  until  his  father's  return.  On  the  15th  of 
September  Penn  called  the  assembly  together,  in  whidi  the 
differences  between  the  province  and  the  territories  again  broke 
out.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  calming  them,  appointed  a 
council  of  ten  to  manage  the  province  in  his  absence,  and  gave 
a  borough  charter  to  Philadelphia.  In  May  1700,  experience 
having  shown  that  alterations  in  the  charter  were  advisable, 
the  assembly  had,  almost  unanimously,  requested  Penn  to  revise 
it.  On  the  28th  of  October  1701  he  handed  it  back  to  them  in 
the  form  in  which  it  afterwards  remained.  An  assembly  was 
to  be  chosen  yearly,  of  four  persons  from  each  county,  with  oU 
the  self-governing  privileges  of  the  English  House  of  Commons. 
Two-thirds  were  to  form  a  quorum.  The  nomination  of  sheriffs, 
coroners,  and  magistrates  for  each  county  was  given  to  the 
governor,  who  was  to  select  from  names  handed  in  by  the  free- 
men. Moreover,  the  council  was  no  k>nger  elected  by  the 
people,  but  nominated  by  the  governor,  who  was  thus  practically 
left  single  in  the  executive.  The  assembly,  however,  who,  by 
the  first  charter,  had  not  the  right  to  propound  laws,  but  might 
only  amend  or  reject  them,  now  acquired  that  privilege.  In 
other  respects  the  original  charter  remained,  and  the  inviol- 
ability of  conscience  was  again  emphatically  asserted.  Penn 
reached  England  in  December  1701.  He  once  more  assumed 
the  position  of  leader  of  the  Dissenters  and  himself  read  the 
address  of  thanks  for  the  promise  from  the  Throne  to  maintain 
the  Act  of  Toleration.  He  now  took  up  his  abode  again  at 
Kensington,  and  published  while  here  bis  More  Fruits  ef 
Solitude, 

In  1703  he  went  to  Knightsbridge,  where  he  remained  until 
1706,  when  he  removed  to  Brentford,  his  final  residence  being 
taken  up  in  1710  at  Field  Ruscombe,  near  Twyford.  In  1  /04 
he  wrote  his  Life  of  Bulstrode  Whitdocke.  He  had  now  much 
trouble  from  America.  The  territorialists  were  openly  rejecting 
his  authority,  and  doing  their  best  to  obstruct  all  business  in  the 
assembly;  and  matters  were  further  embarrassed  by  the  inju- 
dicious conduct  of  Governor  John  Evans  in  1706.  Moreover, 
pecuniary  troubles  came  heavily  upon  him,  while  the  conduct  of 
his  son  William,  who  became  the  ringleader  of  all  the  dissolute 
characters  in  Philadelphia,  was  another  and  still  more  severe 
trial.  This  son  was  married,  and  had  a  son  and  daughter,  but 
appears  to  have  been  left  entirely  out  of  account  in  the  settle- 
ment of  Penn's  proprietary  rights  on  his  death. 

Whatever  were  Penn's  great  qualities,  he  was  deficient  in 
judgment  of  character.  This  was  especially  shown  in  the  choice 
of  his  steward  Ford,  from  whom  he  had  borrowed  money,  and 
who,  by  dexterous  swindling,  had  managed,  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  to  establish,  and  hand  down  to  his  widow  and  son,  a 
claim  for  £14,000  against  Penn.  Penn,  however,  refused  to  pay, 
and  spent  nine  months  in  the  Fleet  rather  than  give  way.  He 
was  released  at  length  by  his  friends,  who  paid  £7500  in  composi- 
tion of  all  claims.  Difficulties  with  his  government  of  Penn- 
sylvania continued  to  harass  him.  Fresh  disputes  took  place 
with  Lord  Baltimore,  the  owner  of  Maryland,  and  Penn  also  felt 
deeply  what  seemed  to  him  the  ungiateful  treatment  which 
he  met  with  at  the  hands  of  the  assembly.  He  therefore  in 
1710  wrote,  in  earnest  and  affectionate  language,  an  address 
to  his  "  old  friends^"  setting  forth  his  wrongs.  So  great  was  the 
effect  which  this  produced  that  the  assembly  which  met  in 
October  of  that  year  was  entirely  in  his  interests;  revenues  were 
properly  paid;  the  disaffected  were  silenced  and  complaints 


104. 


PENNANT4-TENMINE  .CHAIN 


weir  bushed  *»  while  ah  advance  in  moral  Betne  was  shown  by 
the  fact  that  a  biU  was  passed  prohibiting  the  importation  of 
negroes.  This,  liowevcr,  when  submitted  to  the  British  parlia- 
ment, was  cancelled.  Penn  now,  in  February  171 2,  being  in 
failing  health,  proposed  to  surrender  his  powers  to  the  Crown. 
The  commission  of  plantations  recommended  that  Penn  sliould 
receive  £12,000  in  four  years  from  the  time  of  surrender,  Penn 
stipulating  only  that  the  queen  should  take  the  Quaiccrs  under 
her  protection;  and  £1000  was  given  him  in  part  payment. 
Before,  however,  the  matter  could  go  further  he  was  seized  with 
apoplectic  fits,  which  shattered  his  understanding  and  memory. 
A  second  attack  occurred  in  1713.  He  died  on  the  30th  of  May 
17x8,  leaving  three  sons  by  his  second  wife,  John,  Thomas  and 
Richard,  and  was  buried  along  with  his  first  and  second  wives  at 
Jourdans  meeting-house,  near  Chalfont  St  Giles  in  Budungham- 
shire.  In  1790  the  proprietary  rights  of  Penn's  descendants 
were  bought  up  for  a  pension  of  £4000  a  year  to  the  eldest  male 
descendant  by  his  second  wife,  and  this  pension  was  commuted 
in  1S84  for  the  sum  of  £67,000. 

Penn's  Lift  was  written  by  Joseph  Bease,  and  prefixed  to  the 
iy>\lected  edition  of  Penn's  Works  (1726);  see  also  the  bibliographical 
note  to  the  article  in  Diet,  Nat.  Btog^  W.  Hepworth  Dixon  s  bio- 
Braphy,  refuting  Macaulay's  charges,  appearea  in  1851.  In  1907 
Mrs  Colquhoun  Grant,  one  of  Penn's  descendants,  brought  out  a 
book,  Quaker  and  Cdurtier:  the  Life  end  Work  ^  WiUiam  Penn. 

(O.  A.) 

PBNNAirr,  THOMAS  (1736-1798),  British  naturalist  and 
antiquary,  was  descended  from  ah  old  Welsh  family,  for  many 
generations  resident  at  Downing,  Flintshire,  where  he  was  bom 
on  the  14th  of  June  1726.  He  received  his  early  education  at 
Wrexham,  and  afterwards  entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
but  did  not  take  a  degree.  At  twelve  years*  of  age  he  was 
inspired  with  a  passion  for  natural  h^ory  through  being 
presented  with  Francis  Willugfaby's  Ornithology;  and  a  tour  in 
Cornwall  in  1 746-1 747  awakened  bis  strong  interest  in  minerals 
and  fossils.  In  1750  his  accotmt  of  an  earthquake  at  Downing 
was  inserted  in  the  Pkihsopkical  Transactions^  where  there  also 
appeared  in  r756  a  paper  on  several  coralloid  bodies  he  had 
collected  at  Coalbrookdale,  Shropshire.  In  the  following  year, 
at  Che  instanci  of  Linnaeus,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Upsala.  In  1766  he  published  the  first  part 
of  hi^  British  Zoology^  a  work  meritorious  ratiier  as  a  laborious 
compilation  than  as  an  orij^al  contribution  to  sdenoc.  During 
its  progress  he  visited  the  continent  of  Europe  and  made  the 
acquaintance  of  BufTon,  Voltaire,  Hallcr  and  Pallas.  In  1767 
be  was  elected  F.R.S.  In  1771  wa6  published  his  Synopsis 
tf  Quadrupeds,  afterwards  extended  into  a  History  of  Quadrupeds. 
At  the  end  of  the  same  year  he  published  A  Tour  in  Scotland  in 
^7^9t  which  proving  remarkably  popular  was  followed  in  1774 
by  an  account  of  another  journey  in  Scotland,  in  two  volumes. 
Tliese  works  have  proved  invaluable  as  preserving  the  record 
of  important  antiquarian  relics  which  have  now  perished. 
In  1778  he  brought  out  a  similar  Tour  in  Wales ,  which  was 
followed  by  a  Journey  to  Snowdon  (pt.  !.  1781;  pt.  ii.  1783), 
afterwards  forming  the  second  volume  of  the  Tour.  In  1782 
he  published  a  Journey  from  Chester  to  London,  He  brought 
out  Arctic  Zoology  in  1 785-1 787.  In  1790  appeared  his  Account 
9f  London^  which  went  through  a  hurge  number  of  editions,  and 
three  years  later  he  published  the  Literary  Life  of  the  late  T. 
Pennant,  written  by  himself.  In  his  later  years  he  was  engaged 
on  a  work  entitled  Outlines  of  the  Globe,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  of  which 
appeared  in  1798,  and  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  edited  by  his  Son  David 
Pennant,  in  1800.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  number  of 
minor  works,  some  of  whidt  were  published  posthimiously. 
He  dited  at  Downing  on  the  t6th  of  December  1798. 

PEIRfARf'  or  Pennek,  two  rivers  of  southern  India,  distin- 
guished as  North  and  South.  The  native  name  is  Pinakini. 
Both  rise  near  the  hill  of  Nandidrug  in  M3rsore  stkte,  and  flow 
eastward  into  the  Bay  of  Beng&L  The  northern  b  the  more 
important  abd  has  a  total  length  of  355  m.,  that  of  the  touthem 
being  245  m.  This  latter  bears  the  alternative  name  of  the 
Ponniar.  The  Pennar  (northern)  river  canal  system  comprises 
more  than  30  m.  of  canals,  irrigating  iss>S<>oaci^tt  • 


PENNE*  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Teramo,  26  m.  SJ^.  of  Teramo,  and  16  m.  inland  from  the 
Adriatic,  1437  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901),  10,394.  The 
cathednj  has  been  much  altered;  in  its  treasiuy  is  some  fine 
13th  (?)  century  silversmiths'  work;  the  church  oi  S.  Giovansi 
has  a  fine  cross  by  Nicola  di  Guardiagrele,  and  that  of  S.  Maria 
in  Cdleromano,  outside  the  town,  a  Romanesque  portal.  Many 
of  the  houses  have  fine  terni'Ootta  friezes.  It  occupies  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Pinna,  the  chief  dty  of  the  Vestini,  who  entered 
into  alliance  with  Rome  in  stx*  B.C.  and  remained  faithful  to 
her  through  the  Hannibalic  wars  and  even  during  the  revolt 
of  the  Italian  allies  in  90  B.C.  No  remains  of  the  Roman  period 
exist,  even  the  dty  walls  being  entirely  medieval 

See  G.  Colasanti,  Pinna  (Rome,  1907);  V.  Bindi,  MonumeuU 
degli  Abruxzi  (Napl^,  1889,  pp.  565  sqq.)- 

PENNELL.  JOSEPH  (x86o-  },  American  artist  and  author, 
was  bom  in  Philaddphia  on  the  4th  of  July  x86o,  and  first 
studied  there,  but  like  his  compatriot  and  friend,  J.  M.  Wbistkr, 
he  afterwards  went  to  Europe  and  made  his  tome  in  London. 
He  produced  numerous  books  (many  of  them  in  collaboration 
with  his  wife,  Elizabeth  kobins  Pennell),  but  bis  chief  distinction 
is  as  an  original  etcher  and  lithographer,  and  notably  as  an 
illustrator.  Their  dose  acquaintance  with  WhisUer  led  to 
Mr  and  Mrs  Pennell  undertaking  a  biography  of  that  artist  in 
X906,  and,  after  some  litigation  with  his  executrix  on  the  lic^ 
to  use  his  letters,  the  book  was  published  in  1908. 

PENNI,  GIANFRANCESOO  (1488-1528),  lulian  painter, 
sumamed  "  U  Fattore,"  from  the  rdation  in  whidi  he  stood 
to  Raphad,  whose  favourite  disciple  he  was  after  GiuUo  Romano, 
was  a  native  of  Florence,  but  spent  the  latter  years  of  his  life 
in  Naples.  He  painted  in  oH  as  well  as  in  fresco,  but  is  chiefly 
known  for  his  work  in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican. 

PENNINE  CHAIN,  an  extensive  system  of  hills  in  the  nortli  of 
England.  The  name  is  probably  derived  from  the  Cdtic  ^ea, 
high,  appearing  in  the  Apennines  of  Italy  and  the  Fennme  Alps. 
The  English  S3rstcm  is  comprised  within  the  foUowing  physical 
boundaries.  On  the  N.  a  well-marked  depression,  falling  bdov 
Soo  ft.  in  hdg^t,  between  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Irthing  and 
the  south  Tyne,  from  which  it  is  known  as  the  Tyne  Gap, 
separates  the  Pennines  from  the  system  of  the  Cheviots.  On 
the  N.E.,  in  Northumberhmd,  the  foothills  extend  to  the  North 
Sea.  On  the  N.W.  the  Eden  valley  forms  part  of  the  boundary 
between  the  Pcanines  and  the  hills  of  the  Lake  District,  and  the 
division  is  omtinued  by  the  upper  valley  of  the  Lune.  For  the 
rest  the  physical  boundaries  consist  of  extensive  lowlands^ 
on  the  £.  the  vale  of  York,  on  the  W.  the  coastal  belt  of  Lan- 
cashire and  the  plain  of  Cheshire,  and  on  the  S.  and  S.E.  the 
valley  of  the  river  Tkient.  The  Pennines  thus  cover  parts  of 
Cumberland,  Westmorland  and  Northumberland,  Lancashiie 
and  Yorkshire,  Cheshire  and  Derbyshire,  while  the  southern 
foothills  extend  into  Staffordshire  and  Nottinghamshire. 

The  Pennine  system  is  hardly  a  range,  but  the  hills  are  in 
effect  broken  up  into  numerous  short  ranges  by  vallQrs  cut  bade 
into  them  in  every  direction,  for  the  Peimines  form  a  north  and 
south  watershed  which  iietermines  the  course  of  aH  the  larger 
rivers  in  the  north  of  England.  The  chain  is  divided  into  two 
sections  by  a  gap  formed  by  the  river  Aire  flowing  east,  a  member 
of  the  Humbur  basin,  and  the  Ribble  flowing  west  and  entering 
the  Irish  Sea  through  a  wide  estuary  south  of  Morecambe  Bay. 

The  northern  section  of  the  Pennine  system  is  broader  and 
generally  higher  than  the  southern.  Its  western  slope  is  generally 
short  and  steep,  the  eastern  long  and  gradual;  this  distinction  apply- 
ing to  the  system  at  large.  In  the  north-west  a  sharp  escarpment 
overlooks  th^  Eden  valley.  This  is  the  nearest  approach  to  a  tnie 
mountain  range  in  the  Penoiae  system  and  indeed  in  England. 
It  is  known  as  the  Cross  Fell  Edge  from  its  highest  point.  Cross  Fell 
(J930  ft.),  tc  the  south-east  of  which  a  height  of  2780  ft.  is  reached 
iii  Milbum  Forest,  and  of  2591  ft.  in  Mickle  Fell.  Thb  range  is 
marked  off  eastward  by  the  upper  valleys  of  the  south  Tyne  and  the 
Tees,  and,  from  the  divide  between  these  two,  branch,  ranges  spring 
eastward,  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Weaf,  at  the  head  of  which 
are  Burnhope  Seat  (2452  ft.)  and  Dead  Stones  (2326  ft.).  .  In  the 
northern  range  the  highest  point  is  Middlehope  Moor  (2206  ft),  and 
in  the  southeis.  Chapel  Fell  Top  (2294  ft.),  it  b  thus  seen  .that  the 


PENNSYLVANIA 


»05 


higher  devatioiia.  like  the  tleepcr  dbpet,  lie  towards  the  wat. 
Cross  Fell  Edgetermsmitcs  southward  at  a  high  pass  (about  1400  ft.) 
between  the  head  of  the  Belah«  a  tributary  01  the  Eden,  and  the 
Greta,  a  tributary  of  the  Tees.  This  pass  u  followed-  by  the  Tebay 
and  Barnard  Castle  line  of  the  North  Eastern  railway.  The  hills 
between  the  Lune  valley  on  the  west  and  the  headstream  of  the 
Eden  and  the  Ribble  on  the  east  are  broken  into  masses  by  the  dales 
of  tributaries  to  the  first'oanwd  river  here  the  chief  elevations  are 
Wild  Boar  Fell  (a\2%  ft.),  Whemstde  (2414  ft.),  and  Ingleborou^h 
(2373  ^)*  "Hte  Ribbie  and  Eden  valleys  afiord  a  foate  for  the  main 
tine  of  the  Midland  milway.  WeU-mariced  eastward  ranges  occur 
here  between  Swaledale  and  the  river  Ure,  which  traverses  the 
celebrated  Wensleydale  (9.V.),  and  between  the  Ure  and  Wharfe. 
In  the  first  the  highest  points  are  H^h  Seat  (2338  ft.)  and  Great 
Shunner  Fell  (2340  ft.) ;  and  in  the  leoond  Buckden  Pike  (2302  ft.) 
and  Great  Wheraskie  (2310  ft.).  There  is  then  a  general  ioutheriy 
slope  to  the  Aire  gap. 

The  southern  sectk>n  of  the  sjrstem  calls  for  less  detailed  notice. 
Henthts  exceeding  2000  ft.  are  rare.  The  centre  of  the  sectk>n  is 
the  weU-known  nzk  (qj9.\  of  Derbjrshire.  Both  here  and  through- 
out the  system  the  summits  of  the  hills  are  high  unlands,  rounded 
or  nearly  flat,  consistins^of  heathery rpeaty  moorlana  or  hiU  pasture. 
The  profile  of  the  Pennuies  is  thus  not  striking  as  a  rule,  but  much 
fine  scenery  is  found  in  the  narrow  dales  throughout;  Wensleydale, 
Wharfedale  and  other  Yorkshire  dales  being  no  less  famous  than 
the  dales  of  Derbyshire^  In  the  parts  about  Settle  bdow  Ingle> 
borough,  in  Derbyshire,  and  elsewhere,  remarkable  caverns  and 
subterranean  watercourses  in  the  limestone  have  been  explored  to 
great  depths,  in  Ingleborough  itsdf  are  the  Ingleborough  cave,  near 
Clapham;  the  chasm  of  Gaping  Chyll,  over  350  ft.  deep;  Helln  or 
Hetlan  Pot,  a  vast  swallow-hole  359  tt.  deep,  only  exceeded  by  Row- 
ten  Pot  (365  ft.)  near  Whemside;  and  biany  others  Malham  Tarn, 
near  the  n«d  of  the  Aire,  is  drained  by  a  stream  which  quickly 
disappears  below  sround.  and  the  Aire  itself  is  fed  by  a  brook 
gushine  forth  in  f  ufi  stream  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  of  MaUiam  Cove. 
A  notaDle  example  in  Derbyshire  is  the  disappearance  of  the  Wye  into 
Plunge  Hole,  after  which  it  traverses  Poole's  Cave,  close  to  Buxton. 
There  may  also  be  noted  the  remarkable  series  of  caverns  near 
Castleton  iq.v.).  Lakes  are  few  and  small  in  the  Pennine  district, 
but  in  some  of  the  upland  valleys,  such  as  those  of  the  Nidd  and  the 
Etherorw,  reservoirs  have  been  formed  for  the  supply  of  the  populous 
manufacturing  districts  of  Lancashire  and  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
ihire,  which  tie  on  either  flank  of  the  system  between  the  Aire  gap 
and  the  Peak.  (For  geology  see  England  and  articles  on  the 
several  counties.) 

PBNNSTLVANIA,  a  North  Atlantic  state  of  the  United 
Slates  of  America  and  one  of  the  origLaal  thirteen,  lying  for 
the  most  part  between  latitudes  39**  43'  26*3'  and  43°  N.  and 
between  longitudes  74*  40'  and  So"  31'  36'  W.  The  state  is  in 
the  form  of  a  rectangle,  except  in  the  north-west  where  a 
triangular  projection,  extending  to  43*  1 5'  N.  lat.,  gives  it  a  shore- 
line of  almost  40  m.  on  Lake  Erie,  on  the  east  where  the  Dela- 
wai«  river  with  two  large  bends  separates  it  from  New  York  and 
New  Jersey,  and  in  the  south-east  where  the  arc  of  a  circle  which 
was  described  with  a  12-m.  radius  from  New  Castle,  Delaware, 
forms  the  boundary  between  it  and  Delaware.  The  forty-second 
parallel  of  N.  latitude  forms  the  boundary  between  it  and  New 
York  on  the  N.;  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  is  the  border  between 
it  and  Maryland  and  West  Virginia  on  the  south  and  a  north 
and  south  line  marks  the  boundary  between  it  and  West 
Virginia  and  Ohio  on  the  west.  The  total  area  is  45,126  sq.  m. 
and  of  this  394  sq.  m.  are  water  surface. 

Physical  Features. — Pennsylvania  skirts  the  coastal  plain  In  the 
south-east  below  Philadelpnia.  is  traversed  from  north-east  to 
south-west  by  the  three  divisions  of  the  Appalachian  province — 
Piedn^nt  or  older  Appalachian  belt,  younger  Appalachian  ridges 
and  valleys  and  Alleghany  plateau — ^and  in  the  north-west  corner 
is  a  small  part  of  the  Ene  plain.  The  entire  surface  has  a  mean 
elevation  of  about  1 100  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  rises  from  20  ft.  or 
less  on  the  bank  of  the  Delaware  between  Philadelphia  and  Chester 
to  2000-3000  ft.  on  the  higher  ridges  in  the  middle  section  (3136  ft* 
on  Blue  Knob  in  Bedford  county),  and  falls  again  to  900-1000  ft. 
on  the  Ohk>  border  and  to  750  ft.  or  less  on  the  Erie  plain :  in  the 
south-east  is  aa  area  of  about  6100  sq.  m.  that  is  less  than  500  ft. 
above  the  sea,  while  on  the  ridges  in  the  middle  of  the  state  is  an 
aggregate  area  of  about  2000  sq.  m.  that  everywhere  exceeds 
aooo  It.  in  elevatran.  The  area  Dek>w  500  ft.  is  mostly  in  the 
Triassic  lowland  of  the  Piedmont  region,  or,  as  the  Pennsylvania 
portion  of  it  is  called,  the  south-east  province,  This  is  an  un- 
dulating plain  which  has  been  produced  by  the  wearing  away  of 
weak  sandstones,  &c.  On  the  north  and  west  borden  of  this 
plain  are  two  parts  of  a  chain  of  semi-detached  and  usually  rounded 
hills,  known  as  the  South  Mountains.  The  north-cast  part  is  a 
south-westward  arm  of  the  New  England  uplands,  is  known  as  the 
Reading  Prong,  and  extends  from  New  Jersey  through  Eattoo  to 


Reading.  The  south-west  oart  is  a  north-eastern  probng^tton  of 
the  Vln^inia  Piedmont,  is  known  as  the  Cumberland  Prong,  and 
extends  N.N.E.  through  the  south  part  of  Cumberland  coun^. 
In  the  Reading  Prong  most  of  the  hills  rise  900-1000  ft.  above  the 

ilf 


and  about  one-half  that  height  above  the  surrounding  country; 
In  the  Cumberland  Prong  their  height  increases  to  the  southward 
until,  on  the  Maryland  border,  they  rise  2100  ft.  above  the  sea 
and  1400  ft.  above  the  kdjoining  plain.  Another  range  of  hills, 
known  as  the  Trenton  Prong,  extends  from  the  northern  suburbs 
of  Philadelphia  both  westward  and  southward  throtigh  Chester, 
Ddaware,  Lancaster  and  York  counties,  but  these  rise*only  400-600 
ft.  above  the  sea  and  have  few  steep  slopes.  Both  of  these  ranges 
of  hilb  are  composed  of  hard  crystalline  rocks,  and  between  them 
lies  the  lowland  eroded  on  the  «reaker  sandstones  and  sediments. 
In  Bucks  and  Monrgomerjr  counties  is  a  large  sandstone  area; 
traversing  Chester  county  is  the  narrow  Chester  Valley  with  a 
limestone  bottom,  and  in  Lancaster  county  »  the  most  extensive 
lime^one  plain.  The  Pennsylvania  portbn  of  the  youn^r  Ap- 
palachian ridges  and  valleys,  known  as  the  central  province  of 
the  state,  embraces  the  region  between  the  South  Mountains,  on 
the  south-east,  and  the  crest  of  the  Alleghany  plateau  or  Alleghany 
Front,  on  the  north-west.  It  extends  from  south-west  to  north- 
east about  230  m.  and  has  a  nearly  uniform  width  of  50  m.  except 
that  it  narrows  rapidly  as  it  approaches  the  north-east  corner  of 
the  state.  The  ridges  and  intervening  valleys,  long  parts  of  which 
have  an  approximately  ^rallel  trendlrom  south-west  to  north-east, 
were  formd  by  the  erosbn  of  folded  sediments  oi  varying  hardness; 
the  weak  belts  of  rock  tieing  etched  out  to  form  valleys  and  the 
hard  belts  remaining  as  mountain  ridges.  After  the  folding  the 
whole  region  Was  worn  down  nearly  to  sea-level,  forming  a  low 
plain  which  bevelled  across  the  geologkral  structure  o(  the  entire 
state,  including  the  Piedmont  area  to  the  south-east  and  the  plateau 
area  to  the  rtorth-west.  Then  came  a  broad  uplift  folktwed  by  the 
erosion  which  carved  out  the  valleys,  leaving  hard  rocks  as  mountain 
ridges  which  rise  about  to  the  level  of  the  old  erosion  plain.  In 
Bedford  county  and  elsewhere  the  ridges  rise  to  2400  ft.  ot  more 
above  the  sea,  out  their  more  usual  height  is  1400  to  2000  ft.  above 
the  sea  and  500  to  looo  ft.  above  the  intervening  valleys.  Their 
crest  lines  are  often  of  neariy  uniform  height  for  mues  and  eenerelly 
are  little  broken  except  by  an  occasional  V-shaped  wind  gap,  a 
narrow  water  gap  or  a  rounded  knob.  The  valleys  rardy  exceed 
more  than  a  few  miles  in  width,  are  usually  steep-sided,  and  fre» 
quently  are  traversed  by  longitudinal  ranges  of  hills  and  cross  ridees; 
but  the  Pennsylvania  portion  of  the  Appalachian  or  Great  VaUey, 
which  forms  a  distinct  division  of  the  central  province  and  lies 
between  the  South  Mountains  and  the  long  rampart  of  Bhie 
Mountain,  is  about  10  m.  in  width  on  the  Maryland  Dorder  and  t^ 
the  north-east  Its  width  increases  to  20  m.  The  north-west  part 
of  it  is  a  slate  belt  that  has  been  much  dissected  by  eroding  stresms, 
but  the  south-east  part  »  a  gently  rolling  belt  of  limestone  to  which 
occasionally  a  steep  hill  descends  from  the  slate  belt.  ^  The  Pocono 
plateau,  into  which  the  central  province  mems  at  its  north-east 
extremity,  is  a  continuation  of  the  Catskilf  plateau  southward 
from  New  York  and  coven  Wayne,  Pike  and  Monroe  counties  and 
the  east  portion  of  Carbon  county.  Its  surface  is  underlaid  by  a 
hard  sanostone  and  conglomerate  which  erode  slowly,  and  theeeneral 
upland  level,  which  is  1400-1800  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  little  broken 
except  by  shallow  valleys  and  occasional  knobs.  The  Alleghany 
plateau,  which  extends  from  the  crest  of  the  Alleghany  Front  to 
and  beyond  the  west  and  north  bordera  of  Pennsylvania  and 
covers  more  than  one-half  of  the  state,  is  much  more  dissected. 
In  Tioga  and  Potter  counties  on  the  north  middle  border,  it  rises 
2400-2500  ft.  above  the  sea,  but  from  this  height  the  general  upland 
level  falls  gradually  to  1200-1300  ft.  in  the  south-west  and  ooo- 
1000  ft.  along  the  Ohio  border,  and  in  Erie  county  there  is  a  suaden 
fall  oif  about  200  ft.  to  the  Erie  plain.  In  the  northern,  middle 
and  south-west  portions  of  this  plateau  province  the  upland  is  cut 
by  an  intricate  network  of  narrow  valleys  and  ravines  that  are 
commonly  300-600  ft.  deep  and  occasionally  800-1000  ft.  deep, 
but  west  01  the  Allegheny  river,  where  harder  rocks  have  resisted 
such  deep  dissection  and  glacial  drift  has  filled  depressions  or 
smoothea  rough  surfaces,  the  uplands  are  broader  ancl  the  valleys 
wider  and  shallower.  Most  01  the  Pennsylvania  shore  of  Lake 
Erie  is  lined  with  a  wall  of  sand  and  clay  50-100  ft.  in  height  and 
along  the  foot  of  this  is  only  a  narrow  beach,  but  in  front  of  the 
city  of  Erie  the  shore  currents  have  formed  a  spit,  known  as  Presque 
lale,  which  affords  a  good  harbour. 

The  Pocono  plateau,  nearly  all  of  the  central  and  south-east 
provinces  and  tpe  north-east  partk>n  of  the  Alleghany  plateau  are 
drained  by  the  Susquehanna  and  Delaware  river-systems  into  the 
Chesapeam  and  Delaware  Bays;  the  greater  part  of  the  Alleghany 
plateau  is  drained  by  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahcia  rivers  into 
the  Ohio  river;  the  extreme  southern  portion  of  the  central  province 
and  the  extreme  western  portion  of  the  south-cast  province  art 
drainHd  by  tributaries  of  the  Potomac;  the  Eric  plain  is  drained  by 
short  streams  into  Lake  Erie;  and  a  very  small  section  of  the 
Alleghany  plateau,  in  the  northern  part  of  Potter  county,  is  drained 
Iw  tne  Genesee  river  into  Lake  Ontario.  The  Susquehanna  drains 
aoout  ai  .ooosq.  n.  of  the  state ;  the  Ohio,  Allegheny  and  Moooi^gaheU 


zo6 


PENNSYLVANIA 


V4.747  sq.  01.:  and  the  Dehwftre  6443  fq.  m.  The  Suflquehanna 
Is  a  wide  and  shallow  stream  with  a  sigaae  course  and  numerous 
blands,  but  both  the  Susquehanna  and  tne  Delaware,  together 
with  their  principal  tributaries,  flow  for  the  most  part  transverse 
to  the  geological  structure,  and  in  the  gorges  and  water-gaps  through 
which  they  pass  ridges  in  the  roountaia  region,  is  some  04  the  most 

Eictunssque  scepery  in  the  state;  a  number  of  these  gorges,  too, 
ave  beeo  of  great  economic  importance  as  passages  tor  railways. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  Delaware  river  has  been  entered  by  the 
sea  as  the  result  of  the  depression  of  the  land,  giving  a  harbour,  at 
the  head  of  which  developed  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  The  present 
course  of  the  Upper  Allegheny  river  is  the  result  of  the  clacior 
which  blocked  the  northward  drainage  of  the  region  through 
which  it  flows  and  turned  it  southward.  The  Mononeahela  is  an 
older  stream,  but  like  the  Allegheny,  it  meanders  much,  and  both 
rivers  flow  m  deeply  intxencned  valleys.  The  few  small  lakes 
of  the  state  are  mostly  on  the  Pocono  plateau,  where  they  were 
formed  by  glaciation;  here,  toOi  are  some  streams  with  picturesque 
cascades. 

Fauna. — Under  the  protection  of  a  game  commission  which  was 
created  in  1895,  of  some  game  preserves  which  have  been  estab- 
li^ed  by  this  commission,  and  of  various  laws  affecting  wild 
animab  and  birds,  the  numbers  of  Viiiginia  deer,  black  bear,  rabbits, 
rufled  grouse,  quail  and  wild  turkeys  have  increased  until  in  some 
of  the  wilder  sections  they  are  quite  plentiful^  while  the  numbers 
of  weasels,  minks,  lynx  and  foxes  have  been  diminished.  Squirrels, 
racoons,  woodchucks  and  skunks  are  common,  and  musk-rats, 
porcupines  and  opossums  are  found  in  some  sections.  Two  species 
of  venomous  snakes—the  rattlesnake  and  the  copper-head — occur 
in  the  sparsely  settled  regions.  The  avifauna  include — among  the 
birds  01  prey — the  red-wouldered  hawk,  red-tailed  hawk,  marsh 
hawk.  Cooper's  hawk,  sharp-shinned  hawk  and  sparrow  hawk,  the 
great  horned  owl,  the  bam  owl  and  the  screech  owl;  and  bald  eagles 
are  not  uncommon  in  the  mountainous  regions  along  the  larger  rivers. 
The  "  turkey-buzzard  "  —  turkey-vulture'—  (very  valuable  as  a 
scavenger)  is  seen  occasionally,  especially  in  the  south  and  south-west. 
The  game  birds  include  the  ruflfea  grouse,  quail  and  English  pheasant 
(which  have  increased  rapidly  under  protection),  besides  woodcock, 
snipe,  many  species  of  ducks  and  a  few  Canada  geese.  The  song  and 
insectivorous  birds — thrushes,  flycatchers,  vireos  and  woodpeckers — 
of  this  latitude,  are  well  represented,  and  the  high  plateaus  (particu- 
lariy  the  Pocono  plateau)  nave  especial  ornithological  interest  as  the 
iarrying-placcs,  auring  the  migratory  seasons,  of  many  species  of 
birds  Whose  natural  breeding  ground  is  much  farther  north.  Perch, 
sunfisn,  trout,  bass,  pike  ana  pickerel  abound  in  many  of  the  streams. 
Yellow  perch  are  especially  plentiful  in  the  lakes  on  the  Pocono 
plateau.  Pike-pereh  and  a  few  blue  pike  are  taken  in  the  Susque- 
hanna, where  uiad  are  no  longer  plentiful  since  work  was  begun 
on  McCall's  Ferry  dam,  and  in  1908  the  entire  catch  for  the  nvcr 
was  valued  at  about  £20,000,  but  in  the  E}claware  there  are  valuable 
•had  and  herring  fisheries.  The  blue  pike,  whitcfish  and  herring, 
obtained  on  Lake  Erie  are  of  considerable  commercial  importance. 
In  1908  the  total  catch  on  Lake  Erie  was  valued  at  $200,860,  the 
principal  items  being  herring  (890,106),  blue  pike  (8i5i657)  and 
whitehsh  (831,580).  The  catch  of  herring  was  twice  as  much  10 
1908  as  in  1907  and  that  of  whitcfish  nearly  four  times  as  much 
in  1908  as  in  1907;  this  increase  was  attributed  to  the  work  of  the 
state  hatcheries.  There  were  eight  hatcheries  in  1910  and  the 
number  of  fish  distributed  from  these  during  1908  was  about 
662,000,000;  they  consisted  chiefly  of  pickerel,  yellow  perch,  wall- 
eyed pike,  white  fish,  herring,  blue  pike,  trout  and  shad. 

Flora. — Except  on  some  portions  of  the  Pocono  plateau,  Penn- 
sylvania was  originalhr  well  forested,  and,  although  roost  of  the 
merchantable  timber  has  been  cut,  about  one-half  of  the  state  is 
•till  woodland.  On  the  higher  elevations  the  trees  are  mostly 
white  pine,  yellow  pine  and  hemlock,  but  in  the  valleys  and  lower 
leveb  are  oaks,  hickories,  maples,  elms,  birches,  locusts,  willows, 
spruces,  gums,  buckeyes,  the  chestnut,  black  walnut,  butternut, 
cedar,  a^,  linden,  ptmlar,  buttonwood.  hornbeam,  holly,  catalpa, 
magnolia,  tulip-tree,  iCentucky  coffee-tree,  sassafras,  wild  cherry, 
pawpaw,  crab-apple  and  other  species.  The  flora  is  roost  varied 
m  the  Susquehanna  Valley  below  Harrisbur^,  and  on  Prcsoue 
Isle  are  some  plants  peculiar  to  the  Lake  region.  The  state  rias 
forest  reserves  (918,000  acres  in  1910^  in  26  counties,  the  largest 
areas  being  in  Potter,  Clinton,  Center,  Cameron.  Lj^oming,  Hunting- 
don, Union  and  Mifflin  counties;  and  there  is  an  efficient  department 
of  forestry  under  a  state  commissioner  of  forestry.  A  state  forest 
academy  (the  only  one  in  the.  United  States)  is  at  Mont  Alto, 
where  there  is  one  of  the  three  state  nurseries;  its  first  class  gradu- 
ated in  1906.  In  1909  the  state  legislature  passed  an  act  authorizing 
any  city,  borough  or  township  ofthe  first  class  to  acquire,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  commissioner  of  forestry,  a  municipal 
forest;  and  it  authorized  the  distribution  of  scedhng  forest  trees, 
at  cost,  to  thoserwho  would  plant  and  protect  them,  for  growing 
private  forests.  . .    ,      ,. 

OimaU.—Tht  temperature  is  quite  mild  and  equable  In  the 
•outh-east  province  where  the  ocean  influences  it  and  where  the 
mountains  bounding  it  on  the  north  and  north-west  are  some 

Crotection  from  the  colder  winds.    The  crests  of  the  higher  ridges 
I  the  central  province  are  delightfully  cool  in  suromer,  but  the 


adjacent  valleys  mn  subject  to  emessive  heat  in  summer  wid 
cold  in  winter.  The  mean  annual  temperature  decreases  to  the 
north-westward  on  the  Alleghany  plateau,  but  on  the  Erie  pbuii* 
in  the  extreme  north-west,  Luce  Erie  exerts  its  modecatinginfluence, 
the  mean  temperature  rises,  and  extremes  shorten.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  in  the  south-east  provinos  is  about  ^*  F. ; 
it  decreases  10  50*  in  the  central  province  and  to  47*  or  less  m  some 
of  the  north-west  counties  of  the  Allqihany  plateau,  but  rises  to 
49*  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  At  Philadelphia  the  mean  Cempcra<- 
ture  in  winter  (December,  January  and  Fraruary)  is  34*,  the  mean 
temperature  in  summer  (June,  July  and  August)  is  74*,  and  the 
range  of  extremes  here  for  a  long  period  of  years  ending  with  1907 
was  within  103"  and  6".  At  Huntingdon,  Huntingdon  county,  in 
the  Juniata  Valley,  the  winter  mean  is  30^  the  summer  mean  71*, 
and  within  the  period  (torn  1888  to  1907  extremes  ranged  from 
104*  to  2A*.  The  summer  maxima  on  the  rnountains  are  usually 
8*  to  to**  less  than  in  the  valleys  directly  below  them;  Saeceistown, 
Crawford  county,  is  nearly  30  m.  south  of  Erie,  on  Lake  Erie,  and 
yet  the  winter  mean  is  29*  at  Erie  and  only  2$"  at  Sacferetown. 
and  the  bwest  tempeiature  on  record  for  Erie  is  -"16*  while  for 
Saegerstown  it  is  -:23[^  During  the  period  from  1875  to  1905 
inclusive,  extremes  within  the  state  ranged  from  107*  at  York, 
York  county,  in  July  1901,  to  -42°  at  Smithport,  McKean  oounty, 
in  January  1904.  July  is  the  warmest  month  in  all  parts  of  toe 
state.  January  is  the  coldest  in  some  and  February  In  others. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  is  44  in.  It  is  50  in.  or  more  in  some 
regions  along  the  south-east  border  of  the  mountain  district  or 
farther  south-east  where  the  rains  are  occasionally  heavy,  and  it  is 
less  than  40  in.  in  some  of  the  north-east  and  southrwcst  counties. 
The  amount  of  rainfall  during  the  summer  is  about  3  in.  more  than 
that  during  either  autumn  or  winter  and  2  in.  more  than  that  durinjg 
spring.  In  the  jmountain  region  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Erie 
there  is  often  a  fall  of  several  inches  of  snow  during  the  winter 
months  and  the  rapid  melting  of  this  produces  floods  on  the  Dela- 
ware, Susquehanna  and  Ohio  rivers  and  some  of  their  tributaries. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly,  but  they  are  frequently  interrupted 
by  warm  breezes  from  the  south,  or  moisture-bearing  currents  from 
the  east. 

Soils.'^Tht  most  productive  soil  is  that  in  the  south-oast  section 
of  the  Great  Valley  and  In  Chester  Valley  where  it  is  derived  largely 
from  limestone.  There  is  some  of  the  same  formation  as  well  as 
that  derived  from  red  shales  on  the  sandstone  hills  in  the  south-east 
province  and  in  many  of  the  middle  and  western  valleys,  but  often 
a  belt  of  inferior  slate  soil  adjoins  a  limestone  belt,  and  many  of 
the  ridges  are  covered  with  a  still  more  sterile  soil  derived  from 
white  and  grey  sandstones.  The  north-west  and  north-east  sections 
contain  some  glacial  drift  but  the  soil  in  these  parts  is  not  suitable 
for  cultivation  except  in  the  larger  valleys  in  ine  north-west  where 
it  is  drained  by  glacial  gravel  or  there  is  some  sandy  loam  mixed 
with  clay. 

Agriculture. — Pennsylvania  is  noted  for  its  mineral  wealth  and 
manufactures  rather  than  for  its  agricultural  rcsourors,  but  in  1900 
about  two-thirds  of  its  land  was  included  in  farms,  a  tittle  more 
than  two-thirds  of  its  farm-land  was  improved,  and  in  several 
crops  the  state  has  long  ranked  high.  The  number  of  farms  in* 
creased  from  127,577  in  1850  to  224.248  in  1900.  the  increase 
resulting  in  part  from  a  reduction  of  their  size  but  more  larecly 
from  the  appropriation  of  new  lands  for  farming:  purposes.  The 
average  sate  in  1900  was  86>4  acres.  Nearly  60%  of  them  con- 
tained less  than  100  acres  and  only  about  2-7%  contained  260 
acres  or  more.  More  than  seven-tenths  (160,105)  were  worked  by 
owners  or  part  owners,  and  only  34,529  by  snare  tenants,  and 
23.737  by  cash  tenants.  Hay,  Indian  com,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes* 
fruits,  vegetables  and  tobacco  are  the  principal  crops.  Of  the  total 
crop  acreage  in  1899  nearly  two-fifths  was  devoted  to  hay  and 
forage,  ana  the  value  of  the  hay  crop  in  .1909  '  (when  the  crop  was 
3,742,000  tons,  valued  at  854,633.000)  was  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  state  in  the  Union  except  New  Vork.  Hay  is  grown  in  hireest 
quantities  in  the  north,  and  in  the  section  sootn-east  of  Blue 
Mountain.  More  than  one-half  of  the  crop  acreage  in  1899  was 
devoted  to  cereals,  and  of  the  total  cereal  acreage  32%  was  of 
Wheat,  31-2%  was  of  Indian  com,  24-8%  was  of  oats,  6-5%  was 
of  rye,  and  5*3%  was  of  buckwheat.  The  product  of  Indian  corn 
was  ^,800,000  bushels  in  1909;  of  wheat  26,265,000  bushels;  of 
oats  25,948,000  bushels;  of  barley  196,000  bushels;  of  rye  5.508,000 
bushels;  and  of  buckwheat  5,665,000  bushels. 

Indian  com,  wheat  and  rye,  are  cultivated  most  extensively 
in  the  south-east  counties.  Some  of  the  larger  oat-producing 
counties  also  are  in  the  south-east,  but  most  df  the  buckwheat, 
bariey  and  oats  are  ^wrt  in  the  north  and  west  counties.  The 
dairy  business,  for  which  much  of  the  hay  crop  is  needed,  has  grown 
with  the  growth  of  the  urban  popnilation  as  is  shown  in  part  by  a 
steady  increase  in  the  number  of  dairy  cows  from  530.224  in  1850 
to  1,140,000  in  1910;  the  value  of  the  dairy  products  in  1899 
(835.860,110)  was  exceeded  only  in  New  York.  The  number  of 
other  cattle  has  fluctuated  somewhat,  but  there  were  917.000  fai 
1910  as  against  623,722  in   1850.     Hones  increased  in  number 

*  Statistics  for  1909  and  1910  are  from  the  Year  B^ak  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agricnhure. 


V 

K 

if 

L                     7. 

j»-            M 

«• 

N 

1 

1 

1 

4.* 

a 
3J 

! 

3 

I 


PENNSYLVANIA 


from  3SOi398  in  1850  to  619,000  in  191a  The  naabtr  of  miilM 
Increaied  steadily  from  2359  ui  1850  to  43fiOO  in  1910.  The 
raising  ci  sheep  and  swine  was  of  consideiably  less  relative  impor- 
tance in  1910  than  in  1850,  there  being  1.882.357  sbccpaad  1,040^1^66 
swine  in  1850  and  (.l  12,000  sheep  and  931,000  swine  in  loio^  The 
dairy  business  is  UrjBUl  in  the  remons  around  Phibdrlnhia  and 
Pittsburg,  and  in  Ene  and  Bradfora  counties.  Cattle  other  than 
dairy  cows  as  well  as  horses  and  sheep  are  most  numenxis  in  the 
western  counties,  in  Bndfocd  county  on  the  north  border,  and  in 
some  of  the  counties  of  the  south<east«  Swine  are  noct  numerous 
in  the  south-east  and  south-west  counties.  The  state  ranks  Ugh 
in  the  production  of  potatoes,  cabbages,  lettuce  and  turnips*  and 
it  produces  large  crops  of  sweet  Indian  com.  tomatoes,  cucumbers, 
musk-melons,  asparagus  and  celery.  The  total  value  of  all  vegetables 
produced  in  1899  was  515,832,904,  an  amount  exceeding  that  of 
any  other  state  except  New  York.  A  large  portion  of  the  vegetaMes 
are  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  or  in  the  vidnity  of  Pitta- 
burg.  The  culture  of  tobacco,  which  was  introduced  as  early  aa 
1689.  was  a  small  industry  until  the  middle  of  the  19th  oeiituiy, 
but  it  then  developed  rapidly  except  during  a  brief  Interruption 
caused  by  the  Mexican  War.  In  1909  the  crop  was  30,732,000  lb. 
More  than  two-thirds  of  the  sute's  crop  of  1899  was  (xnoduced  in 
Lancaster  county,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  tobacco-producing 
counties  in  the  United  States,  and  most  ^  the  other  third  was 
produced  in  York.  Tioga,  Bradford  and  CBnton  counties.  Apples, 
cherries  and  pears  are  the  principal  orchard  fruica.   Grapes,  peaches, 

Elums  and  prunes,  apricots  strawberries,  raspberries  ana  k^o- 
erries,  blackberries  and  dewberries,  currants  and  gooseberries 
are  also  grown.  Orchard  fruits  are  most  abundant  south-east 
of  Blue  Mountain,  and  small  fruits  near  the  larger  dties,  but 
about  two-thirds  of  the  f^rapes  are  grown  in  Erie  county.  Flori- 
culture is  an  important  mdustry  in  rhibidelphia  and  its  vicinity. 
TUfe  sale  of  nursery  products,  more  than  one-half  of  which  were 

in  1899 
of  New 
only 
Minerals. — Pennsylvania  is  by  far  the  moat  important  coal 

CKlucing  sute  in  the  Union,  and  as  much  of  the  iron  ore  of  the 
ke  Superior  region  is  brought  to  its  great  bituminous  coal-field 
for  rendering  into  pig-iron,  the  value  of  the  state's  mineral  products 
constitutes  a  large  fraction  of  the  total  value  for  the  entire  country; 
in  1907,  when  the  value  of  the  mineral  products  of  the  state  was 
^S7>783>345«  or  neariy  ono-third  that  of  all  the  United  States, 
and  in  1908  when  the  total  for  the  slate  was  1473,083,212.  or  mon 
than  one-fourth  that  of  the  whole  United  Sutes,  more  than  four- 
fifths  of  it  was  represented  by  coal  and  pig-iron.  With  the  ex* 
ception  of  two  small  areas  in  Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  Penn- 
sylvania oonuins  the  only  anthr«cjte<oal  remon  in  the  country. 
This  is  in  the  east  of  the  state,  and  although  it  has  a  total  area  of 
about  3VX>  sq.  m.,  its  workable  measures  are  mostly  in  Lacka- 
wanna. Luzerne,  Carbon.  Schuylkill  and  Northumberland  counties 
in  an  area  of  less  than  500  sq.  m.  This  coal  was  discovered  as 
earl^  as  1762  near  the  site  of  the  present  dty  of  Wilke»-Barr6  and 
dunng  the  War  of  Independence  it  was  used  at  Carlisle  in  the  mawH 
facturc  of  war  materials,  but  it  was  of  little  conuncrdal  importance 
until  early  in  the  next  century.  In  1815  the  output  was  reported 
as  only  50  tons,  but  it  steadily  rose  to  74,347,102  tons  (viJued  at 
$158, 1 78,849)  in  1908.  Besides  havin|E  practically  all  theantnradtc, 
Pennsylvania  has  the  thickest  bitununous  coal-measurea,  and  moat 
of  the  coal  obtained  from  these  is  of  the  best  quality.  They  form 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  great  Apjpalachian  coal^ld  and  under^ 
lie  an  area  of  15,000  sq.  m.  or  more  m  the  west  of  the  state.  The 
Pittsburg  district,  comprising  the  counties  of  Allegheny,  Washing* 
ton,  Favotte  and  Westmoreland,  is  excepHonally  productive,  and 
the  coal  in  Allegheny  and  Washington  counties  is  noted  for  its 
gas-producing  qualities,  while  in  Favette  and  Westmoreland  ooanties 
IS  obtained  the  famous  Conoellsville  coking  coaL  The  bituminous 
ooal  was  first  used  at  neariy  the  same  time  as  tho  antbmdte  and  it 
was  first  shipped  from  Pittsburg  in  1803.  la  1840  the  state's 
output  was  464,826  tons.  It  increased  to  i,ooo«ooo  tons  in  1850, 
to  1 1,760.000  tons  in  1875,  to  791842,326  tons  in  1900,  to  150,143,177 
tons  in  1907;  and  n^'as  I17.I79>527  tons  in  1908,  when  it  was  3S*2% 
of  that  of  the  entire  country  and  was  valued  at  fii8^8i6,303* 
In  1880  the  output  of  coal  (anthradte  and  bituminous)  in  Rran« 
sylvania  was  66%  of  that  of  the  entire  country;  In  1908  it  was 
48*2  %:  but  in  the  latter  year  the  Pennsylvania  mines  produced 
more  coal  than  the  combined  production  of  all  the  countries  of 
the  worid  excepting  Oreat  Britam,  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary, 
and  it  was  nearly  tour  times  as  much  as  the  total  mined  in  Austria, 
nearly  five  times  as  much  as  that  mined  in  France,  and  seven  times 
as  much  as  the  output  of  Rosria  in  that  yeftr.  Extending  from  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  state  throush  Greene,  Washington,  AUe- 

theoy,  Beaver,  Butler,  Venango,  Cbrion,  Forest,  EHc  Warrea^ 
fcKean  and  Tioga  counties  is  the  Pennsylvania  section  of  the 
Appalachian  oil-field  which,  with  the  small  section  in  New  York, 
furnished  nearly  all  of  the  country's  supply  of  petroleum  for  some 
yoirs  following  the  discovery  of  its  value  for  illuminating  purposes. 
The  miacfal  was  made  known  to  white  men  by  .the  Indians,  who 
sold  it,  under  the  name  of  Seneca  oil,  as  a  cure  for  various  ills, 
•od  burned  it  at  soma  of  thair  cotaoniea.    The  «a^  setaten  is 


107 

ia  also  found  that  some  unknown  people  had  dug 
pits  several  feet  in  d^th  around  the  oil  springs  apparently  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  the  oil.  But  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of 
the  19th  oentury  that  its  value  as  an  illuminating  oil  became  known, 
and  not  until  1830  was  the  first  petroleum  well  drilled.  TUs 
the  Drake  well,  on  the  flats  of  Oil  Creek  at  Tltusvilfe;  it 


ui  about  70  ft.  in  depth,  and  when  25  barrels  were  pumped  from 
it  in  a  day  its  production  was  considered  enormoos.  By  the  dose 
of  1861  wells  had  been  drilled  from  which  200D  to  3000  banvjs 
flowed  ia  a  day  without  pumping,  and  the  staters  yearly  output 
continued  to  incrsase  tmtil  1891,  when  it  amounted  to  31^24,206 
baxrela.  Since  then,  however,  wdls  have  been  going  dry,  and  when, 
in  189s,  the  output  fell  to  19,144,390  barreb  it  was  exceeded  by 
that  of  Ohiow  It  went  down  quite  sieadlly  to  9424,325  in  1900, 
and  in  that  year  Pennsytvania  was  out-ranked  as  an  oU-produdng 
state  by  Oklahoma,  California,  IlKnois,  Texas  and  Oino.  In  drilling 
for  some  of  the  first  oil  wells  gas  escaped,  and  in  a  few  Instances 
this  was  used  as  a  fud  for  generating  steam  in  the  boilere  of  the 
drilliM-engines.  In  some  instancrs,  too^  wdls  which  were  drilled 
for  oil  produced  only  gas.  A  little  later,  about  1868^  successful 
experiments  were  made  with  gas  as  a  manufacturing  lud,  and  in 
1872  the  gaa  industry  was  lairiy  well  esubUshed  near  Titusville 
by  drilting  a  wdl  and  piping  the  gaa  for  consumption  both  as  fuel 
and  light.  The  value  of  the  stated  output  increased  from  approxi- 
matdy  $73,000  in  1682  to  approximately  $19,282,000  in  1888, 
and  the  total  value  of  its  output  during  these  and  the  Intervening 
yean  was  more  than  80%  that  of  all  the  United  States.  The 
industry  then  became  of  greater  importance  in  several  other  states 
and  declined  in  Pennsylvania  untA  in  1896  the  value  of  Penn- 
sylvania's product  amounted  to  only  $5,528,610,.  or  42>5%  of  that 
of  the  United  States.  This  temporary  dechne  was,  however, 
followed  by  a  rather  steady  rise  and  in  1908  the  output  was  valued 
at  $19,104^944,  which  was  still  far  In  excess  of  that  of  any  other 
scate  and  nesirly  35%  of  that  of  the  entire  country.  The  'gas 
reg;ion  has  an  area  ot  about  15,000  sq.  m.  and  embraces  about  all 
oTthe  Pennsylvania  section  of  the  Alleghany  plateau  except  a 
narrow  belt  along  its  east  and  south-east  border.  There  are  de- 
posits of  various  kinds  of  iron  ore  in  the  eastern,  south-eastern, 
middle  and  some  of  the  western  counties,  and  from  the  middle  of 
the  18th  oentury  until  near  the  dose  of  the  19th  Pennsylvania 
ranked  high  among  the  ironH>re*prodndng  states,  As  late  as  1880 
it  ranked  first,  with  a  product  amounting  to  1,951,496  long  totm. 
But  the  state's  iron  foundries  moved  rapidly  westward  alter  the 
first  suocessful  experiments  in  making  pig-iron  with  bituminoiM 
coal,  in  1845,  and  the  discovery,  a  few  yeare  later  that  rich  ore 
could  be  obtained  there  at  less  cost  from  the  Lake  Superior  region 
resulted  in  a  decline  of  iron-mining  within  the  state  until,  in  1902, 
the  product  amounted  to  only  822,932  k>nf  tons,  73*2%  of  wmch 
was  magnetite  ore  from  the  Cornwall  mines  in  Lebanon  ooanty 
which  have  been  among  the  largest  producere  of  this  kind  of  ore 
since  the  erection  of  the  Cornwall  furnace  in  1742.  In  1908  the 
entire  iron-ore  product  of  the  statCL  amounting  to  443.161  long 
tons,  waa  not  I '3%  of  that  of  the  Umted  States,  but  the  productioo 


of  the  magnetite-ore  alone  <343i998  long  tons)  was  more  than  one- 
fifth  that  of  all  the  United  States.  In  the  manufacture  of  pig-iron 
Pennaylvaiiia  is  easily  first  among  the  states,  with  a  product  valot 
in  1906  of  $1 11,385,000,  nearly  43*8%  of  that  of  the  entire  country. 
Pennsylvania  has  extensive  areas  of  limestone  rock  suitable  for 
making  cement,  and  in  Northampton  and  Lehigh  counties  enormous 
ouantitaes  of  it  are  used  in  this  industry.  Natural-rock  cement  was 
first  made  in  the  state  soon  after  the  discovery,  In  1831,  of  deposits 
of  cement  rock  near  WiUiamspart,  Lyoomii^  county,  and  the  in- 
dustry was  greatly  promoted  in  1850  when  the  vast  deposits  In 
the  lower  Lenigb  Valley  were  discovered  and  large  quantities  of 
cement  were  required  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  Lehigh  Canal.  Com- 
petition produced  in  Lehigh  county  the  first  successful  Portland 
cement  plant  in  the  United  States  in  1870.  The  output  of  the 
natural-rock  cement  continued  greater  than  that  <rf  the  Portland  tmtfl 
1896,  but  lor  the  succeeding  ten  yean  the  enormous  development 
of  thetsement  industry  waa  almost  entudy  in  the  Portland  branch, 
its  production  in  the  state  increasing  from  825,054  barrels  In  1896 
to  8,770454  bands  in  1902.  and  to  18,2^4,806  barrels  (valued  at 
$13*890,807)  in  1908,  when  It  waa  more  than  30%  of  that  of  the 
United  Sutes.  The  production  of  natural-rock  cement  was  608.000 
bairds  in  1896  and  only  352,4179  barrels  (valued  at  $87,192)  in 
1908.  Limestones  and  dolomites  suitable  for  building  purposes 
are  obtained  cluefly  in  Montgomery,  Chesterand  Lancaster  counties, 
and  even  these  are  generally  reiectcd  for  onuunental  work  on  account 
of  thdr  colour,  which  is  usnany  bluish,  (my  or  mottled.  However 
until  increased  fiadlities  of  transport  brought  more  desirable  stones 
into  competition  they  were  used  extensively  in  PhiUddphia  and 
with  them  the  main  boilding  of  Girard  College  and  the  United 
States  Naval  Asylum  were  erected  and  the  long  rows  of  red-brick 
residences  were  trimmed.  There  are  limestone  quarries  in  neariy 
two-thiids  of  the  counties  and  great  qnamities  of  the  stone  art 
used  for  flux  in  the  Iron  fumacesifof  ranldng quicklime,  for  railway 
baBast  and  for  road  making.  The  total  value  of  the  limestcM 
output  in  1908  amounted  to  $4,0^7,171,  and  the  total  value  of  aU 
stone  quarried  was  $6,371,152.  In  Dauphin  county  Is  a  quarry 
of  Moish-biown  Triasaic  sandstone  that  has  beea  used  mcadydy 


:io8 


J1ENNSYLVANIA 


especially  in  Philadelphia,  Cor  the  erection  of  the  atxalled  brown 
•to^  fronts.  On  the  Pocono  plateau  is  a.  brge  deposit  of  a  fine- 
grained dark-blue  stone  of  the  Devonian  formation  which  is  known 
as  the  WyoBung  VaUev  stone,  and.  like  the  New  York  "  bloestone," 
which  it  closely  reseoiblest  is  much  used  for  window  and  door  trim- 
mings, steps  and  flagging.  Several  of  the  western  counties  contain 
Carooniferous  or  suoA^boniferous  sandstones  that  are  used  locally 
for  building  and  for  various  other  purposes.  In  1908  the  value  cm 
Pennsylvania  sandstone  and  bluestone  was  $1,368,784.  North- 
ampton, Lehigh  and  York  counties  contain  the  most  productive 
slate  quarries  m  the  country,  and  in  1906  the  value  of  their  output 
was  »3,9oa,9^;  the  Northampton  and  Lehigh  slate  is  the  only 
kind  in  the  United  States  used  for  school  blackboards.  Thoe  n 
an  extensive  area  in  the  south-east  part  of  the  state  containing 
shale  clay  of  a  superior  ouality  for  making  common  brick.  Kaolin 
abounds  in  Chester  and  Delaware  counties,  and  fire-clay  in  seveml 
of  the  western  counties.  In  1908  the  state  ranked  nrst  in  the 
value  of  its  output  of  brick  and  tile  (Si  6,981 743) ,  which  was  14*74  % 
of  the  entire  product  of  the  United  States,  and  was  second  only  to 
Ohio  in  the  total  value  of  its  clay  products  (114,842,983).  which 
was  11-14%  of  that  for  the  entire  country.  Glass  sand  aboands 
both  in  the  eastern  and  in  the  western  sections  and  for  many  yearn 
Pennsylvania  has  used  this  more  extensively  in  the  manufacture 
of  gUss  than  any  other  state.  Defxiaits  of  crystalline  graphite 
are  found  in  Chester  and  Berks  counties.  In  Chester  county,  also, 
is  one  of  the  most  productive  deposits  of  feld^sar,  second  in  impor- 
tance only  to  those  of  Maine.  Soapstone  is  quarried  in  Montgomery 
and  Northampton  counties,  phosphate  rock,  in  Juniata  county; 
rocks  from  whicl^  mineral  naints  are  made,  in  several  counties,  and 
there  is  some  garnet  in  Delaware  county. 

U<M¥factuT€s. — The  state  ranks  second  to  New  York  in  the  value 
of  its  manufactures,  which  increased  from  $155,044,910  in  1850 
to  $1,955,551,333  (faaory  products  alone)  in  1905,  a  growth  which 
ha#  been  promoted  by  an  abundance  of  fuel,  by  a  good  port  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  by  a  network  of  canals  which  in  the  eariy  years 
vas  of  much  importance  in  connecting  the  port  with  the  Mississippi 
river  system,  by  its  frontage  on  Lake  Ene  which  makes  the  ores 
of  the  Lake  Superior  region  easily  accessible,  and  by  a  great  railway 
system  which  has  been  built  to  meet  the  demands  arising  from  the 
natural  resources*  By  far  the  most  important  industry  is  the 
production  of  iron  and  steel.  The  manufacture  of  iron  was  es- 
tablished on  a  commercial  basis  in  1716-1718,  when  a  furnace  was 
built  on  Maoatawncy  Creek  above  Pottstown,  and  before  the  dose 
of  the  colonial  era  I^nnsylvania  had  risen  to  first  rank  among  the 
iron-producing  colonies,  a  position  which  it  has  always  held  among 
the  states  of  the  Union.  So  bi»  as  charcoal  only  was  used  in  the 
furnaces  (until  about  1840)  and  during  the  brief  period  in  which 
this  was  replaced  largely  by  anthracite,  the  industry  was  of  chief 
importance  in  the  eastern  section,  but  with  the  graoual  increase  in 
the  use  oif  bituminous  coal,  or  of  coke  made  from  it,  the  industry 
moved  westward,  where,  especially  in  the  Pittsburg  district,  r 
received  a  new  impetus  by  the  introduction  of  iron  ore  fnom  the 
Lake  Superior  region.  The  value  of  the  output  of  iron  and  steel 
increased  from  $264,571,634  in  1890  to  $471,228,841  in  1905,  and 
the  state  furnbhed  46*5  %  of  the  pig-iron  and  54  %  of  tha  steel 
and  malleable  iron  produced  in  the  entire  country.  The  manu- 
facture of  great  quantities  of  coke  has  resulted  from  the  cfemand 
for  this  product  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry  and  from  the  abun> 
dance  ot  coking  coal ;  the  manufacture  of  glass  has  been  promoted 
by  the  supply  <u  glass  sand  and  natural  gas  m  the  west  of  the  state; 
the  manufacture  of  leather  by  the  abundance  of  hemlock  bark;  the 
manufacture  of  pottery,  terra-cotta  and  fire-day  products  by  the 
abundance  of  raw  material :  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  silk  goods 
by  the  laige  number  of  women  and  gtrb  who  came  into  the  state 
in  families  of  which  the  men  and  bc^s  were  employed  in  mining 
and  picking  anthracite  coal;  and  in  eadi  of  these  industries  as 
well  as  in  a  few  ethcra  the  state  has  for  many  yean  produced  a 
large  portion  of  the  country's  product. 

In  1905  the  twdve  leading  manufactures,  with  the  value  of  each, 
were:  steel  and  malleable  iron,  $363,773,577;  fonqjdry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  consisting  most  lajgely  oisteam  k)oomotives,  metal- 
working  machinery  and  pumping  machineiy,  $119,650,913;  pig- 
iron,  $107455,267;  leather,  $69427,852;  railway  care  and  repaira 
by  steam  railway  companies,  $61,021474;  refined  petroleum, 
$47469.503;  siHc  and  silk  goods,  $39.333<S30;  tobacco,  dgan  and 
ci^rettes,  $39,079,132;  Hour  and  gnst-mill  products,  $38,518,702: 
refined  sugar  and  molacKs,  $37,182,504;  wonted  goods,  $35.683vOi5; 
and  malt  liquors,  $34,863,823.  The  most  marked  advances  from 
1900  to  190S  were  in  worsted  goods  (61*4  %)  structural  iron-work 
(60  %),  and  tin  and  teme-plate  (^'4  %).  PhiUdelphia  is  the 
great  nMinufacturing  centre.  Within  its  limits,  in  1905,  all  the 
sugar  bnd  molasses  were  manufactured  and  much  of  the  petroleum 
was  refined,  neariy  all  of  the  iron  and  steel  ships  and  steam  loco- 
motives wese  built,  and  93  %  of  the  carpets  and  rugs  were  made, 
and  the  total  value  of  the  manufactures  of  this  dty  in  that  year 
was  neariy  one-third  of  that  for  the  entire  state.  Nearly  20  %  of 
the  iron  and  steel  was  produced  by  Pittsbure  together  with  AHe- 
fheny.with  which  it  has  since  been  consolidated,  and  the  productna 
of  these  b  the  leading  industry  of  New  Castle.  Johnstown,  Duquesne. 
McKwport,  Shazoo..Bnuidockand  Dubou.  also  in  tha  wtst  part  of 


the  state  and  of  Reading,  Harrisbtirg,  Steelton,  South  Betlilehein, 
Pottstown,  Lebanon,  Phoenixville  and  Danville  in  the  east  part. 
The  silk  and  cement  industries  are  confined  Iaiig;ely  to  the  easterc 
cities  and  boroughs:  the  coke,  tin  and  teme-pdate,  and  picklir.$ 
industries  to  the  western;  and  the  construction  and  repair  of  r«3- 
way  care  to  Altoona,  Meadville,  Dunmore,  and  repair  of  railway 
canto  Altoona,  Meadville,  Dunmore,  Cfaambenbura;,  Butler  and 
Philadelphia. 

Transport  end  Commerce.-^Tbte  new  road  cut  through  the  Juniata 
region  in  the  mareh  of  the  army  of  Brigadier-Generarj<^n  F orbe& 
against  Fort  Duquesne  in  17^,  was  a  result  of  the  infloerice  cf 
Pennsylvania,  for  it  was  consider^  even  then  a  matter  of  great 
importance  to  the  future  prosperity  of  the  province  that  its  seaport, 
Phtladdphia,  be  (»nnected  with  navigation  on  the  Ohio  by   ttie 
easiest  line  of  communication  that  could  be  had  wholly  within  its 
limits.    As  eariy  as  1762  David  Rittenhouse  and  othere   made  a 
survey  for  a  canal  to  connect  the  Schuylkill  and  the  Susquchanr^ 
rivere,  and  In  1791  a  committee  of  the  state  legislature  roponrd 
in  favour  of  a  project  for  establishing  communication  by  canais 
and  river  improvement  from  Philadelphia  to  Lake  Erie   by  «ay 
of  the  Susquehanna  river.    Before  anything  was  done,  the  need  df 
improved  means  of  transportation   between    Philadelphia  and  the 
anthracite  coal-fields  became  the  more  pressing.     The  ScbuylkiS 
Canal  Company,  chartered  in  1815,  b»an  the  construction  of  a 
canal  along  the  Sdiuylkill  river  from  Phibdelphia  to  Mount  Carboo, 
Schuylkill  county,  in  1816,  and  completed  it  in  1826.    In  1818  the 
Lehigh  Navigation  Company  was  formed  to  improve  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Lehigh  river  from  its  confluence  with  the  Delaware  to 
Coalport,  and  two  yeare  later  coal  was  successfully  carried  dowo 
the  Lehigh  and  Delaware  rivere  to  PhiUdelphia  in  "arks"  or 
rectangular  boxes,  two  Or  more  of  which  were  joined  together  and 
steereof  by  a  long  oar.     So  prosperous  was  the  business  that  in 
1827-1829  the  company  built  a  number  of  locks  which  made  the 
Lehigh  navigable  in  dther  direction,  and  in    1827-18^2    the  state 
did  the  same  for  the  Delaware  between  the  mouth  of  the  Lehigh 
and  Brbtol.    The  Union  Canal  Company,  incorporated  in  181 1, 
completed  a  canal  from  Middletown  on  the  Susquehanna  to  Reading 
on  the  SdiuylkiU  in  1827.    In  1824  the  state  legislature  authorized 
the  appointment  of  a  commission  to  explore  routes  from  the  Schuyl- 
kill to  Pittsbuig,  and  from  the  West  Branch  of  the  Susquehanna 
to  the  Allegheny,  and  in  the  three  or  four  succeeding  years  the 
state  committed   itself  to  a   very  extensive  system  of  internal 
improvements.    Work  was  begun  on  the  system  in  1826  Aid  was 
continned  without  interruption  until  1840,  when  the  completed  or 
neariy  comf^eted  portions  embraced  a  railway  from  Philadelphia 
to  Columbia  on  the^uaqaehanna,  a  canal  up  the  Susquehanna  and 
the  Juniata  from  Columbia  to  HoUidaysburg,  a  portage  railway 
from  Holtidaysburg  through  Blair's  Gap  in  the  Alleghany  Front  to 
Ic^nstown  on  the  Conemaugh  river,  a  canal  down  the  Conemaugh, 
Kbldminetas,  and  Allegheny  rivere  to  Pittsburg,  a  canal  up  the 
SuMuehanna  and  its  west  branch  from  the  mouth  of  the  Juniata 
to  rairandsville,  in  Clinton  county,  a  canal  up  the  Susquehanna 
and  its  north  branch  from  Northumberland  nearly  to  the  New 
York  border,  and  a  canal  up-  the  Delaware  river  from  Bristol  to 
the  mouth  01  the  Lehigh;  considerable  work  had  also  been  done  on 
two  canals  to  connect  the  Ohio  river  with  Lake  Erie.    Work  was 
stopped,  in  1840,  before  the  system  was  completed  because  of  the 
intense  popular  discontent  arising  from  the  burden  of  debt  which 
had  been  assumni  and  because  the  success  of  competing  railways 
was  then  fully  assured.    In  1845  the  state  began  to  sell  its  canab 
and  railways  to  private  corporations  and  the  sale  was  completed 
in  1859.    The  western  division  of  the  system  was  abandoned  by 
the  new  owners  in  1865  and  the  worked  portion  of  the  east  division 
gradually  decreased  until  it,  too,  was  wholly  abandoned  in  1904, 
with  the  exception  of  the  DeUware  Division  Canal,  which  since 
1866  las  been  worked  by  the  Lehigh  Coal  &  Navigation  Company 
in  connexk>n  with  the  Lehigh  Canal.    In  its  natural  condition  there 
were  ban  in  the  Delaware  river  below  Philadelphia  which  obstructed 
the^  navigation  of  vessds  drawing  more  than  17-20  ft.  of  water, 
bur  in  16^  the  Federal  government  adopted  a  project  for  obtaining 
a  channel  naving  a  minimum  depth  of  30  ft.    The  Federal  govern- 
ment has  much  improved  the  navigation  of  the  Monongahda  and 
Al^gheny  rivere  and  is  committed  to  a  project  for  slack-water 
navi^tion  on  the  Ohio  which  b  fcxpccted  to  give  Pittsburg  com- 
munication with  the  sea  by  vesseb  drawing  o  ft.  of  water. 

The  firet  railway  In  the  sute  was  that  built  in  1827  by  the  Lehigh 
Coal  ft  Navigation  Company  from  Mauch  Chunk  to  its  mines, 
o  m.  distant;  but  thb  was  only  a  gravity  road  down  which  care 
loaded  widi  coal  descended  by  their  own  gravity  and  up  whkh  the 
empty  can  were  drawn  by  mules.  In  1823  a  companv  was  incor- 
porated to  build  a  railway  from  Phibdefphia  to  Coiumbb.  but 
nothing  farther  was  done  unril  1828,  when  the  ante  canal  cora- 
missionen  were  diieeted  to  build  this  road  and  the  Allegheny 
Portage  railway  from  HolIMaysbnrg  to  Johnstown.  The  latter 
was  built  with  ten  indined  planes,  five  on. each  side  of  the  summit 
at  Blair's  Gap  and  care  were  drawn  up  these  by  statkMiary  engince. 
Both  tht  Phibdelphb  ft  Columbb  and  the  Allegheny  Portagie 
railways  were  completed  in  1S34.  From  these  and  other  begiit- 
,  nings  the  state's  railway  mibage  gradually  increased  to  1240  m. 
1  itt  1890,  to  4696  m.  in  itTO.  to  8699  a.  In  1890  and  to  11,373  m,  at 


/PENNSYLVANIA 


rc^ 


the  end  of  1908*  whcQ  it  was  eaoeeded  by  only  two  states  ia  the 
Union,  Texas  and  IlUaois.  The  principal  faiUrays  are  the  lines 
operated  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railpoad  Company  irom  New  Yoilc 
tu  Washington  through  Philadelphia;  from  Pniladelphia  to  Cincin- 
nati,  Cleveland,  Chicago  and  at  Louia  thiXMgh  Harnsbdiy  and 
Pittsburg;  from  Bakimore»  Maryland,  to  Sodns  Point  on  Lake 
Ontario  (Northern  Central)  thromh  Harriabun  and  WUliamsport; 
from  VViUiamsport  to  Buffalo  aaa  to  Erie;  and  from  Pittsburs  to 
Buffalo:  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading;  the  Lehigh  Valley;  the  Erie: 
the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Wcatem;  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio; 
and  the  Buffalo,  Rochester  ft  Pittsburig. 

The  state  has  one  port  of  entry  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  one  on 
the  Ohio  river,  and  one  on  tha  Great  Lakm.  Phaladelphia»  the 
Atlantic  port,  exports  chiefly  petmleuffl,  ooal,  grain  and  nour,  and 
imports  ciiie^  iron  ore,  sugar,  drugs  and  chemicals,  manufactured 
iron,  hemp,  jute  and  flax.  In  2909  the  value  of  its  exports, 
S8o,650,;i74,  was  greater  than  that  of  any  other  Atiantie  port 
except  New  York,  and  the  value  of  its  imports,  $78,00324^4,  was 
greater  than  that  of  any  ekoept  New  York  and  Boston.  Inttsburg 
ranks  high  among  the  intcrMir  ports  of  the  country  in  foreign 
<»mmerce  and  first  among  the  cities  of  'the  United  States  in  the 
tonnage  of  iu  domestic  commerce.  Erie  is  quite  unimportant 
araon^  the  lake  ports  in  foreign  commerce,  but  haw  a  large  domestic 
trade  in  iron  ore,  copper,  whuit  and  flour. 

Population.— Tht  population  of  Pennsylvama  was  434,373 
fa  1700;  602,365  in  x8oo;  8x0,091  in  1810;  1,049,45^  in  x8ao; 
i»348,a33  ">  ^830;  1,724.033  »»  1840;  3.311,786  in  1850;  3,906,375 
in  x86o;  3,52i»95X  in  1870;  4,283,891  in  1880;  5,258,014.  in 
X890;  6,302,1x5  in  X900;  7,665,xxx  in  x9to.  Of  the  total  in  1900, 
985,350,  or  x5-6%,  were  foreign-boxn,  156,845  were  negroes, 
1639  were  Indians,  1927  were  Chinese  and  40  were  Japanese. 
Nearly  95%  of  the  foreign-bom  was  oompceed  of  natives  of 
Germany  (2x2,453),  Ireland  (205,909),  Great  Britain  (180,670),- 
Poland  (76,358),  Austria  (67,492),  Italy  (66,655),  Russia  (50,959)1 
Hungary  (47»393)  &nd  Sweden  (34,x3o).  Of  the  naiiv«  popula- 
tion (5,316,865)  90-7%  were  bom  within  the  state  and  a  little 
more  than  two-fifths  of  the  remainder  were  natives  of  New 
York,  Slaryland,  Ohio,  New  Jersey,  Vixginia,  New  £ngla<id, 
Delaware  and  West  Virginia.  Almost  two-thiids  of  the  Indians 
were  in  Cumberland  county  where,  at  Carlisle,  is  a  United 
States  Indian  Industrial  3chooL  In  1906  the  total  number  of 
communicants  of  diHerent  religiouft  denominations  in  the  sUte 
was  2,977,022^ of  whom  1,7x7^37  were  Protestants  and  1,314,734 
were  Roman  Catholics.  There  is  a  hrge  number  of  the  smaller 
religious  sects  In  the  state;  the  principal  denominations, 
with  the  number  of  commimicants  of  eadx  in  1906,  are:  Metho- 
dist (363,443),  Lutheran  (335,643),  Presbyterian  (3aa,54«), 
Reformed  Church  (177,470),  Baptist  (141,694),  Protestant 
Episcopalian  (99,021),  United  Brethren  (55,S74)»  United  Evan- 
gelical Church  (45,480),  Disdples  of  Christ  («6,458),  German 
Baptist  Brethren  (33,176),  Eastern  Orthodox  Chmthes  (33,x.93), 
Mennom'tcs  (16,547),  Congregational  (14,8x1),  Evangelical  Asso- 
ciation (13,294),  Friends  (i 2,457),  Church  of  God  or  "  Winne- 
brenncrians  "  (xi,i57),  and  Moravian  (5322). 

Of  the  total  populstioR  in  1900, 3,3S3,337,  or  «*I  ^  were  niten  (i^. 
in  places  having  a  popiilarton  of  4000  or  more),  7^.846,  or  ia*X5%. 
were  semi-urban  it^e.  in  incorporated  pbecs  having  a  population 
less  than  4000)  and  3,315^33,  or  36*73%,  were  rural  ({.».  outside  Of 
the  incorporated  pboes).  From  1890  to  1900  the  iirisati  popuUrion 
increased  854,730,  or  36%,  and  the  semi-urban  r34i077,  or  18*4%. 
but  the  ruial  mcreased  only  55,195.  or  ^'4%.  The  populations  of 
the  principal  cities  in  1000  were  aM  follows;  Phtladelpnta,  1,293.697; 
PitcsborsT,  321,616^;  Allegheny,  129,896  (subsequently  anneal  to 
Pittsburv);  Scnnton,  xo2,036;  Reading,  78,061;  Erie,  59.733: 
Wilkes- Barr6,    51,721;    Harrisborg,    50,1671    Lancaster,    41459: 


30,321;  Shamokin  (borough),  i8,aod;  Lebanon,  17.618. 

i4(/m/nirfr(iffM.— Pennsylvania  has  been  governed  under 
constitutions  of  X776,  1790  and  1838  ;  the  present  govenunent 
b  under  the  constitution  of  the  i6th  of  December  1873  with 
amendments  adopted  oh  the  5th  of  November  190X.  An 
amendment  to  the  constitution  to  be  adopted  must  be  approved 
by  a  majority  of  the  members  elected  to  each  house  of  the 
general  assembfy  in  two  successive  legislatures  and  then,  at 
least  three  months  after  the  second  approval  of  the  general 
assembly,  by  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote  cast  on  the  adoption 
«S  the  amendmeot,    AU  male  dtiseoa  wu  »i  years  of  ag^ 


who  have  been  dtitens  of  the  United  States  for  one  month, 
residents  of  the  state  for  one  year  and  of  the  election  district 
for  two  months  immediately  preceding  the  dection,  have  the 
right  of  suffxBge,  provided  they  have  paid  within  tw<^  yeara  « 
state  or  county  tax,  which  shall  have  been  assessed  at  least 
two  months  and  paid  at  least  one  month  before  the  election. 
The  Australian  or  "  Massadiiusetts  "  haUot,  adopted  in  X89X 
under  a  law  which  fails  to  require  personal  registration,  by  a 
provision  like  that  in  Nebraska  makes  it  easy  to  vote  a  straight 
ticket;  party  names  are  arranged  on  the  baDot  according  to 
the  n>imbcr  of  votes  secured  by  each  party  at  the  last  preceding 
election. 

BxteuHve. — The  office  of  governor,, superwded  in  1776  by  a  presi- 
dent and  council  of  twelve,  was  restored  in  1790.  Under  the  present 
constitution  the  governor  serves  for  four  yiKirs  and  b  ineligible  for 
the  next  succeecltng  term.  The  governor  and  lieutenant-governor 
must  be  at  least  30  years  old,  atizens  of  the  United  States,  and 
inhabitants  of  the  state  for  seven  years  last  preceding  election; 
no  member  of  Congress  or  person  holding  any  office  under  the 
United  States  or  Pennsylvania  may  be  governor  or  lieutenant- 
governor.  The  governor  controls  a  large  amount  of  patronage,' 
appointing,  subject  to  the  advice  and  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the 
senate,  a  secretary  of  the  commonwealth  and  an  attorney-general 
during  pleasure,  and  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction  for  four 
years,  and  may  fill  vacandes  in  various  offices  which  occur  during 
the  recess  of  the  senate.  He  has  a  right  of  veto,  extending  to  items 
in  appropriation  bills,  which  may  oe  overridden  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  m  each  house.  ^  His  power  of  pardon  is  limited,  being  subject 
to  the  recommendation  01  three  members  of  a  board  which  consists 
of  the  lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  attorney- 
general  and  secretary  of  internal  affairs.  The  other  executive 
officials  are  the  lieutenant-governor  and  the  secretary  of  internal 
affairs,  elected  for  four  years,  the  auditor-general,  elected  for  three, 
years,  the  treasurer,  elected  for  two  years,  and  (all  appointed  by  the 
governor)  the  secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  the  attomey-gcaeral 
and  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  All  those  chosen  by 
election  are  ineligible  for  a  second  consecutive  term  except  the 
secretary  of  internal  affairs.  The  department  of  internal  affain 
consists  of  six  bureaus:  the  land  ofnoe,  vital  statbtics,  weather 
service,  assessments,  industrial  statistics,  and  railroads,  canals, 
telegraphs  and  telephones.  There  are  also  many  statutory  admini- 
strative officials  and  boards,  such  as  the  adjutant-general,  insurance 
commissioner,  board  of  healthy  board  of  aflriculture,  board  of  public 
grounds  and  buildings,  commisdoncrs  of  fisheries,  and  factory  and 
mining  inspectors. 

Z.«MsAtftife.— During  the  cdoi^  period  and  the  eariy  yeare  of 
statehood  the  legislature  was  composed  of  one  house,  but  the 
bicameral  system  was  adopted  in  the  constitution  of  1790.  There 
are  fifty  senatora,  elected  for  four  years,  and  approximately  two 
hundred  representatives,  elected  for  two  years.  Senators  must  be 
at  least  35  yeare  old,  dtizens  and  inhabitants  of  the  state  for  four 
yeare  next,  before  election  and  inhabitants  of  the  senatorial  districts 
from  which  each  is  elected  for  one  year  next  before  election; 
represenutives  must  be  at  least  21  yeare  old  and  must  have  lived 
in  the  state  three  yeare  and  in  the  district  from  which  elected  one 
year  next  before  electbn.  To  avoid  the  possibility  of  metropditao 
domination  provision  is  made  that  no  city  or  county  shall  be  entltied 
to  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  total  number  of  senaton.  Sessions 
are  biennial.  The  powen  of  the  two  houses  are  the  same  except 
that  the  senate  exercises  the  uiual  right  of  confirming  appointments 
and  of  sitting  as  a  court  of  impeachment,  while  the  House  of  Repre-' 
tentatives  inittatM  money  bilu  and  Impeachment  cases.  . 

Judiciary. — ^The  supreme  court  consbts  of  seven  judges  elected 
by  the  votere  of  the  state  at  large.  Minority  representation  u 
secured  by  the  provirion  that  each  elector  shall  vote  for  one  less  than 
the  number  of  judges  to  be  chosen  at  each  election.  The  state  b 
divided  into  three  uibreme  judicial  districts,  the  eastern,  the  middle 
and  the  western.  Tnb  court  was  formerly  very  much  overworked, 
but  it  was  relieved  by  an  act  of  the  34th  of  June  1895  establbhing 
a  superior  court  (now  of  seven  judges)  with  appellate  jurisdiction. 
There  were  in  1910  fifty-ax  district  courts  of  common  picas,  one  for 
each  county  of  forty  thousand  inhabitants  and  not  more  than  four 
counties  in  a  district.  The  judees  of  the  common  picas  are  also 
judges  of  the  courts  of  oyer  ana  terminer,  quarter  sessions  of  the 
peace  and  general  gaol  delivery,  and  the  orphans'  courts,  although 
there  are  separate  orohans*  courts  in  the  counties  (ten  in  1909) 
having  a  popubtion  ol  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 
Justices  of  uic  peace  are  elected  in  wards,  dbtricts,  boroughs  and 
townships,  fn  the  colonial  period  all  judges  were  appointed  by  the 
governor  during  good  behaviour.  The  constitution  of^  1 776  provided 
for  terms  of  seven  yeare.  that  of  1790  restored  the  fife  term,  and  that 
of  1838  fbced  the  terms  for  judges  of  the  common  pleas  at  ten  yeare 
and  judges  of  the  supreme  court  at  fifteen.  A  constitutional  amend- 
ment of  1850  provided  that  all  judges  should  be  elected  by  the  people.' 

*  The  constitution  of  1873  made  provbion  for  minority  repreans* 
tataoB  u  foHova:  **  Whenever  two  ludges  of  the  soprene  oourt  are 


no 

Al  preieat  upnnw  cAuit  jpd 
loclltlble  [or  reekclion.  ^i 


PENNSYLVANU 


, t  audilon or comptnilen, _  ..,  _    .. 

utsnwyf,  ekcKd  Cor  thm  yian.  The  Ihnc  mmmiBionm  ■nd  ihr 
three  Budilon  in  qch  coudly  arc  ehaacn  by  ch«  tvoi  LiinilBd  vdiv 
procoi  lu  th«  nipcinic-ciiuft  judtci,  Ihui  »Uowin(  ■  ffpimnUliw 
to  the  minarity  «rty.  PenmyTvanla  hai  nmerrd  man  pnhaH 
than  any  other  Hate  In  Ibe  Uiuoa  fmm  kpiLilIve  Interfercncr  in 
locil  iil»in.  Under  an  act  of  Ibe  nunt  uKmbly  |iaHnl  in  1S70 
■be  peapic  of  Philadelphia  kcr  Eonxd  10  natribuu  more  than 
tiOJitiiMin  (or  the  oonacmciian  of  >  dly-hnD.  To  (uard  acaimi 
•uch  aKiachmenli  La  the  future  the  conitiiutlon  tit  1B71  imixncd 
the  laent  detailed  Umlutiau  upon  •pccul  legiilatisn.  The  obKCC 
«l  the  proriilaa,  however,  has  been  in  a  bift  meuure  nuHilied  by 
the  avaHni  of  nly  cUwIkation,  under  which  Philadelphia  a  the 
lyoCihefirttdue.  The  puu^e  o[  the  "  RIppci  Bill "  o(  i»ai 
-  the  citiea  of  lb*  lecond  ctiu  are  by  no  meant  itture. 
.-^  .ri^-'-ni  object  of  the  mcasute  wai  to  dcpn\^  the  pco^  of 
PilubuEE  lemporatily  of  the  privilegci  of  icIi'Eovemment  by 
empowenng  the  goveroor  (o  appoint  a  recorder  (in  1405  the  title  of 
mayvr  warn  again  aammed)  to  ewrdH  (unlil  1903.  when  the  muni- 
cipal executive  ehould  be  again  choxn  by  the  pcoplf}  the  Eunctioiu 
of  the  mayor,  thui  removed  by  the  fovcniar  under  Ibis  itatute; 
and  thit  act  applied  to  the  other  diio  ol  llic  accond  clut,  Alleghetiy 
nod  Scrancon.  allhoueh  they  had  not  offended  the  parly  manaien. 

tfiicBEgninu  Loui.— A  woman'i  right  to  hold. nd 

Kquire  pmperty  in  her  own  rijht  1>  Bot  affected  by  r  ui 


vatue  of  #5000,  the  UK  of  oae-balfthe  remaJuiiv  real  c«(ate£or 
life,  and  one-half  the  remaining  pertonat  estate  abtolulely;  if  the 
faiuliand  teavea  a  viU  the  widow  ui  the  cbdce  between  her  dower 
right  aitd  tbc  tCTnu  of  tbe  will.  When  a  wife  diea  Intcetate  leaving 
a  hinbond  and  iwie  the  huiland  hat  the  uk  of  all  her  real  ettate 
for  life,  and  Ibe  penonat  catate  ia  divided  among  the  buBband  and 
.lhj 1. ^a  iian  alikei  U  there  be  no  mac  the  huibaad  haa 


c  of  an  ber  real  eatate  I 


abKlulely;  if  the  wife  leavet  a  will  Ibe  huiband  hu  Ih 
between  It*  temn  and  hb  tight  l^caviteiy-    Whenever 


^Dcy.  adultery,  wilfui  or  maTif ioui  dnertian,  cruel  and  tiarbafoue 
Tatment.  penooal  abuae  and  conviction  of  any  luch  crime  a> 
- — ,    burvbry,    eiabculeoient*    forgery,    kidnapping,    larceny. 


may  be  decland  void.  Fennsylvania  hai  no  hDmcUead  law.  but 
the  property  of  a  debtor  acnajnting  to  $300  ia  value,  excluiive  of 
the  mHrv  apiiarFl  ol  himieU  and  (amny  and  of  all  Bibln  aaj 

by  diiltcH  for  rent';  and  the  eiempiion  extendi  to  the  widow  and 
ehildren  unleifl  there  ia  a  Uen  on  (he  property  for  purchaae  money. 
The  child-labour  lav  of  1901^  forbida  the  employment  of  chQdirn 

ia  manaj^ng  elevator  liTla  or  faoiatlng  machines,  in  oiling  da  nftcroua 

firemen,  engineera,  motormea  and  in  otbcr  pcnitiona  ol  umibr 
character.  The  lame  law  prcKribct  conditioni  under  which 
children  between  fourteen  aadeighteca  yean  of  age  may  be  em- 
ployed in  the  manufactun  of  white-lead,  red-lead,  painta,  phov 
phoFui.  poinnoua  aclda,  lobaeco  or  cigan.  in  mercantile  eatabliah- 
men(>,  etoref.  hotela.  afGcea  or  in  other  place*  requiring  pioicclion 
(0  their  health  or  safely:  and  it  forbida  the  employment  of  bofi 
under  livteen  years  of  au  or  of  gids  under  eiBhteea  years  of  age  in 
inch  factorica  or  oiabliihmenta  more  than  ten  hours  a  day  (unless 
it  be  10  prepare  foi  a  short  dayl  ot  for  more  than  Mty-eighl  hours 


er  shaU  vote  Foi 


.    ,  beimtn  nise  odock  la  tte 

evEniag  and  lii  o'clock  in  the  morning,  ne^l  that  in  the  fanocaet 
nqaitiac  aiaiiBBeiis  night  and  day  employment  boys  not  under 
fourteen  yean  of  age  may  be  cmplwcd  partly  by  day  and  partly 
bv  night  ml  eacecdiag  iriuc  boun  M-any  iwcnly-lour.  The  rm- 
pkmnt  of  children  under  foinwn  ywa  of  age  in  coal-minei  is 

yean  of  age  in  any  Mtton,  oocflen,  silk,  paper,  bageing  or  Has 


(his  board,  appoinled  un 
by  th*  Philadelphia  • 


td  ultimately  Id  the  paasue  of  s 
menl  of  the  Western  f^rilMitiary 
another  of  iBJI  (or  the  establishi 
ia  PhibiMpbia  (inened  1B19)-  In 
arecongregslediui  tbe  latter  thn 
act  oTigfg  provided 


ler  an  acl  of  lUi.  An  agiia- 
by  the  War  of  Indepertdence. 
t  AUefbeny  {opened  18T6)  and 
nc  of  the  utlem  PcnitrntiarT 

rv  kept  in  lolitaFy  confinement. 
Srg  provided  for  a  third  penitentiary  in  the   middle 

ntabtMed  at  HundngdoMopcned  iStol"  The  Houk^°^II|^ 
of  wes(eni  Pennsylvania,  located  In  AUegheny  In  iSm  (art  ti 
tSjD),  became  the  Pennsylvania  Reform  Sehoal  In. 1673.  ami  ns 
removed  to  Moigania,  Washington  county,  in  ISyfi.  Few  stales 
haiT  done  an  mucb  as  Pennsylvania  for  the  humane  and  icicniiic 
treatment  of  its  dependent  and  defective  dasse*.  Largely  ata 
lewlt  of  the  effoiu  of  Dotothea  Lynde  Oia  ({.*.),  a  hupilal  for  the 
inrnne  wa*  eatabUshed  at  Harriaburg  ia  igci  (act  6f  1&4S)-  A 
•ccood  hospital  was  opened  al  Pittsbuif  in  iSM  (ticl  o(  1B4B).  bat 
the  location  waa  ruined  by  Penasylvaiua  railway  improvrments. 
and  in  1A61  i(  was  removed  to  a  new  site  aboul_7  m.  from  the  city. 
which  was  called  DiunonI  in  honour  of  Mist  Dix;  the  hoaph^  b 
Bol  a  slate  instltnlioa,  but  tbe  Kate  provides  For  the  malntenanec 
there  ol  ^tient*  comnutted  by  the  courts  or  the  poor  authorities 
in  the  thirteen  counties  forming  tbe  weatem  district-  For  thra 
e  inatitutionB  have  been  eatahlishrd — ^at 
■■  '"  rren.  ISSo  (act  of  1S73I,  and  Norria- 
of  1901  eatsblisbed  a  hoiDDeofHIhic 


South  Mo< 
minded  of 


l»«,la 


.  i*u(aclotig9> 


:ol,ltoJ).. 


_- -,-  .ecble-minrled  and  epileptic  1 

t  Philsdelphia  and  HdRwood  Park,  an  o 

Boldiera'  Ind  aailon'  home  at  Erie  (igSI 
■dutliial  school  (ISgs) at  Scotbnd,  Fr— >" 
(evens  industrial  school  ' 


Polk,  Venango  eoi 
.  ..« n  Penniylv 
Spring  Cir 


fit^ris 

ind  dumb 
(he  deal 


It  Fhilad^hii. 
dirri'  orpbaat' 

_...,,  the  Thaddcus 

IS)  at  Lancailer,  hoagritals  foe  the 
In.tbe  mines,  at  Asbland  (itTSil. 


I*  appropriaied  for  institutions:  f? 
11.  *l,>Mia8  for  aemi-slale  inat 
il  hiHpitaU.  ft49.50(>  lor  hoioitals 
)oa  lor  homes,  asylums.  &c.   The  r. 


liorate  the  condition  ol  dependent  and  ddinqi 
riptioa  Bch™J»  I-*  "^ 


largely  (hroiigll  the 


public  seh 

, J&,  sdM  . 

rhartet  school.    An  agitation  bcsua  h 
'    1  in  tbe  cieolioa  of  a  sc 

to  lepeal  the  law  in  iBui 


r —  tlie  cieolioaS  a  sdiool  [uad  in 

laji  and  the  &nal  euablishnent  o(  the  present  system    ' 
-~'^— '- in  i8u.  Tbeattempt  toiepeaithelawinieuwai 
(hrougli  the  efforts  of  Thaddeus  Steveos.  who  wi 


Uuad  in 
sipublK 


PENNSYIJVANIA 


III 


cmmde*.    Tbere  n  a  bieattitl  fthool  appvopriation  of  lf9.0oo.00o. 

la   addition  the  district  directors  levy  local  rates  which  must 
not  be  greater  than  the  state  and  county  taxes  combined.    The 
Pennsylvania  state  college  at  State  College,  Center  county,  tras 
establiriied  in  1855  as  the  farmers'  high  school  oC  Pennaylvmniay  ia 
1862  became  the  Agricultoral  College  of  Peonaylvania.  and  received 
its  present  name  in  1874  after  the  income  from  the  national  land 
grant  had  been  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  institutions;  in 
1909-1910  It  had  147  instructors,  1400  students  and  a  library  ol 
37,000  volumes.    Other  (natitutions  for  higher  cdncatioo  are  the 
univeraty  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadelphia  (l749)t  ui  endovMl 
institutioa  which  receivea  very  little  support  Irom  the  state;  the 
University  of  Pittsburgh  (1819},  at  Pittsburg  {o.v.);    Dicldnson 
College  (Methodist  Episcopal,  1783),  at  CaHisle;  Havertord  College 
(Society  of  Friends,  1833),  at  Haverford;  Frankfin  and  Marshall 
(German  Reformed,  185^).  at  Lancaster;  Washington  and  Jcffemd 
(Presbyterian.  1802),  at  Washinjgton:  lafayctte  (Presbyterian.  1832), 
at  Eastoa;  Bucknell   University   (Baptist,   18^6),  at  Lcwisburg; 
Waynesburg  (Cumberland  Presbyterian,   185 1),  at  Waynesburg; 
Ursinus   (German   Reformed,    1870),   at  Collegevtlle;   Allegheny 
College  (Methodist  Episcopal,  1815),  at  Mea^iqUe;  Swacthmoie' 
(Society  of  Friends  (Hicksltcs).  i866>^  at  Swarthipore:  MuUenbem 
(Lutheran,  1867),  at  Allentown;  Ldugh  Univer^ty  (non-sectarian. 
1867),  at  Bethtenem;  and  for  women  Bryn  Mawr  College  (Society 
of  Friends,  188O,  at  Brjm  Mawr;  the  Allentown  College  (German 
Reformed,  1867),  at  Allentown  j  Wilson  College  (Prerityterian.  1870), 
and  the  Penn^vania  Colle^  for  worofH  (1869)*  nt  Pittsburg. 
There  are  theological  seminanes  at  Pittsburg,  the  AUcgheny  Semin- 
ary (United  Presbyterian,   1825),  Reformed  Presbyterian  (1856), 
and  Western  Theological  Seminary  (Presbvterran,  1827);  at  un- 
easier  (German  Reformed,  1827);  at  MeadvUle  (Unlunan,  1844); 
at  Bethlehem  (Moravian,  1807):  «t  Chester,  the  CsMer  Tbeokcical 
Seminary  (Baptist,  1868);  at  Gettysburg  (Lutheran,  1826):  and  in 
Philadelphia  several  schools,  notably  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
divinity  school  (1862)  and  a  Lutheran  seminary  (1864),  at  Mount 
Airy.     There  are  many  technical  and  spedal  schools,  such  as 
Gtrard  Cotiege,  Drexd  matitiite  and  Fnnklin  institute  at  Phila- 
delphia, the  Carnegie  ixutitute  at  Pittsburg  and  the  United  Slates 
Indian  school  at  Carlisle  (1891). 

Finance. — ^Thc  revenues  of  the  state  are  derived  primarily  froni 
corporation  taxes,  businesa  licences,  and  85%  rate  on  colnteral 
lnheritano&  Taxes  on  real  estate  have  been  abolished  and  those 
on  personal  property  are  being  reduced,  although  the  Iwavy 
expenditures  on  the  new  capitol  at  Harrisburg  checked  the 
movement  temporarily.  The  total  receipts  for  the  year  ending  on 
the  30th  of  November  1909  were  128,943,210,  and  the  expenditure 
was  130.021,774.  During  the  provincial  period  Pennsylvania,  in 
common  with  the  other  ooloi^ies,  fsas  aifected  with  the  naper  qioney 
craze.  From  1723  to  1775  it  issued  £1.094,650  and  from  1775  to 
1785  £1.172,000  plus  $1,^50,000.  Acts  were  passed  in  1781. 
1792,  1703  and  1794  to  facifitate  redemption  at  acprecbted  rates, 
and  the  tut  biUs  wore  called  in  tm  the  ist  of  January  1806.  The 
state  was  also  carried  along  by  the  movement  which  began  about 
182^5  for  the  expenditure  of  public  funds  on  internal  improvements. 
(M  turnpikes,  bridges,  canals  aAd  railways  153.352,649  was  spent 
between  1826  and  1843,  the  public  debt  in  the  latter  year  reacning 
the  high-water  maric  of  $42,188,434.  An  agitation  was  then  begun 
for  retrenchment,  the  public  works  were  put  up  lor  sale,  and  were 
finally  disposed  of  in  i8j^  (when  the  debt  was  839,488.244)  to  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  for  87,500,000.  Under  authority 
of  a  constitutional  amendment  of  1857  a  sinking  fund  commission 
was  established  in  1858.  Aside  from  a  temporary  increase  during 
the  Ova  War  (1861^5)  the  debt  baa  been  rapidly  reduced.  The 
constitution  of  1873  and  subsequent  legislation  have  continued 
the  commission,  but  the  sources  of  revenue  have  been  very  much 
curtailed,  being  restricted  to  the  Interest  on  the  deposits  of  the 
fund  and  Interest  on  certain  Allegheny  Railroad  bonds.  The  total 
debt  on  the  30th  of  November  1909  was  82.643.917.  of  %rhich  the 
greater  part  were  3^  and  4  %  bonds,  maturing  on  the  tst  of  February 
1912.  The  sinking  fund  at  the  same  date  amounted  to  82.652.035, 
leaving  a  net  surplus  in  the  anking  fund  of  $8 118.  The  sinking 
fund  was  formerly  divided  among  certain  favoured  banks  in  such 
manner  as  would  best  advance  the  political  mtercsts  of  the  organi- 
zation which  controlled  the  state;  but  just  after  the  reform  victory 
in  the  election  of  1905  the  wnking  fund  commiyion  Instituted  the 
policy  of  buying  bonds  at  the  market  price,  and  the  debt  is  now 
being  reduced  by  that  method.  The  financial  tifstltutlons  of  Penn- 
sylvania other  than  national  banks  are  created  by  state  diartees 
limited  to  twenty  years  and  are  subject  to  the  supervision  of  a 
commisuoner  of  banking. 

HisUty.—'nM  chief  featuras  of  Peniuylvanui  history  in 
colonial  days  were  tbe  prodominance  of  Quaker  influeace,  the 
hetecogenoous  character  of  the  population,  liberality  in  roatters 
of  religioD.  and  the  fact  that  it  was  the  largest  and  the  most 
successful  of  prpprieUry  provinces.  The  earliest  European 
settlements  within  the  present  limits  of  the  sUte  were  some  small 
trading  posts  csUblishcd  by  the  Swedes  and  the  Dutch  in  the 


lower  viUqr  of  the  DeUime  River  in  idaj-i^t.  Betweea 
i6$t>  and  x66o  Geoise  Foi  end  a  few  other  pxominent  membeis 
of  the  Sodety  of  Friends  bad  begun  touige  the  establisbnent 
of  a  odony  in  AiMrica  to  serve  as  a  refuge  for  Quakers  who  were 
suffering  peisecution  uader  the  "  (^arendon  Oxie.*'  William 
Pean  (9.11!)  became  interested  in  the  plan  at  least  as  t»i]^'  as 
x666.  For  his  charteis  of  1680-1682  and  the  growth  of  the 
colony  under  htm  see  Pckm,  Wiluail 

OutingPenn's  life  the  colony  was  involved  in  serious  bouadaiy 
(tisputes  with  Maryland,  Virginia  and  New  York.  A  decree  iH 
Lord  Chancellor  Hazdwicie,  in  1750.  settled  the  Maryland- 
Delaware  dispute  and  led  to  the  survey  in  1763-1767  of  the 
boundary  between  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  (lat.  39*  43' 
36>3'  N.),  called  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line  in  honour  of  the 
surveyors;  it  acquired  considerable  importance  later  as  s^Mixat- 
iog  the  fciee  and  the  slave  states.  In  1784  Virginia  agreed  to 
the  extension  of  the  line  and  U>  the  establishment  of  the  western 
limit  <the  present  boundary  between  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio) 
•a  the  BMiidian  from  a  point  on  the  Mason  and  Dixon  Une  five 
degrees  of  longitude  west  of  the  Delaware  river.  The  4and 
parallel  was  finally  selected  as  the  northern  boundary  in  1789^ 
in  1792  the  Federal  govetnment  sold  to  Pennsylvania  the 
small  triangular  atrip*  of  territoiy  north  of  it  on  Lake  Eric.  A 
territorial  dispute  with  Connecticut  over  the  Wyoming  Valley 
was  settled  in  favour  of  Pennsylvania  in  1782  by  a  court  of 
arbitration  appointed  by  the  Continental  Congress. 

Upon  WilUam  Penn'a  death,  his  widow  became  proprietary. 
Sir  William  Keith,  her  deputy^  was  hostile  to  the  council,  which 
he  prtctically  abolished,  and  was  popular  with  the  assembly, 
which  he  assiduously  courted,  but  was  discharged  by  Mrs  Pena 
after  he  had  quarrelled  with  James  Logan,  secretazy  of  the 
provitace*  His  successors,  Patrick  (jordon  and  George  Thomas, 
under  the  proprietorship  of  John,  Thomas  and  Richard  Penn, 
coBtintted  Keith's  popular  policy  of  issuing  a  plentiful  paper 
currency ;  but  with  Thomas  the  assembly  renewed  its  old  struggle, 
refusing  to  grant  him  a  salary  or  supplies  because  of  bis  efforts 
to  fotce  the  colony  Into  supporting  the  Spanish  War.  Again, 
during  the  Seven  Yeais'  War  the  assembly  withstood  the  gov- 
ernor, Robert  Hunter  Morris,  in  the  matter  of  grants  for  military 
expenses.  But  the  assembly  did  its  part  in  assisting  Gcnerid 
Bnuldock  to  outfit;  and  after  Braddock's  defeat  aU  western 
Pennsylvania  suffered  terribly  from  Indian  attacks.  After  the 
proprietors  subscribed  £5000  for  the  protection  of  the  colony 
the  assembly  momentarily  gave  up  its  contest  for  a  tax  on  the 
pcopnetaxy  estates  and  consented  to  pass  a  money  bill,  without 
this  provision,  for  the  expenses  of  the  war.  But  in  1760  the 
assembly,  with  the  help  of  Benjamin  Franklin  as  agent  in 
En^and,  won  the  great  victoiy  of  fordng  the  proprietors  to 
pay  a  tax  (£566)  to  the  colony;  and  thereafter  the  assembly 
had  little  te  contest  for,  and  the  degree  of  civil  liberty  attained 
in  the  province  was  very  high.  But  the  growing  power  of  the 
Scotch>Irish,  the  resentment  of  the  (Quakers  against  the  pro- 
prietors for  .having  gone  back  to  the  Church  of  England  and 
inany  other  dicumstances  strengthened  the  anti-pioprietary 
power,  and  the  assembly  strove  to  abolish  the  proprietorship 
and  establish  a  royal  province;  John  Dickinson  was  the  able 
leader  of  the  party  which  defended  the  proprietors;  and  Joseph 
Galloway  and  Benjamin  Franklin  were  the  leaders  of  the 
anti-pcoprietajry  party,  which  was  greatly  weakened  at  home 
by  the  absence  after  December  1764  of  Franklin  in  England 
as  (Its  agent.  The  question  lost  importance  as  independence 
became  the  issue. 

In  1755  a  volunteer  militia  had  been  created  and  was  led  with 
great  success  by  Benjamin  Franklin;  and  in  1756  a  line  of  forts 
was  begun  to  hold  the  Indians  in  check.  In  the  same  year  a 
force  of  pioneers  under  John  Armstrong  of  Carlisle  surprised 
and  destroyed  the  Indian  village  of  Kittanning  (or  Atiqu£) 
on  the  AU^heny  river.  But  the  frontier  was  disturbed  by 
Indian  attacks  until  the  suppression  of  Pontiac's  conspiracy. 
In  December  1763  six  Christian  Indians,  Concstogas,  were 
massacred  by  the  "  Paxton  boys "  from  Paxton  near  the 
present  Harrisburg;  the  Indians  whp  had  escaped  were,  taken 


tI8 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Co  Lancaster  for  safe  keeping  Imt  were  aeZzed  and  killed  by  the 
**  Paxton  boys  "  who  with  other  backwoodsmen  marched  upon 
Pbiladdiphia  early  in  1764,  but  Quakers  and  Germans  gathered 
quickly  to  protect  it  and  dvtl  war  was  averted,  largely  by  the 
diplomacy  of  Franklin.  The  Paxton  massacre  narked  the  dose 
of  Quaker  supremacy  and  the  beginning  of  the  predominance  of 
the  Scotch-Irish  pioneers. 

Owing  to  its  central  position,  its  liberal  government,  and  its 
policy  of  religious  toleration,  Pennsylvania  had  become  during 
the  i8th  century  a  refuge  for  European  immigrants,  especially 
persecuted  sectaries.  In  no  other  colony  were  so  many  ctiflerent 
races  and  religions  represented.  There  were  Dutch,  Swedes, 
English,  G^mans,  Welsh,  Irish  and  Scotch-Irish;  Quakers, 
Presbyterians,  Episcopalians,  Catholics,  Lutherans  (Reformed), 
Mennonites,  Dunkers,  Schwenkfelders,  and  Moravians.  Most 
of  these  elements  have  now  become  merged  in  the  general  type, 
but  there  are  still  many  communities  in  which  the  popular 
language  is  a  corrupt  German  dialect,  largely  Rheno-iFrsnconian 
hi  its  origin,  known  as  '*  Pennsylvania  Dutch."  Before  the 
Seven  Years^  War  the  Quakers  dominated  the  government, 
but  from  that  time  until  the  failure  of  the  Whisky  Insurrection 
(1794)  the  more  beUigerent  Seotch-Irish  (mostly  Presbyterians) 
were  usuaHy  in  the  ascendancy,  the  reasons  bdng  the  growing 
numerical  strength  of  the  Scotch-Irish  and  the  increasing 
dissatisfaction  with  Quaker  neglect  -of  means  of  defending  the 
province. 

As  the  central  colony,  Pennsylvania's  attitude  in  the  struggle 
with  the  mother  country  was  of  vast  importance.  The  British 
party  was  strong  because  of  the  loyaky  of  the  large  Church  of 
England  element,  the  neutrality  of  many  (Quakers,  Dunkers, 
and  Mennonites,  and  a  general  satisfaction  with  the  liberal  and 
free  government  of  the  province,  which  had  been  won  gradually 
and  had  not  suffered  such  catastrophic  reverses  as  had  em> 
bittered  the  people  of  Massachusetts,  for  instance  But  the 
Whig  party  under  the  lead  of  John  Dickinson,  Thomas  Mifflin 
and  Joseph  Reed  was  successful  in  the  state,  and  Pennsylvania 
contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of  the  War  of  Independence, 
by  the  important  services  rendered  by  her  statesmen,  by 
providing  troops  and  by  the  financial  ud  given  by  Robert 
Morris  iq.v.).  The  two  Continental  Congresses  (1774,  and 
1 775-1 781)  met  in  Philadelphia,  except  for  the  months  when 
Philadelphia  was  occupied  by  the  British  army  and  Congress 
met  in  Lancaster  and  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  then  in  Prince* 
ton.  New  Jersey.  In  Philadelphia  the  second  Congress  adopted 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  which  the  Penns^vania 
delegation,  excepting  Frankb'n,  thought  premature  at  the  time, 
but  which  was  well  supported  by  Pennsylvania  afterwards. 
During  the  War  of  Independence  battles  were  fought  at  Bnaidy> 
wine  (1777),  Paoli  (1777),  Fort  Mifflin  (1777)  «nd  Germantown 
(1777),  and  Washington's  army  spent  the  winter  d  1777-1778 
at  Valley  Forge;  and  Philadelphia  was  occupied  by  the  British 
from  the  a6th  of  September  1777  to  the  i8th  of  June  1778. 
The  Penns  lost  their  governmental  rights  in  1776,  and  three 
years  later  their  territorial  interests  were  vested  in  the  common- 
wealth in  return  for  a  grant  of  £x3o,ooo  and  the  guarantee  of 
titles  to  private  estates  held  in  severalty.  They  still  own  con- 
siderable property  in  and  around  WOkes-Barri,  in  Luzerne 
county,  and  in  Philadelphia.  The  first  state  constitution  of 
September  1 776  was  the  work  of  the  Radical  party.  It  deprived 
the  Quakers  of  their  part  in  the  control  erf  the  government 
kttd  forced  many  Conservatives  into  the  Loyalist  party.  This 
first  state  constitution  was  never  submitted  to  popular  vote. 
It  continued  the  unicameral  legislative  system,  abolished  the 
office  of  governor,  and  provided  for  an  executive  councfl  of 
twelve  members.  It  also  created  a  curious  body,  known  as  the 
council  of  censors,  whose  duty  it  was  to  assemble  once  in  seven 
ycata  to  decide  whether  there  had  been  any  infringements  of 
the  fundamental  law.  The  party  which  had  carried  this  con- 
stitution through  attacked  its  opponents  by  withdrawing  the 
charter  of  the  college  of  Philadelphia  (now  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania)  because  its  trustees  were  anti-Constitotlondists 
and  creating  in  its  place  a  university  of  the  state  of  Pennsyl- 


vania. The  Constitutional  party  in  1785  secured  the  annolmcBt 
by  the  state  assembly  of  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  North 
America,  which  still  retained  a  congressional  charter;  and  the 
cause  of  this  action  also  seems  to  have  been  party  feeling  against 
the  anti-Constitutionalists,  among  whom  Robert  Morris  of  the 
bank  was  a  leader,  and  who,  especially  Morris,  had  opposed  the 
paper  money  policy  of  the  (Constitutionalists.  These  actions 
of  the  state  assembly  against  the  college  and  the  bank  probably 
were  iaomediate  causes  for  the  insertion  in  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion (adopted  by  the  convention  in  Philadelphia  in  1787)  of  the 
clause  (proposed  by  James  Wilson  of  Pennsylvania,  a  friend 
of  the  college  and  of  the  bank)  forbidding  any  state  to  pass  a 
law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts.  The  state  ratified  the 
Federal  Constitution,  in  spite  of  a  powerful  opposition — ^largely 
the  old  (state)  Constitutional  party— on  the  32nd  of  December 
1787,  axul  three  years  later  revised  its  own  constitution  to  make 
it  conform  to  that  docimient*  Under  the  constitution  of  1790 
the  office  of  governor  was  restored,  the  executive  council  and 
the  council  of  censors  were  abolished,  and  the  bicameral  Ic^gis- 
lative  system  was  adopted.  Philadelphia  was  the  seat  of  the 
Federal  govenmient,  except  for  a  brief  period  in  1789-1790^ 
until  the  removal  to  Wa^ington  in  1800.  The  state  capital 
was  removed  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster  in  1799  and  from 
Lancaster  to  Haxrisburg  in  z8i2. 

The  state  was  the  scene  of  the  Scotch-Irish  revolt  of  1794 
against  the  Federal  excise  tax,  known  as  the  Whisky  Insurrection 
(9.v.)and  of  the  German  protest  (1799)  against  the  house  tax, 
known  as  the  Fries  Rebellion  from  its  leader  John  Fries  (q.v.). 
In  1838  as  the  result  of  a  disputed  election  to  the  state  house  of 
representatives  two  houses  were  organized,  one  Whig  and  the 
other  Democratic,  and  there  was  open  violence  in  Harrisburg. 
The  conflict  has  been  called  the  "  Buckshot  War."  The  Whig 
House  of  Representatives  gradually  broke  up,  many  members 
going  over  to  the  Democratic  house,  which  had  possession  of 
the  records  and  the  chamber  and  was  recognized  by  the  state 
Senate.  Pennsylvania  was  usually  Democratic  before  the 
Civil  War  owing  to  the  democratic  character  of  its  country 
population  and  to  the  close  commercial  relations  between 
Philadelphia  and  the  South.  The  growth  of  the  protectionist 
movement  and  the  development  of  anti^avery  sentiment, 
however,  drew  it  in  the  opposite  direction^  and  it  voted  the 
Whig  national  ticket  in  1840  and  in  184B,  and  the  Republican 
ticket  for  Lincoln  in  i86a  A  split  arbong  the  Democrats  in 
1835,  due  to  the  opposition  of  the  Germans  to  internal  improve* 
ments  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  public  school  system, 
resulted  in  the  dection  aa  governor  of  Joseph  Ritner,  the  AnU* 
Masonic  candidate.  The  anti-Masonic  excitement  subsid«i 
as  quickly  as  it  had  risen,  and  under  the  leadership  of  Thaddeus 
Stevens  the  party  soon  became  merged  with  the  Whigs.  During 
the  Civil  War  (1861-65)  the  state  gave  to  the  Union  336,000 
soldiers;  and  Generals  McOelian,  Hancock,  Meade  and  Reyndds 
and  Admirak  Porter  and  Dahlgren  were  natives  of  the  state. 
Its  nearness  to  the  field  of  war  made  its  position  dangerous. 
Chambersburg  was  burned  in  1862;  and  the  battle  of  Gett>'s> 
burg  (July  1863),  a  defeat  of  Lee*s  attempt  to  invade  the  North 
in  force  was  a  turning  point  in  the  war. 

The  development  of  the  material  resources  of  the  state  since 
1865  has  been  accompanied  by  several  serious  ickdustrial  dis- 
turbances. The  railway  riots  of  1877,  which  centred  at  Pittsburg 
and  Reading,  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  about  two  thousand 
freight  cars  and  a  considerable  amount  of  other  property.  An 
organized  association,  known  as  the  MoUy  Maguirea  (f.v.), 
terrorized  the  mining  reg^ns  for  many  years,  but  was  finally 
suppressed  through  the  Courageous  efforts  of  President  Franklin 
Benjamin  Gowen  (1863-1889)  of  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  rail- 
road with  the  assistance  of  Allan  Pinkerton  and  his  detectives. 
There  have  been  mim'ng  strikes  at  Scranton  (1871),  in  the  Lehigh 
and  Schuylkill  regions  (1875),  at  Hazleton  (1897),  and  one  in  the 
anthraeite  fields  (1902)  which  was  settled  by  a  board  of  arbitra< 
tors  appointed  by  President  Roosevelt;  and  there  were  street 
railway  strikes  at  CThestcr  in  1908  and  in  Philadelphia  in  t9ta 
The  caflhig  in  of  Pinkerton  detectives  from  Chicago  and  New 


EENNSyLVANIA: 


York  toieUlea*tiiUiDlteCuaecIcit«l«oiUil  Uniutw!  ' 
in  iSgi  ivecipitfttcd  a  sorioid  riot,  id  which  aboat  twenty  penoBE 
were  kill«L  It  vai  aecmuy  to  oil  eul  too  bclffda  d 
the  ilUB  miUtil  before  the  daordsr  w»  finally  wippKWtii. 
The  labour  imioBi  UiOk  advantage  of  tU>  traabk  to  foTci 
Pcnniylvania,  Indiana,  lUinou,  MiimcBta,  Colondo  ud  KvenI 
oLhei  ilatea  to  pia  anli-PiDkectan  lUtuiti  miking  it  illegal  U 
imparl  irrofNuible  aimed  nun  fiDm  a  diuance  10  quell  local 
dltluibanco.  On  the  political  aide  the  chief  fcitun*  in  tlH 
hiilDi>  of  the  iiate  lince  iB6j  have  been  the  adopiioii  of  th< 
conititution  ot  iSj],  the  growth  of  the  Cameron-Quay-Paaiofi 
polilicil  machine,  and  the  attempti  of  the  TcfDnner*  ta  ovfT 
throw  iU  dominllion.  The  conititulion  ofigjS,  whldl  luper 
teded  thai  of  i;go;  cilended  the  functions  of  the  legidatuie 
limilcd  the  govcmor^i  power  of  appointmenL,  aiul  deprived 
negroB  of  the  right  of  auftrage.  The  provisioD  lait  mentioned 
mi  DuHihed  by  the  fourteenth  and  filteenlh  amsBdmenli  tc 
tbe  csnstilution  of  the  United  States.     The  chief  obfect  of  ihi 

IcgDialioa,  It  increased  the  number  of  acnaloit  and  roproen^ 
Utivn,  cIEalcd  tlie  office  of  lieutenanl-gavanwr,  lubslitutnj 
bioiaial  for  annual  Miaiona  of  the  legialature,  introduced  DainoriI> 
r^re^ntatiott  id  the  choice  of  the  higher  judiduy  and  of  thi 
county  commlssjQoera  and  auditors  uid  pinvided  (■&  had  an 
amendcient  tdoi^ed  in  1E50)  for  the  dectioo  of  all  Judge*  b) 
poputar  vote.  The  political  Drgtniaatlon  (oimded  by  Simoi 
Cameron  (g-v.)  ud  iliEuglbened  by  bis  ton,  Juaci  Donalii 
Cameron,  Matthew  Stanley  Qnay  and  Boici  PeBrote  (h.  iBdo), 
ia  based  upon  the  control  of  patRvige,  tbe  diiirihutlon  of  siaU 
funds  aiDOng  favoured  banks,  the  luppoft  of  the  Pmnylvanla 
railway  and  olber  great  corporatiora,  and  upon  the  ability  ol 
ih^  leaden  to  peisuade  the  elecioTs  that  it  is  nenssary  to  vote 
tho  sttaight  Rej»bli<»n  ticket  to  save  the  protective  syaletn, 
Robert  E.  Paitiaon  (1850-1904).  a  Democrat,  wa*  dieted 
governM  in  iSSj  and  again  in  1^1,  but  he  wu  handloppcd  by 
Hepublican  legislatun].    Id  190;  a  Democialii:  (tale  treasuei 

PENHSTLVAHia  Coviaxoas. 

Under  Dutch  Rule  (iGi4-i««4).i 

Cnrnelii  Juobien  Mcy.  Diiedat  '.     .  Ifii«-i6ij 

W.llLiin  V30  Huht itxs-ifit 

Peter  Minuit Governor  .  1626-1631 

[d  Pietemn  de  Vri™ I6jj-i6jj 


uiTwiUer 


ijjj-ttji 


Peiei  Siuyvciant ..  1647-iM. 

Under  Swedish  Rule  (163&-16SS).' 

Peter  Minuit 16JB-1641 

Peier  Holkfider i6ii-i6ii 

iohn  Prinli         I4i>-i6j] 

ohnPappcgova i6M-i«M 

ohnCUudeKyjingh    .     .     .    , l6S4-l*M 

Under  tbe  Duke  of  York  (i6&4~i«7j). 

Bichdtd  NicoUi        1664-1*6) 

Robert  C.irr       .......     Deputy     .     .  1664-1663 

Robert  Ntedliam     .     .     CoramanAron  the  Delaware  1664-166* 

FniKitUneUca 1667-1673 

lohnCarr     .     .-    .     .    Conunander  <m  the  Delaware  I«»^l673 
Under  Dutch  Rule     (i67S-l674)- 

AotbonvColv* r«7S-i*W 

Peter  Alriehi Deputy  on  the  Dolawaia  16U-l«r4 

Under  the  Duke  of  Vork  (1674-1681}. 

Sir  Edmund  Asdro.      .     .' i«7»-i6«i 

Under  ihc  Proprieton  (16S1-169J). 

William  Miikhan  ....        Depulr-CDvemor .  I6ll-l6t3 

William  Penn 16S1-168J 

Thomas  Lk>yd Pieildert  of  the  Council  16S*- 1 5Si 

Thomas  Lloyd  , 

Arthur  Cook      L    .     .     .      EiecutivT  CammiidDiwn  1686-M8I 

John  Blukwell         Depot y-Coveraor     -leBS-ie^f 

m  the  Ddawaie  conquered  by  the  Dutd  . 


'Coveniott  ot  New  Netherland  and  of  the  Dutch 
HI  (he  Ddafii 


W.F.Joki 


PENNSYLVANIA,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


ii 

(WathhitMn,  1901).  .      -  -   -  ,  -  -     ^ 

PBNHSTLVANIA.  tnnVBRSmr  OF,  u  America  inMitulloc 
Of  higher  learning,  in  PhiUdelpliLA,  nccupyiojE  iibQut  Ao  jicra, 
Dur  the  msl  bank  ol  the  Schuylkill  livn,  north-cut  af  the 
Philidclphui  HosiHliI,  Htl  of  j«th  StiecC,  south-eut 
Wsodluid  AtFCDiM,  and  loutli  of  Cheitnut  Street.  Id  1 
liregulir  irei  are  sll  the  buUdings  cicepi  the  Flower 
Aitionomlcil  Observalory  (1806).  which  is  i  m.  bcj-ond  (he 
dlr  luniU  OB  tb*  Wcft  ChtUer  Piks.    Tb*  «(inbenuxat 


of  'thne  buHdliifi  Fi  the  law  uhool,  between  chatnBt 
■ad  SSQSOm  Stceeta,  on  J4th  Street.  In  a  great  tiiingular 
block  bounded  by  Woodknd  Avenue,  Spni(e  Street,  and  nib 
Street  ue:  Ule  luiivenily  library,  ohich  bad  ia  1904  about 
>75,oaD  bound  voluDia  and  ja.ona  panpUeU,  including  tbe 
Biddle  Mcmoiial  law  libnuy  (18S6)  of  4e^eao  vidanw*.  tbe 
Colwell  and  Hciuy  C.  CiRy  collectioni  in  finiDce  and  econocnin, 
Ihe  Fnncii  C.  Mscauley  library  of  Italian,  SpiDbti  and  Pana- 
gucsc  authot3j  with  an  excellent  Dame  collection,  the  clasical 
Ubraty  ol  Ecut  von  Ltutich  o(  GOtltngcn,  the  phUotogical 
library  of  F.  A.  Pott  of  Halle,  the  Gennanic  Ubnr>  of  R.  Becb- 
stein  of  Rostock,  the  Semitic  library  of  C.  P.  Ca^uri  of  Copeo- 
faogen,  the  (Hebrew  and  Sabbinical)  Marcus  JaUrow  Memorial 
libniy,  tbe  ethnological  library  of  D.  C.  Brinton,  and  several 
spedal  medical  coUectioiis:  College  Hal!,  with  the  univenitjr 
officeii  Howard  Bouilon  HiU  (1S96)  the  students'  dub;  Logan 
Halt;  the  Robert  Han  chemical  Isbontoty;  and  Curois  j<kh 
Sireet}  the  Wistar  Institute  of  anatomy  and  bidogy.  Imme- 
diately eait  of  this  tiiingular  block  tn:  fieonett  House;  the 
Randal  Morgaa  taboiatoiy  of  physics;  Ibe  engineedng  buildini 
(190a):  the  laboTitoty  of  faygiene  (iSqi);  dentil  hull;  tad  the 
John  Hutison  laboratory  of  chemisiiy.  FirtlxT  east  ai«  the 
gymntsiitv,  tiainhig  quattenand  Franklin  (athletic]  field,  w^h 
brick  gruid-standL  South  nf  Spruce  Street  are:  the  free 
museum  of  science  and  art  (ifi^g),  tbe  nonh-westem  part  of 
a  projected  group,  with  particularly  valuable  American,  £gyf^ 
tian.  Semitic  and  Cretan  coUections,  the  laK  two  being  the 
results  in  port  of  university  cnavatioos  at  Nippur  (1S88-191):) 
and  at  Goumia  (1901-- 1904);  bet  new  34th  and  jHh  Streets 
tbe  latge  and  well-equipped  imivttslty  faespltal  (i8>4);  large 
dotmitotics,  cotuisting  in  1909,  of  19  distinct  but  cannecled 
bouses;  medical  laboratories;  a  hiologjcal  hall  and  vlvariumj 
and  acrosa  Woodland  Avenue,  a  veterinary  bail  aiul  bospiial. 
The  univer^ty  contains  various  depanmeats,  Inchuliiig  tbe 
college  (giving  degree*  in  arts,  science,  biology,  music,  aichilec- 
lure,  &C-),  the  graduate  school  (1882),  a  department  of  law 
(founded  in  1190  and  re-established  in  i8;a)  and  a  depaitmcnl 
of  medicine  (first  professor,  r75G;  first  degrees  granted,  17&S), 
the  oldest  end  ptobably  tbe  most  famous  medical  school  in 
Ameiioi.  Graduation  ftom  the  school  of  ails  In  the  college  >i 
dependent  on  the  successful  completioii  of  to  units  of  work  (Ibe 
unit  is  oae  hour's  work  a  week  for  a  year  in  Itctuni  or  redta- 
tionaortWD  houn' work  a  week  for  a  year  in  l^oratetycoutses); 
this  may  be  done  in  three,  four  or  five  y«ij«;of  the  60  coonts; 
ss  must  be  required  in  studies  (chemistry,  s  uaits;  English,  6; 
forrign  languages,  fi;  history,  logic  and  ethics,  mathematics,  oitd 
phytlcs,  7  each);  t8  must  be  equally  disiribuicd  in  two  or  three 


'groups  " — the  19 group 


mistry, 


I,  English,  fine  arts,  French,  geology,  C 
history,  Latin,  mathemattcs.  philosophy,  physicB,  poUlical 
science,  psychology,  sociology  and  soology;  *sd  in  tbe  remaining 
so  units  the  student's  election  is  ptmctically  free.  Special  work 
in  the  senior  year  of  the  college  counts  8  units  for  the  firsi 
year's  work  in  Ihe  department  of  medicine.  College  sdiolu- 
ships  are  largely  local,  two  being  in  the  gift  of  the  govHtwr  ol 
the  state,  fifty  being  for  graduates  of  the  public  schools  of  iltc 
city  ot  Hiiladelphia,  and  five  being  for  graduates  of  Psmsyk 
vania  public  Kboola  outside  Philadelphia;  In  iQog  then  wen 
tweaty-dfhl  itholmhips  in  the  college  not  local  In  tbe 
gradmle  school  there  ue  five  fellowships  for  research,  eacb 
with  in  annual  ittpend  of  fSoo,  twenty^ne  fellowships  valued 
at  tS03  each,  for  men  ou^,  and  five  leUowshipa  lor  women, 
besides  ^lecial  fellowships  and  39  scfaolarships. 

The  corporation  of  Ihe  university  is  composed  of  a  board  ol 
twenty-four  IrusLces,  of  which  Ihe  govetnor  of  Penasylvinik 
Is  tt-tfiiit  pmident.  Tbe  directing-  head  of  tbe  tinlveraity, 
and  the  hesd  of  the  uoiveislly  faculty  and  of  the  faculty  of  eadi 
deputneot  Is  the  provost— «  title  nudy  toed  in  Ameikao 
universities;  the  provost  is  proident  pr»  Umpert  of  Ibe  board 

""  d  4S4  ol 


of  mediciu,  and  an  cnnbitat  of  4j70  ftodcBti,  of  whnd  »)89 
we«inUiea)lltgcU"''"l'eidioolot  i»t»i  98;  in  the  Towno 
identific  Khool;  471  in  the  Whanoa  iduol,  utd  15;  in  the 
cvCDiDg  (cfaiMl  of  ammnli  md  finance;  jS^  in  couDa  for 

t^acbeni  and  481  in  the  mmmet  Khool),  J53    -  ■■- ' 

Khool,  31;  in  the  deputmect  ot  law,  SS9  in 

at  pudidne,  jSj  in  the  dquitmest  ol  deotisuy,  and  i  jo 

department  of  vetninuy  med' 


L  m.  ii3«940S  Kid 

.    A  very  Ivie  proportluu  vt  m>v  bu^tei^i^  »  .u-^uu 
._>!  otate.  eipicIaUv  in  PhiUdetpVia.     In  19117  the  I 
r    al  real  ectite  Oncliidiiii  th«  univccBl/  buiUtitiEi) 
;   ud    libiuie*,   oiuieiinu.   aKuniiH   lod   lurni 


Sniti  (iBw  "iq-);  CmUrittuinu 

«auiqqO:  CoTtlritntwnifremllHl 


Serial 

JC«  (Itol  iqq 

I    (1907    aqq.):    5<r 

Ln  SituUr  (1852  log.ti  r*«  l/i 
BnlltUii  (iSSi  wq.):  rnnucIJBiu 
(IWM  iqq  ) !  Ilw  /siinu/  sfUarpkiil 
and  Pnatdinp  af  Iki  SoUn^id  Ss 
Then  an  alw  occaiiofwl  publLa 
mcDla   connected    wiih    Ehc    uni 

JacLude:  a  daily,  Tlv  PmuyimKi —  ,.~~^,.  - — ,. 

Ojioi^;  f  camc^  monihly,  f *.  PiiKi  ^™-_J  Utcniv 


7T(<  J^id  ««f  fll«:"a  qiiitierly  or  r'      ■       -      -«..-.• 
r*(  Pnii  Dmiat  /ounmli  bd  mmiial, 
Jt<(utff  I189*).  a  aionlhly. 

Benjamin  Franklin  [a  1749  pubUsbed  a  psmpbletl  entitled 
Frefoidi  Silalint  If  Die  EdiHali«i  b/  YiiiiUi  in  etniHranh, 
which  led  to  the  fonnation  of  a  bosid  ol  twenty-four  Inuteei, 
nineteen  of  ohom,  on  the  ijih  ol  7>lDvembcr  1749,  met  [or 
organiution  and  (0  promote  "  the  Fublick  Academy  in  the 
City  of  Philadelphia,"  and  elected  Benjamin  Franklin  president 
of  Ibe  boatd,  an  office  which  he  held  until  I7s6-  So  cloady 
was  Franklin  identified  with  the  plan  (bat  Matthew  Arnold 
called  Ibe  institution  "  the  Univenily  of  Ftantlin."  Ob  the 
lat  of  February  1750  there  waa  conveyed  to  thii  boud  of 
trusleea  the  "  New  Building  "  on  Fouilh  Street,  near  Archi 
which  bad  been  erected  in  1 7(0  lor  a  charily  ichool— a  uie  to 
wbichilhadoolbeenput— indaaa"houjeolPublick  Worship," 
In  which  Gtoige  Whilefifid  hid  preached  in  November  1740; 
the  original  ttu»te»»  (including  rranklin)  ol  the  "  New  Building  " 

ibe  univenily  allache)  to  Iti  teal  the  words  "  founded  r74o." 
Iri  the  "  New  Buildirig  "  the  academy  waa  opened  on  the  7th 
ot  January  17SI,  Oie  cily  having  voted  £joo  in  the  preceding 
August  Tor  Ibe  completion  of  the  building.  On  the  16th  of 
Srpiember  1751  a  chariiible  school  "  for  the  inslrudhm  of  poor 
ChUdran  palii  in  Riaiini,  Wriling,  and  AiillimclUi "  waa 
opened  in  the  "  New  Building."  The  proprictaria,  Tbooui 
(nd  Richard  Pcnn,  Incorporated  "  The  Ttuitccs  of  the  Atadcuiy 
■nd  Charitable  Scbod  in  the  Province  of  Pcomylvsnia "  in 
I7S3:  and  in  175J  issued  a  confiimalory  charier,  chan^ng  the 
corporate  name  to  "  The  Trustees  ol  the  College,  Academy  and 
Charitable  School,"  Jtc,  whereupon  William  Smith  (1727-1803) 
ol  the  unlvciiity  of  Abndeen,  who  bad  become  rector  of  the 
•cademyin  1751  and  had  taken  orders  in  tbe  Church  ol  Eoglaod 
In  I7SJ,  became  provoil  of  the  coIlcgE.  In  iJsS  Dt  Smitb 
(Slibliihed  a  com plelc  and  liberal  cunicul urn  which  was  adopt 
by  SlaliDp  James  Madisoo  in  1777  when  be  became  preside 
<<  Ihe  College  of  Wlltiam  and  Maiy.  In  1717  the  finl  colli 
class  graduated.  Under  Smith's  control  the  Latin  school  gr 
in  importance  at  the  eipenseofthe  English  Khool,  to  the  great 
•anoyance  of  Franklin.    In  i7Ai-(764  Di  Smith  collected  for 


115 

'  ' '  scome  N  ttrong  Ibat  it  waa  feared  that  the  college  would 
ie  lectuian.  The  Peons  and  othera  deprecatad  tbtt 
sad  Um  uruUMa  bound  ihemsdvea  (1764)  to  "  toe  their  utmost 
vours  that ,  .  ,  (the  original  plan)  be  not  narrowed,  nor 
lemben  of  the  Cfauich  of  EogUnd,  not  I 
bomtheni  .  .  .  bepulonanywonelDOtincinthiaae 
than  they  were  at  the  time  of  receiving  the  royal  brief."  From 
Septeinbcr  1777  to  June  177S  college  eaerdsca  wne  not  held 
because  Philadelphia  was  occupied  by  British  iroopa.  to  1779 
the  atate  legiaUtuie,  on  the  ground  that  tlur  trustees'  declara- 
tion in  1764  wiaa  "nanowiogcrf  the  foundation," '  tonfitcaled 
the  rigkta  and  properly  of  the  college  and  chMtercd  a  new 
corpoiation  "  the  Tnuteei  of  the  Univenity  ot  the  Stats  of 
rennaylvaoia  ";  ii|  1789  tfae  college  wu  restored  la  iu  right) 
and  property  and  Smith  again  bccaine  ill  provost;  in  1791  the 
college  and  the  univeraicy  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  were 
united  under  the  title,  "  the  UnivciHly  of  Pennsylvania," 
whose  trustees  were  elected  Itom  their  own  members  by  (he 
board  of  trustees  of  the  college  and  that  of  the  university.  In 
1B02  the  onivtraiiy  purchased  new  grounds  on  Ninth  Si  reel, 
between  Market  and  Chestnut,  where  the  post  ofKte  building 
now  is;  there  until  1819  the  university  occupied  the  building 
erected  for  the  adrnmislrative  mansion  of  the  present  of  the 
United  States;  there  new  buildingi  were  erected  after  i3>9i 
and  from  these  tbe  imiversity  removed  to  it*  present  site  in 
1871. 

The  provosts  havt  been:  in  iJSS-i77i)  and  in  i7gi)-iSD3, 
William  Smith;  in  r779-i79i,  of  the  university  of  tlu  state. 
of  Pennsylvania,  John  Ewing  (1731-1802);  in  1807-1810,  John 
McDowell  Ci7SO-'82o);inl8io-i8ij,JohnAndrews(l746-l8i3); 
in  i8i3-i!38,  Frederick  Beasley  (1777-1845);  in  182S-1S33, 
William  Hcatbcote  Do  Lancey  (1797-1865);  in  1834-1853, 
John  Ludlow  C1793-1857);  In  1854-1859.  Henry  Vethake 
(l79i-iS«6);  in  r8te-iS68,  Daniel  Raynes  Goodwin  (1811-1890); 
in  tS6S-t8So,  Charles  JanewaySlillt  (1819-1899):  in  1881-1894, 
WaUaai  Pepper  (1843-1898);  In  1894-1910.  Charles  Cuslis  Har- 
rison (b.  18^4),  and  in  1911  »qq,  Edgar  Faba  Smith  [h.  1856). 

SccT.  K.  Monleonieiy,  ^  HiiUrJIiflkl  Unianiily  uf  PimmjImiMia 
from  ta  fturnfodon  10  A. D.  IJJO  (Phiiadelplia,  1900):  George  B. 
Wood,  Early  HiUory  0/  Iki  Onhmily  of  PmiujAojiKi  Llnf  ed., 
ibid.,  llgnii-  B.  l/cMaitrr,  Tht  ViiKnilj  ./  Ptnwsyltaiut  (ibid. 
1897):  C.  E.  NitiHhi,  OSacl  Cuidi  n  li>  Unnrriilj  ef  /•tin- 
ijhama  (ibid.,  1906):  .nd  Edward  P.  Cbeyney,  "  Uai.— ^--  -' 
Pcnniylvania."  In  vol  L  oF  f/niperiilur  and  lieir  Sou 
1901). 

PSXHT  (Mid.  Eng.  ^i  01  ptiiy,  from  0.  Eof.  form  ftnii, 
earlier  ^niinf  and  frijiif,  the  word  appears  la  Cer.  PJennig 
and  Du.  pcnninn  it  has  been  connected  with  Du.  ^nrf,  Get. 
PJarid,  and  £ng,  "  pann,"  the  word  meaning  a  little  pledge 
or  lolco,  or  with  Gcr.  F/aiut,  a  pan),  an  English  coin,  equal 
in  value  to  ibe  one-twellth  of  a  shilling.  It  is  one  of  the  eldest 
of  English  coins,  superseding  the  sccatia  or  sccal  (see 
NiiHiEU4Tic3;andBarTAiN:  Aiilii  Samn,  i  "  Coins").  It  was 
introduced  into  England  by  OEa,  king  a!  KlerCia,  who  took  aa  a 
mwld  a  coin  first  struck  by  Pippin,  faihcr  of  Cfaarlemagne, 

penny  waa  made  ol  silver  and  weighed  22)  graina,  240  pennies 
writing  one  5a Jion  pound  (or  Tower  pound,  as  it  was  afterwards 
calied),  hence  Ihc  term  pennyweight  (dwt.).  In  1327  the  Tower 
pound  of  540a  crainj  was  abolished,  and  Ihc  pound  of  J760 
grains  adopted  iniieid.  The  penny  remained,  with  some  few 
exceptions,  the  only  coin  issued  in  England  until  the  inlroduction 
ol  the  gold  florin  by  Edward  III.  in  134?.  H  "as  not  until 
Ihc  reign  of  Edward  I.  that  halfpence  and  farthings  became  a 
regular  part  of  tbe  coinage,  it  having  been  usual  to  subdivide 
the  penny  for  trade  purposes  by  cutting  it  into  halves  and 
quarters,  a  practice  said  to  have  origin.itcd  in  the  reign  of 
jBthelredU.    In  1257,  in  the  reign  ot  Henry  111.,  a  gold  penny, 

1  Pmbibly  the  actual  mion  was  thai 
by  the  mdvocaie.  of  tbe  radical  con  tl it ul: 
to  pvaiih  the  inyeat.  of  the  collcie,  * 


ir  Sou  (Boitoa, 


si6 


PENN  YAN— PENRHYN,  2nd  BARON 


of  the  value  of  twenty  silver  pence^  was  Btnick.  Hie  weight 
ftod  value  of  the  sQver  penny  steadily  decfined  from  1300 
onwards^  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table: —  *** 


Reign. 

Weight. 

Value  in  ailvcr 

925  fine,  at 

58.  od.  per  oz. 

William  I.,  1066    .... 
Edward  l.»  1300    .... 

1;      11C1346    !    .* 

III.,  1351     '     •     • 

Henry  IV.,  141a    .... 

Edward  IV.,  1464       .     .     . 

Henry  VI H.,  1527      .     .     . 

„     VIII.,  1543     .     .     . 

Edward. VI.,  1553       •     •     • 
Elizabeth,  1601      .... 

Gtains. 

33 
30l 
20 
18 

15 
13 

lOi 
10 

8 
71 

Penny. 
309 

3'03 

2-78 

2-75 
3-47 
3 -061 
I -615 
1-44 
1-37 

l-IO 

XK)6 

The  last  coinage  of  silver  pence  for  general  circulation  was 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1661-1662),  since  which  time  they 
have  only  been  coined  for  issue  as  royal  alms  on  Maundy  Thurs- 
days. Copper  halfpence  were  first  issued  in  Charles  II.'s  reign,* 
but  it  was  not  until  1797,  in  the  reign  of  George  III.,  that  copper 
pence  were  struck.  This  copper  penny  weighed  i  oz.  avoir- 
dupois. In  the  same  year  copper  twopences  were  issued  weighing 
3  oz.,  but  they  were  found  too  cumbersome  and  were  discon- 
tinued. In  i860  bronze  was  substituted  for  the  copper  coinage, 
the  alloy  containing  95  parts  of  copper,  4  of  tin,  and  i  of  zinc. 
The  weight  was  also  reduced,  z  lb  of  bronze  being  coined  into 
'48  pennies,  as  against  24  pennies  into  which  1  lb  of  copper 
was  coined. 

PBNN  YAN,  a  village  and  the  county-seat  of  Yates  county, 
New  York;  U.S.A.,  situated  N.  of  Keidca  Lake,  on  the  outlet 
extending  to  Lake  Seneca,  about  170  m.  W.  of  Albany,  and 
about  95  m.  C  by  S.  of  Buffalo.  Pop.  (1905),  4504;  (19x0) 
4597.  It  is  served  by  the  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River 
snd  the  Northern  Central  railways  and  by  electric  railway  to 
Branchport,  and  has  steamboat  connexions  with  Hammonds- 
port  at  the  head  of  Keuka  Lake.  The  lake,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  so-called. "  finger  lakes  "  of  central  New  York, 
abounds  in  lake  and  rainbow  trout,  black  bass,  pickerel  and 
pike,  and  there  are  many  summer  cottages  along  its  shores.  At 
Keuka  Park,  on  the  west  shore  of  the  lake,  is  Keuka  CoUege 
(1890),  and  at  Eggleston's  Point  is  held  a  summer  ''  natural 
science  camp  "  for  boys.  The  village  is  the  scat  of  the  Penn 
Yan  Academy  (1859).  The  lake  furnishes  water-po^cr,  and 
among  the  manufactures  are  paper,  lumber,  carriages,  shoes, 
&c.  Much  ice  is  shipped  from  the  village.  Penn  Yan  is  an 
important  shipping  point  in  the  apple  and  grape-growing  region 
of  central  New  York,  and  winemakhig  is  an  important  indnstry. 
The  first  frame  dwelling  at  Penn  Yan  was  built  in  X799;  the 
village  became  the  county-seat  in  1823,  when  Yates  county  was 
created,  and  was  incorporated  in  1833.  The  first  settlers 
were  chiefly  followers  of  Jemima  Wilkinson  (1753*1819),  a 
religious  enthtKiast,  bom  in  Cumberland  township.  Providence 
coiinly,  Rhode  Island,  who  asserted  that  she  had  received  a 
divine  commission.  She  preached  in  Rhode  Island,  Connec- 
ticut, Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania.  Obtaining  a  large 
trad  (which  was  called  Jerusalem  in  1789)  in  the  present  Yates 
county,  she  founded  in  1788  the  village  of  Hopeton  on  the  outlet 
of  Keuka  Lake  about  a  mile  from  Seneca  Lake.  Mftny  followers 
settled  there,  and  she  herself  lived  there  after  1790.  Some  of 
her  followers  left  her  before  x8oo,  and  then  the  community 
gradually  broke  up.  The  name  of  the  village  is  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  first  syllables  of  "  Pennsylvania  **  and 
"Yankee,"  ks  most > of  the  early  settlers  were  Pennsylvanians 
and  New  Englandefs. 

'  l^hc  figure  of  Britannia  first  appeared  on  this  icsue  of  ocfppcr 
coins.  The  original  of  Britannia  is  said  to  have  been  Frances 
Strwart,  afterwards  duchess  of  Richmond  (Pcpys,  Diary,  Feb.  25, 
1667).  It  was  in  Charles  It.'s  reign,  too,  that  the  practice  was 
established  of  placing  the  sovereign^i  bust  in  a  direetioa  contrary 
to  that  of  his  predecessor. 


See  Lewis  C  Akiricfa,  History  of  Yates  County,  New  York  (Syneuse^ 
1893). 

FENNYROTAIk  in  botany,  a  heib  formerly  much  used  in 
medicine,  the  name  being  a  corruption  of  the  old  herbalist's 
name  "  Pulioll-royall,"  PuUgium  regium.  It  is  a  member 
of  the  mint  genus,  and  has  been  known  to  botannts  since  the 
time  of  Linnaeus  as  Mentha  pulegium.  It  is  a  perennial  herb 
with  a  slender  branched  stem,  square  in  section,  up  to  a  foot 
in  length  and  tooting  at  the  lower  nodes,  small  Of^Kuite  stalked 
oval  leaves  about  half-inch  long,  and  dense  clusters  of  small 
reddish-purple  flowers  in  the  leaf  axils,  forming  almost  gllobular 
whorb.  It  grows  in  damp  gravelly  places,  especially  near  pools, 
on  heaths  and  commons.  It  has  a  strong  smell  somewhat  like 
that  of  spearmint,  due  to  a  volatile  oil  which  is  readily  obtained 
by  distillation  ivith  water,  and  is  known  in  pharmacy  as  Oleum 
pulegiL  The  specific  name  recalls  its  supposed  property  o| 
driving  away  fleas  .(putkes).  Like  the  other  mints  it  has 
carminative  and  stimulant  properties. 

PENOBSCOT,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  Algonquian 
stock.  Their  old  range  was  the  country  around  the  river 
Penobscot  in  Maine.  They  sided  with  the  French  in  the  Colonial 
wars,  but  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  English  in  1749. 
They  fought  against  the  Eng&h  in  the  War  of  Independence, 
and  were  subsequently  settled  on  an  island  in  the  Penobscot 
river,  near  Oldtown. 

PENOU)GY  (Lat.  poertOf  punishment),  the  modem  name 
given  to  penitentiary  science,  that  concerned  with  the  processes 
devised  and  adopted  for  the  repression  and  prevention  of  crime. 
(See  Crdie;  Crzuinology;  Prison;  Juvsnile  OsiESDEas; 
Recidivxsu,  &c.) 

PENRHYN,  GEORGE  8H0LT0  GORDON  DOUGLAS-PEN- 
NANT, 2nd  Bason  (1836-1907),  was  the  son  of  Colonel  Edward 
Gordon  Douglas  (i8oo-x886),  brother  of  the  19th  earl  of  Morton, 
who,  through  his  wife,  Juliana,  elder  daughter  and  cohdr  of 
George  Hay  Dawkins-Pennant,  of  Penrhyn  Castle,  Carnarvon, 
had  brge  estates  in  Wales  and  elsewhere,  and  was  created 
Baron  Penrhyn  in  1866.  Dawkins  had  inherited  the  estates 
from  Richard  Penryn,  who  was  created  Baron  Pcnryn  in  1763, 
the  title  becoming  extinct  on  his  death  in  1808. 

George  Douglas-Pennant  was  conservative  M.P.  for  Car- 
narvonshire in  x866-i868  and  1874-1880,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  title  in  1886.  A  keen  sportsman,  a  benevolent 
landlord,  a  kind  and  considerate  employer,  Lord  'Penrhyn 
came  of  a  proud  race,  and  was.himself  of  an  imperious  disposition. 
He  came  prominently  before  the  public  in  1897  and  sub^quent 
years  in  connexion  with  the  famous  strike  at  his  Welsh  slate- 
quarries.  During  his  father's  lifetime  the  management  of  the 
Penrhyn  quarry  had  been  left  practically  to  an  elective  com- 
mittee of  the  operatives,  and  it  was  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy 
when  in  1885  he  took  matters  in  hand;  he  abolished  the  com- 
mittee, apd  with  the  help  of  Mr  E.  A.  Young,  whom  he  brought 
in  from  London  as  manager,  he  so  reorganised  the  business 
that  this  slate-quarry  yielded  a  profit  of  something  like  £150,000 
a  year.  The  new  men  and  new  methods  were,  however,  not 
to  the  taste  of  the  trade  unionist  leaders  of  the  quarrymen, 
and  in  1897,  when  the  "  new  unionism "  was  rampant  in 
labour  questions  throu^out  England,  z  strike  was  deliberately 
fomented.  Lord  Penrhyn  refused  to  recognize  the  union  or  its 
officials,  though  he  was  willing  to  consider  any  grievances  from 
individual  quarrymen,  and  a  protracted  struggle  ensued,  in 
which  his  determination  was  invincible.  He  became  the  object 
of  the  bitterest  political  hostility,  and  trade  unionism  exerted 
itscff  to  the  utmost,  but  vainly,  to  bring  about  some  form  of 
government  Irrtcrvention.  Penrhyn  strikers  perambulated 
the  country,  singing  and  collecting  contributions  to  their  funds. 
But  fn  spite  of  every  pressure  Lord  Penrhyn  insisted  on  being 
master' of  his  own  property,  and  by  degrees  the  agitation  col- 
lapsed. His  death  on  the  xoth  of  March  1907  evoked  general 
and  genuine  regret.  Lord  Penrhyn  was  twice  married,  and  had 
fifteen  surviving  children.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  title  by 
his  eldest  son,  Edward  Sholto  (b.  1864),  who  was  Unionist  M.P. 
for  South -Korihamptonshire  from  1895  to  1900. 


PENRITHr-PENRYN 


117 


PENRITH,  a  municipality  of  Cumberland  county,  New  Soutb 
Wales,  Australia,  on  the  Nepean  River,  34  m.  by  rail  W.  by  N. 
of  Sydney.  Peurith  and  the  adjoining  township  <^  St  Mary's 
arc  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  connexion  with  the  railway. 
The  iron  tubular  bridge  which  carries  the  line  over  the  Nepean 
is  the  best  of  its  kind  in  the  colofiyt  while  the  viaduct  over 
Knapsack  Gulley  is  the  most  remarkable  oreqtion  9I  its  kind 
in  Australia.  There  arc  large  engineering  works  and  railway 
fitting  shops  at  Penrith,  which  is  also  the  junction  for  all.  the 
western  goods  traffic.  The  inhabitants;  of  both  towns  are!  mainly 
railway  employ^.  Fop.  (2901),  of  Penrith  3530,  of  St  Mary'fe 
184a 

PENRITH,  a  market  town  in  th^  Penrith  pariiaraentaiy 
division  of  Cumberiand,  En^and,  in  a  valley  iteav'  the  rivet 
Eamont,  on  the  Cockennouih,  Keswick  &  Penrith,  Londoa 
&  North  Western  and  North  £aElem  railways*  Pop.  of  orbaft 
district  (i9c>i),  9182.  It  contains  some  lAterestlng  brasses. 
A  14th-century  grammar  school  was  refounded  by  Queen 
Elizabeth ;  and  there  are  two  mansions  dating  from  the  same 
reign,  which  have  been  converted  into  innsL  Though  there  are 
breweries,  tanneries  and  saw-mills,  the  town  depoids  mainly 
on  agriculture.  There  are  some  ruins  of  a  castle  .erected  as  a 
protection  against  the  Scots.  Near  Penrith  on.  the  south,  above 
the  precipitous  bank  of  the  Eamont,  stands  a  small  but  beau* 
tiful  old  castellated  house,  Yanwath  Hull.  To  the  north-«ast 
of  the  town  is  Eden  Hall,  rebuilt  in  1824.  Among  many  fine 
paintings,  it  contains  portraits  by  Hoppner,  KneUcr,  Leiy,  Opie 
and  Reynolds.  The  "  Luck  of  Eden  Hall,"  which  has  been 
celebrated  in  a  ballad  by  the  duke  of  Wharton,  and  in  a  second 
ballad  written  by  Uhland,  the  German  po^,  and  translated 
by  Longfellow,  is  an  enamelled  goblet,  kept  in  a  leathern  case 
dating  from  the.  times  of  Henry  IV;  or  Henry  V..  It  was  long 
supposed  lo  be  Venetian,  but  has  been  identified  as  of  rare 
Oriental  workmaiehip.  The  legend  tells  how  a  seneschal  of 
Eden  Hall  one  day  came  upon  a  company  of  fairies  dancing  at 
St  Cuthbert's  Well  in  the  park.  These  flew  away,  leavmg  tbcic 
cup  at  the  wtilcr's  edge,  andjsinging  "  If  that  glass  either  break 
or  fall.  Farewell  to  the  luck  of  Eden  Hall/'  Its  true  history 
is  unknown. 

Penrith,  otherwise  Penreth,  Perith,  Pcrath,  was  founded  by 
the  Cambro^Cetts,  but  on  a  site  farther  north  than  the  present 
town^  In  taas  Henry  HI.  granted  a  yearly  fair  extending  from 
the  eve  of  Whitsun  to  the  Monday  after  Trinity  and  a  weekly 
market  00  Wednesday,  but  some  time  before  1787  the  market 
day  was  changed  to  Tuesday.  The  manor  in  1342  was  hand^ 
over  to  the  Scottish  king  who  held  it  till  1295,  when  Edward  I. 
sei»!d  it.  In  1397  Richard  II.  granted  it  to  Ralph  Neville, 
first  carl  of  Westmorland;  it  then  passed  to  Warwick  the  king* 
maker  and  on  his  death  to  the  crown.  In  1694  Wilfiam  III. 
granted  the  honour  of  Penrith  to  the  eari  oC  Portland,  by  whose 
descendant  it  was  sold  in  1787  to  the  duke  of  Dovonsbire.  A 
court  leet  and  view  of  frankpledge  havo  been  held  here  from 
time  immemorial.  In  the  18th  and  eariy  part  of  the  19th  tsnttiry 
Penrith  manufactuced  checks,  linen  doth- and  ginghams^  bo( 
the  introdttctkn  of  mnchinery  put  an  end  to  this  industry,  only 
the  making  of  rag  carpets  surviving.  Clock  and  watch-making 
seems  to  have  bceli  an  important  trade  here  In  the  i8th  century. 
The  town  suffered  much  from  the  incnrsiena  of  the  Scots,  and 
Ralph,  arl  of  WestmorUnd,  who  died  1426,  bmlt  the  castle, 
bnt  a  tower  ealled  the  Bishop's  Tower  had  been  previous^ 
erected  on  the  same  site.  In  X597**XS9&  ^  terrible  viiiitatiott  of 
plaguy  attacked -the  town,  in  which,  according  to  an  old  iiiscri|>* 
tion  on  the  church,  as6o  persoos  perishtd  in  Penrith,  by  wliieh 
perhaps  is  meant  the  rural  deanery.  During  the  Civil  War  the 
castle  was  dismantled  by  the  Royalist  commandant.  In  1745 
Prince  Charles  Edward  twke  msirehed  through  Penrith,  and  a 
skirmisb  took  piaoe*  at  Clifton.  The  church  of  Si  Andrew 
is  of  unknown  foundaCion,  but  the  Ksl-of  vicars  b  complcM 
from  laaj. 

PBNRT*  iOBN  (tSS9**i59j).  Welsh  Puritan,  was  bom  in 
Bncdtnocfcihire  in  1559;  tradition  points  to  Cefn  Brith>  a  farm* 
near  Uangnimaroh,  aajris  birthpUce.  *  He  matricalstcd  sc 


Pcierhouse,  Cambridge,  in  December  1580,  being  then  almost 
certainly  a.  Roman  Catholic;  but  soon  became  a  convinced 
Protestant,  with  strong  Puritan  leanings.  Having  graduated 
B.A.)  he  migrated  to  St  Alban's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  proceeded 
M.A.  in  July  1586.  He  did  not  seek  episcopal  ordination,  but 
Was  licensed  as  University  Preacher.  The  tradition  of  his 
preaching  tours  in  Wales  la  slendedy  supported;  th^  could 
only  have  been  made  during  a  few  months  of  1 586  or  the  autumn 
of  1587.  At  this  time  ignorance  and  immorality  abounded  in 
Wales.  Ita  zs6s  an  act  of  parliament  had  made  proviaon  for 
tranalating  the  Bible  into  Welsh,  and  the  New  Ttetament  was 
issued  in  1567;  bnt  the  number  printed  woiild  barely  supply 
a  co|^  for  eadi  parish  chwch.  Indignant  at  this  negligence, 
Penry  published,  eariy  in  1587,  Tkd  jBju&y  tf  an  Humble 
SupflUaium^n  Ike  behalf  cj  the  cowiry  ^  WiAts,  Ikai  soHie 
order  may  be  taken  /or  Ike  preaehmg  of  the  Cosfd  among  tkoie 
peopU.  Archbishop  Whitgif  t,  angry  at  the  implied  rebuke,-  caused 
him  to  be  brought  before  the  High  Commission  and  Imprisoned 
for  about  a  month.  C^  his  release  Pcmry  married  a  lady  of 
Northampton,  which  town  was  his  home  for  some  years.  With 
the  assistance  of  Sir  Richard  Knightley  and  others,  he  set  up 
a  prinUng  press,  which  for  nearly  a  year  from  Michaehnas  i  $88 
was  in  active  operation.  It  was  successively  located  at  East 
Mouls^  (Surrey),  Fawslcy  (Northampton);  Coventry  and  other 
places  hi  Warwickshire,  and  Anally  at  Manchester,  where  it  was 
teiaed  in  August  2589.  On  it  were  printed  Penry's  BxhorMion 
to  the  govomours  and  .people  of  Wales^  and  View  of  .• .  ,  suck 
PwUikc  wants  and  diserders  as  are  in  the  serviee  ef  Cod  .  .  .  t «i 
Wales;  as  well  as  the  celebrated  Martin  MarprelaU  tracts. 
In  January  1590  his  house  at  Northampton  was  searched  and  his 
papers  seised,  but  he  succeeded  in  escaping  to  Scotland.  There 
he  published  several  tracts,  as  welt  as  a  translatkm  of  a  learned 
theological  work  known  as  Theses  Geneeenses.  Returning 
to  Enghuul  in  September  159s,  he  joined  the  Separatist  Churdh 
in  London,  in  which  he  declined  to  take  ofl^ce,  though  after  the 
arrest  of  the  ministers,  Frahds  Johnson  and  John  Greenwood, 
he  seems  to  have  been  the  n^ular  preacher.  He  was  arrested 
m  March  1593,  and  efforts' were-made  to  find  some  pretext  for 
a  capital  charge.  Failmg  tfaSs  a  charge  of  sedition  was  based 
on  the  rough  draft  of  a  petition  to  the  queen  that  had  been  found 
among  his  private  papem;  the  hmguage  of  which  was  indeed 
haahaad  offensive,  but  had  been  neither  presented  nor  published. 
He  was  convicted  by  the  QuecnV  Bench  on  the  21st  of  May 
i993f  And  hanged  on  the  99th  at  the  unusual  hour  of  4  p.m., 
the  signature  of  hb  old  enemy  Whitgift  being  the  first  of  those 
affixed  to  the  warrant. 

'  See  the  Life,  by  John  Waddington  (1854)* 

PEIIRTK,  a  market  town  and  port,  and  municipal  and 
contribotary  parliamentary  borough  of  Cornwall,  England, 
9:  m.  N.W.  of  Falmouth,  on  a  branch  of  the  Gi^at  Western 
railway.  Pop.  (1901),  3190.  It  ties  at  the  head  of  thef  estuary 
of  the  Ptemyn  River,  which  opens  from  the  main  estuary  of  the 
Fal  at  F^mouth.  Granite,  which  is  extensively  quarried  in 
the  neighbourhood,  is  dressed  and  polished  at  Pitnryn,  and  there 
are  also  chemical  and  bone'  manure  works,  eng{n<^ring,  iron 
and  gunpo^er  <works,  timber-yards,  brewing,  tannfng  and 
paper^making.  The  harbour  dries  at  bw  tide,  but  at  high 
tide  has  from  9  to  t  sf  ft.  of  water.   Aiea,  291  acres. 

Pitoryn  owed  its  development  to  the  fostering  eare  of  the 
bishopt  of  Exeter  within  whose  deihesne  lands  it  stood.  These 
lands  appear  in^  Domesday  Book  under  the  name  of  Trelivei: 
tn  njb  Bishop  Briwefe  granted  to  his  btffgesses'of  Penryn 
that  they  should  hoki  then-  burgages  freely  at  a  yeariy  tieii>it  of 
lid.  by  the  acre  for  all  service.  Bishop  Walter  de 
Stapeldon  secured  a  market  on  Thursdays  and  a  fair  at  the 
F^BAst  of  St  Thomas.  The  return  to  the  biishop  in  1307  was 
jC^,  rjfc  2|d.  from  the  bon6ugh  and  ij26,  Vs.  jd.  from  the  Wfum. 
In  13 1 1  Bishop^- Stapeldon  procured' a  three  days'  fair  at'ths 
Feast  of  St  Vitalis.  Philip  and  Mary  gave  the  parliamentary 
frwKhfse  to  the  burgesses  in  1555.  .James  I.  granted*  and 
the  charter  of  incorporation,  provfdlng«tr  m«y6r,'«lev«» 


iiS 


PENSAOOLA— PENSION 


akicnntti  and  twelve  couadUocB,  markets  on  Wednesdays  and 

Saturdays,  and  faia  oo  the  ist  of  May,  the  7tli  of  July  and  the 

aist  of  December.     The  charter  having   been  surcendered, 

James  IL  by  a  new  charter  inter  alia  confined  the  parliamentary 

franchise  to  members  of  the  oorporation.   This  proviso  however 

was  soon  disresarded,  the  franchise  being  freely  exercised  by  aU 

the  inhabitants  paying  scoc  add  lot.    An  attempt  to  deprive 

the  borough  of  its  members,  owing  to  corrupt  practices,  was 

defeated  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  1827.    The  act  of  183a 

extendipd  the  frajichiae  to  Falmouth  in  spite  of  the  rivalry 

existing  between  the  two  boroughs,  wliich  one  of  the  sitting 

memben  asserted  waa  so  great  that  no  Penryn  man  was  ever 

known  to  marry  a  Falmottth  woman.    In  1885  the  united 

borough  was  deprived  of  one  of  its  members.    The  corporation 

of  Peniyn  was  remodelled  in  1835,  the  aldermen  being  reduced 

to  four.    Its  foreign  trade,  which  dates  from  the  X4th  century, 

is   considerable.     The  extra-parochial   collegiate   church   of 

Glasney,  founded  by  Bishop  Bronescombo  in  laGs,  had  a  revenue 

At  the  time  of  its  suppression  under  the  act  of  1545  of  £221, i8s.  4d. 

See  Victoria  Cottnty  History,  ConmaUi  T.  C.  Peter,  Qasney 
CoUegiate  Chtueh. 

PENSACOLA.  a  dty,  port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of 
Escambia  county,  FlorMa,  U.S.A.,  in  the  N.W.  part  of  the 
state,  on  Pensacola  Bay,  about  6  m.  (11  m.  by  channd)  N.  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Pop^  (tgoo)  17,747;  (sQxo)  22,982.  It  ranks 
second  in  size  among  the  cities  of  Florida.  The  dty  is  served 
by  the  I<.ouisviUe  &  Nashville  and  the  Pensaoola,  Alabama  & 
Tennessee  railways,  and  by  steamers  to  West  Indian,  European 
and  United  States  ports.  The  harbour*  is  the  most  important 
deep-water  harbour  south  nf  Hampton  Roads.  The  naiioi^ 
entrance  is  easily  navigable  and  is  defended  by  Fort  Pickens  on 
the  west  end  of  Santa  Rosa  Island,  with  a  groat  sea-wall  on  the 
Gulf  side  (completed  in  J909),  Fort  McRee  on  a  small  peninsula 
directly  opposite,  and  :Fort  Barrancas  on  the  mainland  imme- 
diatdy  north-east  of  Fort  McRee.  On  the  mainland  i  m.  east  of 
Fort  Barnncss  are  a  United  States  Naval  Station,  consisting  of  a 
yard  (84  acres  enclosed)  with  shops,  a  sted  floating  dry  dock  and 
marine  barracks;  and  a  reservatkm  (1800  acres)  on  which  are  a 
naval  hospital,  a  naval  magazine,  two  timber  ponds,  a  national 
cemetery,  and  the  two  villages  of  Warrington  andWoolsey, 
with  a  population  of  about  1500,  mostly  employes  of  the  yard. 
The  dty's  prindpal  public  buildings  are  the  state  armoury, 
the  Federal  building,  and  the  dty  hall.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  72*  F.,  and  breezes  from  the  Gulf  temper 
the  heat.  Pensacola  is  a  shipping  point  for  lumber,  naval 
stores,  tobacco,  phosphate  rock,  fish,  cotton  and  oottoihseed 
oil,  meal  and  cake,  and  is  one  of  the  prindpal  markets  in  the 
United  States  for  nava!  stores.  In  1895  the  fordgn  exports 
were  valued  at  $3,196,609,  in  1897  at  $8^36,679,  and  in  1909 
at  $20,971,670;  the  imports  in  1909  were  valuedat$i,479iOX7« 
The  important  (actor  in  this  vast  development  has  been  the 
Louisville  &  Nashville  railway,  which  after  1895  built  extensive 
warehouses  and  docks  at  Pensacola.  There  are  excellsnt  coaling 
docks— good  coal  is  brought  hither  from  Alabama~-fUid  a  grain 
elevator.  Among  the  manufactures  are  sashes,  doofs  and 
blinds,  whiting,  fertilizers,  rosin  and  turpentine,  anddtugik 

Pensacola  Bay  may  have  been  visited  by  Ponoe  de  Leon  in 
9513  and  by  Paafilo  de  Narvaes  in  1528.  In  1540  Jbfaldonado, 
the  commander  of  the  fleet  that  brou^t  Do  Soto  to  the  Florida 
coast,  entered  the  harbour,  which  he  named  Puerta  d'Auchusi, 
and  on  his  recommendation  De  Soto  designated  it  aa  a  basis 
qI  supplies  for  his  expedition  into  the  interior.  I«  iS59a  penna- 
aent  settlement  was  attempted  by  Tristan  de  Luna,  wl»»  renamed 
the  harbour  Santa  Maria,  but  two  years  later  this  settinnent 
was  abandoned.  In  i69is  another  settlement  was  made  by 
Don  Andres  d'Arriola,  who  built  Foit  Saa  Carlos  near  the  site 
of  the  present  Fort  Barrancas,  and  aeems  to  hare  named  the 
place  Pensacola.  In  1719,  Spain  and  France,  beng  at  war* 
Pensacola  was  captured  by  Sieur  de  Bienville,  the  French 

*  In  i88f  the  United  States  government  began  to  improve  the 
fcariMur  by  dred^M.  and  ia  June  1909  the  depth  of  the  channel, 
Cor  a  ninimum  width  of  about  300  ft.,  was  30  f t,  at  aean  low  water. 


governor  of  Louisiana.  Later  In  the  same  year  ft  was  sucoes- 
sivdy  re-taken  by  a  Spanish  force  from  Havana  and  recaptured 
by  Bienville,  who  burned  the  town  and  destroyed  the  fort. 
In  X723,  three  jrears  after  the  dose  of  hostilities,  Bienville 
reUnqoished  possession.  The  Spanbh  then  transferred  their 
settleinent  to  the  west  end  of  Santa  Rosa  IsUnd,  but  after  a 
destmctive  hurricane  In  1754  they  returned  to  the  mainland. 
In  1763,  when  the  Floridas  were  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  Pensa> 
eola  became  the  seat  of  administration  for  West  Florida  and 
moat  of  the  Spanish  inhabitants  removed  to  Mexico  and  Cuba. 
Dining  the  War  of  American  Independence  the  town  was  a 
place  of  refuge  for  many  Loyalists  from  the  northern  colonies. 
On  the  9th  of  May  1781  it  was  captured  by  Don  Bernardo  de 
Galvez,  the  Spanish  governor  at  New  Orieans.  Most  of  th<> 
English  inhabitants  left,  but  trade  remained  in  the  hands  of 
English  merdiants.  During  the  War  of  181 2  the  British  made 
Pensacola  the  centre  of  expeditions  against  the  Americans,  and 
In  18x4  a  British- fleet  entered  the  harbour  to  take  formal  posses- 
sion. In  retaliation  General  Andrew  Jackson  attacked  the  town, 
driving  back  the  British.  In  1818,  on  the  ground  that  the 
Spanish  encouraged  the  Seminole  Indians  in  thdr  attacks 
upon  the  American  settlements  In  the  vicinity,  Jackson  again 
captured  Pensacola,  and  in  1821  Florida  was  finally  transferred 
to  the  United  States.  On  the  tsth  of  January  186 1  the  Navy 
Yard  was  sdzed  by  order  of  the  state  government,  but  Fort 
Pickens,  defended  first  by  an  insignificant  force  under  UeuL 
Adam  J.  Slemmcr  (1828-68)  and  afterwards  by  a  larger  force 
under  Licut.-Colonel  Harvey  Brown  (i  796-1 874),  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Union  forces,  and  on  the  8th  of  May  i86a 
the  Confederates  abandoned  Pensaoola.  Pensacola  was  chartered 
as  a  dty  in  1895. 

PENSHimSTi'  a  village  in  the  sonth-westem  pariiamentaxy 
division  of  Kent,  England,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Eden  and 
Medway,  4I  m.  S.  W.  of  Tonbridge.  Pop.  (1901),  1678.  The  village 
is  remarkable  for  some  old  houses,  including  a  timbered  house 
of  the  15th  century,  and  for  a  noted  factory  of  cricket  implemeats. 
The  churchy  chiefly  laie  Perpendicular,  contains  a  large  number 
of  monuments  of  the  Sidney  family  and  an  effigy  of  Sir  Stephen 
de  PenchestcT,  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  in  the  time  of 
Edward  I.  Penshurst  Place  is  celebrated  as  the  home  of  the 
Sidney  family.  Andently  the  residence  of  Sir  Stephen  de  Pen- 
chester,  Penshurst  was  granted  to  Henry  VIII.'s  chamberlain,  Sir 
William  Sidney,  whose  grandson,  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  was  bom 
here  in  1554.  It  passed  to  Sir  Philip's  younger  brother  Robert, 
who  in  1618  was  created  earl  of  Leicester.  On  the  death 
of  the  seventh  earl  in  1743  the  esutes  devolved  upon  his  niece 
Elizabeth,  whose  only  child  married  Sir  Bysshe  Shelley  of  Castle 
Goring.  Thdr  son  was  created  a  baronet  in  x8i8  as  Sir  John 
Shdley-Sldncy,  and  his  son  was  created  Baron  de  L'IsIe  and 
Dudley  in  1835.  The  mansion  is  quadrangular,  and  has  a  fine 
court,  ch^)d  and  hall  (c.  1341)  with  open  timber  roof  and  a 
minstrels'  gallery.  The  various  rooms  contain  an  interesting 
collection  of  portraits,  armour  and  other  family  rehcs.  The 
praises  of  the  park  and  the  house  have  been  sung  in  Sir  Philip 
Sidney's  Arcadia^  and  by  Ben  Jonsoo,  Edmund  Waller  and 
Robert  Southey. 

PENSION  (Lat.  feiut#,  a  payment,  from  piwderf,  to  wdgh, 
to  pay),  a  regular  or  periodical  payment  made  by  private 
employers,  oOrporatioas  or  governments,  in  consideration  either 
of  past  services  or  of  the  abolltioii  of  a  post  or  oflke.  Sudi 
a  pension  t^es  eflect  on  retirement  or  when  the  period  of  service 
is  over.  The  word  b  also  used  in  the  sense  of  the  payment 
by  memben  of  a  sodety  in  respect  of  dues. 

United  Kingdom. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  the  majority  of  perums  in  the  employ 
of  the  government  are  entitled  to  pensions  on  reaching  a  cettaia 
age  and  after  having  served  the  itate  for  a  certain  miaiAum 
number  of  years.  That  such  is  the  case,  and  moreover  that 
it  is  usual  to  define  such  pensions  as  being  given  fnoonsTdtettion 
of  past  services,  has  led  to  the  putting  forward  vtty  generally 
the  argument  that  pensions,  whether  given  by»  a  government  oc 


PENHOK 


119 


by  private  emplojren,  are  in  tlie  nature  of  deferred  pay,  and  that 

holders  of  posts  which  carry  penstoos  must  therefore  be  rewarded 

by  a  remuneration  less  than  the  full  markei  rale,  by  the  difference 

of  the  value  of  the  pension.    This  view  is  hardly  correct,  for 

the  object  of  attaching  a  pension  to  a  post  is  not  merdy  to  reward 

past  services,  but  to  attract  continuity  of  service  by  the  bolder 

as  well  as  to  enable  the  employer  to  dispense  with  the  services 

of  the  employ^  wtthont  hardship  to  him  should  age  or  infinnity 

render  him  less  efficient.    Dissatisfaction  had  been  expressed 

from  time  to  time  by  members  of  the  English  civil  service  yidih 

the  system  in  force,  vie.  that  the  benefit  of  long  service  was 

confined  only  to  siirvivors,  and  that  no  advantage  aosnied  to 

the  representatives  of  those  who  died  in  service.  This  was  altered 

by  an  act  of  zqoq.    See  Royal  Commission  on  Superannuation 

in  the  Civil  Service:  Report  and  Efidence  (1903).    For  the  general 

pensions  given  by  the  state  to  the  aged  poor  see  Om  Acs 

Pensions. 

CtfU  Sernee. — In  the  English  civil  service  the  grant  of  jpensions 
on  superannuation  is  regulated  by  statute,  the  four  principal  acts 
bein^  the  Superannuation  Acts  of  iS^d,  1859,  188^  and  1909.  To 
qualify  for  a  pension  it  ia  necessary  (i)  that  a  civtl  servant  should 
have  been  admitted  to  the  service  wnth  a  certificate  from  the  civil 
service  commissioners,  or  hold  an  office  ^Mxially  exempted  from 
this  requirement;  (a)  that  he  should  give  hb  whole  time  to  the 
public  service;  (3)  that  he  should  draw  the  emoluments  of  his 
office  from  public  funds  exclusively;  (^)  that  he  should  have-served 
for  not  less  than  ten  years;  (5)  that  tf  under  the  age  of  60  years 
he  should  be  certified  to  be  permanently  incapable,  Trom  infirmity 
of  body  or  mind,  of  discharging  his  official  duties,  or  have  been 
fcmoved  from  hu  office  on  the  ground  of  his  inability  to  discharge 
his  duties  efficiently.  On  retirement  on  these  conditions  a 
civil  servant  is  auatlficd  for  a  pension  calculated  at  one-eightieth 
of  his  retiring  salary  Urr,  in  certain  cases,  of  his  average  salary  for 
the  last  three  years)  for  each  complete  year  of  service,  subject  to 
a  maximum  of  forty-eightieths.  Civil  servants  retiring  on  the 
ground  of  ilt  health  after  less  than  ten  years'  service  qualify  for 
a  gratuity  of  one  month's  pay  for  each  year  of  service.  Previous 
to  the  Superannuation  Act  01  190^  the  pension  was  calculated  at 
the  rate  of  one-sixtieth  of  the  retiring  salary  for  each  completed 
year  of  service,  subject  to  a  maximum  of  forty-sixtieths.  This  is 
still  the  rate  for  those  who  entered  the  service  previous  to  the  pass- 
ing of  the  act  JSepterabcr  20,  1909)  unless  they  availed  themselves 
of  the  permission  in  the  act  to  taVe  advantage  of  its  provisions, 
which  were  more  than  a  compensation  for  the  lowering  of  the  rate. 
The  act  gave  power  to  the  treasury  to  grant  by  way  of  additional 
allowance  to  a  civil  servant  who  retired  after  not. less  than  tw6 
years*  service,  in  addition  to  his  superannuation,. a  lump  sum  equal 
to  one-thirtieth  of  his  annual  salary  and  emoluments  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  completed  years  he  has  served,  so  however,  that 
such  lump  sum  does  not  exceed  one  and  a  half  times  his  salary,  wnite  if 
he  retires  after  attaining  the  age  of  uxty-five  years,  there  must  be 
deducted  from  that  lump  sum  one-twentieth  for  every  completed 
year  that  he  has  served  after  attaining  that  age.  In  the  case  of 
those  who  entered  the  service  before  the  passing  of  the  act,  and 
take  advantage  of  the  act,  this  additional  allowance  is  increased  by 
one-half  per  cent,  for  each  completed  year  served  at  the  pas:>inc  uf 
the  act.  The  act  also  provided  that  whore  a  civil  servant  died  alter 
serving  five  years  or  upwards,  a  gratuity  equal  to  his  annual  salary 
and  emoluments  might  be  granted  to  his  legal  personal  repre- 
sentatives. Where  the  civil  servant  attains  the  age  of  sixty-five 
this  gratuity  is  reduced  by  one-twentieth  for  each  cornpleted  year 
beyond  that  age.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  civil  servant 
has  retired  from  the  service  and  all  the  sums  received  by  him  at 
his  death  on  account  of  superannuation  are  less  than  his  annual 
salary  his  rcpre<<cntatives  may  receive  the  difference  as  a  gratuity. 
Provision  was  also  made  in  the  act  for  granting  compensation  on 
abolition  of  office,  provided  that  such  compensation  does  not 
exceed  what  the  recipient  might  be  granted  or  be  entitled  to  If  he 
retired  on  the  ground  of  ill  health.  Pensions  are  also  sometimes 
awarded  in  excess  of  the  scale  as  a  reward  for  special  servicer,  as 
compensation  for  injury  in  certain  cases,  or  to  holders  of  pro- 
fcsuonal  offices,  appointed'  at  an  age  exceeding  that  at  wnich 

fkublic  service  oiyiinarily  begins.  In  the  estimates  for  civil  services 
or  the  year  1^09-1910,  there  was  provided  for  non-effective  and 
charitable  services  (as  pensions  ana  gratuities  in  lieu  of  pensions 
are  known  as)  the  sum  of  X9.6a5,^;  this,  however,  included  an 
item  of  £8,750.000  lor  old-age  pensions,  leaving  a  sum  of  £375,930. 
There  was  charged  on  the  Consolidated  Fund,  on  account  olpenstons 
and  compensation  allowance  for  civil,  judicial  and  other  services, 
a  sum  of  1^142,767.  white  the  foUowing  sunn  lor  eivii  pensions  Were 
provided  in  the  estimates  of  the  several  dopan meats:  War  Office, 


(158VO00;  Admimlty,  £369,800;  Custosns  and  Exeice.  £419., 
Inland   Revenue.   £116,096:   Post   Office,   £649,000;   Royal   Msh 
Constabulary.    £iii6»5oo:    Dublin    Metropolitan    Police,    £^,6464 
making  a  total  01  £2,298,167.  or  a  grocs  total  for  civil  pensions  of 


/3,i74.o87.    A  return  is  pubtdihed  ahnoally  containing  a  eomf^^e 
list  of  the  various  pensions. 

Perpetual  or  Hereditary  Pensions. — Perpetual  pensions  were 
freely  granted  either  to  favourites  or  as  a  reward  for  political 
services  from  the  time  of  Charles  II.  onwards.  Sudi  pensions 
were  very  freguently  attached  as  **  salaries  "  to  places  which  were 
sinecures,  or,  just  as  often,  posts  which  were  really  necesaary  were 
grossly  overpaid,  while  the  duties  were  discharged  by  a  deputy 
at  a  small  salary*  Prior  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  such  pensions 
and  annuities  were  charged  on  the  hereditary  revenues  of  the 
sovereign  and  were  held  to  be  binding  on  the  sovereign's  successors 
iXke  Bankers'  Case,  1601 ;  State  Trials,  xiv,  3-43)u  By  1  Anne 
c.  7,  it  was  provided  that  no.  portion  of  the '  ncreditary  revenues 
could  be  charged  with  pensions  beyond  the  life  of  the  reigning 
sovereign.  This  act  did  not  affect  the  hereditary  revenues  ol 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  and  many  bcrSons  were  quartered,  as  they 
had  been  before  the  act,  on  the  Irish  and  Scotti^  revenues  who 
could  not  be  provided  for  in  England — for  example,  the  dul^e  di 
St  Albans,  illegitimate  son  of  Charies  II.,  had  an  Irish  pension  of 
£800  a  year;  Catherine  Sedlcy.  mistress  of  James  II.,  had  an  Irish 
pension  of  £5000  a  year;  the  duchess  of  Kendall  and  the  countess 
of  Darlington,  mistresses  of  George  I.,  had  pensions  of  the  united 
annual  value  of  £5000,  while  Madame  de  Walmoden.  a  jnistress  of 
George  II.,  had  a  pension  of  £3000  (Lecky,  History  of  Ireland  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century).  These  pensions  had  been  granted  in  every 
conceivable  form — during  the  pleasure  of  the  Crown,  for  the  Ule 
of  the  sovereign,  for  terms  of  years,  for  the  life  of  the  grantee,  and 
for  several  lives  in  being  or  in  reversion  (Erskine  May,  Constitutional 
History  of  EHiland).  On  the  accession  of  George  HI.  and  his 
surrender  of  the  hereditary  revenues  in  return  har  a  fixed  civil 
list,  this  civil  list  became  the  source  from  which  the  pensions  were 
paid.  The  subsequent  history  of  the  civil  list  will  be  found  under 
that  heading  (Civil  List),  but  it  may  be  here  mentioned  that  the 
three  pension  lists  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  .were  con* 
soUdated  in  1830.  and  the  civil  pension  list  reduced  to  £75,000. 
the  remainder  of  the  pensions  being  charged  on  the  Consoliaatea 
Fund. 

In  1887,  Charles  Bra81augh«  M.P.,  protested  strongly  against 
the  oayment  of  perpetual  pensions,  and  aa  a  result  a  Committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  inquired  into  the  subject  (Report  of  SeUct 
Committee  on  Perpetual  Pensions,  248,  1887}.  An  appendix  to  the 
Report  contains  a  detailed  list  of  all  hereditary  pensions,  pay- 
ments and  allowances  in  existence  in  1881,  with  an  explanation 
of  the  origin  in  each  case  and  the  ground  of  the  original  grant; 
there  are  also  shown  the  pensions,  &c.,  redeemed  from  time  to 
time,  and  the  terms  upon  which  the  redemption  took  place.  The 
nature  of  some  of  these  pensions  may  be  .gathered  from  the  f(Jlow- 
ing  examples:  To  the.  duke  of  Marlborough  and  his  heirs  in  per- 
petuity, £4000  per  annum;  this  annuity  was  redeemed  in  August 
1884  for  a  sum  of  £107,780,  by  the  creation  of  a,  ten  years'  annuity 
of  £12.796.  17s.  per  annum.  By  an  act  of  1806  an  annuity  of  £5000 
per  annum  was  conferred  on  Lord  Nelson  and  his  heirs  in  perpetuity. 
In  1793  an  annuity  of  ^000  was  conferred  on  Lord  Rodney  and 
his  heirs.  All  these  pensions  wicrc  for  services  rendered,  and  altnough 
justifiable  from  that  point  of  view,  a  preferable  policy  is  pursued 
m  the  20th  century,  oy  parliament  voting  a  lump  sum,  as  in  the 
cases  of  Lord  Kitchener  in  1902  (£50,000)  and  Lord  Cromer  in  1907 
£50,000).  Charles  II.  granted  the  office  of  receiver-general  and 
controller  of  the  seals  of  the  court  of  lung's  bench  and  common 
pleas  to  the  duke  of  Grafton.  This  was  purchased  in  1825  from 
the  duke  for  an  annuity  of  £843*  which  in  turn  was  commuted  in 
1883  for  a  sum  of  £22.714,  I2S4  8d.  To  the  same  duke  was  given 
the  office  of  the  pipe  or  remembrancer  of  first-fruits  and  tenths  of 
the  clergy.  This  office  was  sold  by  the  duke  in  1765,  and  after 
p^^'HM'Mt  through  various  hands  was  purchased  by  one  R.  Harrison 
m  1798.  In  1835  on  the  loss  of  certain  fees  the  holder  was  com- 
pensated by  a  perpetual^  pension  of  £62, 9s.  8d.  The  duke  of  Grafton 
also  possessed  an  annuity  of  £6870  in  respect  of  the  commutation 
of  the  dues  of  butlerage  and  prisage.  To  the  duke  of  St  Albans 
was  granted  in  168^  the  office  of  master  of  the  hawks.  The  sums 
granted  by  the  original  patent  were:  master  of  hawks,  salary, 
£39 It  Is.  5d.;  four  falconers  at  £50  per  annum  each,  £200;  provision 
of  hawks,  £600 ;  provision  of^pigeons,  bens  ana  other  meats, 
£182,  los.;  total,  £i373t  its.  $d.  This  amount  was  reduced  by 
office  fees  and  other  deuuctions  to  £965.  at  whkh  amount  it  stood, 
until  commuted  in  1891  for  £18,335.  To  the  duke^  of  Richmond 
and  hb  heirs  was  granted  in  16^6  a  duty  of  one  shilling  per  ton  on 
all  coals  exporteo  from  the  T yne  for  consumption  m  England. 
This  was  redeemed  in  1790  for  an  annuity  of  £19,000  (chargeable 
on  the  consolidated  fund),  which  was  afterwaras  redeemed  for 
£633^^.  The  duke  of  Hamilton,  as  hereditary  keoier  of  .the 
palace,  Holyrood  House,  received  a  perpetual  penainn  oi  £4$,  los., 
and  the  descendants  of  the  heritable  usher  of  Scotland  drew  a  salary 
of  £242,  108.  The  conclusions  of  the  committee  were  that  pensions, 
allowances  and  payments  should  not  in  future  be  granted  in  per* 
peluity,  on  the  ground  that  such  grants  shouM  be  limited  to  the 
persomt  actually  ^eodcring  the  services,  and  that  such  rewards 
should  be  defrayed  by  the  generation  benefited;  that  offices  with 
salaries  and  witnoot  duties,  or  with  ineiely  qoniioal  duties*  o*lgh| 


,120 


PESNSION 


to  beat^Uibed;  that  all -existing  perpttual  penstoos  and  payments 
and  alt  hereditary  offices  should  be  abolished:  that  where  no  service 
or  merely  nominal  service  is  rendered  by  the  holder  ^f  an  hereditary 
office  or  the  original  grantee  of  a  pension,  the  pension  or  pav;ncnt 
should  in  no  case  continue  beyond  the  life  of  the  present  holder 
and  that  in  all  cases  Che  method  of  commutation  ought  to  ensure 
a  real  and  substantial  saving  to  the  nation  (the  existing  rate,  about 
27  years'  purchase,  being  considered  by  the  committee  to  be  too 
high).  These  recommendations  of  the  committee  were  adopted 
by  the  government  and  outstanding  hereditary  ocnsions  were 
gradually  commuted,  the  only  ones  left  outstanding  Doing  those  to 
Lord  Rodney  (£2000)  and  to  Earl  Nelson  (£5000),  both  chargeable 
on  the  consolicutcd  fund. 

PotiHcal  Fensimu.^By  the  Political  Offices  Pension  Act  1869. 
pensions  were  instituted  for  those  who  had  held  political  office. 
For  the  purposes  of  the  act  political  offices  were  divided  into  three 
classes:  (1)  those  with  a  yearly  salary  of  not  less  than  I5000; 
(2)  those  with  a  sabry  of  less  than  £5000  and  not  less  than  i^ooo; 
U)  those  with  a  sataiy  of  less  than  £2000  and  more  than  £looo» 
For  service  in  these  omccs  there  may  be  awarded  pensions  lor  lif6 
in  the  following  scale:  (i)  a  first  class  pen«on  not  exceeding  £2000 
a  year,  in  respect  of  not  less  than  four  years'  service  or  its  equivalent, 
In  an  office  01  the  first  class;  (2)  a  second  class  pension  not  exceeding 
/i  200,  in  respect  of  service  of  not  less  than  six  years  or  its  equivalent, 
m  an  office  of  the  second  class;  (3)  a  third  cbss  pension  not  exceed- 
ing £800  a  year,  in  respect  of  srrvice  of  not  less  than  ten  years  in 
an  office  of  the  third  class.  The  service  need  not  be  continuous, 
and  the  act  makes  provision  for  counting  service  in  lower  classes 
as  a  qualification  for  pension  in  a  higher  class.  These  i)cnsiona 
are  limited  in  number  to  twelve,  but  a  holder  must  not  receive  any 
other  pension  out  of  the  public  revenue,  if  so,  he  must  inform  the 
treasury  and  surrender  it  if  it  exceeds  his  political  pension,  or  if 
under  he  must  deduct  the  amount.  He  may,  however,  hold  office 
while  a  pensioner,  but  the  pension  is  not  payable  during  the  time  he 
holds  office.  To  obtain  a  political  pension,  the  applicant  mu&t  file 
a  declaration  stating  the  grounds  upon  which  he  claims  it  and  that 
his  income  from  other  sources  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  his 
station  in  life. 

Civil  List  Pennons. — ^These  are  pensions  grajited  by  the 
itovercign  from  the  civil  list  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  first 
lord  of  the  treasurv.  By  I  &  2  Vict.  c.  2  they  arc  to  be  granted  to 
**  such  persons  only  as  have  just  claims  on  the  royal  beneficence 
or  who  by  their  personal  services  to  the  Crown,  or  by  the  perform- 
ance of  duties  to  the  public,  or  by  their  useful  discoveries  in  science 
and  attainments  in  literature  and  the  arts,  have  merited  the  gracious 
consideration  of  their  sovereign  and  the  gratitude  of  their  country." 
A  sum  of  £1200  is  allotted  each  year  from  the  civil  list,  in  addition 
to  the  pensions  already  in  force.  From  a  Return  issued  in  1908 
|he  total  of  civil  list  pensions  payable  in  that  year  amounted  to 

Judu'ial,  Municipal,  &c. — There  arc  certain  offices  of  the  exe- 
cutive whose  pensions  arc  regulated  by  particular  acts  of  parliament! 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  on  completing  fifteen  years'  ser\'i(?e 
or  becoming  |jermancntly  incapacitatra  for  duty,  whatever  their 
length  of  service,  may  be  granted  a  pension  coual  to  two-thirds  of 
their  salary  (Judicature  Act  1873).  The  lord  cfianccllor  of  England 
however  short  a  time  he  may  have  held  office,  receives  a  pcnMon 
of  (sooo,  bat  he  usually  continues  to  sit  as  a  law  lord  in  the  House 
of 'Lords — BO  also  docs  the  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  who  receive* 
a  pension  of  £3,692  6s.  id.  A  considerable  number  of  local  author- 
tttcs  have  obtained  special  parliamentary  powers  for  the  pur- 
pose of  superannuating  their  officials  and  workmen  who  nave 
reached  the  age  of  60-65.  Poor  law  officers  receive  superannua- 
tion allowances  under  the  Poor  Law  Officers  Superannuation  Acts 
I 864-1 897. 

Ecdesiastical  Pensions. — Bishops^  deans,  canons  or  Incumbents 
Who  arc  incapacitated  by  age  or  infirmity  from  the  discharge  of 
their  ecclesiastical  duties  may  receive  pensions  which  are  a  charge 
upon  the  revenues  of  the  see  or  cure  vacated. 

Navy  pensions  were  first  instituted  by  William  til.  In  1693  and 
TTgubny  cstabfished  by  an  order  in  council  of  Queen  Anne  in  t^oo. 
Since  then  the  rate  of  pensions  has  imdergone  various  modifications 
and  alterations;  the  lull  regulations  concerning  pensions  to  all 
ranks  will  be  found  in  the  quarterlv  jyovy  List,  published  by  the 
authority  of  the  Adnliralty.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  pensons 
there  are  also  good-service  pensions,  Greenwich  Hospital  pension 
and  pensions  for  wounds.  An  officer  is  entitled  to  a  penaon  when 
he  is  retincd  at  the  age  of  45,  or  if  he  retires  between  the  a^es  of 
40  and  45  at  his  own  request,  otherwise  he  receives  only  half  pay. 
The  amount  of  his  pension  def>ends  upon  his  rank,  lengtn  of  service 
and  age.  T1)e  maximum  retired  pay  of  an  admiral  is  £850  per 
annum,  for  which  30  years'  scrvhre  or  its  equivalent  in  naK-^y 
timi;  is  ticfidssary ;  he  may.  in  addition,  hold  a' good  service  pension 
*'.  £300  per  annum.  The  maximum  retired  pay  of  a  vice-admiral, 
witTT  29  years'  service  is  £7*25;  of  rear-admirals  with  27  years* 
service  £600  per  annum.  Pensions  of  captains  who  re^rn  at  the 
4ge  of  55,  commanders,  who  retire  at  50.  and  lieutenants  who  fettre 
at  45,  range  from  £200  per  annum, for  17  years'  service  to  £S2'5  for 
24  years'  service.  The  pensions  of  other  officers  are  calculated 
ifl  the  same  way,  according,  to  age  and  length  of  aervke    The 


good'servicc  pensipnt  consist,  of  ten  pensions  of  X390,per  asBuin 
for  Hag-officers,  two  of  which  may  be  held  by  vice-admirals  and  two 
by  rear-admirals;  twelve  of  £150  for  captains;  two  of  £200  a  year 
and  two  of  £150  a  ytear  for  engineer  officers;  three  of  £100  a  yeor  for 
medical  oAccrs  of  the  navy;  six  of  £aoo  a  year  for  general  oftccrs 
of  the  J^oyal  Marines  and  two  of  £150  a  year  (or  colonels  and  licut.- 
colonels  of  the  same.  Greenwich  Hospital  pensions  range  from 
£150  a  year  for  flag  officers  to  £25  a  year  for  warrant  officers.  All 
•earoea  and  roarfnca  who  hav«  completed  twenty-two  yeara'  -ser\'ice 
are  entitled  to  pensions  langing  from  lod.  a  day  to  a  aipximum  oC 
Is.  2d.  a  day,  according  to  the  number  of  good-conduct  badges, 
together  with  the  good-conduct  medal,,  possessed.  Petty  officers, 
in  addition  to  the  rates  of  pension  allowed  them  as  seamen,  arc 
allowed  for  etKh  year's  service  in  the  capacity  of  superior  petty 
officer,  15a.  ad.  a  year,  and  in  the  capacity  oC  inferior  petty  officer 
7a..  7d.  a  year.  M^n  who  are  discharged  the  service  on  account 
of  injuries  and  wounds  or  disability  attributable  to  the  service  are 
pensioned  with  sums  varying  from  od.  a  day  to  2s.  a  day.  Pensions 
are  aho  given  to  the  widows  of  officers  in  certain  cicttimstancea 
and  oompaaaionate  allowances  made  to  the  children  of  officers. 
In  the  Navy  estimates  for  IQ08-1909  the  amount  required  for  half> 
pay  and  retired-pay  was  £808,800,  and  for  pcnsiona,  gratuities  and 
compassionate  allowances  £1.334.600,  a  total  of  £2*203,^00. 

Army. — ^Thc  system  of  pensions  in  the  British  Army  is  somewhat 
intricate,  provision  being  made  for  dealing  with  almost  every  case 
separately.  As  a  general  rule  officers  can  retire  alter  eight  years' 
service  on  a  pension  of  ^loo  ncr  annum  for  ten  years,  provided  that 
they  take  commissions  in  either  the  Imperial  Yeomanry  or  Special 
Reserve  and  attend  the  annual  trainings  during  that  period.  The 
other  pensions  arc  as  follows:  2nd  lieutenants,  heutcnants,  captains 
and  majofTs  after  15  years'  scr\'ice  (or  12  years  in  the  West  India 
regiment),  £120,  if  45 ycarsof agc£200;  majors, after 25 years'service. 
£200.  Royal  artillery  or  royal  engineers  if  commissioned,  after  21 
years  of  age,  £300,  if  48  years  of  age,  £300;  lieutcnant<olo«ids,  after 
3  years  as  such,  with  15  years'  service,  £250,  with  27  years'  service. 
£300,  with  30  years'  service,  £365.  after  term  of  employment  as  lieu- 
tcnant<oloncl  commanding  a  unit,  or  staff  appointment  as  lieutenant* 
colonel,  or  after  5  years  as  lieutenant-colonel  cavalry  and  infantry, 
£420.     Royal  artillery,  royal  engineers  and  army  service  corps, 


foot-guards,  or  employed  in  any  other  capacity  for 
three  years,  £45<>-£500  according  to  age;  Brevet-colonels,  witn  the 
substantive  ranlc  oflieutenant-cotonel,  receive,  cavalry  or  infantry. 


Officers  whose  first  permanent  commission  bears  date  prior  to 
the  1st  of  January,  18B7,  retire  with  a  gratuity  in  Kcu  of  pension. 

Officers  of  the  departmental  corps  retire  cither  with  pensions 
pnging  from  £t  125  yearly  to  lOs.  df ily,  or  with  gratuities  ranging 
from  Osoo  to  £rooo. 

Warrant  officers  with  5  years*  service  as  such,  and  20  years*  total 
ftervice,  receive  3s.  6d.  per  diem  if  discharged  from  the  service  on 
account  of  disability,  reduction  of  establishment  or  age.  On  dis* 
chai^  for  any  reasons  (except  misconduct  or  inefficiency)  they 
receive  from  As.  6d.  to  Ss.  ^r  diem,  according  to  length  of  service 
and  corps.  If  they  have  less  than  5  years  service  as  warrant 
officers,  out  not  less  than  21  years'  total  service,  they  receive  at 
least  3s.  per  diem;  and  if  discharged  at  their  own  request  after 
18  vcars'  total  service,  2s.  7  id. 

Additional  pensions  are  given  at  the  rate  of  6d.  per  diem  for 
gallant  conduct,  and  lid.  to  is.  per  diem  for  riM^mpIoyed  pensioners 
on  completing  their  second  term  of  employment,  with  3d.  per  diem 
extra  if  promoted  while  so  serving.  Special  pensions  are  also 
granted  in  exceptional  cases. 

For  the  purposes  of  pensions,  non-commissioned  officers  are 
divided  into  four  classes,  corresponding  roughly  to  quartermaster- 
sergeants,  colour-sergeants,  sergeants  and  corporals.^ 

With  not  more  than  21  years  total  service,  and  with  the  following 
continuous  service  in  one  of  the  above  classes,  the  rates  of  pcobions 
(per  diem)  are: — 


Class. 


I. 

n. 
in. 

IV, 


12  years 

Scrvke, 


t.   d. 

9    6 

?  i 


Service. 


8.  d. 

2  6 

a  3 

a  o 

I  « 


6  years' 
Service. 


a.  d. 

a  3 

a  o 

t  9 

I  4 


Service. 


a.  d. 

t  o 

■  9 

I  6 

I  o 


Privates  (Qass  V.)  receive  the  followirtg  pefiaiatta> 


21  years 
S«rvke. 


lai  id. 


2oyi»m 
Sctvice.  ' 


loyurs 
Service. 


la.  od 


n. 


lid.  • 


18  years' 
Service. 


lod. 


14  to  18  years' 
Servlcct 


8d.  to  lod. 


PENSION 


121 


For  MTviae  InexociMof  21  yeAn,  the  foHowing 
Co  the  pgoMona  enumerated  above; — 


•leaddtd 


For  eich  complete  year  tft  excess  of  a  i  years. 


I.toIlM 
ClaswsIV.aodV. 


Id.  per  diem  to  9d.  p^r  diem. 
jd.  per  dtem  to  5d  per  diem. 


A  man  promoted  to  higher  rank  within  one  year  of  bts  com- 
pleting at  ynn*-  service,  receives»on  hb  diachargt  in  the  higher  rank» 
an  extra  3d,  per  diem,  provided  that  he  has  completed  35  yean* 
service  in  all.  An  addiuonal  penaoa  of  6d.  per  diem  is  awarded 
for  eaHant  conduct,  as  in  the  case  of  warrant  officers. 

nTc.O.'s  and'  men  disabled  through  military  servke  are  granted 
the  foltowiag  pensions  ;*^ 


If  partially  capable  of  earning  a  livelihood 


I.  to  III. 
IV 


w       t        i  '     • 


If  totally  incapable  of  earning  a  livelihood 


ClaM    I. to  III...     • 

ft      4Vp    ~      .»     %      • 
•  >        V.    • 


»      r 


•       • 


.       •       f 


Per  diem. 


it;to3s. 
9d.  tioas^ 
6d.  to  IS.  6d. 


Pwdicto. 


as.  6d.  to3a.6d. 
as.  od.  to  3s^  od. 

IS.  6d.  to  as.  6d. 


Pctidoaamay  abo  be  granted  to  N  .CO.  'aand  men  wlk>ai»  disabled 
by  causes  other  than  military  service.  acconUng  to  drcumstiiiKts. 

United  Stales. 

In  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  pensions  in  the  XTnited 
States  are  confiaed  to  federal  judges  and  officers  ol  the  army 
and  navy,  but  the  United  States  "  Pension  Fund  "  is  so  singular 
a  ieature  of  the  national  budget,  that  it  is  desirable  to  give  an 
account  of  the  diflerent  classes  of  allowances  which  are  granted. 
In  the  United  States  allowances  for  services  in  wars  prior  to  the 
4th  of  March  x86i  are  called  "  old  war  "  pensions,  and  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes,  \h.,{\)  invalid  pensions,  based  upon 
wounds  or  injuries  received,  or  disease  contracted  in  the  course 
of  duty,  (a)  '*  service  "  pensions,  and  (3)  land  bounties,  both 
granted  for  service  irrespective  of  injuries. 

The  firet  provision  made  by  Congregsfor  peneiQnewaea  icdohidott' 
passed  on  the  36th  of  August  1776^  promising  mvalid  pensionate 
officers  and  men  of  the  army  oc  navy  who  lost  a  limb  or  were  other- 
wise disabled  in  the.  War  of  rndependence,  at  a  rate  equal  to  half 
of  their  monthly  pay  as  officers  or  soldiers  during  life  or  continuance 
of  the  disability,  those  not  totally  disabled  to  icodve  an  adequate 
laonthly  pensioA  not.  to  exceed  half  «f  their  pnr.  Then  followed 
various  Acts  of  Congress  enlarging  the  provisions  for  Invalid  pensions 
and  extending  them  to  those  wno  had  been  in  the  war  of  i8ia, 
and  to  the  widows  and  chiMren  of  those  who  died  in  the  war  or  from 
wounds  received  in  the  war.  The  act  of  the  gnl  ef  May  1846, 
provkled  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  withMexko  and  for  pensioa* 
ing  those  volunteers  wounded  or  otherwise  disabled  in  service.' 
Other  acts  were  subsequently  passed  making  further  provision  for 

Ctn^oA  on  aocount  of  sirvtee  in  the  Mexican  wan  The  first  general 
w  granting  "  aerviee>"  penttons  wi)s  not  passed  until  the  i8th  of 
March  1818,  thirty-five  years  after  the  termination  of  the  War  of 
Independence.  Its  beneficiaries  were  required  to  be  in  indigent 
cireumBtances  and  in  need  off  assistance  from  their  country.  Two 
years  later  Congress  became  alarmed  by  veasoa  of  the  large  nmnber 
d  daims  filed  Osbout  Booo),  and  ena^ed  what  was  known  as  the 
**  Alarm  Act,"  requiring  each  applicamt  for  pension  and  each 
pensioner  on  the  rolls  to  lumish  a  schedule  of  his  whole  estate  and 
income,  clothing  and  balding  excepted.  Many  pensioners  were 
dropped  who  were  possessed  of  as  much  as  f  1^0  worth  of  property. 
Numerous  acts  were,  however,  passed  frx>m  tmie  to  time  liberaliz- 
ing the  law  or  dealing  more  generously  with  the  survivors  of  the 
Revolution.  Service  pensions  were  not  granted  to  widows  of  the 
soldiers  of  this  war  until  1836,  and  then  only  for  a  period  of  five 
years  and  on  condition  that  the  marriage  of  the  soldier  was  prior  to 
h|s  last  service,  and  that  the  soUier's  service  was  not  less  than  six 
months.  In  1853,  seventy  years  after  the  close  of  the  war,  the  limi- 
tation as  to  the  time  of  marriage  was  removed.  The  rolls  In  1901 
contained  nine  and  in  1908  two  pensions  based  upon  service  in  the 
War  of  Independence.  The  last  sur\avor  was  Dahlel  F.  Bakeman, 
who  died  on  the  sth  of  April  1869,  aged  109  years  and  6  nionths. 

The  first  law  granting  service  pensions  on  account  of  the  war  of 
1813  was  passea  itt  1871.  fifty-six  years  after  the  close  of  the  war. 
This  act  reqoired  sixty  days  service.  Widows  were  not  pension- 
able unless  the  marriage  to  the  soldier  had  taken  place  prior  to  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  15th  February  1815.  On  9th  March  1878. 
sixty-three  years  after  the  war,  an  act  was  pased  reducing  the 
requisite  period  of  service  to  fourteen  days  and  removing  the 
Umiutions  as  to  date  of  marriage,    la  1908  the  pension  rotb 


contained  the  names  of  471  widows  of  this  war,  the  last  male  satvivor 


having  died  in  1905,  at  the  age  of  105  years. 

"  I  the  Black  Hawk  war,  Creek 


pcovkltd  for  those  who  served  in 
war,  Cherokee  distaffaaoces  and  the  Semiaole  war  (183a  to  184a), 
on  the  a7th  of  July  189a,  fifty  years  after  the  period  esiibfacca  ia 
the  act ;  they  were  grairted  to  those  who  had  served  for  thirty  days 
and  wero  hoaouraUy  dischacgcd.  and  to  thdr  widows.  In  1908 
there  were  iSaa  sarvivors  and-sot^  widows,  pensionera  of  the 
Indian  wan.  Service  pensions  were  graatcd  to  the  survivora  of 
the  war  with  Meadco  by  aa  act '  pasMd  on  the  a^th  of  January 
1887,  thirty-nine  years  after  the  Guadeloupe*Hikialgo  treaty.  The 
pensioos  were  gmnted  to  those  who  were  honourably  dischaiged 
aod  to  the  widows,  for  eervke  of  rixty  days,  if  sixty-two  years  of 
aga,  or  disabled  or  depeadeat.  This  law  was  Kberaliaed  by  the 
acts  of  the  sth  of  Januanr  189J,  a3sd  of  April  1900, 6th  of  February 
1907,  and  19th  of  Apia  1908,  incrsaainc  the  pmsion  to  $1-5  for 
taoae  who  have  teached  the  age  of  seventy  years,  and  to  fao  for 
these  ssvenQf-feve  years  and  over.  In  1908  the  pension  rolls 
coatasned  the  names  of  3939  survivorTand  691a  widows  on  accounf 
of  service  in  the  Mexican  war.  To  give  title  to  bounty  land«  aervke 
nrast  have  been  for  at  least  fourteen  days  or  in  a  battle  prior  to 
3rd 'March  1855:  and  if  in  the  navy  or  regular  army,  must  have 
beea  in  some  war  in  which  the  United  States  was  engaged.  Bounty 
land  wanaats  are  issoed  for  ito  acies,  aad  over  fofioo/xn  acres 
have  been  granted  under  the  diffennt  Bounty  Land  Acta 

For  ser^^ees  rendered  in  the  Civil  War  (1861-65)  in  the  army 
or  aavy  of  the  United  States,  or  in  their  various  bianahes,  the  law 
piovMed  twodtstinet  systems  of  pensioning*^!)  the  general  laws, 
granting  pensions  for  wounds  or  injuries  racoved,  or  disease  con> 
tracted  In  sendee  in  the  line  of  duty,  the  peasiona  tanging  from 
$6  to  $100  per  month;  and  (a)  the  so-called  Dependent  nnsipn 
Act  and  amending  acts,  gmnthig  pensbns  for  permanent  disabilities 
,  regMtUem  of  the  time  and  manner  of  their  orl|[in,  provMled  they 
I  were  not  'the  result  of  vidaus  habits,  the  pensions  ranging  froia 
$6  to  $19  per  month.  What  is  known  as  the  general  law  lor  dis-^ 
abilities  falcurred  in  service  and  in  the  course  of  datywas  conatUute<j( 
in  the  act  of  the  t4th  of  July  i86a,  as  amended  by  the  net  of  the 
3rd  of  March  1873.  Under  its  proviakMia  the  following  classes  of 
penons  am  endtud  to  benefit,  vis.  any  oOoer  of  the  army,  navy 
or  marine  corps,  or  any  enlisted  man  in  the  military  or  nsryiA  aervioe 
of  the  United  States,  whether  regulariy  mustered  or  not:  any  master 
orany  pilot,  engineer,  sailor  or  other  person  not  regulariy  musteredr' 
•serving  ufxm  any  gunboat  or  wtr-vesad  of  the  United  States;  any 
acting  assistant  or  contract  sarfKon;  any  provost>marshal,  deputy 
provost«manluil  or  enrolling  im&cer;  subieet  to  the  several  con*^ 
ditions  In  each  particular  case  prescribed  in  the  law.  This  law 
also  embraces  in  Its  provisions  the  following  dssses,  each  class 
being  subjeot  to  certain  specified  conditions,  vis.  wkbws,  children 
under  sixteen  yesrs  pf  age,  dependent  parents,  and  brothen  and 
sisters.  This  act  has  been  the  subject  of  mnneroos  amendments 
along  more  liberal  lines.  As  an  illustration  a  case  may  be  cited 
where  a  soldier  lost  both  hands  in  the  service  in  the  course  of  dnty, 
and  was  disehaiged  in  x86s.  He  is  entitled  to  a  pension  of  fS' 
per  month  from  the  date  of  his  dischMge^  Under  subsequent 
acU  he  b  entitled  to  fas  pe'  nwnth  from  4th  July  1864;  $31 'aj} 
from  4th  Jone  187a;  ^50  from  4th  June  1874;  ^a  from  t7tn 
June  1878.  and  $too  from  lath  February  1889. 

Under  tne-  geaeml  bw  a  widow  or  depeadent  ndative  couM  not 
be  pensioned  unless  the  caase  of  the  soldier's  death  orlginalieQ  in 
service  in  the  tine  of  duty;  if  it  were  so  shown,  a  widow  might  be 
pensioned  whether  she  were  rich  or  poor.  Upon  the  death  ot 
remarriage  of  the  widow  the  minor  children  of  the  soldier  under  the 
ne  of  sixteea  years  become  eatitled  to  pMsion.,  If  thn  svklier 
'  oted  of  causes  due  to'his  service^  and  left  no  widow  or  minor  chikben, 
his  other  rcbtivcs  become  entitled,  if  dependent,  In  the  following 
order,  vn:  first,  the  mother;  secondly,  the  father;  thirdly,  orphan 
sisters  and.  brothers  under  sixteen  yeam  of  age, who  shall  be  pen- 
sioned jointly.  In  X908  the  number  of  invalids  pensioned  under 
the  general  law  sras  142,044,  and  the  number  of  widows  and  4epen> 
dent  relatives  was  8t,i68. 

The  BO<atled  Impendent  Pendon  Act  was  bssed  uixm  an  Act 
of  Congress  approved  aTth  lime  1890,  which  was  amended  on 
19th  May  1900W  Pnmeriy  apeakingi  it  mbht  be  called  "  dependent " 
only  as  regards  wioowa  and  parents.  The  main  conditions  as  to 
the  soldier  or  sailor  were,  ninetj^  days'  service,  an  honourable 
discharge,  and  a  permanent  disamlitv  from  disease  or  otherwise, 
not  the  mult  of  Us  own  vidoos  hamts,  to  sack  an  eatent  as  to 
render  him  unable  to  nuiintain  himself  by  manual  bbour.  The 
rates  of  pension  under  thU  act  were  $6,  $&,  |io  and  $12  per  month. 
Widows  oecame  entitled  under  this  law  if  they  married  the  soldier 
or  sailor  prior  to  a7th  June  1 890,  provided  they  were  without 
means  of  aapport  other  than  their  dally  bbour,  arid  an  actual 
nct^iiKome  ^  eaoeeding  $250  per  yesr,  aad  had  not  lemanried. 
culms  of  children  under  sixteen  years  oI  age  were  governed  by  tha. 
same  conditions  as  applied  to  claims  of  widows,  except  that  their 
dependence  was  presumed,  and  need  not  be  shown  by  evidence. 
If  a  minor  child  was  insane,  idiotic  or  otherwise  physically  or  ment- 
ally lielplem,  the  pension  continued  during  the  life  of  said  child 
or  during  theperiod  of  disabili^.  Furtheracts  made  mora  liberaf, 
pTovuions.    TnaC  of  the  6th  of  February  1907,  granted  peiuions' 


tit 


PENSIONAKY^PENTASTOMroA 


to  penoofl  triio  had  wantdiA*tty  days  or  vadn  in  the  tnllkary  or 
oftval  aervioe  in  the  devii  war.  or  sixty  days  in  tbe  Meaicaa  war, 
and  were  lionourably  diacbargod,  no  other  conditions  bcioB  attacked. 
The  late  of  peosimi  Was  SoStd  at  Su  per  moath  .when  sixty -two 
years  of  age,  lis  per  month  when  seventy  years  of  age  and  $ao 
per  month  when  seventy-five  yean  of  a^  The  act  of  April 
1908,  ftzed  the  rate  of  pension  for  widows,  minor  children  under  the 
age  of  sixteen  and  helplesa  minors  -on  the  roll  or  afterwards  to-  be 
placed  on  it  at  ii2  per  month,  and  granted  pensions  at  the  aame 
late  to  the  widowrs  of  persona  who  served  ninety  diys  or  mor6 
during  the  civil  war,  without  r^rd  to  their  pecuniary  condition. 
In  1008  there  were  140,600  invalids  on  the  rolL  and  4294  minor  and 
helpless  children.  In  the  same  year  under  the  act  oi  1907  there 
were  338.341  dependants,  white  under  the  act  of  1908,  188445 
widows  were  put  on  the  rolL  All  women  emptoycd  by  competent 
authority  as  nurses  during  the  Civil  War  (or  six-  months  or  more, 
who  are  umibl^  to  earn  a  supporti  are.  granted  a  pension  of  I12 
per  month  by  an  act  of  the  5th  of  August  1992.  In  1908 
|he  pension  rolls  contained  the  names  of  3110  pensioners  under 
thjs  ac^. 

lliere  were  on  the  roll. in  1908  on  account  of  the  Spanish  war, 
11,786  invalids  and  37aa  dependants. '  The  total  amount  paid  in 
peasbns  in  1908  on  account  of  that  war  and  the  insurrectiott  in 
the  Philippine  Islands  was  83,654,122.  The  grand  total  of  pen- 
sioners on  Uie  roll  for  all  wars  was,  in  1008, 951,687. 

In  addition  to  pmsions,  the  United  States  government  js^ants 
the  foUowiqg  gratuities:  First'  If  a  addier  lost  a  limb  m  the 
service,  or  as  a  result  of  his  service  in  line  of  duty,  he  is  furnished 
with  an  artificial  limb  free  of  cost  ei^ry  three  years,  or  commuta- 
tion therefor,  and  transportation  to'  and  from  a  (Aaoe  where  he 
shall  select  the  artificial  hmb.  Second:  An  honourably  dlschaiged 
soldier  or  sailOT  is  given  preference  for  ap^intment  to  places  of 
trust  and  profit,  nnd  preference  for  retention  in  all  dvu  service 
positions.  Thvd:  There  are  ten  National  Soldiers*  Homes  situ- 
ated at  convenient  and  healthy  points  in  diflferent  parts  of  the 
country,  where  comfortable  quartera,  clothing,  medical  attendance, 
library  and  amusements  of  different  kinds  are  provided  free  of  all 
expense:  government  providing  the  soldiers  free  transportation  to 
the  home,  continuing  payments  of  pension  while  they  are  members 
of  the  home,  and  Increasang  the  tame  as  disabilities  increase. 
Fourth:  There  are  thirty  homes  mautained  by  the  different 
states^  which  are  similar  m  their  purpose  to  the  National  Homes, 
the  sum  of  1 100  per  year  being  paid  by  the  general  aovemment  for 
each  inmate.  Many  of  theae  state  homes  also  proviae  for  the  wives 
and  children  of  the  inmates,  so  that  they  need  not  be  separated 
whUe  they  are  members  of  such  home.  Fiftk:  Schoob  are  estab- 
Vshed  by  the  different  states  for  the  maintenance  and  education 
of  soldiers'  on>han8  until  they  attain  the  age  of  sixteen  years. 
(  From^  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  in  1865  to  1908.  the  government  of 
the  United  States  paid  to  its  pensioners  for  that  war  the  sum  of 
f3t533i593«025-  The  payments  on  account  of  all  wars  for  the 
&cal  v^r  ended  on  the  30th  of  Jone  1908  were  $153,093,086. 
Over  $17,000,000  has  been  paid  to  suigeons  for  making  medical 
examinations  of  pensionen  and  applicants  for  pensions^  The 
total  disbursement  for  pensions  from  1790  to  190^  amounted  to 
$3>751» '98,809.  No  other  nation  or  government  in  aU  time  has 
dealt  so  liberally  with  its  defenders. 

Thq  money  appropriated  by  Congress  for  the  payment  of  pensions 
b  disbursed  by  eighteen  pension  agjcnts  estaolished  in  diffeitnt 
parts  of  the  country.  Pensions  are  paid  quartcriy,  and  the  affcncies 
are  divided  into  three  classes,  one  01  which  pays  on  the  4th  of  every 
month. 

•  PBNSIONART,  a  aaxne  giveti  to  the  leading  functionary  and 
legal  «dviser  of  the  principal  town  corporations  of  Holland, 
b^use  they  received  a  salary,  or  pension.  At  first  this  official 
was  known  by  the  name  of  ''clerk'*  or  "advocate."  The 
office  originated  in  Flanders.  Tbe  earliest  "pensionaries" 
in  Holland  were  those  of  Dort  (1468)  and  of  Haarlem  (1478). 
The  pensionary  conducted  the  legal  business  of  the  town,  and 
was  the  secretaxy  of  the  town  council  and  its  representative 
andiipokesinan  at  the  meetings  of  the  Provincial  States.  The  post 
of  pensionary  was  permanent  and  his  influence  was  great. 

In  the  States  of  the  province  of  Holland  pensionary  of  the 
order  of  nobles  {Riddersckap)  was  the  foremost  official. of  that 
assembly  and  he  was  nanted-^ontil  the  death  of  Okienbameveldt 
in  1619— the  land's  advocate,  or.  more  shortly,  the  advocate. 
Tlie  importance  of  the  advocate  was  much  increased  after  the 
outbreaji  of  the  revolt  in  1572,  and  still  more  so  during  the  long 
period  X  586-1619  when  John  Tan  Oldenbaneveldt  held  the 
office..  The  advocate  drew  up  and  introduced  aU  resolutions, 
concluded  debates  and  counted  tbe  votes  ia  the  Provincial 
Assembly.  When  it  was  not  in  session  he  was  a  permanent 
member  of  the  college  of  dqnited  councillcm  who  carried  on 
tlw  adzF'Oistration.    He  was  minister  of  justice  and  of  finance. 


AH  correapondeBoe;  passed  tfatoiigli  h!i  hands,  and  be  was  Ae 
head  and  the  spokesman  of  tbe  (feputation,  who  represented  tbe 
province  in  tbe  States  General.  The  coaducjt  of  foreign  affaira 
in  particular  was  entrusted  almost  entirely  to- him. 

After  the  downfaU  of  Oldenbameveldt  tt|e  office  of  lands** 
advocate  was  abolished,  and  a  new  post,. tenable  for  five  years 
oolyi  was  erected  In  ils  place  with  the  title  of  Raad-PentionarU, 
or  Pensionary  of  the  Council,  nsuaily  called  by  English  writeis 
Grand  Pensionary.  The  first  holder  Of  this  office  was  Anthony 
Duyck.  Jacob  Cats  and  Adrian  Pauw,  in  the  days  of  tfaie 
stadtholders  Frederick  Henry  and  William  of  Orange  II.  bad 
to  be  content  with  lessened  powers,  but  in  the  stadtholderieaa 
regime  1650-1672  the  grand  pensionary  became  even  more 
influential  than  Oldenbajneveldt  himself,  since  there  was  no 
prince  of  Orange  filling  the  offices  of  stadtholder,  and  of  admiral 
and  captain-general  of  the  Union.  From  1653-1672  John  de  Witt, 
re-elected  twice,  made  the  name  of  grand  pensionary  of  Holland 
for  ever  famous  during  the  time  of  the  wan  with  Ei^land. 
The  best  known  iA  his  successors  was  Anthony  Heinsius,  who 
held  the  office  from  1688  to  his  death  in  1720.  He  was  the 
intimate  friend  of  William  III.,  and  after  the  decease  of  the  king 
continued. to  carry  out  his  policy  during  the  stadtholderless 
period  that  followed.  The  oflke  was  abolished  after  the  conquest 
of  Holland  by  the  French  in  1795. 

See  Robert  Fruin.  Ceschudtnis  der  SkuOs-InsldHntm  in  Neder- 
land.  The  Hague.  1901 ,  G  W.  Vrecde,  InUiding  M  eene  Gesfk,  der 
Nederktndsehe  DtpUmatic  (Utrecht,  185$).  (G.  E.) 

PBNTAMETBR,  the  name  given  to  the  second  and  shorter 
line  of  the  classical  elegaic  verse.  It  is  composed  of  five  {wirrt) 
feet  or  measures  {pkrpa),  and  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts 
of  two  and  a  half  feet  each:  the  second  of  these  parts  must  be 
dactylic,  and  tbe  first  may  be  either  dactyUc  or  spondaic.  The 
first  part  xxxasX  never  overlap  into  the  second,  but  there  must 
be  a  break  between  them.    Thus: 


w  v« 


>wo 


:|| 


■wu 


In  thd  best  Latin  poets,  the  first  foot  of  each  part  of  the  penta- 
meter is  a  dactyl.  The  pentameter  scarcely  exists  except  in 
conjunction  with  the  hexameter,  to  which  it  always  succeeds 
in  elegaic  verse.  The  invention  of  the  rigidly  dactylic  form 
was  attributed  by  the  Greeks  to  Archilochus.  Schiller  described 
the  sound  and  method  of  the  elegaic  couplet  in  two  very  skilful 
verses,  which  have  been  copied  in  many  languages: 

Im  Hexameter  steigt  des  Springquelb  flOssige  S&ule, 
Im  Pentameter  drauf  fftllt  sie  melodisch  hecab. 

The  pentameter  was  always  considered  to  add  a  melancholy 
air  to  verse,  and  it  was  especially  beloved  by  the  Greeks  in  those 
recitations  {^colfi^roA)  to  the  sound  of  the  flute,  which 
formed  the  earliest  melodic  performances  at  Delphi  and  else- 
where. 

PBNTASTOIIIDA,  or  LtNCtATULXNA,  vermiform  entoparasitic 
animals,  of  which  the  exact  zoological  position  is  unknown, 
although  they  are  usually  regarded  as  highly  modified  degenerate 
Arachnids  of  the  order  Acari. 

The.  body  b  sub-cylindnca]  or  somewhat  convex  above,  flatter 
bdow.  broad  and  ovau  in  front  and  narrowed  and  elongate  bdiind. 
Its  integument  b  marked  by  a  Uige  number  of  transverse  grooves 
simubtmg  the  segmentation  of  Annelids,  and  near  the  anterior 
extremity  close  to  the  mouth  are  two  pairs  of  ijscurved  chitinous 
hooks.  The  alimentary  canal  is  a  simple  tube  traversing  the  body 
from  end  to  cod,  the  anus  opening  at  the  extremity  of  its  narrowed 
tail-like  termination.  The  nervous  system  b  represented  by  an 
oesophagieal  collar  and  a  suboesophageal  ganglion,  whence  paired 
nerves  pass  outwards  to  innervate  the  anterior  extremity  and 
backwards  towards  itspostcrior  end.  No  respiratory  or  circubtory 
organs  are  known.  Toe  sexes  are  distinct  out  dissimilar  in  size, 
the  female  being  usually  much  brger  than  the  male.  The  gcnerativt 
organs  occupy  a  Urge  part  of  tho  body  cavity.  In  the  remale  the 
ovary  b  a  large  unpaired  organ  from  the  anterior  end  of  which 
arise  two  oviducts,  and  connected  with  the  btter  are  a  pair  ol 
bilge  so-called  copubtory  pouches,  which  perhaps  act  as  receptacula 
seminis.  These  and  the  oviducts  lie  on  the  anterior  half  of  the 
body;  but  the  oviducts  themselves  soon  Unite  to  form  a  single 
tube  of  great  length,  which  runs  backwards  to  its  posterior 
extremity,  terminating  in  the  genital  orifice  close  to  the  anus. 


PENTATEUCH— PENTBOOST 


r23 


In  the  mala,  on  tha  caniianr*  tMi  oitfca  b  otwtitd  in  the  anterior 

JuUf  oC  tbe  body,  not  far  behind  the  month.  The  orifice  leads 
into  a  large  pouch  lodgiog  aj^ir  of  very  long  penes,  which  are 
coiled  up  when  not  in  use.  The  two  testicles,  which  extend  far 
tack  into  the  posterior  iiart  of  the  body,  are  long  and  tobalar. 
Anterioriy  their  vasa  delcseotia  soon  unite  into  a  comnutn  duct, 
which  opens  into  tha  pouch  cootainiaK  the  peoea.  Also  com- 
municating with  this  pouchy  is  a  pair  of  long  slender  flagelliform 
tubes,  of  which  the  function  is  unknown. 

The  structure  of  the  adnlt  LinpiaHda  or  PtntMhrntm,  above 
described,  does  not  supply  oonvlncatig  evidence  of  idationship  with 
tbe  Acari.  At  the  same  time  aome  Acari,  Uke  JErtoMjw  (PkfiopUu) 
and  DtmodtXt  have  tbe  body  ebngated  and  annulatra.  but  m  these 
groups  the  elongation  of  the  body  is  caudal  or  post-anal,  as  is 
attested  by  the  position  of  the  anu*  far  forwards  on  its  ventral 
surface.  Again,  the  adult  i*«nlBSfMNnM  shows  no  tiaoe  of  appen- 
dages, nnless  the  two  pairs  of  cUtinoua  books  are  to  be  regarded 
as  the  vestiges  of  jaws  or  ambulatory  limbs.  In  the  embryo. 
however,  what  have  been  regarded  as  remnants  of  limbs  may  be 
seen. 

In  iht  mature  stage  Pentastomida  live  In  the  respiratory 
passages  of  mammalia,  principally  in  the  nasal  cavities.  The 
temarkable  life-history  of  one  species,  Lingualuta  tatnicides, 
has  been  worked  out  in  detail  and  presents  a  close  anabgy  to 
that  of  some  Cestodes.  The  adults  live  in  the  nose  of  dogs, 
where  they  have  been  known  to  survive  over  fifteen  months. 
Each  female  lays  a  vast  number  of  eggs,  about  500,000  being 
the  estimated  amount.  These  are  expelled  along  with  mucus 
by  the  sneezing  of  the  host.  If  they  fall  on  pasture  land  or 
fodder  ol  any  kind  and  are  eaten  by  any  herbivorous  animal, 
sach  as  a  hare,  rabbit,  horse,  sheep  or  ox,  the  active  embryos 
or  larvae  ase  set  free  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  new  host.  , 


Fio.  i^-^LiugaaUila  lamiioides, 
Rud^JNiult. 


Fio.  9v— The  aame.inthe  first 
larval  stage:  under  side. 
0 . . .  n,  Leg-Uke  processes. 


These  larvae  are  minute  oval  creatures  with  a  comparatively 
■hort  apicaHy  fringed  caudal  prolongation  ind  f umbhed  with  two 
pairs  01  short  two-clawed  processes,  which  may  repment  the  limbs 
oC  anthftopoda  and  possibly  the  two  jpairs  of  legs  fooad  in  Acari  of 
the  family  Eriophyidae.  The  larva  is  also  armed  anteriorly  with  a 
median  piercing  probe  and  a  pair  of  sharp  hooks  by  means  of  which 
it  perforates  the  walls  of  the  alimcntarv  tract  and  makes  its  way 
into  the  body  cavity,  lungs  or  liver.  Here  it  becomes  encysted, 
and  losing  its  boring  apparatus  and  claw-bearing  proocMCS  ramaios 
for  a  time  quiescent.  After  a  series  of  raoulu  it  passes  into  the 
second  larval  stage,  somewhat  like  the  parent  but  dinerinf  in  having 
each  integumental  ring  armed  with  a  fringe  of  backwardly  directed 
siiort  bristles.  This  sexually  immature  stage,  regarded  at  one  rime 
•a  iwprtaenting  a  disUoct  apedcs  and  named  Xsngnattifo  denticulate, 
ia  ceached  in  about  six  or  seven  months  and  measure*  from  6r  to 
8  mm.  in  length.  In  the  event  of  the  host  escaping  being  killed 
and  eaten  It  is  bctieved  that  some  of  these  larvae  wander  aoout  or 
ttltimately  make  their  way  to  the  exterior,  possibly  through  the 
bronchi;  nevecthdna  it  scema  to  be  certain  that  they. can  only 
leach  aaxual  maturity  in  the  nasal  passages  of  some  camivoroas 
animal,  and  tbe  chance  of  attaining  this  environment  is  afforded 
when  the  viscera  of  the  host  are  devoured  by  some  flcah-eating 
mamnKsl. 

The  adult  femalo  of  L.  ianmidet  measurea  abont  4  In.  long  and 
tha  mala  barely  ona^fburth  of  that.  The  adult  and  immature 
are.  however,  by  no  means  coniincd  respectively  to  car- 


nivorous and  herbivorous  species  of  mammals.    The  adult  stage, 
for  exanpte,  bis  been  found  in  tbe  nasal  paasages  of  ahcep,  goats. 


bones  nad  evtn  of  roaoi  .and  the  lanni  alafa  tn  tht  pkaml  and 
peritoneal  cavities  of  dogs  and  cats.  \R.  L  P.) . 

KHTATBUCBv  the  name  fonnd  as  early  aa  in  TleituOUn  and 
Origen  correapoading  to  the  Jewish  anoan  wovrnaBo  (the 
five-fifths  of  the  Torab,  or  Law),  and  applied  to  the  first  fivie 
hooka  of  the  Old  TeMament  (Genesis^  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Num- 
beiB,  Deutcfonomy).  Tlie  aeveral  books  were  named  by  the 
Jews  from  their  initial  words,  though  at  least  Leviticus, 
Ntnabeis,  and  Deuteronomy  had  also  titles  resembling  thoae 
m  use,  via.  ovo  irrn,  tnvm  an  {Aftfttc^tituitm,  Origen, 
in  £«a.,  H,  E.  vl  as),  and.  mntan.  The  Pentateuch, 
tOBetber  whh  Joahiia,  Judges  and  Ruth,  with  which  it  Is  usually 
onjted  in  Greek  MSS.,  makes  up  the  Ocuteuch;  the  Pentateuch 
and  JosfaoA  together  have  recently  been  named  the  Hexateuch. 
On  the  cxitical  questions  arising  from  the  Pentateuch  or  Hexft- 
teodi,  see  Biblb  and  the  artldea  on  the  several  books. 

FINTBCDSr,  a  feast  -of  the  Jews,  in  iu  original  meaning  a 
"  harveat  feast, "  as  consisting  of  the  first>fiuita  of  human  toll 
(EjbkL  xxiiL  16),  extending  over  the  seven  weeks  which  fairly 
eorrespond  with  the  duration  of  the  Canaanite  harvest.  Hence 
it  wias«ke  doting  lean  of  the  harvest  gladnesa. 

The  agtkuJtuiil  character  of  this  feast  dearly  reveals  its 
Osnaanite offgiii  (see  HEMtsw  Rbuciom).  It  does  not,  however, 
rank  equal  in  napoitaace  irhh  the  other  two  agricultuial  festivals 
of  pve-exiUan  Isrsel,  via.  the  UafiOtk  or  feast  of  unleavened 
cafcea  (which  auuked  tbe  begummg  of  the  com-^harvest),  and 
the  Asipk  ("ingathering,"  later  ceiled  sucOlh,  "booths**) 
which  marked  the  cbse  of  all  the  year*»  ingathering  of  vegetable 
products.  Thb  Is  dear  ill  the  ideal  schease  of  Eaekiel  (xlv.  st 
seq.)  in  which  according  to  the  original  text,  Pentecost  is  omitted 
(see  CbmUl  V  revised  text  and  his  note  bdioc.)*  It  is  a  later  hand 
that  baa  inscAbed  a  teierence  to  the  "  least  df  weeks  **  which 
is  found  in  sor^Maasontlc  Hebrew  text;  Nevertheless  occasional 
alluiions  to  this  feast,  the^lgb  secondary,  are  to  be  found  in 
Hebrew  Utcratun,  Ag.  Ian.  ix.  3  (a  Heb.)  and  Ps .  iv.  7  (8  Heb.). 

In  both  the  eaily  codca,  vis.  in  £xod.  niii.  16  (E)  and  in 
Exod,  xxxiv  72  (J,  in  which  the  harvest  festival  Is  called  "  feast 
ol  weeks  ")  we  have  only  a  bare  statemeAt  that  the  harvcat 
festival  took  place  aome  weeks  after  the  efMsing  spring  festival 
called  Mafftik.  It  is  hi  Deut.  xvi.  9  that  we  find  H  explicitly 
suted  that  stiftn  weeks  -elapsed  between  the  beginning  of  the 
corn-harvest  C^wken  thou  puttest  the  ifcUe  to  the  «om  '^ 
and  the  cdebratleii  of  the  harvest  lestival  (ITArlr).  We  also 
note  the  same  generous  inclusion  of  the  household  slaves  and  of 
the  resident  alien  as  well  as  the  fatherless  and  widow  that  charac- 
terises the  autumnal  festival  of  '*  Booths.*' 

But  when  we  puss  to  tbe  po8t*exllian  legislattott  (Lev.  xxiS. 
jO'ax ;  cf.  Num.  zxviii.  36  seq.)  we  enter  npon  a  far  more  detailed 
and  specific  series  of  tftual  instnictions.  (t)  A  special  ceremonial 
is  described  as  taking  place  on  '*  the  morrow  after  the  Sabbath," 
i.e.  in  tbe  week  of  unleavened  cakes.  The  first-fruits  of  the 
harvest  here  take  tbe  form  of  a  sheaf  which  is  waved  by  the 
priest  before  Yfthweh.  (t)  There  is  the  offering  of  a  male 
lamb  of  the  first  year  without  blemish  and  also  n  meal  offering 
of  fine  flour  and  oil  mixed  in  defined  proportions  as  well  as  a 
drinkr^fferrog  of  trine  of  a  certain  measure.  After  this  "  morrow 
alter  the  Sabbath  **  seven  weeks  are  to  be  reckoned,  and  when 
we  reach  the  monow  after  the  seventh  Sabbath  fifty  da>'S  have 
been  enomerated.  Here  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  Hebrew 
nnmeration  always  includes  the  day  which  is  the  terminut  a  700 
as  well  as  that  which  Is  krm.  ad  ^uem.  On  this  fiftieth  day 
two  wave^oavcs  made  from  the  pixxhice  of  the  fidds  occupied 
by  the  worshipper  ("  your  habitations  *0  tat  offered  together 
with  seven  unblemishod  hmbs  of  the  first  year  as  well  as  one 
young  bullock  and  two  rams  as  a  burnt  offering.  We  have 
further  precise  details  respecting  the  sin-offering  ud  the  peace*> 
offerings  which  were  also  presented.'  This  ebborate  ceremonial 
connected  with  the  wave-offering  (developed  in  the  post^exile 
period)  look  place  on  the  morrow  of  the  seventh  Sabbath  called 

'  On  the  critical  questkMM  faivolved-  In  these  iftud  deuHa  of 
Lev.  xxui.  18  as  compaivd  with  Num.  xxviiL  S7-30  of.  Driver 
and  White  htS.  B.O*  T.,  note  on  Lev.  xxiii.  18. 


124 


PENTELICUS— PENZA 


u 


:a  "  day  of  lioly  cooivOGatloii "  «d  wfakh  no  servile  work  wu  to 
be  done.  It  was  called  a  "fiftieth-day  feast."  Pentecost 
or  "  Fiftieth  "  day  is  only  a  Greek  equivalent  ^  the  ia&t  JMme 
(flrenjinaT^)  in  the  Apocrypha  and  New  Testaineot.>  The  oilhpdox 
.Uter  Jews  reckoned  the  fifty  days  from  the  x6th  of  Nisan, 
but  on  this  there  has  been  considerable  controvecsy  among 
Jews  themselves.  The  orthodox  later  Jews  assumed  that 
the  Sabbath  in  Lev.  zxili.  iz,  15  is  the  x  5th  Nisaa*  or  the 
first  day  of  the  feast  of  Ma990th.  Hitxag  maintained  that  m 
the  Hebrew  calendar  X4th  and  21st  Nisan  w»e  always  Sabbaths, 
and  that  xst  Nisan  was  alwayB  a  Sunday,  which  was  the  opening 
day  of  the  year.  "  The  monow  after  the  Sabbath  **  meana, 
according  to  Hitsig,  the  day  after  the  weekly  Sabbath,  viz. 
9and  Nisan.  Knobd  {CimmeHt,  on^  LmSicus)  and  Kurtz  agree 
with  Hitzig's  premises  but  differ  from  his  identification  of  the 
Sabbath.  They  identify  it  with  the  X4th  Nisan.  Accordingly 
the  "  day  after  "  fslls  on  the  isth.  (See  Purves's  article,  **  Pente- 
cost, "in  Hastings's  Diet,  of  the  Bible ^  and  also  Cinsburg's  article  im 
JCitto's  Cyclopaedia),  like  the  other  great  feasts,  it  came  to  be 
celebrated  by  fixed  special  sacrifices.  The  amount  of  these  is 
differently  expressed  in  the  earlier  and  later  priestly  Uv  (Lev. 
jcxiii.  ^8  ^eq.;  Num.  xxviii.  a6  seq.);  the  discrepancy  was  met 
by  adding  the  two  lists.  The  later  Jews  also  extended  the 
one  day  of  the  feast  to  two.  Further,  in  accordance  with  the 
tendency  to  substitute  historical  for  economic  explanations 
oi  the  great  feasts,  Pentecost  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  feast 
commemorative  of  the  Sinaitifc  legislation. 
.  To  the  Christian  Church  Pentecost  acquired  a  new  significance 
through  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  (Acts  ii.).    (See  Whit^ 

SUNDAY.) 

I  It  is  not  easy  to  find  definite  parallels  to  this  festival  in  other 
Ancient  religious  culu.  The  Akitu  festival  to  Marduk  was  a 
spring  festival  at  the  beginning  of  the  Babylonian  year  (Nisan). 
It  therefore  comes  near  in  time  to  the  feast  of  unleavened  cakes 
rather  than  to  the  later  harvest  festival  in  the  month  Sivan 
called  "  least  of  weeks."  Zimmem  indeed  connects  the  AJdtu 
festival  with  that  of  Purim  on  the  Z5th  Adar  (March);  see 
K.A,T*.  p.  SX4.  se<^  AI90  the  Roman  Cereaha  of  April  lath- 
19th  rather  correspond  to  Moffdlh  than  to  JS^S^ir,  (O.  C.  W.) 
t  PBNTBUCUS  (B^iXqortrAr,  or  UtntKuidv  6pm  from  the 
dem'  UtprHKn;  mod.  Mendeli),  a  mountahi  to  the  N.E.  of  the 
AthtAian  plain,  hag^i  3640  ft.  lu  quarries  of  white  marUe 
were  not  regulazfy  worked  until  after  the  Persian  ufars;  of  this 
material  all  the  chief  buildings  of  Athens  were  constructed,  as 
well  as  the  sculpture  with  which  they  were  ornamented.  The 
ancient  quarries  are  mostly  on  the  south  side  of  the  mountain. 
The  best  modem  quarries  are  on  the  north  side.  The  top 
of  Pentelicus  commands  a  view  over  the  plain  of  Marathon, 
and  from  it  the  Athenian  traitors  gave  the  signal  to  the 
Persians  by  a  flashing  ahield  on  the  day  of  the  battle.  There 
,was  a  statue  of  Athena  on  the  mountain. 
I  PBNTHEUS,  in  Greek  legend,  successor  of  Cadmus  as  king 
of  Thebes.  When  Dionysus,  with  his  band  of  frenzied  women 
(Maenads)  arrived  at  Theb^  (his  native  place  and  the  first  city 
visited  by  him  in  Greece),  Pentheus  denied  his  divinity  and 
violently  opposed  the  introduction  of  his  rites.  His  mother 
Agivfi  having  joined  the  revellers  on  Mount  Cithaeron,  Pentheus 
followed  and  climbed  «  tefty  pine  to  watch  the  pnceedmgs. 
Being  discovered  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  Agave  «nd  others, 
who  mistook  him  for  some  wild  beast.  His  head  wm  carried 
back  to  Thebes  in  triumph  by  his  mother.  Labdacus  and 
Lycurgus,  who  offered  a  sinular  resistance,  met  with  a  like 
fearful  end.  Some  identify  Pentheus  with  Dionysus  himself 
in  his  character  as  the  god  of  the  vine,  toln  to  pieces  by  the 
violence  of  winter.  The  fate  of  Pentheus  was  the  subject  of 
lost  Uagedics  by  Thespis  and  Pacuvius. 

»  See  Eorn^es.  BaccMae,  passing ;  Ovid.  Metam.  ifl.  51 1 ;  Theocritus 
xxv»:  Apollodonn  iii.  5,  a;  Nonnus.  Di&nysiato,  xliv^xlvi;  on 
Rpreseotationt  m  art  mc  O.  Jahn*  PfiUlmu  tuiddie  Manuden  (1841). 

PBNTHlftVRB,  COmrtS  OP.   In  the  irlh  and  nth  centuries 
the  countship  of  Pcnthiivrein  Brittany  (<kp^  CAtea^du-Nord) 


belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  sovereign  faeuse  of  Brittany.   Henry 

d'AvaugouT,  heir  of  this  dynasty,  was  dnpossessed  of  the  count- 
ship  in  1235  by  the  duke  of  Brittany,  Pierre  Mauclerc,  who  gave 
it  as  dowry  to  his  daughter,  Yolande,  on  her  marriage  in  1 2jg 
to  Hugh  of  Lusignan,  count  of  La  Marche.  Duke  John  I. 
of  Brittany,  Yolande's  brother,  seized  the  countship  on  her 
death  in  127a.  In  1337  Joan  of  Brittany  brought  Penthi^vre 
to  her  husband,  Charles  de  Ch&tiUon-Blois.  In  1437  Nicole  de 
Blois,  a  descendant  of  this  family,  married  Jean  de  Brosae,  and 
was  deprived  of  Penthidvre  by  the  duke  of  Brittany,  Francis  II., 
in  1465.  The  coimtship,  ^hich  was  restored  to  Sebastian  of 
Luxemburg,  heir  of  the  Brosses  through  bis  mother,  was  erected 
for  him  into  a  duchy  in  the  peerage  of  France  {duchi-pairie) 
in  1569,  and  was  afterwards  held  by  the  duchess  of  Mercoeur, 
dau^ter  of  the  first  duke  of  Penthidvre,  and  then  by  her  d;tughtcr, 
the  duchess  of  Vend6me.  The  duchess  of  Vend6me's  grandson, 
Louis  Joseph,  inherited  Pcnthidvre  in  1669,  but  it  was  taken 
from  him  by  decree  in  1687  and  adjudged  to  Anne  Marie  de 
Bourbon,  princess  of  ContL  In  1696  it  was  sold  to  the  count 
of  Toulouse,  whose  son  bore  the  title  of  duke  of  Peothidvre^ 
This  title  passed  by  inheritance  to  the  house  of  Orleans. 

PENTHOUSE,  a  sloping  roof  attached  to  a  building  either 
to  serve  as  a  porch  or  a  covering  for  an  arcade,  or,  if  supported 
by  walls,  as  a  shed»  a  "  lean-to."  In  the  history  of  siegecraft, 
the  word  is  particularly  applied  to  the  fixed  or  movable  construc- 
tions used  to  protect  the  besi^ers  when  mining,  working  batter- 
ing-rams, catapults,  &c.,  and  is  thus  used  to  translate  LaL 
tinea  and  pluteus,  find  also  iestudo,  the  shelter  of  locked  shields 
of  the  Romans.  The  iild.  Eng.  form  of  the  word  is  petUis,  an 
adaptation  of  O.  Fr.  apenlis,  Med.  Lat.  appendilium  or  appem- 
dicium,  a  small  structure  attached  to,  or  dependent  on,  another 
building,  from  appendere^  to  hang  on  to.  Tl)e  fonn  "pent- 
house "  is  due  to  a  supposed  connexion  with  "  house  "  and  Fr. 
Pente,  sloping  roof.  1^  more  correct  form  '^pentice  "  is  now 
frequently  used. 

PENTSTBMON,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  (nat.  order 
Scrophulariaceae),  chiefly  natives  of  North  America,  with 
showy  open-tubukr  flowers.  The  pentstemon  of  the  florist 
has,  however,  sprung  fxdm  P,  Hartwegii  and  P.  Cobaea,  and 
possibly  some  others.  The  plants  endure  English  winters 
unharmed  in  favoured  situations.  They  are  freely  multiplied 
by  cuttings,  selected  from  the  young  side  shoots,  pUnted  eariy 
in  September,  and  kept  in  a  dose  cold  frame  till  rooted.  They 
winter  safely  in  cold  frames,  protected  by  mats  or  litter  during 
frost.  They  produce  seed  freely,  new  kinds  being  obtained 
by  that  means.  When  special  varieties  are  not  required  trae 
from  cuttings,  the  simplest  way  to  raise  pcntatemona  la  to  sow 
seed  in  heat  (65^  F.)  eariy  in  February,  afterwards  pricking 
the  seedlings  out  and  hardening  them  off,  so  as  to  be  ready 
for  the  open  air  by  the  end  of  May.  Plants  formerly  known 
under  the  name  of  Chelone  {e.g.  C.  barbata,  C.  campanukia) 
are  now  classed  with  the  pentslemons. 

PENUMBRA  (LaL  ^<i«ne,  almost,  ^imbra,  a  shadow),  in  astio- 
nomy,  the  partial  shadow  of  a  heavenly  body  as  cast  by  the  sun. 
It  is  defined  by  the  region  in  which  the  light  of  the  sun  is  partially 
but  not  wholly  cut  off  through  the  interception  of  a  dark  body. 
(See  Eclipse.) 

PENZA,  a  government  of  eastern  Russia,  bounded  N.  by  the 
government  of  Nizhniy-Novgorod,  E.  by  Simbirsk,  and  S. 
and  W.  by  Saratov  and  Tambov;  area  14,992  ^.  m.;  pop. 
(est.  1906)  1,699,000.  The  surface  is  undulating,  with  deep 
vaDeys  and  ravines,  but  does  not  exceed  900  ft.  above  sea-level. 
It  is  principally  made  up  of  Cretaceous  sandstones,  sands,  marls 
and  chalk,  covered  in  the  east  by  Eocene  deposits.  Chalk, 
potter's  chiy,  peat  and  iron  are  the  chief  mineral  products  in 
the  north.  The  soil  is  a  black  earth,  more  or  less  mixed  with 
clay  and  sand;  marshes  occur  in  the  Krasnoslobodsk  district; 
and  expanses  of  sand  in  the  river  valleys.  There  are  extensive 
forests  in  the  north,  but  the  south  exhibits  the  characteristic 
features  of  a  steppeland.  The  government  is  drained  by  the 
Moksha,  the  Sura  (both  navigable),  and  the  Khoper,  belonging 
to  the  Oka,  Volga  and. Don  sys^edis.    Timber  is  floated  down 


-PEONAGE 


>2S 


icnnl  smaller  atneuviSv  wliUe  the  Mokshft  and  S«ra  are  important 
means  pf  conveyance.  The  climate  is  hacsh,  the  avenge  tem- 
perature al  the  city  o(  Penza  being  only  38^  The  pecula- 
tion ooDSists  principally  ol  Russiaiis,  together  with  Mordvinians, 
.Meshchetyaks  and  Tatars.  The  Russians  profess  the  Ortho- 
dox! Greek,  faith,  and  very  many^  cspedaily  in  the  north,  axe 
Raskolniks  or  Nonconformists.  The  chief  occupation  Is  agri- 
cult  uie.  The  principal  crops  are  lye,  oats,  buckwheat,  hemp, 
potatoes  and  beetroot.  Grain  and  flour  are  considerable 
exports.  The  local  authorities  have  established  d{p6ts  for  the 
sale  of  modern  agricultural  machinery..  There  axe  several 
agricultural  and  horticultural  schoob,  and  two  model  dairy- 
farms.  Cattle  breeding  ami  especially  horse-breeding  are 
comparatively  flourishing.  Market-gardenii^  is  sacceufully 
carried  on,  and  improved  varieties  of  fruit>trees  have  been 
introduced  through  the  imperial  botanical  garden  at  Penza 
and  a  private  school  of  gardening  in  the  Oorodishdie  district. 
Sheep-breeding  is  especially  developed  in  Cbembar  and  Insar. 
The  Mordvinians  devote  much  attention  to  bee-keeping.  The 
forests  ( a  a  %  of  the  total  area)  are  a  coosidereble  source  of  wealth, 
especially  in  Krasnoslobodsk  and  Gorodishdie.  The  mamifao> 
tures  are  few.  DistiUerKS  come  firlt,  i<rilowed  by  beet  sugar 
and  oil  milU.  with  woollen  doth  and  paper  milis,  tanneiks, 
soap,  glass,  machinery  and  iron-works.  Trade  is  limited  to 
the  export  of  corn,  spirits,  timber,  hcmpseed-oil,  tallow,  hides, 
honey,  wax,  woollen  cloth,  potash  and  cattle^  the  chief  centres 
for  trade  being  Penza,  Nizhni-Lomov,  Mokshany,  Saransk  and 
Krasnodobodsk. 

The  government  is  divided  Into  ten  dcstricts,  the  chief  towns 
of  which  are  Pensa,Gorod{shche,  Insar,  Kerensk,  Krasnoslobod&k, 
Mokshany,  Narovcfaat,  NJzhn»-Lomov,  Saransk  and  Chembac 
The  presMt  government  of  Penza  was  formerly  inhabited  by 
Mordvinians,  who  had  the  Mescheryakson  the  W.  and  the  Bulgars 
on  the  N.  In  the  X3th  century  these  popnlatfons  fell  imder 
the  dominion  of  the  Tatars,  with  whom  they  fought  against 
Moscow.  The  Russians  founded  the  town  of  Mokshany  in 
t535<  Penza  was  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  XTth  century, 
the  permanent  Russian  settlement  dating  as  far  back  as  1666. 
In  1776  it  was  taken  by  the  rebd  Pugashev.  The  town  was 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  conflagrations iii  1836, 1839 and  i858< 

PBNKA*  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name,  492  ra.  by  rail  S.£.  -from  Moscow.  It  stands  on  a 
plateau  567  ft.  above  the  sea,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Penza  with 
the  navigable  Sura.  Pop.  <i897),  61,851.  The  oMer  parts  iA 
the  town  are  constructed  of  wood,  but  the  newer  parts  are  wdl 
built.  The  cathedral  was  erected  in  i82o>-x83i.  Pensta  has 
technical  schools,  public  libraries,  a  museum  of  antiquities,  aXKl 
a  theatre  which  has  played  some  part  in  the  history  of  the 
Russian  stage.  The  bulk  ii>f  the  inhabitants  support  themselves 
by  agrjcuHtire  or  fishing  in  the  Sora.  An  imperial  botanical 
garden  is  situated  within  two  mUes  of  the  town.  Apart  from 
paper-mills  and  steam  flour-^mffis,  the  manufacturing  establish- 
ments are  smalL  There  is  a.  trade  in  com,  oil,  tallow,  timber  and 
ipirita,  and  two  fairs  wbcre  cattle  and  horses  are  sold. 

mUTJMCBt  a  municipal  borough,  market  town  and  seaport 
in  the  St  Ives  parliamentary  division  of  Cornwall,  England,  the 
terminus  of  the  Great  Western  railway,  325^  m.  W.S.W.  of 
London.  Pop.  (1901),  «3,X36.  It  is  findy  situated  on  the 
weslfffn  shore  of  Moutit's  Bay,  opposite  St  Michael's  Mount, 
bdng  the  westernmost  port  In  EngUnd.  The  site  of  the  old 
town  slopes  sharply  upward  from  the  Jrarbour,  to  the  west  of 
which  there  extends  an  esplanade  and  modem  residential 
quatter;  for  Penzance,  with  its  miM  climate,  is  in  considerable 
favour  aa  a  health  resort.  The  town  has  no  buildings  of  great 
•ntiquKy,  but  the  public  bwUings  (1867),  In  Italian  style,  are 
bandieme.  By  the  taiarket  house  is  a  statue  of  Sfar  Humphfy 
Davy,  who  was  bora  h^re  In  1 778.  Among  Institations  there  are 
a  specially  fine  public  lft>rary,  museums  of  geology  and  natural 
history  and  antiquities,  mining  and  sdence  sdwols,  the  West 
Comwali  Infirmary  and  a  meteorological  stafhm.  The  barbouTf 
andosed> within  a  breakwater,  has  an  area  of  94  acres^  with  ra  to 
t6  ft.  depth  of  water,  and  floating  and  graving  dock».  There  is  a 


large  ctsport  tradfc  in  flab,  fiichiditlg  tbat  of  pUdiards  to  Italy. 
Other  exports  are  tni  and  copper,  granite,  serpentine,  vegetables 
and  china  clay.  Imports  are  prindpaHy  coal,  iron  and  timber. 
Great  quantities  of  early  potatoes  and  vegetables,  together  with 
flowers  and  fish,  are  sent  to  London  and  elsewhere.  The 
borough  is  under  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  x8  councillors, 
^ea,  3SS  acres. 

Nearly  two  miles  Inland  to  the  north-west  &  Maoson  (an 
urban  district  with  a  population  of  3486).  The  church  of  St 
Maddem  is  princijudly  Perpendicular,  with  eariier  portions  and 
a  Norman  front.  Near  the  village  a  **  wsfaing  we8  "  of  ancient 
fame  Is  seen,  and  close  to  it  the  ruins  of  a  baptistery  of  extreme 
antiquity.  Monoliths  and  cromlechs  are  not  uncommon  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Three  miles  north-east  b  the  urban  district  of 
LuDGVAN  (pop.  ZS74),  and  to  the  south  b  Paul  (6332),  which 
includes  the  village  of  Newl3m  iq.9.), 

Penzance  (Pensan^  was  not  recognized  as  a  port  until  the 
days  ci  this  TMois,  but  its  importance  as  a  fishing  village  datck 
from  the  14th'  century.  In  1327  thirty  burgesses  in  Penzance 
and  thirteen  boats  paying  135.  yeariy  are'found  among  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  lords  of  Alverton^  of  which  manor  it  formed  a 
portion  of  the  demesne  lands.  The  year  151 3  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  era.  Until  then  St  Michael's  Mount  had  been 
regarded  as  the  port  of  Mounts  Bay;  but  in  that  year  Henry 
VIII.  granted  the  tenants  of  Penzance  whatever  t>rofits  might 
accrue  from  the  "ankerage,  kylage  and  busselage"  of  ships 
resorting  thither,  so  long  as  they  should  repair  and  maintain 
the  quay  and  bulwarks  for  the  safeguard  of  the  ships  and  town. 
Nevertheless  thirty  years  hter  it  b  described  by  Leland  as  the 
westernmost  market  town  m  Cornwall  "  with  no  socur  for  Botes 
or  shippes  but  a  forsed  Ptre  or  Key."  During  the  war  with 
Spain  the  town  was  devastated  hi  1595.  The  dbarter  of  incor- 
poration granted  in  16x4  states  that  by  the  Invasion  of  the 
Spairiards  It  had  been  tiea'cherously  spoUed  and  burnt  but  that 
Its  strength,  prosperity  and  usefulness  for  navigation,  and  the 
aeceptaUe  and  hradable  services  of  the  inhabitants  In  rebuilding 
and  fortifying  it,  and  tbdr  entoprise  in  erecting  a  pier,  have 
moved  the  king  to  grant  the  petition  for  its  incorporation.  Thb 
Charter  provides  for  a  mayor,  eight  aldermen  and  twelve  assist- 
ants to  constitute  the  common  council,  the  mayor  to  be  choseo 
by  the  cowidl  from  the  aldermen,  the  aldermen  to  be  chosen  from 
the  assistants,  and  the  assbtants  from  the  most  suffidcnt 
and  discreet  of  the  inhabitants.  It  also  ratified  Henry's  grant 
of  andiorage,  kedage  and  buasdage.  In  1663  Penzance  was 
ooostittited  a  coinage  town  for  tm.  It  has  never  enjoyed 
independent  parliamentary  representation.  In  X332  a  market 
Oft  Wednesdays  and  a  fair  at  the  Feast  of  St  Peter  ad 
Vincula  were  granted  to  Alice  de  Lisle  and  in  X405  thh  market 
was  ratifiicd  and  three  additional  fairs  added,  viz.  at  the  feasts 
of  St  Peter  in  Cathedra  and  the  Conception  and  Nativity  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  The  charter  of  1614  substituted  markets  on 
Tbesdays  and  Thursdays  for  the  Wednesday  market  and  added 
two  fairs  one  at  Corpus  Christi  and  the  other  on  the  Ibursday 
before  St  Andrew.  Of  the  fain  only  Corpus  Christi  remains; 
markets  are  now  hdd  on  Tuesday,  Thursday  and  Saturday. 
Apart  from  fishing  and  shipping,  Penzance  has  never  been  an 
mdustrial  centre. 

PBONAOB  (Span,  peon;  M.  Lat.  pedo  (pes),  primarily  a  foot- 
soldier,  then  a  day-labourer),  a  system  of  a|pricullural  servitude 
common  in  Spanbh  America,  particularly  in  Mexico.  In  the 
eariy  days  the  Spanbh  government,  with  the  Idea  of  protecting 
the  Indians,  exempted  them  from  compulsory  military  service, 
the  payment  of  tithes  and  Other  taxes,  and  regulated  the  system 
of  labour;  but  left  them  pracrically  at  the  mercy  of  the  SiMinbh 
governors.  The  peons,  as  the  Indian  labourers  were  called, 
were  of  two  kinds:  (t)  the  agricultural  workman  who  was  free 
to  contract  himself,  and  (2)  the  criminal  labourers  who,  often  for 
slight  offences,  or  more  usually  for  debt,  ^ere  condemned  to 
practical  slavery.  Though  legally  peonage  b  abolbhed,  the 
unfortunate  peon  b  often  lured  into  debt  by  his  employer  and 
then  kept  a  slave,  the  law  permitting  hb  forcible  detention  till  h€ 
has  paid  his  debt  to  hb  master. 


f26 


PEOPLE— PEPE 


PIQPLB.  ft  collective  teem  for  peraons  in  general,  espedaUy 
M  fotrming  the  body  of  persons  in  a  communaly  or  nation*  the 
"  folk  "  (the  OX.  and  Tcut.  word,  d.  Ger.  Volk).  The  earlier 
forms  of  the  word  were  pepUt  poeple,  ^pU,  &c.;  the  pteaent  form 
is  found  as  early  as  the  15th  century,  but  was  not  established  till 
the  beginning  of  the  i^ih.  Old  French,  from  which  it  was 
adapted,  had  many  of  these  forms  as  well  as  the  mod.  Fr.  peupU. 
The  Lat.  popuhts  is  generally  taken  to  be  a  reduplication  from 
the  root  ^,— fill,  seen  in  pUnus,  full;  pkbs,  the  oommons; 
Gr.  tX^os,  multitude. 

PEORIA,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  oounty-aeat  of  Peoria 
county,  Illinois,  U.S.A.,  in  the  north  central  part  of  the  state,  on 
the  lower  end  of  Lake  Peoria,  an  expansion  of  the  Illinois  river, 
and  about  150  m.  S.W.  of  Chicago.  Fop.  (xooo)  56,100; 
(1910)  66,950.  It  is  served  by  13  railways,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  the  Chicago  &  Alton,  the  Illinois  Central, 
the  Geveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis,  mad  the  Chicago 
&  North- Western.  The  Illinois  river  is  navigable  to  its  mouth, 
and  at  La  SaUe,  above  Peoria,  connects  with  the  Illinois  & 
Mifhigap  Canal  extrading  to  Chicago.  The  river  is  spanned  at 
Peoria  by  two  railway  bridges  sad  a  wagon  bridge.  The 
residential  portion  of  the  dty  is  situated  pn  Muffs  overlooking 
Lake  Peoria,  and  the  business  streets  lie  on  the  plain  between 
these  devations  and  the  water  front.  The  park  system  includes 
more  than  400  acres;  Bradley  Park  (140  acres),  the  largest,  was 
given  to  the  city  by  Mrs  Lydia  Moss  Bradley  (i8r6~i9o8)  and 
was  named  in  her  honour.  On  a  bluff  north-east  of  the  city  is 
Glen  Oak  Park  (103  acres),  modelled  after  Forest  Park,  St  Louis, 
Misaouri;  In  the  south-western  part  of  the  dty  is  Ikrladison  Park 
(8S  acres);  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the  dty  is  South  Park  (10 
acres).  1^  the  Court  House  Square  there  are  two  monuments  in 
honour  of  the  Federal  soldiers  and  sailors  of  Peoria  county  who 
perished  in  the  Civil  War;  in  Springdale  Cemetery  there  are  two 
similar  memorials,  one  of  which  (a  large  granite  boolder)  is  in 
memory  of  the  unknown  dead;  and  in  the  same  cemetery  thttt 
IS  a  monument  erected  by  the  state  (1906)  to  mark  the  grave  of 
Thomas  Fotd  (d.  1851),  governor  of  Illinois  in  1842-1846. 
Among  the  prindpal  public  buildings  and  institutions  are  the 
Peoria  Public  Library  founded  in  1855,  the  Qty  Ha^U,  the  Court 
House,  the  Federal  building,  St  Mary's  Cathedral,  the  Bradley 
Polytechnic  Institute  (affiliated  with  the  university  of  Chicago), 
founded  in  1896  by  Mrs  Lydia  Moss  Bradley,  who  gave  it  an 
endowment  of  $3,000,000;  Spalding  Institute,  founded  through 
the  efforts  of  John  L.  Spalding  (b.  1840),  who  was  Bishop  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  diocese  of  Peoria  in  1877-1908;  an  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Orphans'  Home  (1903),  an  Industrial  School  for  girls 
(189a),  Cottage  Hospital  (1876),  St  Frands  Hospital  (1875)1  a 
Florence  Crittenton  Home  (1902),  a  Home  for  the  Friendless 
(1876),  and  a  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd  (1891),  and  the  Guyer 
Memorial  (1889),  St  Joseph's  (X892).  and  John  C.  Proctor  homes 
for  the  ag^  and  infirm  (1907).  At  BartonviUe,  a  suburb,  there 
is  a  state  hospital  for  the  incurable  insane. 

In  1900  and  in  1905  Peoria  ranked  second  among  the  dties 
of  Illinois  in  the  value  of  its  manufactures.  The  invented  capital 
amounted  in  1905  to  $22,243,821,  and  the  factory  prodncts  were 
valued  at  $60,920,4x1.  The  principal  industry  is  the  manufao* 
ture  of  distilled  liquors,  which  were  valued  in  1905  at  $49,170,8x5. 
Other  important  manufactures  are  agricultural  implements 
($2,309,963),  slaughter-house  and  moat-packing  products 
($1,480^98),  glucose,  cooperage  ($1,287,742),  malt  liquors 
($387,570),  foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  strawbdard, 
automobiles,  brick  and  stone,  and  flour  and  grist  mill  products. 
Peoria  is  also  an  important  shipping  point  for  grain  and  ooaL 

Peoria  was  named  from  one  of  the  five  tribes  of  the  Illinois 
Indians.  In  1680  La  Salle,  the  explorer,  built  Fort  Crivecceur, 
on  the  lake  shore  bluffs,  opposite  the  present  dty;  this  fort, 
however,  was  destroyed  and  deserted  in  the  same  year  by  La 
Salle's  foJlowers  after  he  had  set  out  to  return  to  Fort  Frontenac. 
There  b  evidence  that  a  French  mission  was  established  on  or 
near  the  site  of  Peoria  as  early  as  171 1;  and  certainly  by  1725  a 
settlement,  known  as  Peoria,  and  composed  of  French  and 


"  breed  "  teadcrt,  tiappen  and  fanners,  had  been  estaMUieil 
about  li  nu  above  the  foot  of  the  lake,  on  lu  west  shore.  Ths 
village  was  practically  deserted  during  the  later  years  (i78x~ 
1783)  of  the  War  of  Independence,  and  when  its  inhabitants 
returned  after  the  peace  they  settled  in  a  village  which  had  beca 
eataUished  about  1778,  on  the  present  site  of  Peoria,  by  Jean 
Baptiste  MaiUet  (d.  x8oi),  and  was  at  6fSt  called  La  VlDe  de 
MaiUet.  It  is  probable  that  Jean  Baptiste  Point  de  Saible, 
believed  to  have  been  a  Santo  Domingan  negro,  and  |oailaiiy 
spoken  of  "as  the  first  white  settler  in  Chicago,*'  Kved  in  the 
"  old  village  "  of  Peoria  aa  early  as  1773— or  six  years  before  he 
settled  on  the  present  site  of  Chicago~-attd  again  about  X783. 
In  November  181  s  about  half  of  the  town  was  burned  by  a 
company  of  Illinois  militia  who  had  been  sent  thither  to  twild  a 
fort,  and  whose  captain  asserted  that  his  boats  had  been  fired 
upon  at  night  by  the  villagers.  In  the  following  year  a  fort, 
luimed  Fort  Clark  in  honour  of  George  Rogers  Clark,  was  erected 
on  the  site  of  the  old  village;  it  was  evacuated  in  1818,  and  soon 
afterwards  was  burned  by  the  Indians.  After  the  town  was 
burned  there  was  no  serious  attempt  to  rebuild  until  18 19. 
Peoria  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1835  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1845.  In  1900  North  Peoria  was  annexed. 

See  David  McCuUodi,  Early  Days  of  Ptoria  and  Ckieoio,  an  addieaa 
road  before  the  ChicsKo  Historical  Society  in  1904,  and  poblnbed 
by  that  societv.  (n.d.l,  and  "  Old  Peoria,"  by  tne  same  author, 
in  publication  No.  6  01  the  Ilh'nois  State  Historical  Society  TVoas- 
oMrns  (Springfield,  III.  1901);  also  HUtorical  EMcydepoedia  Ǥ 
lUmois  (Chicago,  1900).  ed.  by  Newton  Bateman  and  Paul  Selby; 
HUtory  of  Peoria  County,' lU.  (Chicago,  1880);  and  C.  Ballanee, 
History  oj  Peoria  (Peoria,  1 870). 

PEPB>  OUQUBLMO  (1783-X855),  Neapolitan  general,  wsa 
bom  at  SquiUace  in  Calabria.  He  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age,  but  in  1799  he  took  part  in  the  repnblican  movement  at 
Naples  inspired  by  the  French  Revolution;  he  fought  against 
the  Bourbon  troops  under  Cardinal  Ruffo,  was  captured  and 
exiled  to  France.  He  entered  Napoleon's  army  and  served  with 
dbtinctlon  in  several  campaigns,  induding  those  in  the  Nea- 
politan kingdom,  first  under  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  later  under 
Joachim  Murat.  After  commanding  a  Neapolitan  brigade  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign,  Pepe  returned  to  Italy  in  1813,  with  the 
rank  of  general,  to  help  to  reorganize  the  Neapolitan  army. 
When  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Napoleon  (18x4)  reached  Italy 
Pepe  and  several  other  generals  tried  without  success  to  force 
Murat  to  grant  a  constitution  as  the  only  means  of  saving  the 
kingdom  from  foreign  lnvask>n  and  the  return  of  the  Bourbons. 
On  Napoleon*a  escape  from  Elba  (18x5)  Munt,  after  some 
hesitation,  placed  himself  on  the  emperor*s  side  and  waged  war 
against  the  Auslrians,  with  Pepe  on  his  staff.  After  seversl 
engagements  the  Neapolitans  were  forced  to  retire,  and  eventually 
agreed  to  the  treaty  of  Casalanza  by  which  Murat  was  to  abandon 
the  kingdom;  but  the  Neapolitan  officers  retained  their  nnk 
under  Ferdinand  IV.  who  now  regained  the  throne  of  Naples. 
While  engaged  in  suppressing  brigandage  in  the  Capitanata, 
Pepe  organized  the  carbonari  (g.v.)  into  a  national  militia,  and 
was  preparing  to  use  them  for  political  purposes.  He  had  hoped 
that  the  king  would  end  by  granting  a  constitution,  but  when 
that  hope  failed  he  meditat^  seizing  Ferdinand,  the  emperor 
of  Austria,  and  Mettemich,  who  were  expected  at  AvelHno,  and 
thus  compelling  them  to  liberate  Italy  (1819).  The  scheme  broke 
down  through  an  acddent,  but  in  the  following  year  a  miUtaiy 
rising  broke  out,  the  mutineers  cheering  for  the  king  and  the 
constitution.  Pepe  himself  was  sent  against  them,  but  while 
he  was  hesitating  as  to  what  course  he  should  follow  FerdlnaiMl 
promised  a  constitution  Ouly  1820).  A  revolt  in  Siriiy  having 
been  repressed,  Pepe  was  appointed  Inqxctor-grneral  of  the 
army.  In  the  meanwhile  the  king,  who  had  no  inteotkai  of 
respecting  the  OMistitution,  went  to  Laibach  to  confer  with  the 
sovereigns  of  the  holy  alliance  assembled  there,  leaving  his  son 
as  regent.  He  obtained  the  loan  of  an  Austrian  army  with 
which  to  restore  absolute  power,  while  the  regent  dallied  with  the 
Libersls.  Pepe,  who  in  pariiament  had  dedared  !■  iavow  of 
deposing  the  king,  now  took  comntand  of  the  army  and  roafched 
against  the  Austrians.    He  attacked  them  at  Rieti  (March  7, 


FEPEEINO^PEPPER 


1^7 


i82j)» ImK  hh  ra#  levies  weri  repuhcd.  Tbe  Army  ^ttg^naUy 
dishRodedr  and  Pepe  spent  seveial  years  in  Englaad,  Fnmce  and 
othor  oottntiies,  publishing  s  number  of  books  and  pamphlets 
of  a  political  character  and  keeping  up  his  connexion  iifiih  the 
Carbonaii.  When  in  1848  revolution  and  war  broke  out  all 
over  Italy,  Pepe  returned  to  Naples,  vrhere  a  oonstitutbn  had 
again  been  proclaimed.  He  teas  given  command  of  the  Nea- 
politan army  which  was  to  co-operate  with  Piedmont  against  the 
Austrians.  but  when  he  reached  Bologna  the  king,  who hadalready 
changed  his  mind,  recalled  him  and  his  troops.  Pepe,  after 
hesitating  between  his  desire  to  fight  for  Italy,  and  his  oath  to 
the  king,  resigned  his  commission  in  the  Neapolitanservice  and 
crossed  the  Po  with  2000  volunteers  to  take  part  in  the  campaign. 
After  a  good  deal  of  fighting  in  Venetia,  he  joined  Manin  in 
Venice  and  took  command  of  the  defending  army.  When  the 
city  was  forced  by  hunger  to  surrender  to  the  Austrians,  Pepe  and 
Manin  were  among  those  excluded  from  the  amnesty;  he  ag^ 
went  into  exile  and  died  in  Turin  in  1855. 

The  ttocy  of  Pepe'a  life  down  to  1846  i»  told  in  his  own  intencattag 
MtJmoru  (Mgano,  18^7),  and  his  NamUim  oj  tht  Events. . .  ol 
Naples  in  tSiO  and  iSsi  (London,  1821);  fof  the  later  period  <A 

his  life  see  the  gjnetal  historie-  -'  -*■-  "* ' '^'*-  "-^ 

graphical  sketdi  m  vot  ii.  of  L. 


his  life  see  the  geoetal  histories  c^  the  Riaoraimeoto.  and  the  Uo- 
•      "  -       •  "  "    dopi's  Risorfintmto  (Milan.  1886). 


PEPERINO,  an  Italian  name  applied  to  a  brown  or  grey 
volcanic  tu£f,  containing  fragments  of  basalt  and  limestone,  wiUi 
disseminated  crystals  of  augite,  mica,  magnetite,  leudte,  &c. 
The  typical  peperino  occurs  in  the  Alban  fiUlls,  near  Rome,  and 
was  used  by  the  ancients,  under  the  name  of  lapis  albanus,  as  a 
building  stone  and  for  tb^  basins  of  fountains.  Other  tuffs  and 
conglomerates  in  Auvergne  and  elsewhere  are  also  called  peperino. 
The  name  originally  referred  to  the  dark  coloured  inclusions, 
suggestive  of  pepper-corns.  In  English  the  word  has  sometimes 
been  written  peperine. 

PEPPER,  WILUAH  (1843-1898),  American  physician,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia,  on  the  aist  of  August  1843.  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  graduating  from 
the  academic  department  in  1862  and  from  the  medical  depart- 
ment in  1864.  In  1868  he  became  lecturer  on  morbid  anatomy 
m  the  same  institution,  and  in  1870  lecturer  on  clinical  medicine. 
From  1876  to  1887  he  was  professor  of  clinical  medicine,  and  in 
1887  succeeded  Dr  Alfred  StUU  as  professor  of  theory  and  practice 
of  medicine.  He  was  elected  provost  of  the  university  in  i88r, 
resigniog  that  position  in  1894-  For  his  services  as  medical 
direcior  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876  he  was  made  knight 
commander  of  St  Olaf  by  the  king  of  Sweden.  He  founded  the 
Pkihddpkia  Medical  Times,  and  was  editor  of  that  journal  in 
1870-187 X.  He  was  known  particularly  for  his  contributions 
on  the  subject  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine,  and  the 
System  of  Medicine  which  he  edited  in  x88S'x886  became  one 
of  the  standard  textbooks  in  America.  Among  his  contribu- 
tions to  the  medical  and  scientific  journals  of  the  day*  were 
"  Trephining  in  Cerebral  Disease  "  (187 1) ;  "  Local  Treatment  in 
Pulmonary  Cavities"  (1874);  "Catarrhal  Irrigation"  iiSSi)\ 
"Epilepsy  "  (1883);  and  "  Higher  Medical  Education:  the  True 
Interest  of  the  Public  and  the  Profession. "  He  died  on  the  28th 
of  July  i8Q8«t  Pleasanton,  Calif  omii. 

PEPPER*  a  name  applied  to  several  pungent  sfMces  known 
respectively  as  black,  white,  kmg,  Te*d,  or  cayenne,  Ashanti, 
Jamaica,  and  melegueta  pepper,  but  derived  from  at  least  three 
different  natural  orders  of  plants. 

Black  pepper  is  the  dried  fruit  of  piper  nigrum^  a  perennial 
dmbifig  shrub  indigenous  to  the  forests  of  Travancoi^  and 
Malabar,  from  whence  it  has  been  introduced  into  Java,  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sam,  the  Philippines,  and  the 
West  Indies.  It  cUmbs  on  tree-trunk^  by  roots  in  the  same  way 
as  ivy,  and  from  its  dimbing  habit  is  known  as  the  pepper  vine. 
It  is  cne  of  the  earliest  spices  known  to  mankind,  and  for  many 
ages  formed  a  staple  article  of  commercie  between  India  and 
Europe.  Tribute  has  been  levied  In  pepper;  one  of  the  articles 
demanded  in  408  by  Alailc  as  part  of  the  ransom  of  Rome  was 
3000  lb  of  pepper.  Its  exorbitant  price  during  the  middle  ages 
was  one  of  the  inducements  which  <led  the  Portuguese  tastnk  w 


Bea*roitte'  to  Tad&M.  Th^  <f!sG0irery  oP  the  passage  MUnd  thie 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  led  (i493)  to  a  considerable  fall  fn  the  price, 
and  about  the  same  t^me  the  cultivation  of  the  j^ant  was  ex- 
tended to  the  western  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  Pepper, 
however,  remained  a  monopoly  of  the  Portuguese  crown  as  late 
as  the  x8th  century.  In  Great  Britain  it  was  formerly  taxed 
very  heavily,  the  impost  in  1623  amounting  to  ss.,  and  as  late  as 
1823  to  2s.  6d.  lb.  / 

The  laigest  quantities  of  pepper  are  produced  in  Penang,  the 
Island  of  Riouw,  and  Johore  near  Singapore — Penang  afiEbrdinjg 
on  an  average  about  half  of  the  entire  crop.  Singapore  is  the 
great  emporium  for  this  spice  in  the  East,  the  largest  proportion 
being  shipped  thence  to  Great  Britain.  The  varieties  6f  black 
pepper  met  with  in  commerce  are  known  as  Malabar,  Alqppy 
or  TeUidierryy  Cochin,  Penangi  Singapore  and  Siam. 


Piper  niffntm. 

a,  Twig  with  fruit  (about  i  nat.  size):  b,  longitudinal  seotion  oC 
flower  much  enlarged ;  c,  section  of  fruit. 

.it'owea  itsfHiageocy  to  a  resia.  .and  Its  flavour  to  «  volatila oil, 
of  which  it  yields  Iioiji.  1*6  to  3*2 %.  •The  oil  agfees  with  oil  or 
turpentine  in  compoaitibn  as  well  as  m  specific  gravity  and  boiling 
point.  In  polarised  l^t  it  deviates  the  ray,  in  a  column  50  mm. 
UMig,  I  *a*  to  3*4*  to  the  left.  Pepper  also  oootaias  a  ydlow  eryttal-> 
Une  alkaloid,  called  pipeline,  to  the  evtent  of  a  to  B'jL  Thia 
si^bsMuKe  has  the  same  empirical  formula  as  mprphioe,  QyliM  NOtr 
but  differs  In  coiistitutlon  and  properties.  It  is  insoluble  in  water 
when  pure,  b  devoid  of  ^our,  flavour  and  odour,  and  may  be 
resolved  Sntbpipecic  acid,  QtHiaOj,  aad  piperidin,  COiuN.  Hie 
latter  b  a  liquid  eokiudess  alhaloicU  boiling  at' 106"  C^  has  an  odour 
of -pepper- aad  ammoob.  and  melds  crywalhsabb  mits.  A  fatty 
oil  b  found'in-  the  pcncarp  of  oepper,  and  the  Mrries  yield  on 
hacsaecatida  from  4-1  to  ^-7  of  ash.    The  only 


.         ,, .  .  use  of  black  pepper 

IS  as  a  condiment,  ^bttt  it  msly  be  given  theiapeiitically  ill  doses 
of  5  to  so  grains.  ■  It  hastiw  pbarmacologfcal  actkms  of  a  volatile 
oiL 

In  the  Bouth*-west  of  Indb,  where  the  p^per-tdant  grows  wildr 
it  b  found  in  rich,  moiac,  leafy  aoa,  in  narrow  valleys,  propagating 
itsdf  by  running' along  the  ground  and  giving  off  roots  Into  the 
soil.  The  only  method  of  cumvMbn  adopted  by  the  natives  b  ta 
tb  up  the  end  of  the  vines  to  the  neighbouring  trees  at  dbunces' 
of  at  least  6  ft.,  espcdally  to  those  having  a  roueb  bark,  ta  order' 
that  the  roots  may  easily  attach  themsrives  «»  the  surface.  The' 
underwood  b  then  cbated  away,  lesr\-ing  only  sulScbnt  trees  td 
provide  shade  and  permit  free  ventiksdoa  The  foots  are  maaaredl 
with  a  heap  of  leaves,  and  the  shoots  are  tiained  twice,  a  year.  In 
localities  wnere  the  pepper  does  ndt  grow  vnld.  ground  b  selected 
which  permits  of  free  dreinage,  but  which  is  not  too  dry  nor  liable 
to  inundation,  and  cuttings  are  i^bntedat  about  a  foot  from  the 
trees  either  in  the  rainy  season  in  June  or  in  the  dry  season  in 
February.  Sometimes  several  cuttings,  about  18.  in,  long  are 
placed  in  a  basket  and  buried  st  the  root  of  the  tree,  the  cuttings 
being  made  to  slope  towards  the  trunk.  In  October  or  November 
the  young  plants  are  manured  with  a  nuxtom  of  leaves  and  cow* 
dung.  On  ^  soilstbe  young  plants  require  watering  every  other, 
day  during  the  dry  season  for  the  first  three  years.  The  plants 
bear  in  the  fohrth  or  fifth  year,  and  if  reised  from  cuttings  are 


X28 

(nltful 


PEPPER-GORN— PEPPERMINT 


m  tni  fDrfdwtccB  y« 


rievca  yeui.  if  Ii, 

..  Is  niKd  from  cuttSnE<  u  said  to  be  tur— ^-  ^  ., , 

mmyK^  Wtm  thoT  Art  oo  iRd  the  p^Hibd  It  AHSfl  ioto  tvrmcn 
ipd  vncloaed  by  a  mud  wall,  oad  hnachc*  of  £p*Aniu  «^' 
An  put  into  tbe  grouAd  ki  the  niqy  KHoa  SBd  in  tH  coune  of  ■ 
year  ore  capible  of  Hjpporting  tbe  youiw  pemnr  [d«pu.  In  the 
meuiinw  oianio  tre»  are  pUnted,   tEw  bdnt  pnlemd  u 

Ibc  fryttn'ru  B  Ulled  by  H  io  lauRecn  orSfteer  yean. 

'  la  SudUi*  the  (luinct  it  cleand,  eluuibed,  aod  nwa  with  dee, 
vod  cutliop  of  the  vine  an  planLed  id  September,  5  ft.  apart  each 
way,  tegetker  with  a  aapUiii  of  quick  nowth  and  roufth  bark. 
Tiie  planB  an  now  Mt  Iw  tmtve  or  eShleea  nKHilhi  and  then 
CBtkely  bivied.  eiccpl  K  m^  pwfl  of  bait  Kan,  vhencv  OFw  flhoDta 
aiiih  ume  or  foiir  of  which  ve  allowtd  to  climb  tbe  me  nar 
whkb  they  are  pUniEd.  Tbeae  shoots  generaUy  vichi  Qowei*  ancl 
Arviia  Bbe  sen  year.  Two  crop*  aTT  ColLected  evny  ysir^  the 
tHacipal  ene  beinc  In  December  and  January  and  the  other  in 
JuLy  aod  Auoun,  the  latter  yiehling  pepper  Ot  ufcHor  quality  and 


I  and  suUbL     The  Ross-uiicH  ai 
■       ■  ■  -  n.  longi  lCfru.iti 


staked  and  from  3  to  6 
A  HDck  ftem  vrill  bar  fi 


■ad  idlliDalely  laU  off  and  are  knt.  The  ipiliei  an  coIIkiH  in 
bafi  or  boaketa  and  dried  En  the  Bun.  When  dry  the  pepp«'  i» 
put  into  bin  containing  f run  61  Eo  iiS  lb.  In  Buinaira  the  yield 
IS  <stiraate<r«t  about  if  lb  per  plant  per  annum,  [n  Malabar  each 
viDCEives  >  lb  a  year  np  to  the  tifttcnth  or  twenlicrCb  year,  or  about 

or  twelve  vinea;  an  acre  la  caTmlatfld  to  b«r  7500  ptanta.  to  coal 
■bout  U  in  outlay  to  bring  it  into  bearing,  and  to  yield  a  produce 
oliiSowhailBitibettcDnaitian. 

Wkilc  fepfer  diHcn  only  in  bdng  prepared  Irom  Ilie  tipe  (mils. 
These,  allei  coUictlan.  are  kept  in  the  house  tbree  days  and  Iheo 
bn^ted  and  waafacd  in  a  basket  with  the  hand  until  <he  lUlki 
and  pulpy  matter  ue  removed,  after  which  the  seeds  an  dried. 
IE  ia,  however,  aometimes  prepared  from  the  dried  black  pepper 
by  removisE  (be  dark  outer  layer.  It  b  len  pvo«ent  than  the 
black  but  pojuues  a  finer  flavour.  It  is  dJefly  prepared  at  the 
bland  of  Eioiiw,  bul  the  finest  comei  from  Tellicheity. 

While  pepper  sfTords  on  an  avenge  not  more  than  i-g%  of 
eAdnilal  All ;  but,  aceording  to  CarfAeuve,  as  mucfi  as  9  %Df  plfnjne, 

'  Leni  ftfftr  it  ibe  [reit-qiikt  d  Piftt  eficintnan  and  P. 
tnpnii,  gathered  shortly  befon  it  resdiet  maturity  and  dried. 
Hjeformcria  a  native  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  hai  oblong- 
ovate,  anirriraie  kavei,  which  are  plnnaicly  veined.  The  Uuer 
b  indigenoua  in  the  hotter  province!  of  India,  Oylon,  Malacca 
ud  tbe  Malay  Islands:  it  is  distinguished  from  P.  sj^norwn  by 
the  leivCibdnf  cordate  al  the  base  and  Gve-veined 


[4  ctosely  packed  an 


uCretka 
the  KKh 


ts  are  therefore  ambfaed  u[ 


fore  ambfaet  -^  - - 

,  _._  rtiu  ued  aaa  medicine 

b  coUeued,  whkb  b  unially  hi  January, 
down  to  the  gronr^.  Loob  pepper  con 
wlalibo^  and  yklds  about  iKoTaah.    I 


]•  (fotit)  the  fait  rear.  12  Ibe  ■ 
•old  aa  tipli  ■»'-  <mdec  v 


L  ladia.    After  the  Iru 


in  the  Eaat  fo 

ptpper  is  the  dtM  fr 


buled  in 


il  Alti< 


ica,  oceumng 


DKVi  aouiKUQtiy  in  me  country  of  the  Nram-iutm.  ii  nmera 
Irbni  Usck  pepper  In  being  rather  smaller,  less  wrinklFd,  and  in 
beiig  attenuated  into  a  sLiik,  like  cubebs  (the  dried  unripe  fruits 
at  P.  Cvbtho),  to  which  il  bean  conaideiable  reiemhlance 
eneinally.  llie  Ultc,  however,  (s  pungent,  exactly  like  that  of 
pepper,  and  the  trait  contains  pipetine.  It  waj  imported  from 
Ibc  CiitD  Coast  by  tbe  merchanls  o[  Rovf  a  and  Di^pc  ai  early 


a  demand  for  it  should  at 


ifdecirdo  pttfi  krujwB  aha  aa  "  Gulne*  { 
paradise"  («.*.)  or  "  alligator  pepper,"  is  thi 
if«lepKto,  a  plant  of  the  ginger  family;  the  se 
pungent,  and  are  used  as  a  spice  Ihioughout  d 


anything  very  small  or  !m 
merely  nominal  rent,  reserved  foi 
tenancy  acknowledged  by  the  I 
entlyii 


the  purpose  of  having  the 


Buiklinf 


It  the  fint  few  Jan. 
See  Rekt. 

PEPPERHIHT,  an  indigenous  perennial  herb  of  the  lututd 
Older  Labiatae,  and  genus  Minlkn  (s«  Mlnt),  the  ipeclRc  name 
bebig  Jlailka  fiptrila,  is  dialingubhed  from  other  apedes  of  the 
genus  by  its  stalked  laves  and  oblong-obtuse  spike-like  heads  of 
ikiweri.  It  is  met  irith,  near  Mreama  and  in  wet  plac«,  In 
several  pans  of  England  and  on  the  European  continent,  and  b 
also  extensively  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  MXnliil  oil  in 
England,'  in  several  parts  of  continents]  Europe,   ud  in  the 


31  Dr  Eales  < 


.      .  irpium   Iritanaic^mm   (1696).      The 

mcdidnal  properties  of  the  plant  were  (peedily  recogniacd  and 
it  wai  idmiiicd  into  the  Ljmdiin  Pkvmaiffxio  in  1731,  nodec 
the  name  oi  Hcnlia  piptrilii  sopcii. 

Two  varieties  are  recognized  by  growers,  the  whilo  and  the 
black  mint.  The  former  has  purplish  and  the  latter  green  stems; 
the  Icava  are  more  coarsely  serrated  in  the  while.  Tbe  black 
is  more  geneially  cuUivated,  probably  because  it  ia  found  19 
yield  more  oil,  bul  that  oi  the  white  variety  is  couidited  10 
have  a  more  delicals  odour,  and  obtnina  $.  bighei  price.  The 
whiu  is  Ihe  kind  diieBy  dried  tor  hcibalislv  Tbe  Savour  wiie* 
"  '  ■ '  plou  of  land,  badly 


It  both 


FREPERHELL 


129 


•nd  Cliiiicse  bfl  slao  diSen  lAi^jpt  frbm  tlie  E^gBihi  «Ad  is  (hitt 
distinguishable  by  experts;  in  Amenca  the  vh.ii  liable  to  be 
injuifd  in  flavour  by  aronhattc  Weeds-  wbich  grow  freely  among 
the  crop,  the  most  troublesome  ci  thesp  being  Erifflhm  cantdense^ 
and  Ertcktkilef  Jatradfdia.  When  -pure  the  oil  is  nearly  colour- 
\vA  and  has  nn  agmeaUe  odour  and  powerful  uonuuic  tast^ 
followed  by  a  sensation  of  cold  when^air  is  drawn  Into  the  mouth. 
it  has  Ji  specific  gravity  of  0*64  to  0*93,  add  boils  at  36^  F. 
Mitcham  oil,  when  examined  by  polarised  tightinaeolumn  50 
mm.- long,  deviates  torn  14:2"  to  so*  7**  to:  the  left,,  the  American 
4*3**.  ■  Wbcn  oil  of  p^ipemunt  is  cooled  to,  4**  C.  it  sometimes 
deposits  colourless  heaagonal  prisms  of  menthol,  Ci«Bx(^,  which 
are  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  almost  intoUible  ia  vrater,  and 
fusible  at  ga"  F.  The  oil  oonsists  chi<}i]y  oimenthol  anda  teqiene 
called  menthene,  CiqHi*.  Oil  of  peppermint  is  often  a^ter- 
ated  with  a  third  part  of  rectified  spirit,  which  may  bedetected 
by  the  miikiness  produced  when  the  oil  is  agitated  with  water. 
CKl  of  rosemary  and  rectified  oil  of  turpenthie  axe  sometimes  used 
lor  the  same  purpose.  If  the  oii  contains  turpentine  it  will 
explode  with  iodine.    If  quite  pure  it  dissolves  in  its  own  weight 

of  rectified  spirits  of  wine.  Pcp> 
permint  oil  is  largely  distilled  at 
-Canton,  a  ctmsiderable  quantity 
being  sent  to  Bombay,  also  a 
large  quaritity  of  menthoL  The 
spedes  cultivated  in  the  oeigli^ 
iMurhood  of  Canton,  is  JHentAa 
(uvemsis,  var.  gjiabrgla.  Pepper- 
mint  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  the 
province  of  Kiaa^-si;  and  accord- 
ing to  native  statements  as  much 
as  40  piculs  of  oil  of  peppermint 
are  sent  annually  to  ports  on 
the  coast.  In  Japan  also  the 
distillation  of  oil  of  peppermint 
forms  a  considerable  industry,  the 
f)lant  cultivated  being  if.  anensiSt 
\aXs  fipcrascau.  The  oil,  under 
the  name:  of  kakka  no  abwa,  is 
exported  from  Hioga  and  Osaka, 
but  is  said  lo  be  frequently  adul- 
terated. The  mentM  is  obtained 
by  Subjecting  the  oil  to  a  low 
temperature,  when  it  crystallizes 
out  and  is  separated.  The  two 
varieties  of  U,  enensis  just 
named  yield  much  more  menthol  than  JIf.  piperita.  It  is 
remarkable,  however,  that  the  M.  antnsis,  var.  javanica, 
growing  in  Ceylon,  has  not  the  flavour  of  peppermint  but  that 
of  garden  mint,  while  typical  form  of  M.  ammm  grown  in 
Great  Britain  has  an  odour  so  different  from  peppormint  that 
it  has  to  be  carefully  removed  from  the  field  lest  it  should  spoU 
the  flavour  of  the  peppermint  oil  when  the  herb  is  distilled. 
J#.  ineona,  cultivated  near  Bonsbay  as  a  herb,  also  possesses 
the  flavour  of  peppermint.  In  the  form  In-  Which  menthol  is 
imported  it  bears  some  resemUance  to  Epsom  salts,  with  which 
it  is  sometimes  adulterated. 

The  volatile  oil  of  Mentha  piperiUi  is  a  valuable  and  widely  used 
drusf.  Its  chief  constituents  are  menthol  and  menthene,  which  is 
a  liquid  terpeoe.  The  British  pharmacopoeia  contains  two  pre- 
parations of  this  oil,  the  Aqua  mentkat  ptperitae  and  the  Spintus 
menthae  pippUae.  The  oil  has  the  characters  of  its  class,  with 
certain  special  features.  Its  local  anaesthetic  action  is  exceptionally 
strong.  It  is  also  powerfully  antiscotic.  These  two  properties 
make  it  valuable  .in  the  relief  of  toothache  and  in  the  treatment 
of  carious  cavities  in  the  teeth.  They  also  render  the  drug  valuable 
in  certain  forms  of  oyspepMa  and  m  colic  generally,  **  soda-mint 
lozenges  "  being  a  familiar  form.  The  characteristic  antt-spasmodlc 
action  of  the  volatile  oils  is  perhaps  more  marked  in  this  than  tn 
any  other  oil,  and  greatly  ad(^  to  Its  power  of  reMcving  peins  arising 
in  the  alimeatary  canal.  The  volsdle  ciX-  d  p|>earmint  '»  also 
official  in  Creat  Britain  and  th^  United  States,  being  ^iven  in  the 
same  doses  and  for  the  same  purposes  as  oil  of  peppermint,  it 
is  of  less  value  medicinally,  not  containing  any  appreciable  quantfty 
of  manlbol,  the  place  of  which  i*'tekcn  In  the  okum  nunthasmridit— 


Fio.    a. — Af«n/Aa  arveniist 
var.  piperascens. 

a,  Floweriog  branch  re< 
duced);  fr,  calyx  showing  form 
of  teeth  (enbt^ed). 


m 


tbe  pbannaoopaalat  mune^^  earvmie.  CiaHi  ACoond  i 

ou.  and  isomeric  with  thyynol. 

The  following  mode  of  cultivation  of  peppermint  is  adopted 
at  Market  Deeping.  A  rich  friable  soil,  retentive  of  moisture,  is 
sdected,  and  the  ground  is  well  tilled  8  to  «o  in.  deep.  The 
plants  are  propagated  in  the  spring,  usually  in  April  and  May. 
When  the  young^  shoots  from  the  ciop  of  the  previous  yeai:  have 
attained  a  height  of  about  4  in,  they  are  bulled  up  and  trans- 
planted ifito  new  soil.  They  grow  vigorously  the  first  year,  and 
throw  out  nomerous  stolons  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  After 
the  crop  has  been  removed  those  are  allowed  to  haraen  or  become 
woody,  ami  then  farm<yard  manure  is  scattered  over  the  field  and 
ploughed  in.  In  this  way  the  stolons  are  divided  into  numerous 
pieces,  and  covered  with  soil  before  the  frost  sets  in.  If  the  autumn 
IS  wet  they  are  liable  to  become  sodden,  and  rot,  and  the  next 
crop  fails.  In  the  spring  the  fields  are  dressed  with  Peruvian  guano. 
In  new  ground  the  peppermint  re<iuires  hand-weeding  two  or  three 
times,  as  the  hoe  cannot  be  used  without  injury  to  the  plants.  Moist 
heavy  weather  in  August  is  apt  to  cause  the  foliage  to  drop  off 
atid  leave  the  stems  almost  bare.  In  these  circumstances  rust 
(Pneeima  meiUhae)  also  is  Itabie  to  attack  the  plants.  This  is 
oreventcd  to  a  certain  extent  by  a  rope  being  drawn  across  the  i^kutts, 
by  two  men  walking  in  the  furrows,  so  as  to  remove  excessive 
moisture.  The  average  yield  of  peppermint  is  about  165  cwt. 
per  acre.  The  first  year  s  crop  is  always  cut  with  the  sickle  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  stolons.  The  herb  of  the  second  and  third 
year  is  cut  with  scythes,  and  then  raked  by  women  into  loose  heaps 
ready  for  carting.  The  field  is  then  gleaned  by  boys,  who  aqd 
what  they  collect  to  the  heaps.  The  plants  rarely  yield  a  fourth 
crop  on  the  same  land.  The  harvest  usually  commences  in  the 
beginning  or  middle  of  August,  or  as  soon  as  the  plants  be^a  to 
flower,  auid  lasts  for  six  weeks,  the  stills  being  kept  going  niaht 
and  day.  The  herb  is  carted  direct  from  the  field  to  the  stills, 
which  are  made  of  copper,  and  contain  about  5  cwt.  of  the  herb. 
Before  putting  the  peppermint  into  the  still  water  is  poured  in  to 
a  depth  of  about  a  ft.,  at  which  height  a  false  bottom  ia  placed, 
and  on  this  the  herb  b  thrown  and  trodden  down  by  men.  The 
lid,  which  fits  into  a  water-joint,  is  then  let  down  by  pulleys  and 
fastened  by  two  bars,  any  excess  of  pressure  or  temperature  being 
indicated  by  the  water  that  is  ejected  at  the  joint.  The  disttliation 
is  oonductM  by  the  applkation  of  direct  heat  at  the  lowest  po» 
sible  temperature,  and  is  continued  for  about  four  and  a  haU  hoUcs. 
When  this  operation  is  completed,  the  lid  is  removed  and  a  rope  is 
attached,  to  a  hook  on  the  false  bottom,  which,  as  well  as  the  nerb 
testing  on  it,  is  raised  bodily  by  a  windlass  and  the  peppermint 
carried  away  in  the  empty  carts  on  their  letum  journey  to  the  fields, 
where  it  is  placed  in  neaps  and  allowed  to  rot.  being  subsequently 
mixed  with  the  manure  applied  in  the  autumn  as  above  stated. 
The  usual  yield  of  oil.  if  the  season  be  warm  and  dry,  is  said  to  be 
1  ox.  from  5  lb  of  the  fresh  flowering  herb,  but.  if  wet  and  unfavouf^ 
able,  the  product  is  barely  half  that  quantity.  The  yield  of  a  charge 
of  the  still  is  estimated  at  from  i  lb  13  os.  to  5  lb.  The  oil  improves 
in  mellowneis  even  if  kept  as  long  as  ten  or  fourteen  years.  The 
green  cokMir  semstiaies  present  in  the  oil -is  stated  to -be  due  to  a 
quantity  of  water  braer  than  aoeessary  having  been  used  in  the 
oistiltationt  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  herb  be  leTt  in  the  still  from 
Saturday  co  Monday,  the  oil  assumes  a  brown  tint^ 

In  France  peppotnint  is  euttivatcd  on  damp  rich  ground  at  Sena, 
In  the  department  of  the  Yonne.  In  Germany  it  is  grown  in  thh 
neighbourhood  of  Lctpzig,  where  the  little  town  of  COllcda  produces 
annually  as  much  as  40,000  cwt.  of  the  herb.  In  the  United  States 
peppermint  is  cultivated  on  a  most  extensive  scale,  chieflv  in  soutb. 
west  Michigan,  the  west  districts  of  New  York  state»  and  Ohio.  The 
yield  averages  from  to  to  30  lb  per  acie.  In  Michigan  the  plant 
was  introduced  in  1859. 

PBPPERRILU  SIR  WILUAM  (16^1759),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Kittery,  Maine,  then  9  part  of  "Massachusetts,  on 
the  37th  of  June  1696.  He  studied  surveying  and  navigation, 
and  joined  his  father  in  his  ship-building,  fishing  and  general 
trading  business,  quickly  becoming  one  of  the  wealthiest  and 
most  influential  men  in  the  province.  He  was  commis^oned 
captain  (17 17).  major,  lieutenant -colonel,  and  in  1726  colonel  <rf 
militia.  Pepperrell  served  ia  the  Massachusetts  general  court 
(1726-1707),  and  in  the  governor's  council  (1727^1 7  59)*^ 
which  for  eighteen  years  he  was  president.  Althotjgh  not  a 
trmned  lawsrer,  he  was  cMd  fusUce  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
Isom  1730  until  Ms  death.  In  1745  he  was  <commander-in-chlcf 
of  the  KeW  England  force  of  about  4000,  whidi,  with  the  sssistw 
ance  of  a  British  squadron  under  Commoddre  Peter  Waifcn, 
besieged  and  captured  the  French  fortius  of  Looisburg)  the 
garrison  sstrrendering  on  the  i6th  of  June  and  Pepperrell  and 
Warren  taking  posinsion  on  the  following  day.  For  his  sohdeit 
Fepperrell,  In  November  1745.  was  created «  bavonet-^tfae  onlj 
New  Engbkodsr  so'hbooured.    He  wis  active  in  raising,  troops 


130 


PEPPER  TREE^PEPYS,  SAMUEL 


during  the  "  French  ftnd  Iddian  Wtt,"  and  recdvfd  Ihe  nnk  of 
Ueutenanl-general  in  February  1 759.  He  died  in  Kittery,  Maine, 
on  the  6th  of  July  in  the  same  year. 

See  Usher  Ptaraon*.  Li/«  oj  Sir  William  Ptppenetl,  BarU  (Cam- 
bridge, Mas*.,  185s),  baaed  on  the  family  papers. 

PEPPER  TREE,  a  tree  which  has  no  proper  connexion  with 
the  true  pepper  iPiper),  and  is  really  a  member  of  the  natural 
order  Anacardiaceae,  being  known  botanically  as  Schintu  Afotk, 
from  the  Peruvian  name  MuUi.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical  South 
America  and  is  grown  in  the  open  air  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It 
is  a  small  tree  with  unequally  pinnate  leaves,  the  segments 
linear,  entire  or  finely  saw-toothed,  the  terminal  one  longer  than 
the  rest,  and  aU  filled  with  Volatile  oil  stored  in  large  cells  or 
cysts,  which  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye  and  appear  like  holes 
when  the  leaf  is  held  up  to  the  light.  When  the  leaves  are  thrown 
upon  the  surface  of  water  the  re^nous  or  oily  fluid  escapes  with 
such  force  as  violently  to  agitate  them.  The  flowers  are  small, 
whitish,  arranged  in  terminal  dustera  and  polygamous  or  uni- 
sexual, with  five  sepals,  as  many  petals,  ten  stamens  (as  large  as 
the  petals  in  the  case  of  the  male  flower,  very  small  in  the  female 
flower,  but  in  both  springing  from  a  cushion-like  disk  surrounding 
the  base  of  the  three-celled  ovary).  The  style  is  simple  or  three- 
cleft,  and  the  fruit  a  small,  globose,  pea-b'ke  drupe  with  a  bony 
kernel  enclosing  a  single  seed.  The  fleshy  portion  of  the  fruit 
has  a  hot  aromatic  flavour  from  the  abundance  of  the  resin  it 
contains.  The  resin  is  used  for  medicinal  purposes  by  the 
Peruvians,  and  has  similar  properties  to  mastic.  The  Japan 
pepper  tree  is  Xantkoxylum  piperilum  the  fruits  of  which  have 
also  a  hot  taste.  Ak)ng  the  Riviera  the  tree  known  as  Mdia 
Asedaracht  or  the  '*  Pride  of  India,"  is  also  incorrectly  colled  the 
pepper  tree  by  visitors. 

PEPSIN*  an  enzyme  or  ferment  obtained  by  drying  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  fresh  and  healthy  stomach  of  a  pig,  sheep  or  calf. 
As  used  in  medicine  it  consists  of  a  light  yeUow-brown  or  white 
powder  or  of  pale  yellow  translucent  grains  or  scales.  It  is  only 
alight^  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  Pepsin  is  used  to  help 
gastric  digestion  in  old  people  and  in  those  in  whom  there  is  a 
deficient  secretion  of  the  ^istric  juice.  It  is  useful  in  chronic 
catarrhal  conditions  of  the  stomach,  the  dyspepsia  of  alcoholism, 
and  in  gastric  ulcer  and  cancer  of  the  stomach. 

Pepsin  diMsts  the  albumens  but  is  useless  io  the  digeBtioa  of 
fats  or  cartMMiydrates.  It  may  abo  be  used  to  predigest  albuminous 
foods.  The  following  is  a  method  of  peptoncung  beef.  Talce  i  lb 
of  minced  raw  lean  beef,  |  pint  of  water  containing  0*3  %  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  iriacc  In  a  )ar  with  30  grs.  of  pepsin,  set  in  a  warm 
place  at  no*  F.  for  3  hours,  stirring  occaaiooafly.  Then  quickly 
boil  it.  It  is  usually  unnecessary  to  strain  it,  as  the  meat  is  reduced 
%o  a  fine  almost  impalpable  powder  which  is  readily  assimilated. 
Many  varieties  of  pnopnetary  peptonizing  tablets  are  on  the  market 
and  are  convenient  for  the  prepMiration  of  peptonized  milk.  The 
bellowing  is  a  method  of  preparing  it.  Take  a  clean  glass  quart 
bottle,  pour  in  a  pint  of  perfectly  fresh  cold  milk«  then  add  a  teacup* 
iul  of  coM  water  in  which  a  peptonizing  tablet  has  been  dissolved. 
Submerge  the  bottle  in  a  can  0?  water  at  too*  F.  for  from  s  to  10 
minutes,  take  out  the  bottle  and  place  on  ice  to  prevent  the  lurtbcr 
action  ,of  the  pepsin.  If  no  ice  is  convenient  brin^  the  milk  to  a 
boil  for  the  same  purpps^'  If  the  action  of  the  pepsift  be  continued 
for  a  much  longer  period  the  milk  becomes  bitter  to  the  taste  from 
the  development  01  excess  of^  peptones.  Predigested  foods  should 
not  be  usra  over  a  long  period  or  the  digestive  functions  of  the 
stomach  may  atrophy  from  disuse. 

Pancreatic  solution,  derived  from  the  pancreas  of  a  pig  digested 
in  alcohol,  has  the  power  of  converting  starch  into  sugar,  and 
albumen  and  fibrin  into  peptones.  It  only  acts  in  an  alkaline 
medium  and  at  a  temperature  under  140*  F.  If  used  to  peptonize 
inilk  sodium  bicartx>nate  should  be  added.  Many  commercial 
preparations  are  on  the  market.  Trypsin,  the  principal  ferment 
of  the  pancreas,  also  changes  proteids  into  peptones. 

PEPUSCH.  JOHN  CHRISTOPHER  (1667-1752),  English 
nrasician,  of  Geniian  parentage,  was  bom  in  Berlin*  He  began 
his  study  of  music  at  an  eariy  age,  and  about  1700  left  Berlin 
and  wvnt  to  England,  whore  he  had  various  angagements,  and 
^ere  be  went  ob  with  his  reseaaches  into  andtnt  music.  He 
composed  a  number  of  church  services  and  ihsCmncotal  pieces, 
besidM  music  for  masques  and  plays,  bat  he  is  beat  known  In 
connc^n  with  the  founding  in  1710  of  tiie  Academy  of  Ancient 
Music.    In  1713  he  was  made  a  Mus.D.  of  Oafoid,  and  in  1746 


F.R.S.  In  17 iS  he  m«rriod  Maigarha  dc  r£pine  (d.  1746),  who^ 
as  the  first  Italian  to  sing  in  England,  was  described  in  169a  ia 
the  London  CauUe  simply  aa  **  the  Italian  womaa."  Pepusdi 
died  in  London  on  the  aoth  of  July  17$!'  His  Treatise  sm 
Hatmony  (anonymous  ist  ed.  1730)  is  beUcved  to  have  been  as 
embodiment  of  his  rules  drafted  by  his  pupil  Viscount  Paisley, 
afterwards  earl  of  Abereora. 

PEPYS,  SAMUEL  (1635-1705),  English  diarist,  was  bom  oa 
the  33rd  of  February  1633.  The  place  of  his  biith  is  not  known. 
The  name  was  pronounced  in  the  17th  century,  and  has  always 
been  pronounced  by  the  family,  '*  Peeps."  The  family  can  be 
traced  in  Ostmbridgeshire  as  far  back  as  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 
They  rose  by  slow  degrees  from  the  dass  of  smaU  copyholdcn 
and  yeoman  farmers  to  the  position  of  gentry.  In  1 563  they  had 
a  recognized  right  to  use  a  coat  of  arms.  John  Pepys.  Samuers 
father,  was  a  younger  son,  who,  like  other  gentlemen  in  his 
position  in  that  age,  went  into  tnde.  He  was  for  a  time  estab- 
lished as  a  tailor  in  London,  but  in  1661  be  inherited  a  amall 
estate  at  Brampton  near  Huntingdon,  where  he  lived  during  the 
last  years  of  his  life. 

Samuel  was  fifth  ddld  and  second  son  of  a  large  family,  all 
of  whom  he  survived.  His  first  school  was  in  Huntingdon,  but 
he  was  afterwards  sent  to  St  Paul^  in  London,  where  he  remained 
till  1650.  While  at  St  Paul's  he  was  an  eye-witness  of  the  execu- 
tion of  King  Charles  I.  On  the  21st  of  June  in  that  year  his 
name  was  entered  as  a  siaar  on  the  books  of  Trinity  Hall. 
Cambridge,  but  it  was  transferred  to  Magdalene  on  the  ist  of 
October.  On  the  5th  of  March  he  entered  into  residence,  and 
he  remained  there  till  1654  or  1655.  He  obtained  a  Spendluffe 
scholarship  a  month  after  entering,  and  one  on  Dr  John  Smith's 
foundation  on  the  14th  of  October  1653.  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  university  career  except  that  on  the  21st  of  October  1653  ^ 
was  publicly  admonished  with  another  undergraduate  for  having 
been  **  scandalously  overserved  with  drink."  At  Cambridge  he 
wrote  a  romance,  Une  is  a  Cheat,  which  he  afterwards  destroyed. 
On  the  1st  of  December  1655  he  was  married  at  St  Margaret*s 
chureh,  Westminster,  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Alexander 
Marchant,  Sieur  de  St  Michel,  a  French  Huguenot  exile  from 
Anjou  who  had  married  an  English  lady  named  Kingsmill. 
Pepya  had  at  this  time  no  independent  means,  and  probably 
relied  on  his  cousins,  the  Montagues,  to  provide  for  him.  On  the 
36th  of  March  1658  be  was  cut  for  the  stone,  an  event  wUch 
be  alwa3»  kept  in  memory  by  a  solemn  annlversaiy.  In  1659 
he  went  as  secretary  with  his  cousin,  Edward  Montagu,  after- 
wards earl  of  Sandwich,  on  a  voyage  to  the  Sound.  On  his 
return  he  was  engaged  as  a  clerk  under  Mr  (afterwards  Sir) 
Edward  Downing,  one  of  the  four  tellers  of  the  exchequer.  Ia 
j66o  he  accompanied  his  cousin,  who  commanded  the  fieet  which 
brbught  King  Charles  II.  back  from  exile.  In  that  year,  by  the 
interest  of  his  cousin,  he  was  named  "  clerk  of  the  acts  "  in  the 
navy  office,  but  was  compelled  to  buy  <^  a  competitor,  one 
Barlow,  by  an  annuity  of  £100. 

Pepya  was  now  fairly  established  in  the  official  career  which  led 
him  to  honour.  On  the  ist  of  January  1660  he  had  begun  bis 
second  and  hidden  life  as  a  diarist.  It  is  in  that  capacity  that 
he  IS  ol  such  unique  interest.  But  if  his  diary  had  never  been 
written,  or  had  been  lost,  he  would  still  be  a  notable  man,  as  aa 
able  ofikrial,  the  author  of  valuable  Memoirs  cj  the  Naty  (i6go), 
an  amateur  musician  and  protector  of  musicians,  a  gentleman 
who  took  an  enlightened  interest  in  science,  and  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  Society.  To  his  contemporary  diarist. 
John  Evelyn,  he  appeared  as  "  a  worthy,  industrious  and  curious 
person."  It  is  true  that  Andrew  Marvel  accused  him  of  having 
accumulated  a  fortune  of  £40,000  by  "  illegal. wages."  But  this 
eharge,  made  in  a  pamphlet  called  A  list  of  the  primcipai 
Labourers  in  the  great  desigH  of  Fopery  and  Arbitrary  Potter, 
wasattribtited  to  political  animosity.  To  the  world  he  appeared 
as  an  honourable  and  religious  man,  and  so  he  would  seem  to  have 
been  to  us  if  he  had  not  recorded  in  his  diary  all  those  weaknesses 
of  character  and  sins  of  the  flesh  which  other  men  are  most 
careful  to  conceal. 

Hia  place  of  clerk  to  the  Navy  Board  was  cquivakut  to  the 


PEPYB;  SAMUEL 


«3t 


poM  of  pcmuuieBt  under  tetfctcry  bi  modem  tioict.  It  nude 
him  chief  of  the  secretariat  and  a  member  of  the  administrating 
body  of  the  navy.  Though  he  was  so  ignorant  of  buaness  that 
he  did  not  even  know  tlie  multiplication  table  when  he  first  took 
office,  he  soon  nuutered  the  needful  mechanical  deCaik  by  work^ 
ing  early  and  late.  He  had  other  poets  and  honours,  which 
camo  to  him  either  as  consequential  on  Ma  derkship  or  because 
be  was  a  useful  official.  On  the  ajrd  of  July  x66o  he  was  ap' 
pmnted  one  of  the  clerks  of  the  privy  seal,  an  office  which  returned 
him  £3  a  day  In  fees.  He  was  madea  justice  of  the  peace.  In 
1663  he  was  appointed  a  younger  brother  of  the  Trinity  House, 
•nd  was  named  a  comintssioner  for  managing  the  affairs  of 
Tangier,  then  occupied  by*  an  EngUih  garrison.  In  1664  he 
became  a  member  of  the  corporation  of  the  Royal  Fishery,  to 
which  body  he  was  named  treasurer  when  another  official  had 
brought  the  accounts  into  confusion.  In  that  year  he  also 
joined  the  Royal  Society.  During  the  naval  war  with  Hdland 
(1664-67)  he  proved  himself  an  indefatigable  worker.  As  sur- 
veyor of  the  victualling,  the  whole  burden  of  a  most  important 
department  was  thrown  on  him  hi  addition  to  his  regular  dutiesJ 
He  in  fact  organized  the  department.  While  the  plague  waS 
taging  in  London  in  1666  he  remained  at  his  post  when  many  of 
his  colleagues  ran  away,  and  he  manfully  avowed  his  readiness 
to  lake  the  risk  of  disease,  as  othen  of  the  king's  servants  faced 
the  dangers  of  war.  He  had  now  gained  t he  full  confidence  of  the 
lord  high  admiral,  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards  King  James  II. 
When,  on  the  termination  of  the  war,  the  navy  office  was  vtolently 
attacked  in  parliament,  he  was  entrusted  with  its  defence.  The 
speech  which  he  delivered  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Commons 
on  the  5lh  of  March  1668  passed  for  a  complete  vindication.  In 
sober  fact  the  charges  of  mismanagement  were  w\cQ  founded,  but 
the  fault  was  not  in  the  official^ of  the  navy  office  only,  and  Pepys, 
who  was  master  of  the  details,  had  no  difficulty  in  throwing  dust 
in  the  eyes  of  the  House  of  Commons,  which  was  ignorant. 
Nobody  Indeed  was  better  acquainted  with  the  defects  of  the 
office,  for  in  1668  he  drew  up  for  the  duke  of  York  two  papers  of 
inquiry  and  rebuke,  "  The  Duke's  Reflections  on  the  severaH 
Members  of  the  Navy  Board's  Duty  "  and  "  The  Dukels  answet* 
to  their  several!  excuses  *'  (Harleian  MS.  6003).  In  1669  he 
travelled  abroad.  His  success  in  addressing  parb'ament  gave  Mm 
the  ambition  to  become  a  member  of  the  House  ot  Commons. 
He  stood  for  Aldborough^  but  the  death  of  his  wife,  on  the  lolh 
of  November  1660,  prevented  him  from  conducting  his  tanvass 
in  person,  and  he  was  not  elected.  In  1673  he  was  returned  for 
Castle  Rising.  The  validity  of  his  election  was  questioned  by  his 
opponent^  Mr  Offley,  and  the  committee  of  privilege  decided 
against  him,  but  the  prorogation  of  the  house  prevented  further 
action.  The  no-popery  agitation  was  now  growing  in  strength. 
The  duke  of  York  was  driven  from  office  by  the  Test  Act,  and 
Pepys  was  accused  of  "  popery,"  partly  00  the  ground  that  he 
was  said  to  keep  a  crucifix  and  altar  In  his  house,  partly  because 
he  was  accused  of  having  converted  his  wife  to  Roman  Catholi- 
cism. The  crucifix  story  broke  down  on  examination,  but  there 
is  some  reason  to  believe  that  Mrs  Pepys  did  become  a  Roman 
Catholic^  Pepys  was  transferred  by  (he  king  from  the  navy 
office  (0  the  secretaryship  of  the  admiralty  in  1673.  In  1679  he 
was  member  for  Harwich,  and  in  the  height  of  the  popish  plot 
mania  he  was  accused,  manifestly  because  he  was  a  trusted 
servant  of  the  duke  of  York,  of  betraying  naval  secrets  to  the 
French,  but  the  charges  were  finally  dropped.  Pepys  was  releas^ 
on  bail  on  (he  12th  of  February  1680.  In  that  year  be  accom- 
panied the  king  to  Newmarket,  and  took  down  the  narrative  of 
bis  escape  after  the  battle  of  Worcester.  A  proposal  to  make  him 
head  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1681,  came  to  nothing. 
In  1682  he  accompanied  the  duke  of  York  to  Scotland,  where  the 
uncleanly  habits  of  the  people  caused  him  great  ofTcnce.  In 
1683-1684  he  was  engaged  in  arranging  for  the  evacuation  0/ 
Tangier.  He  visited  (he  place  and  kept  a  diary  of  his  voyage. 
In  1684  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society.  On  the 
accession  of  King  James  II.  in  1685  he  retained  his  place  as 
secretary  to  the  admiralty,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  by 
patent  when  James  resumed  the  lord  high  admiralship  (June  10, 


«684>,  lad  Pepys  was  in  effect  mWister  f^*  the  navy.  The 
revdlntibn  of  1688  ended  his  oflicial  career.  He  was  dismfssed 
on  the  9th  of  March  1689,  and  spent  thereat  of  his  life  in  retire* 
ment,  and,,  except  for  a  brief  imprisonment  on  the  charge  of 
Jacobite  intrigue  in  1690,  in  peace.  He  died  at  his  house  In 
Clapham  on  the  35th  of  May  1703.  His  last  years  weie  passed 
hk  oorrtspondence  with  his  friends,  who  iQClttded  Evelyn  and 
Dryden,  or  in  arranging  his  valuable  library.  It  was  left  on  hi^ 
death  t6  his  nephew,  John  Jackson,  son  of  his  sister  Pauline,  and 
in  1724,  by  the  terms  of  ids  will,  was  transfened  to  Magdalene 
College,  Cilmbridge,  where  it  is  still  preserved. 

Such  was  the  outward  and  visible  life  of  Samuel  Pepys,  the 
public  servant  whose  diligence  was  rewarded  by  stiecess.  The 
other  Pepys,  whom  Sir  Walter  Scott  called  "  that  curiou^ 
fellbw '*  was  revealed  in  1825,  when  his  secret  diary  was  partly 
publiuiod.  The  first  entry  was  made  on  the  ist  of  January  1660, 
the,  last  on  the  31st  of  May  1669,  when  the  increasing  weakness 
of  his  eyes,  which  had  given  him  trouble  since  1664,  compdled 
him  to  cease  writing  in  the  conditions  he  imposed  upon  himself.' 
If  there  is  in  all  the  literature  of  the  world  a  book  which  can  be 
ealled  "  unique  "  with  strict  propriety  it  is  this.  Confessjoos,' 
diaries,  journal^,  autobiographies  abound,  but  such  a  rev^ation 
of  a  man's  self  has  not  yet  been  discovered.  Hie  diary  is  a  thing 
apart  by  virtue  of  three  qualities  which  are  rarely  found  in  per- 
fection when  separate  and  nowhere  else  in  combination.  It  was 
secret;  it  was  full;  and  it  was  honest.  That  Pepys  meant  it  for 
his  own  eye  alone  is  clear.  He  wrote  it  in  Shdton^s  system  of 
tachygraphy  published  in  1641,  which  he  complicated  by  using 
foreign  hinguages  or  by  varieties  of  his  own  invention  whenever 
he  had  to  record  the  passages  least  fit  to  be  seen  by  his  servantaf 
or  by  '*  an  the  worid."*  Rdying  on  his  cypher  he  put  down  what- 
ever he  saw,  heard,  felt  o^  imagined,  every  motion  of  his  mind, 
every  action  of  his  body.  And  he  noted  all  this,  not  as  he  denred 
it  to  appear  to  others,  but  as  it  was  to  his  seeing.  Hie  result  is 
"  a  hunuin  document "  of  amaiang  vitality.  The  man  whodisplays 
himself  to  himself  in  the  diary  b  often  odious,  greedy,  cowardly* 
Casuistical,  brutal.  He  teils  how  he  kicked  his  cook,  and  blacked 
his  wife's  eye,  and  was  annoyed  when  others  Saw  what  he  had 
done.  He  notes  how  he  coinpriled  the  wives  of  unfortunate 
meii  who  came  to  draw  their  husband's  pay  at  the  navy  office  to 
prostitute  themselves;  how  he  took  "  compliments,"  that  £s'to 
say  gifts,  from  all  who  had  business  to  do  with  the  navy  office; 
how  he  got  tipsy  and  suffered  from  sick  headache;  bow  he 
repented,  nuide  vows  of  sobriety,  and  found  casuistical  excuses 
for  breaking  them.  The  style  is  as  peculiar  as  the  matter-^ 
coDoquiat,  garrulous,  racy  from  simplicity  of  language,  and  full 
of  the  unconscious  humour  which  is  never  absent  from  a  truthful 
account  of  the  workings  of  nature  in  the  average  sensual  mani 
His  position  enabled  him  to  see  much.  His  complete  harmony 
with  the  animalism  and  vulgarity  of  the  Re^oration  makes  hint 
a  valuable  witness  for  his  time.  To  his  credit  must  be  put  thif 
facts  that  he  knew  the  animalism  and  vulgarity  to  be  what  they 
were;  that  he  had  a  real  love  of  music  and  gave  help  to  musicians) 
Ccsare  Morelli  for  instance;  that  though  he  made  money  out  of 
his  places  he  never  allowed  bad  work  to  be  done  for  the  navy  it 
he  could  help  it;  that  he  was  a  hard  worker;  and  that  he  had  ^ 
capacity  for  such  acts  of  kindness  and  generosity  as  are  comf 
patible  with  a  gross  temperament  and  a  pedestrian  ambition.   ,' 

The  diary,  written  in  a  very  small  hand  in  six  volumes,  wai 
included  among  his  books  at  Magdalene.  On  the  publication  of 
Evelyn's  diary  in  1818,  the  then  head  of  Magdalene,  the  Hon, 
and  Rev.  George  Neville,  decided  to  publish  Pcpys*s.  Part  of  the 
MS.  was  deciphered  l^  his  cousin  Lord  Grenville.  The  library 
contained  both  the  short  and  the  long-hand  copies  of  Pepys'^ 
account  of  King  Charles's  adventures,  but  its  books  were  so  little 
known  by  the  curators  that  this  key  was  overlooked.  The  MS. 
was  deciphered  by  John  Smith,  afterwards  rector  of  Baldock 
in  Hertfordshiri^,  between  1S19  and  1822.  The  first  and  partial 
edition,  edited  by  Richard  NeviUe  Griffin.  3rd  Lord  Braybrooke, 
appeared  in  1825  in  two  volumes  quarto  (London).  It  attracted 
great  attention  and  was  reviewed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  the 
Quarterly  for  January  1826.    A  second' edition  In  two  octavo 


102 


PEQUOT—PBRCEVAL 


voiDmestolIoivcd  in  1828  (London).  A  third  and  etUaiged  edition 
in  fivo  volumes  octavo  appeared  in  1848-18491  and  a  fourtli  in 
four  in  1854  (London).  In  z875~x879DrMinoraBxiglitpul!>lished 
a  still  fuller  edition  in  six  volumes  octavo  (London).  Many 
portraits  of  Pepys  are  known  to  have  been  taken  and  several  can 
be  traced.  One  was  taken  by  SaviU  (1661),  another  by  John 
Hales  (1666),  now  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery.  A  porlraH 
by  Sir  Pieter  Lely  is  in  the  Pepysian  h'braxy,  Magdalene  Coliege, 
Cambridge.  Three  portraits  were  taken  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller, 
of  which  one  belongs  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  another  is  in  the 
Hall  of  Magdalene.  Pepys's  only  known  publication  in  his  life 
was  the  Mtuufirs  of  lh$  Navy,  but  other  writings  have  been 
•icributed  to  him. 

AnTHOWTiES.— The  standard  edition  of  Pejtvs's  Diary  is  that 
by  H.  B.  Wheatlcy.  in  nine  volumes  octavo,  with  a  supplementary 
volume  of  Pepysiana  (London,  1 893-1 890).  See  also  Wheatlcy  s 
Samuel  Pepys,  and  the  world  he  lived  in  (London,  1880);  The  Ltfe^ 
Journals  and  Corresponding  of  Pefiys,  by  J.  Smith  (London,  1841}; 
E.  H.  Moorhouse,  Samuel  repys,  Adminislratort  Observer,  Gosstp 
(1909) ;  and  P.  Lubbock.  Samuel  Pepys  (1909)-  (D.  H.) 

PEQUOT.  an  Algonquian  tribe  of  North-American  Indians,  a 
branch  of  the  Mohicans.  They  occupied  the  coast  of  Connecticut 
from  Niantic  river  to  the  Rhode  Island  boundary.  Together 
with  their  kinsmen,  the  Mohegans,  they  formed  a  powerful  and 
warlike  people,  bitterly  hostile  to  the  early  settlers.  In  i6j7  the 
Pequots  were  surprised  by  the  whites  at  their  fort  on  the  Mystic 
river,  and  suffered  so  completely  a  defeat  that  the  tribe  was  broken 
up,  and  its  remnants  took  refuge  with  neighbouring  tribes.  The 
Pequot  country  passed  under  the  control  of  the  Mohegans.  At 
the  height  of  their  power  the  Pequots  numbered,  it  is  estimated, 
some  3000. 

PBRCBPTION  (from  Lat.  percipar^  to  perceive),  in  psychology, 
the  term  q>eciaUy  applied  to  the  mental  process  by  which  the 
mind  becomes  conscious  of  an  external  object;  it  is  the  mental 
completion  of  a  sensation,  which  would  otherwise  have  nothing 
but  a  momentary  existence  coextensive  with  the  duration  of  the 
stimulus,  and  is  intermediate  between  sensation  and  the  "  ideal 
revival,"  which  can  reinstate  a  perceptual  consciousness  when 
the  object  is  no  longer  present.  This  narrow  and  precise  usage 
of  the  term  "  perception  "  is  due  to  Thomas  Reid,  whose  view  has 
been  generally  adopted  in  principle  by  modem  psychologists. 
On  the  other  hand  some  psychologists  decline  to  accept  the  view 
that  the  three  processes  are  delimited  by  sharp  lines  qf  cleavage.' 
It  is  heU  on  the  one  hand  that  sensation  is  in  fact  impossible  as  a 
purely  subjective  state  without  cognition;  on  the  other  that 
sensation  and  perception  differ  only  in  degree,  perception  being 
the  more  complex.  The  former  view  admits,  which  the  latter 
practically  denies,  the  distinction  in  principle.  Among  those 
who  adopt  thq  second  view  are  E.  B.  Titchcner  and  William 
James.  James  {Principe  </  Psychology^  ii.  76)  compares 
sensation  and  percepiwn  as  '*  the  barer  and  the  richer  conscious- 
ness," and  says  that  "  beyond  the  6rst  crude  sensation  all  our 
consciousness  is  a  matter  of  suggestion,  and  the  various  suggest 
tions  shade  gradually  into  each  other,  being  one  and  all  products 
of  the  same  psychological  machinery  of  association."  Similarly 
Wundt  and  Titchcner  incline  to  obliterate  the  distinction  between 
perception  and  ideal  revival.  Prior  to  Reid,  the  word  ^percept  ion 
had  a  long  history  in  the  wider  sense  of  cognition  in  general. 
Locke  and  Hume  both  use  it  in  this  sense,  and  regard  thinking  as 
that  special  kind  of  perception  which  implies  deliberate  altenlion. 
(See  PsYCuoLocy.) 

PERCEVAL,  or  Percyvelie  (Ger.  Panivd,  Fr.  Perlesvaus, 
Welsh,  Peredur),  the  hero  of  a  comparatively  small,  but  highly 
important,  group  of  romances,  forming  part  of  the  Arthurian 
cycle.  Originally,  the  story  of  Perceval  was  of  the  character  of  a 
folk-tale,  and  that  one  of  remarkable  importance  and  world-wide 
diffusion.  Hp  iis  represented  as  the  son  of  a  widow,  "  la  dame 
yeuve,"  his  father  having  hctn  slain  in  tourney,  battle  or  by 
treachery,  either  immediately  before,  or  shortly  after  his  birth. 
The  mother,  fearful  lest  her. son  should  share  his  fathcr^s  fate, 
flies  to  the  woods,  either  alone  with  one  attendant,  or  with  a  smalt 
body  of  faithful  retainers,  and  there  brings  up  her  son  In  ignorance 
of  his  name,  his  parentage  and  all  knightly  accomplishments. 


The  youth  grows  np  strong,  Bwift46ot^  and  of  gr^t  ptiaonal 
beauty,  but,  naturally  enough,  of  very  limited  inteUigenoe.  This 
last  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  traits  of  the  Peroevral  story, 
Gonnoalng  it  alike  with  the  Irish  Lay  0/  the  Creai  Fool^  and  the 
Teutonic  DUmmdiHg-  tales.  He  spends  his  days  chasing  the 
beasts  of  the  forest,  ritnoiog  them  down  by  sheer  speed,  or  killing 
them  with  daits  (javelots)  or  bow  and  arrows,  the  only  weapooa 
he  knows. 

One  day,  however,  he  meets  a  party  of  knights  in  armour;  he 
first  adores  th^  leader  as  Cod«  and  then  takes  them  to  be  ^ome 
new  and  wondrous  kind  of  animal,  asking  the  most  naive 
questions  as  to  their  armour  and  equipment.  Being  told  that 
they  are  knights  he  determines  that  he  too  will  he  one^  and 
returns  to  his  mother  announcing  his  intention  of  at  once  Ktting 
forth  into  the  world  to  seek  for  knighthood.  Dressed  as  a 
peasant  (or  a  fool),  be  departs  (his  mother,  in  soma  vezsioDS, 
dying  of  grieO»  and  comes  to  the  king's  court.-  Of  course  in  the 
romance  it  is  the  court  of  Arthur;  probably  in  the  original  tale 
it  was  simply  '*  the  king."  Here  his  uncouth  behaviour  and  great 
personal  beauty  attract  general  attention,  and  he  is  alike  mocked 
by  Kay,  and  his  future  distinction  mysteriously  foretold.  He 
slays  a  foe  of  Arthur's,  the  Red  Knight,  who  has  insulted  the 
king,  and  challenged  the  knights  of  the  court,  who,  for  some 
mysterious  reason,  are  unable  to  respond  to  the  challenge. 
Dressing  himself  in  the  armour  of  the  shun  knight,  which  he  has 
great  difficulty  ya  handling  and  eventually  puts  on  over  his 
peasant's  garb,  he  sets  out  on  a  series  of  adventures  which  differ 
greatly  in  the  various  versions,  but  the  outcome  of  which  is  that 
he  becomes  a  skilful  and  valiant  km'gbt  and  regains  the  heritage 
of  his  father. 

This,  the  Perceval  story  proper,  has  been  recognl^  by 
scholars  a$  a  variant  of  a  widespread  folk-tale  theme,  designated 
by  J.  C.  von  Hahn  as  the  Aryan  Expulsion  and  Return  formula, 
which  counts  amone  its  representatives  such  heroes  as  Perseus, 
Cyrus,  Romulus  and  Remus,  Siegfried,  and,  as  Alfred  Nutt  has 
pointed  out,  Arthur  himself..  This  particular  variant  appears  to 
he  of  British-Celtic  origin,  and  tho  most  faithful  representative 
of  the  original  tale  is  now  very  generally  held  to  be  the  English 
Syr  Percytdle  of  Calles,  a  poem .  preserved  in  the  Thornton 
manuscript  Here  the  hero  is  nephew  to  Arthur  on  the  mother's 
side,  and  his  father,  of  the  same  name  as  himself,  is  a  valiant 
knight  of  the  court.  A  noticeable  feature  of  the  stoiy  is  the 
uncertainty  as  to  the  hero's  parentage;  the  mother  is  ^ways  a 
lady  of  rank,  a  queen  in  her  own  right,  or  sister  of  kings  (as  a 
rule  of  the  Grail  kings);  but  the  father's  rank  varies,  he  is  never 
a  king,  more  often  merely  a  valiant  luiight,  and  in  no  instance 
does  he  appear  to  be  of  equal  rank  with  his  wife.  Thb 
distinguishes  the  story  from  that  of  Lancelot,  with  which  some 
modern  scholars  have  been  inclined  to  identify  it;  for  Lancelot's 
parentage  is  never  in  doubt,  he  is  Jis  du  roi* 

The  connexion  of  the  story  with  Arthur  aod  his  court  "brought 
about  a  speedy  and  more  important  development,  the  precise 
steps  of  which  are  not  yet  clear:  Perceval  became  the  hero  of  the 
Grail  que$t,  in  this  ousting  Gawain,  to  whom  the  adventure 
origin^ly  belonged,  and  the  Perceval  became  merged  in  the  Grail 
tradition.  Of  the  Perceval-Crail  romances  the  oldest  from  the 
point  of  view  of  manuscript  preservation  is  the  Perceval  or 
Contedd Graalol  Chriticn  de Troyes.  Two  manuscripts,  indeed, 
the  British  Museum  and  Mons  texts,  preserve  a  fragment  relating 
the  bjrth  and  infancy  of  the  hero,  which  appears  to  represent 
the  source  at'  the  root  alike  of  Chrdtfen  and  of  the  German 
Panival,  but  it  is  only  a  fragment,  and  so  far  no  more  of  the  poem 
has  been  discovered.  Chretien  left  his  poem  unfinished,  and  we 
do  not  know  how  he  intended  to  complete  the  adventures  of  his 
hero;  but  those  v^iters  who  undertook  the  task,  Wauchier  de 
Denain,  Gerbert  de  Montreuil  and  Manc*&sier,  carried  it  out  with 
such  variety  of  detail,  and  such  a  bewildering  indifference  to 
Chretien's  version,  that  it  seems  practically  certai'o  that  there 
must  have  been,  previous  to  Chrflien*s  work,  more  than  one 
poem  dealing  with  the  same  theme.  The  German  poet,  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach,  whose  Parzival  in  parts  closely  agrees  with  the 
Perceval  and  who  was  long  held  to  be  a  mere  translator  of  Cbr^tlen^ 


PERCEVAL,  S.-i-PERCH 


*3S 


4lilla»«ide^to  tbt  sdtiac  oC  UsMoiy*  He  gives  an  introduction, 
in  wiuca  the  adventuccs  o(  the  father,  here  a  pnnce  of  Anjou, 
•re  related,  a  ooaduaion,  in  which  the  Swaa-Kni|dit,  Lohengnn, 
is  made  Bsnrval's  scm,  be  rqi>reients  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Gnii  castle  as  Templars  (Tempkisen) ,  and  makes  the  Grail  itscU 
m  stone.  Finally*  he  repsoaches  Chretien  with  having  told  the 
story  anuss,  whereas  Kiot,  the  Provencal,  whose  version  WoUram 
was  folkwing,  had  told  it  anght  from  beginning  ta  end.  It  js 
certain  that  Gerbert  knew,  and  used,  a^  F<rceval  which,  if  not 
Kiot's  poem,  must  have  been  doiely  akux  to  it,  as  he  too  makes 
the  SwaiV'Knight  a  descendant  of  the  Crail  hero.  The  probabihty 
seems  to  be  that  the  earliest  Perceval-Grail  romance  was  com- 
posed at  Fescamp,  and  wss  coincident  with  the  transformation, 
under  the  influence  <^  the  Saint-^ng  legend,  <A  the  onginally 
Pagan  fsliiman  known  as  the  Grail  into  a  Christian  rehc.  and 
that  this  romance  was  more  or  less  at  the  root  of  all  subsequent 
versions^ 

Besides  the  poems,  we  have  also  tvo  prose  Perceval  romances, 
the  relative  position  of  which  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined. The  first  is  found  in  two  manuscripts  only,  the  so-csUed 
"  Didot "  (from  its  original  possessor  M.  Firmin-Didot) ,  now  in  the 
Biblioth^que  Nationale,  Paris,  the  other,  and  much  superior  text, 
in  the  Biblioteca  Estense,  Modena.  In  both  cases  the  romance 
foUows  the  psose  rendering  oi  Bonon's  Josepk  «/  Arim9tifea 
and  Merlin^  and  precedes  a  Mart  Artus,  thus  forming  part  of 
a  complete  cycle.  The  text  shows  a  curious  mingling  of  sources; 
the  re^  primitive.  Perceval  story,  the  EnfoHces,  is  omittcdj  he 
grows  up  in  his  father's  house  and  goes  to  court  at  his  vdsh. 
Later,  however,  stories  which  certainly  derive  from  an  early 
non-Grail  tradition'  are  introduced,  and  there  aze  references 
which  imply  a  knowledge  of  the  prose  Lancelot  and  of  Chr6tien's 
poem.  The'  romance  is  piobably  a  somewhat  late,  and  not 
very  skilful,  compilation.  The  other  prose  romance,  the 
FerleswauSf  is  decidedly  superior  in  literary  form,  but  here  too 
we  have  a  mingling  of  old  and  new  elements.  The  Enfances 
story  is  omitted,  and  there  are  parallels  with  the  German 
Pankaly  with  Wauchier  de  Denain  and  with  Gerbert,  while 
much  is  peculiar  to  the  PerUsvaus  itself.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  it  represents  %  free  and  individual  working  over  of  the 
original  Fescamp  version,  and  that  in  its  later  shape  it  was 
intended  to  form,  and  did  at  one  time  form,  the  (^tuL  section 
of  the  cyclic  redaction  of  the  Arthurian  prose  romances,  being 
dislodged  from  this  position  by  the  Galahad  Quite.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  the  printed  editions  always  give  it  in  conjunc- 
tion with  this  latter  and  that  the  two  have  aJso  been  preserved 
together  hi  a  Welsh  manuscript  translation.  We  also  possess 
in  one  of  the  so-called  Mabi$iogi  a  Welsh  version  of  the  tale, 
Feredur,  soh  of  Evrawc.  This  appears  to  be  a  free  rendering  of 
the  adventures  found  in  Chretien  combined  with  incidents 
drawn  from  Welsh  tradition.  This  was  at  one  time  claimed  as 
the  original  source  of  all  the  Perceval  romances,  hut  this  thcojry 
cannot  be  maintauied  in  face  of  the  fact  that  the  writer  gives  in 
one.  place  what  is  practically  a  literal  translation  of  Chretien's 
text  in  a  passsge  which  there  is  strong  reason  to  bdlieve  was 
borrowed  by  Chritien  from  an  earlier  poem.  In  order  of  time 
the  Feredur  probably  ranks  latest  in  the  series  of  Perceval 
romances,  which^however,  does  not  detract  from  its  interest  as 
«  possible  representative  of  genuine  Welsh  traditions,  unknown 
to  ether  writers. 

The  value  and  interest  of  the  Perceval  romances  stand  very 
hi^,  not  alone  for  their  intrinsic  merit,  though  that  is  con- 
siderable— Chretien's  Fercrval,  though  not  his  best  poem,  is  a 
favourable  specimen  of  his  work,  and  von  Eschenbach's  FanivaJ, 
though  leas  elegant  in  style,  is  by  far  the  most  humanly  interest- 
ing, and  at  the  same  time,  most  deeply  spiritual,  ol  the  Grail 
Tomances—but  also  for  the  interest  of  the  subject  matter.  The 
Perceval  story  is  an  admirable  folk^tale,  the  Giail  problem 
is  the  most  fascinating  problem  of  medieval  literature;  the  two 
combined  form  a  romance  of  quite  unique  charm  and  interest 
This  has  been  practically  proved  by  the  extraordinary  success 
whidi  has  attended  Richard  Wagner^s  dramatic  re-telling  of 
the  legend  in  his  Farsifal.    The  immediate  source  of  this 


version  is  the  poem  of  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  though  the 
Grail,  of  course,  is  represented  in  the  form  of  the  Christian 
rehc,  not  as  the  jewel  talisman  of  the  Fardval,  but  the  psycho- 
logical reading  of  the  hero's  character,  the  distinctive  note  of 
von  Eschenbach's  version,  has  been  adapted  by  Wagner  with 
marvellous  skill,  and  his  picture  of  the  hero's  mental  aiid  spiritual 
development,  from  extreme  simplicity  to  the  wisdom  bom  of 
perfect  charity,  is  most  striking  and  impressive. 

BtnUooRAPHY  — ^There  are  early  printed  editions  of  the  Perceval 
(i^oj^nd  of  the  Perlesvtus  (1516  and  1523).  TBe  Perceval  was 
edited  from  the  Mons  text  by  Potvin  (6  vols.,  1866-1 871  )t  Syr 
PercypcUe  cf  Callus,  in  The  Thornton  Romances^  by  Halliwell  (1844) 
for  the  Canuiea  Society.  Parztval  exists  in  numerous  editions; 
critical  texts  have  been  edited  by  Lachmann  (itei),  Martin  (1903) 
and  Leitxmann  (1902-1903).  r  or  the  general  reader  the  most 
useful  text  is  that  of  Bartsch  in  Deutsche  Classtker  des  MittdoUers^ 
as  It  mdudes  notes  and  a  glossary.  Modem  German  versions 
are  by  Simrock  (very  close  to  the  original)  and  Hertz  (freer,  but 
with  excellent  notes  and  appendices);  Eng  trans,  by  J  L.  Weston 
(1804)  The  **  Didot  "  Percnai  was  published  by  Hucher  in  vol.  L 
of  Le  Satni  Craal  (1875-1878)^  an  edition  of  the  Modena  text  has 
also  been  prepared.  PerUsvaus  was  published  by  Potvin  ..in  vol.  i. 
of  his  edition  of  Chrdticn's  poem.  The  Welsh  text,  with  translation, 
has  been  edited  by  Canon  Williams.  A  fine  translation  by  Dr 
Sebastian  Evans  is  published  in  "  The  Temple  Classics,"  under  the 
title  of  The  JItgh  History  of  the  Holy  Crail.  Peredur  will  be  found 
in  Alfred  Nutt's  edition  of  the  Mabtnogton  (1903).  For  the  critical 
treatment  of  the  subject  ace  The  Legend  of  Str  Perceval  (Grinua 
Library,  vol.  xvii.):  Perleeeaus  by  ^itse  (1903):  Legends  if  the 
Wapm  Drama  by  J.  L.  Weston.  (J,  L.  WO 

PBRGEVAU  SPBNCBR  (lyda-xSis),  prime  minister  of  Eng- 
land from  1809  to  z8i2,  second  son  of  John,  2nd  eari  of  Egmont, 
was  bom  in  Audl^  Square,  London,  on  the  ist  of  November 
176a.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  Collegia 
Cambridge,  and  ivas  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn-  in  X786«' 
A  very  abte  speech  in  connexion  with  a  famous  foigeiy  case 
having  drown  attention  to  his  talents,  his  success  was  from  that 
time  rapid,  he  was  soon  regarded  as  the  leading  counsel  on  the 
MidUuid  circuit,  and  in  1796  became  a  ILC.  Entering  pariia* 
ment  for  Northampton  in  April  of  that  year,  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  speeches  in  support  of  the  administration  of  Pitt. 
In  180X,  on  the  formation  of  the  Addington  administratioo,  he 
was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and  in  1802  he  became  attorney* 
generaL  An  ardent  opponent  of  Catholic  Emancipation,  he' 
delivered  in  1807  a  speech  on  the  subject  which  helped  to  give 
the  deathblow  to  the  Grenville  administrationi  upon  which  h9 
became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under  the  duke  of  Portland} 
whom  in  1609  he  succeeded  m  the  premiership.  Notwitbitand- 
ing  that  he  had  the  assistance  in  the  cabinet  of  no  statesman 
of  the  first  rank,  he  succeeded  in  retaining  office  till  he  was  shot 
by  a  man  named  Bellingham,  a  bankrupt  with  a  grievance,  who 
had  vainly  applied  to  him  for  redress,  in  the  lobby  of  the  House 
of  Commons  on  the  nth  of  May  1812,  Bellingham  was  certainly 
insane,  bat  the  plea  was  set  aside  and  he  was  hanged.  Perceval 
was  a  vigorous  debater^  specially  excelling  in  replies,  ij^  which 
his  thorough  mastery  of  all  the  details  of  his  subject  g;ave  him 
a  great  advantage.  He  married  in  1790  and  had  «x  sona  and 
six  daughters;  one  of  the  latter  married  Spencer  Horatio  Walpolv 
(d.  1898),  home  secretary,  and  their  son  Sir  Spencer  Walpole^ 
the  wdl-known  historian,  published  an  excellent  biogisphy  of 
Perceval  in  x874« 

See  also  P.  Treherae.  Spencef  Perceval  (1909). 

PERCH  (through  Fr.  from  Lat  Pcrca,  Gx.  vlpnt;  the  last 
word  is  connectni  with  rtpofbi,  darl^-coloured,  spotted),  a 
fresh-water  fish  {Perca  ^uviatUis),  generally  distributed  over 
Europe,  northern  Asia  and  North  America,  and  so  well  known 
as  to  have  been  selected  for  the  type  of  an  entire  family  of  spiny- 
rayed  fishes,  the  PercidaCt  which  is  represented  in  European 
fresh- waters  by  several  other  fishes  such  as  the  pope  (iicmw 
cernua)  and  the  pike-perch  {Lucioperca).  It  inhabits  levers  as 
well  as  lakes,  but  thrives  best  in  waters  with  a  depth  of  not 
less  than  3  ft.;  in  large  deep  lakes  it  frcqucnUy  descends  to 
depths  of  50  fathoms  and  more.  It  occurs  in  Scandinavia  as 
far  north  as  the  69th  parallel,  but  does  not  extend  to  Iceland 
or  any  of  the  islands  north  of  Europe. '  In  the  AIp^  it  ascends  to 
an  altitude  of  4000  ft.  , 


nl^ 


PERCH— PERCY  (FAMILV) 


I  wrtt  proponiDDcd.  but  many  vani 
3  being  ungululy  tuEh-biLCkcd,  dthnt 
rtliDS  luch  varA^ifuii  fti«  loal.  UHt 
Agassi  and  other  naturalists  at  one  \ime  ihought  it  possible  to 
disctDgulsh  two  flpedca  oi  the  coimnoD  perch  of  Europe^  titert 
are  not  even  stifficient  grouDds,  however^  for  Bcparating  speafl^ 
ally  the  Notth-American  form,  which  in  the  majotily  of  ichlhyo- 
logicalwotlu  is  described  as  Paca  fiataceni.  The  brilliant  and 
striking  eolouis  of  the  pen:h  render  i^  easily  recognizable  even 
al  a  ^i*r*Tir^  A  rich  grecnUh-browa  with  golden  reflections 
coven  tix  back  and  sides,  which  «■« 
seven   dark  cross-bands.    A  1    "    " 


The  Perch,  Ptra  fiiaialilil. 
■nenbrane  between  tbe  list  qjioa  of  the  dond  £i 
ventral,  anal  and  lower  p«rC  of  tl  '    '      '  '  ' 

milion.     In  the  large  peaty  lakes  of 
variety  is  not '-  -'■'-'' 


ludal  are  bright  vei- 
'  UULCS  01  north  Gennan<r  a  beauli/td 
In  which  tiw  |:aldea  (bge  prevails, 


The  petcb  1>  strictly  camivoKHB  and  moat  vondous;  tt 
■aoden  about  in  small  sboib  witfaiB  a  certain  district,  playing 
sad  havoc  among  smaD  Gsba,  and  is  therefore  not  to  be  toler^ 
aled  hi  wattn  where  valuable  fry  is  ciJlivaltd.  Perch  of  throe 
pounds  in  weight  are  not  infrequently  caught  in  suitable  local- 
llies,  one  of  live  would  now  be  regarded  as  an  eilraDTTtinatily 
large  specimen,  although  in  older  woiks  wc  trad  of  individuals 
nrveding  even  Ihat  weight. 

Perch  are  good,  wholesome  food,  and  highly  esteemed  in  Inland 
countries  where  marine  fisb  tan  be  obtained  only  with  dilScully. 
The  nearly  allied  pike-perch  li  one  of  the  best  Eun^ieia  lood- 
fishes.  The  perch  is  exceedingly  pniliGc;  it  begins  to  spami 
when  three  years  old.  in  April  or  in  the  Erst  half  of  May,  deposit- 
ing the  ova,  which  are  united  by  a  viscid  matter  In  lengtbeiied  or 
net-ihaped  bands,  on  water  plaota. 

{ihrougb  Fr.  prrtkt  fixim  LaL  ferlka,  a  pole  or  rod 
icasurenient),-«barorrod        ■■ 


n  shallow 


s,  for 


•bich  a  bird  m  .  , 
tbe  fore  part  of  a  wagon  or  c^her  four-wheeled  vehicle.  As  a 
term  of  Hnear  measurement,  " perch,"  also  "r^A"  or  **pofc," 
—  16}  ft.,  j)  yds.;  oi  auperfidal  area,— ja}  sq.  yds.;  ifio  perches 
— t  acrtj  Aa  a  stonemason's  measure,  a  "pefch"-i  linear 
perch  In  length  by  i|  It.  in  breadth  and  i  It.  In  thiFkness. 

PSRCH^  a  region  of  □ortbem  France  eidending  over  the 
departments  of  Ome,  Eure,  Eure-et-Loir  and  Sarthe.  lu 
boundaries  arv  Normandy  on  the  N.  and  W.,  Maine  gn  the  S.W., 
Vendtmoia  and  DiinOia  on  the  5.,  Beauce  on  the  E.  and  Thime- 
rais  on  the  N.K  The  greater  part  of  tbe  district  is  occupied 
by  a  semicircle  of  heights  (from  fijo  to  looo  ft.  In  height)  stretch- 
ing from  Moulins-la-Marche  on  the  nonh-west  to  MontmiraH 
on  the  south;  within  the  basin  formed  thereby  the  shape  of  which 
is  dclined  by  the  Huisne,  an  affluent  of  the  Sarthe,  lie  the  chief 
towns— Mor1agnc,Nogent-le-Ro(n>u  and  BcUbne.  Stock-rai^ng 
and  dairy-faTTnlng  are  flourishing  in  the  Perche,  which  is  famous 
for  tbe  production  of  a  breed  of  large  and  powerful  horses. 
Cider-apples  and  pears  arc  grown  throughout  the  district.  In 
the  middle  ages  the  Percbe  constituted  a  couolship  of  which 
Corbon,  Mortagne  and  Nogcnt-le-KoIrou  were  successively  the 
capitals.  Under  the  nncin  rfgimt  it  formed,  together  with 
Maine,  a  gomemement  of  which  Mortagne  was  the  capital. 

PKHCIVAL,  JjUIES  GATES  (171)5-18561,  American  poet, 
phlioiogist  and  geologist,  was  Iwm  in  Kensington  parish,  Berlin. 
Cmncoicul,  on  the  tstb  of  September  179;.     Me  gndoated 


at  Yale  In  tSij,  and  Id  ilM  took  tbtdtstte  of  HJ>.,nDd  Mailed 
praetire  in  Berlin.  He  anlribofed  verse  to  At  Iftotmfi, 
a  aerai-weekly  paper,  founded  'at  New  Haven'  In  igx^ 
In  tids  first  appeaiid  hi*  beat-known  poem,"  "Th«  Snidde." 
which  reflects  his  chronic  melandwly,  due  doibtlcs  to  Ql-htslili , 
h  was  begun  in  1816  and  finished  in  iSso,  aftef  he  had  actually 
made  two  attempts  on  his  own  Sfe-  In  iSij  Perdval  became 
an  editor  of  tbe  CmmalHal  HtraU  at  New  Haven,  and  in  iljt« 

at  West  Point,  and  an  inqwclor  of  recrallB  al  (be  Chadcalown 
(Mass-)  Navy  Yard.  He  pnputd  (iSiA-^gji)  an  En^ish 
edition  of  Malle-Brun's  Gtopapkf  (publilted  lS]4),  and  in 
iai7-i8jif  read  tbe  mannscnpta  and  preaf-dwMB  of  W^tta'i 
Dit/iwiary,  living  special  aiteotloB  to  sQentifie  wwds.  Ini!])- 
1840,  with  Professor  Charles  U  Shepard  (iSo^-iSM),  lie  made 
a  geological  survey  of  Connecticut,  his  Kiftrt  (1)4))  Acnred 
great  learning  and  much  patient  research.  In  1854  he  became 
state  geologist  of  Wtscon^n,  and  in  1855  pnbtbhed  one  vcJuice 
of  his  RcfsrI,  the  second  be  had  nearly  completed  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  on  the  iindof  May  1854,  at  Hazel  Gr«n,  Wtsconcn. 
See  his /"mIiimiJ  Worti  [iTi>l9.,  Boston,  1(50),  with  a  biotraphinl 
>k«eh  by  L.  W.  Fitch,  a>d  Julius  H-  Ward,  Lift  tmt  IdSm  M 


PEBCT  (FaiOLV).  Tbis  family,  whose  deedi  1 
in  English  history,  was  founded  by  Wilfiam  de  rera  \c.  lojo- 
reyS).  a  foUawer  of  tbe  Conqucivr,  who  bestowed  on  him  s 
great  fief  in  Yorkshire  and 'Llncofoshire.  The  Tegisto  of  Whitby 
Abbey,  which  he  founded  anew,  and  in  later  days  the  heialds. 
were  responsible  for  the  fabulona  Migfti  and  pedigree  of  the 
family  whicb  are  itiQ  cutTcnL  By  Emma,  daughter  of  Hugh  dc 
Pott,  t  great  Hampshirt  baron,  WlDiim  was  father  of  letetil 
sons,  of  whom  Alan  the  eldest  succeeded  him.  His  grandwn 
WOliam  was  the  last  of  the  boose  in  the  direct  line,  and  left  two 
Bisters  and  cabetiesscs,  Maud  Countess  of  Warwick,  who  died 
childless,  and  Agnes.  Agnes  de  Ferd  had  matifed  JosceliBe, 
styled  "  brother  of  the  queen  "  (i.e.  Adrfisa  of  Louviin,  second 
wife  of  Henry  I.),  whose  legilimacy  has  be«n  questioned,  and 
from  thia  marriage  descended  the  second  house  of  Percy  (wUtl 
name  it  aasumedl,  till  its  own  eitinction  In  tbe  mile  line  frra 
centuries  later  (1*70).  By  it  was  brought  lnt»  the  hndly  tbe 
great  Petworth  estate  In  Sussei,  wbid»  JosFeffne  had  obtatlhH 
from  his  sister,  who  was  holding  Arundel  Bad  h*  fid.  lUi  son 
Richard  (e.  1 170-1144)  and  Richard's  nephew  WOHain  it.  \t%y 
"4S)  wete  among  tbe  birons  who  mse  In  arms  agatrni  JcAn, 
but  the  latter  made  his  peace  with  Henry  In.,  and  had  Us 
lands  n:stored  to  htm.  Ricfaatd  de  Percy  Kvas  one  of  the  twenty- 
five  barons  appealed  to  enforce  the  observlnce  of  Magna 

The  neit  important  member  of  the  fhmDy  is  WIDiinl's  grandsofi 
Henry  de  Perty(c.  I17J-IJIS),  whom  Edwani  I.,  sfler  the  depeai- 
tion  of  John  Baliol,  appointed  governor  of  Oalloway,  and  whb 
was  one  of  his  most  active  agents  in  the  subjugation  (HI  Scothnd 
till  the  suecesa  oF  Robert  Bruce  drove  him  out  of  Tainbenr 
Castle,  and  made  him  withdraw  into  England.  He  was  lewaided 
by  Edward  II.  with  the  barren  title  of  carl  of  Carilck,  dn^red 
to  be  forfeited  by  the  Scottish  hero;  and  the  same  king  appointed 
bim  governor  of  the  castles  of  Bamburgh  and  Scarborou^ 
But  in  Tjorj  he  bimsdf  made  Ids  postien  strong  in  tbe  north  ef 
En^nd  by  purchasing  lands  from  Anthony  Bek,  Udiop  ol 
Durham,  among  which  wis  the  honour  of  Alnwlci,  the  prbidpal 
teat  of  the  family  ever  tincev  Tbe  Percics  hid  chiefly  raided 
till  then  at  SpoSorth  In  Yorkshire,  and  their  connex(on  with 
Northumberland  dates  from  this  acquisition.  Heniy^  ion, 
another  Henry  (c.  1399-1351),  took  part  In  the  Iragne  against 
Edward  II.'i  favourites  the  Despensers,  was  in  favoor  with 
Edward  lit.,  and  obtained  from  Edward  BaUol  as  king  A 
Scotland  grants  of  Locbmaben,  Annandale  and  "Moffatdale, 
which  he  surrendered  to  the  En^ish  king  for  the  castle  and 
constablcship  of  Jedburgh,  or  Jedworth,  irilb  the  forol  of  Jed- 
wOTlh  and  some  neighbouring  towns.  A  few  years  later,  in  fvBer 
recompense  of  the  unprofitable  gift  of  Baliol,  a  grant  of  p» 
jDuks  I  year  was  made  to  <um  nit  of  tbe  oU  cimoms  U  BerwU  i 


PERCY.  (HOTSPUR) 


«Dd  Sa  1946  lie  £d  splendid  servict  to  las  sovereign  by  del  ealiog 
Vid  taking  priaonec  David  XI.,  king  of  Scotland,  At  iSe  battle  of 
Neville's  Crow. 

To  bim  succeeded  anotber  Henry  Percy  <ij29-zi^),  a' feudal 

baron  like  hia  predecesaois,  wbo  fought  at  Cr^  duhng  bis 

fatber'a  Ufetune  and  whose  hrotber  Thomas  Percy  (133^1369) 

was  bisbop^  of  Norwich  irom  135(^1369.    The  next  bead  of  ibe 

Percys  waa  Henry's  son,  another  Henry,  who  was  pj^e  carl 

of  Northumberland  at  the  coronation  of  Richard  XL,  and  whose 

younger  bioCber  Thomas  (d.  1403)  was  created  carl  oiif  Worcester 

in  1397.    Ibe  ist  earl  of  Northumberland,  father  of  the  famous 

Hotspur,  Sir  Henry  Percy  (9.V.),  was  killed  at  Bramhain  Moor 

in  i^t  while  in  arms  agaipst  the  king,,  and  his  title  and  estates 

w«re  laddtcd.    But,  by  an  act  no  iaa  gracious  than  politic, 

Henxy  V.  restored  them  in  14(4  to  thts  earl*s  grandson,  Henry 

(1394-X455),  then  a  prisoner  witb  the  Scois^  whose  UbwatMn 

be  bad  no  difficulty  in  procuring  from  the  duke  of  Albany  durfng 

the  time  of  James  |.*^  captivity.     From  that  day  the  loyally 

of  the  family  to  the  house  of  Lancaster  wa$  steadfast  and 

andeviating.    The  2nd  carl  died  fighting  for  Henry  VL  at 

the  first  f>att]c  of  St  Albans  in  145s  t  the  3rd,  Henry  (142 1- 

1461)1  was  slain  on  the  bloody  field  of  Towton;  the  4th, 

Henry  (1446-1489),  was  killed  in  quelling  an  insurrection  in  the 

time  of  Henry  VIX.    So  strong  was  the  Lancastrian  feeling  of 

the  family  that  even  Sir  Ralpb  Percy  (i47$-i^^^),  a  brother 

of  tbe  earl  who  fell  at  Towton,  though  he  had  actually  submitted 

otDce  to  Edward  IV.,  turned  again,  and  when  he  fell  at  Hcdgley 

Moor  in  April  1464  consoled  lumself  with  the  thought  that  be 

bad,  as  he  phrased  it,  "  saved  the  bird  in  his  bosom." 

No  wonder,  then,  that  in  Edward  IV.  *s  days  the  title  and 
estates  of  the  family  were 'for  a  time  taken  away  and  given  to 
John  Neville  liord  Montagu,  brother  of  Warwick  the  king-makn. 
But  the  north  of  England  wfis  so  accustomed  to  the  rule  of  the 
Percys  that  in  a  few  years  Edward  saw  the  necessity  of  restoring 
them,  and  did  so  even  at  the  cost  of  alienating  stiU  further  the 
powerful  family  of  the  Nevilles,  who>  were  then  already  on  the 
point  of  rebeUton. 

A  crisis  occurred  in  the  fortunes  of  the  famfly  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIIL  on  the  death  of  Heazy,  the  6tb  earl  (0.  1502- 
>537)»  whose  brothers  Sir  Thomas  ajod  Sir  Xngelram  Percy, 
much  against  his  will^  had  taken  part  in  tbe  gnat  insurrection 
called  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace.  A  thriftless  man,  of  whom  it  is 
secorded  that  in.  his  youth  he  was  smitten  with  the  charms  of 
Anne  Boleyn*.  but  was  forced  to  give-  her  up  and  marry  a  woman 
be  did  not  k>ve,  he  died  childleais,  alter  selling  many  of  the  family 
estates  and  graaling  tbe  others  to  the  king.  The  title  was 
forfeited  on  hay  death,  and  was  granted  by  Edward  VL  to  tlie 
ambitious  John  Dudley,  earl  of  Warwick,  who  was  attainted 
in  the  succeeding  reign.  It  waa  restored  in  the  days  of  Queen 
Mary  to  Thomas  Percy  (zs28r-i572),  a  nephew  of  tbe  6th  earl, 
who,  being  a  staach  Roman  Catholic,  was  one  of  the  three 
aaxls  who  took  tbe  lead  in  the;  celebrated  rising  of  1572,  and  was 
beheaded  at  Yorlu  His  brother  Henry  (0.  1532-1385),  wbo 
succeeded  him,  waa  no  lesf .  unhappy^  Involved  in  Throg- 
morton's  conspiracy,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  of  London, 
and  was  suppocvd  to  havet  shot  himself  in  bed  with  a  pistol 
found  beside  him;  but  there  wcze  grave  suspicions  that  it  had 
been  discharged  by  another  hand.  His  son,  Henry  (1567-1^32)) 
tbe  9M3fX  earl,  suffered. like  his  two  predecessors  for  his  attachment 
to  the  religion  of*  his  forefatbera.  The  Crown  lawyers  sought 
in  vain  to  implicate  him  in  the  .Gunpowder  Plot,  but  he  was 
impriaonfid  for  fifteen  years  in  the  Tower  and  compelled  to  pay 
a,  fine  of  £30^000.  Algernon  (1602-1668),  the  soir  who  next 
succeeded,  was  a  parliamentazy  general  in  the  Qvil  War.  At 
length,  in  1670,  the  male  hne  oC  this  iilustiious  family  became 
extinct,  at  least  in  tbe  direct  line,  about  five  hundred  years  after 
tbe  marriage  of  Agnes  de  Perct  with  J<»ceiine  of  Louvaia^ 

Tbe  representation  of  tbe  earlier  Percys  had  pa^ssed  away 
tbroogh  tbo  daughters  of  Earl  Thomas,  beheaded  in  157a,  but 
bis  aaildom  of  J^^artbumberland  (created  anew  for  him  m  1557) 
bad  pwifdito  bis  brother  Henry,,  under  a  special  remainder, 
Mid  appcaia  tq  have  bfcq^  instinct  in  1^70,  .though  persistently 


13s 

claimed  by  JaMes  Vtrcyt  "  tbe  tnmk-maker. "  Tie  last  earfa 
daughter  EUzabetb.  a  great  heiress,  was  mother  by  Chartes 
Seymour,  6th  duke  of  Somerset,  of  Algernon,  7tb  duke,  who  waa 
summoned  (in  error)  as  X.<»rd  Percy  in  1722  iaA  created  earl  of 
Nortbumberhmd  in  1749.  On  the  duke's  death  in  1750  bla 
earldom  of  Northumberland  passed  under  a  spedal  remainder. 
With  the  main  inheritance  of  the  Percys,  to  Sir  Hugh  Smitlmon, 
hart.  (171^1786),  vdio  bad  married  his  daughter  and  eventud 
heiress  ia  1740,  and  was  created  duke  of  Nortbvmberlaad  and 
Eftrl  Percy  in  x.766.  From  this  marriage  descends,  the  present 
ducal  house,  which  bears  the  name  of  Vttcy  m  Hen  of  Smithsoo, 
and  owns  vast  estates  in  Northumberland. 

Alnwick  Castle,  their  chief  scat^  where  much  state  is  stiU  kept 
up,  has  been  described  by  Mr  dark  as  "  probably  the  finest 
extant  example  of  a  Norman  castle  of  this  type,  having  an  open 
keep  and  a  complete  enceinte."  It  had  been  banUy  occupied 
and  in  decay  for  some  two  centuries  when  the  present  family 
succeeded  to  it,  but  waa  restored  by  them  to  iu  fonoer  splendour 
between  1750  and  1786,  "  Princely  Pctwonh,'f  bowwer,  the 
scat  of  the  later  Percjrs,  with  their  andent  Sussex  estates  and 
those  in  Yorkshire  (Leconfield)  and  Cumberland  (Cockennouth)i 
all  passed  away  in  1750  with  the  earldom  of  Egiemont  and 
barony  of  Cockenuouth  to  Charles  Wyndham,  nephew  of  the 
7th  duke  of  Somerset,  and.  these  estates  are  now  held  by  Lord 
Leoonfidd;)  The  actual  representation  in  bk)od  of  the  laief 
Percys  {^Jt.  from  S573)  passed  ia  1865,  on  the  death  of  the 
4th  duk^  to  the  dukes  of  AthoU,  who  in  virtne  of  it  are  Lords 
Percy,  under  the  writ  of  1722,  the  oldest  of  the  family  titles  now 
remaining.  The  ancient  London  residence  of  the  Percys^ 
Nortbumbcriand  House,  Charing  Cross,  was  remjveil  to  mak# 
way  for  Northumberland  Avenue.  Above  it  stood  the  Percy 
crest,  a  (blue)  Mon  with  stifiBy  extended  tail ;  but  the  famous  badgr 
of  the  bouse  was  the  white  crescent  or  hall  moon—*'  the  Half^ 
Moone  shining  all  soefaire  "  of  "  the  Northern  Rising  "  baflad-^ 
with  a  pair  of  manacips  Their  coat  of  arms  was  a  blue  lion 
rampart  on  a  yellow  ground-—*'  Jaune  0  un  bleu  lyon  rampart " 
of  the  Cariaverock  rolK  stated,  but  wrongly,  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  dukes  of  LouvaJn  and  Brabant.  With  it  tbey 
quartered  the  "  Luces  "  coat  of  the  Lucys  of  Cockermouth  after 
succeeding  to  their  esUtes,  whence  the. lines  in  The  BotU$  0^ 

"  The  Lucetts  and  the  Crtaannts  both* 
The  Skotts  fought  them  agayoe." 

See  E.  B.  De  Fonblanque,  Annals  0/  Ike  Hwu  ef  Paoy  (r887>, 
and  G.  Brenan.  History  of  Ike  House  of  Percy  (edited  by  W.  A. 
Lindsay,  1902),  both  somewhat  adulatory  and  needing  critical 
revision;  Taice.  History  ef  Almekk  (1866);  Hartahomc's  paper  oa 
the  Petcysaad  dwir  Castles  in  tlie  Newcastle  volume  of  thnAnka§»m 
lomal  Institnte  (1852);  £.  A.  Freeman,  "  The  Percy  Castles  "  (1875) 
in  Enghsk  Towns  and  Dutricts,  G.  T.  Clark.  Medteval  MilUary 
A  rchttecturt  ( 1 884) ;  G.  E.  C(okayne) ,  CompleU  Peerageii  895),  vol.  vi. ; 
Bishop  Percy.  Norlkmmberiand  Honsduld  Book.  See  also  the 
sa^dia  Nortknnimiand,  Earls  and  Dukts  ^.       (J.  G*.;  J.  H.  R.) 

PEaCT,  SUL  HEMRy,  called  Uotspok  (x364-^403),.eldeit  son 
of  Henry,  ist  earl  of  iiorthuraberliuid,  waa  bcrn  oa  the  aotfa 
of  Mardi  1:364.  He  saw  active  service  when  he  was.  fourtecd 
at  tbrsiege  of  Berwick.  Six  years  later  he  was  assodated  with 
has  father  in  the  wardenship  of  the  eastern  mardi  of  Seotfamd, 
and  Jiis  aeal  in  border  warfare  wan.tbe  name  of  Hotspur  for 
hun  irom  his  opponents.  In  1386  be  was  sent  to  Calais,  and 
rtided  Prencfa  territory^  but  waa  sboeUy  afterwordt  recalled 
to  defend  England  against  a  naval  attack  by  France.  In 
popular  story  and  ballad  be  is  known  as  one  of  tbe  heroes  of 
Otterbom  or  Chevy  Chase,  which  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
most  stirring  recitals  of  Froissart.  In  the  sumitter  of  1386  the 
Soots  invaded  England  by  way  of  Carlisle,  sending  a  small  body 
nndestlie  euls  of  Douglas,  Mar  and  Moray  to  Invade  Nortfaum- 
beriand.  The  eari  of  Northumberland  remained  at  Alnwlek, 
but  sent  his  sons  ^r  Henry  and  Sir  Ralph  against  the  enemy. 
In  hand-to-hand  fighting  before  the  walls  of  Newcastle,  Douglas 
IS  said  to  have  won  Sir  Henry^s  pennon,  which  be  swore  to  fix 
upon  the  walls  of  Dalkeith.  The  Scots  then  retreated  to  Otter* 
bum,  where  Percy,  who  was  bent  on  recovering  bis  pennon, 
attacked  them  on  a  fine  August  evenmg  ha  1388.    Dou^as  was 


136 


PERCY,  T. 


alsin  in  de  battle,  though  not,  as  is  stated  by  Walsfnghsm,  by 
Percy's  band:  Henry  Percy  was  captured  by  Sir  John  Uhmt- 
gomecy,  and  his  brotlier  Ralph  by  Sit  John  MaanrdL  Uotqmr 
waa  releaaed  on  the  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom,  to  which 
Richard  IL  cootxibutcd  £3000,  and  in  the  autumn  his  term  as 
warden  of  CarUsk  and  the  West  March  was  extended  to  five 
years.  In  1399  together  with  his  father  he  joined  Henry  of 
Lancaster.  Henry  IV.  gave  the  charge  of  the  West  March  to 
Northumberland,  while  Henry  Percy  received  the  castles  of 
Bamburgh,  Roxburgh  and  Berwick,  and  the  wardensfaip  of  the 
East  March,  with  a  salary  of  £5000  in  peace  time  and  jCx'tOOo  in 
war.  During  the  first  >'ear  ol  Henry's  reign  Hotspur  further 
was.  appointed  justidaF  ol  North  Wales  and  constable  of  the 
castles  of  Chester,  Flint,  Conway,  Denbi^  and  Carnarvon. 
Henry  also  gave  him  a  grant  of  the  island  of  Anglesey,  with  the 
castle  of  Beaumaris.  William  and  Rees  ap  Tudor  captured 
Conway  Castle  on  the  xst  of  April  1401,  and  Pen^  in  company 
with  the  prince  of  Wales  set  out  to  recover  the  place,  Per^ 
providing  the  funds.  In  May  he  reported  to  the  kLog  the 
pacification  of  Merioneth  and  Carnarvon,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  month  Conway  was  surrendered  to  him.  Meaa^Rdiile  he 
wrote  demanding  arrears  of  pay,  with  the  threat  of  resignation 
if  the  money  were  not  forthcoming,  but  the  king  intimated 
Ihat  the  loss  of  Conway  had  bean  due  to.hisneg[igence,andonly 
sent  part  of  the  money.  He  had  the  same  difficulty  in  obtaining 
monQr  lor  his  noithem  charge  that  he  had  experienced  in 
Wales.*  An^esey  was  taken  from  him,  and  he  was  deprived  of 
Roxburgh  Castle  in  favour  of  his  rival,  the  earl  c^  Westmorland. 
The  Soots  again  invaded  England  in  the  autumn  of  140a,  headed 
by  the  eari  of  Douglas  and  Murdoch  Stewart,  son  of  the  dtdce 
of  Albany.  Northumberland  and  Hotq>ur  barred  thdr  way  at 
Millfield,.  near  Wooler,  and  the  Scots  were  compelled  to  fight 
at  HumUedon,  or  Homiidon  Hill,  on  the  X4th  of  September. 
The  English  archers  were  providnl  with  a  good  target  in  the 
masses  of  the  Scottish  speatmen,  and  Hotspur  waa  restrained 
from  charging  by  his  ally,  Geoi^e  Dunbar,  ead.of  March.  The 
Scottish  army  was  abnost  destroyed,  while  the  £o|^ish  kas  is 
aaid  to  have  been  five  men.  Di^Mites  with  the  king  aroaeover 
the  di^Msal  of  the  Scottish  prisoners,  Percy  insisting  on  bis  ri^t 
to  hoid  Douglas  as  his  posonal  prisoner,  and  he  was  summoned 
to  court  to  explain.  It  is  related  that  when  he  arrived  Henry 
asked  for  Dou|^,  and  Hotspur  demanded  in  return  that 
his  brother-in-law,  Edmund  Mortimer,  should  be  allowed  to 
ransom  Umself  from  Owen  Glcndower,  with  whom  be  was  a 
prisoner.  High  words  followed,  in  the  course  of  which  Henry 
called  Percy  a  traitor,  struck  him  on  the  face,  and  drew  his 
sword  on  him.  Percy  is  said  to  have  answered  this  defiance 
with  the  words,  "  Not  here,  but  on  the  field.'*  This  was  late 
in  1402,  and  in  1403  Hotspur  issued  a  proclamation  in  Cheshire 
stating  that  Richard  II.  was  aUve,  and  summoning  the  inhabi'* 
t.anta  to  his  standard.  He  made  common  cause  with  his  prisoner 
Doui^as,  and  marched  south  to  join  forces  with  Glendower, 
who  was  now  reconciled  with  Mortimer.  He  was  reinforced 
by  his  unde  Thomas,  eari  of  Worcester,  who,  although  steward 
to  the  household  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  joined  his  family  in 
rcbe&ion.  The  mythical  Richard  II.  was  heard  of  no  more,  and 
Percy  made  hirosdf  the  champion  of  the  young  earl  of  March. 
When  he  arrived  at  the  Castle  Foregate,  Sfarew^ury,  early  on 
the  a  xst  of  July,  and  demanded  provisions,  he  found  the  king's 
forces  had  arrived  before  him.  He  retired  in  the  dlrectian  of 
Whitchurch,  and  awaited  the  enemy  about  3I  m.  from 
Shrewsbury.  After  a  long  parky,  in  which  a  truce  of  two  days 
was  even  said  to  have  been  agreed  on,  the  Scottish  eari  of 
March,  fighring  on  the  royal  side,  forced  on  the  battk  in  the 
aftemooB,  the  royal  right  being  commanded  by  the  prince  of 

1  The  dissatisfaction  of  the  Percys  aeenit  to  have  been  dnefly 
due  tQ  the  money  ^oesrion^  Sir  J.  H.  Ramsay  {LamasUr  and 
York)  ntimatea  that  m  the  four  years  from  1390  to  1403  they  had 
received  from  the  \unz  the  sum  of  jC4I.75d,  which  represented  a 
very  large  capita!  in  the  14th  century,  ana  they  had  also  received 
coniwdcrible  onnta  of  land.  King  Henry  IV  was  about  to  march 
north  himtdf  to  kok  into  the  real  relatioos  between  the  Percys 
and  the  Scots,  when  on  the  6th  of  July  140}  Henry  Percy  was  in 
open  rebellion. 


Waka.  Hotspur  waa  kllkd^  the  enls  of  Douglas  hndWettMier, 
Sir  RJchard  Venables  of  Klndmon,  and  Sir  Rkhaid  Vcmoa 
were  captured,  and  the  rebel  army  diyeraed.  WoNestcr, 
Venables  and  Vernon  were  caecuced  the  neat  day.  Fercy'a 
body  was  buried  at  Whitchurch,  bat  was  diilntcncd  two  dnya 
later  to  be  exhibited  in  Shrewsbury.  The  bead  waa  cot  off,  and 
fixed  on  one  of  the  gates  of  York. 

See  NoaTnoifBEKLAKD,  EAia,s  Aim  Dxmta  of;  and  Psacr: 
(PamQy).  Abo  Ckromgtu  de  la  imboa  el  fnarf  de  Jtkhard  II., 
ed.  B.  Williams  (Ear.  Hist.  Soc,  1846);  J.  Cfctoo.  JfiHirire  4m  rmr 
RUkard  II.,  ed.  John  Webb,  in  ArckataSofiala.,  1824);  and  Adam 
of  Usk's  ChronicoH,  1377-1404,  ed.  £.  M.  Thompson  (1876):  the 
authorities  are  cited  In  dctau  in  J.  H.  Wylie's  Enpani  nmder 
Henry  IV.  (1884-1898).  and  Sir  J.  H.  Ramsa/s  Lomcaittt  umd 
York  (Oxford.  1893).  Hofinshed's  CknmkU  was  the  chief  aonrae 
jof  ShaiTPspeare's  account  of  Hot^Mir  in  HtiiryilY, 

PBRCT,  THOMAS  (r.  1560-160^,  one  of  the  Gunpowder 
Plot  conspirators,  was  a  son  of  Edward  Percy  of  Beveriey,  who 
was  grandson  of  Henry  Percy,  4th  eari  of  Korthimiberland. 
Though  brouf^t  up  a  Protestant,  he  eariy  became  wefl-affected 
to  the  Roman  Catholics  and  finally  an  adherent.  He  entered 
the  service  of  his  cousin,  Henry  Percy,  9th  eari  of  Northtimber- 
land,  and  was  appointed  by  him  constable  of  Alnwick  Castle 
and  agent  for  his  northern  estates,  in  which  capacity  he  showed 
himself  tynumcal  and  extortionate.  In  1603  he  was  sent  by 
Northixmberland  to  James  in  Scotland  to  secure  toleration  for 
the  Roman  Catholics  and  returned  announcing  favourable 
promises  from  the  king,  the  extent  of  whidi  he  probably  greatly 
exaggerated;  and  when  James,  after  his  succession  to  the  English 
throne,  did  not  immediately  abrogate  the  penal  Iain's,  Percy, 
although  he  had  accepted  the  court  appointment  of  genUeman 
pensioner,  professed  himself  highly  indignant  and  indtdged 
lumself  m  thoughts  of  revenge.  Some  time  ii^  Mav  1603  Perry 
angrily  declared  Ins  intention  fo  Catesby  of  killmg  the  king, 
and  in  April  1604  he  met  Catesby  with  John  Wright,  Thomas 
Winter  and  Guy  Fawkes,  and  was  then  initiated  into  Catesby^ 
gunpowder  plot,  which  met  with  his  zealo^is  approval  and 
support.  To  Percy  was  allotted  the  special  duty  after  the 
explosion  of  seiang  the  infant  prince  Charies'and  riding  off 
with  him  on  his  saddle  to  Warwickshire.  All  the  preparations 
being  complete,  Percy  went  to  Alnwick  in  October  and  collected 
£3000  of  the  eari  of  Northxrniberhnd's  rents  which  he  intended 
using  in  furtherance  of  the  plot,  returning  to  London  on  the  rst 
of  November.  Meanwhile  the  plot  had  been  revealed  through  the 
letter  to  Lord  Monteagle  on  the  26th  of  October,  and  it  was  I^crcy'!5 
insistence  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  con^rators  on  the  3rd  that 
decided  them  not  to  fiy  but  to  hazard  the  attempt.  On  the 
news  of  Guy  Fawkes's  arrest,  Percy  with  the  rest  of  the  conspira- 
tors, except  Tresham,  fled  on  horseback,  taking  refuge  ulti- 
mately at  Holbeche,  near  Stourbridge,  in  Stafford^ire,  where  on 
the  8th  of  November,  during  the  attack  of  the  sheriff's  men  upon 
the  house,  he  was  struck  down  by  a  bullet,  fighting  back  to  back 
with  Catesby,  and  died  two  days  later.  Percy  married  a  sister 
of  the  conspirator  John  Wright  and  left  a  son  Robert  aiMi  two 
daughters,  one  of  whom  is  said  to  have  married  Robert,  the  son 
of  Catesby 

PERCY,  THOMAS  (t729-i8xi),  bishop  of  Dromore,  editor 
of  the  Percy  Rdiquef,  was  bom  at  Bridgnorth  on  the  f  3th  of 
April  X72g.  His  father,  Arthur  Lowe  Percy,  a  grocer,  was  of 
sufficient  means  to  send  his  son  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in 
1746.  He  graduated  m  1750  and  proceeded  M.A.  in  1753.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of  East  on  Maudit, 
Northamptonshire,  and  three  years  later  was  instituted  to  the 
rectory  of  Wilby  in  the  same  county,  benefices  which  he  retained 
until  X782.  In  1759  he  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Barton  Gutter* 
rrdge.  At  Easton  Maudit  most  of  the  literary  work  for  which 
he  is  now  remembered — including  the  Reiiques — was  completed. 
When  his  name  became  famous  be  was  made  domestk  chaplain 
to  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Northunfiberiand,  and  was  tempted 
into  the  belief  that  he  belonged  to  the  ilhistrfous  house  of  Percy. 
Through  his  patron's  influence  he  became  dean  of  Carlisk  in 
1778  and  bishop  of  Dromore  in  Ii^eland  in  17B2.  His  wife  died 
before  Um  in  1806;  the  good  bi$hop,  bfind  but  othctwise  in 


PBRDKXiASr-^btS  DAVID'S  DEER 


aooid  kttiAf  lived  ustil  tlw.  30tli  of  September  ^iSsr^  Beth 
wen  buried  la  tiie  tiueept  which  Percy  added  (o  Dioiiiofe 
Gathednl. 

X>r  Percy's  fizst  work  was  a  tiuslatipn  from  &  PorUg^cse 
majmacript  o(  a  Chinese  story,  published  in  1761.  Two  years 
later  he  published  Five  Pitce^  oj  Runk  Pottry,  tmndottd  from 
At  Islandie.  In  1763  he  edited  the  earl  of  Surror's  poems  with 
an  essay  on  early  blank  verse,  translated  the  Song  of  Soloonon, 
and  published  a  key  to  the -New  Testament.  His  Northtrn 
Antiqufties  (1770)  it  a  translation  from  the  French  of  Paul  Henri 
Mallet.  His  reprint  ol  The  Household  Book  ofUte  Earl  0/  Northum- 
berland in  /j/a.  is  of  the  greatest  value  for  the  illustrations  of 
domestic  life  in  England  at  that  period.  Bat  thc^  works  are 
of  little  estimation  when  compared  with  the  Rdiques  of  AncUit$ 
English  Poelry  (1765).  This  was  based  on  ano^d  manuscript 
collection  of  poetry,  rescued  by  Percy  in  Humphrey  Pitt's  house 
at  Shifnal,  Shropshire,  from  the  hands  of  the  housemaid  who 
was  about  to  ^ght  the  fire  with  it.  The  manuscrH>t  was  edited 
in  its  complete  form  by  J.  W.  Hales  and  F.  J.  Fuxnivall 
in  X867-1868.. 

See  A.  C.  C  Cauisen,  Percy:  Prdale  tmd  Poet  (1908).  The 
Relxquts  has  been  edited  by  various  hands,  aotably.  by  H.  B.  Wheat- 
ley  I1876).  The  fourth  edition  was  by  Percy**  nephew,  Thomas 
Percy  (176^1808),  himself  a  %rriter  of  verse. 

PEROICCAS,  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Mafiedonia,  who 
reigned  respectively  c.  700  B.C.,  c.  454-413  B.C.,  and  364-359 
B.C.,  and  of  one  of  Alexander  the  Great's  generals,  son  of  Orontes, 
a  descendant  of  the  independent  princes  of  the  province  of 
Orestis.  The  last  named  oistinguishcd  himself  at.  the  conquest 
of  Thebes  (33^  B.C.),  and  held  an  important  command  in  the 
Indian  campaigns  of  Alexander.  In  tbe  settlement  made  after 
Alexander's  death  C333)  it  was  finally  agreed  that  Philip  Arrhi- 
dacus,  an  insane  son  01  the  great  Philip,  and  Roxana's  unborn 
child  (if  a  son)  shoidd  be  recognized  as  joint  kings,  Perdiccas 
being  appointed,  according  to  one  account,  guardian  and  regent, 
according  to  another,  chiliarch  under  Craterus.  He  soon  showed 
himself  intolerant  of  any  rivals,  and  acting  in  the  name  of  the 
two  lungs  (for  Roxana  gave  birth  to  a  son,  Alexander  IV.) 
sought  to  hold  the  empire  together  imder  his  own  hand.  His 
most  loyal  supporter  was  Eumenes,  governor  of  Cappadoda 
and  Paphlagonia.  These  provinces  had  not  yet  htm  conquered 
by  the  Macedonians,  and  Antigonus  (governor  of  Phrygia, 
Lycia  and  Pamphylia)  refused  to  undertake  the  task  at  the 
command  of  Perdiccas.  Having  been  summoned  to  the  royal 
presence  to  stand  his  trial  for  disobedience,  Antigonus  Bed  to 
Europe  and  entered  into  alliance  with  Antipater,  Craterus  and 
Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Lagus.  Perdiccas,  leaving  the  war  In  Asia 
Minor  to  Eumenes,  marched  to  attack  Ptolemy  In  Egypt.  He 
reached  Peluslum,  but  faOed  to  cross  the  Nile.  A  mutiny 
broke  out  amonpt  the  troops,  disheartened  by  failure  and 
exasperated  by  his  severity,  and  Perdiccas  was  assassinated  by 
some  of  his  officers  {321),  (E,  R.  B J 

See  Macbpokian  Empire. 

PEREOA,  JOSfi  MARf A  PE  (183371905),  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  modern  Spanish  novelists,  was  bom  at  Polanco 
near  Santander  on  the  6th  of  February  1833.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Instituto  Cintabro  of  Santander,  whence  he  went  in 
185a  to  Madrid,  where  he  studied  with  t^_  vagua  purpose  of 
entering'  the  artillery  corps.  Abandoning  t^is  dcsigp  after 
three  years'  trial,  he  retinned  home  and  began  his  literary  caxesr 
by  contributing  articles  to  a  local  journal.  La  Abcja  moniaHesa 
in  1858.  He  also  wrote  much  in  a  weekly  paper,  £1  Tio  CayetdHj 
and  in  1864  he  collected  his  powerful  realistic  sketches  of  local  life 
and  manners  under  the  title  of  Esconas  monloAesas*  Pereda 
fought  against  the  revolution  of  z868  in  El  Tio  Cayel(in,  writing 
the  newspaper  almost  single-handed.  In  1871  be  was  elected  as 
the  Carlist  deputy  for  Cabu^miga.  In  this  same  year  he  pub^ 
lished  a  second  series  of  Escenas  montaHesas  under  the  title  of 
Tipo$  y  paisqjcs;  and  in  1876  appeared  Bocetos  at  temple , 
thsct  tales,  in  one  of  which  the  author  describes  his  disenchanting 
poUticaL  catperiences.  The  Tipos  trashumantes  belongs  to  the 
year  1817  7^  as  <V>es  El  BueysueUo,  which  was  intended  as  a  reply 


137 

to  the  thesis  of  Balzac's  workf  Les  PeHiet.msbres.de  h  rt«.^n- 
juiaU.    More  and  more  pessimistic  as  to  the  political  futum 
of  his  country,  Pereda  took  occasion  in  Don  Consalo  Comdle» 
do  la  Cotualera  (1879)  to  ridicule  the  Revohition  as  be  had  seen 
it  at  work,  and  to  pour  scorn  upon  the  nouoeaux  riches  wlyx 
exploited  Liberab'sm  for  their  personal  enda.    Two  novels  by. 
his. friend  P^rez  Gald^s,  DoHa  Perfeda  and.  Gloria,  drew  from 
Pereda  a  reply,  De  Tat  pah  taS  astillc  (1880),  in  which  he  cndea-, 
vours  to  show  that  tolecaoce  in  religious  matters  is  disastrous; 
alike  to  nations  and  to  individuals.    The  Esbaxos  y  rasgunas^ 
(18S1)  is  of  lighter  material,  and  \s  less  attractive  than  El  Sabot, 
da  la  Tierruca  (i88a),  a  striking  piece  of  kndscape  which  won 
immediate  appreciatioo.    New  ground  was  broken  in  Pedro 
Sincket  <x883),  where  Pcroda  leaves  his  native,  province  to. 
portray  the  disillusion  of  a  sincere  enthusiast  who  has  plunged 
into  the  political  life  of  the  capital.    Pereda's  masterpiece  is 
SoliUn  (z884)»  a  vigorous  rendering  of  marine  life  by  an  artist 
who  perceives  and  admires. the  daily  heroisms  of  his  fisher-folk. 
It  has  olten  been  alleged  against  the  author  that  he  confines 
himself  to  provincial  life,  to  lowly  personages  and  to  tmrefincd 
subjects,  and  no  doubt  an  anxiety  to  clear  himself  fzpm.  this 
absurd  reproach  led  Mm  to  attempt  a  description  of. society, at 
the  capital  in  La  Monidlvea  (1888),  which  is  certainly  the  least 
interesting  of  his  performances.    In  La  Puchfra  (1889)  he 
returned  to  the  marine  subjects  whrch  he  knew  and  loved  best. 
Again,  in  Peilas.  arriba  (1895),  the  loye  of  ;co«ntiy  life  is  mani- 
fested in  the  masterly  contrast  between  the  healthy,  moral 
labour  of  the  fields  and  the  corrupt,  squalid  h'fe  of  cities. 
Pereda's  fame  was  now  established;  the  statutes  of  the  Spanish 
Academy,  which  require  members  to  reside  at  Madrid,  were 
suspended  in  his  favour  (i89<^).    But  his  literary  career  wsa 
over..  The  trag^. death  ol  his  eldest  son,  the  disa^rous  cam- 
pa^  m  Cuba  ftnd  the  Philippines,  darkened  his  closing  years, 
and  Jhis  heahh  failed  Iqag  before  his<  diuath  at  Polanoo  on  the 
ist  of  March  1906. 

Pereda  belongs  to  the. native  realistic  school  of  Spain,  which, 
founded  by  the  unknown  author  of  Lasarillo  do  Tonnes,  was 
continued  by  Meteo  Alem&n,  Cervantes,  Quevedo^  Castillo 
Soldriann  and  many  others.  With  ^he  single  exception  ol. 
Cervantes,  however,  the  (Mcare^que  writers  axe  almost  entirely 
wanting  in  the  spurit  of  -generous  sympathy  and  tenderness 
wjuch  QQiistitutes:a  giteat  part  of  Pereda's  chann.  His  reali&nk 
ia  purely  Spanish,  as  remote  from  Zola's  moroseness  as  from, 
the  graceful  sentimentality  of  Pierre  LotL  Few  i9tlwxatury 
writers  possessed  the  virile  temperament  of  Pareda,  and,  with 
the  single  exception  of  Tolstoy,;  none  kc{>t  a  moral  end  more 
stcsadily  in  view.  This  didactic  tendency  unquestionably 
injures-  his  esffecta.  Moreover,  his  grim  satire  occasionally 
degenerates  {nio  somewhat  truculent  caricaturei  and  the  excesr 
Stve  use  of  dialect  and  technical  terms  (which  caused  him  to 
supply  SotiUsa,  with  a  brief  vocabulary)  is  a  grave  artistic 
blemish.  But  he  saw,  knew,  understood  character;  he  created, 
not  only  types,  but  living  personages,  such  as  Andr6s,  Cleto 
and  Muergo  in  Solitesa,  Pedro  Juan  and  Pilara  in  La  Puchero; 
and  he  personified  the  tumult  and  calm  of  the  sea.  with  more 
power  than  Victor  Hugo  displayed  in  Lcs  Travaillcurs  dc  la. 
mer.  His  descriptive  powers  were  of  the  highest  order,  and 
his  style,  purrof  all  affectations  and  ombeUishments,  is  of  aingvlar 
force  and  suppleness.  With  all  his  limitations,  he  was  as 
original  a  genius  as  Spain  produced  during  the  19th  century. 

(J.F-K.) 

P&RE  DAVID'S  DEER»  the  mi-lou  ol  the  Chinese,  an  aberrant 
and  strangely  mule-like  deer  iq  9.),  the  first  evidence  of  whose 
existence  was  made  known  in  Europe  by  the  Abbe  (then  Pexe) 
David,  who  in  1865  obtained  the  skin  of  a  specimen  from  the. 
herd  kept  at  that  time  in  the  imperial  park  at  Pekin*  This 
skin,  with  the  skull  and  antlers,  was  sent  to  Paris,  where  it  was 
described  in  1 866  by  Professor  Milne-Edwards.  In  lacking  a  hrow> 
tine,  and  dividing  in  a  regubr  fork -like  manner  some  distance 
above  the  burr,  the  Icrge  and  cylindrical  antlers  of  this  species 
conform  to  the  general  structural  type,  charactepstic  oC  the; 
American  deer.    The  front  prong  of  the  main  fork,  however^ 


13  8 


PEREGMNUS  PKOTEUSU-MtieE'^AStAVI. 


curves  fomeWhat  forwaid  akd  Bgain  divides  at  least  onc^*,  while 
the  Mnd  prong  is  of  great  length  undivided,  and  directed  back* 
wards  in  a  manner  found  in  no  other  deer«  As  regards  general 
form,  the  most  dbtinctive  feature  is  the  great  relative  length 
of  the  tail,  which  reaches  the  hocks,  and  is  donkey-IilBe  rather 
than  deer-like  in  iorm.  The  head  is  long  and  narrow,  with  a 
prominent  ridge  for  the  support  of  the  antleis,  moderate-sized 
eats,  and  a  narrow  and  pointed  muzzle.  A  gland  and  tuft  arc 
present  on  the  skin  of  the  outer  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
hind  cannon*bone;  but,  unlike  American  deer,  there  is  no-^nd 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  hocL  Another  feature  by  which  this 
species  differs  from  the  American  deer  is  the  conformation  of 
the  bones  of  the  lower  part  of  the  forc^lcg,  which  have  the  same 
structure  as  in  the  red  deer  group.  The  coat  is  of  moderate 
length,  but  the  hair  on  the  neck  and  throat  of  the  old  stags  b 
elongated  to  form  a  mane  and  fringe.  Although  new*bom 
fawns  are  spotted,  the  adults  are  in  the  main  uniformly  coloured; 
the  general  tint  of  the  coat  at  all  seasons  being  reddish  tawny 
with  a  more  or  less  marked  tendency  to  grey.  It  has  been 
noticed  at  Wobum  Abbey  that  the  antlers  are  shed  and  replaced 
twee  a  year. 

The  true  home  of  this  deer  has  never  been  ascertained,  and 
probably  never  will  be;  all  the  few  known  specimens  now  living 
being  kept  iA  confincment-^the  great  majority  in  the  duke  of 
Bedford's  park  at  Wobum,  Bedfordshire.  (R.  L.*) 

PERBGRINT7S  PROTEUS  (2nd  cent.  a.d.).  Cynic  philosopher, 
of  Parium  in  Mysia.  At  an  early  age  he  was  suspteted  of 
parricide,  and  was  obliged  to  leave  his  native  place.  During 
his  wanderings  he  reached  Palestine,  where  ho  ingratiated  him^ 
self  w^ith  the  Christian  community,  and  became  its  virtual  head. 
Hb  fanatical  zeal  and  craving  for  notoriety  led  to  his  imprison- 
ment, but  the  governor  of  Syria  let  him  go  ffee,  to  prevent  his 
posing  as  a  martyr.  He  then  returned  to  Panum  to  claim  his 
paternal  inheritance,  but  finding  that  the  drcumstiinces  of  his 
father's  death  were  not  yet  forgotten,  he  publicly  surrendered 
all  claims  to  the  property  in  favour  of  the  municipality.  He 
resumed  his  wandering  life,  at  first  assisted  by  the  Christians, 
but  having  been  detected  profaning  the  rites  of  the  Church,  he 
was  excommunicated.  During  a  visit  to  Egypt  he  nulde  the 
acquaintance  of  the  famous  Cynic  Agathobulus  and  jomed  the 
sect.  Meeting  with  little  encouragement,  he  made  his  way  to 
Rome,  whence  he  was  expelled  for  insxilting  the  emperor  Ant<H 
riinus  Pius.  Crossing  to  Greece,  he  finally  took  up  his  abode 
at  Athens.  Here  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  teaching 
of  philosophy,  and  obtained  a  considerable  number  of  pupils, 
amongst  them  Aulus  CcHius,  who  speaks  of  him  in  very  favour- 
able terms.  But,  having  given  offence  by  his  attacks  on  Herodes 
Atticus  and  finding  his  popularity  diminishing,  he  determined 
to  create  a  sensation.  He  announced  his  intention  of  immolating 
himself  on  a  funeral  pyre  at  the  celebration  of  the  Olympian 
games  in  165,  and  actually  carried  it  out.    Ludan,  who  was 

present,  has  g{\'en  a  full  description  of  the  event. 

C.  M.  Wietand's  Ceketme  Cexktchte  des  Phdosoffhen  Prregrinus 
PrtOeus  (Eng.  trans.,  1796)  is  an  attempt  to  rehabiltutc  his  char* 
acter.  Sec  also  Lucian.  De  morle  Ptregrint,  Aulus  GcUius  xiL  11; 
Ammianus  MarccUinus  xxix. .  PhiloMratus,  Vit.  Soph,  it  i,  33: 
J.  Bemays.  Luttan  und  die  Kyniker  (T875);  E.  Zcllcr,  **  Alexander 
und  Pcrcgrinus,"  in  his  Vortraffi  und  Abkandlunten,  iL  (1877). 

PEREIRE  {PcReira],  OIAOOBBO  RODRIGUEZ  (17T5- 
X780),  one  of  the  inventors  of  deaf-mute  bnguage,  a  member 
of  a  Spanish- Jewish  family,  was  bom  at  Estremadura,  Spam, 
on  the  nth  of  Apnl  1715.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered 
a  business  at  Bordeaux.  Here  he  fell  m  love  with  a  young  girl 
who  had  been  dumb  from  birth,  and  henceforth  devoted  himself 
to  discover  a  method  of  imparting  speech  to  deaf-mutes.  His 
first  subject  was  Aaron  Baumann,  a  co-religionist,  whom  he 
taught  to  enunciate  the  letters  Of  the  alphabet,  and  to  articulate 
certain  ordinary  phrases.  He  next  devised  a  sign  alphabet  for 
the  use  of  one  hand  only,  and  in  1740  he  brought  his  second 
pupil  before  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  members  of 
which  were  astonished  at  the  results  he  had  accomplished. 
In  1759  Pcrcirc  was  made  a  member  of  the  Ro>'al  Society  of 
London.    He  died  at  Paris  on  the  15th  of  September  1780. 


PEREKOP,  a  towtt  of  Russia,  in  the  govetlsttcnlf  of  "taurfda, 
60  m.  S.E.  of  Kherson,  on  the  isthmus  which  connects  the  Crimea 
with  the  Continent,  and.  commanding  the  once  defensive  ditch 
and  dike  which  cros»  from  the  Blatk  Sea  to  the  Sivash  (putrid) 
lagoon.  Pop.'  about  5000.  It  was  formeriy  an  Important 
place,  with  a  great  transit  trade  in  salt,  obtained  from  salt 
lakes  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  Since  the  opening  of 
the  railway  route  from  Kharkov  to  Simferopol-  fai  the  Crimea 
Perekop  has  greatly  dcchned.  In  Ancient  times  the  Isthmus 
was  crossed  (about  i|  m.  south  of  the  present  town)  by  a  ditdi 
which  gave  the  name  of  Taphros  to  a  Greek  settlement.  Ths 
line  of  defence  having  fallen  into  decay,  a  fort  was  erected  and  a 
new  ditch  and  dike  constructed  in  the  tsth  century  by  the 
Tatar  khan  of  the  Crimea,  Meh|^  Ghiral,  and  by  his  son  and 
successor  Sahib  Ghirai.  The  fort,  known  as  Kapu  or  Or-Kapu, 
became  the  nucleus  of  the  town.  In  the  middle  ages  Perekop 
was  known  as  Tuzla.  In  1736  ft  was  captured  by  the  Russians 
under  MthmiCh,  and 'again  in  17^8  under  LeScy  (Licy).  who 
blew  up  ^he  foft  and  destroyed  a  great  part'  of  the  dike.  In 
1754  the  fort  was  rebuilt  by  Krim  Ghirei;  but  the  Greek  and 
Armenian  Inhabitants  of  Perek^  formed  a  new  Settlement 
at  Armyanskiy  Bazar  (Armenian  Market),  3  m.  farther  south. 
Captured  by  the  Russians  in  1771,  the  town  passed  into  Russian 
possession  with  the  rest  of  the  Crimea  in  1783. 

PEREMPTORY,  an  adjective  adapted  from  the  Roman  law 
tcmi  percmptorium  cdidum,  ^empioria  exception  a  decree  or 
plea  which  put  an  end  to  or  quashed  (Lat.  periinete,  to  destroy) 
an  action,  hence  decisive,  final.  A  similar  use  Is  found.in  English 
law  in  "  peremptory  challenge,"  a  diallenge  to  a  jury  allowed 
to  a  prisoner  ^nthout  cause  shotvn,  or  "  peremptory  mandamus,** 
an  absolute  command.  The  natural  repugnance  to  a  final 
order  has  gi\Tn  this  word  in  its  ordinary  usage  a  sense  of  objec- 
tionable and  intolerant  emphasis. 

PERBYASLAVL.  a  totvn  of  Russia,'  hi  the  government  of 
Poltava.  26  m.  S.E.  of  the  city  of  Kiev,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Trubezh  and  the  Alia,  which  reach  the  Dnieper  5  m.  lower 
down  at  the  town's  port,  the  village  of  Andrushi.  Pop.  14,609. 
Besides  the  town  proper  there  are  three  considerable  suburtn. 
Though  founded  in  993  by  Vladimir  the  Great  of  Moscow  in 
memory  of  his  signal  success  over  the  Turkish  Pechenegs, 
Percyaslavl  has  now^  few  remains  of  antiquity.  The  town  has 
a  trade  is  grain,  salt,  cattle  and  horses,  and  some  manufactures 
—tallow,  wax,  tobacco,  candles  and  shoes. 

From  10^4  Pereyasiavl  was  the  chief  town  of  a  separate 
principality.  As  a  southern  outpost  it  often  figures  in  the  x  ith, 
1 2th  and  13th  centuries,  and  was  plundered  by  the  Mongols 
in  1239.  In  later  times  it  was  one  of  the  centres  of  the  Cossack 
movement;  and  in  1628  the  nc^h&ourhood  of  the  town  was  the 
scene  of  the  extermination  of  the  Polish  forces  known  as  "  Tara*s 
Night."  It  was  by  the  Treaty  of  Pereyasiavl  that  in  1654 
the  Cossack  chieftain  Bogdan  Chmiekucki  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  Tsar  Alexis  of  Russia. 

PEREYASLAVL  (caUed  Zalyeskiy,  or  "Beyond  the  Forest," 
to  distinguish  It  from  the  elder  fowit  in  Poltava  aftfer  which 
it  was  named),  one  of  the  oldest  and' most  hiteresting  dties  in 
middle  Russia,  situated  in  the  goverrimem  of  Vladimir,  45  n* 
N.E.  of  Moscow  on  the  road  to  Yaroslavl,  and  on  both  banks 
of  the  Trabezh  near  its  entrance  into  Lake  Plcshdifevo.  Pop. 
8662.  Pereyasiavl  was  fomieriy  remarkable  for  the  number 
and  importance  of  its  ecclesiastfcal  foundations.  Among 
those  still  standing  are  the  X2th<entury  cathedral,  with  ancient 
wall-paintings  and  the  graves  of  Demetrius,  son  of  Alexander 
Nevsky,  and  other  princes,  ftnd  a  church  founded  by  Eudoxia 
(Euphro5>'ne),  wife  of  Demetrius  Donskoi,  in  the  dose  of 
the  14th  century.  It  is  by  its  extensive  cotton  manufactures 
that  Pereyashv!  is  now  best  known.  The  fisheries  In  the 
lake  (20  m.  sq.  In  extent  and  175  ft  deep),  httve  long  been  of 
great  value. 

Founded  In  1152  by  Yuryi  Dolgonikf,  prince  of  Sujdal. 
Pereyasiavl  soon  began  to  play  a  considerable  part  ilk  the  faSstory 
of  the  country.  From  ir9S  till  T302  it  h^d  princes  of  its  own; 
and  the  princes  of  Moscow,  to  whom- it  was  at  the  latter  date 


PEREZ,  'Air4«ERE2  GALDOS 


139 


taqoMtbid,  kept  it  (fepHt  bom 
ia  the  14th  ccntiuy)  a»  p«n  of  their  patiiinoiiy  thnnighMit 
the  15th  And  i6th  centuries.  Lake  Pleshcfa^evo  iras.the  Mcoe 
of  Peter  the  Gnat's  fim  atumpu  (1691)  at  cceatiikg  a  flccc 
;  PBBEK*  AinONIO  («.  1540-1611),  lor  some  years  the  fawourite 
nioister  <rf  Philip  U.  of  Spain  and  aftenraids  for  many  more  the 
object  of  hh  im rfllenting ■  hostility,  was  by  birth-aa  Araaoneso. 
His  lepwted  father,  Gonads  Bsi«z,aa  ecdesiastic,  has  aomeplaoe 
in  histoiy  as  having  bcc»  aecmaxy  both  to  Claika  V.  and  to 
Philip  U^  and  in  literatwe  as  author  of  a  Spanish  transhulion 
oftheOtfyxify(Ia^I//jttM<fo&«»Mro,  Antweip,  1556).  Antonio 
Petes^  who  was  togitknated  by  an  inpeiial  dipiuna  issued  at 
VaHadolid  in  1542,  was,  however,  bdiiBved  by  many  to  be  in 
reality  the  son  of  PkiKpl  minister,  Rqy  Gomes  de  Sihra,  prince 
<rf  EboU,  to  whom,  on  the  completion  of  a  lU)e»l  eduoation  at 
home  ai^  abroad,  he  appears  at  least  to  have  owed  his.£rat 
ftttrodacdon  to  a  diplomatic  career.^  In  1567  he  became 
one  of  the  secretaries  of  siatc^  receiving  also  about  the  same 
time  the  lucrative  appointment  of  piotonotafy  of  Sicily,  and  in 
1575  the  death  of  Ruy  Gomez  himself  made  room  lor  Peres's 
promotion  to  be  head  of  tha  "  de^acho  univenal,"  or  private 
bureau,  from  which  Philip  attempted  to  govern  by  assiduous 
eorrespondence  the  affairs  of  his  vast  dominkwa.  Another  of 
the  king's  secretaries  at  this  time,  though  in  a  less  confidential 
lelation,  was  a  friend  and  oontenqMnuy  of  Perejs,  named  Jnea 
de  Esoovedo,  who,  however,  after  the  fall  of  Tunis  in  is74t  ^^ 
sent  oS  to  supersede  Juan  de  Soto  as  secretary  and  adviser  of 
Don  John  of  Austria,  thus  leaving  Ftees  without  a  xivaL  Some 
tiflte  after  Don  John's  appointment  to  the  govemoiriiip  of  the 
Netheriands  Peres  accklentaDy  became  coipusant  of  his  inoMi- 
▼eniently  anibitiou»  ''empresa  de  Ini^terra,"  in  which  he  waa 
to  rescue  Mary  Queen  of  Soots,  marry  her,  and  so  ascend  the 
throne  of  England.  The  nest  step  might  even  be  against  Spain 
itself.  This  secret  scheme  the  lUthfal  secntary  at  once  carried 
to  FUlip,  who  characteristically  resolved  to  meet  it  by  quietly 
removing  his  brother's  aider  and  abettor.  With  the  king's  fuU 
cognisance,  accordin^y,  Peres,  after  several  unsuccessful 
ntlempts  to  poison  Escovedo.  succeeded  in  ptocarmg  his  aasas- 
dnatmn  in  a  street  of  Madrid  on  the  31st  of  March  1578.  The 
immediate  effect  was  to  raise  Peres  hl^icr  than  ever  in  the  soyal 
confidence  and  favour,  but,  waiy  though  the  secretiuy  had  been, 
he  had  not  succeeded  in  cMitenlUng  aU  trace  of  his  connexion 
with  the  crime,  and  very  soon  a  prosecution  was  set  on  foot  by 
the  representatives  of  the  murdoed  nan.  For  a  time  Philip 
was  both  willing  and  able  to  protect  his  aooompUoe,  but  uhi- 
Inately  he  appears  to  have  listened  to  those  who,  whether  truly 
or  falsely,  were  continually  suggesting  (hat  Peres  had  had 
tnotives  of  his  own,  arising  out  of  his  relations  with  the  princess 
of  Eboli,  for  compassing  the  assassination  of  Don  John's  secve* 
tary;  be  this  as  it  may,  from  trying  to  screen  Pesta  the  king 
came  to  be  the  secret  instigator  of  those  who  sought  his  rain. 
The  process^  as  such  matters  6f  ten  have  been  in  S^Min,  was  a 
flow  one,  and  it  was  not  untO  1569  that  Peres,  alter  mom  than 
one  arrist  and  imprisonment  on  a  variety  of  charges,  seemed 
on  the  eve  of  being  convicted  and  condemned  as  the  murderer 
of  Esoovedo.  At  this  Juncture  he  succeeded  in  making  his  escape 
from  prison  in  Castile  into  Aragoh,  where,  under  the  ancient 
"  fttcros  "  of  the  kingdom  he  could  daim  a  pubUe  trial  hi  opca 
court,  and  so  bring  into  requisition  the  doanhentary  evidence 
he  possessed  of  the  king's  complicity  in  the  deed.  This  did  not 
suit  Philip,  who,  although  he  instituted  a  process  hi  thesuprease 
tribunal  of  Aragon,  sp^ily  abandbned  it  and  caused  Perez 
to  be  attacked  from  another  side,  the  chaige  of  heresy  being 
now  preferred,  arising  out  of  certain  reckless  and  even  biaspho* 
'  *  On  the  other  hand  It  is  suggetted  that  this  story  of  his  briag 
the  son  of  Gonet  was  oidy  ctrcttlatcd  by  Roy  Coines's  wife,  Aoa 
de  Mesdoa,  as  a  rd[atation  of  the  possibility  of  a  supposed  amour 
between  her  and  Peres.  It  is  contended  by  Mqt:net  that  this 
Intrigue  between  her  ^nd  Peres  was  known  to  Escovedo,  and  that 
this  accounts  for  the  part  played  by  Perez  in  Escovcdo's  murder^ 
because  Ana  had  also  been  PhiUo's  tnistsess,  and  Esoovedo  mighyt 
have  made  nischief  between  Philip  and  Perez.  Major  Hume 
appears  to  combine  the  Utter  theory  with  Philip's  pofitical  objection 
toEscovedo. 


nwus  eipretMons  Peres  had  used  in  comiesioo  with  lus  troubles 
in  Castile.  But  all  attempts  to  remove  the  accused  from  the 
civil  prison  in  Saragossa  to  that  of  the  Inquisition  raised  popular 
tumults,  which  in  the  end  led  to  Perez's  escape  across  the 
P)rrcnees,  but  unfortunately  also  furnished  PhiUp  with  a  pretext 
for  sending  an  army  into  Angon  and  suppressing  the  ancient 
"fuecos"  altogether  (1591).  From  the  court  of  Catherine  de 
Bourbon,  at  Pau,  where  he  was  well  received,  Perez  passed  to 
that  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  both  there  and  in  England  his 
talents  and  diplomatic  ezperience,  as  well  as  his  well-grounded 
enmity  to  Philip,  secured  him  much  popularity.  While  in 
England  he  became  the  "  intimate  coach-companion  and  bed- 
companion  "  of  Francis  Bacon,  and  was  also  much  in  the  society 
of  the  cad  of  Esses.  The  peace  of  Vervms  in  1598  greatly 
reduced  his  apparent  importance  abroad,  and  Perez  now  tried 
to  obtain  the  pardon  of  PhiUp  III.,  that  he  might  return  to  his 
native  country.  His  efforts^  however,  proved  vain,  and  he  died 
in  oompantive  obscurity  in  Paris  on  the  srd  of  November 

Perez's  earliest  publicstton  was  a  small  fiuarto.  dedicated  to  the 
earl  of  Essex,  written  and  apparently  printed  in  England  about 
1594*  entitled  Pedatos  de  hutona,  and  professedly  published  at 
Leon.  A  Dutch  translation  appeared  in  1594.  and  in  1598  he  pub- 
lished his  Rtlaaonest  including  the  Mim^nal  dA  kecko  de  su  eaiaa, 
drawn  up  ia  1590.  and  many  of  his  letters.  Much  has  been  done, 
by  Mignet  iAntonw  Ptrttjt  Pkdippe  II ,  1845;  4th  ed-,  1874)  and 
by  Froude  ("An  Unsolved  Historical  Riddle.**  Ntnetetnlh  Cent., 
1883)  among  others,  towards  the  elucidation  of  various  difficult 
points  in  Perez's  somewhat  perplexing  story.  For  the  murder  of 
Esoovedo.  see  Andrew  tang's  discussion  of  tt  in  his  Historical 
MyOerus  (1904);  and  the  EspaOoles.  i  iMgUsei  (1903)  of  Major 
Martin  Hume,  who  had  access  to  various  newly  discovered  MSS. 

p6rEZ  6AIi06s,  BENITO  (184^  -  ),  was  bora  at  Las 
Pabnas,  in  the  Canary  Islands,  on  the  roth  of  May  i84S«  la 
1663.  he  was  sent  to  Madrid  to  study  law,  drifted  into  literature, 
and  was  speedily  reoognixed  as  one  of  the  most  promising  recruita 
on  the  Liberal  side.  Shortly  after  the  Revolution  of  1868  he 
abandoned  joumalisoit  and  empbyed  fiction  as  the  vehicle  for 
propagating  advanced  opinions  His  first  novel.  La  Fwlana 
de  arOt  was  printed  in  1871,  and  later  in  the  same  year  appeared 
El  Audaa.  The  reception  given  to  these  eariy  essays  encoursged 
the  writer  to  adopt  novel>writing  as  a  profession.  He  had  al- 
ready determined  iqwn  the  xheme  of  his  Epi$odm  na(i4m<Ues, 
a  series. which  might  compare  with  the  ComHit  kumaiiu.  Old* 
charten,  eU  letters^  old  newspapers  were  coUecied  by  him  with 
the  minuteness  of  a  Germaa  archivist;  no  novelist  was  ever  more 
thoroughly  equipped  as  regards  the  details  of  his  period.  Trd* 
/djfor,  the  first  volume  of  the  Episodios  nacianaUs,  appeared 
in  1879;  the  remaining  books  of  this  fic»t  scries  are  entitled 
La  Cart  de  Coda  I V.,  Ei  iq  de  mana  y  el  g  de  maye,  Bailin,\ 
Napdtdm  <is  Ckamartint  Zantesa,  Gerona,  Cadixt  Juan  Martin 
d  Empetmodo  and  La  BaiaUa  de  Arptles.  As  the  titles  suffice 
to  show,  the  author^  aim  was  to  write  the  national  epic  of  the 
lOth  century  in  prose;  and  he  so  cosipletely  succeeded  that, 
long  before  the  .first  series  ended  in  1881,  he  took  rank  among 
the  foremost  novelists  of  his  time.  A  second  series  of  EpUedm 
noiumaleSy  beginning  with  El  Equipaje  del  rey  J»s4  and  ending 
with  a  tenth  volume,  Un  Faeciate  mds  y  altumu  fraileM  menat^^ 
was  brought  to  a  dose  in  iSSj^  and  wa^,  liker  its  predecessor, 
a  monument  of  industry  and  esact  knowledge,  of  realism, 
and  romantic  conceprion;  and  he  carried  oa  the  Eptsedios 
naeienaies  into  a  fourth  series,  raising  the  total  of  volumes  to 
forty.  In  fectmdity  and  in  the  power  of  creating  chancUrs» 
Pores' Gald6s  vies  with  Balaac  Parailel  with  his  hamense 
achievement  in  historical  fiction,  P^res.  Gald6s  published 
a  collection*' of  ramanocs .  dealing  with  cootempoiaiy  lif^ 
iu  social  problems  and  relii^us  difficulu'es.  Of  these  the 
best  known,  and  perhaps  the  best,  are  DaHa  Perftda  (1876); 
Chria  {1^77); La PamUia  deLOm Roek (1878);  Mariamdo,  (187&); 
Partumala  y  JadtUa  (1887);  and  Angel  Guerra  (1891).  Nor 
does  this  exhatBt  his  prodigious  activity.  Besides  adaplii|g 
SeiersI  of  his  novels  for  stage  purposes,  he  wrote  original  diamaa 
such  as  La  Loea  de  la  easa  (1893)1  Sam  Qmnllu  (1894)1  Eledm 
(1900)  and  Mdriatka  (1904);  but  hb  diffuse^  enberant  cem» 


t4.6 


PERFUMERY 


was  scarcely  accommodated  to  the  convention  of  theittical 
form.  Perez  Gald6s  became  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Acaukmy, 
and  was  also  elected  to  the  Cones;  but  it  is  solely  as  a  ro- 
mancer that  his  name  is  familiar  iK^rever  Spanish  is  spoken^ 
as  a  national  novelist  of  fertile  talent,  and  a  most  happy 
humorist  who  in  his  eccentrics  and  oddities  Is  hardly  inferior 
to  Dickens.  {J.  F.-K.) 

PERFUMERY  (Lat.  per,  through,  vadfumare,  to  smoke),  the 
preparation  of  periumes,  or  substances  irhich  are  pleasing  to 
the  sense  of  smell.  Perfumes  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
first  of  which  includes  all  primitive  or  simple  odoriferous  bodies 
derived  from  the  animal  or  vegetable  kingdom,  as  well  as  the 
definite  chemical  compounds  specially  manufactured,  while 
the  second  comprises  the  various  "  bouquets  "  or  *'  melanges  " 
made  by  blending  two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  In  varying 
proportions — toilet  powders,  dentifrices,  sachets,  &c.  To  the 
former  class  belong  (i)  the  animal  products,  ambergris,  castor, 
civet,  musk;  (2)  the  essential  oils  (also  called  attars),  mostly 
procured  by  the  distillation  of  the  stems,  leaves,  flowers  and  other 
parts  of  t^lants;  (3)  the  philicome  butters  or  oils,  which  are 
either  solid  or  liquid  fats  charged  t»ith  odours  by  the  processes 
of  inflowering  or  maceration,  (4)  the  odoriferous  gum-reslns  or 
balsams  which  exude  naturally  or  from  wounds  in  the  trunks  of 
various  trees  and  shrubs,  such  as  benzoin,  opoponax,  Peru,  Tolu, 
storax,  myrrh;  (5)  the  brgc  number  of  synthetic  perfumes 
which  simulate  the  odour  of  the  natural  scents.  The  second 
dass  contains  the  endless  combination  of  tinctures  sold  under 
fancy  names  which  may  or  may  not  afford  a  due  to  their  compo- 
sition, such  as  "  comMie  frangafse,"  "eaudescnteur,"  "cau  de 
Cologne,"  "lavendre  ambrfc,"  "  blumengeist."  In  general, 
they  are  mixtures  of  a  number  of  perfumes  dissolved  in  alcohol. 
Strictly  speaking,  most  of  the  perfumes  on  the  market  betong  to 
the  second  class,  since,  in  most  cases,  they  are  prepared  by 
blending  various  natural  or  artificial  odorous  priodplcs. 

Natural  Perfumes.'^Tht  animal  perfumes  are  extremdy 
Kmited  in  number.  Ambergris  (q.v.),  one  of  the  roost  important, 
is  secreted  by  the  ^rm  whale;  musk  (q.v.),  the  best  known 
scent  of  this  class,  is  secreted  by  the  male  musk-deer  and  other 
animals — ^musk-ox,  musk-rat,  &c.;  dvct  (q  9.)  is  a  musky  scent 
named  from  the  animal  which  secretes  it;  and  castor  or  castoreum 
is  a  somewhat  similar  secretion  of  the  beaver  (g.e.).  More 
important  are  the  scents  yielded  by  flo>wering^  plants.  As  a 
general  riile  fragrant  flowers  flourish  in  hot  climates,  but  the  more 
delicate  perfumes  are  yielded  by  plants  having  a  coMer  habitat; 
it  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  some  costly  perfumes 
are  obtained  from  the  plants  of  Ceylon,  the  East  Indies,  Mexko 
and  Peru.  In  Europe,  Grasse,  Cannes  and  Nice  are  the  centres 
of  the  natural  perfume  industry.  Cannes  is  famous  for  its  fose, 
acada,  jasmine  and  neroU  oil;  Nimes  for  iu  thyme,  rosemary 
and  lavender;  and  Nice  for  its  violets.  Citron  and  orange  oil 
come  from  Sicily;  iris  and  bergamot  from  Italy;  and  roses  are 
extensively  cultivated  in  Bulgaria,  and  in  £uropean  Turkey. 
England  is  unsurpassed  for  its  lavender  and  peppermint,  which 
flourish  at  Mitcham  and  Hitchin. 

\  The  natural  sources  of  the  attars  or  essential  oils  are  the 
different  parts  of  the  plants  which  yidd  them-^the  wood  (Ugn, 
aloe,  santfti,  cedar),  the  bark  (dmumon,  coscarilla),  the  leaves 
(patchouli,  bay,  thyme),  the  flowers  (rose,  lavender,  oiango* 
blossom),  the  fruit  (nutmeg,  dtron),  or  the  seeds  (caraway, 
almond).  Some  plants  yield  more  than  one,  such  as  lemon  and 
bergamot.  They  are  mostly  obtained  by  disiilitng  that  part 
of  the  plant  in  Which  they  arc  contained  with  water,  or  with  high- 
t;>tessure  or  superheated  steam;  but  some  few,  aa  those  from  the 
rind  of  bergamot  (from  Citrus  bergamu),  lemoto  (dtron  .aeste, 
from  C.  Limonum),  lime  (C.  ldmeUa\  by  "  expression."  The 
outer  layer  of  the  cortex  is  rasped  off  from  the  unripe  freits^ 
the  raspings  placed  in  a  canvas  bag,  and  squeezed  in  a  screw 
or  hydraulic  press.  The  attars  so  obtained  are  separated  from 
the  admixed  water  by  a  tap-funnd,  and  are  then  filtered. 
Certain  fkwon,  such  as  jasmine,  tuberose,  violet,  cassia,  either 
*4o  not  yield  thdr  attais  by  distillatbn  at  all,  or  do  it  so  sparingly 
flcnot  to  adanit  of  its  ooUectioa  for  wciiarrriii  puiposesi  aad  > 


sometimes  the  attar,  as  in  the  case  of  Arango  Caeroli).  has  «a 
odoor  quite  diffesent  from  that  of  the  fresh  blossoms.  In  these 
cases  the  odours  are  secvred  by  the  processes  of  inflowerioc 
(enfleurage)  or  by  maceration.  Both  depend  upon  the  remark* 
able  property  which  fats  and  oils  possess  of  ataHMrbing  odours. 
Enfleorage  consiBts  in  laying  the  leaves  or  flowen  on  plates 
covered  with  a  layer  of  fat.  The  flowers  are  renewed  every 
moxning,  and  when  the  fat  has  sufficient  odour  it  is  scraped  oflf, 
mdtedand  strained.  .  Maceration  jTOB^s  In  soaking  thefloiters 
in  heated  fat;  in  due  time  they  are  strained  off  and  replaced  by 
fresh  ones,  as  in  the  enfleurage  process..  The  wh<^  of  the 
necessary  mdtings  and  heatings  of  the  perfumed  greases  axe 
effected  by  means  of  water-baths,  whereby  the  temperature 
is  kept  from  rising  toO  high.  For  the  manufacture  of  perfumes 
for  the  handkexchief  the  greases  now  known  as  pomades,  butters 
or  philooomes  are  treated  with  rectified  spirit  of  wine  4»*  over- 
proof,  Le.  containing  as  much  aa  95%  of  absolute  alcohol  by 
volume^  which  practically  completely  abstracts  the  odour. 

The  gum-resins  and  resins  have  been  employedaa  perfumes 
from  the  earliest  time&  The  more  important  are  incense, 
frankincense  and  myrrh  (q.%).  They  are  laigely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  perfumes,  both  for  burning  as  pastilles,  ribbon 
of  Bruges,  incenses,  &c.,  and  in  tinctures,  to  which  they  impart 
their  diancteristk  odours,  afford^,  at  the  same  time,  a  certain 
fixity  to  other  perfumes  of  a  more  fleeting  aatore  whea  mixed 
with  them. 

Synthetic  Perfumes, — ^Under  this  heading  are  induded  all 
perfumes  in  vdiich  artifidal  substances  are  odorous  ingredients* 
Although  the  earliest  perfumes  of  this  dass  were  introduced  in 
about  the  middle  of  the  19th  centuiy,  the  important  industry 
which  now  prevails  is  to  be  rcgafded  as  dating  from  the  'seventies 
and  'eighties.  Three  main  lines  <^  development  may  be  dis- 
tinguished: (x)  the  diance  disooveiy  of  Sttl»taaces  whkh  have 
odours  similar  t9  natural  perfumes;  (a)  the  elucidation  of  the 
composition  of  the  natural  scents,  and  the  chemical  constitution 
of  thdr  ingieditntar,  followed  by  the  synthetic  preparation  of 
the  substances  so  determined;  and  (3),  which  may  be  regarded 
as  connected  with  (r),  the  cxtracti<Ni  and  separation  of  the 
essential  oils  yielded  by  less  valuable  plants,  and  their  reblending 
to  form  nnriLetable  perfomea. 

The  fiat  synthetic  perfume  was  the  " essenceof  Mirbane  " 
introdueed  by  CoUas  in  about  1850;  this  substance  was  the 
nitro-benaene  discovered  by  £.  MitschecUch  in  1834*  Soon  after- 
wards many  esteis  of  the  fatty  adds  simulating  the  odovrs  of 
fniits  were  introduced;  and  in  1888  Baur  discovered  the  "  arti- 
ficial musks,"  which  aw  derivatives  of  i-tiinitrobenxene.  The 
above  are  instances  of  the  firstlineof  progress.  The  second  line 
has  lor  early  examples  the  cases  of  artificial  oil  of  wintexgreea* 
which  foUowed  Cahour's  discovery  that  the  natural  oil  owed  lis 
odour,  in  the  main,  to  methyl  salicyUte,  and  of  artificial  oil  of 
bitter  almonds  whkh  foUowed  the  preparation  of  beiualdcbyde 
from  benzal  chloride  in  Ji868.  The  synthesis  of  coumarin,  the 
odorous  principle  of  hay  and  woodruff,  by  Sir  W.  U.  Perkio  in 
x868;  of  vanillin,  the  odorous  prindple  of  vanilla,  by  F.  Tiemaim 
and  W.  Haarmsnn  in  1875;  and  of  ionone,  almost  identical 
with  the  natural  ixoae,  tj^  odorous  prindple  of  violets,  by 
Tiemaim  and  P.  Krfiger  in  1898,  are  to  be  regarded  as  of  the 
higfiest  importance.  Equally  in^x>rtant  are  the  immense 
strides  made  in  the  elnddation  of  the  constitution  and  syntheses 
of  the  terpencs  (f  .v.),  a  group  of  compounds  which  are  exception^ 
aUy  abundaat  as  odorous  prindples  inthe  essential  oils. 

The  present  state  of  our  knowledge  does  not  permit  a  strict 
correlation  of  odour  and  chemical  constitution.  One  thcoiy 
regards  odour,  aa  due  to  **  osmophores,"  or  odour-produdag 
groups,  in  much  the  same  way  as  colour  is  associated  with 
chromophores.  Such  osmof^otes  are  hydroxyl  (OH);  aldehyde 
(CHO),  ketone  (CO),  ether  (•0-),  m'trile  (CN),  nitro  (NOi),  &c; 
we  may  also  notice  the  isonitrile  group  ('NG)  associated  ^ith  an 
unpleasant  odour,  and  the  iso-lhiocyanate  group  (-NCS)  to 
which  the  mostard  oils  ewe  their  characterisric  smelL  Theaame 
group,  however,  is  not  invariably  assodated  with  iht  same  odoor, 
or  even  any  odour  at  all,  as,  for  instance,  fn'such  daaitHy  retoCcd 


PERFUMERY 


14 


iK 
■a 


s 

*• 


a 
a. 

a 


compomidi^M/tlM  nwmberf'of  a  Iwioologous  teritt.  For 
example,  the  lower  fatty  aldehydes  have  unpleasant  odours, 
those  with  ten  carbon  atoms  (and  also  double  linkages,  which 
ift  itself  nay  affect  odoqr)  form  some  of  the  most  delicate  tcentS) 
whBe  the  higher  memben  are  odourlesSi  The  abeence  of  odour 
in  the  higher  members  may  be  possibly  associated  with  the  low 
volatility  exhibited  by  compounds  of  high  molecular  weigfac 
Certain  oamophorea  have  practically  equal  effects;  for  example, 
bcnxaldehyde,  nitrobenzene,  bcnaoaitrile,  and  phenyl  aaoimlde 
have  practically  identical  odours,  and  among  the  *' artificial 
musks,"  a  nitro  group  may  be  replaced  by  the  azoimido  group 
without  the  odour  being  naodified.  Aa  a  general  rule,  honudogucs 
have  similar  odours,  but  many  exceptions  are  knowii.  For 
example  the  methyl  and  ethyl  etfaen  of  /3-naphthol  have  the 
odour  of  neroli;  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  esters  of  anthranilic 
acid,  the  methyl  has  the  odour  of  orange  bloesoms,  the  ethyl 
has  a  sli|^t  odour,  and  the  isobutyl  is  odourless.  The  introduc- 
tion of  a  methyl  group  into  the  benzene  ring  generally  involves 
little  or  no  change  in  odour;  but  when  it  (ahd  more  especially 
higher  alkyl  radicals)  is  introduced  iato  side  chains  the  odour 
may  be  entirely  changed.  For  example,  benzene  and  its 
homologues  have  similar  odours;  phthalide  is  odourless,  but  the 
isopropyl  and  butyl  phthalides,  in  which  substitittion  occurs  in 
the  side  chain,  smell  of  celery.  Especially  characteristic  are 
the  derivatives  of  phenylacetylene.  This  hydrocarbon  Is 
distinctly  unpleasant;  on  the  other  hand,  para-ethyl  and  para- 
methyl  phei\ylacetylene  smell  of  anise.  While  the  triply-liiaked 
carbon  system  is  generally  associated  with  strong  and  unpleasant 
odours,  the  doubly  linked  system  gives  pleasant  ones.  Thus  the 
unpleasant  phenylacetylene,  C«HfC:CH,  is  contrasted  with 
Styrolenc,  C^t-CHiCHa,  which  occurs  in  storaz,  and  phenyl- 
propioUc  aldehyde  with  dnnamic  aldehyde,  CtHft-CH:CH*CHO, 
whidi  occun  hi  cassia  and  dnnamon.  The.  reduction  of  a 
double  to  ft  single  linkage  may  not  destroy  odour.  Thus 
hydrocinnamlc  aldehyde,  the  reduction  product  of  dnnamic 
aldehyde,  tmells  oi  jasmine  and  lilac,  and  melilotin,  which  occurs 
in  yellow  melilot  (Mdilotus  oJUinalu),  has  the  same  odour 
(woodruff)  as  its  oxidation  product  couAiarin.  The  orientation 
of  the  substituent  groups  in  the  benzene  nucleus  also  affects 
odoxir.  In  general,  the  meta  compounds  are  odourless,  while 
tlie  ortho  and  para  may  have  odour.  Thus  ^metboiyaceio- 
phenone  has  a  pleasant  odour,  the  meta  compound  is  odourless, 
Iharoinoacetopbenone,  4>-aminobenzaldehyde,  and  o-mtr<^henol 
have  strong  odours,  while  the  meta  and  para  bodies  are  odotirless. 
Of  the  three  trinitrobenzenes  only  the  symmetrical  form  gives 
origin  to  perfumes. 

The  a>ncentratioa  and  even  the  solvent  has  considerable 
effect  on  the  odour  of  a  substance.  Many  of  the  artificial 
principles— vanillin,  heliotropine,  ionone,  &c. — ^have  very 
different  odours  in  strong  and  in  dilute  solution;  phenyl  acetic 
acid  and  ^-naphthylamine  arc  odourless  when  solid,  but  have 
disagreeable .  odours  when  dissolved.  Traces  of  impurities 
often  have  the  effect  of  making  odourless,  or  pleasant-  smelling 
compounds  quite  intolerable.  Acetylene  as  generated  from 
calcium  carbide,  and  carbon  disulphide  prepared  from  its 
elements  are  quite  intolerable,  though  when  pure  they  arc,  at 
least,  not  unpleasant;  artificial  benzaldebyde  must  be  very  care- 
fully purified  before  it  can  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  more 
delkate  scents.  In  aJl  cases  the  natural  scents  are  complex 
mixtures  of  xnany  ingredients,  and  a  variation  in  the  amount  of 
any  One  may  completely  alter  the  scent.  Such  mixtures  would 
be  difficult,  to  reproduce  eooiiomically;  the  perfumer  iB.cotttent 
with  a  peqdua  having  practically  an  identical  odour,  with  or 
without  the  natural  substance  which  it  is  designed  to  eompete 

with. 

We  now  give^  an  account  of  the  artificial  tcents,  principally 
arranged  according  to  their  chemical  relations.  The  jriaWy  tsUrs 
•re  interesting;  as  providing  many  of  the  fruit  essences;  in  fact,  by 
appropriate  blending,  any  froit  odoor  can  be  reproduced.  Their 
howewr,  i»  inhibited  by  the  fact  that  they  irritate  the  re 


•piratory  organs^  produdng  ooughing  and  headaches.  IspUityl 
carbtnol  acetic  ester  (amyl  acetate),  fCHa)»CH'CHa'CHfOC'CHi, 
forms  when  in  dilate  alcoholic  solution  the  artificial  pear  cJt;  a 
similar  odOoT  is  pomsiied  by  isoamyl-M-batynte,  CsHrC(^-CiHn. 


M-Oetyl  aceMte,  CiHifOiC'CHi.  has  the  odour  of  oranges.   Isoami 

Ki>pionate,  CtHtrOiC-CaHt,  and  ethyl-n-butyrate,  CiHt-OjC«CjH 
ve  the  odour  of  pineapple,  the  latter  constituting  the  artifici: 
pineapple  oil  of  commerce.  Isoamyl  isovalerate,  ClHirOiC'Cj^ 
Is  the  artifidal  apple  oil.  Of  the  fatty  ketones,  methyl  non^ 
ketone.  CUa*CX>C|Hit,  which  is  the  scent  of  oil  01  rue,  and  methy 
ethyl  acetone,  CHrCO-CH(CHi)  (dni),  which  has  the  odour  c 
peppermint,  receive  commencial  application.  Of  exceptional  iir 
portanee  in  the  chemistry  of  perfumes  are  the  unsaturated  ope 
chain  compounds  contafmnr  at  least  eight  carbon  atoms.  Thes 
are  chemkaltyconsidered,  along  with  the  related  cyclic  compoundi 
in  the  article  T&RPKKBS;  here  we  notice  their  odours  and  occurrenc 
in  perfumes.  Of  the  alcohols,  AKnalcA  occurs  in  oil  of  lavendei 
bergamoti  limet  and  origanum;  (f-linalo!  in  coriander;  dtronellc 
and  geraniol  in  rose,  geranium  and  pelargonium  oils.  Of  th 
aMehydes,  ritral  or  geranbl  has  the  odour  of  lemons;  dtronella 
is  the  chief  constituent  of  dtronelht  oil.  By  condensing  citrel  wit 
acetone  and  treating  the  product  with  dilute  sulphunc  add,  th 
valuable  violet  suMtitute  i&none  results.  This  substance  is 
hydroaromatic  ketone,  and  closely  resembles  the  natural  principl 
irone.  By  successive  treatment  with  acetic  anhydride  (to  forr 
iiopuleeol),  oxidation  to  isopulegone.  and  treatment  with  baryt 
dtronellal  yields  the  cyclic  compound  pidtgpne,  the  chief  constituen 
of  oil  of  pennyroyal.  The  olefinic  terpenes  are  generally  convertibl 
IntomethyLheptenone,  (CH0iC<:H(CHt)rCO-CH,,  which  has  bee 
synthesized  from  sodium  acetonylacetone  and  amylene  dibromide 
this  ketone  occurs  in  several  essential  oils,  and  has  the  odour  c 
rue.  For  the  occurrence  of  cyclic  terpenes  in  the  essential  oil 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  table  below,  which  contains  th 
names,  sourees  and  chief  ingredients  of  the  more  important  essentia 
oils.*  The  terpenes  are  printed  in  italics,  the  aliphatic  and  benzenol 
compounds  in  ordinary  type. 


Name  of  Oil. 


Anise 
Bay  . 


■ 

V 


ficrgainot 

Cajapiit  .*  . 

Caana    .  « 

Caraway 

Camphor  . 

Chamomile . 

Cinnamon  . 

Clove     .  . 

Coriander  . 
Cumin   . 
Eucalyptus . 

Fennel  .  . 

GeraaiiuB  . 

Jasmine.  . 

Lavender 
Lemon  . 


Lemon-grass 
Neroli    .     . 

Orange  .^     . 
Pcpperniiat. 

Pine-needle . 
Rose ... 

KOSC  •      .      • 

Geranium  . 
Rosemary    . 

Sage.  . 
Sassafras 
Spearmint  . 
Star  anise 
Tansy  . 
Thyme  . 
Wormwood 


Source. 


PimpiutUa  anitum 
Pimenta  acris 


Citrus  bergpmia) 

Melaleuca,  »p:  .    _^ 
CtnnawuHum  cassia 

Carum  earn 
Cinnamanum  camphor 

Anilumis  nobilis 

Cinnamonum  Z^ytaat- 

cutn 
EugeHiacaryophyUata 
Cofiandum  saiimtm 
Cuminum  cymium 
Eucalyptus  ^cbulu* 

Foenicvlum  ndgan 
AndropogoH    schoet^ 

enthus 
Jasminum  panii' 

fiotum^ 

Laaxftdulavera 
Citrus  limouum. 


Andropci[on  citratus 
Citrus  biiardia 

Citrus  aurantium 
Mentha  piperita 

Pimus  syhesiris 
Rosa  danascena'^ 
Pelargommm  odotatis. 

semum 
RosamariHUS  officina- 
lis 
Sahia  officinalis 
Sassafftts  ojficinalis 
MenUia  virtdis 
tUicium  anisotum 
Tanacetum  vulgprt 
Thymus  vulgaris 
Artemisia  ahsintkum 


Ylang.ylang    Omanfo  odorata 


Constituents. 


Anethole,  estragole. 


Eugenol,    mett 
Gna> 


goie. 

nyl     eugcnol, 
vicol,  estragoIe,fiiyrceii«, 

^hellandrene. 
Linalol,    linalyl   acetaiCf    d- 

limonene,  bergaUene. 
Cineol. 
Cinnamic  aldehyde,dnnamy  I 

acetate. 
Carvone,  64imonene.  >.,.. 
d-Piuene,  phellandrene,  terpi- 

neolt  cugenol,  safrolc. 
Iiobu^l  and  isoamyl  ester« 

of  angelic  and  tiguc  acids. 
Cionanuc  aldehyde.  ' 

Eugenol 

Uualol.  ^      ^ 

Cumic  aldehyde^  cymcne.  -^ 

Ciueol^  d-pinene,  and  fatf] 

alddiydes. 
Anethole,  fenehone,  d-^nena 
C^nmiol,  citronellol* 

Methyl  anthranilate,  indol 
benzyl  alcohol,  benzyl  ace 
tate,  linaM,  limdyl  acetate 

JUnalol,  \-linalvl  acetate. 

Limenene,  pheUandrene,  etfrd 
citrondlal,  geranyl  autak 
linalol, 

CiiraL 

VLinalol,  geraniol,  limonem 
methyl  anthranilate. 

d-Limonene. 

Menthol,  menlhyl  aedate  am 
valerate. 

d'Pinene,  d'Sylvestrene. 

Geraniol,  hcUronMol. 

Ceretstiol,  dtronelM. 

Pinene,  camphene,  iomphtt 

etneol,  oomeol. 
Pinene,ciHeol,thnjem^omta 
Safrole. 

X'Unalol,  Vcarvene.) 
Anethole. 
Thujtme. 
ThymoL 

Tkujone  and  thujyl  esters. 
\'Linalol,  geraniol. 


>  See  J.  B.  Cohen.  Organic  Chemistry,  p.  53a;.or  J.  Parry.  Chemtn 
a/  Bfifumo*  (I908>. 


142 


PERGA—PERGAMUM 


The  chief  benaenoid  oompounds  med  a»  perfumes  are  alddiydes, 
oxyaldehvdc*.  phenok  and  phenol  ethers.  Benxaldebyde  ha*  the 
odour  01  almonds,  ctnnamic  aldehyde  of  cinnamon,  and  cumin 
aldehyde  gives  the  odour  to  cumin  oiL  Of  oxyaldehydes  aalicyU 
aldehyde  gives  the  odour  to  spiraea  oil,  and  vanillin  is  the  active 
ingredient  of  vanilla  (g.v.).  Aniaaldebyde  smell*  like  hawthorn, 
and  is  extensively  used  under  the  name  auMpine  for  scenting  loaps 
and  extracts.  Carvacrol  and  thymol  are  isomeric  methyl  propyl 
phenols;  both  have  the  odour  of  thyme.  Of  phenol  ethers  eugenol 
(allyl  ffuaiacol^  ha*  the  odour  of  doves,  and  anetholc  (allyl  phenyl 
methyl  ether)  is  the  chief  constituent  of  anise  oil.  being  chiefly  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  liqueurs.  Seveial  piperonyl  conapounds  are 
of  commercial  importance.  The  aldehyde,  CHi(Q)i  :CiHi*CHO(i  ,24). 
piperonal,  has  the  odour  of  heliotrope;  an  allyl  derivative, 
salrole  Cn^O\t:CJtivCt\U(i ,2^\  occurs  in  sassafras,  while  apiole 
or  dimethoxy  safrole  has  the  odour  of  parsley  oil.  Of  other  syn- 
thetic perfumes  amyl  salicylate  is  used  under  the  names  of  orckulie 
or  tre/ol  as  the  basis  of  many  perfumes,  in  particular  of  clover 
scents;  methyl  anthranilatc  occurs  in  the  natural  ncroli  and  other 
oils,  and  has  come  into  considerable  use  in  the  preparation  of  arti* 

gcial  beigamot,  neroli,  jasmine  and  other  perfumes  (the  Trolene, 
larceol  and  Amanthol  of  the  Actien  CesdlschaftJ[ur  Anilin  Faitrika- 
lion  have  this  substance  as  a  base) ;  the  "  artificial  musks  "  are 
derivatives  of  x-trinitrobensene;  coumarin  is  the  principle  of  vrood- 
ruff ;  and  /^naphthol  methyl  ether  is  used  for  the  pi^panition  of 
artificial  neroli. 

t  The  Odopkone.-^The  most  important  element  in  the  perfumer** 
art^  is  the  blending  of  the  odorous  principles  to  form  a  mixture 
which  gratifies  the  sense  of  sroelL  Experience  is  the  only  guide. 
It  is  impossible  to  foretell  the  odour  of  a  mwture  from  the  odoure 
of  its  components.  Septimus  PicsjK  endeavoured  to  show  that 
a  certain  scale  or  gamut  existed  amongst  odours  as  amongst  sounds, 
taking  the  sharp  smelb  to  correspond  with  high  notes  and  the  heavy 
Bmells  with  low.  He  illustrated  the  idea  by  classifying  some  fifty 
odours  in  this  manner,  making  each  to  correspond  with  a  certain 
note,  one-half  in  each  clef,  and  extending  above  and  below  the 
lines.  For  example,  treble  def  note  E  uth  space)  corresponds 
with  Portugal  (orange),  note  D  (ist  space  below  clef)  with  violet, 
note  F  (^th  space  above  cleQ  frith  ambeigris.  It  is  readily  noticed 
in  practice  that  arabeff;ris  b  much  sharper  in  smell  (higher)  than 
violet,  while  Portugal  is  intermediate,  tie  asserted  that  properly 
to  constitute  a  bouquet  the  odours  to  be  takci^  diould  correspond 
In  the  gamut  like  the  notes  of  a  muncal  chord — one  false  note 
among  die  odours  as  among  the  music  destroying  the  harmony. 
Thus  on  hb  odophone,  santal,  geranium,  acacia,  orange-flower, 
camphor,  corresponding  with  C  (ba**  and  line  below),  C  (bass 
^d  space).  E  (treble  ist  line),  G  (treble  and  line),  C  (treble  3rd 
space),  constitute  the  bouquet  of  chord  C. 

OUier  Bramcket  vf  Perfumery. — ^A*  a  natural  outcome  of  the 
development  of  the  perfume  industry,  scented  articles  for  toilet 
and  otner  uses  are  now  manufacttired  In  laige  quantitie*.  Soaps, 
toilet  powders,  tooth  powders,  hair-washes,  cosmetics  generally, 
and  note-paper  have  piovided  material  on  which  the  perfumer 
works.  For  the  preparatkm  of  acented  soaps  two  methoas  are  in 
use;  both  start  with  a  basis  cither  of  line  yellow  soap  (which  owes 
It*  odour  and  colour  to  the  presence  of  resin),  or  of  curd  soap  (which 
Is  hard,  white  and  odouriess,  -and  b  prepared  without  resin).  In 
one  process  the  soap  is  melted  by  superheated  steam,  and  while 
still  hot  and  semi-fluid  mixed  by  means  of  a  stirrer  of  wood  with 
iron  cross-bar,  technically  called  a  "  crutch,"  with  the  attara  and 
coburing  matter.  It  b  then  remafved  from  the  melting  pan  to 
a  rectangular  inon  mould  or  box,  the  sides  of  which  can  be  removed 
by  unscrewing  the  tie-rods  which  hold  them  in  position;  when 
cold  the  mass  is  cut  into  stabs  and  bars  with  a  tnin  brass  wire. 
In  the  other  or  cold  process  the  soap  b  first  cut  into  chips  or  shavings 
by  a  pbne  or  **  chipping  machine,"  then  the  colouring  mattere  are 
added  and  thoroughly  incorporated  by  pasting  the  soap  between 
rollers;  the  tinted  soap  emerges  in  a  continuous  sheet  but  little 
thicker  than  paper.  The  perfumes  are  then  added,  and  after 
standing  for  about  twelve  houn  the  soap  is  aeain  sent  through  the 
rolling  machine.  It  b  next  transferred  to  a  bar>forming  machine, 
from  which  it  emerges  as  a  coatinuous  bar  almost  as  hard  as  wood. 
Soap  thus  worked  contains  less  than  10%  of  water;  that  prepared 
by  melting  contains  ao  and  even  30%.  The  amount  of  perfume 
added  depends  upon  its  nature,  and  amount*  usually  to  ^x>ut 
7  or  8%.  The  finest  aoaps  are  always  manofaeturcd  by  the  cold 
process. 

rmfef  p0aii^«  are  of  various  sorts.  They  consist  of  rice<«tareh  or 
wheat-stareh,  with  powdered  orris-root  in  varying  proportmns,  and 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  zinc  oxide,  bbmutfa  ooude  or  Frerurh 
chalk.  The  constituent  powders,  after  the  addition  erf  the  perfume, 
arc  thoroughly  incorporated  and  mind  by  sifting  through  a  fine 
feicve.  Violet  powder  for  the  nuraery  diould  consist  entirely  of 
powdered  violet  Rx>t  {Iris  fiorentina),  Irom  the  odour  of  whkh  the 
powder  b  named.  It  b  of  a  yellowish  tint,  soft  and  pleasant  to 
the  touch.  The  white  common  Kxalled  "  violet  powdera  "  oonsbt 
of  iitarch  scented  with  bergamot.  and  are  in  every  eense  inferior. 

Tootk  Powders  consbt  for  the  most  part  of  mixtures  of  powdered 
ofriMQot  with  precipitated  chalk,  and  some  other  constituent 
destined  to  partjculariae  it  a*  to  properties  or  flavour,  Midi  as 


cfaarcoaf.  finely  polveriacd  pumke»  qaassia,  stnir,  camphor,  Ae. 
The  perfume  of  the  contained  orris-root  b  nodined,  if  required,  by 
the  addition  of  a  little  of  some  perfume.  Tooth  Pastes  are  formed 
of  the  same  constituents  as  the  powdera,  and  are  worked  into  a 
paste  by  the  addition  of  a  little  honey  or  glucose  syrup,  which  sub- 
stances are  uMiaUy.  believed  ultimately  to  have  an  injurioct*  tfect 
on  the  teeth. 

Perfume  Sockets  consbt  either  of  a  powder  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  vanilla,  musk,  Tonqua  beans,  &c..  one  or  other  predominating 
as  required,  contained  in  an  ornamental  sillc  sac;  or  of  some  of  the 
foregoing  substances  ^iread  tipon  card  or  chamob  leather  or  flannd 
after  beii^  made  into  a  paste  with  mucilage  and  a  little  glycerin. 
When  dry  the  card  so  prepared  b  daintily  covered  with  various 
parti-coloured  silks  for  sale.  Where  the  ingredients  employed  to 
their  manufacture  are  of  |!Ood  quality  these  cards,  known  as  pcau 
d'Espagne  "  sachets,  retain  their  odour  onimpaired  for  ytaia, 

AdiuteralioHS. — ^There  is,  a*  might  be  expected,  consideiable 
scope  for  the  adulteration  of  the  '*  mati^res  premieres  "  employed 
in  perfumery.  Thus,  In  the  case  of  musk,  the  "  pods  "  are  fre> 
quently  found  to  be  partially  emptied  of  the  grain,  which  has  been 
replaced  by  hide  or  sfcin.  while  the  weight  ha*  been  increased  by  the 
introduction  of  lead.  Ac.  In  other  instances  the  fraud  consbts  in 
the  admixture  of  refuse  grain,  from  which  the  odour  has  been  ex- 
hausted with  spirit,  with  dried  blood,  and  similar  substances,  whilst 
pui^emnr  b  secured  bv  the  addition  of  ammoniam  carbonate. 
Attar  ol  rose  b  diluted  with  attar  of  Palma  roM.  a  variety  of 
geranium  of  only  a  quarter  or  a  fifth  of  the  value.  The  main 
adulterant  of  all  the  natural  essentbl  oils,  however,  is  castor  oiL 
Thb  is  a  bland  neutral  body,  practically  odourless,  and  completely 
soluble  in  alcohol;  it  theitiore  preseivts  all  the  requisites  for  tM 
purpose. 

BiouoGRAPHT.— See  j(enerally,  J.  (X  SAvytr^OdorognphJA^  vol.  i. 

F 


arst, 
Planus 

Synthctk  perfumes  are'  treated  in  deuil'  in  C  Deitt,  Masnial'ei 
Joitet  Soap-makini  (Eng.  trans,  by  S.  L  King,  1905).  and  in  £.  J. 
Parry,  Chemistry  of  Ihe^sential  Oils  and  ArUfifw  Parfumes  (dnd 
ed.,  I908)>  Reference  may  also  be  made  to  T.  Kollcr,  Cosmetics 
(igba).  The  standard  works  on  the  essential  oils  are  given  in  the 
article  Oils.  G.  Cohn.  Die  RiechUoffe  (1904),  treats  the  chenustry, 
and  Zwaardemakbr,  Physioloii*  da  Geruau  (1895),  the  physiology 
of  perfumes.  See  also  the  reports  and  bulletin*  01  Schimmel  &  Co. 
ana  Rouse  Bertrand  et  Fib. 

PBRGA  (mod.  Murlana)t  an  ancient  city  of  Pamphylia,' 
situated  about  8  m.  inland,  at  the  Junction  of  a  small  stream 
(Sari  Su)  with  the  Cestrus.  It  was  a  centre  of  native  influencca 
as  contrasted  with  the  Greek,  which  were  predominant  io 
Attalia,  and  It  was  a  great  seat  of  the  worship  of  "  Queen  *' 
Artemb,  here  represented  as  a  human-headed  cone  and  a  purely 
Anatolian  nature  goddess.  There  Paul  and  Barnabas  began 
their  first  mission  in  Asia  Minor  (Acts  ix.  13).  A  much 
frequented  route  into  Fhrygia  and  the  Maeander  vafaey  began  at 
Peiiga,  and  Alexander  made  it  the  starting-point  of  his  invasion 
of  inner  Asia  Minor.  Long  the  metropolis  of  Pamphylia  Secunda,^ 
it  was  superseded  in  Byzantine  times  by  its  port,  Attalia,  which 
became  a  metropolis  in  1084.  The  extensive  ruins  all  fie  in 
the  plain  south  of  the  Acropolis.  The  walls  are  well  preserved/ 
but  of  late  Roman  or  Byzantine  reconstruction.  The  lines  of 
Intersecting  streets  can  be  easily  made  out,  and  there  are  niina 
of  two  sets  of  baths,  two  basilicas  and  a  forum.  Bat  the  most 
notable  monument  is  the  theatre,  which  Hcs  outside  the  waQs 
on  the  south-west,  near  the  stadium.  Thb  b  as  perfect  as  these 
of  Myra  and  Patara,  but  larger  than  either,  and  yields  the  palm 
only  to  those  of  Aspendus  and  Side.  Modem  Murtana  b  a  large 
village,  long  under  the  domim'on  of  the  Dere  Beys  of  the  Tekke 
Oglu  family. 

See  C.  LancicoronskI,  ViXUs  ie  la  PamphyHe  et  de  ta  PisidU; 
vol.  i.  (1890) ;  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay,  Church  tu  the  Roman  Euipire 
(i«93).      (D.  C.  H.) 

PBROAMBNBOVS  (LaI,  pergamttuSt  parchment),'  a  technical 
term  used  of  anything  of  the  texture  ojf  parchment,  as  in  zoology 
of  the  wing-covers  of  Insects. 

PBROAMUM,  or  Pekgamus  (mod.  Bergama)^  an  ancient  city 
of  Teuthrania,  a  district  in  Mysia.  It  b  usually  named  TUpya/ioir 
by  Greek  writers,  but  Ptolemy  has  the  form  n<p7afu».  The 
name,  which  b  related  to  the  (jcrman  burg,  is  appropriate  U>  the 
situation  on  a  lofty  isolated  hill  in  a  broad  fertile  valley,  less 
than  IS  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Calcus.  According  to  the 
belief  of  its  inhabitants,  the  town  was  founded  by  Arcadian 
coIooista»  led  by  Tdephus,  son  of  Heradci.   Anga.  mother  «! 


■RERGOLESI,  G.  B. 


Hi 


7!*«leplitti,  iMt  pfkitesa  «f  Athena  Alea  «t  Tegca,  and  dau^itec 
of  Afeus;  fled&g  frbm  Tegea,  she  becatBe  the  wile  of  I^eoUmiy 
the  eponymous  king  of  Teuthiania^  and  her  son  Tdepfaui 
succeeded  him.  Athena  BoKas  Was  the  patnm-goddtts  ol 
Pergamusii  and  the  legend  combines  the  ethnological  reoord  <rf 
the  codnexion  cbdlned  between  Arcadia  and  Pergamum  with  the 
usual  bcUef  that  the  hcfo  of  the  city  wasson  of  its  guardian 
deltyr  or  at  least  of  her  priestess.  Nothing  more  is  recorded  of 
the  city  till  the  time  of  Xaiophon,  when  it  was  a  smaB  fortified 
town  on  the  summit  of  the  hill;  but  it  had  been  striking  cofsA 
since  490S.C  at  latest.  Its  importance  began  under  Lyuxoachas, 
wha  deposited  his  treasTire;^;  9000  talents,  in  tliis  strong  fortress 
under  the  chaiige  of  a  eiuiud),  Philetaenis  of  Tium.  In  283  B.C. 
Philctaerus  lebdled,  Lysimachus  died  without  being  aide  to 
put  down  the  revolt^  and  Pergamum  became  the  capital  of  a 
Uttle  principality.  Partly  by  clever  diplomacy,  partly  through 
the  troubles  caused  by  the  Gaulish  invasion  and  by  the  dissen- 
siona  among  the  rival  kings,  Philetaenis  contrived  to  keep  on 
good  terms  with  his  neighbours  on  all  sides  (283*263  B.&).  His 
aephew  Eumenes  (263-241)  succeeded  him,  increased  his  power, 
snd  even  defeated  Antiocbus  II.  of  Syria  in  a  pitched  battle  near 
Ssrdia.  His  successor  Attains  I.  (241-197)  won  a  great  battle 
over  the  Gauls,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king.  The  other 
Greek  Ungs  who  aimed  at  power  m  Asia  Minor  were  his  natural 
enemies,  and  about  222  reduced  Pergamenian  power  to  a  very 
low  ebb.  On  the  other  hand,  the  influence  of  the  Romans  was 
beginning  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  East.  Attains  prudently 
connected  himself  with  them  and  shared  in  their  contmuous 
success.  Pergamum  thus  became  the  capital  <^  a  considerable 
territory  and  a  centre  of  art  and  regal  magnificence.  The  wealth 
of  the  state  and  the  king's  desire  to  celebrate  his  victories  by 
Bsonuments  of  art  led  to  the  rise  of  the  *'  Pergamenian  School " 
Id  sculpture.  The  splendour  of  Pergamiun  was  at.  its  height 
under  Eumenes  II.  (1 97*1 59)  He  continued  true  to  the  Romans 
during  thek  #ars  with  Antiochus  and  Perseus,  and  his  kingdom 
spread  over  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia  Minor,  including 
Mjrsia,  Lydia,  gmt  part  of  Phrygia,  Ionia  and  Caria.  To 
oeiebrste  the  great  achievement  of  hb  reign,  the  defeat  of  the 
tMifbaiian  Gauls,  he  built  in  the  agora  a  vast  altar  to  Zeus 
Sotetf  (see  below).  He  left  an  infant  son.  Attains  (III.),  and 
a  brother,  Attalus  n.  (Philadelphus),  who  ruled  iS9*-i38,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Attalus  III.  (Phildmetor).  The 
Utter  died  in  133,  and  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans, 
who  erected  part  of  it  (excluding  Great  Phrygia,  which  they 
gave  to  Mithradates  of  Pontus)  into  a  province  under  the  name 
of  Asia.  Pergamum  continued  to  rank  for  two  centuries  as  the 
cai^al,  and  subsequently,  with  Ephesus  and  Smyrna,  as  one  of 
Che  three  great  cities  of  the  province;  and  the  devotion  of  its 
fanner  ki*"p  to  the  Roman  cause  was  continued  by  its  citizens, 
who  erect vd  on  the  Acropolis  a  magnificent  temple  to  Augustus. 
It  was  the  seat  of  a  CMVtentus,  including  the  cities  of  the  Calcus 
valley  and  some  of  those  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Hermus 
V^ey.  Under  the  Roman  Empire  Pergamum  was  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  the  worship  of  Asclcplus  "  the  Saviour  '*;  invalids 
came  from  distant  parts  of  the  country  to  ask  advice  from  the 
god  and  his  priests.  The  temple  and  the  curative  establishment 
of  the  god  were  situated  outside  the  city.  Pergamum  was  the 
chief  centre  of  the  imperial  cult  imder  the  early  empire,  and,  in 
Vif.  hf.  Ramsay's  opinion,  was  for  that  reason  referred  to  in 
Rev.  H.  13  as  the  place  of  "  Satan's  throne."  It  was  also  an 
early  seat  of  Christianity,  and  one  of  the  Seven  Churches. 
The  place,  re>fortified  by  the  Byzantines,  and  still  retaining  its 
name  aa  Bergama,  passed  into  Moslem  hands  early  in  the 
X4th  century.  The  lower  town  was  rebuilt,  and  in  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries  became  a  chief  seat  of  the  great  Dere  Bey 
family  of  Kara  Osman  Oglu  (see  Manisa),  which  did  not  resign 
it  to  direct  Ottoman  control  until  about  1825.  It  la  stiD  an 
administrative  and  commercial  centre  of  importance,  having 
some  20,000  inhabitants.  ^ 

BxeavatUns.-^The  site  of  the  ancient  city  has  been  the  scene 
of  extensive  excavations  promoted  by  the  Berlin  museum  since 
ttTl^aad  dfieded  first  by  K.  Humann  and  A   Consc.  and 


afterwards  by  W.  DArpfeld.  The  first  impulse  to  them  was  gives 
in  1873  by  the  reception  hi  Bethn  of  certain  reliefs,  extracted 
by  Humann  from  the  walla  of  Beigama.  These  were  recognized  aa 
probably  parts  of  the  Great  Altar  of  Zeus  ereaed  by  Eumenes  IL 
in  180  BX.  and'decorated  with  a  combat  of  gods  and  giants^ 
symbolic  of  the  struggle  between  the  Pergamene  Greeks  and  the 
Gaulish  badMriana.  Excavation  at  the  south  end  of  the  Acro- 
polis led  to  the  dlseovcfy  of  the  Altar  itself  and  the  rest  of  its 
surviving  reliefs^  wliich,  now  restored  and  mounted  hi  Berlin, 
form  one  of  the  glories  of  that  dty.  In  very  high  relief  and 
representing  furiovs  action,  these  sculptures  are  the  finest  which 
survive  finm  the  Pergamene  school,  which  replaced  the  repose 
and  breads  of  earlier  schools  by  excess  of  emphasis  and  detail. 
The  summit  of  the  Acropolis  is  crowded  with  public  buildings, 
between  the  market  pUu:e,  which  lies  at  the  southern  point,  and 
th«  Royal  Gardens  on  the  north.  In  the  interval  are  the  Zeus 
altar;  the  great  hexastyle  Dofic  temple  of  Athena  flanked  by 
the  palace  on  the  east,  by  the  theatre  and  its  long  terrace  on  the 
west,  and  by  a  library  on  the  north ;  and  a  large  Corinthian  temple 
of  Tka^.  The  residential  part  of  the  Greek,  and  practically 
all  the  Roman  dty  Uiy  bdow  the  Acropolis  on  ground  now 
mostly  occupied  by  modem  Bergama;  but  west  of  the  river 
Selinns,  on  rising  ground  fadng  the  Acroi>olis,  are  to  be  seen 
notable  remains  df  a  Roman  theatre,  an  amphitheatie  and  s 
dress. 

See,  beside  general  authorities  for  Asia  Minor,  J.  Dallaway, 
CotuUMtinopU,  &c  (1797};  W.  M.  Ramsay,  Letters  to  the  Setem 


G.  Leroux. '''La  I^'tendue  basilique  de  Pergame*^n'Biitf.  Cott. 
Hell.  (1909)»  PP*  238  sqq.  (D.  G.  H.) 

PERGOLA  (Lat.  ferpdct  a  projecting  roof,  shed,  from  pertere, 
to  reach  forward,  project),  a  term  adopted  from  the  Italian 
for  an  arbour  of  trellis-work  over  which  are  trained  cre^ing 
plants,  vines,  8cc.-,  and  especially  for  a  trellis-work  -covering  a 
path,  walk  or  balcony  in  a  garden. 

PBRGpLBSI  (or  Pekoolbsb),  OIOVANHI  BATTISTA  (1710 
1 73^1  Italian  musical  composer,  was  bom  at  Jesi  near  AnCons 
on  the  3rd  of  Januaiy  17x0,  and  after  studyhig  music  under 
local  masters  until  he  was  sixteen  was  sent  by  a  noble  patron 
to  complete  his  education  at  Naples,  where  he  became  a  pup3 
of  Greco,  Durante  and  Feo  for  composition  and  of  Domenico  de 
Matteis  for  the  violin.  His  earliest  known  composition  was  s 
sacred  drama,  La  Conversume  di  S.  Guglielmo  d'Aguitania, 
between  the  acts  of  which  was  given  the  comic  intermexzo  II 
Maestri  di  musica.  These  works  were  periormed  in  1731, 
probably  by  fellow  pupils,  at  the  monastery  of  St  Agnello 
Maggiore.  Through  the  influence  of  the  prince  of  Stigliano  and 
other  patrons,  induding  the  duke  of  Maddaloni,  Pergolcs!  was 
commissioned  to  write  an  opera  for  the  court  theatre,  and  in  th^ 
winter  of  r73X  successfxilly  produced  La  Sallustia,  followed  fn 
1733  by  Ricimero,vhkh  was  a  failure.  Both  operas  had  comic 
intermezzi,  but  in  neither  case  were  they  successfid.  After  this 
disappointment  he  abandoned  the  theatre  for  a  time  and  wrote 
thirty  sonatas  for  two  violins  and  bass  for  the  prince  of  Stigliano. 
He  was  also  invited  to  compose  a  mass  on  the  occasion  of  the 
earthquake  of  173T,  and  a  second  mass,  also  for  two  choirs  and 
orchestra,  is  said  to  have  been  praised  by  Leo.    In  September 

1732  he  returned  to  the  stage  with  a  comic  opera  in  Neapolitan 
dialect,  Lfi  Prati  inammorato,  which  was  well  received;  and  in 

1733  he  produced  a  serious  opera,  //  Prigionier,  to  which  the 
celebrated  Sena  padrono  furnished  the  intermezzi.  There 
seems,  however,  no  ground  for  supposing  that  this  work  made 
any  noticeable  difference  to  the  composer's  already  established 
reputation  as  a  writer  of  comic  opera.  About  this  time  d  733- 
1734)  Pergolesi  entered  the  service  of  the  duke  of  Maddaloni,  and 
accompanied  him  to  Rome,  where  he  conducted  a  mass  for  five 
voices  and  orchestra  in  the  church  of  St  Lorenzo  in  Lucina 
(May  1734)-  There  is  no  foundation  for  the  statement  that  he 
was  appointed  maestro  di  cappella  at  the  Holy  House  of  LoretO; 
he  was;  in  fact,  organist  of  the  royal  chapel  at  Naples  in  1735! 
The  <t>mpiete  fdlure  of  L'Olimpiade  at  Rome  in  January  1735 


144 


PERGOLESI,  M.  A.— P£BMNOBR 


jB  9ai4.  to  h»ve  bfoken  h!«  health,  ffiid  determioed  him  to  abandon 
the  theatre  Cor  the  Church;  thU  fttatement  ia,  however,  incom' 
patible  with  the  fact  that  his  COinic  opera  //  Flamimo  was 
produced  in  Naples  in  Septemba  of  the  aame  year  wilJi  nn* 
doubted  success.  His  ill  health  was  more  probably  due  to  his 
notorious  profligacy.  In  1736  he  was  sent  by  the  duke  of 
Maddaloni  to  Ute  Capuchin  monastery  at  Poeaudit  the  air  of 
the  place  being  oonsidered  beneficial  to  cases  of  .c(»sumption. 
Here  he  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  wriuen  the  celdkated 
Skfbat  UcUr\  Paisiello,  however,  sUted  tht^t  this  work  was 
written  soon  after  be  left  the  Ofnservatorio  dei  p<nm  4%  Cesii 
Crista  in  1799.  We  may  at  any  rate  safely  attribute  to  this 
period  the  Sckeno  Jatio  a»  Cappuccini  di  PimmU,  a  mtmcal  jest 
of  a  somewhat  indiecent  nature.  He  died  on  the  x  7th  of  Maich 
X736,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  P«(suoiL 

Pergolesi's  posthumous  reputation  has  been  exaggerated 
beyond  all  reason.  This  was  due  partly  to  his  early  death,  and 
largely  to  the  success  of  La  Sena  padrona  when  performed  by 
the  Bpuffons  Jialiens  at  Paris  in  1752.  Charming  as  this  Uttle 
piece  undoubtedly  is,  it  is  inferior  both  for  music  and  for  humour 
to  Pergolesi's  three  act  comic  operas  in  dialect,  which  aie  remem- 
bered now  only  by  the  air  "  Qgni  pena  piii  apietata  "  from  Lo 
FraU  inommorato.  As  a  composer  ci  sacred  music  Pergolesi  is 
effective,  but  essentially  commonplace  and  superficial,  and  the 
frivolous  style  of  the  Slabat  Mater  was  rightly  censured  by 
Paisidk)  and  Padre  Martini.  His  best  quality  is  a  cntain  senti- 
mental charm,  which  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  cantata  VOrJto 
and  in  the  genuindy  beautiful  duets  "  Se  cerca,  se  dice  "  and 
"Ne*  giomi  tuoi  felid''  of  the  serious  opera  U(Himpiade\ 
the  latter  number  was  transferred  unaltered  from  his  early 
sacred  drama  S.  Guglidmo,  and  we  can  thus  see  that  his 
natural  talent  underwent  hardly  any  development  during  the 
five  yean  of  his  musical  activity.  On  the  whole,  however, 
Pergolesi  is  in  no  way  superior  to  his  contemporaries  of  the  same 
school,  and  it  is  purely  accidental  that  a  later  age  should  have 
regarded  him  as  its  greatest  representative. 

Bi8LiopnAPBY.*-The  roost  comi^ete  iife  of  Pergoleri  is  that  by 
£.  Fausttni  Fasini  (Gazutta  musicale  di  Milano,  31st  of  August 
1890,  &c.,  pubKshed  by  Ricordi  in  book  form,  1900);  G.  Annibaldrs 
71  Pergolesi  in  Potsuoti,  vita  intima  (Jesi,  1890)  gives  some  interest- 
ing additional  details  derived  ftom  documents  at  ieA,  but  is  cast  in 
the  form  of  a  rooiantic  novel.  H.  M.  Schletterer's  lecture  in  the 
Sammlung  musikaiischer  Vortrage,  edited  by  Count  P.  von  Walder- 
see,  is  generally  inaccurate  and  uncritical,  out  gives  a  good  account 
of  later  performances  of  Peri^olefii's  works  in  Italy  and  elsewhere. 
Various  portraits  are  reproduced  in  the  Gass.  wnu,  di  Milano  for 
the  14th  of  December  i999>  and  in  Musica  e  musicisti,^  December 
IQQ5.     Complete  lists  of  bis  compositions  are  given  tn  Eitner's 


itdUn-Lexicon  and  in  Grove's  Dictionary  (new  ed.).     C^*  J>  ^•) 

PERGOLESI,  MICHAEL  ANGELO,  an  x8th-centuiy  Italian 
decorative  artist,  who  worked  chiefly  in  England.  Bi<^aphical 
details  are  almost  entirely  lacking,  but  like  Cipriani  he  was 
brought,  or  attracted,  to  En^^and  by  Robert  Adam  after  his 
famous  continental  tour.  He  worked  so  extensively  for  the 
Adams,  and  his  designs  are  so  closely  typical  of  much  upon  which 
their  reputation  rests,  that  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  his  influence 
upon  their  style.  His  range,  like  theirs,  was  catholic.  He 
designed  furniture,  mantelpieces,  ceilings,  chandeliers,  doors  and 
mural  ornament  with  equal  felicity,  and  as  an  artist  in  plaster 
work  in  low  relief  he  was  unapproached  in  his  day.  He  delighted 
in  urns  and  sphinxes  and  interlaced  gryphons,  in  amorini  with 
bows  and  torches,  in  trophies  of  musical  instruments  and  martial 
weapons,  and  in  flowering  arabesques  which  were  always  graceful 
if  sometimes  rather  thin.  The  centre  panels  of  his  walls  and 
ceilings  were  often  occupied  by  classical  and  pa&toral  subjects 
painted  by  Ciprisni,  Angelica  Kauffmann,  Antonio  Zucchi,  her 
husband,  and  sometimes  by  himself.  These  nymphs  and 
amorini,  with  their  disengaged  and  rianl  air  and  dassic  grace, 
were  not  infrequently  used  as  copies  for  painting  upon  that 
satinwood  furniture  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  18th  century  which 
has  never  b^n  surpassed  for  dainty  elegance,  and  for  the 
popularity  of  which  Pergolesi  was  in  laige  measure  responsible; 
they  were  even  reproduced  in  marquetry.  Some  of  this  painted 
work  was,  apparently,  executed  by  his  own  hixid;  most  of  the 


pieces  Mtributed  to  him  Me  renl«iiUkU»  «iuiiplfli  «f  tftattlc 
taste  and  technical  skill.  His  satin-wood.  taUe-tops,  ibixm. 
cabinets  and  side>tables  are  the  last  wopd  in  a  daintinfsit  which 
here  and  thcve  perhaps  is  mere  piettinesfc  PeRBoIesi  likewise 
designed  silver  p]«U,  and  sutfvof  lu»  patterns  an  almosK 
instinctively  attributed  to  the  bjoothers  Adam  by  the  makcia 
and  purchasers  of  modem  r^pioductioiM.  Xh«ve  is,  moreover, 
reason  to  believe  that  he  aided  the  Adam  firm  in  pindy  aidii* 
tectural  woric  In  later  life  PetigoiesL  appeal*,  like  AnteUca 
Kauffmann,  to  have  returned  to  Italy, 

Our  chief  source  of  information  upon  lis  works  is  his  own  publi- 
catktn,  Designs  for  Various  Ornaments  on  Seventy  Plates*  a  aviea 
of  folio  sheeu,  without  text,  published  between  1777  and  l$oi. 

PERI,  iACOPO  <xs6x-i6  ?),  Italian  nmifcal  oootpqaear. 
was  born  at  Florence,  on  the  20th  of  August  1561,  of  &  noble 
family.  After  studying  nnder  Cristofofo  Malveui  oC  lAicca, 
he  became  maestro  di  cappellai  first  to  f^erdiaand,^  diike  fA 
Tuscany,  and  later  to  Cosmo  IL  He  was  an  important  membcs 
of  the  literary  and  artistic  circle  which  frequented  the  house  oi 
Giovanni  Bardi,  GOBte:de  Vemio,  whese  the  revival  of  Greek 
tragedy  with  its  appropriate  musical  dedam^tion  vaS4  favourite 
subject  of  discussion.  With  this  end  in  view  the  poet  Ottavio 
Rinucdni  supplied  a  drama  vnth  the  title  of  De^mt  to  which 
Peri  composed  music,  and  this  flrst  attempt  at  opera  waa  per* 
formed  privaUly  in  1597  in  the  Palaaso  Cofsi  at  Florence.  This 
work  was  se  much  admired  that  in  t6oo  Rimirciiii  and  Ped 
were  commissioned  to  produce  an  opera,  on  the  occasion  ol  the 
marriage  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  with  Maria  di'  Medici  This 
work  iVEtiridicf)  attracted  a  gceat  deal  of  attentiot,  snd  the 
type  once  publicly  established,  the  musical  drama  was  set  00 
the  road  to  success  by  tlie  efforts  of  other  composers  aixl  the 
patronage  of  other  courts.  Peri  himsell  seems  never  to  have 
followed  up  bis  success  with  other  operas;  he  became  maestvo 
di  cappelU  to  the  duke  of-  Fertara  in  x6pi,  but  after  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Varie  musiche  a  una,  due  $  Ura  iwa  at  Florence  ia 
X  609,  nothing  more  is  known  of  him. 

Peri's  Dafm  (which  has  entirely  disappeared)  and  Euridiu 
(printed  at  Florence  x6oo;  reprinted  Venice  1608  and  Horttice 
X863)  are  of  the  greatest  importance  not  only  as  being  the 
earliest  atteDH>ts  at  ofkera,  but  as  representing  the  new  moaodic 
and  declamatory  style  which  is  the  basis  of  modern  music  as 
opposed  to  the  contrapuntal  methods  of  Palestrina  sikI  his 
contemporaries.  Peri's  work  is  of  course  primitive  in  the 
extreme,  but  it  is  by  no  means  without  beauty,  and  there  are 
many  scenes  in  Ettridke  which  show  a  considerable  dntznatic 
power. 

PBRIANDER  (Gr.  Hi^o^apos),  the  second  tyrant  of  Coriuth 
(625-5&5  B.C.).  In  contrast  with  his  father  Cypselus,  the  founder 
of  the  dynasty,  he  is  generally  represented  as  a  cruel  do^t,  or 
at  any  rate  as  having  used  all  possible  devices  for  keeping  his 
city  in  subjection.  Among  numerous  anecdotes  the  loUowii^ 
is  characteristic.  Periander,  on  being  consulted  by  the  tyrant 
Thrasybulus  of  Miletus  as  to  the  best  device  for  maintaining 
himself  in  power,  by  way  of  reply  led  the  messenger  through  a 
cornfield,  and  as  he  walked  struck  of!  the  tallest  and  best-grown 
ears  (a  legend  applied  to  Roman  circumstances  Sn  Ii,yy.  i.  54). 
It  seems,  however,  that  the  prevalent  Greek  tradition  concercing 
him  was  derived  from  the  versions  of  the  Corinthian  aristocracy, 
who  had  good  reasons  for  giving  a  prejudiced  account,  and  the 
conflicting  character  of  the  various  legends  further  shows  thst 
their  historical  value  is  slight.  A  careful  sifting  of  the  availahle 
evidence  would  rather  tend  to  represent  Pefinnder  as  a  rukr 
of  unusual  probity  and  insight,  and  the  exceptional  firmness  aad 
activity  of  his  government  is  Ij^yond  dispute.  His  home  sdmin* 
istration  was  so  successful  that  he  was  able  to  dispense  with 
direct  taxation.  He  fostered  wealth  by  the  steady  encourage* 
ment  of  industry  and  by  drastic  legislation  against  i^eness, 
luxury  and  vice;  and  the  highest  prosperity,  of  the  Corinthian 
handicrafts  maybe  assigned  to  the  period  of  his  -rule  (ace 
Corinth).  At  the  same  time  he  souisht  to  check  excessive 
accumulation  of  wealth  in  individual  han<i^  and  restiicted  the 
influx  .of  population  intO:  fe  town.    En^tloyaieajt  wsa  found 


PERGAMUM 


The  North  Wing,  West  and  South  Sides.  The  South  Wing,  West  and  South  Sides. 


The  Great  Altar  of  Zeus,  from  the  North-west,  u  set  up  in  the  Kaiser  Friedrich  Museum,  Berlin, 

From  pbotocnplw  by  W.  'ntuutluler,  Berlb. 


PERGAMUM 


Noitb,  South,  East,  and  West  Sides  ol  the  Great  Altar  of  Zeus. 

From  pholognpbi  by  W,  Tilv 


PERICLES 


»*5 


lotf  t3ia  pnleUtiai  in  UieerecUon  of  templet  lad  of  iMiUic  works. 
Pteiander  fuzther  appears  as  a  patron  of  ]itevatui«»  for  it  iras  by 
Iris  invitatioii  that  the  poet  Arion  came  to  Cotinth  to  organize 
the  dithyramb.  He  devoted  no  lets  attention  to  the  increase 
of  .Corinthisa  commerce,  which  in  his  days  plied  busily  on  both 
eastern  and  Western  seas.  With  this  end  in  view  he  established 
colonies  at  Potidaea  and  ApoUonia  in  Macedonia,  at  Anactorium 
and  Leucas  in  north-western  GfeecCi  and  he  U  said  to  have 
projected  a  canal  throng  the  Isthmus,  In  Greece  proper  he 
conquered  ^idaunis,  and  with  the  help  of  his  fleet  of  titremes 
brought  tho  important  trading  centre  of  Corcyra  under  his 
control,  while  his  interest  in  the  (Mympian  festival  is  perhaps 
attested  by  a  dedication  which  may  be  ascribed  to  him — the 
famous  "  diest  ef  Cypselus."  He  cultivated  friendly  relations 
with  the  tyrants  of  Miletus  and  Msrtilene,  and  maintained  a 
connexion  with  the  kings  of  Lydia,  of  Egypt  and,  possibly,  of 
Phrygia.  In  spite  of  these  varied  achievements  Periander 
never  entirely  conciliated  his  subjects,  for  he  could  not  trust 
himself  irithout  a  bodyguard.  Moreover  his  family  life,  accord- 
ing to  all  accounts,  was  unfortunate.  His  sons  all  died  or 
were  estranged  from  him,  and  the  murder  of  his  last  remaining 
chfld  Lycophron,  the  governor  of  Corcyra,  is  said  to  havt  broken 
his  spirit  and  hastened  on  histleath. 

Periander  was  reckoned  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece, 
and  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  collection  of  maxims  CTiro99<«u) 
in  200O  verses.  The  letters  ascribed  to  Um  by  Diogenes  LaCrtlus 
are  undoubted|;y  spurious. 

Herodotus  in.  48^-5^,  ▼.  02;  Aristotb*  PclUiat  v.  6,  lo-ra; 
Heradeides  Ponticus  m  C.  MQUer's  Frag^  hist.  ghMC.  iL  aia; 
NicolauB  Damascenus,  ibid.,  iii.  39J';  Diogenes  Lacrtius,  De  vUis 
clarorum  ^Uosophontm,  i.  ch.  7.  (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

PBKICLBS  (490-429  B.C.),  Athenian  statesman,  was  bom 
about  490  B.C.,  the  son  of  Xanthippus  and  Agaristc.  His  father* 
took  &  prominent  part  in  Athenian  politics,  and  in  479  held  high 
command  in  the  Greek  squadron  which  annihilated  the  remnants 
of  X^es'  fleet  at  Mycalc;  through  his  mother,  the  niece  of 
Clelsthenes,  he  was  connected  with  the  former  tyrants  of  Sicyon 
and  the  family  of  the  Alcmaeonidae.  His  early  training  was 
committed  to  the  ablest  and  most  advanced  teachers  of  the  day: 
Da^on  instructed  him  in  music,  iSeno  the  Eleatic  revealed  to 
him  the  powers  of  dialectic;  the  philosopher  Anaxagoras,  who 
lived  in  dose  friendship  with  Pericles,  had  great  influence  on 
his  cast  of  thought  and  was  commoiUy  held  responsible  for  that 
calm  and  undaunted  attitude  of  mind  which  he  preserved  in  the 
midst  of  the  severest  trials. 

The  first  important  recorded  act  of  Pericles  falls  In  463,  when  he 
helped  to  prosecute  Qmon  on  a  charge  of  bribery,  after  the  Iattcr*s 
Thaslan  campaign;  but  as  the  accusation  could  hardly  have  been 
meant  seriously  Pericles  was  perhaps  put  forward  only  as  a 
lay-figure.  Undue  prominence  has  commonly  been  assigned  to 
him  in  the  attack  upon  the  Areopagus  in  462  or  461  (see 
Akeopagus,  Cimon).  The  Aristotelian  Constitution  of  Athens 
shows  conclusively  that  Pericles  was  not  the  leader  of  this  cam- 
paign, for  it  expressly  attributes  the  bulk  of  the  reforms  to 
Ephialtes  (ch.  25),  and  mentions  Ephialtes  and  Archestratus 
as  the  authors  of  the  laws  which  the  reactionaries  of  404  sought 
to  repeal  (ch.  35):  moreover,  it  was  Ephialtes,'  not  Pericles,  on 
whom  the  Conservatives  took  revenge  as  the  author  of  their 
discomfiture.  To  Ephialtes  likewise  we  must  ascribe  the 
renunciation  of  the  Spartan  alliance  and  the  new  league  with 
Argos  and  Ihessaly  (461). 

Not  long  after,  however,  when  Ephialtes  fell  by  the  dagger, 
Pericles  undoubtedly  assumed  the  leading  position  in  the  state. 

*He  must  have  been  bom  before  485-484,  in  which  yean  hia 
fatter  was  ostnuaaed.  On  the  other  hand,  Plutarch  describes  hhn 
as  i4»c  Or,  tA  not  yet  30,  in  469. 

f  The  later  eminence  of  Pendes  has  probably  misled  bi«torians 
into  Exaggerating  his  influence  at  this  time.  Even  the  Const,  Ath. 
(ch.  17)  says  tliat  Pericles  took  '*  some  '*  prerogatives  from  the 
Areopagos;  this  looks  like  a  eoojectiwe  band  on  Arise.  Pol.  ii.  9 
(ta),  t973;  r^rlv  'A^Iy  rAiv ^XV  'S#i«Xr^  hOkm^t  «al  Ift/tuXflr, 
a  passage  which  really  proves  nothing.  Plutarch,  who  is  cleany 
blutded by  Peridcs'  subsequent  briUiance,  makes  him  suddenly  burst 
brta  I^Kwmnence  and  hoU  the  highest  piace  for  40  years  (ks.  from 
469) ;  be  dcgradas  EphiaMs  inter  a  tool  ol  Psvidts. 

XXI  3* 


The  beginning  of  hb  asoendaacy  is  marked  by  an  unpreoedented 
outward  expansion  of  Athenian  power;  In  continuance  of 
Cimon's  policy,  200  ships  were  sent  to  support  the  Egyptian 
insurgents  against  Persia  (459),'  while  detachments  operated 
against  Cyprus  and  Phoenicia.  At  the  same  time  Athens 
teibarked  on  several  wtts  in  Greece  Proper.  An  alhance  with 
die  Megarians,  who  were  being  hard  pressed  by  their  neighbours 
of  Corinth,  led  to  enmity  with  this  latter  power,  and  before  long 
Epidaorus  and  Aegrna  were  drawn  into  the  struggle.  On  seA 
the  Athenians,  after  two  minor  engagements,  gained  a  dedaivt 
victory  which  enabled  them  to  blockade  Aegina«  -On  land 
their  general  Myronides  beat  off  two  Corinthian  attacks  oil 
'  Megara,  which  had  been  further  secured  by  long  walla  drawn 
between  the  capital  and  its  port  Nisaea,  nearly  a  mUe  distant. 
In  4S7  the  Athenians  and  their  allies  ventured  to  intercept  a 
Spartan  force  which  was  returning  home  from  central  Greece. 
At  Tanagra  in  Boeotia  a  pitched  battle  was  fought,  in  which 
both  Pericles  aiul  the  partisans  of  Cimon  distinguished  them- 
selves. The  Spartans  were  successful  but  did  not  pursue  their 
advantage,  and  soon  afterwards  the  Athenians,  seising  th^ 
opportunity,  sallied  forth  again,  and,  after  a  victory  under 
Myronides  at  Oenophyfa,  obtained  the  submission  of  all  Boeotia, 
save  Thebes,  and  of  Phods  and  Locris.  In  455  Tolmides 
ravaged  Laconia  and  secured  KaupaCtus  on  the  Corinthian 
gulf;  in  454*  Pericles  himself  defeated  the  Sicyonians,  and  made 
a  descent  upon  Oeniadae  at  the  mouth  of  the  gulf,  and  In  453 
conducted  a  deruchy  to  the  Thndair  Chenonese.  These  years 
mark  the  senith  of  Athenian  greatness.  Yet  the  drain  on  tbt 
country's  strength  was  severe,  and  when  news  arrived  in  455 
that  the  whole  of  the  Egyptiim  armament,  together  with  a 
reserve  fleet,  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  a  reaction 
set  in,  and  Cimon,  who  was  reodled  on  Pericles'  motion  (but  see 
Cimon),  was  empowered  to  make  peace  with  Sparta  on  the  basis 
of  the  status  quo.  For  a  while  the  old  anti-Persian  policy  again 
found  favour  in  Athens,  and  Cimon  led  a  great  expedition  against 
Cyprus;  but  on  Cimon^  death  hostilities  were  suspended,  and  a 
lasting  arrangement  with  Persia  was  brou^t  about.*  It  waa 
probably  in  order  to  mark  the  definite  conclusion  of  the  Persian 
War  and  to  obtain  recognition  for  Athens'  work  in  punishing 
the  Mede  that  Pericles  now*  proposed  a  pan-HelIem*c  congress 
at  Athens  to  consult  about  the  rebuilding  of  the  ruined  temples 
and  the  policing  of  the  seas;  but  owing  to  the  refusal  of  Sparta 
the  project  fell  through. 

Pericles  may  now  have  hoped  to  resume  his  aggressive  policy 
in  Greece  Proper,  but  the  events  of  the  following  yean  completely 
disillusioned  him.  In  447  an  Atheman  army,  which  had  marched 
into  Boeotia  to  quell  an  insurrection,  had  to  surrender  in  a  body 
at  Coionea,  and  the  price  of  their  ransom  was  the  evacuation 
of  Boeotia.  Upon  news  of  this  disaster  Phods,  Locris  and 
Euboea  revolted,  and  the  Megarians  massacred  their  Athenian 
garrison,  while  a  Spartan  army  penetrated  into  Attica  as  far  as 
Eleusis.  In  this  crisis  Pcrides  induced  the  Spartan  leaders  to 
retreat,  apparently  by  means  of  a  bribe,  and  hastened  to  re- 
conquer Euboea;  but  the  other  land  possessions  could  not  be 
recovered,  and  in  a  thirty  years'  trace  which  was  arranged  in 
445  Athens  definitely  renounced  her  predominance  in  Greece 
Proper.  Pericles'  foreign  policy  henceforward  underwent  a 
profound  change—to  consolidate  the  naval  supremacy,  or  to 
extend  it  by  a  cautious  advance,  remained  his  only  ambition. 

*  The  chronology  of  these  years  down  to  449  is  not  quite  certain. 

*  An  abortive  expedition  to  reinstate  a  Thessalian  prince  probably 
also  belongs  to  thw  year;  there  is  also  evidence  that  Athens  inter- 
fered in  a  war  between  ScUnus  and  Segesta  in  Sidly  about  this 
time. 

*  The  '*  peace  of  Calltas  '*  is  perhaps  a  fiction  of  the  4th  century 
orators.  All  the  earlier  evidence  goes  to  show  that  only  an  informal 
understanding  was  arrived  at,  baaed  on  the  de  facto  inability  of 
either  power  to  cripple  the  other  (sec  CrMON). 

*  448  flcems  the  most  likely  date.  Before  460  Pericles'  influence 
was  as  yet  too  small :  460-451  were  years  of  war.  After  445  Athens 
was  hardly  in  a  position  to  summon  such  a  congress,  and  would 
not  have  sent  10  envoys  out  of  20  to  northern  and  central  Greece, 
where  she  had  just  lost  all  her  influence;  nor  is  it  likely  that  the 
buHdihg  of  the  Parthenon  (begun  not  later  than  447)  was  entered 
on  before  the  congrea. 


14^ 


PERIDOTITE— PERIER 


yields  nmt  of  the  peridot  of  commerce  but  it  h  now  identified 
with  the  island  of  St  John,  or  Isle  Zeboiget,  in  the  Red  Sea, 
where  it  occurs,  as  shown  by  M.  J.  Cooyat,  in  an  altered  dunite, 
or  olivine  rock  {Bull  soc.  franq,  min.,  1908).  Tlus  is  probably 
the  Topas  Isle^  rotritj^tos  i^vctf  of  the  andcnta.  It  is  generally 
held  that  the  mineral  now  called  topas  was  unknown  to  ancient 
and  mediaeval  writers,  and  that  their  ror&f  lov  was  our  peridot. 
Sudi  waa  probably  the  Hebrew  pUdakf  trandated  topaz  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Dr  G.  F.  Kunz  has  suggested  that  the  peridots 
of  modetn  trade  are  laxgely  derived  from  old  Jewelry.  The 
famous  shrine  of  the  Three  Kings  in  Cologne  Cathedral  contains 
a  large  peridot,  which  has  commonly  been  regarded  as  an  emerald. 
It  is  notable  that  pebbles  of  transparent  olivine,  fit  for  cutting, 
are  found  In  the  United  States  in  Montana,  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico;  in  consequence  of  their  shape  and  curiously  pitted 
surface  they  are  known  as  "  Job's  tears."  (F.  W.  R.*) 

PERIDOTITE,  a  phitonic  holo-crystalline  rode  composed  in 
large  part  of  olivine,  and  almost  or  entirely  free  from  feldspar. 
The  rocks  are  the  most  basic,  or  least  siliceous  plutonic  rocks, 
and  contain  much  iron  oxide  and  magnesia.  Hence  they  have 
dark  colours  and  a  high  specific  gravity  (3*0  and  over).  They 
weather  readily  and  arc  changed  to  serpentine,  in  which  process 
water  is  absorbed  and  enters  into  chemical  combination  with 
the  silicates  of  magnesia  and  iron.  In  some  peridoUtes,  such 
as  the  dunites,  olivine  greatly  preponderates  over  all  other 
ininerals.  It  is  always  in  small,  rather  rounded  crystals  without 
good  crystalline  form,  and  pale  green  in  colour.  Most  of  the 
rocks  of  this  group,  however,  contain  other  silicates  such  as 
augite,  hornblende,  biotite  or  rhombic  pyroxene,  and  often 
two  or  three  of  these  are  present.  By  the  various  mineral 
combinations  different  species  are  produced,  e.g.  mica-peridolite, 
hornblende-peridotito,  enstatitc-peridotite.  Of  the  accessory 
minerals  the  commonest  are  iron  oxides  and  chromite  or  piootite. 
In  some  peridotites  these  form  segregations  or  irregular  masses 
which  are  of  importance  as  sources  of  the  ores  of  chromium. 
Corundum  occurs  in  small  crystals  in  many  North  American 
peridotites  and  platinum  and  the  nickel^iron  compound  awaruite 
are  foimd  in  rocks  of  this  class  in  New  Zealand.  Red  garnet 
(pyrope)  characterizes  the  peridotites  of  Bohemia.  The  diamond 
mines  of  South  Africa  arc  situated  in  pipes  or  volcanic  necks 
occupied  by  a  peridotite  breccia  which  has  been  called  kimbcr* 
lite.'  In  this  rock  in  addition  to  diamond  the  following  minerals 
are  found,  hypersthene,  garnet,  biotite,  pyroxene  (chrome- 
diopsidc).  ilmenite,  zircon,  &c. 

Some  peridotites  have  a  granular  structure,  e.g.  the  dunites, 
all  the  crystal  grains  being  of  rounded  shape  and  nearly  equal 
uze;  a  few  are  porphyritic  with  large  individuals  of  diallage, 
augite  or  hypersthene.  Some  are  Imdcd  with  parallel  bands 
of  dissimilar  composition,  the  result  probably  of  fluxion  in  a 
magma  which  was  not  quite  homogeneous.  The  great  majority 
of  the  rocks  of  this  group  are  poikilitic,  that  b  to  say,  they 
contain  olivine  in  small  rounded  crystals  embedded  in  large 
hregular  masses  of  pyroxene  or  hornblende.  The  structure 
is  not  unlike  that  known  as  ophitic  in  the  dolcrites,  and  arises 
from  the  olivine  having  first  separated  out  of  the  liquid  magma 
while  the  pyroxene  or  amphifaiole  succeeded  it  and  caught  up 
its  crystals.  In  hand  ^>eclmens  of  the  rocks  the  smooth  and 
shining  cleavage  surfaces  of  hornblende  and  augite  are  dotted 
over  with  dull  bbickish  green  spots  of  olivine;  to  this  appearance 
the  nAme  "  lustrc-mottling  **  has  been  given. 

Mica-pendotltes  are  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  A  wclMcnown 
rock  from  Kaltes  Thai.  Harzbutig,  contains  much  biotite,  deep 
brawn  in  thin  section.  Och«r  examples  are  found  in  India  and  in 
Arkansas.  Poikilitic  structure  is  rarely  well  developed  in  this 
group.  The  "  bIue>ground "  of  Kimberley  which  contains  the 
diamonds  is  a  brecciform  biotite-hypersthcne-peridotite  vrith  augite. 
In  the  north  of  Scotland,  in  several  places  in  Sutherland  and  Ross, 
there  are  peridotites  with  silvery  yellow  green  biotite  and  large 

flates  of  pale  green  hornblende:  these  have  been  called  scy elites., 
n  the  hornblende-peridotites  lustre-mottling  is  often  very  striking. 
The  amphibole  may  be  colourless  trtmotite  in  small  prisms,  as  tn 
some  varieties  of  serpentine  from  the  Lizard  (Cornwall);  or  pale 
green  hornblende  as  in  «cye1ite.  In  both  these  cases  there  is  some 
probability  that  the  hornblende  has  developed,  partly  at  least, 
Uom  olivine  or  augite.     In  sheared  peridotites  tremolite  and 


actinolite  are  vefy  fceqiieat.  Other  rocks  coneain  daik  brown 
hornblende,  with  much  olivine  t  there  may  also  be  augite  which  is 
often  intergrown  perthitically  with  the  hornblende.  Examples 
of  this  type  occur  m  North  Wales,  Anglesey,  Cornwall,  Cortland, 
New  York,  and  many  other  localiries.  A  welUknown  peridotite  from 
SchriesheinierTal  in  theOdenwald  has  pale  brownish  sfeca  amphibole 
in  lance  crystals  filled  with  small  giaios  of  olivine  woicb  ace  moatty 
serpcntinind.  Very  often  primary  brown  hornblende  in  rocks  01 
this  type  u  surrounded  by  fringes  and  outgrowths  of  colourless 
tremolite  which  has  formed  as  a  secondary  mineral  after  olivine. 
Complete  paeadomoiphs  after  olivine  composed  of  a  matrix  of  scaly 
talc  and  chlorite  crossed  by  a  network  of  tnemoUte  needles,  are 
also  very  common  in  some  poridotites,  especially  those  which  have 
undergone  pressure  or  shearing:  these  aggregates  are  known  as 
pilite. 

The  peridotites  which  eobtaln  monoclink;  pyroxent  may  be 
divided  mto  two  dassesi  those  rich  in  <fialbi^  aad  those  in  which 
there  is  much  augite.  The  diallage-peridotites  have  bc^n  called 
wehrlitcs;  often  they  show  excellent  lustre-mottling.  Brown  or 
green  hornblende  may  surround  the  diallage,  and  hypersthene 
may  occur  also  in  lamellar  intetgvowth  with  it.  Sonss  of  these 
rocks  contain  biotite,  while  a  Httki  feldspar  (often  iaussoritic)  may 
often  be  seen  in  the  sections.  Rocks  of  tms  kind  are  known  in 
Hungary,  in  the  Odenwald  and  in  Silesia.  In  Skye  the  pyroxene- 
beanng  peridotites  usually  contain  green  chrome-diopride  (a  variety 
of  augite  distinguished  by  its  pale  colour  and  the  presence  of  a 
small  amount  01  chromium).  The  augite*peridotitea  are  gnooped 
by  German  petrographers  undo'  the  picrites,  but  this  term  has  a 
shghtly  different  signification  in  the  English  nomenclature  (see 
PicarrE). 

The  enstatite^perklotites  are  an  important  group  repnsented 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Their  rhombic  pyroxene  is  often  very 
pale  coloured  but  may  then  be  filled  with  platy  eackwures  whicn 
give  it  a  metallic  or  bronzy  lustre.  These  rocks  have  been  called 
saxonites  or  harzburB:ites.^  When  weathered  the  enstatite  passes 
into  platy  masses  of  bastite.  Picotite  and  chromke  are  common 
accenory  minerals  and  diallage  or  hornblende  may  also  be  present. 
Many  of  the  serpentine  rocks  of  the  Lizard  (Cornwall)  Ayrdkire 
and  north-western  Scotland  are  of  this  type.  Examples  are  Icnown 
also  from  Baste  near  Harzburg,  New  York  and  Maryland,  Norway, 
Finland,  New  Zealand,  &c.'  Often  the  enstatite  crystals  are  off 
large  size  and  are  very  con^icuous  in  the  hand  specimens.  They 
may  ^  porphyritici  or  may  form  a  coarsely  crystalline  matriji 
enclosing  innumerable  olivine  grains,  and  then  lustre-mottling  is 
as  a  rule  very  well  shown. 

Tlie  IherzoHtes  sre  rocks,  first  described  from  Lhers  In  the 
Ryrenees,  t^nsisting  of  olivine,  chrome-diopside  and  enstatite,  and 
accessory  pkotite  or  chromite.  They  are  fine-grained,  bright 
gneen  in  colour,  often  very  fresh,  and  may  be  somewhat  Kranulitic. 
The  dunites  are  peridotites,  similar  to  the  rock  of  Dun  Mountain, 
New  Zealand,  composed  essentially  of  oKvine  in  a  finely  granular 
condition.  Many  examples  of  this  type  are  known  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  Usually  as  kwal  facies  of  other  kindsof  peridotite. 
In  oli vine-basalts  of  Tertiary  age  in  the.  Rhine  district  small  nodules 
of  green  olivine  occur  frequently.  They  are  of  rounded  shapes 
and  may  be  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  structure  is  granular  and 
in  addition  to  olivine  they  may  contain  chromite,  spinel  and 
magnetite,  enstatite  and  chrome^iopside.  Some  geologists  believe 
these  to  be  fragments  of  dunite  detached^  from  masses  of  that  rock 
not  exposed  at  the  surface;  others  consider  that  they  are  aggre- 
gations of  the  early  minerals  of  the  basalt  magma,  which  were  already 
crystallized  before  the  liquid  rock  was  emitted. 

The  great  majority  of  stony  or  lithoidal  meteorites  (aerolites) 
are  rich  in  olivine  and  present  many  analogies  to  the  terrestrial 
peridotites.  Among  their  minerals  are  nypcrsthene  (enstatite)  augite 
and  chrome-diopside,  chromite,  pyrite  and  troilite,  nickMiferous 
iron  and  basic  plagioclase  feldspar.  The  stmcture  of  these  meteor- 
ites is  described  as  ^'chondritic  ";  their  minerals  often  occur  as 
small  rounded  grains  arraiiged  in  radiate  clusters;  this  has  very 
rarely  been  observed  in  ordinary  peridotites. 

Although  many  peridotites  are  known  in  which  die  constituent 
minerals  are  excellently  preserved,  the  majority  show  more  or 
less  advanced  decomposition.  The  olivine  is  e^iectally  unstable 
and  is  altered  to  serpentine,  while  augite,  hornblende  and  biotite 
are  in  large  measure  fresh.  In  other  cases  the  whole  rock  is  changed 
to  an  aggregate  of  secondary  products.  Most  serpentines  {q.v.) 
arise  in  this  way.  (J.  S.  F.) 

n&RIER,  CASIMIIt  PIERRS  (1777-1839),  French  statesman, 
was  bom  at  Grenoble  on  the  zith  of  October  1777,  the  fourth 
son  of  a  rich  banker  and  manufacturer,  Qaude  PIrier  (174*- 
x8oi),  in  whose  house  the  estates  of  Dauphiny  met  in  1788. 
Claude  P6rier  was  one  of  the  first  directors  of  the  BaMk  of  France; 
of  his  eight  sons,  Augustin  (1773-1833).  Antoine  Scipion  (1776- 
1821),  Casimir  Pierre  and  Catnille  (!78i-i844),  aH  distinguished 
themselves  in  industry  and  In  politics.  The  family  teiroved 
to  Paris  after  the  revolution  of  Thermidor,  and  (Casimir  joined 
the  army  of  Italy  in  1798.    On  his  father's  death  be  Ht  the 


PERIOEEi^PERIGUEUX 


Army  And  with  hi*  brother  Sdpion  foundtd  a  Wmk  »  Pbtw, 
the  speculations  of  which  he  dacected  while  Sdpioa  occupied 
himself  with  its  administration.  He  opposed  the  roinous 
methods  by  which  the  due  de  Richelieu  tought  to  tbIsc  the  war 
Indemnity  demanded  by  the  Allies,  ia  a  pamphlet  JUJtxhns 
sur  If  pr^t  d'cmpruiU  (1817);  followed  in  the  same  year  by 
Dcnti'ercs  rificxions  .  .  in  aoswer  to  an  iospirod  article  in  the 
Uottilcur,  In  the  same  year  he  entered  the  chamber  of  deputies 
for  Paris,  taking  his  scat  in  the  Left  Centre  with  the  moderate 
opposition,  and  making  his  first  speech  in  defence  of  the  freedom 
of  the  press.  Re-elected  for  Paris  in  i8as  and  1824,  and  in 
X827  for  Paris  and  for  Xroyes,  he  elected  to  represent  Troyes. 
and  sat  for  that  constituency  until  his  death,  .  P6rier*s  violence 
in  debate  was  not  associated  with  any  disloyalty  to  the  monarchy, 
and  he  held  resolutely  aloof  from  the  republican  conspiracies 
and  intrigues  which  prepared  the  way  for  tlie  revolution  of 
1830.  Under  the  Martignac  miniatry  there  waa  some  prospect 
of  a  reconciliation  with  the  court,  and  in  January  18*9  he  was 
nominated  a  candidate  for  the  pxcsidency  of  the  chaniber;  but 
in  August  with  the  elevation  to  power  of  Polignac  the  truce 
ceased,  and  on  the  istb  of  March  1830  he  waa  one  of  the 
331  deputies  who  repudiated  the  preteuHoma  put  forward  by 
Charlip  X.  Averse  by  instinct  and  by  interest  to  popnUt  levolu- 
tion  ht  nevertheless  sat  on  the  provisory  commisaion  of  five  at 
the  h6td-de-viUe  during  the  days  of  July,  but  he  refused  to  sign 
the  declaration  of  Charles  X.'s  dethronement,  Pfrier  reluctantly 
recognised  in  the  goveniment  of  Louis  Philippe  the  only  alterna- 
tive to  theoontinuanceof  the  Revolution;  but  he  waa  no  favourite 
with  the  new  king,  whom  he  aoomed  lot  his  tmcUing  to  the  mob. 
He  became  president  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  aat  for 
a  few  months  in  the  cabinet,  though  without  a  portfolio.  On 
the  fan  of  the  weak  and  discredited  ministry  of  laffitte,  Caaimir 
F^rier,  who  had  drifted  more  and  more  to  the  Right,  was 
summoned  to  power  (Mardi  13,  1831),  and  in  the  short  apace 
of  a  year  he  restored  dvic  order  in  France  and  re<«Btablished 
her  credit  in  Europe.  Paris  waa  in  a  conatant  state  of  disturb- 
ance from  March  to  Septcsnbert  and  waa  only  held  in  check  by 
the  premier's  determination;  tJbe  workmen's  revolt  at  Lyons 
was  suppreased  after  hard  fighting;  and  at  Grenoble^  in  face  of 
the  quarreb  between  the  military  and  the  inhabitanta,  Vina 
declined  to>  make  any  concession  to  the  townsfolk.  The  minister 
refused  to  be  dragged  into  armed  intervention  in  favour  of  the 
revolutionary  government  of  Wanaw,  buthia  policy  o£  peace 
did  not  exclude  energetic  demonstrations  in  support  of  Fkeneh 
interests.  He  oonstituted  France,  the  protector  of  Bdgium 
by  the  prompt  eq;iedition  of  the  army  of  the  north  against  the 
Dutch  in  August  1831;  French  influence  in  Italy  was  asserted 
by  the  audackma  occupation  tA  Ancona  (Feb.  S3,  £833);  and 
the  refusal  of  compensation  for  injuries  to  Flench  residents  by 
the  Portuguese  government  waa  followed  by  a  naval  demonstra- 
tion at  Lisbon.  Pto'w  had  undertaken  the  premiership  with 
many  fofebodings,  and  overwork  and  anxiety  prepared  the  tray . 
lor  disease.  In  the  apring  of  X833  duting  the  cholera  outbreak 
in  Paris,  he  visited  the  hospitals  in  company  wiitk  the  duke  of 
Orleans.  He  fell  ill  the  nest  day. of  a  violent  fever,  and  died 
aix  weeks  hiter,  on  the  16th  of  May  11833. 

His  Opiniem  a  Usewmt  wert  edited  by  A.  Lerfeur  fo  vols.,  1838) ; 
C.  Nicouliaud  irablitbed  in  1804  the  first  part  {Caamir^PMa, 
diputi  de  i'op^oiUwu,  1817-1830)  of  a  study  of  his  life  and  poUcy; 
and  his  ministry  is  exhaustively  treated  by  Thureau-Dai^in  in 
vols.  i.  and  ii.  (1884)  of  his  HisUrire  de  la  monarchie  dejuiUeL 

His  elder  son,  Augusts  Vicron  lAuasMT  CAsmza  Piam 
(1811-18763,  the  father  of  President  Casimir-P^rier  (see  Caswu- 
P^eb),  entered  the  diplomatic  service,  being  attadied  suc- 
cessively to  the  London,  Brussels  and  St  Peter^urg  embassies, 
and  in  1843  became  minister  plenipotentiary  at  Hanover. 
In  1846  he  resigned  from  the  service  to  enter  the  legislature 
as  deputy  for  the  dcpaxtment  of  Seine,  a  constituency  which 
he  exchanged  for  Aube  after  the  Rcvolutk>n  of  1848.  On  the 
establishment  of  the  Second  Empire  he  retired  temporarily 
from  public  life,  and  devoted  himself  to  economic  questions  on 
which  ha  published  a  series  of  works,  notably  Let  Finances  et  la 


1+9 

(1863),  4leaUiig  with  the  interacekm  of  political  In- 
atitutieoa  and  finance.  He  contested  Grenoble  unanccessfuHy 
in  1863  against  the  imperial  candidate,  Casimir  Hoyer;  and 
failed  again  for  Aube  in  1869.  In  1871  he  waa  returned  by  thiee 
departmenta  to  the  National  Aaaembly,  and  elected  to  sit  for 
Aube.  He  waa  minister  of  the  interior  for  a  few  months  In 
t87 1-1872,  and  his  retirement  deprived  Thiers  of  one  of  the 
strongest  elements  in  his  catnaet.  He  also  joined  the  short- 
lived ministry  ol  May  1873.  He  oonsntently  oppoaed  all  eSorta 
In  the  direction  of  a  moninrchical  itatoiatian,  but  on  the  definite 
conatitutioB  oi  the  republic  became  a  life  aenator,  declining 
MacMahott's  invitation  to  form  the  first  cabinet  uncter  the  new 
constitution.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  fith  of  June  1876. 

For  the  family  in  geneeal  see  E.  Choalet,  La  FamiUe  Cbt«miV- 
P4ner  (Grenoble,  1894). 

FBRIQBB  (Gr.  ir^  near,  y^,  the  earth),  in  aatronomy  that 
point  of  the  moen'a  orbit  or  of  the  aon'a  apparent  orinr  at 
which  the  moon  <x  sun  approadi  neaieat  to  the  earth.  The 
sun'a  perigee  and  the  earth'a  perihelion  are  ao  related  that  they 
differ  i8e*  in  longitude,  the  fint  being  on  the  line  from  the  earth 
toward  the  sua,  and  the  second  from  the  sun  toward  the  earth. 
The  loagitade  of  the  aolar  perigee  is  now  xok%  that  of  the  earths 
perihelion  sBx^. 

pfeUOOBD,  one  of  the  old  provinoca  of  Friuice,  formed  part 
of  the  military  government  of  Guienne  and  Gascony,  and  was 
bouiKied  on  the  N.  by  Angoumoia,  on  the  E.  by  Limousin  aiui 
Queicy,  on  the  S.  by  Agoiaia  and  Basadais,  and  on  Che  W. 
by  Bortklaia  and  Saintonge.  It  is  now  represented  by  the 
departmenta  of  Docdogne  and  part  of  Lot-ct-Garonne.  P^rigord 
waa  in  two  divisions:  P£rigord  blanc  (cap.  P£riguevz>  and 
P^rigord  lurir  (capb  Sarlat).  In  the  time  of  Caesar  it  formed 
the  dvitas  Petr0C4friontm,  w&h  Veaunna  (PCrigueux)  aa  ita 
capitaL  It  became  later  part  of  A^uitania  secmmda  and  formed 
the  papa  pekagarieiUt  afterwarda  the  diocese  of  P^rigueuz. 
Since  the  8th  century  it  had  ita  own  counts  (see  the  Hiskure 
iMahiiqut  of  P.  Anadme,  tome  ilL),  who  were  feudatoriea  of 
the  dukea  ol  Aquitaine  and  in  the  i3tfa  century  were  the  vasaab 
of  the  king  of  England.  In  the  i$th  century  the  county  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  dukea  of  Orleans,,  and  in  the  16th  came 
to  the  family  of  d'Albret,  becoming  Crown  land  again  on  the 
accession  of  Henry  IV. 

See  I^eaaalles,  Hisleire  dm  Piritord  (1888),  the  Bolletin  of  the 
Saciiti  huierique  et  arehiohfwue  du  Phri^erd  (1874  teq.),  FJmeMtaiee 
eommaire  dela"  CoUe^tian  do  Piritord  "  in  the  BibuothAque  natippale 
(1874) ;  the  Dietionnatre  topotrapnimu  du  dipartemaU  de  la  Dordogne 
by  the  Vicomte  de  Gouzgues  (1073J. 

PfiUOUBUX  a  town  of  soutb-western  France,  formerly 
capital  of  the  old  province  of  P^rigord,  now  chief  town  of  the 
department  of  Dordogne,  79  m.  E.N.E.  of  Bordeaux,  on  the 
railway  between  that  dty  and  Limoges.  Pop.  (1906),  081X99. 
The  town,  situated  on  an  eminence  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Isle,  is  divided  into  three  parts.  On  the  slope  of  the  hill  is 
the  medieval  town,  bordered  south-east  by  the  river  and  on  the 
other  three  sides  by  esplanades  and  prontenades;  to  the  west 
is  the  modem  town,  which  stretches  to  the  station;  to  the  south 
of  the  modem  town  is  the  old  Roman  town  or  citi,  now  traversed 
by  the  railway. 

Three  bridges  connect  P6rigueux  with  the  left  bank  of  the 
Isle,  where  stood  Vesunna,  the  capital  of  the  Petrocorii.  Hardly 
a  trace  of  thia  old  Gallic  town  remains,  but  not  far  off,  on  the 
Plateau  de  U  Boissi^,  the  rampart  of  the  old  Roman  camp 
can  still  be  traced.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Isle,  in  the  Roman 
city,  there  have  been  discovered  some  baths  of  the  ist  or  3nd 
century,  supplied.by  an  aqueduct  four  miles  long,  which  spanned 
the  Isle.  A  circular  building,  called  the  "  Tower  of  Vesunna," 
68  ft.  in  diameter  and  89  ft.  in  height,  stands  at  what  waa 
formerly  the  centre  of  the  dty,  where  all  the  chief  streets  met. 
It  is  believed  to  have  been  originally  the  cella  or  main  part  of 
a  temple,  probably  dedicated  to  the  tutelary  deities  of  Vesunna. 
Of  the  amphitheatre  there  still  remain  huge  fragments  of  wall 
and  vaulting.  The  building  had  a  diameter  of  13x3  ft.,  that 
of  the  arena  being  870^1.;  and,  judging  from  its  construction. 


yt-SD 


PERIHELION— PERINO  DEL  VAGA 


must  be  as  old  as  the  3rd  or  even  the  zod  centuty.  The  counts 
of  P^rigueox  used  it  for  their  ch&teau,  and  lived  in  it  from  the 
X3th  to  the  end  of  the  14th  century.  In  1644  it  was  given  over 
by  the  town  to  the  Order  of  the  Visitation,  and  the  sisters  took 
from  it  the  stones  required  for  the  construction  of  their  nunnery. 
The  most  remarkable,  however,  of  the  ruins  of  the  eiti  is  the 
Cb&teau  Barri^re,  an  example  oif  the  fortified  houses  formerly 
common  there.  Two  of  its  towers  date  from  the  3rd  or  4th 
centuiy,  and  formed  pait  of  the  fortified  enceinte;  the  highest 
tower  is  of  the  xoth  century;  and  the  part  now  inhabited  is 
of  the  zith  or  12th  century,  and  was  formerly  used  as  a  burial 
chapel.  The  bulk  of  the  ch&teau  is  of  the  xsth|-and  some  of 
the  windows  of  the  x6th  century. 

The  chief  medieval  building  in  the  otf  is  the  church  of  St 
£tlenne,  once  the  cathedral.  It  dates  from  the  nth  and  i3th 
centuries,  but  suffered  much  injury  at  th^  bands  of  the  Pro- 
testants in  the  religious  wars  when  the  tower  and  two  of  the 
three  cupolas  were  destroyed.  The  choir  and  its  cupola  were 
skilfully  restored  in  the  X7th  century.  A  fine  carved  wooden 
teredos  of  the  17th  cratury  and  a  tomb  of  a  bishop  of  the 
t2th  century  are  to  be  seen  in  the  interior.  In  the  medieval 
town,  known  as  Le  Puy-St*Front,  the  most  cemaxki^le  building 
is  the  cathedral  of  St  Front,  whidi,lill  its  restoration,  or  rather 
Tebuilding,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  '19th  century  when  the  old 
features  were  to  a  great  extent  lost,  was  of  unique  architectural 
^ue.  It  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  Byzantine 
churches  and  to  St  Mark's  at  Venice,  and  according  to  one  theory 
was  built  from  984  to  1047,  contemporaneously  with  the  latter 
(977-Z085).  It  consists  of  five  great  cupolas,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  Greek  cross,  and  conqpicuous  from  the  outside.  ,The 
arms  of  the  cross  are  69  ft.  in  width,  and  the  whole  is  184  ft. 
long.  These  cupolas,  89  ft.  high  from  the  keystone  to  the 
ground,  are  supported  on  a  vaidted  roof  with  pointed  abches 
after  the  manner  characteristic  of  Byzantine  architecture. 
The  pointed  arches  imitated  from  it  prepared  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  the  Gothic  style.  Adjoining  St  Front  on  the 
west  are  the  remains  of  an  old  basilica  erf  the  6th  century,  above 
which  rises  the  belfry,  the  only  one  in  the  Byzantine  style  now 
extant.  It  dates  from  the  xzth  century,  and  Is  composed  of 
two  massive  cubes,  placed  the  one  abo^  the  other  in  retreat, 
with  a  circular  colonnade  surmounted  by  a  dome.  To  the 
south-west  of  St  Front,  the  buildings  of  an  old  abbey  (iith  to 
16th  century)  surround  a  cloister  dating  chiefly  from  the  Z3th 
century.  Of  the  fortifications  of  Puy  St  Front,  the  chief  relic 
is  the  Tour  Mataguerre  (X4th  century). 

P6rigueuz  is  seat  of  a  bishop,  prefect  and  court  of  assizes, 
and  has  tribunals  of  first  instance  and  of  commerce,  a  chamber 
of  commerce  and  a  branch  of  the  Bank  of  France.  Its 
educational  establishments  indude  a  lycfe  for  boys,  trkining 
colleges  for  both  sexes  and  a  school  of  drawing.  Tlie  trade  of 
the  town  is  in  pigs,  truffles,  flour,  brandy,  poultry  and  pies 
known  as  pdUs  de  Pirigor<L 

Vesunna  was  the  capital  of  the  Pelrocorii,  allies  of  Vercinge- 
torix  when  Caesar  invaded  Gaul.  The  country  was  afterwards 
occupied  by  the  Romans,  who  built  a  second  city  of  Vesunna 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isle  opposite  the  site  of  the  Gallic  town. 
The  barbarian  invasion  brought  this  prosperity  to  a  close.  St 
Front  preached  Christianity  here  in  the  4th  century  and  over 
his  tomb  there  was  raised  a  monastery,  which  became  the  centre 
of  the  new  town  called  Le  Puy  St  Front.  The  ciU  was  pillaged 
by  the  Saracens  about  731,  and  in  844  the  Normans  devastated 
both  quarters.  The  new  town  soon  began  to  rival  the  old  city 
in  importance,  and  it  was  not  until  1240  that  the  attempts 
of  the  counts  of  P6rigord  and  the  bishops  to  infringe  on  their 
municipal  privileges  brought  about  a  treaty  of  union.  During 
the  Hundred  Yeara'  War,  P^rigueux  was  twice  attacked  by  the 
English,  who  took  the  cilS  in  1356;  and  the  whole  town  was 
ceded  to  them  by  the  Treaty  of  BrStigny,  but  returned  to  the 
French  Crown  in  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  The  county  passed 
by  marriage  into  the  hands  of  Anthony  of  Bourbon,  father 
of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  converted  by  the  latter  into  royal 
domain.   During  the  Huguenot  wars  Pfrigueux  was  frequently 


a  itrMghoM  of  th«  Calvinistft,  who  in  15^5  did  great 
(lestruction  there,  and  it  also  suffered  during  the  troubles  of 
th~e  Ftronde. 

PBfUHBUON  (Gr.  ine^,  near,  ifXtot,  sun),  in  astronomy,  the 
point  of  nearest  approach  of  a  body  to  the  sun.    (See  Okbit.) 

PBIUII,  a  British  ishnd  in  the  strait  of  Bab^l-Maadeb,  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  96  m.  W.  by  S.of  Aden. 
Perim  Is  2  m.  from  the  Arabian  shore,  is  about  3I  m.  long  with 
an  average  breadth  of  over  a  mile  and  coveis  some  7  sq.  m. 
There  b  a  good  harbour  with  easy  entrance  on  the  south  side 
with  a  depth  of  water  from  25  to  30  ft.  It  is  largely  used  by 
mercantile  vesseb  as  a  coaling-station  and  for  taking  in  stores, 
including  fresh  water  and  ice.  Perim,  the  Diodoros  island  of 
the  PtripluSt  was,  in  consequence  of  the  French  occupation 
of  Egypt,  garrisoned  from  1709  to  i8ox  by  a  British  force.  In 
view  of  the  construction  of  the  Sues  Canal  and  the  increasing 
importance  of  the  Red  Set  route  to  India  the  island  was  annexed 
to  Great  Britain  in  1857,  fortified  and  placed  under  the 
charge  of  the  Aden  ttAdtocy,  In  x86x  a  lighthouse  was  built 
at  its  eastern  end.  Submarine  cables  connect  the  island  with 
Aden,  Egypt  and  Zanzibar.  Population,  including  a  garrison 
of  so  sepoys,  about  100. 

PBRINO  DBL  VMIA  (1S00-XS47),  a  painter  of  the  Roman 
School,  whose  true  name  was  Pbrino  (or  Pxero)  Buonaccoksl 
He  was  bom  near  Florence  on  the  28th  of  June  1500.  His 
fatbo:  ruined  himself  by  gambling,  and  became  a  soldier  in  the 
invading  anny  of  Charies  VIII.  His  mother  dying  when  he 
was  but  two  months  old,  he  wu  suckled  by  a  she-goat;  but 
shortly  afterwards  he  was  taken  up  by  his  father's  second  wife. 
Perino  was  first  apprenticed  to  a  druggist,  but  soon  passed  into 
the  hands  of  a  mediocre  painter^  Andrea  da  Ceri,  and,  when 
eleven  years  of  age,  of  lUdolfo  Ghirlandajo.  Perino  rapidly 
surpassed  his  fellow-pupils,  applying  himsdf  especially  to  the 
study  of  Michelangelo's  great  cartoon.  Another  mediocre 
painter,  Vaga  from  Toscanella,  undertook  to  settle  the  boy  in 
Rome,  but  first  set  him  to  work  in  Toscanella.  Perino,  when 
he  at  last  reached  Rome,  was  utterty  poor,  and  with  no  dear 
prospect  beyond  journey-work  for  trading  decorators.  He, 
however,  studied  With  great  severity  and  spirit  from  Michelangelo 
and  the  antique,  and  was  eventually  entrusted  with  some  of 
the  subordinate  work  undertaken  by  Raphael  in  the  Vatican. 
He  assisted  Giovanni  da  Udine  in  the  stucco  and  arabesque 
decorations  of  the  loggie  of  the  Vatican,  and  executed  some  of 
those  small  but  finely  composed  scriptural  subjects  which  go 
by  the  name  of "  Raphael's  Bible  **-^  Raphael  himself  fumishinf 
the  designs.  Perino%  examples  are:  "Abraham  about  to 
sacrifice  Isaac,"  "  Jacob  wrestling  with  the  Angel,"  **  Joseph 
and  his  Brethren,"  the  **  Hebrews  crossing  the  Jordan,"  the 
"  Fall  «nd  Capture  of  Jericho,"  **  Joshua  commanding  the  Sun 
to  stand  still,"  the  "  Birth  of  Christ,"  "  His  Baptism  "  and 
the  **  Last  Supper."  Some  of  these  are  in  bronze-tint,  while 
others  are  In  full  colour.  He  also  painted,  after  Raphael'^ 
drawings,  the  figures  of  tSie  planets  In  the  great  hall  of  the 
Appartamentt  Borgia.  Perino  exhibited  very  uncommon  faculty 
in  these  works  and  was  soon  regarded  as  second  only  to  Ginlio 
Romano  among  the  great  painter's  assistants.  To  Raphad 
himself  he  was  always  exceedingly  respectful  and  attentive, 
and  the  master  loved  htm  almost  as  a  son.  He  executed  many 
other  works  about  Rome,  always  displaying  a  certain  mixtuzv 
of  the  Florentine  with  the  Roman  style. 

After  Raphael's  death  in  X520  a  troublous  period  ensued  for 
Perino,  with  a  plague  which  ravaged  Rome  in  1523,  and  again 
with  the  sack  of  that  dty  in  X527.  Then  he  accepted  an  invita- 
tion to  Genoa,  where  he  was  employed  in  decorating  the  Dor^. 
Palace,  and  rapidly  founded  a  quasi-Roman  school  of  art  in  the 
Ligurian  dty.  He  ornamented  the  palace  in  a  style  similar 
to  that  of  Giulio  Romano  in  the  Mantuan  Palazzo  del  Td»  and 
frescoed  historical  and  mythological  subjects  in  the  apartments, 
fanciful  and  graceful  arabesque  work,  sculptutal  and  architec- 
tural details^in  short,  whatever  came  to  hand.  Among  the 
prindpal  works  are:  the  '*  War  between  the  Gods  and  Giants,** 
'*  Hontius  Codes  defendmg  the  Bridge,''  and  the  **  Fortitude 


PERINTHUS^PtRJODICALS 


«Si 


cC'  Motha  -SeMVola.'*  The  tMSl  fmporlafit  n^ork  of  all,  'the 
'*SWpwrccfc  of  Aeneas,"  is  no  longer  extant.  From  Genoa 
Pcrino  twice  visited  Pisa,  and  Ix^aa  sonac  painting  in  tbt 
catbedral.  Fanally  be  returned  to  Rome,  where  Pftul  UL 
allowed  him  a  regular  salary  till  the  painter's  death.  He 
retouched  many  of  the  works  of  Kaphael,  and  laboured  hard 
oa  his  own  account,  undertaking  all  sorts  of  jobs,  important 
or  trivial.  Working  for  any  price,  he  made  krge  gains,  but  fdl 
into  mechasi^al  negligence.  Perrno  was  engaged  in  the  general 
decoration  of  the  Sala  Reale,  begun  by  Paul  III.,  vhen  his  health, 
undermined  by  constant  work  and  as  constant  irregularities, 
gave  way,  and  b«  fell  down  dead  on  the  i9tb  of  October  1547. 
He  Is  buried  in  the  Pantheon. 

Ferino  produced  some  exceHcnt  portraits,  and  his  sroallcf  oil 
pictures  combine  with  the  manner  of.  Raphael  sonvething  of  that 
of  Adreadel  Sarto.  Many  of  his  works  were  en^^ravcd,  even  in 
his  own  Ufetime.  Dabiele  Rlcciarelli,  Girotamo  Siclolante  da  Scr- 
moneta,  Luzio  Romano  and  MajnoeUo  Venosti  (Mantovano)  were 
among  his  principal  assistants.  (W.  M.  R.) 

PUUNTHUS  (Turk.  Eski  Bre^i,  old  Heradea),  an  aadcnt 
town  of  Thrace,  on  thePropontis,  32  m.  W.  of  Selymbria,  strongly 
situated  on  a  small  peninsula  on  the  bay  of  that  name.  It  is 
said  to  have  befcn  a  Samun  colony,  founded  about  599  b.c 
According  to  Tsetaes,  its  original  name  was  Mygdonia;  later 
It  was  caUed  Heradea  (Hera^lea  Thradae,  Heradea  Perinthus). 
It  is  famous'  chiefly  for  its  stiibbom  and  successful  resistance, 
to  Philip  n.  of  Macedon  in  340;  at  that  time  it  seems  to  have 
b«n  mott  important  than  Byaantium  itself. 

PERIOD  (Gr.  mptaioSf  a  going  or  way  round,  drcuit,  «tpf, 
round,  and  dUr,  way,  road),  a  drcult  or  course  of  time^  a  cydei 
particularly  the  duration  of  time  in  which  a  planet  revolves 
round  its  auni  or  a  satellite  round  its  primary,  a  definiteoii 
indefinite  recurring  interval  of  time  marked  by  some  spedal 
or  pecuUdir  character,  e.g.  in  history,  literature,  art,  tic;  it  is 
so  used  of  a  division  of  geofegical  time.  Particular  us«a  of  the 
wortl  are  for  the  various  phasM  through  whicii  a  disraae  passes, 
the  termination  or.condusion  of  any  course  of  evehts,  the  pause 
at  the  end  of  a  completed  sentence,  and  the  mark  (.)  used  to 
signify  the  same  (see  PuNCTUxnoN). 

PBBIODICAUI,  a  general  tenn  for  Uteraiy  imblicatkma 
wMch  appear  in  numbers  or  parts  at  regular  interyals  of  lime— r 
as  a  rule,  weekly,  monthly  or  quarterly.  The  term  strictly 
Indudes '  newspapers''  (9V-)«  but  in  the  narrower  sense  usually 
intended  it  is  distxngubhed  as  a  convenient  ezpresaioa  for 
periodical  pnbUcatiohs  wMch  differ  from  newspapers  in  not 
being  primarily  for  the  circulation  of  news  or  formation  of 
ephemeral  interest,  and  in  being  issued  at  longer  intervals.  In 
modem  timet  the  weekly  journal  baa  become  so  much  of  the 
nature  of  a  newspaper  that  it  sddbm  can  be  called  a  periodical 
in  this  sense.  The  present  artide  chiefly  deals  with  publications 
devoted  to  general  literature*  literary  and  critical  reviews 
aAtt  magazines  for  the  supply  of  misceUaneous  reading.  In 
the  artide  SociEnzs  (9.9.)  an  account  is  separately  given  of 
the  transactions  and  proceedings  of  learned  and  sdentific  bodies. 
Year-books,  almanacs,  directories  and  other  annuals  belong  to 
a  distinct  type  of  publication,  and  are  not  referred  to  here. 

BaitisR 

The.  first  literary  periodical  in  English  was  the  MereuHus  lUtrarius, 
or  a  Faithful  Account  of  oU  Books  and  Pamphlets  (1680)'.  a  mere 
catalogue,  published  weekly  or  fortnightly  m  London,  followed 
by  WtelUy  Memorials  for  Ike  Irtteniouf  u&n*  I^b  K681-1683  to  Jan. 
15.  i68a).  which  vras  tnotc  of  the  type  of  the  Journal  des  Saoanis 
(see  under  FaANca  below),  whenos  it  borrowed  many  coatittrntiotts. 
Of  the  History  of  Looming  (itei)— another  with  the  «me  titbcame 
out  io  i694«-only  a  few  numbers  appeared,  as  the  conductor,  De 
la  Croae,  sUrted  the  monthly  Works  of  iko  Uotnod  (Aug.  169!  to 
April.  169a).  devoted  princioaUy  to  continental  flcbolarship.  The* 
montkly  Compk^i  Iwroiry  (1^  to  1694)  »>•  &  venture  of  John 


lefegeev  who  also  edited  at-  Amsterdam  the  iNNetf M^m  on^oiig 

JxjrT^iTio),  and  subsequently  M4moir€s  liuiraires  do  la  Crando 
trttogHo  (i73o-<i7a4}.  Returning  to  Engknd  in  1725.  he  recom- 
menced his  Now  Memoirs  of  IMorature  (172^1738),  a  monthly,  and 
in  1730  a  LiUrary  JounuU,  Dr  Samuel  Jebb  started  BiMolheca 
merttfia  (i73a*^7a4},  to  appear  every  two  months,  which  doUt 
with  medab  and  antiquitles'Ss  weH  as  with  literatnre,  but  only  ten 
numbers  appeared.  Jlio  Frose$it  State  of  Ike  RepiMick  of  Letters 
WM  commenced  by  Andrew  Reid  in  January  1728.  and  completed 
hi  December  1736.  It  contained  not  only  excellent  reviews  of 
English  books  but  papers  from  the  works  of  foreigners.  Two 
volumes  came  out  eacn  year.  It  was  successful,  as  also  was  the 
Historic  IHerariA  (173O-1734)  of  Archibald  Bower.>  The  Bee,  or, 
Unioersal  Weekly  Pamphlet  (x7|a^t735)  of  the  unfortunate  Eustace 
Budgell,  and  the  LiUrary  Ma^juine  (1735-17^6),  with  which 
Ephraim  Chambers  had  much  to  do,  were  mort^llved.  The 
last  named  was  continued  in  1737  as  the  History  ^  the  Works 
of  tko  Learned,  and  was  carried  00  ^thout  intertniasion  untU 
I743i  vhen  its  place  was  taken  by  A  Literary  Journal  n!>ubKn, 
1744-17^^9).  the  first  review  published  in  Ireland.  The  Mmeum 
(1746)  or  R.  Dodsley  united  the  character  of  a  review  of  books  with 
that  of  a  literary  masarine.  It  came  <mt  fortnightly  to  the  12th 
of  September  1747.  Although  England  can  show  nothing  like  the 
Journal  des  satfonts,  which  has  flourished  almost  without  a  break 
for  two  and  a  half  centuries,  a  nearly  complete  series  of  reviews 
of  English  literature  may  be  made  up  from  1661  to  the  present 
day. 

After  the  dose  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  1 8th  century  the  literary 
periodical  began  to  assume  more  of  the  style  of  the  modem  review, 
and  in  1749  the  title  and  the  chief  features  were  united  in  the  Monthly 
Review,  established  by  Ralph  Grifliths,'  who  Conducted  it  unta 
1803,  Whence  it  was  edited  by  his  son  down  to  1821}.  It  came  to 
an  end  in  18^5.  From  its  commencement  the  Revt^o  dealt  witfi 
science  and  literature,  as  well  as  with  literary  critidam,    It 


Duntwit  the  monthly  Momoirtfor  tko  ingtmous  {t^\\  edited  by 
J.  de  la  Crose,  ran  for  la  months,  and  another  with  toe  nme  title 


appeared  in  iho  following  year,  only  to  enjoy  a  briefer  career.  The 
first  periodical  of  merit  and  influence  was  the  History  of  tko  Works 
of  Ike  Leatnod  (ifi9i^i7i')»  tergely  consisting  <A  denriptions  of 
mteigtt  beoka  The  Memoirs  of  Ltteratstro^  the  first  EngBsb  review 
ooosistbg.  entirely  of  original  matter,  published  in  London  Ifom 
^7 10  to  t7J(4,  bad  for  editor  Jdicbel  da  la  Itodhaw  a  FrenchProtcqSant 


Whig  in  politics  and  Nonconformist  in  theology.  The  first  series 
ran  trom  1749  to  December  ^789,  81  vols.;  the  second  from  1790 
to  1815, 108  vols. ;  the  third  or  new  series  from  1826  to  1830, 15  vols.; 
and  the  fourth  from  1831  to  i84<,  4$  vols.,  when  the  magazine 
stopped.  There  is  a  general  index  (1749-1789)  3  vols.,  and  another 
(i72K>-i8i6),  2  vols. 

The  Tory  party  and  the  established  church  were  defended  in  the 
Critical  Review  (i756-l8i7)f  founded  by  Archibald  Hamilton  and 
supported  by  Smdlett,  Dr  Johnson  and  Robertson.  Johnson 
eontributed  to  fifteen  numbers  of  the  Literary  Magasine  (1756-1758). 
The  reviews  rapidly  increased  in  number  towards  the  end  of  the 
century.  Among  the  principal  were  the  London  Review  (1775-1780), 
A  JVewKewew  (1782-1786),  the  £»{/«* /?«w«>  (1783-1796),  incoroor- 
ated  in  1797  with  the  Analytical  Review  (1788-1799),  the  Anti' 
Jacehtn  Rmew  and  Magasim  (1798-1821),  and  the  British  Critic 
(1793-1843),  the  organ  c»  the  High  Church  party,  and  first  edited 
by  Archdeacon  Nares  and  Bdoe. 

These  periodicals  had  now  become  extremely^  numerous,  and 
.many  of  the  leading  London  publishers  found  it  convenient  to 
maintain  thdr  own  particular  organs.  It  is  not  a  ^  ^ 
matter  of  suiprise,  tnereforc,  that  the  authority  of  vifumirwoo, 
the  reviews  should  have  fallen  somewhat  in  public  estiniation; 
The  time  was  ripe  for  one  which  ^ould  be  quite  independent 
of  the  booksellers,  and  which  should  also  aim  at  a  higher 
standard  of  excellence.  As  far  back  as  17^5  Adam  Smith,  Blair 
and  others  had  produced  an  Edinburgh  Reotow  which  only  ran  to 
two  numbers,  and  in  1773  Oilbert  btuart  and  William  Smellie 
issued  during  three  years  an  Edinburgh  Magaxiru  and  Review, 
To  Edinburgh  is  also  due  the  first  high-class  critical  journal, 
the  Edinburgh  Review,  established  in  October  1802  by  Jeffrey, 
Scott,  Horner,  Brougham  and  Sydney  Smith.  It  created  a  new 
era  in  periodical  criticism,  and  assumed  from  the  commencement 
a  wider  range  and  more  elevated  tone  than  any  of  its  predecessors. 
The  first  emtor  was  Svdney  Sniith,  then  Jeffrey  for  many  years, 
and  later  editors  were  Macvey  Napier,  William  Empson,  S^r  G.  C« 
Lewis,  Henry  Reeve  and  the  Hon.  Arthur  Elliot.  Its  buff  and  blue 
cover  y^sta  adopted  from  the  colours  of  the  Whig  party  whose  political 
principles  it  advocated.  Among  its  more  famous  contributors  were 
Lord  Brougham,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Carlylc,  HazUtt  and  Macaulay. 
Scott,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  new  review,  persuaded  John 
Murray,  his  London  publisher,  to  start  its  brilliant  Tory  competitor, 
the  Quarterly  Review  (Feb.  iSog),  first  edited  by  WHliam  Gifford, 
then  by  Sir  T.  T.  Coleridge,  and  subsequently  toy  I.  G.  Lockhart. 
Rev.  Whitwell  Elwin.  W.  M.  Macpherson.  Sir  Wm.  Smith.  Rowland 
Prothero  and  G.  W.  Prothero.  Among  the  contributors  in  successive 
years  were  Canning.  Scott  (who  reviewed  himself).  Robert  Southey, 

*  Archibald  Bower  (1686-1766)  was  educated  at  Douai,  and 
became  a  Jesuit.  He  subsequently  professed  himself  a  convert  to 
the  AngUean  Church,  and  publislieci  a  number  of  works,  but  was 
more  esteemed  for  his  ability  than  for  his  moral  character. 

*  The  biomphcrs  of  Goldsmith  have  made  ua  familiar  with  the 
name  of  Griffiths  (1790-1803),  the  proq>en>us  pirf>lisher,  with  hie 
diploma  of  LL.D.  ^ntcd  by  an  American  mimsity,  and  with  the 
quarrels  between  bun  and  tlw  poet. 


FSRIODICALS 


. Althauf  h  Ibc  fnqucntn  of  tbe  cisb*  mud 

colTfc^HUta  vere  tbe  pcnou  for  whom  the  vauv-p^pcn  wen 
naipls'  vrittvn,  ii  inof  of  Ok  iDOTuiiv  TTfiwmFnt  «  tbe  ■£«  ii 

uKiiiUr  iililniiiil  ■•  put  ol  (bi  mdiiii  tuMic ,  The 
fitlir  mi  csnuKnad  by  Rkhvd  SMde  >a  1709,  ud  TMIn  ^^ 
lulled  IhrtH  >  ir«k  qntif  17I1.  The  idea  *u  u  oux 
eitnoiely  popular,  aiid  ■  dtuen  iiDilbr  papcrt  wen  lurted  «fiiiia 
thfl  nv,  ei  ieMt  one  heif  bearuig  edourabie  iahuiaiH  of  tbe  tklb 
Addum  csnuibuud  to  the  rulv,  »iid  UfeAd  wllfa  Sttelf  »ub- 
lubed  awl  carried  oci  the  SptiiiJor  (1710-1714),  and  aubae4UEDIl« 
"le  duntun  (T71]).  Tbe  oewipaper  lax  enlorced  in  1713  dea£c 
hard bkiw  at  Ibeie.  Befste  Ihll  time  the  dailTinuecrf  the  5fiiitator 
_ad  nscfaed  3000  mpies;  il  then  (ell  ID  iCoo;  the  galea  «■  laiaed 
imm  a  pendy  ta  IwiHIeim.  but  the  paowune  to  aa  ead  in  17^4- 
Dr  Dialce  (fiujrf  illmU.  tl  fb  Saiihur,  he,  a.  400)  diew  up  aa 
iDpetfect  lilt  01  the  auyilta,  and  reekoaBd  that  mad  the  TaMtr 
to  Johnion't  ^mlitf,  dani^ga  period  a(  fony-oiie  yean,  106  papcia 
d  tliii  deKriplion  were  nibliiLed.  Dr  Diake  continued  tlie  lia 
down  to  iSoo,  aid  deKribed  aftonthtr  3it  vhii±  had  appeared 
wilfald  a  hundnd  >iAn.  The  Fcdicnnuc  i*  a  list  of  (be  rngat  contidet- 
'lie.  iritb  Iheir  datea,  (oaaden  and  chief  mntributon: — 
Ttai  tApril  11,  I7D9  to  Jul  a,  1710-1711).  Siedc,  AiUam, 
Swi[t.Hti^aLfte.;i^ttMier  (Maich  1,1710-17111000^10,1714), 
AddiuBrSteae.  Bud|dl,  Hudn,  Cnvt.  Pope,  Pamell,  S<ritt.  Acl; 
CuorAaii  (Maieh  11,17131000.1.  mi).S(ee1e,Addiwin.  Berkeley 
P<ipe.r>elieU,BuMi,&.lX«i(fcr(Huth».i7jotDMaidi  14 
IJjaj.Ji^— -  ■-'^— ■ '" »■ — '-■  •  ••     • 


eul  of  Orfoid;  Soamc  Jeanu,  Ac-i  CmaMueB  (Jan.  %\,  17S4  u 
Sept.  JO.  175n,  Cohnin.  ThomtoiL  Wanen.i«lo(CHE.  At:  Ate 
(April  IJ.  me  to  April  3.  i76a).|obawn.Sit  J.  RaymMaaiid  Beaiet 
Lugtoi;  Sa  (Oct.  6, 1759  to  Nov.  34. 1739),  0>  CtMunitb:  JHfnr 
[laD.  a^  1779  10  May  17,  17B0],  Maekciiale,  Crait.  Aberenabv, 
Home,  Bannatyne,  Ac;  I<iiiii(<r  (Feb.  5,1785  to  Jao.  6.  17I7), 

Cnli.  Abercronitw.  Tyder:  mma  (17S3  to  iTw). 

iZMbr^s  <Mareh  10. 17^  10  Fdi.  1. 1794),  W.  RotHI^ 

jf^  fran  tbe  '^nam^AIet  of  newi "  BAiie  the  weekly  paper  vhoHy 

drcutacion  of  neva,  eo  Emm  (he  ceneral  i 

(be  weekly  or  oumlhly  review  of  lileia- 

.  _, a  and  acjence,  which,  when  it  indoded' 

ai^-p»|ien,  mada  up    * 


iebb  inchijed  aL_,_„ 

lib  KhMiua  Jilmina  (1721-17141,  wevioiiAlv  m . 

Cnamm-i  ITafaiat,  jminkd  In  in(,  fully  enUiihed,  ttiitai|k 
tha  taa  ud  coeiXT  ef  tb*  publiiher  tUvwd  Cave  ().•.).  (be  trpa 
of  tbe  fBa«aiM,lniii  tiut  tima  »  natked  a  ka(un  <J  Eaabk 
periodical  Itientiiiv.  Tbe  Gnt  ids  ii  due  ta  Matteui,  (ram  whoa 
the  tide,  motto  and  jenetal  plan  were  borrowed.  Tliechic(leaturer« 
lure  at  lirvt  «onrii(ed  of  Ibc  arvlysi 


iWi^/aWJipaMT  (173J-17B4),  wl: 
ueer.  Tlie  new  masaane  doacly  _ 
>p«t,  tod  biner  war  wat  tool  waged  I 
Bi  not  wkboM  bencSt  (o  (he  bun 
'  each  med  every  efiort  to  improve  (li 
iced  the  pnctice  dt  gl^ilf  enrraviiiei,  maps  and  portis 
•  fieateat  aiiccen  wu  tbe  addmon  of  Samuel  JobiiiDfi 
le  refnlar  Ka9.    TUa  took  placw  la  ITJt,  when  (be  lit* 


(r*.)n 


TUa  took  liicw  la  I73(,  wbei 

o  tbe  volume  for  (bat  yen,  otnetvlne  that  (be  m 
m  "  jpven  liie  to  aiioan  twenty  imitations  o(  it.  which  are  elbn 
It  dead  or  veiy  nttte  icgarded.  The  plan  waj  alto  Imitated  in 
leninark.  Sweden  and  Germany.  The  Cenlitmvn*i  ifaiatint  win 
aniinged  by  Cave'i  brotber-in-liw,  David  Heniy,  iderwinli  by 
phn  Micholj  and  hij  Mm.'    Cave  appeara  (Q  have  been  the  lint 


>  The  ficK  aerlea  ol  the  CMlnuo'i  Uoftini  tr  Tttdtr'i  UmMj 
fKA^ieaarr.  extended  (rom  JaniBry  1731  (O  Decemba- 1733.  3  veil.; 
the  Iimdnua'i  ITufudK  cud  lliilcrktl  Cknmidi  (niai  Janaary 
173d  to  December  1S07.  vol*.  6-77;  new  nrin,  January  lloS  la 
December  1*33,  voh.  7*-ii«;  new  uriea,  1814-1856.  45  «"■! 
new  (third)  Kriei.  lt56-IMg.  19  vob-i  new  (founh)  aeiiei.  i8e6- 
1868.  3  voti.  A  ([enenl  Index  to  the  fiiM  twenty  vda.  apptand 
>nl7S3-  S.  Ancouth  brouahl  out  an  Ihds  to  tbe  tnt  tftT-*a  nb.. 
I73I-I7M  {1789).  1  vola.,  and  one  by  J.  NIeholi,  1787-1(18  (1811). 
1  vole,  A  codplcleliHof  tbe  platetand  weodeuti  (I73t-l8l3)  wa> 
publiriied  in  1814.  add  anether  Hat  (lyjt-ilK).  in  t8tl.  The 
CratfffHH'j  ilaguhu  IMnay.  Mw  ■  dauf|M  alUaimt  tfUmOiif 
raWnU  tfUi  amtsua't  IfaMniu,  (men  1711  IB  t«M,  ii  low 
baini  (died  bf  Mf-C.  L.  Cocdm  (lUJ,  At.,  vda.  1-17X 


PERIODICALS 


«53 


(p- iMt  tlw  «Did  oMginit  b  the  Mdte  of  a  penddioBl  of  onotUaiMCNM 
kteratiire.  T^  •peaally  anUquamn,  biographical  aad  historical 
(Mttirea,  which  flMke  tbw  ma^aine  lo  yahabkb  a  ston-home  for 
iofonoatioa  for  the  period  it  covere,  were  dropped  in  1866,  when 
aa  "  cntiiely  a«w  acnes,"  a  misoellaay  of  light  Ufleratoie  was  suoocs- 
Mvely  edited  by  Cowing.  Joseph  Hatton  and  Josei^  Kni^t. 

Maay  otlier  ipagaaiaes  were  produced  in  conseqoeaoe  of  the  euocess 
of  thoie  two«    It  will  be.  juffideot  to  meation  the  fottowhia:    The 

"     ■        fi 


Scots  Jlagaaifi0(i7a9-i8i7/waBthe  tint  pahllshed 
1817  to  i8a6  it  was  styled  the  Edin^ttrgk  Maeuim,  TAe  Utmenai 
Uagamm  (1747)  had  a  short,  if  brillient,  career;  but  the  BmnpetM 
Miamaimt,  foonded  by  JaflMa  Penry  in  1782,  lasted  dowa  to  i896w 
Of  more  importance  thtm  these,  or  than  the  BayiUUHanne  (i7S9^ 
1771)  was  the  Monthly  Mtufxauu  <i796>i8a3),  with  wMch  Pnestley 
and  Godwin  were  /onginaliy  connected.  During  thirty  yeaia  the 
Monthly  was  condacted  by  Sir  Rkhard  Phillips,  under  whom  it 
became  more  statistical  and  scientific  than  Uteiary.  Class  magasinee 
were  represented  by  the  Edinburgh  Pamur's  Magaaino  (1800-1835) 
aad  the  PkUasopkical  Maguine  (1798),  established  in  London  by 
Alexander  Tillodi ;  the  latter  at  first  consisted  chiefly  of  translations 
of  adentific  articles  from  the  French.  The  following  periodicals,  all 
of  which  date  from  the  i8th  century,  are  still  published:  the  Gospel 
Mocesiw  (1 M56.  with  which  is  incoiporated  the  BriHsk  ProUsUni),  the 
HVSnmi  Motkodist  Manuhu  (1778).  Curtis's  BotanUal  Magamno 
(1786),  EoamtetKol  Maganno  (1793*,  once  1905  the  Bmntditai 
BriUsh  Missionary),  the  PUlosopMial  Mammno  (1798).  now  kfiown 
as  the  London,  EAinbwgh  and  Dnblin  PhUosopktfal  Maguine. 

The  increased  influence  of  this  class  of  periodical  upon  publie 
opinion  was  first  apparent  in  Blackwood^s  Edinburdt  Maganino, 
fouaded  ia  IB  17  by  the  publither  of  that  name,  and  carried  to  a 
high  degree  of  excellence  by  the  contributions  of  Scott,  Lockhart, 
Hogg,  Magina,  Syme  and  Joha  WflsoO  ("  Christopher  North  **). 
John  Gait  and  Samuel  Warren.  It  has  always  remailied  Liberal 
10  Uteiatufe  and  Conservative  in  politics.  The  Ncm  MonMy 
Magaaino  is  somewhat  cariier  in  date.  It  was  founded  in  1814 
by  the  London  publisher,  Colbum,  and  was  edited  in  turn  by 
Campbell,  Theodore  Hook,  Bulwer^Lytton  and  Ainsworth.  Many  of 
Carlyle's  and  Thackeray's  pieces  first  appeared  in  Fraser*s  Magaaine 
(1830),  loogfamoos  for  its  personalitlea  and  its  gallery  of  literary 
portraits.  The  MttropolHan  Magaaine  was  started  in  opposition 
to  Fnser,  and  was  first  edited  by  Campbell,  -who  had  left  its  rival 
It  aubsc(|uently  came  into  the  hands  <A  Captain  Marryatt,  who 
printed  in  it  many  of  his  sea-tales.  The  BrUisk  Magpatne  (1831-' 
I8a9)>  indndtti  rel^ioua  and  ecdesiastica]  information.  From 
Ireland  came  the  Dublin  UniotrsUy  Magaaine  (1833).  The  regular 
price  of  these  magaeines  was  half  a  crown;  the  first  of  the  cheaper 
ones  was  Toifs  Edinburgh  Mogaaine  (i83>-i86i)  at  a  shilling.  It 
was  Radical  in  poKtics,  and  had  Roebuck  as  one  of  its  founders. 
BontUys  Miscdlany  (i837'i868)  was  exdusivdy  devoted  to  novels, 
light  fiteratura  mm  travels.  Several  of  Ainsworth's  romances, 
illustrated  by  Cruikshank,  first  saw  the  light  ia  BtnUey.  The 
NasUkal-  Mwudno  (1833)  was  addressed  specially  to  saikirs,  and 
Colbarn's  Vniled  Seratto  /owmU  (1899)  to  both  tervioea.  The 
Asiatic  Journal  (1816)  dealt  jnth  Orienul  subiecta. 

From  i8i{  to  i8ao  a  number  of  low-pricea  and  uswholesome 
periodicals  flourished.  The  Mirror  (1823-1849),  a  two>penny 
illustrated  magazine,  begun  by  John  Limtrfrd,*  and 
'  the  Mschaniis  Magaaitie  (1833)  were  steps  Irt  a  better 
direction.  The  poUtKa!  agiuaon  of  1831  led  to  a  further 
popular  demandr  and  a  supply  of  dieajp  and  healthy  serials  for 
the  icadtag  mulritade  commraced  with  Chambers^ $  Journal  (1832), 


the  Ponmy  Magaaine  (1832-1845)  of  Charies  Kniri^t,  and  the  Sahtrday 
Magaaina  (18^1844).  oegmi  bv  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge.  Tbefirrtwaspaulsbedat  ifd.andthebttttwoat  id. 
Knight  ascured  the  best  authors  and  artists  of  the  day  to  write  for 
aad  UlMtiate  Us  aiaKaxine.  wluch,  tboogh  at  first  a  commercial 
auceesa,  may  have  had  the -reason  eif  its  subsaoaent  discontinuance 
ia  Its  literary  eicellence.  At  the  end  of  1832  tt  had  reached  a  sale 
of  MNKOoo  ia  wceldy  nambers  and  mon&ly  parts.  It  came  to  an 
and  la  184^  and  was  succeeded  by  KnigMs  Penny  Magaaine 
(1845),  which  waseiopped  after  dx  monthly  parts.  These  periodicals 


fallowed  by  a  number  of  penny  weeklies  of  a  lower  tone,  such 
•a  the  Paimly  Harold  (1843),  the  London  Journal  (1843)  and  Lloyd's 
MtsctUamf,    la  1850  the  sale  of  the  first  of  them  was  ^Haced  at 

S  175,000  cc^iies,  the  second  at  170,000,  and  JJoyd*s  at  93.000.  In 
IS46  foarteen  penny  and  three  hatf-^senny  magadnes,  twelve  social 
umala,-  and  thhty-sevea  book-serntb  were  produced  every  week 
Loadon.  A  fwther  and  permanent  improvement  fai  cheap 
wfeeklica  foe  home  reading  may  be  traced  from  the  foundation  <m 
HomUts  JoumuA  f  i847>i840),  and  more  cspedally  Household  Words 
(1850),  oonductad  by  Charles  Dkkens,  AU  ike  Year  Round  ' 
by  the  same  editor,  and  afterwards  by  his  son,  Once  A  Week 
aad  the  £mnir»  fftfar  (1859).  The  t^n  6[  l^ptes  and  Queries  , 
for  the  purpose  of  iater-eommunieation  among  thoa&  interested  Cn 
flpedal  pofaits  of  literary  and  anti^fuariaa  character,  has  led  to  the 


tm^ 


'  Jdia  Limbird,  to  Whom  even  before  Cbamberti  or  Knight  Is 
due  the  carrying  out  the  idea  of  a  cheap  and  good  periodical  for  the 
Mopit,  died  on  the  31st  of  October  1883,  wfthoot  having  adiieved 
tka  VBridly  pnapemy  of  Ida  two  foOowera,  -  - 


adoptioo  of  dmOar  departflHttIa  hs  a  great  aomber  of  aewspaueia 
aad  periodicala,  and,  beddea  aeverd  imitators  In  England,  there 
are  now  paralld  Journals  ia  HoUaad,  France,  and  Italy. 

ShilUns  moothUes  beisa  with  MacmiUan  (1859)*  the  Comkm 
(i860),  first  edited  by  Thadtcray,  and  Temple  Bar  (i860).  51 
James's  Magaaisia  (1861),  Behraasa  (1866),  St  Paul's  (1867-1874), 
London  Society  (1863),  and  Tisula/e  (1867)  were  devoted  chiefly 
to  novels  and  light  reading.  Sixpeaay  illustrated  magarinee  eom- 
meaced  with  Good  IFsfds  (i860)  and  the  OvMer  (1861).  both  reUgiouB 
tendency.    In  1883  eraur  chaaged  its  aaaie  to  LangHui,n*s 


m 


MagaamOf  and  was  populariaed  and  reduced  to  sbrpenceL  The 
Comhsll  fdlowed  the  same  example  in  1883,  redttdnglts  price  to 
sixpence  and  devoting  its  pages  to  1m^  reading.  The  Estffiisk 
JUuslrated  Magaaina  (1883)  was  broug^  out  in  ooaapetition  with 
the  American  Harpaif's  and  Century,  The  Pall  Matt  Magaaina 
foUowad  in  1893.  Of  the  artistk  periodicals  we  may  sigoalije  the 
Art  Journal  (iSko)*  PortfaUo  (1870),  Mag^uine  of  AH  (1878-19^), 
Studio  (189^1),  Ceaffoiumr  (1901),  and  BurUnttaH  (1903).  Taa 
Bookman  (i«B6),  for  a  combinatioa  of  popular  and  literary  qualities^ 
and  the  Badsninten  (189;^,  for  spot,  abo  deserve  mentkin.  One 
of  the  most  characteristic  developments  of  later  joamalism  was 
the  establishment  b  1890  of  the  Rmew  of  Rtaiews  by  W.  T.  Stead. 
Meanwhile  the  number  of  cheap  periodi^ls  increased  enormoashr, 
each  as  the  weekly  Tit'bits  (1881),  and  Answers  (1888),  and  profusely 
iUustiated  magarinee  appeared,  like  the  Strand  (1891),  Pearson's 
(1896),  or  Windsor  (1895).  Professions  and  trades  now  have  not 
oidy  their  geneial  dass-periodicals,  but  a  special  review  or  magadne 
for  everjr  section.  In  1910  the  magadnes  and  reviews  published  ia 
the  Umted  Kingdom  numbered  2795.  Religious  periodicals  weia 
668:  338  weia  devoted  to  trade;  301  to  sport;  691  represented  tlw 
prpfeMOBal  classes;  5i  agriculture;  aftd  3 16  were  juvenUe  periodicals^ 
The  London  monthlies  were  797  and  the  quarterlies  155. 

Indexes  to  EnMsh  Periodiaus.—'A  laige  number  ^periodScab 
do  not  preserve  nterary  matter  of  permanent  vdue,  but  the  high- 
class  reviews  and  the  archaetJogical,  artistic  and  scientific  magadnes 
,  contain  a  great  niass  of  valuable  facts,  so  that  general  and  special 
indexes  have  become  necessary  to  all  litenuy  workers.  Lists  of 
the  separate  hKlexes  to  pastlcuUtt'  series  are  given  in  H.  B.  Wheatley'a 
What  is  an  iMdext  (1879),  W.  P.  Courtney's  RegiOer  of  National 
Bibliography  (1909,  a  vols.),  and  the  List  of  Books  JormUsg  Oie 
R^erence  Ltbrory  ia  the  reading  room  of  the  British  M  oseum  (4tt  ed. 
1910,  3  vols). 

AuTHORTms.— "  Periodicals,'*  in  the  British  Museom  catajegae; 
Lowndes,  BOUotm^iar^s  Manual,  by  Hy.  C.  Bohn,  (1864);  CdL  of 
PeriodieaU  in  the  Bodl.  Lib.,  pt.  l,  "  EngUdi  Periodicals'*  (1878); 
CeLefthe  Hope  Cotteelion  of  Eaiiy  Nempapers  amd  Essayists  in  the 
Bodl.  Lib.  (18^ ;  Scudder,  CaL  ofSeieniOi:  Serials  (1879) :  Andrews, 
Hisi.  of  Brtk  Joum^ism  (1859) ;  Cocheval  Clarigny,  Htsi,  de  la  Presse. 
en  AnHeterre  H  amx  Slats  Unis  (1857) ;  Madden*  Hist,  of  Irish  Period. 
Lit-  (1867):  5.  Grant,  The  Great  Metropolis,  IL  339-337;  **  Periodkal 
E;p8ays  of  the  Age  of  Aaae,**  in  N.  American  Rea.  vol.  dvi. ;  Drake, 
£tsayt  on  the  **Spatator,'*  "  ratfcr,"  &c  (i8io-t8t4);  Courthope, 
Addison  ("Eagl.  Men  of  Letters,*'  1884);  "Forgotten  Periodical 
Pahtications."  in  Notes  and  Qneriaa,  3rd  series,  vol.  ix.  p.  ^^ 
**AboenTit  of  Periodical  Literary  Jouroals  from  1681  to  1749,"  by 
S.  Parkes,  in  Quart,  Joum,  efSe.,  LU.,  Art;,  xiiL  36, 389:  see  also  Must' 
and  Queries,  ist  aeries,  woL  vi  pp.  337,  435;  '^Last  Century 
■     -  "      -     '.  (1876)1  P-  3*5?  *•  Periodical 

'  ix.  p.  7»t 

''  Earty  l£ottaa  C^tholte  1^^^  ibT,  6th  series,  vol.*  £  pw  43, 

&c.,  iv.  Bii:  Thnperley,  Bncy.  of  Lit.  Anec  (1843);  C.  KnigHt, 
The  (Xd  Printer  and  the  Modem  Press  (1854),  >«>  Passages  of 
a  WorUng  Life  (1864-1865);  Memoir  ef  Rob^  Chatnbers  (T873); 
the  LofSion  Cat.  of  Periodscals,  Newspapers,  6fe.  (1844-1910);  The 
Booksetter  (February  1867,  Tune  and  July  1868,  August  1874,  July 
1879);  "On  the  Unstamp(Bd  Pleas,"  Notes  and  Qumes,  4th  aeriea, 
voL  a.  and  xi.  (1873*187^,  and  English  HbL  Reaiesr  (1807).  dL 
7ii'-736s  '*  Contrlbutiona  Towards  aa  Index  of  Serid  Storiei,**  by 
W.  L.  Fletcher,  Library  Journal  (1881),  vi.  43,  166;  **  Byways  ol 
Periodkml  Literature^"  Watford*s  Aniiq.  Mag.  (1887).  d.  179-186^ 
xS.  65-74;  Cat<Uogue  of  MMtesMes  ifc,  reed,  at  the  Mdbenma  Pub, 
Lib.  (itei);  "  English  Penodical  Uteratuie,"  by  W.  Bobertaoa 
NkoU,  Boohmastr  (189$) ,  vol.  i. ;  "  The  Pedodkd  Pkesa,  i86s-ifl95> 
byT.H.S.Escott,B&chnwdj:i8Q4),  pp.  i^,  533;  "  Biblioaapby 
of  Periodical  Uteratuf«,'*  by  F.  Omipbell,  TTutLdbrary  fiM),  viiL 
49;  "  Biblkigrapby  of  the  British  Periodicd  Press,*'  by  D.  WOflaaia 
la  Mitchell's  Nemspapar  Direetory  (1903),  pp.  13-131  "Eomi 
Reviews,"  by  A.  wemihtpfitU,  voL  40:  "Bttunua on  Periodieal 
Cdtfcism,"  Saintsbory,  History  of  Oitteism  (1904).  »>•  408-428. 
Aa  regards  the  treatment  of  penodfcab  in  libranes  see  "  Hdpa 
lor  Cauk)gaen  of  Scrids,**  by  H.  C.  Bdton  in  Boston  BuU,  of  BMU- 
f  (1897); "  Co-operative  lists  of  periodioals,"  lAbran  Journal. 
I,  adv.  39-33,  *'  uakm  Lift  of  Periodkals  in  Chicago  Libraries,** 
;  Libraries,  Chicago  (1900),  v.  60;  "Ckre  of  Periodicala 
in  a  Library."  by  F.  R.  Jaekson,  Public  lAhraries,  Chicago  (1906),  vol. 
xl.  Complete  fisu  of  eiment  British  pedodkals  are  indadcd  In 
Mitchell's  Newspaper  Press  Directory,  Street's  Newspaper  Directory, 
and  WiHing's  Pms  Guide,  and  a  sdect  list  and  other  folormatiofk 
art  glvea  b  the  Literary  Year  Boot, 


IS* 

UtIOTDSTAtai  ^^ 

•imultiTKOuIy.  SiMfml  by  tlw  maxm  BlOmfin^n^JU 


luna  FnnkKn  loondid  tbt  Cmtial 


PERIODICALS 

Kmimr  (ilia),  bn^  out  u  Gi 
tlw  hdit  a(  the  pntaaon  of  the 
■liaibn  apfouvd.  Hikt't  If 
potiliaL  hiMorical  and  Incnry- 
gUM  ind  IMM  laoKiB  of  ■■  l£r . 
(Od  na  (iiuded  by  WOibb  Ti 
■Malioncd'Antltdon  CluU  Ailc 
BV«(  the  miiw  uaic_duh  tlm 

AiexABOer  k<| 


v^.r...     .„(,     g^     _„,^    , ^ 

vail  Huic  to  ihow,  ■•d  editft  by  Jovph  Dmm  , 
the  pabKcatlon  ol  the  PirffMi,  curiR]  on  to  1817  ■<  PI^Uc 
Pw  five  ycirt  it  mi  ■  wteldy  miicelLuiy  in  quvio,  ■nd  uu 
•D  octavo  monthly;  it  wu  the  5nt  Amcfitian  Kriat  which  could 
btui  el  H  lotif  (n  eiiMnice.  Oiuln  Brockdcn  Brown  atabliihid 
tlw  New  Vsck  MnlWy  Mmviat  dm),  which,  chui^nt  it>tiile 
Id  Tht  Amtriam  Anne,  wu  cDntinucd  to  1801.  Brcnv  loaad^ 
at  Philadelphia  the  LOmry  lAifUJM  (i8o3-i«oa)i  he  and  Dtni 

Buy  be  COnidcrFd  u  havuV  beea  the  £nt  Aiivnnn  ivn(r«Mnr 

men  ol  ktun.    The  Anthotofy  Clnb  waa  eal 
ttoj  by  PhiiKai  Adaim  for  the.  cultlnstion  _  . 
dwBia»A  of   phildaophy.    TidciHr.  Enfett  a 


heofnoot 


JwiediDt 


helittia™ 


>hilad%d 


lilbolopt  Wilun.    In 

Tbe  fint  WRithnn  mUl  mi 
linlan.     New  Vark  pnned 


acJK  of  a  lain 

the  coBly  >i^  _. r 

tilt  UcmMy  Afubf  (iSos)  of  ( 

■a  pmadial  wunhy  ol  tb*  cit,    — ^   

iiatatmt  ■ppeared,  which  cliaiiRd  its  niDie  «bartlT  aftemrdl 
iotiitNiwVirk  JUdMMt  Jjinrw,  and  wu  uinxirtEd  by  R.  C.  Sanda 
—- ""  ^  -Iryaiii.    N.>.  WinitwaoneoTlheedil •  ■^-  "— 


ixdluyji  _._ 

iyy^.,eJ^°S2^ 

L'lS.'^,-^   ■■ " 


-c^M-S; 


Owned,  edited  and  almoat 
fciUciwed  with  hi>  IF  ' 

ia  a  ■imilar  mannrr 
at  New  York  the  . 

moat  of  Iltt  leading 
beenomlrlbutai*.   I 

1844),  Beaton,  the  1 
by  Hanaret  Fuller, 

Kpiey.    Other  maL , . 

bejJ-lBjt),  the  StMhirn  Uumry  Maititrrr  (iBu)-  Richmond,  the 
finAiMiM'i  Uatatine  (1817-1S40).  and  the  /tiUnutliiHul  UtttBiu 
<iIS<>-iB;3).edileilbyli.W.(^w<ild.  The  yib  Uemry  jrac<»>i» 
dated  from  leu,  TheJfircJlaiiU'lfd(aafHwaauiiitediniS7iwitli 
the  Ctmmtrtal  saJ  Pimmdal  CImtikk.  FinI  is  order  ol  date 
BiKK  the  oitrenl  monthly  muadnca  csinca  the  New  York  ffar^i 
HirSinMyUiittaiiiU8^)A^T])aCB^iB-'- "       '  - 


iDd  aulncqucnlly  by  R.  H 


•oial,  then' the 'Bnloi!  TiMU  iimOly  {It&Ti,  with  irtdch 
l)ioirTniatedtbelHilsi><iU6)ialB7>.fanKHiarDritaedltinLo«eu, 
Howclli  and  T.  B.  AMrkh,  and  Ita  coaliibutan  a  W.  Hman, 
Luiifellow.  Wbinierandolbin.   Next ..■...-.-..-..---- 


SSi,? 


r.  Wbinierandoibin.   Vtxc  aat  LipfiiuiiU'i  UtK^M 
a  Philadelphia,  and  the  CtimtttUMi  tlBM)  aiaj  SaOi^'t 


(IS70,  known  aa  the  Oiuin  laaiUaM  Mtmi 

nNevYork.   The« wen Fallo*«r^ &rilwV„_ 

(tWT>,  the  Kiu  EnOani  Wnaiv  UtSt).  lb*  ISumud  JMne^ 
Amw  (1890),  Itfcdan'i  Vefu'w  {■»«).  t)>cB«ih«ii  (1695I.  the 
H-orM'i  »<^i  (1909).  the  AmTian  Utatftiv  (1906)  .u^edae 
Pnnk  Lnlie'a  PotiOar  UmlUy,  and  Manlrj'l  Uata^nt  (ISSq). 
All  are  iHutlntnl,  and  three  in  particular,  tbr  Cntory,  Strilmtr't 
and  Huffm'i,  cairiod  the  art  p<  wood-eaginving  to  a  hish  naadird 


Robert  Walah  in  iSl 


0  i»mi  so  an  Ametlan  re 

1  u  Philidalpbia  ailk  the  1 


«<  a«  CmiW  JtifHitirj  aid 

!!^£y%n  «1  *Uck  aaly  low 

KWUf   JkfuMr   <>ln-iS«S)     nw 
'     The  jfarO  .tawMi  Xmm^  dH 

or,  ftiVieniber  of  the  pvevid^T 
m  ]-Mn'  r  Trnrnl  Tailw-  hanrb.i 
lyM  the  NoRk  Akiicu  dab, 


Br  acqnired  th 


—iiabefm  alooat  every  Aaarican  wi .,, ..  _i 

been  publiiked  nonlflyjemapi  in  Sept.  l9a6^-Sipt.l90hi>(B(tK. 

MtabKibMl  at  PhUadiltiUi  by  Rot*~*  u/aiaa  ^^m*^  h%  *«  — ^..- 

hi*  depMlm  for  Etntw,   m  & 

i>ji)ieaiiducudl)»a^^     '  "  " 

dl  the  poliliea  and  fiai 

It  <na  lauiduted  in  1 

iwDweclollawedbytK  __    _ 

Xmna  (iSUriSu),  aftemrda  the  'fmincn  Wilt  Aw*  {■«< 

iSSi],  the  JUun^HMU  QaaUrijRmUwl  lia-t  B9BJ,«da  few  mc .  _ 

The  Ntw  Entlvultr  ( 1SU-1S91).  the  BMaJ  JCcMrUn  ami  FrimMm 

-—■—  '-'--■   -'--  l/uumi  Qiarlotj  Kairm  {iMo)  and  tk  New 


n  OiiMitT  Anil 

,  S.  EUkN  HdC.  W.  Smn  I 
U»  Snith,  anjovHl  a  abort 
Ihertuneea  veai 


__ .jii  include  [be  New  Ygifc  Liitmrj 

Gaatu  (1S34-183S,  [B39),  Dt  Baw'i  Rutin  (iB^I.  (he  Limty 
WoM  (1817-1851).  the  Cfiunm  <iS3s-i856f,  Uw  "o—J  r.tfc 
(I84j-l844),  iheTaum  tlS64-1873>.  •«  AtpHUmt  Jomrmml  (1869!. 
Theknlini  ennenl  monthliet  indude  the  New  York  r*nm  ltU6), 
Arima  (1S90).  C»rrtil  LUiralim  (1888),  and  SsaiKiK,  the  OiicM* 
DmJ  (rSSo).  and  the  Crnnwich.  Conmclicirt.  Lilmary  ClUiajr. 
Foiemon  aouni:  the  weaUiea  csniea  the  New  Yoek  Nun  (i«6s>. 
Religioua  penodicala  baft  been  exnemdy  numerocM  in  tlw  united 
Suiet.  The  eailieK  wai  the  n«liinial  JfajMH  (iTob-iM). 
The  CkrutuM  Etamintt  datea  from  1824  and  laitad  down  to  tVTQh 


.     ,    ..,..<«)  chanjad.ltL ^ 

CFpmeniiaE  the  Ainerian  Boan]  of  Miwni.     Tba    ifalh 

l/apiiiMt  dint*  from  181S  and  the  CbMaii  Diinfdi  fnaa  ilit. 
The  ^nwioH  BiWcsf  KiitfiUtn  (1831-1850),  ■  vma^w,  wia 
nnited  with  the  AndowANudn  JacmTliiS]  ud  mlt  Ite 
rtaib'rca;  Bc^iKk  (iMj).  firiHHJM'i  QmmOt  Amit  fargaa 
a>  the  BaiUnt  QwaUrh  gmem  ia  iSjS,  and  did  oiikIi  to  tatndua 
to  AmcncAn  TEaom  the  tvorka  of  die  modern  French  pUaaaiikkal 
•chooL  Other  aDiali  oi  thia  ctaB  ue  the  fmnlial  Efrntil 
Qaamrty  firrw  (i«5a),  the  Prahlrnaa  Uagum  (l8si-l«M. 
the  CuWic  WeHi  (186]),  tbe  &ul<rn  Aejiw  (1867),  t<"  "— 
Jmuii/al  ifuiuiiH  (18^7),  Amtriitn  Battitt  ifafaiirHtll 
£■*.«*  ^«™  (1848).  the  C*rul«iiJto--'-°-'^--  *>- 

Siurliriy  (1S44)-  Current  rdJaioua  qi 
mtTiaa  Jminul  if  T*raltri  (lid  tbe  Obeilir 
The  ChiciE9  BibHaa  Wfliu  p..KiI.k~1  ..—I 

xUilUr    (1B06-1S11),    Sityket'a 

Edwaldl'l    Amtriaa    Qnarltrly ^ 

EntUrtd  Hiiloriail   and    Cnualotiiii  Jttt 


theil 


ind  Ctnmloriitl  Jtituitr  (1847),  Folioin'i 
(1837).  the  JVm  Vgfit  Cni2iiiimi  KatM 
aai  of  Almcriaiii  History  littJi).    Thrre  ia  aim 


racu  from   Englith   V 


PeoDtylvailia,  Amt 

have  been  alinoft  eoiirciy  n 

-jnd  in  &i«l"  JI'^T^ ,. 

iK  (1844)  and  LiluU's  Liztn.  At,  (iSm)  may  be  __. 

817  Ajninca  powsisd  oiJy  one  loeBIIAc  permfcA  th* 

/  i^  Uxntnioty.    Piofmir  Silllman  enaUiahai  the  iowW 

_.  by  hi.  name  .111818.  Since  that  tune  the  itaHTiruA^W 

%  '%f!j*         eaioyed  unceaBng  tavour.    Tlia  ipecial  poiodtok 

nuaiitt  Bulm 

891),  New  York: 
Jy  Amtt^it  £<>fi>wr  (1893).  New  Yorki  lU  moHblr 
aofdni,  Phitadeliihia ;  tbe  monthly  AortlJaiial  Jtmnd, 
i  ft  Siiaat  iiaimfc  (tt8ij.  CUofBitte  i^ilUr 
/inincaa  Oeanfaf  yHraol,  Gkltimoni  tba  KotUy  .t^nku 
rliMniut,  Bsaton ;  tlie  monlUy  AintrioM  Jtmal  rf  III  IWiirf 
-  ■       1.  PMadrfphia.;  the  raonthl^Oawj,  New  Yotli  tte  ■■ 


Ibe  day  an  very  numeroua.    Aneiic  tbe  Duat  1 

t:  the  Pipaliu  Sotna  ifontWjri  New  York;  the  n 

iHTiiaf  ig  Educalia*:  the  qiianarly  Amiriaa  J—ntI  1 
ilici,  Baltimore  I  the  monthly  Qwati't  ITiuaiUH  <l  891),  N 
e  monthly  Amtriam  But'V  i^^il-  "<«  Yorki  ^ 


AneritAH  AffvtttlarijL  New 

5eku/^,  Cbicnn:  the  bf-nwi 

the  monthly  Be-Kr-i  ■ 

J«,aiaIafPiSciiiiy(l 
(i87t).  New  YoAr  t 


the  bi-mwlhly  'tawvoa  AwihI 

LIhly  .!>»«■  lavKvM^at  Loi 

iKiiiai.  New  Vorki  the  quaitady  itiaira 

3),  Baltimcre;  the  maathly  Mnrj  Jtm 

monthly  PiMir  Unrw,  Okmb;  ; 


ipfiKIODICALS 


»S5 


fai  the  Utter  disft  wn  the  loiy*  IfdfoiAM  (1799)  of  PhSladelpfiia. 
The  LtmU  Ogtrini  (1841)  was  written  by  factory  girls  of  Lowell 
({.i^X  Mml  <Mr/s  Idtf/j  A0»ft  was  loqg  popular,  and  the  lAfirx 
Bamt  JntntU  (1883)  and  the  Wmnam^s  Home  Companhn  (1893)  ate 
now  cantnt.  Ghudren'a  magasiaes  originated  wHh  the  Young 
Mismf  Jitttamnt  (1806)  of  Brooklyn;  the  New  York  St  Nicholas 
{monthly)  and  tha  Boetoo  Yoytk't  Cmtponion  (weekly)  are  proml- 
ttent  jirvcQiloBk 

The  total  of  American jpeflodicals  mentioAed  in  the  CMLV  by  H. 
O.  Scvennotand  C  H.  Walib  <I909,  Ann  Arbor),  i»  9136  for  the 
year  1908. 

AuTMOiUTiBS.— The  eiehth  volume  of  the  Tenth  Export  of  lie 
Vnitai  States  Census  (1884)  contains  a  statistkal  report  on  the 
newspaper  mad  periodical  prees  of  America  by  &  N.  D.  North. 
See  USD  Cttcheval  Garigny,  Histotrt  ie  ta  presse  en  An^eterre  A 
avx  Oais  Urns  (1857);  h.  Stevens,  CakUonte  of  American  Books 


end  English  Periodicals'  (Boston,  1908).  Many  American  libraries 
co-operate  In  issuine  joint  or  unron  lists  <tf  periodicals.  See  list 
of  these  as  well  as  bsts  of  special  indexes  in  A.  B.  Kroeger^sGHtrf* 
t0  Reference  Books  (2nd  ed..  Boston,  1908). 

Indexes  to  Periodicals.— *1h.t  contents  of  English  and  American 
periodkats  of  the  last  100  years  are  indexed  in  the  following  publica- 
tions:  W.  F.  Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Literature  (i8a2-i88r, 
revised  ed.,  Boston.  iSoi);  ist  supplement,  1882-1887,  by  W.  F. 
Poole  and  W  I  Fletcher,  1888;  2nd  supplement,  1887-1802,  by 
W.  I.  Fletcher,  1893;  3rd  supplement,  1892-1896,  by  W.  I.  Fletcher 


(Boston,  1905);  Tk4  Co-operative  Index  to  Periodicals  (1885-1804.  ed. 
W.  I.  Fletcher,  1886-1894):  The  Annual  Literary  Index,  induding 
Periodicals,  ed.  by  W.  1.  Fletcher  and  R.  R.  Bowker  (New  York. 
to  vols.,  189»-I907);  "Index  of  Periodicals  for  1B90  "  &c,  {Review  of 
Repiews),  by  Miss  Hethcrington  (13  vols.,  1891-1002) ;  <^.  P.  Indexes; 
Cotgreave's  Contents  Subject  Index  to  General  and  Periodical  Literature 
(1900);  CumnUatiH  Index  to  a  Selected  list  of  Periodicals,  begun  in  the 
Oeveland  Publk  Library  in  1896  and  1897  by  W.  H.  Brett,  merged 
in  1903  with  the  Reader's  Guide  to  Periodtcal  Literature  (8  vols., 
t90i-l908.ed.byA«L.  Guthrie,  Minneapolis. U.S):  Magazine  Subject 
Index,  by  F.  W.  Faxon  (Boston,  1908),  conrinued  quarterly  in  Bulletin 
of  Bibliography,  which  in  IQ07  began  a  magazine  subject  index; 
Bdectic  Ubrary  Catalogue  (Afinneapotts,  1908},  issued  quaitetly. 

Canada 
Canadian  periodicals  have  reached  a  higher  standard  thftn  m 
•ny  other  British  scU-govemint  colony.  Like  that  of  South 
Africa,  the  press  is  bi-hnguaL  The  first  Canadian  review,  the 
Quebec  Maiaxine  (1791-1793),  was  published  quartcriy  in  French 
and  English.  It  was  followed  by  the  British  Amencau  Register 
(Quebec,  1803).  L'AbeiUe  canadientu  (Montrealf  1818),  edited  by 
H.  Mea^.  the  Canadian  Magazine  (Montreal,  182^1835),  the 
Canadian  Reoiem  (Montreal.  1824-1826)*  La  Bibliothlpte  canadienne 
(Montreal.  i82«-i8^o),  continued  as  L'Obseroateur  (i83«>-i83i), 
and  the  JiiagasiH  du  Bos-Canada  (Montreal.  1832).  The  three 
latter  were  edited  by  Michel  BibaucL  The  Literary  Carlatid 
^ontreal. 

were  s^acno  am  caotna  pn  tecivre  parosusa*  vn^oncreai.  10591,  s^ 
vols.;  Le  Foyer  eanadien  (Quebec,  1863-1866),  one  of  the  most 
interesting  French-Canadian  reviews;  li  Reetu  canadienne,  which 
was  started  at  Montreal  in  1864,  and  contained  the  best  writings 
of  contemporary  FrenchrCanadian  litterateurs;  La  Remu  do  Montreal 
C1877-1881),  edited  by  the  abb6  T.  A.  Chandonnct;  tha  Canadian 
Jowmal  flmonto),  commenced  in  1852  under  Henry  Youl»Hind 
and  «»ntmucd  by  Danie)  Wson;  VAbeiUe  (Quebec.  i8J^i88i), 
and  the  Canadian  MqnlUy  (Toronto,  1872-1882).  The  Bystander 
fToronto,  1880-1883).  was  edited  by  GcJdwin  Smith.  Le  Canadck 
panfois  (Quebec,  1888-1891),  edited  by  the'suff  of  the  Laval 
University,  and  Canadiana  (i889-i890),.were  important  kistorieu 
and  Utetary  reviewsk  Contemporary  magaxines  an  Vak  Canadian 
Maeaxine  (1893),  the  Westminster,  both  produced  at  Toronto, 
La  Nouodle- France  (Quebec),  the  Canada  Monthly  (London,  Ontario), 
and  the  VnteersUy  uagaxiato,  edited  fay  Professor  Macpfiail.  of  the 
McGiU  University. 

See  H.  J.  Morgan,  BiUiotkecd  canadensis  (1867),  "Cmadhin 
Maga^nea,^  by  G.  btewart,  Canadian  Monthly,  voL  xviL ; "  Periodi- 
cal  Litefatiire  in  Canada,**  by  J.  M.  Oxkiy,  North  Am.  Bto.  (l868h 
P.  Gagnod,  Estai  de  biUiagraphie  canaistmna  (1895),  and  S.  E. 
Dawton,  Prou  Writers  of  Canada  (1901). 

.    SotTTH  Africa 

The  earttest  magazine  was  the  South. African  Jounot,  Issued  by 

the  poet  Pringle  and  John  Fairbaim  in  1824.    It  was  foHowcd  by 

the  Sofith  Afrtean  Quarterly  Journal  (1839- 1834).  the  Cape  of  Good 

Mope  Ldterary  GaaelU  (»830-i833).  edited  by  A.  ].  }afdin^,  the  Cape 


of  Good  Rope  TMerorr  Mottixitie  (t847-t84B)>  «dited  by  J.  L.  Fit»- 
natrick,  and  the  Eastern  Prooince  Monthly  Magazine,  published  at 
Grahamstown  in  1857-1858.  A  Dutch  periodk»l  called  Elpis,  alf,o- 
meen  tijdschriftworZnid  Afrika  (l  857-1 861)  appealed  to  the  farming 
community.  The  Eastern  Prooince  Matatine  was  issued  at  Port 
Elizabeth  in  1861-1862,  and  the  Somh  African  Mazarine  appeared 
in  1867-1868.  The  Oranre  Firee  State  Magarine,  tlie  onlv  English 
magaxine  published  at  Blocmfontein,  was  issued  in  1877-1878 ; 
and  the  E.  P.  Mazarine  was  published  at  Grahamstown  in  1892- 
1897.  The  Cape  Monthly  Magaxine,  the  most  important  of  the 
periodicals,  was  issued  from  1857  to  1862,  and  was  agam  continued 
under  the  editorshio  of  Professor  Noble  from  1870  to  1881.  The 
Cape  Illustrated  Magjuine  (1890-1899)  was  edited  by  Professor 
J.  Gill.  In  Durban  the  Present  Century  was  started  in  1903,  and 
the  NtOal  Magaxine  was  issoed  at  Pietermaritxburg  in  1877.    The 


ape  Town,  1909)  are  monthly  reviews,  wliile  the  South  African 
mway  Maaaame  (1907)  >*  of  wider  interest  than  its  name  denotes. 
See  S.  MendelsBohn,  South  African  Bibliography  (3  vola.,  1910): 

and  P.  £.  Lcw^,  Catalotue  of  the  Port  Etixabeth  Library  (3  volsi, 

1906). 

AUSTKAUA  AND  NbW  ZEALAITD 

New  South  Wales.— The  Australian  Magarine  was  published 
monthly  at  Sydney  in  1821-2622.  This  was  followed  by  the 
SoiOh  Asian  Register  (1827),  the  Australian  Quarterly  Journal 
(1826).  edited  by  the  Rev.  P.  N.  Wilton,  the  New  South  Wales 
Magazine  (1833),  the  New  South  Wales  Literary,  Political  and 
Commercial  Adeertiser  (1835),  edited  by  the  eccentric  Dr  Lhotsky, 
TVfr'l  Monthly  Magazine  (1836).  the  Australian  Magarine  (1838). 
theVsw  South  Wales  Magarine  (1843),  the  Australian  Penny  Jowrnd 
(1848)  and  many  others.    The  Sydney  University  Magarine  (18"^"'^ 


again  published  in  1878-1879,  and  continued  as  the  Sydney  uni- 
versity Reoiew,  is  the  first  magaxine  of  a  high  literary  standard. 
The  Sydney  Magarine  of  Science  and  AH  (1857)  and  the  Month 
(1857)  were  short-Hvod.  Of  later  raagaaines  the  Australian  (1878- 
1881),  Aurora  australis  (1868).  and  the  Sydney  Magazine  (1878), 
were  the  most  noteworthy.  Of  oontemporary  magazines  Daleetys 
Reeiew  is  mainly  agricultural,  the  Australian  Magarine  (1909)  and 
the  Lone  Hand  (1907)  are  popular,  and  the  Science  of  Man  is  an 
anthropological  review.  »    ^    ...    .^ 

See  Australasian  Bibliography  (Sydney,  1893):  G.  B.  Barton, 
Litemiure  of  N.  S.  W.  (1866);  E.  A.  Pletherick,  Catalogue  qf  Books 
Relating  to  Australasia  (1890). 

Victoria.-^'Yhe  Port  PhiuiP  Magaxine  (18^3)  wust  be  regarded 
as  the  first  literary  venture  in  Vktoria.    This  was  followed  by  the 


Monthly  Magaxine  (i8$a-i8S3)«  edited  by  ]m,m^  .^^uw^...  ..».  ^.^ 
Melbourne  Monthly  Magaxine  (l  855-1856).  The  Jommal  of  Austral- 
atia  (1856-1858),  the  AnsbraUan  Monthly  Magarine  (1869-1867), 
which  contained  contributions  from  Marcus  Clarke  and  was  con* 
tinned  as  the  Colonial  Monthly  <i867-l669).  the  Melbourne  Reoiew 
(187^1885)  and  the  Victorian. Review  (1879-1886)  may  also  be 
roentk>ned.  The  Imperial  Reoiem,  apparently  the  work  ot  one  pen, 
has  been  published  since  1879;  the  Pastonkst^  Reoiew  appeab 
Boore  esqpecially  to  the  anicultural  community.  A  Library  Kteord 
of  Auftralasia  wax  published  in  1901*1902.  An  Australian  editwn 
of  the  Rexiew  of  Reviews  is  published  at  Melboome. 

See  "  Some  Magazines  01  Early  Victoria,"  in  the  Library  Record 
if  Australasia^  Hot,  9-^(1901). 

South  i4«s<nilia.->The  South  Austmlian  Magaxine  was  isaacd 
momhly  in  iB4i-i843«  the  Adelaide  Mamine  (1845),  the  AdeMde 
Misceliany  (1848-1849).  and  the  Wanderer  in  1853.  The  South 
Ast^alian  Twopenny  Magaxine  was  pubhshed  at  Plymouth, 
E^iand,  in  1839,  and  the  South  Australian  Miscellany  and  New 
Zeaiand  Reoiew  at  London  in  the  same  year. 

See  T.  GiU,  Bibliography  of  South  Anstrolia  (1886).  t 

r<i«maffM.— The  first  magazine  was  Murray's  Auskal-AsiaHe 
Reoiew,  published  at  Hobartm  1828.  The  Mobart  Town  Majarino 
appeared  in  1839-1884,  and  the  Van  Diemen'x  Land  Monthly 
Ifofosiss  in  183s. 

JVSns  Zsotoid^The  New  Zealand  Magaxine,  a  quarterly,  was 
publisbed  at  'Wellington  Jn  i8sa  In  1857  appeared  the  iV«« 
Zaabnd  Quarterly  Reoiew,  of  tittle  hxal  Interest,  followed  by  Chap*^ 
man's  New  Zealand  Monthly  Magaxine  (1862),  the  Southern  Montldf 
Magaxine  (1863),  the  Delphic  Orade  (1866-1870),  the  Stoic  (i87i), 
the  Dunedm  Reoiew  (188O,  the  Literary  Magarine  (1885),  the  fotfr 
bitter  being  written  by  J.  G.  S.  Grant,  an  eccentric  genius,  the 
MontUy  Raiew  (1888-1890),  the  JVrw  Zealand  lUuslraUd  Magaune 
(T899-1905).  chiefly  devoted  to  the  Hght  literature  of  New  Zealand 
auljects.  the  Maori  Record  (1905-1907)1  aad  the  Red  Fnnnd,  pub* 
lished  since  1905. 

See  T.  M.  Hocken,  Bibliography  of  New  Zealand  (1909). 

West  Ikdiss  akd  British  Crown  CoLomis 
Tn  Jamaica  the  Columbian  Magazine  was  founded  at  Kingston 
in  1796  and  ceased  publication  ia  1800,    Two  volumes  were 


IS6 


PERIODICALS 


nt  Jtmaica  Mavmm  (ilii-iii^.  the  Jamaif  MmiMy  M<v*^ 
(1844-18^),  iiuf  the  ViOarii  Qwrtfrly  (l8t9~Ito)),  vhicb  »i>- 
Uiucd  nuDv  valuiblc  mrtidii  OB  the  Wot  IndiB,  «Eni  other 
nuiuiML  The  Wal  Indian  Omlnty  wu  publnbcd'at  G«iis- 
lovo,  Briliih  Cuiaiu.  fiDin  1U5  to  1S8S.  Al  Goncloinl  wu 
aim  pabliibcd  tlic  weU-knowa  TintAri  (lUi-iggI)  lUik  canUifiid 
puny  LDportdDi  binniL^  arddu.  In  Trinidad  the  Triwidttd 
ItoMlj  ilaeaint  vai  uanal  in  1871.  ud  Ibe  Unim  Uafiitu 

"miIu  hud  ■  MdlaPenny  ISttamm  In  1830-1841.  and  tbc  itnw 
MltDliiw  ^  UUlrairt  vu  tounid  ia  Maunliiu  in  I8S7.     MaM 


SC  CnltnuJ  itfiiruiiw  (lB4(>-I?4l); 


iu  (1901-1908). 


(ni  (Cikuna,   iraj-iiBt),  pnibibly  edited  by  F.  Clidwi 

K  Cakalla  UimlUy  htUlo u,.l..  ■     ■  -■     - 

0  UanMy  Jeurna!  Iron 


CUndla.— The  Gnt  Iiidlin  pniodiisl 
""A:una,   irSs-ij*)),  pn-'-'-'-- 
u  UimlUy  Jiefultr  ni 

puoftfrfj  Oncriiai  Map^m  (1SJ4-18J7I.  «nd  Itie  Riyal  Siirtiiii 
Jfnfoiiiu  (1833-1818).  Thi  CilnUa  LiUnin  Cauiu  vu  published 
in  1830-1834,  Olid  thr  Co^cuMb  Aovv,  itiU  cfae  moet  JmpDrtmnl 
■trial  of  thFtadian  Empire,  finl  appaied  in  iSffiundei  tbeidiiiji- 


cMHr< 


Bmnteji.— The  Bembay  M 
but  a  ihatt  time.  The  So 
lavF  place  I0  the  Boinbay  Q> 

UWroi.— Madiai  had  a 
thaOruiUal  JUaiatiH  and 
AnSqiiery  ■»  Barted  at  Bi 
Mher  tonWnipiiraiy  tnandi 
the  JfsAn  Jtnirv  (Cakut 
Utirv  Ftritit,  a  quaneriy  I 
VwhxnUy  Uataiiu  (i8m), 

CM«L— In  CCylaa  the 
nt  (tailed  al  ColanlB  in 
the  Oyiim  Vnfuiiu  in  1841^ 
Of  CDnieidpcnry  naeuinca 
in  iBBi,  the  Cejion  IMtror 
UmMy  UurarySetislBUK.  _ 


WHUH  (1831-1853} 

tSig).  The  /nttsa 
•till  coniinm.  <X 
Knilv  (AUahabad), 
ttirm  (Madras),  Ihc 
95,  and  tbc  dUcWa 

'tvtopal  Mamuin* 
I  Uofmnt  In  1839. 
>rstKaiidylnl84l. 


i9«).  . 
„., -J  Km 


Burma  the  qnarterly  BiiMkijm  apprarFd  in  1904-  Sinfapore 
had  a  JaxntS af  llu  /ndun  Archipticifiroia  1847  to  iSu.  aodttat 
ClliuK  fl<Minliir«  (1833-18SI)  vai  edited  at  Carton  by  Mamnn. 
See  "  Penodidl  LJtenilun  in  India,"  in  Datli  Btm  (1871-1873). 


, , , , The  int  number  i4  1.. 

ynimd  4a  moali  appeared  on  the  sth  of  Janiuiy  1669.  unde 
tbc  awinxd  name  oT  the  lieiir  d'tlMociviUe.  Tlw  cmapedu 
[TDniiied  to  live  an  acRianl  ot  the  tbM  booka  puUUbed  ihtouEhDu 
Europe,  oMtiunf  antice*.  a  Rvirs  of  Uw  pnpeia  it  Kienr 
betidei  lettal  and  ecclena*  -    -  '  ' 


ent  which  look  place  on  the  4tfa  al  Jamwy 
yvan  nnder  the  new  editor,  who  waa  ir- 
Jbbt  de  la  Rnque.  and  the  lallir  in  hig  turn 
D,  in  <£86.  FiDm  1701  cnmmenctd  a  new 
■ich  wa«  then  noquiiTd  by  the  chanteUw  de 
•tat*  and  placed  aider  the  dinciinn  of  ■ 

but  Ibe  tnubiet  ol  1792  cauanl  it  10  be 

,  whet  it  again  failed  In  appear  alter  twdvc 

ed.    In  tSi6tl  waadefintelirre^ilabHihed 

IDVoiiaenl  pacnoaae.   Roalning  mbjeet 

rdt-ifca  letam  ontil  ISjJT,  when  it  wan  tiam- 

Kncu  ni  tnc  onina  i£  the  miniacr  o[  pobHc  Immnian.    Skc 

1903  the  ornnlBliim  ol  the  pabKcathn  baa  chanjed.    The  Male 

•nbeidjr  havini  ben  withdnwn,  the  Imtitina  vntcd  a  ycarlr 

vuluenpliDn  of  10,000  Irance  and  naminaled  a  CDomiHlon  ol  Ihv 

nmalitTa,  owe  tor  Mdi  lectlon,  who  aunaied  the  Jttmtl,    Sin 

1909.  howFVFT.  the  variein  eeclioni  have  left  to  lie  Acadhaie  ib 

Inimption  tt  Belka  Letuea  the  entire  dlrectlaa  ol  Ihe  Jnnal. 

while  still  paring  the  annual  subeidy.     It  now  rettrkti  IneK  to 

publishiiw  coninbuiions  rebting  to  utiquitla  And  the  middle 


Iraneferred  aia  itailiiiaiiM  ui  Ti(iinii,  let  up  a  prhKinff  pnea,  and 
waa  penuaded  b^two  J«h1ib.  MicU  la  TeUier  and  FUhppe  LalW- 
man,  to  eKablii£  the  lUmtun  ftar  anir  i  riiHltiM  *n  Kinw 
tt  ia  aril  (1701-1767),  mon  lamiUaily  known  a*  the  JUMauJ  ia 
Tthtmi,  king  the  bM-inlorraed  aad  bett-writted  joanal  in  Fnm. 
One  falun  ol  ila  caner  wu  iti  ooulant  appi*l  for  tha  KMiary 

as  ysanuj  di)  Kinai  d  dei  teausMi  (■T^S'inj)  by  the  sbti4 
Aubcn  and  by  the  bn>thrn  Cu(ilhonlI776>i77a),uid  u  ywaal 
id  lilUralim,  ia  ickhwi.  iI  iu  srU  (1779-17S1)  by  tbe  atM 

The  first  Isnl  periodical  was  the  /«nul  d(  fa/aii  (1671)  ol  QaBft 
Blondcau  and  Gabriel  Gukat,  and  the  lint  devoted  to  medicine  the 
Kamlla  iktmtrla  Jam  Inla  la  ftitia  it  h  mUieimt  (1679) 
ol  Nfcolaa  da  fiUcnVi  fm^uantty  epoRca  of  as  a  charlatao,  a  tfirm 

petiodicab  dale  ttaa  1680.  and  the  Jturnal  eccMiuiMnr  <4  the  abfaC 
oe  la  Roqite,  to  wliom  is  abo  due  the  firat  medical  fonnwl  Tiart^ 

Tbe  prototype  of  the  hiKorico-literary  periodical  m., 

in  Lt  Orfiu  mbiiuHa  prinat  it  t'EHrtpt  (i;O4-i70«),  las 

knowo  ai  Journtl  it  VtrJwh  and  earned  on  uode 

down  to  1794. 

Ijtciary  cHtidam  waa  no  more  free  than  polilkal 
no  person  was  alloqed  10  Enspas  either  upoo  the 
Jmit^M  ^1  lanml]  gc  ihnt  ol  the  Ulrlarl  it  Frat 
ithout  the  payment  ol  Ewary      '  '^^- 

r££h  f£r"lhe  "         ""  """ 


... 1  the  Jtuntai  it 

rated  in  HollaniL  and  lor  lea  ycnn  a  kind  of  >oinl 
iih  tbc  Jounut  da  Triveux  appeared  at  Ao*^*^" 
I  1775  miiecllaneoui  articlea  w 


J of  Flench  I'roteAadI  nfuceea.    During  that 

period  .thiity^nc  journals  ol  the  first  ctaas  proceeded  fmn  ihe^ 

iterdim.   Fmm  iTfi* 

—  .,,„ French  aad  En^idi 

reviews  were  adiled  to  this  reprint.  Bayle.  a  bom  ioiunahic  and 
Ihe  meat  able  critic  01  the  day.  conceived  the  plan  oC  Ihe  NmatBa 
it  la  tlptkiiut  ia  Utra  {l684-i;ie),  which  al  one*  becan* 
entirely  euccenful  and  obtained  ia  him  daring  tbe  three  yean  at 
hiicontrolthedictalonhipollheworldollcllen.  lie  was  nicmded 
as  editor  by  La  Roque,  Batria,  Bernard  and  Ledeie.  Beyk'a 
method  waa  followetf  in  an  equally  lucritcnDua  ncriodical,  the 
JfiUnrt  ia  tufrani  ia  SmonU  (1687-170^  of  S.  Bisnage  de 
Beiuval.    Anuher  contlnuilor  of  Bayle  wai  Jean  Lukn:,  one  al 

tl- St  learned  and  acute  aitlcs  of  the  i  Bth  rentury,  who  carried 

01  X  revicwi— (he  BiHlolUmu  laUxruilt  it  Uairivt  (1686- 
11         Ibe  BMi.ilUtu  i^iDi  (i703-i7'3l.  and  the  BMitM^m 

tt  trticia  aad  tHographies  hire  our  modern  learned  marauina. 
T  junal  lillhairt  (1713-1713,  1719-1716)  was  found^  by  a 
fe  of  young  men,  Mo  nude  It  a  nite  to  discuss  their  con- 

'  ilTy  devoted  lo  English  lilcralure 
1^1738],  the  uSHarei  liairain 


liDlUuK    m 


a?t^i 


6-1738;.  _ 

714].    Ihe    AiUiMUgw   bnUxmiqm 

"-■(owiipn  (I7SO-1737)  ot  M>iy.> 

pcnscc  avec  libeitf  a  faut  peiuB 


heae  Dutch-printed  revievi  was  L'Empt  iiHiala 
inded  cUdly  by  Themlieul  de  Salnt-Hyadnihe. 


[nteotioD  of  placing  each  separate  department  under  Ibe 
I  specialist.     The  ilOliglUiiH  tirniiiitgu  (I7ici-i]40> 


WIS  estaUuhed  by  Juqi 

what  the  BtUMUmr  (rilninnc  did 
byrte  Nttnllt  riNiNUiH  — ^i 


,_. EnglaiiCL   II  waa  foIloiKd' 

hMiNUgw  gtrMinigiit  [1746-1759].  The  Bitfia- 
da  nerofB  ia  lOHiid  (J71t-17»)  wai  lupple- 
Icrc  and  wai  SDCtecded  tw  Ihe  SiUIsfUgiK  ia 

siB-arti  fi7si-ii8o).  Nearly  all  of  the  preeedLif 
ithcr  at  Anislerdam  or  Rottctdam,  and,  although 
1  precise  gcographicat  amngcmenl,  leaUy  bdMC 
ctose  ties  of  lancudge  and  ol  tttoDd- 

'    inolc^cal  otdrrr  ag^n.  1      -   »    . 


An  inromnine  tiinslaiion  of  ihe  Spalater  waa 


were  endoctd  dtl 
out  ol  pbcc  in  a 

loFr^nS^.---- 
Taking  up 

hnm  Ihe  Tailtr,  Sptcitjar 
«r1y  in  Ihe  18*  ccnliiiy.  Manvaui 
rVniifiiii  (iTia),  which  wu  coldly  tec 
lourteen  or  IBTieen  othen,  under  the  rit 
1730).  It  RoMiur  (177]).  Lt  Sabaiti 
siinilar  character  sras  Lt  Faiir  a  It  atil 
Prtvoit,  -which  contained  anetdem  e 
nicitiiix  to  Great  Britain.   Throughoul 


I  of  Lt  Spettalriu  (Ija^ 


ian  ol  the  British  Museum 
publishfff  several  books.  1 
roili.  £lkd>  ilia  liuittlun. 


a  TIoDand.  )7'8.  £ed  princl 


^SmODICALS 


»57 


Orkoul,  vltH  the  title  ot  Tifrkuh-Spy.'Ltttw  dAuim^  4c  Th^ 

productions  wcm  usually  issued  in  periodical  form,  and,  besides 
an  inuneoae  amount  oC  worthless  tittle-tattk,  contain  some  valuable 
natter. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  century  France  haa  little  of  impor- 
tance to  show  ia  periodical  literature.  The  Nowtdks  tccUsiashquet 
(172^1803)  were  fint  printed  and  circulated  secretly  by  the  Jansen- 
ista  in  opposition  to  the  OnutihUian  unigeniius.  The  Jesuita 
cttaliated  with  the  SuppUnuni  des  fumveiUs  tecUsiasliques  (i7;)4-- 
1748).  The  promising  title  may  have  had  something  to  do  with 
the  temporary  success  of  the  Mimoires  secrets  dt  la  ripubli^M  dei 
uUrcs  (i744'-i748)  of  the  marquis  d'Aivcns.  In  the  Obunatums 
sur  Us  Scnts  mcdernes  ( 1 73^-1743)  Destontatnes  held  tht-  gates  of 
Phih'stta  (or  eight  ^years  agamst  the  Encyclopaedists,  and  even  the 
iie4oabtabie  Voltaire  himself.  It  was  continued  by  the  JupmenU 
smr  queues  oturcges  ucuveatu  (I744-~I749)*    The  name  of  Fr^n, 

Eirhapa  the  moat  vigorous  enemy  Voftatre  ever  encountered,  wat 
ng  connected  with  LfMrts  sw  qiul^ptis  icriU  dt  ee  temps  (1749- 
1754)a  followed  by  L'AnnU  littiratre  (fJS^^ijgo),  Among  toe 
contnbutors  of  Freron  was  another  manufacturer  of  criticism,  the 
ebM  de  la  Porte,  who,  having  <ntarrelled  with  his  confrkre^  founded 
Ofrscrvoiioiu  s%r  U  UUtraturt  ntodeme  (1749-1752)  una  L'ObservaUitr 
UtUraire  ^1753-1761}. 

A  number  of  special  organs  came  into  existence  about  this  period. 
The  first,  treating  of  agriculture  and  domestic  economy,  was  the 
Journal  iccnamigue  (17^1-1772) ;  a  Journal  de  commerce  was 
founded  in  1759;  periodical  biography  may  be  first  seen  in  the 
N4croloM  des  hemmes  dlkbres  de  France  (1764-17S2);  the  political 
economists  established  the  Epkitnirides  du  cUoyen  in  1765;  the  first 
Jofurrul  d'iducclion  was  founded  in  1768,  and  the  Courrier  de  la 
fHode  in  the  same  year:  the  theatre  had  its  first  organ  in  the  Journal 
des  ikUtres  (1770;;  in  the  same  year  were  produced  a  Journal  de 
musioue  and  the  Encyctopidie  mUUaire\  the  sister  service  waa 
supplied  with  a  Journal  de  marine  in  1778.  We  have  already 
noticed  several  journals  specially  devoted  to  one  or  other  forei^ 
literature.  It  was  left  to  Fr^ron^  Grimm,  Prdvost  and  others  m 
1754  to  extend  the  idea  to  all  foreign  productions,  and  the  Journal 
Uranger  (1754-1762)  was  founded  for  this  purpose.  The  Casette 
UtUraire  (1764-1766),  which  had  Voltaire,  Diderot  and  Saint- 
Lambert  among  its  editors,  was  intended  to  swamp  the  small  fry 
by  criticism;  the  Journal  des  dames  (1759-1778)  was  of  a  light 
magazine  class;  and  the  Journal  de  monsieur  (1776-1783}  had  three 

5 bases  of  existence,  and  died  after  extending  to  thirty  volumes* 
'he  Mimoires  secrets  pour  serpir  d  Vhistoire  de  la  rifiMique  des 
teUres  (1762-1787),  better  known  as  Idimoires  de  Bachaumont,  from 
the  name  of  their  founder,  furnish  a  minute  account  of  the  social 
and  literary  history  for  a  period  of  twenty-six  years.  Of  a  similar 
character  was  the  Correspondance  littirain  secrhle  (l  774-1793)  >  to 
which  M^ra  was  the  chief  contributor.  L'Es^rii  des  Joumaux 
(1773-1818)  forms  an  impoftant  literary  and  historical  collection, 
which  is  rarely  to  be  found  complete. 

The  movement  of  ideas  at  the  close  of  the  century  may  best  be 
traced  in  the  Annates  politiquest  civiles,  et  lUUraires  (1777-1792) 
of  Linguet.  The  Dicaie  philosophic  (year  V..  or  1796/1707), 
founded  by  Cinguen^,  is  the  first  oeriodical  of  the  magaaine  clasa 
which  appeared  after  the  storms  of  the  Revolution.  It  was  a  kind 
of  resurrection  of  good  taste;  under  the  empire  it  formed  the  sole 
refuge  of  the  opposition.  By  a  decree  of  the  17th  of  January  1800 
the  consuUte  reduced  the  number  of  Parisian  journals  to  thirtceni 
of  which  the  Dicade  was  one  ^  all  the  others,  with  the  exception 
«f  those  dealing  solely  with  science,  art,  commerce  and  advertise- 
ments, were  suppressed.  A  report  addressed  to  Qonaoarte  by 
Fi^v^^  in  the  vear  XU  (1802/1603)  furnishes  a  list  of  filty-one  of 
these  periodicals.  In  the  year  XIII.  (,1804/1805)  only  aevea  non- 
political  serials  were  Dermitted  to  appear. 

Between  1815  and  1810  there  was  a  constant  struggle  between 
freedom  of  thought  on  the  one  hand  and  the  censure,  the  police 
and  the  law  officers  on  the  other.  This  oppression  led  to  the 
device  of  "  semi-periodical "  publications,  m  which  La  Minerve 
frasuaise,  (l  818-1820)  is  an  instance.  It  was  the  Satire  Uhtippie  of 
the  Restoration,  and  was  brought  out  four  times  a  year  at  irregular 
intervals.  Of  the  same  class  was  the  BibUUhhfue  kisloriqMf  (1818- 
1820),  another  anti-royalist  ofgan.  The  oensere  was  re-established 
in  i8ao  and  abolished  in  1828  with-  the  monopoly.  It  has  always 
seemed  impossible  to  canv  on  successfully  in  France  a  review  upon 
the  lines  of  those  which  nave  become  so  numerous  and  importsnt 
in  England.  The  Remte  IritMnique  (1825-1001)  had,  however,  a  long 
eareer.  The  short-lived  Repue  franfaise  (1828-1830),. founded  by 
GilisoCr  RimtaaU  De  BrogUe,  aqd  the  do^rtnaires,  was  an  attempt  !n 
this  dirsction.  The  wsU*Vnowa  Retue  des  deux  mondes  was  estab* 
tished  in  1829  fay  S6gur-Dupeyron  and  Mauroy,  but  it  ceased  to 
appear  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  its  actual  existence  dates  from 
its  aoquisitjon  ia  1831  by  Fran^ms  Bulox,'  a  masterful  cditoc, 

*  The  novelist  and  publldtt  Joseph  Fl^h^  (v7<}7-i839),  known 
for  hb  relations  with  Napoleon  I.,  nas  been  made  the  subject  for 

as  e  shepherd, 
came  to  Paris  as 


under  whose  eileisetic  man^eoittit  it  «ooo  achieved  a  world-widfr 

reputation.  The  most  distinguished  names  in  French  literature 
have  been  among  its  contributors,  for  whom  it  has  been  styled  '.he 
'*  vestibule  of  the  Academy."  It  was  preceded  by  a  few  months 
by  the  Rene  de  Paris  (1825^1845),  founded  by  Voron,  who  btro- 
duced  the  novel  to  periodical  hterature.  In  1834  (bis  was  pur* 
chased  bv  Bulos,  and  brought  out  concurrently  with  his  othef 
Beoue.  While  the  former  was  exclusively  literary  and  artistic,  the 
tatter  dealt  more  with  philosophy.  The  Revue  indipendante  (1841- 
1848)  was  founded  by  Pierre  Leroux,  George  Sand  and  Viardot  for 
the  aeraocracy. ,  The  times  of  the  coiisulate  and  the  empire  were  the 
subjects  dealt  with  by  the  Reeue  de  Vempire  (1842-1848).  In  Le 
Corrtsfondant  (1843),  established  by  Montalembert  and  De  Falloux, 
the  Catholics  and  Legitimists  had  a  valuable .  supporter.  The 
Reoue  contemporaine  (1852),  founded  by  the  comte  de  Belval  as  a 
foy?list  oigan,  had  joined  to  it  in  1856  the  Athenaeum  franiois. 
The  Revue  germanupu  (1858)  exchanged  its  exclusive  name  and 
character  in  1865  to  the  Rarue  modame.  The  Revue  europienn4 
(1859)  was  at  first  subventloned  like  the  Revue  contemporaine, 
from  which  it  soon  withdrew  government  favour.  The  Revue 
naiumale  (i860)  appeared  quarterly,  and  succeeded  to  the  Magaxin 
de  librairie  {i$sS), 

The  number  of  French  periodicals,  reviews  and  magazines  has 
enormously  increased,  not  only  in  Paris  but  in  the  provinces.  In 
Paris  the  number  of  periodicals  published  in  1883  was  1379;  at  the 
end  of  X908  there  were  more  than  3^00  of  all  kinds.  The  chief 
current  periodicals  may  be  mentioncain  the  following  order.  The 
list  includes  a  few  no  longer  published. 

Archaeology. — JUvue  archtologique  (i860),  bi-monthly;  Ami 
des  monuments  (1887);  Bulletin  de  numismatique  (1891;;  Reoue 
bitdique  (1892);  L* Annie  ipigraphique  (1880) — a  sort  of  supplement 
to  the  Corpus  inscriptionum  tatinarum:  Celtica  (1903) — common  to 
France  and  England;  Gazelle  numismatique  franfaise  (T897);  Revue 
simitioue  d'ipigraPhie  et  d'histoire  ancienne  (1893);  Bulletin  monu' 
mentat,  bi-monthQr;  VlntermUiaire,  weekly,  the  French  '*  Notes 
and  Queries,"  devoted  to  literary  and  antiquarian  questions. 

Astronomy. — Annuaire  aslronomique  et  mitiorologique  (1901); 
Bulletin  astronomique  (1884)*  formerly  published  uncier  the  title 
Bulletin  des  sciences  mathimatigues  et  astronomiques*       , 

Bibliography.— Annates  deoihliotraphie  tMologique  (x888);  Lt 
bibliographe  moderne  (1897);  Bibiiographie  anatomique  (1893); 
Bibliographie  scientifigue  fran^aise  (1902) :  Bulletin  desoUdiothiqves 
et  des  archives  (1884);  Bulletin  des  livres  relalijs  H  fAmirique  (1899); 
Courrier  des  Inbliothiqttes  (1910):  Riperloire  milhodique  de  Vhisloiri 
moderne  el  contemporaine  aela  France  (iB^S);  Repertoire  mSlhodique 
du  moyen  Age  Jranqais  (1894);  Revue  bibliographtque  et  critique  dei 
tangues  et  litUratures  romanes  (1889);  Revue  des  biSliothbcues  (1891); 
Polybiblian:  revue  bibliographique  universelUt  monthly;  Revua 
ginirale  de  bibliographie  franiaisct  bi-monthly. 

Children*s  Magazijus, — L'Ami  de  la  jeunesse;  Le  Jeudi  de 
la  Jeunesse,  weekly. 

Fashions. — La  liode  iHustr^e;  Les  Modes,  monthly. 

Fine  Arts. — Les  Arts  (1902);  Gazette  des  beaux-arls  (1859); 
monthly,  with  Chronique  des  arts;  Revue  de  Vart  ancien  el' moderne 
(1897)  monthly;  L*Art  dicoralif,  monthly,  Ariel dicoratum,  monthly; 
L*Art  pour  lous,  monthly:  La  Dicoration.  monthly;  L' Architecture — 
journal  of  the  Soc  centralc  des  Aichitectes  fran£ais,  weekly; 
VArt  (1875)  is  no  longer  published. 

Ceogrcphy  and  (Monies. — Bulletin  de  §hgrapkie  histdrine; 
AnnaUs  de  gk>graphie  (1891),  with  useful  Quarterly  bibliography; 
Nouvelles  i^wropSijwi— supplement  to  the  Tour  du  morule{\99\); 
La  Vie  coTontale  (1902);  La  Gfographie,  monthly,  publiehcd  by  the 
Soc.  de  Gdos;raphie  (1900);  Revue  de  giographie,  monthly;  Renrn 
giographique  tnternaHonale,  monthly. 

History.-^For  \ftng  the  chief  organs  for  history  and  archaeology 
were  the  BiblioOttque  de  Fkole  des  chartes  (1835),  appearing  every 
two  months  and  dealing  with  the  middle  ages,  and  the  Cabina 
historique(lB$s),  a  monthly  devoted  to  MSS.  and  unprinted  doctH 
ments.  The  Revue  kistotique  (1876)  appears  bl-raOnthly;  there  is 
also  the  Revue  d'histoire  moderne  et  coniemporaine. 

Law  and  Jurisprudence. — Anneks'  de  droit  commercial  (1877)/ 
Revue  algfrienne  et  tunisienne  de  Ugislalion  d  de  jurirprudenw 
(1885) ;  Revue  du  droit  puNic  etdela  science  poliiique  (1894) ;  Revui 
gMrale  du  droit  international  piMic  (1894). 

Literary  Reviews.'^The  Rnue  des  deux  mondes  and  the  Corre- 
spondanttMve  already  been  mentioned.  One  of  the  first  of  European 
weekly  reviews  is  the  Revue  critique  (1866).  The  Revue  poittique 
et  litterair§,  successor  to  the  Reoue  des  court  littiraires  (1863)  and 
known  as  the  Revue  bUue,  also  appears  weekly.  Others  of  interest 
are :  Antie,  revue  mensuelle  de  littiralure  (1904) ;  t/A rtetlavie  (1892) ; 
CbsmopoUs  (1806);  VErmitagf  (1800);  Le  Mercure  de  France,  s6^e 
moderne  (1800),  a  magazine  greatly  valued  in  literary  ciretcs;  La 
Revue  de  Parts^  fortnightly  (1894),  and  the  NouoeUe  Reoue  (1879)— 

a  compositor,  and  by  translating  from  the  English  caused  sufficient 
to  purchase  the  moribund  Remu  des  deux  mondes^  which  acquired 
its  subsequent  position  in  spite  of  the  tyrannical  editorial  behaviour 
of  the  proprietor.  Buloc  is  said  to  have  eventually  eti'joyed  an 
income  of  365,000  francs  from  the  Rome, 


.58 


pbriomcals 


ill  Klaeu  KiBlUmallma  (1896);  Jtaui  dt  maih 
(ISqd)  :  /rniut  A  wUfnuhfiKi  Imra  a  appliipi 
Mtiitita.—Raa  A  wtMcaxt  (1881);  Anm 
litin  titnin  dl  mUkini  U  dc  phanaaiil  d  " 
nroiTifiw  mUUdJI  (■S?}):^  ficnc  dc  t^nilc 


eSilmimf  (tH7):  Arw  priKinitH  (190;);  £<  Litr*  (iMo 
dolini  «lin  ImllDinBhy  and  liieiaTy  falMoiy.  and  La  Stm  lalii 
ItaiiiriuloiiBccpawiliiil:  LaRau.  monilily- 
»Ut«aS^?--iiito««Hi'»  da  fmuUmaluiau  (1S94);  Bulb/fn 
(,i»g(i);  Komi  dl  malUmiUifiia  ip^iala 

bi-tao'n^\y'.  La 
_ ...  .,      .      -...hly. 

UiUlvy. — Ram  da  lioupa  ahniaia,  mgnthly;  La  Rate 
tMatlrii.  numlhly. 

MHm.—Uuiica  (1901}:  Rem  d'liulein  tt  de  aUtft  mttcali 
lno\\-^AnnQlitdiu  muiqite;  Li  Minettral,  wccbEy. 

nilili>n.—L'AHitltliiiiuiilicmltaei-igia};BaUili;iJilaiiidB€ 
dn  parUri  di  Ftaaa  {iSqi}}  BiMm  da  kumaMiUi SraHfali  (1804): 
BtlkllH  kistaniqa  (ig«j:  BtlUtim  ilaliat  (1901);  LathCai-SM- 
Anlinitenta  pntinciuais  (1905):  £>  UtUn  MnAijw  (iSSei;  Li 
ItBycn  Ate  (iSSB);  Anu  di  la  raaissana  (I^DD;  bnw  di  ntflriqia 
Ai  llnia  rabdaiiUnna  iiaai);  Rani  da  parUrs  Mpidairti  (tgca); 
JtCW  fti  totoij  (1M7)!  KOf  MifoHigH  (1894);  !««»  trfftjue, 
qmnnly;  Rem  dc  phJiLitlifiaHfaHe  a  dt  IMralBn. 

PkOnipky  and  Psj/cMoti-  —  Knu  M^^'oMifM  (rSTA). 
montbly;  AtauUi  dtt  sdimts  piyckiqua  (1891);  L'Atfuti  pilla- 
nfikiqai  (1890),  crilial  ind  inalylial  rcvigw  01  all  phiVwaphiul 
worki  ■ppMring  during  Uk  year;  L'Anitti  pncUofinH  (i894>; 
/swimI  li  piyclalttii  iwBufe  cj  faaiUiii  (tvny,  WJclis  il< 
ri'mlfhil  rfirtnl  ^  ptydulotii  (1903);  Xoiw  ilf  thfptuiliimc  tl  ie 
la  pstchiletU  fkiiSiloMi  {I900};  Xmw  <tr  nAa^tjiifiii  it  di 
•utralr  (iBjj);  KtHn  d*  piMHoptw  (1900);  Knne  dt  fiy^Ualrii 

piyiiu  and  Oimiilry.—BiiBtlia  iit  irimca  fAyitjBtj  {1888); 
X'&burnfc  flolrijuf  (1S94);  Le  Raditnx  (1904):  Kmie  fMniJe  itii 
(ciciiKi  piiHi  tl  apfliqiilii  (1890);  Retiw  praiique  di  tOtUndll 

Fip<i!ar   ani    FamOj   Ratals, — A    Iran 
nmnMi  (raoi)iyi  uujeiil  (t<#os),:  La  Ltdi 


onife  (iBoS); 
•H(im):L» 
(i«9^)  Un 


- -    --  1  (lS9»i  L 

.~icirr  (r9(>I)i  Is  Vk  tnriiiu  , 

Sclaa  (CciKnl).— £a  Ifalun.  t), 

wtcUyt  Zd  5[«iK(  /H>i(D<it,  I  !>> 

tnKoftsiu  ittinMB,  mcklv;  Xi  i« 

iNitDn]}:.4nlnB(lfMi^iwB, /•  (ft 

[tOmH  ti>9S>!  ttam  Ja  iri  t)i 

AnWiMnfaAMBiifntOMg)  — 

J):lim  (PoHtlol.  Smicilaflcal  an  w 

(baaded  ai  is  AoiKt  HinauKi  rw 

IiUtriHMna(JiilnMilll903]:£t  lal 

bi-nuaihlv  <i«»)i  »W««  «(  «    . .  -xl 

(IBfi)l  rOritJiI  H  raitiOt  da  BuMon  (1889):  Jlnu  JNit'Ogw  cl 
parlimitaairt  (1S94):  Kcdh  lnUrniUimial  ii  Hcleletit.  monlhly. 

SninTS,—L  AlnpUltdigi);  L'AimiaiiliqiiiU')Oi)i  L'Mmlaltml 
(1904):  La  rtii«r""i'iir(t89B);  La-yieaulamebilill^Oi):  Krvt 
ii  I'atnnaiaitiii  (1888). 

AviHOItTlBl.— The  uibjcct  oF  French  »riodii3li  bai  Inn 
«lBlutiv(ly  trawd  [n  the  valuable  works  of  Eugine  Halin— 
HiMin  dt  la  prau  n  F'axu  (8  voIl.  1839-1861),  Li  Cimuid, 
HtHaKU  It  la  sriiH  cfgiufiuiiit  mii  17*  cl  j£'  tiiiUs  (1863!,  and 
Sibliafapllil  U  la  prim  piriodiaul  franiaiil  (lfi06].  See  also 
CUiib(U  di  riiilairt  dl  Fnua  )[I  vols.,  ieu-1879],  V.  Clbi. 
CaUhp^duiBMrmawi,  tit.,  puilils  d  Paris  (1870):  Blanct,  Mariiil 
Ai  litrain,  w  lufpUmil  (8  vols.,  1869-iiSo);  F.  M^,  Lci 
Jgunauxtl  krill  pltildi^ia  dl  la  Baisi  Aimrtiu  (l8«9)j  BaJ'c/jiI 

uMpit  4ltt  Jiriiisp^  ram  ^f'^'^f  p' '"^- yf^'^f^ 
^Hfaijf  t/  da  Htfqjf  ^/I'ifhf  (i^ctQ-iqlo); 
dtf  Jtarnaiu,  rnuci  it  pmbiitatioiu  piritdiqttii 

iibliitrspliu  ilitlra!i  (189;),  pp.  637-710. 


^Bnuaire 
[i  d  Poriijustu-n 
Stein.  Jidou;  da 


[  tran  of  the  literary  joumaT  in  CermaDy  ia  to  be 
Brtanlitlu  UoiialniiilimditKttii  (iMj)  of  the  poet 
ind  In  the  Jfuicflanas  curiam  mtikn-pliysica  (1670- 
Acadcntia  naturae  curlowrum  Lcopoidina  ''---■'-- 
tilic  annual,  uniting  the  Icatures  <  ' 

](  the  PhilticpliiiS  TraisaelKts. 

inc  Huiiiui  VI  the  weO-known  Pttyhistor,  c * 

monlhly  mial  I0  be  devoted  to  the  hfalor 

JQrninf._»[iich^came  id  nolhiai.     Whik 


nivedlheM 


LcipiiZi  Otio  Mencke  planned 
to  mab  known,  by  meana  of  i.,., 
Mw  mrkt  produced  thtnirghMiC  Ei 
&«laad  (ad  Heltaid  in  mkr  to 


inher  appeued  In  iMi,  tinder  the  6fle  of  4<ia  ndu 

d    CelUriuS.      A  vnlu™    rariH-    ruit    «rh    v™..    wSlk 

Aticr  cdiiiaE 

the  Dublkailon  to  I 

nd   French.     The   Nina  lilltnrta  Maru  Ballkiii  el  Stfilnlrmnl 
~   '         "  'tvotcd  to  nOTthGermany  and  the 

Doryil.     Supplementary  to  the 

■     Mdoftii  ■''' 


Hhtorirai  iotlmalism  wai  dm  represened  by  Elitta  juris  puM 
llTnO),  philol^CT  by  Wt«ajtmi  ^^»ia>  (I7is--I71)f,  philonfA 
by  the  Acta  pKlauplUnim  (iTiJ-1737).  medicine  by  Dir  palrielistl 
BidikHS  (ijif).  music  by  Da  laHaiiuki  Palriil  lijis).  and  edi 

cation  by  »(  Wmfwe  (171S).    RefFrenn  hai  already  ber '   - 

the  tliit^lma  ariirsa  midiar-pliyiica  (1670-1704)!  the 
EnaMuf[ni  (1669I  irat  aim  devoted  to  natural  idence. 
Down  to  the  eariy  patt  «t  the  iHth  cen" — '-  *■-"-  - 
were  the  beadquarien  of  Liieraiy  jantnalit 

had  iit  Kiditsiiliilsdii  ntui  Ziinaiai,  a- 
sSdUisdu  f/aikriilila.  which  tame  Id  an  aii 
barr  owned  [n  ijio  fu  Nnir  Varralk,  bid. 
■t  tloatock.    Pnbala  own  the  foundation  of 


™'Tfainl 


Other 


n  C.  P.  Schutn  and  M.  Unenlhal 


Cerrnany 

Hn.  nvM  from  "V'  "'. 

tJi  boide*  oliKn  brnurht  out 
-■ion  of  in  lite—  ~.ij:-i. 


■ras  the  sate  editor  of  the  Alia  tansika  (I7»-I7j2).  Pamrniib 
md  Silesia  ■!»  had  (hdt  ipecial  periodicali  in  the  Htit  quarter  g( 
;he  i8ih  cenlunr.  Franeonia  commenced  with  Nowa  hUMriOi 
<nd  HcssewiththeXtirBMifirft.bolhin  171J.  In  south  Cermany 
ippeaied  tha  W^illtmlitmsllit  AUflufwid^  (171B),  and  th  P*' 
Hiiiu  baicrn,  fint  pubEihcd  at  Munich  in  ipa.  Th«  PHoitfiriti 
vfdtrlt  ZRhncn  waa  founded  hi  l73tbyS.T.  Hoekei,  ud  edited 
Snwn  to  1790,     AuHiia  owned  Dai  mtinariiif  Win. 

In  ITTJ  the  t/au  ZtUmtii  «m  HfCMt*  Sattmi  m  founded  bf 
f.  G.  Kraoic  at  Loipdg;  and  ca^tfea  on  by  vatioua  ediUn  down  to 
1797,  It  was  the  Itrsl  altempt  to  apply  the  form  of  the  wceMy 
polilical  iaiinul  to  learned  •ubiecu.  and  wat  imitated  in  the  Vrt> 
tiiicWe  BOdi—-'  ' — '  —- '  -■■-  "-■■'-•-" '— ■— 


id  (he  BiUitHiita  m 


ra  of  that  tmivenity,  and  ai 


booTeJ 


idy  of  EniCsh  wrilen.  the  tn  Swb^ 
iblished  iSi  Dinym  iit  Voiir  (17*1)1 


.,_ ,  .- — -ical  method  mw  to  G 

■m  was  attached  by  GottKhcd,  who,  educated  hi  th 

_.j  r_   ...    -..    j'-ti^ja,     The  atiwde 

. .-  . __..  . — „  the  Htataiure  oTthe 

Ccrman  criHaim  Dl  the  hiriier  eott  can  nnly  be'aald  1 

~      Berlin  pubGther  Nicolal  foue 

inKh^lm,  and  attrtwardi  hi 


iver  to  C.  F.  Weiue  in  order  to  kIvc  hfi  wfaok  < , 

\u  mcuau  LIuralur  UiriSiiU  (i;j9-i76s),  cairicd 


il  Uidi«l  MMdchnha  ni  KUL   lb  NioaW  U  ris  idot  a* 

*ida  GtU  aad  aaea  btcwB*  ntnntlv  loSaoiiiML  Hvdcr  rouiM 
tiB  JCnUuhi  WaUo  la  iMb.  £kr  duneli  Uahat  <i7T3-i;89, 
#M^^  fMA-iSK^  flf  Widud  waa  tba  aeGury  ■■[■■  ■■"J—  of 
^  Fictai*  -achaol  <■(  critieiiai.    A  new  •«  in  Gcnuji  paisdial 

iiH  finpatamilnt,  id  vlriA  ths  ItacUrf  n 

1  cemribaun.   On  y-' ' '  —  "^ 

Bl^tbaJq«gt(*tj 


PERIODICALS 

aritb  Trtidi  tbey 


>S9 


liiaiaiiiaii  iidlii  inili  maiiiij  mi  fiail  iliii  rifmiaii  rftimfai 

mOamt  (t79>-I>to).  «liich  kd  reokcad  ■  GtMrk  zSait  (1746)1 
tbe   £($iivr  Litnatmuimt   (i8oo-<gu);   OhIMMiivkL 

JtkMdm  At  LUnmUr  (itofr-lSTl):  nJ  >fai  "" '.■.—— 

■«hu(lSl»-l«l«,fiiUii«adby  '  ''' 

(til»-^],  br"-  -■  -•-■-^  - 

politica  and  httli 

■B19  by  W.  fTXin,  n 

out  dova  to  lAit.    One  of  the 
ctaa  >n  Che  JUrMokfr  " 
fint  publuhed  by  Cotla. 
vu  ^Dded  t/B 

olablBhed  by  Gendoif  la  Itlu,  and  kininl  aiW  1B4A  ai  ilii 
Liiptita  JUprrltTlam  ia  im^litn  nW  ouMarfiKliM  li'trrafur 
UHlcdlaiUo.  Budlwrf(nmdedlWl.>ltnriicJktZ(inwf  at  Berlin 
Id  iRu.  Itwurontlnuidby  BtandHdpwn  to  1^49.  T6e  political 
trmiDM  ci  1S4B  and  1049  were  moit  dliaitroui  10  the  wHFan  of 
tlie  Ktenry  and  mlictlUneDui  periedlcab.  Cetidorf't  Se/inliiriiiai. 
the  Gekkrli  Atutiaa  of  Gettingen  and  of  Muiiich,-and  ine  Heiid- 
hrftK^  JtkritckiT  vere  Ibe  ule  lurvlvon.  The  AUttrntiiu 
Manttitlirifi  Jar  Liltraiur  (lB»),  conducted  alKr  ISJI  by  Droyiro 
NitBch  and  othen,  oanliniKd  onty  down  to  1S54;  tbe  LiUranai 
CnilnMhtt  '"I"!  !■  "in  ""M:  "    '     ~      "  ""    " 


lunded  by  Kouebuc; 


Bmfjii 

le  Liltrarliijui  WtebnU 
ter  IMJ  it  waiedite.-  ■  " 
.  _Many  6i  the  literary  > 


iciofi  (i<73):  EdiK 
(i«oi):  Gnnphy: 


ruBriidnUa  Gtnn  t 

khUi  CiaSB)i  Baiia, 

ffejtw  Mr  iSntil-  ■  ( 

VilhwirlnktniU^. ,,  ,—.„ 1 

and  LunJMca:  WUiipaptit  in  ta^tiAaia  ^mtlmttuMd^ 

(l»OJ);  7aJkr»trrHiUr  &  ntavt  ittUdm  Liutatmrailiktu  (iloah 

JahiOiTKkl  Mir  iit  BiiOitinwittK  aal  itm  CtMOc  dcr  arnnaafiitta 

."""-'-  -—'    "  '-ncW  S^iitii^iam  Gthiiu  £t  tagisOum 

Btdm.  Sda&i.  wii  A^iai{t»jVl: 

OviU  Ferackrim  der  nmaaiHkn  Mib. 

i  Ait  Mr  nmniirti  PUUttlt—Satt:  ^ 

laltA  (iSTI):  Onnltliiilii  BiUliprnMli 

tirSiik  tip  iit  PmlukrilU  dir  MiIhSoM 

fiery :  JnMnitrnda  tttr  iit  LtiMmtn  tut 

■  iiHiBm  (isaeii  yoirfikruu  &r  dv 

icte  dir  Vtttrmirmi^ai*  (iWl):  MililBiy: 

idinnp'il  md  Fartidaillt  ta  VdildrwfHB 

I  ir  ilW  ^ciidKHii  aid  Fbrfiohrilli  aaf  dm 

^HMKki^HcJn  £«ln«Sr  !(i90i):  J 
ZMbflwkc  JtlmitricU  (itn);  J 
(i873)Tl>'i  FttacMtUinPk^  <i« 


I  by  R. 
7  Jourr 


Kriodkal  ol  any  merit  ipcciilly  devi 
oat^  (1B55)-    The  Ant  to  popularici 

The  HauNdllcr  (i«sj}.  a  bi-montbly  n 
•uctwruL     The  Salt*  {sK()  folloirci]  mo 


U  <lSlS). 
the  £nt 


|J*L«"!S 


a  more  vHui  char 


iSfiJ); 

(187J).  pmiled 
pf  the  SJnu 


Huilrurli  ZfiUaii  ILeipiif. 
I891].  DU  Wa^  (Itwi 
i[  tbe  kind.  soo.ooD  bein( 

d  a  tons  pmei  of  iwtkly  ud 
icter,  of  whichthe [ollo»iB|[ 


1  ite  Srulaii/  Muinmi  (l8si-i«SJ).  of 
'  '     -1871);    fetjlerinoaai 
i8j3-l»9I).  brtinni 


ortitilhtly.cOT 


CSS 

Sord"aad"SjU~{iSm  nimThlVr'^ais^Ma).  imUy:  lii 
Z«t«/t  (>BSi}.  ««Vly:  Dit  nnu  Ztii  Usail.  w«Uv:  ^slow 
VanvriHia  (i«44),  weibly;  ViOatrii  nd  Klifinii  MmuriArnc 
QW9I,  nMBthlyi  Dm  dialtttt  AuiidMiH  (iSw>,  monihly:  Pit 
tTali-lU/  (1801-1897):  JCriia  (I994-I9M};  Dii  Vmiciau  (ito), 
wmWyi  ZtelTilrrorirli  E(Jb  (1I98).  tortnllhttyr  Jtynarf  (tM- 
IRW).  kiown  lairr  bi  DiuIkIu  ZciUririfl  (1809-190^)  and  Idiaui 
Ti9o3-ioo6):Pff  rsnBrr(j898>,  monib!y;Z«(  Ward (1900). weeUv; 
bfaliihitai  (1901-19071:  DnlH^  i/gHoljirJtrin  ItgM-Jaof); 
ll.  mmitMy:  (7hi-«ii  ^(1904).  nionin^!  Saiii&icjit 


MenaitlulU  (1904):  Dtr  bnlscki  {igas-i'vaN:  Daliilit  KnUn 
(l9aS'i9a«l;  ^rna  (1906).  monthly  1  Cu  Bbatuft  (1906!,  weekly 
fifturl  (19M>).  monihly ;  Dtt  SUmbi'U  (1906),  weekly:  Win  itm) 
lottnighily;  Jfirfcn  tiw).  weekly!  Nnt  Kttai  (1907).  weekly 


a  KB 

iir«  Zril  [1907).  monihly;  Hyperitn 
— »  — "-'■-- Pai  BimJulriiiidnJ 


(1901),  weekly  lupplcment  to  the  JUdwtAut  i/tmui 

fi90«).  bl-monlhly;  Xmia  (1901 

(IM9J,  nonthlv:  DUT«i  (1909),  ,uu...u..,. 

Pcnodirva  have  been  flprciaimd  in  Germany  to  an  exteal 
perhapa  anequalled  in  any  other  couniry.  No  itibject  of  hiiinan 
tntcitit  la  now  withaui  one  or  indnd  tevcrtt  Dtiani,  Full  dclalli 
'  ■■■  '  '  inppliPd  by  a  cpnial  rla«  of  perwllci" 


f&^SSi 


nkUiilu  Bam  (1861-1S67), 
ini  may  be  mentionea :  Hmt 


cbaraeteT  have  heea 


■MmlSlEh 


-r- -™      ^ ,.     ,.-„.-,.,rj O'  — '—     — "(l^)« 

ightly:  I'll  Kallur  (1S99).  gnarteriy;  DaUclH  ArWil  (1900), 
....ilily:  OtsUmkklttU  Jtandickn  (1904).  fonnigfallyj  Dii 
Z^paAtH  (1907) :  (onnightly. 

There  were  in  AuMiia  »  KMiaiy  and  fl  qxdal  pcriodicah  ia 
'•'  — '  •■"  '■' — iryand  413  iccclal  perlodicala  in  1*71  (tee  the 


(Lclprit,  II 


jmber  hod  inaeaied  to 


italiitlcal  inquiry  of  Dr  joban 
niiks.  is;s).  In  19«  llie  to 
which  j/U  were  pubfohed  in  Vienna. 

Acconiing  to  the  DniiK*rr  Zrilirlr^Bm-JTnWi'i  (iSj4).  a>«9 
periodicslt  wen  pubJi^ed  in  AuKrIa,  Gemuny  and  SwineriaM 
m  1874  in  the  Gemun  lanfuage-  In  1905  the  number  of  periodicali 
In  German-ipealcing  counfrica  wat  50^,  of  which  4019  appeared  ia 
Germany  Qn  Berlin  alone  I  tor)  806  in  Aunria  and  118  n  Swilicp- 
bnd  (S«r»U9U/i[rdn>d«lHbaSaiUiwbl,  1909.  No.  114)- 

AurnOHiTiis.— C.  Juncber,  5cMhi>h  it  ipSemiriiaiiJ  mit' 
m  {Leiptii,  l«4i}:  H.  Kun.  dicUclle  dir  dnUiitai  LOtrmUr 
iplit,   1851):  K.   Pnilt.  GatkieUt  ia  dnibdhni  Jwmm^immt 

" "     'E'KS.'va.B'S 

rrrmltca  tntOi  litldai  [tUoy.Gntralhiltltf 

itr   tanfenien  'fltm  a*  itn   muttrr.   UiKmf- 

liiail.   Xfid    SI  »n    F.    CriiiHaT    (Viennd, 

>S98):  KSniflic  AlptmtrliMilltiVlrmitbiitim 

latkHden  Ztiii  Unhii  Vmtidnii  itr  !«/>■- 

den  Zlllsckrifl.  a    VlmtOmu  itr  iBrfrndM 

ZriUdaOim,  ■  uuf  SOtlMVuMtk  iAttkn 

irid  tintr  An  am  Bajtrw  iiWln    Bsdn 

(MOnehen.  I9iiy;.  n-. .......«,  ^~-,m^iir  PmK  (T91UI:  SptrUmp 

ZiilKluirun  Aira^nuk  (Stuttfart,  1910)1  Blbliocrapbiichfa  Rcnet- 
totlDm,  Berlin:  Waltel-Houben.  ZtOitliripim  der  KtmamlH  (1994): 
Houben.  ZiilKkririiH  ia  jmrn  DfUMmii  <no«);  Lurk,  Sit 
iHiOclu  Ftchfttai  (TUbinten.  1908).  The  AWucraMii  itt 
inMeitn  ZtUKhrilUiiiiunlwr,  edited  by  F.  Dieterich,  wWch  haa 
■ppeaml  annuiRy  Wnce  1S96,  deieribet  about  ijcv  periodicak 
(mnilly  Kienlific)  by  nibjernand  titlei;  frocD  1900  It  kaa  been 
Bupplpmcnftd  by  aiblift'^tkU  itr  iatudm  RKtnriemtw,  wfaidi 
indncB  noticev  and  tTvicvt  In  trver  1000  leriali  each  year,  chiefly 
■cientlBc  and  technkaL 

SwrtntLkRD 
Ttn  KiK  KUtntia  MttUta  (1703-1715)  of  Zarich  la  the  eailiaK 
literary  periodiral  which  SnitaeTland  can  ihow.  Fma  171a  to 
I7U  a  BiUudUnit  iuli^at,  and  lowarda  the  end  of  the  cntiny  tl« 
BiiiulU^u  bnttmtitmt  (1796-1815).  deallni  with  airiniltiii*, 
nteralarF.  and  idMee.  in  three  Kiianite  (eriei,  wen  uublMait 
at  i>MVk    Tt*  lana  ww  followed  (7  tba  laadk«  penBdiol 


PERIODICALS 


of  FiHKh-Batinc  Swftariuid,  tbi  JMtodJjM  ntendfa  (iSi^. 

vblch  hu  ibo  hid  >  ilar" '  -  "-^ '-     ■'■<-  ' — 

(■in  (iBjS)  »u  produced 


tmiad^     La  ShUk  tamamJe  {|^5)  ™^y 


liMixUwf  mm 
only  lutad  r 


, , Jbrw^lUe<«J(7~dirUlHa- 

#J^  (1A73)  >t  Lauuine.  Aiuong  camnt  mruiU  may  be  n>eadoncd 
Aitiiiiiiepnckiit!iiilaSiiuHrtmmitUgpi)BiitedbyF\oanny 
and  Cbpanoej  /umvfHKbnr  der  Jdhawurucbn  UniwtriMa^ 

UMtwiockctlt  (190J);  Zminiiima!  liilltiliimtn  »r  AickKJUi 
2MIU«  wd  d«  X^nnKUHN  CiSOT)- 

PniaptedbrM,  A.  Ricd.  Fnncaco  Nuari.  Ihe  future  cardliul. 
flitabbiAed  In  1A6S  tbe  GitnoU  ds'  Uueraxi  upon  (b«  pUa  d  tbe 
FreBch  Jmnul  itt  samOi,  Hit  CDlUbtKBlejn  each  agretd  Co 
mdertalt*  the  crhicUa  ct  a  «runH  titaatuR  in^lc  Nanri  re- 
■ained  the  nnenl  editonhip  and  the  analyiu  of  the  French  boaks. 
The  ^oumal  ma  cdntinLicd  to  1675,  and  anolher  vaxa  waa  carticd 
on  lo  1769.  Biixhini  btDugbt  out  at  Parma  (i6S8-i£9a]  and  at 
Modtna  (1691-1697)  a  perisdtcal  wilb  a  dmilarlilJe.  A  muchbcllu 
known  Gionaie  wai  that  of  ApostoLo  Zcno,  fouoded  with  the  bclp 


ooend  to  and  declined  t^  U^o  F< 
Italian  Literature  by  iti  opp«iti«i 

Another  Milauae  aerial  wal  th?  (-_ . — . ,._ 

^thowb  it  only  ttired  two  yran,  will  be  n:mcnib< 
deavoM  madeV  Silvio  PdUco,  Camillo  Uionl  an 


Dmnrda. 
«wiih 

H  Milan 
in  Utcia- 
Lt  Milan 

the  en- 
.hw  con- 


critlcim.    After  iti  npprcseion  and  the  falling  ^  ■□  inl 

the  MWMss  ilaHama  the  next  ol  onv  merit  to  appear  wu  tne 

Amttiftu,  ■  DMnthly  pcriodicat  brought  out  ><  FIotcdcc  in  JS20 

SCino  Cappooi  and  Ciampctiti  vicuikiu,  but  njppr«ed  in 
3j  on  accfluDi  of  an  epigram  of  TommaetOb  a  principal  vriter. 
Sonip  atrikinf  papen  wen  Contributed  by  Oiuftpp*  Mauini. 
Kaplei  had  in  1831  llPratrtsiBol  Carlo Troya, helped  Sy  TomnaM 
■ml  CcBtolami.  and  Palenno  owned  the  Ci'grwli  ill  Hofufiu  (^1834), 
■uppmaed  eight  yean  later-  The  Arikimt  storito,  coaeiftuiK  9I 
RpriDd  of  doeiimenla  with  hittocical  divertationi,  datfA  fniia  i&l?, 
fenj  waa  founded  hy  VieuHCtu  and  Giao  CapoonL  Ttie  Cmlii 
tautlia  (1850),  lonnJEhtly,  la  itill  the  onan  of  Oie  Jeiuio.  The 
XMiai  canUmparvHB  {(Sjl)  wai  loundnT  at  Tuiln  ■□  emulation 
ti  the  French  JCnw  on  driv  mpiufer,  which  hu  beeo  the  type 
blliMB]  by  n  mny  conluienlal  periodical!.  The  FalilKilca 
(IS)«)  oi  Milan  ma  nippRoed  in  iBu  and  nvlvedia  1859.  The 
mwia  oMgiit  (1M6)  ioon  ■cqiund  a  well-deHrvtd  icfHtlacIon 
M  a  high-dan  iVncw  and  manainei  il>  rival,  the  FwiM  <iin£Ki, 
bdnf  tha  ipecU  oiian  ol  tio  Fkmulne  aun  of  leiien.  The 
fnfwjil  tettumauit  waa  ■  w«cUy  political  and  liEemy  review, 
vhiefc  alter  (ifhtyean  of  eiiiUDce  rava  place  to  a  daily  ncirquper, 
tbe  JEiui^pD.  The  ArcUnt  fnnfiiH  (iSBi>  waa  the  otnn  of 
"  Italia  Imdcua."  The  Kautft  naaeiuk,  conducted  by  the 
MRhog  Minlredo  di  PaHBDo,  >  chief  of  the  moderate  clerical 
frn,  the  Mhk  nMNa  of  Turin,  the  FantHOa  dsOa  Dmaaia,  and 
tbaGbiiriilBj^lMparfa  may  abo  be  oientionitt. 

Sonw  of  the  folknriin  are  dill  publuhtd:  Anaali  lU  maltmaHa 
(tB67l;  itinoarji.df  fnri^ndnia  (i8Sj):  AriMciB  Ji  slaUilica 
(itjii;  ArciMa  Mrko  latAardii  (1S74);  Arckina  ctntto  [lS7Jh 
AnUliaftr  la  ttaiit  dtUr  Inukiuai  pupelan;  Aiilmit  ptr  la 
^mnltrH:  It  BMitfile;  II  MiEmriri  (iST^li  ^  H"^"  /1S84); 

■Hfibliriarrmaitmi  Niina-rmiu IilBiaatmaU  {!»!<>);  La  RaBctHa 
ilcliami  laai);  Kma  iMlmHiauU.  tim)-  la  more  leccnt  yuan 
a  cnair  expanuon  haa  been  wilneieed-  Local  revicwa  bav«  lai^ly  ' 
increaaed.  aa  well  at  thoK  devoted  to  hialory.  Kience  and  university 
oadertaUnga.  Amonf  reproentative  aeriali  an  the  Idhnrim— 
*    ■      '  "  w  ilaHant  ii  atukUu  danica  (iMj)  with  ailai 

triuiiaiu  (i»oi|:  SantB  bduuiat  S artlmjotia 


uSrariasa  and  ai 


a  (rftii); 


L-Amiia, 
PHitdiit  . 
RmM  a 

d'/ulte  moothly 
ifofHtao,  monthly; 


jsssi; 

^--,-,.  ^tkiiojofiia  (1A99);  Kitata 

Rome.      Fine  Arta:   VArli.    BMOthlyi  Ant 
EJfriH^arff,  monthly. 

_-j  G.   Oltino.  La  SlaMpa  piriiiiiia  n   Ilalia 

(Milan.  1875);  SacaUa  iti  poinjin  pnanOata  aW  aptiaitmt  ia 
ilHam  (iSSil:  A.  Roua,  Lo  LaUnilwt  mloifvraiw  nr  Italii 
(1B71-1SBJ),  Paiia,  l&gj. 

BELaimi 


Tht  Teanal  auyiiiiftiljiu  [173S-1793)  founded  by  P,  Rouaie 
nade  Ll%e  a  propajtandiat  centre  tor  the  philoaophical  pai 
'-  -■■ '~-  —  b1»  finl  Blabliihed  VEzprii  ia  jtunu 


l8j5-'««.}.iB 


(fJTi-itli),  Byled  by  Sainte-Beuve 

cellente  colKctloD,"  b4it  "^jogmal  voTu,.  w  •,^..,...~^^,.  m^ 
Jennal  Uiiatifu  <t  lilUtakt  ri7W-iT90j  wai  fDunded  at  Luxcin- 
butf  by  the  Jeiuit  De  Fellor;  having  oeen  lupprnaed  there,  it  waa 
traDiferred  to  IJ^get  and  aubsequenily  la  MaeBlricht.  It  is  one  of 
the  molt  curioui  of  the  BdglaD  penodlcala  of  the  lAth  centufv, 
and  nmtaina  moat  preckHU  materul*  for  the  natieiial  himxy.  A 
comnlete  lei  ii  very  nre  lad  mocli  KiuBhi  after.  The  Jicnx  Mb> 
la  ipice  of  the  nniort  of  tbeteM  wrhenol  the  kiggdoo, 
Hictaeor  iba  Sit  it  lUtt  (lau-iBa?).  the  rXwr 
i^lSu),  pdbUlhed  at  Bru»d>.  and  the  Smt  it  AcMnw 
—iiallclion-llved.  TheJimitdtAiiKlttiCiSjT-i&ia), 
^e  nobility  and  the  clergy,  had  a  lODfer  caioer. 

MiiUntati  (iSij), 


The  Jbiw  » 


iniveirfly  of  fjii 


847-    The  Jfui..     _ 

in  repute  on  account  trf  its  historical  an , 

aikoli^ue,  tha  organ  of  the  profeuon  g| 
aio,  began  in  1846  a  conlioveny  with  the 


jfier^'^r 


Kentcn 
^  for  II 
la  Inaa 

:  Jnnu. 


ia  tttuHUU  (1858)^ 
be  i^DIeatant  CHiSirm 
Rent  bfiuifrjelfi  waa 
[S54.    The  4Iknua 


fouDded  at  ^nueele  by  Vaa  BratnKl 
Ms  (ises)  did  Dot  Ian  loni. 

Among  current  periodicab  In  Frendi  ait  [he  fbllowiiit — BiUio- 
■raphy:  BtOUiix  biHupapliHiit  it  ftdatoeif^  da  muA  irltt 
(iSnj;  La  Katu  iti  MfMUfwi  «  arehita  it  S^tint  (toaiV 
la  OlmtMr  liatmirt,  mutictl  tt  baiicjTapilit  (1901! ;  Ar^kmi  ia 
aril  a  dt  la  KtlierratUi  it  Bdiimr  iTabtea  1B11-18U  and  1815- 
1894).  .  Philnaop^y  Tnd  ecc1«fa«i<d  hiuory:^»>^.<»cJki£ 
iliaui  tmilUt  tar  la  loMU  pkaneplmiit  it  LwHi'a  (iSoa}:  Raim 
fSisltiiadiiiasli^  (looo),  the  orian  of  the  Catholic  udi^ty  cf 
lAuvaln;  Saiit  bbUdiauit  (i8S4]i  AmaltOti  pwr  umr  d  riaarin 
leelfsiailint  it  la  Brlrimir,  9*  tfrie  (1881-1904)  and  y  ttrie 
S90fi:  with  an  .fiiaeii  1^  Cartulariet.  Science:  .IrciMn  mUi- 
Hlunfo  it  t^ytmiaiU  (iqoi),  publiihcd  by  L«on  Fcadericd:  £a 
(Malt,  naiaii  cyhUpt  a  fUMori' rtfiiraU  (1884):  la  MuUaa 
tiBSt)',  Lt  JfoucTUai  lieiniMmi  (iSSi):  Li  Uia*t  iap  {1S97); 
Iltnt  tkimrgkalt  bdft  tl  3u  nori  it  la  fiamt  {1901).  AmaUa  ifct 
nwi  Mfigui  aj^iean  quarterly,  aad  L'Arl  nuitnu  »«Uy  at 


u  the  Btthaal  Ma  Emfpu 


PERIODICALS 


idl 


duriai:  iu  long  life.  T^  next  of  any  not*  was  the  RspuUHk  dir 
Celeerdtn  (17 to- 1748).  The  Englisn  Spectator  was  irnUate^  by 
J.  van  Effcit  rn  his  Misanthrope  (1711-1717),  written  in  Firencb, 
and  in  tbe  HUlandscke  Spectator  (1731-1735).  in  Dutch.  An  im« 
portant  aerial  was  the  long-lived  VadeHandsche  LutleroefeHtKBtH 
(1761)..  The  Alfemeene  Ku/ul  en  JJtUrboie  (1788)  was  long  the 
feading  review  otHolland;  in  i860  it  was  joined  to  the  Nederlandsck 
Spectator  (1855).  Of  those  founded  in  the  19th  century  may  be 
mentioned  the  Rocenseni  (1803).  and  Nieuwe  RecensenI;  the  Neder- 
landick  Museum  (1835);  the  Tijdstreom  (1857);  the  TijdspMgel,  a 
literary  journal  of  Protestant  tendency;  the  Tkeologuch  Ttjdukrift 
(1867),  the  organ  of  the  Leiden  school  of  theology;  and  the  DietscM 
Warande,  a  Roman  Catholic  review  devoted  to  the  national  anti- 
quities. Cotooial  interests  have  been  cared  for  by  the  Tiidschrip 
voor  nederhndsck  Indie  (184S).  Current  periodicals  ein.  HoUaudscmi 
revue,  monthly:  De  Cids^  (1837),  monthly;  De  nieutM  Cfds  (1886)^ 
monthly;  De  Architectt  bi-monthly:  Caectlia  (for  music);  Tijaschrin 
voor  Strafreckt:  Museum,  for  i^itology  (18O3),  monthly;  Ttjdsehrtft 
voor  nedertandscke  tool  en  Utterkwudex  Nedtrlandsch  ArckieoenUai'. 
De  Paleotraaf;  Elseviers  geiUuttreerd  Maandukrift^  monthly;  CroU 
Nederlana^  monthly. 

BeNMAiik  ^        

Early  in  the  i8th  century  Denmark  had  the  ffye  Tidender(t726), 
continued  down  to  1836  under  the  name  of  Danskiiteraturtidemde.- 
The  Minerva  (1785)  of  Rabbck  was  carried  on  to  1819.  and  the 
Skandinavuk  Museum  (1798-1803)  was  revived  by  the  LiUeralur' 
Seiskabs  Skrifter  (1805).  These  Were  followed  by  the  Laerde  EJler- 
retninger  (1799-1810),  afterwards  styled  Liiteralur-Ttdende  (181 1- 
1436),  thit. Athene  (1813-1817),  and  HiUotisk  Tidsskrijl  (1840)4 
In  more  modern  times  appeared  TidsskriJl  for  UUeratt/r  og  Kritik 
(1852-1842.  1843):  Maanedsskrift  for  LUteraiur  (i8;»-i838>:  Nord 
eg  Syd  (1848-1849)  of  Goldschmiot.  Succeeded  by  Vde  og  njemme, 
and  the  Dansk  Maanedsskrift  (1858)  of  Stcenstrup,  wnh  signed 
historical  and  literary  articles.  One  of  the  most  noteworthy 
Scandinavian  periodicals  has  been  the  Nordisk  UniversUeis  Ttds- 
skrijt  (1854-1864),  a  bond  of  union  between  the  universities  of 
Christiania,  Upsaia,  Lund  and  Copenhagen.  Current  periodicals 
are:  Studierfra  Sprog-  og  Oldlidsforskntng  (ttoi),  quarterly;  Danske 
Magagin^ yearly;  Nyt  Tulsskriftfor  Mathetitoiik,  monthly;  Tkeelogisk 
Tidssktifl^  monthly;  N64ionahkonomiisk  Tidsskrift,  bi-monthly; 
Dansk  bogfortef^uelset  bi-monthly  for  bibliography;  Atkenaeum  Jii^sft; 
Titskueren,  monthly;  Aarboger  for  Nordisk  Oiakyndighed  (archac> 
ology)  quarterly. 

Iceland  has  had  the  IslenMk  Sagnabldd  (t8i7-i«26),  N^  FkSagsrit 
(1841-1873).  and  Cefn  (i870*-i873)>  Skirnir  (iSdi).  which  absorbed 
in  1905  Timarit  kins  istenska  Bokmentaf^ags  (|8S<^I904)»  is  still 
published. 

KOBWAY^    .  _^  ^ . 

The  first  trace  of  the, serial  form  of  publication,  to  be  found  in 
Norway  is  in  the  UgcnUige  korte  Afhandltnger  (1760-1761). "  Weekly 
Short  Treatises,"  of  Bishop  Fr.  Nanncstad,  consisting  of  moral  and 
thedc^ical  essays.  -The  Maanodlige  Afkandlinger  (1702),  "  Monthly 
Treatises,"  was  supported  by  several  writers  and  devoted  chiefly  to 
rural  economy.  Tocse  two  were  followed  by  Politik  om  Historie 
(1807-1810);  Sftgo  (1816-1820),  a  quartcriy  review  edited  by  J.  S. 
Munch*  Dtn  norske  Tifskuer  (1817-1821),  a  knisfelbny  brought  out 
at  Bergen;  Hermoder  (1821-1827),  a  weekly  aesthetic  journal;  Idtina, 
(1822-1823),  of  the  same  kind  but  of  less  %4luc;  Vidar  (1832-1834),  a 
weekly  scientific  and  literary  review;  Nor  (181O-1846),  of  the  same 
type;  Norsk  Tidsskrift  for  Videnskab  og  Ltlteraiur  (l 847-1855); 
Jlfuslreret  N^sUad  (1851-1866).  **  Illustrated  Ncu-s*;  Norsk 
Maanedsskrift  (i8«^r86o). "  Monthly  Review  for  Norway,"  devoted 
to  history  and  philology;  and  Norden  (1866),  a  literary  and  scientific 
review.  Pofiular  serials  date  from  the  SkiUing.  Maptin  (1835). 
which  first  introduced  wood-engraving.  Re|>rc8entative  current 
periodicals  are:  Samtiden,  monthly;  EUktrottknisk  tidsskrift;  nordisk 
musik-revue,  fortnightly;  Naturen;  Norsk  kaveHdende,  mbntfily; 
Urdi  No/vegia„ 

Sweden 

The  Sbtfiufta  Arpu  (1733-17^)  of  Olof  Daiin  is  the  first  contri- 
bution of  Sweden  io  periodical  ktecuure.  The  next  were  the  Tid' 
ningar  owt  den  Ldrdat  Arbeten  (1742)  and^the  Larda  Tidningfir.  The 
patriotic  journalist  C.  C.  Cj5rwell  established  about  twenty  literary 
periodicals  of  which  the  most  important  was  the  Svenska  Mercurius 
(1755^1789).  Atterbora  and  some  fellow>stiidema  founded  about 
1810  a  society  for  the  deUveranoe  of  the  country  from  French 
pedantry,  which  with  this  end  carried  04  a  penedical  entitled 
Pkosphoros  (1810-1813),  to  propagate  the  oinnions  of  Schloccl  and 
Schefling.  The  Stensk  LiUraiur-Tidning  (1613-1825)  oF  Palmblad 
and  the  Folyfem  (i8iO'l8i2>  had  the  same  objects.  Among  later 
periodicab  we  may  mentloo  Skandia  (1833-1837);  Literaturbladit 
(183&-1840);  SldUninMr  och  ForhaUanden  (1838)  of  Cruscn&iolpe.. 
a  monthly  review  of  Scandinavian  history ;  Tidshrift  fOr  JJtteratur 
(1850}:  Norsk  Tidsskrift  (1852).  weekly.  Fdrr  och  Nu;  and  the  Revue 
suidoite  (1858)  of  Kramer,  written  in  French.  Among  the  monthlies 
which  now  appear  art  the  following:  Social  Tiaskrifl,  Nordisk 
TtdskriJlundOrdochB'dd,  ^  ,  ' 


SrAtiv 


S^in  owes  lier  intellectual  emancipatton  to  the  monk  Benito 
Fey)6d,  who  m  1726'  produced  a  volume  of  dissertations  somevi'tiat 
after  the  fa^liion  oftne  Spectator,  but  on  graver  subjects,  entitled 


the'expenae  of  Philip  V.,did  not  long  survive  court  favour:  Other 
peiiodieals  whieh  appeared  in  the  1 8th  century  were  Maner's  Mercurio 
(1738);  the  Ditrio  notuioso  (1758-1781);  El  Pensador  (1762-1767) 
•f  jMeph  Ctovijo^  Fajardo;  J3  Belianis  liUrario  (1765),  satirical 
in  eharaeter;  the  Semanario  erudtfo  (177^1791),  a  cUrtnsy  collection 
of- dqcamenu;  Bl  Coneo  UUrario  de  Id  Europa  (1 781-1782) ;  £1 
Gmss^  (17^);  the  valuable  Memoridl  itTcrario  (1784-1808):  Bl 
C^rreaUterario  (1786-1700,  devoted  to  literature  and  scitncc; 
and  the  special  organs  Bt  Correo  mercanlU  (1 792"- 1798)  and  El 
S&moMario  de  agrkuttura  (1797-1805).  In  the  19th  century  were 
Yariedades  ie  tiedcias,  titetaturOi  yartes  (1803-1805),  among  whose 
contributoim  have  been  the  distingaishcd  names  of  Quintana«  Moratirt 
and  Antillon;  Miscddnai  de  comercio  (1B19);  and  Diario  generai 
de  las  ciencias  medicos.  The  Spanish  refugees  in  London  publislved 
Oems  de  esbaMoUs  refugiados  (i825-f826)  and  Miseetdnea  kispano" 
awuricana  (t824^i828>,  and  at  Paris  Misceldnea  eseojida  amrieartei 
(1826).  The  OMem  cienlffioa  y  Utemria  (1817-1820)  was  afterwards 
transformed  into  a  daily  newspaper.  Subsequently  to  the  cxtinc« 
tion  of  Bl  Censor  11820^1823)  there  was  nothiiw  of^any  vahie  until 
the  Coflas  etpaMolai  (<832),  since  known  as  the  Revista  espafiola 
(18^1836)  and  as  the  Revista  do  Madrid  (1838).  Upon  the  death 
of  teitfinand  VII.  jperiodkab  had  a  new  opening;  in  1836  there  weiie 
publlsbed  sixteen  Journab  devoted  to  science  and  art.  The  fashion 
of  illustrated  scnals  was  introduced  in  the  Semanario  pinlonsar 
«5^<Ul^ (1836-1857),  noticeable  for  its  bioeraphies  and  destriptrona 
of  Spanish  monuments.  El  Panorama  (1839-1641)  was  anothef 
literary  periodical  with  engravings.  Of  later  date  have  been  the 
Revista  ibdrias  (1861^1863),  conducted  by  Sanz  del  Rio;  La  America 
(i857->i87o),  specially  acvotod  10  AmcrKan  subjects  aoa  edited 
by  the  brothers  Asbucrino;  Revists  de  CaJa/a^e,  published  at 
Barcelona;  Revista  ce  Espa§a;  Revista  contvmpordnea-,  Espafl& 
modema  (1889)^  and  Revista  eritica  (1895)^  Cirrrent  special  perio* 
dicals  are:  Beakal-orriat  rivivus  bascangada  (1880, 'Sail  Sebastian); 
Monumentakisiorica  soeiitatie  Jesu  ((894);  El  Progreso  matematico, 
afterwards  Revista  de  matematicas  puras  y  aplicadas  (1891);  Revista 
de  biUiopf^ia  VaMlano  (Catalanya,  Batoaros,  Rosscl^,  Valencia. 
1901);  la  NatttraHexu,  fortnightly;  La  Bnerpa  eticirica,  fortnightly i 
Revista  minerot  weekly;  Revista  de  medktHa,  weekly;  BibHografim 
espae^ia, fortnightly;  la  j>cfMra;  Espana^y  America,  monthly. 

Sec  E.  Hartxcnbuach,  Periodical  de  Mai»>id  (1876);  Lapeynv 
Cataloga>4&rifa  de  lot  periodieos,  revistas,  y  ititstracionts  on  Espa^a 
(i8a2>:  Geargcs  Ie  Gcnril«  Les  Revues  Uttiraires  de  FEspag^  pendant 
hpremkMnuiliiduXIX'sitcle{Paais^i^09h 

POETUCAL  . 

Portugal  couM  k)ng  boast  of  only  one  review,  the  'Jornal  eneu- 
ehpedioo^  f  1779^1806),  which  had  many  interruptions;  then  came 
the  Jornal  de  Coimbra  (1812-1820);  the  Panorama  (1856-1857). 
founded  by  HcrcuUoo;  the  Revista  nniversdl  tisbonense  (1841-1833)/ 
established  by  Castilho;  the  fnstituto  (1853) of  Coimbfa;  the  Archtvo^ 
piUoresco  (1857)' of  LidtK>nt  and  the  Jorml  do  sociedade  dos  amigos 
dasletlems.    Jn  1868  a  review  called'  Vox  fementnot  and  con- 
ducted by  women,  wa8<c8tabKshed  at  Lisbon.-   Current  periodicals 
include:  0  Arckeolofo  portu^uts  (18^);  Jonwl  de  uiendas  fiiaMw- 
matitas  et  astronomtcas  (1877);  Kevtsia  lusitana,  Atchivo  de  estudos* 
pkilolotieos  e  etknohgices  relativos  A  Portugal  (1887);  Ta^ssi-Ybng' 
ICtto,  Arckivos  e  annaes  de  extromo  orienle  fortuguet  (1899) ;  Porlltgat 
artisdio,  fortnightly;  Revista  mihtar;  Arte  musical,  fortnightly t 
BoktUn  do  opicuUor^  monthly;  Archao  historico  poriugue»t  moathfy.' 

Greecb 

The'  periodttal  Mtcr^ure  of  modern  •  Greece  commences  with 
X>  My^  ISfii^,  brought  out  at  Vienna  in  181 1  by  Anthimos  Gazi 
and  continfled  to  1821.  In  Aegma  the  Aiyufotei  appeared  in  1831, 
edited  by  Mustbxidis;  and  at  Cx>rfu,  in  Greek,  TtauAn  and  English, 
the  *A»A»XoYrci  (1831).  After  the  return  of  King  Otho  in  1833  a 
literary  review  called  *Ipct  was  cc^rttmenced.  Le  Speclateur  de 
FOritntt  in  French,  pleaded  the  national  cause  before  Europe  for 
three  years  from  1853.  A  mititarV  Jourhal  ifras  published  at  Athens 
in  1855,  and  two  years  btcf  the  archaeological  periodical  con- 
ducted by  Pittakis  and  Rangabcs.  For  many  years  Uamhiipa 
(t85p->i872),  edited  by  Rangabcs  and  -  Paparrigopoutos,  was  the 
loaowng  serial,  ♦ivtt  dealt  with  natural  science,  the  r««nrM'urA  with 
agriculture,  and  'I«po/i»ii/Kui>  with  theology.  'EA««6»  y^smrurr^MM* 
(18^1)  and  «iAoWriMf  v&X\eifot  Umpowrvbt  (18G3)  appear  annually,' 
and 'A^v^  (1899)  quarterly. 

See  A.  R.  K2u«ab^.  HisL  liU6raire  de  la  Gr^  modeme  (Paris. 
1879)  *  ^*  Niooiai,  Cetekickte  der  smugriechis^eH  LUeratuf  (i876>« 

RtJ&SlA 

The  historfah  Gerhard  Friedrich  MOll^  made  the. first  attempt" 
toesubliA  perioflicil  ifttMatura^ia  Rassia  &a<his  Y4jem>ye$yaUkmyi>^ 


fti 


PERIOEGI-^PBRIPATETICS 

MoMbtv  Woclu.-' 


•unijttllJSi-n6^).<it"UiKltAyVlc .-  .,„ 

ggajcd  UK  TniiMriiM(a)a  FltluU,  or  "iBdiwnoui  Ba. 
■  ifiBiUlioiu  Iroa  Ibe  SptatUr.  and,  lac  tbc  Gnl  linn,  ciiikw 
k  Kinsuia  bnMghl  out  ia  iSoi  Iha  VyaUtii  Etnpi,  •■ 
'Unt  nview  iritb  Ijberal  tcudencicL  The  ConHrvativr 
ti  rxUiiiiKiBoSJm.rtvivHialMoitowiii  iSjeby  Kitlkov. 

wdlaHumRluEitUlpubUiluileachinanili.    The  nnuilic 

Khool  wii  uppoct«]  hySin  OuuluUM  M\i),  "  San  of  tht  Ftlhcr- 
laod."  unileil  in  iSis  lo  [be  Sacnai  ArUia  (iSii).  whkh  dniiulkd 
and  cams  la  an  end  uon  tlur  iSu.  One  ol  Can  moil  (uc«h(uL 
-      ■  ■-.---  ■-- -  -■--    .  A^.-fc,  jT       TckUM  new)  or 

Uiiii,  ■■  RiwkD  Tbouiiu," 

, .,, , a>  eltbo  day:  Ziinul 

n  MrMfmu  p'oiKKCKUa.  nwntUy;  SiilliK*<  Itvauui 

16a),  n»nihly  i_r><ili>>*  HifSgata  ([dr.cdunU^ 


■Bled^'tlK 


JC^jHKMlt  (l8;6),  and  U<i|>ar  W^iHnUjBif.   BcloiE 


?Es;; 


poblUhed 

Mlowini  aie  mme  rcprcKntati 

'Ty'S'^"- 

ani'i  Rvniuit  tot^UOf  ((or  Uicistun);  JiuiM  oriii* 
laicnivnii  ilir  Bvji,  mantklyi  IjlHKhil?  ■'JxU'ut  (hMo^): 
KBiiiau  i^ordH  <in:ha«ji«y).  In  Finlaad  Stmi  (1S4I}.  aritMa 
ia  Smdii]!,  it  stiU  published. 

Bohemia  hat  the  fou^i  mum  trdfoMAl  teiUJis  (iSlTl.qol'nH'lr. 
founded  by  PaLicliy;  Suit  daba.  noitllily:  OtluKhi  Ki^  (i»(>7) 
qiuneriy.  Hunjiry  ran  show  Ibe  U'piruiiri  Jfefonn  (ljai-i;«J, 
IIOI),  publlthed  al  PrcBburE.  and  the  lf<(}np  Ukinai  (1788), 
The    ri«J.-«lMjPM  DijtiimlM}   (i8i7-i»4il   and  ihc   Fiiy^mtia 

{l8)J-i«43)  de«rve  mcntioa.    Vi  Uaaar  jVuen  w ■=- 

nagnzine.  and  Ibe  BnAipuli  jvxb  (1I57)  of  a 
-'laracler.     Amoni  eucrcni   Hiui|ariaa  peitodiaU 

_  iIjT _ 

Amooff  oltier  Polith 

vii  «  Lemben;  Inc  eioHauna  naraawmt 
JVuflni  Pi/iti  Tl«e6).  monihly:  Pntwodmt 
(iStST  moMl'b'i  f'-n-lni*  UM^r^itmj 
hu^  tmtcimj  (1684).  Dwiililr.  Ruman 
^i._  **_--.:_-#  "*-TifQ  ptiUrM  Daaa  (1&45), 
j:wuI  Moldav--  -■■'■   " 

(isM).'  nHDthly, 
.....wM.    The  beat  ... 
Is,  cdiud  by  Novakovic. 

^  whkb  the  follDwiiit 


.  ilitled  Ftrictual  PMin 

n  anther  ai^la  iuJed  pc^idd^ 


The  EJinbnrtk  and  Qi 


an  tDauiincaai  cfac  £hx  jju 
laL  EnHuk  Biil^Uid  A 
t  Jnrnat  (focpoUtical  none 
iaiian  Ktarfitoi  bibliogn 
Cal.  tl  Seint^  Papcri  (I 
1908),  and  the  Krpirliiniiii 
of  iIh  CcranD  !%Ient   C 

annuTTodcica  tDriTMThoie  bTlhe  ZaSeti"'!  KrarJ  and  At 
it  tfiHaM:    Complete  liua  ire  given  by  A-  B.  Kroe 

Mfirrm<U(£ff>b.  iao«)(odSlelnTAreW.-    

1897},    5a  alio  SMiufpyy  'I  B<.  ' 

Paiaiitali,  by  C  F.  Danfonh  (ioo»    ,  _. 

(I9a6},ftc.:  H.  C.  Bslioa'*  CJif.  itf  ,SnfMi&  dud  Ttt)im 

ah  Ms-ilm.  Sniihionian  Inu.  (ind  ed,.  tgn):  Hi 

Cal.  ^  SiiBa$i  Lil.  (i9(ij'i904l;  S,H,  Scuddct'a  Cil.  ii]3iitmiJU 

SMi,ltil-iljif.Camb.\H,LmtAVBiii.\i»T6y.CaL„lPnv>iii^ 

(Enciiih  and  Forecn)  »  ^ai.  IJt.,  iSjI-iilo;  BiUloOitaM  Na- 

lionak.  luu  ia  ptrMiva  Unntat  {lifj/H,    A  hkCdI  Kl«t  Ibt, 

including  all  bDcuago,  u  ].  D.  irawa'tCUtixM  lAU  eSCutinl 

PiricJicali  (1904).  |H,  K.  T.) 

PEHlOECt  ^it^p^otxu,  those  who  dveU  around,  in  Ihe  neigh' 
bouchood).  In  ancient  Laniitii  the  dais  inteimrdiale  belwctn 
the  Spartan  citiicTii  and  Ihe  tirli  or  hclols  (q.s.).  Ephonil 
uys  (Stcabo  viii.  J64  leq.)  Ihat  they  wen  the  origiaal  Achaean 
inbaUusu  of  ibe  counuy,  ihat  Im  Uw  Jnt  acocmtioa  •ha. 


uihute.    Tbele 

bAt  a  polilical  iialui,  and  though  th 


n  Achat! 


.n  oiigin,  yet 


Arcadians  od  the  noribein  IniDiier  oi  l^oHua,  IDoriaoa,  apec'ailf 
in  Cytben  and  ia  Mesaia,  and  loiuni  hi  Cynuria.  Tbey 
inhabhed  a  large  number  o[  jetlleinenls,  varying  in  liw  from 
impoitanl  towns  lilit  Cyihlum  to  insignificanl  himlcta  (Ito- 
t  liL  1)9);  the  names  ol  ihete,  so  lar  ai  they  art  known. 
been  coIlKied  by  ClintoD  {Faili  ktUnici,  tndnt.  1. 401  (qq.). 
They  peoBCAud  petioiuit  freedom  and  »me  mcasuie  ol  eoititnur.al 
Independence,  hui  were  apparently  undci  Ihe  immediate  tupei- 
viiifia  ol  Spartan  bamwili  (goveroon)  and  aubjeu  le  tba 
general  conlnl  ol  the  cphols.  though  bocratei  k  probably 
going  too  lar  in  uying  (lii.  iSi)  thai  the  tplten  tnlghl  put  to 

ieath  without  trial  aa  niny  of  the  peiioeci  at  they  pleased. 

i^itain  it  ii  that  Ibcy  were  eicluded  nsl  inttely  irom  all  Rattan 

tbiolulely  subject  to  Spartan  oidcrs,  and  that,  owing  to  the 
ilHeoCToI  any  legal  ti^h(olaiartiageJjnYa|Ja]  the  gulf  belnren 


e  aUo  obliged  ti 


mpauahlE.  They  > 
Lic,"perhiips  a  rent  for  uontain-jaDa  unien 
1  Tender  military  service.  This  last  buidea 
went  on;  5000  Spaniates  and  jooo  perioec 
^Utaea  in  474  h.c,  but  the  steady  decrease 
:  Spartiatei  necessitated  the  increasing 
~    '      '  might  serve  as  pctly 


pay  the  "royal  trih 
they  occupied,  and 

hopliles  lought  at 

in  Ihe  aiimber  of 

employRicm  of  the  perioecl. 

officers  or  even  rise  10  divisional  commands.  espeeiaUy  in  ine 

fleet,  but  seemingly  Ihey  were  never  set  over  Spuiiairs.    Yet 

citept  at  ihe  beginning  ol  the  4th  ccnluiy  ihe  pctioeci  wet^ 

so  far  as  we  can  judge,  laiily  eonlenled,  and  only  two  of  ibeit 

The  reason  ol  this  was  that,  though  the  land  which  they  cullivatnl 
was  very  nnpioduciive,  yet  thepmhibiiionwhicii  shut  out  every 
Spirtialc  Irom  manulaclure  and  eonimeice  left  ihe  IndtittTy 
and  trade  el  Laconia  entirely  in  the  hands  ol  Ihe  peiioed. 
Unlike  Ihe  Spailiales  they  might,  and  did,  possess  gold  and  silver 
and  Ihe  iron  and  steel  wire!  Irom  the  mines  on  Mt  Tajgelia, 
the  shoes  and  wodlrh  stuJFs  el  Amyelae,  and  the  import  and 
cxpoii  trade  ol  I^conia  and  Messenia  probably  enabled  soma 
at  least  of  them  la  live  in  ao  ease  and  comfort  udIoowd  to  ibciT 
Spaitanlord). 

ShC  Crete,  H'(/gry^C>mr.pt.iI..ch.6iCO.M(iner.i)sri(U 
(Eng.  Ifans,).  bk.'iii^  c1>.  9  i  A.  K.  ].  Crecnidge,  Crak  C^wftlMuad 
kiaarr.  p.  7»  hn.:  C.  Gilbert,  Crak  CMUtUiftcnul  rfUiniliu  (Eai. 
trani.}  p.  a  tqq. :  C.  F.  SchAman.  4wt(iuliu  gfCrHce  (Eog.  trans) 
p.  »I  loq.:  C  Diiiolt.  rtrnifct.  Staafi-  *ni  KKUialutiamtr.  IBa; 
CriakTCHikiiUe.  i.  sM  tea,  (and  ed.);  V.  Thumser,  zArtmi  ia 
tritck.  SUalulU'UiMH  (fith  od,),  |  Hi  B.  Niev,  UatiniUm  urn 
iir  wluoaihiiauu*  CatatJall  u  CAUintoi,  Fhil.-HI«.  Kbae, 
(1906),  101  sqq.  (U.N.T.) 

PBRIPATVnCS  (Irom  Cr.  npirit^r,  lo  walk  about),  Ihe 
name  given  in  antiquity  to  the  followers  ol  Aristotle  (f-i.).  eltha 
from  his  habil  ol  walking  up  and  down  as  Ik  lectured  to  his 
pupils,  ot  (mm  Ihe  npiTBrn  (covered  wilk)  ol  the  LyceUB. 

Aristotle's  immediale  tucceisors,'  Theophraslut  and  Eudemut 
ol  Rhodes,  were  diligent  scholars  rather  than  original  tbinken. 
They  made  no  innvvationi  upon  the  main  docleiiwi  ol  tbdr 
maslcr,  and  Ihcir  fnduiiiy  a  chiefly  directed  to  supplement in( 
his  works  in  minor  patiiculan.  Thus  they  amplified  n». 
Ihe  Ailslotelian  logic  by  Ibe  theory  ot  the  hypo-  »*maK 
Iheticd  and  diijunclive  syllogism,  and  added  to  ibe  first  figure 
of  Ibe  categorical  syllogism  the  live  moods  out  ol  wbicb  the 
fourth  figure  was  afierwanli  conftruclcd.  The  impulse  towards 
natural  science  and  the  tyslematiaing  of  empirical  deuas  wbicll 
dislinguiched  Atislolte  from  Plalo  was  abared  by  Tbei^ihnMw 
(f.*.).  The  same  lafn  loc  detail  is  obMrvable  in  bit  ethicx, 
where,  lo  judge  from  the  imperfect  evidence  of  ihe  CiaraiUri, 
he  daboialed  slDt  larlbcc  Aristolk's  portiailuie  of  Ibe  viituei 
See^CelUiH.  Nxt.  All.  xiii.  5,  (or  Iht  itny  tl  bow  Ariitetk 


{PERIPStTUS 


163 


uhI  their  rebtfye  vfces.  In  his  doctrine  of  vfrtue  the  distinttivt 
Peripatetic  position  regarding  the  importance  of  external  goods 
was  defended  by  him  with  emphasis  against  the  assaults  of 
the  Stoics.  He  appears  to  have  laid  even  more  sticss  on  this 
point  than  Aristotle  himaeif,  being  doubtless  led 'to  d»  so, 
partly  by  the  heat  of  controversy  and  partly  by  the  importance 
which  leisure  and  freedom  from  harassing  cares  naturally 
assumed  to  a  man  of  hb-  studious  tempenment.  The  meta- 
physical dffepfoi  of  Theophrastus  which  have  come  down  to 
us  ahow  that  he  was  fully  alive  to  the  difficulties. that  beset 
many  of  the  Aristotelian  definitions.  But  we  are  ignorant  bow 
he  proposed  to  meet  his  own  critidsms;  and  they  do  not  appear 
to  have  suggested  to  bim  an  actual  departure  from  bis  master's 
doctrine,  much  less  any.  radical  transformation  of  it.  In  the 
difficulties  which  he  raises  we  may  perhaps  detea  a  leaning 
towards  a  naturalistic  interpretation.  The  toidency  of  Eudemus, 
^^  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  towards  the  theologfcal 
miKMoSt.  ^^  Platonic  side  of  Aristotle's  philosophy.  The 
Eudemum  Etkict  (which^  with  the  possible  ezcq>tion  of 
the  three  books  common  to  this  treatise  and  the  Nicomockettn 
MtkUs,  there  need  be  no  hesitation  in  ascribing  to  Eudemus) 
expreuly  identify  Aristotte^s  ultimate  ethical  ideal  of  BtuifAa 
with  the  knowledge  and  i»ntemplation  of  God.  And  thb 
supplies  Eudemus  with  a  standard  for  the  determination  of 
the  mean  by  reason,  which  Aristotle  demanded,  but  himself 
left  vague.  Whatever  furthers  Us  in  our  progress  towards  a 
knowledge  of  Cod  is  good;  every  hindrance  is  evit  The  same 
spirit  may  be  traced  in  the  author  of  the  chapters  which  appear 
as  an  appendix  to  book  i.  of,  Aristotle's  Meiapkyskt.  They 
have  been  attributed  to  Pasicles,  the  nephew  of  Eudemus. 
For  the  rest,  Eudemus  shoe's  even  less  philosophical  indepcn- 
dence  than  Thcgphrastus.  Among  the  Peripateiics  of  the  first 
generation  who  had  been  personal  disciples  of  Aristotle,  the 
other  chief  names  are  those  of  Aristoxenus  (q.p.)  of  Tarentum 
and  Dicaearchus  (q.t.)  of  Messene.  Aristoxenus,  who  had 
formerly  belonged  to  the  Pythagorean  school,  maintained  the 
position,  already  combated  by  Plato  in  ih^  Pkoedc,  that  the 
soul  is  to  be  regarded  as  nothing  more  than  the  harmony  of  the 
body.  Dicaearchus  agreed  with  his  friend  in  this  naturalistic 
rendering  of  the  Aristotelian  entelechy,  and  is  recorded  to  have 
argued  formally  against  the  immortality  of  the  aooL 

The  naturalstic  tendency  of  the  school  reached  its  fiill 
expression  in  Strato  of  Lampsacus,  the  most  Independent,  and 
probably  the  ablest,  of  the  earlier  Peripatetics.  '  Hii 
fiw^iHM  "^'^"*  is  based  upon' the  formal  denial  of  a  trans- 
cendent deity.  Cicero  altributbs  to  him  the  saying 
that  he  did  not  require  the  aid  of  the  gods  in  the  constniction 
of  the  universe;  in  other  words,  he  reduced  the  formation  of 
the  world  to  the  operation  of  natural  forces.  We  have  evidenea 
that  he  did  not  substitute  an  immanent  world-soul  for  Aristotle's 
extra-mundane  deity;  he  recognised  nothing  beyond  natural 
necessity.  He  was  at  issue,  lK>wever,  with  the  z^toraistic 
materialism  of  Dranocritus  in  regard  to  its  twin  assumptions  of 
absolute  atoms  and  infinite  space.  His  own  speculations  led 
him  rather  to  lay  stress  on  the  qualitative  aspect  of  the  world. 
The  true  explanation  of  things  was  to  be  found,  according  to 
Strato,  in  the  forces  which  produced  their  attributes^  and  he 
followed  Aristotle  in  deducing  all  phenomena  from  the  funda- 
mental attributes  or  elements  of  heat  and  cokl.  His  psycho- 
logical doctrine  explained  all  the  functions  of  the  soul  as  modes 
of  motion,  and  denied  any  separation  0/  the  reason  from  the 
faculties  of  scnse<-perccption.  He  appealed  in  this  connexion 
to  the  statement  of  Aristotle  that  we  are  unable  to  think  without 
a  sense-image. 

The  successors  of  Strato  in  the  headship  of  the  Lyceum  were 
Lyco,  Aristo  of  Ceos,  Critolaus  (9.?.),  Diodorua  of  Tyre,  and 
E^mneus,  who  brings  the  philosophic  succession  down  to  about 
f  00  B.C. .  Other  Peripatetics  belonging  to  this  period  are  Hiero- 
nymus  of  Rhodes,  Prytanis  and  Phormio  of  Ephesus,  the 
delirus  senex  who  attempted  to  instruct  Hannibal  in  the  art 
of  war  (Cic.  De  arat.  n.  18).  Sotion,  HerMppus  and  Sityrus 
were  historians  rather  than  philosophers.    HerscUdes  Lembos, 


Agatharcbidcs  and  Anttsthcnas  of 'Rhod^  are  names  to  us  and 
nothing  more^  The  fact  is  that»  after  Strato,  the  Peripatetic 
school  has. no  thinker  of  any  note  for  about  200  years. 

Early  m  the  1st  century  bx.  all  the  philosophic  schoob  began 
to  be  Invaded  by  •  spirit  of  edectkism.  This  was  partly 
due  to  the  inHuence  of  the  practicsl  Roman  spirit.  This  in* 
fluence  is  illustrated  by  the  proconsul  Ludus  Gellius  Publicola 
(about  70  B.C.),  who  proposed  to  the  representatives  of  the  schocAs 
in  Athens  that  be  should  help  tbem  to  settle  their  differences 
(Cic.  Dfki*  L  90).  This  atmosphere  of  Indillermce  imper^ 
cepUbly  influenced  the  attitude  of  the  contendmg  schools  to  one 
another,  and  we  find  various  movements  towards  unity  in  the 
viewiof  Boethos  the  Stok,  V^umetlus  and  Antiochus  of  Ascalon,' 
founder  of  the  ao<aUed  '*  Fifth  Academy.".  Meanwhile  the 
Peripatetic  school  may  be  said  to  have  taken  a  new  departure 
and  a  new  lease  of  life.  The  Impulse  was  due  to  Andronicus 
of  Kliodes.  His  critical  edition  of  Aristotle  Indicated  to  the 
fatCJer  Pbripatetict  the  direction  in  which  they  could 
prafitably  worii,  and  the  school  devoted  itself  hence- 
forth admost  exdusrvely  to  the  writing  of  commentaries  on 
Aristotle,  e.g.  those  of  Boethus  of  Sidon,  Aristo  of  Alexandria,' 
Stascns,  Oratippus,  and  Nieolaus  of  Damascus.  The  most 
inttfesting  Peripatetic  work  of  the  period  is  the  treatise  A» 
Mtfiide,  which  is  a  good  example  withm  the  Peripatctid 
school  of  the  ecfectic  tendency  which  was  then  In  the  air.  The 
admlkture  Of  Stoic  dements  is  so  great  that  some  critics  hav« 
attributed  the  work  to  a  Stole  author;  but  the  writer's 
PeripatetidMi  seems  to  be  the  more  filndamental  constituent 
of  his  doctrine. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  Peripatetic  school  during  the  first 
two  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  is  very  fragmentary;  but 
those  of  its  representatives  of  whom  anything  is  known  con- 
fined themsdvcs  entirely  to  commenting  upon  the  different 
treatises  of  Aristotle.  Thus  Alexander  of  Aegae,  the  teacher 
of  Nero,  commented  on  the  CaUgcHes  and  the  De  cado.. 
In  the  snd  century  Aspasius  (g.v.)  and  Adrastus  of  Aphro* 
disias  wrote  numerous  commentaries.  The  latter  also  tinted 
of  the  order  of  the  Aristotelian  writings  in  a  separate 
work.  Somewhat  later,  Hcrminua,  Achaicus  and  Sosigenes 
commented  on  the  logical  treatises.  Aristocles  of  Messene, 
the  teacher  of  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias,  was  the  author  of  k 
complete  criticaL  history  of  Greek  philosophy.  This  second 
phase  of  the  activity  of  the  school  closes  with  the  oomprdiensive 
labours  of  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias  (Scholarch,  t.  200),  the 
excgetc  par  <xulUnce,  called  sometime  the  second  Aristotle. 
Alexander's  interpretation  proceeds  throughout  upon  the  natur- 
alistic lines  which  have  already  become  familiar  to  ^.  ^^ 
Aristotle  iMd  mainlaincd  that  the  individual  ^'"^•^ 


us. 

alone  is^  fOd,  and  had  nevertheless  asserted  that  the 
universal  is  the  proper  object  of  knowledge.  Alexander  seeks 
consistency  by  holding  to  the  first  position  alone.  The  individual 
is  prior  to  the  universal,  he  says,  not  only  "  for  us,"  but  also 
in  itsdf,  and  universats  are  abstractions  which  have  merely  a 
subjective  existence  in  the  intclh'gcnce  which  abstracts  them. 
Even  the  deity  must  be  brought  under  the  conception  of 
individual  substance.  Such  an  interpretation  enables  us  to 
understand  how  it  was  possible,  at  a  later  date,  for  Aristotle 
to  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  Nominalism.  Form^  Alexander 
proceeds,  Is  everywhere  indivisible  from  matter.  Hence  the  soul 
is  inseparable  from  the  body  whose  soul  or  form  it  is.  Reason 
or  intellect  is  bound  up  with  the  other  faculties.  Alexander's 
commentaries  formed  the  foundation  of  the  Arabian  and 
Scholastic  study  of  Aristotle.  Soon  after  Alexander's  death 
the  Peripatetic  school  was  nexged»  h1te  all  others,  in  Neo- 
plafonism  (?.s.). 

PBRIPATUSt  a  genus  of  animals  bdonging  to  the  air-breathing 
division  of  the  phylum  Arthropoda.  It  differs,  however,  from 
all  other  Arihropoda  in  such  imporunt  respects  that  a  special 
dass,  equivalent  in  rank  to  the  old-established  Arthropod  classes, 
had  been  created  for  its  sole  occupancy.  This  class  has  been 
named  the  Prototracheata  or  Onychopbora  (see  Aafaaopooii^), 
and  may  be  most  appropriately  placed  in  the  system  in  the 


JH 


Mighbouihood  d  Ihc  HyrU^yodi,  tbwith : 
thai  il  diftMS  (mm  Ihe  Myriipula  raor 
difTcr  (iDDi  otber  Aithnipcida,  and  the 
pnaenli  leUurw  which  lecnli  the  HSaci 
Tfat  genus  hu  ■  wide  disIribuUDn  {tee  bdnw).  but  il  hu  riot 
bun  found  in  Europe  01  in  North  AnKtiu,  Tbtrt  a  but  Ulth 
n  the  genu,  uid  ibc  ipecia  are  linuud  in 
ler.  They  ll»e  beneath  the  heik  ot  tras,  in  the  crevica  of 
and  o(  loltEn  ttumps  oC  trees,  and  bcnidh  alona.  They 
tmcHpherei  and  are  eifccedlngly  lUKcptiblc  to 
dioughl.  They  avoid  iight,  and  an  thcrclore  nrdy  seen.  Thior 
move  slowly,  pidting  their  course  by  tneans  ol  their  antennae. 
When  iriitsled  they  eject  with  consideHLble  loree  the  oontimi) 
at  theii  (lime  ceservoin  by  maani  o[  the  (udden  contraciioa  ol 
lbs  muscular  body-will.    Tie  ilime,  which  appears  to  be  harm- 

of  Ihe  animal  itscU.  jjxomoiion  is  eQcclcd  by 

legs,  with   Che  body  fully  eiiendcd.     Hullon  describes 

specimens  as  sucking  Ihe  jiu(^  of  Kti,  which  they  had  si 

(lawn  with  tbeii  slime,  and  Ibcy  have  been  obseived  in  capLii 

li>  devout  the  enliails  which  have  been 

fellows,  and  <a  eat  raw  iheep'I  livec.  They  move  theli  mouthi 

ftSucLorial  maanec,  tearing  the  food  with  Iheif  jaws.    Hiey  hj 


PHUPATUS 

called  ibt  buccal <u4iy,.aitd.  11 
lip,  raised  into  papilliform  ndge! 
Within  the  buccal  cavit; *- 


l>ERlPAinS 


.65 


Amtnl— in  •gvia  come  hucx  to  lavtrw  cn*>  iniimurh  u  tin 
(•(■■ic  Ivn.  full  «t  yolk,  ikd  cadacd  in  ■  itell !  bal  ckvekipmciit 
■unntlly  Ukn  pUct  inlhe  utenu,  IIXHIth  jibllORIUlUy.  Jnonnpletely 


dcvskipKl  Hp  >n  cnnkkd.  The  ulenu  ilnyi 
youdc,  wtiich  «K  utually  ai  difTHvit  ouh  «  1 
■R  bom  u  diScml  tima    '    '  ^ 

Affe  ud  «n  bom  at  a  dun. 


iQ  Aprii  and  May-  They  an  ■jmoal  CDlouriciB  at  birtll, 
tbe  inuiuiait.  which  an:  pm.  and  tbein  knilh  il  10  U 
A  lint  I«ii«li  will  product  ihiny  10  tatty  young  in  ont 
•  period  cf  (nrnion  hlhinen monlht.  Ihtt  1>  u  b) 


■^^^niii 


11  (Hi- 


mth  bdoR  tbe  1 
The  buDcal  a 


the  hind  end  o<  ir  Iben  open 
vvDtrally  by  a  TaediJn  opening 
■he  Edivary  B<an(b.  The  nnutE 
leada  lEKO  a  miEtcijtaT  pharytu, 
•Fhkh  il  OHUHcted  by  a  ihut 
oaopbagv*  with  Ihi 


Then  nt  na  (hndi  apeniog  inio 

of  which  il  iho«n  m  fig.  ?■  u  of  the 
*'  rDpe-laddcT  "  type,  and  ihe  veo- 


but  it  ewerywhefe,  with  the  et- 
ceptlon  ci  ttie  perioral  nniofl. 
niKd     Imo     iniuiu     tccar^aty 


loentAiy  upal,  ilime  glandi  a  ad 
aalivary  slandL  Tbe  dineciioa 
it  viewecl  from  the  vcnlral  tide, 
and  the  lipt  IL)  have  been  cut 
ihnugli  in  the  middla  lint  btiiind 


ininuL    The  tioDucli 


insri 


papilla';   C*,   pharymi;    R,         menl  front  uliich  ner 
Siva^'lla' 


r.  tOPIue  in  lool  ol  moutl 


iKTvet  to  oral  papilue;  pc 
poncrlor  lobe  01  brain;  pn 


trhich  it  ioUamd  bv  th 


n  of  eelln.  T^ 
to  the  eklii  k 
if  the  cellt  In  the 

mal  cittultr  i2 


through  ■  tndn]  pit  ud  divnlag  bundM 

ken  trantvertely  to  the  long  jiiit  of  the  body. 
ig  Tudincntary  ipiral  fibre;  ttj.  CtOt  retemblint 
ininff  the  tmchesU  pitk  which  occuratiuiervtli  along  the 
ol  the  tiachse;  (r.f.  Tracheal  idgnui  lr-^,TiulHaIpiI> 
d  of  epitbeUal  ctllt.  bounded  towirdt  the  Idnfcn  Bt 

■"■■--'^-(.ra^Wl ,.    _., 

ipanded  portion 

llrialion  whidl  is  probably  the  indicalinil 
>ear  to  branch,  but  only  cxtrprlonally, 
diffirsed  over  the  turfacc  of  the  body, 

iiini  ol  a  dorul  tubular  heart  with 
cricaTdium.  of  the  peri- 
of  the  peri'diceni  cavity 


of  tbii  are  toimcd  of  epithelial  ct 


ral  fibre.  They 
eipcti^i^c™o'i 
Ollia"  liding''inl  "i" 


U  DJ, .  At  in  all  Ai 
.    It  il  divided  by  ici 


W,  an^   fc 


It  (fig. 


lollowing  iwti  may  be  mogoiied  (G|.  9; 


'of  the  vaKultr 
iJ,D).  of  which 

lium.    Kephridil 


Pic.  9,-rNBpbriiflum from  tbe  ninth  pair  of  legtoCP.  tafa^. 

OJ,   Eitenul  opening  of  teinien-  IJ.I,  ijj,  mj,  t^j,  Sucteitiva 

tal  organ.  Ra»Hia  ol  coiled  ponioa  of 

p-f,  Inlerntl^^ienijif  of  neprnid'  nebhridium. 

ium  into  the  body  ca^y  F-OJ,  Third  portion  of  nephridiurn 

riateral  comfaTtmcnO.  broVen  oft  al  p./ from  the  in- 

1,  Veaicia  of  tCfCDtntal  organ.  temal  v«aicl«,  which  It  ikk 

(j)  opening  10  the  eklEriar  on  the  ventntt  urface  of  tbe  leca  by  t 
narrow  paiaage  (J.  J) ;  U)  a  coiled  portion,  which  ia.  Bflaia  tUDOividtd 
into  teveral  tectioul  (li);  (j)  a  lerlion  with  cloKly^btd  nuclei 

ending  by  a  tomewhat  enlarged  opening  (>./);  (4)  ^^- ■— ' 

portion,  which  contini  of  ■  thin-«a1led  vnicle.     T*- 

of  the  fini  three  ptin  of  legi  are  amaller  than  the  nu., . 

only  ti  k  VTBCle  and  duct.  The  founh  aud  fifth  paira  are  largef 
than  thoie  behind,  and  arr  in  other  leipectt  peculiars  lor  Iniiance, 


The  nephridit 


s66 


FEKIPATUS 


|e^*  and  the  cxtenul  vaicnkr^portion  is  not  diladed.  Theoctenal 
opening  of  Che  other  nephridia  is  placed  at  the  outer  end  of  a  tnuia- 
v«ne  groowe  at  the  base  of  the  lei^  The  ■alivaiy  gkads  are  the 
modified  nephridia  of  the  aegroent  of  the  ond  papillae. 

The  male  seoerative  organs  (fig.  lo)  ooosiat  of  a  pair  of  testes 
(l»),  a  pair  of  seminal  vesicles  <v).  vasa  deferentia  (vui.)«  and  aooes* 
•ocy  g&ndular  tubules  (/).    All  the  above  parts  lie  an  the  central 


(After  BaDDor.) 
FlO.  la-^Male  dexiertttive  Organs  of  Peripahu  eapensU.  Dofsal  view. 

a.{,  Enlarged  crural  glands  of  last  p.  Common  duct  into  which  vasa 
pair  of  legs.  deferentia  open. 

F.  JO,  17,  Last  pair  of  legs.  U,  Testes,     v.  Seminal  vesicles. 

/,    Small    acoesaory    guindular  vx,  Nerve<ord. 

tubes.  9d,  Vas  deferens. 


The  devehnmsnt  haa  been  worlied  out  m  P-  tup^ittist  to  vhiih 
species  the  loUowiag  deKription  refers.  The  segmentation  is 
peculiar,  and  leads  to  the  fomatioB  of  a  solid  gastrula,  ooosistiBr 
of  a  cortex  of  ectoderm  midei  sunoundina  a  oential  endodenra 
mass,  which  is  exixaed  at  one  point— the  biwtopore.  The  eoterao 
arises  as  a  space  in  the  endoderm,  and  an  opacity— the  primitive 
•troak— appeuB  at  the  hind  end  of  the  blastopore  (fig.  ii,  B). 
The  elongatioo  of  the  embivo  is  aooompaaied  by  an  elongation  of 
the  blastopore, ^which  soon  becomes  dumb>bcU  shaped  (fi|g.  it,  C). 
At  the  same  time  the  mesoblastic  somites  (embryonic  segments 
of  mesoderm)  make  their  appearance  in  pairs  at  the  hind  okI,  and 

Sually  travel  forwards  on  each  aide  of  the  blastopore  to  the 
t  end,  where  the  somites  of  the  anterior  pair  sooo  meet  in 
I  of  the  blastopore  (fig.  1 1,  D).  Mcanndiile  the  narrow  middle 
part  of  the  blastopore  has  closed  by  a  fusioh  of  its  lipa,  ao  t^t  the 
blastopoft  is  nepreiented  by  two  openir^s,  the  future  mouth  and 
anus.  A  primitive  groove  makes  its  appearance  behind  the  blast»> 
pore  (fig.  II,  D).  At  this  stage  the  huid  end  of  the  body  becomei 
curved  ventrally  into  a  spiral  (fig.  ii,  E),  and  at  the  same  time 
the  apperldages  apoear  as  hollow  prooeaaes  of  the  body-wa.II,  a 
mesoblastic  lonute  being  prolonged  into  each  of  them.  The  first 
to  appear  are  the  antennae,  into  which  the  praeoral  somites  are 
prolonged.  The  remainder  appear  from  before  oackwards  in  regular 
order,  via.  jaw,  oral  papillae,  legs  I-17.  The  full  number  of  somites 
and  thdr  appendages  »  not*  however,  oompletod  until  a  later  stage. 
The  nervous  system  is  formed  as  an  annular  thickening  of  ectodeitB 
paanng  in  fnont  of  the  mouth  and  behind  the  anus,  and  lyiagon 
each  side  of  the  blastopore  along  the  lines  of  the  somites.  The 
pneoial  part  of  this  thickeninc,  which  gives  rise  to  the  cerebral 
nnglia,  oecomes  pitted  inwaras  on  each  side  (fig.  it,  F,  c.|.). 
Thme  pits  are  eventually  dosed,  and  form  the  noUow  "vefitral 
appendages  of  the  suprapiiaryiigeal  ganglia  of  the  aduk  (fig.  7.  i). 
The  lips  are  formed  as  folds  of  the  side  wall  of  the  body,  cxtendir^ 
from  the  praeoral  Idbes  to  just  behind  the  jaw  (fig.  11,  F,  L). 
They  enclose  the  jaws  {j)^  mouth  {ii),  and  o|>cningjc»  the  aalKaqr 
glands  (pa),  and  ao  give  nae  to  the  buccal  cavity.  The  embryo  has 
now  lost  Its  spiral  curvature,  and  becomes  completely  doubled 
upon  itself,  the  hind  end  being  in  contact  with  the  mouth  (^. 
II,  G).  It  remains  in  this  position  until  birth.  The  just-bore 
young  are  from  10  t6  15  mm.  in  length,  and  have  green  anteniae.' 
out  the  rest  of  the  body  b  either  quite  white  or  of  a  reddish  cokiur. 
This  red  colour  differs  from  the  colour  of  the  adult  in  being  soluble 
in  spirit.  The  mesoblastic  somitet  are  paired  sacs  formed  from  the 
anterior  lateral  portions  of  the  primitive  streak  (fig.  fi.  C).  As 
they  are  formed  they  become  placed  in  pairs  pn  each  aide  of  the 


compartment  of  the  body  cavity.    The  ovaries  consist  of  a  pair  of 
tutus  closely  applied  together,  and  continued  posteriorly  into  the 
oviducts.     Each  oviduct,  after  a  short  course,  becomes  dilated 
Into  the  uterus.   The  two  uteri  join  behipd  and  open  to  the  exterior 
by  a  median  opening.    The  ovaries  always  contain  spermatosoa, 
some  df  which  project  through  the  ovarian  wall  into  the  body 
cavity.    Spermatozoa  are  not  found  in  the  uterus  and  ovi- 
ducts, aiKi  it  appears  probable,  as  we  have  said,  that  they 
reach  the  ovary  directlyr  by  boring  through  the  skin  and 
tpvetsing  the  i)ody  cavity.    In  au  the  species  eaoept  the 
African  spedea  there  is  a  globular  rcceptaculura  serainis 
opening  by  two  short  ducts  dose  together  into  the  oviduct, 
and  in  the  neotropical  s^ies  there  is  in  additbn  a  small 
looeptaculum  ovorum,  with  extremely  thin  walls,  opening 
into  the  oviduct  bya  short  duct  just  in  front  of  the  recep* 
taculum  aeminis.    The  epithdium  of  the  latter  structure  is        a 
clothed  with  actively  moving  cilia.    There  appear  to  be 
present  in  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  lees  some  accessory 
gjandular  structures  opening  just  externally  to  the  oephridia.     (After  Sedtwfck.) 
They  are  called  the  crural  glands.  Fic.  ii.-^A  Series  of  Embryos  of  P.  capensis.    The  hind  end  of 

^.  ^...»       ■•.»•       •«         I      embryos  B,  C,  D  is  uppermost  in  the  figures,  the  primitive  streak  is  the 

DeMopmerU, — Penpaius  a  found  in  Ainca,  in  Austral-    ^hita  patch  behind  the  blastopore. 

asia,  in  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  in  New     -    ^  __,  ^,     , 

A,  Uastruia  stage,  ventral    view* 


showing  blastopore. 

B(  Older  gastrula  stage,  ventml 
view,  showing  dongated  blasto- 
pore and  primitive  streak. 

C.  Ventral  view  of  embryo  with 
three  pairs  of  mesoblastic 
somites,  dumb-bell  shaped  blas- 
topore and  primitive  streak. 


Britain,  and  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Sumatra.    The 

tptdes  found  in  these  various  localities  are  dosdy  similar 

in  their  anatomical  characters,  the  principal  differences 

relating  to  the  structxire  of  the  female  generative  organs 

and  to  the  number  of  the  legs.    They,  however,  differ  in 

the  most  striking  manner  in  the  structure  of  the  ovum 

and  the  eariy  development.     In  all  the  Australasian  , 

spedes  the  egg  b  large  and  heavily  diaxged  with  food-    ^.  Ventral  view  of  cmbryu,  in 

yolk,  and  i.  «ir«)unded  by  a  tough  membrane     In  the  J^SV  do'^'T'fts'^mWdt 

Cape  species  the  eggs  are  smaller,  though  stiU  of  con*  portion.     The  anterior  pair 

siderable  size;  the  yolk  is  mnch  less  developed,  and  the 

egg  membrane  is  thinner  though  dense.    In  the  New  Britain 

^Mciea  the  egg  Is  still  smaller  (ri   mm.),  and  there  is  a 

Jarge  trophic  veside.     In  the  neotropical  vpcaes  the  egg  is 

minute,  and>ahnost  entirely  devoid  of  yolk.    The  unsegmented 

uterine  ovum  of  P.  tuvae  tealandiae  measures  !•$  mm.  in  length 

by  '8  mm.  In  breadth;  that  of  P.  capensis  is  •56  mm.  in  length: 

and  that  of  P.  trinidadensis  '04  nun.  in  diameter.    In  corre- 

qpondenoe  with  these  differences  in  the  ovum  there  are  differences 

in  the  early  development,  though  the  later  stages  are  dosdy 

simiUr. 


of  somites  have  moived  to  the 
front  end  of  the  body. 

E,  side    view    of    later 
At,  Antenna;   d, 
lection;  p.«., praeoral 

F,  ventral  view  ofhead  of  embryos 
intermediate  between  E  aid 
G.  ^1,  Antennae;  cf.eetcbnl 
groove;  j,  jaws;  fj,  swelling  at 
baaeof  jaws;  l.,ljps;lf, mouth; 
tfr.p,  oral  papillae;  o.x,  opening 
of  salivary  gland. 

Cf  aide  view  of  dderembryok 

the   first   pair  eventually  obtain 

^ .  of   the   blastopore    (Fig.    it,    DK 

They  form  the  aomltes  of  the  praeoral  lobes.  The  full  comple- 
ment of  aomites  is  acquired  at  about  the  stage  of  %.  11.  E. 
The  relations  of  the  mesoblastic  aomites  are  shown  in  ng.  12,  A, 
which  represents  a  transverse  section  uken  between  the  mouth 
and  anus  of  an  embryo  of  the  stage  of  fi^.  11.  D.  The  his- 
tory oif  these  somites  is  an  exccoaingly  interesting  one,  and 
may  be  described  shortly  as  follows:  They  divide  into  rRo 
parts— a  ventral  part  whidi  extends  into  the  appendage,  and 
a  dorsal  part  (fig.  T3,  B).  Each  of  the  ventral  parts  acquires 
an    opening    to    the    exterior,    just    outside    the    oerve-ooid. 


blastopore.     The  somites  of 
a   position  entirely   in   front 


PERIPATUS 


167 


tfld  faAobA  entirely  timmfomed  into  a  nefAiidiUm  (fif.-  is*. 
"D.  3')*  The  dorsal  part  ih^ts  donalwards  ami  cfiminislws  rehir 
tively  in  aixe  (%.  i»,  C).  Its  Tate  diffen  in  the  difftftcnt  fiaits 
of  the  body.  In  the  anterior  lomitca  it  dwindlea  and  disappcort, 
but  in  the  (xwterior  part  it  unites  wkh  tlie  d^tmi  divkions  of  coa<- 
tiguooB  somites  of  tm;  tame  side,  and  forms  a  tube— the  generative 
tube  (fie.  la,  D,  3).  The  last  section  of  tbis  tobe  tetaini  its  co(»> 
nexion  with  the  ^^ential  portion^of  tbe  -somite,  and  so  acquires  an 
external  openiin,  wfaich  is  at  first  farteiatt.but  aqon  shifts  to  the 
ndddle  line,  and  foses  with  its  feUow*  to  fona  the  tingle  ffeneiativa 
opening.  The  praeoral  somite  develops  the  rudiment  of  a  oephrU 
duim,  but  eventually  entirely  disappears^  The  taw  somite  also 
disappears;  the  oral  papilla  somite  forms  veatrally  the  salivary 
glands,  which  ai«  thus  aertalty  horaotogotts  with  oephridla.  The 
various  divisions  of  the  perivtsoemrcavity  develop  as  a  aeries  of 


tbough  not  cHaracttitistlc  of  all  the  dasses  of  the  Arthropods, 
are  found  nowhere  outside  that  group,  and  constitute  a  very 
important,  addkional  reason  for  uniting  Pmpatus  with  it.  Peri* 
Palut,  though  indubitably  an  Arthropod,  differs  In  such  impor- 
Unt  respects  from  all  the  ok^tablished  Arthropod  classes^ 
that  a  special  class,  equivalent  in  rank  to  the  others,  and  called 
Prototracheata  or  On^chophora,  has  had»  as  we  have  seen,  to- 
be  cttated  for  ita  aole  occupancy.    This  -unlikeness  to  other 
Arthropoda  is  mainly  due  to  the  Annclidan  affinities  which  it 
presents,  but  in  part  to  the  presence  of  the  following  peculiar 
features:  (i)  the  number  and  diffusion  of  the  tracheal  aperttures^ 
(j)  the  restrfctlon  of  the  jaws  to  a  single  pair;  (3)  the  dis- 
position of  the  generative  organs;  (4)  the  texture  of  the 
skin;  and  (5}  the  simplicity  and  similarity  of  all  the 
segments  of  the  body  behind  the  head.   TheAnnelidan 
alhirfties  are  superficially  indicated  in  so  marked  a 
manner  by  the  tl^jnness  of  the  cutide,  the  dermo- 
muscular  body-wall,  the  hollow  appendages,  that,  as 
already  stated,  many  of  the  earlkr  aoologists  who 
examined  Ptripatus  placed  it  among  the  segmented 
worms;  and  the  discovery  that  theie  is  some  solid 
mcMphoIogical  basis  for  this  determination  constitutea 
one  of  the  most  interesting  points  of  the  recent  work 
on  the  genus.    The  Annelidan  features  are:  (i)  the 
paired  ncphridia  in  every  segment  of  the  body  behind 
the  first  two  (Saenger,  Balfour);  (3)  the  presence  of 
diia  in  the  generative  tracu  (Gsiffron).     It  is  true 
that  neither  of  these  features  is  absolutely  distinctive 
of  the  Annelida,  but  when  taken  in  conjunction  vith 
the  Annclidan  disposition  of  the  chief  systems  of. 
organs,  via.  the  cf  ntral  nervous  system,  and  the  main 
vascular  trunk  or  heart,  they  may  be  considered  as 
^^^^  indicating  affinities  in  that  direction. 

Fjg.  13.— a  series  of  diagrams  of  transverse  fectiom  through  Pmpolaj  embryos     -^_,,  ,,,^  /r  V!r    ^     Lr^v!^         •/  •     , 

to  show  the  relations  of  the  codom  at  successive  stages.  PRaiPATUs  (Guilding).— Soft-bodicd  vermiform  ammals, 

A.  Early  stage;  no  tmce  of  the  vascular  sj«ce;  endoderm  and  ectoderm  in  -j?  oToSVpilSfrlnTr  va^fnT  Tum^r^^orcuT. 

B,«te™  ha.  «ymted  from  the  dorsal  and^^^^^^^  ^cderm^  The  ^${;^^'±^^  tWt'^^f'S^ai"'  ISTn 
!I^"V    I^l^P**^"  having  divided  on  the  left  side  into  a  dorsal  and  ttansJeiSety  ridged  and  beset  by  wart-like  spinifcrous 

C  ThrhaJSSSe  (5)  has  become  divided  up  into  a  number  of  spaces,  the  rc?f^ti.^o«ni^^'&^^^^^ 
travelled  dorsaiwards.  and  now  constitutes  a  small  space  (triangular  m  UoIIq^T  aooendaffea-   ventral   cords  wMf^iv   HivarirafMl 

Vesicle  is  already  indicated 


present, 
stem,  and 


Lem^te  on  each  »de  qf  thi.  *ffl  form  th.  p«ic«dium;  4.  «™«orii  JSJi.    DioS^SS: ^tc  .^Zr  .n"  XX^I 

D4,  slime  glands*  __,..._,    .  ,.  ^  ^  .  ^    .  ^^.      «- ^  ,««i«.—  a.  rw>»r»m«tit«.i'  numerous  than  females.    Generative  glands  tubular,  con- 
represents  the  conditions  at  the  time  ofbirth.    The  «>^«  g  «P^JS  tinuous  with  the  ducts.     Viviparous.    Young  bom  fuUy 
as  surrounded  bv  a  thick  bteck  line,  except  m  the  part  whKh  forms  the  <,evelopcd.    Distribution:  Afri«  (Cape Coton?. Nattl. and 


internal  vesicle  of  the  ncphridium. 

spaces  between  the  ectoderm  and  endoderm,  end  later  in  the  meso* 
derm.  The  mesoderm  seems  to  be  farmed  entirdy  from  the 
protiferatlon  of  the  cells  of  the  mesoblastic  somites.  It  thus  appears 
that  in  Peripahis  the  coelom  docs  not  develof>a  perivisceral  portion, 
but  gives  rise  only  to  the  renal  and  reproductive  organs. 

The  genus  Peripatus  was  established  in  1826  by  L.  Guilding, 
who  first  obtained  spedmens  of  it  from  St  Vincent  in  the 
Antilles.  He  regarded  it  as  a  mollusc,  being  no  doubt  deceived 
hy  the  sing-like  appearance  given  by  the  antennae.  Specimens 
Were  subsequently  obtained  from  other  parts  of  the  neotropical 
region,  and  from  South  Africa  and  Australia,  and  the  animal 
was  variously  assigned  by  the  zoologists  of  the  day  to  the  Anne- 
lida and  Myriapoda.  Its  true  place  in  the  system,  as  a  primitive 
member  of  the  group  Arthropoda,  was  first  established  la  1874 
hy  H.  N.  Moseley,  who  discovered  the  tracheae.  Peripatus 
b  an  Arthropod,  as  shown  by  (i)  the  presence  of  appendages 
modified  as  jaws;  (3)  the  presence  of  paired  lateral  ostia  per- 
forating the  wall  of  heart  and  putting  its  cavity  in  communication 
^th  the  pericardium;  (3)  the  presence  of  a  vascular  body  cavity 
AAd  pericardium  (haemocoelic  body  cavity):  (4)  absence  of  a 
■poiviscexal  section  of  the  coelom.     Final^,   the  tracheae. 


the  Gaooon),  New  Zealand,  Australia  and  Tasmania,  New 
Britain.  South  and  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies,  the 
Malay  Peninsula  (and  in  Sumatra  ?]. 

The  genus  Penpatus^  so  far  as  aduk  conformation  is  concerned, 
is  a  very  homogeneous  one.  It  is  true,  as  was  pdnted  out  by 
S^ffwkk.  that  the  species  from  the  same  part  01  the  world  re> 
semble  one  another  more  closely  than  they  do  qiccies  from  other 
regions,  but  recent  researches  have  shown  that  the  line  between 
them  cannot  be  so  sharply  drawn  as  was  at  first  supposed,  and 
it  is  certainly  not  desiraole  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowlcdee 
to  divide  them  into  generic  or  subgeneric  groups,  as  has  bcen< 
done  by  some  zoologists.  (The  following  genera  have  been  pro- . 
posed :  Peripatus  for  the  neotropical  spocics,  PeripcUoides  for  the 
Australasian.  Ptfipatopsis  and  Opisikopaius  for  the  African, 
Purcperipatus  for  the  New  Britain,  Bopertpaius  for  the  Malayan 
species,  and  OoPeripatui  for  the  supposeo  ovii>arous  species  of 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.)  The  colour  is  highly  variable  in 
species  from  all  regions;  it  is  perhaps  more  constant  in  the  H}ccies 
from  the  neotropical  region  than  m  those  from  elsewhere.  The 
number  of  I^  tends  to  be  variable  whenever  it  exceeds  19 
praegenital  pairs;  when  the  number  is  less  than  that  it  is  usually, 
though  not  always,  constant.  More  constant  points  of  difference 
are  the  form  of  the  iaws,  the  position  of  the  geaerative  orifice, 
the  presence  of  a  rcceptacutum  seminis  and  a  receptaculum  ovorum^ 
the  arrangement  oC  the  primary  pafMlIae  on  the  distal  end  of  the 
feet,  and  above  all  (he  eariy  devdoproent. 

Smik  4fiM«9  J;^«nas.—With  three  jspiaous  pada  oa  the  leg«Ki 


i68 


PERIPATUS 


and  feet  with  two  primary  papillae  oa  the  antenor  side  and  one 
on  the  posterior  side;  outer  jaw  with- one  minor  tooth  at  the  base 
of  the  main  tooth,  inner  jaw  with  no  interval  between  the  laive 
tooth  and  the  series  of  small  ones;  last  fully  developed  Iqr  of  the 
male  with  enlaiigied  crural  gland  opening  on  a  large  papilla  placed 
on  its  ventral  surface;  coxal  orntns  absent;  the  nephridial  open- 
ings of  the  4th  and  5th  pairs  Of  legs  are  placed  in  the  pronmal 
spinous  pad.  Genital  opening  subteminal,  behind  the  last  pair 
of  fully  developed  legS}  oviduct  without  reoejitacula  seminis  or 
receptaculaoyorum;,the  terminal  unpaired  portion  of  vas  defeteos 
short.  Ova  of  considerable  size,  but  with  only  a  small  quantity 
of  yolk.  The  embryos  in  the  uterus  are  all  nearly  of  the  same 
age,  except  for  a  month  or  two  before  birth,  when  two  bloods 
overlap. 

The  following  species  are  abemtA  i^  respect  of  these  diazacters: 
Pcripoius  (OpUthopaius)  cinctipet,  Puroell  (Cape  Colony  and  Natal), 
presents  ^  jfew  Australasian  features;  there  Is  asmallreceptaculum 
seminis  on  each  oviduct,  some  of  the  legs  are  provided  with  wcll- 
dcvelopcd  coxa!  organs,  the  feet  have  one  anterior,  ofle  posterior 
and  one  dorsal  papilla,  and  the  stioceasive  differeooe  in  the  ages  of 
the  embryos  in  the  uterus,  though  nothing  lihe  that  found  m  the 
neotropical  species,  is  slightly  greater  than  that  found  in  othe 
investigated  African  spcaes.  Several  pairs  of  legs  in  die  middle 
region  of  the  body  are  provided  with  enlarged  Crural  glands  which 
open  on  a  large  papilla.  Male  with  four  accessory  glands,  opening 
on  each  side  oiand  behind  the  genital  aperture.  P.  tatdloni,  Bouvier, 
(Equatorial  West  Africa  IGaboon]),  shows  some  neotropical  features; 
them  are  24  to  25  pairs  of  legs,  the  genital  opening  is  between  the 
peatdtimate  legs,,  and  though  there  are  only  three  sfrfnous  pads 
the  nephridial  openings  of  the  4th  and  sth  legs  are  pioximal  to  the 
3rd  pad,  coxal  organs  are  present,  ana  the  jaws  are  of  the  nco> 
tropical  type;  the  oviducts  have  receptacula  seminis.  The  following 
South  African  species  may  be  menrionad:  P.  capetuis  (Grube), 
with  17  (rarely  18)  pairs  of  daw-bearing  legs:  P.  balfouri  (Sedgw.) 
with  18  (rarefy  19)  pain;  P,  mostUyi  (Wood-M.),  with  30  to  24 


pairs, 

Australasian  Species. — ^VVith  14,  15  or  16  pairs  of  claw-bearing 
ambulatory  legs,  with  three  spinous  psuls  on  the  legs,  and  nephridial 
opening  of  the  4th  and  5th  legs  on  the  proximal  pod ;  feet  with  one 
anterior,  one  posterior  and  one  dorsal  primary  papUla;  inner  jaw 
without  diastema,  outer  with  or  without  a  minor  tooth.  Last  leg 
of  the  male  with  or  without  a  large  white  papilla  on  Its  ventnd 
surface  for  the  opening  of  a  gland,  and  marked  papillae  for  the 
crural  glands  are  sometimes  present  on  other  legs  of  the  male; 
well-dcveloped  coxal  glands  absent.  Genital  opening  between  the 
legs  of  the  last  pair;  oviducts  with  receptacula  seminis,  without 
receptacula  ovorum;  the  terminal  portion  of  the  vas  deferens  long 
and  complicated ;  the  accessory  male  glands  open  between  the  genital 
aperture  and  the  anus,  near  the  latter.  Ova  large  and  heavily 
^rged  with  yolkj  and  provided  with  a  stoutish  shell.  The  uterus 
appears  to  contain  embryos  of  different  ages.  .Specimens  are 
recorded  from  West  Australia,  Queensland,  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria  and  New  Zealand.  The  Australasian  species  are  in  some 
confusion.'  The  number  of  claw-bearing  legs  varies  from  14  to 
16  pairs,  but  the  number  most 'often  found  is  IR.  Whether  the 
nuniber  varies  in  the  same  species  is  not  clear.  Ilicre  appears  to 
be  evidence  that  some  species  are  occasionally  or  normally  oviparous, 
and  in  the  supposed  oviparous  species  the  oviduct  opens  at  the  end 
of  a  papilla  called  from  its  supposed  function  an  ovipositor,  but 
the  oviparity  has  not  yet  been  certainly  proved  as  a  normal  occur- 
rence. Among  the  species  described  may  be  mentioned  P.  Uuckfirti 
(Saenser),  P.  tnsiinis  (Dendy).  P.  oviparus  (Dcndy),,  P.  viridimacu- 
Ittus  (Dendy),  P.  name  walandiae  CHutton),  but  it  is  by  no  means 
Mrtain  that  tuturf  research  wilt  maintain  these.  .Mr  I.  J.Fletcher, 
indeed,  is  of  opinion  that  the  Australian  forms  are  all  varieties  of 
one  species,  P.  kuckarti. 

Neotropical  Species. — ^With  three  to  five  spinous  pads  on  the  tegs, 
nephridial  opening  of  the  4tb  and  5th  1^  usually  proximal  to 
the  5rd  pad,  and  feet  either  with  two  primary  papulae  on  the 
anterbr  side  and  one  on  the  posterior,  or  with  two  on  the  interior 
and  two  on  the  posterior;  outer  jaw  with  small  minor  tooth  or 
teeth  at  the  base  of  the  main  tooth,  inner  jaw  with  diastema.  A 
variable  number  of  posterior  legs  of  the  males  anterior  to  the 
genital  opening  with  one  or  two  large  papillae  carrying  the  open- 
ingS  of  the  crural  glands;  welMevelopcd  coxal  organs  pr^nt 
on  most  of  the  legs.  The  primary  papillae  usually  divided  into 
two  portions.  Genital  opening  between  the  legs  of  the  penultimate 
pair;  oviduct  provided  with  receptacula  semirtis  and  ovorum; 
unpaired  part  of  vas  deferens  long  and  complicated;  accessory 
oigans  of  male  opening  at  the  sides  of  the  anus.  Ova  minute, 
with  little  food-yolk;  embrvos  in  the  uterus  at  very  different  stages 
of  development.  The  number  of  legs  usually  If  not  always  variable 
in  the  same  species;  the  usual  number  is  28  to  32  pairs,  but  in  some 
species  40  to  43  pain  are  found.  The  neotropical  species  appear 
to  fall  into  two  groups:  (i)  the  soKAlled  Andean  ^lecws,  via.  tncM 
which  inhabit  the  high  plateaus  or  Pacific  slope  of  the  Andes;  in 
these  there  are  4  (sometimes  s)  pedal  papillae,  and  the  nephridial 
openings'  of  the  4th  and  Ktb  lec^  are-  on  the  third  pad;  and  (2)  the 
Caribbean  species,  vix.  the  remaining  neotropical  species,  In  which 
then  are  3  fApifts*  on- the  foot  and  the  oepwidial  openings  of  the 


4th  and  5tii  lega  tra  betwsm  tftie  $16  and  4th  pads.  The  Andeaa 
species  are  P.  tistmi  (Wh.),  P.  tuberetdaha  (Bouv.),  P.  lankestm 
(Bouv.),  P.  Mttsiuis  (Schm.).  P.  torradi  (Cam.),  P.  caaMroaai 
(Bouv.)  and  P.  balMoui  (Cam.).  Of  the  remaining  species,  which 
are  the  majority,  may  be  mentioned  P.  edwardsH  (Blanch),  P. 
jatnakeniis  (Gr.  and  Cock.),  P.  irinidadensis  (Sedgw.),  P.  farysnte 
(Ken.).  P.  Ml  ikurmi  (Sd.).  * 

jVsw  Britain  Pmpotea^^With  32  to  24  pain  of  daw-beuias 
legs,  with  three  spinous  pads  on  the  legs,  and  ncf^ridial  openxzics  01 
legs  4  and  5  (sometimea  of  6  also)  on  Uie  praxunal  pad;  feet  with 
one  primary  papilla  on  the  anterior,  one  on  the  posterior  sid^ 
and  one  on  the  oorBal  side  (median  or  submedtan) ;  outer  jaw  with 
a  minor  tooth,  inner  jaw  without  diastema;  cntnl  gbnds  absent; 
well-devebped  coxal  organs  absent.  (Genital  opening  subterminal 
behind  the  last  pair  of  legs;  oviduct  with  rooeptaculuna  seminis, 
without  receptaculum  ovorum;  unpaired  cart  of  vas  deferens  very 
short;  accessory  glands  two,  opening  meoianly  and  donally.  Ova 
small,  •!  mm.  in  diameter,  with  little  yolk,  and  the  embryoc  pto- 
vided  with  large  trophic  vesicles  (Willey).  Embryos  in  the  utena 
of  very  different  ages,  and  probably  bom  all  the  year  touad.  One 
species  only  known,  P.  twoat  britanniae  (Willey), 

Siunatrau  Peripatus, — Peripatus  with  34  pairs  of  ambtilatory 
legs,  and  four  spinous  pads  on  the  legs.  The  primary  papillae  tf 
the  neotropical  character  with  conical  bases.  Generative  opening 
between  the  legs  of  the  penultimate  pair.  Feet  with  only  two 
papillae.  Sing^le  species.  P.  sumalranus  (Sedgw.).  The  rristrnce 
of  this  species  is  doubtful. 

Psripatus  from  the  Malay  Pmtara^-^With  2^  to  3$  pain  of 
claw-bearing  legs,  four  spinous  pads  on  the  legs,  ana  nephndud  open- 
ings of  legs  4  and  5  in  the  middle  of  the proximalpad  or  on  its 
proximal  side;  feet  with  two  primary  papillae,  one  anterior  and 
one  posterior;  outer  jaw  with  two,  inner  jaw  with  two  or  three  minor 
teeth  at  the  base  of  the  main  tooth,  separated  by  a  diastema  frxxn 
the  row  of  small  teeth;  crural  glands  present  in  the  male  only,  ta  tl» 
two  pairs  of  legs  preceding  the  generative  opening;  coxal  glands 
present.  Genitiu  opening  octwecn  the  praultimate  legs;  ovidoct 
with  receptacula  seminis  and  ovorum ;  unpaired  part  of  vas  deferens 
long;  male  accessory  glands  two,  opening  mcdianly  between  the 
legs  of  the  last  pair.  Ova  targe,  with  much  yolk  and  thick  mem- 
brane, like  those  of  Australasian  species;  embryos  with  slit-like 
blastopore  and  of  very  different  ages  in  the  same  uterus,  probsbly 
born  all  the  year  round.  The  species  are  P.  vtetdoni  (Evans), 
P.  horsii  (Evans)  and  P.  butleri  (Evans).  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  the  Malay  species,  while  resemblsng  the  neotrofHcal  apcdea 
in  the  generative  organs,  differ  from  these  in  many  features  of  the 
legs  and  feet,  in  the  important  characters  furnished  by  the  siae  and 
structure  of  the  ovum,  and  by  their  early  development. 

AuTHORiTiES.-^F.  M.  Balfour,  "  The  Ani^tomy  and  Development 
of  P.  capcTuist*  posthumous  memoir,  edited  by  H.  N.  Moscky 


of  the  Australian  Pertpatus,  usualjy  supposed  to  be  P.  leuckarti, 
Saenger,"  Prqc.  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  Wales,  x.  172  (1895):  £. 
Gaffron,  "  BeitrSige  z.  Anat.  u.  Physwl.  v,  Peripatus,"  Th.  I 
and  2,  Zoa.  BeUrdge  (Schneider),  i.  33.  145;  L.  Guilding.  "  Mol- 
lutca  €flribba6anai  an  account  of  a  new  genus  of  MoUnaca,'* 
^o<d.  Joum.  \L  4^,  pi.  14  (1826);  reprinted  in  /iw,  sod.  15S, 
pi.  ik  (1828);  H.  N.  Moseley,  "On  thfe  Structure  and  Devcbp- 
ment  of  Peripatus  capensis,"  Pkil.  Dmu.  {1874) ;  R>  I-  Pocock« 
"  Contributions  to  our  Knowledge  of  the  Arthropod  Fauna  of  the 
West  Indies,"  pt.  3,  Malacopoda.  &c.,  Joum,  Linn.  Soe.  xxiv. 
§18;  W.  F,  Purcdl.  "  On  the  South  African  Species  0/  Peripatus,'* 
&c..  Annals  of.  the  South  African  JHuseum,  i.  331  (18^1899): 
and  "Anatomy  of  Opisthofiatus  cinctipes,*^  ibid.  vol.  ii.  (1900); 
W.  L.  Sctatcr,  "  On  the  Early  Stages  of  the  Devdopment  of  a 
South  American  Species  of  Peripatus"  Quart,  Joum.  of  Mic.  ScL 
xxviiL  345-361  (1868);  A.  Sed|g^k.  "A  Monograph  of  the  De- 
velopment of  Peripatus  capensts  "  (originally  poolisacd  in  various 
papers  in  the  Ouar/.  '  "*-   "  '    '*"*■■  "         **"  **     ' 

Morpkolopcal  iJib.  e 
*' A  Monograph  of 'the  Species 
Peripatus,  GuUding,"  Quart,  Joum,  Uic,  Sd.  xxviit.  431-494 
(1888);  L.  Sheldon,  "On  the  Devetopmcnt  of  Perij^us  mmw 
tealandiae,**  pts.  i  and  2,  QuarL  Journ.  Mic.  Sci.  xxvui.  and  xxix. 
(1888  and  isSo).  The  memoirs  guoted  by  Sclatcr,  Sedgwick  and 
Sheldon  are  all  reprinted  in  voL  1  v.  of  the  Studies  from  the  hior- 
tludogical  Lab.  of  the  Unioersitj  of  Cambrtdgie,  vol.  fv.  (Cambridge 
UniverBity  Press,  1889).  T.  Steel,  "  Observations  on  Peripatus." 
Proc  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  Wales,  p.  94  (1896);  A.  Willev,  "The 
Anatomy  and  Development  of  P.  novae  iiritanniae,"  zootoficei 
Results,  pt.  1,  pp.  1-52  (Cambridge,  1^98).  '^  (A.Ss.«7 


isot  ll 


PERIPTKRA^-PEMSSODACTVCA 


fiom  the  wulb  of  Ibe  nto)  or  uUi.    Alaxtt  all  Uw  Greek  tmpls 
irue  periptcnl,    wbeibet  Doric,    Ionic.  «   Coiisthiui    (ne 

PERISSODACTTLA  [i.e.  odd-Iocd],  the  Dame  piopoKd  bjr 
Sir  X.  Oven  1«  ibil  division  of  ungubie  mtmnuUi  in  wfakh 
the  loe  conaponding  to  Ihe  miildle  (Ihird)  digit  dI  the  human 
hand  and  fool  ii  lyimnciilcal  in  itielf,  and  larger  ihac  those 
OD  eJUiet  side  (when  such  are  present).  Tlie  Penuodactyla 
have  been  bri^detl  with  the  Aftiodaciyla  (f.vj  t4i  form  the 
typical  groLp  ol  ihe  ungulates,  under  llic  Aame  of  Diplulhi*. 
or  Ungulata  Ven,  asd  the  fenturea  diflinEuithing  the  combined 
gnnip  from  the  less  ipedaliKd  membert  of  (he  outer  Ungutata 
win  be  found  under  tbe  heading  of  (hat  order. 

The  following  are  the  leading  chatacleristici  by  means  of 
which  the  sub-order  FedHodactyla  is  disliiiguishcd  from  tbt 
Arliodanyia.     The  cbeek-iecih  (premelati  *od  notui)  foim  a 


Fic.  I.— Boot*  of  Right  Fore-Fixit  ot  eduinf  PeriHadKtyk. 

A.  Tapir  (rii(«V».  «*«.). 

B.  Rhfrocero.  (fiiiwHi-w  nmalmiii). 

C.  Hon»  rEl«";«'toU'"l.. 

eoolinuoui  aeries,  with  muilve,  quadrate,  InnsTcnely  ridged 
or  comphrt  ctDwns — the  posterior  premolars  usually  Te^mlJing 
the  molan  in  structure.  Crown  of  tbe  lost  lover  molar  commonly 
bilobed.  Dono-luinbiT  vettebru  never  (ever  than  twcnly- 
two,  usually  Iweoly-lbRC  In  tbe  eaatting  ^itctet.  Nual  boBt> 
(■panded  posteriortj'-  An  alisphenold  canal.  Femur  with  a 
third  liochuler.  The  middle  or  third  digit  on  both  fore  and  hind 
led  larger  than  any  ol  the  othen,  and  symmetrical  in  ilscU, 
tin  free  border  of  the  tcimiiul  phajaoii  hfing  evenly  lounded 
(see  fig,  i).  Tins  rnay  be  the  only  functional  loe,  «  the  second 
and  fourth  may  be  subequally  developed  on  each  side.-  In 
the  tapin  and  many  ejvtinct  forms  the  frfth  toe  also  remains 
on  the  forr-limb,  but  Its  presence  docs  not  Interfere  with  the 
symotelrial  arrangement  of  the  remainder  of  the  foot  on  eoeJt 
tide  of  Ihe  median  line  of  the  thiid  or  middle  digit.  The  astraga- 
lui  has  a  pulley-like  surface  aboveforatllcubtion  into  the  tihii, 
but  its  lonei  Hirfice  b  Suteoed  and  uuiiu  (o  a  much  greater 
Client  with  the  navicular  than  with  Ihe  cuboid,  which  bone  is  of 
OODiparatlvely  lets  imponincc  than  In  the  ArtiodactyteS-    In 

lower  ead  of  the  fibula.  The  stomach  is  simpJe.  the  caecum 
large  and  capacious,  theplacentidilTuscd.uid  theleali  inguinali 
Jhe  Paiisaodictyla  nay  be  divided  Into  the  four  following 
•eclions,  mLHicly  the  erliact  'ntanotheroldei,  (he  HIppodca, 
Xepidc^ted  by  the  horse  tribe  and  their  anceitoi^,  tbe  Tapitoidea. 


T((i9 


Paiatasyopiiv  a  i, 

.idcr  the  huding  Tn*iioiHEUiDita. 

J.  Itorit  Group. — In  Eh*  Hippoidea  then  ia  aenerally  Ihe  full 
series  dI  44  Eeeth.  but  the  firat  ptamolar,  whieh  ii  aTvays  amall,  is 

inlalcd,  lo  aa  in  the  nun  specaaliad  Eonda  to  accirpy  a  men  <m 
less  midway  position  in  a  longer  or  ilhortcr  tap  between  the  mdaort 
and  premoUra.     In  the  upper  nolarv  Ihe  two  outer  cefomaa  or 

outef  wall,  ftwD  which  pbeecd  two  creacHtic  transverse  csesta. 
perfect,  and  Ihe  creia  thenuelvn  aDiarlimn  lubcrcular.  Each 
wei  n  eainea    wo  creacen  is  n  ge^^  Si^he."^ 

il'jJlS^^r^  the  S5i 
•'an  diitincl.     Naiilalonc, 

nilles  Equida  and  PetMO- 

Grsc  ol  the  series  is  seporated  by  m  t^p  ttrjm  the  aeeond.  In  the 
b>ch<rowiied  types,  as  w«U  aa  in  loatc  ol  the  intermedialc  oDa*. 
they  become  molar-Uke.  and  rooti  are  not  develofied  Id  the  whola 
cheek-ienes  liU  late-  Orbit  in  higher  forma  doaed  by  bone;  . 
ridpea  of  lower  cheek-ieelh  tevmjnatmg  ■     '         ■  — 

l«.4.3orl,hind:   jorl.    {See  EouiOAI 
[n  the  Faioi^litntdat  the  premolan  n 

generally  molar-like,  while  the  &rst  (when  , , 

to  the  lecond  i  all  the  check-tertb  sbort-crowncd  and  rotncn,  win 
or  withoM  nnnent.  Outer  walla  of  upper  rhcek-teelh  W-aha^, 
and  tranavene  rreata  otlliqul.  Orhit  open  behindt  v'  -■'-■■  -' 
lower    chcck-Iceth    reneralLy    termioallag    ia   wnall    k 

3.  Tapir  Cnxpi—Xa  the  Tapiroidca  the  denlitian  nu 


The  wtkm  .ia  dlviiible  ii 

la  ibe'Ctvidu  ike  prenah 
sbort-etowiied  .lorr—  -' 


'ii'ioSa'H.d'lK.^r' 

^e  1  or  I,  add  an 

«!  is  alvajw  ela* 


■lid  ibe  pfewiolars  are  ori^inaLUy  ■-'  '*  ------  -■  - 


ZMliiadiiilidu.  (he — .-—- 

44  by  the  lali  of  the   first  loarct  pieduill 
either  Sim ola  or  molar-lika.   Outer  cotuoins  0.  _,.,„ 
the  hinder  ones  net  lattcned:    ridges  ol  lower  m 

Siiecily  lianivtrae.  •  third  ridge  to  the  last  m-'- 
Hma.    Tbe  leBMe^mMv.  which   ' 
very  close  to  ifyiMK   '       ' 
Ihe  aulhoHty  of  Amei 
dieee  early  iorms  into  n 
Aiaeric*  the  tarlkat  n 

Into  thai  of  the  modem  tapirs,  boiFi  1 
and  of  equal  itt.  The  abaeoce  of  a  nf 
and  fiiH  pnnolai  and  between  the  &It 
IS  re^rded  aa  an  cuentialiy  lapir-Uke 
appandlly  ve^rescnta  this  stage 
luaaltpkui.  of  the  Amerion  ML 
advance,  the  Uai  uuei 


17© 


PERI8SODAGTYEA 


Oikooeoe  of  both  henUndiem  m^fmiv  Protapinu,  mhkii  tan^ 
wdl  into  the  Miocene,  and  is  essentially  a  tapir,  having  lost  the  third 
lobe  of  the  last  lower  mobr,  and  bring  in  process  of  acquiring 
molar-like  upper  premolars,  although  none  of  these  teeth  have  two 
complete  inner  columns^  Finally*  Tapirus  itself,  in  which  the  lost 
three  upfter  pcemolars,  makes  its  appearance  in  the  Upper  Mkxsene, 
■ad  continues  till  the  present  day.  The  characters  of  the  genus 
may  be  cKprcssed  as  follows  in  a  more  detailed  manner. 

The  dentition  is  •  f,  c  (,  ^  |,  m  |,  total  ^.  Of  the  upper  incisors 
the  first  and  second  are  nearly  equal,  with  short,  broad  crowns* 
the  third  is  large  and  conicaU  oonsidembly  larger  than  the  canine, 
which  »  separated  from  it  by  an  intervaL  Lower  incisors  diminish- 
injg  in  size  trom  the  first  to  the  third;  the  canine,  which  is  in  contact 
with  the  third  indaor,  large  and  conical,  workine  against  (and 
behind)  the  canine4ike  third  upper  incisor.  In  botn  jaws  there  b 
a  long  space  between  the  canines  and  the  commencement  of  the 
teeth  of  the  cheekrseries,  which  are  all  fai  contact.  Firsc  upper 
premolar  with  a  triangular  crown  narrow  in  front  owing  to  the 
absence  of  the  anterior  inner  column.  The  other  upper  premolars 
and  molars  all  formed  on  the  same  plan  and  of  nearly  the  same 
siae,  with  four  roots  and  quadrate  crowns,  rather  wider  transversely 
than  from  before  backwards,  each  having  four  cxriumns,  connected 
by  a  pair  of  transverse  ridges,  anterior  and  posterior.  The  first 
lower  premolar  compressed  in  front;  the  others  composed  of  a  single 
pair  of  transverse  crests,  with  a  small  anterior  ancf  posterior  basal 
rid^e.  SkuU  elevated  and  compressed;  with  the  orbit  and  temporal 
fossa  widely  continuous,  there  being  no  true  post-orfaital  ptxxxss 
from  theJrootal  bone.  Nasal  apertures  very  large,  and  extending 
high  on  the  face  between  the  orbits;  nasal  bones  short,  elevated, 
tnaagular  and  pointed  in  front.  Vertebrae:  cervical,  7;  dorsal,  i8; 
lumbar,  5;  sacral,  6;  caudal  about  la.  Limbs  short  and  stout. 
Fore-feet  with  four  toes,  having  distinct  hoofs:  the  first  toe  being 
absent,  the  third  the  longest,  the  second  and  fourth  nearly  coual,  and 
the  fifth  the  shortest  and  scarcely  reaching  the 'ground  in  the 
ordinary  standing  pontion.  Hind-feet  with  the  typical  jperisso' 
dactyle  arrangement  of  three  toes—the  middle  one  being  the 
larg^,  the  two  others  neariv  equaL  Nose  and  upper  lip 
elongated  into  a  flexible,  mobile  snout  or  short  proboscis,  near 
the  end  of  which  the  nostrils  are  situated.  Eyes  rather  small. 
Ears  of  moderate  nze,  ovate,  erect.  Tail  verv  short.  Skin 
thick  and  but  scantily  covered  with  hair.  Tapirs  are  common 
to  the  Malay  countries  and  tropical  America;  two  species  from 
the  latter  area  differ  from  the  rest  in  having  a 'vertical  bony 
partition  to  the  nasal  septum,  and  are  hence  sul^nerically  or 
oenerically  separated  as  Tapirdia  {Eiasmogmitkus)  (see  Tapir). 
Nearly  related  is  the  extinct  familv  Lopktodontidae  (inclusive  of 
the  ^mencMi  Hetaieiidae)^  in  which  both  the  upper  and  tower 
first  premolar  may  be  absent,  while  the  upper  molars  present  a 
more  rhinooeros-like  form,  owing  to  the  lateral  compression  and 
consequent  lengthening  of  the  outer  columns,  of  which  the  hinder 
is  bent  somewhat  inwards  and  is  more  or  less  concave  externaljy, 
thus  forming  a  more  complete  outer  walL  In  America  the  family 
Is  represented  by  HepUtUm^  of  the  Middle  Eocene,  which  differs 
froih  the  early  members  (^  the  tapir^etock  in  having  a  long  gap 
between  the  lower  canine  and  first  premolar;  the  dentition  n  com- 
nfiete,  and  the  upper  premolars  are  simple.  The  next  suge  is 
litlaMiSt  also  of  Middle  Eocene  age,  in  which  the  first  lower  pre^ 
mdar  has  disappeared,  and  the  last  two  upper  premolars  have 
bKome  molar-hke.  Finally,  in  the  Oligocene  (Modon  the  last 
three  upper  premolare  are  like  the  molars,  and  the  first  pair  of 
lower  incisors  b  bst.  Iii  Europe  the  group  is  represented  oy  the 
long-known  and  typical  genus  Ltypktodon  with  three  premolars 
in  each  jaw,  of  which  the  upper  are  nmpler  than  the  molars.  The 
genus  b  eapecblly  characteristic  of  the  Middle  and  Upper  Eocene, 
and  some  01  the  species  attained  the  site  of  a  rhinoceros. 

4.  RkiMoctros  Crcup» — The  last  section  of  the  Perissodactyla  is 
that  of  the  Rhinocerotoidea,  represented  by  the  modem  rhinoce* 
roses  and  thrir  extinct  alliei.  In  this  grcMip  the  incisors  and  canines 
are  very  varbble  in  number  and  form;  the  lower  canine  being 
•epaiated  by  only  a  short  gap  from  the  outer  incisor  (when  present), 
bat  by  a  long  one  from  tbe  first  premolar,  which  b  in  contact  with 
the  second.  The  second  and  third  premolare,  which  are  always 
present,  are  large  and  molar-like;  the  whole  of  these  teeth  being 
essentially  of  the  lophodont  type  of  Lopkiodcm,  but  the  last  upper 
molars  assume  a  more  or  less  triangular  form,  with  an  oblique  out^r 
wall,  and  there  are  certain  complications  in  the  stractore  of  all 
these  teeth  in  the  more  spedaliaed  types  {fi%.  s).  The  lower  dieek- 
teeth  have,  unlike  those  of  the  Tapiroidea,  creaeentie  ridges,  which 
have  not  the  loops  at  their -cxtremiucs  characteristic  of  the  advanced 
Hippoidea;  the  last  lower  molar  has  no  third  lobe.  The  fadal 
portion  of  the  skull  b  generally  shorter  than  the  cranial ;  the  orbit  is 
freely  open  behind;  and  the  premaxillae  tend  to  be  reduced  and 
fused  with  the  nasals.    Front  toes,  3  or  4;  hind  toes,  %. 

The  most  primitive  group  b  that  of  the  American  HynuodonHdaet 
represented  in  the  Oligocene  by  Hyradtyui,  Hyraeodon  and  Ttiplo- 
pKt.  With  the  CBcoeption  of  the  first  lower  premolar,  the  dentition 
b  complete:  the  incisora  being  normal,  but  the  canine  rudimen- 
tary, and  the  last  upper  mobr  distinctly  trbngubr.  The  upper 
melare  have  a  crisu  and  a  crochet  (fig.  i).  The  sknil  b  high, 
with  jtbo.  tedd  and  ciaAbl  portions  approxinately  ttgcoA,    There 


are  only  three  («Mt  toei.  and  the  Umba  are  long  atad  uJ^aptril  for 

running. 

In  the  AmynodoHtidae,  represented  by  the  North  Americaa 
Middle  Eocene  Amynodon  and  ktettmynodon,  the  premolars  may 
be  either  )  or  |,  making  the  total  number  of  teeth  cither  44  or  40. 
The  incisors  tend  to  become  bteral,  the  canines  are  enlarged,  and 
the  last  upper  mobr  is  sub-guadrangukir.  Tbe  u|»er  nooUrs 
have  a  crisu  but  no  crochet  Tng.  2).  As  in  the  last  iamiXy.  the 
post-glenoid  process  of  the  skull  b  broad;  the  whole  skull  being 
depfMsed  with  a  shortened  facbl  portbn.  The  fore-foot  is  fi\^ 
toed  and  spreading:  indicating  that  the  members  of  the  Damily 
were  swamp-dwelling  animals. 

Finally,  we  have  the  family  RJdnourotidatt  which  includes  the 
esdsting  representatives  of  the  group.  In  this  family  the  dentition 
has  undergone  con^derable  r^uction,  and  may  be  represented 
indunve   of   ftU    the   vaiiarioas,   by  the  formula  i  f^  c  ^^ 

P  T^^  M  |.  The  first  upper  incisor,  when  present,  has  an 
antero-poeterioriy  elongated  crown,  but  the  second  b  small;  wfaea 
fully  developed,  the  u>wer  canine  b  a  Urge  forwardly  directed 
tusk-like  tooth  with  sharp  cutting-edges,  and  biting  iq^inct  the 
first  upper  incisor.  The  tnird  upper  molar  is  triangular,  and  rooft 
of  the  teeth  of  the  upper  check-series  may  have  both  crochet  and 
crista  (fig.  2).  The  post-glenoid  process  is  small,  and  the  facbl 
and  cranial  portions  01  the  sknil  are  approximately  of  equal  length. 
Usually  there  are  three,  but  occasionally  four  front  toes;  and  the 
limb-bones  are  short. 

A  Urge  number  of  represeotatites  of  the  group  are  known  from 
both  the  Old  and  the  New  Worid:  spedalixation  displaying  itself 
in  the  bter  ones  in  the  development  01  dermal  horns  over  the  nasal 
bones,  either  in  bterally  pboed  pairs  as  in  some  of  the  early  forms, 
or  in  the  medbn  line,  either  nngle  or  double.  In  North  America 
rhinoceroses  became  extinct  before  the  close  of  the  Pliocene 
period;  but  in  tbe  Old  World,  although  their  gewraphical  distri- 
bution has  become  greatly  restricted,  at  least  five  well-marked 
species  survive.   The  group  b  unknown  in  South  America. 

As  regaids  the  dentition  of  the  existing  species,  the  check-series 
consists  of  the  four  preraoUrs  and  three  mobre  above  and  bekrr. 
all  in  contact  and  closely  resembling  each  other,  except  the  first, 
which  b  much  smaller  than  the  rest  and  often  dedauous;    the 


Fig.  ^.'--Grinding  Surface  of  moderately  worn  Right  Upper 
Second  Molars  of  Rhinoceros. 

A,  Rhinoceros  tmicorms,        B,  Kkinoceros  s&ndakus* 

I,  Anterior  surface.  6,  Postero-internal    piDbr   or 

3,  Posterior  surface.  column. 

3,  Internal  suHace.  7,  Anterior  valley. 

4,  External    surface  (wall  or       8,  Medbn  valley. 

dorsum).  9,  Posterior  valley. 

5,  Antero-intemal     pillar     or      10.  Acoesaory  valley. 

column.  It,  Crista. 

U,Crodiet. 

others  gradually  tncreaiing  in  tht  op  to  the  peaulthnate.  Thi 
upper  roobre  present  a  diaracteristic  pattern  of  crown,  having 
a  much-developed  flat  or  more  or  less  sinuous  outer  wall,  and  two 
transverse  ridges  running  obliquely  inwards  and  backwards  from 
it,  terminating  tntemally  in  conical  eminences  or  columns,  and 
endosing  a  deep  valley  between.  The  posterior  valley  b  formed 
bdiind  the  posterior  transverse  ridge,  and  b  bouindca  cxteraalty 
by  a  backward  continuation  of  the  outer  wall  and  behind  by  the 
ongulum.  The  anterior  valley  b  formed  in  the  same  manner,  but 
is  much  smaller.  The  middle  valley  b  often  Intersected  by  vertical 
**  crista  "  and  *'  crochet "  pbtcs  projecting  into  it  frbm  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  posterior  transvcm  ridge  or  from  the  wall,  the 
development  of  which  is  a  useful  guide  in  discriminating  spedes, 
especially  those  known  only  by  teeth  and  bones..  The  depressions 
between  the  ridges  are  not  fillra  up  with  cement.  As  stated  above, 
the  lower  molars  have  the  crown  formed  by  a  pair  of  creecents; 
the  last  having  no  third  Mx. 

The  head  blarge.  and  the  skull  ekmntad,  and  devated  posterioriy 
into  a  transverse  ocdpital  crest.  No  post-orbital  processes  or 
any  separation  between  orbits  And  temporal  fossae.  Nasal 
bones  large  arid  stout,  co-ossified,  and  standing  out  fredy  above 
the  premaatUbe,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  deep  and 
wide  fisanre;  the  btter  small,  generally  not  meetina  in  the  middle 
line  in  front.  <rften  rudimentary.  Tympanies  smaB.  not  forming 
a  bulla.  Bniin<avity  small  for  the  size  of  the  skull.  Vertebrae: 
cervical,  7 r  dorsal  19-so;  lumbar,  3;  sacral,  4;  caadal,  about  tt. 


P£RlSTYD&-T*ERrrONITIS 


riTt 


limbs  stout,  uid  of  mbdcnte  fefltttlt.'  TlweB  oompletdy  dfcvriotiwl 
toes,  with  distiact  bioad  rouiidecr  hoofs  on  «ach  loot.  Tests^  twob 
infumaL  Eyes  small.  Ears  of  moderate  sue,  .oval,  erect,  promir 
nent,  placed  near  the  occiput.  Skin  very  thick,  in  many  qiecies 
thrown  into  massive  folds.  Hairy  covet  mg  scanty.  One  or  two 
in«diaa  horns  oa  the  face.  When  one  is  presenc  it  is  situated 
over  the  conjoined  nasal  bones;  when  two^  the  hinder  one  is 
over  the  fiontals.  These  boms,  which  are  of  a  more  or  less  conical 
form  and  usually  recurved,  and  often  grow  to  ^. great  length 
'(three  or  even  four  feet),  are  composed  of  a  solid  mass  of  hardened 

?ridermic  celb  growing  from  a  duster  of  loiw  dcmal  papillae, 
he  cells  formed  on  each  papilla  constitute  a  ^stiaot  homy  hbi^ 
like  a  thick  hair,  and  the  whole  Is  cemented  tc^ether  by  an  inter- 
mediate  mass  of  cells  which  grow  up  from  the  interspaces  between 
the  papillae.  It  results  from  this  that  the  horn  has  the  appearance 
of  a  mass  of  agglutinated  hairs,  which,  in  the  newly  growing  part 
at  the  base,  readily  fray  out  on  destnictkm  of  the  softer  mtermediate 
substance;  but  the  fibres  differ  from  tipe  hairs  in  giowing  from  a 
free  papilla  of  the  derm,  and  not  within  a  follkular  irivdTution  of 
the  same.  Considerable  difference  of  opinion  eicists^with  regard 
to  the  best  classification  of  the  family,  tome-  authorities  Induding 
most  of  the  species  in  the  typical  genus  Wmicctrot,  while  otheti 
recognixe  Quite  a  number  of  sub-tamiiies  and  still  more  geneja. 
Here  the  family  is  divided  into  two  groups  Rhinocerotinae  and 
Elasmoiheriinae,  the  latter  including  omy  Elasmothmum,  and  the 
former  all  the  rest.  In  the  Lower  OHgocene  of  Europe  we  have 
Rimtolkerium  and  in  that  of  America  Leptacaalherium  (rrisfomoj), 
which  were  primitive  species  with  persistent  upper  canines  ana 
three-toed  fore-feet.  Possibly  they  belonged  to  the  Amynodontidae, 
"but  they  may  have  been  related  to  the  Upper  Oligocene  Dicera- 
tkerium,  in  which  the  nasal  bones  formed  a  tmnsverse  pair;  this 
^nus  being  common  to  Europe  and  North  America.  Caetupus 
IS  an  allied  American  type.  Hornless  rhinoceroses,  with  five  front- 
toes,  ranging  from  the  Oligocene  to  the  Lower  Pliocene  in  Europe, 
represent  the  genus  Aceraintrium,  which  may  also  occur  in  America, 
as  it  certainly  does  in  India.  With  the  short-skulled,  short-footed, 
three-toed  and  generally  homed  rhinoecroses  ramdng  in  .Europe 
and  America  from  the  Lower  Miocene  to  the  Lower  PJioGene,  typified 
by  the  European  R,  goldjursi  and  R.  hrachyPus,  we  may  consider 
the  genus  Rhinoceros  to  commence;  these  species  constituting  the 
subgenus  Teleoceras.  The  living  R.  {Dutrorkinus)  sumairensis  of 
aouth'eastem  Asia  indicates  another  subgenus,  represented  in  the 
European  Miocene  by  it  sonsanienais  and  in  the  Indian  Pliocene 
by  A.  plat^rhinus,  in  whi^h  two  horns  are  comtnned  with  the 

f>rcsehce  or  upper  incisors  and  lower  canines.  Next  we  have  the 
Iving  African  species,  representing  the  subgenus  Diurox,  in  which 
there  are  two  horns  but  no  front  teeth*  To  thirgroup  belongs  the 
extinct  European  and  Asiatic  woolly  rhinoceros,  Kkmocens  {Dtcer*») 
anliquUatix,  of  Pleistocene  age,  of  which  the  frozen  bodies  arc 
sometimes  found  ip  Siberia,  and  R,  iu.)  pachytTuitkus  of  the 
Lower  Pliocene  of  Greece.  Finally  tne  Great  Indian  riitnoceros 
R.  unicornis,  the  Javan  R.  stmdaieus,  and  the-Lcwer  Pliocene  Indian 
R.  sfvakmis  and  R.  pakmndieust  represeitt  Rkitioitm  piDper^ 
in  which  front  teeth  are  present,  but  there  is  only  one  horn.  (Sfe 
Rhinoceros.) 

The  subfamily  Elasmotkminae  is  represented  only  by  the  huge 
B.  sibireum  of  the  Siberian  Pleistocene,  in  which  the  premolars 
were  reduced  to  I  while  front^teeth  were  probably  wanting,  and 
the  cheek  teeth  developed  tall  crowns,  without  roots,  but  with 
cement  in  the  valleys,  and  the  enamel  of  the  central  parts  curiously 
crimped.  A  hump  on  the  forehead  probably  indicates  the  existence 
of  a  large  frontal  Horn. 

LiTBRATUKa.-*-J.  L.  Wottmaa  and  C.  Earic,  "  Aaceston  of  the 
Tapir  from  the  Lower  Miocene  of  Dalrata,"  BuU.  Amer.  Mvs.  vol.- v. 
ah.  II.  (ifi93);  H.  F.  Osbom,  "  Phylogcny  of  the  Rhinoceroses  of 
Europe,"  oi.  cU,  vol.  xiii.  art.  19  C»90p)^0.  Thomas,  "  Notes  dn 
the  Type  Specimen  of  Rkinocerofiasiotis,  with  RemArfai  on  the 
Genene  Ptaition  of  the  Living  Species  of  Rhinoceros,"  Fnu. 
ZooL  Soe,  (London,  1901).  (R.  U*} 

VEBJSTTVB  (Gr,  ircpf,  txnxnd;  and  air^lKos,  coliinm),  in  archi- 
tecture, a  range  of  cojumns  (whether  rectangular  or  circular  on 
plan)  in  one  or  two  Toy^,  enclosing  the  sanctuary  of  a  temple; 
the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  same  feature  when  built  round 
the  court  in  which  the  temple  is  situated  and  iii  Roman  houses 
to  the  court  in  the  rear,  round  vrhich  the  private  rooms  of  the 
family  were  arranged,  which  were  entered  from  the  covered 
colonnade  round  the  court. 

PERITONITIS,  inflammation  of  the  peritonemn— the  serous 
membrane  which  fines  the  abdominal  and  pelvic  cavifics  and 
gives  a  covering  to  their  loscera.  It  may  exist  in  an  acute  or 
a  chronic  form,  and  may  be  dther  localized  or  diffused. 

AcuU peritonitis  may  be  brought  on,  like  other  infiammatfons, 
by  exposure  to  wet  or  cold,  or  in  connexion  with  Injury  to,  or 
disease  of,  some  abdominal  organ.  Or  with  general  feebleness 
of  health.  It  is  an  occasiohal  result  of  bcn^  and  of  obsttuctJbn 


of  the  boweb,  of  wounds  penetrating  the  abdomen,  of  the  pcrfort- 
doa  of  viscera,  as  in  uloer  of  the  stomach,  and  of  the  InteMine 
in  typhoid'  fever,  of  the  biustiag  of  afaiceascs  or  cysts  into  the 
*«bdominAl  cavity,  and  also  of  the  ezteasiona  of  inflammatory 
action  from  some  abdominal  ot  pelvic  oigan,  such  as  the  aiqieadas, 
the  irtaras,  or  bladder.  At  fi»t  locaUaed,  it  may  afterwatds 
becom/i  geaeraL  The  chaBges  effected  in  the  peritoneum  are 
similar  t»  those  uadogone  1^  other  serous  membranes  when 
inflamed.  Thus,  there  are  congestion;  exudation  ol  lymph  in 
greater  or  bss  abundance,  at  fivt  greyish  and  aoft,  thereafter 
yellow,  becoming  tough  and  causing  the  folds  of  the  intestine 
to  adhere  together;  effusion  of  fluid,  dther  dear,  turbid,  bloody 
or  purulent.  The  tough,  plastic  lymph  connecting  adjacent 
folds  of  intestine  is  sometimes  drawn  out  like  spun-glass  by  the 
movements  of' the-  intestines,  forming  bands  and  loops  througb 
or  beneath  which  a  piece  of  bofwd  may  become  fatally  snared. 

The  symptoms  of  acute  peritonitis  usually  begin  by  a  shivering 
fit  or  rigor,  together  with  vomiting,  and  with  pain  in  the 
abdomen  of  a  peculiarly  severe  and  sickeolng  character,  accomc 
panied  with  extreme  toidemess,  so  that  pressure,  even  of  the 
bed-clothes,  causes  aggravation  of  suffering.  The  patient  lies 
on  the  back  with  the  knees  drawn  up  so  as  to  relax  the  abdominal 
muscles;  the  breathing  becomes  rapid  and  shallow,  and  is 
performed  by  movements  of  the  chest  only,  the  abdominal 
muscles  remaining  quiescent— nmlike  what  takes  place  in 
healthy  respiration.  The  abdomen  becomes  swollen  by  flatulent 
distension  pf  the  intestines,  which  increases  the  distress.  There 
h  usually  constipatfam'.  Hie  skin  is  hot,  althou^  there  may  be 
perspiration;  the  ptilse  is  small,  hard  and  wiry;  the  urine  is 
scanty  and  high  coloured,  and  is  passed  with  pain.  The  face  is 
pinched  and  anxious.  These  symptoms  may  pass  off  in  a  day 
or  two;  if  they  do  not  the  case  is  apt  to  go  on  to  a  fatal  termina* 
tlon.  In  Such  event  the  abdomen  becomes  more  distended*; 
hiccough,  and  the  vomiting  of  brown  or  blood-cdoured  matter 
occur;  the  temperature  falls,  the  face  becomes  cold  and  dammy; 
the  pulse  is  e:tceedingly  rapid  and  feeble,  and  death  takes  pUce 
from  collapse,  the  mental  faculties  remaining  dear  till  the  Close. 
When  the  peritonitis  is  due  to  perforation— as  may  happen  in  the 
Case  of  gastric  ulcer  or  of  ulcers  of  typhoid  fever,  or  in  the  giving 
way  of  a  loop  of  strangulated  bowel — the  above-mentioned 
symptoms  and  the  fatal  collapse  may  all  take  place  in  from 
twdve  to  twenty-four  hours.  The  puerperal  form  of  this  disease, 
which  comes  on  within  a  day  or  two  after  childbirth,  is  often 
rapidly  fatal.  The  actual  cause  of  death  is  the  absorption  of 
the  poisonous  Inflammatory  products  which  have  been  poured 
otit  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  as  well  as  of  the  toxic  fluids  whidi 
have  remained  stagnant  in  the  paralysed  boweL 

Perhaps  the  commonest  cause  oif  septic  peritonitis  is  the 
escape  of  micro-organisms  (bacfllus  coli)  from  the  ulcerated, 
'  mortified  or  inflamed  appendfar  (see  Afmenuiuiis).  A  genera- 
tion or  so  ago  deaths  from  this  cause  were  generally  placed  under 
the  single  heading  of  **  peritonitis,"  but  at  the  present  time  the 
primary  disease  is  shown  upon  the  certificate  which  too  often 
runs  thus:  appendidtis  five  days,  acute  peritonitis  two  days. 

Chronic  peritonitis  may  occur  as  a  result  of  the  acute  attack, 
or  as  a  tuberculous  disease.  In  the  former  case,  the  gravest' 
symptoms  having  subsided,  some  abdommal  pain  continues, 
and  there  is  considerable  swelling  of  the  abdomen,  corresponding 
to  a  thickening  of  the  peritoneum,  and  to  the  presence  of  fluid 
in  the  peritoneal  cavity.  This  kind  of  peritonitis  may  also 
develop  slowly  without  there  having  been  any  preceding  acute 
attack.  There  is  a  gradual  loss  of  strength  and  flesh.  The 
disease  is  essentially  a  chronic  one;  it  is  not  usually  fotal. 

Tuberculous  peritonitis  occurs  dther  alone  or  in  association 
with  tuberculous  disease  of  a  joint  or  of  the  lungs.  The  chief 
symptoms  are  abdominal  discomfort,  or  pain,  and  distension  of 
the  bowels.  The  patient  may  suffer  from  either  constipation  or 
diarrhoea,  or  each  alternately*  Along  with  these  local  mani- 
festations there  may  exist  the  usual  phenomena  of  tuberculous 
disease,  vtz.  high  fever,  with  rapid  emadation  and  loss  of 
strength.  But  some  caSes  of  tuberculous  peritbnitis  present 
symptoms  which  ar^  not  only  obscure,  but  actually  misleading;' 


172 

Thexe  may  be  no  abdominal  distensioii,  and  no  pain  or  tender- 
jiesa.  The  patient  may  lie  quietly  in  bed,  flat  on  his  back, 
with  the  kffi  down  straight,  and  he  may  have  no  marked 
elevation  of  temperature.  Tliere  may  be  no  yomiting  and  ao. 
constipation  or  diarrhoea.  In  some  cases,  the  neighbouring 
coils  of  intestine  having  been  glued  together,  a  collection  of 
serous  fluid  takes  its  place  in  the  midst  of  the  mass,  and,  being 
walled  in  by  the  adhesions,  forms  a  rounded  tumour,  dull  on 
percussion,  but  not  tender  or  painful  Such  cases,  especially 
when  occurring  in  women,  are  apt  to  be  mistaken  for  cystic  disease 
of  the  ovary. 

As  regards  the  IreaimaU  of  acute  Urikmilis,  the  firrt  thing  that 
the  surgeon  has  to  do  b  to  assure  himself  rthat  the  disease  is  not 
due  to  some  cause  which  itself  should  be  dealt  with,  to  a  septic 
disease  of  appendix  or  Fallopian  tube,  for  instance,  or  to  a  toxic 
condition  of  the  uterus,  the  result,  perhaps,  of  a  criminal  or  innocent 
abortion*  or  to  a  perfocatcd  uker  of  stomach  or  intestine.  In  many 
obscure  cases  the  safest  treatment  is  likely  to  be  afforded  by  an 
exploratory  abdominal  section.  If  the  medical  attendant  nas 
made  up  his  mind  that  the  questSon  of  exploration  is  not  to  be 
entertained— a  decision  which  should  be  arrived  at  only  after  most 
dehbttate  consultation — ^the  best  thing  will  be  to  aptuy  fomenta- 
tions to  the  abdomen,  and  to  administer  small  and  repeated  doses 
of  morphia  by  the  skin — f  or  J  grain — repeated  every  hour  or 
so  until  the  physiological  effect  is  produced.  As  regards  other 
drugs,  it  may  be  a  ouestion  as  to  whether  calomel  or  Epsom  salts 
should  be  given.  As  regwds  food,  the  only  thing  that  can  be 
safely  recommended  is  a  little  hot  water  taken  in  sips.  A  bed- 
cradle  shouJd  be  placed  over  the  patient  in  order  to  keep  the 
weight  of  the  bed-clothes  from  the  abdomen.  (£.  O.*) 

PERIZONIUS  (or  Accinctus),  the  name  of  Jaxob  Voorbxoek 
(x6sx-x7i5),  Dutch  classical  scholar,  who  was  bom  at  Appin- 
gedam  in  Oroningen  on  the  26th  of  October  1651.  He  was  the 
son  of  Anton  Perizonius  (1626-1673),  the  author  of  a  once  well- 
known  treatise,  De  ratione  studii  theotogicL  Having  studied 
at  the  university  of  Utrecht,  he  was  appointed  in  x68a  to  the 
chair  of  eloquence  and  history  at  Franeker  through  the  influence 
of  J.  G.  Graevius  and  Nicolas  Heinsius.  In  X693  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  corre^Mnding  chair  at  Leiden,  where  he  died  on 
the  6th  of  April  1715.  'Hie  numerous  work^  of  Perizonius 
entitle  him  to  a  very  high  place  among  the  scholars  of  his  age. 
Special  interest  attaches  to  his  edition  of  the  Minerva  of  Francisco 
Sanchez  or  Sanctius  of  Salamanca  (xst  ed.,  1 587 ;  ed.  C.  L.  Bauer, 
1793-X80X),  one  of  the  last  developments  of  the  study  of  Latin 
grammar  in  its  pre-scientific  stage,  when  the  phenomena  of 
language  were  still  regarded  as  for  the  most  part  disconnected, 
conventional  or  fortuitous.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
his  Animadversiones  hUloricae  (X685),  which  may  be  said  to 
have  laid  the  foundations  of  historical  criticism,  and.  of  his 
treatises  on  the  Roman  republic,  alluded  to  by  Niebuhr  as 
marking  the  beginning  of  that  new  era  of  historical  study  with 
which  his  own  name  is  so  closely  associated. 

The  article  on  Perizonius  in  Van  der  Aa's  BioffcMsch  Woorden- 
boek  der  NederUndai  contains  full  biographical  ana  bibliographical 
particulars;  see  also  F.  A.  .Eckstein  in  Ersch  and  Grobera  AUge- 
meine  Encykhpddie. 

PBBJURT  (through  the  Anglo-Fr.  perjurie,  modem  parjure, 
Lat.  perjurium,  a  false  oath,  perjurarCf  to  swear  iaisely),  an 
assertion  upon  an  oath  duly  administered  in  a  judicial  pro- 
ceeding before  a  competent  court  of  the  tmth  of  some  matter  of 
fact,  material  to  the  question  depending  in  that  proceeding, 
which  assertion  the  assertor  does  not  believe  to  be  trae  when  he 
makes  it,  or  on  which  he  knows  himself  to  be  ignorant  (Stephen, 
Digest  of  the  Criminal  taw,  art.  135).  In  the  early  stages  of 
legal  history  perjury  seems  to  have  been  regarded  rather  as  a 
sin  than  as  a  crime,  and  so  subject  only  to  supernatural  penalties. 
The  injury  caused  by  a  false  oath  was  supposed  to  be  done  not 
80  much  to  society  aa  to  the  Divine  Being  in  whose  name  the 
oath  was  taken  (see  Oath).  In  Roman  law,  even  in  the  time  of 
tbe  empire,  the  perjurer  fell  simply  under  divine  reprobation, 
and  was  not  dealt  with  as  a  criminal,  except  where  he  had  been 
bribed  to  withhold  tme  or  give  false  evidence,  or  where  the  oath 
was  by  the  genius  of  the  emperor.  In  the  latter  case  punishment 
was  no  doubt  inflicted  more  for  the  insult  to  the  emperor  than  for 
the  perjury.    False  testimony  leading  to  the  conviction  of  a 


PERIZONIUS— PERJURY 


person  for  a  ciimepuaishEble  witk  death  oosttituted  the  offc 
of  homicide  rather  than  of  perjury.    In  England,  perj^uy,  as 
being  a  sin,  was  originally  a  matter  of  ecclesiastical  cogiusance. 
At  a  later  period,  when  it  had  become  a  crime,  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  ^uritual  courts  became  gtadually  confined  to  such  perjury  as 
was  committed  in  ecclesiastical  proceedings,  and  did  not  extend 
to  perjury  committed  in  a  temporal  court.    The  only  perjury 
which  was  for  a  long  time  noticed  at  common  law  was  the  perjury 
of  jurors.  Attaint  of  jurors  (see  Attaint,  Wut  or)  who  were 
originally  rather  in  the  position  of  witnesses  than  of  judges  of 
fact,  incidentally  subjected  them  to  punishment  for  perjury. 
Criminal  jurisdiction  over  perjury  by  persons  other  than  jurors 
seems  to  have  been  first  assumed  by  the  Star  Chamber,  acting 
under  the  powers  supposed  to  have  been  ooniemd  by  mn  act 
of  Henry  VII.  (1487).   After  the  abolition  of  the  Star  Chamber 
by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1641  and  the  gradual  diminution  of 
the  authority  of  the  spiritual  courts,  perjury  (whether  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word  or  the  taking  of  a  false  oath  in  non- judidal 
proceedings)  practically  fell  entirely  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  ordinary  criminal  tribunals.    At  common  law  only  a  false 
oath  in  judicial  proceedings  is  perjury.    But  by  statute  the 
penalties  of  perjury  have  been  extended  to  extrar judicial  matters 
e.g.  false  declarations  made  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  marriage 
(The  Marriage  and  Registration  Act  1856),  and  false  affida\'its 
under  the  Bills  of  Sale  Act  X878.    False  afiirmation  by  a  person 
permitted  by  law  to  affirm  is  perjury  (The  Evidence  Further 
Amendment  Act  1869;  The  Evidence  Amendment  Act  1870). 

In  order  to  support  an  indictment  for  perjury  the  prosecution 
must  prove  the  authority  to  administer  the  oath,  the  occasion 
of  administering  it,  the  taking  of  the  oath,  the  substance  of  the 
oath,  the  materiality  of  the  matter  sworn,  the  falsity  of  the 
matter  sworn,  and  the  corrupt  intention  of  the  defendant. 
The  indictment  must  allege  that  the  perjury  was  wilful  and 
corrupt,  and  must  set  out  the  false  statement  or  statements 
on  which  perjury  is  assigned,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Prosecutions  for  Perjury  Act  1749  (which  also  applies  to  subor- 
nation of. perjury).    By  that  act  it  is  sufiicient  to  set  out  the 
substance  of  the  offence,  without  setting  forth  the  bill,  answer, 
Sec,  or  any  part  of  the  record  and  without  setting  forth  the 
commission  or  authority  of  the  court  before  whom  the  perjury 
was  committed.   The  matter  sworn  to  must  be  one  of  fact  and 
notof  mere  belief  or  opinion.   It  is  not  homicide,  as  in  Roman 
law,  to  procure  the  death  of  another  by  false  evidence,  but  the 
Criminal  Code,  ss.  xx8,  X64,  proposed  to  make  such  an  offence 
a  substantive  crime  of  greater  gravity  than  ordiiuiry  perjury, 
and  punishable  by  penal  servitude  for  life.   It  is  a  rule  of  evi- 
dence, founded  upon  obvious  reasons,  that  the  testimony  of 
a  single  witness  is  insufl^dent  to  convict  on  a  charge  of  perjury. 
There  must  be  corroboration  of  his  evidence  in  some  material 
particular.   Perjury  is  a  common  law  misdemeanour,  not  triaUe 
at  quarter^cssions.    Most  perMms  in  a  judicial  position  have 
the  right  of  directing  the  prosecution  of  any  witness,  if  it  appears 
to  them  that' he  has  been  guilty  of  perjury  Cthe  Criminal  Pro- 
cedure Act  1851).   The  provisions  of  the  Vexatious  Indictments 
Act  X859  extend  to  perjury  and  subornation  of  perjury.  By  that 
Act  no  indictment  for  either  of  such  offences  can  be  preferred 
unless  the  prosecutor  or  accused  is  bound  by  neco^nisams,  or 
the  accused  is  b  custody,  or  the  consent  of  a  judge  is  obtaiiied, 
or  (in  the  case  of  perjury)  a  prosecution  is  directed  under  the 
act  of  X85X. 

Subornation  of  perjury  is  procuring  a  person  to  commit  a  per- 
jury which  he  ^ctuaUy  commits  in  consequence  of  such  procure- 
ment. If  the  person  attempted  to  be  suborned  do  not  take  the 
oath,  the  person  inciting  him,  though  not  guilty  of  subornation, 
is  liable  to  fine  and  corporal  punishment.  Perjury  and  suborna- 
tion of  perjury  are  punishable  at  common  law  with  fine  and 
imprisonmenL  By  the  combined  operation  of  the  Perjury 
Act  r738  and  later  statutes,  Xhe  punishment  at  present  appears 
to  be  penal  servitude  for  any  term,  or  imprisonment  with  or 
without  hard  labour  for  a  term  not  exceeding  seven  years 
(see  Stephen,  Digest,  art.  148).  Thf  punishment  at  common  law 
was  whipping*  imprisoxunent,  fioye  and  pUloxy. 


PEAKING 

Petfory  or  prevarfcfttton  comtnitted  before  m  comntittee  of 
either  House  of  Parliament  may  be  dealt  with  as  a  contempt 
or  breach  of  privilege  as  well  as  by  prosecutk)n.  As  to 
false  oaths  not  perjury,  it  is  a  nusdemeaoor  at  oomoum 
law,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisomnent,  to  swear  falsely 
before  any  pecson  authorued  to  administer  an  oath  upon  H 
matter  of  common  concern,  under  sucb  circumstances  that  the 
false  swearing,  if  committed  in  judicial  paoceedings,  would  have 
amounted  to  perjury.  There  are  some  cases  of  maldiig  false 
declarations  which  are  punishable  on  summary  conviction, 
e.g.  certain  declarations  under  the  Rei^tration  of  Births  ^d 
Deaths  Act  1874,  and  the  Customs  Consolidation  Act  1876. 

la  Scotland  the  law,  as  a  general  rule,  agrees  with  chat  of  Cng(aiid« 
Perjury  may  be  committed  by  a  party  on  reference  to  oatb  as 
well  as  by  a  witness.  A  witness  making:  a  false  afBrmatioa  ia 
guilty  of  perjury  (The  Affirmation  (Scotlaad]  Act,  18^65)1  The  acta 
of  1 851  and  1859  do  not  extend  to  Scotland.  The  trial,  though 
usually  by  the  court  of  justiciaiv,  may  be  by  the  court  of  sessioa 
if  the  penury  is  committed  in  tae  course  of  an  action  before  that 
court.  The  punishment  b  penal  servitude  or  impnconment  at  the 
discretion  of  the  court.  Formerly  a  person  convicted  of  perjury 
was  disabled  from  giving  evidence  in  future;  this  disability  was 
abolished  by  the  Evidence  (Scotland)  Act  1852. 

In  the  United  States  the  common  law  has  been  extended  by  most 
states  to  embrace  false  affirmations  and  false  evidence  in  proceedings 
not  judicial.  Periury  in  a  United  States  court  is  dealt  with  by  an 
act  of  Congress  of  the  3rd  of  March  iBap,  b)f  which  the  maximum 
punishment  for  perjury  or  subornation  of  perjury  is  a  fiw.of^l^ooo 
or  imprisonment  for  not  more  than  five  years.  Jurisdiction  to 
punish  penury  committed  in  the  state  courts  belongs  to  the  states, 
as  the  Federal  Constitution  did  not  gfve  it  to  tne  Fedenl  gov- 
ernment. Statutory  pnovisions  founded,  upon  the  English  act  of 
1749,  have  been  adopted  in  some  states.  In  the  states  whkh  have 
not  adopted  such  provisions,  the  indictment  must  set  out  the  offence 
with  the  particularity  necessary  at  common  law. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe  perjury  is  also  regarded  as  an  offence 
of  gravity  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  varying  perioda  In 
Germany,  as  in  England,  it  was  at  one  time  a  matter  for  the  spiritual 
courts.  In  Austria  it  is  treated  as  a  form  of  fraud,  and  the  punish- 
ment  is  proportioned  to  the  estimated  amount  of  damage  done  to 
the  party  aggrieved.  In  France  the  term  perjury  (parfure)  is 
specifically  4^>^  only  to  the  making  of  false  oaths  by  parties 
in  a  civil  suit. 

PERKIN,  SIR  WILUAM  HENRY  (1838-1007),  English 
chemist,  was  born  in  London  on  the  lath  of  March  1838.  From 
an  early  age  he  determined  to  adopt  chemistry  as  his  profession, 
although  his  father,  who  was  a  builder,  would  have  preferred 
him  to  be  an  architect.  Attending  the  City  of  London  School 
he  devoted  all  his  spare  time  to  chemistry,  and  on  leaving, 
in  1 85 J.. entered  the  Royal, College  of  Chemistiy,  then  under  the 
direction  of  A.  W.  Hofmann,  in  whose  own  research  laboratoiy 
he  was  in  i^he  course  of  a  year  or  two  promoted  to  be  an  a^istanL 
Devoting  his  evenings  to  private  investigations  in  a  rough 
laboratory  fitted  up  at  his  home,  Perkin  was  fired  by  some  remarks 
of  Hofmann's  to  underuke  the  artificial  production  of  quinine.. 
In  this  attempt  he  was  unsuccessful,  but  the  observations  be 
made  in  the  course  of  his  experiments  induced  him,  early  in 
x8s6r  to  try  the  effect  of  treating  anilinf  sulphate  with  bichro- 
mate of  potash.  The  result  was  a  precipitate,  aniline  black, 
from  which  he  obtained  the  colouring  matter  subsequently  known 
as  aniline  blue  or  mauve..  He  lost  no  time  in  bringing  this 
substance  before  the  managers  of  Pullar's.  dye-works,  Perth, 
i^id  they  expressed  a  favqurable  opinion  of  it,  if  only  it  should 
not  prove  too  expensive  in  use.  Thus-  encouraged,  he  took  oui^ 
a  patent  for  his  process,  and  leaving  the  College  of  Chemistry, 
a  boy.  of  eighteen,  he  proceeded,  with  the  aid  of  his  father  and 
brother,  to  erect  works  at  Creenford  Green,  near.  Harrow,  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  newly  discovered  colouring  matter,  sind 
by  the  end  of  1857.  the  works  were  in  operation.  That  date 
may  therefore  be  reckoned  as  that  of  the  foundation  of  the  coal- 
tar  colour  industry,  which  has  since  attained  such  important 
dimensions — ^in  Germany,  however,  rather  than  in  En^and, 
the  country  where  it  originated.  Perkin  also  had  a  large. share 
ia  the  introduction,  of  artificial  alizarin  (9.V.),  the  red  dye  of  the 
madder  root.  C,  Graebe  and  C  T,  Liebero^ann  in  1868  pre* 
pared  that  substance  synthetically  from  anthracene,  but  ih6u; 
process  was  not  practicable  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  was  left  h» 
bim  to  patent  a  method  that  was  commerciflly  valuable*   this 


^73 

he  did  !n  1869,  thus  ftciubig  for  the.  GreeafeRl  Greta.'  w«ate  a 
monopoly  of  aliaarin  numfacture  for  several  yeais.  About 
the  same  tifx»  he  also  canied  out  a  series  <rf  investigations  into 
kindred  substances,  such  as  anthrapurpuna.  About  ift74>  he 
abandoned  the  manitfictutie  of  coidtlar  odours  and  devoted 
himself  e3lcltiB^lrdy  to  xofeancb  in  pure  chemistfy,  and  amoag 
the  dtscovencs  be  made  in  this  field  was  that  of  the  teacisoa 
known  by  his  name,  depending  00  tbe  condeossAioa  of  aldehydds 
with  fatty  addA  (see  Cimxamic  Accd).  Later  still  beeai^i|^ 
ia  the  study /Ol  the  relations  between  cbetaical  constitution  end 
rotation  of  the  plane-  of  polariattion  in  a  magnetic  fidd,  and 
enunciated  a  l4w  expiessing  the  vturiatien  of  auch  sptaiion 
in  bodies  beloncing.  to  hoaiologoQS  series.  For  this  work  be 
was. in:  1889  awarded  a  Davy  medal  by  the  Royal  SbcJety* 
which  ten  yoeis  previmisly  bad  bestowed*  upon  him  a  Royal 
medal  in  cecognition  of  his  ijwestigations  in  the  cosMai  colours* 
The  Chemical  Society,  of  which  he  became  seciettry  in  1869 
and  president  In  1883,  presented  him  witb  its  LoQgsta0  mnlal 
in  i^,  and  in  x8qo  be  received  the  Albert  medal  of  the  Soci^ 
of  Arts,  in  1906  an  international  celebration  of  the  fiftieth- 
annJiv^rsaiy.of  his. invention  of -mauve  was  held  In  L9nd«ai« 
and.  in  the  same  year  he  was  made  a  lutight*  lie  died  seM 
Baxtow  on  the  lAth  of  July  1907, 

His  eldest  son,  Wiluaic  HENity  Peiuok,  who  was  bom  a| 
Sudbury,  near  Harrow,  on  the  X7th  of  June  x86o,  and  wss 
educated  at  the  City  ojf  London  School,  the  Royal  College  ot 
Sdence,  and  the  untveiaities  of  WOrzburg  and  Munich,  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Heriot-Watt  College,  Edinbuigh, 
ia  1887,  and  professor  of  organic  chemistry  at  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  in  189s.  His  dbief  researches  deal  with  the  poly- 
methylene  compounds,  the  alkaloids,  in  particular  hy<|rastine 
and  berbcrine,  and  the  camphors  and  tcrpenes  (f>*.).  He 
received  the  Davy  medal  from  the  Royal  Society  in  1904. 

PBRXUrS,  CHARLES  CALLAHAN  (1825-^886).  American 
artist  and  author,  was  bom  in  Boston  and  educated  at  Harvard^ 
SubseqttentJ(y  studying  art  in  Rome  and  Paris.  Returning 
to  Rostoq,  he  helped  to  found  the  Museum  of.  Fine  A^ts,  of 
which  he  was  honoraiy  director,  and  for  many  years  be  played 
a  leading  part  in  artistic  circles  as  a  cultured  critic  and  writer. 
His  chief  publications  were  Tuscan  ScMlptors  (1864)  and  Italian 
Scitlpiors  (i868)T*replaced  14  1883  by  TJ14  Hist^ai  Handtoak 
oj  lUdUm  Sfulptort^Arl  in  Education  (1870),  and  ScpuUkraf^ 
Manumenti  in  Italy  (1885). 

PBRKJNS,  JAOOE  (1766-1849)1  American  inventor  an^ 
phyacist,  was  bom  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1766,  and 
was  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmjuth.  He  soon  made  himself  k»ow» 
by  a  variety  of  useful  mechanical  inventions,  4nd  iA.i8i8  famn 
ovcf  to  England  witb  a  plan  for  engieaving  bank-notes  on  stedt 
which  ultimately  proved  a  signal  success,  and  w^s  carried  out 
by  Perkins  in  panneiship  with  the  English  engraver^  I|eatb, 
i^  chief  contribatmn  to  physics  lay  in  the  experimeats.by 
which  he  iKoved  the  compressibility  of.  water  and  n^e^isured 
it  by  a  i^exometer  of  his  own  invention  (see  Phil^  Traii^.,  18201 
1826).  He  retired  in  1834,  aiid  died  in.  London  on.  the  30th  of 
Julyite 

His  sacoiid  eon,  Anqxsb  Makgb  Perkins^  (i799?-i880i  «ls» 
bom  at  NewburypoFt^  wentt^  England  in  tSa?,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  system  of  wsrming  buildings  by  means  cif  high<* 
pressure  steam.  Hi/i  grandson,.  LoFTva  Psakins  (4834,-1891)1 
most  pf  whose  Ijle  was  ^)eat-in  England,  experimented  with  tJie 
it^plication  to  steam  engines  of  steam  at  very  higb  presHires, 
constructing  in  .1^80  a  yacht,  the  "  Anth^cite,'*  whose  engines 
worked  ^fixh  a  pressure  of  500  tt>  to  the  sq«  in* 

PERLBBERQt  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
pf  Brand<p)burg,  on  the  Stepenita,  6  m.  N.E.  from  Wittenberge 
by  the  railway  to  Neustrelitz.  Pop.  (190s),  9502.  It  contains 
%  fine  dothic  Evangelical  church,  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
a  synagogue  and  several  schools,  and  has  a  town-hall,  dating 
ffom  .the  isth  Century,  ftnd  a  RoUnd  colnmn..  Its  chief  manu' 
fttttms  sre  axachioery,  soap,  blacking  and  clogs. 

See  HSpfncr,  Ptrleherger  lUimchfonik,.  PtrUhn%  vtk.  lioq  bi$ 
ijoo  (Perlcbeig,  1876),. 


17+ 


P£RLES;-4^EM 


FBRLB8.  JOSEPH  (i835-t894).  Jewish  nbbi,  wis  bora  in 
Hungary  in  1835,  and  died  at  Munich  in  1894.  He  was  one 
«f  the  first  rabbis  trained  at  the  new  type  of  seminary  (Brealau). 
Perles'  most  important  essays  were  on  folk-bte  and  customv 
There  is  much  that  is  striking  and  original  in  his  history  of 
Viarriage  {Die  jildische  HocktcU  U  nackUblistker  ZeU,  i860),  and 
of  mooming  customs  {Die  LeickenfeieflichkeiUn  im  naeMMisckat 
Jtidentkum,  i86i),.his  contributions  to  the  sources  of  the  Arabian 
Nights  {Zur  rabbiniseben  Sprack-und  SagenkmtuU,  1873),  and  hli 
notes  on  rabbinic  antiquities  (Beilrttg^  sair  rabbinkdkm  Spnuk* 
und  AUerluMskundi,  1893).  Perles'  essays  are  rich  in  Suggestive* 
ness,  and  have  been  the  starting-point  of  much  fruitfd  research. 
He  also  wrote  an  essay  on  Nachmanides,  and  a  biography  and 
critical  appreciation  of  Rashba  (1863).  (I.  A.) 

PERUTB,  or  PeAtLSTONE,  a  glassy  volcanic  rock  which,  when 
struck  with  a  hammer,  breaks  up  into  small  rounded  masses 
that  often  have  a  pearly  lustre.  The  reason  for  this  peculiarity 
is  obvious  in  microscopic  sections  of  the  rock,  for  many  small 
cracks  may  be  seen  traversing  the  glassy  substance.  These 
mostly  take  a  circular  course,  and  often  occur  in  groups,  one 
within  another.  The  circular  cracks  bound  the  little  spheres 
into  which  the  rock  falls  when  it  is  struck,  and  the  concentrie 
fissures  are  the  cause  of  the  pearly  lusti'e,  by  the  reflection  of 
Kght  from  enclosed  films  of  air.  Longer  straight  cracks  ran 
across  the  sections  separating  areas  in  which  the  circular  fissures 
preponderate.  By  decomposition  the  fissures  may  be  occupied 
by  deposits  of  limonlte,  which  make  them  more  obvious,  or  by 
other  secondary  minerals.  The  glass  itsdf  often  undergoes 
change  along  the  cracks  by  becoming  finely  crystalline  or 
devitrified,  dull  in  appearance  and  slightly  opaque  in  section't 
In  polarized  light  the  periitic  glass  is  usually  quite  Isotropic, 
but  sometimes  the  internal  part  of  some  Of  the  spheres  has  a 
slight  double  refraction  which  is  apparently  due  to  strain.  The 
glass  found  on  the  waste>heaps  of  glass-furnaces  is  sometimes 
very  coarsely  periitic. 

PerUtic  structure  is  hot  confined  to  ^ass,  but  may  be  seen 
also  in  that  variety  of  opal  which  is  called  hyalite.  This  forms 
small  transparent  rounded  masses  like  drops  of  gum,  and  in 
microscopic  section  exhibits  concentric  systems  Of  cracks. 
Hyalite,  like  periitic  obsidian,  is  amorphous  or  non-crystalline. 
It  b  easy  to  imitate  periitic  structure  by  taking  a  tittle  Canada 
balsam  and  heating  it  on  a  slip  of  g^ss  till  most  of  the  volatile 
matters  are  driven  out;  then  drop  it  in  a  basin  of  cold  water 
and  typical  periitic  structure  will  be  produced.  The  reason  is 
apparently  the  sudden  contraction  when  the  mass  is  chilled. 
In  the  glaze  on  tiles  and  china  rounded  or  polygonal  systems 
of  cracks  may  often  be  seen  whidi  somewhat  reseihble  periitic 
Structure  but  are  less  perfect  and  regular.  Blany  rocks  which 
are  cryptocfystalline  or  felsitic,  and  not  glissy,  have  perfect 
periitic  structure,  and  it  seems  probable  that  these  were  originally 
vitreous  obsidians  or  pitchstones  and  have  in  process  of  time 
been  changed  to  a  finely  crystalline  state  by  devitrification. 
Occasionally  in  olivine  and  quartz  rounded  cracks  not  unlike 
periitic  stnicture  may  be  observed. 

Many  periitic  rocks  contain  well-developed  crystals  of  quartz, 
feldspar,  augite  or  magnetite,  &c.,  usually  more  or  less  corroded 
or  rounded,  and  in  the  fine  glassy  base  minute  crystallites  often 
abound.  Some  of  the  rocks  have  the  resinous  lustre  and  the 
high  percentages  of  coAibined  water  which  distinguish  the 
pitchstones;  others  are  bright  and  fredi  obsidians,  and' nearly 
all  the  older  examples  are  dolt,  cryptocrystal£ne  fdsites. 
According  to  their  chemical  compo^otts  they  range  from  very 
acid  rhyolites  to  trachyte^  and  andesites,  and  the  dark  basaltifc 
glasses  or  tachylytes  are  sometimes  highly  periitic.  It  2s  prob- 
able that  most  perlites  are  of  intruave  origin,  and  the  general 
absence  Of  steam  cavities  in  these  rocks  would  support  this 
conclusion,  but  some  periitic  Hungarian  rhyolites  are  beBeved 
to  be  lavas. 

Vefv  well  known  rocks  of  this  kind  are  f oond  in  McSasen,  Saxony. 
as  dikes  of  greenish  and  brownish  pitchstone.  Other  examples 
ace  furnished  by  the  Tertiary  igneous  rocks  of  Hungary  CTokal,  &€.)• 
the  Euganean  Hills  (Italv)  and Ponza  Island  (in  the  Mediterranean). 

In  mioeralogical  colkctions  rounded  noduSes  of  brown  glass 


1«ryinc  f reoi  the  aiM  of  ^pea  to  that  <tf  an  omnfe  ouy  «Ctea  be 
teen  labelled  Marehanite,  Tney  have  bng  been  known  to  gcologisu 
and  are  found  at  Ockotsk«  Siberia,  in  association  with  a  large  mass 
of  periitic  obsidian.  These  globular  bodies  are,  in  fact,  the  more 
ctthsreat  poctions  of  a  pertite;  the  rast  of  the  rock  falls  dawn  is  a 
fine  powder,  setting  free  the  glassy  spheres.  They  are  subiect 
to  considerable  internal  strain,  as  ip  shown  by  the  fact  that  wtea 
struck  with  a  hammer  or  sliced  with  a  b|)iaaiy'$  saw  they  often 
burst  into  fragments.  Then:  behaviour  in  this  respect  ck»rly 
resembles  the  balls  of  rapidly  oboled,  unaone^Ued  gtus  which  are 
called  Prince  Rupert's  drops.  In  theor  oatotal  condittoo  the 
mankanite  spheres  are  doubly  refraaing,  but  when  they  have 
been  heated  and  very  slowly  cooled  they  Jose  this  property  aod 
no  longer  exhibit  any  tendency  to  sudden  disintegration. 

In  Creat  Britain  Tertiary  vitreous  rocks  are  not  tommoo.  I»t 
the  piirhstone  which  forms  the  Scuir  of  Etgg  is  a  dark  amfesitk 
porphyry  with  periitic  structure  in  its  glasary  matrix.  A  better 
example,  however,  is  provided  by  a  periitic  dacitic  pttchstone 
porphyry  that  occurs  near  the  Tay  Bridge  in  Fifediire.  The 
tachyiytic  basalt  dikes  Of  Mull  are  occasionaufy  highly  periitic.  At 
Sandy  Braes  in  Antrim  a  perliric  obsidian  has  been  f ouiid.  and  the  Lea 
Rock,  near  Wellington  in  Shropshire,  is  a  devitrified  obsidian  which 
shows  periitic  cracks  and  the  remains  of  spherulites.        (J.  S.  F.) 

PEHM,  a  government  of  east  Russia,  bounded  S.  by  the 
governments  of  Orenburg  and  Ufa,  W.  by  Vyatka,  N.W.  by 
Vologda,  and  E.  by  Tobolsk  (Siberia).  It  has  an  area  ol  x  28,173 
sq.  m.  Though  administrativdy  it  belongs  entirely  to  Rossia  in 
Europe,  its  eastern  part  (about  57,000  sq.  m.)  is  situated  in 
Siberia,  in  the  basin  of  the  Ob.  The  government  is  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  30  to  45  m.  in  width, 
thickly  clothed  with  forests,  uid  deeply  excavated  by  riven. 
The  highest  sumihits  do  not  rise  above  3600  ft.  in  the  northern 
section  of  the  range  (the  Vogulian  Ural) ;  in  the  central  portion, 
between  59*  and  60^  so'  N.,  they  once  or  twice  exceed  5000  ft. 
(Oeneshkin,  S3<So  ft.) ;  but  the  chain  soon  sinks  towards  the  south, 
where  it  barely  attains  an  elevation  of  3000  ft.  Where  the  great 
Siberian  road  crosses  it  the  highest  point  is  r400  ft. 

The  government  is  very  well  drained  by  rivers  belonging  to  the 
Pechora,  Tobol  (affluent  of  the  Ob)  and  Kama  systems.  The 
Pechora  itself  rises  in  the  northern  comer  of  the  government,  and 
its  tributary  the  Volosnitsa  is  separated  by  a  distance  of  less  than 
3  m.  from  the  navigable  Vogulka,  a  tributary  of  the  Rama,  a 
circumstance  of  some  commercial  Importance.  The  chief  rft-er 
of  Perm,  is  however,  the  Kama,  whose  navigable  tributaries  the 
Chusovaya,  Sylva  and  Rolva  are  important  channels  for  the 
export  of  heavy  iron  goods  to  Russia.  The  government  is 
dotted  with  a  great  number  of  lakes  of  comparatively  trifling  size, 
their  total  area  being  730  sq.  ro.,  and  with  marshes,  which  are 
extensive  in  the  hilly  tracts  of  the  north.  Granites,  diorites, 
porphyries,  serpentines  and  Laurentian  gneisses  and  limestooeSk 
containing  iron,  copper  and  zinc  ores,  constitute  the  main  axis 
of  the  Urd  chain;  their  western  slope  is  covered  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  Hurotiian  crystalline  slates,  which  disappear  in  the  east  under 
the  Post-Tertiary  deposits  of  the  Siberian  lowlands,  while  on  the 
west  narrow  strips  of  Silurian  limestones,  quartzttes  and  slates, 
and  separate  islands  of  Devonian  deposits,  appear  on  the  surface. 
These  in  their  turn  are  overlain  with  Carboniferous  clays  and 
sandstones,  containing  Coal  Measures  in  several  isolated  ba^n. 
The  Permian  deposits  extend  as  a  regular  strip,  parallel  to  the 
main  ridge,  over  these  last,  and  are  covered  with  the  so-called 
*^  variegated  maris,**  which  are  considered  as  Triassic,  and  appear 
only  in  the  western  comer  of  the  territory. 

Perm  b  the  chief  mining  region  of  Russia,  owing  to  its  wealth 
in  iron,  silver,  platinum,  copper,  nickel,  lead,  chrome  ore, 
manganese  knd  auriferous  alluvial  deposits.  Many  rare  metab, 
sttc|i  as  iridium,  osmium,  rhodium  and  ruthenium,  are  found 
along  with  the  above,  as  also  a  great  variety  of  predous  stones, 
such  as  diamonds,  sapphires,  jaspers,  tourmalines,  beryls, 
phenacites,  chrysoberyls,  emeralds,  .  aquamarines,  topaacs, 
amethysts,  jades,  malachite.  Salt-springs  occur  in  the  west; 
and  the  mineral  waters,  though  still  little  known,  are  wonhy 
of  mention.  No  less  than  70  %  of  the  total  area  is  occupied  with 
forest:  but  the  forests  are  distributed  very  Unequally,  covering 
05%  of  (he  area  in  the  north  and  only  35%  in  the  south-east. 
Firs,  the  pine,  cedar,  larch,  birch,  alder  and  Urae  are  the  most 
eonbioirt;  the  oak  appears  otaly  in  the  fouth-west.   The  flora  of 


PEKM-.-:PERMEABILITY,  MAGNETIC 


175 


Ptrm  presents  a  mfactfin  of  Sfberian  and  Russian  spedcs,  se^Fvnl 
of  which  have  their  north-eastern  or  south-western  Knu'ts  within 
the  government.  The  climate  is  severe,  the  average  tempcralure 
«t  dikerent  places  being  as  iotlowa^— 


Bogoalovsk 
Uioiye(Kaina) 
NixhntX'Tagibk 
Elcatennburg  . 


Ut.  N. 


Altitude. 


59:45 
56*  4«' 


Ft. 
6jo 
300 

1^ 


Yearly 
Aversge* 


F. 

340* 
33- 1* 


January 
Avenge. 


F. 
2S* 


July 
Average. 


F. 

64-9: 


The  estimated  popnlatioa  in  1906  was  3,487,100^  and  consists 
thtefly  of  Great  Rtissians.  besides  Bashliln  (including  Me^cher- 
yaks  and  Teptyars).  Permyaks  or  Permians,  Tatars, 'CbereDiisses, 
Sy ryenians,  YfHyaks  and  Voguls.  Agriculture  is  tb«  general  occu- 
pation; rye,  osu,  barley  and  hemp  are  raised  in  aU  parts,  and 
wheat,  millet .  buckwheat,  potatoes  and  flax  in  the  south.  Cattle- 
breeding  is  speciaDy  developed  In  the  south-east  among  the 
Bashkirs*  who  have  large  numbers  ol  horses.  Mjaing  is  develop- 
ing steadily  though  slowly.  The  ironworkt  employ  nearly 
}oo,ooo  hands  ( 1 2,000  being  in  the  Imperial  Ironworks),  and  their 
aggregate  output  reaches  an  estimated  value  of  £6,000,000 
annually.  The  annual  production  of  gold  is  valued  at  nearly 
half  a  million  suiling,  and  of  platinum  at  approximately  &  quarter 
of  a  million,  the  output  of  [rfatinum  being  equal  to  g$%  of  the 
world's  total  output.  Coal  and  coke  to  the  extent  of  300,000 
to  500,000  tons,  salt  to  300,000  tons,  aabestoaand  other  minerals 
are  also  obtained.  The  first  place  among  the  manufacturing 
industries  Is  taken  by  flourmills.  The  cutting  of  predous  stones 
is  extensively  carried  on  throughout  the  villages  on  the  eastern 
stope  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  chief  market  for  them  being  at 
Ekaterinburg.  An  active  trade,  greatly  favoured  by  the  easy 
communication  of  the  chief  centres  of  the  mining  industry  with 
the  market  of  Nizhniy  Novgorod  on  the  one  side  and  with  the 
network  of  Siberian  rivers  on  the  other,  is  carried  on  in  metals 
and  metal  wares,  minerals,  timber  and  wooden  wa^  tallow, 
skins,  Cattle,  furs,  com  and  Unseed.  L4iige  caravans  descend  the 
affluents  of  the  Kama  every  spring,  and  reach  the  fairs  of  Laishev 
and  Niahniy  Novgorod,  or  descend  the  Volga,  to  Samara  and 
Astrakhan;  while  Ekaterinburg  is  an  important  centre  for  the 
trade  with  Siberia.  The  fairs  at  Irbit,  second  in  importance  only 
to  that  of  Nizhniy  Novgorod,  and  Ivanov  (In  the  district  of 
Shadrinsk)  are  centres  for  supplying  Siberia  with  groceries  and 
manufactured  wares,  as  also  for  the  purchase  of  tea,  of  furs  for 
Russia,  and  of  com  and  cattle  for  the  raining  districts.  The  chief 
commercial  centres  are  Ekaterinburg,  Irblt,  Perm,  Kamyahlov, 
Shadrinsk  and  Cherdyn. 

Perm  is  more  largely  provided  with  educational  Institutions 
and  primary  schools  than  most  of  the  goremments  of.ce0tral 
Russia.  Besides  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  .at  Perm  there  fs  a 
mining  school  at  Ekaterinburg.  The  Perm  zeimtva  or  provincial 
councB  is  one  <^  the  most  active  in  Russia  in  promoting  the  ^read 
of  education  and  agricultural  knowledge  among  the  peasants. 

The  government  is  intersected  by  a  railway  from  Perm  east- 
wards across  the  Urals,  and  thence  southwar<)s  along  their 
eastern  slope  to  Ekaterinburg,  Chelyabinsk  (main  Siberian 
trunk  line)  and  Tyumen;  abo  by  a  railway  from  Perm  to  Kotlaa, 
at  the  head  of  the  Northern  Dvina. 

His/tf/y.— Remains  of  paliteoUthlc  nutn,  cveiywbere  very  scarce 
in  Russia,  have  not  yet  been  discovered  in  the  upper  basins  of  the 
Rama  and  Ob,  with  the  exception,  perbaps,  of  a  single  buman 
skull  found  In  a  cavern  on  the  Chanva  (basin  of  Kama),  together 
with  a  skull  of  Ursus  spdaeta.  Neolithic  remains  are  met  with  In 
l«nmenK  quantities  on  both  Ural  slopes.  StiU  larger  quantities 
of  implements  belonging  to  an  early  Finnish,  or  rather  Ugrian, 
cKIlisatioB  are  found  evMywhere  in  the  basin  of  the  Kama* 
fierodotus  spc»ks  of  the  richness  of  this  country  Inbabited  by 
the  Ugrians^  who  kept  up  a  brisk  traffic  with  the  Creek  colony 
of  Olbia  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  and  with  the  Bosporus 
by  way  of  the  Ses  of  Asov  and  the  Volga.  The  precise  period 
at  which  the  Ugtlans  left  tlie  distrtet  for  thtvoutbem  etepiMS 


of  Russia  (the  Lebtdia  of  Constaotine  Forpihyrogenltus)  la  not 
known.  In  the  9th  centiny,  if  oot  earlier,  the  Norsemen  wcra 
acquinntH  with  the  country  aa  Bjarmeland,  and  fiyaantise 
annalisu  knew  it  as  Penaia.  Nestor  describes  it  as  a  territory 
of  the  Perm  or  Ptenaians,  a  Finnish  people. 

The  Russians  penetrated  into  this  region  at  an  early  date  In 
the  xith  century  Novgorod  levied  tribute  from  the  Finnisb 
inhabitants,  and  undertook  the  coloniaation  <rf  the  country^ 
wMcli  in  the  treaties  of  the  tjth  century  is  dealt  with  as  a 
separate  territory  of  Novgorod.  In  1471  the  Novgorod  colonies 
m  Feim  were  annexed  to  Moscow,  which  in  the  following  year 
elected  a  -fort  to  protect  the  Russian  settlers  and  tradesmen 
against  the  Voguls,  Ostiaks  and  Samoyedes.  The  mineml 
wealth  of  the  country  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Mosccm 
princes,  and  in  the  end  of  the  15th  century  Ivan  lit;  sent  two 
Germans  to  search  for  ores;  these  they  succeeded  in  finding  south 
of  the  upper  Pechora.  The  Stroganovs  in  the  i6th  century 
founded  the  first  salt*  and  ironworks,  built  forts,  and  colonized 
the  Ural  region.  The  rapidly-growing  trade  with  Siberia  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  the  development  of  the  country.  This  trade 
had  its  centres  at  Perm  and  Solikamsk,  and  later  at  Irbit. 

(P.A.K.;J.T.B£.). 

PERM,  a  town  of  I^ussia,  capital  of  the  government  of  t^ 
iame  name,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rama,  on  the  grekt 
highway  to  Siberia,  1130  m.  by  rail  and  river  N.E.  from  Moscow. 
Pop.  (id79}.  32,350;  (1897)*  45>403.  During  summer  it  his 
regul»-  steam  communication  with  Kazan,  605  m.  distant,  aad 
it  is  connected  by  rail  (311  m.)  with  Ekaterinburg  on  the  eaM 
side  of  the  Urals.  The  town  is  mostly  built  of  wood,  with 
broa,d  streets  and  wide  squares,  and  has  a  somewhat  poor  ai^>eGt, 
especially  when  compared  with  Ekaterinburg.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop  of  tbe  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  and  has  an  ecclesiastical 
staiiiiaiy  and  a  miUtary  school,  besides  several  scientific 
instittttioos  (the  Ural  society  of  natural  sciences,  archives 
committee,  technical  society),  and  a  scientific  museum.  Its 
industries  develop  but  slowly,  the  chief  works  being  sMp^building 
yards,  tanneries,  chemical  works,  saw-mills,  brickfields,  copper 
foundries,  machinery  works,  soap  and  candle  factories  and  rope- 
works.  The  government  has  a  manufactory  of  steel  guns  and 
munitions  iA  war  in  the  immediate  neighbouiboed  of  tbe  town. 

Tbe  present  site  of  Perm  was  occupied,  as  eariy  aa  1568,  by  a 
settlement  named  Bnikhanovo,  founded  by  one  of  the 
Stroganovs;  this  settlement  seems  to  have  received  the  name 
of  Perm  In  the  i7tb  ceatoiy.  A  copperwoiks  was  founded  In 
the  Immediate  neighbourhood  in  1723,  and  in  17SX  it  recelvMl 
officially  the  name  of  Pierm,  and  became  an  administrative  centre 
botb  for  the  country  and  for  the  mining  region*  - 

PIBMBABIUry,  HAIIilEnC,  tbe  ratk>  of  tbe  magneCk 
induction  or  flux-density  in  any  anedimn  to  tbe  inducing  magnetic 
force.  Ia  the  CG.S.  ebctromagnetic  System  of  units  the 
pemeabHity  is  regarded. aa  a  pure  number,  and  Its  value  in 
empty  space  Is  taken  aa  unity.  The  pennsabiMty  of  a  netal 
belonging  to  the  ferromagnelic  dasa-^oti,  Bkkel,  c6balt  and 
some  of  their  aIloy»— is  a  function  of  the  magnetic  force,  and 
also  depeada  upon  the  previous  magnetic  history  of  the  spedi&en. 
As  the  force  increases  from  lero  the  pemeability  of  a  gtven 
specimen  rises  to  a  naximum,  which  may  amount  to  several 
thousands,  and  then  gradually  falls  off,  tending  to  become  unity 
when  the  force  is  increased  without  limit.  Every  other  sub- 
stanoe  b^  a  constant  permeability,  which  differs  from  unity  only 
by  a  very  smdl  fraction;  if  the  substance  is  paramagnetic,  it» 
permeability  is  a  tittle  greater  than  i ;  if  diamagnetic,  a  little  less. 
The  conception  of  permeability  (Lat.  fer^  through,  and  flaeore,  to 
wander),  is  due  to  Faruday,  who  spoke  of  it  as  *'  conductin^g, 
power  for  magnetism  "  (JExperimaUai  Rcsearcka,  xxvi:),  and  the 
term  now  in  use  was  introduced  by  W.Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin)^ 
in  1872,  baving  been  suggested  by  a  bydrokinetic  aiudogy 
{Heprint  tf  Fapers  on  Elecircstaiies  and  Magmetism^  xxxl.,  xlii.). 
It  is  generally  of  importance  thai  the  iron  employed  in  the 
construction  of  electrical  machinery  should  possess  high 
permeability  under  the  magnetic  force  to  which  it  is  to  be 
■ubjectad.  (3fe  PftScmomcNmiiB  and  Machstwil) 


?t7f> 


'  PERMEAMETER-JERMIAN 


purpoKS.  Tbc  nuse  ku  6iu  ip[^i«l 
by  S.  P.TtBmpaon  to  in  iffBIalu*  deviud  by  hiiiuFU  ia  iSgo, 
iffhich  indJcaUs  the  Tyy>ii>"i*^l  b^rce  required  (*  detach  one  end 
4f  tbc  mnple,  unogtd  u  the  coie  ol  ■  itnigbl  etectt«iiui([nci, 
'  from  VI  imk  yoke  erf  ipecial  lcrnii;irbcn  tUi  tocccii  knawiij  the 
pernHftbOily  aa  be  aaHy  cilculatodk     (See  MAr>NEnBM-} ' 

PBRNUH.  to  leologr,  the  youngal  uul  uppermtul  syitem  ol 
•tnla  of  tbe  PiluoMic  hw),  lituited  ibovc  the  Cuix    " 
ud  bdoB  tbe  Tiiu.    Tbe  t«rm  "  Pamlu  "  (derived 


Runion  pnmiue  of  Porn,  where  the  roclci 
deveLoped)  na  introduced  in  ]ft4i  by  Sb  Rl  L 
England  tbe  serio  of  .ted  sandilones,  coogbmcnte*,  bieccLu 
and  muk  *bich  nveilie  tbe  Ccul  Meuutia  were  at  one  time 
grouped  together  in  oat  great  fomutioii  u  ihe  "  New  Red 
SaodiUincs"  in  conlndistiaclloa  to  the  Old  Red  SudUone 
below  tbe  CvixnaSetaia:  Hiey  were  likewise  known  as  Ihe 
PmhUilk  tola  (from  Gr.  iuIXdi,  moIlJed)  froo  tbdr  noltled 
or  vazic^ted  colour.  They  are  new  divided  tnlo  two  (y^ema 
or  groupaof  formaliona;  the  lowsportieh  beins  included  in  the 
falaeoaoic  ecriei  unds  the  oanic  Pctbuui.  Iht  upper  poRioa 
bdng  [degiled  la  Ihe  MesOKii:  Knti  and  termed  Tiiao.  In 
Gelnany  the  name  Djquwaapiopoaedby  J,  Masconfor  tberocki 
ol  Ihit  *ce  OB  account  of  the  twofold  nature  of  the  (erieJ  in 
Thuringia,  Saiony,  &c.     Tbe  intimate  iliatigraplittaJ  telation- 

and  the  Cartwnifemok  bcd>,'and  the  practical  difficuliiea  in  the 
'Way  of  drawing  a  aatiafactory  btue-lioc  to  'the  aytient,  have  kd 
'to  the  adoption  o4  the  tena  Ftrmt-carbotti/eioui  in  South 
lAftka,  Huthem  Asia,  America,  Australia  and  Russia,  for  SUala 
upon  tbb  hoiizoK  C  W.  von  CtUidiel  used  "  Fosl-csrbon  "  in 
tbis  senK,  In  >  snibr  muncr  Pirmo-lriasat  ha*  been 
employed  in  cases  wbete  a  >trati|raplii(s1  paEBje  f  mm  nicks  with 
Pcamian  fossils  to  otbera  braiiDg  a  Tnassic  fauna  is  apparenl. 
The  Pennian  tfBrtn  in  Engkoil  coniiiti  of  Ihe  (ollawing  iab- 


,  chi*  a 


I      doolt.      JO-lOOfl. 

(  lo-ji  '■  600  ■' 


Sks  haven  vnv  diilereiu  dcvelepmtnt  ofi  the  ti^  lidniil  Esgland. 
the  em  Ait,  from  the  coast  or  Konhumbtiliiid  Bnithwards 
'to  the  nlahil  ol  ihe  ■'-"    -■--     — -'-  -"-'-    -• ' 


[  Ihe  Peniiiiw  Chain 


d  we  have  a  (HM  aciu  wilaiim  of  rat  ar 


■laud  in  small  lakes  or  nairow  fiords.    Miidi  farther  b 

'he  Clent  »i  ■  ■■■ 

Pennian  le 


These  breccia  ltd  in 
iidihiie/  aiiiii  bi  the  district*  cl  the  Clent  ai 


liickneH  of  acb  It.-  11 

ctoneSj  whidi  can  be  id 


Abteley 


Some  el  ihe  ilanes  are  3  (t..in  diameter  and  show  ditiinct  urialion. 
The  Mmevciitr  pointed  out  IbBtlbesePenrnandiift-btde  cannot  be 
Hi*fliu*HHli^  by  any  esteniial  charaaer  frooi  modern  ftlacial  diilia; 
und,  W.  W-  King  and  oihen  have  oppoted  Ibis  viev- 
c  subdivision  isthe  chief  reposilory  of  fottils  in  the 


r,  u  the  Marl  Slate  docs  with  tbe  Ku^-iei 

dulU  ^jtby,  fine^ffraioed  and  foiniifenfuSh  in  other  ptues  quite 

abialLine.  and  composed  of  globular.  nnifDrm.  bolryoidal,  or 
cr  irrcEiiUr  concRiioni  of  cryiiaUlne  and  frequcKtIy  inteiBslly 
ndiaied  dolanite.    Though  the  Magne^  Limeyane  tuns  n  a 

oD^he  l.iM^;nMd  Cheshice^  by  bnghl  led'and'niitBateri 
Hiuibiane  covered  by  a  thin  group  of  red  marlSt  with  onmerDus 
thin  courses  of  limtstone.  containing  SiSitDim,  BoJtneJtia  and 
other  cbaracteriitic  fossils  of  the  Magnetian  Limeitone- 

Conctmlni  th»  mka  claiied  as  Permian  in  ihe  eentiil  (ovniit* 
of  Eneland  (hen  eiitu  mm  doubt,  for  leseni  work  kmIi  to  show 
(hat  the  lower  puts  aie  cleaily  related  to  the  Carbenifnous  roiks 

oTth^'hShet 'bed's  1™™"^"  Trias.     S«iiUr!y'hi''sooih"Devm! 

^       ■  ■ well  »«poied.  it  has 

should  be  regarded 


arid  coarse  bfeccia*  ar 


though  lb 


peovirices,  Seiony.  Thurineia,  Uavaria  and  Bohemia.  In  general 
leios  it  may  be  said  that  in  ihii  region  there  is  a  lower  sandy  and 
the  lormer  Is  known  at  Ihe  RcllUufndc.  Ihe  latter  as  the  ZttklUim 


PERMIAN 


'}    «  '  f 


177 


im  takM,  indiMfioc  camlKke^  Ideaerite 
and  polyhalits,  whicli  are  exploited  at  StasMurt  am)  are  Che  only 
important  potassium  deposits  known.  Permian  rocks  o(  the 
Rothliesende  tvpe  are  scattered  over  a  wide  area  in  France, 
where  tfie  lower  beds  are  usually  conformable  with  the  Coal  Measures. 
In  the  upper  beds  oecur  the  bitiiminoiis  or  "  Boghead  "  sh&le  of 
Aatun.  In  Russia  strata  of  this  age  cover  an  enormous  area,  in 
the  Ural  region,  in  the  Kovcrnmcnts  of  Perm.  Kasan,  Kostroma, 
and  In  Armenia.  The  Ku&sian  Permian  shows  no  sharp  division 
into  two  series;  the  two  types  of  deposit  tend  to  be  more  mixed 
and  indude  in  addition  some  deposits  of  tlw  m6re  open  sea.  The 
general  sequence  begins  with  the  ArHnsk  beds,  sandy  and  noarly  or 
conglomeratic  beds  ia  c^ose  connexion  with  the  Cartxinifcrous, 
overlain  by  the  Kungur  limestones  and  dolomites;  these  are  followed 
by  red  fresh-Water  sandstones,  over  which  comes  an  important 
aeries  of  oopper-bearing  sandstones  and  conglomerates.  Above 
this,  in  KoBlroroi,  Vyatka  and  Kasan  there  is  a  calcareous  and 
dolomitic  series,  the  so-chIIimI  "  Russian  Zcchstcin  "  with  marine 
fos^Is;  the  uppermost  beds  are  red  marls,  with  few  fresh-water 
fossils,  the  Tartarian  beds. 

The  character  of  the  foedb  in  the  Piermtah  of  the  Meditemnean 
and  south-east  Europe*-^eli  exeroolificd  ia  the  deposits  of  Sicily — 
together  with  their  more  generally  calcareous  nature,  indicate 
a  more  open  sea  and  more  stable  marine  conditions  than  obtained 
farther  north.  This  scft  is  traceable  across  south-east  Russia 
into  the  middle  of  Asia,  through  Turkestan  and  Pearsia,  into  the 
Salt  Range  of  India^  where  the  P^uctus  limestone  ma^  be  taken 
as  representative  of  the  normal  marine  plan  of  Permian  times. 
Southwards,  however,  of  the  Nerbudda  Kiver  another  and  quite 
distinct  continental  assemblage  of  deposits  holds  the  ground, 
viz.  the  lower  portkm  of  the  great  fresh-water  Gondwftna  svstem. 
The  coarse  Taichir  amg^omtrates  at  the  base  aie  succeeded  by  the 
aandstoncs  and  shales  of  the  Karharbori  t^tup,  with  numerous 
coal  seams,  and  these  in  turn  arc  followed  by  the  Damuda  series 
(upwards  of  10,000  ft.)  of  similar  rocks,  irith  ironstones  and  very 
valuable  coal  seams.  All  these  strata  are  characterized  by  the 
presence  ol  the  Gtossopteris  ik>ra.  A  similar  succession  of  beds  has 
been  recorded  in  north-west  Afghanistan.  In  close  relationship 
with  the  lower  members  of  the  Indian  Gondw2na  series,  both  as 
regards  fossil  contents  and  lithological  characters,  are  the  lower 
Karoo  beds  of  South  Africa  (Dwyka  condorocrate,  Ecca  shales  and 
mudstones,  Beaufort  beds  and  Kimbeniey  shales),  also  the  «oal- 
bearina  beds  of  the  Transvaal;  the  Permo-carboniferous  rocks  of 
Australia  (including  the  rich  coal  measures  of  Newcastle,  the  Greta 
coal  measures  and  marine  beds,  upper  and  lower,  of  New  South 
Wales;  those  of  Tasmania,  the  Bowen  River  beds  of  Queensland, 
and  the  Bacchus  Marsh  glacial  beds  of  VicCona),  and  dmilitr  rocld 
in  New  Zealand  (Maitai  formation,  south  island ;  Dun  Mountain  lime- 
atone  and  Rimutaka  beds  of  the  north  island)  and  South  America. 
In  North  America  Permian  rocks  occur  in  the  east  in  Pennsylvania, 
W«?st  Viri^inia,  Maryland  and  Ohio  C'  Upper  Barren  Measures  "). 
and  in  Pnnce  Edward  Island,  New  Brunswick,  where  they  succeed 
the  Carboniferous  rockf  very  regularly.  West  of  the  Mississipi^. 
in  Texas  (7000  ft.,  including  the  Wichita  beds,  Clear  Fork  and 
Double  Mountain  beds),  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  the  Permian  is 
more  extensive  and  on  tlw  whole  is  more  readily  separable  from  the 
Carboniferous.  Here  the  lower  beds  are  marine  and  contain  manv 
limestones  and  dolomites:    the  higher  beds  are  vuunly  red  sand- 


stones and  maris  wtth  gypaum*.  in  Texas  h  ife  of  intereat  to  note 
the  occurrence  of  Copper-stained  strata.  These  upper  **  Red  Beds^* 
are  often  not  clearly  distinguishable  from  the  Toas. 

Life  of  the  Permian  Period.— The  records  of  the  plants  and  animals 
of  this  period  are  comparatively  meagre.  The  plants  show  that 
a  gradual  change  from  the  Carboniferous  types  was  in  progreai. 
Two  floral  regions  are  clearly  indicated,  a  northern  and  a  southern. 
In  the  latter,  which  may  be  regarded  as  conterminous  with  the 
continent  of  Gondwina,  the  Lcpidodendrons,  Sigillarias,  Cilamites, 
&c,  of  the  Coal  Measures  gave  place  to  a  distinct  flora,  named  from 
the  prevalence  of  GlossopUris,  the  Glossopteris  (tongue-fern)  lloia. 
Traces  of  this  southern  flora  have  been  found  in  northern  Russia. 
Cangaiwpieris,  CaUipteris,  Taeniopteris,  SckitefUris,  Wakkia, 
Vdttia^  UUmannia,  Saporiea,  Baiera  are  characteristic  Permian 
genera.  -  Among  the  larger  anintals  amphibians  occupied  a  promi- 
nent iiosition.  their  footprints  being  very  common  in  the  sandstones; 
they  include  numerous  Labyrinthodonts,  Arckesosaurus,  Stereo- 
rackis,  Branchiosaurus.  At  this  time  the  true  reptiles  began  to 
leave  their  remains  in  the  rocks;  many  highly  interesting  forms  are 
known — PaUuokaSUria,  Proterosaurus,  Slereostemum;  others  havii\g 
certain  mammalian  characteristics  include  Pareiasaurns,  Cyncgnaihus, 
Dicjnodmi,  Among  the  fishes  may  be  mentioned  PlatvsemHs, 
PaueoniscuSt  Am^ypUnu,  PUuracantkus.  Turning  to  the  mverte- 
brates,  undoubtedly  the  most  interesting  feature  is  gradual  intro- 
duction into  the  Cephalopoda  of  the  ammonite-liloe  forms  such 
as  AfediicoUia,  Wbagenoeeroft  Popanour as,  in  place  of  the  more 
simple  lobed  ^oniatirca  ol  the  Carboniferous.  Brachiopods 
(Productits  karrulus,  Bakevellia  tumida),  Bryozoa  ana  corals  were 
by  no  means  scarce  in  the  more  open  Permian  seas.  Sckizodus 
Schlotheimii,  Stropkaldsia  Cddfussi,  Myopkona,  Leimyatind,  Beltero- 
pkon  are  characteristic  Permian  molluscs.  The  last  <x  the  trilobites 
appears  in  the  Permian  of  North  America. 

The  evidence  so  far  obtained  indicates  that  \h  Permian  times 
much  of  the  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere  was  near  the  general 
sea-level,  and  that  conditions  of  considerable  aridity  prevailed 
which  involved  the  repeated  isolation  and  evaix>ration  ol  marine 
lagoons  and  land-locked  seas.  South  of  this  region  in  Europe  and 
Asia  there  extended  aa  open  "  Mediterranean  "  sea,  the  "  Tethys  " 
of  E.  Suess;  while  over  an  enormous  area  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
a  great  land  area  was  spread^  "  GondwSna  land,"  the  land  of  the 
Glossopteris  flora.  At  many  points  in  this  vast  tract,  as  we  have 
seen,  coarM  conglomeratk  deposits,  Taichir,  Dwyka,  Bacchus 
Marsh,  &c.,  indicate  profound  glacial  conditions,  which  some  have 
thought  were  present  also  in  Britain,  Germany  and  elsewhere 
in  the  north.  Moderate  earth  movements  were  taking  place  in 
North  America,  where  the  Appalachian  and  Ouachita  mountains 
Were  in  course  of  elevation,  and  in  Europe  this  was  a  time  of  great 
volcanic  activity.  In  the  Saal  region  volcanic  rocks  in  the  lower 
Rothliegende  have  been  penetrated  for  iioo  ft.  without  reaching 
the  bottom,  and  elsewhere  in  central  Europe  great  sheets  of  con- 
temporaneous ouartz  porphyry,  granite  porphyry,  raelaphyre  and 
potphyrite  are  abundant  with  their  corresponding  tuffs.  Melaphyres 
ana  tuffs  appear  in  the  Vosges..  which  in  the  south  of  France  are 
enormous  masses  of  melaphyre  and  quartz  porphyry.  Basic  lavas 
and  tuffs— diabase,  picrite,  olivine  basalt  and  andcsite  tuffs — were 
erupted  from  many  small  vents  in  Ayrshire  and  the  Nith  basin, 
and  basic  lavas  occur  also  in  Devonshire.  Volcanic  rocks  occur 
also  in  New  Zealand.  Sumatra  and  the  TnuwvaaL 


Table  of  Permian  Strata,  showing  approximate  correlations. 


Stages. 


Thuringian 


Punjabtan 

or 
Saxonian 


Artinsldiui 
(marine) 

or 
AutuniaM 
(continental) 


XXI  4 


Britain. 


Marls  and 
gypsum. 

Magnesia  n 
limestone 

Marl  slate 


i^S 


.«  c  *-  »•   . 
S  ««  o  o  g 

is  o 


Saxony, 

Thuringia, 

Bohemia. 


Salt  beds  of 
Stassfurt. 
Zechsteio  lime- 
stones. 
Kupfer-schiefer. 


2: 

a 


E 
u 

B 
O 

U 


Weissliegendes. 

Tambach  beds. 

Oberhof  beds 

Goldlauter 

beds. 


Manebach 

beds. 

Brandschicfer 

bcdsof  Wessig. 

Gehreh  beds. 

Braunaa  beds 

of  Bohemia. 


Baain  of  the 
Saar. 


c 
B 

M 

jC 
N 


& 


o 


Upper  red 

sandstones, 

breccias  and 

coj^omeratea. 


Red  sandstones 
with  eruptive 

rocks. 

The  beds  of 

Krcacnach, 

Wadern^ 

Sotcrn, 

Tholcy. 


Lebach  beds. 
Cuselbeds. 


Alps. 


Bellerophon 
limestone. 
Ddomites 
and  shales 
of  Ncumarkt 
Sandstones 
of  Grttden. 


8 


^ 


c 

B 

8 

t 


3 


Russia. 


Tartarian 

Maris. 
Ophalopod 
bcdf  of 
Armenia^ 
Copper- 
bearing 
sandstones 
in  Ural 
region. 
Limestones 
and  dolo- 
mites of 
Kostroma 
(Russian 
Zcchstcin). 
Kungur  and 

Artinsk 

sandstones. 

Beds  of 

Novaya 

ZemWya  and 

Spiubergen. 


India. 


3  ft  it 

£Qo 

4i% 

3  e;a 
e  o - 

o2flu2 


i2  §S.i 


3 

.2I 

.|3 

c  <0 

'I 
<SS 

o< 

t; 

(« 


N<nth  America. 


S 
c 

c 

g 
iJ 


t 

'C 

=  < 

M 


ICansaa. 
Kiger 

stage. 
Salt  Fork 

stage. 


Wellington 

beds. 
Marion 

beds. 
Chase 

stage. 


§a .  ' 

2 

"ill*. 

I  =1 
I* 

2a 


;.76 


petneabilily  of  a.  ucnple  ol  iron  or  itul  wiih  luffidoni  wtoimey 
lor  maiiy  comiaerdfti  purpoecs-  Tbc  nunc  wu  fint  tpfiUed 
by  S.  P.  Thompson  U>  In  sj^antul  devllMl  by  himxU  is  1S90, 
which  indicate  the  inr^h^"'™'  force  required  t*  detach  tmc  cfid 
4f  I)ie  unlple,  turangHt  u  the  core  of  i  ilnight  decUsoiagDel, 
IfOffl  ui  iion  }^e  of  ipeciai  lorm;  when  tlzls  [orce  ij  known,  the 
.  permcabilily  can  be  cuJy  c^culated*  (Sec  Macnettkm.)  ' 
FERHllUf.  in  geology,  tlie  youngeil  and  uppMmoK  lysli ' 

ud  below  the  Iriu.    Tbe  leim  "  Pecmii 


PERMEAMETER-^ERMIAN 

for  n, 


id  ihove  the  Caiboniletoui 


Bccdi~ppan.udwthiva«-  MMr(*4  m.}.     All  thoe  Inn 

.nd  iravefly  fDcltt_  ,  _  WThe  U]Hli1  of  Ihe  itale  n 

Pcnriih  MndHone'miei,  ■  %P  "^^  stite,  hul  the  ceniui 

ot  bnuia.  toolly  kmiwr        ■■_  •  Ihoie  ol  the  manicipm 

ot  Ihc  CtrbaDifaoui  L          ^  )The  most  impDrtant  Mn: 


\to),  Btejo  di  Madie  u 

te  legion,  Cabolijji;), 

Wiuu  iii.iSS,  covciiBf 

W  (»4.iH).  Goyanw, 

«  colonial  capital  and 

vbafiba   (9S14)    and 

^hriNovIo  Jtajaa 
A  that  wu  aliec 

\'cment  was  nudt 
lloiuyunbtB 
from  the  moDlk 


jld  the  Carbetufemu  bedi,  air 
ny  of  diawing  a  aatu  acrtoi^       v 
0  the  idaption  of  the     cr         , 

thera  Asa,  Amer'  1 

hoiina-C   W 


.iSi    Pttiui  and  l 


he  Swedes,  who  had  been  i 
t  with  regular  fottiEcatiq 
iuuians,  and  Ihe  fonteu 
rERHE,  ANDREW  (c.  i 


£s  h  ntan    Pmutim),  a 

R  sjia  inthegovemmeBt 

ba  k  of  the  reman  oe 


JSS  t>y  one  of  the 
uriihlng  place.  U 
Jon  by  the  Sweden 
et  ISM  the  Pt4i» 


lofEl 


-■5S9),  ' 


ancellot  of  C 


.',  Norfolk.  He  wu  educated  at  St 
Jahn'a  college,  Cambridge,  gradualhg  B.A.  in  1539.  B.D.  ia 
1S47  and  D.D.  In  1551.  He  wai  elected  felio*  of  Queens'  in 
T540,  and  vice-prciidcnt  in  ij5t,  and  wai  five  times  vice- 
chancellor;  but  heoweihii  nolonety  to  bis  remarkable  venaiility, 
and,  like  the  vtcor  ol  Bray,  be  wai  alwayt  faithful  10  Ihe  uititKiai 
eligimi,  whaievet  it  might  be.    In  April  1547  h«  advocated 


CaUKlk  doctiino,  b 


PERONNE— PERPEKDICULAR  PERIOD 


179 


Proccftant  fixtb  wu  ttrangtheMd  during  Edwud  VL's  re%n; 
he  wu  aKwinted  a  royal  chaplain  and  canon  of  Windsor.  Soon 
after  Mary's  accession,  however,  he  perceiyed  the  error  of  his 
ways  and  was  nude  master  of  Peterbouse  in  x  554  and  dean  of 
Ely  in  1557.  He  preached  the  sermon  in  1556  when  the  bodies 
of  Bucer  and  Fagius  were  disinterred  and  burnt  for  heresy,  and 
also  in  2560  when  these  proceedings  weie  reversed  and  the  dead 
heretics  were  rehabilitated.  In  EUsabeth's  reign  he  subscribed 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  denounced  the  pope  and  tried  to 
eonvert  Abbot  Feckenham  to  Protestantism;  and  m  1584 
Whitgift  in  vain  recommended  him  for  a  bishopric.  He  died 
on  the  a6th  of  April  1589.  He  was  selected  as  the  type  of 
Anglican  prelate  by  the  authors  of  the  Martin  Mar-prdate 
tracts  and  other  Puritans,  who  nicknamed  him  '*  Old  Andrew 
Turncoat,"  "*  Andiew  Ambo,"  "  Old  Father  Palinode."  Can> 
bridge  wits,  it  was  said,  translated  "  pemo  "  by  "  I  turn,  I  rat, 
I  change  often  ";  and  a  coat  that  had  often  been  turned  waa 
said  to  have  been  *'  pemed."  (A.  F.  P.) 

PteONMBi  a  town  of  northern  Fkance,  capital  of  an  arton- 
dissement  of  the  department  of  Somme,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Somme  at  its  confluence  with  the  Cologne,  35  m.  E.  by  N. 
of  Amiens  by  raO.  Pop.  (1906),  369S.  The  diurcfa  of  St  Jean 
(1509-1525)  was  greatly  damaged  during  the  bombardment  of 
1870-71,  but  has  since  been  restored.  The  castle  of  P^ronne 
still  retains  four  large  conical-roofed  towers  dating  from  the 
middle  ages,  one  of  which  is  said  to  have  been  the  prison  of 
Louis  XI.  in  2468,  when  he  wis  forced  to  agree  to  the  **  Treaty 
of  P^ronne."  Pfronne  has  a  sub^refecture,  a  tribunal  of  first 
instance  and  a  communal  college.  Its  trade  and  industry  are 
of  little  importance. 

The  Prankish  kings  had  a  villa  at  P^ane,  which  Ctovlsll. 
gave  to  Eirhinoaldus,  mayor  of  the  palace.  The  tetter  founded 
a  monastery  here,  and  raised  in  honour  of  St  Fursy  a  collegiate 
diurch,  which  was  a  wealthy  establishment  until  the  Revolution; 
K  is  the  burial-place  of  Charles  the  Simple,  who  died  of  starvation 
in  a  dungeon  in  P(ronne,  into  which  he  had  been  thrown  by  the 
count  of  Vermandois  Cq^O)*  After  the  death  of  Philip  of  Alsace, 
P^ronne,  which  he  had  inherited  through  his  wife,  escheated  to 
the  French  Crown  in  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus,  from  whom  in 
taog  it  received  a  charter.  By  the  treaty  of  Arras  (1435)  it 
was  given  to  the  Burgundians;  bought  back  by  Louis  XI.,  it 
po»ed  again  into  the  hands  of  Charles  the  Bold  in  1465.  On 
the  death  of  Charies,  however,  in  1477,  Louis  XI.  resumed 
possession.  In  1536  the  emperor  Charles  V.  besieged  Hronne, 
but  without  success;  in  its  defence  a  woman  called  Marie  Four6 
greatly  distinguished  herself.  A  statuoof  her  stands  in  the  town; 
and  the  aimiversary  of  the  rainng  of  the  siege  Is  still  celebrated 
annually.  It  was  the  first  town  after  Paris  at  which  the  League 
was  proclaimed  in  1577.  Pironne's  greatest  misfortunes 
occurred  during  the  Franco-German  War.  It  was  invested  on 
the  27th  of  December  T870,  and  bombarded  from  the  tSth  to 
the  9th  of  the  following  January,  upon  which  date,  on  account  of 
the  sufferings  of  the  civil  popuIatkMi,  among  whom  small-pox 
had  broken  out,  it  was  compelled  to  capitutete. 

PEROVSKITB;  or  Pkeotsxite,  a  mineral  consisting  of  calcium 
titanate,  CaTiOi,  usually  with  a  small  proportion  of  the  calcium 
repteced  by  iron.  The  crystals  found  in  schistose  rocks  have 
the  form  of  cubes,  which  are  sometimes  modified  on  the  edges 
and  comers  by  numerous  small  planes;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
crystals  occurring  aa  an  accessory  constituent  of  eruptive  rocks 
are  octahedral  in  form  and  microscopic  In  siae.  Although 
geometrically  cubic,  the  crystals  are  always  doubly  refractini^ 
and  they  sometimes  show  evidence  of  complex  mimetic  twinning; 
their  stmcture  as  shown  in  polarized  light  is  very  'similar  to 
that  of  the  mineral  boradte.  and  they  are  therefore  described  as 
pseudo-cubic.  There  are  distinct  cleavages  parallel  to  the  faces 
of  the  cube.  The  colour  varies  from  pale  yellow  to  bteckish- 
brown  and  the  lustre  is  adamantine  to  metallic;  the  crystals  are 
transparent  to  opaque.  The  index  of  refraction  is  high,  the 
hardness  5}  and  the  specific  gravity  4*0.  The  mineral  was 
discovered  at  Achmatovsk  near  Zlatonst  in  the  Urals  by  G. 
Rose  in  1839,  and  named  in  honour  of  Coant  L.  A.  Pnoviky; 


at  tUa  locality  laige  cubes  occur  with  cakite  and  omgnetite  in 
a  chlorite-scbist.  Similar  crystals  are  also  found  in  talc-schist 
at  Zcrmatt  in  Switzerland.  The  mlcioscopic  octahedral 
crystals  are  characteristic  of  melilite  basalt  and  nepheUno 
biUMlt;  they  have  also  been  found  in  peridotite'  and  serpen- 
tine.    (L.  J.  S.) 

PER0W1IB»  JOHM  JAMBS  6TBWABT  (1833*1904),  English 
bishop,  waa  bom,  of  Huguenot  ancestry,  at  Burdwan,  Bengal, 
on  the  13th  of  March  1823.  He  was  educated  at  Norwich  and 
at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  bcoming  a  fellow  in  1849. 
After  holding  a  chair  in  Khig's  Collect,  London,  he  was  appointed 
vice-prindpal  at  St  David's  CoUege,  Lampeter  (1862-1871). 
In  1868  he  waa  Hulsean  lecturer,  taking  as  his  subject  /msmt- 
tality.  He  waa  elected  canon  of  LtendaS  in  1869,  dean  of  Pettr- 
borough  1878,  and  In  1891  succeeded  Henry  Philpotl  aa  bishop 
of  Worcester.  Perowne  waa  a  good  Hebrew  scholar  of  the  old 
type  and  sat  od  the  Old  Testameat  Revision  Committee.  He 
is  best  remembered  aa  the  general  editor  of  the  CcnMdit 
Bible  for  SehoeU  and  CoiUgts,  His  chief  works  were  a  Cmh 
wtentary  on  the  Book  of  Psalms  (a  vols.,  1864-1868)  and  a  life  of 
Bishop  Thirlwall  (1877-1878).  He  icatgned  his  see  jn  1901,  and 
died  on  the  6th  of  November  1904. 

PfiROZ  (Pdroser,  Priscus,  fr.  33;  PerauSt  Procop.  Pen.  i.  3 
and  Agath.  iv.  97;  the  modem  form  of  the  name  is  Fcros,  Finis* 
cf.  FzauzABAD),  Sassanid  king  of  Persia,  a.o.  457-484,  son  of 
Yaadegerd  II.  He  rebelled  against  his  brother  Homiad  UI., 
and  in  459  defeated  and  killed  him  with  the  help  of  the  Aphtha- 
lites,  or  White  Huns,  who  had  invaded  Bactria.  He  also  killed 
moat  of  hia  other  relatives,  and  persecuied  the  Christiana.  But 
he  favoured  the  introduction  of  Nestorianism,  in  opposition  to 
the  orthodox  creed  of  Bysantium.  With  the  Romans  be  maaih* 
tained  peace,  but  he  tried  to  keep  down  the  £phthalltes»  who 
b^an  to  conquer  eastern  Iran.  The  Romana  aupported  hida 
with  subsidies;  but  all  his  wars  were  disastrous.  Once  he  waa 
himself  taken  prisoner  and  had  to  give  his  son  Kavadh  aa  hoetage 
till  after  two  years  he  was  able  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom.  Then 
he  broke  the  treaty  again  and  advanced  with  a  large  army. 
But  he  lost  his  way  in  the  eastern  desert  and  perished  with 
his  whole  army  C4^)<  The  Ephthalitea  invaded  and  plun* 
dercd  Persia  for  two  years,  till  at  last  a  noble  Persian  from 
the  old  family  of  Karen,  Zarmihr  (or  Sokhra),  restored  soma 
degree  of  order.  He  rais^  Balasb,  a  brother  of  PCrte,  to  the 
throne.  (Eo.  MO 

PERPBNDICULAH  PERIOD,  the  term  grven  by  Thomas 
Rickman  to  the  third  period  of  Gothic  arddtecture  in  England* 
in  consequence  of  the  great  predominance  of  perpendicular  lines. 
In  the  later  examples  of  the  Decorated  period  the  onussaon  of 
the  circles  hi  the  tracery  bad  led  to  the  employment  of  curves 
of  double  curvature  which  developed  into  flamboyant  traoeiy* 
and  the  introduction  of  ikt  perpendicular  lines  was  a  reaction 
in  the  contrary  direction.  The  muUions  of  the  windows  (which 
are  sometimes  of  immense  size,  so  aa  to  give  greater  space  for 
the  stained  glass)  are  carried  up  into  the  ardi  mould  of  the 
windows,  and  the  \ippa  portioa  is  subdivided  by  additional 
muUions.  The  buttresses  and  wall  surface  are  likewise  divided 
up  into  vertical  panels.  The  doorways  are  frequmtly  endesed 
within  a  square  head  over  the  arch  mouldings,  the  ^Mmdiite 
being  fitted  with  quatrefoila  or  tracery.  Inaide  the  church  the 
triforium  disappears,  or  its  place  is  filled  with  panelling,  and 
greater  importance  is  given  to  the  clerestory  vdndows  which 
constitute  the  finest  features  in  the  churches  of  this  period.  The 
mouldings  are  flatter  and  leas  effective  than  those  of  the  earlier 
periods,  and  one  of  the  diief  characteristics  is  the  introduction 
of  large  elliptical  hollows.  The  fuwst  features  of  this  period  ant 
the  magnificent  timber  roofs,  such  aa  those  of  Westminster  Hall 
(t59S).  Christ  Church  Hall,  Oxford,  and  Crosby  HalL 

Thft  earliest  examples  of  the  Perpendicuhir  period,  dating 
from  1360,  are  found  at  Gloucester,  where  the  masons  of  thd 
cathedral  would  seem  to  have  been  far  in  advance  of  thoM  in 
other  towns.  Among  other  buildings  of  note  are  the  choir  and 
tower  of  York  Cathedral  (1389-2407);  the  nave  and  wcstera 
tnnscpU  of  Caatcrbuiy  Cathedral  (1378-14x1),  and  the  toiNi. 


t8o 


I»ERPENT-i-lT2Rl>ETUAL  MOTION 


(towards  iht  end  of  the  tsth  century);  New  College,  Oxford 
(i38o-i386)r  the  Beauchamp '  Chapel,  Warwick  (1381-1391); 
the  nave  and  aisles  of  Winchester  Cathedral  (1399-1419);  the 
transept  and  tower  of  Mcrton  College,  Oxford  (1434-1450); 
Manchester  Cathedral  (1433);  the  central  tower  of  Gloucester 
Cathedral  (1454-1457),  and  that  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford 
(1475-1480).  To  those  examples  should  be  added  the  to^rs 
at  Wrexham,  Coventry,  Evesham,  and  St  Maiy's  at  Taunton, 
the  6rst  being  of  exceptional  magnificence. 

PERPENT,  or  Parpent  Stones,  in  architecture,  bond  or 
**  through  stones,"  the  diarSPOi  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  long 
stones  going  right  through  waUs^  and  tying  them  tog^her  from 
face  to  face.  The  O.  Fr.  parpain,  modem  parpaiug,  from  which 
this  word  is  derived,  is  obscure  in  origin.  It  may  be  from  a 
supposed  Lat.  perpago,  perpaginist  formed  like  compago^  a 
joint,  from  the  root  of  panesref  to  fasten,  and  meaning  "  some- 
thing fastened  together,*'  or  from  some  popular  corruption 
of  Lst.  perpendiculum,  plummet  or  plumb-line  (^iV  or  pendere, 
to  bang),  referring  to  the  smooth  perpendicular  faces  of  the 
stone. 

-  PERPETUAL  MOTION*  or  PEEPSTxnnc  Mobile,  in  its  usual 
significance,  not  simply  a  machine  which  will  go  on  moving  for 
ever,  but  a  machine  which,  once  set  in  motion,  will  go  on  doing 
useful  work  without  drawing  on  any  external  source  of  energy,  or  a 
machine  which  in  every  complete  cycle  of  its  operation  will  give 
forth  more  energy  than  it  has  absorbed.  Briefly,  a  perpetual 
motion  usually  means  a  machine  which  will  create  energy. 

The  earlier  seekers  after  the  "  perpetuum  mobile  "  did  not 
tlways  ^predate  the  exact  nature  of  their  quest;  for  we  find 
among  their  ideals  a  dock  that  would  periodically  rewind  itself, 
and  thus  go  without  himian  interference  as  long  as  its  machinery 
would  last.  The  energy  created  by  such  a  machine  would 
simply  be  the  work  done  in  overcoming  the  friction  of  its  parts, 
so  that  its  projectors  might  be  held  merely  to  have  been  ignorant 
of  the  laws  of  friction  anid  of  the  dynamic  theory  of  heat.  Most 
of  the  perpetual  motionistS)  however,  had  more  practical  views, 
and  explicitly  dedared  the  object  of  their  inventions  to  be  the 
doing  of  useful  work,  such  as  raising  water,  grinding  com,  and 
so  on.  Like  the  exact  quadrature  of  the  cirde,  the  transmuta* 
tion  of  metals  and  other  famous  problems  of  antiquity,  the 
perpetual  nlotion  has  now  become  a  venerable  paradox.  Still, 
like  these  others,  it  retains  a  great  historical  interest.  Just  as 
some  of  the  most  interesting  branches  of  modem  pure  malhe^ 
matics  sprang  from  the  problem  of  stiuaring  the  drde,  as 
tihe  researches  of  the  aldmnists  devetopcd  into  the  sdence  of 
modem  chennstry,  so,  as  the  result  of  the  vain  search  after  the 
perpetual  motion,  there  grew  up  the  greatest  of  all  the  general- 
isations of  physical  sdence,  the  pdadple  of  the  oonservation  of 
energy. 

There  was  a  time  yirhtn  the  problem  of  the  perpetual  motion 
Was  one  worthy  of  the  attention  of  a  philosopher.  Before  that 
■nalyais  of  the  action  of  ordinary  machines  which  kd  to  the  laws 
of  dynamics,  and  the  discussion  of  the  dynamical  interdependence 
of  natural  phenomena  whidi  accompanied  the  establishment  of 
the  dynamical  theory  of  heat,  there  was  nothing  plainly  unreason* 
able  in  the  idea  that  work  might  be  done  by  the  mere  concatena- 
tion of  machinery.  It  had  not  then  been  proved  that  energy  is 
uncreatable  and  indestractiUc  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature; 
even  now  that  proof  has  only  been  ^vcn  by  induction  from  long 
observation  of  facts.  There  was  «  time  when  wise  men  believed 
that  a  spirit,  whose  maintenance  would  cost  nothing,  could  by 
magic  ait  be  summoned  from  the  deep  to  do  his  master's  work; 
and  it  was  just  as  rcasonabh;  to  suppose  that  a  stracture  of  wood, 
brass  and  iron  could  be  found  to  work  under  like  cxmditions. 
The  disproof  is  In  both  cases  alike.'  No  such  spirit  has  ever 
existed,  save  in  the  imagination  of  his  describer,  and  no  such 
machine  has  ever  been  known  to  act,  save  in  the  fancyof  its 
inventor. 

The  prindple  of  the  conservation  of  energy,  which  In  one 
sense  is  sim^y  denial  of  the  possibility  of  a  perpetual  motieni 
reMs  on  facts  drawn  from  every  braach  of  physic^  sdence;  and, 
allbaugh  its  full  establisbraent  only  dates  fiom.  the  middle  ol  tJie 


19th  century,  yet  so  numerous  are  the  eaaes  m  which  it  bas  beem 
tested,  so  various  the  deductions  from  it  that  have  been  pioved 
to  accord  with  experience,  that  it  is  now  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best-established  laws  of  nature.  Consequently,  on  any  oiie  who 
calls  it  in  question  is  thrown  the  burden  of  proving  his  case.  If 
any  nuichine  were  produced  whose  source  of  cneigy  could  not  at 
once  be  traced,  a  man  of  science  (complete  freedom  of  investi* 
gation  being  supposed)  would  in  the  first  place  try  to  trace  its 
power  to  some  hidden  source  of  a  kind  already  known;  or  in  the 
last  resort  he  would  seek  for  a  source  of  energy  of  a  new  kind  and 
give  it  a  new  name.  Any.  assertion,  of  creation  of  energy  by 
means  of  a  mere  machine  would  have  to  be  aatheutlcated  in 
many  instances,  and  established  by  long  investigation,  before  it 
could  be  recdved  in  modem  science.  The  case  ia  precisely  as 
with  the  law  of  gravitation;  if  any  ^parent  exception  to  ths 
were  observed  in  the  case  of  some  heavenly  body»  astranooicis, 
instead  of  denying  the  law,  would  immediatdy  seek  to  eipiam 
the  occurrence  by  a  wider  application  of  it,  say  by  induding  in 
their  calculations  the  effect  of  some  disturbing  bodj  Mtberto 
aeglecied.  If  a  man  likes  to  indulge  the  notion  that,  after  all, 
an  exception  to  the  law  of  the  oonservatkm  of  energy  may  be 
found,  and,  provided  he  submits  his  idea  to  the  test  of  esperimeat 
at  his  own  charges  without  annoying  his  ndghbours,  all  that  can 
be  said  is  that  he  is  engaged  in  an  unpromising  enterprise.  The 
case  is  otherwise  'with  the  projector  who  comes  forward  with 
some  machine  which  claims  by  the  mere  ingenuity  of  its  cooui- 
vance  to  multiply  the  energy  supplied  to  it  from  some  <tf  the 
ordinary  sources  of  nature  and  sets  to  work  to  pester  scientific 
men  to  examine  his  supposed  discovery,  or  attempts  thorewith 
to  induce  the  credulous  to  waste  thdr  money.  This  is  by  far 
the  largest  class  of  perpetual-motion-mongers  nowadays.  The 
interest  of  such  cases  is  that  attaching  to  the  morbid  anatooy 
of  the  human  mind.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  feature  about 
them  is  the  woful  sameness  of  the  symptoms  of  their  madness. 
As  a  body  perpetual-motion  seekers  are  ambitious,  lovers  of  the 
short  path  to  wealth  and  fame,  but  wholly  svpofidal.  Tbew 
inventions  are  very  rarely  characterized,  even  by  mechanical 
ingenuity.  Sometimes  indeed  the  inventor  has  sinqily  bewildered 
himself  by  the  complexity  of  his  device;  but  in  moat  cases  the 
machines  of  the  perpetual  motionist  are  of  child-like  simplidty, 
remarkable  only  for  the  extraordinary  assertions  of  the  inventor 
concerning  them.  Wealth  -of  ideas  there  is  none;  simply  asser- 
tions that  such  and  such  a  machine  solves  the  problem,  althoi^ 
an  identical  contrivance  has  been  shown  to  do  no  such  thing  by 
the  brutal  test  of  standing  still  in  the  hands  of  many  previoas 
inventors.  Hosts  of  the  seekers  for  the  perpetual  motion  have 
attacked  their  insoluble  problem  with  less  than  a  schoolboy  s 
share  of  the  requisite  knom^edge;  and  their  confidence  as  a  nik 
is  id  proportion  to  their  ignorance.  Very  often  they  get  no 
furtlier  than  a  mere  prospectus,  on  the  strength  of  which  they 
claim  some  imaginary  reward,  or  offer  their  predpus  discovciy 
for  sale;  sometimes  they  get  the  length  of  a  model  which  wants 
only  the  last  perfection  (already  in  the  inventor's  brain)  to 
solve  the  great  problem;  sometimes  fraud  is  made  to  supfJy  the 
motive  power  which  thdr  real  or  pretended  effort  have  failed  to 
discover. 

It  was  no  doubt  the  barefaced  fallacy  of  most  o(  the  plans  for 
perpetual  motion  that  led  the  majority  of  sdentific  men  to 
conclude  at  a  veiy  early  date  that  the  "perpetuum  mobile" 
was  an  impossibility.  We  find  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sdenccs 
refusing,  as  early  as  1775,  to  receive  schemes  for  the  perpetual 
motion,  whidi  they  class  with  solutions  of  the  duplication  of  the 
cube,  the  triscction  of  an  angle  and  the  quadrature  of  the  circle. 
Stcvinus  and  Leibnitz  seem  to  have  regarded  its  impossibility  as 
axiomatic;  and  Newton  at  the  beginning  of  his  PHucipia  states, 
so  far  as  ordinary  pieehanics  are  concerned,  a  prindple  which 
virtually  amounts  to  the  same  thing. 

The  famous  proof  of  P.  De  U  Hire  simply  rdcfs  to  some  cf 
the  more  common  gravitati<mal  perpetual  motions.  The  truth 
is,  as  we  have  said  already,  that,  if  proof  is  to  be  given,  or 
considered  necessary,  it  must  proceed  by  induction  irom  aB 
physical'  phunnticna, 


PERPETUAL  MOTION 


iSi 


Pig.  X. 


It  iTOtiM  tetyt  no  lueful  inittMse  here  to  give  an  exhausihre 
historical  account  *  oC  the  vagaries  of  mankind  in  pursuit  of  the 
*'  peqietuuin  mobiie/'  The  reader  mfky  refer  to  Henry  Dircks's 
Perpditum  Mohih  (a  voIa.»  x86i  and  i37o)»  from  which,  for 
the  most  part,  we  telect  the  following  facts. 

By  fmr  the  .most  numerous  class  of  perpetual  motions  is  that 
which  seeks  to*  utilise  the  action  of  gravity  upon  rigid  solids.  We 
have  not  read  of  any  actual  proposal  of  the  land,  but  the  most 
obvious  thing  to  imagine  in  this  way  would  be  to  procute  some 
substance  whKh  intercepu  gravitational  attraction..  If  this  could 
be  had.  then,  by  introducing  a  plate  of  it  underneath  a  body  while 
ic  was  raised,  we  coukl  elevate  the  body  without  doing  work; 
then,  removing  the  plate,  we  could  alk>w  the  body  to  fail  and  do 
work;  eccentrics  or  other  imposing  device  being  added  to  move 
the  gravitation  intercepter,  behold  a  perpetual  motion  complete  I 
The  great  difficulty  is  that  no  one  has  found  the  proper  material 
for  an  intercepter. 

Fig.  1  represents  one  of  the  inost  ancient  and  oftencst-nepeated 
of  gravitational  perpetual  motions.     The  idea  is  that  the  balls 

rolling  in  the  compartments 
between  the  felloe  and  the  rim 
of  the  wheel  will,  on  the  whole, 
so  comport  themselves  that  the 
moment  about  the  centre  of 
those  on  the  descending  side 
exceeds  the  moment  of  those  on 
the  ascending  side.  Endless 
devices,  such  as  curved  spokes, 
levers  with  elbow-joints,  eccen- 
trics, &c,  have  been  proposed 
for  effecting  this  impossibility. 
The  student  of  dynamics  at 
once  convinces  himself  that  no 
machinery  caa  effect  any  such 
result:  because  if  we  give  the 
wheel  a  complete  turn,  so  that 
each  ball  returns  to  its  original 
position,  the  whole  work  done  by  the  ball  will,  at  the  mosti 
•qual  that  done  on  it.  We  know  that  if  the  laws  of  motion  be 
true,  in  each  step  the  Idnetic  energy  given  to  the  whole  system  of 
wheel  and  balls  is  equal  to  that  taken  from  the  potential  energy 
of  the  balls  less  what  is  dlsdpnted  in  the  form  of  heat  by  frictkmal 
forces,  or  vice,  versa,  if  the  wheel  and  balls  be  tosing  kinetic 
energy — save  that  the  friction  in  both  cases  leads  to  dissipation. 
So  that,  whatever  the  system  may  lose,  it  can.  after  it  is  left  to  itself, 
never  gain  energy  during  its-  motion. 

•  The  two  most  famous  peipetual  motions  of  history,  vis.  the 
wheels  of  the  marquis  of  Worcester  (d.  1667)  and  of  GninciUor 
Ortfyraeus,  were  probably  of  this  type.  The  marquis  of  Worcester 
gives  the  following  account  of  his  macnine  in  his  Century  of  Inventums 
(art.  56): — 

**  To  provide  and  make  that  all  the  Weights  of  the  descending  side 
of  a  Wheel  shall  be  perpetually  further  from  the  Centre  than  those 
of  the  mountinff  side,  and  yet  equal  in  number  and  heft  to  one  side 
as  the  other.  A  roost  iociedible  thing,  if  not  seen  but  tried  before 
(He  late  king  (of  blessed  memory)  in  the  Tewer,  by  my  dir^ions, 
two  Extimordinary  Embassadors  accomponyine  His  Majesty,  and 
the  Duke  of  Rickmand,  and  Duke  Humiiton,  witn  moat  of  the  Cburt. 
attending  him.    The  Wheel  was  is.  Foot  over,  and  4a  Weights  of 

?>.  pounds  apiece.  Sir  William  Balfore,  then  Lieutenant  of  the 
ffwrr,  can  justify  h,  with  several  others*.  They  all  saw  that  no 
sooner  these  great  Weights  passed  the  Dlameter-Iine  of  the  lower 
nde,  but  they  hung  a  foot  further  from  the  Centre,  nor  no  sooner 
passed  the  fjiameter-line  of  the  upper  side  but  they  hung  a  foot 
nearer.    Be  pleased  to  judge  the  consequence." 

*  We  may  here  notice,  so  far  as  more  recent  times  are  concerned, 
the  claim  01  an  American  enthusiast,  who,  haviog  worked  a  Haropson 

Sint  for  liquefving  air,  stated  that  3  tt>  of  liquid  air  suflSced  to 
uefy  ten,  and  01  these  ten  seven  could  be  employed  as  a  source 
motive  power,  whilst  the  remaining  three  could  be  utilised  in  the 
production  qf  another  10  lb  of  the  liquid  gas.  There  was  thus 
available  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  energy  1  The  absurd!^  of 
the  proposition  is  obvious  to  any  one  acquainted  with  the  laws 
of  thermodynamics.  Of  more  in^onest  is  the  radium  clock  devised 
by  the  Hon.  R.  J.  Strutt.  .This  consists  of  a  vacuum  vessel  from 
the  top  of  which  depends  a  short  tube  containing  a  fragment  of  a 
radiofctive  substance.  At  the  lower  end  of  this  tube  there  are 
two  gold  leaves  as  in  an  electroscope.  Fused  into  the  sides  of  the 
vacuum  vessel  at  points  where  the  extended  gold  leaves  touch 
the  glass  are  two  platinum  wires,  the  outer  ends  ef  which  are 
earthed.  The  "  dock  "  acts  as  follows.  The  mdm-active  substance 
emits  a  preponderating  number  of  positively  electrified  particles, 
so  that  the  leaves  become  chsrged  and  hence  extended.  On  conuct 
with  the  wires  fused  into  the  vessel,  this  chaige  is  conducted  away 
and  the  leaves  fall  together.  The  process  is  then  repeated,  and 
will  continue  until  all  the  energy  of  the  raJium  has  been  dissipated. 
This  period  is  extremely  long,  (or  1000  yeara  must  elapse  Wore 
even  half  the  radium  has  disappeared.— {£jd4 


Ofeffyneus  (whoso  real  naino  was  Jobana  Enst  Elias  Besslcr) 
(1680-174S)  also  obtained  distinguished  patronage  for  his  invention. 
His  last  wheel,  for  he  appears  to  have  coastructed  more  than  onci 
was  IS  ft.  In  diameter  and  I  ft.  a  in.  broad;  it  consisted  of  a 
light  (rasnewock  of  wood,  covered  in  with  oilcloth  so  that  the 
interior  was  concealed,  and  was  mounted  on  an  axle  whkb  had  no 
visible  connexion  with  any  external  mover.  .It  was  examined 
and  approved  of  by  the  landgrave  of  Hcsse-Cassd,  in  whose  castle 
at  Weisseastein  it  is  saUl  to  nave  gone  for  ei^t  weeks  in  a  scaled 
rooou  The  most  remarkable  thing  about  this  machine  is  that  it 
evidently  imposed  upon  the  mathematician  W.  T.  'sCravesandc, 
who  wrote  a  letter  to  Newton  giving  an  account  01  his  examination 
of  Orffyraeus's  wheel  undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  landgrave* 
wherein  he  professes  himself  dissatisfied  with  the  proofs  theretofore 
giv«a  of  the  impossibility  of  perpetual  motion,  and , indicates  his 
opinion  that  the  invention  of  Orifyraeus  is  worthy  of  investigation. 
He  himself,  however,  was  not  allowed  to  examine  the  interior  of 
the  wheel.  The  inventor  seems  to  have  destroyed  it  himself.  One 
stfvy  is  that  he  did  so  im  account  of  difficulties  witK  the  landgrave's 
government  as  to  a  licenee  for  it;  another  that  he  was  annoyed  at 
the  examination  by  'sCravesande,  and  wrote  on  the*  wall  of  the  room 
containing  the  fragments  of  his  model  that  he  had  destroyed  it 
because  of  the  impertinent  curiosity  of  'sCravesende. 

The  overbalaAcingwhesl  perpetual  motkin  seems  to  he  as  old  as 
the  x^th  century.  Dircks  <|uotes  an  account  of  an  Invention  by 
Wilars  <{e  Honocort,  an  architect  whose  sketchbook  is  still  preserved 
m  the  Ecoles  des  Chartes  at  Paris.  Oe  Honeoort  says,  *"  Many  a 
time  have  skilful  workmen  tried  to  contrive  a  wheel  that  nail 
turn  of  itself;  hero  is  a  way  to  do  it  by  means  of  an  unei^  number  of 
mallets,  or  by  quickulver."  He  thereupon  gives  a  rude  sketch 
of  a  wheel  with  mallets  jointed  to  its  circumference.  It  would 
appear  from  some  of  the  manuscripts  of  Leonardo  da  Vind  that  he 
had  worked  with  similar  notions. 

Another  scheme  of  the  perpetual  motionist  is  a  water-wheel 
which  shall  feed  its  ^own  mill-stream.  This  notion  is  probably 
as  old  as  the  first  miller  who  experienced  the  difficulty  of  a  dry 
season.  One  form  is  figured  in  the  HaUumatieal  Mark  (1648)  of 
Bishop  Wilkins  (1614-1673);  the  esKutial  part  of  it  is  the  water- 
screw  of  Archimedes,  which  appcmns  in  many  of  the  earlier  machines 
of  this  cUss.  Some  of  the  later  ones  dispense  with  even  the 
subtlety  of  the  water-screw,  and  boldly  repeesent  a  water-wheel 
pumping  the  water  upon  its  own  buckets. 

Perpetual  motions  founded  on  the  bydrastatical  paradox  are  not 
uncoimnon;  Denis  Papin  exposes  one  of  these  in  toe  PkUosophicai 
Transactions  for  1685.  The  most  naive 
of  these  devices  is  that  illustrated  in  fig.  a, 
the  idea  of  which  is  that  the  larger 
quantity  of  water  in  the  wider  part  of  the 
vessel  weighing;  nu>re  will  overbalance  the 
smaller  quantity  in  the  narrower  part,  so 
that  the  water  will  run  over  at  C  and  so 
on  continually. 

CapUlary  attfactkm  has  also  been  m, 
favourite  odd  for  the  vain  quest;  for,  if 
by  capillary  action  fluids  can  be  made  to 
disobey  the  law  of  never  riang  above 
their  own  levd,,  wliat  to  easy  as  thus  to 
produce  a  continual  ascent  and  overflow, 
and  thus  perpetual  motion?  Various  schemes  of  this  kind,  in- 
volving an  endless  band  which  should  raise  snore  water  by  ita 
capilbry  action  on  one  side  than  on  the  other^  have  beeri  proposed.- 
The  most  celebrated  is  that  of  Sir  WDIiam  COnmve  (1772-1828).- 
EFG  (fig.  5)  is  an  inclined  plane  over  pulleys;  at  the  top  and  bottom 
travels  an  endless  band  of  sponge,  abed,  and  over  this  again  an 
endless  band  of  heavy  weights  jointed  together.  The  whole  stands 
over  the  surface  of  still  water.  The  capillary  action  raises  the 
water  in  ab,  whereas  the 
same  thing  cannot  hsp* 
pen  in  the  part  a4f ,  since 
the  weights  squoeie  the 
water  out.  Hence,  inch 
for  inch,  ab  is  heavier 
than  ad;  but  we  know 
that  if  ab  were  only  just 
as  heavy  inch  for  inch 
as  ad  there  would  be 
equilibrium,iftheheavy 
cnain  be  also  uniform ; 
therefore  the  extra 
weight  of  ab  will  cause 
the  chain  to  move  round 
in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow,  and  this  will  go 
on  continually. 
.  The  more  recondite 
vehicles  of  energy,  such  as  electridty  and  magnetism,  are  moit 
seldom  drawn  upon  by  perpetual-motion  inventora  than  might 
perhaps  be  expected.  William  Gilbert,  in  his  treatise  Z>s 
Afagfisfff,  alludes  to  some  of  them,  and  Bishop  Wilkins  mentions 
among   othen  a  machine   *'  wherdn  a  loadstone  is  so  disposed 


FB3.2. 


PERPETUITY- 

II  ncMntd  piBM  ■  bMtt  ef  sucl, 


-PERPIGNAN 


to  lad  IhrnHfli  •> 
the  pUec  wbencc 
the  ^chHHie  wiU 


Ttie  fact  ttttt  vcreent  do  exitl  wheieby  dectticaL  and  magneiic 
action  on  be  nil  of!  "ould  Kira  lo  open  a  door  for  ilit  petpHu*!- 
molion  iRlier.  UnfunuiuiEly  ihe  biinEini  up  and  rcmovinE  of 
lliMe  actmii  inwolv»  in  all  aiei  jint  that  EBin  or  low  of  wort  »hicli 

of  Unfritiiiaw  called  Spcnce  piHHded  tint  he  had 'found  a  black 
•ubjtanoe  (hich  intcmpied  mnnHki  aitianion  and  rrpultion. 
and  he  produced  two  nuchina  wfiich  were  moved,  ai  he  aiierttd, 
^  the  atency  of  permanent  manim,  thanlci  to  the  black  (ubnanct. 
iV  fraud  vu  fpeedilr  Bposed.  but  ii  <•  wonhy  oi  murk  thai 
Sh  David  Brewiter  thouihl  the  thine  wocih  mnnionmi  m  a  MtR 
....  ._..,......■       ^...,  -hn,lniK«,te,"thatT.lrPlayla(r 


tixiaAnnaiti'iiickimuCf'. 

tad  Captaifl  Kater  have  inapected 


3.£ft 


The  p 


tt  maffneia.    He  foTEeii  Ihe  d 


)c  worked  by  the  agency 


"1^31  .™™.  .,-.  ...-  — 

I  /f^       ^VA.  bloclM  A  ard  B  from  llio  upper  Left  and 

W/        .          \*.  1™"  right  quadtjmi  of  the  nft  iron 

■/          *          V  wheel  vl^  -hsh  conKquenily  ii  attracted 

j           Q           I  round  in  Ihe  umc  diiaclion  by  both  M 

\                       /I  One  mote  page  from  ihi>  chaptfJ  ■!- 

V                 /I  book  oi  human  iQlly,  the  .utl» 

^;s.,^^X^I  Cimont  Jean   Bemoulli  the  cidf 

^==-^     I "  iraniUM  hit  Latin,  ■■  (nr  ■>  pwoil 

I        a    I  modem  phrafcokwy^     Intbe  fir 


phrafcokwy^ 

I  L,  the  Miht  of  et^inpoadecaiLnj 

of  one  fluid,  contained  in  the  vbm 
Lt  EF  of  the  other  Ikiuid,  whkh  i: 

la  EF  in  a  gnater  ratio  ihin  I 


(5)  it  it  pDuible  t. 
f  be  aeparated  agai: 
,. (tayi  BernDnUi] 


and  let  th 


toiciher  (which  may  be  had  l>y  hyp.  a), 

--••-'  the  iitio  of  their  demiiiea  be 

Tmined,  and  be  (he  heavier  to 

XT  a>  G  to  U.  then  with  the 

kt  the  me  AD  be  filled  up 

ibr  EF,  open 

luch  a  leneth 


that  AC;  EF>  Jl 
orifice  F  of  thii 


nuterial  Kparating  the  lighter  Kquid 

rrom  the  h^vier  fwhich  .^y  al»  be 

had  by  hyp..s):  no- Jet  the  tube  thua 

tbe^wl  CD ;  1  uy  thai  the  Nquid  wiU 

continually  aicend  ihniuEh  the  orifce 

F.O.J. 

F  of  the  lube  la  covered  by  the  filter 

■rJ  which  teamtm  the  liihter  limikl  Inmi  the  heavier 

ii  fona«  that,  if  ih^  tuba  be  immened  to  the  bottom  of  the 

he  li(hiei  liqwd  alone  which  ia  mined  with  Ihe  heavin 

tiS^\t 

_tyinf 

the  filler  into  thetube,  and  that,  too,  U^ 
but  una  by  conatr.     AC:tF>iL:C+L 

AC:EF 

it  neceaiarily  fallow. 

(by  hvp.  3)  that  the  fchter  liauid  will  flow 

ovtrfy 

the  orilice  E  iBio  the  vend  below,  and  there  will  meet  the 

heavie/ 

and  be  aaai 

miud  with  It:  and  it  will  ihen  peneiiaie 

the  Rhcr,  niin  ata 

nd  the  lube,  and  be  a  tecond  lime  driven 

&^oI™'?Se 

rtfiee.    Thu.,  Ihtfdoie.  wfll  the  flow  be  con 

Bcmo 

uUi  then  procecdi  to  apply  Ihii  Iheory  to  e<plain  the  per 

pMualr 

iie«lw«t£t 

n  had  taMy  .mibiiliil  to 


rsssjs 


(C.  Ch.) 


PEKPnUITV  (Lai.  ptrptliaa,  contiououi).  the  atate  of  beioc 
perpetual  or  CDfUinuingforan  Lllde&^itclimc;iniAnrLll«  tyio^-np 
<if  an  alale  [or  a  lengllienai  peritKf,  for  the  purpoao  of  prertbliac 
or  restriclirg  alienalbn.  Aa  being  oppoKd  Lo  the  fhlerest  of 
ibc  atatc  and  Iniiividuai  cfiort,  the  creation  of  perpetuities  hai 
been  conaiderably  cunaiJed,  and  the  itilc  againit  pcfpetuktiea  in 
ihn  United  Kingdom  now  (oiWdi  the  making  of  an  encutaiy 
Interest  unless  be^nning  within  the  period  of  any  £nd  mimbcT  of 
caiating  Uvea  and  an  additional  period  of  Iwaaty^nu  yean  (with 
a  fen  montha  added,  if  nocoaary,  for  the  penod  ol  gotaUon). 
The  rule  appliea  to  diipoaiiJont  oF  peaonal  propcity  (ace 
AccmtULATton)  13  well  aa  of  real  piopetty.    That  ue  cenaa 

and  to  charitable  uaea^  and  alio  in  the  caae  of  a  perpetuity  ^tAled 
by  act  of  parliament  (i.g.  the  estate  of  BIcnbdm,  acttled  oa 
Ihe  dullE  of  Mariborcugh,  and  Sinlhfieldaaya  on  Ihe  duke  ol 
WeUtogron}.  In  tbe  United  Siatei  the  Engluh  comnon-lav  rale 
againat  petpetuillea  oblaiot  in  many  of  the  ilato;  in  othen  il 
h^  been  replaced  or  reinforced  by  atatploiy  nilea  (see  Gray  an 
Alinalicn,  1  41),     Chaiitita  may  be  estaUiahed  in  papetoity, 

reaKnable  lime,  tg.  foi  loeycaia  (WttJru^v,  if  ami,  63  Com. 
Rep.  195;  jg  Amcr.  St,  Rep.  n6).  The  gencRd  UndcBKT'  <rf 
American  Itsillation  ia  to  favour  tyia(  up  catatei  to  >  gtotcr 
exLeiLt  tiian  waa  Formerly  approved, 

PERPIGHAH,  ■  town  of  aouih-wsterp  FruKa,  capital  ol  the 
depanmcnl  of  Pytfnfas-Orienlalca,  on  the  ivht  bank  of  the  TS, 
7  m.  iTOm  Ihe  MedJIenancan  and  41  m.  S.  by  W,  ol  Naibocae 
by  ralL  Fop.  (1Q06),  town,  ji.GSj;  commune,  jS.SpS.  The 
nortb-wcat  quarler  sf  Ihe  lam  ia  tnvoaed  by  the  Baaae,  a 
tributary  ol  Ihe  Til,  while  to  Ihe  sjulh  it  li  overiookecl  by  a 
eiiidd  eodoalng  a  caalle  (13th  century)  of  the  kingt  of  Hajon*. 
The  chapel  ia  rcmarimble  aa  being  a  mixture  of  the  Ropuneaqiu^ 
Pointed  and  Mooriah  atyfca.  Hie  ramparts  aumuBdiitl  the 
ciladcl  are  Ihe  worlt  ol  Louis  XL,  Chailcs  V.  and  Vauban.  The 
actdplurcs  and  aryatidea  slill  to  be  wen  on  the  gllewty  of  Ibt 
ciiadta  were  placed  there  by  the  duke  ol  Atva.  The  cathednl 
of  St  Jean  wa>  begun  in  1314  and  Gniilied  in  1J09.  The  n>e« 
notewonfay  lealiitie  in  Ihe  building  ia  an  immenae  reiedoa  ol 
white  marl>Ie  (tally  iTlh  cenlui})  by  Banholomew  Solei  cl 
Barcelona. 

In  the  noilli  of  tlie  (own  eommandiBg  the  gateway  of  KoUr- 
Dams  (itSi)  then  itanda  a  cnrioui  mathicolaled  (tnmcbiiU 
known  al  the  Caaliilet  (T4tb  and  ijth  centuries),  now  uaed  ai  a 
piiaon.  The  buildings  ol  the  old  onivenlly  (iSlb  ccnttuy) 
contain  Ihe  library  and  ibc  muaeuo,  the  Ittlct  posaming  tba 
£nt  photographic  proofs  eiecuted  by  Daguerre  and  a  cotiectian 
of  sculplurea  and  paintinga.  Statues  ol  Francois  Ajago,  the 
astronomer,  and  Uyacintbc  Rigoud,  tbe  punter,  lUnd  in  thi 

Perpignan  is  a  forlHied  place  of  tlie  first  das,  and  (eat  of  a 
prefect,  a  biihop  and  a  court  of  assiies,  and  has  tribunab  of  Cnt 
instaace  and  ol  commtrccv  a  cbainbei  of  comnerce,  a  biaacb  ol 
the  Bank  of  Fiance,  a  communal  college  fcr  boya,  a  acbool  of 
music  and  Inining  colleges  for  both  aeiea.  The  higher  tiibnna] 
ol  Andoyic  ails  at  Peipignan.  Trade  ia  in  vine,  iron,  wool,  oi^ 
corks  anil  leather, 

Perpignan  dales  at  least  tiom  the  lotfa  century.  In  tba  tilh 
and  iiih  ceniuriea  It  was  a  capital  of  the  counts  of  Rousilkin, 
from  nhum  Itpaascdin  1171 10  the  Ungs  of  Araaon.  PhiUpihe 
Bold,  king  of  FrajKe,  died  ibere  in  iiB5,Mbe  wuretufniq^iroia 
^^agon.     At  that  time  ic  bdongcd 


PERQUISITE—PERRON,  K  C. 


i«3 


Ua8»  of  An0OB,  wh»  In  ij49f«UKl«A  •  vSwaAty  tt  Bopignaii. 
Wbm  Look  XL  occupied  RouHiUon  as  security  lor  money 
advaaced  by  Inm  to  the  kiag  of  Angan,  Pei|ttgMa  resisted  the 
Fxcnch  anns  for  a  oomidecable  time,  and  only  yielded  through 
sticiB  of  iamiiio  (March  is,  X475)-  Rouwlloa  was  restored  to 
Angon  by  Charles  Vm.  aad  Peipignaii  was  again  besieged  ia 
154a  Under  Frauds  I.,  but  without  suecen^  Later  on,  however, 
the  inhabitants,  angered  by  the  tyranny  and  cruelty  of  the 
Spanish  govcmor,  sunrcadefcd  the  town  to  Loob  XUL  Tlic 
citadel  held  out  until  the  9th  of  September  1649,  aad  the  place 
has  ever  since  belonged  to  France,  td  which  it  was  formally  ceded 
by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659).  In  1602  the  bishopric  of 
Elnc  was  tiusf erred  to  Feipignan. 

See  P.  Vibal.  Perpipmm  depmis  Jo  mrittmes  juatm*  d  nor  jmn 
(PariSk  189S). 

PBBaUiaifB  (Lat.  p€rgui$Uum,  that  which  has  been  aoquhcd 
by  careful  search;  perqmHn,  to  seaidi  dihgeatly),  a  term  properiy 
used  of  the  piofiu  which  accrue  to  the.holder  of  an  of&ce  over  and 
above  the  regdar  emoluments;  abo,  in  law,  the  casual  profits, 
luch  as  accrue  by  heriots,  fines,  reliefs,  &c^  to  a  brd  of  a  manor 
above  the  yearly  revenue  from  the  copyfaolda.  The  word  is 
used  generally  of  the  casual  profits  flowed  by  custom  to 
aervaata  or  other  cn4>loy6s  from  supcrfloous  articles  v^ich  the 
employer  has  enjoyed  the  use  of  or  which  are  supposed  not  to  be 
needed* 

FSRBAULT»  CHARLB8  <x6a8"i703),  French  author,  was 
bom  in  Paris  on  the  laih  d  January  1628.  His  fatherr  Pierve 
Pemult,  was  a  barrister,  all  of  whose  four  sons  were  men  of  lome 
distOKtion:  CUude  (x6i3«*x688>,  the  second,  was  by  profession 
a  phyaidaaf  but  became  the  architect  of  the  Louvre,  and  irans- 
Ijited  Vitruvius  (1673).  Charles  was  brought  up  at  the  ColUge  de 
Beauvais,  until  he  chose  to  quarrel  wKh  hfo  masters,  after  which 
he  was  allowed  to  follow  his  own  bent  in  the  way  of  study.  He 
took  his  degree  of  Ikeneit  en  droit  at  Orleans  in  1651,  and  was 
almoot  idunediately  called  to  the  Purls  bar,  where,  however,  he 
practised  for  a  very  short  time.  Li  1634  lus  brother  becaoM 
tecciver-^neral  of  Paris,  and  made  Charles  his  clerk.  After 
ncariy  ten  years  of  this  employment  he  was,  in  1663,  chosen  by 
Colbert  as  bis  secretary  to  assist  and  advise  him  hi  matters 
relating  to  the  arts  and  sciences,  not  forgetting  literature.  He 
waa  coaiMller-gcocral  of  the  department  of  public  works,  member 
of  ttke  commisrion  that  afterwards  developed  iato  the  AtadfmU 
dts  instnpiwnit  and  in  1671  he  was  admittedto  the  Acaiimu 
frauQaiM,  Pcftault  justified  his  election  ia  several  ways.  One 
was  the  orderly  anangement  of  the  business  affairs  of  the 
Academy,  another  was  the  suggestioil  of  the  custom  df  holding 
public  Jteaca  for  the  reception  of  candidatcfl.  Colbert's  death  in 
1683  put  an  end  to  Pemult*s  o0kial  career,  and  he  then  gave 
hinaelf  up  to  Hteratuxe,  beginning  with  Saint  Faulin  Mqne  de 
Nile,  avee  une  ipUre  ckritienne  atr  la  piniUnce,  tt  tme  ode  anx 
nmtoeanx  tmnertis*  The  famous  dispute  of  the  andcnts  and 
modems  arose  from  a  poem  on  the  SUcU  de  Louis  te  Grand  ( 1687), 
lead  before  the  Academy  by  Perrault,  on  which  Boileau  com- 
mented in  violent  terms.  Perrault  had  ideas  and  a  will  of  his 
own,  and  he  published  (4  vols.,  1688-1696)  his  ParaUkleda 
aarieai  tt  det  modemes.  The  controversy  that  followed  in  its 
tialo  raged  holly  in  France,  passed  thence  to  England,  and  in 
the  days  of  Antoine  Uoudart  de  la  Motte  and  F^nelon  broke 
out  again  in  the  country  of  its  Origin.  As  far  as  Permolt  is 
ooBoencd  he  was  inferior  to  hta  adversaries  in  learning,  bat 
decidedly  tUxpttUA  to  them  in  wit  and  politeness. 

It  is  not  known  what  drew  Perrault  to  the  composition  of  the 
only  works  of  his  which  are  still  read,  but  the  taste  for  fairy 
stories  and  Oriental  Ulcs  at  couK  is  noliced  by  Mme  de  Sevjg&€ 
in  1676,  and  at  the  end  of  the  tfth  century  gave  rise  to  the  fairy 
ilociea  of  MDe  L*H6riticr  de  Villaodon,  whose  Bigamtrts  ingim- 
CMMff  appeared  in  1696,  of  Mme  d'Aulnoy  and  others^  while 
AatofaK  Galtand's  tramflation  of  the  Tkausand-and-One  Nif^s 
belongi  to  the  eariy  yean  of  the  tSth  century.  The  first  of 
Pemnh*s  contes,  CrisMdist  which  is  in  verse,  appeared  in  1691, 
aad  was  reprinted  with  Ptam  d^dnt  and  Les  Scukaita  riditulett 
•bo  in  veiie,  ia  a  Remiil  da  pikat  cttnniMi— published  al  the 


Hague  ia  r694.  Bdt  PMadIi  was  no  poet,  and  the  merit  of 
these  pieces  is  entirely  obscured  by  that  of  the  prase  tales.  La 
Balk  «tt  bats  darmami,  PtUt  ckaperon  rautfi.  La  Bathe  bteuet  Le 
Chat  boM,  Les  Pies,  CendriiUm,  Riquet  d  ta  kouppe  and  Le  PdU 
pameett  which  appeared  in  a  volume  with  1697  en  the  title-page, 
and  with  the  general  title  of  Histaves  ou  conies  du  tamps  paai 
OKC  des  moraiiUs,  The  frontispiece  contained  a  placard  with 
the  inscription,  CaHtes  da  ma  mire  Paia.  In  1876  Paul  Lacroiz 
altrihttted  the  stories  to  the  authorship  of  Petrault's  son,  P. 
Danaancour,  who  signed  the  dedication,  and  was  then,  according 
io  Lacroix,  nineteen  yeu%  old*  Andrew  lAng  has  suggested 
that  the  son  was  a  chiU,  not  a  young  man  of  nineteen,  that  he 
really  wrote  down  the  stories  as  he  heard  them,  and  that  they 
were  then  edited  by  his  father.  This  sopposiUoa  would  explain 
the  mixture  of  naivety  and  satire  in  the  text.  Perrault's  other 
works  include  his  Mimoires  (in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his 
brother  Claude),  giving  much  valuable  information  on  Colbert's 
ministry;  an  EtUide  iraaestie  written  in  collaboration  with  his 
two  brothers,  and  Les  Hommes  iUtulres  qui  out  pant  en  Prance 
pendant  ca  siicla  (j  vols.,  X696-X700).  He  died  on  the  1 6th  of 
May  1703,  in  Paris.  His  son,  Perrault  d'Arma'Court,  was  the 
author  of  a  wclUknown  book,  Csiikf  des  fits,  containing  the 
story  of  Cinderella,  kc. 

Except  the  tale*.  PerrauU's  works  have  not  leeentty  been  re- 
printed.  Of  these  there  are  many  modem  editions,  e.g.  by  Paul 
Ucroix  (1876).  and  by  A.  Uf^bvre  ("  Neuvelle  coltcction  Jannct." 
1873IJ  «^»>  Perrault's  Popular  Tales  (Oxford.  1888),  which  containa 
the  French  text  edited  by  Andrew  Lang,  with  an  introduction, 
and  an  examination  of  the  sources  of  each  story.  See  alto 
Hippolyte  Rigault,  Hist,  de  ta  amtrdla  des  anciens  «l  dts  modtmts 
(1856). 

PBRRBRS  (or  De  Windsos),  ALICE  (d.  1400),  mistress  of 
the  Engl&h  king  Edward  III.,  bebnged  probably  to  the  Hert- 
fordshire family  of  Perrers,  although  it  is  also  stated  that  she 
was  of  more  humble  birlh«  Beforo  1366  she  had  entered  the 
service  of  Edward's  queen,  Philfppa,  and  she  appean  biter  as 
the  wife  of  Sir  William  delVindsor,  deputy  of  Ireland  (d.  1384). 
Her  intimacy  with  the  kfng  began  about  1366,  and  during  the 
next  few  years  she  received  from  him  several  grants  of  land 
and  gifts  of  Jewels.  Not  eontent  with  the  great  influence  which 
she  obtained  over  Edward,  Alice  interfered  hi  the  proceedings 
of  the  courts  of  law  to  secure  sentences  in  favour  of  her  friends, 
or  of  those,  who  had  purchased  her  favour;  actions  which  induced 
the  parliament  of  1376  to  forbid  all  women  from  practising 
in  the  btw  courts.  Alice  was  baai^ed,  but  John  of  Gaunt, 
duke4>f  Lancaster,  allowed  her  to  return  to  court  after  the  death 
of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  in  June  1376,  and  the  parliament 
of  t377  reversed  the  sentence  against  her.  Again  'attempting 
to  pervert  the  coarse  of  justice,  she  was  tried  by  the  peers  and 
banished  after  the  death  of  Edward  HI.  in  June  1377;  but  this 
sentence  was  annulled  two  years  later,  and  Alice  regained  some 
influence  at  court.  Her  time,  however,  was  mainly  spent  in 
lawsuiu,  one  being  with  William  of  Wykeham,  bishop  of 
Winchester,  and  another  with  her  dead  husband's  nephew  and 
hdr,  John  de  Windsor. 

PBREON,  PIBRRB  cmUlER  (1755-1834),  French  mmtary 
adventuter  in  India,  whose  name  was  originally  Pierre  CuiHier, 
was  born  in  1755  at  Ch&fieau  du  Loire  ia  France,  the  son  of  a 
doth  merchant.  Ia  1780  he  went  out  to  India  as  a  aaih>r  on  a 
French  frigate,  deserted  on  the  Malabar  coast,  and  made  his 
way  to  upper  India,  where  he  enlisted  hi  the  rana  of  Gohad's 
corps  under  a  Scotsman  named  Sangster.  In  1790  he  took 
service  under  De  Boigne,  and  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  his  second  brigade.  In  1795  he  assisted  to  win  the  battle 
of  Kardb  against  the  niaam  of  Hyderabad,  and  on  De  Boigne*s 
retirement  became  commander-in-chief  of  Sindhia's  army. 
At  the  battle  of  Malpura  (1800)  he  defeated  the  Rajput  forces.' 
Alter  the  defeat  of  Ujjain  (i8ot)  he  refused  to  send  his  troops 
to  the  aid  of  Sindhia.  His  treachery  on  this  occasion  shook  his 
position,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  war  between  Sindhia  and  the 
British  in  1803  Perron  was  superseded  and  fled  to  the  British 
camp.  In  the  battles  of  DdhI,  Lasvrari  and  Assaye,  Perron's 
battalons  were  completely  destroyed   by  Lord  Lake  and 


184 


PERRON— PERRY,  M.  C. 


Sir  Arthur  Wdlesky.    He  returned  to  France  with  a  hrgt 
fortune,  and  ■  died  in   1834. 

See  H.  Compton,  European  UiUtofy  Adtmtmrtrt  ef  Hiudautau 
(1892). 

PERRON  (a  French  ivoid  meaning  properly  a  "  large  stone," 
Ital.  pdrMu,  from  Lau  peUa^  Fn  pUrrtt  stone),  in  architecture, 
a  term  applied  to  a  raised  platform  reached  by  steps  in  front  of 
the  entrance  to  a  building.  The  grand  flight  of  external  steps 
enteiing  the  mansions  of  the  medieval  nobility  or  high  officials 
was  considered  in  itself  a  mark  of  jurisdiction,  as  it  is  said  that 
sentence  was  ther^  pronounced  against  criminals,  who  were 
Afterwards  executed  at  the  foot  of  the  steps— as  at  the  Giant's 
Stairs  of  the  Doge's  palace  at  Venice. 

PBRRONB,  eiOVANNI  (1794-1876),  Italian  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Chieri  (Piedmont)  in  1794.  He  studied  theology  at 
Tiirin,  and  in  his  twenty^first  year  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
joined  the  Society  of  Jesus.  In  1816  he  was  sent  as  professor 
9f  theology  to  Orvieto,  and  in  1823  was  appointed  to  a  similar 
post  in  the  Collegium  Romanum.  From  Ferrara,  where  he  was 
rector  of  the  Jesuit  College  after  1830,  he  returned  to  his  teaching 
work  in  Rome,  being  made  head  of  his  old  college  in  1850.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  discussions  which  led  up  to  the  promul- 
gation of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (1854),  and 
in  1869  was  prominent  on  the  Ultramontane  side  in  the  Vatican 
;Cottn^.  His  numerous  dogmatic  works  are  characteristic 
of  orthodox  modem  Roman  theology.  They  include  Praekc' 
Hones  tkeologkae  (9  vols.,  Rome,  1835  sqq.),  Pra^cUones 
thcologicae  in  compendium  redactae  (4  vols.,  Rome,  1845), 
11  Htrmesianism^  (R<Mne,  1838),  //  Prolestantismo  e  la  regoia 
difede  (3  vols.,  1853),  De  divinitale  D.  N,  Jesu  Christi  (3  vols., 
Turin,  x8?o).  He  diod  on  the  36th  of  August  1876k 
.  PBRROT.  SIR  JOHN  {c,  ^S2^-lS7^),  k>rd  deputy  of  Ireland, 
was  the  son  of  Mary  Berkley,  who  afterwards  married  Thomas 
Pertot,  a  Pembrokeshire  gentleman.  He  was  generally  reputed 
to  be  a  son  of  Henry  VUI.,  and  was  attached  to  the  household 
of  William  Paulet,  ist  marquess  of  Winchester.  He  was  in  this 
way  brought  to  the  notice  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  died,  however, 
before  fulfilling  his  promises  of  advancement,  but  Perrot  was 
knighted  at  the  coronation  of  Edward  VI.  During  Mary's 
reign  he  suffered  a  short  imprisonment  on  the  charge  of  harbour- 
ing his  uncle,  Robert  Perrot,  and  other  heretics^  In  spite  of 
his  Protestantism  he  received  the  castle  and  lordship  of  Carew 
in  Pembrokeshire,  and  at  the  beginning  of  Elisabeth's  reign 
he  was  entrusted  with  the  navnl  defence  of  South  Wales.  In 
1570  Perrot  reluctantly  accepted  the  newly  created  post  of  lord 
president  of  Munster.  He  landed  at  Waterford  in  February 
of  the  next  year,  and  energetically  set  about  the  reduction  of 
the  province.  In  the  course  of  two  years  he  hunted  down  James 
Fitzmaurice  Fitzgerald,  whose  submission  he  received  in  1572. 
Perrot  resented  the  reinstatement  of  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  isth 
earl  of  Desmond,  and  after  vainly  seeking  bis  own  recall  left 
Ireland  without  leave  in  July  1573,  and  presenting  himself  at 
court  was  allowed  to  resign  his  ofKbe,.in  which  he  was  succeeded 
by  Sir  William  Drury.  He  returned  to  his  Welsh  home,  where 
he  was  fully  occupied  with  his  duties  as  vice^mirai  of  the 
Welsh  seas  and  a  member  of  the  countil  of  the  marches.  Al* 
though  in  1578  he  was  accused  by  the  deputy-admiral,  Richard 
Vaughan,  of  tyranny,  subversion  of  justice  and  of  dealings  with 
the  pirates,  he  evidently  retained  the  royal  confidence,  for  he  was 
made  commissioner  for  piracy  in  Pembrokeshire  in  1578,  and  in 
the  next  year  was  put  in  command  of  a  squadron  charged  to 
intercc;pt  Spanish  ships  on  the  Irish  coast. 

The  recall  of  Arthur  Grey,  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  in  1582,  left 
vacant  the  ofiice  of  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  and  Pertot  was 
appointed  to  it  eariy  in  1584.  Sir  John  Norris  became  k>rd 
president  of  Munster  and  Sir  Richard  Bingham  went  to  Con- 
naught.  Perrot 's  chief  instructions  concerned  the  plantation 
of  Munster,  where  the  confiscated  estates,  some  600,000  acres 
in  extent,  of  the  earl  of  Desmond  were  to  be  given  to  English 
hndbrdi  at  a  nominal  rent,  provided  that  they  brought  with 
•chem  English  farmers  and  bbourers.  Before  he  had  had  time 
to  embark  on  this  enterprise  he  heard  that  the  Highland  dans 


of  Maclean  and  MacDonndl  wese  raiding  Ulster  at  the  invitation 
of  Sorley  Boy  MacDonnell,  the  Scoto-Irish  constable  of  Dunlnoe 
Castie.  He  marched  into  Ulster,  but  Sorley  Boy  escaped  him, 
and  crOBsed  to  Scotland,  only  to  return  later  with  reinloccements. 
The  lord  deputy  was  roundly  abused  by  ECzabeth  for  uDdcr> 
taking  "a  rash,  unadvised  joumey,"  but  Sorley  Boy  was 
reduced  to  submission  in  1586.  In  Z585  Perrot  suooeeded  in 
comj^ting  the  "  composition  of  Connaugbt,"  a  achcme  foe  a 
contra^  between  Elizabeth  and  the  landholders  of  the  provinoe 
by  which  the  queen  should  receive  a  small  quitrenL  Dozing 
his  career  as  lord  dq)uty  he  had  established  peace,  and  had 
deserved  well  of  Elizabeth.  But  a  rash  and  vident  tenq>er, 
coupled  with  unbaring  criticism,  not  to  say  abuse,  of  his 
associates,  had  made  him  numerous  enemies,  A  hastily  con- 
ceived plan  for  the  conversion  of  the  revenues  of  St  PatridJL's 
Cathedral^  Dublin,  to  provide  funds  for  the  election  of  two 
colleges,  led  to  a  violent  quand  with  Adam  Lof tus,  archbishop 
of  Armagh.  Perrot  had  interfered  in  Bingham's  goi^mment 
of  Connaught,  and  in  May  1587  he  actually  struck  Sir  Nidioias 
Bagenal,  the  knight  marshal,  in  the  coimcil  diamber.  Elisabeth 
decided  to  supersede  him  in  January  1568,  but  it  was  only  six 
months  later  that  his  successor,  Sir  William  Fitzwilliam,  arrived 
in  Dublin.  After  his  return  to  England  his  enemies  oontinEnd 
to  work  for  his  ruin,  and  a  forged  letter  purporting  to  be  bom 
him  to  Philip  U.  of  Spain  gave  colour  to  an  accusation  cf 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  queen's  eaendes,  bttt  whoi 
he  was  tried  before  a  spedal  commission  in  159a  tbe  charge  of 
high  treason  was  chiefly  based  on  his  alleged  contemptitoos 
remarks  aboat  Elizabeth.  He  was  found  guilty,  but  died  in  tiv 
Tower  in  September  1592.  Elizabeth  was  said  to  have  intended 
his  pardon. 

A  life  of  Sir  John  Perrot  from  a  MS.  dating  from  the  end  ef 
Elizabeth's  leign  was  fyrinted  iq  1728.  Sir  James  Pcnot  (157I' 
1637)^  writer  and  politician,  was  his  illc^timate  son. 

PBRRT,  MATTHEW  CALBRAITH  (1794-1858),  Amexicaa 
naval  officer,  was  born  in  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Idand,  on  the 
xoth  of  ^ril  1794.  He  became  a  midshipman  in  1809,  and 
served  successively  in  the  schooner  "  Revenge "  (thoA  ooo- 
manded  by  his  brother,  diver  H.  Perry)  and  the  frigate 
"  President."  In  18x3  he  became  a  lieutenant,  and  during  the 
War  of  181 2  served  in  the  frigate  "  United  States  "  (whicb,  when 
abandoned  by  Perry,  was  blockaded  in  the  harbour  of  New 
London,  Connecticut),  the  "  Prendent "  and  the  "  Chippewa." 
Soon  after  the  war  Perry  was  assigned  to  the  Brooklyn  ^e« 
York)  luivy  yard,  where  he  served  till  18x9.  He  became  a 
commander  in  1826,  and  during  x8a6-x830  was  in  tbe  lecrmking 
service  at  Boston,  where  he  took  a  leading  part  in  oxi^niang  the 
first  naval  apprentice  system  of  the  United  States  lutvy.  He  was 
promoted  in  1837  to  the  rank  of  captain  (then  the  highest  actual 
rank  in* the  United  States  navy),  and  in  x838-t84o  commanded 
the  **  Fulton  II.,"  the  first  American  steam  war  vesseL  He  also 
planned  the  "  Missouri  "  and  the  "  Mississippi,''  the  first  steam 
frigates  of  the  United  States  navy,  and  was  in  command  of  tbe 
Brooklyn  navy  yard  from  June  184X  until  March  1843,  wben  he 
assumed  command  of  a  squadron  sent  to  the  African  const  by 
the  United  Suies,  under  the  Webster-Ashburton  treaty,  to 
in  suppressing  the  slave  trade.  This  command  of  a 
entitled  him  to  the  honorary  rank  of  commodore.  On  the  S3xd 
of  October  1846,  during  the  Mexican  War,  Perry,  in  oommand  ef 
the  steam  vcsseb  "  Vixen  "  and  "  McLane,"  and  four  scboonen, 
attacked  and  captured  Frontera,  at  die  month  of  the  Tobasoo 
river,  then  pushed  on  up  tbe  river  and  (on  the  24th)  captured 
the  town  of  Tobasco,  thereby  cutting  off  Mexico  from  Yucatan. 
He  relieved  Commodore  David  Conner  at  Vera  Crur  on  the  axst 
of  March  X847,  and  after  a  two  days'  bombardment  by  a  bnucty 
landed  from  the  ships  the  city  wall  jras  breached  suficieBtl^ 
to  admit  the  entrance  of  troops^ 

Commodore  Perry's  distinctive  achievement,  howevct,  was 
his  negotiation  in  1854  of  the  treaty  between  the  United  Stntes 
and  Japan,  which  opened  Japan  to  the  influences  of  wcsterm 
civilization.  Perry  sailed  from  Norfolk,  Virginia,  on  the  S4tb  of 
November  1852, in  the  ''Mississippi."  He  readiod  Hon94Lonf 


PERRY,  O,  H.--PERSEPOLIS 


i«5 


OB  the  Tth  of  April  mod  on  tb«  B(h  of  Jufy  dropped  aacfaot  off 
the  dt  J  of  Un^a,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo  wilb 
the  "  Sasqudsanna,"  bis  flagship,  the  '*  Mississippi,"  and  the 
sloops^f-war  "Saratoga "  and  "  Plymouth."  On  the  t4th  of 
July,  accompanied  by  his  officers  and  escorted  by  a  body  of 
aimed  marines  and  sailon  (in  all  about  300  men),  he  went  ashore 
and  presented  to  commissioners  esped&Uy  appointed  by  the 
shdgun  to  receive  them,  President  Fillmore's  letters  to  the  em- 
peror, and  his  own  credentials.  A  few  days  later  the  American 
fleet  sailed  for  Hong-Kong  with  the  understanding  that  Ferry 
would  tecum  in  the  foDowing  spring  to  receive  the  emperor's 
reply.  On  the  nth  of  February,  accordingly,  he  reappeared  in 
the  Bay  of  Yedo  with  his  fleet— this  time  composed  of  the 
"  Susquehanna,"  "  Powhatan  "  and  "Mississippi,"  and  the 
sailing  vessels  "  Vandalia,""  Lexington  "and  "Southampton," 
and  despite  the  protests  of  the  Japanese  selected  an  anchorage 
about  1 2  m.  farther  up  the  bay,  nearly  opposite  the  present  site 
of  Yokohama,  and  within  about  xo  m.  of  Yedo  (T4ky0).  Here, 
on  the  31st  of  March  1854,  was  concluded  the  first  treaty  (ratified 
at  Simoda,  on  the  zrst  of  February  1855,  and  proclaimed  on  the 
32nd  of  June  following)  between  the  United  States  and  Japan. 
The  more  important  articles  of  this  treaty  provided  that  the  port 
of  Simoda,  in  the  principality  of  Idzu,  and  the  port  of  Hakodate, 
in  the  principality  of  Matsmai,  were  constituted  as  ports  for 
the  reception  of  American  ships,  where  they  could  buy  such 
supplies  as  they  needed;  that  Japanese  vessels  should  assist 
American  vessels  driven  ashore  on  the  coasts  of  Japan,  and  that 
the  crews  of  such  vessels  should  be  properly  cared  for  at  one  of 
the  two  treaty  ports;  that  shipwrecked  and  other  American 
citizens  in  Japan  should  be  as  free  as  in  other  countries,  within 
certain  prescribed  limits;  that  ships  of  the  United  States  should 
be  permitted  to  trade  at  the  two  treaty  ports  under  temporary 
regulations  prescribed  by  the  Japanese,  that  American  ships 
should  use  only  the  ports  named,  except  under  stress  of  weather, 
and  that  privileges  granted  to  other  nations  thereafter  must  also 
be  extended  to  the  United  States.  Commodore  Perry  died  in 
New  York  City  on  the  4th  of  March  1858. 

A  complete  and  readable  account  of  this  expedition,  and  iH 
lefiults.  scientific  as  well  as  political,  compiled  from  the  journals 
and  reports  of  Commodore  Perry  and  his  officers,  was  pubhshcd  by 
the  United  States  government  under  the  title.  SantUne  of  the 
ExpedUian  of  on  American  Squadron  to  the  China  Seas  and  Japan 
(3  vols.,  Washington,  1856).  The  first  volume  of  this  work,  con* 
tainine  Commodore  Perry's  narrative,  was  also  published  separately 
A  brief  biography  of  Perry  is  included  m  Charles  Morris  s  Heroes 
of  Ik*  Naty  #M  Awteriea  {Pniladeiphia  and  London,  1907).  See  also 
VViUiam  &.  Griffis's  UoUkew  Oubraith  Peny^  a  Typual  Amentan 
Naval  Officer  (Boston,  1887). 

PERBY.  OUVER  HAZARD  (1785-1810),  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  on  the 
23rd  of  August  1785.  He  entered  tJhe  navy  as  midshipman 
(1799)  with  his  father,  Christopher  Raymond  Perry  (1761-1818), 
a  captain  in  the  navy,  and  saw  service  egainst  the  Barbary 
pirates.  At  the  beginning  of  the  War  of  1819  he  was  in 
command  of  a  flotiUa  at  Newport,  but  was  transferred  (Feb. 
1813)  to  the  Lakes.  He  served  with  Commodore  Chauncey, 
and  then  was  sent  from  Lake  Ontatio  to  Lake  Erie,  where  he 
took  up  the  chief  command  at  the  end  of  March  1813.  With 
the  help  of  a  strong  detachment  of  officers  and  men  from  the 
Atlantic  coest  he  equipped  a  squadron  consisting  of  one  brig, 
six  fine  schoonen  aiud  one  sloop.  Other  vesseb  were  laid  down 
at  Presqtie  Isle  (now  Erieh  where  he  concentrated  the  Lake 
Erie  fleet fnjvly.  When  Cuptatn  Perry  ap^ared  ofl  Amherst', 
burg,  where  Captain  Robert  Heriot  Barclay-  (d.  1837),  the 
British  conunaader,  wu  lying  with  his  aqundion,  he  had  a 
very  marked  iopedority.  Captain  Barclay,  after  a  hot  en* 
gagcment**-the  Battle  of  Lake  Erie^in  which  Captain  Perry's 
flagship  the  "Lawrence,"  a  brig,  was  so  severely  shattered 
that  he  bad  to  leave  her,  was  completely  defeated.  Perry  com- 
manded  the  "Java  "  in  the  Mediterranean  expedition  of  i8]5- 
18x6,  and  he  died  at  Port  of  Spain  in  Trinidad  on  the  S3rd  of 
August  .1.^19,  of  yellow  fever  contracted  00  the  coast  of  Brazil 

.  See  O.  H.  Lyinan.  Comntodwt  0.  H.  Pmy  and  ike  War  en  tkt 
l^^s  (New  York.  1905). 


FERR7,  a  city  and  the  coimty-seat  of  Noble  county,  OkU- 
homa,  U.S.A ,  30  m.  N.  by  £.  of  Guthrie.  Pop,  (1900),  3351 
(399  negroes);  (1910)  3133.  Perry  b  served  by  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  &  SonU  ¥h  railway  and  by  the  St  Louis  &  San  Francisco 
system.  It  is  the  commercial  centre  of  a  large  agricultural  and 
stock-raising  region,  which  produces  cotton  and  grain.  Peny 
was  settled  in  1889L 

PERRY  (from  Fr.  pmri,  from  ^otre,  a  pear),  an  akohoik 
beverage,  obtained  by  the  feraientatjon  of  the  juice  of  pears. 
The  maaufacture  is  in  all  essentials  identical  with  that  of 

OOBR  (f.«.). 

PERRYVILLB,  a  town  of  Boyle  county,  Kentucky,  U.S.A., 
about  to  m  W.  of  Danville.  Pop.  (1910),  407.  Here  on  the 
8th  of  October  1863  General  Braxton  Bragg,  in  command  of  the 
Confederate  army  of  the  Mississippi  of  about  16,000  men,  with 
which  he  had  tnvaded  Kentucky,  faced  about  in  his  slow  retreat 
across  the  state  and  gave  battle  to  the  Union  army  of  the 
Ohio  of  about  40,000  (of  whom  only  about  a3,ooo  were  actual^ 
engaged)  commanded  by  Major-Oencral  Don  Carlos  Buell. 
Bragg's  order  to  attack  was  disregarded  by  Major-General 
Leonidas  Polk,  whoprefened  adopting  the  *'  dcfensivc-offensve  " 
rather  than  engage  all  of  Buell's  force.  Bragg  himself  came  on 
the  field  about  10  a  m.  and  repeated  his  orders  for  an  attack,  but 
it  was  2  p.m.  before  there  was  an  actual  engagement.  Theh 
after  much  delay  on  Polk's  part  the  Confederate  army  joined 
battle  with  McCook's  corps.  The  Confederate  lines  were  broken 
and  driven  back  through  Perryviile,  where  caissons,  ammunition 
wagons  and  140  officers  and  men  were  captured.  Darkness  had 
now  come  on*  and  in  the  night  Bragg  withdrew.  His  losses 
were  reported  as  5x0  killed,  2635  wounded  and  251  missing. 
The  Union  loss  was  845  killed,  2851  wounded  and  51$  captured 
or  missing.  The'  battle  was  drawn  tactically,  but  strategically 
it  was  a  Union  victory  and  it  virtually  dosed  Bragg's  unsuc* 
cessful  Kentucky  campaign,  which  Is  sometime^  called  the 
Perryviile  campaign. 

PERSEPOLIS,  an  ancient  city  of  Persia,  situated  some  40  m. 
N.E  of  Shira2,  not  far  from  where  the  small  river  Pulwar  flows 
into  the  Kur  (Kyrus).  The  site  is  marked  by  a  large  terrace 
with  its  east  side  leaning  on  Kuhi  Rahmet  ("  the  Mount  of 
Grace  ").  The  other  three  sides  are  formed  by  a  retaining  wall, 
varying  in  height  with  the  slope  of  the  ground  from  14  to  41  ft.; 
on  the  west  side  a  magnificent  double  stair,  of  very  easy  steps, 
leads  to  the  top.  On  this  terrace  arc  the  ruins  of  a  number  of 
colossal  buildings,  all  constructed  of  dark -grey  marble  from  the 
adjacent  mountain.  The  stones  were  laid  without  mortar,  and 
many  of  them  are  still  in  situ.  Especially  striking  are  the  huge 
pillars,  of  which  a  number  still  stand  erect.  Several  of  the 
buildings  were  never  finished.  F.  Stolze  has  shown  that  in 
some  cases  even  the  mason's  rubbish  has  not  been  removed.' 
These  ruins,  for  which  the  name  Kizil  minare  or  Chihil  inenare 
("  the  forty  columns  or  minarets  "),  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
13th  century,  are  now  known  as  Takhli  Jamshid  ("  the  throne 
of  Jamshid  ")•  That  they  represent  the  Persepolis  captured 
and  partly  destroyed  by  Mezander  the  Great  has  been  beyond 
dispute  at  least  since  the  time  of  Pictro  dclla  Vallc.' 

Behind  Takhti  Jamshid  are  three  sepulchres  hewn  out  of  the 
rock  in  the  hillside,  the  facades,  one  of  which  is  incomplete, 
being  richly  ornamented  with  reliefs.  About  8  m.  N.N.E.,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Pulwar,  rises  a  perpendicular  wall  of 
rock,  in  which  four  similar  tombs  are  cut,  at  a  considerable 
height  from  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  The  modem  Persians 
call  this  place  Nakski  Ruslam  ("  the  picture  of  Rustam  ")  from 
the  Sassanian  reliefs  beneath  the  opening,  which  they  take  to 
be  a  representation  of  the  mythical  hero  Rustam*    That  the 

*  Cf.  T.  Chardm,  E.  Kaempfer.  C.  Niebohr  and  W.  Onsele^. 
Niebuhr  s  drawings,  though  good,  are,  for  the  purposes  of  the  archi- 
tectural student,  inferior  to  the  great  work  01  C.  Tcxier.  and  stttl 
more  to  that  of  E.  FUindm  and  P .  Costc.  Good  sketches,  chiefly 
after  Flandin.  are  given  by  C.  Kossowics,  Inscripnones  pataio-' 
perstcae  (St  Petersburg.  1871).  in  addition  to  these  we  have 
the  photogrsphic  plates  in  F.  Stolxe's  Persepolis  (2  vols..  BeriiO, 
1887) 

■  Lettera  X  V.  (cd.  Brighton.  1843).  it-  246  icq. 


i86 


FCRSEF0LI8 


rvm  tombi  vtre  klngi  nught  be  infflrTBl  flvm 

one  ct  tbosc  at  Naiiiu  Rutam  a  txpraaly 
dccUred  ID  la  ifucnptioD  la  be  the  tomb  of  Dviiu  HyKupii, 
eonceniiwi  whom  Clesiu  rallies  thu  hii  grave  wu  in  \bc  Uai  of 
a  lock,  ud  could  only  be  inched  by  meuu  of  u  ippuMui 
of  ropa.  Cloiu  meDliom  iunha,  nhh  legu^  to  &  numbei  ol 
Penivu  kin^,  either  that  Iheir  ttnuini  woe  biought  "  to  the 
FcniaH,"acthMtbtydiedihere.'  Nowwe  know  that  Cjnyiwu 
buriod  at  Paiafgulu  (f.g.)  and  if  then  ii  any  Initb  in  the 
MiUaieut  that  the  body  of  CambyKS  wai  brousbc  home  "  lolhe 

Ihatof  hiafalhei.  In  order  la  Ideatiiy  the  gravel  oI  Penepolime 
otut  bear  In  mind  that  Clesiu  luiimei  that  it  wu  IhecuHoo)  for 
a  king  te  piepaie  hi>  otn  tomb  during  hit  lileiiine.  Hence  the 
Liugi  buried  at  Nakahi  Rmtam  are  proljably,  Ljesldes  Dariiu, 
Xeixul.,  ARaxenesLandDariuilI.  Xencs  II.,  who  reigned 
[or  a  voy  short  time,  could  scarcely  iuvc  obtained  so  splendid 
a  monument,  and  sliU  less  could  the  usurper  Sogdiajius  (Secy- 
dianui).  The  t*a  compleled  gravEa  behind  Txiihti  Jamthid 
wavld  then  belong  la  Anaienes  11,  and  Artaxerua  III.    Tlw 


t  his.  11 


ol  Dar 


s  m. 


(Codomannus),  ohn  it  ane  ol  those  vhoae 
been  brougbt  "  to  the  Peisiant  ""  (i«  Aioiitecturi,  Cg.  u). 
Analher  tmall  group  of  ruins  ui  the  same  style  is  lound  at  the 
village  of  HljjUbld,  on  the  Fulvar,  a  good  hour's  walk  above 
TakhLi  Jamahid.  These  lormed  a  dngle  building,  Hbich  vil 
Mill  intact  90a  yean  ago,  and  wu  used  u  the  moeque  of  tbe 
then  existing  dty  of  Islakhr. 
Sioce  Cyrus  wu  buried  in  Pasarsadie,  which  moreover  is 
In  Ctesias  as  his  own  city,'  and  unce,  to  judge  from 


e  buUdini 


proper. 


was  probably  under  Uii»  king, 
.  new  branch  of  the  royal  house,  that  Persepolis 
lapital'  (see  Fkuia:  ^ecienl  EiiHry.V.  1)  ol  Persia 
a  residence,  however,  foe  the  rulers  of  Iho  em^ure, 
e  place  in  a  difGcuU  alpine  region  was  fu  from  con- 
venient, and  the  real  capitals  were  Susa,  Babylon  and  Ecbatana. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  Creeks  were  not  acquainted 
with  the  dty  untd  it  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Aki^uidcr 
tbe  Great.  Ctciias  must  certainly  have  known  ol  it,  and  it  is 
posuble  Ihat  be  may  have  named  it  umply  TUfjiTiu,  after  the 
people,  ts  ia  undoubtedly  done  by  certain  wrilen  of  a  tomewhat 
later  date.'    But  whether  the  city  really  bore  the  name  ol  the 

hizaidous  to  assume,  with  Sir  B,  Ranlinson  and  J.  Oppert,  that 
the  words  ani  Porii,  "  in  thii  Pcisia,"  which  occur  in^an  insctip- 
Uon  00  [be  gateway  built  by  Xerrcs  (D,  L  14),  signify  "  in  this 
<ily  of  PSrsa,"  and  consequently  prove  that  tbe  name  ol  the 
dty  Is  Identical  with  tbe  name  of  the  couDliy.  The  foim 
Persepolis  (with  a  pby  on  xfpcnr,  destruction)  appears  first 
In  Cleltaichus,  one  ol  the  eaiUell,  but  unfortunately  one  of  the 
DiO!i  ima^ntiive  annalists  of  the  eipldls  of  Alnandn. 

It  has  been  universally  admitted  thai  "  the  palaces  "  or  "the 
palace  *'(TA0a(riXria)buroeddown  by  Alexander  are  those  now  in 
ruins  at  Takhtl  Jamsbid.  From  Stobe's  investigations  it  appears 
ibat  at  least  one  of  these,  the  caitle  built  by  Xerxes,  bears  evident 
tmcesofbavingbeendestroyedbyfiit.  The kicalily  described  by 
Diodoms  after  Cleitarchus  corregponds  in  impartanl  panlculsn 
with  T'akhti  Jamshid,  for  exam[je.  In  bdnx  supported  by  the 


.   ^vSy'  I 


difficulty.   Diodoms  ayi  that  the  incfc  at  tbe  ba 

conttinuic  Ibe  ivyal  ncpulchns  ian  Bleep  ibu  the  bodica  could 

Tfaii  Is  sot  true  e<  Che  giavei  bahiod  Takhii  jam^id,  >a  irikKli,*! 


BbyN 

ta  shapeless  hiaps  ol  euib,  uoda  wfaicfa  Ibe  liiiistiii  a»j  be 
concealed.  The  vast  rums,  however,  o(  Takfati  Jamahid,  and 
the  tcnacc  conxIrucLed  with  so  much  labour,  f^n  hardly  be 
anything  else  than  the  ruins  of  palaces;  as  for  temples^  Ebc  Per- 

Xerxes.  Moieovet,  Petsian  tradition  at  a  very  remote  period 
knew  of  only  three  archiLedural  waedera  in  tlwt  teiwa,  vhidi 
it  attributed  to  the  fabuloua  queen  Komti  (Khumail^-lhe  grave 
of  Cyrus  at  Muigab,  the  building  al  lUjjObad.  and  thoiie  oa 
the  great  terrace.^  Il  is  safest  therefore  to  identify  tbae  last 
with  the  njyal  palocea  destroyed  by  Alexander.    Cleitarchua, 

recklesaneas  of  stalemenl,  confounded  the  tomba  behind  the 
palaces  with  tiuoe  of  Nakshi  Rustam;  indeed  he  af^Mata  to 
imagine  that  all  tbe  itiyal  s^utchrea  were  at  the  aame  place. 
In  J16  a.c  Perscpolia  was  siill  tbe  capital  of  Penis  asa 
provlnctof  Ibegreal  Macedonian  Empire  (see  Diod.xii,  31  seq, 
46  ;  proba  illy  after  Hieronymua  of  Caidia,  who  was  living  about 
31O).  The  dty  must  iiave  gradually  dedined  in  the  course  ol 
linie;  but  the  luina  of  the  Achae'menidac  remained  as  a  witn^ 
glory.   It  is  probable  Ihat  the  principal  town  of  the 


at  least  of  the  di: 


hood.  About  AJ).  joo  we  find  there  the  city  latakbt  (properly 
Slakhr)  as  the  seat  of  tbe  local  govemoix.  There  the  foundatiom 
of  tbe  second  great  Per^ao  Empire  were  laid,  and  latakhr 
acquired  special  importance  as  the  ccolre  of  pricslty  wisdom  and 
orthodoxy.  Tbe  Sassanian  kings  have  covered  the  face  of  the 
rocks  In  this  neighbourhood,  and  in  part  even  tbe  Acbaemcnian 
ruins,  with  their  sculptures  and  inscriptions,  and  must  tbemsdva 
have  built  laigdy  here,  afthou^  never  on  tbe  same  Kale  oi 
magnifirence  as  their  ancient  prcdccesKis.  The  Romani  knew 
as  little  about  Islakhr  as  the  Creeks  had  done  about  hiiepolii 
—and  tbis  in  spite  of  tbe  fact  that  for  four  himdred  yean  tha 
Sassanian]  maintained  idations,  friendly  oc  hostile,  with  tbe 

At  ilir  timr  nf  thr  ilnhiinrnriqinnl  Tililhi  iiffirirliili  i[«iiir 
resistance,  but  the  dty  was  still  a  place  of  consfderabtr  impo^ 
tance  In  tbe  iil  century  of  Islam  (see  CattPHATx),  although  tis 
greatness  was  speedily  ecUpsed  by  tbe  new  metropolla  Shinti. 
In  tbe  loih  century  laiakhr  had  become  an  utterly  indgnififapt 
pbcc.  as  may  be  seen  from  the  deacripllona  of  Istakhr,  a  Dative 
(c,  gso),  and  of  Mukaddasi  (c,  9S;).  During  tbe  following  cen- 
turies Istakhr  gradually  declines,  imtll,  as  a  cify,  it  ceaeed  to 
exist.  Thia  fruitful  le^on,  bowevCF,  was  covered  with  viltasa 
till  tbe  tristful  devaitaiions  of  the  iStb  centary;  and  evan  now 
It  ia,  comparatively  qxakiog,  welt  cultivated.  Tbe  "caatls 
of  Islakhr  "  played  a  craupkuoos  part  several  timea  doiinx  tha 
Mabommedan  period  as  a  smng  fortress.  It  waa  tbe  middle- 
most and  the  higbeM  of  the  three  steep  cnga  wbidi  rise  froa  the 
valley  of  the  Kai,  at  some  dittancs  to  tbe  west  or  nsnh-inat 
ol  Nikjhi  Rutlaio.  We  karn  from  Oriental  wiilen  that  od* 
of  the  Bayid  (BuwaibM)  aultant  in  tbe  loth  ceatuiy  of  the 
Flight  constructed  tbe  great  ciKeina,  which  may  yet  be  Men, 
and  have  been  visited,  amongst  othera.  by  June*  Itada  and 
E.  Flandin.  W.  Ouseley  points  out  that  thi»  caMie  wa*  UiD 
used  in  the  r6tb  century,  at  least  as  a  atatc  prison.  But  whcs 
Pletro  della  Vdle  wu  there  in  t6ir  It  was  already  in  ruina. 

■The  name  o(  this  mountain  too,  j9a»l4i,hlm,  k idendcal  vkb 
SUUttak,  which  is  ai  leas  tolenbly  well  — .-hK-h-il  |^  w.  Owtler 
B.  417)  ataiyasnym  o(  Kiln  nimil 

'SeecipeciBny  Hamia !«.,  ^S^Tabaif.  1. 690,  BlS  (cf.T.  Nddeke. 
Cesriailiu  irr  Ftftrr  .  .  .  au  .  . .  Teten,  p.  B).  Tbe  rma  u 
TaUitl  Jaauhid  an  alluded  (o  ai  (tie  work  of  Mnaii,  in  iiaiiailiM 


PERSEUS-^PERSIA 


1:87 


BlBLIOGmAniT.-^.  Tteadio  and  T.  CMit,  Vayaee  m » P^rae 
(1843-1X47) ;  F.  Stolxe.  Dm  AckaemenidiKken  und  Sassaniiischtn 
PenkM^lcr  und  Inschrijten  von  Penebdis,  &c.  (18S2);  C.  Perrot 
snd  C  Chipiez,  Histoirt  de  Vart  dans  Panttqitiii,  v.  (1890).  See  also 
DAKfUS;  Pbuia:  Ancwu  History;  and  Calipsats. 

<Ta.N.:A.H.&) 

If  la  Gxeek  legend,  ton  of  Dana£  and  Zeus.  Wlwn 
grown  to  manhood  Polydcctcar  king  oC  Seriphua, 
cast  his  eye  on  DanaS;  and,  in  order  to  rid  himself  of  the  son, 
exacted  of  him  a  promise  that  he  would  bring  him  the  head 
of  the  Gorgon  Medusa.  The  Gorgons  dwelt  with  their  sisters 
the  Graeae  (the  grey  women)  by  the  great  ocean,  far  away  in 
the  west.  Guided  by  Hermes  and  Athena,  Perseus  came  to 
the  Graeae.  They  were  three  hags,  with  but  one  eye  and  one 
tooth  between  them.  Perseus  stole  the  eye  and  the  tooth,  snd 
would  not  restore  them  till  the  Graeae  had  guided  him  to  the 
Kympfas,  from  whom  he  received  the  winged  sandals,  a  wallet 
id$t9iif  resembling  a  gamekeeper's  bag)  and  the  helmet  of 
Bades,  which  rendered  hhn  invisible.  Thus  equipped  and  armed 
hy  Hermes  with  a  sharp  sword  like  a  sickle,  he  came  upon  the 
porgons  as  they  slept,  and  cut  o£f  Medusa's  head,  while  with 
Averted  eyes  he  looked  at  her  reflection  which  Athena  showed 
liim  in  the  mirror  of  her  shield.  Perseus  put  the  Gorgon's  head 
In  his  wallet  and  fled,  pursued  by  Medusa's  sisters,  to  Ethiopia, 
where  he  delivered  and  married  Andromeda  {g,v.)»  With  her  he 
fetumcd  to  Seriphus  in  time  to  rescue  his  mother  and  Dictys 
from  Polydectes,  whom  he  turned  to  stone  with  all  his  court 
(y  showing  them  the  Gorgon's  head.  The  island  Itself  was 
turned  to  stone,  and  the  very  frogs  of  Seriphus  (so  ran  the 
proverb)  were  dumb  (Aelian,  Nai.  onim.  m.  37).  Perseus  then 
gavq  the  head  of  Medusa  to  Athena,  and,  with  DanaC  and  Andro- 
ftieda,  hastened  to  Argos  to  see  his  grandfather,  Acrisius,  once 
ftiore.  But  before  his  arrival  Acrisius,  fearing  the  oracle,  had 
Bed  to  Larissa  in  Theualy.  Thither  Perseus  followed  him,  and 
%t  some  funeral  games  held  in  honour  of  the  king  of  that  country 
Unwittingly  slew  his  grandfather  by  the  throw  of  a  quoit,  which 
•tmck  him  on  the  foot.  Ashamed  to  return  to  Argos,  Perseus 
gave  bis  kingdom  to  Megapenthes  (Acrisius's  nephew),  and 
tectived  from  him  Tiryra  in  exchange.  There  he  reigned  and 
lounded  Mldeia  and  Mycenae,  and  became  the  ancestor  of  the 
Feraides,  amongst  whom  were  Eurystheus  and  Heracles. 

The  legend  of  Perseus  was  localized  in  various  places.  Italy 
claimed  that  the  chest  containing  DanaC  and  Perseus  drifted 
tshore  on  the  Italian  coast  (Virgil,  Aen  vii.  37s,  410).  The 
Persian  kfaigs  were  said  to  have  been  descended  from  Perses  a 
<on  of  Perseus,  and,  according  to  Pausanias  of  Damascus,*  he 
taught  the  Persians  to  worship  fire,  and  founded  the  Magian 
priesthood.  His  cult  was  transferred  to  the  kings  of  Pontus, 
for  on  coins  of  Amisus  he  is  represented  with  the  features  of 
Mithradates  Eupator.  Like  Andromeda,  Hesione,  the  daughter 
•f  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy,  was  rescued  by  Heracles  from  a  sea- 
monster,  and  both  stories  have  been  interpreted  of  the  sun 
ilaying  the  darkness,  Andromeda  and  Hesione  being  the  moon, 
winch  the  darkness  is  about  to  devour.  In  one  veraioii  of  the . 
story  of  Hesione,  Heracles*  is  said  to  have  spent  three  days,  like 
Jonah,  in  the  bdly  of  the  beast,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the- 
Creek  representations  of  Andromeda's  monster  were  themodds 
fer  Jonah's  fish  tn  early  Christian  art.  Its  bones  and  Andro- 
meda's chains  were  shown  on  a  rock  at  Joppa«  Perseus  appears 
#n  coins  of  Pontus  and  Cap^adoda,  and  of  Tarsus  in  CUida, 
frhich  he  was  said  to  have  founded.  The  legend  of  St  George 
was  iiiSuenced  by  the  tradtdons  cufieut  regaotfln^  Taweas  Is 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor. 

For  the  slaying  of  the  Medusa,  see  P.  H.  Knats,  Qitomoio  Ptrsti 
fabuldm  artijue*  grtud  et  romani  tmctoferint  (1893) ;  and.  on  the 
whole  story,  £.  Sw  Haitlaad,  The  Lepnd  0/  Perttut  {1994-^1896^. 

PSRSB08*  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  called  after  the  (}reek  legendary  hero,  it  is  mentioned 
by  Eudozos  C4th  century  BX.)  and  Aratus  (3rd  century  bx.); 

'  Author  of  a  history  of  Antioch;  be  is  quoted  by  John  Malalas, 
CftrMMfrafMs,  pp.  37-38.  cd.  Bonn  (1B31).  Nothing  further  is 
known  oC  him  (no  C  w.  MUUcr,  fyaffnenta  Mstork9rum 


lr.4W 


iffoeeorum. 


Ptolemy  and  Tycbo  Brahv  catalogued  19  stars,  Hevelius  46. 
The  most  Important  .member  of  this  constellation  is  fi  PertH 
or  Algol  (9^.),  a  famous  variable  star.  $  Ptrtei  U  f.  triple  star, 
composed  of  one  4th  magnitude  sur  and  two  of  the  loth  asgni- 
tttde;  p  Pertei  is  an  irre^dar  variable,  with  a  range  in  magnitude 
of  3'4  to  4*i«  i^«M  Persei  is  a  "  new  "  star  discovered  in  18&7 
and  snhsequenily  rfmgnir/rd  on  Harvard  platcshy  Mrs  Fleming 
in  1895;  another  new  star  was  discovefed  by  Anderson  on  the 
2xst  of  February  1901,  whkh,  after  increasing  in  magnitude, 
gradually  became  fainter  and  ultimately  disappeared.  Thera 
is  a  nrbiils  sunounding  Nona  Persei  (1901)  which  was  photo- 
graphed at  Yerkes  observatory  in  September  1901;  a  pair  of 
star  dusters,  appearing  as  a  bright  patch  in  the  Milky  Way; 
and  the  meteoric  twarm  named  the  Perseids,  which  appear  in 
August  and  have  their  radiant  in  Perseus.    (See  Meteor.) 

PERSEUS  OF  MACEDOHIA  (b.  c.  aia  B.C.),  the  bst  king  of 
Macedonia,  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.  He  bad  his  brother 
Demetrius  killed,  and  thus  cleared  his  way  to  the  throne  in  179. 
War  broke  out  with  Rome  in  171  b.c  when  P.  Lidnius  Crassos 
was  sent  to  attadt  him.  Perseus  defeated  Crassus  at  CalUnicus 
In  Thessaly,  but  In  x68  he  was  annihilated  at  Pydna  by  L. 
Aemilius  Paulus.  He  was  led  in  triumph  throu^  Rome,  and 
died  in  captivity  at  Alba  Fuccns.   (See  Macedokia.) 

PERSHORB,  a  market  town  in  the  Evesham  parliamentary 
division  of  Worcestershire,  England,  ri3  m.  W.N.W.of  London 
and  7  S.E.  of  Worcester  by  the  Great  Western  railway.  Pop. 
(190X),  3348.  The  station  is  x}  m.  from  the  town.  Market 
gard^ting  and  fruit>growing  (espedally  plums)  are  carried  00 
and  agricultural  implements  are  manufactured.  The  churches 
of  the  two  parishes  of  Holy  Cross  and  St  Andrew  face  one  another 
across  a  road.  Holy  Cross  is  a  remnant  of  a  mitred  abbey  of 
Benedictines,  said  to  have  been  founded  about  970  by  King 
Edgar,  on  the  site  of  a  Merdan  religious  settlement.  There 
remain  only  the  fine  Early  English  choir,  with  Decorated  addi- 
tions, the  Norman  south  transept  and  the  majestic  Decorated* 
tower;  while  slight  fragments  of  a  Norman  nave  are  seen. 

PERSIA*  a  kingdom  of  western  Asia,  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Rxxssian  Transcaucasian  and  Trans- 
caspian  territories,  on  the  E.  by  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan, 
on  the  S.  by  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  on  the 
W.  by  Turkish  territory.  Long  before  the  Christian  era  the 
satrapies  of  Darius  comprehended  roughly  an  imm^my  range 
of  territory,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Lidus  and  from  thi^ 
Caucasian  chain  and  Jaxartes  to  the  Peisian  Gulf  siBd  Arabian 
Ocean.  In  the  X7th  and  x$tb  centuries  a.d.  the  conquests  pf 
*Abbas  and  Nadir  kept  up  tj^ese  boundaries  more  or  less  on  the 
east,  but  failed  to  secure  them  on  the  west,  and  were  limited  to 
the  Caucasus  and  Oxus  on  the  north.  Penik  of  the  present  day 
is  not  only,  in  the  matter  of  geographical  definition,  far  from  the 
vast  empire  of  Sacred  Writ  and  remote  history,  but  it  is  not 
even  the  less  extensive  dominion  of  the  Sl&fawi  lUngs  and  Nadir 
Shah.  It  may  be  said,  however,  to  Comprise  now  quite  as  mudi 
settled  and  consolidated  territory  as  at  any  period  of  its  political 
existence  of  which. we  tan  speak  with  authority. 

Boundaries. — ^The  repon  of  Ararat  presents  a  good  starting 
point  for  the  definition  of  the  western  and  northern  Irontien 
of  Persia.  A  line  20  in.  In  length  from  a  point 
on  the  river  Aras,  in  39**  Att  ^'  ^^  44°  ¥>'  £•  to 
Mt  Ararat,  in  the  south-westerly  diiectlon;  divides 
Persia  from  Russa.  Southwards  from  Mt  Anint  the  Perso- 
Turkish  frontier  cBtends*  about -Tea  ok  to  the  nooth  of  the 
Shatt  d  Arab  in  the  Persian  Gulf  in  30*  N.  and  48*  40'  E.» 
but  is  undefmed  with  the  exception  of  the  >vistem  boundary  of 
the  little  district  of  Kotur.  A  mixed  commission  was  appointed 
In  1843  for  the  settlemeaA  of  the  Perso>Tutklsh  frontier..  Th^ 
labours  of  this  conuntsiion  resulted  fai  the  Exaerom  tieaty  of 
X847,  by  which  both  powers  abandoned  some  lands  and  agreed 
to  appoint  commissSoners  to  define  the  frontier.  Tie  oom* 
mlssioners  met  in  XS49, 1850  and  xSst  al  Bagdad  and  Muhamrsb 
without  arrivfaig  at  any  result.  In  XS51  Lord  Px^hnetstOD 
proposed  that  thegeoetml  line  of  frontier  should  be  tnccMl  by  Che 
agents  «f  TterMy  and  Peisia  at  Constantinople,  assisted  by  the 


i88 


PERSIA 


[BOUNDARIES 


(DDUDMaaera,  tn  confoitaily  with  (&«  treaty  of  ERaua,  |  oosettM,  Bud  diqxita  kivs  fnqMntl^  nlKii  betvcen  (b* 

Inviog  doubtfut  looilillM  to  be  wtiltd  In  (unin.  Hit  Rimlin  |  Turkic  ud  Persia  govctamcnti  Hith  ccKud  to  their  mpccilte 
gwrcRUDsnl  igreed  to  thil  prapoul,  mod  the  woit  of  niiveylng  diims  lo  luid  (Hcnilet,  fertinii  rruliei]-  Id  the  cutumB 
the  country  from  Mt  Aranl  to  the  Fenlu  Gulf  wu  tbea  I  ol  1907  Tuiluih  tioopl  occupied  not  onjy  "donbtfitltDcilitiea" 
BiduUkiD,  WbCQ  Ibis  wu  doae  the  pttpuition  ol  >  map,  I  but  mlso  idjofaiiiig  lazidi  uliich  were  iodiipulibly  Fcibu 
cmbncini  terrilMy  joom,  inlagph  by  m  to  40  m.  bro»d,  ma  I  tenStory.     Tla  Hint     '  "    "  '  "      '   ^ 


pot  tn  hud,  tad  Uiia  mrk  luted  fno  NoTcmbci  1857  tin 
Much  lB6j,  when  tho  Fsrtc  nu  infanDcd  In  Uiy  ol  thit  yesi 
thu  "  io  (he  opinion  el  tbe  "^'■'■m  Powcn,  che  futun  line 

.of  bouBdaiy  bctwroi  the  ntpedivt  domlnioaf  of  the  luttu  and 
the  ihib  na  to  be  found  witbia  the  limits  treced  cm  (be  map; 

.that  the  two  Uahommedu  fovenuneati  ibouU  tbeimelva 
maik  out  the  line;  uid  that  b  the  event  d(  any  difleieDcei 
tiidas  between  ihem  in  regard  to  any  particular  locility,  the 


between  tbe  tiro  couctiiei  may  ba.^ 
is  incoDveructit  to  the  geographer 
the  cauie  of  order  and  good  government. 

From  the  point  on  the  Arai  Rivei  20  m.  north-east  o[  Mt 
Ararat,  the  nver  fomii  the  northern  boundary  down  to  48*  H 
The  frontier  line  then  tuiu  about  jj  m.  in  a  mith- 
easterly  direciioa  thnnigh  the  Moghan  iteppe  to  Jjljjj? 
Hbowar  on  the  Bnlghara  River  and  then  lOiith  «4th 
a  bend  lo  the  west  Ici  the  Astan  fiiver  and  the  port  ol  Amu*  io 
jB^a/N.AndfS*  jj'E,    FiomAatatteuturanlithebawBdiqr 


PitySICAL  FBATCRES) 


P] 


Jl  v/xil 


Jt^9 


Pfoatltr. 


SaatMera 
PnaU»r» 


!s  foniied  by  the  shore  of  the  Ca^pUn  until  ft  touches  the  "Buy  of 
Hassan  Kul  north  of  As  arabad.  East  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
beginning  at  Has  an  Kuli  Bay  the  river  Auek  serves  as  the 
frontier  as  iar  as  Chat.  It  then  extends  east  and  south-east 
to  Serrakhs  on  the  Tejcn  River  in  36*  40'  N.  and  6i*  «/  E.  The 
distance  from  Mt  Ararat  to  Semildis  in  a  straight  l!ne  is 
about  930  m.  The  frontier  from  Mi  Ararat  to  Astara  was 
defined  by  the  treaty  of  Turkraanchal  (Feb.  22^  1828);  and  a 
convention  of  the  8ih  of  July  1893.  The  frontier  cast  of  the 
Caspian  was  defined  by  the  Akhal-Khorasan  Boundary  Conven- 
tion of  the  aist  of  I>eceinber  1881  and  the  frontier  coave&tioQ 
of  the  8th  of  July  1893. 

The  eastern  frontier  extends  fitrtn  Serrakhs  to  near  Gwettet 
on  the  Arabian  Sea  in  25**  N.  and  6x®  301^  E.,  a  distance  of  nbout 
800  m.  From  Serrakhs  to  near  Kuhsan  the  boundary, 
is  formed  by  the  Tejen  River  (called  Uari  Rud,  or 
river  6(  Herat,  in  its  upper  course);  it  then  runs 
almost  due  south  to  the  border  of  S^Istan  in  31"  N.,  and  then 
through  Seistan  follows  the  line  fixed  by  Sir  Frederick  Gol4- 
smid's  and  Sir  1  Henry  McJkiahon's  oommissions  in  1872  and 
1903-1905  to  Kttb  1  Malik  Slab.  Fkom  this  point  to  the  sea  the 
frontier  separates  Persian  territory  from  British  Baluchistan 
and  runs  south-east  to  Kuhak  and  then  south-west  to  Gwetter. 
This  last  section  was  determined  by  Sir  Frederick  Goldsmid's 
commission  in  1871. 

The  southern  boundary  is  the  coast  line  of  the  Arabian  Sea 
and  the  Persian  Gulf  from  Gwetter  .to  the  mouth  of  the  Shalt 
el  Arab,  a  distance  of  about  870  m.,  comprised 
between  48^  40^  E.  and  61*  30'  £.  The  islands  situated 
dose  to  the  northern  shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf  are 
Peraan  territory;  they  are,  from  east  to  west,  Hormuz  (Ormus), 
Larak,  Kishm,  Hengam,  Funir,  Kish  {Kais),  Hindarabi, 
Shaikh-Shu'aib,  Jebrin,  Khank,  Kharaku  (Khorgu). 

Physical  Gtograp^y, — Modem  Persia  occupies  the  western  and 
larger  half  of  the  great  Iranian  plateau  whkh,  rising  to  a  height  of 
from  4000  to  8000  ft.  between  the  valleys  of  the  Indus  and  Tigris, 
covers  more  than  a  million  square  miles.    Taking  the  Kuren  Dagh 
or  Kopet  Dagh  to  forpa  the  northern  scarp  of  this  plateau  east  of 
the  Casfnan.  we  find  a  prolongation  of  it  in  the  highlands  north  of 
the  poUticat  frontier  on  the  Aras,  and  even  in  the  Caucasus  itself. 
On  the  northowest  Persia  is  united  by  the  highlands  of  Armenia  to 
tlie  mountains  of  A^  Minor;  on  the  north-west  the  Paropomisus 
and  Hindu  Kush  connect  it  with  the  Himalayas.    The  lines  of 
boundary  on  the  western  and  eastern  faces  are  to  be  traced  amid 
high  rangoi  of  mountains  broken  here  and  there  by  deserts  and 
valleys.    These  ranges  lie  for  the  most  part  north-east  and  south- 
east, as  do  those  in  the  interior,  with  a  marked  exception  between 
Teherftn.  and  Bujnurd.  and  in  Baluchistan,  where  they  lie  rather 
north-east  and  south-west,  or,  in  the  latter  case,  sometimes  east 
and  west.    The  real  lowlands  are  the  tracts  near  the  sea-coast 
belonging  to  the  forest-clad  provinces  of  the  Caspian  in  the  north 
and  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  below  Basra  and  elsewhere. 
The  Peruans  have  no  special  names  for  the  great  ranges.   Mountains 
and  valleys  are  known  only  by  local  names  which  ircqUently  cover 
but  a  few  miles.     Even  the  name  Elburz,  which  European  geo- 
graphers apply  to  the  chains  and  ranges  that  extend  for  a  length 
of  over  500  m.  from  Azerbaijan  in  the  west  to  Kfaorasan  in  the  east, 
stands  with  the  PWsians  only  for  the  60  or  70  m.  of  mountains 
north  and  north-east  of  Teherftn,  including  the  cone  of  Demavend. . 
The  great  central  range,  which  extends,  almost  unbroken,  for  nearly  • 
800  m.  from  Azerbaijan  in  the  north-west  to  Baluchistan  in  the 
south-east,  may  aptly  be  called  the  Central  Range.    It  has  many 
peaks  9000  to  10,000  ft.  in  height,  and  some  of  its  auhimits  rise  to 
an  elevation  of  11,000  ft.  and  near  Kermftn  of  nearly  1^,000  ft. 
(Kuh-i-Jupar).  The  vaUe|ys  aad  plains  west  of  the  Central  Range, 
as  for  instance  those  of  Mahallat,  Joshekan,  Isfahan.  Srjan,  havte 
an  elevation  of  9000  to  6500  ft.;  those  wttlun  the  nnge,  ae  Jasp, 
Ardahal,  So.  Pans,  are  about  1000  ft.  higher;  and  those  east  of  it 
slope  from  an  elevation  of  5000  to  6qoo  ft.  down  to  the  depresirions  of 
the  central  plateau  which,  east  of  Kum,  are  not  more  than  2600  ft. 
and  east  01  KermSn  1500  to  1700  ft.  above  the  sca-leveL  '  Some 
of  the  ranges  west  of  the  Central  Range,  which  form  the  highlands 
of  Kurdistan.  Lurbtan,  Bakhtlari  and  Fars,  and  are  parallel  to 
it,  end  near  the  Perdan  Gulf;  others  follow  the  Central  Range,  and 
take  a  direction  to  the  east  at  some  point  between  Kermftn  and  the 
sea  on  the  western  frontier  of  Baluchistan,    Some  of  these  western 
ranges  rise  to  considecable  elevations:  those  forming  the  Turko- 
'  Peraan  frontier  west  of  the  lake  of  Imnia  have  peaks  11,000  ft. 
in  heis^t.  while  the  Sahand,  east  of  the  lake  and  south  of  Tabriz, 
has  an  etevatioo  of  1^.000  ft.    Farther  south,  the  Takht-i-Btlkis; 
in  the  Afihar  district,  rises  to  naoo  ft.,  the  Elvend  Caadent 


Ohmies);  near  Hamadaa,  to  ii,6oa  Tlie  Shntnhm  Kuh.  aou^  oC< 
Etiniiird,  is  over  ii,oto  ft.  in  height,  the  SlMhan  Kuh.  Kuh-i- 
Gerra,  Zarddi  Kuh  aad  Kuh*i-Karan  (by  some  waiters  caUed 
K«h>>RanK>,  all  in  the  Bakhtiari  country  west  of  Isfahan,  are 
12.800  to  njooD  ft.  in  height;  and  the  Kuh-i^Dlna  (by  aome  writers 
WDonely  called  Kuh-i-Dinar>  has  an  devatton  df  over  ia,ooo  ft. 
Still  Taither  south,  towards  Kermin,  there  are  several  peaks  (Bid- 
Khan.  Laiehatf,  Shafa-Kuh,  Jamal  Baris,  &c.)  which  rise  to  an  devar 
tioa  ci  13,000  ft.  or  more,  and  the  Kuh-i-Ha^ear,  south  of  Kermftn. 
is  14.700  ft.  in  he^ht.  Beginning  near  Arddbil  in  Aaerbaijan, 
where  the  cone  of  Savclaa  rises  to  an  elcvatbn  of  15.792  ft.  (Russiam 
trigonometrical  survey),  and  ending  in  Khorasan,  the  great  Elburx 
range  prbsettts  on  iks  southern,  or  inward,  face  a  more  or  less  abrupt 
scarp  rising  .above  immeaae  gravel  slopes,  and  reaches  in  some  of 
its  summits  a  height  of  nearly  1^.000  ft, ;  and  the  peak  of  Demavcndr 
northrwest  of  TcbcrAn,  ha»  a  nci^t  of  at  least  18,000  ft.  Thero 
ace  several  important  ranges  in  Rhorasaiu  and  one  of  them,  the 
BinaliKl,  west  of  Meshed  and  north  of  Nishapnr,  has  several  peaks 
of  11,000  to  12,000  ft.  in  height.  In  south-eastern  Persia  theXuh* 
fBasman,  a  dormant  volcano,  ir.ooo  to  X2,ooo  ft.  in  height,  in  the. 
Baaman  district,  and  the  Kub-i-Taftan,  ut.  the  hot  or  burning 
mountain  (also  called  Kuh-i-Nusbadar  from  the  "  sal  ammoniac, 
nmhadar,  found  on  it«  §ktjpe»)t  an  active  triple-peaked  volcano  m 
the  Sarbad  district  and  u,68i  ft.  in  height  (Captain  Jennings),  are. 
notable  features. 

Taking  the  area  of  Persia  at  6aE,ooo  sq.  m.  the  drainage  may 
thus  be  distributed:  (i)  into, the  Arabian  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf,. 
135,000  sq.  m.;  (2)  into  the.CaspBan,  100,000;  (3)  into  mugM. 
the  Seitftan  .depression,  43.000:  (4)  into  the  Urmia  "^"'"* 
Lak^  ao.ooo;  (5)  into  the  interior  of  Persia,  330,000.  The  first 
district  comprises  most  of  the  south-western  provinces  and  the 
whole  of  the  coast  region  as  far  east  as  Gwetter;  the  second  relates 
to  the  tracts  west,  south  and  east  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  The  tracts  south  of  the  Caspian  are  not  more  than  ao  to  50  m. 
wide;  those  on  the  west  widen  out  to, a  depth  of  250  m^  meeting 
the  watershed  of  the  T%ris  on  the  one  side  and  that  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Lake  Van  on  the  other,,  and  embracing  between  the  two  the 
baun  of  Lake  Urmia.  On  the  east  the  watershed  of  the  Caspian 
gradually  increases  in  breadth,  the  foot  of  the  scarp  extending 
conuderably  to  the  north  of,  the  south-eastern  angle  of  that  ^a, 
three  degrees  east  of  which  it  turns  to  the  south-cast,  parallel  to' 
the  axis  of  the  Kopet  Da^h.  The  third  drainage  area  comprises 
Persian  Sclstan  with  part  of  the  Helmund  (Hilmend)  basin  and  a 
coosiderabte  tract  adjoining  it  on  the  west.  The  fourth  is  a  com- 
paratively small  area  on  tne  western  frontier  containing  the  basin 
of  Lake  Urmia,  shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  inland  drainage,  and 
the  fifth  area  takes  in  a  part  of  iJaluchisUn,  roost  of  KermHn, 
a  part  of  Pars,  all  Yezd,  Isfahan.  Kashan,  Kum,  Irak.  Khamseh, 
Kazvin,  Teherftn,  Samnan,  Damgnan,  Shahrud,  Khorasan  and  the 
oentra^  desert  Demons. 

Foiu*  nvcrs  beionipng  essentially  to  Persia.  In  reference  to  the 
Caspian  watershed,  arc  the  Seafid  Kud  or  Kizll  Uzain  on  the  south-' 
west,  the  Hcrhaz  on  the  south  and  the  Gurgan  and  Atrck  as  the 
south-eastern  comer  of  that  Inland  sea.  The  Seafid  Rud  ris^ 
in  Persian  Kurdistan  in  about  35*  50'  N.  and  46"  45'  E.,  a  few 
miles  from  Senendij.  It  has  a  very  tortuous  course  of  nearly 
500  m.,  for  the  di^ance  from  its  source  to  the  Caspian.  57  m.  east 
of  Resht^  b  only  210  m.  In.a  straight  line.  The  Kizil  Uzain  takes 
up  some  important  affluents  and  is  called  Seafid  Rod  from  the  point 
where  it  breaks  through  the  Elburz  to  the  sea,  a  distance  of  70  m. 
It  drains  2^,000  to  30.00O  sq.  m.  of  the  country.  The  Herhaz, 
though  not  important  In  length  of  course  or  drainage,  also,  like  the 
Seafid  Riid,  breaks  through,  the  Elburz  range  from  the  inner  southern 
scarp  to  the  north.  It  ns<^  on  the  slopes  of  the  Kasil  Kuh,  a  peak 
12,000  ft.  in  height  within  the  Elburz,  and  about  25  m.  north  of 
TehcrftOis  flows  easterly  through  the  Lar  plateau,  where  it  is  known 
as  the  Lar  River,  and  takes  up  several  affluents;  turns  to  the  north- 
east at  the  foot  of  Pcmavend,  leaving  that  mountain  to  the 
left,  and  flows  due  north  past  Araol  to  the  Caspian.  Its  length  is 
about  120  m.  The  Gurgan  rises  on  the  Armutlu  plateau  in  Khorasan 
east  of  Asurabad.  and  enters  the  Caspian  in  37*  4*  N.,  north- 
west of  Astarabad,  after  a  course  of  about  200  m.  The  Atrek 
rises  a  few  miles  from  Kuchan  and  enters  the  Caspian  iat  the  Bay 
of  Hassan  Kuli  in  37**  21'  N.,  after  a  course  01  about  300  m. 
From  the  sea  to  the  Russian  frontier  post  of  Chat  the  river  forms 
the  frontier  between  Persia  and  the  Russbn  Transcaspian  region. 
,  The  drainage  of  the  rivers  which  haye  no  outlet  to  the  sea  and 
form  hdand  lakes  and  swamps  (kaw)  may  be  estimated  at  350,000 
sq.  m.,  including  the  drainage  of  Lake  Urmia,  which  is  about 
20,000  sq.  m.  Fourteen  nvcrs  flow  Into  the  bke:  the  AH  Chaj, 
Safi  Chai,  Murdi  Chai  and  Jaghatu  from  the  east,  theTatau  Cratava) 
from  the  south;  and  nine  smaller  rivers  from  the  west.  Dunng 
heavy  rains  and  when  the  snows  on  the  hills  melt,  thousands  « 
streams  flow  from  all  directions  into  the  innumeroble  deprcs^ons 
of  inner  Persia,  or  hdp  to  swell  the  perennial  rivers  which  have  no 
outlet  to  the  sea.  These  latter  are  few  in  number,  and  some  of 
them  barely  suffice  for  purposes  of  agricultural  irrigation,  and  in 
summer  dwindle  down  -to  small  rins.  The  perennial  stfMnn 
which  help  to  form  the  kavirs  (salt  swamps)  east  of  Kum  awl 
Kashan  axe  the  Hableh-rud.  rinng  east  of  Demavend,  the  Jajnid, 


I  go 


PERSIA 


{PHYSICAL  FEATinCBS 


riling  north  of  Tehorin,  the  Koid  and  Kerej  riven,  ridnr  north- 
west of  Teherin,  the  Shurch-rud  (alao  called  Abhar-rud),  rising 
near  Sultanieh  on  the  road  between  Kaavin  and  Tabris,  and  the 
Kara-M,  winch  rlws  near  Hamadan  and  it  ioined  bv  the  Zarin- 
nid  (also  known  aa  Do-ab),  the  Resa  Chai  (also  called  Maadakan* 
rud),  the  Jehrud  River  and  the  Kum«nid.  The  river  of  Isfahan, 
Zendeh-nid,  •'.«.  *'  the  great  river  "  (from  Pferrian  undth  [Pfehlevi, 
atmdekl,  great),  but  now  generally  known  aa  2[aycndeh-rud,  i^. 
**  the  lif^ving  river,"  flows  into  the  Gavkhani  or  Gavkhaneh 
swamp,  east  of^Isfahan.  In  Fars  the  Kur  with  its  afRuents  forms 
the  nke  of  Bakhtegan  (also  known  as  Lake  of  Niriz),  and  in  its 
lower  course,  is  generally-  called  Dandamir  (made  famous  by 
Thomas  Moore)  from  the  band  (dam)  constructed  by  the  Amir 
(prince)  Asad-ed-dowleh  in  the  loth  century.  ("  Note  on  the 
Kur  River  in  Pars,"  Proe.  Rtyal  Gtog.  S«c.,  London,  itei.)  The 
rivers  flowing  Into  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Arabian  Sea  diminish  in 
importance  from  west  to  east.  There  are  first  the  Diyala  and 
Kerkhdi  flowing  into  the  Tigris  from  the  hills  of  Kurdistan;  the 
Ab  t  Diz  and  Karun  which  unite  below  Shushter,  and  reach  the  Stutt 
el  Arab  at  Muhamrah;  and  the  Jarahi  and  Tab,  which  with  the 
Karun  form  **  the  delta  of  P«^rsian  Arabistan,  the  most  extensive 
and  fertile  plain  in  Persia.*'  There  are  many  streams  which  though 
fordable  at  most  seasons  (some  of  them  are  often  quite  dry^  are 
unfordable  during  the  rains.  Two  of  these  may  be  mentioned 
here,  viz.  the  Mand  and  the  Minab,  which  St  John  (toe.  cit.  p.  o) 
oonsutoed  as  being  **  of  far  more  importance  than  the  maps  would 
lead  the  observer  to  suppose.*'    The  former,  after  a  run  of  over 

ioo  m.  from  its  sources  in  the  hilb  west  of  Shiraz,  debouches  at 
Chor-i-Ziaret  about  60  m.  south  of  Bushire.  It  is  mentioned  by 
the  old  Arab  and  Perrian  geographers  as  the  Sitakan  (in  some  MSa. 
miwpelt  Sakkan),  and  is  the  Sitakos  of  Arrian  and  the  Sitioganus 
of  F^liny.  In  its  upper  course  it  is  now  known  as  the  Kara-aghach 
(Wych.elm)  River  (cf.  **  Notes  on  the  River  Mand  in  Southern 
Pereia,"  Royai  Ceog.  Soc.,  London,  December  i88t).  The  Minab 
has  two  outleu  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  one  the  Rihor*i-Minab,  a 
salt-water  creek  into  which  the  river  overflows  during  the  rains, 
about  30  m.  east  of  Bander  Abbasi,  the  other  the  true  Minab,  at 
Khagun.  some  miles  south  of  the  creek.  It  rises  in  the  hills  about 
100  ra.  north  of  Bander  Abbasi,  and  has  a  considerable  drainage. 
Its  bed  near  the  town  of  Minab  (15  m.  from  the  coast)  is  nearly 
a  mile  in  width,  and  during  the  rains  the  water  coven  the  whole 
bed,  rendering  it  quite  unfordable.  During  ordinary  weather, 
in  March  18S4,  the  water  flowing  past  the  town  was  too  yds.  In 
width  and  a  ft.  deep  (Precoe,  Proc.  Royal  Ceog.  Soe.,  January  1885). 
In  ordinary  seasons  very  little  water  ofthe  river  runs  into  its  ori^nal 
bed,  being  diverted  into  canals,  &c  The  creek,  the  Anamis  of 
Nearchus,  b  navigable  nearly  all  through  the  year  as  far  as 
Sbahbander,  the  custom-house,  about  7  m.  inland,  for  vessels  of 
ao  tons  burden. 

"  The  great  desert  regbn  of  Perna,"  writes  Le  Strange  (Lands 
of  the  Eastern  CalipkaU,  1905),  "  stretches  right  across  the  high 
plateau  of  Irftn  going  from  north-west  to  south*east, 
and  dividini^  the  Tertfle  provinces  of  the  land  into  two 

>upB;  for  the  desert  is  continuous  from  the  southern  base  of  the 
Jlburz  mountains,  that  to  the  north  overlook  the  Caspian,  to  the 
arid  ranges  of  Makr&n,  which  border  the  Penian  Gulf.  Thus  it 
measures  nearly  800  m.  in  length,  but  the  breadth  varies  consider- 
ably: for  in  shape  this  immense  area  of  drought  is  somewhat  that 
of  an  hour-glass  with  a  narrow  neck,  measuring  only  some  100  m. 
across,  dividing  KermAn  from  Seistln,  while  both  north  and  south 
of  this  the  br^dth  expands  and  in  places  reaches  to  over  300  m. 
At  the  present  day  the  desert,  as  a  whole.  Is  known  ias  the  Lflt  or 
Dasht-i-LQt;  the  saline  swamps  and  the  dry  salt  area  being  more 
particulariy  known  as  the  Dasht-i-Kavtr,  the  term  Kavtr  being 
also  occasionally  applied  to  the  desert  as  a  whole." 

A  three-wire  teieffraph  line  on  iron  posts,  completed  in  March 
1907,  passes  througn  this  region,  and  it  is  the  unenviable  lot  of 
some  Englishmen  stationed  at  Biam  and  Nusretabad  Ispi  (Isbidh 
of  medieval  Arab  geographen)  on  the  confines  of  the  desert  regu- 
larly to  inspect  and  test  it.  Of  the  northerly  Great  Kavir  Ur 
Tietze  thought  that  it  was  composed  of  a  complex  of  isolated  salt 
•wampa  separated  by  sand-dunes,  low  ridges  of  limestone  and 
gypsum,  perhapa  also  by  volcanic  rocks  Qakfhnch  k.  k.  g^og. 
jUkksaMsML  Vienna,  1877).  Dr  Sven  Hedin  expired  the  northern 
part  of  the  Great  Desert  in  1906.  (A.  H.-S.) 

Geology. — Persia  conrists  of  a  central  renon  covered  by 
Quaternary  deponta  and  bordered  on  the  north,  west  and  south 
by  a  rsised  rim  composed  of  older  rocks.  These  older  rocks  also 
form  the  isdated  ranges  which  rise  through  the  Quaternary  deposits 
of  the  central  area. 

In  northern  Persia  the  rocks  of  the  elevated  rim  art  thrown  into 
folda  which  form  a  curve  round  the  southern  shore  of  the  Casinan. 
The  mountain  ranges  of  Khonasan  show  the  western  portion  of  a 
second  curve  of  folding  which  is  probably  continued  into  the  Hindu 
Kush.  In  the  western  rim  of  Perria  the  folds  run  from  north-west 
to  south-east,  and  in  the  south  these  folds  appear  to  curve  gradually 
aaetward,  following  the  trend  of  the  coaaL  The  folds  in  the  central 
Persian  chains  run  from  north-west  to  south-east,  parallel  to  those 
of  the  western  border.  It  is  seldom  that  the  old  crysulline  rocin, 
..which  form  the  floor  upon 'which  the  sedimentary  strata 


groi 
Elbi 


depjDsited,  are  exposed  to  view.  Qoetss,  granite  and  crystalline 
schist,  however,  are  found  in  the  Elbura  and  in  some  of  the  central 
ranges;  and  similar  rocks  form  a  laige  part  of  the  Zagroa.  Scnne 
of  these  rocks  are  probably  Archeaa,  but  some  appear  to  be  mecap> 
morphoeed  aedimentaiy  deposits  of  later  date.  The  oldest  beds 
in  which  fossils  have  yet  been  found  belong  to  the  Upper  Devonian. 
They  are  well  developed  in  the  Elburz  range,  where  they  attain 
a  thickness  of  some  9000  to  10,000  ft.,  and  they  have  beni  found 
also  in  some  of  the  central  rangies  and  in  the  Bakhtiarl  Moantaias. 
In  the  Elbun  range  the  Devonian  is  succeeded  by  a  series  of  lin^ 
stones  with  Pnductus.  The  greater  part  of  the  series  belmigs  to 
the  Carboniferous,  but  the  upper  beds  are  probably  of  Permian 
age.  The  limestones  are  followed  by  sandstones  arid  shales  with 
occasional  seams  of  coaL  The  plants  which  have  been  found  in 
these  beds  indicate  a  Rhaetic  or  Liassic  age.  The  Middle  and 
Upper  Jurassic  form  a  oonsidenble  portion  of  the  Elbun  and  have 
yielded  marine  fossils  belonging  to  several  different  horisoos. 
The  Cretaceous  system  is  very  widely  spread  in  Persia.  It  ta  one 
of  the  most  conspicuous  formations  in  the  Zagros  and  in  the  centnd 
ranges,  and  probably  forms  a  huge  part  of  the  plateau,  beneath 
the  Quaternary  deposits.  The  moat  prominent  member  of  the 
series  is  a  masave  limestone  containmg  HipPfriies  and  beloaang 
to  the  upper  division  of  the  system.  The  Tertiary  deponts  indude 
nummulitic  limestone  (Eocene^;  a  series  of  limestones,  sandstones 
and  conglomerates,  with  manne  Miocene  fossils;  and  red  marts, 
days  and  sandstones  imth  rock-^alt  and  gypsum,  believed  to  behMig 
to  the  Upper  Miocene.  In  the  Elbun  there  is  a  conuderable 
depont  of  palagonite  tuff^  which  appean  to  be  of  Otigocene  ace. 
The  nummulitic  limestone  takes  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
mountain  chains.  The  Miocene  deposits  generally  lie  at  the  foot 
of  the  chains,  or  in  the  valleys^  but  occasionally  tnev  are  found  at 
higher  levels.  Pliocene  deposits  cover  a  considerable  ares  near 
the  coast.  Both  in  the  Elbun  range  and  near  the  Baluchistan 
frontier  there  are  numerous  recent  volcanoes.  Some  of  these 
seem  to  be  extinct,  but  several  continue  to  emit  vapoun  and 
gasea.  Demavend  in  the  Elbun  and  Kuh-i-Taftaa  on  the  Balu- 
chistan frontier  are  among  the  best-known.  (P.  La.)    ' 

See  W.  K.  Loftus.  "  On  the  Geology  of  Portions  of  the  Turko- 
Pereian  Frontier,  and  of  the  Dbtricts  adjoining,"  Qnart.  Jemm. 
Cool.  Soe.  vol.  xi.  pp.  247-341,  pi.  ix.  (London,  1855);  W.  T.  BUnfocd, 
Eastern  Persia^  vol.  ii.  (Zoology  and  Geology)  (London,  1876):  C.  L. 
Griesbach,  Field-notes:  No.  5>  to  accompany  a  Geological  Sketch 
Map  of  Afghanistan  and  North-Eastern  Khorasan,  Rec  GeoL 
Surv.  India,  xx.  93-103  (1887),  with  map;  A.  F.  Suhl. "  Zur  Geologie 
von  Pcnien,"  Peterm.  Mitt.^  ErK&nzungsheft  122  (1897);  j.  de 
Morgan,  Mission  scientific  en  Perse,  vol.  ui.  (completed  1905,  rai is). 
A  summary  by  H.  DouvilK  of  the  prindpal  nological  results  of 
de  Morgan's  expedition  will  be  found  in  Buu,  soe,  gjUl,  Frameo, 
4th  series,  vol.  iv.  pp.  5^9-553. 

Climate. — For  the  rainfall  on  the  watershed  of  the  Persian  Golf 
there  are  two  places  of  observation,  Bushire  and  Jask;  at  the  fint 
it  is  a  little  in  excess  of  that  of  inner  Persia,  while  at  the  second  it 
is  very  much  less.  The  rainfall  on  the  Caspian  watershed  greatly 
exceeds  that  of  inner  Persia;  at  Astarabad  and  Ashurada,  in  the 
south-eastern  comer  of  the  Caspian,  it  is  about  50%  more;  and 
at  Resht  and  Lenkoran,  in  the  south-western  comer,  tt  is  four  and 
five  times  that  of  the  adjoining  districts  across  the  ridge*  to  the 
south.  With  the  exception  of  the  Caspian  waterehed  and  that  of 
the  Urmia  basin,  the  country  has  probably  in  no  part  a  yeariy 
rainfall  exceeding  13  or  14  in.,  and  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
central  and  south-eastern  Persia  the  yearly  rainfall  probably  does 
not  exceed  6  in.  The  following  mean  values  of  the  rainfall  at 
Teherin  have  been  derived  from  observations  taken  by  the  writer 
during  1892-1907:— 


Mean.  • 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

Total  foff 
Year. 

9-86111. 

in. 
1'76 

in. 
117 

in. 
187 

in. 
141 

in. 
•50 

in. 
•06 

•July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec 

in. 
•05 

in. 
•05 

in. 
•06 

in. 
•32 

in. 
I-,V5 

in. 

1*26 

Good  harvests  depend  on  the  rainfall  from  October  to  April, 
and  on  an  amount  of  snow  suffident  to  cover  the  crops  during 
frosts.  During  normal  winten  in  Teherfln  and  surrounding  dis- 
tricts the  rainfall  amounts  to  9  or  10  in.,  with  3  to  4  of  snow,  bat 
in  the  winter  1 898-1 899  it  was  only  5&  in.,  with  only  i  in.  of  snow; 
and  in  1809-1900  the  harvests  were  m  consequence  excepdonalty 
bad,  and  laige  quantities  of  wheat  and  flour  had  to  be  brought 
from  the  provinces  and  even  from  Rus^  at  high  freights,  causiAg 
the  price  of  bread  at  TeherSn  to  rise  200%.  The  fint  table  on  p.  191 
shows  the  mean  annual  rainfall  la  laches  at  fifteen  autiona  n  mid 
near  Persia. 

The  prevailing  winds  throughout  Perda  and  the  Pttrfan  Golf 
are  the  north-wtst  and  south-east  owing  partly  to  the  poaltlon  of 
the  Blach  Sea  and  McditesfUtaa  and  of  UN  Antblaa  Set,  and  pwtly 


FAVNA  AND  FLORA] 


F^&IA 


Rahl 

Asuntsd 
Mohcd  . 

KSE*  : 


Bntiik  CoMul.* 


^glikh  TdBfnfdl.* 


TABla  ia  1S71. 


o  Cikuna,  bt  had  Men 


ie  JtiK 


V  »  A-a  to  ShiiHi  (4) 
ud    Anlirun.   tut   gf 


Jan.    Feb.     Mir.   April.  liUy.   June.   Joly. 


epiitcRd  for  A  numbn'  of 
vnn.  In  liwr  Penli  the  lirTt  amtCaialSy  dty,  Bud  in  minv 
dUtriet*  BoHihcd  ■Mel  ney  tie  eimoeea  la  Ibe  opea  durioE  ■  ptat 
part  of  the  year  iHlbaoe  beeoaBnc  tirrtfihed.  Aloi^  tne  lEorv 
of  thn  Cuolaii,  panlenlHly  le  Citin  Bed  Muanduu,  and  of  the 
Prnian  Ciill  Inn  the  iMuth  ol  tke  Shut  el  Anb  down  to  Bander 
Abbail,  the  air  durinf  a  jntat  part  d  the  year  omtaiiia  nwh 
moutuR-'diy-  and  wet-bun  thennomcten  at  tlmea  indlcatliis  the 
uni*  tempenUon — and  at  idrhti  there  ate  heavy  laUi  ol  drw.  Ia 
GiUa  and  Macandann  At  air  BHM^iia  ranch  BMitun  vp  to  ooo- 
vdcrabLe  elevatiou  aod  ai  lar  ai  y>  to  40  m.  avay  Irom  the  ■«■; 
bat  alMiE  the  Penlan  Gall,  when  veietalian  !•  veiy  Kanty,  Matiou 
only  a  lew  mUea  away  (rora  Ibe  coaat  and  not  more  than  ao  or 
30  It.  Bbowt  the-  Ki-levci  have  a  mmpaiativdy  dry  dlnatc. 


;^^ 


•  Dr  A.  Supan,  "  Die  VenheilunE  dea  NicdencblaE'i 
iMca  Eniiitiei4khe."  Pa.  Ilia.,  SuppL  114  (iS9«). 

>'■  ifisU;  UatJ^^al  Mai.  (Q«'  ><93)- 

rmtkoi  taken  at  the  telciniib   italiaM,  and 

(onmsoitaled  by  Mr  R.  C.  Baiter,  C.I.E.,  diiMor  at  U 
Earoptan  Tetegraph  Dcfanaieiit  ia  Penia.  Thoia  lor 
an  duriK  the  ymn  laao-ioBT. 


'Mil 


SI**?.. 


rt  type  with  ^laeatctic  if 


and  he  obeerved  "  a  ni^ieuUr  cl 


Ku  of  Perua,  auch  as  the  tiecr,  n  rcmarltabae  deer  ol  (he  Ind^ 
liyan  imip,  allied  to  C>r«u  axii.  and  a  pic  viper  {HaivV 
iBcLudlas  the  oak-loreiit  of  Bhinz  with  the  wooded  tlopo  ol  the 
Zafna,  be  loaod  in  hia  third  diviaon  that,  howevar  Littic  kaon 
waathetiBctitcappcajediocDDtali^like  theiecondr  "aPalaearclia 
faoaa  with  a  lew  peculiar  apedes.'  Aa  to  Penlaji  Meaopotamia, 
he  cooildered  i(i  fauna  to  Sebog  to  the  laRw  Falacarclic  re^ioa 
aa  Sytia,  but  could  acarcely  apeak  with  cxtnlidcnco  on  ita  diaractir- 
iaiic  forma.  The  fifth  and  laK  diviiHm,  Baluchiaun  and  tht  ahona 
of  the  PenianCulF,  sreaeflted,  hovever,  iBlhe«aiaiakc<>aHaoa  to 
the  Pernan  *■'»"* '"I  "  'b  >be  nwit  pan  dcaeR  lypea,  whilu  tha 
daracteriatie  ralaeafdic  apedca  alnioat  entirely  luiappear,  their 

See  being  takes  by  Indian  or  Indo^rkan  foisa."  The  Peniaa 
If  Arab,  thaueh  not  oqual  to  the  pun  Arabian,  ia  a  very  aervica- 
able  anliaa],  andfiii alwayi  a  value  ia  the  ladiaa  narket.  AaHac 
ochen  the  wmnderiiv  Turkiih  Inbea  io  Fan  have  tin  credit  ol 
d  Uonli.    Th  ■ 


tin  crrdlt  ol 

r ^,  , The  Tutkomap  hone  ol  Kbonuan  and  the 

loui  pom  anif  endurance.  Colonel  C.  E.  Stewart  Haled  that  tbo 
KhorasiD  camel  ia  cetebnttcd  lor  ita  vta  aod  ativaith.  Ibat  It  ha* 
very  lone  hair,  and  bean  cold  and  eipoaiiee  Car  bttler  thM  tha 
ardinary  Arabun  or  Perwan  caud,  aad  that,  while  the  ordlnarT 
Penian  camel  only  cairica  a  load  <A  aome  330  lb  and  an  ladiaa 
camel  one  of  uoae  400  ft,  the  KhofaMn  canid  will  carry  inm  ten 
ts  700  lb.  The  beat  animalh  be  ooUa.  are  a  cam  lialaioa  Ika 
Bactfian  «  Iwa^hmnped  and  (he  Aralon  or  one^nimpcd  canMl. 
Sbeefi,  ^oat^  doca  and  ati  aR  lood  of  ihclr  kind;  but  not  ail  tha 


B  an  Iha  beautiful  a 


192 


PERSIA 


{POPOUkllON 


coantry,  htevi  ttrfved*  at  such  diatfnctioa  in;  Europe.  Nor  are 
tbeae  to  be  Obtained,  as  supposed,  at  Ansoca  iii  Asia  Minor.  Van 
or  lfl£ahan  b  a  mora  likely  halntat.  Toe  cat  at  the  firet  place, 
called  by  the  Turks  "  Van  kedid,"^  has  a  certain  local  reputatioa. 
Amoog  the  wild  animals  are  the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  lynx,  brawn 
bear,  hyena,  hog,  badger,  porcupine,  poIe<ait,  weasel,  marteou 
wolf,  jackal,  fo9c,  hare,  wild  ass,  wild  sheep,  wUd  cat,  mountain- 
goat,  gaselle  and  deer.  The  tiger  is  peculiar  to  the  Caspian  pro- 
vinces. Lovett  says  they  are  plentiful' in  Astrabad;  he  measured 
two  specimens,  one  lo  (t.  8  in.,  the  other  8  ft.  lO  in.  from  the  tip 
of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  taiL  Lynxes  and  bears  were  to  be 
found  in  the  same  vicinity,  and  the  wild  pig  waa  both  numerous 
and  destructive. 

According  to  Blanford  there  are  about  four  hundred  faiown 
species  of  birds  in  Pertta.  The  same  birds  have  admirable  repre- 
sentatives in  the  pheasant,  **  karkavui  "  ^Phastanus  aplckicus,  L.) ; 
snowcock  or  royal  partridge.  *'  keblc4-dan  "  (retra^roX/ur  Okipciir, 
Gmel.);  bUckpaitridge,  "dnrraj  '^(Franceliniu  vM|aru,  Steph.); 
0ed-4eflged 
partru%e  < 
grey  partridge 
'^beldeijin"   (_    _     _ 

sineh"  (pUfocles  armariits^  PalL);  bustard,  ''lufaareh**  {Otis 
ktnx,  L.  and  O.  McQumuH^  ^^^)*  woodcock,  sniper  piseon, 
many  kinds  of  goose,  duck,  &c.  The  flamingo  comes  up  from 
tlie  sooth  as  ^r  north  as  the  nctghbouriiood  of  Teherln;  tine  stork 
abounds.  Poultry  is  good  and  plentiful.  A  large  kind  of  fowl 
known  as  "  Lari "  ^rom  the  province  Lar;  in  southern  Persia)  is 
said  to  be  a  descendant  of  fowls  brought  to  Persia  by  the  Portu- 
.guese  in  the  l6th  century. 

The  fish  principally  caught  along  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Caspian  are  the  stuigeon,  ''sagmahi/*  dogfish  (Adpenser  rutkenus 
and  j1.  huso);  sheat-fish  or  silure,  *'amm,"  '*  summ "  {Silunu 
rianis);  salmon,  "  aaad  nuhi "  iSaimo  sttiar);  trout^  "  roasch  " 
J^lma  tnUta);  carp,  "  kupur  "  {Cypriuiu  baUerus  and  C.  cof^)^ 
bream, "  subulu  "  (A^ramss  brdmo) ;  pike-perch,  "  mahi6afid"(^erca 
lucioperea  or  LueioPerea  jofufra).  There  is  also  a  hcrrii^  which 
frequents  only  the  southern  half  of  the  Caspian,  not  passmg  over 
the  shalkw  part  of  the  sea  which  extends  from  Baku  eastwards. 
As  it  was  first  observed  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Kur  it  has  been 
named  Qupea  Kunnsis,  Fidiare  scarce  in  inner  Persia;  salmorf 
trout  and  mud-trout  are  plentiful  in  some  of  die  mountain  streams. 
Many  naderground  canals  are  frequented  by  tarp  and  roach.  The 
silure  has  also  been  observed  in  some  streams  "vnadi  flow  iiito  the 
Urmia  lake,  and  in  Kurdistan.  •       ' 

Fl^a.r-ln  the  provinces  of  Gilan,  Mazandaran  ana  Astarabad  on 
the  Caspian,  from  the  shore  to  an  altitude  of  about  3000  ft^  on  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  great  mountain  range  which  separates  those 
■provinces  from  ^e-  highlands  of  Persia,  the  flora  is  similar  to -that 
of  Grisebach's  "  mediterranean  regbn.*'  At  higher  altitudes  many 
forma  o£  a  more  northern  flora  appear.  As  we  approach  inner 
Persia  the  flora  -rapidly  makes  place  to  *'  steppe  Vegetation  "  in 
the  plains,  while  the  mediterranean  flora  predominafics  in  the  hills. 
The  steppe  vegetation  extends  in  the  south  to  the  outer  lange  of 
the  hills  which  separate  inner  Persia  from  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Beyond  this  outer  range  and  along  the  shone  of 
the  sea  the  flora  is  that  of  the  "Saliaia  region,"  which  extends 
eastwards  to  Sind. 

Generally  speaking,  everywhere,  excepting  in  the  northern 
lowlands  and  in  a  few  favoured  apoU  in  the  hilly  districts,  the  vege- 
tation is  scanty.  In  inner  Persia  the  hills  and  plains  are  bare  of 
trees,  and  steppe  and  desert  predominate.  The  date-palm  thHVes 
well  as  far  north  as  Tabbas  in  latitude  ^3*  36'  and  at  an  altitude 
of  2000  ft.  and  in  the  south  exteniave  date-groves,  prodiKing  ex- 
cellent fruit,  exist  at  altitudes  of  2000  to  5000  ft.  The  otive  is 
cultivated  at  Rudbar  south  of  Resht  in  Gilan,  and  a  few  isolated 
olive-trees  have  been  observed  in  central  and  southern  Persia. 

Of  fruits  the  variety  is  grcat,-and  nearly  all  the  fruits  of  Europe 
are  well  represented.  The  common,  yet  excellent  melons,  water* 
melons,  grapes,  apricots,  cherries,  plums,  apples,  are  within  the 
reach  of  the  poorest.  Less  common  and  fMckedf ruits  are  expensive, 
iiarticularly  so  when  cost  of  transport  has  to  be  considered;  for 
instance,  a  good  orange  costs  2d.  or  3d.  in  Tcherftn,  while  in  Mazan- 
damn  (only  too  m.  distant),  whence  the  oranges  are  brought,  it 
costs  Jd.  Some  fruits  are  famous  and  vie  in  excellence  with  any 
that  European  orchards  produce:  such  are  the  peaches  of  Tabriz 
and  Meshed,  the  sogar  melons  of  Kashan  and  Itfahan,  the  apples 
of  Denwvend,  pears  of  Natana,  fin  of  Kermanshah,  Stc  Hie 
itrawterry  wasbrooght  to  Persia  about  1859,  and  is  moch  culti- 
vated in  the  gardens  of  Tchcriln  and  neighbouriiood;  the  raspberry 
was  introduce  at  about  the  same  time,  but  is  not  macfa  apprea- 
ated.  Currants  and  gooseberries  are  now  also  grown.  The  common 
wgetables  also  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  but  only  a  few,  such  as 
the  broad-bran,  egg-plant  (Sdanum  inebmgflw),  onion,  carrot, 
beetroot,  black  tnrmp,  are  appreciated  by  the  narivea,  who  gencr- 
allv  do  not  take  kindly  to  newly-introduced  varieties.  The  potato. 
althoDgh  successfully  cultivated  in  Penia  since  about  1780,  has  not 
yet  found  favour,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  tomato,  asparapis^ 
celery  and  othera.  Flowers  are  abnndant,  but  it  is  only  sMice 
'    '  oC  Nasr  td  diA  Sfaab'a  nign  (ia46),  wicB  Eimiiaui 


gardeners  wane  cmployad  In  Pmia,  tiM  t^  yH»t  fttdooaBy 
cultivated.  Nearly  all  the  European  gaiden '  flowers,  even  too 
rarer  ones,  can  now  be  seen  not  only  in  the  parks  and  gardeas  ol 
the  rich  and  well-to-do  but  in  many  unpretentioua  courtyaida 
with  only  a  few  sqaaune  yazda  of  sorf aoe. 

-  'Foptdatwn.'^'^bx.  iflSi  the  picaeut  wilter  estiniated  the  poonli* 
lion  of  Persia  at  71653,600;  1,963,800  urban,  3,780,000  ratal  aod 
1,909,800  wandering  ("  BevOikenmg  der £ide,"  p.  98;  Ency.  BriL 
9th  ed.  p.  628);  and,  allowing  for  an  incteas^  of  about  1% 
per  annum  the  popuUtion  for  19x0  n^y  be  estimated  at  10 
millions  No  statistics  whatever  being  kept,  nothing  prcdse 
is  kneiR^  of  the  movement  d  the  popnUtioB.  Dnxmg  tJbe  lUBth 
decade  of  the  19th  century  manv  Persian  subjects  emigrated, 
and  many  Persian  villages  were  deserted  and  fell  to  ruins;  since 
then  a  small  immigration  Has  set  in  and  new  villages  have  been 
founded.  Persians. say  that  the  females  exceed  the  males  by 
10  to  20%,  but  wherever  the  present  writer  has  been  able 
to  Qbtain  trustworthy  information  he  found  the  excess  to  be 
le^  than  2%.  Of  the  deaths  in  any  place  the  only  cfaedt 
obtainable  is  from  the  public  body-wasKers»  but  many  corpses 
are  buried  without  the  aid  of  the  fuUic  boidty-washers;  and  the 
population  of  the  place  not  being  accurately  known,  the  number 
of  deaths,  however  correct,  is  useless  for  statistical  purposes. 
Medical  men  have  stated  that  the  number  of  deaths,  in  limes 
when  there  are  no  q>idemics,  amounts  to  19  or  20  per  thousand, 
and  the  number  of  births  to  25  to  40  per  thousand. 

The  prices  of  the  staple  articles  of  food  and  all  necessaries  o( 
Ufe  have  risen  conaderaUy  since  1880.  and,  particularly  in  the 
large  ciries,  are  now  very  high.  As  salaries  and  wages  have  not 
increased  at  the  same  rate,  many  of  the  up^r  classes  and  offidaU 
are  not  so  well  off  as  formcriv.  By  dismissing  their  servants  ia 
order  to  reduce  expenditure,  they  have  thrown  great  numbers  of 
men  out  of  employment,  white  m^hy  toboufers  ahd  workmen  are 
living  very  poorly  and  Often  suffer  utant.  Tradesmen  are  less 
affected,  because  they  can  sell  the  articles  which  they  maau^cture 
at  values  which  are  more  in  proportion  with  the  incr^^ed  onots 
of  food.  In  1880  a  labourer  earning  25  loans,  or  £1  sterhng  a 
month,  could  afford  to  keep  a  family ;  by  1908,  in  kraias,  he  earned 
double  what  he  did  in  i88p,  but  his  wage,  expressed  in  sterling,  waa 
the  same,  and  wherever  toe  prices  of  food  have  risen  more  tfaaa  hb 
wages  he  oould  not  afford  to  keep  a  family.-  In  many  districts 
and  cities  t^e  number  of  births  is  therefore  reduced,  while  at  the 
same  time  die  mortality,  in  consequence  of  bad  and  often  insuiBdent 
food,  is  considerably  increased. 

The  descripUon  of  the  Peniah  charictet  by  C.  J.  Wills,  in  his 
In  the  Lan4  of  the  Lion  and  S^n  (XS83))  ^  stfll  worth  quoting:— 

"  The  character  of  the  Peroan  is  that  of  an  easy-going  man  with 
a  wish  to  make  thoigs  pksasant  generally.  He  is  nosyataUe. 
obliging,  and  specially  well  diMpsed -to  4he  foreigner.  •  His  home 
virtues  are  many:  he  is  very  kind  and  indulgent  to  bia  childicn 
and,  as  a  son.  his  respect  for  both  parents  is- excessive,  developed 
in  a  greater  degree  to  his  father,  in  whose  presence  he  wiil  canfy 
sit,  and  whom  he  is  in  the  habit  d  addressug  aad  speaking  of  as 
'  master.'  The  full  stream  of  his  love  and  reverence  is  leaerved  for 
his  mother;  he  never  leaves  her  to  starve,  and  her  wishea  are  laws 
to  him.  The  mother  is  always  the  n¥>8t  impotftaat  member  of  the 
household,  and  the  grandroocbcr  is  treated  with  veneration.  The 
presence  of  the  mother-in-law  is  coveted  by  their  sons-in-lav,  who 
look  on  them  as  the  guardians  of  the  virtue  of  their  wivca.  The 
paternal  uncle  is  a  much  nearer  tie  than  with  us;  while  men  look 
on  their  first  oousioa  00  the  fiber's  side  as  .their  most  natuial 
wives. 

"  Black  slaves  and  men-nurses  or  '  lallahs '  are  much  respected; 
the  '  dayah  \or  wet  nurse  is  looked  on  as  a  second  mcMhec  aad 
usually  provided  for  for  life..  Persians  are  very  kind  to  their 
servants;  a  master  will  often  be  addressed  by  his  servant  as  his 
father,  and  the  servant  will  protect  his  master's  property  as  he 
would  his  own.  A  servant  is  invariably  spoken  to  as  ^bacha* 
(child).  The  servants  .expect  that  their  master  will  never  alletw 
them  to  be  wroneed.  The  slaves  in  Persia  have  a  good  time;  w^ 
fed,  well  cbtheo,  treated  as  spoiled  chiMren,  given  the  li^ktest 
work,  and  often  eiven  in  marriage  to  a  favourite  son  or  ttkea  as 
'  «gsJi '  or  concubine  by  the  master  himself,  alavta  liave  the  cer- 
tainty^ of  a  wellrcarcd-Uir  old  age^  They  are  looked  00  as  eoa* 
fidcntial  servants,  are  entniated  with  large  sums  of  mOney.  and  the 
conduct  of  the  most  important  affaiva;  and  sddom  novae  their 
trust.  The  greatest  pumsbment  to  an  untrustworthy  slave  is  to 
give  him  his  liberty  and  let  him  earn  his  living.  They  vary  in 
culour  and  value:  the  *  Habasht  *  or  Abyssinian  is  the  roost  valued; 
the  Suhuli  or  Somali,  next  in  blackness,  is  next  in  price;  the  Bon- 
baan,  or  coal-black  negro  of  the  interior,  beiqf»of  much  fen  nrice, 
and  usually  only  used  as.  a  oook.  The  prices  of  daves  in  Shinv 
.are»  a  good  Habaahi  giri  gf  tvdve  to^fourteeii  {^^  a  good 


COSTUME) 


PER8U 


«9S 


•ame  ag€.  half  st  much;  wkHs  a  Bontaarf  kto'be  fol  fot  /^  beias 
choflen  metdy  (or  physical  »trength.  They  are  never  wcHa,  save  oa 
importation*  thougn  at  tiroes  tney  are  given  awav.  ...  I  have 
never  seen  a  Persian  unkind  to  his  own  horse  or  his  slave,  and  when 
overtaken  by  poverty  he  will  first  sell  hit  diirtr  Iken  his  slave. 

**  In  commercial  morality,  a  Peiaian  mefchant  will  oooipam  «o| 
unfavourably  with  the  buropean  genciaUy.  ...  To  the  ppor, 
Peruana  are  unostentatiously  generous;  most  of  the  rich  have 
regular  pensioners,  old  servants,  or  poor  relations  who  live  on  their 
bminty ;  and  though  there  are  no  workbooses,  theie  are  in  ordinary 
times  no  deaths  from  sttrvatioa;  and  charityt  tho^th  ant  organixea, 
b  general.  .  •  •  ^Procrastinatioa  is  the  attribute  of  all  Fenians, 

*  to-morrow  *  being  ever  the  answer  to  any  propontioi^  and  the 

*  to-morrow '  means  indefinite  delay.  A  gr^t  dislike  is  shown 
generally  to  a  written  contract  binding  the  parties  to  a  fixed  date: 
and.  as  a  rule,  oo  bceaking  k  the  Penian  ahiays  appeals  for  ana 
eapects  delay  and  indefinite  days  of  gnioe.  »  -  • 

Persians  are  clean  ia  their  persons,  washing  themselves  and 
their  garments  frequently.  The  Persian  always  makes  the  best  of 
his  appearance:  he  is  very  neat  in  his  dreis,  and  is  particular  as 
to  the  sit  of  bis  hat  and  the  cut  of  his  coat.  All  Persians  are  fond 
of  aaimab,  and  do  oot  treat  them  badly  when  their  own  property. 

"  Cruelty  is  not  a  Persian  vice;  torture  and  punishments  of  ao 
unusual  and  painful  nature  being  part  of  their  judicial  system. 
There  are  no  vindictive  punishments,  such  as  a  solitary  confinement, 
penal  servitude  for  long  tennn  of  yeani,  Ac  Seldom,  indeed,  is 
a  man  imprisoned  more  than  twelve  months,  the  rule  being  that 
there  is  a  general  jail  delivery  at  the  New  Year.  Royal  clemency 
b  frequently  shown,  often,  perhaps,  with  want  of  judgment." 

Costupue. — ^The  costume  of  the  Persians  may  be  shortly  described. 
as  fitted  to  their  active  habits*  The  men  invariably  wear  an  un- 
starched shirt  of  cotton,  sew&  with  white  silk,  often,  ptrticulariy 
in  the  south  o^  Persia,  clabocately  embroidered  about  the  neck. 
It  fastens  in  front  by  a  flap,  having  two  small  buttons  or  knots  at 
the  left  shoulder,  and  selaom  comes  below  the  hips.  It  has  no 
collar,  and  the  deeves  are  loose.  The  lower  ordere  often  have  it 
dyed  bluei  but  the  servant  and  upper  classes  always  prefer  a  white 
shirt.  Silk  shirts  are  now  seldom  seen  on  men.  Among  the  very 
religious  during  the  mourning  month  C'  Muharram  **)  the  shirt  is 
at  times  dyed  olack.  The  **«r-jamah,"  or  trousers,  are  of  doth 
among  the  higher  cbisses.  particularly  those  of  the  military  order, 
who  affect  a  garment  of  a  tightncsa  approaching  that  worn  by 
Europeana.  lite  ordinary  *'  xir-jamab  '\  are  of  whiter  blue  or  red 
cotton,  very  loose,  and  are  exactly  similar  to  the  pyjamas  worn 
by  Europeans  in  India.  They  are  held  up  by  a  thin  cord  of  red  or 
green  silk  or  cotton  found  the  waist,  and  the  labouring  dasse*. 
when  engaged  in  heavy  or  dirty  work,  or  when  runnina.  generally 
tuck  the  end  of  these  ganoents  under  the  cord,  iriuch  leaves  their 
legs  bare  and  free  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh.  The  ampHtude  of 
this  part  of  hb  attire  enabtea  the  Parsian  to  sit  without  discomfort 
on  hts  heels  ^  chairs  are  only  used  by  the  rich,  great  or  Europcaniaed. 
Over  the  shirt  and  "  sir-jamah  "  oomes  the^*  arkhalik,"  geneiilly 
of  quilted  chintt  or  print,  a  doselywfittiag  gamwnt,  c<rflariesa,  with 
tight  sleevee  to  the  elbow,  whence,  to  the  wrist,  are  a  number 
of  little  metal  buttona,  fastene«|  in  wiater,  but  not  fai  summer. 
Alx>ve  this  is  the  "  kamarchin,'*  a  tunic  of  ccrfoured  calk»,  doth, 
Kashmir  or  Kermftn  shawl,  silk,  astin  or  velvet  (goU  embnMered. 
or  otherwise),  according  to  the  time  of  the  year  and  the  purre  and 
position  of  the  wearer.  Thb,  like  the  '*  arkhalik,"  b  open  in  front, 
and  shows  the  shirt.  It  sometimes  haa  a  small  standing  collar, 
and  is  double-breasted.  It  haa  a  pdeket>hole  tm  either  side,  giving 
access  to  the  pockets,  whk:h  are  alwaya  ia  the  *'  arkhalik,'*  where 
also  b  the  brcast-pDcleet  in  whkdi  watch,  money,  jeweb,  and  aeab 
are  kept.  The  length  of  the  "  kamarchin  "  denotes  the  class  of 
the  wearer.  The  military  and  oflicial  classes  and  the  various 
servants  wear  it  short,  to  the  knee,  while  fops  and  sharpers  wear 
it  even  shorter.  Priests,'  merchants,  villaeers,  espedally  about 
Shiraz.  townsmen,  sbopkaepen,  doctors  and  lawyera  tirearit  very 
k>ng.  often  nearly  to  the  heels.  Over  the  "  kamardiin  "  b  worn 
the  "  kulijah,"  or  coat.  This  b.  as  a  rule,  cast  off  in  summer,  save 
on  formal  occasions,  and  b  often  borne  by  a  servant,  or  «arried  over 
the  shouMer  by  the  owner.  It  b  of  cloth,  shawl  or  casncl'hair 
ck>th,  and  is  lined  with  silk  or  doth,  flannd  or  fun  It  has,  like 
the  Turkish  frockcoat.  a  very  bose  sleeve,  yith  tmny  plaits  behind. 
It  has  lapels,  as  with  us,  and  b  trimmed  with  gold  kMie.  rfmwl  or 
fur.  or  b  worn  quite  plain.    It  has  a  roU  collar  and  false  pockets. 

Besides  these  garmcnu  there  are  othen:  the  long  *'  jubba,"  or 
cloth  cloak,  worn  by  "  mirsas  *•  (secretaries),  government  employ^ 
of  high  rank,  aa  ministeri,  farmers  of  taxes,  courtiers,  physicians, 
priests;  the  "abba,"  or  camel-hair  cloak  of  the  Arab,  worn  by 
travellers,  priests  and  horsemen;  the  "  pustin."  or  Afghan  skia- 
doak.  used  by  travellers  and  the  sick  or  aged;  the  "nimtan."  or 
common  sheepskin  jacket,  with  short  sleeves,  used^by  shopkeepers 
and  the  tower  class  of  servants,  vrooms,  Ac.,  in  winter;  the  "  ya> 
panjah."  or  woollen  Kurdish  doeflc,  a  kiiMt  of  fdt,  having  a  shaggy 
side,  of  Immense  thickness,  worn  genersHy  by  shcpherda.  who  use 
It  as  greatcoat,  bed  ^nd  bedding.    There  is  also  the  felt  coat  of -the 


■  Zif  jamah  are  toose  traui 
or  tight 


and  also  drawen  wotn  under  the 


villager,  vttf  ^mam  tad  toesMoaive,  the  ooat  Mng  from  s  to  ts 
krans  (a  kran  -  tod.).  Th6  *'  lounarband."  or  girdle,  b  also  charac- 
teristic of  class.  It  b  made  of  musUn,  shawl  or  cotton  doth  among 
the  priesu,  merchants,  baxaar  people,  the  secretary  dass  and  the 
more  aged  government  empk>y€s.  In  h  are  carried,  by  literati  and 
merchants,  the  pen-case  and  a  roll  of  paper;  its  volununous  foMa 
are  osed  aa  pocicets;  by  the  baxaaf  people  and  villagers,  portere 
and  merehanu'  servants,  a  small  sheath  knife  b  struck  in  it;  while 
by  "  fanaabesk"  the  caniet-spreader  dasa.  a  brge  "  khanjar."  or 
curved  dagger,  with  a  heavy  ivory  handle,  is  carried.  The  Kcadteear 
b  very  diarincrive.  The  turban  worn  by  pnesta  b  generally  whiter 
oooristing  of  many  yards  of  mudin.  When  the  wearers  are  *' aaiyid  * 
of  the  Prophet,  a  gntn*  tariian  b  worn,  also  a  **  kamarband  *'  of 
gram  muslin,  ^r  shawl  or  cotton  doth.  Merchanta  generally  wear 
a  turban  of  nraslin  embroidered  ia  colottrs,  or  of  a  yellow  pattern 
on  straW'Colottred  musUn.  or  of  calico,  or  sfcawt  The  distinctive 
mark  of  the  courtier,  military,  and  upper  servant  ^ss  b  the  belt, 
generally  of  bbck  varnished  feather  with  a  brass  dasp;  princes  and 
courtiers  often  repbce  thb  clasp  by  a  huge  round  ornament  M  cut 
stonest  The  **  kulah."  or  hat.  is  of  doth  or  sheepskin  on  a  frame 
of  pasteboard."*  The  fashions  in  hats  change  yeatiy.  The  Isfahan 
merchant  and  the  Armenian  at  times  wear  the  hat  very  tall.  (The 
waist*  of  the  Perriaii  b  generally  small,  and  be  b  very  proud  of 
his  fine  figure  and  broad  shoulden.) 

The  hair  b  generally  shaved  at  the  crown,  or  the  entire  head  is 
shaved,  a  **  kakul,"  or  long  thin  lock,  being  sometimes  left,  often 
2  ft  long,  from  the  mlddlb  of  the  crown.  Thb  b  to  enable  the 
prophet  Mahomet  to  draw  np  the  believer  into  paradise.  The 
lower  orders  ^nerally.  have  the  hair  over  the  temporal  bone  long, 
and  brought  m  two  long  locks  turning  backwards  behind  the  ear, 
termed  '  culf ";  the  beaux  and  vonths  are  constantly  twbting 
and  combing  these.  The  rest  of  the  head  b  shaven.  Lonj^  hair, 
however,  b  goina  out  of  fashion  in  Pcrsb,  and  the  more  ctvifiaea 
affect  the  croppea  hair  worn  by  Europeans,  and  even  have  a  parting 
in  it.  The  chin  is  never  shaved,  save  by  "beauty  men,"  or 
"  kashangs,**  though  often  dipped,  while  the  moustache  b  usually 
left  long.  At  for^  a  man  generally  lets  hb  beard  fraw  its  full 
length,  and  cherishes  it  much;  part  oi  a  Persian's  religious  exercises 
b  the  ooml^ng  of  hb  beard.  Socks,  knitted  prindpally  at  Isfahan, 
are  worn;  they  are  only  about  a  in.  long  in  the  leg.  The  rich, 
however,  wear  them  longer.  They  are  of  white  cotton  in  summer 
and  coknired  worsted  in  winter.  Villagers  only  wear  socks  on  state 
occasions.  Shoes  are  of  many  patterns.  The  '*  nniasi,**  or  Rossiaa 
shoe  is  the  most  common;  next,  the  "  kafsh  "  or  ^[ipper  of  variooa 
kinds.  The  heel  b  fended  down  and  remains  so.  The  priests  wear 
a  peculiar  heavy  shoe,  with  an  Ivory  or  wooden  lining  at  the  heel. 
Green  shoes  of  slmgreen  are  common  at  Isfahan.  Blacking  b  un- 
known to  Persbns  generally.  Boots  are  only  osed  by  horsemen, 
and  are  then  worn  much  too  large  for  ease.  Those  worn  by  couriers 
often  come  up  the  thigh.  'With  boots  are  worn  **slialwafs."  or 
baggy  riding  breeches,  very  loose,  and  tied  by  a  strin|f  at  the  ankles 
a  sort  of  kilt  b  worn  by  courfers.  Pocket-handkerchiefs  are  seldom 
used,  save  by  the  rich  or  the  TMierials.  Most  Pkrsbns  wear  a 
**  shab  kulah,"  or  night  hat.  a  loose  ba^gy  cap  of  ihawl  or  quilted 
material,  often  embroidered  bv  the  ladies. 

Arms  are  uanally  carried  only  by  tribesmen*  The  nativea  of  the 
south  of  Vena  and  servants  carry  a  "  kammah,"  or  dirk. .  Tha 
soldiery,  on  or  off  duty,  always  carry  one  of  thoe  or  their  side* 
arms,  sometimes  both.  They  hack  but  never  thrust  irith  them. 
On  the  road  the  carrying  of  weapons  b  necessaiy. 

The  costume  of  the  women  haa  undergone  ccinsiderabte  change 
in  the  last  century.  It  b  now,  when  carried  to  the  extreme  of 
^faion.  highly  indecent  and  must  be  very  uncomfortable.  The 
garment  doing  duty  as  a  chemise  b  called  a  "  pirahan  '*;  it  b,  vatb 
the  lower  orders,  of  white  or  bloe  calico,  and  comes  down  to  the 
ndddle  of  the  thigh,  leaving  the  leg  nude.  Amona  the  upper  claasea 
it  b  frequently  of  silk.  At  Shiras  it  b  often  cl  fine  cotton,  and 
elaborately  ornamented  with  bbck  embroidery.  With  the  rich  it  b 
often  of  gauw,  and  much  embroidered  with  gold  thread,  pearls,  ftc. 
The  head  b  usually  covered  with  a  '*  char>kadd,"  or  large  square 
of  embroidered  silk  or  cotton,  folded  ao  ns  tn  dbpby  tbe  cometa* 
and  fastened  under  the  chin  by  a  brooch.  It  boften  of  consider^ 
able  value,  being  of  Kashmir  shawl,  embroidered  gauze,  &c  A 
** Ji^,"  a  jewelltti  feather-like  ornament,  ift  often  worn  at  the  side 
Of  the  bead,  while  the  front  hair,  cut  to  a  level  with  die  month,  b 
brMight  up  in  la«e4oeks  on  either  chede.  Baheath  the  "  chart 
kadd  "  b  neneiaUy  a  small  kerehbf  of  dark  material,  only  the  edge 
of  whkh  IS  visible.  The  eada  of  the  "char-kadd"  cover  the 
shoulders,  but  the  gauze  "pirahan**  b  quite  transparent.  A  pro* 
fusion  of  jewellery  b  worn  of  the  most  aoKd  description,  none  hollow; 
silver  bwoni  only  by  the  very  poor,  cosal  only  by  negnessea.  Neck* 
laces  and  bracelcta  are  much  affected,  and  chains  with  scent'caskcta 
attached,  while  the  arms  are  covered  with  clanking  glass  bangles 
callnj  "  alangu.**  some  twenty  even  of  these  being  on  one  arm. 
Jewelled  **  baznbands,"  containing  talismans,  are  often  worn  on  the 
npper  arm,  while  among  the  tower  ordcn  and  south  Persian  or  Arab 
women  nose-rings  are  not  uncommon,  and  bangles  or  anklets  of  bcadft, 

*  Green  turbans  are  now  rarely  seen;  the  cotoar  Is  generally  darii 
bhie,  or  black. 


^ ,_^ , ui  ubuu  the  poor  Had 

la  vUUm,  and  ia  Kca  uraai  ihs  upKt  rliaii  The  hair.  <hau(h 
fnwnlh  hidden  by  tbe  '' char^kaidd/'  ia  at  Iboea  expoaed  and 
pUiud  into  lanupienble  Iktie  laiUof  gnt  knglb.  wbiLc  a  cociueuiih 
Elite  tliull-cap  i4  embfoid*f¥.  or  ibawl  or  csliKind  lUk  ■  woni. 


■ul  never  cul;  il 

u>  «Mly  al»r>  d«d  na  -iih  henna,  or  with 

indigo  to  a  blue-blKk  linge;  il  a  oiiurally  a  gkxiy  bUck.    Fak 

hair  ia  not  eaueiiK 

KH  an  the  rule. 

A  foU-nooo  Itot  n  pioch  admim).  and  a  dark 

"  namak  "  (lalO  la  iho  higheot  lutive  ids  of 

The  figure  i>  aln 

uan  women  are  imall.  with  tiny  Icel  and  handa. 

n  kai  altB  matenuiy,  and  no  ufFfiDn  o[  any 

Uad^nrn. 

,  A  «rT  d™i  iailm.  of  tay  colour,  quite  open  iti  [rpnl,  ha.Hnt 

tight  >1eevH  with 

nany  nKial  buiuiu.  u  utualjy  worn  in  niminei. 

sal  in  eold  wealhet.    In  vimtr  a  pair  oi  very 
»ck.  an  uaed,  and  liny  alippera  With  a  bigfi 

heel:  in  iuiainer  i 

■he  houie  bdica  m  olum  b£^oot.    The  rt« 

•f  the  cauume  i>  c 

cniMaed  o(  the  "  tiunbuB  "  or  "  ahalvar,"  ihon 

Srt'srt'i.'n^Jasrff.fiJsrX'Ssts'Si 

nd  uiin  to  print..   The  whole  i>  vrry  ^rt, 

aauHV  Ihc  «oiimb 

i>iin«aiiov.r-iu 

Kla  hke  Ihe  "  kiiUiah7  or  eoat  of  the  nun,  wiUi 

•hon  llem..  lined 

sur--'"-^- 

llidund.      In  a'llcie^t'^U^^   PenU^'^dll^ 

a>  may  be  HD  by  the  picloita  in  the  Sotith 

KanrngtoaM^ 

marn^e  in   makiTii;   Ihey  are  ati  miaf   in 

—The  prindpal  ciliei  ol  Pets 


with 


Jieir  population 
rabtii  (™,ooo) 


DilRU 


n,ooo)i  Meshed  (So.ooo);  K' 
irfuTuib,  Kuvin,  Veid  (js,oc»):  Hamadan,  Kcr- 
(O,™);  Karflin,  Ktrai,  Urmia  (]5.™);  Birjend, 
Biuhire,  Duful,  Kirm.  Senendij  (Sinna),  Zmjin 
I  30.000);  Amol,  Ardebil,  ArdijUn,  Astarabid, 
am,  Bindn.    Abbaai,    Bander   LIngab,  Damghin, 


.,  Jab 


,   Khun 


,   Kuchac 


Shushlcr  (10.000  to  10,00a). 

Fililiciil  and  AdminiiUBlat  Dirisunu,— The  1 
dfliciayy  knon  ai  Uamalili  i  Mahnadi  i  trm 
kingdomi  of  Pfr«a."  it  divided  Inlo  a  numb 
which,  wben  large,  and  coniiioing  importar 
and  diurjcta,  are  called  mamlikal,  *'kingdc 
wUayal  and  ayaial,  and  are  ruled  by  ^\ 
govemora  appointed  by  and  directly  respon 
TlieH  province!  are  [unber  divided  intoiut 
dBlricli,  lub-diitricta  and  pariilus,  buiuk.  t 
lowns,  dtiea,  pariahci  and  viilagea,  nbobr.  kasiabek.  makalkk, 

uin  Appointed  by  and   responsible  to   Ihe  goveraota.     AU 
"  hatmrim,  but  U>o«e  of  large 


DOrvgeneral  ant 


:  title  of  H 


a  taill:  1 


brothen,  uncka  and  Otba  pear  relatii 
•te  held  by  men  «bo  have  little  if  an 
family.   Ait»,  tbc  gavenwia . 

illslricta  or  dependende 
iiuyiif,  by  prince*  or  high  funclionaiiea 
in  lieu  of  aaUiiea,  penaiona,  allawancis, 
mIvs  (oveta  or  ap|  ' 
Every  town  has  a  ! 


[POLITICAL  DIVISIOII* 
vd  apoB  the  ahali'B  aoaa. 


lord  of  k 


,"  talom 


lief  nwgUlra 


,  caDed  bgto-krt 
,Dieliine.rf«..,to, 
palish  p  makaiiek^ 

vlled  ta  Uu^ 


If  police;  every  ward  ei 
of  a  town  and  every  viliagc  liaa  a  bc«I-tpao 
"  house-lord."  These  offiocrt  are  teaponaiUi 
for  the  colleclion  of  tbe  lais  and  the  orderly  state  of  their 
parishes  azid  villages.  In  the  imporlaQL  provinces  and  atb- 
provinces  the  govemon  are  aiiisled  by  a  man  of  eipcrieiice.  10 
whom  the  accounts  and  detail)  of  Ibe  govemmenl  are  enlruued. 
Ttiis  person,  called  luiar,  or  paiiUar,  is  ollen  nominated  by  ihe 
shah,  and  his  functions  in  Ihe  ptDvinciil 'government  are  siir.iLu 
to  Uxiae  of  the  grand  viiic  in  Ihg  central  governmenti  atKl  con 
ptise  very  extended  adniiniairative  powers,  indudinf  at    timea 

hontads  a  different  system  of  titles  prevails,  the  chiefs  i>bo  arc 
reapoaisitde  for  the  taxes  and  the  orderly  conduct  of  tbeil 
tribes  and  clans  being  known  as  UUatii,  iUcfi  (both  inenoiig 

r),  kkiiii,  rah,  amir,  mir.  iktiik,  luiktuil,  Ac 


lenily  changed;  appoint n< 


year  only  and  are  sometimes  renewed,  Dut  it  does  not  (4lei 
occur  that  an  official  holds  the  same  government  for  Itmget  tlub 
that  period,  while  it  happens  rarely  that  a  province  is  govetoed 

(ormeriy,  when  not  infrequently  an  oHiciBl,  generally  a  neat 
relation  of  the  shah,  held  the  same  govemot^ip  for  five,  la 
or  even  more  years-  Tbc  govemoiship  of  tbe  province  ei 
Azerbaijan  was  an  exception  until  the  end  of  iQoA,  bcisg 
always  held  by  ilie  VofisAd.  "  hdr  ipparsnt,"  or  crown  prince, 
of  Persia,  provinces,  sub-ptovincra.  dir 


I.  AnbiKanandBakht 

1.  Ananbad  and  Cutt 
3,  Aserbaijan 

S-  Gemis. 

6.  GllanandTalirfi. 

I'.   Iraklcurjiiiean.  Khi 


«.  losehckai 


9.  KhaiakBB. 


Xiuili.— With  the  exception  of  hve  short  nais,  having  an  a«gie- 
gate  length  of  less  than  900  m.,  all  Ihe  roadt  of  the  country  are 
neflc  mule  tiacha.  carriascable  in  the  t^im  and  durinc  the  dry 
•esKn.  but  totally  uniitlor  conlinuou)  wheeled  triAic  during  it 
>ea»i>a.  and  in  Ihe  failly  dinricU  often  K  diir.cull  ai  to  cause  much 

few  miles  of  rnarff  in  the  iminediate  neiehbotfriwod  of  TtherAn 
lesdiag  Inn  [he  city  to  royal  palaces  but  oot  of  < 


POSTS  AND  ItLEGRAPUq 


H7ni.;  <l)  Idll-Tibnl,  So  m.-  (t)Tih, 
tbo  m.;  {4)  Mctbe^KucMir'Aikibaa,  iy>ni.;  jd  a  vzucn  uv  m 
Ruuian  mrinry;  fS)  lifalun-Alivu.  iBo  m.  Tim  tin  of  ikcM 
nudi  coBiifli  of  iwo  •tciiau:  Ratil-Kuvln.  Ij]  fn.,>ni]  Kuvis- 
-t._>.__._ 1^  j,„  tectioB  «u  coutnictnl  in  iBw-i»99 


PERSIA 


fravFrnmenC  nutrcd  In  iSu;  vitf  the 

Hnx^tcd  in  iii7>-i(79  by  lbs  Ftinn 

■bout  (KVno,  ceded  Is  ibe  cBDcaKHiiHin  sf  tW  Knt  «eli«i  b 
i<96.  and  Ttfalnt  ud  pinly  ncontnicted  by  the  Ruaiu  cnmpii] 
ip  i8gS-i^9}.  ,Batli  lectipiu^  were  sfficinlly  opened  utnAcE 

'uHwii  hyT 


1   1898-169?. 

nnjuit  1S99.    The  apbal  of ,_  „.      . 

Umi-JJO),  oTvhleh  I.Too.OM  ii  In  ihim  lakFn  by  Oir  public,  inil 
i.jcD.ooo  A  debenluret  taken  by  the  Rusaun  Eawmmm,  whfch 
■1H Euaranieei  5 Kan  cheihiro.  Atmur  iwo-thirdtol  the  capital 
h»  been  ejtpeiided  on  conKrnctlofi-  The  (Dcripanir'i  iimmF  ia 
drhved  from  toUi  levied  on  vehicfee  and  enimaln  vtinv  the  nmd. 
These  tolli  «eie  «  Sm  very  high  but  were  Tidu«d  by  IJ%  in 
IfOI,  ind  by  another  10%  in  19(10.  [[  all  the  trade  between  Ruerii 
and  T^ertn  weie  n  pan  over  thil  load,  the  tidli  wooM  DO  doubt 
My  I  Tair  dividend  on  ihcapiul,  but  much  of  il  soee  by  way  of  the 
Tdieiliv-MeBhed.i.Sar  route,  whidi  ii  much  lAnrta  and  hai  do  tolls. 
Tbe  aecond  road.  Julfa-Tibria,  So  m..  n>  corutrucled  by  the 
erne  Runian  company  in  IQOJ.  The  third  toad.  Ttbettn-Kuni* 
Sulianabad.  160  m..  aba  conniu  of  two  ler^ont:  the  (utt.  Tdicrln- 
Kuni,  91  m.,  the  other.  Kuin^Sullanabad.  6*  m.     The  ' on 

■bout  O'.ooo.  pqnJiased  by  ttwlmperial  Bank  of  Pr  90 

br  £10.000.  anS  reeonnracta]  at  ■  coii  of  about  Ia  he 

aecond  lection  Tormed  part  of  the  "  Ahvai  road  concea  ch 

nn"road"X   SuftaMhad"  "un.iipT'KhorTcmatad'  i), 

Diiful  and  Shuihler.    The  conctBmi  wa.  cededto  M.  ,    :h. 

of  London.  '■  The  Pcnian  Road  and  Tranapon  Company."  in  190J. 


Traniport    Compaiy.     The   road    wm  opened    Iqc   tr 

pminy  with  loada.    The  tdli  collrcled  in  19D7  anwunti 

(nmway.  both  worked  by  a  Beliiancon^pany.  The  nil 
of  >  lanEle  line.  ODC-IDCtte  piuie.  Imni  Teheiln  to  Shah- 
•siilh  of  Tcbettn.  as]  tf  ivo  branch  lion  vhlch  conm 
line  with  lonie  lioieMono  tfurriea  in  Ihe  hflh  Hulh-eajl 
The  liamiray  ilio  i>  ■  tingle  line  ol  oar-meiie  Eaag 
through  Bine  of  the  prinapal  atreera  oT  Teherftn. 

main  line  iraa  opeited  in  ll$d.  the  branches  mrr  cor 
|8<IJ.  and  the  tramway  Marted  in  iMq.  Tbe  espial  n 
in  thia  enlcTprise,  and  larBcly  lubocribcd  for  by  Runiai 
amounla  10  ^''''™''-   There  arc  alio  ordinary  ■hares  to 


'I  £«» 


Kqii 


The  reneral  opinion  is  that  if 
imrled  in  the  enttrpiise  the 


a  LonE  ■».    t<Jn  raiiwaya  m  rema.  ine  many  < 

_. jy  the  Persian  rovemmenti  and  only  one  havir 

ch.  aviii.  oC  Lord  Cunon'i  Ptraa 
enterprise.  Lorinj'a  Ls  Pata  to 

ftui.— Down  to  187a  the  pntal  lystem  was  In  the  hands  of  in 
olticisi  caHed  ctapanM  laiW.  who  waa  Ihe  head  ramier  of  (he  pou. 
Of  ikapart,  and  lertera-and  (mail  parceli  were  conveyed  by  him  and 
hii  agents  at  hifh  and  artnlrary  ntei  and  without  any  reiponiibility. 
The  citaWiihracnt  of  a  regular  psB  waa  one  erf  the  reauha  of  the 
•hah  Na(t«|.din-|  hrjt  vbt  to  Europe  (1873).    Two  offidali  of 


fXl™ 


1874.  I 

isv  oihct  D»n  European  lines  was  nude  in  (be 
a  postal  dehrery  in  the  capital  and  some  of  tbe 
neignooimBg  Tinagea  where  the  European  legarroiis  have  their 
summer  rtuartsri^  In  the  betfnniiw  of  1076  a  TTtular  weekly  poiC 
WIS  eitsblithnl  between  Teherftn.  Tabri  and  Julfa  (R Una-Ionian 
Itontieij  and   ReAt.    Other  linn,  connecting  all  the  principal 

III  of  September  in 77  Penia  joined  Ihe  international  nxlsl  union 
with  Ihe  raleiof  Jld.  per  i  01.  for  letten,  id.  lor  poslKSrti.  td.  pw 
The  inland  raiei  weiT  a  jklle  lem  Theie  are  now  between  Per3a 
-    ■  '  ■  ■     rf  bi-weekly  letvitt  vin  Ronla  IReshl-Baliii. 

weekly  lerviH  via  India  (Bushirr-Bonhay). 

Willi  tba  acepUs*  of  that  betwao  Tebetla 


Tabrii-TiMli)  and  1 


bo  tervtae  k  widib.    ThMt  an 

Scatiitk*  as  Id  tba  ■unbv  of 

K..  conveyed  are  kept  bi ' 

.,, UbenlHBlnded  dfa«coar  (.       _    

year  lU4-iMs  to  tb*  present  writer,  ao  others,  ullboiiih  nun 
llmea  prsiBised,  have  bem  obtainid.  la  Iba  year  latfiUs  then 
weic  conveyed  l.ttt.Ru  lellan,  M90  poat-cards,  745}  sanple^ 
■nd  173.m  pamlv  bavu^  a  vdne  of  £]i>4.7M;  ud  the  ncnpta 
ocecdcd  the  expsndinin  by  Mi.    Sine*  tben  tbe  EraSe  kls  maA 

incrcaaed,  and  tbe  ansa  olRceipu  over  op— " 

ligS-iSwwiaRported  uhavebscn  £iaiatni  bi 
than  that,  for  tJie  nuiialer  of  posts  f -* 

tll.oeo  per  aaounb  The  lam  system . 
I  tbe  foioirinf  year  the  poat  olBca  was  loinad  la  the 
depannaat  worked  by  Bslflu  oScials.  Under  the  Bfal  favaurabla 
condilionB  letters  from  Loadoa  via  RiiaaiB  an  delivered  at  Tabria 
In  9  days.at  TebeiCn  la  10,  at  btaban  in  14,  and  at  Shlrtai  In  Itdaya: 
aod  via  1  ndia.  at  BuaUie  b)  It  days,  at  Shiraa  in  n ,  at  Iifahan  in  A 
and  at  Teheitn  bi  40  dayai  but  dutiDf  the  winter  letters  between 
London  and  Teberln  aonetiiies  lake  ■  Bonth.  la  the  Interior 
Ihe  mails  are  conveyeil  on  hnieback.  and,  being  pn^ed  in  badly- 
rnade  soft  leather  baf^  are  uequenlly  damagu  thnugh  '^■■■**^ 
padiuK  and  wet.  Tbe  hnt  hriian  poatage  stamps  wen  laaued  ia 
1875  and  roughly  printed  la  Per^  Since  then  then  have  beea 
numeroua  iiwea,  many  practically  bogus  ones  tor  coUectorL 
Aulhealie  ipednena  of  Ibn  early  onea  are  much  valued  by  stamp 
colleetora.  (For  lafocmatloB  on  t&e  postal  system  of  Penia,  sea 
C  Rkderer,  itai  Pirlin,  Vienna,  t88>!  Fr.  Sehuelkr,  Dit 
ttriuckeFHlimi^PtittxraaiwIinttiK  Ptrtiik,  Vicana,  1893.] 

Tifrpafb.— The  first  Kno  of  (decraphs— fnm  Tekeila  to 
Sulumeh,  about  160  m.  on  the  tend  to  Tabri*— was  constniclcd 
in  1*39.    In  the  firihnring  year  it  waa  CDMinued  id  Tabris,  and  ia 

\nz  a  d^cct  lei^grai^ic  CDminumimllDn  between  England  and 
India,  by  connecting  the  Euminn  and  Indkn  syateiiisliy  a  land 
line  through  Penia  [mm  Bagdad — then  ihe  moil  laatafy  TurUab 
leicenphic  itallon~«i  Buahire  and  by  a  cable  Iiom  BuaUie  oil- 

to    Biidiiie   via    Knmtn: 


nople.  BaadKl,  Tdir 
Teherin.  Bushin.    Ai 

"tlw^miaii  Goir." 
The  lervico  was  veiy  I 
India  took  ervnal  da; 


tSS^ 


via   Ruiu.  Tinu.   Tabiia, 
between  Budad  and  India 

a  cable  thance  to  Bu^Eiira. 
Hgea  between  Er^nd  and 

obtained  in  tho  year  befotv  anil  later  diapoaed  of  to  the  lBdi>-Eurofiean 
TekgraiA  Company,  Ltd. — who  alsatook  over  RoKer-a  cable  Inm 
Lowestoft  to  Emden  (174  kaota) — consruned  a  Iwo-win  liae  oa 
lion  pests  throogh  Gcimany  ud  Russia,  and  In  l>anBa  fiom  JaUa 
to  TeberfiL  This  tins  was  epeaed  on  Ihs  9111  of  laaoary  187a. 
The  BrltUi  govemnienl  then  haaded  cbc  Befdad-TeliBita  aectioa, 
which  had  become  snneecasaiy  for  biNmaliDnal  throaih  tralSa 
between  Europe  and  India,  one  to  tbt  Pdlian  gnuwmminl.  and 
changed  Ita  TMeria-Boahin  Ha*  into  oaa  of  Iwo  wliea  an  boa 
PDili.  In  ttix,  aeconliag  to  a  conventioa  sicned  December  1871, 
a  third  win  wo  added  to  the  line,  and  there  was  then  a  thiee-wii* 
line  on  hoa  posts  (430  m.  Indo-Eurapcaa  Telegraph  Comiianr, 
673  ni.  IndhiTloverDawM)  Iron.  Ju^u  BuiEire.  In  Ai^uh 
i$DT  a  convention  was  concloded  bsiwRi  the  Brftiah  and  Paniaa 
roveromenn  lor  a  thn^vin  Una  on  iron  pcati  from  Kasban  (a 
nation  on  Ihe  Teheifhi-Buihhv  line)  to  Aluchletan  via  Yod, 
Ketmin  and  Bam  (803  m.).  Tbe  conatmctioo  of  rtiis  "Ccotnl 
Peraia  liite,'*  aa  it  la  known  officially,  was  beguit  an  December  190a 
and  comidned  in  March  ion.  Tba  section  Kasbao-lslalun  of 
the  old  Tehertn-BiBhlre  waa  (hen  taken  up  and  liafahan  waa 
connected  wi(b  Ibe  Ccolral  Peiaa  line  by  a  (wo-win  line  Irom 
Ardiitan.  71  m.  south^ut  from  Kaahan.  One  of  (b*  (hree  wires 
between  lifahan  and  Bushirt  was  aho  (aken  up.  and  (bn  are  no* 
a  hve-wirc  line  fram  TcheiSn  (o  Ardluan  ^iitt  m.|,  a  (hrsi-wira 

wire  line  from  Ardisan  (o  Buibirc  (Ml  «3-  "^^^  ""^  ** 
well  as  Ihit  of  the  Inde-Eniopean  Telqpsph  Camoany  from  Jidfa 
to  Teheiln,  arc  worked  ifaroughaut  by  an  EngUih  alafl  and  may 
be  claKd  among  the  Anest  and  nwl  efficient  rn  the  world.  Tbs 
central  hne  ia  continued  Ihrough  BaluchUan  to  Karadn.  and  Irom 
Budiiie  menaiei  go  by  cable  (faid  in  1864)  to  Jnk.  and  Iheaca 
either  by  cable  or  by  [and  ID  Karachi,  Bombay,  Ac  The  lelegtapbio 
convention    between   the  Bniiih  and   Penlan  rivemmenu  baa 

^%nYinwit'"in''Manh^90D.     In  addition  to  these  lines.  Pmia 
■  ■  1,1  , ,  ,.ni  M  aT  •i«si.._wlre  lines  on  smoden  poles  bdonging 
Bad  worked  by  a  Kniaa  sufli  ^ 


iqb 


PERSIA 


IMANWACTURES 


TehcEto-Mohed  line  (555  «^)*'  hammt,  it  lookad  a{|cr  by.  ao 
Enctiab  iimMaor  and  two  Enclnli  derka  at  Mcdied,  and  wnoe 
1885  the  Indian  govenunent  bai  allowed  a  eum  not  exceeding 
aoXMW  rupees  per  annum  for  its  maintenance;  and  xbe  Meshed- 
Sewun  line,  523  m..  it  looked  after  by  twelve  Russian  inspectors 
and  ckrks.  The  Persian  lines  are  farmed  out  (or  1 ,800.000  krans 
(about  £36,000)  per  annum  and  no  statbdcs  are  published.  There 
aie  in  afiisi  sUtiona.  Statistics  of  the  traflic  on  the  Indo-European 
tine  are  given  in  the  administration  reports  of  the  Indo-European 
telegraph  department,  published  by  eovemment,  and  from  them 
thefigures in  the  foUowmg  uble  have  oeen obtained :— 


Yaw. 

Tjnflkowcr  Unci 

bctwMtLoBdoo 

and  KancU. 

IhottHttSl  of 

Poondt. 

NrtPMBiial  (1» 

NoBibcrof 

11 

1 

Total 

BIIPCH. 

8| 

1 

I887-1888 
1892-1893 
1897-1898 
1902-1903 
I905-X906 
1906-1907 

83,031 

146.988 
178,250 

311.0013 

259.355 

111 

100 
116 

U5 
»55 
157 
149 

198,381 

437.668 
758,172 
589.571 
774.368 

458.559 

3-8o 
6-57 
450 
5-39 
309 

AfaaM^acfttret.£r«.— The  handbook  on  Peretan  art  published  by 
Cdooel  Murdoch  Smith,  R.E.,  in  1876,  with  reference  to  the  ool- 
lectioa  purchased  and  sent  home  by  him  for  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Milseum,  has  as  instructive  account  of  the  more  common  manuT 
lectures  of  the  country.  They  are  classified  under  the  respective 
heads  of  "  porcelain  and  earthenware,"  "  tiles,"  "  arms  and  armour." 
"  textile  fabrics,"  "  needlework  and  embroidery,"  "  metal-work." 
"  wood  carving  and  mosaic-painting."  "  manuscripts,"  "  enamel," 
*'  jewelry  "  and  *'  musical  instruments."  Specimens  of  the  greater 
number  are  not  only  to  be  procured  in  Eiu^land,  but  are  almost 
familiar  to  the  ordinary  Londoner.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that 
tikw  have  rather  increased  in  vakie  than  deteriorated  in  the  eyes 
of  the  connoisseur,  that  the  ornamentation  of  metal-work,  wood 
carving  and  inlaying,  gem  and  seal  engraving,  are  exquisite  of  their 
kind,  and  that  the  carpets  manufactured  by  skilled  workmen,  when 
left  to  themselves  ana  their  native  patterns,  are  to  a  groat  extent 
unrivalled.  Of  the  above-mentioned  articles,  carpets,  shawls, 
woollen  and  cotton  fabrics  and  silk  stuffs  are  the  more  imporunt. 
Carpett  may  be  divided  into  three  categories:  (1)  Kali,  with  a  pile, 
and  cut  like  plush;  (2)  gilim,  smooth;  C3)  nimads,  felts.  Only  the 
two  firet  are  exported.  The  Koli  and  its  smaller  rises,  called 
Kalichth  Gn  Europe,  rugs),  are  chiefly  made  in  Ferahan»  SnUanabad 
(Irak),  Khonsan,  Kurdistan,  Karadagh,  Yead,  Kernin,  and  ^mong 
the  nonad  tribes  of  southern  Persia.  From  the  two  iirst-meationed 
localities,  where  a  British  firm  has  been  established  for  many 
years,  great  quantities,  valued  in  some  years  at  £ioofiQO,  find  thar 
wtay  to  Earapcnn  and  American  markets,  while  rugs  to  the  value 
of  £30^000  per  annum  are  exported  from  the  Persian  Gulf  ports.  Of 
the  second  kind.  gUim  (usea  iti  Europe  for  curUins,  hangings,  and 
chair<overs).  conriderable  quantities  are  exported  from  Shushter 
and  Kurdistan.  The  value  of  the  carpcu  euxMed  during  the  year 
•906-1907  was  close  upon  £900^000,  Tudcey  uking  £6i3,300» 
Russia  £196.700,  United  Sutcs  i^jfioo.  Great  Britain  £20,700, 
bnrpt  ii8,wo  and  India  £5400.  Shawls  are  manufactured  in 
KCTmin  and  Meshed,  and  form  an  article  of  export,  priodpally  to 
Turkey.  Woollen  fabsics  are  manufactured  in  many  districts,  but 
are  not  exported  in  anv  veat  quantity.  Coarse  cotton  stuffs, 
chiefly  of  the  kind  called  KerboM,  nsed  in  their  natural  colour,  or 
dyed  blue  with  indigo,  are  manufactured  in  all  districu  but  not 
expwted:  cottons,  called  Kalamkar,  which  are  made  in  Manchester 
and  block«printed  in  colours  at  Isfahan  and  Kumishah,  find  their 
way  to  focrign  markets*  principally  ^  Russian.  Of  silk  fabrics 
manufactured  in  Persia,  principally  in  Khorasan,  Kashan  and 
Yesd,  about  £100,000  worth  per  annum  is  exported  to  Turkey, 
Russia  and  India.  In  the  environs  of  Kashan  aiud  in  Pars,  chicny 
at  Maimand,  much  rose-water  b  made,  and  a  cooaiderable  quantity 
of  it  b  exported  by  way  of  Bushire  to  India  and  Java.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  start  manufactures,  supported  by 
foreign  capital  and  conducted  by  foreigners,  but  neany  all  have 
resulted  in  loss.  In  1879  the  Persian  government,  was  induced  to 
spend  £30,000  on  the  erection  o^a  gas  factory  in  Teheran,  but 
work  was  soon  stopped  for  want  of  good  coal.  A  few  years  later 
a  Persian  bought  the  factory  and  plant  for  £10.000,  and  made  them 
over  in  1891  to  the  Compagnie  ginerale  pour  l'6cla!ragc  ct  k  hauITage 
en  Perse,  whkh  after  bnnging  out  much  additional  plant,  and 
wasting  much  ctpital  in  tryins  for  sonw  years  in  vain  to  make 

rd  and  cheap  ns  out  oif  bad  and  dear  coal,  closed  the  factory. 
1891  aitother  Belgian  company,  Sod^t^  anonyme  dcs  vcrreries 
nationales  de  Perse,  opened  a  glass  factory  in  Teheran,  but  the 
difllicully  of  obtaining  the  raw  material  cheaply  and  in  larse  ouanti- 
too  great  to  make  it  a  paying  Goaccrii»  and  the  uctoiy 


had  to  -be  doi^    A  third  Be^a  ooiiip«ny.  Socite^  i ^ 

pour  la  fabrication  du  sutre  en  nrse,  with  a  laii^  capital,  then 
came  to  Persia,  and  began  making  beetroot  sugar  in  the  winter  of 
189^  But,  like  the  gas  and  glass  companies,  it  found  the  cost  d 
the  raw  material  and  the  inddental  expenses  too  great,  and  ceased 
its  operations  in  1899.  In  1890  a  Russian  company  started  a  match 
factory  near  Teherftn  irith  an  initial  outlay,  it  is  said,  of  about 
£20,000,  but  coukl  not  successfully  compete  with  Austrian  and 
Swedish  matches  and  ceased  operations  very  soon.  A  Persian 
gentleman  erected  a  cotton-spinning  factory  at  Tcberin  in  1894 
with  expensive  machinery;  it  turned  out  some  excellent  yam  but 
could  not  compete  in  price  with  imported  yarnsi 

A^nUural  ProduUt, — Wheat,  barley  and  rice  are  grown  in  all 
districts^  the  two  former  up  to  considerable  altitudes  (8000  ft.),  the 
last  wherever  the  water  supply  is  abundant,  and  in  inner  Persia 
generally  along  rivers;  and  aSi  three  are  largely  exported.  The 
most  important  rice-gromng  districts  which  produce  more  than 
they  require  for  local  consumption  and  supply  other  dbtricta.  or 
export  great  quantities,  are  Astarabad,  Maxandaran,  Gilan,  Veramin. 
(near  Tcherin).  Lenjan  (near  Isfahaji),  and  some  localities  in  Fan 
and  Arerbaijan.  Peas,  beans.  lentils,  gram,  maire.  millet,  are  also 
universally  cultivated,  and  exported  irotn  the  Persian  Gulf  p<Htfc 
to  Ipdia  and  the  Arabian  coasL  The  export  of  rice  amounted  to 
52.200  tons  in  1906-1907,  and  was  valued  at  £472.^5a  The 
Persian  fruit  b  excellent  and  abundant,  and  Large  quantities,  princi- 
pally dried  and  called  khushkbar  (dry  fruit),  as'  quinces,  peaches, 
apricots,  plums  (of  several  kinds),  raisins,  figs,  almonds,  pistachios, 
walnuts  and  dates  (the  last  only  from  the  south),  as  well  aa  orai^es 
(only  from  the  Caspian  provinces),  are  exported.  The  fruit  exported 
during  Ij)06-I907  had^a  value  of  £1,019,000.  Nothing  is  being 
done  to  improve  the  vine,  and  the  Persian  win«,  until  recently  a 
world-wide  reputation,  are  yearly  getting  thinner  and  poorer. 
The  phylloxera  has  done  much  damage.  The  naturalist  S.  G. 
Groehn,  who  explored  the  southern  shores  of  the  Canaan  in  I77i« 
observed  that  tne  wines  of  Gilan  were  made  from  the  wild  grape. 
Cotton  b  laigely  grown,  principally  in  the  central  districts  and 
Khorasan,  and  some  qualities  are  excellent  and  command  lugh 
prices  in  the  European  markets;  18,400  tons  of  raw  cotton,  valued 
at  £838,78]^,  were  exported  to  Russia  in  1906-1907.  Good  hemp 
grows  wild  in  Maiandanui.  Tobacco  of  two  kinds,  one  the  tumbaku 
TNicotiana  persicOt  Lindl.).  for  water  pipes,  the  other  the  tulsM 
[NiaUiana  rutlica,  L.).  for  ordinary  pipes  and  cigarettes,  is  much 
cultivated.  The  tumbaku  for  export  is  chiefly  produced  in  the 
central  obtricts  round  about  Isfahan  and  near  iCashan.  wh3e  the 
tumbaku  of  Shiraz,  Feasa,  and  Darab  in  Fars,  considered  the  best 
in  Persia,  b  not  much  appreciated  abroad.  Tutun  b  cultivated 
in  Azerbaijan,  near  Urmia  and  other  places  near  the  Turkish  frontier, 
in  Kurdistan,  and,  since  1875,  in  the  district  of  Resht.in  Gilan.  About 
1885  the  quantity  of  tobacco  exported  amounted  to  between  4000 
and  5000  tons.  In  1906-19(07  only  1820  tons,  valued  at  £42.000, 
were  exported.  Tbe  cultivation  of  poppy  for  opium  greatly 
increased  after  1880,  and  it  was  estimated  in  1900  that  the  anniiU 
produce  of  opium  amounted  to  over  1000  tons,  of  which  about 
taro-fifths  was  consumed  and  smoked  in  tlic  country.  The  principal 
opium-producing  districts  are  those  of  Shtraz.  Isfahan,  Ycid, 
Kennin,  Khorasan,  Burujird  and  KerminshAh.  While  the  quantity 
consumed  in  the  country  b  now  j>robabIy  the  same,  the  quantity 
exported  b  much  less:  239  tons,  valued  at  £3^7,270  in  1906-1907. 
The  value  of  the  silk  produced  in  Persia  m  the  'sixties  -vas 
£1,000,000  per  annum,  and  decreased  in  consequence  of  silk-worm 
disease  to  £30.000,  in  1800.  The  quantity  produced  has  since 
then  steadily  increaoed  and  its  yearly  value  b  estimated  at  half  a 
million.  Cocoons  and  raw  itlk  valued  at  £316,140  were  exported 
in  1906-1907.  ^  Of  oil-yielding  planu  the  castor-oil  plant,  sesame, 
linseed  and  olive  are  cultivaica,  the  last  oaly  in  a  smafl  district 
south  of  and  near  Resht.  Very  little  oil  b  exported.  The  potato, 
not  yet  a  suple  article  of  food,  tomatoes,  celery,  cauliflower,  arts- 
choloesand  other  vegetables  are  now  much  more  grown  than  formeriy, 
chiefly  in  consequence  qf  the  great  influx  of  Europeans,  who  are 
the  principal  consumers. 

Among  the  valuable  vegetable  products  forming  articles  of 
export  are  various  guma  and  dyes,  the  roost  important  faring 
gum  tragacanth,  which  exudes  from  the  astragalus  pbot  in  the 
hilly  region  from  Kurdbtan  in  the  north-west  to  Kermln  in  the 
south-east.  Other  gums  are  gum-ammoniac,  asafctida.  galbamia. 
sagapanuro,  sarcocoUa  and  opoponax.  In  1906*1907,  3310  tons  of 
various  gums  of  a  value  of  £300.000  were  exported.  Oi  dye-stuffs 
there  are  produced  henna  (Gwsotua  inermis)  principally  grown  at 
Khabb,  near  Kermiru  woad  and  madder;  a  small  quantity  of 
indigo  b  grown  near  Dicful  and  Shushter.  The  export  of  dyes  ia 
I900r-i907  was  985  tons,  valued  at  £32,326. 

Hones,  mules  and  donkeys,  formerly  exported  in  great  numbers, 
are  at  present  not  very  aDaodant,^and  their  prices  have  risen 
much  since  i88a  Some  nomad  tribes  who  owned  many  braod 
mares,  and  yearly  sold  hundreds  of  horses,  now  hardly  poseess  soft- 
dent  animals  for  their  own  requirements.  The  scamty  of  antmals, 
as  well  as  the  dearness  of  fodder,  b  one  of  the  causes  of  the  deames 
of  transport,  and  freights  have  risen  on  the  most  frequented  roads 
from  3d.  per  ton-mile  in  1880  to  tod.*  and  even  13d.,  per  ton-mile. 

The  pnoes  of  stabile  asticks  of  food  roio  eteadily  fro»  i8to  and 


COMMENCE] 

r^ofched  a  m«dmatt  In  1900  and  1901.  as  wilt  'be  ttui  from  tbe' 

following  table: — 


*97 


Av< 

rage 
.iftBo. 

Price,  April 

Price, 

June  ] 

■   • 

Price 

190a 

19^       1 

s. 

d. 

4.      d. 

i. 

d. 

Wheat*  per  kharvar.   . 

92 

6 

102     0 

3a 

Q 

(649  tt>) 

Rke          ,       „ 

36 

3 

64     0 

64 

0 

Bcead,  ordinary,  per 

mana  (6|  tb) . 
Mcat,mutton(pcr  mann) 

i-6o 

9'6o 

3-84 

1 

2-40 

3     9'6o 

1 

5-2» 

I 

6 

a     4-8o 

I 

0 

ClariEed  butter     „ 

3 

3 

4     960 

5 

4-8o 

MUk 

JJO 

9*6o 

7-68 

EggB.  per  100.  .     ,     . 

I 

3     7»> 

3 

a '40 

Forests  and  Timtfer.—l 

rimbcr  from  the  forests  ol 

Mazandaran 

and  Gilan  has  been  a  valuable  article  of  export  (or  manv  years, 
and  since  about  1870  large  quantities  of  boxwood  have  also  been 
exported  thence;  in  some  years  the  value  of  the  timber  and  box- 
wood exported  has  exceeded  ^0,000.  This  value  represented 
about  300.000  box  trees  and  quite  as  many  others.  Much  timber 
is  also  used  for  charcoal-burning,  and  occasionally  ^^  parts  of 
forest  are  burned  by  the  people  in  order  to  obtain  cteanngs  for- 
the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  destruction  of  the  forests  by  timber- 
cutters  and  charcoal'bumcrs  has  been  allowed  to  go  on  unchecked, 
no  plantations  have  been  laid  out,  and  nothing  has  been  done 
for  forest  conservation.  Indiscriminate  cutting  has  occasionally 
been  confined  within  certain  bounds,  but  such  restrictions  were 
generally  cither  of  short  duration  or  made  for  the  convenience  and 
profit  of  local  governon.  The  oak  forests  of  Kurdistan*  Luristan 
and  the  Bakhtiari  district  are  also  being  fapidly  thinned.  A  small 
step  in  the  right  direction  was  made  in  1900  by  engaging  the  services 
df  an  ofi^cial  of  the  Prussian  forest  department,  but  unfortunately, 
beyond  sending  htm  to  inspect  the  Maxandaran  forests  belongifig 
to  the  Crown,  and  employing  him  to  lay  out  a  smallplantation  in 
Xhe  jajrud  valley,  eaait  of  ieher&nt  nothing  was  done.  The  monopoly 
for  cutting  and  exporting  the  timber  of  the  Mazandaran  forests  la 
leased  to  European  firms,  principally  for  box  and  oak.  Boxwood 
baa  become  scarce.  There  are  many  kinds  of  good  timber-ywlding 
trees,  the  best  known  being  alder  (Alnus  i^tUinout,  Wild.,  A,  barbata. 


imsitne,  Boiss.,  A^  campestre.  A,  pseuda-piatanus,  L.),  oak  {Quercus 
bdMa,  Q.  eastanfaefUtat  Q.  sessUifiora,  Q.  pedtincftlcta),  walnut, 
nettle  tree  {CeJiis  australut  L.),  Siberian  elm  iZtltova  crenala, 
Spach.).  and  various  kinds  of  poplar.  Pipe-sticks,  from  the  wild 
cherry  tree,  are  exported  to  Turkey. 

Fisheries. — Fish  is  a  suple  food  ak>ng  the  diorea^of  the  Penlan 
Gulf,  but  the  Crown  derives  no  revenue  from  fisbesies  there.  The 
fisheries  of  the  Caspian  littoral  are  leased  to  a  Russian  firm  (since 
t868),  and  most  of  the  fish  goes  to  Russia  (31.120  tons,  value 
£556,125.  in  1906-1907).  The  fish  principally  caught  are  sturgeon, 
giving  cavkrc,  shoit  nsh  or  cilore*.  salmon,  carp,  bream  and  |3crch. 

Mtnerals  and  Mming.-^9exm  possesses  considerable  mineml 
riches,  but  the  absence  of  cheap  and  easy  means  of  transport,  and 
the  scarcity  of  fuel  and  water  which  prevails  almost  everywhere, 
make  any  exploitation  on  a  remunerative  scale  impossible,  and  the 
attempts  which  have  been  made  to  work  mines  with  Enropean 
capital  and  onder  European  superintendence  have  been  financially 
unsuocessfuL  Deposits  of  rich  ores  of  copper,  lead,  iron,  manganese, 
zinc,  nickel,  cobalt,  &c.,  abound.  A  few  mines^  are  worked  by 
natives  in  a  {)rimttive.  systemlcss  manner,  and  without  any  great 
outlay  of  capital.  There  are  turquoise  mines  near  Nishapur  (for 
description  of  mines,  manner  of  working,  &c,  lee  A.  Houtum- 
Schindler,  RfPort  on  the  Turquoise  Mines  in  Khorasan,  F.  O.  Reports, 
1884.  and  "  uie  Geacnd  zwischen  Sabzwar  und  Meschhcd.*'  Jahrbuch 
k.  k.  giot.  R.  A.  Wien,  vol.  xxxvi,;  also  E.  Tielze,  Verhandt. 
k.  k.  teol.  R.  A.,  1884.  p.  93);  several  copper  mines  in  Khorasan. 
Samnan,  Anrbaijan  ana  Keftnta;  some  of  lead,  two  connderably 
arEentiferous,  in  Khorasan,  Tudarvar  (near  Samnan),  Aiuniran, 
AMhar  (both  west  of  Zenjan).  and  Kermfin;  two  of  iron  at  Mesula 
in  Gilan  and  Nur  in  Mazandaran ;  two  of  orpimcnt  in  Afshar  and 
near  Urmia;  one  of  cobalt  at  Kamsar  (near  Kashail) ;  one  of  alum 
in  Tarom  (near  Kaavin);  and  a  number  of  coal  in  the  Lar  district* 
ttorth-east  of  Teherln,  and  at  Hiv  and  Abyek.  north-west  of  Teherin. 
There  are  also  many  quarries  of  rock-salt,  gypsum,  lime  and  some  of 
inarble,  ahbaster.  soapstone.  &c.  The  annual  revenue  of  the 
government  from  the  leases,  rents  and  royalties  of  mines  does 
not  amount  to  more  than  £15,600.  and  about  £6000  of  fhis  amount 
is  derived  from  the  turquoise  mines  near  Nishapur.  As  the  rents 
and  royalties,  excepting  those  on  the  turquoise  min«s.  amount  to 
about  one-fifth  of  the  net  proceeds,  it  may  be  estimated  that  the 
value  of  the  atmual  output  does  not  exceed  £50,000.  whiW  the 
intrinsk:  value  of  the  ores,  particolarly  those  otlead,  iron,  cobalt 
and  nickel,  which  have  nqrt  yet  been  touched  can  be  estimated  at 


mtniaoaL    TBcce  ate  alto  aanw  vetf  rich  coal  seamt  ia  

Persia,  far  away  on  the  fringe  of  the  desert,  and  under  exiting 
conditions  quite  valueless.  The  richest  depNOsits  of  niickel,'cabatt 
and  antimony  ores  are  also  situacod  in  localitiea  where  there  b  little 
water  and  the  nearest  useful  fuel  some  liundnrd  miles  away. 
Auriferous  alluvial  strata  have  been  discovered  in  various  locaUties» 
but  everywhere  the  scarcity  of  water  has  been  a  bar  to  their  bctng 
exploited  with  profit.  A  rich  naphtha-bearing  zone  stretchca 
from  the  Luristan  hilb  near  Kcrm&nshfth  down  to  the  Persian.  Gulf. 
Competent  engineers  and  specialists  have  declared  that  boring* 
in  the  Bakhtian  hills,  west  01  Shushter,  would  give  excellent  resotts,' 
but  the  difiicult  hilly  country  and  the  total  absence  of  roads,  aa  wdi 
as  the  antipathy  cm  the  iiihabitants  of  the  district,  would  make 
the  transport  and  establishment  of  the  necessary  plant  a  most 
difficult  matter.  A  British  syndicate  liaa  been  bonng  at  several 
places  in  the  zone  since  1^5. 

Commerce. — The  principal  centrea  of  commerce'  are  Tabria, 
Tcher&n.  Resht,  Meshed  and  'Xczd;  the  principal  ports  Bander 
Abbasi,  Lingah.  Bushire  and  Muhamrah  on  the  Persian  Gulf, 'and 
Astara,  Enzeli.  Meshed  I  Sar  and*  Bander  t  Gea  oa  the  Caspian. 

Until  1899  all  the  qistoms  jvcre  fartned  oat  (1898-189^  for 
^00.000), but  in  March  of  that  year  the. farm  system  wasaboKsbcd 
in  the  two  provinces  of '  Aiicrbaijan  and  Kcrmfinshilh,  and,  the 
experiment  there  proving  successful,  in  all  other  provinces  in  the 
following  year.  At  the  same  time  a  uniform  duty  of  5%  <at  vahrem 
was  esublishod.  In  October  1901  a  treaty  fixing  a  teriff  and  re- 
serving "  the  most  favoured  nation  "  treatment  Tor  the  coimtriea 
already  enjoying  It  was  concluded  between  Pbrsia  and  Ras^. 
It  was  ratified  in  December  1902  and  came  into  force  on  the  i^tln 
of  February  19O3.  The  commercial'  treaty  with  Great  Britain, 
concluded  in  1857,  provided  for  the  "  most  favoured  natioa " 
treatment,  but  nevertheless  a  new  treaty  under  which,  the  duties 
levied  on  British  imports  would  be  tne  same  as  on  Russian 
imports  was  made  witn  Great  Britain  a  few  days  before  the  new 
tanIT  came  inlo  force  and  was  ratified  in  May. 

For  the  value  of  imports  and  exports  previous  to  1901  the  only 
statistics  available  were  the  fiflnires-given  m  consular  reports,  which 
were  not  always  correct.  In  1897  ^^  '*'&*  estimated  that  the  value  of 
the  imports  from  and  exports  to  Great  Britain,  including  Irtdia^ 
amounted  to  £3,250.000.  About  a  quarter  of  this  trade  passed 
over  the  western  frontier  of  Persia,  while  three-quarters  passed 
through  the  Persian  Gulf  ports.  The  value  of  the  trade  between 
Russia  and  Persia  was  then  about  £3.500,000.  ^ce  1901  detailed 
sfaristics  have  beeti  published  by^  the  customs  department,  and 
according  to  them  the  values  of  the  imports  and  exports  in  thousands 
of  pounds  sterling  for  the  six  years  i901~i<;k>7  were  as  follows  >~ 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

1901-1902 

54«9 

»738 

8»r67 

1902-1903 

4970 

3388 
483^ 

8.358. 

19<»3-'004 

7000 

ltjb32 

1904-1905 
i905->9<» 

§83* 
6441 

4886 
6544 

9.964 
".3*7 

1906-1907 

7982 

*4»526 

The  imports  and  exports  during  the  year  1006-1907  (total  vahia 
£14,^6,234)  were  distributed  as  follows  (values  in  thousands 
sterhng): — 

Russia    .  •  .    '•     •     .  829a 

Great  Britain    .     .     .  3128 

Tutlcey  .  •  .     .     .     ,  1335 

Prance   .'...«    700 
■  Aastria  .     .     .     .     .    277 

Afghanistan      .     .     »    203 

Germany      .     •     •     •     182        owcven    .     .      .     4-- 

China    ,,    .     .     «     .     14a 


U.S.  America     . 
Italy.     .     .     . 

Wetherhinds 
Belgium 
Swkxertahd 
Sweden   .     .     . 
Other  countiies . 


«9 
65 
4t 

37 

94 

aa 

8 

I 


I4<5^ 


While  the  vafue  of  the  trade  Ixftwccn  Great  Britain  and  Persia  in, 
1906-1907  was  almost  the  same  as  in  1897,  that  of  the  trade  with; 
Russia  had  increased  from  3i  millions  to  8i  or  1^7  %.  The 
average  yearly  value  at  the  trade  between  Great  Britatn  and  Per^ 
during  the  six  years  was  £2,952.185  Gfuports  ^43S/>i6,  exports 
£517,169)  -.between  Russia  and  Persia  £|S,475,866  (imports  £3.350.072, 
exports  £3,12^794).  The  average  values  of  the  trade  with  ot  her  coun* 
tnea  wen:  Fance  £666,000.  Austfja  £246.000.- Germany  £124,000, 
Italy  £79.ooo,Unitcd  States  of  America  £52,ooo,Netherlaiidfr  £39.000. 

The  principal  imports  into  Persia  in  approximate  order  of  value 
are  cottonst  sugar,  tea,  woollens,  cotton  yam,  petroleum,  stuffs 
of  wool  and  cotton  mbced.  wool,  hardware,  fronmonnry,  matches,^ 
iron  and  steel,  dves,  rice,  spices  and  glassware.  The  principat' 
exports  aire  fruits  (dried  and  fresh),  carpets,  cotton,  fish,  rice,  gums, 
wool,  Opium,  silk  cocoons,  sldns,  live  tiflimals,  silks,  cottons,  wneat^ 
bariey.  drugs  and  tobacco. 

Shipping  flftif  ^TaMcartoW.— dipping  urfder  tKe  Persian  flag  is 
restricted  to  vessels  betonging  to  the  Perrfan  Gulf  porta.  Some 
of  the  larger  craft,  which  are  called  bagtak.  and  vary  f*om  50'  to 
30Q  tons,  carry  merchaadise  to  and  from  Bombay,  the  Malabar 


tgS 


PERSIA 


(CONSTITUTION  AND  COVERNBiSKT 


Ztnziinr,  At.;  while  the  aoadler  ireaieh,  odtod  hamrdL 
and  mostly  under  30  tons,  are  employed  in  the  oootttng  trtoe  and 
the  penrl-nsherics  on  the  Arabian  coast.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
four  prindpd  ports  and  the  many  smaller  ones  (as  Mashur,  Hindiaov 
Zaidw,  Bajider,  Dihun,  Rig,  Kongan.  Taheri,  Kishm,  Hormux,  &c) 
possess  at  least  loo  badahsuxd  several  hundred  baforahs,  besides  a 
bfge  number  ol  smaU  boats.  The  following  figures  from  the 
commercial  statistics  published  by  the  Penian  Ciistoms  Department 
show  the  total  shippuuf  at  the  four  principal  Persian  Gulf  ports, 
Buihire,  Bander  uagan.  Bander  Aobasi  and  Muhamrah  auriag 
the  years  1904-1907. 


1904-1905. 

1905-1906. 

1906-1907. 

British  .     .     .- 
Persian .    •    , 
Russian      •     . 
Arabtsn,     «     . 
Turkish      ^     . 
French       •     . 
German.     •    • 

Total  .     . 

Tons. 
671,386 
36,797 
•»4.«2i 

3.«76 
a,90l 

Tons. 

•27.539 
35,069 
39.183 

16,749 
3.«77 
J70 

Tons. 
826.594 

4o!6i6 
7.932 
Sf05 

52.935 

760.868 

902,986 

939.507 

The  British  shipping  amounted  to  89*3%. of  the  total  shipping 
at  the  four  ports  during  the  vcars  1904-190^.  There  was  no 
German  shipping  in  the  gulf  before  1906.  but  m  the  first  year  of 
its  appearance  (I9o6*i907),  iu  tonnafl[e  at  the  gulf  ports  was 
almost  as  much  as  that  01  aU  other  nations  with  the  exception  of 
Great  Britain. 

I  The  shipping  of  1906-1907  was  distributed  among  the  four  porU 
as  follows;— 

Bushire  .  .  .  354>798  tons.  Bander  AbbasI  •  345.746  tons. 
Bander  Lingah     1 55.720  .«         Muhamrah      .     .  183,343  „ 

Bander  Un^h  being  the  port  where  most  of  the  pearls  obtained 
on  the  Arabian  coast  of  the  gulf  are  brought  to  and  exported  from, 
has  more  native  shipping  (allsailing  vessels)  than  the  other  ports. 

All  the  shipping  on  the  Caspian  is  under  the  Russian  flag'  and 
no  returns  ot  the  arrivals  and  departures  of  vessels  at  the  Persian 
ports  were  published  before  1906.  According  to  the  statistics 
of  the  custoDU  department  the  shipping  of  the  Persian  ports 
amounted  in  1906-1907  to  650,737  tons.  The  shipping  at  the 
principal  Persian  ports  on  the  Caspian  in  the  vear  1906-1907  was: 
Astara  I37.9J»5  tons;  Enseli  303,133  tons;  Meshed  i  Sar  90.799 
tons;  Bandcr-i-Gcz  56,135  tons.  Two  or  three  flat-bottomed  sailing 
vessels  navigate  the  lake  of  Urmia  in  north-western  Persia,  carrying 
merchandise,  principally  agricultural  produce,  from  the  western  and 
south-western  shores  to  iht  eastern  tor  the  supply  of  Tabris.  The 
oavii^tion  is  a  state  monopoly,  leased  out  for  £350  per  annum. 

Coinate,  Weigkis  and  Measures. — ^The  monetary  unit  is  the  kran, 
a  silver  coin,  formeriy  weighing  38  nakhods  (88  grains),  then  reduced 
to  36  nakhods  (f?  grains),  and  now  weighing  only  34  nakhods  (71 
srains)  or  somewhat  less.  Before  the  new  coinage  came  into  use 
(1877)  the  proportion  of  pure  silver  was  from  93  to  95%: 
subsequently  the  proportion  was  for  some  time  90%:  now  it  is 
about  89i^  In  consequence  of  this  depreciation  01  the  coin- 
age  and  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver,  partly  also  in  consequence 
of  exchange  transactbns  by  banksi  the  value  of  the  kran  has 
since  1895  rarely  been  more  than  4'8od.,  or  half  what  it  was  in 
1874,  and  fell  to  less  than  4d.  in  1905.  In  1874  the  kran  was  worth 
a  franc;  in  June  1908  the  exchange  for  a  £1  bill  on  London  was 
50  krans  which  gives  the  value  m  i  kran  as  4ld.  Taking  this 
value  of  the  kran.  the  values  of  the  vsxJQus  nickel  and  silver  coins 
in  circulation  work  rit  as:— 


Nickel  Co^ns. 
Shahi  •  3  pul       .     .  0'34d. 
Two  shahb  *  4  pul    .  0'48d. 


Silver  Coins. 
Five  shahis  ■■  i  kran .  t'3od. 
Ten  shahis  *  i  kran  .  3'4od. 
One  kran.*  30  shahis  •" 

4opul      ...     .4'8od. 
Two  krans  ....  9-6od. 

fn  1899  from  80  to  83  copper  shahis  (weighing  about  |  lb)  were 
being  given  for  one  silver  kran.  This  was  owing  to  the  depreciation 
of  the  copper  coinage  from  1896  onwards,  consequent  upon  there 
being  an  excess  of  coinage  due  to  the  excessive  quantities  formerly 
put  In  circulation  from  the  mint.  Accordingly  the  government 
m  1900  replaced  the  copper  by  a  nickel  coinage  (laoe  value  of  nk:kel 
in  circulation  end  ol  1907,  4,oooA>o  krans).    Accounts 


coin 


are 


*  By  artkk  v.  of  the  Treaty  of  GuIisUn  of  1 81^.  confirmed  by  article 
viiL  of  the  Treaty  of  Turkmanchai  of  I8a8,  it  was  declared  that 
Russia  atone  shoukl  have  the  right  of  maintaining  vessels  of  war 
on  the  Caspian,  and  that  no  otner  Power  should  fly  the  military 
flag  on  that  sea;  and  by  a  decision  of  the  council  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  publiahed  on  the  34th  of  November  1869,  the  establishment 
of  companies  for  the  navigation  of  the  Caspian,  except  by  Russian 
subjects,  and  the  pwrehase  of  shares  of  such  companies  by  foreigners 
prohibUed.  ( Jtete  iV^f.  vol.  IxiiL  935.) 


h^  in  dinars,  fbmierly  a  gold  piece,  aow  an  Imaginary  ooia  tAa 
of  a  kran.  Ten  thousand  diturs  are  equal  to  one  lomoH  (a  wocd 
meaning  ten  thousand),  or  10  krans  silver,  and  50  dinars  are  oaa 
shahi. 

Goki  coins  are:  i,  },  i,  3,  5,  and  10  toman  pieces,  but  they  are 
not  in  circulation  as  current  money  because  ol  their  ever-varying 
value  in  silver  krans,  which  depends  upon  the  exchange  on  London. 

The  unit  of  we^ht  is  the  miskal  (71  grains),  subdivided  into 
34  nakhods  (3*96  grains),  a  nakhod  being  further  subdivided  into 
4  gandum  ('74  |rains).  Larger  weights,  again,  are  the  sir  (16  miskala) 
and  the  abbast,  wakkeh,  or  kervankch  (5  sir).  Most  articles  arw 
bought  and  soM  by  a  weight  called  batman,  or  man,  of  which  there 
aft  several  kinds,  the  |3rincipal  being:— 

W-_   •  nr-u_._       «  _._L ^.^    —  *  'alS      —  6*49  Ik 

••      7-30  „ 

-  10-14  „ 

m      13-98  « 

-  25-96  » 

-  8-53  „ 

>■  ii6«te„ 
100  Tabrix  mana 


by 


640 

720  n 

1000  „ 

1280  „ 

2560  „ 

840  „ 

720  „ 

kharvar* 


Man-i-Tabrix*8  abbasis 
Man-i-Noh  abbasi*>9  abbasis 
Man-i-Kohneh  (the  old  man) 
Man-i-Shah  •  3  Tabris  mans 
Man-I-Rey  -  4     »      «, 
Man-i-Bander  abbasi 
Man-i-Hashcmi » 16  mans  of 

Com.  straw,  coal,  &c,  are  sold 
*>6i9  lb. 

The  unit  of  measure  is  the  zar  or  gex,  of  which,  as  In  the  case  of 
the  man,  there  are  several  variants.  40-95  in.  is  the  most  common 
length  for  the  sar.  but  in  Azerbaijan  the  length  is  44*09  iiL  Long 
distances  are  calculated  in  farsakhs.  a  farsakh  being  equal  to  6000 
sar.  Probably  the  zar  in  this  measure '■40>95  in.,  which  makes 
the  farsakh  3-87  m.,  but  the  other  length  of  the  zar  b  sometimes 
used,  when  the  farsakh  becomes  4*17  m.  Areas  are  measured  in 
jerilM  of  from  1000  to  1066  square  zar  of  40*95  in.,  the  surface  unit 
thus  being  from  1394  to  1379  sq.  yds. 

Constitution  and  GournmetU. — Up  to  the  year  1906  the  govern* 
roent  of  Persia  was  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  resembl^  in  its 
principal  features  that  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  with  the  excep- 
tion, however,  that  the  monarch  was  not  the  religious  head 
of  the  community.  The  powers  of  the  Shah  (Shahanshah,*  or 
*'  king  of  kings  **)  over  his  subjects  and  their  property  were 
absolute,  but  only  in  so  far  as  they  were  not  opposed  to  the  sAor*, 
or  "  divine  law,"  which  consists  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Mahom« 
medan  religion,  as  laid  down  in  the  Koran,  the  oral  commentaries 
and  sayings  of  the  Prophet,  and  the  interpretations  by  his 
successors  and  the  high  priesthood.  In  1905,  however,  the 
people  began  to  demand  judicial  reforms,  and  in  1906  cried  out 
for  representative  institutions  and  a  constitution.  By  a  rescript 
dated  the  5th  of  August  Muzaffar->ud-Dln  Shah  gftve  his  assent 
to  the  formation  of  a  naiional  council  {Majlis  i  skora  i  miUij, 
to  be  composed  of  the  representatives  of  the  various  classes: 
princes^  cLagyt  members  of  the  Kajar  family  and  tribe-*-chiefs 
and  n(ri>Ies,  landowners,  agriculturists,  merchants  and  trades* 
men.  By  an  ordinance  of  the  loth  of  September  the  numbef  c£ 
members  was  fixed  at  162  (60  for  Teheiftn,  zo3  for  the  provinces) 
to  be  raised  to  soo  if  necessary,  and  eleaions  were  hdd  soon 
after.  Electors  must  be  males  and  Persian  subjects  of  not  less 
than  35  years  of  age  and  of  good  repute.  Landowners  must 
possess  land  of  at  least  xooo  tomans  (£200)  in  value,  merchants 
and  tradesmen  must  have  a  fixed  and  well-known  place  of 
business  or  shop  with  an  annual  value  of  not  less  than  the 
average  values  in  the  localities  where  they  are  estabUdied. 
Soldiers  and  persons  convicted  of  any  criminal  ofTence  are  not 
entitled  to  vote.  The  qualifications  for  membership  are  know* 
ledge  of  the  Persian  language  and  ability  to  read  and  write  it  and 
good  repute  in  the  constituency.  No  person  can  be  elected  who 
is  an  alien,  is  under  the  age  of  30  years  or  over  the  age  of  70  years, 
is  in  the  employ  of  the  government,  is  in  the  active  service  o( 
the  army  or  navy,  has  been  convicted  of  tny  dimiaal  offence^  ec 
is  a  bankrupt. 

On  the  7th  of  October  the  national  council,  or  as  many  mem* 
bers  of  it  as  co\ild  be  got  together,  was  welcomed  by  the  shah 
and  elected  a  president.  This  was  considered  as  the  inaugural 
lion  and  fonnal  <^>ening  of  parliament.    An  ordinance  signed 

*  We  see  this  title  in  its  old  Persian  form,  Khshayatkiya  KkskayO' 
tki^t  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions;  as  Ba^tMcM  Ba»iKium  on  the 
coins  of  the  Arsacidea,  and  as  the  Pahlavi  Malkan  Malka  on  the 
coins  and  in  the  inscriptions  of  the  Sasaanians.  With  the  Mahom* 
medan  conquest  of  Persia  and  the  fall  of  the  Sassanians  the  title 
was  abolished ;  it  was  in  use  for  a  short  time  during  the  loth  century, 
having  been  granted  to  Shah  Ismail  Samani  by  the  Caliph  Motadia 
A.D.  900;  it  appeared  again  on  coins  of  Nadir  Shah,  1 730-1 747,  and 
was  assumed  by  the  present  dynasty,  the  Kajars,  in  1799. 


KBUCIOiq 


PERSIA 


199 


by  MttZftffar-ud'Dfn  Shahi  Kafaommed  AK  Mlna  (U»  successor) 
and  the  grand  vixir,  on  the  30th  ol  Peoember  1906,  deals  with 
the  rescript  of  the  sth  of  August,  states  the  powers  and  duties 
of  the  national  council  and  makes  provision  for  the  regulation 
of  its  general  procedure  by  the  council  itself.  The  members 
have  immunity  from  prosecution  except  with  the  knowledge  of 
the  national  council  The  publicity  of  their  pnoceedings  except 
under  conditions  accepted  by  the  council  Is  secured.  Ministers, 
or  their  delegates  may  appear  and  speak  in  the  national  councU 
and  are  responsible  to  that  body,  which  also  has  special  control 
of  iinanciat  affairs  and  internal  administration.  Its  sanction 
is  required  for  all  territorial  changes,  for  the  alienation  of  state 
property,  for  the  granting  of  concessions,  for  the  contracting 
of  loans,  for  the  oonstruction  ol  roads  and  railways,  for  the 
ratification  of  treaties,  &c.  There  was  to  be  a  senate  of  60 
members  of  whom  30  were  to  be  appointed  to  represent  the  shah 
and  30  to  be  elected  on  behalf  of  the  national  council,  15  of  each 
dassbdng  from  Teherin  and  15  from  the  provinces  (the  senate, 
however,  was  not  immediately  formed). 

By  a  rescript  dated  February  a,  1907,  Mahommed  All  Shah 
confirmed  the  ordinance  of  the  30th  of  December,  and  on  the 
Sth  of  October  1907  he  signed  the  final  revised  constitution,  and 
took  the  oath  which  it  prescribes  on  the  xath  of  November  in 
the  presence  of  the  national  council. 

In  accordance  with  the  constitution  the  shah  must  belong  to 
the  Shiab  faith,  and  his  successor  must  be  his  eldest  son,  or  next 
male  in  succession,  whose  mother  was  a  Kajar  princess.  The 
shah's  civil  list  amounts  to  500,000  tomans  (£100,000). 

The  executive  government  is  carried  on  under  a  cabinet 
composed  of  seven  or  eight  vizirs  (ministers),  of  whom  one, 
besides  holding  a  portfolio,  is  vizir  axam,  prime  minister.  The 
vizirs  are  the  ministers  ol  the  interior,  foreign  affairs,  war, 
justice,  finance,  commerce,  education,  public  works. 

Until  1906  the  shah  was  assisted  in  the  task  of  ^vemment  by 
the  sadr  caam  (grand  vizir),  a  number  of  vizirs,  ministers  or  heads 
of  departments  somewhat  on  European  lines,  and  a  **  gnmd  council 
of  state,"  composed  of  some  ministcfs  and  other  raembers  nomin- 
ated by  the  shah  himself  as  occasion  required.  Many  of  the 
"  minbters "  would  have  been  considered  in  Europe  merely  as 
dilefs  of  departments  of  a  ministry,  as,  for  instance,  the  minister 
for  Crown  buildings,  that  for  Crown  domains,  the  minister  of  cere* 
monies,  those  for  arsenab,  army  accounts,  &c. ;  also  an  accumulation 
of  several  offices  without  any  connexion  between  their  functions, 
in  the  hands  of  a  single  person,  was  frequently  a  characteristic 
departure  from  the  European  model.  Tne  minbters  were  not 
responsible  to  the  Crown  m  a  way  that  ministers  of  a  European 
government^ are:  they  rarely  toox  any  initiative,  and  generally 
referred  their  affairs  to  the  grand  vizur  or  to  the  shah  for  final 
decision. 

There  were  twenty-seven  virirs  (minbters),  but  only  some  of 
them  were  consulted  on  affairs  of  state.  The  departments  that 
had  a  vizir  at  their  head  were  the  following:  court,  ceremonies, 
shah's  secretarial  department,  interior,  correspondence  between 
court  and  governors,  revenue  accounts  and  budget,  finance,  treasury, 
outstanding  accounts,  foreign  affairs,  war,  army  accounts,  military 
stores,  arsenals,  justice,^  commerce,  mines  and  industries,  agn* 
culture  and  Crown  domains.  Crown  building  public  works,  public 
instructbn,  telegraphs,  posts,  mint,  religious  endowments  and 
pensions^  customs,  press.  In  addition  to  these  twenty-seven 
vizirs  with  portfolios,  there  were  some  titulary  vizirs  at  court, 
like  Vhir  i  auzwr  i  Humayun  (minbter  of  the  imperial  presence), 
Vitir  i  moAAjtir  (extraordinary  minister>,  ftc,  and  a  numoer  in  the 
provinces  assisting  the  governors  in  the  same  way  as  the  erand 
vizir  assists  the  shah.  Most  of  these  minbters  were  abolished 
under  the  new  constitution,  and  the  heads  of  subsidiary  depart- 
ments are  entitled  mudir  or  rats,  and  are  placed  under  the  responsible 
ministera. 

Religian. — About  9/>oo,ooo  of  the  populatioa  are  Mahom- 
medans  of  the  Shiah  faith,  and  800,000  or  900,000,  principally 
Kurds  in  north-western  Persia,  are  said  to  belong  to  the  other 
great  bmticb  of  Islam,  the  Sunni,  which  differs  from  the  former 
In  religious  doctrine  and  historical  belief,  and  is  the  sute  religion 
of  the  Turkish  Empire  and  other  Mahommedan  countries^  Other 
religions  are  represented  in  Persia  by  about  80,000  to  90,000 
Christians  (Armeniaoei,  Nestorinns,  Greek  Orthodox  and  Roman 
CatboUcs,  ProcestanU),  56,000  Jews,  and  9000  Zoroastrians. 

Society  in  Persia,  being  based  almost  exclusively  on  religious 
law,  is  much  as  it  was  in  Biblical  times  among  the  Jews,  with,  this 


difference,  howerer,  that  there  ttists  no  saeenlolal  caste.  la 
Persia  any  person  capable  of  reading  the  Koran  and  interpreting 
its  laws  may  act  as  a  priest  (mullah),  and  as  soon  as  such  a  priest 
becomes  known  for  hb  just  interpretation  of  the  skar*  and  his 
superior  knowledge  of  the  traditions  and  articles  of  faith,  he 
becomes  a  mujtakid,  literally  meaning  "  one  who  strives  "  (to 
acquire  knowledge),  and  u  a  chief  priest,  llie  mullah  are 
referred  to  in  quesUons  concerning  r^igious  law,  hold  religious 
assemblies,  preach  in  mosques,  teach  in  colleges,  and  are  appointed 
by  the  government  as  judges,  head-preachers,  frc.  Thus  the 
dignitaries,  whose  character  seems  to  us  specially  a  religious  one, 
are  in  reality  doctors*  or  expounders  and  interpreters  of  the  law, 
and  offidating  minbters  charged  with  the  ordinary  accompUsh- 
ment  of  certain  ceremonies,  which  every  other  Mussulman, 
"  true  believer,'*  has  an  equal  right  to  fulfil.  Formerly  there 
were  only  four  or  five  mujtahids  in  Persia,  now  there  are  many, 
sometimes  several  in  one  dty— Teherin,  for  instance,  has  tea; 
but  there  are  only  a  few  whose  decisions  are  accepted  as  final 
and  without  appeaL  The  highest  authority  of  all  b  vested  in 
the  mujlakii  who  resides  at  Kerbela,  or  Nejef,  near  Bagdad, 
and  is  considered  by  many  Ski*iles  as  the  vicegerent  of  the 
Prophet  and  representative  of  the  imam.  The  shah  and  the 
government  have  no  voice  whatever  in  the  matter  of  appointing 
muUaks  or  mujlahids,  but  frequently  appoint  sheikks-ul-ulam 
and  cadis,  and  occasionally  chief  priests  of  mosques  that  feoeive 
important  subsidies  out  of  government  funds.  The  chief  priest 
of  the  principal  mosque  of  a  dty,  the  masfid  ijami*,\s  called 
imamjuma',  and  he,orarepresenUtive  appointed  by  him,  reads 
the  khulba,  "  Friday  oration,"  and  abo  preaches.  The  reader 
of  the  kkttiba  b  also  called  khaiib.  The  leader  of  the  prayers 
in  a  mosque  b  the  pishnamas,  and  the  crier  to  prayers  u  the 
mu'aain.  Many  priests  are  appointed  giurdians  of  shrines 
and  tombs  of  members  of  the  Prophet's  family  (imams  and 
imamtadehs)  and  are  responsible  for  the  proper  admlnlstratioa 
of  the  property  and  funds  with  which  the  estabb'shments  are 
endowed.  The  guardian  of  a  shrine  is  called  mutavali,  or,  if 
the  shrine  b  an  important  one  with  much  property  and  many 
attendants,  mutatali-^aski,  and  is  not  necessarily  an  eccle^astlc, 
for  instance,  the  guardianship  of  the  great  shrine  of  Imam  Reza 
in  Meshed  b  generally  given  to  a  high  court  functionary  or 
minister  as  a  reward  for  long  services  to  the  state.  In  the 
predncts  of  a  great  shrine  a  malefactor  finds  a  safe  refuge 
from  hu  pursuers  and  b  lodged  and  fed,  and  from  the  security 
of  hb  retreat  he  can  arrange  the  ransom  which  b  to  purchase 
hb  immunity  when  he  comes  out. 

Formerly  all  cases,  dvil  and  criminal,  were  referred  to  the 
clerpr,  and  until  the  17th  century  the  clergy  were  subordinate  to 
a  kind  of  chief  pontiff,  named  sadr-us-sodur,  who  possessed  a 
very  extended  jurisdiction,  nominated  the  judges,  and  managed 
all  the  religious  endowments  of  the  mosques,  colleges,  shrines,  &c. 
Shah  Safi  (1629-1643),  in  order  to  diminbh  the  influence  of  the 
clergy,  appointed  two  such  pontiffs,  one  for  the  court  and  nobility 
the  other  for  the  people.  Nadir  Shah  (1736^x747)  abolbhed 
these  offices  altogether,  and  sdzed  most  of  the  endowments  of  the 
ecclesiastical  esublishmenls  in  order  to  pay  his  troops,  and,  the 
lands  appropriated  by  him  not  having  been  restored,  the  clergy 
have  never  regained  the  power  they  once  possessed.  Many 
members  of  the  clergy*  particularly  those  of  the  higher  ranks, 
have  very  liberal  ideaa  and  are  in  favour  of  progress  and  reforms 
so  fong  as  they  are  not  against  the  skar',  or  divine  law;  but, 
unfortunately,  they  form  the  minority. 

The  Armentans  of  Persia,  In  so  far  as  renrds  their  eccleriastkal 
state,  are  divided  into  the  two  dioceses  of  Azerbsu^n  and  Isfahan, 
and,  since  the  late  troubles  in  Turkey,  which  caused  many  to. 
take  refuge  in  Persia,  are  said  to  number  over  50,000.  Aoout 
three-fifths  of  this  number  belong  to  the  dk)ec8e  of  Azerbaijan, 
with  a  bishop  at  Tabriz,  and  reside  In  the  cities  cf  Tabriz,  KbOT, 
Selmas,  Urmia  and  Maragha,  and  in  about  thirty  villagea  doae 
to  the  north-western  frontier;  the  other  two-fifths,^  under  the 
diocese  of  Isfahan,  with  a  bishop  in  Julfa,  reside  in  Teherin, 
Hamadan,  Julfa,  Shlraz,  Bushire,'  Resht,  Enzeli  and  other  towns, 
and  in  some  villages  In  the  dbtricts  of  Cbahar  Mahal,  Feridan, 
Barbanid,  Kamareh,  Kazaz,  Kharakan,  Ac.  Many  Piewiaii 
Armeaiaas  am  engaged  ia  trade  tad  coomterce,  ami  sons  « 


^2Cf> 


PERSIA 


(EDUCATION:  ARMT 


tBeir  ifmchaiitB  dkpoae  of  ttisdi  ct|nta!»lnit  tht  Inilk  Uve.on  tbe 
proceeds  of  agriculture  and  are  poor. 

The  Nesloriam  in  Persia,  all  living  in  cities  and  villages  close  to 
the  Turkish  frontier,  numbered  about  25.000  to  30,000  but  many 
of  them,  some  say  half,  together  with  tw6  or  three  bishops,  recently 
^ent  over  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  (Russian)  Church,  in  consequence 
of  the  unsatisfactory  protection  afforded  them  by  their  patriarcl), 
who  resides  in  MosuU  These  latter  are  now  cared  for  by  an  archi- 
mandrite of  Russian  nationality  and  some  Russian  priests. 

The  Greek  Orthodox  Calkoiics  are  represented  bv  Kussians,  who  re- 
akle  in  northern  Persia;  thev  have  a  church  at  the  Russian  legation 
in  Tdiertn,  and  another  at  the  Russian  coasulate  in  Tabria. 

The  Roman  Catholics  in  Per»a,  Europeans  and  natives  (mostly 
Armenians),  number  about  three  or  four  thousand,  and  have 
churches  in  TeherSn,  f  ulfa  and  Azerbaijan,  served  by  members  of 
the  French  Laaarist  Mission.  They  also  have  some  orphanages, 
schools  and  mediokl  dispenaaiicB»  under  the  care  of  sisters  of  charity 
of  St  Vincent  de  Paul* 

The  Protestants,  Europeans  and  natives  (converted  Armenians 
and  Nestorians),  number  about  650OW  The  religious  missions 
ministering  to  tneir  spiritual  welfare  are:  (i)  The  board  of  foreign 
missions  oTthe  Presbyterian  Church  in  (he  United  Stateeof  America, 
which  has  six  establishments  in  Persia:  Urmia  since  i8a^,  Teheran 
since  iZii^  Tabriz  since  1873,  Hamadan  since  1880.  Rcsht  since 
IQ02  and  Kazvin  rfnce  1903.  The  establishments  of  Tabriz  and 
•Urmia  form  the  Western  Persia  Mission,  those  of  Tehertn,  Hamadan, 
Resht  and  Kazvin  the  Eastern  Persia  Mission.  The  former  mission 
has  34  churches.  118  schools,  2  hospitals  and  4  dispensaries;  tbe  Utter 
has  4  churches,  1 1  schools,  2  hospitals  and  4  dls^nsarics.  (3)  The 
Church  Missionary  Society,  established  in  Persia  since  1B69.  In  June 
1906  It  had  4  puccA  of  worship  (J^lfa,  Yezd,  Kcrmio,  Shiraz), 
S  schools  (Julfa,  Isfahan,  Yezd,  KermSn  and  Shiraz).  There  are 
also  hospitals  and  dJsMgsarics  (or  men  and  women  at  Julfa,  Isf;ihan. 
Yezd  and  Kerman.  The  hospitals  at  Julfa  and  Isfahan  have  ac- 
commodation for  100  patients  each,  and  are  sometimes  full  to 
overflowing;  the  dispensaries  are  generally  overcrowded.  The 
establishment  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  is  under  the  care 
of  a  bishop,  who  resic^  at  Julfa  and  is  under  the  bishop  of  London. 
(3)  The  Anglican  missbn,  which  was  established  by  Dr  Benson, 
hrchbtshop  of  Canterbury,  and  has  its  work  among  the  Nestorians 
tn  Azerbaijan.  <4)  The  bandon  Society  for  promoting  Christbaity 
among  the  Jews,  which  was  established  at  Teheran  in  1876,  and 
at  Isfahan  and  Hamadan  in  1889.  It  has  in  Tehcrln  a  church 
and  a  school,  at  Isfahan  a  school  and  at  Hamadan  a  small  5chodl. 
(S)  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  been  represented 
at  Isfahan  since  18^9. 

T\ttJ«ws  in  Persia  number  about  36.000,  and  are  found  in  nearly 
all  cities  of  the  country,  but  communities  with  synagogues  and 

griests  exist  only  in  the  larger  cities  like  Teher&n,  Isfahan,  Yexd, 
hiraz,  Hamadan.  &c 

The  Zoroastnans,  commonly  called  "  gabrs*'*  numbering  about 
9000,  reskle  principally  in  the  citjcs  and  villages  of  Yesd  and  Ker< 
m&n,  and  only  thm^  or  four  hundred  live  10  TcherSn,  Kashan, 
Isfahan  and  Shiraz,  some  engaged  In  trade  and  commerce,  but 
most  of  them  employed  in  agncuitural  work  and  gardening.  Their 
interests  arc  attended  to  by  a  delegate  who  b  appointed  by  the 
Bombay  Parsis  and  resides  at  Teheran. 

The  non-Mussulman  Persian  subjects,  particularly  those  in  the 
provinces,  were  formerly  much  persecuted,  but  since  1873,  when 
Nasru  'd-0?n  Shah  returned  to  Persia  from  his  first  journey  to  Europe 
they  have  been  treated  more  liberally.  In  cities  where  many  non* 
Mussulman  subjects  reside  a  spodal  official  is  appointed  to  protect 
them;  and  the  rainbtry  of  justice  has  a  special  section  to  look 
after  them  and  see  that  they  are  protected  against  fanaticism  and 
Injustice. 

•  Instruction. — ^Primaxy  schools,.  maktaJb  (where  Persian  and  a 
Httle'  Arabic,  sufficient  for  reading  the  Koran,  and  somellroes 
Also  a  little  arithmetic,  are  taught  to  boys  between  the  ages 
of  seven  and  twdve),  are  very  numetxMis.  These  schools  are 
private  establishments,  and  are  under  no  supervision  whatever. 
The  payment  for  tuition  varies  from  fourpencc  or  fivepence  to 
tenpence  a  month  for  each  child.  Colleges,  madrasah  (where 
yovng  men  are  instructed,  fed,  and  frequently  also  lodged 
g;ratuitousIy),  exist  in  neariy  every  town.  Most  of  them  are 
attached  to  mosques,  and  the  teachers  are  members  of  the  clergy, 
and  receive  fixed  salaries  out  of  the  college  funds.  The  students 
ire  instructed  in  Arabic  and  Persian  literature,  religion,  inter- 
pretation of  the  Koran,  Mussulman  law,  logic,  rhetoric,  philor 
sophy  and  other  subjects,  necessary  for  admittance  to  the  clergy, 
for  doctoiB  of  law,  ^.,  while  modem  sciences  are  neglected. 
Families  who  have  means  and  do  not  desire  their  children  to 
become  members  of  the  det^,  employ  private  tutors,  and 
several  have  latterly  obtained  the  services  of  English  and  French 
professors  to  educate  their  children,  while  otbeia  send  their 
hey  10  school  ia  England,  France,  Germany  and  Rtisaia.   At 


the  (Manning  of  KasmM-Dlta  Shah's  reign,  a  public  school  on 
the  lines  of  a  French  lyc^e  was  opened  in  Teheran,  principally 
with  the  object  of  educating  officars  for  the  army,  but  also  of 
introducing  a  knowledge  of  Western  science  and  Isnguagrs, 
and  a  ministry  of  public  instruction  was  created  at  the  same 
time.  Military  and  civilian  teachers  were  obtained  from  Europe,- 
and  the  state  granted  a  large  stmi  of  money  for  the  tuppoit  of 
the  esublishment.  The  tuition  is  gratuitous,  and  the  popib 
are  clothed  and  partly  fed  at  government  expense.  S«ne 
years  later  a  similar  school,  bat  on  a  moch  smaller  scale,  was 
opened  in  Tabria.  After  a  time  the  annual  grant  for  the  support 
of  these  two  schools  was  reduced,  and  during  the  yean  x890"X9ot 
amounted  to  only  £sooa  The  avenge  number  of  puplia  was 
about  250,  and  until  the  beginning  of  1899  these  two  achoob 
were  the  only  establishments  under  the  supervision  of  the 
minister  of  public  Instraction.  Soon  after  his  accession  in 
X896  MnsaffarHid-Dttt  Shah  expressed  a  desire  that  something 
more  should  be  done  for  public  instruction,  and  ia  the  following 
year  a  number  of  Peruan  notables  formed  a  committee  awl 
<^ned  some  schools  In  TeherSn  and  other  phuxs  in  the  banning 
of  1898.  A  year  later  the  new  schools,  ucutil  then  private  cstab* 
lishments,  were  placed  under  the  minister  of  public  instmctioii. 
The  new  schools  at  T^heitn  have  from  xooo  to  1400  puf^ls. 

A  German  school  with  an  annual  gmnt  of  £3400  from  Peida  and 
of  £1000  from  Germany  was  opened  at  Teherfto  in  i^o?*  There 
is  abo  established  a  French  school  under  the  auspices  of  the  Alliance 
Francaise.  Much  has  been  and  is  being  done  for  education  by  the 
Armenians  and  the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  missions  in 
Persia,  ^nd  a  laii^  pefcentaee  of  the  pupils  is  composed  of  Mussul- 
mana.  The  Alliance  Isra^tc  has  opened  a  school  in  TeherSn. 
In  1907  the  American  Protestant  mission  had  129  schools  with 
3433  pupils,  the  English  Protestant  missions  had  5  schoob  with 
42$  pupils,  the  Roman  Catholic  mission  (La2aristes)  had  3  schoob 
with  400  puDils,  and  the  Armenians  had  4  schools  and  6^  pupls. 
All  these  schools  are  supported  by  voluntary  subscriptions  and 
donations,  and  instruct  both  boys  and  girls. 

Xrmy.^Perua  had  no  regular  army  untS  1807,  when  some 
regiments  of  regular  infantry  (Mffrac)  were  embodied  and  drilled 
by  the  first  French  military  mission  ta  Per&ia  under  General 
Gardane.  Since  then  seven  other  military  missions  (two  British, 
two  French,  two  Austrian,  and  one  Russian)  have  come  to  Persia 
at  the  request  of  the  Persian  government,  and  many  officers 
and  non<ommissioned  officers,  and  even  civilians,  of  various 
nationalities,  have  been  engaged  as  army  instructors.  The 
last  serious  attempt  to  reorganize  the  Persian  army  was  made  in 
1879,  when  the  second  Austrian  mission  formed  the  "  Austrian 
corps  "  of  seven  new  battalions  of  800  men  each.  These  new 
battallcms  were  disbanded  in  x88».  The  Rusnan  mission  d 
1879  has  been  the  most  successful,  and  the  so-called  '*  Cossack 
brigade"  which  it  formed  has  always  been  commanded  by 
Russian  officers.  The  brigade  has  a  strength  of  about  1800  men 
and  costs  £50,000  per  annum.  The  total  annual  expenditure 
for  the  army  amounts  to  about  a  third  of  the  total  revenues  of 
the  government.  . 

According  to  statistics  published  for  1905  the  Persian  army  has 
an  effective  force  of  about  91^000  men,  but  the  number  of  nea 
actually  serving  with  the  colours  does  not  exceed  3St000:— > 

Artillery        » 5309 

Irregular  cavalry 14.957 

Infantry,  7^  battalions  of  400-1000  men  each    .     .         63,865 
Cossack  brigade,  artillery,  horse  and  foot     .     .     »  1800 

Road  and  frontier  guards,  horse  and  foot     «     .     •  541^ 

Total  91.334 
Navy.— -Tht  Persian  government  possesses  nine  steamers. 
One  is  the  ^  Nasru  'd-Din,"  an  old  yacht  of  about  xso  tons, 
presented  in  the  'seventies  by  the  emfjeror  of  Russia,  and 
stationed  at  Ensell,  the  port  of  Resht.  The  others,  all  employed 
m  the  custerms  service  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  are  the  following: 
The  "  Penepolis,"  built  1884,  600  tons,  450  h.p.,  with  three  7I 
cm.  and  one  8(  cm,  Krupp.  The  "Susa,**  built  1884, 
36  tons,  wKh  one  Krupp.  An  old  Belgian  yacht  ^'SemLa," 
purchased  1903  and  renamed  '*  Muzafferi,"  with  two  Hotcbkiss 
guns.  Five  launches  built  in  the  Royal  Indian  Marine  Docks* 
Bombay,  ia  1905,  at  a  cost  of  60,000  rupees  eacb^  of  about  80 
tons. 


lUSnCE:  PWAMCSI 


PBRfflA 


20 1 


JnsUte^-^By  the  theory  oC  a  Mahnrnmrdaa  state  thara  slmuld 
be  no  other  courts  ci  Justice  except  those  established  for  the  a»- 
miiiMtration  of  the  5mK,  the  *' divine  or  written  bw,"  but  in 
Persia  there  is  another  judicature,  which  is  called  'urf  and  repre- 
■enu  the  "  customary  "  or  "  known  and  unwritten  law.''  Justice, 
tbereCoce,  is  administered  by  the  shah  and  hia  representativvs 
accordini^  to  one  law  and  by  the  clergy  according  to  another,  but 
the  decisions  of  the  (brmcrmust  not  be  opposed  to  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Islam.  The  shah's  representatives  for  the  adminis' 
tiatiofi  of  justice  are  the  govemore  and  other  ofiioets  already 
mentioned.  The  ofiidals  charged  with  the  admimstration  la 
justice  according  to  the  shar*  are  jud^RS,  called  sheikkrtd-islam  and 
eosr  {kadki,  kaator  cadi  of  Arabs  and  Turks),  members  oC  the  clergy 
appointed  by  the  eoverranent  and  receiving  a  fixed  sabry,  but 
some  cities  are  witooiit  regtibr  appointed  judges  and  the  title  of 
eadi  h  almost  obsolete;  decisions  according;  to^the  skar'  are  S*ven 
by  alt  anembcrs  of  the  clergy,  ranging  from  ignorant  muUaks  o( 
little  villages  and  cantons  to  learned  mujtahids  of  the  great  cities. 
If  the  parties  to  the  suit  are  diasatisfiea  with  the  judgment,  they 
ipay  appeal  to  a  priest  who  stands  htgfaer  in  publk  estimation,  or 
one  of  Khc  parties  may  iodiioe  a  bigaer  authority  by  bribery  to 
quash  tlie  judgment  ot  the  fir^.  Uorortunately,  many,  mcnibers 
of  the  Heray  are  corrupt,  but  the  mujtahids,  as  a  rule  arc  honest 
and  entirely  trustworthy.  The  functions  of  the  repmentativcs  of 
the  ikar*  are  now  limited  to  dvil  cases^  wUlc  ail  criminal  cases 
are  referred  to  the  'urf,  which,  however,  also  takes  occimtowc  of 
Qvil  disputes,  should  the  parties  desire  it. 

In  criminal  caries  the  dispensation  of  iusticc  is  always  summai^* 
and,  when  the  offence  is  small,  the  wluAe  procedure,  including  the 
examination  of  witnesses  and  criminal,  as  well  as  the  decision 
and  the  punishment,  a  bastiiudo,  is  a  matter  of  some  lAtnutei. 
For  commercial  cases,  not  payii^  a  bill  in  time,  bankruptcies,  &c.« 
a  kind  of  jurisdiction  Is  exercised  by  the  minister  of  commerce, 
or  a  bosfd  of  merchants,  but  the  decisions  of  the  minister,  or  those 
of  the  boanl,  are  rarely  -final.  In  Teherin  the  board  of  merchants 
is  presided  over  by  the  malik  nt  lujiar,  *'  King  of  Nfcrchaotk.'*  la 
tlie  provincial  Cities  by  a  person  calka  malik  arniw,  and  mta»  oC 
mcrcnants. 

After  his  second  joomey  to  Europe  In  1878  Nasru'd-Oin  Shah 
desired  to  organiae  a  police  for  the  whole  of  Persia  on  the  European 
system,  but  only  a  small  body  of  police,  in  the  capital  and  its 
immediate  neighbourhood,  was  created  in  i379>  Its  strength  is 
60  mounted  policemen  and  190  foot,  with  11  superior  and  40 
subaltern  officers. 

There  is  also  a  "  Tribunal  of  the  Ministry  for  Foreign  Affaire.** 
pr^ided  over  at  Teherfln  by  an  official  of  the  foreign  omcB,  and  in 
the  pcovindal  cities  by  the  karpttars,  "  agents,]'  of  that  dejiart- 
mcnt.  The  functions  of  this  tribunal  are  to  inquire  into  and  judge 
differences  and  suits  between  Persian  subjects  and  foreigners,  and 
it  is  stipulated  fai  the  treaty  01  Turkmanchai,  which  is  the  basis 
of  all  existing  treaties  between  ftrsia  and  other  coutftrios,  that 
"  such  differences  and  suits  shall  only  be  examined  an4  judgment 
given  in  the  presence  of  the  dragoman  of  the  mission  or  consubte 
(of  the  foreign  subject),  and  that,  once  judicially  concluded,  such 
suits  shall  not  give  cause  to  a  second  Im^uiry.  If,  however,  drw 
cumslaoces  should  be  of  a  nature  to  rcc^utrc  a  second  inquiry,  it 
shall  not  take  place  without  previous  notice  given  to  the  minister, 
or  the  charg6  aaffaircs.  or  the  consul,  and  In  this  case  the  business 
shall  only  be  proceeded  with  at  the  supreme  chancery  of  the  shah 
at  Talma  or  TeherSn,  likewise  In  the  presence  of  a  dragoman  of 
the  mission,  or  of  the  conaalate."    (Article  vii.) 

A  foreign  subject  impOcatod  in  a  criminal  suit  cannot  be  pumied 
or  molested  in  any  way  unless  there  exist  full  proofs  of  hia  having 
taken  part  in  the  crime  imputed  to  him,  and  should  he  be  duly 
convicted  of  the  crime,  he  is  handed  over  to  his  legation,  which 
either  sends  him  back  to  his  own  oouatry  to  undergo  the  pOnish* 
ment  established  by  bw,  or,  according  to  more  feoent  tjeage.  lamiahes 
him  in  PcrsU  by  fine.  Imprisonment,  &c.  In  thu  respect  the 
powers  of  the  foreign  representatives  In  Perna,  now  numbering 
ten  (Great  Britain,  Russia.  France,  Turkey,  Austria-Hungary, 
Gdrmatiy.  United  States  of  America,  Italy,  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands)  .yary  considerably,  some  having  the  power  of  oon'> 
demning  a  criminal  to  death,  while  other^  cannot  do  more  than 
fine  and  imprison  for  short  periods.  Suits,  civil  and  criminal, 
between  foreign  subjects  are  altogether  out  ot  Perrian  jurisdiction, 
and  are  judnd  by  the  tepresentatlvdB  of  the  foreign  powera 
accredited  toPersb. 

In  1889.  after  Nasru  'd-Din  Shah's  return  from  his  third  visit  to 
£urope,  the  council  of  state  was  instructed  to  compile  a  code  of 
law  for  the  regulation  of  justice.  A  beginning  was  made  by  order- 
ii«  the  translation  of  the  Code  NapoUon,  the  Indian  Mabortimcdan 
code,  and  the  C:ode  NapoMoB  aa  modified  for  Algeria;  but  nothing 
further  was  done. 

Finance. — ^Thc  fixed  revenues  of  Perria  are  derived  from  (i) 
fRgubr  taxation  imatiat)  composed  of  taxes  on  lands,  floclcs.  herds, 
shopkeeper .  artisans  and  trede;  (2)  revenues  from  Crown  bnds: 
(3)  customs:  (4)  rents  and  taaaesol  state  monopolies.  Th?^  ** 
also  a  kind  of  irregubr  re\'cniic  derived  from  public  re<]uisit.iona. 
presents,  fines,  connscations.  &c..  nowadays  not  producing  much. 
The  bad  tax.  which  varies  according  to  localities,  is  paid  In  money* 


and  kind,  and  ahoald  asnoant  «•  an  avenge  to  about  95%'Of  the 
yield  of  the  soil.  The  taxation  on  flocks  and  herds  exists  either  at 
a  sttpplemciitary  hicthod  of  land  taxation,  or  as  a  contributk>n  of 
a  certain  sum  per  animal,  and  the  tax  on  shoplreepcrs,  arrisans  and 
trades  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  poll-tax;  sometimes  that  of 
an  impost  on  the  profits  of  the  trades,  The  revenue  from  CrowA 
bads  consiBts  oS  a  certain  proportion  of  the  produce,  and  also 
varies  much  accocding  to  localities.  Until  March  1899  aH  the 
cnstonu  were  farmed  out,  but  since  then  they  have  b««n  oivanized 
dn  European  principbs,  with  the  help  of  Bddan  officbls.  By 
treaties  with  Russia  and  Great  Britain,  conchiden  in  1901  and  190$ 
Rspecdvoly,  the  5%  duty  fixed  by  the  TUiicnianduit  treaty  was 
abolished,  and  art  equitable  tariff  was  estebKslied.  The  revenoes 
from  rents  and  leases  of  state  monopolies  are  derived  from  postA 
telegraphs,  mines,  mint,  forests,  banks,  fisheries,  factories,  &c^ 
ind  amount  to  about  £1 10,000  per  annum. 

The  total  revenue  of  Persb,  from  alt  soureee,  amounted  In  1876 
to  58,700.000  krans,  in  188a  to  so.8bo.ooo,  in  1890  to  6ojooofioo; 
and  in  I907<>i908  to  about  80,000,060  loans.  This  would  seem  to 
show  a  steady  increase,  but  when  we  oon^dcr  that  the  value  of 
the  kran  in  1876  was  nearly  8|^  d.,  and  has  fallen  in  consequence 
of  the  great  deprecbtion  oTsilver  to  only  4|  d.,  th^  toul  revenue 
really  decreased  from-  £1,950,000  in  1876  to  £1.600.000  in  I907- 
1908.  Out  of  the  actual  total  revenue  £500,000  is  represented  by 
customs  and  £110.000  by  rents  and  leases  of  state  monopotk^4, 
leaving  £990.000  for  malbt  and  rei^nues  of  Crown  bnds.  In 
1876  the  two  latter  items  amounted  to  about  £1,600.000,  while 
Uie  two  former  were  only  £356,000  instead  of  £6ro,ooo  in  »907^ 
1908.  While  the  prices  in  krans  of  agricultural  produce,  arid  hence 
the  profits  of  the  bndowners  and  the  wages  and  profits  of  artisans 
and  tradesmen,  were  in  IQ07-1908  more  than  double  what  they 
were  in  1876,  the  malbt,  the  backbone  of  the  revenue,  has  hardly 
increased  at  all,  being  y>fioo,ooo  krans  (£1,006,000)  against 
43.900,000  kmns  f^i ,600.000)  in  1876,  and  showing  a  decrease  of 
over  37%  in  sterling  money.  A  View  assessment  of  the  malbt, 
based  upon  the  pretent  value  of  the  produce  of  bnds  and  actual 
profits  of  artisans  and  tradesmen,  has  frequently  been  spoken  of, 
ind  government,  aided  by  a  strong  minister  of  the  interior  and  an 
able  minister  of  finance,  ought  to  nave  no  difficulty  in  raising  the 
malbt  to  its  proper  level  and  the  total  revenues  of  the  country 
to  about  two  millions  sterfing. 

Until  1888  the  yearly  expenditure  was  less  than  the  yeariy 
income,  but  snbseouently  the  revenues  were  not  sufficient  to  cover 
the  expenditure,  ana  many  payments  fell  in  arrear  in  spite  of  empty- 
ing the  treasury  of  its  reserve  and  contractina  numerous  loans. 

In  May  1893  the  Petrsian  government  concloded  a  contract  with 
the  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia,  established  by  British  royal  charter 
in  1889,  for  a  loan  of  £500,000  *at  6%.  repayable  in  the  course  of 
forty  years;  and  guaranteed  by  the  customs  ot  Fan  and  the  Perrian 
Gun  ports.  The  eroduoe  of  this  loan  served  for  the  payment  of 
an  indcmnitv  to  tne  Imperial  Tobacco  Corporation,  which  began 
in  1890  ana  had  to  cease  its  operations  in  January  t-892.  In 
January  1900  the  Persbn  government,  in  order  to  pay  the  arreare 
and  start  afresh  with  a  clear  babnoe-shect,  contracted  a  loan 
through  the  Banque  dcs  Pri^ta  de  Perse,  a  Kussbto  insHtution 
connected  with  the  Russian  state  bank,  and  established  in  1890. 
This  loan  was  for  aaf  million  roubles  (£2,^00.000)  at  «%  interest, 
guaranteed  by  alt  the  Persian  cuitoma  with  the  excepdon  of  those 
of  Fars  and  the  Persbn  Gulf  ports,  and  repayable  In  the  course 
of  seventy-five  vears.  In  the  contract,  which  was  signed  at  Sc 
Petersburg  at  tne  end  of  January  lOOo,  the  Persian  government 
undertook  to  redeem  all  its  former  foreign  obligations  (the  1893 
loan)  out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  new  loan,  and  not  to  contract  any 
other  foreign  loan  before  the  redemption  of  the  new  loan  without 
the  consent  of  the  Rusabn  bank.  The  loan  was  at  86f,  less  i| 
for  commission  and  chirgce,  the  Pcrnan  government  thus  receiving 
85%  of  the  nominal  capital.  Or  £11,040.000.  The  bonds  enjcy 
the  full  guarantee  of  the  Rvssbn  government.  The  yeariy  charge 
for  interest  and  amortization,  about  £124,000,  b  to  be  paid  in  two 
half-yearly  instalments,  and  in  the  event  of  default  the  Russbn 
bank  will  have  the  right  to  exercise  effective  control  of  the  customs 
with  a  maxlmuin  number  of  tw^ty-fivc  European  eropl6yfe. 
When  the  contract  for  the  new  loan  was  concluded,  the  KabHttite 
of  the  Perabn  government  for  the  babnce  of  the  1893  loan  (about 
£435.000),  temporary  loans  from  various  banks,  arrears  of  pays 
and  sabries,  and  other  debts,  amounted  to  over  £i,Soc^ooo,  so 
that  not  much  mafgin  was  left.  The  shah's  visit  to  burope  in  the 
saifie  year  cost  the  exchequer  about  £i8O|0Qa  In  March  1902  the 
Russian  bank  agreed  to  i^nt  a  furtner  loan  of  10  milUon  roubles 
on  the  same  conditions  as  those  of  the  first  loan,  and  the  whole 
amount  wa^  paid  by  the  end  of  the  year,  but  another  visit  of  the 
duih  to  Europe  and  ccckleas  expenditureat  home  made  the  positioo 
worse  thaa  bcUxtn,  After  November :  1903  the  expeaditun  wm 
reduced,  and  the  new  customs  tariff  which  came  Into  Xorce  on  the 
I4lh  of  February  1993  increased  the  revenue  by  nearly  £200,066 
per  annum:  it  was  thought  that  the  expenditure  would  not  exceed 
the  receipts,  even  if  the  shfh  undertook  a  third  voyage  In  Euronn 
(which  he  did  in  1905}.  However,  in  November  1907,  when, the 
national  assembly  or  council  demanded  a  budget  and  made  ioquiriea 
as  to  the  financut  position,  it  was  found  that  the  ejcpendltbre  ttit 


202 


PERSIA 


UnSTORY:  ANCIENT 


_.  yan  put  bad  been  half  •miBkMattriing  per tiuum  In 
of  the  receipts  and  that  ooa«denble  turns  were  owinc  to  banks 
and  oommercial  firms  who  had  lent  money.  Most  of  the  mooey 
borrowed  is  at  12  to  15%  interest. 

BamktM. — It  was  only  in  1888  that  a  European  bank  ^the  New 
Oriental  Bank  Corporation,  Limited)  esublished  itself  in  Persia 
and  modern  Meas  of  banking  were  introduocd  into  the  countiy. 
Until  then  the  bankii^  was  done  by  the  native  moneyHrhan^gers 
isarrafs)  and  some  roerehanta — foreign  and  native — who  occasion' 
ally  undertook  s|iecial  outside  tfansactbns.     In   1889  the  shah 

granted  a  concession  to  Baron  Julius  de  Rcuter  for  the  formatioa 
f  a  state  bank  with  the  exclusive  right  of  issuing  bank-note»~ 
not  excrading  £800.000  without  special  assent  of  the  Persian 
govemment — on  the  basis  of  the  local  currency,  the  silver  kran. 
With  the  title  of  "  The  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  "  the  bank  was 
formed  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  and  incorporated  by  roval 
charter  granted  by  Queen  Victoria  and  dated  the  and  of  September 
1880.  The  authorized  capital  was  four  millbns  sterling,  but  the 
bank  started  with  a  capital  of  one  million,  and  began  its  business 
in  Penia  in  October  1880.  In  April  1890  it  took  over  the  Persian 
business  of  the  New  Onental  Bank  Corporation,  soon  afterwards 
opened  branches  and  agencies  at.the  orincipal  towns,  and  issued 
notes  in  the  same  year.  During  the  brst  two  yeare  the  bank  re- 
mitted the  greater  part  of  its  capital  to  Persia  at  the  then  prevailing 
exdbange,  and  received  for  every  nound  sterling  33  to  34  krans; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  (all  in  silver  in  1893  and  1894, 
the  exchange  rose  to  50  krans  per  pound  sterling  and  more,  and  the 
tMink's  capiul  employed  in  Persia  being  reduced  in  value  by  more 
than  one-third — too  loans,  which  at  the  beginning  reprcsv'nted 
£3ff  then  being  worth  only  £;i  or  lci»— the  original  capital  of  one 
million  steriing  was  reduceato  ji6y>^ooo  in  December  i8a^  The 
bank  has  made  steady^  piogre»  in  spite  of  innumerable  dimculties, 
and  paid  a  fair  divioend  to  its  shareholders.  In  hb  paper  on 
"  Banking  in  Persia  "  {Journal  of  the  ImttitjOe  of  Bankers,  1891). 
Mr  Joseph  Rabino  pointed  out  the  great  diflfeuhies  which  make 
the  easy  distribution  of  fundsr— that  is,  the  providing  them  when 
and  where  required — a  matter  of  impossibility  in  Persia,  and  sives 
this  fact  as  the  reason  why  the  Imfxrial  Bank  of  Peru  has  local 
issues  of  notes,  (layable  at  the  issuing  branches  only,  "  for,  in  a 
country  like  Persia,  where  movements  of  specie  are  so  costly,  sk>w 
and  difficult  as  to  become  Impracticable  except  on  a  small  scale, 
the  danger  of  issuing  notes  payable  at  more  than  one  place  is 
<^vious.  On  the  30th  of  September  1907  the  value  of  the  notes 
in  circulation  was  £395.000,  and  the  bank  heU  ISSQfiOO  deposits 
in  Persia. 

In  1889  the  shah  also  granted  a  ooncesskm  to  laques  de  Pbliakov 
of  St  Petersburg  for  the  establishment  of  a  "  hMn  bank,"  or,  as 
the  original  concession  said.  "  noot-de-piki,"  with  exclusive 
righu  01  holding  public  auctions.  A  oomijany  was  formed  in  the 
same  year  and  started  business  at  Teherftn  in  18^  aa  the  "  Banque 
dcs  Prets  de  Perse."  After  confining  its  operations  for  some  years 
to  ordinary  pawi^roking,  without  profits,  it  obtained  the  aid  of 
the  Russian  State  Bank,  acquired  large  ^premises  in  TeherSn,  made 
advances  to  the  Persian  government  (since  1898),  and  in  January 
1900  and  March  1902  financed  the  kans  of  £3400^000  and  £1 ,000,000 
to  Persia.  It  has  branches  at  Tabriz,  Reaht,  Mesheol  and  other 
pbcea. 

Various  Armenian  firms,  one  with  branches  at  many  pi'tces  in 
Persia  and  Ruasia^lso  do  banking  busineis,  while  various  European 
firms  at  Tabriz,  Teherftn,  Isfahan,  Shiraz  and  Bushire,  fadUtate 
remitunces  between  Europe  and  Persia. 

The  chief  business  of  the  native  sanafs  (moneychangers,  bankers, 
Ac.)  is  to  discount  bills  at  high  rates,  nardly  ever  1cm  than  12%. 
ana  remit  money  frmn  place  to  place  in  Persia  for  a  comroisstoo 
amounting  to  from  i  to  5,  or  even  6%  on  each  transaction;  and 
in  spite  oL  the  European  oanksjpving  lower  rates  of  discount  and 
remitting  money  at  par,  the  majority  of  the  people  and  mercantile 
classes  sUll  deaf  with  the  natives.  For  advances  with  good  security 
a  native  sarraf  charges  at  least  13%  interest  per  annum;  aa  the 
•ecurity  diminishes  in  value  the  rate  of  interest  increases,  and 
transactrans  at  10%  a  month,  or  more  than  I30%  per  annum, 
are  not  infrequent.  A  Persian  who  obtains  an  advance  of  money 
at  le»  than  is  %  considers  that  he  geu  mooey  "  for  nothing." 

(A.H.^) 

HiSTOST 

A.-'AncUfU,  to  the  Patt  of  the  Sastamd  Dynasty, 

I.  The  i\ro«M.— "Persia,"  in  the  strict  significaBce  of  the 
word,  denotes  the  country  inhabited  by  the  people  designated 
AS  Persians,  «>.  the  district  known  in  antiquity  as  Pecsis  (f.«.)t 
the  modern  Fan.  Custom,  however,  fats  extended  the  name  to 
the  whole  Inudan  plateau;  and  it  Is  in  this  sense  that  the  term 
Persia  js  here  employed. 

II.  Ancient  Etknopapky.-^ln  historical  times  we  find  the 
major  portion  of  Iran  occupied  by  peoples  of  Indo-European 
origin,  terming  themselves  Aryans  {Arya;  Zend,  Airya)  and 

Isnguige  Aiya&'-so  in  the  inscriptions  of  Dsriut— the 


same  name,  which  is  used  by  th»  consanguineous  tnbes  of 
India  who  were  their  nearest  relations.  The  whok  country 
is  designated  Ariana  (Zend,  Awyone^) — ^'*the  land  Otasmi 
of  the  Aryans  "—the  original  of  the  Middle-Persian  otnto 
Eran  and  the  n\odein  Iran;  the  Creek  geo-  trmmiamm. 
graphers  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo  were  in  error  when  they 
limited  the  name  to  the  eastern  districts  of  Iran.  Thus  tlie 
name  of  Iranians  is  understood  to  comprehend  all  these  people 
of  Aryan  nationality. 

Besides  the  Iranians,  numerous  tribes  of  alien  origin  were 
found  in  Iran.  In  Baluchistan,  even  yet,  we  find  side  by 
with  the  eponymous  Iranian  inhabitants,  who 
only  penetrated  thither  a  few  centuries  ago,  the] 
ethnologically  and  phllologically  distinct  race  of 
the  Brahui,  who  are  probably  connected  with  the  Dravidians 
of  India.  In  them  we  may  trace  the  original  population  of 
these  districts;  and  to  the  same  original  population  may  be 
assigned  the  tribes  here  settled  in  antiquity:  the  Paricanli  and 
GedrosU  (Cadxosii),  and  the  Myci  (Herod,  iii  93,  vii.  68;  the 
Maka  of  Darius,  the  modem  Mckran)^  to  whom  the  name 
"  Aethiof^ns  "  is  also  occasionally  applied  (Herod,  iii.  94,  vii. 
70).  In  Media  the  Creek  geographers  mcnllon  a  people  of 
Anoriacae  (Strabo  iL  50S,  5x4;  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  vL  4S;  Ptolem. 
vi.  35;  in  Polyb.  v.  44.  Q,  'Anopdxot),  /.e.  "  Non- Aryans."  To 
these  the  Tapuri,  Amardi,  C^pii,  and  especially  the  Cadusii  or 
Gctae — situated  in  Ghilan  on  the  Caspian^pr^bly  belonged. 
Prcsunubly  they  were  also  related  to  the  tribes  of  Armenia  and 
the  Caucasus.  In  the  chains  of  Zagros  we  find,  in  Bal^lonlaa 
and  As5)frian  times,  no  trace  of  Iranians;  but  partly  Semitic 
peoples— the  Gutaeans,  Lulubaeans,  &c. — partly  tribes  that 
we  can  refer  to  no  known  ethnological  group,  e.g.  the  Cossaci 
(see  bek>w),  and  in  Elymais  or  Susiana  the  Elymaeans 
(Elamites). 

That  the  Iranians  must  have  come  from  the  East  to  their 
later  home,  is  sufficiently  proved  by  their  close  relationship  to 
the  Indians,  in  conjunction  with  whom  they  pre>  jhMte»s 
viously  formed  a  single  people,  bearing  the  name  ma^Atran 
Arya.  Their  residence  mtist  have  lain  chiefly  In  '«*■•«• 
the  great  steppe  which  stretches  north  of  the  Block  Sea  and 
the  Caspian,  through  South  Russia,  to  Turan  (Turkestan) 
and  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes.  For  here  we  continu^y  discover 
traces  of  Iranian  nationality.  The  names  and  words  of  the 
Scythians  {Scoloiii  in  South  Russia,  which  Herodotus  has 
preserved,  are  for  the  most  part  perfectly  transparent  Iranian 
formations,  identified  by  Zeuss  and  MiillenhofiT;  among  them  are 
many  proper  names  in  i4rui-(Apa>*)  and  aspa  (-horse-«aToi; 
Zend,  aspi).  The  predatory  tribes  of  Turan  {e.g.  the  Massa- 
getac)  seem  to  have  belonged  to  the  same  stock.  These 
tribes  are  distinguished  by  the  Iranian  peasants  as  Daha  (Or. 
Mcu),  "  enemies,"  "  robbers  ";  by  the  Persians  as  Sacae;  and 
by  the  Greeks  gcoexally  as  Scythians. 

From  the  region  of  the  steppes  the  Aryans  must  have  pene- 
trated into  the  cultivable  land  of  Eastern  Iran:  thence  one  part 
spread  over  the  district  of  the  Indus,  then  on  again  to  the  Gai^scs; 
another  moved  westward  to  Zagtos  and  the  borders  of  the 
Semitic  world. 

The  date  of  this  migration  cannot  yet  be  determined  with 
certainty.    We  know  only  that  the  Aryans  of  India  already 
occxipicd  the  Punjab  in  the  Vedic  era,  c.  x6oo  B.C.  p^t§^ 
On  tbe  other  hand,  about  the  same  period  a  number  •/<*• 
of  names,  undoubtedly  Iranian,  made  their  appear*  ^J**** 
ance  in  Western  Asia,  (cf.  Edward  Meyer,  "  Zur  "■'■ 
iltesten  Geschkhte  der  Iranier,"  in  Zeitsduift  ftr  ver^ekkend* 
Sprackforschungt  1907).    In  the  cuneiform  letters  from  Tdl 
el-Amama  in  Egypt  (1400  b.c),  we  find  among  the  princelings 
of  Syria  and  Palatine  names  like  Artanumya,  Anawiya,  Sinh 
vfordatCf  a  ruune  terminating  in  'Wtrwanat  &c.;  whxk  the  kings 
of  MitannI  on  the  Euphrates  are  Artalama,  Skutorna,  Art*- 
skumara,  and  Duskratto — names  too  numerous  and  too  gentiindy 
Iranian  to  allow  of  the  hypothesis  of  ooinddence.    Later  still, 
in  the  ABS3rrian  inscriptions  we  occasion^ly  meet  with  Iranian 
names  borne  by  Nortb-SyriAn  princes— c.^.    Xundaspi  and 


HISTORY;  AMCIENTI 


PERSIA 


303 


Rofttaspi  (•Hystaspte).  Tfadr  subjectB,  on  the  contruy, 
speak  absdutdy  different  tongues:  for  the  attempts  to  explain 
the  languages  of  the  CoMaeans,  Mitannians,  and  Anapians  as 
Indo-European  (Iranian)  have  ended  in  failure  (cf.  Blomfidd 
in  the  Ameriatn  Joumai  of  PkUdogyy  zxv.  p.  i  sqq.). 

It  appears,  then,  that  towards  the  middle  fA  the  seoond 
millennium  before  drist,  the  Iranians  made  a  great  forward 
movement  to  the  West,  and  that  certain  of  their  princes— at  first, 
probably  in  the  r61e  of  mercenary  leaders — reached  Mesopotamia 
and  Syria  and  there  founded  pr^idpaUties  of  their  own,  much  as 
did  the  Germans  under  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Normans, 
Turks,  &C.  With  this  we  may  probably  connect  the  well-known 
fact  that  it  was  about  this  very  period  (1700  D.c.  approximately) 
that  the  horse  made  its  appearance  in  Babylom'a,  Egypt  and 
Greece,  where  for  centuries  subsequently  its  use  was  confined  to 
war  and  the  war-chariot.  Before  this  it  was  as  foreign  to  the 
Babylonians,  even  in  the  time  of  Khammurabi,  as  to  the  Egyp- 
tians under  the  Xllth  Dynasty.  On  the  other  hand,  it  had 
been  familiar  to  the  Aryans  from  time  immemorial:  indeed  the/ 
have  always  been  peculiarly  a  people  of  riders.  Thus  it  is 
quite  conceivable  that  they  brought  it  with  them  into  Western 
Asia:  and  the  quarter  from  which  it  came  is  sufficiently  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  the  Babylonians  write  the  word  '*  horse  "  with 
a  group  of  signs  denoting  "ass  of  the  EasL" 

Of  the  Assyrian  kings,  Shalmaneser  (Sahnanasssi)  II.  was 
the  first  to  take  the  field  against  the  Medes  in  836  B.C.,  and  from 
that  period  onwards  they  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Assyrian  annals.  Sargon  penetrated  farthest,  receiving  in 
715  B.C.  the  tribute  of  numerous  Median  town-princes.  He  gives 
*  list  of  their  names,  twenty-three  tA  which  are  preserved  either 
virhoJDy  or  in  part,  and  almost  all  are  unmistakably  Iranian; 
ss  is  also  the  esse  with  those  preserved  by  Esar-haddon 
(Assarhaddon)  and  elsewhere. 

The  Medes,  then,  were  an  Iranian  nation,  already  occupying 
ia  the  9th  century  b/^  their  later  home  in  the  centre  of  the 
Median  highland.  Qn  the  other  hand,  among  tbetr  neighbours 
in  Zagpos  and  the  north— corresponding  to  the  Anariacae 
(Non- Aryans)  of  the  Greeks— Iranian  names  are  at  best  isolated 
phenomena.  With  other  Iranian  tribes  the  Assyrians  never 
came  in  contact:  for  the  oft-repeated  assertion,  that  the  Parsua, 
so  prominent  in  their  annals,  were  the  Persians  or  the  Parthians, 
is  quite  untenable.  The  Parsua  c^  the  Assyrians  are  located 
south  of  Lake  Urmia,  and  can  hardly  have  been  Iranians. 

None  the  less,  the  As^nrian  statements  with  regard  to  the 
Medes  demonstrate  that  the  Iranians  must  have  reached  the 
west  of  Iran  before  900  Bxx  It  is  probable  that  at  this  period 
the  Persians  also  were  domiciled  In  their  later  home,  even 
though  we  have  no  direct  evidence  to  adduce.  II  this  reasoning 
is  correct,  the  Iranian  immigxation  must  be  assigned  to  the 
first  half  of  the  second  pre>Christian  nuUennium. 

The  Aryans  of  Iran  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes;  these, 

again,  being  subdivided  into  minot  tribes  and  dans.    The 

YvAta        principal,  according  to  the  inscriptions  of  Darius 

0tiiM        — ^which   ctosely   agree   with    Hcrodotua*-«ie    the 

tnaiaa§»    following,  severs!  of  them  being  also  enomecated 

in  the  Aveskt^-* 

I.  The  Medes  {Mada)  in  the  north-west  (see  MeI>ia)« 
t.  The  Persians  {Par so)  in  the  south  (see  Persis).    To  these 
|)clong  the  Carmamans  and  the  Uttans  (Kw/tpio),  who  are  mentioned 
expressly  by  Darius  as  inhabiting  a  district  in  Persis  {Bth,  III.  40). 

3.  The  Hyrcanians  (VorhAna  in  Darius,  Zend  Vdtrkdna)  on  the 
eastern  comer  of  the  Caspian,  in  the  fertile  district  of  Astarabod. 

4.  The  Parthians  iPartkyaa;  Pers.  Partkan)  in  iCbonuan  (see 

Parthia)*  ^ 

5.  The  Arians  (*Am2m,  Pen.  Haramit  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
river  Arius  (JSeri-md),  which  derived  its  name  from  than.  This 
name,  which  sunrives  in  the  modem  Hent,  has  of  couiss  no 
connexion  with  that  of  the  Aryans. 

6.  The  Drangians  {Zarania  in  Darius.  Sartutiians  fn  Herod. 
St.  93f  ti7,  vii.  67),  situated  south  of  the  Arians,  m  the  north-west 
of  Ai^piantBUn  (Anchosioy  by  the  western  affluents  of  Lake  Haraun, 
and  extending  to  the  present  fifisiaui 

7.  Arschotuuis  (Pers.  Harmuatii,  in  the  district  of  the  Helmand 
and  its  tributaries,  round  ICandahar.  They  are  mentioned  in  the 
lists  of  Darius,  also  by  the  Greeks  after  Alexander.  In  Herodotus 
their  plaes  Is  taken  by  the  Wctyans,  wfaoss  name  survives  to  the 


present  day  in  the  wori|  Pmhtu,  with  which  the  Afghans  denote 
their  language  (Herod,  lii.  loa.  iv.  /^,  vit.  67,  8^).  PlPobaHly  it  was 
the  old  tribal  name;  Arachosia  betiw  the  locu  deugnatbn.  The 
Thamanaeans,  who  appear  in  Herodotus  (liL  93*  117),  must  be 
classed  with  them. 

8.  The  Bactrians  (IVra.  Bikkin),  on  the  northern  declivity  off 
the  Hindu  Kush.  as  far  as  the  Oxus.  Their  capital  was  Bactra, 
the  modem  Balkk  (see  Bactria). 

9.  The  Sogdians  (f^ers.  ^Mfiwai),  in  tlie  mountaioooa  district 
between  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes. 

la  The  Chorasmians  (Khwarizmtans,  Pers.  Uvaraxmiya)^  in 
the  great  oasb  of  IChiva,  which  still  bears  the  name  IChwanzm. 
They  stretched  fau-  into  the  midst  of  the  nomadic  tribes. 

II.  The  Mafgians  (l^ers.  Margu),  on  the  river  Maigus  (Murghab); 
chiefly  inhabiting  the  oasis  of  Merv,  which  has  preserved  their  name. 
Darius  mentions  the  district  of  Margu  but,  bke  Herodotus,  omits 
them  from  his  list  of  peoples;  so  that  ethnographically  they  are 
perhaps  to  be  assigned  to  the  Arians. 

IS.  The  Sagartians  (Pera.  Asapulaii  aoooiding  to  Herodotus 
(viL  85).  a  nomadic  tnbe  of  Iwrsemcn:  ^waking,  as  he  exprnsly 
declares,  the  Prrsiatt  language.  Hence  he  describes  them  (I.  lau 
as  a  subordinate  nomad  clan  of  the  Persians.  They,  with  the 
Diangtans.  Utians  and  Mvci,  formed  a  sing^le  satrapy  (Herod. 
liL  93).  Ptolemy  (vi.  a,  6)  speaks  of  Sagartians  in  the  Eastcra 
Zagros  in  Media. 

13.  We  have  already  touched  on  the  nomadic  peoples  (Ddfto. 
Dahans)  of  Iranian  nationality,  who  occupied  tne  steppes  01 
Turkestan  as  far  as  the  Sarmatians  and  Scythtans  of  South  Russia. 
That  these  were  conscious  of  their  Aryan  origin  is  proved  by  the 
names  Ariantas  and  Ariapcithcs  borne  by  Scythian  (Scolot)  kings 
(Herod,  iv.  76,  87).  Still  they  were  never  counted  as  a  portion  of 
Iran  or  the  Iranians.  To  the  settled  peasantry,  these  nomads  of 
the  steppe  were  always  **  the  enemy  **  {dana,  caha,  A&a»,  Dahae). 
Side  by  side  with  this  name  we  find  '*  TOran  "  and  "  Turanian  '*: 
a  designation  applied  both  by  the  later  Persians  and  by  modern 
writers  to  this  region.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  obscure,  derived 
perhaps  from  an  obsolete  tribal  name.  It  has  no  connexion  what- 
ever with  the  much  later  "  Turks,"  who  penetrated  thither  in  the 
6th  century  after  Christ.  Though  found  neither  in  the  inscriptions 
of  Darius  nor  in  the  Greek  authors,  the  name  Turan  roust  never* 
theless  be  of  grxat  antiquity ;  for  not  merely  is  it  repeatedly  found 
in  the  AveUa^  under  the  form  Tum,  but  it  occurs  already  in  a 
hymn,  which,  without  doubt,  originates  from  Zoroaster  himself, 
and  in  which  **  the  Turanian  FrySna  "  and  his  descendants  are 
commemorated  as  faithful  adherents  of  the  prophet  ( Yasna,  46, 63). 

The  dividing  line  between  Iranian  and  Indian  is  drawn  by 
the  Hindu  Kiuh  and  the  Soliman  mountains  of  the  Indus 
district.  The  valley  of  the  Kabul  (Ccphm)  is  already  occupied 
by  Indian  tribes,  especially  the  Gandarians;  and  the  Satagydae 
(Pers.  Thatagu)  there  resident  were  presumably  also  of  Indian 
stock.  Tlie  oonrAryan  populatioB  of  Iran  itself  has  been 
disaissed  above.  Of  its  other  ncighbouts,  we  must  here  mention 
the  Sacae,  a  warlike  equestrian  people  in  the  mountains  of  the 
pamir  plateau  and  northward;  who  arc  probably  of  Mongol 
origin.  Herodotus  relates  that  the  Persians  distinguished  "  all 
the  Scythians  " — ije.  all  the  northern  nomads-^as  Sacae;  and 
this  statement  is  confirmed  by  the  inscriptions  of  Darius.  The 
Babylonians  employ  the  name  Gimiri  (i.e.  Cimmerians)  in  the 
same  sense. 

III.  Civiiizatum  and  Rdigion  cf  ike  Iranians, — In  the  period 
when  the  ancestors  of  Indian  vid  Iranian  alike  still  formed 
a  single  nation— that  of  the  Aryansr— they  developed 

a  very  marked  character,  which  can  still  be  distinctly  tSSaa^ 
traced,  not  only  in  their  language,  but  also  in  their 
religion  and  in  many  views  conunon  to  both  peoi^es.  A  great 
number  of  gods— AMira,  Mitiuas,  the  Dragon-^ayer  Vereib* 
ra^na  (the  Indra  of  the  Indians),  the  Water-shoot  Apam  napai 
(the  Ughtm'ng),  &c. — date  from  this  era.  So,  too,  fire-worship^ 
espedallyof  thesaczifidal  flame;  the  preparation,  of  the  intoxicat' 
ing  somOf  which  fills  man  with  divine  strength  and  uplifts  him 
to  the  gods;  the  injtmction  to  "  good  thoughts  and  good  works,'* 
imposed  on  the  pious  by  Veda  and  A  vesta  alike:  the  belief  in 
an  unwavering  order  (f to)"-*  law  contit^ing  gods  and  men  and 
dominating  tbem  ail;  yet  with  this,  a  belief  in  the  power  el 
magical  fonnulac  (ntantra),  exclamations  and  prayers,  to  wli^se 
compulsion  not  merely  demons  (the  evil  spirits  of  deception— 
druk)  but  even  the  gods  (daeta)  must  submit;  and,  lastly,  the 
institution  of  a  priesthood  of  firs-kindlers  {alkraoati),  who  are 
at  once  the  repositories  of  all  sacral  traditions  and  the  mediaton 
in  aQ  intercourse  between  earth  and  heaven.  The  transition, 
moreover,  to  settled  life  and  agriculture  belongs  to  the  Aiyaa 


204 


PERSIA 


[MISTORY^  ANCIENT 


period;  and  to  it  may  be  traced  the  pectiUar  sancithy  of  the 
cow  in  India  and  Persia.  For  the  cow  is  the  animal  which 
voluntarily  yields  nourishment  to  man  and  aids  him  in  his 
daily  labours,  and  on  it  depends  the  industry  of  the  peasant 
as  contrasted  with  the  wild  desert  brigand  to  whom  the  coit^  is 
unknown. 

Very  numerous  are  the  legends  common  to  both  nations. 
Thesc^  in  part,  are  rooted  in  the  primeval  Indo-European  days, 
though  their  ultimate  form  dates  only  from  the  Aryan  epoch, 
foremost  among  them  is  the  myth  relating  the  battle  of  a  sun- 
god  (Ind.  rrifOf  generally  replaced  by  Itidra,  Iran.  Tkraetona) 
against  a  fearful  serpent  (Ind.  AM,  Iran.  Atki\  known  moreover 
as  Vrtra)x  also,  the  legend  of  Yama,  the  first  man,  son  of  Vivas- 
vant,  who,  after  a  long  and  blessed  life  in  the  happy  years  of  the 
beginning,  was  sdaed  by.  death  and  now  rules  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  departed.  Then  come  a  host  of  other  talcs  of  old-world 
heroes;  as  the  **  Glorious  One  "  (Ind.  Sushrava,  Pers.  Husrava, 
Ckosrau  or  Cbosroes),  or  the  Son  who  goes  on  a  journey  to  seek 
his  father,  and,  unknown,  meets  his  end  at  his  hands. 

These  legends  have  lived  and  flourished  in  Iran  at  every  period 
of  its  history;  and  neither  the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  nor  yet  Islam, 
f»  AwAi  ^'^  availed  to  suppress  them.  Zoroasl nanism — at 
5^^  "least  in  that  form  in  which  it  became  the  dominant 
creed  of  the  Iranians — legitimized  not  only  the  old 
gods,  but  the  old  heroes  also;  and  transformed  them  into  pious 
helpers  and  servants  of  Ahuramazda;  while  the  creator  of  the 
great  national  epic  of  Persia,  Firdousi  (A.D.g35-io2o), displayed 
astonishing  skill  in  combining  the  andcnt  tradition  with  Islam. 
Through  his  poem,  this  tradition  is  perfectly  familiar  to  every 
Persian  at  iho  present  day;  and  the  primitive  features  of  talcs, 
whose  origin  must  be  dated  4000  years  ago,  are  still  preserved 
with  fidelity.  This  tenacity  of  the  Saga  stands  in  the  sharpest 
contrast  with  the  fact  that  the  historical  memory  of  the  Persian 
is  extxcmety  defective.  Even  the  glories  of  the  Achacmcnid 
Empbe  faded  rapidly,  and  all  but  completely,  from  recollection; 
so  also  the  conquest  of  Alexander,  and  the  Hellenistic  and 
Parthian  eras.  In  Firdousi,  the  legendary  princes  are  followed, 
almost  without  a  break,  by  Ardashir,  the  founder  of  the  Sassanid 
dynasty:  the  intervenihg  episode  of  Darius  and  Alexander 
is  not  drawn  from  native  tradition,  but  borrowed  from  Greek 
literature  (the  Alexander-romance  of  the  Pseudo^Callisthencs) 
In  precisely  the  same  way  as  among  the  nations,  of  the  Christian 
East  in  the  middle  ages.^ 

Needless  to  say,  however,  this  long  period  saw  the  Saga  much 
recast  and  expanded.  Many  new  characters — ^Siyawush,  Rus- 
tam,  &c.^ — ^have  swelled  the  original  list:  among  them  is  King 
Gushtasp  (Vishtaspa),  the  patron  of  Zoroaster,  who  was  known 
from  the  poems  of  the  prophet  and  Is  phiced  at  the  dose  of  the 
legendary  age.  The  old  gods  and  mythical  figures  reappear 
as  heroes  and  kings,  and  their  battles  are  fought  no  longer  in 
heaven  but  upon  earth,  where  they  are  localized  for  the  most 
part  In  the  east  of  Iran.  In  other  words,  the  war  of  the  gods 
has  degenerated  to  the  war  between  Iranian  civilization  and 
the  Turanians.  Only  the  evil  serpent  Azhi  Dahaka  (Azhdahak) 
is  domiciled  by  the  Austa  in  Babylon  (Bavfn)  and  depicted 
on  thtf  model  of  Babylonian  gods  and  demons:  he  is  a  king  in 
human  form  with  a  seipent  growing  from  either  shoulder  and 
feeding  on  the  brains  of  men.  In  these  traits  are  engrained 
the  general  conditions  of  history  and  culture,  under  which  the 
Iranians  lived:  on  the  one  hand,  the  contrast  between  Iranian 
and  Turanian;  on  the  other,  the  dominating  position  of  Babylon, 
which  influenced  most  strongly  the  civilization  and  religion  of 
Iran.  It  is  idle,  however,  to  read  definite  historical  evenu  into 
such  traits,  or  to  attempt,  with  some  scholafs,  to  convert  them 
kito  history'itsdf.  We  cannot  deduce  from  them  a  conquest  of 
Iran  from  Babylon:  for  the  Babylonians  never  set  foot  in  Iran, 
and  even  the  Assyrians  merely  conquered  the  wistem  portion 
of  Media.  Nor  yet  can  we  make  the  favourite  assumption  of 
a  great  wspitt  in  Bactria.    On  the  contrary,  it  is  historically 

'The  fundamental  work  on  the  history  oC  the  Tr^mJan  Saga  is 
Ndtdckc.,  Das  iranische  Nationalepos  i8g6  (reprinted  from  the 
Grumdriu  der  iran.  PhtMogU,  ii.). 


evident  that  beiore  the  Achaemenids  there  were  in  Bactxig 
only  small  k)cal  principalities  of  which  Vlshtaj^'s  was  one: 
and  it  is  possible  that  the  primeval  empire  of.  the  Saga  is  only  a 
reflection  of  the  Achaemenid  and  Sassanid  empires  of  reality, 
whose  existence  legend  dates  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  world* 
simply  because  legend  is  pervaded  by  the  assumption  that  the 
conditions  obtaining  in  the  present  are  the  natural  conditions, 
and,  as  such,  valid  for  all  time. 

Closely  connected  as  are  the  Mythology  and  Religion  of 
Indian  and  Iranian,  no  less  dearly  marked  is  the  fundamental 
difference  of  intellectual  and  moral  standpoint, 
which  has  led  the  two  nations  into  opposite  paths 
of  history  and  culture.  The  tendency  to  religious 
thought  and  to  a  j^>eculative  philosophy,  compre-  fc^jTV. 
bending  the  world  as  a  whole,  is  shared  by  both  and  ^^''°*' 
is  doubtless  an  inheritance  from  the  Aryan  period.  But  with 
the  Indians  this  speculation  leads  to  the  complete  alx^tion  of 
all  barriers  between  God  and  man,  to  a  mystic  pantheism,  and  to 
absorption  in  the  universal  Ego,  in  ccmtrast  with  which  the  world 
becomes  an  unsubstantial  phantasm  and  sinks  into  nothingness. 
For  the  Iranian,  on  the  contrary,  practical  life,  the  real  world, 
and  with  them  the  moral  commandment,  fill  the  foreground. 
The  new  gods  created  by  Iran  are  ethical  powers;  those  of  India, 
abstractions  of  worship  (broAman)  or  of  philosophy  (aiman). 
These  fundamental  features  of  Iranian  sentiment  encounter 
us  not  only  in  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster  and  the  confessions  of 
Darius,  but  also  in  that  magnificent  product  of  tl^e  Persia  ci 
Islam~the  Sufi  mysticism.  This  is  panthdstic,  like  the  Brahman 
philosophy.  But  the  pantheism  of  the  Persian  is  always  positive, 
—affirming  the  world  and  life,  taking  joy  in  them,  and  seeking 
its  ideal  in  union  with  a  creative  god:  the  pantheism  of  the 
Indian  is  negative — denying  world  and  life,  and  desciying  its 
ideal  in  the  cessation  of  existence. 

This  contrast  in  intellectual  and  religious  life  must  have 
developed  very  early.  Probably,  in  the  remote  past  violent 
religious  disputes  and  feuds  broke  out:  for  otherwise  it  is  almost 
inexplicable  that  the  old  Indo-European  word,  which  in  India, 
also,  denotes  the  gods — devo—ahwAd  be  applied  by  the  Iranians 
to  the  malignant  demons  or  devib  (Jaevo;  mod.  dis);  while 
they  denote  the  gods  by  the  name  bkaga.  Conversely  the 
Asuras,  whose  name  in  Iran  is  the  title  of  the  supreme  god 
(akurOf  aurah  have  in  India  degenerated  to  evil  spirits.  It  is 
of  great  importance  that  among  the  Slavonic  peoples  the  same 
wibrd  b9gu  distinf^iishcs  the  ddty;  since  this  points  to  ancient 
cultural  influences  on  which  we  have  yet  np  more  precise  informa- 
tion. Otherwise,  the  name  is  only  found  among  the  Phrygians, 
who,  according  to  Hesychius,  called  the  Heaven-god  (Zeus) 
Bagaeus;  there,  however,  it  may  have  been  borrowed  from  the 
Persians.  We  possess  no  other  evidence  for  these  events;  the 
only  docimient  we  possess  for  the  history  of  Iranian  reUgi<m  is 
the  sacred  writing,  containing  the  doctrines  of  the  prophet  who 
gave  that  religion  a  new  form.  ThM  is  the  Avesta,  the  Bible  of 
the  modem  Parsee,  which  comprises  the  revelation  of  Zoroaster. 

As  to  the  home  and  time  of  Zoroaster,  the  Parsee  tradition 
yidds  us  no  sort  of  information  which  ccaild  possibly  be  of  his- 
torical service.  Its  contents,  even  if  they  go  back  ^  . 
to  lost  parts  of  the  Atesta,  are  merely  ti  latu  patch-  *"*"^* 
work,  based  on  the  legendary  tradition  and  devoid  of  historical 
foundation.  The  attempts  of  West  {Palilavi  Texts  Trandcied, 
vol.  V.)  to  turn  to  historical  account  the  statements  of  the 
Btttidahish  and  other  Parsee  books,  which  date  Zoroaster  at 
258  years  befote  Alexander,  are,  in  the  present  writer's  opinion, 
a  complete  failure.  Jackson  {Zorooitcr,  tht  Propkei  oj  Ancient 
Iran,  igoi)  sides  with  West.  The  Greek  theory,  which  rele- 
gates Zoroaster  to.  the  mists  of  antiquity,  or  even  to  the  period 
of  the  fabulous  Ninus  and  Semiramis,  is  equally  valueles. 
Even  the  statement  that  he  came  from  the  north-west  of  Media 
(the  later  Atropatene),  and  his  mother  from  Rai  (Rhagae)  in 
eastern  Media,  must  be  considered  as  problematic  in  the  extreme. 
Our  only  trustworthy  information  is  to  be  gleaned  from  his  own 
testimony  and  from  the  history  of  his  rcKgion.  And  here  we 
may  take  it  as  certain  that  the  scene  of  his  activity  was  laid  in. 


msroRy:  ANaBKTi 


PERSIA 


205 


the  east  of  Iran,  ia  Bactrim  and  its  neighbouring  regions.  The 
contrast  there  existing  between  peasant  and  nomad  is  of  vital 
consequence  for  the  whole  position  of  his  creed.  Among  the 
adherents  whom  he  gained  was  numbered,  as  already  mentioned, 
a  Turanian,  one  Fryana  and  his  household.  The  west  of  Iron 
is  scarcely  ever  regarded  in  the  Avesta,  while  the  districts  and 
rivers  of  the  east  are  often  named.  The  language,  even,  is 
marlcedly  different  from  the  Persian;  and  the  fire-priests  are 
not  styled  Magians  as  in  Persia-^^the  word  indeed  never  occurs 
in  the  Avetia,  except  in  a  single  late  passage— but  o/Artfoan, 
identical  with  the  atharvan  of  India  {ThpojAot,  "  fire-lundlers,'> 
in  Strabo  iv.  733).  Thus  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  king 
Vishtaspa,  who  received  Zoroaster's  doctrine  and  protected 
him,  must  have  ruled  in  eastern  Irsn:  though  strangely  enough 
scholars  can  still  be  found  to  identify  him  with  the  homonymous 
Persian  Hystaspes,  the  father  of  Darius.  The  possibility  that 
Zotouitr  himself  was  not  a  native  of  East  Iran,  but  had  immi- 
grated thither  (from  Rhagac?),  is  of  eourBO  always  to  be  con<» 
sidered;  and  this  theory  has  been  used  to  explain  the  pheno- 
raenon  that  the  Gathas,  of  his  own  composition,  are  written  in 
a  different  dialect  from  the  rest  of  the  Xwste.  On  this 
hypothesis,  the  former  would  be  fate  mother^oogue:  the  latter 
the  speech  of  eastern  Iran. 

This  district  is  agahi  indicated  as  the  starting-pouit  of  Zoro- 
astrianism,  by  the  fact  that  dead  bodies  are  not  embalmed  and 
then  interred,  as  was  usual,  for  instance,  hi  Persia,  but  cast 
out  to  the  dogs  and  birds  (cf.  Herod.  L  r4o),  a  practice,  as  is 
well  known,  strictly  enjoined  in  the  Avesta,  ruthlessly  executed 
under  the  Sassanids,  and  followed  to  the  present  day  by  the 
Parsees.  The  motive  of  this>  indeed,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
sanctity  of  Earth,  which  most  not  be  poUuted  by  a  corpse;  but 
its  origin  k  evidently  to  be  traced  in  a  barbaric  custom  of 
nomadic  or  semi-nomadlc  tribes  who  leave  the  dead  to  lie  on  the 
steppe;  and  we  know  from  Greek  sources  that  this  custom  was 
widely  defused  among  the  tribes  of  eastern  Iran. 

The  next  due  towards  determining  the  period  of  Zoroaster 
is,  that  Darius  I.  and  all  his  successors,  as  proved  by  their 
inscriptions  and  by  Greek  testimony,  were  zealous  adherents  of 
the  pure  word  ol  Zoroastrianism;  which  consequently  mxist 
already  have  been  accepted  in  the  west  of  Iran.  That  Cjrrus 
too  owned  anegiance  to  the  creed,  cannot  be  doubted  by  an 
unprejudiced  mind,  although  in  the  dearth  of  contemporary 
monuments  we  possess  no  proof  at  first  hand.  The  Assyrian 
inscriptions  demonstrate,  however,  that  Zoroaster's  teaching 
was  dominant  in  Media  two  centuries  before  Cyrus.  For  in 
the  list  of  Median  princes,  to  which  we  have  already  referred, 
are  two  bearing  the  name  of  Mazdaka — evidently  after  the  god 
Mazda.  Now  this  name  was  the  invention  of  Zoroaster  himself; 
and  he  who  names  himself  after  Mazda  thereby  makes  a  con- 
fession of  faith  in  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  whose  followers, 
as  we  know,  termed  themselves  Mazdayasna,  **  worshippers  of 
Mazda/' 

Thus,  if  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster  predommated  in  Media 
in  714  B.C.,  obviously  his  appearance  in  the  r6Ie  of  prophet 
must  hAve  been  much  earlier.  A  more  definite  date  cannot  be 
deduced  from  the  evidence  at  our  disposal,  but  his  era  may 
safely  be  placed  as  far  back  as  xeoo  B.C. 

The  religion  which  Zoroattcr  preached  was  the  creatlOA  of  a 
•ingle  man,  who,  having  pondered  long  and  deeply  the  problems 
of  cxtttCQce  and  the  worlo,  propounded  the  eolution  he  Jouod  as 
a  divine  revelation.  Naturally  ne  starts  from  the  old  views,  and 
js  indebted  to  them  for  manv  of  his  tenets  and  ideas;  but  out  of 
this  material  he  builds  a  uniform  system  whieh  bears  throughout 
the  impress  of  his  own  intellect.  In  tbb  world,  two  gvoops  of 
powers  confront  each  other  in  a  truoeless  war,  the  powers  of  Good, 
of  Light,  of  creative  Strength,  of  Life  and  ol  Truth,  and  the  powers  of 
EvH,  of  Darkness,  Destruction,  Death  and  Deceit.  In  the  van 
of  the  firvt  stands  the  Holy  Spirit  (fpenta  fnainyu)  or  the  **  Great 
Wisdom  "  Mazdaa  His  helpers  and  vassals  are  tne  six  powov  of 
Good  Thought  (voku  Mon^,  '(^it»^),  of  Right  Order  (fiska,  Jnd. 
rta,  Pers.  arte,  *'  lawfulness  '*),  of  the  Excellent  Kingdom  (khslatkra 
Pairya),  of  Holy  Character  (tpenta  Srmaiti),  of  Health  (hauyvaUIt), 
and  of  tmmortaltty  (amereUU).  These  are  comprised  under  the 
general  title  of  **  undying  holy  ones"  (aswiia  s^mOs,  amthdtpani); 
and  a  host  of  subordinate  angels  (yoaalo)  are  rsnlced  with  them. 


The  powers  of  evil  are  in  all  points  the  opposite  of  the  good ;  at  their 
head  being  the  Evil  Spirit  {augra  mainyu,  Ahriman).  These  evil 
demons  are  identical  with  the  old  gods  of  the  popular  faith — the 
devas  (div)— while  Mazdao  bears  the  name  Akura,  above  discussed: 
whence  Ahuramaxda  (Ormuzd). 

From  this  it  will  be  manifest  that  the  figures  of  Zoroaster's 
religion  are  purely  abstraaions;  the  concrete  gods  of  vulgar  belief 
being  set  aside.  All  those  who  do  not  belong  to  the  devils  (daas), 
might  be  recognized  as  inferior  scrvante  of  Ahuramazda:  chief 
among  them  bemg  the  Sun-god  Mithras  (sec  Mithkas)  ;  the  goddess 
of  vi^tation  and  fertility,  especially  of  the  Oxus-stream.  AnHkita 
Ardvtsura  (Anailis);  and  the  Dragon-slayer  Veretkraikno  (Cr. 
ArtaiHah  with  the  ^  of  the  intoxicating  Htuma  (the  Indian 
Soma).  In  the  religion  of  the  people,  these  divinities  always 
survived;  and  the  popularity  of  Mithras  is  evinced  by  the  numerous 
Aryan  proper  names  thence  derived  (Mithredates.  4c.).  The 
educated  community  who  had  embraced  the  pure  doctrine  in  its 
completeness  scarcely  recognized  them,  and  the  inscriptions  of 


the  official  religion  of  the  Persian  kings.  But  they  always  played 
a  leading  part  m  the  propaganda  of  the  Persian  cults  ia  the  West. 

Only  one  element  in  the  old  Aryan  belief  was  preserved  by  Zoro- 
aster m  all  its  sanctity:  that  of  Fire-^he  purest  manifestation  of 
Ahuramazda  and  the  powers  of  Good.  Thus  fire-alurs  were  evcry- 
wbete  erected ;  and,  to  the  prophet  also,  the  Fire-kiadlers  (mknvan) 
were  the  ministers  and  pnests  of  the  true  religion  and  the  intcf- 
mcdiarics  between  God  and  man;  at  last  in  the  popular  mind, 
Zoroastrianism  was  identified  with  Fire-worship  pure  and  simple, 
— inadequate  though  the  term  in  reality  is,  as  a  description  olita 
essentials. 

Midway  in  this  oppontion  of  the  powers  of  Good  and  Evil,  man 
is  placed.  He  has  to  choose  on  which  side  he  will  stand ;  he  is  called 
to  serve  the  powers  of  Good :  his  duty  lies  in  speakii^  the  truth 
and  combating  the  lie.  And  this  is  fulfilled  when  he  obeys  the  com- 
mands of  law  and  the  true  order;  when  he  tends  his  cattle  and 
fields,  in  contrast  with  the  lawless  and  predatory  nomad  (Dahae); 
when  he  wars  on  all  harmful  and  evil  creatures,  and  on  tne  <^vil- 
worshippers;  when  he  keeps  free  from  poUution  the  pure  craations 
of  Ahuramazda — fire  foremost,  but  also  earth  ana  water;  and, 
above  all,  when  he  practises  the  Good  and  True  in  thought,  word 
and  work.  And  as  his  deeds  are,  so  shall  be  his  fate  and  nts  future 
lot  on  the  Day  of  Judgment;  when  he  must  cross  the  Bridge  Cinvat, 
which,  according  to  his  works,  will  either  guide  him  to  the  Paradise 
of  Ahuramazda  or  preci|3itate  him  to  the  Hell  of  Ahriman.  Obvi- 
ously, it  was  through  this  preaching  of  a  judgment  to  come  and  a 
direct  moral  rasponsibility  cs  the  individual  man,  that,  like  Mahomet 
among  the  Arabs^  Zoroaster  and  his  disciples  gained  their  adherents 
and  exercised  their  ercatcst  influence. 

In  this  creed  of  Zoroastrianism  three  important  points  are 
es|>cciany  to  be  emphasized :  for  on  them  depend  its  peculiar  charac- 
teristics and  historical  significances— 

I.  The  abstractioos  which  it  jprealches  are  ntrt  products  of  meta- 
physical si)eculation,  as  in  India,  but  rather  the  ethical  forces 
which  dominate  human  life.  They  impose  a  duty  upon  man,  and 
enjoin  on  him  a  positive  line  of  action — a  definite  activity  in  the 
worid.  And  this  world  he  is  not  to  eschew,  like  the  Brahman  and 
the  Buddhist,  but  to  work  in  it,  enjoying  existence  and  life  to  the 
fulL  Thus  a  man's  birthday  is  counted  the  highest  festival  (Herod, 
i.  133) ;  and  thus  the  joie  ae  vivre,  rich  banquets  and  carousals  are 
not  rejected  by  the  Persian  as  godless  and  worldly,  but  are  even 
prescnbed  by  his  religion.  To  create  offspring  and  people  the  world 
with  servants  of  Ahuramazda  is  the  duty  of  every  true  believer.' 

a.  This  religion  grew  up  in  the  midst  of  a  settled  peasant  popu- 
lation, whose  mode  of  hfe  and  vicws^  it  regards  as  the  natural 
disposition  of  things.  Consequently,  it  is  at  once  a  product  of, 
and  a  main  factor  in  civilization;  and  is  thereby  sharoly  differ- 
entiated from  the  Israelite  reliaion,  with  whose  moral  precepts 
it  otherwise  coincides  so  frequently.^ 

3.  The  preaching  of  Zoroaster  is  directed  to  each  individual 
man,  and  requires  of  him  that  fie  shall  choose  his  position  with 
regard  to  the  fundamental  problems  of  life  and  religion.  Thus, 
even  though  It  arose  from  national  views,  in  its  essence  it  is  not 
national  (as,  .for  instance,  the  Israelite  creed),  but  individualistis, 
and  at  the  same  time  universal.  From  the  first,  it  aims  at  propa- 
ganda; and  the  nationality  of  the  convert  is  a  matter  of  indifference. 
So  Zoroaster  himself  converted  the  Turanian  Fryana  with  his  kindred 
(see  above);  and  the  same  tendency  to  proselytize  alien  peoples  sur- 
vived in  his  religiott.  Zoroastrianism,  in  fact,  is  the  first  creed  to 
work  by  missions  or  to  lay  claim  to  universality  of  acceptance. 
It  was,  nowever,  only  natural  that  its  adherents  should  be  won,  first 
and  chiefly,  among  the  countrymen  of  the  prophet,  and  its  further 
success  in  gaming  over  all  the  Iranian  tnbes  gave  it  a  natkNol 
etamp.    So  the  Susan  translation  of  Darius'  Bchistun  inscriptioo 

*  These  ideas  are  strongly  exposed  in  a  polemic  against  the 
Christians  contained  in  an  official  edict  of  the  Persian  creed  to  the 
Armenians  by  Mihr  Naneh.  the  virier  of  Yazdcgerd  11.  (about 
A.I>.  450),  preserved  by  the  Armenian  historian,  Etishe. 


2o6 


PERSIA 


(HfSrORY:  ANCIENT 


Tb0 


tenna  Ahuramaxda  "  the  god  of  tlie  Aryans.**  Thus  the  crce4 
became  a,  powerful  factor  in  the  development  o£  an  united  Iranian 
tutionality 

That  a  religion,  which  lays  its  chief  stress  upon  moral  precepts, 
may  readily  develop  into  casubtry  and  external  formalism,  with  an 
infinity  of  minute  prescriptions,  injunctions  on  purity  and  the  like,  u 
well  known.  In  the  Avesta  all  these  recur  ad  nameam,  so  much  so 
that  the  primitive  spirit  of  the  religion  b  stifled  beneath  them, 
as  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  prophets  was  stifled  in  Judabra  and 
the  Talmud.  The  Sassanid  Empire,  indeed,  b  completely  dominated 
by  thb  formalism  and  ritualism ;  but  the  earlier  testimony  of  Darius 
in  his  inscriptions  and  the  statements  in  Herodotus  enable  us  still 
to  recognize  the  original  healthy  life  of  a  religion  capable  of  awaken- 
ing the  enthusiastic  devotion  of  the  inner  man.  Its  formal  character 
naturally  germinated  in  the  priesthood  (Herod,  i.  140;  cf.  Strabo 
XV.  73^,  oc.).  The  priests  diligently  practise  all  the  precepts  of 
their  ntual— «.f.  the  extermination  ol  noxious  animals,  and  the 
exposure  of  corpses  to  the  dogs  and  birds^  that  earth  may  not  be 
polluted  by  their  presence.  They  have  advice  for  every  contingency 
in  life,  and  can  say  with  ptecbion  when  a  man  has  been  defiled,  and 
how  he  may  be  cleansed  aeun;  they  possess  an  endless  stock  of 
formulae  for  prayer,  and  of  sentences  which  serve  for  protection 
against  evil  spirits  and  may  be  turned  to  purposes  of  magic 

How  the  doctrine  overspread  the  whole  of  Iran,  we  do  not  know. 
In  the  West,  among  the  Mcdes  and^  Persians,  the  guardbnship 
and  ministry  of  Zoroastrianism  is  vested  in  an  exclusive 
priesthood — the  Magians.  Whence  thb  name-*^nknown 
as  already  mentioned,  to  the  Avfsta'-i.ook  its  rise,  we 
have  no  knowledge.  Herodotus  (i.  loi)  includes  the  Magians  in 
his  list  of  Median  tribes;  and  it  is  probable  that  they  and  their 
teaching  reached  the  Persians  from  Media.  At  all  events,  they 
play  here  not  merely  the  rMe  of  the  *'  Firc-kindlers  "  {dUhravan) 
in  the  AvestOt  but  are  become  an  hereditary  sacerdotal  caste,  acting 
an  important  part  in  the  state — advisers  and  spiritual  guides  to 
the  king,  and  so  forth.  With  them  the  ritualism  and  ma^al 
character,  above  mentioned,  are  fully  devdoped.  in  the  narrations 
of  Herodotus,  they  interpret  dreams  and  predict  the  future;  and  in 
Greece,  from  the  time  ol  Herodotus  and  Sophocles  {Oed.  Tyr,  387) 
onward,  the  word  Magian  connotes  a  magician-priest. 

See  further,  Zoroastbr  and  works  there  quoted. 

IV.  Bfginnings  of  History. — A  connected  chain  of  hbtorical 
evidence  begins  with  the  time  when  under  Shalmaneser  (Sal- 
AuyHmm  manassar  U.),  the  Assyrians  in  836  B.C.  began  for 
Coaqutst  the  first  time  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  moun- 
otMediM,  isiia^  of  the  east;  and  there,  in  addition  to  several 
non-Iranian  peoples,  subdued  a  few  Median  tribes.  These 
wars  were  continued  under  successive  kings,  till  the  Assyrian 
power  in  these  regions  attained  its  zenith  under  Sargon 
(f.v.),  who  (715  B.C.)  led  into  exile  the  Median  chief  Dayuku 
(see  Deioces),  a  vassal  of  the  Minni  (Mannacans),  with  all 
his  family,  and  subjected  the  princes  of  Media  as  far  as  the 
mountain  of  Bikni  (Elburz)  and  the  border  of  the  great  desert. 
At  that  time  twenty-eight  Median  "town-lords"  paid  tribute 
to  Nineveh;  two  years  later,  (713  B.C.)  no  fewer  than  forty-six. 
Sargon's  successors,  down  to  Assur-banf-pal  (668-^26  B.C.), 
maintained  and  even  augmented  their  suzerainty  over  Media, 
in  spite  of  repeated  attempts  to  throw  off  the  yoke  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Mannaeans,  the  Saparda,  the  Cimmerians — ^who 
had  penetrated  into  the  Armenian  mountains — and  others. 
Not  till  the  last  years  of  Assur-bani-pal,  on  which  the  extant 
Assyrian  annals  are  silent,  can  an  independent  Median  Empire 
have  arisen. 

At  to  the  hbtory  of  this  empire,  we  have  an  andent  account 
in  Herodotus,  which,  with  a  large  admixture  of  the  legendary, 
still  contains  numerous  historical  elements,  and  a 
completely  fandful  account  from  Ctcsias,  preserved 
in  Diodorus  (iL  3  a  sqq.)  and  much  useid  by  later 
writers.  In  the  latter  Nineveh  is  destroyed  by  the  Mede  Arbaccs 
and  the  Babylonian  Belesys  about  880  B.C.,  a  period  when  the 
Assyrians  were  just  beginning  to  lay  the  foundations  of  their 
power.  Arbacea  Is  then  followed  by  a  long  list  of  Median  kings, 
all  of  them  fabulous.  On  the  other  hand,  according  to  Herodotus 
the  Medes  revolt  from  Assyria  about  7x0  B.C.,  that  Is  to  say, 
at  the  exact  time  when  they  were  subdued  by  Sargon.  Deioces 
founda  the  monarchy;  his  son  Phraortes  basins  the  work  of 
conquest;  and  his  son  Cyaxares  is  first  overwhelmed  by  the 
Scythians,  then  captures  Nineveh,  and  raises  Media  to  a  great 
power.  A  little  supplementary  information  may  be  gleaned 
from  the  Inscriptions, of  Ring  Nabonidus  of  Babylon  (555-539) 


T*# 


and  from  a  few  alliisions  in  the  Old  Testameat.  Of  the  Median 
Empire  itself  we  do  not  possess  a  single  monument.  Consequently 
its  hbtory  still  lies  in  complete  ol»curity  (cf.  Mjedu;  Dsioces; 
Phraortes;  Cyaxares). 

The  beginnings  of  the  Median  monarchy  can  scarcely  go  fartfact 
back  than  640  B.C.  To  all  appearance,  the  Insurrection  against 
Assyria  must  have  proceeded  from  the  desert  tribe  of  th« 
Manda,  mentioned  by  Saigon:  for  Nabonidus  invariably  de- 
scribes the  Median  kings  as  "  kings  of  the  Manda.**  According 
to  the  account  of  Herodotus,  the  dynasty  was  derived  from 
Deioces,  the  captive  of  Sargon,  whose  descendants  may  have 
found  refuge  in  the  desert.  The  first  historical  king  woukl 
seem  to  have  been  Phraortes,  who  probably  succeeded  im 
subduing  the  small  local  princes  of  Media  and  in  rendering 
himself  independent  of  Assyria.  Further  development  was 
arrested  by  the  Scythian  invasion  described  by  Herodotus. 
We  know  from  Zephanlah  and  Jeremiah  that  these  nortjbem 
barbarians,  in  6^  B.C.,  overran  and  harried  Syria  and  Palcstijic 
(cf.  Cyaxares;  Jews).  With  these  inroads  of  the  Cimmerians 
and  Scythians  (see  Scvthu),  we  must  doubtless  conn^t  the 
great  ethnographical  revolution  in  the  north  of  anterior  Asia; 
the  Indo-European  Armenians  {Haik),  displacing  the  old  Alan>> 
dians  {Urartu,  Ararat),  in  the  country  which  has  since  borne 
their  name;  and  the  entry  of  the  Cappadociana — first  mentioned 
in  the  Persian  period — ^into  the  east  of  Asia  Minor.  -The  Scythian 
invasion  evidently  contributed  largely  to  the  enfeeblement  oi 
the  Assyrian  Empire:  for  in  the  same  year  the  (^aldaean  Nabo- 
polassar  founded  the  New-Babylonian  empire;  and  in  606  b.c 
Cyaxares  captured  and  destjroyed  Nineveh  and  the  other 
Assyrian  cities.  Syria  and  the  south  he  abandoned  to  Kabo- 
polassar  and  his  son  Nebuchadrezzar;  while*-  on  the  other  hand, 
Assyria  proper,  cast  of  the  Tigris,  the  north  of  Mesopotamia 
with  the  town  of  Harran  (CarrJboa)  and  the  mountains  of  Armenia 
were  annexed  by  the  Medes,  Cappadocia  also  fell  before 
Cyaxares;  in  a  war  with  the  Lydian  Empire  the  decisive  battle 
was  broken  off  by  the  celebrated  eclipse  of  the  son  on  the  26ih 
of  May  585  B.C.,  foretold  by  Thales  (Herod,  i.  74).  After  this  a 
peace  was  arranged  by  Nebuchadrezzar  of  Babylon  and  Syen- 
nesis  of  Cilicia,  recognizing  the  Halys  as  the  borderline.  To  the 
east,  the  Mcdi^ui  Empire  extended  far  over  Iran,  even  the 
Persians  owning  its  sway.    Ecbatana  (q.v.)  became  the  capitaL 

Of  the  states  which  axose  out  of  the  shattered  Assyrian  Empire 
(Media,  Babylon,  Egypt,  Cilicia  and  Lydia),  Media  was  by  for 
the  strengesL  In  Babyjon  the  kings  feared,  and  the  exiled 
Jews  hoped,  an  attack  from  the  Medes  (cf.  Isa.  xiii.,  xiv.,  xxi.; 
Jcr.  1.,  li.);  and  Nebuchadrezzar  sought  by  every  means — 
great  fortifications,  canals  and  so  forth — to  secure  bis  empire 
against  the  menace  from  the  north.  He  succeeded  in  maintain- 
ing the  status  quo  practically  unimpaired,  additional  security 
being  found  in  intermarriage  between  the  two  dynasties.  In 
tbia  state  of  eqiiilibriunv  the  great-  poweis  of  Anterior  Asia 
remained  during  the  first  half  of  the  6th  century. 

V.  Th9  Persian,  Empire  of  the  A.ckatmenids.'-'Tht  balance, 
however,  was  disturbed  in  553  B.C.,  when  the  Persian  Cyrus, 
king  of  Anshan  in  Elam  {Sutiana),  ttvolted  against  cta^wstt 
his  suzerain  Astyages,  the  son  of  Cyaxares,  and  o#(>i«s 
three  years  later  defeated  him  at  Pasargadae  (g.«.).*  ^■j^. 
Shortly  afterwards  Astyages  was  taken  prisoner,  ^^■■■^y*' 
Ecbatana  reduced,  and  the  Median  Empire  replaced  by  the 
Persian.  The  Persian  tribes  were  wdded  by  Cyrus  into  a  single 
nation,  and  now  became  the  foremosit  people  in  the  worid  (see 
pERSis  and  Cyrus).  At  first  Nabonidos  of  Babylon  hailed 
the  fall  of  the  Medes  with  delight  and  utilized  the  opportunity 
by  occupying  Harran  (Carrhae).  But  befoie  kmg  he  recognized 
the  danger  threatened  from  that  quarter.  Cyrus  and  his 
Persians  paid  little  heed  to  the  treaties  which  the  Median  king 
had  ■  concluded  with  the  other  powers;  and  the  result  was  a 
great  coalition  against  him,  embracing  Nabonidus  of  Babylon, 
Amaais  of  Eg3^t,  Croesus  of  Lydia,  and  the  Spanans,  whose 
highly  efficient  army  seemed  to  the  Oriental  states  of  great  value. 
In  the  spring  of  546  B.C.,  Croesus  opened  the  attack.  Cyrus 
*  See  iuithcr,  Blabyloni  a  and  Asbybiax  |  v.  Hulory, 


HISTORY:  ANCIENTJ 


PERSIA 


207 


flung  himself  upon  him,  beat  Mm  kt  Pterin  ia  Cappftdoda  and 
pursued  him  to  Lydia.  A  second  victory  followed  on  the 
basics  of  the  Paetolus;  by  the  autumn  of  546  Sardis  had  already 
faUen  and  the  Persian  power  advanced  at  a  bound  to  the  Medi' 
terranean.  In  the  course  of  the  next  few  years  the  Greek 
littoral  towns  were  reduced,  as  also  the  Carians  and  Lycians. 
The  king  of  Cilida  (Syennesb)  voluntarily  acknowledged  the 
Persian  suzerainty.  In  539  Nabonidus  was  defeated  and  Baby- 
Ion  occupied,  while,  with  the  Chaldean  Empire,  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine also  became  Persian  (see  Jews).  The  east  of  Iran  was 
further  subdued,  and,  after  Cyrus  met  his  end  (sa3  B.Ci)  in  a 
war  against  the  eastern  Nomads  (Dahae,  Massagetae),  his  son 
Cambyses  conquered  Egypt  (525  B.C.).  Cyprus  and  the  Greek 
islands  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  also  submitted,  Samos  being 
taken  by  Darius.  On  the  other  hand,  an  expedition  by  Cam- 
byses against  the  Ethiopian  kingdom  of  Napata  and  Meroe 
came  to  grief  In  Niibia.  The  usurpation  of  Smerdis  (522-531 
•.c.)  and  his  death  at  the  hands  of  Darius  was  the  signal  for 
numerous  insurrections  in  Babylon,  Susiana,  Persis,  Media, 
Armenia  and  many  of  the  Eastern  provinces.  But,  within 
two  years  (521-5x9),  they  were  all  crushed  by  Darius  and  his 
generals. 

The  causes  of  this  aStonislung  success,  which,  in  the  brief  space 
of  a  single  generation,  raised  a  previously  obscure  and  secluded 
^^  ^.  tribe  to  the  mastery  of  the  whole  Orient,  can  only  be 
^t"***—  partially  discerned  from  the  evidence  at  our  disposal. 
'•"■•^^  The  decisive  factor  was  of  course  their  military  superi- 
ority. The  chief  weapon  of  the  Persians,  as  of  all  Iranians,  was  the 
bow,  which  accordingly  the  Idng  himself  holds  in  hb  portraits, 
e.g.  on  the  Bchistvn  rock  and  the  coins  {darks).  In  addition 
to  the  bow,  the  Persians  carried  short  lances  and  short  daggers. 
But  it  was  not  by  these  weapons,  nor  by  hand  to  hand  fichting, 
that  the  Persian  victories  were  won.  They  overwhelmea  their 
enemy  under  a  hall  of  arrows,  and  never  allowed  him  to  come  to 
close  quarters.  While  the  infantry  kneeled  to  shoot,  the  cavalry 
swarmed  round  the  hostile  squadrons,  threw  their  lines  into  con- 
fusion, and  completed  their  discomfiture  by  a  vigorous  pursuit. 
In  a  charge  the  infantry  also  might  employ  lance  and  dagger: 
but  the  essential  point  was  that  the  archers  snould  be  mobile  and 
their  use  of  the  bow  unhampered. 

Consequently,  only  a  few  distinguished  waniors  wore  shirts  of 
mail.  For  purposes  of  defence  the  rank  and  file  merely  carried 
a  light  hide-covercd  shield ;  which  the  infantry,  in  shooting,  planted 
before  them  as  a  sort  of  barrier  against  the  enemy's  misMies.  Thus 
the  Persian  army  was  lost,  if  heavy-armed  hoplites  succeeded  in 
gaining  their  lines.  In  spite  of  all  their  bravery^  th<^  succumbed 
to  the  Greek  phalanx,  when- once  the  generalship  of  a  Miltiades 
or  a  Paosanias  had  brought  matters  to  a  hand  to  hand  conflict; 
and  it  was  with  justice  that  the  Greeks — ^Aeschylus,  for  instance- 
viewed  their  battles  against  the  Persian  as  a  contest  between 
spear  and  bow.  None  the  less,  till  Marathon  the  Persians  were 
successful  in  discomfiting  every  enemy  before  he  could  close,  whether 
that  enemy  consisted  of  ^mitarly  accoutred  bowmen  (as  the  Mcdcs), 
of  cavalry  armed  with  the  lance  (aa  the  Lydiant),  or  of  heavily 
armoured  warriors  (as  the  Babylonians,  Egjrptians  and  Greeks). 

To  all  this  should  be  added  the  superiority  of  their  leaders; 
Cyrus  especially  must  have  been  an  exceedingly  able  general. 
Obviously,  also,  he  must  have  understood  the  art  of  organizing  his 
people  and  arousiag  the  feeling  of  nationality  and  the  courage  of 
aelf-sacrifice.  In  bis. time  the  Ferrians  were  a  strong  manly 
peasantry,  domiciled  in  a  healthy  climate  and  habituated  to  all 
hardships — a  point  repeatedly  emphasised,  in  the  tales  preserved 
by  Herodotus,  as  the  cause  of  their  successes  {e.(.  Herod,  ix.  122). 
Herodotus,  however,  also  records  (i.  135)  that  the  Persians  were 
"  of  all  mankind  the  readiest  to  adopt  foreign  customs,  good  or 
bad,."  a  sentence  which  ia  equally  applicable  to  the  Roinaas>  and 
which  in  the  case  of  both  nations  goes  far  to  explaiUi  not  merely 
their  successes,  but  also  the  character  of  their  empires. 

The  fundamental  features  of  the  imperial  oiss^nixation  must 
have  been  due  to  Cyrus  himself.  Darius  followed  in  his  steps 
QpfstaiM-  And  completed  the  vast  structure.  His  rAle,  indeed, 
um  0/  was  peculiarly  that  of  supplementing  and  perfecting 
"^"^  the  work  of  his  great  predecessor.  The  organizatfen 
of  the  empire  is  planned  throu^^out  on  broad,  free  lines;  there 
is  nothing  mean  and  timorous  in  it.  The  great  god  Ahuramaadsi 
whom  kin^  and  people  alike  acknowledge,  has  pven  them  domi- 
own  "over  this  earth  afar,  over  many  peoples  and  tongues;'* 
and  the  consdousness  is  strong  in  them  that  they  at«  masters 
of  the  world.  Thus  their  sovereign  styles  himself  "  the  king  of 
kings  *'  and  ''  the  king  of  the  iands"  -Hhat  is  to  say,  of  the 


HaOouM, 


whole  enrobed  worM.  For  the  provinces  remaining  unsubdued 
on  the  extreme  frontiers  to  the  west,  the  north  and  the  east  are 
in  their  view  ahaost  negligible  quantities.  And  far  removed 
as  the  Persians  are  from  disavowing  their  proud  sense  of  nation^ 
ality  C*a  Persian,  the  son  of  a  Persian,  an  Aryan  of  Aryan 
stock  "  says  Darius  of  himself  in  the  mscription  on  his  tomb)-- 
yet  equally  vivid  is  the  feeling  that  they  rule  the  whole  civilized 
world,  that  their  task  is  to  reduce  it  to  unity,  and  that  by  the 
will  of  Ahuramazda  they  are  pledged  to  govern  it  aright. 

This  is  most  dearly  seen  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject 
races.  In  contrast  with  the  Assyrians  and  the  Romans  the 
Persians  invariably  conducted  their  wars  with  great 
humanity.  The  vanqiushed  kings  were  honourably 
dealt  with,  the  enemy's  towns  were  i^red,  except 
when  grave  offences  and  insurrections,  as  at  Miletus  and 
Athena,  rendered  punishment  imperative;  and  their  inhabitants 
were  treated  with  mildness.  Like  Cyrus,  all  his  successors 
welcomed  members  of-  the  conquered  nationalities  to  their 
service,  employed  them  as  admhiistraton  or  generiUs  and  made* 
them  grants  of  land:  and  this  not  only  In  the  case  of  Medes, 
but  also  of  Armenians,  Lydlans,  Jews  and  Greeks.  The  whole 
population  of  the  empire  was  alike  bound  to  military  service. 
The  subject-contingents  stood  side  by  side  with  the  native 
Persian  troops;  and  the  garriaon»-^n  Egypt,  for  instance- 
were  composed  of  the  most  varied  nationalities. 

Among  the  subject  races  the  Modes  particularly  stood  high 
In  favour.  Darius  in  his  inscriptions  always  names  them  imme- 
diately after  the  Persians.  They  wero  the  predecessors  of  the 
Persians  in  the  empire  and  the  more  dvilized  people.  Their 
institutions,  court  ceremonial  and  dress  were  all  adopted  by 
the  Achaemenids.  Thus  the  tribal  distinctions  began  to  recede, 
and  the  ground  was  prepared  for  that  amalgamation  of  the. 
Iranians  into  a  single,  uniform  nation,  which  under  the  Sassanids 
was  completely  perfected— at  least  for  west  of  Iran. 

The  lion's  share,  indeed,  falls  to  the  dominant  nee  Itself. 
The  Inhabitants  of  Persis  proper— from  which  the  eastern  tribes 
of  Carmanians,  Utians,  &c.,  were  exduded  and 
formed  into  a  sqiarate  satrapy — pay  no  taxes. 
Instead,  they  hring  the  best  of  their  possessions 
(e.g.  a  partictilarly  fine  fiuh)  as  a  gift  to  their  kin^ 
on  festival  days;  peasants  meeting  him  on  his  excursions 
do  the  same  (Plut.  Arfax.  4.  5;  Dinon  ap.  Aelian.  taf. 
kist.  i.  31;  X«i.  Cyr.  viii.  5,  »i.  7,  x).  In  recompense  for  thls^ 
he  distributes  on  his  return  rich  presents  to  every  Pcfnian 
man  and  woman — the  women  of  Pasargadae,  who  are  members 
of  Cyrus's  tribe,  each  receiving  a  piece  of  gold  (Nic.  Dam.  fr. 
66.  Pint  Aiex.  69).  In  relation  to  his  Persians,  he  is  always  the 
people's  king.  At  his  accession  he  is  consecrated  in  the  temple 
of  a  warrior-goddess  (Anaitis  ?)  at  Pasargadae,  and  partakesk 
of  the  simple  meal  of  the  old  peasant  days — a  mess  of  figs,  tere- 
binths and  sour  milk  (Hut.  Artax.  3).  The  Persians  swear 
allegknce  to  him  and  pray  to  Ahuramazda  for  his  life  and  the 
welfare  of  the  people,  while  he  vows  to  protect  them  against 
every  attack,  and  to  judge  and  govern  them  as  did  his  fathers 
before  him  (Herod.  1. 132;  Xen.  Cyr.  xviii.  5,  25,  27).  Forhelpeis 
he  has  at  his  side  the  "  law-bearers  "  {iatai^a  Dan.  ui.  2,  and  in 
Babyl.  documents;  cf.  Herod,  iii.  31,  v.  25,  vu.  194;  Esther 
1.  13,  &c.).  These — the  Persian  judges — are  nominated  by  the 
king  for  life,  and  generally  bequeath  their  office  to  thdr  sons. 
The  royal  dedsion  is  based  on  consultation  with  the  great  ones 
of  hb  people:  and  such  is  the  case  with  hfsoflGidals  and  governors 
everywhere  (cf.  the  Book  of  Ezra). 

Every  Persian  able  to  bear  arms  is  bound  to  serve  the  kin^ 
^he  great  landowners  on  horseback,  the  commonalty  on  foot. 
The  noble  and  well-to-do,  who  need  not  till  their  fields  in  person, 
are  pledged  to  appear  at  court  as  frequently  as  possible.  Their 
chUdren  are  brought  up  in  company  with  the  princes  *'  at  the 
gates  of  the  king,"  instructed  in  the  handling  of  arms,  In  riding 
and  hunting,  and  introduced  to  the  service  of  the  State  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  law,  as  well  as  the  commandmrats  of  religion. 
Then  such  as  prove  their  tvorth  are  called  to  high  office  and 
rewarded,  generally  with  grants  of  land. 


Ptnlaat, 


2o8 


PERSIA 


(HISTORY:  ANCIENT 


ItnyBf 


The  highest  rank  was  held  by  the  deacendanU'  of  the  ^  great 
families,  whose  heads  stood  by  Darius  at  the  killing  of  the 
Magian.  The  Greeks  class  them  arid  the  king  together,  under 
the  name  oi  "  the  seven  Persians."  These  enjoyed  the  right  of 
entering  the  presence  unannounced,  and  possessed  princely 
estates  in  the  provinces.  Besides  these,  however,  numbers  of 
other  Persians  were  despatched  to  the  provinces*  settled  there, 
and  endowed  with  lands.  There  existed,  in  fact,  under  the 
Achaemenids  a  strong  colontsing  movement,  diffused  through 
the  whole  empire;  traces  of  this  policy  occur  move  especially  in 
Armenia,  Cappadoda  and  Lycia,  but  also  in  the  rest  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  not  rarely  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  These  colonists 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  provincial  military  levy,  and  were  a 
tower  of  strength  to  the  Persian  dominion.  They  composed, 
moreover,  the  Persian  council,  and  vice-regal  household  of  the 
Satraps,  exactly  as  the  Persians  of  the  home-country  composed 
that  of  the  king. 

Though  the  world-«mpiie  of  Persia  was  thus  deeply  impressed 
by  »  national  character,  care  was  nevertheless  exercised  that 
the  general  duties  and  interests  of  the  subject  races  should 
Deceive  dtoe  consideration.  We  find  their  representatives, 
side  by  side  with  the  Persians,  occupying  every  sort  of  position 
in  the  regal  and  vice-regal  courts^  "Diey  take  their  part  in  the 
councils  of  the  satraps,  precisely  as  they  do  in  military  servi^ 
(cf.  the  evidence  of  £ara);  and  they,  too,  are  rewarded  by 
bounties  and  estates.  To  wield  a  peaceful  authority  over  all 
the  subjects  of  the  empire,  to  leward  merit,  and  to  punish 
traosgrcssion— such  is  the  highest  task  ot  king  and  officials. 

On  his  native  soil  Cyrus  built  himself  a  town,  with  a  palace 
and  a  tomb,  in  the  district  of  Pasargadae  (now  the  ruins  of 
Murghab).  This  Darius  replaced  by  a  new  capital, 
deeper  in  the  centre  of  the  cotuitry,  which  bore  the 
name  "Persian"  (POrsa),  the  Persepolis  {q.v.)  of 
the  later  Greeks.  But  the  district  of  Persis  was  too  remote  to 
be  the  administrativB  centre  of  a  world-empire.  The  natural 
centre  lay,  rather,  in  the  ancient  fertile  tract  on  the  lower  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  The  actual  capital  of  the  empire  was  therefore 
Susa,  where  Darius  I.  and  Artaxerxes  11.  erected  their  nuigniff- 
cent  palaces.  The  winter  months  the  kings  diieffy  spent  in 
Babylon;  the  hot  summer,  in  the  cooler  situation  of  Ecbatana, 
where  Darius  and  Xerxes  built  a  residence  on  Mt  Elvcnd,  south 
of  the  city.  From  a  palace  of  Artaxerxes  II.  in  Ecbatana  itself, 
the  fragments  of  a  few  inscribed  columns  (now  in  the  possession 
of  Mr  Undo  Myers  and  published  by  Evctts  in  the  ZcUschr.  /. 
Auyr,  K.)  have  been  preserved.  To  Persis  and  Persepolis  the 
kings  paid  only  occasional  visits  especially  at  their  coronations. 

Within  the  empire,  the  two  great  civilized  states  incorporated 
by  Cyrus  and  Cambyses,  Babylon  and  Egypt,  occupied  a  position 
of  their  own.  After  his  defeat  of  Nabonidus,  Cyrus 
JjJ^JjJJ  proclaimed  himself  "  King  of  Babel ";  and  the  same 
title  was  bom  by  Cambyses,  Smerdis  and  Darius. 
So,  in  Egypt,  Cambyses  adopted  in  full  the  titles  of  the  Pharaohs. 
In  this  we  may  trace  a  desire  to  conciliate  the  native  population, 
with  the  object  of  maintaining  the  fiction  that  the  old  state  still 
continuod.  Darius  went  still  farther.  He  encouraged  the 
efforts  of  the  Egyptian  priesthood  in  every  way,  built  temples, 
and  enacted  new  laws  in  continuance  of  the  old  order.  In 
Babylon  his  procedure  was  presumably  similar,  thou^  here 
we  possess  no  local  evidence.  But  he  lived  to  sec  that  his  policy 
bad  missed  its  goal.  In  486  b.&  Egypt  revolted  and  was  only 
reduced  by  Xerxes  in  4S4.  It  was  this,  probably,  that  induced 
him  in  484  to  renounce  his  title  of  "  king  of  Babel,"  and  to 
aemove  from  its  temple  the  golden  statue  of  Bel-Marduk  (Mero- 
4acb),  whose  hands  the  king  was  bound  to  dasp  on  the  first  day 
of  each  year.  This  proceeding  led  to  two  insurreaions  in 
Babylon  (probably  in  484  and  479  B.C.),  which  were  speedily 
repressed.  After  that  the  "  kingship  of  Babel "  was  definitely 
abolished.  In  Egypt  the  Persian  kings  still  retained  the  style 
of  the  Pharaohs;  but  we  hear  no  more  of  concessions  to  the 
priesthood  or  to  the  old  institutions,  and,  apart  from  the  great 
oaais  of  d-Kharga,  so  more  temples  were  erected  (see  Egyft: 
History), 


At  the  head  U  the  c»uit  and  tho  imperial  administxatioa 
stands  the  commandant  of  the  body-guard — the  ten  thousand 
"  Immortals,"  often  depicted  in  the  sculptures  of  y^^ 
Persepolis  with  lances  surmounted  by  golden  apples.  «>f  < 
This  grandee,  whom  the  Greeks  termed  "  Chiliarch," 
corresponds  to  the  modem  vizier.  In  addition  to  him,  we 
find  seven  councillors  (Ezra  vii.  14;  d.  Esther  L  14).  Among 
the  other  officials,  the  "  Eye  of  the  King "  is  frequently 
mentioned.  To  him  was  entrusted  the  control  of  the  whole 
empire  and  the  superintendence  of  all  officials. 

The  orders  of  the  court  were  issued  in  a  very  am^  form  of  the 
cuneiform  script,  probably  invented  by  the  Medes.  This  conaprised 
36  signs,  almost  all  of  wnich  denote  single  sounds.  In 
.the  royal  inscriptions,  a  translation  into  Susan  (Elam- 
itic)  and  Babylonian  was  always  appended  to  the^ 
Persian  text,  in  Egypt  one  in  hieroglyphics  was  added,  as 
in  the  i|ucription»  of  the  Suez  canal;  in  the  Grecian  provinces, 
another  in  Greek  (e.g.  the  inscription  of  Darius  on  the  Bos- 
porus, Herod,  iv.  37,  cf.  Iv.  91).  The  cuneiform  script  could 
only  be  written  on  stone  or  day.  Thus  there  has  been  dtseovcred 
in  Babylon  a  copy  of  the  Behistvn  (qa)  inscription  preserved  at 
a  block  of  dolente  (Weissbach,  Baiyloninhe  Miscnlau  p.  24). 
For  administrative  purposes,  however,  it  would  seem  that  this 
inconvenient  material  was  not  employed;  its  i^ace  being  taken 
by  skins  (it^ipoi,  parchment),  the  use  of  wnich  was  adopted 
from  the  western  peoples  of  the  enqnre.  On  these  were  further 
written  the  journals  and  records  kept  at  the  court  (cf.  Diod.  iu 
23,  32;  Ezra  iv.  15,  v.  17,  vi.  2;  Esther  vi.  i,  iL  23).  M^th  such 
materials  the  cuneiform  script  could  not  be  used;  instead,  the 
Persian  language  was  written  in  Ammak:  characters,  a  method 
which  later  ted  to  the  80<allod  Pahlavi,  Lc.  Parthian  script.  This 
mode  of  writing  was  obviouslv  alone  employed  in  the  state-«erv-iccs 
since  DaHus  I.;  and  so  may  be  explained  toe  fact  that,  under  the 
Achaemenids,  the  Persian  lansuage  rapidly  declined,  and,  10  the 
inscriptions  df.  Artaxerxes  111.,  only  appears  in  an  extremely 
neglected  guise  (see  Cukciform  Inscuptio.ss,  Alphabet). 

Side  by  side  with  the  Persian,  the  Aramaic,  which  had  long  been 
widely  diffused  as  the  speech  of  commerce,  enjoyed  currency  ia 
all  the  western  half  of  the  empire  as  a  second  dominant  language. 
Thus  all  deeds,  enactroents^and  records  designed  for  these  provinces 
were  furnished  with  an  official  Aramaic  version  (Ezra  iv.  7}.  Numer- 
ous documents  in  this  tongue,  dating  from  the  Persian  period, 
have  been  discovered  in  Egypt  (cf.  Saycc  and  Cowley,  Aramak 
Papyri  discovered  <U  Assuan  1906),  and  the  coins  minted  by  the 
sattaps  and  generals  usually  bear  an  Aramaic  inscription.  (So, 
also,  a  lion- weight  from  Abydos,  in  the  British  Museum.)  The 
Demotic  in  £g>'Pt  was  employed  in  private  documents  alone. 
Only  in  the  Hellenic  provinces  of  the  empire  Greek  replaced 
Aramaic  (cf.  the  letter  to  Pausanias  in  Thuc.  i.  129:  an  edict  to 
Gadatas  In  Magneria,  Cousin  et  Deschamps,  BuHdin  d*  eonrfp. 
hdliniQuc  xil  530,  DlUenberger,  SyUoge  2;  so,  also^  on  coins)— a 
clear  proot  that  the  Persians  had  already  bc^un  to  recognize  the 
independent  and  important  position  of  Greek  civilization.^ 

Darius  I.  divided  the  Persian  Empire  into  twenty  great  pro* 
vinccs,  satrapies,  with  a  "  guardian  of  the  country  "  (kkskaikr^ 
pavani  see  Sathap)  at  the  head  of  each.  A  list  is 
preserved  in  Herodotus  (iii.  89  sqq.);  but  the  boms>  2cn 
daries  were  frequently  dianged.  Eadi  satrapy  was 
again  subdivided  into  several  minor  govemotships.  The  satrap 
is  the  head  of  the  whole  administration  of  his  province.  He 
levies  the  taxes^  controls  the  legal  procedure,  is  kesponstble  for 
the  security  of  roads  and  property,  and  superintends  the  subor* 
dinate  districts.  The  heads  of  the  great  military  centres  of  the 
empire  and  the  commandants  of  the  royal  fortxjBsses  are  outside 
his  jurisdicrion:  yet  the  satraps  are  entitled  to  a  body  of  troops 
of  their  owni  h  privilege  which  tliey  used  to  the  fall,  espcdally 
in  later  periods.  The  ^trap  is  held  in  his  position  as  a  subject 
by  the  controlling  machinery  of  the  empire,  especially  the  "  Eye 
of  the  Kihg  '*;  by  the  council  of  Persians  in  his  province  with 

>  For  the  editions  Of  the  Persian  inscriptions  see  Behistitk. 
For  the  Persbn  doccmients,  Ed.  Meyer  Entstekunx  des  Jwdmimis, 
p.  19  sqq. :  The  hieRmlyphic  inacriptlom  of  the  Snet  Canal  are  pub> 
Ushed  in  the  Recueilde  trot,  d'ipt*oi.  4t  d'a^yrid.  vols.  vit.  xu 
xi.  xiii;  the  private  documents  from  Babylonia  and  Nippur,  by 
Strassmaicr,  Dahyt.  Urkunden,  and  Hilprecht  and  Clay,  Bah^ 
Bxped,  of  Uniw.  »f  Pennsylvania,  vols.  ix.  x.  Numerous  Jewish  docu- 
ments in  Arvnaac  have  been  found  at  Elephamlne  (Sayce  a»d 
Cow;ley,  Aramaic  Papyrt  disc<mered  al  A stmn,  1906),  among  them  an 
ofliciaf  complaint  of  the  Jewish  colony  settled  at  Elephantine, 
addressed  to  the  Persian  satrap  of  Judaea,  in  408  B-C,  which  throws 
a  new  fi^t  on  -many  passages  in  hzra  and  Nehemiah,  published  by 
Sachaa  in  Abk^ndlumtm  der  berL  Akademie,  1(907. 


TSaStCKT:  ANCQENTl 


irhom  he  is  bound  to  debate  alT  m&ttcn'of  importftaee;  and  by 

the  anny:  while  in  the  hands  of  the  messengers  (Pcrs.  iun&i^av 
or  Ayyapoi — a  Babylonian  word:  see  Ancajua)  the  government 
despatches  travel  "  swifter  than  the  crane "  along  the  great 
imperial  highways,  which  are  all  provided  with  r^ular  postal 
stations  (cf.  the  description  of  the  route  from  Susa  to  Saidis  in 
Herod,  v.  52). 

Withia  the  satrapies  the  subject  races  and  commuBitisa 
occupied  a  tolerably  independent  position;  for  instance,  the 
Subject  Jews,  under  their  elders  and  priests,  who  were  eveh 
CoamuaU  able  to  convene  a  popular  assembly  in  Jerusalem 
^'>  (cf.  the  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah).    Obviously 

also,  they  enjoyed,  as  a  rule,  the  privilege  of  deciding  law«suits 
among  themselves;  their  general  situation  being  similar  to  that 
of  the  Christian  nationalities  under  the  Ottomans,  or  to  thai  of 
many  tribes  in  the  Russian  Empire  at  the  present  day.  The 
pre^ure  of  despotism  was  manifest,  not  so  much  in  that  tha 
king  and  his  officials  consbtently  interfered  in  individual  cases, 
but  that  they  did  so  on  isolated  and  arbitrary  occasions,  and 
then  swept  aside  the  privileges  of  the  subject,  who  was  impotent 
to  re»st. 

For  the  rest,  the  subject  population  faSs  into  a  number  of 
distinct  groups.  In  the  desert  (as  among  the  Arabian  and 
Turanian  nomads),  in  wild  and  sequestered  mountains  (as  in 
Zagros  in  north  Media,  and  Mysia,  Pisidia,  Paphlagonia  and 
Bithyma  in  Asia  Minor),  and  also  in  many  Iranian  tribes,  the 
old  tribal  constitution,  with  the  chieftain  as  its  head,  was  left 
intact  even  under  the  imperial  suzerainty.  The  great  majority 
of  the  civilized  provinces  were  subdivided  into  load  administra- 
five  distrkts  governed  by  ofikiais  of  the  king  and  his  satraps. 
These  the  Greeks  named  Wyq,  "peoples."  Within  these, 
again, 'there  might  lie  large  town  settlements  whose  internal 
aflain  were  contnolled  by  the  elders  or  the  officials  of  the  com- 
munlty:  as,  for  instance,  Babylon,  Jerusalem,  the  Egyptian 
cities.  Tarsus,  Sardis  and  others.  On  the  same  footing  were 
the  spiritual  priadpalities,  with  their  great  temple-property; 
as  Bambyce  in  Syria,  the  two  C^manas  in  Cappadoda,  and  so 
forth.  Besides  these,  however,  vast  districts  were  either  con* 
verted  into  royal  domains  (ro/>A3tt7<M)  with  great  parks  and 
hunting  grounds  under  royal  supervision,  or  else  bestowed  by 
the  king  on  Persians  or  deserving  members  of  the  subject-races 
(the  "  benefactors")  as  their  personal  property.  Many  of  these 
estates  formed  respectable  priacipaUties:  <.g.  those  of  the 
house  of  Otanes  in  Cappadocia,  of  Ifydarnes  in  Armem'a, 
Phamabazus  in  Phrygia,  Demantus  in  Teuthrania,  Themls- 
tocles  in  Magnesia  and  Lampsacus.  They  were  absolute  private 
property,  handed  down  from  father  to  son  for  centuries,  and 
in  the  Hellenistic  period  not  rarely  became  independent  king- 
doma.  These  potentates  were  styled  by  the  Greeks  SwhvTM 
or  ijatafxu. 

The  last  dass,  quite  distinct  from  all  these  organizations, 
was  forqoed  by  the  city-states  (xifiXas)  with  an  independent 
constitution — whether  a  monarchy  (as  in  Phoenicia), 
an  aristocracy  (as  inLycia),or  a  republic  with  council 
and  pc^Milar  assembly  (as  in  the  Greek  towns). 
The  ffiiirn^*ff^  point  was  that  they  enjoyed  a  separate  legalized 
oigaoization  (autonomy).  This  was  only  to  be  seen  in  the 
extreme  western  provinces  of  the  empire  among  the  Phoeni- 
cians, Greeks  and  Lydans,,  whose  cities  were  essentially  distinct 
from  those  of  the  east;  which,  Indeed,  to  Greek  eyes,  were  only 
great  villages  («v/ieiF6\ftt).  It  is  readily  intelligible  that 
their  character  should  have  proved  practically  incomprehensible 
to  the  Posians,  with  whom  tl^y  came  into  perpetual  collision. 
These  sought,  as  a  rule,  to  cope  with  thedifficuity  by  transferring 
the  government  to  individual,  persons  who  enjosred  their  confi- 
dence: the  "  tyranu  "  of  the  Greek  towns.  Mardonius,  alone, 
after  his  suppression  of  the  Ionic  rcvolt-^which  had  originated 
with  thes^  very  tyrants— made  an  atten^t  to  goveni  them  by 
the  assistance  of  the  democracy  (49a  b«c). 


:l^>^3 


TftvQCr 


20^9 

the  aute,  or  aa  aateoodtoiw  oanmsuHbh-^t^d  dewbpcd  since  the 
7th  century  .among  the  Lydians  and  Greeks.  In  the  aib«i 
main  portion,  however,  <rf  the  Oriental  world — Egypt,  -^ 
Syria,  Phoemda  and  Babylonia— the  old  mode 
01  commerce  was  still  in  vogue,  oooducted  by  means  of  gold 
and  silvev  bars,  weighed  at  each  transartioo.  Indeed,  a  money 
currency  only  bc^an  to  make  headway  in  these  districts  in  tlie 
4th  century  B.C.  In  the  eastern  provinces,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
primitive  method  of  exchange  by  barter  still  held  the  field.  Onhr 
m  the  aurifenHift  and  civUisra  frontier  districts  of  India  (the 
Pu»iab)  did  a  system  of  coinage  find  early  aooeptaqpe.  Theie 
Persian  and  Attic  money  was  widely  distributed,  and  imitaUons 
of  it  struck,  in  the  fifth  and  fourth  pre-Christian  centuries. 

Thus  the  empire  was  compelled  to  grapple  with  all  these  Varied 
conditions  and  to  icconeile  them  as  twst  it  roi^t.  At  the  court, 
"  natural  economy  "  was  still  the  rale.  The  ra&dala  and  Orieakal 
troops  received  payment,  in  kind.  They  were  fed  **  by  the  table 
of  the  ldn^,"from  which  15,000  men  daily  drew  their  sustenance* 
(cf.  Heradidea  of  Cyme  in  Athcn.iv.  145  B,  &c)and  were  rewarded 
by  gifts  and  assignments  of  land.  The  Greek  mercenaries,  on  the 
,  contrary,  had  to  ne  paid  in  cundeacy ;  nor  could  the  satraps  of  the 
west  dispense  with  hard  cash.  The  kingi  again,  needed  .the  pcedous 
metals,  not  merelv  for  bounties  and  rcwardSk  but  for  important 
enterprises  in  which  money  payment  was  imperative.  Conse- 
quently, the  royal  revenues  ana  taxes  were  paid  partly  hi  the 
prodous  metak,  partly  in  natural  produce- ■horses  and  cattk. 
grain.  _dothifi|  and  jts  materials,  furniture  and  all  articles  5» 


The  provinces  of  the  Persian  Empire  differed  as  materially  In 
economy  as  in  oreanization.  In  the  extreme  west,  a  money  currency 
ia  its  most  Mghly  developed  fon»— that  of  ooiaag*  minted  by 


The  precious  meuls  brought  in  by  the  tribute  werenetlecCad  lb 
the  great  treasure-houses  at  Susa.  Perscpolis,  Fasaigadaev  and 
Ecbauna,  whore  gigantic  masses  of  silver  and,  more  1 
especially,  of  gold,  wrcre  stored  in  bullion  or  partlaHy  ^ 
wrought^ into  vesseb  (Herod,  fit.  ^;  Stratxi  xv.  731, ' 
735:  Tlrrian  iii.  16,  &c.) ;  exactly  as  is  the  case  to-day  in  the  shah's 
trcasure<hambcr  (Curton,  Persia,  fi.  484).  It  is  also  observable 
that  the  conjunction  of  payments  in  Kind  and  money  taxes  still 
exists.  The  province  off  Khorasan,  for  Instance.,  with  some  haU 
million  inhabitants,  paid  in  1885  £154,000  in  gold,  and  in  addition 
natural  produce  to  the  value  of  £43,000  (Curzon,  o^.  at.  i.  181, 
ii.  380).  When  the  king  required  money  he  minted  as  much  as 
was  necessary.  A  reform  in  the  coinage  was  effected  by  Darius, 
'  who  struck  the  Daric  (Pcrs.  Zariq,  i.t.  ^'  ijiece  of  gold  ";  the  word 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  name  of  Darius),  a  gold  piece  of  130 
grains  Rvalue  about  33s.) ;  this  being  equivalent  to  20  silver  pxtceg 
C'  Median  shekels,"  olii>>ot)  of  86-5  grains  (value  according  to  the 
then-  rate!  of  silver— 13^  silver  to  l  gold — about  is.  adj.  The 
coining  of  p>ld  was  the  exclusive  prcroj^tive  of  the  king;  silver 
could  be  coined  by  the  satraps,  generals;  independent  communities 
and  dynasts. . 

The  extent  of  thp  Persian  Empire  was,  in  essentials,  dcfinedt 
by  the  great  conquests  of  Cyrus  and  C^ambyaes.  Darius  was 
no  more  a  eonquutadar  than  Augustus.  Rather,  ^^ 
the  task  he  'set  himself  was  to  round  off  the  empire  ^SJ^*^ 
and  secure  its  borders:  and  for  this  purpose  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Armenia  he  subdued  the  mountain-tribes  and 
advanced  the  frontier  as  far  as  the  Caucasus;  Colchis  alone- 
remaining  an  independent  kingdom  under  the  impernil 
suzerainty.  So,  too,  he  annexed  the  Indus  valley  and  the 
auriferous  hill-country  of  Ka^istan  and  Cashmir  (K^mrioi  a^ 
Kdffwctpot,  Herod.  iiL  9;^,  vii.  67,  86;  Stcf^  Byz.),  as  well  aa 
the  Dardac  in  Dardistan  on  the  Indus  (Ctesias,  Ind.  fr.  12; 
70,  &c.).  From  this  point  he  directed  sevexal  «*aiTtpntj»^«. 
against  tlie  Amyrgiau  ^acae,  on  the  Pamir  Plateau,  and 
northwards,  whona  he  enumerates  in  his  list  of  subject  racoSy 
and  whose  mounted  archers  farmed  a  main  division  of  the 
armies  despatched  against  the  Greeks.  It  was  obviotts^y  an 
attempt  to  take  the  nomads  of  the  Turanian  steppe  in  the' 
rear  and  to  reduce  them  to  qtiiescence,  which  UmI  to  hisr 
unfortunate  expedition  agamst  the  Scythians  of  the  Russiaa! 
stapes  ((.  512  B.C.;  cf.  Darius). 

Side  by  ride,  however,  with  those  wars,  we  can  read,  even  in 
the  scanty  tradition  at  our  disposal,  a  consistent  effort  tofurthef 
the  great  civilizing  mission  imposed  on  the  empire.  In  the 
'  district  of  Herat,  Darius  established  a  great  water-basin,  designed 
to  facilitate  the  cultivatooja  of  the  ^teppe  (Herod.  iii«  117).  He 
had  the  course  of  the  Indus  ocplored  by,  the  Carian  cafttaia 
Scylax  (9.0.)  of  Caryanda,  who  then  navigated  the  Indian  Ocean- 
back  to  Suez  (Herod,  iv.  44)  and  wrote  an  account  of  his  voyage 
in  Greek.  The  desire  to  create  a  direct  communication  between, 
the  seclusiOD  of  Persis  and  ibecpBuiierGe  0I  the  world  is  aiqdeiUi 


axo 


P£RSIA 


(HlSTOftY:  ANCIENT 


In  bit  foundation  of  aevenl  hasboun,  described  by  Nearcfaus, 
on  the  Persian  coast.  But  this  design  is  stiD  more  patent  in 
his  completion  of  a  great  canal,  already  begun  by  Necho,  from 
the  Nile  to  Suez,  along  which  several  monuments  of  Darius  have 
been  prestfved.  Thus  it  was  passible,  as  says  the  remnant  of  an 
hieroglyphic  inscription  there  discovered,  "for  ships  to  sail 
direct  from  the  Nile  to  Persia,  over  Saba."  In  the  time  of  Hero- 
dotus the  canal  was  in  constant  use  (it  158,  iv.  39):  afterwards, 
when  Egypt  regained  her  independence,  it  decayed,  tiU  restored 
by  the  second  Ptolemy.  Even  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  was 
attempted  under  Xerxes  (Herod,  iv.  43). 

It  has  already  been  mentioned,  that,  in  his  efforts  to  conciliate 
the  £g3rptians,  Darius  placed  his  chief  reliance  on  the  priest- 
jiood:  aiid  the  same  tendency  runs  throughout  the  imperial 
policy  toward  the  conquered  races.  Thus  Cyrus  himself  gave 
the  exiled  Jews  in  Babylon  permission  to  return  and  rebuild  Jeru- 
salem. Darius  allowed  the  restoration  of  the  Temple;  and 
Artaxerxes  I.,  by  the  protection  accorded  to  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 
made  the  foundation  of  Judaism  possible  (see  Jews:  {$  29  sqq.). 
Analogously  in  an  edict,  of  which  a  later  copy  is  preserved  in  an 
inscription  (see  above),  Darius  commands  Gadatas,  the  governor 
of  a  domain  (vopdteaot)  in  Magnesia  on  the  Maeander,  to 
observe  scrupulously  the  privileges  of  the  Apollo-sanctiuury. 
With  all  the  Greek  oracles— even  those  in  the  mother-country — 
the  Ptoisians  were  on  the  best  of  terms.  And  since  these  might 
reasonably  expect  an  enormous  extension  of  their  influenre  from 
the  estakiUshment  of  a  Persian  dominion,  we  find  them  all 
cealou^  mediring  during  the  expedition  of  Xerxes. 

For  the  development  oithe  Anatic  religion^  the  Persan  Emfnre 
was  of  fvime  importance.  The  definite  erection  of  a  single,  vast, 
,-  -.  ■         world-empire  cost  them  their  otiffloal  connexion   with 

*  the  state,  and  compelled  them  m  future   to   address 

themselves,  not  to  the  community  at  large,  but  to  individuals,  to 

gromise,  not  political  success  nor  the  independence  of  the  people, 
ut  the  welfare  of  the  man.  Thus  they  became  at  once  universal 
and  capable  of  extenuon  by  propaganda;  And, with  this. of  entering 
into  keen  competition  one  with  the  other.  These  traits  are  most 
clearly  marked  in  Jadaismj  but,  after  the  Achaemcnid  period, 
they  are  common  to  all  Oriental  creeds,  though  our  information 
as  to  most  is  scanty  in  the  extreme. 

In  this  competition  of  religions  that  of  Iran  played  a  most 
spirited  part.  The  Peruan  lungs — none  more  so  than  Darius, 
whose  ruipoua  convictions  are  enshrined  in  his  inscriptions — 
and,  with  the  kings,  their  people,  were  ardent  professors  of  the 
pure  doctrine  of  Zoroaster:  and  the  Persians  settled  in  the  proWnces 
diffused  his  creed  throughout  the  whole  empire.  Thus  a  strong 
Persian  propa^andism  arose  especially  in  Armenia  and  Cappadocia, 
where  the  religion  took  deep  root  among  the  people,  but  also  in 
Lydia  and  Lycia.  In  the  process,  however,  important  modifications 
were^  introduced.  In  contrast  with  Judaism,  Zoroastrianism  did 
not  enter  the  lists  against  all  gods  save  its  own,  but  found  no 
difficulty  in  recognizing  them  as  subordinate  powers— helpers 
aad  servants  of  Ahunmazda.  Consequently,  the  foreign  creeds 
often  reacted  upon  the  Persian.  In  Cappadocia,  Aramaic  inscriptions 
have  been  discovered  (1900),  In  which  the  indigenous  god,  there 
termed  Bel  the  king,  recoenizes  the  "  Mazdayasnian  Religion  " 
(Din  MmMiayasnish)--4^»  the  religion  of  Ahuramazda  personified 
as  a  woman— as  his  nster  and  wue  (Lidzbarski,  Eplum,  /.  u$mL 
Epitr.  u  59  sqq.)* 

The  gorgeous  cult  of  the  gods  of  dvilization  (especially  of  Baby- 
lon), with  their  host  of  temples,  imases  and  festivals,  exercised  a 
corresponding  influence  on  the  motnersrountry.  Moreover,  the 
unadulterated  doctrine  of  Zoroaster  could  no  more  become  a  per- 
manent papular  religion  than  can  Christianity.  For  the  masses 
can  make  uttle  of  abstractions  and  an  omnipotent,  omnipresent 
deity;  they  need  concrete  divine  powers,  stanoing  nearer  to  them- 
selves ami  thdr  lot.  Thus  the  ohl  figures  of  the  Aryan  f<rfk-reUgion 
aetura  to  the  foreground,  there  to  be  amalgamated  with  the  Baby> 
Ionian  divioitieab  The  goddess  of  springs  and  streams  (of  the  Oxus 
in  particular)  and  of  all  fertility — Ardoisura  AnahitOt  Anaitis — 
is  endowed  with  the  form  of  the  Babylonian  Ishtar  and  Belit. 
She  is  now  depicted  as  a  beautiful  and  strong  woman,  with  prominent 
breasts,  a  ffolden  crown  of  stani  and  golden  lalment.  She  is  wor- 
sbippea  as  the  goddess  of  generation  and  all  sexual  life  (cf.  Herod. 
L  131,  where  the  names  01  Mithras  and  Anaitis  are  interehanged) ; 
and  religious  prostitution  is  transferred  to  her  service  (Strabo  sd. 
53s,  siL  ^S9)«  At  her  side  stands  the  sun-god  Mithras,  who  is  re- 
presesteo  as  a  young  and  victorious  hero.  Both  deities  occupy 
the  very  first  rank  in  the  popular  creed;  while  to  the  theok)gian 
they  are  the  most  potent  of  the  good  powers — Mithras  beine  the 
herald  and  propagator  of  the  service  of  Light  and  the  mediator 
betwixt  man  ana  Ahuramazda,  who  now  fades  more  into  the 
bsckgrauad.   Thus*  in  the  subsaquent  period*  the  Persian  religion 


appears  purdy  as  the  reli^on  of  Mithrss.  The  festival  of  Mithras 
is  the  cluef  festival  of  the  empire,  at  which  the  king  drinks  and 
is  drunken,  and  dances  the  national  dance  (Ctes.  fr.  55;  Duris  fr. 
13).  This  development  culminated  under  Artaxerxes  II.,  who, 
according  to  Beroawis  (fr.  16  ap.  Clem.  Alex.  pral.  i.  5.  65).  firs 
erected  statues  to  Anaitis  in  PersepoUs,  Ecbatana.  Bactria,  Sitsa. 
Babylon,  Damascus  and  Sardis.  The  truth  of  this  account  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  Artaxerxes  II.  and  Artaxerxes  III.  are  the 
only  Achaemenids  who,  in  their  inscriptions,  invoke  Anaitis  and 
Mithia  side  by  aide  with  Ahuramazda.  Other  gods,  who  cotne 
into  prominence,  are  the  dragon-slayer  Verethraghna  (Artagnes) 
and  the  Good  Thought  (Vohumano,  Oroanoe) ;  and  even  the  Sacacao 
festival  is  adopted  from  Babylon  (Berossus  fr.  3;  Ctes. /r.  t6; 
Strabo  ».  512,  Ac).  The  chief  centres  of  the  Persian  cults  In  the 
west  were  the  district  of  Adliscne  in  Armenia  (Strabo  xL  532.  &c.). 
the  town  of  Zda  in  Cappadocia  (Strabo  xii  S^),  and  several  cities 
in  Lydia. 

The  portion  of  the  Pernan  monarchy  as  a  world-empire  a 
characteristically  emphasized  in  the  builcfings  of  Darius  and  ^Lerxes 
in  Pcrsepolis  and  Susa.    The  peculiarly  national  basis,  ^^ 

still  recognizable  in  Cyrus's  architecture  at  Pasargadae,  ^^ 

recedes  into  inuenificanoe.  The  royal  edifices  and  sculptures  are 
dependent,  mainly,  on  Babylonian  models,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
we  can  trace  in  them  the  influence  of  Greece,  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor ; 
the  last  in  the  rock-sepulchres.  AH  these  elements  are  combined 
into  an  organic  unity,  which  achieved  the  greatest  creatioiis  that 
Oriental  architecture  has  found  possible.  Nevertheless,  the  result 
is  not  a  national  art,  but  the  art  of  a  world-empire;  and  it  is  obvkws 
that  foreign  craftsmen  must  have  been  active  in  the  royal  servicer— 
among  them,  the  Greek  sculptor  Tclephanes  oi  Phocaea  (Pliny 
xxxiv.  68).  So,  irith  the  collapse  of  the  empire,  the  imperoal  ait 
vanishes  also:  and  when,  some  500  years  later,  a  new  art  arose 
under  the  Sassanids,  whose  achievements  stand  to  those  of  Achae- 
mcnid art  in  much  the  same  relation  as  the  achievements  of  the 
two  dynasties  to  each  other,  we  discover  only  isolated  reminiscences 
of  its  predecessor. 

For  the  or^nization  and  character  of  the  Persian  Empire,  see 
Barnabas  Bnsaon,  D«  retio  Persarum  frincipalu  tUni  iiu  (1590); 
Heeren,  Ideen  uber  PolUtk,  Handel  und  Verkehr  dtr  alUn  ^'eU.  L; 
G.  Rawfinson,  History  of  Herodotus,  it.  5S5  sqo. ;  Pne  Eastern  Mon- 
archies, iii.;  Eduard  Meyer,  Gesckiehte  des  AuertumSt  iii.  On  the 
Satrapies,  cf.  Knimbholz,  Do  Asiao  minoris  Mirapiu  ptrstds 
(1B83).   See  also  MxTURAS. 

3,  Hittory  of  the  Achaemtntan  Empire. — ^The  history  of  the 
Persian  Empire  was  often  written  by  the  Greeks.  The  most 
andent  work  preserved  is  that  of  Herodotus  (?.s.),  who  supplies 
rich  and  valuable  materials  for  the  period  ending  in  479  b.c 
These  materiab  are  drawn  partly  from  sound  tradition,  partly 
from  original  knowledge — as  in  the  account  of  the  satrapies 
and  their  distribution,  the  royal  highway,  the  nations  in  Xezxesf 
army  and  their  equipment.  Hiey  also  contain  much  that  is 
admittedly  fabulous:  for  instance,  the  stories  of  Cyrus  and  Croe- 
sus, the  conquest  of  Babylon,  &c.  Forty  years  later  (c.  390  B.C.), 
the  physician  Ctesias  of  Cnidus,  who  for  17  years  (414-398  B.C.) 
remained  In  the  senace  of  the  Great  King,  composed  a  great 
work  on  the  Persian  history,  known  to  us  from  an  extract  in 
Photius  and  ntunerous  fragments.  Cte^as  (f.v.)  possesses  a 
more  precise  acquaintance  with  Persian  views  and  institutions 
than  Herodotus;  and,  where  he  deals  with  matters  thnt  came 
under  his  own  cognisance,  he  gives  much  useful  information. 
For  the  early  period,  on  the  other  hand,  he  only  proves  how 
rapidly  the  tradition  had  degenerated  since  Herodotus;  and  here 
his  narrations  can  only  be  utilized  in  isolated  cases,  and  that 
with  the  greatest  caution.  Of  more  value  was  the  great  work  of 
Dinon  of  Colophon  (c.  340),  which  we  know  from  numerous 
excellent  fragments;  and  on  the  same  level  may  be  placed  a  few 
statements  from  Heradides  of  Cyme,  which  afford  spedaBy 
important  evidence  on  Persian  institutions.  To  these  must  be 
added  the  testimony  of  the  other  Greek  historians  (TbocydJdes, 
Ephonis,  Theopompus,  &c.,  mith  the  histories  of  Alexander),  and, 
before  all,  that  of  Xenophon  in  the  Anabasis  and  Hdtetdca. 
The  Cyrofaedia  is  a  didactic  romance,  written  with  n  view  to 
Greek  institutions  and  rarely  preserving  genuine  fnfornwtioa 
on  the  Persian  Empire.  Of  Oriental  sources,  only  the  contem- 
porary books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  are  of  much  &nportance; 
also,  a  few  statements  in  the  much  later  Esther  romance.  Beros* 
sus's  history  of  Babylon  contained  much  valuable  and  trust- 
worthy information,  but  next  to  nothing  has  survived.  That 
the  native  tradition  almost  entirely  forgot  the  Achaemcnid 
Empire,  has  been  mentioned  above.    For  a  more  detailed  *''*^ffiwt 


HISTORY:  ANCIENT] 


PERSIA 


211 


oltht8ea(MiicesMe8cpti»UftiticlaonBnooOTVt,ftc;  £zm; 
indNKHXicxAB. 


or  nodMii  •cceanto  Me  «»KiaUy  Th.  lW^Mt»,A^fttU0  nr 
Pnnschm  CeMckfckle  (iM?).  Tbe  wwk»  of  AUiquMt.  Untif^ 
wkunm  mw  Cesdnckte  von  Era»  (a  pU..  t896-i9oiOi  abound  ia 
danne  theones  and  must  be  used  with  caution.  On  tnc  chronolocy, 
cf.  Eduard  Meyer,  Fonchungen  tm  aiUn  Ceuhichte,  it 

The  external  histoxy  of  the    empire  is  treated  under  the 
tMoftk0  individual    kings     (see    also    history    sections    of 
MhgB,        articles  Geeece;  Egypt;  &c.).     The  order  is  as 
follows^— 

Cyrus  (55^^-538) ;  conquered  the  Medea  in  550;  king  of  Babykin 

from  533. 
Cambyses  (528-521), 
Smbkdis  (521). 
Darius  I.  (^1-485). 
XsKXBS  I.  (48s-ate). 

AaTAXBRXES  1.  (405rA25). 

SCbrxes  II.  and  Sccyaianus  or  Sogdianus,  425-424.) 
ABJVs  II.  Nothus  (424-404). 

Artaxbexes  II.  (404-359). 

Artaxeexbs  III.  Ochuf  (35^-338). 

Arses  (338^336). 

Da eius  uI.  (336-330). 

The  chronoloey  !s  exactly  verified  by  the  Ptolemaic  caaon,  by 
numerous  Babylonian  and  a  few  Egyptian  docttments,  and  by  the 
evidence  of  the  Cretka.  The  prevent  artick  gives  only  a  brief 
conqiectus  of  the  main  events  in  the  history  of  the  empire. 

Though,  unlike  Cyrus  and  Ctmbysca,  Darius  made  no  new 
expeditions  of  conquest,  yet  a  great  empife,  which  is  not  bounded 
ra*  wsn  b^  another  equally  great,  but  toochet  on  many  smali 
Mgaiati  tnbes  and  independent  communities,  is  in^tably 
^i'*'^  driven  to  expansion.  We  have  idieady  seen  that  the 
attempt  of  Darius  to  contrcrf  the  predatory  nonuuls  in  the  north 
led  to  his  expedition  against  the  Scythians;  this,  Egain,  led  to 
the  incorporation  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  whose  king  Pexdiccas 
submitted.  And  since  a  great  portion  of  the  MediteiraBean 
coast-line  belonged  to  the  empire,  further  compUcatwns  resulted 
automatically.  In  contrast  with  the  Greeks  Cirthage  took  the 
part  of  Persia.  Darius,  indeed,  numbers  the  city — ^nnder  the 
name  of  Karka — among  his  dominions:  as  abo  the  Maxyans 
(Maciya)  on  the  Syrtes  (Andreas,  Verkamdl.  d.  xiiL  oriaUai: 
Congresses,  Hamburg,  1902,  p.  97).  But,  above  all,  the  Greek 
cities  with  their  endless  feuds  and  violent  internal  factions,  were 
incessant  in  their  appeals  for  intervention.  Nevertheless, 
Darius  left  European  Greece  to  itself,  till  the  support  accorded 
to  the  Ionian  and  Carian  insurgents  by  Atliens  and  Eretria 
(499  B.C.)  made  war  inevitable.  But  not  only  the  expeditions 
of  Mardonius  (492)  and  Datis  (490),  but  even  the  carefully 
prepared  campaign  of  Xerxes,  in  conjunctibn  with  Carthage, 
completely  failed  (4800479).  On  the  fields  of  Marathon  and 
Plataca,  the  Persian  onchers  succumbed  to  the  Greek  phalanx 
of  hoplites;  but  the  actual  decision  was  effected  by  Themlstoclca, 
who  had  meanwhile  created  the  Athenian  fleet  which  at  Salamis 
proved  its  superiority  over  the  Perso-Phoenidan  armadft,  sad 
thus  precluded  beforehand  the  success  of  the  land-forces. 

The  wreck  of  Xerxes'  expedition  is  the  tuming*point  in  the 
history  of  the  Persian  Empire.  The  superiority  of  the  Greeks 
was  so  pronounced  that  the  Persians  never  found  courage  to 
repeat  their  attack.  On  the  contrary,  in  466  b.c.  their  army 
and  fleet  were  again  defeated  by  Cimou  on  the  Euxymedon,  the 
sequel  being  that  the  Greek  provinces  on  the  A^atic  coast,  with 
all  the  Thracian  possessions,  were  lost.  In  itself,  indeed,  this 
loss  was  of  no  great  significance  to  such  a  vast  empire;  and  the 
«t  tempts  of  Athens  to  annex  Cyprus  and  conquer  the  Nile 
valley,  in  aUisnce  with  the  revolted  Egyptians,  ended  in  faihire. 
Athens,  in  fact,  had  not  sufficient  strength  to  undertake  a  serious 
invasion  of  the  eminre  or  an  ezten^ve  scheme  of  conquest. 
Her  struggles  with  the  other  Hellenic  states  constrained  her,  by 
the  peace  of  Callias  (448),  definitely  to  renounce  the  Penian 
war;  to  abandon  Cyprus  and  Egypt  to  the  king;and  to  content 
herself  with  his  promise-^-iiot  thai  he  wouU  surrander  the  littoral 
towns,  but  that  be  would  abstain  from  an  anncd  attack  upon 
them.  The  really  decisive  point  w^s,  rather,  that  the  disasurs 
of  Salamis  and  PJataea  definitely  shattered  the  offensiva  power  1 


of  the  empire;  thst  the  centre  of  grsvity  in  the  world's  histoiy 
had  shifted  from  Suaa  and  Babylon  to  the  Aegean  Sea;  and 
that  the  Persians  were  conscious  that  in  spite  of  all  their  courage 
thqr  were  henceforward  in  the  presence  of  an  enemy,  superior 
in  arms  as  well  as  in  intellect^  whom  they  could  not  hope  to 
subdue  by  their  own  strength. 

Thus  the  grsat  empire  was  reduced  to  immobility  and  stsgna^ 
tiott--apiocess  which  was  assisted  by  the  deteriorating  influences 
of  dviliaationand  world-dominion  upon  the  character  jMnai 
«f  the  ruling  race.  True,  the  Persians  continued  SM»«#ttv 
to  produce  bnve  and  honourable  men.  But  the  Bm^t^, 
influences^  of  the  harem,  the  eunuchs,  and  similar  '•***>«. 
court  offidala,  made  appalling  progress,  and  men  of  energy  began 
to  find  the  temptations  of  power  stranger  than  their  patriotism 
and  devotion  to  the  king.  Thus  the  satraps  aspired  to  inde- 
pendence, not  merely  owing  to  unjust  treatment,  but  also  to 
Bvaiice  or  favourable  conditions.  As  early  as  465  B.a,  Xerxes 
was  assassinated  by  his  powerful  vixier  (chiliarch)  Artabanus, 
who  attempted  to  seise  the  reins  of  empire  in  fact,  if  not  in  name. 
A  similar  instance  may  be  found  in  Bagoas  (9.9.),  after  the 
murder  of  Artaxerxes  III.  (338  B.C.).  To  these  factors  must 
be  added  the  degeneration  of  the  royal  line — ^a  degeneration 
inevitable  in  Oriental  sUtes.  Kings  like  Xerxes  and  more 
especially  Artaxerxes  I.  and  Artaxerxes  II.,  so  far  from  being 
gloomy  despots,  were  good-natured  potenutcs,  but  weak, 
capricious  and  readily  accessible  to  personal  influences.  The 
only  really  brutal  tyrants  were  Darius  II.,  who  was  completely 
dominated  by  his  bloodthirsty  wife  Parysatis,  and  Artaxerxes 
III*  who,  though  he  shed  rivers  of  blood  and  all  but  exterminated 
his  whole  family,  was  successful  in  once  more  uniting  the  empire. 
which  under  the  feeble  sway  of  his  father  had  been  threatened 
with  dissolution. 

The  upshot  of  these  conditions  was,  that  the  empire  never 
again  imdertook  an  importsnt  enterprise,  but  neglected  more 
and  more  its  great  civilixing  mission.  In  conudering,  however, 
the  subsequent  disorders  and  war%  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  they  affected  only  individual  portions  of  the  empire,  and 
only  on  isolated  occasions  involved  more  extensive  areas  in 
long  and  serious  strife.  To  most  of  the  provinces  the  Achae- 
menid  donunioa  was  synonymous  with  two  centuries  of  peace 
and  Older.  Naturally,  however,  the  wild  tribes  of  the  moimlains 
and  deserts,  who  could  be  curbed  only  by  strict  imperial  control, 
asserted  their  independence  and  harassed  the  neighbouring 
provinces.  Among  these  tribes  were  the  Carduchians  in  Zagros, 
the  Cossaeans  and  Uxians  in  the  interior  of  Elam,  the  Cadusians 
and  other  noo-Aiyan  tribes  in  northern  Media,  the  Pisidians, 
Isaurians  and  Lycaonians  in  the  Taunis,  and  the  Mysians  in 
Olympus.  All  efforts  to  restore  order  in  these  districts  were 
fruitless;  and  when  the  kings  removed  their  court  to  Ecbatana, 
they  were  actually  obliged  to  purchase  a  free  passage  from  the 
mountain  tribes  (Strabo  xi.  524;  Anian  iiL  17,  i).  The 
kings  («.g.  Artaxerxes  II.)  repeatedly  took  the  field  in  great  force 
against  the  Cadusians,  but  unsuccessfully.  When,  in  400  B.C., 
Xenophon  inarched  with  the  mercenaries  of  (Tyrus  from  the 
Tigris  to  the  Black  Sea,  the  authority  of  the  king  was  non- 
existent north  of  Armenia,  and  the  tribes  of  the  Pontic  moun- 
tains, with  the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast,  were  completely  indo- 
pendenL  In  Paphlagonia,  the  native  dynasts  founded  a  power- 
ful tlmugh  short-lived  kingdom,  and  the  chieftains  of  the 
Bithynians  were  absolutely  their  own  masters  The  frontier 
provinces  of  India  were  also  lost.  Egypt,  which  had  already 
revested  under  Libyan  princes  in  the  years  486-484,  and  again 
with  Athenian  help  in  460-454,  finally  asserted  its  independence 
in  404.  Henceforward  the  native  dynasties  repelled  every 
attack,  till  they  succumbed  once  more  before  Artaxecxes  IIL 
and  Mentor  of  Rhodes. 

In  the  other  civilized  countries,  indeed,  the  old  passion  for 
freedom  had  been  completely  obliterated;  and  after  the  days 
of  Darius  L— apart  from  the  Greek,  Lydan  and  Phoenidan 
towns—not  a  single  people  in  all  these  provinces  dreuned  of 
shaking  off  the  foreign  dominion.  All  the  more  clearly,  then, 
was  the  inner- weakness  of  the  empise  revealed  by  the  levc^ 


212 


PERSIA 


WISTORY:  ANCIENT 


of  tlie  satraps.  These  were  facilitated  by  tbe  custom— quite 
contrary  to  the  original  imperial  orgaoization-~which  entrusted 
the  pro*  rndal  military  commands  to  the  satraps,  who  began 
to  receive  great  masses  of  Greek  mercenaries  into  their  service. 
Under  Artaxerxes  I.  and  Darius  U.,  these  insurrections  were 
still  rare.  But  when  the  revolt  of  the  younger  Cyrus  against 
his  brother  (401  B.C.)  had  demonstrated  the  surprising  ease  and 
rapidity  with  which  a  courageous  army  could  penetrate  into 
the  heart  of  the  empire— ^hen  the  whole  force  of  that  empire 
had  ptoved  powerless,  not  only  to  prevent  some  xsjooo  Greek 
troops,  completely  surrounded,  cut  o£f  from  their  communica- 
tions, and  deprived  through  treachery  of  thelt  leaders,  from 
escaping  to  the  coast,  but  even  to  make  a  serious  attack  on 
them—then,  indeed,  the  imperial  impotence  became  manifest. 
After  that,  revolts  of  the  satraps  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  were 
of  everyday  occurrence,  and  the  task  of  suppressing  them  was 
complicated  by  the  foreign  wars  which  the  empire  had  to  sustain 
against  Greece  and  Egypt. 

At  this  very  period,  however,  the  foreign  policy  of  the  empire 
gained  a  brilliant  success.  The  collapse  of  the  Athenian  power 
f  f<u>  lYffm  before  Syracuse  (413  B.C.)  induced  Darius  n.  to 
wHtOn  order  bis  sitraps  Tissaphemea  and  Phamabazus, 
OntkM,  in  Asia  Minor,  to  collect  the  tribute  overdue  from 
*'  the  Greek  cities.  In  alliance  with  Sparta  (see 
PctX}PONNCSlAN  Wax),  Persia  intervened  in  the 
conflict  against  Athens,  and  it  was  Persian  gold  that  made  it 
possible  for  Lysander  to  complete  her  overthrow  (404  B.C.). 
True,  war  with  Sparta  followed  immediately,  over  the  division 
of  the  spoils,  and  the  campaigns  of  the  Spartan  generals  in  Asia 
Minor  (399*395)  were  all  the  more  dangerous  as  they  gave 
occasion  to  nimierous  rebellions.  But  Persia  jmned  the  Greek 
league  against  Sparta,  and  in  394  Phamabasus  and  Conon 
annihilated  the  Lacedaemonian  fleet  at  Cnidus.  Thus  the 
Spartan  power  of  offence  was  crippled;  and  the  upshot  of  the 
long-protracted  war  was  that  Sparta  ruefully  returned  to  the 
Persian  alliance,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Antalddas  (q.v.)^  concluded 
with  the  king  in  387  B.C.,  not  only  renounced  all  claims  to  the 
Asiatic  possessions,  but  officially  proclaimed  the  Persian 
suzerainty  over  Greece.  Ninety  years  after  Salamis  and 
Plataea,  the  goal  for  which  Xerxes  had  striven  was  actually 
attained,  and  the  king's  will  was  law  in  Creece..  In  the  following 
decades,  no  Hellenic  state  ventured  to  violate  the  king's  peace, 
and  an  the  feuds  that  followed  centred  round  the  efforts  of  the 
combatants— Sparta,  Thebes,  Athens  and  Argo»— to  draw  the 
royal  powers  to  their  side  (see  Gkcece:  Ancient  HisUtry). 

But,  for  these  successes,  the  empire  had  to  thank  the  internecine 
strife  of  its  Greek  opponents,  rather  than  its  own  strength.  Its 
feebleness,  when  thrown  on  its  own  resources,  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that,  during  the  next  years,  it  failed  both  to  reiconquer 
Egypt  and  to  suppress  completely  King  Evagoras  of  Salamis 
in  Cyprus.  The  satrap  revolts,  moreover,  assumed  more  and 
more  formidable  proportions,  and  the  Gredc  slates  began  once 
more  to  tamper  with  them.  Thus  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II. 
ended,  in  359  B.C.,  with  a  complete  dissolution  of  the  imperial 
authority  in  the  west.  His  successor,  Artaxerxes  Ckhus, 
succeeded  yet  again  in  restoring  the  empire  in  its  full  extent. 
In  355  B.C.,  he  spoke  the  fatal  word,  whidi,  a  second— or  rather 
a  third — ^time,  demolished  the  essentially  unsound  power  of 
Athens.  Iix  343  he  reduced  Egypt,  and  his  generals  Mentor 
and  Memnon,  with  his  vizier  Bagoas  {q.v.),  crushed  once  and  for 
all  the  resistance  in  Asia  Minor.  At  his  death  in  338,  iounedi- 
ately  before  the  final  catastrophe,  the  empire  to  all  appearances 
was  more  powerful  and  more  firmly  established  than  it  had  been 
since  the  days  of  Xerxes. 

These  successes,  however,  were  won  oriy  by  means  of  Greek 
armies  and  Greek  generals.  And  simuluneously  the  Greek 
Vnpwn  civilization— diffused  by  mercenaries,  traders,  artists, 
9iantk  prostitutes  and  slaves,— advanced  in  ever  greater 
MtlmwM.  force.  In  Asia  Minor  and  Phoenicia  we  can  clearly 
trace  the  progress  of  Hellenism  {q.v.),  especially  by  the  coinage. 
-The  stamp  is  cut  by  Greek  hands  and  the  Greek  tongue  pre- 
dominates more  and  more  in  the  ioKription.    We  can  see  that 


the  victory  of  Gredc  civilization  had  long  been  prepared  on 
every  ude.  But  the  vital  point  is  that  the  absolute  superiority 
of  the  Hellene  was  recognized  as  incontestable  on  both  hands. 
The  Persian  sought  to  protect  himself  against  danger,  by  employ- 
ing Greeks  in  the  national  service  and  turning  Greek  policy  to 
the  interests  of  the  empire.  In  the  Greek  world  itself  the  dis- 
grace that  a  people,  called  to  universal  dominion  and  capable 
of  wielding  it,  should  be  dependent  on  the  mandate  oi  an  im- 
potent Asiatic  monarchy,  was  keenly  felt  by  all  who  were  not 
yet  absorbed  in  tbe  rivalry  of  city  with  city.  The  spokesmas 
of  this  national  sentiment  was  Isocratcs;  but  numerous  other 
writers  gave  expression  to  it,  notably,  the  historian  CalBstheiMS 
of  Olynthus.  Union  between  Greeks,  voluntary  or  oompulsocy, 
and  an  offensive  war  against  Persia,  was  the  programme  they 
propounded. 

Nor  was  the  time  for  its  fulfilment  far  distant.  Thenew  power 
which  now  rose  to  the  first  rank,  created  by  PhiUp  of  Marrdnn, 
had  no  engrained  tendency  inimical  to  the  Persian  ^^ 
Empire.  Its  immediate  prognunme  was  rather  jHan** 
Macedonian  expansion,  at  the  expense  of  Thrace 
and  Ill3nia,  and  the  subjection  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  But, 
in  its  efforts  to  extend  its  power  over  the  Greek  states,  it  was 
bound  to  make  use  of  the  tendencies  which  aimed  at  the  unifica- 
tion <rf  Greece  f<H:  the  struggle  against  Persia:  and  this  ideal 
demand  it  dared  not  reject. 

Thus  the  conflict  became  inevitable.  In  340,  ArtaxersBcs  IIL 
and  his  satraps  supported  the  Greek  towns  in  Thrace — Perinthus 
and  Byzantium— against  Macedonian  aggression;  in  jjS  be 
concluded  an  alliance  with  Demosthenes.  When  Philip,  afta 
the  victory  of  Chaeronea,  had  founded  the  league  d  Corinth 
(337)  embracing  the  whole  of  Greece,  he  accq>ted  the  naiLM^ai 
programme,  and  in  336  despatched  his  army  to  Asia  Minor. 
That  he  never  entertained  the  thought  of  conquering  the  whole 
Persian  Empire  is  certain.  Presumably,  his  ambiticms  would 
have  been  satisfied  with  the  liberation  of  the  Greek  cities,  and* 
periiaps,  the  subjection  of  Asia  Minor  as  far  as  the  Taun& 
With  this  his  dominion  would  have  attained  much  the  same 
compass  as  later  under  Lysimachus;  farther  than  this  the 
boMest  hopes  of  Isocrates  never  Went. 

But  Philip's  assassination  in  336  fundamentally  altered  the 
situation.  In  the  person  of  his  son,  the  throne  was  occupied 
by  a  aoldier  and  statesman  of  genius,  saturated  with  Creek 
culture  and  Greek  thou^t,  and  intolerant  of  every  goal  but  the 
highest.  To  conquer  the  who}e  world  for  Hellenic  civilizatioo 
by  the  aid  of  Macedonian  spears,  and  to  reduce  the  whole  earth 
to  imity,  was  the  task  that  this  heir  of  Heracles  and  AchiUcs 
saw  before  him.  This  idea  of  imiversal  conquest  was  with  hia 
a  conception  much  stronger  developed  than  that  which  had 
inspired  the  Achaemenid  rulers,  and  he  entered  on  the  project 
with  full  consciousness  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  phrase.  la 
fact,  if  we  are  to  imderstand  Alexander  aright,  it  is  fatal  to  foi;Bet 
that  he  was  overtaken  by  death,  not  at  the  end  of  his  career,  but 
at  the  beginning,  at  the  age  of  thirty'three. 

VL  The  Macedonian  Dominion, — ^How  Alexander  conquered 
Persia,  and  how  he  framed  his  world-empire,^  cannot  be  reUted 
here.  The  essential  fact,  however,  is  that  after  the 
victory  of  Gaugamela  (Oct.  x,  331  b.c.)  and,  still 
more  completely,  after  the  assassination  of  Darius — 
avenged  according  to  the  Persian  laws,  on  the  perpetrators- 
Alexander  regarded  himself  as  the  legitimate  head  of  the  Pcrsiao 
Empire,  and  therefore  adopted  the  dress  and  cerunoiunl  of  the 
Persian  kfaigs. 

With  the  capture  of  the  capitals,  the  Persian  WBr  was  at  as 
end,  and  the  atonement  for  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  was  com- 
plete— a  truth  symbolically  expresseid  in  the  burning  of  the  palace 
at  Peraepolis.  Now  began  the  world^onquest.  For  an  universal 
empire,  however,  the  forces  of  Macedonia  and  Greece  were 
insufficient;  the  monarch  of  a  world-empire  could  not  be  bound 
by  the  limitations  imposed  on  the  tribal  king  of  Maoedoa  or  the 
general  of  a  league  of  HeOenic  republics.    He  must  stand  as 

1  See  ALBXAm>ER  thb  Gibat;  Macedonian  CiinaB;  Hbllsii- 
fSK  (lor  later  results). 


AUmi 


HISTORY:  ANCIENTl 


P^RfelA 


213 


•I 


an  autocrat,  above  them  ami  abore  the  law,  realizing  the 
theoFcticat  doctrines  of  Plato  and  AHstotle,  as  the  true  king, 
who,  is  a  god  among  men,  bound  no  more  than  Zeus  by  a  law, 
because  **-hinnelf  he  b  the  law.'*  Thus  the  divine  kingship  of 
Alexander  derives  indirect  line,  liot  from  the  Oriental  polities-^ 
which  (Egypt  apart)  know  nothhtg  of  royal  apotheosis — ^but 
from  these  Hellenic  theories  of  the  state.  Henceforward  ft 
becomes  the  form  of  every  absolute  monarchy  inaciTillzed  land, 
being  formally  mitigated  only  in  Christian  states  by  the  assump 
tion  that  the  king  is  not  God,  but  king  "  by  the  grace  of  God. 
The  expedition  of  ^32  B.C.  to  the*  shrine  of  Ammon  was  a  pre- 
liminary to  this  procedure,  which,  in  324,  was  sealed  by  bis 
official  elevation  to  divine  rank  in  aU  the  republics  of  Greece 
To  thb  corresponds  the  fact  that,  instead  of  acting  on  the 
doctrines  of  Aristotle  and  Callisthenes,  and  treating  the 
Macedonians-  and  Greeks  as  masters,  the  Asiatics  as  servants, 
Alexander  had  impartial  recourse  to  the  powers  of  all  his  subjects 
and  strove  to  amalgamate  them.  In  the  Persians  particularly 
he  sought  a  second  pillar  for  his  world^mpire.  Therefore,  as 
early  as  330  B.C.,  he  drafted  30,000  young  Persians,  educated 
them  in  Greek  customs,  and  trained  them  to  war  on  the  Mace- 
donian model.  The  Indian  campaign  showed  that  his  Mace- 
donian troops  were  in  fact  inadequate  to  the  tonqucst  of  the 
world,  and  in  the  summer  of  326  they  compelled  him  to  turn 
back  from  the  f>anks  of  the  Hyphasts.  On  his  return  to  Persia, 
he  consummated  at  Susa  (Feb.  324  b  c.)  the  union  of  Persian 
and  Maeedonian  by  the  great  marriage^feast,  at  which  all  his 
superior  officers)  with  some  10,000  more  Mace<}ontans,  were 
wedded  to  Persian  wives.  The  Macedonian  vetenins  were  then 
disbanded,  and  the  Persians  taken  into  his  army.  Simultane- 
ously, at  Uie  Olympian  festival  of  324,  the  command  was  issued 
to  aU  the  dtles  of  Greece  to  recognize  him  as  god  and  to  receive 
the  exiles  home.^  In  323  B.C.  the  preparations  for  the  circum- 
navigation and  subjectiofl  of  Arabia  were  complete;  the  next 
enterprise  being  the  conquest  of  the  West,  and  the  battle  for 
Hellenic  culture  against  Carthage  and  the  Italian  tribes.  At 
that  point  Alexander  died  in  Babylon  on  the  X3th  of  June 
373  B.C. 

Alexander  left  no  belr.  Consequently,  his  death  not  only 
ended  the  scheme  of  universal  conquest,  but  led  to  an  immediate 
f^g  Mftcedoniaa  reaction.    The  army,  which  was  cbn- 

Kiag^oma  sidered  as  the  representative  of  the  people,  took 
o#tt«  ovet  the  government  under  the  direction  61  !ts 
'"■*'**''  generab.  The  Persian  wives  were  practically  all 
disoLPdcd  and  the  Persian  satraps  removed— -at  least  from  all 
important  provinces.  But  the  attempt  to  maintain  the  empire 
in  its  unity  proved  impracticable;  and  almost  immediately 
there  began  the  embittered  war,  waged  for  several  decades  by 
the  generab  (diadochi),  for  the  inheritance  of  the  great  king.' 
It  was  aoon  ob^fous  that  the  eastern  rulers,  at  aB  events,  could 
ot  dispense  with  tKe  n&tlve  element.  PeueestaS,  the  governor 
f  Persis.  there  played  lhe«6Ie  of  Alexander  ttnd  won  the  Persians 
complet^y  to  his  ^e;  for  which  he  waadismissed  by  Antigonus 
in.3is  (Diod.  xix.  48).  A  sim9ar  position  was  attained  by 
Seleucus^the  only  one  of  the  diadochi,  who  had  not  divorced 
bis  Persian  wife,  Apema — in  Babylonia,  which  he  governed 
from  319  to  316  and  regained  in  tiie  autumn  of  312.  While 
Antigoniis,  who,  since  315,  had  striven  to  win  the  kingdom  of 
Alexander  for  himself— was  detained  by  the  war  with  his  rivab 
in  the  west,  Seleucus>  with  Babylon  as  his  headquarters,  con- 
quered the  iidiole  of  Iran  as  far  as  the  Indus.  In  northern 
Media  aldne,  which  lay  outside  the  main  scene  of  operations 
and  had  only  been  partially  subject  to  the  later  Achaemenids, 
the  PerslMi  -satrap  Atropates,  appointed  by  Alexander,  main- 
lained  bb  independence  and  bequeathed  his  province  to  hb 
successors.  Hb  name  is  borne  by  north  Media  to  the  present 
day-*-Atropatene,  modem  Azerbaijan  or  Adherbeijan  (see 
Media).     So,  too,  in  Armenia  the  Persian  dynasty  of  the 

'  The'diKussioo  of  these  cveata  by  Hoearth  "  The  Detlicatktn 
oC  Alexander  the  Great."  in  the  EntUsk  Historical  Maigw,  iL 
(t887),  >i  quite  unsatisfactory. 

*  Set  PT 0UDUB9 ;.  Sblsvcid  DvttAStYr 


I 


Hydamids  held  its  ground;  and  to  these  must  be  added,  in  the 
east  of  Asia  Minor,  the  kingdoms  of  Pontus  and  Cappadocia, 
founded  c.  301,  by  the  Persians  Mithradates  I.  and  Anaralhcs  1. 
These  states  were  fragments  of  the  Achaemenid  Empire,  which 
liad  safely  transferred  themselves  to  the  Hellenistic  state-system. 

The  annexation  of  Iran  t^  Seteucus  Nicator  led  to  a  war  for 
the  countries  on  the  Indian  frontier,  his  opponent  being  Sandra- 
cottus  or  Chandragupta  Maurya  {q  v.),  the  founder  sthaaa  l 
of  the  great  Indian  Empire  of  Maurya  (Palimbothra)  Mcator,  ma^ 
The  result  was  that  Seleucus  abandoned  to  the  ^"'*w*m*- 
Indian  king,  not  merely  the  Indian  provinces,  but  even  the 
frontier  districts  west  of  the  Indus  (Strabo  xv.  689-724), 
receiving  as  compensation  500  elephants,  with  other  presents 
(Appian,  5yr.  5$,Justin  xv.  4;  Plut.  Aiex.  62,  Athen.i.  t8  D.). 
His  next  expedition  was  to  the  west  to  assist  Lysimachus, 
Ptolemy  and  Cassander  in  the  overthrow  of  Antigonus. 

The  battle  of  Ipsus,  in  301,  gave  him  Syria  and  the  east  of 
Asia  Minor;  and  from  then  he  resided  at  the  Syrian  town  of 
AntiochiaontheOrontes.  Shortly  afterwards  he  handed  over 
the  provinces  east  of  the  Euphrates  to  his  son  Antiochusi  who, 
in  the  following  years,  till  282,  exercised  in  the  East  a  very 
energetic  and  beneficial  activity,  which  continued  the  work  of 
his  father  and  gave  the  new  empire  and  tl^e  Oriental  Hellcnbtic 
civilization  their  form.  In  order  to  protect  his  conquests 
Alexander  had  founded  several  cities  in  Bactria,  Sogdiana  and 
India,  in  which  he  settled  his  veterans.  On  his  death,  these 
revolted  and  endeavoured  to  return  to  Greece,  but  were  attacked 
and  cut  to  pieces  by  Pithon  (Diod.  xviii.  7).  Of  Orttk 
the  other  Greek  towns  in  Asia  scarcely  any  were  Towatia 
founded  by  Alexander  himself,  though  the  plan  *■■• 
adopted  by  his  successors  of  securing  their  dominions  by  building 
Greek  cities  may  perhaps  be  due  to  him  (cf.  Polyb.  x.  27). 
Most  of  these  new  cities  were  based  on  older  settlements;  but 
the  essential  point  b,  that  they  were  peopled  by  Greek  and 
Ma^donian  colonbts,  and  enjoyed  civic  independence  with 
laiK'S,  officials,  councils  and  assemblies  of  their  own,  in  other 
words,  an  autonomous  communal  constitution,  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  empire.  A  portion,  moreover,  of  the  surround- 
ing land  was  assigned  to  them.  Thus  a  great  number  of  the 
country  dbtricts-^the  t0mj  above  mentioned-— were  transformed 
nito  municipal  corporations,  and  thereby  withdrawn  from  the 
fn^mediate  government  of  the  king  and  his  officials  (satraps 
or  strategi),  though  still  subject  to  their  control,  except  in  the 
cases  where  they  received  unconditional  freedom  and  so  ranked 
as  "  confederates.'*  The  native  population  of  these  villages 
and  rural  districts,  at  first,  had  nocivic  rights,  but  were  governed 
by  the  foreign  settlers.  Soon^  however,  the  two  elements  began 
to  coalesce,  in  the  Scleucid  Empire,  the  process  seems  generally 
to  have  t>een  both  rapid  and  complete.  Thus  the  cities  became 
the  main  factors  in  the  diffusion  of  Hellenism,  the  Greek  knguagc 
and  the  Greek  civilization  over  all  Asia  as  far  as  the  Indus* 
At  the  same  tihie  they  were  the  centres  of  commerce  and 
industrial  life:  and  this,  in  conjunction  with  the  royal  favour, 
and  the  privileges  accorded  them,  continually  drew  new  settlers 
(especially  Jews),  and  many  of  them  developed  into  great  and 
flourishing  towns  (see  further  under  Hellcnisu). 

Shortly  after  his  conquest  of  Babylonia,  Seleucus  had  founded 
a  new  capital^  Selcuda  (^.v.),  on  the  Tlgrb:  his  intention  being 
at  once  to  displace  the  ancient  Babylon  from  its  former  central 
position,  and  to  replace  it  by  a  Greek  city.  This  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  other  foundations  in  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia  and 
Susiana  (Elam).  "  Media,"  says  Polybius  (x.  27),  **  was  en- 
circled by  a  sequence  of  Greek  towns,  designed  as  a  barrier 
against  the  l>arbarians."  Among  those  mentioned  are:  Rhagae 
(Rai),  which  Seleucus  metamorphosed  into  a  Hellenic  city, 
Europus,  Laodicea,  Apamea  and  Heradea  (Strabo  xi.  525; 
Plin.  vi.  43:  cf.  Mcdia).  To  these  must  be  added  Achaea  in 
Parthia,  and.  farther  to  the  east,  Alexandria  Anon  in  Aria 
the  modem  Herat:  abo  AntiocMa  Margiana  (Strabo  xi.  514,  $16' 
PKtt.  46, 93),  now  Merv,  and  many  others.  Further,  Alexandria 
in  Aradrosia,  near  Kandahar,  and  the  towns  ft>UBded  t^ 
Alejc«oderon  the  )fiadti:K.«sh  and  Jn.Spgdisna. 


2X4 


PERSIA 


(HISTORY:  AKCtENT 


Thus  an  active  HcQeiuc  life  aoon  arose  la  the  East;  and  Greek 
settlers  must  have  come  in  numbers  and  founded  new  cities, 
which  afterwards  formed  the  basis  of  the  Graeco-Bactrian 
kingdom.  Antiochus's  general  Demodamas  crossed  the  Jaxartes 
and  set  up  an  alur  to  the  Didymaean  ApoUo  (Plin«  vu  49). 
Another  general,  Patrocles,  took  up  the  investigation  of  the 
Caspian,  already  begun  by  Alexander.  In  contrast  with  the 
better  knowledge  of  an  older  period,  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  Caspian  was  connected  with  the  ocean,  and  that  it  was 
possible  to  reach  India  on  ship-board  by  that  route  (Strabo 
ii.  74,  xi.  siSi  Plin.  vi.  38).  A  project  of  Seleucus  to  connect 
the  Caspian  with  the  Sea  of  Azov  by  means  of  a  canal  is  men- 
tioncd  by  Pliny  (vi.  31).  To  Patrodcs  is  due  the  information 
that  an  active  commerce  in  Indian  wares  was  carried  on  with 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  via  the  Caspian  (Strabo  xi.  509). 

While  Hellenism  was  thus  gaining  a  firm  footing  in  all  the 
East,  the  native  population  remained  absolutely  passive.  Apart 
TA<  ftoiiM  ^^^  ^^  "'^^  mountain  tribes,  no  national  resis- 
Re^gi^a  tance  was  dreamed  of  for  centuries.  The  Iranians 
aadivr  quietly  accepted  the  foreign  yoke,  and  the  higher 
<*'•«'*"*•  classes  adopted  the  external  forms  of  the  alien 
civilization  (cf.  the  dedication  of  a  Bactrian,  Hyspasines^  son 
of  Mithroaxes,  In  the  inventory  of  the  temple  of  ApciQo  in 
Dclos,  Ditienberger,  Sylloge^  588, 1.  109)  even  though  they  were 
unable  to  renounce  their  innate  characteristics.  EratosUienes, 
for  instance,  speaks  {ap,  Strabo  i.  66)  in  high  terms  of  the 
Iranians  {Ariani),  ranking  them  (as  well  as  the  Indians,  Romans 
and  Carthaginians)  on  a  level  with  the  Greeks,  as  regards  their 
capacity  for  adopting  city  civilization.  The  later  Parsee 
tradition  contends  that  Alexander  burned  the  sacred  books 
of  Zoroaster,  the  Avesta,  and  that  only  a  few  fragments  were 
saved  and  afterwards  reconstructed  by  the  Arsadds  and 
Sassanids.  This  Is  absolutely  unhistorical.  The  Persian 
religion  was  never  attacked  by  the  Macedonians  and  Greeks. 
Under  their  dominion,  on  the  contrary,  it  expanded  with  great 
vigour,  not  only  in  the  west  (Armenia,  north  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor,  where  it  was  the  official  religion  of  the  kings  of  Pontus 
and  Cappadocia)£^but  also  in  the  east.  In  the  countries  of  the 
Indian  frontier.  That  the  popular  gods — Mithras,  Anaitis,'&c. — 
had  come  to  the  forefront  has  already  been  mentioned.  This 
propagandism,  howeva,  was  void  of  all  national  character, 
and  ran  on  precisely  the  same  lines  as  the  propagandism  of 
the  Syrian,  Jewish  and  Egyptian  cults.  Only  in  Persia  itself, 
so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  a  few  scanty  traces,  the  national 
character  of  the  rehgion  seems  to  have  survived  among  the 
people  side  by  side  with  the  memory  of  their  old  imperial 
position. 

In  28a  B.C.  Seleucus  took  the  field  against  Lysimachus,  and 
annexed  his  dominions  in  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace.  In  281  he 
was  assassinated  in  crossing  to  Europe,  and  his  son 

Antiochus  L  was  left  supreme  over  the  whole  empire. 

Im  Baeuim  From  that  time  onward  the  Sclcucid  Empire  was 
M^  never  at  rest.    Its  gigantic  extent,  from  the  Aegean 

'*"**'■•  to  the  Indus,  everywhere  offered  points  of  attack 
to  the  enemy.  The  Lagidae,  especially,  with  their  much  more 
compact  and  effective  empire,  employed  every  means  to  weaken 
their  Asiatic  rivals^  and  auxiliaries  were  found  in  the  minor 
states  on  the  frontier — Atropatene,  Armenia,  Cappadoda,  Pontus 
and  Bithynia,  the  Galatians,  Pergamum,  Rhodes  ana  other 
Creek  states.  Moreover,  the  promotion  of  Greek  dvilization 
and  dty  life  had  created  numerous  local  centres,  with  separate 
interests  and  centrifugal  tendendes,  struggling  to  attain  com* 
plete  independence,  and  perpetually  fordng  new  concessions 
from  the  empire.  Thus  the  Seleudd  kings,.courageous  as  many 
of  them  were,  were  sJways  battling  for  ezisteDce  (see  Sxlevcxd 
Dynasty). 

These  disturbances  severdy  affected  the  borders  of  Iran. 
While  the  Seleudd  Empire,  under  Antiochus  II.  Theos  (264-247), 
was  bemg  harried  by  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelpbus,  and  the  king's 
attention  was  wholly  engag^  in  the  defence  of  the  western 
provinces,  the  Greeks  revolted  in  Bactria,  under  thdr  governor 
Diodottts  (g.vO*    Obviously,  it  was  principally  the  need  ol 


protection  agaSnst  the  nomadic  tribes  which  led  to  the  looada- 
tion  of  an  independent  kingdom;  and  Diodotus  aoon  Attained 
considerable  power  over  the  provinces  north  of  the  Uindu-KuslL. 
In  other  provinces,  too,  insurrection  broke  out  (Strabo  xL  575, 
Justm  xli.  4)»  and  Arsaces,  a  chief  of  the  Pami  or  Apami — aa 
Iranian  nomad  tribe  (therefore  often  called  Dahan  Scythians), 
inhabiting  the  steppe  east  of  the  Caspian — made  himself  master 
of  the  district  of  Parthia  {qji^  in  248  bx.  He  and  hb  brother 
Tiridates  (^.v.)  were  the  founders  of  the  Pj^rthian  kingdom^  which, 
however,  was  confined  within  very  modest  limits  during  the 
following  decades.  Seleucus  IL  CalUnicus  (247-226)  successfully 
encountered  Arsaces  (or  Tiridates),  and  even  expelled  him 
(c.  238),  but  new  risings  recalled  Seleucus  to  Syria,  and  Aisaces 
was  enabled  to  return  to  Parihia. 

Greater  success  attended  Antiochus  IIL,  the  (keat  (233-187). 
At  the  beginning  of  his  reign  (220)  he  subdued,  with  the  hc^ 
of  his  minister  Hermias,  an  insurrection  of  the  AmUmdtm 
satrap  Molon  of  Media,  Who  had  assumed  the  royal  iu.*  <*■ 
title  and  was  supported  by  his  brother  Alexander,  •'"•■'• 
satrap  of  Persis  (Polyb.  v.  40  sqq.).  He  further  sdzed  the 
opportunity  of  extorting  an  advantageous  peace  from  King 
Artabazanes  of  Atropatene,  who  had  considerably  extended  ha 
power  (Polyb.  v.  55).  After  waging  an  unsuccessful  war  with 
Ptolemy  IV.  for  the  conquest  of  Code-Syria,  but  suppressing 
the  revolt  of  Achaeus  in  Asia  Minor,  and  recovering  the  fcM-mer 
provinces  of  the  empire  In  that  quarter,  Antiochus  led  a  great 
expedition  into  the  East,  designing  to  restore  the  inqperial 
authority  In  Its  full  extent.  He  first  removed  (2 1  x)  the  Armenian 
king  Xerxes  by  treachery  (Polyb.  viii.  25;  Jc^n  of  Antioch, 
A*  53)1  and  appointed  two  governors,  Artaxias  and  Zariadris* 
in  his  place  (Strabo  xi.  531).  During  the  next  year  be  reduced 
the  affairs  of  Media  to  order  (Polyb.  x.  27);  he  then  conducted 
a  successful  campaign  against  Arsaces  of  Parthia  (209),  and 
against  Euthydemus  (9.9.)  of  Bactria  (208-206),  who  had  over- 
thrown the  dynasty  of  Diodotus  (Polyb.  x.  28  sqq.,  48  sqq.* 
xL  34;  Justin  xli.  5).  In  spite  of  his  successes  he  concluded 
peace  with  both  kingdoms,  rightly  considering  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  retain  these  remote  frontier  provinces  per- 
manently.  He  next  renewed  his  old  friendship  with  the  Indian 
king  Sq)bagasentts  (Subhagasena),  and  reorived  from  him  159 
elephants  (206  B.C.).  Through  Arachosia  and  Dranpane,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Etymander  (Helmand),  he  marched  to  Carmania 
and  Persis  (Polyb.  xi.  34).  Both  here  and  in  Babylonia  he 
re-established  the  imperial  authority,  and  In  205  undertook  a 
voyage  from  the  moqth  of  the  Tigris,  throuj^  the  AralMaa  gulf 
to  the  flourishing  mercantile  town  of  Gerrha  in  Axabia  (now 
Bahrein)  (Polyb.  xiiL  9). 

Shortly  afterwards,  however,  his  successful  campaign  against 
Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes  led  to  a  war  with  Rome  in  whkh  the 
power  of  the  Seleudd  Empire  was  shattered  (190  BX.), , 
Asia  Minor  lost,  and  the  king  compellod  to  pay  a 
heavy  contribution  to  Rome  for  a  long  term  of  years. 
In  order  to  raise  money  he  plundered  a  wealthy  tempde  of  Bel  in 
Elam,  but  was  killed  by  the  inhabitants,  187  B.C.  (Diod.  xxviiL  3, 
xxix.  15;  Strabo  xvi.  744;  Justin  xxxil.  3;  S.  Jerome  (Hierony- 
mus)  on  Dan,  xi.  19;  Euseb.  CkratL  L  253).  The  consequence  of 
this  enf  ecblement  of  the  empire  was  that  the  governors  of  Armenia 
asserted  their  independence.  Artaxias  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Great  Armenia;  Zariadris,  that  of  Sophene  on  the  Euphrates 
and  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  (Strabo  xl.  531).  In  other  distficts» 
also,  rebellions  occurred;  and  in  the  east,  Euthydemus  and  his 
successors  (Demetrius,  Eucxatidas,  &c)  began  the  conquest  of 
the  Indus  xegion  and  the  Iranian  borderland  (Arachosia,  Aria). 
(See     Bactsu;     Exjisydsicus;     Eucbatidias;     DgmiBius; 

MBNAlilDEB.) 

But  the  energetic  Seleucids  fought  desperately  egainit  thdr 
fate.  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  (x 76-163)  restored  once  move  the 
Eastern  dominion,  defeated  Artaxias  of  Armcoia  (Appian*  Syr. 
45*  Diod.  xxxL  X7a;  S.  Jerome  on  Dan.  xl.  40),  restored  sevtral 
towns  in  Babylonia  and  subdued  the  EijrttaeattS.  Hb  attempt* 
however,  to  phmder  the  sanctuary  of  Asialtis  failed  (Polyh.  zxxL 
114  d  Maocah.  L  6,  iL  i,  x^^  App.  Jyr.  66).   Peiiiiy  eWtftd 


mSKHCY:  AMClENt} 


nSRSiA 


««5 


Bfedia  were  stm  subject  to  lum.  But  after  Us  defttb  at  Tabae 
in  Persis  (163  B.C.;  d.  Polyb.  zxxi.  xi;  Biaccab.  i.  6,  ii.  9;  Jos. 
AnL  Jud,  xiL  9,  i),.the  Itomana  took  advantage  of  the  dynastic 
broils  to  destroy  the  Sdeudd  Empire.  They  reduced  its  army 
and  fleet,  and  favoured  every  rebellion:  among  others,  that  of 
tbe  Jews.  In  spite  of  aU,  Demetrius  I.  Soter  (x6x~X5o)  succeeded 
in  tuppresstng  (159)  a  revolt  of  Timarchua  ctf  Miletus,  governor 
of  Babylon,  who  had  occupied  Media,  assumed  the  title  of 
**  great  king,"  and  had  been  recognized  by  the  Romans  (Appian, 
Syr,  45-47;  Trogus,  Prol.  34;  Diod.  xfxL  37  A:  cf.  the  coins  of 
Timarchus).' 

VII.  Tk$  Parthian  Empire  of  the  ilrsoodlr.— Meanwhile,  in 
the  east,  the  Arsadds  had  begun  thdr  expan«on,  Phraates  I. 
{fi.  17  5-170)  subdued  the.  Mardians  in  Elburz.  His  brother 
Mitbradates  L  (c.  1 70-138)  had  to  sustain  a  difficult  war  with 
Eucratides  of  Bactria,  but  eventually  succeeded  in  wresting 
mmhrm'  from  him  a  few  districts  on  the  Turanian  frontier 
smu»  I,  wat  Indeed,  he  penetrated  as  far  as,  and  farther  than,  the 
**"■**•  "*  Indus  (IMod.  xxxiiL  18;  Oroa.  v.  4,  16).  lo  the  west 
be  conquered  Media,  and  thence  subdued  Babylonia.  He  further 
reduced  the  Elymaeans,  sacked  their  temple  in  tbe  mountains, 
and  captured  the  Greek  dty  of  Seleucia  on  the  Hcdyphon  (Strabo 
xvi.  744;  Justin  xU.  6).  The  Seleucids,  meanwhile,  were  harassed 
by  aggravated  disordeis  and  insurrections.  Nevertheless,  in 
140,  Demetrius  II.  Nicator  took  the  field  in  order  to  save  the 
east,  but  was  defeated  and  captured.  Shortly  afterwards 
Mlthrsdatcs  L  died.  His  son  Phraates  II.  (c.  138-127)  was 
attacked  in  130  by  Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes,  the  brother  of 
Demetrius  II.,  on  which  the  Parthian  king  ideaaed  the  latter 
Antiochus  pressed  successfully  on,  and  once  more  recovered 
Babylonia,  but  in  129  was  defeated  in  Media  and  fell  in  a 
desperate  stniggle.  With  this  battle  the  Selcucid  dominion  over 
the  countries  east  of  the  Euphrates  was  dcfinitdy  lost.  The 
Babylonian  towns,  espedally  Sdeuda  {q.v.),  were  handed  over 
by  Phraates  lo  his  favourite,  the  Hyrcanian  Himerua,  who 
ponished  them  severely  for  their  resistance. 

DttfJng  these  wars  great  changes  had  taken  place  In  eastern 
Iran.  In  159  McAigoltan  tribes,  whom  the  Chinese  call  Yue-chi 
^  and  the  Greeks  S^hians,  forced  their  way  into 
/#.  mad  Sogdiana,  and,  in  139,  conquered  Bactria  (Strabo 
si-  571;  Justin  xlii.  x;  Trog.  Prcl.  41;  see  Bactua). 
From  Bactria  they  tried  to  advance  farther  into 
Iran  and  India.  Entering  into  an  alliance  with  Antiochus 
VII.»  they  assailed  the  Parthian  Empire.  Phraates  II. 
inarched  to  encounter  him,  but  was  himself  defeated  and 
■lain,  and  his  country  ravaged  far  and  wide.  His  successor 
Artabanus  I.  {c.  127-124),  the  uncle  of  Phraates,  also  fell 
in  battle  against  the  Tocharians,  the  principal  Scythian 
tribe  (Justin  xliL  x,  2;  Jos.  AtU.  Jr.  66) ^  but  his  soa  Mith- 
fadates  II.,  sumamed  "  The  Great"  («.  X94r88),  defeated  the 
Scythians  and  xestored  for  a  while  the  power  of  the  Anadds 
He  alsa  defeated  Artavasdes,  the  king  of  Great  Armenia,  his 
aon  Tigranea,  a  hostage  in  the  hands  of  the  Farthians,  was  only 
redeemed  by  the  cession  of  70  valleys  (Strabo  xL  532)  When 
Tigranes  attempted  to  sdze  Cappadoda,  and  the  Roman  praetor 
P.  Cornelius  Sulla  advanced  against  him,  Mitbradates  in  92  b  c. 
concluded  the  first  treaty  between  Parthia  and  Rome  (Plut, 
Stdla^  v.;  Liv.  epU,  70),  The  djmastic  troubles  of  the  Seleudds 
in  Syria  gave  him  an  opportunity  for  successfxil  Intervention 
(Jos.  Ant.  Jud,  xlii.  X3,  4;  14,  3).  Shortly  afterwards  he  died, 
and,  with  his  death,  the  Acsadd  power  coUapced  for  tbe  second 
time.  The  poasesrion  of  the  western  provinces  and  the  dominant 
position  in  western  Asia  passed  to  the  Armenian  Tigranes  {q.v ), 
who  wrested  from  the  Parthians  Mesopotamia  and  the  suzerainty 
of  Atropatene,  (jordyene,  Adiabeae,  Osroene.  Simultaneously 
began  a  new  and  severe  oonilict  with  the  Scythians.  Parthian 
coins,  probably  dating  from  this  period  (Wroth,  Catd  of  the 
Coins  of  Parthia^  1903,  p.  xxx.  and  p.  40).  mention  victorious 
campaigns  of  Parthian  kings  and  a  conquest  of  the  provinces  of 
Aria,  Margiane  and  (?)  Traxiane  (cf.  Strabo  xi.  505).    But  how 

'For  the  whole  of  this  period  tee  ftirther  ANncOHVS;  AmuoCBUS 
lMSf»i9mjmKW  Pvmwrr;  HiKMnnM. 


confused  the  situation  was  Is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  76  B.a 
the  octogenarian  king  Sanatruces  was  seated  00  the  Parthian 
throne  by  the  Scythian  tribe  cf  the  Sacaraucians  (d.  Strabo  xL 
5x1;  Trog.  Prd,  42).  The  names  of  his  predecessors  are  not 
known  to  us.  Obviously  thb  period  was  marked  by  continual 
dynastic  feuds  (cf.  Trog.  Prol.  42:  "  ut  varia  complurium  regum 
in  Parthia  successione  imperium  aocepit  Orodes  qui  Crassum 
ddevit" ).  Not  till  Sanatruces'  successor  Phraates  III.  (7^-57) 
do  we  find  the  kingdom  again  in  a  settled  state. 

A  fact  of  decisive  significance  was  that  the  Romans  !u>w  began 
to  advance  against  Tigranes.  In  vain  Mitbradates  of  Pontus 
and  Tigranes  turned  to  the  Parthian  king,  the  latter 
even  proffering  restitution  of  the  conquered  frontier 
provinces.  Phraates,  though  rightly  distrusting 
Rome,  neverthdess  conduded  a  treaty  with  Lucullus  (69  B.C.)^ 
and  with  Pomp^,  and  even  supported  the  latter  in  his  campaign 
against  Tigranes  in  66.  Bat  ajfter  the  victory  it  was  manifest 
that  the  Roman  general  did  not  consider  himsdf  bound  by 
the  Parthian  treaty  When  Tigranes  had  submitted,  Pompey 
received  him  into  favour  and  extended  the  Roman  supremacy 
over  the  vassal  states  of  Gordyene  and  Osroene;  though  he  had 
allured  the  Parthian  king  with  the  prospect  of  the  recovery  of  his 
old  possessions  as  far  as  the  Euphrates.  Phraates  complained, 
and  simultaneously  attacked  Tigranes,  now  a  Roman  vassal 
(64  B.C.)  But  when  Pompey  refused  reparation  Phraates  recog- 
nized that  he  was  too  weak  to  begin  the  struggle  with  Rome, 
and  contented  himself  with  forming  an  alliance  with  Tigranes, 
in  hopes  that  the  future  would  bring  an  <^portUDily  for  his 
revenge  (Dlo  Cass,  xxxvi.  3,  5;  xxxvil.  5  sqq.;  Plut.  Luc.  30; 
Pomp  33, 38,  cf.  Sallust*s  letter  of  Mitbradates  to  Arsaces). 

Although  Phraates  HI.  had  not  succeeded  in  regaining  the  full 
power  of  his  predecessors,  be  fdt  justified  in  again  assuming  the 
title  **  king  of  kings" — ^which  Pompey  declined  to  acknowledge-* 
and  even  in  proclaiming  himself  as  "god**  (Phlegon,  fr.  it  ap. 
PhoL  cod.  97;  and  on  part  of  his  coins),  but  in  57  b.c.  tbe  "  god  ** 
was  assassinated  by  his  sons  Orodes  and  Mitbradates. 

The  Parthian  Empire,  as  founded  by  the  conquests  of  Mitbra- 
dates I.  and  restored,  once  by  Mitbradates  U.  and  again  by 
Phraates  HI.,  was.  to  all  exterior  appearance,  a  con* 
tinuation  of  the  Achaemenid' dominion.  Thus  the 
Arsadds  now  began  to  assume  the  old  title  "  king  o£ 
kings  *'  (the  skakanshah  of  modem  Persia),  though  previously  thdr 
coins,  as  a  rule,  bad  borne  only  the  legend  "  great  king."  The 
offidal  version,  preserved  by  Arrian  in  his  Parthica  {ap.  Phot. 
cod.  58:  see  Parthia),  derives  the  line  of  these  chiefuins  of  the 
l^mian  nomads  from  Artaxerxes  IL  In  reality,  however,  the 
Parthian  Empire  was  totally  different  from  its  predecessor,  both 
externally  and  internally.  It  was  anything  rather  than  a  world- 
empire.  The  countries  west  of  the  Euphrates  never  owned  its 
dominion,  and  even  of  Iran  itsdf  not  one  half  was  subject  to  the 
Arsacids.  There  were  indeed,  vassal  states  on  every  hand,  but 
the  actual  possessions  of  tbe  kings — the  provinces  governed  by 
their  satraps — consisted  of  a  rather  narrow  strip  of  land,  stretch* 
big  from  the  Euphrates  and  north  Babylonia  through  southern 
Media  and  PartUa  as  far  as  Arachosia  (north-west  Afghanistan), 
and  following  the  course  of  the  great  trade-route  which  from  time 
immemorial  had  carried  the  traffic  between  tbe  west  of  Asia  and 
India.  We  still  possess  a  description  of  this  route  by  Isidore 
of  Charax,  probably  dating  from  the  Augustan  period  (in  C. 
MUller,  Ceograpki  f^aeci  minora,  vol  i.),  in  which  is  contained 
a  bst  of  the  18  imperial  provinces,  known  also  to  Pliay  (vi.  xi2. 
d  41),  Isidoro,  indeed,  enumerates  nineteen*,  but,  of  these, 
Sacastene  formed  no  part  of  the  Parthian  Empire,  as  has  been 

shown  by  von  Gutschmid. 

The  loWer  provinces  (>.«.  the  districts  west  of  Parthia)  arc: 
(t>  Mesopotamia,  with  northern  Babylonia,  from  the  Euphrates  bridge 
at  Zeugma  to  Seleuda  on  the  Tigris;  (2)  Apolloniatis.  the  pntrlmcn. 
plain  east  of  tbe  Tigris,  with  Artemita,  h)  Chalonitis, 
the  hill-country  of  Zagros;  (4)  Western  Media ,  (5)  Cambadene,  with 
Bagistana  (Behistun}— the  mouotatnous  portions  of  Media,  ^6) 
Upper  Media,  with  Ecbatana;  (7)  Rhagiane  or  Eastern  Media. 
Tnen  with  the  Caspian  Gates— Che  pan  between  Elburs  and  the 
ccntial  desert,  through  which  lay  the  route  from  west  Iran  *^ 
cast  Inn— the  uhmt  piwinees  begin;  C8)  Cheareae  and  .(n 


?l^ 


FBRSIA 


(HISTOI^^^  AMCiEMT 


CoQisene,  the  districts  on  the  verge  of  the  des<^;  (ip)  Hyrcania;  (ii) 
Astabenc,  with  the  royal  town  Asaac  on  the  Attruck  (see  Parthia)  ; 
(12)  Pardiyene  with  Farthaunisa,  where  the  tcpulchres  of  the  kings 
w«re  lakl;  <I3)  Aoavarcticene  (now  Abtward,  with  the  capital 
Kelat);  (14)  Mai^iane  (Merv);  (15)  Aria  (Herat):  (16)  ADauoa, 
the  southern  portion  ox  Aria;  (17)  Zarangiane,  the  country  o( 
the  Drangians,  on  the  lake  of  tiamun;  (18)  Arachosia,  on  the 
Etymander  (Helmand),  called  by  the  Parthians  "  White .  Irtdia," 
extending  as  far  as  Alexandropout  (Kandahar),  the  frontier  city 
of  the  Parthian  Empire. 

()n  the  lower  Et^^mander,  the  Sacae  had  established  themselves 
^-^bviously  on  the  inroad  of  the  Scythian  tribes — and  after  them 
the  country  was  named  Sacastcnc  (now  Sejistan,  Scistan).  Throogh 
it  lay  the  route  to  Kandahar;  and  for  this  reason  the  district  is 
defcribed  by  Isidore,  though  it  formed  no  part  of  the  Paitfaian 
Empire. 

Round  these  provinces  lay  a  ring  of  numerous  mmor  states, 
which  as  a  rule  were  dependent  on  the  Arsacids.  They  might. 
y  .  however,  partially  transfer  their  allegiance  on  the  rise 
J*"**  of  a  new  power  (e.g.  Tigrsncs  in  Armenia)  or  a  Ronton 
*"'**•  invasion..  Thus  it  is  not  : without  justice  that  the 
Arsacid  period  is  described.  In  the  later  Persian  and  Arabian 
tradition,  as  the  period  of  "  the  kings  of  the  part-kingdoms " — 
atmong  whkh  the  Ashkanians  {i.e.  the  Arsacids,  from  Asfutk,  the 
later  pronunciatioii  of  the  name  Arskak^A^ce*)  had  von  the 
first  place.  This  tradition,  however,  is  nebulous  in  the  extreme, 
the  whole  list  of  kings,  which  it  gives,  is  totally  unbistorical ;  only 
the  names  of  one  Balash  (eVologacscs)  and  of  the  last  Ardewan 
^^Artabanus)  having  been  preserved.  The  period,  from  the 
acath  of  Alexander  to  the  Sassaoid  Ardashir  I.,  is  put  by  the  Persian 
traditkm  at  f66  years;  which  was  afterwards  corrected,.^  after 
Syro-Qrccian  evidence,  to  533  years.  The  actual  number  is  ^8 
years  (t.r.  323  B.C.  to  A.D.  326).  The  statements  of  the  Armenian 
historians  as  to  this  period  are  also  absolutely  worthless. 
-  The  ten  most  important  of  the  vassal  states  wcre:-^ 
.  I.  The  kingdom  of  Osroooe(9.v.)  in  the  north-east  of  Metopotamia, 
with  Edessa  as  capital,  founded  about  130  B.C.  by  the  chieftain  of 
an  Arabian  tribe,  the  OrrhocI,  which  established  itself  there. 

2.  To  this  must  be  added  the  numerous  Arabran  tribes  of 
the  Mesopotamian  desert,  under  their  chiefs,  amoag  whom  one 
Atchaudonius  comes  into  prominence  in  the  period  of  Tigrancs 
and  CrassuB.  Their  settlement  in  Mesopotamia  was  encouragied  by 
Tigranes,  according  to  Plutarch  (Luc.  21)  and  Pliny  {yi.  142).  In 
later  times  the  Arabic  town  Atra  in  an  oasis  on  the  west  of  the 
Tigris,  governed  hy  its  own  kings,  gained  special  importance. 

'3  and  4.  To  the  east  of  the  >igris  by  two  kiogaoms.  Gordycne 
(or  Cordyene),  the  country  of  the  Carducnians  (now  Bohtan),  a  wild, 
mountainous  district  south  of  Armenia;  and  Adiabcne  (Hadyab), 
tbe  ancient  Assyria,  on  either  side  of  the  Zab  (Lycus). 

5.  Oft  the  farther  aide  of  Zagros,  adjoining  Aaiabene  on  the  east, 
was  the  king^m  of  Atropatene  in  north  Media*  now  often  simply 
allied  Media  (f.v.). 

While  the  power  of  Armenia  was  at  its  height  under  Tigrancs 
(86-69  B.C.)  all  these  states  dwncd  his  rule.  After  the  victoncd 
of  I\)tnpcy,  however,  the  Romans  claimed  the  succrainty,  so  that. 
during  the  next  decades  and  the  expeditions  of  Crassus  and  Antony. 
they  oscillated  betweefi  Rome  and  Parthifi.  though  their  inclination 
was  -generally  to  the  latter.  For  they  were  all  Orientals  and. 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  representatives  of  a  reaction  against 
that  Hellenism  which  had  become  the  heritage  of  Rome  At  the 
same  time-  the  loose  organization  of  the  Parthian  Empire,  afforded 
tbem  a  greater  measure  of  independence  than  they  could  hope  to 
enjoy  under  Roman  suzerainty. 

6.  In  the  south  of  Babylonia,  in  the  district  of  Mescne  (the 
modern  Afatsan),  after  the  fall  of  Antiochus  Stdetes  (129  B  c  ). 
an  Arabian  prince.  Hyspaosines  or  Spasines  (in  a  cuneiform  m 
script  ton  of  127,  on  a  clay  tablet  dated  after  this  year,  he  is  called 
Aspasine)  founded  a  kingdom  which  existed  till  the  rise  of  the 
Sassanian  Empire.  Its  capital  was  a  city  (mod.  Mohammerah), 
first  founded  by  Alexander  on  an  artificial  hill  by  the  junaion  of 
the  Eulaeus  (Karun)  with  the  Tigris,  and  peopled  by  his  veterans. 
The  town,  which  was  originally  namea  AJcxanana  aad  thed 
rebuilt  by  Antiochus  X.  as  Antiochia.  was  now  rcfortified  with  dikes 
by  Spasines.  and  christened  Spa&inuCharax  ("  the  wait  of  Spasines  "), 
Or  simply  Charax  (I*lin.  vi  138  scq.).  In  the  foltewing  centuries 
it  was  the  main  mcreantile  centre  on  the  Tigris  estuary. 

The  king;dom  of  Mescne.  also  called  Chaiacene.  u  known  to  us 
bom  occasional  refesences  in  various  authors,  e&peaally  Lucian 
(Macrobti,  16).  as  well  as  from  numerous  coins,  dated  by  the  Seleucian 
era,  which  allow  us  to  frame  a  fairly  complete  list  of  the  kings* 
The  Arabian  dvnasty  speedily  assimilated  Itself  to  the  native 
populition;  and  most  01  the  kinj^s  bear  Biibyldnian — in  a  few 
cases,  Parthiati — names.  The  ofncial  language  was  Greek,  till, 
00  the  destruction  of  Seleucia  (a.d.  T64),  it  w^s  replaced  on  the 
coinage  by   Aramaic.     Another  Babylonian   dynast   must  have 

■Sec  Saint-Martin,  Rtchetches  sur  la  Mtshte  el  la  Charaehu 
(1838);  Reinaud.  Mhnctres  sur  te  royaumt  de  la  Mishne  (1861); 
C.  Babelon.  *'  Numism.  et  chronot  dn  dynastes  dc  la  Charlctee," 
is  y^KTS.  iHiirmi,  d'anMoL  rntmuau  ytL  i  (1891^. 


been  Uadadn^dinache?  (c.  100  B.C.),  who  built  in  Tello  the  fortified 
palace'  which  has  been  excavated  by  de  Sarzec. 

7.  East  of  the  Tigris  lay- the  kingdom'  of  Elymab  (Elam),  to 
which'  belonged  Svsa  and  its  modem:  nprcsentative  Ah«ax»  fartfaor 
down  on  the  E^eus.  The  Eiyoiaaaaf^  wi|o  had  .alrewiy  offered 
a  repealed  resistance  to  the  Seleudds^  were  subdued  by  Mithra- 
datcs  I.,  as  we  have  mentioned  above;  but  they  remained  a  separate 
state,  which  often  rebelled  against- the  Arsacids  (Straibo  xvL  744;  d. 
Plut.  Pom^  36;  Tae.  An*.  vL  90).  Of  tfaekinea  wko  amareatljr 
belonged  to  a  Parthian  dyjiaaty,  several  bearing  tae  name  Cammat' 
cires  are  known  to  us  from  coins  dated  81  and  71  B.C.  One  of 
these  IS  de^gnated  by  Lucian  {MacroUi,  16)  *'  kin^  of  the 
Pairthians  ";  while  the  coinage- of  another,  Orodes,  ^Usplays  Arainaie 
script  (Allotte  de  la  Fuye,  Rev.  nttm.,  4me  s6rie,  t.  vL  pw  9s  ecn-* 
1902).  The  fcini^doffl,  which  is  sekiom  itientkiiied;  survived  till 
Ardashir  I.  In  As  neighbourhood  Strabo  mentions  "  the  minor 
dynasties  <A,  the  Sagapenians  and  SUaccnlajls "  (xvi.  74^).  The 
ifxians,  moreover,  witri  the  Cossaeans  and  other  mountain  eribesi 
maintained  their  independence  exactly  aa -under  the  later  AcIik> 
menids  (Strabo  xyi.  y/i±\  RUn.  vi*  las).  ■ 

8.  The  district  01  Persia,  also,  beqiqie  independent  soon  after 
the  time  of  Antiochus  IV.,  and  was. ruled  by  its  own  kiitgs.  who 
perpetuated  the  AchaenActalan  traditions,  and  on  their  cotas — whkh 
bear  the  Persian  kinguaee  in  Aramaic  chaiaetersr^i^.  the  so-called 
Pahlavt— appear  as  aealoua  adherenta  of  ZoroasuSaniam  and  the 


Pahlavt— appear 

Fire-cult  (see  Persis).  They  wc^  forced,  however,  to  acknowkd^ 
the  suzerainty  of  Parthia,  to  which  they  stood  in  the  same  position 
as  the  Persians  of  Cyrus  and  his  forefathers  to  the  Median  lEmpire 
(cf  Stiabo  XV.  738,  733,  736;  Lucian,  Macrob.  15).  In  later  tiroes, 
before  the  foundation  ot  the  Sassanid  dominion,  Persia  waa  dis- 
int^rated  into  numerous  email  local  atatea.  Even  in  Cannaiiia 
we  find  independent  Idngs.  one  of  whom  gave  his  name  to  a  towa 
Voloeesoccrta  (BalashkerQ. 

9.  The  east  of  Iran — Bachia  wltti  Sogdiana,  Eaatern  AnMJwsa 
and  Gedroda-- was  never  tabjeet  to  the  Anadds.  Heee  the 
GraecO-Bactrian  and  Craeo^lndifrn  kiiigdoms  hdd  their  own. 
till,  jin  139  B.C.J  they  succumbed  before  the  invading  Moosolias 
and  ScyUiian  tnbcs  (see  Bactria  and  works  quoted  there).  But 
in  the  indu^  district  the  Creek  lungs  held  their  pt>und  for  an  appre- 
ciably longer  period  and,  for  a  while,  widely  extended  their  porarer 
(see  Mbnandbr  op  India)  Among  liie  kings  then  fdlowtnc.  only 
known  to  us  from  their  coins.  thcf;e  appears  a  dynasty  with  Iranias 
and  sometimes  peculiarly  Parthian  names  which  seems  to  ha\^ 
reigned  id  the  Punjab  and  Arachosia.  Its  best-known  representa- 
tive. Gondopharcs  or  Hyndophcrres,  to  whom  legend  makes  the 
afXMtle  Thomas  write,  reigaed  over-  Acadbosia  and  the  Ijidiu  dis- 
trict about  a.o.  20.  Further,  about.  a,d.  70.  the  PerMus  oC  the 
Erythraean  Sea  mentions  that  the  great  commerciat  town  of 
Minnagar  in  th6  Indus  Delta  was  under  Parthian  king^  *'wha 
spent  their  time  in  expelling  one  another^"  Here,  then,  it  woaU 
seem  there  existed  a  Parthian  dynasty.. which  praixibly  went  back 
to  the  conquests  of.  Mithradatos  I.  (cf.  Vincent  A.  Smith,  **  The 
Indo-Parthian  Dynasties  from  about  120  B.C  to  a  d.  100/'  in  the 
Zeitsckr  dcr  detdiclten  morgCHl.  C^ieOsck.  60,  1906).  Naturally, 
such  a  dynasty  would  not  long  hav^  recognized  th^  suzerainty  of 
the  Arsacids.  It  succumbed  to  the  Indo-Scythtan  Empire  of'  the 
Kuskana.  who  had  obtainod  the  sovernguty  of  Bactria  aa  early  as 
about  A  D  50,  and  thence  pressed  onward  into  India.  In  the 
period  of  the  Pertplui  (c.  AD.  70)  the  Scythidns  were  already 
settled  m  the  Indus  valley  (pp  38,  41.  48),  their  donUnion  reachir^ 
Its  zenith  under  Kamshka  («  a  o.  1237153) 

This  empire  of  the  Kushana  merits  special  mentioa  here,  ea 
account  of  its  peculiar  religious  attitude,  which  we  may  pther 
from  the  coins  of  its  kings,  particularly  those  of  Kanishka  aiid  lu:» 
successor  Huvishka,  on  whicn  an  alphztbct  adapted  from  the  Greek 
is  employed  (cf  Anrel  Stein.  "  Zoroastnan  Deities  on  Indo^Scythiaa 
Coins."  in  Tin  Balfylonum  and  Orunial  Recpnk  vol  i .  18S7) 
Kanishka.  as  is  well  known,  had  embraced  Buddhism, and  many  of  his 
coins  bear  the  image  and  name  of  Buddha  Iranian  divinities,  how- 
ever, predominate  on  his  currency-  Mithras  {Mikro  or  HeOos),  the 
Mooh  Afak  (also  Selene).  i4///>iff.  the  Fire;  Orlhragno  (VcnethmgYtaV 
Pkarro ^F^ma  (hvarena).  "  the  majesty  of  kingship  '*,  Tcm>«Tir 
(Tistrya  "  the  archer  ") ;  Nana  (Nanaia),  and  othcts,  ^  Here.  then, 
we  have,  a  perfect  example  of  syncretism;  as  in  the  Mithras  cult  In 
Armenia.  Asia  Minor,  and  still  further  in  the  ftoman  Empire 
Buddhism  and  Zoroastrianism  have  been  wedded  tn  the  state  re- 
It^on,  and,  in  chaiacteristkr  Indian  fashion,  aze on  the  best  of  tenis 
with  one  another,  precisely  as.  i^  the  C^imese  Empire  at  the  present 
day^  we  find  the  most  -varied  religions,  ^e  by  nde,  aind  on  an  equal 
footing 

to.  Ori^nalTy  a  part  of  the  Turaniafl  steppe 'belonged  to  the 
Anactds;  it  was  the  starting-point  of  their  power;  Soon,  hoarever, 
the  nomads  (Dahae)  gained  their  independence^  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  rei>eatedly  attacked  and  devastated  the  Parthian  Emixre  is 
conjunction  with  the  Tocharians  and  Other  tribes  of  Sacae  and 
Scythians.  In  the  subsequent  period,  again,  w«  shall  frequently 
meet  thijm. 

It   may   appear  surprising  that   the  Arsacids   made  do 

attempt  to  incorporate.  Iha  minor  ttftlea  ia  thej  aapire  tai 


HISTORY:  AKCTEWn 


I>BRSIA 


217 


create  a  grc^  and  united  ctommkm,  $ucti  as  existed  under  the 
Achaeinenids  and  was  afterwards  restored  by  the  Sassanids. 
This  fact  is  the  clearest  symptom  of  the  inner  weakness  of 
Chmneterof  thefr  empire  and  of  the  small  power  wielded  by  the 
tkaPrnttbiMu  "  king  ojf  kings."  In  contrast  alike  with  its  prede- 
Bmfiin,  cessors  and  its  successors,  the  Arsacid  dominion  was 
pecidlarly  a  chance  formation — ^a  state  whidi  had  come  into 
existence  through  fortuitous  external  circumstances,  and  had 
00  firm  foundation  within  itself/  or  any  intrinsic  rdison  d'llre. 

Three  elements,  of  widely  diffcrtnt  kinds,  contributed  to  its 
origin  and  defined  its  character.  It  was  sprun||[  from  a  predatory 
nomad  tribe  (the  Pamian  Dahae«  Scythians)  which  had  citnblishcd 
itself  in  Khorasan  (Parthia),on  the  borders  of  ctvilicatlon,  and  thence 
gradually  annexed  further  districts  as  the  political  situation  or  the 
weakness  of  its  neighbours  allowed.  Consequently,  these  nomads 
were  the  main  pillar  of  the  empire,  and  from  them  were  obviously 
derived  the  great  magnates,  with  their  huge  estates  and  hosts' <» 
serfs,  who  composed  the  imperial  couneiK  KfX  the  Mmies,  governed 
the  provinces  and  made  and  unmade  the  kings  (Sttabo  xi.  515; 
Juslm  xli-  2;  the  former  terming:  them  «vyytvti%,  "kinsmen" 
of  the  king,  the  bttcr.  prohuli).  Of  these  great  families  that  of 
Surcnas  held  the  privilcgo  of  scttmg  the  diadem  on  the  head  of  the 
new  king  (Plut.  Crois  2\ ,  Tac.  /t»»  vi,  4a). 

The  military  orsanizalion,  moreover,  was  wholly  nomadic  in 
character.  The  nucleus  of  the  anny  was  formed  ol  armoured  horse- 
men, excellently  pracfifed  for  long-distance  fighting  with  bow  and 
javelin,  but  totally  unable  to  venture  on  a  hand-to-hand  oonfliet 
their  tactics  being  rather  to  swarm  round  tbt  enemy's  squadrons 
and  overwhelm  tticm  under  a  hail  of  missiles.  When  attacked 
they  broke  upt  as  it  seemed,  m  hasty,  and  complete  flight,  and 
having  thus  led  the  hostile  irmy  to  break  its  formation,  they  them- 
selves rapidly  reformed  and  renewed  the  assault  How  difficult 
it  was  for  infantry  to  hold  tbcsr  own  a^inst  tbcfle.mounted  s9Uadrocis 
was  demonstrated  by  the  Roman  cahipaigas,  especially  in  broad  : 
plains  like  those  of  Mesopotamia.  In  winter,  however,  the  Parthians 
were  powerless  to  wage  war,  as  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere 
relaxed  their  hows.  The  infantry,  m  contrast  with  Its  eariicr 
sutus  under  the  Persians^  was  wholly  neglected.  On  the  other 
|iand,  every  mapiate  put  mto  the  field  as  many  mounted  warriors 
as  possible,  chlcliy  servants  arid  bought  slaves,  who.  like  the  Janis- 
saries and  Mamelukes,  were  trained  exclusively  for  war  Thus 
Surcnas,  in  ^  B.C.,  is  said  to  have  put  at  the  king's  disposal  tooo 
mailixJ  hovsemen  and»  in  all.  lo^ooo  men,  includijw  the  traio,  which 
also  comprised  his  attendant^  and  harem  iPiut.  Cras$.  21 ;  descnp- 
tion  of  the  military  organization;  Dip  Cass.  40,  15.  Justin  xli.  2). 
In  the  army  of  50,000  mounted  men  which  took  the  field  against 
Mark  Antony  there  were,  says  Justin,  only  400  freemen. 
.  How  vital  was  the  nomadk  element  in  the  K^tfthtan  Esnplre  ts 
obvious  from  the  fact  that,  in  civil  wars,  the  deposed  kings  con- 
•r*^  r^«to- sistently  took  refuge  among  the  Dahae  or  Scythians 
tt!L.SII-^and  were  restored^  them.  But,  in  Parthia,  these 
ropumuQ9,  njjn^s  ^9^,^  amalgamated  witH  the  native  peasantry, 
and,  with  their  religion. ,  had  adopted  their  dress  and  raannen. 
Even  the  kings,  after  the  first  two  or  three,  wear  their  hair 
and  b«ird  long,  in  the  Iranian  fashion,  whereas  their  predecessors 
are  beardless.  Although  the  Arsaclds  are  straiigers  to  any  deep 
religious  interest  (in  contrast  to  the  Acfaaemenids  and  Sassanids), 
they  acknowledge  tho  Persian  cods  and  the  leading  tenets  of 
Zoroastrianism.  They  erect  fire-altars,  and  even  obey  the  command 
to  abandon  all  corpses  to  the  dogs  and  fowls  CJustin  xli.  ^).  The 
union,  moreover,  recommended  by  that  creed,  between  brother  and 
sister— and  even  son  and  mother— oocui«  among'  them.  Conse- 
quently, beside  the  council  of  the  nobility,  there  is  a  kecood  Council 
of  "  Magians  and  wise  men  "  CStrabo  xi»  «s)-  ^  , 

Again,  they  peiipetuate  the  traditions  of  the  Achacmcntd  Empire. 
The  Arsaeids  assume  the  title  "  king  of  kings  "  ^nd  derive  their 
line  from  Artaxerxes  II.  Further,  the  foyal  ttootheosis,  so  common 
among  them  and  rccurriog  uodertbe  Saisanios,  b  pKobaUy  rOK  so 
much  of  Greek  origin  as  a  development  of  Iranian  views.  For  a^ 
the  side  of  the  great  god  Ahuraraazda  there  stands  a  host  of  sub- 
ordinate divine  beings  who  eicecute  his  will—among  these  the 
deified  heroes  of  legend,  to  whose  circle  the  king  is  now  admitted, 
nnce  o«  him  Ah^ramaida  h«s  bestowed  victpry  and  might* 

TWs  Kradual  IcanianiJEation  of  thc\Parthian.Empirs  » .showji 
by  the  lact  that  the  subsequent  Iranian  txaditioos.  and  Pirdousi 
in  particular,  apply  the  nam*  o(  the  *)  Parthian"  magnates 
<i^aJ^i<i80»)  to  the  glorious  beMes  «f  the  Iraendary  eooch.  Gon^ 
sequently,  also,  the  laaguage  and  writing  of  the  Parthian  period; 
wluch  are  retained  under  the  Sassanids,  receiyed  the  name  PaUavi^ 
i.e.  "  Parthian."   The  script  was  derived  from  the  Aramaic. 

But  to  these  Oriental  elements  nmst  be  added  that  of  Heilenistn, 
tho  donunaat  world-culture  which  had  penetrated  iMo  Parthia 
ff»Mlb«  ^  Media.  It  was  indispensable  to  every  ststa  which 
hoqwd  to  play  some  ran  in  this  world  and  was  not  so 
utterly  secluded  as  Persfs  and  Atropatene;  and  the 
Arssicids  cnfcrfained  the  less  thought  of  opposition  as 
destitute  of  an  iadepeodeut  aational  haam.    All  their 


Ihey 


external  Institutions  were  borrowiid  from  the  Seleucid  Empire; 
thdir  coinage  with  its  Greek  inscriptions  and  nomenclature,  their 
Attic  standard  of  currency;  and,  doubtless,  a  great  part  of  their 
administration  also,  in  the  towns  Greek  merchants  were  eveiv. 
where  settled.  Mithradates  !.  even  followed'  the  precedent  of  the 
Sclcucids  in  building  a  new  city,  Arsacia,  which  replaced  the  ancient 
Rhas;ae  (Rai.  Eiuopus)  in  Media.  The  further  the  Arsackls  ex- 
panded the  deeper  they  penetrated  into  the  proviaoe  of  UeUeobm; 
the  first  Mithradatcs  himself  assumed,  after  his  jgrcat  conqueafis. 
the  title  of  Phiikellen,  "  the  protector  of  Hellenism,"  which  was 
retained  by  almost  aH  hn  successors.  Then  follow  the  surnames 
Bpipkan€9  "the  revealed  god,"  Dkaeus  "the  just,"  Biurtttes 
"  the  benefactor."  all  of  them  essentially  Greek  in  tbeff  ffefetuflCe. 
and  also  regularly  borne  by  all  the  kings.  After  the^conoucst  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  provinces  it  was  imperative  that  tlv: 
royal  n»idence  should  be  fixed  there.  But  as  no  one  ventured  to 
transfer  the  roval  household  and  the  army,  with  its  hordes  of  wild 
horsemen,  to  the  Creek  town  of  Scleucia,  and  thus  disorganise  its 
commerce,  the  Ar^cids  set  up  their  abode  in  the  jp'cat  village  qjf 
Ctcsiphon,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tkris,  opposite  to  Scleucia, 
which  accordingly  retained  Its  free  Hellenic  constitution  (see 
CTESiFliCftf  and  SELBtJCU).  >  S&t  also,  Orodes  I.  spoke  gcx)d  Creek, 
and  Greek  tragedies  were  staged  at  his  court  (Plut.  Crjus.  33).  -. 

In  spite  of  this,  however*  the  rise  of  the  Arsacid  Empire  marks 
the  beginning  of  a  reaction  against  Hellenism — not,  indeed,  a 
eonsckius  or  oflficuil  reaction,  but  a  reaction  which  was  o, ^^j^n 
all  the  more  effective  because  it  depended  ctn  the  impetus  om/m/ 
of  circumstances  working  with  all  the  ppwer  of  a  natural,  t^tumimtm. 
force  The  essential  point  is  tliat  the  bast  is  completely 
divorced  from  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Hellenic  world,  that  it 
Can  derive  no  fresh  powers  from  Chat  quarter,  and  that^ consequently, 
the  hncflueace  of  the  Orbntal  elemcma  must  steadily  merease.  This 
process  can  be  most  clearly  traced  on  the  €oin»--almost  tho  sole 
memorials  that  the  Parthian  Empire  has  left.  From  reign  to  reigA 
the  portraits  grow  poorer  and  more  stereotyped,  and  the  inscriptions 
more  neglected,  till  it  becomes  obvious  that  the  engraver  himseU 
no  loneen  undeiatood  Greek  but  copied  mechanically  the  signs 
before  bis  eyes,  as  is  the  case  with  the  contempomry  loido-Scytluan 
coinage,  and  also  in  Mcscne.  Indeed,  after  Volf^aeses  I.  (si<-77), 
the  Aramaic  script  is  occasionally  employed.  The  political  opposi- 
tion to  the  western  empires,  the'Seleucids  first,  then  the  Romans, 
nrecspica ted  this  development  Naturally  enough  the  Greek  cities 
Dehcld  a  liberator  in  every  anny  that  marqhed  loom  the  West, 
and  were  ever  ready  to  cast  in  their  lot  with  such — a  disposition 
for  which  the  subsequent  penalty  was  not  lacking.  The  Parthian 
magnates,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  army,  would  have  little 
to  do  with  Gtfxk  cultuie  and  Greek  modes  of  life,  whkA  they  con- 
temptuously regarded  as  effeminate  and  unmanly.  Moreover, 
they  required  01  their  rulers  that  they  should  live  in  the  fashion  of 
their  country,  practise  arms  and  the  chase,  and  appear  as  Oriental 
sultans,  not  as  Grecian  kings. 

These  tendencies  taken  together  oqilain  the  radical  weakness 
of  the  Parthian  Empire.  It  was  easy  enough  to  collect  a  neat 
army  and  achieve  a  great  victpry;  it  was  absolutely  impossible  to 
hold  the  army  tbgcther  for  any  longer  period,  or  to  conduct  a  regular 
campaign.  The  Parthians  proved  incapable  of  creating  a  firm, 
united  organization,  such  as  the  Achaemcnids  before  them,  and  the 
Sassanids  after  them-  gave  to  their  empin.  The  king)  themselves 
were  toys  in  the  hands  of  the  magnates  and  the  army  who,  tenaci- 
ously as  they  clung  to  the  anointed  dynasty  of  the  Arsaeids,  were 
utterly  indifferent  to  the  person  of  the  individual  Arsacid.  Every 
moment  they  were  ready  to  overthrow  the  reigning  monateh  and 
to  seat  another  on  his  throne-  The  kingsy  for  their  part,  sought 
protection  in  craft,  treachery  and  cruelty,  and  only  succeeded  ip 
aggravatinit  the  situation.  More  especiaOy  they  saw  an  enemy  in 
every  prince,  and  the  worst  of  enemies  in  their  own  sons.  Sanguin- 
ary crimes  were  thus  of  everyday  occurrence  in  the  royal  houis- 
bold;  and  frequently  it  was  merely  a  matter  of  chance  whether 
the  father  anticipated  the  son,  or  the  son  the  father.  The  conditions 
were  the  same  as  obtained  subsequently  under  the  Mahommedah 
Caliphate  {'O.v.)  and  the  empire  of  the  Ottomans.  The  internal 
hbtory  of  tne  Parthian  donunioa  is  an  unbroken  sequence  of  dvU 
wipr  and  dynastic  strife.     .  ^  .        .  .      ,      -,  ;, 

For  the  literature  dealing  with  the  Parthian  Empire  and 
numismatics,  see  Parthia,  under  which  heading  will  be  found 
a  complete  list  of  the  kings,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  reconstitute 
tneiil*' 

These  conditions  doddate  the  fact  that  the  ParlMan  Empire, 
thou^  founded  on  annexatioa  and  perpetually  tfietaaccd  by 
hostile  anos  in  both  the  East  and  the  West,  yet  tsterttk^ 
never  took  a  stuong  offensive  after  the  days  of  fwra/r*« 
Mithxadates  II.  It  was  bound  to  protect  itself 
against  Scythian  aggression  in  the  £a6t  and 
Roman  aggression  la  the  West.  To  maintain,  or  regain,  tli;e 
toxerahsty  over  Mesopotamia  and  the  vassal  states  of  that  region, 
as  also  over  Atropatene  and  Araienia,  was  its  most  imperative 
task*   Yet  it  always  remained  on  the  defenilw  and  svea  so  was 


2l8 


PERSIA 


pltSTORY:  ANCIENT 


lacking  in  energy.  Whenever  it  made  an  effort  to  enforce  iu 
daimsi  it  retreated  so  aoon  as  it  was  confronted  by  a  resolute 
foe. 

Thus  the  wars  between  Parthia  and  Rome  proceeded,  not 
from  the  Partbians-'deeply  injured  though  they  were  by  the 
Wmn  with  encroachments  of  Pompey — but  from  Rome  herself. 
.owntM^  Rome  had  been  obliged,  reluctantly  enough,  to  enter 
'*•*•■**  upon  the  inheritance  of  Alexander  the  Great;  and, 
since  the  time  of  Pompey,  had  definitely  subjected  to  her 
dominion  the  Hellenistic  countries  as  far  as  the  Euphrates. 
Thus  the  task  now  faced  them  of  annexing  the  remainder  of  the 
Macedonian  Empire,  the  whole  East  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
Indus,  and  of  thereby  saving  Greek  civilization  (cf .  Plut.  Comp. 
Nic,  €t  Crass,  4).  The  aristocratic  republic  quailed  before  such 
an  enterprise,  though  LucuUus,  at  the  height  of  his  successes, 
entertained  the  thought  (Plut.  Luc.  $0).  But  the  ambitious  men, 
whose  goal  was  to  erect  their  own  sovereignty  on  the  ruins  of  the 
republic,  took  up  the  project.  With  this  objective  M.  Lidnius 
Crassus,  the  triumvir,  in  54  B.C.,  took  the  aggressive  against 
Parthia,  the  occasion  being  favourable  owing  to  the  dynastic 
troubles  between  Orodes  I.,  the  son  of  Phraates  III.,  and  his 
brother  Mithradates  III.  Crassus  fell  on  the  field  of  Carrhac 
Gune  9,  53  B.C.).  With  this  Mesopotamia  was  regained  by  the 
Parlhians,  and  King  Artavasdes  of  Armenia  now  entered  their 
alliance.  But,  apart  from  the  ravaging  of  Syria  (51  B.C.)  by 
Paconis  the  son  of  Orodes,  the  threatened  attack  on  the  Roman 
Empire  was  carried  into  effect  neither  then  nor  during  the  civil 
wars  of  Caesar  and  Pompey.  At  the  time  of  his  assassin&tion 
Caesar  was  intent  on  resuming  the  eq>edition  of  Crassus.  The 
Parthians  formed  a  league  with  Brutus  and  Cassius,  as  previously 
with  Pompey,  but  gave  them  no  support,  untU  in  40  B.C.  a 
Parthian  army,  led  by  Pacorus  and  the  republican  general 
Labienus,  harried  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  But  it  was  easily 
repulsed  by  Ventidius  Bassus,  the  lieutenant  of  Maiic  Antony. 
Pacorus  himself  fell  on  the  9th  of  June  38  B.C.  at  Gindarus  in 
northern  Syria.  Antony  then  attacked  the  Parthians  in  36  B.C., 
and  penetrated  through  Armenia  into  Atropatene,  but  was 
defeated  by  Phraatea  IV. — ^who  in  37  B.C.  had  murdercxi  his 
father  Orodes  I. — and  compelled  to  retreat  with  heavy  losses. 
The  continuation  of  the  war  was  frustrated  by  the  conflict 
with  Octavian.  Armenia  alone  was  again  subdued  in  34  b.c. 
by  Antony^  who-  treacherously  captured  and  executed  King 
Artavasdes. 

Roman  opinion  universally  expected  that  Augustus  would 
take  up  the  work  of  his  predecessors,  annihilate  the  Parthian 
.  dominion,   and   subdue   the   East   as   far   as   the 

A¥pi»ta$,  Indians,  Scythians  and  Seres  (cf .  Horace  and  the  other 
Augustan  poet?).  But  Augustus  disappointed  these 
expectations.  His  whole  policy  and  the  needs  of  the  newly 
organised  Roman  Empire  demanded  peace.  His  efforts  were 
devoted  to  reaching  a  modus  vivendi,  by  which  the  authority 
of  Rome  and  her  most  vital  claims  might  be  peacefully  vindicated. 
Ttus  the  weakness  of  Parthia  enabled  him  to  eff^t  without 
much  difficulty.  His  endeavours  were  seconded  by  the  revolt 
of  Tiridates  II.,  before  whom  Phraates  IV.  was  compelled  to 
flee  (33  B.C.),  till  restored  by  the  Scythians.  Augustus  lent  no 
support  to  Tiridates  in  his  second  march  on  Ctesiphon  (26  B.C.), 
but  Phraates  was  all  the  more  inclined  on  that  account  to 
stand  on  good  terms  with  him.  Consequently  in  20  B.C.,  he 
restored  the  standards  captured  in  the  victories  over  Crassus 
and  Antony,  and  recognized  the  Roman  suzerainty  over  Osroene 
and  Armenia.  In  return,  the  Parthian  dominion  in  Babylonia 
and  the  other  vassal  states  waa  left  undisptited. 

Thus  it  was  due  not  to  the  successes  and  strength  of  the  Par- 
thians but  entirely  to  the  principles  of  Roman  poUey  as  definied  by 
Augustus  that  their  empire  appears  as  a  second  great  independent 
power,  side  by  side  with  Rome.  The  precedence  of  the  Caesars, 
indeed,  was  idways  admitted  by  the  Arsadds;  and  Phraates  IV. 
soon  entered  into  a  state  of  dependency  on  Rome  by  sending 
(9  B.c)  four  of  his  sons  as  hostages  to  Augustus— a  convenient 
method  of  obviating  the  danger  threatened  in  their  person, 
without  the  oeceMivy  of  killiog  them.  In  4  b.&,  however, 


Phraates  was  assassinated  by  bis  favourite  wife  Muaa  and  her 
son  Phraates  V.  In  the  subsequent  broils  a  Parthian  factiiMi 
obtained  the  release  of  one  of  the  princes  interned  in  Roac 
as  Vonones  I.  (a4>.  8).  He  failed,  howeveV)  to  maintain  his 
position  for  long.  He  was  a  stranger  to  the  Parthian  customs, 
and  the  feeUng  of  shame  at  dependency  on  the  foreigner  was 
too  strong.  So  the  rival  faction  brought  out  another  Arsadd, 
resident  among  the  Scythian  nomads,  Artabanus  IL,  who 
easily  expelled  Vonone^'-only  to  create  a  host  of  eoemics  hj 
his  brutal  cruelty,  and  to  call  forth  fresh  disorders. 

Sinular  procMdlngs  were  frequently  repeated  in  the  period 
fi^owing.  In  the  intervals  the  Parthians  made  several  attempts 
to  reassert  their  dominion  over  Armenia  and  there 
install  an  Arsadd  prince;  but  on  each  occasion va 
they  retreated  without  pving  battle  so  soon  as  the 
Romans  prepared  for  war.  Only  the  dynasty  of  Atropatene 
was  finally  deposed  and  the  country  placed  under  an  Aisactd 
ruler.  Actual  war  with  Rome  broke  out  under  Vologaeses  L 
(5X~77)»  who  made  his  brother  Tiridates  king  of  Armenia. 
After  protracted  hostilities,  in  idiich  the  Roman  army  was 
commanded  by  Cn.  Domitius  Corbulo,  a  peace  was  conclxided 
in  A.D.  63,  confirming  the  Ronuui  suzerainty  over  Armenia  but 
recognizing  Tiridates  as  king  (see  Corbulo).  Tiridates  himself 
visited  Rome  and  was  there  invested  with  the  diadem  by 
Nero  (a.d.  66).  After  that  Armenia  continued  under  tlie  rule 
of  an  Arsadd  djrnasty. 

These  successes  of  Vologaeses  were  counterbalanced  by 
serious  losses  in  the  East.  He  was  hampered  in  an  energet% 
campaign  against  Rome  b^  attacks  of  the  Dahae  and  Sacae. 
Hyrcania,  idso,  revolted  and  asserted  its  independence  under 
a  separate  line  of  kings.  A  little  later,  the  Alans,  a  great  Iraniao 
tribe  in  the  south  of  Russia — ^the  ancestors  of  the  present-day 
Ossets— broke  for  the  first  time  through  the  Caucasian  pa^es, 
and  ravaged  Media  and  Armenia— an  incursion  which  they  oCtea 
repeated  in  the  following  centuries. 

On  the  other  side,  the  reign  of  Vologaeses  I.  is  characterized 
by  a  great  advance  in  the  Oriental  reaction  ag&inst  Hellenism. 
The  line  of  Arsadds  which  came  to  the  throne  in  the  person  d 
Artabanus  U.  (aj>.  zo)  stands  in  open  oppo^tion  to  the  old 
kings  with  thdr  leanings  to  Rome  and,  at  least  external,  tii^ 
of  Hellenism.  The  new  r6gfme  obviously  laid  much  more  stnss 
on  the  Oriental  character  of  theu:  state,  though  PhUostratosn 
in  his  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana(who  visited  the  Parthian  court), 
states  that  Vardanes  L  (a.d.  40-45),  the  rival  king  to  the  brutal 
Gotarzcs  (a.d.  40-51),  w^  a  cultivated  man  {Vil.  A  p.  i.  93,  38, 
3r  sqq.);  and  Vologaeses  I.  is  distinguished  by  the  excelkct 
relations  which  subsisted  all  his  life  between  himself  and  his 
brothers  Pacorus  and  Tiridates,  the  kings  of  Media  and  Armenia. 
But  the  coins  of  Vologaeses  I.  are  quite  barbarous,  and  for  the 
first  time  on  some  of  them  appear  the  initials  of  the  name  of 
the  king  in  Aramaic  letters  by  the  side  of  the  Grcdk  legend. 
The  Hellenism  of  Seleuda  was  now  attacked  with  greater  deter- 
mination. For  seven  years  (aj>.  37-43)  the  dty  maintained 
itself  in  open  rebellion  (Tac.  Ann.  id.  S  seq.),  till  at  last  it 
surrendered  to  Vardanes,  who  in  consequence  enlarged  Ctesipboa, 
which  was  afterwards  fortified  by  Pacorus  (ajx  7lhxo$: 
V.  Ammian.  33,  6,  93).  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  same  town 
Vologaeses  I.  founded  a  dty  Vologesoccrta  (Baladikert),  to 
which  he  attempted  to  transplant  the  population  to  Sdeoda 
(Plin.  vi.  xsa:  d.  Th.  N6ldekc  in  Zeilsckr.  d.  dtutsek.  nurgoL 
Cesdlsdufl,  xxviii.,  100).  Another  of  his  foundatioitt  was 
Vologcsias  (the  Arabian  Uttaish)^  ntuated  near  Hira  on  the 
Euphrates,  south  of  Babylon,  which  did  appreciable  '^•"^b^  to 
the  commerce  of  Seleuda  and  is  often  mentioned  in  inscrqh 
tions  as  the  destination  of  the  Falmyrene  caravans. 

After  Vologaeses  I.  follows  a  period  of  great  disturbances. 
The  literary  tradition,  indeed,  deserts  us  almost  entirely,  but 
the  coins  and  isolated  literary  references  prove  that  daring  the 
years  aj>.  77  to  147,  two  kings,  and  sometimes  three  <^  more, 
were  often  reigning  concurrently  (Vologaeses  H.  77-79,  and 
xit-147;  Pacorus  78-^.  X05;  Osroes  zo6>i39;  Mithradbtes  V. 
129^x47;  also  Artabanus  III.  80-81  s  Mitbradatca  IV.  and  his 


HISTORY:  ANClfiHI) 


PERSIA 


229 


son  SanatTuces  TI.  115;  and  Parthamaspates  1x6-1x7).  Ob- 
viously the  empire  can  never  have  been  at  peace  during  these 
years,  a  fact  which  materially  assisted  the  aggressive  campaigns 
WMawm  of  Trajan  (ii3-xx7)«  Trajan  resosdtated  the 
n«lM«ptfoM  project  of  Crassus  and  Caesar,  by  which  the 
"•J*?*  empire  of  Alexander  as  far  as  India  was  to  be  won 
Aunikm.  ^^^  Western  civilization.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan 
he  reduced  Armenia,  Mesopotamia  and  Babyloaia  to  the  posi- 
tion of  imperial  provinces.  On  his  death,  however,  Hadrian 
immediately  reverted  to  the  Augustan  policy  and  restored  the 
conquests.  Simultaneously  there  arose  in  the  East  the  powerful 
Indo-Scythian  empire  of  the  Kushana,  which  doubtless  limited 
still  further  the  Piurthian  possessions  iir  eastern  Iran. 

An  era  of  quiet  seems  to  have  returned  with  Vofegaeses  III. 

(147-191),  and  we  hear  no  more  at  rival  kings.  With  the  Roman 

Empire  a  profound  peace  had  reigned  ^oe  Haddan  (117)1 

which  was  first  disturbed  by  the  attack  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and 

Aefius  Verus  in  163.   This  war,  which  broke  out  on  the  question 

of  Armenia  and  Osroenc,  proveid  of  decisive  significance  for  the 

future  development  of  the  East,  for,  in  its  course,  Seleuda  was 

destroyed  by  the  Romans  under  Avidius  Cassius  (264).    The 

downfall  of  the  great  Greek  dty  sealed  the  fate  of  Hellenism 

in  the  countries  east  of  the  Euphrates.    Henceforward  Greek 

culture  practically  vanishes  and  gives  place  to  Aramaic;  it  is 

significant  that  in  future  the  kings  of  Mesene  stamped  their 

coinage  with  Aramaic  legends.     This  Aramaic  victory  Was 

powerfully  aided  by  the  ever-increasing  progress  of  Christianity, 

which  soon  created,  as  is  well  known,  an  Aramaic  literature 

fM§tl»altr'  ^  ^^*^^  ^^  language  was  the  dialect  of  Edessa,  a  dty 

in  which  the  last  king  of  Osroene,  Abgar  IX.  (179- 

S14),  had  been  converted  to  the  faith.    After  that    Greek 

culture  and  Greek  literature  were  only  accessible  to  the  Orientals 

in  an  Aramaic  dress.    Vofegaeses  III.  is  probably  also  the 

king  Valgash,  who,  according  to  a  native  tradition,  preserved 

in  the  Dinkart,  began  a  collection  of  the  sacred  writings  of 

Zoroaster — the  origin  of  the  Avesta  which  has  come  down  to  us. 

This  would  show  how  the  national  Iranian  element  in  the 

Parthian  Empire  was  continually  gathering  strength. 

The  Roman  war  was  closed  in  165  by  a  peace  which  ceded 
north-west  Mesopotamia  to  Rome.  Similar  conflicts  took  place 
in  i95*ao3  between  Vologacses  IV.  (xgx^aoQ)  and  Septimius 
Severus,  and  again  in  a  16-31 7  between  Artabanus  IV.  (209-396) 
and  Caracalla.  They  faOed,  however,  to  affect  materially  the 
position  of  the  two  empires. 

VIII.  Tht  Sassanian  Emptre^—That  the  Arsadd  Empire 
should  have  endured  some  350  years  after  its  foundation  by 
AHaMbirL  Mithradates  I.  and  Phraatcs  II.,  was  a  result,  not 
of  internal  strength,  but  of  chance  working  in  its 
external  development.  It  might  equal^  wcU  have  so  existed 
for  centuries  nuwe.  But  undv  Artabanus  IV.  the  catastrophe 
came.  In  his  days  there  arose  in  Pers{9--prec]8ely  as  Cyrus 
bad  arisen  under  Astyages  the  Mode — a  great  personiUity. 
Ardashir  (Artazerxes)  I.,  son  of  Papak  (Babek),  the  descendant 
of  Sasan,  was  the  sovereign  of  one  of  the  small  states  into  which 
Persis  had  gradually  fallen.  His  father  Papak  had  taken 
possession  of  the  district  of  Istakhr,  which  had  replaced  the  old 
Pcrsepolis,  long  a  mass  of  ruins.  Thence  Ardashir  I.,  who 
reigned  from  about  aj>.  ax 3,  subdued  the  neighbouring  poten- 
tates—disposing of  his  own  brothers  among  the  rest.  This 
proceeding  quick][y  led  to  war  with  his  suzerain  Artabanus  IV, 
The  conflict  was  protracted  through  several  years,  and  the 
Parthians  were  wonted  in  three  battles*  The  but  of  these 
witnessed  the  fall  of  Artabanus  (aj>.  336),  though  a  Parthian 
Ung,  Artavasdes—perhaps  a  son  of  Artabanus  IV— who  is 
only  known  to  us  from  his  own  coins,  appears  to  have  retained 
a  portion  of  the  empire  for  some  time  longer.  The  members 
of  the  Arsadd  line  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  virtor  were  put 
to  death;  a  number  of  the  princes  found  refuge  in  Armenia, 
where  the  Arsscid  dynasty  maintained  itself  till  aj>.  429. 
The  remainder  of  the  vassal  states— Carmania,  Susiana,  Mesene 
•--were  ended  by  Ardashir;  and  the  autonomous  desert  fortress 
Of  HaUa  in  Mesopotamia  was  destroyed  by  his  son  Shapur 


(Sapor)  I.,  according  to  the  Persian  and  Arabian  tnditlbns, 
which,  in  this  point,  are  deserving  of  credence.  The  victorious 
Ardashir  then  took  possessioa  of  the  palace  of  Ctesiphon  and 
assumed  the  title  "  King  of  the  kings  of  the  Iranians  "  {fiaotkth 
fiofftSkop  'ApcowfliO. 

The  new  empire  founded  by  Ardashir  L — the  Sassanian, 
or  Neo-Persian  Empire— is  essentially  different  from  that  of 
his  Arsadd  predecessors.  It  is,  rather,  a  continua-  nutmiam 
tkm  of  the  Achaemenid  traditions  which  were  still  Wm»wMM 
alive  on  their  native  soil.  Consequently  the  national  '*"^ 
impetus-«hready  dearlty  revealed  in  the  title  of  the  new 
sovereign— again  becomes  strikingly  manifest.  Tfae  Qtitifitnifln 
Empire,  in  fact,  is  once  more  a  national  Penian  or  Iranian 
Empire.  The  religious  element  is,  of  course,  inseparable 
from  the  national,  and  Ardashir,  like  all  the  dynasts  of  Persis, 
was  an  ardent  devotee  of  the  Zoroastrian  doctrine,  and  cloaely 
connected  with  the  priesthood.  In  his  royal  style  he  assumed 
the  dcsignatk>n  "Mazdayasnian*'(Ma<r5do'Fai),  and  the  fire- 
cult  was  everywhere  vigorously  disseminated.  Simultaneously 
the  old  chums  to  worid  dominion  made  their  reappearance. 
After  the  defeat  of  Artabanus,  Ardashir,  as  hdr  of  the  Achae- 
menlds,  formulated  his  pretensions  to  the  dominion  of  western 
Asia  (Dio.  Cass.  80, 3;  Herodian  vL  3, 4;  Zonar.  xii.  15;  similarly 
under  Shapur  IL:  Ammian.  Marc  xviL  5,  5).  He  attacked 
Armenia,  though  without  permanent  success  (d.  von  Gotschmid 
in  Zeiischr.  d.  d.  morgenl.  Ga.  xxxi.  47,  on  the  fabulous  Armenian 
account  of  these  wars),  and  despatched  his  armies  against 
Roman  Mesopotamia.  They  strayed  as  far  as  Syria  and 
Cappadoda.  The  inner  decay  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  the 
widespread  tendency  of  its  troops  to  mutiny  and  usurpation, 
favoured  his  enterprise.  Nevertheless,  the  armies  of  Alexander 
Sevens,  supported  by  the  king  of  Armenia,  succeeded  in  repelling 
the  Persians,  though  the  Romans  sustained  severe  losses  (331- 
333).  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  Ardashir  resumed  the  attack; 
while  his  son  Shapur  I.  (241-373)  reduced  Nisibis  and  Carrha« 
and  penetrated  into  Syria,  but  was  defeated  by  supati 
Gordian  III.  at  Resacna  (343).  Soon  afterwards, 
however,  the  Roman  Empire  seemed  to  collapse  utteriy.  The 
Goths  defeated  Dedus  (351)  and  harried  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
and  Asia  MImk',  while  insurrections  broke  out  everywhere  and 
the  legions  created  one  Caesar  after  the  other.  Tben  Shapor 
resumed  the  war,  subdued  Armenia  and  plundered  Antioch* 
The  emperor  Valerian,  who  marched  to  encounter  him,  was 
overthrown  at  Edessa  and  taken  prisoner  (360).  The  Persian 
armies  advanced  into  Cappadoda;  but  here  BaJIista  or  Balista 
(d.  c.  364)  beat  them  back,  and  Odenathus  (Odainath),  prince  of 
Palmyra  (q.v.),  rose  in  their  rear,  defeated  Shapur,  captured 
his  harem,  tind  twice  forced  his  way  to  Ctesiphon  (263-365). 
Shapur  was  in  no  position  to 'repair  the  defeat,  or  even  to  hold 
Armenia;  so  that  the  Sassanid  power  failed  to  pass  the  bounds 
of  the  Arsadd  Empire.  Nevertheless  Shapur  I.,  in  contrast 
to  his  father,  assumed  the  title  "  King  of  the  kings  of  the  Iranians 
and  non-Iranians"  (fi^Mtkih  fiaffiKkaw  *Apuu^  ml  'Aiwptai<ui»; 
skak  an  skak  Iran  «e  Xitiroa),  thus  emphasizing  his  dalm  to 
worid  dominion.  His  successors  retained  the  designation, 
little  as  it  corresponded  to  the  facts,  for  the  single  non-Iranian 
land  governed  by  the  Saasanids  was,  as  under  the  Parthians* 
the  district  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  as  far  as  the  Mesopo* 
tamian  desert^  western  and  northern  Mesopotamia  remained 
Roman* 

The  Sassanid  ruler  is  the  representative  of  th^  "  Kingly  Majesty," 
derived  from  Ormuzd,  which  appears  in  the  Avtsta  as  the  angel 
Kavacm  Hvareno,  "  the  royal  giorVj"  and.  according  to 
Icccnd,  once  beamed  in  the  Iranian  kings,  unattainable  to 
aU  but  those  of  royal  blood.  A  picture,  which  frequently 
fecurs  in  the  rock-rcltefs  of  Araashlr  I.  and  Shapur  I.,  represents 
the  king  and  the  god  Ormuzd  both  on  horseback,  the  latter  in  the 
ad  of  handing  to  his  companion  the  ring  of  sovereienty.  Thus  it 
is  explicable  that  all  the  Sassanids,  as  many  of  the  ArsacidS  before 
them,  includfe  the  designation  of  "  god  "  in  their  formal  style. 
Froro^  this  developed  (as  already  under  the  Arsacids^  that  strict 
principle  of  legitimacy  which  is  still  vigorous  in  Firdoust.  It 
applies,  however,  to  the  whole  royal  house,  predsely  as  in  the 
Ottoman  Emjure  of  to-day.    The  penoa  of  the  individual  riikt 


Jt20 


ii,  on  the  other  lund,  •  mUKr  ol  iadilTeRi 

ftmowd  and  rrpUnd  by  anolher;  bul  no  unirpcr  wKo  wu  not 

of  th«  kiidniaip  bkiDd  can  hope  lo  become  (ht  gFnurne  king. 

Aehaemenidi  ud.  niU  Eunhcr,  lo  Ibe  kiitgi  of  the  kstndsry  period, 
OflicUlly  the  kinE  !■  all-powerful,  uid  hie  wiU,  wbidi  it  ^idcd 
by  Cod  and  bound  up  in  Hit  b«,  unlRlered.  Thug,  eiienully, 
he  h  lUTTOupdn]  by  All  (he  iplendour  of  Bverdcncv:  on  hit  htad 
be  wranaiToai  and  resplendent  etawn.wltli 
piece;  be  it  clothed  in  (nld  wd  Jewell;  n 


PERSIA 

rruJily  be    under  Che 


^roun 


hii  per^  ho  i«  bccoi 


life  and  death  dep»id  on  hia 


bnUiam 
who  apfHooch  fling  tbem- 


tatea  and  inaticuliiv 

neniiU.      hJot    atArig    t „.      .. 

4,  Ihey  wore  forced  to 


to  proma 


i<^.  NeveAele.  It 
and  power  of  the  Acb 
p  the  nobiliiy,,  with 

'hl™^  (ilt>  Tti"  ° 


te  of  aBura  had  aim  pniniled  undee  tlie  later 

Achaoincinda,  aod  had  matenafly  comribulcd  to  the  difintccratioii 
of  the  enpin  and  the  iuimcroua  jnaurrecSion*  of  the  mtripa.  But 
Ibc  oMcr  Achaeoxnidi  held  an  optirely  dilTercni  n»(ioD ;  and 
haTd^  a  linEle  Saisanid  enjoyed  rvm  Itut  degTR  of  Power  which 
m*  niU  retained  by  the  later  Aehaeinnudi.  It  wh  of  liuidafiiental 
hnponanc«  that  the  SoaiBJiiaB  Emjuv  could  not  make  Hod  ila 
CUim  to  w^rfd  dominion :  and,  In  fpite  of  the  title  of  ita  kinga.  it 

Iran.  loctther  with  the  diMricu  on  the  Ticrit  and  Euphmtei. 
Thb  fact,  again,  la  moit  doaely  connected  With  Ita  tntUtary  and 
■dminiatralive  orgaoiiatSon.  The  oacmal  and  internal  cooditione 
of  the  empire  are  in  mutual  reaction  upon  one  another.  The 
empire,  which  in  extent  did  oot  cjccetd  that  of  the  Anacidi  with 
iti  vassil  ttalei,  wai  protected  on  the  east  and  wtft  by  the  trat 
■w,™  *1™"'  o*  ™"™'  '™n  ""l  Me»potimia.  For  the 
JJ^fl^     defence  of  theae,  provioca  the  mounted  aicben.  who 

"*""  atrenElli;   and   though   the  Scythian   noniadi  from   the 

katt.orlhe  Rambus  fram  the  «eit,  Riiehl  occisionaUy  pencttati^ diM^p 
btto  the  couniTV.  they  never  tuneeded  in  maintAininB  their  pDwiton. 

lor  lurtbcr  conqhicftts,  thourh  ita  anny  was  capable  and  animated 
b);  a  far  itronjet  national  Iriling  than  that  of  the  Panhiani.     It 

led   by  thei 


later  period  of  thdr  domir 

lI  and  slrale^a!  tupenon.    A  great 

Ihc  RonianJ.    That  Babylonia  peil^a- 


ftograpliical ._  . 

Empire,  not  to  the  atnnEih  of 

royal  houve — wet«  at  ill  regarded 


under  the  Aihai _    _ 

Vjj^.      the  pTwmls,  crown  officalj 

bcqueatty  find  princei  of  the  blood,  i 

thaM,  Someoflhe«houie» — whoKc-, „ 
ingGuihtaap(f.i.Vi^labpa).tbcprotcriDrot2DrDa$tcr(Mj 
Znlulir,  i.  4.  mmnd.  Cts.  nlli.  ejj  vn).  already  eiislea  um 
the  Anaridi,  ».(.  the  Suren  fSurenas  viJr  npn.  p.  79*)  and  Kai 
{Camcf. Tac.  Am,  »ii.  ii "iq).  who  had  obviouiJy  embraced  1 
eauie  of  tlie  vicloriont  dyna«y  at  the  cnnect  moment  and  50 
tainrdlbdrpodtlon.  The  name  Pahlimn,  morrni'cr.  which  dcnol 

thne  there  ihi>  an  inferior  nobility,  the  Mlrnni  (" '>'llae<^-larfls 
and  the  "knighti"  (<m>l'.  who.  aa  amoni  the  P^itthianE,  ir 
Me  6eM  in  heavy  icilt-imnur.    To  an  even  greater  eneot  Ih 


■  foremost,    precisely   ai 

id  govemo™  (cf,  Procop. 

■ho  then  bear  the  royal  (Itic 
ofwiniheleEenAdeilve' 


1K19T0KV:  AHCIEKr 

rc  wH  Bibdivided  imii  a  boat  of  auD 


lit  through  I 


In  fact  hi 
which  o 


stood  the  an  c 
compeUoT  "" 


a  fairly  orderly  ee 


re  worthy  of  recognii 
■~-i"  -npite,  with  au 

rhliT'iu, upper  iifaj 


d  for  the  nobility.  TW 
iiat  the  Saaoanivi  Eioput 
client  li«al  admiaialratm 
ir   utmost   to   tcpr™   the 


^a^na 


hhicb  the  king  and  people  w 


iked  the  ^nitital  chM^  now 
rr  the  Arsadds.    Ev^^  IvErr 

...  .idr  head  was  the  "T^*" 
Rhagae  (Ra!),  who  waa  re-  ''"—^ 
iDlhsiKwempiR,    "*" 


of  Zornuter. 


IE  priesthood  in  later  £e]-A 


(Cf.iipeciil'ivH,  l>l«r,  "EiDiSu,  d.  Enl*i-k2. 
"  in  the  ZeiUeir. /.  armM.  Phld. 


tan  religion,  u 
T  the  Achaen 
Perdan  god.  w 

It  of  Mithiaa,  wltl 


•  acaloady  worshipped ;  in 
s  auooat  enlitely  haniabcd  by  wt  r^^rkaa 
len.  Colterlchre,"  In  Btr.  4.  l«(*j.  C/uk 
Cappaducia.  North  Syria  and  Che  west  d 
n  gods  were  evci^whcro  adored  side  by 
iics.  It  was  In  (he  third  century  chat  the 
a  mvBteriea  and  a  theoloey  evwrd  fnn 
H  LatiD-apcal-rnf 


thouch 


rd  the  widest  <Muh 

n  dominion;  and  it  _ 

II,  hlpWy  fa 


dfoe 


.      ,  .,  -     .— Cai-Jrt, 

.     .  ily-in-chKf  of  the  emj^rF.     But  in  al 

ilu  the  Pcniu  goda  an  perfectly  tolerant  of  other  native 
;n  dlvinitica;  vigoroirs  h  was  Ihdr  prapagandian.  ie  was  ytl 
(ar  icciovcd  from  an  attack  on  other  crredt.  Thus  ikii 
m  lU-aya  belrs  a  sincrtlie  characlerj  and  the  suprcne 
Zoroaeliian  theory.  Ahuramalda  (i.e.  Zeus  or  Jotnltrl.  is 
yicldi  place  to  hia  aiiendut  deiiio.  who  woili  in  the  wmtd 
ablB  to  lead  tbcbdiwcr,  vho  haa  been  initiated  aiuf  keeps 

in  ita  Iranian  home  and  especially  In  IWs^ 

■„,     ^-^ 

. __  — tvivBiL  undentok^  .., 

jaible  14  the  lailhful  laity  by  ver^si^ 

Jiakct  (Pahlavi).  Here  the  oppoation  between  the 
Ight  and  the  denSons  of  evB-ictwecn  Oimuad  arj 
remained  the  principal  njogma  of  the  creed;  while 
and  ODgela.  however  eaiiihable  their  aid.  wvre  bat 
vants  of  Omuid,  whose  bithnt  maanfenat  ion  oa 
lie  sUn-god  Miinraa.  but  the  holy  fire  guarded  by  ^ 


re  diligently  obaervedi  and  n 


culptur. 


the  Sasunidi.  a>  aisii  in  Armenian  liadlti -,, .. 

hKk  as  a  war-tod.  Here,  again.  Ihc  theology  waa  further  drvrtD|MiL 
and  ao  attempt  made  to  annul  the  old  dualism  by  envisaging  both 

infinite  time  (Zervan),  n  doctrine  which  long  enjoyed  ofKcial  validity 
■nder  the  Sasanids  till,  in  the  nngo  of  Chovoea  I..  '■  the  lect 
of  ZcTVanitai "  w«a  pTonomced  heretical.'  But*  abow  lU,  ibe 
ritual  and  the  doctrine 'of  purity  were  tbhoratcd  and  wrpaiisled 
and  there  wai  evolved  0  complete  and  detailed  system  of  casoisiry. 
dealing  with  all  thlnEi  allowed  and  forbidden,  (hcfomuof  potliiiioa 
and  the  eipialion  for  earh.  Ae-,  which,  in  ita  arid  and  apiriikv 
nanMany  vividly  fteaUa  the  ainiilar  psncriptiana  in  the  l^taievch. 
The  ccniaequcncc*  «l  thn  devtlo^cnt  wne  that  orthodmy  and 

in  previously  thenccforwaTd,  the  great  comma nd- 


".5'l™ 


if  Judnfsm,  i. 


HISTORY:  ANCI£NT) 


PERSIA 


221 


of  the  heathen,  a  movement  which  had  already  had  ao  enei^tic 
representative  in  the  prophet  himself.  Heathenish  cults  and  for« 
bidden  manners  and  customs  are  a  poUutioit  to  the  land  and  a  deep 
in&ult  to  the  true  God.  Therdoa'  the  duty  of  the  believer  is  to 
combat  and  destroy  the  unbeliever  and^  the  heretic.  In  short,  the 
tolerance  of  the  Achaemcnids  and,  the  indifTcrcnce  of  the  Arsacids 
arc  now  replaced  by  intolerance  and  religious  persecution. 

Such  were  the  views  in  which  Ardashir  I.  grew  up,  and  in  their 
energetic  prosecution  he  found  a  ^teot  instrument  tor  the  building 
up  oi  his  empire.  It  has  prevtouslv  been  mentioned  that  Volo- 
gacses  III.  had  already  begun  a  collection  of  the  holy  writings; 
and  the  task  was  resumed  under  Ardashir.  At  his  order  the 
orthodox  doctrines  and  texts  were  compiled  by  the  high  priest 
Jansar;  all  divei^ent  theories  were  prohibited  and  their  adherents 
proscribed.  Thus  arose  the  Avesta%  the  sacred  book  of  the  ParsceSb 
Above  all.  the  sacred  book  of  laws,  the  Vtndtdad,  breathes  through- 
out the  spirit  of  the  Sassanian  period,  in  its  intoferance,  its  casuistry 
de^erating  into  absurdity,  and  its  soulless  monotony.  Sub- 
Bcrtption  to  the  restored  orthodox  doctrine  was  to  the  Iranian  a 
niatter  of  course.  The  schismatics  Ardashir  Imprisoned  for  a  year: 
if,  at  its  expiration,  they  still  refused  to  listen  to  reason,  and  remained 
stiff 'necked,  they  were  executbd.  It  is  even  related  that,  in  his 
seal  for  uniformity  of  creed,  Ardishir  wished  to  extin^ish  the 
holy  fires  in  the  great  cities  of  the  cmpke  and  the  Parthian  vacMl 
states,  with  the  exception  of  that  which  burned  in  the  residence 
of  the  dynasty.  This  plan  he  was  unable  to  execute.  In  Armenia, 
also,  Ardashir  and  Shapur,  during  the  period  of  their  occupation. 
•ought  to  introduee  the  orthodox  reGgion,  destroyed  the  heathen 
images — even  those  of  the  Iranian  gods  which  were  h^re  considered 
heathen. — and  turned  the  shrincf  into  fire-altars  (Gelzcr,  Btr. 
sacks.  Ces.  p.  135,  1895).  Shapur  I.,  who  appears  to  have  had  a 
broader  outlook,  added  to  the  religious  wntings  a  collection  of 
scientific  treatises  on  medicine,  astronomy,  mathematics,  philo- 
sophy, xoQl<^y,  &c..  partly  from  Indian  and  Creek  soureet. 

This  religious  dcvch>pment  was  most  strongly  influeoced  by  the 
fact  that,  meanwhile,  a  powerful  opponent  ol  zoroastrianism  had 
arisen  with  an  equally  zealous  propagandism  and  an 


imChrtmiSm  f<l***'  cxclusivencss  and  intolerance.  More  especially 
MAy*^  in  the  countries  of  the  Ti^s  and  Euphrates,  now  alto- 
^''*  gethcr  AramaiCj  Christianity  had  everywhere  gsuned  a 
firm  footing.*  But  its  missionary  enterprise  stretched  over  the  whole 
of  Iran,  and  even  farther.  The  time  was  come  when,  in  the  western 
and  eastern  worlds  alike,  the  religious  question  was  for  btge  masses 
of  people  the  moat  important  question  in  life,  and  the  diffusion 
of  their  own  creed  and  the  suppression  of  all  others  the  highest 
and  holiest  of  tasks.  The  man  who  thinks  thus  knows  no  com- 
promise, and  so  Zoroastrianism  and  Christianity  confronted  each 
other  as  mortal  enemies.  Still  the  old  idcA  tnat  every  reKglon 
contained  a  portion  <^  the  truth,  and  that  it  was  pos^lc  to  borrow 
something  from  one  and  amalgamate  it  with  another,  had  not  yet 
lost  all  its  power.  From  such  a  conception  ^ose  the  teaching  of 
Mani  or  Manes.  For  Manichaeism  {q.v.)  is  an  attempt  to  weld  the 
doctrine  of  the  Gospel  and  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster 
into  a  uniform  system,  though  naturally  not  without 
an  admixture  of  other  elements,  principally  Babylonian 
and  Gnostic.  Mani,  perhaps  a  Pcr»an  from  Babylonia,  ia  said  to 
have  made  his  first  appearance  as  a  teacher  on  the  coronation 
day  of  Shapur  1.  At  alt  events  he  found  numerous  adherents, 
both  at  court  and  amon^  the  magnates  of  the  eAifnre.  The  king 
even  inclined  to  bim,  till  in  a  great  disputation  the  Magians 
gained  the  predominance.  None  the'  less  Mani  found  means 
to  diffuse  hb  creed  far  and  wide  over  the  whole  empire.  Even 
the  heir  to  the  throne,  Hormizd  I.  (reigned  272-273),  was 
favourably  disposed  to  him:  but  Shapur's  younger  son,  mhram  I. 
C>73-276),  yielded  to  sacerdotal  pressure,  and  Mani  was  executed. 
Alter  that  Mantchaeism  was  persecuted  and  extirpated  in*  Iran. 
Yet  it  maintained  itself  not  merely  in  the  west,  where  its  head 
resided  at  Babylon — propagating  thence  bif  into  the  Roman 
Empire — but  also  in  the  east,  in  Khorasan  arid  beyond  the 
bounda  of  the  Sassanian  dominion.  There  the  seat  of  its  pon- 
tiff was  at  Samarkand;  thence  it  pencliated  into  Central  Asia, 
where,  buried  in  the  desert  aands  which  entomb  the  cities  of 
eastern  Turkestan,  numerous  fragments  of  the  works  of  Mani 
and  his  disciples,  in  the  Persian  language  (Pahlavi)  and  Syrian 
script,  and  in  an  East  Iranian  dialect,  called  Sogdian,  which  was 
used  by  the  Manichaeant  of  Central  Asia,  have  been  discovered 
(K.  MQller,  "  Handschriftenreste  in  Estrangjel^-schrift  aus  Turfan, 
in  Chinesisch-Turkestan,"  in  Abh.  d,  berl,  Almd.,  1904);  among  them 
translations  of  texts  of  the  New  Testament  (K.  MQlksr,  Berichii 
dgr  Bed..  1907,  p..  360  aeq.).  In  these  texts  God  the  Father 
ilk  ideatioed  with  th«  Zervan  of  Zarathnstfiam,  the  devil  with 
Ahriman.  The  further  religioua  devdopment  of  the  Saisanid 
Empire  will  be  touched  upon  later. 

*  For  the  propagation  and  history,  of  the  Christiana  in  theSaaiaaid 
Empire,  cf .  Labourt,  J>  Christianisme  dams  Vempirt  Perse  sovs  la 
dynastie  sassanide  (1904);  Hamack,  Die  Mission  tmd  Ausbrcilunt 
dHu  CkrisUniksMits  in  den  ersten  drei  JakrhknderUn,  i.  Aufl.  (1906}. 
Bd.  II.  p.  lax  seq. :  Chabot,  Synodicon  orinUale  (190a)  (a  colkcti^n  of 
the  acts  of  the  Nestorian  synods  held  under  theruleof  theSoiianida}* 


Like  the  Arsadds  the  kings  resided  in  Ctcaipboo^  wh«e,  out  of 
the  vast  palace  buitt  by  Chosroes  I.,  a  portion  at  least  of  the  great 
ban  is  still  erect.  On  the  ruins  of  Scleucia,  oa  the  .  ..^  ' 
oppoute  bank  of  the  Tigris,  Ardashir  I.  built  the  city  ^rsAUectun 
of  Veh-Ardashir  ("good  ia  Aniashir"),  to  which  the  htec  "<'^*^*- 
kings  added  new  towns,  or  rather  new  quarters.  In  Sustaoa 
Shapur  I.  built  the  great  city  of  Gondev-Shapur.  which  succeeded 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Persian  Empire.  At  the  same  time  the 
mothcncountrv  again  gained  importance;  especially  the  capital 
of  Penas,  Istakhr,  which  had  repuced  the  former  PerKpolu  (now 
the  ruins  of  Haju-abad).  Farther  in  the  south-east,  Ardashir  I. 
built  Gur  (now  Firuzabadi,  under  the  name  of  Ardashir-khurre 
<**  the  glory  of  Ardashir  ").  At  these  places  and  in  Sarwi&tan. 
near  Shtraz  and  elsewhere,  lie  ruins  of  the  Saasanid  palaces,  which 
in  their  design  go  back  to  the  Achaentcnid  architecture,  fafendiag 
with  it,  however.  Graeco-Syrian  elements  and  serving  in  their  turn 
as  models  for  the  structures  of  the  Caliphs  (sec  Architecture: 
§  Sassanian).  After  its  long  quiescence  under  the  Arsacids  native 
art  underwent  a  jiencral  renaissance,  which;  though  not  aspiring 
to  the  Achaonemaa  creations,  was  still  of  no  sbmU  impoitaMice. 
Of  the  Sassanian  rock-sculptures  some  have  already  been  mentioocd : 
besides  ihese,  numerous  engraved  signct-stooes  have  been  preserved. 
The  metal-work,  carpets  and  fabrics  of  this  period  enjoyed  a  hig)i 
repuution;  they  wene  widely  distributed  and  even  influenced 
western  art. 

In,  the  intellectual  life  and  literature  of  the  Sassanid  era  the 
main  characteristic  is  the  complete  disappearance  of  Hellenism  and 
the  Greek  language.  Ardashir  I.  and  Shapur  I.  still  .^^ 
appended  Greek  trandations  to  some  of  their  inscrip-  *•■»«■«'»• 
tions;  but  all  of  later  date  are  drawn  up  in  Pahlavi  alone.  The 
coins  invTiriably  bear  a  Pahlavi  legend^^n  the  obverse  the  king's 
head  with  his  name  and  title;  on  tne  reverse,  a  fiie-altar  (general^ 
with  the  ascription  "  fire  of  Ardashir,  ^apur,  &c.,"  t.«.  the  fire  ol 
the  ro^l  palace),  and  the  name  of  the  place  of  coinage.  usuaV^ 
abbreviated.  The  real  roissionarica  of  culture  in  the  empire  were 
the  Aramaeans  (Syrians),  who  were  connected  with  the  West  by  thdi 
Christianity,  and  in  their  translations  diffused  Creek,  literature 
through  the  Orient.  But  there  also  developed  a  rather  extensive 
Pahlavi  literature,  not  limited  to  religious  subiccts,  but  containing 
works  in  belies  ieUres,  modernizations  of  the  old  Iranian  sagas  and 
native  traditions,  c.|.  the  surviving  fabukius  history  ol  Ardashir  1.. 
ethical  tales,  &c.,  with  translations  of  foreign  literature,  principally 
Indian.— one  instance  being  the  celebrated  book  of  talcs  Kaliiak 
and  Dimnah  (see  Svriac  Litbraturb).  dating  from  Chosroes  1.. 
in  whose  reign  chess  also  was  introduced  from  India. 

AtiTHORiTiss.~Side  by  side  with  the  accounts  of  Roman  and 
Greek  authors  stands  the  indigenous  tradition  which,  especially 
for  the  later  yeara  of  the  emi»re,  is  generally  trustwortny.  It 
goes  back  to  a  native  work,  the  Kkndat  nanus  ('*  book  of  lordl  *'). 
compiled  under  Chosroes  I.  and  continued  to  Yaadetcrd  III.  Its 
narrations  are  principal^  preserved  in  Tabari,  though  t^cro. com- 
bined with  numerous  Arabian  traditions;  also  in  the  poetical 
ada|)tation  of  Firdousi.  To  these  may  be  added  Syrian  accounts, 
particularly  in  the  martyrologies,  wnich  hove  bc^n  excellently 
treated  by  G.  Hoffmann,  Auszuit  aus  syHseken  Aklen  persiscker 
Mirtyrer  (iSflo);  also  the  statements  of  the  Armenian  historians. 

The  fundamental  work  on  Sassanian  history  is  Theodpr  Ndldeke's 
Geseh.  der  Perser  u,  Araber  tur  Zeii der  Sassantden,  aus  der  arabiscken 
Cbnnik  des  Tabari  (1879,  trans,  with  notes  and  excursuses  chiefly 
on  the  chronology  and  organization  of  the  empire).  On  this  n 
based  N6ldeke's  At^sStat  tatr  pert,  Gesch,  (1887 ;  containing  a  history 


of  the  Sassanian  Empire,  pp.  86  sqq.).  The  only  other  works  rc^ 
quiring  mention  are:  G.  Rawlinson.  Tke  Seventh  Great  Oriental 
M&nateh^  ('^7^}>  ^"^  ^-  Justi's  sketch  in  the  Grundriss  det  itanisehen 
PkilttctUt  vol.  ii.  (1904).  For  the  geography  and  numerous  details  of 
administration;  J<  Marquart,  "  Ecanj^hr"  (Abk,  d.  fdltinfu  Get.  d. 
WisseHsck,f  190 1).  For  the  numismatology  the  w«ics  of  A.  D. 
Mordtmann  are  of  prime  importance,  especially  his  articles  in  the 
Zeitstkr.  d,  d.  ntorienl.  Ces.  (1879),  xxxiit.  113  sc^q.  a.nd  xxxiv. 
I  sqq.  <l88o),  where  the  inscriptions  of  the  individual  kings  are 
also  enunKreted.  Also  N6kleke,  ibid.  xxxL  147  sqq.  (i8r^).  For 
facsimiles  of  coins  the  principal  work  is  J.  de  Bartholomaci,  CoUection 
de  monnaies  sassanides  fand  ed.,  St  Petersburg,  X875).  ^For  the 
inscriptions:  Edward  Thomas,  "  Early  Sassanian  Inscriptions," 
Javn.  R.  A.  Soe.  vol.  il.  (1868);  West,  ''Pahlavi  Literature^'  in  the 
Grundriss  d,  iran»  PkUU.  voL  ii.  For  the  monuments:  Flandia  and 
Coste,  Vb>aM  est  P«rM-(i85i):  Stolae^  Persepolis  (1882):  Fr.  Sarre, 
Iran,  Felsreitefs  a,  d.  Z.  der  Achaementden  und  Sassaniden  (1908). 

In  foreign  policy  the  problems  under  the  Sassaaid  kingft' 

*  List  of  kings  (after  Noldeke,  Tabari,  p.  435}. 
Ardashir  L.  336-241.  Ardashir  II.,  379-383. 

Shapur  I..  a41'^73<     •  Shapur  III..  383*388. 


Hormizd  I.,  273-373. 
Bahram  L«  373-476.' 
Bahram  IL,  a76*-393. 
Bahram  III.,  393,       1 
NarKh  (tfarses).  293-ioa. 
Hormizd  IL,  302-^3 lo. 
Shapur  IL,  310*^79. 


Bahram  rV»,  388-399. 
Yaxdegerd  L,  999^420. 
Bahram  V..  Gor.  a30-4S8L 
Yazdegerd  IL,  438-457''"' 
Horatad  1  liw  457*^59-      ^ 
Perot.  457-484. 
Bnlaab.  484-4(18. 


222 


PERSIA 


tHtSTORY:  ANCIENT 


remained  as  of  old,  the  defence  and,  when  posnble,  the  expansion 
of  the  eastern  and  western  frontiers.  In  the  first  two  centuries 
tnuary  ^^  ^^  Sassanid  Empire  we  hear  practically  nothing 
•itha  of  its  relations  with  the  East.  Only  occasional 
notices  show  that  the  inroads  of  the  Oriental  nomads 
had  not  ceased,  and  that  the  extent  of  the  empire 
bad  by  no  means  exceeded  the  bounds  of  the  Parthian  dominion 
— Sacastene  (Seistan)  and  western  Afghanistan.  Far  to  the  east, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Indus,  the  Koshana  Empire  was  still  in  exis- 
tence, though  it  was  already  hastening  to  decay,  and  about 
AJ>.  320  was  displaced  from  its  position  in  India  by  the  Gupta 
dynasty.  In  the  west  the  old  conflict  for  Osroene  and  northern 
Mesopotamia  (now  Roman  provinces),  with  the  fortresses  of 
Edessa,  Carrhae  and  Nisibis,  still  smouldered.  Armenia  the 
Saasanids  were  all  the  more  eager  to  regain,  since  there  the 
Arsadd  dynasty  still  survived  and  tunwd  for  protection  to 
Rome,  with  whom,  in  consequence,  new  wars  perpetually  broke 
out.  In  the  reign  of  Bahram  II.  (276-393),  the  emperor  Carus, 
burning  to  avenge  the  disaster  of  Valerian,  penetrated  into 
Mesopotamia  without  meeting  opposition,  and  reduced  Coche 
(near  Seleucia)  and  Ctesiphon;  but  his  sudden  death,  in 
December  of  283,  precluded  further  success,  and  the  Roman  army 
returned  home.  Bahram,  however,  was  unable  to  effect  any- 
thing, as  his  brother  Hormizd  was  in  arms,  supported  by  the 
Sacae  and  other  tribes.  (Mamertin,  Panegyr.  Maximin.  7.  to; 
CenetU.  Maximin.  5,  17.)  He  chose,  consequently,  to  buy 
peace  with  Diocletian  by  means  of  presents.  Some  years  later 
his  uncle  and  successor,  Narsca,  after  subduing  his  rival  Bahram 
III.,  occupied  Armenia  and  defeated  the  emperor  Galerius 
at  Callinicum  (296).  But  in  the  following  year  he  sustained  a 
severe  reverse  in  Armenia,  in  which  he  lost  his  war-chest  and 
harem.  He  then  concluded  a  peace,  by  the  terms  of  which 
Armenia  remained  under  Roman  suzerainty,  and  the  steppes 
of  northern  Mesopotamia,  with  Singara  and  the  hill-country 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris  as  far  as  Gordyene,  were  ceded 
to  the  victor  (Ammian.  Marc.  xxv.  7,  %  Petr.  Patr.  Jr.  13,  14; 
Rttfus  hrtt.  35).  In  return  Narses  regained  his  household. 
This  peace,  ratified  in  297  and  completely  expelling  the  Saasanids 
from  the  disputed  districts,  lasted  for  forty  years. 

For  the  rest,  practically  Jiothing  is  known  of  the  history 
«f  the  first  six  successors  of  Shapur  I.  After  the  death  ci 
Hormiid  11.  (302-310),  the  son  of  Narses,  the  magnates 
imprisoned  or  put  to  death  his  adult  sons,  one  of  wlnom, 
Hormisdas,  later  escaped  to  the  Romans,  who  used  him  as  a 
pretender  in  their  wars.  Shapur  II.,  a  posthumous  child  of  the 
late  king,  was  then  raised  to  the  throne,  a  proof  that  the  great 
magnates  held  the  sovereignty  in  their  own  hands  and  attempted 
to  order  matters  at  their  own  pleasure.  Shapur,  however, 
whea  he  came  to  manhood  proved  himself  an  independent  and 
energetic  ruler. 

Meanwhile  the  Roman  Empire  had  become  Christian,  the 
fequd  of  which  was  that  the  Syro-Christian  population  of 
Sifgpgrn,  I^CMpotamia  and  Babyloniar-even  more  than  the 
--*  Hellenic  cities  in  former  times— gravitated  to  the 
west  and  looked  to  Rome  for  deliverance  from  the 
infidel  yoke.  On  similar  grounds  Christianity,  as 
opposed  to  the  Mazdaism  enforced  officially  by  the  Sassanids, 
became  predominant  in  Armenia.  Between  these  two  great 
creeds  the  old  Armenian  religion  was  unable  to  hold  its  own; 
as  early  as  a.d.  294  King  Tiridates  was  converted  by  Gregory 
the  Illuminator  and  adopted  the  Christian  faith.  For  this  very 
reason  the  Sassanid  Empire  was  the  more  constrained  to  champion 
Zoroastrianism.  It  was  under  Shapur  II.  that  the  compilation 
of  the  ilMite  was  completed  and  the  state  orthodoxy  perfected 
by  the  chief  mobedf  Aturpad.   All  heresy  was  proscribed  by  the 

Kavadh  I.,  4B8-S3I-  (Bahram  VI.,  Cokin,  Btstam  590- 

(Djamasp,  496-498).  596.) 

Ghowoes  (Khovau)  I.,  AniuUiv  Kavadh  II.,  Skeroe,  628. 

van,  53« -57^  Ardaihir  III.,  638^30. 

Hprmiid  IV:.  S79-S90-  (Shahrbanu,  630.) 

Chovoca  II.,  Pofws,  9i»^%,  (Bonn  and  othen,  630-633.) 

-.         _   ,  .       . .        .  Vazdegerd  III.,  631-651.- 
Oa  most  of  these  kings  there  are  separate  articles. 


•tth9 


state,  defection  from  the  true  faith  pronounced  a  capital  crime, 
and  the  persecution  of  the  heterodox— particularly  the  Chiia- 
tians— began  (cf.  Sachall,  "  Die  rechilichen  Verh&ltnisse  der 
Christen  in  Sassanidenreich,"  in  Mitleilungen  da  Semincrs 
far  orieHialiicJu  Spracktn  Jiur  Berlin,  Bd.  X.,  Abt.  2,  2907). 
Thus  the  duel  between  the  two  great  empires  now  becomes 
simultaneously  a  duel  between  the  two  religions. 

In  such  a  position  of  affairs  a  fresh  war  with  Rome  was  inevit- 
able.^ It  was  begun  by  Shapur  in  A.o.  337,  the  year  that  i^v 
the  death  of  Constantlne  the  GreaL  The  conAict  centred  round 
the  Mesopotamian  fortresses;  Shapur  thrice  besieged  Nisibis 
without  success,  but  reduced  several  others,  as  Amida 
(359)  and  Singara  (360),  and  transplanted  great  masses  of 
inhabitants  into  Susiana.  The  emperor  Constantius  conducted 
the  war  fed[)ly  and  was  consistently  beaten  in  the  field.  But, 
in  spite  of  all,  Shapur  found  it  impossible  to  penetrate  deeper 
into  the  Roman  territory.  He  was  hampered  by  the  atuck 
of  nomadic  tribes  in  the  east,  among  whom  the  Chionites  now 
begin  to  be  mentioned.  Year  after  year  he  took  the  field  against 
them  (353-358),  till  finally  he  compelled  them  to  support  him 
^-ith  auxUiaries  (Ammian.  Mah:.  14,  3;  x6,  9;  17,  5;  18,  4,  6). 
With  this  war  is  evidently  connected  the  foundation  of  the 
great  town  New-Shapur  (Nishapur)  in  Khorasan. 

By  the  resolution  of  JuKan  (363)  to  begin  an  energetic  attack 
on  the  Persian  Empire,  the  conflict,  after  the  lapse  of  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  assumed  a  new  phase.  Julian  pressed  forward 
to  Ctesiphon  but  succumbed  to  a  wound; and  his  successor  Jovian 
soon  found  himself  in  such  straits,  that  he  could  only  extricate 
himself  and  his  army  by  a  disgraceful  peace  at  the  close  of  363^ 
which  ceded  the  possessions  on  the  Tigris  and  the  great  fortress 
of  Nisibis,  and  pledged  Rome  to  abandon  Armenia  and  her 
Arsadd  prot£g6,  Arsaccs  III.,  to  the  Persian. 

Shapur  endeavoured  to  occupy  Armenia  and  introduce  the 
2^roastrian  orthodoxy.    He  captured  Arsaccs  IIL  by  treachery 
and  compelled  him  to  commit  suicide;  but  the  Armenian 
magnates  proved  refractory,  placed  Arsaces'  son  Pap  <Mn  the 
throne,  and  found  secret  support  among  the  Romans.    Tlih 
all  but  led  to  a  new  war;  but  in  374  Volens  saaificcd  Pap  and 
had  him  killed  in  Tarsus.    The  subsequent  invasions  of  the 
Goths,  in  battle  with  whom  Valens  fell  at  Adrianopk  (375), 
definitely  precluded  Roman  intervention;  and  the  end  of  the 
Armenian  troubles  was  that  {c.  390)  Bahram  IV.  and  Theodoslus 
the  Great  concluded  a  treaty  which  abandoned  the  extreme 
west  of  Armenia  to  the  Romans  and  confirmed  the  remainder  in 
the  Persian  possession.    Thus  peace  and  friendship  could  at 
last  exist  with  Rome;  and  in  408  Yazdcgcrd  I.  contracted  an 
alliance  with  Theodosius  II.  In  Armenia  the  Persians 
immediately  removed  the  last  kings  of  the  house  of  /USS!, 
Arsaces  (430),  and  thenceforward  the  main  portion 
of  the  country  remained  a  Persian  province  under  the  control 
of  a  matxbati,  though  the  Armenian  nobles  still  made  repeated 
attempts  at  insurrection.    The  introduction  of  Zoroastrianism 
was  abandoned;  Christianity  was  already  far  too  deeply  rooted. 
But  the  sequel  to  the  Roman  sacrifice  of  Armenian  interests  was 
that  the  Armenian  Christians  now  seceded  from  the  orthodoxy 
of  Rome  and  Constantinople,  and  organized  themselves  into 
an  independent  national  church.    This  church  was  due,  before 
all,  to  the  efforts  of  the  Catholicos  Sahak  (390-439),  whose 
colleague  Mesrob,  by  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  laid  the 
foundations  of  an  Armenian  literature  (see  Aucsnian  Chukcb). 

In  the  interior  of  the  Sassanian  Empire  the  cM  troubles  broke 
out  anew  on  the  death  of  Shapur  II.  (379).  At  first  the  magnates 
raised  his  aged  brother  Ardashir  n.  to  the  throne,  then  in  38J 
deposed  him  and  enthroned  Shapur's  soa  as 
Shapur  III.  In  388,  however,  he  was  assassinated,  YwaHgu^t 
as  was  also  his  brother,  Bahram  IV.,  in  399.  But  the 
son  of  the  latter,  Yazdegerd  I.  (399-4^0),  was  an  energetic  and 
intelligent  sovereign,  who  hdd  the  magnates  within  bounds 
and  severely  chastised  their  attempts  at  encroachment.  He 
even  sought  to  emancipate  himself  from  the  Magian  Church, 

*  For  the  •Bcceedingevents  see  also  under  ROMB :  Ancieut  RUtory; 
and  articles  on  the  Roman  emperors  and  Persian  kings. 


msrony .-  Miasmi 


PERSIA. 


323 


pat  an  end  to  the  penectttioiit,  andldlowed  the  Penaan  Christians 
an  individual  organisation.  In  the  Persian  tradition  he  is 
consequently  known  as  "  the  unner."  In  the  end  he  was 
probably  assassinated.  So  great  was  the  bitterness  against 
him  that  the  magnates  would  admit  none  of  his  sons  to  the 
throne.  One  of  them,  however,  Bahram  V.,  found  an  auxiliary  in 
the  Arab  chief  Mondhir,  who  had  founded  a  principality  in  Hira, 
BMkimmV  ^"^^^  ^^  ^^^  lower  Euphrates}  and,  as  he  pledged  him> 
0^        ^sclf  to  govern  otherwise  than  his  father,  he  received 

general  recognition.  This  pledge  he  redeemed,  and 
he  iB»  in  consequence,  the  dariing  of  Persian  tnuUtien,  which 
bestows  on  him  the  title  of  G«r  ("  the  wild  ass  "),  and  is  eloqwnt 
on  his  adventures  in  the  chase  and  in  love.  This  ferersal  of 
policy  led  to  a  Christian  pecsecntiota  and  a  new  war  with  Rome. 
Bahram,  however,  was  worsted;  and  in  the  peace  of  499  Persia 
agreed  to  allow  the  Chrirtians  free  exercise  of  their  religion  in 
the  empire,  while  the  same  privilege  was  accorded  to  Zoroastrian- 
ism  by  Rome.  Under  his  son,  Yaodegerd  II.  (438~4S7)i  who  once 
more  revived  the  persecutions  of  the  Christfans  and  the  Jews, 
a  short  conflict  with  Rome  again  ensued  (441):  while  at  the  same 
time  war  prevailed  in  the  east  against  the  remnants  of  the 
Kushan  Em|Nre  and  the  tribe  of  Kidarites,  also  named  Huns. 

Here  a  new  foe  soon  arose  in  the  shape  of  the  Ephthalites 
{HaUab),  also  known  as  the  '*  Wliite  Huns,"  a  barbaric  tribe 
TbcBphthM-  which  shortly  after  a.o.  450  raided  Bactria  and  ter- 
ateMor  minated  the  Kushana  dominion  (Prooop.  Pers.  i.  3). 
WbU0Umm9,  Tiiese  Epbthalite  attacks  harassed  and  weakened 
the  Sassanids,  exactly  as  the  Tochariana  had  harassed  and 
weakened  the  Arsacids  after  Phraates  II.  Peios  (457''484)  fell 
in  battle  against  them;  his  treasures  and  family  were  captured 
and  the  country  devastated  far  and  near.  His  brother  Balash 
(484-488),  being  unable  to  repel  them,  was  deposed  and  blinded, 
and  the  crown  was  bestowed  on  Kavadh  I.  (48^531)*  the  son 
of  Peroz.  As  the  external  and  internal  distress  still  contmued 
he  was  dethroned  and  imprisoned,  but  took  refuge  among  the 
Ephthalites  and  was  restored  in  499  by  their  assistance — like 
KmvadhL    "^  °u^ny  Arsacids  by  the  arms  of  the  Dahae  and 

Sacae.  To  these  struggles  obviously  must  be 
attributed  mainly  the  fact  that  in  the  whole  of  this  period  no 
Roman  war  broke  out.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  religious 
dud  had  lost  in  intensity,  since,  among  the  Persian  Christians, 
the  Nestorian  doctrine  was  now  dominant.  Peroa  had  already 
favoured  the  diffusion  of  Nestorianfsm,  and  in  483  it  was  officially 
adopted  by  a  synod,  after  which  it  remained  the  Christian 
Church  of  the  Persian  Empire,  Its  head  being  the  patriarch  of 
Selcucia— Ctesiphon. 

Kavadh  proved  himself  a  vigorous  ruler.  On  his  return 
he  restored  order  in  the  interior.     In  502  he  attacked  the 

Romans  and  captured  and  destroyed  Amida  (mod. 
uHsIa^^^^^^^*  but  was  compelled  to  ratify  a  peace 

owing  to  an  inroad  of  the  Huns.  Toward  the  close 
of  his  feign  (527)  be  resumed  the  war,  defeating  Belisarius  at 
Callinicum  (531),  with  the  xealoos  soppwt  of  the  wild  Arab 
hi ondhir  II.  of  Hlra.  On  his  death  his  son  Chosroes  I.  concluded 
a  peace  with  Justinian  (532),  pledging  the  Romans  to  an  annual 
subsidy  fm*  the  maintenance  of  the  Caucasus  fortresses.  In 
his  home  policy  Kavndh  is  reminiscent  of  Yazdegerd  I.  l.ike 
him  he  had  little  inclination  to  the  orthodox  church,  and  favoured 
Mazdak,  the  founder  of  a  communistic  sect  which  had  mkdc 
headway  among  the  people  and  might  be  used  as  a  weapon 
against  the  nobles,  of  whom  Maxdak  demanded  that  they  should 
cut  down  their  luxury  and  distribute  their  superfluous  wealth. 
Another  feature  of  his  programme  was  the  community  of  wives. 
The  crown-prince,  Chosroes,  was,  on  the  other  hand,  wholly 
orthodox;  and,  towards  the  close  of  his  father's  reign,  in  con- 
junction with  the  chief  Magian,  he  carried  through  a  sacrifice 
of  the  Maxdakites,  who  were  butchered  in  a  great  massacre 
(528),  Chosroes  I.  (531-579),'  surnamed  .^nushirvan  ("  the 
blessed  "),  then  restored  the  orthodox  doctrine  in 
XamjSvjiA.  ^^^^^  publishing  his  decision  in  a  re1igk>us  edict. 
At  the  same  lime  he  produced  the  official  exposition 
of.  the  AvesUi,  an  cxegetical  translation  in  the  popular  tongue 


(Pahlavi),  and  dcdaied  its  oonfenta  Wnding.  Defectkm  from 
Zoroastrianism  was  puniahed  with  death,  and  therefore  also 
the  proselytising  of  the  Christians,  though  the  Syrian  martyr- 
ologies  prove  that  the  kings  frequently  ignored  these  proceedinp 
so  long  as  it  waa  at  all  possible  to  do  So. 

Chosroes  I.  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious  sovereigns  of  the 
Sassanian  Empire.  From  him  dates  a  new  and  equitable  adjuat- 
mcnt  of  the  imperial  taxation^  which  was  later  adopted  by  the 
AcabSb  His  reputation  as  an  enlightened  ruler  stood  so  high 
that  when  JusUnian,  In  599,  dosed  the  sdwol  of  Athens,  the 
hut  Neeplatonists  bent  their  steps  to  him  in  hopes  of  finding  m 
him  the  true  phih)8oplwr*king.  Their  disilluswninent,  indeed, 
was  speedy  and  compietey  and  thrir  gratitude  was  great,  when, 
by  the  conditions  of  the  armistice  of  549,  he  allowed  their  return. 
From  540  onward  he  conducted  a  great  war  against  Justinian 
(597-565),  which,  though  Interrupted  by  severd  armistices, 
lasted  tiU  the  fifty  years'  peace  of  569.  The  net  result,  indeed, 
was  merdy  to  restore  the  staius  ^uo;  but  during  the  campaign 
Chosroes  Mcked  Antioch  and  txaaqilanted  the  population  to 
a  new  quarter  of  Ctesiphon  (540).  He  also  extended  his  power 
to  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caucasus;  on  the  other  hand,  a  siege  of 
Edessa  failed  (544).  A  second  war  broke  out  in  577,  chiefly 
on  the  question  of  ArmeniaL  and  the  Caucasus  territory.  In 
this  Chosroes  ravaged  Cappadoda  in  575;  but  the  campaign  in 
Mesopotamia  was  unsuccessful.  In  the  interval  between  these 
two  struggles  (570)  he  despatdied  assistance  to  the  Arabs  «rf 
Yemen,  who  had  been  assailed  and  subdued  by  the  Abyssinian 
Christhins;  after  which  period  Yemen  remained  nominally  under 
Persian  suzerainty  till  its  fate  was  sealed  by  the  conquests  of 
Mahomet  and  Islam. 

Meanwhile,  about  ajx  560,  a  new  nation  had  sprung  up  in 
the  East,  the  Turks.    Chosroes  condtided  an  alliance  wHh 
them  against  the  Ephthalites  and  so  conquered 
Bactria  south  of  the  Oxus,  with  its  capital  Balkh.  ^H^^JiS^i 
Thus  this  province,  which,  since  the  insurrection  owTariA 
of  Diodotus  in  950  b.c.,  had  undergone  entirely  SaBammU 
different  vidsutudes  from  the  rest  of  Iran,  was  ^SSSm^^ 
once  more  united  to  an  Iranian  Empire,  and  the 
Sassenid  dominions,  for  the  first  time,  passed  the  fnmtiers  of 
the  Arsadds.    This,  however,  was  the  limit  of  their  expansion. 
Ndther  the  territories  north  of  the  Oxus,  nor  eastern  Afghanistan 
and  the  Indus  provinces,  were  ever  subject  to  them.    That  the 
alliance  with  the  Turks  should  soon  change  to  hostility  and 
mutual  attack  was  inevitable  from  the  nature  of  the  case;  in  the 
se(»nd  Roman  war  the  Turkish  Khan  was  leagued  with  Rome. 

Chosroes  bequeathed  this  war  to  his  son  Hormizd  IV.  (57^ 
590),  who,  in  ^ite  of  repeated  negotiations,  failed  to  re-establish 
peace.  Hormiad  had  not  the  ability  to  retain  the  authority 
of  his  father,  and  he  further  affronted  the  Magian  priesthood 
by  declining  to  proceed  against  the  Christluu  and  by  requiring 
that,  in  his  empire,  both  religions  should  dwell  together  in 
peace.  Eventually  he  succumbed  to  a  con^iracy  of  hli 
magnates,  at  whose  bead  stood  the  general  Bahram  Cobin, 
who  had  defeated  the  Turks,  but  afterwards  was  beaten 
by  the  Romans.  Hormizd*s  son,  Chosroes  II.,  was  set 
up  against  his  father  and  forced  to  acquiesce  in  his  execu- 
tion.  But  immediately  new  risings  broke  out,  in  which 
Bahram  Cobln — though  not  of  the  royal  line— attempted  to 
secure  the  crown,  while  simultaneously  a  Prince  chwanua, 
Bistam  entered  the  lists.  Chosroes  fled  to  the 
Romans  and  the  emperor  Maurice  undertook  his  restoration  at 
thd  head  of  a  great  army.  The  people  flocked  to  Hb  standard; 
Bahram  Cbbin  was  routed  (591)  and  fled  to  the  Turks,  who  slew 
him,  and  Chosroei  once  more  ascended  the  throne  of  Ctesiphon; 
Bistam  held  out  in  Media  till  596.  Xiaurice  made  no  attempt 
to  turn  the  opportunity  to  Roman  advantage,  and  in  the  peace 
then  concluded  he  even  abandoned  Nisibis  to  the  Persians, 

Chosroes  II.  (590-^28)  is  distinguished  by  the  surname  of 
Parva  ("  the  conqueror  "),  though,  in  point  of  fact,  he  was 
immeasurably  inferior  to  a  powcriul  sovereign  like  his  grand- 
father,  or  even  to  a  competent  general.  He  lived,  however,  to 
witness  unpardUeled  vicissitudes  of  fortune.   The  assassinatloa 


224 


PERSIA 


fTRANSmON  PERIOD 


of  Haurioe  tn  601  Impelled  him  to  a  wir  of  rsvenge  against 
Rome,  ia  the  course  of  which  his  armiefr-in  608  and,  again,  in 
6z  5  and  6a6 — penetrated  as  far  as  Chalcedoa  opposite  Constanti- 
nople, ravaged  Syria,  reduced  Antioch  (6ti),  Damascus  (^13), 
and  Jerusalem  (614),  and  carried  off  the  holy  cross  to  Ctesiphon; 
in  619  Egypt  was  occupied.  Meanwhile,  the  Roman  Empire 
was  at  the  lowest  ebb.  The  great  emperor  Hefaclius,  who 
assumed  the  crown  in  6x0,  took  years  to  crpate  the  nucleus 
■of  a  new  military  power.  This  done,  however,  he  took  the  6eld 
in  623,  and  repaid  the  Persians  with  interest.  Their  armies 
were  ever3rwbere  defeated.  In  624  he  penetrated  into  Atropa- 
tene  (Azerbaijan),  and  there  destrojred  the  great  fire-temple; 
in  627  he  advanced  into  the  Tigris  provinces.  Cbosroes  at- 
tempted no  resistance,  but  fled  from  his  residence  at  Dastagerd 
to  CtesQ>hon.  These  proceedings,  in  conjunction  with  the  avarice 
and  licence  of  the  king,  led  to  revolution.  Cbosroes  was  deposed 
and  slain  by  his  son  Kavadh  II.  (628);  but  the  parricide  died 
in  a  few  months  and  absolute. chaos  resulted.  A  whole  list  of 
kings  and  pretenders — among  them  the  General  Shahrbaraz 
and  Boran,  a  daughter  of  Chosroes— followed  rapidly  on  one 
another,  till  finally  the  magnates  united  and,  in  632,  elevated 
a  child  to  the  throne,  Yazdegerd  III.,  grandson  of  Chosroes.  In 
the  interval— presumably  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Bomn — 
peace  was  concluded  with  HeracHus,  the  old  frontier  being 
apparently  restored.  The  cross  had  already  been  given  back 
to  the  emperor. 

Thus  the  hundred  years*  struggle  between  Rome  and  Persia, 
which  had  be^un  in  527  with  the  attack  of  the  first  Kavadh 
Th  A  h  ^"^  Justinian,  had  run  its  fruitless  course,  utterly 
CeaqunL  enfeebling  both  empires  and  consuming  their  powers. 
So  it  was  that  room  was  given  to  a  new  enemy  who 
now  arose  between  either  state  and  either  religion — the  Arabs 
and  Islam.  In  the  same  year  that  saw  the  coronation 
of  Vazdcgerd  III. — the  begimilng  of  633 — the  first  Arab 
squadrons  made  their  entry  into  Persian  territory.  After 
several  encounters  there  ensued  (637)  the  battle  of  Kadisiya 
(Qadisiya,  Cadesia),  Sought  on  one  of  the  Euphrates  canals, 
where  the  fate  of  the  Sassanian  Empire  was  decided.  A  little 
previously,  in  the  August  of  636,  Syria  had  fallen  in  a  battle 
on  the  Yarmuk  (Hieromax),  and  in  639  the  Arabs  penetrated 
into  Egypt.  The  field  of  Kadisiya  laid  Ctesiphon,  with  all  its 
treasures,  at  the  mercy  of  the  victor.  The  king  fled  to  Media, 
.where  hb  generals  attempted  to  organize  the  resistance;  but 
the battleof Nehavend (? 64i)decided raattersthere.  Yazdegerd 
sought  refuge  in  one  province  after  the  other,  till,  at  last,  in 
651,  he'Mras  assassinated  in  Merv  (see  Caui^hate:  §  A,  §  i). 
I  Thus  ended  the  empire  of  the  Sassanids,  no  less  precipitately 
and  ingloriously  than  that  of  the  Achaemenids.  By  650  the 
Arabs  had  occupied  every  province  to  Balkh  and  the  Oxus. 
Only  in  tkae  secluded  districts  of  northern  Media  (Tabaristan), 
the  "  generals  "  of  the  house  of  K&ren  (Spahpat,  Ispchbod) 
jnaintained  themselves  for  a  century  as  Vassals  of  the  caliphs-^ 
exactly  as  Atropates  and  his  dynasty  had  done  before  them. 

The  fall  of  the  empire  sealed  the  fate  of  its  religion.  The 
Moslems  officially  tolerated  the  Zoroastrian  creed,  though  occa- 
sional persecutions  were  not  lackini^  But  lit  tie  by  little  it  vanbhed 
from  Iran,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  remnants  (chiefly  in  the 
oasis  of  Yezd),  the  faithful  finding  a  refuge  in  India  at  Bombay. 
These  Parsces  have  preserved  but  a  small  part  of  the  sacred 
writings;  but  to-day  they  still  number  their  years  by  the  era 
which  begins  on  the  i6lh  of  June  a.d.  632,  with  the  accession  of 
Yazdegerd  III.,  the  last  king  of  their  faith  and  the  last  lawful 
sovereign  of  Iran,  on  whom  rested  the  god-given  Royal>  Glory  of 

Ormuzd. 

Authorities. — Besides  the  works  on  special  periods  quoted  abovev 
the  following  general  works  should  be  consulted:  Spic^l,  Eranische 
AtterlumskMi  (3  vols.,  1876  sqq.);  W.  Cctger  and  Ernst  Kuhn, 
Grundrin  dir  ircnischem  Plnlol^gU  ktrausf.^  vol.  ii.  (Literature, 
History  and  Civilisation,  1896  sqq.);  G.  RawUnson,  The  Fm  GmU 
Mondrckies.  Vu  Sixth  Monarchy,  The  Seventh  Monarchy.  Further 
the  mutually  supplementary  work  of  Th.  NSldckc,  Aufsdtse  zur 
persiseken  Ceschiebte  (1887,  Medes,  Persians  and  Soasanids),  and 
A.  v.  Gutschmid.  Oathichte  Irons  von  Alexander  d.  Cr.  bis  turn 
Uniertqmi  der  Arsaciden  j[i88S).  A  valuable  work  of  reference  is 
F.  justulranisches  Namenbuch  (1895). 


The  most  important  works  on  Uie  monuments  are:  Flandih  et 
Coste,  KpysM  en  Perse  (6  vols.,  1^40  sqq-);  Texier,  L'ArwUnte,  ia 
Perse,  el  h  MesopoUtmie  (a  vob.,  1842);  Stolze,  Persepolis  (a  voU., 
1882);  Sarre,  Iranische  Pdsrdiefs  (1908). 

For  works  on  the  external  nistorv  of  Persia  see  those  quoted 
under  articles  on  Peniaa  kings;  auo  RoHS;  GaaiCB;  Egtpt; 
Syria;  Ac  (Ed.  M.) 

B.— TVoftn^im  PerMrfrom  the  FaU  of  the  Sassanid  Dyaa$ty 
to  the  Death  of  Timur  {1405), 

With  the  final  defeat  of  the  Sassanids  tmder  Yazdegerd  IH. 
at  the  battles  of  Kadisiya  (Kadessia)  (637)  and  Nehavend  (641) 
Persia  ceased  to  exbt  as  a  single  political  unit.  The 
country  passed  under  a  succession  of  alien  rulers 
who  cared  nothing  for  its  andent  ii»titutions  or 
its  religion.  For  ^x>ut  150  years  it  was  governed,  first  from 
Medina  and  afterwards  from  Bagdad,  by  officers  of  the  Mahom- 
medan  caliphs  whose  principal  aim  it  was  to  destroy  the  old 
nationality  by  ihe  suppression  of  its  religion.  The  success 
of  thb  policy  was,  however,  only  apparent,  especially  in  Iran, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  adopted  Islam  only  in  the  most  super- 
ficial manner,  and  it  was  from  Persia  that  the  blow  fell  which 
destroyed  the  Omayyad  caliphate  and  set  up  the  Abbaisids  in 
itS;  place  (see  CALiPHaarE).  Even  before  thb  event  adventurers 
and  dissatisfied  Moslem  officers  had  utilised  the  slumbering 
hostility  of  the  Peiwan  peoples  to  aid  them  in  attacks  oa 
the  caliphs  (fi.g.  Ziyad,  son  of  Abu  Sofia  n,  in  the  reign  of 
Moawiya  I.),  and  the  policy  of  eastern  expansion  brought  the 
Arab  armies  perpetually  into  the  Persian  provinces. 

In  the  reign  of  Merwan  I.  the  Persians  (who  were  mostly 
Shi'ites)  under  a  Moslem  officer  named  Mokhtar  (Mukhtar), 
whom  they  regarded  as  their  mahdi,  vainly  attempted  to  assert 
their  independence  in  Kufa,  but  were  soon  defeated.  Thb 
rising  was  followed  by  many  more  (see  Caliyhate:  |  B)  in 
which  the  caliphs  were  generally  successful,  and  Abdalmalik 
(d.  705)  considerably  strengthened  the  Moslem  power  by  insti- 
tuting a  thorough  system  of  Moslem  coins  and  enforcing  Arabic 
as  the  official  language  throu^iout  the  empire.  In  the  succeed- 
ing reign  Persia  was  further  subdued  by  the  great  conqueror 
Qoteiba  ((^taiba)  b.  Moslira,  the  Arabic  governor  of  Khorasan. 
Omar  I].,  however,  extended  to  non-Arabic  Moslems  immunity 
from  all  taxes  except  theMiof  (poor-rate),  with  the  result  that  a 
large  number  of  Persians,  who  still  smarted  under  their  defeat 
under  Mokhtar,  embraced  Islam  and  drifted  into  the  towns  to 
form  a  nucleus  of  sedition  under  the  Shi'ite  preachen.  In  the 
reign  of  Yazid  II.  (730-724)  serious  risings  took  place  in  Khora- 
san, and  in  spite  of  tlw  wise  adminbtration  of  hb  sucoeaaor 
Hisham  (d.  743),  the  disorder  continued  to  spread,  fanned  by  the 
Abbasids  and  the  Shi'ite  preachers.  Ultimately  in  the  reign  of 
Merwan  Il.the  non- Arabic  Moslems  found  a  leader  in  AbuMoslim, 
a  mania  (client)  of  Persian  origin  and  a  henchman  of  Ibrahim 
b.  Mabonuned  b.  Ah,  the  Shi'ite  imam,  who  raised  a  great  army, 
drove  the  caliph's  general  Nasr  b.  Sayyar  into  headlong  flight, 
and  finally  expelled  Merwan.  Thus  the  Abbasids  becaoke 
masters  of  Persia  and  also  of  the  Arab  Empire.  They  had  gained 
their  success  largdy  by  the  ^id  of  the  Persians,  who  began 
thenceforward  to  recover  their  lost  qenseof  natk)nality;  according 
to  the  Spanish  author  Ibn  Hazm  the  Abbasids  were  a  Persiam 
dynasty  which  destroyed  the  old  tribal  system  of  the  Arabs 
and  ruled  despotically  as  Chosroes  had  done.  At  the  same 
time  the  Khorasanians  had  fought  for  the  old  Alid  family,  not 
for  the  Abbasids,  and  with  the  murder  of  Abu  Moslim  discontent 
again  began  to  grow  among  the  Shi'ites  (f.*-)*  In  the  reign  ol 
Uarun  al-Rashid  disturbances  broke  out  in  Khorasan  which 
were  temporarily  appeased  by  a  visit  from  Harun  himself. 
Immediately  afterwards  Rafi*  b.  Laith,  grandson  of  the  Omayyad 
general  Nasr  b.  Sayyar,  revolted  in  Samarkand,  and  Harun  on 
hb  way  to  attack  him  died  at  Tus  (809).  Harun's  sons  Amin  and 
Mamun  quarrelled  over  the  succession;  Amin  became  caliph^ 
but  Mamun  by  the  aid  of  Tahir  b.  ](}osain  Dhu  *I-Yaminain 
("the  roan  with  two  right  hands  ")  and  others  succeeded  in 
deposing  and  killing  him.  Tahir  ultimately  (820)  received  the 
governorship  of  Khorasan.  where  he  succeeded  in  establishing 


TRAMSrnON  PBBIOBI 


PERSIA 


225 


a  practically  indepctident  Moslem  djmaaty  (the  T«hirids)'  whkh 
ruled  until  about  873  in  nominal  obedience  to  Bagdad.  From 
S25  to  about  898  a  similar  dynasty,  the  Dulafids'  or  Dolafids 
feigned  nominally  as  governors  under  the  caliphs  till  they  were 
put  down  by  Motadid.  In  the  reign  oC  the  caliph  Motasim  a 
serious  revolt  of  Persian  Mazdakitc  sectaries  (the  Khorrami) 
in  alliance  with  Byz.'uitium  was  with  (fifliculiy  suppressed,  as 
also  a  rising  oC  Tabaristan  under  an  hereditary  chief  l^faziyar 
who  was  secretly  supported  by  the  Turkish  mercenaries  (r.^., 
Afshin)  whom  the  colii^  had  invited  to  his  court.  To  another 
Turk,  Itakb,  the  caliph  Wathiq  gave  a  titular  authority  over 
all  the  eastern  provinces.  In  the  reign  of  the  tenth  calqsh 
MoUwakkil  the  TahiriiU  fell  Iiefore  Yakub  b.  Laith  al-Saffar, 
who  with  the  approbation  of  the  caliph  founded  a  dynasty,  the 
Saffarid  {q.vX  m  Seislan. 

It  is  convenient  at  this  point  to  mention  several  other  minor 
dynasties  founded  by  nominal  governors  in  vamous  parts  of 
P4^a  and  its  borderland.  From  879  to  about  930 
ffw^ifct  ^^  Sajids  ruled  ill  Azerbaijan,  while  in  Tabaristan 
an  Alid  dynasty  (the  Zaiditcs)  was  independent 
from  864  to  928^  when  it  fell  l>efore  the  Samanids.  Subsequently 
desceiuiants  of  this  house  ruled  in  Dailam  and  Gilan.  Through- 
out  this  period  the  caliphate  was  falling  completely  under  the 
power  of  the  Turkish  ofiicers.  Mohtadi,  the  fourteenth  Abbasid 
caliph,  endeavoured  vainly  to  replace  them  by  Persians  (the 
Abna).  His  successor  Motamid  was  attacked  by  the  Saffarid 
Yakub  who  however  was  compclkd  to  flee  (see  Caliphate:  $  C, 
{15).  Yakub's  brother  Amr  (reigned  B^^■^oe^)  received  the  vacant 
position,  but  was  taken  prisoner  by  Isma'il  b.  Ahmad,  the 
Samanid,  and  the  Saflarids  were  henceforward  a  merely  nomi- 
ITfisirfifi  ^  dynasty  under  the  Samanids  (900-1229).  The 
Samanids  {q.v.)  were  the  first  really  important  non- 
Arabic  Persian  dynasty  since  the  fall  of  Yazdegerd  III.  They 
held  sway  over  most  of  Persia  and  Tkansoxiana,  and  under 
their  rule  scholarship  and  the  arts  flourished  exceedingly  in 
q>ite  of  numerous  civil  wars.  Ultimately  they  fell  before  the 
Ghaznevid  dynasty  of  Sabuktagtn. 

In  the  reign  of  Motadid  (Caupiute:  {  C,  9  x6)  who,  as  we  have 
seen,  put  down  the  Dolafids,  and  also  checked  the  Sajids  of 
Azerbaijan  in  their  designs  on  Syria  and  Egypt,  the  Kharijttes 
<A  Mesopotamia  were  put  down  by  the  aid  of  the  Hamdanites 
of  Mosul,  who  were  to  become  an  important  dynasty  (see  below). 
Subsequently  the  caliphate,  whkh  had  temporarily  recovered 
some  of  its  authority,  resumed  its  downwaid  course,  and  the 
great  families  of  Persia  once  again  asserted  themselves.  In 
the  reign  of  Qahir  (d.  934),  a  new  dynasty  arose  in  Persia,  that 
BuyidB,  ^  ^*  Buyids  (Buwayhids).  This  family  was 
descended  from  one  Abu  Shaja  Buya,  who  claimed 
to  be  of  the  old  Sassaman  house  and  had  bcKX>me  a  chieftain 
in  Dailam.  He  had  successively  fought  for  the  Samanids 
and  the  Ziyarids,*  a  dynasty  of  Jorjan,  and  his  son  Imad 
addaula  (cd-dowlch,  originally  Aba  1  Qasan  AH)  received  from 
Mardawij  of  the  latUr  house  the  governorship  of  Karaj;  his 
second  son  Rokn  addaula  (Abu  Ali  Qasan)  subsequently  held 
Rai  and  Isfahan,  while  the  third,  Moiz2  addaula  (Abu  '1  Qosain 
Ahmad)  secured  Kcrmin,  Ahvaz  and  even  Bagdad. 

The  reign  of  the  caliph  Mottaqi  (Caliphate:  |  C,  §ai)  was  a 
period  of  perpetoal  strife  between  the  Dailamites,  the  Turks 
and  the  Hamdanid  Nasir  addaula  of  Mosul.  In  the  next  reign 
Moixz  addaula  took  Bagdad  (945)  and  was  recognized  by  the 
caliph  Mostak£  as  sultan*  and  amir  al-Omara.  It  was  at  thia 

»  Tahir  died  823  or  824;  Talha  d.  828;  Abdallah,  838-844;  Tahir 
II.,  B44-862:  Mahommcd,  862-873. 

'Abu  Dolaf  Qaiim  b.  Idns-'ljR  (825);  'Abdalaac  (842);  Ddaf 
(873);  Ahmad,  (878) ;  Omar  89A-898) 


Ma%tt  Qabua  (976^101 2).  Falaic  at  Ma'ali  Manufihahr  (loi 2-1029). 
Aooslvw&n  (1029^x042).  They  wore  Alyite  in  relisioa.  They 
were  of  progressively  less  importance  under  the  Samanids,  and  were 
ftkimateiy  expelled  by  the  Ghainewls. 

« This  i«  dented  by  S.  Lane  Poole,  who  points  odt  that  they  did 
oot  ttsoHi*  title  oa  their  o»na. 


time  that  the  three  brothers  took  thetitkslmad,  Rukn  (Rokn), 
and  Moizz  addaula.  The  authority  of  the  family  was  absolute, 
though  they  paid  outward  respect  to  the  caliphs.  Moixx  addaula 
repelled  an  attack  of  the  Hamdanids  of  Mosul,  fke  Buyids, 
and  especially  Adod  addaula  (Azud-ed-Dowlch,  and  similat 
forms),  ruled  Bagdad  wisely  and  improved  the  city  by  great 
public  works  such  »  the  great  dike,  still  known  as  the  Bend 
Amir  on  the  Kur  (Cyrus)  near  Pcrscpolis.  Their  sway  extended 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Caspian  Sea  (Caliphate:  {  C,  $  24). 
Ultimately,  however,  the  Buytd  dynasty  grew  ti-eaker  under 
the  quarrels  of  its  members  and  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  Ghaz- 
nevids.  In  the  meantime  (999)  the  Samanids  fell  before  the 
Ilek-Khansof  Turkestan,  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  Ghaznevid 
princes. 

For  these  and  other  minor  dynasties  such  as  the  Hasanwayhtds 
of  Kurdistan  {c.  95^1015)  and  the  Kakwayhids  of  Kurdistan 
(1007-1051),  see  Scockvis,  Manud  d'histoin^  1.  113  sqq.  (Leiden. 
1888). 

The  centre  of  force  in  Persian  politics  now  changes  from  west 
to  cost.  Hitherto  the  ultimate  power,  at  least  nominally,  had 
resided  in  the  caliphate  at  Bagdad,  and  all  the  dynasties  which 
have  been  noticed  derived  their  authority  formally  from  that 
source.  With  the  rise  of  the  Ghazncvids  and  ^^^^ Qtumtvt4Mi 
the  Seljuks,  the  Abbasid  caliphate  ceased  to  count 
as  an  independent  power.  As  we  have  seen,  the  Ghaznevid 
armies  in  a  brief  space  destroyed  most  of  the  native  dynasties 
of  Persia.  The  first  of  the  house  was  Alptagin,  a  Turkish  slave 
of  the  Samanid  Mansur  I.,  who,  having  quarrelled  with  his  mastct, 
took  refuge  in  Afghanistan  and  founded  a  semi-lndcpendcn*. 
authority.  After  hb  death  three  unimportant  governors  of 
his  house  held  sway,  but  in  977  the  power  fell  to  another  former 
slave,  Sabuktagin,  who  was  recognized  by  the  Samanid  Nuh  II. 
His  son  and  successor  Mahmud  (^.r.)  was  attacked  by  a  brother, 
Isma^ii,  and  retired  from  Khorasan  (of  which  he  had  been 
governor).  The  Samanids  then  fell  under  the  power  of  the 
Tatar  Ilkhans,  but  Mahmud  returned,  triumphed  over  both 
the  Samanids  and  the  Tatars,  and  assumed  the  independent 
title  of  sultan  with  authority  over  Khorasan,  Transoxiana  and 
parts  of  north-west  India.  Mahmud  was  a  great  conqueror, 
and  wherever  he  went  he  replaced  the  existing  religion  by 
Mahommcdanism.  He  is  described  as  the  patron  (if  a  somewhat 
ungenerous  one)  of  literature;  it  was  under  his  auspices  that 
Firdousi  coDected  the  ancient  myths  of  Persia  and  produced 
the  great  epic  Shaknama  (Book  of  the  Kings).  His  descendants 
held  a  nominal  rule  till  1187,  but  in  11 52  they  lost  all  their 
extra-Indian  territories  to  the  Ghorids,  and  during  the  last 
thirty-five  years  reigned  in  diminished  splendour  at  Lahore, 
Even  before  this  time,  however,  the  supremacy  which  they 
enjoyed  under  Mahmud  in  Per^a  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Seljuks  who,  in  the  rdgn  of  Mas*ud  I.,  son 
of  Mahmud,  conquered  Khorasan.  In  X037  Seljuk 
princes  were  recognized  in  Merv  and  Kbhapur,  and  in  the  ensuing 
eighteen  years  the  Seljuks  conquered  Balkh,  Jorjan,  Tabaristan, 
Khwarizm,  Hamadan,  Rai,  Isfahan,  and  finally  Bagdad  (1055). 
The  Abbasid  cahphs,  who  still  enjoyed  a  precarious  and  shadowy 
authority  at  the  pleasure  of  Turkish  viziers,  gladly  surrendered 
themselves  to  the  protection  of  the  Mahommedan  Seljuks,  who 
paid  them  all  outward  respect. 

Thus  for  the  first  time  since  the  Amb  conquest  of  the  Sassaman 
realm  Persia  was  ruled  by  a  single  authority,  which  extended 
its  conquests  westward  into  Asia  Minor,  where  it  checked  the 
rulers  of  Byzantium,  and  eastward  to  India  anid  Central  Asiar 
The  history  of  this  period  is  treated  at  length  in  the  articles 
Caliphate:  \  C,  §(  26  sqq.;  and  SELfuxs.  A  bare  outlina 
only  is  requiiec^  here. 

The  first  three  Seljuk  rulers  were  Toghrul  Beg,  Alp  Arslan 
and  Malik  Shah.  On  the  death  of  the  last  the  empire  was 
distracted  by  civil  war  between  his  sons  Barkiyaroq,  Mahommed 
and  Sin  jar,  with  the  result  that,  although  the  Seljuks  of  the 
direct  line  maintained  nominal  supremacy  till  the  death  <rf 
Sinjar  (i  x  57),  other  branches  of  the  family  established  themselves 
in  various  parts  of  the  empire — Syria,  Rum  (Asia  Minor)* 


226 


PERSIA 


ftltANSmOir  P£RI01> 


Kennin,  and  Irak  with  Kurdistan.  Sinjar  himself  lost  all  his 
dominions  exccgkt  Khorasan  in  wan  with  the  Karakitai.  The 
sultans  of  KermSn  were  rarely  independent  in  the  full  sense, 
but  they  enjoyed  comparative  peace  and  prosperity  till  the 
death  of  Toghrul  Shah  (i  170),  after  which  their  power  fell 
before  the  Ghuzz  tribes;  Kerm2n  was  finally  c:4>tured  in  1x95 
by  the  Khwarizm  shahs.  Iklcdnwhilc  an  independent  dynasty 
was  formed  about  1 136  in  Azerbaijan  by  tlie  governors  (atabegs) 
appointed  by  the  Seljuks;  this  dynasty  was  overthrown  by  the 
Khwarizm  shahs  in  1325.  Similar  dynasties  existed  in  Laristan 
and  Pars. 

The  empire  of  the  Seljuks  was  essentially  militaxy.  Their 
authority  over  their  own  officers  was  so  precarious  that  they 
preferred  to  entrust  the  command  to  Turkish  slaves.  These 
officers,  however,  were  far  from  loyal  to  their  lords.  In  every 
part  of  the  empire  they  gradually  superseded  the  Seljuk  princes, 
and  the  minor  dynasties  above  mentioned  all  owed  their  existence 
to  the  ambition  ol  the  Turkish  regents  or  atabegs.  The  last 
important  dynasty  in  Persia  prior  to  the  Mongol  invasion  was 
that  of  the  Salghartds  in  Pars,  founded  by  the  descendants  of 
a  Turkish  general  Salaghar,  who  had  formerly  been  a  Turkoman 
leader  and  ultimately  became  chamberlain  to  Toghn(l  Beg. 
The  first  ruler  was  Sonkor  b.  Modud,  who  made  himself  indC' 
pendent  in  Pars  in  11 48.  The  fourth,  Sa'd,  became  tributary 
to  the  Khwarizm  shahs  in  1195,  and  the  fifth  acknowledged 
allegiance  to  the  Mongol  Ogotai  and  received  the  title  Kutbegh 
Khan.  His  successors  were  vassals  of  the  Mongols,  and  the  last, 
the  Princess  'Abish  (d.  1287),  was  the  wife  of  Hulagu's  son 
Mangu  Timur. 

Before  passing  on  to  the  Mongol  conquerors  of  Persia  it  is 
necessary  briefly  to  notice  the  shahs  of  Khwarizm,  who  have 
KftwarteHu  ^™<l"cntly  been  mentioned  as  overthrowing  the*^  minor 
dynasties  which  arose  with  the  decay  of  the 
Seljuks.  These  rulers  were  descended  from  Anushtajin,  a 
Turkish  slave  of  Ghazni,  who  became  cupbearer  to  the  Seljuk 
Malik  Shah,  and  afterwards  governor  of  Khwarizm  (Khiva) 
In  1077.  In  1138  the  third  of  t'Ee  line,  Atsiz,  revolted  but  was 
defeated  and  expelled  by  Sinjar.  Shortly  afterwards  he  returned, 
firmly  established  his  power,  and  extended  the  Khwarizm 
Empire  as  far  as  Jand  on  the  SLhun.  The  brief  reigns  of  Il-Arsbn 
and  Sultan  Shah  Mahmud  were  succeeded  by  that  of  Tukush 
(1172-1199)  and  Ala  ed-din  Mahommed'  (1199-1220).  The 
former  of  these  subdued  Khorasan,  Rxu  and  Isfahan,  while  the 
latter  brought  practically  all  Persia  under  his  sway,  conquered 
Bokhara,  Samarkand  and  Otrar,  capital  of  the  Karakitai,  and 
had  even  made  himself  master  of  Ghazni  when  his  career  was 
stopped  by  the  hordes  of  the  Mongol  Jenghiz  Khan.  In  1231 
the  last  of  his  house,  Jelal  ud-din  (Jalaluddin)  Mangbarti,  or 
Mango-berti,  was  banished,  and  thus  the  empire  of  the  Khwarizm 
shahs,  which  for  a  brief  period  had  included  practically  all  the 
lands  Conquered  by  the  Seljuks,  passed  away. 

Thus  from  the  fall  of  the  Samanldsto  the  invasion  of  the  Mongols 
five  or  at  most  six  important  dynasties  held  sway  over  Per«ia, 
while  some  forty  Bmall  dynasties  enjoyed  a  measure  of  local 
autonomy.  Dunng  the  whole  of  this  period  the  Abbasid  calif^s 
had  been  nominally  rcwning  throughout  the  Mafaoromodan  worid 
with  their  capital  at  Hagdad.  But  with  hardly  any  exceptions 
thev  had  been  the  merest  puppets,  now  in  the  hands  of  Turkish 
ministers,  now  under  the  protection  of  practically  independent 
dynasts.  The  real  rulers  of  Persia  during  the  years  874-1231  were, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  Saraanids,  the  Buyids,  the  Ghaznevids,  the 
Seljuks,  the  Salgharids  and  the  Khwarizm  shahs.  We  now  come 
to  a  new  period  in  Persian  history,  wlicn  the  numerous  petty 
dynasties  which  succeeded  the  Seljuks  were  all  swallowed  up  in 
the  great  Mongol  invasion. 

In  the  later  years  of  the  i2t&  century  the  MOngob  began 

their  westward  march  and,  after  the  conquest  of  the  ancient 

■iiimli     ^ngdom  of  the  Kajakitai,  reached  the  borders  of 

the  territory  of  the  Khwarizm  shahs,  which  was  at 

once  overwhelmed.  Jenghiz  Khan  died  In  1272,  and  the  Mongol 

*  It  was  this  prince  who  destroyed  the  Ghorid  dynasty,  which 
daimcd  descent  from  the  legendary  Persian  monarch  Zohalc. 
Ezce|>t  for  a  brief  period  of  submisnon  to  the  Ghasnevids  (1009- 
1099)  they  ruled  at  Ghor  until  laij,  when  they  were  conquered 
after  a  fierce  struggle. 


Empire  stretching  from  the  Caspiiui  10  the  Yellow  Se*  was 
divided  up  among  his  sons.  Persia  itself  fell  partly  in  the 
domain  of  Jagatai  and  partly  in  that  of  the  Golden  Horde. 
The  actual  governor  of  Persia  was  Tului  or  Tule,  whose  son 
Huhigu  or  Hulaku  is  the  first  who  can  be  rightly  regiarded  as 
the  sovereign  of  Persia;  His  accession  occurred  In  1256,  and 
henceforward  Persia  becomes  after  600  years  of  s|Msinodic 
government  a  national  unit.  Hnlagu  at  once  proceeded  to 
destroy  a  number  of  nascent  dynasties  which  endeavoured  to 
establish  themselves  on  the  rains  of  the  Khwarizm  Empire; 
about  1255  he  destroyed  tlie  dynasty  ot  the  Assassins*  by  the 
capture  of  their  stronghold  of  Alamut  (Eagle's  Nest),  and  finaOy 
in  1258  captured  Bagdad.  The  thirty-eighth  and  last  Abbasid 
caliph,  Mostasim,  was  brutally  murdered,  and  thus  the  Mahom- 
mcdan  caliphate  ceased  to  exist  even  as  an  emasculated  pontifi- 
cate. The  Persian  Empire  tinder  Hulagu  and  hb  desoendanis 
extended  from  the  dominions  of  Jagatai  on  the  north  to  that 
of  the  Egyptian  dynasts  on  the  sooth,  and  from  the  Byzantine 
Empire  on  the  west  to  the  oonfoies  of  China.  Its  rulers  paid  a 
nominal  homage  to  the  Khakhan  (Great  Khan)  in  China, 
and  officially  recognized  this  dependence  in  their  tide  of  Ilkltan, 
i.e.  provincial  or  dependent  khan.  From  1238  to  1J35  the 
Ilkhans  were  not  seriously  rhnllmgpri  Hulagu  fixed  his  capital 
at  Mara^ui  (Meragha)  in  Azerbatjan,where  he  occted  an  observa- 
toiy  for  Nasir  ud-din  Tusi,  who  at  his  request  prepared  the 
astronomical  tables  known  as  the  ZUj-i-llkkanL  He  died  in 
1265  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Abagha  or  Abaka,  who 
married  the  dau^ter  of  Michael  Pakeokjsus,  the  Byzantine 
ruler.  Abagha  was  a  peaceful  ruler  and  endeavoured  by  wise 
administration  to  give  order  and  prosperity  to  a  country  torn 
asunder  by  a  long  period  of  intestine  war  and  the  Mongol 
invasion.  He  succeeded  in  repelling  two  attacks  by  other 
Mongolian  princes  of  the  house  of  Jenghiz  Khan;  oUicrwise 
his  reign  was  uneventful.  His  brother  Nikudar  (originally 
Nicolas)  Ahmad  Khan  succeeded  him  in  1281.  This  prince  was 
converted  to  Islam,  an  event  of  great  moment  both  to  the 
internal  peace  and  to  the  external  relations  of  Persia.  Hb 
persecution  of  the  Christians  led  them  into  alliance  with  the 
Mongols,  who  detested  Islam;  the  combined  forces  were  too 
strong  for  Nikudar,  who  was  murdered  in  1284.  The  external 
results  were  of  more  importance.  The  Ilkhans,  who  had  failed 
in  their  attempt  to  wrest  Syria  from  the  Mameluke  nilecs  of 
Esyptf  had  subsequently  endeavoured  to  effect  their  object  by 
inducing  the  European  Powers  to  make  a  new  crusade.  The 
conversion  of  Nikudar  put  an  end  to  thb  poHcy  and  £g3^t  was 
for  some  time  free  from  Persian  attack  (see  Egypt:  Hisimry), 
The  Mongol  leaders  put  on  the  throne  a  sonof  Abagha,  by  name 
Arghun.  Hb  reign  was  troubled.  Hb  first  miabter  Shams 
ud-din  was  suspected  of  having  poisoned  Abagha,  and  was  soon 
put  to  death.  Hb  successor,  the  amir  Bogha,  conspired  ss*u^ 
Arghun  and  was  executed.  Under  the  third  minister  (1269- 
1 291),  a  Jewish  doctor  named  Sa*d  addaula  (ed-Dowlefa),  religjons 
troubles  arose  owing  to  his  persecution  of  the  Mahommcdaas 
and  his  favouring  the  Christians.  The  fiimncial  administFatioii 
of  Sa'd  was  prudent  and  successful,  if  somewhat  severe,  and  the 
revenue  benefited  considerably  under  hb  care.  But  he  com- 
mitted the  tactical  error  of  appointing  a  disproportioaate 
number  of  Jews  and  Christians  as  revenue  officials,  and  thus 
made  many  enemies  among  the  Mongol  nobles,  who  had  him 
assassinated  in  1291  when  Arghun  was  lying  hitally  IlL,  It  b 
possible  that  it  was  Sard's  diplomacy  which  led  Pope  Nicholas  IV. 
to  send  a  mission  to  Arghun  with  a  view  to  a  new  crusade. 
Ilie  refgn  of  Arghun  was  also  disturbed  by  a  rebellion  of  a 
grandson  of  Hulagu,  Baidu  Khan.  Arghun  died  soon  after 
the  murder  of  Sa'd,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Kaikhatn, 
or  Gaykhatu,  who  was  taken  prisoner  by  Baidu  Khan  and 
killed  (1295).  Baidu 'h  reign  was  cut  short  in  the  same  year 
by  Arghun S  son  Ghazan  Mahmud,  whose  rdgn  (1295-X304) 
was  a  period  of  pro^>erity  in  war  and  administration.    Ghazan 

*The  dynasty  of  the  Assassins  or  Isma'ilites  was  founded  ia 
1090  and  extended  its  rule  over  much  of  western  Persia  and  Syria 
(for  the  rulers  see  Stocks.  0p.  cit*  L  13I1  and  article  Aasassot). 


itauS 
10  do)  witk  kill,  "■*"'''  and  nuliuiy  aStin,  pat  on  ■  fira 
bail*  Ibe  BOBCUrr  WMOD  Mid  tb*  ayMtm  of  weighu  uhI 
toeanret,  aad  pofected  the  BwaBlcd'poiul  Knricc  Chuu 
louabt  witk  HKcaa  aidoat  Esrpt  (ittkb  cousuy  had  almiy 
iram  iig]  to  IVcthJ)*!  iim  been  nlad  by  ■  Uob|dI  uHuper 
KJlbofa),  and  cwa  bdd  BunaKU  fur  ■  lev  month*.  In  ijoi, 
however,  bii  tio^a  vera  defeated  at  Ueii  aJ-Siffu,  and  Montd 
daimi  on  Syria  vae  de&ntdy  abapdontd.  b  <n*  eves 
luglMed  that  Ihe  liluZar  Abbud  calipfca  <idto  ntaised  an 
eaipir  this  in  Cairo  BBdcr  Mamduke  prateeUoB]  ibould  be 
niiuuted  at  Bagdad,  bul  thii  prapoaal  waa  not  amfed  Inlo 
effect.  Ghaan  li  hiUockally  fmpoitaM,  taovever,  maialy  aa 
tbc  £nt  Uongol  nilcr  vbo  definiuly  idt^Ked  bbus  vUb  i 
lufe  Dumber  of  hii  igbjeclt.  He  died  in  ijo^,  tiaditionally 
d[  uger  at  the  Syrian  fiuco,  and  vat  lucceeded  by  bia  bfeth« 
UljiJin  (Oljeitu).  The  diief  events  ol  fait  reicn  vcR  a  aucm- 
lul  war  agaisit  TUu  iovadni  and  Ibe  lubttiiution  oi  the  new 
dly  of  Suttania  ai  capital  lot  Tibrii,  wbicb  bad  been  Cbuin'i 
beidqiianen.  Uljnitu  vai  a  Shi'ile  and  even  lUniped  hit 
coini  mih  the  aama  oF  the  twelve  Shi'ile  Imuna.  He  dkd 
in  i]t6,  and  waa  luccecded  by  Abu  Sa'id.hii  ua.  Tbe  pttnce, 
undti  whom  a  definite  peace  wu  made  with  Malik  al-Naiir, 
the  UaiiKliike  nilei  of  EEypt,  bad  great  Iiouble  with  poweriid 
viden  and  geneiala  wbicb  be  accentuated  by  bis  puiion  foi 
Bagdad-Kbatun,  wife  of  tbe  emit  [Jnuin  and  daughlei  nl  Ibc 
amir  Chupan,  This  lady  be  eventually  married,  with  Ihe  mull 
that  Chilian  beaded  a  levolt  oI  hii  tribe,  the  Scldui.  Abu  Said 
died  of  [ever  in  IjJS,  and  with  him  tbe  £nt  Monfd  or  Ilkhan 
dynasty  oI  Fenii  piacikally  taioc  to  on  end,  Tbe  Kal  power 
wBi  divided  between  Chupan  and  yotain  the  Jetait  (or  Jalair). 
or  Ibe  Ilkhantan,  and  their  aoni,  knoon  rapeelivcly  aa  ik* 
Liitk  Qaiau  (Ijaian  Kucbuk]  and  tbe  fieal  Ijatao  (Haaan 
Buiuig).  Two  puppet  kingi,  Arpa  ICbaB.  a  deaccndani  of 
Hulagu'a  bioihei  Aiikbuhgi.  and  Huta  Khan,  a  deicendast  of 
Bajdu,  nominally  reigned  lor  a  lew  monihi  each.  Tbcn  Ijtiao 
Kuchuk  set  up  one  SBii.beg,  Abu  Sa'id's  daughter,  and  vifc 
tuccmivcbr  of  Chupin,  Aria  Khan  and  one  Suldman,  the  teat 
oI  whom  was  khsD  from  1^9  to  1343;  in  the  aatne  lime  QaMn 
Buiuigaet  optucccuivcly  Mabommed,  Tugba-HcaDiasd  Jahao- 
TImur.  A  ^Ih  nonenlily,  Nusbiiwan,  vaa  a  Cbupani  nominee 
In  1344,  after  which  tine  Qaaan  Buzurf  dehniiely  tmiallwl 
hinocU  as  tbe  fint  kbaa  of  tbe  Jelairid  m  Ilkhanian-Jelalrid 

Piacticnl)]'  fram  the  idgn  of  Abu  Sa'id  Penia  vaa  divided 

BDderGvcinlaordynBilies,(i)  the  Jelaltids,  (>1  tbe  MoaaSaiids, 

■i»         (3)   the  SarbaduMt   (Serbeditiwu).   (4)   tbe   BenI 

nruMtai  Kurt,  Bnd(;}  tbe  Jabanians.  all  of  which  uHimalely 

feli  before  the  annlet  ol  Timur. 

I.  Tbe  Jcbirid  rukn  were  Hiian  B  4- 

US*).  Owaia  (iJ56-i3J4).  Hi 
[IjSi-if  10),  ShaSW»Ud  (i+io- 


Aprbaijan.  Tib. 


wu    JlKTBiHl     u 


_....  _..e  Moaaflarids  of  SWrai  and  tb 
(Kara  Kuvunli]  dI  Ameiua.wHb  Ihe  h 
entered  into  allkmcc  On  hii  death  A 
hii  brother.  Sultan  Ahmad,  while  anoi 
for  a  few  mcnthi  in  part  of  Kurdiuai 
(bal  Timur  {}.•.)  beran  hi>  fnit  cam 
Ihe  power  ol  the  Manoua  Pei^an  dynat 

tamii.  Dlaibekr  awl  Van.  and  Ahmad  I 
received  by  Darkuk  (Barquq)  the  M 
who  had  alTBulr  eicitttl  the  enmity  of ' 


and  untH  hit  dr 


■ormal  capital  Sai 
,— --  ,..jmad  ruled  «nlv  t 
inally  mtored,  but 

Tifan 'Kvyunli),  who  defeated  and  jdlkd  Mm 

Shah  Wahd  rdgned  for  a  few  months  only .  _ 

occupied  by  his  widow  Tandu,  formeriy  wife  of  Barkuk.  who  ruled 
over  Baara,  Waiil  and  Shniier  (ill  I4l€.  piyimr  alletiince  to  Shah 
RuUi.thaieeDndTinuridrulei.  W^ul'iKnMshniud.Owiband 
ILilioniiDedi  and  Hoaain.  gnndton  ol  Suftao  Ahnud,  aBcceaiivily 
occoptad  tba  ibnn*.    The  laat  ol  then  via  UUad  by  the  Kara 


Kara  Yufut  s  victory  In  14: 
J,  The  Moaifarai.  whc 

Moa^ar,  or  MunSir.  wt 


ft  djmHty  ta  wmsn  Penia  afia 

lied  itwjhiyhmn  mtj  to  1390  In 

lidd  a  poA  ■■  auvuiju  under  the 
I  ud^din  MidemniBi,  who  lollowol 
mm  in  IJ13,  Decame  loveinoc  in  Farm  under  Abu  Sn-id,  in  Ker- 
m&n  in  [340.  and  iubie:iucnlly  made  himieVf  indi^pendcMU  at 
Fan  and  Shiraa  (tjjj)  and  in  Isfahan  (1356).  In  ij)7  he  waa 
deptwHi  and  hiindsd,  and  thoiith  raturad  was  oiled  aaun  aod  died 
la  1364.  His  dcKendula.  euxpc  for  Jelal  ed-din  (Jakluddin) 
Shah  Shuja',  the  juliiin  of  thepsel  Hafii.  weie  ununpntaoi,  and 
the  dynasty  was  wiped  ont  by  Timur  about  1301. 

3.  The&rbadaridt(tocail«lfnmthrirmotta&|i4>d^,-Head 
tut  the  Qbbet  "}.  ■«-— -<•■'•  of  Abd  al-Raaak,  wbo  nbdlod  ki 
Khoraaan  about  13371  en^yed  some  meaaore  el  independence 
under  twclverukntiU  they  also  were  dencoyed  by  Timur  (c.  iiSo). 

4.  The  Bern  Kurt  (or  Kan),  who  had  gavtmcd  inKhoraunlroni 

1>4!,  beeamt  independent  in  a ' "■ ■■ —  — 

abolisbad  In  Timur  <f.  IjSj). 

5.  The  Jiibanaani  had  same  e 

13M,  when  they -'-'■ ' 

Jtngniz  Khan. 


arly  14th  century;  tbey  « 

In  Aterbaiian  from  1337 

la  Klpchaks  of  the  bouc 


,  which,  aa  we  have  teen,  was  dominant 
t  least  as  early  at  IJU  till  hit' death 
...  ,         He  pasted  (lom  one  victory 

■ooiber,  but  the  cooquered  districts  were  never  really  setiltd 
under  his  admiutlnlion.  Fiesh  risings  of  the  defeated 
dyoaitics  (oUawed  each  new  cnLerpiise^  and  he  had  alto  le  deal 
wilh  the  Mongol  hordes  whete  (erriloiy  marched  with  notlhem 
Persia.  His  descendants  wen  fot  a  brief  period  tbe  overlotdt 
ol  rcrila,  but  after  Shah  Rukh  (rdgned  1400-1446}  and  Al\ 
addaula  (1441),  the  so-called  Timutid  dyuasiy  cosed  to  have 
any  authority  over  Penia.  Then  were  Timurid  BDvemois 
oi  Fan  under  Shah  Rukh,  Pir  Uaboinined  (i405'-i4oo),  lakendv 
ti409-Ui4]<  Ibrahim  (1415-1434)  and  Abdallah  (1434)1  IB 
'"     '         ly  of  tbe  iinuiid  lamily  held  govenwt 


-— Tbcw. 


MalmmmtJaii  Dnaili, 
Itin.  voL  i.  (Li^en.  1! 
(l«r6-iaBSl. 


indynaatkiiCatirHAia;  Sbljuu;  MonsoLStAnd 
CjBHbUU  Khan:  Mahhud  or  Chaiki;  Tmun). 
"- — ■■ —    ind    chronology    sec    S.     Lare    Poule. 

indon.  1894);  Stockvii,   ifsouri  d'li^i. 

SirH.  Howvrth,ifijlor*f/Mc  irnMk 
(J.  U.  M.~ 


C.~Frsn  Uu  Diaik  tj  Timiir  b,  Ikt  FaO  of  Ikt  Sajsvid  Dynailj, 
1405-1736- 
Timur  died  in  1405,  when  in  ibe  nveoticth  ytit  «(  his  aga 
and  aboui  <o  invade  China.  Btiidet  csercisina  sovereignty 
over  Tranaoiiana  and  ibote  vast  regions  mom  or  n>  tTms 
leaa  absorbed  in  Asiatic  Rssaleof  the  iqth century, iMna** 
inclusive  cd  the  Caucaiut,  AsltaUum  and  ">«  "|fj<^|^^ 
lower  Volga,  and  overrunning  Mesopotamia.  Syria,  ' 
Asia  Minor,  Afghanistan  and  India,  be  had  at  thit  line  lelt 
hia  indelible  mark  upon  tbe  chief  citiea  and  provinces  d 
Persia.  Kborasan  and  Maxandaran  had  aubmltted  lo  bin 
in  13S1.  Azeriiaijan  had  abonly  after  foUowed  Ibeir  eumple. 
and  Isfahan  waa  seised  in  13S7.    From  Isfohaa  he  passed  on 

of  Samarkand.  Five  ycati  later  he  subdued  hlauiKlann,  and 
laier  still  he  waa  again  at  Shirai.  having  eSecied  the  aubjugitio* 
of  [jiritian  and  other  provincet  in  Ihe  weal.  It  may  be  taid 
that  ((Dm  north  to  »uth,  or  Innn  Atlanhad  to  Uormiu,  Ibe 
whole  country  had  been  tniHigbl  within  h^dominloa. 

The  third  ton  of  Timur,  MItoh  Shah,  had  ruled  over  put  oi 
Penia  io  his  father's  lifelime;  but  he  waa  Bid  to  bt  insane,  and 
bit  incapacity  ioi  ■ovcmmeni  had  earned  tbe  lass  of  Bagdad 
and  nvoll  In  other  ptovincea.  His  dahn  to  sncceaiion  had  been 
put  aside  by  Timur  in  favour  of  Pir  Hshommed,  the  ton  of  a 
deceased  ten,  bul  Khalil  Shah,  a  son  of  the  ditcuded  ptinc«,  won 
tbe  day.  His  watte  ol  lime  and  treasure  upon  ■  fttciiialia( 
mitlrni  named  Shadu  '1-MuIk.  the  "  delight  ol  Ibe  kingdem," 
loon  brought  about  his  deposition,  and  In  1408  be  gave  way  to 
Shah  Rukh.  who,  vtth  the  einpiion  ol  Miran  Shsb,  was  tb* 
only  luivlving  ton  of  lunut.    Id  fact  the  uncle  and  nephew 


228 


PERSIA 


C1405-173S 


to  take  possesion  of  the  Ceatnl-Askn  throne,  the  other  cbn- 
ienting  to  become  governor  of  the  vacated  Persian  province 
and  abandon  the  cares  of  the  empire  at  Samarkand.  In  1409 
Khalil  Shah  died;  and  the  story  goes  that  Shadn  'IrMulk  subbed 
herself  and  was  buried  with  her  royal  lover  at  Rai,  one  of  the 
towns  which  his  grandfather  had  partly  destroyed. 

Shah  Rukh,  the  fourth  son  of  Timur,  reigned  for  thirty-eight 
years,  and  appears  to  have  been  a  brave,  generous,  and  enti^t- 
ened  monarch.  He  removed  his  capital  from  Samarkand  to 
Herat,  of  which  place  he  rebuilt  the  dtadcl,  restoring  and  im- 
proving the  town.  Merv  also  profited  from  his  attention  to  its 
material  inteiesta.  Sir  John  Malcolm  speaks  of  the  ^lendour 
of  his  court  and  of  his  encouragement  of  science  and  learning. 
He  sent  an  embassy  to  China;  and  an  English  version  of  the 
travels  to  India  of  one  of  his  emissaries,  Abd  ur-Razzak,  is  to 
be  found  in  R.  H.  Major's  India  in  the  Fifteenth  Century  (London, 
Hakluyt  Society,  1857).  As  regards  his  Persian  possessions, 
he  had  some  trouble  in  the  north-west,  where  the  Turkomans  of 
Asia  Miiu>r,  known  as  the  Kara  Kuyun,^  or  "  Black  Sheep,'*  led 
by  Kan  Yusuf*  and  his  sons*  Iskandar  and  Jahan  Shah,  had 
advanced  upon  Tabriz,  the  capital  of  Azerbaijan.  On  the  death 
of  the  Shah  Rokh  in  1446  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ulugh 
Bey,  whose  sdentific  tastes  are  demonstrated  in  the  astro> 
nomical  tables  bearing  his  name,  quoted  by  European  writers 
when  determining  the  latitude  of  places  tn  Persia.  He  was, 
moreover,  himself  a  poet  and  patron  of  literature,  and  built 
a  college  as  well  aa  an  observatory  at  Samarkand.  There  is 
,w>  evidence  to  show  that  be  did  much  to  consolidate  his  grand- 
father's conquests  south  of  the  Caspian.  Ulugh  Bey  was  put 
to  death  by  his  son  Abd  uI-Latif,  who,  six  months  later,  was 
•Iain  by  his  own  soldiers.  Babar — not  the  illustrious  founder 
of  the  Mu|^al  dynasty  in  India,  but  an  elder  member  of  the 
ttroe  house — next  obtained  possession  of  the  sovereign  power, 
and  esublished  himself  in  the  government  of  Khorasan  and  the 
neighbouring  countries.  He  died  after  a  short  rule,  from 
habitual  imemperonce.  After  him  Abu  Sa'id,  grandson  of 
Miran  Shah,  and  once  governor  of  Pars,  became  a  candidate  for 
empire,  and  allied  himself  with  the  Uzbcg  Tatars,  seized  Bokhara, 
entered  Khorasan,  and  waged  war  upon  the  Turkoman  tribe 
aforesaid,  which,  since  the  invasion  of  Azerbaijan,  had,  under 
Jahan  Shah,  overrun  Irak,  Pars  and  KermSn,  and  pillaged 
Herat.  But  he  was  eventually  taken  prisoner  by  Uzun  ^asan, 
and  killed  in  1468. 

It  is  dSffictdt  to  assign  dates  to  a  few  events  recorded  in  Per^an 
history  for  the  eighteen  years  following  the  death  of  Abd  ul'^ 
Latif;  and,  were  it  not  for  chance  European  missions,  the 
same  difficulty  would  be  felt  in  dealing  with  the  period  after  the 
death  of  Abu  Sa*id  up  to  the  accession  of  Isma'il  Sufi  in  i49<>. 
Sultan  Ahmad,  eldest  son  of  Abu  Sa'id,  reigned  in  Bokhara; 
his  brother,  Omar  Shetkh,  in  Ferghana;  but  the  son  of  the 
latter,  the  great  Babar,  was  driven  by  the  Uzbcgs  to  Kabul 
and  India.   More  to  the  purpose  is  it  that  Sultan  IJosain  Mirza, 

_-!_  great 'grandson  of  Omar  Sheikh,  son  of  Timur,  reigned 
Mns,  ^  Herat  from  r487  to  1506.  He  was  a  patron  of 
learned  men,  among  others  of  the  historians  Mirk* 
hond  aiKi  Khwadamir,  and  the  poets  Jami  and  Hatifi.  But 
at  no  time  could  his  control  have  extended  over  central  and 
western  Persia.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  sovereignty  in  those 
parts  on  the  death  of  Abu  Sa'id  is  that  of  Uzun  Qasan,  the 
leader  of  the  Ak  Kuyrni,  or  "  White  Sheep  "  Turkomans,  and 
conqueror  of  the  ''^  Black  Sheep,"  whose  chief,  Jahan  Shah,  he 
defeated  and  slew.  Between  the  two  tribes  there  had  long  been 
a  deadly  feud.  Both  were  composed  of  settlers  in  Asia 
'Minor,  the  *"  Black  Sheep "  having  consolidated 
their  power  at  Van.  the  "  White  "  at  Diarbekr. 

Sir  John  Malcolm  states  that  at  the  death  of  Abu  Sa*id. 
Saltan  Qosain  Mira  "  made  himself  master  of  the  empire," 

*They  wert  commonly  called  Kara  Kuyun*lu  and  the  "White 
Shtep"  Turkomans  Ak  Kuyun-lu.  the  affix  'Mu "  signifying 
peMeasion,  i^t.  possession  of  a  standard  bearing  the  image  of  a 
black  or  white  sheep. 

•According  to  Ersklne.  this  chief  killed  Miftm  Shah,  whose 
*i«lliog^Uce  was  Tabtis. 


Vsua^i 


and,  a  little  later,  that "  Uzun  l^asan,  aftto  he  had  made  himself 
master  of  Persia)  turned  his  arms  in  the  direction  of  Turkey  "; 
but  the  reader  is  left  to  infer  for  himself  what  the  real "  empire  " 
of  ^osain  Mirza,  and  what  the  limit  of  the  "  Persia  "  of  Uzub 
^asan.  The  second  could  not  well  be  included  in  the  first, 
because  the  Turkomans  were  in  possesskm  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  Persian  plateau,  while  the  **  sultan  "  was  in  Herat,  t» 
which  Khorasan  belonged.  It  may  be  assumed  that  an  efa{Hie 
like  that  acquired  by  Timtu:  could  not  long  be  maintained  by 
his  descendants  in  its  integrity. 

Tlie  Turkish  adjective  teiin,  03J3'  **  long,"  applied  to  '^asan, 
the  Turkoman  monarch  of  Persia  (called  also  by  the  Arabs 
^asanu  't-Tawil),  is  precisely  the  qualifying  Peraan  ivord  j^ji 
used  in  the  compound  designation  of  Artaxerxcs  Longimasm; 
and  Malcolm  quotes  the  statement  of  a  Venetian  envoy  ia 
evidence  that  Uzun  ^asan  was  "a  tall  thin  man, of  a  very  opea 
and  engaging  countenance.**  This  reference,  and  a  further 
notice  tn  Markham's  history,  supply  the  clue  to  a  store  of 
valuable  information  made  available  by  the  publications  of  the 
Hakluyt  Society.  The  narratives  of  Caterino  Zeno,  Barttsjo 
and  Contarlni,  envoys  from  Venice  to  the  court  of  Uzun  Uasaa, 
are  In  this  respect  especially  interesting.  Zeno  was  sent  m 
1471  to  incite  tins  warlike  ruler  against  the  Ottoman  suhan. 
and  succeeded  in  his  mission.  That  the  result  was  disastrous 
to  the  shah  is  not  surprising,  but  the  war  seems  to  hold  a 
comparatively  unimportant  place  in  the  atmals  of  Turkey. 

Uzun  ^asan  had  married  Despina  (Or.  ^^itoimi),  daughter 
of  the  emperor  of  Trebizond,  Calo  Johannes  of  the  house  of  the 
Comneni;  and  Zcno's  wife  was  niece  to  this  Christian  princess. 
The  relationship  naturally  strengthened  the  envoy's  poatioa 
at  the  court,  ana  he  was  permitted  to  visit  the  queen  in  the  name 
of  the  republic  which  he  represented.  Barbaro  and  Contariu 
met  at  Isfahan  in  1474,  and  there  paid  their  respects  10  the 
shah  together.  Kum  and  Tauris  or  Tabriz  (then  the  capital) 
were  also  visited  by  the  Italian  envoys  following  in  the  n>y^ 
suite;  and  the  incidental  notice  of  these  cities,  added  to  Coe- 
tarinPs  formal  statement  that  "  the  extensive  country  of  Ussua- 
cassan  [sic]  is  bounded  by  the  Ottoman  Empire  and  by  Cara- 
mania,"  and  that  Siras  (Shiraz)  is  comprehended  in  it,  pro%ts 
that  at  least  Az«-baijan,  Irak,  and  the  main  part  of  thcprovincrs 
to  the  south,  inclusive  of  Pars,  were  within  the  dominions  ot 
the  reigning  moiuirch. 

There  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  Jahan  Shah,  the  Black 
Sheep  Turkoman,  before  his  defeat  by  Uzun  Qasan,  had  set  vp 
the  standard  of  royalty;  and  Zeno,  at  the  outset  of  his  travels, 
calls  him  "  king  of  Persia  "*  in  1450.  Chardin  alludes  to  hlio 
in  the  same  sense;  but  Ijbsan  the  Long  is  a  far  more  pronuncst 
figure,  and  has  hardly  received  justice  at  the  handa  of  the 
historian.  Indeed,  his  identity  seems  to  have  been  lost  in  the 
various  modes  of  spelling  hU  name  adopted  by  the  older 
chroniclers,  who  call  him  indiscriminatdy^  Alyrobeiua,  Ascai- 
beius,  Ascmbec,  Assimbeo,  or  Ussan  Cussano.  He  is  said  re 
have  earned  the  character  of  a  wise  and  valiant  monarch,  to  ba^t 
reigned  eleven  years,  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy,  and. 
on  his  death  in  t477  or  (according  to  Krusinski  and  Zeno)  14:! 
to  have  been  succeeded  on  (he  throne  of  Persia  by  his  son  Ya'qtib. 
This  prince,  who  had  slain  an  elder  brother,  died  by  poisoa 
(1485),  after  a  reign  of  seven  years.  The  dose  was  offered  to 
him  by  his  wife,  who  had  been  unfaithful  to  him  and  sou^t  to 
set  her  paramour  on  his  throne. 

Writers  differ  as  to  the  succession  to  Ya*qub.  Zeno*s  account 
is  that  a  son  named  AUamur  (called  also,  Alamut^  Alvanie. 
El-wand  and  Alwung  Bey)  was  the  next  king,  who, 
besides  Persia,  possessed  Diarbekr  and  part  of 
greater  Armenia  near  the  Euphrates.  On  the  other  hazid. 
Krusinski  states  that,  Va'qub  dying  childless,  bis  rt:laii>^ 
Julaver,  one  of  the  grarKleea  of  the  kingdom,  seized  the  thioix, 
and  held  possession  of  it  for  three  years.  Baisingar.  It  is  adtK-d. 
succeeded  him  in  1488  and  reigned  till  1490,  when  a  young  Doble> 
man  named  Rustan  (Rustam?)  obtained  the  sovereign  pomer 
and  exercised  it  for  seven  years.    This  account  is  confirmed  by 

'See  alio  Ramutio's  preface.  '    *Kii(^Ics.  Purchas.  Zeno. 


M«S-«73«| 


PERSIA 


229 


Ahgidclloy  a  travdier  wbo  foHoiped  his  countrymen  Baibaro 
and  Contarini  to  Persia;  and  from  the  two  authorities  combined 
may  be  gathered  the  further  narration  of  the  morder^f  Rustam 
and  vsuxpbtion  of  the  throne  by  a  certain  Ahmad,  whose  death, 
under  torture,  six  months  afterwards,  made  way  for  Akmut, 
the  young  son  of  ^asan.  These  diacreptitidcs  can  be  reconciled 
on  reference  to  yet  another  record  bound  up  with  the  narratives 
of  the  four  Italians  aforesaid,  and  of  much  the  same  period.  In 
the  Trateh  of  a  Jderekami  in  Persia  the  story  of  Ya'qub's  death 
is  supplemented  by  the  statement  that "  the  great  loids,  hearing 
of  their  king's  decease,  had,  quarrels  among  themselves,  so  that 
for  five  or  ait  years  aU  Persia  was  in  a  state  of  civil  war,  first 
one  and  then  another  of  the  nobles  becoming  sultans.  At  last 
a  youth  named  Akmut,  aged  fourteen  years,  was  raised  to  the 
throne,  which  he  hdd  till  the  succession  of  Sheikh  Isma'iL"  Who 
thb  young  nmn  was  is  not  specified;  but  other  writers  call 
Aianut  and  his  brother  Miirad  the  sons  of  Ya'qub,  as  though 
the  relationship  wens  unquestionable.  * 

Now  little  is  known,  save  incidentally,  of  Julavcr  or  Rustain; 
bul  Rai«w|pr  is  the  name  of  a  nephew  of  Omar  Sheikh,  king 
of  Ferghana  and  oontemporaiy  of  Uzun  l^asan.  There  was 
no  doubt  much  anarchy  and  confusion  in  the  interval  between  the 
death  of  Ya*qub  and  the  icstoration,  for  two  years,  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  White  Sheep.  But  the  tender  age  of  Alamut 
would,  even  in  dvilized  countries,  have  necessitated  a  regency; 
and  it  may  be  assumed  that  he  was  the  next  legitimate  and 
more  generally  reoogntxed  sovereign.  Markham,  in  designating 
this  prince  the  last  of  his  house,  states  that  he  was  dethroned 
by  the  renowned  founder  of  the  Safawi  dynasty.  This  event 
brings  us  to  one  of  the  most  interesting  periods  of  Persian  history, 
any  acamnt  of  which  must  be  defective  without  a  prefatory 
sketch  of  Isma'fl  SuiL 

Tke  Si^  m  Safawii  {Safaw^  I>ynasty  (i^^^-jyj^.—Shetkh 
Saifu  'd>Din  Ixhaik' — lineally  dnooided  from  Musa,  the  seventh 
j^  inam-*-was  a  recent  at  Ardcbil  (ArdaUl)  south« 

SMifWd-iUay*^  of  the  Caspian,  some  time  during  the  X4th 
century.  It  is  said  that  his  rcpuution  for  sanctity, 
attracted  the  attention  of  Timur,  who  sought  him  out  in  his 
abode,  and  was  so  charmed  by  the  visit  that  he  released,  at  the 
holy  man^  request,  a  numbor.of  captives  of  Turtish  origm,  or 
Georgians,  taken  ut  the  warn  with  Bayedd.  The  act  ensured  to 
the  Sheikh  the  constant  devotion  and  graUtude  of  these  menr*- 
a  feeling  which  was  loyally  maintained  by  thdr  descendants 
for  the  members  of  his  fimily  in  successive  -generations. 

His  son  Sadru'd*I>in  and  grandson  Kwaja  *Ali  (who  visited 
Mecca  and  died  at  Jerusalem)  retained  the  high  reputation  of 
their  pious  predecessor.  Junaid,  a  grandson  of  the  last,  married 
a  sister  of  Uzun  ^asan,  and  by  her  had  a  son  named  Sheikh 
Haidar,  who  married  his  cousin  Martha,  daughter 
MtMar.  ^  Uxun  ^asan  and  Queen  Dospina.  Three  sons 
were  the  issue  of  thb  marriage,  Sultan  'Ali,  Ibrahim 
Mirza,  and  the  youngest,  Isma*U,  the  date  of  whose  birth  is 
put  down  as  1480  lor  reasons  which  will  appear  hereafter. 
So  great  was  the  influence  of  Sheikh  Haidar,  and  so  earnestly 
did  he  carry  out  the  principles  of  conduct  which  had  character- 
ixed  his  family  for  five  generations,  that  his  name  has  become, 
as  it  were,  inseparable  from  the  dynasty  of  his  son  Isma''l;  and 
the  term  "  Haidari  "  (leonine)  is  applied  by  many  persons  to 
indicate  generally  the  Safawids  of  Persia.  The  outcome  of  his 
teaching  was  a  divtsion  of  Mahommedanlsm  vitally  momentous 
to  the  world  of  Islam.  The  Feruon  mind  was  pecuUarly  adapted 
to  iccetve  the  form  of  religion  prepared  for  it  by  the  philosophers 
of  Ardebil.  The  doctrines  presented  were  dreamy  and  mystic; 
they  rejected  the  infallibility  of  human  wisdom,  and  threw 
suspicion  on  the  order  and  arrangement  of  human  orthodoxy. 
Tliere  was  free  scope  given  for  the  indulgence  of  that  political 
fmaglnatMMi  which  reveb  in  revolution  and  chafes  at  prescriptive 
bondage.  As  Malcolm  remarks,  "  the  very  essence  of  Sufi-ism 
is  poetry." 

^  According  to  Lano;!^,  the  annotttor  of  Chaidin,  his  real  designa- 
tion wa*  Abu'UFath  Izhak,  the  Sheikh  Saifu  'l-Hakk  wu  'd-Dia  or 
'  **  pure  one  of  truth  and  ceUgi 


Those  authorities  who  maintain  that  Ya*qub  Shah  left'  no 
son  to  succeed  him  consider  valid  the  claim  to  the  vacant  throne 
of  Sheikh  Haidar  Sufi<  Purchas  says  that  Ya*qub  himself, 
**  jealous  of  the  multitude  of  Aidar's  disciples  and  the  greatness 
of  his  fame,  caused  him  to  be  secretly  murthercd  **;  but  Krusinski 
attributes  the  act^to  Rustam  a  few  years  bter.  Zeno,  the  anony- 
mous merchant  and  Angiolello  aflftrm  that  the  devotee  was 
defeated  and  killed  in  battle— the  first  making  his  conqueror 
to  be  Alamut,  the  second  a  general  of  Alamut's,  and  the  third 
an  officer  sent  by  Rustam  named  Suleiman  Bey.  Malcolm^ 
following  the  Zubdalu  U-tawarikk,  relates  that  Sheikh  Haidar 
was  vanquished  and  shiin  by  the  governor  of  Shirvan.  The 
subsequent  statement  that  his  son,  Sultan  *AB,  was  seixed,  in 
company  tilth  two  younger  brothers,  by  Ya'qub,  "  one  of  the 
dcscendints  of  their  grandfather  Utun  Hasan,  who,  jealous  of 
Ike  numerous  disciples  that  resorted  lo  Ardebil,  confined  them 
to  the  hill  fort  of  Istakhr  in  Pars,"  seems  to  indicate  a  second 
interpretatkm  of  the  passage  just  extracted  from  Purchas, 
and  that  there  is  confusion  of  persons  and  incident  somewhere. 
One  of  the  sons  here  alluded  to  was  lsma*il,  whom  Malcolm 
makes  to  have  been  only  seven  years  of  age  when  he  fied  to 
Gilan  In  1493.  Zcno  states  that  he  was  then  thirteen,  which  is 
much  more  probable,*  and  the  seven!  data  available  for  reference 
are  m  favour  of  this  supposition. 

The  life  of  the  young  Sufi  from  this  period  to  his  assumption 
of  royalty  in  1499  was  full  of  stirring  adventure;  and  his  career 
as  Isma*il  I.  was  a  brilliant  one.  According  to  ,,,.«. 
Zeno,  who  seems  to  have  carefully  recorded  the 
events  of  the  time,  he  left  his  temporary  home  on  an  bland  of 
Lake  Van  before  he  was  eighteen,  and,  passing  into  Karabakh,* 
between  the  Aras  and  Kur,  turned  in  a  south-easterly  direction 
into  Gilan.  Here  he  was  enabled,  through  the  assistance  of  a 
friend  of  his  father,  to  raise  a  small  force  with  which  to  take 
possession  of  Baku  on  the  Ca^>{an,  and  thence  to  march  upoa 
Shemakha  ■  in  Shirvan,  a  town  abandoned  to  him  without  a 
straggle.  Hearing,  however,  that  Alamut  was  advancing  to 
meet  him,  he  was  compelled  to  seek  new  levies  from  among  the 
Jen^an  Christians  and  others.  At  the  head  of  16,000  men,  he 
thoroughly  routed  hb  opponents,  and,  having  deared  the  way 
before  him,  marched  straight  upon  Tabriz,  which  at  once  sup* 
rendeied.  Be  was  soon  after  prodaimed  shah  of  Persia  ((499), 
under  the  designation  vrtiich  marked  the  family  school  of 
thought. 

Alamut  had  taken  refuge  at  DIarbekr;  but  hb  brother  Murad, 
at  the  head  of  an  anny  strengthened  by  Turkish  anxih'aries, 
was  still  in  the  field  with  the  object  of  contesting  the  paternd 
crown.  Isma*il  lost  no  time  in  moving  against  him,  and  won 
a  new  victory  on  the  plains  of  Tabriz.  Murad  fled  with  a  smsQ 
remnant  of  hb  soldiers  to  Dbrbekr,  the  rallying-point  of  the 
White  Sheep  Turcomans.  Zeno  states  that  in  the  following 
year  Ismail  entered  upon  a  new  campaign  in  Kurdbtan  and 
Asia  Minor,  but  that  he  returned  to  Tabriz  without  accomplishing 
hb  object,  having  been  harassed  by  the  tactics  of  Ala  ud-DauIa, 
a  beylerbey,  or  governor  in  Armenia  and  parts  of  Syria.  Another 
writer  says  that  he  marched  against  Murad  Khan  in  Irak-l- 
Ajami  and  Shirax.  Thb  last  account  b  extremely  probable, 
and  would  show  that  the  young  Turkoman  had  wbhcd  to  make 
one  grand  effort  to  save  Isfahan  and  Shinui  (with  Kazvin  and 
the  neighbouring  omntry),  these  being,  after  the  capital  Tabriz, 
the  most  important  dties  of  Uzun  Hasan's  Persia.  Hb  men, 
however,  apparently  dismayed  at  the  growing  prestige  of  the 
enemy,  did  not  support  him,  and  he  was  defeated  and  probably 
slain.  There  b  similar  evidence  of  the  death  of  Alamut,  who, 
it  b  alleged,  was  treadierously  handed  over  to  be  killed  by  the 
shah's  own  hands. 

Isma*il  returned  again  to  Tabriz  (1501)  "and  caused  great 
rejoicings  to  be  made  on  accmmt  of  hb  victory."  In  1505 
he  had  added  to  hb  conquests  Bagdad,  Mosul  and  Jezira  on 
the  Tigna.    The  next  year  he  was  called  to  the  province  o| 

* 

>So  thinks  the  editor  and  annotator  of  the  ItaHaa  Traods  IM 
^srsia,  Charles  Grty. 

■  Possibly  Kara-Kttgb,  a«  being  the  moee  dlnct  ooad 


230 


PERSIA 


|t4as-t7a< 


WarwMk 


Gflan  ta  cluutfae  a  refractory  ruler.  Having  acoompliahed  his 
end,  he  came  back  to  his  capital  and  remained  there  in 
j^  comparative  quiet  tiU  1507^  Malcolm's  dates  are 
somewhat  at  variance  with  the  above,  lor  he  infen 
that  Bagdad  was  subdued  in  that  particular  year, 
but  the  facts  remain.  All  writers  seem  to  agree  that  in  1508 
the  king's  attention  was  drawn  to  an  invasion  of  Khorasan  by 
Shaibani,  or  Shahi  Beg,  the  Uzbeg,  a  descendant  of  Jenghis  and 
the  most  formidable  opponent  of  Babar,  from  whom  he  had. 
seven  years  before,  wrested  the  cily  of  Samarkand,  and  whom 
he  had  driven  from  Turkestan  to  Kabul.  Since  these  exploits 
he  had  obtained  great  successes  in  Tashkent,  Ferghana,  Htssar, 
Kunduz,  and  Khwarizm  (Kharezm),  and,  at  the  time  referred  to, 
had  left  Sfimarkand  intent  upon  mischief  south  and  west  of  ibe 
Oxus,  had  passed  the  Murghab,  and  had  reached  Sarakhs  (Scr- 
rakhs).  Isma'il  encamped  on.this  occasion  at  Isfahan,  and  there 
concentrated  the  bulk  of  his  army — strengthening  his  northern 
(and  probably  north-eastern)  frontier  with  Urge  bodies  of  cavalry, 
but  malnuioing  aa  attitude  of  simple  watchfulness.  In  1510, 
when  Shaibani  had  invaded  Khorasan  the  second  lime,  and  had 
^vaged  the  Persian  province  of  KermAn,  Shah  Isma'U  aaked 
for  redress,  referring  to  the  land  encroached  on  as  "  hereditary  "; 
and  Shaibani  replied  that  he  did  not  understand  on  what  was 
founded  the  claim  "  to  inherit."  Eventually  the  Persian  troops 
were  put  in  movement,  and  the  Uattegs,  having  been  divided 
into  small  detachments  scattered  over  the  country,  fell  back 
and  retreated  to  Herat.  Their  leader  repaired  to  Merv,  but 
Isma*i]  quickly  followed  him  and  enticed  him  out  to  battle 
by  taunt  and  reproach.  Shaibani  was  defeated  and  fled,  but 
was  overtaken  in  his  flight,  and  put  to  the  sword,  together  with 
numerous  relatives  and  companions. 

The  next  remarkable  event  in  IsmaMl's  reign  is  his  war  with 
Sultan  Selim  I.  Its  origin  may  be  traced  to  the  Ottoman 
emperor's  hatred  and  persecution  of  all  heretical 
Moslems  in  his  dominions,  and  the  shah's  anger  at 
the  fanaticism  which  had  urged  him  to  the  slaughter 
of  40,000  Turks  suspected  to  have  thrown  oS  the  orthodox 
Sunnite  doctrines.  The  sultan's  army  advanced  into  Azer- 
baijan and  western  Persia  through  Tokat  and  Erzingan.  Isma'il 
bad  at  this  time  the  greater  number  of  his  soldiers  employed 
in  his  newly-conquered  province  of  Khorasan  and  was  driven 
to  raise  new  levies  in  Kurdistan  to  obtain  a  sufficient  force  to 
resist  the  invasion.  It  is  asserted  by  some  ihat  his  frontier  then 
extended  westward  to  Sivas,  a  city  situated  in  a  large  high  plain 
watered  by  the  Kizil  Irmak,  and  that  hence  to  Khoi,  qo  m.  west 
of  Tabriz,  he  followed  the  approved  and  often  successful  tactics 
of  ravaging  and  retreating,  so  as  to  deprive  his  advancing 
enemy  U  supplies.  There  is  good  evidence  to  show  that  the 
Turkish  janissaries  were  within  an  ace  of  open  revolt,  and  that 
but  for  extraordinary  firmness  in  dealing  with  them  they  would 
have  abandoned  their  leader  in  his  intended  march  upon  Tabriz. 
In  fine,  at  or  near  Khoi,  the  frontier-town  of  Azerbaijan,  the 
battle  (1514)  was  fought  between  the  two  rival  monarchs,  ending 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Persian^  and  the  triumphant  entry  of  Selim 
into  their  capital. 

There  are  stirring  accounts  of  that  action  and  of  the  gallant 
deeds  performed  by  ScUm  and  Isma'il,  both  personally  engaged 
in  it,  as  well  as  by  their  generals.'  Others  maintain  that  Isma'il 
was  not  present  at  all.*  It  is  tolerably  certain  that  the  Turks 
won  the  day  by  better  organization,  superiority  of  numbers, 
and  more  especially  the  use  of  artillery.  On  the  side  of  the 
Fenians  the  force  consisted  of  little  mor^  than  cavaby. 

'An^olella 

*  KooUes,  Malcolm,  Creasy,  Markham.  Ac. 

*  Zeno.  AnsioleUo  says  that  "  the  Sophi  monarch  had  left  for 
Taurb  ITabriz]  in  order  to  assemble  more  troops."  Krusinski  infers 
much  to  the  same  effect,  for  he  notes  that  "  belim  came  in  person 
and  took  Tauris  from  Ismail,  but  o<  fJbc  nois$  6f  kis  approach  was 
obliged  to  retreat  with  prccspiutioa."  The  battle  must  thus  have 
been  fought  and  the  victory  gained  m^en  the  shah  was  himself  absent. 
Vet  Markham  quotes  a  journal  which  thus  records  his  feats  of 
prowess:  "  It  was  in  vain  that  the  brave  Shah,  with  a  blow  of  his 
•abre,  severed  a  chain  with  which  the  Turkish  guns  wbkb  fastened 
tovBther  to  reaitt  tha  shock  of  the  Fenian  cavaliy." 


Selim  remained  at  Tabris  no  man  than  eight  days.  LeirNl 
acontribution  at  that  city  of  a  largie  number  of  iu  skilled  artisans 
whom  he  sent  off  to  Constantinople,  he  narefaed  thenoe  towards 
Karabagh  with  intent  to  fix  his  winter  qnaAers  in  those  pans 
and  newly  invade  Persia  in  the  spring,  but  the  insubordinatioa 
of  his  troops  tendered  necessary  his  speedy  retiun  to  Turkey. 
His  expedilMn,  if  not  very  glorious,  haid  not  been  unprodnctive 
of  visible  fruits.  Besides  humbling  the  power  of  an  arrogant 
enemy,  he  had  conquered  and  annexed  to  his  dominions  tlw 
provinces  of  Diarbekr  and  Kurdistan.* 

From  1 5 14  to  1524,  although  the  hostile  feeling  betweea 
the  two  countries  was  very  strong,  there  was  no  serious  nor  open 
warfarp.  Selim's  attention  was  diverted  from  Persia  to  Egypt; 
Isma'il  took  advantage  of  the  sultan's  death  in  1519  to  overran 
and  subdue  unfortunate  Geori^a,  as  Jahan  Shah  of  the  **  Black 
Sheep  "  had  done  before  him;  but  Suleiman,  who  snccetdLd 
Sehm,  was  too  strong  to  aodmit  of  retaliatory  tnvasioa  being 
earned  out  with  impunity  at  the  isost  of  Turkey. 

In  1524  Isma'il  died*  at  Ardcbil  when  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
tomb  of  his  father.  "  The  Persians  dwell  with  rapture  on  his 
character,"  writes  Sir  John  Malcolm,  for  they  deem  j^^- 
him  "  not  only  the  founder  of  a  great  dynasty,  but  ^^^[^f^ 
the  person  to  whom  that  faith  in  which  ihey  ^ory 
owes  its  establishment  as  a  national  religion.**  And  he  qootca 
a  note  handed  down  by  I'urchas  ifrom  a  contemporary  European 
traveller  which  reports  of  him  thur. "  His  subjects  deemed  him  a 
saint,  and  made  use  of  his  name  in  their  prasrers.  Many  disdained 
to  wear  armour  when  they  fou^t  under  Isma'il;  and  so  enthu- 
siastic were  his  soldiers  in  their  new  faith  that  they  used  to  bare 
their  breasts  to  their  enemies  and  court  death,  ezdaixaiog 
*  Shiahl  Shiahl '  to  mark  the  holy  cause  for  which  they  fought." 

Shah  fahmasp,*  the  eldest  of  the  four  sons  of  Isma'il,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father.'  The  principal  occur- 
rences in  his  reign,  phced  aa  nearly  as  possible  in 
chroitological  order,  were  a  renewal  of  war  with 
the  Uzbegs,  who  had  again  invaded  Khorasan,  and 
the  overthrow  of  their  army  (1527);  the  recoveiy  of  Bagdad 
from  a  Kurdish  usurper  (1528);  the  settlement  of  an  intecBal 
feud  between  Kizil-bash  tribes  (Shamlu  and  Tufculu),  contencfing 
for  the  custody  of  the  royal  person,  by  the  slaughter  of  the  more 
unruly  of  the  disputants  (1529);  the  rescue  of  Khorasan  from  a 
fresh  irruptk>n,  aind  of  Herat  from  a  besieging  army  of  Uibcgs 
(1530);  a  new  invasion  of  the  Ottomans,  from  vdudi  Persia  was 
saved  rather  by  the  severity  of  her  dimate  than  by  tlie  pcowcas 
of  her  warriors  (1533);  the  wresting  of  Bagdad  from  Pern,  by 
the  sultan  Suleiman  ( 1 534) ;  the  king's  youngest  brother's  rebelHoa 

*  It  was  about  this  time  that  Perna  again  entered  into  dinct 
relations  with  one  of  the  states  of  western  Europe.  In  1510  aod 
1514  Alphonso  d'Albuqueniue,  the  governor  of  Portuguese  India, 
sent  envoys  to  Isma'il,  seeking  an  alliance.  la  1515.  after  occupying 
Hormue,  ne  despatched  a  thutl  embassy  under  Femao  Gomes  de 
Lcmos.  His  object  was  to  utilize  the  Shi*ite  armies  in  ooojunctioa 
with  the  Portuguese  fleet  for  an  attack  upon  the  Sunnite  powers-' 
Egypt  and  Turkey — which  were  then  at  war  with  Portoipil  in  the 
East.  See,  for  further  deuils  and  authorities,  K.  G.  Jayne,  V««s 
da  Cama  and  kis  Successors^  pp.  loS-lio  and  App.  A.  (London, 
1910).— Ed. 

*  Malcolm  says  1523.  Krusinski  1525:  Angiolelk»  beard  of  Us 
death  at  Cairo  ui  August  1524.  Krustnsld  aoos  that  he  was  forty- 
five  years  of  age. 

*  AngiolcUo  calls  him  "  Shiacthemcs."  As  an  instance  of  the 
absurd  transliterating  current  in  France  as  in  England  the  word 
"  Ach-tacon  *'  may  be  mentioned.  It  is  explained  in  Chardin's 
text  to  mean  "  les  hdpitaux  &  Tauris:  c'est-&*dire  lieux  oii  Tots  /oA 
profusion  de  fares.**  Chardin's  editor  remarks,  *'  La  deiiulse 
partie  de  ce  mot  est  m^nnaissablc.  et  je  ne  puis  deviner  quel  mot 
Fersan  signifiant  profuuon  a  pu  donncr  naiscance  i  la  corruptioo 
qu'on  voit  ki."  In  other  worcis,  the  first  syllable  "  ach  '*  (Angfice 
ask)  was  understood  in  its  common  acceptance  for  **  food  or 
"  victuals  " ;  but  "  tacon  "  was  naturally  a  punier.  The  sohitioa  of 
the  whole  difficulty  is.  however,  to  be  found  in  the  Tufco-Penian 
43Uk  "'*  it  Itkadak  hkandk,  pronounced  by  TUria  kmski 
more  vulgariy  osta  kkon  and  even  to  a  Frendi  cor. 
horoital,  uterally  a  sick-house.  This  word  is  dndoubtedly 
at  Tabriz  and  throughout  northern  Penia. 

'  The  other  brothers  were  Ilkhas,  Bahram  and  Sam  Misan. 
having  had  lus  particular  appanage  awngnrd  hinw 


Mti-in(l 


PERSTA 


23* 


•nd  the  Actual  lebaro  of  Hermt,  neoesaitsting  t^  recovery  of 
that  city  and  a  match  to  Kandahar  (1536  );  the  tempoxaiy  kos 
of  Kandahar  ia  the  foUowiog  year  (iS37)f  when  the  governor 
ceded  it  to  Priaoe  Kaaras,  aon  of  Babar;  the  hospitable  receptaoQ 
acooided  to  the  Indian  empemr  Humayun  (1543);  the  rebellion 
of  the  shah's  brother  next  in  age»  Ukbas,  who,  by  hia  alliance 
with  the  sultan,  brought  on  a  war  with  Turkey  (1548)^^  *nd 
finally  a  fresh  expedition  to  Georgia,  followed  by  a  revengef til 
incursion  which  resulttd  in  the  enforced  bondage  of  thousands 
of  the  inhabitants  (1552). 

Bayezid,  a  son  of  the  TUriush  emperor,  rebelled,  and  his 
anny  was  beaten  in  1559  by  the  iniierial  troops  at  Konia 
^  ^^  in  Asia  Minor.  He  fled  to  Persia  and  took  refuge 
t!^^,  with  Shah  T^inAsPi  who  pledged  himself  to  give 
him  a  permanent  asylam.  Suleiman's  demand, 
however,  for  eztnd^on  or  execution  was  too  peremptoiy  for 
refusal,  and  the  prince  was  delivered  up  to  the  messengers  sent 
to  take  him.  Whatever  the  motive,  the  act  itself  was  highly 
appreciated  by  Suleiman,  and  became  the  means  of  cementing  a 
fcceotly  concluded  peace  between  the  two  monsrchs.  Perhaps 
the  domestic  affliction  of  the  emperor  and  the  anarchy  which 
in  his  later  years  had  spread  in  his  dominions  had,  however, 
more  to  do  with  the  maintenance  of  tranquillity  than  any  mere 
personal  feeling.  At  this  time  not  only  was  there  reb'gious 
fanaticism  at  work  to  stir  up  the  mutual  hatred  ever  existing 
between  Sunni  and  Shi*ah,  but  the  intrigue  of  European  courts 
was  probably  directed  towards  the  maintenance  of  an  hostihty 
which  deterred  the  sultan  from  aggressive  operations  north  and 
west  of  Constaatinople.  "  Tisonly  the  Persian  stands  between 
us  and  ruin  "  is  the  reported  saying  of  Busbccq,  ambassador 
at  Suleiman's  court  oil  thie  part  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria;  "  the 
Turk  would  fain  be  upon  us,  but  he  keeps  him  back." 

In  1561  Anthony  Jenkinson  arrived  in  Persia  with  a  letter 
^m  Queen  Elizabeth  to  the  shah.  He  was  to  treat  with  his 
majesty  of  "Trafique  and  Commerce  for  our  English  Mar- 
chants,"*  but  his  reception  was  not  encouraging,  and  led  to 
no  result  of  importance. 

Tahmasp  died  in  1576,  after  a  reign  of  about  fifty-two 
jrears.  Ue  must  have  been  some  sixty-six  yean  of  age,  having 
_  come  to  the  throne  at  fourteen.    Writers  describe 

DMOk^'  him  as  a  robust  man,  of  middle  stature,  wide-lipped, 
and  of  tawny  complexion.  He  was  not  wanting 
in  soldierly  qualities;  but  his  virtues  were  rather  negative  than 
decided.  The  deceased  shah  had  a  numerous  progeny,  and  on 
his  death  his  fifth  son,  Haidar  Mirza,  proclaimed  himself  king, 
supported  in  his  pretensions  by  the  Kizil-basb  tribe  of  Ustujulu. 
Another  tribe,  the  Afshar,  insisted  on  the  succession  of  the 
fourth  son,  Isma'il.  Had  it  not  been  that  there  were  two 
candidates  in  the  field,  the  contention  would  have  resembled 
that  which  arose  shortly  after  T^hma^>'8  accession.  Finally 
Isma'il,  profiting  from  his  brother's  weak  character  and  the 
intrigues  set  on  foot  against  him,  obtained  his  object,  and  was 
brought  from  a  prison  to  receive  the  crown. 

The  reign  of  Isma'il  IL  lasted  less  than  two  years.  He  was 
found  dead  in  the  house  of  a  confectioner  in  Kazvin,  having 
left  the  world  dthcr  drunk,  drugged  or  poisoned 
No  steps  were  taken  to  verify  the  circumstances,  for 
the  event  itself  was  a  cause  of  general  relief  and  joy.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  brother,  Mahommed  Mirza,  otherwise 
Mabomm0d  caXl^  Mahommcd  Khudabanda,  whose  daim  to 
Kkuttf  sovereignty  had  been  originally  put  aside  on  the 
**"'''  ground  of  physical  infirmity.  He  had  the  good 
sense  to  trust  his  state  affairs  almost  wholly  to  an  able 
minister;  but  be  was  cowardly  enough  to  deliver  up  that 
minister  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  His  kingdom  was 
distracted  by  intestine  divisions  and  rebellion,  and  the  foe 

'  Cteasy  says  that  "  Sutiman  led  his  armies  against  the  Persians 
in  teveral  campaigns  (1533,  1S34«  I535i  IS48.  iS53<  ij554)'  during 
which  the  Tutlb  often  •un^cdaeverely  through  the  dtttcuU  nature 
of  the  eountries  trsvcrBed^  as  well  as  through  the  bravery  and 
•etivity  of  the  enemy."  All  the  years  given  were  ia  the  reign  cf 
^^n Ruup  n 

•FurdMS* 


BuawOli, 


appeared  also  from  without  On  the  east  his  youngest  son 
*Abbas,  held  possession  of  Khorasan;  on  the  west  the  sultan's 
troops  again  entered  Aserbaijan  and  took  Tabriz.  His 
eldest  son,  Hamza  Mirza,  upheld  his  fortunes  to  the  utmost 
of  his  power,  reduced  the  rebel  chieftains,  and  forced  the  Turks 
to  make  peace  and  retire;  but  he  was  stabbed  to  death  by 
an  assassin.  On  the  news  of  his  death  rsadiing  Khocaaaiu 
Murshid  KuU  Khan,  leader  of  the  Ustujulu  Kizfl-bash,  who  hsd 
made  good  in  fight  his  claims  to  the  guardianship  of  'Abba% 
at  once  conducted  the  young  prince  from  that,  piovinco  t# 
Kazvin,  and  occupied  the  royal  city<  The  object  was  evident, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  popular  feeling.  'Abbas,  who  had 
been  proclaimed  king  by  the  nobles  at  Nishapur  some  two  or 
three  years  before  this  occurrence,  may  be  said  to  have  now 
undertaken  in  earnest  the  cares  of  sovereignty.  H^  ill-starred 
father,  at  no  time  moce  than  a  nominal. ruler,  was  at  Shirai^ 
apparently  deserted  by  soldiers  and  people.  Malcolm  infeis 
that  he  died  a  natural  death,  but  when*  or  where  is  not  statedL 

Shah  'Abbas  the  Great  commenced  his  long  and  glorious 
reign  (1586)  by  retracing  his  steps  towards  Kborasan,  which 

had  been  xeinvaded  by  the  Uzbegs  almost  imme* 

diately  after  bis  departure  thence  with  the  KizUrbash  SUZ 
chief.  They  had  besieged  and  uken  Herat,  killed  the 
governor,  plundered  the  town,  and  laid  waste  the  surrounding 
country.  'Abbas  advanced  to  Meshed,  but  owing  to  internal 
troubles  he  was  compelled  to  return  to  Kazvin  without  going 
farther  east.  In  his  absence  *Abd-ul-Munim  Khan,  the  Uzbeg 
conunander,  attacked  the  sacred  city,  obtained  possesswn  oC  tl 
while  the  shah  lay  helplessly  ill  at  Teherftn,  andaUowod  his  aavagtt 
soldiers  full  licence  to  kill  and  plunder.  The  whole  kingdom 
was  perplexed,  and  'Abbas  had  much  work  to  restore  confidence 
and  tranquillity.  But  circumstances  rendered  impossible  his 
immediate  renewal  of  the  Khorasan  warfare.  He  was  summoned 
to  Shlraz  to  put  down  rebellion  in  Pars;  and  before  he  could 
drive  out  the  Uzbegs,  he  had  to  secure  himself  against  Turkish 
inroads  threatening  from  the  west.  He  had  been  engaged  in  • 
war  with  Murad  lU.  in  Georgia.  Peace  was  concluded  between 
the  two  sovereigns  in  1590;  but  the  terms  were  unfavourablt 
to  Persia,  who  lost  thereby  Tabriz  and  one  or  more  of  the  Caspian 
ports.  A  stipulation  was  included  in  the  treaty  to  the  effect 
that  Persians  were  not  to  ouse  any  longer  the  first  three  caliphs^ 
— a  sort  of  privilege  previously  enjoyed  by  Shiltes  as  part  and 
parcel  of  their  religious  faith. 

In  1597  'Abbas  renewed  operations  against  the  Uzbegs,  and 
succeeded  in  recovering  from  them  Herat  and  Khorasan.  East* 
ward  he  extended  his  dominions  to  Badkh,  and  in  the  south  his 
generals  made  the  conquest  of  Bahrain  (Bahrein),  on  the  Arabian 
side  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  territory  and  isUuids  of  the 
Persian  seaboard,  inclusive  of  the  mountainous  province  of 
Lar.  He  strengthened  his  position  in  Khorasan  by  pUnting 
colonies  of  Kurdish  horsemen  on  the  frontier,  or  along  what  is 
called  the  "  atak  "  or  skirt  of  the  Turkoman  mountains  north  oC 
Persia.  In  1601  the  war  with  the  Ottoman  Empire,  which  had 
been  partially  renewed  prior  to  the  death  of  Sultan  Mucad  in 
>595«  with  little  success  on  the  Turkish  side,  was  now  entered 
upon  by  'Abbas  with  more  vigour.  Taking  advantage  of  the 
weakness  of  his  andent  enemy  in  the  days  of  the  poor  vohip* 
toary  Mahommed  III.,  he  began  rapidly  to  recover  the  provinces 
wfaidi  Persia  had  lost  ia  preceding  rdgns,  and  continued  to 
reap  his  advantages  in  sucoeeding  cnmpaigns  under  Ahmed  L» 
until  under  Othman  IL  a  peactf  was  signed  restoring  bo  Pferain 
the  boundaries  which  she  had  obtained  under  the  first  Isma'iL 
On  the  other  side  Kandahar^  which  Tibmaap's  lieutenant  had 
yielded  to  the  Great  Mogul,  was  fwovered  Iron  that  potentatn 
ia  1609. 

At  the  age  of  seventy,  after  a  ndgn  Of  forty-two  years.  Abbas 
died  at  his  favourite  palace  of  Fasahahad,  on  the  coast  of 
Mazandaran,  on  the  night  of  the  a7th  of  January  i62g.  Periiapa 
the  most  distinguished  of  all  Persian  kings,  his  fame  was  uit 
merely  tocal  but  world«widfe  At  his  court  were  ambaasadoat 
from  England,  Kus^ia,  Spain,  Portugal,  Holland. and  India. 

says  in  1585. 


232 


.PERSIA 


ftifr^nK 


Ta  hb  Qvutian  subjectihe  fns  a  kind  and  tolerant  ruler. 
Tbe  establishinent  of  internal  tranquillity,  the  expulsion  of 
Interlopers  and  marauders  like  Turks  and  Uzbegs,  the  intro- 
duction of  salutary  laws  aiid  the  promotion  of  public  works  o> 
atilit3r — these  alone  would  render  remarkable  his  twD«score 
years  of  enlightened  government.  With  a  fine  face,  "  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  features  were  a  high  nose  and  a  keen  and 
pierdng  eye,"^  he  is  said  to  have  been  below  the  middle  height, 
lobust,  active,  a  sportsman,  and  capable  of  tmiA  endurance. 
It  is,  however,  to  be  regretted  that  this  monardi's  memoiy  is 
tarnished  by  more  than  one  dark  deed.  The  murder  of  his 
eldest  son,  ^ufi  Mlrza,  and  the  cruel  treatment  of  the  two 
younger  brother^  were  stains  which  could  not  be  obliterated  by 
an  after-repentance.  All  that  can  be  now  said  or  done  in  the 
matter  is  to  repeat  the  testimony  of  historians  that  his  grief  for 
the  loss  of  Sufi  Mirza  was  profound,  and  that,  on  his  death- 
bed, he  nominated  that  prince's  son  (his  own  grandson)  his 
successor. 

"Ssaa  Mirza  was  seventeen  years  of  age  when  the  nqbles,  in 
fulfilment  of  the  charge  committed  to  them,  proclaimed  lum 
g^iiff^  king  under  the  title  of  Shah  Sufi.  He  reigned 
^^  fourteen  years,  and  his  reign  was  a  succession  of 
barbarities,  which  can  onJy  be  attributed  to  an  evil  di^x»iti<Ni 
acted  upon  by  an  educatkm  void  of  all  civilising  influences.  When 
left  to  his  own  devices  he  became  a  drunkard  and  a  murderer, 
and  is  accused  of  the  death  of  his  mother,  sister  and  favourite* 
queen.  Among  many  other  sufferers  Imam  Kuli  Khan,  con- 
queror of  Lar  and  Hormus,  the  son  of  one  of  'Abbas's  most 
famous  generals,  founder  of  a  college  at  Shiraz,  and  otherwise 
a  public  benefactor,  fell  a  victim  to  his  savage  cruelty.  During 
his  reign  the  Uzbegs  were  driven  back  from  Khorasan,  and  a 
rebellion  was  suppressed  in  Gilan;  but  Kandahar  was  again 
handed  over  to  the  Moguls  of  Delhi,  and  Bagdad  retaken  from 
Persia  by  Sultan  Murad*-both  serious  national  losses.  Tavcr- 
nier,  mthout  charging  the  diah  with  injustice  to  Christians, 
mentions  the  drcumstanoe  that  "  the  first  and  only  European 
ever  publicly  executed  in  Persia  was  in  his  reign."  He  was 
a  watchmaker  named  Rodolph  Stadler,  who  had  slain  a  Persian 
on  suspicion  of  intrigue  with  his  wife.  Offered  his  life  if  he 
became  a  Moslem,  he  resolutely  declined  the  proposal,  and  was 
decapitated.  His  tomb  is  to  be  recognized  at  Isfahan  by  the 
words  **  Cy  git  Rodolphe  "  on  a  long  wide  slab.  Shah  $ufi  died 
(1641)  at  Kashan  and  was  buried  at  Kum. 

His  son,  'Abbas  IL,  succeeded  him.  Beyond  regaining 
Randaharj^an  operation  which  he  is  said  to  have  directed  in 
'Abbas  IL  P®^^^  ^hen  barely  sixteen,  there  is  not  much  to 
mark  his  life  to  the  outer  world.  As  to  foreign 
relations,  he  received  embassies  from  Europe  and  a  deputation 
from  the  French  East  India  Company;  he  sought  to  conciliate 
the  Uzbegs  by  treating  their  refugee  chiefs  with  unusual  honour 
and  sumptuous  hospitality;  he  kept  on  good  terms  with  Turkey; 
he  forgave  the  hostility  of  a  Georgian  prince  when  brought  to 
him  a  captive;  and  he  was  tolerant  to  all  religions— always 
regarding  Christiaiis  with  espedal  favour.  But  he  was  a  drunk- 
ard and  a  debauchee,  and  chroniclers  are  divided  in  opinion 
as  to  whether  he  died  from  the  effects  of  drink  or  licentious 
living.  That  he  changed  the  system  of  blinding  his  relatives 
from  passing  a  hot  metal  over  the  open  eye  to  an  extraction 
of  the  whole  pupil  is  indicative  of  gross  brutality.  *Abbas  II 
died  (166S)  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight,  after  a  reign  of  twenty 
seven  years,  and  was  buried  at  Kum  in  tlie  same  mosque  as  l^s 
father. 

•  'Abbas  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Shah  $ufi  II.,  crowned  a 
aeoond  time  under  the  name  of  Shah  Suldman.  Though  weak, 
ifc.i.y— !■  dissolute  and  cruel,  Suleiman  is  not  without  his 
paneg3rrists.  Chardin,  whose  testimony  is  all  the 
more  valuable  from  the  fact  that  he  was  contemporary  with 
him,  reUies  many  stories  characteristic  of  his  temper  and  habits 
He  kept  op  a  court  at  Isfahan  which  surprised  and  delighted 
Ids  foreign  visitors,  among  whom  were  ambassadors  from 
Europeaa  states,  and  one  learned  writer,  Kaempfery  credits 

>Malcob9. 


him  with  wisdom  and  good  poBcy.  During  hit  Nigil  Kiionaaa 
was  invaded  by  the  ever-encroaching  Uzbegs,  the  KipHiak 
Tatars  plunderiMi  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  and  the  island  of 
Kishm  was  taken  by  the  Dutdi;  but  the  kingdom  suffcfed 
otherwise  no  material  loss.  He  died  in  1694,  in  the  focty-aintk 
year  of  his  age  and  twenty-sixth  of  his  ttign. 

About  a  year  before  his  death,  be  is  described  by  Saosoa,*  a 
missionary  from  the  French  king  Louis  XIV.,  as  tall,  stvoog  and 
active,  "  a  fine  prince— a  little  too  effeminate  for  a  uonaTdi,** 
with  "  a  Roman  nose  very  well  proportioned  to  other  parts," 
very  large  blue  eyes,  and  "  a  midllnig  mouth,  a  baard  painted 
black,  shav'd  round,  and  well  tum'd,  even  t»  his  eats."  The 
same  writer  greatly  praises  him  for  hb  kindneia  to  Christian 
missionaries. 

Kruslnski's  memoir  is  full  of  particulaxs  regarding  Shah 
9osain,  the  successor  of  Suleiman.  He  had  an  elder  and  a 
younger  brother,  sons  of  the  same  mother,  but  the 
eldest  had  been  put  to  death  by  his  father's  ordeis, 
and  the  youngest  secreted  by  maternal  piecautfon  lest  a  sinibr 
fate  should  overtake  him.  There  was,  bowever,  a  seeoad 
candidate  for  power  in  the  person  of  a  half-brother,  *Abba& 
The  hitter  prince  was  the  worthier  of  the  throne,  but  tlie  other 
better  suited  the  pon<y  of  the  eunuchs  and  those  noblemen  who 
had  the  right  of  election.  Indeed  Suldmaa  himself  is  reported 
to  have  told  the  grandees  around  hhn,  id  his  last  days,  that 
"  if  they  were  for  a  martial  king  that  would  always  keep  hii 
foot  in  the  stirrup  they  ought  to  choose  Mirsa  'Abbas,  but  that 
if  they  wished  for  a  peaceable  reign  and  a  padfie  king  they 
ought  to  fix  their  eyes  upon  Hosaih.'*  Btat  he  himself  made  as 
definite  choice. 

Hosain  was  Selected,  as  might  have  been  aatidpsted.  On 
his  accession  (1694)  he  displayed  his  attadbmeal  to  religioia 
observances  by  prohibiting  the  use  of  wine — caus&ig  all  wine- 
vessels  to  be  brought  out  of  the  roya)  cellars  and  destroyed,  and 
forbidding  the  Armenians  to  sell  any  more  of  their  stock  is 
Isfahan.  The  shah's  grandmother,  by  feigning  hetseU  sick  aad 
dependent  upon  wine  only  for  cure,  obtained  reveisaX  of  the 
edict.  For  the  following  account  of  Shah  Qosaia  and  bis 
successors  to  the  accession  of  Nadir  Shah,  Sir  Cfeflseais 
Markham's  account  has  been  mainly  utilised. 

The  new  king  soon  fell  under  the  influenoe  of  miiUahs,  and  was  led 
80  far  to  forget  his  own  origia  as  to  persecute  the  Sufis.    Though 
ffood'hearted  he  was  weak  and  licenrious;  and  once  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  fanatical  party  ho  became  ensnared  by  women  and 
entanj^led  in  harem  intrigues.    For  twenty  years  a  profouiKl  peace 
prevailed  throughout  the  eraivire,  but  it  wis  the  precursor  ei  a 
terriUc  storm  destinod  to  destroy  the  Safawid  dynasty  and  •cattcr 
calamity  broadcast  over  Persia.    In  tbe  mountaincws  districts  of 
Kandahar  and  Kabul  the  hardy  tribes  of  Afghans  had  for  cnuuries 
led  a  wild  and  almost  indcfxndent  life.    They  were  <iUvided  into 
two  great  branches — the  Ghilzais  of  Ghazni  and  Katnit  aad  the 
Sadusais  of  Kandahar  and  Herat.     In  I702  a  newly>-appoiated 
governor,  one  Shah  Nawaz,  called  Gurii  Khan  from  haviw  beea 
"  wall  "  or  ruler  of  Georgia,  arri^Td  at  Kandahar  with  a  tMerallv 
large  force.    He  was  a  clever  and  energetic  man,  and  had  ben 
instructed  to  take  severe  measares  with  the  Afghans,  some  of  wbc^ 
were  suspected  of  intriguing  to  restore  the  city  to  the  DeUil  etnpfror. 
At  this  time  Kandahar  had  been  for  sixty  years  uninteirupte^y  ffi 
the  shah's  possession.    The  governor  appears  to  have  gi\-<cn  grear 
offence  by  the  harshness  of  his  procc&dmgs,  and  a  Ooilaai  chidi 
named  Nfir  Wa'i^,  who  had  complained  of  his  tyranny,  was  sen:  a 
prisoner  to  Isfahan.    This  person  had  much  ability  and  iid  iirtle 
cunning.    He  was  permtued  to  s^o  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  aad 
on  his  return  in  i7o8  he  so  gamed  upon  the  confidence  oC  ih£ 
Persian  court  that  he  was  allowed  to  fi;o  back  to  his  country.    At 
Kandahar  he  planned  a  conspiracy  against  the  govcmxnent.  ^rv 
Gurji  Khan  and  his  retinoei  seized  the  city,  defeated  two  Persia 
armies  sent  against  him,  and  died  a^  natural  death  in  1715.     His 
brother,  Mir   Abdallah,  succeeded  him  in  the  government  of  iIr 
Afghans:  but  after  a  few  months,  Mahmud,  a  son  of  Mir  Wa'i^.  a  \«7 
young  man,  murdered  his  uncie  and  assumed  tbe  tilie  of  a  sovcscipi 
prince. 

In  the  meanwhile  the  Saduzai  tribe  revolted  at  Herat,  and  decbird 
itself  independent  in  1717;  the  Kurds  overran  the  coyntry  nMnd 
Hamadan :  the  Uzbegs  desolated  Khorasan ;  and  the  Arabs  di  M  meat 
seized  the  island  of  Bahrein  and  threatened  Etonder  Aibbasi.  Tkas 
surrounded  by  dangers  on  all  sides  the  wretched  shah  was  bcwflderrd 
He  made  one  vain  attempt  to  regain  his  possessions  in  the  i*er»aa 

'  Prtseut  SiaU  oj  Persia  (London,  1695). 


Mos^»J«l 


PERSIA 


«33 


GuU;  but  the  Portufutw  fleet  vbidi  had  prohrited  to  traMoort  hie 
troops  to  Bahxeta  «u  defeated  by  xkt  imam  of  Muscat  ana  forced 
to  retreat  to  Goa. 

The  court  *^of  Isfahan  had  no  sooner  recdved  tiiiUngB  of  this 
disaster  than  Mahmod,  wirti  a  large  army  of  Afgiians,  invaded 
4fMb«a  ^n*>  in  the  year  lyai,  adxea  Kennftn,  and  in  the 
A^TiSft  f<^<>^°8  rear  advanced  to  within  four  daj^'  march  of 
the  city  of  Isfahan.  The  shah  offered  him  a  sum  of 
money  to  return  to  Kandaliar,  but  the  Afglian  answered  by  advanc- 
ing to  a  place  called  Gulnabad,  within  9  m.  of  the  capital.  The 
iU-diadpliaed  Perrian  army,  hastily  ooOeotedi  advaacea  to  attack 
the  rebels.  Its  centre  was  led  by  Sheikh  *Ali  Khui«  covered  by 
twenty-four  field-pieces.  The  wsH  of  Arabia  oommanded  the 
rteht,  and  the  Htlmadu'  d-davlah,  or  prime  minister,  ate  left  winff. 
The  whole  fotxse  amounted  to>  50,000  men«  wtule  the  Afghans  couU 
not  count  half  that  number. 

On  the  8th  of  March  1733  the  richly  drcaaed  hosts  of  Penia 
appeared  before  the  little  band  of  Afdians,  who  were  scorched  aad 
disfinired  by  their  long  marches.  The  wall  of  Arabia  commenced 
the  battle  by  attacking  the  left  wii%  of  the  Afghans  with  great 
fury,  routing  it,  and  plundering  their  camp.  The  prime  mhuster 
unmodiatdy  afterwaras  attacked  the  enemy's  right  wing,  but  was 
routed,  and  the  Afghans,  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion,  captured 
the  Persian  guns  and  turned  them  on  the  Persian  centre,  who  fled 
in  oonfuaon  without  striking  a  blow.  The  wall  of  Arabia  escaped 
into  Isfahan,  and  Mahmod  the  Afghan,  gained  a  complete  victory. 
Fifteen  thousand  Persians  vemuned  d^d  oa  the  field.  A  panic 
now  seized  on  the  sorroundinc  inhabitants,  and  thousands  of  country 
people  fled  into  the  city.  Isfahan  was  then  one  of  the  most  magm- 
ncent  cities  in  Asia,  containing  more  than  6oo/>oo  inhabitants. 
Mahmud  sdaed  on  die  Armenian  suburb  of  Tolfa,  and  invested  the 
doomed  city ;  butTahmasp,  son  of  the  diah,  had  previously  escaped 
mto  the  mountains  of  Mazandaran.  Famine  soon  be^pui  to  press 
har^  upoa  the  beiieged,  and  in  September  Shah  l^osain  offered  to 
capitulate.  Having  been  conducted  to  the  Afghan  camp,  he  fixed 
Mahmmd'm  ^^  ^7^  plume  of  feathers  on  the  young  rebel's  turban 
CsvMfltal.^^  ms  own  hand;  and  4000  Afghans  were  ordered  to 

^^  occupy  the  palace  and  ipstes  oTthe  dty.^  Mahmud 
entered  Isfahan  in  triumph,  with  the  captive  shah  oa  his  left  hand. 
<md,  seating  himself  on  the  throne  in  the  royal  palace,  he  was  saluted 
es  sovereign  of  Persia  by  the  unfortunate  Qosain.  WhenT<^nu»Pi 
the  fugitive  priaoeb  reonyed  tidingji  of  the  abdkation  of  his  father, 
he  at  once  assfimcd  the  title  of  shahat  Kazvin. 
.,  Turkey  and  Russia  were  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  the  calami- 
ties of  Persia.  The  Turks  seized  on  Tiflis,  Tabriz  and  llamadan, 
while  Peter  the  Qreat,  whose  aid  had  been  sought  by  the  friendless 
f  ehma^,  fitted  out  a  fleet  oa  t}ie  CaqMaii.*  The  Russians  occupied 
Shirvan,  and  the  province  of  Gilan  south-west  of  the  Caqaan;*  and 
Peter  made  a  treaty  with  Tahmasp  U.  in  July  i;r22,  by  which  he 
agreed  to  drive  the  Afghans  out  of  Persia  on  condition  that  Darband 
(Derbend),  Baku,  Gilan,  Mazandaran  and  Astarabad  were  ceded 
to  Russia  in  perpetuity.  These  w«ae  all  the  richest  and  most 
important  tu>rthem  provinces  of  Persia. 

Meanwhile  the  invader,  in  1733, invited  300  of  theprincipal  Persian 
nobility  to  a  banquet  and  massacred  them.  To  prevent  their 
children  rising  up  in  vcngeanoe  they  were  all  muidersd  also.  Then 
he  proceeded  to  slaughter  vast  numbere  of  the  dtizena  of  Isfahai^ 
nntd  the  place  was  nearly  depojpulated.  ,  Not  content  with  this, 
in  February  1735  be  assembled  all  the  captives  of  the  royal  family, 
except  the  shah,  in  the  courtyard  of  the  pahu:e,  and  caused  them 
aU  to  be  murdered,  commencing  the  massacre  with  his  own  hand. 
The  wretched  Ijjosain  was  fainisdf  wouadcd  in  endeavouring  vunly 
to  save  his  inlEant  sop,  only  five  yean  of  tjgji^  All  the  males  of  the 
foyal  family,  except  Hosam  himself,  Tahmasp.  and  two  children, 
ftre  laid  to  have  perished.  At  length  the  inhuman  miscreant 
Mahmud  died,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-seven,  od  the  220A  of 
April  1735.  V^thr  scarcely  any  oeek,  he  had  cooad  rfioulders,  a 
broad  face  with  a  flat  nose^  a  thia  bcanlt  and  squinting  ^es*  which 
were  generally  downcast. 

Maunmod  was  succeeded  by  his  first  cou^n,  Ashraf,  the  son  of 
Mir  'Abdallah.  He  was  a  braVe  Iwt  cruel  Afghan.  He  gave  the 
dethroned  shah  a  handsome  allovBiioe,  and  atrove,  by  a  miht  poUcy , 
to  acquire .  popularity.  In  1727,  ^fter  a  short  war.  be  sisned 
a  treaty  with  ^e  Turks,  acknowledgins  the  sultan  as  chief  of 
the  Moslems.  But  the  fortunate  star  of  Tahmasp  II.  was  now  be> 
binning  to  rise,  and  the  days  of  Afghan  usurpation  were  numbered. 
He  had  coUecMd  a  small  army  in  Mazandarsiu  and  was  supported  by 
Fath  *AU  Khan,  tha  powerful  chief  of  the  Kajar  tribe.    In  1727 

^  We  have  an  aeoount  of  the  Afghan  invai&Mi  and.  sack  of  Isfahan 
from  an  e^witDess,  Father  Knwmski^  proeunitar  of  the  Jesuits  at 
that  plaoe,  wboee  intercKinc  woric  waa  traaalated  into  Eagush  in  the 
last  century. 

*  In  1721  Sultarx  jj^osaln  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Rusrians,  seeking 
aid  against  the  Afghans.  In  May  173a  a  fiotilla  descended  the  Volga 
etxnmanded  by  tsar  Peter  and  on  the  19th  of  July  the  Russian 
flag  first  waved  over  the  QMpian.  GUan  was  ooeupiad  by  60QO  men 
under  General  Matushkin. 

•The  Russians  remained  In  Gilan  until  1734,  when  they  were 
^Uiged  to  eSracitate  iti  owing  to  the  onheahhiaeM  of  the  dunate. 


the  f  uffitSve  shah  was  Joiaed  by  Nadir  KnH,  a  robber  eUef ,  who 
murdered  Fath  *Ali,  and,  having  easily  apmased  the  shahi  nralved 
the  commandof  the  royal  army.  Ini72Q  Ashraf  became 
alarmed,  and  led  an  Afghan  army  into  iChorasan,  where 
he  was  defeated  by  Nadir  at  Damghan,  and  forced  to 
retreat.  The  Persian  general  followed  dose  in  his  rear  and  again 
defeated  him  outside  Isfahan  in  November  of  the  same  year. 
The  Afghans  fled  thrtn^h  the  town^  and  Ashraf,  murdering  the  poor 
old  shah  Hosain  on  his  way,  hurried  with  the  wreck  of  his  army 
towards  Shiraz.  On  the  i6th  of  November  the  victorious  Nadur 
entered  Isfahan,  and  was  soon  followed  by  the  young  diah  Tahmasp 
II.,  who  burst  into  tears  when  he  beheld  the  ruined  palace  of 
his  ancestors.  His  mother,  who  had  esca[)ed  the  numerous  mas- 
sacres by  disguising  herself  as  a  slave  and  performing  the  most 
degrading  offices,  now  came  forth  and  threw  herself  into  hb  arms. 
Nadir  did  not  give  his  enemies  time  to  recover  from  their  defeat. 
He  followed  them  up»  and  again  utterty  routed  them  in  January 
1730.  Ashraf  tried  to  escape  to  Kandahar  almost  alone,  out  was 
murdered  by  a  party  of  Baluch  robbers;  and  thus,  by  the  genius  of 
Nadir,  his  native  land  was  delivered  from  the  terrible  Afghan 
invaden. 

The  amiMtion  of  Nadir,  however,  was  faz  greater  than  his  loyalty. 
On  pretext  of  incapacity,  he  dethroned  Tahmasp  II.  in  1732,  and 
sent  him  a  prisoner  into  Khorasan,  where  ne  was  p^^ 
murdered  some  years  afterwards  by  Nadir's  son  while  ^^^1^. 
the  conqueror  was  absent  on  his  Indian  expei&ioii.  ^■'■"^'"a 
For  a  short  time  the  wily  usuriier  placed  Tahmasp's  son  on  the 
throne,  a  little  child,  with  the  title  of  'Abbas  III.,  while  he  con- 
tented himself  with  the  office  of  regent.  Podr  little  'Abbas  died  at 
a  veiy  convenient  time,  in  the  year  1736,  and  Nadir  then  threw  off 
the  mask.  He  was  proclaimed  tSaah  of  Penia  by  a  'vast  assemblage 
on  the  plain  of  Mogoan. 

By  the  fail  of  tha  Safawid  dynasty  Pexsia  lost  her  race  of 
natioBal  monatdis,  oonsidcfed  not  only  In  respect  of- origin  and 
birthplace  but  in  essence  and  in  spirit*  Iama*il,  Xahmasp  and 
*Abbas,  whatever  their  faults  and  failings,  were  Pendaa  and 
peciiGar  to  Penians.  Regst^ed  in  a  sober  QngUsb  spirit,  the 
reign  of  the  great  *Abbss  is  rendered  mythlcsl  by -Crime.  But 
something  liberal  in  the  phildsophyof  their  progeniton  threw 
an  attractiveness  over  the  eariier  Salawid  kings  wfaidi  wss 
wanting  in  those  wlio  came  after  then.  The  iact  is  that,  two 
centuries  after  Shah  ]ema'ti*s  accession  to  the  throoe»lhe  Safawid 
race  of  kings  was  efiete;  aad  it  became  neoeaaaiy  to  make  room 
for  a  more  vigorous  if  not  a  more  lastini^  rule.  Nidir  wss  the 
strong  man  for  the  Jiour  aad  occasion.  He  had  been  designated 
a  "  robber  chief ";  but  his  snteoedents,  like  Oux/t  of  msny 
others  who  have  filled  the  position,  have  redeeming  points  of 
melodramatic  interest. 

A  map  attached  to  krusinski's  volumes  illustrates  the  extent 
of  Persian  tetriUMry  in  1728,  or  one  year  befoce  Admf  wss  final^ 
defeated  by  Nadir,  and  some  e^t  yeszs  prior  to  h,^,^*.^ 
the  date  on  which  Nadir  was  himself  prodsimcd  kini^  ^^ 
It  shows,  during  the  reign  of  the  Safawids,  Tiflis, 
Erivan,  Kliioi  and  Bagdad  to  hacve  been  within /the  limits  of 
Persia  on  tise  west,  end  in  like  manner  BdkJh  and  Kaadahar 
to  have  been  iaduded  within  the  esstem  border.  There  is, 
however,  also  shown,  as  a  residt  of  the  Afghan  intrusion  aad 
the  impotency  of  the  later  Safawid  kings,  a  long  broad  strip  of 
country  to  the  west,  indnding  Tabriz  and  Hamadaa,  marked 
"  conquests  of  the  Turks,"  and  Uie  whole  weit  slhore  of  the  Caspian 
from  Astrakan  to  Maaandaran  marked  *'  conquests  of  the  csar 
of  Muscovy  ";  Makran,  written  Mecran,  is  designtted  "  a  warlike 
independent  nation."  If  further  sllowance  be  made  for  the 
district  held  by  the  Afghan  invaders  as  part  of  their  own  country, 
it  will  be  seen  bow  greatly  the  extent  of  Penia  proper  was 
reduced,  and  what  e  woric  Nadur  had  before  fahou  to  restore  the 
kingdom  to  its  former  proportions. 

But  the  former  proportions  had  been  partly  reverted  to,  and 
wonild  doubtless  have  been  in  some  respects  exceeded,  both  in 
AfghaalBtatt  and  the  Ottoman  dominions  and  oa  the  shores  of 
the  C^spiai^  by  the  action  of  this  indefatigable  general,  had  not 
'fhhmasp  VL  bieen  led  into  a  premature  treaty  with  the  ToritSL 
Nadk's  anger  and  indignation  had  been  great  at  this  weak 
prooeediBg;  indeed,  he  bed  made  it  the  ostensible  cause  of  the 
shah's  deposition.  He  had  addressed  letteis  to  ail  the  militaiy 
chiefs  of  the  country,  catting  upon  them  for  support;  be  had  aedt 
an  envoy  to  Constantinople  insistiag  upoa  the  sultan's  restora- 
tion of  the  Persiaa  provinces  Still  in  his  possession — that  is. 


«34 


PERSIA 


(179^104 


Nmik'9 


Georgia  and  piii  of  Aseilid)aii— and  he  bad  threatened  Bagdad 
with  assault.  As  regent,  he  had  failed  twice  in  taking  the  city 
of  the  odiphs,  but  on  the  second  occasion  he  had  defeated  and 
killed  its  gallant  defender,  ToparOthman,  and  he  had  succeeded 
in  regaining  Tiflis,  Kars  and  Erivan.* 

Russia  and  Turkey,  naturally  hostile  to  one  another,  had 
taken  occasion  of  the  weakness  of  Persia  to  forget  their  mutual 
quarrels  and  unite  to  plunder  the  tottering  kingdom  of  the 
Safawid  kings.  A  partition  treaty  had  beoi  signed  between 
these  two  powers  in  1723,  by  which  the  cxar  was  to  take  Astara- 
bad,  Mazandaran,  Gilan,  part  of  Shirvan  and  Daghistan,  while 
the  acquisitions  of  the  Porte  were  to  be  traced  out  by  aiine  drawn 
from  the  junction  of  the  Axas  and  Kur  riven,  and  passing  along 
by  Ardebil,  Tabriz  and  Hamadan,  and  thence  to  KermAnshSh. 
Tahmasp  was  to  retain  the  rest  of  his  paternal  kingdom  on  con- 
dition of  his  recognizing  the  treaty.  The  ingenious  diplomacy 
of  Russia  in  this  transaction  was  manifested  in  the  fact  that  she 
bad  already  acquired  the  greater  part  of  the  territory  allotted 
to  her,  while  Tivkey  had  to  obtun  her  share  by  further  con- 
quest. But  the  combination  to  despoil  a  feeble  neighbour  was 
outwitted  by  the  energy  of  a  military  commander  of  a  remark- 
able type. 

D. — from  the  Accession  of  Nadk  Shah,  in  1736^  to  1884. 

Nadir,  it  has  been  said,  was  proclaimed  shah  in  the  pUdns 
of  Mo^an  in  1736.  Mirza  Mahdi  relates  how  this  event  was 
brought  about  by  his  address  to  the  assembled 
nobles  and  officers  on  the  morning  of  the  "  Nau-ruz," 
'or  Persian  New- Year's  Day,  the  response  to  that 
nppeal  being  the  offer  of  the  crown.  The  conditions  were  that 
the  crown  should  be  hereditary  in  his  family,  that  the  chum  of 
the  Safawids  was  to  be  held  for  ever  extinct,  and  that  measures 
sliould  be  taken  to  bring  the  Shi'ites  to  accept  imiformity  of 
worship  with  the  Sunnites.  The  mulla  bashi  (or  high  priest) 
objecting  to  the  last,  Nadir  ordered  him  to  be  stranglol,  a  com- 
mand which  was  carried  out  on  the  spot.  On  the  day  following, 
the  agreement  having  been  ratified  between  sovereign  and  people, 
he  was  proclumed  emperor  of  Persia.  At  Kazvin  the  ceremony 
of  inauguration  took  place.  The  edict  expressing  the  royal 
Will  on  the  religious  question  is  dated  in  June,  but  the  date  of 
coronation  is  uncertain.  From  Kazvin  Nadir  moved  to  Isfahan, 
where  he  organized  an  expedition  against  Kandahar,  then  in 
Che  possession  of  a  brother  of  Mahmud,  the  conqueror  of  Shah 
Qosain.  But  before  setting  out  for  Afghanistan  he  took 
measures  to  secure  the  internal  quiet  of  Persia,  attacking  and 
seizing  in  his  stronghold  the  chief  of  the  marauding  Bakhtiaris, 
whom  he  put  to  death,  retaining  many  of  his  men  for  service 
as  soldiers.  With  an  army  of  80,000  men  he  marched  through 
Khorasan  and  Seistan  to  Kandahar,  which  dty  he  blockaded 
ineffectually  for  a  year;  but  it  finally  capitulated  on  the  loss  of 
the  dtadeL  Baikh  fell  to  Ri^a  Kuli,  the  king's  son,  who, 
moreover,  crossed  the  Oxus  and  defeated  the  Uzbegs  in  battle. 
Besides  tracing  out  the  lines  of  Nadirabad,  a  town  since  merged 
in  modem  Kandahar,  Nadir  had  taken  advantage  of  the  time 
available  and  of  opportunities  presented  to  enlist  a  large  number 
of  men  from  the  Abdaii  and  Ghilzai  tribes.  It  is  said  that  as 
many  as  x6,ooo  were  at  his  disposaL  His  rejection  of  the 
ShTite  teneU  as  a  sUte  religion  seems  to  have  profutiated  the 
Sunnlte  Afghans. 

Nadir  had  sent  an  ambassador  into  Hindustan  requesting 
the  Mogul  emperor  to  order  the  surrender  of  certain  unruly 
,  Afghans  who  bad  taken  refuge  within  Indian  terri- 
tory, but  no  satisfactory  reply  was  given,  and 
obstacles  were  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  return  of  the 
embaa^.  The  Persian  monarch,  not  sorry  perhaps  to  find  a 
plausible  pretext  for  encroachment  In  a  quarter  so  full  of  promise 
to  booty-aeeking  soidien,  pursued  some  of  the  fugitives  through 
Chazni  to  Kabul,  which  dty  was  then  under  the  immediate 
control  of  Na^  Khan,  governor  of  eastern  Afghanistan,  for 
Mahonmed  Shah  of  Ddhi.  This  functionary,  alarmed  at  the 
near  approach  of  the  Persians,  fled  to  Peshawar.    Kabul  had 

'Malcolm. 


hnrmahmot  ^ 


long  been  oontidered  not  only  an  integral  part  but  also  one  of 
the  main  gates  of  the  Indian  Empire;  notwithstanding  a  atost 
resistance  on  the  part  of  its  commandant.  Shir  or  Shirzah  Khan, 
the  place  was  stormed  and  carried  (1738)  by  Nadir,  who  moved 
on  eastward.  Mirza  Mahdi  relates  that  from  the  Kabul  plaja 
he  addressed  a  new  remonstrance  to  the  Ddlii  court,  but  that 
his  envoy  was  arrested  and  killed,  and  his  escort  compelled  bo 
return  by  the  governor  of  Jalalabad.  The  same  authority 
notes  the  occupation  of  the  Utter  place  by  Persian  troops  and 
the  march  thither  from  Gandamalu  It  was  probably  through 
the  Khaibair  (Khyber)  Pass  that  he  passed  into  the  Peshawar 
plain,  for  it  was  there  that  he  first  defeated  the  Imperial  forces. 

The  invasion  of  India  had  now  fairly  commenced,  and  its 
successful  progress  and  consummation  were  mere  qucstkns 
of  time.  The  prestige  of  this  Eastern  Napoleon  was  imzneDse. 
It  had  not  only  reached  but  had  been  very  keenly  fdt  at  DdU 
before  the  conquering  army  had  arrived.  There  was  no  actual 
religions  war;  aXL  sectarian  distinction  had  been  disavowed;  the 
contest  was  between  vigorous  Mahommedans  and  effete  Mahom- 
mcdans.  Nadir's  way  had  been  prepared  by  drcumstancca, 
and  as  he  progressed  from  day  to  day  his  army  increased. 
There  must  have  been  larger  accessions  by  voluntary  recruits 
than  losses  by.  death  or  desertion.  The  victory  on  the  plain  of 
Kamal,  whether  accomplished  by  sheer  fighting  or  the  intervc^ 
tion  of  treachery,  was  the  natural  outcome  of  the  i»evioia 
situation,  and  the  sabmbsion  of  the  emperor  followed  as  • 
matter  of  course. 

Delhi  must  have  experienced  a  sense  of  rdief  at  the  depaxtwt 
of  its  conqueror,  whose  residence  there  had  been  rendered 
painfully  memorable  by  carnage  and  riot.  The  marriage  d 
his  son  to  the  granddaughter  of  Aurangzeb  and  the  fonaal 
restoration  of  the  crown  to  the  dethroned  emperor  were  doubt- 
less politic,  but  the  descendant  of  Babar  could  not  easily  foiget 
how  humiliating  a  chapter  in  history  would  remain  to  be  wifttea 
against  him.  The  return  march  of  Nadir  to  Persia  is  not 
recorded  with  precision.  On  the  5th  of  May  1739  he  left  the 
gardens  of  Shalamar,  and  proceeded  by  way  of  Lahore  and 
Peshawar  through  the  passes  to  KabuL  Tbencb  he  seems  te 
have  returned  to  Kandahar,  and  in  May  1740 — ^just  one  ynr 
after  his  departure  from  DeUil — ^he  was  in  Herat  displayiog  the 
Imperial  throne  and  other  costly  trophies  to  the  gaze  of  the 
admiring  inhabitants.  Sind  was  certainly  included  in  the 
cession  to  him  by  Mahommed  Shah  of "  all  the  territories 
westward  of  the  river  Attok, "  but  only  that  portion  ol  it, 
such  as  Thattah  (TatU),  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Indus. 

From  Herat  he  moved  upon  BaIkh  and  Bokhara,  and  received 
the  submission  of  Abu'1-Faiz  Khan,  the  Uzbeg  ruler,  whom  he 
restored  to  his  throne  on  condition  that  the  Oxus 
should  be  the  acknowledged  boundary  between  the 
two  empires.  The  khan  of  Khwarizm,  who  had  made 
repeated  depredations  in  Persian  territory,  was  taken  prismer 
and  executed.  Nadir  then  visited  the  strong  fortress  ol  Kelat, 
to  which  he  was  greatly  attached  as  the  scene  of  his  boyish 
exploits,  and  Meshed,  which  he  constituted  the  capital  of  h» 
empire.  He  had  extended  his  botmdaxy  on  the  east  to  the 
Indus,  and  to  the  Oxus  on  the  north. 

On  the  south  he  was  restricted  by  the  Arabian  Ocean  sad 
Persian  Gulf;  but   the  west  remained  open  to  his  farther 
progress.    He  had  in  the  first  place  to  revenge  the 
death  of  his  brother  Ibrahim  Khan,  slain  by  the  ^^^^^ 
Lesghians;  and  a  campa^  against  the  Turks  might 
foUow  in  due  course.    'Hie  first  movement  was  unsocccssfi^ 
and  indirectly  attended  with  disastrous  consequences.     Naifii, 
when  hastening  to  the  support  of  some  Afghan  levies  who  weie 
doing  good  service,  was  fired  at  and  wounded  by  a  stray  assailant; 
suspecting  his  son,  Ri^  Kuli,  of  complicity,  he  commanded  the 
unfortunate  prince  to  be  seiiced  and  deprived  of  sight.    From 
that  time  the  faerobm  of  the  monarch  appeared  to  die  out.    He 
became  morose,  tyrannical  and  auspSdous.    An  easy  victuy 
over  the  Turks  gave  him  but  little  additional  glory;  and  he 
readily  ^oduded  a  peace  with  the  sultan  which  biou|^t  bat 


«m-rt»«i 


PERSIA 


i^ 


inrignifiainr  gain  to  TeabJ  Ao&fhet  battle  won  fmm  the 
Ottoman  tnwpa  near  Dmrbekr  by  Nasr  Uilab  Bftiiza,  the  young 
prince  who  had  married  a  princess  of  Delhi,  left  matten  much 
the  same  as  before. 

The  hut  yean  of  Nadir's  life  were  full  of  internal  trouble. 
On  the  part  of  the  aovereignv  murders  And  executions;  on  that 
of  his  subjects,  revolt  and  oonspirBcy.  Such  a  sute  of  things 
could  not  last,  and  certain  proscribed  persons  plotted  the 
destruction  of  the  half'demented  tyrant.  He  vas  despstchcd 
by  Salah  Bey,  captain  of  his  guards  (r747).  He  was  some  sixty 
jreara  of  sge,  and  had  reigned  eleven  years.  About  the  time  of 
setting  out  on  his  In£an  expedition  be  was  described  as  a  most 
comely  man,  upwards  of  6  ft.,  tall,  weU-proportioned,  of  robust 
make  and  constitution;  indined  to  be  fat,  but  prevented  by  the 
fatigue  he  underwent;  with  fine,  large  black,  eyes  and  ejrebrows; 
of  aangin'fie  oonq;>lezion,  made  more  manl^  by  the  influence  of 
sun  and  weajther;  a  loud,  strong  voices  a  moderate  wine-drinker; 
fond  of  simple  dkt,  such  as  pilaos  and  plain  dishes,  but  often 
neglectful  of  meals  altogether,  and  satisfied,  if  occasion  required, 
with  parched  peas  and  water,  always  to  be  procured.* 

During  the  reign  of  Nadir  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish 
a  British  Caspian  trade  with  Persia.  The  names  of  Jonas 
Hanway  and  John  Elton  were  honourably  connected  with  this 
undertaking;  and  the  former  has  left  most  valuable  records  of 
the  time  and  oountiy. 

Prom  Nadir  Skak  to  the  Kajar  Dymuly.^Mxat  the  death  of 
Nadir  Shah  something  like  anarchy  prevafled  for  thirteen  years 
^^  in  the  greater  part  of  Persia  as  it  existed  under 
^SmkS,  S'^  *Abbaa.  No  sooner  had  the  crime  become 
known  than  Ahmad  Khan,  chief  of  the  Abdali 
Af^ians,  took  possession  of.  Kandahar  and  a  certain  amount 
of  treasure.  By  the  action  of  Ahmad  Abdali,  Afghanistan  was 
at  once  h}8t  to  the  Persian  crown,  for  this  leader  was  strong 
enough  to  found  an  independent  kingdom.  The  chief  of  the 
Bakhtiaris,  Raslud,  also  with  treasure,  fled  to  the  mountains, 
and  the  conspirators  invited  *Ali,  a  nephew  of  the  deceased 
monarch,  to  ascend  the  vacant  thinme.  The  Bakhtfairi  encour- 
aged his  brother,  *Ali  Mardan,  to  compete  for  the  succession 
to  Nadir.  The  prince  was  wdcomed  by  his  subjects;  he  told 
them  that  the  murder  of  his  tmde  was  due  to  his  own  instigation, 
and,  in  order  to  conciliate  them,  remitted  the  revenues  of  the 
current  year  and  all  extraoidhkary  taxes  for  the  two  years 
following. 

Taking  the  title  of 'Adil  Shah,  or  the  "just"  king,  he 
commenced  his  reign  by  putting  to  death  the  two  princes  Rixa 
Kuli  and  Nasr  UUah,  as  well  as  all  relatives  whom  he  considered 
his  competitors,  irith  the  exception  of  Shah  Rukh,  son  of  Rl^a 
Kuli,  whom  he  spared  in  case  a  lineal  descendant  of  Nadir 
should  at  any  time  1M  required.  But  he  had  not  removed  all 
dangerous  members  of  the  royal  house,  nor  had  he  gauged  the 
temper  of  the  times  or  people.  *Adil  Shah  was  soon  dethroned 
by  his  own  brother,  Ibrahim,  and  he  in  his  turn  was  defeated 
by  the  adherents  of  Shah  Rukh,  who  made  their  leader  king. 

This  young  prince  had  a  better  and  more  legitimate  title 
than  that  of  the  grandson  of  Nadir,  for  he  was  also  grandson, 
SbmhRmkhJ'^^  the  mother's  side,  of  the  Safawid  Shah  Husain. 
Amiable,  generous  and  libcral>minded,  and  of  pre- 
possessing extcridr,  he  proved  to  be  a  popular  prince.  But 
he  was  neither  of  an  age  nor  character  to  rule  over  a  people  led 
by  turbulent  and  disaffected  chiefs,  ever  divided  by  the  con- 
flicting interests  of  personal  ambition.  Sa'id  Mahommed,  son 
of  Mirza  Daud,  a  diief  mullah  at  Meshed,  whose  mother  was 
the  reputed  daughter  of  Suleiman,  declared  himself  king,  and 
imprisoned  and  bUnded  Shah  Rukh.  Yusuf  *AIi,  the  general 
commanding  the  royal  troops,  defeated  and  slew  Suleiman,  and 
teplaced  his  master  on  the  throne,  reserving  to  himself  the 
protectonhip  or  regency.  A  new  combination  of  chiefs,  of 
which  JFafir  the  Kurd  and  Mir'AIam  the  Arabian  are  the 

^  Creasy  says  the  war  broke  out  in  1743,  but  was  terminated 
in  1746  hf  a  treaty  which  made  little  cmnge  in  the  (M  amuige- 
A«nts  fixed  omler  Murad  IV. 

.•  Fraser's  History  ^  Nadir  Skak  (1742). 


principal  names  handed  down,  brought  about  the  death  of 
Yusuf  *Ali  and  the  second  imprisonment  of  Shah  Rukh.  These 
events  were  followed  by  a  quaxrel  terminating  in  the  supremacy 
of  the  Arab.  At  this  juncture  Ahmad  Shah  Abdali  reappeared 
in  Perrian  Khorosan  from  Herat;  he  attacked  and  took  posses- 
sion of  Meshed,  slew  Mir  'AUm,  and,  pledging  the  lood  chiefs 
to  support  the  blinded  prince  in  retaining  the  kingdom  of  his 
grandfather,  returned  to  Afghanistan.  But  thenceforward  this 
unfortunate  young  man  was  a  mere  shadow  of  royalty,  and 
his  purely  local  power  and  prestige  had  no  further  influence 
whatever  on  Persia  as  a  country. 

The  land  was  partitioned  among  several  distinguished  persons, 
who  had  of  old  been  biding  their  opportunities,  or  were  bom  of 
the  occasion.  Foremost  among  these  was  Mahom-  ^^ 
med  Hasan  Khan,  bcreditaiy  chief  of  those  Kajars  SwiM» 
who  were  established  In  the  soutb-east  comer  of 
the  Caspian.  His  father,  Fath  *Ali  Khan,  after  sheltering  Shah 
Tahmasp  n.  at  his  home  in  Astarabad,  and  long  acting  as 
one  of  his  most  loyal  supporters,  had  been  put  to  dMtfa  by 
Nadir,  who  had  appointed  a  successor  to  his  chiefdom  from  the 
"  Yukari  *•  or  •  upper  "  Kajars,  instead  of  from  his  town,  the 
"  Ashagha,"  or  "  lower."*  Mahommed,  with  his  brother,  had 
fled  to  the  Turkomans,  by  whose  aid  he  had  attempted  the 
recovery  of  Astarabad,  but  had  not  succeeded  in  regaining  a 
permanent  footing  there  unto  Nadir  had  been  removed.  On  the 
murder  of  the  tyrant  he  had  raised  the  standard  of  independence, 
successfully  resisted  Ahmad  Shah  and  his  Afghans,  who  sought 
to  check  ha  progress  in  the  interests  of  Shidi  Rukh,  and  even« 
tually  brought  under  his  own  sway  the  valuable  provinces  of 
GUan,  Mazandaran  and  Astarabad* — quite  a  little  kingdom  in 
itself.  In  the  large  important  province  of  AseriMujan,  Asad 
Khan,  one  of  Nadir's  generals,  hsd  csUblished  a  separate 
government;  and  *Ali  Mardan,  brother  of  the  Bakhtiari  chief, 
took  forcible  possession  of  Isfahan,  empowering  Shah  Rukh*s 
governor,  Abu'1-Fath  Khan,  to  act  for  the  new  master  instead 
of  the  old. 

Had  *Afi  Mardan  dedared  himadf  an  independent  ruler  he 
wouM  have  been  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  three  persons 
named.  But  such  tisurpation  at  the  old  Safawid  Capital  wocdd 
have  been  too  flagrant  an  act  for  general  assent;  so  he  put 
forward  Isma*i],  a  nephew  of  Shah  Qusain,  as  the  representative 
of  sovereignty,  and  himself  as  one  of  his  two  ministers— the 
other  being  Karim  Khan,  a  chief  of  the  2^nd  Kurds.  Shah 
lsma*il,  it  need  scaxody  be  said,  poaseased  no  real  authority; 
but  the  ministers  were  strong  men  in  their  way,  and  the  Zend 
especially  had  many  high  and  excellent  qualities.  After  a  time 
*A]i  Mardan  was  assassinated,  and  Karim  Khan  became  the 
sole  living  power  at  Isfahan.  Thestoiy  of  the  period  is  thus  told 
by  R.  G.  Watsons— 

"  The  three  rivals,  Karim,  Azad  and  Muhammad  Hasan,  pro- 
ceeded to  settle,  by  means  of  the  sword,  the  question  as  to  Whldi 
of  them  was  to  be  the  sole  maaber  of  Persia.  A  three-  ^  -  ^ 
sided  war  then  ensued,  ta  the  course  of  which  each  of  mETtimw 
the  combatants  in  turn  seemed  at  one  time  sure  to  be  jf!:  |f 
the  final  conqueror.  Karim,  when  he  had  arranged  *^ 
matters  at  Ispahan,  marched  to  the  borders  of  Maxandarfin, 
where  the  govemor  of  that  province  was  ready  to  meet  him. 
After  a  doaely  contested  battle  victory  remained  with  Muhammad 
Hasan;  who,  however,  was  unable  to  ft^low  up  the  foe,  as  he 
had  to  return  in  order  to  encounter  Azad.  That  leader  had  in- 
vaded Gilan,  but,  on  the  news  reaching  him  of  the  victory  which 
the  governor  of  Maaandarfta  had  gained,  he  thooafat  it  prudent 
to  retrace  his  steps  to  Sultaaiyah.  Karim  reunited  his  shatteted 
forces  at  Tehrftn,  and  retired  to  Ispahan  to  prepare  for  a  second 
campaign.  When  he  again  took  the  field  it  was  not  to  measura 
hinnelf  once  more  with  the  Kajar  chief,  but  to  put  down  the  pre- 
tensions of  Axsd.  The  wary  Afghan,  however,  shut  hinwdf  up  in 
KaaWn,  a  poMtion  from  which  he  was  enabled  to  inflict  much  in* 
jury  on  the  army  of  Karim,  while  his  own  troops  remained  unharmed, 
behind  the  walls  of  the  town.    Karim  retired  a  second  time  to 

-;- 

*  There  were  three  branches  of  the  Kajar  tribe,  ».e.  the  Suldus^ 
Tuftgkut  and  Jalaiyar.  The  last,  aocordtag  to  Watson*  became 
settled  in  Iran  and  Turan,  and  seem  at  first  to  have  given  their 
name  to  all  the  tribe. 

*  Wataon.  Malcolm  says  that  Cilan  was  under  one  of  its  own 
Chiefs.  Hidaiyat  Khan. 


236 


PERSIA 


Ct|36-iS84 


Ispahan*  and  in  the  foUoving  spring  advanced  again  to  meet  Axad. 
A  pitched  battle  took  place  between  them,  !n  which  the  army  of 
Karfm  was  defeated.  He  retreated  to  the  capiul,  closely  pressed 
by  the  (oe.  Thence  he  continued  his  way  to  Shirb,  but  Azad  was 
•till  upon  his  traces.  He  then  threw  himself  upon  the  nercy  oi 
the  Arabs  of  the  Garmslr  or  hot  country,  near  the  Persian  Cult,  to 
whom  the  name  of  the  Afghans  was  hateful,  and  who  rose  in  a  body 
to  turn  upon  Axad.  Karim,  by  their  aid,  once  more  repaired  his 
losses  and  advanced  on  Ispahan,  while  Muhammad  Hasan  with 
fifty  thousand  men  wa»  coming  fnun  the  opposite  directioo,  ready 
to  encounter  cither  the  Afghan  or  the  Zend.  The  Afghan  did  not 
await  his  coming,  but  retired  to  his  government  of  Tabriz. 

**  The  Zend  issued  from  Ispahan,  and  was  a  second  time  defeated 
in  a  pitched  battle  by  the  Kajar.  Karim  took  refuge  behind  the 
walls  ol  ShirAsj  and  all  the  efforts  of  the  enemy  to  diskidge  him 
were  ineffectual  Muhammad  Hasan  Khan  in  the  foHowii^  year 
turned  his  attentbn  to  Adarbaijan.  Azad  was  no  longer  in  a  posi- 
tion to  oppose  him  in  the  field,  and  he  in  turn  became  master  of 
every  place  of  importance  in  the  province,  while  Axad  had  to  seek 
assistance  in  vain~-£rst  from  the  pasha  of  Baghdad,  and  then  from 
his  former  enemy,  the  tsar  of  Georgia.  Next  year  the  conquering 
Kajar  returned  to  ShirSz  to  make  an  end  of  the  only  rival  who  now 
stood  in  his  way.  On  his  side  were  80,000  men,  commanded  by  a 
general  who  had  twice  defeated  the  Zend  chief  on  an  equal  field. 
KJurim  was  still  obIig«l  to  take  shelter  in  Shirlz,  and  to  employ 
artifice  in  order  to.  supply  the  place  of  the  force  in  which  he  was 
deficient.  Nor  were  nia  efforts  in  this  respect  unattended  with 
success:  seduced  by  his  gold,  many  of  the  troops  of  the  Kajar 
began  to  desert  their  banners.  In  the  meantime  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Shirfla  wBf  laid  waste,  so  as  to  destroy  the  souroe  from 
which  Muhammad  Hasan  drew  hb  provisions;  by  degrees  his  army 
vanished,  and  he  had  finally  to  retreat  with  rapidity  to  Ispahan 
with  the  few  men  that  remained  to  him.  Finding  his  position 
there  to  be  untenable,  he  retreated  still  farther  to  the  country 
of  his  own  tribe,  while  his  rival  advanced  to  Ispahan,  where  he 
received  the  submission  of  nearly  all  the  chief  cities  of  Persia.  The 
ablest  of  Karim*s  officers.  Shaikh  'Ali,  was  sent  in  pursuit  of  the 
Kajar  chief.  The  fidelity  of  the  commander  to  whom  that  chief- 
tain had  confided  the  cans  of  the  pass  leading  into  Maxandar&n, 
was  oomipted;  and.  as  no  further  retreat  was  open  to  him,  he  found 
himself  under  the  necessity  of  fighting.  The  combat  which  ensued 
resulted  in  his  complete  defeat,  although  he  presented  to  his  followers 
in  example  of  the  most  determined  valour.  While  attempting  to 
effect  his  escape  he  was  recognixed  by  the  chief  of  the  other  branch 
of  the  Kajar  tribe,  who  had  deserted  hu  cause,  and  who  had  a 
bkx>d-feud  with  him,  in  pursuance  of  which  he  now  put  him  to 
death. 

"  For  nineteen  yeara  after  this  event  Karim  Khan  ruled  with  the 
title  of  wakit,  or  regent,  over  the  whole  of  Persia,  accepting  the 
g^m  rhmm.  provuice  of  KhurSsin.  He  made  Shirix  the  seat  of 
nb  government,  and  by  means  of  his  brothen  put 
down  evenr  attempt  which  was  made  to  subvert  his  authonty. 
The  rule  of^the  great  Zend  chief  was  just  and  mild,  and  he  is  on  the 
%shole,  oonudering  his  education  and  the  drcunistances  under 
which  he  was  placed,  one  of  the  moat  faiiltlew  ckaiacters  to  be  met 
with  in  Persian  history." 

Karim  Khan  died  at  his  capital  in  1770  in  the  tventietb  year 
of  his  leign,  and,  it  is  said,  in  the  eigbtieUi  of  his  age.  He  built 
the  great  bacaar  of  Shinu,  had  a  tomb  constructed  over  the 
remains  of  Hafix,  and  repaired  the  "  turbat  "  at  the  grave  of 
Sa*di,  out^e  ihe  walk.  He  encouraged  commerce  and  agricul- 
ture, gave  much  attention  to  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  carefully  studied  the  welfare  of  the  Armenian  community 
settled  in  his  dominions.  In  his  time  the  British  factory  was 
removed  from  Bander  Abbasi  to  Bushire. 

On  Karim^s  death  a  new  period  of  anarchy  supervened.  His 
brother,  Zaki,  a  cruel  and  vindictive  chief  who,  when  governor 
^^  of  Isfahan,  had  revolted  against  Karim,  assumed 

^^  the  government  At  the  same  time  he  proclaimed 
Abu  *I-Fatb  Khan,  second  son  of  the  deceased  monarch,  and  his 
brother  Mabommed  *Ali,  joint-successors  to  the  throne.  The 
seisuie  of  the  citadel  at  Shiraz  by  the  adherents  of  the  former, 
among  whom  were  the  more  influential  of  the  Zends,  may  have 
induceid  him  to  adq;>t  this  measure  as  one  of  prudent  conciliation. 
But  the  garrison  held  out,  and,  to  avoid  a  protracted  siege,  he 
had  recourse  to  treachery.  The  suspicious  nobles  were  solemnly 
adjured  to  trust  themselves  to  his  keeping,  under  Dromise  of 
iforgivencss.  They  believed  his  professions,  tenoered  their 
subnuttion,  and  were  cruelly  butchered.  Zaki  did  not  long 
enjoy  the  fruiti  of  his  perfidious  dealing.  The  death  of  Karim 
Khan  had  raised  two  formidable  adversaries  to  mar  his  peace. 

Aga  Mahommed,  son  of  Mahommed  Hasan,  the  Kajar  chief 
of  Astarabad,  a  prisoner  at  large  in  Shiraz,  was  in  the  enviiom 


of  that  dty  awaiting  IntelBBence  of  the  old  king's  decease,  aad, 
hearing  it,  instantly  escaped  to  Mazandaran,  there  to  gather  his 
tribesmen  together  and  compete  for  the  crown  of  Persia.  Taken 
prisoner  by  Nadir  and  barbarously  mutilated  by  *Adil  Shah,  be 
had  afterwards  found  means  to  rejoin  his  people,  but  had 
surrendered  himself  to  Karim  Khan  when  his  lather  was  killed 
in  battle.  On  the  other  hand,  Sadik,  brother  to  Zaki,  vho  had 
won  considerable  and  deserved  repute  by  the  capture  of  Basra 
from  the  Turkish  governor,  abandoned  his  hold  of  the  oonqaered 
town  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  Karim,  and  i^ipeared  vUh  his 
army  before  Shiraz.  To  provide  against  the  intended  action 
of  the  first,  Zaki  detached  his  nephew,  *AIi  Murad^at  the  bead 
of  his  bot  troops  to  proceed  with  ali  speed  to  the  north;  and,  as 
to  the  second,  the  seizure  of  snch  familiea  of  Sadik's  ioHowexs 
as  were  then  within  the  walls  of  the  town,  and  other  violent 
measures,  struck  such  dismay  into  the  hearts  of  the  hcwrging 
soldiers  that  they  diqieised  and  abandoned  their  leader  to  his 
fate.  From  KeimAn,  however,  where  he  found  an  asylum,  the 
latter  addressed  an  urgent  appeal  for  assistance  to  *Ali  Iduiad. 
This  chief,  encamped  at  Tehetfln  when  the  communication 
reached  him,  submitted  the  matter  to  his  men,  who  decided 
against  2Caki,  but  put  forward  their  own  captain  iis  the  only 
master  they  would  acknowledge.  *A11  Mumd,  leaving  the  pur* 
suit  of  Aga  Mahcmmed,  then  returned  to  Isfahan,  whoe  be  was 
received  with  satisfaction,  on  the  declaration  that  his  one 
object  was  to  restore  to  his  lawful  inheritance  the  eldest  ton  of 
Karim  Khan,  whom  Zaki  had  set  aside  in  favour  of  a  youaser 
brother.  The  sequd  is  fuU  of  dramatic  interest.  Zaki,  enraged 
at  his  nephew's  desertion,  marched  out  of  Shiraz  towards 
Isfahan.  On  his  way  he  came  to  the  town  of  Yezdikhast,  where 
he  demanded  a  sum  ol  money  from  the  inhabitants,  cfauming 
it  as  part  of  secreted  revenue;  the  demand  was  refused*  and 
eighteen  of  the  bead  men  were  thrown  down  the  predpice  beneath 
his  window;  a  "  saiyid,"  or  holy  man,  was  the  next  victis,  and 
his  wife  and  daughter  were  to  be  given  over  to  the  sddieiy ,  when 
a  suddenly-fonncd  conspiracy  took  effect,  and  Zaki's  own  Hie 
was  taken  in  tetribution  for  his  guilt  (x77g). 

When  intdligence  of  these  events  reached  Kermln,  Sadik 
K^an  hastened  to  Shiraz,  proclaimed  himself  king  in  place 
of  Abu  *1-Fat^  Khan,  whom  he  declared  incompe-  ,^^  m^mj 
tent  to  reign,  and  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  young 
prince.  He  despatched  his  soft  Ji*a£r  to  assume  the  govern- 
ment of  Isfahan,  and  watch  the  movements  of  *Ali  Mmad, 
who  appears  to  have  been  then  absent  from  that  dty;  and  he 
gave  a  younger  son,  *Ali  Naki,  command  of  an  army  in  the  6dd. 
The  campaign  ended  in  the  capture  of  Shiraz  and  affumplina 
of  sovereignty  by  'Ali  Murad,  who  caused  Sadik  Khan  to  be 
put  to  death. 

From  this  period  up  to  the  accession  of  Aga  Mahonuned  Khan 
the  summarized  history  of  Mark  ham  will  supply  the  prindpal 
facts  required. 

*Ali  Murad  reined  over  Per^  until  1785,  and  carried  en  a 
successful  war  with  Aga  Mahonsmed  in  Mazandaran,  defeating 
him  in  sevcml  enablements,  and  occupying  Teher&n  ana  Sari.    He 

i  was  suc- 
asststed  in 


_ ._  ^vemment  by  an  able  but  unprincipled     kalantar,'   or  _. 

magistiate,  named  Hajji  ibiahim.  This  ruler  was  poisoned  by  the 
agencv  of  consmn^tors,  one  of  whom,  Saiyid;  Mutm,  suooceded  to 
the  tnrone.  Haijt  Ibrahim,  however,  contriving  to  maintain  the 
loyalty  of  the  dtizens  towards  the  Zend  reisning  family,  the  usurper 
was  killed,  and  Lutf  *Ali  Khan,  son  of  Ji'afir,  proclaimed  g^U'AM 
king.  He  had  hastened  to  Shiraz  on  hearing  of  hb  ^""  ^* 
father's  death  and  received  a  warm  welcome  from  the 
inhabitants.  Hajji  Ibrahim  became  hb  chief  adviser,  and 
minister  was  found  for  him  in  Mirza  l;^osain  Shirazi.  At  the  time 
of  his  accession  Lutf  'Ali  Khan  was  only  in  hb  twentieth  year, 
very  handsome,  tall,  grueful,  and  an  excellent  horseman.  whOc 
differing  widely  in  character,  he  was  a  worthy  successor  of  Karia 
Khan,  the  great  founder  of  the  Zend  dynasty.  Lutf  'AK  Khan  had 
not  been  many  months  on  the  throne  when  Aga  Mahommed  ad- 
vanced to  attack  him,  and  invested  the  dty  of  Shims,  but  retrcatted 
soon  afterwards  to  Teherftn,  which  he  had  made  the  apital  of  hb 
dominions.    The  youny  king  then  enjoyed  a  short  period  of  pcacfc 

'  A  five  days*  usurpatbn  of  Bakir  Khan,  governor  of  Irfahan.  b 
not  taken  into  account* 


93^tn4 


PERSE\ 


*J7 


Ca9*vi 


'AftertmnU,  in  1790^  he  collected  hk  foiOM  and  maic^  icaimt 
the  ]Oijan,.in  the  directioa  of  Isfahan.  But  Haiji  Ibrahim  had 
been  intriguing  against  his  sovereign,  to  whose  family  he  owed 
everything,  not  only  whh  his  officers  and  soldiers  bwt  alao  with 
Aga  Mahommed,  the  chief  of  the  Kajan,  and  arch-enemy  of  the 
Zends.  Lutf  *Ali  Khan  was  suddenly  deserted  by  the  whole- of  his 
army,  except  seventy  faithful  followers;  and^when  he  retreated  to 
Shiraz  he  found  the  gates  dosed  against  him  bv  Hajji  Ibrahim, 
who  held  the  city  for  the  Kajar  chief  Thence  falling  back  upon 
Bushire,  he  found  that  the  sheikh  of  that  town  had  ^so  betiavcd 
him.  Surrounded  by  treason  on  eveiy  tide,  he  boldly  attacked 
and  rooted  the  chief  of  Bushire  and  blockaded  Shiraz.  His  un- 
conquerable valour  gained  him  many  followers,  and  he  defeated  an 
army  sent  against  him  by  the  Kajars  in  179a. 

Aga  Mahomp^  then  advanced  in  person  MKlntt  hit  rlwl. 
He  encamped  with  an  army  of  30),ooo  men  on  the  pbtn  of  Mftrdafeht. 
near  Shiraa.  Lutf  *Ali  Khan,  in  the  dead  of  night,  suddenly  attacked 
the  camp  of  his  enemy  with  only  a  few  hundred  followers.  The 
Kajars  were  corhpleteiy  routed  and  thrown  into  confusion;  but 
Aga  Mahommed,  with  extraordinary  presence  of  mind,  remained 
in  his  tent,  and  at  the  first  appearance  of  dawn  his  **  muetain»" 
or  public  crier,  was  ordered  to  call  the  faithful  to  morning  prayer 
as  usual.  Astonished  at  thb.  the  few  Zend  cavaliers,  thuikmg 
that  the  wholy  army  of  Kajars  had  returned,  fled  withpredpitation 
leaving  the  field  in  possession  of  Aga  Mahommed.  Tne  tuecestful 
Kaiar  then  entered  Shiraa,and  promoted  the  traitor  Ha jii  Ibrahim 
to  be  his  viater.  Lutf  'Ali  Khan  took  refuge  with  the  notpita^lc 
chief  of  Tabbas  in  the  heart  of  Khorasan.  where  he  succeedea  in 
collecting  a  few  followers;  but  advancing  Into  Fan,  he  was  again 
defeated,  and  foreed  ^o  take  refUge  at  Kandahar. 

In  1794,  however,  the  ondauntcd  prince  once  more  crossed  the 
Persian  frontier,  determined  to  make  a  last  eff<Mt.  and  either  rcgam 
his  throne  or  die  in  the  attempt.  He  occupied  the 
dtv  of  Kcrmin,  then  a  flourishing  cpmmcraal  town, 
haff-way  between  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  province 
of  Khomsan.  Aga  Mahommed  besieged  it  with  a  large  anny 
in  i79St  and,  after  a  stout  resistaooe,  the  sates  were  opened 
through  treachery  For  three  houm  the  gallant  young  warrior 
fought  in  the  streets  with  determined  valour,  but  in  vain.  \Vhen 
he  saw  that  all  hope  was  jgone  he,  with  only  three  followers,  Idught 
hb  way  through  the  Kajar  host  and  escaped  to  Bam^Nannasnir, 
the  most  eastern  district  of  the  province  01  KermSa  on  the  bookers 
of  Seistan. 

Furious  at  the  escape  of  his  rival,  the  savage  conqueror  ordered 
a  general  massacre;  20.000  women  and  children  were  sold  into 
riavery,  and  70,000  eyes  of  the  inhabitants  of  Kermia  wero  brought 
to  Aga  Mahonraied  on  a  platter. 

Lutf  *Ali  Khan  took  refuge  jn  the  town  of  Bam:  but  the  governor 
of  Nannashir,  anxious  to  propitiate  the  conqueror,  basely  surrounded 
him  as  he  was  mounting  his  faithful  hor^e  Kuran  to  seek  a  more 
secure  atylum.  The  young  prhice  fought  bmvely;  but,  being 
badly  wounded  and  overpoyered  by  numbers,  he  was  tecitiedand. 
sent  to  the  camp  of  the  Kaiar  chief.  The  spot  where  he  was  seised 
at  Bam,  when  mounting  his  horse,  was  marked  by  a  pvramid, 
formed,  by  order  of  his  revengeful  enemy,  of  the  skulls  of  the  most 
faithful  of  his  adherents.  The  most  hideous  indignities  and  atnxities 
were  committed  upon  his  person  by  the  cruel  Kajar,  and  finally 
he  was  sent  to  Tener&n  and  murdered,  when  only  in  his  twenty- 
sxth  year.  Every  member  of  his  family  and  every  friend  was 
ordered  to  be  massacred  by  Aga  Mahommed;  and  the  successful 
miscreant  thus  founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Kajars  at  the  price  of 
all  the  bat  and  noblest  blood  of  Iran* 

The  Zend  is  said  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Lak  tribe,  dating  from 
the  time  of  the  Kaianian  kings,  and  claims  to'have  been  charged 
with  the  care  <A  the  Zend-Avesta  by  Zoroaster  himself.^  The 
tree  attached  to  Markham.'s  chapter  on  the  dynasty  contains 
the  names  oi  dght  members  of  thefanuly  only,  i.e.  four  brothers, 
one  of  whom  had  a  son,  grandson  and  great-grandson,  and  one 
a  son.  Four  of  the  ei^t  were  mnrdeted,  one  was  blinded, 
and  one  cruelly  mutilat^  In  one  case  a  brother  murdered  a 
brotheTi  in  another  an  unde  blinded  his  nephew. 

Kt^af  Dynasly.—Aga.  Mahommed  was  undoubtedly  one  of 
the  most  cruel  and  vindictive  despots  that  ever  disgraced  a 
throne.  But  be  was  not  without  care  for  the  honour  of  his 
empire  in  the  eyes  of  Europe  and  the  outer  world,  and  his  early 
career  in  Mazandaran  gave  him  a  deeply-rooted  mistnist  of 
Russia,  with  the  officers  of  which  power  he  was  in  constant 
contact.  The  following  story,  told  by  Forster,'  and  varied  by 
a  later  writer,  is  characteristic.  A  party  of  Russians  having 
obtained  pennission  to  build  a  "  counting-hbuat  *'  at  Ashraf, 

*  Markham.  Morier,  sa^rs  of  Karim  Khan's  family,  '*  it  was  a 
low  branch  of  an  obscure  tribe  in  Kurdistan." 

'  Jovmeyfrom  Bengoi  to  Engtand  (1798),  ii.  201 ;  see  also  Markham, 
pp.  34>.  34^- 


victory 

Cs»JM(fW 


in  fhe  bay  of  that  name,  erected  instead  a  fort  with  eighteen 
guns.  Aga  Mahommed,  learning  the  particulars,  visited  the 
spot,  expressed  great  pleasure  at  the  work  dene, 
invited  the  officers  to  dine  with  him,  imprisoned  l£L  „. 
them,  and  only  spared  thdr  lives  when  they  had  ^'^'"'^* 
removed  the  whole  of  the  cannon  and  raxed  the  fort  to  the 
gvound.    This  occurrence  must  have  taken  place  about  1782 

Forster  was  travelling  homeward  by  the  soatbern  shores  of 
the  Caspian  in  January  1784,  and  from  him  we  gather  many 
mteresting  details  of  the  kicah'ty  and  period  He  calls  Aga 
Mahommed  chief  of  Mazandaran,  as  dso  of  Astatabad  and 
"  some  districts  sitaate  in  Khurasan,"  and  describes  his  tribe 
the  Kajar,  to  b«^  like  tbe  Indian  Rajpnt,  usually  devMed  to  thto 
profession  of  arms.  Whatever  hold  his  father  may  have  had 
on  Gilan,  it  is  certain  that  this  province  was  not  then  in  the 
son's  possession,  for  his  brother,  Ji'afir  Kuli,  governor  of  Ballhish 
(Balfroosk),  had  made  a  recent  incufsion  into  it  and  driven 
HidaSyat  Khan,  its  ruler,  from  Resht  to  Enzeli,  and  Aga  Mabom* 
med  was  himself  meditating  another  attack  on  the  same  qimrter. 
The  hitter's  palace  was  at  San,  then  a  small  and  partly  fortified 
town,  thickly  inhabited,  and  with  a  plentifuOysupplied  market. 
As  "  the  most  powerful  chief  m  Persia  "  since  the  death  of 
Karim  Khan,  the  Russians  were  seeking  to  put  their  yoke  upon 
him. 

As  Aga  Mahommed's  power  increased,  bis  dislike  and  Jealousy 
of  the  Muscovite  assumed  a  more  practical  shape.  His  victory 
over  Lutf  'Ali  was  immediately  ioUowed  by  an 
expedition  into  Georgia.  After  the  death  of  Nadir 
the  wali  of  that  cotmtiy  had  looked  around  him 
for  the  safest  means  of  disking  off  the  yoke  of  Persia;  and 
in  course  of  time  an  opportimity  had  offered  of  a  promising 
kind.  In  1783,  when  the  strength  of  the  Persian  monarchy  was; 
concentrated  upon  Isfahan  and  Shiras,  the  Georgian  tsar! 
Heradius  entered  into  an.  agreement  with  the  empress  Catherino' 
by  which  all  connexion  with  the  shah  was  disavowed,, 
and  a  quasi-vassahige  to  Russia  substituted — the  said  empiro 
extending  her  aegb  ol  protection  over  her  new  afly.  Aga* 
Mahonraied  now  demanded  that  Heradins  should  return 
to  his  position  of  tributary  aad  vassal  to  Persia,  and,  as  his 
demand  was  rejected,  prepared  for  war.  Dividing  an  army  ol 
6o,aooaien  into  thieacorps,  he  sent  one  of  tlieae  intoBagfacstan, 
another  was  to  attack  Eikian,  and  with  tlie  thsd  he  himself 
laid  siege  to  Shusha  in  the  province  of  Karabakh.  The  stubborn 
resistance  offered  at  the  last-named  place  caused  Inm  to  leave 
there  a  small  investing  force  only,  and  to  move  on  with  tha 
remainder  ol  his  soldiers  to  join  the  corpt  d*armU  at  Erivan. 
Here,  agahi,  the  difficulties  presented  caused  him  to  repeat  th« 
same  process  and  to  effect  a  junction  with  his  first  corps  at 
Gaoja,  the  roedem  ElisavetpoL  At  this  place  he  encovntcred 
the  Georgian  army  under  Heradius,  def ested  it,  and  maidicd 
upon  TIflis>  which  he  pillaged,  massacring  and  enslaving  *  tbt 
inhabitants.  Then  lie  returned  triumphant  to  Teberfln,  whero 
(or  at  ArdcbU  on  the  way)  he  was  publidy  crowned  shah  of 
Persia.  Erivan  surrendered,  but  Shusha  continued  to  hold 
out.  These  proceedings  caused  Russia  to  enter  the  field. 
Derbent  was  taJcen  possession  of  by  Imhov,  Baku  and  Shumakhy 
were  occupied  and  Gikn  was  threatened.  The  death  of  tlHf 
empress,  however,  caused  tbe  issue  ol  an  order  to  retire,  and 
Derbent  and  Baku  remained  the  only  trophies  of  the  campaign: 

In  the  meantime  Aga  Mahommed's  attention  had  boHi  c^led 
away  to  the  esst.  Khorasan  pould  hardly  be  called  an  integral 
part  of  the  shah's  kingdom- so  long  as  it  was  under 
even  the  nominal  rnfe  of  the  blind  grandson '  of 
Nadir.  But  the  eastern  division  of  the  province 
and  its  outlying  parts  were:  actually  in  the'  hands  of 
the  Afghans,  and  Meshed  was  not  Persian  in  1796  in  the  senstf 
that  Delhi  was  British  at  the  outbseak  of  the  Indian  Mutiny,- 
Shah  Riikh  held  his  position,  sttch  as  it  was,  ratherunder  A^ad 

*  Lady  Shell  says  (1849) ; "  I  saw  a  few  of  these  unhappy  captives 
who  all  had  to  embrace  Mahommedanism,  and  many  of  whom 
had  risen  to  the  highest  sutions,  just  as  the  Circassian  slaves  in 
Gonstaatlneple." 


ti9 


'PERSIA 


U736-i«i 


Shah  ati^  his  sucocsson  in  AfghanisUn  than  itndei  any  other 
tovereign  power.  Aga  Mahommed  determined  to  restore  the 
whole  province  to  Fersia,  and,  after  a  brief  residence  in  Teheriln 
on  his  return  from  the  Geoisian  expedition,  he  set  out  for 
Meshed.  It  is  important  to  note  that  on  the  occasion  of  his 
coronation,  he  had  girded  on  the  sabre  consecrated  at  the  tomb 
of  the  founder  of  the  Safawid— thus  openly  pledging  himself 
to  support  the  Shi'ite  faith. 

But  there  had  been  continual  dissatisfaction  in  the  capital 
of  Khorasan,  and  constant  inroads  upon  it  from  without,  which 
the  royfil  puppet  was  unable  to  prevent.  His  popularity  was 
real,  but  never  seemed  to  have  effect  outside  the  limited  sphere 
of  personal  sympathy  and  regard.  Owing  to  the  frequent 
revolutions  in  the  holy  dty  the  generals  of  Timtu:  Shah,  king  of 
the  Afghans,  had  made  three  expeditions  on  Shah  Rukh's  behalf 
Meshed  had  been  taken  and  retaken  as  though  be  were  not  a 
resident  in  it,  much  less  its  dejure  king.  Moreover,  his  two  sons 
Nadir  Miraa  and  Wali  Ni'amat  had  long  been  fightmg,  and  the 
former  was  in  1796  the  actual  ruler  of  the  place  Three  years 
before  Timur  had  died,  and  his  thkd  son,  Zaman  Shah,  by  the 
intrigues  of  an  influential  sirdar,  Faiyanda  Khan,  and  been 
procUimed  his  successor  at  KabuL 

Aga  Mahommed's  entry  into  Meshed  was  effected  without  a 
struggle  on  the  part  of  those  in  possession.  The  Kajar  shah 
walked  on  foot  to  the  tomb  of  Imam  Riza,  before  which  he  knelt 
and  kissed  the  ground  in  token  of  devotion,  and  was  recognized 
as  a  Sbi'ite  of  Shi'ites.  Shah  Rukh  submissively  followed  in  his 
train.  Then  began  the  last  act  of  the  local  tragedy.  The 
bliml  king's  gradual  revdation,  under  horrible  torture,  of  the 
place  of  concnlment  of  his  several  jewels  and  treastfires,  and  his 
deportation  and  death  (of  the  injuries  thus  received,  at  Damghan, 
en  route  to  Maaandatan),  must  be  classed  among  the  darkest 
records  of  Oriental  history. 

From  Meshed  Aga  Mahommed  sent  an  envoy  to  Zaman  Shah, 
asking  for  the  cession  oi  Balkh,  and  explaining  his  invason  of 
Khorasan;  but  the  Afghan  monarch  was  too  perplexed  with  the 
troubles  in  his  own  country  and  his  owq  insecure  position  to 
do  more  than  send  an  unmeaning  reply.  It  is  not  shown  what 
was  the  understood  boundary  between  the  two  Gountries  at 
this  particular  period;  but  Watson  states  that  on  the  shah's 
departure  he  had  received  the  submission  of  the  whole  of 
Khomsftn,  and  left  in  Meshed  a  garrison  of  12,000  men. 

Aga  Mahommed  had  now  ^rly  established  his  capital  at 
TeherSn.  On  his  return  thither  in  Septend>er  1796  he  dismissed 
OtmiBmad  hb  troops  for  the  winter,  directing  their  reassembly 
ctumctm  in  the  following  q>ring^.  The  re>invasbn  by  Russia 
•iAgm  of  the  provinces  and  districts  he  had  recently 
^***""*'' wrested  from  her  west  of  the  Caspian  had  made 
great  progress,  but  the  circumstance  does  not  seem  to  have 
changed  bis  plans  for  the  army.  Although,  when  the  spring 
arrived  and  the  shah  led  his  forces  to  the  Aras,  the  Russians 
bad,  it  is  true,  retreated,  yet  territory  had  been  regained  by 
them  as  far  south  as  the  Talysh.  Aga  Mahommed  had  now 
arrived  at  the  dose  of  his  career.  He  was  enabled,  with  some 
difficulty,  to  get  his  troops  across  the  river,  and  take  possession 
of  Shusha,  which  had  given  them  so  much  trouble  a  year  or 
two  before.  There,  in  camp,  he  was  murdered  (1797)  by  his 
own  personal  attendants—men  who  were  under  sentence  of 
death,  but  allowed  to  be  at  large.  He  was  then  fifty-seven  years 
Of  age,  and  had  ruled  over  part  <^  Perua  for  more  than  eighteen 
yearsr-over  the  kingdom  generally  for  about  three  years,  and 
from  his  coionation  for  about  one  year  only. 

The  brutal  treatment  he  had  experienced  in  boyhood  under 
the  onlefs  of  *Adil  Shah,  and  the  opprobrious  name  of  "  eunuch  " 
with  which  he  was  taunted  by  his  enemies,  no  doubt  contributed 
to  embitter  his  nature.  His  x»ntempt  of  luxury,  his  avoidance 
of  hyperbole  and  dislike  of  excessive  ceremony,  his  protection 
to  consraeroe  and  consideration  for  his  soldiers,  the  reluctance 
with  which  he  assumed  the  crown  almost  at  the  close  of  his 
reign — all  these  would  have  been  praiseworthy  in  another  man; 
but  on  his  death  the  memory  of  his  atrodous  tyranny  alone 
survived.  Those  who  have  seen  his  portrait  once  will  recognize 


the  face  wherever  presented.  "Beardless  and  shrlvdled,'' 
writes  Sir  John  Malcolm,  "  it  resembled  that  of  an  aged  and 
wrinkled  woman,  and  the  expression  of  his  countenance,  at  no 
time  pleasant,  was  horrible  when  douded,  as  it  very  often  was, 
with  indignation.  He  was  sensible  of  this,  and  could  not  bear 
that  any  one  diould  look  at  him." 

Aga  Mahommed  had  made  up  his  mind  that  he  should  be 
suc«eded  by  his  nephew  Path  'Ali  Shah,  son  of  his  full  brother, 
Hosain  Kuli  Khan,  governor  of  Pars.  There  was 
a  short  interval  of  confusion  after  the  murder.  The 
remains  of  the  soverdgn  were  exposed  to  insult,  the 
•army  was  disturbed,  the  recently  captured  fort  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Aras  was  abandoned,  but  the  wisdom  and  leaolatioB 
of  the  minister,  Hajji  Ibrahim,  and  of  Mirza  Mahommed  Khan 
Kajar  secured  order  and  accepunce  of  the  duly  appointed 
heir  The  first,  prodaiming  his  own  allegiance,  put  himsdf  at 
the  head  of  a  large  body  c4  troops  and  marched  towards  the 
capital.  The  second  closed  the  gates  of  Teherftn  to  aU  comets 
until  Path  'All  Shah  came  himself  from  Shirax.  Though  instantly 
proclaimed  en  arrivals  the  new  monjM^ch  was*not  crowned  untB 
the  spring  of  the  following  year  (1798) 

The  so-called  rebellions  which  followed  were  many,  but  not 
of  any  magnitude.  Such  as  belong  to  local  history  are  three 
in  number,  i.e.  that  of  Sadik  Khan  Shakaki,  the 
general  whose  possession  of  the  crown  jewels  enabled 
him,  after  the  defeat  of  his  army  at  Kazvin,  to  secure 
his  personal  safety  and  obtain  a  government;  of  Hosain  Knii 
Khan,  the  shah's  brother,  which  was  compromised '  by  the 
mother's  intervention;  and  of  Mahommed,  son  of  Zaki  Khan, 
Zend,  who  was  defeated  on  more  than  one  occasion  in  battle, 
and  fled  into  Turkish  territory.  Later,  Sadik  Khan,  having 
again  incurred  the  royal  displeasure,  was  seized,  confined  and 
mercilessly  bricked  up  in  his  dungeon  to  die  of  starvatioD. 

Another  adversary  presented  himself  in  the  person  of  Nadir 
Mirza,  son  of  Shah  Rukh,  who,  when  Aga  Mahommed  appeared 
before  Meshed,  had  taken  refuge  with  the  Afghans.  Path  'Ali 
sent  to  warn  him  of  the  consequences,  but  without  the  desired 
effect.  Pinally,  he  advanced  into  Khorasan  with  an  many 
which  appears  to  have  met  with  no  opposition  save  at  Nishapur 
and  Turbet,  both  of  which  places  were  taken,  and  when  it  reached 
Meshed,  Nadir  Mirza  tendered  his  submission,  whidi  was 
accepted  Peace  having  been  further  cemented  by  an  alliaooe 
between  a  Kajar  general  and  the  prince's  daughter,  the  shab 
returned  to  Teherin. 

Now  that  the  narraftve  of  Persian  kings  has  been  brought  up  to 
the  period  of  the  consolidation  of  the  Ka^ar  dynasty  and  commenoe- 
ment  of  the  19th  century,  there  remams  but  to  summarize  the 
prindpal  events  in  the  reigns  of  Path  *Ali  Shah  and  hiz  immediate 
successors,  Mahommed  Shah  and  Na^ni  'd-Din  Shah. 

Path  *A!i  Shah  came  to  the  throne  at  about  thtrty>two  years 
of  age,  and  died  at  sixty-eight,  after  a  reign  of  thii^-cix  years. 
Penu's  great  aim  was  to  recover  in  the  north-west,  as  in  the  aorth- 
oast  of  her  eni{rire,  the  geographical  limits  obuined  for  bar  by  the 
Safawid  kings,  and  this  was  no  easy  natter  when  she  had  to  coo- 
tend  with  a  strong  European  power  whose  territorial  limits  toodicd 
her  own.  Path  'Ali  Shah  undertook,  at  the  outset  of  nrmfm-^h 
hb  rri^,  a  contest  with  Russia  on  .the  western  side  of  gL^lZ 
the  Caspian,  which  became  constant  and  harassiog  ^""^ 
warfare.  Georgia  was,  dearly,  not  to  revert  to  a  Mahora- 
medan  suzerain.  In  1800  its  tsar,  George,  son  and  successor 
of  HeracKus,  notwithstanding  his  former  profesaons  of  allegiaoce 
to  the  shah,  renounced  his  crown  in  favour  of  the  Russian  emperor. 
His  brother  Alexander  indignantly  repudiated  the  act  and  resibAed 
its  fulfilment,  but  he  was  deuatcd  by  General  Lazcrov  on  the  banks 
of  the  Lora.  Persia  then  re-entered  the  field.  Among  the  more 
notable  occurrences  which  followed  were  a  three  days'  battlew 
fought  near  Echmiadrin,  between  the  crown  prince,  'Abbas  Mira, 
andGeneml  Ziaianov,  in  which  the  Persians  suffered  much  from  the 
enemy's  artillery,  but  would  not  admit  they  were  defeated;  un- 
successful attempts  on  the  part  cS  the  Russian  commander  to  get 
poMession  of  Envan;  and  a  surprise,  in  camp,  of  the  shah's  forces* 
which  caused  them  to  disperse,  and  necessitated  the  king's  owa 
presence  with  reinforcements.  On  the  latter  oocaston  the  shah  m 
credited  with  gallantly  swimming  his  horse  across  the  Aras,  and 
setting  an  example  of  energy  aiM  valour.  In  the  foUowiog  year 
'Abbas  Mirza  advanced  upon  Shishah,  the  chi^  of  which  place 
and  of  the  Karabagh  had  declared  for  Russia;  much  fighting  en- 
sued, and  Erivan  was  formally  taken  possession  of  in  tha  auae  of 


by  Undine  tmotiau  Eanli.  nhicli  nuruHl  lo  Bi 
f<ll  ■  victin  talhs  titaditfy  of  tb(  hniu  n 
Uia  ItaaUD  KUil  ol  Sfaub,  Rpadoc  ol 
ilcicrmiaed  la  ddivB  up  thg  Mumnn  nmn 
bia  pbM  wm  bctnytil,  mud  lis  ud  M>  rIu 

rliali  uidviuunBnl 

m  pfiDce  ol  nnia,  ■!' 


<1  Willi  Eniluid  and  BriiU  Indii. 

a  MakU  'M  Khu  kKl  ludnl  u  BnUic  oMnMcd  by 
i  Bombay  with  ■  ktur  to  Uw  iliah.  ui 
id  ihonlv  by  u  Eiiibb  covojt  Inn  the 

,__  __,  _. . iL    Cipiwi  MakoS   ol   tha   Hadna 

TT'.Jt^  anay.  Ha  bad  not  oalgr  to  talk  about  tba  Alibua 
•^      '      but  about  tba  Fnocli,  and  tba  nada  of  tbe  Pcniaa 

and  a  Rtun'^iiwiB'?  India  Inn  Path  -Ali  Sbah.  To  bin 
Fnnce  ntn  aeat  bet  nciiaR.  la  lloi  an  AnKHlm  Bndiau 
Inn  Baidad  bad  apficaicif  aa  tba  baanr  ot  ciadaittiala  ImB 
NapolcoD,  but  hia  nwoa  waa  miatnuted  and  cama  to  nothiB^ 
Suae  6va  yean  altarvarda  Jaubcn,  alter  dctcntiiHi  and  toipraiiB- 
nnt  on  lllc  road,  aiiivtd  at  Ttbcrtn  and  wen  hack  to  Enn^ 
Hith  a  duly  aocnditcd  I^niaa  ambaaador.  whs  eneludcd  a  treaty 
vilh  tba  pRiKb  miKiBi  at  Fiaknuuia.    Oa  the  miira  ol  the 

Oardacia  to  inamict  aad  driU  tb 

Ifom  tha.  Brifi^  §evtinH/enu  ■- --  , 

April  iSoBi  louad  that  it  had  baen  aatieipeted  by  a  pirvtot 
Bent  mJitioB  IroA  the  govemoT'CeDFtat  of  ladia,  under  Ualc 
afaEfi,  then  holdinf  the  rank  ol  lirindier'CeiieiaU 

The  bune  mtiBiaii.  boHcvcr,  pnceded  to  Buibin,  and  Makol 
telum  (haace  lo  India  caabkid  Sir  tiarloid  to  aisv*  oa  and  re 
■    capital  in  Febi  " 


be  availed  hioiKU  ol  it  to  the 
covntry.L  He  waa  welcomed  by  tbe  ahab  in  camp  ai  Ujani.  and 
took  low  a  nwath  alterwaidi  lo  mum  via  BaidHl  and  Bawa 
lg  India.  The  nciI  y«r  Sir  Hulonl  Jnaea  waa  nlieved  aa  eavoy 
tw  Sir  Gore  Otiaclcy. 

Meanwhile  hoaliUtin  bwl  been  rewmed  with  Runa.  and  in 
iSii  the  Britith  envoy  liani  hia  food  oflicca  lor  liie  mtontion  of 

I  Ihit  Bhli^  oAken  ibnukl 
niliury  openiiiHu.    Ciirialie 

'      '"'  On   the  JIM  ol 

brinHk 


fliculty.  in  U,; 


EngUnd  a 


Via  Ibe  Aiaa.  Un  the  JIM  ol 
an  anack  ol  tha  eneny,  and 
hi  ihey  wen  acaia  attacked  and 
•  avely  fi«hlii^   - -'    ■     '    '■■ 


bf  Ruaaia  csukl  aot  be  admillHl.  tba  eptdal  eenwr  wu  |i 
tbebnt  bbw.anddrsHlheenaeiy  livBiLcakann.    The  Penau 
then  carried  all  hdore  them;  and  the  hereditary  dwFa  of  Shirvaa, 
SheU  anl  Baku  returaed  liom  cailc  (o  cD4perMe  with  Ibe  ihah'a 


"  fuwraac  of  Kernun.  lold  Cckaiel 
'-   ■"'.  (hat  "U>  rather  hod  been  Su' 

ry  a£tt.'^^lS^pitaW  TVaanl! 


advauad  podt  haU  bf  the  EO*enton(tM*al  ol  tha  CamHui  waa 
(be  obiiinaia  litth  foRina  (4  Shodia.    But  befon  km|  aU  waa 

wu°euncantiued  at  -^a.  MahotwcTMin,  nn°of  t^Kcrotm 
peinB.  advuad  u  laeei  thKi  on  the  baika  oi  tba  Zeam.  Ha 
waa  dtfatad;  and  U>  lather  wu  muted  man  HrHKiely  aaill  at 
Gar^  Tbe  Aah  nada  fieai  efona  u  lenew  iht  war;  hirt  ittvjdoiB 
taok  place  la  Ua  aoa'a  caBp.  not  cnadudve  to  aiKcaadnl  opantiona, 
and  aew  paopaaala  of  peaaa  HRra  aiade.  Bin  Roana  demandol 
Erivan  aad  ttakhidiavaa  aa  well  aa  the  coat  of  tha  war;  and  In 
ItIT  tha  campaka  waa  reopeaed.  Briefly,  after  auceaaiiva  pina 
and  Imiia.  aot  oidy  Ertvan  waa  lahea  Ina  I^nia  bat  Tabrit  alia, 
and  baaBy.  tfamnih  tbe  bitetvealkia  of  Sir  John  hfacdonald.  tbt 

c_u^ aawtntywaaeonchidedalTnrkanilal.layhw 

an  hetwaea  Raaia  aad  Fienia.    Aaoaf  the,  haid 


of  aooa  (sMtMse 

Afaer  Ra^  tl , . ^._ 

well4idi«  «<  Penda  waa  Tarkey,  with  whom  ahc  waa  ur 

wm  by  a  canoaa  line  <4  rnntier.     Sellm  had  na 

So.  IS  facilitala  iiparaihna  atalaat  the  riiah'i  Iroope: 
had  baana  paaue of  arnia  between  the  Idnt'a  ekint  Bsn.  1 
■Ah  Mina.  and  Salebaan  Paaha.  anti-in-law  of  the  tovei 
ol  Bacdad,  which  ia  locally  credited  aa  a  battle  ' 
But  ther*  waa  m  open  niptui*  beiaoea  tbe  ti 
lUi.  alvq  the  Innticr  diiputea  and  eomplahna  d 

and  pilsriiaa  cpinnnatrd  In  ■  dccUn,.,..  ,.   ._--     . 

-.  u .  __  _; .L.  i,ril6ad  placea  of  Toprak 


Bdeor°Efurt 

Hamadan.    Cholera  b 

In  the  north  th*ptiiftea«l'AbhaaUlnairaaatop»I  at  BayailJ 
by  a  bke  deadly  vhnaiion;  aad  a  auapenaloa  of  noatilitiea  waa 
acmdnpon  iDriha  whtteraeaaaiL  Attbeeapitatloaaf  four  nHmtha 
Ibe  Bidar  of  Erinii  look  poaaeailan  ol  a  TarUah  nilitaiy  autio« 
on  thenad  to  Enanini  aad  tba  cimm  erlace  laardiad  upon  thai 
city  at  the  bead  ol  jo,oao  men.  Tbe  Ononaa  army  wbhft  net 
Mm  ia  aid  to  have  Banbered  aome  51.000;  hue  vidnry  wis 
ai  the  aide  ol  their  oppsneala  Whether  tbe  lODlt  waa  owinf  10 
tba  delcciion  ol  i5.ai>o  Kuida  or  not  tba  evidence  addaced  ia  in> 
...^^ — ...^^A.     !_..„  &nBib  cecoita  of  tbe  period  ilia  allied 

, , „ ..._  piiba  ofEnvumi  andp  in 

Umlia  of  the  dundniona  of  the  aluh,  Ma  latber.  But  man  traubla 
aroia  ai  Bof^d.  aad  other  rvaaona  Interwned  10  prtrtnet  nHtaia- 
tiona  lor  a  year  and  a  ball.  At  le^i,  in  July  iSli,  tbe  Tmly  ol 
Eneiwm  deaed  tbe  war  Ul  au.n  'nitkay  and  Pema.  It  pnndnd 
eapeciaUy  a|^nM  a  nconvncv  of  the  proved  caaaca  ol  war,  abob 
aa  eanooiiifl  lana  fiun  PaniaB  tnveflen  or  pilvrinia.  diateapect 
tf>  the  ladiea  oF  the  royal  barem  and  other  ladieo  cTrank  proceeoint 
Is  Mcoca  or  ICarbala  (Kerbela).  invpilar  leviea  ol  cuatom<duIiea, 
aeai-puniahaiefit  ol  KiirdiBh  depndalon  traiasreaiiiif  tbe  boondary. 


inlerior  in  worldly  ki 
nly   diviahmi  ai 


ic  eaatera  boundiHea  el  hia  kinidam.  Filk 

lluicoviteof  pmialenl  policy  and  rt^i,.^— 
f  Iriendihip.    Tbe  Al|htn,  though  J^^J^ 


a  of  Afgfiinifltan  grew 


"'T1w'rfw*orNl3h-'Ml™'?ad,  aTSore  ciplaiwd.  drawn  the 
■hah'i  attealiini  to  Khotaaan  in  tbe  early  pan  ol  hia  nifn;  bat, 
atahoB|b  qaiet  bad  for  Ihe  mooient  been  mtorcd  at  Heahed  by 
<h>  "■-— ■  of  the  royal  caaip.  freab  grwinda  of  cvmptaiat  wen 
tbe  raah  Dot  paaemaa  prince,  and  recsarae  ivaa  had 
eaauRi.  Cbaraed  whh  the  murder  of  a  holy  aaiyid, 
«  cm  off  and  mb  loncse  waa  plocked  oat.  at  pot  ol 
'  '      .    Ii  doet  OM  appear  that 

iipiiaitd  by  tha  A^jbaa^ 


.1540 


FESSIA 


lf79fr*i»« 


nor  that  Path  *AS  Shali'«  ckim  to  M«shed,  as  beborinr  to  the 
Penian  crown,  waa  actively  rented.  But  the  large  Province  of 
Khoramn,  of  which  Meshed  was  the  capital,  had  never  been  other 
Chan  a  nomuiai  dependency  of  the  crown  since  the  death  of  Nadir; 
4nd  in  the  autumn  of  tSw  the  shaJt,  under  Russian  advios»  as- 
aemUed  a  large  fbree  to  brins  into  subjection  all  tucfauleot  and 
nsfnctory  chidts  on  the  east  of  his  kingdonu  Yead  and  Kerman 
were,  the  first  points  of  attack:  Khorasan  was  afterwards  entered 
by  Saronan,  or  the  main  road  from  Teherftn.  The  expeditian,  led 
by  *AU)as  Mirza,  involved  some  hard  fighting  and  niuch  toss  of 
Uie:  several  forts  and  places  were  captured,  among  them  Kucfaan 
and  Serrakhs;  and  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  objects  oontem- 

Slated  were  more  or  less  attained.    An  Enjriiah  officer.  Colonel 
hee,  commanded  what  was  called  the  "  British  detachment "  * 
which  accompaiued  the  prince.   Thus  far  as  regards  Yetd,  Kerman 
and  Khorasan.    It  was  otherwise  with  Herat^ 

Hajji  Firuau'd-Din,  son  of  Timur  Shah,  reigned  undisturfoed  in 
that  cay  from  1800  to  1816.  ^nce  Fath  *Ali  Shah's  aoeession  he 
and  his  brother  Mahmud  had  been,  as  it  were,  under  Persian  pre- 
tection.  Persia  claimed  the  principality  of  Heiat  as  part  of  the 
empire  of  Nadir,  but  her  pretensions  had  been  satisfied  by  payments 
df  tribute  or  evasive  replies.  Now*  however,  that  she  marched  her 
army  against  the  place,  Firuzu  *d-Din  called  in  the  aid  of  his  brother 
Mahmud  Shah  ot  Kabul,  who  sent  to  lum  the  famous  viaief,  Path 
Khan  Baraluai.  The  latter,  intriguing  on  hb  own  account,  got 
possession  oC  the  town  and  citadel;  he  then  sallied  forth,  engsged 
the  Persian  forces,  and  forced  them  to  retire  into  their  own  country. 
In  i82d,  on  a  aolicitation  from  Mustafa  Khan,  who  had  got  temporary 
jKrid  01  Herat,  more  troops  were  despatched  thither,  but.  by  the 
use  of  money  or  bribes,  their  departure  was  purchased.  Some 
eijKht  or  nine  years  afterwards  'Abbas  Mirza,  when  at  the  head  of 
hi»army  in  Meshed,  invited  Yar  Mahommed  Khan  of  Herat  to 
discuss  a  settlement  of  diffcreocci  between  the  two  govenunents. 
The  meeting  was  unproductive  of  good.  Again  the  PcrsiaA  troops 
advanced  to  Herat  itself  under  thecammand  of  Mahommed  Mirza, 
son  of  Abbas;  but  the  news  of  his  father's  death  caused  the  com- 
mander to  break  up  his  camp  and  return  to  Meshed. 

Sir  Gore  Ouseley  returned  to  England  in  1S14.  in  which  year 
Mr  EUis,  assisted  by  Mr  Morier-whcne  "  Hajji  Baba  "  is  the  un- 
failing  I>roof  of  his  wility  and  deep  knowledge  of  Persian  character 

negotiated  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  the  Treaty  of  Teher&a. 
England  was  to  provide  troops  or  a  subsidy  in  the  event  of  uapro- 
voked  invasion,  while  Persia  was  to  attack  the  Afghans  should 
they  invade  India.  Captain  Willock  succeeded  Moner  as  charg6 
d'affaires  in  1815,  and  since  that  period  Great  Britain  has  always 
been  represented  at  the  Pernao  court.  It  was  in  Fath  'Ali  Shah's 
reign  that  Henry  Maityn  was  in  Persia,  and  completed  his  able 
tnmslation  of  the  New  Teataihent  into  the  language  of  that  country. 
Little  more  remains  to  be  here  narrated  of  the  days  of  Fath  'Ali 
Shah.  Among  the  remarkable  occurrences  may  be  noted  the  murder 
nt  Teher&n  in  i8a8  of  M.  Grcbayadov.  the  Russian  envoy,  whose 
conduct  in  forcibly  retaining  two  women  of  Erivan  provoked  the 
interference  of  the  mullas  and  people.  To  repair  the  evil  con- 
aequences  of  this  act  a  conciliatory  embassy^  consisting  of  a  young 
son  of  the  crown  prince  and  some  high  omcers  of  the  state,  was 
despatched  to  St  Petersburg.  Shortly  afterwards  the  alliance 
with  Russa  was  strengthened,  and  that  with  England  slackened 
in  proportion. 

Fatn  'Ali  Shah  had  a  numerous  family.  Agreeably  to  the  Persian 
custom,  asserted  by  his  predeoessorK  of  nominating  the  hctr*apparent 
from  the  sons  of  the  sovereign  without  restriction  to  seniority,  he 
had  passed  over  the  eldest,  Mahommed  *AIi,  in  favour  of  a  junior, 
*Abbas;  but,  as  the  nominee  died  in  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  the 
old  king  had  proclaimed  Mahommed  Mina.  the  son  of  'Abbas,  and 
his  own  grandson,  to  be  hit  successor.  Why  a  younger  son  had 
Iteea  originally  selected,  to  the  prejudice  of  his  elder  brother,  is 
different!^  stated  by  different  writers.  The  true  reason  was  probably 
the  superior  rank  of  his  mother. 

Mahommed  Shah  was  twenty-eight  years  old  when  he  came  to 
the  throne  in  1834.  He  died  at  the  age  of  forty-two,  after  a  reign 
flffiiftnminirrf  ^'  AD<>ut  thirteen  and  a  half  years.  Hu  accession  was 
S^^  not  publicly  notified  for  some  months  after  his  grand- 
father's death,  for  it  was  necessajry  to  dear  the  way  of 
all  competitors,  and  there  were  two  on  this  occasion — one  'AU 
Mirza,  governor  of  Teherftn,  who  actually  assumed  a  royal  title, 
and  one  Hasan  'Ali  Mirza^  governor  of  Shfraz.    Owing  tb  thcistcps 

S ken  by  the  British  envoy,  Sir  John  Campbell,  assisted  by  Colond 
>thuoe,  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force,  supplied  with  artiUery, 
the  apposition  of  the  first  was  neutraliaed,  and  Mahommed  Shah, 
senteni^  Teherftn  on  the  2nd  of  January,  was  prodaimed  king  on 
the  31st  of  the  same  month.  It  cost  more  time  and  trouble  to 
bring  the  second  to  book.  Hasan  *^AU.  "  farman-farma,"  or  com- 
.mander-i»chief,  and  his  brother  and  abcttor,^  had  an  army  at  their 
disposal  in  Fars.  Sir  Henry  Lindsay  Bcthune  marched  his  soldiers 
to  Isfahan  to  be  ready  to  meet  them.  An  engagement  which  took 
place  .near  Kumishah,  on  the  road  between  Isfahan  and  Shiras, 
having  been  successful,  the  English  commander  pushed  on  to  the 
latter  town,  where  the  two  rebel  princes  were  seised  and  imprisoned. 
Forwarded  under  escort  to  Teherftn.  they  were,  according  to  Watson, 
onkrcd  to  be  aent  on  thence  as  sute  prisoners  to  ArddMl,  but  the 


farmaivfama  ^dMion  theHisy,  and  hb  brother  was  blinded  fceCote 
incarcerarion.  Markham,  however,  states  that  both  'All  Mina 
and  Hasan  *Ali  were  allowed  to  rethe  with  a  small  pension,  and  that 
no  atrodtiea  stained  the  beginning  of  the  rdgn  of  Mahommed  Shah. 
It  is  presumed  that  the  fate  of  the  prime  minister  or  *'  kmsa-makam," 
who  waa  stranKkd  in  prison,  was  no  more  than  an  ordinary  execatiaa 
of  die  law.  This  event,  and  the  prevalence  of  plague  and  cholera 
at  Teherftn,  marked  somewhat  gloomily  the  new  monafch*a  fiitf 
year. 

The  selection  of  a  premier  was  one  of  the  first  weag^nty  qneatioai 
for  solution.  A  member  of  the  royal  family,  the  *'  asaf  u  'd-daula," 
governor  of  Khorasan,  left  his  government  to  urge  his  candidatoc 
for  the  post.  The  king's  choice,  however,  fel  on  Hajji  Mina 
Aghasi,  a  native  of  Erivan,  who  in  former  years,  as  tutor  to  the 
sons  of  'Abbas  Mina,  had  gdacd  a  certain  reputation  for  learnij^ 
and  a  smattering  of  the  occult  sdenoes,  but  whose  qualSficatioaa 
for.  statesmanship  were  craftiness  and  suspidon.  As  might  have 
been  antidpated,  the  hai ji  fell  into  the  hands  of  Russia,  represented 
Inr  Count  Simonich,  who  urged  him  to  a  fresh  esmcdition  into 
Khorasan  and  the  siege  of  Herat.  Then  was  no  doubt  _ 
a  plausible  pretext  tor  both  proposals^  The  cUefsu 
reduced  to  temporary  submission  by  *  Abbas  Mirza,  had  ^ 
a^in  revolted;  and  Shah  Kamran,  supported  by  his  "* 
vuier,  Yar  Mahommed,  had  broken  those  engagements  and  pledges 
on  tiie  strength  of  which  Fath* Ali  Shah  had  withdrawn  his  troopa 
In  additmn  to  these  cauaea  of  offence  he  had  appfopriated  the 
province  of  Seistan,  over  which  Persia  had  long  prof  eased,  to  hold 
the  rights  of  suzerainty.  But  the  king's  ambition  was  to  go  farther 
than  retaliation  or  chastisement.  He  refused  to  adcnowledKc  aay 
right  to  separate  government  whatever  on  the  part  of  the  Afehaiu^ 
and  Kandahar  ami  Ghaani  wero  to  be  Rcoverod,  as  faelonnng  ta 
the  empire  of  the  Safawid  dynasty.  The  advice  of  the  Britisli 
envoy  was  dissuasive  in  this  respect,  and  therefore  dtstastefuL 

Sir  John  Campbell,  in  less  than  a  year  after  the  sovereign's 
installation,  went  home,  and  was  succeeded  as  British  envov  by 
Henry  Ellis.  The  change  in  peraonnd  signified  also  a  transfer  el 
supenntendcnce  of  the  retsian  legation,  which  passed  frocn  the 
government  in  India  to  the  authorities  in  England.  The  expedi- 
tion was  to  commence  with  a  campaign  against  the  Turconians-^ 
Herat  being  its  later  destination.  Such  oounter^propoaals  as  Effis 
had  suggested'  for  conrideration  had  been  politely  put  aside,  and 
the  case  whs  now  more  than  ever  complicated  by  the  action  of  the 
Barakzai  chiefs  of  Kandahar,  who  had  sent  a  misdon  to  Teherftn  to 
offer  asastanoe  against  thdr  Soduaai  rival  at  Hemt.  Fresh  pn>vo> 
cation  had,  moreover,  been  given-  to  the  shah's  government  oy  the 
rash  and  incanable  Kamran. 

About  the  close  of  the  summer  the  force  moved  from  Tehcria. 
The  royal  camp  was  near  Astarabad  in  November  1836.  Food  was 
scarce:  barley  sold  for  ten  times  the  usual  price,  and  wheat  was  not 
procurable  for  any  money.  The  troops  were  dissatisfied,  and.  being 
kept  without  pay  and  on  short  rations,  took  to  [Aundering.  Th«c 
had  been  operations  on  the  baidcs  of  the  Guigan,  and  the  Tuncomaas 
had  been  driven  from  one  of  their  strongholds;  but  little  or  no  pro> 
gress  had  been  made  in  the  subjection  df  these  marauders,  and  the 
Heratis  had  sent  word  that  all  they  could  do  was  to  pny  tribute, 
and,  if  that  were  insufficient,  the  shah  had  better  march  to  Herat. 
A  military  council  was  hdd  at  Shahrud,  when  it  was  dcdded  te 
return  to  the  capital  and  set  out  again  in  the  spring.  Accordin^y 
the  troops  dispersed,  and  the  sovereign's  presence  at  Teheran  was 
taken  advantage  of  by  the  British  minister  to  renew  his  attrmpu 
In  the  cause  oTpcace.  Although  on  the  present  occasion  Simooicb 
ostensibly  aided  the  British  charg6  d'affaires  M'Neilt.  who  hsd 
succeeded  Ellis  in  1836,  no  argument  was  of  any  avail  to  divert 
the  monarch  from  his  purpose.  He  arain  set  out  in  the  summer, 
and,  invadiiq;  the  Herat  territory  in  I^ovember  1837,  began  the 
siege  on  the  33rd  of  that  month. 

N(^  until  September  in  the  following  year  did  the  Persian  array 
withdraw  from  before  the  walls  of  tM  cit^;  and  then  the  move^ 
ment  only  took  pbce  on  the  action  of  the  British  govern- 
mont.  M'Ndll,  who  had  joined  the  Persian  camp  on 
the  6th  of  April,  left  it  again  on  the  7th  of  June.  He 
had  done  all  in  his  power  to  effect  a  reasonable  agreement  between 
the  contending  parties;  but  both  in  this  respect  aiw  in  the  matter  otf 
a  commercial  treaty  with  England,  then  under  negotiation,  hi? 
efforts  bad  been  met  with  evasion  and  latent  hostility.  The 
Russian  envoy,  who  had  appeared  among  the  tents  of  the  benegiag 
army  abnost  simultaneously  with  his  Engli^  oolleagne.  no  soontr 
found  himsdf  akme  in  his  diplomacy  than  ne  resumed  his  nggreasive 
Counsels,  and  little  more  than  a  fortnight  had  ehipsed  since  M'Netlt's 
departure  when  a  vigorous  assault,  planned.  It  is  asserted,  by 
Simonich  himself,  was  made  upon  Herat.  The  Persians  attacked 
at  five  points,  at  one  of  which  they  would  in  all  likelihood  have  beca 
suceessial  had  not  the  Afghans  been  aided  by  Eklred  Pmtinger.  a 
younjl  Englishman,  who  with  the  science  of  an  artillery  officer 
combined  k  courage  and  determination  which  ineviubly  tniiuencrd 
his  subordinates.  Still  the  garrison  was  disheartened;  but  Colond 
Stoddan's  arrival  on  the  nth  of  August  to  threaten  the  shah  -witb 
British  intervention  put  a  stop  to  further  action.  Colond  Stoddart's 
rdiual  to  allow  any  but  British  medators  to  decide  the  pendi^ 
dispute  won  the  day;  and  that  officer  was  able  to  report  that  oa 


Sleie^ 


tbe  9ib  *(  SivUiiiber  MafeoBUMd  SUb  ted  "aoMadU 
and  fODC  from  before  Ihe  wtVti  of  the  befaButfcd  dly. 

The  w^  at  Hcrat»  which  luted  fvr  iwarb;1«i  luflthi, 
n^lcvent in therc^ofMebomiKtlSbah.  TheBrilbho 
ID  support  of  Shah  Shui'a,  which  my  b>  cbIIk]  iu  miin 


liie  rcnufnilcr  of  the  kinf^  mtn  vu  mai 
irilh  the  British  Eovenuncnt;  the  reljcUioa 
otherwise  Itnowa  u  the  chief  o(  Ihc  Anuiii 

Turfceyjtbcbaniihi 


at  of  the  uaf  u'cUiaiUa. « 


.^_.— ^^  (tTKhocaun, 

Dy  inc  iruirrrcana  and  defeat  of  hu  »n:efHj  the  rise  of 
(q.r.).  TbefimoithtKoiilyailbferuiydetailcilnxauu. 
fn  Liic  dcndndt  of  tlie  Britiih  Gowrnmait  WBi  iodiidcd  the 
cfuon  by  Pcnia  of  placet  luch  m  Farab  and  SgLbvwar,  which  had 
-J—   ,      been  tsken  during  the  war  fnm  the  Afeham  •».  wtll 

!2~t  SeXklXtoSoo.  M°NdB  fave  a  ^n'Ti'r^for 
**"*  aeeiiios,  et  the  end  of  which,  ng  miirfacMcy  iiply 
having  nuhed  him.  he  brotr  off  diphHnitii:  n'litioni.  erdcml  <hc 
BritiA  of&cen  lent  to  the  ihBh  to  procml  towariJi  Basdad  in  mtc 

On  the  FoBUi  iide»  clium  wen  made  aipinjn  M'NclU.  and  a 
kpeciai  envoy  wu  lent  to  England  to  eupporl  (hem.  An  emicavour 
was  at  the  lame  time  made  to  interesi  the  cabiiidB  of  Europe  in 
inlluenclni  the  Briliah  govtiiuufin  on  behalf  of  Penua.  The 
enfoy  aianeced  to  obtain  an  interview  with  the  mlniKer  e(  foiciin 
affainiaLoiidoii,who,!nJu1y  ilu.  lupiilied  btai  wHh  ■  sUIcnent. 
fuilcr  than  before,  of  all  Engliiti  demand  upon  hii  eouniry.  Con- 
•idetable  delay  eniiied,  but  the  outcome  vl  Ihe  ^^^  ptoceedingi 

contracted.  In  the  mcaalfiac  the  Uaiid  of  Khank  had  been  taken 
ponesHOn  of  by  an  expedition  fma  ladia. 

On  the  I  ith  of  Ociobcr  1841  a  new  misKon  arrived  at  Tchetln 
from  I^ondon,  under  John  (aficrwardi  Sir  John)  M'Ncill,  to  renew 
diplomalie  relation!.  It  waa  laoH  cordially  rcceiwd  by  the  ihah, 
■lul  aa  one  cS  jta  immediale  reiultv»  ICharak  wae  evacoated  by  the 
BHtioh-lndian  troop*. 

■pu__-  i._j  I r — diplomatic  conn 


There  had  bce^  .  . 
tlie  proceedkpgt  of  Cr . 

Herat.    Amone  Ihe  »pen  Ii  a  very  important 
Neuelnde  to  Onnl  h«o  dl  Borgo  in  which  Rua 

tobether      "  •-----■- ■ •- 

upon  him, 

Kandi^T  and"inutd  *"  not 'inn  wTih  thil'Afehiifl" 

An  Kbu'*  lebatllon  waa  foaletcd  by  the  dcfectioi 
<f  aUiR  portumof  the  force aenl  againat  him:  but 

laat  to  UK  local  Aolhoritfeaof  Kerman  and  fled  the  ^ 

country-    ftv  afterwarda  resided  mani^  ycara  at  Bombay. 

better  known  anaong  Europvna  Igir  bii  doings  on  I 
■  The  quarrel  with  Turkey  waa  aencraJIv  about 

Evenluallythematterwa>icfcrrcdloanAnglo-RL 

of  which  Oplmd  Williamt  (alicrwardi  Sir  Fenwick  William., 
waa  pnitidcat.  A  manacre  of  Pervian»  at  KerbeLa  m^l 
aeriouily  cocvplitxted  the  dlfpulCrbirt.after  a  fint  hunt  ei  i 


ol  a  prohitrition  to  import  African  Alavct  into  Pel 
oerc^l  treaty  v-ilh  inland— rtcoidol  by  Wat* 
•diicvementl  of  the  penod  by  Briiiih  iliplomatial 
mwMU  la  which  occur  the  namct  of  MM.  de  L 
Sani(e>  were  notable  in  their  way,  but  loiKwhal  I 


■letle  and  de 


or  coDibiaation  of  nubdiea,  which 
cryaipclaa  had.  it  ii  taid.'  ruined  hi*  conlitulion.  and  he  died  at 
hiipalaceinShuiirBaaalheilhof  ScptenibcT.  Hewaihunedal 
Kun>.  where  ii  eituaUd  Ihe  ahcine  of^Falima.  dauber  ol  Imam 
Ria,  by  the  »de  of  hi*  trandfaibcr,  Fatb  'Ali,  and  other  kingi 
of  Fenu,    In  peraon  he  u  dcKribcd  ai  ilurt  and  fat,  with  an 

On  the  occaikn  oT  hii  faihet'i  death,  Na>ni  'd-f)in  Mina.  who 

had  been  proclaimed  wali  ■ahd,  or  hrir  apparent,  aome ■— ' — 

..  wa*  abKnt  al  Tatarii.  the  hcadguartm  of  hi 


ral.'al^fllfi 


mforititiero. 
I  when,  on  the 
ipitai  and  waa 

of  the  Bahii,  (]]  the  fall  of  the  amini  'n-niam,  and  U}  the  war  with 

U  has  been  stated  that  the  atafu  'd.daula  wai  a  coflipelhor 
with  Kaiji  Miraa  Aehaii  for  the  post  of  premier  in  the  caUnct  of 

MahoniBKd  Shah,  that  be  was  allerwardi.  In  the  same  , 

rvigo.  eidM  for  ifiinf  In  rcbeillan,  and  that  his  son,  Jr-V— " 
the  «Iar,  tack  •beher  with  the  Tiiicomana.     Some  ™_.. 
four  DiOiitfaa  prior  to  tlie  Mahommed  Shah's  decense 
the  latter  chief  had  fenpuenied  in  arnn  aRainat  hi*  authority;  lie 
had  gained  poasessian  of  Meshed  itsdf,  driving  the  prince^ovcmor, 


he  moique  of  Imam  Riaa.  and  wBa  brriUy  eipcDed. 
ler  were  lelxed  and  put  to  death,  the  imtnimeirt 
ii_..  ui.. —  ••  the  bowstring  of  Ea*tem  etory." 

.„—,—,_  _  . . Mina,  became  afterwards  himself 

Ui*  prfnce.|aveniar  el  Khoruan. 

f n  the  ar£le  on  Ba Atsi.  the  facts  ■•  to  thelife  of  the  BS*.  Mina 
AHMahomnedolSMni,andthepnigrcsaolibe  BabDst  movement, 
an  •rpatately  miieed.    The  Bab  hinueU  wa>  executed     _.ub_ 
in  iSjo,  bat  only  after  lerioos  trouWn  over  the  new     "' 
rillgiDu*  profHganda;  and  bis  foUowera  kept  up  the  nvolutionarv 

tntbe  Himmcr  of  1S51  the  shah  was  atlacVed.  while  ridlu  in 
the  vkinity  of  Tehettn,  by  four  Babi^  one  ri  whom  Kred  a  pistol 
and  sli^ly  wounded  him.  The  man  wa>  hilled,  and  two  other* 
wen  captured  bf  the  royal  attendant*;  the  fourth  jumped  down 
a  well.  The  ejuncncc  d  a  consFaracy  was  then  discovered  in 
which  some  forty  persona  wen  implicaled;  and  ten  of  tbc  coa- 
epirators  were  pot  to  death*-wjme  under  cnKl  ttvturc. 

"■ —  '^'-'    ''--  — "—  'n-miam  (vulgarly  amir  nizam),  or  com. 


nude  by  the  yOfing  ahah  NafrU  'd _..      .  _ 

both  his  bnnher-in-law  uid  hit  pelne^iiDliter.  The  choice  wu  an 
admirable  one;  he  was  boweat,  baid-wofkinf,  and  liberal  accordiof 
10  hii  litfhta;  and  the  aerYlcee  of  a  foyal  aA  capable  adviser  weic 
aceured  for  the  new  i^ne.  Unfeetunatdy,  he  did  not  boatt  the 
confidence  of  ibt  queeo-mothcrF  and  this  ciieumstanca  ^leatly 
slivngihencd  the  hands  of  those  cnemiee  wiiom  an  iioncBt  ministef 
mutt  ever  raise  amuBd  bin  In  a  coRipt  (Meual  statSi  For  a 
time  Ihc  shah  closed  hla  eyea  ta  the  accusationa  and  fodmiatlona 
againel  him ;  but  at  last  he  fell  tinder  the  evil  Influence  of  designiiH 
counvilors,  and  ads  which  should  haveredcuiidedto  tbeminmert 
credit  became  the  chanet  on  wMch  be  toat  hia  office  and  his  tifb 
He  wai  cn'diird  with  ar  - 


ight  of  The  li^iJ  NV 

-  '"d  informed  that  he  was  no  loneer . 

imadu  'd.dadah,"  waa  named  to 


iber  1851  he  waa 


palaee  and  informed  that  he  wa 

hf  iru  Ajp  Khan,  ihe  "  'itimadu  'd.dadah,"  ws — 

him,  antT had  been  vcordincly  nivd  to  the  digidly  of  *'  sadr^aim-* 
A«  the  hoslilo  faction  prnied  Ihe  necciaily  of  the  ex-mini*ter'B 
lemoval  from  the  capital:  ha  waa  offered  the  choice  of  the  goveriH 
mnil  of  Fan.  Isfahan  or  Kinn.  He  decBned  all;  but,  through 
I  he  medillion  of  CdonH  Shell,  he  wat  aflerwanls  offered  and  accepted 
Kjdian,  Forty  day*  after  his  departure  an  order  for  his  eneculioil 
was  signed,  but  he  anlicipatrd  hia  fate  by  eomnilling  sidcrde. 

When  England  wjs  engaged  in  the  Crimean  War  of  iRu-sI  her 
atiaaca  wilb  ■  Mabonawdan  power  in  no  way  added  to  bar 


El 

thnckadbc 


PERSIA 

itc    caned  bjt  the 


one  of  the  cMcFi  oT  Karuiahar.  died,  tnd  Doit 


lo  death 
)[|  Kban, 

ol  Kabul 

V  o(  (he  dectsncd 


4Novenibcii8s6«riBilr 
In  IcB  Ihin  iiiiR  mvki 


h  ^nhi 


lovcmar-gTiienl  of  Iruila,  ih<^  Sind  diviHon  orXe  ficU  ram  kti 
Kinchi.    On  ihF  ijih  of  Janiury  MIowinE  Ibe  Dmnbav  cDvcrn- 

(he  island  oi  KhuraE  and  pun  o[  Bmhire  had  bolh  been  occupied, 
and  ibc  [on  ol  Riihic  had  been  altacknl  and  carried.  After 
the  genoal'i  ajfiva]  ihe  iDareb  uprni  Uanzjan  ami  ihc  CDean' 
■nent  at  Khushib— two  pbuxi  on  the  road  to  Shiru— «nj  the 
operathm  at  Muluniah  and  the  Karun  River  dc^^(»i  ^^^  '^■n- 
fufa  in  (amar  ol  Enilind.  On  the  stb  of  April, 
Sir  JanK  Ontnn  ncoivcd  the  nein  tliat  the  licai 
bc«  «|«ed  in  ^rit,  where  Lord  Cowley  and  Far 
BBducted  tbe  necotiatioiit.  The  itipulaDoni  re|aniij<f  hvi^l  w<.i<^ 
much  u  beforej  but  there  vcre  to  i»  apologiea  m^de  to  the  mistloh 
for  pas  ituoience  and  nideneee,  and  the  tUvo  trade  wai  to  be  tup- 
pHwi  in  tbe  Fenian  Cult.  With  the  exceaioB  at  a  Bsall  (om 
ictained  at  Buthire  under  Cencfal  John  Jacob  (or  tbe  three  nunthi 
anifned  [or  CMicution  oE  tbe  ntikationi  and  (Ivinf  effect  to  certain 
■lipubtiou  ot  tbe  treaty  with  tnard  to  Aighaniatan.  tbe  Drilitb 
troopa  relumed  la  Indb.  where  toeir  procncc  wu  greatly  needed. 
owing  m  the  outbreak  al  the  Mutiny- 

The  quenioB  al  CDnUruUinf  ■  icksRiph  in  Persia  ai  a  link  in 
ibe  overland  line  to  connect  ^gland  with  India  was  broaebcd  io 
■    .  Teberin  by  Calaul  T'airick    Stowatt    and    Captain 

~£^«.^Chainpain,  oflicen  of  cneinnrh  in  tSU,  and  an  agm- 
SSrUal'"'"  ™  ""  •"'^  cgnclnUed   by   Edward   EaJlwick, 


TeheilB,  thratigh  R» 


wiatmcted,  and  l>aa  wr 


rn  tbe  other  between  J 


rn  (bores  of  the  Black 


to  BalucI 


in  August  187c 

ix-n  bcnh 

k  w»  tbciefon  deemed  advlBble  to  eanii 
•eltliBt  a  fiMiler  diipute  between  PciWa  i 
Unfanunatriy.  the  ofaetmctHHu  Ihivwa  in  t^ 

Ent  t>v  the  PcniBO  commiiiiaoer,  Ihe  unl< 
■kpur  of  an  uncupectcd  body  ol  Kalatti, 
dcGnlte  inHruclioiB  naned  tJie  (ullUiTKnt 
fketrhed  out;  but  a  bnc  of  boundary  waa 
atterwardi  accepted  by  fhc  Jiiiganlt.  la  ih 
aaeie  niiaiDn,  accon^nicd  by  tbe  lame  F 
nroBBlKri  >4  SeiiUB.  where  It  rennined  for  • 
ita  inqulrieSi  until  jained  by  a 
-  MajofCeneial  (afterwanb  Si 
tba   Afghan   cocnnusiianer. 


rwards  Sir  Fr< 
reached  Teheri 
■han.  from  whit 

""  ™f he"'lSlLr'M  1 

^^.-p'r^™^'- 


1""*-'' 


termined  lefunl  of  tK 

lad  the  arbitnior  hat 

take  (dnntace  at  the  notn  already  obtained  on  Ihe  ipoi.  and 
letuni  with  then  10  Tehcrln,  Ibcre  to  deliver  bii  deciut^  Tim 
wu  dene  en  the  ifth  of  August  1871.  Hie  conicndiiic  parties 
•ppcakd  to  the  Bnl'uh  lecretaty  of  Rate  lor  foreign  allairs.  as 
provided  by  pievioui  undenundini;  but  the  decision  held  iidiL 
and  was  eventually  accepted  on  boiS  tidei. 

_  Nam  'd-fMn  ^h,  unlike  his  predcrewR,  visited  Europe- 
■n  1*73  and  XB  1S79-  On  Ihe  first  ociaiion  onfv  he  encndnThii 
loumcy  to  Engbnd.  and  wns  then  silendrd  bv  his  "  sadr  "aiini.' 
or  prinK  minister.  Miiia  Huinln  Khan,  an  abk  and  enlichmni 
advacr,  andaCrandCmaoftheSurof  India.    His  seco^  liiit 

IheChanneL  '         (F.  J.  C;  Xj" 

E.-Paiufram  iSli  to  ifar. 

In  iSfij  Ihe  shah  had  mooied  Ihc  idea  of  a  Persiari  naval 

Hoillla  in  Ihe  Pcisian  Gulf,  to  consist  ol  two  or  three  sleuDcn 

manned  by  Arabs  and  commanded  by  English  naval  j^^ 


Btiiis 


whom 


IS  knov 


goiti 
cct    teal. 

independence  of  the  ialands  ai 
(Cuiion,  Persia,  ii.  194).  Fiflccn  or 
urepeiledTy  pointed  out  10  thenulhotiil 
1  the  cusLoois  qI  iho  Pciuan  Gulf  wouk 
mliol  Kcie  cierdtcd  at  all  the  porti,  pi 

in  iSSj  the  shah  decided  upon  Ihe  ac 

'Ali  KuliKhaa,  Mukhhei  ad-daulah.  nil 

The  tinder  of  a  well-known  German  film  a 


d  by  i:     . 
1  that  the  ' 


laily  the  snail 


finally  a> 


cplej,  a 


Ronald  Tbomso 
to  Persia  of  ope 
trolling  the 


suiy  contracts  lor  the  fint  Mc«ii«.    Sir 

the  British  tcpreienlalive  In  Penil,  having 
induced  the  tfaili  to  conudcr  the  (dvantagts 


■a^cablc  road, 
ihipping  on  the  Kan 
of  [he  road  wns  deci 
ind  the  "  Pcraepolis,"  w 
of  £j  1,000,  Bod  dcspali 

■    ~    ■  n  cuir. 


iDiall  river  sleasKi  (or  cno- 
«i9  ordered  is  well,  and  Lbi 
d  upon.  Two  sleameis,  Ibe 
:  completed  in  January  iSSj 
d  with  Oman  olBcen  aad 
[he  slcamcn  were  ready  to 


do  the  work  Ihey  had  been  intended  (    .  ,       , 

of  the  Culf  customs  raised  diRiculites  and  abjccled  to  pay  the 
cost  of  mainiaining  the  "  Pitscpolis  ";  the  govcmoc  of  Uuhut- 
rab  would  not  allow  any  inleifeiencc  with  what  be  coniidend 
his  lieredilaty  ilghls  of  the  shipping  monopoly  on  Ihe  Kanie. 
and  the  objects  far  which  the  sleamcis  bad  been  brought  were 
not  attained.  Tbe  "  Pecsepolls "  remained  idle  at  Busliire, 
and  the  "  Susa  "  was  lied  up  in  Ifae  Failieh  creek,  hear  Mubam. 
rah.  The  scheme  ol  opening  Ihe  Kanin  and  of  constructing  1 
caitlage^le  road  from  Ahvu  to  Tchetla  was  also  abandaoeil. 
inlcmipiions  occurred  on  the  televrai^  line  berweia 
Meibed  in  ttSi.  at  Ibe  tine  of  the  ^',PuniMi  Inddrn." 

Af^anl 


Tcl^nac 

Mcc  Lum^n  ini  on  tVo  Afglianfront'iH-Va'nd  Sit  RmUl" 
conduded  an  agreement  with  tba  Pcriian  govemmer  ' 
to  be  kept  In  wuUng  onler  by  an  English  inspecu 


!ni  paying  a  share  not  o .. ._, —  ,. 

Lhecost  of  nuintcnancr,  and  an  Enotiih  dgnalfer  beiiiE  aiatieivd 
Meshed.    Shontr  nfterwarde  Sir  Raiuhr  Thomson  left  Flenta 

died  on  the  isih  ol  tfovember  iMS}.  and  Arthur  (aftmranle  Sir 
.hut)  Nicolson  was  appdnied  ebar*4  d'affauo.  During  tbe 
icr's  tenure  of  office  aa  igreement  was  concluded  .between  the 

ticmeni  at  Jaik.  and  Ihe  teleirapli  convenliom  of  iMS  and  1871 
irivc  to  lekgrephie  commuaicatioa  between  Euiope  and  fnha 
;h  Pem'a,  in  fens  until  Ibe  ik  of  January  tt^i.  were  pio- 
'  'anuary  igox  by  two  coPventions  ilalcd 
ioce  Iben  these  convcntiona  have  bcea 
ingedtoisJS.  " 
■A  Khan,  son  of  Shir  -All  (Shere  Ali)  of  Arghanhtan.  wfco  lad 

dn  under  an  iRreenvnt.  concluded  on  the  inh  at  April  It&L 
ten  Great  Briiainand  Persia,  wiiha  pension  of  iSooDperaaMm 


<Mfr-«9Wl 


\ 


PSRSIA 


343 


§889. 


agaiiMt  the  Aidr  Abdor  tUhmaii.  lie  |(ftve  UnMctf  up  to  the  British 
conflu1*feneral  at  Meshed  in  the  beginning  of  November,  and  was 
sent  uocier  escort  to  the  Turkish  frontier  and  thence  via  Bagdad  to 
India.  Yahya  Khan,  Mushir<id-daulah.  the  IVirsian  minister  for 
foreign  affairs  (died  1892),  who  was  supposed  to  have  connived  at 
AyuD  Khan's  escape  in  older  to  please  his  Russian  friends,  was 
dismissed  from  office. 

In  December  1887  SJr  Henry  Drummond  Wolff  was  appointed 
minister  to  Persia.  The  appomtmcnt  grratly  pleased  the  Persian 
court,  and  the  shah  lent  a  willing  car  to  nb  advocacy  for  the 
development  of  trade  and  commerce,  construction  of  roads,  abolition 
of  various  restrictions  hampering  Persian  merchants,  &c.  The 
shah  soon  afterwards  (May  36, 1888)  issued  a  proclamation  assuring 
freedom  of  life  and  ipropcrty  to  all  his  subjects,  and  (Oct.  30) 
dccbrcd  the  Karun  nvcr  open  to  international  navigation  up  to 
Ahvaz.  At  about  the  same  time  he  appointed  Amin-es-Sultan, 
who  had  been  prime-minister  nncc  1884,  Grand  Vicier  (Sadr  'azim). 
In  the  same  year  (June  2$)  the  first  railway  in  Persia,  a  small  line 
of  5§  miles  from  leherlln  to  Shah-abdul-Azim,  was  opened  under 
the  auspices  of  a  Bclfftan  company.  A  few  months  later  (Jan.  30, 
1889)  Baron  Julius  ae  Router — in  consideration  of  giving  up  the 
rights  which  he  held  by  his  concession  obtained  in  1873 — ^became 
the  owner  of  a  concesn'on  for  the  formation  of  a  Persian  State 
Bank,  with  exclusive  rights  of  issuing  bank-notes  and  working  the 
mines  of  iron,  copper,  Irad,  mcrcurj^,  coal,  petroleum,  manganese, 
borax,  and  asbestos  in  Persia.  Russia  now  insisted  upon  what  she 
considered  a  corresponding  advantage;  and  Prince  Dolgoruki,  the 
Rusaan  minister,  obtained  in  February  1889  a  document  from  the 
shah  which  gave  to  Russia  the  refusal  of  any  railway  concession 
in  Persia  for  a  period  of  five  years.  The  Persian  State  Elank  Was 
established  by  Briti^  royal  cnarter,  dated  the  and  of  September 
i88|o.  and  started  business  in  Persia  (Oct.  33}  as  the  "  Imperial  Bank 
of  Persia.'*  The  railway  agreement  with  Russia  was  changed  in 
November  1890  into  one  interdicting  all  railways  whatsoever  in 
Persia. 

In  April  1889  the  shah  set  out  upon  his  third  voyage  to  Europe. 
After  a  visit  to  the  principal  courts,  induding  a  stay  of  a  month 
in  England,  wtere  he  waa  accompanied  by  Sir  Henry 
Drummond  Wolff,  he  returned  to  nis  capital  (Oct.  3oT. 
Sir  Henry  returned  to  Persia  soon  afterwards,  and  in 
March  01  the  following  year  the  Persbn  government 
grantal  another  Important  conccauon.  that  01  a  tobacco 
monof>oly,  to  British  capitalists^  In  the  autumn  bod  health  obliged 
the  British  minister  to  leave  Persia.  It  wasdunng  his  staj^  in  England 
that  the  shah,  for  two  or  three  days  without  his  grand  vizier,  who  was 
mourning  for  the  death  of  hb  brother,  listened  to  bad  advke  and 
granted  a  conccaabn  for  the  monopoly  of  kitteries  in  Persia  to  a 
Fcraian  subject.  The  latter  ceded  the  coocessbn  to  a  British 
syndicate  for  £/|0,ooo.  Very  soon  afterwards  the  shah  was  made 
aware  of  the  cvU  results  of  this  monopoly,  and  withdrew  the  con- 
cession, but  the  syndicate  did  not  get  the  money  paid  for  (t  returned. 
This  unfortunate  affair  had  the  cHect  of  greatly  discrediting  Persia 
on  the  London  Stock  Exchange  for  a  long  time.  The  concession 
for  the  tobacco  monopoly  was  taken  up  by  the  Imperial  Tobacco 
Corporation  (i8qi).  Tne  corporation  encountered  opposition 
fostered  by  the  clergy  and  after  a  serious  riot  at  TeherSn  (Jan.  4, 
1893)  the  Persiad  ^vemment  withdrew  the  concession  and  agreed 
to  pay  an  indcmroty  of  iyjojuoo  (^ril  s,  1892).  In  order  to  pay 
this  amount  Persia  contracted  the  6%  loan  of  is/oo/no  through 
the  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia,  which  was  redeemed  in  1900  out  of 
the  proceeds  of  the  Russian  5%  loan  of  that  year.  (For  details 
of  the  tobacco  concession  and  an  account  of  the  events  whkh  led  to 
its  withdrawal.  «e  E.  Lorini,  La  Ptrna  economical  Rome*  1900, 
pp.  l6d-i69;  and  Dr  Fcuvrier,  Trcis  ans  d  ta  cour  de  Peru^  Paris, 
1800.  ch.  v.,  the  latter  ascribing  the  failure  of  the  tobacco  monopoly 
to  Russian  intrigue.) 

In  November  1889  Malcolm  KhAn,  Ntzam-ul-Mulk,  who  had 
been  Pcnian  representative  to  the  court  of  Great  Britain  since 
October  1873,  waarecalled.  and  Miraa  Mabommed  'AH  Khan,  consul* 
general  at  Tiflis,  was  aopointed  in  his  stead,  arriving  in  London 
the  following  March.  In  1890  the  scheme  of  a  carriageable  road 
from  Tcherlin  to  Ahvaz  was  taken  up  again;  the  Imperial  Bank  of 
Persia  obtained  a  concession,  and  work  of  construction  was  begun 
in  the  same  ycnr»and  continued  until  1803.  In  this  year,  too,  the 
mining  rights  of  the  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  were  ceded  to  the 
Persian  Bank  Mining  Rights  Corporation,  and  a  number  of  engineers 
were  sent  out  to  Persia.  The  total  absence  of  easy  means  of  com- 
mtintcation,  the  high  rates  of  transport,  and  the  scareity  of  fuel 
and  water  in  the  mineral  districts^  made^profitabfe  operations 
imposMble,  and  the  corporetbn  liquidated  in  1894,  after  having 
expended  a  large  sum  of  money. 

Great  excitement  was  caused  m  the  summer  of  1891  by  the  report 
that  an  English  girl,  Kate  Greenfield,  had  been  forcibly  carried 
away  from  her  motha''s  house  at  Tabrii  by  a  Kurd. 
'^V*  -^  The  British  authorities  demanded  the  eirrs  restitu- 
rw*  ^^'^  ^"*"*  ***  Perrian  government.  The  Kurd,  a 
*"^  Turkish  subject,  refused  to  give  up  the  girt,  and  took 

her  to  Saujbulagh.  The  Turkish  authorities  protected  him,  and 
ariotta  ooaplicatiom  were  Imminent  s  but  finally  an  interview 
between  the  giri  and  the  British  agent  was  arranged,  and  the  matteir 


was  promptly  icctlcd  by  fa«r  dcclaiing  that  she  had  left  her  nother's 
house  of  her  own  accord,  and  was  Uic  wife  of  the  Kurd.  It  also 
became  known  that  she  was  the  daughter  of  a  British-protected 
Hungarian  named  GrOnfeld,  who  had  died  some  years  smce,  and 
an  American  lady  of  Tabriz. 

Sir  Frank  Lascclles,  who  had  been  appmntcd  minister  to  Persia 
in  July,  arrived  at  TeheriLn  in  the  late  autumn  of  i8q>*  In  the 
follownw  year  Peraa  had  a  visitation  of  cholera.  In  leheita  and 
surrounding  villages  the  number  of  fatal  cases  exceeded  aSjOOO,  or 
ibout  8%  of  the  population.  In  1893  the  epidemic  appeared 
again,  but  in  a  milder  form.  In  June  189^  Perria  ceded  to  Roasia 
the  small  but  very  fertile  and  strategically  important  district  of 
Firuza  and  the  adjacent  lands  between  Baba  Durmax  and  Lutfabad 
on  the  northern  frontier  of  Khoresan.  and  received  in  exchange 
the  important  village  of  Hissar  and  a  strip  of  desert  ground  near 
Abbasabad  on  the  frontier  of  Azerbaijan,  which  had  become  Russian 
territory  in  1828,  according  to  the  Treaty  of  Turicmanehai. 

Sir  Frank  Lascelles  left  Persia  in  the  eariy  part  of  1894,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Sir  Mortimer  Durand,  who  was  appointed  in 
July  and  arrivca  in  Tcherin  in  November.    In  the 
following  year  the  shah,  by  a  firman  dated  the  wth  of  vJ^Sb. 
May  gave  the  exclusive  right  of  exploring  ancient  ntes  v^jTy* 
in  Pcr«a  to  the  French  government,  with  the  stipula*  /?!»/-, ju- 
tion  that  one-half  of  the  cfiscovcred  antiquities,  except- 
ing  those  of  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones,  should  belong  to 
the  French  government,   which  also  had  the  preferential  nght 
of  acquiring  by  purchase  the  other  half  and  any  of  the  other  anti- 

?uitie8  which  the  Persian  government  might  wi^  to  dispose  of. 
n  1897  M.  J.  de  Moraan,  who  had  been  on  a  scientific  mission  in 
Persia  some  years  before  and  bter  in  Egypt,  was  appointed  chief 
of  a  mission  to  Persia,  and  began  work  at  5usa  in  December. 

On  the  1st  of  May  1896  Na&ur  'd-Din  Shah  was  assassinated  while 
paying  his  devotions  at  the  holy  shrine  of  Shah-abdul-Azim.  Five 
days  later  he  would  have  entered  the  fiftieth  (lunar)  ^„^,,^ 
year  of  his  reign,  and  great  preparations  for  duly  cele-  ~****'7f* 
brating  the  jubilee  had  been  made  throughout  the  ^^hiSl. 
country.  The  assassin  was  a  small  tradesman  of  ^■•■•'*'^' 
Kcrm&n  named  Mirza  Rcza^  who  had  resided  a  short  time  in  Con- 
stantinople and  there  acquired  revolutionary  and  anarchist  ideas 
from  Kcmalu  'd-Din.  the  so-called  Afghan  sheikh,  who.  after  being 
very  kindly  treated  by  the  shah,  jweached  revolution  and 
anarchy  at  TeheriLn,  fled  to  Europe,  visited  London,  and  finally 
took  up  his  residence  in  Constantinople.  Kcmalu  'd>Din  was 
a  native  of  Hamadan  and  a  Persian  subject,  and  as  the  assassin 
repeatedly  stated  that  he  was  the  sheikh's  emissary  and  had 
acted  by  hb  orders,  the  Pcrsnan  government  demanded  the  ex- 
tradirion  of  Kcmal  from  the  Porte:  but  during  the  protracted 
negotiations  which  followed  he  died.  Mirza  Rcza  was  hanged 
on  the  13th  of  August  1896.  There  were  few  troubles  in  the 
country  when  the  news  of  the  shah's  death  became  known. 
Serious  rioting  arose  only  in  Shiraz  and  Fars,  where  some  persons 
lost  their  lives  and  a  number  of  caravans  ^-ere  looted.  European 
firms  who  had  Tost  goods  during  these  troubles  were  afterwards 
indemnified  by  the  Persian  government.  The  new  shah,  Muzaflar- 
ud-Din  (born  march  35. 1853),  then  governor-general  of  Azerbaijan, 
residing  at  Tabriz,  was  enthroned  there  on  the  day  of  his  father's 
death,  and  proceeded  a  few  days  later  accompanied  by  the  British 
and  Russian  consuls,  to  Teherfto,  where  he  arrived  00  the  8th  of 
June. 

An  excessive  copper  coinage  during  the  past  three  or  four  yeare 
had  caused  much  distress  among  the  poorer  classes  since  the 
beginning  of  the  year,  and  the  small  trade  was  almost 
paralysed.  Immediately  after  his  accession  the  shah 
decreed  that  the  coining  of  copper  money  should 
cease  and  the  excess  of  the  copper  coinage  be  withdrawn  from 
circulation.  In  order  to  reduce  tne  price  of  meat,  the  meat  tax, 
which  had  existed  ancc  ancient  times  was  abolished.  The  Imperial 
Bank  of  Persia,  which  had  already  advanced  a  largi  ...m  of  money, 
and  thereby  greatly  fadh'tated  the  shah's  early  departure  from 
Tabriz  and  enabled  the  grand  vizier  at  Tcher&n  to  carry  on  the 
government,  started  buying  up  the  copper  coinage  at  ajl  its  oranchcs 
and  agencies.  The  nominal  value  of  the  copper  money  was  so 
shahis  equal  to  I  kran.  but  in  some  places  the  copper  money  cir- 
culated at  the  rate  of  80  shahis  to  the  kran.  fess  than  its  intrinsic 
value;  at  other  places  the  rates  varied  between  70  and  35  shahis, 
and  the  average  circulating  value  in  all  Persia  was  over  40.  If 
government  had  been  able  to  buy  up  the  excess  at  40  and  reissue  it 
{gradually  after  a  time  at  its  nominal  value  when  the  people  required 
it,  the  loss  would  have  been  small  But  although  tne  transport  of 
copper  money  from  place  to  jJace  had  been  strictly  prohibited, 
dishonest  officials  found  means  to  traffic  in  copper  money  on  their 
own  account,  and  by  buying  it  where  it  was  cheap  and  forwarding  it 
to  cities  where  it  was  dear,  the  bank  bought  it  at  high  rates,  thus 
rendering  the  arrangement  for  a  speedy  withdrawal  of  the  excess 
at  small  cost  to  govcrmnent  futife.  It  was  only  in  1809  that  the 
distress  caused  1^  the  excessive  copper  coinage  ceased,  and  then 
only^  at  very  great  loss  to  government.  The  well-intentioned 
abolition  of  the  tax  on  meat  also  had  not  the  desired  result,  for  by 
a  system  of  '  cornering  "  tbc  price  of  meat  rose  to  more  than  n 
was  before. 


x^6 


m  Ptrtia  (Londan,  lSs6)^  Sir  t 


K.  V.  W.  JmLbb.  /'mill,  ft 
AlUiinii.   detail   Pnsia    (Lo 


Qriy  y 


r  J.  M»lc 


»>ll«7  c/  /'(TIM 


|g»)7  R.  6.  WiiiBii,  ^  Halnff  cl  P,<,mJ.om  ilu  Bcv"">C  "! 
lb  Wim^JIliCnUirr^  (London,  ie7]);SlrC.R.M!ITliKltn,<tC(-iinil 
Sitlcli  of  llm  Hisltry  e/ PiTiia  (Londoii,  1874),  and  Cumxi,  a9<]uotnI 
ibovc.  Mir  ihe  uandud  *uilioriti»  on  nwdern  Pmiin  hiHoiy. 
The  Traxli  oj  Priit  rtunni  (LoncfcHi,  1901}  ind  other  publiolion 
cl  lb?  Hakluyl  Society  iclating  10  Peru  «n  iIb  of  int  hiMoncal 
valuF.  For  nloR  T«RnE  cvenit  m  the  Rnoiti  of  the  Otradove- 
Knraiiiten  bkI  MKMihsn  mlwlani:  E-  C.  Btowoe.  Tb  PiriiM 
Bmatulian  cf  i(»5-<v  (London.  1910):  A.  Hamillon.  PnUniii  ^  Ilu 
UijiU,  Eail  (Londos,  1900)!  V.  ChinA,  Tb  WiJ^^iInii  ^uiluui 
fLondon.  1904):  E.  C.  WUIiami,  Amii  Prriia  (Loitdofi,  1907). 
The  eommeitiaf  convcnlion  of  1901  a  tivrn  in  T™ty  trrict. 
No.  10  (London,  laoj),  tbr  RuMo-Briiifh  cDnwntion  in  Tnaiy 
•cria,  No.  J*  (London,  190;).  Oihirr  offirial  publlcationi  of  hii- 
lotical  Importanct  arc  cbe  annual  Bricith  F.  0.  reporti.  and  tlx 
U.S.  Coaular  Reporu. 

LaHCDME  AMD  LlTEIATmE 


PERSIA  ILAKCUACE  AND  LtTERATVItE 

4,  The  dndopnen  of  nft  fibilanu— 
Aiuie  MnlMtf       AhurBHuUo   AunouiU 
hin>a  (h™m.) 

Our  ImowMie  of  Iti 

ckoiea.    The  naaie  Old  Baeiriu  iumiii  that  the  linpafe  *u 
limiird  to  the  inwll  diHiiti  ot  Bactn*.  or  at  kan  that  ^^ 

it  was  spoken   there — which  ia.  m  the  motf.   onlv    an  "■•' 

hypothesis.    Zend,  again  t    '  ^ 


icaily  cotncidenl  AJtb  ti 


which  ti 


Persian  ii  limply  Ibe  watera  di«iion.  It  ijthetdDte 
■od  more  correct  to  Qwak  of  the  Innian  lamily.  The  original 
native  nunc  of  the  race  wtuch  ipoLe  these  longuo  was  Aryan. 
King  Duius  b  called  on  an  Inscription  "  a  Persian,  sod  oI  a 
PctilaD,  an  Aryan  of  Aryan  race  ";  and  the  followeis  of  the 
Zorautriu)  religion  in  their  earliest  records  never  (pve  themselves 
any  other  title  but  AityatS  danihavd,  that  is  to  say,  "Atyan 
licci."    The  pnwnte  of  the  Iranian  language  '    ' 

Ihe  west  by  the  Set 

Ural^lulc  or  Turani 
language  of  tndia- 

Tbt  tratiian  language)  form  one  ol  the  great  branchct  of  (he 
IndD-Eurepeui  ilein,  first  RCDgniicd  ai  such  by  Sr  William 
Jones  and  Friedrich  Schlegrf.  The  Indo-European 
7^Tzi_-or  Indo-Germanic  languages  are  divided  hy  Brug- 
^"^^  mann  into  (i)  Aryan,  with  aub-btanches  (a)  Indian, 
<n  Itaniui;  (1)  Armenian;  (j)  Greek;  (4)  AlbMiaiz;  (j)  Ilalic; 
(6)  Celtic;  (7)  Germanic,  with  aub-branchej  (a)  Gothic,  (6) 
Scandinavian,  (c)  Weat  Germanic;  and  (S)  Balto-Slavor 
(See  IHDO-EUKOKAN.)  The  Aryan  family  (called  by  Professof 
Sieven  Ibe  "Asiatic  base-language")  is  subdivided  Into  (1) 
Innian  (Eranian,  or  Eiano-Aryan)  languagei,  (1)  Pisatha, 
noit-Sanskritic  lodo-Aryan  languages,  (3)  Indo-Aryan,  ot  Sar 
krtic  Indo-Aiyan  latiguafca  (for  the  last  two  see  iMio-AiyjUh 
Tranlan  being  also  grouped  into  Persian  and  jwn-Persian. 

The  (ommon  chiracleriHia  of  ell  Iranian  hnguagei.  vhieb 
diilinguiah  Ihem  npeciilly  fiom  Saniknt,  are  ai  foltowt:— 

I.  ChangH  of  ibe  original  i  [Mb  the  ipirant  h.    Thui— 
5oiulrif.  Zmi.  OiPmim,      NtmF, 

lindhu  (Indui)  hindn  hiodu  hind 

iania  (whole)  hama  hama  ban 

(•mi  (>unl)  hcnii  hantiy  beoil 

1.  Chance  of  Ibe  original  aqiizales  g).  d).  M  ( -  x,  t,  *)  in: 
cortesponcfing  medials — 

SumkriL  Ztnd.         OUPtnian.       NnPrr 

UiDini  liwtb]  bdmi  bumi  bun 

dhila  (*tT<il  dita  dtia  did 

ibarma  (beat)  garcma  ganaa  gam 

I  1,  t,  p  before  a  conwntnl  ue  changed  iota  the  ipinni 


nd,  again  {aiginally  dsoMluU.  la  not  Ibe  same  <£ 
Anquetil  Duperton  auppoeH,  but  meani  *'  inis- 

, "  eiplanalkw,"  and  U  ifKciallr  applied   ta   Ibe 

medieval  Pahlail  Iranatalioa  of  Ibe  Atila.  Our  Zend-AvciU  " 
'  ca  not  mean  the  A«tta  in  tbe  Zend  language,  but  ii  aa  incomct 

inicHplian  of  the  origiul  ciprcHion      AvistU  va  mict,"  i.z. 

ihe  hdy  Kit  Mhw  logetder  with  the  tianilalioa."      But. 

n  we  itill  lacli  aufe-ibts  (s  hi  the  home  of  Ihb  tanginge  with 
_.  y  cerlainry.  the  cnnveuent  name  of  Zeod  hat  become  geperady 
estabLiabed  10  Eunwe,  and  may  be  provisiooalLjr  Rtiined-  But  Ibe 
home  of  the  2end  language  wai  certainly  in  eastern  [ran;  all 
aitcmpw  10  seek  it  lanber  wert— •-(.  in  Media  <— nusl  be  icfaidcd 


le  tanguafe  of  the  1 


t iaobdnuy  pot  together,  we ooly  pom 

«  Zend  language  in  nedieval  glnn  and 

.  ...  Patalavt  beoka.    These  rewina,  bowevei. 

ipCete  insight  into  tbe  ilructun  of  the  laoguage. 

~  -lian  languagea.  but  amongst  all  the  lawuagea 

group,  Zend  takes  one  of  the  very  nvbest 

iSc  Ibe  conpaniive  pUlolofW.     In  age  it 

^Huvni ;_  in  primitiveneat  It  nrpain  that  Un^ut* 

1  becfluae  it  haa  not  been  made  the  subject  of  s>'Etein- 

irilh  tbe  age  of  the  ^auk.  In  its  pwunt  (oni  Ihe 
the  wofh  ol  a  aiaSIa  author  or  of  any  one  age.  bal 
moiacei  CDtfcclioos  produced  during  a  long  pcrioL  The  vinr 
rhtch  became  citrrent  Ihroijgh  Anquetn  Duperron,  thai  tbe  AvriU 
.1  thmwhout  the  work  of  ZcroaMCr  (in  Zend,  ZanOkmiktra).  the 
loondcr  of  the  nligiaa,  haa  bug  been  abaadoiwil  ••  guenble. 
But  the  onpoaile  view,  that  not  a  lugle  woni  in  tlie  tmok  can  lay 
claim  to  (he  authorship  cf  Zofoaatcr.  aba  appeara  on  doaer  study 
In  (he  ,<Tej£a  Tn-D  Bfaeesof  the  language  a:        "'   ' 

e  all  Ihe  other  paita  of  tbe  Avtsid.  throuf 
alliuinns  to  them  occur  These  glthis 
e.  and  what  they  are  honoured  in  the  wh* 

ir  in  theniielves  jneliHable  pn 


able_vaoIi  of  Ibeir  aulbe 
the  Zoroajier  ol  tbe  kgeo 

iLvation,  no  eupeniaiural  Being  aiaiircd  of  ^ctory,  but  ■  m 
lan,  Mniggling  with  buman  eoidieEa  of  every  aoR.  In  the  mtdn 
lociriy  3  feflow-beiieven  yet  in  its  cariicat  infancy'  It  fa  aln 
Tipossible  thai  a  much  later  period  could  have  produced  an 


s  and  almoft  depreciilory  : 

■|y  of  the  pn>phet.    II.  tl __.. 

■-—' at  early  aa  the  l4lJi  qe •■- 


n,  the  giUhis  re 


and  peraonalily  of  tbe  pi 

probable  earimale,  lived  at  early  aa  the  lath  ce. . . . 

compDnenl  pans  of  the  Avala  are  hardly  inferior  in  age  to  tbe 
oldest  Vrdic  hymni.  The  gtthti  are  ttiU  enrcmely  rough  in  tljle 
and  exprenlon ;  Ihe  language  is  richer  En  forma  than  the  more  recent 
Zand:  and  Ihe  vocabubiy  tbovs  inponant  dlOemon.  Tbe  pn- 
dominancE  of  the  lonf  vowelt  it  a  marked  chamlerittlc  lb* 
consiant  appearance  of  a  lone  Enal  vowel  nmtratcing  with  ib* 
preferenee  (or  a  Rul  short  in  the  later  speecb- 


>  Name  of  the 

•  Tbit,'  and  ni 
at  of  Ihe  Per 


i.  DariuuHer,  BuUa 

Zad-AKila,  ia 
in  Bible.    The 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE] 


PERSIA 


H7 


abhi  (near)  aibi  aiwi 

Ihi  (work)  iahA  bha. 

The  barest  evidence  of  the  extreme  aee  of  the  UiDguage  of  the 
gftthis  is  its  striking  reaend^huice  to  the  oldest  Banskrit,  the  lai^agc 
of  the  Vedic  poems.  The  gfttht  language  <much  more  than  the 
later  Zend)  and  the  language  of  the  V«nu  nave  a  dose  resemblance, 
exooedlng  that  of  any  two  Romanic  languages;  they  seem  hardly 
more  than  two  dialects  of  one  tongue.  Whole  strophes  of  the 
githfts  can  be  turned  into  good  old  Sanskrit  by  the  applicatkm  of 
certain  phonetic  laws;  for  cxample^- 

'*  mat  vSo  padAish  yS  frasratl  IzhaySo 
pairi jasSi  ma2d&  ustSnatastd 
z%  \io  ashS  arcdrahyfid  ncmanghS 
&t  vSo  vangehush  manangbd  hunarctStS," 

bcoonca  in  Sandcrit — 

*'  mana  vah  padSih  yfi  pracnitft  IhftySh 
parigachfii  mcdha  utt&nahastah 
ftt  va  rtcna  ladhrasyaca  namasS 
fit  v6  vasor  manasan  sOnitayft." ' 

The  bncuage  of  the  other  parts  of  the  Atesta  is  iMn  modem, 
but  not  all  of^one  date,  so  that  we  can  follow  the  gradual  decline 
of  Zend  in  the  Avesta  itself.  The  later  the  date  of  a  text,  tha 
simpler  is  the  grammar,  the  more  lax  the  use  of  the  cases.  Wo 
have  no  chronological  points  by  which  to  fix  the  date  when  Zend 
ceased  to  be  a  living  language;  no  part  of  the  Avesia  can  well  be 
put  later  than  the  5th  or  4th  century  B.C.  Before  Alexander's 
time  it  is  said  to  have  been  already  written  out  on  dressed  cowhides 
and  preserved  in  the  state  archives  at  Persepolis. 

The  followers  of  Zoroaster  soon  ceased  to  understand  Zend.  For 
this  reason  all  that  time  had  spared  of  the  Avesta  was  translated 
into  Middle  Persian  or  PahlavI  iq.v.)  underthc  Sassanians.  Thia 
translation,  though  still  regarded  as  canonical  by  the  Parsces,  shows 
a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  ori^aal  language.  Its  value 
for  modem  philology  has  been  the  subject  of  much  needless  contro« 
versy  amongst  European  scholars.  It  is  only  a  secondary  means 
towards  the  coroprdieasion  of  the  ancient  text,  and  must  be  liscd 
with  discrimination.  A  logical  system  of  comparative  exegesis, 
aided  by  constant  reference  to  Sanskrit,  its  nearest  ally,  and  to  the 
other  Iranian  dialects,  is  the  best  means  of  recovering  the  lost 
sense  of  the  Zend  texts. 

The  phonetic  system  of  Zend  condstt  of  ample  ngns  which 
expresa  the  different  shades  of  sound  in  the  language  with  great 
precision.  In  the  vowel-system  a  notable  feature  is  the  presence 
of  the  ^ort  vowels  e  and  o,  which  arc  not  found  in  Sanskrit  and 
Old  Persian;  thus  the  Sanskrit  santi.  Old  Persian  kantiy,  becomes 
lumti  in  Zend.  The  use  of  the  vowels  is  complicated  by  a  tendency 
to  cond>inations  of  vowels  and  to  epenthcsifk  t.e.  the  transposition 
of  weak  vowels  into  the  next  syilaole;  e,g.  Sanskrit  hknrati,  Zend 
baraiti  (he  carries);  Old  Persian  margu,  Zend  mdurva  (Mcrv); 
Sanskrit  rinalUf,  Zend  irinakkii.  Tripfrthongs  are  not  uncommon, 
€.§.  Sanskrit  a^iebkyas  (dative  plural  of  afva,  a  horse)  is  in  Zend 
aspahbyi  ;  Sanskrit  kcnoH  (he  does).  Zend  k€renaoiH.  Zend  has 
alsa  a  great  tendency  to  insert  irrational  vowels,  espedaUy  near 
liquids;  owing  to  this  the  words  seem  rather  inflated;  r.f.  savya. 
fon  the  left)  Dccomes  id  Zend  hdaaya  ;  bkrajati  (it  glitters)^  Zend 
bardtaiH;  gaA  (yw^),  Zend  gitid,  la  the  consonantal  system  we 
are  struck  by  the  abundance  of  sibilants  {s  and  lA,  in  three  fonns 
of  modificatKm,  s  and  th)  and  nasals  (five  in  number),  and  by  the 
complete  absence  of  1.  A  characteristic  phonetic  change  is  that  of 
rt  into  sh;  e.g.  Zend  aska  for  Sanskrit  ^.  Old  Persian  arta  (in 
Artaxerxes);  framuki  for  Pahlavi  Jrmnraini  New  Persian  fertfr 
(the  sfMrits  of  the  dead).  The  verb  dispbys  a  like  abundance  of 
primary  forms  with  Sanskrit,  but  the  conjugation  by  peiipbnuis 
is  only  slightly  developed.  The  noun  has  the  same  cij^ht  cases 
as  in  Sanskrit.  In  the  e&th&s  there  is  a  special  ablative,  limited,  as 
in  Sanskrit,  to  the  "  a  "  stems,  whilst  in  later  Zend  rhe  ablative  is 
extended  to  all  the  atoms  indUTerently. 

We  do  not  know  in  what  character  Zend  waa  written  befoft  the 
time  of  Alexander.  From  the  Sassanlan  period  we  find  an  alpha- 
betic and  very  legible  character  in  use,  derived  from  Sassantan 
Pahlavi.  and  closely  resembling  the  younger  Pahlavi  found  in  books. 
The  oldest  known  manuscripts  are  of  the  14th  century  A.D.^ 

Althottgn  tiK  eidfltcnce  of  the  Zend  language  was  known  to  the 
Oxford  scholar  Thomas  Hyde,  the  Frenchman  Anquetil  Duperron, 
who  went  to  the  East  Indies  in  1755  to  visit  the  Parsce  priests,  was 
the  first  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  learned  world  to  the  subject. 
Scientific  study  of  Zend  texts  began  with  £.  Buroonf,  and  has 

^   I    ■  MI^^M^^^^— ^^»l  I  ■■■■■■  ■■^■■^  I         ■  1MB  1  — l^i^— ^— ^-^laW— ^^^1^   !■   I    ■    I    ■         ■!      II    II     M^    ■■W^ 

» "  With  verses  of  my  making,  which  are  now  heard,  and^  with 
prayerful  hands,  I  come  before  thee,  Mazda,  and  with  the  wncerc 
humility  of  the  upright  man  nod  with  the  believer's  song  of  praise.** 

*  GrmmarM  by  F.  Spiegel  (Leipzig,  1867)  and  A.  V.  W.  Jackson 
(Stuttgart,  Ito2):  Dictionary  by  F.  justi  (Leipaig,  1864);  editions 
of  the  Ave^a  by  N.  L.  Westecgaard  (Copenhagen,  1A52)  and  C.  F. 
Geldner  (Stuttgart;  1886-I895:  also  in  Enelish);  translation  Into 
Gorman  by  Spiegel  (Lefprif?,  IW*),  and  into  EngVidi  by  Darmcsteter 
(Osfoid.  1880)  in  Max  MOUer's  Sotnd  Books  aflkt  Bask 


amce  then  aide  rapid  uridcs,  esMdally'  shica  tha  Veias  have 
opened  to  us  a  knowledge  of  the  olcKst  Sanskrit. 

a.  (M  P«fnaa.-~-This  is  the  bnguage  of  the  ancient  Persians 
properly  80<allcd.'  in  all  probability  the  mother-tongue  of  Middle 
Persian  of  the  Pahlain  texts,  and  of  New  Persian,  we  oMjvniM. 
know  OW  Persfain  from  the  rock-inscriptions  of  the^^^^ 
Achaemoniana,  now  fully  deciphaped.  Most  of  them,  and  these 
the  kmgcst,  date  from  the  time  of  Darius,  but  we  have  speci- 
mens as  late  as  Artaxerxes  Ochus.  In  the  latest  inscriptions  the 
Unguage  is  already  much  degraded ;  but  on  the  whole  it  is  almost 
as  antique  as  Zend,  with  which  it  has  many  points  in  common. 
For  instance,  il  we  take  a  sentence  from  an  inscription  of  Darius 
aa— 

'*  Aummaidft  hya  imfim  bumim  adft  h^  avam  asm&ium  adi  hya 
martiyam  ad&  hya  siyStim  adS  martiyahyft  hya  Dfirayavaum 
khshAyathiyam  akunaush  aivam  paruvnfira  khsh&yathiyam," 

It  would  be  in  Zend— 

"  AhurO  maxdSo  y6  im&m  bflmlm  adflt  y^  ^om  asmanem  adit  y6 
mashim  adftt  y5  shSttlm  ad&t  mashyahS  y6  dSrayatvoh&m  khsba£tem 
akcrcnaot  OyOm  pourunftm  khsha^cm.  '^ 

The  phonetic  system  in  Old  Persian  is  much  simpler  than  in 
Zend;  we  reckon  twenty-four  letters  in  all.  The  short  vowels  e, 
0  arc  wanting;  in  their  place  the  old  "  a  "  sound  still  apoears  as 
in  Sanskrit,  e.g.  Zend  ^{^m.  Old  Persian  hagam,  Sanskrit  Magam\ 
Old  Peruan  kamarana,  Zend  hamtrena,  Sanskrit  samarana.  As 
regards  consonants,  it  is  notteeable  that  the  older  t  (soft  s)  still 
mcscrvcd  in  Zend  passes  into  tf—a  rule  that  still  holds  In  New 
Persian ;  oompaie— 

SanskHi.  Zend.     Old  Persian. 

hasta  (hand)  casta  dasta 

jrayai^  (sea)  zrayS  daraya 

aham  (1)  azem  adam 

Also  Old  Persian  has  no  special  /.  Final  consonants  are  almost 
entirely  wanting.  In  this  respect  Old  Persian  goes  much  farther 
than  the  kindred  idioms,  e.^.  Old  Persian  abara,  Sanskrit  abkaral^ 
Zend  oterol,  l^«At:  nominative  baga,  root-form  baga-s,  Sanskrit 
bkagas.,  The  differences  in  declension  between  Okf  Poaian  and 
Zend  are  unimix>rtant. 

Old  Persian  inscriptions  are  written  in  the  ctmeifonn  character 
of  the  simplest  form,  known  as  the  "  first  claas.'*  Moot  of  the 
inscriptions  have  besides  two  translations  into  the  more  compli- 
cated kinds  of  cuneiform  character  of  two  other  languages  of  the 
Persian  Empire.  One  of  these  is  the  Assyrian;  the  real  nature  of 
the  second  is  still  a  mystery.  The  interpretation  of  the  Persian 
cuneiform,  the  character  and  dialect  of  which  were  equally 
unknown,  was  begun  by  G.  F.  Grotefend,  who  was  followed  by 
£.  Buraouf,  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and  J.  Oppert.  The  ancient 
Persian  inscriptions  have  been  collected  in  a  Latin  translation 
with  grammar  and  glossaries  by  P.  Spiegel  (Leipzig.  i86a;  new  and 
enlarged  ed.,  1881).     The  other  ancient  tongues  and  diakcts  of 


New  Persian. 
dast 
daryft 


hardly  anything  remains,  were  Iranian  or  not. 

After  the  fau  of  the  Achaemenians  there  is  a  period  of  five 
centuries,  from  which  no  document  of  the  Persian  language  has 
come  down  to  us. 

Under  the  Arsacids  Persian  nationality  rapidly  declined;  all  that 
remains  to  us  from  that  period — namely,  the  inscriptions  on  coins 
— is  in  the  Greek  tongue.  Only  towards  the  end  of  the  Parthian 
dynasty  and  after  the  rise  of  the  Sassanians,  under  whom  the  national 
traditions  were  again  cultivated  in  Persia,  do  we  recover  the  lost 
traces  of  the  Persian  language  in  the  Pahlavi  inscriptions  and 
literature. 

3.  Middle  Persian. — The  singular  phenomena  presented  by 
Panlavl  writing  have  been  discussed  m  a  separate  article  (see 
PahlavT).  The  languages  which  it  dis^lses  rather  M§a^ 
than  exprcsses-^Miadle  Persian,  as  we  may  call  it —  p^niam, 
presents  many  changes  as  compared  with  the  Old  Persian 
of  the  Achaemenians.  The  abundant  grammatical  forms  of  the 
ancient  language  are , much  reduced  in  number;  the  case-ending 
is  lost;  the  noun  has  only  two  inflexions,  the  singular  and  the  plural : 
the  cases  are  expressed  by  prepositions — e.g.  rCbdn  (the  soul),  nom. 
and  ace.  sing.,  plur.  rubduAn ;  dat.  vol  or  avo  rObdn,  abl.  min  or  at 
rib&n.  Even  mstinctive  forms  for  gender  are  entirely  abandoned, 
e.g.  the  pronoun  avo  signifies  "  he,  "  she,"  "  it."  In  the  verb 
compound  forms  predominate.  In  this  respect  Middle  Persian 
is  alntoat  exactly  similar  to  New  Persian. 

"  And  pcthaps  of  the  Medcs.  Although  we  have  no  record  of 
the  Median  language  we  cannot  regard  it  as  differing  to  any  great 
extent .  from  the  Persian.  The  Medea  and  Persians  were  two 
doflely-oonnccted  races.  There  is  nothing  to  justify  us  in  ^ooking 
for  the  true  Median  language  either  in  the  cuneiform  writings  of 
the  second  class  or  in  Zend. 

*  "  Ormuzd.  who  created  this  earth  and  that  heaven,  who  created 
tnan  and  ofiaa's  dwelliiv-place,  who  made  Darius  king,  the  one  and 
oiUy  king  vi  maay."- 


2+8 


PERSIA 


(LANGUAGE  AND  LtTERATURE 


4.  Nem  PcfSMK.— Th6  last  step .  io  the  devdopmcnt  of  the 
language  »  New  Penian.  represented  in  its  oldest  form  by  Firdoau, 
In  grammatical  forms  it  ia  still  poorer  than  Middle 
Persian;  except  English,  no  Indo-European  language 
has  so  few  inflexions,  but  this  is  made  up  for  by  the 
subtle  development  of  the  syntax.  The  structure  of  New  Persian 
has  hardly  altered  at  all  since  the  ShAhn&mai  but  the  original 

fwrism  of  Firdoua,  who  made  every  effort  to  keep  the  language 
ree  from  Semitic  admixturcj  could  not  long  be  maintained.  Arabic 
literature  and  speech  exercised  so  powerful  an  influence  on  New 
Persian,  especiaJly  on  the  written  kujguage,  that  it  could  not 
withstand  tne  admission  of  an  immense  number  of  Semitic  words. 
There  is  no  Arabic  word  which  would  be  refused  acceptance  in 
good  Persian.  But,  nevertheless.  New  Persiaa  baa  remained  a 
hmpiage  of  genuine  Iranian  stock. 

Among  the  changes  of  the  sound  system  in  New  Persian,  as 
contrasted  with  earlier  periods,  especially  with  Old  Peraian,  the 
first  that  claims  mentbn  u  the  change  of  the  tenues  A,  /,^,  e,  into 
g,  d,  b,  s.    Thus  we  bave^ 
Old  Persian  or  Zend,  PaUaM,         New  Persian, 


mahrka  (death) 
ThraStaona 
Sp  (water) 
hvatd  (aelO 
raucah  (day) 
haca 


mark 
Fritan 

kEot 

rej 

•J 


A  series  of  consonants  often  disappear 
Old  Persian  or  Zend,         PaUmi, 
kaufa  (mountain) 
g&thu  (place),  Z.  g&tu 
cathware  (four) 
bafldaka  (slave) 

spSda  (armjr)  •  •  • 

dad&mi  (I  give)  .  .  . 

Old  d  and  dh  frequently  become  y— 
Old  Persian  or  Zend,        PaUata, 


kof 

gfis 

bandak 


madhu  (wine)^ 
baodhS  (consciousness) 
pftdha  (foot) 
Icadha  (when) 


b5d 


marg 

FeridOn 

ftb 

khfid 

rOz 

az. 

in  the  si»Fant;  thu»— 
New  Persian, 
k6h 
g&h 
cihSr 
bandah 
sipBh 
dmam. 

NewPersiatL 
mai 


bOi 


Old  y  often  appears  asf:  2!end  jfSma  (glass).  New  Persian  jdm; 
yavan  (a  youth).  New  Persian  javdn.  Two  consonants  are  not 
allowed  to  stand  together  at  the  beginning  of  a  word ;  hence  vowels 
are  frequently  inserted  or  prefixed,  e.g.  New  Persian  sitddan  or 
isMdan  (to  sUnd),  root  sUl;  Inrddar  (brother),  Zend  and  Pahlavi 
brOtar.^ 

Amongst  modern  languages  and  dialects  other  than  Persian  which 
must  be  also  asugned  to  the  Iranian  family  may  be 
mentioned : — 
z.  Kurdish,  a  language  nearly  akin  to  New  Persian, 
with  which  it  has  important  characteristics  in  common.  It  is 
chiefly  distingubhed  from  it  by  a  marked  tendency  to  shorten 
words  at  all  costs,  e.g.  Kurd,  herd  (brother) « New  Persian  birddan 
Kurd,  dim  (I  give)  »> New  Persian  diham;  Kurd,  sf^  (white) <■  New 
Persian  sipid. 

2.  Baluck,  the  language  of  Baluchistan,  also  very  closely  akin 
to  New  Persian,  but  especially  distinguished  from  it  in  tnat  all 
the  okl  spirants  are  changed  into  explosives,  e.g.  Baluch  vOb  (sleep) 
"Zend  mafna;  Baluch  kap  (slime) « Zend  kafi.  New  Persian  kaf; 
Baluch  hapi  (seven)  ^  New  Persian  haft, 

3.  Ossettc,  true  Iranian,  in  spite  01  its  resemblance  In  sound  to 
the  Georeian.* 

4.  Pushtu  Ocss  accurately  Afghan),  which  has  certainly  been 
Increasingly  influenced  by  the  neighbouring  Indian  languages  In 
inflexion,  syntax  and  vocabulary,  but  is  still  at  bottom  a  pure 
Iranian  langiuige,  not  merely  intermediate  between  Iranian  and 
Indian. 

The  position  of  Armenian  remains  doubtfuL  Some  scholars 
iittribute  it  to  the  Iranian  family:  others  prefer  to  regard  it  as  a 
separate  and  independent  member  of  the  Indo-European  group- 
Many  words  that  at  first  si^ht  seem  to  prove  its  Iranian  origin  are 
only  adopted  from  the  Persian.'  (K.  G.) 

II.  Modem  Persian  Likrature. — Persian  htstorians  are  greatly 
at  variance  about  the  origin  of  their  national  poetry.  Most  of 
them  go  back  to  the  5th  Christian  century  and  ascribe  to  one 
of  the  Sassanian  kings»  Bahrim  V.  (420-439),  the  invention  of 

'Gramtnars  of  New  Persian,  by  M.  Lomsden  (Calcutta,  1810), 
A.  B.  Chodxko  (Paris,  1852;  new  ed.,  1883),  D.  Forbes  (1869), 

LA.  Vuilers  (Gicsaen,  1870),  A.  Wahrmund  (Giessea,  1875),  C. 
lemann  and  V.  Zhukovski  (Leipzig,  1889);  I.  T.  Platu 
(pt.  i.  1084).  For  the  New  Pcruan  dialects  see  Fr.  MOller.  in  the 
Siteungsber.  der  men.  Ahad.,  vols.  Ixxvit.,  buviiL 


*  Cf .  Habschmann,  In  Kuhn's  Zeitsehrifi,  xxiv.  396. 
*Cf.   P.  de  Lagarde,  Arwieniscke  Stndien  (GAtttngen, 
H.  HQbschmann,  Anneniuke  Stndien  (Leipzig,  i88j>. 


i«77); 


metre  and  ilijrme;  others  mention  as  author  of  the  first  PeisiaB 
poem  a  certain  Abulhaf^  of  Soghd,  near  Samarkand.  In  point 
of  fact,  there  is  DO  doubt  that  the  later  Sassanian  rulers  fostered 
the  literary  spirit  of  their  nation  (see  PahiavI).  Pahlavi  books, 
however,  fall  outside  of  thepresent  subject,  which  Is  the  literatnre 
of  the  idiom  which  shaped  Itself  out  of  the  older  Persian  speech 
by  slight  modifications  and  a  steadily  increasing  mixture  o( 
Arabic  words  and  phrases  in  the  9th  and  xoth  centuries  of  our 
era,  and  which  in  aU  essential  respects  has  renttlned  tht  same 
for  the  last  thotisand  yoars.  The  death  of  HSrOn  al-RashId  in 
the  beginning  of  the  9th  century,  whkh  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  the  decline  of  the  caliphate,  was  at  the  same  time  Ihe 
starting-point  of  movements  for  national  independence  and  a 
national  literature  in  the  Iranian  dominion,  and  the  oominoQ 
cradle  of  the  two  was  in  the  province  of  Khor3san,  between  tl» 
Oxus  and  the  Jazartes.  In  Merv,  a  KhorSsinian  town,  a  certain 
'Abbas  composed  in  809  aj>.  (193  A.H ),  according  to  the  oldest 
biographical  writer  of  Persia,  Mahommed  *AufI,  the 
first  real  poem  in  modem  Persian,  in  honour  of  the 
Abblsid  prince  Mamtkn,  HSrlln  al-Rashid's  son,  who 
had  himself  a  strong  predilection  for  Persia,  his 
mother's  native  country,  and  was,  moreover,  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  freethinking  spirit  of  his  age.  Soon  after  this,  in  Sao 
(30S  A.H.),  lEhk,  who  aided  MamQn  to  wrest  the  caliphate  from 
his  brother  AmIh,  succeeded  in  establishing  the  first  semi- 
independent  Persian  dynasty  in  Khorfts&n,  whidi  was  owtloown 
in  87  a  (259  ajl)  by  the  ^aSirids. 

The  development  of  Penlan  poetry  under  these  first  native 
dynasties  was  slow.  Arabic  language  and  literature  had  gained 
too  firm  a  footing  to  be  supphmted  at  once  by  a  new  literaiy 
idiom  still  in  its  infancy;  nevertheless  the  few  poets  who  arose 
under  the  T&hirids  and  §aff&rids  show  already  the  germs  of  the 
characteristic  tendency  of  all  later  Persian  literature,  which 
aims  at  amalgamating  the  enforced  spirit  of  Islamism  with  their 
own  Aryan  feelings,  and  reconciling  the  strict  deism  of  the 
Mahommedan  religion  with  Uieir  inborn  loftier  and  more  or  less 
pantheistic  ideas;  and  we  can  easily  trace  in  the  few  fragmentaiy 
verses  of  men  like  ^anzaIa,  Qakim  FirQz  and  AbQ  SaJlk  those 
principal  forms  of  poetry  now  used  in  common  by 
all  Mahommedan  nations — the  forms  of  the  ^^ida 
(the  encomiastic,  elegiac  or  satirical  poem),  the 
gkazal  or  ode  (a  lovc-ditty,  wine-song  or  religious  hymn),  the 
rubi''l  or  quatrain  (our  epigram,  for  which  the  Persians  invented 
a  new  metre  in  addition  to  those  adopted  from  the  Arabs),  and 
the  matknawl  or  double-rhymed  poem  (the  le|^timate  fotm'fw 
epic  and  didactic  poetry).  The  first  who  wrote  such  a  noathnaikl 
was  Aba  Shukdr  of  BaUch,  the  oldest  literary  representative  of 
the  third  djmasty  of  Khorftsin,  the  Siminids,  who  had  been  able 
in  the  course  of  time  to  dethrone  the  ^aff&rids,  and  to  secure  the 
government  of  Persia,  nominally  still  under  the  suprenucy  of 
the  caliphs  in  Bagdad,  but  in  fact  with  full  sovereignty.  The 
undisputed  reign  of  this  family  dates  from  the  accession  of  Amir 
Ka^r  11.  (913-^42;  301-331  A.R.),  who,  more  than  any  of  his 
predecessors,  patronized  arts  and  sciences  m  his  donunion& 
The  most  accomplished  minstrels  of  his  time  were  MiaMtn^ 
Mahommed  Far&l&dl  (or  Faril&wi);  Aba  VAbbis  ptMh 
of  Bokh2ri,  a  writer  of  very  tender  verses;  AbO  Ceatmey, 
'l-Mufctffar  Na^r  of  NbhapOr;  Aba  *Abdallah  Mahommed  of 
Junaid,  equally  renowned  for  his  Arabic  and  Persian  poetry; 
Ma'nawl  of  Bokhirl,  full  of  original  thoughts  and  spiritual 
subtleties;  Rhusrawinl,  from  whom  even  FirdousI  condescended 
to  borrow  quotations;  Aba  *1-Hasan  Shahid  of  Baikh,  the  fiz3t 
who  made  a  dlwSn  or  alphabetical  collection  of  his  lyrics;  and 
RadagI  (or  ROdakl),  the  first  classic  genius  of  Persia,  who  im- 
pressed upon  every  form  of  lyric  and  didactic  poetry  its  peculiar 
stamp  and  individual  character  (sec  ROdaoI).  His  gracdtul  and 
captivating  style  was  imitated  by  ^aklm  Khabbas  of  Nlshap&r, 
a  great  baker,  poet  and  quack;  Aba  Shu'aib  ^ili^  of  Hertt,  who 
left  a  spirited  little  song  in  honour  of  a  young  Christian  maiden; 
Raunaql  of  Bokh&rS;  Abal-Fatb  of  Bust,  who  was  also  a  good 
Arabic  poet;  the  amir  Aba  '^^n8an  'All  Alag&tchl,  who  handled 
the  pen  as  skilfully  as  the  swordi  'UnUUra  of  MerVi  a  laaoos 


LANCnUCEAND  LITERATOSEI 


PERSIA 


24<> 


astronomer,  and  Kis&*I,  a  native  of  the  aame  tomii  a  man  of 
stem  and  ascetic  manners,  who  sang  in  melodious  rhythm  the 
praise  of  *Att  and  the  twelve  indma.  All  these  poets  flourished 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Simlnid  princes,  who  also  fosttf ed 
the  growing  desire  of  their  nation  for  historical  and  antiquarian 
researches,  for  exegetical  and  medical  studiesi.  Man^Or  I.,  the 
grandson  of  ROdagl's  patrour  ordered  (963;  359  A.B.)  his  viaer 
Bai'amI  to  trsinslate  the  famous  univmal  history  of  T^barl 
^  ^.  (838^33  A.D.)  from  Arabic  into  Peislan;  and  this 
jM^an.  Ta'nkk4-Tabart,,tht  oldest  prose  work  in  giodem 
Persian,  is  not  merely  remarkahie  from  a  philological  point  of 
view,  it  is  also  the  classic  model  of  an  ea^  and  simple  style 
(French  trans,  by  L.  Dubeur  and  U.  Zotenberg,  1867-1874). 
The  same  prince  employed  the  mostMeamed  among  the  ulemi. 
of  Tranaoxiana  for  a  translation  of  fabarl's  second  great 
work,  the  ro/xir,  or  commentary  on  the  Koran,  and  accepted 
the  dedication  of  the  first  Persian  book  on  medicine,  a  pharma- 
copoeia by  the  physician  Abd  Man^or  Muwaffaq  b.  'AH  of 
Herftt  (edited  by  Seligmann,  Vienna,  1859),  n^hich  forms  a  kind 
of  connecting  link  between  Greek  and  Indian  medidne.  It  was 
soon  after  further  developed  by  the  great  Avicenna  (d.  1037; 
438  Ajr.)>  himself  a  Persian  by  biith  and  author  of  pretty  wine- 
songs,  moral  maxims,  psychological  tracts,  and  a  manual 
of  philosophic  sdencei  the  DdnisktHmm-i-AtdX  in  his  native 
tongue." 

A  still  greater  Impulse  was  given, both  to  thepatriotic  feelin^i 
and  the  national  poetry  of  the  Petsiaiis,  by  Man^Qr's  son  and  suc- 
cessor. Prince  NQb  Il>  ^bo  ascended  the  throne  in  976  (365 
A.H.).  Full  of  enthusiasm  for  the  glorious  past  of  the  old 
Iranian  kingdom,  he  charged  his  court  poet  Da^I^l  (Daqiqi), 
g^^f^^  who  openly  professed  in  his  ghazals  the  Zoroostrlan 
^^'^  creed,  to  turn  the  KhcdA^indma,  or  "  Book  of  Kings," 
Into  Persian  verse.  Shortly  after  commencing  this  work  Da^Ill^I 
was  murdered  in  the  prime  of  life;  his  death  was  soon  followed 
by  the  fail  of  the  Sftmlnid  dynasty  itself.  But  Da^^llM's  great 
enterprise  was  not  abandoned;  a  stronger  hand,  a  higher  genius, 
was  to  continue  and  to  complete  it,  and  this  genius  was  found 
-^^^^  in  FirdousI  (940-1030;  33Sn4xx  A.H.),  with  whom  we 
°"^  enter  the  golden  age  of  the  national  epopee  in  Persia 
(see  FnoousI).  In  loit,  after  thirty-five  years  of  unremitting 
labour,  he  accomplished  his  gigantic  task,  and  wrote  the  last  dis- 
tichs  of  the  immortal  Skdhndmot  that  "  glorious  monument  of 
Eastern  genius  and  learning,'*  as  Sir  W.  Jones  calls  it, "  which,  if 
ever  it  should  be  graerally  undostood  in  its  original  language, 
will  contest  the  merit  of  invention  with  Homer  itself."  The  Shik- 
IMiaOMM9fftdma,  from  the  very  moment  of  its  appearance, 
ii»**SMft-  exerdsed  such  an  irresistible  fascination  upon  all 
*■*  **  minds  that  there  was  soon  a  keen  competition 
among  the  younger  poets  as  to  who  should  produce  the 
most  successful  iinitation  of  that  closdc  model;  and  this  competi- 
tion has  gone  on  tmder  difFerent  forms  through.all  the  following 
centuries,  even  to  the  most  recent  times.  First  of  all,  the  old 
popular  traditions,  so  far  as  they  had  not  yet  been  exhausted 
by  FirdousI,  were  ransacked  for  new  epic  themes,  and  a  regular 
cyde  of  naticmal  epopees  gathered  round  the  Book  of  KutgSf 
drawn  almost  exclusively  from  the  archives  of  the  princes  of 
Sejistin,  the  family  of  Firdousl's  greatest  hero,  Rustam.  The 
first  |uid  most  ambitious  of  these  competitors  seems  to  have 
been  Asaifi's  own  son,  *A]I  b.  A^^mad  al-AsadI,  the  author  of 
the  oldest  Persian  s^ossary,  who  completed  in  xo66  (458  A.B.), 
in  upwards  of  9000  distlchs,  the  Cwsh/ts^nOma^  or  tnarveUous 
story  of  the  warlike  feats  and  love  adventures  of  GarshSsp, 
one  of  Ruatan's  lacestors.  The  hercnc  deeds  of  Rustam*s 
grandfather  were  cdebratol  in  the  SSmn&ntat  which  almost 
equals  the  Shahnama  in  length;  those  of  Rustam's  two  sons,  in 
the  Jakdg*»ndma  and  the  Par§munMma;  those  of  his  daughter, 
an  nmaxon,  in  the  Brunhild  style  of  the  German  Nibelunge,  in 
die  BdnH  Gutkdspndma;thosic  of  his  grandson  in  the  Bars^dma', 
thote  of  his  great-grandson  in  the  ShakriyOmdma  (ascribed 
to  Mvkhtftil  «nd  dedicated  to  Mas*Od  Shih,  who  is  probably 
identical  with  Mas'Qd  b^  Ibrihfm,  Sultan  Ma^mOd's  great- 
gruKlsonft  1099-11x4;  493^508  ajl);  and  the  WMMterful  exploits 


of  a  -son  of  Isfandiylr,  another  hero  of  the  Skdkndma,  in  the 

When  these  old  Iranian  sources  were-almost  exhausted,  the 
difficulty  was  met  in  various  ingenious  ways.  Where  some 
slight  historical  records  of  the  heroic  age  were  still  obtainable 
poetical  imagination  seized  upon  them  at  once;  where  no  tradi- 
tions at  nil  were  forthcoming  fiction  pure  and  simple  asserted  its 
right;  and  thus  the  national  epopee  gave  way  to  the  epic  story, 
artd--«ubstituting  prose  icr  verse — to  the  novel  and  the  fairy 
tale.  Modeb  of  the  former  class  are  the  various  Iskandarndmas, 
or"  Books  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  the  oldest  and  most  original 
of  which  is  that  of  Niiiml  of  Ganja,  the  modern  Elizavetpol 
(completed  about  xios;  599  A.B.);  the  latter  begins  with  the 
KiuHhuSamak  'lyir^  a  novel  in  three  volumes  (aboitt  1189; 
585  A.B.),  and  reaches  its  dimas  in  the  BSstan-i-KkayOl, 
or  **  Garden  of  Imagination,"  a  prose  romance  of  fifteen 
large  volumes,  by  Mahommed  Ta\^  Khayil,  written  between 
1742  and  1756  (ti5s  and  1x69  A.H.).  Some  writers,  both 
in  prose  and  verse,  turned  from  the  exhausted  fields  of  the 
national  gtory  of  Petsia,  and  chose  their  subjects  from  the 
chivalrous  times  of  their  own  Bedouin  conquerora,  or  even 
from  the  Jewish  legends  of  the  Koran.  Of  this  description  are 
the  At^iydnama^  or  history  of  the  pre-Mahommedan  prophets, 
by  ^asanl  Shabistarl  'AyinX  (before  the  8th  centuiy  of  tiie 
Hegira);  Ibn  Qusim's  Kkdwarnima  (1437;  830  A.H.),  of  the 
deeds  of  'All;  Bftdhil*s  0amla4'0«idartt  which  was  completed 
by  Najaf  (1733;  X13S  A.H.),  or  the  life  of  Mahommed  and  the 
first  four  caliphs;  KOiim's  Pwd^ma^FS^iMj  the  book  of 
joy  of  Fttima,  Mahomet's  daughter  (X737;  X150  A.ix.)''all  four 
in  theepic  metro  of  the  SMhnaMa\  and  the  prose  stories  of  ^dtim 
TS%  the  famous  model  of  liberality  and  generosity  in  pre- 
Islamitic  times;  of  AnOr  ^omgak,  the  unde  of  Mahomet;  ami  of 
the  Mu^jitOi'i'M^ewi,  or  the  miraculous  deeds  of  Moses,  by 
Mu'In-almiskln  (died  about  1501;  907  ajb.). 

Quite  a  different  turn  was  taken  by  the  ambition  of  another 
dass  of  imitators  of  FirdousI,  espedaUy  during  the  last  four 
centuries  of  the  Hegira,  who  tried  to  create  a  new,^^,^^^^^ 
heroic  epopee  by  cdebrating  in  rhythm  and  rhyme  ^^ 
Stirling  events  of  recent  date.  The  gigantic  figure  of  TimUr 
inspired  Hfttifl  (d.  xszx;  937  ajl)  with  his  T^Hmdma;  the 
stormy  epoch  of  the  first  §aiawid  rulers,  who  succeeded  at  last 
in  reuniting  for  some  time  the  various  provinces  of  the  old 
Peraan  realm  into  one  great  monarchy,  furnished  Sisiml  (died 
after  1560;  967  a.h.)^  with  the  materials  of  his  ShllknAma^  a 
poetical  history  of  Shih  IsmaH  and  Shih  T^hmftsp.  Another 
Shdmama,  celebrating  Shih  *Abbas  the  Great,  was  written  by 
KamAlI  of  SaboevSr;  and  even  the  crudities  of  Nftdir  Shah  were 
duly  chronicled  in  a  pompous  epic  style  in  *IshratI's  SkikHdma4- 
Nddirl  (1749;  xx63  A.H.).  But  aU  these  poems  aro  surpassed 
in  length  by  the  33,000  distichs  of  the  Sfaktnshdknima  by  the 
poet-hiureate  of  Fatb  ^All  Sh&h  of  Persia  (1797-1834),  and  the 
40,000  distichs  of  the  Gtarioitdma,  a  poeticd  history  of  India 
from  its  discovery  by  the  Portuguese  to  the  conquest  of  Poona 
by  the  English  in  18x7.  In  India  this  kind  of  epic  versifica- 
tion has  flourished  since  the  beginning  of  HumflyOn's  reign 
(t53o-X556);«.;.the  tafofnSwM^^kdMfMnfhyV^nda  (d.  1646; 
X056  A.R.);  the  SkUunskabmama  by  T^Hb  Kallm  (d.  1651; 
io6x  A.R.),  another  panegyrist  of  Shih  Jahin;  AtasfaTs  Mdtl- 
ffdmo,  in  honour  of  Shih  Mahoniiried  'Adil  of  BtjSpOr,  who 
ascended  the  throne  !n  1629  (1039  A.H.)  or  1637;  the  Totnlffi^A- 
i-ITufl  ^ufbshdk,  a  metrical  history  of  the  IJLutb  shihs  of 
Golconda;  and  many  more,  down  to  the  Pai(fitariui^npA 
Sulfdn  by  GhuUm  Qas^  (1784;  1x98  A.H.). 

But  the  national  epopee  was  not  the  only  bequest  the  great 
FirdousI  left  to  his  nation.   This  rich  genius  gave  also  the  first 
impulse  to  romafUic,  didactic  and  mystic  poetry;  and  even  his 
own  age  produced  powerful  coH>perators  in  these  three  most 
conspicuous    departments    of     Persian    literature. 
RomatUic  fiction^  which  achieved  its  highest  triumph    g^ctioa. 
in   NivArot  of   Ganja's   (1141-1303;    535-599  a.h.) 
brilliant  pictures  of  the  struggles  and  passions  in  the  human  heart 

*  After  1573  (979  A.B.)  accordiog  to  H.  E.  in  Cnmdms,  IL  337* 


2SO 


PERSIA 


PJWCUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


(see  NiZAMi),  tent  forth  its  first  tender  shoots  m  the  namerous 
love  stories  of  the^AdAnJma,  the  most  fascinating  of  which  is  that 
of  Z&l  and  ROdabeh,  and  developed  almost  into  full  bloom  in 
Ftrdousl's  second  great  mathnawl  YlUuJ  u  ZalUthdt  which  the 
aged  poet  wrote  after  his  flight  from  Ghaini,  and  dedicated  to  the 
reigning  caliph  of  Bagdad,  al  Qadir  bilUh.  It  represents  the 
oldest  poetiod  treatment  of  the  Biblical  story  of  Josefth^  which 
has  proved  so  attractive  to  the  epic  poets  of  Persia,  among  others 
to  'Am'ak  of  Bokh&iS  (d.  1 149),  who  was  the  first  after  FirdousI  to 
write  a  YOsuf  u  ZalUtka  to  JfanI  (d.  1492),  MaujI  I^Msim  Khftn, 
Hum&yOn's  amir  (d.  1571),  NAifm  of  Herftt  (d.  1670), 
and  Shaukat,  the  governor  of  SblrSs  under  Fath  'All  Shih. 
Perhaps  prior  in  date  to  Fizdousl's  Yiisuf  was  his  patron  'Unsuri's 
romance,  WdmH  u  Adkrd,  a  popular  Iranian  legend  of  great 
antiquity,  which  had  been  first  written  in  verse  under  the  T^hirid 
dynasty.  Thu  favourite  story  was  treated  again  by  Faslhl 
JurjAnI  (5th  century  of  the  Hegira),  and  by  many  modem  poets— 
as  DamIri,  who  died  under  the  $afawl  shih  Mahommed  (1577* 
1586;  985-^4  A.H.)i  NimI,  the  historiographer  of  the  Zand 
dynasty,  and  Qosain  of  Shlr&c  under  Path  'AH  Shah,  the  last 
two  flourishing  towards  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
Another  love  story  of  simihir  antiquity  formed  the  basis  of 
Fakr-uddin  As'ad  JorjAnl's  Wis  u  RAmim,  which  was  composed 
in  IffahAn  about  X048  (440  A.H.}~ii  poem  remarkable  not  only 
for  its  high  artistic  value  but  also  for  its  resemblance  to  Gottfried 
von  Strassburg's   Tristan  uiid  IsoU. 

The  last-named  Persian  poet  was  apparently  one  of  the  earliest 
eulogisu  of  the  Selj&ks,  and  it  was  under  this  Turkish  dynasty 
£scMBtafC*  that  lyrical  romanticism  rose  to  the  highest  pitch. 
Mtf  What  FirdousI  and  the  court*poets  of  Sultan  MabmQd 

'''''*'^  had  commenced,  what  AbO  'l-Faraj  RQnl  of  Lahore 
and  Mas*Qd  b.  Sa'd  b.  Salmin  (under  Sultan  Ibrfthim,  1059- 
X099)  had  successfully  continued,  reached  its  perfection  ui  the 
famous  group  of  panegyrists  who  gathered  in  the  first  half  of  the 
6th  century  of  the  He^ra  round  the  throne  of  Sultan  Sinjar, 
and  partly  also  round  that  of  his  great  antagonist,  Atsi2,  sb2h  of 
Khwftrizm.  This  group  included  Adib  §Abir,  who  was  drowned 
by  order  of  the  prince  in  the  Oxus  about  1 145  (540  a.h.),  and  his 
pupU  Jauharl,  the  goldsmith  of  Bokhftifl;  Amir  Mu'iaxI,  the  king 
of  poets  at  Sinjar's  court,  killed  by  a  stray  arrow  in  z  147  (542  a.h.), 
RashId  Watwit  (the  Swallow)  who  died  in  ii8a  (578  A.H.), 
and  left,  besides  his  iMt^ldas,  a  valuable  treatise  on  poetry 
{Hadd^ti-essi^r)  and  a  metrical  translation  of  tbe  sentences  of 
*AJI,  *Abd-alw8si*  Jaball,  who  sang  at  first,  like  his  contem- 
porary Hasan  Ghaznawl  (d.  1x69;  565  A.H.),  tbe  praise  of  the 
Ghaznevid  shfth  Bahrim,  but  afterwards  bestowed  his  eulogies 
upon  Sinjar,  the  conqueror  of  Ghazni;  and  Aubad-uddin  Anwarl, 
the  most  celebrated  lpa$Ida-writcr  of  tbe  whole  Persian  Ulerature. 
Anwari  (died  between  X189  and  1191 ;  585  and  587  a.b.).  who 
in  early  life  had  pursued  scientific  studies  in  the  madrasa  of  TQ9, 
and  who  ranked  among  the  foremost  astronomers  of  his  time, 
owes  his  renown  as  much  to  the  inexhaustible  store  of  poetical 
similes  and  epitheta  omantia  which  he  showered  upon  Sinjar 
and  other  royal  and  princely  personages,  as  to  his  cutting  sar- 
casms, which  he  was  careftil  to  direct,  not  against  individuals, 
but  against  whole  classes  of  society  and  the  cruel  wrong  worked 
by  an  inexorable  fate-Hhua  disregarding  the  example  of 
FirdousI,  whose  attack  upon  Sultan  MahmQd  for  having  cheated 
him  out  of  the  reward  for  his  epopee  is  the  oldest  and  most 
finished  specimen  of  personal  satire.  This  legitimate  branch  of 
high  art,  however,  soon  degenerated  either  into  the  lower  forms 
of  parody  and  travesty-^for  which,  for  instance,  a  whole 
group  of  Transoxanian  writers,  SOzanl  of  SamariUnd  (d.  1x74; 
569  A.H.)  and  his  contemporaries,  Aba  'All  Shatraojl  of  the  same 
town,  Lftmi*  of  Bokhara,  and  others  gained  a  certain  literary 
reputation — or  into  mere  comic  pieces  and  jocular  poems  like 
the  "  Pleasantries  "  {Hadiyyil)  and  the  humorous  stories  of  the 
"  Mou.%  and  Cat  "  and  the  "  Stone-cutter  "  (Saiigtarcsh)  by 
*Ubaid  22kftnl  (d.  X370;  77*  a.h.)*  An  waif's  greatest  rival 
was  Kh&klnl  (d.  X199;  595  a.h.),  the  son  of  a  carpenter  in 
ShXrvin,  and  panegyrist  of  the  shlhs  of  Sblrv&n,  usually  called 
the  Pindar  of  the  East.    To  European  taste  only  the  shorter 


epigrams  and  the  double-rhymed  poem  Tu^atuttrM^oin^  in 
which  KhAV^nl  describes  his  journey  to  Mecca  and  badL,  give 
full  satisfaction.  Among  his  numerous  contemporaries'  and 
followers  may  be  noti<»d  Mujir-uddin  BailakHnl  (d.  X19S; 
594  A.H.);  Zahir  FirySbl  (d.  1202;  598  A.H.)  and  Atldr 
AkhsIkaU  (d.  12x1;  608  A.H.)— all  three  panegyrists  of  the 
atibcgs  of  Axerbaijan,  and  especially  of  Sultan  l^izil  Axslaxt— 
Kam&l-uddin  I^fah^nl,  tortured  to  death  by  the  Mogub  In  1237 
(635  A.H.),  who  sang,  like  his  father  Jam&l-uddin,  the  praise  of 
the  governors  of  I$fah&n,  and  gained  the  epithet  of  the  "  creates 
of  fine  thoughts  "  (KballA^-ulma'tnl);  and  Saif-uddln  IsCazai^ 
(d.  1267, 660  A.H.),  a  favourite  of  the  sh&hs  of  KhwdLrizm. 

Fruitful  as  the  6th  and  7th  centuries  of  the  Hegira  were  m 
panegyrics,  they  attained "Vi  equally  high  standard  in  didactic 
and  mystic  poetiy  The  origin  of  both  can  again  gtsgrnaOKmrn 
be  traced  to  FirdousI  and  his  time.  In  the  ethical  Mr*^ 
reflections,  wise  maxims  and  morM  exhortations '^**>'- 
scattered  throughout  the  Skahnima  the  didactic  dement  is 
plainly  visible,  and  equally  plain  in  it  are  the  traces  of  that 
mystical  tendency  which  was  soon  to  j^ervade  almost  all  the 
literary  productions  of  Persian  genius.  But  the  most  dinractcr^ 
istic  passage  of  the  epopee  is  the  mysterious  disappesxance  d 
Shfth  Kaikhosrmu,  who  suddenly^  when  at  the  heif^t  of  earthlr 
fame  and  splendour,  renounces  the  world  in  utter  diasust,  and, 
carried  away  by  his  fervent  longing  for  an  abode  of  everiastaaf 
tranquillity,  vanishes  for  ever  from  the  midst  of  his  ooiDpaiiioc& 
The  first  Persian  who  emptoyed  poetry  exclusively  for  dK 
illustration  of  ^Oflc  doctrines  was  PirdouSI's  coa«. 
temporary,  the  renowned  sheikh  Aba  Said  b.  AbH*"" 
1-Khair  of  Mahna  in  Khorftsftn  (968-1049;  357-440  ajl),  the 
founder  of  that  specific  form  of  the  ruba'1  which  gh^cs  the  most 
concise  expression  to  religious  and  philosophic  aphoisms 
~a  form  which  was  further  developed  by  the  gnat  free* 
thinker  *Omak  b.  KhayyAm  ig.f.),  and  Afdal-uddn  KOsk 
(d.  1307;  707  A.B.).  The  year  of  AbO  Sa*Id's  death  is  moat 
likely  that  of  the  first  great  didactic  mathnawT,  the  RAskam, 
a'indma,  or  "Book  of  Enligbtenment,"  by  NA^a  Kbobmav 
(9.V.),  a  poem  full  of  sound  moral  and  ethical  msTJms  with 
sUghtly  mystical  Icndendes.  About  twenty-five  yean  later  the 
first  theoretical  handbook  of  $Qf1sm  in  Persian  was  compoeed  bf 
'All  b.  'Uthmftn  al-JulUbl  al-HujwIrl  in  it»eK«skf-mtmab'6b,«. 
"  Revelation  of  Hidden  Things,"  which  treats  of  the  vaxwis 
schools  of  §ans,  their  teachings  >nd  observances.  A  great  said 
of  the  same  period.  Sheikh  ^AbdaUfth  An«ftif  of  Heitt  (1006- 
1089;  396-48X  A.H.),  assisted  in  sprrading  the  pantheistic  move- 
ment by  his  Mundjdt  or  "  Invocations  to  God,"  by  several  past 
tracts,  and  by  an  important  coUeaion  of  biographies  of  cminesit 
^afls,  based  on  an  oider  Arabic  compibtran,  and  aervxiag  in  in 
turn  as  groundwork  for  Jftml's  excellent  Nafaf^dl-tltms  {completed 
in  1478;  883  A.H.).  He  thus  paved  the  way  for  the  pubUcatioa 
of  one  of  the  esrliest  textbooks  of  the  whole  sect,  the  ITa^M' 
ul^kikai,  or  "  Garden  of  Truth  "  (XK30;  525  A.a.),  by  Qakis 
Sanfti  of  Ghasni,  to  whom  all  the  later  §a£lc  poets  cefer  as  theiK 
unrivalled  master  in  spiritual  knowledge.  As  the  moat  oaooiB- 
promising  Safls  appear  the  greatest  pantheistic  writer  of  aD  ages, 
JeUU  ud-din  ROml  (X207-1273;  604-^72  A.a.;  see  Rthd),  and 
his  scarcely  less  renowned  predecessor  Fatid  nd-dfii  'Attar,  who 
was  slain  by  the  Moguls  at  the  age  of  1x4  lunar  yesxs  in  xajo 
(627  A.B.).  This  prolific  writer,  having  performed  the  pilgrim- 
age to  Mecca,  devoted  himself  to  a  stern  ascetic  life,  and  to  the 
composition  of  ^Qflc  woxfcs,  partly  in  prose,  as  in  his  valnabk 
"  Biography  of  Eminent  MyUic  Divines,'*  but  mostly  in  the  fona 
of  matbna^^  (upwards  of  twenty  in  number),  among  iriiicb  the 
Pandndma,  or  "  Book  of  Counsels,"  and  the  Uantik  «<f«y,  or 
the  "Speeches  of  Birds,"  occupy  the  first  rank.  la  the  latlei; 
an  allegorical  poem,  inlerHJersed  with  moral  talcs  and  pioai 
contemplations,  the  final  absorption  of  the  $00  ia  tbe  deitj  is 
most  ingenioudy  illustrated. 

In  strong  contrast  to  these  advanced  $a(Is  standi tbegrealctf 
moral  teacher  of  Persia,  Sheikh  Sa'dl  of  ShMU  (died  about  xio 
lunar  yeais  old  in  1292;  69ZA.R.;.sce  Sa*dX>,  whose  two 
best  known  works  are  the   BlMd»i  or  "  Fnitt-fudca/ 


•• 


PERSIA 


25' 


tltt  CvUtIa*,  Oi  "  Rofe-taidoL"  Bcwever,  ImUi  have  fomid 
coa^antive^  few  i'tniUtion»— the  focmer  in  the  DasUtmAma^ 
g^^  or  "  Book  of  Ezeoipkus,"  of  Nuftrl  of  Kohistftn 
(d.  1330;  7ao  ajl),  ia  the  DoA  Bib,  or 
"  Tea  Letters,"  of  KftUbl  (d.  m34;  838  A.B.),  and  la  the 
C7«Mr,  or  "  Roae-bower,"  «<  HatfaU  (murdered  1554; 
961  A<B.).:  the  latter  in  Mu*In-addEa  Juwainl's  Nigirisldm,  or 
"  Pictttxe^allcry  "  (1335;  73S  aji.)  and  Jftml's  BakdriMdn,  or 
"  S[»iag-gaiden "  (1487;  89a  A.H.};  wheieaa  an  innumerable 
lioai  of  pncdy  §Qfk  compositions  followed  in  the  wake  of 
SanftTs,  *Attar's  and  JelAl  «l-d]n  KumJ's  aoathnawU.  It  wOl 
suffice  to  name  a  few  of  the  most  oon^cnous*  The 
Lawta'M,  or  "  Sparks,"  of  *Irft^  (d.  between  1287  aod 
1309;  686  and  709  am.),  the  Zd^^mnsd^in,  or 
"  Store  of  the  Wayfavers,"  by  HusainI  (d.  1318;  7x8  a.h.),  the 
GuLOatk^-BaM,  or  "  Kose-bed  of  Mystery,"  bv  HabmOd  Shabis- 
tul  (d.  1330;  720  A.B.),  the  Jim^Jam,  or  '  Cup  of  Jamshid," 
by  Auba^  (d.  1338;  738  ajl),.  the  Aniatnl  ^Arifin,  or  "|='riend 
of  the  Mystics,"  by  JMm  (QisimH-AnwAr  (d.  1434;  837  *-b.), 
and  othen;  *A^r's  Uihr  u  MushtoH,  or  "  Sun  and  Jupiter  " 
CU76;  778  /LH.).  'ArUTs  G^  %  CkaugOn,  or  "The  Ball  and  the 
Bat "  (1438;  842  AM.),  ffusn  u  DU,  or  "  Beaoty  and  Heart." 
by  FattAhl  of  KldiftpOr  (d.  1448;  ^853  A.R.),  Sham"  u  Pamdna,  or 
**  Tlifl  Candle  and  the  Moth,"  by  AhlX  of  Shiris  (1480;  894  A.R.), 
Skah  u  Godd,  or  "  King  and  Dervish,"  by  HiUUl  (put  to  death 
i53*>  939  A^Oy  Bahft-ud<dln  'AmilTs  (d.  16a  1;  Z030  a.H.) 
^*f  » Ho/wd, or  "  Bread  and  Sweets," 5Airii .SAoAor, or  "  MUk 
mad  ^Sogar,"  nd  manv  more. 

During  all  these  periods  of  litcsaiy  activity,  tyrie  poetry,  pure 
aad  simple,  had  l^  no  means  been  neglected;  almost  all  the 
,  ^in^^j^  remmned  poets  since  the  time  of  Rildai^  had  sung  in 
^^  'endless  strains  the  pleanues  of  love  and  wine,  the 
beauties  of  natuxe,  and  the  almighty  power  of  the  Creator;  but 
it  was  left  to  the  incomparable  genius  of  Qftfii  (d.  1389;  791  a.h  ; 
•ee  Wird)  to  give  to  the  world  the  most  perfect  models  of  lyric 
composition;  and  the  lines  he  had  laid  down  were  more  or  leas 
strictly  followed  by  all  the  ghaaal-writcn  of  the  9th 
^J2^  and  loth  centuries  of  the  Hegira^by  Salman  of  Sftwa 
(d.  about  X377;  779  A.K.),  who  eaccUed  besides  in 
Ipaiida  and  mathnawl;  Kamftl  Khujanctt  (d.  1400;  803  A.H.), 
Qiiii's  friend,  ood  pxot£g^  of  Sultan  Qosain  {X374-1583  a.d.); 
Mahommed  Shirin  MsghiibI  (d.  at  Tabria  in  1406;  809  a^.),  an 
intimate  friend  of  Kamil;  Nrmat-ullAh  Wall  (d.  1431;  834  a.b.), 
the  founder  of  a  special  religious  order;  J^&sim'i-Anwftr  (see 
above);  Amir  ShfthX  (d.*z453;  857  A.S.),  of  the  princely  family 
of  the  SaiJbadfirs  of  Sabsewir;  BanaAl  (d.  .1512;  918  a.h.), 
who  also  wrote  a  romantic  poem,  Bakrdm  u  Bikrisi  BftbA 
FighAnI  of  Shbfz  (d.  1519;  935  a.e.)»  usually  called  the  "  little 
HAfii  ";  Nargid  (d.  1531;  938  a.b.);  Listal  (d.  1334;  941  A4I.), 
who  himself  was  imitated  by  Darolrl  of  I^fahAo,  Mubtasham 
Kiahl  and  WabshI  BAfikI  (all  three  died  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
10th  century  of  the  Hegira);  AhB  of  Shizis  (d.  1535*  94'  a.h.), 
author  of  the  SibrA^ffaM,  or  "Uwful  Witchcraft,"  which,  Uke 
KAtlU's  (d.  X434;  838  A.H.)  Uqjma'^tdbaffram,  of  the  "Con- 
fluence of  the  Tvro  Seas,"  can  be  read  in  two  different  metres; 
Natt*l  (d.  1610;  I0J9  AJi.),  who  wrote  the  charming  romance  of 
a  Hindu  princess  who  burned  herself  in  Akbsr's  reign  with  her 
dpffawd  husband  on  the  funeral  pile,  called  SOt  u  Guddz,  or 
**  Burning  and  Mdting,"  &c.  Among  the  immediate  predeces- 
sors of  ^£i  in  the  8th  century  of  the  Hegira,  in  wliich  also  Ibn 
Yamb,  the  great  kit'a-writcr,^  flourished,  the  highest  fame  was 
gained  by  the  two  poets  of  Delhi,  Amir  Uasan  and  Amir  Kbosrau. 
The  laUer,  who  died  in  1325  (7*5  a.h.)»  two  yeais  before  his 
friend  Qasan,  oocnpica  the  foremost  place  among  all  the  Persian 
poeta  of  India  by  the  ridmess  of  bis  imagination,  his  graphic 
st^,  and  the  historical  interest  attached  to  his  writings.  Five 
catensive  dlwins  testify  to  his  versatility  in  all  bian<;)ies  of  lyric 
poetry,  and  nine  large  mathnawb  to  his  mastership  in  the  epic 
line.    Four  of  the  latter  are  poetical  accounts  of  the  reigns  of 

^  A  kit*a  or  inuVatta*a  is  a  poem  containing  moral  reflections,  and 
differs  from  the  ka^ida  and  gnasd  oidy  by  the  abeence  of  a  matla' 
or  Initial  dialich. 


th0  empcrora  of  Mhi,  *AU-oddIn  KhiUl  <XS96-I3i6),  his  pre- 
decessor Fcros  ShAh  and  his  successor  l^utb-ud^  Mubftrek 
Shah-ihe  MifUlA-aUfutik,  or  "  Key  of  Victories,"  the  Kirdn- 
Mssa'daiHt  or  "  The  Conjunction  of  the  Two  Lucky  Planets," 
the  Nuh  Si^ihr,  or  *'Nine  Spheres,"  and  the  lov&story  of 
Khidrkhdn  u  Duwalfinh  His  other  five  mathnawXs  formed  the 
fimt  attempt  ever  made  to  imitate  NiAimi's  famous  Kkatmakt 
or  five  romantic  epopees,  and  this  attempt  turned  out  so  well  that 
henceforth  almost  all  epic  poets  wrote  quintuples  of  a  similar 
description.  Khw&jQ  Kirmtnl  (d.  1352;  753  a.b.)  was  the  next 
aspirant  to  Ni^&ml's  fame,  with  five  mathnawls,  among  which 
Humdi  M  HumdyOn  is  the  most  popular,  but  he  had  to  yield  the 
palm  to  *Abd'Uiiabmin  J&ml  (1414-1492;  8z7<'898  aji.),  the 
last  classic  poet  of  Persia,  in  whose  geniua  were 
summed  up  all  the  best  qualities  of  his  great  prede- 
cessors. Many  poets  followed  iA  JfinU's  footsteps, 
first  of  all  his  nephew  Hitifl  (see  above),  and  either  wrote  whole 
khamssh^  or  imitated  at  least  one  or  other  of  NiiJUnrs  epopees; 
thus  we  have  a  LailA  u  Magn^,  for  instance,  by  MaktabI  (1490), 
HilAlI  (see  above),  and  Rf&b-uhunln  (d.  1637).  But  their 
efforts  could  not  stop  the  growing  coemption  of  taste,  and  it  was 
only  at  the  court  of  the  Mogul  emperors,  particularly  of  the 
great  Akbar  (iS56't6os),  who  revived  Sultan  MabrnQd's  "  round 
table,"  that  Persian  literature  still  enjoyed  some  kind  of  "  Indian 
summer"  in  poets  like  Ghas&ll  of  Mashhad  or  Meshed 
(d.  1572);  'Urfl  of  Shirils  (d.  1591),  who  wrote  spirited  kafldas, 
and,  Uke  his  contemporaries  WabshI  and  Kautharf,  a  matlmawl, 
Farhid  u  Skirfn;  and  Fai^I  (d.  1595),  the  author  of  the  romantic 
poem,  Nai  u  Daman,  who  al^  imparted  new  life  into  the  rub&'I. 
In  Persia  proper  only  Zulftll,  whose  clever  romance  of  "  Sultan 
MabmOd  and  his  favourite  Ayflz  "  (1592)  is  widely  read  in  the 
East,  ^'ib  (d.  1677),  who  is  commonly  called  the  creator  of  a 
new  style  in  lyric  poetry,  and,  among  the  most  modem,  H&tU 
of  I^ah&n,  the  singer  of  sweet  and  tasteful  odes  (died  about 
1785),  deserve  a  passing  notice. 

-  But  we  cannot  conclude  our  brief  survey  of  the  national 
literature  of  Persia  without  calling  attention  to  the  rise  of  the 
drama,  which  has  only  sprung  up  in  the  beginning  of  y^^  pnmt 
the  nineteenth  century.  Like  the  Greek  drama  and 
the  mysteries  of  the  Etnopean  middle  ages,  it  is  the  offspring  of  a 
ptircly  religious  ceremony,  which  for  centuries  has  been  performed 
annually  during  the  first  ten  days  of  the  month  Mubarram— the 
recital  of  mournful  lamentations  in  memory  of  the  tragic  fate 
of  the  house  of  the  caliph  *A1I,  the  hero  of  the  ShI'itic  Persians. 
Most  of  these  pasrion*pIays  deal  with  the  slaughter  of  *AlI's  son 
^osain  and  his  family  in  the  battle  of  Kerbcli.  But  lately  this 
narrow  range  of  dnunaric  subjects  has  been  considerably  widened, 
Biblical  stories  and  even  Christian  legends  have  been  brought 
upon  the  Persian  stage;  and  there  is  a  fair  prospect  of  a  further 
development  of  this  most  interesting  and  important  movement. 
(See  further  Dkailv:  Persian.) 

In  the  various  departments  of  general  Persian  literature  not 
touched  upon  in  the  foregoing  pages  the  same  wonderful  activity 
has  prevailed  as  in  the  realm  of  poetry  and  fiction, 
since  the  first  books  on  history  and  medicine  appeared 
under  the  SSmftnids  (see  above).  The  most  important 
section  is  that  of  historical  wcu-ks,  which,  although  deficient  in 
sound  criticism  and  often  spoiled  by  a  highly  artificial  style, 
supply  us  with  most  valuable  materials  for  our  own  research. 
Quite  um'que  in  this  respect  are  the  numerous  histories  of  India, 
from  the  first  invasion  of  Sultan  MabmQd  of  Ghazni  to  the  English 
conquest,  and  even  to  the  first  decades  of  the  present  century, 
most  of  which  have  oeen  described  and  partly  translated  in  the 
eight  volumes  of  Sir  H.  M.  Elliot's  History  of  India  (1867-1878). 
Persian  writers  have  given  us,  besides,  an  immense  variety  of 
universal  histories  of  the  world,  with  many  curious  and  note- 
worthy data  (see,  among  others,  MIrkhond's  and  Khwftndamlr's 
works  under  MIbkbono);  histories  of  Mahomet  and  the  first 
caliphs,  partly  translated  from  Arabic  originals,  which  have  been 
lost;  detailed  accounts  of  all  the  Persian  dynasties,  from  the 
Ghuncvids  to  the  still  reigm'ng  Kajars,  of  Jenghiz  Khin  and 
the  Moguls  (in  Juwainl's  and  Wa^fSf 's  elaborate  To'rikks),  and 


W9rU, 


PERSIGNY— PERSIS 


Sbeau 


ID  ucount  of  tbe  Zaftrnima 

A  Cion) ;  hiiioria  o[  kcU  and  cntdt,  opediUy 
tiMn,  or  "  School  o(  Muu»n  "  ((ruulited  l^" 
,  Paris  iS4j);hDd  mAny  locmJ  dironida  of  Inn 


II  ffiaJmiiliiiiBt.  by 


cosmography,  and  traveli  (ro 

Ialakhii'8  and  KuvlnC's  Arabic  mrlu),  and  Ibe  vuioua  UdUims 
or  biograplua  of  $0111  and  poeu.  with  aclHiloni  in  prat  and 
veree,froin the  oldest  ol'Aun  (alwut  iiio)  to  ifae  Lui  and  largest 
at  all,  the  ilaHaaK-idtluiri'ii,  er  "Trcanite  of  MarveUoiu 
Mallen  "  [completed  iSoj),  which  conlalna  Uographia  and 
apecimens  of  more  than  3000  poeta.  We  pasa  over  ihe  wcQ- 
atockcd  tectlom  of  philosophy,  cthka  and  politica,  of  thcoloEy, 
law  and  ^OFisni,  of  malhcmalica  and  atlronotny,  of  medicine 
(the  oldest  iheaaurus  of  which  it  the  "  Trtasure  of  the  ahlh  of 
KhwUiian,"  1 1 10I,  of  Amble,  Penian  and  Turkish  grammar  and 
leiJcoKraphy,  and  only  cut  a  parting  glance  al  the  rich  coUecl  ion 
ef  old  Indian  folk-kire  and  fables  preserved  in  the  Persian  version 
^^  ol  KalUak  u  Dimndt  (ae*  ROdacI),  ol  the  SimilM. 
2£i«.  nima,  ihe  T'lUlnJina,  or  "  TaSa  oS  a  Parrot,"  and 
others,  and  at  tbe  tranalotiona  of  alandard  works 
of  Sanskrit  Uterature,  the  epopeci  of  the  RSmiyaia  and 
UaUbUnla,  the  Bluttatad-GUi,  Che  Yott-Vasiiloha,  and 
Dumerous  FurStm  and  Upanisiadi,  for  which  we  ar«  mostly 
si  to  tbe  empetor  Akbir'a  iadefaligible  seal. 
.„,joUTias. — Ine  sundard  modern  diKUPakms  of  Persian 
BleiMiire  aie  Ihote  ol  E.  G.  Bcowae.  LUaarj  Hulort  a]  Pana 
_  .    „j  u r.L.   1.  ^    ii.  of  Geiger  injKuhn'i 


■      Muttu.   


sundard  p 
E.  G.  Bnx 
JKD  Eiht,  iL _..-_ 

iJkn    Ptadetli    (Stnssburg, 


tf]i>Mscb,ili 


_  litynuliiPlmtmiidiaitpdlmSduitlAam 
itt  Ptrnr  (iSU).  Sh  alio  P.  Hom,  Cadiitili  4a  fonidia 
iirtfrsfur  (iQoi).  Concise  skdchev  of  Persian  poetry  are  contained 
tn  Sir  C.  Ouicley's  flioirafiJiicBl  HiHai  »/  Fmian  Poili  (1846); 
ki  G.  L.  FlUgd'a  aitid*  in  Ench  and  Cruber's  AUtrmeiiu  Ency- 
thfSdU  CiUi):  in  N.  Bland's  papm  in  the  Jnr*.  qI  Ih  Biy. 
AiTsit.,  vB.  us  aeq.  and  in.  IM  em,;  and  in  C.  A.  C.  Batbier 
da  Meyoard's  Ke™  m  Ptm  (Paris,  1877).  Real  mines  ol  inlorma- 
lion  art  Ihi  catalogues  at  A.  SptTnger  (Calcutu,  iSm):  W.  K. 
Mnfay  (Undon.  Igu): FWtel  Uvoli.,  Vienna,  lS6s): and  C.  Rieu 
{}  vSa.,  London.  lij^-lMjl.  For  the  first  fire  cantuiies  ol  the 
Higin  conpara  Elbe's  editions  and  cnetrical  translations  d 
"RadaiTa  Voil&ultr  und  Zdlgenossen."  in  UcrtadindUcht 
ferxkuHtm  (Liipiig,  l8;s):  of  Kis9'i's  songs,  Firdouii'i  lyrics. 
and  Abn  Said  b.  Abo  VKhair't  ruUls.  In  ^ibaatitrricUi  il<r 
■'"'■" -  * '^'*'V'il!S' 


lull.  n.  4B>eq.): 

fcaS^^aSii 

.s:-rSu^s;a 

^^ 

SUhu-Wsjehidl 

cms,  by  V.  von 

1^ 

Siiirb?!!™^ 

J!M  *  VepMn. 

"m.'SB. 

u  tAile  criiiaU 

d..  Paris,  1876): 

,  ■'^■mv- 

PEBSiaiT. 

JBUI  GILBERT  VICTOR  FUUH.  Ddcde  (iSoS- 

1871), 

French  stnlesmsB, 

wa«  bom  al  Salnl-Getman  Lespinasse 

(Uire 

on  Ihe 

iith  of  J 

inuary  tSoS,  the  aoo  of   a  receiver 

«(la» 

».    Has 

d  at  Unuca,  Ud  attend  the  civaliy 

4lh  Kusaan 

in  supporting  (be  rr 

ordination,  and  noil  _ 

He  became  a  iovnuditt,  and  in  iSjj  became  a  string  Bonapaitiat, 

aaiuming  ibe  title  of  comic  de  Fenigny,  said   to  be  d<wiiiaiii 

In  bla  (amiiy.     He  planned  tbe  attempt  on  Slrajaburg  in  i8j6 

and  that  dn  Boulogne  in  1S40,    At  Boulogne  he  sraa  aireated  ud 

csndemned  to  twenty  years*  ImprisonnKSkt  in  a  fortress,  shortly 

afterwards  commuted  into  mDd  detention  It  Versailles,  svfaett 

the  KDe  from  tilling  up.  This  Bat  published  in  1&4S  under  the 
title,  De  la  DalinalHn  tl  de  I'ulUiU  frrr<uinnit  its  Pyramida. 
At  Ihe  revotutloB  of  1S4E  be  was  amsied  by  tbe  piovisional 
government,  and  on  h!i  release  look  a  prominent  part  in  aecuring 
tbe  election  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  Ihe  presidency.  With  Uony 
and  the  marshal  Saint  Amand  he  plotted  the  restoration  ol  tbe 
empire,  and  was  a  devoted  servant  of  Napoleon  In,  He 
succeeded  Momy  at  minister  al  thf  Inteiiar  in  Janiiuy  1B51, 
and  later  in  the  ycai  became  aenator.  He  Rt^ned  -otba  m 
i3S4,  being  appointed  dri  year  to  the  London  eabasty.  -mbki 
he  occupied  wilha  short  interval  {tit  jS-iSsg)  imtll  iSeOiWlvaihc 
resumed  tbe  portfolio  of  the  interior,  fiut  iIm  growing  InflueBcc 
of  his  rival  Rouhcr  provoked  hia  rcslgnaiion  in  iBfij,  whoi  he 
received  the  title  of  duke.  A  mon  dangejoua  CDcmy  than 
Rouber  was  the  empress  Eugfaie,  whose  marriage  lie  had  o^pattd 
and  whose  pretence  in  the  CDuncS  chamber  he  dcpncaicd  ■  a 
memorandum  which  lell  into  the  empren't  haodt.  He  aoigti 
in  vabi  to  see  Napoleon  before  he  tuited  to  lake  onr  the 
ootnmand  In  1S70,  and  Ihe  hreadi  was  further  widened  wha 
matter  and  aervanl  were  in  exile.  Fersigny  retomed  to  France 
in  iS;i,  and  died  at  Nice  on  the  Iilh  ol  January  1S71. 

See  Ulmmrti  ill  d*c  it  Ptriipiy  (and  ed..  itgS).  eXvd  by  H. 
de  Laire  d'Eipagny,  his  fanner  lecmary:  an  eulogutic  liTi.  Lm  Dm 
ii  PrrntHI  (iMj).  by  Delano:  and  £milt  OUivis'i  Eimpin  hUtf 
(1»9S,  &=-l. 

PERSIHMOR,  the  tiania  given  to  the  fmlu  of  Diaifjni 
tirginiaia  in  the  United  Sutrs.  The  tree  which  betn  Ihea 
belongt  to  Ihe  order  Ebcnaceae,  It  usually  inm  jo  to  ja  f t.  ia 
height,  andhUDval  entire  leaves,  and  uniaciual  fiowen  on  tboit 
ttaiki.  In  the  male  Sowers,  which  are  nkunetous,  Ibe  stuneot 
are  alrteen  in  number  and  arranged  ia  pain;  tbs  female  dowes 
are  solitary,  with  traces  of  tianient,  and  a  tmootb  avaiy  with 
one  irvulehi  each  of  the  eight  cells — tba  orary  is  sumoanted  br 
four  styles,  which  are  hauy  ai  the  base.  The  frail-atalk  m 
very  shoit,  bearings  subglobose  ^it  an  inch  or  rather  nkoee  ia 
diameter,  of  an  otuge-ycliow  colour,  and  with  a  sweetish  aaUis- 
gent  pu^.  Il  ia  surrounded  at  the  base  by  the  persistent  calyi- 
lobcs.  which  Increase  hi  siae  as  the  fruit  ripens.  Hie  astringewy 
fendetl  tbe  Irult  somewhat  unpalatable,  bul  after  il  lua  Ih 
subjected  to  the  action  of  ftoM,  or  has  become  partially  ratted 
or  "  blelted  "  like  a  medlar,  its  fiavoar  is  imprOTcd.  Tlic  bial 
is  ealen  In  great  quantities  In  the  BOutben  Blatd  i>f  Aaoics, 
and  is  alto  fennented  with  bops,  com-mesi  or  wheat-bna  bIs 
a  tort  of  beer  01  made  Into  brandy.  Tbe  wood  is  besTy,  noig 
and  very  dose-grained  and  Died  in  turnery.  Tbe  tree  is  ^eiy 
common  hi  the  South  Atlanik  and  Gulf  atatet,  and  alUnt  iu 
largest  sisi  in  the  basin  of  the  Mioiialppl.  It  vaa  bnxisbt  to 
England  before  162^  and  is  cultivated,  but  rarely  If  ever  ripetit 
its  fruil.  Il  is  easily  raised  from  seed  and  can  aho  )k  psvpagsted 
from  stolons,  which  are  often  produced  in  grcst  quantity. 

Dioipym  /^djh',  of  which  there  eiist  numeroi 

The  fruits  ate  larger  than  thoae  of  the  An 

in  shape,  bul  have  similar  prcfiertia. 

known  as  ikibn.  rich  in  tannin,  is  eipre»ea  inm  us  greea 

fruit  and  used  in  various  iodustties.    The  li«  b  hudy  in  the 

south  ol  En^and  aitd  In  the  Chaime]  i*i"w^ 

PBUiS  (mod.  Pars,  f.t.},  tlie  aoulh-wettefn  part  of  IiaB 
(Persis),  named  from  the  inhabitanls,  the  Iranian  pcc^ile  of  tbe 
Plru  (Pars),  their  name  was  pronounced  by  the  I,inians  Prnai, 
.  with  change  from  a  to  ^  ud  thii  lom  has  bccoBW  ■*— -'— t* 


PERSIS 


253 


in  Gitek  mad  In  the  oiodcn  Earepeui  bngaaga.  The  natimJ 
featum  of  Persis  are  docribed  very  exactly  by  Ncarchitt,  the 
admical  of  Alexander  the  Great  (preserved  by  Arrian  Indte, 
40  and  Strabo  xv.  727).  The  oountiy  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  of  very  different  character  and  dimale:  the  coast  is  sandy 
and  very  hot,  without  much  vegetation  except  date  pahns,  it 
has  no  good  harbours,  and  the  climate  is  very  unwholesome, 
the  population  la  scanty.  About  50  nu  from  the  coast  rise  the 
chains  of  the  mountains,  throu^  which  some  steep  passes  lead 
into  the  interior  valleys  (called  «oiXi)  Ikp^b*  Strabo  fv, 
739),  which  lie  about  5000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Here  the  climate 
is  temperate,  the  country  watered  by  many  rivers  and  lakes, 
the  son  fertile,  the  vegctalloa  rich,  the  cattle  numerous.  These 
legions,  which  were  thickly  popuhUed,  form  the  real  Persis  of 
history.  "This  land  Persis,'*  says  Darius,  m  an  inscription 
at  Pcrsepolis,  "  which  Ahuramazda  has  given  to  mc,  which  is 
beautiful  and  rich  in  horses  and  men,  according  to  the  will  of 
Ahuranasda  and  myself  it  trembles  before  no  enemy."  The 
third  part  is  the  north,  which  belongs  to  the  central  plateau,  still 
much  higher,  and  therefore  rough  and  very  cold  in  the  winter. 
Towards  the  north-west  it  borders  on  the  Median  district  of 
Paraetacene  (about  Isfahan);  towards  the  north  and  north-cast 
it  soon  passes  into  the  great  desert,  of  which  only  the  oasis 
of  Yezd  {Isatichai  in  Ptolem.  vL  4,  2)  is  inhabitable.  In  the 
east,  Persis  proper  is  separated  by  a  desert  (Laristan)  from 
the  fertile  province  of  Carmania  (Kerman),  a  mountainous 
region  inhabited  by  a  Persian  tribe.  To  Carmania  bdonged 
also  the  coast,  with  the  islands  and  harbours  of  Horniuz  and 
Bander  Abbasi.  In  the  west  Persis  borders  on  the  mountains 
and  plains  of  Elam  or  Susiana.  For  the  ancient  topography 
cf.  Tomaschek,  "BeitrSge  xur  historischcn  Topographie  von 
Persien,"  in  Sittungsber,  dtr  Wiener  Akademie,  pkd.  CI.  di. 
cvili.  cxxL 

The  Persians  are  not  mentioned  in  history  before  the  time  of 
Cyrus;  the  attempt  to  identify  them  with  the  Paisua,  a  district 
in  the  Zagros  chains  south  of  Lake  Urmia,  often  mentioned  by 
the  Assyrians,  is  not  tenable.  The  Parsua  arc  perhaps  the  non- 
Arian  tribe  Ilipffux  in  northern  Media,  Strabo  zL  508.  Herodotus 
L  1 25,  gives  a  list  of  Persian  tribes:  the  Pasargadae  (at  Murghab), 
Maraphii,  Maspii,  Panthialaei  (in  western  Carmania),  Derusiaei, 
Germanii  (»'.«.  the  Carmanians)  are  husbandmen,  the  Dahae 
(».e.  the  "  enemies,"  a  general  name  of  the  rapacious  nomads, 
used  also  for  the  Turanian  tribes),  Mardi,  Dropid,  Sagartii 
(called  by  Darius  Asagaria,  in  the  central  desert;  cf.  Herod, 
vii.  85)  are  nomads^  The  kings  of  the  Pasargadae,  from  the 
dan  of  the  Achaemenidae,  had  become  kings  of  the  Elamitic 
district  Anshan  (probably  in  596,  d,  Cvaus).  When,  in  553, 
Cyrus,  king  of  Anshan,  rebelled  against  Astyages,  the  Maraphians 
and  Maspians  joined  with  the  Pasargadae;  after  his  victoiy  over 
Astyages  all  the  Persian  tribes  acknowledged  him,  and  he  took 
the  title  of  "  king  of  Persia."  But  from  then  only  the  inhabitants 
of  Persis  proper  wero  considered  as  the  rulers  of  the  empire, 
and  remained  therefore  in  the  organiration  of  Darius  free  from 
taxes  (Herod.  ilL  97).  But  Carmania,  with  the  Sagartians,  the 
Vtians  (called  by  Darius  Yautiya),  and  other  trib^  formed  a 
satrapy  and  paid  tribute  (Herod.  ilL  93);  the  later  authors 
therefore  always  distinguished  between  Carmania  and  Persis. 
Names  of  other  Persian  tribes,  partly  of  very  doubtful  authority, 
are  given  by  Strabo  xv.  727,^  and  Ptolem.  vi  4  and  8. 

The  Persians  of  Cyrus  (see  Pessxa:  Ancknt  History)  were 
a  vigorous  race  of  husbandmen,  living  in  a  healthy  climate, 
accustomed  to  hardship,  brave  and  upright;  many  stories  in 
Herodotus  (espedal^  ix.  122)  point  the  contrast  between  their 
simple  life  and  the  dieminate  nations  of  the  civiUzed  countries 
of  Asia.  They  were  firmly  attached  to  the  pure  creed  of 
Zoroaster  (d.  Herod,  i.  131  sqq.  and  the  inscriptions  of  Darius). 

When  Darius  had  killed  the  Mamper  Smerdis  and  gained  the 

crown,  a  new  usutper,  VahyaMSta,  who  like^se  pretended  to 
^  To  the  Pateisknoreis  belongs  the  lance-bearer  of  Darius, 
.  Gobryas  (Gaubaniva)  the  Pldsbavari,**  mentioned  in  his  tomb- 
^jMcriptUMi;  they  occur  also  in  an  inscription  of  Esarhaddon  as 
Patu8h-«ra.  eostwanfe  of  Media,  in  Choorene  at  the  Caspian  gates; 
the  Kyftu  am  the  Kurds. 


be  Smetdiik  the  son  of  Cyrus,  rose  hi  Kantfjio,  hot  was  defeated 
m  two  battles  by  DariutS  generals  and  put  to  death  (BehBton 
mscription).  Cyrus  had  buUt  has  capital  with  hn  palace  and  tomb, 
in  Pasargadae  (9.9).  Darius  founded  a  new  dly  about  30  m. 
farther  south  on  tho  Idt  bank  of  the  Pulwar,  near  its  conihience 
with  the  Kur,  with  a  Urge  temce,  on  winch  his  magnificent 
palace  and  that  of  his  sdh  Xetxcs  were  built.  As  Pasargadae  was 
named  after  the  tribe  in  whose  dstrict  it  lay.  so  the  new  capital 
is  by  the  Persians  and  Greeks  simply  called  '*  the  Penians  "; 
later  authors  call  it  Persepohs  (g.t.),  "  the  Penian  dty." 
Another  Persian  palace  hiy  in  Taoke,  near  the  coast  (Strabo 
XV.  728,  Arrian  Ind  39;  Dionys.  Perieg.  1069);  Gabae,  which 
Strabo  mentions  besides,  Is  Isfahan  in  Pametacene  and  belonged 
already  to  Media. 

Both  in  Penepolis  and  Pasargadae  large  masses  of  gold  and 
silver  from  the  tribute  of  the  subject  natioos  were  treasured, 
as  in  Soaa  and  Ecbatana.  But  Penis  lies  too  far  off  from  the 
centre  of  the  Asiatic  world  to  be  the  seat  of  government.  Like 
Arabia  and  simikir  countries,  it  could  cxerdae  a  great  monientary 
influence  in  history  and  produce  a  sudden  change  throughout 
the  worldi  but  afterwards  it  would  sink  into  local  in^gnifionce. 
So  the  Persian  kings  fixed  their  residence  at  Susa,  which  is  always 
considered  as  the  capital  of  the  empire  (therefore  Aeschylus 
wrongly  considers  it  as  a  Persian  town  and  places  the  tomb  of 
Darius  here).  After  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  Persis  and  Peiaepolis 
became  utteriy  neglected,  in  spite  of  occasional  visits,  and  even 
the  palaces  of  Persepolis  remained  in  part  unfinished.  But  the 
nat  ional  f  ccUng  of  the  Persians  remained  strong.  When  Alexander 
had  won  the  victory  of  Arbda,  and  occujMed  Babylmi  and  Susa, 
he  met  (in  the  spring  of  330)  with  strong  resistance  in  Persia, 
where  the  satri^  Ariobarsanes-tried  to  stop  his  progress  at  the 
*'  Persian  gales,"  the  pass  leading  up  to  Persepolis.  Here 
he  set  fire  to  the  cedar  roof  of  the  pabce  of  Xerxes  as  a  symbol 
that  the  Greek  war  of  revenge  against  the  Persians  had  come 
to  an  end.  Our  best  information  tells  us  that  he  soon  had  the 
fire  extinguished  (Plut.  Alex.  38);  the  story  of  Thais  is  a  pure 
fiction,  and  we  may  well  believe  that  he  repented  the  damage 
he  had  done  (Arrian  vi.  30, 1). 

Alexander  had  planned  to  amalgamate  the  former  rulers 
of  the  world  with  his  Macedoniuis;  but  his  death  was  followed 
by  a  Macedonian  reaction.  Peucestas,  the  new  satrap  of 
Persis,  followed  the  example  of  Alexander,  and  thus  gained  a 
strong  hold  on  his  subjects  (Dk>d.  xix.  48);  nor  did  Seleucus,  to 
whom  the  dominion  of  the  east  ultimately  passed  (from  311 
onwards),  disdain  the  aid  of  the  Penians;  he  is  the  only  one 
among  the  Diadochi  who  retained  his  Persian  wife,  Apame, 
daughter  of  Spitamenes.  At  the  same  time  Sdeucusand  his 
son  Antiochus  I.  Sotcr  tried  to  introduce  Helknism  into  Persis. 
Of  Greek  towns  which  they  founded  here  we  know  Alexandria 
in  Carmania  (Plin.  vi.  107;  Ptol.  vi.  8,  14;  Ammian.  Marc.  23, 
6,  49),  Laodicea  in  the  east  of  Persis  (Plin.  6,  Z15),  Stasis,  "a 
Penian  town  on  a  great  rock,  which  Antiochus,  the  son  of 
Seleucus,  possessed  "  (Stcph.  Byz.  f.s.),  Antiochia  in  Persis, 
founded  apparently  by  Seleucus  I.  and  peopled  by  Antiochus  I. 
with  immigrants  called  together  from  all  Greece,  as  we  learn 
from  a  pstpkisma  passed  by  "  boul€  and  demos  "  of  this  town 
in  206  in  honour  of  Magnesia  on  the  Maeander  (Kern,  InschrifteH 
von  Magnesia  am  Maeander,  No.  6x»Dittenbcrger,  Orieniis  gr. 
inscr.  933,  where  they  aro  mentioned  together  with  a  great 
many  Seleudd  towns  in  Susiana  and  Babylonia,  and  compare 
Kern,  No.  i8«Dittenb<tger,  No.  231).  An  insurrection  of  the 
Persians  against  Seleucus  (U.)  Is  mentioned  in  two  stratagems 
of  Polyaenns  (vii.  39.  40).  When  in  asi  Molon,  the  satrap  of 
Media,  rebelled  against  Antiochus  III.,  his  brother  Alexander, 
satrap  of  Persis,  joined  him,  but  they  were  ddeated  and  killed 
by  the  king.  Persis  remained  a  part  of  the  Sdeudd  empire 
down  to  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes,  who  at  the  end  of  his  rdgn 
restored  once  more  the  authority  of  the  empire  in*  Babylonia, 
Susiana  and  Persis;  perhaps  a  battle,  in  which  the  satrap 
Numenhis  of  Mesene  (southern  Babylonia)  ddeated  the  Penians 
on  the  shore  of  Carmania  on  sea  and  land  (Plin.  vi.  zs2),bdongB 
to  this  ttme.    But  after  the  death  of  Antiochus  IV.  (164)  the 


25+ 


PERSIUS 


Seleucid  Empife  began  to  dissolve.  While  the  central  pro- 
vinces. Media  and  northern  Babylonia,  were  ccmqaered  by 
the  Parthians,  Mesene,  Eljmiais  ud  Persia  made  themselves 
independent. 

Persia  never  became  a  part  of  the  empire  of  the  Arsadds, 
although  her  kings  recognised  their  supremacy  wbca  they  were 
strong  (Strabo  xv.  728,  736).  From^he  pcriplus  of  the  Ery- 
thraean Sea  33-37  we  learn  that  their  authority  extended  over 
the  shores  of  Carmania  and  the  opposite  coasts  of  Arabia.  A 
Persian  king,  Artaxerxcs,  who  was  murdered  by  his  brother 
Gosithros  at  the  age  of  93  years,  is  mentioned  in  a  fragment 
of  Isidore  of  Charax  (Lucian,  yacrobii,  1 5).  Other  names  occur 
00  their  coins,  the  oldest  of  which  arc  imitations  of  Seleucid 
coins,  and  were  perhaps  struck  by  local  dynasts  under  their 
supremacy;  most  of  the  others  show  the  king's  head  with  the 
Persian  tiara,  and  on  the  reverse  a  fire-alur  with  the  adoring 
king  before  it,  a  standard  (perhaps  the  famous  banner  of  the 
smith  Kavi,  which  became  the  standard  of  Iran  under  the 
Sassanids),  and  occasionally  the  figure  of  Ahuramacda;  they 
were  first  explained  by  A.  D.  Mordtmann  in  ZeUscknJl  JUr 
Numismatik^  ill,  iv.  and  vii.;  cf.  Grundriss  der  iranisckcn  Fkitoi. 
ii.  486  seq.  The  legends  are  in  Aramaic  characters  and  Persian 
(Pahlavi)  language;  among  them  occur  Artaxerxes,  Darius  (from 
a  dynast  of  this  name  the  town  Darabjird,  *'  town  of  Darius," 
in  eastern  Persia  seems  to  derive  its  name),  Narses,  Tirklaics, 
Manocihr  and  oiheis;  the  name  Vahuburz  seems  to  be  identical 
with  Oborzos,  mentioned  by  Polyacnus  vii.  40,  who  put  down 
a  rebellion  of  3000  settlers  (xdrouuH)  in  Persis.  From  the 
traditions  about  Ardashir  I.  we  know  that  at  his  time  there 
were  different  petty  kingdoms  and  usurpers  in  Persis;  the 
principal  dynasty  is  by  Tabari  called  Bizrangi.  The  coins 
demonstrate  that  Hellenism  had  become  quite  extinct  in  Persis, 
while  the  old  historical  and  mythical  traditions  and  the  Zoroas- 
trian  religion  were  supreme.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  this 
time  the  true  form  of  Zoroastrianism  and  the  sacred  writings 
were  preserved  only  in  Persia,  whereas  everywhere  dse  (in 
Parthia,  in  the  Indo-Scythian  kingdoms  of  the  east  and  in  the 
great  propagandist  movement  in  Armenia,  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor,  where  it  developed  into  Mithraism)  it  degenerated  and 
was  mixed  with  other  cults  and  ideas.  So  the  revival  of 
Zoroastrianism  came  from  Persia.  When  Ardashir  I.  attempted 
to  restore  the  old  empire  of  Cyrus  and  Darius,  and  in  ai2  a.d. 
rose  against  the  Parthian  king,  Artabanus,  his  aim  was  religious 
as  well  as  political.  The  new  Sassanid  Empire  which  he  founded 
enforced  the  restored  religion  of  Zoroaster  (Zarathustra)  on  the 
whole  of  Iran. 

The  new  capital  of  Persis  was  Istakhr  on  the  Pulwar,  about 
9  m.  above  Pcrsepolis,  now  Hajjiab&d,  where  even  the  pre- 
decessors of  Ardashir  I.  are  said  to  have  resided.  It  was  a  great 
city  under  the  Sassanids,  of  which  some  ruins  are  extant.  But 
it  shared  the  fate  of  its  predecessor;  when  the  empire  was  founded 
the  Sassanids  could  no  longer  remain  in  Persis^  but  transferred 
their  headquarters  to  Ctesiphon.  (Eo.  M.) 

PBRSIUS,  m  full  AuLus  Persius  FtACCUS  (a.o.  34-62), 
Roman  poet  and  satirist.  According  to  the  Life  contained  in 
the  MSS.,  Pecsius  was  a  native  of  Volaterrae,  of  good  stock  on 
both  parents'  side.  When  six  years  old  he  lost  hb  father,  and 
his  step-father  dicxi  in  a  few  years.  At  the  age  of  twelve  Persius 
came  to  Rome,  where  he  was  taught  by  Remmius  Palaemon  and 
the  rhetor  Verginius  Flavus.  Four  years  later  began  a  close 
intimacy  with  the  Stoic  Comutus.  In  this  philosopher's  pupil 
Lucan,  Persius  found  a  generous  admirer  of  all  he  wrote.  Still 
in  early  youth  he  became  the  friend  of  the  lyric  poet  Caeslus 
Bassus.. whilst  with  Thraaea  Paetus  (whose  wife  Arria  was  a 
relative)  he  had  a  dose  friendship  of  ten  years'  duration  and 
shared  some  travels.  Seneca  he  met  later,  and  was  not  attracted 
by  his  genius.  In  his  boyhood  Penius  wrote  a  tragedy  dealing 
with  ah  episode  of  Roman  history,  and  a  work,  the  title  of  which 
is  rendered  uncertain  by  corruption  in  our  MSS.  Pithou's 
generally  accepted  reading  makes  the  subject  that  of  travel; 
the  excursions  with  Thrasea  however  must  have  taken  place  after 
boyhood.     The  perusal  of  Ludlius  revealed  to  Persius  his 


vocation,  and  he  set  to  work  npba  a  book  of  satires.  But  he 
wrote  seldom  and  stowly,  a  premature  death  {utiu  sfMMchi) 
prevented  the  completion  of  his  task.  He  is  described  as 
possessed  of  a  gentle  diqxMition,  girlish  modesty  and  penontl 
beauty,  and  living  a  life  of  exemplary  devotion  towards  Im 
mother  Fulvia  Sisenna,  his  sister  and  his  aunt.  To  his  DxriiMT 
and  sister  he  left  a  considerable  fortune.  Conmtus  supproud 
all  his  woric  except  the  book  of  satires  in  which  he  nuiide  sonx 
slight  alterations  and  then  handed  it  over  to  Bassus  for  ediiu|. 
It  proved  an  immediate  success. 

The  scholia  add  a  few  details— on  ^NhaX  authority  is,  u  genenllr 
with  such  sources,  vcry^  doubtful.    The  Lt/ie  itself,  though  noi  ine 
from  the  suspicion  of  intcrDolation  and  undoubtedly  corrupt  aaj 
disordered  in  places,  is  probably  trustworthy.    The  KISS,  say  it 
came  from  the  commentary  of  Valerius  Probus,  no  doubt  a  karvd 
edition  of  Persius  like  those  of  Virgil  and  Horace  by  this  same  (acico 
"  grammarian  "  of  Bcrytus,  the  poet's  contemporary.    The  <^; 
case  in  which  it  seems  to  conflict  with  the  Satires  thcmscUnb 
in  its  statement  as  to  thcdcath  of  Pcrsius's  father    Thedcctutasi 
of  a  swuorta  in  hts  presence  (SaL  3.  4  sqq  )  implies  a  more  matan 
age  than  that  of  six  in  the  performer.    But  jktlrr^i^ht  here  oeia 
"step-father,"   or    Persius    may    have   forgotten   hts  own  ab:> 
biography,  may  be  simply  reproducing  one  of  his  models.  Tit 
mere  fact  that  the  Ltfe  and  the  Sattres  agree  so  closely  docs  tf 
of  course  prove  the  authenticity  of  the  former.    One  of  the  p«a 
of  harmony  is,  however,  too  subtle  for  us  to  believe  that  a  iixc 
evolved  it  from  the  works  of  Persius.    It  requires  indeed  a  ihooth' 
reading  of  the  Life  before  we  realize  how  distinct  is  the  inprE»' 
it  gives  of  a  "  bookish  "  youth,  who  has  never  strayed  for,  at  lri-> 
in  spirit,  from  the  domestk  hearth  and  his  women-folk   Asia 
course  this  is  notoriously  the  picture  drawn  by  the  Saltres.  Srra^ 
better  docs  Persius  know  his  books  than  the  world  that  bt  »^ 
the  names  of  his  characters  from  Horace.    A  keen  observer  ci »'-' 
occurs  within  his  narrow  horizon,  he  cannot  but  discern  tbe  m^ 
side  of  life  (cf.  e.g  such  hints  as  Sat.  iii.  iio) ;  he  shows,  bo«^^< 
none  of  Juvenal's  undue  stress  on  unsavoury  detail  or  h»^- 
easy<going  acceptance  of  human  weaknesses.    The  sensitive,  koiatj 
bred  nature  of  Persius  shows  itself  perhaps  also  in  his  Mutfj 
refercnces  to  ridicule,  whether  of  great  men  by  street  p**' "  " 
the  cultured  by  Philistines. 

The  chief  interest  of  Persius's  work  lies  in  its  relation  toR«M= 
satire,  in  its  interpretation  of  Roman  Stoicism,  and  iniuusew 
the  Roman  totigue.  The  influence  of  Horace  on  Pcraus  cm, 
in  spite  of  the  silence  of  the  Life,  hardly  have  been  kss  titii 
that  of  Lucilius.  Not  only  characters,  as  noted  above,  ^^ 
whole  phrases,  thoughts  and  situations  come  direct  Itoa  ^ 
The  rescmbhince  only  emphasizes  the  difference  betveeo  lb 
caricaturist  of  Stoicism  and  its  preacher.  Persius  strikes  the 
highest  note  that  Roman  satire  reached;  in  eamestoess  t^ 
moral  purpose  rbing  far  superior  to  the  political  taocoar^ 
good  natured  persiflage  of  his  predecessors  and  the  rhetorkii 
indignation  of  Juvenal,  he  seems  a  forerunner  of  the  F^ 
Christian  Apologists.  From  him  we  learn  a  lesson  Seneca  ik^ 
taught,  how  that  wonderful  philosophy  could  work  00  1^' 
that  still  preserved  the  depth  and  purity  of  the  ok!  R<>°^ 
gravitas.  When  the  Life  speaks  of  Seneca's  genius  as  c^> 
attracting  Persius,  it  presumably  refers  to  Seneca  the  philoscpfc^^ 
Some  of  the  parallel  passages  in  the  works  of  the  two  aie  ^ 
close,  and  hardly  admit  of  explanation  by  assuming  tbe  ustj^ 
a  common  source.  With  Seneca,  Persius  censures  ihr  f?* 
of  the  day,  and  imitates  It.  Indeed  in  some  of  its  worst  i»Sk^ 
straining  of  expression,  excess  of  detail,  exaggeration,  be  out^ 
Seneca,  whilst  the  obscurity,  which  makes  his  little  book  <rf  »c: 
seven  hundred  lines  so  difficult  to  read  and  is  in  no  way  d*!* 
great  depth  of  thought,  compares  very  ill  with  the  ientce^' 
ness  of  tbe  EpisMae  morales.  A  curious  contrast  to  this  t<^ 
dency  is  presented  by  his  free  use  of  "  popular  "  words.  As 
Plato,  80  of  Persius  we  hear  that  he  emulated  Sopbion;  tltf 
authority  is  a  kte  one  (Lydus,  De  mag.  i.  41),  but  « «"*" 
least  recogniae  in  the  scene  that  opens  Sat.  3.  kinship  «itl>  ^ 
work  as  Theocritus'  Adoniazusae  and  the  Uima  of  Herodas. 

Pcrsius's  satires  are  composed  In  hexameters,  ew^  {J  y, 
lacaaons  of  the  short  prologue  above  referred  to,  ia  ^"'^^^ 
ironically  asserts  that  he  writes  to  earn  his  bread,  «*  "J^TVjv 
is  inspired.  The  first  satire  censures  the  literary  tastes  wJ'J^^ 
as  a  reflection  of  the  decadence  of  the  national  morals.  3^-!ila» 
of  Seneca's  11 4th  letter  is  similar.  The  descnpcioa  of  tbe  r^^  ^^ 
and  the  literary  twaddlers  after  dinner  is  vividly  ■•'"'^Jj^ugo 
inurcsting  passage  which  cites  specimens  of  smooth  vcmop***^ 


I 


PERSON— PERSONALITY 


255 


«nd  the  hnguiahific  tlyle  is  gtcatly  spoiled  by  th»  diflSculty  of 
apprecuting  the  points  involved  and  indeed  oC  distributin|[  the 
dialogue  (a  not  uncommon  crux  in  Persius).  The  remaining 
satires  handle  in  order  (2)  the  question  as  to  what  we  may  justly 
ask  of  the  gods  (cf.  Plato's  second  Alctbtadts),  (3)  the  inpoftanoe 
oC  having;  a  definite  aim  in  life,  (a)  the  necessity  of  self-knowledge 
for  public  men  (cf  Plato's  first  Akibuules),  (5)  the  Stoic  doctrine 
of  liberty  (tntroduccd  by  generous  allusions  to  Comutus'  teaching), 
afsd  (6)  the  proper  use  of  money.  The  Ltfe  tells  us  that  the  Satires 
were  not  left  complete:  some  lines  were  taken  (presumably  by 
Comutus  or  Bassus)  from  the  end  of  the  work  so  that  it  migot  be 
Qtuui  finitus.  This  perhaps  means  that  a  sentence  in  whkh  reruus 
had  left  a  line  imperfect,  or  a  paragraph  which  he  had  not  com- 
pleted, had  to  be  onutted.  The  same  authority  says  that  Comutus 
definitely  blacked  out  an  offensive  allusioa  to  the  crnpcror's  literary 
taste*  and  that  we  owe  to  him  the  reading  of  the  MSb.  in  5iiiL  i.  lai. 
— "  auriculas  asint  quis  non  |for  Mida  rex\  habet  ^ "  Traces  01 
lack  of  revi^on  arc,  however,  still  visible;  cf.  e.^^  v.  176  (sudden 
transition  from  ambition  to  superstition)  and  vi.  37  (where  criticism 
of  Qmk  doetores  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  context).  The  parallets 
to  passages  of  Horace  and  Seneca  are  recorded  in  the  commentaries. 
m  view  of  what  the  Ltje  says  about  Lucan.  the  verbal  resemblance 
of  Sat.  nL  3  to  Pkars.  x.  163  is  interesting.  Examples  of  bold 
language  or  metaphor:  i.  2^,  rupto  teeore  exterti  ca^tficus,  60, 
iiuffOe  quantum  sitiat  canis;  iii.  42,  tutus  paUeal^  81,  siUntta  rodurtt; 
V.  92,  ueteres  autae  de  pulmtme  reudlo.  Passages  like  iii.  87,  100  sqa 
ahow  elaboration  carried  beyond  the  mlcs  of  good  taste.  "  Popubr  " 
words:  60/0,  ctdo^  gbuUire^  ^^*^*  ^^^^^  uuuiuua,  muttird,  obba^ 
palpo,  sUofipui.  Fine  lines,  &c.,  ia  L  116  sqq.,  ii.  6  sqq.,  6x  sqq., 
73  sqq.,  iii-  39  sqq.  , 

Authorities. — ^The  MSS.  of  Pcruus  fall  into  twojgroups,  the  one 
represented  by  two  of  the  best  of  them,  the  other  by  that  01  Pitbocus, 
•o  important  for  the  text  of  Juvenal.  Since  the  publication  of 
J.  Bieger's  ie  Perm  cod.  pith,  recU  aestimaudo  (Berlin.  1890)  the 
tendency  has  been  to  prefer  the  tradition  of  the  latter. 

The  important  editions  are.  (i)  with  expbnatory  notes:  Casaubon 
(Paris,  1605,  enlarged  ecfition  by  Dubncr,  Leipzijg,  1833) ;  O.  Jahn 
(with  the  scholia  and  valuable  ptolceomona,  Leipzig,  1843),  Coning- 
ton  (with  translation ,  3rd  ed.,  Oxlard,  1893) .  B.  U  Cildcrslceve  ^New 
York,  1875).  G.  N6methy  (Buda-Pcsth.  1903).  (2)  with  cnttcal 
notes:  Jahn-Bflcheler  (3rd  ed.,  EJerlin,  1893),  S.  G.  Owen  (with 
I  u venal,  Oxfond,  190a).  Translations  into  English  by  Drydcn 
(1693) ;  C^nington  (toe.  cit.)  and  Hemphill  (Dublin,  1901).  Criticism, 
&C.,  in  Martha,  Let  Moralistes  sous  rempire  tomatn  (5th  ed.,  Paris, 
1886):  Nisard,  Pektts  latins  dc  ia  dkadenct  (Paris.  1834);  Hirzel. 
Dcr  Dialog  (Leipcig.  1895):  Saintsbury,  History  of  Criticism,  i.  248; 
Henderson,  Lift  and  Frincipate  of  the  Emperor  Nero  (London. 
1903):  and  the  histories  of  Roman  literature  (especially  Schanz, 
fil  3^-2  sqq.).  A  Bibliography  rf  Persius^  by  M,  H.  Morgan  (Cam« 
l>ri^c,  uiSJL,  1893).  (W.  C.  Su.) 

PERSON,  OFFENCES  AGAINST  THE.  This  expression  is 
used  in  English  law  to  classify  crimes  involving  some  form  of 
assault  or  personal  violence  or  physical  injury,  i.e.  offences 
afTecttng  the  Ufe,  h'bcrly  or  safety  of  ah  individual:  but  it  is 
also  extended  to  certain  offences  against  morality  which  cannot 
technicaUy  be  described  as  assaults.  The  bulk  of  the  offences 
thtis  classified,  so  fa^  as  their  definition  or  punishment  depends 
upon  statute  law,  are  included  in  the  Offences  Against  the 
Person  Act  1861  (24  &  35  Vict,  c  too),  and  in  the  Criminal 
Law  Amendment  Acts  of  18S0  and  1885,  and  Che  Pr«vontion  of 
Cruelty  to  Children  Act  1904.  The  classification  in  these  statutes 
is  not  scientific:  «.g.  bigamy  is  within  the  act  of  x86i  (s.  57), 
and  certain  offences  involving  assault,  e.g.  robbery,  are  to  be 
found  in  othet  statutes.  The  particular  offences  dealt  with 
by  the  acts  above  named  are  discussed  under  their  appropriate 
titles,  e.g.  aboition,  assault,  bigamy,  homicide,  rape,  &c.  In 
the  Indian  penal  code  most  of  the  offences  above  rcfened  to 
fall  under  the  head  "  offences  against  the  huqnan  body  "  (ch. 
xvi.).  In  his  Digesi  oj  the  Oiminal  Lam  Sir  James  Stephen 
includes  most  of  these  offences  under  the  title  "  offences  against 
the  peison,  the  conjugal  and  parental  rights,  and  the  reputation 
of  individuals,"  a  classification  also  to  be  found  in  the  English 
draft  code  of  1880  and  adopted  in  the  Queensland  code  of  1899.. 
In  working  out  this  classification  offences  not  involving  assault 
are  relegated  to  another  and  perhaps  more  appropriate  title, 
"offences  against  morality." 

PERSONAUTT  (from  Lat.  persona^  originally  an  actor's 
mask,  Irom  p»$onare^  to  sound  thrDugh}i  a  terra  applied  in 

^So  (jabius  Bassus  in  Getl.  Nod.  Atl.  v.  7,  t.  Since,  however, 
h  is  diffieult  to  explain  persina  from  persdnare  (Skeat  suggests 
byt  analogy   from   rp«n#mv  the   Creek  equivalent  I ),  Waldc,   ia 


philosophy  and  also  in  common  wpttth  to  €ie  klentfty  or  indi- 
vkluality  which  makes  a  being  (person)  what  be  is,  or  marks 
him  off  for  all  that  he  ia  not.  The  Urm  *'  person,"  whkh  is 
technicaUy  used  not  only  in  philosophy  but  abo  in  law,  is  applied 
in  theology  (Gr.  rpbamo)  to  the  three  hypostases  of  the 
Trinity.  It  was  first  introduced  by  TertuUian,  who  implied 
by  it  a  sin^  individual;  the  Father,  the  Son  and  tlie  Holy  Ghost 
were  thxee  penomu  though  o£  one  and  the  same  substance 
{umtas  sub3(ttntiae).  The  nature  of  thb  unity  in  difference 
exercised  the  minds  of  the  eariy  (Christian  theologians,  and  was 
the  subject  of  many  councils  and  official  pronouncements,  accord* 
ing  as  emphasis  was  laid  on  the  unity  or  on  the  aeparateness  ol 
the  persons.  There  was  perpetual  schism  between  the  Unitarians 
and  Trinitarians  (sec  for  example  Sabeluds).  The  natural 
sense  of  the  word  "person"  is  undoubtedly  indlvidaality; 
hence  those  who  found  a  diffkulty  in  the  pfaUosophic  conoeptian 
of  the  three>in-one  naturally  tended  to  lay  emphasis  on  the 
distinctions  between  the  members  of  the  Trinity  (see  Hesesy; 
MoNARCHiAMlSM^  Locos,  &C.}.  A  further  theological  question 
arises  in  connexion  with  the  doctrine  of  immortality  (f.s.),  and 
{t  is  argued  that  immortality  is  meaningless  unless  the  soul  of 
the  dead  man  is  scii-consciotis  throughout. 

In  philosophy  the  term  has  an  important  ethical  significance. 
The  Greek  moraUsts,  attaching  little  importance  to  individual 
citizens  as  such,  found  the  fai^best  moral  perfection  in  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  individual  to  the  state.  Man,  as  vohiriKdo  ^&w, 
is  good  only  when  he  is  a  good  voXiri^.  Subsequent  ethical 
systems  on  the  contrary  have  laid  stress  on  the  moral  worth 
of  pexsonaJity,  finding  the  summum  bonum  in  the  highest 
realization  of  the  self.  This  view  is  specially  characteristic 
of  the  Neo-h^elian  school  (e.g.  T.  H.  Green),  but  it  belongs 
also  in  various  degrees  to  all  intuitional  and  idealistic  systems. 
Utilitarian  univer^istic  hedonism  and  evolutionist  ethics  so 
far  resemble  the  Greek  theory  that  they  tend  to  minimize  the 
importance  of  personxdity,  by  introducing  ulterior  reasons 
{i.g  the  perfection  of  the  social  organism^  of  humanity)  as  the 
ultimate  sanctions  of  moral  principles,  wheftas  the  intuitionists 
by  making  the  criterion  abstract  and  absolute  limit  goodness 
to  personal  obedience  to  the  a  priori  moral  law. 

Still  more  important  problems  ace  connected  with  the 
psychological  significance  of  personality.  What  is  the  origin 
and  character  of  the  consciousness  of  the  self?  The  conscious- 
ness of  the  identity  of  another  person  is  comparatively  simple; 
but  one's  own  individuality  consists  partly  in  being  aware  of  that 
individuality;  a  man  cannot  use  the  word  "  I "  unless  he  is 
conscious  of  the  unity  of  his  "  self,"  and  yet  there  is  involved  in 
the  word  "  I "  something  more  than  this  consciousness.  In 
what  does  the  tmity  of  the  "  scU  "  consist  prior  to  its  being 
recognized  in  consciousness;  how  docs  the  consaousness  arise? 
The  answer  to  this  problem  is  to  be  found — in  so  far  as  it  can 
be  foundr-Hin  the  subject-object  relation,  in  the  distinction 
between  the  external  world  and  the  subjective  processes  of 
knowing  and  willing  which  that  relation  involves.  I  will 
something,  and  afterwards  perceive  a  corresponding  change 
within  the  unity  of  my  external  world.  Hence,  we  may  sup- 
pose, arises  the  consciousness  of  a  permanent  self  and  not-self. 

It  should^ be  observed  that  self-consciousness  varies  according 
to  the  intellectual  development,  and  the  term  "  personality  " 
is  usually  connected  only  with  the  self-consciousness  of  an 
advanced  type,  not,  for  example,  with  that  of  an  animal.  Even 
among  human  beings  there  is  considerable  difference.  The 
most  dementary  form  of  human  self-consciousness  includes  in 
the  self  not  only  the  soul  but  also  the  body,  while  to  the  developed 
sclf'Consdousness  the  physical  self  is  part  of  the  external  or 
objective  world.  Finally  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  Kantian 
distmction  of  the  pure  and  the  empirical  ego,  the  latter  ("  the 
Me  known  ")  being  an  object  of  thought  to  the  former  ("  the 
I  knowing  "). 


From  the  use  of  the  term  "  person  " 


as  distinguishing  the 


Lateinisches  etymologlsehes  WMerbuek  (1906),  suggests  a  derivation 
from  Greek  fi&Mr,  a  sona.  In  Roman  law  persona  was  one  who 
had  dvil  rights.  For  the.  ecclesiastical  persona  ecdosuu,  sec  Paoson. 


256 


PERSONAL  PROPERTY— PERSONATION 


X  taken  bto  Bccouat  u 


ic  phnflc  "  pmoDiJ  eqiulioD 
Dating  tbc  vduc  of  an  individu 


in  the  u 


alobscn 


first  applied  to  the  crron  detccte 
rccDgnizoi  fact  that  tbe  greater  o 


leu  inaccuracy  is  habttoal  to  individual 
invcsligatad,  t.g.  by  Bcuel  (AUumdliBitai,  iii.  300) 
Wundt  (PkyiieL  Fiyclul.),  and  machinei  have  been 
which  male  aUowancc  ioi  tlie  error  cviKd  by  the 
equation  (see  MlcacwEIEa). 


IS*;  TlLBFA 


The< 


K  English  lao  < 


the  division  into  immovable  and  movable 
incidenUUy  rengniied  in  Roman  Ian  and  genenUy  adopted 
•incc.  "  Thing*  pereoaJ,"  according  to  Bbckstone,  "  are 
goods,  money,  and  all  other  movables  which  may  attend  the 
owner's  person  wherever  he  thinks  proper  to  go  "  {Cmm,  a.  16). 
Thia  idcntificslion  of  Ihinp  pcnonol  with  movables,  tbough 
logical  in  theory,  does  not,  as  will  be  seen,  perfectly  eipress 
the  English  Uw,  owing  to  the  somewhat  anomalous  position 
of  chatteb  teal.  In  England  real  property  is  supposed  to  be 
superior  in  dignity  lo  personal  property,  which  was  originaUy  of 
liLtle  importgncc  from  a  legal  point  of  viqw.  This  view  is  the 
result  of  feudal  ideas,  and  had  no  place  in  the  RomAn  system,  b 


ate  pmperly  so  called  in  persona]  properly,  and 
complete  ownership.  There  is  nothing  corre 
ate-tait  in  personal  property;  words  whidi  ir 


Personal  property  is 
lous  mciaentsoi  real  properly,  such  as  rent, 
(j)  On  the  death  ot  the 


to  the  E 


general  nde  m 

to  real  property  m 
Car,  IL  c.  3,  ».  4; 
only  be  in  wiilmg 


c  of  Distribuli 


.   {*)RBal 


ivided 


al  properly 
[errea  ny  aeeo^  personal  properly  docs 
le  of  transfer.  (5)  Contracts  relating 
D  writing  by  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  iq 
:U  relaiing  10  personal  property  need 
t  is  eiptcssly  so  provided  by  statute, 
as,  tor  Instance,  m  tbe  ca»s  falling  under  s.  17  of  the  Statule  oi 
Frauds.  (6)  A  wiU  of  lauds  need  not  be  proved,  but  a  will  of 
personally  or  of  personal  asd  real  properly  logeLhcr  must  be 
proved  in  order  to  give  a  litle  10  those  dainung  under  it.    (;} 

(see   Cbautv    and   Crabitixs;    Coapoiutioii) ;    bcquau   of 

the  act.  (S)  Mortgages  of  real  piopeny  need  ool  generally  be 
registered;  mortgages  of  personal  properly  for  the  most  part 
require  registration  under  tbe  Bills  of  Sak  Acts  (see  Plidoe, 
and  Bill  Of  Sue). 

PcTsonal  estate  is  divided  in  English  law  Into  dalldi  rtal  and 
diaUdi  prtiimat;  the  latter  are  again  divided  into  data  in 
pciiasiim  and  clitsa  in  aaian  (see  CnaTTEL;  Chose). 


nalpr 


The  latter  case  is  illustrated  by  animals /croc  naiarae,  In  which 
may  be  acquired  by  occupancy  (including  the  aacuif,  Esmutis, 
ri^t ,  or  by  traufer,  either  by  the  act  of  the  law  (as  ia  bukntptcy. 


judgment  and  iBieWaey),  ot  by  the  act  of  the  party  (u  la  jMt, 
contract  and  will). 

There  aie  several  cases  in  which,  by  9I 
properly  is  takea  out  of  the  class  of  real  o 
it  seems  naturally  to  belong.    By  the  operal 


which 


of  the  eqtiitable 

uucLnnc  Di  cunveiuon  money  oueciea  10  oe  employed  ia  the 
purdiase  of  land,  or  land  diieded  lo  be  turned  into  money,  ia 
in  general  regarded  as  that  ^ledet  of  property  into  which  il  is 
directed  to  be  converted.  An  etample  of  property  prima  facie 
real  which  is  treated  as  personal  is  an  estate  f"  ""I"  "',  vhkh, 
since  t4  Geo.  n,  c.  10,  s.  0,  tT4o-t74i  {now  replaced  by  Ibc 
Wills  Act  183T,  1.  6)  is  dislribuuble  a*  personal  property  in  the 
absence  of  a  special  occupant.  Examples  of  property  prima  fide 
persona]  which  it  ttenled  as  real  are  fixtures,  hdrlooms,  such 
as  deeds  and  JamUy  portraits,  and  sliarea  in  some  of  tbe  oUer 
companies,  as  tbe  New  River  Company,  which  are  real  tsutc 

sonal  property,  unless  the  sharcbohlera  have  individuaDy  sobk 
interest  in  tlie  land  aa  laud. 

nd  ■rmUc  of  Scnu  law  to  a  peal  en- 
Co                                 J  and  personal  of  Enstiih  law.    The  m 
po  these.    (I)  Leaaei  ai-  '—'-" — 


■c  hcrilable  as  tc 


i^e«.  <^iL 

shaies  in  Encland,  made  real 
iKe  Cape  Sable  Compsny  in  A.- 

property  ,by  Ha  I  UK.    The 


lellsif  la 
atecesc  as  specisl  oeeiiauit 
a  railway  lolting^uick  ia 
it  has  been  beta  to  be  a 
of  real  property.  Sharta 
ons  were,  Ulte  New  Riva 


IS  the 


ime  Btares  they  are  made  personal 
mrnt  ol  clUJ9C5  in  adimt  is  generally 
regulated  by  suiuie.  0-  W.) 
in  English  Uw,  a  form  of  fmud  consisling 
ialion  by  one  person  (by  words  or  condoci) 
person  hving  or  dead.  Tt  is  not  an  cJInice 
■  unless  the  representation  it  made  on  oath 
et  conatiluting  the  offence  of  perjury,  or 


audulently 


sen  made  an  offence  by  stall 
le  with  latent  la  defraud,  a 


in  law  cheat.  Perxinatioa 
in  the  fDilowitig  cases:  (■) 
by  words  or  conduct,  aod 
property  is  by  such  false 
prriencB  ooiaineo,  T4  a  75  V1CL.  c  ^  ts.  dA-90  (sec  Fusa 
PaETEHCEs];  (1)  in  the  case  of  false  and  deceitful  personation 
of  any  person  or  of  the  heir,  executor,  administratot.  wife,  widow, 
neit  of  kid  or  relative  of  any  person  with  ini 
to  obtain  any  land,  estate,  chattel,  money, vtl 
property  (3;  Ii  38  Vict,  c  36  s.  1 );  (3)  in  the  (a 
ol  voles  at  dcctions  (aee  Coaatjn  pBAcncEa). 

The  first  ol  these  oSeDces  is  a  misdemeanour  onlyi  the  teca« 
is  a  felony  puoishable  by  penal  servitude  for  life.  The  iccruK 
offence  was  created  in  1874  in  consequence  of  the  Tichbonu 
caae.iDwUchtiaderihelswasit  thm  stood  it  had  been  aMMtai] 


PERSPHCTIVE 


;e  Ihe  ac£:nowlcdgmcDt. 
'E  ILat.faipian,  to  let  Umu)^),  in  autliematio 
tbe  name  gives  to  tbe  art  of  RpiescDling  »lid  objecta  by  >  pluu 
drawing  whjdi  aHects  the  eye  aa  doea  (be  object  itaell,  la  the 
•rtlck  pKOjECnOM  it  fa  ihawn  that  if  all  pcmii  in  •  figure  be 
pntjeclcd  from  a  find  cccire  (o  a  plane,  cacb  point  oa  Ihe 
projcctioo  will  be  the  projection  o[  aU  poinli  on  the  ptojeniag 
ny  A  compkle  repttsenlalion  by  a  stn^e  projection  la  there- 
fore  possible  only  when  tliere  is  but  one  point  to  be  projected 
(m  each  ray,  This  ta  (he  caae  by  projecting  from  one  plane  to 
anotbei,  but  it  u  bI»  tbe  cue  U  oe  projecl  Ihe  tiiitfa  pans  ol 
objecU  in  natute;  toi  every  lay  oT  light  mceling  tbe  eye  slam 
from  that  point  in  nhicb  the  tay,  if  we  follDw  its  coune  from  the 
eye  bacliwud,  meets  fat  the  fim  tira«  any  object  Thus,  if  ne 
project  from  a  fixed  centre  (he  risitie  part  of  objects  (a  a  plane 
or  other  surface,  then  the  outtinca  of  the  projection  would  give 
Ibe  same  impression  to  the  eye  as  the  autLiDcs  of  the  thinp 
projected, -provided  that  one  eye  only  beuied  and  that  this  be 
at  the  ceolie  of  projection.  If  it  tbe  same  time  tbe  light  imanal- 
fDg  from  (he  different  points  in  tbe  iriclure  could  be  made  to 
be  of  the  same  kind— that  is,  of  the  suaa  coloui  and  intcniily 
■od  ol  the  same  kind  of  polarization — as  Ihit  ccgning  Irorn  the 
objects  Ihemsehres,  then  tbe  projection  would  ^ve  sensibly 
Ibe  same  impression  as  the  objects  themselves.  Tbe  an  of 
obtaining  this  result  constitutes  a  chief  pan  of  ihe  technique  of 

name  ol  penpectlve,  diUiDguhbiog  belKeto  fjneor  and  amal 
perspective — tbe  former  rdating  to  tbe  projection,  to  the 
iravint  of  the  outlius,  the  latter  to  the  (olouring  and  the 
shading  oH  of  the  colours  is  order  to  give  the  appea 
distance.  Here  we  deal  only  with  tbe  former,  which  is 
branch  of  geometry  cmiisting  in  the  appHoHlOns  ol  i 


(1.  Our 


!^C 


"""°';S 


Ibe  (a«I*liv  ^''>'  ^  W  AVolin  U>  vbich  it  bclonga.  Tg 
h,  we  project  Ibe  pant  at  infiully  ia  ok  of  the  puaLlel  Una;  i,«i 
ii,  we  dnw  throuflb  (he  eye  a  Lne  in  the  given  diiection.  TbU 
cuta  the  pictuic  plane  id  the  pnnl  required. 

Sniilariy  ill  pointi  at  inliiiily  in  a  plane  are  piojrrted  Id  a  line 
(sec  PaoiKCTioH;  I  fi)  vhidi  u  called  the  wkiIuii  Jiiu  s/ (te  fJwK 
and  which  ii  ujhiki  la  aU  poraiU  fiiaui. 

All  lina  parallil  la  a  plii:u  kam  llicii  Knuiuif  fviafi  u  a  /ini. 
vie.  in  Ihe  vanikhing  line  of  the  plane. 

All  Unet  parallel  lo  the  piEiute  plane  haw  Ibeir  vi 
^  infinity  in  the  picture  plancj  tience  paraitd  ii 

ifpur   in  lb  ^tjaliii 


be  vertical, 

t  >.  Let  (lig.  I)  S  be  tbe 
cenlre  ol  proieclioo,  where 
the  eye  ia  utuated,  and  which 
i>f,iitM.  ABKL  tba  picture 
wbtcb  wc  tuppoae  tbe  objecta 


b  a  jxnpecelvc  dnwint  i>  lo  be  made     Tlie  lewcal 

ntaina  poinli  that  are  to  apptar  in  Ihe  pictuie  ii 

1  ■  borizontal  line  AB  called  Ibe  aromid  line  or  base 
nental  Ene  o(  Ibe  nclure.  A  boriunial  line  5V, 
L  Ibe  eye  S  perpenaknlar  to  the  picture,  cuta  the 
It  V  cahrf  A- — '  ■■--  -' ■  --  "■ ' 

caUeJthe'dUlancc  s 
ground  Ihe  hciKhl  of 

Tbe  vanishing  line  of  tbe  ground  plane,  and  hence  of  every 
horiionlal  pliTW.  ii  got  by  drawing  Ihe  projecting  nys  from  S  to 
Ibe  point*  at  Infinity  fa  the  ^aiie»-in  other  words,  by  drawing  all 
1 — : — .,1  -jj,  ibniigh  S.  Tbtae  Uc  in  a  horiaonuf  plane  which 
lure  alaae  b  a  hariioDIal  line  DD'  through  the  ceain 
'     TnTllM  li  railed  Ihe  horiion  in  the  pklure.    It 

rJie  vanlihiii(  point  o(  all  linei  parallel  to  SV,  that 
to  tbe  picluie  plane.  To  find  Ihe  vaniihiaf  point 
of  any  other  line  we  draw  Ihioitth  S  the  ny  nvjccting  the  point  a( 
inlinity  in  the  Unaj  that  Is,  we  draw  through  S  a  ray  patnllel  to  ibg 
line,  and  determine  tbe  point  where  this  lay  cuta  the  picture  plane. 
"  (belioeiiflwenby  lis  plan  on  the  ground  plane,  and  ila  elevation 
the  pictnre  plane,  then  Its  vanlshttif  point  can  at  ovx  be  delcr- 


pcluie  plane  lurned  dc 


SEA"-.-! 


r„KKi£«        • 

,^ 

„ 

X^pU«'of''tff'!lic«lS; 
W.II  be  that  of  iha  paper 
(fig.  a).  ,pn   t  are  narlwd             -^ 

^ 

b 

/ 

DD',  and  alio  tbe  limila 
ABKL  of  the  actual  picluia. 
Tbsat,  howem,  need  not 
ncctaarily  be  marked.     Ia 
the  plan  Ibepjcliire  plane 

th^h  AjSTwd    w"^ 

t 

\ 

iilane.      II   we   further  aup-                    » 

Q.  H         *. 

I,  — 

lanelhroutb  Ihe  eye  which 

jta  the  picture  plane  in  the  botiaon  DD*  be  (umd  down  about 
ic  hoiiion.  (ben  the  centre  of  litht  will  oone  In  the  point  S,  when 
S  cquali  Ibe  diHaocE  ol  Ihe  ey». 

t  have  to  draw  ihrougk  5  a  line  in  the  giren  diRctlon  and  aee 
'here  it  cats  the  horiaoa.  For  viataBce  to  find  Ibe  vaniihing  poinu 
I  the  two  hcrinaiai  direditna  whitJi  niabe  angle*  of  45*  with  the 
oriioB,  we  draw  thnnch  S  linea  SD  and  SD'  making  each  an  angle 
tdj'wilhtheline  DCr.   Tbeie  poinu  

'VI  -KnA  Un'  mmr\  ^nrtal  •■■  «h»  fiLtaiH. 


»..  »..»»  »..i  also  b«  found  by  nulaa 
K.diatance  SV.   The  two  pouts  D,  D 


e  tbtreforv  called  Ibe  ditlanee  po 


vnimt  linea  are  ibe  (npendicubir  to  tbe  Iibb  line,  and  a  line 
piakini  an  angle  of  w  with  tbe  ncluie  plan*.  Tbeae  liaM  in  Ibe 
ground  plane  an  P,Q,  and  PiRi.  The  firucuu  Ihe  piclum  al  Oi  or 
at  Q,  and  k  enaQV  is  It*  pcnptclivc. 

SrS  ^^     ."dh..tb.van,.h. 

QR-ftR,- 
raciuieplaDi 


penpective.  R  M  tha  riAt  ci^  lo  the 

dtilanca  of'1  e  plaae,  am  hnn.R  to  the 

diiunoepcii  idVialbepainl  Pieqiaied. 

Of  <■«  net  a  lie  diitaace  and  join  R'  to 

Ihedlaunct 
Iflbedist  ictuie  sboold  be  very  gteat, 

the  point  R  _.—   —  -. , juoce  ftom  Q  to  beoatbe 

drawing,  la  lEis  caie  we  might  net  oil  QW  equal  la  (he  alb  put 
of  the  diitanct  and  jein  it  to  a  aoint  E.  ■>  that  VE  equals  the  nth 
pari  of  VD.  Thus  if  QW-KR  and  VE-)VD.  then  WE  will 
again  pu*  Ibrough  P.    It  is  thus  poaaible  to  find  lor  cveey  point  in 


seU  frovn   the  not-self  p- 
lot  lliosc   pccwlbr 
to  be  talcor"  • 


PERSON '» '  y^RSPBCXr^ 


in 

1 

1 


-  >- '  it^iu  !i-?^*«*«  •*«  off  05  ",Q'^» 


.ku»  iK*  notnt  Ai  h  »M  elevation  of  A  and  hence  the  line  A«V 
lTli«i  thnniiiii  I  he  point  A.  The  latter  thus  li  determined  by 
^--  iiVtffid-Hon  of  the  x'erilcal  line  throutb  Ai  and  the  hne  AtV. 
Thli  ftuHt^  dWcff  from  the  one  mentioned  before  in  this  that 
»  i^iultuciton  for  (indinc  the  point  is  not  made  in  the  horizontal 
Aiw  in  which  it  lies,  but  that  its  plan  is  constructed  in  the  ground 


K 


its* 

*illIIJ."yurrhii  has  a  great  advantage.  The  pmpecti^  of  a 
itiH«onial  plane  from  the  picture  to  the  line  at  infinity  occupies 
111  the  pKlure  the  space  between  the  line  where  the  plane  cuts  the 
iilctura  and  the  horison.  and  this  space  is  the  greater  the  farther  the 
11I.MM  1a  from  the  eve,  that  is.  the  farther  its  trace  on  the  picture 
pUito  lit*  from  the  norixoit.  The  horicontal  plane  through  the  eve 
U  prttjoctcd  into  a  line,  the  horizon;  hence  no  construcuon  can  be 

tierformod  in  it.  The  ground  plane  on  the  other  hand  is  the  lowest 
lorltontal  plane  used.  Hence  it  offers  most  space  foroonstnictloiis, 
which  coniequentl/  will  allow  of  greater  accuracy. 

3  5.  Th4  process  is  the  same  if  we  know  the  coH>fdinate8  of  the 
point,  vit.  we  take  in  the  base  line  a  point  O  as  origin,  and  we  take 
the  base  line,  the  line  OV,  and  the  perpendicular  OZ  as  aMs  of 
coHMdinates.  If  we  then  know  the  co^niinatee  x,  y,  ■  measured  in 
these  directions,  we  make  OQ  *x,  set  off  on  QV  a  distance  QA  such 
that  its  real  length  QR<-y.  make  QAi«*s,  and  we  find  A  as  before. 
This  process  might  be  simplified  bv  setting  off  to  begin  with  along 
OQ  and  OZ  scales  in  their  true  dimensions  and  along  OV  a  scale 
obtained  by  projecting  the  scale  00  OQ  from  D  to  the  line  OV. 

I  6.  The  methods  explained  give  the  perspective  of  any  point 
in  space.  If  lines  have  to  be  foimd,  we  may  determine  the  perspec- 
tlve  of  two  points  in  them  and  join  these,  and  this  is  in  maily  cases  the 
most  ooavenient  process.  Often,  however,  it  will  be  ad>^ntageous 
to  determine  the  projectioa  of  a  line  directly  by  finding  its  vanishing 
point.  This  is  especially  to  be  recomineiided  when  a  number  01 
parallel  lines  have  to  be  drawn. 

The  perspective  of  any  curve  is  in  general  a  curve.  The  projec> 
tion  of  a  conic  is  a  conic,  or  in  special  casea  a  line^  The  perspec- 
tive of  a  circle  may  be  any  conic,  not  necessarily  an  ellipse. 
Similarly  the  perspective  ol  the  diadow  61  a  circle  on  a  plane  is 
some  conia 

{  7.  A  few  words  must  be  iaM  about  the  determSnatk>n  of  shadows 
in  perspective.  The  theory  of  their  construction  is  veiy  simple. 
We  have  given,  say,  a  figure  and  a  point  L  as  source  of  light,  we 
join  the  point  L  to  any  point  of  which  we  want  to  find  the  shadow 
and  proauce  thia  line  till  it  cuts  the  soiface  on  which  the  shadow 
falls.  These  constructioas  most  in  many  casea  first  be  performed 
in  |rfan  and  elevatkm,  vid  then  the  point  in  the  shadow  has  to  be 
found  in  perspective.  The  constructioas  are  different  according  as 
we  take  as  the  souroe  of  lig^  a  finite  point  (tay,  the  flame  of  a  lamp), 
or  the  sun,  which  we  nay  suppose  to  be  at  an  infinite  distance. 

If,  for  instance,  in  fig<  3,  A  is  a  souroe  of  light,  EHGP  a  vertical 
wall,  aad  C  a  point  whose  shadow  has  to  be  determined,  then  the 
shallow  must  lie  on  the  line  joining  A  to  C.  To  see  where  this  tay 
meets  the  floor  wt  draw  through  the  souree  of  light  and  the  point 
C  a  vertical  jptane.  This  will  cut  the  floor  in  a  hne  which  contains 
the  feet  Ai,  Ci  of  the  perpendiculars  dimwu  from  the  pointa  A,  C  to 


the  figor,  or  the  phns  of  these  polata.  At  C,  where  the  line  A|C| 
cuts  AC.  win  be  the  shadow  of  C  on  the  floor.  If  the  wall  EHGF 
prevents  the  shadow  from  falling  on  the  floor,  we  determine  the 
Intersection  K  of  the  line  AiCi  with  the  base  EF  of  the  wall  and 
draw  a  vertical  through  it,  this  gives  the  intersection  of  the  %irall 
wHh  the  vertical  plane  through  A  and  C.  Where  it  cuts  AC  is  the 
flMdov  C  of  C  on  the  wall. 


l(  the  shadow  of  a  tcrecn  CDDiG  haa  to  be  fonad  w*  tad  the 

shadow  D'  of  D  which  falls  on  the  floor;  then  Diiy  is.  the  shadow 
of  DiD  and  D'C  is  the  shadow  on  the  floor  of  the  line  DC.  The 
^dow  of  OiD.  however,  is  intercepted  by  the  wall  at  L.  Here 
then  the  wall  takes  up  the  shadow,  wnich  must  extend  to  D'  as  the 
shadow  of  a  line  on  a  plane  is  a  line.  Thus  the  shadow  ol  the  screen 
is  found  in  the  shaded  part  in  the  figure. 

18  If  the  shadows  are  due  to  the  suo.  we  have  to  find  fint  the 
perspective  of  the  sun,  that  is,  the  vanishing  point  of  its  rays.  This 
will  always  be  a  point  in  the  picture  plane;  but  we  have  to  distin- 
guish between  the  cases  where  the  sun  is  in  the  front  of  the  pacture. 
and  so  behind  the  spectator,  or  behind  the  picture  plane,  and  so  in 
front  of  the  spectator.  In  the  second  case  only  does  the  vanislui^ 
point  of  the  rays  of  the  sun  actually  represent  the  sun  itself.  It 
will  be  a  point  above  the  horizon.  In  the  other  case  the  vanishii^ 
point  of  the  rays  will  lie  below  the  horison.  It  is  the  point  where 
a  ray  of  the  sun  through  the  centre  of  sight  S  cuts  the  picture  plane, 
or  it  will  be  the  shadow  of  the  eye  on  the  picture.  In  either  case 
thexay  of  the  sun  through  any  point  is  the  line  joining  the  perspec- 
tive 01  that  point  to  the  vanishing  point  of  the  sun's  rays.  Bot 
in  the  one  case  the  shadow  falls  away  from  the  vaniahiog  pcnnt. 
in  the  other  it  falls  towards  it.  The  direction  of  the  sun's  ra>-s 
may  be  given  by  the  plan  and  elevation  of  one  ray. 

For  the  construction  of  the  shadow  of  points  it  b  oonvenietit 
first  to  draw  a  perpendicular  from  the  point  to  the  ground  and  to 
find  iu  shadow  on  the  ground.  But  the  shadows  of  verdcab  iron 
a  point  at  infinity  will  be  parallel :  hence  th^  have  in  perspective 
a  v;inishing  point  Li  in  the  horizon.  To  fina  this  point,  we  draw 
that  vertical  plane  through  the  eye  which  contains  a  ray  of  the 
sun.  Thb  cuts  the  horison  in  the  required  point  La  and  the  picture 
plane  in  a  vertical  line  which  contains  the  vanishing  point  of  the 
sun's  rays  themselves.    Let  then  (fig.  4)  L  be  the  vaoishijv  poiu 

'vfl f 


Fig.  4. 

of  the  sun's  rays,  L|  'be  that  of  their  projection  in  a  horiaoatal 
plane,  and  let  it  be  required  to  find  the  shadow  of  the  vertkal 
column  AH.  We  draw  ALi  and  EL;  they  meet  at  E',  which  is 
the  shadow  of  E.  Similariy  we  find  the  shadows  of  F.  G,  H.  Then 
E'PG'H'  wUI  be  the  shadow  of  the  quadrilateral  EFGH.  For 
the  shadow  otthe  column  itself  we  join  k'  to  A.  &c.,  but  only  mark 
the  outlines;  F'B.  the  shadow  of  Br,  does  not  appear  as  such  in  the 
figure. 

If  the  shadow  E  has  to  be  found  when  falling  on  any  other  surface 
we  use  the  vertical  plane  through  E,  determine  its  intersectioa 
with  the  surface,  and  find  the  point  where  this  intersection  b  cut 
by  the  line  EL.    Thb  will  be  the  required  shadow  of  E. 

S  9.  If  the  picture  is  not  to  be  drawn  on  a  vertkal  but  on  another 
phiAe— say.  the  ceiling  of  a  room'— the  rules  given  have  to  be  slightjy 
modified.  The  genend  principles  will  remain  true.  But  if  the 
picture  b  to  be  on  a  curved  surface  the  constructions  becosi( 
somewhat  more  compGeeted.  In  the  most  general  case  conceivable 
it  would  be  necessary  to  have  a  representation  in  pkin  and  eleva- 
tion of  the  figure  required  and  of  (he  surface  on  which  the  projertion 
has  to  be  made.  A  number  of  poinu  might  also  be  fond  by 
•calculation,  using  co-ordinate  geometry.  But  into  thb  we  do  not 
enter.  As  an  example  we  take  the  case  of  a  panoramic,  where  the 
surface  b  a  vertical  cylinder  of  revolution,  the*  eye  bdng  in  the 
axis.  TIm  ny^  projecting  a  point  A  cuts  the  cylinder  in  two  pointa 
on  opponte  sides  of  the  eye,  hence  geometrioally  apeaking  every 
point  has  two  projections;  of  these  only  the  oile  lyiog  on  tne  has 
ray  from  the  eye  to  the  point  can  be  used  in  the  picture.  But  the 
other  has  sometimes  to  he  used  io  coostructiona,  as  the  projection 
of  a  line  has  to  pass  through  both.  Parallel  lines  have  two  vanish- 
ing points  which  are  found  by  dravnng  a  line  of  the  given  directioo 
through  the  eye;  it  cuts  the  cylinderin  the  vaobhingpoiala  required. 
Thb  operation  may  be  performed  by  drawing  on  the  grotuid  the 
plan  oi.the  ray  through  the  foot  of  the  axis,  and  through  the  point 
where  it  cuts  the  cylinder  a  vertical,  on  whkh  the  poiot  required 
must  lie.  Its  height  above  b  easily  found  by  nuddng  a  drawing  of 
a  vertical  sectM>n  on  a  reduced  scale. 

Parallel  ptaoes  have  in  tlie  same  manner  a  vantdiinr  curve. 
This  will  be  for  horizontal  planes  a  horizontal  *clrcle  of  tne  height 
of  the  eye  above  the  grouna.  For  vertical  planes  it  will  be  a  pair 
of  generatms  of  the  cylinder.  For  other  planes  the  vanishiqg 
curves  wilt  be  ellipses  having  their  centre  at  the  eye. 

The  projections  of  vertkal  lines  wdl  be  vertical  tines  on  the 


PERSPIRATION—PERTH 


*5^ 


Ofall  dtftCr  IwM  they  vfll  be  elEptee  with  the  centre 
at  the  eye.  If  the  cyltnc^  be  cKvelc^)ed  mto  a  plane,  then  theae 
ellipses  will  be  changed  into  curves  of  stncs.  Parallel  lines  are 
thus  represented  by  carves  oC  sines  which  have  two  points  in 
oomoMia.  There  b  no  difficulty  in  making  all  the  constructions  on 
a  small  seek  on  the  drawing  board  and  Uien  tcaasferring  them  to 
the  cylinder. 

§  la  A  variety  of  instruments  have  been  proposed  to  facilitate 
perspective  drawings.  If  the  problem  is  to  maloe  a  drawing  from 
nature  then  a  camera  obscura  or,  better,' Wollaston's  camera  lucida 
may  be  used.  Other  instruments  are  made  for  the  construction  of 
penpective  drawings.  It  will  often  happen  that  the  vanishing 
point  of  some  direction  which  would  be  very  useful  in  the  constrtK- 
tion  falls  at  a  great  distance  off  the  paper,  and  various  methods 
have  been  proposed  of  drawimr  lines  through  such  a  point.  For 
aome  of  these  see  Stanley's  Descriptue  TrmUist  an  MaAematical 
Drawing  Jnstrumenis,  <0.  H>) 

PEH8PIRATI0N  (Lat.  pert  though,  and  spirare,  to  breathe), 
the  -excretion  of  sweat  from  the  sweat-ghrnds  of  the  skin. 
Sweat  iA  a  clear  colourless  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  fluid 
containing  3%  of  solids.  Under  pathological  conditions,  sugar 
urea  and  other  substances  are  found.  The  secretion  of  sweat 
is  constantly  going  on,  the  activity  of  the  sweat-glands  being 
under  control  of  the  central  nervous  system.  The  only  func- 
tion of  sweat  is  the  regulation  of  the  heat  discharge  from 
the  body.  The  chief  moibid  conditions  of  the  sweat-glands  are 
excessive  sweating  {Hyperidrosis)  and  foetid  sweating  {Bromi- 
droiis).  Excessive  sweating  is  a  symptom  observed  in  various 
diseases,  snch  as  tuberculosis  and  rheumatic  fever,  but  it  may 
exist  apart  from  such  conditions,  and  either  be  general,  a^ecting 
the  whole  body,  or  confined  to  a  part,  such  as  the  axilhe,  head, 
hands,  feet,  or,  as  in  some  rare  instances,  the  one  half  of  the  body . 
Excessive  perspiration  may  often  be  prevented  by  the  cold  bath, 
and  by  tonics,  snch  as  iron,  quinine,  strychnia,  &c.  Locally, 
the  use  of  astringent  lotions  of  vinegar  or  a  weak  solution  of 
lead  will  also  be  of  service.  Foetid  sweating  most  frequently 
affects  the  feet,  spedaDy  in  those  who  have  much  fatigue, 
and  is  apparently  due  to  rapid  decomposition  in  the  perspiration 
which  has  saturated  the  stockings;  these  should  be  frequently 
^  changed  and  the  feet  washed  several  times  a  day,  dried  carefully, 
and  dusted  with  some  antiseptic  powder. 

PERTAB  (or  Paktab)  SINGH,  Sir,  mahanija  of  Idar 
(1844-  ),  native  Indian  Soldier  and  statesman,  belonging  to 
the  Rahtor  Rajputs  of  the  Jodha  class,  was  bom  in  1844,  being 
the  son  of  Maharaja  Takht  Singh,  luler  of  Marwar  (or  Jodhpur). 
In  1878  and  again  in  1879  he  was  chief  minister  of  Jodhpur. 
In  the  following  year  he  accompanied  the  British  mission  to 
Afghanistan,  and  on  his  return  he  carried  out  many  judicious 
reforms  and  administered  Jodhpur  with  remarkable  success.  He 
vriited  England  to  take  part  in  the  celebration  of  the  1887 
Jabilee  of  Queen  Victoria's  reign.  He  served  on  the  staffs  of 
Sir  William  Lockhart  and  General  EHes  in  the  Timh  and  Momand 
expeditions  in  1897-98,  was  slightly  wounded,  was  mentioned 
in  despatches,  and  promoted  to  the  rank  of  foil  colonel.  He 
won  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  keenest  sportsmen 
and  the  best  riders  that  even  Rajputana  has  produced. 
When  it  was  decided  to  send  a  force  from  India  to  China  in 
Z900  to  relieve  the  foreign  embassies  besieged  in  Peking,  Sir 
Pertab  Singh  at  once  offered  the  services  of  the  Jodhpur  Lancers, 
and  himself  accompanied  them.  His  father  rendered  good 
services  to  the  British  government  In  the  Mutiny,  and  Pertab 
Singh  always  cherished  the  memoty  of  the  protection  given  to 
Jodhpor  by  the  East  India  Company  in  x8i8.  His  senrlccs  to 
the  empire  in  India  were  universally  recognizeid.  From  Queen 
Victoria  he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  and  the  Bath 
and  the  Star  of  India;  from  King  Edward  VII.  the  distinction 
of  "  aide^e-camp ";  and  the  university  of  Cambridge  gave 
him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  From  his  own  state  of  Jodhpur  he 
obtained  the  title  of  Maharaja-Dhiraj.  In  1901  he  succeeded 
to  the  nilership  of  the  state  of  Idar. 

PERTH,  EAR18  AlfO  DORES  OP.  The  Scottish  title  of 
eari  of  Perth  was  bestowed  upon  James,  4th  Lord  Drummond 
(d.  t6tx)  in  1605.  His  ancestor  Sir  John  Drummond  (d.  1519) 
had  been  created  Lord  Drummond  in  1488.  The  ist  eari's  great- 
iMphcw,  Jatnes,  4th  earl  and  mi  duke  of  Perth  (1648-1716), 


was  a  son  of  James,  the  3rd  eftH  {€.  x6r$-«675).  When  John 
Maitland,  duke  of  Lauderdale,  was  virtually  the  dictator  of 
Scotland,  Perth  was  among  his  opponents,  and  after  Lauderdale^ 
retirement  in  1680  he  was  one  of  the  committee  of  seven  which 
managed  Scottish  affairs.  He  was  made  justice-general  and  extra- 
ordinary lord  of  sessioh  in  1682,.  and  was  lord  chancellor  of 
Scotland  from  1684  to  x688.  As  a  convert  to  Roman  CathoU- 
cism  after  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  he  stood  high  in  the  favour  of 
James  II.  Perth,  who  is  credited  with  the  introduaion  of  the 
thumbscrew,was  very  unpopular  with  the  Scottish  people,  and  dur- 
ing  the  Revolution  of  1688  he  was  imprisoned  at  Stirlmg.  Released 
from  captivity  in  1693  he  joined  Junes  II.  at  St  Geraiains,  and 
was  made  duke  of  Perth^  a  titular  dtgnity  only  after  the  exiled 
king's  death  In  1701.  His  son  James  (r.  1675-1790)  was  with 
James  II.  in  Ireland,  and  led  the  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Sheriff* 
muir.  He  was  attainted  In  17x5,  but  dsimed  the  dukedom  of 
Perth  after  his  father's  death.  His  son  James. (17 13-^1 746), 
regarded  by  friends  and  dependants  as  the  3rd  duke  of  Perth, 
fought  for  the  Young  I^tcnder  at  Preatonpans  and  Culloden. 
His  brother  and  heir,  John,  the  4th  duke  (c.  x 7x6-1 747), 
also  joined  Charles  Edwaid,  and  foii|^t  at  Falkirk  and  Culloden. 
The  titular  dukedom  became  extinct  when  the  sixth  holder, 
Edward,  another  son  of  the  1st  duke,  died  in  1760. 

The  earldom  was  then  dahned  by  Edward's  cousin,  -James 
Lundin  (x  707-X78X),  a  grandson  of  the  xst  titular  duke  of  Melfort, 
who  was  a  brodier  of  the  xst  duke  oF Perth  and  took  the  name 
of  Drummond.  His  son  James  (1744-1800)  secured  the  Drum- 
mond estates  in  1783,  and  was  created  a  British  peer  as  Lord 
Perth  and  Baron  Drummond  in  1797.  On  his  death  without 
sons  in  July  1800  his  barony  became  extinct,  but  the  claim  to 
the  earldom  of  Perth  was  inherited  by  his  kinsman,  the  4tfa 
titular  duke  of  Melfort,  and  his  descendants  (see  below).  The 
Drummond  estsites,  however,  passed  to  the  baron's  daughter 
Clementina  (d.  1865),  afterwards  the  wife  of  Peter  Robert, 
20th  Lord  Wnioughby  de  Eresby,  and  thence  to  her  descendant 
the  eari  of  Ancaster. 

The  xst  dnke's  brother,  John  {c,  1650-17x5),  eari  of  Melfort, 
rose  to  favour  under  Charles  II.  about  the  same  time  as  his 
brother;  like  him,  too,  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1686. 
In  1684  he  was  made  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland;  in  x686  be 
was  created  terl  of  Melfort  by  James  II.,  and  during  his  reign 
he  took  a  leading  part  in  Scottidi  affalis.  After  the  Revolution 
of  x688  his  great  influence  with  James  II.  and  with  Maxy  of 
Modena  drew  upon  him  the  hatred  both  of  the  French  and  of 
the  Irish.  He  was  with  James  II.  at  St  Germains,  but  lost 
his  former  ascendancy,  and  died  in  Paris  on  tite  25th  of  January 
at 7 15.  In  X694  he  was  made  duke  of  Melfort,  and  all  his  titles 
were  held  under  the  singular  condrtion  that  they  should  descend 
to  the  children  of  his  second  wife,  Euphemia  (d.  1743),  daughter 
of  Sir  Thomas  Wallace,  in  preference  to  his  children  by  his  first 
wife,  Sophia  Lundin,  who  were  Protestants.  In  X70X  Melfort 
was  recognized  as  a  French  peer,  the  due  de  Melfort,  by 
Louis  XIV.  In  1695  he  had  been  attainted,  but  his  titles  were 
claimed  by  John  (t68»-i754),  his  eldest  son  by  his  second  wife, 
who  shared  in  the  rising  of  17x5.  In  x8oo  John's  grandson, 
James  Loufs,  4th  titular  duke  of  Melfort,  claimed  the  earidom  of 
Perth:  This  claim  was  onsuccessM,  but  in  1853  George 
(1867-1903),  nominally  6th  duke  of  Melfort,  obtained  a  reversal 
of  the  various  attainders,  and  his  own  recognition  as  earl  of 
Perth  and  Melfort.  The  succeedin|^  eari  was  his  kinsman, 
William  Huntly  Drummond,  Viscount  Strathallan  (1871-       ). 

See  Sir  R.  Douglas,  The  Peerage  ofScdthnd:  and  ffisiories  of  ffobh 
BriUsk  FamilieSt  vol.  ii.,  edited  by  M.  Drummond  (1846). 

PERTH,  the  capital  of  Western  Australia,  situated  on  the 
Swan  River,  12  m.  by  rail  from  the  sea  at  Fremantle,  and  about 
X700  m.  W.N.W.  of  Melbourne.  It  is  the  seat  of  both  Anglican 
and  Roman  Catholic  bishops,  and  has  two  cathedrals.  The 
fashionable  street  is  St  George's  Terrace;  in  it  are  situated  the 
public  library,  the  government  boys'  school,  the  stock  exchange, 
the  town-haU,  the  government  offices  and  the  parliament  build- 
ings. Between  it  and  the  broad  reach  of  the  river,  known  as 
Perth  Water  lie  the  governor's  residence  and  domain.    The 


z6o 


PERTH 


town-ha]],  buUt  entirely  by  convict  labonr,  itands  on  an  emi- 
nence in  the  voy  heart^f  Uie  city;  opposite  to  it  are  the  govern- 
ment offices,  housed  in  a  four-storey«i  structure  in  the  style  of 
the  French  Renaissance.  The  mint,  opened  in  1899,  is  a  massive 
freestone  building.  There  are  a  public  library,  built  as  a 
memorial  of  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee  in  1887,  a  Scots  college, 
two  good  theatres,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a  museum,  and  a 
fine  Wedeyan  church-house,  known  as  Queen's  HalL.  The 
Perth  Park,  containing  about  1200  acres,  is  connected  by  tram 
with  the  dty,  and  in  it  ia  a  well-equipped  observatoiy.  There 
are  several  smaller  parka  and  squares  in  the  dty,  while  the 
esplanade  gardens  are  a  feature  of  the  place,  being  thrown  out 
like  a  pier  into  Perth  Water.  There  is  a  good  cricket  ground, 
and  three  race-courses  are  in  easy  reach.  South  Perth,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river,  is  connected  by  bridges  and  steam  ferry; 
and  adjoining  the  city  on  the  north-west  are  the  suburban 
municipalities  of  Leedcrville  and  Subiaco.  Outlying  suburbs 
are  Belmont,  Victoria  Park,  Burswood,  Claremont,  Cottesloe, 
Peppermint  Grove  and  Bayswater.  The  dty  is  lighted  by 
clearidty,  and  has  a  good  service  of  electric  trams.  Perth 
has  an  agreeable  climate,  the  mean  temperature  is*  64*9^  F., 
and  the  average  rainfall  33  in.'  Perth  was  founded  in  1839, 
received  its  munidpal  charter  in  1856,  and  was  created  a  dty. 
in  x83o.  Between  1891  and  1901  the  growth  of  the  dty  was 
remarkedly  rapid;  in  1891  the  population  was  only  8447,  but 
in  1901  it  had  grown  to  27,471  in  the  dty  proper,  and  to  36,199 
induding  the  suburbs. 

PERTH,  a  dty,  and  royal,  munidpal  and  police  burgh,  and 
county  town  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  39  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Edin- 
burgh direct,  and  47}  m.  by  the  North  British  railway,  via  the 
Forth  Bridge  and  Kinross  Junction.  Pop.  (1901),  33,566. 
It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tay,  between  the  meadows 
of  the  North  Inch  (98  acres)  and  those  ol  the  South  Inch  (72 
acres),  both  laid  out  as  public  parks.  The  river  is  crossed  by 
St  John's  Bridge  of  nine  arches,  completed  in  1773  from  the 
designs  of  John  Smeaton  and  widened  a  century  later;  by  Victoria 
Bridge,  a  modem  structure  connecting  South  Street  with  Dundee 
Road;  and  farther  south  (at  the  .end  of  Tay  Street)  by  a  footway 
alongside  of  the  viaduct  belonging  to  the  Caledonian  railway. 
Of  earlier  bridges  one,  which  crossed  M  High  Street,  was  swept 
away  by  the  flood  of  1621,  and  another,  c<mstnicted  by  General 
Wade  in  1723-1733,  was  apparently  the  predecessor  of  Sm<&ton's 
bridge.  On  the  left  bank  of  the- river  lie  the  suburb  of  Bridgend 
and  Kinnoull  Hill  (729  ft.).  To  the  south  are  the  wood-dad 
hdgfaU  of  Moncrieffe  HiU  (725  ft.),  Magdalenes  Hill  (596  ft.), 
Kirkton  Hill  (540  ft.)  and  Craigie  Wood  (407)  ft.  In  the  river 
are  Friarton  or  Moncrieffe  Island  and  the  Stanners. 

Notwithstanding  the  importance  of  Perth  in  former  times, 
almost  the  sole  relic  of  the  past  is  the  church  of  St  John  the 
Baptist,  a  large  Decorated  cruciform  building  surmounted  by  a 
massive  square  central  tower  155  ft.  high.  The  original  edifice 
is  believed  to  have  been  erected  in  the  time  of  Cokimba,  but  the 
transept  and  nave  of  the  existing  structure  date  from  the  early 
part  of  the  X3th  century,  the  choir  from  the  15th.  The  church 
was  restored  in  1891,  and  is  now  divided  into  the  East,  Middle 
and  West  churches.  The  silver-gilt  communion  cup  used  in  the 
Middle  Church  is  said  to  have  been  presented  by  Queen  Mary.  In 
May  I  $59  John  Knox  preached  in  St  John's  his  famous  sermon 
in  denunciation  of  idolatry.  The  Dominican  or  Blackfriars' 
monastery,  founded  by  Alexander  II.  in  1231,  occupied  a  site 
near  the  west  end  of  St  John's  Bridge;  in  what  a  now  King 
Street  stood  the  Carthusian  monastery,  founded  by  James  I. 
in  1435;  the  Franciscan  or  Greyfriars'  monastery,  founded  in 
1460  by  Laurance,  first  Lord  Oliphant,  stood  on  the  present 
Greyfriars'  cemetery;  the  Carmelite  or  Whitefriars'  monastery, 
founded  in  1260,  stood  west  of  the  town.  The  tombstone  of 
James  I.  and  his  queen,  who  were  buried  in  the  Charterhouse, 
was  afterwards  removed  to  St  John*s  East  Church.  During  the 
period  between  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century' and  the 
assassination  of  James  I.  in  1437,  many  of  the  Scottish  parlia- 
menu  were,  held  in  Perth.  The  building  in  which  they  met 
stood  off  High  Street  and  was  only  deared  away  in  i8i8,  its 


site  bdng  occnpied  by  the  Freematont'  HalL  The  caiT  of 
Cowrie's  palace,  built  in  r52o,  stood  in  spadous  grounds  near 
the  river  and  was  removed  in  1805  to  provide  room  for  the 
county  buildings.  The  castle  of  Perth  stood  on  the  north  of  High 
Street,  not  far  from  St  John's.  It  was  probably  boilt  about 
860  and  demolished  about  1400.  The  Spey  or  Spy  tower,  the 
most  important  fortress  on  the  dty  wall,  guarded  the  south  gate 
dose  to  the  river,  but  it  was  taken  down  early  in  the  X9th  century. 
The  market  crosa,  erected  in  High  Street  in  1669  to  rcf^ace 
the  <Adet  cross  which  Cromwell  destroyed,  was  removed  in 
1 765  as  an  obstruction.  The  huge  fortress,  466  ft.  square,  which 
Cromwell  erected  in  1651  on  the  South  Inch,  dose  to  the  river 
and  the  Greyfriars'  burying-ground,  waa  demohshed  in  1663. 
The  house  of  Catherine  Glover,  the  "  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  still 
stands  in  Curfew  Row.  James  VL's  Hospital,  loonded  in  1569, 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Carthusian  monastery,  the  original 
structure  having  been  pulled  down  by  Cromwdl's  orders.  The 
pensioners  now  live  out  and  the  hospital  has  been  converted 
into  artisans'  dwellings.  Among  modem  puUic  buildings  the 
prindpal  are  St  Ninian's  Epiaoipal  Cathedral,  in  the  Eariy 
Middle  Pointed  style,  an  important  example  (completed  1890) 
of  the  work  of  William  Butterfield  (X814-1900);  the  munidpal 
buUdings  (1881);  the  dty-haU;  the  Marshall  Memorial  Hall 
(1823),  housing  the  pubUc  library  and  the  museum  of  the 
Perth  literary  and  Antiquarian  Society;  the  Perthshire  natural 
history  museum;  the  Sandeman  public  library  (1898),  founded  by 
a  bequest  of  Professor  Sandeman  of  Owens  Colleget  Manchesta. 
The  general  prison  for  Scotland,  south  of  the  South  Inch,  was 
originally  erected  in  x8i  2  as  a  d£p6t  for  French  prisoners^  but  was 
remodelled  as  a  convict  prison  in  1840  and  afterwards  enlarged. 
North-west  of  the  dty  are  the  military  barracks  built  in  X793- 
1794.  Besides  the  regular  elementary  schools  there  are  the 
Perth  Academy  (i  807)  with  which  was  subsequently  amalgamated 
the  Burgh  Grammar  School,  an  institution  supposed  to  date 
from  the  12th  century;  Sharp's  institute  (i860);  the  Stewan*a 
free  school,  an  industrial  school  for  girls,  and  the  Fechney 
industrial  school.  The  charitable  institutions  comprise  the 
royal  infirmary,  in  the  Italian  style,  considerably  enlarged 
since  its  foundation  in  1836;  the  Murray  royal  lunatie  assrhun 
in  Bridgend;  the  Hillside  House  in  KinnouU  and  the  small-poK 
hospitaL 

From  the  south  the  dty  is  entered  by  the  North  British 
railway  and  the  Caledonian  railway  (which  also  runs  west 
to  St  Fillans,  east  to  Dundee  and  north-west  to  Aberdeen); 
and  from  the  north  by  the  Highland  railway,  the  three 
systems  utilizing  a  general  station  in  the  south-west  of 
the  town.  During  the  season  there  is  communication  wiih 
Dundee  and  other  river  ports  by  steamer.  The  navigatioo 
of  the  stream  is  considerably  obstructed  by  sandbanks,  but 
vessels  of  200  toui  can  unload  at  the  quays,  which,  with  the 
town  and  Friarton  harbours,  lie  below  the  South  Inch.  The 
greatest  tidal  rise  is  13  ft.  The  chief  imports  are  Baltic  timber, 
coal,  salt  and  manure;  and  the  exports,  manufactured  goods, 
grain,  potatoes  and  slates.  Perth  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
dydng  szmI  bleaching,  the  bleach-fields  bdng  mosUy  situated 
outside  of  the  dty,  in  convenient  proximity  to  the  Tay  and 
Almond.  The  other  leading  industries  include  manufact\ixies 
of  gauge-glasses,  ink,  muslins.  India  shawls,  jute  goods,  woollens 
and  winceys,  floorcloth,  and  boots  and  shoes.  There  ave  iron 
foundries,  breweries,  distilleries,  rope  and  sail  works,  ooach- 
building  yards,  steam  joinery  works,  and  brick  and  tile  works. 
The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Tay  yield  a  substantial  revenue. 
Perth  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  town  council,  with  n  lord 
provost  and  bailies,  and  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 

History. — During  •  the  time  that  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Romans,  a  period  estimated  at  320  years,  the  dty  was  called 
Victoria;  but  shortly  after  their  withdrawal  it  seems  to  have 
borne  the  Celtic  appellation  of  Abcr-tha  ("  at  the  mouth  of  ibe 
Tay  ").  The  transition  to  the  latinixed  form  Bertha  and  ]at«r 
to  Perth  (the  Gaelic  name  being  Pearl)  appears  obvious.  On 
the  conversion  of  the  original  Pictish  inhabitants  and  the 
1  dedication  of  the  first  church  to  St  John  the  Baptist,  the  town 


PERTH  AMBOY— PERTHES,  J.  G.  J. 


261 


was  detfgnated  St  Jolmstoaii,  and  it  continued  to  be  known 
indifferently  by  this  name  and  that  of  Perth  down  to  the  ijth 
century.  Roman  remains  have  often  been  found  in  excavations 
carried  out  within  the  existing  boundaries,  which  suggests 
that  the  Roman  settlement  was  at  least  twenty  feet  below  the 
present  surface.  The  obscurity  of  the  early  annals  of  the 
town  b  explained  by  the  circumstance  that  Edward  I.  caused 
the  records  to  be  removed.  Perth  is  stated  to  have  been  a 
burgh  in  xxo6  and  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  William  the  lion 
in  xaio.  During  the  Scottish  wars  of  the  Independence  its 
fortifications  were  strengthened  by  Edward  I.  (z2gS).  Robert 
Bruce  several  times  ineffectually  attempted  to  seize  it,  but  in 
13  XX  he  succeeded  in  scaL'ng  the  walls  during  a  night  attack. 
This  was  the  fourth  and  most  brilliant  of  the  seven  sieges  ^diich 
the  dty  has  sustained.  Taken  by  Edward  III.  in  1335,  it  was 
recaptured  in  1339.  In  1396  the  combat  between  the  Clan 
Chattan  and  the  Clan  Quhde,  described  in  Scott's  Fair  Maid 
of  Peiiky  took  place  on  the  North  Inch  in  presence  of  Robert  III. 
and  his  queen,  Aimabella  Dnmimond.  The  Blackfriars'  monas- 
tery was  the  scene  of  the  miirder  of  James  L  by  Walter,  earl 
of  AthoU,  in  1437.  In  consequence  Perth  lost  its  status  as 
capital,  in  which  it  had  succeeded  to  Scone,  and  the  Parliament 
Courts  were  transferred  to  Edinburgh  in  1482.  Cowrie  Palace 
was  the  scene  of  the  mysterious  "  Cowrie  "  conspiracy  against 
James  VI.  in  1600.  The  town  was  taken  by  Montrose  in 
1644,  by  Cromwell  in  165 1,  and  was  occupied  by  Viscount 
Dundee  in  1689.  In  17x5  the  Old  Pretender  was  proclaimed 
king  at  the  Mercat  Cross  (Sept.  x6),  and  the  chevalier 
hiznself  appeared  in  the  city  in  the  foQowing  January,  only 
to  leave  it  precipitately  on  the  a^^roach  of  the  earl  of  Argyll. 
Prince  Charles  ^ward  spent  a  few  days  in  Perth  from  the 
3rd  of  September  1745.  In  both  rebellions  the  magistrates 
took,  the  side  of  the  Crown  and  were  supported  by  the 
townsfolk  generally,  the  Jacobites  drawing  their  strength  mainly 
from  the  county  noblemen  and  gentry  with  their  retainers. 
Since  then  the  dty  has  devoted  itself  to  the  pursuits  of 
trade  and  commerce.  Perth  was  visited  by  plague  in  X5i2, 
X  585-1 5S7,  x6o8  and  1645;  by  cholera  in  1833;  and  the 
floods  of  xaxo,  x63x,  X740,  X773  and  18x4  were  exceptionally 
severe. 

AnTBOKrriBS.-^Maidment,  The  Ckronide  0/  PerA  from  1210  to 
1668  (1831);  Penney,  Traditions  of  Perth  (1B36);  Lawaon,  The  Booh 
of  Perth  (1847);  Peacock,  Perth,  its  Annals  and  Archioes  (1849); 
Samuel  Cowen,  The  Ancient  Capital  of  Scotland  (1904). 

PERTH  AMBOY,  a  dty  and  port  of  entry  of  Middlesex  county, 
New  Jeney,  U.S.A.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Raritan  river,  on 
Raritan  Bay  and  Statcn  Island  Sound,  about  X5  m.  S.  by  W. 
of  Newark.  Pop.  (x9xo  census)  32,i3x.  It  is  served  by 
the  Peimsylvania,  Lehigh  Valley,  Central  of  New  Jersey  and 
Staten  Island  Rapid  Transit  railways,  and  by  boats  to  New 
York  City.  It  is  connected  by  a  railway  bridge  (C.R.R. 
of  N.J.)  and  by  a  foot  and  wagon  bridge  with  South  Amboy, 
on  the  south  ^ore  of  the  Raritan.  Perth  Amboy  has  a  good 
harbour,  shipyards  and  dry-docks.  In  the  dty  still  stands 
Franklin  Palace  (erected  in  X764-X774),  the  home  of  William 
Franklin  (1729-1813),  a  natural  son  of  Benjamin  Franklin  and 
the  last  royal  governor  of  New  Jersey.  In  the  vicinity  is  the 
Bartow  House,  in  which  William  Dunlap  (1766-X839),  the  art 
historian,  made  his  first  drawings.  Other  buildings  of  historic 
interest  are  the  Parker  Castle  {e.  X739),  a  centre  of  Loyalist 
influence  at  the  time  of  the  War  of  Independence,  and  the 
Kearny  Cottage,  the  home  of  "  Madam  Scribblerus,"  a  half- 
sister  of  Captain  James  Lawrence.  The  dty  has  various  manu- 
factures, the  factory  product  in  1905  bdng  valued  at  $34,800,402. 
Clay  is  obtained  in  the  vicinity,  and  large  shipments  of  coal  are 
made.  Perth  Amboy  was  founded  in  1683.  It  was  at  first 
called  Amboy  after  the  original  Indian  name;  in  1684  the 
proprietors  named  it  Perth  in  honour  of  James,  earl  of  Perth 
(X648-X7X6),  one  of  thdr  number,  and  a  few  years  later  the  two 
names  were  combined.  From  x686  until  the  end  of  the  pro- 
prietary govenmient  in  X703  Perth  Amboy  was  the  capital  of 
the  provhice  of  East  Jersey,  and  during  the  period  of  royal 


government  the  general  assembly  and  supreme  court  of  New 
Jersey  met  alternately  here  and  at  Burlington.  Perth  Amboy 
was  incorporated  as  a  dty  in  X7x8,  and  received  a  new  charter 
in  X784,  and  another  in  X844,  the  last  being  revised  in  x87a 
The  township  of  Perth  Amboy  was  incorporated  in  1693  and 
in  1844  was  induded  in  the  dty. 

PERTHES,  FRIEDRICH  CHRISTOPH  (x 773-1843),  German 
publisher,  nephew  of  Johan  Georg  Perthes  iq.v.),  was  bom  at 
Rudolstadt  on  the  2xst  of  April  1773.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  became  an  apprentice  in  the  service  of  Adam  Friedricfa 
Btfhme,  a  bookseller  in  Ldpxig,  with  whom  he  remained  for 
about  rix  years.  In  Hamburg,  where  he  settled  in  1793  as  an 
assistant  to  the  bookseller  B.  G.  Hoffmann,  he  started  in  1796 
a  bookselling  business  of  his  own,  and  in  1798  he  entered  into 
partnership  with  his  brother-in-law,  Johann  Hdnrich  Besser 
(X775>x826).  By  hb  marriage  in  1797  with  a  daughter  of  the 
poet,  Matthias  Claudius,  he  was  brought  into  intimate  relation 
with  a  group  of  Protestant  writers,  who  exerdsed  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  growth  of  his  religious  opinions.  This,  however, 
did  not  prevent  him  from  being  on  friendly  terms  with  a  number 
of  eminent  Roman  Catholic  authors.  Perthes  was  an  ardent 
patriot;  and  during  the  period  of  Napdeon's  supremacy  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  steady  resistance  to  French  preten- 
sions. His  zeal  for  the  national  cause  led  him,  in  x8xo-i8ii,  to 
issue  Das  deuische  Museum^  to  which  many  of  the  foremost 
publidsts  in  Germany  contributed.  For  some  time  the  French 
made  it  impossible  for  him  to  live  in  Hamburg;  and  when,  in  1814, 
he  returned  to  that  dty  he  found  that  his  business  had  greatly 
dimiimhed.  In  x82x,  his  wife  having  died,  he  left  Hamburg, 
transferring  his  business  there  to  his  partner,  and  went  to  Gotha, 
where  he  established  what  ultimately  became  one  of  the  firrt 
publishing  houses  in  Germany.  It  was  owing  to  his  initiation 
that  the  Bdrsenverein  der  detUschen  Bnchhdndler  (Union  of  Ger- 
man Booksellers)  in  Leipzig  was  founded  in  X825.  When  the 
foundation-stone  of  the  fine  building  of  the  Union  was  hud  in 
X834,  Perthes  was  made  an  honorary  freeman  of  the  dty  of 
Ldpzig,  and  in  1840  the  university  of  Kiel  conferred  upon  him 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosc^y.  Perthes  died  at  Gotha  on 
the  x8th  of  May  1843.  His  Life  was  written  by  his  son,  Klemetis 
Theodor  Perthes  (X809-X867),  professor  of  law  in  the  university 
of  Bonn,  and  auth<v  of  Das  deuhche  Staaisleben  ver  der 
RevotuUon  (Hamburg  and  Gotha,  X845),  and  Das  Herbergswesen 
der  Handwerhsgesdlen  (Gotha,  X856,  and  again  X883),  whose 
son  Hermann  Friedrich  Perthes  (i  840-1 883)  was  the  founder 
of  the  Frideridanum  at  Davos  Platz.  The  publishing  business 
at  Gotha  was  carried  on  by  Perthes*s  younger  son,  Andreas, 
(X8X3-X890)  and  his  grandson,  Emil  (x84X~  ),  until  1889, 
when  it  was  handed  over  to  a  company. 

See  also  O.  Adler.  Friedrich  and  Karoline  Perthes  (Ldpag,  1900). 

FBR1HB8,  JOHAM  6B0RG  JUSTUS  (X749-18X6),  German 
publisher,  was  bom  at  Ruddstadt  on  the  ixth  of  SqAemfacr 
X749.  In  X785  he  founded  at  Gotha  the  business  which  bears 
his  name  (Justus  Perthes).  In  this.he  was  joined  in  18x4  by 
his  son  Wilhelm  (x  793^x853),  who  had  been  in  the  establishment 
of  Justus'  nephew,  Friedrich  ChiiUoph  Ptethes,  at  Hambuig. 
Ob  the  death  of  Justus  at  Gotha  on  the  and  of  May  x8x6,  Wilhelm 
lock  entire  control  of  the  firm.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
geographical  branch  of  the  business,  for  which  it  is  chiefly 
famous,  by  publishing  the  Hand-atlas  ( 1 8x  7-1823)  of  Adolf  Stieler 
(1775-1836).  Wiihebn  Perthes  en^ged  the  collaboration  of 
the  most  eminent  German  geographers  of  the  time,  including 
Hdnrich  Bergbaus,  Christian  Gottlieb  Rdchard  (1758^x837), 
who  was  associated  with  Stieler  in  the  compilation  of  the  atlas, 
Kari  Spruner  (X803-X892)  and  Emil  von  Sydow  (18x2^x873). 
The  business  passed  to  his  son  Bernard  Wilhelm  Perthes  (1821- 
1857)*  ^^o  ^^  associated  with  August  Petermann  (under  whose 
direction  the  well-known  periodical  Petermanns  Mitteilungen 
was  founded)  and  Bruno  Hassenstein  (t839-X9oa);  and  subse- 
quently to  his  son  Bernard  (X857-  ).  In  X863  the  finr  first 
issued  the  Almanack  de  Gotham  a  statistical,  historical  and 
genealogical  annual  (in  French)  of  the  various  countries  of  tho 


262 


PERTHSfflRE 


world;  and  in  z866  the  dabonate  Cwgrapkisckes  Jakrhuck  was 
produced  under  the  editorship  of  Ernst  Befam  (1830-1884),  on 
whose  death  it  was  continued  under  that  of  Professor  Hermann 
Wagner. 

PBRTHSHIRB,  an  inland  county  of  Scotland,  bounded  N. 
by  the  shires  of  Inverness  and  Aberdeen;  £.  by  Forfarshire; 
SX.  by  the  Firth  of  Tay  and  the  counties  of  Fife  and  Kinross; 
S.  by  the  shires  of  Clackmannan  and  Stirling;  S.W.  by  the  coun- 
ties of  Stirling  and  Dumbarton;  W.  by  Argyllshire  and  N.W.  by 
Inverness-shire.  It  is  the  fourth  laigest  county  in  Scotland, 
having  an  area  of  1,595,774  acres,  or  2493*4  v\-  °>-i  including  the 
island  of  Mugdrum  in  the  Firth  of  Tay.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  county  is  mountainous.  Including  the  hills  on  the 
confines  of  Inverness-shire  and  Argyllshire,  Uieie  are  at  least 
fifty  mountains  exceeding  3000  ft.  in  height.  Of  these  the  most 
familiar  are  Ben  Lawers  (3984  ft.)  near  Loch  Tay,  Ben  More 
(3843)  east  of  Crianlarich,  Ben  Lui  (3708)  on  the  Argyllshire 
border,  Schiehallion  (3547)  south  of  Loch  Rannoch,  Ben  Vannoch 
(3125)  west  of  Loch  Lyon,  and  Ben  Chonzie  (3048)  near  the  head 
of  Glen  Almond.  Of  the  immense  number  of  hills  of  lesser 
altitude  there  may  be  mentioned  four  that  have  been  popularized 
by  the  Lady  of  the  Lake—Ben  Ledi  (3875)  and  Uam  Var  (3x79) 
near  Callander,  and  Ben  Venue  (2393)  add  Ben  A'an  (1750), 
guardians  of  the  Tiossachs.  The  Ochils  divide  Perthshire 
from  the  shires  of  Clackmannan,  Kinross  and  Fife.  The  chief 
stream  is  the  Tay,  which  rises  on  the  Argyllshire  frontier  and 
discharges  into  the  North  Sea  off  Buddon  Ness,  after  a  course  of 
X 1 7  m.,  being  thus  the  longest  river  in  Scotland.  Its  head-waters 
are  the  Fiilan  and  Dochart,  and  among  its  afiBluents  are,  on  the 
right,  the  Bran,  Alxnond  and  Earn  and,  on  the  left,  the  Lyon, 
Tummel,  rising  in  Argyllshire  and  receiving  the  Garry  on  its 
left,  and  Isla.  The  Earn  flows  out  of  Lodi  Earn  and  enters 
the  Firth  of  Tay  6}  m.  below  Perth.  The  Forth,  the  principal 
natural  boundary  of  the  shire  on  the  south,  properly  belongs 
to  Stirlingshire,  in  which  it  rises,  but  its  leading  left-hand  affluenu 
axe  Perthshire  rivers,  namely,  the  Tcith,  the  Goodie,  issuing 
from  the  lake  of  Menteith,  and  the  Allan,  rising  in  the  Ochils 
near  SherifiEmuir.  All  the  lakes  are  narrow ,  scarcely  one 
exceeding  a  mile  in  width.  Loch  Ericht,  belonging  paurtly  to 
Inverness-shize,  is  14!  m.  long.  Loch  Tay  (14I  m.  long), 
situated  about  the  centre,  is  the  laigest  lake  in  the  county. 
In  the  south  are  the  scries  of  lakes  which  the  Lady  0/  tke  Lake 
has  rendered  famous— Loch  Vennachar  (4I  m.  long),  Loch 
Achray  (x|  m.  long).  Loch  Katrine  (about  8  m.  long);  to  the  west 
of  Aberioyle  is  Loch  Aid  (3  m.  long)  and  to  the  east  Lake  Men- 
teith (x|  m.  long).  Nearly  all  the  glens  possess  striking  natural 
features,  among  them,  from  south  to  north,  being  Glens  Artney, 
Almond,  Dochart,  Ogle,  Lochay,  Lyon,  Garry,  Shee,  Bniar  and 
Tilt;  while  the  Trossachs,  Salliecrankie,  Bimam  and  Leny  are 
the  loveliest  passes  in  the  Highlands.  The  low-lying  country 
is  represented  mainly  by  Strathmore,  Strath  Gartney,  Strath- 
allan,  noted  for  its  annual  "  gathering  "  or  games,  Stratheazn, 
Strath  Bran,  Strath  Tay  and  Strath  Fiilan,  but  moie  particulariy 
by  the  fertile  alluvial  belts  of  the  Carse  of  (jowrie,  on  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Tay,  and  the  Carse  of  Stirling. 
The  Moor  of  Raimoch  on  the  borders  of  Argyllshire  is  a  sterile 
boulder<strewn  waste,  and  Flanders  Moss,  to  the  south-^st 
of  Lake  Menteith,  is  a  vast  boggy  tract,  which  is,  however,  being 
gradually  reclaimed  and  brought  under  cultivation. 

Geohi]^. — ^The  Highbad  portion  of  this  county  Is  built  up  of  a 
great  leries  of  schist*  and  metamorphosed  rocks  i^ioupcd  as  '*  Dal- 
radian  "  or  -Eastern  schists.  The  general  direction  of  the  strike 
of  these  rocks  Is  W.SwW.-E.N.E.  They  are  cut  off  from  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone,  which  occupies  most  of  the  retnainder  of  the  county, 
by  the  creat  fault  which  traverses  the  county  somewhat  to  the 
north  of  Aberfoyle  and  Crieff.  But  for  some  distance  north  and 
east  of  Crieff  the  boundary  between  these  two  formations  is  an 
unconformable  one.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  fault  line  the 
Highland  Schists  are  less  metamorphosed  than  they  are  farther 
north ;  about  Comrie  and  Callander  they  connsC  of  shales,  sreywackes 
and  igneous  rocks  with  radioUrian  cherts  and  black  shales  that  are  siw- 

Stive  of  the  rocks  of  Arenig  ase  in  south  Scotland.  At  Aberioyle, 
mrie  and  Dunkeld  roofing  wates  are  worked  and  masnve  lime- 
stones occur  in  Glen  Tilt.  Pitkxhry,  Callander,  Blair  Atholl,  Loch 
Rannoch  and  other  places.    A  gntty  series  cones  on  above  the 


slates  and  is  well  seen  capping  the  summit  of  Ben  Voriich.  A 
great  variety  of  schists  form  the  bulk  of  the  series;  but  gninite 
masses  appear  in  their  midst  as  at  Loch  Rannoch,  Loch  kricfat 
and  Glen  Hit,  and  there  are  numerous  acid  and  intermediate  dikes 
which  are  themselves  traversed  by  later  basaltic  diku.  The  Old 
Red  Sandstone  consists  in  the  lower  portion  mainly  of  ooarae 
vokanic  aggkxoerates  and  lava  fiows  followed  by  cooglomoatea. 
sandstones  and  marls.  The  lowest  beds  are  exposed  along  the 
crest  of  the  Ochil  Hills  which  like  the  Sidlaw  Hills  are  aaticiioa]  in 
structure,  while  between  the  Ochils  and  the  H^^hland  fault  the 
rocks  are  folded  into  syndine;  near  the  fault  th^  become  very 
steeply  inclined  and  even  inverted,  and  it  is  interesUng  also  to  note 
that  the  sediments  become  coarser  as  the  fault  is  approached. 
The  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone  is  well  exposed  near  the  Bric^  of 
Earn  and  tt  extends  beneath  the  marine  platform  of  the  Cune  of 
Gowrie.  The  rocks  are  mainly  red  sandstones  and  marts,  let  down 
between  two  parallel  east  and  west  faults  but  between  die  Bridge 
of  Earn  and  Forgandenny,  west  of  the  tract,  they  are  seen  to  rest 
unconformably  upon  the  lower  division.  Small  outliers  of  Car- 
boniferous rocks  (lower)  occur  on  the  north  of  the  Ochils.  The 
marks  of  ice  action  left  bjr  the  Glacial  epoch  are  abundant  and 
striking  in  Perthshire;  moraines  are  common  in  the  Highland  glens. 
as  those  at  the  head  of  the  Glengarry  on  borders  of  Loch  Katrine; 
ice-scratched  surfaces  are  found  on  the  ^dlaw  Hills,  the  Ochils, 
KinnouU  Hill  and  elsewhere;  and  erratic  Uocks  of  stone,  such  as 
"  Samson's  Putting  Stone,"  a  mass  of  Highland  schist  resting  00 
a  hill  of  Old  Red  Semdstone  near  Coilantogle,  are  widely  distributed. 
Old  high  level  marine  beaches  form  terraces  far  up  sevoal  of  the 
larger  streams,  and  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  as  already  indicated,  b 
formed  by  the  beach  at  the  50-ft.  leveL  The  gravel  cones  poured  out 
at  the  mouths  of  many  of  the  glens  which  open  on  the  south  of  the 
Ochib  on  to  the  loo-f t.  or  50-ft.  oeaches  are  often  the  site  of  villages 

QimaU  and  AencuUure, — ^The  rnountainoos  territory  b  cjitiemdy 
wet,  the  rainfall  Tor  the  year  varying  from  93  in.  in  Giengyle  nt  the 
head  of  the  Loch  Katrine  to  37  in.  at  Pitlochry  and  33  in.  at  Pcitih. 
Winter  and  autumn  are  the  rainiest  seasons.  The  tempentnre 
is  remarkably  constant  everywhere,  averagif^  47*  F.  for  the  year. 
January  being  the  coldest  month  (36*5*  F.)  and  July  the  hottest 
(59*  F.).  Only  a  little  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  total  area  b 
under  cultivation,  and  of  thb  nearly  ooe-third  is  in  permanent 
pasture,  while  in  addition  there  are  about  930.000  acres  of  hill 
pasturage.  The  arable  bnd  b  chiefly  in  the  drier  regions  of  the 
east  and  south-east,  the  soil  for  the  most  part  being  fertile.  Light 
soils  prevail  in  the  tower  undulating  districts;  claj;  and  aUuvn] 
land  occur  in  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  the  Carse  of  Stirling  and  the 
tower  reach  of  Stratheam  betow  and  above  Bridge  of  Earn.  The 
best  heavy  carse  bnd  b  very  rich  and  productive,  but  requires  to 
be  thoroughly  worked,  limed  and  manured,  being  well  adapted  for 
wheat.  A  considerable  area  is  occupied  by  orchards,  the  light 
quick  soil  of  Tayside  and  the  upper  districts  of  Menteith  being 
admiraUy  fitted  for  apples.  The  number  of  holdings  b  ali^tly 
in  excess  of  5000  and  of  these  the  majority  are  un<Ser  50  acres 
each,  chiefly  In  the  Highland  valleys  and  near  the  villages  and 
small  towns.  Of  grain,  oats  b  the  fmominating  crap,  but  barley 
and  wheat  are  abo  grown.  Two-thirds  of  the  area  devoted  to 
green  crops  is  occupied  by  turnips*  the  rest  by  potatoes.  Most  of 
the  horses  raised,  chiefly  Clydesditles,  are  used  solely  for  agrkultual 
purposes.  Although  dairy-farming  b  not  an  important  industry, 
a  brge  number  of  cows,  princtpuly  Ayrshires.  are  kept  on  the 
lowbnd  farms,  the  herds  of  the  straths  and  moiratain  pastures 
being  most  usually  West  Highlands  or  Kytoes.  P^frthdure.  nest 
to  Argyllshire,  still  carries  the  heaviest  flocks  in  Scotland.  Black- 
faced  IS  the  principal  breed  in  the  Grampbna,  but  there  b  abo  a 
Urge  number  of  Cheviots  and  South  Downs,  and  Leioestcrs  are 
common  on  the  lower  runs.  Only  one-seventeenth  of  the  surface 
is  under  wood.  This  b  well  up  to  the  proportion  of  the  other 
Scottish  counties,  but  compares  unfavourably  with  the  oonditmos 
existing  in  I8l9,  when  203,860  acres  were  under  wood,  of  which 
61,164  vtre  planted  and  143,7x6  natural.  In  Breadalbane  and 
Menteith  there  are  remains  of  the  ancient  Caledonbn  forest. 
Perthshire  affords  exceptional  facilities  for  sport  with  rod  and  gun. 
The  tochs  and  rivers  abound  with  salmon  and  trout,  while  hsixdly 
any  of  the  streams  have  suffered  pollution  from  industries  or 
manufactures.  The  deer  forests,  exceeding  xoo.ooo  acres  in  area, 
are  frequented  by  red  deer  ana  roe  deer,  and  on  the  extensive 
moors  and  in  the  woods  are  found  grouse,  pheasants,  partridge, 
capercallrie,  woodcock,  ptarmigan  and  hares. 

Induslnes.-^Tht  shire  b  famous  for  its  dyeing  and  bieachuig 
works,  which  are  situated  in  Perth  and  its  vicinity :  but,  apart  from 
these,  there  are  flax  and  jute  mills  at  Rattray  and  cotton  milb  at 
Sunley.  Deanston  and  Crieff;  woollens,  linen,  jute  and  tartans  are 
woven  at  Dunbbne,  Alyth,  Bbirpowrie,  Coupar^Ansus,  Auchterw 
arder  and  Crieff;  ttnning  b  carried  on  at  Bbckford,  Coupar-Aagoa 
and  Crieff:  there  are  breweries  and  distilleries  at  vanous  pboes. 
as  at  Auchterardcr  and  I^crait;  granite,  Treestone,  Umestooe 
and  slate  are  quarried  at  different  centres;  and  there  are  sawrnOb 
and  flour-mills.  ^        ^        ^  ,    „  ,,      . 

CommmikaHaHi.—'tht  Caledonbn  raHway  mam  Hue  to  Aberdeen 
enttft  the  covnty  near  Dunblaae  and  nins  %a  a  north  csiiiriy 


PERTINAX-^PERTZ 


a63 


direcdoa  via  Vttth.  At  Crieff  ivnctioo  St  tends  off  a  branch  to 
Crieff  and  at  Perth  branches  to  Dundee  and  Locheamhcad.  The 
Stirling  to  Oban  line  of  the  same  company  croAses  the  shire  from 
Dunblane  t6  Tyndrum.  The  Highland  railway  runs  northwards 
from  Perth,  and  nas  a  bnmch  at  BaUinluiK  to  Aberfeidy.  Branches  of 
the  North  British  railway  reach  Perth  from  Mawcarse  in  Kinross- 
shire  and  Ladybank  in  Fifeshire;  part  of  the  branch  from  Buchlvvie 
on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  line  runs  to  Abcrfoyle.  and  the  West 
Highfaind  railway  skirts  die  extreme  west  of  the  shire.  At  several 
points  coaches  supplement  the  raiL  In  the  tourist  season  steamers 
ply  on  Loch  Tay  and  Loch  Katrine,  and  there  is  a  icrvice  on  the 
Tay  between  Perth  and  Dundee. 

Population  and  Administraiion,-^ln  iSgi  the  population 
amounted  to  132,185  and  in  1901  to  123,283,  or  49  persons  to  the 
sq.  m.  The  rate  of  increase  was  the  smallest  of  any  Scottish 
county  for  the  decade.  In  190X  tfaefe  were  7S  persons  speaking 
Gaelic  only  and  11,446  Gaelic  ahd  English.  The  chief  towns 
are  Perth  (pop.  32,873),  Crieff  (5208),  Blairgowrie  (3378), 
Dunblane  (2516),  Auchterarder  (2276),  Coupar-Angus  (2064), 
Rattray  (2019).  Among  lesser  centres  may  be  mentioned  Aber- 
feidy (150S),  a  favourite  resort  on  the  Tay,  well  known  for  the 
falls  of  Moness,  mentioned  in  Robert  Bums's  song  "  The  Birks 
of  Aberfeidy  ";  Abemethy  (633),  the  seat  of  an  eariy  bishopric, 
retaining  one  of  the  three  ancient  round  towers  in  Scotland; 
Alyth  (1965);  CaUander  (1458);  Comrie  (xxi8),  a  holiday  resort 
on  the  Earn;  Pitlochry  (1541);  and  Stanley  (1035),  on  the  Tay. 
Of  old  the  county  was  divided  into  hereditary  jurisdictions, 
which  were  abolished  in  1748,  and  in  1705  the  county  was 
divided  into  districts  for  administrative  purposes,  a  system  which 
obtained  until  1889,  when  county  and  district  councils  were 
established.  The  sheriffdom  is  divided  into  an  eastern  and 
western  district,  the  scat  of  the  one  being  Perth  and  the  other 
Dunblane.  For  parliamentary  purposes  the  county  is  also 
divided  into  aa  eastern  and  a  western  division,  and  the  city  of 
Perth  returns  a  member.  The  shire  is  under  school-board 
jurisdiction,  and  there  are  secondary  schools  at  Perth  and 
Crieff,  and  Trinity  College  in  Glen  Almond  is  a  well-known 
public  school  on  the  English  modd. 

History, — In  83  Agricola  explored  the  lands  beyond  the  Forth 
and  in  the  following  year  penetrated  to  the  Grampians,  defeating 
the  Caledonians  umler  Galgacns  with  great  slaughter.  The  site 
oi  this  battle  is  conjectured  by  William  Forbes  Skene  to  have 
been  near  Meikleour,  south  of  Blairgowrie,  but  other  writers 
have  referred  it  to  Dalginross,  near  Comrie;  to  Ardoch  (where 
there  are  the  most  pericct  remains  of  a  Roman  encampment  in 
the  British  Isles);  and  even  as  far  north  as  Raedykes,  near  Stone- 
haven in  Kincardineshire.  The  Romans  did  not  pursue  their 
victory,  and  the  Picts  were  left  undisturbed  for  a  considerable 
period.  At  this  time,  according  to  Ptolemy,  the  territory  now 
known  as  Perthshire  was  occupied  by  three  tribes — the  Dam- 
nonii,  the  Venicones  and  the  Vacomagi.  The  Damnonii  held 
Mcnteith,  Strathearn  and  Folbrif  (the  western  part  of  modem 
Fife  and  Kinross),  with  Alauna  (Allan),  just  above  Stirling, 
Lindum  (Ardoch)  and  Victoria  (believed  by  some  authorities 
to  be  Lochore  in  Fifeshire,  and  by  others  to  be  Perth  city),  as 
their  chief  towns.  The  Venicones  inhabited  north-western  Fife 
and  the  adjoining  tract  of  Perthshire,  with  Orrca  (probably 
Abemethy)  as  their  chief  town  add  a  station  at  Ardargic.  The 
Vacomagi  dwelt  in  (he  Highland  region,  with  stations  at  Inch- 
tuthil  (a  peninsula  in  the  Tay  above  Kinclaven)  and  Banatia 
(Buchanty  on  the  Almond).  The  growing  lawlessness  of  the 
southern  Picts  and  their  frequent  raids  in  the  more  settled 
country  in  the  south  at  last  compelled  the  attention  of  the 
emperor  Scvcrus.  He  arrived  in  Britain  in  908,  but  though  he 
led  a  strong  army  to  the  shores  of  the  Moray  Firth,  he  was 
unable  effectually  to  subdue  the  tribesmen.  The  road  he 
constructed  ran  from  Stirling  to  Ardoch  (where  there  are  notable 
remains)  and  thence  by  Stragcath,  near  Muthlll,  where  it 
branched  north-westwards  to  Dalginross  and  Buchanty,  and 
north-eastwards  to  Perth  and  so  to  the  Grampians.  When  the 
Romans  finally  withdrew  from  Britain,  the  Picts  established 
their  capital  first  at  Abemethy  and  then  at  FortevioL  Abcr- 
nethy  was  the  centre  of  the  Celtic  church  after  the  conversion 
of  the  natives  by  Ninian,  Palladius  and  other  missionaries  in  the 


5th  and  6th  oenliiifcs.  On  the  burning  of  Foitrfiot  \ty  the 
Norsemen  in  the  8th  century,  the  seat  of  Pictish  govenunent  was 
removed  to  Soone.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  9th  century  Dnnkdd 
— to  which  Kenneth  Macalpine  had  brought  some  of  the  relics 
of  Columba  from  lona — ^beceune  the  scene  of  monastic  activity, 
the  abbot  succeeding  to  the  position  of  the  abbot  of  lona,  and 
exercising  great  influence  for  neariy  a  hundred  years.  The 
Danes  periodically  harried  the  land,  but  a  crushing  defeat  at 
Luncarty  in  961  put  an  end  to  their  Inroads  in  this  quarter. 
In  X054  Macbeth  was  defeated  at  Dunsinane  by  Siward,  carl 
of  Northumberland,  who  had  invaded  Scotland  in  the  interest 
of  his  kinsman,  Duncan's  son,  who,  on  the  death  of  the  .usurper 
three  years  later,  ascended  the  throne  as  Malcolm  III.,  called 
Canmore.  With  Malcolm's  accession  the  Celtic  rule  of  the 
monarchy  of  Scone  came  to  an  end.  Neverthdess,  the  Scottish 
sovereigns  (excepting  James  II.,  James  III.  and  Mary)  continued 
to  be  crowned  at  Scone,  which  also  retained  the  position  of 
capital  until  the  beginning  of  the  i3th  century,  when  it  was 
displaced  by  Perth.  From  the  time  of  Alexander  I.  (d.  1x24), 
therefore,  the  history  of  the  shire  is  merged  in  that  of  the  county 
town,  with  the  exttption  of  such  isolated  incidents  as  the  removal 
of  the  Coronation  Stone  from  Scone  to  Westminster  in  1296, 
the  defeat  of  Robert  Bruce  at  Methven  in  1306,  the  battle  of 
Dupplin  in  1332,  the  victory  of  Dundee  at  Killiecrax4ue  in  1689 
and  the  indecisive  contest  at  Sheriffmuir  in  17x5.  Among 
archaeological  remains  may  be  mentioned  the  hill-foTt  on 
Dunsinane;  the  ship-barrow  of  the  vikings  at  Rattray,  wecms 
(or  earth-houses)  in  the  parishes  of  Mon^ie,  Alyth  and  Bendochy; 
the  witch-stone  near  Caimbeddie,  one  of  the  numerous  spots 
where  Macbeth  is  alleged  to  have  met  the  witches,  but  probably 
a  sepulchral  memorial  of  some  forgotten  battle;  standing  stones 
near  Pitlochry,  and  an  extraordinary  assembla^  of  sculptured 
stones  at  Meigle. 

BiBLiocaAPHT. — Robertson,  Comitalus  de  Alkoliae  (Edinbnri^, 
i860) :  P.  R.  Dnimmond,  Perthshire  in  Bygone  Days  (Ldodon,  1879); 
Marshall,  Historic  Scenes  of  Perthshire  (Perth.  1880};  Bcveridgc, 
Perthshire-on- Forth  (3  vols.,  London,  1885);  R.  B.  Cunninghame- 
Grahame,  Notes  on  the  District  of  Menteith  (London,  1895) ;  Hutchison, 
The  Lahe  of  Menteith  (Stirling,  1899). 

PERTIMAX,  PTJBUU8  HELVIUS  (aj>.  136-193),  Roman 
emperor,  the  son  of  a  charcoal-burner,  was  bora  at  Alba  Pompeiain 
Liguria.  From  being  a  teacher  of  grammar  he  rose  through  many 
important  offices,  both  civil  and  military,  to  the  consulate,  which 
he  held  twice.  Chosen,  at  an  advanced  age  and  against  his 
will,  on  the  ist  of  January  193,  to  succeed  Commodus,  he  was 
himself  assassinated  in  a  mutiny  of  the  soldiers,  on  the  38th  of 
Mvch  X93. 

PER12,  GEORO  HEINRICH  (x 795-1876),  German  historian, 
was  bom  at  Hanover  on  the  38th  of  March  i795>  From  18x3 
to  1818  he  studied  at  Gfittingen,  chiefly  under  A.  H.  L.  Heeren. 
His  graduation  thesis,  published  in  X819,  on  the  history  of  the 
Merovingian  mayors  of  the  palace,  attracted  the  attention  of 
Baron  Stdn,  by  whom  he  was  engaged  in  1820  to  edit  thejCarol- 
Ingian  chroniders  for  the  newly-founded  Historical  Sodcty  of 
Germany.  In  search  of  materials  for  this  purpose,  Pertz  made 
a  prolonged  tour  through  Germany  and  Italy,  and  on  his  return 
in  1833  he  received  at  the  instance  of  Stein  the  principal  charge 
of  the  publication  of  Monumenta  germaniae  hislorica,  texts 
of  all  the  more  important  historical  writers  on  German  affairs 
down  to  the  year  X500,  as  well  as  of  laws,  imperial  and  regal 
archives,  and  other  valuable  documents,  such  as  letters,  falling 
within  this  period.  Pertz  made  frequent  journeys  of  explora- 
tion to  the  leading  libraries  and  public  record  offices  of  Europe, 
publishing  notes  on  the  results  of  his  explorations  in  the  Archiv. 
dcr  CesclUch.  /.  dculsche  Gtschichtskunde  (1834-1873).  In  1823 
he  had  been  made  secretary  of  the  archives,  and  in  1827  principal 
keeper  of  the  royal  library  at  Hanover;  from  1833  to  1837  he 
edited  the  Hannoverische  Zeitung^  and  more  than  once  sat  as  a 
representative  in  the  Hanoverian  second  chamber.  In  1843 
he  was  called  as  chief  librarian  to  Berlin,  where  he  shortly 
afterwards  was  made  a  privy  councillor  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sdences.     He  resigned  all  his  appointments  in 


a64  PERU 

i8;4,  ui  00  Ihe  7th  of  Octobei  1876  diod  >t  kfonkh  wbUe  1  estlamltd  at  434,000  to  480,000  iq.  m.,  theGoIlu  mcuatemaiU 

Mtcndisg  the  ntUigi  of  the  bistotical  coDuniuiDa.  bdng  i,i]7.Dooiq.  kilamcl en,  or  439,014  iq.  m. 

Tb(  Unimttilii  bcfia  to  tmat  id  iKifi,  lod  >t  xht  d«u  o(  WilhlheciccptionDf  paitsof  t1ic£cua(lor,Braziluid  Bolivii 

h>>  Rdgution  w  volumn  foCo   (5crif*™,  i<Ki,  THfiimaU)  froolien.  «1]  the  boundiuy  lines  h»ve  b«n  dimuted  mil  relCTred 

I^™ST?k.  2wde,r«h»f  o'tlcicm'fiV'hfnS^^S^edit^  "  .rbL.«tioa-tho«  with  OJombi.  .od  Ecuador  to  the  Lint 

Ormuir.    la  c<>iinaii>n  wiih  the  J/™.Mrtla  Ptrti  ilw  beE"n  "^  ^P'^"'  *""'  **"'  '^'^  Bolivia  to  the  prtHdent  ol  AtgeDlin., 

.L_  _..Li'__-^ —   _j  _   __,__-■ —   _r   ■_   --jiyQ  (ofui.  Iht  on  which  a  ded&ina  was  rendered  OD  th*  gth  of  July  1909. 

■    -I       -1     ""V  '^^  "•''  "^"^  ^'"'  '^™''  mijundersUndings  irith  Ecuador  ta  rrgud 

!r^  s.t'i.u^'l.  M^>ss;^  ;«  ■'t  r*^  "T^t!""  ^'t'  "'l'"' '',".''  ^\  **  f"^^. 

,  1849-1855);  •!»,  in  ainbridgedlonn,    lo»t  Ihe  Untu  filed  between  Santa  Rosi  (j*  11' S.)  on  the  Culf 
8J&}.  of  GuiyiquQ,  and  the  Chinchlpe  river,  1  tnbutiTy  of    the 

Uirafton.  At  the  JDoction  ol 
the  Caucbn  with  that  nvcr. 
IhtLt  Ecuadorean  line  d^vrnda 
the  Chinchipe  to  the  Manfion, 
■Dd  the  Peruvian  atcendi  to  a 
point  where  it  ii  intersected  bj 
a  line  fcJlowing  the  culeni 
CordiUera  northward  to  the 
head-wBlen  of  the  Caquell,  or 
Jlpuri,  which  lorini  the 
DOrthcm  boundary  doWD  to  tlK 
BradllaD  frontier.  TIda  claim 
coven  all  eoatcin  Ecuador  and 
a  large  part  of  aouth-eaatera 
Colooibil.  In  19DJ  there  ■mat 
encouoten  between  amaB  boi^ 
of  Peruvian  and  Ecuidoreu 
lioopa  on  Ihe  diaputed  f  mniia. 
Aftet  trbitntton  by  the  Ling 
of  Spain  had  been  agreed 
Dpoa,  the  q 


Argentina    nDder    the    Hacne 

From  Ibe  Japuii  Muthwaid 
to  (he  Amaion,  In4*  13'  31*  S., 
69°  is"  W.,  and  Ihence  up  the 
Javaty,  or  Yavari,  to  ila  loiua 
I  in  7-  r  *•  S.,  73°  46'  30'  W., 
ta    detemiined     by    *    mixed 

deGoilely  Mttled.  From  neai 
the  aouice  of  the  Javary,  <* 
lal-  7'  ('  J7*  5.,  a  line  funninc 
eastward  to  the  Madeira  ip 
lal.  6°  S''  'S'  S.,  which  a 
hall  (he  diitance  between  the 

mouth  of  the  Madeira,  divide* 
the  Spanish  and  ForlufiKSe 
possessions  in  this  part  ol  South 
Aroeiica,  according  to  the  prti- 

visions  of  the    treaty  of  San 

PBRO  (apparently  from  Biru,  a  imall  river  on  [he  vest  coast  Ildefonsoat  1777.  This  line  has  been  twice  modified  by  Irealia 
of  Colombia,  where  Fiiarro  landed),  a  republic  of  Ihe  Pacific  between  Bolivia  and  Braiil,  but  without  the  consent  ol  Peru, 
coast  ol  South  America,  extending  in  >  geneial  N.N.W.-S.S.E,  which  claimed  all  the  territory  eastward  tn  the  Madeira  bent*™ 
directiim  from  lat.-j"  ji'  S.  to  about  18°  S.,  with  a  sea-coast  of  the  above-mentioned  line  and  the  Bcni-Madidi  rivers,  the  line 
•  1140  m.  and  a  width  of  300  to  40a  m.,  eiduijve  of  territories  ol  demarcation  following  the  Pablo-bamba,  a  small  liibuluy 
in  dispute.  Its  aies  in  ige6.  Including  Tacna  and  Arica.  and  ol  the  Madidi,  to  iii  source,  and  ihence  in  a  Kmight  line  to  Xht 
other  disputed  territories  occupied  by  neighbouring  states,  was  village  of  Conima,  on  Lake  Tltlcaca.  The  dispute  with  Biaal 
oflidally  estimated  at  1,751,411  sq.  kilometin,  ot  6;6,6]8  sq.  m.  i  relates  to  the  territory  acquired  by  that  republic  Irom  Bolivia 
ochuive  dI  these    lenitories,  the  area  ol  Peru  is  variously    IniS£7aiidi903,aDdwMtobescttled,accordiiigloaiiigiceoicot 


PERU 


265 


of  1908,  by  direct  negotiation  if  potsible,  or,  failing  this, 
by  arbitration.  Tbe  decision  of  the  president  of  Argentina  of 
the  9th  of  July  1909,  in  regard  to  the  remainder  of  this  extensive 
territory,  was  a  compromise,  and  divided  it  into  two  neariy 
equal  psurts.  The  line  adopted  starts  from  Lake  Suches,  the 
source  of  a  small  river  of  that  name  flowing  Into  the  north  <A 
Lake  Tlticaca,  crosses  the  Cordillera  by  the  Palomani  to  the 
Tambopata  river,  follows  that  stream  to  the  mouth  of  the  Laaaa, 
thence  crosses  to  the  source  of  the  Heath  river,  which  forms  the 
dividing  line  down  to  its  junction  with  the  Madre  de  Dios, 
descend^  that  river  to  the  mouth  of  the  Torosm<mas,  thence  in 
a  straight  line  north-westerly  to  the  intersection  of  tbe  Tahua- 
manu  river  by  the  69th  meridian,  and  thence  north  on  that 
meridian  to  the  Brazilian  frontier.  This  decision  at  first  gave 
offence  to  the  Bolivians,  but  friendly  overtures  from  Peru  led 
to  its  acceptance  by  both  parties  with  the  understanding  that 
mo<Ufications  would  be  made  in  locating  the  line  wherever  actual 
settlements  had  been  made  by  either  party  on  territory  awarded 
to  the  other.  With  Chile  the  dejure  line  is  that  of  the  Camarones 
ravine  which  separated  the  old  department  of  Moquegua  (includ- 
ing the  provinces  of  Tacna  and  Arica)  from  that  of  Tarapaci. 
The  de  facto  line  is  that  of  the  Sama  river  (usually  dry),  which 
opens  on  the  coast  a  little  south  of  Sama  point,  near  18^  S.,  Chile 
retaining  possession  of  the  two  above-mentioned  provinces  in 
violation  of  the  treaty  of  Ancon,  which  she  forced  upon  her 
defeated  antagonist. 

Physical  Ceof^pky. — Peru  »  divided  longitudinally  into  three 
well>defined  regions,  the  coast,  the  uerra  and  the  montafia.  The 
coast,  extendiiv  from  the  base  of  the  Western  or  Maritime  Cor- 
dillera to  the  P^ific  Ocean,  consists  of  a  sandy  deceit  crosaed  at 
intervals  by  rivers  flowing  through  narrow,  fertile  valley  The 
sierra  is  the  region  of  the  Andes,  and  is  about  250  m.  in  tridth.  It 
contains  stupendous  chains  of  mountains,  elevated  plains  and 
table-lands,  warm  and  fertile  valleys  and  ravines.  The  montafla 
is  the  region  of  tropical  forests  within  tbe  valley  of  the  Amaioo,  and 
sldrts  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes. 

Tbe  coast  has  been  upraised  from  the  ocean  at  no  very  distant 
geological  epoch,  and  is  neariy  as  destitute  of  vegetation  as  the 
ThmCmm^  African  Sahara.  It  is  watered,  however,  by  fifty 
tm%,9m9f,  g^^^^g^  which  cross  the  desert  at  intervals.  Half 
of  these  have  their  origin  in  the  sununits  of  the  Andes,  and  run 
with  a  permanent  supply  of  water  into  the  ocean.  The  others, 
rising  in  the  outer  range,  which  does  not  reach  the  sitow-Une 
and  receives  less  nK>tsture,  carry  a  volume  of  water  to  the  sea  during 
the  rainy  season,  but  for  the  rest  of  tbe  year  are  nearly  dry.  The 
absence  of  rain  here  is  ascribed  to  the  actitm  of  the  lofty  uplands 
of  the  Andes  on  the  trade-wiiul,  and  to  the  influence  of  the  cold 
Humboldt  current  sweeping  northward  alone  the  west  coast  of 
the  continent.  The  south-east  trade-wind  blows  obliqudy  across 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  until  it  reaches  Braail.  By  this  time  it  is 
heavily  laden  with  vaponr,  which  it  continues  to  bear  akms  across  the 
continent,  depositing  it  and  supplying  the  sources  of  toe  Amazon 
and  La  Plata.  When  the  wind  rises  above  the  snow<apped  Andes, 
tbe  last  particle  of  moisture  is  wrung  from  it  that  a  very  low 
temperature  can  extract.  Passinjg  the  summit  of  that  rai^e,  it 
nnhes  down  as  a  cool  and  dry  wind  on  the  Pacific  slopes  beyond. 
Meeting  with  no  evaporattng  surface,  and  with  no  temperature 
colder  than  that  to  which  it  b  subjected  on  the  mountain-tops,  this 
wind  reaches  the  ocean  before  it  becomes  charged  with  fresh 
mobture.  The  constantly  prevailing  wind  on  the  Feruvian  coast 
b  from  the  south,  which  is  a  cold  wind  from  the  Humboldt  current. 
As  it  moves  north  it  becomes  gradually  warmed  and  takes  up 
moisture  instead  of  depositing  it  as  rain.  From  November  to 
April  there  are  usually  ooiBtant  dryness,  a  clear  sky,  and  con- 
siderable, thoo^  b^  no  means  oppressive,  heat.  From  June  to 
September  the  sky  is  obscured  for  weeks  together  by  fog,  which 
b  often  accompanied  by  drizsling  rain  callea  canca.  At  the  time 
when  it  b  hottest  and  driest  on  the  coast  it  b  raining  heavily 
in  the  Andes,  and  the  rivers  are  full.  When  the  nvers  are 
at  their  lowest,  the  gorwa  prevaib  on  the  coast.  The  climate 
of  various  parts  of  the  coast,  however,  b  modifird  by  local 


The  Western  Cordillera,  overhanging  the  Penrvian  coast,  contains 
a  long  line  of  vokanic  mountains,  most  of  them  inactive^  but  their 
presence  b  probably  connected  with  the  freauent  and  severe 
earthquakes,  es|)edauy  in  the  southern  section  of  the  coast.  Since 
1570  seventy  violeotly  destructive  earthquakes  have  been  recorded 
on  the  west  ooast  of  South  America,  but  the  register  is  incomplete 
bi  its  cariier  part.  Tbe  most  terrible  was  that  of  1746,  which 
destn»yed  Calbo,  on  the  t8th  of  October,  and  there  were  sao  shocks 
in  the  following  twenty-four  hours.  The  town  was  overwhelmed 
by  a  vast  wave,  which  rose  80  ft.;  and  the  shocks  continued  until 
tbefoUowing  Februaiy.  On  the  19th  of  August  1868  an  earthquake 


neariy  destroyed  Arsqutpa,  and  great  waves  rolled  in  upon  the 
ports  ctf  Arioa  and  Iquiquc.  On  the  9th  of  May  1877  iwariy  all  the 
southern  ports  were  overwhelmed. 

The  deserts  between  the  river-valleys  vary  in  extent,  the  brgest 
being  more  than  70  m.  across.  On  their  western  margin  steep 
cliffs  generally  rise  from  the  sea,  above  which  b  the  tablaxo  or 
plateau,  in  some  places  slightly  undulating,  in  others  with  ridscs 
of  considenble  height  luing  out  of  it.  The  surface  b  generally 
hard,  but  in  many  places  there  are  large  accumulations  of  drifting 
sea-sand.  The  sand  usually  forms  isolated  hillocks,  cdled  MMrisiMs, 
df  a  half-moon  shape,  havuig  their  convex  skies  towards  the  trade- 
wind.  They  are  from  10  to  so  ft.  high,  with  an  acute  crest,  tbe 
inner  dde  perpendicuiar,  the  outer  with  a  steep  slope.  Sometimes, 
especblly  at  ttriy  dawn,  there  b  a  musical  noise  in  the  desert,  like 
the  sound  of  distant  drums,  which  b  caused  by  the  eddying  of 
grains  of  sand  in  the  heated  atmosphere,  on  the  crests  of  the 


Apparently  the  deserts  are  destitute  of  all  vegetation ;  yet  three 
kindis  of  herns  exist,  which  bury  themselves  deep  in  the  earth,  and 
survive  long  periods  of  drought.  One  is  an  amar-  camatnata. 
anthaoeous  plant,  whose  stems  nmiiy  through  the^^^^ 
sandhills;  the  other  two  are  a  Martynia  and  an  Amseia^  which 
maintain  a  subterranean  exbteoce  during  many  years,  and 
only  produce  bafy  stems  in  those  rare  seasons  when  sufficbnt 
moisture  penetrates  to  the  roots.  In  a  few  hollows  which  are 
reached  by  moisture  the  trees  of  the  desert  find  support,  the 
aigarrcbo  (Prosopis  horrida),  a  low  tree  of  very  scraggy  orowth, 
the  vichaya  iCafparis  eroUmcidts),  and  the  asp«te  del  pern  TCelicO' 
dendntm  scainium)^  mere  shrubs.  Near  the  Cordillera  and  on  its 
lower  slopes  a  tall  branched  cactus  b  met  with,  and  there  are 
Salie&mias  and  Sdsoias  near  the  coast.  But,  when  the  mists  set 
in,  the  low  hilb  near  the  coast  bordering  the  deserts,  which  are 
called  hmast  undergo  a  change  as  if  by  magic  A  blooming  vcge* 
tation  of  wiki  flowen  for  a  short  rime  covers  the  barren  hills.  Near 
Lima  one  of  the  low  mngcs  b  br^htened  by  the  beautiful  yelk>w 
lily  calked  awtanaus  (Irawns  Amanaes).  The  other  flowers  of  tbe 
lomas  are  the  papiia  de  Sa»  Juan  {Befonia  teritnifolia)^  with  red 

Cls  contrasting  with  the  white  inner  sides,  valerians,  the  beautiful 
area  osoio,  several  species  of  Oxalis,  Solanum  and  cnicifers. 
But  this  carpet  of  flowers  b  very  partially  distributed  and  lasts 
but  a  short  time. 

The  valleys  form  a  marvellous  contrast  to  the  surrounding 
desert.  A  great  mass  of  pale-green  foliage  b  usually  composed 
of  the  algarrobo  trees,  while  the  course  of  the  river  is  marked  by 
lines  or  groups  of  pelms,  by  fine  old  willows  {Salix  humboldiianau 
fruit-gardens,  and  fiekb  of  cotton.  Indian  com,  sugar<ane  ana 
alfalfa  (lucerne).  In  some  valleys  there  are  expanses  df  sugar-cane, 
in  othcre  cotton,  whilst  in  othen  vineyards  and  oUve>yard8  pie* 
dominate.  The  woods  of  algarrobe  are  used  lor  pasture,  cattle  and 
horses  enjoying  the  pendulous  yellow  pods. 

For  purposes  of  deacripdon  the  coast-regioii  of  Peru  may  be 
dividoo  into  five  sections,  beginning  from  the  north:  (i)  the  Piura 
region;    (a)    the    Lambayeque    and    TrujIUo    section;  stctmeui 
m  the  Santa  valleys;  (a)  the  section  from  Lima  to  Nasca;  ^^  c&eeL 
(5)  the  Arequipa  and  Tacna  section. 

(i )  The  great  desert-region  of  Pium  extends  for  neariy  300  m.  fitmi 
the  Gulf  01  Guayaquil  to  the  borders  of  the  Morrope  Valley,  and 
is  traversed  by  throe  rivcre  the  Tumfaes,  Chira  and  Piura,  the 
two  former  receiving  their  waters  from  the  inner  Cordillera  and 
breaking  through  the  outer  range.  It  b  here  that  the  coast  of  South 
America  extends  farthest  to  the  westward  until  it  reaches  Capes 
Blanco  and  Parifia,  and  then  turns  southward  to  the  Bay  of  Paita. 
The  climate  d  Piura  is  modified  by  the  lover  latitude,  and  also 
by  the  vicinity  of  the  forests  of  Guayaquil.  Fog  and  gonMi  are 
much  less  frequent  than  in  the  coast-region  farther  south,  while 
rain  sometimes  falls.  At  intervals  of  three  or  four  yean  there  are 
occasional  heavy  showers  of  rain  from  February  to  April.  (2)  The 
second  section  of  the  coast-region  includes  the  valleys  ot  the  Morrope, 
the  Chicbyo,  and  Lambaycone,  the  Safla,  the  Jcquetepcque,  the 
Chicama,  Moche,  Viru  and  Chao.  With  the  intervenmg  deserts 
thb  section  extends  over  200  m.  All  these  vallesrs,  except  Morrope 
and  Chao,  are  watered  by  riven  which  have  their  sources  far  m 
the  recesses  of  the  mountains,  and  which  furnish  an  abundant 
supply  in  the  season  when  irrigation  b  needed.  (3)  The  third 
section,  also  extending  for  200  m.,  contains  the  valleys  of  Santa, 
NepelUt  Casma,  Huarmcy,  Fortalera,  Pativika,  Sup6  and  Huaura. 
The  river  Sanu,  whkh  rises  in  the  lake  of  Conococha,  12,907  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  has  a  bngth  of  180  m.,  b  remarkable  for  its 
long  course  between  the  outer  and  central  ranges  of  the  Andes,  in  a 
trough  known  me  the  "  Callcion  dc  Huaybs,"  100  m.  in  length. 
It  then  breaks  through  In  a  deep  surge,  and  reaches  the  sea  after 
a  course  of  m  m*  over  the  coast-oelt,  and  after  fertilbing  a  rich 
valley.  The  SanU  and  Nepefia  valleys  are  separated  by  a  desert 
8  leagues  in  width,  on  the  shores  of  which  there  b  a  good  anchorage 
in  the  bay  of  Ferrol,  where  the  port  of  Chimbore  b  the  terminus  of 
a  railway.  The  Nepefia,  Casina,  Huarmey,  Forttlesa  and  Sup6 
rivers  rise  on  the  skipe  of  an  outer  range  catted  the  Cordillera  Negre, 
and  are  consequently  dry  during  the  great  part  of  the  year.  WeUs 
are  dug  in  their  becb,  and  the  fertility  of  the  valleys  b  thus  main- 
tAlncd.   The  Patlvilca  (or  Barranca)  river  and  the  Huauv  break 


366 

Caimatfld  Hiiantiey,  aod  ] 


PERU 


■tdta  Uam^  (4)  The  a 
Imm  Chanay  lo  Htsa 
L^ha,  ol  Canbiyllo,  R 


nal>  which  die 


of  Callao  cvienda  over  a  vaic  Btpanae  of  Fertile  plain  boundnl  by 
(be  Andes,  with  the  white  towen  of  Lima  in  b  lettjiif  ol  vrrduie. 
Lurin  and  Mata  ur  inuller  vil>yi,  but  the  (rut  vale  a[  CaOete 

il  liom  tlu  (CRile  plain  <4  Chincha,  (ml  ChiMhi  [rom  the  linuui 
vineyinli c< Piaai.  Tbevalleyiallo,  Palta.SuXivieraiidNuia 
are  ridi  and  fenile,  tbuigh  Ihey  do  ii«  extend  to  the  lea !  bat  between 
Naiea  Bfld  Aeari  [ben  k  a  deiert  60  m.  in  iridtti.  (5)  Tbe  Anqnifa 
and  Tacna  Kctloii  extenda  over  uo  m.  and  compriia  the  vallm  tif 
Acari,  AlequEp^  Alkn,  Ocoia.  Maia  or  Camina,  QuUca,  with  the 
interior  valley  ol  Anqinpa,  Tambo.  Ho  or  Moq  ucgua. lt«  or  LoniRIba, 

liijpe.  ia  joaa  ft.  above  the  <ca  and  90  m.  fnjm  tlie  ctait-  Mm 
ol  [he  riven  here  have  their  »urcea  in  the  centra]  ranfe,  ind  are 
well  euppjied  with  water.  The  coaat-valleya  through  which  they 
Bow.  eflpecully  Ibme  erf  Majee  and  Locumba,  are  JamouB  for  Ibeir 
vineyaidi.  and  in  tbe  valley  ol  Tambo  there  are  eitenaive  olive 

id  ^^Th^^^^Oic  lew  klandi  an: 


"*•*■,      d'^^liL  Ih< 

cnait  art  al'  banen  and  rod^. 

The  moH  ilbfthem  b  Foca.  in  3*  13'  30'  5.. 
■aulhofPaila.  Tbe iilandi of Loboa dcTierr: 
(.)in6-»7'«*S.aod^--     "  '    ' 

Sechura,  and  contain  l.. , 

The  iileta  of  MacahiTbi  j'  49'  IB' 
pracIicaUy  exhauited.    Ttie  two 

UVir^BosihT 


of  lain.    The  iiteti  t£  ll 


_ CoSlSiJ™,  .   .   _ _.   _  _ 

<Adtn  and  niher  Peruvian  gentfiaphcn  givs 
«r  titiiirna,  ta  the  Eailcm  CordiJIera. 

angel  ol  Chili 
f  Chile,  which 


e  naiDC  of  Aodo. 


the  Cordillera  Occidenl 


10  of  Tanpaci.     Chiel 
;a  ovcrhaneirs  Camilla. 


Z  thetn  arc  ibt  mowy  pale  ol 
ne  of  Tarapac^  the  volcanD  of 
Bolrvian  peak  of  Sanuni,  and 

B. — 1-  "  .jlcaiuc  pcaica,  duAerinarouBd  tboaeoTubtBaa 

and  Huaynapiitina.  A  great  eniptioa  of  Hnayaapiitina  bcfu  on 
the  ijlh  of  February  tMO  and  continued  iinlil  the  altb.  But 
generally  theie  vnlcanoej  are  quicicent.  Farther  north  the  M'liti 
vokano  risee  over  the  city  of  Arefiuipa  in  a  periect  corte  toi  hei^t 

r>l  "  ""  '"    "id  near  itt  boae  are  the  hot  lulphur  and  utm 

■F  :  peak  of  Saianta.  in  Patinacodiaa  (^acacbo) 

it  -nr  aca,  and  b  the  mountaiiu  above  Lima  tJv 

lb  fpar»t«  into  twn  liianch™,  which  run  naralM 

Id  m,,  enckHini  the  maikable  nvjiae  of  Calleioa 

Ci  nd  ihe  weaiem  at  the  Cmdillera  Ncgra.     On 

Ih  k  of  Huaican  iiachei  a  height  of  JI.051  Tt. 

Tl  ibovr  Carhuai,  riara  to  11,068  ft.;  the  Huakao 

pc  e  town  of  Vunjay,  k  lo^;  It.  high :  and  mott 

of  part  of  the  chain  reach  a  bottnt  of  i^i^ioa  (l 

D        „  ,         ion,  from  Oelobcr  10  May,  the  bky  ia  generally 

clear  al  dawn,  and  Ibe  maniificeiit  aiwwv  paaki  are  clearly  aeeo. 
But  ai  the  day  advance*  the  dauda  collect.  In  moB  paita  of  the  IVru- 
vianAndei  the  lineof  perpetual  HKHriaac  16400  ft.;  but  oe  the  Cor- 
dillera Nevada,  above  tbe  CallejoD  da  Huayht,  It  ilnka  to  js-vb  It. 
Thi>  greater  cold  i>  cauaed  by  tbe  intervention  of  Ihe  CmdiUna 
Ne^.  which  interrcpti  the  warmth  fiom  tbe  coaat.    Ai  thia  lower 

break  thmugfa  ii  Irom  loBrrea  in  the  eoowy  chain  have  a  greater 


Ddc.  while  IhTlM^rilii^  I 
Dnd  the  Innllier  of  Ecuad 
he  Central  Cordillera  it 


true  water-parting  of  the  ay 


vertically.  In  14°  10'^S.  Ihe  ceatial  chain  ti  connected  with  tim 
Eamm  Andea  by  the  tranaverae  oountabi-knot  of  ^nkalkMa,  ihe 
peak  of  that  name  bdn*  17.651  ft.  above  tbe  lea.  Tbe  neat  inlasd 
baiin  of  Lake  Ticieaca  la  ihui  (onDcd.  The  tcatral  chain  contlHia 
to  run  paralld  with  the'Maritrfne  Cocdillen  unlil.  al  Cerro  Pates, 
another  tiamvene  knot  connccta  It  with  the  Andea  in  lo*  w"  S.  lat. 
It  then  contiiiiiet  northward,  aepatatiog  the  batbia  of  the  Marafloa 
and  Huallagi :  and  al  the  nortben  Imatier  of  IVru  it  ia  at  leirib 
bicken  Ihrough  by  ll     -----  —• 


Peru,  cl  Silurian  lormation,  witb  takxne  and  day  riatet,  Bany 
riuarti  veini  and  eruptiont  of  gianltk:  roeka.  Mr  FWbea  aaw  that 
ihe  peakiof  lUampu  (11,709  (I.)  and  lUlmaiU  (llAlffi.)  ia  Bolivia 
are  Silurian  and  foitiJirerou*  to  their  HRiniita.  The  caaten  range 
iicui  thruugh  by  iiK  riverain  Peru, namely,  the Maraflon and Hiiu- 
laga.  (be  Pcrme,  Mantarr>,  Apuiimac  ^^kamavu  and  Paucartambc^ 
the  laai  five  being  tiibutanei  of  the  UcayaU.    Tlie  ranee  of  Iha 

Ihe  yciy  edge  of  ihc  f™ 

egi™r^m 

He  tbdr  niajeatic  hrjght  to  the  norlbward ;  and  beyttid 

"  ;t  throughout  the  length  <^Ptn  the  tknc 

ca  «  wacnption  tbe  ilem  of  Peru  nay  b*  divided 
tlon,  each  embiadiig  poitkiiit  of  all  thnt  nngc*. 
m  the  BOfth.  compnaea  the  upper  badaa  -  ^  .  . 
m  and  tbe  Hoallaga,  and  [1  uo  m.  kac  b*  — 

Tl.. 1  — J.  t — *g;,  Kn3  <i™™ 

.  [ndudbv  the  Cake  c4 
r  Xana.  The  thkd  or 
"'       Ka  with  the  baiiu 


PERU 


267 


Lake  Juain,  or  Chinchay-oocba,  in  the  wcond  section,  is  36  m. 
lone  by  7  m.  broad,  and  13.233  ft.  above  the  sea.  Its  marshy 
banks  are  ovetvrown  with  reeds  and  inhabited  by  namerous  water- 
fowL  From  this  lake  the  river  Xaiuca  flows  southwaitls  throvgh 
,  a  fiopulous  valley  for  150  m.  before  entering  the  foKsts.  Lake 
Titicaca  (see  Bolivia),  in  the  fourth  or  most  southern  section,  is 
divided  between  Peru  and  Bolivia.  It  receives  a  number  of  short 
streams  from  the  ran^  shitttins  in  the  upper  end  of  the  valley; 
the  largest  is  the  Ramiz,  formed  by  the  two  streams  of  Pucara  and 
Aangaro,  both  coming  from,  the  Knot  of  Vikafiota  to  the  north. 
The  Sucbes,  which  has  its  source  in  Lake  Suches,  falls  into  Lake 
Titicaca  on  the  north-west  side,  as  well  as  the  Vllpa  and  Ylave. 
The  principal  islands  are  Uticaca  and  Coati  (at  the  south  end  near 
the  peninsula  of  G>pacabana),  Campanaria  (9  m.  from  the  east 
shore),  Soto  and  Esteves.  There  are  two  other  lakes  in  the  CoUao, 
as  the  elevated  region  round  Titicaca  is  called.  Lake  Arapa,  a  few 
miles  from  the  northern  shore  of  Titicaca,  is  30  m.  in  circumference. 
Lake  Umayo  is  on  higher  ground  to  the  westward.  The  bkc  in 
Peru  whidi  is  third  in  siae  is  that  of  Parinacochat  on  the  coast 
watershed,  near  the  foot  of  the  snowy  peak  of  Sarasanu  It  b  la  m. 
Vmg  by  6  broad,  but  has  never  been  visited  and  described  by  any 
modem  traveller.  The  smaller  alpine  lakes,  often  forming  the 
sources  of  rivers,  are  numerous. 

The  ipeat  rivers  of  the  sierra  are  the  Marafton,  rinng  in  the  lake 
of  Launcocha  and  flowing  northward  in  a  deep  gorge  between  the 
Maritime  and  Central  Cordilleras  for  350  m.;  wncn  it  forces  its  way 
through  the  mountains  at  the  famous  Pongo  de  Manseriche  and 
enters  the  Amasonian  plain.  The  Huallaga  rises  north  of  Cerro 
PSasco,  and.  passing  Huanuco,  flows  iKxthwards  on  the  other  nde  of 
the  Central  Cordillera  for  «»  m.  It  breaks  throueh  the  range  at 
the  Pongo  de  Chasuta  and  falls  into  the  MaraAon.  The  other  great 
rivers  are  tributaries  of  the  Ucayali.  The  Pokucu,  fkiwine  east* 
ward  from  the  Knot  of  Ceho  Pasco,  joins  the  PAchitca,  wnkh  is 
the  most  important  northern  affluent  of  the  Ucayali.  The  Xauxa, 
becoming  afterwards  the  Mantaro,  receives  the  drain^s;e  of  Xauxa. 
Huancavelica  and  Ayacucho.  The  southern  valley  of  this  part  of 
the  sierra  furnish  streams  which  form  the  main  rivers  of  Pampas, 
Bschachaca  and  Apurimac  These,  uniting  with  the  Mantaro, 
form  the  En^,  and  tne  Eit£  and  Peren^  (which  drains  the  province 
of  Tambo)  form  the  Tambo.  The  Vilcamayu  rises  on  the  Knot  of 
VikaiSota,  ftows  north  through  a  lovely  valley,  received  the  Yanatilde 
and  Paucartambo  on  its  right  bank,  and,  uniting  with  the  Tambo, 
forms  the  Ucayali.  Most  of  these  main  streams  flow  through  pro* 
found  gorffcs  in  a  tropical  climate,  while  the  upper  slopes  yield 

Eloducts  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  the  ptoteaus  above  are  cokf  and 
leak,  affording  orUy  pasture  axid  the  hardiest  cereals. 

The  great  variety  of  elevation  within  the  sierra  produces,  vege- 
tation belonging  to  eveiy  tont.  There  u  a  tropical  flora  in  the 
^  deep  gorges,  nigher  up  a  sub>tropkaJ,  then  a  temper* 

™"''*  ate,  then  a  subarctic  flora.  In  ascending  from  the 
^~***^  coast-valleys  there  is  first  an  arid  range,  where  the 
**■"■  great*branched  cacti  rear  themselves  up  among 
the  rocks.  Farther  inland,  where  the  rains  are  more  plcntifuf, 
is  the  native  home  of  the  potato.  Here  also  are  other  ptonts 
with  edible  roots— the  pea  {Oxalis  luberosa),  uUuca  {uUucus 
hiberosus)j  massua  {TraptaAum  tuberosum),  and  learcd  {Poiymnia 
sonckifolta)*  Among  the  first  wild  shrubs  and  trees  that  are  met 
with  are  the  ehiUa  {fiacckans  PtmUeiU  with  a  pretty  yellow  flower, 
the  MuHsia  acuminata,  with  beautiful  red  and  oranite  flowers, 
several  species  of  Senecio,  calceolarias,  the  Sckinus  meut,  with  its 
graceful  branchei  and  bunches  of  red  berries,  and  at  higher  elevations 
the  hmbras  lAinus  acuminata),  the  sauco  (Sambucus  perwiana), 
the  audtuar  {BuddUia  Mcaiia),  and  the  PolyUpis  racemosa.  The 
BudaMa,  kxally  called  oina  sUvestrt,  flourishes  at  a  height  of 
12,000  ft.  round  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca.  The  most  numerously 
represented  family  b  the  Campontac,  the  grasses  being  next  in  num- 
ber. The  template  valleys  of  the  sierra  yield  tiruits  of  many 
.kinds.  Those  indiffenous  to  the  country  are  the  delicious  dh'rt- 
moyas,  paltas  or  alligator  pears,  the  paccay,  a  species  of  Jnga,  the 
iucma,  and  the  granadUIa  or  fruit  of  the  passion-flower.  Vineyards 
and  sugar<ane  yield  crops  in  the  wanner  ravines;  the  sat>>tropical 
valleys  are  famous  for  splendid  crops  of  maize;  wheat  and  barley 
thrive  on  the  mountain  slopes;  and  at  heights  from  7000  to  13,000  ft. 
there  are  crops  of  quinua  {Chenopodium  gusnua).  In  the  loftiest 
regions  the  pasture  chiefly  consbts  of  a  coarse  grass  {Stipa  yeku), 
of  which  the  Uamas  eat  the  upper  blades  and  the  sheep  browse  on  the 
tender  shoots  beneath.  These  are  also  two  kinds  of  shrubby  pfaints. 
a  thorny  Composita  called  "ccanlli"  and  another,  called  *'tola,'* 
which  b  a  resinous  Bacckaris  and  b  used  for  fucL 

The  animab  whkh  specUUy  belong  to  the  Peruvian  Andes  ore 
the  domestic  Hamas  and  alpacas  and  the  wild  vicuflas.  There  are 
deer,  called  tarmeo  (Cenms  antisetuis) ;  the  viscacka,  a  lain  rodent; 
a  species  of  foxcalleaaloc ;  and  the  puma  (Felts  cancdor)  and  noimarf 
or  black  bear  with  a  white  muzzle;  when  driven  by  hungen  wander 
into  the  loftier  regions.  The  brvnt  bird  b  the  condor,  and  there  is 
another  bird  of  the  vulture  trSie,  with  a  black  and  white  wing 
feather  formerly  used  by  the  Incas  in  their  head*dress,  called  the 
caraquenmu  or  akamarL  The  pita  b  a  brown  speckled  creeper  which 
fhitters  about  the  rocks.  There  b  a  little  bird,  the  size  of  a  starling, 
vrith  brown  back  striped  with  black,  and  white  fascast,  whkh  the 


tndianscall  jni«oA«a/^;  It  utten  a  monotonous  sound  at  each  hour 
of  the  night.  A  partridge  called  yulu  frequents  the  long  grass. 
On  the  lakes  there  b  a  very  handsome  goose,  with  white  body  and 
dark-green  wings  shading  into  violet,  called  kuackua,  two  kinds 
of  ibis,  a  laige  gull  (Larus  serr<M^)  freouenting  the  alpine  lakes  in 
flocks,  flammgoes  called  parihuana,  ducks  and  water-hens.  Many 
pretty  little  finches  fly  about  the  maize-fields  and  fruit-gardens, 
and  a  little  green  parakeet  b  metwithashighasia/x)0  ft.  above  the 


The  third  diviskm  of  Pieru  b  the  regkm  of  the  tropical  forests, 
at  the  base  of  the  Andes,  and  within  the  basin  of  the  Araazoo. 
It  b  traversed  by  great  navigable  rivers.  The  Marafkm,  m^mt^m. 
having  burst  through  the  defile  of  the  Pongo  de  Man-  ••■*■■•• 
■criche  (575  ft.  above  sea  level),  and  the  Huallaga  through  that  of 
Chasuta,  enter  the  forests  and  unite  after  separate  coumsof  about 
600  and  400  m.,  the  united  flood  then  flowing  eastward  to  the 
Braalian  frontier.  Afto*  150  m.  it  b  joined  In^the  Ucayali,  a  great 
navigable  river  with  a  course  of  600  m.  The  country  between 
the  Huallaga  and  the  Ucayali,  traversed  by  the  Eastern  CordtUera, 
is  called  the  Pampa  dd  Sacramento,  and  b  characterized  by  extea- 
nve  erassy  plains.  The  forests  drained  by  the  Marafion,  Hualbga 
and  Ucayah  form  the  northern  portion  of  the  Peruvian  montaila. 
The  southern  half  of  the  montana  b  watered  by  streams  flowing 
from  the  eastern  Andes,  which  go  to  form  the  river  Madre  de 
Dios  <h:  Amaru 'mayu,  the  prindpal  branch  of  the  river  Beni,  which 
faUs  into  the  Madeira.  The  region  of  the  Peruvian  montafU,  whkh 
is  800  m.  long  from  the  Marafion  to  the  Bolivian  frontier,  b  naturally 
divided  into  two  sections,  the  sub-tropical  forests  In  the  ravines 
and  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Amfes,  and  the  dense  tropkal 
forests  in  the  Amazonan  plain.  The  sub-tropical  section  b  impor- 
tant from  the  value  of  its  products  and  interesting  from  the  granocur 
and  beauty  of  its  scenery.  Long  spurs  run  off  from  the  Andes, 
gradually  decreasing  in  elevation,  and  it  b  sometimes  a  dbtance  of 
60  or  80  m.  before  they  finally  subside  into  the  vast  forest<overed 
plains  of  the  Amazon  basin.  Numerous  riven  flow  through  the 
valkys  between  these  spurs,  which  are  the  native  home  of  the 

?u!nine-y{eldine  cinchona  trees.  The  most  valuable  species,  called 
'.  Calisaya,  b  lound  in  the  forests  of  Caravaya  in  south  Peru  and  in 
those  of  Bolivia.  The  species  between  Caravaya  and  the  head- 
waten  of  the  Huallaga  yield  very  little  of  the  febrifuge  alkak>id. 
But  the  forests  of  Huamico  and  Huamalios  abound  in  species  yield- 
ins  the  grey  bark  of  commerce,  which  b  rich  in  cinchonine,  an 
alkaloid  efficacious  as  a  febrifuge,  though  inferior  to  quinine.  With 
the  cinchona  trees  grow  many  kinds  of  melastomaeeae,  eraedally 
the  Lasiandra,  with  masses  of  purple  flowers,  tree-ferns  ana  palms. 
In  the  warm  valleys  there  are  large  plantations  of  coca  (Erjf/Aro- 
xy^  Coca),  the  annual  produce  of  which  b  stated  at  15,000,000  lb. 
The  other  innoducts  of  these  warm  valleys  are  excellent  coffee,  cocoa, 
sugar,  tropical  fruits  of  all  kinds,  ana  gold  in  abundance.  In  the 
vast  untrodden  forests  farther  east  there  are  timber  trees  of  many 
kinds,  incense  trees,  a  great  wealth  of  rubber  trees  of  the  Ileoea  genus, 
numerous  varieties  of  beautiful  palms,  sarsaparilla,  vanilla,  ipecac- 
uanha and  copaiba.  The  abundant  and  varied  fauna  b  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Brazilbn  forests. 

Ceoiogy,*-'The  Eastern  Cordillera,  which,  however,  b  but  little 
known,  appears  to  consbt,  as  in  Bolivia,  chiefly  (^  Palaeozoic  rocks; 
the  western  ranges  of  the  Andes  are  formed  of  Nlcsozoic  beds,  together 
with  recent  volcanic  lavas  and  ashes;  and  the  lower  hilb  near  the 
coast  are  composed  of  eranite,  sjrenite  and  other  crystalline  rocks, 
sometimes  acoonapaniea  by  limestones  and  sandstones,  which  are 
probably  of  Lower  Cretaceous  age,  and  often  covered  by  marine 
Tertiary  deposits.  Thus  the  orographical  features  of  the  country 
correspond  broadly  with  the  geological  divisions. 

The  constitution  of  the  Mesozoic  band  varies.  Above  Lima 
the  western  chain  of  the  Andes  b  composed  of  poiphyritic  tuffs 
and  massive  limestones,  while  the  longitudinal  valley  of  the  Oroya 
b  hollowed  in  carbonaceous  sandstones.  From  the  analogy  of  the 
neighbouring  countries  it  b  possible  that  some  of  the  tuffs  may  be 
'Jurassk,  but  the  other  deposits  probably  belong  for  the  most  part 
to  the  Cretaweous  system.  The  carbonaceous  sandstone  contains 
Gault  fossils.  Like  the  simibr  sandstone  in  Bolivia,  it  Includes 
seams  of  coal  and  b  frequently  impregnated  with  cinnabar.  It  b 
in  thb  sandstone  that  the  rich  mercury  mines  of  HoancaveficA  are 
worked. 

Farther  north,  in  the  department  of  Ancachs,  the  Mesozoic  belt  is 
composed  chiefly  of  sandstones  and  shales, and  the  limestones  which 
form  so  prominent  a  feature  above  Lima  seem  to  have  disappeared. 
The  Cordillera  Negra  in  thb  region  b  in  many  places  cut  by  numerous 
dikes  of  dfatrite,  and  it  b  near  these  dikes  that  silver  ores  are  chiefly 

>  See  U  Crosnier.  "  Notice  gfologiqoe  sur  les  dipartements  de 
Huancavelkra  et  d'Ayacucho,*'  Ann.  ies  miner,  5th  scries,  vol.  li. 
pp.  1-43,  PI.  I  (1853);  A.  Raimondi,  El  Deparkunenta  de  Aneaeks*y 
sus  rieueeas  mfnenues  (Lima,  1873) :  G.  Steinmann,  "  Ueber  Tithon 
und  Kreide  in  den  peruanischsn  Anden,"  Ifeues  Jahrh,  (1882),  vol.  ii. 
pp.  130-153,  Pis.  6-8;  K.  (krhardt,  "  Bcitrag  zur  Kenntniss  der 
Kreiocformatbn  in  Venezuela  und  Peru,**  Neues  Jahrb.,  Bc!l.-Bd.XL 
(1897).  Pp. 65-117.  Pb.  1 , 2 :  J.  Grrybowski,  "DieTertiftrablafierun^n 
des  ndrdlkhen  Peru  und  ihre  Moltuskenfaana,"  Ifeues  JaJirb,,  BeiL- 
Bd.  XH.  (1899).  pp.  610-664.  Pb.  i5-2a 


268 


PERU 


found.  In  titt  Cordillera  Nevada  the  Meaonrfc  rocks  which  form 
the  chain  are  often  covered  by  maaaes  of  modem  volcanic  rock. 
Similar  rocks  are  also  found  in  the  Gsrdillera  Negra,  but  the  volcanic 
centres  appear  to  have  been  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  ■ 

Popuiaiion,— The  first  trustworthy  enumeration  of  the  people 
of  Peru  was  made  in  1793,  when  there  were  6x7,700  Indians, 
241,225  mestizos  (Indian  and  white  inter-mixture),  X36,3xx 
Spaniards,  40,337  negro  slaves  and  4i>404  mulattoes,  making  a 
total  of  1,076,977,  exdushre  of  the  wild  Indians  of  the  montatia. 
Viceroy  Toledo's  enumeration  of  the  Indians  in  1575  gave  them 
a  total  of  8,000,000,  the  greater  part  of  whom  had  been  sacrificed 
by  Spanish  cruelty.  Others  had  withdrawn  into  the  mountains 
and  forests,  and  in  the  native  villages  under  Spanish  administra- 
tion the  birth  rate  had  dropped  to  a  small  part  of  what  it  had 
been  because  the  great  bulk  of  the  male  population  had  been 
segregated  in  the  mines  and  on  the  estates  of  the  conquerors. 
This  tells  a  story  of  depopulation  under  Spanish  rule,  to  which 
the  abandoned  terraces  (andenes)  on  the  mountain  sides,  once 
highly  cultivated,  bear  testimony.  Several  diverse  totals  have 
bwn  published  as  the  result  of  the  census  taken  in  1876,  which 
is  considered  imperfect.  One  estimate  places  the  total  at 
2,660,881,  comprising  about  23-8%  whites,  57-6%  Indians, 
x*'9%  negroes,  1*9%  Asiatics,  chiefly  Chinese,  and  24-8  % 
mixed  races.  In  1906  estimates  were  made  under  official 
auspices  (see  A.  Garland,  Peru  in  xpod^  Lima,  1907),  which 
gave  the  population  as  3,5471829,  including  Tacna  (8000).  It 
is  believed,  however,  that  this  and  other  la^er  estimates  are 
excessive.    There  is  no  considerable  immigration. 

The  population  of  Peru  is  mixed,  including  whites,  Indians, 
Africans,  Asiatics,  and  their  mixtures  and  sub-mixtures.  The 
dominant  race  is  of  Spanish  origin,  to  a  considerable  extent 
Anixed  with  Indian  blood.  The  Indians  are  in  great  part 
descendants  of  the  various  tribes  organized  under  the  rule  of 
the  Incas  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  There  are  two 
distinct  general  types^the  coast  tribes  occupying  the  fertile 
river  valleys,  who  are  employed  on  the  plantations,  in  domestic 
service  in  the  cities,  or  in  small  industries  of  their  own,  no  longer 
numerous;  and  the  sierra  tribes,  who  are  agriculturists,  miners, 
stock-breeders  and  packers,  still  comparatively  numerous. 
In  addition  to  these  are  the  tribes  of  wild  Indians  of  the  montafia 
region,  or  eastern  forests,  who  were  never  under  Inca  rule  and 
are  still  practically  independent.  Their  number  is  e&timated 
at  150,000  to  300,000,  divided  into  xia  tribes,  and  differing 
widely  in  habits,  customs  and  material  condition.  Some 
live  in  settled  communities  and  roughly  cultivate  the  soil. 
Others  are  hunters  and  fishermen  and  are  nomadic  in  habit. 
Others  are  intractable  forest  tribes,  having  no  relations  with  the 
whites.  The  sierra  or  upland  Indians,  the  most  numerous 
and  strongest  type,  belong  largely  to  the  Quichua  and  Aymar& 
families,  the  former  inhabiting  the  regions  northward  of  Cuzo, 
and  the  latter  occupying  the  Titicaca  basin  and  the  sierras  of 
Bolivia.  These  Indians  are  generally  described  as  Cholosy  a 
name  sometimes  mistakenly  applied  to  the  mestizos^  while  the 
tribes  of  the  eastern  forests  are  called  Chunchos,  barbaroSt  or 
simply  Indians.  The  Chohs  may  be  roughly  estimated  at  about 
f  ,800,000  and  form  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  sierra  population. 
Practically  all  the  industries  and  occupations  of  this  extensive 
region  depend  upon  them  for  labourers  and  servants. 
.  The  mestizos  are  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  blood.  There 
are  two  general  classes-— the  cosUHos  or  those  of  the  coast,  and 
the  serranos  or  those  of  the  sierras.  The  mesiixos  of  the  coast 
are  usually  traders,  artisans,  overseers,  petty  officers  and  clerks, 
and  small  politicians.  In  the  sierras  they  have  the  same  general 
occupations,  but  there  are  no  social  bars  to  their  advancement, 
and  they  become  lawyers,  physicians,  priests,  merchants,  officials 
and  capitalists.  The  African  and  Asiatic  elements  furnish  only 
about  a%  each  of  the  population.  The  Africans  were  introduced 
as  slaves  soon  after  the  conquest,  because  the  coast  Indians  were 
physically  incapable  of  performing  the  work  required  of  them 
on  the  sugar  estates.  All  the  heavy  labour  in  the  coast  provinces 
was  performed  by  them  down  to  1855,  when  African  slavery  was 
abolished,    lliey  have  since  prefexred  to  live  in  the  towns. 


although  many  continue  on  the  plantations.  The  fint  Chxne<e 
coolies  were  introduced  in  1849  to  supply  labourers  on  the  sugar 
estates,  which  had  begun  to  feel  the  effects  ot  the  suppression 
of  the  African  slave  traffic.  At  first  the  cooliet  were  treated 
with  cruelty.  The  scandals  that  resulted  led  to  investigations 
and  severe  restrictions,  and  their  employment  now  has  become 
a  matter  of  voluntary  contract,  usually  for  two  years,  in  which 
fair  dealing  and  good  treatment  are  the  rule.  Many  Cbixiese 
are  also  settled  in  the  coast  dties.  Commercial  rdlations  have 
also  been  opened  with  Japan,  and  a  small  Japanese  colony  has 
been  added  to  the  population.  The  Spanish  and  Africax)  cross 
is  to  be  seen  in  the  mulattoes,  quadroons  and  octoxoons  that 
inhabit  the  warm  coast  dties.  Other  race  mixtures  consbt  ci 
the  zambos  (the  African-Indian  cross),  an  Asiatic  graft  upon  these 
various  crosses,  and  an  extremely  confusing  intermixtuie  of  the 
various  crosses,  for  which  the  Spanish  races  have  dcsciqytive 
appellations.  The  foreign  population  b  chiefly  concentrated  m 
Lima  and  Callao,  though  mining  and  other  industries  have  drairn 
small  contingents  to  other  places. 

EducoHon, — Univenities  and  colleges  were  founded  in  Pern  sooa 
after  the  conquest,  and  Lima,  Cuxco,  Axequipa  and  Chuquisaca 
(now  the  Bolivian  town  of  Sucre)  became  centres  of  considerable  tsftrf- 
Icctual  activity.  Something  was  done  for  the  education  of  the  •oao  «f 
the  Indian  "  nobiUty,"  schools  bein^  created  at  Lima  and  Cnxco.  The 
university  of  San  Marcos  at  Lima  is  the  oldest  coll^jate  iosdtutiaa 
in  the  New  World,  originatine  in  a  grant  from  Charles  V.  in  1551  to 
the  Dominicans  for  the  establishment  .of  a  college  in  their  monasienr 
at  Lima.  Its  present  name,  however,  was  not  adopted  until  ISS4' 
two  years  after  its  first  secular  rector  had  been  chosen,  lie 
college  of  San  Carlos  was  founded  in  1770,  and  the  school  of  wrirrfiosf' 
in  1792.  At  Custco  the  university  of  San  Antonio  Ahad  ms 
founded  in  i^,  and  the  college  of  San  Geronimo  at  Areqoipa  ia 
1616b  The  instruction  given  in  these  institutions  was  01  the 
religious-scholastic  character  of  that  time,  and  was  wholly  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Church.  Independence  opened  the  way  iot  a 
larger  measure  of  intellectual  and  educational  progress,  especially 
for  the  lower  classes.  As  organized  under  the  law  of  the  5th  of 
December  190^,  primary  instruction  is  free  and  nominallyoUigatory* 
and  is  under  tne  control  of  the  national  government.  The  primary 
schoob  are  divided  into  two  grades:  a  Tree  elementary  course  of 
two  years,  and  a  higher  course  of  three  years,  in  a  school  called  the 
"  scholastic  centre,  in  which  learning  a  trade  is  Included.  There 
were  1508  elementary  schoob  and  862  schojastic  centres  in  woL, 
There  are,  besides  these,  a  large  number  of  private  adiools,  which  is 
1906  carried  about  22,000  pupils  on  their  rolls,  or  three  times  the  nun- 
ber  in  the  public  primary  schools.  To  provide  teachers  six  nonnal 
schools  have  been  established,  two  of  which  (one  for  males  and  one 
for  females)  arc  in  Lima.  For  intermediate  or  secondary  instmctsea 
there  are  23  national  colleges  for  boys  in  the  various  aepartmcotsl 
capitals,  and  three  similar  collc^  for  giris,  in  Ayacucbo,  Cuaco 
ainl  Trujillo.  In  these  the  majority  of  pupils  were  under  the^lireo- 
tion  of  Belgian  and  German  instructors.  The  private  achoob  of 
this  grade  are  still  more  numerous,  and  there  are  a  number  of  speod 
schools  that  belong  to  the  same  category.  For  higher  instructiea 
there  are  four  universities:  the  Univccsioad  Mayor  de  San  Maraos 
at  Lima,  and  three  provincial  institutions  at  Arequipa,  Cuaco  aad 
Tnijillo.  All  these  have  faculties  of  letters  and  law.  and  San  hfaioos 
has  in  addition  faculties  of  theolc^y,  medicine,  mathematics  axA 
science,  philosophy  and  adminbtrative  and  political  eoooooiy. 
The  professional  schools  include  a  school  of  civil  and  mining  engineer- 
ing at  Lima  (created  1876),  a  military  school  at  Chorniloa  aoder 
the  direction  of  French  instructOTs,  a  naval  school  at  CaUao,  ntae 
episcoptal  seminaries  (one  for  each  diocese),  a  national  agricukoxal 
school  in  the  vicinity  of  Lima  (created  1902),  and  a  few  oomnicaRaal 
schools.  There  b  also  a  correctional  school  at  Lima  devoted  to  Vat 
education  and  training  of  youthful  delinquents. 

Science  and  Lttefa/iir«.-^Towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  oentvy 
scientific  studies  began  to  receive  attention  in  Peru.  M.  Gochn.  a 
member  of  the  French  commisnon  for  measuring  an  are  of  the 
meridian  near  Quito,  became  pcofeoor  of  mathematics  at  San  Maicm 
in  1750;  and  the  botanical  expeditions  sent  out  from  &Min  ea>'e 
further  zest  to  scientific  research.  Dr  Gabriel  Moreno  (d.  iao9U 
a  native  of  Huamantanga  in  the  Maritime  CordiOeia,  studied 
under  Dr  Jussieu,  and  beoime  an  eminent  botanist.  Don  Hipoiko 
Unanne,  born  at  Arica  in  1755,  wrote  an  important  work  on  the 
climate  of  Lima  and  contributed  to  the  Meremrio  penmmo.  This 
periodical  was  started  in  1791  at  Uma,  the  contributors  fbroiing  a 
society  called  "  ainantes  del  pais,"  and  it  was  completed  in  devm 
volumes.  It  contains  many  valuable  articles  on  history,  topograpbv. 
botany,  mining,  commerce  and  statistics.  An  cphemei^  and  gnde 
to  Peru  was  b»un  by  the  learned  geographer  Dr  Cosme  Biienow  and 
continued  by  Dr  Unantie,  who  brought  out  his  guides  at  Lima  from 
1793  to  1798.  In  1794  a  nautical  school  was  founded  at  Lima. 
with  Andres  Baleato  as  instructor  and  Pedro  Alvarea  as  teacher  of 
the  me  of  instruments.    Baleato  also  coaatracted  a  map  of  IVn. 


PERU 


269 


A  lilt  oC  PentviMi  ftvtibon  in  vioerectl  times  occ«nfe»  u  hag  cto|>tT 
in  the  life  of  St  Toribio*  by  MontalvQ;  and  uie  bibliofraphical 
hLboure  of  the  Peruvian  Leon  Pinelo  arc  still  invaluable  to  Spanish 
studentfli  The  most  proliSc  author  of  coloniad  times  was  Dr  Pedro 
de  Peralta  y  Barauevo,  who  wrote  more  than  nxty  works,  including 
an  epic  poem  entitled  Lima  fundada. 

The  topographical  labours  of  Cosme  Bueno  and  Unanue  were 
ably  .continued  at  Lima  by  Admiral  Don  Eduardo  Carraaco.  who 
cominled  annual  guides  of  Peru  from  1826.  But  the  roost  eminent 
Peruvian  geographer  is  Dr  Don  Mariano  Felipe  Paz  Soldan  (1821- 
1886).  whose  Ceotrafia  M  Perm  appeared  in  1861.  His  still  more 
important  work,  ttue  Diceumario  gtograficoistaduHeodd  Peru  (1877), 
is  a  gazetteer  on  a  most  complete  scale.  In  1868  appeared  his  first 
volume  of  the  Historia  del  Peru  indepemiiaiU,  and  two  others  have 
since  been  published.  His  Historia  <U  la  guerra  del  Paeifico  is  the 
Peruvian  version  of  that  disastrous  war.  The  earlier  history  of 
Peru  Ibs  been  written  in  three  volumes  by  Sebastian  Lorente  (d. 
1884):  Mariano  Rivero  has  discussed  its  antiquities;  and  Manuel 
Fuentcs  has  edited  six  volumes  of  memoirs  written  by  Spanish 
viceroys.  But  the  most  valuabte  and  important  historical  work  by 
a  modem  Peruvian  is  General  Mendiburu's  (180^-1885)  Diecianano 
kistorie<hbioirajlco  dd  Peru^  a  monument  of  patient  and  conscien- 
ttous  research,  combined  with  critical  discernment  of  a  high  order. 
As  laborious  historical  students,  Don  }ot6  Toribio  Polo,  the  author 
of  an  ecclesiastical  history  of  Peruvian  dioceses,  and  Don  Enrique 
Torres  Saldamando,  the  historian  of  the  Jesuits  In  Peru,  have  great 
merit.  Among  good  local  annalists  may  be  mentioned  T  uan  Cilberto 
Valdivia,  who  luis  written  a  history  <h  Arequipa,  and  Pio  Benigno 
Mesa,  the  author  of  the  Annals  cf  Cuzco. 

The  leading  Peruvian  authors  on  constitutional  and  legal  subjects 
un  Dr  Jo»6  Santistevan,  who  has  published  volumes  on  civil  and 
criminal  law;  Luis  Felipe  VilUiran<sub9c<)uent1y  rector  of  the  univer- 
sity at  Lima),  author  of  a  work  on  constitutional  right;  Dr  Francisco 
Garcia  Calderon  (once  president  of  l^ni),  author  of  a  dictionary  of 
Peruvian  legislation,  in  two  volumes;  Dr  Francisco  Xavier  Mariategui, 
one  of  the  fathers  of  Peruvian  independence;  and  Dr  Francisco  de 
Paula  Vigil  (1793-1875),  oratorand  statesman  as  welt  asaatbor,  whose 
work,  Defensa  de  les  tobiemos,  is  a  noble  and  enlightened  statement 
of  the  case  for  civil  governments  against  the  pretensions  of  the 
court  of  Rome.  Manuel  A.  Fuentes,  an  able  statistician  and  the 
author  of  the  EskidisHca  de  Lima,  has  also  written  a  manual  of 
pariiamentary  practice.  Perhaps  the  most  important  work  on  Peru 
of  modern  times  is  that  of  the  Italian  savant  Antonio  Raimondi 
(1825-1800),  who  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  studying  the 
topography  and  natural  resources  of  the  country.  Only  four 
volumes  had  been  published  at  the  time  of  his  death,  but  he  left  a 
mass  of  papers  ana  manuscripts  which  the  government  has  put  in 
the  hanas  of  the  Geo^phtcal  Society  of  Lima  for  publication. 
His  neat  work  is  entitled  £f  Peru:  estudios  mineralopees,  ftc. 
(3  vols.,  Lima,  1890-1902),  and  one  separate  volume  on  the  depart- 
ment  01  Ancachs.  Peruvian  literature  since  the  independence  has 
also  attained  high  merit  in  the  walks  of  poetry  and  romance.  The 
Guayaquil  author,  Olmedo,  who  wrote  the  famous  ode  on  the  victory 
of  Juntn,  and  the  Umcnians  Felipe  Pardo  and  Manuel  Seeun 
are  names  well  known  wherever  the  Spanish  languaec  is  spoken. 
Both  died  between  i860  and  1870.  The  comedies  of  begura  on  the 
customs  of  Lima  society,  entitled  Uu  Paseo  a  Amancaes  and  La 
Saya  y  Manto,  have  no  equal  in  the  dramatic  literature  of  Spanish 
America  and  few  in  that  of  modem  Spain.  From  1848  date  the  first 
poetical  efforts  of  Arnaldo  Marcjuez,  who  is  distinguished  for  his 
correct  diction  and  rich  imagination,  as  is  Nicolas  Corpancho  for  his 
dramas  and  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  Brisas,  Adolfo  Garcia  for  a 
beautiful  sonnet  to  Bolivar,  which  was  published  at  Havre  in  1870. 
in  his  one  volume  of  poems,  and  Clemente  Althaus  for  his  produc- 
tivity and  style.  Pedro  Paz  Soldan  was  a  classical  scholar  who 
Eubltshed  three  volumes  of  poems.  Carlos  Augusto  Salavcrry  is 
nown  as  one  of  Peru's  best  lyrical  poets,  and  Luis  Benjamin 
Cisneros  for  his  two  novels,  Julia  and  Eduardo.  Trinidad  Fernandez 
and  Constantino  Carrasco  were  two  poets  of  merit  who  died  young, 
the  principal  work  of  the  latter  being  his  metrical  version  of  the 
Quichua  drama.  OUantay.  Jos6  Antonio  Lavalle  and  Narciso 
Arestegui  are  chiefly  known  as  novelists.  In  his  youth  Ricardo 
Palma  published  three  books  of  poems,  entitled  Amwnias,  Verbos  y 
Cerundtos  and  Pasionarias,  and  then,  rince  1870,  devoted  his  great 
literary  talents  to  writing  the  historical  traditions  of  Peru,  of  which 
six  volumes  were  published.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Chile 
he  was  vice-director  of  the  national  library  at  Lima,  which  was 
wantonly  pillaged  by  the  Chilean  forces.  After  the  evacuation  of 
Lima  by  the  Chileans  Palma  devoted  his  life  to  the  recovery  of  his 
scattered  books  and  the  acquisition  of  new  collections,  and  ne  had 
the  satisfaction  before  his  death  of  re-opening  the  library,  which  had 
obtained  about  30,000  volumes,  or  three-fourths  of  the  number 
on  its  shelves  before  the  CThileaii  invasion. 

Of  ^the  aboriginal  inhabiunts  of  Peru  much  has  been  written. 
The  important  work  of  Mariano  Eduardo  Rivero.  of  Arequipa. 
^The  city  of  Lima  produced  two  saints,  the  archbishop  St 
ToKbio.  who  flourished  from  1578  to  1606,  and  Santa  Rosa,  the  patron 
nint  of  the  city  of  the  kings  (1586-1616),  whose  festival  is  cele- 
bnted  on  the  a6th  of  August. 


usistcd  by  J.  J.  von  Tschudi,  on  the  antiqMities  of  P^ni  (XiKifMs- 
dades  peruanas,  Vienna,  1841;  Eng.  transw.  New  York.  1853)  haa 
been  followed  by  other  investigators  into  the  bnguage,  literature^ 
customs  and  reugion  of  the  Incaa.  The  best  known  of  these  are 
Ios6  Scbasti&n  Parranca,  the  naturalist  and  antiouary.  Jos6 
Fernandez  Nodal,  and  Galvino  Pachcco  Zccarra  of  Cuzco,  who 
published  translations  of  the  Inca  drama  of  uUan/ay,  and  Leonardo 
Villar,  of  Cuzco. 

Among  Peruvian  naturalists  shice  the  advent  of  the  republic, 
the  most  distinguished  have  been  Mariano  Eduardo  Rivero,  the 
geologist,  mineralogist  and  archaeologist,  and  his  friend  and  colleague 
Nicolas  de  Pierola,  authors  of  Memorial  de  ctencias  nature*. 
The  Lima  Geographical  Society  (founded  in  1888)  is  perhaps  the  beat 
and  most  active  scientific  organization  in  the  repuolic.  Its  special 
work  covers  national  geographical  exploration  and  study,  archae- 
ology, statistics  and  climatology,  and  its  cjuarteriy  bulletins  contain 
invaluable  information.  The  society  receives  a  govemmcnt  subsidy, 
and  its  rooms  in  the  national  library  in  Lima  are  the  principal 
centre  of  scientific  study  in  Peru.  It  had  an  active  membership  of 
163  in  1906,  besides  172  honorary  and  corresponding  members. 
The  historkal  institute  of  Peru,  also  at  Lima,  is  charged  by  the 
govemmcnt,  from  which  it  receives  a  liberal  subsidy,  whh  the  work 
of  collecting,  preparing  and  publishing  documents  relating  to  Peru- 
vian history,  and  of  preserving  objects  of  archaeological  and  historic 
character.  Its  museum,  which  is  of  great  histoncal  and  artistic 
value  and  includes  a  collection  of  portraits  of  the  Peruvian  viceroys 
and  presidents,  is  in  the  upper  floors  of  the  Exposition  Palace. 
Another  subndizcd  national  society  is  the  athensnim,  which  was 
founded  in  1877  >*  the  "  literary  club,"  and  reorganized  in  T887 
under  its  present  title.  Its  purpose  is  to  foster  teaming  and  literary 
effort,  ana  it  is  a  popular  and  prominent  feature  in  the  intcUectuU 
life  of  the  country. 

Xe/tfioif. ^According  to  the  constitution  of  i860  "the  nation 
professes  the  apostolic  Roman  Catholic  religion;  the  state  protects 
It,  and  does  not  permit  the  public  exercise  <h  any  other."  There  is 
a  certain  degree  of  tolerance,  however,  and  the  Anglican  and  some  of 
the  evangelical  diurches  are  permitted  to  establish  misaons  in  the 
country,  but  not  always  without  hostile  deroonstratnns  from  the 
Catholic  priesthood.  There  are  Anglican  churches  in  Lima  and 
Cuzco.  bclonpng  to  the  diocese  of  the  Bishop  of  the  Falkland  Islands ; 
but  their  existence  is  ilh^gal  and  is  ignored  rather  than  permitted. 
In  lis  coclcaiastKal  orgunzatkm  Peru  is  divided  into  nine  dkiceses: 
Lima,  which  is  an  archbishopric.  Arequipa,  Puno,  Cuzco,  Ayacucho, 
Huanuco,  Huaraz,  Tmjillo  and  Chachapoyas.  These  dioceses  are 
subdivided  into  613  curacies,  presided  over  by  euros,  or  curate- 
vicars.  ECach  diocese  has  its  seminary  for  the  education  of  the  priest- 
hood, that  of  Arequipa  being  distinguished  for  its  influence  in  churdi 
affairs.  Arequipa,  fike  Coraoba  and  Chuquisaca,  is  a  stronghold 
of  clericalism  and  exercises  a  decisi^T  influence  in  politka  as  well  as 
in  church  matters.  There  are  a  number  of  fine  churches.in  Lima 
and  in  the  sees  of  the  various  dioceses.  Monasteries  and  nunneries 
arc  numerous,  dating  back  to  the  i6thand  17th  centuries,  but  their 
influence  is  now  less  potent  than  in  those  days  and  the  monastic 

Kopulation  is  not  so  large.  In  modern  times  many  of  the  convents 
ave  been  devoted  to  educational  work  especially  for  girls,  which  is 
an  obstacle  to  the  successful  devek>pinent  of  a  public  school  system 
in  the  country. 

PefUical  DMnMU.-^The  empire  of  the  Incas  was  divided 
into  four  main  dlvisionB,  Chinchay-toyn  to  the  north  of  Cuzco, 
Anti-suyu  to  the  east,  Colla-sayn  to  the  south  and  Cunti-stiyu 
to  the  west,  the  whole  empire  being  called  Tlahuantin-suyu,  or 
the  four  governments.  Each  was  ruled  by  a  viceroy,  under 
whom  were  the  "  huaranca-camayocs,"  or  oflicers  ruling  over 
thousands,  and  inferior  officers,  in  regultr  order,  over  500,  100, 
so  and  xo  men.  All  disorders  and  irregularities  were  checked 
by  the  periodical  visits  of  the  lucuyricocs  or  inspectors.  The 
Spanish  conquest  destroyed  this  complicated  system.  In  x  569 
the  governor.  Lope  Garda  de  Castro,  divided  Peru  into  eontp^ 
mienios  under  officers  named  corregidors,  of  whom  there  were 
77,  each  in  direct  communication  with  the  government  at  Lima. 
Aji  important  administrative  reform  was  made  in  1784,  when 
Pern  was  divided  into  7  intendeneias,  each  under  an  officer  called 
an  intendente.  These  inlendencias  included  about  6  of  the  old 
corretimientoSf  which  were  called  partidos,  under  officers  named 
subdd€gados.  Thus  the  number  of  officers  Deporting  direct  to 
Lima  was  reduced  from  77  to  7,  a  great  improvement*  The 
republic  adopted  the  same  system,  calling  the  intendencias 
departments,  under  a  prefect,  and  the  partidos  provinces,  under 
a  sub-prefect.  Peru  is  divided  into  x8  departments,  a  littoral 
provinces,  and  what  is  called  the  constitutional  province  of 
Callao.  This  is  exdusive  of  Tacna  and  its  3  provinces.  Tlie 
departments,  which  contain  98  provinces,  with  their  areas, 
capitals  and  estimated  populations  of  1906,  axe  aa  follow:  the 


27° 


PERU 


list  being  arranged  to  thow'  t|ie  coast,  sierra  and  montaHa 
divisions: — 


Departments. 

Area 
sq.  m. 

Estimated 
pop.,  1906. 

Capital. 

Estimated 
pop.,  1906. 

CoaU:— 

■    ■ 

Piura  .     .     . 

14349 

154.080 

Piura  . 

9.100 

Lainbayeque. 

4.615 

§^°70 
188.200 

Oiicbyo  .     . 

10.000 

Libertad .     . 

10,209 

Trujtllo    .     . 

6.500 

Ancachs  . 

16,567 

317.050 

Huaraz 

13.000 

Lima .     .     . 

13.314 
8,721 

2W,000 

68,220 

Lima  (1903)  . 

140,000 

lea  (or  Yea) 

lea      .     .     . 

6,000 

Arequi|>a. 

21.953 

171.750 

Arequipa 

28,000 

Sierra: — 

Cajamarca    . 

",542 

333.3  «o 
108,980 

Cajamarca 

9,000 

Huanueo. 

14,028 

Huanueo  . 

6,000 

lunin. 
HuancavcUca 

33.354 

305.7<» 
167,840 

Ccrro  de  Pasco 

10,000 

9.254 
18.190 

Huancaveltca 

6,000 

Ayacucho 

226,850 

Ayacueho  .   . 
Abaneay  .     . 

15.000 

Apurimac 

8,189 

133.000 

2400 

Cuzco.     .     . 

156.317 

528.980 

Cuzco.     .     . 

23.000 

Puno .     .     . 

41,211 

403.000 

Puno  .     .     . 

4.500 

Montana: — 

Amazonas     . 

13.947 

53.000 

Chachapoyas. 

4.500 

Loreto     .     . 

238493 

120,000 

louitos     .     . 
Nioyobamba 

6,000 

San  Martin  . 

30.745 

33.000 

7.500 

Littoral 

Provinces^ — 

Tumbci  .     . 

I.981 

8,000 

Tumbea  .     . 

2,300 

Callao     . 

14 
5.5504 

33.879 

Callao  (1905). 

31.128 

Moquegua    . 

31.920 

Moquegua 

5.000 

Apart  from  the  departmental  capitals  there  are  few  towns 
of  size  and  importance.  The  so-called  coast  towns  are  commonly 
at  some  distance  from  the  seashore,  and  their  shipping  ports  are 
little  more  than  a  straggling  collection  of  wretched  habitations 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  landing-stage  and  its  offices  and  ware- 
bouses.  Callao  iq.v.)  is  a  noteworthy  exception,  and  Paita 
and  Pisco  are  something  more  than  the  average  coast  village. 
Near  Lima,  on  this  south,  there  are  three  bathing  resorts, 
Chorrillos,  Miraflores  and  Barranco,  which  have  handsome 
residences  and  large  populations  in  the  bathing  season.  North 
of  Lima  u  the  port  and  bathing  resort  of  Ancon,  in  an  extremely 
arid  locality  but  having  a  fine  beach,  a  healthy  climate  and  a 
con^derable  population  in  the  season.  The  towns  of  the  coast 
r^on  are  usually  built  on  the  same  general  plan,  the  streets 
crossing  each  other  at  right  angles  and  endosing  squares,  or 
quadras.  In  the  sierra  there  is  the  same  regular  plan  wherever 
the  site  is  level  enough.  High-pitched  red  tiled  roofs  take  the 
place  of  the  flat  roofs  of  the  coast.  The  upper  storey  often 
recedes,  leaving  wide  corridors  under  the  overhanging  eaves, 
and  in  the  "plazas"  there  are  frequently  covered  arcades. 
In  addition  to  the  capitals  of  the  departments,  Tarma  (about 
4000)  and  Xauxa,  or  Jauja  (about  3000),  are  important  towns 
of  this  region.  In  the  montaHa  there  are  no  towns  of  importance 
other  than  the  capitals  of  the  departments  and  the  small  river 
ports. 

CommunieatioHS.^'The  problem  of  easy  and  cheap  transportation 
between  the  coast  and  the  interior  has  been  a  vital  one  for  Peru, 
for  upon  it  depends  the  economic  development  of  some  of  the 
richest  parts  of  the  republic.  The  arid  cnaracter  of  the  coastal 
sone.  with  an  average  width  of  about  80  m.,  permits  cultivation 
of  the  soil  only  where  water  for  irrigation  is  available.  Only  in  the 
sierra  and  motUaMa  regions  is  it  passible  to  maintain  a4a(ge  popu- 
lation and  develop  the  industries  upon  which  their  success  as  a 
nation  depends.  During  colonial  times  and  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century  pack  animals  were  the  only  means  of  trans- 
portation across  the  desert  and  over  the  rough  mountain  traib. 
Kailway  construction  in  Peru  began  in  1848  with  a  short  line  from 
Callao  to  Lima,  but  the  building  of  railway  lines  across  the  desert 
to  the  inland  towns  of  the  fertile  river  valleys  and  the  Andean 
foot-hills  did  not  begin  until  twenty  years  later.  These  roads  added 
much  to  the  productive  resources  of  the  country,  but  their  extension 
to  the  uerra  districts  was  still  a  vital  necessity.  Under  the  adminis- 
tration (1868-1872)  of  President  Jos£  Balta  the  construction  of 
two  transandean  and  several  coastal  zone  railways  was  begun, 
but  their  completion  became  impoesible  for  want  of  funds.  Balta's 
plans  covered  laSi  m.  of  state  railways  and  749  m.  of  private 
liaes.  the  estimated  cost  to  be  about  £37,500,ooo-«  sura  far  beyond 
the  resources  of  the  republic.  The  two  transandean  lines  were 
the  famous  Oroya  railway,  running  from  Callao  to  Oroya  (1893), 
which  crosses  the  Western  Cordillera  at  an  elevation  of  15.645  it., 


and  lateral  to  Ceno  de  Pasoo  (1904),  the  CoStarbqulsKa  ooal  mines 
(1904)  and  Hauri  (1906);  ana  the  southern  Kne  from  Mollendo 
to  Lake  Titicaca.  which  reached  Arequipa  in  1869.  Puno  in  i87r 
and  Checcacupe  (Cuzco  branch)  in  1906.  Surveys  were  completed 
in  1909  for  an  extension  of  the  Oroya  line  from  a  point  on  iu  Cerro 
de  Pasco  branch  eastward  to  the  Ucayali,  and  another  ttansandeaa 
line  frequently  discussed  is  projected  from  Paita  across  the  Andes 
to  Puerto  Limon,  on  the  MaraAon— a  distance  of  410  ro. 

The  most  important  means  of  communication  in  the  republic 
is  that  of  its  river  system,  comprising,  as  it  does,  the  navigable 
channels  of  the  Marajkon,  or  upper  Amazon,  and  its  tributaries, 
it  is  officially  estimated  that  tnis  system  comprises  no  less  than 
20.000  m.  of  connected  riverways  navigable  at  high  water  for  all 
descriptions  of  boats,  or  10,000  m.  for  steamers  of  20  to  3  ft.  draught, 
which  is  reduced  to  s8oo  m.  at  bw  water.  The  rivers  forming 
this  system  are  the  Marafion  from  Puerto  Limon  to  Tabatinga  oa 
the  Brazilian  frontier  (484  m.).  the  Japurl,  Putuinayo,  Javary. 
Napo.  Tigre,  Huallaga,  Ucayali,  Pachitea.  Juru4,  Pur^.  Acre. 
Curaray  and  Aguarico  all  navigable  over  paru  of  their  courses 
(or  steamers  of  a  to  8  ft.  draught  m  periods  of  nigh  water.  As  for  the 
Marafion,  it  b  claimed  that  steamers  of  ao  ft.  draught  can  ascend  to 
Puerto  Limon  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  inclusion  o(  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Brazilian  rivers  Juru&.  Purus  and  Acre  ts 
pro  forma  only,  as  they  are  whollv  under  Brazilian  jurisdiction. 
Practically  the  whole  of  the  region  tnrough  which  these  rivers  rw»— 
the  montaiia  of  Peru — b  undeveloped,  and  b  inhabited  by  Indians, 
with  a  few  settlements  of  whites  on  the  river  courses.  Its  chief 
port  is  fquitos,  on  the  Maraiton,  335  m.  above  the  Brazilian  frontia 
and  2653  *"'  ^^^  ^^^  mouth  01  the  Amazon.  It  is  visited  bf 
ocean-gotng[  steamers,  and  b  the  centre  of  the  Peruvian  rive 
transportation  system.  The  second  port  in  importance  is  Yur»> 
maguas,  on  the  Huallaga,  143  m.  from  the  mouth  of  that  river 
and  528  m.  from  Iquitos,  with  which  it  is  in  regular  comrounicatioa 
There  are  small  ports,  or  trading  posts,  on  all  the  brge  rivers,  and 
occasional  steamers  arc  sent  to  them  with  supplies  and  to  briog 
away  rubber  and  other  forest  products.  Qf  the  rivers  farther 
south,  which  discharge  into  the  Amazon  through  the  Madeira, 
the  Madrc  de  Dios  alone  offers  an  extended  navigable  ciiaaad. 
together  with  some  of  its  lareer  tributaries,  such  as  the  Heath 
and  Chandlcss.  Of  a  widely  difTerent  character  is  the  navigatioA 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  where  steamers  ply  regularly  between  Puao  and 
Cuaqui,  the  latter  on  the  southeast  slMore  in  railway  coaacxioa 
with  La  Paz.  the  capital  of  Bolivia.  Thb  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  steamer  routes  in  the  world,  being  12.370  ft.  above  sea- 
level.  The  lake  is  165  m.  long  and  from  70  to  80  m.  wide  azKi  has 
a  number  of  small  Indfian  vilk^es  on  its  bhores. 

There  are  two  submarine  cable  lines  on  the  Peruvian  coast— 
the  (American)  Central  and  South  American  Co.  extending  from 
Panama  to  Valparaiso,  and  the  (Britbh)  West  Coast  Cable  Co^ 
subsidiary  to  the  Eastern  Telegraph  (To.,  with  a  cable  betwera 
Callao  and  Valparaiso.  The  inland  telegraph  service  dates  from 
1864.  when  a  short  line  from  Callao  to  Lima  was  constructed,  and 
state  ownership  from  1875.  when  the  government  assumed  control 
of  all  lines  within  the  republic,  some  of  which  were  subsequently 
handed  over  to  private  administration.  They  coimect  all  the 
important  cities,  towns  and  ports,  but  cover  only  a  small  part  d 
the  republic.  The  cost  of  erecting  and  maintaining  telegraph  lines 
in  the  sierra  and  mcntaila  regions  is  too  great  to  permit  tnetr  exten- 
sive use.  and  the  government  b  seeking  to  substitute  wirdess 
telegraphy.  From  Puerto  Bcrmudez,  on  the  Pachitea  or  Pidus 
river,  the  terminus  of  a  government  road  and  telceraph  line,  s 
wireless  system  connects  with  Massisea  on  the  Ucayali,  and  theixc 
with  Iquitos,  on  the  M araiion — a  distancepf  930  m.  by  steamer,  whidi 
b  much  shortened  by  direct  communication  between  the  three 
radiographic  stations.  This  service  was  opened  to  Iquitos  os 
the  8th  of  July  1908.  the  first  section  between  Puerto  Bcmudcx 
and  Massisea  having  been  pronounced  a  success.  The  PcruN-ua 
telegraph  system  connects  with  those  of  Ecuador  and  Bolivia. 
The  use  of  the  telephone  is  j^eneral.  ^^6  m.  being  in  operation  io 
1906.  The  postal  service  is  unavoidably  limited  and  defecti\-c. 
owing  to  the  rugged  character  of  the  country,  its  sparse  population, 
and  the  large  percentage  of  illiterates.  On  the  coast,  howtrv-cr, 
in  and  near  the  large  cities  and  towns,  it  compares  well  with  other 
South  American  countries.  Peru  belongs  to  the  international 
postal  union,  and  had  in  1906  a  money  order  and  parcels  exchange 
with  seven  forcisn  states.  A  noteworthy  peculiarity  in  the  foreign 
mail  service  b  uiat  an  extra  charge  of  2  cents  for  each  letter  ar<d 
I  cent  for  each  post-card  is  collected  when  they  are  sent  across  the 
isthmus  of  Panama.  No  charge  is  made  for  the  transmission  oc 
newspapers  within  the  republic.  The  letter  rate  is  5  cents  sHver 
for  15  prams,  or  to  cents  to  foreign  countries  in  the  postal  union. 

Commerce.— Owing  to  political  disorder,  dtificulty  in  land  coo- 
munlcations,  and  the  inheritance  of  vicious  fiscal  methoda  frees 
Spanish  colonial  adminbtration,  the  commercial  development  of 
Peru  has  been  slow  and  erratic.  There  are  many  ports  on  the 
coast,  but  only  eight  of  them  are  rated  as  first  class,  viz.  Paita, 
Eten.  Parasmayo.  Salaverry.  Callao.  Pisco.  Mollendo  and  llo, 
fiw  of  which  are  ports  of  call  for  foreign  coasting  steamers.  The 
inland  port  of  Iquitos.  on  the  MaraAon,  is  also  rated  as  first  class. 
and  enjoys  special  privileges  because  of  its  distance  from  the  national 


PERU, 


871 


capteaL  Tht  9Beoa6<hm  pocti  are  Tttmbet*  Taba*  :PbMnlel» 
Cmmbote.  Samaaoo,  Ouma,  Huacho,  Cerro-Aztil,  Tambo  de  Mora, 
Loraas  and  ChaU,  on  the  caaat,  Puno  oa  Laks  TUicaca,  and 
Leticia  on  the  Anunon  near  the  weitena  mouth  of  the  javanr. 
Callao  ^jr.)  is  the  chief  port  of  the  republic  and  monopouca  the 
greater  part  of  its  foreign  trade.  It*  harbour,  one  ol  the  best 
on  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  has  been  greatly  impiovcd 
by  the  wt  works  begun  under  the  adouniatratioa  of  President 
t^kL    Paitn  and  Chimbote  have  good  natunl  harbours*  bat  the 


others,  for  the  most  part,  are  opes  roadsteads  or  unsheltered  bays. 
MoUendo  is  a  rfupping  port  (or  BoUviaa  exports  sent  over  the  railway 
from  Puno.  There  were  la  foreign  stoamship  lines  trading  at 
Peruvian  ports  in  1908,  some  of  them  making  regular  trips  up  and 
down  the  coast  at  frequent  intervals  and  carrying  much  of  its 
coastwise  tralfic  Poraisn  sailing  vessels  since  1S86  banc  not  been 
permitted  to  eafBf^  in  this  traffic,  but  peraaiarioa  is  given  to  steam* 
ships  on  appUoauon  and  under  certain  conditions.  The  imports 
were  valued  in  1907  at  5S.i47f870  sales  (10  soles -£i  stg4  and  the 
exports  at  S7477i3ao  Mtrj^-'tne  former  showing  a  considerable 
increase  and  the  latter  a  small  decraaae  in  comparison  with  i^Ki6w 
The  exporta  consist  of  oocton,  sugar,  cocaine,  hkics  aad  sions, 
rubber  and  other  forest  products,  wool,  guano  and  mineral  products. 
The  most  important  export  b  8a|ar.  the  products  of  the  mines 
ranking  Kcond.  The  largest  share  m  Peru's  foreign  trade  is  taken 
by  Great  Britain,  Chile  ranking  second  aad  the  United  Sutes 
third. 

PfodacCf.-^Allhongh  her  mUitn^  industries  have  been  the  longest 
and  most  widely  known,  the  principal  source  of  Peru's  wealth  is 
agriculture.  This  teems  incompatible  with  the  arid  character  of 
the  country  and  the  peculiar  comfitions  of  its  ctviliation.  but 
irrigatkm  has  been  successfully  emptoyed  in  the  fertile  valleys  of 
the  coast. 

i4frtc«/f are.— Sugar-cane  is  cultivated  in  most  of  the  coast  valleys, 
aad  with  exceptional  success  in  those  of  the  Canete,  Rimac,  Chanoay, 
Hbaura,  Supe,  Santa,  Chicama,  Pacasmayo  and  Chicbyo.  Some 
of  the  brge  estates  are  owned  and  wornsd  by  British  sabjeets. 
The  induatry  was  neariy  ruined  by  the  Chileans  in  1880,  but  its 
recovery  soon  followed  the  termination  of-  the  war  aad  the  output 
has  been  steadily  incrraslng.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the 
productwn  was  about  80,000  tons;  in  1903  the  production  of  sugar 
and  molasses  amounted  to  161,851  metne  tons,  of  which  I34«544 
were  exported,  in  i^  the  total  pioduction  reached  169.418 
metric  tons.  Next  in  unportance  b  cotton,  which  b  grown  along 
the  greater  part  of  the  Peruvian  const,  but  chiefly  in  the  depart- 
ments  of  Piura,  Lima  and  lea.  Four  kinds  are  piodoced:  rough 
cotton  or  "  vegetable  wool."  sea  isbnd,  brown  or  Miufifi,  and 
smooth  or  American.  Productkm  b  steadily  increasing,  the  export 
having  been  8000  metric  tons  in  1900,  17,386  in  1905  and  M/too 
in  1906.  Local  consumptbn  required  about  2500  .tons  in  1905. 
Rice  b  an  important  crop  in  the  inundated  bnds  of  Lambayeque 
and  Libertad.  It  is  a  nniveffml  articb  of  food  in  P«ru,  and  the 
output  b  consumed  in  the  country-  Maiae  b  another  important 
food  product  which  b  generally  cultivaied  along  the  coast  and  in 
the  lower  valleys  of  the  sierra.  In  some  places  two  or  three  crops 
a  year  are  obtamed.  It  b  the  stapb  food  everywhere,  and  little  b 
exported.  It  is  largely  used  in  tne  manufacture  of  ekickm  a  fer- 
mented drink  popular  among  the  knrar  classes.  Tobacco  b  grown 
in  the  deportment  of  Piura,  and  in  the  monloM  dcpnitmeiits  of 
Loreto,  Ankazonas  and  Cajamarca.  The  local  conaamption  b  large 
and  the  export  small.  Another  moaftiffa  product  is  coffee,  whose  suc- 
cessful development  is  prevented  by  dimcult  transport.  A  superior 
quality  of  bean  is  produced  in  the  eastern  valleys  of  xKe  Andes, 
espedally  in  the  Chanchamayo  valley.  Cacao  b  another  momtoMa 
product,  although  like  coffee  it  is  cultivated  in  the  warm  valleys 
of  the  sierra,  but  the  export  is  small.  With  cheap  transport  to 
the  coast  the  production  of  coffee  and  cacao  must  brgely  increase. 
Coca  iErythroxyion  coca)  is  a  product  peculiar  to  the  eastern  Andean 
slopes  of  Bolivia  and  Peru,  where  it  has  long  been  cultivated  for 
its  leaves.  These  are  sun-dried,  packed  in  boles,  and  disiributed 
throughout  the  sierra  region,  where  coca  is  used  by  the  natives 
as  a  stimubnt.  The  Chok>s  are  never  without  it.  and  With  it  are 
able  to  perform  incredible  tasks  with  little  food.  The  common 
manner  of  using  it  is  to  mastkate  the  dried  leaves  with  a  littb  lime. 
Cocaine  is  also  derived  from  coca  leaves,  and  a  considerably  quamity 
of  the  drug  b  exported.  The  coca  shrub  is  most  successfully 
cultivated  at  an  elevation  of  5000  to  6000  ft.  Fruits  in  great 
variety  are  grown  everywhere  in  Peni,  but  beyond  kxal  market 
demands  their  commercbl  production  b  Umhed  to  grapes  and 
olives.  Grapes  are  produced  in  many  of  the  irrigated  valleys  of 
the  coast,  such  as  Chincha,  Lunahuana,  lea.  Vitor.  Majea,  Andaray, 
Moquegua  and  Locumba.  and  the  fruit  b  manufactured  into  wines 
and  brandies.  Excelbnt  daieta  and  white  wines  are  produced, 
and  the  industry  is  steadily  increasing.  Olives  were  introduced 
eariy  in  colonial  times  and  are  cultivated  In  several  coast  valleys, 
especially'  in  the  provinces  of  Camani  (Arrquipa)  and  Mooueeua. 
Tne  fruit  is  oommonly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  oiU  .-which  b 
consumed  in  the  countrV.  and  only  a  small  part  b  exported.  Were 
large  markets  availabb,  other  fruits  such  as  oranges,  lemons.  limes 
and  bananas  would  undoubtedly  be  extensively  cultivated.  In 
the  jicrro  region,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  quinua  {CkeHop^iuin  quiuoa), 


aKalia.  ladiia  com/^oca  ^tnflt  lni«raaB>  andpotatoea  are  the 
principal  paodncts.  Wheat  b  widely  grown  but  the  output  b  not 
large.  Barky  and  oats  are  grown  for  fora«e,  but  for  thb  purpose 
alfufa  has  beoonie  the  staple,  and  without  it  the  mountain  pack- 
traina  oould  not  be  naiataincd.  Quinua  b  an  indigenous  frfant, 
srowing  at  elevations  of  13,^00  ft.  and  more;  its  grain  b  an  mnpoctant 
food  among  the  upUnd  natives.  Potatoes  are  grown  everywhere  in 
the  sierras,  and  with  quinua  are  the  only  oops  that  can  be  raised 
for  human  food  above  13.000  ft.  Yuea  llianikoi  stft/icn'ma), 
known  as  casuna  in  the  West  Indies  aad  mamdioM  in  Brasil,  b  also 
widdy  cultivated  for  food  and  for  the  manufacture  of  starch. 

There  are  good  pastures  in  the  sierras,  and  cattle  have  been 
successfully  seared  in  lomc  of  the  depactnwiita  sinoe  the  early  yeare 
of  Spanish  occupatkid,  dnefly  in  AncadMr  Cajamaica.  Junin, 
Ayacucho,  Puno,  and  some  parts  of  Cuaca  Tne  development 
of  alfalfa  cukivatioa  b  esctcmdiag  the  area  of  cattb-breoding 
somewhat  and  b  impsoviag  the  quality  of  the  beef  riw^^nr^ 
produced.  The  cattb  are  oommoafy  small  and  hardy,  "T?**"* 
and,  like  the  Mencnn  cattle,  are  able  to  bear  unfavourable 
cxmditioas.  Sheep  are  reared  over  a  somewhat  wider  range, 
exdusively  for  their  woot  The  *'  natives"  or  descendaata  of  the 
0ariy  importations,  are  small,  long-legged  animab  whose  wool  is 
aoaoty  and  poor.  Sinct  the  end  of  the  19th  century  efforts  have 
baenmade  to  improve  the  stock  throueh  the  importation  of  merioas, 
with  good  aesultB.  Sheep  ranges  unoer  the  care  of  Scottish  shep> 
herds  have  abo  been  established  in  the  departmeat  of  Junin,  toe 
stock  being  imported  from  southern  Patagoiua,  Engbnd  and 
Atistralia.  Goats  are  raised  in  Piura  and  Lambayeque  for  their 
skins  and  fat,  and  swine-Upeeding  for  the  production  oil  brd  has 
become  important  in  some  of  the  coast  valleys  immediatdy  north 
of  Uma.  Horiea  are  reared  only  to  a  limited  extent,  although 
there  b  a  demand  for  them  for  military  purposes.  The  governaKnt 
b  teddng  to  pcomote  the  industry  through  the  importation  of 
breeding  marcs  from  Argentina.  Mules  are  bred  in  Piura  ami 
Ainiibnac,  and  are  hi^iy  esteemed  for  mottatain  trevd.  The 
chid  breeding  industry  b  that  of  the  llama,  alpaca  and  vicufia— 
animab  of  the  Amehenia  family  domestkated  by  the  Indbna  and 
bred,  the  first  as  apack  animal,  and  the  other  twa  for  their  wool, 
hides  and  meat.  The  llama  was  the  only  beast  of  burden  known 
to  the  South  American  natives  bdore  the  arrival  of  the  Spanbrda 
and  b  hii^ly  servioeaUle  on  the  difficult  traib  of  the  Andea.  Thte 
alpaca  and  vicuila  are  amaller  and  weaker  and  have  never  been 
used  for  thb  service,  but  their  fine,  flossy  fleeces  were  used  by  the 
Indiam  in  the  manufacture  of  clothuig  and  are  stiU  an  important 
commerdal  asset  of  the  devated  tabl»>bnda  of  Peru  and  Bolivia. 
The  export  of  wotrf  in  1905  exceeded  3,300,000  lb.  The  resjring 
of  these  animals  raqtures  much  patience  and  skill,  in  which  no 
one  has  been  able  to  match  the  Indbn  breeders  of  the  Andean 
pbteaua. 

The  natural  products  of  Peru  include  rubber,  cabinet  woods  in 
great  variety,  cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark  and  other  medidnal 

Eroducts^  varioua  fibres,  and  guano.  There  are  two  ptett 
iads  01  rubber  supidied  by  the  Peruvba  memtaUa  prodaeta, 
forests:  fthe  (also  wntten  tube)  or  serinfa,  and  caueho-^ 
the  farmer  brings  odlectcd  from  the  Haaea  puytuuims^  or  H. 
hrasUiensitt  and  the  latter  from  the  CwtUloa  dattka  and  some 
other  varieties.  The  Hmea  product  bobtaincd  annually  by  tapping 
the  trees  and  ceasnlating  the  sap'over  a  smoky  fire^  but  the  eattcko 
is  procured  by  felling  the  tree  and  ooQecting  the  sap  in  a  hollow  in 
the>  ground  wlicre  it  is  coagulated  by  itirring  in  a  mixture  of  soap 
and  the  joioe  of  a  pbnt  auled  vetiua.  As  the  species  from  which 
Ceari  rubber  is  obtained  {Hanetfina  Mpedosa)  b  found  in  Bdivb, 
it  is  probabb  that  thb  b  abo  a  source  of  the  Penivian  caedbe..  The 
Heaea  b  found  aton^  the  water-coursea  of  the  lowbnds,  which 
includes  the  large  tnbutaries  of  the  Marafion,  while  the  eaucko 
species  flourish  on  higher  ground,  above  000  ft.  elevation.  Owing 
to  the  export  tax  on  rubber  (8  cents  per  kilogram  on  jebe  and  5  cents 
on  caueko)  it  b  probabb  that  the  official  etatbtica  (X»  not  cover  the 
toul  proauctbn,  whbh  waa  returned  as  2539  metric  tons  in  I90i(y 
valuea  at  £913.989.  The  export  ol  dncnona,  or  Penivbn  bark, 
is  not  important  in  itself,  bong  onlv  <4  tons,  ^^ued  at  jCl4o6  in 
1905.  The  best  bark  comes  from  tne  Carabaya  district  in  south- 
eastern Peru,  but  it  b  found  in  many  localities  on  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Andes.  The  Peruvian  supply  is  practically  exhausted  through 
the  destructive  methods  empkiyea  in  collecting  the  bark,  and  the 
worid  now  dependt  chiefly  on  Bdivb  and  Ecuador.  The  forests 
of  eastern  Peru  are  rich  in  fine  cabinet  woods,  but  thdr  inaccessi- 
bility renders  them  of  no  great  value.  Among  the  best  known 
of  tnem  are  cedar,  walnut,  ironwood  and  caoba,  a  kind- of  mahogany. 
Many  of  the  forest  trees  of  the  upper  Amaaon  valby  of  Brazil 
are  likewise  found  in  Peru.  The  palm  family  b  numerous  and 
indudcs  the  species  producing  vegetable  ivory  (Phytdephas)* 
straw  for  pbittng '  Panama  hats  {CaHudcmca  paimata),  ami  the 
peach  palm  (fludidma  epeeioia). 

From  gnano  an  immense  revenue  was  desi^'cd  during  the  third 
quarter  01  the  19th  century  and  it  is  still  one  of  the  lanpsst  expocts. 
The  guano  beds  are  found  on  the  barren  blands  of  the  otaansti 
Padnc  coast.  They  were  developed  comrocrcblly 
during  the  administration  (18^5-1851)  of  Presideni  Ramon  Castilb, 
kt  the  ume  time  that  the  nitrate  deposits  of  Tarapaci  became  a 


272 


PERU 


commercial  asset  of  the  republic  The  large  nevemiee  derived  from 
these  sources  uodoubtedly  became  a  cause  of  weakness  and 
demoralization  and  eventttally  resulted  in  bankruptcy  aad  the  loss 
of  TarapacA.  The  deposits  have  been  partially  exhausted  by  the 
large  shipments  of  over  a  half>century»  but  the  export  in  1905  waa 
73^69  tons,  valued  at  £^85,729. 

*  Mining. — Mining  was  the  chief  industnr  of  Peru  under  &)anbh 
rule.  The  Inca  tribes  were  an  agrKulturaland  pastoral  people,  but 
the  abundance  of  gold  and  alver  in  their  possesnoii  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  shows  that  mining  must  have  received  considerable 
attentions  They  used  these  precious  metab  m  decorations  and  as 
ornaments,  but  apparently  attached  ao  great  value  to  them.  The 
use  of  bronxealso  shows  tlat  they  must  nve  worked,  perhaps  super- 
ficially, some  ol  the  great  copper  deposits.  lounediately  following 
the  Spanbh  invauon  the  Anoiean  region  was  thoroughly  explored, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  Indian  slaves  thousands  of  mines  were 
opened,  many  of  them  failures,  some  of  them  becoming  famous. 
There  was  a  decline  in  mining  enterprise  after  the  revolt  of  the 
colonists  against  Spanish  rule,  owing  to  the  nnaettled  state  of  the 
country,  and  this  decline  continuedT  in  some  measu^  to  the  end 
of  the  century.  The  mining  laws  of  the  colonial  r6gime  and 
political  disonier  together  ra&d  a  barrier  to  the  employment  of 
the  large  amount  of  capital  needed,  while  the  frequent  outbreaks 
of  civil  war  made  it  impossible  to  work  any  large  enterprise  because 
of  its  interference  with  labour  and  the  free  use  of  ports  and  roads. 
The  Peruvians  were  impoverished,  and  under  such  conditions 
foreign  capital  could  not  be  secured,  la  1876  new  mining  laws 
were  enacted  wUch  gave  better  titles  to  rainins  properties  and 
better  regulatioRS  for  their  operation.  bi|t  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  Chile  at  the  end  of  the  decade  and  the  succeeding  years  of 
disorganization  and  partisan  strife  defeated  their  ourpose.  Another 
new  mining  cede  was  adopted  in  1901 ,  and  this,  with  an  improvement 
in  political  and  economic  conditions,  has  led  to  a  renewal  of  mining 
enterprise. 

Practically  the  whole  Andean  region  of  Peru  is  mineral-bearing — 
a  region  isoo  m.  long  by  300  to  300  m.  wide.  Within  these  limits 
are  to  be  round  most  <n  the  minerals  knowa--gold,  silver,  quick- 
silver, copper,  lead,  zinc,  iron,  manganese,  wolfram,  bismuth, 
thorium,  vanadium,  mica,  coal,  &c  On  or  near  the  coast  are  coal, 
salt,  sulphur,  borax,  nitrates  and  petroleum.  Gold  is  found  in 
lodes  and  alluvial  deport;  the  former  on  the  Pacific  slope  at  Salpo, 
Otuzco,  Huaylas,  Yungay,  Ocros,  Chorrillos,  Caftete,  lea,  Nasca. 
Andaray  and  Arequipa,  and  on  the  table-lands  and  Amazon  slope 
at  Pataz,  Hu&nuco,  Chuquitambo,  Huancavelica,  Cuzco,  Cota- 
bambas,  Aymarcs,  Paucartambo,  Santo  Oomingo  and  Sandia; 
the  latter  wholly  on  the  Amazon  slope,  in  the  country  about  the 
Pongo  de  Manseriche  and  at  Chuouibamba,  both  on  the  upper 
Marafion,  in  the  districts  of  Pataz,  Hu&nuco,  Aymares  and  Anta- 
bamba  (Apurimac),  Paucartambo  and  Quippicauchi  (Cuzco),  and 
Sandia  and  Caralaya  (Puno).  The  last  two  are  most  important 
and,  it  is  believed,  were  the  sources  from  which  the  Incas  derived 
the  greater  part  df  their  store.  The  alluvial  deposits  are  found  both 
in  the  bcxls  of  the  small  streams  and  in  the  soil  of  the  small  plains  or 
pampas.  The  Aporoma  deposit.  In  the  district  of  Sandia,  is  the  best 
known.  Long  ditches  with  stone-paved  duices  for  washing  this 
mineral-bearing  material  have  long  been  used  by  the  Indians,  who 
also  constmct  stone  bins  across  the  beds  of  the  streams  to  make 
riffles  and  hold  the  deposited  grains  of  gold.  Modem  methods  of 
hvdraulic  mining  have  been  introduced  to  work  the  aurifi^roua  banks 
ot  Poto;  elsewhere  antiquated  methods  only  are  employed.  The 
upper  valley  of  the  Maraflon  has  undeveloped  gold-bearing  lodes. 
Tne  number  of  mines  worked  is  small  and  there  is  not  much  foreign 
capital  invested  in  them.  The  gold  ores  of  Peru  are  usuallv  found 
in  ferruginous  quartz.    The  production  in  1906  was  valued  at 

Peru,  lias  been  known  chiefly  for  its  silver  runes,  some  of  which 
have  been  marvellously  productive.  The  Cerro  de  Pasco  district, 
with  Ks  342  mines,  is  credited  with  a  poduction,  in  value,  of 
£40,000,000  between  178A  and  1889,  and  is  still  productive,  the 
output  for  1906  being  valued  at  {97a  1958.  The  principal  silver- 
producing  districts,  the  greater  part  on  the  high  table-lands  and 
dopes  of  the  Andes,  are  those  of  Salpo,  Hualgayoc,  Huari, 
Huallanca,  Huaylas,  Huaraz,  Rocuay,  Caiatambo,  Yauli,  Cerro 
de  Pasco,  Morococha,  Huarochiri,  Huancavelica,  Quespisisa,  Castro- 
virlvyna,  Lucanas,  Lampa,  Caylloroa  and  Puno,  but  there  are 
hundreds  of  othere  outside  their  limits.  Silver  b  generally  found 
as  ttd  oxides  (locally  called  rosicUr)^  sulphides  and  argentiferous 
galena.  Modern  machinery  is  little  used  and  many  mines  are 
practically  unworkable  for  want  of  pumps,  lit  the  vicinity  of  some 
of  the  deposits  of  argentiferous  galena  are  large  coal  beds,  but 
timber  is  scarce  on  the  table-lands.  The  dried  dung  of  the  llama 
(la^Mia)  is  generally  used  as  fuel,  as  in  pre-Spanish  times,  for  roasting 
ores,  as  also  a  niccies  of  grass  called  uku  {Stipa  tncana)^  and  a 
Mngular  woody  fungus,  called  yarela  (Atordia  umbdlifera)^  found 
erowirtg  on  the  rocks  at  elevations  exceeding  1 2,000  ft.  The  methods 
lormierly  employed  in  reducing  ores  were  lixiviation  and  amal^- 
mation  with  <juick«lver,  but  modem  methods  are  gradually  coming 
into  use.  Quicksilver  is  found  at  Huancavelica,  Chonta  (Ancachs), 
and  in  the  department  of  Puno.  The  mine  first  named  has  been 
wvMted  since  1566  and  its  total  production  is  estimated  at  6o/X)o 


torn,  the  uuina!  product  being  about  670  tons  for  a  lot^  period. 
The  metal  generally  occurs  as  sulphide  of  mercury  (cuioabar), 
but  the  ores  vary  greatly  in  richness—from  2|  to  20%.  The 
annual  production  has  fallen  to  a  small  fraction  of  the  former 
output.  Its  value  in  1905  being  only  £340,  and  in  1906  £495. 

The  copper  deposits  of  Pern  long  remained  undeveloped 
through  want  of  cheap  transport  and  failure  to  appreciate  their 
true  value.  The  principal  copper-bearing  districts  are  Chimbote, 
Cajamarca,  Huancayo,  Huacaz,  Huallanca,  lunin,  Huancavelica, 
lea,  Arequipa,  Andahnaylas  and  Cuaco--cniefly  ntuated  in  the 
high,  bleak  regions  of  the  Andes.  The  Junin  district  is  the  best 
known  and  includes  the  Cerro  de  Pasco,  Yauli,  Morococha  and 
Huallay  groups  of  mines,  all  finding  an  outlet  to  the  coast  over 
the  Oroya  railway.  These  mines  artf  of  recent  development,  the 
Cerro  de  Pasco  mines  having  been  purchased  hjt  Americao 
capitalists.  A  smelting  plant  was  erectea  in  the  vicinity  of  Cerro 
de  Pasco  designed  to  treat  1000  tons  of  ore  daily,  a  railway  was 
built  to  Oroya  to  connect  with  the  state  line  terminating  at  that 
•point,  and  a  branch  line  62  m.  long  was  built  to  the  coal-mines  of 
Goillarisquisga.  The  Cerro  de  Pasco  mines  are  supposed  by  some 
authoritibr  to  be  the  largest  copper  deposit  in  the  workl.  la 
addition  to  the  smdting  works  at  Cerro  de  Pasoo  there  are  other 
large  works  at  Casapaka,  between  Oroya  and  Lima,  which  bclof^ 
to  a  British  company,  and  smaller  pUats  at  Huallanca  and  Huiaac 
The  production  of  copper,  is  steauiily  increasing,  the  returns  fcr 
1903  being  9497  tons  and  for  1906  13474  tons,  valued  rcspcctivdv 
at  £476'824  and  £996^55.  Of  other  metals,  lead  is  widdy  distn- 
buted,  it's  chief  sounx  being  a  high  grade  galena  accompanied  bf 
silver.  Iron  ores  are  found  in  Piura,  the  Huaylas  valley.  Au 
and  some  other  places,  but  the  deposits  have  not  been  woH^ 
through  lack  of  fuel.  Sulphur  deftosits  exist  in  the  Scchm 
desert  region,  on  the  coast,  and  extcuMve  borax  depoMts  have  bees 
developed  in  the  department  of  Arequipa.  ^Cool  has  been  fot»^ 
in  extemuve  beds  near  Piura,  Salaveriry,  Chimbote,  Huarmcy  sad 
Pisoo  on  the  coast;  and  at  Goiliariaquisga,  Huarochiri  and  other 

E laces  in  the  interior.  Both  anthracite  and  bituminous  deposits 
ave  been  found.  Most  of  the  deposits  are  isolated  and  have  not 
been  developed  for  want  of  transport.  Petroleum  has  been  fooiKl 
at  several  points  on  the  coast  in  the  department  of  Piura,  and  near 
Lake  Tiricaca  in  the  department  of  Puno.  The  most  productive 
of  the  Piura  wells  are  at  Talara  and  Zorritos,  where  refineries  have 
been  established.  The  crude  oil  is  used  on  some  of  the  Pcruviaa 
railways. 

The  number  of  mining  claims  (peHeneucias)  repstered  in  1907  was 
12,858,  according  to  otticial  returns,  each  subject  to  a  tax  of  30 
soles,  or  £3,  per  annum,  the  payment  of  which  secures  complne 
ownership  of  the  property.  The  claims  measure  100X200  metres 
(about  s  acres)  in  the  case  of  mineral  veins  or  lodes,  and  200  Xzoo 
metres  (about  10  acres)  for  coal,  alluvial  gold  and  other  depouts. 
The  labouren  are  commonly  obtained  from  the  Choloa,  or  Indiaa 
inhabitants  of  the  merras,  who  are  accustomed  to  high  altitudes, 
and  are  generally  efficient  and  trustworthy. 

Manufaeiures. — ^The  manufacturing  industries  of  Peru  are  <»afioed 
chiefly  to  the  treatment  of  agricultural  and  mineral  products-' 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  rum  from  sugar  cane,  textiles  froa 
cotton  and  wool,  wine  and  spirits  from  grapes,  cigara  and  cigarctia 
from  tobacco,  chocolate  from  cacao^  kerosene  and  benzine  fn^s 
crude  petroleum,  cocaine  from  coc^i,  and  refined  metals  from  thtk 
ores.  Many  •of  the  manufacturing  industries  are  carried  on  wkk 
difficulty  and  maintained  only  by  protective  duties  on  compeiinc 
goods.  The  Incas  had  made  much  progress  in  weaving,  acd 
specimens' of  their  fabrics,  both  plain  and  coloured,  arc  to  be  found 
in  many  museums.  The  Spanish  introduced  their  own  methods, 
and  their  primitive  looms  are  still  to  be  found  amonn  the  Indiaia 
of  the  interior  who  weave  the  coarse  material  from  which  ther 
own  garments  are  made.  Modern  looms  for  the  manufacturr  of 
woollens  were  introduced  in  1861  and  of  cotton  goods  in  1^74. 
There  are  large  woollen  factories  at  Cuzco  and  Lima,  the  Ssnta 
Catalina  factory  at  the  latter  place  turning  out  cloth  and  cashmere 
for  the  array,  blankets,  counterpanes  and  underclothing.  There 
are  cotton  factories  about  Lima,  at  lea  and  at  Arequipa,  Bca^kks 
the  wine  industry,  an  irregular  though  important  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  or  counterfeit  spiriu  and  lioueurs  in  Callao 
and  Lima.  There  are  breweries  in  Arequipa,  Callao,  Cuzco  and 
Lima,  and  the  consumption  of  beer  is  increasing.^  There  are  large 
cigarette  factories  in  Lima,  and  othera  in  Arequipa,  Callao^  Piura 
and  Trujilla  The  plaiting  of  Panama  hats  from  the  spcooOy 
prepared  fibre  of  the  "  toquilla  "  palm  is  a  domestic  industry 
amoi^  the  Indians  at  Catacoas  (Piura)  and  Eten  (Lambayequt)- 
Coarser  straw  hats  are  made  at  other  places,  as  well  as  hammorVs. 
baskeu,  Ac 

Covernmenl. — ^Peni  is  a  centralized  republic,  whose  supreme 
law  is  the  constitution  of  i860.  Like  the  other  states  d 
South  America  its  constitutbo  provides  for  popular  control  of 
legislation  and  the  execution  of  the  kws  through  free  elections 
and  comparatively  short  terms  of  office,  but  in  practice  these 
safeguards  are  often  set  aside  and  dictatorial  methods  super- 
sede all  otben.    Komioally  the  people  are  free  and  cxcrdse 


PERU 


373 


aawidgtt  Hlsiits  te  the  diokB  ol  thdr  wpnaoAMl&ng,  Iwt  Ihe 
IgnoABoe  of  Uk  maaMa,  their  apathy,  poverty  and  dependence 
upon  tiie  great  land  prapricton  and  indo^rial  oorpoimtioas 
practiaifly  defeat  these  fimdamental  constitatienal  provisions. 
Citixenaliip  is  accorded  to  all  Peruvians  over  the  age  of  ai  and 
to  all  naiiied  men  under  that  ag^  and  the  right  of  sa£Fiage 
to  all  dtiaeos  who  can  icad  and  write,  or  possess  real  estate 
or  workshops,  or  pay  tains.  In  all  cases  the  eoBeniBe  of 
dtisensbip  is  regulated  by  law. 

The  govcnunent  is  divided  into  three  independent  bfauches, 
lepslative,  executive  and  Judicial,  of  which  through  force  of 
drcumstances  the  executive  has  become  the  dondnating  power. 
The  eaectttive  bfunch  consists  of  a  president  and  two  vice- 
presidents  dected  for  tenoa  of  four  years,  a  cabinet '  of  six 
ministerB  of  state  appointed  by  the  present,  and  varioas 
subordinate  officials  who  are  under  the  direct  orders  of  ^the 
pceadent.  The  president  Is  chosen  by  a  direct  popular  election 
and  cannot  be  re-elected  to  succeed  himself.  He  must  be  not 
less  than  35  years  of  age,  a  Peruvian  by  birth,  in  the  enjoyment 
of  all  fan  dvil  rights,  and  domiciled  in  the  republic  ten  years 
preceding  the  election.  The  immediate  supervision  and  despatch 
of  public  adnrinistiative  affain  is  in  the  hands  of  the  cabinet 
minatcia  interior,  foreign  affidrs,  war  and  marine,  finance  and 
commerce,  justice  and  public  instruction,  and  public  works  and 
promotion  (Jvmento).  The  execution  of  the  laws  in  the  depart- 
ments and  provinces,  as  well  as  the  maintraance  of  public 
order,  is  entrusted  to  prefects  and  sob-prefccls,  who  are  appoin- 
tees of  the  president.  A  vacancy  in  the  ofiice  of  president  is 
filled  by  one  of  the  two  vice-presidents  elected  at  the  same 
time  and  under  the  same  conditions.  Inability  of  the  fint 
vice-prasident  to  assume  the  office  opens  the  way  for  the 
second  vice-president,  who  becomes  acting  president  until  a 
suooessor  is  chosen.  The  vice*presidents  cannot  be  candidates 
for  the  presidency  during  their  occupancy  of  the  supreme 
executive  office,  nor  can  the  ministers  of  state,  nor  the  general- 
in-duef  of  the  army,  while  in  the  exercise  of  their  official  duties. 

The  legisbtive  power  is  exercised  by  a  national  Congress — 
senate  and  chamber  of  deputies— meeting  annually  on  the 
aSth  of  July  in  ordinary  sessioo  for  a  period  of  qo  days.  Sena- 
tors and  deputies  are  inviolable  in  the  exerdse  of  their  duties, 
and  cannot  be  arrested  or  imprisoned  during  a  session  of  Congress, 
includmg  the  month  preceding  and  foUowing  the  scssbn,  except 
in  fiagrank  idido.  Members  of  Congress  are  forbidden  to 
accept  any  employment  or  benefit  from  the  executive.  Senators 
and  deputies  are  elected  by  direct  vote— the  former  by  depart*' 
meats,  and  the  latter  in  prqpoction  to  the  popuhition.  With 
both  are  elected  an  equal  number  of  lufastituteSt  who  assume 

office  in  case  of  vacancy. 

Dekiaitments  with  eight  and  more  provinces  are  entitled  to  four 
senators,  tboee  of  four  to  fcven  provinces  three  senators,  thoce  of 
two  to  three  provinces  two  senators,  and  those  of  one  province 
one  senator.  The  deputies  are  chosen  to  represent  i$,6oo  to  30.000 
popuUtioa  each,  but  every  province  must  have  at  kact  one 
deputy*  Both  eeoatofs  and  deputies  are  elected  for  terms  of 
six  years,  and  both  must  be  native-bom  Peruvian  citizens  in  the  fuU 
enjoyment  of  their' civil  rights.  A  senator  mufi^  be  35  years  of  age, 
and  nave  a  yearly  income  of  $1000.  The  age  limit  oia  deputy  is 
2^  years,  and  his  income  must  be  not  leas  than  %!!fiO*  In  twth 
caambers  the  eaerciae  of  some  scientific  profession  is  aooepted 
in  lieu  of  the  pecuniary  income.  No  member  of  the  executive 
branch  of  the  government  (oreadent.  cabinet  minister,  prefect, 
sub-prefect,  or  governor)  can  be  elected  to  either  chamber,  nor  can 
any  judge  or  "  focal  "  01  the  supreme  court,  nor  any  member  of  the 
ecclesiastical  hierardiy  from  bis  diooese,  province  or  parish,  nor  any 
judge  or  "  fiscal "  of  superior  and  first-instance  courts  from  their 

Judicial  districts,  nor  any  military  officer  from  the  district  where  he 
lolds  a  military  appointment  at  the  time  of  election.  No  country 
isprovided  with  more  and  better  safegnards  against  electoral  and 
oflncbl  abuses  than  is  Peru,  and  >-et  few  countries  suffered  more 
from  political  disorder  during  the  19th  century.  The  president  has 
no  veto  power,  but  has  the  right  to  return  a  law  to  Congress  with 
comments  within  a  period  of  ten  days.  Should  the  act  be  again 
pSMed  without  amendments  it  beromes  law;  if,  however,  the 
suggested  amendments  are  accepted  the  act  must  ^go  over  to  the 
next  session.  Congress  may  also  sit  as  a  court  of  impeachment-r- 
the  senate  hearing  and  deciding  the  case,  and  the  chamber  acting 
9M  prosecutor.  The  president,  ministeni  of  state  and  judges  of  the 
■supreme  court  may  be  brought  before  this  court. 

XXI  5 


f.^The  jttdldeiy  is  compeded  of  a 
courts  and  courts  of  first  instance,  and  juatioes  of  the  peace.  The 
supreme  court  is  established  at  the  national  capital  and  conwta 
of  II  judges  and  3  '*fiacals"  or  prosecuton.  The  judges  are 
•elected  by  Congress  from  lists  of  nominees  submitted  by  the  exe- 
cutive. The  jw^Bes  of  the  superior  courts  are  chosen  by  the  press 
dent  from  the  ust  of  nominees  submitted  by  the  supreme  court. 
Questions  of  jurisdiction  between  the  superior  and  supreme  courts, 
as  well  as  questions  of  like  character  between  the  supreme 
court  and  the  eoDocutive,  are  deddM  by  the  senate  sitting  as  a 
conit.  The  oouits  of  first  instaooe  ate  established  in  the  capitals 
of  provinces  and  their  jhdges  are  chosen  by  the  superior  courts  of 
the  dfabriets  in  which  thcv  are  located.  The  indepeodeaoe  of  the 
Peruvian  courts  has  not  Seen  scrupulously  maintsuaed,  and  there 
has  beea  much  criticism  of  their  diameter  and  decisions. 

The  national  executive  appoints  and  removes  the  prefects  of 
the  departments  and  the  sub-prefects  of  the  pnwinoes,  and  the 
prefects  appoint  the  gebieniaiares  of  the  dbtricts.  The-  poliro 
oflSdals  throughout  the  rqnbllc  are  ako  appointees  of  the  prest' 
dent  and  are  under  his  orders. 

i4rNiy.-~After  the  Chilean  War  the  disorders  fomented  by  the 
rival  military  officen  led  to  a  desire  to  place  the  adminlstcatioa 
cl  public  amirs  under  civilian  controL  This  led  to  a  material 
reducdoB  in  the  army,  which,  as  reorganised,  consists  of  4000 
officers  and  men,  divided  into  seven  battalions  of  infantry  of  300  men 
each,  seven  squadrons  of  cavalry  of  xa^  men  each,  and  one  regiment 
of  mounmsa  artiUory  of  MO  men,  with  sue  batteries  of  mountain  guns. 
The  reofganisatioa  of  uie  army  was  carried  out  by  10  officers  and 
4  non-coms,  of  the  French  army,  known  as  riie  French  atOitary 
mission,  who  are  also  charged  whh  the  direction  of  the  military 
school  at  Chorrillos  and  all  brandies  ol  military  instruction.  There 
are  a  military  high  schod,  ^wepaiatorv'  sehool,  and  "  school  of 
application  "  m  connexion  with  the  training  of  young  <^ioerB  for 
the  army.  The  head  of  the  mission  is  chief  of  staff.-  Pormeriy  the 
Indians  were  fordbly  pressed  into  the  service  and  the  whites  filled 
the  positions  of  omcors,  in  great  part  untrained.  Now  military 
service  is  oblifKatory  for  adl  Peruvians  between  the  ages  of  19  and 
SO,  who  are  divided  into  four  classes,  first  and  second  reserves  (19 
to  30,  and  30  to  35  years),  supmiumeraries  (those  who  have 
purchased  exemption  from  service  in  the  regular  army),  and  the 
national  guard  (35  to  50  years).  The  regular  foroe  is  maintaiaed 
by  aanuu  drawings  from  the  lists  of  young  men  19  years  of  ue 
in  the  first  reserves,  who  are  required  to  serve  four  years.  The* 
direction  of  military  affairs  is  entrusted  to  a  general  staff,  which 
was  reorganired  in  1904  On  the  lines  adopted  by  the  great 
military  powers  of  Eunqie.  The  republic  is  divided  into  four 
military  districts  with  headquarters  at  Piura,  Liout,  Arequipa  and 
Iquitos,  and  there  into  eleven  dicumscriptions.  The  mounted 
police  force  of  the  republic  is  ailso  organised  on  a  military  basis. 

Nmjf.'^'Thm  Peruvian  navy  was  practically  annihilated  in  the 
war  with- Chile,  and  the  poverty  of  the  countrv  prevented  for  many 
yean  the  adoption  of  any  measure  for  its  rebuilding.  In  1908  it 
consisrod  of  only  five  vcsscAs.  The  naval  school  at  Callso  is  under 
the  direction  01  an  officer  of  the  French  navy.  In  addition  to  the 
fore^ing  the  government  has  a  few  small  river  boats  on  the  Marafion 
said  Its  tributaries,  which  are  commanded  by  naval  officers  and  used 
to  maintain  the  authority  of  the  rqmblic  and  carry  on  geogrsphkal 
and  hydrogiaphical  work. 

Finance. — The  financial  record  of  Pera,  notwithstanding  her 
enormous  natural  resources,  has  been  one  of  disaster  and  dtsordit^' 
laternal  strife  at  first  prevented  the  devdopanent  of  her  rewurces, 
and  then  when  the  export  of  guano  aUd  nitrates  supplied  her  treasury 
with  an  abundance  of  funds  the  money  was  squandered  on  extrava- 
gant enterprises  and  in  corrupt  practices.  This  was  followed  by  the 
loss  of  these  resooroes,  banknjptc^r,  and  eventually  the  sutrenaer  of 
her  prindpal  assets  to  her  foreign  creditors.  The  oovernment 
then  had  to  readjmt  expenditures  to  largely  diminished  resources; 
but  the  obligation  has  been  met  intelligentljr  and  courajpeoudy, 
and  since  1895  there  has  been  an  improvement  in  the  financial  state 
of  the  country.  The  public  revenues  are  derived  from  customs, 
taxes,  various  inland  and  consumption  taxes,  state  monopolies, 
the  government  wharves,  posts  ana  tdegraphs,  Ac  The  custom* 
taxes  include  import  and  export  duties,  surcharges,  luubour  dues, 
warehouse  chargo,  &c. ;  the  inland  taxes  comprise  consumption  taxes 
on  aleohol,  tobacco,  sugar  and  matches,  stamps  and  stamped  paper, 
capital  and  mimng  properties,  liornces,  tmnafcm  of  property,  oc; 
and  the  state  monopolies  cover  opium  and  salt.  In  1905  a  loan 
of  £fioo.ooo  was  floated  in  Germany  for  additions  to  the  navy.  The 
^wth  of  receipts  and  expenditures  is  shown  in  the  following  tabler-— 


I90*. 

1906. 

1908. 

Revenue  

Expenditure       .     .     . 

£1.990.568 
£1.884.949 

£2.527.766 
£2,178,252 

£2^7.433 
&.043.032 

The  revenues  of  1896  were  only  £1,128.714. 

The  foreign  debt  began  with  a  small  loan  of  £1,200,000  in  London 
in  1822.  and  another  of  £1,^,000  in  1825  of  which  only  £716,^16 
was  placed.  At  the  end  01  the  war,  these  loans,  and  sums  owing 
to  Caile  and  Colombia,  raised  the  fordgn  debt  to  £4,000,000^    In 


«74. 


PERU 


i8jO  thf*  debt  and  aocBnahted  intcrett  owing  In  London  aoMMmted 
to  £a«}io»767,  in  addition  to  wUch  there  was  a  luNne  debt  of 
I7t  t«3«397  dolhn.  In  1848  the  two  London  loans  and  accumulated 
tntereit  were  covered  by  a  new  loan  of  £3i736,49<V  *"^  ^^  home 
dd>t  waa  partially  liquidated,  the  lale  of  guano  givinf  the  treaaury 
ample  reaouroea.  Laviah  expienditure  followed  and  the  government 
waa  aooo  anticipating  its  revenuea  by  obtaining  advances  from 
guano  conaigaees,  usually  on  unfavourable  terms,  and  then  floating 
uans.  There  waa  another  oonvosion  loan  in  1862  in  the  aum  01 
^,500,000  and  in  1864  still  another  loan  of  thia  chancter  waa  issued, 
nominally  for  £10.000,000,  of  which  £7,000,000  only  wer«*  issued. 
Then  followed  the  ambitioua  achemes  of  Preaident  Balta,  which 
with  the  loans  of  1870  and  1872  taiaed  the  total  foicign  debt  to 
£49,000.000,  on  which  the  annual  intereat  charge  was  about 
72,500,000,  a  sum  wholly  beyond  the  resouroes  01  the  treasury. 
In  1876  interest  payments  on  account  of  this  debt  were  sus^nded 
and  in  187^1882  the  war  with  Chile  deprived  Peru  of  her  principal 
aoufcea*of  income— -the  guano  deposits  and  the  Tara|iac4  nitrates. 
In  1889  the  total  foreign  debt,  induding  arreara  of  interest,  waa 
£54,000,000,  and  in  the  following  year  a  contract  waa  signed  with 
the  Peruvian  Corpoiatioa,  a  company  in  which  the  bondholderB 
became  shareholdeta,  for  the  transfer  to  it  lor  66  years  of  the  state 
railways,  the  free  use  of  certain  ports,  the  right  of  navigation  on 
Lake  Titicaca,  the  exploitation  of  the  remaining  guano  deixwita 
np  to  3,000,000  tons,  and  thirty-three  annual  subsidies  of  £80,000 
each,  in  consideration  of  the  cancellatioo  of  the  debt.  Some  modi- 
fications were  later  made  in  the  contract,  owing  to  the  govemmeot'a 
failure  to  meet  the  annual  mibstdies  and  the  corporation's  failure 
to  extend  the  railwaya  agreed  upon.  Thia  contract  relieved  Peru 
of  ita  crushing  burden  of  foragn  indebtednesa,  and  turned  an 
apparently  heavy  loaa  to  the  bondholders  Into  a  potaible  profit.  In 
1910  the  foreini  debt  atood  at  £3,140,000,  compoaed  of  (1)  Peruvian 
Corporation  i^,i6o.ooo;  (2)  wharvea  and  doclca,  £80,000;  (3)  loan 
of  1905,  £500,000:  (^)  loan  of  1906,  £400,000. 

Currency, — The  single  gold  standard  haa  been  in  force  in  Peru 
since  1897  and  1898,  silver  and  copper  being  used  for  lubsidiaiy 
coinage.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  Peruvian  pound  (fibn)  which  is 
uniform  in  weight  and  fincnfss  with  the  British  pound  sterling. 
Half  and  fifth  pounds  are  also  coined.  The  silver  coinage  consists 
of  the  sal  (100  cents),  half  sal  (50  cents),  and  pieces  of  20  (pesOa), 
10  and  5  cenu:  and  the  copper  coina^  of  l  and  2  cents.  The 
single  standard  has  worked  well,  and  has  contributed  much  toward 
the  recovery  of  Peruvian  commerce  and  finance.  The  change  from 
the  double  standard  was  effected  without  any  noticeable  disturi>ancc 
in  commercial  affairs,  but  this  was  in  part  due  to  the  precaution  of 
making  the  British  pound  sterling  legal  tender  in  the  republic  and 
catabUshing  the  l«aj.  equivalent  between  gold  and  silver  at  10  sales 
to  the  pound.  The  coinage  in  1906-1907  was  about  £150,000 
gold  and  £65,000  silver,  and  the  toUl  drcuiation  in  that  year  was 
estimated  at  £1,400,000  in  add  coin  and  £600,000  in  silver  coin. 
Previous  to  the  adoption  of  the  single  gold  standard  in  1897  the 
monetary  history  of  Peru  had  been  unfortunate.  The  first  national 
coinage  was  begun  in  1822,  and  the  decimal  system  was  adopted  in 
1863.  Although  the  double  standard  was  in  force,  gold  was 
practically  demonetised  by  the  monetary  reform  of  1872  Mcauae  of 
the  failure  to  fix  a  legal  ratio  between  tne  two  metals.  Experience 
with  |»per  currency  has  been  even  more  disastrous.  During  the 
administration  (1872-1876)  of  President  Fardo  the  government 
borrowed  heavily  from  the  banks  to  avoid  the  suspension  of  work  on 
the  railways  and  port  improvements.  These  banks  enjoyed  the 
privilege  of  issuing  currency  notes  .to  the  amount  of  three  times  the 
cash  in  hand  without  regard  to  their  commercial  Uabilitica.  A  large 
increase  in  imports,  caused  by  fictitious  prosperity  and  inability 
to  obtain  drafts  against  guano  shipments,  led  to  the  exportation  of 
coin  to  meet  commercial  obligations,  and  this  soon  reducnJ  the 
currency  circulation  to  a  paper  tesia.  The  government  being 
unable  to  repay  ita  loans  from  the  banks  compelled  the  latter  to 
suspend  the  conversion  of  their  notes,  which  began  to  depreciate 
in  value.  In  187^  the  banks  were  granted  a  moratorium,  to  enable 
them  to  obtain  coin,  but  without  result.  The  government  in  1877 
contracted  a  new  loan  with  the  banks  and  assumed  responsibility 
for  their  outsunding  emissions,  which  are  said  to  have  aggregated 
about  ioo/)oo,ooo  soUs,  and  were  worth  barely  10%  of  their  nominal 
value.  At  last  their  depreciation  reached  a  point  where  their 
acceptance  was  generally  refused  and  silver  was  imported  for  com- 
mercial needs,  when  the  government  suspended  their  l(%al  tender 
quality  and  altowed  them  to  disappear. 

Wngkis  and  Measuns.^'Thte  French  metric  system  is  the  official 
standard  of  weights  and  measures  and  is  in  use  in  the  costom'houses 
of  the  republic  and  in  foreign  trade,  but  the  old  units  are  still  com- 
monly used  among  the  people.  These  are  the  ounce,  i'i04  oz. 
avoirdupois;  the  Iwra,  1*014  H>  avoirdupois;  the  gntnAif,  ioi*44  lb 
avoirdupoit:  the  arroba,  25*36  lb  avoirdupois;  ditto  of  wine, 
6*70  imperial  galkms;  the  gallon,  *7d  of  an  imperial  gallon;  the 
fa/a,  '927  yard;  and  the  square  aara,  *859  square  yard.      (A.  J.  L.) 

Rishry.^-Cydopetok  niins  of  vast  edifices,  apparently  never 
completed,  exist  at  TIahuanaco  near  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Titicaca.^  Remains  of  a  similar  character  are  found  at  Huaiaa 


in  the  north  of  Pbru,  and  at  Cua»»  Ollantay-umbo  and  Hnifiaqae 
between  Unaras  and  Tiahuanaoo.  These  works  appear  to  have 
been  erected  by  powerful  aovereigns  with  unlimited  command 
of  labour,  pot^y  with  the  object  of  giving  employmeBt  to 
subjugated  people,  while  feeding  the  vanity  or  pleasing  the  taste 
of  the  conqueror.  Of  their  origin  nothing  b  hbLorically  known. 
It  ia  probable,  however,  that  the  settlement  of  the  Cuaco  vaUey 
and  district  by  the  Incas  or  "  people  of  the  sun  "  took  place 
some  300  years  before  Pizarro  hnded  in  Peru.  The  conquering 
tribe  or  tribes  had  made  thdr  way  to  the  sierra  from  the  plains, 
and  found  themselves  a  new  land  sheltered  from  attack  amidst 
the  lofty  mountains  that  hem  in  the  valley  of  Cuaoo  and  the 
vast  lake  basin  of  Titicaca,  situated  12,000  ft*  above  the  sea 
level.  The  first  bbtorical  records  show  us  these  people  already 
possessed  of  a  oonsklcrable  dviliaation,  and  speaking  two  allied 
languages,  Aymara  and  Quichua.  The  expansion  of  the  Inca 
rule  and  the  fonnation  of  the  Peruvian  Empire  was  of  modem 
growth  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  dated  fronn  the 
victories  of  Pachacutic  Inca  who  Uved  about  a  century  before 
Huasma  Capac,  the  Great  Inca,  whose  death  took  place  in  1526, 
the  year  before  Piaarro  first  appeared  tn  the  coast.  His  con- 
solidated empire  extended  from  the  river  Ancaamayu  north  of 
Quito  to  the  river  Maule  in  the  south  of  Chile.  The  Incas  had 
an  elaborate  system  of  state-worship,  with  a  ritual,  and  fre- 
quently rccuRing  festivals.  History  and  tradition  were  pre> 
served  by  the  bards,  and  dramas  were  enacted  before  the 
sovereign  and  his  court.  Roads  with  poat>bouses  at  intervals 
were  made  over  the  wildest  mountain-ranges  and  the  bleakest 
deserts  for  hundreds  of  miles.  A  well-considered  system  of 
land-tenure  and  of  colonizatbn  provided  for  the  wants  of  aU 
classes  of  the  people.  The  administrative  details  of  government 
were  minutely  and  carefully  organized,  and  accurate  statistics 
were  kept  by  means  of  the  "  quipus  "  or  system  of  knot*.  The 
edifices  displayed  marvellous  building  skill,  and  their 'Woriunan- 
ship  is  unsurpassed.  The  worU  has  nothing  to  show,  ia  the  way 
of  stone-cutting  and  fitting,  to  equal  the  skill  and  accuracy 
displayed  in  the  Inca  structures  of  Cuzco.  As  workers  in  metals 
and  as  potters  they  diq>layed  infinite  variety  of  design,  nrhile  as 
cultivators  and .  engineers  they,  excelled  their  European  cxhi- 
querorSb    (For  illustrations  see  AmiUCA,  Plate  V.) 

The  story  of  the  conquest  has  been  told  by  Presoott  and 
Helps,  who  give  ample  references  to  original  authorities;  it  will 

be  sufficient  here  to  enumerate  the  dates  of  the     

leading  events.  On  the  loth  of  March  i$a6  the  nSrr 
contract  for  the  ccmquest  of  Peru  was  signed  by 
Francisco  Pizarro,  Diego  de  Almagro  and  Hernando  de  Lnqne, 
Caspar  de  Espinosa  juppljring  t^  funds.  In  1537  Piaaxro, 
after  enduring  fearful  hardships,  first  reached  the  coast  of  Peru 
at  Tumbez.  In  the  following  year  he  went  to  Spain,  and  on 
the  26th  of  July  1529  the  capitulation  with  the  Crown  for  the 
conquest  of  Peru  was  executed.  Pizarro  sailed  from  San  Lucar 
with  his  brothers  in  January  1530,  and  landed  at  Tumbes  in 
1 53 1.  The  civil  war  between  Huascar  and  Atahualpa,  the  sons 
of  Huayna  Capac,  had  been  fought  out  in  the  meanwhile,  and 
the  victorious  Atahualpa  was  at  Cajamarca  on 'his  way  from 
Quito  to  Cuzco.  On  the  xsth  of  November  tS3a  Pizarro  with 
his  little  army,  made  his  way  to  Cajamarca,  iriiere  he  received 
a  friendly  welcome  from  the  Inca,  whom  he  treacherously  setad 
and  made  prisoner.  He  had  with  him  only  X83  men.  In 
February  1533  his  colleague  Almagro  arrived  with  reinforce- 
ments. The  murder  of  the  Inca  Atahualpa  was  perpetrated 
on  the  29th  of  August  1533,  and  on  the  tsth  of  November 
Pizarro  entered  Cuzco.  He  allowed  the  ri^^tful  heir  to  the 
empire,  Manco,  the  legitimate  son  of  Huayna  Capac,  to  he 
solemnly  crowned  on  the  a4th  of  March  1534.  Almagro  then 
undertook  an  expedition  to  Chile,  and  Pizarro  founded  the  dty 
of  Lima  on  the  18th  of  January  XS35.  In  the  following  year  the 
Incas  made  a  brave  attempt  to  expel  the  invaders,  and  closely 
besieged  the  Spaniards  in  Cuzco  during  February  and  March. 
But  Almagro,  returning  from  Chile,  raised  the  siege  on  the  18th 
of  April  X537.  Immediately  afterwards  a  dispute  arose  between 
the  brothers,  Frahcisco,  Juan  and  Gonzalo  Pizarro  and  Abnajaa 


PERU 


375 


as  to  the  limits  of  their  respective  jurisdictions.  ~  An  interview 
took  place  st  Mala,  on  the  sea-coast,  on  the  X3tb  of  November 
1537,  which  led  to  no  result,  and  Aimagro  was  finally  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  Las  Salinas  near  Cuzco  on  the  a6th  of  April  1538. 
His  execution  followed.  His  adherents  recognized  his  young 
half-caste  son,  a  gallant  and  noble  youth  generally  known  as 
Aimagro  the  Lad,  as  his  successor.  Bitterly  discontented,  they 
conspired  at  Lima  and  assassinated  Frandsco  Pizarro  on  the 
26th  of  June  X541.  Meanwhile  Vaca  de  Castro  had  been  sent 
out  as  governor  of  Peru  by  Charles  V.,  and  on  bearing  of  the 
murder  of  Pizarro  he  assumed  the  government  of  the  country. 
On  the  x6th  of  September  1543  he  defeated  the  army  of  Aimagro 
the  Lad  in  the  battle  of  Chupas  near  Guamanga,  and  the' boy 
was  beheaded  at  Cuzco. 

Charles  V.  enacted  the  code  known  as  the  "  New  Laws  "  in 
1543.  "  Ehcomiendas,"  or  grants  of  estates  on  which  the 
avBWan,  inhabitants  were  bound  to  pay  tribute  and  give 
personal  service  to  the  grantee,  were  to  pass  lo  the 
Crown  on  the  death  ot  the  actual  holder;  a  fixed  sum  was 
to  be  assessed  as  tribute;  and  forced  personal  service  was 
forbidden.  Blasco  Nuflez  de  Vela  was  sent  out,  as  first  viceroy 
of  Peru,  to  enforce  the  "  New  Laws."  Their  promulgation 
aroused  a  storm  among  the  conquerors.  Gonzalo  Pizarro  rose 
in  rebellion,  and  entered  Lima  on  the  2Sth  of  October  1544. 
The  viceroy  fied  to  Quito,  but  was  followed,  defeated  and  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Anaquito  on  the  x8th  of  January  1546.  The 
"  New  Laws  "  were  weakly  revoked,  and  Pedro  de  la  Gasca,  a^ 
first  president  of  the  Audienda  (court  of  justice)  of  Peru,  was 
sent  out  to  restore  order.  He  arrived  in  1547,  and  on  the  8th 
of  April  1548  he  routed  the  followers  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro  on  the 
plain  of  Sacsahuaman  near  Cuzco.  Gonzalo  was  executed 
on  the  field.  La  Gasca  made  a  redist  ribution  of "  encomicndas  " 
to  the  loyal  conquerors,  which  caused  great  discontent,  and  left 
Peru  before  his  scheme  was  made  public  in  January  xssa  On 
the  aard  of  September  1551  Don  Antonio  de  Mendoza  arrived  as 
second  viceroy,  but  he  died  at  Lima  in  the  following  July.  The 
country  was  then  ruled  by  the  judges  of  the  Audiencia,  and  a 
formidable  insurrection  broke  out,  headed  by  Francisco  Hernan- 
dez Giron,  with  the  object  of  maintaining  the  right  of  the 
conquerors  to  exact  forced  service  from  the  Indians.  In  May 
J  554  Gtxon  defeated  the  army  of  the  judges  at  Chuquinga,  but 
he  was  hopelessly  routed  at  Pucara  on  the  11th  of  October 
X554,  captured,  and  on  the  7th  of  December  executed  at  Lima. 
Don  Andres  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  marquis  of  Cafiete,  entered 
Lima  as  third  viceroy  of  Peru  on  the  6th  of  July  1555,  and  ruled 
with  an  iron  band  for  six  years.  All  the  leaders  in  former 
disturbances  were  sent  to  Spain.  Corregidors,  or  governors 
of  districts,  were  ordered  to  try  summarily  and  execute  every 
turbulent  person  within  their  jurisdictions.  All  unemployed 
persons  were  sent  on  distant  expeditions,  and  moderate  "  en- 
comiendes  "  were  granted  to  a  few  deserving  officers.  At  the 
same  time  the  viceroy  wisely  came  to  an  agreement  with  Sayri 
Tupac,  the  son  and  successor  of  the  Inca  Manco.  and  granted 
him  a  pension.  He  took  great  care  to  supply  the  natives  with 
priests  of  good  conduct,  and  promoted  measures  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  schools  and  the  foundation  of  towns  in  the  different 
provinces.  The  cultivation  of  wheat,  vines  and  olives,  and 
European  domestic  animals  were  introduced.  The  next  viceroy 
was  the  Conde  de  Nieva  (1561-1564).  His  successor,  the 
licentiate  Lope  Garcia  de  Castro,  who  only  had  the  title  of 
governor,  ruled  from  1564  to  1569.  From  this  time  there  was 
a  succession  of  viceroys  until  1824.  The  viceroys  were  chief 
magistrates,  but  in  legal  matters  they  had  to  consult  the  Audi- 
enda of  judges,  in  finance  the  Tribunal  de  Cuentas,  in  other 
branches  of  administration  the  Juntas  de  Gobiexno  and  de 
Guemu 

Don  Fraadsco  de  Toledo,  the  second  son  of  the  count  of 
Oropesa,  entered  Lima  as  viceroy  on  the  26th  of  November  1569. 
iMMb^a  Fearing  that  the  little  court  of  the  Inca  Tupac  Amaru 
4tfaiiaMr»(who  had  succeeded  his  brother  Sayri  Tupac)  might 
^'***  become  a  focus  of  rebellion,  he  seized  the  y«wng 

princei  and  u^jiutly  beheaded  the  last  of  the  Incas  in  the  square 


of  Cuzco  in.the  year  1571.  •  After  a  minute  personal  inspection 
of  every  province  in  Peru,  he,  with  the  experienced  aid  of  the 
learned  Polo  de  Ondegardo  and  the  judge  of  Malienza,  estab- 
lished the  system  under  which  the  native  population  of  Peru 
was  ruled  for  the  two  succeeding  centuries.  His  Libro  de 
Tasos  fixe^  the  tribute  to  be  paid  by  the  Indians,  exempting 
all  men  under  eighteen  and  over  fifty.  He  found  it  necessary, 
in  order  to  secure  efficient  government,  to  revert  in  some  measure 
to  the  system  of  the  Incas.  The  people  were  to  be  directly 
governed  by  their  native  chiefs,  whose  duty  was  to  collect  the 
tribute  and  excrdse  magisterial  functions.  The  chiefs  or 
"  curacas  "  had  subordinate  native  oiOSdals  under  them  called 
"  pichca-i>achacas  "  over  500  men,  and  ;  "  pachacas  "  over 
100  men.  The  office  of  curaca  or  cadque  was  made  hereditary, 
and  its  possessor  enjoyed  several  privileges.  Many  curacas 
were  descended  from  the  imperial  family  of  the  Incas,  or  from 
great  nobles  of  the  Incarial  court.  In  addition  to  the  tribute, 
which  was  in  accordance  with  native  usage,  there  was  the 
"  mita,"  or  forced  labour  in  mines,  farms  and  manufactories. 
Toledo  enacted  that  one-seventh  of  the  male  population  of  a 
village  should  be  subject  to  conscription  for  this  service,  but 
they  were  to  be  paid,  and  were  not  to  be  taken  beyond  a  specified 
distance  from  tl)cir  homes. 

The  Spanish  kings  and  viceroys  desired  to  protect  the  people 
from  tyranny,  but  they  were  unable  to  prevent  the  rapacity 
and  lawlessness  of  distant  offidals  and  the  country 
was  depopulated  by  the  illegal  methods  of  enfordng 
the  mita.  Toledo  was  succeeded  in  1581  by  Don 
Martin  Henriquez,  who  died  at  Lima  two  years  afterwards. 
The  Spanish  colonies  suffered  from  the  strict  system  of  monopoly 
and  protection,  which  was  only  slightly  relaxed  by  the  later 
Bourbon  kings,  and  from  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  the 
Inquisition.  Between  1581  and  1776  as  many  as  fifty-nine 
heretics  were  burned  at  Lima,  and  there  were  twenty-nine 
"  autos  ";  but  the  Inquisition  affected  Europeans  rather  than 
natives,  for  the  Indians,  as  catechumens,  were  exempted  from 
its  terrors.  The  curacas  sorrowfully  watched  the  gradual  extmc- 
tion  of  their  people  by  the  operation  of  the  mita,  protesting  from 
time  to  time  against  the  exactions  and  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards. 
At  length  a  descendant  of  the  Incas,  who  assumed  the  name  of 
Tupac  Amaru,  rose  in  rebellion  in  1780.  The  insurrection  lasted 
until  July  1783,  and  cruel  executions  followed  its  suppression. 
This  was  the  last  effort  of  the  Indians  to  throw  off  the  Spanish 
yoke  and  the  rising  was  by  no  means  general.  The  army  which 
overthrew  Tupac  Amaru  consisted  chiefly  of  loyal  Indians,  and 
the  rebellion  was  purely  anti-Spanish,  and  had  no  support  from 
the  Spanish  population.  The  movement  for  independence, 
which  slowly  gained  force  during  the  opening  decade  of  the  xgth 
century,  did  not  actually  become  serious  until  the  conquest  of 
Spain  by  the  French  in  1807-1 80S.  The  Creoles  (CriaJlos)  or 
American-bom  Spaniards  had  for  long  been  aggrieved  at  being 
shut  out  from  all  important  official  positions,  and  at  the  restric- 
tions placed  upon  their  trade,  but  the  bulk  of  the  Creole  popula- 
tion was  not  disloyal. 

Peru  was  the  centre  of  Spanish  power,  and  the  viceroy  had 
his  military  strength  concentrated  at  Lima.  Consequently  the 
insurrections  in  the  more  distant  provinces,  such  as 
Chile  and  Buenos  Aires,  were  the  first  to  declare 
themselves  independent,  in  x8i6  and  1817.  But 
the  destruction  of  the  viceroy's  power  was  essential  to  their 
continued  independent  existence.  The  conquest  of  the  Peruvian 
coast  must  always  depend  on  the  command  of  the  sea.  A  fleet 
of  armed  ships  was  fitted  out  at  Valparaiso  in  Chile,  under  the 
command  of  Lord  Cochrane  (afterwards  earl  of  Dundonald)  and 
officered  by  Englishmen.  It  convoyed  an  army  of  Argentine 
troops,  with  some  Chileans,  under  the  command  of  the  Argentine 
general,  San  Martin,  which  landed  on  the  coast  of  Peru  in 
September  1820.  San  Martin  was  enthusiastically  received, 
and  the  independence  of  Peru  was  proclaimed  at  Lima  after 
the  viceroy  had  withdrawn  (July  28,  i8ai).  On  the  aoth  of 
September  1822  San  Martin  resigned  the  protectorate,  with 
which  he  had  been  invested,  and  on  the  same  day  the  first 


276 


PERU 


congress  of  Peru  became  the  sovereign' power' of  tlie  state. 
After  a  short  period  of  government  by  a  committee  of  three, 
the  congress  elected  Don  Jos6  de  la  Riva  Agnero  to  be  first 
president  of  Peru  on  the  28th  of  February  1823.  He  displayed 
great  energy  in  facing  the  difficulties  of  a  turbulent  situation, 
but  was  unsuccessful.  The  aid  of  the  Colombians  under  Simon 
Bolivar  was  sought,  and  Aguero  was  deposed. 

Bolivar  arrival  at  Lima  on  the  zst  of  September  1823,  and 
began  to  organize  an  army  to  attack  the  Spanish  viceroy  in 
the  interior.  On  the  6th  of  August  1824  the  cavalry  action  of 
Junin  was  fought  with  the  Spanish  forces  under  the  command 
of  a  French  adventurer,  General  Canterac,  near  the  shores  of 
the  lake  of  Chinchay-cocha.  It  was  won  by  a  gallant  charge 
of  the  Peruvians  under  Captain  Suarez  at  the  critical  moment. 
Soon  afterwards  Bolivar  left  the  army  to  proceed  to  the  coast, 
and  the  final  battle  of  Ayacucho  (De&  9,  1824)  was  fought  by 
his  second  in  command,  General  Sucre.  The  viceroy  and  all 
his  officers  were  taken  prisoners,  and  the  Spanish  power  in  Peru 
came  to  an  end. 

General  Bolivar  ruled  Peru  with  dictatorial  powels  for  more 
than  a  year,  and  though  there  were  cabals  against  him  there  can 
be  little  doubt  of  his  popularity.  He  was  summoned  back  to 
Cdombia  when  he  had  been  absent  for  five  years  and,  in  spite 
of  protests  left  the  country  on  the  3rd  of  September  1826, 
followed  by  all  the  Colombian  troops  in  March  1827. 

General  Jos6  de  Lamar,  who  commanded  the  Peruvians  at 
Ayacucho,  was  elected  president  of  Peru  on  the  24th  of  August 
1827,  but  was  deposed,  after  waging  a  brief  but 
pSSdcmtu  clisastrous  war  vdth  Colombia'  on  the  7th  of  June 
1829.  General  Agustin  Gamarra,  who  had  been 
in  the  Spanish  service,  and  was  chief  of  the  staff  in  the  patriot 
army  at  Ayacucho,  was  electcki  third  president  on  the  31st  of 
August  1829. 

For  fifteen  years,  from  2829  to  1844,  Peru  was  painfully 
feeling  her  way  to  a  right  use  Of  independence.  The  officers 
who  fought  at  Ayacucho,  and  to  whom  the  country  felt  natural 
gratitude,  were  all-powerful,  and  they  had  not  learned  to  settle 
political  differences  in  any  other  way  than  by  the  sword.  Three 
men,  during  that  period  of  probation,  won  a  prominent  place 
in  their  country's  history,  Generals  Agustin  Gamarra,  Felipe 
Santiago  Salavcrry,  and  Andres  Santa  Cruz.  Gamarra,  bom 
at  Cuzco  in  1785,  never  accommodated  himself  to  constitutional 
usages;  but  he  attached  to  himself  many  loyal  and  devoted 
friends,  and,  with  all  his  faults  he  loved  his  country  and  sought 
its  welfare  according  to  his  lights.  Salaverry  was  a  vety  different 
character.  Bom  at  Lima  in  1806,  of  pure  Basque  descent,  he 
joined  the  patriot  army  before  he  was  fifteen  and  displayed 
his  audacious  valour  in  many  a  hard-fought  battle.  Feeling 
strongly  the  necessity  that  Pera  had  for  repose,  and  the  guilt 
of  dvil  dissension,  he  wrote  patriotic  poems  which  became  very 
popular.  Yet  he  too  seized  the  supreme  power,  and  perished 
by  an  iniquitous  sentence  on  the  z8th  of  February  1836.^ 
Andres  Santa  Cru2  was  an  Indian  statesman.  His  mother  was  a 
lady  of  high  rank,  of  the  family  of  the  Incas,  and  he  was  very 
proud  of  his  descent*  Unsuccessful  as  a  general  in  the  field,  he 
nevertheless  possessed  remarkable  administrative  ability  and  for 
nearly  three  years  (i  836-1839)  rcalijeed  his  lifelong  dream  of  a 
Peru'Bplivian  confederation.'  But  the  strong-handed  inter* 
vention  of  Chile  on  the  ground  of  assistance  rendered  to  rebels^ 
but  really  through  jealousy  of  the  confederation,  ended  in  the 
defeat  and  overthrow  of  Santa  Cruz,  and  the  separati6n  of 
Bolivia  from  Pern.  But  Peruvian  history  b  not  confined  to 
the  hostilities  of  these  military  rulers.  Three  constitutions 
were  framed — in  1828,  1833  and  1839,  Lawyers  and  orators 
are  never  wanting  in  Spanish-American  states,  und  revolution 
succeeded  revolution  in  one  continuous  struggle  for  the  spoils 

'  The  romance  of  his  life  has  been  admirably  written  by  Manuel 
Bilbao  (isted.,  Lima,  1853: 2nd  cd.,  Buenos  Aires,  1867). 

*  The  miccession  <^  presidents  and  supreme  chiefs  of  Peru  from 
1829  to  1844  was  as  follows:  1829-1833.  Agustin  Gcunana; 
1834-1835.  Luis  Jos6  OrbcRoso;  1835-1836.  Felipe  Santiago  Sala- 
verry; 1836-1839.  Andres  Santa  Cruz;  1830-1841,  AgusUn  CamarTa; 
1841-1844,  Manud  Menendes, 


of  office.  An  exception  must  be  made  of  the  admii^tratien 
of  General  Ramon  Castilla,  who  restored  peace  to  Peru,  and 
showed  himself  to  be  an  honest  and  very  capable  ruler.  He 
was  elected  constitutional  president  on  the  20th  of  April  184s. 
Ten  years  of  peace  and  increasing  prosperity  followed.  In 
1849  the  regular  payment  of  the  interest  of  the  public  debt 
was  commenced,  steam  communication  was  established  along 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  a  railroad  was  made  from  Lima  to  CalUo. 
After  a  regular  term  of  office  of  six  years  of  peace  and  moral 
and  material  progress  Casttlla  resigned,  and  General  Josi 
Echenique  was  elected  president.  But  the  proceedings  of 
Echenique*s  government  in  connexion  wi&  the  consolidatioii 
of  .the  internal  debt  were  disapproved  by  the  nation,  and,  after 
hostilities  which  lasted  for  six  months,  Castilla  returned  to  power 
in  January  1855.  From  Dtoember  1856  to  March  1858  lie  had 
to  contend  with  and  subdue  a  local  insurrection  headed  bf 
General  Agostino  Vivanco,  but,  with  these  two  eyceptioBs, 
thene  was  peace  in  Peru  from  1844  to  1879,  a  period  of  thirty-five 
years.  Castilla  retired  at  the  end  of  his  term  of  office  in  1863, 
and  died  in  1868.  On  the  2nd  of  August  1868  Colonel  Juan 
Balta  was  elected  president.  With  the  vast  sum  raised  from 
guano  and  nitrate  deposits  President  Balta  commenced  the 
execution  of  public  works,  principally  railroads  on  a  gigant^ 
scale.  His  period  of  office  was  signalized  by  the  opening  of  a^ 
international  exhibition  at  Lima.  He  was  succeeded  (Aug. 
2, 1872)  by  Don  Manuel  Pardo  (d.  187S),  an  honest  sad 
enlightened  statesman,  who  did  all  in  his  power  to  retrieve  the 
country  from  the  financial  difficulty  into  which  it  had  beta 
brought  by  the  reckless  policy  of  his  predecessor,  bat  the  con- 
ditions were  not  capable  of  solution.  He  regulated  the  Qnoese 
immigration  to  the  coast-valleys,  wMch  from  i860  to  r87>  had 
amounted  to  58,606.  He  promoted  education,  and  encouraged 
literature.  On  the  and  of  August  1876  Genflial  Mariano-lgnado 
Prado  was  elected.  (C.  R.  M. ;  X.) 

On  the  sth  of  April  1879  the  republic  of  Chile  dedaied  war 
upon  Pern,  the  alleged  pretext  being  that  Pem  had  made  an 
offensive  treaty,  directed  against  Chile,  with  Bolivia,  wkrwtn 
a  country  with  which  Chile  had  a  dispute;  but  theC3Uh,jV9- 
publication  of  the  text  of  this  treaty  made  known ''^* 
the  fact  that  it  was  strictly  defensive  and  contained  no  just 
cause  of  war.  The  true  object  of  Chile  was  the  oonqfuest  of 
the  rich  Pemvian  province  of  Tarapac&,  the  appropriatioa 
of  its  valuable  guano  and  nitrate  deposits,  and  the  spoliatioQ 
of  the  rest  of  the  Peruvian  coast.  The  military  events  of  the 
war,  calamitous  for  Peru,  are  dealt  with  in  the  article  Ghue* 
Peruvian  Wak.  Suffice  it  here  to  note  that,  after  the  crushing 
defeat  of  the  Peruvian  forces  at  Arica  Qune  7,  1880)  Sefior 
Nicolas  de  Pierola  assumed  dictatorial  powers,  with  Geneial 
Andres  C&ceres  as  commander-in-chief,  but  the  defeats  at 
Chorrillos  (Jan.  13,  1881)  and  Miraflores  (Jan.  15)  proved 
the  Chilean  superiority,  and  put  Lima  at  their  mercy  thou^ 
desultory  fighting  was  maintained  by  the  remnants  oi  the 
Peruvian  army  in  the  interior,  under  direction  of  General 
C&ceres.  An  attempt  was  made  to  constitute  a  govemmeat 
with  Sefior  Calderon  as  president  of  the  republic  uid  GcnenI 
C&ceres  as  first  vice-president.  The  negotiations  between  this 
nominal  admim'stration  and  the  Chilean  authorities  for  a  treaty 
of  peace  proved  futile,  the  Chilean  occupation  of  lima  and  the 
Pcravian  seaboard  continuing  uninterruptedly  until  1883.  In 
that  year  Admiral  Lynch,  who  had  replaced  General  Baqncdaao 
in  command  of  the  Chilean  forces  after  the  taking  of  Lima,  sent 
an  expedition  against  the  Peruvians  under  General  C&ceres. 
and  defeated  the  latter  in  the  month  of  August.  The  Chilean 
authorities  now  began  preparations  for  the  evacuation  of  Lima, 
and  to  enable  this  measure  to  be  effected  a  Peruvian  administra- 
tion was  orgam'zed  with  the  support  of  the  Chileans.  General 
Iglesias  was  nominated  to  the  office  of  president  of  the  republic, 
and  in  October  1883  a  treaty  of  peace,  known  as  the  treaty  ct 
Ancon,  between  Peru  and  Chile  was  signed.  The  Chilean  amy 
of  occupation  was  withdrawn  from  Lima  on  the  22nd  of  October 

1883,  but  a  strong  force  was  maintained  at  Chorrillos  until  July 

1884,  when  the  terms  of  the  treaty  were  finally  approve    Tba 


PERU 


277 


ptiadpar  conditioiis  tmposed  hy  Chile  were  tKe  absolute  cession 
by  Peru  of  the  province  of  Tarapac&,  and  the  occupation  for  a 
period  of  ten  years  of  the  territories  of  Tacna  and  Arica,  the 
ownership  of  these  districts  to  be  decided  by  a  popular  vote  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Tacna  and  Arica  at  the  expiratiOQ  61  the 
period  named.  A  further  condition  was  enacted  that  an 
indemnity  of  10,000,000  solei  was  to  be  paid  by  the  country 
finally  remaining  in  pofisessioD--a  sum  equal  to  about  £1,000,000 
to-day.  The  Peruvians  in  the  interior  refused  to  recognixe 
President  Iglesias,  and  at  once  began  active  operations  to  over- 
throw  his  authority  on  the  final  departure  of  the  Chilean  troops. 
Affairs  continued  in  this  unsettled  state  until  the  middle  of  1885, 
C&ceres  mcanwlule  steadily  gaining  many  adherents  to  his  side 
of  the  quarrel.  In  the  latter  part  of  1885  President  Iglesias 
abdicated. ' 

Under  the  guidance  of  General  C&ceres  a  Junta  was  then 
formed  to  cany  on  the  government  until  an  election  for  the 
^^^  presidency  should  be  held  and  the  senate  and  cham- 
5J5JJ*  ber  of  deputies  constituted.  In  the  following  year 
(1886)  General  C&ceres  was  elected  president  of  the 
republic  for  the  usual  term  of  four  years.  The  task  assumed 
by  the  new  president  was  no  sinecure.  The  country  had  been 
thrown  into  absolute  confusion  from  a  political  and  administra- 
tive point  of  view,  but  gradually  order  was  restored,  and  peaceful 
conditions  were  reconstituted  throughout  the  republic.  The 
four  years  of  office  for  which  General  C&ceres  was  elected  passed 
in  uneventful  fashion,  and  in  1890  Seftor  Morales  Bermudez 
was  nominated  to  the  presidency,  with  Sefkor  Solar  and  Scfior 
Borgofio  as  first  and  second  vice-presidents.  Matters  continued 
without  alteration  from  the  normal  course  until  1894,  and  in 
that  year  Bermudez  died  suddenly  a  few  months  before  the 
expiration  of  the  period  for  which  he  haci  been  chosen  as  prcs- 
dent.  General  C&ceres  secured  the  nomination  of  the  vice- 
president  Borgofio  as  chief  of  the  executive  for  the  unexpired 
portion  of  the  term  of  the  late  president  Bermudez.  This 
action  was  unconstitutional,  and  was  bitterly  resented  by  the 
vice-president  Solar,  who  by  right  should  have  succeeded  to  the 
office.  Armed  resistance  to  the  authority  of  Borgofio  was 
immediately  organized  in  the  south  of  Peru,  the  movement  being 
supported  by  Sefiores  Nicolas  de  Pierola,  BiUinghurst,  Durand 
and  a  number  of  influential  Peruvians.  In  the  month  of  August 
1894  General  C&ceres  was  again  elected  to  till  the  office  of  presi- 
dent, but  the  revolutionary  moveitjcnt  rapidly  gained  ground. 
President  C&ceres  adopted  energetic  measures  to  suppress  the 
outbreak:  his  efforts,  however,  proved  unavailing,  the  dose  of 
1894  finds  the  country  districts  in  the  poorer  of  the  rebels  and  the 
authority  of  the  legal  government  confined  to  Lima  and  other 
cities  held  by  strong  garrisons.  Eariy  in  March  1895  the  Insur- 
gents encamped  near  the  outskirts  of  Lima,  and  on  the  ijlh, 
x8th  and  X9th  of  March  severe  fighting  took  place,  ending  in 
the  defeat  of  the  troops  under  General  C&ccrcs.  A  suspension 
of  hostilities  was  then  brought  about  by  the  efforts  of  H.B.M. 
consul.  The  loss  on  both  sides  to  the  struggle  during  these  two 
days  was  2800  killed  and  wounded.  President  C&cercs,  finding 
his  cause  was  lost,  left  the  country,  a  provisional  government 
under  Sefior  Candamo  assuming  the  direction  of  public  affairs. 

On  the  8th  of  September  1895  Sefior  Pierola  was  declared 
president  of  the  republic  for  the  following  four  years.  The 
^^^  Peruvians  were  now  heartify  tired  of  revolutionary 
Pnaluat,  disturbances,  and  an  insurrectionary  outbreak  in 
the  district  of  Iquitos  met  with  small  sympathy, 
and  was  speedily  crushed.  In  t^  a  reform  of  the  electoral 
taw  was  sanctioned.  By  the  provisions  of  this  act  an  electoral 
committee  was  constituted,  composed  of  nine  members,  two  of 
these  nominated  by  the  senate,  two  by  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
four  by  the  supreme  court,  and  one  by  the  president  with  the 
consent  of  his  ministers.  To  this  committee  was  entrusted  the 
task  of  the  examination  of  aS  election  returns,  and  of  the  pro- 
clamation of  the  names  of  successful  candidates  for  scats  in 
congress.  Another  reform  brought  about  by  Pierola  was  a 
measure  introduced  and  sanctioned  in  1897  for  a  modification 
of  the  marriage  laws.    Under  the  new  act  marriages  of  non- 


Catholics  aolemnlnd  by  diplomatic  or  consular  officers  or  by 
ministers  of  dissenting  churches,  if  properly  registered,  are 
valid,  and  those  solemnized  before  the  passing  of  this  act  were 
to  be  valid  if  registered  before  the  end^of  1899.  Revolutionary 
troubles  again  disturbed  the  country  in  1899,  when  the  presi- 
dency of  Sefior  Pierola  was  drawing  to  a  close.  In  consequence 
of  dissensions  amongst  the  members  of  the  election  committee 
constituted  by  the  act  of  1896,  the  president  ordered  the  suppres- 
sion of  this  body.  A  group  of  malcontents  under  the  leadership 
of  one  Durand,  a  man  who  had  been  prominent  in  the  revolution 
against  General  C&ceres  in  1894-^5,  conspired  agajntf  the 
authorities  and  raised  several  armed  bands,  known  locally  as 
fnontaneras.  Some  skirmishes  occurred  between  these  iosur- 
genla  and  the  government  troops,  the  latter  generally  obtaining 
the  advantage  in  these  cncotunters. 

In  September  1899  President  Pierola  vacated  the  presidency 
in  favour  of  Scfior  Romafia,  who  had  been  elected  to  the  office 
as  a  popular  condidate  and  without  the  exercise  p  ^^ 
of  any  undue  official  influence.  President  Romafia  pHHutat, 
was  educated  at  Slonyhurst  in  England,  and  was  a 
civil  engineer  by  profession.  The  principal  political  problem 
before  the  government  of  Peru  was  the  ownership  of  the  terri- 
tories of  Tacna  and  Arica.  The  period  of  ten  years  originally 
agreed  upon  for  the  Chilean  occupation  of  these  provinces 
expired  in  1894.  At  that  date  the  peace  of  Peru  was  so  seriously 
disturbed  by  internal  troubles  that  the  government  was  quite 
unable  to  take  active  steps  to  bring  about  any  solution  of  the 
matter.  After  1894  negotiations  between  the  two  governments 
were  attempted  from  time  to  time,  but  without  any  satisfactory 
results.  The  question  hinged  to  a  great  extent  on  the  qualifica- 
tion necessary  for  the  inhabitants  to  vote,  in  the  eyent  of  a 
plebiscite  being  called  to  decide  whether  Chilean  ownership 
was  to  be  finally  established  or  the  provinces  were  to  revert  to 
Peruvian  sovereignty.  Peru  proposed  that  only  Peruvian 
residents  should  be  entitled  to  take  part  in  a  popular  vote; 
Chile  rejected  this  proposition,  on  the  ground  that  all  residents  in 
the  territories  in  question  should  have  a  voice  in  the  final  dedsion. 
The  agreement  between  Chile  and  Bolivia,  by  which  the  disputed 
provinces  were  to  be  handed  over  to  the  latter  country  if  Chilean 
possession  was  recognized,  was  also  a  stumbling-block,  a  strong 
feeling  existed  among  Peruvians  against  this  proceeding.  It 
^as  not  so  much  the  value  of  Tacna  and  Arica  that  put  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  a  settlement  as  the  fact  that  the  national 
pride  of  the  Peruvians  ill  brooked  the  idea  of  permanently  losing 
all  claim  to  this  section  of  country.  The  money,  about  £1 ,000,000, 
could  probably  have  been  obtained  to  indemnify  Chile  if  occasion 
for  it  arose. 

The  question  of  the  delimitation  of  the  frontier  between  Peru 
and  the  neighbouring  republics  of  Ecuador,  Colombia,  aiid 
Brazil  also  cropped  up  at  intervals.  A  treaty  was  signed  with 
Brazil  1876,  by  which  certain  physical  features  were  accepted 
by  both  countries  as  the  basis  for  the  boundary.  In  the  case 
of  Ecuador  and  Colombia  a  dispute  arose  in  1894  concerning 
the  ownership  of  large  tracts  of  uninhabited  country  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries. 
An  agreement  was  proposed  between  Peru  and  Ecuador  in 
connexion  with  the  limits  of  the  respective  republics,  but  diffi- 
culties were  created  to  prevent  this  proposal  from  becoming 
an  accomplished  fact  by  the  pretensions  put  forward  by  Colom- 
bia. The  latter  state  claimed  sovereignty  over  the  Napo  and 
Marafion  rivers  on  the  grounds  of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
exercised  over  this  section  of  territory  during  the  period  of 
Spanish  dominion,  the  government  of  Colombia  asserting 
that  these  ecclesiastical  rights  to  which  Colombia  became 
entitled  after  her  separation  from  the  Spanish  crown  carried 
also  the  right  of  absolute  ownership.  In  a  treaty  signed  by 
the  three  interested  states  in  1895  a  compromise  was  effected 
by  which  Colombia  withdrew  a  part  of  the  claim  advanced, 
and  it  was  agreed  that  any  further  differences  arising  out  of  this 
frontier  question  should  be  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  the 
Spanish  crown.  The  later  development  of  the  boundary  ques- 
tion is  dealt  with  at  the  outset  of  this  article. 


278 


PERU— PERUGIA 


Seftor  Manud  Ciadamo  lucctcdcd  Sekr  Roniina  n  praideDl 
in  loaj.  Ifl  ihc  following  ye*r  he  died,  *nd  on  Ihe  i*th  ol 
StpWmber  iVH  StUit  jotl  Paido  wai  intlalled  in  iht  prcsidtn- 
tiil  ch»ir.    In  I«oS  Ihne  were  loin  iiismr«liorui>  movcmtnu 


FERU,  ■  city  of  Li  Satic  counly,  Illinois.  U.S.A.,  In  tlii 
nonh-cenlcal  [latl  of  Ihe  blale,  on  the  N.  bank  of  Ilic  nilnoii 
Kivcr,  about   lOo  ra.  S.W.  ol  Chicago   and  i  m.  W.  o[  La 
Silte,  a  termiDiu  ol  the  Illinois  &  Michigan  Canal.    Pop.  (i«oo), 
M6j  (joflS  foreign  -  boni) ;   (1910),  7984.    Il  i>  Mtvtd  by  the 
Chicago,  Bvttinglon  &  Quincy  and  the  CUago.  Kock  Island  & 
Pacific  railways.     The  tily  is  built  on  the  lace  and  top  ol 
•erics  of  river  blufls.    Il  is  ihe  seit  of  St  Beds  College  (Romj 
Catholic,  opened  In  1S91),  conducted  by  Genedicline  lalhci 
In  a  large  public  park  there  is  a  bionze  monument  In  memory  1 
the  sotdien  ol  Peru  who  died  In  the  Civil  War.    There  a 
tileDsivo  cMl-nlna  in  the  vicinity;  and  the  dly  includ' 
various  manufacturei.    Peru  was  firM  settled  about  18)7,  wi 
tncoiporated  in  184;,  and  rc-Incotpocalcd  In  iSgo. 

PERU,  a  dly  and  Ihe  county-Kal  ol  Miami  counly,  Indian 
U.S.A.,  about  75  m-  N.  of  IndianapoUi,  on  tbe  Wabash  Rive 
Pop.  <i9to  U.S.  census),  10.910.  Peru  is  served  by  the  ChicSL 
Cndnnatf  &  Louisville,  tile  Lake  Erie  &  Wcsteni  and  tbe 
Wabash  railways  (each  ol  which  inainlains  sbops  here),  and  by 
electric  lines  to  ludlanapolu,  Warsaw  and  other  cities. 

dty  hai  a  Came^e  library,  ■  railivay  Young  Men's  Ch 

Association,  and  ■  hospital  For  the  cmploy{«  of  the  Wabajh 


.    There 


Ly  park  on  the  river,  ai 


1   19OJ  the  vthie  oC  tbe  factory  pcodiKU  *M  >i.T03.4>r 

17']%  more  than  in  i«oo).  Petroleum  ii  louod  ia  4i» 
icinily.  Peiu  wai  settled  in  i8j4  and  wai  cliancnd  w  ■ 
ny  in  1B67. 

PBRDOU  (anc  Ftruiia),  ■  dty  and  afchiepjacopal  tet  «l 
Italy,  the  c^iial  of  the  provintx  el  Perugi*  (which  fonu  tbe 
imn^fiiiieiilg  of  llmbria)  utualed  1444  II.  above  «ca- 
Pop.  (i«o6),  11,311  (to*B);  6s,si;  (commune).  Tbe 
t  finely  situated  upon  >  group  of  hilli  ncoriy  1000  11. 
above  the  valley  of  Ihe  Tiber.  Iti  outline  it  very  irregular;  f  iob 
iwn,  at  Ihe  junction  of  leveral  ridgs,  putt 
considerable  ditUnce  along  their  «unmiti. 
beiag  divided  from  one  another  by  deep  vallcya.  Tbii  it  the 
closed  by  the  medieval  wails;  within  LhemaiecoDsidcT' 
lint  ol  the  lolly  terrace  walls  ol  the  Eutrus^a  period, 
lUed  Arco  di  Auguiio  ii  I  town  gale  with  a  Decorated 
aupentiucture,  perhapa  of  the  Etruscan  period,  beanng  tbe 

iructuie  ol  a  similar  gale  (Porta  Marrii!, 
in  IJ40  to  make  way  for  the  dtadcl.  but  it 
depicted  in  a  Icesco  by  Benedetto  BoofigU  (between  1461  ani 
■477).  was  rc-erecled  in  the  lubtiruciion  walk  ol  tbe  citidil 
iltell.  It  bean  Ihe  iucripUon  Cafnu  Viiia  AufiiiU  Ftmni 
lolony  in  ihe  rei^  of  ik 
emperor  C.  Vibiui  Tteboniaiuis  Uallui  (a.n.  iji-is]),  vba  sti 

be  traced  (F.'  Nuack  in  Rimiicki  UilUili,n(€K,  IS<17.  166  S94)' 
In  the  garden  ol  the  church  of  S.  EUsabelh  was  found  in  i&:6 
a  fine  mosaic  in  black  on  a  while  ground  repreacnlingOrx>hcus  IB 
Ihe  midii  of  the  bcaUa  (JVolicic  driJi  Kan,  iS)6,  iSi;  1877  jog). 
Theciiadel  was  erected  by  Pope  Paullll.  in  1540-1546.  alier 
the  pbnt  ol  Antonio  Da  Sangilto  the  younger,  and  dcaiolLJtcd 
in  iSfio  (see  Badlc  di  Catli^iooe  in  L'A/li,  i«oj,  itj).  Tbe 
Piaua  del  Duomo  it  at  the  norih  of  ihe  Cono.  On  one  aide 
stands  the  calbeitral  ol  Son  Lorenio,  a  Gothic  structure  ol  tbe 
14th  and  I  jtb  centuries,  in  the  pl»n  ol  a  Latin  cross,  with  nave 
and  aislcsol  equal  height;  on  the  other  the  Palazzo  del  Mucicipto, 
presenting  two  fine  Gothic  facades,  of  the  14th  century  {though 
the  building  waa  not  completed  till  I44j),  with  the  fisoics  of 
the  Peru^an  griffin  and  the  Cuelpb  Lou  above  the  outside  ttait; 

i  Cambio,  and  adorned  wilb  llilua  and  ttatuella 
and  Giovanni  Pisano.  The  cathedral  conuina  tie 
:  of  Urban  IV.  and  &f  anm  IV.-ihertmaina  of  Idh. 
te  removed  to  Rome  in  1^93  and  placed  in  tJwbaaihca 
nniin  Laierano — and  the  Virginia  wedding -riti^,  lod 
h-casl  corner  is  a  ailLing  statue  ol  Pope  Juliiu  III. 
;o  Danli,  erected  in  1555  by  the  people  ol  Perugia 
e  lor  the  restoration  of  their  civic  privileges.  Oi 
ion  of  the  Saladel  Cambio,  or  old  enhanae,  PerugiDO 
the  lull  force  ol  hit  genius.  Host  of  tbe  rnovabk 
iave  since  i36j  been  collected  In  the  PinacDteca 
established  in  Ihe  Palauo  dd  Uuoicipio;  besidn  a 
le  number  of  pieces  by  Pcrugino,  there  are  qwcimes 
Alunno,  Bonfigli,  Pinturicchio,  &c  A  very  ioteresl- 
bdd  here  in 


b?A,"    -'" 


iijoj.    The  pitlurct. 
Pope  Benedict  XI.,  i 


JiaIS.Pietn), 


e  especially  noteworthy  (see  U.  GnoK. 
1  di  Pirirjia,  Bergamo,  ifloS).  The 
communal  library,  the  cathedral  axi 
m  the  ;th  century  onwards,  were  abo 


of  the  Finacotcca  Vannucd  has  impaired  the 

Sin  Domemco,  1  Colhic  edifice  originally  deugsed  by  Giovacai 
Pisano  bill  rebuilt  in  1^14,  contains  the  monumeot  of  Pope 
Benedict  XI.  (altributed,  but  probably  wrongly,  to  Giovaaai 
Pisano  by  Vasati),  and  in  iis  cast  front  a  Gothic  window  with 
suioed  glut  by  Fra  Bartolommco  ol  Perug'ia  (1441)-  Saa 
Ptciio  de'  Castinentj  (outside  tbe  Porta  Komana)  is  ■  bauEa 


PERUGINO 


279 


with  nftve  sod  aisles,  .foanded  in  the  beginning  of  the  nth 
century  by  San  Pietro  Vindoli  on  the  site  of  a  buiJding  of  the 
6th  centwy,  and  remarkable  for  its  conspicuous  spire,  its  andcnt 
granite  and  marble  columns,  its  walnut  stall-work  of  1535  by 
Stefano  de'  Zambelli  da  Bergamo,  and  its  numerous  pkturcs  (by 
Pougino,  &c.).  The  oratory  of  S.  Bernardino  has  an  early 
Renaissance  polychrome  facade,  richly  sculptured,  of  1457-1461, 
by  Agostino  d' Antonio  di  Duccio  of  Florence.  S.  Scvero  con- 
tains Raphael's  first  independent  fresco  (1505),  much  damaged 
by  restoration.  The  circular  church  of  S.  Angelo,  with  sixteen 
antique  columns  in  the  interior,  probably  dates  from  the  middle 
of  the  6th  century.  The  university  dates  from  1307,  and  has 
faculties  of  law,  scknce  and  medicine;  it  had  3x8  students  in 
1903*1903.  It  contains  an  important  museum  oE  Etruscan  and 
Roman  antiquities.  Three  ndles  to  the  S.S.E.  the  Etruscan 
nectopoUs  of  the  andent  city  was  discovered  ai  1870.  The 
large  tomb  of  the  Voiumni  (3rd  century  b.c)  hewn  in  the  rock, 
with  its  carved  cinerary  urns,  is  interesting. 

The  ancient  Perusia  first  appears  in  history  as  one  of  the 
twelve  confederate  cities  of  Etruria.  It  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  account  of  the  war  of  3x0  or  309  b.c  between  the  Etruscans 
and  the  Romans.  It  took,  however,  an  important  part  in  the 
rebellion  of  295,  and  was  reduced,  with  Vulsinxi  and  Arrctiuro, 
to  seek  for  peace  in  the  folk>wing  year.  In  316  and  205  it 
assisted  Rome  in  the  Hannibalic  war,  but  afterwards  it  is  not 
mentioned  until  41*40  B.C.,  when  L.  Antonius  took  refuge  there, 
and  was  reduced  by  Octavian  after  a  long  siege.  A  number  of 
lead  bullets  used  by  slingers  have  been  found  in  aiid  around  the 
city  (Carptu  inscr.  ht.  xi.  12x2).  The  city  was  burnt,  we 
are  told,  with  the  exception  of  the  temples  of  Vulcan  and  Juno 
— the  massive  Etruscan  terrace-walls,  naturally,  can  hardly 
have  suffered  at  all — and  the  town,  with  the  territory  for  a  mite 
round,  was  allowed  to  be  occupied  by  whoever  chose.  It  must 
have  been  rebuilt  almost  at  once,  for  several  bases  exist,  inscribed 
Augusto  sttcr(»m)  Ptrusia  ratHuta\  but,  as  we  have  seen,  it 
did  not  become  a  colony  until  aj>.  253-253.  It  is  hardly  men- 
tioned except  by  the  geographers  until  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century,  when  it  was  captured  by  Tottia  after  a  long  siege.  In 
the  Lombard  period  it  is  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  princip^  cities 
of  Tuscia.  In  the  9th  century,  with  the  consent  of  Charles  the 
Great  and  Louis  the  Pious,  it  passed  under  the  popes;  but 
for  many  centuries  the  city  continued  to  maintain  an  indepen- 
dent life,  warring  against  many  of  the  neighbouring  lands 
and  cities — Foligno,  Assisi,  Spoleto,  Montepukiano,  &c.  It 
remained  true  for  the  most  part  to  the  Guelphs.  On  various 
occasions  the  popes  found  asylum  within  its  walls,  and  it  was 
the  meeting-place  of  the  conclaves  which  elected  Honorius  II. 
(1x24),  Honorius  IV.  (1285),  Celcstine  V.  (1294),  and  Clement  V. 
(1305).  But  Perugia  had  no  mind  simply  to  subserve  the  papal 
interests.  At  the  time  of  Rienzi's  unfortunate  enterprise  it 
sent  ten  ambassadors  to  pay  him  honour;  and,  when  papal 
legates  sought  to  coerce  it  by  foreign  soldiers,  or  to  exact  con- 
tributions,-they  met  with  vigorous  resistance.  In  the  15th 
century  power  was  at  last  concentrated  in  the  Baglioni  family, 
who,  though  they  had  no  legal  position,  defied  all  other  authority. 
Gian  Paolo  Baglioni  was  lured  to  Rome  in  1520  and  beheaded 
by  Leo  X.;  and  in  1534  Rodolfo,  who  had  slain  a  papal  legate, 
was  defeated  by  Pier  Luigi  Famese,  and  the  city,  captured 
and  plundered  by  his  soldiery,  was  deprived  of  its  privileges. 
The  citadel  was  begun  six  years  later  *'  ad  coercendam  Perusi- 
norum  audaciam.'*  In  X797  Perugia  was  occupied  by  the 
French;  in  1832,  1838  and  18^4  it  was  visited  by  earthquakes; 
in  May  1849  it  was  seized  by  the  Austrians;  and,  after  a  futile 
insurrection  in  1859,  it  was  finally  united,  along  with  the  rest  of 
Umbria,  to  Piedmont,  in  x86o. 

See  0.  Concstabile,  7  MomtmenH  di  Ferugia  ttrnfca  e  romana 
(Perugia,  185s);  M.  Symondsand  L.  Duff  Goruon,  Perugia  ("  Medi- 
eval Towns  Series").  (1898):  R.  A.  Gallenga  Stuart,  Perugia 
(Bergamo,  1905;  W«  HcyWood,  Hist,  of  Perugfa  (1910).    (T.  As.) 

PBRUOniO.  MHTKO  (1446-1524),  whose  correct  family 
name  was  VANNtfca,  ItaKan  painter,  was  bom  hi  r446  at  Citti 
deOa  Pieve  in  Umbria,  udbtloop  to  the  Umbriaa  Kbool  of 


painting:  The  name  of  Pdrugino  came  to  him  from  Perugia, 
the  chief  city  of  the  neighbourhood.  Pietro  was  one  of  several 
children  bom  to  Cristoforo  Vannuoci,  a  member  of  a  rcq^taUe 
family  settled  at  Citti  della  Pieve.  Though  respectable,  they 
seem  to  have  been  poor,  or  else,  for  some  reason  or  other,  to 
have  left  Pietro  uncarcd  for  at  the  opening  of  his  career.  Before 
he  had  completed  his  ninth  year  the  boy  was  articled  to  a  master, 
a  painter  at  Perugia.  Yfjio  this  may  have  been  is  very  uncertain ; 
the  painter  is  spoken  of  as  wholly  mediocre,  but  sympathetic 
for  the  great  things  in  his  art.  Benedetto  Bonfigli  is  generally 
surmised;  if  he  is  rejected  as  being  above  mediocrity,  either 
Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo  or  Niccold  da  Foligno  may  possibly  have 
been  the  man.  Pietro  painted  a  little  at  Areaueo;  thence  he  went 
to  the  headquarters  of  art,  Florence,  and  frequented  the  famous 
Brancacd  Chapel  in  the  church  of  the  Carmine.  It  appeara 
to  b^  sufficiently  established  that  he  studied  in  the  atelier  of 
Andrea  del  Vcrrocchio,  where  Leonardo  de  Vinci  was  also  a 
pupiL  He  nuty  have  learned  perspective,  in  which  he  par- 
ticularly excelled  for  that  period  of  art,  from  Piero  de'  Fran- 
ceschL  The  date  of  this  first  Florentine  sojourn  is  by  xio  means 
settled;  some  authorities  incline  to  make  it  as  early  as  1470. 
while  othcra,  with  perhaps  better  reason,  postpone  it  till  X479. 
Pietro  at  this  time  was  extremely  poor;  hf  had  no  bed,  but 
slept  on  a  chest  for  many  months,  and,  bent  upon  making  his 
way,  resolutely  denied  himself  every  creature  comfort. 

Gradually  Perugino  rose  into  notice,  and  became  famous  not 
only  throughout  Italy  but  even  beyond.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  Italian  painters  to  practise  oU-painting,  in  which  he 
evinced  a  depth  and  smoothness  of  tint,  which  elicited  much 
remark;  and  in  perspective  he  applied  the  iwvd  rule  of  two 
centres  of  vision.  Some  of  his  early  works  were  extensive 
frescoes  for  the  Ingesati  fathera  in  their  convent,  which  was 
destroyed  not  many  years  afterwards  in  the  course  of  the  siege 
of  Florence;  he  produced  for  them  also  many  cartoons,  which 
Ihcy  executed  with  brilliant  effect  in  stained  glass.  Though 
greedy  for  gain,  his  integrity  was  proof  against  temptation; 
and  an  amusing  anecdote  has  survived  of  how  the  prior  of  the 
Ingesati  doled  out  to  him  the  costly  colour  of  ultramarine,  and 
hew  Perugino,  constantly  washing  his  brushes,  obtained  a 
surreptitious  hoard  of  the  pigment,  which  he  finality  xestored 
to  the  prior  to  shame  his  stingy  suspiciousness.  A  good  speci- 
men of  his  early  style  in  tempera  is  the  circular  picture  m  the 
Louvre  of  the  **  Virgin  and  Child  enthroned  between  Saints." 

Perugino  returned  from  Florence  to  Perugia,  and  thence, 
towards  X483,  he  went  to  Rome.  The  painting  of  that  part  of 
the  Sixtine  Chapel  which  is  now  immortalized  by  Mkhelangelo's 
"Last  Judgment "  was  assigned  to  him  by  the  pope;  he  covered 
it  with  fiescoesof  the  "Assumption,"  the  "  Nativity,"  and  "  Moses 
in  the  Bulrushes."  These  works  were  ruthlessly  destroyed  to 
make  a  space  for  his  successor's  more  colossal  genius,  but  other 
works  by  Perugino  still  remain  in  the  Sixtine  Chapel;  "  Moses 
and  Zipporah"  (often  attributed  to  SignorelH),  the  "Baptism 
of  Christ,"  and  "  Christ  giving  the  Keys  to  Peter."  Pinturicchio 
accompanied  the  greater  Umbrian  to  Rome,  and  was  made  his 
partner,  receiving  a  third  of  the  profits;  he  may  probably  have 
done  some  of  the  Zipporah  subject. 

Pietro,  now  aged  forty,  must  have  left  Rome  after  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Sixtine  paintings  in  i486,  and  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year  he  was  in  Florence.  Here  he  figures  by  no  means  advan- 
tageously in  a  criminal  court.  In  July  1487  he  and  another 
Perugian  painter  named  Aulista  di  Angelo  were  convicted,  on 
their  own  confession,  of  having  in  December  waylaid  with  staves 
some  one  (the  name  does  not  appear)  in  the  street  near  S.  Pietro 
Mi^ore.  Perugino  limited  himself,  in  intention,  to  assault 
and  battery,  but  Aulista  had  made  up  his  mind  for  murder. 
The  minor  and  more  illustrious  culprit  was  fined  ten  gold  florins, 
and  the  major  one  exiled  for  life. 

Between  1486  and  1499  Perugino  resided  chiefly  in  Florence, 
making  oi>e  journQr  to  Rome  and  several  to  Perugia.  He  was  in 
many  other  parts  of  Italy  from  time  to  time.  He  had  a  regular 
shop  in  Florence^  received  a  great  number  of  commissions, 
and  continued  developing  his  practice  as  an  oil-painter,  hi». 


28o 


PERUKE 


system  of  superposed  layers  of  colour  being  essentially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Van  Eycks.  One  of  his  most  celebrated 
pictures,  the  "  Pieta  "  in  the  Pitti  Gallery,  belongs  to  the  year 
1495.-  From  about  1498  he  became  increasingly  keen  after  money, 
frequently  repeating  his  groups  from  picture  to  picture,  and 
leaving  much  of  his  work  to  journeymen.  In  2499  the  gild  of 
the  cambio  (money-changers  or  bankers)  of  Perugia  asked  him 
to  undertake  the  decoration  of  their  aodiencc-hall,  and  he 
accepted  the  invitation.  This  extensive  scheme  of  work,  which 
may  have  been  finished  within  the  year  1500,  comprised  the 
painting  of  the  vault  with  the  seven  planets  and  the  signs  of 
the  zodiac  (Perugino  doing  the  designs  and  his  pupils  most 
probably  the  executive  work)  and  the  representation  on  the  walls 
of  two  sacred  subject»-4he  "  Nativity  "  and  "  Transfiguration  " 
— the  £temal  Father,  the  four  virtues  of  Justice,  Prudence, 
Temperance  and  Fortitude,  Cato  as  the  emblem  of  wisdom, 
and  (in  life  size)  numerous  figures  of  classic  worthies,  prophets 
and  sibyb.  On  the  mid-pilaster  of  the  hall  Perugino  placed  his 
own  portrait  in  bust-form.  It  is  probable  that  Raphael,  who 
in  boyhood,  towards  1496,  had  been  placed  by  his  uncles  under 
the  tuition  of  Perugino,  bore  a  hand  in  the  work  of  the  vaulting. 
It  may  have  been  about  this  time  (ihoagh  some  accounts  date 
the  event  a  few  years  later)  that  Vannucci  married  a  young  and 
beautiful  wife,  the  object  of  his  fond  affection;  he  loved  to  sec 
her  handsomely  dressed,  and  would  often  deck  her  out  with  his 
own  hands.    He  was  made  one  of  the  priois  of  Perugia  in  1501. 

While  Perugino,  though  by  no  means  stationary  or  unpro- 
gressive  as  an  executive  artist,  was  working  contentedly  upon  the 
old  Hnes  and  carrying  out  the  ancient  conceptions,  a  mighty 
wave  of  new  art  flooded  Florence  with  its  rush  and  Italy  with 
its  rumour.  Michelangelo,  twenty-five  years  of  age  in  1500, 
following  after  and  distancing  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  was  opening 
men's  eyes  and  minds  to  possibilities  of  achievement  as  yet 
unsurmised.  Vannucci  in  Perugia  heard  Buonarroti  bmitcd 
abroad,  and  was  impatient  to  see  with  his  oviii  eyes  what  the 
stir  was  all  about.  In  1504  he  allowed  his  apprentices  and 
assistants  to  disperse,  and  returned  to  Florence.  Though  not 
openly  detracting,  he  viewed  with  jeak)usy  and  some  grudging 
the  advances  made  by  Michelangelo;  and  Michclangeto  on  his 
part  replied,  with  the  intolerance  which  pertains  to  superiority, 
to  the  faint  praise  or  covert  dispraise  of  his  senior  and  junior  in 
the  art.  On  one  occasion,  in  company,  he.  told  Perugino  to 
his  face  that  he  was  "  a  bungler  in  ait "  igoffo  nelP  arte).  Van- 
nucci  brought,  with  equal  indiscretion  and  iU  success,  an  action 
for  defamation  of  character.  Put  on  his  mettle  by  this  mortifying 
transaction,  be  determined  to  show  what  he  could  do,  and  he 
produced  the  ckef-d'auvre  of  the  "  Madonna  and  Saints  "  for 
the .  Certosa  of  Pavia.  The  constituent  parts  of  this  noble 
work  have  now  been  sundered.  The  only  portion  which  remains 
in  the  Certosa  is  a  figure  of  God  the  Father  with  cherubim. 
An  "  Annunciation  "  has  disappeared  from  cognisance;  three 
compartments — the  Virgin  adoring  the  infant  Christ,  St  Michael, 
and  St  Raphael  with  Tobias — are  among  the  choicer  treasures 
of  the  National  Gallery,  London.  The  current  stoiy  that 
Raphael  bore  a  hand  in  the  work  is  not  likdy  to  be  true.  This 
was  succeeded  in  1505  by  an  "  Assumption,"  in  the  Cappclla  dei 
Rabatta,  in  the  church  of  the  Servi  in  Florence.  The  painting 
may  have  been  executed  chiefly  by  a  pupil,  and  was  at  any  rate 
a  failure:  it  was  much  decried;  Perugino  lost  his  scholars;  and 
towards  1506  he  once  more  and  finally  abandoned  Fk>rence, 
going  to  Perugia,  and  thence  in  a  3rear  or  two  to  Rome. 

Pope  Julius  II.  had  summoned  Perugino  to  paint  the  Stanza 
in  the  Vatican,  now  called  that  of  the  Incendio  del  Borgo;  but 
he  soon  preferred  a  younger  competitor,  that  very  Raphael  who 
had  been  trained  by  the  aged  master  of  Perugia;  and  Vannucci, 
after  painting  the  ceiling  with  figures  of  God  the  Father  in 
different  glories,  in  five  medallion-subjects,  found  his  occupati<m 
gone;  he  retired  from  Rome,  and  was  once  more  in  Perugia  from 
I  $12.  Among  his  latest  works  one  of  the  best  is  the  extensive 
altar-piece  (painted  between  151 2  and  1517)  of  S.  Agostino  in 
Pemgta;  the  component  parts  of  it  ate  now  dii^Mised  in  various 
sries. 


Perugino*s  last  frescoes  were  painted  for  the  monastery  of 
S.  Agnese  in  Perugia,  and  in  1522  for  the  churdi  of  Castello  di 
Fortignano  hard  by.  Both  series  have  disappeared  from  their 
places,  the  second  being  now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 
He  was  still  at  Fontignano  in  1524  when  the  plague  broke  out, 
and  he  died.  He  was  buried  in  unoonsecrated  ground  in  a  field, 
the  precise  spot  now  unknown.  The  reason  for  so  obscure  and 
unwonted  a  mode  of  burial  has  been  discussed,  and  religious 
scepticism  on  the  painter's  own  part  has  been  assigned  as  the 
cause;  the  fact,  however,  appears  to  be  that,  on  the  sudden 
and  widespread  outbreak  of  the  plague,  the  panic-stnick  local 
authorities  ordained  that  all  victims  of  the  disorder  should 
be  at  once  interred  without  any  waiting  for  religious  rites.  This 
leads  us  to  speak  of  Perugino's  opinions  on  religion.  Vasari  is 
our  chief,  but  not  our  sole,  authority  for  saying  that  Vannucd 
had  very  h'ttle  mligion,  and  was  an  open  and  obdurate  dishrlirvcr 
in  the  immortality  of  the  souL  For  a  reader  of  the  present  day 
it  is  easier  than  it  was  for  Vasari  to  suppose  that  Perugino  may 
have  been  a  materialist,  and  yet  just  as  good  and  lnudable  a 
man  as  his  orthodox  C^thdiic  neighbours  or  brotber-«rtJsis; 
Siill  there  is  a  strong  discrepancy  between  the  quaL'ty  of  his  art 
in  which  all  is  throughout  Christian,  Catholic,  devotkMkal,  aad 
even  pietistic,  and  the  character  of  an  anti-Christian  cos- 
temner  of  the  doctrine  of  immortality.  It  is  difficult  to  recoBc& 
this  discrepancy,  and  certainly  not  a  little  difficult  also  to  suppoie 
that  Vasari  was  totally  mistaken  in  his  assertion;  he  was  bora 
twenty  years  before  Perugino's  death,  and  must  have  talked  viih 
scores  of  people  to  whom  the  Umbrian  painter  had  been  vdl 
known.  We  have  to  remark  that  Perugino  in  1494  painted 
his  own  portrait,  now  in  the  Uffia  Gallery  of  Florence,  and  into 
this  he  introduced  a  scroll  lettered  "  Timete  Deum."  Tliat  an 
open  disbeliever  should  inscribe  himself  with  **  Timete  JDeum  " 
seems  odd.  The  portrait  in  question  shows  a  plunqi  face,  with 
small  dark  eyes,  a  short  but  well-cut  nose,  and  sensaous  lips; 
the  neck,  is  thick,  the  hair  bushy  and  frizzled,  and  the  general 
air  imposing.  The  later  portrait  in  the  Cambio  of  Perugia 
shows  the  same  face  with  traces  of  added  years.  Perugino  died 
possessed  of  o>nsiderable  property,  leaving  three  sons. 

Among  the  very  numerous  works  of  Perugino  a  few  vat  ahuidy 
named  require  mention.  Towards  1496  he  painted  the  **  Cmo- 
fixion,"  in  S.  Maria  Maddalena  dei  Pazzi,  Florence.  The  attribu- 
tion to  him  of  the  picture  of  the  marriage  of  Joseph  and  the  Virg'.a 
Mary  (the  "  Sposauzio  *')  now  in  the  museum  of  Caen,  which  scrnd 
indisputably  as  the  oririnal,  to  a  ^reat  extent,  of  the  still  oor 
famous  "  Sponlizio  "  which  was  pamted  by  Raphael  in  IS04«  aad 
which  forms  a  leading  attraction  of  the  Brera  Gallery  in  MtLia. 
is  now  questioned,  and  it  is  assigned  to  Lo  Spacna.  A  vastly 
finer  work  of  Perugino's  is  the  "  Ascension  of  Christ,  which,  paJnred 
a  littler  earlier  for  S.  Pietro  ol  Perugia,  has  for  years  past  been  in  the 
museum  <^  Lyons;  the  other  portions  of  the  same  altar-piece  aic 
dhperscd  in  other  galleries.  In  the  chapel  of  the  DiscipUnau  cl 
Citt4  dclla  Pieve  is  an  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  a  square  of  21  (t. 
containing  about  thirty  fife-sized  figures;  this  was  executed.  «itk 
scarcely  credible  celerity,  from  the  1st  to  the  ssth  of  Match  (or 
thereabouts)  in  iy>s,  and  must  no  doubt  be  in  groat  part  the  work 
of  Vannucci's  pupils.  In  <507t  when  the  master's  work  had  lor  yean 
been  in  a  course  of  decline  and  his  performances  were  gcncraOy 
weak,  he  produced,  nevertheless,  one  of  his  best  pncturcs — the 
"  Virgin  between  St  Jerome  and  St  Francis,'*  now  in  the  Pklazao 
Penna.  In  S.  Onofno  of  Florence  is  a  much  lauded  and  moc^ 
debated  fresco  of  the  "  Last  Soppcr*"  a  careful  and  blandlv  contct 
but  not  inspired  work;  it  has  wxn  ascribed  to  Perugino  Dy  sotne 
connoisseurs,  by  others  to  Raphael;  it  may  more  probably  be  b; 
Some  different  puptl  of  the  Umbrian  master. 

AuTHORmES.-~-ln  addition  to  Crowe  and  Cavatcaadle*  nee  Di 
Pietro  PtrMgino  e  degfi  uolori  (1804);  MezsanotU,  Vita,  fine  -dt 
Pietro  Vanuttcci  (1836);  Mariotti,  UtUre  piUoriche  Perutine  (17SS': 
Claude  Phillips  (in  The  Portfoiio)  (1893) ;  C.  C.  Williamson.  Pengtng 
(1900  and  1903).  (W.  M.  R.) 

PERUKE,  an  artificial  head  of  hair,  a  wig.  The  word  is 
from  Fr.  perruqtu,  an  adaptation  of  ItaL  perruca  or  pamuca. 
This  is  usually  taken,  to  be  from  ItaL  pda,  hair;  Lat.  pilta. 
Span,  pduea,  wig,  and  Sardinian  pUmcco,  lock  or  tuft  of  hair, 
support  this  view.  In  the  17th  centwy  the  English  fonas 
which  the  French  word  took,  such  as  ptfmck  or  ptrug^  were 
corrupted  into  penvyke,  and  thence  into  ptmvyk,  pvewig^  aad 
lastly  "  periwig,"  which  again  was  shortened  .into  "  m^**  the 


PKRUZZI— PESCADORES 


2B1 


comitinin  tenn  for  all  tjrpcft  of  utifidal  heads  of  hair, 
is  80iiietixa«a  eoniined  to  the  heavy  fuU-bottomed  wigs  wom 
from  the  rdgii  of  Charka  II.  to  the  intxoductkm  of  the  light, 
tailed  wig  of  the  iSth  century. 

PBRUZZI,  BALDASSABE  (i43i-zS36),  Italian  architect 
and  painter  of  the  Roman  school,  was  bom  at  Ancajano,  in 
the  diocese  of  Volterra,  and  passed  his  early,  life  at  Siena,  where 
his  father  redded.  While  qjulte  young  Peruzzi  went  to  Rome, 
and  there  studied  architecture  and  painting;  in  the  latter  he 
was  at  first  a  follower  of  Perugino.  The  choir  frcsoods  in 
Sont'  Onofrio  on  the  Jaaiculan  HiH,  iftually  •attributed  to 
Pinturicchio,  are  by  his  hand.  One  of  the  fint  works  which 
brought  renown  to  the  young  architect  was  the  villa  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber  in  Rome  now  known  as  the  Famesina,.  originally 
built  for  the  Sienese  Agostino  Chigi»  a  wealthy  banker.  This 
viUa,  like  aU  Penizzi's  works,  is  remarkable  for  ita  graceful 
design  and  the  delicacy  of  its  detail  It  is  best  known  for  the 
frescoes  painted  there  by  Raphael  and  his  pupils  to  illustrate 
the  stories  of  Psyche  and  Galatea.  One  of  the  loggie  has  frescoes 
by  Penixn*6  own  hand—the  story  of  Medusa.  On  account  of 
his  success  Pcruzsi  wsa  appointed  by  Leo  X.  in  1520  architect 
to  St  Peter's  at  a  salary  of  aso  scudi;  his  design  for  its  connpIc> 
tion  was  not,  however,  carried  out.  During  the  sack  of  Rome 
in  1537  Peruxa  barely  escaped  with  his  life,  on  condition  of  his 
painting  the  portrait  of  Constable  de  Bourbon,  who  had  been 
killed  during  the  siege  (see  Vasasi).  From  Rome  he  escaped  to 
Siena,  where  he  was  made  dty  architect,  and  designed  fortifica- 
tions for  its  defence,  a  great  part  of  which  still  exist.  Soon 
afterwards  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  made  designs  for  a 
palace  for  the  Orsini  family,  and  built  the  palaces  Massimi  and 
Vidoni,  as  well  as  others  in  the  south  of  Italy.  He  died  in 
1 556,  and  was  buried  by  the  side  of  Raphad  in  the  Pantheon. 

Peruzzi  ^as  an  eager  student  of  mathematics  and  was  also 
a  fair  classical  scholar.  Like  many  of  the  great  artists  of  his 
time,  he  was  remarkable  for  the  varied  extent  of  his  knowledge 
and  skill.  A  most  able  architect,  a  fair  painter,  and  a  scientific 
engineer,  he  also  practised  minor  arts,  such  as  stucco-work  in 
relief,  sgraffito,  and  the  decorative  painted  arabesques  which 
the  ini!uenoe  of  Raphael  did  so  much  to  bring  into  use.  His 
best  existing  works  in  fresco  are  in  the  Castel  di  Belcaro  and  the 
church  of  Fontegiusta  in  Siena.  For  Siena  Cathedral  he  also 
designed  a  magnificent  wooden  oxgan-case,  painted  and  gilt, 
rich  with  carved  arabesques  in  friezes  and  pilasters;  he  also 
designed  the  high  altar  and  the  Cappella  del  Battista. 

His  chief  pupil  ?ras  the  architect  Serlio,  who,  in  his  work  on 
architecture,  gratefully  acknowledges  the  great  debt  he  owed  to 
Peruzzi's  instruction.  The  English  National  Gallery  poucsses 
an  interesting  drawing  by  his  huid.  The  subject  is  the  "  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi,"  and  it  is  of  special  value,  because  the  heads 
of  the  three  kings  are  portraits  of  Michelangelo,  Raphael,  and 
Titian.  The  Uffizi  and  the  libraiy  at  Siena  contain  a  number 
of  Peruzzi's  designs  and  drawingSi  many  of  which  are  now  of 
priceless  value,  as  th^  show  ancient  buildoigs  which  have 
been  destroyed  ainoe  the  i6th  century. 

AuTHOarriBS.— Vaaari,  Vita  di  Baid^usart  Ptruai  (Milancsi'scd., 
1883),  iv.  489:  Milaxia.  Uemmne  degfi  arckUeUi  (1781,  L  310-21^): 
Delia  VaOe,  LetUre  senesi  (1783-1786);  Gaye.  CarUggio  inedtio 
rf'  artisti  (1830-1840);  Lanzi,  SUfria  pittwica  (1804);  and  Flatncr, 
Bcickreibung  der  Stadt  Rom  (1830*1842). 

PBRVIGIUUII^  VBNBRISft  the  Vigfl  of  Venus,  a  short 
Latiir  poem.  The  author,  date,  and  place  of  composition  are 
unknown.  The  poem  probably  belongs  to  the  and  or  3rd 
century  a.Qw  An  article  signed  L.  Raqueltioa  in  the  CUusiad 
Rewi€W  .(May  190$)  «nigns  it  to  Sidonlus  ApoIUnvis  (sth  cent.) 
It  waa  written  professedly  in  eariy  spring  on  the  eve  of  a 
three-nights'  festival  of  Venus  (probably  April  1-3).  It 
describes  in  pottkai  language  the  annual  awakening  of  the 
vegetable  and  animal  world  through  the  goddess.  It  consists 
ol  niaetyothree  verses  in  trodialc  septenaril,  and  is  divided 
into  stroi^ics  of  unequal  length  by  the  refrain: 

"  Cras  amet  qui  nunqnam  aoiavit;  quique  amavit  eras  aiaet." 


>  FgnifSimt  was  the  term  for  a  nocturnal  festival  in  honour  of 
sooe  divuiiiy»  espcctaliy  Bona  Dca. 


BtStio  prfnccpa  (iS37):  modem  editioaa  by  F.  BOchder  (ISm), 
A.  Rieae,  in  AnSohaa  tatina  (1869),  E.  B&hrcns  in  Uatdiirte  liSu^ 
iseke  CedichU  (iBrni  S.  G.  Owen  (with  Catullus.  1^3).  There  are 
translations  into  English  verse  by  Thomas  Stanley  (1651)  and 
Thomas  Parnell.  author  of  rib«  Htrmiii  00  the  text  see  J.  W.  MackaU 
in  Jmtrnal  of  FhtMogy  (1888).  voL  xviL 

PBSARO  (anc.  PUaurum,  f.*.),  a  dty  and  seaport  of  the 
Marches,  Italy,  the  capital  of  the  provincoof  Pesaro  and  Urbino, 
situated  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  37  m.  N.W.  of  Ancona  by 
rail,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Foglla,  the  ancient  Pisaurus.  The 
ground  on  which  it  is  buUt  is  only  from  10  to  40  ft.  above  the 
sea,  but  it  is  surrounded  by  hillar~^n  the  E.  by  Monte  Ardizio, 
on  the  W.  by  Monte  Acdo  or  San  Bartolo,  which  derives  one 
of  its  names  from  the  tradition  that  the  Roman  dramatist 
L.  Attios  was  bom  and  buried  on  the  spot,  Up<Mi  this  hill  stands 
the  Villa  Imperiale,  the  foundation  stone  of  which  was  laid  by 
the  emperor  Frederick  III.,  built  by  the  Sforza,  and  docwated 
with  fine  stucco  ceilings  and  watt  pamtings  and  pavements 
of  majolica  plaques.  A  new  palace  was  begim  in  1530  by  the 
(knga  for  Elconora  Gonzaga,  but  never  finished.  The  dty  walls 
were  in  1830  transformed  into  a  public  promenade.  Besides 
the  ancient  cathedral  of  the  Aimnndation  (restored  sbce  i860) 
with  a  i3th-centttry  mosaic  pavement,  there  are  a  number  of 
smaller  churches,  several  with  Gothic  portals.  One  of  these, 
the  church  of  San  Francesco,  now  used  as  a  cathedral,  contains 
the  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  "  by  Giovanni  Bellini,  the  largest 
and  most  important  of  his  works  ouuide  Venice.  The  most 
conspicuous  buildings  are  the  prefecture  (a  palace  originally 
erected  In  1455*1465  by  the  Ihdmatian  architect  Ludano  da 
Laurana  for  the  Sforza,  and  restored  by  Francesco  Maria  della 
Rovere  in  the  i6th  century,  the  Rossini  theatre  (opened  in  1818), 
the  fortress  of  Rooca  Coi^anzta  (built  by  Costanzo  Sforta  in 
1474,  Laurana  being  the  architect),  and  the  large  lunatic  asylum. 
The  composer  Cioacchino  Rossini,  who  was  a  native  of  Pesaro, 
left  all  his  fortune  to  found  a  musical  lyceum  in  the  dty,  and  his 
statue  by  Marochetti  (1864)  stands  near  the  railway  station. 
The  Olivicri  library  (established  by  the  antiquary  of  that  name, 
author  of  Marmora  pisaurcmia,  &c.)  contains  about  14,000 
volumes,  MSS.  of  Tasso,  &c.,  inscriptions  and  various  antiquities, 
and  a  very  fine  collection  of  majolica  (one  of  the  best  in  Italy) 
from  the  old  Urbino  and  other  manufactories.  The  Museo 
Mosca,  left  by  its  owner  to  the  town,  contains  important  collec- 
tions of  faience,  furniture,  8cc.  Among  the  industries  of  Pesaro 
arc  the  growing,  spinning  and  weaving  of  silk,  tanning,  iron- 
founding,  and  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  pottery.  It  is  also 
the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district.  The  harbour  is  of  no 
great  Importance,  but  there  is  a  small  export  trade  in  urine, 
olives,  silk  and  glass.  Pop.  (1901),  I4i7<>8  (town);  24,833 
(commune). 

Destroyed  by  Vltlges  the  C3oth,  the  town  was  restored  and 
stncngthened  by  BcUsarius,  and  afterwards  along  with  Ancona, 
Fano,  Senigallia,  and  Rimini  formed  the  Pentapolis  Maritima. 
In  the  course  of  the  13th  century  Pasaro  was  sometimes  under 
the  government  of  the  popes,  sometimes  under  that  of  the 
emperors;  but  the  Malatcsta  family,  which  first  took  root  in  the 
dty  about  1285,  gradually  became  the  real  masters  of  the  place. 
In  I44S  they  sold  thdr  rights  to  Francesco  Sforza;  and  in  1513, 
through  the  influence  of  Julius  11.,  the  Sforza  were  supplanted 
by  his  nephew  Francesco  Maria,  duke  of  Urbino.  Leo  X.  took 
the  dty  away  fmm  Francesco  and  gave  it  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medid; 
but  on  Lorenzo's  death  Francesco  was  restored  and  Pesaro 
became  the  ordinary  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Urbino  till  the 
death  of  Francesco  Maria  II.  in  1631,  when  it  reverted  to  the 
States  of  the  Church.  It  has  formed  part  of  the  present  kingdom 
of  Italy  since  i860.  Tercnzk)  Mamiani  della  Rovei^  poet  and 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Pesaro  in  x8oo. 

PESCADORES  (U.  fishers,)  a  group  of  islands  (called 
by  the  Japanese  Hdk9  0  or  Hsko  Guntif)  lying  30  m.  west 
of  Formosa,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  the  Pescadores 
Chaimcl»  about  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  The  islands  number  48 
(31  inhabited),  have  a  coast-line  of  9867  miles,  a  total  area  of 
Ss'sosq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  about  55.ooo,prindpallyChinese. 
Flat  and  with  unproductive  soil,  they  are  swept  during  one 


382 


PESCARA^PESHAWAR 


half  bf  tlie  year  by  vloleiit  N.E.  winds,  and  also  lie  full  In  the 
|)ath  bf  the  numerous  typhoons  that  rush  up  the  Strait  of 
Formosa.  Meteorological  observations  taken  by  the  Japanese 
during  a  period  of  three  years  show  that  the  annual  average 
number  of  stormy  days  is  237.  The  anchorage  is  at  Mako 
(Makytl  or  Makun)  on  the  princ^tal  island  of  Peoghu.  The 
chief  industry  is  fishing'  (whence  the  old  Spanish  name  which 
has  come  into  general  use)  and  dried  fish  are  exported. 

PESCARA.  PERNANDO  PRAMCESCO  DAVALOS.  MakQUIS 
or  (1489-1525),  Italian  eondoUierCf  was  bom  at  Naples,  his 
family  being  of  Spanish  origin.  Rodrigo  (Ruy)  Lopez  Davalos, 
his  great-grandfather,  a  noble  of  Toledo,  who  had  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  Castile  in  the  reign  of  John  II. 
(1407-X454),  had  been  driven  into  exile,  and  died  at  Valencia. 
Iftigo  (Ignatius),  his  son,  entered  the  service  of  Alphonso  of 
Aragon  and  Naples,  followed  his  master  to  Italy,  and  there, 
making  an  advantageous  marriage  with  a  lady  of  the  family 
of  Aquino,  was  created  marquis  of  Fescara.  His  son  Alphonso, 
who  succeeded  him  in  the  marquisate,  married  a  lady  of  the 
Sicilian  branch  of  the  Spanish  family  of  Cardona,  and  when 
he  was  treacherously  killed,  during  a  French  invasion  of  Naples, 
his  only  son  Fernando,  or  Fcrrante,  was  a  child  in  arms.  At 
thf"  age  of  six  the  boy  was  betrothed  to  Vittoria  Colonna  (q.v.), 
daughter  of  the  general  Fabrizio  Colonna,  and  the  marriage  was 
celebrated  in  1509.  His  position  as  a  noble  of  the  Aragonesc 
party  in  Naples  made  it  incumbent  on  him  tosu|^port  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  in  his  Italian  wars.  In  151 2  he  commanded  a  body 
of  light  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Ravenna,  where  he  was  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  French.  Thanks  to  the  intervention 
of  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  French  generals,  the  Italian 
J.  J.  Ttivulzio,  who  was  his  connexion  by  marriage,  he  was 
allowed  to  ransom  himself  for  6000  ducats.  He  commanded 
the  Spanish  infantry  at  the  battle  of  La  Morta,  or  Vicenza, 
on  the  7th  of  October  1513.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  be 
called  his  men  before  the  charge  to  take  care  to  step  on  him 
before  the  enemy  did  if  he  feU.  From  the  battle  of  Vicenza 
in  1 513,  down  to  the  battle  of  La  Bicocca  on  the  29th  of  April 
1522,  he- continued  to  serve  in  command  of  the  Spaniards  and 
as  the  colleague  rather  than  the  subordinate  of  Prosper  Colonna. 
It  was  only  by  the  accident  of  his  birth  at  Naples  that  Pescara 
was  an  Italian.  He  considered  himself  a  Spaniard,  spoke 
Spanish  at  all  limes,  even  to  his  wife,  and  was  always  surrounded 
by  Spanish  soldiers  and  ofiicers.  His  opinion  of  the  Italians  as 
fighting  men  was  unfavourable  and  was  openly  expressed.  After 
the  battle  of  La  Bicocca  Charles  V.  appointed  Prosper  Colonna 
commander-in-chief.  Pescara,  who  considered  himself  aggrieved, 
made  a  journey  to  Valladolid  in  Spain,  where  the  emperor  then 
was,  to  state  his  own  claims.  Charles  V.,  with  whom  he  had 
long  and  confidential  interviews,  persuaded  him  to  submit  for 
the  time  to  the  superiority  of  Coloima.  But  In  these  meetings 
he  gained  the  confidence  of  Charles  V.  His  Spanish  descent 
and  sympathies  marked  him  out  as  a  safer  commander  of  the 
imperial  troops  m  Italy  than  an  Italian  could  have  been.  When 
Francis  I.  invaded  Italy  In  X524  Pescara  was  appointed  as  lieu< 
tenant  of  the  emperor  to  repel  the  invasion.  The  difficulties 
of  his  position  were  very  great,  for  there  was  much  discontent 
in  the  army,  which  was  very  ill  paid.  The  tenacity,  patience 
and  tact  of  Pescara  triumphed  over  all  obstacles.  His  influence 
over  the  veteran  Spanish  troops  and  the  German  mercenaries 
kept  them  loyal  during  the  long  siege  of  Pavla.  On  the  24th  of 
February  1525  he  defeated  and  took  prisoner  Francis  I.  by  a 
brilliant  attack.  Pescara's  plan  was  remarkable  for  its 
audacity  and  for  the  skill  he  showed  in  destroying  the  superior 
French  heavy  cavalry  by  assailing  them  in  fiank  with  a  mixed 
force  of  harqucbusiers  and  light  horse.  It  was  believed  that 
he  was  dissatisfied  with  the  treatment  he  had  received  from  the 
empccor;  and  GIrolamo  Morone,  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Milan, 
approached  him  with  a  scheme  for  expelling  French,  Spaniards 
and  Germans  alike  from  Italy,  and  for  gaining  a  throne  for 
himself.  Pescara  may  have  listened  to  the  tempter,  but  in 
act  he  was  loyal.  He  reported  the  oiTer  to  Charics  V.  and  put 
Morone  Into  prison.    His  health  however  bad  begun  to  give 


way  under  the  strain  of  wounds  and  eipoture;  and  be  died  at 
MUan  on  the  4th  of  November  1525.  Pescara  had  no  duldren; 
his  title  descended  to  his  cousin  the  marquis  del  Vnsto«  abo  a 
distinguished  imperial  generaL 

AtrrHORfTtBs.— The  life  of  Pesqara  was  written  In  Latin  by  PmIo 
GiovtOt  and  is  included  in  the  VUae  ittustrium  ttirvrMm,  printed  at 
Basel  IS78>  Giovio'a  Latin  lUfg  was  translated  by  L.  Doanenidtt, 
the  translator  of  bis  other  works,  and  published  at  Florence,  1551. 
The  Spanish  Hisloria  dd  fortissimo  y  PnuUutissimo  capiian  Dem 
Hernando  de  Avatcs,  bjr  £1  Maestro  P.  Vall^  ^Antwerp,  1553). 
is  also  a  translatbn  of  Giovio.  See  also  Mtsnet,  RnnliU  de  Frangois 
I"  et  de  Charles  Quint  (Fans,  1875).  whki  gives  references  to  al 
authorities.  (D.  R.) 

PESCARA,  a  river  of  Italy,  formed  by  the  confluenoe  ol  tk 
Gizio  and  Atemo,  and  flowing  into  the  Adriatic  at  the  small  to«a 
of  Pescara.  This  town  occupies  the  site  of  the  andent  Atonuo, 
the  terminus  of  the  Via  Claudia  Valeria,  and  up  to  1867  a  fortress 
of  some  importance.  The  railway  from  Suhnona  follows  The 
Pescara  valley  and  joins  the  coast  line  to  Brindisl  at  Pescara. 
In  this  valley,  22  m.  from  the  sea,  was  the  site  of  the  anckftt 
Intcrpromium,  a  town  belonging  probably  to  the  Plaeligni;  sad 
not  far  off  Is  the  very  fine  Cistercian  abbey  church  of  S.  aemestc 
di  Casauria,  founded  by  the  emperor  Louis  11.  In  871.  Tb 
present  buildmg  belongs  to  the  12th  century.  The  scidpCtrs 
of  the  portals^  the  pulpit,  the  Paschal  candelabnim,  &c,  sxL 
the  bronze  doors  of  this  period  are  important.  The  cbronkk 
of  the  abbey,  of  the  end  <tf  the  1 2th  century,  b  in  the  Bibliotheqae 
nationale  at  Paris. 

See  V.  Bindl,  JiionumentidegliAhruai(NaifAeBt  1889), pp^  405 sqq.; 
P.  L.  Calore  in  Arehioio  Uorioo  ddS  arte  (Rome,  1891),  nr.  9«qq. 

PESCHIERA  SUL  OAROA,  a  fortress  of  Venetia,  Italy,  is 
the  province  of  Verona,  on  an  island  in  the  Mindo  at  its  cnitkt 
from  the  lake  of  Garda,  77  m.  by  rail  E.  of  Milan.  It  was  one 
of  the  famous  fortresses  of  the  Quadrilateral,  the  duef  balwaii 
of  the  Austrian  rule  in  Italy  until  1S66  (Mantua,  L^nago  and 
Verona  being  the  other  three)  and  has  played  a  proadnent  part 
in  all  the  campaigns  conducted  in  north  Italy,  more  cspcciaSy 
during  the  Napoleonic  wars.  It  was  taken  by  the  Piedmootcse 
from  the  Austrians,  after  a  gallant  defence  by  General  Rath 
lasting  six  weeks,  on  the  50th  of  May  1848,  and  aiaoe  that  date 
has  been  in  Italian  hands. 

PESCIA,  a  town  of  Tuscany,  Italy,  in  the  provfaice  of  Locca. 
from  which  it  is  15  m.  E.N.E.  by  rail,  203  ft.  above  sea^creL 
Pop.  (igoi),  12,400  (town);  x8,ooo  (commune).  The  catbedial 
restored  in  1603,  contains  the  fine  diapel  of  the  Turini  famiij. 
built  for  Baldossare  Turini  (d.  1540)  by  Giuliano  di  Baocio  d 
Florence,  with  his  tomb  by  Raffaello  da  Montdupo.  The 
town  also  has  some  buildings  by  Lazzaro  Buggiano,  the  pupd 
and  adoptive  son  of  Brunell^schL  It  has  silk  and  paper  maaa- 
facturcs. 

PESETA,  a  silver  coin  and  unit  of  value,  the  Spanish  equhrakst 
of  the  French,  Belgian  and  Swiss  franCy  the  Italian  lira  and  tie 
Greek  drachma  in  the  Latin  monetary  union.  The  ^es»  (Lat. 
pensuntt  weight),  of  which  peteta  is  a  <Uminutive,  was  a  Spani^ 
coin  of  gold,  peso  de  oro,  or  silver,  peso  de  pMa,  once  curreBt  k. 
Spain  and  her  colonies,  and  now  the  name  of  a  silver  coin  d 
many  South  American  states.  The  peso  is  also  the  name  ci 
the  Mexican  dollar. 

PESHAWAR,  a  city  of  British  India,  the  capital  of  the 
North-West  Frontier  Province,  living  its  name  to  a  district 
The  dty  is  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Bara,  x  t  m.  frae 
Jamrud  at  the  entrance  of  the  Khyber  Pass,  the  railway  sctatka 
being  15S8  m.  north-west  of  Calcutta;  pop.  (190K),  95,147.  T«e 
miles  west  of  the  native  dty  are  the  cantonments,  fonxuBg  the 
prindpal  military  station  of  the  North'^West  Frontier  Piuvicct. 
Peshawar  lies  within  a  horseshoe  ring  of  hiUr  on  the  edge  «z 
the  mountain  barrier  which  separates  India  from  AfghsLiiistaa, 
and  through  it  have  passed  nearly  aH  the  Invadecs  from  the  noith. 
The  native  quarter  is  a  huddle  of  fktrroofed  homes  withis  nmd 
walls,  crowded  along  narrow,  crodked alleys;  theiels  but  one  fah^ 
wide  street  of  thopk.  Here  for  mtstiy  centuries  the  Pin^ndaks, 
or  Afghan  travelling  merchants,  have  brought  their  csravav 
from  Kabul,  Bokhara  and  SamttrkiKl  cvtiy  autviui.     Thqr 


PESHIN— PESSIMISM 


a83 


bring  liones/  wool,  wobllen  ttttib,  sOks,  dyesr  ^Id-thnid, 
fruits,  precious  stones,  carpets  and  poiditins  (sheepskin  clothing), 
fighting  and  buying  their  way  to  the  British  border*  where, 
leaving  their  arms,  they  are  free  to  wander  at  will  to  Delhi, 
Agra  and  Calcutt«>  The  chief  speciality  of  Peshawar  conawts 
of  bright-coloured  scarves  called  lungis;  waz-dotli  and  orna- 
mental needle-wotk  are  also  local  products,  as  well  as  knives 
and  small  arms. 

The  district  of  Pesbawai  has  an  area  of  s6xi  sq.  m.;  pop. 
(1901),  788,^07,  showing  an  increase  of  io*8%  in  the 
decade.  Except  on  the  south-east,  wheie  the  Indus  flows, 
it  is  encircled  by  mountains  whidi  are  inhabited  by  the 
Mohmand,  Utman  Khel  and  Afridi  tribes.  The  plain  consists 
of  alluvial  deposits  of  silt  and  gravel.  The  district  is  naturally 
fertile  and  well  watered,  and  is  irrigated  by  the  Swat  River 
Canal.  The  principal  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  mahse,  millets 
and  oil-seeds,  with  a  little  cotton  and  sugar*cane.  Peshawar 
also  produces  a  fine  variety  of  rice,  known  as  "Bara  rice," 
after  the  river  which  irrigates  it.  The  North-Westem  railway 
crosses  the  district  from  Attock,  and  has  been  extended 
from  Peshawar  dty  to  Jamnid  'for  militaiy  purposes.  Tlie 
district  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  Pathans;  there  are  some  Hindus 
engaged  in  trade  as  bankers,  merchants  and  shop-keepers. 

In  early  times  the  district  of  Peshawar  seems  to  have  had  an 
essentially  Indian  population,  for  it  was  not  till  the  xsth  century 
that  its  preseYit  Pathan  inhabitants  occupied  it.  Under  the 
name  of  Gandhara  it  was  a  centre  of  Buddhism,  and  especially 
Graeco-Buddhism.  Rock-edicts  of  Asoka  still  exist  at  two  places ; 
and  a  stupa  excavated  in  1909  was  found  to  contain  an  inscription 
of  Kanishka,  as  well  as  relics  believed  to  be  those  of  Buddha 
himself.  The  last  of  the  Indian  Buddhist  kings  was  conquered 
by  Mahmud  of  Ghaztd  in  1009.  The  Mogul  emperors  idways 
found  difficulty  in  maintaining  their  authority  over  the  Afghan 
border  tribes,  who  finally  established  thdr  independence  during 
the  reign  of  Aurangzeb.  Peshawar  was  a  favourite  residence 
of  the  Afghan  dynasty  founded  by  Ahmed  Shah  Durrani,  and 
here  Mountstuart  Elphinstone  came  as  ambassador  to  Shah 
Shujah  in  1809.  A  few  years  hter  RanjU  Singh  crossed  the 
Indus,  and  after  much  hard  fighting  Sikh  authority  was  firmly 
cstabUshed  under  General  Avitabile  in  2831.  In  1848  the  whok; 
of  the  Punjab  passed  to  the  British.  During  the  Mutiny, 
alter  the  sepoy  regiments  had  been  disaimed,  Peshawar  was  a 
source  of  strength  rather  than  of  danger,  though  Sir  John 
Lawrence  did  at  one  time  contemplate  the  necessity  of  surrender- 
ing it  to  the  Afghans,  in  order  to  preserve  the  rest  of  Northern 
India. 

VESHIH,  or  Pxsrin,  a  district  of  Baluchistan.  Area  9717 
sq.m.  Pop.  (1901),  50,200.  It  consists  of  a  large  plain  surrotmded 
on  three  sides  by  hills,  wluch  formerly  belonged  to  Afghan- 
istan but  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  the  treaty  of  Gandamak 
in  1879.  This  plain  is  of  considerable  strategic  importance,  as 
it  forms  the  focus  of  a  great  number  of  routes  leading  from 
Sind  and  the  Punjab  frontier  districts  to  Kandahar,  and  is 
intersected  by  the  Sind-Peshin  railway.  The  agricultural 
wealth  of  Peshin,  and  consequently  its  revenues,  have  increased 
greatly  under  British  administration. 

PESHirrO,  or  PEsniTO  {i.e.  **  simple  "),  the  standard  version 
of  the  Bible  in  the  Syriac  language.  It  was  long  supposed  to 
be  the  ori^nal  Syriac  version,  but  is  now  generally  recognized 
as  representing  a  revision  made  by  Rabbula,  bishop  of  Edessa, 
early  in  the  5th  century,  an  attempt  at  standardizing  the  Syriac 
text  such  as  Jerome  had  made  for  the  Latin  in  his  Vulgate.  (See 
Bible.) 

PESHWA  (Penaan  for  « leader,"  "guide"),  the  title  of  the 
head  of  the  Mahratta  confederacy  in  India.  Originally  the 
peshwa  was  only  prime  minister,  but  afterwards  he  supplanted 
his  master  and  became  chief  of  the  state,  founding  an  hcieditary 
dynasty,  with  the  capital  at  Poona.  The  last  peshwa,  Baji 
Rao,  came  into  collision  wjth  the  British*  and  was  dethroned 
in  1818.  His  adopted  son.  Nana  Sahib,  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  Mutiny  of  1857,  in  revenge  for  btlnj  deprived  of  what  he 
coo^dered  his  rights. 


(from  Lat.  fetttmut,  wont),  a  word  of  modem 
coinage,*  denoting  an  attitude  of  hopelcsanem  towards  1^  a 
vague  general  opinion  that  pain  and  evil  predominate  in  human 
affairs.  It  is  the  antithesis  of  "  i^timism,"  wUch  denotca  the 
view  that  on  the  whole  there  is  a  balance  of  good  and  i^nsure, 
or  at  least  that  in  the  long  run  good  will  triumph.  Between 
optimism  and  pessimism  iS'the  theoiy  of  "  melabrism/'  aooocding 
to  whidi  the  world  00  the  wbeAe  makes  progress  in  goodness. 
The  average  man  Is  pessimist  or  optionst  not  on  theoretical 
gfooads,  but  owing  to  the  citcnmstances  of  his  life,  his  material 
prosperity,  his  bodily  health,  his  general  temperament.  FtAapt 
the  most  characteristic  example  of  unsystematic  pfsaimiam 
is  the  language  of  Ecdcslastcs,  who  oondudes  that  "all  la 
vanity." 

Pcssfaaism  and  'Optimism  have,  however,  been  etpreased  in 
qrstematic  philosophical  forms,  a  brief  stmuiary  only  of  whidi 
need  here  be  gt^en.  Sudi  syatcms  have  been  daboiated  diiefly 
by  modem  thinkers,  but  the  germs  9i  the  ideas  are  found  widely 
spread  in  the  older  Oriental  philosophies  and  in  pre-Christian 
European  thou^t.  Generally  speaking,  pessimism  may  be 
found  in  all  pantheistic  and  materialistic  systems.  It  is  im« 
porunt,  however,  to  point  out  an  csKntial  distinction.  The 
thinker  who  sees  man  confronted  by  the  Infinite  non-moral 
forces  presumed  by  natural  pantheism  Inevitably  predominating 
over  the  finite  powers  of  men  may  appear  to  the  inodem  Christian 
theologian  or  to  the  evolutionist  as  a  hopeless  pessuoBist,  ami  yet 
may  himself  have  oondudfed  that,  though  the  future  holds  out 
no  proaptet  save  that  of  annihilation,  man  may  yet  by  prudence 

and  care  enjoy  a  ooulderable  measure  of  bapplncM>  Pcsrimism, 
therefore,  depends  upon  the  individual  point  of  view,  and  the 
term  is  frequently  usedmerdy  inaoondemaatoty  sense  by  IftSstilo 
critics.  The  attitude  of  a  man  who  denies  the  doctrine  of 
imnxMiality  and  rejoices  in  the  denial  Is  not  strictly  pessimistic 
A  Christian  again  may  be  pessiraistic  about  the  present;  he 
must  logicaUy  be  <^mlstic  about  the  future — a  telcological 
view  of  the  universe  Implies  optimism  on  the  whole;  the  agnostic 
may  be  indifferent  to,  or.  pessimistic,  regarding  the  future,  while 
ex^edlngly  satined  with  life  as  he  finds  it. 

This  complex  view  of  life  is  exemplified  by  Plato,  whose  general 
theory  of  idealism  b  entiidy  optimistic.  In  analysing  the  world 
of  phenomena  he  necessarily  takes  a  pessimistic  view  because 
phenomena  are  merely  imitations  more  or  less  removed  from 
reality,  «.<.  from  the  good.  Yet  the  idealistic  postuhite  of  a 
summum  bemtm  is  in  result  optimistic,  and  this  view  predomin- 
ated among  the  Stoics  and  the  Ncoplatonitts.  Thf  ^icureansi 
on  the  other  hand,  were  empirical  pessimists.  Man  is  able 
to  derive  a  measure  of  enjoyment  from  life  in  spjte  of  the  non- 
existence of  the  orthodox  gods;  yet  this  enjoyment  is  on  the 
whole  negative,  the  avoidanoe  of  pain.  A  similar  view  is  that 
of  the  ancient  sceptics. 

Oriental  pessimism,  at  least  as  understood  by  Europeans, 
is  best  exemplified  in  Buddhism,  which  finds  in  human  life 
sorrow  and  pain.  But  all  pain  and  sorrow  are  inddental  to 
the  human  being  hi  his  individual  capadty.  He  who  will  cast 
aside  the  "  Bonds,"  the  "  Intoxications,"  the  "  Hindrances," 
and  tread  the  Noble  Eightfold  Path  (see  Buddhism)  which  leads 
to  Nirvana,  will  attain  the  ideal,  the  "Fruit  of  Arahatship," 
which  is  described  in  terms  of  glowing  praise  in  the  Pali  hymns. 
This,  the  original  doctrine  of  Uie  Buddha,  though  not  adopted 
in  the  full  sense  by  all  his  followers,  is  in  fact  at  least  as  optimistic 
as  any  optimism  of  the  West.  To  call  it  "  pessimism  "  is  merely 
to  apply  to  it  a  characteristically  Western  prindple  according 
to  which  happiness  is  impossible  without  personality.  The 
true  Buddhist  on  the  contrary  looks  forward  with  enthusiasm 
to  this  absorption  into  eternal  bliss. 

In  Europe  on  the  whole  the  so-^ed  pessimistic  attitude 
was  commoner  in  the  Teutonic  north  than  in  the  Mediterranean 
basin.  But  even  here  the  hopefulness  as  regards  a  future  life, 
in  which  the  inequalities  of  the  present  would  be  rectified,  com- 
pensated for  the  gloomy  fatalism  with  which  the  present  was 

*  The  cariiest  example  given  in  the  Ntw  Em^ish  Dictionary  is 
in  S.  T.  Coleridge's  Utters  (1794)* 


284 


PESSINU8— PESTALOZZI 


regarded.  The  advent  of  Cbristianity»  with  its  catcgoifieal 
assertion  of  future  happiness  for  the  good,  to  a  large  extent 
did  away  with  pessimism  in  the  true  sense.  In  Leibnitz  we 
find  a  philosophic  or  religious  optimism,  which  saw  in  the  universe 
the  perfect  work  of  a  God  who  from  all  possibilities  selected  the 
best.  Kant,  though  pessimistic  as  regards  the  actual  man,  is 
optimistic  regarding  hb  moral  capacity.  To  Hegel  similarly 
the  world,  though  evil  at  any  moment,  progresses  by  ooilflict 
and  suffering  towards  the  good. 

Passing  over  the  Italian  Loopanfi  we  may  notice  two  Icadr 
ing  modem  pessimists,  Schopenhauer  and  von  Hartmann. 
Schopenhauer  emphasizes  the  pessimstic  side  of  Hegel's  thought. 
The  universe  is  merely  blind  Will,  not  thought;  this  WiU  is 
irrational,  purposeless  and  therefore  unhappy.  The  world 
being  a  picture  of  the  Will  is  therefore  similariy  unhappy. 
Desire  is  a  state  of  nnhappiness,  and  the  satisfaction  of  desire 
is  therefore  merely  the  removal  of  pain.  Von  Hartmann's  doctrine 
of  the  Unconscious  is  in  many  respects  similar  to  Schopenhauer's 
doctrine  of  the  Will.  The  Unconscious  which  combines  Will 
and  Reason  is,  however,  primarily  WiU.  The  workings  of  this 
WiQ  are  irrational  primarily,  but,  as  in  its  evolution  it  becomes 
more  rationalized  and  understands  the  whole  meaning  of  the 
Wellschmerz,  it  ultimately  reaches  the  point  at  which  the  desire 
for  existence  is  gone.  Thb  choice  of  final  nothingness  dilTcrs 
from  that  of  Schopenhauer  in  being  collective  and  not  individual. 
The  pessimism  of  Schopenhauer  and  Hartmann  does  not, 
however,  exclude  a  certain  ultimate  mysticism,  which  bears 
some  analogy  to  that  of  Buddhism. 

Pessimism  is  naturally  connected  with  materialist,  optimism 
with  idealist,  views  of  life.  The  theories  of  the  modern  evolution- 
Bt  school,  however,  have  introduced  into  maleriah'slic  theory 
a  new  optimistic  note  in  doctrines  such  as  that  of  the  survival 
of  the  fittest.  Such  doctrines  regard  the  progress  of  humanity 
as  on  the  whole  tending  to  the  greater  perfection,  and  arc 
markedly  optimistic  in  contrast  with  earlier  theories  that 
progressive  differentiation  is  synonymous  with  progressive 
decay.  Similarly  the  <;ynical  contempt  which  Nietzsche  shows 
for  morality  and  the  conventional  virtues  is  counterbalanced 
by  the  theory  of  the  Vbtrmensch^  the  highest  type  of  manhood 
which  by  struggle  has  escaped  from  the  ordinary  weaknesses 
of  normal  humanity. 

See  fames  Sully,  Pessimism:  A  History  and  a  Criticism  (1877); 
Caro,  Le  Pessimisme  au  xix*  siicle  (1878);  Salcus,  Tlu  Anatomy  of 
Negation  (1886};  Tulloch.  Modern  Theories  on  Philosophy  and 
ReRgion  (1884);  William  James.  The  WiU  to  Believe;  Diihring,  Der 
Werlh  des  Lebens  (i86s);  Meyer,  Weltelend  und  Wdtsehmtrt  (1872); 
E.  Pnctdcrcr,  Der  moderne  Pessimismus  (1875);  Aencs  Taubcrt 
(Hartmann),  Der  Pessimismus  und  seine  Cegner  (1873);  Cass, 
Opiimismus  und  Pessimismus  (1876);  Rchmkc,  Die  rhilos.  des 
Weilsehmerres  (i876);  Hubcr,  Der  Pessimismus  (1876):  von  Golthcr, 
Der  moderne  P.  (1878):  Paulsen,  Schopemhouer,  JJamiet,  Mepkisto- 
pheles  (1900);  Kowalcwski,  Sludien  tur  Psycliologie  des  P,  (1904). 

PESSIXUS  (IIc9a(voCi,  HeatyoCi),  an  ancient  city  of  Galalia 
in  Asia  Minor,  situated  on  the  lowest  southern  slope  of  Mt 
Dindymus,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Sangarius,  not  far  from 
its  source.  The  ruins,  discovered  by  Texicr,  lie  round  the  village 
of  Bala-Hissar,  8  or  9  m.  S.£.  of  Sivri-Hissar.  They  include 
a  theatre  in  partial  preservation,  but  they  have  been  mostly 
carried  off  to  Sivri-Hissar,  which  is  largely  built  out  of  them. 
Originally  a  Phrygian  city,  probably  on  the  Persian  "  Royal 
Road,"  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Gallic  tribe  Tolistobogii 
and  the  chief  commercial  city  of  the  district  It  contained  the 
most  famous  sanctuary  of  the  mother  of  the  gods  (Cybclc),  who 
here  went  by  the  name  of  Agdistis,  and  was  associated  with 
the  god  Attis,  as  elsewhere  with  Sabozlus,  &c  Her  priests 
were  also  princes,  who  bore  rule  not  only  in  the  city  (the  coinage 
of  which,  beginning  about  100  B.C.,  was  for  long  issued  by  them) 
but  also  in  the  country  round,  deriving  a  large  revenue  from 
the  temple  estates;  but  in  the  time  of  Strabo  (a.d.  19-20)  their 
privileges  were  much  diminished.  The  high-priest  always  bore 
the  god's  name  Attis.  In  the  crisis  of  the  second  Punic  War 
(305  B.C.),  when  the  Romans  lost  faith  in  the  cfTicacy  of  their 
own  religion  to  save  the  state,  the  Senate,  in  compliance  with 
an  oracle  in  the  Sibylline  books  to  the  effect  that  the  foreign 


foe  could  be  driven  from  Italy  If  thci  Idaeia  Mother  (Cybcfe) 
were  brouj^t  from  Pessinus  to  Rome,  sent  ambuMdors  to 
the  town,  who  obtained  the  sacred  stone  which  was  the  symbol 
of  the  goddess  and  brought  it  to  Rome,  where  the  worship  of 
Cybele  was  established.  But  the  goddess  continued  to  be 
worshipped  in  her  old  home;  her  priests,  the  Galli,  went  out  to 
welcome  Manlius  on  his  aurch  in  189  B.C.,  which  shows  that  the 
town  was  not  yet  in  the  hands  of  the  TolistobogiL  Soon  after 
this  a  splendid  new  temple  of  the  goddess  was  built  by  the 
Pergamenian  kings.  Some  time  before  164  B.C.  Pessinus  £dl 
into  the  power  of  the  Gauls,  and  the  membership  of  the  priestly 
college  was  then  equally  (livided  between  the  Gauls  aad  the 
old  priestly  families.  Like  Ancyra  and  Tavium,  Plesslnus  was 
Romanized  first  and  Hellenized  afterwards.  Only  about  a.  n. 
165  did  Hellenic  ways  and  modes  of  thoui^t  beg^  to  be 
assumed;  before  that  we  find  a  deep  substratum  of  Celtic  feding 
and  ways,  on  which  Roman  elements  had  been  superimposed 
without  filtering  through  a  Hellenic  medium.  Christianity  vxs 
introduced  late;  it  cannot  be  traced  before  the  4th  centuiy. 
When-  Galatia  was  divided  into  two  provinces  (aj>.  386-393) 
Pessinus  was  made  the  cafMtal  of  Galatia  Secunda  or  Sahitazis 
and  it  became  a  metropolitan  bi^opric  Aitet  the  i6th  cento? 
it  disappears  from  history,  being  supplanted,  from  the  b^ 
ntng  of  the  period  of  Saracen  invasion,  by  the  impregnafa^ 
fortress  J ustinianopolis  (Sivri-Hissar),  which  became  the  capital 
and  the  residence  of  the  bishop,  thenceforward  called  *'  ardi- 
bishop  of  Pessinus  or  of  Justinianopolis."  (J.  G.  C.  A^ 

PESTALOZZI,  JOHANN  HEINRICH  (1746-1827),  Sviss 
educational  reformer,  was  bom  at  Zurich  on  the  zath  oil  Janoaiy 
1746.  His  father  died  when  he  was  young,  and  he  was  biought 
up  by  his  mother.  At  the  university  of  ZQrich  he  was  associated 
with  Lavater  and  the  party  of  reform.  His  earliest  years  wcxe 
spent  in  schemes  for  improving  the  condition  of  the  peofile. 
The  death  of  his  friend  Bluntschli  turned  him  however  from 
politics,  and  induced  him  to  devote  himself  to  educatsoou  He 
married  at  twenty-three  and  bought  a  piece  of  waste  land  at 
Ncuhof  in  Aargau,  where  he  attempted  the  cultivation  of  madder. 
Peslalozzi  knew  nothing  of  business,  and  the  plan  failed.  Befoie 
this  he  had  opened  his  farm-house  as  a  school;  but  is 
1780  he  had  to  give  this  up  also.  His  first  book  published  at 
this  time  was  TUc  Evening  Hours  of  a  Hermit  (1780),  a  series 
of  aphorisms  and  reflections.  This  was  followed  by  his  raaster> 
piece,  Leonard  and  Gertrude  (1781),  an  account  of  the  gndual 
reformation,  first  of  a  household,  and  then  of  a  whole  village,  bjr 
the  efforts  of  a  good  and  devoted  womaiu  It  was  read  witk 
avidity  in  Germany,  and  the  name  of  Peslalozzi  was  rescued  fna 
obscurity.  The  French  invasion  of  Switzerland  in  X79S  brou^ 
into  relief  his  truly  heroic  character.  A  number  of  chtldrta 
were  left  in  Canton  Untexwaldcn  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of 
Lucerne,  without  parents,  home,  food  or  shelter.  Pestalcza 
collected  a  number  of  them  into  a  deserted  convent,  and  spent 
his  energies  in  reclaiming  them.  During  the  winter  he  pcrsonall]^ 
tended  them  with  the  utmost  devotion,  but  in  June  1799  ^ 
building  was  required  by  the  French  for  a  hospital,  and  his  charges 
were  dispersed.  In  1801  Pcstalozzi  gave  an  exposition  ol  his 
ideas  on  education  m  the  book  How  Gertrude  teaches  her  CkSUren. 
His  method  is  to  proceed  from  the  easier  to  the  more  difficult 
To  begin  with  observation,  to  pass  from  observation  to  consdoifi- 
ncss,  from  consciousness  to  speech.  Then  come  measuring, 
drawing,  writing,  numbers,  and  so  reckoning.  In  1799  he  had 
been  enabled  to  establish  a  school  at  Burgdorf,  where  he  remained 
till  1804.  In  x8o2,  he  went  as  deputy  to  Paris»  and  did  his 
best  to  interest  Napoleon  in  a  scheme  of  national  education; 
but  the  great  conqueror  said  that  he  could  not  trouble  bims^ 
about  the  alphabet.  In  1805  he  removed  to  Yverdun  on  the 
Lake  of  NcuchfLlel,  and  for  twenty  years  worked  steadily  ai 
his  task.  He  was  visited  by  all  who  took  interest  in  education — 
Talleyrand,  Capo  d'Istria,  and  Mme  de  Stalfl.  He  was  praised 
by  Wilbelm  von  Humboldt  and  by  Fichte.  His  pupils 
included  Ramsauer,  Dclbrilck,  Blochmann,  Carl  Rhter,  Fr&bd 
and  Zellcr.  About  181 5  dissensions  broke  out  amcMis  the 
teachers  of  the  school,  and  Pestalozzi's  last  ten  years 


PETALITE— PETER,  ST 


*8S 


chequered  by  weftriness  and  tonoir.    In  i8as  he  retired  to 

Neiihof,  the  home  of  his  youth;  and  after  writing  the  adventurca 

of  bis  life,  and  his  last  work,  the  Swam's  Song,  he  died  at  Bnigg  on 

the  17th  of  February  1837.    As  he  said  himself,  the  real  work 

of  his  life  did  not  lie  in  Burgdoif  or  in  Yverdun.    It  lay  in  the 

principles  of  education  which  he  practised,  the  devdopraent  of 

his  otoervation,  the  training  of  the  whole  man,  the  ^yn^Mthetic 

application  of  the  teacher  to  the  taught,  of  which  bekft  an 

example  in  his  six  months' labours  at  Stana.  He  bad  the  deepest 

effect  on  all  branches  of  education,  and  hb  infhtence  is  far  from 

being  exhausted. 

Pestalosa'a  oomidete  works  were  pobliabed  at  Stuttgan  in  1819* 
i836>  and  an  edttioo  by  Seyffarth  appeared  at  Berlin  in  188 1. 
V(4umes  on  his  life  and  teaching  have  been  written  by  Dc  damps 
(1889),  Barnard  (1862),  KrOsi  (1875)  and  Pinloche  (1901). 

PBTAUTBy  a  mineral  species  consisting  of  lithium  aluminium 
siHcate,  LiAI(SisOs)s>  The  monoclinic  crystals  approach  spodu- 
mene  {q.v.)  ia  form,  which  is  also  a  lithium  aluminium  aUicate 
with  the  formula  LiAl(SiOs)t.  There  is  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel 
to  the  basal  plane,  and  the  mineral  usually  occurs  in  platy 
cleavage  masses;  on  this  account  it  was  named,  from  Gr.  wiraKo^ 
(a  leaf).  The  hardness  is  6^  and  the  specific  gravity  a-4  (that 
of  spodumene  bdng  3*16).  The  mineral  a  colourless  or  occasion- 
ally reddish,  varies  from  transparent  to  translucent,  and  has 
a  vitreous  lustre.  It  was  discovered  in  1800  as  deavage  masses 
in  an  iron  mine  on  the  bland  of  UlO  in  the  Stockholm 
archipelago,  where  it  is  associated  with  lepidolite,  tourmaline 
(rubellite  and  indicolite)  and  spodumene.  A  variety  known  as 
"  castor  "  is  found  as  transparent  glassy  crystals  associated  with 
polIux  {g.v.)  in  ca>raties  in  the  granite  of  Elba.  (L.  J.  Sj 

PBTARD  (Fr.  petard,  pHer,  to  make  a  slight  expbsion),  a 
device  former!^  used  by  military  engineers  for  blowing  in  a 
gate  or  other  barriw.  It  cfinsisted  of  a  small  metal  or  wooden 
case,  usually  of  sugar-loaf  shape,  containing  a  charge  of  powder 
and  fired  by  a  fuse. 

PETAU,  DBNTS  (x583~z6s2),  Jesuit  scholar,  better  known 
as  DxoNYSius  Petavxhs,  was  bom  at  Orleans  on  the  aist  of 
Augiist  1583.  Educated  at  Paris  University,  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Isaac  Scaliger,  who  directed  hja  attention  towards 
the  obscurer  fathers  of  the  Church.  In  16013  he  was  appointed 
to  a  lectureship  at  the  university  of  Bourgcs,  but  resigned  his 
place  two  years  later,  in  order  to  enter  the  Sodety  of  Jesus. 
For  many  years  he  was  professor  of  divinity  at  the  Colldge  de 
Clermont,  the  chief  Jesuit  establishment  in  Paris;  there  he  died 
on  the  zzth  of  December  1653.  He  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
scholars  in  a  learned  age.  Carrying  on  and  improving  the 
chronologicai  labouza  of  ScaUger,  he  published  in  1637  an  Opws 
de  doctrina  Umparumt  which  has  been  often  reprinted.  An 
abridgment  of  this  work,  RaMonaHum  Umporum^  was  translated 
into  French  and  F«nglish,  and  has  been  brought  down  in  a  modem 
reprint  to  the  year  1849.  But  Petau's  eminence  chiefly  rests 
on  his  vast,  but  unfinished,  Dt  tkeologids  dogmatibus,  the 
first  systematic  attempt  ever  made  to  treat  the  development 
of  Christian  doctrine  from  the  historical  point  of  view. 

PETCHENEGfi,  or  Patzinaks,  a  barbarous  people,  probably 
of  Turkish  race,  who  at  the  end  of  the  9th  century  were/iriven 
into  Europe  from  the  lower  Ural,  and  for  about  300  years 
wandered  about  the  northern  frontier  of  the  East  Soman 
Empire.    (See  Tubes). 

PETffi  (Lat.  Petna  from  Gr.  rkrpot,  a  rock,  ItaL  Pieirot 
Piero,  Pier,  Fr.  Pierre,  Span.  Ptdr;  Ger.  Peter,  Russ.  Pebf), 
a  masculine  name,  derived  from  the  famous  surname  bestowed  by 
Christ  upon  his  apostle  Simon  ("  Thoa  act  Peter  and  opon  this 
rock  will  I  build  my  church,"  Matt.  ziv.  i7-X9).  The  name  has 
consequently  been  very  popular  in  Christian  countries.  It  b 
noteworthy,  however,  that,  out  of  deference  to  the  "  prince  of 
the  apostles  "  and  first  bishop  of  Rome»  the  name  has  never  been 
assumed  by  a  pope.  The  biographies  which  follow  are  arranged 
in  the  order:  (x)  the  apostle;  (3)  kings;  (3)  other  eminent  men. 

PETER*  ST,  the  chief  of  the  Twdve  Apostles.  He  is  known 
also  by  other  names  :  (a)  "  Simon  "  (2(jmv)  in  Mark  four  times 
and  Luke  seven  times^    This  uie  is  on(y  found  in  pansative 


before  the  story  of  the  nusskm  of  the  aportles:  it  is  abo  tomd  in 
speeches;  Matthew  once,  Mark  once  and  Luke  twice,  (ft)  **  Simon 
who  is  called  Ptter  "  is  found  in  Matthew  twice  and  Acu  four 
times^  (c)  '*  Simon  Peter  "  is  found  in  Matthew  once,  Luke 
once,  John  seventeen  times  (and  perhaps  also  in  a  Peter  i.  x, 
where  the  text  varies  between  Simon  and  Symeon.  (d)  ^  Peter  " 
is  found  in  Matthew  xuneteen  times,  Mark  eighteen  times, 
Luke  sixteen  times.  Acts  fifty-one  times,  John  fifteen  times, 
Galatians  twice,  z  Peter  once,  (e)  '*  Cepha^  "  is  found  in  John 
once,  Galatians  four  times,  x  Corinthians  four  times.  (/)  Symeon 
(£v|ic^)  is  found  in  Acts  once.  It  appeara  that  the  apostle 
had  two  names,  each  existing  in  a  double  form  ■  Greek  and 
Hebrew,  Symeon  (|iiii^)  which  was  Graedzed  according 
to  the  sound  into  Simon,  and  Cephas  (n9*i)  which  was 
Graedxed  according  to  the  meaning  into  Peter  (lUrpoi) .  Symeon 
and  Simnn  are  both  well-known  luunes  in  Aramaic  and  Greek 
respectively,  but  Cephas  and  Peter  are  previously  unknown. 
Symeon  was  no  doubt  his  original  Ammaic  name,  and  the 
eariicst  gospd,  Mark,  which  has  some  daim  specially  to 
reproduce  Petrine  tradition,  is  careful  to  employ  Simon  until 
after  the  name  Peter  had  been  given,  and  not  then  to  use  it 
again.  The  Gospeb  agree  hi  regarding  Cephas  xts  Peter  as  an 
additk>nai  name,  which  was  given  by  Christ  But  they  differ  as 
to  the  occasion.  According  to  Maxk  iii.  .X3  sqq.  it  was  given  <» 
the  occasion  of  the  mission  of  the  Twdve.  According  to 
John  L  43  it  was  given  at  his  first  call.  According  to 
Matt.  xvL  13  sqq.  it  was  given  after  the  recognition  of  Jesus  as 
Messiah  at  Cacsarea  Philippi.  This  last  account  is  the  only 
one  whidi  describes  any  drcumstances  (for  a  further  discussion 
see  §  3  (1)  below). 

According  to  the  (jospeb  Peter  was  the  son  of  John  (Tco^Ungr, 
John  i.  43,  xxL  15  scq.)  or  Jonas  ('luvas.  Matt.  xxvi.  17). 
According  to  Mark  i.  39  he  was  a  fisherman  of  Capernaum, 
but  John  t  44  describes  him  and  his  brother  Andrew  as  of 
Bethsaida.  From  Mark  i.  30  he  is  seen  to  have  been  married, 
and  I  Cor.  ix.  5  suggests  (but  another  interpretation  u 
possible)  that  his  wife  went  with  him  on  his  missionary 
journeys.  In  x  Pet.  v.  X3  Mark  is  referred  to  as  his  son,  but 
this  is  usually  interpreted  of  spiritual  kinship.  According  to 
legend  {Ada  Ncra  el  Achilki,  and  Ada  PhSippt)  he  had  a 
daughter  Petronilla,  but  there  is  no  reason  for  tMnifinjr  that 
IhlsishistoricaL 

The  Gospd  narratives  axe  unanimous  in  describittg  Peter  aa 
one  of  the  finrt  disdples  of  Christ,  and  fsom  the  time  of  his  call 
he  seems  to  have  been  present  at  most  of  the  duel  nj^^^—  j^ 
tnddents  in  the  narrative^  He  formed  tofether  rat  xsnw§m 
with  the  sons  of  Zebedee  to  some  extent  an  inner  «»<•<*• 
dide  within  the  Twdve,  and  thb  favoured  group  ^j^^JI***^ 
is  specially  mentioned  as  present  on  three  occssions 
—the  raising  of  the  daughter  of  Jainis  (Mask  v.  ta-43; 
Matt.  ix.  18-36;  Luke  viii.  4x^56),  the  tnuafiguration  (Mark 
ix.  3  sqq.;  Matt.  xvii.  z  sqq.;  Luke  ix.  38  sqq.)  and  the  scene 
in  the  Giarden  at  Gethsemane  (Mark  xiv.  33  sqq.;  Matt.  xxvi. 
36  sqq.).  He  is  also  spedally  mentioned  In  connexion  with 
his  caU  (Mark  L  16-30;  Matt.  iv.  x8  sqq.;  Luke  v.  x  sqq.; 
John  L  40  sqq.);  the  healing  of  his  wife's  mother  (Mark  L  sx 
sqq.;  Matt.  viiL  14  sqq.;  Luke  iv^  38  sqq.);  the  mission  of 
the  Twdve  Apostles  (Mark  iii.  13  sqq.;  Matt.  x.  x  sqq.;  Luke  vi. 
X3  sqq.);  the  storm  on  the  Lake  of  Galilee  (Mark  vi  45  >4<I-> 
Matt.  3dv.  33  sqq.;  John  vi  x6  sqq.);  the  Messianic  recognition 
at  Caesarea  Philippi  (Mark  vii.  37  sqq.;  Matt,  xvi  x6  sqq.; 
Luke  ix.  x8  sqq.);  the  inddent  of  the  payment  of  tribute  by 
the  coin  found  in  the  fish  caught  by  Peter  (Matt,  xvii  35  sqq.) 
and  with  various  questions  leadhig  to  panibles  or  their  expla* 
nations  (Mark  xiii.  36  sqq.;  Luke  xii  4x;  Matt,  xviii  ax  sqq.; 
Mark  x.  a8;  Matt.  xix.  37;  Luke  xviii.  38).  In  the  week  of 
the  Passion  he  appears  in  connexion  irith  the  inddent  of  the 
withered  fig-tree  (Mark  xi.  3x;  Matt.  xxi.  30);  as  introdudng 
the  eschatdogical  discourse  (Mark  xiii.  3  sqq.);  and  as  promi* 
nent  during  the  Last  Supper  (Luke  xxii.  8  sqq.;  John 
xiiL  4  sqq.;  Mark  xiv.  37  sqq.;  Matt,  xxvi  3x  s<|q.).^  He 


286 


PETER,  ST 


was  present  in  Gethsemane,  and  tried  to  offer  some  resistance  to 
the  arrest  of  Jesus  (Mark  aiv.  47;  Matt,  jocvi.  51;  Luke  xxii.  50; 
John  zviii.  10).  Alter  the  arrest  he  followed  the  Lord  to  the 
scene  of  the  trial,  but  denial  him  and  fled.  The  message  of  the 
young  man  at  the  tomb  (Mark  xvi.  4)  was  especially  addressed 
to  Peter  and  it  is  dear  that  the  genuine  condosion  of  Maxk  must 
have  contained  an  account  d  an  appearance  of  the  risen  Lord 
to  him. 

Out  of  this  mass  of  inddents  the  following  are  central  and  call 
for  closer  critical  consideration. 

X.  The  Call  of  St  PeUr.-^Uaxk  i.  16-30;  Matt,  iv,  18-93; 
Luke  V.  x-ii;  John  i.  40-43).  The  account  in  Matthew  is 
practically  identical  with  that  in  Mark  and  is  no  doubt  taken 
from  the  Marcan  source,  but  Luke  and  John  have  different 
traditions.  The  main  points  are  as  follows:  according  to  Mark, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Galilean  ministry  Jesus  saw  Peter  and 
Andrew  fishing.  He  caUed  them,  and  they  joined  him.  After 
this  he  went  with  them  to  Capernaum,  preadied  in  the  sym- 
gogue,  and  healed  Peter's  wife's  mother.  Luke,  who  certainly 
used  Mark,  has  partly  rearranged  this  narrative  and  partly 
rejected  it  in  favour  of  a  different  version.  According  to  him  the 
visit  to  Capernaum  and  the  healing  of  the  wife's  mother  preceded 
the  call  of  Peter,  and  thb  was  associated  with  a  tradition  of 
a  miraculous  drau^t  of  fishes.  The  advantage  of  the  Lucan 
reconstruction,  so  far  as  the  first  part  is  concerned,  is  that  it 
supplies  a  reason  for  Peter's  ready  obedience,  which  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  understand  if  he  hsul  never  seen  Jesus  before.  But  it 
seems  probable  that  this  is  the  motive  which  led  to  the  redac- 
torial  change  in  Luke,  and  that  the  Marcan  account,  which  is 
traditionally  connected  with  Peter,  ought  to  be  followed.  With 
regard  to  the  narrative  of  the  miraculous  drau^t  of  fishes,  the 
matter  is  more  complicated.  Luke  obviously  preferred  this 
narrative  to  the  Marcan  account,  but  the  fact  that  the  same 
story  comes  in  John  zxi.  suggests  that  there  was  an  early 
tradition  of  some  such  inddent  of  which  the  actual  occasion 
and  circumstances  were  undetermined.  Luke  preferred  to 
connect  it  with  the  call  of  Peter,  the  writer  of  John  zxL  irith  his 
restitution:  probably  both  are  of  the  nature  of  redactoriol 
guesses,  and  the  Marcan  account  must  be  regarded  as  preferable 
to  dthcr.  The  Johannine  account  of  the  call  of  Peter  is  quite 
different.  According  to  this  it  took  place  immediately  after 
the  baptism  of  Jesus,  in  Judaea  not  in  Galilee.  It  is  connected 
with  the  giving  of  the  name  Peter,  which  in  Mark  was  not  given 
until  much  later. 

3.  TAe  Confesnon  of  Peter  at  Caetarea  PhUippi.—OiATk 
viii.  37-33;  Matt.  avi.  13-33;  Luke  iz.  18-33).  According  to 
Mark,  Peter,  in  answer  to  the  question  of  Jesus,  recognized  that 
He  was  the  Messiah,  but  protested  against  the  prophecy  of 
suffering  which  Jesus  then  added.  This  narrative  is  followed, 
with  the  exception  of  the  hst  part,  by  Luke,  who  as  usual  is 
inclined  to  omit  anything  which  could  be  regarded  as  derogatory 
to  the  Apostles.  Matthew  also  uses  the  Marcan  narrative,  but 
adds  to  it  a  new  section  from  some  other  source  which  suggests 
that  the  name  of  Peter  was  conferred  on  this  occauon^-not,  as 
Mark  says,  at  the  first  mission  of  the  Twdve — and  confers  on 
him  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  and  the  ri^t  of  binding 
and  loosing.  This  must  be  probably '  interpreted  as  a  reference 
to  the  prophecy  concerning  EUakim  in  Isa.  zxii.  33,  and  to 
technical  use  of  the  words  "  binding  **  and  *'  loosmg  "  by  the 
scribes  in  authoritative  decisions  as  to  the  obligations  of  the  law. 
It  thus  confers  on  Peter  a  positicMi  of  quite  unique  authority. 
It  must,  however,  be  noted  that  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing 
is  given  in  Matt,  zviii.  18  to  the  whole  body  of  disdpks.  This 
seems  to  be  an  alternative  version,  also  found  only  in  Matthew. 
The  question  of  the  historical  character  of  the  Matthaean 
addition  to  the  Marcan  iiamtive  Is  eaDCeedingly  difficult;  but  it 

>  See,  however,  A.  Sulzbach's  artide  In  the  Zeitsc1».  f.  NT.  Wiss. 
('903).  P- 190<  He  thinks  there  is  an  alluskm  to  a  room  in  the  Temple 
where  the  great  key  was  kept;  this  room  was  called  Kephas,  because 
the  key  was  jplaced  in  a  rcGess  dosed  by  a  stone.  There  is  also  a 
valuable  article  by  W.  KAhler  ia  the  Archiv  fur  Rditionsvriss. 
treatins  the  questioA  of  the  keys  from  the  point  of  view  of  compara- 
tive reugiea. 


is  hard  to  thhik  that  if  it  were  teally  authentic  it  would  have 
been  omitted  from  all  the  other  gospels,  and  it  perhaps  bdongs 
to  the  little  group  of  passages  in  Matthew  which  seem  to  represent 
early  efforts  towards  church  legislation,  rather  than  a  strictly 
historieal  nanatlve.  Besides  it  is  noticeable  that  in  one  other 
point  Matthew  has  slightly  remoddled  the  Marcan  narrative. 
According  to  the  latter  Jesus  asked,  ".Whom  say  men  thLt  I 
am?"  and  Peter  replied  "  the  Messiah,"  without  quaiificatioii. 
But  In  Matthew  the  question  Is  changed  into  '*  Whom  say  men 
that  the  Son  of  Man  is?"  and,  whatever  may  be  the  original 
meaning  of  the  phrase  "  the  son  of  man  "  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  in  the  gosp^  it  means  Messiah.  Thus  the  simple  answer 
of  Peter  in  Mark  would  be  meaningless,  and  it  is  replaced  by 
"  The  Messiah,  the  son  of  the  living  God,"  which  is  no  longer 
a  recognition  of  the  Mes^ahship  of  Jesus  (this  is  treated  in 
Matthew  as  an  already  recognized  fact,  cf.  z.  33,  xii.  40,  &c), 
but  is  a  definition  and  an  exaltation  of  the  nature  of  the  Messiah. 

3.  The  Conduct  of  Peter  after  the  Betrayal.— The  consideralioB 
of  this  point  brings  one  into  touch  with  the  two  rival  traditions 
as  to  the  conduct  of  the  disdples  after  the  betrayal  and  crud- 
fixion  of  the  Lord — the  Galilean  and  the  Jerusalem  narratives. 
There  is  one  inddent  which  must  in  any  case  be  accepted  as  it 
is  found  in  both  narratives.  This  is  the  denial  of  Peter.  It 
appears  that  Peter  did  not  stay  with  the  disdples  and  neither 
returned  home  immediately  to  Galilee  (according  to  the  Galilean 
tradition)  nor  sought  hiding  in  Jerusalem  (according  to  the 
Jerusalem  tradition),  but  followed  the  Lord  at  a  distance  and 
was  a  witness  of  at  least  part  of  the  trial  before  the  Sanhedrim. 
He  was  detected  and  accused  of  bdng  a  disdple,  which  he  denied, 
and  so  fulMled  the  prophecy  of  Jesus  that  he  would  deny  Him 
before  the  cock  crowed. 

But  putting  this  inddent  aside,  tl^  Galilean  and  Jerusalem 
traditions  do  not  admit  of  retonciliation  with  one  another.  The 
former  is  represented  by  Mark.  According  to  it  the  (&dples 
all  fled  after  the  betrayal  (though  Peter  waited  until  after  the 
denial),  and  afterwards  saw  the  risen  Lord  in  Galilee.  The 
details  of  this  narrative  are  unfortunately  lost,  as  the  genuine 
conclusion  of  Mark  is  not  extant.  But  Mark  sdv.  38  and 
xvi.  7  clearly  imply  a  narrative  which  described  how  the  disdples 
returned  to  Galilee,  there  saw  the  risen  Lord,  and  perhaps  even 
how  they  then  returned  to  Jerusalem  in  the  strength  of  thdr 
newly  recovered  faith,  and  so  brought  into  existence  the  church 
of  Jerusalem  as  we  find  it  in  the  Acts.  It  is  also  clear  from  Mark 
xvi.  7  that  Peter  was  in  some  special  way  connected  with  this 
appearance  of  the  risen  Lord,  and  this  tradition  is  confirmed  by 
t  Cor.  XV.  5,  and  perhaps  by  Luke  xxiv.  34. 

The  Jerusalem  narrative  is  represented  espedally  by  Luke 
and  John  (excluding  John  zxi.  as  an  appendix).  According  to 
this  the  disdples,  though  they  fled  at  the  betrayal,  did  not 
return  to  thdr  homes,  but  remained  in  Jerusalem,  saw  the  rises 
Lord  in  that  city,  and  stayed  there  xmtil  after  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost. Attempts  to  reconcile  these  two  narratives  seem  to  be 
found  in  Matthew  and  in  John  zxi. 

Obviously  the  choice  which  has  to  be  made  between  these 
traditions  cannot  be  adequately  discussed  here:  it  must  suffice 
to  say  that  intrinsic  and  traditional  probability  seem  to  favour 
the  Galilean  narrative.  If  so,  one  must  say  that  after  the  denial 
Peter  returned  to  Galilee — probably  to  resume  his  trade  of 
fishing — and  he  there  saw  the  risen  Lord.  This  appearance  is 
referred  to  in  i  Cor.  xv.  5,  and  was  ceitainly  described  in  the  lost 
condusion  <^  Mark.  An  account  of  it  is  preserved  In  John  xzi., 
but  it  is  here  connected-~probably  wrongly — with  a  miraculous 
dranght  of  fishes,  just  as  the  account  of  his  call  is  in  Luke. 

Immediatdy  lUter  the  resurrection  there  is  a  missing  link 
in  the  history  of  Peter.    We  know  that  he  saw  the  risen  Lord, 
and,  according  to  the  most  probaUe  view,  that  this  juuoiy 
was  in  Galilee;  but  the  drcumstances  are  unknown,  «av<as 
and'  we  have  no  account  of  his  return  to  Jerusalem, 
as  at  the  beginning  of  the  Acts  the  disdples  are  all 
In  Jerftsalero,  and  ^e  writer,  in  contradiction  to  the 
Marcan  or  Galilean  narrative,  assumes  that  they  had 
Mverleftit.  thefirstpartof  the  Acts  blargdyconoemed 


PETER,  ST 


2187 


thft  weiic  of  Peter.  He  appeus  as  the  leoogniied  leader  of  the 
Apostles  ia  their  choice  of  a  aew  member  of  the  Twelve  to  take 
the  place  of  Judas  Iscariot  (Acta  L  15  sqq.);  on  the  day  of 
Penteooat  he  seems  to  have  played  a  prominent  part  in  explaining 
the  meaning  of  the  swne  to  the  people  (Acts  iL  14  sqq.);  and  soon 
afterwards  was  arrested  by  the  Jews  on  the  charge  of  being  a  ring- 
leader  in  the  disorders  caused  by  the  healing  of  the  lame  man  at 
the  "  Beautiful "  gate  of  the  temple,  but  was  released.  After 
this  be  appears  as  the  leader  of  the  apostles  in  the  stozy  of 
Ananias  and  Sapphira,  who  perished  at  his  rebuke  for  their 
duplicity  (Acts  v.  z-ix).  The  last  episode  of  this  peiiod  ia 
another  arrest  by  the  priests,  which  ended  in  his  being  scourged 
and  released  (Acts  v.  17  sqq.). 

After  this  Peter's  attention  was  directed  to  the  growth  of 
Chiittianity  in  Samaria,  and  he  and  John  made  a  jouraey  of 
inspection  through  that  district,  laying  hands  on  those  who  had 
bem  baptized  in  order  that  they  might  receive  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Here  Simon  Magus  (^.v.)  was  encountered.  He  was  a  magidan 
who  had  been  converted  by  Philip  and  baptized;  he  desired  to 
obtain  the  power  of  conferring  the  Spirit,  and  offered  Peter 
money  for  this  purpose,  but  was  indignantly  repulsed.  After 
this  Peter  and  John  returned  to  Jerusalem. 

During  the  following  stay  in  Jerusalem,  the  duration  of  which 
is  not  defined,  Peter  was  visited  by  Paul  (Acts  ix.  26-29, 
Gal.  i.  x8),  and  a  comparison  of  the  chronological  date  afforded 
by  Gal.  i.  and  ii.  points  to  a  year  not  earlier  than  33  (Harnack) 
or  later  than  38  (C.  H.  Turner)  for  this  meeting.  Aco>rding  to 
Galatians,  Paul  saw  none  of  the  apostles  on  this  occasion  except 
Peter  and  James:  it  is  therefore  probable  that  none  of  the  others 
were  then  in  Jerusalem. 

After  this  Peter  made  another  jouniey,  visiting  espedally 
Lydda,  Joppa  and  Caesarea.  His  stay  at  Lydda  was  marked 
by  the  healing  of  Aeneas  (Acts  ix.  32-4)  and  at  Joppa  by  the 
resuscitation  of  Tabitha  or  Dorcas.  While  at  Joppa  he  stayed 
with  ^mon  the  tanner,  and  thence  was  summoned  to  Caesarea 
to  Cornelius  the  centurion.  He  hesitated  whether  to  go,  but 
was  persuaded  by  a  vision  and  the  injunction  to  call  nothing 
undean  which  (^  had  cleansed.  Cornelius  was  accordingly 
baptized.  This  is  an  important  incident,  as  being  the  first  ad- 
mission of  a  Gentile  into  the  church:  but  he  was  already  "  God- 
fearing," ^o0o6|icirof  rdy  Oe&p  (Acts  x.  x),  which  probably 
denotes  some  sort  of  connexion  with  the  Jewish  synagogue, 
though  it  is  difficult  to  say  exactly  what  it  was.  After  this  inci- 
dent Peter  returned  to  Jerusalem.  The  members  of  the  Church 
were  somewhat  shocked  at  the  reception  of  a,  Gentile:  thehr  view 
apparently  was  that  the  only  road  to  Christianity  was  through 
Judaism.  They  were,  however,  persuaded  by  Peter's  speech 
(Acts  xi.  4-17) ;  but  it  is  uncertain  how  far  their  concession  went, 
and  in  the  light  of  subsequent  events  it  is  probable,  that  they  still 
regarded  chcumdsion  as  a  necessary  rite  for  all  Christians. 

After  the  return  of  Peter  to  Jerusalem  the  most  io^wrtant 
events  were  the  famine  at  Jeru^em,  and  the  persecution  of  the 
Church  by  Herod.  During  the  latter  Peter  was  put  in  prison 
(Acts  xii.  3  sqq.),  but  was  released  by  an  angel;  he  first  went  to 
the  house  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  John  Mark,  and  afterwards 
went  to  "  another  place."  This  expression  has  been  interpreted 
to  mean  another  town,  and  even  to  be  an  implied  reference  to 
Rome.  This  last  suggestion,  improbable  though  it  be,  is  his- 
torically important.  Th«r  persecution  of  Herod  seems  to  have 
been  in  his  last  year,  which  was  probably  a.d.  43*44.  There  was 
a  marked  tendency  to  make  the  duration  of  Peter's  episcopate 
at  Rome  twenty>five  years:  and  a  combination  of  this  tcndwcy 
with  the  explanation  that  the  h-^xn  tbrot  was  Rome  probably  is 
the  origin  of  the  traditional  dating  of  the  martyrdom  of  Petet 
in  A.D.  67-68.  There  is,  however,  no  justification  for  this  view, 
aiad  treptn  r6iros  need  not  mean  more  than  another  house  in 
Jerusalem. 

The  famine  referred  to  in  Acts  xi.  27  sqq.  probably  began 
before  the  death  of  Herod,  but  it  continued  after  his  death,  aiid 
the  relief  sent  by  the  church  at  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  through 
Paul  and  Bfrnabas  probably  arrived  about  Uie  year  45.  It  is 
not  st^sd  in  the  Acts  that  PetCT  was  praeAt,  and  it  is  tbanfore 


usually  ainuned  that  he  was  absent,  but  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay  has 
argued  in  his  St  Paul  the  Tr&teUtr  that  the  visit  of  Paul  to 
Jerusalem  with  the  fandne  relief  is  the  meeting  between  Paul 
and  Peter  referred  to  in  Gal.  iL  as  the  occasion  of  an  agreement 
between  them  as  to  the  preaching  of  the  goq)el  to  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  This  view  is  not  generally  accepted,  but  it  has  the 
great  advantage  of  avoiding  the  difficulty  that  otherwise  Paul 
in  Gal.  ii.  i  sqq.  must  describe  as  his  second  visit  to  Jerusalem 
what  was  really  his  third.  According  to  Ramsay,  then,  Peter 
was  present  during  the  famine,  and  made  a  private  agreement 
with  Paul  that  the  latter  should  preach  to  the  Gentiles,  and  so 
far  Gentile  Christianity  was  recognized,  but  the  conditions  of 
the  intercourse  between  Gentile  and  Jewish  Christians  were  not 
defined,  and  the  question  of  drcumdsion  was  periiaps  not  finally 
settled.  According  to  the  more  popular  view  the  description  in 
Gal.  iL  applies  to  Acts  xv.  the  so-called  council  of  Jerusalem. 
This  coundl  met  after  the  first  missionary  journ^  {c.  a.o.  49) 
of  Paul  to  discuss  the  question  of  the  Gentiles.  Peter,  who  was 
present,  adopted  the  view  that  Gentile  Christians  were  free  from 
the  obligation  of  the  law,  and  this  view  was  put  into  the  form  of 
the  so^alled  Apostolic  decrees  by  James  (Acts  xv  23  sqq.). 

The  next  information  which  we  have  about  Peter  is  given  in 
Gal.  ii.  It  sqq.  According  to  this  be  went  to  Antioch  and  at 
fi'rst  accepted  the  Gentile  Christians,  but  afterwards  drew  back, 
and  was  rebuked  by  Paul.  On  the  ordinary  interpretation  Ibis 
must  have  taken  plaoe  after  the  council,  and  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  reconcile  it  with  the  attitude  of  Peter  docribed  in 
Acts  XV.,  so  that  Mr  C.  H.  Turner  thinks  that  in  this  respect  the 
account  in  Gal.  ii.  is  not  chronological,  and  places  the  visit  of 
Peter  to  Antioch  brfore  the  counciL  11,  however,  we  take  the 
theory  of  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay  the  matter  is  simpler.  We  thus 
get  the  compact  between  Paul  and  Peter  during  the  famine, 
then  a  visit  of  Peter  to  Antioch,  during  which  Peter  first  adopted 
and  afterwards*drew  back  from  the  position  whidi  he  had  agreed 
to  privately. 

This  vacillation  may  then  have  been  one  of  the  causes  which 
led  up  to  the  council,  which  may  have  been  held  before,  not,  as  is 
usually  thought,  after  the  sending  of  the  Epistle  hmwt 
to  the  Galatians.  For  this  we  have  no  knowledge  miurif 
of  details  for  which  the  same  certainty  can  be  claimed,  ^■■•rffof 
There  ate,  however,  various  traditions  of  importance.  *""•■*"• 
The  following  points  are  noteworthy,  x  Cor.  i.  12  suggests  the 
possibility  that  Peter  went  to  Corinth,  as  there  was  a  party 
there  which  used  his  name.  It  b,  however,  possible  that  this 
party  had  merely  adopted  the  principles  which,  as  they  had  been 
told,  perhaps  falsely,  were  supported  by  the  leader  of  the 
Twelve.  Dionysius  of  Corinth  {c.  X70)  states  that  Peter  was  in 
Corinth.  This  may  represent  local  tradition  or  may  be  an 
inference  from  x  Cor.  i  12.  x  Peter  suggests  a  ministry  in  the 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  There  is,  of  course,  nothing  improb- 
able in  this,  and  even  if  x  Peter  be  iwt  authentic,  it  is  early 
evidence  for  such  a  tradition,  but  it  is  also  possible  that  Peter 
wrote  to  converts  whom  he  had  not  personally  made.  This 
tradition  is  found  in  Origen  (Bus.  H.B.  iii.  i),  Epiphanius 
{Haer.  xxvii.,  vi.),  Jerome  {De  Vir.  ill,  i)  and  other  later  writers; 
but  it  is  possible  that  it  is  merely  an  inference  from  the  epistle. 
Early  tradition  connects  Peter  with  Antioch,  of  which  he  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  bishop.  The  first  writer  to  mention  it  is 
Origen  {JSom.  vi,  in  LucanC^,  but  it  is  also  found  in  the  Clementhie 
Homilies  and  Recognitions  {Hem.  20,  23;  Reeog,  xo,  68)  and 
probably  goes  back  to  the  lists  of  bishops  which  were  drawn  .up 
in  the  2nd  century.  Other  important  references  to  this  tradition 
are  found  in  Eus.  H.E,  iiL  26,  s;  AposL  Const.  viL  46;  Jerome, 
De  Vir.  ill.  t ;  Ckronicon  paschale;  and  JJber  pontificalis.  Hie 
tradition  of  work  in  Antioch  may  well  be  historical.  Otherwise 
it  is  a  rather  wild  elaboration  of  Gal.  il.  xx.  The  most  important 
and  widespread  tradition  is  that  Peter  came  to  Rome;  and 
though  this  tradition  has  often  been  bitteriy  attacked,  it  seems 
to  be  probable  that  it  is  at  least  in  outline  quite  historicaL  The 
evidence  for  it  is  earlier  and  better  than  that  for  any  odier 
tradition,  thou^  It  is  not  quite  oonTindng. 

witaess  to  Br  residence  of  Peter  in  Rome  is  pfobsLbly 


288 


PETER  r. 


I  Ptter,  for  (see  "PvxA,  Efistles  of)  it  it  probable  tbat  the 
reference  to  Babylon  ought  to  be  interpreted  as  meaning  Rome. 
If  80t  and  if  the  qustle  be  genuine,  this  is  conclusive  evidence 
that  Peter  was  in  Rome.  Even  if  the  epistle  be  not  genuine 
it  is  evidence  of  the  same  tradition.  Nor  is  conobocation  lacking: 
Clement  (c  a.o.  97)  refers  to  Peter  and  Paul  as  martyrs  (i  Clem. 
5HS)  and  says  that  **  To  these  men  .  •  .  there  was  gathered  a 
great  company  of  the  doct  who . . .  became  an  example  to  us." 
This  points  in  two  ways  to  a  martyrdom  of  Peter  in  Rome,  (i) 
because  Peter  and  Paul  are  coordinated,  and  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  the  latter  su£fered  in  Rome,  (2)  because  they  seem 
to  be  joined  to  the  great  company  of  martyrs  who  are  to  be  an 
example  to  the  Church  in  Romew  Similarly  Ignatius  (c.  aj>.  115) 
says  to  the  Romans  (Rom.  iv.), "  I  do  not  command  you  as  Peter 
and  PauL"  The  suggestion  obviously  is  that  the  Romans  had 
been  instructed  by  these  Apostles.  By  the  end  of  the  2nd 
century  the  tradition  is  generally  known:  Irenaeus  (3,  i,  x), 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (comment,  on  1  Peter),  Origen  {Horn.  rt. 
M  Lucam),  Tertullian  {Scorp.  15,  and  several  passages)  are 
explicit  on  the  point,  and  from  this  time  onwards  the  tradition 
is  met  with  everywhere.  There  is  also  a  tradition,  found  in 
Irenaeus  (3,  i^  i)  uid  in  many  later  writers,  and  supported  by 
I  PeL  v.  13,  and  by  the  statements  of  Papias  (Bus.  H.K  3,  39, 
15)  that  Mark  acted  as  Peter's  assbtant  in  Rome  and  that  his 
gospel  is  based  oa  recollections  of  Peter's  teaching. 

"niis  evidence  is  probably  sufficient  to  establi^  the  fact  that 
Peter,  like  Paul,  had  a  wide  missionary  career  ending  in  a  violent 
death  at  Rome,  though  the  details  are  not  recbverable.  The 
chronoloi^cal  question  is  more  difficult  both  as  regards  the 
be^nning  and  the  end  of  this  period  of  activity. 

The  Acts»  in  describing  the  visits  of  Peter  to  Samaria,  Joppa, 
Lydda  uid  Caesarea,  justify  the  view  that  his  missioruiry  activity 
began  quite  early.  GaL  ii.  11  and  I  Cor.  ix.  5  show 
amoofccr^^^  Acts  minimises  rather  than  exaggerates  this 
•tPHu'B  activity;  the  Antiochian  tradition  probably  repre- 
WMtr  sents  a  period  of  missionary  activity  with  a  centre 
{[IJIU^'^  at  Antioch;  similarly  the  tradition  of  work  in  Asia 
is  possibly  correct  as  almost  certainly  is  that  of  the 
visit  to  Rome.  But  we  have  absolutely  no  evidence  justifying 
a  chronological  arrangement  of  these  periods.  Even  the  silence 
of  Paul  in  the  epistles  of  the  captivity  proves  nothing  except 
that  Peter  was  not  then  present;  the  same  is  true  of  a  Urn. 
even  if  its  authenticity  be  undoubted. 

The  evidence  as  to  the  date  of  his  death  is  a  little  fuller,  but 
not  quite  satisfactory.  The  earliest  direct  ¥ritness  is  Tertullian, 
who  definitdy  states  that  Peter  suffered  under  Nero  by  cruci- 
fixion. Origen  also  relates  the  latter  detail  and  adds  that  at 
his  own  request  Peter  was  crucified  head  downwards.  Probably 
John  sxi.  18  seq.  is  a  still  earlier  reference  to  his  crucifixion. 
FttUcr  evidence  is  not  found  until  Eusebius,  who  dates  the  arrival 
of  Peter  at  Rome  in  43  and  his  martyrdom  twenty-five  years 
later.  But  the  whole  question  of  the  Euscbion  chronology 
is  very  confused  and  difficult,  and  the  text  of  the  Ckromcon  is 
not  certain.  The  main  objection  to  this  date  is  based  partly 
on  general  probability,  partly  on  the  language  of  Qement  of 
Rome.  It  is  more  probable  on  general  grounds  that  the  martyr- 
dom of  Peter  took  place  during  the  persecution  of  Christians  In 
64,  and  it  is  urged  that  Clement's  language  refers  to  this  period. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  an  error  of  a  few  years  has  crept  into  the 
Eusebian  chronology,  which  is  probably  largely  baaed  on  early 
episcopal  lists,  and  therefore  many  scholars  are  inclined  to  think 
that  64  is  a  more  probable  date  than  67.  As  a  rule  the  dis- 
cussion has  mainly  been  between  these  two  dates,  but  Sir  W.  M. 
Ramsay,  in  his  Church  in  the  Roman  Empirt,  has  adopted  a 
different  line  of  argument.  He  thinks  that  i  Peter  was  written 
c.  AJD.  80,  but  that  it  may  nevertheless  be  Petrine;  therefore  he 
lays  stress  on  the  fact  that  whcieaa  the  tradition  that  Peter  was 
in  Rome  is  early  and  probably  correct,  the  tradition  that  he  was 
martyred  under  Nero  is  not  found  until  much  later.  Thus  he 
thinks  it  possible  that  Peter  survived  until  €.  80,  and  was 
martyred  under  the  Flavian  emperors.  The  weak  point  of 
this  theory  is  that  Qement  and  Ignatius  bnog  Peter  and  Paul 


together  in  a  wmy  which'  ifcini  to  suggest  that  they  pwiAfd, 
if  not  together,  at  least  at  about  the  same  time.  If  this  view 
be  rejected  and  it  is  necessary  to  fall  back  <m  the  choice  between 
64  and  67,  the  problem  is  perhaps  insoluble,  but  64  has  somewhat 
more  intrinsic  probability,  and  67  can  be  explained  as  due  to 
an  artificial  ^rsfeem  of  chronology  which  postulated  for  Peter  an 
episooptUe  of  Rome  of  twenty-five  years-~a  number  which  comes 
so  often  in  the  eariy  episcopal  lists  that  it  seems  to  mean  Utile 
more  than  "  a  long  time,"  just  as  **  forty  years  "  does  in  the  CHd 
Testament.  On  the  whole  64  is  the  most  probable  date,  but  it 
IS  very  far  from  certain:  the  evidence  is  iixsufficient  to  justify 
any  assurance. 

For  further  information  and  dtacusrion  see  especially  Hamack's 
ObfMMlof te,  and  Bishop  Chase's  article  in  Hattmgs*s  Dictionary  ^ 
Uu  BiUe.  The  latter  b  in  many  ways  the  most  complete  statement 
of  the  facts  at  present  published. 

Caius,  who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century  (see  Eos. 
H.  B.  a,  25),  stated  that  the  rfAuaui  (*.e.  probably  the  burial 
place,  not  that  of  execution)  of  Peter  and  Paul  were 
on  the  Vaticaru  lliia  is  also  found  in  the  Acta  Petri,  ^^ 
84  (in  the  LHh  Pont,,  cd.  Duchesne,  p.  53  seq.,  118 
sqq.).  From  this  place  it  appears  that  the  rdics  (whetha 
genuine  or  not)  were  moved  to  the  catacombs  in^AJ>.  2^ 
(cf.  the  Depositis  martyrum,  and  see  Lightfoot's  Ciemenl,  L  249); 
hence  arose  the  tradition  of  an  original  burial  in  the  catacombs, 
found  in  the  Hieronymian  Martyrdogy. 

For  farther  iofonnation  and  investigations  see  Dudwsne,  Idiv 
fnntificolii',  Liprius,  Die  Apohr.  AUistdiesch.;  and  Erfocs  '*Dk 
Todestage  der  Ajpostel  Pauhis  u.  rctrus,"  in  Texte  mnd  VniO' 
suchungen,  N.F.,  iv.  i.  (fC.  L.) 

PETER  I.«  called  "  the  Great "  (167 2-1 725),  emperor  of  Russia, 
son  of  the  tsar  Alexius  Mikhailovich  and  Natalia  Naruishkina, 
was  bom  at  Moscow  on  the  30th  of  May  1672.  His  earliest 
teadier  (omitting  the  legendary  Scotchman  Mcnzies)  was  the 
dyaht  or  derk  of  the  council,  Nikita  Zotov,  subsequently  the 
court  fool,  who  taught  his  pupil  to  spell  out  Uie  liturgical  and 
devotnnal  books  on  which  the  children  of  the  tsar  were  generally 
brought  up.  After  2^tov's  departure  on  a  diplomatic  mission, 
in  1680,  the  lad  had  no  regular  tutor.  From  his  third  to  his 
tenth  year  Peter  shared  the  miseries  and  perils  of  his  fanuly .  His 
very  dection  (1682)  was  the  signal  for  a  rebellion.  He  saw  one 
of  hk  undes  dragged  from  the  palace  and  butchered  by  a  savage 
mob.  He  saw  his  mother's  bdoved  mentor,  and  his  own  best 
friend,  Artamon  Matvyeev,  torn,  bruised  aind  bleeding,  from 
his  retaining  grasp  sjod  hacked  to  pieces.  The  h^«nti»^ 
memories  of  these  honors  played  havoc  with  the  nerves  ol  a 
supersensitive  child.  The  convulsions  from  which  he  suffered 
so  much  in  later  years  must  be  partly  attributed  to  this  violent 
shock.  During  the  regency  of  his  half-sister  Sophia  (1682-1689) 
he  occupied  the  subordinate  position  of  junior  tsaz,  aiul  after 
the  revolution  of  1689  Peter  was  still  left  pretty  much  to  himsdf . 
So  long  ss  he  could  indulge  f redy  in  his  favourite  pastimes — ship- 
building, ship^ailtng,  drilling  and  sham  fights—he  was  quite 
content  that  others  should  rule  in  his  name.  He  now  foimd  a 
new  friend  in  the  Swiss  adventurer,  Francois  Lefort,  a  shrewd 
and  jovial  rascal,  who  not  only  initiated  him  into  all  the 
mysteries  of  profligacy  (at  the  large  house  built  at  Peter's 
expense  in  the  German  settlement),  but  taog^t  him  hia  true 
business  as  a  ruler^  His  nwther's  attempt  to  wean  her  prodigal 
son  from  his  dangerous  and  mostly  disreputable  pastimes,  by 
forcing  him  to  marry  the  beautiful  but  stupid  Eudoxia  Lopu- 
khina  (Jan.  ST,  1689),  was  a  disastrous  failure.  Tlie  young 
couple  were  totally  uinuited  to  each  other.  Peter  piactlcaUy 
deserted  his  unfortunate  oooaoct  a  little  more  thaa  a  year  after 
thdr  union. 

The  death  of  his  mother  (Jan.  25,  1694)  left  the  young 
tsar  absolutdy  free  to  follow  his  natural  indinationa.  Tifii^ 
of  the  great  lake  at  Pereyaalavl,  he  had  already  seen  tlie  sea 
for  the  first  time  at  Archangd  in  July  1683,  and  on  the  ist  of 
May  X694  reUtmed  thither  to  kiunch  a  ship  built  by  himsdf  the 
year  befoce.  Shortly  afterwards  he  nearly  perished  during  a 
sKnn  in  aa  advettturaus  voyage  to  the  Sdovetsky  Islands  m 


PETER  t 


389 


the  White  Sea-  His  natunl  bent  wu  nam  pstent.  From  the 
first  the  Ud  had  taken  an  extraordinary  interest  in  the  technical 
and  mechanica)  arts,  and  their  appUcation  to  military  and  naval 
science.  He  was  taught  the  vat  of  the  astrolabe  (which  Prince 
Yakov  Dolgoniki,  with  intent  to  please,  had  brought  him  from 
Paris)  by  a  Dutchman,  Franz  Timmerroan,  who  aiao  instructed 
him  in  the  rudiments  of  geometry  and  fortifications.  He  had 
begun  to  build  hb  own  boats  at  a  very  early  age,  and  the  ultimate 
result  of  these  pastimes  was  the  creation  of  the  Russian  navy« 
He  had  already  surrounded  himself  with  that  characteristically 
Petrine  institution  "  the  jolly  company,"  oc  "  the  company," 
as  it  was  generall  j  called,  consisting  of  all  his  numerous  personal 
friends  and  casual  acquaintances.  "The  oompany"  was 
gradoated  into  a  tort  of  mock  hieravchy,  political  and  eoclcsi* 
aatical,  and  shared  not  only  the  orgies  but  also  the  labours  of  the 
tsar  Merit  was  the  sole  qualification  for  promotion,  and  Peter 
himself  set  the  example  to  the  other  learners  by  gradually 
rising  fmn  the  ranks.  In  1695  ^  had  only  advanced  to  the 
post  of  "  skif^r  "  in  his  own  navy  and  of  "  bombardier  "  <n 
bis  own  army.  It  was,-  however,  the  disreputable  Lefort  who, 
for  the  sake  of  his  own  interests,  diverted  the  young  tsar  from 
mere  pleasure  to  serions  enterprises,  by  persuading  him  first 
lo  undertiJ^  the  Azov  expedition,  and  then  to  go  abroad  to 
complete  his  education. 

By  this  time  the  White  Sea  had  become  too  narrow  for  Peter, 
and  he  was  looking  about  him  for  more  hospitable  watcn.  The 
Baltic  was  a  closed  door  to  Muscovy,  and  the  key  to  it  was  held 
by  Sweden.  The  Caspian  remained;  and  it  had  for  long  been 
a  common  saying  with  foreign  merchants  that  the  bckt  way 
of  tapping  the  riches  of  the  Orient- .was  to  secure  possesaton 
ci  this  vast  inland  lake.  But  so  long  as  the  Turks  and  Tbtara 
made  the  surrounding  steppes  uninhabitable  the  Caspian  was 
a  possession  of  but  doubtful  value.  The  first  step  making  for 
security  was  to  build  a  fleet  strong  enough  to  provide  against 
the  anardiical  condition  of  those  parts^  but  this  implied  a  direct 
attack  not  only  upon  the  Crimean  khan,  who  was  mainly 
responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  Volgan  hordes,  but  upon  the 
khan's  suzerain,  the  Turkish  wltan.  Nevertheless  Peter  did 
not  hesitate.  War  against  Turkey  was  resolved  upon,  and 
Azov,  the  chief  Turkish  fortress  in  those  regions,  which  could 
be  approached  by  water  from  Moscow,  became  the  Russian 
objective.  From  the  8ih  of  July  to  the  aaud  of  September 
169s  the  Muscovites  attempted  in  vain  to  capture  Azov  On 
the  32nd  of  November  Peter  re-entered  Moscow.  His  firU 
military  expedition  had  ended  in  unmiligated  disaster,  3ret 
from  this  disaster  is  to  be  dated  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Immediately  after  his  return  he  sent  to  Austria  and  Prussia 
for  as  many  supers,  miners,  engineers  and  carpenters  as  money 
could  procure.  He  meant  to  build  a  fleet  strong  enough  to 
prevent  the  Turkish  fleet  from  relieving  Azov.  The  guards 
and  all  the  workmen  procurable  were  driven,  forthwith,  in 
bands,  to  all  the  places  among  the  forests  of  the  Don  to  fell 
timber  and  work  day  and  night,  turning  out  scores  of  vessels  of 
all  kinds.  Peter  himself  laved  among  his  workmen,  himself 
the  most  strenuous  of  them  afl,  in  a  small  two-roomed  wooden 
but  at  Voronezh.  By  the  middle  of  April  two  warships,  twenty- 
three  galleys,  four  fireships  and  numerous  smaller  craft  were 
safely  launched.  On  the  3rd  of  May  **  the  sea  caravan  "  sailed- 
Crom  Voronezh,  "  Captain  Peter  Aleksyeevich  "  commanding 
the  galley-flotilla  from  the  galley- "  Principium,"  built  by  hii 
own  hand.  The  new  Russian  fleet  did  all  that  was  required 
of  it  by  preventing  the  Tbrks  from  relieving  Azov  by  water, 
and  on  the  18th  of  July  the  fortress  surrendered  Peter  now 
felt  able  to  advance  ak>ng  the  path  of  progress  with  a  quicker 
and  a  firmer  step.  It  was  resolved  lo  consolidate  the  victory  by 
establishing  a  new  naval  station  at  the  head  of  the  Sea  of  Azov, 
to  which  the  name  of  Taganrog  was  given.  But  it  was  necessary 
to  guarantee  the*  future  as  well  as  provide  for  the  present 
Turkey  was  too  formidable  to  be  fought  single-handed,  and  it 
was  therefore  determined  to  send  a  grand  embassy  to  the 
principal  western  powers  to  solicit  their  co-operatbn  against 
the  Porte.   On  the  xoth  of  March  U697  this  embaaiiy,  under  the' 


leadeiship  of  Lefort,  Set  owt  on  iu  tiavela.  Peter  attached 
himself  to  it  as  a  vohmteer  sailorman,  "Peter  Mikhailov,'* 
so  as  to  have  greater  facility  for  learning  ship-building  and  other 
technical  sciences.  As  a  political  missbn  it  failed  utterly,  the 
great  powers  being  at  that  period  far  more  interested  in  western 
than  in  eastern  affairs.  But  personally  Peter  learnt  nearly 
all  that  he  wanted  to  know — gunnery  at  KOnigsberg,  ship- 
building at  Saaidam  and  Deptford,  anatomy  at  Leiden,  engrav- 
ing at  Amsterdam— and  was  proceeding  to  Venice  to  complete 
his  knowledge  of  navigation  When  the  revolt  of  the  ttrydtsyf 
or  mud(eteers  (June  1698),  recalled  him  to  Moscow.  This 
revolt  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  It  was  suf^Hiessed  in  an 
hour's  time  by  the  tsar's  troops,  of  vrtiom  only  one  man  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  the  horrible  vengeanoe  (September-' 
October  1698)  which  Peter  on  his  return  to  Russia  wreaked  upon 
the  captive  musketeers  was  due  not  to  any  actual  fear  of  these 
antiquated  warri<MS,  but  to  his  consckmsness  that  behind  them 
stood  the  reactionary  majority  of  the  nation  who  secretly 
sympathized  with,  thoNigh  they  durst  not  assist,  the  rebels. 

Peter's  foreign  tour  had  more  than  ever  convinced  him  of 
the  inherent  superiority  off  the  foreigner.  Imitation  had 
necessarily  to  btf^  with  externals,  and  Peter  at  once  fell  foul 
of  the  long  beards  and  Oriental  costumes  which  symbolized 
the  areh*conservatism  of  old  Russia.  On  the  36th  of  April  1698 
the  chief  men  of  the  tsardom  were  assembled  round  his  wooden 
hut  nt  Preobnizhenskoye,  and  Peter  with  his  own  hand  deliber- 
ately dipped  off  the  beards  and  moustaches  of  his  chief  boyars. 
The  ukas  of  the  ist  of  September  1698  allowed  as  a  compromh« 
that  beards  should  be  worn,  but  a  graduated  tax  was  imposed 
upon  their  wearers.  The  wearing  of  the  ancient  costumes  was 
forbidden  by  the  ukoM  <rf  the  4th  of  January  1700;  thenceforth 
Saxon  or  Magyar  jackets  and  French  or  German  hose  were 
prescribed.  That  the  people  themselves  ^d  not  regard  the 
reform  as  a  trifle  is  plain  from  the  numerous  rebellions  against 
it  By  the  ukau  of  the  20th  of  December  1699  it  was  next 
commanded  that  henceforth  the  new  year  should  not  be 
reckoned,  as  heretofore,  from  the  ist  of  September,  supposed 
to  be  the  date  of  the  creation,  but  from  the  first  day  of  January, 
anna  domiuu 

The  year  1 700  is  memorable  in  Russian  history  as  the  starting- 
point  of  Peter's  long  and  desperate  struggle  for  the  hegemony  of 
the  north.  He  had  concluded  peace  with  the  Porte  (June  15, 
1700)  on  very  advantageous  terms,  in  order  to  devote  himself 
wholly  to  a  war  with  Sweden  to  the  end  that  Russia  might  gain 
her  proper  place  on  the  Baltic.  The  possession  of  an  ice-free 
seaboard  was  essential  to  her  natural  development;  the  creation 
of  a  fleet  would  follow  inevitably  upon  the  acquisition  of  such  a 
seaboard;  and  she  could  not  hope  to  obtain  her  due  share  of  the 
trade  and  commerce  of  the  world  tiH  she  possessed  both.  All  the 
conjunctures  seemed  favourable  to  Peter.  The  Swedish  govern* 
ment  was  in  the  hands  of  an  untried  lad •  of  sixteen;  and  the 
fine  fleets  of  Denmark,  and  the  veteran  soldiers  of  Saxony,  were 
on  the  same  side  as  the  myriadr  of  Muscovy.  It  seemed  an 
easy  task  for  such  a  coalition  to  wrest  the  coveted  spcnl  from 
the  young  Charles  XII.;  yet  Peter  was  the  only  one  of  the  three 
conspirators  who  survived  the  Twenty-one  Years'  War  in  which 
they  90  confidently  embarked  during  the  summer  of  t^oi.  He 
was  also  the  only  one  of  them  who  got  anything  by  it  Charles's 
** immersion  in  the  Polish  bog"  (1702-1707),  as  Peter  phrased 
it,  enabled  the  tsar,  not  without  considerable  expense  and  trouble, 
to  conquer  Ingria  and  lay  the  foundations  of  St  Petersburg. 
In  ihese  early  days  Peter  would  very  willingly  have  made  peace 
with  his  formidable  rival  if  he  had  been  allowed  to  retain  these 
comparatively  modest  conquests.  From  1707  to  1709  the  war 
on  his  p9rt  was  purely  defensive;  Charles  would  not  hear  of 
peace  till  full  restitution  had  been  made  and  a  war  indemnity 
paid,  while  Peter  was  fully  resolved  to  perish  rather  than  sur- 
render his  "paradise,"  Petersburg.  After  Puluva  (June  36, 
1 709),  Peter,  hitherto  commendably  cautious  even  to  cowardice, 
but  now  puffed  up  with  pride,  rashly  plunged  into  as  foolhardy 
an  enterprise  as  ever  his  rival  engaged  in.  The  campaign  of 
the  Pruth  (March  to  July  171 1)  muu  have  been  faul  lo  the 


290 


PETER  L 


Uar  but  for  the  maJcttkble  belmviourof  the  onmipoteht  grand 
vizier,  who  let  the  Russian  army  go  at  the  very  instant  when  it 
lay  helpless  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand.  Even  so,  Peter,  by  the 
peace  of  the  Pruth,  had  to  sacrifice  all  that  he  had  gained  by 
the  Azov  expedition  fifteen  years  previously.  On  receiving 
the  tidings  of  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Nystad  (August 
30,  I72x)»  Peter  declared,  with  perfect  justice,  that  it  was 
the  most  profitable  peace  Russia  had  ever  concluded  The 
gain  to  Russia  was,  indeed,  much  more  than  territoriaL  In 
surrendering  the  pick,  of  her  fiahic  provinces,  Sweden  had 
surMndered  along  with  them  the  hegemony  of  the  north,  and 
all  her  pretensions  to  be  considered  a  great  power. 

The  Great  Northern  War  was  primarily  a  training  school  for  a 
backward  young  nation,  and  in  the  second  place  a  means  of 
multiplying  the  material  resources  of  a  nation  as  poor  as  she 
was  backward.  During  the  whole  course  of  it  the  process  of 
internal  domestic  reformation  had  been  slowly  but  imceasingly 
proceeding.  Brand-new  institutions  on  Western  models  were 
gradually  growing  up  among  the  cumbrous,  antiquated,  wom> 
out  machinery  of  old  Muscovy;  and  new  men,  like  Mcnsfaikov, 
Goloykin,  Apraksia,  Oslcrman,  Kurtkin,  Tolstoy,  Shafirov,. 
Prokopovich,  Yaguszhinsky,  Yavorsky,  all  capable,  audacious, 
and  brimful  of  new  ideas,  were  being  trained  under  the  eye  of 
the  grieat  regenerator  to  help  him  to  carry  on  his  herculean 
task.  At  first  the  external  form  of  the  administration  remained 
much  the  same  as  before.  The  old  dignities  disappeared  of 
their  own  accord  with  the  deaths  of  their  holders,  for  the  new 
men,  those  nearest  to  Peter,  did  not  require  them.  "  The 
Administrative  Senate  "  was  not  Sniroduced  till  1711,  and' only 
then  because  the  interminable  war,  which  required  Peter's 
prolonged  absence  from  Russia,  made  it  impossible  for  him  to 
attend  to  the  details  of  the  domestic  administration  Still 
later  came  the  "Spiritual  Department,"  or  "Holy  Synod'' 
Oanuary  1721),  which  superseded  the  ancient  patriarchate.  It 
was  established,  we  are  told,  "because  simple  folks  cannot 
distinguish  the  spiritual  power  from  the  sovereign  power,  and 
suppose  that  a  supreme  spiritual  pastor  is  a  second  sovereign, 
the  spiritual  authority  being  regarded  as  higher  and  better  than 
the  temporal."  From  the  first  the  regenerator  in  his  ukates 
was  careful  to  make  everything  quite  plain.  He  was  always 
explaining  why  he  did  this  or  that,  why  the  new  was  better 
than  the  old,  and  so  on;  and  wre  must  recollect  that  these  were 
the  first  lessons  of  the  kind  the  nation  had  ever  received  The 
whole  system  of  Peter  was  delib<»-aleiy  directed  against  the  chief 
evils  from  which  old  Muscovy  had  always  suffered,  such  as 
dissipation  of  energy,  dislike  of  co-operation,  absence  of  responsi- 
bility, lack  of  initiative,  the  tyranny  of  the  family,  the  insignifi- 
cance of  the  individual.  The  low  social  morality  of  all  classes, 
even  when  morality  was  present  at  all,  necessitated  the  regenera- 
tion of  the  nation  agamst  its  will,  and  the  process  could  therefore 
only  be  a  violent  one.  Yet  the  most  enUghtened  of  Peter's 
contemporaries  approved  of  and  applauded  his  violence,  some 
of  them  firmly  believed  that  his  most  energetic  measures  were 
not  violent  enough.  Thus  Ivan  Poroshkov,  Peter's  contempor- 
ary, the  father  of  Russian  political  economy,  writes  as  follows. 
"  If  any  land  be  over-much  encumbered  with  weeds,  corn  cannot 
be  sown*  thereon  unless  the  weeds  first  be  burned  with  fire. 
In  the  same  way,  our  ancient  inveterate  evils  should  also  be 
burnt  with  fire."  Peter  himself  carried  this  principle  to  its 
ultimate  limits  in  dealing  with  his  unfortunate  son  the  Tsarevich 
Alexius  (fv).  From  an  ethical  and  religious  point  of  view 
the  deliberate  removal  of  Alexius  was  an  abonHnable,  an 
inhuman  crime:  Peter  justified  it  as  necessary  for  the  welfare 
of  the  new  Russia  which  he  had  called  into  existence. 

The  official  birthday  of  the  Russian  empire  was  \he  a?nd 
of  October  1721,  when,  after  a  solemn  thanksgiving  service 
in  the  Troitsa  Cathedral  for  the  peace  of  Nystad.  the  tsar  pro- 
ceeded to  the  senate  and  was  there  acclaimed:  "  Father  of  the 
Fatherland.  Peter  the  Great,  and  Emperor  of  All  Russia" 
Some  Russians  would  have  preferred  .to  proclaim  Peter  as 
emperor  of  the  East;  but  Peter  himself  adopted  the  more 
patriotic  title. 


Towards  the  end  of  the  teign  the  question  of  the  soccessioo 
to  the  throne  caused  the  emperor  some  anxiety.  The  rightful 
heir,  in  the  natural  order  of  primogeniture,  was  the  little  grand 
duke  Peter,  son  of  the  Tsarevich  Alexius,  a  child  of  six,  but 
Peter  decided  to  pass  him  over  in  favour  of  his  own  beloved 
consort  Catherine.  The  lu/dv,  or  ordinance  of  1722,  heralded 
this  unheard-of  innovation.  Time-honoured  custom  had 
hitherto  reckoned  primogeniture  in  the  male  line  as  the  best 
title  to  the  Russian  crown,  in  the  ustav  of  17  2  2  Peter  denounced 
primogeniture  in  general  as  -a  stupid,  dangerous,  and  rven 
unscriptural  practice  of  dubious  origin.  The  usiav  was  but 
a  preliminary  step  to  a  still  more  sensational  novelty.  Peter 
had  resolved  to  crown  his  consort  empress,  and  on  the  15th 
of  November  1723  he  Issued  a  second  manifesto  explaining  at 
some  length  why  he  was  taking  such  an  unusual  step.  Thai 
he  should  have  considered  any  explanation  necessary  dexnoa- 
stratcs  that  he  felt  himself  to  be  treading  on  dangerous  ground. 
The  whole  nation  listened  aghast  to  the  manifesto.  The  corona- 
tion of  a  woman  was  in  the  eyes  of  the  Russian  people  a 
scandalous  innovation  in  any  case,  and  the  proposed  coronatien 
was  doubly  scandalous  in  view  of  the  i>ase  and  disrcpulafaie 
origin  of  Catherine  herself  (see  Catherine  I.).  But  Peter  had 
his  way,  and  the  ceremony  took  place  at  Mofioow  wkk 
extraordinary  pomp  and  splendour  on  the  7th  of  May  1 724. 

During  the  last  lour  years  of  his  reign  Peter's  policy  was 
predominantly  Oriental.    He  had  got  all  he  wanted  ia  Europe, 
but  the  anarchical  state  ol  Petsia  at  the  beginning  of  7722 
opened  up  fresh  vistas  of  conquest.    The  war  whicii  bsted 
from  May  1722  to  September  1723  was  altogether  succesfuU 
resulting  in  the  acquisition  of  the  towns  of  Baku  and  Dcrisent 
and  the  Caspian  provinces  of  Gilan,  Mazandaran  and  Astarabad. 
The  Persian  campaigns  wore  out  the  feeble  health  of  Peter, 
who  had  been  ailing  for  some  tine.     A  long  and  iktiguing 
tour  of  inspection  over  the  latest  of  his  great  public  works, 
the  Ladoga  Canal,  during  the  autumn  of  1724,  bnmgkt  back 
ariother  attack   of   his  paroxysms,   and   he   reached    Peters- 
burg too  ill  to  rally  again,   though    he   showed    himself  ia 
public  as  late  as  the  idtlrof  January  1725.    He  expired  ia 
the  arms  of  his  consort,  after  terrible  suffering,  on  the  38th 
of  January  1725. 

Peter's  claim  to  greatness  rests  mainly  on  the  fact  that  from 
first  to  last  he  clearly  recognueed  the  requirements  of  the  Rus- 
sian nation  and  his  own  obligations  as  its  ruler.    It  wouU 
have  materially  lightened  his  task  had  he  placed  intelligent 
foreigners  at  the  bead  of  every  department  of  state,  allowing  them 
gradually  to  train  up  a  native  bureaucracy.    But  for  the  sake  of 
the  independence  of  the  Russian  nation  he  resisted  the  tcmptatke 
of  taking  this  inviting  but  perilous  short-cut  to  greatness.    He 
was  determined  that^  at  whatever  cost,  hardship  and    incos- 
venicnce,  Russia  should  be  ruled  by  Russians,  not  by  loreignexs; 
and  before  his, death  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  every 
important  place  in  his  empire  in  the  hands  of  capable  natives 
of  his  own  training.    But  even  in  his  most  sweeping  reforms 
he  never  lost  sight  of  the  idiosyncrasies  of  the  people.     He 
never  destroyed  anything  which  he  was  not  able  to  replace  by 
something  better.    He  possessed,  too,  something  of  the  heroic 
nature  of  the  old  Russian  bogatuirs,  or  demigods,  as  we  sec  theo 
in  the  skazH  and  the  huiliuui.     His  expansive  nature  lo^-ed 
width  and  space.    No  doubt  this  last  of  the  bogatuirs  possessed 
the  violent  passions  as  well  as  the  wide  views  of  his  prototypes. 
AH  his  qualities,  indeed,  were  on  a  colossal  scale.    His  ra^  was 
cycbnic:  his  haired  rarely  stopped  short  of  exterminatica 
His  banquets  were  orgies,  his  pastimes  convulsions.     He  lived 
and  he  loved  like  one  of  the  giants  of  old.    There  are  deeds 
of  his  which  make  humanity  shudder,  and  no  roan  equally 
great  has  ever  descended  to  such  depths  of  cruelty  and  treachery. 
Yet  it  may  generally  be  allowed  that  a  strain  of  nobility,  of 
which   we   occasionally   catch   illuminating   glimpses,   extorts 
from  time  to  time  an  all-forgiving  admiration.     Strange,  too, 
as  It  may  sound,  Peter  the  Great  was  at  heart  profonndly 
rdigious     Few  men  have  ever  had  a  more  intimate  peisuasaca 
that  th^  wfR  but  instruments  for  good  in  the  haadi  of  Cod. 


PETER  I1.~PETER  (KINGS  OF  SPAIN) 


BiBUOCRAPHY.— Icflers  and  Paurs  rf  Peitr  ike.Cnci  (RuO 
(St  Petersburg,  1887,  &c  ).  S  M.  Soiovev.  Htst&ry  otRussta  (Rut. J. 
vols,  xiv.-xvui  (St  Petersiburg.  1895,  &c  >.  A  Brueclcner,  Die 
Europamernnt  Russtauds  (Gotha.  1888).  R  Nisbet  Bain.  ThePmptis 
pf  Peter  the  Creatt  chs.  i.-iv.  (London.  1897).  AtiA-Tke  Ftrst  Rom^netei, 
ens  vii-xiv.  (London.  1005).  E.  Schuyler,  Ltfe  cf  Peter  the  Creai 
(London,  1884):  K  Wafiszewski,  Pierre  te  Grand  (Paris,  1897); 
V.  N  Aleksandrcnko.  Russian  Diplomatic  Agents  tn  London  in  the 
tSth  Century  (Rus.)  (Warsaw,  1897- 1898 :  German  ed.,  Cuben.  1898); 
S.  A  Chistyakov,  Hutory  of  Peter  the  Great  (Rus.)  (St  Pctersbuiv, 
1903);  S.  M  Soiovev,  FiMte  Readinf,s  on  Peter  the  Creai  (RusT) 
(bt  Petersburg.  1903);  Documents  relating  to  the  Great  Sorthern  War 
(Rus.)  (St  Petersburig.  1893,  &c.).  (R.  N.  B.) 

PBTBB  II.  (1715-X730),  emperor  of  RuaBia,  only  son  of  the 
Tsarevkh  Alex!u»,  was  born  on  the  i8tb  of  October  1715. 
From  his  childhood  the  orphan  grand  duke  was  kept  in  the 
strictest  seclusion.  His  grandfather*  Peter  the  Great,  systemati- 
cally ignored  him.  His  earliest  governesses  wene  the  wives 
of  a  tailor  and  a  vintner  from  the  Dutch  settlement;  a  sailor 
called  Norman  taught  him  the  rudiments  of  navigation;  and, 
when  be  grew  older,  he  was  placed  under  the  care  of  a  Hungarian 
Rfugee*  Janos  Zeikin,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  conscientious 
teacher.  During  the  reign  of  Catherine  I  Peter  was  quite 
ignored;  but  just  before  her  death  it  became  clear  to  those 
in  power  that  the  grandson  of  Peter  the  Great  could  not  be  kept 
out  of  his  inheritance  much  longer  The  majority  of  the  nation 
and  three-quarters  of  the  nobility  were  on  his  side,  while  his 
uncle,  the  emperor  Charles  VI ,  through  the  imperial  ambassador 
at  St  Petersburg,  Rabutin,  persistently  urged  his  claims  The 
matter  was  arranged  between  Menshikov,  Osterman  and  Rabu* 
tin,  and  on  the  18th  of  May  1727  Peter  U ,  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  supposed  last  will  of  Catherine  I ,  was  proclaimed 
sovereign  autocrat.  The  senate,  the  privy  council  and  the 
guards  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  forthwith.  The  education 
of  the  young  prince  was  wisely  entrusted  to  the.  vice-chancellor 
Osterman.  Menshikov^  who  took  possession  of  Peter  II.  and 
lodged  him  in  his  own  palace  on  the  Vasily  island,  had  intended 
to  marry  Peter  to  his  daughter  Maria;  the  scheme  was  frus- 
trated by  his  fall  (Sept,  21,  1727);  but  Peter  only  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  equally  unscrapulous  Dolgoruki,  who  carried 
him  away  from  Petersburg  to  Moscow.  Peter's  coronation 
was  celebrated  at  that  city  on  the  2slh  of  February  1738 
He  was  betrothed  to  Catherine,  second  daughter  of  Alexis 
Dolgoruki,  and  the  wedding  was  actually  fixed  for  the  30th 
of  January  1730;  but  on  that  very  day  the  emperor  died  of 
small-pox. 

PETER  HI.  (1728-1762),  emperor  of  Russia,  only  son  of 
Charles  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein>Gottorp,  and  of  Anne,  eldest 
surviving  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  was  born  at  Kiel  on  the 
3 1  St  of  February  1738.  In  December  1741  he  was  adopted  by 
his  aunt,  Elixabeth  Petrovna,  as  soon  as  she  was  safely  estal>- 
lished  on  the  Russian  throne,  and  on  the  18th  of  November 
1742  was  received  into  the  Orthodox  Church,  eicfaangmg  his 
original  name  of  Karl  Peter  Ulrich  for  that  of  Peter  Fedorovich. 
On  the  2ist  of  August  1745,  by  the  command  of  his  aunt,  he 
married  the  princess  Sophia  Augusta  Frederica  of  Anhalt- 
Zerbst,  who  exchanged  her  namq  for  that  of  Catherine  Aleksye- 
evna.  The  union  between  a  prince  who  physically  was  some- 
thing less  than  a  man  and  mentally  little  more  than  a  child, 
and  a  princess  of  prodigious  intellect  and  an  insatiable  love 
of  enjoyment,  was  bound  to  end  in  a  catastrophe.  But  there 
is  no  foundation  for  the  stories  of  Peter's  neglect  and  brutality. 
It  took  the  spouses  five  years  to  discover  that  their  tastes  were 
divergent  and  their  tempers  incompatible.  Even  when  Peter  III. 
fiucccedcd  his  aunt  on  the  slh  of  January  1762,  he  paid  off  all 
the  debts  that  Catherine  had  contracted  without  Inquiring  what 
they  were  for.  On  her  birthday,  in  April,  he  made  her  a  present 
of  domains  worth  £10,000  per  annum,  though  he  had  already 
readjusted  her  establishment  on  a  truly  imperial  scale.  A  great 
deal  has  been  made  of  Peter's  infidelity  towards  his  consort; 
but  the  only  one  who  really  suffered  from  his  liaison  with  the 
ugly,  stupid  and  vixenish  countess  Elizabeth  Voronts^va  was 
the  unfortunate  emperor.  So  far  from  being  scandalized  by 
the  iuxUpostiMn  of  "Das  Frftulein"  in  the  Winter  Palace, 


291 

Catherine  accepted  it  as  a  matter  of  comse,  provided  that  her 
own  relations  with  the  handsome  young  guardsman,  Gregory 
Orlov,  were  undisturbed.  Nor  was  Peter's  behaviour  to  his 
consort  in  public  of  the  outrageous  character  we  have  been 
led  to  suppose  Peter,  in  fact,  was  too  good-natured  and  incon* 
sequent  to  pursue,  or  even  premeditate,  any  deliberate  course 
of  ill  treatment.  No  personal  wrongs,  but  the  deliberate  deter- 
mination of  a  strong-minded,  capable  woman  to  snatch  the  reins 
of  government  from  the  hands  of  a  semi-imbecile,  was  the  cause 
of  Peter's  overthrow,  and  his  stupendous  blunders  supplied 
Catherine  with  her  opportunity.  Peter's  foreign  policy  was 
the  absolute  reversal  of  the  policy  of  his  predecessor  He  had 
not  been  on  the  throne  for  two  months  when  he  made  pacific 
overtures  to  the  wellnigh  vanquished  king  of  Prussia,  whom  he 
habitoally  allttded  to  as  "  the  king  my  master "  Peter's 
enthusiastK  worship  of  Frederick  reMilted  in  a  peace  (May  5) 
and  then  (June  19)  in  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance 
between  Russia  and  Prussia,  whereby  Peter  restored  to  Prussia 
all  the  territory  won  from  her  by  Russia  during  the  last  five 
years  at  such  an  enormous  expense  of  men  and  money,  and 
engaged  to  defend  Frederick  against  all  his  enemies.  This  was 
followed  up  by  a  whole  series  of  menacing  rescripts  addressed 
by  Peter  to  thecourtof  VlenBa,in  which  war  was  threatened  unless 
Austria  instantly  complied  with  all  the  demands  of  the  king 
of  Prussia.  Finally  he  picked  a  quarrel  with  Denmark  for  not 
accepting  as  an  oltimatum  the  terms  to  be  submitted  by  Russia 
to  a  peace  oonferetiee  to  meet  at  Berlin  for  the  purpose  of 
adjusting  the  differences  between  the  two  powers.  On  the  6th 
of  July  the  Russian  army  received  orders  to  invade  Denmark 
by  way  of  Mecklenburg  This  advance  was  only  arrested, 
when  the  opposing  forces  were  almost  within  touch  of  each 
other,  by  the  tidings  thai  a  revolution  had  taken  place  .at  St 
Petersburg,  and  that  Peter  III.  was  already  a  prisoner  in  the 
hands  of  his  consort.  The  coup  d*iiai  of  the  9th  of  July  1762 
properly  belongs  to  the  history  of  Catherine  II.  (9  v.).  '  Here 
only  a  few  wwds  must  be  said  as  to  the  mysterious  death  of 
Peter  at  the  castle  of  Ropsha,  to  which  he  was  removed  imme- 
diately after  his  surrender.  Here  he  remained  from  the  evening 
of  the  9th  to  the  afternoon  of  the  18th  of  July.  At  first  Catherine 
and  her  counsellors  could  not  make  up  their  minds  what  to  do 
with  "  the  former  emperor."  Imprisonment  in  Schlilssclburg 
for  life,  or  repatriation  to  Holstcin,  were  proposed  only  to  be 
rejected  as  dangerous.  The  Ork)vs  had  even  stronger  motives 
than  Catherine  for  suppressing  the  ex -emperor,  for  Gregory 
Orlov  aspired  to  win  the  hand  as  well  as  the  heart  of  his  imperial 
mistress,  and  so  long  as  Catherine's  lawful  husband  lived,  even 
in  a  prison,  such  a  union  would  be  impossible.  The  available 
evidence  points  to  the  irresistible  conclusion  that  on  the  afier- 
no(Mi  of  the  18th  of  July  1763,  Peter  III.,  with  bis  consort's  con- 
nivance, was  brutally  murdered  at  Ropsha  by  Alexius  Orlov, 
Theodore  Baryatinski,  and  several  other  persons  still  unknown. 

See  R  N  Bain.  Peter  J 1 1.,  Emperor  of  Russia  (London,  1902); 
V  A.  Bitbasov,  History  of  Catherine  II.  (Rus.),  vol.  i.  (Beriin, 
1900).  (R.  N.  B.) 

PETER  (Pedro),  the  name  of  several  Spanish  kings. 

Petee  I.,  king  of  Aragon  (d.  1 104},  son  of  Sancho  Ramirez, 
the  third  in  order  of  the  historic  kinffi  of  Aragon,  belonged  to 
times  anterior  to  the  authentic  written  history  of  his  kingdom; 
and  little  is  known  of  him  save  that  he  recovered  Huesca  from 
the  Mahommedans  in  1096. 

Petes  IL,  king  of  Aragon  (ii74-r3i3),  son  of  Alphonso  II. 
and  his  wife  Sancia,  daughter  of  Alphonso  VIII.  of  Castile, 
was  bom  in  X174.  He  had  a  very  marked  and  curious  personal 
character.  As  sovereign  of  lands  on  both  sides  of  the  Pyrenees, 
he  was  affected  by  very  different  influences.  In  his  character 
of  Spanish  prince  he  was  a  crusader,  and  he  took  a  distinguished 
part  in  the  great  victory  over  the  Almohades  at  the  Navas  de 
Tolosa  in  Z3i3.  But  bis  lands  to  the  north  of  the  Pyrenees 
brougnt  him  into  close  relations  with  the  Albigenscs.  He  was 
a  favourer  of  the  troubadours,  and  in  his  ways  of  life  he  indulged 
in  the  laxity  of  Provencal  morals  to  the  fullest  extent.  We 
are  told  in  the  chronicle  written  by  Desclot  soon  after  his  lime 


i<)2 


PETER  DES  ROCHES 


that  Peter  was  only  trapped  into  cohabiting  with  his  wife  by 
the  device  which  is  familiar  to  readers  of  Measure  for  Measure 
In  the  year  after  the  battle  of  the  Navas  de  Toh>sa  he  took  up 
arms  against  the  crusaders  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  moved  not 
by  sympathy  with  the  Albigenses,  but  by  the  natural  political 
hostility  of  the  southern  princes  to  the  conquering  intervention 
of  the  north  under  pretence  of  religious  zeal.  His  son  records 
the  Way  in  which  he  spent  the  night  before  the  battle  of  Muret 
with  a  crudity  of  language  which  defies  translation,  and  tells  us 
that  his  father  was  too  exhausted  in  the  morning  to  stand  at 
Mass,  and  had  to  be  lifted  into  the  saddle  by  his  squires.  Peter 
none  the  less  showed  the  greatest  personal  v^our,  and  his  body, 
recognizable  by  his  lofty  stature  and  personal  beauty,  was 
found  on  the  field  after  the  rout  (Sept.  t»,  1213). 

See  ChronxcU  of  James  I.  of  Araton^  translated  by  J  Fowter 
(London,  1883) ;  and  Life  and  Tttnes  of  Jamas  the  first  Ike  CouqueroTt 
by  F.  Darwin  Swift  (Oxford,  1894). 

Petee  III.,  king  of  Aragon  (1336-1386),  ton  of  James  the 
Conqueror,  and  his  wife  Yolande,  daughter  of  Andrew  II.  of 
Hungary,  was  bom  in  1336.  Having  married  Constance, 
daughter  of  Manfred  of  Beneventum,  he  came  forward  as  the 
representative  of  the  claims  of  the  Hohenslaufen  in  Naples 
and  Sicily  against  Charles,  duke  of  Anjou.  Peter  began  the 
long  strife  of  the  Angevine  and  Aragonese  parties  in  southern 
Italy.  His  success  in  conquering  Sicily  earned  him  the  surname 
of  "  the  Great  "  He  repelled  an  invasion  of  Catalonia  under* 
taken  by  the  king  of  France  In  support  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  and 
died  on  the  8ih  of  November  1386. 

For  the  personal  character  of  Peter  III.,  the  best  witnen  is  the 
Ckrontde  at  Ramondc  Muntancx — reprinted  in  the  original  Catalan 
by  R.  Lanz,  LUeranuher  Veretn  m  StuUiarl,  vol  vii.  (1 84^),  and  in 
French  by  Buchon,  CoU  des  ckroniques  naltonates  (Pans,  1834- 
1838).  See  also  O.  CartcUieri.  TeUr  von  Aragon  and  dte  Stzdtan- 
iuke  Vesper  (Heidelberg,  1904). 

Petee  IV.,  king  of  Aragon  <d.  1387),  son  of  Alphonso  IV. 

and  his  wife  Teresa  d*Enlc^a,  is  known  as  **  The  Ceremonious  *' 

and  also  as  "  he  of  the  dagger."    He  acquircff  the  first  title 

by  the  rigid  etiquette  he  enforced,  as  one  means  of  checking 

the  excessive  freedom  of  his  nobles.    The  second  name  was 

given  him  because  he  wounded  himsdf  with  his  dagger  in  the 

act  of  cutting  to  pieces  the  so-called  **  charter  of  the  Union," 

which  authorised  the  rebellions  of  his  nobles,  and  which  he 

forced  them  to  give  up,  after  he  had  routed  them  at  the  battle 

of  Epila  in  1348.   Of  no  man  of  the  14th  century  can  It  be  more 

truly  said  that  his  life  was  a  warfare  on  earth.    He  had  first 

to  subdue  his  nobles,  and  to  rcannex  the  Balearic  Islands  to  the 

crown  of  Aragon.    When  he  had  made  himself  master  at  home, 

he  had  to  carry  on  a  long  and  fierce  contest  with  his  namesake 

Peter  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  which  only  terminated  when  Henry 

of  Trastamara  succeeded,  largely  with  Aragonese  help,  in  making 

himself  king  of  Castile  In  1369.     Peter  succeeded  in  making 

himself  master  of  Sicily  In  1377,  but  ceded  the  actual  possession 

of  the  island  to  his  son  Martin.     He  was  three  times  married 

to  Mary,  daughter  of  Philip  of  Evreux,  king  of  Navarre,  to 

Eleanor,  daughter  of  Alphonso  IV.  of  Portugal,  and  to  Eleanor. 

daughter  of  Peter  II  of  Sicily,  his  cousin.    The  marriage  of  his 

daughter  by  his  third  marriage,  Eleanor,  with  John  I.  of  Castile, 

carried  the  crown  of  Aragon  to  the  Castilian  line  when  his  male 

representatives  became  extinct  on  the  death  of  his  son  Martin 

in  14 10. 
See  Zurita,  AnaUs  de  Aragon  (Saragotta,  1610). 

Petee,  "the  Cruel,"  king  of  Castile  (1333-1369),  son  of 
Alphonso  XI.  and  Maria,  daughter  of  Alphonso  IV.  of  Portugal, 
was  born  in  1333.  He  earned  for  himself  the  reputation  of 
monstrous  cruelty  which  is  indicatd  by  the  accepted  title.  In 
later  ages,  when  the  royal  authority  was  thoroughly  established, 
there  was  a  reaction  in  Peter's  favour,  and  an  alternative  name 
was  found  for  him.  It  became  a  fashion  to  speak  of  him  as 
£f  Justkiero,  the  executor  of  justice  Apologists  were  found  to 
say  that  he  had  only  killed  men  who  themselves  would  not 
submit  to  the  law  or  respect  the  rights  of  others.  There  is 
this  amount  of  foundation  for  the  plea,  that  the  chronicler 
Lopes  de  Ayala,  who  fought  against  him.  has  confessed  that  the 


king's  fall  was  regretted  by  the  merchants  and  traders,  who 
enjoyed  security  under  his  rule.  Peter  began  to  reign  at  the 
age  of  sixteen,  and  found  himsdf  subjected  to  the  control  of 
his  mother  and  h^  favourites.  He  was  immoral,  and  unfaithful 
to  his  wife,  as  his  father  had  been.  But  Alphonso  XI.  <fid  not 
imprison  his  wife,  or  cause  her  to  be  murdered.  Peter  certainly 
did  the  first,  and  therecan  be  little  doubt  that  he  did  the  second. 
He  had  not  even  the  excuse  that  he  was  passionately  in  love  wiih 
his  mistress,  Maria  de  Padilla;  for,  at  a  time  when  he  asserted 
that  he  was  married  to  her,  and  when  he  was  undoubtedly 
married  to  Blanche  of  Bourbon,  he  went  through  the  fons 
of  marriage  with  a  lady  of  the  family  ol  Castro,  who  bore  him 
a  son,  and  then  deserted  hex.  Maria  de  Padilla  was  only  the 
one  lady  of  his  harem  of  whom  he  never  became  quite  tired 
At  first  he  was  controlled  by  his  mother,  but  emancipated 
himself  with  the  encouragement  of  the  minister  Albuquerque 
and  became  attached  to  Maria  de  Padilla.  Maria  turned  him 
against  Albuquerque.  In  1354  tbe  king  waa  practically  coerced 
by  his  mother  and  the  nobles  into  marrying  Blanche  of  Bourbea, 
but  deserted  her  at  once.  A  period  of  turmoil  followed  in  wfaicft 
the  king  was  for  a  time  overpowered  and  in  effect  imprisoned 
The  dissensions  of  the  party  which  waa  striving  to  coerce  his 
enabled  him  to  escape  from  Tbro,  where  he  was  under  ofaseffvatioc 
to  Segovia.  From  1356  to  1366  he  was  master,  and  was  eiigagei 
in  continual  wars  with  Aragon,  in  which  he  showed  neither 
ability  nor  daring.  It  was  during  this  period  that  he  perpetraied 
the  series  of  murders  which  made  him  odious.  He  confided  a 
nobody  save  the  Jews,  who  were  hk  tax-gathereis,  or  the 
Mahommcdan  guaixl  he  had  about  him.  The  profound  hatred 
of  the  Christians  for  the  Jews  and  Mudejares^  or  Mahomraedaia 
settled  among  them,  dates  from  the  years  in  wbkh  tiMy  were 
the  agents  of  his  unbridled  t3rranny.  In  1366  he  was  assailed  by 
his  bastard  brother  Henry  of  Trastamara  at  the  head  0/  a  host 
of  soldiers  of  fortune,  and  fled  the  kingdom  without  daring  to 
give  battle.  Almost  his  last  act  in  Spain  was  to  murder  Suero. 
the  archbishop  of  Santiago,  and  the  dean,  PeiaJvares.  Peter 
now  took  refuge  with  the  Black  Prince,  by  whom  he  was  restored 
in  the  following  year.  But  he  disgusted  his  ally  by  his  faithless- 
ness and  ferocity.  The  health  of  the  Black  Prince  broke  down, 
and  he  left  Spain.  When  thrown  on  his  own  resources,  Peter 
was  soon  overthrown  by  his  brother  Henry,  with  tbe  aid  of 
Bertrand  du  Guesclin  and  a  body  of  French  free  oompanions 
He  was  murdered  by  Henry  in  du  Guesclin's  tent  on  the  33rd 
of  March  1369.  His  daughters  by  Maria  de  Padilla,  Constance 
and  Isabella,  were  respectively  married  to  John  of  Gaunt,  and 
Edmund,  duko  of  York,  sons  of  Edward  III.,  king  of  Kn^^aod 

The  great  orig|inat  but  hostile  anthority  for  the  life  of  Peter  tlie 
Cruel  is  the  Chronule  of  the  Chancellor  Pcro  Lopez  de  Ayala  (Madrid 
■779-1780).  A  brilliantly  written  Life  is  that  by  Prosper  M^rin^ 
llist.  de  Don  Pldre  /.,  roidt  CaUille  (Paris,  1848).  (D.  U.) 

PETER  DES  ROCHES  <d.  1338),  bishop  of  Winchester  under 
John  and  Henry  III.,  and  conspicuous  among  the  foreign  favocr- 
iles  to  whom  these  sovereigns  owed  much  of  their  unpopularity, 
was  a  Pdtevin  by  extract  ion.    He  received  the  office  c^  chamber- 
lain towards  the  close  of  Richard*s  reign,  and  under  Richard's 
successor  became  an  influential  counsellor.    In  taos,  doubtless 
through  John's  influence,  he  was  elected  to  the  see  of  Winchester 
His  clcctk>n  was  disputed  but,  on  appeal,  confirmed  by  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  who  honoured  Peter  by  consecrating  him  ic 
person.   None  the  less,  the  new  bishop  stood  by  his  royal  pat  roe 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  interdict.    In  1213  he  was  xn^de 
justiciar  in  succession  to  Geoffrey  Fitz  Peter.    This  promottoe 
was  justified  by  the  fidelity  with  which  Peter  supported  the 
king  through  the  barons'  war.    At  the  battle  of  Lincoln  (1:17^ 
Peter  led  a  division  of  the  royal  army  and  earned  some  disti&c- 
tion  by  his  vak>ur;  but  he  played  a  secondary  part   in  tbe 
government  so  bng  as  William    Marshal   held  the  regeiKy 
After  Marshal's  death  (1219)  Peter  led  the  baronial  opposiikr". 
to  Hubert  de  Burgh,  with  varying  success.    At  first  the  jujtidor 
was  successful.     In  1221  Peter  meditated  going  on  crusade. 
1333-1224  saw  his   party  broken   up  by  Hubert's  energetk 
measures;  in  1227  was  himself  dismissed  from  his  office  and 


PETER'  LOMBARD— PETER  OF  COURTEKaY 


293 


turned  kb  back  on  England  to  join  the  crtisade  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  He  was  absent  from  England  until  1231;  but  in 
the  meantime  enhanced  his  reputation  both  as  a  soldier  and 
diplomatist.  After  the  fall  of  De  Burgh  he  kept  in  the  back- 
ground, but  offices  and  honours  were  heaped  on  his  dependants, 
especially  on  his  nephew,  Peter  dvs  Rievaulx,  and  other  IVntcvins. 
This  foreign  party  triumphed  over  iho  revolt  which  was  headed 
by  Richard  Jklarshal  in  1233.  But  the  primate,  Edmund 
lUcfa,  voiced  the  general  feeling  when  he  denounced  Peter 
as  a  mischief  nuker,.  and  demanded  that  he  should  be 
dismissed  from  court.  The  king  complied,  and  ihroatcncd 
the  bishop  with  charges  of  malversation.  Peter  was  how- 
ever permitted  to  leave  the  country  with  a  pardon  (113$); 
be  conciliated  Gregory  IX.  by  rendering  efficient  aid  in 
a  war  with  the  citizens  of  Rome  (1235);  and  in  the  next  year 
returned  without  molestation  to  hb  see.  He  was  invited  to  go 
as  the  king's  envoy  to  the 'court  of  Frederick  II.,  but  K^fused 
apparently  on  the  score  of  ill  health.  His  public  rceonciliaitun 
with  De  Buigh  (1336),  eflfectcd  through  the  mediation  of  the 
papal  legate,  provided  a  dramatic  close  to  their  long  rivalry, 
but  had  no  political  significance,  since  both  were  now  living  in 
retirement.  Peter  died  in  123S,  and  was  buried  at  Winchester. 
He  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of  a  winning  personality,  a  good 
diplomat  and  financier,  a  statesman  whose  unpopularity  was 
due  in  some  measure  to  his  fraedonTtrom  the  insuluriiy  of  the 
EngUshraen,  against  whom  he  matched  himself.  But  his  name 
is  associated  with  a  wonhless  clique  of  favourites,  ami  with 
the  fint  steps  which  were  taken  by  Henry  UI.  to  establish  a 
feeble  and  corrupt  autocracy. 

See  C.  Petit  Dutaillis.  Vie  rf  r^e  de  Louis  VHt.  (Parift.  1894): 
Lecointrc  Dupont.  ^ifrrtdfs  Rodus  (l\]itjrr«.  ilKitti;  Stubba's  Lmt- 
slilultoncl  History  of  Enf^and,  vol.  iL;  H.  W.C.  \i.j\%Ti, En g^nd  under 
the  Nornutns  and  A  nj^mm  (1903) ;  T.  F.  Tout  in  ihc  PoiiUcul  Ilalory 
oj  Engtand,  vol.  iii.  (1905).  (H.  \V.  C.  D.) 

PETER  LOMBARD  {c.  iioo-c.  11 60),  bishop  of  Paris,  better 
known  as  Magistcr  senlenliarum,  the  son  of  obscure  parents, 
was  bom  about  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  at  Novara 
(then  reckoned  as  belonging  to  Lombardy).  After  receiving 
his  education  at  Bologna,  he  removed  to  France,  bearing  a 
recommendation  to  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  who  first  placed  him 
under  Lotolf  at  Reims,  and  aftcmards  sent  him  to  Paris  with 
letters  to  Gilduin,  the  abbot  of  St  Victor.  He  soon  became 
known  as  a  teacher,  and  obtained  a  theological  chair  in  the 
cathedral  school.  His  famous  textbook,  the  Sciitculiac^  was 
written  between  1145  and  1150.  On  the  sglh  of  June  1159  he 
became  bishop  of  Paris.  The  accounts  of  his  bishopric  arc 
satisfactory.  There  is  a  charge  that  he  was  guilty  of  simwny, 
having  received  his  ofBce  through  the  favour  of  Philip,  brother 
of  Louis  VII.,  his  former  pupU.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
uncertain.  According  to  one  account  he  died  on  the  20th  of 
July  1 1 60,  and  as  Maurice  de  Sully  became  bishop  that  year  the 
statement  seems  probable.  Yet  there  is  evidence  for  a  later 
date,  and  he  may  have  been  set  aside  (or  simony. 

His  famous  theological  handbook.  Sentenliarum  libri  quatuor, 
is,  as  the  title  implies,  primarily  a  collection  of  opinions  of  the 
fathers.  "  senlentiae  pairum."  These  arc  arranttcd,  professwlly  on 
the  bafts  of  the  aphorism  of  Augustine,  Loml>ard's  favourite  author- 
ity, that  "  omnts  doctrina  vet  rcrum  est  vcl  Mgnorum,"  into  four 
tmoks.  of  which  the  first  treats  of  God.  the  second  of  the  creature, 
the  third  of  the  incarnation,  the  work  of  redemption,  and  the 
virtues,  and  the  fourth  of  the  tcvcn  sacraments  and  eschatology. 
The  Sentmlite  show  the  influence  of  Abebrd.  both  in  method  and 
aiiangcioent.  but  lack  cntirvly  the  darinc  of  Sic  el  Hon.  Compared 
with  that  book  they  are  tame.  Gratian's  Concordia  diseordantium 
canonum,  as  he  called  his  Oecretum.  was  another  strong  influence, 
Lombard  doing  in  a  scn«  for  thcolocy  what  Gratian  did  for  the  canon 
law.  The  influence  of  HuRh  of  St  \  tctor  H  alM  marked.  The  rvia- 
t'tntk  to  the  "  sentences  "  of  a  Gandulf;<h  of  Bokjgna  (still  anpoblishcd) 
has  not  been  established.  The  most  important  thing  in  the  book  was 
its  cr^'stallizaiion  of  the  doctrine  concerning  the  sacramental  system, 
by  the  definite  assertion  of  the  doctrine  of  the  seven  sacraments. 
and  the  acceptance  of  a  defihitfon  of  sacrament,  not  merely  as  "a 
ugn  of  a  sacred  thing."  but  asitsclf  "  capabto  of  conveyine  the  grace 
of  which  it  is  the  sign."  The  sentences  soon  attamed  immcn^ 
popularity,  ultimatclv  becoming  the  text-book  in  almost  every 
theok>gicalKhool.  ana  giving  ri&e  to  endless  commentaries,  over  180 
of  these  being  written  in  England.    In  1300  the  theological  professors 


of  Paris  agreed  In  the  rcfeettoa  of  lixtedn  propoaitkms  taken  from 
Lombard,  but  their  decision  was  far  from  obtaining  imhreiaal 
currency. 

UvMdes  the  Sententiae,  Lombard  wrote  numerous  commentaries 
(e.z.  on  the  Psalmft.  CanticleA,  Job,  the  Gospel  Harmony,  and  the 
Piuline  I'lpktlet),  sermons  and  Ictteni,  whkh  still  exist  in  MS.  The 
Ciossae  sea  comMtetUitrims  ta  paUmn  Davidis^  were  firrt  pubKsbed 
at  l*an\in  1533. 

LomUird's  cutlocted  works  have  been  published  in  J.  P.  Mignc's 
Patfoto^w  Itinnr,  Tome  191  and  19^.  See  also  Deniflc  and  Chatelain. 
ChttrlMtaritmuniveriitaHs parisiensis,'Tomci.  (Paris,  1889);  Protois. 
Purre  Lnmhard^  Mm  ^Poque,  sa  vie,  ses  icrits.  son  ittfiuemce  (Paris, 
1^1 ) :  K<4|el,  F*'lru»  h»mbard  in  seiner  SteUung  stir  PkUosobkie  des 
UuU'iaUers  (Leipzig,  1 897):  A.  Harnack.  DogmiengeukitM;  Bd. 
iii.  (i8*^:  Hns.  trans.  1894-1890):  and  t  he  article  in  Hcrzog-Hauck's 
Hoih-ncyklopudie,  Ud.  xi.  (Leiprig,  1902). 

PETER  OP  AIGUEBLANCHB  (d.  1268).  bishop  of  Hereford, 
belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  Savoy  and  came  to  England  in 
1236  with  his  master,  William  of  Savoy,  bishop  of  Valence,  being 
in  attendance  on  Eleanor  of  Provence,  the  bride  of  Henry  III. 
A  year  or  two  later  he  is  found  residing  permanently  in  England 
as  a  memlxT  of  the  king's  court;  before  1339  he  was  archdeacon 
of  Salop,  and  in  1240  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Hereford.  In 
1255  Peter  acted  as  Henry's  principal  agent  in  the  matter 
of  accepting  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  from  Pope  Alexander  IV. 
for  his  son  Edmund,  and  his  rapacious  and  dishonest  methods 
of  raising  money  for  this  foolish  enterprise  added  not  a  little 
to  the  unpopularity  which  surrounded  the  king  and  his  foreign 
favourites.  When  civil  war  broke  out  between  Henry  and  his 
barons  the  bishop  remained  loyal  to  his  master,  and  whilst 
residing,  almost  for  the  first  time,  at  Hereford  he  was  taken 
prisoner  in  Blay  1 263.  He  was,  however,  released  when  Hhe 
king  and  his  enemies  came  to  terms,  and  after  a  stay  in  France 
he  retired  to  Sa.voy,  where  he  died  on  the  271b  of  November 
1268. 

See  F.  MogrticT,  tes  Savoyards  en  Angteterre  au  XtJJ*  sihle  et 
Pierre  d*  AigueUanche  (Chamb6ry,  1^). 

PETER  OF  BLOIS  {Petrus  Blesensis]  {c.  1135^.  itos). 
French  writer,  the  son  of  noble  Breton  parents,  was  born  at 
Blois.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Bologna  and  theology  in 
Paris,  and  In  1167  he  went  tb  Sicily,  where  he  became  tutor  to 
the  young  king  William  II.,  and  keeper  of  the  royal  seal  {sigU- 
larius).  Btit  he  made  many  enemies  and  soon  asked  permission 
to  kavc  the  country;  his  request  was  granted  and  about  11 70  he 
rvtomed  to  France.  After  spending  some  time  teaching  in 
Paris  and  serving  Rotrou  de  Perche,  archbishop  of  Rouen,  as 
secretary,  Peter  entered  the  employ  of  Henry  II.  of  England 
about  1173.  He  quickly  became  archdeacon  of  Bath  and  soon 
afterwartls  chancellor,  or  secretary,  to  Richard,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  to  Richard's  successor,  Baldwin,  being  sent 
on  two  occasions  to  Italy  to  plead  the  cause  of  these  prelates 
before  the  pope.  After  the  death  of  Henry  II.  in  1189,  he  was 
for  a  time  secretary  to  his  widow,  Eleanor,  in  Nonnandy;  he 
obtained  the  posts  of  dean  of  Wolverhampton  and  archdeacon 
of  London,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  very  discontented  in  his 
later  years.    He  di«I  some  time  after  March  1204. 

Peter's  11-ritings  fall  into  four  classes,  letters,  treatises,  sermons 
and  poems.  His  Efistatoe,  whkh  were  collected  at  the  request  of 
Henry  11.,  arc  an  important  source  for  the  history  of  the  time; 
they  are  adflresscd  to  Henry  1 1.  and  to  various  prelates  and  scholars. 
incfuding  Thonus  Bccket  and  John  of  Salisbury.  His  treatises 
include  De  lerosdymitana  peremnatione  accelerando,  an  exhortation 
to  take  part  in  the  third  crusattt,  and  Dialogns  inter  regent  /lenricnm 
JL  et  oobatem  BonaevaUensem;  his  extant  sermons  number  65  and 
his  poems  arc^  unimportant.  Peter's  works  have  been  printed  in 
several  collections,  including  the  Potrologia  of  J.  P.  Migne  and  the 
Ilistoriae  Jrancorum  scriptores  of  A.  Duchesne.  Of  separate  editions 
the  be«t  are  those  by  Pierre  de  Goussainville  (Paris.  1667)  and  J.  A. 
Giles  (Oxford.  1846-1847). 

Sec  the  Uisioire  litUraire  de  la  France,  Tome  xv.;  W.  Stubbs. 
Lectures  on  Medieval  and  Modem  History  (Oxford,  1886) :  Sir  T.  D. 
Hardy.  Descriptive  C(^ogue  of  Materials  relating  to  the  History 
of  Great  Britain  (1862-1867).  and  C.  L.  Kingsford  in  vol.  xlv.  of  the 
Dictionary  of  Notional  Biography  (1896). 

PETER  OF  COURTBNAY  (d.  1219),  emperor  of  Romania  <or 
Constantinople),  was  a  son  of  Peter  of  Cotirtenay  (d.  1183),  and 
a  grandson  of  the  French  king,  Louis  VI.  Having,  by  a  first 
marriage,  obtained  the  counties  of  Ncvers  and  Auxenv,  he  took 


29+ 


PETER  OF  DUISBURG—PETER  THE'  HERMIT 


for  his  seoMid  wife,  Yolandc  (d.  i2X9)>  a  sister  oC  Baldwin  and 
■  Henry  of  Fianders,  who  were  afterwards  the  first  and  second 
emperors  of  the  Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople.  J^ctcr  accom- 
panied his  cousin,  King  Philip  Augustus,  on  the  crusade  of  iiqo, 
fought  against  the  Albigcnses,  and  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Bouvines  in  12x4.  When  his  brother-in-law.  the  emperor 
Henry,  died  without  sons  in  12 16,  Peter  was  chosen  as  his 
successor,  and  with  a  small  army  set  out  from  France  to  take 
possession  of  his  throne.  Consecrated  emperor  at  Rome,  in  a 
church  outside  the  walls,  by  Pope  Honorius  HI.  on  the  9th  of 
April  X217,  he  borrowed  some  ships  from  the  Venetians,  prom- 
ising in  return  to  conquer  Durazzo  for  them;  but  he  failed  in 
this  enterprise,  and  sought  to  make  kis  way  to  Constantinople 
by  land.  On  the  journey  he  was  seized  by  the  despot  of  Epirus, 
Theodore  Angclus,  and,  after  an  imprisonment  of  two  years, 
died,  probably  by  foul  means.  Peter  thus  never  governed  his 
empire,  which,  however,  was  ruled  for  a  time  by  his  wife, 
Yolande,  who  had  succeeded  in  reaching  Constantinople.  Two 
Of  his  sons,  Robert  and  Baldwin,  became  in  turn  emperors  of 
Constantinople. 

PETER  OF  DUISBURG  (d.  c,  1326),  German  chronicler,  was 
born  at  Duisburg,  and  became  a  priest -brother  of  the  Teutonic 
Order.  He  wrote  the  Chronicon  tcrrae  Prussiqc,  dedicated  to 
the  grand-master,  Werner  of  Orseln,  which  is  one  of  the  chief 
authorities  for  the  history  of  the  order  in  Prussia.  There  is  a 
rhyming  translation  in  German  by  Nicholas  of  Jcroschin,  which, 
together  with  the  original,  is  published  in  Bd.  I.  of  the 
Scripiores  rcrum  prussicarum  (Leipzig,  186 1). 

Sec  M.  T6ppcn,  Ceschichle  dcr  preussischtn  Historiographie  (Berlin, 
185;});  and  W.  Fuchs.Peter  von  Duisburg  und  das  Chronicon  oltvense 
(KOnigsberg.  1884}. 

PETER  OF  MARICOORT  (x3th  century),  a  French  savant,  to 
whom  his  disciple,  Roger  Bacon,  pays  the  highest  tribute  in  his 
opus  tcrtium  and  other  works.  According  to  Bacon  he  was  a 
recluse  who  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  nature,  was  able  to 
work  metals,  invented  armour  and  assisted  St  Louis  in  one  of 
his  expeditions  more  than  his  whole  army.  According  to  £mile 
Charles  (Roger  Bacon  sa  vie,  ses^oworages,  ses  doctrines,  1861). 
Peter  of  Maricourt  is  the  Pierre  Peregrin  (or  Pelerin)  de  M aricourt 
(Meharicourt  in  Picardy),  known  also  as  Pctrus  Percgrinus  of 
Picardy,  one  of  whose  letters,  De  magncic,  is  partly  reproduced 
in  Libri*s  HiU.  da  sciences  maUiimatiques  en  Italic  (1838),  ii. 

70-71,487-505- 
PETER  OF  SAVOY  (e.  1203-1268),  earl  of  Richmond,  younger 

son  of  Thomas  1.  (Tonunaso),  count  of  Savoy,  was  bom  at  Susa. 
After  spending  some  years  as  an  ecclesiastic  he  resigned  his 
preferments,  and  in  1234  married  his  cousin  Agnes,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Aymon  H.,  lord  of  Faucigny.  Accepting  an 
invitation  from  the  English  king.  Henry  lU.,  who  had  married 
his  niece,  Eleanor  of  Provence,  Peter  came  to  England  in  1  J4b. 
and  was  created  earl  of  Richmond,  receiving  also  large  estates 
and  being  appointed  to  several  important  of&ces.  JDuring 
several  visits  to  the  continent  of  Europe  Peter  had  largely 
inacased  his  possessions  in  Vaud  and  the  neighbourhood,  and 
returning  to  England  in  1252  he  became  associatxyl  with  Simon 
de  Mont  fort,  retaining  at  the  same  time  the  king^s  friendship. 
Having  been  employed  by  Henry  to  negotiate  with  the  pope 
and  with  Louis  IX.  of  France,  he  supported  Earl  Simon  in  his 
efforts  to  impose  restrictions  upon  the  royal  power;  but,  more 
moderate  than  many  members  of  the  baronial  party,  went  over 
to  Henry's  side  in  1260,  and  was  consequently  removed  from  the 
council.  In  1263  he  left  England,  and  when  his  nephew, 
Boniface,  cotml  of  Savoy,  died  in  the  same  year  he  assumed  the 
title  of  count  of  Savoy.  This  was  also  claimed  by  another 
nephew,  Thomas;  but  Peter  compelled  the  inhabitants  of  Turin 
to  submit  to  him  and  secured  possession  of  the  county.  He  died 
on  the  16th  or  17th  of  May  1268,  leaving  an  only  child,  Beatrice 
(d.  1310).  Peter  gave  to  the  castle  of  Chillon  its  present  form, 
and  his  name  to  the  Savoy  palace  in  London.  He  has*  been 
called  le  petit  Charlemagne,  and  was  greatly  praised  for  his  valour 
and  his  wisdom. 
See  %,.  Wunitenr^rger,  PeUr  der  ZweiU,  Graf  von  Savoyen  (ZOricb, 


1858):  F.  Mugnkn-,  Les  Savoyards  en  Angfsterre  (Chamb£fy.  1890); 
and  C.  B6mont,  Simon  de  Montfort  (Paris,  1884). 

PETER  THE  HERMIT,  a  priest  of  Amiens,  who  may,  as  Anna 
Comncna  says,  have  attempted  to  go  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jenisakxa 
before  ioq6,  and  have  been  prevented  by  the  Turks  from  reaching 
his  destination.  It  is  uncertain  whether  he  was  present  at  Urban 's 
great  sermon  at  Clermont  in  1095;  ^^^  ^  is  certain  that  he  was  one 
of  the  preachers  of  the  crusade  in  France  after  that  sermon,  and 
his  own  experience  may  have  helped  to  give  fire  to  his  doqiience. 
He  soon  leapt  into  fame  as  an  emotional  revivalist  preacher:  h» 
very  ass  became  an  object  of  poptilar  adoration;  and  thousands 
of  peasants  eagerly  took  the  cross  at  his  bidding.  The  crusa^ 
of  the  paupcres,  which  forms  the  first  act  in  the  first  crusade,  was 
his  work;  and  he  himself  led  one  of  the  five  sections  of  iht 
paupcres  to  Constantinople,  starting  from  Cologne  in  April, 
and  arriving  at  Constantinople  at  the  end  of  July  X096.  Here 
he  joined  the  only  other  section  which  had  succeeded  in  reaching 
Constantinople — ^that  of  Walter  the  Penniless;  and  with  the 
joint  forces,  which  had  made  themselves  a  nuisance  by  pilfering, 
he  crossed  to  the  Asiatic  shore  in  the  beginning  of  August,  b 
spite  of  his  warnings,  the  paupcres  began  hostilities  against  the 
Turks;  and  Peter  a>turncd  to  Constantinople,  either  in  despair 
at  their  recklessness,  or  in  the  hope  of  procuring  supplies.  Is 
his  absence  the  army  was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Turks;  and  be  m 
left  in  Constantinople  witliout  any  followers,  during  the  winta 
of  1096-1097,  to  wail  for  the  coming  of  the  princes.  He  jouwd 
himself  to  their  ranks  in  May  1097,  with  a  little  following  whick 
he  seems  to  have  collected,  and  marched  with  them  through 
Asia  Minor  to  Jerusalem.  But  he  played  a  very  subordinate 
part  in  the  history  of  the  first  crusade.  He  appears,  in  the 
beginning  of  1008,  as  attempting  to  escape  from  the  privations 
of  the  siege  of  Anlioch— showing  himself,  as  Guibert  of  Kogent 
says,  a  **  fallen  star."  In  the  nuddle  of  the  year  he  was  sent  by 
the  princes  to  invite  Kerbogha  to  settle  all  differences  by  a  dud; 
and  in  logo  he  appears  as  treasurer  of  the  alms  at  the  ^cge  of 
Area  (March),  and  as  leader  of  the  supplicatory  processions  in 
Jerusalem  which  preceded  the  battle  of  Ascalon  (August). 
At  the  end  of  the  year  he  went  to  Laodicca,  and  sailed  thence 
for  the  West  From  this  time  he  disappears;  but  Albert  of  Aiz 
records  that  he  died  In  1151,  as  prior  of  a  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  which  he  had  founded  in  France. 

Legend  has  made  Peter  the  Hermit  the  author  and  originator 
of  the  6rst  crusade.  It  has  told  how,  in  an  early  Wsit  to  Jeru- 
salem, brforc  J006,  Christ  appeared  to  him  in  the  Church  of  the 
Sepulchre,  and  bade  him  preach  the  crusade.  The  legend  is 
without  any  basis  in  fact,  though  it  appears  in  the  F»ages  of 
William  of  Tyre.  Its  origin  is,  however,  a  matter  of  soae 
interest.  \*0n  Sybel,  in  his  Geschuhte  des  erslen  KrcmBMges^ 
suggests  that  in  the  camp  of  the  paupcra  (which  existed  side  by 
side  w{th  that  of  the  knights,  and  grew  increasingly  large  as  the 
crusade  told  more  and  more  heavily  in  its  progress  on  the  purses 
of  the  crusaders)  some  Idolization  of  Peter  the  Hermit  had 
already  begun,  during  the  first  crusade,  parallel  to  the  similar 
glorification  of  Godfrey  by  the  Lonrainers.  In  this  idolizaiica 
Peter  natura!Iy  became  the  instigator  of  the  crusade,  just  is 
Godfrey  became  I  he  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
legislator  of  the  assizes.  This  version  of  Peter's  career  seems  as 
old  as  the  Chanson  des  chftifs,  a  poem  which  Raymond  of  Antioch 
caused  to  be  composed  in  honour  of  the  Hermit  and  his  foUoweis. 
soon  after  iJ3a  It  also  appears  in  the  pages  of  Albert  of  Aiz. 
who  wrote  somewhere  about  1x30;  and  from  Albert  U  was 
borrowed  by  WiUiam  of  Tyre.  The  whole  legend  of  Peter  is 
an  excellent  instance  of  the  legendary  amplification  of  the  first 
crusade — an  amplification  which,  beginning  during  the  crusade 
itself,  in  the  "  idoliations  "  of  the  different  camps  {idaia  ems- 
irontm,  if  one  may  pervert  Bacon),  soon  developed  into  a  regolar 
Saga.  This  saga  found  its  most  piquant  b^ginniog  in  the 
Hermit *s  visx>n  at  Jerusalem,  and  there  it  accordingly  began — 
alike  m  Albert,  followed  by  WiUiam  of  Tyre  and  in'tlw  Ckansm 
des  chHiJs,  followed  by  the  later  Chanson  d'Antioeke. 

The  original  authorities  for  the  story  of  Peter  the  Hernilt  are: 
I  for  the  authentic  Peter,  Anna  Comoena  and  the  Gesta  Fr 


PETER  THE  WILD  BOY— PETER,  JEPISTLES  OF  295 


for  the  kgendaiy  Peter.  Albert  of  Aix.  The  whole  carper  of  the 
Hermit  has  been  thoroughly  and  excellently  dtscusaed  by  H.  Hageo* 
mcyer,  Peta  der  Neremite  (Letpizig,  1 879).  (E.  B  R. J 

PETER  THE  WILD   BOY   (/f.    172S-1785),   a   Hanoverian 

imbecile  of  unknown  parentage,  who,  having  been  found  living 

wild  in  the  woods  near  Hanover  in  1725,  was  brought  to  England 

by  order  of  Gterge  t.,  whose  interest  had  been  aroused  in  the 

unfortunate  youth.    An  extraordinaiy  amount  of  curiosity  and 

speculation  concerning  Peter  was  excited  in  London,  and  the 

craze  was  the  subject  of  a  biting  satire  by  Swift,  and  of  another 

entitled  The  Most  Wonderful  Wonder  that  ever  appeared  to  the 

Wonder  of  the  British  Nation,  which  has  been  attributed  to  Swift 

and  Arbuthnot;  Defoe  also  wrote  on  the  subject,  and  Lord 

Monboddo  in  his  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language  presents  the 

idiot  Peter  as  an  illustration  of  his  theory  of  the  evolution  of 

the  human  spedes.    He  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  was  seen  by 

Lord  Monboddo  in  17831  and  died  in  1785. 

See  Henry  Wilson.  The  Booh  of  Wonderful  Characters  (London, 
1869). 

FETBR,  EPISTLES  OF,  the  two  books  of  the  New  Testament 
Craditiooal^  ascribed  to  the  apostle  Peter. 

X  Petsk 

This  epistle  is  addressed  to  "  the  elect  who  are  sojourners 
of  the  Dispersion  [Diaspora]  in  Pontus,  Gabtia,  Cappadocia, 
Asia  and  Bithynia."  The  "  Diaspora  "  was  the  name  generally 
given  to  the  Jews  who  were  "  scattered  abroad."  This  suggests 
that  the  letter  was  intended  for  Jewish  Christians  in  the  provmccs 
mentioned.  But  i.  14.  s8;  ii.  9, 10;  iv.  3  point  rather  to  Gentile 
Christians,  and  it  is  better  to  take  this  view,  and  interpret  the 
"  Diaspora  "  metaphorically  as  referring  to  the  isolated  position  of 
Christians  among  the  heathen.  The  general  impression  made  by 
the  epistle  is  that  the  central  idea  was  to  strengthen  the  courage 
of  the  recipients,  who  were  likely  to  undergo  per* 
secution,  and  to  enjoin  on  them  conduct  which 
would  remove  all  reasonable  excuse  for  thinking 
that  Christianity  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  crime. 

Ch.  i.  3-12  is  an  introduction  of  praise  to  God  that 
he  had  caused  the  recipients  of  the  epistle  to  be 
bom  again  to  the  living  nope  in  a  glorious  salvation. 
The  rest  of  the  epistle  may  be  divided  into  three  parts: 
(a)  i.  i3-iL  to,  mainly  hortatory  injunctions  to  live 
holy  lives  in  accordance  with  this  new  birth,  and  to 

Sow  up  as  God's  people  in  communion  with  Christ; 
)  ii.  Ii-iv.  6,  particular  directions  as  to  the 
line  of  con4uct  to  be  pursoad  towards  the  Gentiles  and 
towards  those  in  authority,  with  special  reference  to  the  selations 
of  slaves  to  masters,  of  wives  and  husbands  to  each  other,  and  of 
Christians  to  one  another;  to  the  first  of  these  a  passage  is  appended 
dealing  with  the  sufferings  of  Christ  as  an  example  (it.  21-25),  and 
the  whole  b  completed  by  an  exhortation  to  meeknesa  and  patience 
in  suffering,  in  the  light  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  the  blcasings 
cjven  by  them  both  to  the  living  and  to  the  dead;  (>)  iv.  7-v.  11, 
has  less  cohesion.  It  begins  with  exhortations  not  to  forget  prayer 
and  love,  then  the  believers  are  warned  to  be  Careful  to  suffer  only  as 
Christians,  not  as  breakers  of  the  laws.  The  elders  and  the  younger 
raen  are  reminded  of  their  duties  to  the  community  and  to  one 
another.  The  whole  is  brought  to  a  close  with  an  exhortation  to  all 
to  fight  manfully  against  the  devil  and  to  trust  in  God. 

Date  and  Authorship. — These  two  questions  are  so  closely 
connected  that  they  cannot  be  considered  separately.  The 
external  evidence  of  tradition  is  that  the  epistle  was  written  by 
St  Peter.  This  can  be  traced  back  to  Ircnaeus  (iv.  9,  2)  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria  {Strom,  iii.  18,  110),  and  it  is  thougjit  by 
many  writers  that  2  Peter  iii.  i,  even  if  it  be  not  itself  Pctrinc, 
is  good  cvidr-'ce  that  the  writer  regarded  i  Peter  as  apostolic. 
Evidence  for  its  use,  without  mention  of  its  name,  may  be  found 
in  Polycarp.  but  probably  not  in  the  other  apostolic  fath/:rs 
(cf.  The  N.T.  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  Oxford,  1905,  p.  137).  It 
is,  however,  possible  that  Papias  made  use  of  it.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  Justin  Martyr  used  it,  but  probable  that  it  was  known 
to  TbeopbUus  of  Antioch,  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  canon 
of  Muratori.  Thus  external  evidence,  (hough  unanimous  in 
favour  of  the  Petrine  authorship,  is  not  sufficient  to  settle  the 
question.  The  internal  evidence  consists  of  («)  evidence  bearing 
on  the  date  in  connexion  with  the  persecution  of  Christians, 
ffi)  evidence  establishing  the  rebtion  of  the  epistle  to  other 


docnmeou  in  eariy  Christian  history,  and  (y)  evidence  oooceming 
St  Peter  peisonaily. 

(«)  It  is  clear  from  1  PHer  i.  6,  U.  12.  iv.  I2-19,  v.  ^  that  the 
epistle  was  written  during  a  tine  of  persecution.  The  question 
which  is  doubtful  is  to  which  persecution  the  description  best 
applies.  The  traditional  opinion  was  that  the  persecution  referred 
to  was  that  under  (lero.  But  it  has  been  argued  that  the  Ncroine 
persecuckxi  accoiding  to  Tacitus  (Ann,  xv.  44)  was  not  a  persecution 
of  Christians  as  such,  but  was  rather  the  result  of  false  accusation. 
Moreover  there  is  no  proof  that  there  was  any  persecution  of 
Christians  at  this  time  outside  Rome,  and  i  Peter  alludes  to  per. 
secution  in  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  Therefore  many  critics 
havr  fdt  oblnpeo  to  bring  the  epistle  into  connexion  with  the  epistle 
of  Plmy  to  Trajan,  written  c.  112,  and  asking  for  advice  as  to  the 
procedure  to  be  followed  in  trials  of  Christians.  This  is  the  earliest 
evidence  which  implies  organized  persecution  in  the  provinces  in 
ouestion,  and  therefore  Holtzmann.  Weixs&cker  and  others  regard 
this  as  fixing  the  date  of  the  epistle  in  the  beginning  of  the  2nd 
century,  and  excluding  the  Petnoe  authorship.  Against  this  view 
it  may  be  argued  that  the  epistle  describes  the  b^inntng  of  per* 
secution.  The  writer  still  hopes  that  Christians  will  not  be  obliged 
to  suffer  "  for  the  name  **  and  is  clearly  aware  of  false  accusations 
of  crime.  On  the  other  hand  Pliny's  letter  implies  a  time  when 
Christianity  was  in  itself  a  crime  and  was  reoognixed  as  such.  Thus 
it  is  urged,  probably  oorrectly,  that  the  epistle  belongs  to  the 
beginning  of  a  period  of  which  Pliny's  letter  marks  a  later  dcvelop- 
mcot.  and  we  can  only  say  that  c.  1 12  is  the  terminus  ad  quern.  The 
terminus  a  quo  is  more  dxRicult  to  find.  We  do  not  know  whh  cer- 
tainty  when  Christianity  became  a  recoenized  offence,  and  scholars 
have  sup|)ortcd  various  hypotheses.  T.  Mommsen.  Hardy  and 
Sanday  think  that  even  under  Nero  it  was  criminal  to  be  a  Chnstian; 
Neumann  thinks  that  this  was  first  the  case  under  Domitian;  Sir 
W.  M.  Ramsay  believes  that  this  attitude  was  one  of  the  results  of 
t  he  Jewish  War  of  70,  and  ascribes  it  to  Vespasian.  If  the  Domitianic 
date  be  adopted  the  Petrine  authorship  a  almost  excluded,  and  il 
is  difficult  to  reconcile  the  traditional  cnte  of  St  Peter's  martyrdooi 
with  Ramsay's  theory. 

W  The  relations  of  I  Peter  to  other  books  in  eariy  Christian 
literature  is  shown  in  the  following  table. — 


1  Pet.      Rom. 

i  Pet. 

Eph. 

1  1^.            Jas. 

1  Pet.  Polycarp. 

i.  14    —  xii.    2 

I  1  seq 

.—  i.  3scq. 

i.    1     —  i.    I 

j.    «-'.•.  3 

Ii.    5    —  xii.    1 

i.  14 
ii.  16 

—  II.   3 

i.6seq.— -  i.    2  seq. 

1.  13—    11.  1 

il  6-10—  ix.  32 

— vi.   5 

i.  24     —  1.  10 

i.  21—    ii.  1 

ii.  13    — xiii.    I 
iii.    9    —xii.  17 

iii.     1 
iii.  22 

—  V.22 

—  i.20 

i.  2\     —  i.  ift 
iv.    6     —  V.  20 

ii.  II—    V.  3 
ii.  12—    X.  2 

iii,  22    — viii.  34 

V.    5 

—  V.21 

V.  5  Beq.--iv.    6,10 

ii.  21— viii.  1,2 

iv.    3    ~xiii.  11 

iii.    9—    ii.  2 

iv,    7    —xiii.  12 

iv.    7 —  vii.  2 

iv.    9    —xiii.  13 

iv.  16— viii.  2 

IV.  XO    -^.Xii.    6 

From  this  table  it  is  sufficiently  plain  that  i  Peter  is  closely  connected 
with  Romans,  Ephesians.  James  and  Polycarp.  The  majority  of 
scholars  are  agreed  that  in  the  case  of  Romans  the  dependence  is 
on  the  ride  of  I  Peter,  and  in  the  case  of  Polycarp  on  the  side  of 
Polycarp.  There  is  less  agreement  as  to  Ephe«ans  and  James, 
though  in  the  former  case  thejB:eneral  opinion  favours  the  dependence 
of  I  Peter,  in  the  btter  case  us  priority.    In  England,  however,  the 

Imoritv  of  James  has  been  supported  by  Mayor  and  Hort.  In  the 
ight  01  the  established  use  of  Romans  it  is  possible  that  1  Peter  also 
u«ed  other  .'Pauline  epistles  and  some  scholars  have  seen  special 
traces  of  the  influence  of  i  Cor.  and  Gal.  (for  a  list  of  these  of. 
Holtzmann,  Eiuleituntin  das  N.T.,  3,  p.  314).  It  has  been  argued 
that  the  use  of  the  Pauline  epistles  is  improbable  for  Peter,  but 
this  is  a  subjcetivfe  argument  which  is  not  decisive. 

(y)  According  to  traditbn  Peter  was  martyred  in  Rome,  and  it 
is  probable  that  this  was  in  the  Neroine  persecution.  If  this  be  so. 
the  year  64  is  the  terminus  ad  mum  of  the  letter,  if  it  be  authentic. 
Ramsay,  however,  thinks  that  Peter  may  have  survived  thispersecu> 
tion  and  suffered  at  the  beeinniiif  of  the  persecutions  which,  he 
thUika.  were  initiated  by  the  Flavian  emperors  (see  Pbtbk,  St  :  f  5, 
4  and  6). 

The  whole  question  of  authorship  and  date  is  thus  a  complex 
of  smaller  problems,  many  of  which  do  not  seem  to  admit  of 
any  definite  answer.  If  St  Paul's  eptstle  to  the  Ephesians  be 
genuine,  and  It  were  really  known  to  the  writer  of  i  Peter,  and  if 
Peter  were  martyred  In  64,  the  theory  of  Petrine  authorship 
demands  that  it  was  written  by  Peter  between  59  and  64.  On 
the  Petrine  hypothesis  this  is  the  most  probable  view.  The 
weak  poinjL  is  that  it  assumes  a  great  spread  of  Christianity  in 
the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  outside  the  activity  of  Paul,  and  that 
the  official  persecution  of  Christians  as  such  began  throughout 
'the  Roman  Empire  tmder  Nero,  for  neither  of  which  is  there 


-agS 


PETERBOROUGH  AND  MONMOUTH,  EARL  OF 


gave  it  to  Lord  Burghlcy,  and  from  that  time  until  the  19th 
centuxy  he  and  his  descendants,  marquesses  of  Exeter,  had  a 
separate  gaol  in  Peterborough  (or  prisoners  arrested  in  the  soke. 
The  trades  of  weaving  and  woofcombing  were  arried  on  in 
Peterborough  in  the  Z4th  century.  The  abbot  formerly  held 
four  fairs,  of  which  two,  one  called  St  Peter's  fair,  granted  in 
riSg  and  now  held  on  the  second  Tuesday  and  Wednesday  in 
July,  and  the  other  called  the  Bridge  fair,  granted  in  1439  <^d 
held  on  the  first  Tuesday,  Wednesday  and  Thursday  in  October, 
still  survive  and  were  purchased  by  the  corporation  from  the 
ecclesiastical  commissioners  in  1876.  Peterborough  sent  two 
members  to  parliament  for  the  first  time  in  1547. 

PETERBOROUGH  AHD  MONMOUTH,  CHilRLBS  MOR- 
DAUNT*  Eakl  or  (r.  1658-1735),  English  soldier  and  statesman, 
was  bom  about  1658.  His  father,  John  Mordaunt,  was  created 
Viscount  Mordaunt  of  Avalon  and  Baron  Mordaunt  of  Rcigate, 
Surr^,  in  1659;^  his  mother  was  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  end  sole 
heiress  of  Thomas  Carey,  the  second  son  of  Robert  Carey,  xst 
carl  of  Monmouth.*  He  matriculated  at  Chiist  Church,  Oxford, 
on  the  nth  of  April  1674.  When  about  sixteen  years  of  age 
he  joined  Sir  John  Narborough's  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
won  his  first  distinction  in  arms  in  the  destruction  of  the  dey's 
fleet  under  the  very  guns  of  Tripoli.  His  father  died  on  the  5th 
of  June  1675,  and  Charles  Mordaunt  succeeded  to  the  peerage 
as  Viscount  Mordaunt.  On  his  rtfturn  from  the  second  expedi- 
tion to  Tangier  he^lunged  into  active  political  life  as  a  zealous 
Whig  and  an  unswerving  opponent  of  the  duke  of  York.  But 
his  continued  hostility  to  James  II.  forced  him  to  repair  to 
Holland  in  1686,  when  he  proposed  to  William  of  Orange  to 
invade  England.  The  dispositioh  of  the  cold  and  cautious 
William  had  little  in  common  with  the  fierce  and  turbulent 
Mordaunt,  His  plan  was  rejected,  though  the  prudent  prince 
of  Orange  deemed  it  judicious  to  retain  his  services.  When 
William  sailed  to  Torbay  his  friend  accompanied  him,  and  when 
the  Dutch  prince  wassafdy  established  on  the  throne  of  England 
honours  without  stint  were  showered  npon  Lord  Mordaunt. 
He  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council  on  the  14th  of  February 
1689,  on  the  8th  <tf  April  of  the  same  year  appointed  first  lord 
of  the  treasury,  and  a  day  later  advanced  in  the  peerage  by 
creation  as  earl  of  Monmouth. 

In  less  than  a  3rcar  he  was  out  of  the  treasury,  but  he  ttill 
remained  by  the  person  of  his  monarch  and  was  with  him  in 
his  dangerous  passage  to  Hdland  in  January  1691.  He  was 
one  of  the  eighteen  peers  who  signed  the  {Mrotest  against  the 
rejection,  on  the  7th  of  December  169a,  of  the  motion  for  the 
appointment  of  a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  the 
war,  and  although  William  had  refused  his  consent  to  a  bill  for 
triennial  parliaments  in  the  previous  session,  Lord  Monmouth 
did  iK>t  shrink  from  reintroducing  it  in  December  1693.  This 
led  to  &  disagreement  with  the  court,  though  the  final  breach 
did  not  take  place  until  January  1697,  when  Monmouth  was 
acctned  of  complicity  in  Sir  John  Fenwick's  con^irapy  and 
of  the  use  of  "  undutiful  wordi "  towards  the  king.  He  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  staying  in  confinement  until  the  30th 
of  March  1697,  and  deprived  of  his  employments.  Some 
consolation  lor  these  troubles  came  to  him  on  the  19th  of  June 
of  the  same  year,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  earidom  of  Peter- 
borough, by  the  death  of  his  uncle  Henry  Mordaunt,  iod  earl. 

The  four  years  after  his  release  from  the  Tower  were  mainly 
passed  in  retirement,  but  on  the  accession  of  Anae  he  plunged 
into  political  life  again  with  avidity.  His  first  act  was  to  draw 
down  on  himaelf  in  February  1703  the  censure  of  the  House  of 
Commons  for  the  part  which  he  took  in  the  attempt  to  secure 
the  return  of  his  nominee  for  the  borough  of  Malmesbury. 
Through  the  fear  of  the  ministry  that  his  restless  spirit  would 
drive  hifls  into  opposition  to  its  measurea  if  he  stayed  at  home, 
Jie  was  appointed  early  in  1705  to  oommaiid  an  expedition  of 

^  A:  barony  of  Moidaunt  by  writ  had  existed  in  the  familv  nnce 
1539,  and  the  viscount  was  the  second  son  of  the  fifth  01  these 
baronst  who  in  1638  was  created  earl  of  Peterborough,  the  elder  son 
Henry  being  second  earL 

*Cr.  1626.  This  peerage  became  extinct  hi  x6|Si  on  the  death 
ef  theaadattii 


En^ish  and  Dutch  troops  in  Spain.  He  was  created  the  sole 
conunander  of  the  land  forces  in  April  r705  and  joint-commmndcr 
with  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  of  the  fleet  on  the  ist  of  May,  after 
he  had  been  reinstated  a  member  of  the  privy  council  on  the 
a9th  of  March.  He  arrived  at  Lisbon  on  the  aoth  of  June  1705, 
sailed  for  Barcebna  (Aug.  1705)  on  an  expedition  for  the 
conquest  of  Catalonia,  and  began  to  besiege  that  town.  For 
some  weeks  the  operations  were  not  prosecuted  with  vigour 
and  Peterborough  urged  that  the  fleet  should  transport  the 
troops  to  Italy,  but  the  energetic  counsels  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  at  last  prevailed  and  by  the  14th  of  October  the  city 
fell  into  his  hands.  On  the  24th  of  January  1706  he  entered 
Valencia  in  triumph,  but  these  movements  had  weidcened  the 
garrison  at  Barcelona,  which  was  now  besieged  by  a  superior 
French  force  under  I^ess^.  The  garrison,  commanded  by  the 
archduke,  defended  their  positions  with  great  brayery,  but 
would  have  been  obliged  to  surrender  had  not  the  fleet  of  Sir 
John  ,Leakc,  answering  the  appeals  of  Charles  but  contrary  to 
the  original  orders  of  Peterborough,  come  to  their  awisiafwe 
on  the  8th  of  May,  whereupon  the  French  ?aifled  the  si^e  eo 
the  Jith  of  May.  It  is  diflicult  to  understand  the  action  d 
Peterborough  during  this  campaign,  unless  on  the  suppositips 
that  he  was  out  of  sympathy  with  the  movonent  for  piartug  «s 
Austrian  prince  on  the'  throne  oi  Spain.  When  Charles  dda- 
mined  upon  uniting  with  Lord  Galway's  troops  and  marchan 
to  Madrid,  the  advice  of  Peterborough  again  hindered  his  progress. 
At  first  he  urged  an  advance  fay  Valencia  as  supines  ftod  these 
been  collected,  then  he  withdrew*  Ihb  statement;  afterwards 
he  delayed  for  some  weeks  to  join  Galwtiy,  who  was  in  need  oC 
succour,  but  ultimately  reached  the  camp  on  the  fitli  of  Aqgnst. 
The  leaders  of  the  army  differed'  in  their  Views,  and  Lord 
Peterborough  was  recalled  to  England  to  espbin  hs  conduct 
(March  1707). 

On  his  return  to  England  In  August  he  allied  htmself  with  the 
Toriea».  and  received  his  reward  in  being  coatrasted,  mudk  to 
his  advantage,  with  the  Whig  victor  of  Blenheim  and  MalplaqocL 
The  differences  between  the  th^ieo  peers,  Peterboroiigh,  Gahray 
and  Tyrawley,  who  had  served  in  ^>ain,  formed  the  subject 
of  angry  debates  in  the  Lords,  when  the  majority  decUred  for 
Peterborough;  sfter  some  ibry  speeches  the  readution  tbat  he 
had  performed  many  great  and  eminent  services  was  carried, 
and  votes  of  thanks  were  passed  to  him  without  any  diviaiaB 
(January  and  February  1708).  His  new  friends  were  not 
desirous  of  detaining  him  long  on  English  soil,  and  thty 
sent  iiim  on  a  missitfti  to  Vienna,  where  he  characteristicaUy 
engaged  the  ministry  in  pledges  of  which  they  disapproved. 
Hb  resentment  at  this  disagifeement  was  softened  by  t^  cms* 
mand  of  a  cavalry  regiment,  and  by  his  appointment  as  «  Knii^t 
of  the  Garter  (Aug.  3  and  4,  1713).  With  the  accession 
of  George  I.  Lord  Peterborough's  influence  was  gone.  Wcca 
out  with  suffering,  he  died  at  Lisbon  on  the  25th  of  October 
r735.  His  remains  were  brought  to  England,  and  boried  at 
Turvey  in  Bedfordshire  on  the  21st  of  November. 

Lord  Peterborough  was  short  in  stature  and  spare  in  habit  of 
body.  His  activity  knew  no  bounds.  He  was  said  to  have  seen 
more  kings  and  postilions  than  any  man  in  j^irope,  aatd  the 
whole  point  of  Swift's  lines  on  "  Mordanto  "  consisted  in  a 
description  of  the  speed  with  which  he  hastened  from  capital 
to  capitaL  He  was  eloquent  in  debate  and  intrepid  in  war,  but 
his  influence  in  the  senate  was  ruined  through  his  inconsisteocj, 
and  his  vigour  in  the  field  was  wasted  through  his  want  of  unioa 
with  his  colleagues.  His  first  wife,  Carey,  daughter  of  Sr 
Alexander  Eraser  of  Dores,  Kincardineshire,  died  on  the  X3th 
of  May  X709,  and  was  buried  at  Turvey.  Soooe  years  later 
(1722)  he  secretly  married  Anastasia  Robinson  (r.  1695-1755),  a 
famous  dramatic  singer  (from  17x4)  of  great  beauty  and  sweet- 
ness of  disposition,  daughter  of  Thomas  Robinson  (d.  17.^2), 
a  portrait  painter;  but  she  was  at  first  unrecognised  as  his  wife, 
and  lived  apart  from  him  (regarded  merely  as  his  nistRse^ 
with  her  two  sisters  at  Puson's  Green.  She  remainec^ 
on  the  operatic  stage,  till  1724.  It  was  only  a  few  months 
before  fab  death  that  (after  a  aecond  marriage  cennoAyj  abe 


PETERHEAD— PETERS,  H. 


299 


wu  intnxlaced  to  aodety  as  the  oountest  of  Peterborough. 
He  had  a  aon  John  (x68i-z7io)  who  predeceased  him,  and  was 
therefore  succmlcd  in  the  title  by  his  grandson  Charles  (1710- 
I779)»  whose  son  Charles  Henry  (X758*x8i4),  5th  earl,  died 
unnuffried,  the  honoun  beooming  extinct,  except  for  the 
barony  of  Mordaunt  which  passed  to  a  collateral  branch  and 
fell  into  abeyance  in  1836. 

BiBUOGaAPHY.--The  best  aocounts  of  the  career  of  Peteiborough 
are  in  the  Ufe  by  William  Stebbing  (1890).  and  the  War  cf  S* 
Succession  in  Spain,  by  Cobnd  the  Hon.  Arthur  Pamdl  (1905). 
The  earlier  lives  are  founded  on  the  memoir  of  Captain  Ceoi|^ 
Carteton  (1728),  which  was  analysed  by  Colonel  P^rnell.  and  dis- 
mined  as  a  fictitious  nanadve  inspired  by  Swift,  in  the  Ent*  Hist. 
Ra,  (1891),  vi.  97-15O.  (W.  P.  C.) 

PBTERHBAD,  a  muDicipal  and  police  burgh,  and  seaport  of 
Aberdeenshire,  the  most  easterly  town  in  Scotland.  Pop. 
(1901),  11,794.  It  is  situated  about  33  m.  by  road  E.N.E.  of 
Aberdeen  and  44}  m.  by  nil,  via  Maud  Junction,  on  the  Great 
North  of  Scotland  railway,  from  which  ^ere  is  a  branch  line. 
The  town  is  built  of  the  red  granite  for  which  it  is  famous,  and 
the  quarrying  of  which  for  home  and  foreign  use  constitutes 
an  important  industry.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the 
town-house  (1788),  with  a  spire  135  ft.  high,  and  the  Arbuthnot 
museum  and  art  gallery.  In  front  of  the  town-hall  is  a  statue  to 
Field  Matdial  Keith  (bom  at  Inverugie  Castle,  2  m.  north-west, 
in  1696),  vdiich  was  {M^esented  to  the  buzgh  in  1868  by  William  I. 
of  Prussia,  afterwards  German  emperor.  Peterhead  u  one 
of  the  Elgin  district  group  of  parliamentary  burghs,  with  Banff, 
Cullen,  Elgin,  Inverurie  and  Kintore.  It  formerly  had  an 
extensive  trade  with  the  ports  of  the  Baltic,  the  Levant  and 
America,  and  was  once  a  sub-port  to  Aberdeen,  but  was  made 
indq>endent  in  1833.  It  was  also  for  a  long  period  the  dsief 
seat  of  the  Greenland  trade,  but  the  Arctic  seal  and  whale 
fishery  is  now  extinct.  The  north  and  south  harbours  lie 
between  the  town  and  Keith  Inch — a  suburb  at  the  extremity 
of  the  peninsttU  on  part  «f  which  the  town  is  built— und  the 
isthmus  dividing  them  is  pierced  by  a  canal  crossed  by  an  iron 
swing-brktge.  In  the  north  harbour  are  two  graving  docks.  A 
third  harbour  has  been  built,  the  area  of  the  t^ree  basins 
smountmg  to  sx  acres.  In  addition  to  the  granite  qtuurying 
and  polishing,  the  leading  industries  are  ship-  and  boat-building, 
agricultural  implement  works  and  woollen  manufactures.  The 
Iwrring  fleet  possesses  more  than  600  boats  and  the  annual 
catch  averages  nearly  £200,000.  About  a  mile  to  the  south 
is  the  eonvict  prison  for  Scotland.  Since  1886  the  prisoners 
have  been  employed  upon  the  construction  of  a  vast  harbour 
of  refuge,  for  which  the  breakwater  extends  from  Boddam 
Point  northwards  across  the  bay.  This  great  undertaking 
(intended  to  be  completed  in  192  x)  was  designed  by  Sir  John 
Coode  (d.  1893).  Peterhead  h  the  terminus  of  a  cable  to 
Norway.  About  6  m.  south  of  Peterhead  are  the  famous 
Bnllen,  or  Roarers,  of  Buchan,  an  enormous  rocky  cauldron 
into  which  the  waves  pour  through  a  nattiral  arch  of  granite, 
with  Incredible  violence,  in  a  storm. 

The  town  and  lands  belonged  of  old  to  the  Abbey  of  Deer, 
built  in  the  X3th  century  by  William  Comyn,  eari  of  Buchan; 
but  when  the  abbey  was  erected  into  a  temporal  lordship  in  the 
family  of  Keith  the  superiority  of  the  town  passed  to  the  earl 
marischal,  with  whom  it  continued  till  the  forfeiture  of  the 
earldom  Ih  17x6.  The  town  and  lands  were  purchased  in  X730 
by  a  fishing  company  in  Enghnd  and,  on  their  failure,  by  the 
Merchant  Maidens'  Hospital  of  Edinburgh  for  £3000,  who  are 
still  the  overlords.  Peterhead,  made  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1593 
by  George  Keith,  fifth  earl  marischal,  was  the  scene  of  the 
landing  of  the  Ptetender  on  Christmas  Day  X715. 

PBTBRHOP,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  St 
Petersburg,  18  m.  W.  of  the  capital,  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Finland.  It  was  founded  in  17x1  and  has  grown  up 
round  the  palace  built  by  Peter  the  Great  in  X720;  pop.,  xx,3oo. 
Peterhof  is  almost  exclusively  a  residential  town,  but  gem-cutting 
and  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  imi^ments  are  carried  on. 
The  palace  has  undergone  alterations  and  additions,  e.g.  by 
Catharine  II.,  but  retains  a  distinct  Petriae  stamp.   It  li  buiR 


on  a  height  50  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  contains  portraits  of 
the  Russian  imperial  family  and  other  pictures.  A  statue  of 
Peter  the  Great  was  set  up  near  the  palace  in  X883,  and  one  of 
Francis  I.  of  Fhmce  in  X896,  a  gift  from  the  town  of  Havre  to 
Nicholas  II.  Peterhof  is  connected  with  Oranienbaum  on  the 
west  and  wfth  Stxyelna  on  the  east  by  series  of  gardens  and 
viUas. 

PETBRMAHNt  AUGUST  HBUfRICH  (X822-X878),  German 
cartographer,  was  bom  at  Bleicherode,  near  Nordhausen,  on 
the  x8th  of  April  X833.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  the 
Geographical  School  of  Art  in  Potsdam,  and  in  X845  proceeded 
to  Edinburgh  to  assist  Dr  Keith  Johnston  in  the  production 
of  an  English  edition  of  the  Physical  Atlas  of  Bergbaus.  In 
X847  he  came  to  London,  and  published  among  other  works, 
an  account  of  Barth's  expedition  to  C^tral  Africa  (1855). 
In  X854  he  became  director  of  the  geographical  institute  of 
Justus  Perthes  in  (jotha,  and  editor  of  the  well-known  PeUrmattns 
MUteiltmttn.  His  work  did  much  towards  elucidating  the 
geography  of  the  ulterior  of  Africa  and  of  the  North  Polar 
regions,  (^een  Victoria,  at  the  suggestion  of  Bunsen,  appointed 
him  ph3rsical  geographer-royal.  Petermann  died  by  his  own 
hand  at  Gotha  on  the  35th  of  September  1878. 

PVTERS  (or  PEnK),HUOH  (x 598-1660),  English  Independent 
divine,  son  of  Thomas  Dyckwoode,  alias  Peters,  descended  from 
a  family  which  had  quitted  the  Netherlands  to  escape  religious 
persecution,  and  of  Martha,  daughter  of  John  Treffry  of  Treffiy 
in  Cornwall,  was  baptised  on  the  39th  of  June  X598,  and  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Haying  experienced 
conversion,  he  preached  in  Essex;  returning  to  London  he  took 
Anglican  orden  and  was  appointed  lecturer  at  St  SepulcfareV 
He  entertained,  however,  unorthodox  opinions,  and  eventually 
left  Enghmd  for  Holland.  He  visited  Gustavue  Ado^hus  in 
Germany  about  1632,  and  afterwards  became  the  minister  of 
the  English  church  at  Rotterdam.  Here  his  unorthodox 
leanings  again  attracted  attention,  and  Peten  made  a  further 
move  to  New  England.  He  was  connected  with  John  Wtnthrop 
through  his  wife,  and  had  already  formed  several  friendships 
with  the  American  colonists.  He  arrived  at  Boston  in  October 
X63S  and  was  given  charge  of  the  church  at  Salem.  He  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  aflfain  of  the  colony,  and  interested  himself 
in  the  founding  of  the  new  colony  in  Connecticut.  In  X64X  he 
returned  to  England  as  agent  of  the  colony,  but  soon  became 
involved  in  the  political  troubles  which  now  began.  He  became 
chaplain  to  the  forces  of  the  adventurers  in  Ireland,  and  served  in 
X643  in  Lord  Forbes's  expedition,  of  whldi  he  wrote  an  account. 
On  his  return  he  took  a  violent  part  in  the  campaign  against 
Laud,  and  defended  the  doctrines  of  the  Independents  in  a 
preface  to  a  tract  by  Richard  Mather  entitled  "  Church  (jovem- 
ment  and  Church  Covenant  discussed  . .  ."  (1643).  He  gained 
great  reputation  as  a  preacher  by  his  discourses  and  eidiorta* 
tions  at  pubBc  executions,  and  as  army  chaplain.  In  the  latter 
capacity  he  accompanied  Lord  Warwick's  naval  expedition  to 
Lyme  in  1644  and  Fairfax's  campaigns  of  X645  and  X646,  when 
his  eloquence  is  said  to  have  had  a  marvellous  effect  in  inspiring 
the  soldiera  and  winning  over  the  people.-  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  war,  Peten,  though  greatly  d^Uked  by  the  Presbyterians 
and  the  Scots,  had  attained  great  influence  as  leader  of  the 
Independents.  In  his  pamphlet  "  Last  Report  of  the  English 
Wars'*  (X646)  he  urged  rdigious  toleration,  an  alliance  with 
foreign  Protestants,  and  an  active  propagation  of  the  gospel. 
In  the  dispute  between  the  army  and  the  parliament  he  naturally 
took  the  side  of  the  former,  and  after  the  seizure  of  the  king  by 
the  army  in  June  X647  had  interviews  with  Charles  at  Newmaricet 
and  Windsor,  in  which  he  favourably  impressed  the  latter,  and 
gave  advice  upon  the  best  course  to  pursue.  He  performed 
useful  services  in  the  second  Civil  War,  procured  guns  for  the 
besiegen  at  Pembroke,  raised  troops  in  the  midlands,  and 
arranged  the  surrender  of  the  duke  of  Hamilton  at  Uttoxeter. 
Though  at  the  Restoration  he  denied  any  complicity  in  the 
lung's  death,  it  is  certain  that  In  his  sermons  he  justified  and 
supported  the  trial  and  sentence.  In  August  he  accompanied 
CfoancD  to  Irdand,  and  was  present  at  the  fUl  of  Wexford,' 


300 


PETERS,  K.— PETERSBURG 


while  later  he  assisted  the  cainipaign  by  superihteBdiog  from 
England  the  despatch  to  Cromwell  of  supplies  and  reinforce- 
menta,  and  was  himself  destined  by  Cromwell  for  a  regiment 
of  foot.  In  1650  he  was  in  South  Wales,  endeavouring  to  bring 
over  the  people  to  the  cause,  and  subsequently  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Worcester.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  war  Peten 
was  appointed  one  of  the  preachers  at  Whitehall  and  became  a 
person  of  influence.  Pariiament  had  already  voted  him  an 
annuity  of  £200,  and  Laud's  library  or  a  portion  of  it  had  been 
handed  over  to  him  in  1644.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  of 
twenty-one  appointed  to  suggest  legal  reforms,  and  he  published 
his  ideas  on  this  subject,  which  included  a  register  of  wiUs  and 
land  titles  and  the  deitruction  afterwards  of  the  ancient  records, 
in  his  tract,  "  Good  Work  for  a  Good  MagistcaU  "  (in  1651), 
answered  by  R.  Vaughan  and  Prynne.  He  strongly  disjaipproved 
of  the  war  with  Holland,  and  his  interference  brought  upon 
him  some  sharp  reprimands.  In  July  1658  he  was  sent  to 
Dunkirk  to  provide  apparently  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  the 
garrison.  He  preachwi  the  funeral  sermon  on  Cromwell,  and 
after  the  latter's  death  took  little  part  in  political  events, 
though  strongly  disapproving  of  the  removal  of  Richard.  He 
met  Monck  at  St  Albans  on  the  latter's  march  to  London,  but 
met  with  no  favour  from  the  new  powers,  being  expelled  from 
bis  lodgings  at  Whitehall  in  January  1660.  On  the  nth  of 
May  hh  arrest  was  ordered.  On  the  i8tli  of  June  he  was  ex> 
cepted  from  the  Act  of  Indemnity  and  apprehended  on  the  and 
of  September  at  Southwark.  He  sent  in  a  defence  of  himself 
to  the  Lords,  denying  any  share  in  the  king's  death.  He  was, 
however,  tried  on  the  X3th  of  October  and  found  guilty  of  high 
treason.  His  execution  took  place  at  Charing  Cross  on  the  x6lh 
of  October,  when  he  behaved  with  great  fortitude,  and  was 
undismayed  by  the  mangling  of  the  body  of  John  Cook,  bis 
fellow  st^erer,  upon  which  he  was  forced  to  look.  Before  his 
death  he  wrote  "  A  Dying  Father's  Last  Legacy  "  to  his  only 
child,  Elizabeth,  in  which  he  gave  a  narrative  of  his  career. 
;  His  death  was  viewed  with  greater  rejoicings  than  perhaps 
attended  that  of  any  of  the  regicides,  which  is  the  more  sur- 
prising as  Peters  ponessed  many  amiable  qualities,  and  several 
acts  of  kindness  performed  by  him  on  behalf  of  individual 
Royalists  are  recortled.  But  he  had  incurred  great  unpopularity 
by  his  unrestrained  speech  and  extreme  activity  m  the  cause. 
He  was  a  man,  however,  of  a  rough,  coarse  nature;  without 
tact  or  refinement,  of  strong  animal  spirits,  undeterred  by 
difficulties  which  beset  men  of  higher  mental  capacity,  whose 
energies  often  outran  his  discretion,  intent  upon  the  realities 
of  fife  and  the  practical  side  of  religion.  His  conception  of 
religious  controversy,  that  all  differences  could  be  avoided  if 
ministers  could  only  pray  together  and  live  together,  is  highly 
characteristic,  and  shows  the  largeness  of  his  personal  sym- 
pathies and  at  the  same  time  the  limits  of  his  intellectual 
imagination.  Peters  married  (z)  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Thomas 
Cooke  <^  Pebmarsh  in  Esses  and  widow  of  Edmund  Read, 
and  (2)  Deliverance  Sheffield,  by  whom  he  had  one  daughter, 
Elizabeth. 

PETBR8,  KARL  (1856-  ),  German  traveller  in  Africa, 
one  of  the  founders  of  German  East  Africa,  was  bom  at  Neuhaus 
on  the  Elbe  on  the  37th  of  September  1856,  the  son  of  a  Lutheran 
clergyman.  He  studied  at  G5ttingen,  Tubingen  and  Berlin, 
and  in  1879  ^^  awarded  a  gold  medal  by  the  Berlin  University 
for  his  Frieden  tu  Venedig.  After  visiting  London  to  study 
English  principles  of  colonization,  he  returned  to  Berlin  and 
promoted  the  German  Colonization  Society  (Deutsche  Kolonial- 
verdn).  In  the  autumn  of  1884  he  proceeded  with  two  com- 
panions to  East  Africa,  and  concluded  in  the  name  of  his  society 
treaties  with  the  chiefs  of  Useguha,  Nguru,  Usagara  and  Ukami. 
Returning  to  Europe  early  in  1885,  he  formed  the  German  East 
Africa  Company,  which  speedily  obtained  an  imperial  charter. 
The  story  of  this  enterprise,  the  first  step  in  the  formation  of  a 
German  colony  in  East  Africa,  is  told  under  Apbica,  $  $.  In 
1888  Peters  undertook  an  expedition  from  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  avowedly  for  the  relief  of  Emio  Pasha.  This  expedition 
was  not  tanctioDcd  by  the  German  government  jnd  was  regarded 


by  the  British  authorities  as  a  filibustering  exploit.  One  of  its 
objects  was  to  extend  the  sphere  of  German  influence,  and,  reach- 
ing Uganda  early  in  1 890,  Peters  concluded  a  treaty  with  tlie  king 
of  that  country  in  favour  of  Germany.  He  left  Uguida  hastily 
on  the  approach  of  a  representative  of  the  British  East  Africa 
Company,  and  on  reaching  Zanzibar  learned  that  his  treaty  was 
useless,  as  an  agreement  had  been  come  to  between  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  whereby  Uganda  was  left  in  the  British  qibere. 
On  his  return  to  Germany  Peters  was  received  with  great  honours, 
and  in  1891  published  an  account  of  his  expedition  entitled 
Die  deutsche  Emin  Pasha  ExpedUion,  which  was  translated 
into  English.  In  1891  he  went  out  again  to  East  Africa  as 
imperial  high  commissioner  for  the  Kilimanjaro  district,  and 
in  189a  was  one  of  the  commissioners  for  delimiting  the  An|^ 
German  boundary  in  that  regioQ.  In  June  189a  accusations 
were  brought  against  him  of  excesses  in  his  treatment  of  the 
natives,  and  after  three  iuTestigations  had  been  held  be  was, 
in  1897,  deprived  of  ^his  commission  for  "  misoae  of  official 
power."  (He  was  legranted  his  title  of  imperial  commissioner 
in  t9o6.)  During  1895-1895  Peters  was  employed  in  the  cotonial 
office  at  Berlin.  In  2896  he  removed  to  London,  where  he 
occupied  himself  in  schemes  for  exploiting  parts  of  Rhodesia 
and  Portuguese  East  Africa.  In  the  interests  of  a  company  he 
formed,  Peters  explored  the  Fura  district  and  Mnconsbe's 
country  on  the  Zambezi,  where  in  2899  he  discovered  ruins  of 
ancient  cities  aiul  deserted  gold  mines.  He  returned  io  2901 
and  gave  an  account  of  his  explorations  in  The  EUorado  ef  ike 
Ancients  (1902)-  In  1905  he  again  visited  the  regfon  between 
the  Zambezi  and  Sabi  riveta. 


Besides  the  books  alieady  mentloDtd  and  tome  emallar  treatia 
PetecB  pubUshed  a  philosophic  work  entitled  WiUenswelt  mmd  Wdk- 
vilU  (188^.  and  a  disquisition  on  early  gold  production  entitled 
Das  loldau  Opkir  Salomes  (1895),  translated  into  English  in  1898. 

PBTBBSBURO,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Virginia,  U.SJL, 
on  the  Appomattox  river,  at  the  head  of  bavigatioa,  about 
I  z  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  as  m.  S.  of  Richmond.    Pop.  (i8qo), 
2a,68o;  (1900),  92,820,  (20,75inegroes);  (;9iQ),24>t37*     It  is 
served  by  the  Atlantic  Coast  line,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  and  the 
Norfolk  &  Western  railways.   The  fiter,  .which  is  here  spanned 
by  two  steel  bridges  and  one  frame  bridge,  is  navigable  U>  this 
point  for  vessels  of  8  f  L  draught  at  mean  high  water,  and  has  been 
greatly  improved  by  the  Federal  government,  which  in  2909 
was  engaged  in  deepening  the  whole  channel  to  2a  ft.  at  mean 
high  water  and  in  excavating  at  Petersburg  a  new  channel  into 
which  to  deflect  the  river.  In  and  about  the  dty  there  is  mudi 
of  historic  and  scenic  interest.    At  Blandford,  a  snborbaa 
hamlet,  is  the  picturesque  old  Blandford  church,  erected  about 
1734.    Petersburg  has  two  public  parks,  and  among  its  inatiin- 
tions  are  a  home  for  the  sick  (288<i),  an  orphanage  for  girls  and 
another  for  negroes,  the  state  central  hospital  for  the  insane 
(negroes),  the  southern  female  college  (noiKsectarian,  2863), 
the  university  school  for  boys,  the  Bishop  Payne  divinity 
school  (Protestant  Episcopal)  for  negroes,  and  the  Viigi^ua 
normal  and  industrial  institute  (opened  in  2883),  also  for 
negroes.    There  are  two  national  cemeteries  near  Petersburc-* 
Poplar  Grove  (about  4  m.  south),  containing  about  6900  graves, 
and  City  Point  (about  9  m.  east),  containing  about  5200  graves; 
and  in  Blandford  cemetery  there  are  about  30^000  graves  of 
Confederate  dead.   In  this  cemetery  General  William  PhiUi|ia  is 
buried,  and  there  is  a  monument  to  Captain  McRae,  oommniider 
of  the  "  Petersburg  Volunteers,"  whose  bravery  in  2822-1823 
prompted  President  Madison  to  call  Petersburg  the  "  Cockade 
City."   The  falls  above  the  city  furnish  abundant  watcr-po«^er« 
and  the  city  haa  various  manufactures.    The  factory  product 
was  valued  at  $5,890^574  in  2905,  22*3%  more  than  in  1900; 
in  both  2900  and  2905  Petersburg  ranked  fourth  axnons  the 
cities  of  the  state  in  the  value  of  factory  products.     From 
Petersburg  are  shipped  quantities  of  trunks  and  bags,  peanuts, 
tobacco  and  cotton.   In  2909  the  foreign  trade,  whoUy  imports, 
was  valued  at  $360,774.    The  dty  was  formerly  in  Chesterfield. 
Dinwiddle  and  Prince  George  counties,  but  is  now  indepcadcst 
ol  county  government* 


PETERSBURG 


301 


An  Indian  viBagt  foimerly  stood  on  or  near  the  site  of  the 
present  dty,  and  Fort  Henry  was  built  here  by  the  whites  in 
1645.  Petersburg  was  founded  in  1733  ^Y  Colonel  William 
Byrd  (1674-1744)  and  Peter  Jones,  and  was  named  (first  Peter's 
Point,  and  then  Petersburg)  in  honour  of  the  latter;  in  1748  it 
was  incorporated  as  a  town.  On  the  2Sth  of  April  1781  a 
skirmish  was  fought  in  front  of  Petersburg  between  a  British 
fcK-ce  of  about  3000  under  General  William  Phillips  (1731^-1781) 
and  about  one-third  of  that  number  of  American  militia  under 
Baron  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  Steuben;  the  Americans  were 
defeated,  and  the  British  occupied  the  town.  In  the  following 
month  the  British  again  entered  Petersburg  (General  Phillips 
dying  here  on  the  13th),  but  they  were  soon  dislodged  by 
Lafayette  who  shelled  the  town.  General  Winfield  Scott  was 
born  near  Petersburg,  and  practised  law  here  for  two  years 
before  he  entered  the  army.  Petersburg  was  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1850. 

Pktsxsbttko  Campaign  (1864-65).  The  name  of  Peters- 
burg is  associate;;!  with  operations  in  the  American  Civil  War, 
which  formed  the  sequel  of  the  Wilderness  Campaign  (qv.) 
and  the  last  act  in  the  struggle  between  the  armies  of  Grant 
and  Lee  for  supremacy.  Petersburg  (see  above)  and  Richmond, 
Virginia,  connected  by  rail  and  covered  north,  east  and  south  by 
forty  miles  of  entrenchments,  formed  the  sab'ents  of  a  vast 
fortress,  into  which  reinforcements  and  supplies  could  be  poured 
from  the  rear  by  means  of  the  James  Canal,  the  Virginia  Central, 
the  Lynchburg,  the  Danville  and  the  Weldon  railroads — the 
latter  bringing  up  to  Petersburg  from  Wilmington  (235  m. 
distant)  the  cargoes  of  blockade  runners.  Petersburg  became 
a  strategic  point  as  soon  as  Grant  determined  to  carry  the  army 
of  the  Potomac— defeated  at  Cold  Harbor  on  the  Chicka- 
bominy  (see  Wilderness  Campaign) — south  of  Richmond, 
and,  being  joined  by  Butler's  Army  of  the  James  (momentartiy 
checked  in  the  Bermuda  Hundred  Peninsula  by  a  small  army 
under  Beauregard),  to  operate  from  the  east,  depending  on 
the  James  river,  as  hb  line  of  supply,  while  the  policy  of  the 
Confederate  president  was  to  employ  Robert  £.  Lee's  army  to 
protect  his  capital.  Petersburg  was  nearer  than  Richmond 
to  the  navigable  part  of  the  James  River — City  Point  is  only 
10  m.  distant — ^and  the  capture  of  Petersburg  would  involve 
the  fall  of  Richmond  and  the  capitulation  or  flight  of  Lee's 
army. 

As  early  as  the  9th  of  June  1864,  while  the  main  armies  were 
still  north  of  the  James  and  Petersburg  was  garrisoned  by  a 
brigade  under  General  Wise,  a  Federal  expedition  from  the  Army 
of  the  James  approached  the  city.  General  Gillmore  on  the 
City  Point  road  discovered  strong  earthworks,  and  General 
Kautz  attacking  on  the  Jerusalem  Plank  road  experienced  a 
lepulse:  the  total  force  of  the  Federals  was  4500,  and  Wise'a 
brigade  (2400)  had  been  quickly  reinforced  from  Beauregard's 
central  potion  at  Bermuda  Hundred.  A  week  later  a  more 
scriouAuempt  was  made  to  break  through  the  defences,  while 
General  Lee's  main  army  was  detained  north  of  Richmond. 
Grant  detached  the  U.  and  XVIII.  corps  under  Generals  Smith 
and  Hancock,  who  were  to  unite  and  operate  along  the  City  Point 
railroad  and  capture  the  outer  line  of  works  about  a  m.  from 
Petersburg  while  a  demonstration  was  made  along  the  Norfolk 
railroad  by  cavalry  under  Kauts.  On  the  xsth  of  June  Smith 
attacked  and  captured  five  redans  before  Hancock  came  up,  and 
when  next  day  Bumside's  corps  (JX.)  arrived  and  General 
Bf  «Mle  assumed  control  of  the  three  corps,  he  attacked  again  at 
6  p.m.  On  the  17th  of  June  Warren's  (V.)  corps  arrived,  and 
Meade  made  a  third  assault  with  two  corps  (V.,  IX.).  On  the 
xSth  of  June  the  attack  was  renewed  with  three  corps  (II.,  V., 
IX.)  late  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  results  of  the  four  days' 
fighting  were  so  far  satisfactory  that  ground  was  won  which 
could  be  entrenched  and  held  against  any  sortie  of  the 
Petersburg  garrison.  Probably  on  the  i8th  of  June  the  town  of 
Petersburg  might  have  been  captured  by  Meade,  for  at  this  crisis 
General  Lee  was  in  temporary  eclipse.  For  four  days  Lee  had 
refused  to  credit  any  report  to  the  effect  that  Grant  was  crossing 
the  James:  his  cavaJry  could  not  ascertain  that  the  enemy  In  his 


front  at  Malven  HiU  (VI.  cofpa  and  Wihmn's  cavalry  division), 
despite  its  menacing  attitude  towards  Richmond,  was  only  a 
flank  guard  for  a  movement  to  the  south. 

It  was  late  on  the  17th  of  June  when  General  Beauregard,  who 
had  for  three  days  valiant^  held  his  main  linessouthof  Richmond 
with  some  I4i00o  infantry  against  three  Federal  corps,  succeeded 
in  convincing  General  Lee  that  the  main  army  was  again  (as 
in  186a  on  the  Chtckahominy)  in  the  wrong  place  at  the  wrong' 
time.  But  when  at  Ust  the  Confederate  leader  was  aroused 
to  a  sense  of  Ms  danger  he  soon  filled  every  road  with  divisions 
marching  to  save  Petersburg;  they  marched  all  night;  thcyvslept 
in  the  trenches  on  arrival,  and  on  the  19th  of  June  these  icin- 
forcements  convincedGeneralMeadc  that  his  main  attack  between 
the  Appomattox  river  and  the  Jerusalem  Plank  road  was 
delivered  a  day  too  late.  At  a  cost  of  10,000  casualties  Meade 
had  gained  half  a  mile  of  ground,  but  the  Confederates  in  falling 
back  had  concentrated,  and  now  that  the  new  plan  of  operations 
was  exposed  and  the  main  bodies  were  again  face  to  face  the! 
power  of  defensive  tactics  reasserted  itself. 

Yet  June  was  not  to  dose  without  adding  some  8000  men  to! 
the  Federal  casualties,  for  in  addition  to  daily  losses  by  sharps 
shooting  along  the  front,  over  5000  men  fell  or  were  captured  in 
operations  directed  against  the  southern  railroads.  Grant  had* 
resolved  to  deprive  his  enemy  of  these  lines  of  supply:  his  plan 
was  to  prolong  his  line  of  investment  westward  and  construct 
redoubts  (such  as  Fort  Davis,  Fort  Steadman  and  Fort  Sedgwick) 
as  a  continual  menace  to  the  Confederate  garrison  and  a  defence 
against  sorties,  while  his  cavalry  and  portions  of  five  corps 
(II.,  v.,  VL,  IX.  and  XVIII.)  engaged  in  enterprises  which  it 
was  hoped  would  tempt  General  Lee  to  fight  outside  his  works. 
A  decisive  victory  in  the  field,  a  successful  assault  on  the  defences 
between  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  or  the  complete  destruction 
of  the  railroads,  would  precipitate  disaster  to  the  South,  and  of 
these  three  methods  the  last  would  be  the  surest  in  its  effects. 
But  such  a  method  was  necessarily  slow.  General  Wilson's 
cavalry  (5500)  destroyed  30  m.  of  the  Lynchburg  or  South  Side 
railroad,  and  30  m.  of  the  Danville  railroad,  together  with 
BurkesviUc  Junction  and  Ream's  Station  on  the  Weldon  rail- 
road; but  Wilson  was  caught  by  the  Confederate  cavalry 
100  m.  from  Petersburg  and  escaped  only  by  destroying  his 
wagons  and  limbers  and  abandoning  twelve  guns.  Even  the 
Virginia  Central  railroad  could  not  be  held  by  the  Federals 
after  Sheridan  with  the  main  body  of  the  cavalry  had  been 
called  back  to  White  House  on  the  Pamunkey  to  escort  a  great 
convoy. 

By  the  end  of  June  the  whole  of  the  rival  forces  were  concen- 
trated  about  the  Richmond-Petersburg  defences,  and  General 
A.  P.  Hill  had  already  sallied  out  on  the  aist  of  June  to  drive  the 
II.  eorps  from  the  Wddon  raihoad.  Federal  policy  and  Federal 
strategy,  surmounting  the  crisis  of  Cold  Harbor,  were,  however, 
at  last  in  unison.  Grant  had  a  free  hand  in  respect  both  of  his 
dispositions  and  his  resources  in  men  and  money,  and  had  resolved 
to  use  unsparingly  the  resources  placed  at  his  disposal.  Early 
in  July  Grant,  however,  found  himself  compelled  to  detach  a 
corps  (VI.)  to  strengthen  the  garrison  at  Washington,  for  General 
Early  had  frustrated  Hunter's  attempt  against  Lynchburg  (see 
Shenandoah  Valley),  driving  Hunter  into  West  Virginia,  and 
then,  pushing  down  the  Shenandoah  and  across  the  Potomac, 
had  arrived  within  a  day's  march. of  the  Federal  capital.  This 
operation  checked  Grant's  enterprises  about  Petersburg  and 
restricted  the  Federal  front  to  the  ground  east  of  the  Weldon 
railroad. 

On  the  25th  of  July  Grant  resolved  to  weaken  the. enemy  on 
his  front  by  a  demonstration  north  of  the  James,  and  accordingly 
moved  a  corps  (U.)  and  two  cavalry  divisions  across  the  river 
to  Malvern  Hill  under  cover  of  Foster's  coips  (X.).  But  Lee 
possessed  the  inner  line,  and  the  Federal  detachment  found  two 
cavalry  divisions  in  its  front,  and  the  Richmond  defences  had 
been  strengthened  by  three  divisions  of  Infantry.  The  expedi- 
tion then  returned  to  take  part  in  a  fresh  enterprise,  which 
ended  disastrously  to  the  Federals.  A  Confederate  redan  faced 
Burnsicle^s  tX.  corps  100  yds.  distant,  and  this  strong  work  was 


PETERSBURG 


In  Aufiitt  Sheridaa  vu  fleufhed  u  opmxt  agaiiut  Cevri] 

fcly  in  (he  Slieiundoali  Vollry,  Hnd  in  ncdn-  to  prcvtnL  L«e  ran- 
ingElrlyliwIhcrdnnomlratianafaiut  RirhmoDd  wu  planned. 


lead  by  W>i 
iK  of  Augiul, 


r«A'c 


of  ilv  nllni 


^ttlion  ^  Voiicd  bV 
'  cavalry  dnri*ir~   -" 

mm.   TheCoi  __ 

■""lin  one  d«y'i  hiiiLiiljt  by 

ih«  Fcdenl  tnlcr- 

XVI 1 1.1  Rultcd  in 

r,  and  when  Ccnv ral 

'4It«cked  liii  tnwpt  were  irinilKd 


, -"Xij  _ 

mgiin  to  PcKnburg.    Ourii 

prise  Bonh  oCiht  Jamn  aiili ^. 

the  aptim  of  Fan  Hairiun  near  Ouffii 

I  _:ir:r — 1 1^  irf,  .^  „„ni 

.   ThcFcdcmU 

lidini  in'l*°drieri^"\VhBi" 

Confrdtraia  WlundtrCcntlSlCrantV^ r- 

Genera]  Lm  vaa  appriird  of  Kuck*  OP  hu  euniw  ri(bl  K  Pnbka 
Farm  by  four  divuioni,  wUch  cAcxuiTd  «  Confcdrnu  ndoubt 

-~  -le  juooion  ol  Ivo  roulei  u  Ibe  MUlh-«i!H.     Gtiv-' 

jHwentcd  a  litnber  advance  of  tlic  encnxy  by  a  vioor 

i^tuck  wkicli  cuKd  Warren  and  Parke  (IX.)  a  kHs  ol  i 

■uLofwhaanmriyikreelamliai "  <      .   . 

hrthe  nnVa,  ilna  the  lom>  ol  (h , , 

- -'   "^-i>d  aubBiiuie  recraii.  ot  powqual 

ining.   The  Fedcrah  had.  tiovever.  by  IhcK  Dpin- 

..., . ..   ...   .>j  \veld«i   railroad 

. J  mile  o(  Ihe  Can- 

fiderale  ri|hL  A  minor  cnnfOBcnt  north  o(  tha  Janiea  ei  the  ;tli 
ol  October  betwetn  Ibe  ContndsatB  and  ImofHsitlie  Amy  o(  Ibe 
lamea  wu  without  reiuli.  At  (lie  end  ol  tlie  month,  howcvci. 
Ccnetal  Grant  leaolved  id  ni*ke  ■  anioui  dfOR  10  biini  the  South 
Side  railnad  vithls  hiiliaciaiid  ctqnive  ibecncny  of  tkn  impDrtani 
liMofuippI*.  Parlie(lX.I,WarTn(V.>a>dKaKock{II.)BiokBtch 
— ivalry  (Jews) "— ■ '— -•■ '—   — '  ■--■'- '~ -■ 


with  drafted  and  ai 


unboati  bdow  Rich- 


ly batiio,  had  baa  •■ 


-  ^....j.     ..^  .»Jerait  were  ttopped 

- J ,  _nd  Hancock  loat  IJOO  men  at  Hatdnr'i 

Run  OB  Ibc  17th  of  October. 

Ctnrni  Lee  munvhile  had  tieen  called  to  Chaflin'i  Blun,  where 
anin  Bullerwudemonitrallniwith  the  Army  cT  the  JimeifX.  and 
XVIIl.J  on  tKe  appnucheA  lo  KichoHnd.  Bjt  GeoeiaL  Lonptrert 
ailTulind  his  irtutn  to  duly  vith  the  Army  of  Northern  ^ratnia 
by  driving  Butler  o3  wiih  > 

lir  Kta,  Oct .  i7)."ct«'nii 


!r  menued  the  patitudiin  «t  LaV 


in  by  vaeoni.  at  the  roliiiur  stock  on  the  ratlwayt  wai  wotil  and  oa 
Ihe  sih  ol  February  1865  General  Cregg  novedmil  la  tbe  Boydion 
Plaiilt  mad  to  inteicenl  the  Conlnkrate  convoyv     He  WD  n.i>- 
liotted  by  Warmi,  while  Huinphriya'i  (II.)  lorpa  connected  ihr 
■"■  ■  '"     '         r*  1    ..   .  ..  .m;(u„m^    ^nnl 

iriagof  ihetKpeoi- 
im  back  with  a  1mi 


failed  10  locate  the  wagou.  and  Ger 
tion,  iCDt  out  A.  P.  HUland  Cordon, 
ol  1S0O  men.  Sheridan,  ali^  Hri« 
October,  dcttroyed  the  raili 


9  Canal 


giriy  fr 
idercd  the  Jan 

Lee  ont  of  his  lim.  Genenl  Lee  had 
npi,  and  had  resolved  to  abandtm  lu  liDca 
in  North  Carolina,  but  the  roads  v«r  do< 


PETERSBURG 


303 


yet  fe«  state  for  the  fnoveincilt  of  srtflltry  and  tnuoiM,  and  it  was 
to  ^^ia  tine  that  he  now  ventured  upon  a  bold  oRenaive  ■troke— 
a  night  attack  upon  a  ttrong  point  in  the  Federal  right  called  Fort 
Stedinan— <he  suocese  of  inach  mieht  cause  Grant  to  call  in  the 
detachmento  on  his  left  and  «>  facuitate  the  proposed  movemeat 
of  the  Confederates  towards  Danville.  Geaecal  Gordoe  was  selected 
to  conduct  the  operation  and  his  corps  was  strongly  reinforced  for  the 
oocaiioB.  The  opposing  lines  east  of  Petersbuig  were  caly  rso  yds., 
and  the  sentries  of  each  side  50  yds.  apart.  Cordon'sTnen  dashed 
across  the  intervening  snuie  at  A.30  a.  m.  on  the  asth  March, 
surprised  the  garrison  ana  oocupiea  rort  Stedman,  but  when  day- 
light broke  and  the  Federal  guns  could  be  brought  to  bear  tne 
fort  was  found  to  be  untenable.  Farke's  corps  uX.)  recaptured 
the  work  at  a  cost  of  1000  men,  and  Gordon  fell  back,  raiving  ncariy 
3000  men  in  the  hands  of  the  Federals.  The  encounter  would  have 
prcrved  a  more  desperate  one  if  teiaforcements  on  both  sides  had 
arrived  in  time,  but  Gordon  had  cut  the  telegraph  which  connected 
Port  Stedman  with  Grant's  headquarters  at  City  Point,  and  the 
Confederate  train  service  broke  down  and.  delayed  the  arrival  from 
Richmond  of  reinforcements  for  Gordon.  Meanwhile,  6  m.  west- 
ward, Humphreys'  corps  (II.)  attacked  A.  P.  Hill's  defences  and 
gatrted  some  local  success,  seizing  the  Confederate  picket  line  between 
the  Wddon  railroad  and  the  Boydton  Plank  road,  which  was  at 
once  occupied  and  strengthened  by  the  Federals.    The  Federals 


had  resolved  to  attempt.  Giaat  meanwhile  had  ordered  Warren 
to  support  Sheridan  in  an  attack  on  Pickett  at  daybreak,  ^eridan 
advanced  on  the  ist  of  April  and  at  A  p.m.  issued  his  orders  for 
attack,  explaining  veitially  a  diagram  he  had  prepared  Cor  the  use 
of  divisional  commanders.  Pickett  held  a  front  of  a  m.  with 
a  division  of  cavalry  on  either  flank  and  Rosser's  cavalry  guarding 
the  baggaf^e  behind  Hatcher's  Run,  and  when  attacked  at  4  p^m. 
he  was  with  Rosser  li  m.  ia  rear.  Before  PidKtt  was  nsade 
aware  of  a  battle  bdng  in  progress  his  left  was  destroyed. 
General  Lee  seems  to  have  made  no  anangements  to  support  Pickett 
in  this  direction.  Piqkett's  right  was  defended  by  W:  H.  F.  Lee 
against  the  attack  of  Custer's  cavalry  division,  liie  positkm  was 
finall)r  carried  by  Sheridan's  cavalry  under  Devin  dismounting  and 
storming  the  entrenchments  fronully,  taking  three  guns  and  100 
prisoners.  Warren'a  corps  claimed  to  have  captured  a  battery 
and  3244  prisoners.  Yet  Sheridan  was  dissatisfied  with  Warren  s 
conduct  ot  the  battle  and  deprived  him  of  his  commaixi.  Piclcett's 
routed  bri^des  were  rallied  at  the  South  Side  railroad  and  incor- 

E rated  with  General  Anderson's  command.  But  the  Confedenstes 
d  lost  White  Oak  road,  aed  unless  General  Lee  was  capable  of 
a. vigorous  counteretrofce  on  his  extreme  ririit  it  was  evident  ne  must 
also  lose  the  South  Side  railroad.  Grant,  fearing  such  an  enterprise, 
at  once  reinforced  Sheridan  and  ordered  Humphieys' corps  (II.) 
to  attack  in  his  front  if  necessary  to  prevent  Lee  moving  troops 


LEES  RETREAT 


fnTr 


lost  3000  men  and  the  Confederates  perhaps  twice  as  many  on  the 
25th  of  March. 

At  this  time  Sierman  visited  Grant  at  City  Point  and  proposed  to 
move  at  the  end  of  ten  days  on  Burkesville  Junction  and  so  cut  off 
Lee  from  Danville  and  Lynchburg;  it  was  while  Sherman  was  pre- 

ering  for  this  operation  that  Grant  finished  the  campaign.  Secure 
hind  iris  formidable  entrenchments,  C«tant  had  no  fear  for  his 
base  on  the  James  river*  and  transferred  large  bodies  of  troops  to 
his  left  without  Lee's  knowledge.  Sheridan  was  instructed  on  the 
39th  of  March  to  gain  the  enemy's  right  and  rear,  moving  by  Din- 
widdieCourt-Houseandacross  Hatchers  Run.  But  the  Confederates 
were  on  the  alert;  A.  P.  Hill  extended  his  right,  and  Fltchogh  Lee's 
cavalry  was  brought  to  Sutherland  Station.  Sheridan  had  already 
encountered  the  cavalry  divisions  of  W.  H.F.Lee  and  Rosser  on  the 
south   side   of   Stony    Creek.    Warren's   corps,    moving   up  the 

guaker  road,  met  a  force  under  R.  H.  Anaeraon  and  drove  it 
Lck  to  its  works  on  White  Oak  road.  Sheridan  got  Into  a 
flat  country  of  dense  forest,  tangled  undergrowth,  streams  and 
swamps,  and  the  soil  of  clay  and  sand  was  impsissable  for  wagons  and 
runs  until  he  had  corduroyed  the  route.  On  the  29th  of  March  General 
Lee  perceived  that  the  object  of  Grant  was  to  seize  the  routes  south 
of  the  Appomattox  river,  by  which  a  movement  south-west 
could  be  made  to  unite  with  Johnston's  army,  and  he  endeavoured 
to  cover  these  roads,  including  the  South  Side  railway,  without 
losing  hb  hold  upon  his  works  about  Richmond  and  Petersburg, 
but  in  such  a  contest  it  was  evident  that  numbers  must  prevail. 

Sheridan's  cavaliv  had  reached  Five  Forks  on  the  White  Oak 
road  on  the  51st  of  March,  and  on  his  right  Humphreys  and  Warren 

ill.  and  y.)  hdd  the  Confederates  to  tneir  works  along  Hatcher's 
Lun  astride  the  Boydton  Plank  road;  yet  Cvcneial  Lee  was  able  to 
concentrate  his  throe  cavalry  divisions,  and  supported  them  by 
Pickett's  five  infantry  brigades.  Sheridan  was  attacked  and  driven 
south  as  far  as  Dlnwkiaie  Coiut-House:  but  Humphreys  and 
Warren  hekl  their  ground  factioa  of  White  Oak  Ridn)  at  a  cost 
of  2000  men  Pickett  and  the  cavaliv  fcD  back  to  FivePorks  during 
the  night  and  hastily  entrenched,  for  ne  had  been  ordered  by  General 
Lee  to  defend  this  position;  nnce  the  Boydton  I^ank  road  could 
no  longer  be  held,  the  possession  of  White  Oak  road  and  the  Soath 
Qulway  became  neoassary  for  the  flank  movement  whicii  Lee 


westward,  but  Lee  made  no  effort,  and  so  Sheridaa  was  free  to 
operate  farther  in  the  direction  of  the  enemy's  ri^ht  and  rear,  while 
Hiimphreys  held  the  enemy  in  his  front.  Shendan  remained  in- 
active for  a  few  days,  and  Lee  hoped  still  to  gain  time  for  the  roads 
to  dry  beforo  evacuating  his  lines  and  removing  his  stores  and 
ammunition  by  wagons  towards  Lynchburg. 

But  a  crisis  was  approachmg.  Sheridan  s  success  at  Five  Forks 
induced  Grant  to  deliver  a  general  assault  on  the  and  of  April.  The 
Confederate  lines  were  bombarded  all  night,  and  on  the  and  of  April 
with  Wright's- corps  (VL).  Grant  attacked  the  weakest  part  of 
Lee's  line  and  broke  through,  losing  1 100  men  in  fifteen  minutes. 
A.  P.  Hill  was  killed  and  his  corps  broke  and  was  cut  off  from  Peters- 
burg. At  the  same  time  Parke's  corps  (IX.),  on  the  right  of  the  VI., 
attacked  the  eastern  front  near  Fort  Stedman  but  was  repulsed  by 
Cktneral  Gordon;  then  Humphreys'  corps  (II.)  on  the  left  atUcked 
a  Ck>nfederate  division  under  General  Cook  and  forced  it  to  retreat 
to  the  South  Side  railroad,  where  at  Sutherland  Station  a  final 
attack  dispersed  it.  Wright,  supported  by  General  Ord  (command- 
ing the  army  of  the  James),  afterwards  won  the  strong  redoubts  called 
Fort  Whitworth  anic^Fort  Gregg,  and  thus  in  a  day  the  Confederate 
right  had  been  destroyed  from  Five  Forks  to  a  point  some  two  or 
three  miles  west  pi  the  Weldon  railroad ;  10  m.  of  works  bad  been 
abandoned,  aad  if  Grant  had  been  able  to  press  his  advantage  at 
once  the  campaign  mtu^  have  ended.  But  Grant  was  not  aware 
of  the  enemy  8  plight,  and  so  resolved  to  wait  until  the  morrow 
before  completing  his  victorv. 

Meanwhile  Lee  perceived  that  the  hour  had  come  at  last  when 
Richmond  must  falU  and  at  3  p.m.  he  had  issued  ordere  for  the  march 
of  the  remains  of  his  army  to  Lyncht)urg  via  Amelia  Court'House, 
a  march  which  eiridently  must  partake  of  the  character  of  a  forlorn 
hope,  hastily  fanned,  ill  prepared  and  undertaken  by  troops  whom 
the  disasten  and  hardships  of  the  past  six  months  had  weakened 
phy»cally  and  morally.  Yet  if  Ckineral  Lee  had  negotiated  a  peace 
on  the  2nd  of  April  military  history  would  have  lost  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  the  strategic  pursuit.  Lee's,  proposed  movement 
involved  the  traasfer  01  the  army  and  its  oaggage  100  n.  on 
bad  roads  across  the  front  of  aa  enemy,  and  nothing  but  mis- 
chance could  prevent  the  Federab  intercepting  Lee's  columns  by  a 
shorter  route  and  scisipg  the  South  Si^e  railroad,  on  vhich  supfiiea 


30+ 

were  to  be  forwaitfcd  f Pom  Lynckbaiv  to  awet  the  ntraatiM  umy 
at  Appomattox  Station.  RimpKn's  Station  or  Farmville  Station. 
The  Appomattox  River  muit  be  croawd  two  or  three  times  at  its 
bends.  Various  creeks  and  swamps  must  be  bridged,  and  the  bridges 
destroyed  after  croadng.  The  wagons  must  move  on  separate 
roads  lo  as  to  be  covered  oy  the  columns  during  marches  and  combats 
and  the  infantry  were  to  follow  the  artillery  on  the  roads.  Long- 
street,  Gordon  and  Mahone's  division  from  Richmond  all  crossed 
the  Appomattox  at  Coodc's  Bridge.  Ewetl  from  Richmond  crossed 
the  Appomattox  by  the  DanvtUe  railroad  bridge  north  of  Goode's 
Bridge.  Anderson  commanded  the  flank  guard  which  moved  south 
oC  the  Appomattox  with  Fitzhugh  Lee's  cavalry.  Lee  gained  a 
day's  start  by  moving  at  8  p.m.,  for  Grant  was  makinc  preparations 
to  attack  the  entrenchments  next  da>r  (April  3),  but  the  surt 
was  lost  in  watting  for  President  Davis  and  the  government  to 
escape  from  Richmond.  Sheridan's  cavalry  got  in  touch  with  L«e's 
ftank*guard  early  on  the  $rd  of  April  near  Namosine  Creek,  and  at 
niffhtiall  the  Federal  advance-guard  was  at  Deep  Creek.  On  the 
4t)i  of  April  Sheridan  reached  the  Danville  railroad  at  Jetersville, 
and  on  the  Sth  of  April,  when  Lee  had  hatted  at  Amelia  Court-House 
on  the  railroad  to  get  supplies,  the  Federals  had  three  corps  (IL,  V., 
VI.)  in  support  of  Sheridan  8  m.  nearer  than  Lee  to  Sailor's  Creek, 
the  point  where  he  must  again  cross  the  Appomattox. 

Interception  was  now  a/ail  auumtlt^  though  neither  side  suspected 
it.  Lee  was  unaware  of  the  cncnw  s  proximity,  and  Grant  believed 
that  Lee  would  remain  at  Amelia  Court-Housc.  but  Lee  moved  west, 
crossing  Flat  Creek  at  sunset  on  the^th  of  April,  to  the  Lynchburg 
railraad  (Longstreet,  marchiii;  all  night,  reached  Rice's  Station  at 
sunrise  on  the  6th  of  April),  while  the  Federals  moved  northwards 
on  the  same  day  to  attack  Lee  at  Amelia  Court-House,  and  on 
discovering  Lee's  evasion  the  throe  Federal  corps  effected  a  wheel  to 
the  left  and  advanced  on  Dcatonsville  after  oridging  Flat  Creek. 
Meanwhile  the  Federal  cavalry  under  H.  E.  Davics  hadlocated  a  con- 
voy  at  Paincsville.  dispersed  its  escort  (Gary's  cavalry)  and  burned 
the  wagons,  but  had  in  turn  been  attacked  by  Fitshugh  Lee's  cavalry 
■  at  Amelia  Springs  and  driven  back  on  the  main  body  at  Flat  Creek. 
Fitzhugh  Leie  had  then  marched  to  join  Longstreet  at  Rice's  Station. 
The  rearguard  of  Lee's  armv  was  Cordon's  command,  which  was  at 
Amelia  Springs  after  EweU's  command  had  passed  through  at 
8  a.m  on  the  6th  of  April.  Lee's  army  stretchea  out  for  15  m.,  and 
when  its  advance-guard  was  at  Rico's  Station  its  rearguard  was 
still  at  Amelia  Court-House.  Rioe's  Station  is  6a  m.  from  Lynch- 
burg.  Here  Longstreet  waited  all  day  for  Anderson,  Ewell  and 
Gordon  to  close  up,  and  then  at  night  he  moved  8  m.  to  Farm- 
ville  Station  (68  m.  south-west  of  Richmond),  where  80,000  rations 
had  been  railed  from  Lynchburg;  then  Longstreet  crossed  the  Appo- 
mattox. And  00  the  7th  of  April  moved  forward  towards  Lynchbuiv, 
covered  by  Fitzhugh  Lee*s  cavalry.  Meanwhile  the  reraainoer of  Lee  s 
army  had  been  practically  destroyed  within  a  few  miles  of  the  point 
where  Longstreet  had  halted.  Sheridan's  cavalry  and  two  corps 
(IL,  VI.)  had  caught  the  commands  of  Anderson,  Ewell  and  Gordon, 
entangled  with  the  trains  of  the  army  attempting  the  passage  of 
Sailors  Creek;  and  General  Ord  would  even  nave  attacked  Long- 
street  (whom  he  had  located  Ute  at  nlg^t)  had  his  march  been 
delayed. 

Complete  disorganization  and  demoralisation  seem  to  have  taken 
boM  01  the  Confederates  on  this  fatal  dav,  and  General  Lee  was 
once  more  in  eclipse.  The  Federal  cavafry  headed  the  column, 
the  infantry  attacked  it;  and  Ewell  became  the  victim  of  tactical 
envelopment  after  Anderson  had  been  defeated  and  Gordon  had 
failed  to  save  the  trains  of  the  army.  Sarrender  or  massacre  being 
the  alternatives,  Ewell  surrendered,  and  here  in  fact  the  career 
of  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia  ended,  as  Grant  plainly  saw,  for 
at  5.30  p.m.  he  addressed  a  demand  to  Lee  for  his  capitulation. 
But  Lee  clung  to  his  diminished  forces  for  another  48  hours^  Long- 
street  in  crossing  at  Farmville  h^d  burnt  the  bridges  and  thus 
delayed  Ord  in  pursuit ;  but  Gordon  and  Mahone.  who  had  crossed 
at  High  Bridge  (the  railroad  bridge),  failed  to  check  Humphreys' 
corps  (IL),  and  so  were  compelled  to  take  up  a  position  of  defence 
on  the  north  bank  until  darkness  enabled  them  to  slip  away.  Oneral 
Lee  was  with  this  remnant  of  the  army.  Meanwhile  Sheridan 
with  the  cavalry  and  two  corps  (V.,  XXIV.)  had  hastened  ak>ng  the 
South  Side  railroad,  seizing  the  supplies  waiting  for  Lee  at  Pamplin's 
Station,  and  then  moving  on  another  if  m.  to  Appomattox  Station. 
At  nightfall  he  found  that  he  was  astride  the  enemy  s  line  of  operation, 
which  was  also  his  line  of  supply,  and  so  General  Lee  would  be 
compelled  to  give  battle  or  capitulate  on  the  morrow. 

General  Lee,  quitting;  Farmville  heights  on  the  night  of  the  7th  of 
April  changed  the  order  of  march  during  the  next  day,  so  that  Gordon 
(8000)  was  in  the  van  and  Longstreet  (13,000)  furnished  the  reaf- 
suard.  Ewell's  corps  was  now  represented  by  too  effectives. 
The  cavalry  stilt  numbered  some  1600  tabrea.  Lee  s  cohimn  was 
pursued  along  the  Lynchburg  Road  by  two  Federal  Corps  (IL,  VI.), 
which  marched  26  m.  in  i8i  hours,  and  at  midnight  halted  witmn 
}  IS.  of  Longstreet,  who  had  entrendied  near  Appomattox  Court- 
House,  being  east  and  covering  the  rood  00  whica  (jordon's  corps 
•nd  the  cavalry  was  to  pms  forward  to  Lynchbaiv  at  daylight.  But 
Gordon  oa  the  morning  of  the  9th  of  April  f oond  Sheridan^  cavalry 
In  his  ffont,  and  in  accordance  with  pums  made  overnight  he  com- 
'  aa  afttack,  driving  the  Fedarali  btdi  onlfl  he  oKouiiteml 


PETERSFIELD-^PETER*S  PENCE 


at  10  a.m.  two  eofps  of  infantry  (V..  XXIV.)  omler  General  Oid, 
who  had  niairhed  99  m.  in  order  to  support  Sheridan  at  the  crisis; 
and  when  at  the  same  moment  Longstreet  was  thneaiened  by 
Humphreys  and  Wright  (IL,  VI.)  the  situation  had  arisen  whkh 
General  Lee  considered  woaU  justify  surrender,  an  event  wUcfa 
had  been  antidpated  on  both  sides  as  the  result  of  the  fighrmg 
about  Farmville  00  the  6th  and  7th  of  ApriL 

The  closing  operations  from  the  a9th  ot  March  to  the  9th  of  April 
were  all  in  favour  of  the  Federals^  bot«  nevertheless,  the  faistoraa 
counts  then:  losses  during  this  penod  as  nearly  logooo  in  the  five 
corps  and  cavalry  which  constituted  General  Grant's  field  army. 
Oi  the  9th  of  April,  at  the  Appomattot  Conzt-Houie,  the  two 
leadera  exchanged  fonnal  documents  by  which  286a  officers  and 
95,494.  enlisted  men  were  paroled,  all  that  remained  in  the  field 
of  some  55,000  Confederates  iriio  were  drasnag  ratioos  00  the  aoth 
of  February  as  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia.  (G.  W.  R.) 

PBTERSFIELD,  a  marlcet  town  in  the  Petenfidd  paz&- 
mentary  diviswn  df  Uampshite,  England,  55  m.  S.W.  from 
London  by  the  London  i  South  Western  railway.  Fop.  of 
urban  district  (1901),  3265,  The  cfauxth  of  St  Peter  tetaias 
some  ornate  Norman  work.  The  iMCturesque  maiket-place 
contains  an  equestrian  statue  of«  William  III. 

Ecclesiastically  a  chapeliy  of  Buriton,  Potenfield  (Peteriehk) 
owes  its>origin  as  a  borough  to  the  charter  granted  by  WBIiaai, 
earl  of  Gk>ucestcr,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  n.  and  oonfixmed  later 
by  his  widow,  Ha  wise.  Petersfield  b  not  mentioned  in  D<»nesdif, 
but  it  was  probably  then  included  in  the  manor  of  Mapledurhas. 
It  was  a  mesne  borough  possessing  by  its  fitst  dbartcr  the 
liberties  and  customs  of  Winchester  together  with  «  mcrdact 
gild.  These  grants  were  confirmed  by  John  in  1x98  and  in 
1 41s  Henzy  V.  in  addition  freed  the  burgesses  from  aB  toOs. 
No  charter  of  Incorporation  has  been  found.  Gzadnally 
privileges  and  rights  other  than  those  of  a  mesne  borough 
were  usurped  by  the  mayor  and  burgesses,  but  were  leoovmd 
by  a  suit  brought  against  them  by  Thomas  Hanbuiy,  owner  of 
the  borough,  in  z6ii.  A  mayor  continued  to  be  elected  until 
1885.  Petersfield  was  represented  in  parliament  in  1307.  No 
return  was  then  made  until  X55a-i553r  ^^^on  whidi  date  two 
members  were  regularly  returned.  In  183*  the  number  wis 
reduced  to  one,  and  In  1885  the  representatk>n  was  merged  ia 
that  of  the  oounty.  Three-day  fairs  at  the  feasts  of  St  Peter 
and  St  Andrew  were  granted  in  1355.  In  1892  the  summer 
fair  then  held  on  the  xoth  of  July  was  abolished.  Tbe  autuon 
fair  now  held  on  the  (kh  of  October  is  for  both  business  and 
pleasure.  T^e  market,  which  dates  from  before  1373,  fonneily 
held  on  Saturday,  is  npw  held  on  alternate  Wednodays^  la 
the  x6th  centtuy  Petersfield  had  important  doth  and  leather 
manufactures. 

PBTBR'S  PBRCE;  Roue  Scot,  or  Roii-teoh,  a  tax  of  a  penny 
on  every  hearth,  formerly  paid  annually  to  the  popes;  now 
represented  by  a  yoluntary  contribution  made  by  tlue  devout 
in  Roman  Catholic  churches.    Its  date  of  origin  Is  doubtfol 
Tbe  first  written  evidence  of  it  is  contamed  in  a  letter  of  Canou 
(1031)  sent  from  Rome  to  the  £n|[lish  clergy.    At  tins  time  it 
appears  to  have  been  levied  on  all  families  possessed  of  land 
worth  thirty  pence  yearly  rental,  out  of  which  they  paid  oac 
penny.    Matthew  Paris  says  the  tax  was  instituted  by  Offa, 
king  of  Merda  (757^96)  for  the  upkeep  of  the  F.ngKih  school 
and  hostel  at  Rome.    Layamon,  however,  dedares  that  Ina, 
king  of  Wessex  (688-725),  was  the  originator  of  the  idea.    At 
the  Norman  Conquest  it  appracs  to  have  fallen  Into  aiTeais  fcr 
a  time,  for  William  the  Conqueror  promised  the  pope  in  io;4 
that  it  should  be  regularly  paid.   By  a  bull  of  Pope  Adiian  IV. 
the  tax  was  extended  to  Ireland.    In  12x3  Innocent  m.  com- 
plained that  the  bishops  kqit  zooo  marks  of  it,  only  forwardiE; 
300  to  Rome.    In  1306  Qemeat  V.  exacted  a  penny  from  eadi 
household  instead  of  the  £201,  ^  at  which  the  tax  appears  to 
have  been  then  fixed.     The  threat  of  withholding  Peter's 
pence  proved  more  than  once  a  useful  weapon  against  recald- 
trant  popes  In  the  hands  of  English  kIngSL    Thus  in  1366  and 
for  some  years  after  it  was  refttsed  on  the  gnmad  of  tlie  pope's 
obstinacy  in  withholding  his  consent  to  the  statute  of  pracmuciie 
During  the  loth  century  the  custom  of  Peter  s  pence  was  iniro- 
dttoed  into  Poland,  Prussia  and  Scandinavia,  and  in  the  xtth 
century  Giegofy  Vn.  attempted  to  exact  it  fraai  Fi 


PETERWARDEIR— PETIS  DE  LA  CROIX 


305 


SfAdn.    Tbe  t»  WIS  fairly  regularly  patd  by  ttie  Engliab  Until 
1 534,  when  it  was  abolished  by  Henry  VIII. 

PBTIRWABDBIN  (Hung.  Petenaradt  S«rv.  Felrfftantdin), 
s  royal  free  town  and  fortttsB  of  Hungary  m  tbe  county  of 
Syrmia,  Croatia-SIavonia;  situated  on  a  promontory  formed 
by  a  loop  of  the  Danube,  62  m.  N.W.  of  Belgrade  by  raH.  Pop. 
(xgoo),  5019.  It  is  connected  with  Keusat£  on  the  opposite 
bank  by  a  bndge  of  boats,  a  railway  bridge  and  a  steam  feny. 
The  fortifications  consist  of  the  upper  fortress,  on  a  lofty  serpen- 
tine rock  ri^ng  abruptly  from  the  plain  on  three  sides,  and  of 
the  lower  fortress  at  the  northern  base  cf  the  rock.  The  two 
fortresses  can  accommodate  a  garrison  of  xo,ooo  men.  In  the 
lower  fortress  is  the  town,  with  a  military  hospital,  and  an 
arsenal  contafaiing  trophies  captured  from  the  Turks.  Peter- 
wardein,  the  "  Gibnltar  of  Hungary,'*  is  believed  to  represent 
die  Roinan  AcumincuMf  and  received  its  present  name  from 
Peter  the  Hermit,  who  here  in  X096  marshalled  the  levies  of  the 
first  crusade.  It  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1526  and  retained 
by  them  for  x6o  years.  In  X716  it  witnessed  a  isignal  defeat 
inflicted  on  the  Turks  by  Prince  Eugene.  During  the  revolu- 
tionary  struggles  of  1848-49  the  fortress  was  held  by  the 
insurgents  for  a  short  time. 

PBTHEIItICK,  JOHN  (1813-1882),  Wehh  traveUer  In  £ast 
Central  Africa,  was  bom  in  Glamorganshire,  and  adopted  the 
profession  of  mining  engineer.  In  1845  he  entered  the  service 
of  Mehemet  All,  and  was  employed  in  examining  Upper  Egypt, 
Nubia,  the  Red  Sea  coast  and  Kordofan  in  an  unsuccessful 
search  for  coal.  In  1848  Petherick  left  the  Egyptian  service 
and  established  himself  at  El  Obeid,  the  capKal  of  Kordofan, 
as  a  trader,  dealing  largely  in  gum  arabic.  He  was  at  the  same 
time  made  British  consular  agent  for  the  Sudan.  In  1853  he 
removed  to  Khartum  and  became  an  ivory  trader.  He  travelled 
extensively  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  region,  then  almost  unknown, 
exploring  the  Jur,  Yalo  and  other  affluents  of  the  Ghazal.  In 
1858  he  penetrated  to  the  Niam-Kiam  country.  His  additions 
to  the  knowledge  of  natural  history  were  considerable,  among 
bis  discoveries  being  the  Cobus  maria  (Mrs  Gray's  waterbuck) 
and  the  Balaeniceps  rex  (white-headed  stork).  Petherick 
returned  to  England  in  1859  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  J,  H.  Speke,  then  arranging  for  his  expedition  to  discover 
t  he  source  of  the  Nile.  While  in  Engbnd  Petherick  married,  and 
published  an  account  of  his  travels.  He  returned  to  the  Sudan 
in  i86x,  accompanied  by  his  wife  and  with  tbe  rank  of  consul. 
He  was  entrusted  with  a  mission  by  the  Royal  Geographical 
i?ocicty  to  convey  to  Gondokoro  relief  stores  for  Captains  Spcke 
and  Grant.  Petherick  got  boats  to  Gondokoro  in  X862,  but 
Speke  and  Grant  had  not  arrived.  Having  arranged  for  a 
native  force  to  proceed  south  to  get  in  touch  with  the  absentees, 
a  task  successfully  accomplished,  Mr  and  Mrs  Petherick  under- 
took another  journey  in  the  Bahr-el-Gha2al,  making  important 
collections  of  plants  and  fishes.  They  regained  Gondokoro 
(where  one  of  their  boats  with  stores  was  already  stationed) 
in  February  1863,  four  days  after  the  arrival  of  Speke  and  Grant, 
who  bad  meantime  accepted  the  hospitality  of  Mr  (afterwards 
Sir)  Samuel  Baker,  Tbe  charge  that  Petherick  failed  to  meet 
bis  engagement  to  those  traveller  is  unsubstantiated.  A 
further  charge  that  Petherick  had  countenanced  and  even  taken 
part  in  the  slave  trade  was  subsequently  shown  to  have  no  foun- 
dation (Petherick  in  fact  had  endeavoured  to  stop  the  traffic),  but 
it  led  Earl  RusscU^  then  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  to  abolish 
the  British  consulate  at  Khartum  (1864).  In  1865  the  Pethericks 
returned  to  England,  and  in  1869  published  Travis  in  CetUfal 
Africa  and  Exptoratiom  of  the  Western  NUe  Tributaries,  in 
which  book  are  set  out  the  details  of  the  Speke  controversy. 
Petherick  died  in  London,  on  the  1 5th  of  July  x88a.    . 

p£TION  DB  VILLENBUVB,  JERAME  (1756-1794)1  French 
writer  and  politician,  was  the  son  of  a  procurtwr  at  Chartres. 
He  became  an  avocat  in  1778,  and  at  once  began  to  tiy  to  make 
•  name  in  Uteraturc.  His  first  printed  work  was  an  essay,  Sur 
its  moyens  de  privenir  I' infanticide,  which  failed  to  gain  the 
prise  for  which  it  was  composed,  but  pleased  Brissot  so  much 
that  he  printed  it  in  vol.  vil  of  his  Bibtiotkigue  pkildsopkique 
JULI6 


des  legislateurs.  P£tion^  next  works,  Les  Lois  eifiUSf  and 
Essat  sur  le  mariage^  in  which  he  advocated  the  marriage  of 
priests,  confirmed  his  position  as  a  bold  reformer,  and  when 
the  elections  to  the  States-General  took  place  in  1789  he  was 
elected  a  deputy  to  the  Tiers  Etat  for  Chartres.  Both  in  the 
assembly  of  the  Tiers  £tat  and  in  the  Constituent  Assembly 
Pit  ion  showed  himself  a  radical  leader.  He  supported  Mirabeatt 
on  the  a3rd  of  June,  attacked  the  queen  on  the  5th  of  October* 
and  was  elected  president  on  the  4th  of  December  X790.  On 
the  15th  of  June  1791  he  was  elected  president  of  the  criminal 
tribunal  of  Paris.  On  the  atst  of  June  X79X  he  was  chosen  one 
of  (Jiree  commissioners  appointed  to  bxing  back  the  king  from 
Varennes,  and  he  has  left  a  fatuous  account  of  the  journey.  After 
the  last  meeting  of  the  assembly  on  the  30th  of  September  1791 
Robespierre  and  Potion  were  made  the  popxUar  heroes  and  were 
crowned  by  the  pofnilace  with  civic  crowns.  Potion  received 
a  still  further  proof  of  the  affection  of  the  Parisians  for  himself 
on  the  x6ih  of  November  X79X1  when  be  was  elected  second 
mayor  of  Paris  in  succession  to  Bailly.  In  his  mayoralty  he 
exhibited  clearly  his  republican  tendency  and  his  hatred  of  the 
c\d  xnonarchy>  eq>ecially  on  the  20th  of  June  1792.  when  ho 
allowed  the  mob  to  overrun  the  Tuilcries  and  insult  the  royal 
family.  For  neglecting  to  protect  the  Tuilcries  he  was  suspended 
from  his  functions  by  the  Directory  of  tbe  department  of  the 
Seine,  but  the  leaders  of  the  I^egislative  Assembly  felt  that 
Potion's  cause  was  theirs,  and  rescinded  the  suspension  on  the 
13th  of  July.  On  the  ^rd  of  August,  at  the  head  of  the  munici- 
pality of  PariSt  Pdtion  demanded  the  dethronement  of  the  kin& 
He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  for  Eure^t-Loir  and  became 
its  first  president*  L.  ?.  Manuel  had  the  folly  to  propose  that 
the  president  of  the  Assembly  should  have  tbe  same  authority 
as  the  president  of  the  United  States;  his  proposition  was  at 
once  rejected,  but  Potion  got  the  oicluuune  of  "  Roi  Potion,'* 
which  contributed  to  his  fall.  His  jealousy  of  Robespierre 
allied  him  to  the  Girondin  party,  with  which  he  voted  for  the 
king's  death  and  for  the  appeal  to  the  people.  He  was  elected 
in  March  1793  to  the  first  Committee  of  Public  Safety;  and  he 
attacked  Robespierre,  who  had  accused  him  of  haviqg  known 
and  having  kept  secret  Dumouriez's  project  of  treason.  His 
popularity  however  had  waned,  and  his  name  was  among  those 
of  the  twenty-two  Girondin  deputies  proscribed  on  the  2nd  of 
June.  P6Uon  was  one  of  those  who  escaped  to  Caen  and  raised 
the  standard  of  provincial  insurrection  against  the  Convention; 
and,  when  the  Norman  rising  failed,  he  fled  with  M.  E.  Guadc^t, 
F.  A.  Buzot,  C.  J.  M.  Barbaroux,  J.  B.  Salle  and  Louvet  de 
Couvrai  to  the  Gironde,  where  they  were  sheltered  by  a  wig- 
maker  of  Saint  Emilion.  At  last,  a  month  before  Robespierre's 
fall  in  June  1794,  the  escaped  deputies  felt  themselves  no  longer 
safe,  and  deserted  their  asylum;  Louvet  found  his  way  to  Paris, 
Salle  and  Guadet  to  Bordeaux,  where  they  were  soon  taken; 
Barbaroux  committed  suicide;  and  the  bodies  of  P£tion  and 
Buzot,  who  also  killed  themselves,  were  found  in  a  field,  half- 
eaten  by  wolves. 

See  Mimcires  inidils  de  PStion  et  mimoires  de  Btaat  €f  de  Bar- 
baroux,  accompaznis  de  notes  inidiies  de  Buaot  et  de  nmnhreux  docu* 
ments  inidUs  eur  Batbareux^  Buzot,  Brissot,  Sf<^  pricidis  d'aiM 
introduction  par  C.  A.  Dauhan  (Paria.  1866) ;  CSmrM  de  Pitiom 
{%  vols.,  1792);  F.  A.  Aulacd.  Les  Oroteurs  de  la  ConsUtmanU  (Paris. 
1882). 

ranS  DB  U  CROIX,  FRAN5OIS  (1653-17x3),  French 
Orientalist,  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1653.  He  was  son  of  the 
Arabic  interpreter  of  the  French  court,  and  inherited  this  office 
at  his  father's  death  in  1695,  afterwards  transmitting  it  to  his 
own  son,  Alexandre  Louis  Marie,  who  also  distinguished  himself 
in  Oriental  studies.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  by  Colbert  to 
the  East;  during  the  ten  years  he  spent  in  Syria,  Persia  and 
Turkey  he  mastered  Arabic,  Persian  and  Turkish,  and  also 
collected  rich  materials  for  future  writings.  He  served  a  short 
time  as  secretary  to  the  French  ambassador  in  Morocco,  and 
accompanied  as  interpreter  the  French  forces  sent  against 
Algiers,  contributing  to  the  satisfactory  settlement  of  the  treaty 
of  peace,  which  was  drawn  up  by  himself  in  Turkish  and  ratified 
in  1684.   He  conducted  the  negotiations  with  Tunis  and  Tripoli 

2a 


3o6 


PETIT-r-PETrnON 


in  1685,  and  tliase  with  BCorocco  in  1687;  and  iho  seal,  tact 
and  liogui^ic  knowledge  he  manifested  in  these  and  other 
transactions  with  Eastern  courts  were  at  last  rewarded  in 
1692  by  his  appointment  to  the  Arabic  chair  in  the  ColUge 
Royal  de  France^  which  he  filled  until  his  death  in  1713. 

He  published  Contes  lures  (Paris,  1707),  and  Les  Mille  et  un  jours 
(5  voU.,  Paris,  1710-1712);  an  Amunian  Dutionary  and  an  Account 
«y  Ethtofkia.  But  the  lasting  monument  of  his  literary  fame  b  his 
excellent  Freneh  version  of  Sharaf-uddtn  *Ali  Yaxdi  s  Za/Tdnidifia 
or  History  of  Ttmur  (completed  82S  a.h.;  a.ik.  1425),  which  was 

f'ven  to  the  world  nine  years  after  his  death  {^  vols..  Paris,  1722^ 
ng.  trans,  by  J.  Darby.  London,  1723).  This  work,  one  of  the 
rare  specimens  of  a  fairfjr  critical  history  Persia  can  boast  of,  was 
compiled  under  the  auspices  of  MirzA  Ibrilhtm  Sultftn,  the  son  of 
Sh&h  Rukh  and  grandson  of  the  great  TimOr.  The  only  error 
committed  by  Pdtis  de  la  Croix  in  bis  otherwise  very  correct  transla- 
tion is  that  he  erroneously  ascribed  the  important  share  which 
Ibr&him  Sult&n  had  in  the  Zafdrndma  to  TTmQr  himself. 

PffriT.  SIR  DINSHAW  HANECKJI.  Bart.  (1823-1961). 
Parsee  philanthropist,  was  bom  on  the  30th  of  June  1823.  As 
broker  to  European  firms  he  amassed  a  large  fortune  during 
the  period  of  speculation  in  Bombay  at  the  time  of  the  American 
Civil  War.  In  1886  he  became  a  member  of  the  govemor- 
general*s  legislative  council.  He  devoted  his  wealth  to  phOan- 
thropic  objects,  among  the  public  and  private  charities  which 
he  endowed  being  the  Towers  of  Silence  and  fire  temples  of  the 
Parsees,  a  hospital  for  animals,  a  college  for  women,  and  the 
Petit  hospital.  He  was  knighted  in  1887,  created  a  baronet 
in  1890,  and  died  in  February  190X. 

PETIT    DE    JUUEVILLE.     LOUIS     (1841-1900),    French 

scholar,  was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  1 8th  of  July  1841.    Educated 

at  the  £cole  Normale  Su()€rieure,  and  at  the  French  school  at 

Athens,  he  received  his  doctorate  in  literature  in  1868.    After 

holding  various  posts  as  a  teacher  he  became  professor  of  French 

medieval  literature  and  of  the  history  of  the  French  language 

in  the  university  of  Paris  in  x886.    He  died  on  the  28th  of 

August  1906. 

Hit  most  important  works  are:  Histoiro  du  tUAlro  en  Framu, 
including  L€s  Mysttres  (2  vok.,  1880):  Les  Comidiens  en  France  au 
moyen  age  (1885);  La  ComUU  et  les  maws  en  France  au  moyen 
dge  (t886);  Rtptrtoire  du  iMdtre  comupte  en  France  au  moyen  Age 
(1886);  and  Le  Tktdtre  en  France^  kisUnre  de  la  litHrature  dramatize 
defmis  set  origines  jusqa^d  nos  jours  (1889).  Petit  de  JulleviUc 
was  also  the  general  editor  of  the  Histoire  d«  la  laugue  el  de  la 
Huiroiure  fran^aise  (8  voU„  1896-1900)1  to  which  be  himself  con- 
tributed some  valuable  chapters. 

PETITION  (Lat.  for  "seeking"  or  "praying"),  a  tcnn 
meaning  generally  a  prayerful  request,  and  in  its  more  important 
constitutional  aspect  an  application  for  redresa  by  a  person 
aggrieved  to  an  authority  capable  of  relieving  him.  It  may  be 
made  in  the  United  Kingdom  to  the  Crown  or  its  officers,  or  to 
either  house  of  parliament,  or  in  certain  cases  to  courts  of 
justice. 

PeiUians  to  the  Cr<nwt.— The  right  of  petitioning  the  Crown 
was  recognized  indirectly  as  early  as  Magna  Carta  in  the  famous 
clause,  NuUi  vendemus^  nuUi  negabimus  aut  di/ercmus,  rectum 
vd  justitiam  (25  Edw.  I.  c.  29),  and  directly  at  various  periods 
later,  e.g.  in  the  articles  of  the  Commons  assented  to  by  Henry 
IV,,  by  which  the  king  was  to  assign  two  days  in  the  week  for 
petitions  {Rot.  Pari.  8  Hen.  IV.,  p.  585).  The  case  of  the  seven 
bbhops  in  1688  confirmed  the  right,  and  finally  the  Bill  of  Rights 
hi  1689  deckred  "  that  it  is  the  right  of  the  subjects  to  petition 
the  king,  and  all  CQmmitments  and  prosecutions  for  such  petition- 
ing are  illegal."  Petitions  to  the  Crown  appear  to  have  been  at 
first  for  the  redress  of  private  and  local  grievances,  or  for  remedies 
which  the  courts  of  law  could  not  grant  (May,  Pari.  Pr.^  txth  ed., 
523).  As  equity  grew  into  a  system,  petitions  of  this  kind  not 
seeking  legislative  remedies  tended  to  become  superseded  by  bills 
in  chancery.  Statutes  were  originally  drawn  up  by  the  judges 
at  the  dose  of  the  session  of  parliament  from  the  petitions  of  the 
Commons  and  the  answers  of  the  Crown.  Under  this  system  of 
drafting  It  was  found  that  the  tenor  of  the  petition  and  answ6r 
Were  not  always  stated  correctly.  To  obviate  this  inconvenience 
demands  for  legislation  came  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  to  be 
drawn  up  in  the  form  of  bills  which  the  Crown  could  accept  or 
teject».but  could  not  alter  (see  Anson,  hsw  and  Custom  oj  tker 


ComstUutien,  3rd.  ed.,  vol.  i.  p,  341)*  In  the  same  icign  the 
words  "  by  authority  of  parliament  "  were  added  to  the  word*  of 
enactment,  and  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIL  pubhc  legislation 
has  been  by  bill  and  not  by  petition.  A  relic  of  the  old  form  of 
statute  founded  upon  petition  still  remains  however  in  the 
preamble  of  Appropriation  Acts  and  other  statutes  creating  a 
charge  upon  the  pubhc  revenue.  It  runs  thus:  **  We,  your 
majesty's  most  dutiful  and  loyal  subjects,  the  Commons  of  the 
United  Kingdom  ...  do  most  humbly  beseech  your  majesty 
that  it  may  be  enacted;  and  be  it  enacted,"  &c.,  from  this  point 
following  the  enaaing  words  common  to  all  statutes.  The 
Crown  may  refer  petitions  presented  to  it  to  be  adjudicated  upon 
by  a  delegated  authority.  This  course  is  pursued  in  the  case  of 
claims  to  peerages  and  offices  of  honour,  which  are  referred  to  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  by  that  hous^  to  its  committee  for  privi- 
leges, and  in  the  case  of  petitions  to  the  Crown  in  council,  which 
are  usuaUy  referred  to  the  judicial  committee.  The  Crown  may 
delegate  the  power  of  receiving  petitions  in  the  first  instance. 

Petitions  to  Parliament. — Petitions  to  either  h<iuse  of  the 
legislature  seem  to  have  been  later  in  origin  than  petitions 
to  the  Crown.  They  are  not  referred  to  in  the  Bill  of  Rights,  but 
the  right  of  petition  is  a  convention  of  the  constitution.  Petitions 
to  the  Lords  or  the  whole  parliament  can  be  traced  back  to  Henry 
IU.1  No  petition  to  the  Commons  has  been  found  eairiier  than 
Richard  II.;  but  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  petitions  to  the 
Commons  have  been  freely  made.  The  political  importance  of 
petitioning  dales  from  about  the  reign  of  Charles  L  The  develop* 
ment  of  the  practice  of  petitioning  had  proceeded  so  fa<-  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  IL  as  to  lead  to  the  passing  in  1662  ot  an  act 
(13  Car.  II.  c.  5)  against  "  tumultuous  petitioning,"  which  is 
still  on  the  statute  book.  It  provides  that  no  petition  or  address 
shall  be  presented  to  the  king  or  either  house  of  parliament  by 
more  than  ten  persons;  nor  shall  any  one  procure  above  twenty 
persons  to  consent  or  set  their  hands  to  any  petition  for  alteration 
of  matters  established  by  law  in  church  or  slate,  unless  with  the 
previous  order  of  three  justices  of  the  county,  or  the  major  part 
of  the  grand  jury.  And  in  1817  (57  Geo.  III.  c  19,  s.  23) 
meetings  within  a  mile  from  Westminster  Hall  for  the  purpose  of 
considering  a  petition  to  both  houses  or  either  house  of  parlia- 
ment while  either  house  is  sitting  were  declared  to  be  unlawful 
assemblies.  Up  to  x688  petitions  to  either  house  usually  dealt 
only  with  some  specific  grievance.  From  that  time  dates  the 
present  practice  of  petitioning  with  regard  to  general  measures 
of  public  policy.  Petitions  to  the  Houses  of  Lords  or  Commoia 
must  be  framed  in  the  form  prescribed  by  the  standing  orders, 
must  be  properly  superscribed,  and  must  conclude  with  a  prayer* 
(May,  Pari.  Pr,^  xith  ed.,  524,  525).  They  may  be  sent  free  by 
post  to  members  of  either  house  if  they  fulfil  certain  conditions 
as  to  weight,  &c,  {joe.  cit.  p.  531). 

Petitions  to  the  Commons  must  be  in  writing,  must  contain 
none  but  genuine  signatures,  and  must  be  free  from  disrespectful 
language  or  imputations  upon  any  tribunal  or  constituted  authority. 
Thev  must  be  presented  by  a  member  of  the  house,  except  petitions 
to  the  House  of  Commons  from  the  corporation  of  London,  whidi 
may  be  presented  at  the  bar  by  the  sheriffs,  and  from  the  oorponi- 
tion  oi  Dublin,  which  may  be  presented  by  the  lord  mayor.  There 
is  no  means  of  competling  a  member  to  present  a  petition.  The 
rules  as  to  petitions  to  the  House  of  Lords  are  similar.  The  lord 
who  preaencs  a  f>ctition  is  required  to  read  it  td  see  whether  in  fonas 
and  contents  it  is  fit  for  presentation.  In  the  Lords  receivers  axwl 
triers  of  petitions  from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  from  Gascony 
and  the  lands  and  countries  beyond  the  sea  were  appointed  until 
1886,  though  their  functions  had  long  been  obsolete.  Applicacions 
for  leave  to  bring  before  either  hooae  bills  for  private  or  kcal  and 
personal  matters  must  under  the  standing  orders  of  both  houaea 
be  nude  by  petition ;  and  the  same  rule  <^tains  as  to  applications 
for  leave  to  be  heard  in  opposition  to  such  bills. 

See  Gifford,  Hishfy  of  PrivaU  Bitt  Legishiion  (1B87);  May. 
Part.  Pr„  (nth  ed.),  c.  xxv. 

Petitions  la  Courts  of  Justicc^Sttictly  speaking,  these  are  an 
indirect  mode  of  petitioning  the  Crown,  for  in  the  theoty  of 
English  law  the  Crown  is  the  fountain  of  justice.  But  it  h  more 
conveaietat  to  treat  them  separately,  as  they  now  form  a  part  of 
the  practice  of  the  courts.  Appeals  to  the  House  of  Lords  and 
the  privy  council  are  prosecuted  by  petition  of  appeaL  _  The 


prriTTO  PRINCIPII 


307 


original  jurisdiction  of  the  pnvy  council  to  deal  with  petitions 
is  confined  to  proceedings  under  certain  statutes,  such  as  the 
Endowed  Schools  Acts,  the  Public  Schools  Acts,  the  Universities 
Acts  and  the  Patents  Acts.  In  most  cases  the  petitions  are 
referred  to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  coundL  Petitions  may 
be  addressed  to  the  lord  chanceUor  in  a  few  instances,  e,g.  fcur 
the  removal  of  coroners  or  county  court  judges.  Tbe- House  of 
Lords  at  one  time  claimed  original  jurisdiction  in  dvil  and 
criminal  matters.  As  to  dvil  matters  the  claim  is  abandoned; 
as  to  criminal  matters  it  is  now  limited  to  impeachment  for 
crimcL  by  the  Commons  on  the  trial  for  treason  or  felony  of 
persons  having  privilege  of  peera^. 

The  roost  iiQportant  use  of  petitions  in  England  b  iA  the  High 
Court  of  Justice.  In  the  chancery  division  petitions  are  presented 
either  as  interlocutory  proceedinss  in  the  course  of  an  action,  or  as 
original  proceedings  where  no  Uti^tion  exists— as  being  a  more 
»pcedy  form  of  remedy  than  an  action.  The  cases  in  which  a  pcti* 
tion  is  admissible  and  the  procedure  therein,  are  in  the  main  regu- 
lated by  orders  53  and  55  of  the  rules  of.the  supreme  court.  Evidence 
in  support  of  petitions  is  usually  by  ai&davit.  Petitions  in  the 
course  of  an  action  are  presented  to  the  court  in  which  the  action 
is  brouffht.  Examples  of  original  petitions  are  those  under  the 
Lands  Clauses  Acts,  the  Trustee  Acts  and  the  Companies  Acts. 
For  many  prooeedings  under  these  acts  a  staspler  and  cheaper 
form  of  proceeding  by  mmimons  has  been  substituted  for  that  by 
petition.  Tbe  matters  above-mentioned  are  usually  dealt  with  by 
the  chancery  division  as  successor  of  the  court  of  chancery.  Peti- 
tions are  also  in  use  in  other  courts  having  etiuitable  junsdictioR. 
e.g.  the  chancery  courts  of  the  counties  palatine  of  Lancaster  and 
Durham  and  the  county  courts  aa  to  cases  falling  within  §  67  of 
the  County  Courts  Act  1888,  and  as  to  cases  within  county  court 
iuriadiction  under  the  Settled  Land  Acts  or  the  Guardianship  of 
Infants  Act  1886  (County  Court  Rules,  O.  38).  In  a  few  cases 
petitions  may  be  brought  by  way  of  appeal,  r.f .  under  the  Charitable 
Trusts  Act  186a     In  the  king's  bench  division  the  only  use  of 

Kitkiu  appears  to  be  to  initiate  proceedings  in  bankmpccy. 
ive  to  ttie  inJormd  pauperis  used  to  be  given  on  petition  but  is 
now  usually  dealt  with  summarily.  In  the  probate,  &c.,  division 
proceedings  In  matrimonial  causes,  ftc,  are  begun  by  oetition,  but 
the  course  of  the  proceedings  closely  resembles  those  of  an  ordinary 
action. 

Se^hnd* — In  Scotland  petitions  in  the  Court  of  Session  are  cither 
original  or  in  a  j>ending  action.  Original  petitions  are  presented 
to  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  inner  house,  unless  they  relate  to 
matters  mentioned  in  20  &  21  Vict.  c.  56,  s^  4,  when  they  are  brought 
before  the  junior  lord  ocdmary,  or  unless,  by  special,  atatutoiy  pro- 
vision, they  may  be  brought  before  any  lord  ordinary,  as  in  the  case 
of  petitions  under  the  Conjugal  Rights  (Scotbnd}  Amendment 
Act  1861,"  or  the  Trusts  (Scotland)  Act  1867.  A  Milian  and 
compiaint  is  a  process  of  a  quatt-crimtnal  nature  by  which  certain 
matters  of  summary  and  extraordinary  jurisdiction  are  brought 
under  the  notice  of  the  Court  of  Session.  U  lies  against  magistrates 
and  officers  of  the  law  for  breach  of  duty  against  parties  guilty 
of  contempt  of  court,  &c.  The  concurrence  of  the  lord  advocate 
is  necessary  to  a  petition  and  complaint  (see  Mackay,  Court  af 
Sestion  PraeHce,  ii.  439). 

/r^fafid.— 'The  law  01  Ireland  as  to  petitions  is  in  substance  the 
same  as  that  of  England  with  certain  differences  of  detail  as  to  the 
cases  in  which  petitions  may  be  made  to  courts  of  justice. 

United  States.— 'In  the  United  States  before  the  Civil  War  questions 
arose  as  to  the  right  of  petitioninjs  Congress,  particularly  with  refer- 
ence to  petitions  for  the  restriction  of  slavery  which  at  that  tu.Ye 
was  contended  to  be  a  matter  of  state  and  not  of  federal  concern 
(see  Cooley.  Constitutional  Limitations,  6th  ed.,  1890,  426).  The 
right  of  petitioning  the  United  States  government  is  now  secured 
try  the  first  amcnoment  to  the  United  States  constitution  (ratified 
in  I789>i7^i),  which  provides  that  "  Congress  shall  make  no  law 
,  .  .  abridging  «  .  .  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble 
and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  gnevances.*'  In 
the  view  of  the  Supreme  Court  this  amendment  "assumes  the 
existence  of  the  right  of  the  people  to  ai^mble  for  lawful  purposes 
and  protects  it  against  encroachment  by  Congress. .  The  right  was 
not  created  by  the  amendment:  neither  was  its  continuance 
guaranteed  except  as  against  congressional  interference.  Tor  their 
protection  in  its  enjoyment,  therefore,  the  pcopk^  must  look  to  the 
states.  The  power  for  that  purpose  was  originally  placed  there, 
and  has  never  been  surrendered.  The  right  of  the  people  peaccnbly 
to  assemble  for  the  purpose  of  Oetitiomng  Congress  for  a  rvdress 
of  grievances,  or.  for  anything  else  connected  with  the  powers  or 
duties  of  the  national  covernment  is  an  attribute  of  national  citizen- 
ship, and  as  such  under  the  protection  of  and  guaranteed  by  the 
United  States.  The  very  idea  of  a  government  republican  in  form 
implies  a  right  00  the  part  of  its  citiscns  to  meet  peaceably  for 
OMisultatioa  in  respect  to  pubhe  affairs  and  to  petition  for  a  redrBss 
of  grievances"  (C/.5.  v.  Cruiksharik,  1 875;  92  U.S.  542,  552), 

A  Bill  of  Riehts  is  incorporated  in  the  constitutions  of  many 
states  of  the  Union,  and  u  made  part  of  the  supreme  law  of 


the  states  (lee  Hoogh,  AwmiiOM  C9nstituU»n»t  il,  ^71).  Petitions 
can  be  presented  to  the  federal  or  state  courts  of  justice  under  much 
the  same  drcumstanccs  as  in  Ensbnd.  "It  is  a  general  rule  la 
such  cases  that  an  affidavit  should  be  made  that  the  facts  therein 
contained  arc  true  as  far  as  known  to  the  petitioner,  and  that  those 
facts  which  he  states  as  knowing  from  others  he  believes  to  be  true  ** 
(Bouvier,  Low  Did,). 

British  Possessions. — ^Thcre  is  a  right  of  petition  to  the  king  for 
the  review  of  decisions  (in  matters  criminal  or  civil)  of  courts  <^ 
justice  in  the  Channel  Islands  or  Ide'of  Man,  and  in  all  other  parts 
of  the  empire  outside  the  British  islands  and  of  British  courts  in 
foreign  countries.  This  mbt  is  cut  down  by  imperial  or  colonial 
k>gisfation  in  the  case  of  (Tanada  and  Austxafia,  see  Tarring,  Law 
Relating  to  Colonies  (3rd  ed.,  1906)  c.  v. 

The  term  Petition  of  Right,  in  English  law,  is  used  in  two  senses, 
(i)  It  denotes  the  statute  of  1625  (3  Car.  I.  c.  i),  a  parUamentary 
declaration  of  the  liberties  of  the  people.  (2)  It  also  and  more 
usually  is  employed  to  describe  a  mode  of  prosecuting  a  daim  by 
a  subject  against  the  Crown,  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  Edward  L 
Petition  of  right  in  this  sense  lies  (a)  to  obtain  restitution  of  real 
or  personal  property  of  the  subject  which  has  found  its  way  into 
the  hands  of  the  Crown,  or  compensation  if  restitution  cannot  be 
made;  (i^)  to  recover  damages  for  breach  of  a  contract  made  on 
behalf  of  the  Crown,  whether  the  breach  is  due  to  the  acts  or  tbe 
omissions  of  servants  of  the' Crown.  Where  the  Crown  is  In 
possession  of  property  of  the  suppliant,  and  the  title  of  the  Crown 
ai^jears  by  record,  as  by  inquest  of  office,  the  remedy  is  somewhat 
different  and  is  called  numslraus  de  droit.  Petition  of  right  doc^ 
not  lie  in  respect  of  engagements  in  the  naval,  military  or  civU 
service  of  tbe  Crown,  which  are  as  a  general  rule  made  "  during 
pleasure,"  nor  for  breach  of  public  duty,  e.g.  failure  to  perform 
treaty  obligations,  nor  for  trespass  or  negligence  or  other  torts 
by  Crown  servants.  Where  such  acts  are  wrongful  the  remedy  is 
by  action  against  the  official  as  an  individual  and  not  in  his 
official  capacity  {Raleigh  v.  Goschen,  1898,  L.R.  x  ch.  73). 

-  The  procedure  on  a  petition  of  r^t  is  either  at  oonunon  ^w  or 
by  statute.  At  common  law  the  petition  went  through  its  earliest 
stages  in  the  chancery.  It  suggests  such  a  right  as  controverts  the 
title  of  the  Crown,  and  the  (Trown  endorses  upon  the  petition  Soil 
droit  fait  al  partie.  Thereupon  a  commission  Is  issued  to  inquire 
Into  the  truth  of  the  sunestion.  After  the  return  to  the  eomnission, 
the  attorney-general  pteads  or  demurs,  and  the  merits  are  then 
determined  as  in  actions  between  subject  and  subject.  If  the 
right  be  determined  against  the  Crown,  judgment  of  amoveas  manus 
is  given  in  favour  of  the  suppliant.  The  Petitran  of  Right  Act 
i860  (at  A  24  Vict.  c.  34,  extended  to  Ireland  in  1873,  36  &37 
Vict.  c.  99)  preserves  to  the  suppliant  his  right  to  proceed  at  common 
law,  but  gives  an  alternative  remedy.  Tne  procedure  is  regulated 
by  the  act  of  i860,  and  as  to  England  also  by  rules  made  under 
that  act  on  the  ist  of  February  1802.  The  petition  is  left  with  the 
secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department  for  the  consideration 
of  his  nM|esty.  who  if  h^  thinks  fit  eiants  his  fiat  that  right  be  done. 
Tbe  fiat  m  sealed  in  the  home  ofnce  and  issued  to  the  suppliant 
who  files  it  in  the  central  office  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  and 
a  scaled  copy  Is  served  upon  the  solicitor  to  the  treasury,  with  a 
demand  for  a  plea  or  answer  on  behalf  of  the  Crown.  The  subse- 
quent proceedings  Including  those  as^  to  disdosang  relevant  docu- 
ments are  assimilated  as  far  as  possible  to  those  in  an  ordinary 
action.  A  judgment  in  favour  of  the  suppliant  is  equivalent  to 
a  judgment  of  amoveas  manus  ouster  li  matn.  Costs  are  payable 
to  and  by  the  Crown.  A  petition  of  right  »  usually  tried  in  the 
chancery  or  king's  bench  divisions;  but  where  the  subject'iaatter 
of  the  petition  arises  out  of  the  exercise  of  belligerent  rights  on 
behalf  of  the  Crown,  or  would  be  cognizable  in  a  prize  court  if  the 
matter  were  in  dispute  between  private  persons,  the  suppliant  may 
at  his  option  intitule  his  petition  in  tbe  admiralty  division,  and  the 
lord  chancelkM*  may  direct  the  prcBCCurion  in  that  division  of  pet*> 
tions  of  right  under  the  act  ot  i860  even  when  they  are  not  so 
intituled  (27  &  28  Vict,  c*  25>  s.  52). 

The  law  as  to  petition  oi  right  applies  to  Ireland  but  not  to 
Scotbnd,  and  a  neht  to  present  such  a  petition  appeani  t»  exist 
in  colonies  whose  urw  is  based  on  the  comrnon  law  of  England. 
But  in  many  cdonies  legislation  has  been  pasred  with  respect  to 
suits  a^inst  government  which  makes  it  unnecessary  to  kesort  to 
a  petition  of  right. 

PETinO  PRUfCIPIL  or  Beccinc  the  Queshon  (Gr.  t^  Ir 
itpxv  Xa^&vsur,  r^  U  ^fiX^  olruaBai),  in  logic,  the  fourth  of 
Aristotle's  fallacies  ifyf  rv  ^^itus  or  extra  iictionem.  Strictly 
this  fallacy  belongs  to  the  language  of  disputation,  when  the 
questsooer  aedts  {ptiify  to  get  his  adversary  to  admit  the.  very 
matter  in  question.  Hence  the  word  princtpium  gives  a  wrong 
impression,  for  the  fallacy  consists  not  in  seeking  fo^  th« 


JoS 


:  PETITOT— PETO  , 


vdmb^n  ol  i  principtt  whkli  wilt  confutt  t 
po^lJDo~ii  pcrlKlly  Lcgilimalc  lom  of  rrCuLal 
the  advMSAiy  inia  conicuing  the  csntradictory 
"  begging  thff  qutsl^ 


beprcau 


FETITVT,  JEAH  (i6oS'i6< 
wu  bom  Bl  Geneva 


ohicb  it 


rgundmi  tanuly  which  hi 
Ji  dilEculiic*.  His  iiXhi 
FauDe,  iru  *  wood  ctrvei;  hii  mother'i  nimc  wu  Ciiioti 
KoyiDDM.  Jean  wu  Ihe  ibunh  un,  and  was  ■ppnnliccd  lo 
jmlltf  gol^mllh  nimcd  Piene  Bocdirr,  with  whom  be  ilrudi 
Dp  a  close  {liendship.  The  two  (ricnds.  disutisGcd  with  thi 
progress  ibey  made  In  Geneva,  went  Into  France,  and  aitei 
working  for  a  whHc  wfLh  Toulin  csnic  lo  England  with  lelien 
of  inlroduclion  lo  Turquet  *  Maycm,  phyjidan  lo  Chatlei  I  , 
who  pmenictt  ihem  lo  ibc  king,  lor  whom  ihey  mide  a  SI 
Gairge  (or  Ihe  badge    ' 


»  for  pi 


ongji  01 


large  « 


r(ptr«niJng  Racbd  de  Ruvigny, 

at  Chiliworth.  and  Mary  Villkn,  duchCM  ol  Richmond 

Lennoi,  dated  164^.  at  one  lime  in  ibe  possession  o(  the  Crown 

and  now  in  ihc  Ticrponl  Morgan  collcclian.    On  Ibe  c 

Ihe  king.  Pclilol  lefl  England  for  Paris  with  Ihe  royal 

commissions  for  CnunwcU  and  Ihe  parliament.  On  reaching 
Paris.  Pftiiot  entered  into  panncishlp  ndih  a  Roldsmilh,  Jacqun 
BordJM.  a  cousin  of  Pierre,  and  il  seems  probable  from  recent 
research  in  contemporary  documents  ibat  Ihe  enamel  portrait) 
atliibulcd  to  Pctilol  weie  really  the  work  of  the  lira  pannen 
collaboraling,  the  actual  drawing  being  Ihe  work  of  Pflilot, 
while  [or  the  cnanci  process  Bordicr  was  mainly  responsible. 
iTie  two  painters  were  given  apartmenlj  in  the  Louvre,  received 
nuracnus  commissions  from  Louis  XIV,,  and  painted  portniis 
of  alnosl  every  penon  of  importance  In  his  brilliant  court.    The 


fiieni 


only  pul 
■pecia]  poUlica 


ir  Ihirl: 


-aclically  regarded  as 


lor  Ihe  republic  of 
le  olTidal  reprcsenlaiivn  of 
me  repuDUc.  receiving  warm  tnaniis  from  Ihe  Syndics  (0 
dJplomilic  work.  On  the  [evocation  of  Ihe  Edict  of  ^ 
iMs.  pressure  was  bioughi  10  bear  upon  Peliiot  thai  he 
change  his  leKgion.  The  king  pnxecled  hint  19  long  as  possible, 
■nd  when  he  was  arrested,  wilh  hia  niece,  Anne  Bordicr,  sent 


bl>  wayj.   Eventually,  in  poor  health 

nd  gical  despair.  Pctilol 

placed  bii  tignalure  to  u  act  of  abj 

ration,  and  Louia  XIV  , 

unwming  to  acknowledge  the  tnie 

eason  for  the  imprison- 

mem  of  Pctilot  and  for  his  liberation. 

nformedoneofbhsons. 

who  came  10  thank  him  lor  the  pardo 

given  to  his  father,  thai 

who  desired  to  be  buried  with  his  an 
Petitot  lell  Paris  lo  return  lo  C 
inquiry,  was  absolved  by  the  ( 


with  "  the  whim  of  u 


portraits  of  hit 
ol  pitalysi)  01 


lack  to  the  Huffueoot  communion  in  the  chu 
In  Geneva  he  received  a  very  importaitl 
John  Sobieski,  king  of  Polan'       ' 


I.  Tliisi 


dlollowcdbynumbcr- 
curied  out.    He  died 


s  which  the  pai 

d  of  April  1601.  wniie  in  ine  very  aci  oi 
punting  on  the  enamel  a  portrait  of  his  faithful  wife. 

Peliiot  married  in  i6ji  yiaiguerite  Cupcr,  and  Jaccjuci 
Bordier  marned  in  the  same  year  her  younger  sister  Anne 
Madeleine.  He  had  seventeen  chUdrcn,  and  for  their  .benefit 
wrote  out  a  little  oclavo  volume  containing  some  genealocical 
information,  two  delightful  portiails,  one  of  himself  and  one  ol 
his  wife,  and  many  pages  occupied  wilh  prayen,  meditllions 
and  tlli^us  advice.  He  also  prepared  a  lecond  manuscript 
volume  of  pmyers  and  meditations  for  the  tur  of  hia  lamilv,  ind 
from  these  two  hooks  and  the  recotds  of  the  Huguenot  lodnies 
nl  France  and  En|>land  informilJan  baa  been  obuistd  Topeding 
Uie  painter  and  his  fanuly. 


H  the  motf  imnortanl  collectian  it  in  the 
Jc  'iciona  and  Albert '  Mtueun.     Tberv  BJV 

ai  au  of  Eail  Bcauchamp,  the  duke  of  Rut- 
la  nond,  the  cari  of  Daniry.  Me  Alfied  de 
R  le  Barsncaa  Butdeti-Couits.  Amongst 
Ij  >  BR  fwnnits  of  Petllol  and  of  hii  aon. 
SI  an  PeliuM  Ibc  youaccr.  A  kaxjoi!  portraiB 
ol  kt  queen  of  Hi^Dd.  and  another  ilia  the 
o:  r  Slrochlio  of  Geneva.     In  Mr  Pieipont 

bl  .--.,-  -  -  awinis  on  paper,  Ihe  mly  three  which 
appar  In  havp  aurvived.  and  Ihe  Unro  lifHed  miBBiurv  of  the 
duebcH  of  Richmovd  already  menlioiwd,  the  lugcA  vnck  Pnltoc 

See  PtlOalil Bariia.  by  EmcB  Sliochlin  (Geneva,  1005I ;  "Some 
Ne-  Inloimalion  nspeclini  Jean  Pctilol,"  by  C.  C.  WiUiaiMon. 
ATiiirlBiU*  Cmltry  a*d  Allri  (January   1908).  pp.  oS-iio:  ihe 

Kvaiely   prined    Calalaiu   cj  UK   CclMian   »/  Ur   J.   PvTlml 
I'pm.  vol  iii.:  Tki  lliBorj  o/  Pnlrail  ilimUva,  by  G,  C 
WUliammn,  vol.  iL  (London.  190^).  (G.  C.  W.) 

ranrOT,  jean  LODU  (iftsr-c.  njo),  French  enamd 
painter,  was  Ilic  eldest  son  of  Jean  Pelitol  (g.e.).  and  wa« 
inslrucled  in  enamelling  by  his  father.  Some  nf  his  works  so 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  elder  PetilM  that  it  is  diSculI  to 
distinguish  between  Ihem.  and  he  was  really  the  only  serious 
rival  his  father  ever  had.    He  settled  for  a  while  in  London, 


iiiSsswi 


J683.    Anoiher  portrait  bplieved  to  represent  h 


ling  of  aboard  perfon 


played  with  a  mechanical  dc 

independently  on  its  own  a»%  figures  of  jocLeys  on  horseback, 
distinguished  by  numbera  ot  cokiuis.  The  byslandeis  h>vin( 
slaked  their  money  accoidfng  to  their  diofce  on  a  boatd  marked 
in  divisions  for  this  purpose,  the  hones  are  started  levolving 
rapidly  together  by  means  of  mechanism  attAchnl  to  the  board, 
■nd  the  hone  which  stops  neireat  a  marked  goal  wina,  ev«ry 

ke  the  plac«  of  bones.    In  recent  yean  there  has  been  a  len- 

aicy  to  aupplanl  Ibe  (ie(i(i  tjbewmi  at  French  resorts  by  Ihe  i»W* 

'  ball  game,  on  the  same  principle  of  gambling;  in  Ihia  a  hall 

rolled  on  a  basin-shaped  ubic  so  that  il  may  evenloally  aettle 

one  of  a  number  of  shallow  cups,  each  marked  wilh  a  figure. 

PETO.  SIB  SAMOEL  HORTON.  B»T.  (i8oiriSS«I,  English 

tntraclor,  was  bomal  Woking.  Surrey,  on  liie  4th  of  Aogust 

[00,  and  was  at  an  early  age  apprenllced  lo  his  uncle,  a  Londoa 

lilder,  who  on  his  death  in  1830  bequeathed  Ihe  businen  to 

rto  and  another  nephew.  Thonua  Gtiisell.     The  panneishiii 

!lwcen  Pcio  and  Grissell  lasted  till  1846,  amon^i  Ibe  maiay 

London  buildings  erected  by  the  firm  being  the  Reform  Club,  the 

Lyceum  and  St  James's  Ihcalies.  and  Ibe  Nelson  column.    Pets 

'    rwards  enlcted  into  pailnenhip  with  Edward  Ladd  Bctti 

5-1871),  and  between  1B46  and  i8ji  Measrt  Peto  ft  Belli 

icd  out  many  large  railway  contncts  at  home  and  abnad, 

ibly  the  more  important  portions  of  the  South-EasterB  and 

of  Ihe  London  Chatham  !i  Dover  lines,  and,  in  conjundka 

with  Thomas  Brasscy.  the  Gtuid  Trunk  railway  ol  Canada,  and 

Ibe    London    Tilbury  &  Southend    railway.     In    iIm-iS}; 

Pclo  aad  Brasiey  constructed  a  railway  in  ihc  Crimea  between 

Babclava  and  the  British  enttcnchments  before  Sebaslopol, 

:harging  the  British  governmenl  only  the  actual  out-of-pocket 


orhisiei 


Liberal  in  1S47,  and, 
■rilb  a  lew  years'  interval,  continued  there  till  iSfiS,  when,  hi* 
irm  having  been  compelled  10  suspend  payment  in  the  fiiunciiil 
rrisb  of  it66,  he  vaa  forced  to  resign  his  seal,  Ihouffc  bolh  Mr 
Disraeli  and  Mr  Oladslone  publicly  nikfiied  hk  pcnonal 
^tactcr.    He  died  on  the  ijth  of  Novcmb^  1889, 


PETOFI-rPETRA 


S09 


VROfU  AUtXAWPBE  (xSas-iSfp),  Hmgazaan  lyric  poet, 

was  born  al  Kis-K6rdsd«  Pest  coiinty,  on  New  Year's  Day,  1833. 

The  (amfly  received  its  diploma  of  nobiUly  from  the  emperor 

Leopold  m  16SS,  but  the  ultra-patriotic  Alexander  early  chaogpd 

the  old  family  name,  Petrovics,  which  pointed  to  a  Croatian 

origin,  into  the  purely  Magyar  form  of  Pet6fi.    The  lad's  early 

days  were  q>ent  at  Filegyhiz  and  StahadvyilUt,  the  most 

Hungarian  parts  of  Hungary,  where  he  got  most  of  his  ^arly 

education,  including  a  good  grounding  in  Latin.    G«nnan  he 

learnt  subsequently  at  Pesth,  and  French  he  taught  himself 

He  began  writing  verses  in  his  twelfth  year,  while  a  student  at  the 

Asz6d  gymnasium,  where  he  also  disphyed  a  strong  predilection 

for  the  stage,  to  the  disgust  of  his  rigorous  father,  who  formally 

disowned  his  son,  early  in  183Q,  for  some  trifling  peccadillo,  and 

whose  tyrannical  temper  became  downright  furious  when  a 

series  of  misfortunes  ruined  him  utterly  in  1840.    For  the  next 

three  years  PetSfi  led  the  wretched  life  of  a  strolling  player, 

except  for  a  brief  interval  when,  to  escape  starvation,  he  enlisted 

as  a  common  soldier  in  an  infantry  regiment.   During  the  greater 

part  of  1843  we  find  him  a  student  at  the  Calvinist  College  at 

Pipi,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  young  J6kai,  and  wrote 

the  poem  **  Boroz6,"  which,  the  great  critic  Bajza  at  once  inserted 

in  the  leading  literary  review,  the  Athenaeum  (May  22, 1842).  In 

November  of  the  same  year  the  restless  poet  quitted  P&p&  to 

join  another  travelling  troupe,  playing  on  one  occasion  the  Fool 

in  King  Lear,  and  after  wandering  all  over  Hungary  and  suffering 

incredible  hardships;  finally  settled  down  at  Pesth  (1844),  where 

for  a  time  he  supported  himself  by  all  sorts  of  literary  hack-work. 

Nevertheless,  in  the  midst  of  his  worst  privations  he  had  read 

voraciously,  and  was  at  this  time  profoimdly  influenced  by  the 

dominant  Romanticism  of  the  day;  while,  through  Tteck,  he 

learnt  to  know  and  value  the  works  of  Shakespeare.    His  first 

volume  of  original  poems  was  published  in  1844  by  the  Society 

Nenueti  3^0r,  through  the  influence  of  the  poet  Vdrdsmarty, 

when  every  publisher  had  refused  his  MS.,  and  the  seventy-five 

florins  which  he  got  for  it  had  become  a  matter  of  life  or  death  to 

him.   He  now  became  a  regular  contributor  to  the  leading  papers 

of  Pesth,  snd  was  reconciled  to  his  parents,  whom  he  practically 

tupportel  for  the  rest  of  their  lives  out  of  bis  literary  earnings. 

His  position,  if  not  exactly  brilliant,  was  now  at  lisist  secure. 

The  little  volume  published  by  the  Nemzeli  KOr  was  followed  by 

the  parody,  A  Httysig  Kdap6csa  (1844);  the  romantic  epic 

Jdttos  VUH  (1844);  Cipridombok  Etciki  Sirjdrdl,  a  collection  of 

passionate  elegies  over  his  lost  love,  Etclk6  Csap6  (1845);  UH 

Jeiyseiek,  an  imitation  of  Heine's  Reisebilder  (r845);  Swerdem 

Gydngyei  (1845);  FM9k  (1846);  Surelme  h  hOzassdga  (1846), 

and  many  other  volamea.    The  fiist  edition  of  his  cdlected 

poems  appeared  in  1847.    Petfifi  was  not  yet  twenty-five,  and, 

despite  the  protests  of  the  dassidals,  who  regarded  him  irilh 

cold  dislike,  the  best  heads  in  Hungary,  poets  like  VttriJsmarty 

and  critics  like  Szemere,  already  paid  him  the  homage  due 

to  the  prince  of  Magyar  lyrical  poets.    The  grc«k  public  was 

enthusiastic  on  the  same  side,  and  posterity,  too,  has  placed  him 

among  the  hnmortals.    Pet5fi  is  as  dmpte  and  genuine  a  poet  of 

nature  as  Wordsworth  or  Christian  Winther,  and  his  erotics, 

in^ined  throughout  by  a  noble  idealism,  have  all  ByionV  force 

and  fervour,  though  it  is  perhi^M  in  his  martial  songs  that 

Pet6fi'8  essentially  passionate  and  defiant  genius  asserts  itself 

moat  triumphantly.  On  the  Sth  of  September  1847  Fet^fi  manled 

Julia  Szendrey,  who  bore  him  a  son.   When  the  revolutionary 

war  broke  out,  be  espoused  the  tenets  of  the  extreme  democratic 

faction  with  a  heat  and  recklessness  which  estranged  many  of  his 

friends.   He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Transylvanian  campaigns 

of  the  heroic  Bem;  xoae  by  Jieer  valour  to  the  rvik  of  major;  was 

aUin  At  the  battle  of  Sqseavir  Quly  ji,  z849)i  and  his  body, 

friiich  was  never  recovered,  is  si4>poaed  to  have  been  buried  in 

the  common  grave  of  the  fallen  bonveds  in  the  churchyard  of 

Feh^rcgyhAx.     The  tint  complete  ediUon  of  Pet5fi's  poems 

appeared  in  1874.    The  best  critical  edition  is  that  of  Hara8> 

1894.     There  are  numerous  indifferent  German  translations. 

Sec    Ferencri,   Peiifi  iletrajt^',   rischer,   PMfii   LAm    uni 

W9rk9>  (R-  N.  a> 


FBIOIXBT*  a  dty  and  the  ofoaty-icat  U  Bannet  couaiy« 
Michigan,  U.S^,  on  Little  Traverse  Bay,  an  arm .  of  Lakf 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  Bear  Creek,  in  the  north-weat  port  of 
the  bwer  peninsula.  Pop.  (1890),  2872;  (1900),  5285,  of  whom 
856  were  foreign-bom;  (xqcm),  5x86;  (1910),  4778.  It  is  served 
by  the  Pere  Marquette  and  the  Grand  Rapids  &  Indiana  rail- 
ways and  by  steamboat  lines  to  Chicago).  Detroit,  Buffalo  and 
other  lake  ports.  Bear  Creek  furnishes  considerable  water-power, 
and  among  the  manufactures  are  huaber,  paper,  leather  and 
foundry  and  machine-shop  products.  Petoskey  was  settled 
about  1874,  wasincoiporated  as  a  village  in  1879^  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1895,  and  in  190a  replaced  Harbor  ^uingi 
ascounty-seaL  It  was  named  after  an  Ojibwa  Indian  chief. 

PETRA  (i|  mrpa-  the  rock),  a  ruined  site,  30^19'  N.  and  3^ 
31'  E.,  lying  in  a  basin  among  the  mountains  which  form  the 
eastern  flank  of  Wadi  el-*Ariba,  the  great  valley  running  from 
the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  'Miiba.  The  descriptions  of  Strabo 
(xvi.  p.  779),  Pliny  (iV.H.  vi.  32)  and  other  writers  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  this  site  with  the  famous  capital  of  the 
Nabataeans  (f .«.)  and  the  centre  of  their  caravan  traiie.  Walled 
in  by  towering  rocks  and  watered  by  a  perennial  stream,  Petra 
not  only  possessed  the  advantages  of  a  fortress  but  controlled 
the  main  commercial  routes  which  passed  through  it  to  Gaza  in 
the  west,  to  Bostra  and  Damascus  in  the  north,  to  Ebth  and 
Leuci  Comi  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  across  the  desert  to  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

From  the  *ArSba  travellers  approach  by  a  track  which  leads 
round  Jebel  H&rQn  (Mt  Hor)  and  enters  the  plain  Of  Petra  from 
the  south;  it  is  just  possible  to  find  a  way  in  from  the  high  plateau, 
on  the  north;  but  the  most  impressive  entrance  is  from  the  east, 
down  a  dark  and  narrow  gorge,  in  places  only  10  or  12  ft.  wide, 
called  the  Sl^,  %je.  the  shaft,  a  split  in  the  huge  sandstone  rocks 
which  serves  as  the  waterway  of  the  Wadi  MQsL  Near  the  end 
Of  the  defile  stands  the  most  elaborate  of  the  ruins,  el-Hazne  or 
"  the  Treasury  of  Pharaoh,"  not  biult  but  hewn  out  of  the  cliff; 
a  little  farther  on,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  called  en-Nejr, 
comes  the  theatre,  so  placed  as  to  bring  the  greatest  number  of 
tombs  within  view;  and  at  the  point  where  the  valley  opens  out 
into  the  plain  the  site  of  the  dty  is  revealed  with  striking  effect. 
Almost  enclosing  It  on  throe  sides  are  rose-coloured  mountain 
walls,  divided  into  groups  by  deep  fissures,  and  lined  with  rock- 
cut  tombs  m  the  form  of  towers.  Tlie  stream  of  Wadi  MOsa  crosses 
the  plain  and  disappears  among  the  mountains  opposite;  on 
either  bank,  where  the  ground  is  fairly  level,  the  dty  was  built, 
covering  i,  ^pace  of  about  1}  sq.  m.  Among  the  ruins  on  the 
south  bank  stand  the  fragments  of  a  temple  called  %jmt  Fir^aun 
of  late  Roman  date;  just  beyond  this  rises  a  rocky  heif^t  whidt 
is  usually  regarded  as  the  acropolis. 

A  position  of  such  natural  strength  most  have  been  occupied, 
eariy,  but  we  have  no  ineans  of  tellmg  exactly  when  the  history 
of  Petra  began;  the  evidence  seems  to  show  that  the  dty  was  of 
relativdy  late  foundaUoA,  thou^^  a  sanctoary  (sec  bdow)  may 
have  existed  there  from  veiy  ancient  times.  This  part  Of  the* 
country  was  assigned  by  tradition  to  the  Horites,  i.e.  probably 
"  cave-dwellers,"  the  predecessors  of  the  Edomites  (Gen.  xiv.  6„' 
zxxvi.  20^30;  Deut.  ii.  x  a) ;  the  habits  of  the  original  natives  may 
have  infloenced  the  Nabataean  custom  of  burying  the  dead  and 
offering  worship  in  half-excavated  caves.*  But  that  Petra  itself 
is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  cannot  be  affirmed  with 
certamty;  for  thou^  Petra  is  usually  identified  with  SeU**  which 
also  means  **  a  rock,"  the  reference  in  Judges  i  36;  Isa.  xvi.  r, 
Mlii.  XX ,  Obad.  3,  is  far  from  dear,  a  Kings  riv.  7  seems  to  be  more 
caplidt;  in  the  paralld  passage,  however,  Sda*  b  understood 
to  mean  simply  "  the  rock"  (a  Chr.  xxv.  la,  see  LXX).  Hence 
many  authorities  doubt  whether  any  town  named  Sebt*  is  n^en- 
tioned  in  the  Old  Testament.*    What,  then,  did  the  Semitic 


*  Buhl,  CtscK  der  Bdomikr  (1893).  p.  $1. 
•B.£.  by  Driver.  Dent,  p.  38;  NOUMce^  Emy.  JfM. 
Ed.  Mever.  Dit  IsradUen  u,  ikre  NmchkarstiLmme^  p.  357. 


IMdeke^  Emy.  BibL  eoL  tt8s$ 


»  BuhU  p.,35  «qq:(,G.  F.  Moore.  Jitdtet^  p.  55  Kq.,  Qsrford  HOf^ 
gc/.  •.   |f?9;  T.  K.  Cheyoe,  fiMcy.  BiU*  «.*.  SeU;  A.  Jerenriaik 


iof. ^., _„_^ , 

Das  ^.  r.  AM  ZicAte  i.  alien  brienis,  p.  457. 


gto 


PFTRARCH 


inliabltaiits  call  tlietr  dty?  Etisetiius  and  Jerome  (Onom.  soar. 
f86,  7z.  X45, 9;  228,  5S.  287, 94).  apparenlly  on  the  authority  of 
Josephtis  {AM.  iv.  7,  x;  4,  7),  assert  that.Rekem  was  the  native 
name.  But  in  the  Arunaic  versions  Rekem  is  the  name  of 
Kadesh;  Josephus  may  have  confused  the  two  places.  Some- 
times the  Aramaic  versions  give  the  form  Rekem-Geya,  which 
recalls  the  natise  0!  the  vHIage  El-ji,  sbuth-east  of  Petra;  the 
capita],  however,  would  hardly  be  defined  by  the  naihe  of  a 
neighbouring  village.  The  Semitic  name  of  the  city,  if  it  was  not 
Scla*,  must  remain  unknown.'  The  passage  in  Diodorus  Siculus 
(xix.  94'^7)  which  describes  the  expeditions  which  Antigonus 
sent  against  the  Nabatacans  in  312  B.C.  is  generally  understood 
to  throw  some  h'ght  upon  the  history  of  Petra,  though  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  pOra  referred  to  as  a  natural  fortress  and  place 
of  refuge  cannot  be  a  proper  name,  and  the  description  at  any 
rate  implies  that  the  town  was  not  yet  in  existence.  BrUnnow 
thinks  that  "  the  rock  *'  in  question  was  the  sacred  mountaiii 
en-Nejr  (above);  but  Buhl  suggests  a  conspicuous  height  about 
t6  m.  north  of  Petra,  Shobak,  the  MorU-royal  of  the  Crusaders.* 
More  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  date  at  which  the  earliest 
Nabataean  settlement  began  is  to  be  obtained  from  ah  exami- 
nation of  the  tombs.  TWo  types  may  be  distinguished  broadly, 
the  Nabataean  and  the  Graeco-Roman.  The  Nabataean  type 
starts  from  the  simple  pylon-tomb  with  a  door  set  in  1^  tower 
crowned  by  a  parapet  ornament,  in  imitation  of  the  front  of  a 
dwelling-house;  then,  after  passing  through  various  stages,  the 
full  Nabataean  type  b  reached,  retaining  all  the  native  features 
and  at  the  same  time  exhibiting  characteristics  which  are  partly 
Egyptian  and  partly  Greek.  Of  this  type  there  exist  close 
parallels  in  the  tomb-towers  at  cl-]^cjr  in  north  Arabia,  which 
bear  long  Nabataean  inKriptions,*  and  so  supply  a  date  for  the 
corresponding  monuments  at  Petra.  Then  comes  a  scries  of  tomb- 
fronts  which  terminate  in  a  semicircular  arch,  a  feature  derived 
from  north  Syria,  and  finally  the  elaborate  facades,  from  which 
all  trace  of  native  style  has  vanished,  copied  from  the  front  of 
a  Roman  temple.  The  exact  dates  of  the  stages  in  this  develop- 
ment cannot  be  fixed,  for  strangely  enough  few  inscriptions  of 
any  length  have  been  found  at  Petra,*  perhaps  because  they  have 
perished  with  the  stucco  or  cement  which  was  used  upon  many  of 
the  buildings.  We  have,  then,  as  evidence  for  the  earliest  period, 
the  simple  pylon-tombs,  which  belong  to  the  pre-Hellenlc  age; 
how  far  back  in  this  stage  the  Nabataean  settlement  goes  we 
do  not  know,  but  not  farther  than  the  6th  century  B.C.  A 
period  follows  in  which  the  dominant  civilization  combines  Greek, 
Egyptian  and  Syrian  elements,  dearly  pointing  to  the  age  of  the 
Ptolemies.  Towards  the  close  of  the  snd  century  B.C  when  the 
Ptolemaic  and  Selcucid  kingdoms  were  e<iually  depressed,  the 
Nabataean  kingdom  came  to  the  front;  under  Aretas  III. 
Philheliene,  c«  85-60  B.C.,  the  royal  coins  begin;  at  this  time 
probably  the  theatre  was  excavated,  and  Petra  must  hove 
assumed  the  aspect  of  a  f Icllcnisiic  city.  ■  In  the  long  and  pros* 
pcrous  reign  of  Aretas  IV.  PhHopatris,  9  b.c-a.0.  40,  the  fine 
tombs  of  the  el-]^cjr  type  may  be  dated,  perhaps  also  the  great 
High*place.  Then  the  city  became  more  and  more  Romanized. 
In  A.o.  106,  when  Corneous  Palma  was  governor  of  Syria, 
"Arabia  belonging  to  Petra,"*  was  absorbol  into  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  tin  native  dynasty  came  to  aq  end.  But  the  city 
continued  to  flourish.  It  was  visited  in  a.o.  jji  by  Hadrian,  and 
stamped  Adrian^  Petra  on  its  coins  in  gratHiKic  for  the  emperor's 
benefactions;  the  superb  iiiazne,  probably  a  temple  (or  the  worship 
of  Isis,  and  the  X>€r,  which  resembles  the  9azne  in  design,  belong 
to  this  period.    A  century  later,  in  the  time  of  AlcauuMkr 

» Yakut  gSvM  the  name  Sal*  to  a  fortien  b  Wadi  MQsi,  N<Mek(^ 
ZDJ^G.  XXV.  9^  te^.  (1871). 

"  "  '      '  n.  i.  IQO:  Bulil.  oh.  eil.  n.  la. 

&c. 

_.      hich 

three  are  dated,  viz.  NSi:  p.  250,  n^CTS.  ti.  349.  1 6th  year  of 
Afctas  III.,  i^  8.C.  70,  to  al«o  CIS.  ii.  442:  NSl.if^  and  95-C/5. 
H.  350  *nd  354,  the  tafter  dated  the  29th  year  of  Areiai  IV.,  i.e. 
A.tok  20.    The  other  Nabat.  inacrf.  are  mosOy  p^afiti,  icrBtchcd 


oa  the  rodtt  by  viiitOtf  or  worshippen  at  the  holy  places;  CIS. 

.444-464. 

the  meaning  of  Arabia  Petraea.   Die  Casa.  bviiL  14. 


'•'Klllt***-***- 


Severus  (a.d.  232^235),  when  tbe  dty  was  at  the  height  of  itai 
splendour,  the  issue  of  coinage  comes  to  an  end,  and  there  is  no 
more  building  of  sumptuous  tombs,  owing  apparently  to  some 
sudden  catastrophe,  such  as  an  invasion  by  the  neo-Persian 
power  under  ilie  Sassanid  d3masty.  Meanwhile  as  Palm>Ta 
(Jl.  AJ>.  X3o>?7o)  grew  in  importance  and  attracted  the 
Arabian  trade  away  from  Petra,  the  latter  declined;  it  seems, 
however,  to  have  ungcrcd  on  as  a  religious  centre;  for  we  are 
told  by  Epiphanius  {c.  a.d.  315-403)  that  in  his  time  a  feast  was 
held  there  on  the  25th. of  December  in  honour  of  the  virgin 
Chaabou  and  her  oflTspring  Dusares  {Bder.  51). 

The  chief  god  of  Petra  was  Dhfl-shari  (Aoua&p^t),  i.e,  the  lard 
or  owner  of  Skard;^  he  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  black 
rectangular  stone,  a  sort  of  Petraeaii  Ka*aba  (Suidas  Lex.  i.v. 
Oe^t  'Aprfi,  and  cf.  Epiphan.  above).  Associated  with  Dhfi-shari 
was  Alkt,  the  chief  goddess  of  the  ancient  Arabs.  Sanctuary 
chambers  may  be  seen  at  various  points  in  the  site  of  Petra,  and 
many  places  of  Sacrifice  open  to  the  ^y  arc  met  with  among  the 
tombs,  marked  by  remains  of  altars.  But  most  eminent  of  all 
was  the  great  High-place  which  has  recently  been  discovered  00 
en-Nejr  (ot  Zibb  'atQO.  It  consists  of  a  rock-hewn  altar  of 
burnt-offering  \iith  a  place  for  killing  the  victims  besido  it  and 
a  shallow  court,  perhaps  intended  to  hold  water,  in  front:  the 
most  complete  specimen  of  an  ancient  Semitic  sanctuary  that  is 
known.^  Not  far  off  arc  two  obelisks  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock 
which  has  been  removed  to  the  level  of  their  bases;  these  were 
cither  idols  of  Dbu-shari  and  All^t,  or  more  probably  were 
designed  to  mark  the  limits  of  the  ^am  of  the  sanctuary. 
West  of  the  obelisks  are  three  other  places  of  sacrifice;  and  on 
the  rocks  below  worshippers  have  carved  their  names  {CIS, 
ii.  390-404).  £n-Ncjr,  with  the  theatre  at  its  foot,  must  have 
been  the  sacred  mountain,  the  original  sanctuary  of  Petra, 
perhaps  "the  very  high  mountain  of  Arabia  called  Dusait 
after  the  god  Dusares"  referred  to  by  Steph.  fiyx.  (sja. 
Aova&pq).  Christianity  found  its  way  into  Petra  in  early 
times;  Athanasius  mentions  a  bishop  of  Petra  (derpuif  r^$ 
'Apa/3(as,  ad  Aniioch.  zo)  named  Asterius;  at  least  one  of 
the  tombs  (the  "  tomb  with  the  urn" )  was  used  as  a  church; 
an  inscription  in  red  paint  records  its  consecration  "  in  the  time 
of  the  most  holy  bishop  Jason"  (aj>.  447).  The  Christianity  of 
Petra,  as  of  north  Arabia,  was  swept  away  by  the  Mahommedan 
conquest  in  aj>.  629-632.  Under  the  Latin  kingdom  Petra  was 
occupied  by  Baldwin  L  and  formed  the  second  fief  of  the  banmy 
of  Krak  with  the  title  Chiteau  de  la  Valee  do  Moyse  or  Scla;  it 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Franks  tiU  1x89;  fragments  of  the 
Crusaders'  ciudcl  are  still  standing  near  the  Uigh>place  on 
en-Nejr. 

The  ruins  of  Petra  were  aa  object  of  euHosity  ia  the  middle  igt% 
and  were  visited  by  the  Sulun  Bibars  of  Egypt  towards  the  close 
of  the  I3lh  century.  The  first  European  to  describe  them  wat 
Burckhardt  (1812).  All  former  descriptions  are  now  superseded 
by  the  manuficeot  work  of  BnUuiow  and  Domasaewakl,  Die  Pr^ 
nnaa  Areata  (i 904)1  who  have  minatcly  luryeyed  the  whole  ate. 
clas&ificd  the  tombs,  and  compiled  the  accounts  of  earlier  investi- 
gaiions;  and  by  the  independent  researches  of  Dalmao,  Petra  mtU 
seine  FelskeUtgtumer  (1908),  and  of  Nf  usil.  A  raln'n  Petraea  (1907-19CA). 
The  Carpus  Inter.  Sem.  ii.  .305  soq.,  shook!'  be  cotmuhcd.  and 
the  descriptions  in  Baedeker-Sodn  s  Fakitnta  (7th  cditkM).  and 
Rijm  btUtque  for  1897, 18981  19P3.  (&  A.  C*) 

PBTRARCR  (T304**t374>*  FVancesco  Petrarct,  the  great 
Italian  poet  and  first  true  reviver  of  learning  in  medieval  Europe, 
was  bom  at  Aretxo  on  the  soih  of  Jtify  1304.  His  father 
Pctmcco  heM  a  post  of  notary  in  the  Florentine  Rolls  Court  ei 
the  Rlfotmagioni;  but,  having  ispotised  the  same  cause  as  Dante 
during  the  quattels  of  the  Blacks  and  Whites,  Petrtcco  was 
expelled  from  Fhwence  by  that  decree'  of  the  27th  of  January 
1302  wlikh  condemned  Dante  fo  Kfdong  tJcHt.  Wkh  his  wife  be 

*  The  vfhtAo  range  in  which  Petra  lies  is  called  Jebel  esh-SkarSt. 
bdt  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  name  of  the  |od  wat  derived  fnn 
that  of  the  nouataia,  see  Ed.  Meyeft  iac*  ttL  p,  t68  and  rnohr. 
iV5Ap.  2*8. 

'  First  mentioned  by  E.  L.  Wilson  (1891),*  rediscovered  by 
G.  L.  RolMnson  f i9oo>.  described  by  S.  I.  Curtis.  P.  B.  F.  O.  St. 
1900).  dad  Savignac.  Ree.  Ml.  (1903);  with  full  plan  and  pbmo> 
graphs). 


PEXBARGH 


3f« 


took  itfiffB  ia  the  GhibeUine  towochip  of  Areao;  and  it  was 
here,  on  the  very  night  when  his  father,  in  coni|>any  with  other 
members  of  the  While  party,  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
enter  Florence  by  focee,  the  Franocsoo  first  saw  the  light.    He 
did  not  remain  long  in  his  birthplace.    His  mother,  having 
obtained  permissioai  to  return  txom  banishment,  settled  at 
Indsa,  a  little  village  on  the  Ama  above  Florence,  in  Fd^ruaty 
1505.    Hera  Petrarch  spent  seven  years  ^f  boyhood,  acquiring 
that  pure  Tuscan  idiom  which  afterwands  he  used  with  such 
consummate  maateiy  in  ode  and  sonneU    Here  too,  in  1307,  his 
^iher  Gbecardo  was  bom.   In  i3ia  Petracco  set  up  a  house 
tor  his  family  at  Pisa;  but  soon  afterwards,  finding  no  scope  there 
for  the  exercise  of  his  profession  as  jurist,  he  removed  them  all  in 
13x3  to  Avignon.    This  was  a  step  of  no  smaU  importance  for 
the  future  poet-scholar.    Avignon  at  that  period  still  belonged 
to  Provence^  and  owned  King  Robert  of  Naples  as  sovereign. 
But  the  popes  had  oaade  it  their  residence  after  the  insults  offered 
to  Boniface  VIII.  at  Anagni  in  1303.    Avignon  was  therefore 
the  centre  of  that  varied  society,  which  the  high  pontiffs  of 
Quntendom  have  ever  gathered  round  tbem.    Nowhere  else 
oould.the  youth  of  genius  who  was  destined  to  impress  a  cosmo> 
politaai  stamp  on  jnedif  val  culture  and  to  begin  the  modem  era 
have  grown  up  under  conditions  more  favourable  to  his  ta$k. 
M  lacisa  and  at  Pisa  he>  had  learned  his  mother-tongue.    At  Car- 
pentras,  under  the  direction  of  Convennole  of  Prato,  he  studied 
Che  humanities  between  the  years  1315  and  1319.    Aviignon, 
At  a  distance  from  the  party  strife  and  somewhat  parochial 
politics  of  the  Italian  commonwealthsi   impressed  his  mind 
with  an  ideal  of  dvih'ty  raised  far  above  provincial  prejudices. 
Petrarch's  real  name  accoiding  to  Tuscan  usage  was  Francesco 
di  Petracco.    But  he  altered  this  patronymic,  for  the  sake  of 
euphony,  to  Petraita,  proving  by  this  slight  change  his  emanci- 
pation from  usages  wbich^  had  he  dwelt  at  Florence,  would  most 
probably  have  been  imposed  on  him.    Petiacoo,  who  was  very 
anxious  that  his  eldest  son  should  become  an  eminent  jurist, 
sent  him  at  the  age  of  fifteen  to  study  law  at  MontpcUier.   Like 
Ovid  and  many  other  poetf ,  I^Btrardi  felt  no  inclination  for  his 
father's  profession.    His  intellect,  indeed,  was  not  incapable 
of  understanding  and  admiring  the  ipajestic  edifice  of  Roman 
law;  but  he  shrank  with  diagust  from  the  illiberal  technicalities 
of  practice.    There  is  an  authentic  story  of  Petracco's  flinging 
the  young  student's  books  of  poetry  and  rhetoric  upon  the  fire, 
but  saving  Virgil  and  Cicero  haJf-bumed  from  the  flames  at  his 
son's  passionate  entreaties.    Notwithstaading  Petrarch's  firm 
determination  to  ^ake  himself  a  scholar  and  a  man  of  letters 
rather  than  a  lawyer,  he  so  far  submitted  tQ  his  father's  wishes 
as  to  remove  about  th«  year  1323  to  Bologna,  wluch  was  then  the 
headquarters  of  juristic  learning.    There  he  stayed  with  his 
brother  Gherardo  until  1326,  when  his  father  died,  and  he 
fetumed  to  Avignon.    Banishment  and  change  of  pbcc  had 
already  diminished  Petcacoo's  fortune,  which  was  never  large, 
ajod  a  fraudulent  administration  of  his  estate  after  his  death  left 
ibe  two  heirs  in  almost  complete  dc^iluiion.  The  most  prcdous 
nmoant  of  Petrarch's  inheritance  was  a  lldS.  of  Cicero.    There 
remained  no  course  open  for  him  but  to  taka  ordecs.    This  he 
idid  at  once  on  hi^  arrival  in  Provence;  and  we  have  good  reason 
to  believe  that  he  advanced  in  diie  time  to  the  rank  of  priest 
A  great  Roman  noble  and  ecclesiastic,  Giacomo  Colonna,  after- 
wards  bishop  of  L^mbes.  now  befriended  him,  and  PetrarcH  lived 
lor  some  years  in  partial  dependence  on  this  patron. 

On  the  6th  of  April  1327  happened  the  most  famow  event  of 
Petmrch's  history.  He  saw  Laura  for  the  first  time  in  the  church 
of  St  Clara  at  Avipton.  Who  Laura  was  remains  uncertain  still 
That  she  was  the  daughter  of  Aud^bert  de  Noves  and  the  wife  of 
Hugh  de  Sade  rests  partly  on  traditicm  and  partly  on  documents 
which  the  abb^  de  Sade  professed  to  have  copied  from  ongmals 
in  the  iStb  century  Nothing  is  now  extant  to  prove  that,  if 
this  lady  really  existed,  she  was  the  Laura  of  the  CammtKra, 
while  there  are  reasona  for  (uspecting  that  fhv  abb£.  was  either 
the  fabricator  of  a  romance  flattering  to  his  own  family*  or  the 
dupe  of  some  previous  im|)08tor.  We  may,  however,  reject  the 
9nipiif9l  l^ypothesii  that  Launt  wm  amtre  fiynwAtpf  Pei»Tcb's 


fancy;  and,  if  we  accept  her  personal  reality,  the  poems  of  her 
lover  demonstrate  that  she  was  a  married  woman  with  whom  he 
enjoyed  a  respectful  and  not  very  intimate  tricndship. 

Petrarch's  inner  life  after  this  date  is  mainly  occupied  with 
the  passion  which  he  celebrated  in  hia  Italian  poems,  and  with 
the  friendships  which  his  Latin  epistles  dimly  reveal  to  us. 
Besides  the  bishop  of  Lombez  he  was  now  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  another  member  of  the  great  Colonna  family,  the  cardinsU 
Giovanni.  A  German,  Ludwig,  whom  he  called  Socrates,  and  a 
Roman,  LeUo,  who  received  from  him  the  classic  name  of  Laellius, 
were  among  his  best-loved  associates.  Avignon  was  the  chief 
seat  of  his  residence  up  to  the  year  of  1333,  when  he  became 
restless  and  undertook  his  first  long  journey.  On  this  occasion 
he  visited  Paris,  Ghent,  LUige,  C<^ogne,  making  the  acquaintance 
of  learned  men  and  copying  the  manuscripts  of  riassiral  authon. 
On  his  return  to  Avignon  he  engaged  in  public  affairs,  pleaded 
the  cause  of  the  Scaligers  in  their  lawsuit  with  the  Rossi  for  the 
lordship  of  Parma,  and  addressed  two  poetical  epistles  to  Pope 
Benedict  XII.  upon  the  restoration  of  the  papal  see  to  Rome. 
His  eloquence  on  behalf  of  the  tyrants  of  Verona  was  successful. 
It  won  him  the  friendship  of  their  ambassador,  Azzo  di  Correggio 
— a  fact  which  3ubsequcntly  influenced  his  life  in  no  small 
measure.  Not  very  long  after  these  events  Petrarch  made  his 
first  journey  to  Rome,  a  journey  memorable  from  the  account 
which  he  has  hsft  us  of  the  impression  he  received  from  its  ruins. 

It  was  some  time  in  the  year  1337  that  he  established  himself 
at  Vauduse  and  began  that  life  of  solitary  study,  heightened  by 
communion  with  nature  in  her  loneliest  and  wildest  moods,  which 
distinguished  him  in  so  remarkable  a  degree  from  the  common 
herd  of  medieval  scholars.  Here  he  spent  his  time  partfy^  among 
books,  meditating  on  Roman  history,  and  preparing  himself  fof 
the  Latin  epic  of  Africa.  In  his  houn  of  recreation  he  climbed 
the  hills  or  traced  the  Soigues  from  its  fountain  under  those  tall 
limestone  cliffs,  while  odes  and  sonnets  to  Madonna  Laura  were 
committed  from  hu  memory  to  paper.  We  may  also  refer  many 
of  his  most  important  treatises  in  prose,  as  well  as  a  large  portion 
of  his  Latin  correspondence,  to  the  leisure  he  enjoyed  in  this 
retreaL  Some  woman,  unknown  to  us  by  name,  made  him  the 
father  of  a  son,  Giovanni,  in  the  year  1337 ;  and  she  was  probaWIy 
the  same  who  brought  hini  a  daughter,  Francesca,  in  1343. 
Both  children  were  afterwards  legilimized  by  papal  bulk. 
Meanwhile  his  fame  as  a  poet  in  the  Latin  and  the  vxilgar  tongues 
steadily  increased,  until,  when  the  first  draughts  of  the  A/ncd 
began  to  circulate  about  the  year  1339,  it  became  manifest  that 
no  one  had  a  better  right  to  the  laurel  crown  than  Petrarch.  A 
desire  for  glory  was  one  of  the  most  deeply-rooted  passions  of  h\$ 
nature,  and  one  of  the  points  in  which  he  most  strikingly  anticf* 
pated  the  humanistic  schobrs  who  succeeded  him.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  surprising  to  find  that  he  exerted  his  influence  in  several 
quarters  with  the  view  to  obtaining  the  honours  of  a  public 
coronation.  The  result  of  his  intrigues  was  that  on  a  single  day 
in  1340,  the  xst  of  September,  he  received  two  invitations,  from 
the  university  of  Paris  and  from  King  Robert  of  Naples  rcspec- 
tively.  He  chose  to  accept  the  latter,  journeyed  in  February 
134J  to  Naples,  was  honourably  entertained  by  the  king,  and, 
after  some  formal  disputations  on  matters  touching  the  poet's 
art,  was  sent  with  magnificent  credentials  to  Rome.  There,  in 
the  month  of  April,  PetraXch  assumed  the  poet's  crown  upon  the 
Capitol  from  the  hand  of  the  Roman  senator  amid  the  plaudits  of 
the  people  and  the  patridans.  The  oration  which  he  delivered 
on  this  occasion  was  composed  upon  these  words  of  Virgil; — 

"  Sed  me  Pamas»  deserta  per  ardua  dulcis 
Raptat  amor.** 

The  andent  and  the  modem  eras  met  together  on  the  Capitol 
at  Petrarch's  coronation,  and  a  new  stadium  for  the  human  spirit, 
that  wihich  we  are  wont  to  style  Renaissance,  was  opened- 

With  the  coronation  in  Rome  a  fresh  chapter  in  the  biography 
of  Petrarch  may  ^  aaid  to  hav^  begun.  .  Henceforth  he  ranked 
as  a  rhetorician  and  a  poet  of  European  cslebrity,  the  guest  of 
princes,  and  the  ambassador  to  royal  couru.  During  the  spring 
months  of  1341  hia  friend  Aaao  di  Correggio  had  succeeded^  in 
^Eodng  Parma  from  subjugation  to  the  Scaligers,  and  was  laying 


3ia 


I>fe'FRARCH 


the  foundations  of  his  own  tynnny  in  that  city.  He  invited 
Petrarch  to  attend  him  when  he  made  his  triumphal  entry  at  the 
end  ot  May;  and.  from  this  time  forward  for  a  considerable 
period  Parma  and  Vauduse  were  the  two  headquarters  of  the 
poet.  The  one  he  called  his  Transalpine,  the  other  his  Cisalpine 
Parnassus.  The  events  of  the  next  six  years  of  his  life,  from  May 
134X  to  May  1 547,  may  be  briefly  recapitulated.  He  lost  his  old 
friend  the  bishop  of  Lombes  by  death  and  his  brother  Gherardo 
by  the  entrance  of  the  latter  into  a  Carthusian  monastery; 
Various  small  benefices  were  conferred  upon  him;  and  repeated 
offers  of  a  papal  secretaryship,  which  would  have  raised  him 
to  the  highest  dignities,  were  made  and  rejected.  Petrarch 
remained  true  to  the  instinct  of  his  own  vocation,  and  had  no 
intention  of  sacrificing  his  studies  and  his  glory  to  ecclesiastical 
ambition.  In  January  1343  his  old  friend  and  patron  Robert, 
king  of  Naples,  died,  and  Petrarch  was  sent  on  an  embassy  from 
the  papal  court  to  his  successor  Joan.  The  notices  which  h^  has 
left  us  of  Neapob'tan  society  at  this  epoch  are  interesting,  and,  it 
was  now,  perhaps,  that  he  met  Boccaccio  for  the  first  time.  The 
beginning  of  the  year  134s  was  marked  by  an  event  more 
interesting  in  the  scholar's  eyes  than  any  change  in  dynasties. 
This  was  no  less  than  a  discovery  at  Verona  of  Clcero*s  Familiar 
Letters.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  Petrarch  found  the 
precious  MS.  so  late  in  life,  when  the  style  of  his  own  epistles  had 
been  already  modelled  upon  that  of  Seneca  and  St  Augustine, 

In  the  month  of  May  1347  Cola  di  Rienzi  accomplished  that 
extraordinary  revolution  which  for  a  short  space  revived  the 
republic  in  Rome,  and  raised  iha  enthusiast  to  titular  equality 
with  kings.  Petrarch,  who  in  politics  was  no  less  visionary  than 
Rienzi,  bailed  the  advent  of  a  founder  and  deliverer  in  the 
self-styled  tribune.  Without  considering  the  impossibility  of 
restoring  the  majesty  of  ancient  Rome,  or  the  absurdity  of 
dignifying  the  medieval  Roman  rabble  by  the  name  of  Populus 
Romanus,  he  threw  himself  with  passion  into  the  republican 
movement,  and  sacrificed  his  old  friends  of  the  Colonna  family 
to  what  he  judged  a  patriotic  duty. 

Petrarch  built  himself  a  house  at  Parma  in  the  autumn  of  1347. 
Here  he  hoped  to  pursue  the  tranquil  avocations  of  a  poet 
honoured  by  men  of  the  world  and  men  of  letters  throughout 
Europe,  and  of  an  idealistic  politician,  whose  effusions  on  the 
questions  of  the  day  were  read  with  pleasure  for  their  style. 
But  in  the  course  of  the  next  t^-o  years  this  agreeable  prospect 
was  overclouded  by  a  series  of  calamities.  Laura  died  of  the 
plague  on  the  6th  of  April  1348.  Francesco  dcgli  Albizzi, 
Mainardo  Accursio,  Roberto  de'  Bardi,  Sennuccio  del  Bene, 
Luchino  Visconti,  the  cardinal  Giovanni  Colonna  and  several 
other  friends  followed  to  the  grave  in  rapid  succession.  All  of 
these  had  been  intimate  acquaintances  and  correspondents  of 
the  poet.  Friendship  with  him  was  a  passion;  or,  what  is  more 
true  perhaps,  he  needed  friends  for  the  maintenance  of  his 
intellectual  activity  at  the  highest  point  of  its  effectiveness. 
Therefore  he  felt  the  loss  of  these  men  acutely.  We  may  say  with 
certainty  that  Laura's  death,  accompanied  by  that  of  so  many 
distinguished  associates,  was  the  turning-point  in  Petrarch's 
inner  life.  He  began  to  thbik  of  quitting  the  world,  and  pondered 
a  plan  for  establishing  a  kind  of  humanistic  convent,  where  he 
might  dedicate  himself,  in  the  company  of  kindred  ^irits,  to  still 
severer  studies  and  a  closer  communion  with  God.  Though 
nothing  came  of  this  scheme,  a  marked  change  was  henceforth 
perceptible  in  Petrarch's  Htcrary  compositions.  The  poems 
written  In  Morte  di  Madonna  Laura  are  gqiver  and  of  more 
religious  tone.  The  prose  works  touch  on  retrospective  topics  or 
deal  with  subjects  of  deep  meditation.  At  the  same  time  his 
renown,  continually  spreading,  opened  to  him  ever  fresh  relations 
with  Italian  despots.  The  noble  houses  of  Gonxaga  at  Mantua, 
at  Carrara  at  Padua,  of  Este  at  Ferrara,  of  MalatesU  at  Rimini, 
of  Visconti  at  Milan,  vied  with  Azzo  di  Corregglo  in  entertaining 
the  illustrious  man  of  letters.  It  was  in  vain  that  his  correspon- 
dents pointed  out  the  discrepancy  between  his  professed  tad  for 
Italian  liberties,  his  recent  enthusiasm  for  the  Roman  republic, 
and  this  aUiance  with  tyrants  who  were  dcstroymg  the  freedom 
of  the  Lombard  dties.     Petrarch  remained  an  inctirable  dwtoii- 


tian ;  and,  whfle  he  st  igmktteed  the  despots  in  his  ode  to  Italy  and 
in  hjs  epistles  to  the  emperor  he  acce|Aed  their  hospitality. 
They,  oii  thdr  part,  seem  (o  have  understood  his  temoerament, 
and  to  have  agreed  to  recognise  his  p<ditieal  theories  as  of  do 
practical  importance.  The  tendency  to  honour  men  of  let  ten 
and  to  patronize  the  arts  whidi  distinguidied  Italian  princes 
throughout  the  Renaissance  period  first  manifested  itadf  ia  the 
attitude  assumed  by  Visconti  and  Carraresi  to  Petrarch. 

When  the  jubilee  of  1350  was  proclaimed,  PctraTch  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Rome,  passing  and  returning  fbrough  Florence^ 
where  he  established  a  firm  friendshSp  with  Boccacdo.  It  has 
been  well  remarked  that,  whOe  all  his  other  friendships  are 
shadowy  and  dim,  this  one  alone  stands  out  with  deameas.  Eadi 
of  the  two  friends  had  a  distinguidied  personab'ty.  Each  played 
a  foremdst  part  in  the  revival  of  learning.  Boccacdo  carried  hit 
admirat  ion  for  Petrarch  to  the  point  of  worship.  Petrarch  repaid 
him  with  sympathy,  counad  in  Uteraiy  studies,  and  moral  support 
which  fielped  to  devate  and  purify  the  younger  poet's  ovci^ 
sensuous  nature.  It  was  Boctacdo  who  in  the  spring  of  1351 
brought  to  Petratdi,  then  resident  with  the  Carrara  family  at 
Padua,  an  inviutlon  from  the  seigniory  of  Ftorence  to  afCoept 
the  rectorship  of  their  recoitly  founded  unlvereity»  Tliia  was 
accompanied  by  a  diploma  of  restoratfon  to  his  rights  as  citiacn 
and  hrsiitution  of  hb  patrimony.  But»  flattering  a»  was  the 
offer,  Petrarch  dedined  it.  He  pnitntA  his  Uterary  leisure  at 
Vauduse.  at  Parma,  in  the  courts  of  princes,  to  a  post  whic& 
would  have  brought  him  into  c6ntact  with  jealous  priors  and 
have  reduced  him  to  the  position  of  the  servant  of  a  common- 
wealth. Accordingly,  we  find  him  journeying  again  in  1351  to 
Vauduse,  again  rdusing  the  office  of  papal  secretary,  again  plan- 
ning vbionary  reforms  f<»'  the  Roman  people,  and  beginning  that 
curious  fragment  of  an  autobfography  which  is  known  as  the  EpiOie 
to  Posterity.  Early  in  1353  he  kft  Avignon  for  the  last  time,  and 
entered  LombarJy  by  the  pass  of  Mont  Gendvre,  making  his  way 
immrdiately  to  Milan.  The  archbishop  Giovanni  Visconti  was 
at  this  period  virtually  despot  of  Milan.  He  induced  Petrarch, 
who  had  long  been  a  friend  of  the  Visconti  family,  to  establish 
himself  at  his  court,  where  he  foimd  employment  for  him  as 
ambassador  and  orator.  The  most  ntemoraUe  of  his  diplovRatk 
missions  was  to  Venice  in  the  autumn  of  1353.  Towards  the 
dose  of  the  long  struggle  between  Genoa  and  the  rqMibllc  of  St 
Mark  the  Genoese  entreated  Giovanni  Visconti  to  mediaie  oa 
their  behalf  with  the  Venetians.  Petrarch  was  entrusted  with 
the  office;  and  on  the  8th  of  November  he  delivcted  a  studied 
oration  before  the  doge  Andrea  Dandolo  and  the  greM  cooncfl. 
His  eloquence  had  no  effect;  but  the  orator  entered  into  relatioas 
with  the  Venetian  aristocracy  which  wese  itfterwands  extended 
and  confirmed.  MeanwhOe,  Milan  continued  to  be  his  pbce  of 
residence.  After  Giovanni's  death  he  remained  in  the  oouft  of 
Bernsbd  and  Galeaxzo  Visconti,  dosing  his  eyes  to  thdr  cxvdties 
and  exactions,  serving  them  as  a  di{rfomatiSt,  making  speeches 
for  them  on  ceremonial  occasions,  and  partaking  of  the  q>leiidid 
hospitality  they  oflercd  to  emperors  and  princes.  It  was  in  this 
capacity  of  an  indefiendent  man  of  letters,  higldy  placed  and 
favoured  at  one  of  thetnost  wealthy  courts  of  Europe,  that  he 
addressed  epistles  to  the  emperor  Charies  IV.  upon  the  distraaed 
state  of  Italy,  and  entreated  him  to  resume  the  oM  GhibelUae 
policy  of  Impierial  interierence.  Charks  IV.  passed  throti^ 
Mantua  In  the  autumn  of  1354.  There  Petrarch  made  hte 
acquaintance,  and,  finding  him  a  man  unfit  for  any  noUe  entcr- 
priise,  declined  attending  hhn  to  Rome.  When  Charles  returned 
(o  Germany,  aftei'  assuming  the  crowns  in  Rome  and  Milan, 
Petrarch  addressed  a  letter  of  vehement  invective  and  reproach 
to  the  emperor  who  was  so  negligent  of  the  duties  imposed  00 
him  by  his  high  office.  This  did  not  prevent  the  Visconti  sending 
him  on  an  embassy  to  Charles  in  1356.  Petrarch  found  him 
at  Prague,  and,  after  pleading  the  cause  of  his  masters,  was 
despatched  with  honour  and  the  diploma  of  count  palatine.  His 
student's  life  at  MOan  was  again  interrupted  in  1360^  by  a  missicm 
on  which  Galeazao  Visconti  sent  him  to  Ring  John  of  France. 
The  tyrants  of  Milan  were  aspiring  to  royal  alliances;  Giaa 
GskaiBo  ViiooBtl  bad  been  nmfed  to  IsabeUa  of  Praacc; 


PETRARCy 


313 


Viokote  Viaooati,  a  few  yean  later,  wai  wedded  to  the  Eqglish 
duke  o(  Clarence.  Petrarch  was  now  commusioned  to  congratu- 
late King  John  upon  his  liberation  from  captivity  to  £ngland. 
This  duty  performed,  he  returned  to  Alilan,  where  in  1361  he 
received  news  of  the  deaths  ol  his  son  Giovanni  and  his  old  friend 
Socrates.   Both  had  been  carried  off  by  plague. 

The  remaining  years  of  Petrarch's  life,  important  as  they  were 
for  the  furtherance  of  humanistic  studies,  may  be  briefly  con- 
densed. On  the  I  ith  of  May  1362  he  settled  at  Padua,  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  which  he  never  moved  again  to  any  great 
distance.  The  same  year  saw  him  at  Venice,  making  a  donation 
of  his  library  to  the  republic  of  St  Mark.  Here  his  friend 
Boccaccio  introduced  to  Mm  the  Greek  teacher  Leontius  Pilatus. 
Petrarch,  who  possessed  a  MS.  o|  Homer  and  a  portion  of  Phito, 
never  acquired  the  Greek  language,  although  he  attempted  to 
gain  some  little  knowledge  of  it  in  his  later  years.  Homer,  he 
said,  was  dumb  to  him,,  while  he  was  deaf  to  Homerjand  l^could 
only  approach  the  Iliad  in  Boccaccio's  rude  Latin  version.  About 
this  period  he  saw  his  daughter  Francesca  happily  married,  and 
undertook  the  education  of  a  young  scholar  from  Ravenna, 
whose  sudden  disappearance  from  his  household  caused  him  the 
deepest  grief.  This  youth  has  been  identified,  but  on  insufficient 
grounds,  with  that  Giovanni  Malpaghini  of  Ravenna  who  was 
destined  to  form  a  most  important  link  between  Petrarch  and 
the  humanists  of  the  next  age  of  culture.  Gradually  his  oldest 
friends  dropped  off.  Azzo  di  Correggio  died  in  1362,  and  JLaelius, 
Simonides,  Barbato,  in  the  following  year.  His  own  death  was 
reported  in  1365;  but  he  survived  another  decade.  Much  of  this 
last  stage  of  his  Ufe  was  occupied  at  Padua  in  a  controversy  with 
the  Averroists,  whom  he  regarded  as  dangerous  antagonists  both 
to  sound  religion  and  to  sound  culture.  A  curious  treatise,  which 
grew  in  part  out  of  this  dispute  and  out  of  a  previous  duel 
with  physicians,  was  the  book  Upon  kis  own  Ignoranct  and  that  oj 
many  others.  At  last,  in  1369,  tired  with  the  bustle  of  a  town  so 
big  as  Padua,  he  retired  to  Arqui,  a  village  in  Euganean  hills, 
where  he  continued  his  usual  train  of  literary  occupations, 
employing  several  secretaries,  and  studying  unremittingly.  All 
through  these  declining  years  bis  friendship  with  Boccacdo  was 
maintained  and  strengthened.  It  rested  on  a  solid  basis  of 
mutual  affection  and  of  common  studies,  the  different  tempera- 
ments of  the  two  scholars  securing  them  against  the  disagree- 
ments of  rivalry  or  jealousy.  One  of  Petrarch's  last  compositions 
was  a  Latin  version  of  Boccaccio's  story  of  Grisdda.  On  the  i8th 
of  July  1374  his  people  found  the  old  poet  and  scholar  dead 
among  his  books  in  the  library  of  that  little  house  which  looks 
across  the  hills  and  lowlands  towards  the  Adriatic 

When  we  attempt  to  estimate  Petrarch's  position  in  the 
history  of  modem  culture,  the  first  thing  which  strikes  us  is  that 
he  was  even  lesf  eminent  as  an  Italian  poet  than  as  the  founder 
of  Humanism,  the  inaugurator  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy. 
What  he  achieved  for  the  modem  world  was  not  merely  to 
bequeath  to  his  Italian  imitators  masterpieces  of  lyrical  art 
unrivalled  for  perfection  of  workmanship,  but  also,  and  far  more, 
to  open  out  for  Europe  a  new  sphere  of  mental  activity.  Stand- 
ing within  the  threshold  of  the  middle  ages,  he  surveyed  the 
kingdom  of  the  modem  spirit,  and,  by  his  own  inexhaustible 
industry  in  the  field  of  scholarship  and  study,  he  determined 
what  we  call  the  revival  of  learning.  By  bringing  the  men  of  his 
own  generation  into  sympathetic  contact  with  antiquity,  he  gave 
a  decisive  impulse  to  that  European  movement  which  restored 
freedom,  self-consdousncss,  and  the  faculty  of  progress  to  the 
human  intellect.  He  was  the  first  roan  to  collect  libraries,  to 
accumulate  coins,  to  advocate  the  preservation  of  MSS.  For 
him  the  authors  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  world  were  living  men — 
more  real,  in  fact,  than  those  with  whom  he  corresponded;  and 
the  rhetorical  epistles  he  addressed  to  Cicero,  Seneca  and  Varro 
prove  that  he  dwdt  with  them  on  terms  of  sympathetic  intirhacy. 
So  far-reaching  were  the  interests  controlled  by  him  in  this 
capacity  of  humanist  that  his  achievement  as  an  Italian  lyrist 
seems  by  comparison  fnsigntficant. 

Petrarch's  ideal  of  humanism  was  essentially  a  noble  one. 
He  regarded  the  orator  and  the  poet  as  teachcift,  bound  to 


complete  themfldvea  by  education,  and  to  exhibit  to  the  world  an 
image  of  per^ted  personality  in  prose  and  verse  of  studied 
beauty.  S^-culture  and  self-effectuation  seemed  to  him  the 
highest  aims  of  man.  Everything  which  contributed  to  the 
formation  of  a  free,  impassioned,  liberal  individuality  he  regarded 
as  praiseworthy.  Everything  which  retarded  the  attainment  of 
that  end  was  contemptible  in  his  eyes.  The  authors  of  antiquity, 
the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  fathers  of  the  Church  were  valued 
by  him  as  one  common  source  of  intellectual  enlightenment. 
Eminently  reUgious,  and  orthodox  in  his  convictions,  he  did  not 
seek  to  substitute  a  pagan  for  the  Christian  ideal.  This  was  left 
lor  the  scholars  of  the  xsth  and  i6th  centuries  in  Italy.  At  the 
same  time;  the  Latin  orators,  historians  and  poets  were  venerated 
by  him  as  depositories  of  a  tradition  only  second  in  importance 
to  revelation.  For  him  there  was  no  schism  between  Rome  and 
Galilee,  between  rlassiral  genius  and  sacred  inspiration.  Though 
the  Utter  took  the  first  rank  in  relation  to  man's  eternal  wdfare, 
the  former  was  necessary  for  the  perfection  of  his  intellect  and 
the  dvilization  of  his  manners.  With  this  double  ideal  in  view, 
Petrarch  poured  acorn  upon  the  French  physicians  and  the  Italian 
Av^rroists  for  their  illiberal  philistinism,  no  less  than  for  thcar 
materialistic  Impiety.  True  to  his  conception  of  independent 
intellectual  activity,  he  abstained  from  a  legal  career,  refused 
important  ecclesiastical  office,  and  contented  himself  with  paltry 
benefices  which  implied  no  spiritual  or  administrative  duties, 
because  he  was  resolved  to  follow  the  one  purpose  of  his  life— 
self-culture.  Whatever  in  literature  revealed  the  hearts  of  men 
was  in£mtely  precious  to  him;  and  for  this  reason  he  professed 
almost  a  cult  for  St  Augustine.  It  was  to  Augustine,  as  to  a 
friend  or  a  confessor,  that  he  poured  forth  the  secrets  of  his  own 
soul  in  the  book  De  conlcmpiu  mtindi. 

In  this  effort  to  realise  bis  truest  self  Petrarch  was  eminently 
successf uL  Much  aa  he  effected  by  restoring  to  the  world  a  sound 
conception  of  learning,  and  by  rousing  that  genuine  love  and 
curiosity  which  led  to  the  revival,  he  did  even  more  by  im- 
pressing on  the  age  his  own  full-formed  and  striking  personality. 
In  all  things  he  was  original.  Whether  we  regwd  him  as  a 
priest  who  published  poem  after. poem  in  praise  of  an  adored 
mistress,  as  a  plebeian  man  of  letters  who  ccmversed  on  equal 
terms  with  kings  and  princes,  as  a  solitary  dedicated  to  the  love 
of  nature,  as  an  amateur  diplomatist  treating  affairs  of  state  with 
pompous  eloquence  in  missives  sent  to  popes  and  emperoii,  of 
again  as  a  traveller  eager  for  change  of  scene,  ready  to  climb 
mountains  for  the  enjoyment  of  broad  prospects  over  spreading 
champaigns;  in  all  thoe.  divers  manifestations  of  his  peculiar 
genius  we  trace  some  contrast  with-  the  manners  of  the  X4th 
century,  some  emphatic  antidpalion  of  the  16th.  The  defects 
of  Petrarch's  character  were  no  less  striking  than  its  qualities, 
and  were  indeed  their  complement  and  counterpart.  That 
vivid  conception  of  intellectual  and  moral  self-cidtuce  which 
determined  his  ideal  took  the  form  in  actual  life  of  aU-ahsorbing 
egotism.  He  was  not  content  with  knowing  himaelf  to  be 
the  leader  of  the  age.  He  claimed  autocracy,  suffered 
no  rival  near  his  throne,  brooked  no  contradiction,  demanded 
unconditional  submission  to  his  will  and  judgment.  Petrarch 
was  made  up  of  contiadictions^  Praising  solitude,  playing  the 
hermit  at  Vauduse,  he  only  bved  seclusion  aa  a  contnpt  to  the 
sodety  of  courts.  While  he  penned  dissertations  on  the  f  ntility  of 
fame  and  the  burden  of  celebrity  he  waa  trimming  his  sails  to 
catch  the  breese  of  popular  applaasc*  No  one  pipfessed  a  more 
austere  morality,  and  few  medieval  wrftcn  indulged  in  cruder 
satire  on  the  female  sex;  yet  he  passed  some  years  in  the  society 
of  a  concubine,  and  his  living  masterpiece  of  art  is  the  apotheosis 
of  chivalrous  passion  for  a  woman.  These  discords  ii  an  no- 
dedded.  nature  displayed  themselves  in  his  political  theories  and 
in  h^  philosophy  of  conduct.  In  one  mood  he  was  fain  to  ape 
the  antique  patriot;  in  another  he  affected  the  monutic  aaint. 
He  was  clamorous  tor  the  freedom  of  the  Roman  people;  yet  at 
one  time  he  called  upon  the  popes  to  re-establish  -theinsclves  in 
the  Eternal  City;  at  anntber  he  besought  the  emperor  to  make  it 
hiB  headquarters;  at  a  third  he  bailed  in  Riensi  the  founder  of 
•  new  republic   He  did  not  perceive  that  all  these  plana  were 


3H 


•PfitAARCH 


Incorapaliblc.  His  relations  W  the  Lombard  nobles  were  cqusHy 
at  variance  with  his  professed  patriotism;  and,  while  still  a 
housemate  of  VIsconti'and  Correggi,  he  kept  on  issuing  invectives 
against  the  tyrants  who  divided  Italy.  It  would  not  be  difficult 
to  multiply  these  antitheses  in  the  character  and  the  opinions  of 
this  singular  man.  But  it  is  more  to  the  purpose  to  remark  that 
they  were  harmonized  in  a  personality  of  potent  and  enduripg 
force. 

The  point  to  notice  !n  thh  complex  personality  is  that 
Petrarch's  ideal  remained  always  literary.  As  philosopher,  poK- 
tician,  historian,  essayist,  orator,  he  aimed  at  lucid  and  harmo- 
nious expression— not,  indeed,  ncglcaing  the  importance  bf  the 
material  he  undertook  to  treat,  but  approaching  his  task  in  the 
spirit  of  an  artist  rather  than  a  thinker  or  a  man  of  action.  This 
accounts  for  his  bewildering  versatility,  and  for  his  apparent 
want  of  grasp  on  conditions  of  fact.  Viewed  in  this  h'ght 
Petrarch  anticipated  the  Italian  Renaissance  In  its  weakness — 
that  philosophical  superficiality,  that  tendency  to  ornate 
rhetoric,  that  preoccupation  with  stylistic  trifles,  that  want  of 
profound  conviction  and  stem  sincerity,  which  stamp  its  minor 
literary  products  with  the  note  of  mediocrity.  Had  Petrarch 
1>een  ponesscd  with  a  passion  for  some  commanding  principle  in 
politics,  morality  or  science,  instead  of  with  the  thirst  for  self- 
glorification  and  the  ideal  of  artistic  culture,  it  is  not  wholly 
impossible  that  Italian  humanism  might  have  assumed  a  manlier 
and  more  conscientious  tone.  But  this  is  not  a  question  vHbich 
-admits  of  discussion;  for  the  conditions  which  made  Petrarch 
what  he  was  were  already  potent  in  Italian  society.  He  did  but 
express  the  spirit  of  the  period  he  opened;  and  it  may  also  be 
added  that  his  own  ideal  was  higher  and  severer  than  that  of  the 
illustrious  humanists  who  followed  him. 

As  an  author  Petrarc^h  must  be  considered  from  two  points  of 
view — first  as  a  writer  of  Latin  verse  and  prose,  secondly  as  an 
Italian  lyrist.  In  the  former  capacity  he  'was  speedily  out- 
stripped by  more  fortunate  scholars.  Hh  edogute  and  epistles 
and  the  epic  of  Africa,  on  which  he  set  such  store,  exhibit  a 
comparatively  limited  command  of  Latin  metre.  His  treatise^, 
orations,  and  familiar  letters,  though  remarkable  for  a  prose  style 
which  Is  eminently  characteristic  of  the  man,  are  not  distinguished 
by  purity  of  diction.  Much  as  he  admired  CIcera,  It  is  clear  that 
he  had  not  freed  himself  from  current  medieval  Latinity.  Seneca 
and  Augvstine  had  been  too  much  used  by  hhn  as  models  of 
composition.  At  the  same  time  it  will  be  conceded  that  he 
possessed  ,a  copious  vocabulary,  a  fine  ear  Tor  cadence,  and  the 
'faculty  of  exprcsdng  every  shade  6f  thought  or  feeling.  What  he 
lacked  was  that  insight  into  the  best  classical  masteq^eces,  that 
'Comnuuid  of  the  best  classical  diction,  which  b  the  product  of 
Successive  generations  of  scholarship.  To  attain  to  this, 
Giovanni  da  Ravenna,  CoHucdo  Salutato,  Poggio  and  FUcIfo 
had  to  labour,  before  a  Polixlano  and  a  Bembo  finally  prepared 
the  path  for  an  Erasmus.  Had  Petrarch  been  bom  at  the  close 
of  the  isth  instead  of  at  the  opening  of  the  14th  century  there  is 
no  doubt  that  hn  Latinity  would  have  been  as  pure,  as  versatile, 
and  aspoinled  as  that  of  the  witty  stylist  of  Rotterdam. 

With  regard  to  his  Itah'an  poetry  Petrarch  occupies  a  very 
'different  position.  The  R{me  in  Vila  e  Morte  di  Maddnna  Laura 
cannot  become  obsolete,  for  perfect  metrical  form  has  here  been 
married  to  language  of  the  choicest  and  the  purest.  It  ii  true 
that  even  in  the  Ccfooniert,  as  Italians  prefer  to  call  that  coUeC- 
*tion  of  lyrics,  Petrarch  is  not  devoid  of  faults  belonging  to  his  age, 
and  affectations  which  have  imposed  themselves  with  disastrous 
^effect  throuah  his  anihorlty  upon  the  literature  of  Europe.  He 
appealed  in  his  odes  and  sonnets  to  a  restricted  audience  already 
-educated  by  the  chivalrous  love>poelry  of  Provence  and  by 
Italian  imitations  of  that  style.  He  was  not  careful  to  exclude 
Iht  commonplaces  of  the  school,  nor  anxious  to  finish  a  work  of 
Art  wholly  free  from  fashionable  gndts  and  from  contemporary 
teaceits.  There  ts  therefore  a  certain  element  of  artificiality  in 
his  tteatttent;  and  this,  since  it  is  easier  to  copy  defects  than 
exceOcnciea,  has  been  perpetuated  with  wearisome  Monotony 
by  vefsifiers  who  chose  htm  for  their  model.  But,  afur  making 
due  idtowance  for  pecvliariticsj  Che  abuse  of  which  has  brought 


the  name  ofPetrarchbt  h)to  Contempt,  we  can  agree  with  Shelly 
that  the  lyrics  of  the  Cataoniere  "  are  as  spcUs  which  unseal  the 
inmost  enchanted  fountains  of  the  delight  which  is  the  grief  of 
love."  Much  might  be  written  about  the  peculiar  position  held 
by  Petrarch  between  the  metaphysical  lyrists  of  Tuscany  and  the 
more  realistic  amorists  of  succeeding  generations.  True  in  this 
respect  also  to  his  anticipation  of  the  coming  age,  he  was  the  first 
Italian  poet  of  love  to  free  himself  from  allegory  and  mysticism. 
Yet  he  was  far  from  approaching  the  analysis  of  emotion  with 
the  directness  of  a  Heine  or  Dc  Mussct.  Though  we  bcUeve  in 
the  reaUty  of  Laura,  we  derive  no  dear  conception  either  of  her 
person  or  her  cl^aracter.  She  Is  not  so  much  a  wodian  as  woman 
in  the  abstract  i  and  perhaps  on  this  very  account  the  poems 
written  for  her  by  her  lover  have  been 'taken  to  the  heart  by 
countless  lovers  who  came  after  him.  The  method  of  his  art  is  so 
generalizing,  while  his  feeling  is  so  natural,  that  every  man  can 
sec  himself  xencctcd  in  the  singer  and  his  mistress  shadowed  forth 
in  Laura.  The  same  criticism  might  be  passed  on  Petrarch'^ 
descriptions  of  nature.  That  he  felt  the  beauties  of  nature  keenly 
is  certain,  and  he  frequently  touches  them  with  obvious  appreci- 
ation. Yet  he  has  written  nothing  so  characteristic  of  Vauduse 
as  to  be  hiapplrcable  to  any  solitude  where  there  are  woods  and 
water.  The  Caitzonicre  is  therefore  one  long  melodious  monody 
poured  from  the  poet's  soul,  with  the  indefinite  form  of  a  beautiful 
woman  seated  in  a  lovely  landscape,  a  perpetual  object  of  delight' 
ful  contemplation.  This  disengagement  from  local  circumstance 
without  the  sacrifice  of  emotional  sincerity  is  a  merit  in  Petrarch, 
but  it  became  a  fault  In  his  imitators.  Lacking  his  intensity  of 
potion  and  his  admirable  faculty  for  sdzing  the  most  evanescent 
shades  of  difference  in  feeling,  they  degenerated  into  colouricss 
and  lifeless  insipidities  made  insupportable  by  the  frigid  repeti- 
tion of  tropes  and  concdts  which  ve  are  fain  to  pardon  in  the 
master 

Petrarch  did  not  distinguish  himself  by  love-poetry  alone  in 
the  Italian  language.  His  odes  to  Giacomo  Colonha,  to  Cola  di 
Rienzi  and  to  the  princes  of  Italy  dispby  him  in  another  light. 
They  exhibit  the  oratorical  iervour,  the  pleader's  eloquence  in  ils 
most  pericct  lustre,  which  Petrarch  possessed  in  no  less  measure 
than  subjective  passion.*  Modern  literature  has  nothing  nobler, 
nothing  more  harmonious  in  the  declamatory  style  than  these 
three  patriotic  effusions.  Their  spirit  itself  is  epoch-making  in 
the  history  of  Europe.  Up  to  this  point  Italy  had  scarcely  bcgua 
to  exist.  There  were  Florentines  and  Lombards,  Guelfs  and 
Ghlbellines;  but  even  Dante  had  scarcely  conceived  of  Italy 
as  a  nation,  independent  of  the  empire,  indusive  of  her  several 
component  commonwealths.  To  the  hi^h  conception  of  Italian 
nationality,  to  the  belief  in  that  spiritual  unity  which  underlay 
her  many  discords  and  divisions,  Petrarch  attained  partly  throu^ 
his  discfngagement  from  civic  and  local,  partisanship,  partly 
through  his  large  and  Uberal  ideal  of  culture. 

The  materials  for  a  life  of  Petrarch  are  afforded  in  abundance  by 
his  lettcnf»  collected  and  prepared  for  publication  undcf  his  own 
eyes.  These  arc  divided  into  Familiar  Corns^ondewe,  Cattespvnd- 
enc€  in  Old  A^,  Diners ^LtUets  and  Letters  without  a  TitUi  to  %hidi 
may  be  added  the  curious  autobtographlcal  fragment  entitkd  the 
Eptstlt  to  'Poster^.  Next  it*  importance  rank  the  epistles  and 
eclogues  in  Latin  venc,  the  Italian  ()ocnis  and  the  rhetorical  ad- 
dresses to  popes,  emperors.  Cola  di  Ricna  an^  some  gifcat  men  of 
antiquity..  For  the  comprehcosion  of  his  character  the  treatise  De 
conlempiu  mundi,  addressed  to  St  Augustine  and  styled  his  Secret, 
is  invaluable.  Without  attempting  a  complete  list  of  Petrarch's 
works,  it  may  hi  well  to  ilhistrate  the  extent  of  his  erudition  and 
his  activity  as  a  writer  by  a  brief  enumcreUcn  of  the  most  iai- 

gartant.  In  the  section  belonging  to  moral  philosophy,  we  find 
«  remediis  ulriusque  fortunae,  a  treatise  on  ^  human  happiDcss 
and  nnhapplncss;  7)e  vita  sditaria,  a  panegyric  of  sdttude:  De 
fitia  rdigiosorum,  a  sintihu:  essay  on  monasitie  life,  inspired  bf 
a  visit  to  his  brother  Gherardo  in  hb  convent  near  Maraetllca.  Oa 
historical  subjects  the  most  considerable  are  Rerum  meatorandanm 
libri,  a  miscctany  from  a  student's  commonplace-book,  and  Dt 
tiHs  illustribus,  an  epitome  of  the  biographies  of  Rotnart  worthies. 
Throb  polemical  works  require  mention:  Contta  cufusdam  oMomjmi 
■QaUi  ^umliias  apologia^  Contra  mediatm  ^[mendam  ivme^narmm 
librit  and  D*  mi  ipsius  et  muUorum  ignorautia — oontrovorsial 
and  sarcastic  compositions,  which  grew  out  of  Petrarch's  quarreb 
with  the  phystdarts  of  Avignon  and  the  Averrotsts  of  Padua.  In 
this  oenaexiea  it  snight  also  be  wU  to  meation  the  rrmarirablt 


:PETJWE,  SIR  E.-^PETJIBL' 


*«5 


Mtfrea  oa  Ih^  ptt|Ml  court,  inclucled  in  the  E^ulok*  n'lM  Itftilv. 
Fiv*  public  oration*  have  b«cn  prtscrvedt.  the  vap^t  wciglMy  of 
which,  in  explanation  of  Petrarch  •  coitccptioii  of  literature,  is  the 
ttweeb  (Mivered  oo  the  Capitol  upon  the  oocuion  of  hk  oyooatioa. 
Amoag  his  Latta  pociQs  AlrUa,  an  epic  on  Scipio  AfncaauK  ^akes 
the  fim  place.  Twelve  Edognas  and  three  books  of  Bpiidf  in 
verse  dote  the  list.  In  Italian  we  possess  the  Canzouter^  which 
includes  ode?  and  sonnets  written  for  Laura  during  her  KfetinHr, 
thoae  written  for  her  after  her  <lcath«  and  a  miseellaiitOiJ*  iectieo 
eoRinmng  the  three  pctriotic  odea  and  thnoe  fainoMa  pootinl, 
iovectivca  against  the  papal  court.  Besides  these  lyncal  composi- 
tions are  the  semi-cpical  or  allegorical  Trionfi — Triumphs  of  Love, 
Chastity,  Death,  Fame,  Time  and  Divinity,  written  in  terza  rima 
•f  smooth  and  Ilm^'d  quality.  Though  these  Triumphs,  as  a 
wholes  are  deficient  in  poetic  mspimtioii»  the  sacond  canto. of  the 
TWei^e  istfa  tmnlSt  an  which  Petraoch  describes  a  vision  of  his 
dead  love  Laura,  is  justly  famous  for  reserved  psission  and  pathos 
tempered  to  a  tranquil  harmony. 

The  compfete  biUiograpfay  of  Hetnirch  forma  «  eonsMemble 
volume.  Such  a  work  was  attempted  by  Domonico  Rossd'ti 
(Trieaicw  i938>.  It  will  be  eapugh  here  to  mention  the  Bas^  edition 
of  1581.  in  folio,  as  the  basis  for  all  subsequent  editions  of  his 
Collected  works.  Among  editions  of  the  Cantonien  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  those  of  Marsand  (Padua,  iSao),  Leopaidi  in  Le 
Monnler^  collection,  Mcstltia  (1895).  and  Cksdani  (18M).  Nor 
must  Frscassctti's  Italian  iferrfon  of  the  letters  (pehlishod  ui  5  vols, 
by  Le  Monnicr)  be  neglected.  De  Sadc'a  Life  of  the  poct  (Asnslcr- 
dam,  1764-1767)  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  nis  numerous 
biMfraphics;  but  this  Is  in  many  irnportant  points  untrustworthy, 
ami  it  has  been  superseded  t^  Gustav  Koerting's  odwuative 
volone  on  Peinrcas  Lebem  und  Wefke  fUipog.  1878).  Ccort 
Voigt's  Wttderbdebunf  des  ciassiscken  Aitertkums  (UcrUn,  i85q1 
contains  a  well-digested  estimate  of  Petrarch's  relation  to  the 
revival  of  learning.  Mcsi^rc's  Petmrque  (1868)  is  a  monoeraph  of 
merit.  Enelish  rsaden  may  be  referred  to  a  little  book  on  Petrarch 
by  Henry  Keeve,  and  to  ynim.  ii.  and  iv.  of  Symortd's  RetmisManct 
tn  Jialy.  See  also  Maud  F.  Jerrald..Fraa«gi«»  Petrorca,  potf  and 
kumanui  (1909).  (J.  A.  S.) 

raniB,  SIR  BDWARO  (1631-1699),  Jestxit  confettor  of  King 
James  II.  of  Bngland,  was  bom  in  Paris.  He  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Prands  Petre,  Bart.,  of  Cranham,  head  of  a  junior  branch  of  the 
family  of  the  Barons  Petre,  and  his  wife  EUxabcth  Cage, 
datighter  of  Sir  John  Gage,  both  strong  Roman  Cathctllcs^  In 
1649  he  was  s^nt  for  his  edUcatJon  to  the  Jesuit  College  at  St 
Omer,  and  he  entered  the  order  nnder  the  name  of  Speaoer  in 
x6$2,  but  <lid  not  recerve  the  full  orders  till  1671.  In  '1679  he 
succeeded  his  dder  brother  in  the  lUle  and  famfly  ctutes.  On 
the  accessioil  of  James  II.  in  k685  he  was  chosen  as  confessor  by 
the  king,  who  looked  upon  him  as  **  a  resolute  and  andertaklnc 
man.'^  During  the  wboleof  the  king's  rctgn  Petre  was  one  of 
his  advisers  who  did  the  most  to  encourage  him  in  the  policy 
which  ended  by  producing  the  revolution  of  1688.  The  king 
contemplated  making  him  archbishop  of  York,  as  the  see  was 
then  vacant,  but  the  pope,  Innocent  XI.,  who  was  not  friendly  to 
the  order,  would  not  grant  a  dispensation  to  hold  it,  and  even 
directed  Petre's  Superiors  to  rcbvke  him  for  his  excessive  am< 
Mtion.  In  1687  he  was  made  privy  councillor.  When  the 
rev<^tion  broke  out  Petre  was  compelled  to  flee  disguised  as  a 
woman.  After  his  flight  he  had  no  further  relations  with 
Jaroesr  II.  After  a  visit  to  Rome,  he  became  head  of  the  Jesuit 
College  at  St  Omcr  In  1693-,  ^m  whence  he  was  transferred  to 
Walten  in  Flanders  in  1697.  He  died  on  the  i$th  of  May 
1699.  A  younger  brother  Charles  (1644-171})  was  also  a 
member  of  the  order. 

PBTRft,  ilR  WILUAH  (c.  i$o$-t573>,  EnglMi  politidan, 
was  a  son  of  John  Petre,  a  Devon  man,  and  was  educated  at 
Exetet  College,  Oxford,  afterwards  becoming  a  fellow  of  AH 
Souls'  College.  He  entered  the  public  service  in  eariy  life,  owing 
his  introduction  therein  doubtless  to  the  fact  that  at  Oxford 
he  had  been  tutor  to  Anne  Boleyn's  brother,  George  Boleyni 
Viscount  Rocfalbrd,  and  began  his  official  career  by  serving  the 
English  government  abroad.  In  1536  he  was  made  deputy,  or 
proctor,  for  the  vicar-general,  Thomas  Cremwdl,  and  a¥such  he 
presided  over  the  convocation  which  met  in  June  of  this  year 
In  IS43  Petre  was  knighted  and  was  appointed  a  secretary  of 
state;  In  i$4S  he  was  s^nt  as  amb.issador  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  A  very  politic  man,  he  retained  his  position 
under  Edward  VI.  and  also  under  Mary,  forsaking  the  {irotector 
Somenet  at  the  right  moment  and  winning  Mary's  goodwIHby 


favouring  her  marriagie  with  Philip  II.  ol  Spain.  He  nsigned 
hb  sccrei«iryship  in  I557>  hut  took  some  part  in  public  business 
uodec  Elisabeth  until  his  death  at  his  residence^  Ingatestone, 
Essex,  on  the  13th  of  January  i  $32^ 

'  Hia  son  John  Petre  (]$49~i6x3)  was  created  Baron  Petre  oC 
Writtle  in  1603.  The  and  baron  was  his  son  William  (iSTS** 
i637)»  whose  grandson  was  William^  the  4th  baron  <c.  1636^ 
t684>.  Denounced  by  Titus  Oatca  as  a  papist*  the  last  named 
was  arrested  with  other  Roman  Catholic  noblemen  in  167&  and 
lemained  without  trial  in  the  Tower  of  London  until  lus  deatlk 
His  brother  John  (1619-1684)  was  the  sth  lord,  and  the  latter^ 
nephew,  Robert  (1689-1713),  was  the  7th  lord.  It  was  RobertS 
action  In  cutting  a  lock  of  hair  from  a  lady's  (tend  which  led  Pope 
to  write  his  poem  ^  The  Rapeof  the  Lock."  The  Pet  res  hai^  heed 
coAststenily  atti^hed  to  the  Roman  Catholk  faith,  Wllfiam 
Joseph,  the  13th  baron  0^47-^893),  being  a  priest  of  the  Roman 
church,  and  the  barony  is  still  (1911)  in  existencfc.  One  of  the 
tse  baronS  grandsons  was  William  Petre  (1609-1677),  who  tran#» 
hited  the  Fios  sanctorum  of  Pedro  de  Ribadeneira  as  Lives  gflkls 
Saiff/5  (St  Onier,  1699,  London,  1730). 

See  Genealopcal  CoiUdions  iUustrating  It*  ffklarr  tf  JSmmm 
Cukein  Famms  tf  Bngfttnd,  vd.  L,  edited  by  j.  J.  Howard  and 
H.F^Burkfc        "^       "^ 

PBTRBL,  the  general  name  of  a  group  of  bfrds  (of  whieK  mat« 
than  100  species  are  recognized),  derived  from  the  habit  which 
qome  of  them  possess  of  apparently  walking  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  as  the  apostle  St  Peter  (of  whose  name  the  woM  is  a 
diminutive  form)  is  recorded  (Matt.  xiv.  29)  to  have  done.  The 
petrels,  all  of  which  arc  placed  in  the  family  Proedhriidae,  were 
formerly  associated  with  the  Laridae  (see  Ct)Ll),  but  they  are 
now  placed  as  the  sole  members  of  the  suborder  Tvhinares  (the 
name  denoting  the  characteristic  tubular  structure  of  their 
nostrils)  and  of  the  order  Procdloriijormes  (see  Bird).  They  are 
subdivided  Into  four  groups  or  subfamilies:  (i)  Pdteonoidinae 
(or  ifttlodrominae),  containing  some  three  or  four  species  knowh 
as  diving-pet rcls,  with  habits  very  diflercWt  from  others  of  the 
famfly,  and  almost  peculiar  to  high  southern  latitudes  from  Cape 
Horn  to  New  Zealand;  (3)  Procd/ariinaCt  or  petrels  proper  (and 
shearwaters);  (3)  Diomedeinae,  or  albatrosses  (see  Mallemuck); 
and  (4)  Oceanitinae,  containing  small  sooty-black  birds  of  the 
genera  CymodrotnOt  PealeOt  Pdagodratnn^  Garrodia  and  Ouanitei, 
the  distinctive  nature  of  which  was  fixst  recognized  by  Coues 
in  1864. 

Petrels  are  archaic  oceanic  forms,  with  great  powers  of  flight, 
dispersed  throughout  all  the  seas  and  oceans  of  the  world,  and 
some  species  apparently  never  resort  to  land  except  for  the  pur- 
pose of  nidification,  though  ncarty  all  arc  liable  at  times  to  be 
driven  ashore,  and  often  very  far  fnland,  by  galte  of  wind.'  U 
would  also  seem  that  during  the  breeding-season  many  of  them 
are  wholly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  pasi^ng  the  day  in  holes  of 
t^  ground,  or  in  clefts  of  the  rocks,  in  which  they  generally 
nestle,  the  hen  of  each  pair  laying  a  single  white  egg,  sparsely 
speckled  in  a  few  spcdcs  with  fine  reddish  dots.  Of  those 
species  thiit  frequent  the  North  Atlantic,  the  common  Storm- 
Pet  rcl,  Pr^e//a/fo  pdagica,  a  little  bird  which  has  to*  the 
ordinary  eye  rather  the  look  of  a  Swift  or  Swallow,  h  the 
**  Mother  Car6y*s  qhicken  "  of  sailors,  and  is  widely  believed  to  be 
the  harbinger  of  bad  weather,  but  seamen  hardly  discriminate 
between  this  and  others  nearly  resembling  it  in  appearance,  such 
as  Leach's  or  the  Fork-tailed  Petrel,  Cymockorea  leucorrhoa,  a 
rather  larger  but  less  common  bird,  and  Wilson's Yelrel.OffAii- 
iies  ouatScuSt  the  type  of  the  Family  Octanitidae  mentioned 
above,  which  is  more  common  oh  the  American  iide.  But  itjs  in 
the  Southern  Oceitn  thtft'  Petrels  most  lib^Kind,  both  as  sp^ics 
and  as  individuals.  The  Cape-f^eon  or  Pintado  Petrel,  Daption 
eaPemiSf  is  one  Uiat  h^s  long  been  well  kaown  to  mariners  and 
other  wayfarerson  tht  great  wattrs,  while  those  who  voyage  to 
or  from  Australia,  whatever  be  the  route  they  take,  are 

*Thu9  Oeslrdala  haesilatat  the  Capped  Prtiel,  a  spedes  whose 
proper  home  secma  to  be  Guadeloupe  and  tome  of  the  nclehbburing 
West -Indian  Islands,  has  odcurird  \h  the  State  of  New  VoHc,  near 
Uoolognc,  in  Norfolk,  and  in  Hungary  {thif,  fW^,  p.'«oa)(  < 


3i6 


KETRIE,  a— PETROLEDH 


ceruia  to  meet  irfth  many  more  >pedes,  Mme,  as  Ossifrai* 
piantea,  as  large  as  Albatrosses,  and  several  of  them  called  by 
tailors  by  a  variety  of  choice  names,  generally  having  refeitnoe 
to  the  strong  smell  of  musk  emitted  by  the  birds,  among  vhich 
that  of  '*  Stink-pot "  is  not  the  most  opprobrious.  None  of 
the  Petrels  are  endowed  with  any  brilliant  o0louring-*400ty- 
black,  grey  of  various  tints  (one  of  which .  b  often  called 
**  blue  ")t  and  white  being  the  only  hues  the  plumage  exhibits. 
The  ^Btribtttion  of  the  seversl  species  of  Pcti^  in  the  Southern 
Ocean  has  been  treated  by  A.  Mflne-Edwaids  In  the  AnnaUs  des 
Mekmti  nahmttes  for  iSSa  (6ch  series  Zool^gU,  voL  soii.  art.  4,  pp. 
i-aa),  (A.  N.) 

PBTRIB,  QBORGB  (1790-x^),  Irish  antiquaiy,  was  the  son 
of  James  Petrie,  a  native  of  Aberdeen,  who  liad  settled  in  Dublin 
"as  a  portrait  and  miniatuxe  painter.  He  was  bom  in  publin  in 
January  xygo,  and  was  educated  as  an  artist.  Besides  attaining 
ci^isiderable  reputation  af  a  painter  of  Irish  landscapci  he 
devoted  much  time  to  the  illustration  of  the  antiquities  of  the 
country.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  to  conduct  the  antiquarian 
and  historical  section  of  the  ordnance  survey  of  Ireland.  In 
1832  he  became  editor  of  the  Dublin  Penny  Journal,  a  periodical 
designed  to  disseminate  information  among  the  masses,  to  which 
he  contributed  numerous  articles  on  the  history  of  the  fine  arts 
in  Ireland.  Petrie  may  be  rcgunded  as  the  first  sdentific  in- 
vestigator of  Irish  archaeology,  his  contributions  to  which  are 
also  in  themselves  of  much  importance.  His  Essay  on.  Round 
Towers,  for  which  in  1830  he  received  the  prize  of  the  Irish 
Academy,  still  ranks  as  a  standard  work.  Among  his  other 
contributions  to  Irish  archaeology  are  his  Essay  on  the  Military 
Architecture  of  Jrdand  and  his  History  and  Antiquities  0/  Tara 
Hill,  He  died  on  the  x 7th  of  January  x866. 

Sec  the  Idje  and  Labours  in  Art  and  Arckaedoiy  of  Cearu  Petrie, 
by  William  Stokes  (1868). 

PBTBIi;  WILUAM  HAnHEW  FUNOBRS  (1853-  ), 
English  egyptologist,  was  bom  at  Charlton  on  the  3rd  of  June 
1853,  being  the  son  of  William  Petrie,  C.E.  His  mother  was  the 
daughter  of  Captain  Matthew  Flinders,  the  Australian  explorer. 
He  took  an  early  interest  in  archaeological  research,  and  between 
1875  and  1880  was  busily  engaged  in  studying  ancient  British 
remains  at  Stonehenge  and  elsewhere;  in  1880  he  published  his 
book  on  Stonehenge,  with  an  account  of  his  theories  on  this 
subject.  He  was  also  much  interested  in  ancient  weights  and 
measures,  and  in  1875  published  a  work  on  Inductive  Metrology, 
In  x88x  he  began  a  long  series  of  important  surveys  and  excava- 
tions in  Egypt,  beginning  with  the  pyramids  at  Giza,  and  follow- 
ing up  his  work  there  by  excavations  at  the  great  temple  at  Tanis 
(1884),  and  discovering  and  exploring  the  long-lost  Greek  city  of 
Naucratb  in  the  Delta  (1885),  and  the  towns  of  Am  and  Daphnae 
(x886),  where  he  found  important  remains  of  the  time  when  they 
were  inhabited  by  the  Pharaohs.  Between  1888  and  1890  he 
was  at  work  in  the  Fayum,  opening  up  Hawara,  Kahun  and 
Lachish;  and  in  X89X  he  discovered  the  ancient  temple  at  Mediifli. 
Much  of  this  work  was  done  in  connexion  with  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund.  By  this  time  his  reputation  was  estab- 
lished. He  published  in  1893  his  Ten  Years*  Diggings  in  Egypt, 
was  ^ven  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  by  Oxford,  and  was 
appouted  Edwards  Professor  of  Egyptology  at  University 
College,  London.  In  1894  he  founded  the  Egyptian  Research 
Account,  which  in  1905  was  reconstituted  as  the  British  School 
of  Archaeology  in  Egypt  (not  to  be  confused  with  the  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund,  founded  X892).  Perhaps  the  most  important 
work  which  the  School  has  accomplished  has  been  the  inyesti- 
gatioo  of  the  site  of  Memphis  (f  .v.) 

The  artent  as  well  as  the  chronoloekal  order  of  Professor  Petrie*s 
csicavalioas  may  best  be  shown  by  a  list  of  his  works. 

Woau. — His  chief  general  works  on  Egyptian  subjecta  are. 
Ten  Yearf  Digginp  la  Bgyft  (1899):  ffishry  of  Egypt  (1894-' 


Rdipen  mnd  Conseieneo  in  Ancient 


1905);  JToWiflii  7attt(i895* 

&gypt  iiMc^ii  Syria  ondEiypi  (i^);  EoyaS  Tombs  of  the  FirU 
Dynasty  (1900):  Royal  Tombs  of  the  Earliest  Dynasties  (1901); 
Hyktos  and  israelUe  CHias  (1906):  Rdipan  of  Ancient  Egypt  (1906): 


Persouai 

0mdTi 


MeligioniM  Egypt  09p8). 
^ofCiaekimihTdni 
\a$9U  KMhsm  Oi9o);  J 


Oh  particular  ritet.  Pyramids 

'anis  /.  (1885):  IfanhrfHs  /.  (1886); 

iJaMtw  (189O;  iM(">  U89>>i 


TtE  a  Amama  (1895):  KeMas  (1696):  JWifaia  (iM:  ^Sb 
Templa  at  Thebes  (1897):  IfsshadiA  (1897);  Denderek  (1900); 
Diospolis  (1901);  Abydoe  L  (190a) {  Aliydos  II.  (1903):  Ehiasyn 
(I9QA>:  Egyptians  in  Sinai  and  Researekes  in  Sinas  (1906):  Gosft 
andR^Ti907)\  Athribie  (1906);  Memphis  and  Qumtk  (1909). 

PBTRIOU  (also  called  Cka-ckang-sao),  a  town  and  port  of 
Siam,  in  the  division  of  Pachim,  atx>ut  4$  m.  £.  of  Bangkok. 
It  is  the  centre  of  that  part  of  southern  SUm  which  is  watered 
by  the  Bang  Pakong  River.  It  is  built  on  low-lying,  swampy 
groimd,  about  xo  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  above  river,  llie 
population  b  about  io,ooo,  mixed  Siamese  and  Chinese,  the 
latter  slightly  predominating.  Riqe-mills  give  emplo3nsent  to 
a  large  number  of  indentured  Chinese  coolies,  bat  the  ixtbabi- 
tants  are  chiefly  engaged  In  agriculture.  A  railway  connecting 
with  Bangkok  was  opened  in  the  spring  of  X908. 

PETBOUA*  a  town  and  port  of  entry  in-  Lambton  county, 
Ontario,  Canada,  situated  4a  m.  W.  of  London  on  Bear  Creek. 
in  affluent  of  Sydenham  River,  and  on  the  Grand  Ttiak  and 
Michigan  Central  railways.  Pop.  (1901),  4x35.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  the  on  region  of  Canada,  and  numerous  wells  in  the 
vicinity  have  an  aggregate  output  of  about  30,000^000  gallons 
of  crude  oil  per  annum,  mueh  of  which  Is  refined  In  the  town. 

PETROIEUV  (Lat.  pefra,  rock,  and  oieumt  dl),  a  term  which, 
in  its  widest  sense,  embraces  the  whole  of  the  hydrocarbons, 
gaseous,  liquid  and  solid,  occurring  in  nature  (see  Bitdken). 
Here  the  application  of  the  tenh  is  Kmtted  to  the  liquid  which 
is  so  important  an  artide  of  commerce,  though  references  wiQ 
also  be  made  to  natural  gas  which  accompanies  petroleum. 
Descriptions  of  the  solid  forms  will  be  found  in  the  articles  oi^ 
asphalt  or  asphaltum,  albertite,  elatcrite,  gilsonhc,  hatchettite 
and  ozokerite.  Particulars  of  the  shales  whidi  yield  oil  on 
destmaive  distillation  are  given  in  the  article  on  paraffin. 

Ancient  History. — Petroleum  was  coUeotcd  for  use  in  the  OMst 
remote  ages  of  which  we  have  any  records.  Herodotus  de- 
scribes the  oil  pits  aear  Ardericca  (near  Babylon),  and  the  pitch 
spring  of  Zacynthus  (Zante),  whilst  Strabo,  Dioaoorides  and 
Pliny  mention  the  use  of  the  oil  of  Agrigentum,  in  Sidly,  for 
illumination,  and  Plutarch  refers  to  the  petroleum  found  near 
EclMitana  (Keckuk).  The  andeot  reooids  of  China  and  Japan 
are  said  to  contain  many  allusions  to  the  use  of  natural  gas 
for  lighting  and  heating.  Petroleum  ("  burning  water  ")  was 
known  in  Japan  in  the  7th  century,  whilst  in  Europe  the  gas 
springs  of  the  north  of  Italy  led  to  the  adoption  in  1226  by  the 
munidpality  of  Salsomaggiore  of  a  salamander  surrounded  by 
flames  as  ita  emblem.  Marco  Polo  refers  to  the  oil  qtriags  of 
Baku  towards  the  end  of  the  X3th century;  the  medicinal  proper- 
ties of  the  oil  of  Tegemsee  in  Bavaria  gave  it  the  name  of  '*  St 
Quirinus's  Oil  "  in  1436;  the  oil  of  Pechelbronn,  Elsass,  was  dis- 
covered in  1498)  and  the  "  earthbalsapfi  "  of  Calida  was  known 
in  1506.  The  earliest  mention  of  American  petroleum  occurs 
4n  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  account  of  the  Trinidad  pilcfa-lakc  in 
1595;  whilst  thirty-seven  years  later,  the  account  of  a  visit  of 
a  Franciscan,  Joseph  de  la  Roche  d'AUion,  to  the  oil  springs  of 
New  York  was  published  in  Sagard's  Histcire  du  Canada.  In 
the  X7th  century,  Thomas  Shirley  brought  the  natural  gas  of 
Wigan,  in  Shropshire,  to  the  notice  of  the  Royal  Society.  In 
1 724  Hermann  Boemaave  referred  to  the  oleum  tcrrae  of  Burma, 
and  "Barbados  tar"  was  then  well  known  as  a  medicinal  agent. 
A  Russian  traveller,  Peter  Kalm,  i»  -bis  wprk  00  Amoica, 
published  in  1748,  showed  on  a  map  the  oil  springs  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  about  the  same  time  Raicevxch  rdeired  to  the 
"  liquid  bitumen  "  of  Rumania. 

Modem  Dadopmeni  and  Industrial  Progrtss.-^Tht  first 
commercial  exploitation  of  importance  appears  to  have  been  the 
distillation  of  the  oil  at  Alfreton  in  Derbyshire  by  James  Young, 
who  patented  his  process  for  the  manufacture  of  paraffin  ia 
x8so.  In  1853  and  1854  patents  for  the  preparation  of  this 
substance  from  petroleum  were  obtained  by  Warren  de  la  Rue, 
and  the  process  was  applied  to  the  "  Rangoon  oil  *'  brought  to 
Great  Britain  from  Yeoangyaung  in  Upper  Burma.  The  active 
growth  of  the  petroleum  industry  of  the  United  States  began 
in  1859,  though  in  the  early  part  of  the  century  the  pefrolcum 
oC  Lake  Seneca,  N.Y.,  was  used  as  an  embrocatioii  under  the 


^ETI^OLEUM 


317 


name  of  "Seneca  ofl/'  and  tbe  "American  Medicinal  OH" 
of  Kentucky  was  largely  sold  after  its  discovciy  in  1829.  The 
Pennsylvania  Rock  Oil  Company  was  formed  in  1854,  but  its 
operatinns  were  unsuccessful,  and  in  1858  certain  of  the  mem- 
bers founded  the  Seneca  OH  Company,  under  whose  direction 
E.  L.  Drake  started  a  well  on  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania.  After 
drilling  had  been  carried  to  a  depth  of  69  feet,  on  the  t6tb  of 
August  1859,  the  tools  suddenly  dropped  into  a  crevice,  and  on 
the  following  day  the  well  was  found  to  have  "struck  oiL" 
This  well  yielded  25  barrels  a  day  for  some  time,  but  at  the  end 
of  the  year  the  output  was  at  the  rate  of  15  barrels.  The  pro- 
duction of  crude  petroteum  in  the  United  States  was  officially 
reported  to  have  been  3000  barrels  In  |8S9,  4,2x5,000  barrels 
in  1869, 19,914,146  barrels  in  1879,  35,163,515  bands  in  1889, 
57,084,428  barreU  in  1899,  and  126,493,936  'barrels  in  1906. 
From  Oil  Creek,  development  spread  fiist  over  the  eastern 
United  States  and  then  became  general,  subsequently  embracing 
Canada  (1862),  recently  discovered  fields  being  those  of  Blinois, 
Alberta  and  California  <44«S54>737  barrels  in  1908). 

For  about  xo  years  Pennsylvania  was  the  one  great  oil  pro- 
ducer of  the  world,  but  sonce  1870  the  industry  has  spread  aQ 
over  the  globe.  From  the  time  of  the  completion  on  the  Baku 
field  of  the  first  flowing  well  (which  was  unmanageable  and 
resulted  in  the  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  the  oil),  Russia  has 
ranked  second  in  the  list  of  producing  countries,  whilst  Galicia 
and  Rumania  became  prominent  in  1878  and  1880  respectively.. 
Sumat^^  Java  and  Borneo,  where  active  development  begu 
in  xfiSj,  x886  and  1896,  bid  fair  to  rank  before  long  among  the 
diief  sources  of  the  oQ  supplies  of  the  world.  Similarly,  Burma, 
where  the  Burmah  Oil  Company  have,  since  1890,  rapidly 
extended  their  operations,  is  rising  to  a  position  of  importance. 
Oil  fields  are  being  oontinoally  opened  up  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  ..nd  whilst  America  still  maintains  her  position  as  the 
largest  petroleum  producer,  the  world's  supplies  are  now  being 
derived  from  a  steadily  increasing  number  of  centres. 

Physical  and  Ckemieal  Properties.-^Mthovglti  our  information 
respecting  the  chemical  composition  of  petroleum  has  been 
almost  entirely  gained  since  the  middle  of  the  i8lh  century,  a 
considerable  amount  of  empirical  knowledge  of  the  substance 
was  possessed  by  chemists  at  an  earlier  date,  and  there  was  much 
qxcufation  as  to  its  origin.  In  his  Sylva  syhantm  (1627), 
Francis  Bacon  states  that  "  the  original  concretion  of  bitumen 
is  a  mixture  of  a  fiery  and  watery  substance,"  and  observes 
that  flame  "  attracts  "  the  naphtha  of  Babylon  **  afar  off." 
P.  J.  Macqoet  (1764),  T.O.  Bergman  (x 784)  Charles  Hatchett 
(X798)  and  others  also  expressed  views  with  regard  to  the 
€onstilut3on  and  origin  of  bitumens.  Of  these  early  writers, 
Hatchett  is  the  most  explicit,  the  various  bituminous  substances 
being  by  him  dasi^ed  and  defined.  Jacob  Joseph  Winterl, 
in  1788,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  examine  petroleum 
chemically,  but  the  earliest  systenutic  investigation  was  that 
carried  out  by  Professor  B.  SilUman,  Jun.,  in  1855,  who  then 
reported  upon  the  results  which  he  had  obtained  with  the 
"  rock  on  or  petroleum  "  of  Venango  county,  Pennsylvania. 
This  report  has  become  a  classic  in  the  literature  of  petroleum. 

The  physical  properties  of  petroleum  vary  greatly.  The 
colour  ranges  fh>m  pale  yellow  through  red  and  brown  to  black 
or  greenish,  wbfle  by  reflected  light  it  b,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
of  a  green  hue.  The  specific  gravity  of  crude  petroleum  appears 
to  range  from  *77x  to  x-o6,  and  the  flash  point  from  below  o^ 
to  37o°F.  Viscosity  increases  with  density,  but  oils  of  the  same 
density  often  vary  greatly;  the  coefficient  of  expan^on,  on  the 
other  hand,  varies  invcnely  with  the  density,  but  bears  no 
simple  relation  to  the  change  of  fluidity  of  the  oil  under  the 
influence  of  heat,  this  being  most  marked  in  oils  of  paraffin 
base.  The  calorific  power  of  Bakn  oil  appears  to  be  Mg^t, 
while  this  oil  is  poorest  in  solid  hydrocarbons,  of  which  the 
American  petroleums  contain  moderate  quantities,  and  the 
Upper  Burma  oils  the  largest  amount.  The  bofling  point,  being 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  constituents  of  the  oil, 
necessarily  varies  greatly  in  different  oHs,  as  do  the  amounts  of 
distillate  obtained  from  them  at  specified  tempentureSi 


Even  prior  to  the  discovery  of  petroleum  in  commercial 
quantities,  a  number  of  chemists  had  made  determinations  of 
the  chemical  composition  of  several  different  varieties,  and  these 
Investigations,  supplemented  by  those  of  a  later  date,  show-  that 
petroleum  consists  of  about  84%  by  weight  of  carbon  with  12% 
of  hydrogen,  and  varying  proportions  of  sulphur,  nitrogen  aiid 
oxygen.  The  principal  dements  are  found  in  various  combina- 
tions, the  hydrocarbons  of  the  Pennsylvania  oils  being  mainly 
paraffins  (9.V.),  while  those  of  Caucasian  petroleum  belong  for 
the  most  part  to  the  nafrfithenes,  isomeric  with  the  olefines  (7.0.). 
.  Paraffins  are  found  in  all  crude  oils,  and  olefines  in  varying 
proportions  in  the  majority,  while  acetylene  has  been  found  in 
Baku  oil;  members  of  the  benzene  group  and  its  derivatives, 
notably  benzene  and  toluene,  occur  in  aU  petroleums.  Naph- 
thencs  are  the  chief  components  of  some  oils,  as  already  indicated, 
and  occur  in  varying  quantities  in  many  others.  Certain  crude 
Otis  have  also  been  found,  to  contiiin  camphcnes,  naphthalene 
and  other  aromatic  hydrocarbons.  It  is  found  that  transparent 
oils  under  the  influence  of  light  absorb  oxygen,  becomii^  deeper 
in  colour  and  opalescent,  while  strong  acidity  and  a  penetrating 
odour  are  developed,  these  changes  being  due  to  the  formation 
ol  various  add  and  phenylated  OMnpounds,  which  are  also 
occasionally  found  in  fresh  oils.  The  residues  from  petroleum 
distillation  have  been  shown  to  contain  very  dense  solids  and 
liquids  of  high  specific  gravity,  having  a  large  proportion  of 
carbon  and  possessed  of  remarkable  fluocesceal  properties. 

Natural  gas  is  found  to  consist  mainly  of  the  lower  paraffins, 
with  varying  quantities  of  carbon  dioxide,  carbon  monoxide, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  in  some  cases  also  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  and  possibly  an&monia.  This  mixture  dissolves  in 
petroleum,  escaping  when  the  oil  is  stored,  and  conversely  it 
invariably  carries  a  certain  amount  of  water  and  oil,  which  is 
deposited  on  compression. 

OcauTMcr.-— Bitumen  is,  in  its  various  forms,  one  of  the  most 
widely^distributcd  of  •ubitaaces,  occurriiig  in  strata  of  every 
geological  age,  from  the  lowest  Anih«aii  rocks  to  tho«e  now  in 
process  of  cfeposidon,  and  in  cieater  or  less  quantity  throughout 
both  hemispberes,  from  Spit^ergeo  to  New  Zeahmd,  and  from 
California  to  Japan.  The  oocumnce  of  commercially  valuable 
petroleum  is,  however,  comparatively  limited,  hitherto  exploited 
deposits  beine  confined  to  rocks  younger  than  the  Cambrian  and 
older  than  the  Quaternaty.  while  the  majority  of  developed  oil* 
fields  have  been  discovcrBd  mrth  of  the  equator. 

The  hiain  requisites  for  a  productive  oif  or  gas  field  am  a  porous 
reservoir  and  an  impervious  cover.  Thus,  while  the  mineral  may 
be  formed  in  a  stratum  other  than  that  in  which  it  is  found,  though 
in  many  cases  it  is  indigenous  to  it,  for  the  formation  of  a  natural 
reservoir  of  the  fluid  (whether  liquid  or  gas)  it  is  necessary  that 
there  should  be  a  suitable  porous  rack  to  contain  it.  Suck  a  rock 
is  typically  exemplified  by  a  coarse-grained  saadstooe  or  con- 
gtomerate,  while  a  limestone  may  be  naturally  porous,  or,  like 
the  Tienion  limestone  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  rendered  so  by  its 
oonverston  into  dolomite  and  the  consequent  production  of  cavities 
due  to  shrinkage— a  chan^  occurring  only  in  the  purer  limestonesi 
Similarly  it  is  necessary,  m  view  of  the  hydrostatical  relations  of 
water  and  mineral  oils,  and  the  volatile  character  of  the  latter, 
that  the  porous  stratum  should  be  protected  from  water  and  air 
by  an  overlying  shale  or  other  impervious  deposit.  Water,  often 
saline  oiir  sulphurous,  is  also  found  in  these  porous  rocks  and  te^ 
places  the  oil  as  the  latter  is  withdrawn. 

In  addition  to  these  two  neoessarjir  facton,  atructuial  conditions 
play  an  important  part  in  determining  the  accumufation  of  oil 
and  gas.  The  main  supplies  have  been  obtained  from  strata 
unbroken  and  comparatively  undisturbed,  but  the  occurrence 
of  anticlinal  or  terrace  structure,  however  slightly  marked  or  limited 
in  extent,  exerts  a  poweriul  influence  on  the  creation  of  reseivoirb 
of  petrdeum.  These  tectonic  arches  often  extend  for  long  di» 
'  tanccs  with  neat  re^larity.  but  are  frequently  crossed  by  sutv 
sidiaty  antidmes,  which  themselves  play  a  not  unimportant  part 
in  the  aggregation  of  the  oil.  Owing  to  difference  01  density  the 
oU  and  w^ter  in  the  anticlines  separate  into  two  layen,  the  upper 
oonsfeting  of  oil  which  fills  the  anticlines,  while  the  water  remains 
in  the  sy  ncfines.  Any  jas  which  may  be  present  rises  to  the  summits 
of  the  anticlines.  When  the  sbw  foUiag  of  the  strata  is  acconw 
panied  by  a  gradual  local  descent,  a  modified  or  "arrested** 
anticlinal  structure,  known  as  a  "  terrace  "  is  produced,  the  up- 
heaving action  at  that  part  beingsuffident  only  to  arrest  thedeacent 
whifch  would  otherwise  occur.  The  terraces  may  thus  be  regarded 
as  flat  and  extended  anticlines.  They  need  not  be  boriiontal. 
and  sometimes  have  a  dip  of  a  few  feet  per  mile,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Ohio  and  Indiana  od  fields,  wfacac  tbr  anoott^  varies  Hum 


3lS 

one  to  (a  fat.    TlieK  •ligbt  ^iBt 


^^^^  „ .  -dowLedee  of   the  duj^ctcr  «nd 

lif  the  rock-EDriruiian*  iji  nzirDlErcrDm  tcrriiofictt  ii  td 

Idtling  Dfjcration*;  bene*  on  vcU<Diiduaed  pcirolcum' 


PETROtEUM 

lanil,  Spain,  tuly, 

5,™—' 


Ihi!nlrDniiiai1CD[T^'"(«hIi"iir  Ihc«;iiiltry      A  llnloi»liiun1ain 
in  Ibc  Crcunyi  nil  GcU  in  Ibc  nonhem  Caucim.  which  began  to 

Am  thr«  days  I,JOO,000  poodi  (avrr  4.y»,0DO  ipillons,  or  aboul 

graduiUy    dimini^ing   quinllty,    lor    fiflrcn    nkunthi^   ■llrrvnrdfl 
the  flow  bccainr  incrnuitcnt.     In  ApdJ  1897  ihcrc  va*  KiU  an 

Three    theories    have    bccD    pTDpoUDded    Co    BCCOIlDt    for    thil 

].  Thit  EI  muLis  from  the  weiElit  of  the  orcrlyhig  ftnti. 

^  That  ii  H  dused  by  the  compressed  conditloD  of  the  giaduaUy 
Of  theie  the  fini  hu  beta  proved  nntmaUei  and  while  in  Kine 


Xmnl.— Lancashire   (Down    Holland    Mm).   Halland.  Swrdtn, 

J>M]UcnK.— ScUmit-Holilcin.  Mionesota.  llhnoii.  Louinaiia. 

/•JiKiM.— Spain.  ItaV.  Albania.  Cmlia.  Hungaty.  Henr. 
Hanover.  Tranflcaipia,  Ale«na-  FlondM.  Alabaioa.  CBliromia. 
M««i,rera.\"     ^     "     ••    ■      ■ 


ania.  Cali. , 

>tuM.  Cnnea.  Kuban.  Tnck.  Kuta 


.    Alnrin.    FU 

New^land.^, 


u  Tiflii. 


Philippine  ItUndi, 
-  •  -■-■-     Alailu 

Jartad, 


ln.java.  Alp™.  Esypt.  BrSilh 
,  California.  Colondi).  Tciu, 
cneiucb.  Pcni.  South  Agitialia. 


Mew  Zt*kr._ 

Nmcmmm.— Somen,    France.    SiitBdand. 
Tmaylvvnia,  Bu'  " 


_   .._ Spain,     Han 

Hnu,  Badeo.  Hanover,  R 


Tlfc  S 


._.  Aat,    Slaflordahm,    France.    PDrtuKat.     Spairu 

uly,  McntenesiD.  Uppei  AuBria,  Tvml.  Bamru,  Wuntembrn. 
Jjifen.  Elias.  lAhiTnEen.  Rheniih  Bavacu.  Rhen.ih  Prnuu. 
Hanover.  Bninswick,  Swedea.  Spiuberjen.  Punjab.  China.  Tiani- 
vaal.CapeColony,  COnneciKul,  New  Jeriey,  Viryinia,  North  Caro- 
hna,  WyiKnina.  ArEFnuna,  New  South  Walea.  ODoenilaad. 

/■cnwun.-VorkJTue.  D^biEh,  Uvavia.  Buhemia,  Sadea. 
Ofcbhoiia°T^J  (Perm^Carb^ifcrom)  '       "*"'      *™™'* 

Car*™Ar«. —Scotland.    Nonh    of    England,    and    Midlai"!. 
Wak:a,  France,  Belgium,  Camiola,  Moravia,  Eii       " 
Snran.  China,  Cai«  Colony,  tion  Scoua,  N.w( 
vania,  WcH  Virginia,   Ohio,    MicbiEan.    India 
MiMouri.    Tcnntme,    Kcniuclty.    ATjha™     I 
Colofado.  Oklahi 


Saxony.  Perm 

lland,  VmnTii 

inuiaia.    Illuioii.    Itx 

ma,    Kanui,    Aikam 

.  (Pemo^IarbonifetoL 

in,  Hanover,  Afchani. 
uic,  Ontario,  Quebec.  New  BrunwKk, 
..   Pennsylvaua,  West   Vitgiua,  Ohii^ 


.— Shmodife.    Wale 
Ontario,  Qu-'—    " 
.  ,.„  Dhio,  MicKg 
ueky,   Georgia.   I 


-_ ,   Oklahf 

Caledonia. 

Cantnu.— Shinp^irc.  Ne*  Yo^ 


Sweden.  Dntuio. 


included  are  of  merely  academic  interest,  i 
i|>dia»  Mdi  aipplmw  at  p™it^only^lo.^ 


tucet  on  imn  cai^e  in  the  interior  of  the  s. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  ovcnrhdmini  and  increadnf  ma|oTity  ol 
those  who  have  studied  the  natural  cortdttioni  under  whjch  peimlenim 
occurs  are  oE  opinion  that  ii  is  of  organic  origin.  The  earlier  «ij]> 
porlersofiheo^nie  theory  held  thai  il  was  a  product  oi  the  natural 

not  generally  ^ve  rise  to  pcltolcuni.  Among  those  who  hai« 
considered  that  It  is  derived  from  the  decomposition  oE  both  animal 
and  vegetable  nuriae  ornnisms  may  be  rneniioned  J.  P.  Lesley, 
E.  Onon  and  S.  F.  Peekham.  but  «hen  have  hdd  tbai  it  i*  irf 
exclusively  animal  orifin.  a  viesr  supported  by  nich  occurmufia 
as  those  in  the  orthoccratillcs  of  the  Trenton  limestone,  and  by  the 
eMpcrlAenls  oE  C.  Englcr.  hho  obtained  a  liquid  like  crude  petroleuni 
by  the  dislUlalioa  of  aienhaden  (fish)  ofl.    Siinlariv  t^ieie  .is  ■ 


, rty  ihi 

—.,---„  ^.  , jinion  as  10  the  condilioas  UDdcT  which  tneiir„     . 
have  been  mmetalind.  tome  holding  that  the  proc«a  has  takeit 

elace  at  a  high  temperaturr  antt  under  great  pressure;  bui  the 
Lck  of  practical  evjdenee  in  nature  in  (uppon  of  thuc  vie«  has 
led  many  to  conchida  Iliat  petroleiim,  like  coal,  has  been  lormed 
at  ntodcran  Itmpetaiuna.  and  under  prnurts  varying  >-iih  itc 
th«  petrlle'uSThiT'"*"™-  -'-  --'-■'^-"--y^--'^-'-''--— -" 
a  product  of  tlw  dec 


PETROLEUM 


3«9 


Bxtroitum  (TkekMiufh  krwui  FHdtuUm.y^thB  eariiett  •jratein 
adopted  for  tbe  collection  of  petroleum  appears  to  hawt  ooiuutcd  in 
'-.  akimming  the  oil  from  the  surface  d  the  water  upon 

ffy^^  which  it  had  accumulated,  and  Prafcsaar  Lesley  states 
MHMoM,  u^^  ^^  Pj^jqi  Creek,  ki  Johnson  county.  Kentucky, 
a  Mr  George  and  others  were  in  the  habit  of  coMectinf  oil  from  the 
aaods.  **  by  making  shallow  canals  lOO  or  aod  ft.  long,  with  aa  up> 
right  board  and  a  reservoir  at  one  end,  from  which  they  obtained 
as  much  as  900  barreb  per  yttr  by  stirring  the  lands  with  a  pole." 
It  is  said  that  at  Echigo  in  Japan,  old  wells,  supposed  to  have  been 
dug  several  hundred  years  ago,  are  axistnit,  and  that  f.  Japanese 
history— calted  Kokuskirtyaku,  states  that  "burning  water'*  was 
obtained  in  Echigo  about  k.D.  615 

The  petroleum  industry  In  the  United  States  nsay  be  oooddered 
to  date  from  the  year  1859,  when  the  first  well  avowedly  drilled 
for  the  production  of  oil  was  completed  by  E.  L.  Drake. 
If^'l"'**The  present  method  of  drilling  has  been  eifolved  from 
"■*■-  the  artesian  well  syatein  previouily  adopted  for  obtain- 
ing brine  and  water.  The. drilling  cl  petroleum  wcUs  b  carried  od 
by  individuals  or  companies,  either  on  land*  owned  by  them,  or 
on  profwrties  whose  owners  grant  leases,  ufuall^  on  condition  that 
a  certain  number  of  wells  shall  be  sunk  trtthm  a  stated  pariod* 
and  that  a  portion  of  the  oil  obtained  (usually  from  ooe-teath  to 
one-fourth)  shall  be  appropriated  as  royalty  to  the  lessor.  Such 
leases  are  often  transferred  at  a  larger  royalty,  especially  after  the 
territory  has  been  proved  productive.  Toe  **  wildcat  '*  wells, 
sunk  by  specutalors  on  untested  territory  or  on  lands  which  had  not 
fMwiously  proved  productive,  played  an  important  part  in  the 
earlier  mapping  out  of  the  petrolettm  fields.  To  discourage  the 
sinking  of  wells  on  land  immediately  adjoining  productive  territory, 
it  has  been  usual  to  drill  along  the  borders  01  the  land  as  far  as 
practicable,  in  order  to  first  obtain  the  oil  which  might  otherwise 
oe  saissd  bv  others;  and  on  account  of  the  small  area  often  con- 
trolled by  tiie  operator,  the  number  of  wells  drilled  baa  frequently 
been  far  in  exceai  of  the  number  which  might  leasonably  be 
sunk.  Experience  has  proved  that  in  some  of  the  cS\  fields  of  the 
United  States  one  wdl  to  five  acres  is  aa  ck»e  aa  they  ahoukl  be 
drilled. 

After  the  selection  of  the  rite,  the  first  operation  consists  in  the 
enctlon  of  the  rig.  The  chief  portion  of  this  r^  is  the  derrick, 
'  which  conasts  of  four  strong  uprichts  or  legs  held  in 

*'"  position  by  ties  and  braces,  and  resting  on  strong 

wooden  sills,  which  are  prefmed,  aa  a  foundation,  to 
:  the  deeper  wells,  tbe  derrick,  on  account 
string  "  of  driUing  tools,  is  usually  at  least 


onaaoory.    For  drilling  the 
of  the  length  of  the  ''^atrini 


70  ft.  bighT  about  20  ft.  wide  at  the  base,  and  4  ft.  wide  at  the  sum- 
nit.  Toe  whole  detrkk  is  set  up  bjr  keys*  no  mortioea  or  tenons 
being  used,  and  thus  the  complete  rig  may  be  readily  taken  dowa 
and  wt  up  on  a  new  site.  The  sanuDo-post,  wUch  supports  the 
walking  beam,  and  the  jack-poets,  are  dov»4ailed  and  keyed  Into 
the  silfsL  The  nmaon-poat  m  pbced  Ihish  with  one  side  of  the 
main  rill,  the  band-wheel  jack-post  being  flush  with  the  other 
«de.  so  that  the  waUdnjF'Oeam,  whkh  uaparta  motion  to  the 
string  of  tools,  works  parallel  with  the  main  sUL 
•  The  boiler  generally  used  is  of  the  hxomotive  type  and  is  usually 
stationary,  though  sometimes  a  portable  foms  is  paefened*  It  is 
cither  set  in  the  nrst  instance  at  some  distance  from  the  engine  and 
well,  or  is  subsequently  removed  sufficiently  far  away  befoie  the 
drill  enters  the  oil-bearing  fomatioo*  and  until  the  oil  and  gas 
are  under  control.  In  order  to  minimise  the  risk  of  fire.  A  large 
bmler  frequently  supplies  the  engines  of  several  wells.  The  engine, 
which  is  provided  with  teversing  gear,  is  of  12  or  15  honK>power 
and  motion  is  communicated  through  a  belt  to  the  band-wheel, 
which  operates  the  walking-beam  by  mean*  of  a  crank.  The 
throttle-valve  is  opened  or  closed  by  turaing  a  nooved  vertical 
pulley  by  means  of  an  endlesa  cord,  called  the  teicgrapb,  paring 
round  another  pulley  fixed  upoa  the  '*  headache-poit/*  and  la  thus 
under  the  control  of  the  driller  woridng  in  the  derrick.  The  head- 
ache-post is  a  vertical  wooden  beam  placed  on  the  main  rill  directly 
below  the  walklng>bcam,  to  receive  the  weight  of  the  latter  in  case 
of  breakage  of  conoexionB.  The  porition  of  the  reverring  link  is 
altered  by  means  of  a  cord«  patting  owr  two  pulleys,  fixed  re- 
spectively in  the  eneine-bTUse  and  on  the  derrick.  At  oae  end  of 
tne  band-wheel  shaft  is  the  butt-rope  pulley,  and  upoa  the  other 
end  is  a  crank  having  rix  holes  to  receive  a  movable  wrist-pin.  the 
length  of  stroke  of  the  walking-beam  being  thus  adjusted.  The 
iwohition  of  the  buU-wbeela  ia  checked  by  the  use  of  a  powerful 
hand-brake. 

The  band-wbed  communicates  motion  to  the  walking-beam, 
while  driUing  Is  in  progress,  through  tbe  crank  and  a  connecting- 
rod  known  as  the  pitman:  to  the  Dull-wheels,  while  the  tools  are 
being  raised,  by  the  bull-rope:  and  to  the  sand-pump  red.  by  a 
friction  pulley,  while  the  nnd-pump  is  bring  used.  It  u  thereiore 
neceseary  that  the  machinery  should  be  so  arrange!!]  that  the  con- 
nexions may  be  rapidly  made  and  broken.  The  aand-pump  reel 
is  set  in  motion  by  presring  a  lever,  the  reel  beine  then  brought 
into  contact  with  the  face  of  the  band-wheel.  The  sand-pump 
descends  by  gravitation,  and  its  fall  is  checked  by  presring  back 
tbe  lever,  so  as  to  throw  the  red  against  a  post  whkh  serves  as 
a*     * 


The  driluv  tools  ara  suspended  by  an  untanad  asanila  rope. 
3  in.  in  disimlii,  passing  fntai  the  buil-wbed  shaft  over  a  groovoQ 

wheel  known  as  the  crown-pulley,  at  the  summit  of  the 

derrick.  The  string  of  dnlUng  toqts  oonsiaLs  of  two  zr'p' 
parts  separated  by  an  apf»liaiK9e  known  aa  tbe  Jars.  'OoiM, 
This  piece  of  apparatus  waa  introduced  by  William  Morris  in  L831, 
and  consists  of  a  bog  doubb  Unk  with  closdy-fitring  jaws  which, 
however,  riide  fredy  up  and  dosm.  It  may  be  compared  to  a 
coupte  of  elongated  and  flattened  links  of  cEain.  The  links  are 
aboHkt  30  in.  long  and  are  interposed  between  the  heavy  iron  auger- 
stem  carrying  the  bit  and  the  upper  rod,  known  as  the  rinker-bar* 
Their  prindpal  use  is  to  give  a  sharp  jar  to  the  drill  on  the  up- 
stroke so  that  the  bit  b  (uriodgcd  if  it  has  become  jammed  in  the 
rode  In  addition  to  tbe  appliances  mentioned  the  toob  comprise 
teamen  to  enlarge  the  bore  of  the  welli  the  winged-aubsiuute 
which  is  fitted  above  the  bit  to  prevent  it  from  gUncing  olf,  and 
above  the  round  reamer  to  keep  it  ia  place,  a  temper-screw  with 
cbmpa  and  wrenches.  Sand-pumps  and  bailera  are  also  required 
to  remove  detritus,  water  and  oil  from  tbe  bore-hole. 

The  action  of  the  ian  and  temper-screw  has  been  described  by 
John  F.  Carit  as  follows:  "  Suppose  the  toob  to  have  been  just 
run  to  the  bottom  of  the  wdl.  the  jara  closed  and  the  cable  slack. 
The  men  now  take  hold  of  the  bull-wheels  and  draw  up  the  slack 
until  the  sinker-bar  rises,  the  '  i^y '  of  the  jars  alkming  it  to 
canae  up  13  in.  without  disturbing  the  auger-stem.  When  the  jara 
come  together  they  slack  back  about  4  in.,  and  the  cable  is  iq  porition 
to  be  clamped  in  the  temper-screw.  If  now  the  vertical  movement 
of  the  walking-beam  be  24  in.,  when  it  starts  on  the  up-stroke  the 
rinker-bar  rises  4  in.,  and  the  cross-heads  come  together  with  a 
smart  bbw,  then  the  auger-stem  is  picked  up  and  lifted  30  in. 
On  the  dowopstroke,  the  auger-stem  falls  30  in.,  while,  the  rinker- 
bar  goes  down  34  in.  to  telescope  the  jars  for  the  next  blow  coming 
up.  A  skilful  driller  never  alkiws  hU  jars  to  strike  on  the  down- 
stroke,  they  are  only  used  to  jar  down  when  the  tooU  stick  on  some 
obstnictioo  In  the  well  betofe  reaching  the  bottom,  and  in  fishing 
operationa.  Aa  unskilful  workman  sometimes  *  loses  the  jar  '  and 
works  for  houra  without  accomplishing  anything.  The  toob  may 
be  standing  at  the  bottom  wbue  he  is  playing  with  the  sbck  m 
the  cabb  or  they  may  be  swinaing  all  the  time  several  feet'from  the 
bottom.  As  the  jar  works  on,  or  grows  more  feeble,  by  reason  of 
the  downward  advance  of  the  drill,  it  b  '  tempered  '  to  the  proper 
strength  by  btting  down  the  temper-screw  to  give  the  jars  more 
pby.  '  The  temper-screw  forms  the  connecting  link  between  the 
walking-beam  and  cabb,  and  it  is  '  bt  out '  gradually  to  rcgobte 
the  pby  of  the  jara  as  fast  as  the  drill  penetrates.  When  its  whole 
bngth  IS  run  down,  the  rope  cUmps  pby  very  near  the  well-mouth. 
The  toob  are  th^i  wKhdrawn,  the  wdl  b  sand-pumped,  and  pre- 
parations are  nude  for  the  next  '  run.*  ** 

The  ordinary  sand-pump  or  bailer,  consUts  of  a  pbin  Cylinder 
of  light  galvanized  iron  with  a  bail  at  the  top  and  a  stem-valve  at 
the  bottom.  It  is  usually  about  6  ft.  in  length  but  is  sometimes 
as  much  as  15  or  30  ft.,  and  as  its  valve-stem  projects  downwards 
beyond  the  bottom*  it  empties  itself  when  rested  upon  the  bottom 
of  the  waste-trough. 

The  operarion  of  drilling  is  frequently  interrupted  bv  the  occur- 
rence of  an  accident,  which  necessitates  the  use  of  fuhing  tools. 
If  the- fishing  operation  b  unsuccessful  the  well  has  to  oe  abandoned. 
often  after  months  of  bbour.  unless  it  U  found  posrible  to  drill 
past  the  toob  which  have  been  lost.  In  readiness  for  a  fracture 
of  the  drilling  tools  or  of  the  cabb,  special  applbnccs  known  as 
fishing  toob  are  provided.  These  are  so  numerous  and  varied 
in  form  that  a  description  would  be  imposrible  within  the  scope 
of  thb  article.  The  fishing  tools  are  generally  attached  to  tne 
cabb,  and  are  used  with  portions  of  the^  ordinary  string  of  tools, 
but  some  are  fitted  to  pump-rods  or  tubing,  and  othere  to  special 
rods. 

The  drilling  of  a  wdl  is  commonly  carried  out  under  contract, 
the  producer  erecting  the  derrick  and  providing  the  engine  and  boilet 
whiiie  the  drilling  contractor  finds  the  tools,  and  is 
responribb  for  accidents  or  failure  to  complete  the^^V"* 
welL  The  drilling  "  crew "  coorists  of  two  drillers  ■'•* 
aud  two  tool-dressers,  working  In  pain  in  two  "  toure  "  (noon  to 
midnight  and  midni^t  to  noon). 

The  earibr  welb  in  Pennsylvanb  consisted  of  three  sections, 
the  first  formed  of  surface  cbys  and  gravels,  the  second  of  stratified 
rocks  containing  water,  and  the  thira  of  stratified  rocks,  including 
the  oil-sands,  usually  free  from  water.  The  conductor,  irhich  was 
a  wooden  caring  of  somewhat  greater  internal  dbmeter  than  the 
maximum  bore  oif  the  well,  passed  through  the  first  of  these  divisions, 
and  casing  was  used  in  the  second  to  prevent  percolation  of  water 
into  the  (m-b«iring  portion.  In  later  welb  tbe  conductor  has  been 
rcpbced  with  an  8-in.  wrought-iron  drive-pipe,  tcrminadnc  in  a 
steel  shoe,  which  is  driven  to  the  bed-rock,  and  a  7l*in.  nob  b 
drilled  below  It  to  the  base  of  the  lowest  water-bearing  stratum. 
The  bore  is  then  reduced  to  sfln.,  and  a  bevefbd  shoulder  being 
made  in  the  rock,  a  Sf  in.  csising.  havinc  a  coltar  to  fit  water-tight 
on  the  bevel  shoulder,  is  Inserted.  The  wdl  is  then  completed 
with  a  5l  in.  bit.  As  the  water  is  shut  off  before  the  port  ion  of 
the  well  below  the  water-bearing  strata  is  bored  the  remainder  of 
the  drilling  b  conducted  with  only  sufficient  water  fas  the  well  ta 


3a«> 


P£TRC»LEUM 


admit  of  Mnd-tMimptng.  The  drill  b  thus  allowed  to  fall  freely, 
instead  of  being  partly  upheld  by  the  buoyancy  of  the  water,  as  in 
earlier  wclU.  ' 

WeHs  in  Penniylvania  now  lange  in  depth  from  500  ft.  to  3700  ft. 
Four  strings  of -iron  eating  are  usually  employed,  having  the  tollowo 
ing  diamttera:  10  in.,  8}  in.*  6}  in.  and  5  in.,  the  lengths  of  tube 
forming  the  casing  bcsng  ecrewed  together.  Contractors  will  often 
undertake  to  drill  wells  of  modeiate  depth  at  90  cents  to  $1  per  foot» 
but  the  coet  of  a  deep  well  may  amount  to  as  much  as  $7000. 

The  Tc/tuy  system  of- drilling  which  Is  in  general  use  in  the  oil' 
fields  of  the  coastal  f^in  of  Texas  is  a  modifiation  of  that  invented 
a^t^f,  by  Fauvellc  in  1845,  and  used  in  the  eadyycars  of  the 
SrSm,  iiuiustry  in  some  of  the  oil-producing  countries  of 
^'^  Europe.     It  is  one  of  the  moac  rapid  and  econonucal 

which  can  be  employed  in  soft  formations,  but  where  hard  rack 
is  encountered  it  is  almost  useless.  The  principle  of  this  system 
consists  essentially  in  the  use  of  rotating  hollow  drilling  rods  or 
casing,  to  which  u  attached  the  drilUng-bit  and  through  which  a 
continuous  stream  of  water,  under  a  pressure  of  40  to  100  lb.  per 
iq.  in.,  is  forced. 

The  yield  of  petroleum  wells  varies  within  very  wide  limits,  and 
the  relative  importance  of  the  different  producing  districts  is  also 
YktUat  constantly  changing.  .  I.  C.  White,  state  geolonst  of 
Ifclta.  yivA  Virginia,  estimates  that  in  fairly  good  producing 
sand  a  cubic  foot  of  rock  contains  from  6  to  13  pints 
of  oil.  He  assumes  that  in  what  is  considered  a  good  producing 
district  the  amount  of  petroleum  which  can  be  obtained  from  a 
cubic  foot  of  rock  would  not  be  more  than  a  gallon,  and  that  the 
average  thickness  of  the  oil-bearing  rock  would  not  exceed  5  ft. 
Taking  these  figures  as  a  basis,  the  total  yield  of  oil  from  an  acre 
of  petroliferous  territory  would  be  a  litue  over  5000*barreb  of 
43  US.  gallons. 

A  flow  of  oil  may  <^ten  be  induced  in  a  weH  which  wooM  otherwise 
retquire  to  be  pumped,  by  preventing  the  escape  of  ^  which  issues 
with  the  oil.  and  causing  its  pressure  to  raise  the  oil.  The  device 
employed  for  thb  purpose  is  known  as  the  water-packer,  and 
consists  in  its  simplest  form  of  an  india-rubber  ring,  which  is  applied 
between  the  tubing  and  the  well-casing,  so  that  upon  compreauon 
it  makes  a  tight  joint.  The  gas  thus  confined  in  the  <»l-chamber 
forces  the  oil  up  the  tubing. 

For  pumping  a  well  a  valved  working-barrel  with  valved  sucker 
is  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  tubmg,  a  perforated  "  anchor  " 
being  placed  below.  The  sucker  carries  a  series  of  three  or  four 
leather  cups,  which  are  pressed  against  the  inner  surface  of  the 
working  barrel  by  the  weight  of  the  column  of  oil.  The  sucker 
is  connected  by  a  string  of  sucker-rods  with  the  walking- 
beam.  There  b  ustially  fixra  above  the  sucker  a  short  iron  valve- 
rod,  with  a  device  known  as  a  rivet-catcher  to  prevent  damage 
to  the  pump  by  the  dropping  of  rivets  from  the  pump^rods. 

On  the  completion  of  drilfing,  or  when  the  production  is  found 
to  decrease,  it  is  usual  to  torpedo  the  weH  to  increase  the  flow. 
.The  explosive  employed  is  generally  nitroglycerin, 
and  the  amount  used  has  bttn  increased  from  the 
original  4  to  6  quarts  to  60,  80,  100  and  even  900  quarts. 
It  is  placed  in  tin  canisters  of  about  3}  to  5  in.  in  diameter  and 
about  10  ft.  in  length.  The  canisters  have  conical  bottoms  and 
fit  one  in  the  other.  They  are  consecutively  filled  with  nitro- 
glycerin, and  are  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the  well,  one  after  the 
other,  by  a  cord  wound  upon  a  reel,  until  the  re<^uired  number 
have  been  inserted.  Formerly  the  upper  end  of  the  highest  canister 
was  fitted  with  a  **  firing-heid,"  consisting  of  a  circular  plate  of 
iron,  slightly  smaller  than  the  bore  of  the  well,  and  having  attached 
to  its  underside  a  vertical  rod  or  pin  carrying  a  percussion  cap. 
The  cap  rested  on  the  bottom  of  a  small  iron  cylinder  containing 
nitroglycerin.  To  explode  the  charge  an  iron  weight,  known 
as  a  go-devil,  was  dropped  into  the  well,  and  striking  the  disk 
exploded  the  cap  and  fired  the  torpedo.  Now,  however,  a  miniature 
torpedo  known  as  a  go-devil  squio,  holding  about  a  quart  of  nitro- 
glycerin, and  having  a  firing-h<ad  similar  to  that  already  described, 
IS  almost  invariably  employed.  The  disk  is  dispensed  with,  and 
the  percussion  cap  is  exploded  by  the  impact  01  a  leaden  weight 
running  on  a  cord.  The  squib  is  lowered  after  the  torpedo,  and, 
when  exploded  by  the  descent  of  the  weight,  fires  the  charge.  It 
must  be  borne  In  mind  that  although  the  explosion  may  increase 
the  production  for  a  time,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the 
actual  output  of  a  well  is  increased  in  all  such  cases,  though  from 
some  wells  there  would  be  no  production  without  the  use  of  the 
torpedo. 

The  petroleum  industry  in  Canada  b  mainly  concentrated 
in  (he  district  of  Petroica,  Ontario.  On  account  of  the  small 
depth  of  the  welb,  and  the  tenacious  nature  of  the 
pnncipal  strata  bored  through,  the  Canadian  method 
of  druling  differs  from  the  Pennsylvanian  or  American 
system  io  the  following  particulars: — 

I.  The  use  of  slender  wooden  boring-rods  instead  of  a  cable. 

a.  The  employment  of  a  simple  auger  instead  of  a  spuddin^-bit. 

3.  The  adoptMMi  of  a  different  arrangement  for  transmitting 


MUhu 


a.  The  use  of  a  lighter  act  of  drilling  tools. 

Although  petroleum  wells  in  Rusua  Mve  not  the  depth  of  many 


of  those  in  the  Uiihod  States,  tfav  diatufbed  character  of  the  sttata. 
with  consequent  liability  to  jcaving,  and  the  occurrence  of  hard 
concretions,  render  driuing  a  lengthy  and  expensive  urmualm 
opeiatioa.  It  m  usual  to  be^n  by  maldng  an  excava-  pi^^s? 
tion  8  ft.  in  diameter  and  24  It.  in  depth,  and  lining  the 
sides  of  thu  with  wood  or  brick.  The  initial  diameter  of  the  weD 
drilled  from  the  bottom  of  thb  pit  b  in  some  instances  as  much  as 
^  in.,  bore«holes  of  the  larger  sue  being  preferred,  as  they  are  less 
uable  to  bcooine  choked,  and  admit  of  the  use  of  larger  bailers  for 
laiaing  the  oiL 

The  drilling  of  wdb  of  laige  nse  requires  the  use  of  heavy  tooU 
and  of  very  strong  applbnoea  generally.  The  system  usually 
adopted  b  a  modification  of  the  Canadian  system  already  described, 
the  baring  rods  being,  however,  of  iron  instead  of  woiod,  but  the 
cable  system  has  also  to  some  extent  been  used.  For  the  ordinary 
2-in.  plain-laid  manila  cable  a  wire  rope  haa  in  tome  cases  been 
successfully  substituted. 

Rivetted  Iron  caring,  made  of  A -in.  plate,  b  employed,  and  b 
constantly  fewered  so  as  to  follow  the  drill  closely,  in  order  to 
prevent  caving.  Withia  recent  years,  owing  to  the  initiative  of 
Orfonel  English,  a  method  of  raising  oil  by  the  agency  of  com- 
preaaed  air  has  been  introduced  into  the  Baku  oil-fields. 

In  GaHda  the  Canadbn  ^stem  b  nearly  excluatyely  adopted. 
In  some  instances  under-reaming  is  found  necessary.  This  consists 
in  the  use  of  an  expanding  reamer  by  means  of  which 
the  well  may  be  drilled  to  a  diameter  admitting  of  the 
casing  descending  freely,  which  obviously  coukl  not  be 
accomplished  with  an  ordinary  b«t  introduced  through  the  ca»ng. 
Of  late  years  the  under-reamer  has  beea  largely  superseded  by  the 
eccentric  bit. 

The  Davis  calyx  drill  has  also  been  employed  Cor  petroleum 
drilling.  Thb  apparatus  may  be  described  as  a  steel-pointed  coce- 
driU.  The  bit  or  cutter  consisu  of  a  cylindrical 
metallic  shell,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  made,  by  a 
process  of  gulleting,  into  a  series  of  sharp  teeth,  which  are 
set  in  and  out  alternately.  The  outwaird  set  of  teeth  drill  the  hole 
large  enough  to  permit  the  drilling  apparatus  to  descend  freely,  and 
the  teeth  set  inwardly  pare  down  the  core  to  such  a  diameter  as  will 
admit  of  the  body  of  the  cutter  passing  over  it  without  seiaing. 
The  calyx  b  a  long  tube,  or  a  senes  of  connected  tubes,  situated 
above  the  core  barrel,  to  which  it  b  equal  in  diameter. 

In  conclurion  it  may  be  stated  that  the  two  systems  of  drilling 
for  petroleum  with  which  by  far  the  largest  amount  of  work  has 
been,  and  b  being  done,  are  the  Aaaerican  or  rope  q^ 
system,  and  the  Canadian  or  rod  system.  The  former  ^ 
is  not  Only  employed  in  the  United  States,  but  b  in  use 
in  Upper  Burma.  Java,  Rumanb  and  elsewhere.  The  latter  was 
introduced  by  Canadbns  into  Galicia  and.  with  certain  modifi^ 
cations,  has  hitherto  been  found  to  be  the  best  for  that  country. 
A  form  of  the  rod  system  b  used  in  the  Russbn  oil-fields,  bat 
owing  to  the  large  diameter  of  the  weUs  the  appliances  differ  froai 
those  employed  elsewhere. 

The  wells  from  which  the  suppties  of  natinal  gas  are  obtained  in 
the  United  States  are  drilled  aiid  cased  in  the  same  naaaer  as  the 
oil  wells. 

Tramport  and  5Airafe.— In  the  eariy  days  of  the  petroleon 
industry  the  oil  was  transported  in  the  most  priikiitive  naniwr. 
Thus,  in  Upper  Burma,  it  was  conveyed  in  earthenware  veasds 
from  the  wells  to  the  river  bank,  where  it  was  poured  into  the  holds 
of  boats.  It  b  interesting  to  find  that  a  rude  pipe-line  formerly 
existed  In  this  field  for  conveying  the  crude  <»1  from  the  weUs  to  tht 
river;  thb  was  made  of  bamboos,  but  it  b  said  that  the  loas  by 
leakage  was  so  great  as  to  lead  to  iu  immediate  abandonment  cm 
completion,  in  Russia,  until  187s,  the  crude  oil  was  carried  in 
barrels  on  Persbn  carts  known  as  "arbas."  These  bave  two 
wheels  of  8|  to  9  ft.  in  diameter,  the  body  carrying  one  barrel. 
while  another  b  slung  beneath  the  axle.  In  America,  crude 
petroleum  was  at  first  transported  in  iron-hooped  barrek,  boldii« 
from  40  to  4a  American  gallons,  whidi  were  carried  by  teamsters 
to  Oil  Creek  and  the  Allegheny  River,  where  they  were  loaded  on 
boats,  these  being  floated  down  stream  whenever  sufficient  water 
was  present—a  method  leading  to  much  loss  by  coOisioa  and 
grounding.  Bulk  barges  were  soon  introduced  on  the  larger  rivers, 
but  the  use  of  these  was  panblly  rendered  unnecessary  by  the 
introduction  of  railways,  when  the  oil  was  at  first  transported  in 
barrels  on  frnght  cars,  but  later  in  tank-cars.  These  at  fint  con- 
sisted of  an  ordinary  truck  on  which  were  (daoed  two  wooden 
tub-like  tanks,  each  holding  about  2000  gallons;  they  were icplsced 
in  1871  by  the  modem  type  of  tank-car,  constmctea  with  a  hori- 
zontal cylindrical  tank  of  boiler  plate 

The  means  of  transporting  petroleum  in  bulk  eommonly  used  at 
the  present  day  is  the  pipe-line  system,  the  history  of  which  dates 
from  i860.  In  that  year  S.  D.  Kams  suggested  laying  a  6>in. 
pipe  from  Burning  Springs  to  Parkersburg.  west  Virgtnb,  a  distance 
of  36  m.;  but  his  proposal  was  ntver  carried  into  cffccL  Two 
years  bter,  however,  L.  Hutchin&on  of  New  York,  laid  a  simrt  line 
from  the  Tarr  Farm  x^'ells  to  the  refinery,  which  passed  over  a  hiU, 
the  oil  being  moved  on  the  syphon  principle,  and  a  ycer  later  coa- 
structed  another  three  miles  long  to  the  railway.  These  attesspts 
were,  however,  unsnccessful,  on  account  of  the  excessive  Weksei 


PETROLEUM 


321 


■t  l!be  joints  of  the  p<pc«.  HVItb  tho  adoptioa  of  cattf  ully  fitted 
ecrew-^joiiit*  in  186$  the  pipe  Uoe  gndually  oame  tatdKoaeraline, 
until  lA  1891  the  Uoea  ownied  by  the  variouv  tnant  compenint  01 
Pennsylvania  amounted  in  length  to  a5/xx>  m. 

The  purope  employed  to  force  the  oil  through  the  pipes  were 
at  first  <tf  the  single-cylinder  or  "  donkey  "  type,  but  these  woe 
found  to  cause  excoMive  wear  <%  deCect  icmedied  by  the  use  of 
the  Worthlngtoa  pump  now  senerally  adooted.  The  cnginss  used 
on  the  main,6*in.  lines  are  01  600  to  800  tup.,  while  those  on  the 
small-diameter  local  lines  range  from  25  to  90  h.pb 

Tanks  of  various  tvpes  are  employed  m  storing  the  oil*  those  at 
the  wells  being  arcuur  and  usually  made  of  wood,  with  a  content 
of  250  barrels  and  upwards.  Laige  tanks  of  boiler-plate  are  used 
to  receive  the  oil  as  it  comes  through  the  pipe-lines*  Those  adopted 
by  the  National  Transit  Company  are  90  ft.  in  dianieter  and  3f>  ft. 
high,  with  slightly  conical  wooden  roofs  covered  with  sheet  iron; 
their  capacity  »  35,000  barrels*  and  they  are  phoed  upon  the 
carefully  teveued  ground  without  any  foundation. 

Kerosene  is  transported  in  bulk  by  various  means;  specially 
constructed  steel  tank  barges  are  used  00  the  waterways  of  the 
United  Sutes,  tank-cars  00  the  failroads^  and  tank-wagons  on  the 
roads.  The  barrels  employed  in  the  transport  of  petroleum  pro- 
ducts are  made  of  well-seasoned  white-oak  staves  bound  by  six  or , 
eight  iron  hoops.  They  aie  coated  internally  with  glue,  and  painted 
in  the  well-known  colours,  blue  staves  and  white  oeads.  The 
tins  lar^y  used  for  kn-osene  are  made  by  machinery  and  omtain 
5  American  gallons.    They  are  hermetically  sealed  for  transport 

In  Canada,  means  of  transfwrt  similar  to  those  already  described 
are  empbyed,  but  the  reservoirs  for  stora^  often  consist  of  caBava- 
tions  in  the  soft  Erie  clay,  of  the  oil  district,  the  sides  of  which  are 
•upported  by  planks. 

The  primitive  methods  originally  in  use  in  the  Russian  oil-fields 
have  already  been  described:  but  these  were  long  ago  supeiscded 
by  pipe-lines,  while  a  great  deal  of  oil  b  carried  by  tank  steamers 
on  the  Caspian  to  the  mouth  of  the  Volga  where  it  is  transfened 
to  barges  and  thence  at  Tsariuia  to  railway  tank^ars.  The 
American  type  of  storage-tank  is  generally  empktyed,  in  oonjunctiasi 
with  day-hiMd  rcaervowk 

Natural  p»  is  largely  used  in  the  United  States,  and  for  some 
time,  owing  to  defective  methods  of  storage,  delivery  and  con- 
sumption,* neat  waste  occurred.  The  imfxrovemeots  introduced 
in  1890  ana  1891,  wheret^  this  state  of  affairs  was  put  an  end  to, 
consisted  in  the  introductioo  of  the  principle  of  supply  by  meter, 
and  the  adoption  of  a  comprehensive  system  of  reduang  the  initial 
pressure  of  the  gss,  so  as  to  diminish  loss  by  leakage.  For  the 
btter  purpose^  westinghouse  gas-regulators  are  employed,  the 
positions  of  the  regulators  being  so  chosen  as  to  equalise  the 
pressure  throughout  the  servicer  The  puk  is  distributed  to  the 
consumer  from  the  wells  in  wrou^ht-iroa  pipes,  ranging  in  diameter 
from  20  in.  down  to  2  in.  Riveted  wrougbt-iron  pipes  3  ft.  in 
diameter  are  also  used.  The  initial  pressuse  is  sometimes  as  hirii 
as  400  lb  to  the  sq.  in.,  but  usually  ranges  from  200  to  300  Bk 
The  most  cooinioQ  method  of  (fistribution  in  dtws  and  towns  is 
by  a  series  of  pipes  from  X2  in.  down  Co  a  in.  In  diameter,  usually 
carrying  a  pressure  of  about  4  OS.  to  the  sq.  in.  To  these  pipes  the 
•ennce-plpcs  leading  into  the  bouses  of  the  consumers  axe  connected. 

jecjiaific  0/  PdrdeMM.— The  distiOatbn  of  petroleum,  especially 
ef  such  as  wns  intended  for  medicinal  us&  was  regolariy 
carried  on  in  the  i8th  century,  and  earlier.  V.  I.  Ragoan  states 
in  Us  work  on  the  petroleum  industry  that  Johann  Lerche, 
who  visited  the  Caq)ian  district  in  I73S*  foiuiA  that  the  crude 
Caucasian  oil  sequired  to  be  distilled  to  render  it  satisfactorily 
combustible,  and  that,  when  distilled,  it  yieUed  a  bright  yellow 
oil  resembling  a  spirit,  which  readily  ignited.  As  cariy  as  1833  the 
brothen  Dubinin  erected  a  refinery  m  the  villaee  of  Mosdok.  and  in 
1846  applied  to  Prince  Woronsott  for  a  subsidy  for,  extending^ 
use  of  petroleum-distillates  in  the  Caucasus.  In  that  application, 
which  was  unsuccessful,  they  stated  that  they  had  taught  the  Don 
Cossacks  to  "  change  black  naphtha  into  white,"  and  showed  by 
a  drawing,  pieservcd  in  the  archives  cf  the  Caocaaan  government, 
lio^v  this  was  achieved.  They  used  an  iron  still,  set  in  brickwork, 
and  trota  a  worldng  charge  of  forty  "  buckets  "  of  crude  petroleum 
obtained  a  yield  of  sixteen  buckets  of  "  white  naphtha."  The 
top  of  the  still  had  a  remqyable  head,  connected  mth  a  condenser 
consisring  of  a  lOopper  worm  in  a  barrd  of  water.  The  "  white 
naphtha^  was  sold  at  Nijni  Novgorod  without  further  treatment.  • 

some  of  the  mora  viscous  crude  oils  obtained  in  the  United 
States  are  employed  as  lubricants  under  the  name  of  "natural 
oik,"  either  without  any  treatmeiit  or  after  clarification  by  subsi- 
dence and  filtration  through  animal  charcoal.  Others  are  defirived 
of  at  part  of  thear  mora  voUtile  constituents  by  spontaneous 
evaporation,  or  by  distillation,  in  vacuo  or  otherwise,  at  the  lowest 
possible  temperature.    Such  are  known  as  '*  reduced  oils." 

In  most  petroleem-prodttdng  countries,  however,  and  pnrticu* 
lariy  where  the  pnodoct  is  abundant,  the  crude  oil  n  fractionally 
distilled,  so  as  to  separate  it  into  petroleum  spirit  of  various  gradn, 
burning  oils,  gas  ofls,  lubricatins  oils,  and  C^  the  crude  otf  yields 
that  product)  paraffin.  The  distillates  obtained  are  usually  purified 
by  traatmcnt,  smxessively.  with  salphuriG  add  and  soiation  of 
ctMtk  soda,  lolloved  by.wnshinK  with  water. 


Crude  petroleum  wasesss^mentally  distilled  in  the  United  States 
in  1833  by  Prof.  Silliman  (d.  1864),  and  the  refining  of  petroleum 
in  that  country  may  be  said  to  date  from  about  the  year  iSs$i 
when  Samuel  M.  Kier  fitted  up  a  small  refiner^  with  a  five-banrel 
still,  for  the  treatment  of  the  oil  obtained  from  his  father's  salt- 
wells.  At  this  period  the  supply  of  the  raw  material  was  insuf- 
ficient to  admit  of  any  important  devdopment  in  the  industry,  and 
bdora  the  drilling  01  artesian  wells  for  petrolemn  was  initiated 
by  Drake  the  "  ooalFoil "  or  shale-oil  industry  had  assumed  con- 
saierable  proportions  in  the  United  States.  Two  laige  refineries, 
one  on  Newtown  Creek,  Long  Ishuid.  and  another  in  South  Brooklyn, 
also  on  Long  Island,  were  la  successful  operation  when  the  abundant 
production  of  petrdeum,  which  immediately  followed  the  oompletkm 
of  the  Drake  well,  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  refiner  a  material 
which  could  be  worked  more  profiubly  than  bituminous  shale. 
The  cadstiiK  refineries  were  accordinriy  altered  so  as  to  adapt 
them  for  tfie  refimng  of  petroleum :  out  in  the  manufacture  of 
burning  dl  from  petroleum  the  small  stills  which  had  been  in  use 
in  the  distillation  of  shale-oti  were  at  first  employed. 

In  the  earlier  refineries  the  stills,  the  capadty  of  which  varied 
from  25  to  80  barrels,  usually  consisted  of  a  vertical  cylinder, 
constructed  of  cast-  or  wrought-iron,  with  a  boiler-plate  bottom  and 
a  cast-iron  dome,  on  whkh  the  **  goose-neck  "  was  bdted.  The 
charge  was  distilled  almost  fo  dryness,  though  the  operation  waa 
not  carried  far  enough  to  cause  the  reskiue  to  "coke."  The 
operation  was,  however^  comi^ely  revolutionised  in  the  United 
States  by  the  introduction  of  the  cracking  process,"  and  by  the 
division  of  the  distillation  into  two  parts,  one  Consisting  in  the 
removal  of  the  more  volatile  constituents  of  the  oil,  and  the  other 
in  the  distillation  (idiich  is  usually  conducted  in  separate  stills) 
of  the  residues  from  the  first  dbtdlation,  for  the  piodaetlon  of 
lubricating  dls  and  paraffin. 

Various  arranaements  have  been  proposed  ami  patented  for  the 
continuous  distillation  of  petroleum,  In  which  crude  dl  b  supfrfied 
to  a  range  of  stills  as  fast  as  the  distillates  pass  off.  The  system  is 
hoydy  emploved  in  Rusda,  and  its  use  has  been  frequently  attempted 
in  the  Unitecl  Sratts,  but  the  results  have  not  been  satwaetory,  on 
account,  it  Is  said,  of  the  much  neater  quantfty  of  dissdved  |^ 
contained  in  the  American  oil«  the  hugcr  prcHportion  of  hsrosene 
which  such  oil  yields,  and  the  less  fluid  character  of  the  residue.  • 

In  the  United  States  a  horizontal  cylindrical  still  Is  usually 
enrnh^ed  in  the  distillatkMi  of  the  spirit  and  kenasene,  but  what 
is  known  as  the  '*  cheese-box "  still  has  also  beicn  largely  used. 
American  stills  of  the -former  type  are  constructed  of  wrought-iron 
or  steel,  and  are  about  30  ft-  in  length  by  la  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter, 
with  a  dome  about  3ft.  in  diameter,  furnished  with  a  vapour-pipe 
IS  in.  in  diameter.  The  charge  for  such  a  still  is  about  €00  barrels. 
Tne  stilb  were  iormerly  completely  bricked  in,  so  that  the  vapoura 
shouU  be  kept  fully  heated  until  they  escaped  to  the  condenser, 
but  since  the  introduction  of  the  "cracking  process,"  the  upper 
part  has  asoally  besn  left  exposed  fo  the  air.  The  cheese-box  still 
has  a  vertical  cylindricai  body,  which  may  be  as  much  ae  30  ft.  In 
diameter  and  9  ft.  in  depth,  cooascted  by  means  of  ^ree  wrtical 
pipes  with  a  vapour<chest  furnished  with  a  large  number,  frequently 
as  many  as  forty,  of  %-\n.  dischatg^pipes  arranged  in  parelld  lines. 

The  stflls  employed  in  Russia  and  Galicia  are  unially  smaller 
than  those  alrendy  described. 

The  **  crscking^'-  proosas,  whetd)y  a  consklerable  quantity  of 
the  oil  which  b  intermediate  between  kerosene  and  lubricating 
dl  b  ooniwrted  into  hydrecarijons  of  lower  spedfie  gravity  and 
boiling-point  suitable  for  iUuminaring  purposes,  b  one  of  great 
Sdentific  and  tcdinical  farterest.  it  b  generally  understood  that  the 
pcxiducts  of  fractional  distilbtioo,  even  in  the  bboratery,  are  not 
identical  with  the  hydrocarbons  present  in  the  erode  eu,  but  ntfe 
in  part  produced  by  the  actk>n  of  heat  upon  them.  Thb  was 
plainly  started  by  Professor  Sillinian  in  the  earliest  stages  of  develop* 
nient  of  the  American  petrdeum  industry.  An  importantpaper 
bearing  on  the  subject  was  published  in  1871,  by  T.  E.  Thorpe 
and  J.  Y<ning,  as-  a  pcdiminary  note  on  thenr  experiments  on  the 
action  of  heat  under  pressure  on  solid  paraffin.  They  found  that 
the  naraflVn  was  thus  converted,  with  the  evoUition  of  but  ttttle 
ms,  into  hydrocaiixms  whioh  were  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
In  an  experiment  on  3300  grams  of  paraffin  produced  from'  shale 
(mdting  point  443*  C.)  they  obtained  nearly  4  litres  of  Ikjuid  hydro- 
carbons, which  they  subjected  to  fractional  dbtlUation,  aiul  on 
examinmg  the  fracuon  distilling  beknr  looi*  C  they  found  it  to 
consist  naauily  of  olefinea.  The  hydrocarbon  CiJIa,  for  example, 
might  be  resolved  into  CtHi««fCuH|^  or  C|Hi«-f*Ct«Haj  or 
C»liM-(>Ci«Htt,'  Ac,  the  general  equatk>n  of  the  decomposition 
bang— 

C.H«i«a  (parftffih)  ^C^^^tU^)^  (paraffin)  -f-C^I^  (olefine).      . 

The  product  actually  obtained  is  a  mixture  of  several  paraffins 
and  several  *'*Hi«^fi 

The  cracUng  process  practically  consists  In  distilling  the  oOs 
at  a  temperature  higher  tlian  the  normal  boiling  pdnt  01  the  con- 
stitosnts  whkh  it  is  desired  to  decompose.  This  may  be  brought 
aboot  by  a  dbtillatioo  mider  pressure,  or  by  allowing  the  condensed 
distilbte  to  fall  into  the  highly  heated  residue  in  the  stHl.  The 
r^ndt  of  thb  treatment  b  inat  the  comparatively  heavy  db 


322 


PETROLEUM 


undfifo  diModatiott.  at  dioim  by  tlie  cspcrinaits  of  Thorpe  and 
YoQiiff,  into  ipecifically  lighter  hydrocarbons  of  fewer  boiling  points, 
and  the  yield  of  bnoaene  from  ordinary  crude  petroleum  may  thus 
be  greatl^  increased.  A  lame  number  of  arrensemencsfor  carrying 
out  the  cracldi^  process  have  been  proposed  and  patented,  probably 
the  eaitiest  directly  bearing  on  the  sub|cct  betqg  that  of  James 
Young,  who  in  IM^  patented  his  "  Improvcnicnts  in  treating 
hydrocafbon  oils."  in  this  patent,  the  distillation  b  described  as 
being  conducted  in  a  vessel  having  a  loaded  valve  or  a  partially 
dosed  stop-cock,  through  which  the  confined  vapour  escapes  under 
any  ddirnl  pressure.  Under  such  conditions,  distiUatmn  takes 
place  at  higher  temperetures  than  the  normal  boiling-pmnts  of  the 
constituent  hydrocarbon*  of  the  oil.  and  a  partial  cracking  results. 
The  process  patented  by  Dewar  and  Redwood  in  1889  consists 
in  the  use  of  a  suitable  still  and  condenser  in  free  communication 
with  each  otherWA  without  any  valve  between  tbemr-*ihe  space 
in  the  still  and  condenser  not  occupied  by  liquid  bdng  chaxged 
with  air,  carbon  dioodde  or  other  gat,  under  the  reqoirea  pressure, 
and  the  condenser  being  provided  with  a  regulated  outlet  for  con- 
densed Ikiuid.  An  d)jectKmable  feature  of  the  system  of  allowing 
the  vapour  to  escape  fkom  the  stlU  to  the  oondenscr  through  a 
knded  valve,  via:  the  irregularity  of  the  distillation,  is  thus 
removed,  and  the  benefits  of  regnlar  vaporisation  and  condensation 
under  high  pressure  are  obtained.  *In  the  American  petroleum 
refineries  it  is  found  that  sufficient  ciacking  can  be  produced  by 
slow  distillation  in  stiHs  of  which  the  upper  part  h  sumciently  cool 
to  alfew  of  the  condensation  of  the  vapours  of  the  less  volatile 
hydrocarbons,  the  condensed  liquid  thus  faUii^  back  into  the 
heated  body  of  oil. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  development  of  the  manufacture 
iOf  mineral  lubricating  oils,  the  residues  were  distilled  in  cast4ron 
stills,  and  the  lubricating  properties  of  the  products  thus  obtained 
were  Injured  by  overheating.  The  modem  practtce  is  to  cmnloy 
horirontal  cylindrical  wrought-iron  or  stcd  stills,  and  to  introduce 
steam  into  the  oil.  The  steam  is  su^rhcated  and  nu^  thus  be 
heated  to  any  desired  temperature  without  increase  01  pressure, 
which  would  be  liable  to  damage  the  still.  The  steam  aperstes 
by  carrying  the  vapours  away  to  the  condenser  as  fast  as  they  am 
senereted.  the  injury  to  the  oroductt  resulting  from  their  remaining 
m  contact  with  the  highly-neated  surface  of  the  stiU  being  thus 
prevented. 

la  Older  to  aepaiate  the  dbtillate  iato  various  fractions,  and  to 
remove  as  much  of  it  as  possible  free  from  condensed  steam,  it  is 
now  usual  to  employ  condensing  appliances  of  spcrfsl  form  with 
outlets  for  ninntna  on  the  different  Iractfens. 

The  process  oT  distillation  of  lubricating  mis  under  reduced 
atmospheric  preiMire  is  now  in  very  general  use,  espedally  for 
obtainuig  the  heavier  products.  The  vapours  from  the  still  pass 
through  a  oondenser  into  a  recover,  whidi  is  in  oommunkarion 
with  the  exhauster. 

The  products  obtained  by  the  distiljatioik  of  petiokom  are  not 
in  a  marketaMe  condition,  but  require  chemical  treatment  toremove 
acid  and  other  bodies  which  impost  a  dark  colour  as  well  as  an 
unpleasant  odour  to  the  liquid,  and  in  the  case  of  lampoils,  reduce 
the  power  of  rinog  in  the  wick  by  ca|»Ilary  attraction. 

At  the  inception  of  the  industry  kerosene  came  into  the  market 
as  a  dark  yellow  or  reddish-coloured  liquid,  and  in  the  first  instance, 
the  reomval  of  colour  was  attempted  by  treatment  with  soda  lye 
and  lime  solution.  It  was,  however,  found  that  after  the  oil  so 
purified  had  been  burned  in  a  lamp,  fora  diort  Ume^the  wick  became 
caamstcd,  and  the  oil  failed  to  rise  properly.  Eichler.  of  Baku, 
b  stated  to  have  been  the  first  to  introduoe,  in  Russia,  the  use  of 
•ulphuric  add,  fdlowed  by  that  of  soda  lye,  and  hb  peooess  b  ia 
noivenal  use  at  the  present  time.  The  rationale  of  this  treatment 
b  not  fully  undenrtood,  but  the  action  appeare  to  consbt  an  the 
aepaxatioD  or  decomposition  of  the  aromatic  hydrocarbons,  fatty 
and  other  adds,  phenols,  tarry  bodies,  fte.,  which  lower  the  guality 
of  the  oili  the  sulphuric  acid  removing  some,  while  the  caustic  soda 
tokes  out  the  remainder,  and  neutnuiaes  the  acid  which  has  been 
left  in  the  oit  Thb  treatment  with  add  and  alkali  b  usually 
effected  by  agitation  with  compressed  air.  Oib  which  oontaia 
•ulphur-ooaqmuods  are  subjected  to  a  special  process  of  refining 
in  which  cupric  oxide  or  litharge  b  employed  as  a  desulphurizing 
i^nt. 

reilMif.— A  large  number  of  physical  and  chemical  testa  are 
applied  both  to  crude  petroleum  SLJod  to  the  products  manufactured 
therefrom.  The  industiy  b  conducted  upon  a  basis  of  recognized 
standards  of  quality,  and  testing  is  occeMary  in  the  interests  of 
both  refiner  and  contumer,  as  well  as  compulsory  in  coanezioa  with 
the  various  statutory  and  munidpal  regulations. 

In  the  routine  examinatbn  of  crude  petroleum  it  b  customary 
to  determine  the  specific  grmiiy,  and  the  amount  of  water  and 
cafthy  matter  in  suipen$ion;  tne  oil  b  abo  frequently  subjected 
to  a  process  of  fractional  distilbtion  in  order  to  ascertain  whether 
there  has  been  any  addition  of  dbtilled  products  or  residue. 
Petroleum  spbit  b  tested  for  specific  ^vity,  rame  of  boiling* 
points,  and  results  of  fractional  distilbtioa.  To  iuuminatins  ml 
or  kerosene  a  series  of  tests  b  applied  in  order  that  the  cMour, 
odour,  specific  gravity  and  fia$k-p9nU  or  fir§4»si  may  be  recorded. 
Ia  tha  tortiag  of  mintval  luhikati^  oib  the  witsMtty,  flash-point. 


'*  cold'test,**  and  spedfic  gravity  are  the  diancters  of  chief  tni- 
portance.  Fuel  oil  is  submitted  to  certain  of  the  foregoine  tests  and 
in  addition  the  4atoriiiulne  so/ue  b  determined.  Paramn  wax  b 
tested  for  wultiHg-poiiU  (or  setting-point),  and  the  semi-refined 
product  b  further  ens  mined  to  ascertain  the  peroeatage  of  oil, 
water  and  dirt  present. 

In  civiUzed  countries  pcovisiott  b  made  by  law  for  the  testSof  of 
the- flash-point  or  fire-test  of  lamp-oil  Olkiminating  oil  or  kerosene), 
the  method  of  testing  and  the  minimum  limit  of  flash-point  or 
fire-test  being  prescribed  (see  below,  Letislaium). 

The  eariiest  lonn  of  testing  instniment  employed  for  thb  purpose 
was  that  of  Giuseppe  Taglbbue  of  New  York,  iriiidi  consbts  of  a 
glass  cup  placed  in  a  copper  water  bath  heated  fay  a  spirit  lamp.  The 
cup  b  blied  with  the  ou  to  be  tested,  a  thermometer  placed  ia  it 
and  heat  applied,  the  tcmperaturca  being  noted  at  whk:h,  on  pasHog 
a  lighted  splinter  of  wood  over  the  surface  of  thcynl,  a  flash  occurs, 
and  after  further  heating.  iHie  oil  ignites.  The  first  temperature 
b  known  as  the  flash-point,  the  second  as  the  "  fire-test.  Such 
an  apparatus,  in  which  the  oiknip  b  uncovered,  b  known  as  an 
open-test  instrument.  In  Saybolt  s  Electric  Tester  (i8f9)  igniiioo 
b effected  by  a  spark  from  an  ^induction-coil  passing  between 
pbtinum  points  plaoed  at  a  fixed  distance  above  the  oU. 

Before  feng,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  open-cop  tests 
(though  they  are  empfeyed  in  the  United  States  and  dsewherc  at 
the  present  time)  were  often  very  untrastworthv.  Aceordinffly 
Keates  proposed  the  substitutkm  of  a  closed  cup  in  1871,  but  his 
suggestkMS  were  not  adopted.  In  1875  Sir  rredericlc  Abel,  at 
the  request  of  the  British  Govemment,  began  to  investigate  the 
matter,  and  in  August  1879  the  "  Abd  test^  was  ksaliaed.  Thb 
apparatus  has  an  oil-cap  consbting  of  a  cylindrical  onas  or  gun- 
metal  vcasei,  the  cover  of  which  b  provided  with  three  rectartgular 
holes  which  may  be  closed  and  opened  by  means  of  a  perforated 
slide  moving  in  grooves;  the  movement  of  the  slide  causes  a  ainaO 
oscillating  colza-  or  rape-oil  lamp  to  be  tilted  so  that  tiie  Hane 
(of  specined  siac)  b  brought  just  below  the  surface  of  the  lid.  The 
oil<up  b  supported  in  a  bath  or  heating-vessel,  consbting  of  two 
flat-bottonieo  copper  cylinders,  to  oontatn  water,  heated  by  a  spirit 
lamp,  ana  provided  with  an  air-space  between  the  water-vesael  and 
the  oil-cup.  Thermometers  are  plaoed  in  both  oil-cup  and  water- 
bath,  the  temperature  of  the  btter  bdng  raised  to  130*  at  the 
commencement  of  the  test,  while  the  oil  b  put  In  at  about  60*  F. 
Testing  b  begun  when  the  temperature  reaches  66*  by  slowly  drawing 
the  slide  open  and  reclosina  it,  the  speed  bdng  regulated  by  the 
■wing  of  a  pendulum  supplied  with  the  instrument.  It  has  beea 
found  that  variations  in  barometric  pressure  affect  the  fliih  !;<»■■> 
and  accordingly  oDrrecttons  have  to  be  made  in  obcalnlag  strictly 
comparative  results  at  different  presMirea.  The  Abel-Fendqr 
instrument,  used  in  India  aad  ia  Garmaay,  dilfcra  oirfy  la  bring 
provided  with  a  clockwork  arrangement  for  movini^  the  alide. 
Numerous  other  foms  of  open-test  and  dose  test  mstrum 
have  from  time  to  tune  been  devised,'  some  of  which  are  in 
ia  the  United  Srates  and  in  other  countries. 

It  b  still  customary  to  determine  the  open  flaah<poiat  aad 

test  of  lubricating  otts,  but  the  dose  flash-point  b  abo  usually  m 

tained,  a  modificatioo  of  the  Abd  or  Abd-Pensky  apparatus,  known 
as  the  Feasfcy-Maitens,  having  been  devised  for  the  purpose.  This 
instniment  is  so  eoostructed  that  the  higher  temperature  ncLdcd 
can  be  readihr  applied,  and  it  b  fitted  with  a  stirrer  to  fgunliw 
the  beating  oithe  contentt  of  the  oitcopi 

For  the  testing  of  the  irisoosity  of  lubricating  oDs  the  Boscrtoa 
Redwood  sraadardiaed  viscometer  b  generally  employed  hi  Gnat 
Britain.  By  means  of  thb  instrument  the  tiine  oqci^mm  in  the  flow 
of  a  measured  quantity  of  the  6il  through  a  anall  oofioa  at  a  %U%M 
temperature  b  meaMirsd. 

C/fef.— Petroleuifi  has  very  long  been  known  as  a  sonoe  of 
light  and  beat,  wlule  the  use  of  crude  oil  for  the  treatment  of 
wounds  and  cutaneous  affections,  aad  as  a  lubricant,  was  even 
more  general  and  kd  to  the  raw  material  being  an  artide  of 
commerce  at  a  still  earlier  date.  For  pharmaocutical  purposes 
crude  petroleum  is  no  longer  generally  used  by  dvilited  races, 
though  the  product  vtudint  b  largdy  employed  in  thb  way, 
and  emulsions  of  petroleum  have  been  administered  iBtetaally 
in  various  pectoral  complaints;  while  the  volatile  product 
termed  rhigkene  has  been  largely  used  as  a  local  anaiestbetic 

For  illuminating  purposes,  the  most  extensivdy-used  product 
b  knosenep  but  both  the  noore  and  the  less  volatile  pettioos  of 
petroleum  ire  emplogred  in  suitable  lafflps.  Fetn^eum  prodoctt 
arc  also  largdy  utUized  in  gas  manufacture  for,  (x)  the  production 
of  "  air-gas"  (a)  the  manufacture  of  tnl-tut^  and  <3)  the  cmkb> 
ment  of  coal-gas.  For  heating  purposes,  the  stoves  eaploycd 
axe  practically  kerosene  himps  of  suitable  eonstroction,  thou^ 
gasoline  b  used  as  a  domestic  fuel  In  the  United  States*  ThA 
use  of  petroleum  as  liquid  fud  b  dealt  with  under  FuBL,  as  it 
the  emplojrment  of  its  products  in  motorSi  whidi  baa  gifat|y 


PETROLOGY 


Intte&sed  tlie  densiid  lor  prtnleam  i|>iiit.  Fetroleom  has 
laisely  superseded  oilier  oils,  and  b  still  gaming  ground,  as  a 
lubxicaat  lot  madiinery  and  railway  rolfing-stock,  dthcr  alone 
or  in  admixture  witli  fixed  oils.  The  more  viscous  descriptions 
of  mineral  oils  have  also  heat  found  suftabie  for  use  in  the 
Elmore  process  of  ore-concentration  by  oiL 

LefxtfoltMi.— Since  the  inception  of  the  petrolenm  industry,  most 
dviUscd  oountiiei  have  prascribed  by  law  a  test  of  flash-point  or 
inflamsMbiKty.  designed  in  moot  cases  primacily  to  affosd  a 
detinitioo  of  oils  (or  lighting  porpoaes  which  nay  be  safely  stored 
without  the  adoption  of  special  precautions.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  the  Kmit  his,  for  the  purpose  in  question,  been  fixed  by 
the  legislature  at  73*  F.,  by  the  '*  Abel-tesC,"  which  b  the  equivalent 
of  the  former  standard  of  100*  F.  by  the  "  opcn-fiest."  While 
the  subject  of  the  teirtiag  of  (letroleum  for  legislative  purposes  has 
been  investigated  in  Great  Britain  by  committees  of  both  branches 
of  the  legislatuie,  with  a  view  to  diange  in  the  law.  the  standard 
has  never  been  raised,  since  such  a  ooun«  would  tena  to  reduce  the 
available  supply  and  thus  lead  to  increase  ta  price  or'deterioratioa 
in  quality.  Moreover  the  chief  object  of  the  Petioleuro  Acts  pasted 
in  the  United  Kingdom  has  hitherto  been  to  regulate  storage,  and 
It  has  always  been  possible  to  obtain  oils  either  of  higher  or  lower 
fladi-point,  when  such  are  preferredi  irrespective  of  the  legal 
sUnord,  in  addition  to  which  it  may  be  asserted  that  in  a  properly 
amstructed  lamp  used  with  reasonable  care  "the  ordinaQf  oil  of 
oonuneroe  is  a  safe  illuminant.  The  more  recent  legislation  with 
ngasd  to  "  petroleum  spirit "  relates  mainly  to  the  quantity  which 
taay  be  stored  for  use  on  "  fight  locomotives." 

The  more  important  local  authorities  thraoghoat  the  coontry 
have  made  negulatbns  under-  the  powers  confeired  upon  them  by 
the  Petroleum  Acu.  with  the  object  of  regulating  the  "  keeping, 
sale,  conveyance  and  hawking  '*  of  petroleum  products  having  a 
flash-point  oelow  73*  F..  and  tne  Pbrt  of  London  authority,  together 
with  other  water-way  sind  harbour  authoiitiea  in  the  Uaitcd  King- 
dom.,have  their  own  by4aws  relatif«  to  the  navigation  of  vessels 
carryins  such  petroleum. 

In  other  countries  the 
as  do'  the  storage  regnlatbns. 
(Gtanier  tester,  equivalent  to  <, 
point,  Ikiuid  hydrocarbons  are  divided  into  two  classes  Ojelow  and 
above  is*  C).  considered  differently  in  regard  to  quantities  storable 
and  other  regulations.  In  Germany,  the  law  prescribes  a  close-test 
of  31*  C,  equal  to  about  70^  F.,  whilst  in  Russia  the  standard  Is 
38*  C,  equal  to  84*4*  F..  by  the  ck)so«test;  In  both  these  countries 
the  weights  of  petroleum  which  mxy  be  stored  in  specified  buildiogs 
are  determined  by  law.  In  the  United  Sutes,  various  methods 
of  testing  aitd  various  minimum  standards  have  been  adopted. 
in  Penn^vanta.  the  prescribed  limit  n  a  '*  fire-test "  of  no*  F., 
equivalent  to.  about  70*  F.,  ckise-test,  while  ia  the  Stete  of  New 
York  it  is  toe*  F..  dose-test. 

See  Sir  Bovcrton  Redwood's  PtInUnm  end  di  ProduOi  Caad  cd.. 
London,  1906) ;  A.  Becby  Thompson,  PttrtUvm  Afwtiig  (iQio) ;  L.  C. 
Tassart.  ExptoUation  iu  PiiroU  (1908) :  C.  Engler  and  if.  Hdfer,  Das 
Z»M.  5  vols.  (lOCO  seq.) ;  A.  B.  Thompson,  r*#  Oil  Fields  of  Russia 
(1908) ;  and  J.  D.  Heniy.  00  Piddi  ofOu  Empin  (1910)-    (B.  R.) 

FETROLOGT,  the  science  of  rocks  (Or.  vjrpos),  the  branch 
off  geology  which  is  concerned  with  the  investigation  of  the 
composition,  structure  and  history  of  the  rock  masses  which 
make  up  the  accessible  portions  of  the  earth's  crust.  Rocks 
have  been  defined  as  "  aggregates  of  mincrab."  They  are  the 
units  with  which  the  geologist  deals  in  investigating  the  structure 
of  a  district.  Some  varieties  cover  enormous  areas  and  are 
among  the  commonest  and  most  familiar  objects  of  nature. 
Granite,  sandstone,  day,  limestone,  slate  often  form  whole 
provinces  and  build  up  lofty  mountains.  Such  unconsolidated 
materials  as  sand,  gravel,  day,  soil  arc  justly  indudcd  among 
rocks  as  being  mineral  masses  which  play  an  important  r^le  in 
field  geobgy.  Other  rock  spedes  are  of  rare  occurrence  and 
may  be  known  in  only  one  or  two  localities  in  distant  parts  of 
the  earth's  surface.  Nearly  all  rocks  consist  of  minerals, 
whether  in  a  crystalline  or  non-crystalline  state,  but  the  insoluble 
and  imperishable  parts  of  the  skeletons  of  animals  and  plants 
may  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of  rocks,  as  for  example, 
coral  limestone,  lignite  beds  and  chalk. 

TftmrnMU  pS  lh€  Subj0a.-^la  this  paragraph  the  subject  matter 
of  the  science  of  petrology  is  briefly  surveyed:  the  object  is  to  pomt 
out  the  headings  under  which  particular  subjects  are  treated 
(there  tt  a  separate  artide  on  the  terms  printed  in  italics).  General 
qneslioMi  as  to  the  nature,  origin  and  dasaifieatlon  of  rocks  and  the 
methods  of  examioation  are  discussed  in  the  present  article. 
mvunhgy  comprises  similar  matter  respecting  the  component 
mincarab;   mttamofpkitm,  nutasomaUsM^   pmeumakiysis  and   the 


%n 

„  <rf  rsncwiisiiiam  ageadsasrhJA  eisct  loclts  and  modify 

Three  classes  of  rocks  are  recognised :  the  igneous,  sedimcn- 

ury  and  rocUmorphic.  The  plutonic,  or  deep-seated  rocks,  which 
cooled  far  betow  the  surface,  and  occur  as  teiMtfsr,  bosses,  laeceHilett 
and  vMfir,  indude  the  great  classes  gramis,  syenils,  dioHU^  gabbr& 
and  peridBtUt;  related  to  the  granites  are  apMe,  grMrsa.  pepnaiiu, 
sekm  rock  and  micropetmatiU;  to  the  syenites,  horolaniU^  mmiavniUt 
ne^teUHe-syenik  and  yolit*i  to  the  diorites,  aphaniie.  napoUonim 
and  tonalUe\  to  the  gabbros.  pyroxeaik  and  tkeratite^  and  to 
peridotites.  pieHUAnd  urpaUuu.  The  hypabyssal  intrusive  rocks, 
oecntring  as  sctfr,  eniM,  Akr*.  mdts,  &c.,  are  represented  by  pof* 
pkyry  and  porpkyriU  (indudiag  bostoniUi  JtUit*  and  guartsrpor' 
pkyry),  dia&ut  and  lamProphyre:  some  fiUhstonts  belong^  to  this 

{;roup  and  contain  crysUulitts  and  spkendites.  The  volcanic  rocks, 
ound  typically  as  lava  flows,  indude  rkytlila  and  chtidim  (with 
sometimes  perMr),  tnekyl»  and  pkneiiu  (and  Icudtophyve  which 
ia  treated  under  ^mmsIs),  amdtsiu  and  docile,  basalt  f with  the  related 
doleriUt  variaiiie  and  taekylyU),  nepheUniU  and  lepkrite,  Amonff 
sedimentary  rocks  we  reoognire  a  vokranic  group  (including  luff, 
ogglomerale  and  some  kinds  of  ptimiu);  an  arenaceous  series  such 
as  son^  (some  with  flawvnite).  Jo'iidito»e,  aaarteafs,  crnmwAs  and 
gross/;  an  aniUaoeous  group  including  da;f.finbHck»piyUHe,  laferiU, 
skaU  and  uaU\  a  cakareous  scries  with  chaikt  timesUme  Cohen 
forming  stalactites  and  stalagmites),  dolomite  and  mads  or  arpllaccous 
limestones  (flint  occurs  as  nodules  in  chalk};  the  natural  pkospkatet 
may  be  meiitk>ned  here.  The  mctamorphic  rocks  are  commonly 
pmsnt  and  schists  (induding  micasckiu) ;  other  types  are  amphibo- 
lite,  ckarnockiie,  eclogUe,  eptdioriu,  epidosiU,  panulite,  itacolimtte, 
kornfets,  mylomUe  and  the  scapotUe  rocks. 

Comp&sUi&H.—Ordy  the  commonest  minersb  are  of  impor- 
tance as  rodt  formers.  Their  number  Is  small,  not  exceeding  n 
hundred  in  all,  and  much  less  than  this  if  we  do  not  reckon  the 
subdivisions  into  which  the  Commoner  spcdcs  are  broken  up« 
The  vast  majority  of  the  roda  which  we  ace  around  us  every 
day  consist  of  quarta,  felspar,  mica,  chlorite,  kaolin,  caldte,  ep^ 
dote,  olivine,  augite,  hornblende,  magnetite,  haematite,  llmonlte 
and  a  few  other  minerals.  Each  of  these  has  a  recognized 
position  in  the  economy  of  nature.  A  main  determining  factor 
is  the  chemical  composition  of  the  mass,  for  a  certain  mineral 
can  be  formed  only  when  the  necessary  elements  are  present 
in  the  rock.  Caldte  is  commonest  in  Ihnestones,  as  these  consist 
essentially  of  carbonate  of  Kme;  quarts  in  sandstones  and  in 
certain  i^eous  rocks  wMch  contain  a  high  percentage  of  silictf. 
Other  factors  are  of  equal  importance  in  determining  the  naturU 
association  or  paragenesis  of  rock-making  minerals,  principally 
the  mode  of  origin  of  the  rock  and  the  stages  through  which  it 
has  passed  in  attaining  its  present  conditmn.  Two  rock  masses 
may  have  very  much  the  same  bulk  composition  and  yet  conast 
of  entirely  different  assemblages  of  minerals.  The  tendency  is 
always  for  those  compounds  to  be  formed  which  are  stable  under 
the  conditions  tmder  which  the  rode  mass  origmated.  A  granite 
arises  by  the  consolidation  of  a  molten  magma  (a  fused  rock 
mass;  Gr.  li&yita,  from  iiiaou^t  to  knead)  at  high  temperatures 
and  great  pressures  and  its  component  minerals  are  such  as  aio 
formed  m  sudi  circumstances.  Exposed  to  moisture,  carbonic 
add  and  other  subaerial  agents  at  the  ordinary  temperatures 
of  the  earth's  surface,  some  of  these  original  minerals,  such  as 
quartz  and  white  mica  are  permanent  and  remam  nnaffectedf 
others  "  weather  "  or  decay  and  are  replaced  by  new  combina- 
tions. The  felspar  passes  into  kaolin,  muscovite  and  quarts, 
and  if  any  black  mica  (biotite)  has  been  present  it  yidds  chlorite, 
epidote,  ratile  and  other  substances,  liese  changes  are  accomn 
panicd  by  disintegration,  and  the  rock  falls  hito  a  loose,  inco* 
hcrcnt.  earthy  mass  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  sand  or  soil. 
The  materials  thus  formed  may  be  washed  away  and  deposited 
as  a  sandstone  or  grit.  The  structure  of  the  original  rock  is 
now  replaced  by  a  new  one;  the  mineralogical  constitution  Is 
profoundly  altered;  but  the  buQc  diemical  composition  may 
not  be  very  different.  The  sedimentary  rock  may  again  undergo 
a  metamorphosis.  If  penetrated  by  igneous  rocks  it  may  btf 
recrystaOized  or,  if  subjected  to  enormous  pressures  with  heal 
and  movement,  such  as  attend  the  building  of  foldM  mountain 
chains,  it  may  be  converted  into  a  gneiss  not  very  different 
in  mineralogical  composition  though  radically  WtxtcX  m 
structure  to  the  granite  which  was  its  original  state. 

Structure.— V^t  two  factors  above  enumerated,  narady  the 
chemical  and  mineral  composition  of  rocks,  are  scarcdy  of  greatcv 


3H 


PETROLOGY 


importtnce  than  their  structure,  or  the  reiatloM  of  the  parts 
oi  which  they  consist  to  one  another.  Regarded  from  this 
standpoint  rocks  may  be  divided  Into  the  crystalline  and  the 
fragmentaL  Inorganic  matter,  if  free  to  take  that  physical 
state  in  which  it  is  most  stable,  always  tends  to 
crystallize.  Crystalline  rock  masses  have  con- 
solidated from  solution  or  from  fusion.  The  vast 
majority  of  igneous  rocks  belong  to  this  group  and  the  degree 
of  perfection  in  which  they  have  attained  the  crystalline  state 
depends  primarily  on  the  conditions  under  which  they  sblidified. 
Such  rocks  as  granite,  which  have  cooled  very  slowly  and  under 
great  pressures,  have  completely  crystallized,  but  many  lavas 
were  poured  out  at  the  surface  and  cooled  very  rapidly;  in  this 
latter  group  a  small  amount  of  non-crystalline  or  glassy  matter 
is  frequent.  Other  crystalline  rocks  such  as  rock-salt,  gypsum 
and  anhydrite  have  been  deposited  from  solution  in  water, 
mostly  owing  to  evi4>oration  'on  exposure  to  the  air.  Still 
another  group,  which  indudes  the  marbles,  miea-ichists  and 
quartzites,  are  recrystallized,  that  is  to  say,  they  were  at  first 
fragment^  rocks,  like  Umestooe,  day  and  sandstone  and  have 
never  been  in  a  molten  omdition  nor  entirdy  in  solution.  Certain 
agendes  however,  acting  on  them,  have  effaced  their  primitive 
structures,  and  induced  crystallization.  This  is  a  kind  of 
mctamorphism. 

The  fragmental  structure  needs  little  explanation;  wherever 
locks  disiotegrate  fragments  are  produced  which  are  suitable 
for  the  formation  of  new  rocks  of  this  group.  The 
gSS^  original  materials  may  be  organic  (shells,  corals, 
plants)  or  vitreous  (volcanic  glasses)  or  crystalline 
(granite,  marble,  &c.);  the  pulverizing  agent  may  be  frost,  rain, 
running  water,  or  the  steam  explosions  which  shatter  the  lava 
within  a  volcanic  crater  and  produce  the  fragmenta)  rocks 
known  as  volcanic  ash,  tuffs  and  agglomerates.  The  materials 
may  be  loose  and  inroherent  (sand,  day,  gravd)  or  compacted 
by  pressure  and  the  deposit  of  cementing  substances  by  percolat- 
ing water  (sandstone,  shale,  conglomerate).  The  grains  of 
which  fragmental  rocks  are  composed  may  be  coarse  or  fine, 
fresh  or  d^ayed,  uniform. or  diverse  in  thdr  composition;  the 
one  feature  which  gives  unity  to  the  class  is  the  fact  that  they 
are  all  derived  from  pre-existing  rocks  or  organisms.  Because 
they  are  made  up  of  broken  pieces  these  rocks  are  often  said  to 
be  "clastic." 

Origin  of  Roch.-^Tht  study  of  the  structure  of  rocks  evidently 
leads  us  to  another  method  of  regarding  them,  which  is  more 
fundamental  than  those  enumerated  above,  as  the  structure 
depends  on  the  mode  of  origixL  Rocks  are  divided  into  three 
great  dasses,  the  Igneous,  the  Sedimentary  and  the  Metamorphic. 
The  igneous  (Lai,  igwisj  fire)  rocks  have  all  consoli- 
dated from  a  state  of  fusion.  Some  of  them  are 
crystalline  or  "massive";  others  are  fragmental. 
The  massive  igneous  rocks  indude  a  few  which  arc  nearly  com- 
pletely vitreous,  and  still  more  which  contain  a  small  amount 
of  amorphous  nutter,  but  the  majority  are  compleldy  crystal- 
lized. Among  the  best  known  examples  are  obsidian,  pumice, 
basalt,  trachyte,  granite,  dioritc.  The  fragmental  igneous 
rocks  consist  of  volcanic  ashes  more  or  Ic£s  firmly  compacted. 
The  sedimentary  rocks  form  a  second  group;  they 
have  all  been  laid  down  as  deposits  on  the  earth's 
surface  subject  to  the  conditions  of  temperature, 
moisture  and  pressure  which  obtain  there.  They  indude 
fragmental  and  crystalline  varieties.  The  former  consist  of 
the  d6bris  of  pre-existing  rocks,  accumulated  in  seas,  lakes  or 
<Uy  land  and  more  or  less  indurated  by  pressure  and  cementing 
substances  Gravd,  sand  and  day,  conglomerate,  sandstone, 
shale  are  well-known  examples.  Many  of  them  are  fossiliferous 
as  thex  contain  fragments  of  organisms.  Some  are  very  largely 
Blade  up  of  remains  of  animals  or  plants,  more  or  less  altered  by 
mioerslization.  These  are  sometimes  placed  into  a  special 
group  as  rocks  of  organic  origin,  limestone,  peat  and  coal  are 
typical  of  this  class.  The  cr>'staUine  sediments  are  such  as 
rodL-salt  and  gypsum,  deposits  of  saline  lakes  or  isolated 
portions  of  the  sea.      They  were  formed  under  conditions 


unfavourable  to  life  and  hence  nr^  contain  fonih.  The 
metamorpkie  rocks  are  known  to  be  almost  entirdy  altered 
igneous  or  sedimentary  masses.  Metamorphism 
oonsists  in  the  destruction  of  the  original  struauxcs  ^JJJ^ 
and  the  devek>pmcnt  of  new  minersls.  The  chemical 
composition  of  the  rocks  however  suffers  little  change.  The 
rock  becomes  as  a  rule  more  crystalline;  but  all  stages  in  the 
process  may  be  found  and  in  a  metamorphosed  sediment,  «x  * 
sandstone,  remains  of  the  original  sand  grains  and  primary 
fragmental  structure  may  be  observed,  although  extensive 
recrystallization  has  taken  place.  Tie  agendes  whidi  produce 
metamorphism  are  high  temperatures,  pressure,  intentitial 
moisture  and  in  many  cases  movonent.  The  effects  of  hlg^ 
temperatures  are  seen  best  in  the  rocks  surrounding  great  out- 
crops of  intrusive  granite,  for  they  have  been  baked  and  crystal- 
lized by  the  heat  of  the  igneous  lock  (thermo-metamoiiAisffi). 
In  folded  mountain  chains  where  the  strata  have  been  gieatly 
compressed  and  their  partldes  have  been  forced  to  move  over 
one  another  a  different  type  of  metamorphism  prevails  (regional 
or  dynamic  metamorphism). 

Methods  ef  ItnesUfoHon.-^The  macroscopic  (Gr.  poMfiis,  laige) 
characters  of  rocks,  those  visible  in  band-spedmens  without 
the  aid  of  the  microscope,  are  very  varied  and  ^ 
difficult  to  describe  accuratdy  and  fully.  The 
geok)gist  in  the  fidd  depends  piindpally  on  them 
and  on  a  few  rough  chemical  and  physical  tests;  and  to  the 
practical  engineer,  architect  and  quarry-master  th^  are  all* 
important.  Although  frequently  Insufiident  in  themselves  to 
determine  the  true  nature  of  a  rock,  they  usually  serve  for  a 
preliminary  classification  and  often  give  all  the  Information 
which  is  really  needed.  With  a  small  bottle  of  add  to  test  for 
tarbonate  of  lime,  a  knife  to  ascertain  the  hardness  of  rocka 
and  minerals,  and  a  pocket  lens  to  magnify  their  structure,  the 
field  geologist  is  rarely  at  a  loss  to  what  group  a  rock  bdoogs. 
The  fine  grained  spedcs  are  often  indetcrmioable  in  this  way, 
and  the  minute  mineral  components  of  all  rocks  can  usually  be 
ascertained  only  by  microscopic  examination.  But  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  a  sandstone  or  grit  consists  of  more  or  less  rounded, 
waterworn  sand-grains  and  if  it  contains  dull,  weathered 
particles  of  felspar,  shining  scales  of  mica  or  small  crystab  of 
caldte  these  also  rarely  escape  observation.  Shales  and  day 
rocks  generally  are  soft,  fine  grained,  often  laminated  aiMl  not 
infrequently  contain  minute  organisms  or  frsgnients  of  planta. 
Limestones  are  easily  marked  with  a  knife-blade,  effervesce 
readily  with  weak  cold  add  and  often  contain  entire  or  broken 
shells  or  other  fossils.  The  crystalline  nature  of  a  granite  or 
basalt  is  obvious  at  a  glance,  and  while  the  former  contains  white 
or  pink  felspar,  dear  vitreous  quartz  and  glandng  flakes  of  mica, 
the  other  will  show  yellow-green  olivine,  black  augite  and  grey 
striated  plagiodose. 

But  when  dealing  with  unfamiliar  types  or  with  rocks  so  fine 
grained  that  their  component  minerals  cannot  be  determined 
with  the  aid  of  a  lens,  the  geologist  is  obliged  to  have 
recourse  to  more  ddicate  and  searching  methods  of 
investigation.  With  the  aid  of  the  blowpipe  (to 
test  the  fusibility  of  detached  crystals),  the  goniometer,  the 
magnet,  the  magnifying  glass  and  the  specific  gravity  balance, 
the  earlier  travellers  attained  surprisingly  accurate  results. 
Examples  of  these  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  von  Buch, 
Scrope,  Darwin  and  many  others.  About  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century,  Dolomieu  examined  crushed  rock  powders  under  the 
microscope  and  Cordier  in  r8r5  crushed,  levigated  and  inv^ti- 
gated  the  finer  ground-mass  of  igneous  rocks.  His  researches 
are  models  of  scrupulous  accuracy,  and  he  was  able  to  announce 
that  they  consisted  essentially  of  such  minerals  as  fdspar, 
augite,  iron  ores  and  volcaiiic  glass,  and  did  not  differ  in  nature 
from  the  coarser  grained  rocks.  Nicol,  whose  name  is  aawwiatcd 
with  the  discovery  of  the  Nicol's  prism,  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  to  prepare  thin  slices  of  mineral  substances,  and  his  methods 
were  applied  by  Witham  (iSji)  to  the  study  of  plant  petii- 
factions.  This  method,  of  such  far-reaching  importance  fai 
petrology,  was  not  at  once  made  use  of  for  the  systematic 


PETROLOGY 


3^5 


InvcsUcitioB  of  rocks,  and  it  was  not  till  185S  that  Sorby 
pointed  out  iu  value.  Meanwhile  the  optical  study  of  sections 
of  ciystals  had  been  advanced  by  Sir  David  Brewster  and  other 
pkysidsts  and  mineralogists  and  it  only  remained  to  apply 
their  methods  to  the  minerals  visible  in  rock  sections.  Very 
rapid  progress  was  made  and  the  names  of  Zirkel,  AUport, 
Vogelsang,  Schuster,  Rosenbusch,  Bertrand,  Fouqu£  and  Livy 
are  among  those  of  the  roost  active  pioneers  in  the  new  field  of 
research.  To  such  importance  have  microscopical  methods 
attained  that  textbooks  of  petrology  at  the  present  time  are  very 
largely  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  appearances  presented 
by  the  minerals  of  rocks  as  studied  in  transparent  micro-sections. 
A  good  rock-section  should  be  about  one-thousandth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness,  and  is  by  no  means  very  difficult  to  nuke  A  thin 
g^,,_  splinter  of  the  rock,  about  as  laife  as  a  halfpenny  may 
^^  be  taken;  it  should  be  as  fresh  as  ooaaiblc  and  fcec  from 

obvious  cracks.  By  grinding  on  a  plate  01  planed  steel  or  cast 
iron  with  a  little  fine  cart>orundum  it  is  soon  rendered  flat  on  one  side 
and  is  then  transferred  to  a  sheet  of  plate  glass  and  smoothed  with 
Che  very  finest  emefy  till  alt  minute  pits  and  roughnesses  are  removed 
and  the  surface  is  a  uniform  plane.  The  rock-chip  is  then  waslied. 
and  placed  on  a  copper  or  iron  plate  which  b  heated  by  a  spirit  or 
gas  ump.  A  mkrroscopic  glass  slip  is  also  warmed  on  this  plate 
with  a  drop  of  viscous  natural  Canada  balsam  on  its  surface.  The 
more  volatile  ingredients  of  the  balsam  are  dispelled  bv  the  heat, 
and  when  that  is  accomplished  the  smooth,  dry,  warm  rock  is  pressed 
firmly  into  contact  witn  the  glass  plate  so  that  the  film  of  balsam 
intervening  may  be  as  thin  as  possible  and  free  from  air-bubbles. 
The  preparation  is  allowed  to  cool  and  then  the  rock  chip  is  again 
ground  down  as  before,  first  with  carborundum  and,  when  it  becomes 

transparent,  with  fine  emery  till  the  desired  thickness  is  obtained, 
t  is  then  cleaned,  again  heated  with  a  little  more  balsam,  and 
covered  with  a  cover  glass.  The  labour  of  grinding  the  first  surface 
may  be  avoided  by  cutting  off  a  smooth  slice  with  an  iron  disk  armed 
witn  crushed  diamond  powder.  A  second  application  of  the  slitter 
after  the  first  face  is  smoothed  and  cemented  to  the  glass  will  in 
expert  hands  Icavea  rock-section  so  thin  as  to  be  already  transparent. 
In  this  way  the  preparation  of  a  section  may  require  only  twenty 
minutes. 

The  microscope  employed  is  usually  one  which  b  provided  with  a 
rotating  stage  beneath  which  there  i«  a  polariser,^  while  above  the 
^.  objective  or  the  eyepiet*  an  analyser  is  mounted  ;alter- 

mmnuope.  natively  the  stage  may  be  fixed  and  the  polarizing  and 
analysing  prisms  may  be  capable  of  simultaneous  rotation  by  means 
of  toothed  wheels  and  a  connecting-rod.  If  ordinarv  tight  and  not 
polarized  light  is  desired,  both  prisms  may  be  withdrawn  from  the 
axis  of  the  instrument;  if  the  polarizer  only  is  inserted  the  light 
transmitted  is  plane  polarized;  with  both  prisms  in  position  the 
slide  is  viewed  between  "crossed  nicols."  A  microscopic  rock- 
acction  in  ordinary  light  if  a  suiuble  magnification  (say  30>  be 
employed  is  seen  to  consist  of  grains  or  crystals  varying  m  cmour, 
size  and  shape.  Some  minerals  arc  colourless  and  trans- 
parent (quartz,  cakrite,  felspar,  muscovite,  &c.),  others 
are  yellow  or  brown  (rutile,  tourmaline,  biotite>.  green 
(daopside,  hornblende,  chkMite),  blue  (gbucophane).  pink  (garnet), 
Ac.  The  same  mineral  may  present  a  variety  01  coloun.  in  the 
same  ot  different  rocks,  and  these  colours  may  be  arranged  in 
tones  parallel  to  the  surfaces  of  the  crystals.  Thus  tourmaline 
may  be  brown,  yellow,  pink,  bhie,  green,  violet,  grey  or  colouriess, 
but  every  mineral  haa  one  or  more  characteristic,  because  most 
common    tints.    The    shapes   of    the    crystals    determbe    in  a 

Sneral  way  the  outlines  of  the  sections  of  them  presented  on 
e  slides.  If  the  mineral  has  one  or  moregood  cleavages  they 
will  be  indicated  by  systems  of  cracks  (see  PT  HI.).  The  refrac- 
tive index  b  also  clearly  shown  by  the  appearance  of  the  sections, 
whkh  are  rough,  with  well-defined  borders  if  they  have  a  much 
stronger  refraction  than  the  medium  in  which  they  are  mounted. 
Some  minerals  decompose  readily  and  become  turbid  and  semi- 
transparent  (e.g.  felspar);  others  remain  alwajrs  perfectly  fresh  and 
clear  {eg-  quarts),  others  yield  characteristic  secondary  prcMucts 
(such  as  green  chlorite  after  biotite).  The  inchisbns  in  thecrysub 
are  of  great  interest ;  one  mineral  may  enclose  another,  or  may  con- 
tain spaces  occupied  by  gbss,  by  fluids  or  by  gases. 

Lastly  the  struetun  01  the  rock,  that  b  to  say,  the  relation  of  Its 
components  to  one  another,  is  usually  clearly  mdicated,  whether  it 
^»rt«  be  fragmental  or  massive;  the  presence  of  glassy  matter 
^ZlZd^mm.  in  contradistinction  to  a  completely  crystalline  or 
^^^^  **  holo<rY8talline  "  condition;  the  nature  and  origin  of 
organic  fragments;  randing,  foliatran  or  bminatton;  the  pumiceous 
or  porous  structure  of  many  bvas;  these  and  many  other  characters, 
though  often  not  visible  in  the  hand  specimens  of  a  rock,  are  rendered 
obvious  by  the  examination  of  a  microscopic  section.  Many  refined 
methods  of  observation  may  be  introduced,  such  as  the  measurement 
of  the  size  of  the  elements  of  the  rock  by  the  help  of  micrometers; 
their  rebtive  proportions  by  means  of  a  gbss  plate  ruled  in  small 
squares:  the  angles  between  cleavages  or  faces  seen  in  section. by 
the  use  of  the  rotating  graduated  stage,  and  the  cstinution  of  the 


refractive  index  of  the  mineral  by  comparison  with  those  of  different 
mounting  media. 

Further  information  b  obtained  by  inserting  the  polarizer  and 
rotating  the  section.  The  light  vibrates  now  only  in  one  plane,  and 
in  passing  through  doubfy  refracting  crystals   in   the 


slide  b,  speaking  generally,  broken  up  into  two  rays,  ^"™ 
whkrh  vibrate  at  nght  angles  to  one  another.  In  many  ^'^ 
coloured  minerab  mKh  as  oiotite.  hornblende,  tourmaline,  chknite. 
these  two  rays  have  different  coburs,  and  when  a  section  con- 
taining any  of  these  minerab  b  rotated  the  change  of  colour  is 
often  very  striking.  Thb  property,  known  as  "  pleochroism  "  (Gr. 
w\dum,  more;  x^«  colour)j  b  of  great  value  in  the  determination  of 
rock-making  minerals.  It  is  often  especially  intense  in  small  spots 
which  surround  minute  enclosures  of  other  minerals,  such  as  zircon 
and  epidote;  these  are  known  as  "  pleochroic  halos." 

If  the  analyser  t>e  now  inserted  in  such  a  position  that  it  b  crossed 
rebtively  to  the  pobrizer  the  field  of  view  will  be  dark  where  there 
are  no  minerals,  or  where  the  light  passes  through  isotro- 
pic substances  such  as  gbss,  Cquids  and  cubic  crystals. 
All  other  crystalline  bodies,  being  doubly  refracting, 
will  appear  bright  in  some  position  as  the  stage  is  rotated.  The 
only  exception  to  thb  rule  b  provided  by  sections  which  are 
perpendicubr  to  the  optic  axes  of  birefringent  crystab;  these 
remain  dark  or  nearly  dark  during  a  whole  rotation,  and  as  will 
be  seen  bter,  their  mvcstigation  w  of  special  importance.  The 
doubly  refracting  mineral  sections,  however,  wifl  in  all  cases 
appear  black  in  certain  positions  as  the  stage  is  |.^.  -^^ 
rotated*  They  are  said  to  be  *'  extingubhed  "  when 
thb  takes  place.  If  we  note  these  positions  we  may  measure 
the  angle  between  them  and  any  cleavages,  faces  or  other 
structures  of  the  costal  by  means  of  the  rotating  stage.  These 
angles  are  characteristic  of  the  system  to  whKh  the  mineral  belongs 

id  often  of  the  mineral  species  itself  (1 


ano  oiten  01  the  mineral  species  itseu  (see  CaTSTALLOcaAPHY). 
To  facilitate  measurement  of  extinction  angles  various  kinds  of 
eyepieces  have  been  devised,  some  having  a  stauroacooic  cakite 
plate,  others  with  two  or  four  pbtes  of  quarts  cemented  together: 
these  are  often  found  to  give  more  exact  results  than  are  obtained 
by  observing  merely  the  position 'in  which  the  mineral  section  b  most 
completely  dark  between  crossed  nicols 

The  mineral  sections  when  not  extinguished  are  not  only  bright 
but  are  coloured  and  the  colours  they  show  depend  on  several  factors, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  the  strength  of  the  double  refraction. 
If  all  the  sectbns  are  of  the  same  thickness  as  is  nearly  true  of  well- 
made  slides,  the  minerals  with  strongest  double  refraction  yield 
the  highest  polarizatbn  colours.  The  order  in  which  the  coloucs 
are  arranged  is  that  known  as  Newton's  scale,  the  lowest  being 
dark  grey,  then  grey,  white,  yellow,  orange,  red,  purple,  blue  and 
so  on.  The  difference  between  the  refractive  indexes  of  the  ordinary 
and  the  extraordinary  ray  in  quarts  b  kx»,  and  in  a  rock-section 
about  r)p  of  an  inch  thkk  thb  mineral  givea  grey  and  white 
polarization  tints;  nepheline  with  weaker  double  retraction  gives 
dark  grey;  augite  on  the  other  hand  will  give  red  and  blue,  white 
calcite  with  still  stronger  double  refraction  will  appear  pinkish  or 
greenish  white.  All  sections  of  the  same  mineral,  however,  will  not 
nave  the  same  colour;  it  was  stated  above  that  sections  perpendkular 
to  an  optk  axis  will  be  neariy  bUck,  and,  in  general,  the  more  nearly 
any  section  approaches  this  direction  the  lower  its  poUrizaiioo 
colours  will  be.  By  taking  the  average,  or  the  highest  colour 
given  by  any  mineral,  the  relative  value  of  its  double  refraction  caa 
be  estimated ;  or  if  the  thickness  of  the  section  be  precisely  known 
the  difference  between  the  two  refractive  indexes  can  be  ascertained. 
If  the  slides  be  thkk  the  coloun  will  be  on  the  whok  higher  than  in 
thin  slides. 

It  b  often  important  to  find  out  triiether  of  the  two  axes  c^  elas- 
ticity (or  vibration  traces)  in  the  section  is  that  of  greater  elastkity 
(or  lesser  refractive  index).  The  quartz  wedge  or  selenite  pbte 
enables  us  to  do  this.  Suppose  a  doubly  refracting  mineral  section 
so  pbced  that  it  b  "  extinguished  " ;  if  now  it  b  rotated  through 
45"  it  will  be  brightly  illuminated.  If  the  quartz  wedge  be  passed 
across  it  so  that  the  long  axis  of  the  wedge  is  parallel  to  the  axb 
of  elastkity  in  the  section  the  polarization  colours  will  rise  or  fall. 
If  they  rise  the  axes  of  greater  elasticity  in  the  two  minerab  are 
parallel ;  if  they  sink  the  axis  of  greater  elasticity  in  the  one  b  parallel 
to  that  of  lesser  elasticity  in  the  other.  In  the  latter  case  by  pushinie 
the  wedge  sufHciently  far  complete  darkness  or  compensation  wiU 
result,  belcnite  wedges,  selenite  plates,  mica  wedges  and  mica 
plates  arc  also  used  for  thb  purpose.  A  quartz  wedge  also  may  be 
calibrated  by  determining  the  amount  of  double  refraction  in  all 
parta  of  its  length.  If  now  it  be  used  to  produce  compensation 
or  complete  extinction  in  any  doubly  refracting  mineral  sectkn.  wt 
can  ascertain  what  b  the  strength  of  the  double  refraction  of  the 
section  because  it  is  obviously  equal  and  opposite  to  that  of  a  known 
part  of  the  quartz  wedge. 

A  further  refinement  of  mkroacopk  methods  con^ts  of  the  tine 
of  strongly  conver^t  poUriaed  light  (konoooopk  methods).  Thb 
is  obtained  by  a  wide  angled  achromatic  condenser  above  the  pobr- 
izer, and  a  high  power  microscopic  objective.  Those  sectkns  are 
moat  useful  «mkn  are  perpendicubr  to  an  optk  axis,  and  conse- 

Sently  remain  dark  on  rotatkm.  If  they  belong  to  unbxtal  crystab 
ey  show  «  dark  cross  or  coovtrgent  fight  between  crossed  nicob. 


iib 


tEtltOLOGV 


ilie  ban  of  wlilch  wnulr  panttr]  lo  ihe'wim  in  Ihe  fcM  ol  ilw  ryr- 
plp«r  SkiIoiu  ptrpFiidicjIar  la  an  optic  axii  ol  a  biaxial  mineral 
under  the  aime  conclillont  »ho"  a  oarli  bir  which  on  raiatinn 
b«vnin  curved  lo  a  hyperbolic  thapt.     If  ihe  teciion  upcfptndicu- 


prtly  on  ihe  oumrrical  apmure  ol  Ihc  oWreiive. 
n^n^  an  t«'l^2!i^if^a'^'i^  cak'u'laii^'^ 
quarter  mica  plaic  or  tckniu  pUH  permit  ihc  di 
positive  «  it^Iive  chaniclcr  ai  the  cryilal  by 
colourprBhapeorihclipimobaervcd  Lit  the  Arid. 
■R  ptcdicly  timilar  to  Ihoae  enplorcd  by  the  r 
enaminaiioD  <rf  ptaut  cul  Imm  crydai).  It  is  i 
out  that  (he  pdrological  mlcRHCopc  m  iti  modi 


■ni*  H 


ifory  apparalui  hu  bsn  dcvucd  to  fit  il  'or  these 
ion  of  the  ingredient}  of  a  cnashcd  nek  potrdcr 
from  one  to  another  in  otdei  to  obtain  pure  sample!  luilaljli; 
Stparantt  '<>'  an^'y''  Is  also  citensivcly  practised.  It  may 
aictmfa-  be  effected  by  means  ot  a  poivcrful  elect lo-mognct 
■"'•■  the  uicnEib  of  which  can  be  tcsutainl  as  desired. 
A  weak  nticnetic  lurid  will  allrall  magnetite,  then  haemalilt 
■nd  Bih«  am  ol  Iron.  Silicatn  containing  iron  will  foUov 
in  definite  order  and  biotite,  cnstalile.  auGile.  bomblcnde, 
garnet  and  limilar  lerto-magnesian  minerals  may  be  succes- 
^vely  ibsitacled,  it  last  only  the  colourless,  iwn-nugiuiic 
(ompDunds.  such  as  muscovlle,  cilcile,  quaru  and  Felspar,  will 

dissolve  ca kite  Itoma  cnuhcd  limestone,  leaving  only  dolomilt, 
lUicaies  or  quartf.  Hydrofiuork  acid  wUI  aliacli  felspar  before 
qoatli,  and  if  employed  Kith  gieal  cauiion  wiH  dissolve  these 
■nd  any  glany  material  In  i  rock  powder  bclote  dissolving 
au^lc  0[  bypccsthene.  &lcihod>  of  teparitlon  by  specific 
gravity  have  a  still  wider  appliealion.  The  limplcst  oi  ihtM 
is  levigation  (Lai.  Irvitari.  lo  make  imooih.  Ir-.ii)  at  tteatment 
by  a  cunenl  ol  urater,  il  iienensively employed  in  ihe  mechanical 
analysis  of  soils  and  In  the  tcealmcnt  of  ores,  but  is  not  so 
Hiccesiful  with  rocka,  as  their  component*  do  ml  as  a  rule 
differ  very  greatly  In  specific  gravity. 

Fluids  are  used  which  do  not  attack  the  nujority  of  the  nvk- 
Solmiom  ol  pouuium  mercuric  iodide  (sp.  gr,  3  i9t),  cadnuum 
boroiune""' <>P   I'  ]  ]0I,  melhlyene  inlidi  (ip.  |(   3J]),  bronia- 

c°pat  inedM  employed  They  may  be  diluled  (villi  water,  bcnicnc, 
«c )  16  any  desired  Mtenl  and  again  conceniralcd  by  evaporjiion 
1!  ihe  rock  be  agTaniti  eoniiitiiig  ol  bioiiic  (ip.  gr  j  I),  mutcoviie 

-   - ,,,  („  „  j.|5j)_  ollgoclaie  up.  gr  >  '  '     " 

1 36)  tlie  crushed  minerals  win  all 


infilytcd  and  thus  ibe  cbcmical  compotftioti  of  the  nrincrali 
n  the  rock  detennineci  qmlttatlvtly  oi  quantitatively.  The 
chemical  testing  ol  micrescopie  sections  and  mlnnte  cttma^ 
grains  by  the  help   of    the   microscope   is  a    very     nmu^w*% 

he  mineral  compancnti  of  fine-grained  rocka.  Tlitu  Ihe 
piescnc«  of  apatite  in  rock-sections  is  established  by  covering 
-  bare  rock-icction  with  solution  of  ammonium  molybdite; 
tutbid  yelhiv  precipllatc  foitns  over  the  ctyilals  of  the  mineral 
I  question  (indicaling  Ihe  pretence  oF  phosphates).  Many 
licates  are  hisoluble  In  acids  and  cannot  be  tested  in  this  way, 
at  others  are  partly  dissolved,  leaving  a  film  of  gebtinoua 
Ilea  which  cin  be  stained  niih  coloucing  maiteia  such  a*  the 
oiline  dyes  (nepheliac,  analcite ,  letditcs,  la.). 
Compleie  ehemicat  analyses  of  rocks  are  also  widely  made  me  ot 
ndareollheSritiitiportanre.especuny  when  new  tpccksan  under 
ncriptioii  Rork  anate^i  haa  of  hie  )ian  naigcly  onder  ibe 
iHuenee  el  tlie  cbemkil  hboiaiaty  of  the  Uoited  Slatea  Ooloclcil 
nrvey)  naciicd  a  Ugh  (irch  of  refincneni  tMid  coaipleiliy.  As 
■any  as  twenty  or  tnaiy-Ave  cenponenu  may  be  dctcmlned,  but 
a  imowlcdie  of  the  relative  praportkias  ol 


"^«fer.  h^r: 


Is),  qui 
:dia  Ihc 


IQdual  dDuli 


Hgh  »jn| 


Ihcv  will 


lor  One  roek-maXiAA  mineral  to  encloBc 
iLindling  of  licih  aniTsiiiubk^  neks  yields  en 
purer  powders  may  be  obtained  by  this  mc 
Although  rocks  are  now  siudicd  prin 
lections  the  investigation  of  fine  crushet 
m.—Lm,  was  the  first  branch  of  mic 
>    by   no 


)sco|ric  petrology   10 
;  pcifecily  applicable 


Ptwtm.  The  nod,,, 
to  transparent  mioenl  Iragmt 
(m  almost  u  easily  deieroiintd  in  powder  as  in  section, 
h  is  oihcrwise  with  rocks,  as  the  sttuctuic  or  relation  ol 
components  to  one  another,  which  is  an  elcmenl  oF  gicat 
potlancr  m  tin  study  ol  the  bistoiy  and  daaslBcation  ol  roi 
b  almost  complelcly  destroyed  by  grinding  ihem  to  powder. 
In  addition  lo  naked-eye  and  microscopic  inveatigaii 
chemical  methods  of  research  are  oF  the  greatest  pracl 
utility  to  the  pitrograpber.  The  crashed  and  sepanied 
povden,  sbtaiaed  by  Ibe  ptocesK*  described  above,  naif  be 


n-hichai 


kisK 


I  ar>d  lerrie  oxides,  magnesia,  I 

Hlvrniloiuil  I 


, . -.' asfnned  in  any  of 

chemical  Bnaly«  b  In  itKH  nuany  suB 

"'kislgncousor  sedimentary  and  in  cii 

belongs.     In  the  ease  of  meiamorphic  loeks  It 

whether  the  original  mass  was  a  sedimenr  or  of  loleanlc  origifi. 

sneci&e  gravity  oF  rocks  Is  determined  in  the  usual  way  by 
ol  the  hataoce  and  ihe  pi-cKiaietcr.  It  is  greatest  la  those 
which  contain  moat   maercsu,  iron  and  lieavy      ju^ 

li  diminishes  with  wTathering.  and  ginerally  those  tocka  "*" 

'hich  arc  hiGhlycr>-sta1tine  have  higher  specilic  graviiiei  than  ihoae 
'hich  are  wholly  or  purily  vitreous  when  both  have  ihc  same 
hemical  romposiiion.  The  specific  gravity  ol  thecommoner  rocks 
inges  Iron  about  i-J  to  i-i. 

The  above  methods  ot  investtgalion,  naked  eye.  physical, 
licroscopical,  chemical,  may  be  grouped  together  as  aitalyticai 
I   coniradisiinelion    to    the  synthetic  investigation  ^^ 
f  rocks,  which  proucds  by  Clpcrimenlal  work  to  ?^j,^ 
cproduce  difFereni  rock  types  and  fn  thb  way  lo 


when 

heaeh 

ve  been  convert 

d  Inio  coherent  slule*,  sand- 

and   CO 

glomerates.   and 

still   more   »,-here   ihey  han 

need  so 

me  degree  oF  me 

amoiphism,  there   are   many 

obse»r< 

points 

about  their  history  upoo  which  eiperimcnt  may 

yet  ih 

ow  llgh 

.     Up  10  the  pre 

sent  time  these  investigitions 

lave  b 

HI  enllrely  confin 

d  to  the  ailempl  to  teptoduce 

Igneous  rocks  by  lusion  ol  miituies  of  crushed  minenlt  oi  al 
chemicalsmspccblly contrived lurnue*.  Theearliest  researches 
ol  this  sort  ore  ol  ihoseol  Faujas  Si  Fond  and  oF  de  Saussure. 
bill  Sir  James  Hall  really  bid  Ihe  Foundations  of  this  branch 
of  petrokigy.  He  shomcd  (1708)  that  the  whinstones  (dbboses) 
of  Edinburgh  were  fusible  and  II  rapidly  cooled  yielded  black 
vitreous  masses  closely  resembling  naiural  pitchstone*  and 
obsidiansi  il  cooled  marc  slowly  [hey  consolidated  as  cr)'stallii>e 

olivhK.  augileand  iclspar  llhe  essential  minerals  of  these  locks). 
Many  years  later  Daubr^,  Delesse  and  others  carried  on  similar 
eipeilmenls.  but  the  first  nnuble  advance  was  made  in  iBjS, 
when  Fouquf  and  Uvy  began  Uieit  icsaaKhea. 
They  succeeded  in  producing  luth  rocks  as  porphyriie.  Vdeite- 


ni  well  known  in  Igneous  iDcks.  r^.  the  poridiytiu 
ICr  <#».  •ecpenil.  [ncidcntalTy  ihey  J»)«d 
I  baiic  rock!  (baialti.  ftc.)  could  be  per*"-'-  '— :— 

H  Ihe  cfynilliiaiion  of  the  bi 

rock  magmas  were  Indi^Kn^ 
lequenily  been  pnsved  that  r 

certain  boralcs.  rholybdates. 


vanced  the  cuplana 
vvr  me  gases  never  absent 
lable  mineralising  agrfits. 

chlorides,  fluorides,  assbt 
icks  fcqr  Goavcrliiig  chalk 


PETROLOGY 


iBit  niWe  hr  iKMliif  k  in  t  dcwd  pii 


aULuaJ  mubkvi  may  be  pfodocitJ 


&**  Clctiificaliai. — The  iIum  gn»t  dim  of  rock*  «bove 
enumer^lFil — the  igneoiu,  the  ledimentlry  mud  the  metjimorphic 
— are  Rubdivided  into  many  ifraups  vF^ch  to  a  amall  nlent 
resemble  the  genera  and  q>ccia  under  which  the  naruniliil 
dauiliei  the  memben  of  the  animal    kingdom.    Then  an, 

By  increase  or  diminution  in  the  pnportioniatllinrconslilucnt 
minenilB  they  pan  by  every  gradalion  into  one  anotber;  [he 
diHinctive  Krucium  alia  of  one  kind  of  rock  may  ollca  be 
traced  gradually  mergtng  Into  those  of  another.  Hence  Ihc 
deGiiilii>fil  adopted  in  establishing  rock  nomencliluic  merely 
correspond  to  selected  points  [more  or  less  arbitral^}  in  a  con- 
tinuously graduated  series.  This  is  frequently  urged  as  a 
reason  lor  reducing  nCk  dauiteiiion  to  lu  umplciL  posaible 
tcnns,  and  using  oijy  ii  tew  genemliied  rock  designations.  But 
it  is  dear  that  many  apparently  Lriviol  diHerences  tcad  regularly 
to  recut.  and  have  a  real  significance,  and  so  long  as  asy  vaiialioa 
can  be  shown  to  be  of  this  nature  it  deserves  recognition. 

The  ipuoin  rockt  rcryaralline  and  frajmenlal)  form  a  wclUkfined 
■roiip,7iireiir»  in  origin  from  aDolIicn.  The  cr^flaUine  or  maHivc 
.  vadelic*  ouy  cxxur  iD  (wo  diffCieiu  wavi;  Ihc  Lvas  have 


mined  BI 


*  faMy 


Jind  have  cooled  there  bcneaTh  maMM  which  conceal  them  from  view 
tkU  expoaed  by  denudation  at  a  uibflcqurnl  period.  The  memben 
of  these  two  groupfl  dilfcT  in  many  Tespcirta  from  one  anaihcr,  » 

mere  nipciiicbniapeclian.    The  lavas  (or  elFudvt  locksl.  havini 

cooled  rapidly  in  conucl  with  ihe  air.  ace  mo«iIy  finely  ciynalline 

or  have  at  least  fine-grain^  ground^masa  rcpmeniliLD 

^■T"?^    t^*'  psrt  td  the  viscous  scmi^ryatalline  lava  How  which 

^*"'  time  f  hey  wcje  ekpoted  only  to  alampheric  pietsure.  and 
Ihc  ueam  and  otht '-■-'■  "■ ■— ■  ■ ■— 


tiijking  being  the  frcqiiei 


ly  important  modifications 


!•  by  infdt 


3y  infJlialion  ^myptaloida 


(Buaion  or  Huidal  itnieiure)  (ice  Pl.T,  Ggt.  land  9,  n.  11.  Rg.  l).an 
tba  larger  early  aiidcala  which  bad  pflevioufly  cryicailized  may  sboi 
the  Ame  ananfemeni.  Moil  lavas  have  falkn  consideiably  befoi 
their  original  temperatures  before  they  are  emitted.  In  thci 
behaviour  they  present  a  close  analogy  to  hot  solutions  of  sail 
in  waler.  which,  a-hcn  Ihey  approach  ihc  saturation  tempeiamrr 
first  depDBl  a  crop  of  large,  welt-formed  crystals  (bbilc  sage)  ani 


of  cryaials  generally  forms 
that  is  to  say.  during  the  a 
"ateroftheve- ---     '- ■^ 


In  Igneous  rocks  the  pr^t  cencra 
rethctavahaaenifrgediotlieAurl 


ler  enatali  of  the 
oH-eflusiDn  stage. 
nent  of  ejection : 

wi  H  upvi..  -apidly  chilled  may  in  large  part  be  aon<ryata11ine  or 
■lasay  (vitreous  rucks  such  as  obsidian,  cachylytc.  j>itchnone  (PI.  I. 
Iga-  I.  4.  9).  A  common  feature  of  glasw  rocks  is  (be  pmence  of 
-Dundcdbodiei  (sphcrulilei :  Gr.  ttaitm,  baJD.coosistine  of  fincdiver- 
— '  libies  (adialing  from  a  centre  (H  1. 1^  7.  B) ;  they  consist  of 
fret  crystals  ol  felspir,  miicd  with  quani  cr  tridymile;  simibr 

I  are  often  produced  aniRcially  in  gtaswa  which  are  alhwcd  to 

cool  slowly.  Rarely  these  sphenililes  are  holkiw  or  caniiil  of  con- 
ceritrlc  shells  with  maces  between  (Utbophysae;  Gr,  Uftfi. stone; 
fSfit.  bellows).  Perlltic  SIruclure.  also  common  in  glann.  conaita 
in  the  prcaenee  of  concentric  roundsd  cracks  owing  to  contraction 
on  roofing  (see  PanLria). 

The  pheaocrysle  (Ci.  *ilnr.  lo  show;  vbrsUsr.  crystal}  or  por. 
phyridc  minenls  are  not  only  )tmt  than  ihose  ol  Ihe  ground, 
sua.  As  the  malrii  was  star  liquid  when  they  formed  ihey  were 
Ina  to  taks  perfect  crystalline  ibapei.  not  bdng  inleifeied  with  by 


•aid  tobepoiphycitic(Pl.ltI.  Bp.  1,3,1)  :Ibc 
Uoie  rarely  bvai  ace  comjdeiely  fu--*  —  •' 


Cfi, 


Uivptessureo'adjacnitccystals.  TTwy  soem  to  have  grown  rapidly, 
as  they  are  r^icn  filled  wiin  enclosures  of  glassy  or  finely  crvstalQna 
nuiecul  like  that  of  the  ground-mass  (I^  iV.  fig,  IK  Microscopic 
eianiDation  i^  the  phenoccysti  cjtcn  reveals  that  they  ha^  had  a 
Ciimplei  history.      Very   fmifuenlly    Ihey   show    succeasive    layers 


egirinel  .1  Ihe  pe 


ftluoili^  (aeirlrir 

than  the  surnHinding  laces,  and  surressive  tones  may  often  be 
each  less  bosk  than  ihoae  which  lie  within  ii.  Phcnocrysts  oJ  i 
(and  of  other  minerals),  instead  of  sharp,  perfect  ccystallioe 
may  slww  rounded  corroded  surfaces  (PL  I.  fig.  o).  with  the 
Uunled  and  irregular  tongue-like  projcciions  of  the  malrix  ici 
Hibilance  of  the  crystal.  It  is  clear  that  afio-  ihe  mincn 
ccvsrallirrd  il  was  parity  again  diss^vcd  or  coiroded  ai  soine 
before  the  malrii  wlidiBcd.   Comdcd  i^nocrysls  of  biolil 


optical  propcnieai  I 
shadeaof  brown  oi 
darker  nven  with 
in  th>  felspati  the 

indiiig  laces,  and 


r  the  characteristics  of  a  typical  deep-seated 


high  tempera  lure  is  equally  cltatfcDm  ilie  changes  which  '^f™ 
(bey havernduredintberockslnconract  with  ihcm.  But  as  their 
heat  could  dissipate  only  very  slowly,  because  of  the  cnasass  which 
covcced  Ihrm,  complete  crystallisation  has  taken  place  and  no 
vitceous  lapidly  chjued  matter  is  preseat.  As  they  nave  hud  lime 
Id  came  lo  cesi  belecc  ciysulliung  Ihey  are  not  Boidal.  Thrir 
eontainedgBBcshavt  not  iiHn  able  lo  escape  through  the  ihicli  layer 
of  luala  beoraih  whicli  they  were  injected,  and  mav  often  be  ob- 
served oeeupyina  caviues  in  ihe  cnincca 
important  modihcalioiH  id  the  crysullt 
their  crystals  are  of  approximately  eciiu 
be  nanular;  there  ia  typically  no  distil 
of  targe  well  -•— --■ ' -■  -  '■ 


irge  wcll-shapedcryslalsaadafiae^cained  Dround-ntas*.  Their 
era1shavefomwd,bowcvcr,  inadeoniieofldec.  andesich  haahnd 
period  of  crystallisation  which  maybe  very  diuioct  or  may  have 
»ru.:WHi,..;ih  rtf  Averlspped  ihe  period  of  fomutionDfaDme  of  iht 

« id  [lliqjjcl  and  are  rnrue  or  less  perfect;  the  later 

shape  because  they  were  compelled  ro  oceupy 

.  between  the  already  formed  crystals  (PI    II. 

fi|  rmcr  ace  said  to  be  idiomorphic  (or  aulomorphir), 

Ih  inidiomocphii:    (allolciomiic^c.     u-nomOlphir]  > 


ler  iciffcedien 


olher^nct! 


,    The  same  disiinc 


J™|*P;''^ 


phyrilic  nol 


are  iDdiitJjrguiihable  petrologicalTy  from  lava 

le  attempt  to  form  a  speciJ  group  of  hypabyssal  (intrusive 
t  cocks  has  met  with  much  criticism  and  opposition.    Svt 


ibaracterieed  with 


In  aubdivid 


e  the  lamprophyrea,  the 


]  p^-s  ■eult.J 


328 


PETROLOGY 


Tfie  commoner  roclr  centtituents  are  nearly  all  oiddes:  ditorine, 
milphur  and  fluorine  are  the  only  important  exceptions  to  this  and 
their  total  amount  in  any  rock  is  usuafly  mudi  less  than 
1%.  F.  W.  Clarke  has  calculated  that  a  little  more 
than  47^  of  the  earth's  crust  consists  o(  oxygen.  It 
occurs  prindpalty  in  combination  as  oxides,  of  which  the  chief 
are  silica,  alumina,  iron  oxides,  Uroe.  mamesia.  potash  and  soda. 
The  silica  functions  prindpalty  as  an  aad,  Torming  stiieates,  and  all 
the  commonest  minerals  of  igneous  rocks  are  of  this  nature^  From 
a  computation  based  on  1673  analyses  of  all  kinds  of  rocks  Garke 
arrived  at  the  following  as  the  average  percentage  composition: 
SiOi-S9-7i.  AliOt-i5'ai,  Fc^t*2-63.  FeO-vw,  MgO->J^36, 
CaO  -  4-90.  NaiO  -3'55.  ^iO  -2'8o,  H«0  - 1  -52.  TtO^  -o-te,  PA  - 
0-22,  total  09'22%.  All  the  other  constituenu  occur  only  in  very 
small  quantities,  usually  much  less  than  I  %• 

These  oxides  do  not  combine  in  a  haphaxard 
way.  The  potash  and  soda,  for  example,  with  a 
sumdent  amount  of  alumina  and  silica,  combine  to 
|Mt>duce  fdspars.  In  some  cases  they  may  take 
other  forms,  such  as  nepheline,  leuate  and  mus- 
covite,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  they 
are  found  as  felspar.  The  phosphoric  add  with 
lime  forms  apatite.  The  titanium  dioxide  with 
ferrous  oxide  gives  rise  to  ilmenite.  Part  of  the 
lime  forms  lime  fdspar.  Magnesia  and  iron  oxides 
with  silica  crystalUre  as  olivine  or  enstatite,  or  with 
alumina  and  lime  form  the  complex  ferro-magnesian 
silicates  of  which  the  pyroxenes,  amphibofcs  and 
biotites  are  the  chief.  Any  excess  01  silica  above 
what  is  required  to  neutralize  the  bases  will 
separate  out  as  quartx:  excess  of  alumina  crystal- 
lizes as  corundum.  These  must  be  regarded  only  as 
general  tendendes,  which  are  modified  by  physical 
conditions  in  a  manner  not  as  yet  uncferBtood. 
It  is  posrible  by  inspection  of  a  rock  analysis  to 
say  approximately  what  minerals  the  rock  will  contain,  but  there 
are  numerous  exceptions  to  any  rule  which  can  be  laid  down. 

Hence  we  may  say  that  except  in  acid  or  siliceous  rocks  containing 
66%  of  silica  and  over,  quartz  will  not  be  abundant.  In  basic 
MUa^mt  '^^  (containing  60%  silica  or  less)  it  is  rare  and 
7i«l#Zl-  accidental.  If  magnesia  and  iron  be  above  the  average 
ft^TTTTif  while  riltca  Is  tow  olivine  may  be  expected;  where  silica 
is  present  in  greater  quantity  other  ferro-magnenan 
minerals,  surh  as  augite,  homblendei  enstatite  or  biotite,  occur 
rather  than  olivine.  Unless  potash  is  high  and  silica  relatively 
tow  leucite  will  not  be  present,  for  leudre  does  not  occur  with 
free  quartz.  Nepheline,  likewise,  is  usually  found  in  rocks  with 
much  soda  and  comparatively  little  silica.  With  high  alkalis 
soda-bearing  pyroxenes  and  amphibotcs  may  be  present.  The 
tower  the  percentage  of  «lica  and  the  alkalis  the  greater  Is  the 
prcvatonce  of  lime  felspar  as  contracted  with  soda  or  potash 
felspar.'  Clarke  has  calculated  the  relative  abundance  of  the 
prindpal  rock-forming  minerals  with  the  following  results:  Apatite 
«*o*6,  titam'um  minerals*  1-5,  quarts  >■  tSK).  felspars  «•  S9'is, 
biotite  ■" 3'8,  hornblende  and  pyroxene  =  1 6*8,  total* 94*2%. 
This,  however,  can  only  be  a  rough  approximation.  The  other 
determining  factor,  namely  the  physical  conditions  attending  con- 
solidation, plays  op  the  whole  a  smaller  part,  yet  is  by  no  means 
ne^gible,  as  a  few  instances  will  prove.  There  are  certain  minerals 
which  are  practically  confined  to  deep-seated  intrusive  rocks,  t.^. 
microdine.  muscovite,  diallage.  Leucite  is  ver^r  rare  in  plutonic 
masses;  many  minerals  have  special  peculiarities  in  microscopic 
character  according  to  whether  they  crystallized  in  depth  or  near 
the  surface.  s.{.  hypersthene.  orthoclase,  quartz.  There  are  some 
curious  instances  <n  rocks  having  the  same  chemical  compositton 
but  consisting  of  entirely  difTerent  minerals,  s.f.  the  hombJeiidtte  of 
Gran,  tn  Norway,  containing  only  hornblende,  has  the  same  com- 
position  as  some  of  the  camptonites  of  the  same  locality  which  con- 
tain felspar  and  hornblende  of  a  different  variety.  In  tnis  connexion 
we  may  repeat  what  has  been  said  above  about  the  corrosion  of 
porphyritic  minerals  in  igneous  rocks.  In  rhyolitea  and  trachytes 
early  crystah  of  hornblende  and  biotite  may  be  found  in  great 
numbere  partially  converted  into  augite  and  magnetite.  The  horn- 
blende and  biotite  were  stable  undtf  the  pressures  and  other  con- 
ditions which  obtained  below  the  surface,  but  unstable  at  higher 
fevds.  In  the  ground-mass  of  these  rocks  augite  is  almost  universally 
present.  But  the  plutonic  representatives  of  the  same  magma, 
granite  and  syenite  contain  biotite  and  hornblende  far  more  commonly 
than  augire. 

Those  rocks  which  contain  most  silica  and  on  crystallizing  yield 
free  quarts  are  erected  into  a  jgroup  generalljr  detfgnated  the  ''add  " 
rocks.  Those  again  wnicli  contain  Ic^  silica  and  most 
.magnesia  and  iron,  so  that  quartz  is  absent  while  olivine 
is  usually  abundant,  form  the  "basic**  group.  The 
**  intermediate  '*  rocks  include  those  which  are  character- 
ised by  the  general  absence  of  both  quartz  and  olivine. 

An  important  subdivision  of  these  contains  a  very  high 

percentage  of  alkalis,  especially  soda,  and  consequently  has  minerals 
such  as  nepheline  and  leucite  not  common  in  other  rocks.  It  b 
often  separated  from  the  othen  as  the  "  alkali  **  or  *'  loda  '*  rocks. 


and  there  la  a  corresponding  series  of  basit  racks.  Lastly  •  aanl 
sub-group  rich  in  olivine  and  without  felspar  haa  been  called  the 
"  ultrabasic  "  rocks.  They  have  very  low  pereentages  of  silks  but 
much  iron  and  magnesia. 

Except  these  last  practically  all  rocks  contain  febpnn  or  fels* 
pathoid  minerals.  In  the  add  rocks  the  common  fdspan  are  ortlio> 
daae,  with  perthlte,  microdine,  oUgodase,  all  having  mnch  silica 
and  slkaUs.,  In  the  basic  rocks  labradorite,  anorthite  and  bytowntte 
prevail,  bdng  rich  in  lime  and  poor  in  silica,  potash  and  soda. 
Augite  is  the  commonest  ferro-magnesian  of  tne  banc  rocks,  but 
biotite  and  hornblende  are  on  the  whole  more  frequent  in  the  add. 

The  rocks  which  contain  lendte  or  nepheline,  dtiier  partly  or 
wholljr  replacing  felspar  are  not  Included  in  thb  table.  They  are 
essentially  of  intermediate  or  of  basic  character.  We  might  in  con- 
sequence regard  them  as  varieties  of  syenite,  diorite,  gaobro,  &c.. 


Commonest 
Minerals. 

Add. 

Intermediate 

Basic. 

Ultrabasic. 

Quartz 

Orthoclase 

(and  Oligo- 

clase).  Mica. 

Hornblende, 

Augite. 

Little  or  no  Quartz. 

No  Quartz 

Plagiodase 

Augite, 

Olivine. 

No  Felspar 
Augite. 

HomlMende, 
OUvine. 

Orthoclase 

Hombleode. 

Augite, 

Biotite. 

Plagioclase 

Hornblende, 

Augite, 

Biotite. 

Plutonk:    or] 
Abyssal  - 
type. 

Intrusive  or  I 
Hypabys-}^ 
sal  type. 

Lavas       or 
Effusive  > 
type.           J 

Granite. 

Quartz- 
porphyry. 

Rhyolite, 
Obsidian. 

Syenite. 

Orthoclase- 
porphyry. 

Trachyte. 

Diorit& 

Porphyrite. 

Andesite. 

Ckihhrow 

Dolerite. 

Basalt. 

P^Ddotitc 

Picrite. 

Ltmburcite. 

in  which  fclspathoid  minerals  occur,  and  indeed  there  are  many 
transitions  between  syenites  of  ordinary  type  and  nepheline — or 
leudte — syenite,  and  between  gabbro  or  dolerite  and  theralite  or 
esseidte.  But  as  many  minerals  develop  in  these  "  alkali  **  rocks 
which  are  uncommon  elsewhere,  it  is  convenient  in  a  purely  formal 
classification  like  that  which  is  outlined  here  to  treat  toe  whole 
assemblage  as  a  distinct  series. 

Nephdine  and  I^eueite-hearini  Kocks. 


Commonest 
Minerals. 


Plutonic 

type. 
Intrusive 

type. 
Effunve 

type  or 

Lavas. 


Alkali  Felspar, 
Nepheline  or  Leu- 
dte,Augite,Hom 

blende,  Biotite. 


Nepheline-syenite 
Leudte-syenite. 
Nepheline- 
porphyry. 

Phonolire, 
Leudtophyre. 


Soda  Lime  Febpai 
Nepheline  or  Leu- 
dte,Augite,Hum 
blende  (Olivine). 


Ne^hdineor 

Leocite,  Ausite, 

Hornblende, 

Olivine. 


Essexite  and 
Theralite. 


Tephrite  and 
Basanite. 


Ijolite  and 
Miasotttite. 


Neplieline- 

basalt. 
Leudte-basah 


This  classification  is  based  essentially  on  the  mtneralogical  constitn- 
tion  of  the  igneous  rocks.  Any  chemical  distinctions  between 
the  different  groups,  though  implied,  are  relegated  to  a  subordinate 
poation.  It  is  admittedly  anitidal  but  it  has  erown  tip  with  tbe 
growth  of  the  sdcnce  and  is  still  adopted  as  tne  basis  on  whidi 
more  minute  subdivisions  are  erected.  The  subdivistons  are  by  no 
means  of  equal  value.  The  syenites,  for  example,  and  the  perido 
tites,  are  far  less  important  than  the  granites,  oiorites  and  nbbirosL 
Moreover,  the  effusive  andesites  do  not  always  correspond  to  the 
plutonic  diorites  but  partly  also  to  the  sabbros.  As  the  different 
Kinds  of  rock,  regarded  as  aggregates  of  minerals,  pass  gradttally 
into  one  another,  transitional  types  are  verycommon  and  are  often 
so  important  as  to  rccdve  special  names.  The  quartz-syenites  and 
nordmarkites  may  be  imerposed  between  granite  and  syenite,  the 
tonalites  and  adamellites  between  granite  and  diorite.  the  monzon- 
ites  between  syenite  and  diorite,  norites  and  hypeiites  between 
diorite  and  gabbro,  and  so  on. 

There  is  of  course  a  large  number  of  recognized  rock  vpedea  not 
Induded  in  the  tables  given.  These  are  of  two  kinds,  dther  belong- 
ing to  groups  which  are  subdivisions  of  those  enumerated  (bearinr 
the  same  relation  to  them  that  spedes  do  to  genera)  or  rare  ana 
exceptional  rocks  that  do  not  fall  within  any  of  the  main  subdix'isions 
proposed.  Tbe  question  may  be  asked— When  is  a  rock  entitled 
to  DC  recognized  as  belonging  to  a  distinct  spedes  or  variety  and 
deserving  a  name  for  itself?  It  must,  first  of  all,  be  proird  to 
occur  in  considerable  quantity  at  some  locality,  or  better  stiH  at 
a  series  of  localities  or  to  have  oeen  prcxiuced  from  different  magmas 
at  more  than  one  period  of  the  earth's  history.  In  other  words,  it 
must  not  be  a  mere  anomaly.  Moreover,  it  should  have  a  dis- 
tinctive mineral  constitution,  differing  from  other  rocks,  or  some- 
thing individual  in  the  characters  of  its  minerals  or  of  its  structurea. 
It  Is  often  surprising  bow  peculiar  types  of  rock,  bdeved  at  first 


PETROLOGY 


[n  tbe  «D1R  are  CTVilali  at  leliiHr. 
l»r  lurbid  IhrouRh  wolherins-  The 
Irii  is  partly  ulissv.  paillj'  fi '  '  ' 


owinR    tu   the    in«ul»r   mingUog    of 
ttccslds  ot  brown  and  of  toloiirlcas  ^ass. 


Tht  clear  glouy  toe 

SI  [light .  while  othcn : 
TheM  art  rendered  m. 
deposit  of  (Ilia  films  i 
nite  in  Iheoi.    The  i 


Al^ihi  top  Ihert 


Hi.  K— Spherulilic  Felsile.  Artao, 

Jig.  9-rorphyrilicandFluidal 

Hlinik,  Hungary. 

Holland. 

Rhyolilc,  Hungary. 

The    KhiLe,    angular    patches    are 

The  round  spheruliles  of  this  rock  are 

The  ground  mass    is    partly  glusy 

cryitab  of  quarts  and  ofuniJine  felspar. 
Between    ttem    there   is    a    yellowish 

taroB  and  sometimes  compcsile;  Ihcir 

partly  fel^Iic.  and  shows  liuiioo-band- 
inR    The  lari!e  quarli  is  a  double  hexag- 

gtasi  showing   circular   areas   with    a 

dev'itrified™itctaloue.  noVonjer  glals? 

onal  pyramid. but  ilsedi^and  comer. 

well-deAned    radiate    fibrous   structure 

but  finely  tryslilline,  and  at  the  centres 

are   rounded    by   corroSon   and    large 

of    (he    sphenjlile*   there   aie   spaces 
occupied   by  a  secondai;  deposit   ul 

328 


PETROLOGY 


nrly  itl  aaArt;    diTorii 
k  n  umttiy  much  Ihb  tb 


^sr^i". 


m  bu(d  on  1671  uulyn  d 

■"  '-" — - —  It  (he  >vnp  wrcFAt 


:,s"3"r 

»-.«:»;s:rsvjD'ssi 

lotal  99-11%.    AU  the  mbrr  cDiuuoHiiu  on 
quintiln.  nuilly  mudi  Ida  ihiB  I  %. 
Thw  ondcfl  fka  Dot  cDdiUiK  in  a  fuphiiud 
■y.    Th£  pou>h  and  todM,  tot  oample.  witb  ■ 


;-«;.'.. 


ocher  formt,  udi  it  nefitieNne,  kiiciie 
CDvilei  l»l  Hi  the  tnt  nujoriry  of  intji 
AR  found  u  fdtpnr.    Tbc  phoaphoric 

Itmm  oiiifc  fiv™  ii«  10  Bnmihe.    Put  of  ihi 

■lumiiu  a  nd  lime  form  tbe  cooiplex  fcno-iunc^  n 
lilkau*  of  vhkh  the  pynDaeDeit  iniphiboln  end 
bjotiiea  vt  Lbe  chief.  Any  enea  of  liliea  ibovc 
what  ia  Rqalred  to  neutnliie  the  ban  will 

lijei  u  coninduoL  Thne  mutt  be  rcijarded  onl;^  aa 
frneral  tendencie*.  which  an  modiiitd  by  phyaicnl 

It  b  poatible  by  intpFction  o<  ■  rock  aiulyiii  to 
■ay  ippronimaidy  what  miivnli  the  ruck  wiTI  coi 

Htnce  we  may  Hy  Itut  eicept  inacidoreiUceoui 
66%  of  lUla  ind  over,  qitani  will  dm  be  abvn 


Hvpabyt- 


"7"l" 


h  as  luglrc,  h€*niblHide, 
pKvine.     LiniCH  poUBh  1 


Dniiiicd  K 


:ity  other  ferro-magneaiar 
high  and  shea  relatively 

■  ailica.     With   hirh  aHall 
Dlea    may   be   prtK^t.      Th 

"ppmninaiiMu"-ni^c« 
al  comKlion.^atteB*n(^| 

■.   'fhrri  arc  certain™  iw 


■rhclbcT  they  cryiullittd 
ily'b'niibl'ildf'  hi 


micnKKne.  mmeovite.  cfiallage. 

cbanctcr  itcnnliDg  ' 
the  auttace,  i-i-  hypHitl 

b<ii'«!ni!«int  of  entiicLy^  <Elh 

puli'iDn'ai  *»K  of  X  umpfi...... 

wv  may  repeat  wliat  haa  been  aaid  ab 

rar^  eryataia  of  hornblende  aiKl  bioti 

bfcndT^^^iCe'^lli^ruabE't^fl 


lite.     The  Earn. 


Those  rochi  which  conuin  mmt  lalka  and  on  crvatalKafnc  yield 
free  quart!  are  erected  into  a  pom  nnerally  dent^talcd  the  ''^'"^'^  " 
^^.  locka.  ThoK  again  wbiai  contain  leas  illici  and 

Z^^^^l^^magTWiia  and  iron,  10  that  quartz  ii  absent  while  t 
aarfa^  ^  usually  abundant,  form  the  "batic"  group. 
^^^       ''iriermcdiate'*roc)ainciodeihflBe  whicbartchai 

^il,  laed  by  the  general  abtenoeof  both  quartz  and  o. 

An  iidportant  lubdiviwiA  of  ihcae  ctmiaina  a  very  hi^h 

•uch  aa  ncphehne  and  icucile  out  common  in  other  ruciu. 


rg  lerfB  of  bailc  Ki 


wiihwi  fciapar  hat  been  oiM  the 
*««.     iv^ikm,    1  inrj  uavF  voy  Iqw  pcTTentafct  oj  ttUca  but 

It  theie  la>t  ptankally  bH  ncka  amtain  fehpira  or  feb- 


prevaiJ,  ijeing  ikh  in  lime  and  poor  in  ^ika,  potaah  and  aoda. 
Aufile  la  the  cocnmonctt  fcrro'rnagnetian  of  ibe  banc  roclia.  but 
biDtiie  and  homUende  arc  on  the  whole  moK  fiequent  in  the  arid. 

whoUj;  leplacint  febpar  are  not  included  in  ihii' table,    ^ley  am 


Onhodas 
'l^ie).  ll^ 


iblentle,   Hornblende, 


Baialt. 


and  bciAHU  uabbra  or  dolcriie  arid  (berijite  of 

B.  it  [a  convenient  in  a  purely  foritia] 
ia  outlined  here  to  tnat  the  whole 


lilcc  I  hat 

iiadUiinc 

Nepitli 


Alhali  Felspar. 

nte,A'a^e"loii 
blende.  BiiMiie. 


NepheUn-- 


""i*o1^"Tt^K; 
meant  of 


;,ri; 


..__     The  lyenii™.  for  "ample,  and  tlKperMo- 

itei.  aie  far  less  Imponani  than  the  {ranitei,  dioritet  and  nbbnsn. 
Moreover,  the  effutivc  andesitei  do  not  aNnyi  correiiiond  Id  the 

Elutonic  dioritet  but  partly  alao  to  the  pbb™.  At  the  diffema 
indi  of  rock,  retarded  aa  agETrftares  of  mincrnls,  put  tradually 
nto  one  another.  imnN'tional  typea  arr  vervcnnunDn  and  are  oftrm 
to  importauc  »  to  receive  special  namn.  The  quarta.tyeniteB  ■«] 
wrrdmarkhca  may  be  Interposed  between  granite  and  ayenite.  t^ 

lea  between  nenite  and  dioiiie,  nnrlte*  and  bypeiita  bets-eca 

liorile  arid  gabbro.  and  aa  on. 

ncluded  in  the  tabln  given.  Theae  air  of  Lvo  ldtbdi»  father  belcpaic- 
ng  to  ETDupa  which  are  lubdivuioni  ol  Ihov  enunwtated  (beariiw 


to'haveL, 

IT  period  of  the  e 


I  produced  f  nnn  difFrrent  mBf 


PETROLOGY 


r  very  fdinule  ciyslals. 


ii  panly  Blasay.  panl^  Itliiiic, 


Fig.  4.— Petlilic  Objidian,  Tokii,  F[i.  s— Perlilic  PiltlislDBe,  Fig.  6.— Obsidi. 

Hungary.  M.i>scn,  Germany.  ,„  ,h,  ,„,,  ,!„.. 

Tbc  clear  glasy  rock  a  Invened  by  a  The  pcKitic.  couniled  ciaiAi  e 


These  ar 


enderedmorediilintlhylh 
:hin  filnu  ol  seconriary  ]<>"': 


potung  and  becoming  aLlghtlv  qpaque 
corroded   CTyital    oE   felspar,   showing 


Fig-  r-SpheruIitlc  Xhyolit. 

I'ig.  g.— Sphcrulitic  Fclsiu.  Acian, 

Fig.  B.  -Poiphyrilic  and  Fluidal 

Hlinit,  Hungao'. 

Scotlaml. 

Rhyolite,  Hungary. 

The    while,    angular    pale  he 

The  ground  mats   is   partbr  ghH 
ftg.  T-he  large  auarts  isa  double  hex 

erwtaliofquarti  and  uf  jonidinc  t 
Between    l^tm    thcie    i*   a    ye 

elspar. 
Ilo^h 

large  and  sometimes  compoiile:  their 
raJiate  stnict««  i.  obvious.    This  is  > 

glass   showing   circular   areas   i 

dcvitrified  pilchslone,  no  longer  jlassy 

onal  pyramid,  but  its  edge«  and  comi 

well-defined    radiate   fibrous   ati 

bill  £nely  ciyslallinc.  and  at  the  CFnlres 

occupied    by   a   secondary  depmit   <ii 

irregulit  areas  of  glass  penetrate  lo 

PETROLOGY 


i',ji£:'sa~- 

Fl|.  9.— Tnchrl&  Orotavk 

poiphyritic  felspar  cryiul  la 
in  a  pak-bnmn  gla»^  buc 
ning  maw  glan  inclusions  of 
shape.     The  felspar,  in  one 

the  Bnl  fttneration.  and  uaal 
I?™nd^™,    wh^h*  at,'"^ 

E,  Pertenluidl, 

e  ire  pon^imlic 

--■  -»f  dart  browa 

e  pbo>agn[ilil. 

te  aod  raaiTielile. 

cly  ciyaUlliiK. 


a™ 

cty.Ul»  ol 

dark 

and  wicb  1 

Iso  a  few  pli 

whaemici 

perl 

•liBhtlv  in 

hide 

£1 

*ul«"ub5u 

felspar.  ■ 

litlle 

mposel    and 

large  ckar 

apnea  (R 

( iplhene.    The  granular 
I.  ii  clear  and  Uansparenl 


Fii.  6. — Giaphic  GraBite,  Bodeuuii, 

This  rack  consisu  of  aDgulai  pilcbn 
of  clear  quarti  scattered  through  ' 
■triated  dull  malrii  of  felsinr.     TV 

pails  of  a  single  crystal. 


Fit  7'— LuiuUiuile,  Luiuiyu, 

Cora  wall. 

In  this  variely  ol  touraialine-granite 

lere  ate  many  Uue  needles  of  lour- 


Fig.  8, — Granophyre,  I 

This   pliotograpb   is   tok 

structure  d(  ihe  ground-int 

Thi  quarti  towaidi  the  c 
£eld  appears  ai  urhile.  an 
embedded  in  a  ftrey  malrl 


Fig.  g.— Diorite,  Hodriuli.  HuogirT. 

The  dvk  Cfyatal*  ate  (rcca  horn- 
cloudy  prey  substance  between  tbeza  n 
felspar  in  a  tomewbat  wcatiicrcci  stalt 


PETROLOGY 


Fig.  I— Pbonoliti,  TefiUuer                          Fig.  j.— Leqciiophyre.  Ricden,  Fig.  3.— Lnicite-Bswnile,  Vauvt 

Scltloubeig,  BohcmiL                                          EiStI,  Gcrmwiy.  The  niunded  central  crystal  ls1eu< 

The  luge  vhile  crystal  is  (cbpnt.  the             A  porphylilic  clear  crystal  of  leuctts  shmring  ions  o[  inclusions  and  1 

inuller  quca  are  nephellne  having  sik-         lia  near  the  centre  of  the  6eld»  lowarcb  narked  cracks;  helnw  U  is  a  dark-br 

mineral  in  Ihe  ground-mau  is  aegirioe.           clear  centres  and  briud  black  edge*.  torn  of  Ihe  held.    There  are  numei 

small  prisms  ol  white  nepbeline  may  partly  vitreous. 


Fig.  ■,— Hypersiheoe.  Andesile,  Kg.  j.— CMivine-basalt.  Ctaig-                       Fit  «-— Ophitic  Olivine-Dokrile. 

Aiwyn,  Cheviots,  England.  Lockhart,  Edinburgh,  Scotland.                          Dun  Fion,  Arran.  Scotland. 

A  poiphyritic  rock  with  phenocryits  Two  large  crystal!  of  augile  above  and             The  while  mineral  b  plagioclaK  fel 

o[  white  pliginclase  felspar  and  of  pale-  below,  and  of  olivine  (right  and  left)  lie  spar,  ofaich  pcDelratet  a  large   darl 

bTom  augite  and  hypentheoe  in  a  fine  in  1  crystalline  giound-niui  of  pta^io-  crystal  of  augile  in  ophitic  mannri.    A 

ground -mass,  partly  glassy.  clase  felspar,    augite,    and    magnetite.  ili  bottom  of  the  field  Ihete  are  a  lei 

green  serpentine,  and  the  pseudomorphs  strongly  marked  cracks. 


Fig.  7.— OUvine-Gabbro,  Volpcn-  Fig.  g.— Feridolile,  Elba.  Fig. «  — Scrjicntine.  Colmonel 

dorl,SUesifc  -fhe    rounded  ciystals   are    olivine.  Ayrshire, Scotland. 

Febpar  occurs  towards  the  edges  ol         weathering  as  usual  to  magnetite  and  In  this  rock  the  process  of  >i 

the  field  and  jurrounds  a  duster  of  seriientine  along  its  cracks  and  borders.  liniialion,  seen  in  the  previous  figi 
diallage  (with  strong,  dark,  parallel  The  dark  inlcniiliji  subttjuce  is  en-  comi^te.  No  olivine  remains,  I 
Iaaiination)andololivine(covered  witha         slat ite  weathered  to  bastile.  meshwork  ol  magnetite  indicate 

blACk  network  of  secondary  magnetite).  position  oi  the  cracks  in  the  or 

ctystab.  The  cloudy,  dark  i 
above  the  centre  is  baslile  repi 
piimuy  enstatile. 


PETROLOGY 


FEg.  I.— Pebbly  Grit.  Banfi.  Scotlsod. 

The  nhile  pcbb1«  are  guani  with 

irrcRular  cracks  and,  streaks  of   tluid 

opaque    miituK    of    clay    aad    idibII 


Fig.  I.— Volcanic  Tuff,  Arthur's  Stat, 

Edinburgh. 
A  fragmciilal  volcaoic  rock  with  small 

contain  little  felspar  crystals.     Broken 
felspars  also  lie  scattered  tbtougb  Ibe 


"fei. 


loidal  LineMoDe  (Car- 


lere  is  sornetimca  a  sbcll  IraKinenl  or 
-acbii^ods,  ud  other  (cc 


I.  4— Marble.  Carrara.  Italy 
ection    of   well-knonn    statuary 
which  conusts  entirely  of  cilcite 
II  iiregiilAr  crystals  closely  fitted 


Fig,  J,— Oolitic  Chen  (Can; 
SutherUndshire,  Scotia 

replaced  by  silica  with  perlecl 


Fig,  6,-Myloniie 

Sulherlandsl 

This  well-banded  r 


Fig.  8.— Mica-Schist.  Bliir-Atboll, 

Perthshite,  Scolland, 

A  clay  rock  like  the  preceding  one 

but   more   metamorpbic   and   coarsely 


fig.  o.-Chia5tr)lite-SUte. 
Skiddaw,  Cumberland. 
A  clay  rock  affected  by  contact  m< 
morphiam  attenfled  by  Iheprfxliictia 


PETROLOGY 


329 


to  be  vaiqiait,  tun  op  with  idcstiol  fcttuict  in  widely  icatterad 


10  oe  muqvit,  tun  op  wua  tacmicei  icetuice  in  wMeiy  Katterad 
ic^oos*  oleMf.  for  example,  ocean  in  Nurwey,  Scotleml.  Mootreal. 
Bntiih  Gdumbia,  New  York  and  Bnuilr  itiumiie  in  Scotland. 
Norway,  Brazil,  Montana,  Portugal,  Ac  Tnia  tndicatee  tiiat 
underlying  all  the  variations  in  mtocralogical,  stnictiual  and 
cheroi^  properties  there  are  definite  relationships  which  tend  to 
repeat  themselves,  producing  the  saoMs  types  whenever  the  same 
conditions  are  presenL 

Although  in  former  years  the  view  was  vridely  correnti  especially 
in  Germany,  that  igneous  rocks  belonging  tp  different  geological 
epochs  shoun  recdve  different  names,  it  js  now  admkted  on  all 
sides  that  this  cannot  be  upheld. 

In  t9oa  a  group  of  American  petronapbers  brought  lorwaid 
a  proposal  to  discard  ail  existing  cbtiihcatioos  of  igneous  rocks 
and  to  substitute  for  them  a  **  quantiutive "  dassificatioa  based 
on  chemical  analysis.  They^  showed  how  vague  and  often  un- 
scientific was  much  of  the  existing  terminokwy  and  argued  that  as 
the  chemkal  compositk)n  of  an  uoeous  rock  was  its  most  funda- 
mental characteristic  it  should  oe  elevated  to  prime  position. 
Geological  occurrence,  structuic,  mineralogical  constitution,  the 
hitherto  accepted  criteria  for  the  discrimination  of  rock  spedcs 
were  relegated  to  the  background.  The  completed  rock  analysis 
is  first  to  be  interpreted  in  terms  of  the  rock-fprming  minoab 
w^ich  might  be  expected  to  be  formed  when  the  magma  crystaWaes, 
e.g.  <^ttartz  fels(nrs  of  various  kinds,  olivine,  akermanoite,  fels- 

Eithoids,  magnetite,  corundum  and  so  on,  and  the  rocks  are  divided 
to  groups  strictly  according  to  the  relative  proportion  of  thnc 
minerals  to  one  another.  There  is  no  need  here  to  describe  the 
minutia  of  the  process  adopted  as  the  authors  have  stated  them 
very  clearly  in  their  treatise  {QuauUtaiioe  CUusificatum  of  IfHeous 
Rocks,  Chicago,  1903),  and  there  is  no  indication  that  even  m  the 
United  States  it  will  ever  displace  the  older  classifications. 

We  can  often  observe  in  a  series  of  eruptives  belonging  to  one 
period  and  a  restricted  area  ccttain  features  which  distinguiiii 
^^  ^^^?'  ^*  ^  whole  more  or  less  completely  from  other 

MTfrfaffr  'i''*^''  assemblages.  Such  groups  are  often  said  to 
be  consanguineous,  and  to  characterize  a  definite 
'*  petrological  province.  "  Excellent  examples  of  this  are  furnished 
by  the  Devonian  igneous  rocks  of  southern  Norway  as  described  by 
BrOgger,  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  the  Hebrklcs  (Harkcr),  the  Italian 
lavas  studied  by  H.  S.  Washington.  On  a  larger  scale  the  volcanoes 
which  girdle  the  Pacific  (Andes,  Cordillera,  Japan,  &c.),  and  those 
which  occur  on  the  volcanic  islands  of  the  Atlantic,  show  the  ame 
phenomena.  Each  of  these  groups  has  been  formed  presumably 
from  a  single  deep-seated  magma  or  source  of  supply  and  during 
•  period  which  while  necessarily  prolonged  was  not  oi  vast  duration 
in  a  geological  sense. 

On  the  other  hand,  each  of  the  great  suites  of  enipthre  rocks 
which  constitute  such  a  petrological  province  embraces  a  great 
jMM^f^i^  range  of  types.  Prolonged  eruptions  have  In  a  few 
Ifaa  cases  a  somewhat  monotonous  character,  owing  to  the 

^predominance  of  one  kind  of  rock.  Thus  the  lavas  of 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  are  mostly  basaltic,  as  are  those  of  Oregon. 
Washington  and  the  Deccan,  au  of  which  form  geological  masses 
of  enormouii  magnitude.  But  it  is  more  usual  to  find  basalts, 
andesttes,  tischytes,  dacites  and  many  other  rocks  occurring  in 
a  single  eruptive  complex.  The  process  by  which  a  magma  splits 
up  into  a  variety  of  partial  products  is  known  as  "  dtffcrrntbtion.** 
Its  importance  from  the  standpoint  of  theoretical  petrology  is  very 
freat,  but  as  yet  no  adequate  explanation  of  it  nas  been  offeree!. 
iNfferentiation  may  show  itself  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  type 
•the  successive  emissions  from  a  vokank  focus  may  differ  consider- 
ably from  one  another.  Thus  in  the  Pentland  Hills,  near  Edinburi^h. 
the  lavas  which  are  of  lower  Devonian  age,  were  first  basaltic, 
then  andesitic,  trachytie  and  dacitfe,  and  finally  rhyolitic,  and  this 
•uccession  was  repeated  a  second  time.  Yet  they  all  must  have 
come  from  the  same  focus,  or  at  any  rate  from  a  group  of  foci 
very  closely  eoaiwcted  with  one  another.  Otcauonalfy  it  is  found 
that  the  earlier  kvai  are  <rf  intennediate  character  ami  that  basic 
nkematc  with  acid  during  the  later  stages  of  the  vofcanic  history. 

Not  lea  interesting;  are  those  cases  in  which  a  single  body  of 
rock  has  in  eonsoUdatton  yielded  a  variety  of  petrographical  types 
often  widdy  divergent.  Thb  is  best  shown  by  great  plutonic 
bosses  which  may  be  regarded  as  having  once  been  vast  subtmanean 
spaces  filled  with  a  nearly  homogeneous  lk|ukl  magma.  Cooling 
took  place  gradually  from  the  outer  surfaces  where  the  igneous 
rock  was  in  contact  with  the  surrounding  strata.  The  resultant 
laooelite  (Gr.  Modn,  pit,  erater,  >Mm,  stone),  stock  or  boss,  may 
be  a  few  himdred  yards  or  numy  miles  in  diameter  and  often 
oontaias  a  great  diversity  of  ciyMalUne  rocks.  Thus  peridotite, 
cabbro,  diont&  tonalite  and  granite,  are  often  ossodated,  usually 
w  such  a  wsv  that  the  move  basic  are  the  first-formed  and  lie  nearest 
the  eitemal  surfaces  of  the  mass.  The  revcne  sequence  occufs 
•ooasionally,  the  ed^  being  hufhly  add  while  the*  central  parts 
consist  .fli  more  basic  rocks.  Mmetimes  the  later  phases  pene> 
trato  into  and  vein  the  eariier;  evidently  there' has  been  some 
movement  one  to  temponry  increase  of  pressure  when  part  of  the 
bcoolite  was  soHd  and  part  still  in  a  lk)uid  sUte.  This  links  these 
phenomena  orith  those  aboive  described  where  succeisive  emsssmns 
of  different  character  have  proceeded  outwards  from  the  focys* 


Acooedinc  to  nadcm  vkw  two  explanations  of  these  facts  am 
possible.  Some  geokigists  hoM  that  the  different  rock  facics 
found  in  association  are  olcen  due  to  local  absorntkm  of  surrounding 
racks  by  the  molten  magma  ("  assimikttion  ^').  Effeas  of  thS 
kind  are  to  be  espected,  and  have  been  ckariy  proved  in  many 
places.  There  is,  however,  •  geneml  rductanee  to  admit  that  they 
are  of  great  importance.  The  nature  and  succession  of.  the  rock 
species  do  not  as  a  rule  show  any  rdatkm  to  die  sedimenuiy  ot 
other  materials  whkh  may  be  supposed  to  have  ben  dissolved: 
and  where  solutkm  is  known  to  have  gone  on  the  produeu  are 
usually  of  abnormal  chanctcr  and  easily  distinguishable  from  the 
common  rock  types. 

Hence  it  is  generally  supposed  that  differentiation  is  to  be 
ascribed  to  some  physioU  or  chemical  procesees  which  lead  to  the 
splittinn  up  of  a  magma  into  dissimibr  portions^  each  of  which 
consolidates  as  a  distinct  kind  of  rock.  Two  factom  can  be  sekicted 
as  probably  most  potent  One  imporunt  factor  is  cooling  and 
another  is  crsrstalliattioa.  According  to  physico-chemical  laws  the 
least  soluble  substances  will  tend  to  dlRuse  towards  the  coolinn 
surfaces  (Ludwig-Sorets's  principle).  This  is  in  accordance  wilb 
the  majority  of  the  observed  facts  and  is  probably  a  sera  cauta  of 
differentiation,  thoug^h  what  its  potency  may  be  is  uncertain.  As  a 
rock  solidifies  the  minerab  which  crystallize  follow  one  another  in 
a  more  or  k»s  wdl-defined  order,  the  most  basic  C^uooocding  to 
Rosenbusck's  law)  beings  first  to  separate  out.  That  in  a  general 
way  the  peripheral  portions  of  a  lacoolite  consist  mainly  «l  those 
early  basic  minerals  suggests  that  the  sequence  of  crystallization 
helps  lar^Iy  In  determuung  the  successbn  (and  consraueotly  the 
distribution  of  rock  species  in  a  plutonic  complex).  Gravity  abo 
may  pbyapart.for  it  u  proved  that  in  asolution  at  rest  the  heaviest 
components  will  be  concentrated  towards  the  base.  This  must, 
however,  be  of  secondary  importance  as  in  laccolitcs  the  top  portions 
often  consist  of  more  tosic  and  heavier  varieties  of  rock  than  the 
centres.  It  has  also  been  argued  that  the  earilest  minerals  being 
heaviest  and  in  any  case  denser  than  the  fused  magma  around 
them,  will  tend  to  sink  by  their  own  weight  and  to  be  congregated 
near  the  bottom  of  the  mass.  Electric  currents,  magnetic  attraction 
and  convection  currents  have  also  been  called  in  to  account  for  the 
phenomena  observed.  Magmas  have  also  been  compared  to  liqukls 
which,  when  they  cool,  sput  up  into  portions  no  bnger  completely 
soluble  in  one  another  (liquation  hypothesis).  Each  01  these  parti^ 
magmas  nuv  dissolve  a  portion  of  the  others  and  as  the  temperature 
falls  and  tne  conditions  change  a  range  of  liquids  differing  in 
composition  may  be  supposed  to  arise. 

All  igneous  magmas  contain  dissolved  gases  fst«im,  carbonic 
ackl,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  chlorine,  fluorine,  bone  acid,  Ac.). 
Of  these  water  is  the  principal,  and  was  formerly  believed  to  hnvn 
pcrcobted  downwards  from  the  earth's  surface  to  the  heated  rocks 
below,  but  Is  now  generally  admitted  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the 
magnUL  Many  peculiarities  of  the  structure  of  the  plutonic  rocks 
as  contrasted  with  the  lavas  may  reasonably  be  accounted  for  by 
the  operation  of  these  gases,  which  were  unable  to  escape  as  the 
deep-seated  masses  slowly  cooled,  while  they  were  promptly  given 
up  by  the  superficial  effusons.  The  add  plutonic  or  intrusive  rocks 
have  never  been  reproduced  by  laboratory  experimentSj  and  the 
only  successful  attempta  to  obtain  their  minerals  artificially  have 
been  those  in  which  special  provision  was  made  for  the  retention 
of  the  *'  mincraliring  "  gases  in  the  crucibles  or  scaled  tubes  employe<f. 
These  gases  often  do  not  enter  Into  the  composition  of  the  rock- 
forrains  minerals,  for  most  of  these  are  free  from  water,  carbonic 
acid,  Ac  Hence  as  crystallization  goes  on  the  residual  liquor 
must  contain  an  ever^increasing  proportion  of  volatile  constituents. 
It  is  conceivable  that  in  the  final  stages  the  still  uncrystalKzcd 
part  of  the  magma  has  more  resemblance  to  a  solution  of  mineral 
matter  in  superneated  steam  than  to  a  dry  ijgneous  fusion.  Quarts, 
for  example,  is  the  bst  mineral  to  form  in  a  granite.  It  bears 
much  of  the  stamp  of  the  quartz  which  we  know  has  been  deposited 
from  aqueous  solutkMi  in  vdns.  Ac.  It  is  at  the  same  time  the  most 
infusible  of  all  the  common  minerals  of  rocks.  Its  late  formatton 
shows  that  in  this  case  it  arose  at  comparathrely  low  temperatures 
and  points  cleariy  to  the  special  importance  of  the  gases  of  the 
manna  as  determining  the  sequence  <»  crystallization. 

When  solidificatkm  Is  nearly  complete  the  gases  can  no  longer 
be  reuined  in  the  rock  and  make  their  escape  through  fissures 
towards  the  surfoce  They  are  powerful  agents  in  attacking  the 
minerals  of  the  rocks  which  they  tmverse.  and  histances  of  thdr 
operation  are  found  in  die  kaoliniaation  of  granites,  tourmaliniza- 
tlon  and  formatfcm  of  greisen.  deposit  of  quarts  vdns,  sUnniferous 
and  auriferous  veins,  apatite  vdns,  and  the  group  of  changes 
known  as  propylitizatwn.*  These  **  pnenmntolytie '  (Gr.  smCms. 
spirit,  vapour,  \knp,  to  kxMe,  dissolve)  piCLessM  are  of  the  first 
importance  in  the  genesis  of  many  ore  deposits.  They  am  a  real 
part  of  the  history  of  the  magma  itself  nnd  constitute  the  terminal 
phases  of  the  voleanie  sequence. 

The  complicated  succession  from  bade  (or  ultrabasic)  to  acid 
typeseaemplified  in  the  history  of  many  magmas  is  reiected  with 

'  The  term  "  propylito  "  (Gr.>  v^fcnA«»,  a  gateway)  «ras  given 
by  Richthofen  to  a  volcanic  reck  whKh  b  utppmed  to  have  marimd 
n  new  epoch  in  volcanic  gedogy  (see  Akobsitb) 


330 


PETROLOGY 


•itonishing  eotOfAtbeataM  In  the  hifltovy  of  indh4dinl  product*. 
In  each  cms  of  rock  cryttallisatioa  foUowt  a  definite  courae.  The 
^  .  firat  nioeniu  to  eepanie  bckms  to  a  group  known 

^Sa^uh,^  «a  the  minor  aooeaiories;  thU  inchideri  zifcon»  apatite, 
^S^r^^  apbeae  iron  oxides;  then  follow  in  Older  olivine,  avpte, 
^'**  hornblende,  biodce,  plagiodaae,  felspar  (beginning  with 

the  varieties  most  rich  in  lime  and  ending  with  thoec  whicfa  contain 
most  soda),  orthoclase,  microdtne  and  quarts  (with  mlcropegiuatite). 
Many  csoeptions  to  thb  rule  are  known;  the  same  mmcFal  may 
cfystaHixe  at  two  different  periods  t  two  or  more  minerab  may 
crysuUiie  simulianeousljr  or  the  stages  in  which  they  form  may 
overlap.  But  the  succession  above  given  holds  in  the  vast  majority 
of  cases.  Expressed  in  this  way:  the  more  basic  minerals  preoecw 
the  leas  basic;  it  to  known  as  Roeenbusch's  law. 

Types  cf  Slrmctun.—ln  some  rocks  there  seems  to  be  little  tendency 
for  the  mmerals  to  envelop  one  another.  This  is  true  Of  many 
gabbros,  airfites  and  granites  <PI.  Ill,  fig.  7).  The  grains  then  lie 
side  by  side,  with  the  faces  of  the  latter  moulded  on  or  adapted  to 
the  more  perfect  crystalline  outlines  of  the  earlier.  More  commonly 
some  closer  rebtionship  exists  between  them.  When  the  smaller 
idiomorphic  crystab  01  the  first-formed  are  scattered  irrcp:uUr1y 
through  the  burger  and  less  perfect  crystals  of  bter  origin,  the 
■> -,^^  structure  b  said  to  be  poikilittc  (Gr.  ««u£Xof,  many- 
""■'"'"  coloured,  mottled).  A  variety  of  this,  known  as  ophitJc 
(PL  III,  fig.  6),  is  very  characteristic  of  many  dolcrites  and  diaoases, 
in  which  urge  plates  of  augite  enclose  many  smalt  bths  of  plagio- 
cbse  felspar.  Biotite  and  hornblende  frequently  enclose  felspar 
ophitically;  less  commonly  iron  oxides  and  sphene  do  so.  In  pcri- 
dotites  tfte  "  histre^mottled  '*  structure  arises  from  pyroxene  or 
hornblende  enveloping  olivine  in  the  same  manner  (PI.  Ill,  fig.  8). 
In  these  cases  no  crystallographic  relation  cxbts  between  the  two 
minerab  (enclosing  and  enclosed). 

But  often  the  surrounding  mineraUhas  been  bid  down  on  the 
surface  of  the  other  in  such  a  way  that  they  have  certain  crystalline 
faces  or  axes  parallel  to  one  another.  This  is  known 
as  *'  parallel  growth."  It  b  best  seen  in  zoned  crystab 
of  plagiocbse  felspar.'  which  may  range  in  composition 
from  anorthitc  to  otigocbae,  the  more  add  byers  being  deported 
rcgubriy  on  the  surfaces  of  the  more  basic.  Biotite  and  muscovite, 
hornblende  and  augite,  enstatite  and  dblbge,  epidote  and  orthitc, 
very  frequently  are  assocbted  in  thb  way. 

when  two  minerals  crystallize  simultaneously  they,  may  be 
Intergrown  in  "graphic**  fashion.  The  best  example  b  quartz 
and  orthoclase  occurring  together  as  micropcgmatite 
(PL  II,  figt.  6  and  8).  Tne  quartz  forms  angubr 
patches  in  the  fcbpar,  which  though  separated  nave 
the  same  crystalline  orientation  and  one  position  of 
extinctbn,  while  the  fcupar  on  its  part  behaves  in  the  same  way. 
Two  porous  crystals  thus  interpenetrate  but  the  scattered  parts  of 
each  mineral  maintain  their  connexion  with  the  others.  There 
may  be  also  a  definite  rebtion  between  the  crystalline  axes  of  the 
two  crystals,  though  thb  b  not  known  in  all  cases.  Augite  also 
occurs  in  grai^uc  intergrowth  with  hornblende,  olivine  an<rfelspar; 
and  hornblende,  cordierite,  epidote  and  biotite  in  graphic  inter- 
growth with  quartz. 

Physical  Cktwustry  tj  Imepus  Rocks,— 'The  great  advances  that 
have  been  made  in  recent  years  in  our  knowledge  of^  physical 
chemistry  have  very  important  bearings  on  petrological  investiga- 
tions, ^pectally  in  the  study  of  the  genesb  of  igneous  rocks  we 
anticipate  that  by  thb  means  much  light  will  be  throprn  on  problems 
which  are  now  very  o^ure  and  a  compbtc  revolution  in  our  ideas 
of  the  conditions  which  affect  crystallization  may  yet  be  the  con- 
sequence^  Already  many  important  results  have  been  gleaned. 
As  yet  little  work  of  an  exact  and  quantitative  nature  has  been 
(k>nc  on  actual  rocks  or  on  mixtures  resembling  them  in  composition, 
but  at  the  Carnegie  Institution  in  Washington,  aa  daborate  series 
of  experiments  in  the  synthesis  of  mineiais  and  the  properties  of 
mixtures  of  these  is  being  carried  on.  with  all  the  refinements 
which  modem  sdenoe  can  siuxeat.  The  work  of  Doelter  and  of 
Vogt  may  also  be  mentioned  in  thb  conneodon.  At  the  same  time 
the  mathematical  theory  of  the  physical  processes  involved  has 
leceived  much  attention,  and  serves  both  to  direa  and  to  ehicidnte 
the  experimental  work. 

A  fused  mixture  of  two  minerals  may  be  regarded  aa  a  solution 
ol  one  on  the  other.  If  such  a  solution  be  cooled  down,  crysuUiza- 
tk>n  will  generally  set  in  and  if  the  two  components  be 
2^J!****  independent  (or  do  not  form  mbed  crystab)  one  of 
***"**•*•  them  may  be  expected  to  start  crystallizing.  On  further 
cooling,  more  of  this  mineral  will  separate  out  till  at  last  a  rendue 
b  left  whfch  contains  the  two  components  in  definite  proportions. 
This  mixture,  which  is  known  as  the  eutectic  mixture,  has  the  lowest 
tncltingoooiat  of  any  which  can  be  formed  from  these  minerals. 
If  heat  be  still  abstracted  the  eutectic  wiH  coasolkbte  as  a  whole; 
ha  two  imnctal  components  will  crysuUise  rfmuluneously.  At 
any  gbcR  pressure  the  oompoaition  01  the  eutectic  mixture  m  such 
A  case  b  always  the  same. 

Simibriy,  u  there  be  three  independent  components  (none  of 
which  forms  mind  crystals  with  the  others).  accordin|t  to  their 
relative  amounts  and  to  the  composition  of  the  eutectic  mixture 
will  begin  to  crystallize:  then  another  will  make  its  appearance 


in  solid  form,  and  wliHi  the  excess  of  these  has  been  removed,  the 
ternary  eutectic  (that  mixture  of  the  three  whk:h  has  the  lom-cst 
mdting-point)  will  be  produced  and  crystallizatioo  of  all  three 
components  will  go  on  simultaneously. 

These  processes  have  without  doubt  a  very  chase  nnafegy  to 
the  formation  of  igneous  rocks.  Thus  in  certain  fclsitcs  or  por- 
phyries which  may  be  conaideied  as  bdng  essentblly  mixtures  of 
quartz  and  felspar,  a.ccrtain  amount  of  quartz  has  crystallized  out 
at  an  early  period  in  the  form  of  well-shaped  porphyritic  crysuls, 
and  thereafter  the  remainder  of  the  rock  has  solidified  as  a  very 
fine-grained,  cryptocrystalline  or  sometimes  micrographic  ground- 
mass  which  consists  01  quaru  and  felspar  in  intimate  intermixture. 
The  btter  ck»ely  resembles  a  eutectic,  and  chemical  studies  have 
proved  that  witnia  somewhat  narrow  limits  the  oompositioa  of 
these  fclsitic  ground-masses  b  constant. 

But  the  comparison  must  not  be  pushed  too  Ear.  as  there  are 
always  other  components  than  quartz  and  felq»r  (apatite,  zircon, 
biotite  and  iron  oxides  being  the  most  common),  and  in  rocks  of 
this  type  the  gases  dissolved  in  the  magma  pby  a  very  important 
part4  As  cr>*stalIization  goes  on,  these  gases  arc  set  free  and  thcu* 
pressure  must  increase  to  some  extent.  Moreover,  the  fcbpar  b 
not  one  mineral  but  two  or  perhaps  three,  there  being  always  sods 
felspar  and  potash  fcbpar  and  usually  also  a  small  amount  of  lime 
felspar  in  these  porphyries. 

In  a  typical  basic  rock  the  conditions  ait  even  more  complex. 
A  dolerite,  for  example,  usually  contains,  as  iu  bst  products  of 
crystallization,  pyroxene  and  felspar.  Of  these  the  bttcr  cpnsi&ts 
of  three  distiiKt  species,  the  former  of  an  unknown  number;  and  in 
each  case  they  can  form  mixed  crystals,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
with  one  another.  From  these  considerations  it  will  be  clear  that  the 
properties  of  solutions  of  two  or  three  independent  components,  do 
not  nec{;;aarily  expbin  the  process  of  oystallization  in  any  igneous 
rock. 

Very  frequently  in  porphyries  not  only  quartz  but  felspar  also 
is  present  in  brge  well-formed  early  crystals.  Similarly  in  basalts, 
augite  and  feUpar  may  app»r  both  as  phcnocrysts  and  as  com- 
ponents of  the  ground-mass.  As  an  expbnation  of  thb  it  has  bcra 
suggested  that  supcrsaturation  has  taken  pbce.  We  may  suppose 
that  the  augite  which  was  in  excess  of  the  proportion  necessary  to 
form  the  fclspar-au^te,  eutectic  mixture,  first  separated  out.  When 
the  remaining  solution  reached  the  eutectic  composition  the  felspar 
did  not  at  once  start  crystallizing,  perhaps  because  nuclei  are 
necessary  to  initbte  crystal-growth  and  these  were  not  at  hand; 
augite  went  on  crystalhzing  while  felspar  bgged  behind.  Then 
felspar  began  and  as  the  mixture  was  now  supersaturated  with  that 
mineral  a  considerable  amount  of  it  was  rapidly  thrown  out  of  the 
solution.  At  the  saoK  time  there  would  be  a  tendency  for  part  of 
the  augite,  aheady  crystallized,  to  be  dissolved  and  iu  crystab 
would  be  cqrcoded,  losing  their  sharp  and  perfect  edges,  as  is  often 
observcd*in  rocks  of  this  group.  When  the  necessary  adjustromts 
had  been  made  the  eutectic  mixture  would  be  esublished  and 
thereafter  the  two  minerab  would  consolidate  simultanooualy  (or 
nearly  so^  till  crystallization  was  complete. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  evidence  to  sho*  that  so^cnatuntkM 
is  not  unimportant  in  igneous  magmas.  The  frequency  with  which 
they  form  gbsses  proves  that  under  certain  conditicms  the  noltcn 
rocks  are  highly  viscous.  Much  will  depctid  also  on  the  preseacc, 
accidental  or  otherwise,  of  nuclei  on  which  a  mineral  substance 
can  be  deposited.  It  b  known  that  minerals  differ  in  thor  tendencv 
to  crystauize,  some  doing  so  very  readily  while  others  are  slow  and 
backward.  The  rate  at  which  crystallization  goes  00  depcsKb  on 
many  factors,  and  there  are  remarkable  diffeicnces  ia  this  cespcct 
between  minerals. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  b  plenty  of  evidence  to  show  that 
supcrsaturation,  though  probably  one  of  the  causes,  b  not  the  prin- 
cipal cause  of  the  appearance  of  more  than  one  mineral  in  t«o 
generations  of  crystals.  In  some  of  the  quarts-porphyries,  for 
example,  there  are  j^henociysts  not  only  of  quartz  and  felspar  but 
also  of  micropegmatite.  These  prove  tnat  quanz  and  felspar  woe 
not  crystalliang^  succesnvcTy  or  alternately  but  simultaneoibly. 

The  great  majority  of  the  minerals  found  in  igneous  racks  are  not 
of,  umple  composition,  but  are  mixtures  of  various  elementaiy 
minerab  in  very  different  proportions.  Thb  enormously  complf- 
cates  the  theoretical  probleinaof  consolidation.  It  has  been  found, 
for  exampb,  that  in  the  case  of  three  minerab— one  of  whkrh  b 
independent,  while  the  two  others  can  form  mixed  crystab— there 
is  a  UiTft  number  of  possiUe  sequences;  and.  what  b  very  important, 
one  mineral  may  separate  out  entirely  at  an  eariy  suge.  or  its 
crystallization  may  be  interrupted  and  not  oMitmuoua.  The 
ternary  eutectic,  which  b  produced  by  a  mixture  of  three  iodepeodest 
minerals,  may  not  in  such  a  case  be  the  bst  subcbanoe  tocrystaViae. 
and  may  not  be  present  at  alL  This  is  very  much  in  aeoonlanoe 
with  the  observed  fects  of  petrology;  for'usualiy  in  a  rock  dKte  b 
one  mineral  which  indubitably  was  the  last  of  all  to  finbh  crystal- 
lising and  contained  no  apptecbbb  quantity  of  the  othen. 

Aa  yet  we  know  littb  about  anch  important  qaemiuiis  as  the 
compootion  of  the  eutectic  mixtures  of  rack->minenla,  their  btcnt 
heat  of  fusion,  specifir  heats,  mutual  solubilities,  inversion  tempera- 
tunes,  &c  UatU  we  are  in  poesriiioo  of  a  brge  body  of  acrwate 
information  00  such  points  as  these  the  theoretical  treatmcat  si 


PETBLOiOGV 


35* 


the  procMMt  involved  id  the  fomutioo  of  kneous  rocks  cannot  be 
wocenfolly  handled.  Bot  every  day  aees  an^ncrcaae  m  the  amount 
of  data  availabk,  and  enooucagea  oa  to  believe  that  aooMv  or  later 
tome  oC  the  wropler  knoous  rocks  at  aay  i»l«  will  b«  ooaapletcly 
explicable  on  physioo-cneaucal  principles. 

Rock  masses  of  Igneous  origin  have  no  sooner  consolidated  than 
they  begin  to  change.    The  gases  with  which  the  magma  is  chaigcd 
aj«  sbwiy  dissipated.  lava41owt  oftca  vemaki  hot  and 


'^  steaming  for  nuuiy  years.  Thest  gases  attadc  the 
'"T  poncnts  of  the  rock  and  deposit  new  auncrals  in  cavities 
****  and  Assures.  The  beautiful  seoIUcs,  so  well  known  to 
collectors  of  minerals,  are  largely  of  thb  origin.  Even  bcfotc 
these  "  post-vokaoic  [  processes  have  ceased  atmospheric  dtcom- 
poMiion  b^ina.  Rain*  frost»  carbonic  acid,  oxyaoii  and  other 
agents  operate  continuouily.  and  do  net  osa«e  till  <no  whole  asass 
his  crumbled  down  and  most  of  its  io^ntdients  have  been  resolved 
Kito  new  products..  In  the  classification  of  rocks  these  secondary 
changes  are  Rencrally  considered  uneasentfal:  rocka  arc  dassified 
and  describes  as  if  they  were  ideally  fresh,  though  this  is  rarely 
the  case  in  nature. 

Epigenitic  chan|ie  (secondary  processes)  may  be  arranged  undcr 
a  number  of  headings,  each  of  wnkh  is  typical  of  a  group  of  rocks 
or  rock-lorming  minerals,  though  usually  more  than 
one  of  these  alterations  will  be  found  in  progress  in  the 
same  rock.  Silicification*  the  rci^afCement  of  die  mineials 
by  crysultine  or  ci>rpto<r]^staUifie  silica,  is  most  eommon  in  add 
rocks,  such  as  rhyokte,  but  is  also  found  in  serpentine,  Ac  Kaokni*- 
xation  is  the  decomposition  of  the  felspars,  which  are  the  commonest 
minerals  of  igneous  rocks,  into  kaolin  (along  with  quarts,  muscovitc* 
Ac.);  it  is  beat  shown  by  granitca  and  syenites.  ScrpimtinUatlon 
ia  the  alteration  of  olivtae  to  serpentine  (with  magpciitc);  it  is 
typical  of  peridotitcs.  but  occurs  in  most  of  the  basic  rocka.  In 
uralitintion  secondary  hornblende  replaces  augite;  this  occurs 
very  generally  in  diabases;  chloritiaatwn  is  the  alteratioa  of  augitc 
fbiotite  or  homUeode)  to  chk»rite.  and  is  seen  in  many  diabaVis 
dioritcs  and  greenstones.  EpidotbatkHi  occurs  also  in  rocks  of 
this  group,  and  consisto  in  the  devdopnient  of  cpidote  froio  biotitc^ 
horn»leode»  augite  or  pJagioclase  fdspar. 

The  sedimentary  rocks  ^  which  constitute  the  second  great  groups 
have  many  points  ia  comoioa  that  distinguish  them  from  the 
igneous  and  the  mctamorphk.  They  have  all  originated  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  at  the  period  of  their  formation 
were  exposed  only  to  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  to  at^io- 
spheric  pressure  (or  the  pressures  which  exnt  at  the  bottoms  of 
seas  and  lakes).  Their  minerals  arc  in  most  cases  not  susceptible 
to  change  when  exposed  to  moist  air  or  sea,  and  many  of  them 
are  hydrated  (chlorite,  micas,  &c.)»  or  oxidized  (iron  ores),  or 
contain  carbonic  acid  (caJdte,  dolomite).  The  extent,  however, 
to  which  this  is  the  case  depends  bngely  on  the  rapidity  with 
which  they  have  accumulated;  coarse  rocks  quickly  piled  up 
often  consist  of  materials  only  partly  weathered.  When 
crystalline,  the  sedimentary  rocks  are  usualiy  soluble  at  few 
temperatmes.  The  members  of  this  group  ocear  in  beds  or 
strata,  hence  they  are  often  known  as  the  stratified  rocks;  the 
upper  beds  arc  always  of  later  formation  than  those  which 
underlie  them,  except  (as  may  happen  when  great  disturbance 
kas  taken  place)  the  whole  series  is  inverted  or  overturned. 
Many  of  the  stratified  rocks  have  been  formed  by  the  agency  of 
moving  water  (rivers,  currents,  &c.)  and  are  grouped  together 
aa  "  aqueous  "  rocks;  others  have  been  deposited  by  the  wind 
in  deserts,  on  sandy  beaches,  ftc.  (these  are  **  acolian "). 
Others  are  the  remains  of  animals  or  of  plants,  modified  by  the 
actloa  of  time,  pressure  and  percolating  water.  Lastly,  we  find 
beds  of  crystalUae  nature,  such  as  rock«salt  and  gypsum,  which 
have  been  formed  by  the  desiccation  of  saline  waters;  other 
crystalline  stratified  rocks,  such  as  dolomite  and  many  bedded 
iron-stones,  are  replacement  products  due  to  the  introduction 
of  mineral  matter  in  solution,  which  replaced  the  original  lock 
mass  psrtiaUy  or  wholly. 

When  the  rocks  exposed  at  the  earth's  surface  give  way  before 
the  attack  of  the  agencies  of  denudation,  they  cmmble  down  and 
ave  resolved  into  two  parts.  One  of  these  consists  of  solid  material 
<fland.  cky  and  angular  dSbrh)  insoluble  in  carbonated  waters; 
the  other  part  is  dissolved  and  washed  away.  The  undissolved 
residues,  when  they  finally  come  to  rest,  form  clastic  sedimentary 
RKks  (sandstone,  coiwlomerate,  shale.  &c.).  The  dissolved  por^ 
tiona  are  partly  transferred  to  the  sea,  where  they  help  to  increaae 
its  store  of  salts,  and  may  iq^ain  be  predpitated  as  cfjskUin* 
flcdimentary  roeka;  bot  they  are  also  made  use  of  by  ^Ms  and 
by  animals  to  Ibnn  their  skdetal  and  vital  tissues,  rrom  this 
wtter  poctkn  the  rocks  of  argsase  origiB  aia  boilt  api    These 


nay  ako  ooataia  certain- fugrsdients  derived,  firam  the  Stiaosphert 
(ailrugcn,  carbon  in  coals,  AcJ. 

We  have  thus  three  ty)ies  of  sedimenta  of  distinct  origin,  which 
may  be  named  the  clastic  (or  fragmcntal),  the  cryttalline  and  the 
oqj^ic 

The  dastk^  materials  roav  accumulate  t»  Mitu^  and  then  differ 
chicfiy  in  their  disintegrated  and  weathered  state  from  the  parent 
rock  masses  on  which  thcpr  icsL  The  best  example  of  ^_,^ 
these  are  the  soils,  but  in  elevated  regions  angular  oirokeo  ^^^ 
rock  often  covers  .laige  areas.  More  usually  they  are  transported 
by  wind  or  water,  and  bcoome  sorted  out  according  to  their  sise 
and  density.  The  coarsest  d6bris  comes  first  to  rest  and  is  least 
worn  and  weathered;  it  indudes  screes,  gravels,  coarse  sands,  Ac, 
and  consolidates  as  conglomciates,  breccias  and  pebbly  grits.  The 
bedding  of  these  rocks  is  rudimentary  and  imperfect,  and  as  each, 
bed  is  traced  along  its  outcrop  h  frequently  changes  its  character 
with  the  strata  on  which  it  rests.  The  most  finely  divided  sediment 
travck  farthest,  and  is  laid  down  in  thin  uniform  sheets  of  wide 
extent.  It  is  known  as  mud  and*  day:  around  the  shores  of  our 
coniiiicnts.at  distances  of  a  hundred  mu<»and  more  from  land,  great 
sheets  of  mud  arc  spread  over  the  ocean  floors.  This  mtkl  5m^ty''ff 
minute  portidcs  of  quarts  and  of  fcbpar,  but  consists  essentially 
of  finely  divided  scaly  mincFals.  whkh.  by  their  small  sixe  and  flat 
shaM  tend  to  remam  suspended  in  water  for  a  very  lon^  time. 
Chlorite,  white  micas  and^  kaolin  are  the  best  examples  of  thndasa 
of  subbUnces.  Wind  action  b  even  more  effective  than  water  th 
separating  and  removing  these  fine  particka.  They  to  a  very  Ui;^ 
extent  escape  mechanical  attrition,  occause  they  are  transported  m 
suspension  and  are  not  swept  along  the  ground  or  the  bottom  of  the 
sea;  hence  they  are  mostfy  angular.  Tragments  of  intermediate 
magnitudes  (from  fh  of  an  Indi  to  |  of  an  inch)  are  classed  a^ 
sands.  They  consist  largely  of  quarts,  because  it  does  not  weathei* 
into  scaly  mincrab  like  felspar,  and  having  but  a  poor  dcsivage 
docs  not  split  up  into  flakes  like  mica  or  chlorite.    These  quarts 

f  rains  have  been  rolled  ak>ng  and  are  usuaUy  rounded  and  worn 
PI.  IV.,  fig.  i).  More  or  less  of  garnet  felspar,  tourmaline,  xiroon, 
rutile,  Ac.,  are  mixed  with  the  quarts,  because  these  are  haia 
mincrab  not  readily  decomposed. 

The  mechanical  sorting  by  the  traosportiiw  agencies  b  usually 
somewhat  incomplete,  and  mixed  types  of  sediment  result,  such  aa 

S ravels  containing  sand,  or  clays  with  coaner  arenaoaous  particles, 
ioroovcr,  successive  layers  of  deposit  may  not  always  be  entirely 
similar,  and  alternations  of  varying  compositk>n  may  follow  one 
another  in  thin  laminae:  «.^.  laminae, of  arcnacoouf  material  in  beda 
of  cby  and  shale.  Organic  matter  b  frequently  mingled  with  the 
fincr-graincd  sediments* 

These  three  types  have  been  naincd  tha  psephitic  (or  pebbly: 
Cr.  jHfoi,  pebble);  psammitic  for  sandy,  Gr.  vVvist*  sand)*  and 
pelitic  (or  muddy:  Cr.  s^X^.  mud). 

Two  grou|»  of  clastic  sediments  deserve  special  treatmenL 
The  pyroclastk  (O.  ri^  fire,  and  t^^omrU,  broken)  rocks  of  volcanic 
origin,  consbt  mostly  of  broken  pieces  of  lava  (bombs,  ash.  Ac4 
(PL  IV.  fig.  2\  and  only  acddcntally  contain  other  rocks  or  fossila 
They  arc  stratified,  and  may  be  coarse  or  fine,  but  are  usually  much 
less  perfectly  sorted  out,  accordins  to  their  nncncsu,  than  ordioaiy 
aqueous  or  acolian  deposits.  The  gladal  days  (boulder  cUys), 
representing  the  ground  moraines  of  ancient  glaciers  and  ice  aheeta 
are  characterised  by  the  very  variable  siae  oi  their  ingredients  and 
the  striated,  blunted  sub-angular  form  of  the  hrgcr  rock  frag- 
ments. In  them  stratificattoD  b  exceptional  and  fossib  are  very 
rare. 

The  crystalline  sedimentary  rocks  have  been  deposited  from  solu? 
tion  in  water.  The  commonest  types,  such  as  rock-salt,  gypsum^ 
anhydrite.  carnalUte.  are  known  to  have  arisen  by  the  am^^^hl 
evaporation  of  enckMod  saline  |ake$  exposed  to  a  dry *n""""", 
atmosphere.  They  occur  usually  in  beds  with  byers  of  red  day  and 
mari;,  some  limestones  have  been  formed  by  cakareous  waters 
containing  carbonate  of  lime  dissolved  in  an  excess  of  caibooic 
acid;  with  the  escape  of  the  volatUc  gas  the  mineral  matter  b  pre- 
cipitated (sinters,  SfruddOein,  AcO.  Heated  waters  on  cooiinf 
may  yield  up  part  oi  their  dissolved  mineral  substances;  thus  silt 
ccous  sinters  ai?  produced  around  geyaen  and  hot  ^xiras  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  There  sccns  no  veason  to  separate  irom  these 
the  veinstones  which  fill  the  fissurss  by  whkh  these  waters. rise,  to 
the  surface.  They  differ  from  those  above  enumerated  m  being 
more  perfectly  crystallised  and  in  having  no  definite  stratification* 
but  only  a  banding  parallel  to  the  more  or  leqa  vertical  walb  of  the 
fissure.  Another  subdivision  of  thb  class  of  rocks  b  due  to  rccrystal- 
lixation  or  crystalline  replacement  of  pre-existing  sediments.  Thus 
limestones  arc  dolomitiicd  or  converted  into  ironstonea,  flints  and 
cherts,  by  percobting  waters  which,  remove  the  lime  salts  and 
substitute  for  them  compounds  of  iron,  magnesia,  siUooa,  and  so  oiv 
This  may  be  considered  a  kind  of  mctaroorphisra;  it  is  generally 
known  as  metasomatism  (^.v.). 

The  rocka  of  organic  origin  may  bt  due  to  anbnals  or  pkuita 
They  are  of  great  importance,  as  Kraestones  and  coab-bewog  to 
this  group.  They  are  the  most  foasiliferous  of  all  ij^^^ML 
rocks;  but  clastic  sediments  are  often  rich  in  fossils  «"^"^ 
though  crystalline  sediments  rarely  are.  They  may  be  sut^ 
dieiaedy  aoooidiag  to  their  doninaat  compooenla,  into  cskwrni^ 


PETROLOGY 


S'.V, 


CDTab,  bnchiopoda»  moUtno^pohri 

cmuhk  ft  nntuic  of  crvuiivp*.     _,    .  ,...   . 

nutic  cbancn  chcy  ollcp  Iok  their  orgaiuc  Mnicti 

of  any  Und  hu  the "— -     ""^  — ^ 

««wntiABv  plani  depr 
Tbe  lilinous  or^ni'c  ' 


fwat,  iJenirF  ind  o 


The  phoiphilic 


.  tlmuffh  tho  aEvncy  of  ininuie  i^n1«.  Bog  iron 
'  of  Dr^iuc  nlher  than  ot  mertly  chemical  ^gin. 
Dcla  »  mtcniinly  HUEhl  aflcr  a>  Multn  a[  lenil- 
kiH  in  arncultun  are  tor  Che  moR  pan  of  or^nlc 
y  awe  their  niMance  to  Ihc  nrrBint  of  onahi 
ab  vhlch  letnie  a  phoiphatic  d^etdon;  but  mnit 


rylom 


cbya  and  ^TaveLt,  bed>  «f  s1i< 
London  Clay)  and  diflr 


swi 


la  the  rale  that  w 


are   the    moit   Ukely   It   i>   Iha 
'ncy  ffpnerally  implied  in  the  te 


'ficirrKy  b  gjcwrally  a 


I  Ltsll  a  very  powerfi 


ipparently 


the  nnfate.  The  rlK  o(  lempera 
cnat;  «  know  more  than  one  ini 
whiil  have  bees  buried  beneath  lau 
(i^.  parti  of  the  Old  Red  Sindit«» 


mtary  dcpoii 


eBposd  meielv  to  th 

IB,  wh«e  thne  venciyitalQEWi  aiid  e^ 


arTv  de^o^led  In  CTMaUiiK  CO 


he  change' 

b  IcB  cailly  loluble  in  ordinary  walcn.  bill  even  thia  in[r^ieiic 
of  Focka  ia  diiaalved  nod  TedeposJied  withsieat  frequency.  Many 
HBdBonei  an  held  tflfether  by  an  Infinileajmal  amount  of  colUiid 
or  cryptocryitalline  ailica;  when  freihLy  dug  from  the  quany  they 

«  of  mica.  Atgillaeeoiia  miletiaU  niay  be  cnmpacted  Iw  aet* 
preuurr.  like  graphite  and  other  icaLy  niineralk.  Ojodea  and 
carbonate!  of  iron  play  a  larfe  part  in  many  ■edimenlary  rtcka  and 
m  eipecially  Impoitant  aa  colouring 'matten.    The  red  tanda  irtd 


■neiy  divided  atate  ^vea  > 
tavwni   olidea   of    manfanl 


la   veiiow  c 


Bvonpui  whUe  green  la  i 

ifclamorfliU  RaLki.—'nie  BubitarpkU  recti,  which  (onn  the 
tliiid  (Ttat  aubdiviaion,  ue  even  nwn  varied  than  (be  IcMOui 
ihd  the- sedimentary.    'Hiey  iiKlude  repreacotallvea  of  pearly 

being  that  they  have  all  lutdergone  cori»dcrablc  allctBtionl  in 


nurfUtm  (;.(,)  an  of 


•0  kindt— thermal  ai 


region. 


nthe 


complei  uid  1c9>  cIcDily  Dsdenloed;  it  ii  evident  tliat  iBiMniii 
■od  inbstMitJal  DiovciiKDt  have  had  >  poweiful  inSuefKC, 
ponlbly  uaiKed  by  rba  ol  lemperalnn.  In  tbemal  ot  contact 
allerailDO  the  nxts  are  baked,  indurated,  and  often  in  large 
■neasiite  recrysliOited.  la  te^nal  melunorphiEm  reoyital- 
liuiion  also  goei  on,  but  the  final  ptDdiacti  an  luoally  ichiila 
and  gniiaaei.  It  ia  ai  ■  rule  not  difficult  to  dfatinguiili  the 
— .  _i . .., ...       _  _. md  thq-B^r 


cntlyb 


fT«)ueniIy 
auB.    Maiv 


■  rockiaeo 


sepaiaiely. 
ikllered  by  m  sneoua 
r.  mm  oy^aLlina  aw.   . 


tntruifaa  it 


_.  _     ..._     han^^ui    (Cer.    2.1^" 

HwitfiU)  la  often  uaed  by  nologlMB  to  ligniry  those  ' 

fine  gmned,  compact,  cryitaiUiH  producca  of  tbemul  metamor- 

phiim^    A  uiale  beconm  a  dark  oniUaceooa  homfeli,  fuH  of  liny 

_i-i 1 1.— — ij.  ki-.:,-.  -  — d  —  [ _  ijnicatoBe  chugs  to 

toDfh  and  apKptefy, 
■  and  other  ounerut 

«  beciifeb  or  andttdte  hornfela  with   ■  ivce 

devekapoent  ol  new  hmbleade  and  bkMlle  and  a  mnial  fvcryiiil- 
liialioa  ol  the  origlaal  letafiBr.  A  chert  ec  Hint  becemei  •  Bnely 
cryicallLiie  qnaiti  nek;  audiOHiea  lue  thdr  daatic  etrvctUT  and 


to  a  noiBic  of  mall  cloae-ittln*  gniaa  of  quan*. 
■1  oiVBBy  banded  or  foUaied  (ia.  for  emnple.  ■ 
(one  or  a  foliated  caIc4cUit)  Uuacbanctcc  may  not 


their  GoBtenu  have  niaally  mtored  inis  i»  comblutiDn*  to 

minerala  shich  vcnaotociginaUyiKeient.   The  miutc «nc , 

homver.diApAttr.ofteneDaptetely,  if  the  thermal  alHAtion  It  very 
profound :  ihua  amall  gnina  of  oiuni  In  a  ihile  an  loB  or  l^i 
with  the  luroMinding  panldea  of  clay,  and  the  fine  groumi'iiuua  gf 
lavas  fa  enth^  ivconst  meted' 

By  mryRalUntiail  In  thi*  manner  peculiar  rock*  of  v 
lypta  an  often  produced-  Thui  ahaica  nay  paja  irti 
rocka,  or  may  ihow  larfe  nyitals  of  aodaWto  (and 
PLlV.,fig.9},Baiirolile,™Ticl,kyaniIeandaillimMnite. 


i^if'i! 


graina  of  quana.    Thae  mi 
being  lonned  at  high  tempci 


punute  cryatala  of  ipiad.  t 
out.    Shala  are  osasionaUy 


he  dark  glavy  pmdnd 
tr  tault  dikn,  and  f^ 
i'coiiiea^iirn^'^ 
if  Iho  itncam  >ith  tk> 


■mally ciaOy noognlied.  SonieTlmeaan  In^uHag 
tn  the  mda  around.  tMaf  their  ioiiia 


h  threai^  of 


,«:.■; 


and  planes  of  b«ding. 
This  u  very  eiceptiorat. 
take  place  on  a  large  irala. 
The  mher  type  of   netamtHphiun  Is  often  said  lo  be 

the  Bme  cannoucLon.  _  It  may  be  uid  as  a  rule  lo  a^te 


platy  or  prismatic  Cr.r. 

-■-'he.e*ra*t>  •■--■' 
Fortkat 
laonedlnetnta"     ' 
la  bands:  thus  then  I 


,  -.  . r-  „~-andhor»Mead«,wljickBn 

I  tbeaerocks)  have  tbar  longest  axes  arranged  p     "  ' 
"■"'"*"""  ^" ^Ty  of  tkeae  rocks  iflit  v 


are  called  folia  (leaBits],  and  thoigh  aeTer  wy  pan  or  very  fienis- 
tent  Ihey  give  the  rock  a  itRakBd  or  baodid  cfcanctsr  »bea  tkey 
aRseeae(EKinsa(n.lV.fat.6,7,n.  M>i« Iba Mia conuaed of 
the  astt  orUk  BiDcnlt  the  t«lE>  Dili  isvir  BMC  mdilv.  a^  the 
freshly  spTit  spacimcfi  ifill  anear  to  b*  facad  or  coaled  vilk  tlaa 
ninenlibr  elanple.  a  piaB  oT^ca  sckist  hnked  at  faccvlK  bMi 
be  wppimi  Id  nmist  entirely  ol  ihiiiing  scales  of  aica.  Ob  ik* 
adgeofilit  HadJM«.koMvai.tkaMfclaMiaalpiadar  «>ait> 


PETRC»^EI>-PETRONIUS 


833 


wilt  be  viable.  In  gneinet  these  alternating  folia  are  thicker  and 
leas  regular  than  in  ichists;  they  are  often  lenticular,  dying  out 
rapidly.  Gneisses  also,  as' a  rule,  contain  vnon  felspar  than  schists 
do,  am  they  are  tougher  and  leas  fissile.  Contortion  or  cnimf^ng 
(PL  IV.  fig.  6)  of  the  foliation  is  by  no  means  nncomgion,  and  then 
the  «>litting  faces  are  unduloee  or  puckered.  Theorig^of  schistoeity 
or  fouation  b  not  perfectly  understood,  but  it  is  clear  that  in  many 
cases  it  Is  due  to  j^ressure^  acting  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the 
banding,  and  to  iitteratittal  movement. or  tnttirnal  flow  anaaging 
the  mineral  particles  while  they  aae  crystallizing. 

Rocks  which  were  originally  sedimentanr  anii  rocks  winch  were 
undoubtedly  ^eous  are  converted  into  schists  and  gndssea,  and  if 
on^nally  oi  similar  composition  they  may  be  very  difficult  to  dis- 
tingatsh  from  one  another  if  the  metamorphtsm  has  been  great. 
A  quartz'porpliyry*  for  example,  and  a  fine  fdspathic  sandstooe, 
may  both  be  converted  into  a  grey  or  pink  mica-schist.  Usually, 
however,  we  may  distingubh  between  sedimentary  and  heocous 
schists  and  gneisses.  Often  the  metamorphbm  U  progresnve,  and 
if  the  whole  district  occupied  by  these  rocks  be  searched  traces  of 
bedding,  of  clastic  structure^  unoonfonnabtlity  or  other  evidence 
may  be  obtained  showing  that  we  an  dealing  with  a  group  of  altered 
sediments.  In  other  cases  intrusive  junctions,  chified  ediecs,  Gon> 
tact  alteration  or  porphyritic  structure  may  prove  that  In  its  original 
oonditiort  a  metamorpnic  gneiss  was  an  igneous  rock.  The  last 
appeal  b  often  to  the  chemist,  for  there  are  certain  rock  types  which 
occur  only  as  sediments,  while  others  are  found  only  among  igneous 
masses,  and,  however  advanced  the  metamorphism  may  be,  it  nrcly 
modifies  the  chemical  composition  of  the  mass  very  greatly.  Such 
rocks,  for  examfile,  as  limestones,  calc-schists,  dolomites,  quartzitcs 
sikI  i^ominoos  shales  have  very  definite  chemical  characters  which 
distinguish  them  even  when  completely  recrystalliaed. 

The  schists  and  gneisses  are  dassined  according  to  the  minemis 
they  consbt  of,  and  thb  depends  principally  on  their  chemical 
oomposition.  We  have,  for  example,  a  group  of  metamomhic 
limestones,  marbles,  cafc-schists  end  cipolins,  with  crystalline 
dolomites;  many  of  these  contain  silicates  such  as  mica,  tremotite, 
diopside.  scapoUte,  quarts  and  fcUpar.  They  axe  derived  from 
caloireoue  sentments  of  different  degrees  of  punty.  Another  fEroup 
is  rich  in  <iuarts  (quartntes,  quartz  schists  and  quartaose  gneisses), 
with  variable  amounts  of  white  and  black  mica,  garnet,  felspar, 
aobite  and  hornblende.  These  were  once  sandstones  and  arenaceous 
rocks.  The  graphitic  schists  may  rcadUy  be  believed  to  represent 
sediments  once  contaiiUng  ooaly  matter  or  pbnt  remains;  there 
are  also  schbtose  utmatones  (haematite-schisu).  but  metamorphic 
beds  of  salt  or  gypsum  are  exceedingly  uncommon.  Among  schists 
of  igneoua  origin  we  may  mention  the  silky  calc-schists,  the  foliated 
serpentines  (onoe  ultrabasic  masses  rich  in  olivine),  and  the  white 
mica-schists,  porphyroids  and  banded  halleflintas,  which  have  been 
derived  from  rhy<Aites^  quartz-porphyries  and  add  tuffs.  The 
majority  of  mka-achists,  however,  are  altered  cUys  and  shales,  and 
pass  into  the  normal  sedimentary  rocks  through  various  types  of 
phyllite  and  inka*«lates.  They  are  amenjg  the  most  common  meta- 
morphic rocks;  some  of  them  are  graphitic  and  others  calcareous. 
The  diversity  in  appearance  and  composition  b  very  great,  but  they 
form  a  wcII-dcfincd  group  not  diflicuft  to  reco^pnize,  from  the  abun- 
dance of  black  and  white  mfeas  and  their  thin,  folbted,  schist^e 
character.  As  a  spedal  subgroui>  we  have  the  andalusite*.  atauro> 
lite-,  kyanlte-  and  siUimanite-schists,  together  with  the  cofdierite- 
gneisses,  which  usually  make  their  appearance  in  the  vicinity  of 
gncissose  granites,  and  have  presumably  been  affected  by  contact 
alteration.  The  more  coarsely  folbted  gneisses  are  almost  $d 
fiequeot  as  the  mica-schbts,  and  present  a  great  variety  of  types 
differing  in  composltkm  and  in  appearance.  They  contsun  quartz, 
one  or  more  varieties  of  felspar,  and  usually  mica  homblefide  or 
•ugite.  ohen  garnet,  iron  oxides,  Ac  Hence  in  composition  they 
resemble  graiute,  differing  principally  in  their  folbted  structure. 
Many  of  them  have  '*  augen  "  or  brge  elliptical  crysuls,  mostly 
febpar  but  sometimes  quartz,  whkh  are  the  crashed  remains  of 
porphyritic  minerals;  the  folbikm  of  the  matrix  winds  around  these 
augcn,  closing  in  on  each  side.  Most  of  these  augen  gneisses  are 
metamorphic  granites,  but  sometimes  a  conglomerate  bed  simulates 
a  gneiss  of  this  Idnd  rather  closely.  There  are  other  gneisses,  which 
were  derived  from  fcbpathic  sandstones,  grits,  arkoses  and  sedi- 
ments of  that  order;  tney  mostly  contain  biotite  and  muscovite, 
but  the  hornblende  and  pyroxene  gneisses  are  usually  igneous  rocks 
allied  in  composition  to  tiie  hornblende-granites  and  quarts-diorites. 
The  metamorphic  forms  of  dolerite.  basalt  and  the  basic  igneous 
rocks  generally  have  a  distinctive  fades  as  their  pyroxene  and  olivine 
•re  repbmd  by  dark  green  hornblende,  with  often  epidote,  garnet 
and  biotite.  These  rocks  have  a  well  developed  foliation,  as  the 
prisaiatic  hornblendes  lie  side  by  side  in  parallel  arrangement.  The 
maiority  of  amphibolitcs,  hornbleode-schists,  folbted  epidlorites 
ami  green  schists  belong  to  thb  group.  Where  they  are  least 
altered  they  pass  through  chloritic  schists  into  sheared  dbbases, 
flascr  gabbros  and  other  rocks  in  which  remains  of  the  original 
igneous  minerals  and  structures  occur  in  greater  or  less  profusion. 

BiBLiocRAmY.— Most  text-books  of  geology  treat  of  petrology  in 


tD.  Dana,  Haadbotk  tf  Uimeraho  and  P£tr»jypky  (i2th  ed., 
ew  York,  1908);  A.  Marker,  Pelroloty  for  SluituU  (4th  cd., 
Cambridge,  1908);  G.  A.  J.  Cble,  Aids  lo  Praaical  Ceclogj 
(6th  ed.,  London,  1909).  For  rock  minerab  consult  J.  P.  Iddlngs* 
Rock  Minerals  (New  York,  1906);  A.  Johannsen.  DeUmnnahon 
«f  Xack-Jorminft  Minerals  (New  York,  11^);  E.  Hussak  and 
£.  G.  Smith.  Veterminatum  of  Roek-Jorming  Minerals  (2nd  ed.« 
New  York.  1893);  N.  hT  and  A.  N.  Winchdl.  Optical  Mineralcn 
(New  York,  1900).  On  the  dassification  and  origin  of  rocn 
see  A.  Harker,  Nktmral  History  of  Igneous  Roeks  (Loodon,  I5K>9)S 
I.  P.  Iddings,  Igneous  Ri>cks,  (New  York,  1900);  Cross,  Iddings, 
Washington  ana  Pirsson,  QuantiUUioe  Oassyuation  of  Igneous 
Rocks  (Chicago,  1902);  C.  Van  Hise,  Meta$norpkism  (Washington, 
1904):  A.  P.  Merrill,  Rocks,  Rock-weaikeriug  nnd  Soils  (London, 
1897);  C.  Doelter,  PeUo^nesis  (Brunswick,  1906):  J.  H.  L.  Vogt, 
SiUkaiscknuUdsungeu  (Christianb.  1903);  F.  Fouqij6  and  A. 
Michel  Uvy,  SyrUkise  des  miniraux  et  des  rockes  (Paris,  1882). 
The  principal  authorities  on  the  analysb  and  chemical  compodtion 
of  rocks  are  T.  Roth,  BeiirAge  tur  Petrograpkte  (Berlin,  1875-1884V, 
A.  Osann,  SeitrSge  okr  ckemiscken  Petrograpkie  ^tuttMrt,  1903); 
H.  S.  Washington*  Manual  of  Ike  Ckemieal  Analysis  of  Rocks  (New 


York,  1904)  and  Ckemtcal  Analyses  of  Igneous  Kecks  (Washln^on, 


_  >n,  1907). 

The  great  systematic  treatises  on  Petrology  are  F.  Zkkat 
Lekrbuckder  Petrofyapkie  (2xid  ed.,  Leipag,  ite^,  3  vols.) ;  H.  Roseo« 
busch,  MikroskoptsckePkysiog^apkie  (4th  ed..  ^uttgart,  1909, 2  vols.) 

Useful  (jcrman  handbooks  include:  E.  Weinschenk,  Polarisations* 
mikroskoPt  CesteinskiUende  Mineralien  and  GeOeinskunde  (and  ed.| 
Freiburg,  1907,  &c):  R.  Reinisch,  Petrogmpkisekes  Praktikiim  (2nd 
ed.,  Berlin,  1907);  H.  Rosenbusch,  Elewtente  der  CesteinsMire  (3rd 
ed.,  Stuttgart,  1909);  A.  Grubenmann,  Die  krystoHinen  Sckiefer 
(Beriin,  1907);  F.  Loewisson  Lessing,  Pelrograpkisckes  Lexikon 
(1893  and  1898,  also  a  Fr.  ed..  1901):  F.  Rinne,  PrakUstke  Gesteim* 
kunae  (2nd  ed.,  Hanover,  1905). 

The  principal  French  works  are  E.  Jannettaz^  Lex  Reckes  (3rd 
ed.,  Pauris,  1900);  F.  Fouau6  and  A.  Michel  tAvyt  Miniralope 
tnicrograpkioue  (P^ris.  1879);  A.  Michd  L^vy  and  A.  Lacroix,  Let 
Mineranx  des  rockes  (Paris,  1888):  A.  Lacrobc,  Miniraiogie  de  U 
France  (I.,  11.,  Paris,  1893);  and  Let  Endaeex  des  rockes  drmptioee 
(Macon,  1893). 

Britbh  petrography  Is  the  Subject  of  a  spedal  work  by  J.  J.  H. 
Tesll  (London,  1888).  Much  information  about  rocks  b  contained 
in  the  memoirs  of  the  various  gedogical  surveys,  and  in  Quart.  Journ, 
of  Ike  Geol.  Sac*  ef  London,  Mtneralogual  Mamaine,  Geologic^ 
Magaaine,    Tschcrmak's   Mineralogueke    MiUkeUungSH 


hmgm  (Vienna>i 
Neues  Jdkrkuch  fUr  Mineralogie  Stuttgart),  Journal  of  Geology 
(Chicago),  Ac  (J.  S.  F.) 

PEinONELi  a  i6th>  or  17th  oentuxy  iixt-ftrm,  defined  by 
IL  Barret  {Tkeorike  and  PraOike  ef  Modem  Wanes,  1598)  a» 
a  **  hofBeman's  peece."  It  was  the  fir&4Uin  which  developed 
on  the  one  hand  into  the  pbtol  and  on  the  other  Into  the  carbine^ 
The  name  (Fr.  petrind  for  poilrinal^  was  given  to  the  weapon 
either  becanse  it  was  fired  with  the  butt  resting  against  the  chest 
{poilrim,  Lat.  ptcha)  or  because  it  was  carriedalung  from  a  belt 
across  the  chest. 

PBTRONIUS  (G.  (?)'  PetronittS  Arbiter),  Roman  writer  of 
the  Neronian  age.  Hb  t>wn  work,  the  Saiirae,  teOs  tis  nothing 
directly  of  hb  fortunes,  position,  or  even  century.  Smne  lines 
of  Sidoaius  ApoUinaiis  tdtt  to  him  and  are  often  taken  to  imply 
that  he  lived  and  wrote  at  Marseilles.  If,  however,  we  accept 
the  identification  of  thb  author  with  the  Petronius  of  T8dtus> 
Nero's  oouitier,  we  must  suppose  other  that  Marseilles  wm  ^ 
birthplace  or,  as  is  more  likely,  that  Sidonius  refers  to  the  novel 
itidtf  and  that  its  scene  was  partly  laid  at  Marsdilcs.  The  chief 
personages  of  the  story  are  evidently  strangers  in  the  towns 
of  southern  Italy  where  we  find  them.  Thrir  Greek<4ounding 
names  (Encolpius,  Asqrteos,  Giton,  ftc)  and  litenuy  training 
accord  with  the  characteristics  of  the  old  Greek  colony  lathetst 
century  a.d.  The  high  position  among  Latin  writers  ascribed 
by  Sidonius  to  Petronius,  and  the  mention  of  him  beside 
Menander  by  Macrobius,  when  compared  with  the  absolute  silence 
of  (^uitttiUan,  Juvenal  and  Maitial,  seem  adverse  to  the  opinion 
that  the  SoHrae  was  a  work  of  the  age  of  Nero.  But  (Jointilian 
was  concerned  with  writers  who  could  be  ttimed  to  use  in  the 

*  The  MSS.  of  the  SaUraejnvt  no  praenomen.  Tadtus*s  Pettonius 
b  Gains,  though  the  dder  Pliiiy  and  PluUreh  call  him  Titus.  The 
name  Arbiter,  given  htm  by  bter  writers,  b  not  an  ordinary  cog- 
nomen: it  may  have  been  bestowed  on  him  by  contemporaries 
from  the  fact  that  hb  Indgmcttt  was  regarded  as  the  oiterion  of 
good  taste. 


334 


PETRONIUS 


cducalion  of  an  orator.  The  sllenoe  of  Juvenal  and  Martial 
may  be  accidental  or  it  is  possible  that  a  work  so  abnormal  in 
form  and  substance  wa«  more  highly  prized  by  later  generations 
than  by  the  author's  contemporaries. 

A  comparison  of  the  impression  the  oook  gives  us  of  the 
character  and  genius  of  its  author  with  the  elaborate  picture 
of  the  courtier  in  Tacitus  cerUinly  suggests  the  identity  of  the 
two.  Tacitus,  it  is  true,  mentions  no  important  work  as  the 
composition  of  his  C.  Petronius;  such  a  work  as  the  Satirae  h^ 
may  have  regarded  as  beneath  that  dignity  of  history  which  he 
so  proudly  realized.  The  care  he  gives. to  Petronius's  portrait 
perhaps  shows  that  the  man  enjoyed  greater  notoriety  than  was 
due  merely  to  the  part  he  played  in  history.  **  He  spent  his 
days  in  sleepr,  his  nljshts  in  attending  to  his  oflicial  duties  or  in 
amusement,  by  his  dissolute  life  he  had  become  as  famous  as 
other  men  by  a  life  of  energy,  and  he  was  regarded  as  no  ordinary 
profligate,  but  as  an  accomplished  voluptuary.  His  reckless 
freedom  of  speech,  being  regarded  as  frankness,  procured  him 
popularity.  Yet  during  his  provincial  governorship,  and  later 
when  lie  held  the  office  of  consul,  he  had  shown  vigour  and 
capacity  for  affairs.  Afterwards  returning  to  hb  life  of  vicious 
Indulgence,  he  became  one  of  thechosenci^eof  Nero's  intimates, 
and  was  looked  upon  as  an  absolute  authority  on  questions  of 
taste  iarbikr  tteianiice)  in  connexion  with  the  science  of  luxurious 
living."  ^  Tacitus  goes  on  to  say  that  this  excited  the  jealousy 
of  TigeDlnus,  an  accusation  foUowed,  and  Pctronlus  committed 
suicide  in  a  way  that  was  In  keq>ing  with  his  Uf  e  and  character. 
He  selected  the  slow  process  of  opening  veins  and  having  them 
bound  up  again,  whilst  he  conversed  on  light  and  trifling  topics 
with  his  Mends.  He  then  dined  luxuriously,  slept  for  some 
time,  and,  so  far  from  adopting  the  common  practice  of  flattering 
Nero  or  TigeOinus  in  his  will,  wrote  and  sent  under  seal  to  Nero 
a  document  which  professed  to  give,  with  the  names  of  bis 
partjiecs,  a  detailed  account  of  the  abominations  which  that 
emperor  had  practised. 

A  fact  confirmatory  of  the  general  truth  of  this  graphic 
portrait  is  added  by  the  elder  Pliny,  who  mentions  that  just 
before  his  death  be  destroyed  a  valuable  mvrrhine  vase  to 
prevent  its  felling  fnto  the  imperial  hands.  Do  the  traits  of 
this  picture  agree  with  that  impression  of  himself  which  the 
author  of  the  Satirae  has  left  upon  hia  work?  That  we  possess 
therein  part  of  the  document  scot  to  Nero  is  an  impossible 
theory.  Our  fragments  profcii  to  be  cxtmcts  from  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  books  of  the  SaUraei  Petronius  could 
not  have  composed  one>tenth  even  of  what  we  have  in  the  time 
fai  which  he  is  said  to  have  composed  his  memorial  to  Nero; 
We  may  be  sure  too  that  the  latter  was  very  frank  in  its  language, 
and  treated  Nero  with  far  greater  severity  than  the  Banquti 
treats  Trimalchio.  On  the  other  hand,  it  b  clear  that  the  creator 
of  Trimalchio,  Enoolplus  and  Gtton  had  the  experience,  the 
inclinatioiis  and  the  literary  gifts  which  would  enable  him  to 
describe  with  forcible  mockery  the  debaucheries  of  Nero.  And 
the  impression  of  his  personality  docs  in  another  respect  corre> 
spond  closely  with  the  Petronius  of  the  AnmaU-'iti  the.  union 
of  immoral  senstialism  with  a  rich  vein  of  C3mical  humour  and 
admirable  taste. 

The  style  of  the  work,  where  ft  does  not  purposely  reproduce 
tho  solecismi  and  colloquialisms  of  the  vulgar  rich^  is  of  the 
purest  Latin  of  the  Silver  age.*  Nor  would  there  be  any  point 
in  the  verses  on  the  capture  of  Troy  aikd  the  Civil  War  at  ai^ 

*  Ann.  xvi.  18. 

>  The  false  taste  in  ntemture  and  expression  fostered  by  the 
iidanuUiones  is  condemned  by  both  Persius  and  Petronius  on  the 
same  grounds.  Cf.  too  Pers.  1. 1 31 ,  hoc  ego  aptrtum,  hoc  ndert  meumt 
IBM  nHt  nuUa  Hbi  mtn<h  Iliad*  with  Sat  5s.  meum  inklUger*  nvUa 
paeunia  umdoi  ?tn.  ii.  9. 0  si  ebulUat  patruus^  pntflarum  fumus.el 
0  ti  snh  rasira  crepai  mr§$Hii  miki  stria  with  SaL  88.  Alius  donum 
promittii,  si  propinquum  diviUm  exiuUrit,  alius  si tkesaurumeffoderit 
and  42,  kamtfanimam  e^uUiit;  Pers.  tv.  36,  arat  .  .  .  quantum  turn 
mUfus  abemU  with  Sat*  yi/juados  hdbtt  fna  mt/n  9afant.  Both  use 
the  rare  word  ban.  Autmam  ebuUire  occurs  in  Seneca's  Apocol<H 
cyniasis,  and  the  verbal  recemblances  iUustrata  perhaps  rather  the 
common  use  by  both  writers  of  the  vulgar  style.  Cf  •  for  resemblances 
to  the  style  of  t  be  younger  Seneca  and  the  date  of  the  work  in  general, 
Studcr,  Xk,  Utu.  (1843). 


other  era  than  that  in  Which  Nero's  Tr»ica  and  Lucan'a  Pksn^ki 
were  fashionable  poems.  The  reciting  poet  indeed  is  a  feature 
of  a  later  age  aUo.  as  vre  learn  from  Martial  and  J  uvenal.  But  w« 
know  from  Tacitos  that  the  luxury  of  the  table,  so  conqNcuous  in 
Trimalchio*s  Banquet,  feA  out  of  fashion  after  Nero  (if  iiff.3. 55). 
Of  the  work  itself  there  have  been  preserved  141  sections  of  a 
narrative  in  the  main  consecutive,  although  interrupted  by 
frequent  gaps.  The  name  Saliraet  given  in  the  best  MSS., 
imfrfies  that  it  belongs  to  the  type  to  which  Varro,  imitating 
the  Greek  MenippuSt  had  given  the  character  of  a  medley  <3 
prose  and  verse  compo^lion.  But  the  string  of  fictitious  narra- 
tive by  which  the  medley  b  held  together  b  something  quite 
new  in  Roman  literature.  This  careless  prodigal  was  so  happily 
inspired  in  hb  devices  for  amusing  himself  as  to  introduce  to 
Rome  and  thereby  transmit  to  modern  times  the  novel  based 
on  the  ordinary  experience  of  contemporary  life  "^  the  pre> 
cursor  of  such  novds  as  GU  Bias  and  Roderick  Random.  There 
b  no  evidence  of  the  exbtence  of  a  regular  plot  in  the  fragments* 
but  we  find  one  central  figure,  Encolpius,  who  professes  to  narrate 
his  adventures  and  describe  aU  that  he  saw  and  heard,  whilst 
allowing  various  other  personages  to  exhibit  their  peculiarities 
and  express  their  opinions  dramatically. 

The  fragment  opens  with  the  asppeacance  of  the  hero,  Encolpius. 
who  seems  to  be  an  Itinerant  lecturer  travdling  with  a  companion 
named  Ascyltos  and  a  boy  Gtton,  in  a  portico  of  a  Greek  town, 
in  Campania.  An  admirablelecture  cm  the  false  taste  in  literature, 
resulting  from  the  prevailing  syscem  of  education,  is  replied  to  by  a 
rival  decUimer,  Anroemoo,  who  shifts  she  blame  from  the  teachera 
to  the  parents.  The  central  persona^ of  the  story  next  go  through 
a  series  of  questionable  adventures,  m  the  course  of  which  they  are 
involved  in  a  chnne  ci  robbery.  A  day  or  two  after  they  are  present 
at  a  dinner  ||iven  oy  a  freedroan  of  enormous  wealth,  Triroalchin, 
who  entertained  with  ostentatious  and  groiesque  extravagance 
a  number  of  men  of  his  own  rank  but  less  proeperous.  We  lUten  to 
the  ordinary  talk  of  the  guests  about  their  neighbours,  about  the 
weather,  about  the  hard  times,  about  the  public  games,  about  the 
education  of  their  children.  We  rooognize  in  an  cxtravagam  form 
the  same  kind  of  vulgarity  and  pretension  which  tho  aatu-ist  of  alT 
tifficsdclights  to  expose  in  the  iititcfateand  ostentatious  raillionairea 
of  the  a^.  Next  day  Encolpius  separates  from  his  companiaaai 
in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  and,  after  two  or  three  da^'  sulking  and  brooding 
on  his  reveage.  enters  a  piaure  gallery,  where  he  meets  with  an  eU 
poet,  who,  after  ulktng  sensibly  on  the  decay  of  art  and  the  inferior* 
ity  of  the  painten  of  the  age  to  the  old  masters,  proceeds  to  illustvau 
a  picture  of  theoaptureoTTroy  by  soroo  verses  on  that  theme.  Thb 
ends  in  those  who  are  walking  in  the  adjoining  colonnade  driving 
him  out  with  stones.  The  scene  is.  next  on  board  ship,  where 
Encolpius  finds  he  has  fallen  into  the  hands  of  some  old  enenucs. 
They  are  shipwrecked,  and  £ncolpiu8»  Gtton  and  the  old  poet  get 
to  shore  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Crotona,  where,  as  the  inhabitanu 
are  notorious  fortune-hunters,  the  adventurers  set  up  as  men  cf 
fortune.  The  fregment  ends  with  a  new  set  of  questionable  adven-. 
tures,  in  which  prominent  oarts  are  played  by  a  beautiful  enchantress 
named  Circe^  a  priestess  of  Priapus,  and  a  certain  matron  who  leaves 
them  her  heirs,  but  attaches  a  condition  to  the  inheritance  which 
even  Encolpius  might  have  shrunk  from  fulfilling.*  If  we  can  sup- 
pose the  author  of  this  work  to  have  been  animated  by  any  <tther 
motive  than  the  desire  to  amuse  himself,  it  might  be  that  of  convinc- 
ing himself  that  the  world  in  general  was  as  bad  as  he  was  bimadf. 
Juvenal  and  Swift  are  justly  regarded  as  among  the  very  greatest 
of  satirists,  and  their  euimate  of  human  nature  b  perhaps  nearly 
as  unfavourable  as  that  of  Petronius;  but  their  attitude  towards 
human  degradation  b  not  one  of  complacent  amusement:  their 
realbm  b  toe  realism  of  disgust,  not,  like  that  of  Petronius,  a  reaUsm 
of  sympathy.  Maitbl  dMs  not  gloat  over  the  vices  of  which  be 
writes  with  cynical  frankness.  He  is  perfectly  aware  that  they  are 
vices,  and  that  the  reproach  of  them  u  the  worst  that  can  be  cast 
on  any  one.  And,  further.  Martial,  with  all  his  faults.  Is,  in  his 
affections,  hb  tastes,  hb  reUtions  to  others,  essentblly  human, 
friendly,  generous,  true.  There  b  perhaps  not  a  ungle  scntenre 
in  Petronius  which  implies  any  knowledge  of  or  sympathy  with 
the  existence  of  affection,  conscience  or  honour,  or  even  the  most 
elementary  goodness  of  heart. 

*  For  the  whole  question  of  possible  predecessors  and  Petronius's 
relation  to  the  extant  Greek  romances  sec  W.  Schmid.  "  Der  grie- 
chische  Roman  "  in  JakrbOcker  fQr  das  Uass.  AlUrtum,  &c.  (i90|)- 
One  would  certainly  have  exp^ed  the  realistic  tendency  which 
appears  in  the  New  Comedy,  the  Characters  of  Theophrastus  and 
the  Mimes,  to  have  borne  thb  fruit  before  the  first  century  of  our 
era.— (W.  C.  So.) 

*  Omnes  qui  in  tesumento  roeo  legate  habent  praeter  libertoi 
meos.  hac  conditione  percipient  quae  dedi.  si  corpus  meum  in  partes 
coociderint  ct  asunu  populo  comedcrint  (141). 


PETROPAVLOV3K— PBTRUCXa 


The  i«rkliM  NMhed  QslfttoffVKaientary  aod  ntttitoted  a  thM^ 
that  we  nay  o(  courae  ^together  have  miticd  the  key  to  it:  it  ouy 
have  been  intended  by  ite  author  to  be  a  sustained  satiie.  writteo  in 
a  vein  of  reserved  and  powerful  irony,  of  the  type  realised  in  out 
oiodem  Jonathan  Wild  or  Barr^  Lyndon,  Otherwise  we  must  admit 
that,  in  the  eqtfre  divorce  of  intetlectual  power  and  insight  from  any 
element  of  right  human  feeling,  the  worle  is  ao  ejcceptiooal  pheno- 
menon in  literature.  For,  aa  a  work  of  original  power,  of  h\l  morout 
rcprasentation,  of  literary  invention  and  art,  the  fragment  deserves 
all  the  admiration  which  it  has  received.  We  recognize  the  arbiUr 
eUiatUiat  in  the  admirable  sense  of  the  remarks  scattered  through 
it  on  education,  on  art,  on  poetry  and  on  eloqoence.  There  is  a  true 
feeling  of  nature  ta  the  description  of  a  grove  of  plane>Creee,cypresiC8 
and  pwcs: 

"  Has  inter  ludebat  aqtils  enantibus  amnta 
Spumeus  et  querulo  vexabat  rore  lapitlos." 

And  some  of  the  shorter  pieces  anticipate  the  terseness  and 
elegance  of  Martial.  The  long  fragment  on  the  Civil  War  docs 
not  seem  to  be  written  so  much  with  the  view  of  parodying  aa  of 
entering  into  rivalry  with'  the  poem  of  Lucan.  In  the  eptgnin 
cstcmporiaed  by  Tnmalchio  late  on  in  the  banquet  i 
"  Quod  non  ezpectea»  ex  transverso  fit— 
Et  supra  nos  Fortuna  negotia  curat, 
Quare  da  nobis  vine  Falcraa,  poer, 
we  have  probably  a  more  def  berate  parody  of  the  style  of  verses 
produced  by  the  ilUteiate  astrirants  to  be  in  the  fashion  of  the  day. 
We  might  coniecture  that  the  chief  gift  to  which  Petrpnius  owed 
his  social  and  his  literary  success  was  that  of  humorotis  mimicry. 
In  Trimakbio  and  his  various  guests,  in  the  old  Doet,  in  the  culti* 
▼ated,  depraved  and  moody  Encdpius,  in  the  Chrysts,  Quartilla, 
Polyaenis,  Ac.,  we  recognise  in  living  examplea  the  play  of  those 
vanous  appetites,  passions  and  tendencies  which  witinsts  deal  with 
as  abstract  qualities.  Another  gift  he  posse iwcs  in  a  high  degree, 
which  must  have  availed  him  in  society  as  well  as  in  literature — the 
gift  of  story«telling:  and  some  of  the  stories  which  first  appear  in  the 
Saliro€'-^.t.  that  of  the  Matron  of  Ephesu»->have  enjoyed  a  great 
reputation  m  later  times.  His  style,  too,  is  that  of  an  exoellent 
talker,  who  could  have  discussed  questions  of  taste  and  literature 
with  the  most  cultivated  men  of  any  time  as  well  as  amused  the  most 
dissolute  society  of  any  time  in  their  most  reckless  reveb.    One 

Khrase  of  his  is  often  quoted  by  many  who'have  never  come  upon 
in  iu  original  context,  "  Horatii  curiosa  fctidtas." 

Authorities.— Until  about  1650  only  part  of  the  Banquet  of 
Tnmalchio,  with  the  other  fragments  of  the  work,  was  known. 
The  best  MS.  of  this  type  is  a  Leiden  MS.,  a  copy  by  Scaliger  of  one 
which  aeemt  to  have  belonged  to  Cujacios.  Marinus  Statiltua 
(Me,  however,  Ellis,  Journal  of  PkUoloty,  la,  p.  2G6)  discovered  at 
Trau  in  Dalmatia  a  MS.  containing  the  whole  Banquet,  which  was 
first  published  at  Padua  in  1664^ 

The  important  editions  are  (1)  with  explanatory  notes:  Burmann 

i Amsterdam,  1743.  with  Heinsius's  notes),  and,  of  the  Cena  onIy» 
'ricdi&nder  (Leipag,  and  ed.,  1906)  and  Lowe  (Cambridge,  1904): 
(2)  with  critical  notes:  BQchcIer  (Bcriin.  1863^  4th  ed.,  1904)* 
Translations  into  German  in  FriedUindcr  s  edition  (Craa  only), 
into  French  by  de  Cuerle  (complete,  in  Gamier's  BiblioUitqiu^, 
into  English  in  Lowe's  edition  {Cena  only)  and  Bohn's  series  (com* 
plete)   ^     •  •      "    *.- ^-^-  —> .-^.-  »  -.- 

mg.iJ, 
Studits 

Thomas.  V'Smers  de  Ja  sociiU  romaine  d'aprhs  Pitrone  (Paris.  1 892) '. 
H  irxel ,  Per  Dialog,  ii.  (Leipag.  1 895) ;  Tyrrell.  Laiie  Poetry  (London. 
1805):  Nordcn,  Anlike  Knnstprosa  i.  (Leipsig,  189S);  Henderson, 
Life  and  PrtmcipaU  <^lhe  Emberor  Nero  (London,  IQ05) ;  Dill,  Raman 
Soctetyfrom  Nero  to  Marcus  A  Hr«fti»(London,i905) ;  and  the  various 
bistones  of  Roman  literature  (especially  Schanz,  ti  395i<lq)- 

(W.  Y.  S.;  W.  C  Su.). 

PETROPAVLOVSK,  a  town  of  West  Siberia,  in  the  govem- 
naent  of  Akmolinsk.  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ishim  river,  and 
on  the  great  Siberian  highway,  170  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Omsk.  The 
population,  7850  in  1865.  was  31,796  in  J900,  of  whom  one-thSrd 
were  Mahommedan  Kirghiz.  The  town  carries  on  an  active 
trade  in  cattle,  furs,  tea,  wool,  skins,  cottons,  woollen  stuffs, 
corn,  metals,  metallic  wares  and  spirits.  The  small  fort  of 
Fetropavlovsk  was  founded  in  175},  and  was  the  military  centre 
of  the  Ishim  line  of  fortifications. 

Pbtropavlovsr  is  also  the  name  of  a  HussiaM  seaport  in  Ram- 
chat  ka.  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Avacha,  in  U*  N>  and  15B* 
44'  E.  Its  harbour,  one  of  the  best  on  the  Pacific*  is  little  used,  and 
the  town  consists  merely  of  a  few  huts  with  some  400  inhabitants. 
Its  naval  institutions  were  transferred  to  Nikolaycvsk  after  the 
attack  of  the  Anglo  French  fleet  in  1854. 

PBTROPOLIS,  a  dty  of  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  BraxH. 
In  an  elevated  valley  of  the  Scrra  de  Estrella.  3634  ft.  above 
sea-level  and  27  m.  N.  of  the  dty  of  Rio  de  Jandro,  with  which 
It  is  connected  by  a  combined  railway  and  steamship  fine,  and 


335 

abo  bf  a  loagcff  iMI««y  line,  fofu  of  tha  moaidpaUty  (1900^ 
30>33it  •  laq^e  pereenUfe  beiog  summer  residents,  as  the 
census  was  taken  late  in  December;  (190a,  munidpal  censiis)f 
r&«S73-  Petfopolis  is  served  by  the  Prindpe  4o  Grfto  Paii 
railway^  now  a  part  of  the  IimpolHina  systam,  which  connects 
with  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Nicthoioy  on  the  coast,  and  with  the 
atalson  oi.Eatse  Riot  00  the  Central  of  Braail  nolway.  Its 
akitodc  g&vea  the  dty  a  oool  iaWgaiating  climate,  nwking  it 
a  favourite  eummer  iclidenoe  for  the  iiell>to-do  duKs  of  Rio. 
Hie  ninfsH  is  abnadant,  and  especially  so  insammer  (Deoemlicf 
to  March)  vfactt  the  humidity  js  cstreaD^.  Vegntaltonis  luxit* 
it  and  coospcises  a  great  variety  of  tropical  and  saJkHtrc^ical 
The  dty  is  built  in  a  luie^icr^ulady  ahi^ed  basin 
fecmed  by  atreama  wfakh  ooavcrgetofoimthe  Piabaoha  river, 
a  tribotary  of  the  Parahyba  do  SuL  Among  the  publio 
boildiags  are  the  old  imperhd  palace^  a  modem  awnmet  rcai« 
dcnoe  Of  the  national  eaecntfve  and  a  anmidpal  halL  Although 
Petnpolis  is  not  a  commercial  centre*  its  water-power  and  cool 
dimate  are  making  it  an  important  mantif actuiing  towm 
Aflsong  the  products  are  cotton  Isbrica  and  garments,  beer, 
and  Camembert  and  Brie  cheeses. 

Petropolis  was  founded  in  184$  by  Julius  Fredexiek  Kttltf 
under  the  aosploes  of  the  empeior  of  Biasil,  Dom  Pedro  II., 
on  lands  purchased  by  his  father,  Dora  Pedro  I.,  in  1821.  The 
place  was  previously  known  as  Cbnego  Secco,  which  Dr  George 
Gardner  dcicribed  in  1857  as  "a  small,  miserable  village,'! 
The  first  emperor  planned  to  establish  there  a  German  colony, 
but  the  plan  was  not  realised  until  18(45,  vrhen  about  9700 
colonista  from  Germany  were  located  there.  Its  growth  was 
slow,  but  the  choice  of  the  place  by  the  emperor  aa  a  sununec 
vesidenoe  drew  tbither  many  of  the  wealthy  residcata  of  the 
ca[»taL  The  Maui  railway  was  opened  to  the  foot  of  the  terra 
(Rais  da  Serra)  in  1854,  and  the  msnufamlserl  raad  op  the 
jirra  to  the  town  in  1856.  The  mountain  section  of  the  railway* 
on  the  Riggcnbach  system*  was  completed  in  i88j.  Petropolis 
has  since  beooBne  the  anmmrf  icddenoe  of  the  diplomatio 
corps  and  of  the  higher  officials  of  the  Federal  government,  and 
was  Che  capltalof  the  atateof  Rio  de  Janeiro  from  1893  to  190^4 
'  PBTROVBK.  a  seaport  of  Russia  in  Traxiscaucaaia,  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  fat  the  pvovtnoe  of  Daghestan,  180  m.  by  rail 
E.  of  Vladikavkas,  and  S3$  m.  N.W.  from  Baku.  Pop.  9806* 
The  town  has  become  the  port  of  embarcation  for  KiasttOvodsk% 
the  Tncnscssplaa  territory,  and  the  Central  Asian  khanates^ 
There  are  naphtha  wdb;  and  the  hot  sulphur  baths  at  Ak-fol 
and  Tslga,  dose  by,  attract  nnay  visitom  in  summer. 

PETROVSK,  a  town  of  eastern  Rmsia,  in  the  government; 
of  Saratov,  on  the  Medvyeditsa,  a  tributary  of  the  Don,  6q  m, 
N.W.  of  the  town  of  Saratov.  Pop.  (1864)*  xoi,x38;  (i897y, 
13,712.  It  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1698  as  a 
defence  against  the  Kuban  TUars.  lu  Industrial  establishments 
indudc  distilleries,  tanneries,  taSow  and  brickworks. 

PSnumrvOIMK,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Russia, 
capital  of  the  government  of  Oloiiets,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Onega,  190  m.  N.E.  of  St  Petersburg.  Pop.  (186$),  ix/>a7( 
(1897),  13,531.  Two  cathedrals^  buHt  towards  the  end  of  the 
x8th  century,  a  mining  sdiool,  an  ecclesiastical  semhiary  and 
a  government  cannon-fbcmdry  are  the  drief  public  buildings 
and  institutions.  Peter  the  Great  founded  ironworks  here  in 
1703,  but  they  continued  in  operation  only  twenty-four  years. 
The  cannon-foundiy  was  Instituted  in  i774-  PMtuavodsk 
became  the  capital  of  the  government  of  Olonets  in  180s. 

PETRUCCI,  PAMDOLPO  (d.  1513),  tyrant  of  Siena,  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  youth  in  exile,  on  account  of  the  civil  Strife  by 
which  his  native  town  of  Siena  was  torn;  but  on  tht  triumph  of 
the  party  of  the  Ncveschi  (those  who  supported  the  Council  of 
Nine)  in  T487  he  was  able  to  return  home.  On  the  death  of  bis 
bt-other  Giacopo,  one  of  the  most  powerful  men  in  the  dty, 
Pandolfo  succeeded  to  all  the  tatter's  offices  and  cmolumento 
(1407) .  ibus  becoming  in  fact  if  not  in  name  master  of  Siena.  By 
his  marriage  with  Aurelia,  daughter  of  Nicola  Boigheae,  another 
\tTf  influential  dtizen,  he  still'  further  strengthened  his  authority. 
But  he  toon  began  to  abuse  his  power  by  selling  public  offices  to 


33^ 


PETRUS  AUREOtUS^-PETTY 


tlie  highest  bidden,  or  eonfeniiig  them  on  his  folloireti.  A  plot 
was  made  to  murder  him,  but  he  discovered  the  conspiracy  in 
tune,  and  hu  own  iather-in-Uw,  who  hid  been  leader  of  the 
movement,  was  pot  to  death.  In  1498  he  prevented  the  efiit- 
break  of  war  with  Florence  over  the  possession  of  Montepuldano, 
which  had  been  a  bone  of  contention  between  the  twe  dtics  for 
oveir  a  hundred  years.  His  attitude  towards  Cesare  Boigia  was 
eiceedingly  astute;  at  first  he  assisted  him,  and  obtamed  from 
hyn  with  the  favour  of  the  French  king  the  oesrion  of  Piombino; 
but  having  subsequently  aroused  the  suqpidons  of  Botgis,  the 
latter  attempted  to  suppress  Petrucd  by  inviting  him  to  the  fatal 
meeting  of  Senlgallia.  The  Siencae  tyrant,  bowcver,  did  not 
fall  into  the  trap,  and  altboot^  Borgia  in  1502  obliged  him  to 
quit  Siena,  he  retumed  two  months  later,  more  powerful  than 
before.  Petrucd  supported  F!sa  in  the  war  against  Florence,  but 
eventoally,  through  the  intervention  of  the  pope  and  of  the  king 
of  Spain,  he  made  peace  with  the  latter  dty,  to  which  he  gave 
back  Montepuldano  in  1512.  As  a  rewasd  for  this  action 
Pope  Julius  IL  created  his  nephew  cardinal.  During  his  Isat 
days  Petrucd  abdicated  ha  authority  in  favour  of  his  son 
Borghese.  He  died  at  San  Quirioo  dl  Osenna  on  the  axst  of 
May  I  SIS. 

See  Peed.  MemorU  staneo-criHcU  di  Siena  (SSena,  1755) :  U.  G. 
MondoUo,  P.  Pttnud  signet  di  Suna  (Siena.  1899). 

PBTRUS  AURBOLDS  (Osxoi),  scholastic  philosopher  and 
monk  of  the  FrsociBcan  order,  lived  in  the  lattor  half  ci  the  i3tb 
century,  and  diedin  Paris  in  laai  just  after  his  appointment  as 
archbithop  of  Aix.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  attack  the 
realist  doctrines  of  Duns  ScQttto,  and  is  inberestin^  mainly  as  the 
precuisor  of  William  of  Occam  in  his  revival  of  Nominallnn.  His 
ability  earned  for  him  the  titles  of  Doctor  Paamdus  and  Dottor 
Ahundanu. 

PBrTBIIKOFBII,  AUGUST  VON  (183X-Z889),  Austrian  painter, 
bom  in  Vienna,  was  brought  tq>  on  Ins  father's  estate  In  Galida. 
Having  decided  to  give  up  the  military  career  on  which  he  had 
started,  he  devoted  himself  to  painting,  taking  for  his  subjects 
the  simple  scenes  of  the  life  on  the  dreary  Puszta.  His  paintings 
are  treasured  for  their  fine  qualities  of  odour,  and  for  the 
sincerity  with  which  the  artist  sets  before  us  the  uneventful 
melancholy  life  of  Hungarian  peasants  and  gipsies^without  any 
theittrical  pathos  or  fosced  humour.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
Pettenkofen  box,  an  appliance  for  dissolving  and  redi:»iributing 
cradled  or  discdoured  varnish  without  friction  or  the  dangerous 
use  of  chemicals.   He  died  in  Vientut  in  1889. 

FBTrEMKOFBB.  MAX  J06BPH  VON  (1818-1901),  Bavarian 
chemist  and  faygienist,  waa  bom  on  the  3rd  of  December  i3i8 
at  Lichtenhdm,  near  Ncuburg.  He  waa  a  nephew  of  Frana 
Xaver  Pettenkofer  (1783-1850),  who  from  1803  was  surgeon  and 
apothecary  to  the  Bavarian  court  and  was  the  author  of  some 
chemical  investigatimis  on  the  vegetable  alkaloids.  He  studied 
pharmacy  and  medidne  at  Munich,  where  he  graduated  M.D.  in 
1843,  and  after  working  nnder  Liebig  at  Giessen  was  appointed 
chemist  to  the  Munich  mint  in  1845.  Two  years  later  he  was 
chosen  extraordinary  profeanor  of  chemistry  in  the  medical 
faculty,  in  1853  he  received  the  ordinary  professorship,  and  in 
1865  he  became  also  professor  of  hygiene.  In  1894  he  retired 
from  active  work,  and  on  the  loth  of  February  igox  he  shot  him- 
self in  a  fit  of  depression  at  his  home  on  the  Stamberger  See,  near 
Munich.  In  his  earlier  years  he  devoted  himself  to  chemistry, 
both  theoretical  and  applied,  publishing  papers  on  the  prepara- 
tion of  gold  and  platinum,  numerical  relations  between  the  atomic 
wdghts  of  analogous  elements,  the  formatkm  of  aventurine 
glass,  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas  from  wood,  the  preser- 
vation of  oil-paintings,  &c.  The  reaction  known  by  his  name  for 
the  detection  of  bile  adds  was  published  in  1844.  In  his  widely 
used  method  for  the  quantitative  determination  of  carbonic  add 
the  gaseous  mixture  is  shaken  up  with  baryu  or  lime  water  of 
known  stiength  and  the  change  in  alkalinity  ascertained  by  means 
of  oxaKc  add.  But  his  name  is  most  familiar  in  connexion  with 
bis  work  in  practical  hygiene,  as  an  apostle  of  good  water,  fresh 
air  and  proper  sewage  disposal.  His  attention  was  drawn  to  this 
subject  about  1850  by  the  unhealthy  conditk>n  of  Munich. 


Pettenkofer  gave  visovoos  expraailon  to  hla  views  en  hygiene  and 
diMsae  in  numerous  Books  and  papen:  he  was  aa  editor  of  the 
ZoUschrijfl  fOf  Biohgio  from  1865  to  188s,  and  of  the  Arckm  ftr 
Hygiene  {torn  1883  to  1894. 

PETTICOAT,  an  underskirt,  as  part  of  a  woman's  dress.  The 
petticoat,  ix,  **  petty-coat  "  or  small  coat,  was  originally  a  short 
garment  for  the  upper  part  of  the  body  worn  under  an  outer 
dress;  in  the  Prom^orium  pamdorum  the  Latin  equivalent  is 
laniada.  It  was  both  a  man's  and  a  woman's  garment,  and  was 
in  the  first  case  worn  as  a  small  coat  under  the  doublet, 
and  by  women  apparently  aa  a  kind  of  diemise.  It  was, 
however,  early  applied  to  the  skirt  worn  by  women  lumging 
from  the  waist,  whether  as  the  principal  lower  garment  or  as 
an  underskirt.  In  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  the  wide 
breeches  with  heavy  lace  or  embroidered  ends  worn  by  men 
were  known  as  **  petticoat  breeches,"  a  term  alsq  applied  to  the 
loose  canvas  or  oilskin  overalls  worn  by  fishermen. 

PETTIE,  JOHN  (1839-1893),  Scottish  painter,  was  bora  hi 
Edinburgh  on  the  X7th  of  March  1839,  the  son  of  Alexander 
and  Alison  Pettie.  In  1852  the  fainily  removed  to  East 
Linton,  Haddingtonshire,  and  a  portrait  by  the  lad  of  the 
village  carrrer  and  his  donkQr  overcame  his  father's  objections 
to  art  as  a  career  for  his  son.  When  sixteen  he  ent«ml  the 
Thistees'  Academy  in  Edbburgh,  worthing  under  Robert  Scott 
Lauder  with  W.  Q.  Orchardaon,  J.  MacWhirter,  W.  M*Taggart, 
Peter  Graham,  Tom  Graham  and  G.  P.  Chalmers.  His  first 
exhibits  at  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  were  "  A  Scene  from 
the  Fortunes  of  Nigd*"— one  of  the  many  subjects  lor  which 
he  sought  inspiration  in  the  novels  of  Sir  Walter  Scott — ^and 
two  portraits  in  1858,  followed  in  1859  by  "  The  Prison  Pet.** 
To  the  Royal  Academy  in  i860  he  sent  "  The  Armourers  "; 
and  the  success  of  this  work  and  ot  "What  d'jre  Lack, 
Madam  ?  "  in  the  following  year,  encouraged  him  to  settle  in 
London  (x86a),  where  he  joined  Orchardaon.  In  x866  he  was 
elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1874  remved 
full  academical  honours  In  succession  to  Sir  Edwin  Landaeer. 
His  diploma  picture  was  "Jacobites,  1745."  Pettie  was  a  hard 
and  rapid  worker,  and,  in  his  best  days,  a  colourist  of  a  high 
order  uid  a  brilliant  executant.  In  his  early  days  he  produced 
a  certain  amount  of  book  illustration.  His  connexion  with 
Good  Words  began  in  x86x,  and  was  continued  till  1864.  With' 
J.  MacWhirter  he  illustrated  The  PosHnan't  Bag  (Strahan, 
x86a),  and  Wordsworth's  Poetry  for  Ike  Young  (Strahan,  1863). 
Hn  prindpal  paintings,  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned, 
are  "  CromweU's  Saints  "  (i86a); "  The  Trio. "  (X863); "  George 
Fox  rdusing  to  Uke  the  Oath  "  (1864);  "  A  Drumhead  C6urt- 
martial  "(x86s);"  The  Arrest  for  Witchcraft  "(i866);"TVeasoa'* 
(1867,  now  in  the  Mappin  Art  Gallery,  Shdfidd); "  T^issle  with  a 
Highland  Smuggler  "  (x868);  "  The  SaUy  "  (1870);  "  Terms  to 
the  Besieged  "  (187a);  "  The  Flag  of  Truce  "  (1873);  "  Ho!  Ho! 
Old  NoU"  and  "  A  Sute  Secret"  (1874);  "A  Sword  and  Dagger 
Fight"  {1877);  "  The  Death  Warrant  "  (1879);  "  Monmouth  and 
James  n."(i88a);  "The  VigU  "  (1884,  in  tlVe  Chantrey  Collect 
tion.  National  Gallery  of  British  Art);  "  Challenged  *'  (1885); 
"  The  (Hueftain's  CandlesUcks  "  (1886);  "  Two  Strings  to  Her 
Bow  "  (1887);  "  The  Traitor  "  and  "  Sir  Charles  Wyndham  as 
David  Garrick  "  (x888);  and  "  The  Ultimatum  "  and  "  Bonnie 
Prince  Charlie  "  (189a).  Pettie  died  at  Hastings  on  the  aist 
of  February  1893.  In  X894  a  selection  of  his  work  was  included 
in  the  Winter  Exhibition  of  the  Royal  Academy.  His  portrait 
by  himself  is  in  the  Tate  Gallery. 

John  PeltU,  /?u4«  (London,  1908),  by  his  nephew  Martin  Hardie. 
gives  the  story  of  hn  life,  a  catalogue  of  his  pictures,  and  fifty 
reproductions  in  colours. 

PEITY,  SIR  WIUIAM  (1633-1687)1  English  statistidaa  and 
political  economist,  born  on  the  a6th  of  May  1693,  was  the  son 
of  a  dothier  at  Romsey  m  Hampshire,  and  recdved  his  eariy 
education  at  the  grammar  school  there.  About  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  went  to  Caen  (Normandy),  taking  with  him  a  little 
stock  of  merchandise,  on  which  he  traded,  and  so  maintained 
himadf  whilst  learning  French,  improving  himself  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  studying  matheroatics  and  other  sdences.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  seems  to  have  had  for  a  short  time  a  place 


: 


PETTY-OFFICER— PETWORTH 


337 


in  Um  royal  navy.  He  went  abroad  again  ia  1643,  uul  remained 
for  three  yean  in  France  and  the  Netherlands,  puftutng  his 
•tudictb  In  Parii  he  read  Vesalius  with  Hobbcs,  who  was  then 
preparing  his  Tradalus  aplKus,  and  it  is  said  that  Pfetty  drew 
the  diagrams  for  him.  In  1647  Petty  ofitaiaed  a  patent  for  tlie 
invention  of  double  writing,  ix»  a  copying  machine.  In  politics 
he  espoused  the  side  of  the  parliament.  His  fiist  publication 
was  a  letter  to  Samud  Hartlib  in  1648,  entitled  Advice  for  the 
Adtancement  of  some  Partiadar  Paris  of  Learning,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  recommend  such  a  change  in  education  as  would 
give  it  n  more  piactical  character.  In  the  same  year  he  took 
up  his  residence  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  made  deputy  professor 
of  anatomy,  and  where  he  gave  instruction  in  that  science  and 
in  chemistry.  In  1649  he  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  of  physic, 
and  was  soon  after  elected  a  fellow  of  Brasenose  College.  He 
gained  some  notoriety  in  1650  by  restoring  to  life  a  woman  who 
had  been  hanged  for  infanticide.  In  1651  he  was  made  professor 
of  aaatomy  at  Oxford,  and  also  became  professor  of  music  at 
Gresham  College.  In  1653  he  went  to  Ireland,  having  been 
appointed  physician  to  the  army  in  that  country  In  1654, 
observing  that  the  adnMasurement  and  division  of  the  lands 
forfeited  in  1641  and  gnatcd  to  the  soldiers  had  been  **  most 
inefficiently  and  absurdly  managed,"  he  entered  into  a  contract 
to  execute  a  fresh  sorvey,  which  he  completed  in  thirteen 
months.*  By  this  he  gained  £9000,  and  part  of  the  money  he 
invested  profitably  ih  the  purchase  of  soldiers*  debentures.  He 
thus  became  poasessof  of  so  large  a  domain  in  the  county  of 
Kerry  that,  aocording  to  John  Aubrey,  he  could  behold  from 
Mt  Maiigerton  50^000  acres  of  his  own  land.  He  set  up  iron- 
works in  that  neighbourhood,  opened  lead-mines  and  marble- 
qiikrrics,  established  a  pilchard  liihefy,  and  commenced  a  trade 
in  timber.  Besides  the  office  of  commissioner  of  distribution 
of  the  landa  he  had  surveyed,  he  held  that  of  secretary  to  the 
lord-Uetttenant,  Henry  Cromwell,  and  was  also  during  two  years 
derk  of  the  ooundl.  In  January  165^  he*  was  elected  to  Richard 
CromweH's  pariiament  as  member  for  West  Looe  in  Cornwall. 
After  the  Restoration  he  returned  to  England  and  was  favourably 
recdved  and  knighted  by  Charles  II.,  who  was  **  much  pleased 
with  his  ingenious  discourses,"  and  who,  Jl  li  said.  Intended  to 
create  him  earl  of  Kilnoro.  He  obtained  from  the  king  a  new 
patent  constituting  him  surveyor'^penenl  of  Irdand.  In  Y663  he 
attimcted  much  notice  by  the  sacccaa  of  hiainventionof  adouUe- 
bottomed  ship,  iriiich  twice  made  the  passage  between  Dublin 
and  Holyhead,  but  was  afterwaxds  lost  in  a  violent  storm.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  Sodety,  and  sat  on 
its  council.  He  died  in  London  oa  the  x6tb  of  December  1687, 
and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  his  native  place.  Hm  wSI,  a 
curious  and  dyaracteristic  docmnent,  is  printed  In  Chalmers's 
Biotra^kkal  Dieiionary, 

His  widow,  Elisabeth  (d.  1706),  daughter  of  Sir  Hardress 
Waller  (1604-1666),  the  Irish  Cromwelfion  soldier  and  regidde, 
wfts  created  Baroaess  Sbdbume  by  James  II.  in  t6S8;  and  her 
two  sons  were  suecessivdy  created  earb  of  Shelburne,  but  bn 
thdr  death  without  issue  the  Petty  estates  passed  to  their 
sistcr,*Annc;  and  after  her  marriage  to  the  ist  earl  of  Kerry  the 
Shdbvme  title  was  revived  in  her  son's  favour  (see  under 
Lansoownb,  xst  MaB(2UI3S). 

Pelty*i  Irish  survey  was  based  on  a  collection  of  sodal  data 
which  entitles  him  to  be  considered  a  real  pioneer  in  the  sdencc 
of  conpanthre  statistics.  He  was  also  one  of  the  first  in  whom 
we  find  a  tendency  to  a  view  of  industrial  phenomena  which  was 
at  variance  with  the  then  dominant  mercantilist  ideas,  and  he 
exhibits  a  statesmanlike  sense  of  the  dements  in  which  the 
strength  of  a  nation  really  consists.  Roscher  namo  him  as 
having,  along  with  Locke  aind  Dudley  North,  raised  the  English 
school  to  the  highest  point  it  attaint  before  the  time  of  Hume. 

*The  sorvey  executed  by  Petty  was,  Annewhat  whimsically, 
caUcd  the  "  Down  Survey."  because  the  tesuUs  were  set  down  in 
maps;  it  is  called  by  that  name  in  Petty 's  will.  He  Idt  in  MS.  a 
full  account  of  the  proceedings  in  connexion  with  it,  which  was 
edited  by  Sir  Thomas  A.  Larcom  for  the  Irish  Archaeological 
Society  in  1851.  The  maps,  some  of  which  were  injured  by  a  fire 
JB  1711,  are  pressnred  in  the  Public  Record  Office,  Dublia. 
XJU  6* 


His  Treatise  of  Taxes  and  Cotdnhniians  contains  a  dear  state- 
ment of  the  doctrine  that  price  depends  on  the  labour  necessary 
for  production.  Petty  is  much  concerned  to  discover  a  fixed 
unit  of  value,  and  he  thinks  he  has  found  it  in  the  necessary 
sustenance  of  a  man  for  a  day.  He  understands  the  cheapening 
effect  of  the  division  of  hbour.  He  states  correctly  the  notion  of 
*'  natural  and  true  "  rent  as  the  remainder  of  the  produce  of  land 
after  payment  of  the  cost  <rf  production;  but  he  seems  to  have  no 
idea  of  the  *'  law  of  dinunidiing  returns."  He  has  miKh  that 
is  just  on  the  subject  of  money*  he  sees  that  there  may  be  an 
excess  of  it  as  well  as  a  defidency,  and  regards  the  prohitrition 
of  its  exportation  as  contrary  to  sound  policy.  But  he  errs  in 
attributing  the  fall  of  the  rate  of  interest  Which  takes  place  in  the 
progress  of  industry  to  the  increase  in  the  quantity  of  money. 
He  protested  agsinst  the  fetters  imposed  on  the  trade  of  Ireland, 
and  advocated  a  union  of  that  country  with  Great  Britain. 
Whilst  the  general  tendency  in  his  day  was  to  represent  England 
as  in  a  state  of  progressive  decliii»>~an  opinion  put  forward 
particularly  in  the  tract  entitled  BriUmnia  langutns — Petty 
declared  her  resources  and  prospects  to  be  not  inferior  to  those 
of  France.' 

A  complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  tn  the  AQtenae  oxonienses. 
The  roost  important  are:  the  Treatise  of  Taxes  and  Qmtribuiions 
(1663.  1667  and  1685);  Pclitiad  Arithmetic,  pnaented  in  MS.  to 
Charles  II..  but,  because  it  contained  matter  likely  to  be  offensive 
to  France,  kept  unpublished  till  1691,  when  it  was  edrted  by  Petty's 
son  Charles  i  Quamtutumcmi^ke,  or  a  7>ucl  coHcemtnt  Money  (i68j): 
Okscrvetions  upon  tke  Dublin  Bitb  of  Mortality  in  t08t  and  the  Sink 
of  that  City  (1683);  Essay  concemini  the  Multiplication  of  Manhind 
(i  686) ;  Polilical  A  natomy  of  Irdand  0  69 1).  Several  papers  appeared 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  See  Economic  WriHnis  of  Sir 
WiUiam  Petty,  ed.  C.  H.  Hull  (3  vob.,  1899). 

PBrrT'4)FFICBR,  the  title  in  the  navy  of  a  large  number  of 
minor  (Fr.  petit,  small)  officers,  of  less  than  commissioned  or 
warrant  rank^-such  as  the  master-at-arms,  sailmaker,  caulker, 
armourer,  cook,  &c  They  were  originally  named,  and  removable, 
by  the  captdn. 

PBTUHIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
naturd  order  Solanaceae  and  containing  about  16  spcdes,  chiefly 
South  American  (southern  Brazil  and  Argentina).  The  garden 
forms  are  derived  from  the  white-flowered  P.  nyctaginiftora  and 
the  violet-  or  purple-flowered  P.  vi(^acea.  The  varieties  of 
petunia,  especidly  the  double  forms,  make  admirable  specimens 
for  pot  culture. 

Named  or  specially  fine  varieties  are  propagated  by  cuttings 
taken  from  stock  plants  kept  through  the  wmter  on  a  dry  warm 
shelf,  and  moved  into  a  brisk  moist  neat  in  early  spring:  the  young 
shoots  are  planted  in  pans  or  pots  filled  with  sandy  uou,  and,  aided 
by  a  brisk  bottom  heat,  strike  root  in  a  few  days.  They  are  then 
potted  singly  into  tbumb-pots,  and  when  once  established  am 
gradually  haidened  off,  and  afterwards  repotted  as  required.  The 
shoots  should  be  topped  to  make  bushy  pbuits,  and  their  tops  may 
be  utiliied  aa  CQttiiigB.  The  single  inarietaes  are  raised  from  soecu 
sown  in  Hskt  sandy  soil  in  heat,  in  the  early  spring,  and  very  slightly 
covered.  The  plants  need  to  be  pricked  out  or  potted  off  as  soon  as 
large  enough  to  handle.  Good  strains  of  secd«  supply  plants  suitable 
for  bedding:  but,  as  they  do  not  reproduce  themselves  exactly,  any 
■arts  particulady  reqannd  must  be  pmpG^ted,  like  the  doubfe 
ones,  from  cuttings. 

PBTWORTH,  a  market  town  in  the  Horsham  pariiamentary 
division  of  Sussei,  England,  55  m.  S.S.W.  from  London  by 
the  London,  Brighton  ft  South  Coast  railway.  Ptop.  (1901), 
3503.  The  church  of  St  Mary  is  Perpeiulicuiar,  and  contains 
numerous  memorials  of  members  of  the  Percy  fandly  and  others. 
Petworth  House,  situated  in  a  beautiful  park,  dates  from  the 
f  8th  century,  and  contains  a  magnificent  collection  of  (Mctures. 
At  Bignor  In  the  ndghbourii6od  are  remains  of  an  important  and 
splendidly  adorned  Roman  villa. 

The  first  mention  of  Petworth  (Peartingkwyrth,  Peteorde, 
Puetewird,  Pedewurde,  Putteworth,  Pytteworth,  Petteworth) 
occurs  in  a  grant  by  Eardwulf ,  king  of  Northumbria,  to  St  Peter's 
Choreh,  about  791.  Inthetime  of  Edward  the  Confessor  Petworth 
was  an  allodid  manor  held  by  his  queen  Edith,  and  in  1086  Robert 
Fitz-Tetbdd  hdd  it  of  Roger  Montgomery,  eari  of  Shrewsbury. 
It  then  included  a  chureh  and  a  mill,  and  was  rated  at  nine  hidtt. 
Through  Queea  Adelisa,  Petworth  came  first  into  the  hands  of 


338 


PEUTINGER- 


R 


her  steward,  Rcgiinld  lie  Wyndsor,  and  was  afterwaids  given 
to  her  brother  Josoeltne,  who  held  it  of  the  honour  of  Arundel. 
JosccUne  married  Agnes  de  Percy  and  assumed  the  surname  of 
Percy.  The  honour  and  manor  of  Petworth  followed  the  descent 
of  this  family  until  1708.  In  1377  Henry  Percy  was  created  carl 
of  Northumberland.  The  only  daughter  of  the  last  ead  married 
Charles,  duke  of  Somerset,  in  i68a,  and  Petwonh  descended 
through  their  daughter  Catherine  to  the  carls  of  Egremont.  The 
adopted  son  of  the  third  eari  was  created  Baron  Leconfield  in 
1859. 

PBUTUIGER  XONRAD  (1465-1547),  German  humanist  and 
antiquarian,  was  bom  at  Augsburg.  In  1497  he  was  town  clerk 
of  his  native  f^ce,  and  was  on  ihtimate  terms  with  the  emperor 
Maximilian.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  publish  Roman  inscrip" 
tions,  and  his  name  remains  associated  with  the  Camous  Tabtda 
peutingeriana  (see  Map),  a  -map  of  the  military  roads  of  the 
western  Roman  £mpiiie»  which  was  discovered  by  Koniad  Celtes, 
who  handed  it  over  to  PeiiUnger  for  publication.  Peutinger  also 
edited  the  HiOoria  Cotkontm  of  Jordanes,  and  the  Butoric 
g€ntis  Langobardomm  of  Patdus  DiaiHmus. 

The  Tamila  peutinfeHana  was  first  published  as  a  whole  by 
F.  de  Scheyb  (1753J:  later  editions  by  E,  Dcsjardins  (1869- 
1874)  and  C.  Miller  (1888);  see  also  E.  Paulus,  Erkldrung  der  PeU' 
tinger  Tafel  (1867):  and  Teuffel-Schwabe,  Hist,  of  Roman  IMeralure 
(Eng.  trans..  1900)*. 

PEVEMSBY,  a  village  in  the  Eastbourne  parliamentary 
division  of  Sussex,  England,  65  m.  S.S.E.  from  London  by  the 
London,  Brighton  ft  South  Coast  railway.  Pop.  (1901), 
468.  The  vilbge  is  a  member  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  but  the  sea 
has  receded  a  mile  from  it  in  historic  times.  The  outer  wall, 
with  solid  towers,  of  the  celebrated  castle,  is  of  Roman  construc- 
tion, and  originally  enclosed  a  complete  oval;  it  is  generally 
considered  10  have  enclosed  the  strong  town  of  A  nderida*  Within 
rise  the  fine  ruins,  principally  of  the  13th  century^  but  in  part 
Norman,  of  the  castle  proper,  with  a  keep  and  four  massive 
round  towers.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas,  close  to  the  castle, 
shows  beautiful  Early  English  work.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
Peveosey  was  the  wctat  of  the  landing  of  Caesar  in  55  B.C.,  but  the 
question  is  diluted. 

The  name  of  Pevensey  (Paevenisel,  Pevensd,  Pcvenes,  Pemsey) 
first  occurs  in  a  grant  of  land  there  by  the  south  Saxon  Duke 
Berthuald  to  the  abbey  of  St  Denis  in  795.  In  later  Saxon  times, 
at  least  by  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  it  was  a  royal 
borough  and  had  a  harbour  and  a  market.  Its  early  importance 
was  due  to  its  fencible  port.  It  was  the  landing  place  of  William 
the  Norman  on  his  way  to  conquer,  and  was  the  capul  of  the  rape 
of  Pevensey,  which  was  granted  by  William  to  the  earl  of  Mortain 
and  subsequently  became  the  Honour  of  the  Eagle.  Some  time 
before  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  the  town  of  Pevensey  was  made 
a  member  of  Hastings  and  shared  the  liberiies  of  the  Cinque 
Ports,  but  apart  from  them  it  possesses  no  charter.  It  was 
governed  by  a  baJKff  and  twelve  jurats,  elected  annually,  until 
by  an  act  of  1883  it  ceased  to  exist  as  a  borough.  Its  seal 
dales  apparently  from  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL  The  gradual 
decline  of  Pevensey  was  complete  in  the  15th  century  and 
was  caused  by  the  recession  of  the  sea  and  consequent  loss  of  the 
harbour. 

PEW  (Mid.  Eng.  ^um,  through  0.  Fr.  fuya,  ^t,  mod.  ^uy, 
in  the  sense  of  hill,  d .  cppuyer,  to  lean  against ;  from  Lat.  pcdium, 
a  high  place,  balcony;  Gr.  irtAiw^  pedestal,  vovf,  foot),  a  term, 
in  its  most  usual  meaningt  for  a  fixed  seat  in  a  church,  usually 
cncbsed,  slightly  raised  from  the  floors,  and  composed  of  wood 
framing,  mostly  with  ornamented  ends.  Some  bench  ends  are 
certainly  of  Decorated  character,  and  some  have  been  considered 
to  be  of  the  Early  English  period.  They  are  sometimes  of  plain 
oak  board,  2\  to  3  in.  thick,  chamfered,  and  with  a  necking 
and  finial  generally  called  a  peppy  head;  others  are  plainly 
panelled  with  bold  capping;  in  others  the  panels  are  ornamented 
with  tracery  or  with  the  linen  pattern^  and  sometimes  with 
running  foliages.  The  large  pews  with  high  enclosures,  curtains, 
ftc,  known  familiarly  as  "  horse-boxes,"  and  common  in  English 
parish  churches  during  the  i8lh  and  early  pan  of  the  19th 
centuries,  h^vc  nearly  all  becB  cleared  away.  The  pariah  church 


of  Whiiby,  in  Yoricshire,  Is  pcfha|>s  the  best  surviving  cmnple  of 
an  unaltered  mtenor. 

T-he  Laiia  word  podium  was  particulaHy  applied  co  a  balcony 
or  parapet  next  to  the  arena  in  the  Roman  theatre^  where  the  emperor 
and  other  distinguished  persons  sat.  According  to  Du  Cange 
iCUnsarimm,  $.v.  podium),  it  is  found  in  medieval  Latin  for  a 
bench  {skbuUium)  for  the  minor  canons  at  achurdi  in  Lyons  (1343), 
and  also  for  a  kneeling  stoul  in  a  monastic  church.  The  wonl 
"  pew  "  m  English  was  often  used  for  a  stall  for  the  minister,  for  a 
reading  desk,  or  for  a  pulpit.  The  floor  space  of  the  nave  ana  traa- 
scpts  of  medieval  churches  was  usually  open,  mats  being  sometimes 
provided  for  kneeling,  and  if  any  fixed  teats  were  provided  these 
would  bo  for  the  patrons  of  the  church  or  for  distinguished  people. 
Some  enclosed  seats,  however,  seem  ro  have  been  reserved  for  women, 
as  is  seen  in  Piers  Ptotoman,  ch.  vii.  144, "  Among  wyvesand  wodewes 
ich  am  ywoned  sitte  yparroked  in  pawes."  They  did  not  come  into 
general  use  till  the  middle  of  the  Mch  or  bcgiining  of  the  16th 
century  (see  Gasquet.  Perish  Life  in  Medietoi  Engfand,  (1906.  pp.  6a 
ar.d  133).  Over  the  few  seats  thus  allotted  diMute  aroee  and 
attempts  were  made  to  appropriate  them.  Thus  ine  constitutions 
for  the  synod  of  Exeter,  drawn  up_  by  Bishop  FNner  Qui  vet  in  1287, 
forbid  any  one  **  to  claim  any  silling  in  the  church  as  his  own.  . . . 
Whoever  first  comes  (o  pray,  let  him  take  what  placs  he  wishes  in 
which  to  pray  " 

At  common  law  all  seats  in  a  parish  ckwch  are  for  the  oomoKm 
use  of  all  the  parishioners,  and  every  parishioner  has  a  right  to  a 
seat  without  paying  for  it.  The  disposititm  of  the  seats  b  in  ifce 
discretbn  of  the  churchwardens  acting  for  the  ordinary  for  the 
purpose  of  orderly  arrangement  (as  to  the  exercise  of  thb  dis- 
cretion see  Rtyndds  v  MoncHoH,  1841,  s  M.  ft  R.  384),  and  this 
can  be  exercised  in  cases  where  all  the  scats  are  free  iA$lur  v. 
CalcrafU  1887,  18  Q.B.D.  607).  The  right  to  a  seat  does  not 
belong  to  a  non-parishioner.  As  against  the  assignment  and 
disposition  of  seats  by  the  ordinary,  acting  throui^  the  draidi- 
wardens,  two  kinds  of  appropriation  can  be  set  up  (o)  by  die 
grant  of  a  faculty  by  the  ordinary,  and  (6)  by  fwescription,  based 
on  the  presumption  of  a  lost  facility.  Such  faculties  are  imrely 
granted  now;  they  were  formerly  common;- the  grant  was  to  a 
man  and  his  family  '*  so  long  as  they  remain  inhabitanta  of  a 
certain  house  in  the  parish  ";  the  words  **  of  a  certab  house  '*  art 
now  usually  omitted.  The  claim  to  a  pew  by  prescription  must 
be  in  respect  of  a  house  in  the  parish;  the  right  b  subjea  to  die 
burden  of  repairing  the  pew;  it  is  not  an  easement,  nor  does  the 
Prescription  Act  183a  a|^y  to  It  (see  for  the  whole  subject  of  a 
claim  by  prescr^>tion  Phillips  v.  HoUiday,  1891,  A.C  as8).  The 
letting  of  pews  in  parish  churches  became  common  in  the  i6th 
century,  but  there  are  some  earlier  instances  of  the  use,  ior 
example  at  St  Ewens,  Bristol,  in  1455  {ChMrckwardeM^  Acanmis, 
Sir  J.  Maclean,  Trent,  Bristol  and  Ghncesler  AnkaeoL  Assac^  voL 
XV.,  1890-1891).  The  taking  of  pew  rents  in  parish  <±urches  is 
illegal  (Lord  Stowell,  in  Waller  v.  Gunner,  1798.  3  ^og.  CamsitL 
817);  but  under  the  various  Church  Building  Acts  seats  may  be 
let  and  rents  charged  to  pay  the  salary  of  the  minbter,  ftc 

See  A.  Heales.  History  and  Lam  of  Churtk  Seats  and  Pern  (1873) : 
PhiUifflore,  Eccles.  Low  (1896),  ii.  1414  seq. 

PBWTBB,  a  general  name  used  to  denote  a  number  of  alloys 
of  various  metals  in  diverse  proportions,  the  si^  common  feature 
of  which  lies  in  the  fact  that  tin  is  always  the  chief  oonatituent. 
The  etymology  of  the  word  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  probably  aa 
English  modification  of  speller,  which  was  adopted  with  mote  or 
less  local  alteration  by  the  continental  European  itttions,  who 
at  an  early  period  were  eager  purchasers  of  the  ware,  bcoomii^ 
peauter  in  Dutch,  peulre,  peauire  or  pianire  in  French,  ^«llr»  ia 
Italian  and  pellre  in  Spanish.  Roman  pewter,  the  didest  known, 
which  has  bccii  distnlerxed  at  various  places  in  En^and  and 
elsewhere,  was  composed  of  tin  and  lead  alone,  for  the  occasional 
traces  of  iron  are  believed  to  be  accidental,  in  proportions  which, 
though  varying  considerably,  group  thenuielves  around  two 
definite  formulae,  one  containing  71*5  parts  of  tin  to  s7-8  of 
lead,  the  other  78*1  of  tin  to  ai'7  of  lead,  or  one  libra  of  tin  to 
4)  and  3  unciae  of  lead  req>ectlvely.  On  the  European  continent 
in  the  middle  ages,  some  ten  centuries  later  than  the  sui^Moed 
date  of  the  Roman  pewter  found  in  Britain,  when  we  first  get 
definite  records  of  the  composition  of  pewter,  lead  remained 
the  chief,  if  not  the  only  secondary  ingredient.  In  1437  iha 
pewierers  of  Montpclier  added. 4  puts  of  lead  to  96  of  tiB. 


^ZENAS-r-PFAEF 


339 


fviico  nuking  diabM  and  poniagei*  10  parts  of  lead  to  90  off 
tin  for  solt-ceUara  and  ewen;  those  of  Uiaioges  used  4  pans  of 
lead  to  xoo  of  tin;  at  Nuremberg  in  1576  it  waa  ordained  that 
not  more  than  x  tt>  of  lead  should  be  mind  witb  every  to  lb 
Df  tin;  in  Fnnce  during  the  i8th  cenioiy  a  limit  ol  15%  of 
lead  was  imposed,  while  at  the  present  time  i6-5%'wftb  a  margin 
of  1*5  farAion  is  regarded  as  safe  for  the'sftoiiige  oCiidneiuid 
conseqaently  legaL 

In  £ngland  the  cadiest  known  ordinanteB  for  the  reguli^ion 
of  the  craft  were  drawn  up  In  1548  and  tecdvnd  the  i^qiroval 
of  the  mayor  and  aldermen.     From  them  we  learn  that  for 
rounded  vcsds  lend  might  be  mijted  with  the  tin  in  the  prd- 
portion  of  a6  lb  to  each  hundredweight,  though  this  quantity 
Bppean  to  have  been  found  excessive,  since  in  1351  a  pewtereir 
was  punished  because  his  alloy  contained  more  than   16  tb 
to  the  bundredweight,  unless  this  be  a  clerical  error  in  the 
contemporary  records  of  the  Pewterers'   Company.    Articles 
made  cl  this  material  were  to  be  known  as  "  vessels  of  tyn  for 
ever  "  but  the  alloy  soon  came  to  be  known  as  *'  ley."   Another 
formula,  however,  authorized  in  the  same  document,  would 
appear  to  have  i>ecn  at  that  time  an  exclusively  English  secret, 
to  which  was  presumably  due  the  universal  rocbgnttion  of  the 
superiority  of  the  island  watcs  which  is  so  notable  a  fact  in  the 
history  of  pewter.    It  was  known  as  **  fyne  peauter  ^  and  used 
Tor  dishfcs,  saucers,  pbtters,  chaiigers,  and  for  all  **  things  that 
they  make  square,"  such  as  cruets,  chrismalortes,  Ac,  which 
owing  either  to  the  rough  usage  they  woold  be  submitted  to,  or 
to  tlw  sharpness  of  their  angles,  called  for  greater  toughness  in 
the  nxaterfaL   The  recipe  for  this  alk>y.as  onginally  proiiounded 
was  as  much  brass  to  the  tin  "  as  it  wol  recciuve  ol  his  nature," 
but  the  lack  of  pieeision  In  this  perhaps  rendered  it  diflicolt  to 
distinguish  accidental  variations  from  deliberate  adulteration, 
and  in  1474*1475  it  was  resolved  that  36  lb  of  brass  must 
be  mixed  with  every  boadredweigbt  of  tin.    The  penalties  fo^ 
infringemrat  d  the  rules  were  severe  and  fiequcntly  enforced, 
but  in  sp&te  of  them  ilh«mtions  aild  impfovcments  crept  In. 
The  chHrf  and  perhaps  the  earliest  of  these  was  the  addition  of  a 
certain  proportion  of  bismuth,  or  as  it  was  then  called  **  tin 
glass.*'    When  this  waS  first  used  if  not  rscoided,  but  by  1561 
it  was  ncoeptcd  as  a  matter  of  conne;  in  1630  a  maker  "  was 
found  in  fault  for  not  saflBdemly  tempering  his  metal  witb  tin 
glass  ";    and  in  1653  it  was  ordered  that  3  lb  weight  of  tin 
glass  at  least  must  be  mixed  with  every  1000  lb  of  tin.'  Anti- 
mony was  subsequently  introduced-Mhoogh  there  is  no  mention 
of  it  in  the  records  of  the  Pewterers'  Company — sometimes 
alone  as  in  tin  and  temper  (i-6  to  i$o  pans)  and  trifle  (17  parts 
to  83  of  tin),  sometimes  with  other  metals  as  In  hard  metal 
(96  parts  of  tm,  8  of  antimony  and  a  of  copper),  a  mixture 
very  closely  resembling  that  stUl  used  under  the  name  of  **  Brit* 
annia  metal."  and  in  plate  pewter  ( 100  partsof  tin,  8of  antimony. 
4  of  copper  and  4  of  bismuth).  The  wares  were  originally  fash* 
kmed  in  two  ways,  by  hammering  or  by  casting,  and  the  workers 
in  each  were  strictly  differentiated,  the  former,  who  worked  in 
line  pewter,  being  known  as  Sadware  men,  the  latter  who  used 
*'  ley  *'  as  ffoHow-ware  men.    A  third  class,  knowri  as  Triflers, 
from  the  alloy  they  were  limited  to.  probably  at  first  only  manu* 
factured  such  small  articles  of  domestic  use  or  ornament  as  did 
not  definitely  fall  under  either  of  the  other  headings,  but  from  an 
authorized  list  of  wares,  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  Triflers  in 
1612.  it  Is  dear  that  the  barrier  between  them  ond  the  ffollow- 
ware  mett  had  been  largely  broken  down.    Another  method  of 
working  pewt^  whfch  seems  to  have  been  Introduced  later,  and 
never  jfollowed  to  any  great  extent,  was  spinning,  by  wltich  the 
vessel  W84  shaped  in  a  mould  on  a  wheel  by  the  mere  pressure  of  a 
blunt  tool,  the  softness  of  the  metal  Sllowing  of  its  fiowing 
sufliCTciUly  for  this  purpose. 

I^wter  first  appears  in  history  in  1074,  when  a  synod  at  Rouen 
permitted  its  use  as  a  substii  ute  for  gold  or  silver  in  chufch  vessels. 
n  concession  accepted  also  at  Winchester  two  years  later.  agaiA 
withdratirn  In  1175.  ^^^  ^^^^  ^o''^  tacitly  adopted  some  twenty 
\f.\n  after.  The  records  of  its  domestic  use  commence  with  the 
caldrons  employed  for  boiling  the  meat  at  the  coronation  of 


Edwasd  1.  ik  1x74*  thodgh  we  gather  that  the  trade  wis  cvtti 
then  flourishing  in  Paris  and  Bruges,  whence  during  the  foUowii^ 
century  it  extended  to  Augsburg,  Nuremberg,  Poitiers,  Mons  and 
other  continental  ocatres.  CbnJBned  at- first  to  the  more  wealthy 
classes,  we  can  trace  as  time  goes  00  its  extension  lower  and 
lower  in  the  sodal  scale,  until  at  the  end  of  the  X7th  century  its 
use'  waa  almost  itttvenaL  Thcnoefonrard  iu  vogue  steadily 
declined.  The  growing,  cheapness  of  gUss  and  chinaware  and  tlie 
invention  of  more  showy  metals  brought  upon  it  by  degrees  the 
fatal  stigoM  of  vulgarityi  until  with  very  few  exceptions  its 
manofactow  entirely 'ceased. 

Artistically,  pewter  was  at  Its  best  when  Its  makers  were  least 
consdotts  of  the  art  revealed  in  it,  thinking  more  of  the  durability 
and  approprwteness  to  pui^Mte  of  their  wares  than  of  their 
decorative  quaKtiss.  Thotigh  intentionally  ornamental  vesKk 
may  be  foMiid  earKer,  it  was  not  until  the  x8th  century  that 
the  pewterers  set  themselves  to  slavishly  copying  the  designs 
and  methods  of  the  silversmiths,  whether  suitable  to  their 
material  or  not,  and  thereby  undoubtedly  hastened  their  own 
downfall. 

Of  recent  years  pewter  has  taken  its  pbce  among  the  articles 
sought  after  by  collectors,  and  its  cost  has  so  materially  and 
rapidly  increased  that  the  manufacture  of  vesseb,  guaranteed 
of  course  genmndy  antique^  bids  fair  to  become  once  more 
a  pkying  indnstry.  Unfortunatdy  the  various  etiactments 
compelling  each  maker  to  stamp  his  ware  with  a  definite  touch> 
mark  seem  at  all  times  to  have  been  very  generally  evaded  or 
Ignored,  and  experience  alone  Is  therefore  Uie  only  safe  guide 
to  distinguishing  new  from  tSd. 

BisuoGaAeRT.->-/ffflory  of  Ike  WorMf^td  Company  vf  Pewltren 
of  the  City^of  Icndeikby  CharUs  Welch  (London,  1902):  i>cwfcr  I*iiUe, 
by  R.  J.  L.  Masae  (London.  1904);  ScoUish  Pewter  Ware  and  Pern- 
terers,  by  L.  In^leby  Wood  (Morton,  Edinburgh,  n.d.):  Old  Pewter, 
by  Malcdm  Bell  (NewMs,  London,  n.d.);  Les  Mttaux  dans  Vant^ 

SiMet  as  mayem  6^  L'Eiain,  by  Germain  Bapst  (Paris,  1884)'; 
ietionnaire  4e  Cameubkmeni  etdeh  diear^i^,  by  Henri  Havaid: 
Histoire  dm  mabilierf  by  Albert  Jacquemart  (Paris,  1877);  "  Analysis 
of  Roman  Pewter."  by  W.  GowLand,  Arckaeolcgia,  vol.  Ivi.  (1898); 
Pewter  Marks  and  Old  Pewter  Ware:  Domestic  and  Ecdeskuttcaif 
by  ChriMopfaer  A.  Markham  (1909).  (M.  Bb.) 

Pft2£lf  AS,  a  town  of  southern  France,  In  the  department  of 
Hirault  33  m.  W.S.W.  of  Montpellier  on  the  southern  railway. 
Pop.  (1906),  643a.  The  commerce  in  cognac,  spirits  and  wines 
is  so  important  that  the  prices  current  for  these  at  the  weddy 
sales  are  reg^tered  throiighout  the  wine  marts  of  France  and 
Europe.  There  is  a  handsome  monument  to  Moli^,  who  lived 
at  P&tenas  several  years  and  produced  his  first  plays  there  in  165$ 
and  1656.  A  gateway  (i5fh  century)  arid  old  mansion  of  the 
15th  and  i6tb  centuries  are  of  interest. 

P£zenas  (Ptscennae)  was  founded  by  the  Gauls.  In  the 
i«th  century  it  became  the  capital  of  a  countship  subsequently 
held  by  important  families  induding  those  of  Montmorency, 
Cond6  and  Conti.  In  the  17th  century  the  town  was  on  several 
occasions  the  meeting  place  of  the  estates  of  Languedoc. 

PPAPF,  JOHAHN  FRIBDRIGH  (1765-1825),  German  mathe- 
matician, was  bom  on  the  22nd  of  December  1765  at  Stuttgart. 
He  recdved  his  early  education  at  the  Carlsschiile,  where  he  met 
F  Schiller,  his  iffdong  friend.  His  mathematical  capacity  was 
early  noticed;  he  pursued  his  studies  at  (}&ttingen  under  Abraham 
Gotthcif  Kislner  <i7i9-i8oo),  and  in  1787  he  went  to  Berlin  and 
studied  practical  astronomy  under  J.  E.  Bode  In  1788  Pfaff 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  Helmstedt,  and  so  cominued 
until  that  university  was  abolished  in  1810.  From  that  time  till 
his  death  ort  the  21st  of  April  1825  he  held  the  chair  of  mathe* 
martics  at  Halle.  Pfaff*s  researchesi  bore  chiefly  on  the  theory  of 
series,  to  which  he  applied  the  methods  of  the  so-called  combina- 
torial school  of  German  mathematirians,  and  on  the  solution  of 
differential  equations.  His  two  prindpal  works  are  Disquisitiones 
analyiicae  mhxime  dd  caknlum  integrclcm  el  doctrinam  zerierum 
perlinentes  Y4to.,  vol.  i.,  Helmstkdt,  1797)  and  "  Methodus 
gencralis,  acquationes  different tarum  particularum,  necnon 
aequationes  differentiales  vuigares.  utrasque  primi  ordinis  inter 
quotcumque  variabiles,  complete  integrandl "  in  Ahk.  d.  Btrl, 
I  Acad.  (18x4-1815).   The  former  work  contains  Pfaff *s  diseuaaioB 


340 


PFALZBURG—PFORTA 


of  a  ccrtftin  difiierentiaf  equation  which  generaily  bean  his 
name,  but  which  had  originally  been  treated  in  a  less  complete 
manner  by  L.  EiUer  (see  DxprcRENXiAL  Equations),  The  latter 
work  contains  an  important  addition  to  the  theory  of  partial 
differential  equations  as  it  had  been  left  by  J.  L.  Lagrange. 

His  brother,  Jobanm  WiiAbui  Andkeas  Pfaiv  (i774*i85S)i 
was  professor  of  pure  and  appUed  mathematica  successively  at 
Dorpat,  Nurembeiigr  Wttraburg  and  Erlangen.  Another  broUMr, 
Cbmstian  HzimucK  Pfavy  ii773riSs*),  graduated  in  medicine 
at  Stuttgart  in  1793,  and  from  1801  till  hb  death  was  profttsor 
of  medicine,  physics  and  chemistry  at  the  university  <rf  KSeL 

PFALZBURGf  a  town  of  Geimany,  in  the  unperial  province  of 
Alsace-Lorraine,  lies  high  oa  the  west  slopes  of  ihe  Vosges,  15  m. 
N.W.  of  Stressbuig  by  roll.  Pop.  (1905),  3716.  Jt  contains  an 
Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  synagogue  and  a 
teachers'  seminary.  Its  industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
gloves,  straw  hats  and  liqueurs,  and  also  quarrying. 

The  principality  of  Pfalzburg,  of  which  this,  town  was  the 
capital,  originally  a  part  of  Luxemburg,  afterwards  belonged  in 
turn  to  the  bishop  of  Mctz,  the  bishop  of  Strassburg  and  the 
doke  of  Lorraine,  and  passed  into  the  possession  of  France  in 
1 66 1,  The  town  was  of  importance  as  commanding  the  passes 
of  the  Vosges,  and  was  strongly  fortified  by  Vaubaa  in  i68ow 
The  works  resisted  the  Allies  in  1814  and  181  s»  and  the  Germans 
for  four  months  in  1870,  but  they  were  taken  on  the  lath  of 
December  of  that  year.  They  have  since  been,  rased. 

PFEIFFER.  FRANZ  (i8i{>i868),  German  scholar,  was  born  at 

Bettlach  near  Soleure  on  the  27lh  of  February  1815.    After 

studying  at  the  university  of  Munich  he  went  to  Stuttgart, 

where  in  1846  he  became  librarian  to  the  royal  library.    In 

i8s6  Pfeifler  founded  the  Germania^  a  qoarteriy  periodical 

devoted  to  German  antiquarian  research.     In  1857,  having 

established  bis  fame  as  one  of  the  foremost  authorities  on 

German  medieval  literature  and  philology,  he  was  appointed 

professor  of  these  subjects  at  xht  university  of  Vienna;  and  in 

i860  was  made  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences. 

He  died  at  Vienna  on  the  39th  of  May  1868. 

Among  the  many  writings  edited  by  him  may  be  mentioned  the 
Barlaam  und  Josaphat  of  Kudolf  von  Ems  (184}),  the  EMslan  of 
Ulrich  Boner  (1844),  Die  devtschen  Mystikcr  da  14.  Jakrhundertf 
(1845-1857;  new  M.,  1906),  the  Buck  der  Naiw  of  Konrad  von 
Mcgcnberg.  a  14th-century  writer  (1861).  Dit  Pred^ten  des  BerthoU 
won  JUfu^mtg  (1862),  and  the  poems  of  Walther  von  der  Vogel- 
weide  (1864:  6th  ed.  by  K.  Bartsch.  1880).  Of  his  indepen<tent 
writings  the  most  important  are  Zur  deutscken  LiUralurgesehkhUt 
Vber  Wesen  tmd  Bildunp  det  Mfifeken  Spraeke  in  miitePuKhdeutuker 
Zeit,  Der  Dukler  du  N^elamiaUiiedeSt  Farsehung  und  Kritik  a«S 
d*m  Gebiete  des  deulHk^n  AlMunu,  and  AUdevtsehes  Olmnrsbuck. 
A  biographical  sketch  by  Karl  Baitsch  is  in  UUands  Bri^wedud 
mit  Freikerm  von  Lassberg,  edited  by  Franx  Pfeiffer  (1 870). 

PFEIFFER.  IDA  LAURA  (i  797-1858),  Austrian  traveUer, 
daughter  of  a  merchant  named  Reyer,  was  bom  at  Vienna  on 
the  14th  of  October  1797.  In  1820  she  married  Dr  Pfeiffer,  a 
lawyer  of  Lembeig,  who  subsequently  incurred  official  persecu* 
tion  and  was  reduced  to  poverty.  In  her  later  life  Mme 
Pfeiffer  devoted  her  limited  means  to  traveL  In  1842 she  visited 
Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  published  an  account  of  her  journey  in 
Reise  einer  Wtenerin  in  das  Heiiige  Land  (Vienna,  1843).  In  1845 
she  set  out  to  Scandinavia  and  Iceland,  describing  her  tour  in 
two  volumes.  Reise  nock  dcm  skandinavischcn-Nordcn  und  der 
insd  Island  (Pest,  1846).  In  1846  she  started  on  a  journey  round 
the  world,  visiting  Brazil,  Chile  and  other  coimtries  of  South 
America,  Tahiti,  China,  India,  Persia,  Asia  Minor  and  Greece, 
and  reaching  home  in  1848.  The  restilta  were  published  in 
Eine  Frauenjakrt  um  die  Wdl  (Vienna,  1850).  In  1851  ahe  went 
to  England  and  thence  to  South  Africa,  intending  to  penetrate 
into  the  interior^  this  proved  impracticable,  but  she  proceeded 
to  the  Malay  Archipelago,  spending  eighteen  months  in  the 
Sunda  Islands  and  the  Moluccas.  After  a  visit  to  Australia, 
Madame  Pfeiffer  proceeded  to  California,  Oregon,  Peru,  Ecuador, 
New  Granada,  the  Missiones  Territory,  and  north  again  to  the 
Great  Lakes,  reaching  home  in  1854.  Her  narrative,  Meine 
Mveile  WeUreise,  was  published  at  Vienna  in  1856.  In  May  of  the 
lame  year  she  set  out  tq  capbrc  Madagascar,  where  ai  &rsi  she 


was  cordially  received  by  the  queen.     But  she  unwittiagiy 

allowed  herself  to  be  invi^ved  in  a.pIoi  lo  owecthrow  the  §ovem> 

ment,  and  waa  expelled  the  country.    She  died  at  Visma  on 

the  27th  of  October  1858. 

The  Reise  mack  Mada^aear  was  isSUed  in  1861  (Vienna),  with  a 
biography  by  her  aon. 

PFLEIOUUR.  OnO  (S839-1908),  Ccman  Pntcstaat  thfeo* 
logian,  was  bom  at  Stetten  near  Cannstadt  in  Wftattcmbog 
on  the  1st  of  September  1839.  From  1857  to  1861  he  studied  at 
TiiUogen  imder  F.  C^tfiaur;  and  afterwards  in  England  and 
Scotland.  He  then  enteied  the  ministiy,  became  npOtml  at 
Tablngen,  and  for  a  short  Ubk  held,  a  pastorate  at  Heilbrona 
(1868).  in  1870  he  became  duef  pastor  and  superiniendent  at 
Jena  and  soon  afterwards  professor  ocdinarius  <rf  theokigy,  but 
in  1875  he  was  called  to  the  ^cfaair  ol  sgpstcmAtic  theolqgy  at 
Beriin,  having  made  his  name  by  a  scries  of  articles  on  New  Testa- 
ment criticism  and  Johaanme  and  Pauline  theology,  which 
appeared  in  Adolf  Hilgenfeld's  Zaisehnfi  /Mr  msstmckafakke 
Tkericpe^KuA  by  hti  Der  Paulinismus,  published  in  1873  (2Bd 
ed.,  1890;.  Eng.  ttans.,  Paulinism:  a  CtnUributum  to  tho  History  ef 
Primitioe  CMstian,  Tkedogy,  s  vols.,  1673,  &c}.  Das  Urdtris- 
taitum,  teim  Sekriflen  und  Ldtreis,  «»  gadttckUiekem  Zusttw^^ 
menkdng  besckrieben  was  published  in  1878  stid  considerably 
enlarged  for  a  seoond  edition  in  190a  <£n^.  trans.,  1906).  In 
1890  appeared  The  Deoetopmrnt  of  Tkedagy  smee  Kant,  tad  Ht 
Prog^eu  in  Greai  Brilaim  imks  itas,  which  was  written  for 
puUkatioii  in  Englaiid.  A  more  elaborate  work  was  his 
XdieicHspkihsophaeaitf  gBsehiehJiiekm  Gruudhgo  (1878;  »d  ed., 
eoUirged,  1883-1884;  Eog.  trans.,  from  2nd  Gernan  ed.,  Tkt 
Pkilosi^pky  of  Rdig^  M  Ike  Basis  of  iis  History^  4  vote-r  1886- 
1888)  "  The  Influence  of  tho  Apostle  Paul  00  the  Devekfoent 
of  Christianity  **  was  the  title  of  a  course  of  Hibbert  Ledvcs 
given  in  London  in  1865.  In.  1894  he  deBvezed  the  Giffoid 
LectuTtt  at  Edinburgh,  the  subject  being  "  The  Phlkoophy  and 
Devdopment  of  Religion.''  His  later  pubBcations  included: 
The  Early  Christian  Conetptum  of  Christ  (i9»5)i  XMc  Smtsltkmmg 
des  Chrislentmms(i90S \  Eng*  tnms.,  1906), JSefi^ftsii  ntid  Rdspamm 
(1906;  Eng.  trans.,  1907),  and  Dit  Emtwichhtng  das  Chritlnlums 
(1907).  He  dkd  on  the  i8th  of  July  1908,  at  Gross  LIditerfdde, 
near  Berlin.  In  New  Testament  critidam  Pflesderer  belonged 
to  the  critical  school  whieh  grew  out  of  the  impulse  given  by 
F.  C  Baur.  But,  like  other  modem  German  theologiana,  be 
showed  a  greater  disposition  to  compromise.*  All  his- work  shows 
a  judidal  tone  oC  mind,  and  ia  remarkable  for  the  chaim  of  its 
style. 

Pffeiderer's  younger  brother  Edmumd  (i84»-X9oa)  di^ 
tioguished  -himself  both  m  philasophy  and  theology.  He  too 
entered  the  ministry  (1864)  and  during  the  Franco-German 
War  served  as  army  chai^n,  an  eacperienoe  described  in  his 
Ertdmiose  eUiu  Fddgfii^ifhen  (1890).  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  professor  ordinarhis  of  philosophy  at  Kiel  (1873), 
and  in  1878^  he  waa  elected  to  the  phik>8oph)csl  chair  at 
Tubingen.  He  published  works  on  Leibnita,.  empiridsra  and 
scepticism  in  Hume's  philosophy,  modem  pessimism,  Kantic 
criticism,  English  philosophy,  Heraditus  of  Ephcsus  and  many 
other  subjects. 

PFORTAv  or  Scbulpfostaj  formerly  a  Cistercian  monasteiy 
dating  from  1)40,  and  now  a  celebrated  German  puhBc  school 
It  is  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  on  the  Saalt,  2  ra. 
S.W.  of  Naumburg.  The  remains  of  the  monastery  include  the 
K3th  century  Gothic  chitrch,  recently  restored,  the  Romanesque 
chapel  (i3th  century)  and  other  buildings  now  «aed  as  dormi- 
tories, lecture  rooms,  &c.  There  is  also  the  FOrstenhaus.  built  in 
1 573.  Schulpforta  was  one  of  the  three  FUrstensdnden  founded 
in  1543  by  Maurice  duke,  and  Utter  elector,  of  Saxony,  the  two 
others  being  at  Grimma  and  at  Meissen.  The  propoty  of  ihe 
dissolved  monastery  provided  a  good  revenue  for  the  new  educa- 
tional foundatk>n,which  now  amounts  to  about  £15,000  a  year. 
Free  education  is  provided  for  140  boys,  the  total  number  of 
pupils  being  185.  After  being  in  the  possesswn  of  Saxony,  Pfoita 
passed  to  I*nissia  in  1815,  and  since  this  date  the  school  has  been 
entirely  r«Qfgaai»ed« 


PFORZHETM—PHAEimUfe 


341 


PIWZHSIH,  a  town  of  OtnoMoy^  in  the  gtond  duchy  of 
Baden,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Najjold  and  the  Eil£»  on  the 
noxthem  margin  of  the  Black  Forest,  19  m.  S.E.  of  K^lsruhe  by 
laU,  aad  at  the  junction  of  lines  to  Wildbad  and  Bttlin|^:n. 
Pop.  (i«95).  33.345;  (190s),  SQfcWS.  «<«  o(  whom  ait  PiMestahts. 
Its  most  interesting  buildings  are  the  old  palace  of  the  margraves 
of  Baden,  and  the  Schlosskkche,  the  latter  aa  edifice  of  the 
ixth-isth  centuries,  containing  the  tomba  and  monuments  of 
the  maigravcs.  Pfofahcim  is  the  chief  oentse  in  Oermany  for 
the  maaufactnxc  of  gdd  and  silver  ornaments  and  jeivdry,  an 
industry  irtaich  gives  emptoyment  to  about  ss,ooo  hands, 
besides  which  then  are  iron  and  copper  works,  and  ihaira^ 
factures  of  chemicals,  paper,  leather,  machinery,  &c.  A  brisk 
trade  u  maintained  in  timber,  caule  and  agricultural  produce. 

Pforsheim  (Porta  Hercynlae)  is  of  ^Roman  origin.  From  about 
1300  to  1 565  it  was  the  seat  of  the  margraves  of  Baden.  It  was 
taken  by  the  troops  of  the  Catholic  League  in  1634,  and  was 
destroyed  by  the  French  in  1689.  The  story  of  the  400  dtiseni 
of  Pforzheim  who  sacrificed  thcmadvea  for  tlieir  prince  after 
the  battle  of  Wimpfcn  in  May  162s  has  been  relegated  by 
modem  historical  research  to  the  domain  of  legend. 

See  Cotte.  Die  400  PJonkeimer  (1879);  Brembacher.  D4r  Ted  dtf 
MO  PJbrnk€im4r  (Pforzheim,  |806):  Stols.  Ctsdnckti  der  SkuU 
Fjonktim  (Pforzheim,  1901). 

FHABDO,  Greek  philosopher,  fottnder  of  the  EKan  school,  waa 
a  native  of  Elis,  bore  in  the  last  yean  of  the  5th  century  B.C.  In 
the  war  of  4or-40o  between  Sparta  and  Elia  he  was  taken 
prisoner  and  became  a  slave  in  Athens,  where  his  -beauty  brought 
him  notoriety.  He  became  a  pupO  of  Socrates,  who  conceived 
a  warm  affection  for  him.  It  appears  that  he  was  iaUmate  with 
Cebct  and  Plato,  and  he  gave  his  name  to  one  of  Plato's  dialogues. 
Atheoaeus  relates,  however,  that  he  reaolutdy  declined  responsi- 
bility for  any  of  the  views  with  which  Plato  crOdita  Um,  and  that 
the  rehitions  between  him  and  Plato  were  the  revene  of  friendly 
Aeschioes  also  wrote  a  dialogue  called  Pikocrfo.  Shortly  after 
the  death  of  Socrates  Phaedo  returned  to  Elia,  where  his  (fisdples 
included  Anchipylus,  Moschus  and  Plelatanus,  who  succeeded 
him.  Subsequently  Menedemus  and  Asdepiados- transferred 
the  school  to  Eretria,  where  it  was  known  as  the  Eietrian  school 
and  is  frequently  identified  (e.{.  by  Ootxo)  with  the  Megaiians. 
thb  doctrines  of  Phaedo  are  not  known,  nor  is  it  possible  to 
infer  them  from  the  Platonic  dialogue.  His  wriUnfl^  none  of 
which  are  preserved,  were  in  the  form  of  dialogues.  As  to  their 
authenticity  nothing  is  known,  in  spite  of  an  attempt  at  selection 
by  Psnaetius  (Diog.  LaCrt.  ii.  64)1  «ho  maintains  that  the 
Ztf^yntt  and  the  Smmii  are  genttine.  Seneca  has  preserved  one 
of  his  dku  {Bpisl.  94.  41);  namely  that  one  method  of  acquiring 
virtue  is  to  frequent  the  society  of  good  men. 

See  Wlamowits,  Bermet,  mv.  189  weq. 

PHA8DBA.  in  Greek  legend,  daughter  of  Blinoi  and  PsstphaS. 
With  her  sister  Ariadne  she  was  carried  off  by  Theseus  to  Athens, 
and  became  his  wife.  Ontheway  toEIeusisshemetHippolytus, 
ion  of  Theseus  by -a  former  wife  (Hippolyte,  qjueen  of  the  Aoaa- 
sons,  or  her  sister  Antiope),  and  feD  in  love  with  him.  Finding 
her  advances  rejected,  she  hanged  herself,  leaving  behind  a 
letter  in  which  ahe  accused  HIppolytus  of  having  made  dJa- 
honourabte  proposals.  The  saaae  stoiy,  m  the  msan,  ia  toU  of 
BeUeropfaon  and  Anteia.  It  formed  the  subject  of  tragedies  by 
Sophocles,  Euripides  (two,  one  of  which  ia  extant),  Seneca  and 


PHABDROS,  Roman  fabulist,  was  by  birth  a  Macedonian  and 
lived  in  the  reigns  of  Augustus,  TEberfais,  Gahis  and  Claudhis. 
Aooording  to  hia  own  statement  (prafegoe  to  book  hL),  not 
perhaps  to  be  taken  tooUteraUy.  he  was  bom  on  the  Pioian 
Mountain,  bat  he  seems  to  have  been  brraght  st  aA  early  age  to 
Italy,  for  hencntkms  that  he  read  a  verse  of  Enahis  aa  a  bqy  at 
schooL  Aoeoidhig  to  the  headbig  of  the  chief  MS.  he  was  A 
dave  and  was-  freed  by  Augustus.  He  indirved  the  wrath  of 
SejannSfthe  powerful  minislerof  Ttberius,  by  some  supposed 
aUusioas  In  fab  f ablea,  and  waa  brought  to  trial  and  punished. 
We  learn  this  from  the  proiogiae  to  the  third  book,  which  ia 
dedicaled  to  fiutychus,  who  has  been  Identified  with  the  fsaMHS 


charioteer  and  favourite  of  Calus.  The  fourth  book  is  dedicated 
to  Porttculo,  who  seems  to  h&vc  dabbled  m  literature.  The  dates 
of  their  publication  are  unknown,  but  Seneca,  writmg  between 
A.D.  41  and  43  (Canscl.  ttd  Polyb.  27),  knows  nothing  of  Pbaedrus, 
and  it  is  probable  that  he  had  published  nothing  then.  His  worit 
shows  liitte  or  no  originality,  he  simply  versified  in  iambic 
trimeters  the  fables  current  in  his  day  binder  the  name  of  "Aesop," 
interspehing  them  with  anecdotes  drawn  from  daily  life,  history 
and  mythok)gy.  He  tells  his  fable  and  draws  the  moral  with 
businesslike  directness  and  simpUdty,  his  language  is  terse  and 
dear,  but  thorou^y  prosadc,  though  it  occasionally  attains  a 
dignity  bordering  on  eloquence.  His  Latin  is  correct,  and, 
except  for  an  excessive  and  peculiar  use  of  abstract  wonM, 
shows  hardly  anything  that  might  not  have  been  written  in  the 
Augustan  age.  From  a  literary  point  of  view  Phacdrus  is 
inferior  to  Babrius,  and  to  his  own  imitator.  La  Fontaine-,  he 
lacks  the  quiet  pi^turesqucncss  and  pathos  of  the  former,  and 
the  exuberant  vivacity  and  humour  of  the  latter.  Though  he 
frequently  refers  to  the  envy  and  detraction  which  pursued  him, 
Phaednis  seems  to  have  attracted  little  attention  in  antiquity. 
He  is  mentioned  by  Martial  (iii.  so»  5),  who  imitated  some  of  his 
verses,  and  by  Avianus.  Prudentius  must  have  read  him,  for 
he  hniutes  one  of  his  lines  (Pivd.  Cash,  vii.  115;  cf.  Phaednis, 
Iv.  6,-  10). 
The  fint  edition  of  the  five  bodes  of  Phacdrus  was  published 


Iti  (1430-1480), 
bishop  of  Sipooto,  containing  sixty-four  fables  of  Phaedrus,  of  which 
soone  thirty  wete  new.  These  new  fables  were  first  pubtirfwd  at 
Naples  fay  Cassitto  ia  1808,  and  afterwards  (much  more  correctly) 
by  JaondU  in  1800.  Both  editions  were  superseded  by  the  duk 
covery  of  a  much  better  preserved  MS.  of  Perotti  in  the  Vatica;i. 
published  by  Angcio  Mai  in  1 83 1 .  For  some  time  the  authenticity  of 
these  new  fables  was  disputed,  but  they  are  now  generally  accepted, 
and  with  justice,  as  genuine  fables  of  Phaedrus.  They  do  nOt  form 
a  sixth  book,  for  we  know,  from  Avianus  that  Phaedrus  wrote  five 
books  only,  but  it  i*  impossible  to  assign  them  to  tlunr  original 
places  in  the  five  books.    They  are  usual^  printed  as  an  appendix. 

In  the  middle  ages  Phaedrus  exercised  a  considerable  mfluence 
through  the  prose  versions  of  his  fables  which  were  current,  though 
his  own  woTKs  and  even  his  name  were  foreottea.  Of  these  prose 
vernons  the  oldest  existing  seems  to  be  that  known  as  the  *'  Anony* 
mus  Nilantl,"  so  called  because  first  edited  by  Nilant  at  Leiden 
in  1709  from  a  MS.  of  the  13th  century.  It  approaches  the  text  of 
Phaedrus  so  doady  that  it  was  probably  maoe  directly  (com  it. 
Of  the  sixty-seven  fables  which  it  contains  thirty  are  derived  from 
lost  Cables  of  Phaedrus.  But  the  largest  and  most  influential 
of  the  prose  versions  of  Phaedrus  is  that  tyhich  bears  the  name  of 
Rmmdus.  It  contains  eighty-three  fables,  is  as  old  as  the  loth 
eentury,  and  seems  to  have  been  baaed  00  a  still  earlier  ptose  verdoo, 
which,  under  the  name  of  "  Aesop,",  and  addressed  to  one  Rufus, 
may  have  been  made  in  the  CaroUngianperiod  or  even  earlier. 
About  this  Romulus  nothing  is  known.  The  collection  of  fables 
in  the  Weissenburg  (now  V^enbQttel)  MS.  ia  based  on  the  same 
vetwoo  as  Rommlus.  These  three  prose  versions  contain  in  aU 
one  hundred  distinct  fablest  of  which  fifty-six  are  derived  from  the 
n\^***t  '^  t^  remaining  forty-four  presumably  from  lost  fables 
of  Phaedrus.  Some  scholars,  as  Burmann,  Dressier  and  L.  MtUler, 
have  tried  to  restore  these  lost  fables  by  versifying  the  prase  versions. 

The  collection  bearii^  the  name  01  Romulus  became  the  source 
from  which,  during  the  second  half  of  the  middle  ages,  almost  all 
the  eollcctioas  of  Latin  fables  in  prose  aad  verre  were  wholly  or 
partially  drawn.  A  12th-century  version  of  the  first  three  books 
of  Romulus  in  elegiac  verse  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity,  even  into  the 
Renaissance.  Its  author  (gantnWy  referred  to  since  the  editjoo 
of  Novelet  in  1610  as  the  "  Anoovmus  Nevelcti  ")  was  kmg  unknown, 
but  UervKux  has  shown  grouods  for  identifying  him  with  Walther 
of  FngV*F^i  chaplain  to  Henry  U.  and  afterwards  archbishop  of 
Palermo. 

Another  verrion  of  Ronrtdus  In  Lathi  elegiacs  was  made  by  Alea- 
aadsr  Neckam.  bom  at  St  Albsns  m  1157.  Amongst  the  coUectioas 
partly  derived  fiaom  Romulus  the  most  famous  is  probably  that  in 
French  verse  by  Marie  de  France.  About  iioo  a  collection  of  fables 
in  Latin  prose,  based  partly  on  Romulus,  was  made  by  the  q$tcrcxan 
monk  0(fc  of  Shenington:  they  have  a  strooa  medieval  and  clerical 
tinoe.  in  J37o(knrdofMliidenwRitea  poetical  veraonofiiMia/at 

Sincenthou's  edition  in  1596  Phaedrus  has  been  often  edited  and 
translated;  among  the  editions  may  be  mentioned  thore  of  Bttmiana 
(1718  and  i2»7).  Huntley  (1726).  Schwabe  (1806).  Berger  de  Xlvrey 
(1810).  Orefc  (1832).  Eyssenhardt  (1867).  ]^  Mtt«w  <»877}.  Ri« 
(1885).  and  above  aU  that  of  L.  Havet  (Pans.  1895).    For  .^w 


3+2 


PHAER— PHAGOCYTOSIS 


medieval  verakms  of  Phaednw  and  their  derivativet  we  L.  Roth,  lo 
FkiUdopu,  I.  523  iieq. ;  E.  Grosac.  in  Jakrb.  f.  tiass.  PkUol.,  cv 
(1872);  and  especially  the  learned  work  of  Hcrvicux.  Les  Ivbuiutes 
iatims  dtPms  U  nicU  d'AugusU  pu^'d  iafindu  mcyem  4fe  (Pans, 
1884),  who  gives  the  Lauo  text*  of  all  the  medieval  imiuton  (direct 
and  indiTKt)  o(  Phaodrua,  loaic  of  them  beiag  published  for  the 
first  tine.  U-  P>  P) 

PHAER  (or  Pbayer),  THOHAS  ii5io7-i56o)»  English  tmnt- 
lator  of  Virgil,  was  educated  «l  Oxfoid  and  aft  Lincoln's  Ian.  He 
published  in  iSiS  Natwra  bnnmm,  and  in  1543  Ntwe  Bokt  of 
PresuUntes*  He  says  on  the  title-page  of  his  versioii  of  tfa« 
AtM€id  that  he  was  '*  solicitor  to  the  king  and  queen's  m^jcsticSf 
attending  their  honourabfe  council  in  the  maicbcs  of  Wales." 
He  settled  at  Kiigarran  in  Pembcokeshire,  and  combined  the 
study  of  medicine  with  his  legal  practice.  He  wrote  several 
medical  works,  and  was  admitted  M.D.  of  Oxford  in  1559.  He 
contributed  to  Sackville's  Mirnur  for  iiagiUraies,  **Howe 
Owen  Glendower,  being  seduced  by  fabe  prophecies,  toke  upon 
him  to  be  Prince  of  Wales."  In  1558  appeafcd  Tke  S€t€H  First 
Booka  oj  the  Eneidos  of  VirgU  comerttd  into  Emgfisk  Utter,  He 
had  completed  two  more  books  in  April  1560  and  had  begun  the 
tenth,  but  he  died  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  leaving  his  task 
incomplete.  The  translation  was  finished  by  Thomas  Tw3me  in 
1584.  Phaer's  translation,  which  was  In  rhymed  fourteen- 
syllabled  lines,  was  greatly  admired  by  his  oonlemporwies,  and 
be  deserves  credit  as  the  fizat  to  aLten4>t  a  complete  version, 
the  earlier  renderings  of  Surrey  and  Gawain  Douglas  being 
fragmentary  although  of  greater  poetic  value. 

PHAfiTBOH  (Or.  ^o^ir,  shining,  radiant),  b  Greek  mytho- 
logy, the  son  of  Helios  the  sun-god,  and  the  nymph  Clymene. 
He  persuaded  his  father  to  let  him  drive  the  chariot  of  the  sun 
across  the  sky,  but  he  lost  control  of  the  horses,  and  driving  too 
near  the  earth  scorched  it.  To  save  the  world  from  utter 
destruction  Zeus  killed  Phaahon  with  a  thunderbolt.  He  fell 
to  earth  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eridanus,  a  river  of  northern  Eorope 
(identified  in  hter  times  with  the  Po),  on  the  banks  of  which  his 
weeping  sistert,  the  Hellades,  were  transformed  into  poplars 
and  their  tears  into  amber.  This  part  of  the  legend  points 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  or  Vistula,  where  amber  abounds. 
PhaSthon  was  the  subject  of  a  dnma  of  the  same  name  by 
Euripides,  of  which  some  fragments  renuun,  and  of  a  kxt  tragedy 
of  Aeschylus  (Heiiadu);  the  story  is  most  fully  told  In  the 
Metamorphoses  of  Ovid  (L  7Sa>iL  366  and  Nonnus,  Dionysiacat 
ixxvili))  PhaCthon  has  been  identified  with  the  sun  himself 
and  with  the  morning  star  (miospborus).  In  the  former 
case  the  legend  is  Apposed  to  represent  the  sun  sinking 
in  the  west  in  a  blase  of  U|^t.  His  identification  with  the 
morning  star  is  supported  by  Hyginus  (Astron.  IL  42),  where  it 
Is  stated  that  the  morning  (and  evening)  star  was  the  son  of 
Cephalus  and  Eos  (the  father  and  mother  of  PhaSthon  according 
to  Hesiod,  Tkeog  984-986).  The  fall  of  PhaSthon  is  a  favourite 
subject,  especially  on  sarcophagus  reliefs,  aa  indicating  the 
transitoriness  of  human  life. 

See  C.  Knaack,  "  (^uacstiodes  Phaethonteae,"  in  PkUologiscko 
Umiersuckunttm  (1883).  F  Wieaeler,  Phattkom  (1857) ;  Wilamowitz- 
M6llendorff  and  C.  Robert  in  Hermos,  xviiL  (1883):  Fraaer's 
Pausamias,  IL  39 ;  S.  Reinach,  Rtotio  do  FhuL  desrdig$cms,Mu.  (1908). 

PHA(iOCYT0SI8  (Gr.  ^7»^  to  cat,  devour,  and  ic6rof, 
oell).  Many  ceUs  of  the  body  possess  the  property  of  engulfing 
particles,  a  character  to  be  associated  with  their  power  of 
performing  amoeboid  movement.  This  property  is  termed 
phagocytosis.  Primarily  this  phagocytic  power  was  simply  the 
means  by  -whicfa  the  cell  took  within  iu  €eU  body  food  particles 
which  were  ultimately  digested  and  assimilated.  In  the  higher 
organisms,  however,  this  property  has  been  developed  for  different 
purposes,  and  in  pathology  at  the  present  day  a  meaning  wider 
than  that  above  given  is  often  included  In  the  term.  The 
particle  iwving  been  taken  into  the  cell,  one  of  three  things  may 
happen.  (1)  The  particle  may  consist  of  digesttUe  material,  in 
which  case  the  cell  secretes  a  digestive  fluid,  a  food  vacuole  is 
fonaed,  the  particle  is  gradually  disaolved  by  the  secretion  and 
tlie  producu  ahaolbed  into  tiie  ceO  substance.    (2)  The  particle 

y  be  indigesUble,  In  which  case  It  b  mained  within  the  cctt 


body  for  a  time  and  ultimately  diathafged.  The  i^artftle 
englobed  may  oompnse  almoat  any  mateisal.  but  if  ft  is  to  aerws 
as  a  food  it  most  be  of  anmial  or  vegetable  origm  At  the  time 
of  mgcstion  it  may  be  dead  or  hvmg  In  the  case  in  whicfa  it  is 
Uving  the  organism  is  first  killed  and  then  digested,  or  (3)  the 
ocgaaism  may  prove  resiataot,  in  which  case  it  may  nrakiply 
and  finally  destroy  the  cell,  when  a  number  of  orgamsms  ace  set 
free.  This  is  one  ot  the  OMaas  by  which*  in  tJie  higher  organlsma, 
a  tocal  JaCectibo  amy  become  diiitributed  througb  the  ofyaatsm. 
The  djfMtioii  effected  within  a  tell  is  fermenutive  in  cfaancter. 
Thus  a  preteo^ic  iermcot  has  been  prepared  from  the  bodies  of 
amoebai—the  fenaent  poascming  iairiy  active  properties  both 
in  add*  neutral  or  alkaline  media,  but  especially  la  the  latter. 

In  studying  the  prooem  of  phagocytosis  geneially  moch  infor- 
mation may  be  gained  as  to  ita  general  chanurten  by  the  study  of 
the  processes  of  tntraocUubu'  dfgmiion  in  the  simpler  Invette- 
bratcs,  a  study  laigdy  extended  by  Mctchnikoff  and  his  co- 
workers in  the  elaboration  of  Metchnikoff  "b  view  of  the  nature  of 
immunity.  Thus,  to  take  aa  instaace  from  the  sponges.  Food 
subsiaaoes,  in  the  form  of  minttte  organisms,  whldi  have 
penetrated  the  poms  of  the  apoagejve  ae^cd  by  the  cibated  or 
amoeboid  cells  lining  thoae  spaces,  and  are  then  killed  and 
4igested.  In  this  case  also  the  proems  of  digestfon  is  provied 
to  be  fermentative.  It  is  readfly  undemtandable  that  we  should 
find  well  ceUs  on  the  esiaraal' surface  of  an  oiiaaism  or  on  the 
surface  lining  tbe  alimentaiy  ^ract,  partlculariy  hi  the  latter 
position.  But  in  addition  there  are  many  odls  within  the  body 
In  which  phagocytic  power  is  retained  and  markedly  devdaped. 
Such  cells  may  be  fixed  or  wandering  ceUs.  They  are  employed 
for  removikig  foreign  material  or  debris  which  may  occur  within 
a  tissue.  For  instance,  aa  the  result  of  an  injuiy,  inflammatory 
process,  Ak.,  cells  and  other  stmcturm  of  a  tissue  aiay  be 
destroyed.  One  of  the  processes  of  repair  consists  in  the  removal 
of  the  resulting  debris,  which  is  effected  by  phagoqrtca.  A 
similar  proems  is  seen  with  fed  blood  oorpusdes  whi^  may  have 
escaped  mto  a  timutt  tluough  rupture  of  capillaries.  FoitisB 
particlm  accidentally  gaining  admission  to  a  tissue  are  in  many 
caaes  removed  in  a  aiaBilar  amnner,  «i.  aoot  parUdts  which  have 
passed  through  the  respUatoty  aurface  are  then  laigely  removed 
by  phagocytes  and  carried  to  the  brondiial  lyapjiatic  glands. 
Very  commonly  Uving  oiganisms  effect  an  entrance  thrmi^ 
woimd  aurfaccBk  the  alimentaiy  surface,  ftc,  and  one  of  the 
procoses  employed  for  their  destruction  and  removal  is  tl»t  of 
phago^oaia. 

As  an'  illustmtion  of  the  removal  of  foreign  red  blood  oorposclcs 
we  may  take  the  experimenta  of  Metciiiiikoff  in  which  a  soaafl 
drop  of  defibrinated  blood  of  the  goose  was  injected  under 
the  skin  of  a  snaii  The  corpuscks  quickly  spread  through 
the  haemolymph  of  the  anail,  which  by  itself,  however, 
effects  no  diange  in  them.  At  the  end  of  several  houm  exami- 
nation ahows  that  the  leucocytes  of  the  snail  have  englobed  a 
large  number  of  the  red  corpiacles.  The  foDowiag  day  utact 
corpusdm  caa  stilt  be  found  ia  the  haemolymph,  but  the  anfor 
number  have  already  been  devoured  by  the  lencocytes.  When 
taken  up  by  a  phagocyte  the  red  corposde  becomes  round  sad 
its  wall  permeable.  A  vacuole  is  formed  around  the  cocposde, 
in  which  dissolved  haemogiobiin  can  be  seen,  a  part  of  this 
haemoglobin  also  peases  into  the  nncleua  of  the  ted  cocpuade, 
proving  that  It  too  has  been  profoundly  altered.  Many  of  the 
nuclei  are  discharged.  Afttf  some  tinie  the  only  parts  of  the 
cotpaade  remaining  are  pieces  of  the  nucleus  and  the  peripheral 
layer  of  the  corpnade.  Frequently  the  phagocytes,  after  having 
doroured  one  or  several  red  coipnades,  theondvea  beoomea  peey 
to  thdr  fellowB.  Analogous  rhangrs  are  observed  in  the 
of  a  mammal  when  blocd  which  haa  been  estravaaated  ■ 
removed, «.;.  after  a  bruise.  Thefiist  effect  of  the  haemonhage 
Is  aa  exudative  bflammatioo,  during  which  leucocytes  arrive  in 
kcge  nnmbere  and  engulf  the  corpuscles.  In  the  r>of  ■  of 
di^stiott  e^bich  follows  the  haeniogbbin  is  altered  and  new 
pigmenta  formed  from  it.  In  mammshi  this  pigment  is  dark  red 
or  brownish,  m  the  pigeon  It  is  green.  Finally  the  cofpmdn 
are  oomplatdly  digcated.   A  !ti**irg^'ff  phfiynnmn  p*^y  hr  fthnrrft^ 


PHALANGER 


343 


fii  eooaadoa  with  tbe  mnovBl  of  ceD  debris  ictulting  ffom  any 
injury.  Numbers  oi  phagocytes  may  be  found  at  work  in  this 
dkection,  for  instance  in  the  pus  formed  within  an  aseptic 
abscess.  Hence  we  may  regard  the  phagocytes  as  acting  as  the 
scavengers  of  the  tissues. 

In  the  instances  we  have  been  dealing  with  the  phagocytes 
are  chiefly  of  the  class  of  wandering  cells  and  are  brought  to  the 
seat  of  their  activity  by  the  blood.  In  rismining  any  tissue 
where  the  process  is  going  on  it  is  seen  that  the  phagocytes  have 
accumulated  there  in  birge  numbers.  They  have  b^m  attracted 
to  the  damaged  area.  The  mechanism  which  effects  this  attrac- 
tion is  a  chemical  one — chemiotaik.  At  the  seat  of  the  change 
chemical  substances  are  produced  which  act  upon  the  phagocytes, 
causing  them  to  migrate  towards  the  source — ^positive  chenuo- 
taxis.  Apparently  the  material  dissolving  from  cell  d6bris  can 
act  in  this  manner  Thus  if  a  capiihtry  tube  filled  with  a  tissue 
extract  be  inserted  under  the  skin  of  an  animal,  within  a  short 
time  it  will  be  found  to  be  surrounded  with  numbers  of  leuco- 
cytes, which  may  also  have  encroached  into  the  tube  itself. 
As  in  other  instances  of  chemiotaxis  the  same  chemical  stimulus 
in  a  higher  concentration  may  repel  the  cells— negative  chemio- 
taxis. Instances  of  this  are  especially  frequent  in  relation  to 
micro-Organisms  and  phagocytes,  to  whidi  we  may  now  turn. 

That  phagocytes  can  paralyse,  kill  and  digest  many  micro- 
organisms is  the  main  fact  in  Metchnikoff's  theory  of  the  nature 
of  immunity    The  reaction  may  be  readily  studied  by  injecting 
a  small  quantity  of  a  fluid  culture  of  some  mildly  pathogenic 
organism  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  an  animal,  and  in  the  course 
of  an  hour  or  so  examining  a  smear  from  the  surface  of  the 
omentum,  when  an  abundance  of  phagocytes  enclosing  the  organ- 
ism in  different  stages  of  digestion  will  be  found.    Or  we  may 
adopt  Irishman's  method,  in  which  a  few  drops  of  human  blood 
are  diluted  with  saline  solution  and  centrifuged.    The  layer  of 
white  corpuscles  Is  pipetted  off,  suspended  in  serum,  and  a 
minute  drop  of  a  suspension  of  a  pathogenic  organism  is  added. 
The  preparation  is  then  incubated  at  37°  C.  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour.     Upon  examim'ng  a  drop  of  this  mixture  a  number  of 
bacteria  are  found  within  the  phagocytes.   Thus  this  attack  and 
destruction  of  bacteria  by  phagocytes  may  take  place  within  the 
body  or  by  cells  removed  from  the  body.    Whether  or  no  a 
phagocyte  can  engulf  bacteria  u  dependent  upon  a  number  of 
factors — partly   specific  properties  of   the   phagocyte,  partly 
factors  varying  with  the  constitution  of  the  body  serum.    Thus 
Wright  and  DougUs.  employing  Leishman's  method,  have  proved 
that  leucocytes  do  not  take  up  bacteria  freely  unless  the  scrum 
in  which  they  are  suspended  contain  opsonins.    They  found,  for 
example,  that  leucocytes  taken  from  a  patient  suffering  from  a 
pyococci  infection  if  suspended  fan  normal  human  serum  take 
up  the  cocci  abundantly,  whereas  if  the  same  leucocytes  are 
suspended  under  similar  conditions  in  the  patient's  own  scnmi 
the  reaction  may  be  almost  absent    Further,  leucocytes  taken 
from  a  normal  individual  and  suspended  in  the  patient's  scrum 
are  practically  inactive,  while  the  same  phagocytes  in  normal 
serum  arc  very  active.    Exactly  how  the  substance  in  the  serum 
acts  is  undecided,  but  it  has  beoi  proved  that  there- are  in  serum 
substances  which  become  fixed  to  bacteria  and  which  render  them 
an  easier  prey  to  the  phagocytes.   This  specific  opsonin  ts  used  up 
when  the  bacteria  are  added  to  the  serum,  so  that  if  the  bacteria 
are  subsequently  removed  the  serum  is  no  longer  active.    There 
is  evidence  too  that  there  is  a  mtdtipUdty  of  opsonins.   As  to  the 
origin  of  the  opsonins  we  have  no  certain  evidence.    It  is  sug- 
gested that  they  are  a  secretion  from  the  leucocytes  themselves 
and  that  it  is  an  evidence  of  another  and  preliminary  mode  of 
attack  possessed  by  the  leucocyte,  vis.  the  discharge  of  a  secre- 
tion from  the  cell  which  is  to  damage  or  paralyse  the  bacterium 
and  thus  enable  the  phagocyte  to  engulf  it. 

The  mechanism  of  destruction  of  a  bacterium  once  it  has  been 
taken  up  by  a  phagocyte  is  probably,  jost  as  in  the  instance  of 
dead  cellular  material,  one  of  intracellular  digestion.  The 
bacterium  before  being  engulfed  is  probably  inert  in  most 
instances,  though  it  may  yet  prove  too  strong  for  the  phagocyte. 
The  next  stage  we  can  trace  is  the  formation  of  a  vacuole  around 


the  organism,  or,  if  tht  latter  be  large,  anwnd  a  part  of  the 
organism,  and  the  part  thus  surrounded  quickly  shows  signs  of 
destruction.  For  Distance,  its  staining  reactions  become  weaker. 
When  a  part  only  of  the  organism  is  sunotmded  by  a  vacuole 
the  part  thus  sunoonded  aoon  ceases  to  stain,  while  the  remain- 
ing part  stains  normally,  and  we  thus  have  a  marked  contrast 
evidencing  the  two  stages. 

In  the  next  place  we  must  ask  which  are  the  ceDs  possessing 
phagocytic  powers  ?  Leaving  apart  thecdls  lining  the  alimentary 
tract  (because  we  know  practiodly  nothing  of  their  power  in  th£i 
Tesptet)  a  number  of  free  cells  possess  amoeboid  properties  aa 
weU  as  also  a  number  of  fixed  ceUs^  These  latter  are  attached  to 
certain  spots  of  a  tissue,  but  are  capable  of  throwing  out  processes 
which  can  seize  upon  parUdes  of  foreign  matter  or  even  upon 
certain  dementa  of  the  same  organism.  Of  this  category 
Metchnikoff  distinguishes  the  nerve  cells,  the  hirge  cells  of  the 
spleen  pulp  and  of  lymph  glands,  certain  endothelial  cells,  the 
neurogUa  cells,  and  perhaps  certain  cells  of  connective  tissues. 
All  these  dements  can  under  certain  conditions  act  as  phago- 
cytes, and  with  the  exception  of  the  nerve  oeUs  all  are  of  meso- 
blastic  origin.  Those  of  greater  importance  on  account  of  their 
greater  activity  in  this  respect  are  the  large  splenic  and  lymph 
cells,  the  neuroglia  ccHs  and  certain  endothelial  cells.  With 
regard  to  the  wandering  cells  Metchnikoff  considers  that  some  are 
cotainly  non-phagocytic,  for  instance  the  lymphocytes.  Accord- 
ing to  Metchnikoff  it  is  only  when  these  cdls  become  oMer  and 
have  devebped  a  nudeus  rich  in  chromatin  and  an  abundant  cell 
body  that  these  cells  devdop  phagocytic  properties.  This  is 
the  brge  hyaline  leucocyte.  The  polymorphonudear  and  the 
eosinophil  leucocyte  are  both  phagocytes.  Metchnikoff  there- 
fore divides  the  phagoc3rtes  into  two  classes — the  microphagcs, 
oHnprising  the  polymorphonuclear  and  the  eosinophil  cell,  and 
the  macrophages,  containing  the  large  hyaline  cell,  the  cell  of  the 
splenic  pulp,  the  endothelial  ceD  and  the  neuroglia  cell.  From 
further  obsorvatifm  of  these  cells  he  coodudes  that  the  micro- 
phages  are  chi^y  concerned  in  opposing  the  micro-organisms  of 
acute  infections,  whereas  the  macrophages  are  chiefly  concerned 
in  combating  chronic  infections.  It  is  the  macrophage  also 
which  is  concerned  in  removing  cdl  dfbris,  44.  red  corpusdes 
from  a  haemorrhage  or  the  red  corpusdes  of  another  animal  which 
may  have  been  introduced  experimentally. 

Metchnikoff  and  his  co-workers  have  shown  that  the  two 
prindpal  groiq»  of  leucocytes  arc  generally  spread  throughout 
the  vertebrates.  Thus  instances  of  each  kind  are  found  even  in 
the  lamprey,  thou^  here  their  staining  properties  are  feebler; 
also  cells  which  show  but  small  differences  from  the  analogous 
cells  of  mammals  are  found  in  the  alligator.  (T  G.  Br.) 

PHALAMOER,  a  book-name  applied  to  the  more  typical 
representatives  of  the  group  of  dlprotodont  marsupial  mammals, 
including  the  cuscuses  of  the  Moluccas  and  Celebes,  and  the  so- 
called  opossums  of  Australia,  and  thus  oollectivdy  the  whole 
family  Phalangeridae.    (See  Maxsuvxaua.) 

Phalangers  generally  are  small  or  medium-sixed  woolly^* 
coated  marsupials,  with  long,  powerful,  and  often  prehensQe 
tails,  large  daws,  and  opposable  nailless  first  hind  toes.  They 
seem  in  the  day  to  be  dull  and  sleepy,  but  are  alert  at  night. 
They  live  mostly  upon  fruits,  leaves  and  blossoms,  although  a  few 
feed  habitually  upon  insects,  and  all  relish,  in  confinement,  an 
occask>nal  bird  or  other  small  animal  Several  possess  flying- 
membranes  stretched  between  their  fore  and  hind  Umbs,  by  the 
hdp  of  which  they  can  make  long  and  sustained  leaps  through 
the  air,  ]Ske  flying-squirrels;  but  the  possession  of  these  flying- 
membranes  does  not  seem  to  be  any  indication  of  special  affinity, 
the  characters  of  the  skull  and  teeth  sharply  dividing  the  flying 
forms  and  uniting  them  with  other  spedes  of  the  non-fl>ing 
groups.  The  skull  (see  fig.  i)  is,  as  a  rule,  broad  and  flattened, 
with  the  posterior  part  swollen  out  laterally  owing  to  the 
numerous  air-cells  situated  in  the  substance  of  the  squamosal 
bones.  The  dental  formula  is  very  variable,  especially  as  regards 
the  premolars,  of  which  some  at  least  in  each  genus  are  reduced 
to  functionless  rudimenU.  and  may  even  vary  in  number  on  the 
two  sidM  of  the  jaw  of  the  same  individual.    The  indsors  are 


344 


EHALANGER 


aln]«  f,  the  lomrtnfnrt  lugt  utd  InSnad  fonranb,  l 
tba  caobia  nannilty  f,  of  vhich  the  inlOdot  it  *lw>yi  miau 
■ad  in  oae  g«ii»  (tncrally  aliMiit.  Hw  Botui  Diunba  dtl 
I  or  4.    AO  Uie  ^wds  bm  dtiaUMl  u*  inchutod  in  I 

le  (unily  Pbalusebdu^  anrdotcd  to  utidE' 


Fl0.i.-»idIolCnyCaKu> 

(fiiAwrff^ 

ue  Bid  to 

■  Koreof  tpo: 

lit  DM  upfKr  1 
1  •>(  Uk  Dul^ir 

1    Thufcnt 
viwudibe 

*  primitive  c 

vhilc  Tbc  hair  !■  ituck  and  wDoUy,  Uld  Euwal^  yeUawuh-olivB 
in  colour-  Thetc  plulanscn  Are  the  rinc-iHJLed  opdmuidi  at  tbe 
AuHmliafit  From  Ihi»  gcnui  if  apparcnUy  daivrd  (be  UDuari 
flying-aquirrH,  or  llyEiic-phalanfa'  (Ftlov^idti  «^fu),  which 
nnfs  f mn  QukuIuh)  to  Viciorii,  lod  n  the  lufea  ii<  the  flyini 
rraup.  IM  deiidliaa  ii  wiuiiUy  linDar  to  [hat  nl  Afliiricihnu. 
•Itbouih  tiKR  it  one  pur  kit  ol  cbeek-teetb.  Bod  the  buthy  tall  ii 
ubcd  ind  prebeivile  4t  tbe  tip.  Itevening  to  the  Km-flylnE  *pccic«. 
we  tanCymmMiJtmi  UaSnltri,  ■  tnaU  udnHl  rrmi  Victoria 

Punioelana.  but  chcek-tielb  oI  ■  diBcml  typb  the  can  naked 
(imlad  e<  h^ry)  behind,  (laiidi  on  the  cbc*t  and  between  thcurs. 
and  the  tail  lou  and  evenly  buiby  to  the  tip.  Fnmi  thli  are 
evideiilly  derfvvd  the  flyinf^phatinRfi — flyinf-aquirRli — ol  the 
Bemta  Ptbtirmtt  vhkli  differ  mcfely  lb  the  jiibumib  of  a  ^ut- 
chute.  sod  bit  lepwgnted  by  aevcn]  loeciee.  nnaina  rmra 
AiBtralia  (eiclinive  ol  Tumwu)  to  the  An  Iilandi.  New  Culrica, 
and    New   lidand.      Of   the   v^Unw-bellkd    Ipccin,    P    aialralu. 

cummon  la  aL  the  bnidiei  cf  New  Sewh  W^'frnnirTilt^'oK^ 
which  itREch  ^Jong  (be  coavl  Imm  Port  Philip  to  MoEetan  Bay- 
flowering,  and  [hut  offee  b  never-fallinf  wpply  of  the  blouRii 
tIpDn  which  it  feedi;  the  flowen  of  the  varimn  kinde  flf  g"'™'  aonlc 
ol  which  are  of  great  oaaaltud^  are  the  pnncipal  la^airiteL  Lilis 
tbc  net  if  the  tenue.  it  !•  noclumal  in  iu  habi[h  dwellinj  in  holei 
and  in  [he  ipouti  of  the  larger  bonchei  during  the  djy,  and  djk- 
playinff  rhe  etcbic*!  activity  at  niehl  while  ninninG  over  the  Bnall 
leajy  branchn.  frequently  even  10  (heir  very  enTTCnUliei^  In  Kftrch  of 


moB  level  ground  i>  by  euch  ai  air  deMined  (or  lefil  Srmfc  U 
chafed  of  ibrted  [a  Oiftbt  ir  aiccnda  la  tbc  highnt  branch  and 
performi  the  moit  enomHua  l«ip3,  awecpjnj;  from  tree  to  tree  with 
wonderful  addreei;  a  ilight  etcvation  ^v«  i[<  borty  in  impctut 
which  with  tbe  enpaunn  nl  Its  menbnne  enaUn  it  to  pas  to  a 
cooiidenble  diMance.  alwan  uccndlBC  a  little  at  the  eitnanity  of 
tbe  leap;  by  thii  a»ni  the  animal  it  preveoud  from  msvin* 
tbe  .hock  wbii:h  i[  wnuld  olbcrwlie  •uhiIl" 

A  arfond  speciea.  F.  Kiurrai.  in  iDnie  wiyi  one  c<  the  raoM 
beautilul  nf  all  mamnula.  Ii  thawn  In  it.  1, 

A  pnciiehr  Bmilar  relaiianihip  ejdrta  between  the  tiny  fwber- 
tailed  phaUn(er.  DtsUltclua^tI  pniuaia,  of  New  Guinea,  and  Ibe 
(quaDy  minute  piinny  Hyinephalaiigcr  or  llyinii-"'0ine.  Amboltl 
fyfuuna.  of  Qunnilaml.  New  South  Wain  and  Victoria;  both 
belnf  chanclennd  by  the  haira  ol  the  tail  forming  a  vane  on  each 
rid^  M  nil  ■•  by  Bdu  tl  loac  bain  be  the  bua  ol  tba  lUn^ 


™le"»  fl^K'" 

bough  ID  bough;  externally  they  1 


Fio.  I.— Squlnd  FlyiDf-Pbalanget  (Pilim  jnmu). 
e  leem.  largB,  tbin,  and  nearly  naked  eata,  wUhovt  tnlta  w^fcj 
at  tbe  bate,  iharp  and  nidineatary  fnu  cbwa  asd  long  risep 
id  once,  and  moute-like  toil,  which  la  fuin  at  the  tuc,  Uwa 
Hy,  and  natcd  and  preh«Hile  at  the  tip.  Tbefv  Duy  he  either 
,  or  acven  paira  of  cheek-teeth,  o(  vbfeh  tbe  binder  ouiy  tour 
laB  nvoth  cun,  and  tbe  int  upfiar  Incitor  ia  mjch  loiter  Amm 
e  other  twa  The  itripid  pbalancerB  IPaOyltfala)  an  lun* 
iproiimate  we  of  a  siuitrel.  eaJy  [rcopii«Sli7 
:lhiw  and  black  itrimng  of  tbe  fur,  and  ihe  (lender 

— >.    1 ,0^     -fi^   typtcal    D.    fterirwla    at 

ind  New  CuiiH.  but  D.  Pflflm, 
wajcn  naaineiDuru  loeauti  mere  eioocaled,  11  niiliiwi  lij  TijiiiaB 
They  have  Kvrrn  pain  of  cbcck-tath,  fA  which  tbe  lour  laA  afc 

any  other  phalineei     They  apparently  feed  on  bolhTavea  and 
rruba.  pntubly  ejar>c[ifk  the  ^taw  fmn  enaniea  witT 
^lad  IDC.    TtfetaUiatamorlnabanoatba  ludtr 


f&v 


sIlW 

lied  Erilly  by  the 


_  _, (Pioltntrt),  which  arc  arboreal  aniirBli  el  tbe 

anKonniate  tia  of  eatt.  and  laaiw  Inn  Ibe  SetoaioB  Iikait* 
chnugh  New  Cujaea  and  tba  MoIusch  ta  Celabea.  btini,  is  ha, 
the  only  Oki  World  macdupiala  found  wcKwardi  of  NewCwncL 
Eitcmally  they  are  characLcruted  by  ■hcv  (hick  woolly  fuc.  Actt 
or  medium  esO,  which  are  bairy  onilde,  and  KHnetiiKi  butdc  M 
well,  bv  the  Daked  and  ttriBtad  Balea  nl  (1»  fM,  and  the  la^  bM 
markedly  pccheniile  tak,  nl  whKh  (be  bBinl  hall  la  furred  lib*  d« 
body,  and  the  tcnniba]  hall  entirely  naked-  The  Bundier  d  eWb- 
[ccth  variet.  owing  to  the  frequent  ab«ncc  of  aome  of  Ibe  Inni 
onet,  but  Ihete  are  generally  irven  paira,  of  which  ihe  laa  foDreairr 
cnieena  intemaBy  and  cu^ia  atemaily.  About  tea  ipceifa  an 
koawn.  ol  which  Ibe  grey  cukiu  IP  trioMa)  of  tm&p^  a^ 
Timor  waa  dlacDVeied  about  joo  yean  ago.  and  waa  ihua  the  brat 

Ihe  maleaare  muked  iHth  onngeand  while,  whOe  TheffinaJeaaR 
anUomly  grerWi.  Cucnaei  are  ileepy  aniraalt,  feeiBBC  o^alr 
on  leavea,  but  aim  devaarlnff  bieda  and  snail  munniai& 

Nearly  allied  to  tbe  CBKuiea  are  the  typH:al  AuamlWa  pbalanvn^ 
or  opoesumi.  forming  Ihe  genu*  TVv^ijfraj.  Ttvy  dMer  inuq 
tbe  cuKUfei,  among  other  fealuree,  by  ihe  ihick  and  non-taperiag 
tall  being  covered  witb  bnby  hair  up  to  the  extmnc  tip,  wbkh  £ 
BBkad,  at  ia  a  aanow  llH  alosg  the  iniMla  ri  tha  wnaal  thM 


PHALANX-^PHAtTAN 


34S 


(or  nther  more)  of  the  loirer  surface,  by  the  preaefice  of  •  glaad 
oa  the  chest,  and  by  the  lolcs  of  the  htna  feet  being  hairy.  In  the 
•kuU  the  upper  canine  ts  separated  from  the  outermost  incisor, 
instead  of  close  to  it  as  in  the  cuscuaes  (fig.  i).  The  best-known 
species  is  the  brush-tailed  phalanger,  or  brush-tailed  opossum 
(T.  vuipeaila),  of  Australia,  an  aiuroal  of  the  sis*  of  a  small  fox. 
represented  in  Tasmania  by  the  brown  phalanger  (F.  wtdpeciUa 
frntiginosus).  The  short-eared  phalanger  (7*.  €amiHa)  repeesenu  the 
group  in  Southern  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales.  The  dental 
lomHila  in  both  is  «.  f.  c.  |.  ^  i,  m,  f.  These  animals  are  wholly 
arboreal  and  mainly  nocturnail  in  their  habits;  and  it  is  these  which 
form  the  chief  game  in  "  opassum*sbootiag  "  among  the  gum-trees 
by  moonlight. 
The  long-snouted  phalanger  is  referred  to  under  Marsupialia. 

(R.L.*) 

PHALANX  (Gr.  ^AXoy^,  of  unknown  origin),  the  name,  In 
Greek  history  of  the  aijangement  of  heavy-armed  infantry  In  a 
single  dose  mass  of  spearmen  (see  Akmy:  Jlistory).  In  anatomy. 
the  Latin  plural  phalanges  is  the  term  applied  to  the  bones  of 
the  finger  and  toe,  and  in  botany  to  a  group  of  united 
stamen  dusters.  The  term  "phalanx"  was  adopted  by 
F.  C.  M.  Fourier  (q.v.)  as  the  name  of  the  sodalistic  community 
living  in  a  **  phalanstery." 

PRALARIS,  tyrant  of  Acragas  (Agrigentum)  hi  Sicily,  g,  570- 
554  B.a  He  ^iTas  entrusted  with  the  building  of  the  temple 
of  Zeus  Atabyrius  in  the  dtadel,  and  took  advantage  of  his 
position  to  make  himself  despot  (Aristotle,  Poiilus,  v.  xo). 
Under  his  ntle  Agxigentnm  seems  to  have  attained  oonsideosblc 
prosperity.  He  supplied  the  city  with  water,  adorned  it  wiih 
fine  buildings,  snd  strengthened  it  with  walls.  On  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Island  the  people  of  Himera  elected  him  general 
with  ab:io1ute  power,  in  spite  of  the  warnings  of  the  poet 
Stesichorus  (Aristotle,  Rhetoric,  ii.  eo).  According  to  Suldas  he 
succeeded  in  making  himself  master  of  the  whole  of  the  Island. 
He  was  at  last  overthrown  in  a.  general  rising  headed  by 
Telcmachus,  the  ancestor  of  Theron  (tyrant  e,  488-472),  and 
burned  in  his  brazen  bull. 

After  ages  have  held  up  Phalaris  to  infamy  for  hb  excessive 
cruelty.  In  his  braxen  buU.  invented,  it  is  said,  by  PferiUus  of 
Athens,  the  tyrant's  victims  were  shut  up  a|id.  a  fire  being  kindled 
beneath,  were  roasted  alive,  while  their  shrieks  represented  the 
bcUowtngof  the  bull.  Pcrillus  himself  «  said  to  have  been  the  first 
victim.  There  is  hardly  room  to  doubt  that  we  have  here  a  tradition 
of  human  sacrifice  in  oonncxton  with  the  worshipof  the  Phoenician 
Baal  (Zeus  Atabyrius)  such  as  prevailed  at  Rhodes;  when  misfortune 
threatened  Rhodes  the  brazen  bulls  in  his  temple  bellowed.  The 
Rbodians  brought  this  worship  to  Gcb,  which  they  founded  con- 

fiintly  with  the  Cretans,  and  from  Gela  it  passed  to  AgricentunL. 
uman  sacrifices  to  Baal  were  common,  and.  though  in  Phoenicia 
moper  there  is  no  proof  that  the  victims  were  burned  alive,  the 
Oirthaginians  hid  a  brazen  image  of  Baal,  from  whose  down- 
turned  hands  the  children  slid  into  a  pit  of  fire;  and  the  story  that 
Minos  had  a  brazen  man  who  pressed  people  to  his  gbwina  breast 
points  to  similar  rites  in  CrcU,  where  the  chiid-dcvourio;{  Minotaur 
must  certainlv  be  connected  with  Baal  and  the  favourite  sacrifice 
to  him  of  children.  .....  , 

The  story  of  the  bull  cannot  be  dismissed  as  pure  invention^ 
Pindar  {Pytidd,  i.  185).  who  livcd-tess  than  a  century  afurwards* 
eaqvcasly  associates  this  instrument  of  torture  with  the  jume  of 
the  tyrant.  There  was  certainly  a  brazen  bull  at  Agrigentum, 
which  was  carried  off  by  the  Carthaginians  to  Carthage,  whence 
it  was  again  taken  by  Scipio  and  restored  to  Agrigentum.  In 
later  times  the  tradition  piwailod  that  Phalaris  was  a  naturally 
humane  man  and  a  patron  of  philosophy  and  literature.  .He  is. 
so  described  in  the  aeclamations  ascribed  to  Lucian,  and  in  the 
letters  which  bear  his  own  name.  Plutarch,  too.  though  he  Ukes 
the  unfavourable  view,  mentions  that  the  Sicilians  gave  to  the 
severity  of  Phalaris  the  name  of  Justice  and  a  hatred  of  crime* 
Rhalans  may  thus  have  been  one  01  th9se  men  who  combine  justice 
aind  even  humanity  with  religious  fanaticism  (Su'idas,  s.v. ;  Diod.  Sic 
ix.  20.  AO,  xiii.  90,  xxxii.  25  J  Polybius  vii.  7,  xii,  25;  Cfcero,  />• 

The  letters  bearing  the  name  of  Phalans  (148  m  number)  are 
now  chiefiy  remembered  for  the  crushing  exposure  they  received  at 
the  hands  of  Richard  BentW  in  his  controversy  with  the  Hon. 
Charics  Boyle,  who  had  publi^ied  an  edition  of  them  in  16^.  The 
first  edition  of  Bentley's  Visstrialion  on  Phalarit  appeared  m  f*97, 
and  the  second  edition,  replying  to  the  answer  whkh  Boyle  pobtiAed 
In  1698.  came  out  in  1699*  From  the  mention  in  (he  letters  of 
towns  (Pbintia,  Abesa  and  Tauromcnium)  which  did  not  exist  in 
the  time  of  Phalaris,  from  the  imitations  of  authors  (Herodotus, 
Democritus,  Euripides,  Callimachus)  who  wrote  lontf  after  he  was 
dead,  from  the  reference  to  tmmdies.  though  tracedy  was  not  yet 
invented  in  the  lifetime  of  Phalaris,  from  the  diakct,  which  is  not 


Dorian  but  Attic,  nay.  New  or  Late  Attic,  as  well  as  f  ram  ahnrdities 
in  the  matter,  and  the  entire  absence  of  any  reference  to  them  by 
any  writer  before  Stobaeus  (c.  a.d.  500),  Bentley  sufficiently  proved 
that  the  letters  were  written  by  a  sophist  or  rhetorician  (possibly 
Adrianua  of  Tyre,  died  e.  a.d.  103)  hundreds  of  years  after  the  dcatn 
of  Phalaris.  Suidas  admired  the  letters,  which  he  thought  genuine, 
and  in  modem  times,  befone  their  exposure  by  Bentley,  they  were 
thought  highly  of  by  some  («.g.  Sir  William  Temple  in  his  Essay  oh 
Atuioni  and  Modern  Learnini),  though  others,  as  Politianus  and 
Erasmus,  perceived  that  they  were  not  by  Phalaris.  The  latest 
edition  of  the  Bristles  la  by  R.  Henchcr,  in  Epistotoffnpki  graed 
((873),and  of  Bentley's  Dissertation  by W. Wagner  (with  introduction 
and  notes,  1883) ;  sec  especially  R.  C  Jebb,  LQe  oj  Beuiley  (1882). 

PHAUICISM,  or  Pralusu  (from  Gr.  ^a>X6s),  an  anthropo- 
logical term  applied  to  that  form  of  nature  worship  in  which 
adoration  is  paid  to  (he  generative  function  symbolized  by  the 
phallus,  the  male  organ.  It  is  common  among  primitive 
peoples,  especially  in  the  East,  and  bad  been  prominent  also 
among  more  advanced  peoples,  e.g.  the  Phoenicians  and  the 
Greeks.  In  its  most  elementary  form  it  is  associated  with 
frankly  orgiastic  rites,  lliis  aspect  remains  in  more  advanced 
forms,  but  gradually  it  tends  to  give  place  to  the  joyous  recog- 
nition of  the  principle  of  natural  reproduction.  In  Greece  for 
example,  where  phallidsm  was  the  essence  of  the  Dionysiac 
worship  and  a  phallic  revel  was  the  origin  of  comedy  (see  also 
IlERSiEs),  the  purely  material  and  the  symbolical  aspects  no 
doubt  existed  side  by  side;  the  Orphic  mysteries  bad  to  the 
intellectual  Greeks  a  significance  wholly  difTerent  from  that  which 
they  bad  to  the  common  people.  Phallic  worship  is  specially 
interesting  as  a  form  of  sympathetic  magic:  observing  the 
feriillzing  eilect  of  sun  and  rain,  the  savage  sought  to  promote 
the  growth  of  vegetation  in  the  spring  by  means  of  embolic 
sexual  indulgence.  Such  were  the  rites  which  shocked  Jewish 
writers  in  connexion  with  the  worship  of  Baal  and  AstSrulh 
(sec  Baal,  and  cf.  Atarcatis,  Isiitar).  llie  same  principle  h 
at  the  root  of  the  widespread  nature  worship  of  Asia  Minor,  whose 
chief  deity,  the  Great  Mother  of  the  Gods  {q.v.)^  is  the  personifi- 
cation of  the  earth's  fertility:  similarly  In  India  worship  Is  paid 
to  divine  mothers.  GcneraUy  It  should  be  observed  that  phallic 
worship  Is  not  specially  or  perhaps  primarily  paid  to  male  deities, 
though  commonly  the  more  important  deity  is  accompapicd  by 
a  companion  of  the  other  sex,  or  is  itself  androgynous,  the  twp 
^mbols  being  found  together. 

In  the  Dionysiac  rites  the  emblem  was  carried  at  the  head  of 
(be  processions  and  was  Immediately  foUowcd  by  a  body  of  men 
dressed  as  women  (the  ithyphalli).  In  Rome  the  phallus  was 
the  most  common  amulet  worn  by  children  to  avert  the  evil 
eye:  the  Latin  word  vfos/ascinum  (cf.  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  xlx.  50, 
satyrica  signa;  Varro,  Ling.  Lai.  yii.  97,  ed.  MuUcr).  Pollux 
says  that  such  emblems  were  placed  by  smiths  before  their 
forges.  Before  the  temple  of  Aplirodlte  at  HIerapolis  iq.v.) 
were  two  huge  phalli  (180  ft.  high),  and  other  similar  objects 
existed  In  all  parts  of  the  ancient  world  both  in  statuary  and  in 
painting.  Among  the  Hindus  (see  HiNOUiSii)  the  phallus  is 
called  ling/a  or  liagam,  with  the  female  counterpart  cdlcd  yoni; 
the  linga  symbolizes  the  generative  power  of  Siva,  an4  is  a  charm 
against  sterility.  The  rites  classed  together  as  Sakli  puja 
represent  the  adoratloa  of  the  female  principle.  In  Mexico, 
Central  America,  Peru  and  other  parts  of  America  phallic 
emblems  are  found.  The  tendency,  howevcrt  to  identify  all 
obclisk-liLc  stones  and  tree-trunks,  together  with  rites  like 
circumcision,  as  remains  of  phallic  worship,  has  met  with  much 
criticism  ie.g.  Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  2nd  ed., 
pp.  456  sqq.). 

For  authorities  see  works  quoted  under  Religiom:  (S  A  and  B 
ad  fin. 

PHALTAN.  a  native  state  of  India,  in  the  central  divirion  of 
Bombay,  ranking  as  one  of  the  Satara  jagirs.  Area,  397  sq.  m.; 
pop.  (190J),  45,739,  showing  a  decrease  of  31%  in  the  decade. 
The  estimated  revenue  Is  Jiii,ooo,  and  the  tribute  £640.  The 
chief,  whose  title  is  nimbalkar,  is  a  Mahralta,  tracing  his  descent 
to  a  grantee  from  a  Delhi  emperor  in  the  14th  century.  The 
town  of  Phaltan  is  37  m.  north-east  of  Satara;. pop.  (190 Of 
95". 


34^ 


PHANARIOTES— PHARISEES 


PHANARIOTES,  a  name  derived  from  Phonar,  the  chief 
Greek  quarter  at  Stamboul,  where  the  oecumenical  patriarchate 
is  situated,  and  applied  to  those  members  of  families  resident 
in  the  Phanar  quarter  who  between  the  years  1711  and  182 1 
were  appointed  hospodars  of  the  Danubian  principalities;  that 
period  of  Mold»-Wallachian  history  is  also  usually  termed  the 
Phanariote  epoch.  It  a  not  to  be  understood  as  marking  the 
introduction  into  the  principalities  of  the  Greek  element,  which 
had  already  established  itself  firmly  in  both  provinces,  to  both  of 
which  Greek  princes  had  been  appointed  before  the  i8th  century. 
But  whereas  the  Greek  families  of  earlier  introduction  gradually 
became  merged  in  their  country  of  adoption,  the  later  inmi- 
grants  retained  their  separate  nationality  and  grew  to  be  powerful 
agcnls  for  furthering  the  spread  of  Graedsm  in  the  principalities. 
The  person  raised  to  the  princely  dignity  was  usually  the  chief 
dragoman  of  the  Sublime  Porte,  and  was  consequently  well 
versed  in  contemporary  politics  and  the  statecraft  of  the  Otto- 
man government.  The  new  prince,  who  was  compelled  to  pur- 
chase his  elevation  with  a  heavy  bribe,  proceeded  to  the  country 
which  he  was  selected  to  govern,  and  of  the  language  of  which 
he  was  in  nearly  every  case  totally  ignorant,  accompanied  by  a 
horde  of  needy  hangers-on;  he  and  his  acolytes  counted  on  re- 
couping themselves  in  as  short  a  time  as  possible  for  their  initial 
outlay  and  in  bying  by  a  sufficiency  to  live  on  after  the  termina- 
tion of  the  prince's  brief  authority.  It  was  the  interest  of  the 
Porte  to  change  the  princes  as  often  as  possible,  as  the  accession 
donation  thus  became  due  more  frequently.  When,  owing  to  the 
numerous  cases  of  treachery  among  the  princes,  the  choice  became 
limited  to  a  few  families  the  plan  was  bit  upon  of  frequently 
shifting  the  prince  from  one  province  to  the  other:  the  prince  of 
Wallachia,  the  richer  of  the  two  principalities,  was  always  ready 
to  pay  a  handsome  douceur  to  avert  his  transfer  to  Yassy;  the 
prince  of  Moldavia  was 'equally  ready  to  bribe  his  supporters 
at  Constantinople  to  secure  his  appointment  to  Wallachia.  To 
raise  funds  to  satbfy  the  rapacity  of  the  Porte  the  princes  became 
past  masters  in  the  art  of  spoliation,  and  the  inhabitants,  liable 
to  every  species  of  tax  which  the  ingenuity  of  their  Greek  rulers 
could  devise,  were  reduced  to  the  last  stage  of  destitution.  The 
active  part  taken  by  the  Greek  princes  in  the  revolt  of  1820-21 
induced  the  Porte  to  revert  to  the  appointment  of  native 
princes. 

PHANIASt'of  Eresus  in  Lesbos,  Greek  philosopher,  important 
as  an  immediate  follower  of  and  commentator  on  Aristotle, 
came  to  Athens  about  ^si  B.C.,  and  joined  his  compatriot, 
Theophrastus,  in  the  Peripatetic  school.  He  wrote  works  entitled 
Attolytka,  Categoriae  and  De  inter pretctionct  which  were  either 
paraphrases  or  critical  commentaries,  and  seem  to  have  added 
little  to  Aristotle's  own  writings.  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias 
refers  to  a  work  irp6t  ^Utiapw,  and  Athenaeus  quotes  from 
another  treatise,  Aiainst  Ute  Sophists,  Outside  philosophy,  he 
and  Theophrastus  carried  on  the  physical  Investigations  of 
Aristotle;  Athenaeus  frequently  quotes  from  a  work  on  botany 
which  manifests  great  care  In  definitions  and  accuracy  of  obser- 
vation. From  Plutarch  {Life  of  Themistoctes)  we  learn  that 
he  was  regarded  as  an  historian  of  importance.  The  diief  of 
his  historical  works  is  the  Prytantis  Eresii,  which  was  either  a 
history  of  his  native  place  or  a  general  history  of  Greece  arranged 
according  to  the  period  of  the  Ercsfan  magistracy.  He  wrote 
also  works  on  the  Tyrants  of  Sicily  and  on  tyranny  in  general. 
The  value  of  these  books  is  attested  by  the  frequency  with  which 
they  are  quoted  on  questions  of  chronology  (e.g.  by  Plutarch, 
Suldas,  Athenaeus).  To  the  history  of  Greek  literature  he 
contributed  works  on  the  poets  and  on  the  Socratics;  both  of 
whkh  are  quoted. 

'  He  must  be  distinguished  from  another  Phanias,  a  Stoic  phik>- 
■opber.  disciple  of  Posidonius.  Diogenes  La£nius  mentipas  a 
work  of  his  wherein  be  compoues  Posadonius  with  Panaetius  in 
arguing  from  physical  principles. 

'  PHANOCtBS,  Greek  elegiac  poet,  probably  flourished  about 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  His  extant  fragments  shot^ 
resemblances  in  style  and  language  to  Philetas,  CalUmachus  and 
Hermeslanaz.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  on  paederasty. 
A  lengthy  fragment  hi  Stobaeus  {floHUpum,  64)  describes 


the  love  of  Orpheus  for  the  youthful  Calab,  son  of  Boreas, 
and  his  subsequent  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Thradan 
women.  It  is  one  of  the  best  extant  ^>ecimens  of  Greek  ele^c 
poetry. 

See  N.  Bach,  Phiktae,  Ilemusiawutit,  et  Phanodis  reliquiat  (18^) : 
L.  Prctlcr,  AusgevdktU  Aufsatse  cms  dein  GtbieU  d*r  eiasstMckem 
AlUrtkmmsmtssenuhafl  (1864). 

PHANTASMAGORIA,  a  name  invented  by  a  certain  Philipstal 
in  1802  (from  Gr.  ^ayraciiA,  phantasm,  apparition;  and  6.yopi, 
assembly)  for  a  show  or  exhibition  of  optical  itlusaons  produced 
by  means  of  the  projecting  lantern  (q.v,).  The  word  has  since 
been  applied  to  any  rapidly  or  strikingly  changing  scene,  and 
especially  to  a  disordered  or  fantastic  scene  or  picture  oif  the 
imagination. 

PHARAOH  (Par'oh),  the  Hebraized  title  of  the  king  of  Eg>-pt 
(q.v.),  in  Egyptian  Per-*o;  Phcron  in  Herodotus  represents  the 
same.  Its  combination  with  the  name  of  the  king,  as  in  Pharaoh- 
Nccho,  Phaiaoh-Hophra,  is  in  accordance  with  contemporary 
native  usage:  the  name  of  the  earlier  Pharaoh  Shishok  (Shesbonk) 
is  rightly  given  without  the  title.  In  hieroglyphic  a  king  bears 
several  names  preceded  by  distinctive  titles.    In  the  IVth 

Dynasty  there  might  be  four  of  the  latter:  (i)  V^  identifying 
him  with  the  royal  god  Horns;  the  name  is  commonly  written 
in  a  frame  ^^  representing  the  facade  of  a  bnilding, 
perhaps  a  palaoc  or  tomb,  on  which  the  falcon  stands.  (2) 
TS£  connecting  him  with  the  vulture  and  uraeus  god- 
desses, Nckhabi  and  Buto  of  the  south  and  north.    (3) 


a  hawk  on  the  syoibol  of  gold,  signifying  the  victorious  Horns. 

(4)    Tlvs   the  old  titles  of  the  rulers  of  the  separate  king- 

doros  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  to  be  read  */»<,  *'  butcher(?)  *• 
and  byti,  beekeepeT(?)  '*  The  personal  name  of  the  king 
followed  (4)p  and  was  enclosed  in  a  cartouche  CDt  ap- 
parently symbolizing  the  dicuit  of  the  sun  whidi  alone 
bounded  the  king's  rule.  Before  the  IVth  Dynasty  the  car- 
touche is  sddom  found:  the  usual  title  is  (i),  and  (3)  does  not 
occur.  In  the  Vtb  Dynasty  the  cxi&tom  b<^n  of  giving  the 
king  at  his  accession  a  special  name  connecting  him  with  the  sun : 
this  was  placed  in  the  cartouche  after  (4),  and  a  fifth  title 

added:  (5)    ^    Si-re,  "son  of  the  Sun-god,"  to 


a  cartoudie  containing  the  personal  name.  The  king  was  bnelly 
spoken  of  by  his  title  stni  (see  4),  or  Jwm-/,  "his  service,"  or  Ity, 
"  liege-lord."  These  titles  were  preserved  in  the  sacred  writing 
down  to  the  btest  age.  An  old  term  for  the  royal  palace 
establishment  and  esute  was  Per-*o,  "  the  Great  House,  "  aad 
this  gradually  became  the  personal  designation  of  PharKoh 
(cL  the  Grand  Porte),  displacing  all  others  i&  the  popular 
language.  (F.  Lu  G.)    ' 

PHARI,  a  town  of  Tibet.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  highest  and 
coldest  town  in  the  world,  being  15,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  *  As  it 
commands  the  road  between  the  Chumbl  Valley  and  Lhasa  and 
also  one  of  the  chid  passes  into  Bhutan,  Phari  is  of  considerable 
military  imporunce,  and  is  ddended  by  a  large  lort  or  Joaig, 
which  was  occupied  by  the  British  expedition  of  1904.  Phari 
Jong  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  about  1500  aj>.,  and  was 
enlarged  or  rebuilt  in  1792,  under  Chinese  advice,  as  a  ddenoe 
against  the  British.  It  has  the  appearance  of  a  medieval  castle, 
and  seems  to  have  been  built  in  iimutlon  of  the  Eoropcaa 
style. 

PHARISEES,  a  sect  of  the  Jews  first  mentioned  by  Joscphus,. 
\n  his  account  {AnL  ziiL  5,  9)  of  the  reign  of  Jonathan,  Che 
brother  and  successor  of  Judas  Maccabaeus.  The  name,  whkh 
may  be  translated  "  Separatbts,"  indicates  thdr  devotion  to 
the  ideal,  enforced  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  upon  the  reluctant 
Jews,  of -a  nation  separate  from  all  othcc  nations  la  virtue  of  its 


PHARMACOLOGY 


3+7 


ptaiSMT  TfMkm  to  Yaliweh  (Neh.  ix.)*  T&is  ideal  natioti 
consisted  of  «U  who  were  prepared  to  obey  the  Law  of 
Moses,  irreapective  of  their  natural  descent.  Consequently  the 
Pharisees,  who  seem  to  have  been  an  order  of  refigkMis  teachers, 
were  concerned  to  nlake  converts  (proselytes),  and  some  of  their 
greatest  teachers  were  of  non-Jewish  parentage.  They  were 
also  concwned  to  insist  upon  the  strict  obsiwance  of  the  Law, 
so  far  as  it  was  compatiUe  with  the  exigencies  of  ordinary  life, 
and  to  train  disdples  who  should  set  a  proper  ezatnple  to  the 
mass  of  the  people.   ' 

The  ideal  of  separation  descended  from  the  Great  Synagogue 
(Assembly)  of  the  time  of  Ezra  to  the  Synagogue  of  the  ||asi- 
daeans  (Assidaeons),  who  allied  themselves  with  Judas  Macca- 
baeus  when  his  followers  decided  to  suspend  the  law  of  the 
Sabbath,  in  order  that  the  true  Jews  might  preserve  themselves 
from  annilulation  and  survfve  to  keep  the  Law  as  a  whole.  This 
action  of  the  Qasidaeans  is  dtarfy  the  practical  outcome  of  the 
principle  wfifch  Josephus  describes  in  the  language  of  philosophy 
as  the  characteristic  of  the  Pbitrisees — **  some  things  and  not  all 
are  the  work  of  Fate  "  {Ant.  sni.  5,  9).    Fate  is  the  Stoic  term 
for  (jod;  and  these  foremnnen  of  the  Pharisees  judged  that  the 
time  had  come  for  them  to  take  action  rather  than  to  watt 
passively  on  (jod.  But  then  and  always  the  prime  concern  of  the 
Pharisees  was  the  extension  of  God*s  sovereignty  (ihc  Kingdom 
of  (kid)  throughout  the  worid.  God*s  will,  which  all  men  should 
obey,  was  revealed  in  the  Law,  and  though  He  might  appoint 
governors  over  them,  He  remained  their  King,  and  no  governor 
who  was  not  a  prophet— (5od's  mere  mouthpiece — could  com- 
mand their  unquestioning  obedience.    When  Judas  reconquered 
Jerusalem  and  re-dedicated  the  desecrated  Temple,  his  work, 
from  the  Pharisees*  point  of  view,  was  done.    The  Temple- 
worship  was  part  and  parcel  of  the  Divine  plan,  and  a  legitimate 
High  Priest  was  necessary.    Alanius  was,  therefore,  welcomed 
by  the  Hasdaeans,  and  only  his  treacherous  murder  of  sixty  of 
their  number  taught  them  that  any  Syrian  nominee  was  thdr 
enemy.    Later  they  acquiesced  in  the  election  of  Simon  to  the 
high-priesthood  with  the  condition  "  until  there  should  arise  a 
faithful  prophet  **;  but  some  of  them  remonstrated  against  the 
combination  of  the  sacred  office  with  the  position  of  political 
ruler  in  the  person  of  John  Hyrcanus  as  contrary  to  the  precedent 
set  by  Moses  at  his  death.  When  Alexandra  came  to  the  throne 
the  Pharisees  were  the  real  rulers  and  imposed  upon  the  people 
the  deductions  from  the  written  Law  which  formed  the  growing 
body  of  their  oral  tradition.    Their  reign  was  long  enough  to 
establish  this  tradition  in  respect  of  ritual,  and  even  when  this 
golden  age — as  it  seemed   to  later  Scribes — was  over  thqr 
exercised  a  paramount  influence  upoh  the  common  people. 
They  had  learned  to  read  God*s  will  in  the  events  of  history,  and 
deduced  (for  example)  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  from  the  death  of  the  martyrs  under  Antfochus  Epiphanes 
and  Aldmus.    And  what  they  learned  from  current  history  and 
from  the  ancient  history  of  the  nation  recorded  in  Scripture  they 
taught  in  the  synagogues,  which  corresponded  not  merely  to  the 
parish  churches  but  also  to  the  schools---day  schools  and  Sunday 
schools — of  to-day.  Apart  from  their  control  of  public  education, 
their  power  was  enhanced  by  their  efforts  to  better  the  position 
of  women,  and  by  their  notorious  leniency  in  the  matter  of 
punishments.  Everything — ^the  repeated  statements  of  Josephus 
and  the  facts  of  Jewish  history  after  a.d.  70 — goes  to  show  that 
the  Pharisees  moulded  the  religion  of  the  people.    Attempts 
have  been  made  in  modem  times  to  represent  the  Apocalyptisls 
as  opposed  to  the  Pharisees  and  as  occupying  the  position  in 
popular  estimation  which  Josephus  ascribes  to  the  Pharisees.  But 
for  such  representations  there  is  no  solid  ground.  Supcrfidally 
the  language  of  apocalypses  diffcis  from  that  of  rabbinic  deci- 
sions, and  where  the  seer  takes  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  ages 
the  mbbi  legislates  for  particular  cases.  But  even  in  the  Talmud 
the  reign  of  Alexandra  is  described  in  apocalyptic  language  such 
as  is  commonly  applied  to  the  future  age,  and  if  allowance  be 
made  for  the  symbolism  proper  to  revelations  it  is  dear  that 
essentially  the  scribe  and  the  seer  have  the  same  purpose  and 
even  the  same  doctrines.  The  Pharisees  were  occupied  with  the 


^icoemeal  teaKsatloB  of  the  dreams  of  thellr  tapposed  opponeotK; 
wfaich  gain  a  vague  glory  from  their  bdng  far  off.  * 

The  gospels  generally  have  left  upon  the  minds  of  men  an 
impression  unfavourable  to  the  Pharisees.  They  contain  de- 
nunciations attributed  to  our  Lord  and  assigned— with  obvious 
injustice  in  some  cases— to  the  scribes  of  this  sect.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  the  Pharisees  were  the  only  sect  of  the  Jews 
who  survived  in  Christian  times  and  that  the  Pharisees  were 
never  a  homogeneous  body  possessed  of  a  definite  policy  or  body 
of  doctrine.  Moreover  it  is  dear  that  our  Lord  denounced  not 
all  the  Pharisees  but  the  hypocrites  only,  as  did  the  rabbis 
whose  sasrings  are  reported  in  the  Talmud  and  other  Jewish 
books. .  Again  the  tldrd  gospel  in  particular  betrays  relations 
between  the  Pharisees  and  Jesus  very  different  from  those  of  the 
common  Christian  view,  wMch  conjures  up  an  impossible  picture 
of  an  absolute  breach  between  the  Prophet  of  Nazareth  and 
the  whole  corporation  of  the  Pharisees  as  a  result  of  a  quarrel 
with  certani  membera  of  that  dissident  sect  of  Independent 
thinkers.  Gamaliel  and  his  pupil  St  Paul  are  better  represents- 
tlves  of  the  non-hypocritical  Pharisee;  and  the  PauBne  Epistles 
or  the  writings  of  Philo  are  the  best  extant  examples  of  the  manner 
and  matter  of  thdr  teaching.  As  for  the  denundatlons,  apart 
from  the  charge  of  insincerity.  It  app<iars  that  the  scribes  in 
question  are  pilloried  for  the  defects— or  the  excesses— of  thdr 
qualities.  Indeed  they  are  corroborative  evidence  for  the 
reverence  with  which  the  Pharisees  were  regarded  by  the 
people  generally,  and  for  the  zeal  with  which  they  strove  to 
fulfil  God's  win  as  contained  in  the  Law  and  eluddated  by  the 
Tradition.  0-  H.  A.  H.) 

PHARMACOLOOT.  Systematic  writers  on  the  subject  differ 
considerably  in  the  exact  meaning  which  they  attach  to  the  term 
pharmacology  (^dp/uaicor,  a  drug;  X6Yor.  a  discourse),  some 
making  it  much  more  comprehensive  than  others.  Binz,  for 
instance,  defines  it  as  treating  of  the  origin,  nature,  chemical 
and  physical  qualities,  physiological  actions,  and  therapeutical 
uses  of  drugs;  In  France  and  in  Italy  It  is  restricted  to  the  mere 
description  of  medldnes  and  thdr  preparations,  the  action  and 
uses  of  which  as  remedies  are  I'nduded  in  the  term  therapeutics. 
In  English-speaking  countries,  and  by  the  majority  of  German 
writers,  the  meaning  is  now  restricted  to  the  study  of  the  action 
of  chemical  substances  (as  apairt  from  foods)  on  all  kinds  of 
animals,  from  bacteria  up  to  man;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  comparative 
study  of  the  action  of  chemical  bodies  on  invertebrate  and  verte- 
brate animals.  One  of  its  practical  aims  is  to  obtain  a  wide  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  remedial  substances  In  relation  to  thdr 
application  in  the  treatment  of  disease,  while  another  is  to 
discover  new  or  improved  remedies.  This  meaning  of  the  word 
has  now  become  fixed  in  the  English  language  by  use  and  wont. 
The  term  pharmaco-dynamics  (^Appoxoi',  ibvatut,  power), 
which  Is  etymologlcally  more  correct,  is  often  used  as  its  equiva- 
lent, but  it  has  never  become  widely  adopted.  The  study  of 
pharmacological  actions  was  at  first  almost  entirely  confined 
to  those  of  remedial  agents,  and  especially  to  the  remedies  in  the 
different  national  pharmacopoeias,  but  in  many  cases  it  has  now 
been  extended  to  substances  which  are  not  used  for  curative 
purposes.  The  Introduction  into  practical  use  of  many  medi- 
cines, such  as  paraldehyde,  phenazone  and  strophanthus,  has 
followed  the  study  of  thdr  actions  on  animals,  and  this  tends 
to  be  more  and  more  the  case.  Pharmacology  is  a  branch  of 
biology;  it  is  also  closely  connected  with  pathology  and  bacteri- 
ology, for  certain  drugs  produce  structural  as  well  as  functional 
changes  in  the  tissues,  and  in  germ  diseases  the  peculiar  symptoms 
are  caused  by  foreign  substances  (toxins)  formed  by  the  infective 
organisms  present  in  the  body.  The  effects  of  many  of  these 
toxins  bear  a  dose  resemblance  to  the  action  of  certain  well- 
known  drugs,  as  in  the  case  of  tetanus  toxin  and  strychnine,  and 
are  studied  by  the  same  methods  of  observation  and  research. 
It  is  impossible  also  to  dissociate  pharmacology  from  dinical 
therapeutics;  the  former  investigates  the  agents  which  are  used 
in  the  treatment  of  disease,  the  latter  is  concerned  with  their 
remedial  powers  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  to 
be  used.    Hence  the  word  "  pharmaco-tberapy  "  h«s  come  into 


3*8 


PHARMACOLOGY 


use,  and  most  of  the  iH#er  itaadanl  tcsitbooks  combine  togeth^ 
the  consideration  of  pharmacobgy  and  therapeutics.  Pharma- 
cology is  also  related  to  toxicology,  as  many  remedial  and  other 
agents  are  more  or  less  poisonous  when  given  in  large  doses,  but 
it  does  not  include  the  detection,  tests,  and  the  other  strictly 
medico>legal  aspects  of  poisoning. 

Phannuology  proper  began  as  the  result  of  the  application 
of  strictly  experimental  methods  to  physiology.  The  discovery 
_  (early  in  the  19th  century)  that  plants  owe  their 

^"^  rem^iial  and  poisonous  qualities  to  small  quantities  d, 
definite  active  principles,  such  as  alkaloids  and  neutral  bodies, 
which  can  be  extracted  in  a  chemically  pure  condition,  had  also  a 
very  important  effect  on  its  development.  We  meet  first  with 
experiments  made  by  investigators  who  perceived  that  obserya- 
tions  on  man  and  animaU  might  lead  to  a  better  understanding 
of  the  action  of  drugs.  In  1676  Wepfer  and  Conrad  Brunner 
demonstrated  on  dogs  the  tetanixfng  action  of  nux  vomica,  and 
similar  rough  experiments  were  repeated  from  time  to  time  with 
other  substances  by  later  investigators.  In  1755  Mengbini 
published  an  elaborate  study  of  the  action  of  camphor  on  a  great 
variety  of  diiferent  kinds  of  animals.  Albert  von  Hallcr  (b. 
1708)  sought  to  elucidate  the  action  of  remedies  by  observations 
on  heakhy  men,  and  in  1767  William  Alexander  made  experi- 
ments on  himself  with  drugs,  which  were,  however,  brought  to 
an  abrupt  termination  by  his  nearly  kilUng  himself.  In  1776 
Danes,  by  observations  on  himself  and  on  cats,  established  the 
mydriatic  action  of  belladonna  and  other  atropaceous  plants. 
Hitherto  no  attempt  had  been  made  to  determine  what  partiailar 
parts  of  the  body  were  especially  affected  by  drugs,  but  Fontana 
showed,  in  his  great  work  (Florence,  1765)  on  the  venom  of  the 
viper  and  on  other  poisons,  that  the  general  symptoms  were 
brought  about  by  an  action  on  particular  organs.  He  performed 
more  than  six  thousand  experiments,  more  than  four  thousand 
of  which  were  on  animals,  and  he  determined  the  effects  on  the 
heart  and  other  important  structures.  These  analytical  methods 
of  research  were  well  known  to  the  second  Monro  in  Edinburgh, 
and  to  his  pupils,  one  of  whom,  William  Alexander,  wrote  a  thesis 
in  1790  entitled  "  Dc  partibus  corporis  animalis  quae  viribus 
opii  parent."  His  methods  were  doubtless  known  also  to  the 
French  physiologist  Magendie,  who  improved  upon  them,  and 
who  in  1809  published  a  research  on  the  Upas  Tieutf  and  other 
strychnine-containing  plants,  in  which  he  showed  that  their 
eff^ts  were  due  to  an  action  on  the  spinal  cord.  The  researches 
of  his  pupil,  Claude  Bernard,  on  curare,  were  equally  exact  and 
logical,  and  have  served  as  the  model  for  many  subsequent 
investigations.  In  consequence,  from  the  time  of  Magendie 
pharmacobgy  may  be  said  to  have  been  put  on  a  more  exact  basis. 
By  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  there  were  many  workers  on 
the  subject,  and  the  actions  of  such  drugs  as  digitalis,  morphine, 
alcohol,  and  many  others  had  been  frequently  and  minutely 
investigated.  About  this  time  Buchheim,  professor  of  materia 
medica  in  Dorpat  from  1846  to  1879,  founded  the  first  pharmaco- 
logical laboratory  on  modem  lines  in  Europe,  and'he  Introduced 
a  more  rational  classification  of  drugs  than  had  hitherto  been  in 
use,  arranging  them  in  groups  according  to  their  pharmaco- 
logical actions.  In  the  herbals  and  older  treatises  on  materia 
medica  and  therapeutics  no  explanation  b  usually  offered  of  the 
action  of  medicines,  and  in  such  works  as  that  of  CuUen  (17^9) 
only  a  few  of  the  more  obvious  actions  are  occasionally  explained 
according  to  the  current  theories  of  physiology  and  pathology. 
In  works  such  as  Parcira's  Elements  of  Materia  Medica  and  Thera- 
peutics (1843),  the  physiological  effects  of  medicines  are  usually 
described,  but  very  briefly  as  compared  with  the  materia  medica. 
At  the  present  day  most  textbooks  dealing  with  medicinal  agents 
and  treatment  devote  a  large  part  of  their  space  to  pharma- 
cology, and  a  corresponding  change  has  taken  place  in  the 
teaching  of  the  subject  in  universities  and  medical  schools. 
Since  Magendie's  time  numerous  papers  dealing  with  pharmaco- 
logical subjects  have  appeared  in  the  Journal  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology t  the  Journal  of  Physiology ^  Virchcw's  Archiv,  and  the 
principal  medical  periodicals  of  all  countries.  In  1873  the  Archiv 
fUr  exPerimenkUt-  Pathologic  und  Pbarmahologie  first  appeared, 


in  1895  the  Ardmes  InkmtlUnaUs  dt  PAowweJMjwiiiir,  wl 
in  X909  The  Journal  of  Pharmacology  and  Therapeutics  (pub- 
lished at  Baltimore,  U.S.A.)[,  all  of  which  are  chieffy  or  entirely 
devoted  to  pharmacology. 

The  methods  of  res^rch  are  essentially  those  emf^yed  by 
physiologists,  the  action  of  substances  being  studied  in  the  unisl 
way  on  bacteria,  leuoocytes,  frogs,  rabbits  and  other  «'»"^** 
Not  only  are  the  general  symptoms  investigated,  but  it  b  neces- 
sary to  carry  out  experiments  on  the  nerves,  mascles,  drculatioa, 
secretions,  &c.,  so  as  to  get  a  more  exact  knowMs^  of  ^ 
reasons  of  the  genoal  action.    It  is  true  that  many  of  these 
animals  react  somewhat  differently  to  drugs*  both  as  regards  each 
other  and  as  regards  man,  but,  for  the  most  part  the  differences 
are  quantitative  rather  than  qualitative.    Aiter  carrying  out  a 
series  of  observations  on  animals,  the  drug  can  be  ass^ed  to  its 
special  group,  and  a  good  idea  can  be  obtained  of  its  possible 
practical  value  or  the  reverse;  hence  there  is  a  saving  oi  time  and 
an  avoidance  of  the  necessity  of  testing  its  effects  on  man.  The 
action  of  a  drug  may  be<:alled  direct  when  it  acts  on  any  part 
to  which  it  Is  immediately  applied,  or  which  it  may     ^^^^ 
reach  through  the  blood;  and  indire  t  when  one  organ    ff^? 
is  affected  secondarily  to  another,  as,  for  instance,  in 
strychnine  poisoning  when  the  muscles  are  violently  contracted 
as  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  alkaloid  upon  the  spinal  cord. 
In  a  few  cases  the  action  is  merely  physical,  but  most  frequently 
it  is  chemical  In  its  nature,  and  is  exerted  on  the  living  «11,  the 
activity  of  which  is  either  stimulated  or  depressed.    In  some 
cases  the  substances  actua%  enter  into  a  chemical  combination 
with  the  protoplasm,  which  may  be  temporary  or  (mach  lea 
frequently)  permanent;  in  other  cases  they  seem  simply  to 
modify  or  disturb  the  usual  chemical  activity  of  the  cells.    Pro- 
longed  or  excessive  stimulation  invariably  leads  to  depression 
or  paralysis,  the  tissues  becoming  fatigued,  and  from  this  cod* 
dition  they  may  recover  or  they  may  not.    When  we  come  to 
consider  more  in  detail  the  residts  of  these  actions  we  find  that 
the  various  secretions  of  the  body,  such  as  the  sweat,  gastric 
juice,  bile,  milk,  urine,  &c,  may  be  increased  or  diminished; 
that  the  heart  may  have  its  muscular  or  nervous  apparatus 
stimulated  or  depressed;  that  the  nerve-centres  in  the  brain, 
medulla  and  spinal  cord  may  be  rendered  more  sensitive  or  the 
reverse;  and  that  the  general  metabolism  of  the  body  may  be 
altered  In  various  ways.    In  addition,  the  fluid  constituents, 
such  as  the  ^mph  and  blood,  may  have  their  compositicm  and 
bulk  considerably  altered,  while  the  special  senses,  the  tempera- 
ture, and,  In  short,  every  function  and  tissue,  may  be  more  or 
less  affected. 

Some  drugs  given  in  excess  are  poisons  to  all  forms  of  proto> 
plasm,  but  when  given  In  doses  much  short  of  the  lethal  they 
ysually  exhibit  a  distinct  tendency  to  affect  specially,  and  at  an 
early  period,  certain  organs  or  tis^es,  and  hence  result  differences 
in  action ;  others  may  act  only  on  certain  organs,  leaving  the  others 
practically  untouched.  It  Is  often  possible  by  appn^riate  tScsage 
to  contrive  that  these  special  parts  or  organs  may  be  affcctid 
and  the  rest  of  the  body  left  practically  inUct,  and  it  is  by 
taking  advantage  of  these  selective  actions  that  remedial  or 
therapeutical  effects  are  usually  obtained.    Some  substances 
have  a  very  wide  range  of  action,  and  Involve  a  great  variety  of 
structures,  while  others,  such  as  purgatives,  have  a  very  limited 
sphere.  The  action  of  drugs  Is  often  modified  by  circumstances 
peculiar  to  the  Individuals  or  anlmab  to  whom  they  are  ad- 
ministered.   In  man  the  most  importxmt  of  these  circumstances 
Is  age,  but  speaking  broadly  this  is  really  a  question  of  bulk,  the 
child  being  affected  like  the  adidt,  but  by  smaller  doses.    Thett 
are  exceptions  to  this,  however,  as  children  are  more  affected 
In  proportion  by  opium  and  some  other  substances,  and  lc»  by 
mercury  and  arsenic.    In  old  age  also  the  nervous  system  xrA 
the  tissues  generally  do  not  react  so  readily  as  in  youth.    Habit, 
race,  personal  temperament,  emotional  conditions,  disease,  the 
time  and  circumstances  of  administration,  and  other  acddental 
causes  may  also  modify  the  action  In  man.    Some  specks  of 
animals  are  much  more  susceptible  to  the  action  of  ccrtaio 
drugs  than  others,  a  condition  which  depends  on  obvioos 


PHARMACOLOGY 


349 


«r  ankaown  stmctonil  or  melaisolic  diffsciica.    la  the 

way  aocne  individuab  show  a  special  tendency  to  poboning  by 
doses  o(  certain  drugs  which  are  harmless  to  the  great  majority 
of  mankind,  and  henoe  we  get  unexpected  or  unusuaU  results, 
these  arising  from  spedal  susceptibility  on  the  part  of  ocrtaia 
oigans.  These  idiosyncrtslcs  are  not  confined  to  drugs»  but  are 
seen  with  a  few  articles  of  food,  such  as  eggs  and  shellfish.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  habitual  consumption  of  certain  drugs* 
sudi  as  tobacco,  Indian  hemp,  opium,  arsenic,  alcohol  and 
many  others,  gradusUy  induces  a  condition  of  tolerance  to  their 
effects,  so  that  large  doses  can  be  taken  without  causing  symp- 
toms of  poisoning.  In  all  cases,  however,  there  is  a  limit,  and 
after  it  is  icached  the  ordinary  effecU  of  these  substances  are 
seen.  Some  indiTiduals,  however,  never  become  tolerant,  and 
diow  poisonous  effects  on  each  repetition  of  the  dose.  The 
degree  of  tolcranoe  often  differs  in  individuals  at  different 
times  and  in  different  circumstances,  and  may  become  kist  by- 
breaking  off  the  habit  for  a  short  time.  The  exphination 
generally  given  is  that  the  nerve  and  other  cells  become 
accustomed  to  the  drug,  so  that  they  cease  to  react,  or  that  an 
antitoxin  is  formed  whicif  antagontacs  the  poison,  or  that  the 
poison  B  rapidly  destroyed  in  the  body.  Recent  researches 
on  arsenic  and  atropine,  however,  point  to  the  leucocytes  as 
playing  an  important  part  in  the  production  of  tolerance,  as 
these  gradually  become  capable  of  ingesting  large  amounts  of 
the  foreign  substances,  and  thus  render  them  more  or  less 
harmless  to  the  tissues,  until  they  are  gradually  excreted  from 
the  body.  When  the  amount  is  too  large  to  be  dealt  with 
by  the  leucocjrtes,  poisoniqg  seems  to  occur  even  in  the  most 
habituated.  Tolerance  Is  therefore  analogous  to,  but  not 
identical  with,  the  iromum'ty  which  takes  place  with  the  toxins 
of  infectious  diseases  and  snake  poison.  Certain  substances, 
notably  digitalis,  lead,  mercury  and  strychnine,  exhibit  what  is 
called  a  cumulative  action — that  is  to  say,  when  small  quanti- 
ties have  beea  taktn  over  a  period  of  time,  poisoning  or  an 
excessive  action  suddenly  ensues.  The  explanation  in  these 
cases  a  that  the  drug  is  absorbed  more  'rapidly  than  it  is 
excreted,  hence  there  is  a  tendency  to  accumulation  fn  the 
body  until  a  point  is  reached  when  the  amount  becomes 
poisonotis. 

Bodies  which  have  a  dose  resemblance  in  their  chemical  con- 
stitution cxlubit  a  umilar  resemblance  in  their  pharmacolo^'cal 
action,  and  as  the  constitution  of  the  substance  becomes  modified 
chemically  so  does  its  action  pharmacologically.  Numerous 
researches  have  demonstrated  these  points  with  regard  to 
individual  groups  of  substances,  but  hitherto  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  formulate  any  fixed  hiws  regarding  the  relationship 
between  chenucal  constitution  and  physiological  action. 

When  drugs  ase  swallowed  no  absorption  may  take  place 
from  the  afimentary  canal;  but,  as  a  rule,  thty  pass  from  there 
into  the  blood.  Absorption  may  also  take  place  from  the  skin, 
from  the  rectum,  from  the  respiratory  passages,  or  from  wounds, 
and  fiXMn  direct  injection  Into  the  subcutaneous  tissue  or  Into  a 
blood  vessel.  Very  rardy,  as  In  the  case  of  silver  salts,  cxcre* 
tion  does  not  take  place;  but  usually  the  drug  is  got  rid  of  by 
the  ordinary  channels  of  elimination.  Just  as  drugs  act  upon 
the  tissues,  so  they  themselves  are  ia  many  cases  reacted  upon, 
and  broken  up  or  altered.  While  in  the  alimentary  canal  they 
are  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids  and  the  varied 
contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  after  absorption 
they  come  under  the  influence  of  the  ooostitoenta  of  the  blood 
and  lymph,  and  of  the  chemical  action  of  the  tisBue  ceUs.  In- 
organic bodies,  such  as  metals,  may  enter  into  albuminous 
combinations  which  may  greatly  modify  theix  effects,  and 
organic  iubstancea  may  be  split  op  into  simpler  compounds  by 
oxidation  or  reduction,  or  may  be  mdcted  more  complex  by 
synthesis. 

•  The  antagonism  between  certain  drugs  has  been  inuch 
itudied  in  relation  to  their  ose  a*  antidotes  in  poisoning,  the  aim 
being  to  counteract  the  effects  rather  than  to  obtain  a  direct 
physiological  antagonistic  action.  Substances  which  directly 
antagonize  each  other  by  acting  on  the  same  tissue  are  few  in 


number,  but  there  arc  nUBcraos  itiiBfrti  in  wfakh  thecffccts  or 
symptoms  may  be  obviated  by  acting  on  another  tisMie.  Thus 
curare  may  stop  strychnine  convulsions  by  paralysing  the 
terminations  of  motor  nerves,  and  chloroform  may  exercise  the 
same  effect  by  abolishing  the  irritability  of  the  spinal  cord.  If 
two  poisoos  act  on  the  same  tissue,  one  stimdating  and  the 
Other  paralysing  it,  the  paralysing  substance  reoMsves  the 
action  of  the  stimulant  sahetanoe,  not  by  bringing  the  tissue 
back  to  its  normal  state,  but  by  abolishing  its  excitability; 
hence,  although  life  may  be  saved  by  such  an  act  ion,  yet  it 
can  only  be  so  within  certain  limits  of  dosage,  because  the 
antagonism  is  never  complete  at  every  point. 

Speaking  in  the  widest  sense,  every  substance  has  an  action 
on  living  protoplasm,  but  for  convenience  pharmacological 
substances  have  come  to  be  limited  to  those  which  are  used 
as  drugs,  or  which  have  a  distinct  action  upon  the  animal 
organism.  Such  substances  are  derived  from  (i)  the  chemical 
elements  and  their  compounds;  (2)  plants;  and  (3)  animals. 
The  first  class  indudes  such  substances  as  iodine,  mercury,  iron, 
carbon,  and  their  various  compounds,  and  such  bodies  as 
alcohol,  chloroform  and  chloral,  all  of  which  are  found  in 
nature  or  can  be  prepared  by  ordinary  chemical  processes  of 
manufacture.  From  plants  many  substances  are  obtained  which 
at  the  present  time  we  are  unable  to  make  in  the  chemical 
laboratory,  and  of  the  constitution  or  composition  of  which 
we  are  in  many  cases  ignorant.  Some  of  these,  such  as  resins, 
gums,  essential  oils  and  fats,  are  readily  obtained  as  natural 
exudations  or  by  very  simple  manipulations,  while  others,  such 
as  the  alkaloids,  giucosides  and  vegetable  adds,  often  require 
to  be  extracted  by  very  complex  processes.  Substances  ob- 
tained from  animals  Include  gland  secretions,  pepsin  and  other 
ferments,  musk,  cod-liver  oil,  &c.,  and  to  these  may  be  added 
various  antitoxins.  The  classification  of  substances  having 
pharmacological  actions  presents  so  many  difficul- 
ties that  no  satisfactory  or  universally  adopted 
method  has  yet  been  proposed.  Our  knowledge 
presents  so  many  gAps,  and  the  mode  of  action  <rf  many  remedies 
b  so  obscure  and  Imperfectly  understood,  that  any  arrange* 
mcnt  adopted  must  be  more  or  less  tentative  in  character.  The 
close  alliance  between  pharmacology,  therapeutics  and  clinical 
medidne  has  induced  many  authors  to  treat  the  subject  from 
a  clinical  point  of  view,  while  its  rdationships  to  chemistry  and 
physiology  have  been  utilized  to  elal)orate  a  chemical  and 
physiological  dassification  respectively  as  the  basis  for  system- 
atic description.  Certain  writers  in  despair  have  adopted  an 
alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  subject,  while  others  have 
divided  it  up  into  inorganic,  vegetable  and  animal  substances. 
These  last-mentioned  methods  arc  far  behind  our  present  state 
of  knowledge,  and  need  not  be  discussed  here.  The  objection 
to  a  strictly  diemical  classification  is,  that  while  many  sub^ 
stances  closely  aUied  chemically  have  a  somewhat  similar  action 
in  certain  respects,  yet  in  others  they  differ  very  widdy — a 
striking  example  of  which  is  given  in  the  case  of  sodium  and 
potassium.  A  physiological  dassification  according  to  an  action 
on  the  brain,  heart,  kidney  or  other  important  organ  becomes 
still  more  bewilderiog,  as  many  substances  produce  the  same 
effects  by  different  agencies,  as,  for  instance,  the  kidneys  may 
be  acted  upon  directly  or  through  the  circulation,  while  the  heart 
may  be  affected  either  through  its  muscular  substance  or  its 
nervous  apparatus.  A  diniod  or  therapeutical  dasufication 
into  such  diviswns  as  anaesthetics,  expectorants,  bitters,  and 
90  on,  according  to  their  practical  applications,  also  leads  to 
difficulties,  as  many  drugs  are  employed  for  numerous  purposes. 
The  ideal  method  of  grouping  pharmacological  substances 
would  be  in  reference  to  tbdr  chemical  action  on  living  proto- 
plasm, but  as  yet  our  knowledge  b  too  scanty  for  this.  At 
the  present  time  the  method  adopted  by  Buchhdm,  or  some 
modification  of  It,  is  the  most  scientific  As  the  result  of 
painstaking  investigations  he  grouped  together  all  those  sub* 
stances  haWng  similar  actions,  giving  to  each  group  the  name  of  its 
best-known  or  most  thoroughly  investigated  member.  Once  the 
groups  were  more  or  less  Sxtd  any  new  substance  could,  when 


350 


FHARMACiOLOGV 


its  action  was  determined,  be  lefened  to>  its  own  group,  and 
thus  be  placed  or  daasified.  As  few  substances  are  absolutely 
identical  in  action,  but  only  broadly  similar,  it  is  often  difficult 
to  divide  sharply  one  group  from  another.  In  a  fitwmi  it  is 
manifestly  impossible  to  pass  in  review  every  pharmacological 
substance,  and  we  shall  therefore  confine  ourselves  to  those 
groups  which  are  oi  practical  importance.  Many  Individual 
drugs  are  described  under  their  own  hfsriings 

Croup  I.  Acids. — ^This  includes  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  nitric, 
phosphoric,  tartaric,  citric,  acetic  and  lactic  acids,  all  of  which  owe 
their  action  to  their  acidity.  Many  oC  the  other  acids,  such  as 
carbolic  and  salicylic,  have  specific  effects  which  have  no  rebtionship 
to  their  add  reaction.  The  oonoeatratcd  acids  have  an  intense 
local  action,  varying  from  complete  destruction  of  the  tissues  to 
more  or  less  irritation.  When  considerably  diluted  they  arc  only 
dightly  irritating;  externally  applied  and  In  the  stomach  they  have 
an  antiacptic  action;  they  increase  the  secretion  of  saliva,  and  thus 
assuage  thirst.  In  the  mtestine  they  combine  with  ammonia  and 
other  alkaUs  present,  and  arc  absorbed  into  the  blood  as  neutral 
salts,  being  excreted  chiefly  in  the  urine.  In  small  doses  they  some- 
what increase  general  metabolism.  Boric  acid  only  belongs  partially 
to  this  group,  as  it  and  its  compound  borax  have  certain  specific 
actions  m  addition. 

•  Group  LI.  Alkalis. — ^This  includes  caustic  potash,  caustic  soda, 
solution  of  ammonia,  their  carbonates  and  oicarbonates,  borax, 
soaps,  lithium  carbonate  and  citrate,  quicklime,  slaked  Ihne,  chalk, 
magnesia  and  magnesium  carbonate.  AU  these  substances,  apart 
from  anv  other  actions,  exert  a  similar  effect  upon  the  body  in 
virtue  oi  their  alkalinity.  Wlten  they  arc  taken  internally  in  small 
amounts  they  neutralize  the  acids  in  the  stomach  and  other  parts  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  at  the  same  time  they  increase  the  normal 
acid  aecivtion  of  the  stomach.  After  absorption  into  the  blood, 
which  they  make  somewhat  more  alkaline,  they  arc  excreted  chiefly 
in  the  urine,  to  which  they  impart  an  alkaline  reaction  if  given  in 
sufficient  quantity.  Some  of  them  by  stimulating  the  kidney 
cells  act  as  diuretics,  but  others  apparent!]^  lack  this  aaion.  Caustic 
potash  and  caustic  soda  are  locally  very  irritating,  and  destroy  the 
tissues,  but  lose  this  quality  when  combintd  with  acids  as  in  the  case 
of  their  carbonates,  bicarbonatcs  and  borax.  Quicklime  is  also 
caustic,  but  magnesia  is  bland  and  unirritating.  Weak  sduHons 
applied  locally  saponify  fats,  soften  the  epidermis,  and  thus  act  as 
slight  stimulants  and  cleansers  of  the  sKin.  Calcium  salts  form 
insoluble  soaps  with  fats,  and  combine  with  albumen  in  a  manner 
which  makes  them  soothing  and  astringent  rather  than  irritating. 
Apart  from  alkaline  effects,  these  metals  differ  considerably 
pharmacologically.  Potassium  and  lithium  have  a  depressing 
action  upon  the  nervous  system,  ammonium  salts  have  a  stimulating 
action,  while  sodium  practically  speaking  is  indifferent.  Calcium 
and  nuenesiuro  have  actions  nmewhat  similar  to  that  of  potassium. 
Most  OI  these  substances  are  normal  constituents  of  the  body, 
and  indispensable  for  healthy  existence.  They  are  contained  in 
sufficient  amount  in  our  ordinary  dietary  to  supply  the  needs  of 
the  organism. 

Group  HI.  Easily  absorbed  SaUs. — Sodium  chloride  may  be 
taken  as  the  type  of  those  salts  which  diffuse  readily,  and  are 
therefore  easily  absorbed.  Sodium  nitrate,  potassium  nitrate, 
potassium  chloride,  ammonium  Chloride,  the  allcaline  iodides  and 
oromkles,  also  belong  partly  to  this  group,  although  most  of  them 
have  also  specific  actions.  Cocally  they  cause  considerable  irritation, 
and  when  swallowed  in  concentrated  solution  may  cause  vomiting. 
From  the  stomach  and  intestines  they  are  rapidly  absorbed,  and 
fapidly  excreted  from  the  blood,  increasing  all  secretions  and  the 
general  metabolism.  These  effects  are  apparently  due  to  their 
irritating  action  upon  individual  cdls. 

Gaoup  IV.  Salts  absorbed  with  diffictiUy. — ^This  group  includes 
the  sulphates  of  sodium,  potassium  and  magnesium,  the  acetate 
and  tartrate  of  potash,  citrate  of  magnesium,  sodium  phosphate, 
sodium  tartrate  and  similar  salts.  Locally  their  action  is  slight, 
but  when  taken  internally,  disacrfvod  in  water,  they  are  not  absorbed 
from  the  alimentary  canal  except  in  very  hmitra  amount.  They 
therefore  remain  for  the  most  part  in  the  intestine,  and  as  they 
attract  and  retain  large  quanrities  of  water,  and  at  the  same  time 
slightly  stimulate  the  mucous  membrane,  they  come  to  have  a 
purgative  action  and  form  the  well-known  group  of  saline  cathartics. 
The  small  portion  which  is  absorbed  exerts  a  diuretic  action. 

Group  V.  Heaoy  Metals.-^Thcae  include  iron,  manganese, 
aluminium,  chromium,  zinc,  copper,  Mlver,  gold,  puitinum,  lead, 
mercury,  and  probably  antimony,  arsenic  and  bismuth.  Although 
some  of  these  differ  very  greatly  in  their  actions  after  absorption, 
still  locally  they  have  certain  effects  in  common  due  chiefly^  to  their 
chemical  action  on  albumen.  Their  stduble  salts  combine  with 
albumen  and  preserve  it,  strong  solutions  being  extretndy  irritant 
or  caustic,  while  weaker  ones  are  astringem  simply,  or  even  soothing. 
They  are  all  antiseptics.  Their  insoluble  compounds  are  murb 
leas  Sbctive  locally  tnan  the  soluble,  and  in  many  cases  are  only 
effective  to  the  extent  to  which  they  are  dissolved  by  the  secretions. 
Some  metals  are  only  absorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal  to  such 


a  vsrv  limited  anoont  that  they 

readily  pass  into  the  blood  and  give  rise  to  more  or  less  marked 
effects.  All  of  them  injected  into  the  blood  in  large  doses  act  as 
muscle  and  nerve  poitons,  and  during  their  excretion  by  the  kidney 
usually  irritate  k  severely,  but  only  a  few  are  absorbed  in  sufficient 


greatly  imtates  the  bowd  and  the  Vidneys.  When  taken  by  the 
mouth,  iMMvever,  no  such  acttons  are  seen,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
very  mtaute  quantities  are  absorbed  and  that  these  become  storad 
in  ttie  liver,  where  they  are  converted  into  mganic  compounds  and 
ultimately  go  to  form  haemoglobin.  Soluble  salts  of  manganese, 
aluminium,  zinc,  copper,  gold,  platinum  and  bl^uth  have,  whea 
given  by  the  mouth,  little  action  beyond  their  kxral  astringem  or 
irritating  effects:  but  when  injected  into  a  blood  vessel  they  d  eaert 
nauch  the  same  depressing  effect  upon  the  heart  and  nervous  systeok. 
Silver  resembles  them  closely,  but  differs  by  the  circumstance  that 
it  is  deposited  permanently  in  minute  granules  In  the  tissues,  and, 
without  affecting  the  general  health,  stains  the  skin  of  a  Uoish 
ookNir  (argyria).  Mercury  and  lead  are  absoriied  from  the  bowd 
in  considerable  quantities,  and  are  capabfe  of  inducing  acute 
irritant  poisoning  as  well  as  chronic  jx>isoning.  Lxad  poisons  the 
muscular  and  nervous  systems,  and  gives  rise  to  paral>'sis,  wasting, 
colic  and  other  symptoms*  while  in  the  case  of  mercury,  tremors, 
Balivatkm,  anaemia  and  very  marked  cachexia  are  induced. 
Arsenic  and  antimony  do  not  form  combinations  with  albumen, 
but  they  both  greatly  depress  the  central  nervous  system  and 
circulation;  and,  if  their  action  be  long  continued  in  large  doses, 
they  cause  fatty  degeneration  of  the  vttcera  and  disappcfirance 
of  nycojgon  from  the  liver.  Lncally  they  are  both  very  vritatiag, 
and  antimony  has  a  special  tendency  to  cause  vomiting. 

Group  VI.  Hoioiens. — ^This  group  includes  iodine,  bromine  ami 
chlorine,  in  their  free  state  or  as  compounds.  Locally  they  are 
all  three  strongly  irritant  or  caustic,  owing  to  their  chemical  action 
on  albumen.  They  are  In  addition  pHmrful  germicsdcs,  and  by 
splitting  up^  water  may  act  as  oxidizing  agpnts.  Owing  to  cbcir 
strong  affinity  for  the  hydrogen  of  organic  compounds  tiicy  often 
act  as  bleachers  and  deodorizers.  Iodine  has  a  special  interest,  as 
it  is  a  nece?)sary  constituent  of  food,  and  is  present  in  the  secretion 
of  the  thyroid  gland.  Apart  from  certain  conditions  of  ill  Isnltli, 
the  iodides,  as  such,  have  no  very  marked  influence  on  the  healthy 
body  beyond  their  saline  action.  Alkaline  bromides,  in  addition 
to  their  saline  action,  have  in  sufficient  doses  a  depresang  effect 
upon  the  central  nerSrous  system,  and  less  markraly  upon  the 
heart.  Chlorine  compounds  are  not  known  to  eseiicise  any  action 
of  a  similar  kind. 

Group  VII.  Sulphur. — Sulphur  itself  has  no  action,  but  vhcn 
brought  into  contact  with  the  secretions  it  forms  sulphides,  sulphites 
and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  thereby  becomes  moreor  leas  irritaat 
and  antiseptic.  In  the  uowcl  its  conversion  into  sulphides  causes  it 
to  act  as  a  mild  bsatlvc.  Baths  containing  sulphuretted  hydrofen 
or  alkaline  sulphides  have  a  slichUy  irritating  effect  upon  the  slaii, 
and  stimulate  the  general  metabolism. 

Group  VIII.  Pkospkonts. — Thb  includes  phosphides,  and. 
according  to  some  autnorities,  hypophosphites.  Pnospborvs  is 
present  in  all  cells,  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  nervous  tissue. 
and  in  the  bones  as  phosphates.  It  b  therefore,  in  some  iorm  or 
other,  a  necessary  part  of  dietary.  When  taken  by  the  mouth 
phosphorus  is  an  imtant  poison  in  hrge  doses;  in  small  doses  the 
only  effects  noticeable  consist  in  an  increased  formation  of  bony 
ana  connective  tissue,  although  it  is  also  supposed  to  exen  a  gently 
stimulating  effect  upon  the  nervous  system. 

Group  I X-  Oxygen. — ^When  pure  oxygen  b  inhaled  the  only 
effect  b  a  slight  increase  of  the  amount  oi  the  gas  in  the  blood,  but 
thb  has  no  particular  physiological  effect.  The  pharmacologicsl 
action  of  hydrogen  peroxide  lH«Oi).  potassium  permaaganatfy 
powdered  charcou  and  some  other  oxidizing  agents  depends  on  the 
readiness  with  which  they  give  up  oxygen. 

Group  X.  Carbonic  i4cn/.— Carbonic  add  gas,  carbonic  onde 
(CO)  and  some  other  irrespiiabte  gsscs  produce  their  effects  pcacti* 
cally  by  asphyxiation.  When  dissuvcd  in  water,  hosrever,  carbonic 
acid  ^  b  a  gentle  stimulant  to  the  mouth,  stomach  and  bowd, 
the  mixture  being  absorbed  more  rapidly  than  plain  water;  hence 
its  greater  value  m  assuaging  thirst.  Nitrous  oxide  (laughing  gas) 
was  at  one  time  bdieved  to  act  simply  by  cutting  off  the  supply  of 
oxygen  to  the  tissues,  but  it  also  has  a  specific  effect  in  prooncug 
panJysb  of  certain  parts  of  the  central  nervous  system,  and  beoce 
Its  value  as  an  anaesthetic:  when  nven  in  smau  amounts  noised 
with  ah*  it  prodtices  a  condition  of  exhilaration. 

Gaoup  XI.  IValer.'-'Water  acts  directly  as  a  diluent  and  nolvem. 
It  thciefore  increases  aU  the.secretions,  especially  those  of  tbe  skin 
and  kidneys,  while  it  also  stimulates  the  g<>neral  metabolism  ol  the 
body  and  the  excretion  61  nitrogenous  products.  Mineral  waters 
act  in  the  sSmeway.  but  their  effects  are  very  mnch  modified  by,  and 
depend  largely  upon,  other  oonstitwents,  such  as  alkaKne  nksb 
iron,  arsenic  au^tdes,  carbonic  acid,  9tc 

Group  XII.  raniiic  ilruf.— Tannk;  add  b  present  in  saul 
quantities  in  the  great  majority  of  plants,  but  in  notable  quantity  ia 
gall-nuts,  oak  bark,  bearberry  leaves,  rbatany  root,  catecba.  kns^ 


PHARMACOLOGY 


351 


Kd  |uni,  bad  fruit.  Iogp»«KM!  and  wlldi  luttcf,  all  of  which  are 
lasfdy  uaed  at  oiedicnies.  In  tiieBe  the  variety  of  tannic  acid  w 
not  exactly  the  Mine,  bat  although  there  are  slight  chemical  <titler- 
encea,  they  all  poajeaa  the  power  of  unnins;  «|w  hide*  and  of  pne^ 
KTving  albuminous  tissues.  The  action  of  tannic  arid  is  strictly 
local,  and  depends  upon  its  power  of  precipitating  albumen  and  of 
destroying  germs.  It  thus  acts  as  an  astringent  on  all  mucous 
membranes.  After  abaorption  into  the  blood  it  loaes  this  effect, 
as  it  Is  partly  broken  up  into  gallic  acid  and  partly  combinecl  with 
alkafis,  both  of  which  dunges  nullify  its  action  upon  alboenen.   ' 

Gftoup  XIU.  Locoi  IrritaMis.-— Although  some  of  the  druga 
already  considered  have  a  local  irritant  action,  they  produce  other 
more  important  effects,  but  the  substances  here  ran^^  under  this 
heading  depend  entii^  for  their  action  oo  their  local  Irfitaat 
effects. 

a.  Those  which  act  upon  the  alimentarycanal:  Simple  bitten 

such  as  quassia  wood,  oMumbo  root,  taraxacum,  gentian,  chiretta, 

and  many  others,  irritate  gently  the  mucous  membnne  of  the 

stomach  and  bowels,  and  by  increasing  the  secietioa*  improve 

the  appetite  and  digestion.    The  aromatic  bitters  such  as  champ* 

mUe  nowers,  cascarula  bark,  hops,  orange  peel  and  others  contain 

in  addition  small  qtiantities  of  eaMmtialoib  which  irtcnflne  their 

local  action.    The  active  principles  m  some  of  these  bittershave 

been  isolaced  pure.  and.  have  bven  found  to  be  alkaloids  or  neutral 

compounds.     Substances  hke  pepper,  cayenne  pepper,   mustard, 

horae-radi^  and  ginger  irriute  the  stomach  and  bowel  much  in 

the  same  way.  but  are  more  pungent,  and  areconacqoeiulyuaedas 

eondimenta.    Some  of  these  have  a  similar  but  less  marked  effect 

upon  the  akin.    The  iarfe  number  of  vegetable  substaooaauaedas 

purgativcn  owe  their  artam  to  an  irritating  effect  upon  the  mucous 

membrane  and  the  nruro-muacular  apparatus  of  the  bowel,  whereby 

the  secretions  and  perisutsis  aiv  more  or  less  {nci«as(|l,  as  the  lesUlt 

of  Which  diarrhoea  ensues.    Some  of  them  cause  so  much  irritatiofi 

that  the  dtschafge  b  very  watery  (bydragafjue  cathartics),  while 

others,  for  example  aloes,  by  acting  gently  on  the  luwer  part  of 

the  bowel  and  on  its  muscular  cout.  produce  simply  a  laxative 

effect.     A  few  of  them,  such  as  aloin  and  rolocyntnin,  are  also 

purgative  when  injected  subcutartruu^y  or  into  the  blood,  prububly 

owing  to  their  l^ng  excreted  into  the  intestinal  canal. 

b.  Tbooe  which  act  on  the  skin:  The  best  known  of  these  is 
cantbaridea  (Spanish  fly),  the  active  principhr  of  which  is  a  coluur* 
lesa  crystalline  bodv— canilfekridin~whMrh  b  extnrinely  irritating. 
On  a  mucoua  membrane  or  a  dcUaite  skin  it  exerts  an  irritant 
action,  which  occurs  more  quickly  than  on  a  thickened  epidarrmbJ 
soch  aa  the  scalp,  and  according  to  the  strength  and  period  of 
application  there  may  result  nrdness,  a  bibter,  or  an  uk^r^  Many 
otmer  substances,  wch  as  chr^rsarubin,  mustard,  pepper.  &c .  are 
also  capable  of  irritating  the  skin,  the  effect  produced  varying  from 
mere  dilatation  of  the  cutaneous  vesMfb  to  destruction  of  tis»ue. 

GB0ur  XfV.    M'<aie-fem. — ^Thb  ihcludes  the  male-fern.  laiiiionia. 

cnsao.  pomegranate  bark,  pumpkin  seeds  and  many  other  subsuiiccb 

containing  active  |>riaciplvs  whiL-h  luve  a  specifii:  poisonous  action 

on  inteatuial  parasitic  worms.    Apart  from  thb  their  actions  vary 

conaidermbly,  mit  are  of  Uttte  practical  importance. 

.    Gftour  XV.    Bthatai  (Ms. — Thb  includes  a  very  lafge  number 

of  substances  which  owe  their  action  to  the  fact  that  they  contain 

ethereal  or  essential  oils.    The  best  known  of  these  are  cloves; 

pimento  (allspice),  myrtle,  euealyptus,  carawa)^,  fennel,  dill,  corK> 

ander,  lOaemary,  lavender,  pcfipcrmtnt.  spuarmint,  nutmeg,  cinaa- 

gion.  aanda^wood,  turpentine,  junipvr  berries,  valerian oodsumbul. 

In  thb  group  may  be  included  the  oleo-resins,  such  as  copaiba. 

cubeba  and  Canada  balsam;  the  gtmi-re^ns,  such  as  asafetida. 

myrrfi,  ammoniacura  and  galbanum;  and  the  true  balsams,* such 

OS  bensoin,  storax.  balsam  of  Tolu  and  balsam  of  Peru.    The  tfcaiiM 

when  taken  internally  have  much  the  same,  actmn  as  esaentbl  oila, 

which  are  ebsely  allied  chemieaHy,  while  the  benaoic  and  cinnamic 

adda  in  the  balsams  modify  their  actions  very  sKghtly.    Althoueh 

individual  essentbl  oib  may  differ  somewhat  in  action,  chemically 

and  pharmacolugically  they  are  fundamemally  aimilan    They  all 

have  a  poisonous  action  on  protopbam.  which  makes  them  useful 

in  medicine  as  antiseptks.  disinfectants,  germicides,  anti^fermenta* 

tives  and  parasiticidn;  when  locally  aofHied  they  are  moiv  or  leas 

irritating,  and.  when  very  dilute,  astringent.     When  awaliotaed 

in  small  doses  they  slightly  irritate  the  mouth  and  castfk  macous 

membrane,  increasing  the  secretions  and  prododng  a  fecfiiw;  of 

warmth.     At  the  same  time  they  iacreaae  the  movements  of  the 

«tomach,  and  aho  in  thb  way  hasten  digestion,  an  actbn  which 

eietends  to  the  upper  part  of  the  bowel.    Tliey  ate  readily  absorbed 

into  the  blood,  and  they  are  excreted  chiefly  bv  the  kidneys  in  a 

more  or  lesa  altered  form,  and  probably  also  by  the  different  oracoua 

membranes,  and  even  by  the  skin.    After  absorption  their  action, 

speaking  generally,  U  exerted  un  the  brahi  attd  spinal  cord,  and  Is 

at  first  sfightJy  stimubnt  and  afterwards  depressing,  even  to  the 

causing  of  sleepiness  and  stupor.     Locally  applied  they  depcvai 

the  terminations  of  sentory  nerves,  and  may  thereby  4eaen  pain. 

On  the  heart  and  crrcvbtion  the  effects  are  stirottlahl  unless  large 

doses  are  given,  arben  the  poke  becomes  slow  and  blood*presBure 

mucfh  lesaened.    During  excretion  they  Irritate  the  Udm^ra  aad  the' 

Lt-glands,  and  thereby  increase  toe  excretion  of  untie  and  of 

tt.    They  also  inereaae  the  iiamber  of  leucacytaa  Sb  the  Mood. 


and  the  more  Irritatii^  of  them  innease  the  fbur  of  blood  to  the 
pelvic  ofgana.  aad  may'thus  atimubte  the  uterus,  or  in  teige  dosca 
cauM^  abortion.  The  various  camphon,  such  as  burel  camphor, 
Borneo  camphor,  menthol  and  curaarin,  are  oxidized  derivatives  of 
easential  oils,  and  differ  only  superiicblly  from  them  in  their  actmn. 

Group  XVI.  P/bnof.— This  ineludcs  a  very  brge  number  of 
bodies  chemically  allied  to  beniol,  such  as  carootic  add,  sulpho* 
carbdatea,  creosote,  wood  tar.  coal  tar.  oil  of  cade,  thymol,  salicylic 
acid,  benaoic  acid,  naphthol,  hydroquinon,  cresol,  guaiacol,  ichthyol, 
saccharin  and  many  others.  Thcae  all  resemble  carbolic  acid  more 
or  bss  closely,  and  may  be  described  as  eeneral  protopbsm  poisons. 
UMally  their  destnicrive  and  irritating  effsrta  vary  a  good  deal,  but 
even  arben  very  dilute  they  all  have  a  marked  poisonous  octioD  oa 
bacteria,  white  bkiod  corpusclea,  yeast  and  simtbr  organumc 
After  absorption  most  of  them  exercMe  a  depressinif  effect  upon  the 
nervous  system,  and  are  capabb  of  reducing  h^h  temperature; 
They  are  mostly  excreted  in  the  urine. 

Gaoap  XVII.  4le«M.— Thb  group  alao  bicludcs  a  very  fai«e 
number  of  chemical  bodiea.  only  a  Tew  of  «rhk-h  are  mentioned  here. 
Ethyl  alcohol  b  ukcn  as  a  type  of  the  actkm  of  methyl  alcohol; 
amyl  alcohol,  propyl  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  ether,  paraldehyde, 
sulphonal,  chloroform,  methyl  cMoride,  ethyl  chk>ride.  chloral 
hydrate,  bntylcfaloral  hydrate,  and  almost  any  number  of  derivativea 
from  these.  Some  of  them  are  so  volatile  that  they  produce  their 
effects  when  inhaled^  others  when  sprayed  upon  the  skin  cause 
intense  ooU  and  then  anaesthesia;  but  taken  in  the  broadest  sense 
the  action  of  all  of  them  after  abaorption  into  the  blood  b  very 
simibu*,  and  b  exerted  upon  the  central  nervous  system,  asore  especi- 
ally the  cerebrum.  In  all  cases  there  b  a  kmger  or  shorter  period 
of  exeitemetit.  followed  by  iatoxkration  or  narcosb,  and  with  Urge 
doses  thb  possea  into  paralysis  and  death  fn>m  denrnaion  of  tU 
respiratory  centre  or  of  the  heart.  Small  doacs  of  any  of  them 
dilate  the  blood  vessels  from  an  action  on  the  vas»'motor  centre  in 
the  medulla  obkMigaia,  as  a  result  of  which  the  heart  beats  more 
rapidly  and  the  blood  circulates  more  freely :  but  larger  doses  have 
a  gjcneral  deprcMsing  effect  upon  the  circulatory  system.  Under 
ihew  action  more  heat  b  lost  from  the  body,  the  general  mrtabuli!»m 
b  diminished  and  the  temperature  fallo.  Whh  aome  of  them,  aurh 
aa  chloral  and  cfaloruform.  the  atiimilaHion  period  b  short  compared 
with  the  nareocic  period,  whib  arith  others,  such  as  ether,  the  reverse 
is  the  case. 

Group  XVIII.  ATitrrilrr.— Thb  group  contains  amyl  nitrite^ 
ethyl  nitrite,  methyl  nitrite,  nitroglycerin;  sodium  and  potassium 
nitrites,  erythrol-tetranhrate;  and  many  other  compounds  jron> 
laining  intrauft  or  nitric  acid.  The  bttef  becomes  reduced  to 
nitrous  in  the  body,  and  thereby  exercises  its  charaotcrbtic  effects^ 
These  consist  chiefly  in  an  action  upon  non-striped  muscb,  vaso- 
motor centres,  blood  vessels  and  the  blood.  When  they  are  given 
by  inhabiion  or  by  the  mouth  their  first  effect  is  to  prbduce  oiarkod 
dibtation  of  the  small  arteries,  arith  a  fall  of  bbod-prcssufc  and  a 
|icatly  Increased  rapidity  of  the  heart's  actbn.  At  the  same 
time  the  non-striped  mtisdes  slightly  lose  their  tonicity,  and  when 
very  brge  daaes  are  given  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood  becomea 
convifted  tnco  the  chocolateH»loured  metfaacmoebbin.  The 
vobtile  memfaera  of  the  group  act  much  more  rapidly  and  more 
tcansiently  than  the  others. 

Group  XIX.  Alktiaids.'^Thh  embraces  a  very  bige  number 
of  hnportant  pharmacological  substances,  which  differ  a  good  deal 
in  the  deuib  of  their  action,  but  they  all  act  upon  muscb  and 
nerve  tissue.  Some  of  them  affect  only  certain  portions  of  the 
nervous  ^rstem,  others  have  a  much  wider  range  of  action;  they 
may  act  in  either  case  as  stimubnts  or  as  depressants,  and  hence 
the  symptoms  produced  by  them  vary  very  greatly. 

f.  Morphine  and  the  other  opium  alkaloids  (codeine,  narcotine. 
budanine,  &c.)  have  two  prominent  aciions-a  narcotk:  followed  by 
a  tetanic  action,  in  morphine,  on  the  higher  animals  at  least,  the 
narcotic  action  b  very  marked,  the  tetanizing  action  slightly  so; 
whib  in  thebaine  there  is  lietb  narcotic  effect,  but  a  tetanizing  actioa 
like  that  of  strychnine.  Morphine  exercises  its  effects  chiefly  upon 
the  oerebrvm  and  the  medulb  oblongata  in  man.  It  has  in  addition 
a  markedly  depreaaing  action  upon  the  respiratory  centre,  it  ksoens 
all  the  secretions  except  the  sweat,  and  dimini:»hcs  bowel  pcristalsb 
and  the  siie  of  the  pupil.  Men  are  much  more  affected  by  it  than 
birds,  rabbits,  dogs  and  most  other  animab.  Cats,  however,  show 
niarhad  symptoms  <A  cerebral  excitement  and  increase  of  the 
refleaet.  Compared  with  morphine,  codeine  and  the  other  alkalokla 
are  only  slightly  narcotizing. 

3.  Strychnine  and  brucine  very  closely  resemble  each  other  in 
action,  and  under  thb  heading  curarine  may  also  be  included. 
These  bodies  stimubte  the  grey  matter  in  the  spinal  cord  and 
catam- tetanic  convubions.  In  the  case  of  curare  these  are  masked 
almost  at  once  by  paralysis  of  the  terminations  of  the  motor  nerves. 

3.  Caffeine  b  the  active  principb  in  tea.  coffee,  kola,  mat^  and 
puaranat  whib  theobromine,  a  body  closely  allied  to  it,  b  found 
in  eoooa  and  chocobte.  They  both  stimulate  the  grey  nerve-celb 
in  the  brain  and  cord,  thb  being  the  founiiation  of  their  dietetic 
value  and  their  use  as  nervine  stimubnts.^  They  alao  markedly 
increase  the  secretion  of  urine  by  stimubting  the  secreting  cein 
of  the  kidneys. 

4.  Cociiae  b  the  active  principb  of  the  coca  leaf,  which  b  chewed 


352 


PHARMACOLOGY 


M  a  atUnulant-Mtfootie  in  Pera  and  Bolivia.  SnuJl  dona  eaestc 
Che  nervous  aytlem,  while  larger  doees  ai«  de|>retunf.  The  chief 
action  of  cocaine  from  a  ptactical  point  of  view  ia  iu  power  of 
paraJyting  the  terminations  of  sensory  nerves 

5.  Atropine,  hvoscyamine,  homatro^pe.  duboimoe*  daturine 
and  some  other  bodies  have  a  paralysing  action  upon  the  eads 
of  the  motor  and  secretory  nerves^  Tney  therefore  lessen  all 
the  secretions,  and  among  other  actiooa  dilate  the  piapil  and 
increase  the  rapidity  of  the  heart  fay  paralysing  the  vagus.  In 
addition  they  nave  a  stimulating  action  on  the  central  nervous 
qrstem. 

6.  Nicotine  piturine  and  lobeUne  are  the  active  principles  of 
tobacco  and  other  substances  which  ai«  smoked  as  stimulant 
narootica.  In  large  doses  they  are  powerful  nerve  poisons,  but  as 
usually  taken  they  exercise  a  gently  stimulant  effect  upon  the 
aervous  system.  Pilocarpine  has  an  action  ckMcIy  allied  to  that 
of  nicotine,  but  as  it  is  mudi  less  poisonous  (the  effects  produced 
by  small  doses  bdog  chiefly  excessive  sweating  and  salivation),  it 
is  capable  of  being  utilised  in  medicine.  Muscarine  has  a  very 
close  resemblance  in  action  to  pilocarpine. 

J.  Physostigmine,  the  active  principle  of  the  Calabar  bean,  acts 
chiefly  as  a  stimulant  to  vdunCary  and  involuntary  muscles,  and 
at  the  same  time  exercises  a  depressing  effect  upon  the  spinal  oonL 
it  contracts  the  PupiL 

IL  Conine,  gebeininine  and  spart«ne  all  cntt  a  paralysing 
effect  on  the  terminatioos  of  the  motor  nerves,  to  the  implication 
of  which  the  weakened  gait  and  other  symptoms  are  due. 

9.  Aoonitine,  ddphinine  and  many  of  their  derivatives  have  a 
very  widespread  depressing  action  on  muscle  and  nerve. 

la  Apomorphine  is  eaaeniially  a  muscle  poison,  but  owing  to  the 
fact  that  minute  doses  stimubte  the  vomiting  centre  and  cause 
emests  beCoie  any  other  symptoms  are  observable,  its  emetic  action 
is  the  moat  imminent  effect  in  man. 

1 1.  Emetine  acts  as  a  gradual  depressant  to  the  nervous  system 
in  animals.  In  roan  its  chief  effect  b  its  emetic  action,  which 
seems  to  be  due  entirely  10  local  irritation  of  the  stomach. 

la.  Quinine.  Several  of  the  other  alkaloids  found  in  cinchona 
bark  act  yfcry  much  like  quinine.  They  all  depieto  the  oooducling 
power  and  the  grey  matter  of  the  npuml  cord,  and  to  a  much  less 
extent  that  of  the  brain.  They  lessen  the  general  metabolism  and 
lower  febrile  temperature.  The  dnchoiui  aikaloids  have  a  spedfic* 
ally  poisonous  effect  on  the  parasites  of  malaria  when  present  in 
human  bkxid,  and  are  poisonous  to  all  km  organisms. 

15.  Phenacetin,  acctanilide,  phenaxone  and  many  similar  bodies 
act  as  antipyretics  in 'virtue  of  an.  action  on  the  heat-icgukiting 
centres  in  the  cerebrum. 

Giovp  XX.  DigUaiis. — This  group-name  has  been  given  to  a 
large  number  of  sulwtanccs  which  have  an  action  similar  to  that  of 
the  foxglove  loaves,  including  the  active  principles  of  strophanthus, 

Bjuill,  l/rechiiet  suberecta,  ConptUaria  majahs,  Ntrium  Oleandert 
tlUbana  nigtr,  Aniiaris  loxUaria  (the  upas  tree),  and  several 
others.  The  active  prindples  of  these  vary  a  good  deal  in  chemical 
composition,  but  tney  are  all  non«nitrogenous  neutral  bodies. 
Their  action  is  exerted  upon  muscle,  and  chiefly  upon  the  muscle 
of  the  heart  and  bk»d  veasds.  The  individual  mnsde-ibres  con- 
tract and  expand  more  perfectly,  and  thus  the  diastole  and  avalole 
of  the  heart  are  rendered  more  complete,  the  pulse  is  slowed,  and 
the  bkxxi'preasure  b  raised.  The  Blowing  <^  the  heart  b  partly 
brought  about  by  an  action  on  the  vagus  centre. 

Gioup  XXI.  Purotoxm* — I  n  large  doses  the  action  of  picroloxin 
b  exerted  chiefly  on  the  medulbry  nerve  centres,  whereby  irrcgubr 
looic<lonic  convulsions  are  produced;  in  minute  doses  it  stops  the 
accretion  of  sweat. 

Gaour  XXII.  ^SapMin.— ;;Saponin  and  many  allicil  bodies 
form  an  abuncbnt  soapy-looking  froth  when  rinkni  up  with  water, 
and  thcv  are  contained  in  a  very  brge  number  of  pbntSk  the  chid 
of  whicn  are  the  ^tiUaia  sapoHaria^  Pdyiala  senega,  sarsapariUa, 
and  others,  known  collectively  as  soapworts.  They  all  act  as  local 
irritants  in  the  alimentary  canal,  arid  after  absoirption  are  more 
or  less  depressing  to  the  muscular  and  nervous  systems.  They 
produce  slight  nausea  and  increased  secretion  of  mucus. 

Gioup  XXIII.  Cyanogen.— Thb  includes  compounds  of  cyano- 
gen such  as  hvdrocyanic  (prussic)  add.  cyanides  of  potassium, 
sodium,  &c.,  cnerry^aurel  water,  amygdalin,  bitter  almonds  and 
other  chemical  and  vegetable  substances  which  readily  yield  hyndro- 
cyanic  add.  Hydrocyanic  acid  b  a  general  protoposmic  poison, 
all  the  lower  ori^anisms  bdng  very  susceptible  to  its  action,  whtb 
in  the  higher  animab  it  speedily  oc presses  or  paralyses  all  forms  of 
nerve  tissue.  It  entera  into  combination  with  faemoglobin,  forming 
a  bright  scarlet  compound  and  interfering  with  respiration.  It  kilfs 
by  iu  paralysing  effect  on  the  motor  gangUa  of  the  heart  and  on  the 
reuMrato^  centre. 

'  Group  XXIV.  f«nfrni<r.-^Theae  include  such  bodies  as  pepsin, 
diastase,  the  pancreatic  ferments,  papain,  the  pine-apple  ferment, 
taluHJiastaae  and  others,  and  serve  to  convert  starch  into  sac- 
charine substances,  or  albumen  into  peptone  and  albumoaes. 

G110UP  XXV.  Animai  Glands  •nd  Secnliaiu.-Of  these  the 
thyroid  gland,  the  supraren^  bodies,  the  spleen,  the  bib,  the  bone 
marrow,  the  ovaries  and  some  othera  have  been  investigated  fully. 
SpeaUng  gennally.  when  given  ia  samll  doses  their  action  00  the 


healtlry  organian  b  alight  or  nil,  but  ia  disease  aane  of  tbeai  ait 
capabw  of  acting  as  substitutes  for  deficient  secretions. 

Gsou P  XXVl.  AntUaxims. — ^These  are  subsunccs  which  antago* 
niae  the  toxins  fommd  ia  the  body  by  pathogenic  organisms,  toe 
toxins  of  snake  ven<Mn  and  other  aninul  poisons,  awl  vegetable 
toxins  such  as  abrin,  ridn,  ftc  A  healthy  person  can  be  rendered 
insusoq>tible  by  gradually  accustoming  him  to  increasing  doses  of 
these  poisons,  arid  thb  mimunity  b  due  to  antitoxins  which  are 
found  w  the  blood-serum  and  which  are  products  of  the  blood  cells. 
The  nature  of  these  antitoxic  substances  is  not  definitely^  known, 
but  they  combine  with  aiid  destroy  the  poisons.  In  spedfic  germ 
diseases  a  similar  antitoxin  forma,  and  w  cases  which  recover  it 
counteracts  the  toxin,  whib  the  gcma  are  destroyed  by  the  tissues. 
Antitoxins  can  be  prepared  b)r  immunizing  a  large  animal,  such  as  a 
horse,  by  injecting  gradually  increasing  doses  of  specific  toxins  into 
its  subrnjtaneous  tissue.  In  due  time  the  horse  b  bled,  the  serum 
is  filtered  free  of  blood  corpuscles,  and  then  constitutes  the  anti- 
toxic serum^  which  can  t>e  staadardiied  to  a  certain  potency.  Such 
serums  are  injected  subcutaneously  in  diphtheria,  tetanus,  strepto. 
cocdc  infections,  plague,  snake>poisoning.  cholera  and  other  similax' 
diseases.    They  00  not  as  a  rule  harm  nealthy  men  even  in  bisc 

auantitics,  but  when  rq>eaced  they  often  cause  serious  symptoms 
ue  to  the  body  becoming  iiKire  sensitive  to  the  action  of  the  none* 
serum  in  whbh  they  are  contained. 

Gaoup  XXVII.  NesitraS  F«/r.— Thb  indudes  cod-Uver  oil. 
almond  ml,  olive  oil,  brd,  &c.,  all  of  whkh  act  as  foods  when  taken 
internally,  and  have  a  mody  physical  emollient  action  when  applied 
externally.  Lanolin,  Unseed  oil,  wax,  spenmaceti,  &c..  also  bcku^ 
to  thb  group.  The  paraffins,  glyccnn  and  vaseline,  although  not 
fats,  have  much  the  same  effect  when  aj^ied  externally,  but  tbey 
are  not  nutritive. 

Gaocp  XXVJIL  SMiars,Slarches,Gmms,Celatm,efc.^Mthougk 
thtft  and  allied  bodies  are  used  in  various  ways  as  remedies,  their 
action  b  for  the  most  part  purely  mechanical  or  dietetic 

AUTHORiTiB8w«-T.  Lauder  Brunton,  Pkarmacahiy,  Therapemiies 
and  Materia  Medica  Cird  ed..  London,  1891 ) ;  The  Action  of  Medkimas 
fLondoo.  1897)  I H.  C  Wood,  Tkerapentics:  tts  Principles  and  Preciica 
(lOth  ed..  Umdon,  1905) :  A.  Cushny,  A  Textbook  of  Pkartnacalagy 
and  Tkerapentics  (1906);  C  D.  F.  PhiUips,  Materia  Medica,  Pkarmm- 
cology,  and  Tkerapentics  (Jnorgunic  Snhsttnces)  (London,  1894); 
Bina,  Lectures  on  Pharmaeeiogy  (Trans..  New  Sydenham  Society, 
LoodoBi  189$);  Schmicdebcrg,  Crnndriss  der  AnneimitlelUkra 
(3rd  ed.,  Leipcig,  1895.  Eng.  trans,  by  Thos.  Dixon,  Edin- 
burgh, 1887);  Stokvis,  Zefons  do  pharmacotkirapie  (Haarlem  and 
Pans.  1808):  Raboteau,  Traiti  de  tkirapeutique  et  de  ftharmacoUgie 

i Paris,  1884);  Vulpian,  Les  Substances  toxiques  et  midicamentenses 
Paris,  1882):  J.  Harky.  Tke  Old  Vegf table  Neurotics  (London,  1869}; 
.  Mitchdl  Bruce,  Materia  Medica  and  TkerapeuticsM.  Hale  Whue, 
Materia  Medica,  Pharmacy,  Pkarmacology  and  Tkerapentics  (London, 
1909):  Waller  £.  Dixon,  A  Manual  of  Pharmacology  (London.  1906). 

(R.S.*) 

Terminology  in   Therapeutics, 

It  may  be  useful  to  give  here  a  general  expUnatkm  of  the 
common  names  used  in  the  therapeulic  classification  cA.  drags. 
It  b  convenient  to  divide  drugs  and  other  substances  used  in 
medicine  into  groups  according  to  the  part  of  the  system  00 
which  they  chiefly  ad,  though,  as  stated  above,  many  dru^ 
act  in  more  than  one  manner  and  could  come  trader  aevcra] 
groups. 

I.  Drugs  actii^  on  the  blood  vessels,  which  dther  dilate  the 
vesseb  when  taken  internally  or  applied  locally,  or  contract  the 
superficial  arterioles.  Irritants  (Lat.  irritate,  to  excite)  include: 
RMbefacients  (Lat.  mbefaure,  to  make  red),  which  cau«e  the  sfcia 
to  become  red  from  dibtatmn  of  the  blood  vcsscb;  Vesicants 
(Lat.  sirriai,  a  bladder),  which  irritate  sufficiently  to  caiae  the 
blood-scrum  to  exude  and  form  vesicles  or  blisters,  e.g.  cantharidet; 
Pnstnianis  (Lat.  pustnla,  a  blister),  still  more  powerful  in  their 
effects,  causing  the  blisters  to  become  filled  with  pus,  e.^.  croton 
oil.  EscharotKS  (Gr.  kax*^  hearth,  braxicr;  hence  mark  of  a 
bum,  "  scar  ")  or  Caustics  (Cr.  ««<<(»,  to  burn),  cause  the  death 
of  the  inrt,  cr.  silver  nitrate  and  nitric  acid.  The  term  ememttw' 
irritant  is  usecTwhen  an  irritant  is  applied  to  the  skin  for  the  par> 
pose  of  rdieving  pain  or  congestion  by  dilating  the  superbrial 
vessels.  Drugs  which  contract  the  vesseu  and  diminish  exndaiaon 
comprise  Astringents  (Lat.  astring^Oj  to  draw  ckise),  while  Styptics 
{orttip^»,  to  contract)  or  Haemostattcs  (Cr.  nln*,  l4ood,^  mrmr*MM^ 
causing  to  stand)  arc  substances  applied  dlhcr  locally  or  internally 
in  order  to  arrest  bleeding:  cold,  aorenalin,  ergot  and  the  per-saks 
of  iron  may  be  taken  as  exampleSk 

II.  Drugs  acting  on  the  digestive  tract.  Sudmfognes  (Cr.  wlo'Ko. 
mittb,  AimT^.  bading)  Increase  the  fiow  of  sauva,  ex.  mercury: 
Antisialogpgues  decrease  the  Bow,  e.g.  bdbdonna.  Aramaaiacs 
(Gr.  ipu^a*  9*°"^  ^  Bitters  increase-  the  flow  of  the  gastric  juice. 
Stomachics  (Gr.  vriiwxvr)  have  the  same  effect.  The  term  Cmrmxma 
Hoes  (Lat.  carminare,  to  card  wool),  adopted  from  the  old  iwedicjt 
theory  of  humours,  b  generally  applied  to  pungent  substaiKxs  whkk 
hdp  to  expd  gas  from  the  stomach  by  stimulating  the  movei 


u 


PHARMACOPOEIA 


S53 


of  itf  oonteittt.  Emttkt  (Gr.  %i«i»i.  TomitioB)  an  wahUbmcn 
given  for  <ho  parpoae  of  causim  vomitinct  «-C>  Ipecacuanaa  or 
ftpomorphine.  Anti-tnuties  or  Sdaatnts  OLat.  s»iare,  to  coin|X)9e) 
arrest  votn  itlnff  either  by  their  ceatr&l  or  local  action,  e^.  opium, 
cocaine  or  cenum  oxalate.  PwfiStrges  (Lat.  pur^artt  to  deanse) 
aid  the  onward  paaaage  of  the  contents  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
either  by  increanng  the  contractions  of  its  muscular  coat  as  taxaiaes 
{Lax.^Uucare,  to  kwKn),  t.g.  as  magtiesia,  or  by  increasing  the  flow 
of  fluid.  Some  are  termed  drastics  (Gr.  ipaaruiAt,  active)  or  cathartics 
(Gr.  Rstfo^Mfc,  cleansins),  which  produce  watery  evacuations. 
Ckelagonits  (Gr.  xpX^,  biw,  kyvrfitt  leading)  are  purgatives  which 
act  by  Increasing  the  flow  of  bde,  dther  by  causing  an  increased 
secretion  («.r.  podophyllum)  or  by  sweeping  it  onwards  by 
stimulating  the  intestinal  contractions  (e.t .  calomel). 

III.  Drugs  acting  on  parasites.  Antkamintics  (Gr.  htrU  aninst, 
IX/iiTf,  IXjujmAm.  a  worm)  are  drugs  which  kill  parasites  inhabiting 
the  intestine.  The  term  vermictde  (Lat.  •rrmii,  worm*  caedere,  to 
kilt)  M  applied  to  drugs  which  directly  kill  the  entocoa,  while 
vtrmifuf/S  (Lat.  vermis,  worm,  fugare,  to  put  to  flight)  is  applied 
to  the  purgative  usually  given  after  the  vermicide  tor  the  purpose 
of  ei^Uing  the  worm.  Parasiticides  or  anti-parasitics  destroy 
parantes;  tne  terms  are  usually  restricted  to  tboae  acting  on  skin- 
parasites  as  contrasted  with  intestinal  ones. 

IV.  Drugs  acting  on  the  urinary  system.  Diuretics  (Gr.  <«&, 
through,  a%o»,  the  urine)  increase  the  flow  of  urine,  while  lilkon' 
Iriptics  (Gr.  Xitot,  stone,  rpifinr^  to  rub,  grind  down)  are  drugs 
given  to  prevent  the  formation  of  urinary  oucuU. 

V.  Drugs  acting  on  the  generative  system.  Aphrodisiacs  (Gr. 
'k^fiMr^,  the  goddess  of  love)  increase  the  action  of  thejgenerative 
centre  in  the  spinal  cord;  Anapkrodisiacs  decrease  its  action. 
EcMics  (Gr.  l^^&XX«ty,  to  throw  oiit)  or  cxytocics  (Gr.  dCd«, 
sharp,  Guick.  r&tet ,  parturition)  stimulate  uterine  actbn.  Emmena- 
fogties  (Gr.  iMi»f^  menses,  trmriti  leading)  are  substances  which 
increase  the  menstrual  flow.  Gataetogoffiies  (Gr.  tAAa,  milk)  in- 
crease the  secretion  of  mUk,  whik  antigalactogogues  («.g.  beUadonna) 
have  the  opponte  effect. 

VI.  Drugs  actinia  on  the  respiratory  system.  Expeetvants 
increase  the  bronchial  secretions;  antispasmodics  relax  the  spasm 
of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  e,g.  stramonium. 
Thb  latter  term  is  also  used  for  drugs  which  act  as  general 
dcpresaantai 

VII.  Drugs  or  substances  actins  on  the  bodily  heat.  AiUi- 
fyretics  (Gr.  ^U  against,  mtpnbt^  fever)  either  increase  the  heat 
loss  oraimlnish  its  production;  e.g.  phenacetin,  cold  water,  Ac 

VIII.  Drugs  or  substances  acting  on  the  skin.  Diaphoretics 
(Gr.  dia^«»tt»{  to  carry  through)  increase  the  amount  oi  sweat, 
either  by  acting  directly  on  the  sweat  centres  or  on  the  nerve 
terminals.  The  word  Sudorific  (Lat.  sudor^  sweat)  is  applied  to 
them  when  they  act  very  powerfully.  Anhiirotics  or  Anlikidrotics 
(Gr.  UpA;  sweat)  diminish  the  secretion  of  sweat.  BmoUients 
(Lat.  mbUis^  soft)  are  substancea  which  soften  and  protect  the 
parts.  I>emufcefl^  (Lat.  demtdcere,  soften),  soothe  toe  skin  or 
mucous  membrane. 

IX.  Drugs  acting  on  metabolism.  AUeraliaes  are  drugs  which 
alter  the  course  of  a  disease,  the  mode  of  action  being  unknown. 
Tonics  are  drugs  which  increase  the  muscular  tone  of  the  body  by 
•cting  either  on  the  stomach,  heart,  spinal  cord,  &c 

X.  Drugs  acting  oo  the  blood.  Antitoxins  are  organic  products 
designed  to  neutialixe  the  formation^  of  the  toxins  of  certain  di»> 
eases  in  the  blood.  Toxins  are  also  iniected  In  order  to  stimulate 
the  blood  plasma  to  form  antitoxins  (see  Bactbriolocy).  AnU' 
periodics  ixuiibit  a  disease  having  periodic  recurrences;  e.g.  quinine 
in  malaria.  HaemaUnics  are  drugs  which  increase  the  amount  of 
haemoglobin  in  the  blood. 


(Gr.  dXT«v»>  lense  of  pain),  sensibility  ts  unaltered.  Stimiuants 
are  those  which  kad  to  excitation  of  the  mei>tal  faculties  and  in 
quantity  may  lead  to  delirium  and  incoherence.  Hypnotics  (Gr. 
hrpot,  eluep)  or  Sojporifics  (Lat.  sopor,  a  deep  sleep)  are  drugs  which 
produce  weep  without  caunng  cerebral  cxdtement.  Narcotics 
\Gr.  phfmm,  numbness)  are  thme  which  bendes  producing  sleep 
may  in  Urge  doses  depress  the  functions  of  respiration  ana 
circulation. 

XII.  Drugs  which  arrest  the  progress  of  putrefaction.  This  is 
other  by  imubiting  the  growth  of  micro-organisms  {Antiseptics) 
or  by  dkvtroying  them  whra  .present  {JHsUiieciasUs),     (H.  L.  H.) 

pHARMACOrOBIA  (lit.  the  art  of  the  ^jiaxwrot^,  or  dra$- 
compounder),  in  its  i&odezn  technical  sense*  a  book  containing 
directions  for  the  identification  of  simples  iad  the  preparation 
of  coiBpotind  sie<fidne8^  and  puUfohed  by  the  authority  of  a 
govemment  or  of  a  medical  or  pharmaceutical  sodety.  The 
OAiBO  ha#  also  been  implied  to  similar  compendiums  issued  by 
private  individaals.  The  first  work  of  the  kind  published  under 
govemment  authority  appears  to  have  been  that  of  Nurem- 
bets  ui  X542;  a  passing  student  named  Valerius  Cordus  showed 


a  collection  of  medical  reociptf,  which  he  bad  sdectod  irom  Um 
writings  of  the  most  eminent  medical  authorities,  to  the  phy* 
sidans  of  the  town,  who  urged  him  to  print  it  for  the  benefit 
of  the  apothecaries,  and  obtained  for  his  worlt  the  sanction  of 
the  senatus.  An  eadier  work»  known  as  the  Anddotarism 
fiorentinum,  had  been  published  under  the  authority  of  the 
college  of  medicine  of  Floienoe.  The  term  "  pharmacopoda" 
first  appears  as  a  distinct  title  in  a  work  published  at  Basel  in 
X561  by  Dr  A.  Foes,  but  docs  not  appear  to  have  come  hito 
general  use  until  the  beginning  of  the  X7th  oentuiy.  Before  x 543 
tlie  works  principally  used  by  apothecaries  were  the  tieatises 
on  simples  by  Avicenna  and  SerapSon;  the  De  synomymis 
and  Quid  pro  quo  oi  Simon  Januensis^  the  liber  servihris 
of  Bulchasim  Ben  Aberaserim,  which  described  the  pre- 
parations made  from  plants,  aniooais  and  mtncrais,  and  was  the 
tjrpe  of  the  chemical  portion  of  modem  pharmacopodas;  and 
the  Antidolarium  of  Nicolaus  de  Salerno,  containing  Galenical 
componnds  arranged  a^habetically.  Of  this  last  worit  there 
were  two  Kiitions  in  use — ^Nicolaus  magnus  and  Nicolaus  ptrvus; 
in  the  latter  several  of  the  compounds  described  in  the  Ufger 
edition  were  omitted  and  the  fonnulae  given  on  a  smaUer  scale« 
Until  1617  such  drags  and  medidnes  as  were  in  common  use 
were  sold  in  England  by  the  apothecaries  and  grooeiab  In  that 
year  the  apothecaries  obtained  a  separate  <^rter,  and  it  wot 
enacted  that  no  grocer  should  keep  an  apothecary's  shop.  The 
preparation  of  physidana'  prescriptioas  was  thus  confined  to 
the  apothecaries,  upon  whom  pressure  waa  brought  to  bear  to 
make  them  dispense  accurately,  by  the  issue  of  a  pharmacopoeia 
in  May  z6i8  by  the  College  of  Phyddans,  and  by  the  powei 
which  the  wardens  of  the  apothecaries  reodved  in  common  with 
the  censors  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  examining  the  shops 
of  apothecaries  within  7  m.  of  tondon  and  destroying  all  the 
compounds  which  they  found  unfaithful^  prepared.  This,  the 
first  authorized  Landau  Pkarmacopoeia,  was  selected  chiefly 
from  the  works  of  Mesue  and  Nicolaus  de  Salerno,  but  it  wai 
found  to  be  so  full  of  errors  that  the  whole  edition  was  cancelled, 
and  a  fresh  edition  was  published  in  the  following  December. 
At  this  period  the  compounds  employed  in  medidne  were  often 
heterogeneous  mixtures,  some  of  which  contained  from  20  to  7O) 
or  more,  ingredients,  while  a  latge  number  of  simples  were  used 
in  consequence  of  the  same  substance  being  supposed  to  possess 
different  qualities  according  to  the  source  from  which  it  was 
derived.  Thus  crabs'  eyes,  pearis,  oyster-shdls  and  coral  were 
supposed  to  have  different  properties.  Among  other  ingredi- 
ents entering  into  some  of  these  formulae  were  the  excrements 
of  human  beings,  dogs,  mice,  geese  and  other  animals,  calculi, 
human  skull  and  moss  growing  on  it,  blind  puppies,  earthworms, 
&c.  Although  other  editions  of  the  London  Pharmacopoeia 
were  issued  in  1621,  1632,  2639  and  1677,  it  was  not  until  the 
edition  of  1721,  published  tutder  the  auspices  of  Sir  Hans  Sloanei 
that  any  important  alterations  were  made.  In  this  issue  many 
of  the  ridiculous  remedies  previously  in  use  vere  omitted, 
although  a  good  number  were  still  retained,  such  as  dogs' 
excrement,  earthworms,  and  moss  from  the  human  skull;  the 
botanical  names  of  herbal  remedies  were  for  the  first  time  added 
to  the  official  ones;  the  simple  distilled  waters  were  ordered  of 
a  uniform  strength;  sweetened  spirits,  cordials  and  ratifias 
were  omitted  as  weU  as  several  compounds  no  longer  used  in 
London,  although  stiU  in  vogue  elsewhere.  A  great  improve- 
ment was  effected  in  the  edition  published  in  1746,  in  which 
only  those  preparations  were  retained  which  had  received  the 
approval  of  the  majority  of  the  pharmacopoda  committee;  to 
these  was  added  a  list  of  those  drugs  only  which  were  supposed 
to  be  tbe  most  efficadous.  An  attempt  was  made  to  simplify 
further  the  older  formulae  by  the  rejection  of  superfluous 
ingredients.  In  the  edition  published  in  1788  the  tendency  to 
simplify  was  carried  out  to  a  much  greater  extent,  and  the 
extremely  compound  medidnes  whidi  had  formed  the  principal 
remedies  of  phyddans  for  2000  years  were  discarded,  while  a 
few  powerful  drugs  which  had  been  considered  too  dangerous  to 
be  tnchaded  hi  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  1765  were  restored  to  thdr 
previous  position.    In  1809  the  French  chemical  nomenclature 


354 


PHARMACOPOEIA 


wu  adopted,  end  In  1S15  m  contcUd  impression  of  tlie  same 
was  issued.  Subsequent  editions  were  published  in  1834, 
xSjdandx^Sx. 

Tile  first  Edi$Umrgk  Pkarmacopoaa  was  published  in  X699 
and  tlie  last  in  1841;  the  first  DuUm  Pharmacopoeia  in  1807 
and  the  last  in  1850. 

The  preparations  contained  in  these  three  pharmacopoeias 
were  not  all  uniform  in  strength,  a  source  of  much  inconvenience 
and  danger  to  the  public,  when  poweKul  preparations  such  as 
dilute  hydrocyanic  acid  were  ordered  in  the  one  country  and 
dispensed  according  to  the  national  pharmacopoeia  in  another. 
In  consequence  of  this  inconvenience  the  Medical  Act  of  1858 
ordained  that  the  General  Medical  Council  should  cause  to  be 
published  a  book  containing  a  list  of  medicines  and  compounds, 
to  be  called  the  British  Pharmaeopoeia,  which  should  be  a 
substitute  throughout  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  for  the  separate 
pharmaa)poeIas.  Hitherto  these  had  been  published  in  Latin. 
The  first  British  Pharmacopoeia  was  published  in  the  English 
language  in  1864,  but  gave  such  general  dissatisfaction  both  to 
the  medical  profession  and  to  chemists  and  druggists  that  the 
General  Me<tical  Council  brought  out  a  new  and  amended  edition 
fat  X867.  This  dissatisfaction  was  probably  owing  partly  to  the 
fact  that  the  majority  of  the  compilers  of  the  work  were  not 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  pharmacy,  and  therefore  competent 
rather  to  decide  upon  the  kind  of  preparations  required  than 
upon  the  method  of  their  manufacture.  The  necesdty  for  this 
element  in  the  construction  of  a  pharmacopoeia  is  now  fully 
recogniaed  in  other  countries,  in  most  of  which  pharmaceutical 
chemisu  are  represented  on  the  committee  for  the  preparation 
of  the  legally  redognized  msnuaifli 

National  pharmacopoeias  now  exist  In  the  following  countries: 
Austria,  Belgium,  Chile.  Denmark,  France.  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
Greece,  Holland.  Hungary,  India,  Japan,  Mexico,  Norway,  Portugal. 
^  '  •-    Spain,  Sweden,  Italy,  Switzerland,  the  United  States  or 


America  and  Venexuda.  All  the  above-mentioned  were  issued 
under  the  authority  of  government,  and  their  instructions  have  the 
force  of  law  in  their  respective  countries,  except  that  of  the  United 
States,  which  was  prepared  by  commissioners  appointed  by  medical 
and  pharmaceuticd  societies,  and  has  no  other  authority,  although 
generally  aooepted  as  the  national  textbook. 

The  French  Codex  has  probably  a  more  extended  use  than  any 
other  pharmacopoeia  outside  its  own  country,  being,  in  connexion 
with  Dorvault's  L'Qfidne,  the  standard  for  drugetsts  in  a  laige 
portion  of  Coitral  and  South  America;  it  is  also  official  in  Turkey. 
The  suro*total  of  the  drugs  and  preparations  it  contains  is  about 
1 350,  or  double  the  average  of  other  modem  pharmacopoeias. 
The  progress  of  medical  knowledge  has  led  to  a  gradual  but  very 
perceptible  alteration  in  the  contents  of  the  pharmacopoeias.  The 
original  very  compkx  formulae  have  been  simpUfiea  until  only 
the  most  ac,tive  ingredients  have  been  retained,  and  in  many 
cases  the  active  principles  have  to  a  laige  extent  replaced  the  crude 
drugs  from  which  they  were  derived.  From  time  to  time  such 
secret  remedies  of  drugpsts  or  physicians  om  have  met  with  popular 
or  professional  apimrral  have  been  represented  by  simpler  official 
preparations.  ^ 

The  rapid  increase  m  medical  and  pharmaceutical  knowledge 
renders  necessary  frequent  new  editions  of  the  national  pharma- 
copoeias, the  ofiice  of  which  is  to  furnish  definite  formulae  for  pre- 
parations that  have  already^  come  into  extensive  use  in  medical 
practice,  so  as  to  ensure  uniformity  of  strength,  and  to  give  the 
characters  and  teats  by  which  their  purity  and  potency  may  be 
determined.  But  each  new  edition  requires  several  years  to  carry 
out  numerous  experiments  for  devising  suitable  formulae,  so  that 
the  current  Pharmacopoeia  can  never  be  quite  up  to  date.  Thto 
difliculty  has  hitherto  been  met  by  the  publication  of  such  non- 
official  formularies  as  Squire's  Companion  to  the  Pharmacopoeia 
and  Martindale's  Ejdra  rharmacopoeta,  in  which  all  new  remedies 
end  their  preparations,  uses  and  doses  are  recorded,  and  in  the 
former  the  varying  strengths  of  the  samepreparatmns  in  the  different 
pharmacopoeias  are  also  compared.  The  need  of  such  works  to 
supplement  the  Pharmacopoeia  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  are 
even  more  largely  used  than  the  Pharmacopoeia  itself,  the  first 
having  been  issued  in  18  and  the  second  in  13  editions  at  compara- 
tively short  intervals.  In  England  the  task  of  elaborating  a  new 
Pharmacopoeia  is  entrusted  to  a  body  of  a  purely  medical  character, 
and  legally  the  pharmacist  has  not,  as  in  other  countries,  a  voice 
in  the  matter,  notwithsunding  the  fact  that,  although  the  medical 
practiriooer  b  naturally  the  best  judge  of  the  drug  or  preparations 
that  will  afford  the  best  therapeutic  result,  he  is  not  so  competent 
as  the  pharmacist  to  say  how  that  preparation  can  be  produeed  in 
the  most  effective  and  satisfactory  manner,  aor  how  the  purity  of 
drugs  can  be  tested.    In  the  preparation  of  the  fourth  edition  of 


the  BHUsh  Pharmacopoeia  in  1898  some  new  departurts  were  made. 
A  committee  of  the  nurmaceutkal  Society  of  Gieat  Britain  wu 
appointed  at  the  request  of  the  General  Medical  Council  to  advise 
on  pharmaceutical  matters  and  the  valuable  assistance  rendered 
by  It  is  acknowledged  in  the  preface  of  that  work.  A  census  of 
prescriptions  was  taken  to  ascertain  the  relative  frequency  with 
which  different  preparations  and  drugs  were  used  in  prescriptions, 
and  suggestions  and  criticisms  were  sought  from  various  medkal 
and  pharmaceutical  bodies  at  home  and  in  the  cok)nies.  As  regards 
the  purely  pharmaceutical  part  of  the  work  a  committee  of  refer- 
ence in  pharmacy,  nominated  by  the  pharmaceutiol  societies  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  appointed  to  report  to  the  Pharma- 
copoeia Committee  of  the  Medical  Council. 

Some  difficulty  has  arisen  since  the  passing  of  the  Adulteration 
of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  concerning  the  use  of  the  Pharmacopoeia 
as  a  lesp\  sundard  for  the  drugs  and  preparations  contained  ui  it. 
The  Pharmacopoeia  is  defined  in  the  preface  as  only  *'  intended  to 
afford  to  the  members  of  the  medical  profession  ana  those  engaged 
in  the  preparation  of  medicines  throughout  the  British  Empire 
one  uniform  standard  and  guide  whereby  the  nature  and  compoa- 
tion  of  substances  to  be  used  in  medicine  may  be  ascertained  and 
determined."  It  is  obvious  that  it  cannot  be  an  encyclopaedia 
of  substances  used  in  medicine,  and  can  onl^^  be  used  as  a  standard 
for  the  substances  and  preparations  contained  in  it,  and  for  no 
others.  It  has  been  held  m  the  Divisional  Courts  {Diekint  v. 
RandersoH)  that  the  Pharmacopoeia  is  a  standard  for  official  prt- 
parations  asked  for  under  their  pharmacopoeial  name.  But  there 
are  many  substances  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  which  are  not  only 
employed  in  medu:ine,  but  have  other  uses,  such  as  sulphur,  benzoin, 
tragacanth.  gum  arabic,  ammonium  carbonate,  beeswax,  oil  of 
turpentine,  hnjieed  oil,  and  for  these  a  commercial  standard  of 
punty  as  aisrinct  from  a  medidnal  one  is  needed,  since  the  orepara- 
tions  used  in  medicine  should  be  of  the  highest  possible  <Kgree  of 
purity  obtainable,  and  thb  standard  woukI  be  too  high  and  too 
expensive  for  ordinary  purposes.  The  use  of  trade  s^^nonyms  in 
the  Pharmacopoeia,  such  as  saltpetre  for  purified  potassium  nitrate, 
and  milk  of  sulphur  for  precipitated  sulphur,  is  partly  answerable 
for  this  difficulty,  and  has  proved  to  be  a  mistake,  rince  it  affords 
ground  for  legal  prosecution  if  a  chemist  sells  a  orug  of  ordinary 
commercial  purity  for  trade^  purp(»es,  instead  of  the  purified 
preparation  which  is  official  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  for  medicinal 
use.  This  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  trade  synonym  were  omitted. 
For  many  drugs  and  chemicals  not  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  there  is 
no  standard  of  purity  that  can  be  used  under  the  Adulteratioa  of 
Food  and  Drugs  Act,  and  for  these,  as  well  as  for  the  commertial 

Juality  of  those  drugs  and  essential  oils  which  are  also  in  the 
harmacopoeia,  a  legal  standard  of  commercial  purity  is  mudi 
needed.  This  subject  formed  the  basis  of  discussion  at  several 
meetings  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society,  and  the  results  have  been 
embodied  in  a  work  entitled  Suggested  Standards  for  Foods  and 
Drugs,  by  C.  G.  Moor,  which  indicates  the  average  degree  of  purity 
of  many  drugs  and  chemicals  ased  in  the  arts,  as  well  as  the  highest 
dence  of  purity  obtainable  in  commerce  of  those  used  in  medicine. 

An  important  step  has  also  bc;en  taken  in  this  dhrction  by  the 
publication  under  the  authority  of  the  Council  of  the  Pharmaceutical 
Society  of  Great  Britain  of  the  Brttssh  Pharmaceutical  Codex,  va 
which  the  characters  of  and  tests  for  the  purity  of  many  non- 
official  drugs  and  preparations  are  given  as  well  as  the  character 
of  many  glandular  preparations  and  antitoxins  that  have  coroe 
into  use  in  medicine,  but  have  not  yet  been  introduced  into  tbe 
Pharmacopoeia.  This  work  may  also  possibly  serve  as  a  standard 
under  the  Adulteration  of  Food  and  Dnicrs  Act  for  the  purity  and 
strength  of  drugs  not  included  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  and  as  a 
stanc&rd  for  the  commercial  grade  of  purity  of  those  in  the  Phama* 
copoeia  which  are  used  for  non-medical  purposes. 

Another  legal  difficulty  connected  with  modem  pharmacopoeias 
is  the  incIuMon  in  some  of  them  of  synthetic  chemical  remedies, 
the  processes  for  preparing  which  have  been  patented,  whilst  the 
substances  are  solo  under  trade-mark  names  such  as  veronal.  The 
scientific  chemical  name  is  often  long  and  unwieldy,  and  the 
physician  prefers  when  writing  a  prescription  to  use  the  shorter 
name  under  which  it  is  sold  by  the  patentees.  In  this  case  tbe 
pharmacist  is  compcfled  to  use  the  more  expensive  patented  artkrie 
and  the  patient  complains  of  the  price.  If  ne  uses  the  same  articie 
under  its  pharmacopoeial  name  when  the  patented  article  is  pre> 
scribed  he  lays  himself  open  to  prosecutran  by  the  patentee  for 
infringement  of  patent  rignts.  The  only  plan,  therefore,  is  for  the 
physician  to  use  the  chemical  name  (which  cannot  be  pateneed) 
as  given  in  the  Pharmacopoeia,  or — for  those  svatbctie  reawdsea 
not  included  in  the  Pharmacopoeia — to  use  ine  scientific  and 
chemical  name  given  in  the  British  Pharmaceutical  Codex. 

International  FJbarHMca^oria.— Increased  facilities  for  travel  have 
brought  into  greater  prominence  the  importance  of  an  approach 
to  unifomiity  m  the  formulae  of  the  more  powerful  remedies,  ia 
order  to  avoid  danger  to  patients  when  a  prescription  is  dnpensed 
in  a  different  country  from  that  in  which  it  was  written.  Attempts 
have  been  made  by  international  pharmaceutical  and  awdicai 
oonfereaces  to  settle  a  basis  on  which  an  intematmnal  pharmaoopocia 
could  be  prepared,  but,  owing  to  national  jealousies  and  the  attempt 
to  include  too  many  preparations  in  such  a  work  it  has  not  aa  y«t 


PHARMACOSIDEWTE—PHARMACY 


S5S 


bcctt  woduced.  The  •tandanUvtioo  of  preparations  of  pttent 
medicines,  as  reganfa  the  amount  ci  active  principles  they  contain, 
can  only  conveniently  and  economically  be  done  in  operating  on 
laige  quantities,  and  must  natundly  lead  to  the  preparations  being 
itandardiyed  at  wholesale  houses,  who  issue  a  guarantee  with  them: 
but  it  is  not  yet  certain  that  deterioration  may  not  take  place  after 
stan(hrdization,  in  such  as  those  of  ergot  or  digitalis,  so  that  it  is 
somewhat  ouestionabie  whether  the  standardisation  is  of  permanent 
value  in  all  cases;  Probably  more  dependence  b  t»  be  plaoedofl 
caief  ul  selection  of  the  drug,  and  skill  in  itt  piraaratioa  and  pre- 
servation by  the  retail  pEarmadst,  who  should  be  personally 
responnbte  for  the  quality  and  purity  of  the  preparations  he  seOs. 
Although  the  attempt  to  form  an  intemauonal  pharmacopoeia 
baa  fafled*  a  project  for  an  imperial  pharmacopoeia  which  should 
be  adapted  to  the  general  and  kxal  requixemeats  of  all  parts  of 
the  Bndsh  Emnire  oas  met  with  better  success.  With  the  aid  of 
the  medical  and  pharmaceutical  authorities  in  each  of  the  seventy 
administrative  divisions  of  the  British  Empire  an  Indian  and  Colonial 
addendum  to  the  Britisk  Pharnuuopoeta  of  1898  was  compiled 
and  published  in  1900  in  which  each  axticle  receives  offical  sanction 
in  the  countries  indicated  at  the  foot  of  the  monographs.  This 
was  regarded  as  a  preparatory  step  to  the  publication  of  a  complete 
imperial  pharmacopoeia. 

'  Several  unolBdal  universal  pharmacopoeias  have  been  poblisfaed 
in  Enghind  and  in  France,  which  serve  to  show  the  comparative 
strength  of  parallel  preparations  in  different  countries.    The  metric 
or  decimal  mode  of  calculation  and  the  centigrade  scale  of  tempera- 
tpre  are  adopted  in  all  pharmacopoeias  except  those  of  Creat 
Britain  (in  which  the  metric  equivalents  are  now  jpven)  and  in 
sane  instances  of  Greece.    The  maiprity  omit  chemical  formulae. 
An  ^phabetical  arrauBgeroent  is  fouowed  in  all.    The  maximum 
doses  of  preparations  are  given  in  several  pharmacopoeias  and  the 
physician  must  indicate  on  his  prescription,  if  he  exceeds  this  limit, 
oy  using  a  note  of  exclamation  after  each  article,  that  he  purposely 
intend8.soch  a  dose  to  be  empfoved.    The  great  increase  of  medical 
literatura  and  international  exchange  of  medical  journals  has  led 
to  the  adoption  in  almost  every  country  of  all  the  really  valuable 
remedial  agents,  and  the  more  extended  use  of  active  principles 
has  given  rise  to  an  approximation  in  strength  of  their  solutions. 
The  diAculty  of  nomenclature  could  probably  be  overcome  by  a 
list  of  synonyms  being  given  ^th  each  article,  and  that  of  language 
by  the  use  «  Latin.    The  greatest  stumbling-blocks  in  the  way  of 
uniformity  are  the  tinctures  and  extracts — a  class  of  preparations 
containing  many  very  powerful  drugs,  but  in  which  the  same  name 
does  not  always  indicate  the  same  thing;  thus, extract  of  aconite 
signifies  an  extract  of  the  root  in  the  pharmacopoeias  of  the  United 
Srates,  Japan  and  Russia,  extract  of  the  leaves  in  the  Danish  and 
Portuguese,  insfMssated  juice  df  the  fresh  leaves  in  the  Greek, 
and  alcoholic  extract  of  the  rftot  in  that  of  Spain  and  luly,  and 
alocAolic  extiact  of  the  dried  leaves  in  the  Chilean  pharmacopoeias. 
It  a()peara  probable,  however,  that  the  growth  01  pharmaceutical 
chemistry  will  indicate,  in  time,  which  of  those  in  use  form  the  most 
active  and  trustworthsf  preparations,  while  the  general  adoption 
of  the  metric  system  will  lead  to  clearer  approximation  of  strength 
than  hitherto.    The  method  adopted  by  the  Portuguese  Pharma- 
eopoeia  comes  nearest  to  that  uniformity  which  is  so  desirable  in 
cuch  prepantionsL  as  the  tinctures  of  the  fresh  plants  are  aO  pre- 
pared with  equal  parts  of  the  drug  and  alcoholic  menstruum; 
simple  tinctures  in  general,  with  uniortunatxly  a  few  exceptions, 
with  one  part  of  the  drug  in  five  parts  of  alcohol  of  given  stjt;ngth ; 
ethereal  tinctures  are  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  in  ten;  and  the 
tinctures  of  the  alkaloids  and  their  salts  contain  one  part  of  the 
alkaloid  in  ninety-nine  of  menstniunu 

Homoeopathic  and  eclectic  practitionera  as  wdl  as  dentists 
kave  also  their  special  pharmacopoeias. 

SeeBcU  and  Redwood,  Progress  of  Pharmacy  (London,  1880I; 
Schcrer,  Liieratttra  pharmacopoearum  (Letpcig  and  Sorau,  1823); 
Flint,  Report  on  the  Pharmacopoeias  0/  00  r/atunu  (Washington, 
1883).  (E.  M.  H.) 

•  PHARHACOSIDERITE;  a  mineral  spedes  consisting  of 
bydrated  basic  ferric  arsenate,  2FeAs04'Fe(OH)9-5HsO.  Crys- 
tals have  the  form  of  small,  sharply  defined  cubei  of  an  olive-  or 
gnss-green  colour,  and  occur  together  in  considerable  numbers 
on  the  matrix  of  the  specimens.  On  account  of  its  cubic  form 
the  mineral  was  early  known  as  "  cube  ore  "  (Get.,  WurfeUrz), 
the  name  pharmacosiderite,  given  by  J.  F.  L.  Hausm^wn  m 
1813,  alludes  to  the  arsenic  and  iron  present  (0dp/ia«ir, 
poison,  and  a(^pot,  iron).  Tbe  faces  of  the  cube  are  stnatcd 
parallel  to  one  diagonal,  and  alternate  corners  are  sometimes 
replaced  by  faces  of  a  tetxahedron.  The  crystals  are  feebly 
doubly  refracting,  and  in  polarized  light  exhibit  a  banded 
structure  parallel  to  the  cube  faces.  The  hardness  is  a|  and  the 
specific  gravity  3-8.  Recent  analyses  prove  the  presence  of  a 
small  but  variable  amount  of  potassium  (K|0,  2-68— 4-13%) 
fa  tlie  Cornish  crystals,  though  in  those  from  Hungazy  there  is 


only  a  trace}  this  constituent  appesn  to  take  the  place  of 

hydrogen  in  the  above  formulL  A  curious  property  is  to  be 
obaerved  when  a  crystal  of  pharmacosiderite  is  pUced  in  a 
solution  oi  ammofua — in  a  few  minutes  the  green  cdlour  changes 
throughout  the  whole  crystal  to  red;  on  placing  the  red  crystal 
in  dilute  hydrochk>ric  add  the  green  cok>ur  is  restored.  Katural 
crystals  are  sometimes  honey-ycUow  to  brown  in  colour^  but 
this  appears  to  be  due  to  alteration. 

Pharmacoaiderite  b  a  mineral  of  seeondary  origta,  the  tryatala 
occttoing  attached  to  gociany  quartz  in  the  upper  pan  of  wm  of 
copper  ore.  it  was  found  ia  some  abundance  at  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century  tn  the  copper  mines  of  the  St  Day  district  in  Cornwall* 
and  has  since  been  found  at  a  few  other  localities,  for  example,  at 
K5aigsbcrg  near  Schemnilz  in  Hungary,  and  in  the  Tintic  distriet 
in  Utah.  (L.  J.  S.) 

PHASHAC7,  a  term'  which  in  the  original  Greek  form  signified 
the  use  of  any  kind  of  drug  (^^/taxor),  potion  or  speU, 
and^  hence  also  poison  and  witchcraft.  In  Uie  modern 
signification  it  is  apph'ed  to  the  act  of  preparing,  preserving 
and  compounding  medicines,  according  to  the  prescriptions 
of  ph3rsicians.    It  was  used  firat  in  this  sense  in  1597. 

In  the  earliest  periods  of  the  world's  history  of  which  we  have 
any  record,  this  art,  like  that  of  the  perfumer,  was  practised 
by  a  special  class  of  the  priesthood,  as  in  the  case  of  Eleazar 
(Num.  iv.  16},  and  that  of  medicine  by  another  class  (Lev.  ziii.). 

Egyptian  inscriptions  indicate  that  the  physidan-priests 
sent  their  prescriptions  to  be  dispensed  by  the  priests  of  Isis 
when,  accompanied  by  the  chanter  of  incantations  and  spells, 
they  visited  the  sick*.  A  papyrus  of  Sent,  3300  B.C.,  gives 
directions  as  to  the  preparation  of  prescriptions.  In  the  Ebers 
papyrus,  1550  B.C.,  mention  is  made  of  blisters,  ointments, 
clysters,  mineral  and  vegetable  drugs.  The  art  of  the  apothe- 
cary is  alluded  to  very  early  in  the  Old  Testament  history 
(Exod.  zxx.  25-35  and  in  xxxvii.  20)  and  again  in  the  time  of 
Solomon  (Ecdes.  z.  9),  but  this  word,  which  is  tran^ted  par 
fumeur  in  the  French  version,  only  indicates  that  the  preparation 
of  fragrant  unguents  and  incense  formed,  even  at  that  early 
date,  a  part  of  pharmacy,  since  the  drugs  mentioned,  viz. 
galbanum,  myrrh,  stacte,  frankincense, '  csJamus,  cassia  and 
cinnamon,  were  aU  of  them  used  in  perfumes,  even  the  myrrh 
being  probably  the  kind  distinguished  at  tbe  present  time  in 
the  Bombay  market  as  perfumed  myrrh  or  bissabol,  which 
stiU  forms  an  Ingredient  of  the  joss  sticks  used  as  incense  in  the 
temples  in  China.  The  myrrh  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxvii.  35 
is  described  under  another  Hebrew  word,  and  refers  to  ladanum, 
a  fragrant  resin  produced  in  Cyprus,  and  the  use  of  this  drug, 
as  wcU  as  that  of  cinnamon  and  cassia,  indicates  even  at  that 
early  period  a  knowledge  of  the  products  of  Somalilaod,  Arabia 
and  tbe  East  Indies  and  the  existence  of  trade  between  the 
farther  East  and  Egypt.  In  China  also  at  a  very  eaiiy  period 
the  art  of  pharmacy  was  practised.  Ching-Hong,  a  contem- 
porary of  Menes  I.  of  Egypt,  was  learned  in  the  art,  and  made 
decoctions  and  extracts  of  plants.  Tbe  materia  medica  of  the 
Chinese  at  the  present  date  affords  an  excellent  illustration  of 
the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  use  of  drugs,  and  of  the 
theories  and  superstitions  that  have  guided  the  selection  of 
these  from  the  earliest  ages.  Inasmuch  as  it  stUl  comprises 
articles  that  were  formerly  used  in  medidne,  but  have  now  been 
utteriy  discarded.  Thus  the  doctrine  of  signatures  is  evident 
in  the  use  oi  the  celebrated  Ginseng  root  of  China,  which,  like 
that  of  the  mandrake  (Gen.  xxx  14-16),  owed  its  employment 
to  the  fact  that  the  root  often  divides  into  branches  resembling 
the  arms  and  legs  of  a  man,  and  this  resemblance  gave  rise  to 
the  belief  that  it  conferred  strength  and  virility.  The  same 
belief  is  shown  in  the  botanical  names  ipphed  to  many  plants, 
e.g.  Pulmonaria,  Hq»tica,  Scrophularia,  and  others. 

The  astrological  belief  that  pkuits,  animak  and  minerals  are 
under  the  influence  of  the  planets  is  shown  in  the  older  names 
of  some  of  the  metals,  e.g.  Saturn  for  lead,  Venus  for  copper, 
and  Man  for  iron,  and  the  belief  that  the  coloun  of  flowers 

*  The  Egyptians  believed  that  the  medidnal  virtues  of  plants  were 
due  to  the  spirits  who  dwelt  within  them* 


35* 


KiARMAGY 


indicated  the  particular  planet  they  were  under  led  to  their  use 
in  diseases  and  for  constitutions  supposed  to  be  under  the  same 
planet.  Ph^dans  to  this  day  head  their  prescriptions  with  a 
sign  that  originsUy  meant  an  invocation  to  Jupiter,  but  now 
Tepresents  the  word  recipe. 

The  beHef ,  which  is  still  heH  by  the  Chinese,  that  theexcrements 
of  animals  retain  the  properties  and  peculiarities  of  the  animals 
from  which  they  are  derived,  led  to  the  use  in  medicine  of  these 
dMgutting  remedies,  which  are  atiU  sold  in  drug  shops  in  China, 
and  were  only  omitted  from  the  English  Pharmacopoeia  as  late  as 
1 7  a  X .  At  that  date  the  science  of  chemistry  was  very  imperfectly 
known,  and  the  real  constituents  of  ordinary  remedies  so  little 
understood  that  differeiU  virtues  were  attributed  lo  different  pro- 
ducts containing  the  same  constituents.  Thus,  prepared  oyster«- 
shells,  coral,  pearls,  crabs'  "  eyes  '*  and  burnt  hart's  homj^ere 
regarded  as  specifics  in  different  complaints.  In  ignorance  of 
the  fact  that  they  aS  contain,  as  the  chief  ingredients,  calcium 
phosphate  and  carbonate.  The  celebrated  Gascoigne's  powder, 
which  was  sold  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  xgth  century  in  the 
form  of  balls  like  sal  prunella,  consisted  of  equal  parts  of  crabs' 
"  eyes,"  the  black  tips  of  crabs'  claws,  Oriental  pearls,  Oriental 
bezoar  and  white  coral,  and  was  administered  in  jelly  made  of 
hart's  horn,  but  was  prescribed  by  physicians  chiefly  for  wealthy 
people,  as  it  cost  about  forty  shillings  per  ounce.  Superstition 
also  entered  largely  into  the  choice  of  remedies.  Thus  various 
parts  of  crinunids,  such  as  the  thigh  bone  of  a  hanged  man, 
moss  grown  on  a  human  skull,  &c.,  were  used,  and  even  the 
celebrated  Dr  Culpeper  in  the  17th  century  recommended 
"  the  ashes  of  the  head  of  a  coal  black  cat  as  a  specific  for  such 
as  have  a  skin  growing  over  their  sight." 

In  course  of  time  the  knowledge  of  drugs,  and  consequently 
the  number  in  use,  gradually  increased,  and  some  of  the  prepara- 
tions made  in  accordance  with  the  art  attained  a  celebrity  that 
lasted  for  centuries.  Thus  diachylon  plaster  was  invented  by 
Menecrates  in  a.d.  x,  and  was  used  by  him  for  the  same  purposes 
as  it  Is  employed  to-day.  An  electuary  of  opium,  known  as 
MUhradaturHf  was  invented  by  Mithradates  VL,  king  of  Pontu$, 
who  lived  in  constant  fear  of  being  poisoned,  and  tested  the 
effects  of  poUwns  on  criminals,  and  is  said  to  have  taken  poisons 
and  thdr  antidotes  every  day  in  the  year.  The  prcsolptlon 
for  the  general  antidote  luiown  as  Mithradatum  was  found  with 
his  body,  together  with  other  medical  MSS.,  by  Pompey,  after 
his  victory  over  that  king.  The  prescription  was  improved  by 
Damocrates  and  Andromachus,  body  physicians  to  Nero.  The 
first  was  subsequently  known  as  MUhradatum  Danufcratis,  and 
the  second  as  Theriaca  Andromackit  the  name  Theriaca  or 
Tiriaca  being  derived  from  the  snake  called  T)rras,  the  flesh 
of  which  was  added  to  it  by  Andromachus.  llie  former  con- 
tained 55,  or,  according  to  some  formulae,  73  Ingredients,  and 
occurs  m  all  the  dispensatories,  from  that  of  Corvus  Valerius 
up  to  the  pharmacopoeias  of  the  xQth  century;  and  aromatic 
preparations  of  opium  are  still  used,  under  the  name  of  Tkeriaka 
in  Persia.  The  Theriaca  prepared  at  Venice  had  the  highest 
reputation,  probably  because  in  Venice  the  component  parts 
were  exposed  to  the  inspection  of  wise  men  and  doctors  for  two 
months,  to  determine  whether  they  were  or  were  not  fit  for  use. 
The  apothecaries'  ordinance  at  Nuremberg  provided  that  no 
Theriaca  should  in  future  be  branded  with  the  seal  of  the  city 
unless  it  had  been  previously  examined  and  declared  worthy 
of  the  same  by  the  doctors  of  medidne,  and  that  every  druggist 
must  know  the  age  of  the  Theriaca  he  sold.  Inasmuch  as  its 
action  changed  very  materially  with  age,  "  the  buyer  should  in 
all  instances  be  informed,  so  that  he  may  not  be  deceived." 
The  last  public  pxtparation  of  Theriaca  took  place  at  Nurem- 
berg in  X754. 

In  AJ>.  77-78  Dioscorides  of  Anazarba,  In  Cilida,  wrote  his 
great  work  on  materia  medica,  which  still  remains  the  most 
important  work  on  the  plants  and  drugs  used  in  ancient  times 
(of  which  about  400  were  enumerated)  and  until  the  X7th  century 
was  held  as  the  most  valuable  guide  to  medidnal  plants  and 
drugs  extant.  Nearly  100  years  afterwards  Galen,  the  imperial 
phytidaa  at  Rome  (aj>.  i3i-2oo),  who  was  learned  ia  surgery, 


pharmacy  and  materia  medica,  added  about  200  more  plants 
to  those  described  by  I>io6corides. 

Galen  believed  in  the  doctrine  of  humours  originated  by 
Hippocrates,  which  supposes  the  condition  of  the  body  to  depend 
upon  the  proper  mixture  of  the  four  elements,  hot,  cold,  moist 
and  dry,  and  that  drugs  possess  the  same  elementary  qualities, 
and  that  00  the  prindple  of  contraries  one  or  other  was  indicated, 
e,g.  a  cooling  remedy  for  a  feverish  state.  This  doctrine  was 
held  for  many  centuries,  and  drugs  are  classed  by  all  the  old 
herbalista  aa  having  one  or  other  of  these  qualities  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree.  Galen  is  said  to  have  invented  hieri-picia, 
which  he  employed  as  an  anihdmintic;  it  is  still  used  in 
England  as  n  domestic  remedy.  In  the  6th  century  Alexander 
of  Tralles  used  colchicum  for  gout,  iron  for  anaemia,  and  rhubarb 
in  liver  weakness  and  dysentery.  The  practice  of  pharmacy  was 
extended  by  the  AraUan  physicians,  and  the  separation  of  it 
from  medicine  was  recognized  In  the  8th,  and  legalized  in  the 
I  ith  century.  The  practice  of  "  polypharmacy,"  or  the  use  of  a 
large  number  of  ingredients  m  prescriptions,  which  was  common 
in  the  middle  ases,  was  greatly  due  to  the  view  enunciated  by 
Alkekendo,  and  ndd  by  one  of  the  Arabian  schools  of  medidne: 
that  the  activity  of  medicine  increases  in  a  duplicate  ratio 
when  compounded  with  others;  and  it  was  only  in  the  first  half 
of  the  i8th  century  that  the  practice  was  altogether  disoontinncd 
in  the  pharmacopoeias,  although  the  theory  was  shown  to  be 
incorrect  by  Averroea  in  the  zath  cmtury. 

The  establishmenta  for  dispensing  medicines  at  ConlovE, 
Toledo  and  other  large  towns  under  Arab  rule,  were  placed  under 
severe  legal  restrictions.  Frederick  11.  in  a.d.  X233  passed  a 
law,  whicb  remained  in  force  for  a  long  time  In  the  two  Sicilies, 
by  which  every  medical  man  was  required  to  give  information 
against  any  pharmadst  who  should  sell  bad  medidne.  The 
pharmacists  were  divided  into  two  dasses,  the  staH&n&riit  wlio 
sold  simple  drugs  and  non-magisterial  preparations  at  a  tariff 
determined  by  competent  authorities,  and  the  confedumarii, 
whose  business  it  was  to  dispense  scrupulously  the  prescrifH 
tions  of  medical  men;  all  pharmaceutical  estaUishments  were 
placed  under  the  surveillance  of  the  college  of  medidne.  In 
the  monastic  period  pharmacy  was  to  a  great  extent  under  the 
control  of  the  religious  orders,  particularly  the  Benedictines,  who, 
from  coming  into  contact  with  the  AraUan  physicians,  devoted 
themsdves  to  pharmacy,  pharmacology  and  therapeutics;  but, 
as  monks  were  forbidden  to  shed  blood,  surgery  fell  largely  into 
the  hands  of  barbers,  so  that  the  class  d  barber-suxgeons  came 
into  existence,  and  the  dgn  of  their  skill  in  blood^tting  atill 
appears  In  provlndal  districts  In  En^and  in  the  form  of  the 
barber's  pole,  representing  the  application  of  bandages. 

In  England  the  separaition  between  medidne  and  pharmacy 
was  somewhat  later  thai)  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The 
earliest  record  of  an  apothecary's  shop  in  London  was  !n  X345. 
The  status  of  the  apothecary,  as  subordinate  to  the  physician 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  is  evident  from  the  foUowing,  out  of 
3X  rules  laid  down  by  a  prominent  apothecary,  who  was  a  rovsitt 
of  Anne  Boleyn:  "  His  garden  must  be  at  hand,  with  fdenty  of 
herbs  and  seeds  and  roots.  He  must  read  Dioscoridcs.  He 
must  have  mortars,  pots,  filters,  glasses  and  boxes  dean  ard 
sweet.  He  must  have  two  places  in  the  shop,  one  most  dcaa 
for  physic,  and  the  base  place  for  chirurgic  stuff.  He  is  neither 
to  increase  nor  to  diminish  the  physician's  prescription;  he  is 
neither  to  buy  nor  to  sell  rotten  drugs.  He  b  only  to  meddle 
In  his  own  vocation;  and  to  rememb^  that  his  office  is  only  t«r 
be  the  physidan's  cook.** 

THfc  drugs  used  by  the  physicians  and  apothecaries  were 
purchased  from  the  grosaril  or  sellers  in  gross,  who  were  sal>> 
sequently  caOed  grocers,  some  of  whom  spedalked  as  druggbta 
and  others  as  chymists  or  chembts.  The  apothecaries,  who 
were  the  pharmacists  of  those  days,  were  not  represented  by 
any  corix>rate  body,  but  in  the  reign  of  King  James  I.,  in  x6o6, 
were  incorporated  with  the  Company  of  Grocers.  This  anaiige- 
ment  was  not,  however,  approved  of  by  the  phystdans,  lAo 
obtained  In  1617  a  separate  charter  for  the  apothecaries,  t« 
the  nauber  of  it 4,  wldch  was  the  number  of  pbyadtos 


PHARMACY 


357 


^rtetiiftt;  bi  LohdOn/'  At  the  same  tEme  It  was  enacted  that  no 
(rocer  should  keep  an  apothecary's  shop,  and  that  no  suigeon 
ihould  sell  medicines,  and  that  the  physidana  should  have  the 
power  to  search  the  shops  of  the  apothecaries  within  7  m.  of 
London  tinder  a  penalty  of^xoo  in  case  of  a  refusal  to  permit 
it.  Soon  after  the  apothecaries  were  formed  into  a  separate 
company  they  took  into  consideration  means  to  prevent  the 
fiaiids  and  adulterations  practised  by  the  groccfs  and  druggists, 
and,  to  remedy  the  evil,  established  a  nunufactoiy  of  their  own 
in  1626  so  that  they  might  make  preparations  for  their  own 
members.  The' frauds  and  adultentions  weve  probably  due  in 
part  to  the  apoChecaries,  for  Dr  Merrit,  a  collegiate  physician 
of  London,  stated  that  '^sacfa  chymists  which  sell  preparations 
honestly  made  complain  that  few  apothecaries  will  go  to  the 
price  of  them."  The  medicinal  mepaiations  which  required 
the  aM  of  a  furnace,  such  as  mineral  earths,  were  undertaken  by 
the  chymists,  who  probably  derived  their  name  from  the 
Alchymists,  who  flourished  from  the  14th  to  the  i6th  centuries. 
When  the  word  was  discovered  to  be  derived  from  an  Arabic 
prefix  and  a  Greek  word  tlie  prefix  was  dropped.  In  the  19th 
century  the  woid  chymist  became  altered  to  chemist,  although 
the  OF^n^  spelling  is  still  continued  to  a  small  extent.  The 
curious  signs  on  the  coloured  carboys  in  chemists'  windows, 
which  were  commonly  to  be  seen  until  the  middle  of  the  xoth 
century,  were  signs  used  by  the  alchemists  to  indicate  various 
cbemical  substances.  In  1604  the  apothecaries  had  increaaetl 
from  1 14  to  nearly  1000,  and  many  of  them,  having  acquirvd 
a  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  medicine,  began  to  prescribe  medicines 
Ibr  their  customers  and  to  assume  the  functions  of  the  physician, 
who  retorted  in  1697  bye5tablish]ngdispensaries,wheremcdicincs 
cotdd  be  procured  at  their  intrinsic  value,  or  at  cost  price.  The 
assistants  employed  at  these  dispensaries  after  a  thne  appear 
to  have  gone  into  business  on  their  own  account,  and  In  this  way 
the  dispensing  chemists,  as  a  class,  appear  to  have  originated. 

In  174S  the  Apothecaries'  Corporation  obtained  a  charter 
empowering  them  to  license  apothecaries  to  sell  medicines  in 
London,  or  within  7  m.,  and  intended  to  use  it  to  restrain 
chemists  and  druggists  from  practising  phanmacy,  and  to 
prohibit  physicians  and  surgeons  from  selling  the  medicines 
they  prescribed,  but  the  apothecaries,  by  paying  Increased 
attention  to  medical  and  surgical  practice,  had  not  only  aUen- 
ated  the  physicians  and  surgeons,  but  materially  strengthened 
the  position  of  chemists  and  druggbts  as  dispensers  of  pre- 
scriptions. When  a  further  attempt  was  made  in  1815  to  bring 
a  bill  into  parliament  including  provisions  for  pnrfiibiting  the 
practice  of  pharmacy  by  uneducated  persons,  and  giving  power 
to  examine  dispensing  chemists,  the  biter  became  alarmed, 
and,  finding  that  the  pro\'isions  of  the  bill  were  entirely  in  the 
interests  of  the  apothecaries,  and  directed  against  chemists  and 
druggists,  the  latter  took  measures  to  oppose  it  in  parliament, 
which  were  so  far  successful  as  to  prevent  apothecaries  from 
interfering  in  any  way  with,  or  obtaining  any  control  over, 
chemists  and  druggists.  In  1841  another  attempt  was  made  by 
the  apothecaries  to  control  the  trade  of  chemists  and  druggists 
on  the  ground  that  no  adequate  examination  or  education  in 
pharmacy  existed,  and  that  such  should  be  instituted,  and  be 
controlled  by  the  apothecaries  and  physicians,  but  the  latter 
disclaimed  any  desire  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  matter.  The 
chembts  and  druggists,  recognising  that  no  institution  for  the 
systematic  education  and  examination  of  chemists  and  druggists 
existed  m  England,  and  that  no  proof  could  be  given  that  each 
individual  possessed  the  necessary  qualifications,  decided  that 
this  objection  roust  be  met,  and  that  pharmacy  must  be  placed 
upon  a  more  scientific  footing.  They  therefore  resolved  upon  the 
foundation  of  a  voluntary  society,  under  the  title  of  the  Pharma* 
ceuUcal  Society  of  Great  Britain,  "  for  advancing  the  know- 
ledge of  chemistry  and  pharmacy,  and  promoting  a  tmiform 
fystem  of  education  for  those  who  should  practise  the  same,  also 
for  protecting  the  collective  and  indfvidual  interests  and  privi- 
leges of  all  its  members,  in  the  event  of  any  hostile  attack  in 
parliament  or  elsewhere.**  This  society  was  instituted  in  18411 
the  ori^al  founders  being  chemists  and   druggists  In   the 


metropolis  and  provincial  towns.  On  ibt  x8th  of  Fftbmary  1845 
a  royal  charter  of  mcorporation  was  granted  to  the  society,  and 
a  permanent  sUtus  was  thus  acquired.  Chemists  in  businesa 
before  the  granting  of  the  charter  were  entitled  to  join  the 
iotxty  as  membets.  but  those  who  wished  to  join  It  subsequently 
could  do  so  only  on  condition  of  passing  an  examination  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  their  knowledge  of  pharmacy.  A  school  of 
pharmacy '  was  instituted,  and  a  museum  and  Hbrary  were 
started.  The  diemical  laboratory  in  connexion  with  the  school 
Was,  when  first  instituted,  the  only  one  in  England  for  teaching 
purposes,  and  the  museum  Is  now  reputed  to  be  the  best 
phinnaceutica]  one  In  the  worid,  the  libraiy  now  containing 
about  13,000  volumes. 

The  examinations  are  three  in  number.  The  first  !•  of  a  proi 
hminar^  cnatacter,  qqafifying  for  registKition  as  a  student  or 
appremice;  in  lieu  of  this  examination,  certificates  of  matriculatioa 
at  a  umvosity,  and  those  of  certain  other  educational  bodies, 
are  accepted.  The  tooond  cxaminatioo  qualifies  for  registration  aa 
a  chemist  and  dntgtfiat.  This  is  known  as  the  minor  examination) 
and  must  be  passed  bcforo  anyone  can  \cpMy  dispense,  compound 
and  scU  scheduled  poisons.    The  subtocts  included  are  syscematie 


bouny,  vegetable  morphology  and  phy-stotogy,  chemistry,  physici. 
materia  modica,  phanoacy.  disaen«ing,  posology,  the  readingoi 
prescriptiohs.  and  a  kaowlcdcc  of  poisons  and  their  antidotes*  The 
Poisons  and  Pharmacy  Act  ol  1908  (section  4)  has  given  the  sockcy 
powcr^  to  regulate  the  pntlimiairy  training,  arrange  a  curriculuni, 
and  divide  toe  qoalifyuig  examination  into  two  parta^  so  that  an 
approximation  to  the  standard  of  phamunnitical  education  on  the 
Continent  »  likely  to  take  place  within  a  short  period.  Degrees  la 
science  and  pharmacy  are  granted  by  the  univcrsitkai  of  Manchester 
and  Glasgow,  and  other  univcnitiea  were  in  1910  considering 
the  question  of  granting  degrees. 

The  third,  or  major  examination,  which  qualifies  for  rcgistratioa. 
as  a  pharmaceutical  chemist,  b  not,  tike  the  minor,  a  compulsory 
one,  but  ranks  as  an  honours  examination.  The  cdueaition  for  this 
examination  has  kept  pace  with  the  rapid  advances  of  sdenoe,  all 
the  following  subjects  now  receiving  attention:  the  microscopical 
structure  of  planu  and  drugs,  so  as  to  detect  adukerations  and 
tmpuritifls  in  powdend  drugs;  organic  and  qoaatitative  analysb» 
including  those  of  food  and  drugs,  water,  soils,  gasand  urine;optics,  so 
as  to  enable  them  to  cony  out  the  prescriptions  of  oculists;  spectrum 
analysis;  the  use  of  the  poloriscopc  and  rcfractometcr;  the  method 
of  applying  ROntgcn  ra)'s;  the  preparation  of  glandular  secretions 
and  antitoxins;  and  the  chemistry  of  remedies  for  the  fungoid 
diseases  and  insect  pests  of  {slants. 

Those  who  haw  passed  this  examination  arc  competent  to  perform 
anal}r»s  of  all  kinds,  and  ccnerally  obtain  the  preference  for  various 
appointments,  such  as  bead  dispensers  in  euvcrnmcnt  or  other 
large  hospitals,  or  as  analysts.  The  society  has  also  cstablbhed  a 
chemical  rnearoh  laboratory.  In  which  much  useful  work  has 
been  done  in  connexion  with  the  national  pharmacopoeia  under 
the  direction  of  the  Pharmacopoeia  Comnuttoe  of  the  Medical 
CoundL 

A  pharmacy  act,  which  was  passed  in  1852,  established  a 
distinction  between  registered  and  examined,  and  unre^^tered 
and  unexamined  chcnusts  and  druggists,  creating  a  regbter 
of  the  fonner  tuder  the  name  of  pharmaceutic  chembts, 
so  that  the  pubhc  might  discriminate  between  the  two  classes. 
A  subsequent  pharmacy  act,  passed  in  1868,  added  a  register 
of  chembts  and  druggists,  and  rendered  it  unlawful  for  any 
unregbtered  person  to  sell  or  keep  open  shop  for  selling  the 
poisons  mentioned  in  the  schedule  of  this  acL  The  adminis- 
tration of  the  act  was  entrusted  to  the  pharmaceutical  society, 
and  the  duty  of  prosecuting  luuuthorized  practitioners  has 
been  performed  by  the  society  ever  since,  without  any  pecn- 
niary  assbtance  from  the  state,  although  the  legal  expenses 
involved  in  prosecution  amount  to  a  considerable  portion  of  its 
income. 

The  Poisons  and  Phaimacy  Act  of  rgoS  extended  the  schedule 
of  poisons  instituted  by  the  act  of  1868,  and  it  now  includes 
arsenic,  aconite,  atbnitinc  and  thc^  preparations;  all  poisonous 
vegetable  alkaloids,  and  their  salts  and  poisonous  derivatives; 
atropine  and  its  salts  and  their  preparations;  belladonna  and  all 
preparations  or  admixtures  (except  beUadonna  plasters)  con- 
taining o*x  %  or  more  of  belladonna  alkaloid;  cantharides  and 
its  poisonous  derivatives;  any  preparation  or  admixture  of 
coca-leaves  contaming  o*i  %  or  more  of  coca  alkaloids;  corrosive 
SttbUmate;  cyanide  of  potassium  and  all  poisonous  cyanides 
and  their  preparations;  Urtar  emetic,  nux  vomica,  and  aB 


358 


PHARMACY 


prepantions  or  admiatuxct  containing  o-»%  or  more^  of 
strycbmne;  opium  and  all  prepanUions  and  admixtures  contaia- 
ing  I  %  or  more  of  morphine;  picro-toxine;  prussic  add  and  all 
preparations  and  admixtures  containing  o-i%  or  more  of 
prussic  add;  savin  and  its  oil,  and  aU  preparations  or  admixtures 
containing  savin  or  its  oiL  None  of  tliese  may  be  sold  to  any 
person  who  is  unknown  to  the  seller^  unless  introduced  by  a 
person  known  to  the  seller,  and  not  until  after  an  entry  is 
made  in  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose,  stating,  in  the  prescribed 
form,  the  date  of  sale,  name  and  address  of  purchaser,  the 
name  and  quantity  of  the  artjde  sold,  and  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  stated  by  the  purchaser  to  be  required.  The 
signature  of  the  purchaser  and  introducer  (if  any)  must  be 
affixed  to  the  entry. 

The  following  poisons  may  not  be  sold,  either  retail  or 
wholesale,  unless  distinctly  labelled  with  the  name  of  the  artide, 
and  the  word  poison,  with  the  name  and  address  of  the  seller: — 
:  Almonds.  CMential  oil  of  (uiileH  deprived  of  pruasic  odd).  Antl- 
monial  wine.  Cantharides.  tincture  and  all  vencating  Hqalds, 
prsparations  or  admixtures  of.  Carbolic  add,  and  liquid  on- 
pamtions  of  carbolic  acid  and  its  homolonies  containing  more  taan 
3%  of  those  Mibttances,  except  prepatatlom  for  me  as  sheep-wash 
or  for  any  other  purpose  in  connexion  with  agriculture  or  honl- 
culture,  contained  in  a  ck»ed  vcbkI  distinctly  labelled  with  the 
irotd  "  poisonous."  the  name  and  address  of  the  adler.  and  a  notice 
of  the  special  purpoies  for  which  the  preparations  are  intended. 
Chloral  nydrate.  Qiloroform,  and  all  preparations  or  admixtures 
containing  more  than  30%  of  chkxofocm.  Coca,  any  prepararion 
or  admixture  of,  containing  more  than  o*l  %  but  feas  than  i  % 
•f  coca  alkaloids.  Digitalis.  Mercuric  iodide.  Mercuric  sulpbo- 
cyanlde.  Oxalic  acid.  Popines,  all  preparations  of.  excepting  red 
poppy  petals  and  syrup  of  red  poppies  (Papmtr  RJutas).  Precipi- 
fate,  red,  and  all  oxioes  of  mercury.  Predpitatc,  white.  Stro- 
phanthus.  Sulphonal.  All  preparations  or  admixtures  whfch  are 
not  included  in  part  I  of  the  schedule,  and  comaina  poison  withra 
the  oioaning  of  the  pharmacy  acta,  except  preparations  or  admix* 
lures,  the  cxcliMion  of  which  from  this  acneaule  is  indicated  by  the 
words  therein  rebtsng  to  carbolic  add,  chloroform  and  coea,  and 
except  m»dx  s&bstanoes  as  come  within  the  proviaions  of  section  5 
of  the  act. 

It  has  been  erroneously  represented  by  interested  persons 
that  the  Pharmaceutical  Sode(y  desires  a  monopoly  of  the  sale 
of  poisons.  This  is  not  the  case.  Any  poisonous  substance 
that  is  not  indudcd  in  the  schedules  can  be  aoM  by  anyone, 
as,  for  instance,  red  lead,  sulphate  of  copper,  &c.  The  duty  of 
the  Pharmaceutical  Society  is  a  purdy  legal  one,  'tod  relates 
only  to  the  schedules  of  poisons  framed  by  the  government  to 
protect  the  public  by  rendering  it  a  difficult  matter  to  obtain 
the  poisons  most  frequently  used  for  criminal  purposes.  In 
continental  countries  the  laws  are  even  more  stringent. 

In  response  to  an  agitation  originated  by  certain  manufactums 
fone  of  whom  was  a  member  of  parliaiaeat).  who  were  praaecuted 
for  omitting  to  label  ar^'nical  and  nicotine  preparations  as  poisons, 
as  required  by  the  Pharmacy  Act  of  1S68,  a  new  act  was  passed  in 
1908,  by  which  pcrtens,  without  any  training  in  toxicok^y,  and 
being  ndther  pharmaceutical  chemists,  nor  chemists  and  druggists, 
may  be  granted  licences  by  local  authorities  to  aell  poisonous 
substances  used  exclusively  m  agriculture  or  horticulture,  for  the 
destruction  of  insects,  fungi  or  bacteria,  or  as  sheep  dips  or  weed* 
killers,  but  which  are  poisonous  by  reason  of  containing  the 
sdieduled  poisons,  arsenic  or  nicotine,  Ac.  One  condition  concerning 
the  granting  of  such  Uccnccs  has  been,  it  is  said,  deKberatdy  ignored 
in  many  towns,  viz.  that  the  local  authority,  before  granting  a 
licence,  "  shall  take  Into  consideration  whether,  in  the  neighbour- 
hoed,  the  reasonable  requirements  of  the  public  are  satisliod  with 
ranardto  the  purchase  of  poisonous  substances,  and  also  any 
ob|0ctions  they  may  recdve  from  the  chief  officer  of  police,  or  from 
any  existiitg  vendors  of  the  substances  to  which  the  application 
relates."  It  is  left  to  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  to  take  legal 
action  against  any  infringement  of  the  law,  although  it  is  obvious 
shat  this  rfioold  oe  carried  out  at  the  government  expense,  since 
it  is  for  the  benefit  of  a  section  of  the  public,  and  obviously  to  the 
loss  of  the  members  cX  the  Pharmaceutical  Society.  Moreover, 
the  present  act  nullifies  the  object  of  the  previous  act  of  1868, 
whkn  was  to  reduce  the  facilities  for  obtairang  poisons.  The  fact 
<hat  a  vohmtasy  society  with  limited,  lands  must-  oootsst  the 
illegal  decisions  of  local  coundls,  without  government  support* 
seems  likely  to  render  this  portion  of  the  aa  of  IQ08  a  dead  letter. 
.  At  the  time  of  the  passing  of  the  Pharmacy  Act  of  1  BK2  co-operative 
associations  did  not  come  under  consideration,  and  no  provision 
was  made  concerning  them  as  regards  the  title  of  chemist,  or  as  to 
any  action  such  associations  might  take  to  evade  the  law.  It 
has  been  decided  in  the  law  courts  that  a  limited  liability  company 


is  not  a  person  in  the  eye  of  the  lav«  and  therefore  does  not  c<_  _. 
under  the  operation  of  the  act  of  18^  The  result  of  this  dcciskm 
was  that  any  chemist  who  failed  to  pass  the  qualifying  examination 
could  oonsutute  himadf  with  a  few  others,  even  u  ignorant  of 
pharipacy.  into  a  limited  liability  company,  which  woukfthen  have 
been  outside  the  powers  of  the  act,  and  not  subvect  to  its  provisions. 
This  false  puntion  was  remedied  by  the  act  of  1908,  wnidi  brings 
oompanks  mto  line  with  mdividuaB. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  dispeosiog  oC  prtacriptioiis 
is  confined  10  phannadsts  (pkarmiciefu  and  cpoUe-  ^^ 
kus).  They  are  not  allowed  to  prescribe,  nor  the  y^^^, 
medical  mep  to  dispense,  except  under  spechil  licence, 
and  then  only  in  small  villages,  wheee  the  pharmacist  could  not 
make  a  living.  The  ptindple  of  "one  roan  one  ^hop"  Is  general; 
a  pharmadst  may  not  own  more  than  one  shop  in  the  same  towzL 
In  Holland  he  may  AOt  eater  into  any  agreement,  direct  or 
indixoGt,  with  a  medical  man  with  regaiti  to  the  supply  of  mcdi- 
dnes.  In  Austria,. Germany,  Italy,  Rumania  and  Russia  the 
number  of  pharmacies  is  limited  acoocdiiig  to  the  population. 
In  France,  Switzerland,  Belgium  and  Holland  the  number  is  not 
limited,  and  every  qualified  phaimactst  has  the  light  to  open  a 
shop  or  buy  a  pharmacy.  Where  the  number  of  pharmaciea 
is  limited  by  law  prescriptions  may  only  be  dispensed  at 
these  establishments.  The  original  prescription  is  kept  by 
the  pharmadst  for  dthor  three  or  ten  years,  according  to  the 
country,  and  a  certified  copy  given  to  the  patient,  written  on 
white  paper  if  for  internal  use,  or  on  ooloured  paper  (usuaily 
orange  ycUow)  if  for  cxtcnuU  use.  The  price  of  the  drugs 
and  the  tariff  for  dispensing  prescriptions  as  fixed  by  govern* 
ment  authority.  In  Russia  a  prescription  containing  any  of  the 
poisons  indicated  in  the  schedules  A  and  B  in  tbe  Russian 
pharmacopoeia  may  not  be  repeated,  except  by  order  of  the 
doctor.  The  use  of  pharnuoopoeia  preparations  made  by 
manufacturers  is  aUowed,  but  the  seller  is  bdd  responsiUe  for 
thdr  purity  and  strength.  The  prices  charged  for  dispensing 
are  lower  in  countries  where  the  number  of  pharmades  is 
limited  by  law,  the  Jaiger  returns  enabling  the  profit  to  be 
lessened. 

The  educational  ooune  adopted  in  diCEetent  countries  varies  as 
to  the  details  of  the  subjects  taught.  The  preliminary,  or 
classical  examination,  is  usually  that  of  university  matticulatioii, 
or  its  equivalent.  The  period  of. study  is  dghieen  months 
in  Denmark  or  Norway,  and  two  in  Austria,  Finhind,  Germany, 
Portugal,  Russia,  Sweden  and  Switzerland,  three  in  Belgjum, 
France,  Greece  and  Italy,  four  to  six  in  Holland,  and  five  in 
Spain.  In  Great  Britain  the  period  of  study  is  vc^untary,  and 
usually  occupies  only  one  year.  Two  or  three  years  of  appren* 
liceship  is  required  in  most  countries,  induding  Great  Britain, 
but  none  in  Belgium,  Greece,  Italy  or  Spain. 

The  subject  of  patent  medidnes  is  but  little  understood  by  the 
general  public  Any  medicine,  the  composition  of  which  is  kqH 
secret,  but  which  is  advertised  00  the  labd  Cor  the 
cure  of  diseases,  must  in  Great  Britain  bear  a  patent 
medicine  stamp  equal  to  about  one-ninth  of  its  face 
value.  The  British  Medical  Association  published  In  1907  a  worii 
on  Secret  RemedUst  w^  'A«y  cost  and  what  tkey  cantain.  The 
analyses  published  in  this  work  show  that  neariy  all  the  widdy 
advertised  secret  remedies  contain  only  well-known  and  inei{>ea- 
sive  drugs.  The  Pharmaceutical  Sodety  on  the  other  hand  has 
also  published  a  Pkarmaceutical  Journal  Formulary,  induding 
several  hundred  formulae  of  proprietary  medicines  sold  by 
pharroadsu,  so  that  it  is  now  possible  for  any  medical  man 
to  ascertain  what  they  contain.  The  government  accepts  all  the 
therda  published  formulae  as  **  known,  admitted  and  approved  " 
remedies,  and  therefore  not  requiring  a  patent  medicine  stamp. 
In  this  way  widdy  advertised  secret  remedies  can  be  replaced  by 
medidnes  of  known  composition  and  accepted  vtlae  in  aqy  part 
of  the  worid.  Most  continental  countries  have  issued  stringent 
laws  against  the  sale  of  secret  remedies,  and  these  have  been 
latdy  strengthened  in  Germany,  France  and  Italy.  In 
Switzerland  secret  remedies  cannot  be  advertised  without 
submitting  the  formula  and  a  sample  of  the  remedy  to  thg 
board  of  health.  Qi.  hLH^ 


PHARNABAZU&— PHARYNX 


3^9 


YBABNJiBAStOSt  Persian  soldier  and  statesman,  the  son  of 
Phamaces.  beleni^  to  a  family  which  from  47 8. governed  the 
satrapy  of  Pfarygia  on  the  Hellespont,  from  its  beadquarurs  at 
bascyUum,  and,  according  to  a  discovery  by  Th.  Noldeke,  was 
descended  from  Otanes,  one  of  the  associates  of  Darius  in  the 
murder  of  Smerdis.    PhamabazHs  first  appears  as  satrap  of  this 
province  In  413,  when,  having  received  orders  from  Darius  II. 
to  send  in  the  outstanding  tribute  of  the  Greek  dties  on  the 
coast,  he,  like  Tissaphernes  of  Caria,  entered  into  negotiations 
with  Sparta  and  began  war  with  Athens.    The  conduct  of  the 
war  was  much  hindered  by  the  rivalry  between  the  two  satraps, 
of  whom  Pfaamabazus  was  by  far  the  more  energetic  and  up- 
tight. After  the  war  he  came  into  con6ict  with  Lysander  (q.v.z 
see  also  Feloponmesian  War),  who  tried  to  keep  the  Greek 
dties  under  his  own  dominion,  and  became  one  of  the  causes  of 
his  overthrow,  by  a  letter  which  be  sent  to  the  ephon  at  Sparta 
(PIuU  Lys,  19;  Nepos,  Lys.  4;  Polyaen.  viu  19).    He  received 
Aldbiades  at  his  court  and  promised  him  means  to  go  up  to  the 
king  to  reveal  the  intrigues  of  Cyrus,  but  when  the  Spartans 
insisted  on  his  death  he  yielded  to  their  demand  for  his  assassi- 
nation (Plut.  Alcib.  37  sqq.;  Diod.  xiv.  xi).    When  in  399  the 
War  with  Sparta  broke  out  he  again  tried  to  conduct  it  strenu- 
ously.   With  the  help  of  Conon  and  Evagoras  of  Salamis  he 
organized  the  Persian  fleet,  and  while  he  was  hard  pressed  on 
land  by  Agesilaus  he  prepared  the  dedsive  sea-battle,  which  was 
fought  in  August  394  al  Cnidus  under  his  and  Conon's  commend, 
and  completely  destroyed  the  Spartan  fleet.    He  sent  support  to 
the  allies  in  Greece,  by  which  the  wallsof  the  Peiraeus  were  rebuilt. 
But  in  the  war  on  land  he  struggled  in  vain  against  the  lethargy 
and  disorganisation  of  the  Persian  Empire;  and  when  at  last, 
in  387,  in  consequence  of  the  embassy  of  Antalcidas  to  Susa, 
the  king  decided  to  conclude  peace  with  Sparta  and  to  enter 
again  into  close  alliance  with  her,  Phamabazus,  the  principal 
opponent  of  Sparta,  was  recalled  from  his  command  in  high 
honours,  to  marry  Apame,  a  daughter  of  the  king  (Plut.  Artax. 
37).  In  385  he  was.one  of  the  generals  sent  against  Egypt,  and 
in  377  he  was  ordered  to  prepare  a  new  expedition  against  the 
viUiley  of  the  Nile.    The  gathering  of  the  army  took  years,  and 
when  in  373  all  was  ready,  bis  attempt  to  force  the  passage  of 
the  Nile  failed.    A  conflict  with  Iphicrstcs,  the  leader  of  the 
Greek  mercenaries,  increased  the  difficulties;  at  last  Pharna- 
bazus  led  the  army  back  to  Asia.    From  these  campaigns  date 
the  silver  coins  with  the  name  of  Phamabazus  in  Aramaic 
vritingf.    When  he  died  is  not  known. 

In  the  time  of  Alexander  we  meet  with  a  Persian  general  Phama- 
bazus, son  of  Artabazas  (Arriaa  it.  x  seq.)i  who  probably  was  the 
grandson  of  the  older  Pharnabams, 

The  name  Pharnabazus  b  also  borne  by  a  king  of  Iberia  (Georgia) 
on  the  Caucasus,  where  the  dynasty  seems  to  have  been  of  Persian 
origin,  defeated  by  a  general  of  Nfarcus  Antonius  (Mark  Antony) 
in  36  B.C.  (Dio  Cass.  xlix.  24>.  In  the  Georgian  dynasty  the  name 
oa:urB  as  late  as  the  igth  oentury*  (Eo.  M.) 

PHARYNGITIS.  The  pharynx,  or  upper  portion  of  the  gullet 
(seen  to  a  large  extent  on  looking  at  the  back  of  the  mouth)  is* 
frequently  the  seat  of  a  chronic  inflammatory  condition,  usually 
associated  with  derangements  of  the  digestive  organs,  or  with 
syphilis  or  gout;  sometimes  it  is  due  to  much  speaking  or  to 
excessive  tobacco-smoklng-Hrspecially  of  dgarettes.  On  in- 
spect ion,  the  inflamed  mucous  membrane  is  seen  unduly  red 
and  glazed,  and  dotted  over  with  enbrged  follicles.  The  con- 
dition produces  considerable  irritation  and  "dryness,"  with 
cough  and  discomfort,  which  may  eventually  become  chronic. 
Treatment  consists  in  removing  all  soul^ccs  of  irritation,  in 
tectifying  gastric  disturbance,  and  in  the  application  ef  the 
electric  cautery,  of  astringent  lotions  or  of  mild  caustic  solutions. 
The  pain  may  be  relieved  by  spraying  with  certain  anodyne 
solutions.  In  the  case  of  adenoid  growths  (see  Adenoids)  there 
|§  often  an  associated  granular  appearance  of  the  pharymr,  due 
to  enlargement  of  the  minute  glands  of  the  mucous  membrane. 
The  inflamed  pharynx  of  the  orator  (**  dcrgyman*ssore-throat  *0 
xnay  be  put  right  by  lessons  in  elocution  or  by  complete  rest  for 
a  time.  The  gouty  throat  may  call  for  a  change  of  diet,  or  for  a 
*«tay  at  one  of  the  watering-pbccs  where  ekrly  rising,  moderate 


food,  regular  exercise  and  ihe  drinking  of  laxative  waters  join  in 
restoring  health.  (E.  O.*) 

PHARYNX  (Gr.  ^^^^,  throat),  in  anatomy,  the  cavity  into 
which  both  the  nose  and  mouth  lead,  which  is  prolonged  into 
the  oesophagus  or  gullet  below,  and  from  which  the  larynx  or 
air  tube  comes  ofl  below  and  in  front;  it  therefore  serves  as  a 
passage  both  for  food  and  air.  It  may  be  likened  to  an  empty 
sack  turned  upside  down  and  narrowing  toward  its  mouth.  The 
back  and  sides  of  the  sack  are  formed  by  the  three  constrictor 
muscles  of  the  pharynx,  each  of  which  overlaps  the  outer  surface 
of  the  one  above  it,  and  these  are  lined  internally  by  thick 
mucous  membrane.  The  upturned  bottom  of  the  sack  is 
attached  firmly  to  the  base  of  the  skull  and  the  internal  ptery- 
goid plates,  so  that  this  part  cannot  collapse,  but  below  the 
anterior  and  posterior  wails  are  in  contact,  and  a  transverse 
section  of  the  pharynx  is  a  mere  slit. 

From  the  front  wall,  on  a  level  vrith  the  floor  of  the  nose  and  roof 
of  the  mouth,  a  slanting  shelf  of  muscular  and  glandular  tissue 
covered  with  mucous  membrane,  projects  downward  and  baclnp^ard 
into  the  cat^ty,  and  divides  it  Into  an  upper  oart  or  naso-phaiynx 
and  a  lower  or  oral  pharynx  (sec  fig.).  Tnis  sneU  is  the  soft  pafaUt 
and  from  the  middle  of  its  free  border  jiancs  a  worm-tike  projection, 
of  variable  length  but  averaging  about  half  an  inch,  the  mnda. 
The  whole  of  the  front  wall  of.  the  naso-pharynx  »  wanting,  and 
here  the  cavity  opens  into  the  nose  through  the  posterior  nasal 
apertures  (see  Olfactory  System).  On  each  sUc  of  the  naso- 
pharynx, and  therefore  above  the  soft  palate,  b  the  large  triangular 
opening  of  the  Eustachian  tube  through  which  air  passes  to  the 
tympanum  (see  Ear).  Behind  thb  opening,  and  reaching  up  to 
the  roof  of  the  nasd-pharynx,  b  a  mass  of  lymphoid  tissue,  most 
maiiccd  in  children,  known  as  the  pharyngeal  tonsil.  This  tissue, 
when  it  hypertrophies,  causes  the  disease  known  as  "  adenoMs." 

From  the  mid-line  of  the  roof  of  the  pharynx  a  small  pouch,  the 
bursa  pkeryngiea.  best  seen  in  childhood,  projects  upward,  while 
on  each  side,  above  and  behind  the  opening  of  the  Eustachian 
tube,  b  a  depression  known  as  the  bteral  recess  of  the  pharynx. 

The  oral  jpharynx  communicates  with  the  naso-pharv'nx  by  the 
pharyngeal  isthmus  behind  the  free  edge  of  the  soft  palate.  Above 
and  m  front  it  b  continuous  with  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  and  the 
demarcation  between  the  two  b  a  ridge  of  mucous  membrane  on 
each  side  running /roro  the  soft  palate  to  the  skle  of  the  tongue, 
and  caused  by  the  projection  of  the  palato-^lossus  muscle.  Thb 
is  known  as  the  amcrior  pillar  of  the  fauces  or  anterior  palatine 
arch.  About  half  an  inch  behind,  thb  ridge  is  another,  made  by 
the  palato-pharyngeus  muscle,  which  gradually  fades  away  in  the 
ride  of  the  pharynx  below.  Thb  b  the  posterior  pillar  of  the 
fauces  or  posterior  palatine  arch,  and  between  It  and  the  anterior 
b  the  fossa  (tonsilar  sinus)  in  which  the  tonsil  lies. 

The  Thnsil  is  an  oval  mass  of  lymphoid  tissue  covered  by  mucous 
mcmbcane  which  dips  in  to  form  mucous  crypts;  externally  its 
position  neariy  corresponds  to  that  of  the  an^le  of  the  jaw.  It 
ts  very  vascular,  dcrivmg  its  blood  from  five  neighbouring  arteries. 
Below  the  level  of  the  tonsil  the  anterior  wall  of  the  pharynx  is 
formed  by  the  posterior  or  pharyngeal  surface  of  the  tongue  (q.9.), 
while  below  that  b  the  epigtottis  and  upper  opening  of  the  larynx 
which  is  bounded  laterally  by  the  arytcno-cpiglottic  foUs  (see 
Respiratory  System).  On  the  lateral  side  of  each  of  these  folds 
is  a  pear-shaped  fossa  known  as  the  sinus  fyrijormis.  Below  thb 
the  pharynx  narrows  rapidly  until  the  level  of  the  lower  border  of 
the  cricoid  cantlage  in  front  and  of  the  sixth  cervical  vertebra 
behind  ib  reached ;  here  it  passes  into  the  oesophagus,  having  readied 
a  total  length  of  about  five  inches. 

The  mucous  membrane  of  the  naso-pharynx.  like  that  of  the  rest 
of  the  fespifatoiy  tract,  b  lined  by  cilbtod  columnar  epithdium, 
but  in  the  oral  pharynx  the  epithelium  is  of*  the  stiatificd  squamous 
variety.  Numerous  racemose  glands  are  present  (see  Epitusi^ai. 
Tissues),  a;  well  as  patches  oTIymphoid  tissue  especially  in  child- 
hood. Outside  the  mucous  membrane  and  separating  it  from  the 
constrictor  muscles  b  the  Dharyngeal  aponeurosb,  which  Mends 
ahove  with  the  periosteum  of  the  base  of  the  skull. 

Embryotogy. — ^The  pharynx  b  partly  formed  from  the  ecto- 
dermal stomatodaeal  invagination  (see  Embryology  and  Mouth) 
and  partly  from  the  fore  gut,  which  is  the  cephalic  part  of  the 
entodcrmal  mcsodacum.  Up  to  the  fifteenth  day  (see  Mouth),  the 
bucco-pharyngeal  membrane  separates  these  structures,  and.  though 
no  vestiges  of  it  remain,  it  is  dear  that  the  upper  and  front  part  of 
the  naSo-pharynx  b  stomatodaeal  while  the  rest  b  mesodaeal. 
The  five  visceral  arches  with  their  intervening  ddts  or  poaches 
surround  the  pharynx,  and  the  Eustachbn  tube  b  a  remnant  of 
the  first  of  these.  The  second  pouch  is  reprcscmed  in  the  aduk 
by  the  tonsilar  sinus,  and  until  latdy  the  lateral  recess  of  the 
pnarynx  was  looked  upon  as  part  of  the  same,  but  it  has  now  been 
shown  to.be  an  independent  diverticulum.    The  sinus  pyrijormia 

Erobably  represents  tfiat  part  of.  the  fourth  groove  from  which  th^ 
iteral  lobe*  of  the  thyroid  foody  are  derived. 


Th«  Buria  ftaryana 


PHEASANT 

,  , r- ime  looked  upon  u  ibe  obcc    i 

(ilDlHry  tiody  had  bmi  derived  from  the  mf,«I  Ilw    I 


ii  farmed  la  the  kcmkI  biuchiil  cUt  or  ntbir  pouch, 
■or  IDC  aaa  ut  laixdy  inoHiiplcu  in  nun,  about  [be  lounb  OMMli-, 
ju  tympliDid  l[ssue,  u  vcU  u  VM  dsowhere  In  Iho  pbuypL  u 
fonnH  fntn  lympbocytn  in  the  tul^aocnt  nboeacbyme  (ico  Em- 
mavoLOOT),  Ihouih  wbnhcr  thnc  wander  in  [rem  Iht  blood  a  are 
derived  Inm  oriipiial  meiaidiyiiie  edb  ia  aiU  douMiuL    The 


(hRnnyiea}  ikey  « 

— ' iiiK  tb*  vtaud  n  bnudrial 

or  difodvB  put.    Both  tbeae 

vaally  tir  pan  d  tOI  tSU,  Owt^  >  rvA- 
'    liw  ii  ofttn  inmt  and  ia  callad  tbt 

is  Ihal  Ji^i«  ionortiy 


T  Ol  ^  iGn  I) 


cal  Section  tlirough  Moutb,  Tongut,  Larynx,  Ptiaryu  and  Ktml  Cavity. 
.  it  tfigliily  oblique,  aod  llic  posterior  cdfc  of  the  nan]  eeptujd  haa  been  p 
The  apccimcn  it  viewed  iljglilJy  Itom  Ixlow,  heace  b  put  the  low  pooaL 


devtiopment  of  iltv  vcnml 
the  anickt  Twcue  and  Ris 
or  literature  lee  Quain'a 
■    ■     -•.   rfiMooi. 


iooS)k  and 
(Loodoa,  11 


gf  lb  Hutu 
itcr-brealhlof,'  i 
Ibrouih  Ihe  ^1 


.  .  _  .      __._ ,  _. .-.rt  of  e!U  tUta  open 

n  tb*  phaiyuK,  though  CCphaiodiKua,  ■*w^>i*r  «»*fHh*f  of  Ilw 
no  mbpnylum,  haa  oa^  oae  pair  of  ihcat. 
-  •■-  nibphylun  Uroehanla,  lo  wliicli  the  Aaddtani  or  kb- 
, 1 ■aofjiUtliU.an'- .- ^- -.-- 


«oter  paaiq  in  throuffb  the  ntoutb  aod  oi 

vboro  !e  nm  in  CDOIan  nlh  the  lUb  or  b 

Tbe  lovtR  Hjbfdi^liui  of  the  pKylam  ( 


lir  giUa,  aa  the  Uonl-Vl 
Hiiuua  w  Mutt  pavvide  a  luEBdcot  ana  '' 

le  Cycloatomala  a  reduction  of  the  Bumbei 

a  lioed  by  tibaod  loUi  oif  mtodanal  m 


»-1.  liniag  th 
the  Qtcuns 


bony  Gibea,  tboe  ia  u  aaenui  (iU  cdts  o> 

I  In  the  IMpBoi  or  nod  G>h  the  mrk  of  tbe 
gin*  ii  iband  by  that  of  the  bui^  aibd  ia 
the  Alricao  form.  Pnnopterui.  &nidal  gSli* 
developed  fioai  Che  octodenna]  parte  oTtbe 
gill  ftlita.  £nt  appear.  In  the  tailed  Am- 
phiblani  (UrodcbJ  Ihe  SrM  and  Blih  ^ 
def  11  ur  never  perforated  and  are  therrtm 
in  the  laine  condilioD  m  lU  the  fHI  drfta  <t 
Ihe  human  embrji),  while  bi  the  (iUcd 
aalamandera  <Nm.jnii  and  Piouua)  only 
two  rill  clefll  remain  patent.  The  nlla  !■ 
■II  Ibe  Amphibia  are  exiemal  and  of  ecto- 
dermal  ori^,  bnT  In'  the  Anina  (fmgi  and 
toadfe)  these  arc  succeeded  before  tbe  meta- 
-morphoiii  (mn  the  tadpole  lUDe  by  ulrrnal 
bUU.  whieh,  unlike  ihotf  ct  fi^,  are  taid  to 
Be  derived  from  ll»  ecloderm. 

In  the  enbryoa  of  the  Saoropiida  (RptBea 
and  birdt)  five  fill  cM  u  are  evidenl.  ikoutb 

perforated,  wbllc  in  the  Mimnulia  (he  nidi. 
men!)  s(  tbe  fifth  ckit  an  no  loneerlownd 

In  llie  process  of  phylogenv  there  is  a  gradua] 
uppreidon  of  the  gill  delta  bepaning  u  the 

The  aofl  jHlale  is  first  fouod  m  crocodOd 

moKubr  in  nummab.  The  bursa  pharync^ 
and  pharynBeot  toniH  are  foimf  in  several  id 
the  uwer  manimali.  In  the  sheep  tbe  latter 
n  partkiUorly  larve. 

For  literature  and  further  details,  aec 
R.  Wleder^rim'i  Cm^nUiir  .feiu«>  if 
VMrbmlrl.  Iranslitad  by  W.  N.  Parks 
(London,  lOOJ);  also  Paner  and  KasweA'a 
Zntlaa  (London,  iS9j).  (F.  C.  P.) 

PHBUAXT  (Mid.  En«.  faamml  knd 
/mjm;  Ger.  fatan  and  andentiy  /(Miri; 
Ft.  /oiion— all  from  tbe  Lit.  ^tonnsu 
ivpkasiana,ie.ant),  the  bird  broufbf  from 
the  baiifcsof  the  liver  Fhiiii,  DOW  ike  Kionf, 
.  in  Colchia,  trhen  it  ta  >(i!l  abundant,  and 
intmduced,  sccoiding  lo  IqgBid,  b^  ibe 
>iiauti  into  Europe.  Ju^;ing  fN«l  Ibe 
of  aeveial  ipecin  refeired  to  the  t«ius 
ind  in  Fruice,'  it  tetmi  not  impMaible 
lit,  the  P.  aUkicui  of  omilbiAiiuti, 
may  naveMetuDOiccnoui  to  this  quarter  of  the  globe.  If  it  vai 
introduced  into  EngUnii,  it  muat  slmoit  certainly  have  been 
brought  by  tbe  Romans^'  (or,  Kiting  ladc  Kwcnl  esilier  rcconb 
U  doubtful  authority,'  Slubbl  hu  sbonn  Ibat  by  Ibe  regulalkiDS 
of  lUng  Uaiold  in  I0S9  iiniu  fiaiiaHH  'a  pisaibed  a>  tlie 
■Tbeae  an  P.  aicUari  front  nteml,  P.  ittu  and  ?.  m^imi 
from  IhelacusiringbedaofSaiuan.aoitP.iftnHytriifnHDTDuniii^ 
see  A.  MibieEdwardt.Oir./gij.dr(a/ni»ce(u.  319.239-lii). 
■  Undoubted  moaina  have  been  found  In  eicavalloiu  at  Sitdtester. 
'  Amoni  these  perhapa  tiiat  worthy  ef  moal  anefili«k  ^  ~ 
Ptoben's  innslatnn  of  TV  jIaoRl  Laai  tl  Cmtru.  ( 

pp.  367,  j68).  whetBO  cxiratta  arc  give*  ' "'■J-'-  -^ 

sumably  of  the  age  of  Howel  the  Cobd,  . 
'  ^m  11.  "There  ace  three  harklM  hunts: 


ncognilioD  of  Ihe  len 
P)asim»i  both  In  Gi 
Ibat  the  ordinary  pi 


^teawit-"    The  explanal 
hunt,  beeauie  trbea  the  pi 


i,ui„  ,,tud  triads,  pc*. 

10  died  in  ^S.  One  of 
I  bear,  a  souirrel  and  • 
ant  is  called  a  barUr^ 


■    Thepr 


PHEIDIAS 


361 


ftltermtiveof  two  partridges  or  other  UnSs  amohg  the  *'  pStantiae" 
(mions  or  commons,  as  we  might  now  say)  of  the  canons  of 
Waltham  Abbey,  and,  as  W.  B.  Dawkins  has  remarked  (/Hj,  1869, 
p.  358),  neither  Anglo-Saxons  nor  Danes  were  likely  to  have  intro- 
duced it  into  England.  .  It  seems  to  have  been  early  under  legal 
protection,  for,  according  to  Dugdale,  a  licence  was  granted  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  I.  to  the  abbot  of  Amesbury  to  kiU  bares  and 
pheasants,  and  from  the  price  at  wluch  the  latter  are  reckoned 
in  various  documents,  we  may  condude  that  they  were  not  very 
abundant  for  some  centuries,  and  abo  that  they  were  occasion- 
ally artificially  reared  and  fattened,  as  appears  from  Upton,' 
who  wrote  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  while  Henry 
Vni.  seems  from  his  privy  purse  expenses  to  have  had  in  his 
household  hi  1532  a  French  priest  as  a  regular  "  fcsaunt  breder." 
and  in  the  accounts  of  the  Kytsons  erf  Hengruve  in  Suffolk  for 
1607  mention  is  made  of  wheat  to  feed  pheasants,  partridges  and 
quails. 

The  practice  of  bringing  up  pheasants  by  hand  b  now  ex> 
tensively  followed,  and  the  numbers  so  reared  vastly  exceed  those 
that  are  bred  at  large.  The  eggs  are  collected  from  birds  that 
are  either  running  wild  or  kept  in  pens,  and  are  placed  under 
domestic  hens;  but,  though  these  prove  most  attentive  foster- 
mothers,  much  additional  care  on  the  part  of  their  keepers  is 
needed  to  ensure  the  arrival  at  maturity  of  the  poults;  for, 
being  necessarily  crowded  in  a  comparatively  small  space,  they 
are  subject  to  several  diseases  which  often  carry  off  a  large 
proportion,  to  say  nothing  of  the  risk  they  run  by  not  being 
provided  with  proper  food,  or  by  meeting  an  eariy  death  from 
various  predatory  animals  attracted  by  the  assemblage  of  so 
many  helpless  victims.  As  they  advance  in  age  the  young 
pheasants  readily  take  to  a  wild  life,  and  indeed  can  only  be 
kept  from  wandering  in  every  direction  by  being  plentifully 
supplied  with  food,  which  has  to  be  scattered  for  them  in  the 
coverts  in  which  it  is  desired  that  they  should  stay.  The  pro- 
portion of  pheasants  artificially  bred  that  "  come  to  the  gun  " 
would  seem  to  vary  enormously,  not  only  irregularly  according 
to  the  weather,  but  regularly  according  to  the  district.  In  the 
eastern  counties  of  England,  and  some  other  favourable  localities, 
perhaps  three-fourths  of  those  that  are  hatched  rhay  be  satis* 
factorily  ^accounted  fbr;  but  in  many  of  the  watern  counties, 
though  they  are  the  objects  of  equal  or  even  greater  care, 
it  would  seem  that  more  than  half  of-  the  number  that 
live  to  grow  their  feathers  disappear  inexplicably  before 
the  coverts  are  beaten.  For  the  sport  of  pheasant-shooting  sec 
Sbootxmo. 

Formerly  pheasants  were  taken  in  snares  or  nets,  and  by 
hawking;  but  the  crossbow  was  also  used,  and  the  better  to 
obtain  a  "  sitting  shot/'—for  with  that  weapon  men  had  not 
learnt  to  '*  ^oot  flying  *' — dogs  appear  to  have  been  employed 
in  the  way  indicated  by  the  lines  under  an  engraving  by  UoUar, 
who  died  in  1677:— 

"  The  Feasant  Cocke  the  woods  doth  most  frequent. 
Where  Spaniellt  spring  and  pmrche  him  by  the  sent/'* 

Of  the  tnany  other  species  of  the  genus  Pkasianus,  two  only 
can  be  dwelt  upon  here.  These  are  the  ring-necked  pheasant 
of  China,  P.  tdrquatus,  easily  known  by  the  broad  white  collar, 
whence  it  has  its  name,  as  well  as  by  the  pale  greyish-blue  of  its 
tipper  wing-coverts  and  rump  and  the  light  buff  of  its  flanks, 
and  the  P.  versicolor  oi  Japap^  often  called  the  green  pheasant 

statements  so  as  to  5nd  out  the  original  word  rendered  "  pheasant  '* 
by  the  translator;  but  a  reference  to  what  is  probably  the  same 
passage  with  the  same  meaning  is  pvcn  by  Ray  {Synopt.  melk. 
mnimatiitm,  pf>.  a  13,  9Y4)  on  the  authority  of  Liwyd  or  Lloyd< 
though  there  it  no  mention  of  it  in  Wotton  and  Clarke's  Legct 
WatMOt  (1730).  A  charter  (Kerable,  Cod.  diplom,  iv.  236).  pro 
fcssedly  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  granting  the  wardcnship  of 
certain  foiiests  in  Essex  to  Ralph  Peperung.  speaks  of  "  fcsant  hen  " 
ami  "  fcsant  cockc,"  bat  is  now  known  to  oe  sparious. 

*  In  bis  Pr  smiic  mUitari  (not  printed  till  1654)  he  atates  (p.  195) 
that  the  pheasant  was  brought  from  the  East  by  "  PaUadms  aii'< 
corista.  ' 

> Quoted  by  the  writer  (Broderip  7)  of  the  article  "Spaniel  " 
in  tne  Ptnttv  Cydopaedia.  The  lines  throw  light  on  the  aaacrted 
Welsh  practice  mentioMd  in  a  former  note. 


from  the  beautiful  tinge  of  that  colour  that  in  certain  Hght^ 
pervades  almost  the  whole  of  its  plumage,  and,  deepening  into 
dark  emerald,  occupies  all  the  breast  and  lower  surface  that  in 
the  common  and  Chinese  birds  is  bay  barred  with  ^ossy  Mack 
scallops.  Both  of  these  species  have  been  introdtKed  into 
England,  and  cross  freely  with  P.  cokhicua^  while  the  hybrids 
of  each  with  the  older  inhabitants  of  thi  woods  are  not  mily 
perfectly  fertile  inltr  se,  but  cross  as  freely  with  the  other 
hybrids,  so  that  birds  are  frequently  found  in  which  the  blood 
of  the  three  species  is  mingled.  The  hybrids  of  the  first  cross 
are  generally  larger  than  either  of  their  parents,  but  the  supet^ 
ority  of  siM  does  not  seem  to  be  maintained  by  their  descendants. 
White  and  pied  varieties  of  the  common  pheasant,  as  of  most 
birds,  often  occur,  and  with  a  little  care  a  race  or  breed  Of  each 
can  be  perpetuated.  A  fnuch  rarer  variety  b  sometimes  seen; 
this  is  known  as  the  Bohemian  pheasant,  not  that  there  is  the 
least  reason  to  suppose  it  has  ^ny  right  to  such  an  epithet^  for 
it  appears,  as  it  were,  acddentalTy  among  a  stock  of  the  pure 
P.cdekkus^  and  offers  an  example  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Japan  peafowl  (see  Peacock),  being,  like  that  breed,  capable 
of  perpetuation  by  selection.  Two  other  species  of  pheasant 
have  been  introduced  to  the  coverts' of  England — P.  rtevesi  from 
China,  remarkable  for  its  very  long  tail,  white  with  black  bars, 
and  the  copper  pheasant,  P.  soemmerringi,  from  Japan.  The 
well-known  gold  and  silver  pheasants,  P.  piclus  and  P.  nycthe- 
mcrus,  each  the  type  of  a  distinct  section  or  subgenus,  are  both 
from  China  and  have  long  been  introduced  into  Europe,  but  are 
only  fitted  for  the  aviary.  To  the  formeris  allied  the  still  more 
beautiful  P.  amherstiae,  and  to  the  latter  about  a  dozen  more 
species,  most  of  them  known  to  Indian  sportsmen  by  the  general 
name  of  "  kalcege."  The  comparatively  plain  pucras  pheasants, 
Pucrastat  the  magnificent  monauls,  Lophopftortts,  and  the  fine 
snow-pheasants,  Crossoptilunt — of  each  of  which  genera  there 
are  several  species,  may  also  be  mentioned. 

All  the  species  known  at  the  time  are  beautifully  fieured  from 
drawings  by  J.  Wolf  in  D.  G.  Elliot's  Afcnofraph  of  tne  Phaswnido€ 
(2  %-olit.,  fof.,  1870-1872) — the  last  term  being  used  in  a  somewhat 
ecncraj  sense.  With  a  more  precise  scope  W.  B.  Te^etmeier'a 
Pktasants:  their  Hatural  History  and  Practical  A^nogement 
(4th  od.,  1904)  is  to  be  commended  as  a  very  useful  work.    (A.  N.) 

PHEIDIAS.  son  of  Charmides,  universally  regarded  as  the 
greatest  of  Greek  sculptors,  was  born  at  Athens  about  500  B.C. 
We  have  varying  accounts  of  his  training.  Hcg^as  of  Athens, 
Ageladas  of  Argos,  and  the  Thasian  painter  Polygnolus,  have 
all  been  regarded  as  his  teachers.  In  favour  of  Ageladas  it  may 
be  said  that  the  influence  of  the  many  Dorian  schools  is  certainly 
to  be  traced  in  some  of  his  work.  Of  his  life  we  know  little 
apart  from  his  works.  Of  his  death  We  have  two  discrepant 
accounts.  According  to  Plutarch  he  was  made  an  object  of 
attack  by  the  political  enemies  of  Pericles,  and  died  in  prison  at 
Athens.  According  to  Philochorus,  as  quoted  by  a  scholiast 
on  Aristophanes,  he  fled  to  Elis,  where  he  made  the  great 
statue  of  Zeus  for  the  Eleans.  and  was  afterwards  put  to 
death  by  th^m.  For  several  reasons  the  fitst  of  these  tales  is 
preferable. 

Plutarch  gives  in  his  life  of  Pericles  a  charming  account  ot 
the  vast  artistic  activity  which  went  on  at  Athens  while  that 
statesman  was  in  power.  He  used  for  the  decoration  of  his  o\ni 
city  the  money  furnished  by  the  Athenian  allies  for  defence 
against  Persia:  it  is  very  fortunate  that  after  the  time  of  Xerxes 
Persia  made  no  deliberate  attempt  against  Greece.  "  In  all 
these  works,"  says  Plutarch,  **  Pheidias  was  the  adviser  and 
overseer  of  Pericles."  Pheidias  introduced  his  own  portrait 
and  that  of  Pericles  on  the  shield  of  his  "Parthenos  statue. 
And  it  was  through  Pheidias  that  the  political  enemies  of 
Perides  struck  at  him.  It  thus  abundantly  appears  that 
Pheidias  was  closely  connected  with  Pericles,  and  a  ruling  spirit 
in  the  Athem'an  art  of  the  period.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  go 
beyond  this  general  assertion  into  details. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  in  resting  the  fame  of  Pheidiai 
upon  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  we  proceed  with  little  evi- 
dence.  No  ancient  writer  ascribes  them  to  him,  and  he  seldom. 
if  ever,  executed  works  in  marble.    What  he  was  celebrated 


$62 


PHEIDON*-PHELPS,  A. 


for  in  antiquity  vas  hit  statues,  in  bronxt  or  gold  and  ivory. 
If  Plutarch  tells  us  that  he  superintended  Uie  great  works  of 
Pericles  on  the  Acropolis,  this  phrase  is  very  vague.  On  the 
other  hand,  inscriptions  prove  that  the  marble  blocks  intended 
for  the  pediznental  statues  of  the  Parthenon  were  not  brought 
to  Athens  until  434  kjc,  which  was  probably  after  the  death 
of  Pheidias.  And  there  h  a  marked  contrast  in  style  between 
these  statues  and  the  certain  works  of  Pheidias.  It  is  t^ierd ore 
probable  that  most  if  not  all  of  the  sculptural  decoration  of  the 
Parthenon  was  the  work  of  pupils  of  Pheidias,  such  as  Akamencs 
and  Agorafritus,  rather  than  his  own. 

.  The  earliest  of  the  great  works  of  Pheidias  were  dedications 
in  memory  of  Marathon,  from  the  spoils  of  the  victory.  At 
Delphi  he  erected  a  great  group  in  bronze  inchiding  the  figures 
of  ApoUo  and  Athena,  several  Attic  heroes,  and  Milliades  the 
general.  On  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  he  set  up  a  colossal  bronze 
image  of  Athena,  which  was  visible  far  out  at  sea.  At  Pellene 
in  Achaea,  and  at  Plataea  he  made  two  other  statues  of  Athena, 
also  a  statue  of  Aphrodite  in  ivory  and  gold  for  the  people 
o^  Elts.  But  among  the  Greeks  themselves  the  two  )vorks  of 
Pheidias  which  far  outshone  all  others,  and  were  the  basis  of 
his  fame,  were  the  colossal  figures  in  gold  and  ivory  of  Zeus  at 
Olympia  and  of  Athena  Parthenos  at  Athens,  both  of  which 
belong  to  about  the  middle  of  the  5th  century.  Of  the  Zeus 
we  have  unfortunately  lost  all  trace  save  small  copies  on  coins 
of  Elis,  which  give  us  but  a  general  notion  of  the  pose,  and  the 
character  of  the  head.  The  god  was  seated  on  a  throne,  every 
l^artof  which  was  used  as  a  ground  for  sculptural  decoration. 
His  body  was  of  ivory,  his  robe  of  gold.  His  head  was  of 
somewhat  archaic  type:  the  Otricoli  mask  which  used  to  be 
regarded  as  a  copy  of  the  head  of  the  Olympian  statiie  is  certainly 
more  than  a  century  later  in  style.  Of  the  Athena  Parthenos 
two  small  copies  in  marble  have  been  found  at  Athens  (sec 
Greek  Art,  fig.  38)  which  have  no  excellence  of  workmanship, 
but  have  a  certain  evidential  value  as  to  the  treatment  of  their 
original. 

tt  will  be  seen  how  very  small  is  our  actual  knowledge  of  the 
works  of  Pheidias.  There  are  many  stately  figures  in  the  Roman 
and  other  museums  which  dearly  belong  to  the  same  school  as 
the  Parthenos;  but  they  are  copies  of  the  Koman  age,  and  not 
to  be  trusted  in  point  of  style.  A.  Furtwjlnglcr  proposes  to 
find  in  a  statue  of  which  the  head  is  at  Bologna,  and  the  body 
at  Dresden,  a  copy  of  the  Lemnian  Athena  of  Pheidias;  but  his 
arguments  {Masterpieces,  at  the  beginning)  are  anything  but 
conclusive.  Much  more  satisfactory  as  evidence  are  some  51b 
century  torsos  of  Athena  found  at  Athens.  The  very  fine  torso 
of  Athena  in  the  £cQle  dcs  Beaux  Arts  at  Paris,  which  has 
unfortunately  lost  its  head,  may  perhaps  best  serve  to  help 
our  imagination  in  reconstructing  a  Pheidian  original. 

As  regards  the  decorative  scu^turcs  of  the  Parthenon,  which 
the  Greeks. rated  far  below  their  colossus  in  ivory  and  gold,  see 
the  article  Parthenon. 

Ancient  critics  take  a  very  high  view  of  the  merits  of  Pheidias. 
What  they  especially  praise  is  the  ethos  or  permanent  moral 
level  of  his  works  as  compared  with  those  of  the  later  "  pathetic  " 
school.  Demetrius  calls  his  statues  sublime,  and  at  the  same 
time  precise.  '  That  he  rode  on  the  crest  of  a  splendid  wave  of 
art  is  not  to  be  questioned:  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  have 
no  morsel  of  work  extant  for  which  we  can  definitely  hold  him 
responsible.  (P.  G.) 

PHEIDON  (8th  or  7th  century  b.c.),  king  of  Argos,  generally, 
though  wrongly,  called  "  tyrant."  According  to  tradition  be 
flourished  during  ,the  first  half  of  the  8th  century  B.C.  He  was 
a  vigorous  and  energetic  ruler  and  greatly  increased  the  power 
of  Argos.  He  gradually  regained  sway  over  the  various  cities  of 
the  Argive  confederacy,  the  members  of  which  had  become 
practically  independent,  and  (in  the  words  of  Ephorus)  "  re- 
united the  broken  fragments  of  the  inheritance  of  Temenus." 
His  object  was  to  secure  predominance  for  Argos  in  the  north 
of  Peloponnesus.  According  to  Plutarch,  he  attempted  to 
break  the  power  of  Corinth,  by  requesting  the  Corinthians  to 
send  him  1000  of  their  picked  youths,  ostensibly  to  avl  him  in 


war,  his  real  intentimi  being  to  put  them  to  deaths  but  the  ptot 
was  revealed.  Pheidon  assisted  the  Pisatans  to  expel  the  Elean 
superintendents  of  the  Olympuui  games  and  presided  at  the 
festival  himself.  The  Eleans,  however,  refused  to  recognize  the 
Olympiad  or  to  include  it  in  the  register,  and  shortly  afterwards^ 
with  the  aid  of  the  Spartans,  who  are  said  to  have  k)oked  upon 
Pheidon  as  having  ousted  them  from  the  headship  of  Greece, 
defeated  Pheidon  and  were  reinstated  in  the  possession  of 
Pisatis  and  their  former  privileges.  Pheidon  is  said  10  have 
lost  his  life  in  a  faction  fight  at  Corinth,  where  the  monarchy 
had  recently  been  overthrown.  The  affair  of  the  games  has  an 
important  bearing  on  his  date.  Pausanias  (vi.^aa,  3)  definitely 
states  that  Pheidon  presided  at  the  festival  in  the  8th  Olympiad 
(i.e.  in  748  B.C.),  but  in  the  list  of  the  suitors  of  Agariste,  daughter 
of  Cleisthenes  of  Sicyon,  given  by  Herodotus,  there  occurs  the 
name  of  L.eocedes  (Lacedas),  son  of  Pheidon^of  Argos.  Accord- 
ing  to  this,  Pheidon  must  have  flourished  during  the  early  part 
of  the  6th -century.  It  has  therefore  been  assumed  that 
Herodotus  confused  two  Pheidons,  both  kings  of  Argos.  Ihe 
suggested  substitution  in  the  text  of  Pausanias  of  the  28th  for 
the  Sih  Olympiad  (<>.  668  instead  of  748)  would  not  bring  it  into 
agreement  with  Herodotus,  for  c^ed  then  Phcidon's  son  coidd 
not  have  been  a  suitor  in  570  for  the  hand  of  Agariste.  But 
the  story  of  Agariste's  wooing  resembles  romance  and  has  slight 
chronological  value.  On  the  whole,  modern  authorities  assign 
Pheidon  to  the  first  half  of  the  7lh  century.  Herodotus  further 
states  that  Pheidon  established  a  system  of  weights  and  measures 
throughout  Peloponnesus,  to  which  Ephorus  and  the  Parian 
Chronicle  add  that  he  was  the  first  to  coin  silver  money,  and  that 
his  mint  was  at  Aegina.  But  according  to  the  better  authority 
of  Herodotus  (i.  94)  and  Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  the  Lydians 
were  the  first  coiners  of  money  at  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century, 
and,  further,  the  oldest  known  Aeginetan  coins  arc  of  later  date 
than  Pheidon.  Hence,  unless  a  later  Pheidon  is  assumed,  the 
statement  of  Ephorus  must  be  considered  unhistorical.  Ko 
such  difliculty  occurs  in  tcgzrd  to  the  weights  and  measures; 
it  is  generally  agreed  that  a  system  was  already  in  existence  in 
the  time  of  Pheidon,  into  which  he  introduced  certain  changes^ 
A  passage  in  the  Aristotelian  Constitution  oj  Athens  (x.  2) 
states  that  the  measures  used  before  the  Solonian  peruxl  of 
reform  were  called  "  Pheidonian." 

See  Hefodotus  «L  197;  Epbonn  in  Strabo  viii.  358.  ^76:  Plutarch, 
Amatoriae  narriitieneMt  a:  Marmpr  parium,  ep.  ao;  Pollux  ix.  gj; 
Nicolaus  Damascenus,  frag.  41  (in  C.  W.'  M Oilers  J^f^L  A'^'-  rv«^ 
corvm,  is.);  G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  pt.  ii.  ch.  4:  B.  V.  Head, 
Ilistoria  Numorum  (1887):  F.  Hulisch.  Crieckische  mnd  rfimitcko 
Jdetrefogie  (i88s>:  G.  Rawlinson's  Berodolua,  appendix,  bk.  i.; 
note  8.  On  the  question  of  Pheidon 's  date,  ice  J.  B.  Bury,  History 
of  Greece,  ii.  468  (1902);  1.  P.  Mahaffy,  Problems  in  Creek  Htstorr, 
cn.  3  (189'):  }•  G.  Frazers  note  on  Piausanias  vi.  32,  3;  and  cspecir 
ally  G.  Busolt.  Crieekiseke  Ceukichte  (3nd  ed.,  1893).  ch.  iii.  la.  C. 
Tneber,  Pheidon  tan  Argos  (Hanover,  188O).  and  J.  Reloch.  t» 
Rheiniuha  Museum,  xlv.  595  (1890),  favour  a  later  date,  aboot 
58a 

PHBLPS,  AUSTIN  (1820^1890),  American  Congregaiioi»l 
minister  and  educationalist,  was  born  on  the  7th  of  January 
1830  at  West  Brookfield,  Massachusetts,  son  of  £liakim  Phel^* 
a  clergyman,  who,  during  the  boyhood  of  his  son  was  pr!nc4>al 
of  a  girls'  school  in  Pittsficld,  Massachusetts,  and  later  pastor 
of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Geneva,  New  York,  The  son 
studied  at  Hobart  College  in  1833-1835,  then  at  Amherst  foe 
a  year,  and  in  1837  graduated  at  the  university  of  Penn^-lvania. 
He  studied  theology  at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  at  the  Yale 
Divinity  School,  and  at  Andover,  and  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1840  by  the  Third  Presbytery  of  Philadeli^ua.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  Pine  Street  (Congregational)  Church  in  Boston 
in"x842-r848,  and  in  1848-1879  was  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric 
and  homiletics  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  of  which  he 
was  president  from  1869  to  1879,  when  his  failing  health  forced 
him  to  resign.  He  died  on  the  13th  of  October  1890  at  Bar 
Harbor,  Maine.    His  Theory  of  Preaching  (x88i)  and  Eujjtisik 

*  Eliakim  Phelps  afterwards  lived  in  Stratford,  Herkimer  county. 
New  Yorkf  wbvre,  his  house  ma*  "  possessed  "  and  was  long  a  pUc* 
of  curious  mtercst  to  students  of  "  spiritualisav*^ 


PHELPS,  fi.  J.— PHENACETIN 


363 


Styit  in  PiMie  Disrourse  Ct^Sj)  became  standard  textbooks; 
and  personally  he  was  a  brilliant  preacher.  He  married  in 
1843  Elizabeth  Stuart  (181 5-1852),  eldest  daughter  of  Moses 
Stuart,  then  president  of  Andover;  she  was  the  author  of  the 
popular  story  Sunnyside  (1851)  and  of  other  books.  In  1854 
he  married  her  sister,  who  died  only  eighteen  months  later;  and 
in  1858  he  married  Mary  A.  Johnson,  of  Boston. 

With  ProfeMore  E.  A.  Park  and  D.  L.  Furber  he  edited  Hymns 
and  Ckfftrs  (1660).  and  «nth  Professor  Park  and  Lowell  Mason  The 
Sabbatk  H/mn  Book  (1859).  The  StiU  Mow  (1859}.  a  Mirainary  of 
a  aeries  01  flermons  on  prayer,  is  a  devotional  classic.  His  other 
works  are:  The  Ntw  Birth  (1867),  portraying  conversion  (in  some 
instances)  as  a  gradual  change;  SabHtath  Hours  (1874):  Studies  of 
the  Old  Testament  (1878) :  Men  and  Boohs  (1882) :  My  Portjolio  ( 1882) ; 
My  Study  (iSfM;  and  My  Hole  Booh  (1890). 

See  A  uitm  Fhetps:  A  Memoir  <New  YoHc,  1891).  by  his  daughter. 
Eliabeth  Stuart  PhalpsvWard. 

PHBLP8;   EDWARD  JOHN  (1822-1900).  American  lawyer 
and  diplonat,  was  bom  on  the  nth  of  July  1823  at  Middlebury. 
Vermont.    He  graduated  from  Middlebury  College  in  1840. 
was  a  schoolmaater  for  a  year  in  Virginia,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1843.    He  began  practice  at  Middlebury,  but  in 
1845  removed  to  Burlington,  Vermont.    From  1851  to  1853  he 
was  second  comptroller  of  the  United  States  Treasury,  and  then 
practised  Uw  in  New  York  City  until  1857.  when  he  returned 
to  Burlington.    Becoming  a  Democrat  after  the  Whig  party 
had  ceased  to  exist,  he  was  debarred  from  a  political  career  tn 
his  own  state,  where  his  party  was  in  the  minority,  but  he 
served  in  the  state  constitutional  convention  in  1870.  and  in 
z88o  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  governor  of  his  state. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Bar  Association, 
and  was  its  president  in'  i88p-i88i.  ■  From   1881  until  his 
death  he  was  Kent  Professor  of  Law  in  Vale  University.    He 
was  minister  to  Great  Britain  from  1885  to  1889.  and  in  1893 
served  as  senior  counsel  for  the  United  States  before  the  inter- 
national tribunal  at  Paris  to  adjust  the  Bering  Sea  controversy 
His  closing  argument,  requiring  eleven  days  for  its  delivery, 
was  an  cxhatistive  review  of  the  case.    Phelps  lectured  on 
medical  jurisprudence  at  the  university  of  Vermont  in  1881- 
1883.  and  on  constitutional  law  at  Boston  Unix-ersiiy  in  1882- 
1883,  and  delivered  numerous  addresses,  among  them  that  on 
"The  United  States  Supreme  Cburt  and  the  Sovereignty  of 
the   People "  at   the  centennial  celebration  of  the  Federal 
Judiciary  in   1890  and  an  oration  at  the  dedicatk>n  of  the 
Bennington  Battle  Monument,  unveiled  in  1891  at  the  centennial 
of  Vermont's  admission  to  the  Union.    In  politics  Phelps  was 
always    Conser\*ative.   opposing    the   anti-slavery    movement 
before  i860,  the  free>silver  movement  in  1896.  when  he  supported 
the  Republican  presidential  tickets  and  after  1898  becoming 
an    ardent    "  anti-expanstonist.*'    He  died   at    New   Haven. 
Connecticut,  on  the  9th  of  March  1900. 

See  the  Orations  and  Essays  of  Edward  John  Phefps,  edited  by 
J.  G.  McCulIouffh.  with  a  Memoir  by  John  W.  Stru-arr  (Nc-u-  York. 
1901) ;  and  "  Life  and  Public  Services  01  the  Hon.  Kdwarrf  J  Fhcfjis." 
by  Matthew  H  Buckham.  in  Proceedings  of  the  Vermont  Historical 
Society  (Burlington.  Vt.,  1901). 

PHELPS.  SAMUEL  (1804-1878).  English  actor  and  manager. 
was  born  at  Devonpon  on  the  13th  of  February  1R04.  He  was 
early  thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  and  worked  in  various 
newspap>er  offices.  Shortly  after  his  marriage  in  1826  to  Sarah 
Cooper  (d  1867).  he  accepted  a  theatrical  engagement  in  the 
York  circuit  at  eighteen  shillings  a  week,  and  afterwards 
appeared  in  south  of  England  towns  in  prominent  tragic  r6leS. 
attracting  sufficient  attention  to  be  spoken  of  as  a  rival  to 
Kean.  He  made  his  first  London  appearance  on  the  28lh 
of  August  1S37  as  Shylock  at  the  Ha>'market.  After  a  shori 
season  there  he  was  with  Maac^dy  for  about  six  years  at 
Covent  Garden,  the  Haymarket  and  Drury  Lane  successively 
In  2844  lie  became  co-les<we  of  Sadler's  Wells  Theatre  with 
Thomas  L.  Greenwood  and  Mrs  Mary  Amelia  Warned  (1804- 
1854)-  Greenwood  supplied  the. business  Cai>adty.  Phelps  was 
the  theatrical  manager,  and  Mrs  Warner  leading  lady  In 
this  position  Phelps  remained  for  twenty  y^ars,  during  which 
Cirae  he  rafsed  the  Sadler*s  WeBs  bouse  to  an  important  position, 


and  himself  appeared  in  a  very  extensive  and  varied  repertory. 
Thirty -four  of  Shakespeare's  plays  were  presented  there  under 
his  direction,  with  great  educational  effect ,  both  on  public  and 
players.  In  186 1  Greenwood  retired  from  the  partnership, 
and  I%elps,  imabte  to  cope  with  the  business  of  management, 
retv^  from  it  in  the  following  year.  For  the  next  fifteen  years 
he  acted  under  various  managements,  achieving  considerable 
success  in  some  of  Halliday's  dramatic  versions  of  Scott's  novels, 
such  as  The  Fortunes  of  Nigd  and  Ivankoc.  His  last  appear* 
ance  was  in  1878  as  Wolsey  in  Henry  VIII.^  and  he  died  on  the 
6th  of  November  1878.  He  was  a  sound  and  capable  actor, 
rather  than  one  of  any  marked  genius;  and.  in  spite  of  his 
predilection  for  tragedy,  was  most  successful  in  such  charaaers 
of  comedy  as  called  for  dry  humour.  Perhaps  Sir  Periinax 
Macsycophant  in  Charles  Macklin's  The  Man  oj  the  World  was 
his  finest  impersonation.  He  published  an  annotated  edition 
of  Shakespeare's  plays  (2  vols.,  1852-1854). 

PHELYPEAUX.  a  French  family  of  BJesois.  Its  two  principal 
branches  were  those  of  the  siegneurs  of  Hcrbaull,  La  Vrilliere 
and  Saint  Florentin,  and  of  the  counts  of  Pontchartrain  and 
Maurepas.  Raimond  Phelypeaux,  seigneur  of  Herbault  and 
La  Vrilli^  (d.  1629).  was  treasurer  of  the  £,pargne  in  1599, 
and  became  secretary  of  state  in  1621.  His  son  Loub  succeeded 
htm  in  this  latter  office,  and  died  in  1681.  Balthazar  Phely- 
peaux, marquis  de  Chiteauneuf  (d.  1700),  and  Louis,  marquis 
de  La  Vrilliire  (d.  1725),  respectively  son  and  grandson  of 
Louis,  were  also  secretaries  of  state.  Louis  Phelypeaux  (1705- 
1777),  count  of  Saint  Florentin  and  aften/vards  duke  of  La 
Vrilliere  (1770).  succeeded  his  father  as  secretary  of  state; 
became  minister  of  the  king's  household  in  1749,  a  minister 
of  state  in  1751.  and  discharged  the  functions  of  minister  of 
foreign  aflfain  on  the  disgrace  of  Cboiseul  (1770).  He  incumd 
great  unpopularity  by  his  abuse  of  leltres  de  caihet,  and  had  to 
resign  In  1775.  Raimond  Balthazar  Phelypeaux,  seigneur 
du  Verger,  a  member  of  the  La  VriUiire  branch,  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Savoy  in  1700,  where  he  discovered  the  intrigue* 
of  the  duke  of  Savoy.  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  against  France;  and 
when  war  was  declared  he  was  kept  a  close  prisoner  by  the  duke 
(1703*1704).  At  the  time  of  his  death  (1713)  he  was  governor- 
general  in  the  West  Indies.  The  branch  of  Pontchartrain- 
Maurepas  was  founded  by  Paul  Phelypeaux  (1569-1621), 
brother  of  the  first-mentioned  Raimond;  he  became  secretary 
of  state  in  16x0. 

PHENACEnN.     CsHtO-CJIiKHCOCHs      (para-acetamino^ 

phcnctol).  a  drug  prepared  by  acetylating  para-phenetidin, 

or  by  heating  parakeet ylaminophcnol  and  potassium  elhyl 

sulphate  with  alcoholic  soda  to  150*  C.    Para-phenetldin  is 

prepared  by  treating  the  sodium  salt  of  para -nit  rophenol  with 

ethyl  iodide,  and  reducing  the  nitrophenetol  to  para-phenetidin 

or  aminophenetol.    The  yield  may  be  doubled  by  diaxotiring 

para-phenetidin.  coupling  with  phenol,  ethylating  and  reducingt 

EtOQH.  \ Ht-^ EiO-CH^NjOH -4 FtO-CH.Nr CH-OH-^ 
EtO<:«H,-NVC»H«-OEt*->2EtO>C»H«-NHa. 

It  nystallizes  from  water  in  colouriess  plates,  melring  at  135**  C. 
Jt  is  soluble  in  about  70  parts  of  hot  and  in  about  1400  parts  of 
cold  water. 

Several  compounds  related  to  phenacetin  have  been  intto^ 
duccd  into  medicine.  Triphenin  is  propylphenetidin;  lacto- 
phenin  is  lactylphenetidin;  piyrantln  is  para-ethoxypheny! 
surcinlmidc.  EtO'C«H4-KlCO-CH:)3;  salophen  or  saliphenin  is 
salicylphcnettdin;  amygdophenin  is  mandelylphenetidin.  In 
addition,  several  other  derivatives  have  been  suggested  which 
have  a  greater  solubility  than  phenacetin.  e.g.  phesin,  which  is  the 
sodium  salt  of  phenacetin  sulphontc  add,  apolydn  and  dtrophen 
(citrophenin),  which  are  citric  acid  derivatives  of  para-phene* 
tidin,  kc. 

Phenacetin  is  contained  in  both'  the  British  and  United  States 
pharmacopoeia,  in  the  latter  under  the  name  of  acetphenetidin. 
The  dMe  is  5  to  to  gn.  given  in  cachets  or  in  suspension.  When 
the  drug  B  careleady  onde  it  may  contain  inpuntiea.  produetng 
considerable  irritation  of  the  kidneys.  The  pnyuological  action 
of  phenacetin  consists  io  a  sedative  action  on  the  sensory  tracts  oT 
'  the  spinal  cord,  and  a  depressant  aaion  on  the  heart,  where  it 


364 


PHENACITE— PH^NAZINP; 


tends  to  paralyw  t^  actbh  of  the  cardiac  muscle.  Upoa  the 
bodily  heat  it  exercises  a  marked  effect,  decreasing  the  action  of 
the  heat-producing  centre  as  well  as  increasing  the  disestpation  of 
heat,  ana  thus  causing  a  nuirkcd  fall  in  temperature.  In  toxic 
dosea  the  blood  becomes  dark  and  blackish  from  the  formation  of 
methacmofilobin,  and  the  urine  is  changed  in  colour  from  the^ssage 
d(  altered  olood.  The  chief  therapeutic  use  of  phcnacetin  is  as  an 
antineuralgic.  and  it  is  of  service  in  migraine,  rheumatism  of  the 
atrt»>acute  type,  intertostal  neuralgia  and  locomotor  ataxia. 

PHBMACITB,  a  roineral  consisting  of  beryllium  orthosilicate, 
BeiSiO«,  occasionally  used  as  a  gem-sione.  It  occuis  as  isolated 
crystals,  which  are  rhombohedral  with  parallel-faced  hemibedrisniy 
and  are  either  lenticular  or  prismatic  in  habit:  the  lenticular 
habit  is  determined  by.  the  development  of  faces  of  several 
obtuse  rhombohedn  and  ihe  absence  of  prism  faces  (the  accom- 
panying figure  is  a  pUn  of  such 
a  crystal  viewed  along  the  triad, 
or  principal,  axis).  There  is  no 
cleavage,  and  )hc  •  fracture  is 
conchoidal.  The  hardness  is 
high,  being  7i-8;  the  specific 
gravity  is  2-98.  The  crystals  arc 
sometimes  perfectly  colouriess 
and  transparent,  but  more  often 
they  are  greyish  or  yellowish 
and  only  tnuislucenl;  occasion- 
ally they  are  pule  rose-red.  Lo 
general  app^irance  the  mineral. 
is  not  unlike  quarta,  for  which 
indeed  it  had  been  mistaken;  on  this  account  it  was  namedy  by 
N.  Nordenskiiild  in  iSjj,  from  Gr.  ^ra(  (a  deceiver). 

Phenacite  has  loqg  been  known  from  the  emerald  and  chryso- 
beryl  mine  on  the  Takovaya  sir^ro,  near  Ekaterinburg  in 
the  Urals,  where  brge  crystals  occur  in  mica-schist.  It  is  also 
found  with  topaz  and  amazon-sione  in  the  granite  of  the  Ilmen 
mountains  in  the  southern  Urals  and  of  the  Pike's  Peak  region 
in  Colorado.  Large  crystals  of  prismatic  habit  have  more 
recently  been  found  in  a  felspar  quarry  at  Kragero  in  Norway. 
Fcamont  near  Schirroeck  in  Alsace  is  another  well-known  locality. 
Still  larger  crystals,  measuring  1  a  in.  in  diameter  and  weighing 
38  lb.  have  been  found  at  Greenwood  in  Maine,  but  these  are 
pseudomorphs  of  quartz  after  phenacite. 

For  gem  purposes  the  stone  b  cut  in  the  brilliant  form,  of 
which  there  are  two  fine  examples,  weighing  43  and  34  carats, 
ia  the  British  Museum.  The  indices  of  refraction  (a}«>  1*6540, 
C"Bl-6s}7)  are  higher  than  those  of  quartz,  beryl  or  topaz;  a 
faceted  phenacite  is  consequently  rather  brilliant  and  may 
sometimes  be  mistaken  for  diamond.  (L.  J.S.) 

PHENACOtftUS.  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  primitive  of 
the  ungulate  mammals,  typifying  the  family  Phenacodoniidat 
and  the  suborder  Condylanhra.  The ,  typical  Pkcnacodus 
primaeouSf  of  the  Lower  or  Wasatch  Eocene  of  North  America, 
was  a  relatively  small  ungulate,  of  slight  build,  with  straight 
limbs  each  terminating  in  five  complete  toea^  and  walking  in 
the  digiUgrade  fashion  of  the  modern  tapir.  The  middle  toe 
was  the  largest,  and.thc  weight  of  the  body  was  mainly  supported 
on  this  and  the  two  adjoining  digits,  which  appear  to  have  been 
encased  in  hoofs,  thus  foreshadowing  the  tridactylc  type 
common  in  perissodaciyle  and  certain  extinct  groups  of  ungulates. 
The  skull  was  smaD,.witb  proportionately  minute  brain;  and 
the  arched  back,  strong  lumbar  vertebrae^  long  and  powerful 
tidi,  and  comparatively  feeble  fore-quarters  all  proclaim  kinship 
with  the  primitive  creodont  Garni vora  (see  Creqoonta),  from 
which  Phenacodia  and  its  allies,  and  through  them  the  more 
typical  Ungulata,  are  probably  derived.  All  the  bones  of  the 
limbs  are  separate,  and  those  of  the  carpus  and  tarstts  do  not 
alternate;  that  is  to  say,  each  one  in  the  upper  row  is  placed  im- 
mediately above  the  corresponding  one  in  the  row  below.  Tbe 
full  series  of  forty-four  teeth  was  developed;  and  the  upper  molars 
were  short-crowned».  or  brachyodont»  with  six  low  cones,  two 
interna),  two  Intermediate  and  two  external,  so  that  they  were 
of  the  typical  primitive  bunodont  structure.  In  habits  the 
ani^ial  was  cursorial  and  herbivorous,  or  possibly  carnivorous. 


In  the  Puerco,  or  Lowest  Eocene  of  North  America  the  idaoe 
of  the  above  species  was  taken  by  Euprotogmxia  puercensis,  an 
animal  only  half  the  size  of  Phenacodus  primaevus,  with  the 
terminal  joints  of  the  limbs  intermediate  between  hoofs  and 
claws,  and  the  first  and  fifth  toes  taking  their  full  share  in  the 
support  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  These  two  genera  may  be 
regarded  as  forming  the  earliest  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the 
horse,  coming  below  Hyracolhcrium  (see  Equidae). 

As  ancestors  of  the  Artiodactyle  section  of  the  Ungulata,  we 
may  look  to  forms  more  or  kss  closely  related  to  the  North 
American  Lower  Eocene  genera  Miodcenus  and  PatUoUsUs, 
respectively  typifying  the  families  Mioclaevidae  and  Panto- 
Ustidae.  They  were  five-toed,  bunodont  Condylarthra,  with  a 
decided  approximation  to  the  pcrissodactyle  type  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  feet.  A  third  type  of  Condylarthra  frotn  the  North 
American  Lower  Eocene  is  represented  by  the  family  Menisci 
theriidae,  including  the  genera  Heniscothtritim  and  Hyrctops. 
These,  it  is  suggested,  may  bav«o  been  related  to  the  ancestral 
Hyracoidea.  Teeth  and  jawi  probably  referable  to  the  Condyle 
arthra  have  been  obtained  in  European  early  Tertiary  fonna- 
tions.    All  Ungulata  probably  originated  from  Condyhuthra. 

See  H.  F.  Osborn.  Skeleton  of  Phenacodus  primaenu;  comparison 
with  Euprotogonia,  BulL  Amer.  Mus.  x.  159.  (R.  L.*> 

PHENANTHRBNE.  CuHio,  a  hydtt>carbon  isomeric  with 
anthracene,  with  which  it  occulis  in  the  fraction  of  the  coal  tar 
distillate  boihng  between  270^-400*  C.  It  may  be  separated 
from  the  anthracene  oi)  by  repeated  fractional  distillation, 
followed  by  fractional  crystallization  from  alcohol  (anthracene 
being  the  less  soluble),  and  finally  purified  by  oxidizing  any 
residual  anthracene  with  potassium  bichromate  and  sulphuric 
acid  (R.  Anschutz  and  G.  Schultz,  ylitn.,  1879,  196,  p.  35);  or 
the  two  hydrocarbons  may  be  separated  by  carbon  bisulphide, 
in  which  anthracene  is  insoluble.  It  is  formed  when  the 
vapours  of  toluene,  stilbene,  dibenzyl,or*.ha>diiolyl,or  ooumarone 
and  benzene  are  passed  through  a  red-hot  tube;  by  distilling 
morphine  with  zinc  dust;  and,  with  anthracene,  by  the  action 
of  sodium  on  ortho*brombenQrl  bromide  (C.  L.  Jadcaon  and 
J.  F.  White,  AtHer.  Chem.  Jour.,  1880,  2,  p.  391).  It  crystallizes 
in  colourttss  plates  or  needles,  which  melt  a  1 99^  C.  Its  solut  ions 
in  alcohol  and  ether  have  a  faint  blue  fiiiorcscenoe.  When 
heated  to  250**  C.  with  red  phosphorus  -and  hydriodic  acid  it 
gives  a  hydride  Ci«  Hu-  It  is  nitrated  by  nitric  acid  and  snlphoa- 
ated  by  sulphuric  acid.  With  picric  acid  it  forms  a  sparingly 
soluble  ptcrate,  which  melts  at  145'  C.  On  the  condition  oil 
phenanthrene  in  alcoholic  solution  see  R.  Behrend,  Zed.  pkys. 
Ckem.f  1893,  9,  p.  405;  to,  p.  265.  ^Thromic  add  oxidizes 
phenanthrene,  first  to  jAcnanthrcne-quinone,  and  then  to 
diphenic  acid,  HOtC-C^HfCtHiCOsH. 

Pketutnthttni  qninone,  {CaHiliICOjt,  crysullizcs  in  orange  needles 
which  mcli  at  198*  C.  It  possesses  the  characterisiic  properties 
of  a  diketone.  forming  crystalline  derivatives  with  sodium  bisulphUe 
and  a  dioxtme  with  hvdroxylamine.  It.  Is  non-volatile  ia  (team, 
and  is  odourless.  Sulphurous  acid  reduces  it  to  the  corrcspondinf 
dihydroxy  compound.  It  combines  with  ortho-diamines.  in  the 
presence  of  acetic  acid,  to  form  pkenaants. 

On  the  constitution  of  phenanthrene  gee  CHfiMlSTaV:   $  Orgjome, 

PHtKAZINE  (Azophenytefie),  CcH^N},  !n  organic  chemistry, 
the  parent  substance  of  many  dyestuffs,  e.g,  the  eurhodines, 
toluylene  red,  indulines  and  safranines.  It  is  a  dibenzopara- 
diazine  having  the  formula  given  below.  It  may  ht  obtained 
by  distilling  barium  azobenzoate  (A.  Claus,  Ber.,  1873, 6,  p.  733); 
by  passing  aniline  vapour  over  lead  oxide,  or  by  the  oxidation 
of  dihydrophenazine,  which  Is  prepared  by  heating  pyrocatediin 
with  orthophenylene  diamine  (C.  Ris,  Ber.,  1886,  19,  p.  2206). 
It  ts  also  formed,  wheri  oriho-aminodiphcnylanune  is  distilled 
over  lead  peroxide  (O.  Fischer  and  £.  Hepp).  It  ciystaUlMs  in 
yellow  needles  which  melt  at  171*  C,  and  are  only  sparingly 
soluble  in  alcohol  Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  It,  forming  a  de^ 
red  solution.  The  more  complex  phenazines,  such  as  the 
ruiphthophenazines,  naphthazines  and  naphthotolaziries,  may 
be  prepared  by  condensing  ortho-diamines  with  ortho-quincmes 
(0.  Hinsberg,  Ann.^  1887,  337,  p.  340);  by  the  oxidation  of  an 
ortho-dlamine  in  the  presence  of  a  aapbthol  (0.  Witt),  and  by 


PHENOLPHTHALEIN— PHERECYDES  OF  SYROS 


the  decoQipo«itk>n  of  anho-ajkUtdo-(-toluidido-  &c.)'««o  com- 
pounds idth  dilute  acids.  If  alkyl  or  aryl-OTtbo-diamincs  be 
used  Monium  bases  are  obtained.  The  azines  are  mostly 
yellow  in  colour,  distil  unchanged  and  are  stable  to  oxidants. 
They  add  on  alkyl  iodides  readily,  forming  alkyl  sgoninm  salts. 

By  the  eotraace  of  amino  or  hydroxyl  groups  info  the  molecule 
dyestufiCa  are  formed.  The  mono-amino  derivatives  or  eurkoditut 
are  obtained  when  the  arylmonamines  are  condensed  with  ortho* 
amino  so  compounds;  b^  condensing  quinone  dichlorimide  or 
para*nitn)sodimethyl  anihne  with  monamines  containing  a  free 
para  position,  or  by  oxidizing  ortho-hydroxydiamtnodiphenylamines 
(R.  Nietzki,  B^.,  1895,  28,  p.  2976;  O.  Fischer,  ibtd..  1896,  39, 

B.  1874}.  They  are  yeUowijli<red  solids,  which  behave  as  weak 
sses,  tlleir  salts  unitergofng  hydrolytic  dissociation  in  a<)ueous 
solution.  When  heated  witn  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  the 
amino  group  is  replaced  by  the  hydroxyl  group  and  the  phenolic 
eiirhodols  are  produced. 

The  symmetrical  dfeminophenarine  is  the  parent  substance  of 
the  important  dj^estun  toluylene  red  or  dimetnyldtaminototuphen- 
asine.  It  is  obtained. by  the  oxidation  of  ortho^hcnylene  diamine 
with  ferric  chloride;  when  a  mixture  of  para-ammodimethylaniline 
and  meta>toluylenediamine  is  oxidized  in  the  coM,  toluylene  blue, 
an  indamine,  oeing  formed  as  an  intermediate  product  and  passing 
into  the  red  when  boUed;  and  also  by  the  oxidation  of  dimethyl- 
pacapheaylene  diamine  with  metatoluylene  diamine.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  orango>red  needles  and  its  alcoholic  solution  fluoresces 
strongly.  It  dyes  silk  and  mordanted  cotton  a  fine  scariet.  It 
is  known  commercially  as  neutral  red.  For  the  phenasonium  salts 
see  Safraninb. 

Phcnazone  is  an  isomer  of  phcnazine,  to  which  it  bears  the  same 
relation  that  phcnanthrcne  bears  to  anthracene.  It  is  formed  by 
reducing  diortno-dinitrodiphenyl  with  sodium  amalgam  and  methyl 
akohol,  or  by  heating  diphenylene^rtho-dihydrazthe  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  150*  C.  It  crystallizes  in  needles  which  melt  at 
156*  C.  Potassium  permanganate  oxidises  it  to  pyridazine  tetxa- 
carbpxylic  add. 


OtO-CCJ)- 


Phenazine. 


Phenazonc. 


PRBNOIPHTHALEIN»  in  org^c  chemistry,  a  compound 
derived  from  phthalophenonci  or  diphenyl  phthalide  (formula 
I.),  the  anhydride  of  triphenyl-carbinol-ortho-carboxylic  acid, 
which  is  obtained  by  condensing  phthalyl  chloride  with  benzene 
in  the  presence  of  aluminium  chloride.  The  phthaleins  are 
formed  from  this  anhydride  by  the  entrance  of  hydroxyl  or 
amino  groups  into  the. two  phenyl  residues,  and  are  prepared 
by  condensing  phenols  with  phthalic  anhydride,  phenol  itself 
giving  rise  to  phenolphthalein  (formula  II.)  together  with  a 
small  quantity  of  fluorane  (formula  III.),  whilst  rcsorcin  under 
similar  conditions  yields  fluorescein  iq.v.).  The  phthaleins  on 
reduction  yield  phthalines,  which  are  derivatives  of  triphenyl* 
methane  carboxylic  acid;  these  reduction  products  are  colourless 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  leuco-compoundsof  the  phthaleins, 
thus  phenolphthalein  itself  gives  pbenblphthaline  (formula  IV.). 
Dehydrating  agents  usually  convert  the  phenolphthalinea  into 
anthraquinone  derivatives. 


/^^S 


/ 


<^*^o  ^^•^•"•Va 


'•\co. 


/* 


L  Diphcnylphthalide,    II.  Phenolphthalein.        111.  Fluorane. 

XH(Cai40H), 

IV.  Phenolphthaline. 

Phenolphthalein  is  obtained  when  phenol  and  phthalic  anhydride 
are  heated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  It  crystallizes  in 
colourless  crusts  and  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  in 
dilute  solutions  of  the  caustic  alkalis  with  a  fine  red  colour,  being 
reprecipitated  from  these  solutions  by  the  addition  of  mineral 
acid-  It  dissolves  in  concentrated  caustic  alkalis  to  a  colourless 
solution  which  probably  contains  salts  of  a  non-quinonoid  character. 
This  difference  in  behaviour  has  led  to  considerable  discussion 
(see  H.  Mey*r,  Monats.,  1899.  20,  p.  337rR.  Meyer,  Ber.,  1903, 

86.  p.  3949 :  A-  G'  Perkin  and  Green.  Jour,  C%em.  Sec.»  1904,  p.  398). 
\n  fusion  with  caustic  alkali,  phenolphthalein  yields  benzoic  acid 
and  para -dthydroxybenzophenone,  which  shows  that  in  the  original 
condensation  the  phthalic  acid  residue  has  taken  the  para  position 
to  the  bydroncyl  groups  of  the  phenoL 

Fluorane  is  a  product  of  the  condensation  of  tjie  phthalic  aciq 
ttstdue  in  the  ortho  position  to  the  hydroxyl  groups  of  the  phenol. 


365 

roxyl 


anhydride  formation  also  taking  place  between  these  In 
groups.  It  dissolves  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  with  a  i 
green  fluorescence.  The  rhodamines,  which  are  ck>sely  related  to 
the  phthaleiiM,  are  formed  by  the  condeimtkm  of  the  alkyl  meta* 
amlnopheaob  with  phthalic  anhydride  in  the  presence  ol  sulphuric 
acid.   Their  salts  are  fine  red  dyes. 

PHBNQllBliON  (Gr.  ^aoR^or,  a  thing  seen,  from  ^oiMotfat, 
to  appear),  in  ordinary  language  a  thing,  process,  event,  ftc^ 
observed  by  the  senses.  Thus  the  rising  of  the  sua,  a  thunder* 
storm,  an  earthquake  are  natnral  "  phenomena."  From  this 
springs  the  inconect  oeUoquial  sense,  something  out  of  the 
common,  an  event  whi^  especially  strikes  the  attention;  hence 
such  phrases  as  "  phenomenal "  activity.  In  Gredc  philoBophy 
phenomena  are  the  changing  <^*ecta  of  the  senses  as  opposed 
to  essences  (rA  Aira)  wUch  are  one  and  permanent,  and  art 
therefore  regarded  as  being  more  real,  the  objects  of  reason 
rather  than  of  senses  which  are  "  bad  witnesses."  In  modern 
philosophy  the  phenomenon  is  neither  the  "  thing-in-itself|" 
nor  the  noumenon  (9.V.)  or  object  of  pore  thought,  but  the  tiring* 
in^itsielf  as  it  appears  to  the  mind  in  sensation  (see  especially 
Kant;  and  Mstapkisics).  In  this  sense  the  subjective  chatacter 
is  of  prime  Importance.  Among  derivative  terms  are  "  Pheno- 
menalism" and  "Phenomenology."  Phenomenalism  is  either 
(i)  the  doctrine,  that  there  can  be  no  knowledge  except  by 
phenomena,  ix.  sense-given  data^  or  (2)  the  doctrine  that  aH 
known  thii^  are  pfaenomena,.f.e.  that  there  axe  no  **  things^- 
themsdires."  "  Phenomenology  "  is  the  science  of  phenomena: 
eveiy  special  science  has  a  special  section  in  which  its  particulat 
phenomena  are  described.  The  term  was  first  used  in  English 
in  the  3rd  edition  of  the  Ency.  Brit,  in  the  article  "  Philosophy  '* 
by  J.  Robison.  Kant  has  a  special  use  of  the  term  for  that 
part  of  the  Melapkysic  ej  Nature  which  considers  motion  and 
rest  as  predicates  of  a  judgment  about  things. 

PHER£CRATBS,  Greek  poet  of  the  Old  Attic  Comedy,  was  t 
contemporary  of  Cratinus,  Crates  and  Aristophanes.  At  first 
an  actor,  he  seems  to  have  gained  a  prize  for  a  play  in  438  B.C 
The  only  other  ascertained  date  in  his  life  is  420,  when  he  pro- 
duced hb  play  The  Wild  Men.  Like  Crates,  whom  he  imitated, 
he  abandoned  personal  satire  for  more  general  themes,  although 
in  some  of  the  fragments  of  his  plays  we  find  him  attacking 
Alcibiades  and  others.  He  was  especially  famed  for  his  inven- 
tive imagination,  and  the  elegance  and  purity  of  his  diction 
are  attested  by  the  epithet  drruKS^rarM  (most  Attic)  applied 
to  him  by  Athenaeus  and  the  sophist  Fhrynichus.  He  wag  the 
inventor  of  a  new  metre,  called  after  him  Pherecratcan,  which 
frequently  occurs  in  the  choruses  of  Greek  tragedies. and  in 
Horace. 

A  considerable  number  of  fragments  from  his  x6  (or  13)  pbys 
has  been  preserved,  collected  in  T.  Kock,  Camicorum  Atticarum 
Progmenla,  i.  (1880),  and  A.  Meineke,  Poetarum  Comicerum  Grae^ 
corum  Fraimenia  (1655). 

PHERECTDBS  OP  tEROS,  Greek  mythographer,  fi,  c.  454 
B.C.  He  is  probably  identical  with  Pherecydes  of  Athena, 
although  the  two  are  distinguished  by  Suldas  (also  by  I.  Lipsius, 
Quaestiones  logographkae,  x886).  Ke  seems  to  have  been  bom 
in  the  Uapd  of  Leros,  and  to  have  been  called  an  Athenian 
because  he  spent  the  greatct  part  of  hb  life  and  wrote  hb  great 
Work  there.  Of  his  treatbes,  On  Leros,  On  Ipkigeneia,  On  the 
Festivals  of  Dionysus,  nothing  remains;  but  numerous  fragments 
of  hb  genealogies  of  the  gods  and  heroes,  variously  called 
TffTopfat,  reyeaXoyfat,  A6roxA^>  in  ten  books,  written  in  the 
Ionic  dialect,  have  been  preserved  (see  C.  W.  Mailer's  Prag. 
hist,  graec,  vol.  1.  pp.  xzxiv.,  70).  He  modified  the  legends,  not 
with  a  view  to  rationalizing  them,  but  rather  to  adjust  them  to 
popular  beliefs.  He  cannot ,  therefore,  be  classed  with  HecatacuS, 
whose  method  was  far  more  scientific. 

See  C.  LQtke.  Pheruydea  (diss.  Gdttingen.  1893);  W.  Christ, 
Gesekickte  der  triechischen  Litteratur  (1808) ;  and  neaauy  H.  Bertsch, 
PkertkydeisekeSludiend^), 

.  PHERECTDES  OP  SYROS,  Greek  philosopher  (or  rather 
philosophical  thieologian), flourished  during  the  6th  century  B.C. 
He  was  sometimes  reckoned  one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  teacher  of  Pythagoras.    With  the  possible 


366 


PHIGALIA 


exception  of  Cadmus  (q.v.)  of  Miletus,  he  was  the  first  Greek 
prooe-writer.  He  beloi^ged  to  the  circle  of  Pelsistratus  at 
Athens,  and-  was  the  founder  of  an  Orphic  conununity.  He 
is  charaeteriEed  as  '*  one  of  the  earliest  representatives  of  a 
half-critical,  half -credulous  eclecticism  "  (Gomperz).  He  was 
credited  with  having  originated  the  doctrine  of  metemp^chosis 
{q.v.)f  wh^e  Cicero  and  Augustine  assert  that  he  was  the  first  to 
teach  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Of  his  astronomical  studies 
he  left  a  proof  in  the  "  heilotropion,'*  a  cave  at  Syroa  which 
served  to  determine  the  annual  tuming>point  of  the  sun,  like 
the  grotto  of  PosilUpo  (Posilipo,  Poailippo)  at  Naples,  and  was 
one  of  the  sights  of  the  island. 

In  Us  cosmogonic  treatise  on  nature  and  the  gods,  called 
Uotrifmxot  (PrdUer's  correction  of  Siildas,  who  has  ^^vxot) 
from  the  five  dementary  or  ori^nai  principles  (aether,  fire,  air, 
water,  earth;  G<mipetx  substitutes  smoke  azid  darknesa  for 
aether  and  earth),  he  enunciated  a  system  in  which  science, 
aUegory  and  mjrthology  were  blended.  In  the  beginning  were 
Chronos,  the  principle  of  time;  Zeus  (Zas),  the  principle  of 
life;  and  Chtbonie,  the  earth  goddess.  Chronos  hegal  fire,  air 
and  water,  and  from  these  three  sprang  numerous  other  gods. 
Smoke  and  darkness  appear  in  a  later  tradition.  A  fragment 
of  the  "  sacxed  marriage  "  of  Zas  and  Chthonie  was  found  on 
an  Egyptian  papyrus  at  the  end  of  the  XQth  century. 

See  H.  Diela^  PrafmaiU  der  Vorsohmiiker  (1903) ;  also  O.  Kern,  D« 
Orphei,  Epinumdis,  Pktreeydit  thwtMiis  (1888);  D.  Speliotopoulos, 
U«i>l  ^tpuMav  TtuZvpiov  (Athens.  1890);  T.  Gomperz.  Creek  Thinkers 
tEng.  trans.),  i.  85;  B.  P.  Grenfell,  Ifew  Oassical  Fragments  (1897); 
H.  W0I,  £tudes  sw  raniiquiU  grecque  (1900). 

PHIGALIA,  or  Pbxcaleu  (4>i7&Xm  or  ^i7a><2a;  mod.  Pavlitsa), 
an  ancient  Greek  city  in  the  south-west  angle  of  Arcadia,  situaleid 
on  an  elevated  rocky  site,  among  some  of  the  highest  mountains 
in  the  Peloponnesus — the  most  conspicuous  being  Mt  Cotylium 
and  Mt  Elasum;  the  identification  of  the  latter  is  uncertain. 

In  659  B.C.  Phigalia  was  taken  by  the  Lacedaemonians, 
but  soon  after  recovered  its  independence  by  the  help  of , the 
Orasthasians.  During  the  struggle  between  Achaeans  and 
Aetolians  in  asx  B.C.  it  was  held  by  Dorimachus,  who  left  it 
on  the  approach  of  Philip  V.  of  Macedon.  In  common  with 
the  otha  cities  of  Arcadia,  it  appears  from  Strabo  to  have 
fallen  into  utter  decay  imder  the  Roman  rule.  Several  curious 
cults  were  preserved  near  Phigalia,  including  that  of  the  fish- 
tailed  goddess  Eurynome  and  the  Black  Demeter  with  a  horse's 
head,  whose  image  was  renewed  by  Onatas.  Notices  of  it  in 
Greek  history  are  raje  and  scanty.  Though  its  existing  ruins 
and  the  description  of  Pausanias  show  it  to  have  been  a  place 
of  considerable  strength  and  importance,  no  autonomous  coins 
of  Phigalia  are  known.  Nothing  remains  above  ground  of  the 
temples  of  Artemis  or  Dionysus  aod  the  numexx>us  statues  and 
other  works  of  art  which  existed  at  the  time  of  Pausanias's 
visit,  about  KJk  170.  A  great  part  of  the  dty  wall,  built  in  fine 
Hellenic  masonry,  partly  polygonal  and  partly  isodomous,  and 
a  large  square  central  fortress  with  a  circular  projecting  tower, 
arc  the  only  remains  now  traceable — ^at  least  without  the  aid 
of  excavation.  The  walls,  once  nearly  2  m.  in  circuit,  are  strongly 
placed  on  rocks,  which  slope  down  to  the  little  river  Neda. 

One  very  imporUnt  monument  still  exists  in  a  fairly  perfect 
state;  this  is  a  temple  dedicated  to  Apollo  Epicurius  (the  Pre- 
server), built,  not  at  Phigalia  itsdf,  but  at  Bassae,  5  or  6  m. 
away,  on  the  slope  of  Mt  Cotylium;  it  commemorates  the  aid 
rendered  by  ApoUo  in  stopping  a  plague  which  in  the  5th  century 
B.C.  was  devastating  Phigalia.  This  temple  is  mentioned  by 
Pausanias  (viii.  41)  ^  being  (next  to  that  of  Tegea)  the  finest 
in  the  Pd<H>onnesus,  "from  the  beauty  of  its  stone  and  the 
symmetry  of  its  proportions."  It  was  designed  by  Ictinus,  who, 
with  Callicrates,  was  joint  architect  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens. 
Though  visited  by  Qiandltf,  Dodwell,  Gell,  and  other  English 
travellers,  the  temple  was  neither  explored  nor  measured  till 
x8iiTi8z2,  when  C.  R.  Cockerell  and  some  other  archaeologists 
spent  several  months  in  making  excavations  there.  After 
nearly  fifty  years'  delay.  Professor  Cockerell  published  the 
results  of  these  labours,  as  well  as  of  his  previous  work  at  Aegina, 
In  TtmpUt  of  Aegina  and  Bassae  (x86o),  one  of  the  most  careful 


and  beautifully  illustrated  archaeological  works  produced.  Th« 
labours  of  Cockerell  and  his  companions  were  richly  rewarded; 
not  only  were  sufficient  remains  of  the  architectural  features 
discovered  to  show  cleariy  the  whde  design,  but  the  internal 
sculptured  frieae  of  the  ceUa  was  found  almost  perfect.  This 
and  other  fragments  of  its  sculpture  are  now  hi  the  British 
Museum.    The  colonnade  of  the  temple  has  been  recently 

restored  by  the  Greek  authorities. 

The  figure  shows  the  plan  ol  the  temple,  which  t»  of  the  Doric  order, 
but  has  an  internal  airangeroent  of  its  cella  unlike  that  of  any  other 
known  temple.  It  stands  on  an 
elevated  ana  partly  anificial  plateau, 
which  commands  an  extensive  view 
of  the  oak-dad  mountains  of 
Arcadia,  Teaching  away  to  the  blue 
waters  of  the  Messeniao  Gulf. 
Unlike  other  Doric  temples,  which 
usually  stand  east  and  west,'  this  is 
placed  north  and  couth;  but  it  has 
a  side  entrance  on  the  east.  Itu 
hexastyle,  with  fifteen  columns  on 
its  flanks;  thirty-four  out  of  the 
thirty-eight  columns  of  the  peristyle 
are  still  standing,  with  the  greater 
part  of  their  aichitrave,  but  the  mt 
of  the  entablature  and  both  pedi- 
ments have  fallen,  together  with  the 
greater  part  of  the  internal  columns 
of  the  cclla.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  plan  that  these  are  very 
strangely  placed,  apparently  without 
symmetry,  as  regards  the  interior, 
though  they  are  act  regularly  op- 
posite the  voids  in  the  peristyle. 

With  the  exception  of  one  at  the 
south  end.  which  is  Corinthian,  the 
internal  columns  are  of  the  Ionic 
order,  and  are  engaged  with  the  cella- 
wall,  forming  a  series  01  recesses, 
which  may  have  been  designed  to 
contain  statues.  Another  peculi- 
arity of  tbu  interior  is  that  these 
columns  reach  to  the  top  of  the 
cella  in  one  order,  not  In  two  ranges 
of  columns,  one  over  the  other,  as 
was  the  usual  Doric  fashion.  These 
inner  columns  carried  an  Ionic 
entablature,  of  which  the  frieze  now 
in  the  British  Museum  formed  a 
part.  The  pediments  and  external  metopes  of  the  perist^  apP^ar 
to  have  contained  no  sculpture,  but  the  metopes  witnin  thepensa)-ie 
on  the  exterior  of  the  cella  had  sculptured  suhiecu;  only  a  lew  [ksc 
meats  of  these  were,  however,  discovered.  Thepoutionoccupod  bv 
the  great  statue  of  Apollo  is  a  difficult  problem.  Cockerell,  with  tnucn 
probabtlitv.  places  it  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  cclh.  facine  the 
eastern  side  door,  10  that  it  would  be  lighted  up  by  the  rays  of  dw 
riuag  sun.  The  main  entrance  is  at  the  northeni  end  through  the 
pronaosi  once  defended  by  a  door  in  the  end  of  the  cella  and  a  metal 
screen,  of  which  traces  were  found  on  the  two  columns  of  the  pronaos. 
There  was  no  door  between  the  posticum  and  the  cella.  The  general 
proportions  of  the  fnonts  resemble  those  of  the  Theseum  at  Athcos, 
except  that  the  entablature  is  less  massive,  the  columns  thidoer. 
and  the  diminution  less— all  proportionally  speaking.  In  plan  the 
temple  is  long  in  proportion  to  Its  width-^measuring.  on  toe  top  of 
the  stylobace.  125  ft.  '7  in.  by  48  ft.  2  in.,  while  the  Theseum  (beak 
probably  half  a  century  earlier)  is  about  101  ft.  2  in.  by  45  ft.  2  in. 

The  material  of  which  the  temple  Is  built  is  a  fine  grey  Usseatooe 
(once  covered  with  painted  atiKco),  except  the  roof-til^,  the  capitals 
of  the  oclla  columns,  the  architraves,  the  iacmnaria  (ceilings)  m  tbe 
posticum  and  pronaos,  and  the  scul|iture,  all  of  which  are  of  white 
marble.  The  roof-tiles,  specially  noticed  by  Pausanias,  arc  remarfc- 
able  for  their  siae.  workmanship,  and  the  beauty  of  the  Parian  maxUe 
of  which  they  are  nuide.  They  measure  3  ft.  i  in.  by  3  ft.  6  in.,  and 
are  fitted  toecthcr  in  the  most  careful  and  In^nious  manner.  Unlike 
those  of  the  Parthenon  and  the  temple  of  Aegina,  the  ifittri  or  **  joint- 
liles  "  are  worked  out  of  the  same  piece  01  marble  as  the  flat  oae% 
for  the  sake  of  more  perfect  fitting  and  greater  security  against  %et. 

Traces  of  painting  on  various  architectural  members  u-ere  found 
by  CockerelK  but  they  were  too  much  faded  for  the  colours  to  bo 
distineuished.  The  oerigns  are  the  usual  Gitek  patterns — the 
fret,  tne  honeysuckle,  and  the  egs^  and  dart. 

The  sculpture  is  of  the  greatest  interest,  as  being  de^niedto  deco- 
rate one  of  the  finest  buildings  iri  the  Peloponnesus  in  tne  lancr  halt 
of  the  5th  century  B.C.;  see  BrU.  Mus.  Catalopte  e/ Scntphtre,  ^vkA.  % 

The  frieae,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  Is  complete;  it  is  ncarty 
101  ft.  long  by  9  ft.  high,  carved  in  relief  on  twenty-three  sl^bs  of 
marble  4)  to  5  in.  thick.  The  subjects  are  the  battle  of  the  Lapitha^ 
and  the  Centaurs,  and  that  between  the  Airuuonsand  the  Greeb.  the 


Plan  of  the  Temple  at 

PasBi^. 


FHILADBLPHIA 


367 


two  ftvovrite  tubjects  tn  Greek  obtdc  art  of  the  be«t  period.  They 
ate  dedgncd  whn  wonderful  fertility  of  invention,  and  life-like 
rodism  and  spirit ;  the  compoeitfen  is  arrangpd  ao  as  to  form  a  aeiiea 
of  diagonal  bnet  or  agsags  41.  thus  forming  a  pleasing  oootraat 
to  the  unbroken  liorixontal  lines  of  the  cornice  and  architrave. 
The  various  groups  are  skUfuIlv  united  together  by  some  dominant 
line  or  action,  so  that  the  whole  subject  forms  one  unbroken  com- 
position. 

The  relief  is  very  high,  move  thao  3i  in.  in  the  most  salinitt  oirta, 

and  the  whole  treatment  is  quite  <>ppostte  to  that  of  the  Butnenoii 

friese.  which  is  a  very  superior  work  of  art  to  that  at  Bassae.   Many 

of  the  Gmbs  are  quite  detached  from  the  ground:  the  drill  has  been 

Iwgtlfy  used  to  cmphaase  certain  shadows,  and  hi  many  olaces, 

for  want  of  dne  calcuhition,  the  sculptor  has  had  to  cut  into  the  flat 

background  behind  the  ^ures.    From  this  it  wouM  appear  that  no 

finished  day-model  was  prcpared^ut  that  the  relief  was  sculptured 

with  only  the  help  of  a  drawing.   The  point  of  sight,  more  than  20  ft. 

below  tme  bottom  of  the  frien,  and  the  direction  in  which  the  Bgkt 

fell  on  it  have  evidently  been  caitfuUjir  considered.    Many  parts* 

iavi&ible  from  below,  are  left  comparatively  rough.   The  workman^ 

ship  throughout  is  unequal,  and  the  hands  of  several  sculptors  can 

be  detected.   On  the  whole,  the  execution  is  not  equal  to  the  beauty 

of  the  design,  and  the  whole  frieae  is  somewhat  marred  by  an  evident 

desire  to  produce  the  maximum  of  e£Fect  with  the  least  possible 

amount  01  labour — vay  different  from  the  almost  gem-Uke  finish 

of  the  Parthenon  frieze.     Even  the  design  is  inferior  to  thp 

Athenian  one;  most  of  the  figures  arc  ungracefully  short  !n  their 

proportions,  and  there  is  a  great  want  of  refined  beauty  in  many  of 

the  fcmak  hands  and  faces.    It  is  in  the  fire  of  its  varied  action  and 

its  subtlety  of  expression  that  this  sculpture  most  excels.    The 

noble  movements  of  the  heroic  Creeks  form  a  striking  contrast  to 

the  feminiae  weakness  of  the  wounded  Amaaons,  or  the  struggles 

with  teeth  and  hoofs  of  the  brutish  Centaurs;  the  group  of  ApoUo 

agd  Anemia  in  their  chariot  is  full  of  grace  and  dignified  power. 

The  marble  in  which  this  frieae  is  sculptured  is  somewhat  coarse  and 

crystalline:  the  slaba  appear  not  to  have  been  built  into  their  place 

but  fixed  afterwards,  with  the  aid  of  two  brooxe  bolts  driven  through 

the  face  of  each. 

Of  the  metopes,  which  were  2  ft.  8  in.  square,  only  one  exists 
neariy  complete,  with  eleven  fragments;  the  one  almost  perfect 
has  a  relief  of  a  nude  warrior,  with  floating  draoery ,  overcoming  a 
long-haired  bearded  man.  who  sinks  vanouisheq  at  his  feet.  The 
relief  of  these  is  rather  less  than  that  of  tne  frieze  figures,  and  the 
work  is  nobler  in  character  and  superior  in  execution. 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  in  the  text,  see  Leake,  Morea 
n.  490  arul  il  319;  Curtius,  PdoPonntsos,  I  AI9;  Ross,  Reisen  in 
Pdoponnesos;  Suckelberg,  Der  ApoUa-Tempd  c«  Btusat  (x8a6); 
Leoormant.  Bas-rdiefs  du  Parthenon  tt  de  Pkitalie  (1834);  aiid 
Histories  ot  Sculpture  meotiooed  under  Grbbk  Art. 

a.H.M.;E.CR.) 
PHILADBLPHIA,  the  Greek  name  (1)  of  a  dty  in  Palesliae 
in  the  land  of  Ammon  (see  AiofoiOTSs),  and  (2)  of  m  city  Bo^alled 
io  honour  of  Aitalus  II.  of  Pergamum,  the  modem  Ala-Shchr 
iq,v,). 

PHILADELPHIA,  the  thixtl  dty  in  population  in  Uw  United 

States,  the  chief  dty  of  Pennsylvania,  and  a  port  of  entry, 

co-extensive  with  Philadelphia  county,  extending  W.  from  the 

OeUwore   river  beyond  the  Schuylkill  River,  and  from  below 

the  cxmfluence  of  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  rivers  N.E. 

about  93  m.  i^ng  the  Delaware  river  and  Poqnesaing  Creek. 

Independence  Hall,  which  is  a  few  squares  east  by  south  of  the 

dty  ban.  is  in  39'  56'  $7-$'  N.  and  75*  8'  5475*  W.    The  port  is 

about  102  m.  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  city  hall  is  90  m. 

by  rail  S.S.W.  of  New  York  and  135  m.  N.E.  of  Washington. 

The  dty  has  an  area  of  132*7  sq.  m.    At  the  aouthcm  extremity 

are  lowJands  protected  by  dikes  from  the  tide;  the  business  centre 

between  the  rivers  is.  about  40  ft.  higher  but  levd;  the  district 

west  of  the  Schuylkill  is  generally  roiling;  and  in  the  upper 

district  the  surface  rises  from  the  Delaware  toward  the  north* 

west  until  in  the  extreme  north-west  is  a  picturesque  district 

overlooking  Wissahickon  Creek  from  hiUs  exceeding  400  ft.  in 

height. 

Poptdation.—'^fihitti  the  first  United  States  census  was  taken, 
in  1790,  Philadelphia  was  the  second  largest  dty  in  the  Union^ 
and  had  a  popubition  of  28,522.  It  hdd  this  tank  until  1S30. 
when  it  was  exceeded  in  rise  by  Baltftnore  as  well  as  by  New 
York.  In  1850  it  was  smaller  also  than  Boston;  but  in  1854 
the  Consolidation  Act  extended  its  boundaries  so  as  to  indude 
all  Philadelphia  county  and  in  i860  the  dty  had  risen  again 
to  second  rank.  This  rank  it  held  tmtit  1890  when,  althou^ 
iu  population  had  grown  to  1,046,964,  it  was  50,000  less  than 
that  of  Chicago.    In  1900,  with  a  population  of  i»a93/679.  it 


was  still  factbcr  behind  both  New  Yoik  and  CUcago.  In  1900^ 
of  the  total  population,  998^57*  or  77'id%.  were  native-born, 
as  against  only  63%  native-bora  in  New  York  and  65*43% 
native-bom  in  Chicago.  Of  Philaddphia's  native-bom  white 
population,  however,  4i4»o93f  or  44*34^  were  of  lorctgn- 
bom  parentage.  The  foreign^boro  population  induded  98,427 
bom  in  Ireland,  7X»3X9  bom  in  Germany,  36,75a  hom  in 
£°Sl&ndf  sS,95i  bom  in  Russia  (largely  Hebrews),  17,830  bon 
in  Italy.  6479  bom  in  Scotland  and  5154  bom  in  Austria;  and 
the  coloured  consisted  of  62,613  negroes^  X165  Chinese,  234 
Indians  and  xa  Japanese.    In  xqxo  the  population  was  1,549,008. 

Stre^, — ^With  the  exception  of  a  iixnited  ntunber  of  diagonal 
thoroughfares  and  of  streeU  laid  out  in  outlying  districu  in 
conformity  with  the  natural  contour  of  the  ground  the  plan  of 
the  dty  is  regular.  Market  Street— -which  Penn  called  High 
Street— is  the  principal  thoroughfare  east  and  west.  Broad  Street 
the  principal  thoroughfare  north  and  south,  and  these  streets  in* 
teraect  at  right  angles  at  City  Hall  Square  in  the  business  centre. 
The  streets  paralld  with  Broad  are  numbered  from  First  or  Front 
Street  west  from  the  DeUware  River  to  Sixty-Third  Street 
taking  the  prefix  "  North  "  north  of  Market  Street  and  the  prefix 
"  South  *'  south  of  it;  the  streets  paralld  with  Market  are  named 
mostly  from  trees  and  from  the  governors  and  coimtics  of 
Pennsylvania. 

The  wholesale  district  is  centred  at  the  east  end  of  Market  Street 
near  the  Delaware  river.  The  best  retail  shops  are  farther  west 
on  the  south  side  of  Chestnut  Street  and  on  Market  and  Arch 
streets.  Most  of  the  leading  banks  and  trust  companies  are  on 
ChestnutStreetand  on  Third  Street  between  Chestnutand  Walnut 
streets.  Several  of  the  larger  office  buildings  and  the  stations  of 
the  Fttmsyi vania  and  the  Philaddphia  &,  Reading  railways  are  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  dty  hall;  here  too,  are  the  Bakiwin  Locomo- 
tive Works.  The  large  textile  mills,  the  great  coal  wharves 
and  the  Cramp  Ship- Yards  are  to  tl»  north-east  aloi^  the 
Delaware,  and  in  districts  west  of  these  are  the  leading  man»> 
factories  of  iron  and  steel.  There  are  large  sugar  refineries  in 
the  south-eastern  part  of  the  city.  Rittenhoxise  Square,  a  short 
distance  south-west  of  the  dty  hall,  is  the  centre  of  the  old 
aristocratic  residential  distria,  and  the  south  side  of  Walnut 
Street  between  Fourteenth  and  Nineteenth  streets  is  a  fashion* 
able  parade.  There  are  fine  reridences  on  North  Broad  Street 
and  on  some  of  the  streets  crossing  it,  and  many  beautiful  villas 
in  Che  picturesque  suburbs  of  the  north-west.  The  most  con- 
gested  tenements,  occupied  largdy  by  Italians,  Hebrews  and 
negroes,  are  along  .the  alleys  between  the  rivers  and  south  of 
Market  Street,  often  in  the  rear  of  some  of  the  best  of  the  older 
residences. 

The  prinppol  structure  is  the  dty  hall  (or  '*  Public  Buildings  ") 
one  of  the  largest  buildings  in  the  woild  in  ground  q>ace  (4) 
acres).  It  rises  54ft  ft,  to  the  top  of  a  colossal  bronze  statue 
C37  ft.  high)  of  William  Pexux  (by  Alexander  Calder)  surjnounting 
the  tower.  It  accommodates  the  state  and  county  courts  as 
well  as  the  municipal  and-county  offices.  The  foundation  stone 
was  laid  in  August  X872.  On  its  first  floor  is  Joseph  A.  Bailly't 
st^ue  of  Washington,  which  was  erected  in  front  of  Indepen- 
dence Hall  in  1869.  About  the  Public  Buildings  are  statues 
of  Generals  McClellan  and  Reynolds,  President  McKinley,  and 
Joseph  Lddy  and  St  Gaudens's  "  Pilgrim."  On  all  sides  are 
great  buildingi:  on  the  north  the  masonic  temple  (x868>x873); 
on  the  south  the  statdy  Beta  Building;  6n  the  west  the  enormous 
Broad  Street  station  of  the  Pennsylvania  railway.  The  Penn- 
^Ivania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  the  Oddfellows'  Temple 
are  among  other  notable  buildings  in  the  vicinity.  The  post 
office,  facing  Ninth  Street  and  extending  from  Market  Street 
to  Chestnut  Street,  was  opened  in  1884;  in  front  is  a  seated 
statue  of  Benjamin  FrenkUn,  by  John  J.  Boyle.  The  mint  is 
at  the  comer  of  Sixteenth  and  Spring  Garden  streets.  The 
custom-hoiise.  on  Chestnut  Street,  was  designed  by  William 
Strickland  (x787-x854),in  his  day  the  leading  American  architect. 
It  was  modeled  after  the  Parthenon  of  Athens,  was  built  for 
the  Second  United  States  Bank,  was  completed  in  X824,  and  was 
pot  to  iu  present  use  in  184^    Other  prominent  bulidiogi  of 


3^8 


PHILADELPHIA 


wiudi  Stridcknd  ^ras  the  arclittcct  are  the  stock  exchange, 
St  Paul's  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  St  Stephen's  Church,  the 
almshouse  and  the  United  States  Naval  Asylum.  The  mahi 
building  of  Girard  College  (on  Girard  Avenue,  between  North 
19th  and  North  asth  streeu),  of  which  Thomas  Ustick  Walter 
(1804- 1887),  a  pupil  of  Strickland's,  was  the  architect,  b  one  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  pure  Greek  architecture  in  America.  Near 
the  Schuylkill  river,  m  West  Philadelphia,  axe  the  buildings  ot 
the  university  of  Pennsylvania.  Its  free  museum  of  sdence  and 
art,  at  South  23rd  and  Spruce,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
was  buQt  from  the  designs  of  Waller  C6pe,  Frank  Miles  Day 
and  Wilson  Eyre,  and  its  north-western  part  was  first  opened 
in  1899.  Tall  sted-frame  structures,  of  which  the  Betx  Building, 
completed  in  1893,  was  the  first,  have  become  numerous.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul,  east  of 
Logan  Square,  was  begun  in  1846  and  was  eighteen  years  in 
building.  The  Arch  Street  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is 
otie  of  the  most  handsome  churches  in  the  city.  The  South 
Memorial  Church  of  the  Advocate  (1897),  on  North  i8th  and 
Diamond  streets,  is  a  reproduction  on  a  smaller  scale  of  Amiens 
Cathedral 

Perhaps  the  most  famous  historical  monument  !n  the  United 
States  is  Independence  Hall,  on  Chestnut  Street  between  Fifth 
and  Sixth  streets,  designed  for  the  state  house  by  Andrew 
lUmilton  {c.  1676-1741),  speaker  of  the  assembly,  and  was  used 
for  that  purpose  until  1799.  The  foundations  were  laid  in  1731 
and  the  main  btiilding  was  ready  for  occupancy  in  1 735,  although 
the  entire  building  was  not  completed  untH  17  51.  The  steeple 
was  taken  down  in  1774  but  was  restored  by  Strickland  in  1828, 
and  further  restorations  of  the  building  to  its  original  condition 
were  effected  later.  In  the  east  room  on  the  first  floor  of  this 
buHding  the  second  Continental  Congress  met  on  the  loth  of 
May  1775,  George  Washington  was  chosen  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Continental  army  on  the  xsth  of  June  1775,  and  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted  on  the  4th  of  July 
1776.  The  room  contains  much  of  the  furniture  of  those  days, 
and  on  its  waUs  are  portraits  of  forty>five  of  the  fifty-six  «gners 
of  the  Declaration  and  a  portrait  of  Washington  by  Pcale.  At 
the  head  of  the  stairway  is  the  famous  Liberty  bell,  which  bears 
the  inscription,  "  Proclaim  liberty  through  all  the  land  unto  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof"  and  is' supposed  (without  adequate 
evidence)  to  have  been  the  first  bell  to  announce  the  adoption 
of  the  Dedaratlon  of  Independence;  It  was  cast  in  England 
in  1752,  was  cracked  soon  ajfter  it  was  brought  to  America,  was 
recast  with  more  copper  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  ciiacked  again 
in  1835  while  being  tolled  in  memory  of  Chief  Justice  John 
Marshall,  and  on  the  22nd  of  February  1843  this  crack  was  so 
bcreased  as  nearly  to  destroy  its  sound.  On  the  second  floor 
b  the  original  of  the  charter  which  William  Penn  granted  to 
the  city  in  1701  and  the  painting  of  Penn's  treaty  with  the 
Indians  by  Benjamin  West.  The  building  has  been  set  apart 
by  the  dty,  wMch  purchased  it  from  the  state  in,  x8i6,  as  a 
museum  of  historicad  relics.  On  the  north-west  comer  of 
Independence  Square  is  old  Congress  hall,  in  which  Congress 
sat  from  1790  to  1800,  and  in  which  Washington  was  inaugurated 
In  X793  and  Adams  in  1797.  At  the  north-east  comer  is  the 
old  city-hall,  on  the  second  floor  of  which  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  sat  from  1791  to  1900.  A  short  distance 
east  of  Independence  Square  in  Carpenters'  Hall,  in  which  the 
fint  continental  congress  assembled  on  the  5th  of  September 
1774  and  in  which  the  national  convention  in  1787  framed 
the  present  constitution  of  the  United  States;  the  building  was 
also  the  headquarters  of  the  Pennsylvania  committee  of  corre- 
spondence, the  basement  was  used  as  a  magazine  for  ammunition 
during  the  War  of  Independence,  and  from  1791  to  1797  the 
whole  of  it  was  occupied  by  the  First  United  States  Bank.  The 
Carpenters'  Company  (established  in  1794)  erected  the  buiUing 
In  1770,  and  since  1857  has  preserved  it  wholly  for  its  historic 
•ssodatiotts.  On  Ardi  Street  near  the  Delaware  is  preserved 
as  a  national  monument  the  house  in  which  Betsy  Ross,  in  1777, 
made  what  has  been  called  the  first  United  Sutes  flag,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  resolution  of  Congnti  of  the  X4tb  of  June.    Not 


far  from  this  hodse  is  Christ  Church  (Protestant  Episcopal), 
a  fine  oobnial  edifice  designed  mainly  by  Dr  John  Keaxsley 
(1684-1772).  The  comer  stone  was  laid  in  1727,  but  the  steeple, 
in  part  designed  by  Benjamin  Franklin  and  containing  a  famous 
chime  of  eight  bells,  was  not  completed  until  1754.  The 
interior  was  restored  to  its  ancient  character  in  1882,  the  pews 
of  Washington  and  Franklin  are  preserved,  and  a  set  of  com- 
munion plate  presented  to  the  church  by  Queen  Anne  in  1708 
is  used  on  great  occasions.  In  the  churchyard  are  the  graves 
of  Benjamin  Franklin*  Robert  Morris,  Brigadier-General  John 
Forbes,  John  Penn,  Peyton  Randolph,  Francis  Hopkimon  and 
Benjamin  Rush.  St  Peter's,  the  second  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  dty,  has  a  massive  tower  and  a  simple  spire; 
within  are  the  original  pews.  In  the  south-east  part  6L  the  dty 
near  the  Delaware  is  the  rvy-dad  Old  Swedes'  Church,  built  of 
brick  in  1698-1700.  The  house  which  William  Penn  built 
about  1683  for  his  daughter  Lctitia  was  removed  to  Faiimount 
Park  and  rebuilt  in  1883.  In  Germantown  (9.V.),  a  suburb 
which  was  annexed  in  1854,  are  several  other  historic  buildings. 
The  dominant  feature  of  the  domestic  architecture  is  the  long 
rows,  in  street  after  street,  of  plain  two-storey  or  three-storey 
dwellings  of  red  ("  Philadelphia ")  pressed  brick  with  white 
marble  steps  and  trimodngi,  and  with  white  or  green  diutters* 
each  intended  for  one  family. 

ParJb.— -Falrmount  Park  extends  along  both  banks  of  the  Schnyt- 
Idll  for  about  s  m.  and  from  the  confluence  of  the  SchuvlldU  and 
Wlssahickon  Creek  it  continues  up  the  latter  stream  throagh  a 
romantic  glen  for  6  m.    Its  area  is  about  3418  acres.    Five  acre* 
of  an  estate  belonging  to  Robert  Morris  during;  the  War  of  Indepen- 
dence and  known  as  ^  Fair  Mount,"  or  "  The  Hills,**  were  purchased 
by  the  municipality  for  "  a  dty  waterworks  and  for  park  pnrpoaes  " 
in  1812,  and  from  this beginningthe  park  fx^rw  to  its  present  dimen- 
sions by  purchases  and  gifts.    The  principal  buildings  in  liie  park 
are:  the  Mcl^crson  mansion,  once  tne  property  of  Benedict  Axndd 
and  in  October  1780  confiscated  by  tne  committee  of  safety;  the 
Peters  (or  Belmont)  Mansion,  built  in  1745  and  much  frequented 
by  the  notables  of  the  Revolutionary  and  cariy  national  period; 
the  birth-place  of  David  Rittenhouse,  the  astronomer,  and  a  mona»-. 
tery  of  the  German  pietists,  both  on  the  banks  of  Wisaahickon; 
ana  memorial  hall  and  horticultural  hall,  both  survivals  of  the 
centennial  exhibition  of  1876.    On  Lemon  Hill,  near  the  sovth  end 
of  the  park,  stands  the  Robert  Morris  mansion;  in  thevidnity  is  the 
cabin  which  was  General  U.  S.  Grant's  headquarters  at  City  Point. 
Virginia,. during  the  winter  of  1864-1865.     Near  the   Othimhia 
Avenue  entrance  to  the  park  and  near  the  East  Park  Reaervoir  are 
the  children's  playhouse  and  playKtound,  endowed  by  the  will 
of  Mrs  Sarah  A.  Smith  (d.  i8q^).    At  the  Green  Street  entrance  b 
an  imposing  monument  to  Wasnmgton,  designed  by  Rudolph  Sienwr* 
ing  and  erected  by  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  m  i896->t897.  with 
a  bronze  eauestrian  statue.    The  Smith  Memorial  entrance,  white 
granite  witii  bronae  statues,  was  erected  in  memory  of  the  ofiicen 
of  the  Civil  War.   The  park  also  contains  ^  a  monument  to  Linoola 
by  Randolph  Rogere;  an  equestrian  statue  of  Grant  by  Daniel 
Chester  French  and  Edward  C.  Pooer ;  an  equestrian  statue  of  Major- 
General  James  Gordon  Meade  by  Alexander  Milne  CaUer;  aa 
equestrian  statue  ofjoan  o(  Are  by  Emmanuel  Fremiet;  an  heroic 
bust  of  James  A.  'Garfield  by  Augustus  St  Gaudens;  statues  of 
Columbus,  Humboldt,  Schiller  and  Goethe;  a  Tarn  O'  Shanter  groim 
of  four  figures  in  red  sandstone  by  James  Thorn;  John  J.  Boyle  a 
"  Stone  Age  in  America  "•;  Cyrus  Edwin  Dallin's  "  Medkine  Maa  '* ; 
Wilhdra  WoMTs  "Wounded  Lioness"   (at  the  entranoe  to  the 


In  the  down-town  district.  Franklin,  Washington,  Rittenbouse 
and  Logan  squares,  equidistant  from  the  dty-hall,  Ittve  beea 
reserved  for  public  parks  from  the  founding  of  the  dty;  in  Rittes- 
house  Square  is  the  brenae  "  Lion  and  Serpent "  of  A.  L.  Barye. 
In  Clarence  H.  Clark  Park.  West  Philadelphia,  is  Frank  Edwia 
Elwell's  group  "  Dickens  and  Little  Nell."  In.  Broad  and  Spring 
Garden  streets  oppodte  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  is  Herbert 
Adams's  statue  of  Matthias  William  Baldwin  (i795~>^^)>  founder 
of  the  works.  Close  to  the  bank  of  the  Delaware,  aome  distance 
N.N.E.  of  the  dty-hall,  is  the  small  Penn  Treaty  Park  with  a 
monument  to  mark  the  site  of  the  great  elm  tree  under  -which 
Penn,  according  to  tradition,  negotiated  his  treaty  with  the 
Indians  in  1683.  In  the  south>west  part  of  the  dty.  alonf^  the 
Schuylkill,  is  Bartrem's  botanical  garden  (17  acres),  which  the  city 


*  Many  of  the  statues  and  other  works  of  art  in  Faxntnoont  aad 
other  parks  are  the  gift  of  the*FairaK)unt  Park  Aft  *— ^— ^— 
(1871;  rsoqpuaiaed  in  1888  and  i9o6)> 


PHILADELPHIA 


369 


added  to  tu  pork  •yttem  in  1891 ;  ia  it  ia  the  alone  houte,  with  ivy- 
covened  walls,  which  the  famous  botanist  built  with  his  own  hands. 
Through  the  efforts  of  the  City  Park  Association,  organixed  in 
1888,  a  number  of  outlying  parks,  connecting  parkways  and  small 
triangular  or  circular  paria,  have  been  placed  on  the  city  plan. 
AmoiqE  these  axe  League  I»land  Park  (300  acres),  opposite  the  United 
States  navy  yard  on  League  Island;  Penny  l^k  Creek  Park 
(about  1200  acres),  extending  6i  ro.  along  Penny  Pack  Creek,  in  the 
north-east;  Cobb's  Creek  Park,  extending  about  4  m.  along  the  west- 
cm  border :  Fairmount  Parkway,  300  ft.  wide  on  a  dia-ct  line  south- 
east from  r  airmount  Park  to  Logan  Souare  and  somewhat  narrowvr 
from  Logan  Square  to  the  city-hall ;  and  Tom»dale  Parkway  (joo  ft. 
wkle  and  10)  in.  loiu),  from  Hunting  Park,  ^|  m.  north  of  the  city- 
hall,  along  a  direct  line  north-cast  to  the  city  limits.  A  plaza  at 
the  intersection  of  Broad  and  Johnson  streets,  radiating  streets 
therefrom,  and  the  widening  of  Broad  Street  to  500  ft.  Uom  this 

Elaza  to  League  Island  Park  are  also  on  the  city  plan.  Laurel 
[ill  cemetery,  on  a  high  bank  of  the  Schuylkill  and  contiguous  to 
Fairmount  P^k,  is  the  city's jirincipal  burytng  ground;  in  it  arc  the 
tombs  of  Dr  Elisha  Kent  Kane,  tnc  Arctic  explorer,  and  Major- 
General  Meade. 

Theatres, — ^The  6rst  Shakespearean  performance  in  the  United 
States  was  j>robably  at  Philadelphia  m  1749;  another  company 
played  there  in  1754  and  t7JS9:  and  in  1766  was  built  the  Old  South- 
wark  theatre,  in  which  Major  John  Anar6  and  Captain  John  Peter 
De  Lanccy  acted  during  the  British  occupation  of  the  city,  and  which 
after  twenty  years  of  illegal  exi!>tcncc  was  opened  "  by  authority  " 
in  1789.  lite  Walnut  Street  theatre  (1808)  is  said  to  be  the  oldest 
play-house  in  the  United  States.  Other  theatres  arc  the  Garrick, 
the  Urge  Academy  of  Music,  the  Chestnut  Street  opera  house,  the 
Lyric,  the  Adelpht,  the  Park  and  the  German. 

Clvbs. — Among  social  clubs  are  the  Union  League,  the  Untvcr^ty 
(1881),  the  Philadelphia,  the  City,  the  Markham,  the  Manufacturers 
(1887),  the  Rittcnhouse,  the  Lawyers,  the  Clover,  the  Pen  and  Pencil, 
the  Axt,  the  Mercantile,  several  country  clubs  and  athletic  clubs 
(notably  the  Racket),  and  the  foremost  cricket  clubs  in  the  United 
Sutes,  the  Belmont,  the  Philadelphia,  the  Keystone,  the  Mcrion 
(at  Haverford),  and  the  Gcrmantown  (at  Manhcim).. 

Musenms,  Learnt  Societies  and  Libraries. — In  the  southern  part 
of  Fairmount  Park  is  a  zoological  garden  with  an  excellent  collection. 
Its  site  is  the  former  estate  01  John  Penn,  grandson  of  Willkim  Pcnn. 
The  collection  b  an  outgrowth  of  the  museum,  the  first  in  the  United 
States,  opened  by  Charles  Willson  Peale  in  Independence  Hall  in 
x8o3.  It  is  now  owned  by  the  Zoological  Society  (ii^t^orpoFatcd  in 
1859)  and  was  opened  in  1874.  Other  museums  in  Fairmount  Park 
are:  the  botanical  collection  in  horticultural  hall;  and  in  memorial 
hall  the  general  art  collections  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  and 
School  of  Industrial  Arts  and  the  Wilstach  collection  of  paintings 
(about  500),  including  examples  of  the  Italian  schools  from  the  15th 
to  the  17th  centuries  and  of  modern  French  and  American  painters. 
Bartram's  botanical  garden,  mentioned  above  as  a  city  park,  was 
established  in  1728  by  John  Bartram  (1609-1777)  and  is  the  oldest 
botanical  garden  in  America.  The  Phikldclphia  Commercial 
Museums,  founded  in  189^,  b  a  notable  institution  for  promoting 
the  foreign  commerce  of  tnc  United  States,  having  a  coUection  01 
raw  materials  and  manufactured  product^  from  all  countries,  a 
laboratory  and  a  library.  The  institution  investigates  trade  condi- 
tions and  the  requirements  of  markets  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
ouintains  a  bureau  of  information,  issues  a  weekly  bulletin  for 
American  exporters  and  a  monthly  publication  for  foreign  buyers, 
and  has  published  several  "  foreign  commercial  guides  "  and  other 
oommeraal  works.  The  museum  is  maintained  chiefly  by  municipal 
appropriations  and  bv  fees.  Its  control  is  vested  in  "  The  Board 
m.  Trustees  of  the  Philadelphia  Museums,**  composed  of  fourteen 
citizens  of  Philadelphia  chosen  for  life  and  eight  ex  officio  members 
who  are  the  incumbents  of  the  leading  state  and  municipal  offices. 
There  are  home  and  ford^n  advisory  boards,  and  the  immediate 
management  ia  under  a  director.  In  1727  Franklin,  then  in  his 
twenty-second  year,  formed  most  of  his  ingenious  acquaintance 
into  a  club,"  which  he  called  the  Junto,  "  for  mutual  improvement," 
and  out  of  the  Junto  grew  in  1731  the  library  of  the  Library  Company 
of  Philadelphia,  which  he  spoke  of  as  the  "  mother  01  all  North 
American  subscription  libraries,"  but  which  was  not  the  first  sub- 
•criptbn  library  in  North  America.  The  Library  Company  of 
Philadelphia  absorbed  in  1769  the  Union  Library,  which  had  been 
founded  some  years  before;  and  in  I792  the  Loganian  library,  a 
valuable  coUection  of  clawiil  and  other  works  provided  for  under 
the  will  of  James  Logan,  a  friend  of  Penn,  was  transferred  to  it. 
Subsequently  it  acquired  by  bequest  the  libraiies  of  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Preston  of  London  and  of  William  Mackenzie  of  Philadelphia. 
Among  tht  rarities  in  the  latter  was  a  copy  of  Coxton's  Gdden 
Let/nti  (i486).  In  i860  the  Library  Company  was  made  the 
beneficiary,  under  the  wiU  of  Dr  James  Rush  (i 786-1869),  of  an 
estate  valued  at  about  a  million  dollars,  and  with  this  money  the 
Ridgway  branch  was  established  in  1878.  The  library  has  owned 
its  builmng  since  1790:  the  building  on  the  present  site  was  opened 
in  1880  and  was  enlarged  in  1889. 

The  American  Philosophkal  Society,  founded  b)r  Franklin  !n  1743, 
is  the  oldest  and  the  most  famous  academy  of  science  in  America. 
Its  organization  was  the  immediate  consequence  of  a  drcuUr  by 

X»1J 


Franklin  entiiled,  A  Propotal  for  Promotun    Useftd   KmmUdf» 
amoni  the  Brttuk  Ptauialions  in  Amerua,    In  1769  it  united  with 

iand  officially  took  the  name  of)  "  The  American  Society  heU  at 
Philadelphia  for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge."  Among  its  early 
presidents  were  Franklin,  Rittcnhouse  and  Jefferson.  It  has  a 
valuable  library-^bout  50,000  vols.— containing  the  great  mass 
of  the  corrcMpocidcnce  of  Franklin;  here,  too, -are  many  intercaing 
relics,  among  them  the  chair  in  which  Jefferson  sat  while  writii^ 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  an  autograph  copy  of  the 
Dccbration.  The  society  has  published  27  quarto  vols,  ol  TransaC' 
UoHs  (1771*1908);  its  Proceedings  have  been  published  regularly 
since  18^8,  and  in  1884  those  from  1744  to  1838,  compiled  from  the 
nunuscript  minutes,  were  also  publisnca.  The  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  of  Phibdclphia,  founded  in  1812,  has  been  noted  for  its 
collection  of  binds  since  it  acauired,  in  1846,  the  ooUoctlon  of  the  due 
de  RIvoli  numbering  more  ttian  12.000  specimens;  sevonxl  smaller 
collections  have  since  been  added.  The  academy  has  a  notable 
collection  of  shells  and  fossib  and  the  "  types  "  of  Lcidy,  Cope,  Say, 
Conrad  and  other  naturalbts,  and  a  library.  It  b  composed  of  toe 
following  "  sections  ":  biological  and  micioscopical  (1868),  entomo- 
logical (1876),  botanical  (1876),  roineralogical  and  geological  (1877) 
and  ornitholqpcal  (1891).  It  has  published  a  Jottmal  since  1817 
and  its  Proceedinis  smce  1841,  and  perif)dicab  on  entomology, 
conchology  and  ornithology.  ^  To  a^  few  young  men  and  women  it 
nvcs  training  in  scientific  investigatioo  without  charge.  The 
Pennsylvania  Hbtorical  Society,  orasanized  in  1824,  has  a  valuable 
colkction  of  historical  material,  including  the  papers  of  the  Penn 
family  and  the  Charlemagne  Tower  collection  en  American  colonbl 
laws,  and  many  early  American  printed  handbiUs  and  books 
(especially  of  Bradford,  Franklin  and  Christopher  Saur),  portraits 
ana  relics.  With  the  pnxeeds  of  the  society's  publication  fund  the 
Pcnnsyhania  ilagaxine  of  History  and  Biography  has  been  publbhod 
since  1877.  The  Numismatic  and  Antiquarian  Society  of  Phib- 
dclphla,  oiganized  in  1858,  is  the  oldest  numisqnatic  organization  in 
the  United  States;  it  has  a  collection  of  coins,  and  since  1865  it  has 
published  its  Proceedings.  The  College  of  Fhyucians  and  Surgeons 
has  an  excellent  medical  library.  The  free  library  of  Philadelphia 
fcstablished  1891)  includes  a  main  library  and  several  brancties. 
Other  important  Ubiaries  are  that  of  the  umversity  of  Pennsylvanb, 
the  Mercantile,  that  of  Franklin  Institute,  that  01  the  Law  Assocb- 
tion  of  Philadelphb,  the  Athenaeum,  that  of  the  German  Society 
of  Pennsylvanb,  and  Apprentices'.  "The  free  museum  of  science 
and  art  01  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  has  valuable  archaeoloi^ical 
collections,  notably  the  American  and  the  Babylonian  coUcctiooa 
made  by  university  expeditums. 

Schools. — Willbm  Penn  in  hb  frame  of  government  provided  for 
a  committee  of  manners,  education  and  art.  The  assembly,  in 
March  1683,  passed  an  act  which' provided  that  all  children  should 
be  taught  to  read  and  write  by  the  time  they  were  twelve  years  of 
age,  twit  then  they  should  be  taught  some  useful  trade,  and  that 
for  every  child  not  so  taught  the  parent  or  guardbn  should  be  fined 
five  pounds.  At  a  meeting  of  the  provincbl  council  held  in 
Philadelphb  ia  1683  the  eovemor  and  council  appointed  as  school- 
piaster,  Enoch  Flower,  wbo  for  twenty  years  had  neld  that  position 
in  £njj(land.  But  schoob  were  left  almost  wholly  to  private 
initiative  until  1818.  The  first  grammar  school,  commonly  known 
in  its  early  years  as  the  Friends'  free  school,  was  established  in 
1689  under  the  care  of  the  celebrated  Georee  Keith;  although 
maintained  by  the  Friends  it  was  open  to  all,  and  for  more  than  sixty 
years  was  the  only  public  i>bce  for  free  instruction  in  the  province. 
It  was  chartered  by  Penn  in  1701,  1708  %nd  1711,  in  time  became 
known  as  the  \VillIam  Penn  Charter  School,  and  b  still  a  secondary 
school  on  Twelfth  Street.  In  1740  a  building  was  erected  for  a 
"  charity  school  "  and  for  a  "  house  of  worship,"  but  the  school 
had  not  bom  opened  when*  in  1^49,  Franklin  published  his  Proposals 
relating  to  the  Education  of  Youth  in^  Pensihania.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  publication  a  new  educational  assocbtion  was  formed 
which  purchased  the  building  and  in  January  1751  opened  in  it  an 
institution  that  was  chartered  as  an  "academy  and  charitable 
school "  in  1753,  was  rcchartcrcd  as  a  college  and  academy  in  1755. 
and  became  the  university  of  Pennsylvanb  by  act  of  the  state 
legislature  passed  in  1791.  The  univenity  occupied  the  site  of  the 
present  post  office  from  1802  until  1872,  but  was  then  removed 
to  grounds  near  the  western  bank  of  the  Schuylkill. 

The  foundation  of  the  present  public  school  system  was  bid  in 
1818  by  an  act  <5f  the  legisbture  which  constituted  the  city  and 
county  of  Phibdelphb  the  first  school  district  of  Pennsylvanb 
and  provided  for  the  establishment  therein  of  free  schools  for  indigent 
orphans  and  the  children  of  Indigent  parents;  the  same  act  autnor- 
izcd  the  establbhment  of  a  model  school  for  the  training  of  teacher^ 
w^hich  was  the  pioneer  school  for  thb  purpose  in  America.  In  183& 
free  elementary  schools  were  authorized  for  all  children  of  school 
age,  and  since  then  the  system  has  developed  until  it  embraces  the 
(Antral  High  School  for  boys,  which  has  a  semi-collegiate  course 
with  a  department  of  pedagogy  and  confers  the  degrees  of  BJV.  and 
B.S. ;  a  Normal  High  School  (or  girls,  into  which  the  model  school 
was  converted  in  1848,  in  which  roost  of  the  teachers  of  the 
dty  are  trained  and  which  only  graduates  of  the  Gids*  High 
Scnool  are  permitted  to  enter;  the  Willbm  Pcnn  High  School 
for  girb  (opened  1909)  with  academic,  commercial,  applied  art^ 

2a 


370 


PHILADELPHIA 


houaelMd  adcnce  and  library  economy  departments;  a  School  of 
industrial  arts;  two  manual  training  schools;  about  one  hundred 
night  schools  (attended  mainly  by  adults):  scwral  special  schools 
for  habitual  truants  or  insubordinate  and  disorderly  childa^n ,  and  a 
number  of  vacation  schools  and  playgrounds  for  the  summer  season. 
In  1909  district  high  schools  were  planned  as  a 'part  of  the  public 
school  s>'stcm.  The  city  has  also  many  private  high  schools  and 
academics. 

Besides  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  Central  High 
School  for  txn-s  the  collegiate  institutions  arc  La  Salle  College 
(Roman  Catholic :  opened  in  1B67)  and  the  Temple  University  (non- 
sectarian  ;  chartered  in  iSiiS  as  Temple  College  after  four  years  of 
teaching;  in  1891  received  the  power  to  confer  degrees);  which  is 
designed  especially  for  self-supporting  men  and  women  and  was 
founded  by  Russell  Hermann  (Jonwell  (b.  1842),  a  lawyer  and  jour- 
nalist, who  entered  the  Baptist  ministi^  in  1879,  was  pastor  of  the 
Grace  Baptiitt  Church  of  Philadelphia  in  1881-1891,  l)ccamc  pastor 
of  the  Grace  Baptist  Temple  in  1891,  and  was  a  public  lecturer. 
He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Temple  College,  which  was  begun 
in  connexion  with  the  work  of  his  church.  Temple  University 
offers  instruction  both  day  and  evening,  has  classes  from  the  kinder- 
garten to  the  highest  university  grades,  and  courses  in  business,  civil 
engineering,  domestic  art  and  domestic  science,  physical  training, 
pedagogy  and  music;  it  has  a  theological  school  (1893),  a  law  school 
(1804),  a  medical  school  (1901)  and  a  school  of  pharmacy (1902); 
and  in  1907  the  Philadelphia  Dental  Cx>llegc,  one  of  the  best  knon-n 
dental  schools  in  the  country,  joined  the  university.  In  1893 
a  trust  fund  left  by  Hyman  Gratz  was  used  to  found  the  Gratz 
College  for  the  education  of  teachers  in  Jewish  schools  and  for  the 
study  of  the  Hebrew  language,  and  Jewish  history,  literature  and 
religion;  the  college  is  under  the  control  of  the  Kaal  Kidosh  Mikoe 
Israel  of  Philadelphia.  Bryn  Mawr  College  (^-v.).  one  of  the  leading 
institutions  in  America  for  the  higher  education  of  women,  is  a  few 
miles  beyond  the  city  limits.  Schools  of  medicine,  for  which  Phila- 
delphia oas  long  been  noted,  include  the  department  of  medicine 
of  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  (opened  in  1765);  Jefferson 
Medical  College  (1825);  the  Woman's  Medicat  College  (1830).  the 
first  chartered  school  of  medicine  for  women  to  confer  the  degree  of 
M.D. ;  the  Mcdico-Chirurgical  College  (1881) ;  Hahnemann  (homoeo- 

?ithic)  Medical  College  (1888);  and  the  department  of  medicine  of 
emplc  University  (1901).  Among  other  profesmonal  schools  are 
the  department  of  law  of  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  (17Q0), 
the  law  school  of  Temple  University  (1894);  the  divinity  school  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  (1862);  tlw  Lutheran  theological 
Seminary  (1864);  Saint  Vincent's  (Theological)  Seminary  (K.C., 
1S68);  the  theological  school  of  Temple  University  (non-sectarian. 
1893);  Pennsylvania  College  of  Dental  Surgery  (1856);  Philadelphia 
Dental  College  (1863;  since  1907  a  part  of^ Temple  University); 
the  department  of  dentistry  of  the  univcrntv  of  Pennsylvania 
(1878);  the  department  of  dentistry  of  the  Medico-Chirurgical 
College  (1897);  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy  (1821):  the 
department  of  pharmacy  of  the  Medico-Chirurgical  College  (1898); 
and  the  school  of  pharmacy  of  Temple  University  (1002).  Girard 
College  (see  Gikard,  Stephen)  is  a  noted  institution  for  the  educa- 
tion of  poor  white  orphan  boys.  The  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  founded  in  1805  in  Independence  Hall,  was  the  first  art 
school  in  America ;  it  occupies  a  fine  building  on  Broad  and  Cherry 
streets,  with  a  gallery  of  aDout  500  paintings,  including  exami^les  of 
early  American, masters  (especially  Gilbert  Stuart,  of  whom  it  has 
the  largest  collection),  of  modem  American  artists  (especially  in 
the  Temple  collection),  and,  in  the  collection  of  Henry  C,  Gibson, 
of  Frencfi  landscapes.  The  Drexel  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
founded  in  1 891  by  Anthony  T.  Dncxcl  and  endowed  by  him  with 
S2 ,000.000,  occupies  a  beautiful  building  (Chestnut  Street  and  32nd; 
opened  in  1891;  and  embraces  the  following  departments:  archi- 
tecture, science  and  technology,  commerce  and  finance,  domestic 
science,  domestic  arts,  library  school,  English  language  and  literat  ure, 
history,  dvil  government  and  economics,  phy^^cal  training,  evening 
classes,  department  of  free  public  lectures  and  concerts,  library  and 
reading  room,  and  museum  and  picture  gallery.  The  institution 
bestows  free  scholarships  on  a  considerable  number  of  students 
and  charges  the  others  very  moderate  fees.  Its  building  houses 
a  library,  a  collection  of  rare  prints  and  autographs,  and  a  museum 
with  a  picture  rallery  and  exhibits  of  embroiocry,  textiles,  ceramics, 
wood  and  metal  work,  &c.  The  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School 
of  Industrial  Art  founded  in  1876  and  opened  in  1877,  has  schools 
at  Broad  and  Pine  streets — the  museum  is  housea  in  Memorial 
Hall  in  Fairmount  Park.  The  school  is  a  pioneer  in  America;  it 
was  originallv  a  school  of  applied  art.  but  in  1884  the  Philadelphia 
textile  school  was  established  as  another  department.  The  Wagner 
Free  Institute  of  Science,  founded  by  William  Wagner  in  1855,  has  a 
library  and  a  natural  history  museum,  provides  free  lectures  on 
scientific  subjects,  and  publisties,  TVanroritoiu,  containing  scientific 
memoirs.  The  Franklin  Institute  for  the  promotion  of  mechanic 
arts  (1834)  h^  A  technical  library  (with  full  patent  records  of  several 
nations):  since  1824  it  has  held  exhibitions  of  manufactures;  it  has 

{>ubnshcd  since  1826  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute',  the 
nstitute  provides  lecture  courses  and  has  night  schools  of  drawing, 
machine  design  and  naval  architecture.  The  Spring  Garden  Insti- 
tute (1851).  with  day  daiaca  in  mcchaniail  drawing,  handiwork. 


and  applied  electricity,  and  night  classes  in  those  sobjects  and  In 
freehand  and  architectural  drawing;  the  Philadelphia  School  of 
Design  for  Women  (1836^  ol  whKh  Emily  Sartain.  a  daughter  of 
John  bartain,  became  principal  in  1886,  and  a  school  of  toroloey 
(1894)  arc  other  manual  anci  industrial  training  schools  within  the 
city,  and  not  far  beyond  the  city  limits  is  the  Wiliiamson  Free  School 
of  Mechanical  Trades  (1888),  endowed  by  Isaiah  Vansant  Williamson 
(1 803-1 889)  with  more  than  $5,000,000  for  the  free  training  of 
bricklayers,  machinists,  carpenters,  pattern  makers,  stationary 
engineers  and  other  mechanics.  The  Lincoln  Institution  and 
Educational  Home  until  1907  was  de^'otcd  mainly  to  the  education 
of  Indians. 

Newspapers  and  Periodtcals.-^Thc  American  Weekly  iieratrj  was 
the  first  newspaper  published  in  Philadelphia  and  the  third  in 
the  colonies.  It  was  iirsi  i!>6Ucd  on  the  22na  of  December  1719  by 
Andrew  Sowle  Bradford,  a  son  of  William  Bradford,  the  first 
printer  in  the  Middle  Colonies,  and  was  the  first  newspaper  in  these 
colonies.  The  second  newspaper  in  the  city  and  in  the  prennncc 
was  the  Universal  Instructor  rn  all  Arts  and  Sctenees  and  Petm- 
sylvania  Gazette.  It  was  established  in  1728  by  Samuel  Kcimer.  but 
less  than  a  year  afterwards  it  became  the  property  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  and  Hugh  Meredith,  who  shortened  its  title  to  the  Penit" 
sylvania  Gazette.  The  only  one  of  the  newspapers  established 
during  the  colonial  era  which  survived  the  lotn  century  ik-as  the 
Pennsylvania  Packet  or  General  Advertiser,  which  was  started  in  1771 
by  John  Dunlap,  and  during  the  War  of  Independence  was  published 
semi-weekly,  with  occasional  **  postscripts  of  important  news; 
in  1839  it  was  absorbed  by  the  Nortk  American  (1829),  with  which 
the  united  Stales  Casette  (1789)  was  united  in  1847  and  which  is  sttH 
published  as  the  North  American,  The  Aurora  and  General  Advert 
tiser,  established  in  1790  by  Benjamin  Franklin  Bache  (1769-1^98), 
a  grandson  of  Franklin,  was  a  notorious  anti-Federalist  organ  in  its 
early  years.  A  pioneer  among  newspapers  at  modem  prices  is  the 
PuMtc  Ledger,  founded  in  i8j(6,  and  in  1864  purchasca  by  George 
William  Childs.  Other  prominent  daily  papers  now  published  are 
the  Inquirer  (Republican;  1829),  the  Press  (Republican;  1857). 
the  Record  (Independent  Democrat;  1870),  the  Demokrat  (German; 
1838),  the  Evenint  Bulletin  (Republican;  established  in  1815  as  the 
American  Senlinet),  the  Eventnt  Item  (1847),  the  Eventni  Telegraph 
( 1  ndependent  Republican ;  1 864).  and  the  Tageblatt  (Labour ;  Gcnnan : 
1877).  Many  of  the  earlier  literary  periodicals  of  America  >s-ere 
tublished  in  Philadelphia ;  among  them  were  the  American  Magazim 
1757^175^  <^nd  1769),  Thomas  Painc's  Pennsylvania  Maraxine 
*775~>  776)1  the  C<^umbtan  Magasine  (i  786-1 790;  called  the 
'Jntversal  Asylum  in  1790)  which  was  edited  by  Matthew  Cancy  and 
by  A.  J  E)allas,  the  excellent  American  Museum  (1787-1792  and 
1798).  with  which  Carey  was  connected,  the  Port  Fdio  (1801-1827; 
edited  until  1812  by  Joseph  Dcnnic)  and  iht  Analectic  (1802-1812) 
which  succeeded  Saect  Renews  and  Spirtt  of  the  Foreign  Ilagasines 
(1809),  of  which  Washington  Irving  was  editor  in  1813-1814.  and 
to  which  Paulding  and  Verplanck  contributed,  and  the  Ameruan 
Quarterly  Renew  (1827-1837).  Among  others  were:  Godey's  Lady's 
Book  (1830-1877),  for  which  Poc,  Irving,  Longfellow.  Willis  and 
others  wrote;  and  Graham's  had-fs  and  Gentleman's  Ifagaxtne 
(1840-1859),  with  the  contributors  just  named  and  Cooper,  JohnC>. 
Saxe,  E.  P.  Whipple  and  others.  LipptncotVs  Magazine  (1868)  is 
a  monthly,  best  Known  for  its  fiction.  The  Saturday  Evening  Post, 
which  has  the  largest  circulation  of  the  weekly  publications,  and  the 
Ladtes'  Home  Journal  (1883),  the  semi-monthly  with  the  largest 
circuhtion,  are  owned  by  the  same  company.  The  Farm  Jonrnai 
(1877)  is  a  well-known  agricultural  monthly. 

Trusts,  Chanties,  ffc. — Girard  College  and  thirty-eight  other 
charities  are  maintained  out  of  the  proceeds  of  as  many  tru5ts, 
which  are  administered  by  a  board  of  directors  composed  of  twrlve 
members,  appointed  by  the  courts  of  common  pleas,  and  the  ma) or, 
president  01  the  select  council,  and  prcsirjent  of  the  common 
council  as  ex-officio  members.  In  I907  tne  invested  capital  of  the 
Girard  Trust  alone  amounted  to  824,467,770  and  the  income  from  it 
was  Si .988,054.  The  total  capital  of  all  the  minor  trusts  in  the  same 
year  was  Si ,583,026  and  the  income  from^  this  was 856,730.  Among 
the  jninor  trust  funds  are:  Wills  Hospital  (established  in  1825); 
Benjamin  Franklin  Fund  (1790)  for  aidine  young  married  artificvrs; 
Thomas  D.  Grover  Fund  (1849)  for  proviaing  the  poor  with  fuel  and 
food;  Mary  Shields  Almshouse  Fund  (1880);  and  the  John  Scott 
Medal  Fund  (1816)  for  bestowing  mcdnls  upon  young  inventors. 
To  Franklin  Philadelphia  is  largely^  indebted  for  the  Pfrnnsylvanla 
hospital,  the  first  hosnital  In  the  United  States,  which  was  pipjcctcd 
in  1751  and  is  one  of  tne  foremost  of  nearly  one  hundred  suoi  institu- 
tions in  the  city.  The  municipal  hosptal  for  contagious  diseasca 
and  ho<ipitals  for  the  indigent  and  the  insane  are  maintained  by  the 
municipality,  but  most  of  the  other  institutions  for  the  sick  are 
maintained  by  medical  schools  and  religious  sects.  Municipal 
charities  arc  under  the  supervision  of  the  department  of  pubGc 
health  and  charities.  Philadelphia  is  the  seat  of  the  state  peniten- 
tiary for  the  eastern  district,  in  which,  !n  1829.  was  inaugurated 
the  "  individual "  system,  i.e.  the  separate  imprisonment  and  di^ 
criminating  treatment  of  criminals  with  a  view  to  e0ecting  their 
reform. 

TransportatioH  and  Commerce. — Nearly  every  street  in  the 
business  centre  and  about  one-third  of  the  streets  throughout  tbe 


PHILADELPHIA 


371 


b«iUt-ap  poction  of  th«  city  have  a  ^qgle  track  oC  electzic  railway 
(overhead  troUey),  and  mott  of  the  wider  ones,  except  Broad  Street, 
which  has  none,  have  a  double  track.  A  subway  line  has  been 
opened  for  a  short  distance  under  Market  Street,  and  other  subway 
lines,  as  well  as  etevated  lines,  have  been  projected.  The  entire 
system,  embracing  in  190^  a  total  of  624*21  m.,  is  operated  by  the 
Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  Company.  Several  inter-urban  electric 
Knes  afford  cheap  service  to  neighbouring  towns  and  cities.  The 
extensrve  railway  s>;stem  under  the  control  of  the  Pennsylvania 
railway  tjo^echer  with  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railway  affords 
tmnsj^ortatioa  facilities  north  to  New  York,  south  to  Baltimore. 
Washington  and  the  south,  west  to  the  bituminous  coalfields, ol 
Pennsylvania,  the  grain  fields  of  the  Middle  West,  and  to  Pittsburg, 
Geveland,  Cincinnati  and  Chicago.  The  Philadelphia  &  Reading 
railway  connects  the  dty  with  the  great  anthracite  coal  regioot 
aod  both  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  and  the  Pennsylvania  control 
a  line  to  Atlantic  City.  The  SchuyUuJl  is  oavigafak  for  small  craft 
to  the  **  Fall  line,"  about  7|  m.  above  its  mouth  and  for  vessels 
drawing  36  ft.  to  the  oil  refineries  at  Point  Breexe,  3  m.  from  the 
momth;  from  Point  Breese  to  the  head  of  navigation  die  channel 
depth  varies  from  14  to  aa  ft.  The  Delaware  river  is  navigable  to 
Trenton,  New  Jersey,  about  30  m.  above  the  npper  end  of  the  port 
of  Philadelphia,  ana  although  in  its  natural  condition  tliis  nver 
was  only  17  ft.  deep  at  low  water  in  its  shallowest  part  below  the 
port  this  depth  was  increased  between  1836  and  1899  to  26  ft. 
vexoept  in  three  shoal  stretches),  anda  project  of  the  Federal  govenii- 
ment  was  adopted  in  1899  for  increasing  the  depth  t0  xo  fti  and  the 
width  to  600  ft.  In  1905  the  dty  of  Philadelphia  and  the  state  of 
Pennsylvania  appropnated  $750,000  for  the  improvement  of  the 
river  between  the  city  and  the  southern  boundary  of  the  statc.^ 
Steamships  ply  regubny  between  Philadelphia  and  several  European 
ports,  ports  in  the  West  Indies,  and  ports  01  the  United  States. 

The  port  extends  from  the  Pennsylvania  railway  terminal  at 
Greenwich  Point  up  the  Delaware  River  to  the  Phibdclphia  & 
Reading  terminal  at  Port  Richmond,  a  distance  of  about  8  m.,  and 
there  are  minor  harbour  facilities  on  the  Schuylkill.  The  natural 
fadlitiss,  together  with  the  improvements  that  have  been  made,  were 
long  offset  by  an  inefiidcnt  port  administration  under  an  antiquated 
taw  of  1803  which  permitted  the  wharves  to  pass  brgcly  under 
private  control;  but  in  1907  the  old  board  of  port  wardens  was 
aboBshcd  and  in  its  place  was  created  a  munidpal  department  of 
wharves,  docks  and  ferries. 

Until  the  op^ng  of  the  Eric  Canal,  in  1825,  Philaddphia  was 
the  emporium  of  the  United  States;  it  was  then  displaced  by  New 
York.  Some  years  later  Philadelphia  lost  its  lucrative  China  trade, 
and  its  decline  in  commerdal  importance  continued  until  1883, 
vhen  the  .value  of  its  imparts  amounted  to  only  $33,811,045,  the 
value  of  its  exports  to  only  $38,6624^  and  the  dty  was  out- 
ranked in  foreign  trade  by  New  York,  Boston,  San  Francisco  and 
New  Orleans.  .By  1900,  however,  the  value  of  its  imports  had 
risen  to'$49,i9i',236  and  the  value  of  its -exports  to  $81,337,704; 
ki  1909  the  value  of  the  imports  was  $78,003,46^,  an  amount  less 
than  one-eleventh  that  of  New  York,  but  exceeded  only  by  New 
York  and  Boston,  and  the  value  of  the  exports  was  $80,650,274. 
an  amount  less  than  one-eighth  that  of  New  York,  but  exceeded 
only  by  New  York,  Galveston  and  New  Orleans.  The  principal 
imports  are  sugar,  drugs  and  chemicals,  goatskins,  wool,  tobacco, 
iute  and  burkip,  and  cotton  ^goode,  iron  ore,  manufactured  iron, 
nides  and  bananas;  the  prindpal  exports  are  iron  (manufac- 
tured), steel,  petroleum,  wheat,  flour.  lard,  cattle  and  .meat  pro- 
ducts. The  proximity  of  the  aty  to  New  York,  whence  many  of 
its  products  are  shipped,  makes  the  statistics  of  Its  direct  imports 
and  exporta  no  true  index  of  its  commercial  importance. 

IfianH/adares.—- Philadelphia,  has  always  been  one  of  the  foremost 
manufacturing  centres  in  the  United  states,  and  in  1905  it  was 
outranked  only  by  New  York  and  Chicago.*  The  total  value  of  its 
factory  product  was  $519,981,812  in  1900,  and  $591,388,078  in  1905. 
Measured  by  the  value  of  the  products,  Philadelphia  ranked  first 
among  the  aties  of  the  country  in  1905  in  refining  sugar  and  lAalasscs 
($37,182,504;  13*4%  of  the  total  of  the  country)  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  carpets  and  rugs  ($25,232,510:  41%  of  the  total  of 
the  country),  leather  ($93,903,239;  9-5%  of  the  total  of  the 
OQuntry),  hosiery  and  knit  goods  ($i5.77o373:  11 '5%  of  the  total 
of  the  country),  woollen  goods  ($12,239,881 ;  8-6%  of  the  total  of 
the  country),  and  felt  hats  ($5,847,771;  16%  of  the  total  of  the 
country) ;  second  in  the  manufacture  of  worsted  goods  (126,964,533 ; 
16%  01  the  total  of  the  country)  and  in  dydng  and  finishing  textiles 
($4,371,006;  8-6%  of  the  total  of  the  country);  and  third  in  the 
manufacture  of  dothing  ($^1,031,882}  51%  of  the  total  of  the 
country)  and  silk  goods  ($5,079,193;  3*8%  of  the  total  of  the 
country).  Other  large  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  foundry 
and  machine-shop  products,  cotton  goods,  malt  liquors,  irbn  and 
steel,  chemicals,  cigars  and  dgareties,  soap,  confectionery,  furniture, 

•The  dty  had  previously  expended  $1,555,000  on  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  rivers. 

*The  Philadelphia  Museums  claim  that  excluding  slaughter- 
house and  sweat-shop  produots  the  value  of  Philadelphia's  manu- 
factured products  is  greatcar  than  that  of  any  other  dty  in  the 
country. 


parots,  boots  and  dioes,  electrical  apparatus,  and  cordage  and  twine, 
and  among  notable  individual  esubiishments  are  the  Baldwin 
Locomotive  Works,  the  Cramp  Ship- Yards  and  the  I>lsBton  or 
Keystone  Saw  Works.  There  are  petroleum  refineries  at  Point 
Brecae  near  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill;  petroleum  is  piped  to  them 
from  the  north-west  part  of  the  sute. 

Water  Supptyr^The  first  munidpal  waterworks,  installed  In 
1799-1 801,  pumped  water  by  steam  power  from  the  Schuylkill 
into  aa  elevated  tank  in  Centre  Square,  where  the  dty-hall  now 
standi;  this  was  one  of  the  earUcst  applications  of  steam  to  munidpal 
water  pumping.    In  1812-1815  new  steam  works  were  installed  on 

gioarry  Hill,  or  Fairmount;  in  1819-1822  pumping  works  operated 
y  water  power  were  substituted  for  those  operated  t^  steam;  and 
it  was  in  great  part  for  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  the  water 
supply  that  Fairmount  Park  was  created.  The  park,  however,  did 
not  serve  its  purpose  in  this  respect.  The  water  was  impure  and 
inadequare:  additional  works  were  installed  from  time  to  time, 
mostly  on  the  Schuylkill,  whence  water  was  pumped  by  steam  to 
reservoirs  from  which  distribution  was  made  by  gravity ;  and  to  meet 
the  increating  demands  new  filtration  worb  and  accessories  were 
installed  in  1901-1908.  These  take  the  water  mainly  from  the 
Delaware  river. 

CottentmaU  and  Pinanus, — ^Inasmudi  as  it  has  been  prioved 
that  in  1683  there  was  in  use  in  Philaddphia  a  seal  bearing  the 
inscription  "  Philaddphia  J&s.  William.  Penn.  Proprietor,  and. 
Governor"  and  in  all  respects  different  from  the  provincial 
seal  or  the  county  seal,  it  seems  that  there  was  then  a  distinct 
government  for  the  dty.  In  July  16S4  the  provincial  councU, 
presided  over  by  William  Penn,  appointed  a  committee  to  draft 
a  borough  charter,  but  there  is  no  record  of  the  work  of  this 
committee,  and  it  is  uncertain  what  the  government  of  Phila* 
delphia  was  for  the  next  seventeen  years.'  In  1701  Penn  himself 
issued  a  charter  creating  a  dose  corporation  modelled  after  the 
English  borough  and  iwdcr  this  the  city  was  governed  until 
the  War  of  Independence.  Upon  the  anntUment  of  the  Penn 
charter  by  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  government  by 
oommisslons  was  establisbed,  but  in  1789  a  new  charter  was 
granted  and,  although  the  government  has  rince  undergone 
many  and  great  changes,  it  Is  by  virtue  of  this  charter  that  the 
dty  remains  a  corporation  to-<hiy.  The  Consolidation  Act  of 
1854  extended  the  boundaries  to  the  county  lines  without 
destrojring  the  county  government,  changed  the  corporate  name 
from  '*  Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Citizens  of  Philadelphia  "  to  "  the 
City  of  Philadelphia,"  created  th«  offices  of  controller  and 
receiver  of  taxes,  and  considerably  modified  the  powtrs  and 
duties  of  the  corporation  and  its  officers.  The  Bidlitt  Act, 
passed  in  1885  to  go  mto  effect  in  1887,  and  since  1885  amended 
and  supplemented,  is  a  new  charter  except  in  name;  particulariy 
notable  is  its  transfer  of  the  balance  of  power  from  the  cotmcihi 
and  various  self-perpetuating  commissions  to  the  mayor. 

The  mayor  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  and  is  not  eligible 
to  the  office  for  the  next  succeeding  term.  With  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  select  coundl  he  appoints  the  directore  of  the 
departments  of  public  safety,  public  works,'  health  and  charities 
supplies  and  (since  1907)  whaLTves,  docks  and  ferries,  and  the  three 
members  of  the  civil  service  commission.  He  may  appoint,  three 
persons  to  examine  any  department  and  for  reasons  given  in  writing 
may  remove  any  officer  whom  he  has  appointed.  His  veto  power 
extends  to  items  in  appropriation  bills,  but  any  item  or  (Mdinance 
may_  be  passed  over  his  veto  within  five  days  of  such  veto  by  an  affir- 
mative vote  of  three-fifths  of  the  members  elected  to  each  council. 
The  select  council  is  composed  of  one  member  from  each  of  the  47 
wards,  and  in  the  common  council  each  ward  has  one  member  for 
every  four  thousand  names  on  the  last  completed  assessment  bst 
(including  names  of  those  paying  poll  taxes  as  well  as  those  paying 
taxes  on  real  or  personal  property) ;  in  1909  there  were  80  mcmbera 
of  the  common  council.    The  several  administrative  departments 


'  A  document  purporting  to  be  a  charter,  bearing  the  date  of  the 
20th  of  May  16^1,  and  signed  by  Thomas  Lloyd^  deputy-governor, 
was  discovered  in  1887,  but  the  great  seal  is  missing  and  there  is  no 
evidence  that  the  charter  was  even  in  operation.  The  minutes  of 
"  a  meeting  of  the  Council  held  at  Phihcielphia  on  the.  third  day  of 
Sixth  Month  1691  "  mention  "  Humphreyr  Morrey  the  present 
Mayor  of  the  dty  of  Philadelphia  ";  and  this  would  seem  to  show 
that  there  was  a  regular  municipal  government  in  1691.  '  See 
Pkiladelpkia:  Its  Founding  and  Seals:  Report  of  the  Onnmittee 
.  ,  ,  to  determine  tke  Year  of  the  Physical  and  Leg/ai  Fotmding  of  tka 
City  of  Philadelpkia  (Philadelphb,  1908). 

^In  1905  the  state  legislature  took  the  appointment  of  these  officera 
from  the  mayor  and  vested  it  in  the  coundls.  but  this  legislation 
was  repealed  in  1906b 


372 


PHILADELPHIA 


are:  public  safety,  public  works,  reoetver  of  taxes,  city  ticasurer, 
city  controller,  law.  education^  charities  and  corrections,  8up> 
fdies,  wharves,  docks  and  femes,  civil  service  commissioo  and 
making  fund  oommisston  (coapoeed  of  the  mayor,  the  city 
controUer  and  a  commissbner  elected  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
city  councils).  Members  of  the  select  council  are  elected  for 
three  years— one>third  each  year;  members  of  the  common  oouacil 
for  two  years — one  half  each  year;  and  the  receiver  of  taxes,  the  city 
treasurer,  the  city  controller,  and  the  city  solicitor,  who  is  the  head 
of  the  department  of  law,  for  a  term  of  three  years.  The  police 
constitute  a  bureau  of  the  department  of  public  nfety,  and  at  their 
head  is  a  superintendent  appointed  by  the  director  of  the  depart-* 
ment  with  toe  approval  of  the  select  council.  The  department  of 
education  is  administered  by  a  central  board  appointed  (at  laige) 
by  the  judges  of  the  courts  of  common  pkas. 

The  asawsed  value  of  taxable  proper^  in  the  dty  increased  from 
5iS3.369.048  in  1856  to  $536,667,834  m  1880,  to  S880.935.365  in 
1900,  and  to  11,3581675,057  in  1910.  Thecity's  yearly  expenditure 
increased  from  95,170,680  in  1856  to  $14,640479  in  1880,  to 
$30,628,246  in  1900,  and  to  $48,012,630  in  1909.  The  principal 
items  of  expenditure  in  1909  were:  for  public  sdiools  $8,2^2,218: 
for. the  bureau  of  water,  $2,827,200;  for  streets  and  hignways, 
$4,219,260;  for  police,  $3,810,535;  and  for  protection  against  fiire, 
$i«873t7M*  The  leceipts  for  the  same  year  were  $44,^72,927,  of 
which  $18,8514^  were  from  the  property  tax  (municipal  and 
state),  and  $4.396. I2a  were  from  the  water  tax.  The  city's  indebted- 
ncss  increased  rapidly  for  a  period  of  twenty-five  yeani  following 
consolidation.  At  the  beginning  of  1856  the  funded  debt  was 
$16.781470,  by  the  beginnmg  of  1870  it  had  grown  to  $43401,933, 
and  by  the  beginning  of  1880  to  $70,970,041.  By  the  new  state 
constitution  adopted  m  1873  "O  municipality  is  permitted  to  create 
a  debt  exceeding  7  %  of  the  assessed  value  of  its  taxable  property,^ 
in  1879  the  state  legislature  passed  an  act  to  prevent  the  city  from 
living  beyond  its  income,  and  as  a  consequence  of  these  restrictions 
the  funded  debt,  less  loans  held  by  the  sinking  fuiKi,  was  reduced 
by  the  bcgiiming  of  1895  to  $33*137.695.  The  great  expense  of 
installing  the  new  filter  plant,  developmg  the  park  system,  and 
making  other  improvements  has,  however,  causea  it  to  grow  again; 
at  the  beginning  of  1910  the  total  funded  debt  was  $95483,820  and 
the  net  funded  debt  was  $84,901,620. 

History. — The  patent  gnuited  to  William  Penn  for  the  territoiy 
embraced  within  the  present  commonwealth  of  Pcimsylvania 
was  signed  by  Charles  IL  on  the  4lh  of  March  x68i  and  Penn 
agreed  that  "  a  quantity  of  land  or  ground  plat  should  be  laid 
out  for  a  laige  town  or  dty  in  the  most  convenient  place  upon 
the  river  for  health  and  navigation,"  and  that  every  purchaser 
of  500  acres  in  the  country  shall  be  allowed  a  lot  of  xo  acres  in 
the  town  or  dty,  "  if  the  place  will  allow  it."  In  September 
Penn  appointed  William  Crispin,  Nathaniel  Allen  and  John 
Bczan  a  commission  to  proceed  to  the  new  province  and  lay 
out  the  city,  directing  them  to  select  a  site  on  the  Delaware 
where  "  it  is  moat  navigable,  hi|^,  dry  and  healthy;  that  is 
where  most  ships  can  best  ride,  of  deepest  draught  of  water, 
if  possible  to  load  or  unload  at  the  bank  or  key  aide  without 
boating  or  Ughtering  of  it."  Crispin,  a  kinsman  of  the  pro- 
prietor, died  on  the  voyage  out,  but  William  Heage  had  been 
named  a  fourth  commissioner  some  time  after  the  appointment 
of  the  otheiB  and  the  three  survivors  arrived  in  the  province 
toward  the  close  of  the  year.  They  bad  been  preceded  by 
Pcnn's  cousin,  Captain  William  Markham,  as  deputy«gDvemor, 
and  were  soon  followed  by  the  surveyor-general,  Thomas  Holme. 
Although  the  Swedes  had  cstablidied  a  settlement  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Schuylkill  not  later  than  1643  ^^d  the  site  now  selected 
by  the  commissioners  was  held  by  three  brothers  of  thcSwaenson 
family,  these  brothers  agreed  to  take  in  exchange  land  in  what 
is  now  kno«Ti  as  Northern  Liberties,  and  as  early  as  July  1682 
Holme,  according  to  modified  instructions  from  Penn  for  making 
the  lots  smaller  than  originally  intended,  laid  out  the  dty 
extending  from  the  Delaware  river  on  the  east  to  the  SchuyDciU 
ijver  on  the  west,  a  distance  of  about  2  m.,  and  from  Vine 
Street  on  the  north  to  Cedar  (now  South)  Street  on  the  south, 
a  distance  of  about  i  m.  Penn  landed  at  New  Castle  on  the 
Debware  on  the  27th  of  October  1682  and  two  days  hiter  came 
up  as  far  as  Upland,  now  Chester,  13  m.  south  of  Philadelphia, 
but  when  he  came  to  his  newly  founded  dty  is  not  known.  He 
is  known,  however,  to  have  presided  at  a  meeting  of  the  pro- 
vincial couQctl  hdd  here  on  the  loth  of  March  1683,  and  from 
that  time  Philadelphia  was  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania  until 

*  If  the  debt  of  a  city  already  exceeded  the  7%  limit  it  could  be 
increased  only  by  pcrmisuon  of  the  legislature. 


<799>  when  Lancaster  became  the  capitaL  During  nearly  the 
whole  of  this  period  it  was  also. the  most  important  dty  com> 
merdally,  politically  and  socially  in  the  colonies.  Quaker 
influence  remained  strong  in  the  dty,  especially  up  to  the  be- 
gmning  of  the  19th  century;  and  it  was  predominant  in  Phila- 
delphia long  after  it  had  ^ven  way  before  the  Scotch-Irish  in 
the  rest  of  Pennsylvania.  But  even  in  Philadelphia  the  academy 
(later  the  univeruty  of  Pennsylvania)  soon  came  under  the 
control  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  The  fint  Contin- 
ental Congren  met  in  Carpenters'  Hall  on  the  5th  of  September 
1774;  the  second  in  the  old  state  house  (Independence  Hall) 
on  the  loth  of  May  1775;  and  throughout  the  War  of  Indepen- 
dence, gccept  from  the  36th  of  September  1777  to  the  i8th  of 
Jime  1778,  when  it  was  in  possession  of  the  Britl^/  Philadelphia 
was  the  virtual  capital  of  the  colonies;  it  was  a  brUUant  social 
dty,  especially  during  the  British  possession.  The  "■»«A'til 
convention  which  framed  the  present  constitution  of  the  United 
States  sat  in  Philadelphia  in  1787,  and  from  1790  to  1800  the 
dty  was  the  national  capitaL  Here  Benjamin  Franklin  and 
David  Rittenhouse  made  their  great  contributions  to  sdence, 
and  here  Washington  delivered  his  farewell  addms  to  the  people 
of  the  United  States.  Here,  in  July  and  August  1789,  the 
derical  and  lay  ddegates  from  the  Protestant  Episcopal  (Thurches 
in  the  United  States  met  and  formally  organiried  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States.  Here  the  first  bank 
in  the  colonies~~the  Bank  of  North  America — was  opened  ia 
X781,  and  here  the  fint  mint  for  the  coinage  of  the  money  of  the 
United  States  was  established  in  1792.  The  dty  was  visited 
with  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  in  2793  and  again  in  1798; 
and  in  1832  nearly  1000  inhabitants  died  of  Asiatic  diolera. 

The  original  boundaries  remained  imchanged  for  172  years, 
but  the  adjoining  territory  as  it  became  populated  was  erected 
into  corporated  districts  in  the  following  order:  South wark 
(1762),  Northern  Liberties  (1771),  Moyamensing  (1812),  Spring 
Garden  (18x3),  Kensington  (1820),  Penn  (1844),  lUchmond 
(1847),  West  Philadelphia  (1851)  and  Behnont  (1853).  In  1854 
all  these  districts,  together  with  the  boroughs  of  Ciermantown, 
Frankford,  Manajrunk,  White  Hall,  Bridesbui|f  and  AramingD, 
and  the  townshiiM  of  Passyunk,  Blockley,  Kingsessng,  Roz- 
borough,  Geimantown,  Bristol,  Oxford,  Lower  Dublin,  Mocdand, 
Byberry,  Delaware  and  Penn  was  abolished  and  the  boondarica 
of  Philadelphia  were  extended  to  the  county  lines  by  a  single 
act  of  the  state  legislature.  The  consolidation  was  in  part  the 
outcome  of  a  demand  for  effidency  in  preserving  order.  There 
had  been  occasiozuil  outbreaks  of  disorder:  on  the  17th  of  May 
1838  an  anti-abolition  mob  had  burned  Pennsylvania  Hail, 
which  had  been  dedicated  three  days  before  to  the  discussion 
of  abolition,  temperance  and  equsdity;  in  May  1844  anti- 
Catholic  rioters  had  burned  St  Michael's  and  St  Augustine's 
churches,  and  minor  riots  had  occured  in  1835,  1842  and  1&4S. 
Philadelphia  was  from  the  first  strongly  anti-slavery  in  sentiment, 
and  it  was  here  in  December  1833  that  the  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Sodety  was  organized,  and  in  1856,  on  the  anniversary 
of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  that  the  first  national  oonventaon 
of  the  Republican  party  met.  During  the  Civil  War  the  arsenal 
and  the  Southwark  navy  yard  were  busy  manufacturing  materia! 
for  the  Federal  armies,  the  dty  was  crowded  with  wounded 
soldicts,  ajid  here  in  1864  was  held  the  great  sanitary  fair  for 
the  benefit  of  the  United  States  sanitary  commission,  an  organisa- 
tion iot  the  relief  and  care  of  wounded  and  sick  scddiers.  In 
1876,  the  centennial  year  of  American  independence,  a  great 
exhibition  of  the  industries  of  all  nations  was  hdd  in  Fainmount 
Park  from  the  loth  of  May  to  the  xoth  of  November,  and  about 
fifty  buildings  were  erected  for  the  purpose.  In  October 
1882  the  dty  celebrated  the  bi-centennial  of  the  landing  of 
William  Penn,  and  in  October  xgoS  the  225th  anniversary  of  its 
foundation. 

■  Lord  Howe,  who  had  been  tn  command  of  the  British,  embarked 
for  England  on  the  24th  of  May.  and  on  the  i8th  of  this  month  was 
held  for  his  farewell  entertainment  the  famous  UuckiamaA,  a  fcsuC 
of  gaiety  with  a  tournament  somewhat  like  those  comm«n  in  the 
age  of  chivalry,  whk;h  was  in  large  part  planned  by  Captain  John 
I  Andr& 


PHILADELPHIANS— PHILARET 


37S 


BiBLioGKAPHY.— J.  T.  Scharf  and  T.   Wettoott.  History 


T?J. 


ddphia, 

meni  (Ph 
of  tk*  City 


The   Story  of  PkUaJSphia    (New   York,    iQpo);   T.'wUIiams, 
**  PbOadefphia,'*  in  L.  P.  Powell's  Historic  Tomns  of  tkt  Middle 


States  (New  York.  1809);  F.  M.  Btttng.  An  HistoHeal  Acammt  of  tko 
OU  State  Aoftw  (Philadelphia,  1891);  E.  K.  Price,  History  of  tko 
CoMSolidaiion  of  Fhiladelpkia  (PhiUdetphia.  1873);  and  Acnes 
Repplier,  PhUadetpkia,  tko  Ptace  and  PeopU  (New  Yoik.  1898). 

PHILiOBLPHIAllS.  a  sect  of  reUgions  mystics,  founded  m 
London  in  the  Utter  part  of  the  X7th  centuiy.  In  1652  Dr  John 
Pordage  (i6o7-x68t)i  rector  of  Bradfiekl,  Berkshire,  gathered 
together  a  few  foUowers  of  Jakob  Boehme,  the  chief  of  whom, 
was  Jane  Lead  or  Lcade  (n^  Ward;  1633-1704).  Pordage  was 
^ected  from  his  living  by  the  Triers  in  1655,  bat  was  restored 
In  1660.  Mrs  Leade  had  been  from  girlhood  of  a  mystical 
temperamentr  and  experienced  phantasms  which  she  recorded 
in  a  diary  entitled  A  Fountain  ^  Gardens,  beginning  in  1670, 
in  which  year  the  Philadelphian  society  was  definitely  organized. 
She  drew  up  for  it  "  The  Laws  of  Paradise/'  which  show  that 
the  enterprise  was  designed  "  to  advance  the  Kingdom  of  God 
by  improving  the  life,  teaching  the  loftiest  moraUty,  and  enforc- 
ing the  duty  of  univeisal  brotherhood,  peace  and  love."  Its 
members  had  a  strong  faith  in  what  they  called  the  "  Divine 
Secrets,"  the  wonders  of  God  and  nature,  the  profound  spiritual 
experiences  of  regeneration  and  soul-resurrection,  and  the 
second  Advent.  In  1693  some  of  Mrs  Leade's  writings -were 
translated  into  Butch,  and  by  this  means  and  her  acquaintance 
with  Francis  Lee  (1661-17x9),  an  Oxford  scholar  who  studied 
medicine  at  Leiden  and  became  her  son-in-law,  a  connexion 
was  opened  up  with  Germany  and  Holland.  In  1703  the  Fhila- 
ddphians  drew  up  their  confession,  but  they  made  no  further 
progress  and  soon  declined.  The  Holland  branch  withdrew, 
and  the  English  government  forbade  the  society  to  meet  For 
many  years,  however,  a  considerable  number  of  people  regarded 
Mrs  Leade's  visions,  which  were  published  in  a  long  series  of 
writings,  as  proofs  of  her  divine  calling.  In  her  later  years  she 
had  a  severe  struggle  with  poverty,  which  was  relieved  by  a 
pension  granted  by  Baron  Kniphausen. 

PR1L4B,  an  islet  in  the  Nile  above  the  First  Cataract,  of  great 
beauty  and  interest,  but  vnce  the  completion  of  the  Assxian 
daro  in  1902  submerged  except  for  a  few  months  yearly  during 
Hi^h  Nile  (July  to  October),  when  the  water  is  allowed  to  run 
freely  through  the  sluices  of  the  Assuan  dam.  Philae  h  the 
nearest  island  to  the  point  where  the  ancient  desert  road  from 
Assuan  rejoins  the. river  south  of  the  cataract.  It  marks  also 
the  end  of  the  cataract  region.  Below  it  the  channel  is  broad 
and  straight  with  rocky  granite  islands  to  the  west.  The  name 
in  Egyptian  was  Pilak,  "  the  angle  (?)  island  ":  the  Arabs  call 
it  Anas  el  Wagud,  after  the  hero  of  a  romantic  tale  in  the  Arabian 
Nights.  Ancient  graffiti  abound  in  all  this  district,  and  on 
*  Bigeh,  a  larger  island  adjoining  Philae,  there  was  a  temple  as 
<arly  as  the  reign  of  Tethmosis  IIX.  The  name  of  Amasis  11. 
{$70-5$$  B.C.)  is  said  to  have  been  found  at  Philae,  and  it  is 
possible  that  there  were  still  older  buildings  which  have  been 
swallowed  up  in  later  constructions.  About  350  BX.  Nekhtnebf , 
the  lost  of  the  native  kings  of  Egypt,  built  a  temple  to  Isis, 
roost  of  which  was  destroyed  by  floods.  Ptolemy  Fhiladelphus 
reconstructed  some  of  this  work  and  began  a  large  temple  which 
Ptolemy  Euergetes  I.  completed,  but  the  decoration,  carried 
on  under  later  Ptolemies  and  Caesars,  was  never  finished.  The 
temple  of  Isis  was  the  chief  sanctuary  of  the  Dodecaschoenus, 
the  portion  of  Lower  Nubia  generally  held  by  the  Ptolemies 
and  Romans.  The  little  island  won  great  favour  as  a  religious 
riKort,  not  only  for  the  Egyptians  and  the  Ethiopians  and  others 
who  frequented  the  border  district  and  the  market  of  Assuan, 
but  dso  for  Greek  and  Roman  visitors.  One  temple  or  chapel 
after  another  sprang  up  upbn  it  dedicated  to  various  gods, 
including  the  Nubian  Mandulis.  Ergamenes  (Arkamane),  king 
of  Ethiopia,  shared  with  the  Ptolemies  m  the  building.   Besides 


the  temple  of  Isis  with  iu  blith-temple  in  the  first  court,  there 
weretmailer  tempiesor  shrines  of  Arsenuphls,  Mandulis,  Imuthcs, 
Hathor,  Harendotcs  (a  form  of  Horus)  and  Augustus  (in  the 
Roman  style),  bendes  unnamed  ones.  There  "were  also  monu-^ 
mental  gateways,  and  the  Island  was  protected  by  a  stone  quay 
all  round  with  the  necessary  staircases,  &c.,  and  a  Nllometer. 
The  most  beaotlful  of  all  the  buildings  is  an  unfinished  klosque 
inscribed  by  Trajan,  well  known  under  the  name  of  "  Pharaoh's 
Bed."  Gn^ti  of  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  Isis  are  dated  as  late 
as  the  end  of  the  sth  century  a.d.  The  decree  of  Theodoshu 
(a.i>.  378)  which  suppressed  pagan  worship  In  the  empire  was 
of  little  effect  in  the  extreme  south.  In  aj>.  453  Bfaximinus, 
the  general  of  the  emperor  Marclan,  after  inflicting  a  severe  defeat 
on  the  Nobatac  and  Blemmyes  who  were  settled  in  Lower  Nubia, 
and  thence  raided  Upper  Egypt,  made  peace  on  terms  which 
indttded  permission  for  these  bieathenr  tribes  to  vbit  the  temple 
and  even  to  borrow  the  image  of  Isis  on  certain  occasions.  It 
was  not  tin  the  reign  of  Juadnian,  a.d.  527-565,  that  the  temple 
of  Philae  was  finally  dosed,  and  the  Idols  taken  to  Constantinople. 
Remams  of  Christian  cfauiches  were  disclosed  by  the  thorough 
exploration  carried  out  in  1895-1896  in  view  of  the  Barragv 
scheme,  under  the  direction  of  Captain  Lyons.  The  accunnda- 
Uons  of  rubbish  on  the  IsUnd  were  cleared  away  and  the  walls 
and  foundations  of  the  stone  buildings  were  all  nepaired  and 
strengthened  before  the  dam  was  completed.  The  annus! 
flooding  now  appears  to  be  actually  beneficial  to  the  stonework, 
by  removing  the  disintegrating  nlta  and  incrustations.  The 
topa  of  most  of  the  bmUings  and  the  whole  nudens  qf  the 
temple  of  Isis  to  the  floor  remained  all  the  year  round  above 
the  water  level  until  the  dam  was  raised  another  26  ft.--*a  work 
begun  in  1907— -when  the  temples  were  entirely  submerged 
except  during  July-October.  But  the  beauty  of  the  island  and 
ita  ruins  and  pabn  trece,  the  |oy  of  travelers  and  artists,  is 
fflntpsf  pine- 

Sce  H.  G.  Lyons,  A  Report  on  ike  Idaud  amd  TemhUa  of  PkOaa 
(Cairo,  1896),  with  numerous  plans  and  photoaaiiAs;  a  second 
report.  A  Report  on  the  Temples  of  Philae  (1908),  deal*  with  the 
condition  of  the  ruins  as  alTected  by  the  immersbns  occasioned  by 
the  filling  of  the  Assuan  dam;  Baedeker's  Erypi;  and  on  the  efl«ctA 
of  the  ■ufanersioo,  Ac,  reports  m  Antulea  dm  seniee  des  autiquUis; 
vols.  iv«  V.  (F.  Ll.  G.) 

PHILABBT  [TnoDou  NnoncR  RouamovI  (H 553-^1633), 
patriarch  of  Moscow,  was  the  second  son  of  the  boyar  Nikita 
Romanovich.  During  the  reign  of  hia  first  cousin  Theodore  L 
(1584-1598),  Theodore  Romanov  distinguished  hunself  both  as 
a  soldier  and  a  diplomatist,  fighting  against  the  Swedes  in 
1590,  and  conducting  negotiations  with  the  ambassadors  of  the 
emperor  Rudolph  II.  in  x  593-1594.  On  the  death  ef  the  childless 
tsar,  he  was  the  popular  candidate  for  the  vacant  throne;  but 
he  acquiesced  in  the  election  of  Boris  Godunov,  and  shared  the 
disgrace  of  his  too-poweriul  family  three  years  later,  wheo  BoriA 
comp^ed  both  him  and  bis  wife,  Xenia  Chestovaya,  to  take 
monastic  vows  under  the  names  of  Philaret  and  Martha  respec- 
tively. Philaret  was  kept  in  the  strictest  confinement  m  the 
:  Antoniev  monastery,  where  he  was  exposed  to  every  conceivable 
indignity;  but  when  the  pseudo-Demetrius  overthrew  the 
Godunovs  he  released  Philaret  and  made  him  metropolitan  of 
Rostov  (1605).  In  1609  Phikiet  fell  into  the  hands  of  pseudo* 
Demetrius  IL,  who  named  him  patriarch  of  all  Russia,,  though 
his  jurisdiction  only  extended  over  the  very  limited  area  which 
acknowledged  the  impostor.  From  16x0-1618  he  was  a  prisoner 
in  the  hands  of  the  Polish  king,  Sigbmund  III.,  whom  he  refused 
to  acknowledge  sa  tsar  of  Muscovy  on  betng  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  the  Polish  camp  in  x6xow  He  waa  released  on  the  condasioii 
of  the  truce  ef  Deulino  (Feb.  13,  i6i9>»  u>d  on  the  snd  of  Juno 
was  canonically  enthroned  patiiarch  of  Moscow.  Henceforth, 
till,  his  death,  the  estsMished  government  of  Muscovy  was  a 
diarchy.  From  16x9  to  1633  there  were  two  actual  aovereigns, 
Tfear  Michad  and  his  father,  the  most  holy  Patriarch  FhUaret . 
Theoretically  they  were  awegenta,  but  Philaret  frequently 
transacted  affairs  of  state  without  consulting  the  tsar.  He 
replenished  the  treasury  by  a  mere  equable  and  ratkmal  system 
o(  assessing  and  collecting  the  taxes.    His  most  impoitant 


S74 


PHILATELY— PHILEMON 


domestic  measure  was  the  rhainiing  of  the  peasantry  to  tbesoil, 
a  measure  directed  against  the  ever  increasing  migration  of  the 
down-trodden  serfs  to  the  tltp^es,  where  they  became  free- 
booters instead  of  tax>payers.  Tlie  taxation  of  the  tsar's 
tlyuMkmuU  lyudif  or  military  tenants,  was  a  first  step  towards 
the  pn^rtional  taxation  of  the  hitherto  privileged  classes. 
Philaret's  seal  for  the  purity  of  orthodoxy  sometimes  led  him 
into  excesses:  but  be  encoursged  the  pubUcation  of  theological 
works,  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  subsequently  famous  Patri- 
archal  library,  and  commanded  that  every  aKhbishop  should 
establish  a  seminary  for  the  clergy,  himself  setting  the  exaii4ile. 
Another  great  service  rendered  by  Philaret  to  his  country  was 
the  reorganization  of  the  Muscovite  army  with  the  help  of  foreign 
officers.  His  death  in  October  1633  put  an  end  to  the  Russo* 
Polish  War  (1631-33),  withdrawing  the  strongest  prop  from  an 
executive  feeble  enoufl^  even  when  supported  1^  all  the  weight 
of  his  authority. 

See  R.  N.  Bain.  Tht  First  JZomomitr (London,  I905)£&  M.  Solovev, 
HisU  of  Russia  (Rus.),  vol.  ix.  (St  PMersb.  1895.  &c.}  (R«  N.  B.) 

PHILATELT  (Gr.  ^fXot,  loving,  and  &rcX^,  free  of  tax),  the 
study  and  collection  of  postage-stamps  and  other  marks  oif  pre- 
payment  issued  by  po8t«offices.  The  fancy  for  collecting  postage- 
stamps  began  a  short  time  after  the  issue  of  the  first  British 
penny  and  two-penny  stamps  in  1S40  (see  Post  and  Postal 
Ssrvice).  Dr  Gray,  an  official  of  the  British  Museum,  began 
collecting  them  soon  after  their  appearance,  and  an  advertise- 
ment in  an  issue  of  The  Times  of  1841  asks  for  gifts  of  cancelled 
sUmps  for  a  young  lady.  In  1842  the  new  hobby  was  ridiculed 
in  Punch*  It  waa  not  until  about  x86o,  however,  that  stamp 
collecting  began  to  be  systematically  carried  <m  with  full  regard 
to  such  mittiUiae  as  the  different  kinds  of  paper,  water-marks, 
perforation,  shade  of  colour  and  distinctive  outline.  About 
x86a  a  teacher  in  Paris  directed  that  foreign  stamps  should  be 
collected  and  pasted  upon  the  pages  of  his  pupils'  atlases  and 
geographies  according  to  countries,  and  this  may  have  been  the 
ftftt  form  of  the  systematic  classification  of  stamps  in  a  collection. 
Of  existing  collections  the  oldest  were  b^un  between  1853  and 
x$6o,  by  which  year  French  collectors  had  assumed  especial 
prominence.  Professional  dealers  now  made  their  aK>earance, 
and  in  i86t  philatelic  literature,  now  of  vast  extent,  was  in- 
augurated by  the  publication  in  Strasbwg  of  a  catalogue  of 
stamps  issu^  up  to  that  time.  The  Paris  collectors  were  the 
first  to  dassify  stamps,  measure  them  by  the  gauge,  note  the 
watsr-mxirks  and  separate  the  distinct  issues  of  each  country. 
Collecting  with  due  rqgard  to  the  relationship  of  differait  Issues 
Is  called  plating.  The  first  English  catalogue  was  issued  in 
1863,  followed  in  December  of  the  same  year  by  The  Stamp 
CcUectm*s  Rtmem  and  Mcnthly  Admrtiser^  published  in  Liverpool, 
the  first  phOateUc  periodical,  the  second,  The  Stamp  CaUectar*s 
Magezsme,  appearing  in  1863.  In  1863  also  appeared  Le  Timbre- 
Paste,  a  Brussels  jounud.  Up  to  29x0  over  .800  phUatdic 
periodicals  had  appeared. 

Althoof^  small  bodies  of  enthusiasts  had  banded  together 
fai  England,  France  and  the  United  Sutes  for  the  study  and 
collection  oif  p05tage4tamps  as  early  as  1865,  it  was  not  until 
i860  that  the  first  great  club,  the  PhUatdic  Society  of  London, 
still  the  most  important  in  the  world,  was  foumled.  Other 
sodetiea  in  Great  Britain  are  the  Jumot  PhUatdic  of  London, 
and  these  of  Birmingham,  Manchester,  Edinburgh  and  Leith. 
The  le«dlAg  society  in  America  is  the  American  Philatelic 
AssoeiS(tlo&;  in  France  the  SocUU  fran^ise  de  timbrohtie;  in 
Germany  the  Intemationaler  PhUatdisten-Verein.  More  than 
400  such  organisations  are  now  in  existence,  the  majority  of 
them  In  the  United  States  and  Germany.  At  a  phiktelic  con- 
gress, held  in  London  in  19  ro,  the  formation  of  a  universal  union 
of  pbHaMUc  societies  **  to  diaoourage  UBBeoessaxyor  speculative 
lasttcs  "  was  considered. 

Not  only  the  stamps  themselves  were  collected,  but "  entires," 
i^,  postcards,  envelopes  with  the  stamps  still  adhering,  8tc. 
Marks  of- prepayment  at  last  became  so  numerous  that,  about 
x88o,  specialists  began  to  appear,  who  restricted  their  coDections 
to  the  stamps  of  some  pakicular  oountiy  or  continent,  or  to 


postcards  or  newspaper-wrappers  alone.  The  most  extendvs 
and  valuable  stamp  collection  in  the  world,  that  of  Baron  P. 
von  Ferrary  of  Paris,  was  begun  about  1865.  This  collection, 
which  cost  its  owner  at  least  £250,000,  contains  a  cancelled  and 
an  uncanceled  specimen  of  each  stamp.  The  next  greatest 
collection  is  that  bequeathed  to  the  British  nation  in  1891  by 
T.  K.  Tapling,  M.P.,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Among  otho- 
important  collections  may  be  mentioned  those  in  the  German 
Posul  Museum  in  Berlin,  of  King  Geoiige  V.  of  England,  W.  B. 
Avery,  H.  J.  Duveen  and  the  earl  of  Crawford.  The  largest 
sum  realized  for  an  entire  collection  was  £27,500,  which  was  paid 
for  that  of  M.  P.  Castle,  consisting  of  European  stamps  only. 
The  value  of  a  stamp  depends  partly  upon  its  age,  but  mudx 
more  upon  its  rarity,  which  again  is  dependent  upon  the  number 
of  the  particular  stamps  originally  issued.  Most  stamps  have 
a  quoted  value,  but  seme  possess  a  conventional  value  onIy« 
such  as  those  of  which  only  one  or  two  specimens  are  known  to 
exist;  forinstance,the<Nie-cent  stamp  of  the  1856  issue  of  British 
Cuiana  (one  known  copy);  the  Italian  x5  centesimi  stamp  of 
1865  converted  by  an  overprint  into  20  centesimi  (one  copy); 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  triangular,  printed  by  mistake  on  paper 
intended  for  stamps  of  other  colonies  (four  copies) ;  and  the  2  cent 
stamfis  of  the  eariiest  issue  of  British  Guiana  (ten  copies).  'The 
best  known  of  the  very  rare  stamps  are  the  xd.  and  2d.  **  Post- 
Office  "  Mauritius,  for  which  higher  prices  have  been  paid  than 
for  any  other  stamps,  although  23  copies  are  known  to  exist 
out  of  the  xooo  issued.  For  a  fine  specimen  of  these  Mauritius 
stamps  £2000  has  been  offered.  Two  of  them  have  been  sold 
for  £2400.  Philatelic  exhibitions  such  as  those  hdd  in  London 
in  1890  and  1897  and  in  Manchester  in  1909  have  proved 
popular. 

*'  Reprints  "  are  nimpresstbns,  taken  from  the  original  plates, 
of  obsolete  stamps,  and  have  a  much  smaller  value  than  speci- 
mens of  the  original  issue.  Forgeries  of  the  rarer  stamps  are 
common  but  are  easily  detected.  Modem  postage-stamp  albums 
are  often  beautiful  specimens  of  the  printer's  art,  reproductions 
of  every  known  stamp  being  given  in  the  original  colours. 

See  W.  J.  Hardy  and  E.  D.  Bacon,  TTie  Stamp  CoUector  (London, 


E:  Wright  and  A.  B.  Creeke.  History  of  Uu  Adhesive  Stamps  at  Vhs 


marks  (London.  1808}:  L.  Salefanque.  Ia  Tukhre  d  traeers  rhisloin 
(Rouen.  1800);  R.  Senf.  lUustrierter  Postwerthseichenkatalog  (Leipeig, 
annually) ;  KrStzKh,  PermanenUs  Handbuch  der  Postfreimarhtnktuide 
(Ldprig,  annaally):  periodicals:  The  London  PhUatdic  (monthly); 
JUustHerte  Briefmarhen-Zeitung  (Leipzig). 

PHILBMOH  (c.  361-263  B.C.),  Greek  poet  of  the  New  Comedy, 
was  bom  at  Soli  in  Cillcia,  or  at  Syracuse.  He  settlol  at  Athens 
early  in  life,  and  his  first  play  was  produced  in  330.  He  was  a 
contemporary  and  rival  of  Menander,  whom  he  frequently 
vanquished  in  poetical  contests.  Posterity  reversed  the  verdict 
and  attributed  Philemon's  successes  to  unfair  influence.  He 
made  a  journey  to  the  east,  and  resided  at  the  court  of  Ptolemy, 
king  of  Egypt,  for  some  time.  Plutarch  (De  Cohibenda  Ira,  9) 
relates  that  on  his  journey  he  was  driven  by  a  storm  to  Cyrene, 
and  fell  into  the  hands  of  its  lung  Magas,  whom  he  had  formeriy 
satirized.  Magas  treated  him  with  contempt,  and  finally  dis- 
missed him  with  a  present  of  toys.  Various  accounts  of  his  death 
are  given;  a  violent  outburst  of  laughter,  excess  of  joy  at  a 
jlramaric  victory,  or  a  peacefid  end  while  engaged  in  composing 
his  last  work  (Apuleius,  Florida,  x6;  Ludan,  Macrob.  25; 
Plutarch,  An  Seni,  p.  725).  Of  the  ninety-seven  plays  which 
he  is  said  to  have  composed,  the  titles  of  fifty-seven  and 
considerable  fragments  have  been  preserved.  Some  of  these 
may  have  been  the  work  of  his  son,  the  younger  Philemon, 
who  is  said  to  have  composed  fifty-four  comedies.  The 
Merchant  and  The  Treasure  of  Philemon  were  the.  originals 
respectively  of  the  Uercator  and  Trinummns  of  Plautns.  The 
fragments  preserved  by  Stobaeus,  Athenaeus  and  other  writecs 
contain  much  wit  and  good  sense,    (^uintilian  (/Mtif.  1.  1,  7a) 


THILEMON,  EPISTLE  TO— PHILETAS 


i7S 


uUgatd  the  second  place  tmong  the  poets  of  the  New  Gomedjr 

to  Phflemon,  and  Apnleius,  who  hsA  ft  high  opinion  of  him,  hu 

drawn  a  oomparison  between  him  and  Menaader. 

See  A.  McindKe.  iittumdn  et  Pkikmonis  rdi^uiM  (1893,  Includinf 
fientley't  emendations);  T.  Kock,  CimtccnMi  gntcorum  fingmmUOt 
vol.  iii.  (1884). 

PHILBMOH,  EPISTLE  T0»  a  scnpCure  of  the  New  Testament 
Onesimus,  a  slaTe,  had  robbed  (ve.  11,  iS-xq)  and  run  away 
from  his  master  Philemon,  a  prosperous  and  influential  Christian 
dtixen  of  Colossae  (CoL  iv.  9),  either  offence  rendering  him  liable 
to  be  ctudfied.  Voluntarily  or  AcddentaHy,  he  came  across 
Paul,  who  won  him  over  to  the  Christian  faith.  In  the  few 
tactful  and  charming  lines  of  this  brief  note,  the  apostle  sends 
him  back  to  his  master  with  a  plea  for  kindly  treatment.  After 
greeting  Philemon  and  his  wife,  with  Archippus  (possibly  their 
son)  and  the  Christians  who  met  for  worship  at  Philemon's  house 
(w.  1-^3),  Paul  rejoices  over  (w.  4-7)  his  ooirespondent's 
character;  it  encourages  him  to  make  an  appeal  on  behalf  of 
the  unworthy  Onesimus  (8-az),  now  returning  (CoL  !▼.  9)  along 
with  IVchicus  to  Colossae,  as  a  penitent  and  sincere  Christian, 
in  order  to  resume  his  place  m  the  household.  With  a  Une  or 
two  of  personal  detail  (2^-35)  the  note  closes. 

Rome  would  be  a  more  natural  rendezvous  for  foi^tlvarii 
(runaway  slaves)  than  Caesarea  (Hilgenfeld  and  others),  and 
it  is  probable  that  Paul  wrote  this  note,  with  Phllippians  and 
Colossians,  from  the  metropolis.  As  Laodlcea  is  dose  to  O>!ossae 
it  does  not  follow,  even  if  Archippus  be  held  to  have  belonged 
to  the  former  town  (as  Lightfoot  argues  from  Col.  iv.  ij-x?), 
that  Philemon's  residence  must  have  been  there  also  (so  A. 
Maier,  Thiersch,  Wieseler,  &c.).  Paul  cannot  have  converted 
Philemon  at  Colossae  (Col.  li.  x),  but  elsewhere,  possibly  at 
Ephesus;  yet  Philemon  may  have  been  on  a  visit  to  Ephcsus, 
fcM',  even  were  the  Ephesian  Onesimus  of  Ignatius  (Eph.  ii^  the 
Onesimus  of  this  note,  it  would  not  prove  that  he  had  always 
lived  there.  No  adequate  reason  has  been  shown  for  suspecting 
that  the  note  Is  interpolated  at  any  point.  Theaasodatlon  of 
Timotheus  with  Paul  (v.  z)  does  not  involve  any  official  tinge, 
which  would  justify  the  deletion  of  ical  TifiAftoi  6  i£(K^  pon  in 
that  verse,  and  of  iiiiuiv  in  vo,  1-3  (so  Holtzmann),  and  Hausnth*s 
su^icions  of  the  allusion  to  Paul  as  a  prisoner  and  of  t.  la  are 
equally  arbitrary.  The  construction  in  xv.  5HS  is  difficult,  but 
it  yields  to  exegetical  treatment  (cf.  especially  Haupt's  note) 
and  does  not  involve  the  interpolation  of  matter  by  the  later 
redactor  of  Colossians  and  Ephesians  (Hoftamann,  Hausrath^ 
and  Brilckner,  Rdhenfolge  d.  patd.  Briefe,  aooseq.). 

The  brevity  of  the  note  and  its  lade  of  doctrinal  significance 
prevented  it  from  gaining  frequent  quotation  in  the  early 
Christian  literature,  but  it  appean  in  Mardon's  canon  as  well 
as  in  the  Muratorian,  whilst  Tertullian  mentions,  and  Origen 
expressly  quotes  it.  During  the  X9th  century,  the  hesitation 
about  Colossians  led  to  the  rejection  of  Philemon  by  some  critics 
as  a  pseudonymous  little  pamphlet  on  the  slave  question — 
an  aberration  of  literary  criticism  (reproduced  In  Eney.  Bib,, 
3693  seq.)  which  needs  simply  to  be  chronicled.  It  is  interesting 
to  observe  that,  apart  from  the  letter  of  commendation  for 
Rioebe  (Rom.  xvi.),  this  is  the  only  letter  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment addressed,  even  in  part,  to  a  woman,  unless  the  second 
epbtle  of  John  be  taken  as  meant  for  an  individuaL 

BxBLioCRAPHY.^ln  addition  to  most  commentaries  on  Colossians 
and  to  Dr  M.  R.  Vincent's  edition  of  Phllippians,  compare  spedal 
exesetical  studies  by  R.  Rollock  (Geneva.  1603).  G.  C  Stonr  (1781). 
J.  K.  I.  Derome,  ErkUrung  d.  PkUemon-Briefes  (1&14):  H.  A.  Peter- 
mann,  Ad  Jldem  versionum  ...  cum  earum  Uxtm  orig.  graect  (Beriin, 
1044);  M.  Rothe,  Pavli  ad  PkiUm,  efistciat  inter preUOia  kistarico- 
rutttica  (Bremen,  1844);  and  H.  J.  Hottsmann,  Zeitsckrifl  fUr 
vtfWJi.  Tkedogit  (1673),  pp.  438  sqq..  besides  the  essays  of  J.  G.  C. 
Klotzach,  De  occasion*  et  tndok  eputolae  ad  PkiUm,  (1793):  D.  H. 
Wildschut,  De  vi  dictumis  et  sermonis  elegantia  in  epistataadPkilem. 
(i 809) :  and  J .  P.  Esser,  Der  BrifJ an  Pkilemcn  (i 875).  An  up-to-date 
turvey  of  cntidsm  is  furnished  by  Dr  J.  H.  Bernard  in  Hastings's 
tHctumary  ei  the  Bible,  iv.  833^34,  and  a  oood  exposition  may  be 
found  in  Z/Weber's  Der  Bruf  an  d,  Philemon,  ein  VarbOd  fir  die 

*  History  of  the  New  Testament  Times  (1895),  iv.  133-133.  See. 
00  this,  Schenkel's  BUd-LestUum,  iv.  531-333. 


ekeia.  Beh^maung  aasMsr  Irofm  (189S),  as  weH  as  in  Dr  A.  H 
Dryadale's  devolioial  commentary  (London,  X906).         (J,  Mr.) 

PBILEHOH  and  BAUCIS,  the  hero  and  heiome  of  a  beautiful 

story  told  by  Ovid  {Metam,  viil.  6x0-7x5),  the  scene  of  which 

is  laid  in  Phrygia.   Zeus,  accompanied  by  Hermes,  visited  earth 

in  human  form;  tired  and  weary,  they  sought  shelter  for  the 

night,  but  all  diut  their  doon  against  them  except  an  aged 

couple  living  in  a  humble  cottage,  who  afforded  them  hospitality. 

Before  their  departure  the  gods  revealed  themsdves,  and  bade 

tbrir  hosts  follow  them  to  the  top  of  a  mountain,  to  escape  the 

punishment  destined  to  fall  on  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants.  The 

country  was  overwhdmed  by  a  flood;  the  cottage,  which  alone 

remained  standing,  was  changed  into  a  magnificent  temple; 

The  gods  appointed  Philemon  and  Baucis  priest  and  priestess, 

and  granted  thdr  prayer  that  they  might  die  together.    After 

many  yean  they  were  changed  Into  trees — Philemon  into  an 

oak.  Bands  into  a  lime.    The  story,  which  emphasizes  the 

sacred  duty  of  hospitality,  is  probably  of  local  Phrygian  origin, 

put  together  from  two  widdy  circulated  legends  of  the  v^ts 

of  gods  to  men,  and  of  the  preservation  of  certain  Individuals 

from  the  flood  as  the  reward  of  piety.   It  lingers  In  the  account 

(Acts  ziv.)  of  the  healing  of  the  lame  man  by  Paul  at  Lystra,  the 

inhabitants  of  which  identified  Paul  and  Barnabas  whh  Zeus 

and  Hermes, "  come  down  in  the  likeness  of  men." 

Similar  stories  are  given  in  T.  Grimm,  Deutsche  htyOioto^  (Eng. 
trans.,  1863,  ii.  580,  and  vL  38). 

PHILES.  HANUEL  {e,  1375-1345),  of  Ephesus,  Byzantine 
poet.  At  an  early  age  he  removed  to  Constantinople,  where 
he  was  the  pupil  of  (jeor^us  Pachymeres,  in  whose  honour  he 
composed  a  memorial  poem.  Philes  appears  to  have  travelled 
extensively,  and  his  writings  contain  much  infortoation  concern- 
ing  the  imperial  court  and  distinguished  Byzantines.-  Having 
offended  one  of  the  emperon  by  indiscreet  remarks  published 
in  a  chronography,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  only  released 
after  an  abject  apology.  Philes  is  the  counterpart  of  llieodorus 
Prodromus  in  the  time  of  the  Comneni;  his  character,  as  ^own 
in  his  poems,  b  that  of  a  begging  poet,  always  pleading  poverty, 
and  ready  to  descend  to  the  grossest  flattery  to  obtain  the  favour- 
able notice  of  the  great.  With  one  unimportant  exception,  his 
productions  are  in  verse,  the  greater  part  in  dodecasyibblc 
iambic  trimeters,  the  remainder  in  the  fifteen-syllable  "  political " 
measure. 

Philes  was  iShtp  author  of  poems  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects :  on 
the  characteristics  of  aoinau,  chiefly  based  upon  Aeliap  ana  Oppian, 
a  didactic  poem  of  some  30oo  lines,  dedicated  to  Michael  Paiaco- 
loi[Us;  on  toe  elephant;  on  plants;  a  necroloeical  poem,  probably 
written  on  the  death  of  one  of  the  sons  of  the  iniperiai  nouae;  • 
panegyric  on  John  Caatacusene.  in  the  form  of  a  owlogua;  a  oon* 
vemtioo  between  a  man  and  ms  soul;  on  efclmiastiral  subjects, 
such  as  church  festivals,  Christian  beliefs,  the  saints  and  fathen 
of  the  church ;  on  works  of  art,  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  his 
pieces  for  their  bearing  on  Bysantine  iconography,  since  the 
writer  had  before  him  the  works  he  describe,  and  uso  the  most 
successful  from  a  literary  point  of  view;  ocrawbnal  poems*  many  of 
which  are  simply  begging  letters  in  verse. 

Editions:  the  natural  nbtory  poems  in  F.  Lehra  and  F.  DQbner, 
Poelao  hneolici  et  didaetiei  (Didot  aeries.  1846);  Manuelis  Philae 
Caemina  inediiat  ed.  A.  Martini  (1900);  Manuelis  Philae  Gsnntaa 
ed.  E.  Miller  (i8<(5-t837)-  See  abo  C.  Krumbacher.  Geschtckte  der 
bytanHnischen  Lmeralur  (1897). 

PHILETAS  of  Cos,  Alexandrian  poet  and  critic,  flourished 
in  the  second  half  of  the  4th  century  b.c.  He  was  tutor  to  the 
son  of  Ptolemy  I.  of  Egypt,  and  abo  taught  Theocritus  and  the 
grammarian  Zenodotus.  Hb  thinness  made  him  an  object  of 
ridicule;  according  to  the  comic  poets,  he  carried  lead  in  hb 
shoes  to  keep  himself  from  being  blown  away.  Over-study  of 
Megarian  dialectic  subtleties  b  said  to  have  shortened  his  life. 
His  elegies,  chiefly  of  an  amatory  nature  and  singing  the  praises 
of  his  mistress  Battb  (or  Bittb),  were  much  admired  by  the 
Romans.  He  b  frequently  mentioned  by  Ovid  and  Propertius, 
the  latter  of  whom  imitated  him  and  preferred  him  to  his  rival 
Callimacbus,  whose  superior  mythological  lore  was  more  to  the 
taste  of  the  Alexandrian  critics.  Philetas  was  also  the  author 
of  a  vocabulary  called  'Aroxra,  explaining  the  meanings  of  rare 


376 


PHILIDOR— PHILIP  (KINGS  OF  MACEDONIA) 


and  obscure  words,  Indtiding  words  peculiar  to  certain  dialects; 
and  of  notes  on  Homer,  severely  criticized  by  Aristarchus. 

Fragments  edited  bj  N*  Bach  (1838).  and  T.  Beigk.  Poetae  hrici 
graeci;  see  also  £•  W.  Maass,  De  tribus  PkiUtae  carminibus  (1895). 

PHIUDOR,  FRAKgOlS  ANDRfi  DAHICAH  (1736-1795), 
French  composer  and  chess-player,  was  bom  at  Dreux,  on  the 
7th  of  September  1726,  of  a  musical  family.  The  family  name 
was  Danican»  but  that  of  Philidor,  added  in  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century,  eventually  supplanted  the  older  name.  Francois 
Andri  received  a  musiad  education  as  a  member  of  the  corps 
of  pages  attached  to  the  orchestra  of  the  king;  and  subsequently 
he  earned  his  living  by  giving  lessons  and  copying  music.  Much 
of  his  time  was,  however,  devoted  to  chess,  at  which  he  soon 
became  an  ezptfL  '  He  spent  many  years  in  travelling  on  the 
Continent  and  in  Enghmd,  meeting  and  defeating  the  most 
noted  players  of  the  time,  and  is  regarded  as  the  strongest  player 
and  greatest  theoretician  of  the  18th  century.  Returning  to 
France  in  1754,  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  seriously  to  musical 
composition,  and  after  producing  several  works  of  minor  im- 
portance brought  out  at  Paris,  in  the  year  1759,  his  successful 
light  opera,  Blaise  U  Saveiier,  which  was  followed  by  a, number 
of  others,  noUbly  Le  Soldai  maitcUn  (1760),  Le  Jardinter  d  son 
seigneur  (1761),  Le  Sorcier  (1762),  and  Tom  Jones  (1764).  He 
di«l  in  London  on  the  3zst  of  August  1795. 

PHIUP  (Gf.  ^OMnros,  fond  of  horses,  from  ^iKuy,  to  love, 
andtmros,  horse;  Lat.  Philippus,  whence  e.g.  M.  H.  Ger.  Philippes, 
Dutch  Filips,  and,  with  dropping  of  the  final  s,  IL  PiKppo,  Fr. 
Philippe^  Ger.  PkUippt  Sp.  Felipe),  a  masculine  proper  name, 
popularized  among  the  Christian  nations  as  having  been  that 
of  one  of  the  apostles  of  ChrisL  Notices  of  distinguished  men 
who  have  borne  this  name  are  arranged  below  in  the  following 
order:  (z)  Biblical;  (a)  Kings  of  Macedonia,  France,.  Germany 
and  Spain;  (3)  other  nders. 

PHIUP*  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  mentioned  fifth  in  all 
the  lists  (MatL  z.  3;  Mark  iiL  18;  Luke  vi.  14;  Acts  i.  13).  He 
is  a  mere  name  in  the  Synoptists,  but  a  figure  of  some  prominence 
in  the  Fourth  Gospel.  There  he  is  said  to  have  been  "  of  Beth- 
saida,  the  dty  of  Andrew  and  Peter,"  and  to  have  received  his 
call  to  follow  Jesus  at  Bethany,  having  previously  been,  it  would 
seem,  a  disciple  of  the  Baptist  (John  i.  43,  44;  d.  28).  Philip 
was  at  that  time  the  means  of  bringing  Nathanael  to  Jesus 
(John  L  45),  and  at  a  later  date  he,  along  with  Andrew,  carried 
the  request  of  the  inquiring  Greeks  to  the  Master  (John  xii.  22). 
Philip  and  Andrew  done  are  mentioned  by  name  in  connexion 
with  the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  (John  vi.  5,  7),  and  Philip 
is  abo  one  of  the  few  interlocutors  in  John  ziv.  Slight  though 
these  references  are,  all  agree  in  presenting  Philip  as  of  an  inquir- 
ing and  calculating  character,  slow  to  take  the  initiative,  but, 
when  convinced  of  the  path  of  duty,  thoroughly  loyal  in  following 
it.  After  the  resurrection  he  was  present  at  the  election  of 
Matthias  as  successor  to  Judas,  but  he  does  not  again  appear 
in  the  New  Testament  history;  it  is,  however,  implied  that  he 
still  continued  in  Jerusalem  after  the  outbreak  of  the  first 
persecution. 

Little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  traditional  accounts  of 
Philip,  owing  to  the  evident  confusion  that  had  arisen  between 
him  and  the  evangelist  of  the  same  name,  who  appears  in  the 
book  of  Acts  (see  bdow).  According  to  Polycrates,  bishop  of 
Ephesus,  in  h^  controversial  letter  written  to  Victor  of  Rome 
towards  the  end  of  the  2nd  century  {ap.  Euseb.  &.  £.,  iii.  31, 
V.  24),  the  gravfs  of  Philip  "  of  the  twelve  apostles,"  and  of 
his  two  aged  virgin  daughten  were  in  (the  Phrygian)  Hierapolis; 
a  third  daughter, "  who  had  lived  in  the  Holy  Ghost,"  was  buried 
at  Ephesus.  With  this  may  be  compared  the  testimony  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  who  inddentally  (Strom,  iii.  6)  speaks 
of  "  Philip  the  Apostle  "  aa  having  begotten  children  and  as 
having  given  daughters  in  Carriage.  On  the  other  hand, 
Produs,  one  of  the  interfecutors  in  the  "  Dialogue  of  Caius,"  a 
writing  of  somewhat  later  date  than  the  letter  of  Polycrates, 
mentions  (ap.  Euseb.  H.  £.,  iii.  31)  "  four  prophetesses,  the 
daughters  of  Philip  at  Hierapolis  in  Asia,  whose  tomb  and  that 
of  their  father  are  to  be  seen  there,"  where  the  mention  of  t^e 


daughters  prophesyint  identifies  the  person  meant  with  the 
PhiUp  of  Acts  (d.  Acts  xxi.  8).  The  reasons  for  setting  aside 
this  latter  identification,  and  for  holding  that  the  Philip  who  lived 
at  Hierapolis  was  the  Apostle  are  dearly  stated  by  Ligfatfoot, 
Colossians  (a)  note  3,  p.  45  seq.,  and  fresh  confirmation  <rf  his  view 
has  recently  been  afforded  by  the  discovery  of  an  inscription 
at  Hierapolis,  showing  that  the  church  there  was  dedicated  to 
the  memory  "  of  the  holy  and  glorious  apostle  and  thcologisn 
PhUip"  (Ramsay,  Citietand  Bishoprics  of  Pkrygia^  vol  I, 
pt.  ii.  p.  552). 

See  also  Corasen,  "  Die  Tfichter  des  Philipptts  "  in  the  ZeiuArifi 
far  die  neutesUunentliche  Wissensckaft  (1901),  p.  389  sqq.  The  other 
view,  that  the  Philip  of  Hierap<Jis  is  the  Phiup  of  Acta,  is  taken  by 
Zahn,  ForsekuHgen  stir  CtsckickU  des  nadestamenUicken  Kamtms 
(1900),  vl  158  sqq. 

A  later  stage  of  the  tradition  regarding  Philip  appears  in 
various  late  apocryphal  writings  which  have  been  edited  hy 
Tischendorf  in  his  Ada  apostolorum  apocrypha,  and  in  hb 
Apocalypses  apocryphae.  According  to  the  Acta  Philippi,  « 
woric  beloncpng  at  the  earliest  to  the  dose  of  the  4th  century 
(see  Zahn,  op.  cit.  p.  18  sqq.),  Philip,  with  Bartholomew  and  hb 
own  sister  Mariamne,  exeidsed  a  widespread  missionary  activity, 
preaching  not  only  throu^out  Asia  Minor,  but  also  in  Hdlas 
the  dty  of  the  Athenians,  in  Scythia,  and  in  Gaul,  &&  According 
to  one  account  he  died  a  natural  death;  according  to  another 
he  was  hanged  or  crucified,  head  downwards.  An  ^MKryphal 
gospel,  which  describes  the  progress  of  the  soul  through  the  nest 
world,  bears  his  name  (Hennecke,  NeutcstameHtliche  Apokryphm, 
1904,  p.  40  seq.). 

Since  the  6tfa  century  Philip  has  been  commemorated  in  the 
West,  along  with  St  James  the  I«8S,  on  the  ist  of  May,  their 
relics  being  deposited  in  the  same  church  in  Rome;  in  the  Eiastein 
Church  Philip's  day  is  the  X4th  of  November,  and  that  of  James 
the  Less  the  23rd  of  October. 

PHILIP,  "the  evangelist/'  is  first  mentioned  hi  the  Acts 
(vi.  5)  as  one  of  "  the  seven  "  who  were  chosen  to  attend  to 
certain  temporal  affairs  of  the  church  in  Jerusalem  in  conse- 
quence of  the  murmurings  of  the  Hellenists  against  the  Hebrews. 
After  the  martyrdom  of  Stqphen  he  went  to  "  the  dty  of 
Samaria,"  where  he  preached  with  much  success,  Simcm  Magus 
being  one  of  his  converts.  He  afterwards  instruaed  and  baptized 
the  Ethiopian  eunuch  on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and  Gaza; 
next  he  was  "  caught  away  "  by  the  Spirit  and  "  found  at  Azotus  " 
(Ashdod),  whence  "  passing  through  he  preached  in  all  the  dries 
till  he  came  to  Caesorca  "  (Acts  viil).  Here  some  years  after- 
wards, according  to  Acts  xxi.  8,  9,  where  he  is  described  as  **  the 
evangelist "  (a  term  found  again  in  the  New  Testament  only 
in  Eph.  iv.  ix;  a  Tim.  iv.  5),  he  entertained  Paul  and  his  com- 
panion on  thdr  way  to  Jerusalem;  at  that  time  "  he  had  four 
daughters  which  did  prophesy."  At  a  very  early  period  he 
came  to  be  confounded  with  the  apostle  Philip  (see  above);  the 
confusion  was  all  the  more  easy  because,  as  an  esteemed  member 
of  the  apostolic  company,  he  may  readily  have  been  described 
as  an  apostle  in  the  wider  sense  of  that  word  (see  further  Salmon, 
Introd.  to  the  New  Testament,  7th  ed.,  p.  3 13  sqq.) .  A  late  tradition 
describes  him  as  settling  at  Tralles  in  Asia  Minor,  where  he  be- 
came the  overseer  or  ruler  of  the  church.  "  Philip  the  deacon  *' 
is  commemorated  on  the  6th  of  June. 

PHIUP  I^  king  of  Macedonia,  a  semi-Iegendazy  prince,  son 
of  Argaeus,  was,  according  to  Herodotus  (viii.  137-139)  and 
Thucydides  (ii.  xoo),  the  third  of  the  Macedonian  kings.  In  the 
texts  of  Dexfppus  and  Eusebius  he  ranks  sixth,  Caranus,  Coenus 
and  Thurimas  (or  Turimmas)  being  there  regarded  as  the  pre- 
decessors of  Perdiccaa  I.,  whom  Herodotus  and  Thucydides 
regard  as  the  first  king  of  Macedonia.  Eusebius  and  Dexippus 
assign  to  PhiUp  I.  a  reign  of  38  and  35  years  respectively,  llieie 
is,  however,  no  real  evidence  for  his  existence.  (E.  R-  BJ 

PHILIP  IL  (382-'336  B.C.),  king  of  Macedonia,  the  son  of 
Arayntas  II.,  and  the  Lyncestian  Eurydice,  reigned  359-336. 
At  his  birth  the  Macedonian  kingdom,  including  the  turbuknt 
peoples  of  the  hill-country  behind,  was  veiy  imperfectly  con- 
solidated.   In  370  Amyntas  died,  and  the  troubled  ret|pi  d 


PHILIP  (KINGS  OF  MACEDONIA) 


PiiUip's  eUest  brotlier,  Alexander  II.,  was  cut  short  in  368  by 
his  assassination.  His  murderer,  Ptolemy  of  Alorus,  ruled  as 
regent  for  tbe  young  Pcrdiccas,  Am3mtas's  second  son.  In  367 
Philip  was  delivered  as  hostage  to  the  Thebans,  then  the  leading 
power  of  Greece  (by  whom  does  not  seem  dear).  During  the 
three  years  he  spent  at  Thebes  the  boy  no  doubt  observed  and 
learnt  much.  When  he  returned  to  Macedonia  (364)  Perdiocas 
had  succeeded  in  getting  rid  oif  Ptolemy ;  but  he  feU  in  360-359 
before  an  onset  of  the  hill  tribes  instigated  by  the  queen-mother 
Eurydice,  leaving  only  an  infant  son.  Varioiis  pretenders  sprang 
up  and  the  kingdom  fell  into  oonf uaon.  Philip  seised  the  throne 
and  drove  back  his  rivals.  He  now  b^(an  the  great  task  of  his 
life— the  creation  of  the  Macedonian  national  army.  The  first 
experiment  he  made  with  this  new  organism  was  brilliantly 
successful.  The  hill  tribes  were  broken  by  a  sin^  battle  in  358, 
and  Philip  established  his  authority  inland  as  far  as  Lake 
Ochrida.  In  the  autumn  of  tbe  same  year  he  took  the  Athenian 
colony,  Amphipolis,  which  commanded  the  gold-mines  of  Mt 
Pangaeua.  Their  possession  was  all-important  for  Philip^  and 
he  set  there  the  new  city,  called  after  him,  Philippi.  Athens 
was  temporarily  pacified  by  assurances  that  Amphipolis  would 
be  handed  over  to  her  later  on.  The  work  of  fashioning  the 
Macedonian  army  occupied  Philip  for  the  next  few  years,  whilst 
his  diplomacy  was  busy  securing  partisans  within  the  states  of 
Greece.  He  avoided  as  yet  a  forward  policy,  and  having  taken 
j^dna  and  Potidaea  soon  after  Amphipolis,  he  made  them  over 
to  the  Olynthian  confederation  (see  Olykthus).  His  marriage 
with  the  fierce  witch-woman,  Olympias,  daughter  of  the  ^>irote 
king,  falls  in  this  period,  and  in  356  she  bore  him  his  greater  son, 
Alexander.  In  353  Philip  was  ready  lor  strong  action.  He  first 
attacked  Abdera  and  Mazonea,  on  the  Thracian  sea-boaod,  and 
then  took  Methone,  which  belonged  to  Athena.  An  overt  breach 
with  Athens  was  now  inevitable.  In  the  same  summer  he  in.- 
vaded  Thessaly,  where  the  Aleuadac  of  Larissa  ranged  themselves 
on  his  side  against  the  iagus  Lycophron,"  tyrant "  of  Pherae. 
Pherae  called  in  the  help  of  the  Phocian  mercenaries,  who  had 
profaned  Delphi,  and  Philip  met  with  a  check.  He  had,  however, 
the  advantage  of  now  being  able  to  present  himself  to  the  Greeks 
as  the  champion  of  Apollo  in  a  holy  war,  and  in  352  the  Mace- 
donian army  won  a  complete  victory  over  the  Pheraeans  and 
Phodans.  This  battle  made  Philip  tagus  of  Thessaly,  and  he 
claimed  as  his  own  Magnesia,  with  the  important  harbour  of 
Pagasae.  Hostilities  with  Athens  did  not  yet  take  place,  but 
Athens  was  threatened  by  the  Macedonian  party  which  Philip's 
gold  created  in  Euboea. 

From  352  to  346  Philip  dfd  not  again  come  south.  He  was 
active  in  completing  the  subjugation  of  the  Balkan  hill-country 
to  the  west  and  north,  and  in  redudng  the  Greek  dties  of  the 
coast  as  far  as  the  Hebrus  (Maritza).  For  the  chief  of  these, 
indeed,  Olynthus,  he  continued  to  profess  friendship  till  its 
neighbour  dties  were  in  his  hands,  llien,  in  349,  he  opened  war 
upon  it.  Athens,  to  whom  Olynthus  appealed,  sent  no  adequate 
forces,  In  spitt  of  the  upbraidings  of  Demosthenes  (see  his 
Olynthiacs),  and  in  the  spring  of  347  Olynthus  felL  PhUip  razed 
it  to  the  ground  (see  Olynthus).  Macedonia  and  the  regions 
adjoining  it  having  now  been  securdy  consolidated^  PhiUp 
celebrated  his  **  Olympian  "  games  at  Dium.  In  347  Philip 
advanced  to  the  conquest  of  the  eastern  districts  about  the 
Hebrus,  and  compelled  the  submission  of  the  Thracian  prince 
Cersobleptes.  Meanwhile  Athens  had  made  overtures  for  peace 
(see  the  De  falsa  legatione  of  Demosthenes),  and  when  Philip, 
in  346,  again  moved  souths  peace  was  sworn  in  Thessaly.  The 
time  was  come  for  Philip  to  assert  himself  in  Greece,  and  the 
Phodans,  who  still  dominated  Delphi  and  hdd  Thermopylae, 
could  furnish  a  pretext  to  the  champion  of  Pan-HeUenism  and 
ApoUo.  The  Phocian  mercenaries  at  Thermopylae  were  bought 
off  and  Philip  crossed  into  central  Greece.  Here  he  made  Thebes 
bis  ally  and  vlnted  the  Phodans  with  crushing  vengeance. 
TTie  Pythian  games  of  346  were  cdebrated  at  the  delivered 
Delphi  under  Philip's  presidency.  Pan-Hellenic  enthusiasts 
already  saw  Philip  as  the  destined  captain-general  of  a  national 
cnisade  against  Persia  (Isocntes,  PkUippust  about  345).  ,  And 


377 

sQch  a  position  Philip  had  determined  to  secure:  the  Macedoaian 
agents  continued  to  work  thxoiighaiit.the  Greek  sutes,  and  io 
the  Peloponnesus  Sparta  soon  found  herself  isolated.  Euboea, 
toot  submitted  to  Macedonian  influence  and  even  received  some 
garrisons.  Bot  more  work  had  to  be  done  In  the  Balkan  high< 
lands*  In  344,  or  one  of  the  following  years,  the  Macedonian 
arms  were  carried  across  Epims  to  the  Adriatic^  In  349  Philip 
led  a  great  espeditioa  north  "  comparable  to  nothing  in  antiquity 
since  Danus'  famous  mttch  to  Scythia*"  In  341  his  amy  w^ 
stiU  campaigning  in  eastern  Thrace,  when  PhiHp  felt  compeUell 
to  show  his  pieseaoe  in  Thessaly.  During  these  jrears,  although 
Athens  had  not  overtly  broken  the  peace  of  346,  there  had  been 
various  dipkunatic  bidterings  and  hoitik  intrigues  between  the 
two  powers  (cf.  the  PkUippia  ni  Demosthenes).  Athens  bad 
even  sent  emissaries  to  tbe  Persian  court  to  give  warning  of  tbe 
proposed  national  cfusade.  She  now  egged  on  the  dties  of  the 
Propontis<  Byzantium,Perinthus,  Sdymbria)  .who  f dt  themsdves 
threatened  by  Philip's  Thiadan  conquests,  to  declace  against 
him.  The  sieges  oC  Perinthus  and  Bysandnm  (340, 339)  ended 
in  Philip's  meeting  with  a  signal  chedi,  due  in  some  measure  to 
the  help  afforded  the  besieged  dties  by  Athens  and  her  alUes. 
Philip's  infltience  idl  over  Greece  was  compromised.  But  befora 
marching  south  be  led  another  expedition  acioss  the  Balkans 
into  the  country  now  called  Bulgaria,  and  returned  to  Pella  with 
much  spoil  but  aeveidy  wounded  in  the  thigh.  In  338  he  once 
more  crossed  into  central  Greece.  The  pretext  was  the  con<i 
tumacy  shown  by  the  Locrian  toiwn  Amphissa  to  the  rulings 
of  tbe  Ampfaictyomc  CoundL  Philip's  fortification  of  EUten 
filled  Athens  with  alarm.  Thebes  was  induced  to  join  Athens; 
so  were  some  of  the  minor  Pelopoonesian  statesk,  and  the  aUiea 
took  the  field  against  Phil^.  This  opposition  was  crushed  by 
the  epoch-making  battle  of  Chaeroneia,  which  left  Greece,  at 
Philip's  feet.  In  the  following  year  (337)  Philip  was  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  a  congress  of  the  Greek  states  at  the  Isthmus 
(from  which,  however,  Sparta  held  sullenly  aloof)  recognized 
Philip  as  captain-general  for  the  war  against  Persia.  Philip 
returned  to  Macedonia  to  completehis  preparations;  an  advanced 
force  was  sent  into  Asia  in  the  spring  of  336.  But  Philip's  plans 
were  suddenly  blasted  by  his  assassination  in  the  same  year 
during  the  mairiagr  festival  of  his  daughter  at  Aegse,  the  old 
capital  of  Macedonia.  He  left,  however,  in  the  Macedonian 
army  a  splendid  instnunent  which  enabled  his  sob  within  tea 
years  to  change  the  face  of  the  world. 

Philip  stands  high  among  the  makers  of  kingdoms*  Restless 
eneigy,  determination,  a  faculty  for  animating  and  organizing 
a  strong  people,  went  with  unscrupulous  duplidty  and  a  full- 
blooded  vehemence  in  the  pleasures  of  sense.  Yet  Philip  was  not 
untouched  by  ideal  considerations,  as  is  proved  by-  the  re^>ect, 
no  doubt  sincere,  .which  he  showed  lor  Hellenic  culture,  by  the 
forbearance  and  deference  with  which  be  treated  Athens,  the 
sacred  dty  of  that  culture  and  his  mortal  foe.  A  special  interest 
belongs  to  the  Macedonian  kingdom  as  it  was  shaped  by  Phih'p, 
since  it  forestalls  a  system  which  was  not  to  find  the  time  ripe 
for  it  in  European  history  till  many  centuries  later— the  nationd 
kingdom  quickened  with  the  culture  devdoped  by  the  ancient 
dty-states.  The  national  kingdoms  founded  by  the  Northern 
races,  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  under  the  influence 
of  the  classics!  tradition,  are  the  beginnings  of  the  modem 
European  system;  Philip  of  Macedon  foreshadows  Theodoric, 
Charlemagne  and  William  the  Conqueror.  But  this  first  national 
kingdom  within  the  sphere  of  Greek  culture  could  not  ultimatdy 
live  between  the  surge  of  the  Northern  barbarians  .^nd  the 
Roman  power. 

See  the  authorities  under  Gbeecb  :  History,  A  vivid  and  mastcriv 
sketch  of  Philip's  personality  and  wodc  Is  given  b  P.  G.  Hogarth  s 
PhUip  and  Alexander  (1 897)-  (^  K-  B) 

P^IUP  UI.  [AuiBiDAEUs],  king  of  Macedonia,  was  the 
feeble-minded  son  of  Philip  n.  of  Macedonia  by  a  Thessalian 
wife.  He  was  chosen  by  the  Macedonian  ^rmy  at  Babylon  in 
323  to  be  nominal  king  conjointly  with  the  infant  Alexander, 
and  was  killed  in  Macedonia  by  order  of  Olympias  (3x7)* 
(See  >Iaceoomxan  Empirs.) 


378   PHILIP  (KINGS  OF  MACEDONIA)--PHILIP  II.  (FRANCE) 


PHIUP  ly^  king  of  Macedonia,  was  (he  son  of  Caiaahdfr, 
king  of  Macedonia:  he  reigned  only  one  year  (397-396). 

PinUP  V^  king  of  Macedonia,  son  of  Demetrius  IL  and 
Ckxyseb,  was  an  infant  at  his  father's  death  in  330-339.  His 
cousin,  AntigonUB  Doson,  administered  the  kingdom  as  regent 
till  his  death  in  33i-33o»  when  Philip  was  eighteen  years  old. 
Philip  now  ascended  the  throne  ai»d  reigned  till  179.  His 
reign  was  occupied  in  the  vain  struggle  to  maintain  the  old 
Macedonian  supremacy  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  which  became 
hopeless  after  the  iatcnrcntion  of  Rome  and  the  decisive 
battle  of  Cynoscephalae  (197).  See  Rome:  History,  f  II. 
"  The  Republic  "  (period  B,  $  b).  (E.  R.  B.) 

PHIUP  I.  (1053^1108),  king  of  France,  eldest  son  of  Henry  I 
of  France  and  Anne,  daughter  of  Jaroslav  I.  (d.  1054),  giand 
duke  of  Kiev,  came  to  the  throne,  when  a  child  of  eight,  by  the 
death  of  his  father  on  the  4th  of  August  io6a  He  had  been 
crowned  at  Reims,  in  the  presence  of  a  number  of  nagnates, 
on  the  33nl  of  May  1059.  Philip  passed  most  of  his  early  years 
in  and  around  Paris,  where  the  casUes  of  lawless  barons,  such 
as  that  of  Montlhiiry,  threatened  even  his  personal  safety.  His 
minority  came  to  an  end  in  1066.  In  the  long  reign  that  fol- 
lowed he  showed  no  great  ability  or  energy,  and  a  looseness  of 
morals  which  embroiled  him  with  the  Church.  Before  he  was 
fifty  years  of  age  he  became  "  fond  of  nothing  but  good  cheer 
and  sleep."  But  he  incicased  the  lands  of  his  house  around 
Paris,  maintained  order  in  them,  and  held  his  own  against 
William  I.  and  William  11.  of  England,  whose  power  in  France 
hx  exceeded  his  own.  This  he  accomplished  for  the  most  part 
by  taking  advantage  of  the  quarrels  among  his  vassals.  When 
Baldwin  VI.  of  Flanders  died,  in  1070,  his  son  Amulf  was 
attacked'  by  his  lucle  Robert  the  Frisian,  count  of  Holland. 
Philip  interfered,  at  the  prayer  of  Amulfs  mother,  Rfchildis; 
but  the  allies  were  defeated  near  Cassel  on  the  33nd  of  February 
1071  and  Arnulf  slain.  After  a  second  war  peace  was  sealed, 
apparently,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip  to  Robert's  step-daughter 
Bertha,  daughter  of  Gertrude  of  Saxony  and  Florence,  count 
of  Hdkind.  In  1074  a  new  rupture  led  to  PhUip  seiring  Corbie, 
part  of  the  dower  of  his  aunt  Adele,  who  had  married  Baldwin  IV. 
of  Flanders.  By  this  he  secured  a  sort  of  outpost  in  the  direction 
(rf  Flanders.  The  other  main  episodes  of  fab  reign  were  the 
quarrel  over  the  Angevin  inheritance  and  his  wars  with  the  dukes 
of  Normandy.  In  tlie  struggle  between  Fuflc  Recfain  and  his 
brother  Geoffrey  the  Bearded  for  the  inheritance  of  their  uncle, 
Geoffrey  Martel  (d.  1060),  count  of  Anjoa,  Philip  received  from 
Polk  in  1069.  as  the  price  of  his  neutrality,  Chiteau  Landon 
and  the  Gatinais.  This  acquisition  linked  the  county  of  Sens, 
acquired  in  loss,  with  the  rest  of  the  domain  round  Paris, 
MeloQ  &nd  Orieans.  War  with  William  I.  was  dironic  but 
intermittent.  In  X076  Philip  forced  him  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Dol  in  Brittany.  Peace  was  made  in  1077,  and  in  December 
1079  they  together  besieged  Robert  Curthose  in  the  castle  of 
Gtrbttoy.  On  the  8th  of  May  loSo  the  siege  was  raised  and 
peace  made.  War  with  William  began  again  in  xo8x  over  the 
county  of  Vexin,  which  Philip  had  seized  on  the  retirement  of 
its  count,  Simon  of  Vakns,  to  a  monastery  in  X076.  William 
demanded  reparation  for  the  raid  of  Philip's  vassals  and  the 
cession  of  Pont<^,  Chaumont-en-Vexin  and  Mantes,  but  died 
after  sacking  Mantes  b  the  same  year.  In  1098  there  was  war 
between  Philip  and  William  Rufus  in  both  Maine  and -the  VexSn. 
William  came  in  person  from  Bilaine  to  lead  the  attack  in  the 
Vexin  fn  September,  and  crossed  the  Seine,  penetrating  to 
within  30  m.  of  Paris  on  the  west;  but  the  campaign  brought  no 
results.  In  his  last  years  Philip  left  the  duty  of  repelling  the 
attacks  of  his  Norman  and  other  enemies  to  his  son  Louis, 
#*«^*ti"g  him  with  himself,  as  "  king-designate,"  some  time 
between  the  34th  of  May  X098  and  the  asth  of  September  iioo. 

It  was  his  second  marriage  which  was  the  cause  of  Philip's 
greatest  difficulties.  On  the  xsth  of  May  1093  he  carried  off 
Bertrada,  daughter  of  ^mon,  baron  de  Montfort,  wife  of  Fulk 
Rechin,  and  prepared  to  marry  her,  th6ugh  hs  wife  Bertha  was 
stiO  Irving.  The  bishops,  headed  by  Ivo,  bishop  of  Chartres, 
refused  to  attend  the  ceremony  of  marriage,  but  one  was  foond 


to  perform  it.  Philip's  open  sunony  had  long  bean  a  cause  of 
friction  with  the  papacy.  When  he  added  bigamy  and  adultery. 
Urban  II.  excommunicated  him.  The  bishop  of  Chartres,  in 
consequence,  refused  to  bring  his  vassals  to  help  Philip's  ally, 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  against  his  brother  William  in  X094. 
Bertha  died  in  that  year,  but  Fulk  was  still  living,  and  the 
sentence  was  renewed  at  the  council  of  Autun  on  the  xsth  of 
Octobec  PhiUp  replied  by  summmiing  the  bislu^  to  Paris 
to  try  Ivo  of  Chartres  for  treason.  He  gained  a  xe^te  from 
the  papal  sentence  by  promises  of  submission,  but  the  sentence 
was  rcnc«'ed  by  Urban  at  the  council  of  Clermont  in  1095,  in 
1096,  and  in  1097,  and  at  Poitiers  in  tioi,  despite  the  protest 
of  William  IX.,  count  of  Poitiers,  who  entered  the  church  with 
his  knights  to  prevent  his  suxeraia  from  being  exoommnidcated 
on  his  lands.  Philip  was  reconciled  with  the  Church  in  i  X04,  and 
took  an  oath  not  to  have  any  converse  or  society  with  Bertrada 
except  in  the  presence  of  "  non-suspect "  persons.  But  thqr 
seem  to  have  gone  on  living  togetber,  and  even  visited  Fulk 
Rechin  (Bertrada's  husband)  in  company  on  the  xsth  of  October 
1x06.    Philip  died  at  the  end  of  July  xxoS. 

His  reign  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  steady  growth  of  the 
royal  domain.  In  aiddition  to  the  gains  mentioned,  he  bought 
in  xxox  a  laige  slice  of  territory,  including  Bouiges  and  Dun-le- 
Roi,  from  Eudes  Arpm,  viscount  of  Bourges,  who  was  going 
on  the  crusade;  and  toward  the  end  of  his  rdgn  Ux^  Montlhiry, 
whose  lord  beset  the  southern  approach  to  Paris.  By  his  fint 
queen  he  had  four  children:  Louis  VI.,  1^0  succeeded  him;  Henry, 
who  died  young;  Charies;  and  Constance,  who  married  Hugh  I., 
count  of  Champagne,  and  later  Bohemund  I:,  prince  of  Antioch. 
By  Bertrada  de  Montfort  he  had  three  children:  Philip,  count  of 
Montes;  Fleury  or  Florus,  who  mazried  the  heiress  of  Nan^; 
and  Cteilia,  vAio  married,  first  Tancred,  prince  of  Galilee  and 
Antioch,  and  secondly  Pons  de  Saint  Gilks,  count  of  Tripoli. 

The  materials  for  the  reign  of  Philip  I.  are  In  the  JUcutS  dea 
historiens  des  CavUs  itde  ia  rrance,  volt.  xi.  to  xvL  See  especially 
the  critical  examination  by  Dom  Brial  of  the  historians  who  have 
spoken  of  Philip  I.  at  the  beginning  of  vol.  xvi  Consult  also 
E.  A.  Freeman,  Norman  Congutst,  iv^  passim,  and  William  Rtdns^ 
ii.  16^-303 ;  A.  Luchairc,  Louis  k  Gros  (Paris,  1890),  and  "Les 
Premiers  Capetiens  in  E.  Lavtsse's  tiistoin  dt  France  (II.  iL.  ppw 
168-17S).  More  recent  is  the  Recueil  des  actes  de  Philippe  /.,  edited 
by  M.  Pron  (1908).  and  B.  Monod's  Essai  sur  Us  rapports  de  Pascal  JI. 
aoec  Philippe  /.  (Pari*,  1^7).  For  notices  of  the  pnncmal  chronicles 
of  the  time  see  A.  MoUnier,  Les  Sources  is  Fkistoire  de  France  (II., 
esp.  p.  307  et  leq.). 

PHIUP  II.  (xx65-x333),  known  as  Phzxif  Axtcustus,  king  of 
France,  son  of  Louis  VU.  and  Adela,  daughter  of  The(^>ald  U., 
count  of  Champagne,  was  bom  on  the  aist  of  August  1x65. 
On  the  xst  of  November  1x79  he  was  associated  with  his  father 
as  king  by  being  crowned  at  Reims,  and  At  once  his  father's 
illness  threw  the  responsibility  of  government  on  him,  the  death 
of  Louis  on  the  19th  of  September  xx8o  leaving  him  sole  king. 

The  boy-king  found  himself  and  his  kingdom  in  a  difficult 
and  humiliating  position.  His  long  strip  of  royal  domain  was 
hemmed  in  by  the  Angevin  Empire  on  the  west  and  by  the  kingdom 
of  Aries  on  the  south-east.  Henry  II.  of  England  was  feudal 
lord  of  the  greater  part  of  France,  practically  all  west  of  a  line 
which  began  at  Dieppe  and  ended  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees 
more  than  half-way  across  to*  the  Mediterranean,  while  at  one 
point  it  nearly  touched  the  Rhone.  Philip's  predecessors  had 
consolidated  the  Capetian  power  within  these  narrow  limits,  but 
he  himself  was  overshadowed  by  the  power  of  his  uncles,  Wilfiam, 
archbidiop  of  Refaxts;  Heniy  I.,  oouik  of  Champagne;  and  Theo- 
bald v.,  count  of  Blois  and  Chartres.  He  secured  an  ally  against 
them,  and  an  addition  to  the  royal  domain,  by  manying,  on  the 
38th  of  Aprfl  xt8o,  Isabella  or  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Baldwin  V.» 
count  of  Halnaut,  and  of  Marguerite,  sister  of  Philip  of  Alsace» 
the  reigning  count  of  Flanders,  who  ceded  Arras,  St  Omer,  Aire 
and  Hesdin,  and  their  districts,  as  Isabella's  dowry,  a  district 
afterwards  called  Artois.  On  the  aSth  of  June  xi8o  Philip  made 
a  treaty  with  Henty  II.  at  Gisors,  and  his  reign  thus  opened 
auspiciously.  But  from  xi8x  to  ii8s  he  had  to  struggle  against 
a  feudal  league  <>f  his  Champagnard  uncles  and  other  great 


PHILIP  II.  (FRAiNCE) 


btfOBt*  whdfe  nidfet  ictiv«  ntmber  vas  Stcpbea  L,  cd&nt  %( 
Saaoene  (i  159-1  z^).   Thoagb  attacked  from  both  north  and 
■outh,  the  king's  activity  enabled  him  to  compel  the  count  of 
Sancerte  to  implote  peace  in  1181.   On  the  death  of  Isabel  of 
Vermandoia,  wife  of  Count  Philip  of  Flaadets,  in  iiS«,  Philip 
claimed  Venaandois  and  seised  Chaun^  and  St  Quentin,  and 
forced  his  fothcr*in-]aw,  Baldwin  of  Hainaut,  to  siqiport  him 
by  threatening  to  divorce  Queen  IsabeL  The  ooont  ol  Flanders 
ma  obliged  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Bovca  in  July  1x65,  which  gave 
the  king,  in  addition  to  tlw  expectation  of  ^;tvom,  hiswife^ 
dowcTi  sixty«-fi,ve  castles  in  Vemumdois  and  the  town  of  Amiens. 
By  1 186  Hu^,  duke  of  Burgundy,  the  only  member  of  the 
coalition  not  yet  subdued,  was  forced  to  submit.   Then,  secure 
at  borne,  the  king  tuned  against  Henry  II.,  and  by  the  truce  of 
Ch&teaunmx  in  June  1x87,  gained  Issoudun  and  the  sdgnioiy  of 
Fr£tevalintheVend6mois.  Though  the  truce  was  for  jtwo  years, 
Philip  assembled  an  aimy  in  1 188  to  invade  Normandy,  demand- 
ing Gisors  and  the  condnaioa  of  the  maniage  which  had  been 
arranged  between  his  sister  Alice  and  Richard  of  Eagkad,  who 
MmA  meanwhile  deserted  has  father.    But  the  news  came  that 
Saladin  had  taken  Jentsalem  and  tUchard  took  the  cross. 
Shortly  afterwards  Philip  took  advantage  of  a  rishig  agsinst  his 
i|uottdam  friend  Richard,  who  was  duke  of  AquitaLie,  to  seize 
the  county  of  Berry     M  a  conference  at  Bonmoulins  on  the 
s8th  of  November  Richard  again  abandoned  his  father,  and  after 
a  second  conference  at  La  Fert^  Bernard,  Philip  invaded  Maine 
and  forced  Henry  II  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Azay  on  the  4th  of 
July  IZ89,  by  which  the  EngUdi  king  did  homage  and  sur- 
Headcred  the  territories  of  Gra^  aad  Issoudun^   Hemy  died  two 
days  later     Pledges  of  mutual  good  faith  and  fellowship  were 
icnewed  between  Philip  and  Richard  of  England  on  the  50th  of 
December  1x89,  and  they  both  prepared  to  go  on  the  crusade. 
Before  setting  out  Philip  arranged  tor  the  government  of 
Fruice  during  his  absence  by  his  famous  testament  of  1 190,  by 
which  he  proposed  to  rule  France  as  far  as  poiaible  from  Palestine. 
The  power  of  the  regents,  Adela,  the  <iueen-mother,  and  VHlliam, 
arthbishopof  Reims,  was  restriaed  by  a  council  composed  mostly 
of  clerks  who  had  the  king's  confidence.    An  annual  report  on 
the  state  of  the  kingdom  was  to  be  sent  him.    On  the  way  to 
Palestine  the  two  kings  quarrelled.    At  the  siege  of  Acre  Philip 
fell  ill,  and  on  the  aznd  of  July,  nine  days  after  its  fall,  he  an- 
nounced his  intention  of  returning  home.    He  reached  Paris  at 
Christmas  XX91,  having  concluded  on  his  way  an  alliance  with 
the  emperor  Henry  VI.  against  Richard,  despite  his  pledges  not 
to  molest  his  lands.    When  Leopold  1.,  duke  of  Austria,  took 
Richard  prisoner  and  delivered  him  to  the  emperor,  Philip  did 
his  utmost  by  offers  of  money  to  prolong  his  captivity,  and, 
•Hied  with  the  English  king's  brother  John,  attacked  Richard's 
domains,  but  upon  Richard's  return  the  Normans  rallied  enthusl- 
asticaQy  to  his  aid.   Philip  was  dcfeiited  at  Fr6teval  on  the  jrd 
of  July  1x94,  but  he  continued  the  war,  generally  with  ill  success, 
for  the  next  five  years.   Again  a  formidable  coalition  was  formed 
against  him,  including  Baldwin  IX.,  count  of  Flanders  and  Hain- 
aut, Renaud  of  Dammartin,  count  of  Boulogne,  Loiris,  count  of 
Blois,  and  Raymond  VI.,  count  of  Toulouse.   In  Germany,  Otto 
of  Brunswick,  afterwards  the  emperor  Olto  IV.,  allied  himself 
with  Richard,  while  Philip  was  supported  by  Otto's  rival,  Philip 
of  Swabia.    Richard's  death,  in  AprO  X199,  removed  his  arch- 
enemy, and  Richard's  successOT,  John,  concluded  the  treaty  of 
t;e  Goulet  with  Philip  on  the  22nd  of  May  1200,  ceding  to  him 
the  county  of  Evreux,  Grs^y  and  Issoudun,  and  the  suzexalnty 
of  Berry  and  Auvcrgne.    John  renounced  his  stixerainty  over 
Brittany  and  the  guardianship  of  his  nephew,  Arthur;  beengagcd 
not  to  aid  the  count  of  IHanders  or  Otto  IV.  without  Philip*s 
consent,  paid  him  a  relief  of  20,000  marks,  and  recognised  himself 
as  his  vassal  for  his  continental  fiefs.    Philip's  son  Louis,  after- 
wards Louis  VIII.,  married  Blanche  of  Castile,  John's  niece. 
But  in  X  202  the  war  was  renewed,  John  having  seised  somecastles 
from  the  family  qI  Lusignan.  whose  head  was  the  count  of  La 
Marche,  and  taken  for  bis  queen  a  prospective  bride,  Isabelle 
TaiJlefer,  from  Hugh,  son  of  Hugh  IX.,  count  of  La  liif  arche.  At 
^  interW«w  at  Le  Goulet  on  the  asth  of  March,  Philip  demanded 


379 

the  cession  of  An  joo,  PdtoQ  and  Nonnandy  to  his  ward,  Anhvr. 
John  refused;  he  was  summoned  to  Paris  before  the  royal 
judges,  and  failing  to  appear  was  sentenced  at  the  end  of  April 
taos  to  lose  all  bis  fiefs.  Brittaay,  Aquitaine  and  Anjou  were 
conferred  on  Arthur.  Philip  invaded  Normandy,  took  Lyons- 
hk>Foci6t  and  Eu,  and^  csublishing  himself  in  Goiimay,  be^eged 
Arques.  But  John,  joined  by  William  ties  Roches  and  other 
lords  of  Maine  and  Poitou,  jealous  at  the  increase  of  Philip^s 
power,  defeated  and  took  Arthur  prisoner  at  Mirebeau.  Philip 
abandoned  the  siege  of  Arqucs  in  a  fit  of  fury,  marched  to  the 
Loire^  burning  everywhere,  and  then  returned  to  Paris.  Bat 
John  soon  alienated  the  Poitevin  barons,  and  WiUiaUi  des 
Roches  signed  a  treaty  with  Philip  on  the  sand  of  March  1203. 
Then  Philip  continued  Us  great  tadt,  the  conquest  of  Normandy, 
capturing  thetownsaround  the  tortressofChlteau-GaiUard  which 
Richard  had  built  to  cmnmand  the  valley  of  the  Seine.  Pope 
Iimooent  III.  tried  to  bring  about  peace,  but  Philip  was  obdurate, 
and  after  murdering  Arthur  of  Brittany  John  took  refuge  in 
England  in  December  1203.  The  fall  of  Chkteau-Gaillard,  after 
a  siege  which  lasted  from  September  x  203  to  Aprfl  x  204,  decided 
the  fate  of  Normandy.  Rouen,  bound  by  ties  of  trade  to  Eng- 
land, resisted  for  forty  days;  iHit  it  surrendered  on  the  24th  of 
June  1 204.  The  conquest  of  Maine,  Touraine,  Anjou  and  Poitou 
in  1804  and  1205  was  little  more  than  a  military  promenade 
though  the  castles  of  Lochcs  and  Chinon  held  out  for  a  yeas. 
Philip  secured  his  conquest  by  lavishing  privileges  on  the  con- 
vents and  town&  He  left  the  great  lords,  such  as  William  des 
Roches,  in  full  possession  of  their  feudal  power.  In  1206  he 
marched  through  Brittany  and  divided  it  amongst  his  adherentk. 
A  truce  for  two  years  was  made  on  the  26th  ci  October  1206  by 
which  John  renounced  all  chums  in  Normandy,  Maine,  Brilt^y, 
Touraine  and  Anjou.  but  it  did  not  last  six  months.  Then 
Poitou  was  thoroughly  subdued,  and  another  truce  was  made  in 
1208,  little  more  than  southern  Saintonge  and  Cascony  being 
left  in  the  hands  of  John.  Philip  had  redticed  to  a  mere  remnant 
the  formidable  continental  empire  of  the  Angevins,  which  had 
threatened  the  existence  of  the  Capetian  monarchy. 

Philip  then  undertook  to  invade  England.  la  the  assembly 
of  Soissons  on  the  8th  of  April  12x3  he  made  every  preparation 
for  carrying  out  the  sentence  of  deposition  pronounced  by  the 
pope  against  John.  He  had  collected  1 500  vessels  and  summoned 
all  his  barons  when  Innocent  III.,  having  sufficiently  frightened 
John,  sent  Pandulf  with  the  terms  of  submission,  whidi  John 
accepted  on  the  13th  of  May. 

Disappointed  of  his  hopes  of  England,  PhiUp  turned  his  arms 
against  Ferdinand,  count  of  Flanders.  Ferdinand,  son  6f 
Sancho  I.,  king  of  Portugal,  owed  his  county  to  Philip,  who, 
hoping  to  find  him  a  docile  prot^g^,  had  married  him  to  Jeanne, 
heiress  of  Flanders,  daughter  of  Count  Baldwin  IX.,  who  became 
emperor  of  the  East,  using  the  weak  Philip  of  Namur,  her  guar- 
dian, to  accomplish  that  end.  They  were  married  in  January  121a. 
On  the  morrow  of  the  marriage  Louis,  afterwards  Louis  VIII., 
seired  Aire  and  St  Omer  in  i^t  of  his  mother,  Isabella,  and 
on  this  account-Ferdinand  refused  his  feudafduly  in  the  English 
expedition.  Moreover,  the  trade  interests  of  his  subjects,  who 
got  their  raw  wool  from  Engbnd,  drew  him  to  an  alliance  with 
England.  Philip's  attack  brought  this  about  on  the  22nd  of 
Blay  12x3.  He  invaded  Flanders  and  took  the  chief  towns 
within  a  wede;  bat  he  had  part  of  his  fleet  burned  by  the  Ene^iA 
at  Damme,  and  had  to  bum  the  rest  to  save  it  from  falling  into 
their  hands.  He  returned  to  Paris,  and  Ferdinand  retook  mo^t 
of  the  towns  which  had  been  taken  by  the  king.  A  war  of  fire 
and  pillage  began,  in  which  Philip  and  his  son  Louis  burned  thdir 
way  through  Flanders,  and  Ferdinand  did  the  same  through 
Artois. 

In  1214  came  the  great  crisis  of  PhiHp's  fife,  AH  the  forces 
against  which  he  had  been  struggling  united  to  overwhelm  him. 
Paris  was  to  be  attacked  from  Flanders  and  Guienne  at  the  same 
time.  A  league  including  his  rebel  vassals,  Renaud  of  DammartiA, 
count  of  Boulogne,  and  Ferdinand,  count  of  Flanders,  with  the 
emperor  Otto  IV.  and  a  number  of  German  princes  of  the  Rhlite 
region,  had  been  formed  in  tiM^tiorth-east,  while  John  of  En^^anQ 


38o 


PHILIP  II.  (FRANCE) 


made  one  more  attonpt  to  recover  his  heritage  at  the  head  of  an 
anny  of  dieroenaries  aided  by  the  fickle  baronage  of  Poitou. 
John  landed  at  La  Rochdle  on  the  i6th  of  February  1314,  and 
wai  at  fint  succeBsfuL  On  the  x^tb  of  June  he  laid  siege  to  La 
Roche-auz-Moines,  the  fortress  which  defended  Angers  uid  com- 
manded the  Loire  vall^;  but  on  the  approach  of  a  royal  army 
under  Prince  I^uis  on  the  and  of  July  his  Poitevin  barons 
refused  to  risk  a  pitched  battle,  and  he  fled  hastily  to  La  Rochelle. 
The  Angevin  Empire  in  France  was  lost.  Meanwhile  Philip 
himself  won  his  greatest  victory  at  the  bridge  of  Bouvines,  among 
the  morasses  of  Flanden.  At  fint  taken  by  surprise,  he  turned 
the  abortive  attack  into  a  complete  rout.  Roiaud  and  Ferdinand 
were  taken  prisoner,  and  Otto  IV.  fled  from  the  battlefield. 
The  army  of  the  allies  was  utterly  destroyed  (July  27,  xai4)' 
Nothing  shows  the  progress  of  the  Capetian  monarchy  more 
than  the  enthusiasm  and  joy  of  the  people  of  France,  as  d^ribed 
by  WilUam  the  Breton,  over  this  crowning  viaory.  The  battle 
of  Bouvines,  a  decisive  battle  for  the  history  of  Germany  as  well 
as  for  France  and  England,  sealed  the  work  of  Philip  Augustus. 
The  expedition  d  his  son  Louis  to  conquer  England  can  hardly 
be  consider^  as  an  incident  of  his  reign,  though  he  was  careful 
to  safeguard  the  rights  of  the  French  (>own.  More  important 
was  the  Albigensian  crusade,  in  which  he  allowed  Louis  to  take 
part,  though  he  himself,  preoccupied  with  the  king  of  England, 
bad  refused  time  alter  time  to  do  anything.  He  treated  Simon 
de  Montfort  as  if  he  were  a  royal  baiUii  but  it  was  not  in  virtue 
of  any  deep-laid  scheme  of  his  that  in  the  end  Amaiuy  de  Mont- 
fort, Simon's  son,  resigned  himself  to  leave  his  lands  to  the  Crown 
of  France,  and  gave  the  Crown  a  power  it  had  never  before 
possessed  in  Languedoc 

Even  more  than  by  his  conquests  Philip  IL  marks  an  epoch 
in  French  history  by  his  work  as  an  oiganizer  and  statesman.  He 
.  surrounded  himself  with  clerks  and  legists  of  more  or  less  humble 
origin,  who  gave  him  counsel  and  acted  as  his  agents.  His 
baiilisr  who  at  first  rather  resembled  the  itinerant  justices  of 
Henry  U.  of  England,  were  sent  into  the  royal  domain  to  super- 
vise Uie  conduct  of  the  prMU  and  hear  complaints,  while  in  the 
newly  acquired  lands  in  the  south  local  feudal  magnates  were 
given  similar  powers  with  the  title  of  sStUckal.  Feudal  service 
was  more  and  more  compounded  for  by  a  money  payment, 
while  additional  taxes  were  raised,  all  going  to  pay  the  mcrcen- 
axics  with  whom  he  fought  Richard  I.  and  John.  The  extension 
of  the  system  of  sauvegarde,  by  which  abbeys,  towns  or  lay 
vassals  put  themselves  under  the  special  protection  of  the  king, 
and  that  of  pariagCt  by  which  the  possessor  surrendered  half  the 
interest  in  his  estate  to  the  king  in  return  for  protection  or  some 
further  grant,  increased  the  royal  power.  The  small  barons 
were  completely  reduced  to  submission,  whilst  the  greater 
feudatories  could  often  appoint  a  castellan  to  their  own  castles 
only  after  he  had  taken  an  oath  to  the  king.  Philip  supported 
the  clergy  against  the  feudal  lords,  and  in  many  cases  against 
the  burgesses  of  the  towns,  but  rigidly  exacted  from  them  the 
performance  of  their  secular  duties,  ironically  promising  to  aid 
the  clergy  of  Reims,  who  had  failed  to  do  so,  "  with  his  prayers 
only  "  against  the  violence  of  the  lords  of  Retbel  and  Roucy. 
He  dung  to  his  right  of  regalCf  or  enjoyment  of  the  revenues  of 
bishoprics  during  their  vacancy,  though  it  was  at  times  com- 
muted for  a  fix^  payment.  The  attempt  to  raise  a  tithe  for 
the  crusade  in  X189  failed,  however,  before  a  general  resistance 
owing  to  an  unfair  assessment. 

It  has  been  said  with  some  justice  that  Philip  II.  was  the  first 
king  of  Fmnce  to  take  the  bourgeoisie  into  partnership.  He 
favoured  the  great  merchants,  granting  them  trade  privileges 
and  monopolies^  The  Jews  he  protected  and  plundered  by  turtas, 
after  the  fashion  of  medieval  kings.  Amongst  the  subject  towns 
administered  by  prtfCit  a  great  extension  of  the  "  custom  of 
Lorris  "  took  place  during  his  reign.  But  it  is  as  the  ally  and 
protector  of  the  communes  that  he  takes  his  almost  unique  place 
in  French  history.  Before  him  they  were  resisted  and  often 
crushed;  after  him  th^  were  exploited,  oppressed,  and  finally 
destroyed.  In  the  case  of  Senlis  he  extended  the  jurisdiction 
«f  t-be  commune  to  all  crimes  T^^ff*™***^  in  the  district.   It  is 


true  that  be  suppressed  vome  ooumosct  In  the  newly  oooqiMnd 
fiefs,  such  as  Nrnmandy,  where  John  had  been  prodigal  cf 
privileges,  but  he  erected  new  communes  in  his  own  private 
domain,  quite  contrary  to  the  custom  of  other  kings.  He  seems 
to  have  regarded  than  as  a  kind  of  garrison  against  feudal 
imruliness,  while  the  rents  they  furnished  increased  h»  finanrJal 
resources.  He  created  no  new  types  of  commune,  however, 
except  Peronne^  which  received  a  maiimnm  of  political  inde- 
pendence, the  twenty-lour  electors,  who  named  the  juris  and 
other  officers,  being  dected  by  the  carps  de  mitiirs. 

The  newly  organised  powers  of  the  Crown  were  in  evidence 
evecywhere,  intofering  in  the  iamily  affairs  of  the  great  feuda- 
tories and  taking  advantage  of  minorities,  such  as  that  of 
Theobald  IV.  of  Champaffse.  The  great  feudatories  aco^ted 
his  legislation  on  dower  in  tax4  and  1219  and  the  ilMissemaU 
of  X209  making  co-heirs  of  fiefs  hold  direct  from  the  king  and  not 
from  one  of  their  number.  The  Toumois  was  substituted  iat 
the  Angevin  money  in  Normandy  after  1204.  The  army  which 
safeguarded  this  active  monarchy  consisted  chiefly  of  mercenaries. 
The  old  feudal  osi  was  but  rarely  convoked.  The  commnnra, 
though  they  appear  as  taking  part  in  the  battle  of  Bouvines,  com- 
pounded for  their  service  by  a  money  payment  as  early  as  XX94. 

Philip's  policy  of  building  up  a  strong  monarchy  was  pursued 
with  a  steadiness  of  aim  which  exdudcd  both  enthusiasm  and 
scruple.  But  he  seems  to  have  prided  himself  on  a  certain  human- 
ity,  or  evengenerosity  of  temper,  which  led  him  to  avoid  putting  his 
enemies  to  death,  though  he  did  not  scruple  to  condemn  Rcnaod 
of  Dammartin  to  the  most  inhumaii  of  imprisonments.  He  was 
in^Milsive  and  could  display  extraordinary  activity  at  timet,  but 
he  possessed  also  a  certain  coldness  and  caution.  He  shnnk 
from  no  trickery  in  carrying  out  his  ends,  and  had  no  room  for 
pity.  He  could  not  even  trust  his  own  son  with  any  power, 
and  was  brutal  in  his  relations  with  his  queen,  Ingeboig.  He  b 
described  l^  Pailin  G&tineau  as  *'  a  weU-knit,  handscmie  man, 
bald  (from  his  illness  at  Acre),  of  agreeable  face  and  niddy 
complexion,  loving  good  cheer,  wine  and  women.  Geoaom  to 
bis  friends,  he  was  miserly  to  those  who  displeased  him;  very 
skilled  in  the  art  of  the  engineer,  catholic  in  hk  faith,  far-seeing, 
obstinate  in  his  resolution.  His  judgment  was  sound  and  quick. 
He  was  also  quick  in  his  anger,  but  easily  appeased."  Aa  the 
result  of  his  steadiness  of  aim  and  patient  sagadty,  at  the  end  cf 
his  reign  the  Crown  was  victorious  over  the  feudal  nobility  and 
the  royal  domain  extended  to  the  frontiers  along  with  royal 
authority.  Artois,  the  Amienois,  Valois,  Yermandois,  the  greater 
part  of  the  Beauvaisis,  Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraiae,  and 
an  important  part  of  Poitou  and  Saintonge,  were  added  to  the 
domain  during  his  reign.  The  number  of  prMUs  was  increased 
from  thirty-eight  to  ninety-four,  and  the  royal  revenue  increased 
from  19,000  livres  a  month  to  xaoo  livres  a  day. 

Philip  Augustus  died  on  the  X4th  of  July  x  323.  He  was  thrice 
manied.  His  first  wife,  Isabella,  by  whom  he  had  one  son, 
Louis,  died  in  xxSg  or  iigok  After  her  death  he  married  Ingil> 
jdrg  or  Ingeborg  (?.«.),  dau£^ter  of  Valdemar  L  of  Denmark. 
This  unlucky  marriage  was  negotiated,  it  is  said,  chiefly  to  acquire 
the  old  daims  of  Denmark  over  England,  to  be  used  as  a  we^x» 
against  Richard  L  However  that  may  be,  be  soon  repudiated 
this  Danish  princess,  for  whom  he  seems  to  have  concaved  an 
unconquerable  aversion  on  the  veiy  morrow  of  his  marriage  to 
her,  and  in  1x96,  in  defiance  of  the  pope,  who  had  refused  to 
nullify  his  union  with  Ingeborg,  married  Agnes,  daughter  oi 
Bertold  IV.,  duke  of  Meran.  This  led  to  his  excommunicatioB 
and  brought  the  interdict  upon  France,  and  did  more  to  weakca 
him  than  any  other  act  of  his.  In  x  200  he  was  forced  to  put  away 
Agnes  .and  to  recognize  Ingeborg  as  his  lawful  wife,  but  he  kept 
her  in  prison  until  x 213.  By  Agnes  (d.  x  sox)  he  bad  a  son  Philip^ 
called  "  Hurepd,"  count  of  Clermont,  and  a  daughter  Mary,  who 
married  Philip,  count  of  Namur  (d.  xaxj),  and  then  Heniy  m 
duke  of  Brabant.  Ingeborg  lived  until  1236^ 

See  A.  Luchairc  In  E.  Lavlsse's  Bistoin  d*  ¥rane»,  tome  13. 
83-284  (Paris.  1904),  and  literature  there  Indicated:  L.  Desliale^ 
CSB/u/ofM  dts  acUs  dt  Pkilippt  Augutls  (Paris,  1836  and  1901): 
A.  (MuOksi,  Philip  U,  August,  BdTL  Bis  mm  Teds  Litdifitf  VU. 


PHILIP  in.— IV.  (FRANCE) 


381 


QmSg,  1899),  Bd.  n.  D€r  Knuamg  (1906);  and  W.  H.  Hutton, 
PUuP  Augtaiks  fin  the  Foreign  Sutesmcn  aeries,  London.  1896). 
A.  Nfolinier,  JM  Sonrus  d*  I'ktsloire  de  France  (tome  iU.  pp.  1-^8), 
gives  a  complete  bibliographer  of  the  tource*  for  Philips  retgn, 
including  the  history  of  tne  Third  Crusade. 

PHIUP  III.  (»45-i285>,  Bunuuned  "  the  Bold  "  {k  Hardi), 
king  of  France,  son  of  Louis  IX.  and  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Raymond -B6renger  IV.,  oount  of  Provence,  was  bom  on  the 
3rd  of  April  1345.  His  funeral  monument  at  St  Deois  depicts 
a  man  with  beardless,  square-cut  features,  but  lacking  character 
imd  animation.  The  atitbentjdty  of  this  effigy  is  fairly  well 
borne  out  by  what  is  known  of  him  from  other  sources.  He  had 
many  of  the  virtues  of  St  Louis,  but  neither  decision  of  character 
nor  devotion  to  duty.  He  was  pious,  charitable,  of  unimpeach- 
able morality,  quick-tempered  but  placable,  no  great  scholar, 
and  only  energetic  as  »  hunter.  The  absence  in  him  of  the  qualities 
that  fit  a  man  to  rule  made  his  court  the  arena  of  intrigumg 
factions,  which  in  reality  ruled  France  during  his  reign  of  fifteen 
years.  Matthew  of  Vendteie,  abbot  of  St  Penis,  an  old  servant 
of  Louis  IX.,  acted  as  Philip's  counsellor,  so  the  chroniclers  state, 
throughout  the  reign;  but  he  is  only  a  shadowy  figure,  and  it  is 
diffictdt  to  rccondle  the  statement  that  "  everything  was  done 
according  to  his  will  "  with  the  known  facts.  It  was  probably 
with  administration,  and  not  policy,  that  Matthew  was  chiefly 
concerned.  In  one  instance  at  least  his  advice  was  openly 
flouted.  Coming  to  the  throne  by  the  death  of  his  father  on  the 
»5th  of  August  xayo,  Philip  began  his  reign  by  fialling  entirely 
tinder  the  influence  of  Pierre  de  la  Brosse,  who  had  been  surgeon 
and  valet-de-chambre  to  his  father,  upon  whom  he  lavished 
lands  and  honours,  making  him  lord  (sieur)  of  Langeais,  Chatillon- 
sur-Indre  and  Damville.  Even  Edward  I.  of  England  tnd  William. 
Damiuerre,  count  of  Flanders,  strove  to  win  hb  favour  by  gifts. 
But  bis  fall  was  assured  when  Philip,  who  in  1371  lost  his  first 
wife,  Isabella,  daughter  of  James  I.,  king  of  Aragon,  mairicd 
in  1274  Marie,  daughter  of  Henry  III.,  duke  of  Brabant.  She 
-was  young  and  beautiful,  and  supplied  a  centre  round  whicJi 
those  who  wished  the  downfall  of  the  favourite  grouped  them- 
selves. In  June  1278  1^  was  charged  with  various  crimes, 
including  one  of  poisoning  the  king's  eldest  son,  and  hanged  at 
Montfaucon.  His  death  left  the  parties  of  Marie,  the  queen,  and 
Margaret,  the  queen-mother,  to  struggle  for  the  mastery.  The 
first  subject  of  dispute  was  the  inheritance  of  the  count  of 
Provence,  Raymond-B^renger  IV.,  father  of  Margaret  and  of 
Eleanor,  wife  of  Henry  HI.  of  England.  Upon  his  death,  in  1 345, 
hb  youngest  daughter,  Beatrice,  wife  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  the 
king's  uncle,  succeeded  to  his  lands,  to  the  exclusion  of  her  elder 
sisters,  who  claimed  some  portion  of  them  for  themselves.  In 
laSx  war  nearly  broke  out  on  this  question.  Margaret  and  her 
friends  formed  the  league  of  MAcon  against  Charles  of  Anjou, 
but  the  king  managed  to  keep  them  at  peace.  The  settlement  of 
the  claims  of  the  king  of  England  in  Aquitaine  by  the  treaty  of 
Amteiuiin  1279  was  a  victory  for  the  party  of  Margaret. 

Agenaift  and  southern  Saintonge,  which  fell  to  the  Crown  by 
the  death  of  Alfonso  of  Poitiers  in  1276,  as  part  of  his  vast 
possessions  in  Aquitaine  and  Langucdoc,  were  ceded  to  Edward 
I.  of  England  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  Paris  2259. 
i^iother  portion  of  the  heritage  of  Alfonse,  the  Venaissin,  was 
ceded  to  the  papacy  to  redeem  an  old  promise.  In  ^neral  the 
strong  will  of  Chades  of  Anjou  directed  Philip's  policy.  He 
secretly  tuged  his  nephew's  candidature  for  the  imperial  cromi, 
left  vacant  by  the  death  of  Richard  of  Cornwall,  king  of  the 
Romans,  in  127^,  but  without  success.  In  May  1275  the  party 
of  Marie  secured  for  PhiUp,  the  king's  second  son,  tbe  hand  of 
Jeanne,  the  heiress  of  Navarre  and  Champagne,  along  with  the 
guardiansh^)  of  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  during  the  minority  of 
Jeanne.  But  early  in  1276  Jeanne's  mother,  Blanche,  the  widow 
of  Henry  III.  of  Navarre  and  Champagne,  married  Edmund, 
first  earl  of  Lancaster,  brother  of  Edward  I.;  and  she  and  her 
English  husband  kept  Champagne  until,  in  1284,  Jeanne  came 
of  age. 

An  expedition  of  Philip  agsJnst  Castile  in  aid  of  the  children 
of  his  sister,  Blanche,  proved  abortive.  Regardless  of  this 
wanung,  he  wj^  induciki  in  )284  to  take  iip  the  quarrel  of  bis 


unde  Charles  in  Sidly,  after  the  Sieffian  Vespen  in  t^Ss.  Two 
assemblies  of  barons  and  prdates  were  held  at  Bourges  In  Novem- 
ber 1283  and  February  1384  to  delibemte  on  tliequestioD.  This 
was  a  mere  matter  of  form;  Marie  of  Brabant  and  her  party  had 
decided  the  matter  beforehand,  and  the  crown  of  Aragon,  which 
the  French  pope  Martm  IV.  had  declared  forfeited  b^  Peter,  was 
accepted  for  Charles  of  Vafeis,  Philip's  third  son.  The  project 
was  strongly  opposed  bv  Matthew  of  Vendtoie,  who  was  in 
correspondence  with  the  king  of  England  on  the  subjiect.  It  was 
the  first  warlike  e3q)edition  undertaken  by  the  house  of  Capet 
outskie  France.  It  proved  a  disastrous  failure.  The  French 
army  laid  siege  to  Geirons  on  the  a6th  of  June  1285.  The  town 
sunendeved  os  the  7th  of  September,  but  disease  and  the  defeat 
of  the  fleet  by  the  Aragonese  navy  at  Las  Farmlguas  Islan<b  led 
to  a  retreat,  during  which,  on  the  5th  of  October,  the  king  died. 
In  the  same  month  the  gsirison  placed  at  Gerona  surrendered. 
It  is  typical  of  Philip's  character  and  career  that  he  should  die 
thus,  in  an  expedition  undertaken  against  the  mterests  of  his 
kingdom,  at  the  instigation  of  his  ambitious  unde. 

Philip  was  twice  married.  On  the  38th  of  May  1263  he 
married  Isabella,  daughter  of  James  I.,  king  of  Aragon,  who  died 
in  1371.  By  her  he  had  four  chil<hen:  Louis,  who  died  in  2376; 
Philip,  bom  in  ia68;  Charles  of  Valois,  bom  on  the  rath  of  March 
1370;  and  R<^rt,  who  died  young.  By  his  second  wife,  Marie 
(d.  1333),  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  Brabant,  whom  he  married 
in  1 874,  ^  had  three  children:  Louis,  count  of  Evreux;  Margaret, 
who  married  in  1399  Edward  I.,  king  of  England;  and  Blanche, 
who  married  Rudolph  III.,  duke  of  Austria. 

See  Ch.  V.  Lanelois.  U  RtgMe  de  PkUippe  k  Hardi  (Fkris,  1887); 
and  in  E.  Lavisse's  Histein  de  Fnnee,  Come  iii.,  iL  113-117  (Paris, 
1901):  Fr.  Walter,  J)ie  PUUik  der  Kurie  unUr  Creior  X.  (BcrUn, 


L$  Royainme  d'ArUs  (Paris,  1801).  For  complete  bibliography  of 
sources  sec  A.  Molinicr,  Les  simrces  de  VkuMre  de  Fnmce,  tome 
iii.  1 71-187  (Paris,  1903). 

PHIUP  IV.  (1368^1314).  caUed  "UBel"  or  "  the  Fair,"  king 
of  France,  was  the  son  of  Philip  III.  and  his  wife,  Isabella  <tf 
Aragon.  His  reign,  which  began  in  October  1385,  b  one  of 
the  most  momentous  in  the  history  of  medieval  Europe,  yet 
it  belongs  rather  to  the  history  of  France  and  to  that  of  the 
papacy  than  to  the  biography  of  the  king.  Little  is  known  of  the 
personal  part  played  by  Philip  in  the  events  associated  with  his 
name,  and  later  histoiiana  have  been  divided  between  the  view 
which  regards  him  as  a  handsome,  lethargic  nonentity  and  that 
which  paints  him  as  a  master  of  statecraft  who,  under  a  veil  of 
phles(iaaatu:  indifference  and  pious  sentiment,  madced  an  kiflexibie 
purpose,  of  which  his  ministers  were  but  the  spokesmen  and 
executors.  The  first  view  seems  to  be  borne  out  by  the  language 
of  contemporary  chroniclers.  To  his  enemy,  Bernard  Saisset,  he 
was  neither  man  nor  beast,  but  a  statue,  "  the  handsomest  man 
in  the  world,  but  unable  to  do  anything  but  stsre  fixedly  at  people 
without  saying  a  word."  GuUIaume  de  Nogsret,  his  minister, 
draws  a  far  more  flattering  picture,  enlarging  on  hb  charm,  his 
amiability,  his  modesty,  his  charity  to  all  men,  and  his  piety; 
and  the  traits  of  this  over-coloured  portrait  aro  more  or  leas 
repeated  by  Yves,  a  monk  of  St  Denis.  Iliere  is,  however,  no 
word  of  any  qualities  of  will  or  initiative.  All  of  which  suggests 
a  personality  mentally  and  physically  phlegmatic,  a  suggestion 
strengthened  by  the  fact  that  Bartholomaeus  de  Neocastro 
(quoted  by  Wenck)  describes  him  as  corpulent  in  1390. 

Yet  this  was  the  king  wiu>  with  equal  implacability  brought 
the  papacy  under  his  yoke,  carried  out  the  destruction  of  the 
powerful  order  of  the  Temple,  and  laid  the  foundati(Mis  of  the 
national  monarchy  of  France.  In  this  last  achievement  Professor 
Finke  finds  the  solution  of  a  problem  which  Langlois  had  declared 
to  be  insoluble.  In  1302,  in  the  audst  of  a  hostile  assembly, 
Philip  cursed  his  sons  should  they  consent  to  hold  the  Crown  of 
any  pne  but  God*;  and  in  this  isolated  outburst  he  sees  the  key 
to  his  chancter.  **  Philip  was  not  a  man  of  violent  initiative, 
the  planner  of  daring  and  fateful  operations;  otherwise  there 

>  Wenck,  p.  49. 


a(aa 


PHILIP  V.  (FRANCE) 


.-woold  bave  been  some  ngns  of  it  Rb  penoiuJity  was  ihal  of  a 
wcJl-instructed,  outwardly  cold,  because  cool  and  cakulating 
man,  essentially  xeceptive,  afire  for  only  one  idea:  the  highest 
possible  development  of  the  French  monarchy,  internally  and 
externally,  as  against  both  the  secular  powers  and  the  Church. 
His  merit  was  that  he  carried  through  thk  idea  in  spite  of  dangers 
to  hifflsdf  and  to  the  state.  A  resolution  once  arrived  at  he 
carried  out  with  iron  obstinacy."  Certainly  he  was  no  roi 
faiiUarU,  His  courage  at  the  battle  of  M ons-en-P£vde  was  the 
admiration  of  friend  and  foe  alike.  It  was  against  the  advice  of 
his  tutor,  A^dius  Colonna,  that  on  coming  to  the  throne  he 
chose  as  his  oounsellois  men  of  the  legal  class,  and  the  names 
of  his  great  ministers— CuiUairnie  de  Nogaret,  Enguerrand  de 
Marigny,  Pierre  flotte  (d.  1303)— attest  the  excellent  quality 
of  his  judgment.  He  was;  too,  one  of  the  few  monarchs  who  have 
left  to  their  successors  reasoned  programmes  of  reform  for  the 
state. 

The  new  materials  from  the  Aragonese  archives,  publidied  by 
Finke,  ipve  the  same  general  impression  of  "uncanny  "reticence 
on  Philip's  part;  when  other  contemporary  kings  would  have 
spoken  he  keeps  silence,  allowing  his  ministers  to  speak  for  him. 
Isolated  passages  in  some  of  the  Aragonese  letters  included  in 
the  collection,  however,  throw  a  new  light  on  contemporary 
estimate  of  his  character,  describing  him  as  all-powerful,  as 
"  pope  and  king  and  emperor  in  one  person."  * 

The  reign  of  Philip  IV.  is  of  peculiar  interest,  because  of  the 
intrusion  of  economic  problems  into  the  spheres  of  national 
politics  and  even  of  religion.  The  increased  cost  of  government 
and  the  growing  wealth  of  the  middle  class,  rather  than  the 
avarice  of  the  king  and  the  genius  of  his  ministers,  were  respon- 
sible for  the  genesis  and  direction  of  the  new  order.  The  greatest 
event  of  the  reign  was  the  struggle  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 
(q.v.).  The  pope,  in  his  opposition  to  the  imposition  of  royal 
taxation  upon  the  clergy,  went  so  far  in  the  bull  Clericis  laicos 
of  1296  as  to  forbid  any  lay  authority  to  demand  taxes  from  the 
clergy  without  his  consent.  When  Philip  retaliated  by  a  decree 
forbidding  the  exportation  of  any  coin  from  'France,  Boniface 
gave  Way  to  save  the  papal  dues,  and  the  bulls  issued  by  him  in 
X297  were  a  dedded  victory  for  the  French  king.  Peace  between 
the  two  potentates  followed  until  1301.  After  the  arrest,  by 
Philip's  orders,  of  Bernard  Saisset  (q.v.),  bishop  <A  Pamiers,  in 
that  year,  the  quarrel  flamed  up  again;  other  causes  of  difference 
existed,  and  in  130a  the  pope  issued  the  bull  Unam  sanclam,  one 
of  the  most  extravagant  of  all  statements  of  papal  claims.  To 
ensure  the  support  of  his  people  the  king  had  called  an  assembly 
of  the  three  estates  of  his  kingdom  at  Paris  in  April  1302^  then 
in  the  following  year  Guillauroc  de  Nogarct  seized  the  person  of 
the  pope  at  Aoagni,  an  event  immortalized  by  Dante.  Boniface 
escaped  from  his  captors  only  to  die  (October  ri),  and  the  short 
pontificate  of  his  saintly  successor,  Benedict  XI.,  was  occupied  in 
a  vain  effort  to  restore  harmony  to  the  Church.  The  conclave 
that  met  at  Perugia  on  his  death  was  divided  between  the  parti- 
sans of  the  irreconcilable  policy  of  Boniface  VIII.  and  those  of  a 
policy  of  compromise  with  the  new  state  theories  represented  by 
France.  The  election  was  ultimately  determined  by  the  diplo- 
macy and  the  fold  of  Philip's  agents,  and  the  new  pope,  Clement 
v.,  was  the  weak-willed  creature  of  the  French  king,  to  whom  he 
owed  the  tiara.  When  in  1309  the  pope  installed  himself  at 
Avignon,  the  new  relation  of  the  papacy  and  the  French 
monarchy  was  patent  to  the  world.  It  was  the  beginning  of 
the  long  "Babylonish  captivity"  of  the  popes.  The  most 
notable  of  its  first-fruits  was  the  hideous  persecution  of 
the  Templars  (f.v.),  which  began  with  the  sudden  arrest  of  the 
members  of  the  order  in  France  in  1307,  and  ended  with 
the  suppression  of  the  order  by  Pope  Clement  at  the  council  of 
Vienneini3i3. 

It  is  now  tolerably  clear  that  Philip's  motives  In  this  sinister 
proceeding  were  lack  of  money,  and  probably  the  deliberate 

*  Finka,  iL  no.  78,  p.  133.  Anon,  to  the  oommanderies  of 
Cafdeyne  and  Ascho:  Pus  d  es  rcy  et  papa  et  emperadorl  Car 
tot  V)  mon  sap.  quel  papa  no  es  ncgun  et  que  d  fa  tot  (o  ques  vol 
dd  papa  et  dc  la  esglea. 


wish  to  destroy  a  body  whkh,  with  its  privileged  portion  and 

international  financial  and  military  organization,  constituted  a 

possible  menace  to  the  state.    Ho  had  already  pecMcuted  and 

plundered  the  Jews  and  the  Lombard  bankers,  and  repeated 

recourse  to  the  debasing  of  the  coinage  had  led  to  a  series  of  small 

risings.    But  under  his  rule  somethirtg  was   done    towards 

^stematizing  the  royal  taxes,  and,  as  in  England,  the  financial 

needs  of  the  king  led  to  the  association  of  the  people  in  the  work 

of  government. 

In  1 294  Philip  IV.  attacked  Edward  I.  of  England,  then  busied 

with  the  Scottfeh  War,  and  seized  Guienne.    Edwud  won  over 

the  counts  of  Bar  and  of  Flanders,  but  they  were  defeated  and 

he  was  obliged  to  make  peace  in  1297.   Then  the  Flemish  dtiea 

rose  against  the  French  royal  officers,  and  utterly  defeated  the 

French  army  at  Courtrai  in  1302.    The  reign  dosed  with  the 

French  position  unimproved  in  Flanders,  except  for  the  transfer 

to  Philip  by  Count  Robert  of  Lille,  Douai  and  B^thune,  and  their 

dependendes.    Philip  died  on  the  29th  of  November  i3r4.    His 

wife  was  Jearme,  queen  of  Navarre  (d.  1304),  through  whom  that 

country  passed  under  the  rule  of  Philip  on  his  marriage  in  r284; 

three  of  his  sons,  Louh  X.,  Philip  V.  and  Charies  IV.,  succeeded 

in  turn  to  the  throne  of  France^  and  a  daughter,  Isabella,  married 

Edward  II.  of  England. 

See  the  Chronitnte  of  Geoffrey  of  Paris,  edited  by  M.  Booquet.  in 
vol.  xxii.  of  the  Recueil  da  kistanens  da  Gantes  ^deta  Fnuu*.  Of 
modern  works  see  E.  Boutaiic,  IrO  Fnnee  tons  Philippe  U  Bd 
(1860:  C.  Di      •    -*••■•    '^^    ••    -'^^ •• 


Langlois  in 


Digaid,  PkUippe  U  Bd  ale  Saim^ihge  (1900):  C  V. 

E.  Lavisse's  Htstoire  de  France,  vol.  iS.  (1901) ;  K.  Wenck, 
Pkilipp  der  Schdne  von  Frankreick  (Marburg.  1905);  H.  Finke^ 
PapsUum  und  Untenant  des  TempUrordens^  a  vols.  (Mlln«cr  L 
W.  1907),  csph  I.  ch«  Ik 

PHILIP  V.  {c.  r  294-1322),  *•  the  Tkl!,'*  king  of  France,  second 
son  of  Philip  the  Fair  and  Jeanne  of  Navarre,  received  the  county 
of  Poitiers  as  an  appanage,  and  was  affianced  when  a  year  old 
to  Jeanne,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Otto  IV.,  count  of  Burgundy. 
The  marriage  took  (dace  in  1307  when  he  was  thirteen  years  of 
age.  When  his  elder  brother,  Louis  X.,  died,  on  the  sth  of  July 
13  r  6,  leaving  his  second  wife,  Clemence  of  Hungary,  with  child, 
PhOip  was  appointed  regent  for  eighteen  years  by  the  parliament 
of  Paris,  even  In  the  event  of  a  male  heir  bdng  bom.  Qemence's 
Son,  bom  on  the  15th  of  November,  lived  only  four  days,  and 
Philip  immcdiatdy  proclaimed  himself  king,  though  several  <A 
the  great  barons  declared  that  the  rights  of  Jeanne,  daughter  of 
Louis  X.  by  his  first  wife,  Margaret  of  Burgundy,  ought  to  be 
examined  before  anything  else  was  done.  The  coronatipn  at 
Reims,  on  the  9th  of  January  1317,  took  place  with  the  gates  of 
the  dty  dosed  for  fear  of  a  surprise.  The  states-general  of  the 
2nd  of  Febraary  13 17,  consisting  of  the  nobles,  prelates,  and  the 
burgesses  of  Paris,  approved  the  coronation  of  Philip,  swore  to 
obey  him,  and  declared  that  women  did  not  succeed  to  the  Crown 
of  France.  The  university  of  Paris  approved  this  declaration, 
but  its  members  did  not  take  the  oath.  The  Salic  htw  was  not 
involved,  and  it  was  later  that  the  lawyers  of  the  X4th  century 
tried  to  connect  this  prindple  to  an  artide  of  the  Salic  law,  whidi 
accords  inheritance  in  land  («.e.  property)  to  miJes.  In  the 
Prankish  law  the  article  refers  to  private  property,  not  to  pobKc 
law.  The  death  of  Philip's  son  Louis,  in  13  r 7,  disarmed  the 
opposition  of  Charles,  count  of  La  Marche,  who  now  hoped  to 
succeed  to  the  Crown  himself.  Odo  or  Eudes  IV.,  duke  oif  Bur^ 
gundy,  was  married  to  Jeanne,  Philip's  daughter,  and  recdved 
the  county  of  Burgtmdy  as  her  dower.  The  barons  all  did  homage 
except  Edward  II.  of  England,  and  Phih'p's  position  was  secured. 
The  war  ^vith  Flanders,  which  had  begun  under  Phflip  IV.  the 
Fair,  was  brought  to  an  end  on  the  2nd  of  June  1320.  The  revolt 
of  the  Pastoureaux  who  assembled  at  Paris  in  1320  to  go  on  a 
crusade  was  crushed  by  the  seneschal  of  Carcassonne,  whither 
they  marched.  One  of  the  spedal  objects  of  thdr  hatred, 
the  Jews,  were  also  mulcted  heavily  by  Philip,  who  extorted 
r  50,000  Uvrcs  from  those  of  Paris  alone.  He  died  at  Long- 
champ  on  the  night  of  the  2nd  of  January  1322. 

Philip  was  a  lover  of  poetry,  surrounded  himself  with  Provencal 
poets  and  even  wrote  in  Provencal  himsdf,  but  he  was  also  one 
of  the  most  hard-working  kings  of  the  house  of  Cfe^.    Hia 


PHILIP  VI.  (PRANCE)— PHILIP  (OF  SWABIA) 


383 


bCBCDtil)'  id  Ut  pMitfon  mtde  blm  Mct  ibe  nppoit  of  aitioiul 

published  a  vie: 
and  ilcniDf  th< 


id  ol  pnvincUl  ' 
nMBMM  uutiit  Edwud  1.  01  Kng 
t£  ocdimaca  orfani&nc  the  royal  J 

Ba  abaliiAal  (11  (uriioDi  in  (be  tomu  ciceiH  I 


Enclaad,  the  nephew 


IWBUR9,  but  bikd  tnttag  (o  tbc  spiMiiUoii  •(  (be  c* 
were  ifnld  of  tbe  new  twntiai  Ducaiuy  to  mtc 

iiiTolved  in  nitJni  the  xudiid  of  the  coiiuge.  ud 
to  then  teal  iMuara  (ad  ciuTCDcy  ptnly  Iran  on 
puiLjr  u  a  lebc  of  local  libeitr.     Philip  u  ■  nlam 
lUfiy  wayi  before  hii  time,  but  hh  pa^/h  fwled  t4 
Um,  and  he  died  under  tbe  i^roub  of  uteitioa. 

Sre  P.  LchtwRir,  Bitlairt  it  PHaiftt  It  Lmt  (nrii.  1S97I1  E. 
Lavluc.  Hiarfn  it  frata  (T(mk  ill.  1);  and  •oaico  inlKatcd 
IQ  A.  Moliwr,  lUfwUM  it  mmna  ii  eMMit  it  Pnaa  (Parii, 
1901). 

raiUP  VI.  (iiOJ-tJJD),  kinc  e(  France,  nil  Ibe  un  of  Chariei 
of  Vaiols,  Ihird  un  of  Philip  lU.,  the  Bold,  and  ol  Marginl  ol 
Sicily,  and  wu  thu  the  nephew  ol  Philip  IV.,  tbe  Fair,  wbote 
■oiis,LouilX., Philip  V. and  CharleiIV..dicdn(Ccllivc]y  without 
leaving  niale  hein.  He  aumedcd  to  tbe  Ihnino  on  the  death 
aIhiiaiuun,ChaTleaIV..iiii3>t-  Before  hla  accotion  Philip 
had  (njoynl  ransdcnble  In&ucaa.  for  he  wai  txiunt  of  Valois, 
Anjou.  Ukine,  CbarUn  and  Alcncon.  He  had  manicil  in 
131J  Jeanne  (d.  134S).  daughter  of  Robert  II.  ol  Barsundy,  a 

fnu*.  An  eiptdition  to  Italy  in  liiifto  agnmi  Galfau 
VkcooU  hionght  him  Utile  glory;  he  waa  more  lueccnful  in  a 
nail  npadjilon  to  Culcnne,  uDdcrtaken  against  a  nvollad 
vsnal  wbo  waa  lupported  by  the  Engliih. 

Wbcn  Oiartea  IV.  died,  in  February  ijiS,  hii  wife ^raiencdnte, 

tba  child,  who  would,  if  a  ion,  incceed  to  the  thnme.  At  the 
aaemUv  al  bamna  called  to  cboose  a  regent,  Edwaid  111.  of 
K  male  relation  Of  Cbaria  IV.. 
however,  dartnded  from  the 
nyal  bouH  of  France  by  bi>  mother  Iiahel,  and  the  baron*. 
piDbably  actuated  by  an  objedion  to  the  regency  of  an  Eogliifa 
king,  dtdded  Ihit  Mlther  a  wanun,  "  nor  by  cDnMquimu  her 
MB.  ceuld  nicceed  to  the  kingdom  of  Fianct."  and  Philip  ot 
V^Mi,  bt  ipite  of  hk  belonging  to  a  junior  braarh  of  the  family, 
wu  electol  regent.  On  the  birth  of  a  giH  to  tbe  queen  widow 
tb«  regency  natumlly  led  to  the  tbnne  of  France,  ud  Philip  waa 
crowned  at  Kelmi  on  the  iWh  of  May  IJIB.  Navaire  had  not 
kccepled  the  regency,  that  kiogilom  being  dalmed  by  ho-  hiubond 
[or  Jeanne,  counlcu  gf  Evreui,  tbe  eldeit  daughter  of  Louil  X., 
tbe  count  of  Evreui  himself  being.  Uke  Phitip  of  Valois,  a 
grandion  ol  Philip  the  Bold.  Thenewkingsecuredlhefriendship 
of  the  count  by  allowing  Jeanne's  claim  to  NavaiR.  in  releiii 
for  a  iinunclMlon  of  any  right  to  Champagne,  Edward  UI.  of 
England,  after  more  than  one  dtntion,  lendcred  verbal  homage 
lor  part  of  Cuienne  at  Amiens  la  13>0.  but  be  declined  ta  [^ace 
hii  hands  between  those  of  Philip  VI.,  and  thua  loimsly  to 
acknowtedge  him  as  his  liege  lord.  Two  yean  later,  however, 
b*  lOmrded  the  acknowledgment  by  Iclten  patent.  Mcid- 
whlle  PhiUp  VI.  bed  won  a  victory,  whi^  he  turned  into  a 
ntusacce,  at  Caaiel  (August  i],  1318)  over  Bruges  and  the 
other  towns  of  West  Flanders,  which  nnder  the  leadership  ol 
jaitob  van  Aitevdde  had  thrown  oS  the  aulboiily  of  ihetr 
count.  Louil  ol  Neven.  Tbe  count  of  Flanden  was  lelaMaled, 
and  maintained  his  authority  by  a  irlgn  of  terror. 

Much  harm  was  done  10  Philip  VI.'s  authority  by  tbe  sandal 
■rising  out  of  the  prosecution  of  Robert  of  Anols,  count  of 
Beaumont,  «4»  was  the  king's  hrotbcT-inlaw.  The  eownl  had 
pRsenled  to  the  partcmenl  ol  Pari*  forged  docds  in  support  of 
hfs  claim  10  tbe  county  ol  Artab,  held  by  his  aunt,  Uahiul, 
cOunieB  of  Burgundy.  The  sudden  death  of  Mahaul,  and  ol 
ter  daugbtii  and  btiresa,  Jeanne,  widow  ol  Philip  V.,  lent  ralour 


to  other  aus(ddo*s,  ud  Robert  wu  driven  fna  Fnoc*  txA  bli 

gooda  conGicaied.    He  found  refuge,  Best  i>  Bnbanl  ind  tbca 
at  the  English  court,  where  he  waa  nceived  u  a  tdativi  and  a 

Philip  VI.  enjoyed  poweriul  alliances.  In  Italy  be  waa  aliiad 
with  bl*  uncle,  Robert  of  AnJou,  king  of  Sicfly,  and  with  bif 
fcrraer  enemy,  CaKaa  Visconii;  in  tbe  north  with  Uie  duke  of 
Brabant  and  the  prioeeial  the  Netherlands;  on  the  eait  witb  Iha 
nrigniog  procescj  LomiM  and  Savoy;  witb  tbe  king  ol  Bobcmia 
and  with  Pope  John  XXJI.  at  Avignon,  and  hia  luccetior, 
Benedict  XII.  In  ijjS  it  seemed  that  the  Crusade,  for  which 
Philip  VI.  had  long  been  prrpaiing,  would  at  last  start;  but  tbe 
relations  with  Edward  lU.  of  England,  which  bad  always  bcra 
'     ■    *  jf_  j^;  within  a  year  Frai  " 


niheii 


s'  War 


Tbeca 


.which 


ipremacy  in  Flanden, 
iven  by  Ftanu  to  (be 
En^iib  kiog  who  wi 


tbe  Mmllkt  for  com 
disputed  rigids  in  Guicnae,  Ebi 
Scots,  and  the  unnatural  situali  ._..__ 

also  a  vasnl  of  the  French  Crown  are  dealt  with  elsewhere  (sc« 
FlAMCc:  HiUary).  The  Immediate  tupluEe  bi  Flanders  waa 
due  chkOy  to  the  tyranny  nl  the  count  of  Flanden,  Louis  of 
Neveta,  whom  Philip  VI.  had  ninsuied.  Edward  III.  had  woo 
over  moat  of  Philip's  Cemun  and  Flemish  fillies,  and  tbe  EngHab 
naval  victory  at  Shiys  (June  14,  IJ40),  (n  which  (he  French 
fleet  was  annihilated,  efiectually  restored  English  preponderance 
in  Flanders.  A  truce  toUowed.  but  this  was  disturbed  aftei 
a  sboil  duration  by  the  diqiuted  tuccaaion  to  tbe  duchy  ol 
Brittany,  Ectward  III.  supported  John  of  Montfort;  Philip  IV. 
his  gwo  nephew,  Charlta  ol  Bk^.  A  truce  madeal  Makstrnlin 
rj4j  at  the  Invitation  of  the  pope,  was  ruddy  broken  by  Philip's 
VDlencc.  OUvier  de  CliBson.  who  with  fourteen  other  Breton 
gentlemen,  was  suspected  of  intrigue  with  Edward  111-,  waa 
invited  to  a  great  tournament  In  Puis.  On  their  arrival  Ihey 
were  seiied  by  Phil  IP's  orders,  and  without  form  of  trial  beheaded. 
Then  fdlowcd  Sdwanl  lU.'s  invasion  ol  Normandy  and  the 
campaign  of  Crecy  (?v,)-  PbHip's  army  was  destroyed  ;  he 
himself  was  wounded  and  fled  fnMn  the  held.  He  sought  in 
vain  to  divtn  Edward  from  tbe  siege  ol  Calais  by  supfiorting 
the  Scots  in  tbeir  invasion  ol  EnglaiHl;  but  eventually  a  truce 
was  arrangnl.  which  lasted  untU  ijsi.  Philip  VI.  died  at 
Nogeiit.Jc-(Di  on  the  tilfa  of  August  ijja. 

Philip  VL  met  his  necessiiia  by  the  inpoaiiien  ol  the  haled 
galhille  or  salt  tai,  which  waa  invented  by  his  legal  advisers. 
TIk  valne  of  the  coinage  fluctuated  ctmlinuousiy,  to  the  great 
hindrance  of  Iradei  and  although  at  a  nxEling  of  the  Slates- 
General  it  was  asserted  that  Ibe  king  could  levy  no  citiaordinary 
taxes  wilboot  the  consent  of  the  estates,  he  obtained  heavy 
sabsidles  from  the  various  proviaccs.  Towanis  the  dose  of  his 
nHgn  be  acquired  from  Humbert  II..  oomie  de  Vienne.  the  pro- 
vince of  Dauphinf,  and  Mootpellicr  from  the  king  of  Majorca. 
These  scquislioRs  made  the  ultimate  anneialion  of  Provence  ■ 
certainly.  Philip  married  a  second  wife,  Blanche  ol  Navarre. 
By  his  Gnl  wife  be  left  two  sons— bs  socceBOi,  John  II.,  and 
Pbilip  ol  Orleans,  count  of  Valois. 

r  dc  CuiOawmi  <&  Min^  edited 

I  ion  1^  Pauliii  Paris:  E.  [Wpna. 

1  ml  mi,  ijit-1341  (Paris,  i«a). 

I  Rccoid  Office  and  the  Vatican: 

I  H  ^lltfllH  d)  la  FraMa  vol.  iL 

I  .  if  Frana.  vol,  iv.  pt,  L  I1901), 

I  wlllbefouadinNoLjou-slI* 

I  •cttitrkiilainitFrvit.iti.hi. 


A  duke  of  Swibia,  tbe 
iflh  and  youngest  ton 
lUghlcrofXenaudlU., 


PHIUP  (c.ii7r-i»S},  Gen 
rival  ot  the  emperor  Otto  IV. 
of  the  CBipetor  Frederick  L  and 
unt  of  Upper  Burgundy,  ana  conscquenuy  oiuLnci  ui  me 
iperor  Henry  VI.  He  entered  the  church,  was  made  provost 
Aii-la-Chapclk,  and  in  iT«a  or  nji  was  chosen  bishop  of 
iinburg.  Having  accomponicd  his  brother  Henry  to  Italy 
Philip  forsook  his  ecclesiastical  calling,  and,  Iravellinl 
'    '  .     .  .       ._  in  II9J  and  received 


B^in  lo  Italy,  was  m. 


\c  duke  of  Tuscany  in  iigj  ai 


384 


PHILIP  I.— II.  (SPAIN) 


ian  extensive  grant  of  Uatda  la  x  196  he  became  duke  of  Swabia, 
on  the  death  of  his  brother  Conrad;  and  in  May  1197  he  married 
Irene,  daughter  of  the  eastern  emperor,  Isaac  Angclus,  and  widow 
of  Roger  II.,  king  of  Sicily,  a  lady  who  is  described  by  Walther 
Yon  dor  Vogelweide  as  "  the  rose  without  a  thorn,  the  dove 
without  guile."  Philip  enjoyed  his  brother's  confidence  to  a  very 
great  extent,  and  appears  to  have  been  designated  as  guardian 
of  the  young  Frederick,  afterwards  the  emperor  Frederick  II., 
Sn  case  of  his  father's  early  death.  In  1197  he  had  set  out  to 
fetch  Frederick  from  Sicily  for  his  coronation  when  he  heard  of 
the  emperor's  death  and  returned  at  once  to  Germany.  He 
appears  to  have  desired  to  protect  the  interests  of  his  nephew 
and  to  quell  the  disorder  which  arose  on  Henry's  death,  but 
events  were  too  strong  for  him.  The  hostiUty  to  the  kingship 
of  a  child  was  growing,  and  after  Philip  had  been  chosen  as 
defender  of  the  empire  during  Frederick's  minority  he  con« 
aented  to  his  own  election.  He  was  eleaed  German  king  at 
Mahlhausen  on  the  8th  of  March  X198,  and  crowned  at  Maim 
on  the  8th  of  September  following,  lyfeanvidule  a  number  of 
princes  hostile  to  Philip,  under  the  leadership  of  Adolph,  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne,  had  elected  an  anti^king  in  the  peison  of 
Otto,  second  son  of  Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony.  In  the  war 
that  followed,  Philip,  who  drew  his  principal  support  from  south 
Germany,  met  with  considerable  success.  In  1x99  he  received 
further  accessions  to  his  party  and  carried  the  war  into  his 
opponent's  territory,  although  unable  to  obtain  the  siipport  of 
Pope  Innocent  HI.,  and  only  feebly  assisted  by  his  ally  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  France.  The  following  year  was  less  favourable 
to  his  arms;  and  in  March  laox  Innocent  took  tbe  decisive  step 
of  placing  Philip  and  his  associates  under  the  ban,  and  Ix^an  to 
work  energetically  in  favour  ai  Otto.  The  two  succeeding  years 
were  still  more  unfavourable  to  Philip.  Otto,  aided  by  Ottakarl., 
king  of  Bohemia,  and  Hermann  I.,  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  drove 
him  from  north  Germany,  thus  compelling  him  to  seek  by 
abject  concessions,  but  without  success,  reconciliation  with 
Innocent.  The  submission  to  Philip  of  Hermann  of  Thuringia 
in  1104  marks  the  turning-point  of  his  fortunes,  and  he  was  soon 
Joined  by  Adolph  of  Cologne  and  Henry  I.,  duke  of  Brabant. 
On  the  6th  of  January  iso$  he  was  crowned  a^n  with  great 
ceranony  by  Adolph  at  Aix-la-Chapellc,  though  it  was  not  till 
X207  that  his  entry  into  Cdogne  practically  brought  the  war  to  a 
close.  A  month.or  two  kter  Philip  was  loosed  from  the  papal 
ban,  and  in  March  iao8  it  seems  probable  that  a  treaty  was 
concluded  by  which  a  nephew  of  the  pope  was  to  marry  one  of 
Philip's  daughters  and  to  receive  the  disputed  dukedom  of 
Tuscany.  Philip  was  preparing  to  crush  the  last  flicker  of  the 
rebellion  in  Brunswick  when  he  was  murdered  at  Bamberg,  on  the 
stst  of  June  x^toS,  by  Otto  of  Wittelsbach,  count  palatine  in 
Bavaria,  to  whom  he  had  refused  the  hand  of  one  of  his 
daughters.  He  left  no  sons,  but  four  daughters;  one  of  whom, 
Beatrix,  afterwards  married  his  rival,  the  emperor  Otto  IV* 
Philip  was  a  brave  and  handsome  man,  and  contemporary 
writers,  among  whom  was  Walther  von  der  Vogdweide,  praise  his 
mildness  and  generosity. 

See  W.  von  Gicscbrecht,  CesekielUe  der  daUschen  Katseneil, 
Bd.  V.  (Uipfig.  1888):  E.  Winkclmann,  PhUipp  mm  Sckwaben 
und  Otto  IV.  9on  Braunukwtit  (Leipzig,  1873-1878);  O.  Abel, 
Kdnit  PkUipp  der  Hohemtaufm  (Berlin,  iSJ^a);  Rezesta  imperii.  K., 
edited  hy  J.  Picker  (Innsbruck.  1881);  R.  Schwemcr,  Innocent  III. 
und  die  deuische  Kircke  vahrend  des  Thronstrciies  von  ngS-1208 
(StrasAurg,  1882) ;  and  R.  Riant,  Innocent  III.,  Philippe  do  Souabe, 
tt  Bonifmce  de  Montferrat  (Paris,  1875). 

PHILIP  I.,  the  Handsome  (1478-1506),  king  of  Spain,  son  of 
the  emperor  Maximilian  I.,  and  husband  of  Joanna  the  Mad, 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Habsburg  dynasty  in  Spain,  and  was  bom  at  Bruges  on  the 
22nd  of  July  1478.  In  X482  he  succeeded  to  the  Bnrgundian 
possessions  of  his  mother  Mary,  daughter  of  Charies  the  Bdd, 
under  the  guardianship  of  his  father.  In  I496heraarried  Joanna. 
The  marriage  was  one  of  a  set  of  family  alliances  with  Austria 
and  Portugal  designed  to  strengthen  Spain  against  France. 
The  death  of  John,  the  only  son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
Opened  the  succession  to  the  Spam'sh  Crown  to  Joanna.    In 


xsoa  she  and  her  husband  received  ikt  tiomace'ol  the  coctet 
of  Castile  and  of  Aragon  as  heirs.  Philip  returned  to  Fbuiden 
before  the  close  of  the  year.  His  h'fe  with  Joanna  was  rendered 
extremely  unhappy  by  his  infidelity  and  by  her  jealousy,  whkh, 
woriung  on  a  neurotic  temperament,  precipitated  her  insanity. 
The  princess  gave  way  to  paroxysms  of  rage,  hi  whidi  She  was 
guilty  of  acts  of  atrocious  violence.  Before  her  mother's  death, 
in  1504,  she  was  unquestfenably  quite  insane,  and  husband  and 
wife  lived  apart.  When  Isabella  died,  Ferdinand  endeavoured 
to  lay  hands  on  the  regency  of  Castile,  hot  the  nobles,  who 
disliked  and  feared  him,  forced  him  to  withdraw*  Phflip  was 
summoned  to  Spain,  where  he  was  xecognised  as  king.  He 
landed,  with  his  wife,  at  Conmna  on  the  aSth  of  April  i$o6, 
accompanied  by  a  body  of  German  mercenaries.  Father  and 
son>in-law  had  interviews  at  Remesal,  near  Pueblo  de  Scnabiia, 
and  at  Renedo,  the  only  result  of  which  was  an  indecent  family 
quarrel,  in  which  Ferdinand  professed  to  defend  the  ixtf  erests 
of  his  daughter,  who  he  said  was  imprisoned  by  her  husband. 
A  civil  war  would  probably  have  broken  out  between  them; 
but  Philip,  who  had  Only  been  in  Spain  long  enough  to  prove 
his  incapacity,  died  suddenly  at  Burgos,  apparently  of  tyi^ioid 
fever,  on  the  35th  of  September  1506.  His  wife  refused  for  long 
to  allow  his  body  to  be  buried  or  to  part  from  iL  Philip  was 
the  father  of  the  emperors  Charles  V.  and  Ferdinaiid  L 

PHIUP  H.  (x$a7-i598)  king  of  Spain,  was  bom  at  VaUadolid 
on  the  axst  of  May  xsay.  He  was  the  son  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  and  of  his  wife  Isabella  of  Portugal,  who  were  first 
cousin&  Philip  received  his  education  in  Spain. "^  Ifis  tutor, 
Dr  Juan  Martinez  Pedcraales,  who  latinized  his  name  to  Siliceo, 
and  who  was  also  his  confessor,  does  not  appear  to  have  done 
his  duty  veiy  thoroughly.  The  prince,  though  he  had  a  good 
command  of  Latin,  never  equaled  his  father  as  a  linguist. 
Don  Juan  de  ZuiUga,  who  was  appointed  to  teach  lum  the  use 
of  arms,  was  more  conscientious;  but  he  had  a  very  poor  piq>il. 
From  his  earliest  years  Philip  slrawed  himself  more  addicted  to 
the  desk  than  the  saddle  and  to  the  pen  than  to  the  sword. 
The  emperor,  who  spent  his  h'fe  moving  from  one  part  of  his 
wide  dominions  to  another  and  in  the  camps  of  his  armies, 
watched  his  heir's  education  from  afar.  The  trend  of  his  letters 
was  to  impress  on  the  boy  a  profound  sense  of  the  high  destinies 
to  which  he  was  bom,  the  necessity  for  keq[>ing  his  nobles  apart 
from  all  share  in  the  conduct  of  the  internal  government  of  his 
kingdom,  and  the  wisdom  of  distrusting  counsellors,  who  would 
be  sure  to  wish  to  influence  him  for  their  own  ends.  Philip 
grew  up  grave,  self-possessed  and  distnistfuL  He  was  beloved 
by  his  Spanish  subjects,  but  utterly  without  the  power  of 
attracting  men  of  other  races.  Though  accused  of  extreme 
licentiousness  in  his  relations  with  women,  and  though  he  lived 
for  years  in  adultery  with  Oofia  Maria  de  Oaorio,  Philip  was 
probiUiIy  leas  immoral  than  most  kings  of  his  time,  including  his 
father,  and  was  rigidly  abstemious  in  eating  and  drinkntg.  His 
power  of  work  was  unbounded,  and  he  had  an  absolute  love  of 
reading,  annotating  and  drafting  despatches.  If  he  had  not 
become  sovereign  of  the  Low  Countries,  as  heir  of  Maty  of  Bur- 
gundy through  his  father,  Philip  would  in  all  probabUity  have 
devoted  lumself  to  warfare  with  the  Turks  in  the  MechterraDean, 
and  to  the  conquest  of  northern  Africa.  Unhappily  for  Spain, 
Charles,  after  some  hesitation,  decided  to  transmit  the  Nether- 
lands to  his  son,  and  not  to  allow  them  to  go  with  the  empire. 
Philip  was  summoned  in  x  548  to  Flanders,  where  be  went  un- 
willingly, and  Was  ill  regarded.  In  xssx  he  was  back  in  Spain, 
and  intrusted  with  its  government.  In  XS43  he  had  been  married 
to  his  ooushi  Haiy  of  Portugal,  who  bore  him  a  son,  the  unhappy 
Don  Carioa,  and  who  died  in  1545.  In  1554,  when  Clijarles  was 
meditating  his  abdication,  and  wished  to  secure  the  position  of 
his  son,  he  sumknoned  Philip  to  Flanders  again,  and  arrsnged  the 
marriage  with  Mary,  queen  of  England,  who  was  the  daughter 
of  his  mother's  sister,  In  order  to  foim  ft  union  of  Spsii^  the 
Netherlands  and  England,  before  which  France  would  be  power- 
less. Tlte  marriage  proved  barren.  The  abdicatiob  of  his  father 
on  the  t6th  of  January  1556  constituted  Philip  sovereign  ol 
Sjpsitt  with  its  American  possessions,  of  the  Axagprnof  inberitsacQ 


PHILIP  Iir.— IV,  (SPAIN) 


385 


ilk  luly,  Naples  and  SkUyi  of  the  BusandUn  inheiiUiiofr-'Uiie 
'Netherluub  and  Francbe  Comt^  and  of  the  dnchy  of  Biilaa, 
which  his  father  aefmrated  from  the  eiapire  for  his  bendlt.  It 
Has  «  legacy  of  immense  responsibilities  and  perils,  for  France 
was  bound  in  common  pnidenCe  to  endeavour  to  ruin  a  power 
which  endided  her  on  every  side  save  the  lea  and  threatened 
her  independence.  France  was  for  a  time  beaten  at  the  battles 
of  St  Quentin  ami  Gravelines,  and  forced  to  make  the  Peace  of 
Cateaa  Cambr^sis  (April  2,  1559).  But  the  death  of  Mary  of 
England  on  the  17th  of  November  1558  had  deprived  Philip 
of  English  support.  The  establishment  of  Elisabeth  on  the 
English  throne  put  on  the  flank  of  his  scattered  dominions 
another  power,  forced  no  less  than  France  by  unavmdable 
political  necessities  to  be  his.  enemy.  The  early  difficulties  of 
Elisabeth's  reign  secured  him  a  dcoeitful  peace  on  that  side  for  a. 
lime.  .  His  marriage  with  Elisabeth  of  Valois  on  the  sand  of 
June  I  $59,  and  the  apfMroadi  of  the  wars  of  religion;  gave  him  a 
temporary  security  from  France.  But  the  reli^ous  agitation 
was  affecting  hb  own  Flemish  possessions,  and  when  Philip 
went  back  to  Spain,  in  August  1559,  he  was  committed  to  a  life- 
long struggle  in  which  be  could  "not  prove  victorious  except  by 
the  con<)uest  of  France  and  England. 

If  Philip  11.  bad  deserved  his  name  of  the  Prudent  he  would 
have  made  haste,  so  soon  as  his  father,  who  continued  to  inter- 
vene in  the  government  from  his  retreat  at  Yuste  in  Estremadura, 
was  dead,  to  relieve  himself  of  the  ruinous  inheritance  of  the 
Low  Countries.  It  wail  perhaps  impossible  for  him  to  renounce 
his  rights,  and  his  education,  co-operating  with  his  natural 
disposition,  made  it  morally  impossible  for  him  to  believe  that  he 
could  be  in  the  wrong.  Like  the  rest  of  his  generation,  he  was 
convinced  that  unity  of  religion  was  indispensable  to  the  mainten- 
ance of  the  authority  of  the  Stale  and  of  good  order.  Family 
pride,  also,  was  carried  by  him  to  its'  highest  possible  pitch. 
Thus  external  and  internal  influences  alike  drove  him  into  con- 
flict with  the  Netherlands,  France  and  England;  with  the  first 
because  political  and  religidtis  discontent  combined  to  bring 
about  revolt,  which  he  felt  bound  in  duty  tocnish;  with  the  second 
and  third  because  they  helped  the  Flemings  and  the  Hollanders. 
The  conflict  assimied  the  character  of  a  struggle  between  Pro- 
testantism and  Roman  Catholicism,  in  which  Philip  appeared 
as  the  champion  of  the  Church.  It  was  a  part  he  rejoiced  to  play. 
He  became,  and  could  not  but  become,  a  persecutor  in  and  out  of 
Spain;  and  his  persecutions  not  only  hardened  the  obstinacy  of 
the  Dutch,  and  hdped  to  exaspemte  the  English,  but  they 
provoked  a  revolt  of  the  Moriscoes,  which  impoverished  his 
kingdom.  No  experience  of  the  failure  of  his  policy  could  shake 
bis  belief  in  its  essential  excellence.  That  whatever  he  did  was 
done  for  the  service  of  God,  that  success  or  faihiro  depended 
on  the  inscrutable  wUl  of  the  Almighty  and  not  on  himself,  were 
his  guiding  convictions,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  successors. 
The  "  service  of  God  and  his  majesty  "  was  the  formula  which 
expressed  the  belief  of  the  sovereign  and  his  subjects.  Philip 
must  therefore  be.  held  primarily  responsible  for  the  insane 
policy  which  brought  Spain  to  ruin.  He  had  a  high  ideal  of  his 
duty  as  a  king  to  his  own  people,  and  had  no  natural  preference 
for  violent  courses.  The  strong  measures  he  took  against 
disorderly  elements  in  Aragon  in  150  x  were  provoked  by  extreme 
misconduct  on  the  part  of  a  faction.  When  he  enforced  his 
claim  to  the  crown  of  Portugal  (i  579-1 581)  he  preferred  to  placate 
his  new  subjects  by  paying  attoition  to  their  feelings  and  thdr 
privileges.  He  even  made  dangerous  political  concessions  to 
secure  the  support  of  the  gentry.  It  is  true  that  he  was  ready  to 
make  use  of  assas^nation  for  political  purposes;  but  he  had  been 
taught  by  his  lawyers  that  he  was  "  the  prince,"  the  embodied 
•Ute,  and  as  such  had  a  right  to  act  for  the  public  good, /<^'6tu 
S9lulus.  This  was  but  in  accdrdance  with  the  temper  of  the  times. 
Coligny,  Lord  Burghley  and  William  the  Silent  also  entered  uxto 
murder  plots.  In  his  private  life  he  was  orderly  and  affectionate 
to  his  family  and  servants.  He  was  slow  to  withdraw  the  confi- 
dence he  had  once  given.  In  the  painful  episode  of  the  imprison- 
ment and  death  of  his  firstborn  son,  Don  Carlos,  Philip  behaved 
honourably.    He  bore  the  acute  agony  of  the  disease  which 


MUed  him  with  manly  patienoe,  and  he  died  piously  at  the 
Escorial  on  the  rjth  of  September  1598. 

As  an  administrator  Philip  had  all  the  vices  of  his  type,  that  of 
the  laborious,  self-righteous  man,  who  thinks  he  can  sapervise 
everything,  is  capable  of  endless  toil,and  jealous  of  his  authority, 
and  who  therefore  will  let  none  of  his  servanu  act  without  his 
instnictioas.  He  aet  the  example  of  the  unending  discuasioM  in 
oommittee  and  boundless  minute  writing  whkh  finally  choked 
the  Spanish  admimstration. 

The  Wstoin  de  PUUppt  It.  oT  M.  H.  Foneroa  (Ma,  ig8i>, 
contains  many  references  to  authorities  aad  is  exhaustive,  but  the 
author  has  some  violent  prejudices. .  Philip  Il.t  by  Martin  Hume 
(London.  1897),  is  more  just  in  its  treatment  of  Phtltp's  personal 
character,  and  gives  a  UKful  bibliography.  The  main  sources  for 
the  0olitical  history  are  the  Doeumgnlos  iniiitos  par*  la  kistoHa  de 
BspoMa  (Madrid;  1843,  dec.),  volSb  L,  iii.,  vL,  vii.,  xv.*  xxi.,  xxiv., 
xl.,  xcviu..  ct.,  ciii.,  ex.,  cxi.  and  others;  L.  P.  Gachard,  AcUs  da 
itats  jfin6raux  des  Pays  Bos,  1576-158$  (Brussels.  1861-1866);  and 
the  Calendars  of  State  Papers,  Foreign  Series,  Visabetk  (London. 
i863>i90i).  See  also  Martin  Hume,  Tmo  Bm^ish  Quie»s  and 
PhUip  (1908). 

PHILIP  III.  (1578-1631),  king  of  Spain,  son  of  PhiUp  n.  and 
his  fourth  wife^  Anne,  daughter  eA  the  emperor  Maximilian  IL, 
was  bom  at  Madrid  on  the  X4th  of  ApiQ  x  578.  He  inherited  the 
beliefs  of  his  father,  but  no  share  of  hia  industry.  The  old  king 
had  sorrowfully  confessed  that  (jod  had  not  ^ven  him  a  son 
capable  of  governing  his  vast  dominions,  and  had  foreseen  that 
Philip  III.  would  be  led  by  his  servants.  This  cakdation  was 
exactly  fulfilled..  The  new  king  put  the  direction  of  his  govern- 
ment entirely  into  the  hands  of  bis  favourite,  the  duke  of  Lerma, 
and  when  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Lerma's  son,  the  duke  ol 
Uceda,  in  1518,  he  trusted  himself  and  his  states  to  the  new 
favourite.'  The  king's  own  life  was  passed  amid  coutt  tatlvftics, 
on  which  enormous  sums  of  money  were  wasted,  or  in  the  practice 
of  childish  piety.  It  was  said  that  he  was  so  virtuous  as  hardly 
to  have  committed  a  venial  sin.  He  cannot  be  justly  bUimed  lor 
having  been  born  to  rule  a  despotic  monaivJiy,  without  even 
the  capacity  which  would  have  qwdified  him  to  manage  a  smaH 
estate*  He  died  at  .Madrid  on  the  3i8t  of  Mardi  x6ai.  .The 
story  told  in  the  memoirs  of  the  French  ambaasador  Bamom- 
pierre,  that  he  was  killed  by  the  heat  of  a  bras^o  (a  pan  of  hot 
charcoal),  because  the  proper  official  to  take  it  away  was  not  at 
hand,  is  a  humorous  exaggeratimi  of  the  lormal  etiquette  of  the 
court. 

R.  Watson  and  W.  Thompson,  History  of  PkSHp  III.  (1786), 
give  the  most-fivailable  general  account  of  his  reicn;  see  also  the 
continuation  of  Mariana  s  History  of  Spain  by  Miiiana  (Madrid* 
1817-1832). 

PHIUP  IV.  (i6o5*xfi6s),  king  of  Spain,  eldest  son  of  Philip 
III.  and  his  wife  Margaret,  sister  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  IL» 
was  bom  at  Valladolid  on  the  8th  of  April  z6oj.  His  reign, 
after  a  few  passing  years  of  barren  successes,  was  a  long  story 
of  political  and  military  decay  and  disaster.  The  king  has  bcca 
held  responsible  for  the  fall  of  Spain,  which  was,  however,  due 
in  the  maio  to  internal  causes  beyond  the  control  of  the  moat 
despotic  ruler,  however  capable  he  .had  been.  Philip  cettainly 
possessed  more  energy,  both  mental  and  physical,  than  his  father* 
There  is  stiU  in  existence  a  translatiob  of  Guicciardini  whidi 
he  wrote  with  his  own  hand  in  order  to  qualify  himself  for 
government  by  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  political  history.  He 
was  a  fine  horseman  and  keen  hunter.  Hisjtftistic  taste  was 
shown  by  his  patronage  of  Velasques,  and  his  love  ol 
letters  by  hb  favour  to  Lope  de  Vega,  CaUeroit,  and  other 
dramatists.  He  is  even  credited,  on  fairly  probable  testimony, 
with  a  share  at  least  in  the  composition  of  several  comedies. 
His  good  intentions  were  of  no  avaU  to  hb  government.  Conung 
to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  did  the  wisest  thing  he 
could  by  allowing  himself  to  be  guided  by  the  most  capable  malk 
he  could  find.  His  favourite,  Olivares,  was  a  far  more  honest 
man  than  the  duke  of  Lerma,  and  was  more  fit  for  the  place  of 
prime  minister  than  any  Spaniard  of  the  time.  But  Philip  IV. 
had  not  the  8trength4>f  mind  to  free  himself  from  the  influence  of 
Olivares  when  he  had  grown  to  manhood.  The  amusemeflts 
which  the  favourite  bad  encouraged  became  the  business  of  the 


386 


PHILIP  V.  (SPAIN)— PHILIP  THE  BOLD 


king's  life.  When,  in  1643,  the  xliaasten  filling  on  tlie  monarchy 
on  all  sides  led  to  the  dismissal  of  Oiivares,  Philip  bad  lost  the 
power  to  devote  himself  to  hard  work.  After  a  brief  straggle 
with  the  task  of  directing  the  administration  of  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  the  worst  organized  monarchy  in  Europe,  be  sank 
back  into  his  pleasures  and  was  governed  by  other  favourites. 
His  political  opinions  were  those  he  had  inherited  from  his 
father  and  grandfather.  He  thought  it  his  duty  to  support 
the  German  Habsburgs  and  the  cause  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  against  the  Protestants,  to  assert  his  sovereignty  over 
Holland,  and  to  extend  the  dominions  of  his  house.  The  utter 
exhaustion  of  his  people  in  the  course  of  a  hopeless  struggle  with 
Holland,  France  and  England  was  seen  by  him  with  sympathy, 
but  he  considered  it  an  unavoidable  misfortune  and  not  the  result 
of  his  own  errors,  since  he  could  not  be  expected  to  renounce 
his  rights  or  to  desert  the  cause  of  God  and  the  Church.  In 
public  he  maintained  a  bearing  of  rigid  solemnity,  and  was  seen 
to  laugh  only  three  times  in  the  course  of  his  life.  But  in  private 
be  indulged  in  horscpby  and  very  coarse  immorality.  His 
court  yna  inossly  vicious.  The  eady  death  of  bis  ddest  son, 
Baltasar  Carkn,  was  unquestionably  due  to  debauchery 
encoursged  by  the  gentlemen  entrusted  by  the  king  with  his 
education.  The  lesaon  shocked  the  king,  but  its  effea  soon 
wore  off.  Philip  IV.  died  broken-hearted  on  the  x  7th  of 
September  1665,  .expressing  the  hope  that  his  surviving  son, 

Carlos,  would  be  more  fortunate  than  himself. 

The  best  aocounu  of  Philip  IV.  will  be  found  in  the  Estudios  del 
reinado  d*  Felip*  IV.t  by  Don  A.  C^novas  del  Castillo  (Madrid. 
1889),  and  in  the  introduction  by  Don  F.  Silvcla  to  his  edition  of 
the  Cattat  di  Sor  Maria  d»  Atreda  y  dd  rey  Felipe  IV,  (Madrid, 
1885-1886). 

PHILIP  V.  (1683-1746),  king  of  Spain,  founder  of  the  present 
Bourbon  dynasty,  was  the  son  of  the  Dauphin  Lonis  and  his 
wife,  Maria  Anna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  Maria,  elector  of 
Bavaria.  He  was  bora  at  Versailles  on  the  XQtb  of  December 
1683.  On  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Habs- 
buig  in  Spain  he  was  named  heir  by  the  will  of  Charles  U.  He 
bad  shared  in  the  careful  education  glven>to  his  elder  brother, 
Louts,  duke  of  Burgundy,  by  F^nelon,  and  was  himself  known 
as  duke  of  An|ou.  Philip  was  by  nature  dull  and  phlegmatic 
He  had  learat  morality  from  F^neton's  teaching,  and  showed 
himself  thraughout  his  life  strongly  adverse  to  the  moral  laxity 
of  his  grandfather  and  of  most  of  the  princes  of  his  time.  But 
his  very  domestic  regularity  caused  him  to  be  entirely  under  the 
influence  of  his  two  wives,  Maria  Louisa  of  Savoy,  whom  he 
married  in  1702,  and  who  died  in  Febraary  17x4,  and  Elisabeth 
Faracse  of  Parma,  whom  he  married  in  December  of  the  same 
year,  and  who  survived  him.  He  showed  courage  on  the  field 
Af  battle,  both  in  Italy  and  Spain,  during  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  and  was  flattered  by  his  courtiers  with  the  title  of 
Bt  AnimosOf  or  the  spirited.  But  he  had  no  taste  for  military 
ttdveature.  If  he  had  a  strong  passion,  it  was  to  provide  for  his 
■ycosBslon  to  the  throne  of  France,  if  his  nephew,  Loub  XV., 
■hould  die,  and  he  indulged  in  many  intrigues  against  the  house 
cl  Oiieans,  whose  right  to  the  tuccessu>n  was  supposed  to  be 
•ecured  by  Philip's  solemn  renundation  of  all  claim  to  the 
French  throne,  when  he  became  king  of  Spain.  It  was  In 
pursuit  of  one  of  these  intrigues  that  he  abdicated  in  X7»4  in 
favour  of  his  son  Louis.  But  Louis  died  in  a  few  months, 
and  Philip  returaed  to  the  throne.  At  a  Uter  period  he  tried 
to  abdicate  again,  and  his  wife  had  to  keep  him  in  a  species  of 
4Tf(p*ittd  confinement.  Througfaoat  his  life,  but  particularly 
in  the  later  part  of  it,  he  was  subject  to  prolonged  fits  of  melan- 
cholia, during  which  he  would  not  even  qmik. .  He  died  of 
apoplexy  on  the  9th  of  July  X746. 

"Tht  beat  account  of  Philip's  cbarscter  and  reign  Is  ttil!  that  given 
by  Cose  in  his  Memoirs  ^ftlie  Kings  tff  Spaim  ef  Oie  House  ^  Beurbon 
(London,  1815). 

PHIUP  THE  BOLD  <I349-I404)»  duke  of  Burgundy,  fourth 
ton  of  John  II.  of  France  and  Bonne  of  Luxemburg,  was  bora 
9n  the  15th  of  January  xms.  He  earned  hb  surname  by  hb 
bmveiy  while  fighting  by  ms  father's  side  on  the  field  of  Poitiers. 
After  the  defeat  of  King  John  he.  accompanied  him  into  captivity 


in  Enghmd.  In  1360  he  received  the  title  of  dnkeol  TounlOB, 
and  in  June  tjti  was  entrusted  with  the  goverament  of  Burgundy, 
vrhich  John  had  united  to  the  crown  at  the  death  of  the  last 
dakc  of  the  Capetian  family,  Philip  of  Ronvra,  in  1361.  In 
September  X363  John  bestowed  on  PhiHp  the  title  of  duke  of 
Burgundy,  together  with  that  of  first  peer  of  France.  Jeihn 
was  anxious  not  to  displease  the  Burguadians,  who  were  accus- 
tomed to  their  independence;  and,  oMMeover,  with  Philip  as 
duke  of  Burgundy  he  was  in  a  better  posture  to  resist  the  kii^ 
of  Navarre,  Charlea  the  Bad,  who  laU  daim  to  the  duchy.  The 
donatwtt,  which  was  at  first  kept  secret  In  spite  of  a  request 
made  in  1363  for  its  ooofitmation  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV., 
was  ratified  at  the  accession  of  Chades  V.  of  France;  but  in 
consequence  of  Philip's  preoccupation  with  the  Grand  Com- 
panies, which  had  mvaded  France,  it  was  not  until  November 
X364  that  he  definitely  took  posMssion  of  the  duchy.  Charles 
continued  to  show  favour  to  hia  brother,  appointing  him  (fa  1366) 
his  lieutenant  in  Champagne  and  mairyfaig  him  to  Maxgaret, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis  of  Mile,  count  of  Flanden, 
and  widow  of  PhiKp  of  Rouvre.  Edward  HI.  of  Enghmd  was 
negotiating  for  the  maniage  of  this  princess  with  his  son  F.dnnind, 
earl  of  Cambridge;  but  Charles  prevailed  upon  Pope.  Urban  V. 
to  refuse  the  dispensation  necessary  on  grounds  of  kinship,  and 
even  consented  to  give  up  UUe^  Douai  and  Oichles  to  Flanden 
on  condition  that  Maxgaxet  sfaotiki  marry  his  brother.  PhUap 
eventually  won  the  day,  thanks  to  the  support  of  the  late 
count's  mother,  and  the  marriage  took  place  with  hig|i  levd 
at  Ghent  on  the  xgth  of  June  X369. 

During  the  aucoeeding  years  Philip  proved  a  fahhfal  ally 
to  Charka.  He  took  part  in  the  aLrnoat  Moodksa  t^mpmign 
against  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  had  landed  at  Calaia;  in 
X377  he  took  several  towns  in  French  Flanders  from  the  English; 
and  in  1379  relieved  Trojres,  which  had  been  besieged  by  the 
English.  On  Charles's  death  Philip  found  himself,  with  his 
brothers,  the  dukes  of  Anjou  and  Beny,  in  charge  of  the  govern- 
ment of  France  in  the  naone  of  Charles  VI.,  who  was  a  asiaor; 
and  in  the  absence  of  the  duke  of  AnJon,  who  left  France  in 
X382  to  conquer  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Philip  occupied  the 
most  powerful  positwn  in  the  realm.  He  peisuaded  the  young 
king  to  intervene  In  Fhuiders;  where  the  cxtisens  of  Ghent, 
whose  rebellious  spirit  had  necessiuted  Philip's  Interventiob 
in  1379,  had  again  revolted  undet  Philip  van  AiteveMe  and  had 
expelled  Louisr  of  M&le»  On  the  37th  of  November  1381  the 
Franco-Buigundian  chivalry  crushed  the  rebels  at  Roaebecke, 
and  on  his  return  the  duke  of  Burgundy  took  part  in  repress- 
ing the  popular  movcmenu  which  had  broken  out  In  Paris  and 
other  French  towns.  In  1383  an  insurreaion  in  Flanden 
supported  by  Enghind  gave  rise  to  another  French  expedition; 
but  in  January  1384  the  death  of  Louis  of  Mile  made  Philip 
master  of  the  countships  of  Flanders,  Artols,  Rethd  and 
Nevers;  and  m  the  following  year  the  dtixens  of  Ghent  decided 
to  submit.  At  this  period  Philip  sought  to  mgrstiate  hiaaaelf 
with  the  emperor,  who  was  a  near  neighbour,  and  of  whom  he 
held  a  part  of  his  dominions,  by  giving  two  of  his  daug^tcn 
in  marriage  to  two  princes  ot  the  bouse  of  Bavaria;  he  also 
took  an  important  part  in  bringing  about  the  marriage  of  a 
princess  of  the  same  family,  Isabd,  to  King  Charlea  VI. 

Hostilities,  however,  were  renewed  between  France  and 
England.  A  formidable  expedition  was  prepared  under  the 
direction  of  the  duke  of  Buigundy^  and  a  fleet  of  X400  aaH 
assembled  at  Sluys;  but  the  enterprise  failed  owing  to  the 
dilatoriness  of  the  duke  of  Berry.  The  fatiguing  and  ingkwloas 
expedition  in  the  Netherlands,  hito  whkh  the  duke  drajgied 
Charles  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  his  khnwoman,  Joan  of 
Brabant,  against  the  duke  of  GeUerUnd,  shook  Philip*8  credit 
with  his  nephew,  who  on  his  return  dedared  himself  of  age  and 
confided  the  government  to  the  andent  coonciilon  of  his  father, 
the  "  Marmousets."  The  king's  madness  (1392)  restored  his 
uncles  to  power,  and  particulariy  Philip,  who  after  asaatiag 
peace  by  treating  with  the  duke  of  Brittany  and  by  concltading  a 
trace  of  twenty-eight  yean  with  England,  made  strenuous  efforU 
to  put  an  end  to  the  Great  Schism,  visiting  Pope  Benedia  XIIl. 


PHILIP  THE 


387 


at  AvifMO  in  ssfs  ^  ^*  b^P*  of  ebtaioutg  a  vohiiiuury 
migiuttioa  from  him.  But  the  frowiog  influence  oi  the  kipg  s 
brother,  Louis  of  Otka/oB,  who  was  on  terms  of  great  intimacy 
with  Queen  Isabel  and  was  accused  of  being  her  lover,  was  a 
serious  obstruction.  Diacpnd  broke  out  in  the  ooundl,  and  but 
foe  the  intervention  of  the  dufces  of  Beny  and  Bourbon  the  two 
princes  would  have  come  to  an  open  struggle.  For  a  brief 
period  Philip  was  dispossessed  of  authority,  but  he  Tegained 
it  in  1403  and  kept  it  till  his  death,  which  to^  pkoe  en  the 
S7th  of  April  X404.  The  cathedral  of  St  Bteijpie  at  Dijon 
contains  hh  remains,  and  his  tomb  (formerly  in  the  Chartreuse 
of  Dijon)  is  now  in  the  museum  in  the  H6tel-d»-Yillcu 

Although  he  had  to  curb  the  independent  spirit  of  the  seigneurs 
of  Franche^Comti,  and  in  spite  of  frequent  collisions  with  his 
vaaals  in  Flanders  and  with  the  drisens  of  Besangon  (who  in 
1386  ettracted  from  him  a  promise  to  respect  their  privileges), 
niiUp  appears  to  have  govcnied  his  territories  with  sagadty 
and  a  certain  moderation,  and  he  was  particularly  suooeasful  in 
employing  the  resources  of  France  in  the  interests  of  Burgundy. 
He  granted  numerous  privileges  to  the  inhabitants  of  Dijon,  and 
created  in  t386  two  ckambres  des  c»m^Us,  one  at  Dijon  and  the 
other  at  LUle.  He  was,  in  the  phrase  of  a  contemporary, 
"  kindly  and  amiable  to  high  and  low  and  those  of  middle  rank, 
liberal  as  an  Alennder,  noble  and  pontifical,  in  court  and  state 
magmfioent."  But  his  liberality  and  his  love  of  display  in- 
vdved  him  in  enormous  expense,  and  he  left  so  many  debts  that 
his  widow  was  compelled  to  renounce  her  personal  estate  to  avoid 
the  respoosibility  of  discharging  them.  By  his  wife  Margaret 
(d.  1405)  he  had  a  numerous  family:  John  the  Fearless,  wfao- 
sacosfdcd  him;  Charles  and  Louis,  who  both  died  in  infamy; 
Anthony,  count  of  Rethel,  and  Philip,  count  of  NeverS,  both 
killed  at  Agincoot;  Margaret,  who  married  William  of  Bavaria, 
count  of  Ostrevant;  Catherine,  •  wife  of  LeopoU,  duke  of 
Austria;  Mary,  wife  of  Amadeus  VIH.  of  Savoy;  sjid  Bonne, 

who  was  betrothed  to  John  «f  Bourbon  and  died  young. 

(RTPa) 

PHILIP  THB  GOOD  (1396-1467),  duke  of  Burgundy,  son  of 
John  the  Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  Margaret  of  Bavaria, 
was  bom  at  Dijon  00  the  rjth  of  June  1396,  and  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  loth  of  September  1419.  'The  natural  outcome  of 
the  assassinattoii  of  John  the  Fearless  (9.V.)  was  to  drive  his  sue* 
cessor  to  the  EngHsh.side.  In  14x9  Philip  signed  with  Hmry  V. 
of  England  the  treaty  of  Anas,  by  which  he  recognized  Henry 
as  regent  and  futuro  heir  of  the  kingdom  of  France,  and  in  2430 
gave  his  adherenoe  to  the  treaty  of  Tkoyes.  Early  in  December 
1420  Philip  entend  Paris  with  the  king  of  England,  and  sub- 
sequently  took  part  in  the  defeat  of  the  Frendi  at  Mon»«n- 
Vimeu.  By  a  treaty  conduded  by  Philip  at  Amieos  in  April 
1423  with  the  dukes  of  Brittany  and  Bedford,  John,  duke  of 
Bedford,  married  Philip's  sister  Anne,  and  Arthur  of  Brittany, 
earl  of  Richmond,  became  the  husband  of  Philip's  sister  MsT" 
gatet.  A  few  years  later  discord  arose  among  the  allies.  When 
the  duke  of  Bedfoid  ^besieged  Ocleans  the  inhabitants  offered 
to  surrender,  but  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy;  whereupon  Bedfdrd 
retorted  that  **  he  did  not  beat  the  bushes  for  others  to  take  the 
b&rds."  When  this  speech  reached  Philip's  ears  he  withdrew 
his  troops  in  dudgeon,  and  conduded  a  truce  with  France 
(r439).  Bedford,  however,  succeeded  in  eondliating  him  by 
promises  and  presents,  and  in  1430  Phflip  took  part  in  the 
campaign  against  Compidgne. 

But  another  conflict  arose  between' the  duke  of  Burgundy 
and  the  English. '  Jacqueline,  countess  of  Hahiaut,  the  divosced 
wife  of  the  duke  of  Brabant  sitd  the  heiress  of  Hdland  and 
Zeeland,  had  married  the  duke  of  Gkiucester,  who  attempted 
to  take  fordble  possession  df  his  wife's  territories.  '  Philip, 
however,  himself  daimed  Brabant  as  having  been  bequeathed 
to  him  by  his  cousin  Phih'p,  the  late  duke,  with  the  result  that 
the  Burgundmns  repulsed  the  troops  of  the  duke  of  Glouctstcr, 
and  Jacqueline  was  forced  to  recognise  the  duke  of  Burgundy 
MM  her  lieutenant  and  heir.  Moreover,  the  duchess  of  Bodiord 
had  died  in  1433.  Charles  Vtl.,  who  m  spit«  of  the  efforts  of 
ibn  ctrdhial  of  Ste-Croix  and  the  co&ferences  held  by  him  at 


Auxerro  and  Semur  had  hitheito  refused  to  return  to  Franoe« 
finally  decided  to  take  part  in  the  conferences  which  wero 
opened  at  St  Vaast  d'Artas  on  the  6th  of  August  1435,  and  to 
which  the  whole  of  Christendom  attached  very  high  import-* 
ance,  all  the  princes  oi  Europe  and  the  pope  und  the  ooundl 
of  Basel  being  represented.  Philip  consented  to  a  reoonciUa* 
tion  witfi  the  king  of  France,  and  agreed  to  iccogniae  him  as 
his  legitimate  sovereign  on  condition  that  he-  should  not  be 
required  to  pay  himiiomage  during  his  Ufetimf.  Charln,  on 
his  part,  solexmily  craved  pardon  for  the  murder  of  John  the 
Fearless  through  the  mouth  of  the  dean  of  the  church  in  Paris* 
and  handed  over  to  the  duke  the  couaties  of  Micon,  Auzerre, 
Bar-sur-Seine  and  Ponthieu,  and  the  towns  on  and  near  tho 
Somme  (Roye,  Montdidier,  Ptionne),  reservipc  the  option  of 
Tedeeming  the  Somme  towns  for  400,000  geki  crowns.  Phili(» 
proved  a  faithful  ally  of  the  king,  aiding  him  in  reentering  Paris 
and  preparing  an  expedition  against  Calais,  which,  however, 
failed  throuj^  the  iU^will  of  hb  Flemish  subjects  (1436).  In 
1440  he  paid  the  ransom  of  Charles  of  Orleans  (the  son  of  his 
father's  old  enemy),  who  had  beea  a  prisoner  in  England  .since 
the  battle  of  A^court;  received  him  with  gnat  honour  at; 
Cravelines;  and  married  him  to  Maiy  of  Cleves,  upon  whom  ha; 
bestowed  a  handsome  dowry.  In  144s  Philip  entered  into  a. 
conspiracy  to  i^ve  the  duke  of  Orieaas.  a  laigfit  sharo  in  tht 
affaim  of  the  kingdom.  To  Ren6  of  Anjou,  the  duke  of  Lot- 
nine,  he  showed  himself  less  generous,  setting  up  another 
dslmant  to  the  duchy  of  Lorraine  in  the  person  oi  Anthony  a^ 
Vaudemont,  and  taking  Ren6  prisoner  in  1431;  it  was  not  until 
1436  that  he  consented  definitively  to  rdease  Ren6  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  abandon  several  strong  places  and  pay  aa 
enormous  ransom.  In  1445,  at  the  oonfeKcaces  of  ChAhms-«nv 
Maine,  the  ducheSb  of  Burgundy  renounced  these  daims  in  hcc 
husband's  name  in  order  to  assure  the  execution  of  the  treaty 
of  Arras. 

Philip  was  frequently  disturbed  by  the  insubordinatk>n  of 
the  Flemish  communes.  He  had  to  quell  seditions  at  Li^ 
(1430),  Ghent  (1432)  nnd  Antwerp  (1435).  In  1438  he  waa 
driven  with  the  duchess  out  of  Bruges  by  the  revolted  dtizens, 
a  revolt  which  he  repressed  with  great  severity.  In  1448  the 
dtizens  of  Ghent  rose  in  rebellion,  but,  dnappointed  of  Frendi 
support,  they  wero  defeated  at  Ruppelmonde  and  hi  1453 
were  overwhelmed  at  the  battle  of  Gavro,  whera.  they  Idt 
20,000  dead  on  the  fiekL  At  a  banquet  shortty  afterwards 
Philip  vowed  that  he  would  lead  a  crusade  against  the  Turkey 
who  had  seized  Constantinople,  and  the  knights  of  his  court 
swore  to  follow  his  example.'  The  expedition,  however,  did  not 
take  pUice,  and  was  but  a  pretext  for  levying  subsidies  and  for 
knightly  entertainments.  In  1459  Philip  sent  an  embassy 
under  the  duke  of  Cleves  Into  Italy  to  take  part  ui  the  coi^ 
f ereaces  preparatory  to  a  fresh  expedition  against  the  TuriBS» 
but  this  enterprise  likewise  fell  to  the  ground.  In  1456  the 
duke  of  Burgundy  had  given  an  a^um  to  the  Dauphin  Louis 
(afterwards  Louis  XI.),  who  had  quarrelled  with  his  fathel: 
and  had  been  forced  to  leave  France.  The  "fox  who  would 
rob  his  host's  hen-roost,"  as  the  old  king  called  Louis,  sepaid 
his  protector  by  attempting  to  sow  disoo^  in  the  dual  family 
of  Burgundy,  and  then  retired  to  the  castle  of  Gtaappe  in 
Brabant  At  Charles  VII.'s  death,  however,  Pbilip  was  one  of 
the  firtt  to  recognize  the  new  king,  and  accompanied  him  to 
Paris.  During  Uie  journey  Louis  won  over  the  seigneurs  of 
Croy,  the  prindpal  counselors  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  persuaded  Philip  to  aUow  him  to  redeem  the  Somme 
towns  for  the  sum  stipulated  In  the  tnaty  of  Acrss.  This 
proceeding  infuriated  Philip's  son  Charles,  count  of  Chavo- 
lais,  who  prevailed  upon  his  father  to  break  his  pledge  and 
decUre  wsr  on  the  king  of  Frsnce.  On  the  tsth  of  April  146$ 
Philip  handed  over  to  his  son  the  entire  sdministration  of  his 

>  This  was  the  singuUr  vow  known  as  "  the  vow  of  the  pheasant/' 
from  the  fact  that  Philip  placed  hit  hand  ademnly  on  a  pheasaot, 
which  had  been  brought  to  him  by  his  herald,  and  vowed  that^ 
he  would  fight  the  Turks  and  challenge  their  sultan  to  single 
combat. 


3«8 


PHILIP  (OF  HESSE) 


MUttt.    The  old  duke  died  at  Bruges  on  the  xjtli  of  June 
1467,  and  was  buried  at  Dijon. 

Fliifip  was  a  great  lover  of  pomp  and  luxury  and  a  friend  of 
letten,  being  the  patron  of  Georges  Chastdain,  (Mivier  de  la 
Marche  and  Antoine  de  la  Salle,  and  the  founder  of  the  col- 
lection of  MSS.  known  as  the  "  Biblioth^ue  de  Bourgogne  " 
(now  at  Brussels),  and  ako  of  the  university  of  Ddle  <X42x). 
He  idministeied  his  estates  wisely;  promoted  commerce  and 
industry,  partktilarly  in  Flanders;  and  left  his  son  a  well- 
lined  treasury.  He  was  thrice  married:  in  1409  to  Michelle 
(d.  1422),  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  France;  in  1424  to  Bonne 
of  Artois  (d.  1425);  and  in  1429  to  Isabel  (d.  1472),  daughter  of 
John  I.,  king  of  Portugal.  On  the  occasion  of  his  third  marriage 
Philip  founded  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Charles,  afterwards  known  as  Charles  the  Bold,  his  only  sur- 
viving son  by  Isabel.  He  had  several  illegitimate  chfldren, 
among  them  being  Comeille,  called  the  Grand  Bastard,  who  was 
killed  in  1452  at  the  battle  of  Ruppelmonde. 

(R.PK>.) 

raiUPv  Landgsavs  or  Hbssb  (1504-1567),  son  of  the 
landgrave  William  11.,  was  bom  at  Marburg  on  the  xjth  of 
November  1504.  He  became  landgrave  on  his  father's  death 
in  x$09,  and  having  been  dedared  of  age  in  15x8,  was  married 
in  1523  to  Christina,  daughter  of  George,  duke  of  Saiony 
(d.  X539).  In  1522  and  1523  he  assisted  to  quell  the  rising  of 
Fxanx  von  Sidi^igen  (f.v.),  iriio  had  raided  Hesse  five  years 
previously,  and  in  1525  he  took  a  leading  part  in  cnishing  the 
lebellion  of  the  peasants  in  north  Germany,  being  inainly 
responsible  lor  their  defeat  at  Frsnkenhauaen.  About  this 
time  Philip  adopted  the  reformed  faith,  of  which  he  was  after* 
wards  the  zealous  and  daring  defendar.  IndJffctent  to  theo- 
logical; or  even  to  patriotic,  considerations,  his  plans  to  protect 
the  xeformeia  rested  upon  two  main  principles — unity  among  the 
Protestants  at  home  and  military  aid  from  abroad.  The 
sdiemcs  he  put  forward  as  one  of  the  heads  of  the  league  of 
Schmalkalden,  aimed  primarily  at  overthrowing  the  house  of 
Habsborg;  to  this  end  aid  was  sought  from  foreigner  and 
native,  tram,  Protestant  and  Catholic  alike.  Bnvoys  were  sent 
repeatedly  to  France,  -En^nd  and  Denmark;  Turkey  and 
Venice  were  looked  to  for  assistance;  the  jealouqr  felt  towards 
the  Hahsburgs  by  the  Bavarian  Wittekbachs  was  skilfully 
feoMnted;  and  the  German  Protestants  were  assured  that 
attack  was  the  best,  nay  the  only,  means  of  defence.  Before 
the  formation  of  the  league  of  Schmalkalden  Philip  was  very 
Intimate  widi  Zwingli,  and  up  to  the  time  of  the  reformer'a 
death,  in  xssx,  he  hoped  that  material  aid  would  be  forthcoming 
hfom  his  foUoWeis.  In  1526  he  had  aided  John  the  Constant, 
eiactnr  of  Saxony,  to  fbnn  an  affiance  of  reforming  princes; 
aad  in  1529  he  caUed  together  the  abwtive  conference  at  Mar- 
bofg,  iK^bg  thus  to  dose  the  breach  between  LuUieraiis  and 
Zwingiians.  More  i^grenive  Was  hb  action  in  1528.  De- 
osived  by  the  forgeries  ol  Otto  von  Pack  (f.v.),  he  beHtfved  in 
the  existence  <MF  a  conspiracy  to  <nish  the  refonners,  and  was 
only  restrained  from  attadting  his  enemies  |yy  Che  ii^ueoce  of 
John  of  SsjBony  and  Luther.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  com- 
pelling the  archbishop  of  Mains  and  the  bisbopa  of  WQrzburg 
and  Bamberg  to  contribute  to  the  cost  of  his  mobUizatioff. 
Philip  waa  free^  accused  of  having  employed  Pack  to  concoct 
the  fofgiery;  and,  although  this  charge  is  doubtless  false,  his 
eager  acocptanoe  of  Pack's  unproved  statements  aroused  oon- 
siderabJe  iU-feeling  among  the  Catholics,  which  he  was  iu>t  slow 
10  return.  In  1529  the  landi^ve  signed  the  "  protest "  which 
was  presented  to  the  diet  at  Spires,  bdog  thus  one  of  the  original 
"  Protestants;  "  in  x  530  he  was  among  the  subscribers  to  the 
eonfcMiOn  of  Augsburg;  and  the  formation  of  the  lesgue  of 
Schmalkalden  in  the  same  year  waa  largdy  due  to  his  energy. 

His  next  important  undertaking,  the  restoration  of  Ulridi, 
duke  of  WQrtemberg  (q.v.)  to  his  duchy,  was  attended  with 
conspicaoas  success.  Wtlrtemberg  had  passed  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Habsburgs,  but  after  Philip's  brief  and  victorious 
campaign  in  1SS4  the  humQiation  of  Charles  V.  and  his  brother, 
the  German  king,  Ferdinand  I.,  was  so  complete  that  it.  was 


said  the  buidgrave  had  done  more  fbr  ProtettaAtistti  by  thift 
enterprise  than  a  thousand  of  Luther's  books  would  do.  After 
this  victory  Philip  entertahied  the  idea  of  coining  to  terma 
with  Charles  V.  on  the  basis  of  extensive  concessions  to  the 
ProtestanU;  but  he  quiddy  letumed  to  his  iormer  plans  lor 
leadhig  a  general  atuck  on  the  Habsburgs.  The  Concord  of 
Wittenberg,  made  in  1536,  was  favourable  fot  these  schcnKS, 
but  after  five'  years  spent  in  assiduous  preparation  war  waa 
prevented  by  the  serious  illness  of  the  landgrave  and  the 
lukewarmness  of  his  allies.  Recovering  from  his  malady,  he 
had  returned  to  his  intrigues  when,  an  event  happened  which 
materially  affected  the  fortunes  of  the  Reformatkm.  His  unkm 
with  Christina  was  not  a  happy  one,  and  havfaig  fixed  his 
affections  upon  Margaret  von  der  Saal  (d.  X566),  he  obtained 
an  opinion  from  Protestant  theologians  that  bigamy  was  not 
forbidden  by  Holy  Writ.  Luther  and  Melancthon  at  length 
consented  to  the  maxriage,  but  stipulated  that  it  should  be 
kept  secret,  and  it  was  odebeated  in  Mardi  1540.  The  marriage, 
however,  became  known,  and  n  great  outcry  arose  against 
Philip,  whost  friends  quickly  deserted  him.  He  objected  to 
Luther'k  couiud  to  deny  the  existence  of  a  aecond  marriage; 
abused  John  Frederick,  elector  of  Sasoony,  for  not  coming  to 
support  him;  and  cauwd  bigamy  to  be  puhlidy  defended. 
Alarmed,  however,  by  the  strength  of  his  enemies,  and  by 
their  evident  determmation  to  punish  him  as  a  bigamist,  he 
in  June  1541  made  a  treaty  with  Charles  Vv  at  Regendxnqg. 
In  return  for  -  a  general  pardon  he  undertook  to  break  off 
relations  with  France  and  England  and  loyally  to  support  the 
emperor. 

During  these  years  Philip  had  been  forwarding  the  pngiKSft 
of  the  Reformation  in  Hesse.  This  was  begun  about  X526,  wfaca 
an  important  syiu>d  was  hdd  at  Homburg;  the  unxvexaity  oC 
Marburg  was  founded  in  the  hiterests  of  the  reformers  in  1527; 
and  after  the  diet  of  Spires  hi  X539  the  work  vraa  conducted  with 
renewed  vigour.  The  CathoHc  worship  was  suppressed,  and  tte 
secularized  church  revenues  supplied  an  endowmoit  of  the  new 
univeBiity. 

The  peace  between  the  emperor  and  the  landgrave  was  soon 
broken.  In  154a  Philip  peisuaded  the  league  of  SchmalkaUen 
to  attack  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Brunswick-WolfenbiUtel,  ostensibly 
in  the  interests  of  the  Protestant  towns  of  Brunswick  and  Goslar. 
The  duchy  waa  cpiickly  overrun,  and  Henrys— a  Catholic  prince — 
driven  out;  but  the  good  understanding  between  the  emperor 
and  the  landgrave  was  destroyed,  and  the  rehitions  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics  became  worse  than  before.  Nor  was 
the  fissure  in  the  Protestant  ranks  dosed,  and  Charles  took 
advantage  of  thisdisunion  to  eQn<|uer  Gelderiand  and  to  mature 
his  preparations  for  overthrowing  the  league  of  Schmalkalden. 
Unlike  John  Frederick  of  Sairony,  Philip  divined,  or  partly 
divined,  the  emperor's  intentions,  and  urged  repeatedly  that  the 
forces  ol  the  league  should  be  pot  in  order,  lliis  advice  passed 
unheeded,  and  when  Charles  suddenly  showed  his  hand,  and  in 
July  1546  issued  the  imperial  ban  against  the  landgrave  and  the 
elector,  it  was  seen  that  the  two  princes  were  almost  isolated. 
Fighting  began  along  the  upper  Danube  and  when  Indeciswa 
and  want  of  funds  had  ruined  the  league's  chances  of  success, 
Philip  returiked  to  Hesse  and  busied  himself  with  seeking  hdp 
from  foreign  powers;  while  in  April  X547  John  Frederick  was 
captured  at  Miihlberg.  After  this  defeat  the  landgrave  was 
induced  to  surrender  to  Charles  in  June  by  his  son-in4aw, 
Maurice,  now  elector  of  Saxooy,  and  Joachim  U.,  elector  of 
Brandenburg,  who  promised 'Philip  that  he  should  be  pardoned, 
and  were  greatly  incensed  when  the  emperor  refused  to  assent 
to  this  condition.  There  ii,  however,  no  truth  in  the  stoxy  that 
the  word  ei fitter  wss  altered  by  an  imperial  servant  into  noiges, 
thus  making  the  phrase  "'Without  any  imprisonment "  in  the 
treaty  of  surrender  to  read  "  without  perpetual  imprisonment.** 
Philip  was  sentenced  to  detention  for  fifteen  years,  and  as  he  waa 
heartily  disliked  by  Charles  his  imprisonment  was  a  rigorous 
one,  and  became  still  more  so  after  he  had  ipade  an  attempt  to 
escape.  His  acceptance  of  the  InterimAn  1548  did  not  bxing  hixn 
freedom;  but  this  came  in  consequence  o(  the  humiliation  of 


PHILIP,  J.—PHILIP,  K. 


389 


Cburles  V.  at  the  hands  of  Maurice  in  1552;  and  after  the  con- 
dusioo  of  the  peace  of  Passau  in  this  year  he  returned  to  Hesse. 
Although  less  active  than  formerly,  the  landgrave  did  not  cease 
to  intrigue  on  behalf  of  theProtestants  while  continuing  the  work 
of  reforming  and  organizing  the  Church  in  Ilesse.  In  (562 
he  aided  Uie  Huguenots  with  troops,  and  he  was  frequently  in 
communication  with  the  insurgents  in  the  Nctheriands;  but  his 
efforts  to  form  a  union  of  the  Protestants  were  fruitless.  Philip, 
who  is  sometimes  called  the  Magnanimous,  died  at  Cassel  on  the 
31st  of  March  1567.  By  Christina  he  had  four  sons  and  five 
daughters,  and  according  to  his  directions  the  landgraviate  was 
partitioned'  at  his  death  between  his  sons.  He  had  also  by 
Margaret  von  dcr  Saal  seven  sons,  who  were  called  counts  of 
Dieu,  and  one  daughter. 

See  Ch.  von  Rommel,  PkOipp  ier  Grossmuthite  (Giescen,  1830); 
BrUfwuhsd  LandxraJ  JPkilipp>s  mil  Bueer,  edited  by  M.  Lcnz  (Leipzig, 
1881-1890):  Pohtiiches  Archvi  de$  Lauigraftn  Fhilipp,  edited  by 
F.  K^ich  (Leipzig.  1904) ;  L.  G.  Mogcn,  Htsloria  captivtioUs  Philip^ 
tfiagnanimi  (Frankfort,  1766);  W.  Fatckenhcincr,  Phiiipp  der 
CrossmutkiM  im  Bauemkriege  (Marburg,  1887}:  H.  Schwarz. 
lAftdpoi  Phiiipp  wit  Hessen  und  di*  Packuheu  Hdndd  (Leipzig. 
1881) :  X  Wlllc,  Pkilipp  der  CrossmiUkige  von  Hesstn  und  die  Resit- 
tution  Ulrichs  von  Wtirltemberg  (Tubingen,  1882);  W.  W.  Rockwell 
Die  Doppeteke  des  Landgrafen  Phiiipp  von  Hessen  (Marburg,  1904) ; 
A.  Heidcahatn,  Z7t«  Unionspotiiih  Phtlipps  von  Hessen  (Halle,  1890): 
K.  Varrentrapp.  Landgraf  Phiiipp  non  Hessen  und  die  Unioersitat 
Marburg  (Cassel,  1904):  Von  Drach  and  Kdnnecke,  Die  BUdnisse 
Pkitipps  des  Crossmuligen  (Ca&scl,  1905):  Festschrift  turn  Ce- 
d&chtnis  Philipps,  published  by  the  Verein  J[ur  hessische  Ceschichle 
und  Lamdedtutue  fCasscI,  1904);  and  Pkilipp  der  Crossmiiiige, 
Beiirdfe  suf  Cesckichle  seines  Lebens  und  seiner  Zeit,  published  by  the 
0istortscker  Verein  Jur  das  Crosshenugtum  Hessen  (Marburg,  1904). 

PHIUP,  JOHN  (i 775-1851).  British  missionary  in  South 
Africa,  was  bom  on  the  14th  of  April  1775,  at  Kirkcaldy,  Fife,  the 
son  of  a  schoolmaster  in  that  town.  After  having  been  apprenticed 
to  a  linendraper,  and  for  three  years  a  clerk  in  a  Dundee  business 
house»  be  entered  the  Hoxton  (Congregational)  Theological 
College,  and  in  1804  was  appointed  to  a  Congregational  chapel 
in  Aberdeen.  In  1818  he  joined  the  Rev.  John  Campbell  in  his 
second  journey  to  South  Africa  to  inspect  the  stations  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  and  reported  that  the  conduct  of  the 
Cape  Colonists  towards  the  natives  was  deserving  of  strong 
reprobation.  In  1822  the  London  Missionary  Society  appointed 
bim  superintendent  of  their  South  African  stations.  He  made 
bis  headquarters  at  Cape  Town,  where  he  also  established  and 
undertook  the  pastorate  of  the  Union  Chapel.  His  indignation 
was  aroused  by  the  barbarities  inflicted  upon  the  Hottentots 
and  KafTirs  (by  a  minority  of  the  colonists),  and  he  set  himself  to 
remedy  their  grievances;  but  his  zeal  was  greater  than  his 
knowledge.  He  misjudged  the  character  both  of  the  colonists 
and  of  the  natives,  his  cardinal  mistake  being  in  regarding  the 
African  as  little  removed  from  the  European  in  intellect  and 
capacity.  It  was  the  period  of  the  agitation  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery  in  England,  where  Philip's  charges  against  the 
c»lonists  and  the  colonial  government  found  powerfol  support. 
His  influence  was  seen  in  the  ordinance  of  1828  granting  all  free 
coloured  persons  at  the  Cape  every  right  to  which  any  other 
British  subjects  were  entitled.  During  1826-1828  he  was  in 
England,  and  in  the  kst-named  year  he  published  Researckes 
in  Swik  Africa,  containing  his  views  on  the  native  question. 
His  recommendations  were  adopted  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  his  unpopularity  in  South  Africa  was  great,  and  in  1830  he 
was  convicted  of  libelling  a  Cape  oflliciaL  The  British  govern- 
ment, however,  caused  the  Cape  government  to  conform 
to  the  views  of  Philip,  who  for  over  twenty  years  exercised 
a  powerful,  and  in  many  reelects  unfavourable,  influence  over 
the  destinies  of  the  country.  One  of  Philip's  ideals  was  the 
curbing  of  colonial  **  aggrcsswn  "  by  the  creation  of  a  belt  of 
native  states  around  Cape  Colony.  In  Sir  Benjamin  D'Urban 
Philip  found  a  governor  anxious  to  promote  the  interests  of  the 
natives.  When  however  at  the  dose  of  the  Kaffir  War  of  1 834-3  $ 
D'Urban  annexed  the  country  up  to  the  Kd  River,  Philip's 
hostility  was  aroused.  He  came  to  England  in  1836,  in  company 
with  a  Kaffir  convert  and  a  Hottentot  convert,  and  aronsed 
fiuotk  opinion   against   the  Cape  fovemment.     His  views 


triumphed,  D'Urban  was  dismissed,  and  Philip  returned  to  the 
Cape  as  unofficial  adviser  to  the  government  on*  all  matters 
affecting  the  natives.  For  a  time  his  plan  of  buffer  states  was 
carried  out,  but  in  1846  another  Kaffir  rising  convinced  him  of 
the  futility  of  his  schemes.  The  Kaffir  chief  who  had  accom- 
panied him  to  England  joined  the  enemy;  and  many  of  his 
converts  showed  that  his  efforts  on  their  behalf  had  effected  no 
change  in  their  character.  This  was  a  blow  from  which  he  did 
not  recover.  The  annexation  of  the  Orange  River  Sovereignty 
in  184S  followed,  hnally  destroying  his  hope  of  maintaining 
independent  native  states.  In  1849  he  severed  his  connexion 
with  politics  and  retired  to  the  mission  station  at  Hankey,  Cape 
Colony,  where  he  died  on  the  27th  of  August  1851. 

See  South  Af  ate  a  :  History ;  G.  M  'C.  Theal's  History  of  SoutkAfrica 
since  170$  (London,  cd.  1908);  Missionary  Magasdne  (1836-185 1); 
R.  Wardlaw'a  Funeral  Sermon,  1852. 

PHIUP,  RING  {c.  1639-1676),  chief  sachem  of  the  Warn- 
panoag  Indians  in  America,  and  the  son  of  Massasoit  (d.  1662) — 
as  the  English,  mistaking  this  title  (great  chicQ  for  a  proper 
name,  called  Woosamequin  (Yellow  Feather) — who  for  forty 
yean  was  the  friend  and  ally  of  the  English  colonists  at 
Plymouth.  To  Massasoit 's  two  sons,  Wamsutta  and  Metacomet, 
the  English  gave  the  names  respectively  of  Alexander  and 
Philip.  Alexander  succeeded  his  father  as  sachem,  and  in  the 
same  y^ar,  while  in  Marshfield,  whither  he  had  gone  to  explain 
certain  alleged  imfricndly  acts  toward  the  English,  was  taken 
ill;  he  died  on  his  way  home.  Philip,  who  succeeded  Alexander, 
suspected  the  English  of  poisoning  his  brother.  The  English 
had  grown  stronger  and  more  numerous,  and  had  begun  to  meddle 
in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Indians.  In  1667  one  of  Philip's 
Indians  accused  him  to  the  English  of  attempting  to  betray  theni 
to  the  French  or  Dutch,  but  this  charge  was  not  proved.  In 
167 1  the  Plymouth  authorities  demanded  that  the  Wampanoags 
should  surrender  their  arms;  Philip  consented,  but  his  followers 
failed  to  comply,  and  measures  were  taken  to  enforce  the  promise. 
PhiUp  thereupon  went  before  ihb  general  court,  agreed  to  pay  an 
annual  tribute,  and  not  to  sell  lands  or  engage  in  war  with  other 
Indians  without  the  consent  of  the  Plymouth  government.  In 
1674,  when  three  Wampanoags  were  executed  at  Plymouth  for 
the  alleged  murder  of  Sassamon,  an  Indian  convert  who  had 
played  the  part  of  informer  to  the  English,  Philip  could  no 
longer  hold  his  followers  in  check.  There  were  outbreaks  in  the 
middle  of  June  1675,  and  on  the  24th  of  June  the  massacre  of 
whites  began.  There  was  no  concerted  movement  of  the  various 
tribes  and  the  war  had  not  been  previously  planned.  The 
Nipmuck  Indians  rose  in  July;  the  tribes  along  the  Connecticut 
river  in  August;  those  in  the  present  states  of  Maine  and  New 
Hamt^hire  in  September  and  October,  and  the  Narraganseta 
in  December,  when  (on  the  19th)  they  were  attacked  and  seriously 
crippled,  in  what  is  now  the  township  of  South  Kingstown, 
Rhode  Island,  by  the  English  (under  Governor  Joaah  Winslow 
of  Plymouth),  who  suspected  their  loyalty. 

The  cobny  of  Connecticut  took  quick  measures  of  defence, 
guarded -its  frontier,  maintained  its  alliance  with  the  Mohegans, 
and  suffered  little  injury.  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth  were 
slower  in  acting  and  suffered  great  loss.  Rhode  Island  raised 
no  troops,  and  suffered  severely.  Early  in  the  autumn  Philip 
went  nearly  as  far  west  as  Albany  in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
get  aid  from  the  French  and  the  Mohawks  and  supplies  from  the 
Dutch  traders.  At  Deerfield  on  the  i8th  of  September  about 
60  English  were  killed  and  the  settlement  was  abandoned.  In 
the  spring  of  1676  it  became  evident  that  the  Indian  power  was 
waning.  The  warriors  had  been  unable  to  plant  their  crops; 
they  were  weaker  ntmiericaUy  and  more  poorly  armed  than  the 
English,  and  the  latter  had  also  made  an  aUiance  with  the  friendly 
Naticks  and  the  Niantics.  On  the  ist  of  August  1676  Philip's 
wife  and  nine>year  old  son  were  captured,  and  on  the  nth  of 
August  an  Indian  traitor  guided  the  English  to  the  sachem's 
hiding  place  in  a  swamp  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hope  (in  what  is 
now  the  township  of  Bristol,  Rhode  Island),  where  early  the  next 
morning  he  was  surprise,  and  whDe  trying  to  escape  was  killed 
by  an  Indian.  The  head  of  Philip  was  sent  to  Plymouth  and  set 


39© 


PHILIPPA  OF  HAINAUT—PHILIPPIANS 


on  a  pole  in  a  public  place,  where  it  remained  Cor  a  quarter  of  a 
century;  his  right  hand  was  given  to  his  slayer,  who  preserved  it 
in  rum  and  won  many  pennies  by  exhibiting  it  in  the  New 
England  towns.  The  struggle  was  now  over  in  southern  New 
England,  but  it  continued  along  the  north-eastern  frontier  till 
the  spring  of  1678,  and  nearly  every  settlement  beyond  the 
Piscataqua  was  destroyed.  In  the  colonics  of  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  six  hundred 
men  (or  about  9%  of  the  fighting  population),  besides  many 
women  and  children,  had  been  killed;  thirteen  settlements  had 
been  completely  destroyed,  and  about  forty  others  were  partly 
burned.  Plymouth  had  incurred  a  debt  greater  than  the  value 
of  the  personal  property  of  her  people.  The  Indians  suffered 
even  worse:  in  addition  to  the  large  number  of  fnen,  women  and 
children  slain,  great  numbers,  among  them  the  wife  and  son  of 
Philip,  were  sold  into  slavery  in  the  Spanish  Indies  and  the 
Bermudas.  Many  others  migrated  from  New  England  to  New 
York;  and  the  few  remaining  Indians,  feeble  and  dispirited,  were 
no  longer  a  power  to  be  re:±oned  with.  Philip  was  an  Indian 
patriot  and  statesman,  not  a  warrior;  he  united  the  tribes  in  their 
resistance  to  the  colonists,  but  was  not  a  great  leader  in  battle. 

-  See  Geotige  M.  Bodges.  Soldurs  in  King  PkUifs  War  (Leo- 
minster, MasSb,  1896);  John  Corham  Palfrey,  History  of  New 
Bnglaud,  vot.  iii.  (Boston,  1864);  and  especially  George  W.  Ellb 
and  John  E.  Morris.  King  Philip's  War  (New  York,  1906).  Sec 
also  EnUrlaining  Passatts  Relating  to  King  Philip's  War  (Boston. 
1716;  new  edition,  edited  with  notes  by  ri.  M.  Dexter,  Boston, 
1865).  the  account  by  Colonel  Benjamin  Church  (16^9-1718),  one  of 
the  principal  leaders  of  the  Enelish.  of  the  warfare  in  south-eastern 
New  England,  in  which  he  took  part;  it  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  realistic  accounts  of  early  Indian  warfare. 

PRJLIPPA  OF  HAINAUT  (c,  13 14*^1369),  queen  of  the  English 
kirtg  Edward  III.,  was  the  daughter  of  William  the  Good,  count 
of  Holland  and  Hainaut,  and  his  wife  Jeanne  de  Valois,  grand- 
daughter of  Philip  III.  of  France.  Edward  visited  the  court  of 
Count  William  in  1326  with  his  mother  Isabella,  who  immediately 
arranged  a  marriage  between  him  and  Philippa.  After  a  dispen^ 
sation  had  been  obtained  for  the  marriage  of  the  cousins  (they 
were  both  descendants  of  Philip  III.)  PhiUppa  was  married  by 
proxy  at  Valendennes  in  October  1337,  and  landed  in  England 
in  December.  She  joined  Edward  at  York,  where  she  was 
married  on  the  30th  of  January  1328.  Her  marriage  dower  had 
been  seized  by  the  queen  dowager  Isabella  to  pay  a  body  of 
Hainauters,  with  whose  help  she  had  compassed  her  husband's 
deposition.  The  alliance  ensured  for  Edward  in  his  French  wan 
the  support  of  Philippa's  influential  kindred;  and  before  starting 
on  his  French  campaign  he  secured  troops  from  William  the 
Good,  as  well  as  from  the  count  of  Gelderland,  the  count  of 
Julick,  and  the  emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian.  Her  mother 
Jeanne  de  Valois,  visited  her  in  133 1  and  further  cemented  the 
community  of  interests  between  England  and  Flanders.  Before 
133s  Philippa  had  established  a  small  colony  of  Flemish  weavers 
at  Norwich,  and  she  showed  an  active  interest  in  the  weaving 
trade  by  repeated  visits  to  the  town.  She  also  encouraged  coal- 
mining on  her  estates  in  Tynedale.  Her  eldest  son,  Edward  the 
Black  Prince,  was  born  in  1330,  and  she  subsequently  bore  six 
sons  and  five  daughters.  In  November  134  2  she  became  guardian 
of  John  of  Gaunt  and  her  younger  children,  with  their  lands. 
Her  agents  are  said  to  have  shown  great  harshness  in  collecting 
the  feudal  dues  with  which  to  supply  her  large  household.  The 
anecdotes  of  her  piety  and  generosity  which  have  been  preserved 
are  proof,  however,  of  her  popularity.  She  ihterceded  in  1331 
with  the  king  for  some  carpenters  whose  careless  work  on  a 
platform  resulted  in  an  accident  to  herself  and  her  ladies,  and  on 
a  more  famous  occa^on  her  prayers  saved  the  citizens  of  Cidaa 
from  Edward's  vengeance.  There  is  a  generally  accepted  story, 
based  on  the  chronicles  of  Jeban  le  Bel  and  Froissart,  that  she 
summoned  the  English  forces  to  meet  the  Scottish  invasion  of 
1346,  and  harangued  the  troops  before  the  battle  of  Neville't 
Cross.  She  certainly  exercised  considerable  influence  over  her 
husband,  whom  she  constantly  accompanied  00  his  campaigns; 
and  her  death  on  the  isih  of  August  1360  was  a  misfortune  for 
the  kingdom  at  large,  since  Edward  from  that  tlm»  ciine.ttadcr 


the  domination  of  the  rapadoos  Alice  Perrexs.  Philippa  was-  th« 
patron  and  friend  of  Froissart,  who  was  her  secietaiy  fram  1361 
to  X366.  (Queen's  College,  Oxford,  was  not,  as  is  stated  in 
Skelton's  version  of  her  epitaph^  founded  by  her,  but  by  her 
chaplain,  Robert  of  EglesfielcL  Bar  chief  benefactions  were 
made  to  the  hospital  of  St  Katharine's  by  the  Tower,  London. 

See  Ajpnes  Strickland.  Lmes  erf  the  Queens  ef  Bngjlamd,  vol.  L 
In  addition  to  the  account  given  in  his  ChroniqueSt  Froissart  wrote 
a  formal  eulogy  of  her,  which  has  been  lost. 

PHIUPPEVILLB,  a  seaport  of  Algeria,  chief  town  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Cbnstantine,  and  $4  >>. 
N.  by  E.  of  that  city,  on  the  Bay  of  Stora,  in  36*  53'  N.  6**  54'  E. 
It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Constantine,  Batna  and  Biskra. 
The  town  derives  its  importance  from  being  the  port  of  Codatan^ 
tine.  The  harbour  works,  with  every  vessel  ki  port',. having 
been  destroyed  by  a  storm  in  1878,  a  more  commodious  harbour 
was  built,  at  a  cost  of  about  £i,aoo,ooo.  From  Cape  Skikda,  on 
the  cast  a  mole  or  breakwater  projects  4592  ft.  to  the  W.N.W., 
while  from  Chiteau  Vert  on  the  west  another  mole  runs  out 
Z3 12  ft.  to  the  north,  leaving  an  entrance  to  the  port  about  656  ft. 
wide.  The  protected  area  comprises  an  outer  and  an  inner 
basin.  The  depth  of  water  at  the  entrance  is  about  33  ft.,  along* 
side  the  quays  jibout  20  ft.  The  quays  are  faced  with  blocks 
of  white  marble  brought  from  the  quarries  at  Fflfila,  16  n. 
distant.  Pop.  (1906),  of  the  town  16,539,  of  the  commune  26,050^ 
of  the  arrondissement,  which  includes  12  commimes,  147,607. 

FhilippcviUc  occupies  the  site  of  successive  Hioeniciaa  and 
Roman  dtics.  By  the  Romans,  under  whom  it  attained  a  htg^ 
state  of  prosperity,  it  was  named  Rusicada.  In  the  middle  ages 
the  town  ceased  to  be  inhabited.  The  site  was  purchased  from 
the  Arabs  by  Marshal  Valfe  in  1838  for  £6.  Some  parts  of  the 
Roman  theatre  remain,  but  the  stones  of  the  amphitheatre, 
which  stood  without  the  walls  of  the  modem  town,  and  which  the 
French  found  in  an  almost  perfect  state  of  preservation,  were 
used  by  them  for  building  purposes,  and  the  railway  was  cut 
through  the  site.  On  a  hiU  above  the  town  are  the  Roman 
reservoirs,  which  have  been  restored  and  stilt  suj^y  the  town 
with  water.  They  are  fed  by  a  canal  from  the  Wad!  Beni  Meleh. 
The  Roman  baths,  in  the  centre  of  the  modem  town,  serve  as 
cellars  for  military  stores. 

PHIUPPI  (Turk.  FUibeftk),  a  city  of  ancient  hTacedonia,  on  a 
steep  hill  near  the  river  Gangites  (mod.  Angi^),  overlooking 
an  extensive  plain  and  at  no  great  distance  from  the  coast  of  the 
Aegean,  on  the  highway  between  Ncapolis  (Ravdiia)  and  Thessa- 
lonica.  Originally  called  Crenidcs  (Fountains),  it  took  its 
later  name  from  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  who  made  himself  master 
of  the  neighbouring  gold  mines  of  the  HiU  of  Dionysus,  and 
fortified  the  city  as  one  of  his  frontier-towns.  In  42  v.c,  after 
the  victory  gained  over  the  senatorial  party  by  Octavius  and 
Antony,  it  became  a  Roman  colony,  CeUnia  Jvlia  PkUippensis, 
which  was  probably  increased  after  the  battle  of  Actium  (Cot. 
Aug.  Julia  Phil.).  The  inhabitants  received  the  Jus  ItaKcum, 
and  Philippi  was  one  of  the  specially  designated  '*  first  dties  " 
(Acts  xvi.  12;  see  Marquardt,  RSm.  StaalsHrwjMnng^  f.  187). 
The  city  was  twice  visited  by  St  Paul,  whose  Epistle  to 
the  PhiUppians  was  addressed  to  his  converts  here.  The  aitei^ 
now  uninhabited,  is  marked  by  rulns~-ihe  substructions  of  an 
amphitheatre,  parts  of  a  great  temple — ^wiiicfa  have  furnished 
interesting  inscriptions.  A  little  to  the  east  is  the  huge  stone 
monument  of  C.  Vibius,  known  to  the  TUrits  as  Dikditashlar  and 
to  the  Greeks  as  the  Manger  of  Bucephalus. 

See  Heuaey  and  Daumet,  Mission  arA.  en  Maeidaine,  Pisris  (iB6s). 
and  other  authorities  m  biMaogruiliy  of  Maceoonia;  Csr*.  Jnscr^ 
laLiiLu  —-^-t-v        -^  (J.6.B.) 

PHIUPPIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE,  a  book  of  the  New  Testa- 

roent.  Communications  had  already  passed  between  the  Chris> 
tians  of  Philippi  and  Paul,  not  only  when  he  wasat  Thesaakmica 
(iv.  xs**i6),  but  at  some  subsequent  period  {W.  18),  when  Epapl^ 
roditus  had  brought  hind  a  preseat  of  money  fitmn  them.  It  te 
possible  that  this  gift  was  accompanied  by  a  letter.  At  any  rate 
the  exunt  epistlels  the  sntwer  to  one  received  from  the  PhOippiui 
who  bad  «vUent^  ddlnd  fafawntlon  about  tte 


PraUPPIANS 


39» 


tpOBttelhealtliuid  prospects  0'  xa),ftSfored  him  of  their  prayers 
(i.  19),  and  wondered  whether  he,  their  pride  and  glory  inabxyitui), 
would  return  to  them  (i.  25  seq.)* 

After  a  brief  greeting  (t.  i,  2),  Paul  assures  them  of  his  loving 
interest  in  their  present  attainments  and  future  progress  in  the 
faith  of  the  gospci  (i.  3-1 1);  then,  rclicviog  their  anxiety  about  his 
own  prospects,  he  expresses  the  confident  hope  that  he  will  be 
released  and  thus  be  able  to  return  to  them  (i.  12-26).  Meantime 
they  were  to  avoid  any  pride  or  factiousness  which  might  break 
their  unity  *  as  a  church  (1.  27-ii.  18),  and  they  are  promised  a  visit 
from  two  of  Paul's  coadjutors,'  who  are  well  known  to  them  (ii.  19--30). 
At  this  point  the  letter  suddenly  swerves*  into  a  nassionatc  warning 
against  some  errorists  of  Judaism  (iii.  l-iv.  i),  after  which  the 
appeal  for  unity  at  Philippi  is  reiterated  Ov.  2-9),*  and  the  epistle 
closes  with  some  personal  details  (iv.  10-33). 

Paul  is  a  prisoner  when  he  writes,  and  the  place  of  composition 
may  therefore  be  Caesarea  or  Rome  (Acts  xxvlii.  16,  30-31). 
The  evidence  upon  the  whole  seems  to  point  to  the  latter.  The 
phrase  o2xla  Kal<ropot  (iv.  22)  suits  Rome  better  than  Caesarea, 
and,  while  rtfMirCtfMv  (i.  13)  does  not  necessarily  imply  the 
capital,  it  is  most  naturally  understood  of  Rome.^  But  the 
whole  tone  of  the  epistle  suggests  that  Paul  expected  a  speedy 
end  to  his  case.  Now  at  Caesarea  this  was  out  of  the  question. 
His  appeal  to  Caesar  involved  a  protracted  process,  and  it  is 
very  difficult  to  put  expressions  like  those  e.g.  of  ii.  23  into  such 
a  situation.  The  critical  outlook  of  Philippians  does  not  corre- 
q>ond  with  the  position  of  the  apostle  at  (Caesarea,  nor  can  the 
latter  town  be  said  to  have  been  a  centre  of  vigorous  Christian 
propaganda  (i.  17).  Finally,  the  contention  that  no  visit  of 
Hmothy  to  Rome  is  known  is  an  argument  from  silence  which 
is  of  little  more  weight  than  the  plea  of  Spitta  that  the  cupidity 
of  Felix  (Acts  xxiv.  a6)  was  excited  by  the  arrival  of  the  money 
from  Philippi  (Phil.  tv.  16). 

A  further  examination  of  the  epistle  shows  that  it  must  have 
been  written  towards  the  close  of  the  hurla  6X1}  of  Act^  xxviii.  30, 
not  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Roman  captivity.  Paul  is  on 
the  edge  and  eve  of  the  great  decision.  Behind  him  (i^  12-13) 
lies  a  period  during  which  considerable  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  local  preaching  and  extension  of  the  gospci,  nor  docs  the 
language  of  the  apostle  suggest  that  this  fresh  departure  in  the 
propaganda  was  stimulated  by  the  mere  novelty  of  his  arrival. 
Furthermore,  the  relations  between  the  Philippians  and  himself 
presuppose,  on  any  fair  estimate,  an  interval  of  time  which 
cannot  be  crushed  into  a  few  months.  News  of  his  arrival  roust 
have  reached  them;  money  was  collected  (iL  25,  iv.  18)  and  then 
forwarded  by  Epaphroditus,  who  fell  sick  after  he  reached  the 
capital;  news' of  this  again  floated  back  to  Philippi,  and  subse- 
quently Paul  heard  of  the  Philippians'  concern  (ii.  26).  Not  till 
then  did  he  compose  this  letter. 

Philippians  is  thus  the  last  extant  letter  we  possess  from  I^ul, 
uidess  some  of  the  notes  embedded  in  the  pastoral  epistles  are 
to  be  dated  subsequent  to  its  composition.  It  unites  the  close 
of  his  career  in  Rome  with  the  beginning  of  his  mission  work  in 
Europe  (iv.  15;  cf.  Acts  xvi.  12),  and  illustrates  not  merely  the 
situation  of  the  apostle  at  Rome,  but  the  terms  of  exceptional 
affection  which  existed  from  first  to  last  between  him  and  the 

*  For  the  strong  Christian  consciousness  of  solidarity,  presupposed 
in  the  Philippians.  see  Von  Oobschucz's  Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive 
Ckureh  (1904).  pp.  93  seq. 

*  The  touch  of  acerbity  in  ii.  21  (after  i.  14)  is  probably  to  be 

S;>laincd  by  the  fact  that  '*  Paul  had  found  some  of  the  brethren 
uctant  to  undertake  a  journey  to  Macedonia,  or  to  perform  some 
other  service  which  he  desirca,  and  the  words  only  express  the 
momentary  disappointment  of  a  man  who  was  imprisoned  and  ready 
to  die  for  the  goqiel  "  (Drummond).  Cf.  Renan's  Antichrist  (Eng. 
trans,  p.  48). 

'  The  so-called  logion  in  (Justin's?)  De  resurrect.  ^:  dpfv^ew  t» 
•Apoiy  rV  iMToU^uf  hrtfixt^^^  seems  a  mere  echo  of  iii.  20. 

*  On  iv.  8  Von  Soden  notes  {History  af  Bariy  Christum  Literoturtt 
p.  1 14)  that  "  it  is  as  if  we  heard  the  ripple  of  the  waves  at  the 
meeting  of  the  two  streams  which  have  thev  source  in  Zion  and  the 
Panhenon." 

*  If  the  expresrion  meant  (a)  the  praefeeU  praetorio  or  officials 
charged  with  th«  care  of  prisoners  under  trial,  Le.  the  supreme 
imperial  court,  or  (6)  the  ptactorian  guard,  or  {c)  their  barracks, 
this  would  almost  follow.  But  concetvabty  it  might  mean  the 
mine.  t.e.  of  Herod  (Acts  xxiii.  35).  The  balance  m  probabilities 
laSs.  however,  in  favour  of  the  court  hypotheaia. 


Macedonian  churches.  The  main  argtunent  for  putting  it  earlier 
is  derived  from  the  admitted  affinities  between  it  and  Romans, 
the  Colossian  and  Ephesian  epistles  containing,  it  b  held,  a  more 
advanced  christology  (so  Li^tfoot  especially,  and  Uort,  Judoislic 
Christianity,  pp.  11 5-129).  But  such  considerations  are  not 
decisive.  Paul  wrote  from  time  to  time,  not  in  the  execution 
of  a  literary  plan,  but  as  different  objects  or  interests  called  out 
his  powers.  The  Philippians  did  not  require,  and  therefore  did 
not  receive,  the  same  elaborate  warnings  as  the  Asiatic  churches. 
Hence  on  the  one  hand  it  is  unreal  to  lay  stress  on  coincidences 
with  Romans,  as  if  these  necessarily  implied  that  both  epistles 
must  have  been  composed  shortly  after  one  another,  while  again 
the  further  stage'  of  thought  on  Christ  and  the  Church,  which  is 
evident  in  Colossians,  does  not  prove  that  the  latter  must  have 
followed  the  former.  Upon  the  whole,  the  internal  evidence  of 
the  epistle  strongly  favours  its  position  as  the  last  of  the  captivity 
epistles. 

The  attempts  made  during  the  19th  century  to  disprove  the 
Pauline  authorship  now  possess  merely  an  historic  interesti  nor 
have  the  various  hypotheses  of  more  or  less  extemuve  inter- 
polation won  any  serious  support.*  More  significance  attaches 
to  the  view  that  the  epistle  is  made  up  of  two  separate  notes, 
written  to  Philippi  at  different  times.  The  fusion  of  the  two  is 
found  in  the  abrupt  hiatus  <tf  iii.  x,  and  evidence  b  led  from 
supposed  inconsistencies  between  the  earlier  and  the  latter  parts 
of  the  epistle.  But  the  flexibility  of  a  letter-writer,  under 
different  moods  of  feeling,  which  would  naturally  lead  to  rapid 
transitions,  may  be  adduced  as  some  explanation  of  the  latter 
phenomena.  The  excgesb  does  not  absolutely  necessitate  a  parti- 
tion of  the  epistle,  which  (so  Hcinrichs  and  Paulus)  would  make 
iiL  x-iv.  20  a  special  letter  addressed  to  some  inner  circle  of  the 
apostle's  friends  (in  spite  of  iv.  10  seq.),  or  take  iii.-iv.  (Hausrath, 
History  of  N.  T.  Times f  iv.  162  seq.  and  Bacon,  Story  of  St  Patti^ 
pp.  367  seq.)  as  earlier  than  i.-ii.  Besides,  as  Pfleidercr  points  out , 
the  hypothesis  is  shipwrecked  on  the  difficulty  of  imagining  that 
"  each  of  the  epistles  had  but  one  essential  part:  the  first,  in 
particular,  lacking  an  expression  of  thanks  for  the  {pft  from  the 
Philippians,  which  must  nevertheless,  according  to  ii.  25,  have 
already  taken  place."  In  his  letter  to  the  Philippians  (iii.  2) 
Polycarp  indeed  observes  that  Paul  wrote  iwunoiAs  to  them; 
but,  even  if  the  plural  could  not  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  a 
single  despatch,  it  would  not  necessarily  support  the  partition 
theory  of  the  canonical  Philippians.  Polycarp  may  have  known 
of  more  than  one  Pauline  note  to  Philippi,  no  longer  extant,  or 
he  may  be  referring  loosely  to  2  Thessaionians,  which  was  ad- 
dressed to  a  neighbouring  Macedonian  church.  The  cie^tical 
arguments  arc,  in  short,  the  final  court  <A  appeal,  and  their  verdict 
teUs  rather  in  favour  of  the  epistle's  integrity.  The  amplest 
account  of  iii.  x  is  to  suppose  that  Paul  started  afresh  to  complete 
or  supplement  what  he  had  already  written,  possibly  because 
some  fresh  tidings  from  Philippi  had  reached  him  in  the  interval. 
I^sychologically  the  change  from  ii.  19  seq.i  with  its  note  of  fare- 
well, to  the  impassioned  outburst  of  iii.  2  seq.iis  not  incredible  in 
an  informal  letter  from  a  man  like  Paul.  The  hiatus  is  striking, 
but  it  cannot  be  held  to  necessitate  an  editorial  dovetailing  of 
two  separate  q>istles.  It  is  doubtful,  therefore,  if  the  ingeniotts 
attempts  to  analyse  Philippians  have  proved  much  more  con- 
vincing than  the  similar  movement  of  literary  criticism  upon  the 
first  Philippic  of  Demosthenes,  where  research  has  swung  back 
in  the  main  to  a  conservative  position  (cf .  A.  Baron  in  Wiener 
Studient  1884, 173-205). 

The  first  dear  echoes  of  the  epistle  are  heard  in  Polycarp, 
though  it  was  probably  known  to  Clement  of  Rome  and  Ifl^tius 
(cf.  the  evidence  tabulated  in  The  Next  Testcmeni  in  the  Apostolic 

*  To  the  details  furnished  in  the  present  writer's  Historical  New 
Testament  (2nd  cd.,  1901,  pp.  634-635)  may  be  added  references  to 
Voltcr's  Pauius  u,  seine  Bnefe  O90S).  PP-  286-323,  Bclser's  Einlei- 
timi  in  der  N.  T,  (2nd  ed.,  1905),  pp.  5U  seq.,  and  Schmiedel's 
pan|gmphs  in  Ency.  Bib.  (3147-3148).  Pflctdcrer  (Ptimitin 
Christianity,  i.  254  sea.)  now  hesitates  on  ii.  6  seq.  alone  like 
Brflckncr  and  Scnmleacl.  The  objections  to  Paul's  authorship 
on  the  score  of  style  and  erammar  are  finally  set  aside  by  the 
philologist  Ntgefi  m  Der  Wortsekatt  des  Apostds  PctOus  1905), 
pp.  80-82. 


39« 


PHILIPPICS— PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


FaUurSt  1905,  pp.  53  acq.,  71  seq.,  94  aeq.,  with  R.  J.  Koowling's 

TesUmeny  o/St  Paul  to  Christ,  pp.  iii  aeq.  and  Gregory's  Canon 

and  Text  #/  N.  T.,  1907,  pp.  205-^06). 

BlBLiOGEAPHV. — ^Thc  ablest  among  recent  editions  of  the  Gieek 
text  are  those  of  R.  A.  Lipsius  iHand-Commtntar  turn  N.  T.,  and  cd.. 
1893),  E.  Haupt  (tn  Mtycx'uKommenlar,  1902)  and  H.  A.  A.  Kennedy 
i&cpositor's  Greek  Testament,  1903),  to  which  may  be  added  the 
older  commentaries  of  C.  J.  Ellicott  (5th  ed.,  1888).  J.  B.  Lightfoot 
(6th  ed.,  Z891)  and  A.  Kldpper  (1893),  which  in  some  respects  aie 
not  yet  superseded.  Other  modem  editions  by  M.  R.  Vincent 
Untemat.  Crit.  Commentarv,  1897),  H.  C.  G.  Moule  (Cambridge 
Greek  Testament,  1897)  and  J.  M.  S.  Baljon  (1901)  are  worthy  of 
notice,  as  welt  as  the  Roman  Catholic  comriientancs  by  P.  Bwlen 
(Lottvain,  1852)  and  A.  Bispine  (1866).  The  cariier  work  on  the 
epistle  is  adequately  sununanzea  by  B.  Weiss  in  his  Dee  Pkilipper- 


W.  Lueken  (in  Die  Schriften  des  N.  f.,  1906):  in  English  by  C.  J. 
Vaughan,  M.  F.  Sadler  (1889),  J.  Agar  Beet.  G.  C.  Martin  (Century 
Bible)  and  Principal  Dnimmond  (Intemat.  Handbooks  to  iV.  T., 
1899).  In  addition  to  the  literature  dtcd  in  the  course  of  thb 
article,  consult  the  general  studies  by  M.  Hassclmann  (Analyse 


§  4)  and  R.  R.  Smith  (The  Epistle  of  St.  PanPs  First  Trial,  Cam 
bridge,  1899) ;  besidei  the  older  essays  <^  Rcttig  (QuaesUones  pkUip- 
piensest  Giesaen,  1831)  and  C.  Miiller  (CommenL  de  lecis  ^Ousdam 


,  1 849.  pp.  501  seq.,  I»52.  pp.  133  . 
(Zeitschrift  fur  wise.  Thiol.,  1873.  pp.  59  seq.};  S.  Hockstra  (Tkeel. 
Tijdschrift.  1875.  pp.  416  seq.);  J.  P.  Straatman  (De  Cemeente  te 
Rome,  1878,  pp.  201  aeq.) ;  C.  Holsten  (Jakrb.  fUr  protest.  Tkeologie, 
1875,  op.  425  seq.  1876,  pp.  58  seq.,  382  seq.);  and  Van  Mancn 
(Handefeidtng  toot  de  oudchrist.  LUterkwndet  1900.  pp.  ^9-51.  82-84; 
also  in.  Eney.  Bib.,  3703-37 13).  The  most  thorough  replies  have  be^ 
those  of  LQncmann  (PauR  ad  PMipp,  epislala  contra  Baurium 
defe$ua, 

vindiedta 

aux  Ph.,  1850);  Grimm  (Zeitsckrifl  fOr  wiss.  Tkeologie,  1873,  pp.  33 
seq.);  Hilgcnfekl  (ibid..  1884,  pp.  498  seq.) ;  C.  Weizsftcker  (Apostolic 
Age,  i.  318  seq..  379  seq.,  ii.  i^i)  and  Clemen  (Paulus,  i,  130-7138). 
The  religious  ideas  of  the  epistle  arc  best  stated  in  Englisn  by 
Principal  Rainy  (Philippians,  Expositor's  Bible)  and  H.  C.  G.  Moule 
(Philippian  Studies,  1897).  Ot  the  numberless  mono^phs  on 
ii.  6  seq.,  the  most  full  is  Tholuck's  Dispmlatio  ckristologica  de  loco 
Pauli,  Phil,  iu  6-g;  and  discussions  of  special  excellence  may  be 


(rrprintod  from  the  Expositor,  1896).  Q.  Mt.) 

PHIUPPIGS,  in  dassictl  literature,**  series  of  orations 
delivered  by  Demosthenes  against  Philip  of  Macedon.  The 
name  was  applied  to  the  speeches  of  Cicero  against  Mark 
Antony,  and  **  PhiUppic  "  has  passed  into  general  use  in  the 
sense  of  an  impassioned  invective  or  declamation. 

PH1UPPICU8»  East  Roman  emperor,  711-7x3,  was  the  son  of 
the  patrician  Nicephorus,  and  became  dfatinguished  as  a'soldier 
under  Justinian  II.  His  proper  name,  which  indicates  his 
Armenian  origin,  was  Bardanes.  Relying  on  the  support  of  the 
Monothelite  party,  he  made  some  pretensions  to  the  throne  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  first  great  rebellion  against  Justinian;  these 
led  to  his  relegation  to  Cephalonia  by  Tiberius  Absitnanis,  and 
subsequently  to  his  banishment,  by  order  of  Justinian,  to 
Cherson.  Here  Bardanes,  taking  the  name  of  Philippicus, 
successfully  incited  the  inhabitants  to  revolt,  and  on  the  assas- 
sination of  Justinian  he  at  once  assumed  the  purple.  Among  his 
first  acts  were  the  deposition  of  Cyrus,  the  orthodox  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  in  favour  of  John,  a  member  of  his  own  sect, 
and  the  summoning  of  a  condliabidum  of  Eastern  bishops,  which 
abolished  the  canons  of  the  sixth  general  council.  Meanwhile 
Terbelis,  king  of  the  Bulgarians,  plundered  up  to  the  walls  of 
Constantinople,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  Saracens  made  siraQar 
inroads  from  the  Asiatic  side.  The  reign  of  Philippicus  was 
brought  to  a  close  throtigh  a  conspiracy  headed  by  two  of  his 
generals,  who  caused  him  to  be  bUnded. 

See  Gibbon.  Decline  and  Fall  of  tke  Roman  Em^  (ed.  Bury, 
London.  1896),  V.  183-184, 


PHIUPPINB  iSLANOS,  or  The  PmupnNss.  fto  tidupdago 
belonging  to  the  United  States  of  America,  situated  about  yx>  ra. 
off  the  S.E.  coast  of  Asia  between  4^  40'  and  21*  xo'  N.  and 
between  116*  40'  and  126**  34'  £.  It  is  bounded  W.  and  N.  by 
the  China  Sea,  £.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  S.  by  the  Celebes  Sea 
and  the  coastal  waters  of  Borneo.  Of  the  large  islands,  Luzon 
(40,969  sq.  m.)  is  the  most  northerly,  and  Mindanao  (36,293 
sq.  m.),  the  most  southerly.  Between  Luxon  sjid  Mindanao  are 
Samar  (5031  sq.  m.),  Negros  (4881  sq.  m.),Panay(46xisq.m.)| 
Mindoro  (3851  sq.  m.),  Leyte  (2722  sq.  m.),  Ceb6  (1762  sq.  m.), 
Bohol  (1441  sq.  m.)  and  Masbate  (1236  sq.  m.).  Farther  west 
and  separated  from  the  southern  portion  of  this  chain  is  the  long 
narrow  island  of  Palawan  or  Paragua  (4027  sq.  m.).  The  total 
land  area  of  the  Phili[4>ines  is  about  115,036  sq.  m.,  and  92%  of 
this  is  included  in  the -eleven  islands  named  above.  There  are 
twenty  others,  which  have  an  area  ranging  from  106  sq.  m.  to 
682  sq.  m.,  and  the  total  number  <d  isUnds  enumerated  within 
the  archipelago  is  J141;  of  these  2775  contain  less  than  t  sq.  m. 
each. 

Physical  Features. — The  islands  are  mainly  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
their  surface  is  much  broken  by  hills,  isolated  volcanoes  and 
mountain  ranges,  trending  north  and  south,  north-west  and  sontb- 
east,  or  north-east  and  south-west.  Extendtnjf  for  ^a  m.  along 
the  east  coast  of  central  and  nortbcm  Luxon  is  the  Sierra  Madre 
range,  rising  in  occasional  peaks  to  more  than  4500  ft.  and  seldom 
less  than  3500  ft.  On  the  west  coast  are  the  Caraballos  Occidentales 
north  from  the  Gulf  of  Lingay6n  and  the  Zambalcs  southward  from 
that  gulf  to  Manila  Bay.  The  Caraballos  Occidentales  nnge  is 
very  complex;  the  central  ridge  is  in  some  parts  a  rolling  plateau, 
but  it  rises  in  Mt  Dat&  to  7364  ft.,  and  numerous  bfty  spurs  proiocC 
from  it.  Much  of  the  Zambales  range  has  an  average  height  of 
4000  ft.  or  more,  and  several  peaks  are  more  than  5000  ft.  high. 
Between  the  Sierra  Madre  and  CarabalkM  Occidentales  Is  the  valley 
of  the  Cagay&n  river,  about  50  m.  wide,  and  east  <^  the  Zambaks 
range  is  a  lowland  basin,  abmit  150  m.  bng  and  50  m.  wide,  aiad 
not  more  than  100  ft.  above  the  sea  except  near  its  centre,  where 
the  extinct  volcano  of  Ar&yat  rises  to  3564  ft.  The  greater  part 
of  southern  Luzon  is  occupied  by  isolated  volcanoes  and  irregular 
masses  of  hills  and  mountains.  Mt  Mayon  (7916  ft.),  near  the 
south-eastern  extremity,  is  an  active  volcano  with  an  almosl 
perfect  cone.  Of  less  prominence  arc  Mt  Ban&iao  (7382  ft.),  Mt 
Isarog  (6634  ft.)  and  Mt  Masaraga  (5244  ft.).  The  island  of  Min- 
danao is  traversed  north  to  south  by  mo4intain  ranees,  which 
rise  in  thdr  summits  to  heights  eaceeding  4000  ft.  Tiiat  aloaig 
the  east  coast  is  bngest  and  least  brokMi,  and  between  it  and  the 
next  range  inland  is  the  level  valley  of  the  Agusan  river,  from  40 
to  50  m.  wide.  Farther  west  and  south-west  is  the  valley  of  the 
Rio  Grande  Mindanao,  the  largest  river  on  the  island,  and  oetweea 
the  lower  course  of  this  river  and  the  sooth  coast  is  a  mouotaia 
range  with  a  north-west  and  south-east  trend.  On  the  east  border 
of  the  south  portion  of  the  ba»n  of  the  Rio  Grande  Mindanao  is 
Mt  Apo  (10,312  ft.),  an  extinct  volcano  and  the  highest  elevation 
in  the  arcnipolago. 

Each  of  tlie  larger  islands  between  Luzon  and  Mindanao,  cxce^ 
Samar  and  Bohol,  is  traversed  lonatudinally  by  a  single  moajitaw 
range  with  occasional  spurs.  In  Lcyte  there  are  several  isolated 
volcanic  cones,  two  of  which,  in  the  north  part,  exceed  4000  ft. 
In  Mindoro  the  range,  is  broad,  extending  from  coast  to  coast, 
and  it  culminates  in  Mt  Halc6n  (about  8800  ft).  In  Negras  is 
Mt  Canla6n  (8192  ft.),  a  volcano,  and  seveml  summits  exceeding 
6000  ft.  In  Panay  is  Mt  Madiais  (7264  ft.)  and  aevetal  other  peaks 
exceeding  4000  ft.  The  highest  peaks  in  Masbate  are  about  2500  fL 
high,  and  tn  Ccb6  not  much  more  than  2000  ft.  In  Samar  there 
are  irreaular  masses  of  hills.  The  southern  portion  of  Bohol  is 
very  hilly,  but  the  northern  portion  is  more  leveL  Bslawaih  275  m. 
long  and  about  15  m.  wide,  is  traversed  throaghoot  tu  ki^h 
by  a  range  of  mountains  with  an  average  height  014000  to  5000  ft. 
and  a  few  summits  about  6000  ft  hi^h.  Sabmarine  mountain 
ranges  connect  not  otAy  the  ulands  withm  the  areUpdago.  but  abo 
the  archipelago  itself  with  Borneo  and  Celebes,  so  that  only  shallow 
channels  connect  the  interior  waters  with  the  Rsdfic  Ocean  and  the 
China  Sea.  The  coast-line  of  the  Philippines,  more  than  ii,Q0O  ns. 
in  length;  is  fringed  with  coral  reefs  and  broken  by  numerous  gnUs 
and  bays. 

The  Cagayin  river,  in  north  Luson,  Is  the  largest  in  the  avrh^ 
pelaga  ft  is  about  sac  m.  long  and  dreins  to^  the  iMMthwnni 
about  10,000  so.  m..  or  neariy  one-fourth  of  the  island.  The  Rio 
Grande  de  M  indanao  (known  in  its  upper  course  as  the  Rio  Pnlanpm) 
drains  to  the  south  and  west  a  laigier  area  in  central  and  soutnem 
Mindanao  and  u  second  in  six?.  It  and  the  Aai^pan,  which  dnina 
to  the  northward  the  mountain  valley  in  east  MMdanan,  ate  endi 
over  aoo  m.  in  length.  The  principal  rivers  of  the  lowland  bassn 
of  central  Luxon  are  the  Pampanga  and  the  Agno.  The  PSmpaaigsa 
rises  in  the  highlands  on  the  north -cast  border,  flows  south  by  w«A. 
and  discharges  through  several  chaoneb  into  Manila  Ba|u    Tkn 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


393 


Agno  riKft  in  the  stounuins  oo  the  north  border,  flow*  aouth, 
•DUth-wert  and  oorth-wett»  and  diicbafces  through  wveral  chaoneU 
into  the  Gulf  of  Linnyin.  Each  of  thete  hae  a  great  number  of 
amall  tributarict,  aad  along  the  coast  of  this  lowland  basin  are 
many  small  tide  water  atteams.  The  Pasig  is  a  short  but  commer- 
cially important  stream  connecting  Laguna  de  Bay  with  Manila  Bay. 
The  Rio  Blcol,  which  rises  in  Lake  Bato  and  flows  N.N.W.  into  San 
Miguel  Bay,  is  the  principal  river  of  south  Luson.  Samar,  Panay, 
Negpos,  Leyte,  Bohol  and  Ceb6  are  drained  by  many  streams,  and  a 
few  of  those  in  Samar,  Panay  and  Negros  are  of  considerable  siae. 

In  the  lowland  basin  of  oential  LusDn,  6  m.  inland  from  Manila 

Bay.  is  Laguna  de  Bay,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the 

PhUlppinea.     It  is  3a  m.  long  from  odkth-west  to  south-east 

and  Its  coast-line,  broken  on  the  north  fay  two  hilly  prninwifas,  Is 

108  m.  long.   Lake  Taal,  a  few  males  soutn-west  of  Laguna  de  Bay. 

occupies  the  crater  of  a  great  volcano.    It  is  17I  m.  long  ana 

la  m.  wide.    The  country  rises  gently  to  it  on  all  swla^  and  on  an 

island  near  its  centre  is  the  active  volcano  of  Taal,  1050  ft.  hiah. 

In  north  Luaon  is  Lake  Cagay&n.    In  Mindanao  there  are  laJces 

Lanao,  Liguasan  and  Buluan  in  the  west-central  portion  and 

lakes  Mainit,  Pinaya,  Dagun,  Sadocum  and  Linao  in  the  valley 

of  the  Agusan.    There  are  sm^  lakes  in  some  of  the  other  islands. 

(k4)hgy.— the  Philippines  appear  to  be  the  remnants  of  a  some* 

what  complex  system  of  mountain  arcs,  which  from  their  similarity 

of  form  and  direction  seem  to  be  in  some  way  connected  with  tfaie 

mountain  ranges  of  Annam.    The  oldest  rocks  exposed  are  gneiss. 

tatc-echist  and  serpentine,  with  intrusive  masses  of  gabbro  and 

diabase.    These  are  overlaid  by  a  limestone^  upon  wfaicn  rests  oon- 

formably  a  series  of  sandstones  with  coal  seams.   The  age  of  these 

beds  is  unknown.    In  some  of  the  islands  nummulitic  limcetooe 

(Eocene)  occurs.    Coral  limestones,  probably  of  Middle  Tertiary 

age,  are  also  found,  sometimes  4000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  marine 

deposits  of  a  very  late  geological  period  occur  near  the  coast  and  in 

the  low-lying  depressions..  Vokanic* rocks  of  modem  date  cover 

extensive  areas,  especially  in  the  southcra  part  of  Luaoo  and  in 

Mindanao.    In  Luzon  tradiytic  tuffs  are  somettmes  intentratified 

with  nummulitic  limestone,  thus  showing  that  tha  cruptioas  had 

already  b^un  in  Uie  Eocene  period. 

Volcanoes  and  Eartkpiaius. — ^There  are  twdve  active  volcaaoes  in 
the  archipelago.  They  are  Babuv&n  Claro,  Camiguin  de  Babuyanes 
and  Didicas  m  the  Babuyanes  Islands  off  the  north  coast  of  Luaon; 
Gsgua  or  Caua  in  north  Luson;  Taal,  May6n  and  Bulusaa  In  south 
Lnzon;  Canlaon  and  Magas6  in  Negros;  Camiguin  de  Mindanao  in 
the  island  of  Camiguin,  off  the  north  coast  of  Mindanao;  and  Apo 
and  Calayo  in  Mindanao.  Only  a  few  eruptions  have  been  recorded 
of  any  ot  these,  however,  except  Taal  and  May6n,  and  there  has 
been  no  great  eruption  of  Taal  dnce  1754.  But  there  were  36 
eruptions  of  May6n  in  the  iQth  century,  and  those  of  1814  and 
1897  were  of  great  violence.  Inat  of  1897  began  practicaUy  without 
warning  on  the  33rd  of  June,  became  alarming  on  the  a^th  and 
destructive  on  the  3«th,  and  ceased  on  the  ^otn.  Streams  of  lava 
completely  destroyea  several  villages  aad  injured  others,  as  well  as 
the  town  of  San  Fernando.  The  lava  flow  extended  more  than 
7  m.  eastward,  and  a  rain  of  ashes  extended  100  m.  to  the  east  and 
75  m.  to  the  west.  There  are  eight  other  volcanoes,  which  although 
extinct  or  dormant  have  well-preserved  cones.  They  are  Ar&yat, 
Ban&jao^  San  Crist6bal,  Inrog  and  Malinao  in  south  Luzon,  and 
Macatunn  and  Matutum  in  Mindanao. 

Earthquakes  are  frequent  and  occarionaOy  violent.  In  the 
wen  years  1002-1908  the  microsdsmograph  at  Manila  recorded 
796  local  earthquakes.  In  the  47  yean  ending  March  1909  the 
various  regions  of  the  archipelago  were  visited  Sy  about  60  strong 
earthquakes;  t6  of  these,  in  ten  different  re^ons,  occurred  in  the 
decade  from  1890  to  1900.  There  were  8  in  the  year  1807  alone,  and 
one  of  these  ruined  the  town  of  Zamboanga  in  west  Mindanao  and 
caused  conaderable  loss  of  life  by  falfing  buildings  and  immense 
sea  waves.  A  new  isbnd  appeared  at  this  time  off  the  coast  of 
Borneo,  near  Labuan.  The  principal  centres  of  disturbance  are 
in  the  valley  of  the  Agusan,  in  the  region  of  May6n  vokano,  in 
the  region  of  Taal  volcano,  on  Masbate  Island,  and  along  the  north 
dhore  of  Luzon.  The  islands  of  Cebd,  Bohol,  Negros  and  Palawan 
are  rarely  shaken. 

'  Fauna.— The  Philippines,  politically  speakinff,  and  the  Philip- 
nrtes,  zoologically  qmking,  are  not  identical  areas;  Balabsuc, 
Palawan  and  the  Calamianes  belnff  characterized  by  the  oecurrence 
of  numerous  Bomean  forms  whicn  are  conspicuoiuly  absent  from 
the  renuining  iriands.  Altbou^  the  Philippines  are  oomm'ottly 
held  to  form  an  eastern  extension  of  the  Indo-Malayan  sub-region, 
diere  is  a  large  amount  of  specialization  in  the  fauna  of  the  islanda 
eastward  of  the  Palawan  group.  Mammals  are  scarce.  No  mar- 
Mi  pials  occur.  The  edentates  are  represented  by  the  pangolin 
(Juanis  sp.?}  of  the  Pslawan  group.  In  the  seas  are  found  the 
dolphin,  cachalot  and  dugong.  Wild  hogs  of  at  least  two  species 
occur.  The  beautiful  axis  deer  df  Sulu  has  apparently  been  brought 
there  by  man.  Red  or  brown  deer  occur  m  Basilan,  Mindanao, 
Leyte.  Samar  and  the  Calamianes  Islands.  The  number  of  sftedes 
And  tnehr  respective  ran^pes  have  not  been  satisfactorily  determined. 
In  Matbate,  Panay,  Gmmaras  and  Negros  there  b  a  dark-c6loured 
npecies  marked  with  buff  spots.  Dwr  are  absent  in  Palawan, 
Tawi  Tawi.  Tabba,  Romblon.  Sibuyaa  and  Siquijor.    Humped 


cattle  are  raiaed  on  most  of  the  islands.  They  are  killed  for  thetr 
flesh,  hides  and  horns,  and  little  attemion  is  paid  to  their  milk* 
giving  pro^ecttes.  The  water-buffalo,  or  caraboa,  oocure  in  a 
wild  state  in  Lmoa,  Mindoro,  the  Calamianes  group,  Masbate, 
Negros  and  Mindanao,  but  the  wild  herds  are  believed  to  have 
originated  from  domesticated  animals.  The  domesticated  water- 
buffalo  is  slusgish  in  its  movements,  and  will  not  work  through 
the  heat  of  t£e  day;  but  it  ia  a  wonderful  swimmer,  and  makes 
iu  way  through  the  wont  quasmire  with  case.  It  ia  oniverBally 
used  as  a  draught  animal  and  beast  of  burden.  The  most  inter- 
estiiw  of  the  rnmiaants  is  the  timarau  {Bubalus  ewndofMutx,  Heude), 
peculiar  to  Mindoro.  Unlike  the  water-buffalo,  it  does  not  bathe 
m  water  or  wallow  In  mod.  It  ia  eatremely  wiM,  feeding  by  night 
and  sleeping  Inr  day  ia  the  densest  iungle.  It  sometimes  charges 
the  hunter  wttbout  provocation,  aiid  is  very  dangerous  when 
wounded.  It  attacks  and  killa  the  much  torger  wild  buffalo.  All 
attempu  to  domesticate  it  have  failed.  A  chevrotain  is  found 
in  Balabac.  The  house  rat,  introduced  by  man,  is  a  common 
nuisance,  and  mice  occasionally  seriouriy  damajEe  su8ar<ane  and 
rice.  Squirrels  are  confined  to  the  eastern  chain  of  Islands  from 
Basilaa  to  Samar  and  to  tha  Palawan-Qdamianes  groupb  In  the 
southern  islands  there  is  a  tiny  ^edes,  the  siae  of  a  mouse.  Veiv 
large  flying-equirreb  are  found  In  Palawan  and  Mindanao.  Squirrn- 
shrews  occur  in  the  Palawan-Calamlaaca  croup,  and  true  shrews 
at  various  points  in  the  archipdago.  Among  the  Carnivores 
are  the  binturong  and  an  otter,  both  found  ui  the  Palawan- 
Calamhines  group;  two  dvet  cata,  which  raage  througlient  the 
arehipelago,  and  a  wild  cat  of  amaU  aiae,  which  haa  been  found 
in  Palawan,  Panav,  Negroa  and  Luson.  Bats  are  very  numerous, 
and  a  number  of  the  species  are  peculiar  to  the  Philippines. 
(kleopitkuus  and  rorjstu  nnae  from  Basilan  to  Samar;  the  former 
oocun  also  in  Bohol.  In  spite  of  aM  that  has  been  said  to  the 
contrary,  but  one  spedea  of  monkey  {Macacta  pkiUppinMsiSt 
Geoff.)  has  been  tfiscoveied  in  the  Phihppines.  It  occura  en  every 
island  of  any  importance.-  Its  flesh  is  ocoaaiooally  eaten  by  the 
nativea.  Albino  specimens  of  this  monkey  are  not  uncommon, 
but  the  pure  white  monkeys*  not  albinos,  said  to  inhabit  Mindanao, 
are  mytbicaL  The  large  fruit  bata  iPleropm)  occur  in  immenae 
colonies,  and  are  somrtimes  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Espedal  importance  attaches  to  the  uaexpected  discovery  by 
Whitehead  of  a  new  and  peculiar  mammalian  fauna,  inhabiting 
a  small  plateau  on  the  top  of  Mt  Data,  in  north  Luzon,  at  an  altitude 
of  more  than  7000  ft.  Specimens  of  15  species  were  obtained, 
embracing  5  new  genera  {CdlatmomySt  Ckrotomys^  Rkynchomys. 
Batcmyt  and  CSsr^Mim).  Eight  of  the  spedea  were  new  ana 
strikingly  peculiar.  That  aoMogical  relationshipa  are  probably 
with  C^bes  and  with  Australia.  Other  discoveries  indude  a  few 
new  squirrds  and  bats,  and  the  occurrence  of  a  lemur  {NycHubui 
tarditradus)  in  Tawi  TawL 

The  islands  are  as  rich  in  Ixfds  as  they  are  poor  in  mammals. the 
total  number  of  species  recorded  up  to  1906  being  693,  of  which 
about  one-half  are  peculiar  to  the  PhiUppinea.  A  study  of  their 
eeogpphical  distribution  has  demonstrated  that  the  isfands  may 
be  divided  into  fairiy  wdl-marked  groups,  in  each  of  which  the 
Urds  diow  a  degree  of  specialization  cloady  correlated  with 
divenity  of  environment  and  completeness  and  probable  duretioii 
of  separation  from  adjacent  groups.  Balabac,  nlawan  and  the 
Calamianes  show  a  very  strong  Bornean  dement.  Mindoro  stands 
by  itself.  Luzon  and  tlie  small  odghbouring  islands  have  51  peculiar 
forms.  A  dose  relationship  ensts  between  the  Urds  of  the  entire 
eastern  Chain  of  islands.  Numerous  genera  and  some  familiea 
whidi  are  absent  from  the  central  iatends  range  from  Luson  to 
Basilan.  TiMse  genera  usually  have  distinct  representative  speciea 
in  Luzon,  Samar  and  I^eyte,  Mindanao,  and  in  some  cases  in  Basilaa 
also.  The  rreatest  dincrenccs  occur  between  Luaon  and  Samar 
and  Leyte.  The  latter  idands  have  22  peculiar  spedes. 

Sulu  and  Tawi  Tawi  belong  aodogically  to  the  Philippines,  but 
have  X2  weU^marked  peculiar  qxsdes,  and  many  of  the  character^ 
istic  Mindanao-Basilan  forms  are  lacking.  Panay,  Gnimaras. 
Negros  and  Masbate  constitute  a  sharply  denned  area,  characterised 
not  only  by  the  occurrence  of  30  peculiar  species,  but  by  the  absence 
of  important  genera,  and  even  whole  families  represented  in  the 
eastern  islands.  Most  of  the  mammals  characteristic  of  the  latter 
region  are  lacUng.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  Ceb6  stanck  quite 
by  itself,  although  the  deep  channd  separating  it  from  Nccroa 
narrows  at  one  point  to  about  ^  m.  Ceb6  possesses  9  striung 
species  of  birds  not  known  to  exwt  elsewhere,  aad  lacks  many  of 
the  characteristic  forms  of  the  central  and  eastern  idaada^  The 
zoological  position  of  Bohol  has  not  been  satisfactorily  determined, 
but  all  existing  evidence  indicates  that  It  must  be  grouped  with 
Samar  and  Leyte. 

Among  the  more  interesting  birda  may  be  mentioned  the  **  laoand 
builder  '^  {MegapoiiMS  eamtfifi,  Dilhryn),  wUch  buriea  Its  large 
eggs  in  the  soft  sand  along  the  sea  beach,  or  under  great  iDOuads  of 
earth  and  dead  leaves,  often  at  a  depth  of  three  or  more  feet  bcbw 
the  surface.  The  young  are  forced  to  dig  their  way  out  and  shift 
for  themsdves.  Ine  ens  are  highly  prised  by  the  natives.  The 
jnni^e  fowl  abounds.  There  are  35  ipedes  of  pigMM  aad  doves. 
many  of  them  most  beautifully  coloured  and  all  edible.  Snipe, 
plover,  turnstonea  and  other  shora  birds  are  abuiidaot  during 


394 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


die  cool  WMoo,  and  herons,  bitternntnd  ducks  at  alt  times.  The 
bifds  of  pny  45  species*  01  which  3a  ate  mculiar  to  the  Rroup* 
vary  in  suee  from  a  tiny  falcon  not  larger  than  a  sparrow  (Micro- 
kurax)j  to  an  immenae  monkey-catching  eagle  {Pithecophaia 
tefferytt  Gnnt),  which  is  strong  eaoug^  to  seixe  monkeys  as  they 
Map  from  tree  to  tree.  There  are  ai  species  of  Idngfishersi  15 
bein^  peculiar.  Of  the  la  epeciea  of  hMnbilU  not  one  oocure 
outside  of  the  Phiiippuies.  I^t>g-mouths,  bee-birds,  nkht-hawks 
and  swifts  are  found  in  considoable  variety.  One  01  the  last 
iCaUccaUa  tro^UfdyUs,  Gray)  constructs  the  edible  nests  so  highly 
prised  by  the  Chinese.  The  best  nests  are  obtained  on  the  precipi- 
totts  side»  of  the  Pcfion  de  Cocon,  between  Culion  and  Busuanga. 

There  may  also  be  mentioned  ai  cockooe.  i  cockatoo,  ao  parrots 
and  parakeets,  20  woodpeckers,  barbets,  broadbills.  starlings, 
orioles,  weaver-finohes,  larks,  nuthatches,  a8  beautifully  coloured 
aun-fatrds,  and  2$  flower-peckers,  titmice^  shrikes,  swallow-shrikes, 
taikir-birds,  thrushes,  fruit-thrushes,  fauy  blue-birds,  fire-birds, 
42  fly-catchers,  4  swallows,  and  5  species  of  most  beautifully  coloured 
ant-thrushes,  as  w^  as  a  lar^  number  of  birds  for  whidi  Eiiglish 
names  cannot  be  readily  supplied. 

Reptiles  and  batiachians  are  abundant,  bat  have  been  little 
studied.  Pythons  occur  throughout  the  group,  and  sometimes 
attain  enormous  use.  There  are  numerous  venomous  serpents, 
but  the  mortality  from  snake-bite  is  low.  Geckoes  may  be  seen 
on  the  widls  and  ceilings  of  any  house.  Flying  lizards  abound 
in  the  forests.  Large  iguanas  are  numcious,  Thetr  tgp  are  prised 
by  the  narives,  and  the  flesh  of  one  species,  known  as  ibit  of  pelubid. 
Is  highly  esteemed.  Crocodiles  are  extremely  numerous  in  many 
of  the  streams,  and  are  occasionally  found  m  the  sea  along  the 
ooaata.  Specimens  have  been  obtained  measuring  18  ft.  in  length. 
Land  turtlai  of  small  siie  ate  common.  Very  large  sea  turtles 
are  often  captured  by  the  fishermen,  and  their  flesh^is  highly  appre- 
ciated as  an  article  of  food.  A  considerable  business  is  done  ^in 
tortoise-shelL  Frogs  occur  in  great  variety.  One  small  species 
appears  in  immense  numbers  with  the  oncoming  of  the  rainy  season, 
and  at  night  the  noise  of  its  outcry  almost  deadens  other  sou  nds. 

Fishes,  especially  marine  fishes,  are  numerous  and  varied.  About 
500  species  of  food  fishes  have  been  found,  and  common  among 
Uiem  are  the  bangos  or  miUcfish.  the  banak  or  mullet,  mackereL 
herring,  anchovies,  groupera,  snappers,  pompano,  tarpon  and 
bonito.  The  "  dalag,  which  is  found  in  the  paddy-fields  during 
the  wet  season,  is  a  favourite  with  the  natives. 

The  Philippines  are  famous  for  the  variety,  beauty  and  abun- 
dance of  their  land  molluscs.  Fresh-water  and  manne  molluscs 
are  also  very  numerous.  While  most  of  the  spedes  are  of  interest 
chiefly  to  the  conchologist,  there  are  a  number  of  edible  forms. 
The  shells  of  Pt^wia  placeiUa,  L.,  split  into  thin  flat  plates  and. 
cut  into  small  squaies,  are  almost  universally  used  in  place  01 
window  glass.  The  valves  of  the  giant  clam  (Tridachna)  some- 
times attain  a  length  of  5  ft.  and  weigh  hundreds  of  pounds.  Pearl- 
oysters  are  abundant  in  the  southern  waters  of  the  archipelago. 
Peaufl-fishing  is  an  important  industry  in  the  Sulu  Islandik  Tne 
shells  of  the  pearly  nautilus  are  commonly  used  by  the  Visayans 
for  drinking  cups.  From  the  great  opercula  of  certain  marine 
forms  brscuets  and  other  ornaments  are  carved,  while  the  hard 
serrated  edges  of  other  species  are  somedroes  employed  in  place 
of  knives  for  harvesting  rice.  The  land  molluscs  have  been 
thoroughly  classified,  but  much  still  renuias  to  be  done  with  the 
marine  species. 

Artkropoda  are  very  abundant  and  as  yet  little  known.  Shrimps, 
crabs  and  lobsters  form  an  important  source,  of  food  supply.  Mos- 
qaitoes  are  numerous  in  the  wet  lowlands.  Bees  are  aoundant, 
and  wUd  hon^  and^  wax  are  gathered  in  considerable  quantities. 
The  number  01  spedes  of  ants  is  very  large.  Some  of  them  infest 
dwelUns-housea  and  swarm  over  the  food.  The  termites,  or  so- 
called  "white  ants,"  inflict  great  damage  on  wooden  buildings. 
Plagues  of  locusts  oocasaonally,  during  a  drought,  ruin  growing 
crops;  in  damp  wet  weather  these  insects  are  destroyed  by  a  fungus 
frowth  (JBjtttmsa  gryUat)  within  their  bodies. 

Land-leeches  swarm  in  the  damp  lowland  forests.  The  coral 
beds  of  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  Archipelago  are  of  unsurpassed 
bmuty.  and  Guimaras,  Ceb6  and  Siquijor  are.  completely  covered 
with  a  thick  cap  of  coral  limestone. 

Flora. — The  rich  and  varied  flora  of  the  Philippines  is  essentially 
Malayan,  intermixed  with  Chinese  and  Australian  elements,  but 
with  sufficient  individuality  to  constitute  a  sub-region,  there  being 
at  lesAt  769  spedes  peculiar  to  the  archipelago.  More  than  two- 
thtfds  of  the  land  surface  is  covered  with  forests.  In  the  lowlands 
and  on  the  lower  mountain  slopes  the  forests  are  composed  chiefly 
of  broad-leaved  trees,  common  among  which  are  the  bamboo,  the 
coco  and  other  psdms,  and  the  banyan  tree:  but  on  the  higher 
mountain  slopca  pines  are  most  abundant.  About  750  aptdf  of 
wood  are  ol  commercial  or  local  value,  among  them  are  woods 
weU*«uiteil  for  structural  purposes,  inside  finisiung,  cabinet  wmrk 
and  casriaffB  maldng.  Plants  valuable  for  their  fibre  number 
about  300,  and  among  them  is  the  abaci  (Mum  texilis)t  from  the 
team  of  which  Manila  hemp  b  made.  There  are  gutta-percha, 
india-rubber  and  other  trees  and  plants  yielding  gums,  the  banana, 
maaco,  and  many  other  trees  and  plants  yieldiiHS  fruits:  and  various 
^rsn  >'nd  planu  yielding  nuts,  spices,  oils  and  roedirines. 


ClimaU. — ^A  uniformly  high  tempenture,  eswnslve  hnmtdity*' 
heavy  rainfalls  and  violent  tropical  Storms,  known  as  typhoons  or 
bagnios,  are  characteristic  of  the  Philippine  climate.  At  Manila 
the  mean  annual  temperature  ta  about  to*  F.,  the  cange  of  mean 
monthly  temperature  6*48*,  from  77*  in  January  to  815*48*  in  May; 
and  the  range  of  extremes  (during  the  period  from  i88x  to  190a) 
J9*96*  from  6o-o8*  in  January  1881  to  100-04*  in  May  Z889.  In 
accordance  with  the  monthly  variations  in  tempenture  at  BilanOa 
the  year  is  divided  into  three  seasons:  temperate  (November, 
December,  January  and  February),  hot  (April,  May  andjune)  and 
intermediate  (Mareh,  July,  September  and  October).  Throughout 
the  archipelago  the  mean  annual  temperature  Tanes  much  more 
with  the  altitude  than -with  the  latitude,  but  the  range  in  mean 
monthly  temperatures  increases  from  5-96  F.  at  D4vao,  Mindanao^ 
in  7*  V  N.  to  12*6*  at  Santo  Domingob  Batan  Islands,  in  30*  aS' 
N.  The  equability  of  the  temperature  also  decreases  appre* 
dably  from  the  sea-coast  to  the  interior.  The  maximum 
daily  range  of  temperature  at  Manila  varies  from  X3>8*  in  June  to 
t7'7"  in  December.  At  Manila  the  monthly  avenge  df  relative 
humidity  ranges  from  70*7*  in  April  to  85*5*  m  September^  and  tbe 
annual  average  b  79*4*.  The  mean  annual  rainfall  in  this  dty  ta 
about  76  in,,  and  neariy  three-foudiis  of  it  is  from  the  mkldle  of 
June  to  the  middle  of  October,  when  the  winds  blow  from  the 
south-west.  During  the  period  from  1865  to  1^  the  annual  rain- 
fall varied  from  35'6  in.  m  1885  to  117*1  in.  in  1867  t^en  in  the 
month  of  September  alone  there  was  a  tall  of  57*8  in.  In  July. 
August  and  September  two-thirds  of  the  days  are  rainy,  but  in. 
February,  March  and  April  only  one-tenth  of  them  are  tamy.  On 
the  Pacific  coast  of  Luxon,  Samar,  Leyte  and  Mindanao  the  lainy 
season  is  from  November  to  May,  when  the  winds  blow  from  thn 
east  or  the  north-east.  In  the  year  endina  August  1903  the  anuMmta 
of  rainfall  at  41  observation  stations  widely  distributed  throughout 
the  archipelago  varied  from  i6*a  in.  at  Zamboanga  in  west  Miniunao 
to  15a  in.  at  Masinloc,  on  the  west  coast  of  central  Luzon.  The 
Philippines  are  visited  on  the  average  by  twenty  or  more  ty^ioooa 
annually.    About  one-fifth  of  them  occur  in  September.    Dnrini 


September^  gr^ually  decreasing  in  October,  November  and  De> 
cember.  In  the  famous  typhoon  of  the  aoth  of  October  i88a,  the 
vortex  of  which  passed  over  Manila,  an  immense  amount  of  dama^ 
was  doat  in  the  dty.  Two  thousand  persons  lost  their  lives  in 
Samar  and  Leyte  during  the  great  storm  of  1897.  The  typhoon 
warnings  sent  out  from  the  Manila  observatory  aitnuany  sav« 
heavy  loss  of  Life  and  property. 

Sod. — The  soil,  usually  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  u  for  the  moat 
part  difltntegrated  lava  mixed  with  decayed  vegetation;  oocasioi>» 
ally  there  is  also  a  mixture  of  disintegrated  coral  Umestona. 

AgricvUwe* — ^Agriculture  is  the  prindpal  industry.  In  tqoi 
about  40%  of  the  working  population  were  engaged  in  agricultural 
pursuits.  The  industry  is.  however,  in  a  |>nmitive  condition. 
The  native  farmers  are  laxy  and  slow  to  appreciate  the  advantagea 
of  the  methods  recommended  by  the  Americans.  Only  9*5  %  of 
all  the  land  in  the  archipelago  was  induded  in  "  farms  **  m  1903, 
and  less  than  one-half  of  the  farm  land  was  under  cuUivatKHL 
La  Laeuna,  LiutonK  was  the  only  province  in  which  more  than 
^o  %  of  the  land  was  included  in  "  farms,"  and  CukA  the  only  island 
m  which  more  than  35  %  of  the  land  was  induded  in  farms;  ta  the 
large  isUnd  of  Mindanao  only  1*4  %,  in  Masbate  only  x*6  %,  and 
in  Mindoro  only  3-9  %.  There  were  815453  farms  '*  or  individual 
holdings,  but  more  than  one-fifth  of  thc»e  were  small  parods  or 
gardens  containing  less  than  an  acre  each;  about  one-half  oontained 
less  than  ai  acres  each«  and  the  average  sire  was  8*57  acres.  Moce 
than  four-fiifths  of  them  were  worked  by  owners,  and  the  remainder 
chiefly  by  share  tenants.  The  prindpal  crops  are  hemp  (abaci), 
sugar,  tobacco,  coco-nuts  and  nee.  Most  of  the  hemp  15^8,200 
acres  in  1903)  is  grown  in  south  Luxon  and  in  Samar  and  Lorte. 
but  smaller  crops  are  produced  in  Cebfi,  Mindoro,  Marinduque. 
north  Mindanao  and  south  Negros;  the  crop  became  of  commercial 
importance  about  18^5,  and  in  1907  the  yield  for  export  amounted 
to  112,805  tons.  About  two-thinds  <tf  the  su^  is  produced  in 
Negros,  but  it  is  an  important  crop  in  the  provinoea  ol  Pampangn 
and  Tarlac,  within  the  lowland  basm  of  Liuon,  also  in  the  province 
of  Batangas  on  the  south  coast  of  Luxon,  in  the  south  and  cast  of 
Panay,  and  in  Cebfl.  The  production  increased  from  about  6000 
tons  m  185s  to  300,000  tons  in  1893,  and  for  many  years  (»ior  to 
1887  it  wasa  more  important  crop  than  hemp,  but  since  the  American 
occupation  the  crop  has  been  smaller.  The  total  acreage  in  190a 
was  177,630  acres,  and  in  1007  the  yidd  for  export  was  118^95 
tons.  Approximatdy  one-hau  of  the  tobacco,  77*032  acres  yietdini^ 
37485  »  in  XQoa,  IS  grown  in  the  valley  of  the  Cagayin  river, 
and  most  of  the  remainder,  which  is  of  inferior  guality,  in  tbe 
ndghbouring  provinces  of  Union,  Uocos  Norte  ana  Abra,  and  in 
Panay.  CebO,  Masbate  and  Negros.  The  natives  chew  betel  natn 
inst«Kl  df  tobacco,  and  to  the  production  of  these  nuts  they  devote 
more  than  60,000  acres.  The  rich  soil  of  the  lowlands  of  the  pro- 
vince of  La«una  is  especially  well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the 
coco-nut  palm,  and  since  the  American  occupation  considerable 
land  in  this  province  that  had  formerly  been  devoted  to 


PHIUI^NB  ISLANDS 


395 


piMiccd  with  theie  CMH.    Thqr  thrive  vdl  abe  in 

low  dittncu  along  the  coasU;  In  1909  abovt  375.000  acres  were 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  them. 

Rice  ie  the  staple  food  of  the  natives.  Whed  the  PhiKppines 
were  discaoveied  by  the  Spaniards  it  was  the  only  cultivatea  crop 
of  importance^  and  vntll  the  lOth  century  it  was  the  chief  article 
of  export,  but  as  the  culture  of  the  more  pco&uble  crops  of  hemp, 
lugar  and  coco-nuts  was  extended  it  became  an  article  of  import. 
As  late  as  1902,  however,  about  one-half  of  the  land  under  cultiva- 
tion was  sown  to  rke.  It  is  jpown  most  extensively  ui  the  lowlands 
of  the  south  half  of  Luson,  m  north  Panay  and  in  Negros,  but  the 
culture  of  either  the  lowland  or  the  upland  varieties  lor  looU  con- 
sumption IS  very  geneiaL  In  some  districts  Indian  com  is  the 
staple  food  instead  of  rice,  and  the  production  of  this  cereal  in  smaU 
ciuantities  f<ir  liveseock  b  genetal.  It  is  grown  most  extensively 
in  the  valley  of  the  CagayAn  river,  in  1902  the  total  acreage  in  the 
archipelago  was  about  254,470.  For  several  years  ^rior  to  1891, 
coffee,  grown  principally  m  the  provinces  of  Cavite,  Batangas 
and  Lepanto-Bontoc,  Luxon,  was  neariy  as  important  a  crop  as 
tobacco,  but  between  1891  and  1898  most  of  the  coffee  plantations 
were  destroyed  by  insects  and  disease.  A  small  quantity  of  coffee 
is  grown  in  the  province  of  Benguet.  Luzon,  and  is  of  superior 
quality.  Cotton,  the  cultivation  «  which  was  discouraged  by  the 
Spanish  government  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  cultivation  of 
tobacco  tt  a  very  small  crop,  except  in  the  provinces  of  Ilocos 
Norte,  and  Ilocos  Sur  on  the  west  coast  of  north  Luaoo;  in  1909 
there  were  in  these  provinces  about  5525  acres  of  cotton.  Many 
tropical  fruits  grow  wild  but  their  quaJity  u  often  inferior;  those 
cultivated  most  extensively  are  mangoes  and  bananas.  Grapes, 
blackberries,  6gt  and  strawberries  have  been  introduced  from  the 
United  States  and  are  pown  successfully  in  the  province  of  Benguet. 
The  natives  care  littleior  the  garden  vegetables  common  to  Europe 
and  America,  but  In  the  vicinity  of  Manila  and  other  large  centres 
of  population  the  Chinese  grow  many  of  these  for  consumption  by 
European  and  American  iiuabitants. 

With  the  exception  of  the  water-buffalo,  which  is  indi^iensable 
for  agricultural  purposes,  the  domestic  animals  are  very  inferior 
in  quality  and  few  in  numbers.  The  horses,  which  are  of  Mexican. 
Spanish  and  Chinese  origin^  are  small  and  poorly  cared  for;  some 
Amerknn  horses  have  been  mtroduoed  for  the  purpose  of  improving 


the  breed.  The  neat  cattle,  which  are  of  Australian  and  Indian 
origin,  are  raised  chie6y  for  beef,  their  hides  and  their  horns: 
about  nine-tenths  of  them  were  destroyed  by  the  rinderpest  ana 
the  war  at  the  dose  of  the  19th  century.  Swine  arc  numerous  but 
they  are  of  a  kind  known  in  the  United  Sutes  as  '*  rasorbacks.*' 
There  are  fflany  goats  but  only  a  few  sheep,  in  one  district 
near  Manila  duck-raising  is  of  considerable  importance,  but 
the  principal  branch  of  the  poultry^  industry  consists  in  the 
raising  of  gamecocks  for  oock-fighting,  which  is  the  national 
mpon. 

Mineral  Rnwnts. — ^Numerous  mineral  deposits  have  been 
discovered,  but  Uttle  has  been  determined  witn  ramect  to  their 
vadue.  Sub-bituminous  coal  is  widely  distributed.  That  near  the 
surface  is  generally  poor  in  quality  and  the  difficulties  of  deep  mining 
may  be  great  because  of  folds  and  faults  in  the  rocks.  There  are, 
however,  promising  helds  near  Danao,  in  Ceb6;  on  the  island  of 
Polillo,  off  the  east  coast  of  Luaon;  in  the  south  part  of  Mindoro; 
on  Bat4n  Island,  off  the  south-cast  coast  of  Luzon:  on  Dinagat 
Island,  off  the  north  coast  of  Mindanao:  and  .in  the  north-east 
corner  of  Nijgroe.  Gold  has  been  found  in  small  quantities  in  nearly 
•U  the  provwcesb  There  b  some  rude  pAA  minu^  by  the  natives. 
A*  Che  result  of  favourable  Indicatioos  extensive  Kold-mining 
operations  have  been  instituted  in  the  provinces  of  Benguet  and 
Amboa  Camarines  in  Luzon,  and  on  the  Island  di  Masbate.  Copper 
Is  scarcely  less  widely  distributcxi  than  gold,  but  the  production 
of  it  awaits  smidters  and  better  facilities  for  tmnqxMtation.  There 
are  extensive  deposits  of  iron  ore  (magnetite  and  hematite}  in  the 
province  of  Bulacan,  Luzon.  Iron  ore  has  been  found  m  other 
provinces  of  Luzon  and  in  the  islands  of  Cebfi.  Panay  and  Marin- 
duque.  There  are  outcrops  of  lead  in  Marinduque  and  CebA,  and 
in  Marinduque  cwisiderabb  silver  b  assodated  with  the  lead. 
Anon^  other  minerab  are  sulphur,  lime,  j;ypsum  and  phosphate. 

Manufactures. — ^The  manufacturing  tndustry  consists  mainly  in 
preparing  agricultural  products  for  market,  and  in  the  production 
h^  the  natives  of  wearing  apparel,  furniture,  household  utenrib,  and 
other  articles  required  to  supply  their  primitive  wants.  The  most 
important  factories  are  those  tor  the  manufacture  of  cigars  ftnd 
cigarettes,  but  most  cigars  and  some  of  the  cigarettes  are  made  by 
hand  In  the  manufacture  of  sugar  most  of  the  mills  in  use  extract 
only  about  three-fourths  of  the  juice  from  the  cane;  in  1902  about 
73  %  of  it  was  manufactured  by  528  aailb  operated  by  steam. 
17  %  by  470  mills  (^)erated  by  hand  or  by  a  carabao:  and  10  %  by 
77  milb  operated  by  water-power  In  the  prindpal  nce-producing 
districts  the  rice  b  threshed  and  cleaned  by  machines,  but  in  other 
districts  more  primitive  methods  are  employed.  Most  of  the  cloth 
wfaidi  the  natives  wear  the  women  weave  in  their  own  homes 
Thcrw  are  three  prindpal  varieties:  nanfuy,  which  b  made  from 
flrieoted  hemp  hbres  and  b  worn  by  both  men  and  women, ^Mit. 
which  b  made  from  a  mixture  of  hemp  and  pineapple-phnt  nbres 
«ntb  er  without  the  addition  of  some  cotton  and  silk  and  b  used 


for  naUM  woncn'a  dicittt  and  nwn's  shirU;  Mm.  wli^h  b  made 
from  the  nbres  \n  the  leaf  of  the  p&ncapple-piaat  and  b  used  for 
making  women's  garments,  handkerdUefs  and  scarfs.  Nipa,  made 
from  rae  fibre  of  the  agave  or  maguey  plant  and  worn  by  women, 
Hatsare  made  of  palm  baves,alaci  baves,  banana 


^ 


leaveik  split  bamboo  and  varioos  erssses.  Mats^  rugs  and  carpets 
are  made  prindpally  of  split  bamboo;  chairs  arid  beds  of  bahnag 
and  other  woods  and  of  rattan.  Alcohol  b  distilled  from  nipa, 
coco>nuts,  buri  {jCorypha  umlfraaiiifera)^  cauong  {Caryota  cnmsia), 
pugahan  (Car>oto  Mrtns)  and  Indian  00m.  Other  manufactures 
of  the  natives  indude  vehicles  of  various  Idnds^  harnesses,  indigo^ 
coco-nut  oil,  soap,  salt  and  Ume. 
Communicalious  and  CnmiMrct.— The  first  railway  in  the  Philtp- 
'nes  was  the  line  from  Manila  to  Dagupan  (i30  m.)  which  was  buut 
y  an  Engliah  corporation  under  a  guaranty  of  the  ^lanish  govern- 
ment and  was  opened  in  1892.  Tnere  was  00  further  constructkm 
for  ten  years.  But  in  190a  and  1903  the  Philippine  jgovemment, 
as  established  in  1902  by  an  act  of^the  Congress  of^the  United 
States,  granted  franchises  for  the  extension  of  the  ManilaoDagupan 
railway  to  Cabanatuan  (55  m.)  and  to  Antipolo  (24  m.).  The  brst 
of  these  branches  was  completed  In  19OJS.  the  tnxmd  m  1906b  In 
February  1905  Congress  authorized  the  Philippine  government 
to  aid  and  encourage  the  construction  of  railways  by  guaranteeing 
4  %  interest  on  bonds;  the  duty  on  imported  materials  used  in  the 
construction  of  railways  and  the  internal  revenue  on  Philippine 
forest  prodocts  used  for  that  purpose  have  also  been  removed. 
With  thb  assistance  the  Maiula  Railrood  Company,  oiganised 
under  the  laws  of  the  state  of  New  Jeraey,  agreed  to  construct 
about  600  m.  of  nulway  in  Luzon;  and  the  Philiralne  Railroad 
Company,  mganbed  under  the  bws  of  the  state  of^  Connecticut, 
MPeed  to  construct  about  ^  m.  in  Pianay,  Cebfi  and  Negroi. 
In  1909  there  were  in  operation  more  than-  ^00  nu  in  Luzon,  60  m. 
in  Ceb6  and  50  m.  in  Panay.  At  the  beginning  of  the  American 
occupation  the  roads  were  very  bad  and  in  many  of  the  isbnds 
there  were  none;  but  in  1909  there  were  at  least  400  in.  of  good 
roads.  The  Cagayin  river,  whbh  b  navigable  for  native  boats 
item,  from  its  mouth,  and  for  rafts  40  m.  farther  up,  b  an  important 
highway  of  comineroe  ^tp  north  Luaon.  Many  miles  of  inbnd 
water  communication  with  small  boats  or  bamboo  rafts  are  afforded 
by  the  Pampanga,  Ajnio,  Abra.  Pasie  and  Bfcol  rivers  In  Luaon,  and 
by  the  Agusan  and  Kio  Grande  de  Mindanao  in  Mindanao.  There 
are  few  harboun  which  admit  vesseb  drawing  more  than  u  ft.  of 
water,  but  many  which  admit  smaller  vessels,  and  at  the  dose  of 
1909  there  were  1st  steamboats  and  424  sailboats  engaged  in  the 
coasting  trade.  Manib  b  the  principal  port  of  entry,  and  since 
the  AoKrican  occupation  Manila  harbour  naa  been  made  aooessibte 
to  vesseb  drawing  30  ft.  of  water.  Ceb6  in  Ceb6  and  Iloilo  in  Panay 
are  ports  of  entry  second  and  third  in  rank,  although  small  in  com- 
parison with  Manib;  there  are  othen  of  minor  importance. 

The  foivipnn  commerce  of  the  Philippines  conasts  chiefly  In 
the  exportation  of  Manib  hemp,  dried  coco>ndt  meat  (oopra),  n^nr 
and  tobacco,  both  in  the  leaf  and  in  dgan  and  cigarettes;  and  in 
the  importation  of  cotton  goods,  rice,  wheat-flour,  fresh  beef. 
boots  and  shoes,  iron  and  steel,  illuminating  oil,  liauors,  paper  and 
paper  goods.  The  value  of  the  exports  indtttsed  from  $19,751,068 
in  the  year  endina  the  50th  of  June  1900  to  832,816,567  in  the  year 
ending  the  50th  of  June  IQ08,  and  the  vahie  01  the  imports  increased 
during  the  same  period  Irom  |20.6oi{436  to  130,91^^7.  A  very 
large  part  of  the  trade  b  with  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
The  imports  from  Great  Britain  exceed  those  from  the  United  States, 
but  the  exports  to  the  United  States  are  much  greater  than  those 
to  Great  Britain,  and  the  total  trade  with  the  United  Sutes  b 
greater  than  that  with  any  other  country.  In  1909  8*0^  %  of  the 
imports  were  from  the  United  States  and  17*8  %  of  the  exports 
were  to  the  United  States;  in  1908  16*4  %  of  the  imports  were 
from  the  United  Sutes  and  Ai>4  %  of  the  exporu  were  to  the 
United  Sutes.  In  1909  free  trade  was  established  between  the  United 
Sutes  and  the  Philippines  in  all  goods  which  are  the  growth,  product 
or  manufacture  of  these  countries,  with  the  exception  of  rice,  except 
that  a  limit  to  the  free  imporUtion  from  the  Philippines  to  toe 
United  Sutes  in  any  one  year  b  fixed  on  dgan  at  I5,ooo,aoo( 
on  wrapper  tobacco  and  on  filler  tobacco,  when  mixed  with  more 
than  15  %  of  wrapper  tobacco,  at  300,000  9);  on  filler  tobacco  at 
1,000.000  lb  and  on  sugar  at  300.000  gross  tons.  In  the  case  ol 
manufactures  the  bw  provides  that  only  those  articles  which  do 
not  conutn  man  than  20  %  in  value  of  foreq^  materiab  shall  be 
admitted  fret. 

P^pultf /fon  — The  total  populatkm  of  the  archipelago  as 
enuiiierated  in  the  census  of  1903  was  7,635,426.  Of  this 
number  6,987,868  were  dassed  as  dvilised  and  647,740  as  wild, 
7, 579.288  or  99*2%  were  native-born  and  56,138  were  foraign- 
bom;  7.539«633  were  of  the  Malayan  or  brown  race,  4<»o97  were 
of  the  yellow,  race,  24,016  were  of  the  black  race,  .14,271  wtre  of 
the  white  race,  and  15,419  were  of  mixed  races.  Of  the  black 
race  23,511,  or  97>8%,  were  Negritos,  who  are  believed  to  be  the 
aborigines  of  the  Philippines.  Nearly  all  of  them  live  in  a 
primitive  state  in  the  interior  of  Luaon,  Panay,  Mindanao  and 


396 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Ncgros.  They  ut  vtxy  thort  of  sutnrer  4  ft.  10  in.  being  tbout 
the  avenge  height  of  a  full-grown  man,  and  the  women  are 
shorter.  Their  colour  is  black,  their  skull  decidedly  .round,  their 
hair  thick  and  frizzly,  their  l^s  thin  and  almost  without  calves, 
and  their  toes  so  prehensile  that  they  can  use  them  nearly  as  well 
as  their  fingers.  They  tattoo  themselves  and  wear  very  little 
clothing,  usually  only  a  geestring.  They  have  no  fixed  abodes 
but  roam  about  in  groups  of  a  few  families.  They  are  skilful 
with  the  bow  and  in  throwing  stones,  and  they  can  easily  kindle 
a  fire,  even  in  the  wet  season,  by  rubbing  together  two  pieces 
ct  dry  bamboo.  Their  food  consists  principally  of  game,  roots 
and  wild  fruits.  The  women,  who  do  all  the  work,  collect  wax 
and  honey,  which  are  their 'principal  staples  in  trade.  Few 
Negritos  Uve  to  be  fifty  years  of  age.  The  brown  race,  which 
came  from  the  south  in  successive  waves  of  immigration  beginning 
in  prehistoric  times,  is  composed  of  twenty-three  distinct  tribes 
varying  widely  in  culture,  language  and  appearance;  their 
languages  however  belong  to  one  common  stock  and  there  is  a 
general  resemblance  in  physical  features  and  in  quality  of  mind. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  population,  approximately  90%,  is  included 
in  seven  Christian  tribes  as  follows:  Visayan,  3,3x9,030;  Tag&log, 
1,460,695;  Ilocano,  803,943;  Bicol,  566,365;  Fangasinan,  343.686; 
Pampangan,  280,984;  and  Cagay&n,  159,648.  The  Visayans  arc 
the  principal  inhabitants  of  the  islands  in  the  central  part  of  the 
archipelago  (Panay,  Cebfi,  Negros,  Leyte,  Bohol,  Samar,  Masbate 
and  Paragua)  and  on  the  north  and  east  coasts  of  Mindanao; 
they  were  perhaps  the  most  civilized  people  in  the  archipelago 
when  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  by  whom  they  were  originally 
called  Pintados  because  they  were  in  the  habit  of  painting  their 
bodies;  but  since  then  their  progress  has  been  less  rapid  than 
that  of  the  Tag&logs — who  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  population 
of  Manila  and  central  Luzon  and  the  majority  of  the  population 
of  Mindanao — who  are  now  the  most  cultured  of  the  brown  races 
in  the  Philippines.  Most  of  the  Docanos  are  in  the  western  half  of 
north  Luzon;  most  of  the  Bicols  in  south  Luzon;  most  of  the 
Pangs sinans  in  the  province  of  Pangasinan,  which  borders  on  the 
Gulf  of  LiDgay£n,  most  of  the  Pampaogans  in  the  province  of 
Pampanga,  which  borders  the  north  shore  of  Manila  Bay;  and 
most  of  the  Cagayfins  in  the  valley  of  the  Cagay&n  river.  More 
than  three-fourths  of  the  wild  population  is  included  in  the  Moro, 
Igorot  and  Negrito  tribes.  The  Igorots  (197,938  wild  and 
13,582  dvilized)  are  the  chief  rq>resentatives  of  the  early  Malay 
immigration  to  the  archipelago.  Th^  are  the  principal  inhabi- 
tants of  the  provinces  of  Lepanto-Bontoc  and  Benguet  in  north 
Luzon  and  are  numerous  in  the  mountain  districts  of  neighbour- 
ing provinces.  Among  the  wildest  of  them  head-hunting  b  still 
a  common  practice;  but  the  majority  are  industrious  farmers 
laying  out  their  fields  on  artificial  terraces  and  constructing 
irrigation  canals  with  remarkable  skilL  The  Moros  (275,324 
wild  and  3323  dvilized)  were  the  bst  of  the  Malays  to  migrate 
to  the  islands;  they  came  after  their  conversion  to  the  Mahom- 
medan  religion,  and  their  migration  continued  until  the  Spanish 
conquest.  Mok  than  one-half  of  them  are  in  Mindanao  and  they 
are  the  prindpal  inhabitants  of  the  small  islands  of  Jolo,  Basilan, 
Siassi  and  Tawi  Tawi  south-west  of  Mindanao.  Slavery  b 
common  among  them.  They  are  generally  miserably  poor, 
cmd  and  hau^ty.  Neariy  three-fourths  of  the  fordgn-bom 
and  97*5%  of  the  rq>resentatives  of  the  ycUow  race  come  from 
China.  The  mixture  of  the  races  b  prindpally  that  of  the  Chinese 
with  the  Malays  or  the  Spaniards  with  the  Malays.  More  than 
half  the  rq>resentatives  of  the  white  race  (1903)  were  Americans. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  groups  of  villages.  In  1903  there 
were  13400  villages  and  nearly  three-fourths  of  them  contained 
fewer  than  600  inhabitants  each.  Laoag  in  north  Luson  with  a 
population  of  19,699)  UoUo  in  Panay  with  a  population  of  19,054, 
Cd>(i  with  a  population  of  18,330,  and  Nueva  Cficeres  in  south 
Luzon  (10,201),  were  the  only  towns  with  a  population  exceed- 
ing 10,000;  and  Manila  (219,928)  was  the  only  dty.  After  the 
1 903  census  many  towns  were  enlarged  by  annexation  of  suburbs. 
CtftemmcMl.-- At  the  beginning  of  the  American  occupation, 
in  August  1898,  a  purely  military  government  was  established; 
iMit  in  May  1899  the  military  authorities  began  the  re-esUbUsb- 


ment  of  dvil  courts,  and  in  July  of  the  same  year  they  begm  ths 
organization  of  dvil  munidpal  governments.  To  continue  the 
work  of  organizing  and  establishing  dvil  government  the  president 
of  the  United  States  appointed  in  February  1900  a  Philippine 
Commission  of  five  members,  with  William  H.  Taf t  as  chairman. 
On  the  xst  of  September  1900  thb  body  assumed  the  legislative 
functions  of  the  central  government  at  Manila;  on  the  4th  of 
July  X901  the  executive  authority  was,  by  order  of  the  president, 
transferred  from  the  military  governor  to  Judge  Taft,  whom  he 
had  appointed  dvil  governor;  on  the  6th  of  Scptembo:  190X  the 
Philippine  Commission,  by  authority  of  the  preddent,  established 
the  four  executive  departments,  of  interior,  conuneroe  and 
police,  finance  and  justice,  and  public  instruction;  aiKi  on  the 
29th  of  October  X90X  the  president  appointed  a  vice-fovemor. 
The  Congress  of  the  United  States,  in  an  act  approv^  on  the 
xst  of  July  X902,  ratified  and  confirmed  the  govenuncnt  as 
thus  established,  but  required  that  future  appointments  by  the 
president  of  the  governor,  vice-governor,  members  of  the  com- 
mission and  heads  of  the  executive  departments  should  be  made 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  The  organic  act  contained  a 
bill  of  rights,  provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  pc^ular 
assembly  two  years  after  the  completion  of  a  census  of  the 
Philippines,  and  more  definitdy  provided  for  the  organizatioo 
of  the  judidary.  The  first  popular  assembly,  of  80  members, 
was  opened  at  Manila  on  the  z6th  of  October  1907,  and  since  then 
the  legislature  has  been  composed  of  two  branches,  the  Philippine 
Commission  (five  Americans  and  four,  formeriy  three,  Filipinos), 
and  the  Philippine  Assembly.  The  members  of  the  Assembly 
are  dected  by  dbtricts  (the  population  of  which  u  i4>proximatdy 
equal)  for  a  term  of  two  years.  A  voter  must  be  twenty-three 
years  of  age,  must  have  been  a  resident  of  the  mimidpality  for  six 
months,  must  not  be  a  dtizen  or  subject  of  any  foreign  country, 
and  must  possess  at  least  one  of  the  following  qualificationB: 
have  been  an  ofiice-bolder  under  Spanish  rale,  own  real  estate 
worth  500  pesos,  pay  taxes  amounting  annually  to  30  pesos^ 
or  be  able  to  speak,  read  and  write  dther  Spanish  or  KngliisK 
The  legislature  meets  annually;  a  regular  session  b  limited  to 
90  days,  and  a  special  sesdon  to  30  days. 

Justice  b  administered  prindpally  by  a  siqireme  court,  courts 
of  first  instance,  and  courts  of  justices  of  the  peace.  The  supreme 
court  consists  oi  seven  members,  four  AJnericans  and  three 
Filipinos;  and  the  chief  jtistice  and  associate  justices  of  the 
supreme  court  are  appointed  by  the  preddent  of  the  United  States 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  The  judges  of  the  courts  of  first 
instance  are  appdnted  by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the 
Phillppme  Commisdon.  A  judgment  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  Philippines  which  affects  any  sutute,  treaty,  title,  right  or 
privilege  of  the  United  States  may  be  reversed,  modified  or 
affirmed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States;  an  vpptal 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  may  aJso  be  had 
in  any  cause  in  which  the  value  in  controversy  exceeds  tisfioo. 

The  most  common  form  of  provincial  govenunent  b  that  by  a 
governor,  who  b  elected  biennially  by  the  munidpal  oouxxillon 
in  convention,  and  a  secretary,  a  treasurer,  a  supervisor,  and  a 
fiscal  or  prosecuting  attorney,  who  are  appointed  by  the  Phifip- 
pine  Comnusdon.  Each  mimidpality  b  governed  by  a  president, 
a  vice-prcddent,  and  a  munidpal  council,  all  of  whom  are  elected 
biennbUy  by  the  qualified  dectois  of  the  munidpaltty.  Hie 
Philippine  "  munidpality "  b  an  administrative  area,  often 
sparsdy  settled,  b  often  called  a  town,  and  may  be  compared  to 
a  New  England  township;  the  munidpalitlcs  are  the  units  into 
which  the  provinces  are  divided.  Each  munidpality  b  made  up 
of  barrios  or  small  villages  (about  13,400  in  the  entire  archipelago) 
and  of  one,  or  more,  more  thickly  peopled  areas,  each  called  a 
poblaeum^  and  resembhng  the  towndilp  "centre"  of  New 
England 


Education  —Iht  caUblishment  of  an  dficient  system  oC  < 
achoob  has  been  an  important  part  of  the  work  of  the 
adminutrmtion.      Under    Spaniab    rule   the   Church    e 
colleges  and  seminaries  f<ir  training  prieatSf  but  the  Spniah  1  ^ 
of  aecuUr  adioda  for  dementary  watnictton,  eatabUdied  is  i8C9» 
accomplished  little:  the  achoob  were  taught  by  naquaUfied    — ^~- 
teachers  and  the  supervision  of  them  was  very  las.   The  ' 


PHILIPPINE  I^ANDS 


0,ttm.muVUmib, „ 

■  coune  or  Iniuuciion  On  the  EngluN  laagiugcl  For  1 1 
4  primary.  3  intenncdtUc  and  4  ■ecundan'  In  the  inlenn 
AM  iKoiidBry  departmciiti  then  LtadioKeaf  uicoormin 
tndiiac  lirnioff.  lOoliKirk,  bowdnniH  and  bnwlnld  an 
buniitn.  Tlui  adniuitntiv*  ktai  cl  tie  •vRon  «  lbs  di 
d  educatiofu  who  it  appDiatod  by  the  commiuHin,  and  wbo  an 
thp  mine  otttitdy.approwa  the  plana  for  Kbool  hoiivq,  detci 

-■ ^ool^  iliaU  be  sublfiliRl  and  m     .. 

lU  tBch,  divids  Ibe  aachipelafo  ia 


in  Mirci 


'ry. — 'TlicPbilipf^nelslBitdiiRRducovend  by  Magellan 
hi^ii.  TbefinliibndanwhldihcteDiledwasMiilbou,' 
between  Sanurand  Dinagat.  Then  aailingwuth  he  touched 
at  MindaaaD,  (com  which  he  uiled  nanh-wtsc,  pait  Bofaol  to 
CebCi.  '  Hen  he  found  a  gocd  hacbour  [n  the  bay  on  which  the 
dty  ol  CebO  now  ElandL  He  nude  aa  (Hiance  with  the  native*. 
who  ondertook  lo  mpply  him  with  proviaion*.  With  hii  new 
■Ilia  he  cmacd  to  the  Ui  tic  Island  of  Mactan,  where  he  was  killcil 
In  a  ^iimiab.  A  Portuguese  by  hirlh,  he  had  been  Railing  ia  the 
employ  of  King  Charln  I.  of  Spain  (the  cmperol  Charles  V.), 
wriih  the  object  of  proving  thai  the  Mi^ccas  lay  within  that  part 
of  the  world  which  Pope  Alexander  VL  and  the  treaty  of  Tord«- 
■itlBS  (June  7i  '494)  had  given  to  Spain  and  not  lo  PorlugaL 
Magellan  nirocd  hii  discovery  the  Archipelago  of  San  Laiaius. 
The  Spaniards,  however,  called  the  group  the  Islai  ia  Penlatit 
(Western  IiUndi).  The  Portuguese  caUed  them  the  liiat  dc 
OrienU.  The  distinction  was  not  acddcnlaL'  To  the  Portuguese- 
they  connltuted  the  eastern  boondaiy  of  their  world.   From  the 


:ol¥i 


,  },  by  the  treaty  o(  Zaia- 

gou,  Spaia  relinquished  10  Port  ugal  attdaimstotlieJiIoluccuand. 
agrted  that  no  Spaniard  should  trade  or  sail  west  of  a  meridian 
drawn  197  Icaffues  cast  of  the  Moluccas.  This  was  a  plain 
reriundation  of  any  rights  over  the  Philippinei,  which  Ue  several 
degrees  west  of  the  Moluccas.  TMs  fact,  however,  was  ignored, 
and  in  [543  au  attempt  to  conquer  the  Philippines  was  made  by 
RuyLopeide  ViIIabo9(c.  is«o-i544).  Villabos  chose  to  honour 
the  heit-appaient  of  the  Spanish  throne  by  naming  wme  of  the 
islands  irhicb  he  discovered,  west  and  north  of  Magellan's 
discovery,  the  Islas  Filipinax  After  the  accession  of  Philip  II. 
( 1 55S-i5^)  a  much  more  important  eipeditlon  was  fitted  out  on 
the  Mexican  coast,  under  the  direction  of  the  distinguished 
coniiuiitador,  Miguel  Li^  de  Lcgaml  (!S54-is7)).  In  the 
sailing  ditcctkiiu,  issued  In  1561,  for  the  use  rf  this  expedition 
the  phrase  'Has  Islas  Fillpinss  "  was  used  as  ipplying  to  the 
entire  archipelago.  Starting  ca  the  »nd  of  November  ts64, 
(rooi  Navidad,  with  four  ihips  bnUt  and  equipped  on  the  spot, 
Legaspl  began  an  enterprise  which  entitles  himto  a  place  among 
the  greatest  of  colonial  pioneers.  He  was  accompanied  by  five 
Anywlinlan  frian  and  four  hundred  men.   In  1565  he  founded. 


:n  1S71  tl 


iManilawaafouadedandbearoetbeinnlarcaiiitaJ.   Legaipi'i 

..!._  --■--^--jfioUutedbylhefactthattheiiweie 

I  but  lalbcr  a  congEries  of  amall 
sbendilary.  \xtfxf& 
1  contiogeBls  ol  tnwpt 
cnonmns  otatado, 
leand  onitlny,  Iha  Iwatility  and  tteactety  of  lbs 
Es  and  of  foreigMn,  and  lite  na^ect  of  the  borne  fovcn- 
ment,  he  laid  a  aura  founditka  for  petmananl  Spani^  BcciqiatioB. 
By  a  cooibinat  ion  at  tact,  coHtagc  and  laoottclulaaia  he  ina  the 
bcarta  of  the  natives,  repelled  tbe  Pnttaguasaaiid,  DotwithMaad- 
ing  the  gnat  diaiance  from  Spain,  establisbcd  the  new  colasy 
on  a  practical  basis.  Before  his  death  b  1571  be  bad  eiptond 
and  pacified  a  large  part  of  the  island  territory 
trade,  and  had  arrested  the  progreai  of  Mahommedanisn 

The  conquest  of  the  Philippines  waa  cssenti:  " 
conquest.  Inspired  by  aposli^ic  zeal  tiu  fdara  braved  ttu 
tetron  of  life  in  the  recwte  villagrs,  raised  the  natives  n«  fv^a 
fraia  >"■*-"■■■■"-  and  taught  them  the  forma  of  ■><  (*• 
ChilMlanity.  As  a  result  of  theii  labours  the  Chiia-  ""''•^ 
lian  miidnoi  stand  unique  aa  the  only  large  mtas  of  Aaatlcs 
coavuted  to  Christianity  b  modem  times.  The  friara  promoud 
the  ndal  and  ecomnic  advancement  of  tbe  islanda,  cultivated 
tbe  native  taste  for  monc.  Introduceii  improvcmcDls  in  agiicul. 


IS  patterned  on  that  of  SpanUl 


ture  and  imported  la 
waa  introduced  by  the  govemmeni 
The  oohxiial  government  was  pi 
America.    The  powers  of  the  goverr 

only  by  tbe  imiieitcia  or  supreme  court,  01  wnicn  ne  was  presi- 
dent, and  by  the  Knif(i«i<i  or  olfidal  investigation  at  the  eipin- 
tion  of  hit  term.  The  blands  were  subdivided  into  provinces 
uadet  ofcdJi/fv  iwi/Droi  who  eierdeed  boLbeiecuiiveaad  judicial 
(uoclioiu.  The  fivouritism  and  conupiion  that  hooeycooibod 
the  civil  service  of  Spain  frequently  resulted  in  placing  in  respon- 
sible positions  persons  who  voe  entirely  nafii.  Hairdrcasers 
were  made  Into  altaidit,  and  saiion  were  transformed  into 
gobint^dars  by  tho  ndraculous  grace  of  royal  decrtea.  The 
provinces  were  subdivided  into  fiubiai^  each  under  a  native 
lobemadorciito,  elected  annually.  The  pemianeat  offices  could 
be  bonght,  sold  and  Inherited.  The  mistake  was  made  of  paying 
very  low  salaries  to  the  oiBdals,  who  took  this  aa  a  justification 
for  illegal  exactions.  The  difficulty  of-securing  proper  officials 
gradually  resulted  in  the  taon  important  dvil  functions  being 
handed  over  to  the  friars,  who  frequently  exercised  a  benevolent 
despotism.  In  more  than  half  of  tbe  twelve  hundred  villages 
there  was  no  other  Spaniard  be^e  the  priest.  Tbe  Spanish 
language  waa  praaically  unknown.  It  vas  far  easier  for  tbe 
monks  to  learn  the  native  dialects  than  to  teach  their  puishioneis 
Spanish.  For  two  centuries  and  a  half  after  the  conquest  there 
is  little  narraiive  history  worth  recording.  There  wen  bonlet 
wan  with  rebellious  savage  tribes,  attacks  made  by  Chinese 
pirate*  seeking  plunder  or  refuge,  volcanic  eruptions,  earth- 
quakes, tornadoes  and  the  periodical  visits  of  maraoders  from 

In  t;6i,  however,  as  an  incident  of  the  watbttweeD-Spsin  aad 
England,  a  British  fleet  of  thirteen  ahlpa,  under  the  coinnundol 
Admiral  Samuel  Cornish    (d.'i77o)  and  Briga^r-  A«ka 

the-  Philippines.  The  available  Spanish  army  can-  •">'•>•■ 
sisted  of  about  600  inen,  while  the  attacking  force  numbered 
6iyo.  After  a  bombardment,  Uanila  fell  and  on  the  jib  of 
October  the  British  entered  the  dty.  By  the  term*  of  iba 
capitulation  the  vMe  of  tbe  arddpelago  was  sorrendered  lo 
the  British  and  an  indemnity  ol  4,000.000  pesos  was  to  be  paid. 
As  there  was  no  goveroor-general  at  the  time,  the  British  were 
obliged  to  treat  with  the  sctiDg-govemor,  the  Arcbblsbep  Manud 
i!o  Rojo ;  but  hii  authority  was  set  aside  by  a  w«-party  who 


tallied 


Friday  5: 


Anda   proclaimed    binisdl    goveraor-genetal    and  piaclically 


398 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


SQCceedad  in  con6ning  the  Biitisli  to  Manila.  At  the  dose  of 
the  war  the  Phih'ppines  were  letumed  to  Spain.  Manila  was 
evacuated  in  Mardi  1764. 

For  the  first  quarter  of  a  century  after  the  Spanish  conquest 
the  islands  were  allowed  free  trade.  Then  came  the  lamiliar 
restrictions,  limiting  commerce  to  a  fixed  amount 
annually,  and  effectively  checking  economic  devdop- 
ment.  In  isgr  direct  trade  between  the  Philippines 
and  South  America  was  prohibited.  In  1593  trade  between  the 
Philippines  and  Mexico;  the  only  route  open  between  the  colony 
and  Spain,  was  limited  to  two  ships  annually,  the  ships  not  to 
exceed  300  tons  burden.  The  result  was  that  the  oommand  of 
the  Acapulco  galleon  was  rardy  worth  less  than  $50,000.  The 
passenger  fare  from  Manila  to  Acapulco,  at  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century,  was  $1000.  This  monopoly  laated  until  the  Mexican 
War  of  Independence  forced  the  Spanish  government  to  regard 
the  Philippines  as  being  m  the  East  instead  of  the  West.  Spain's 
colonial  policy  was  not  based  on  an  exaltation  of  the  commercial 
ideal.  However  much  the  adnunistrators  may  have  fallen  short 
in  aaoal  practice,  the  %>anish  ideal  was  to  preserve  and  dvilize 
the  native  races,  rather  than  to  establish  lucrative  trading  posts 
where  the  natives  might  be  easily  expiloited.  In  America  the 
hws  which  provided  daborate  safeguards  for  the  protection  of 
the  Indians  were,  to  a  large  degree,  nullified  by  the  lust  for  gold 
and  silver  and  the  consequent  demand  for  labourecs  in  the  mines. 
In  the  Philippines  the  humane  policy  of  the  home  government 
had  no  such  powerful  obstades  to  contend  with.  Business  was 
not  devdoped.  The  natives  were  allowed  to*  live  the  indolent  life 
of  the  tropics.  Compared  with  the  results  of  English  or  Dutch 
colonization  the  conversion  and  dviliaation  of  the  Filipinos  is  a 
most  remarkable  achievement.  Notwithstanding  the  undmiable 
vices,  follies  and  absurd  illiberalities  of  the  Spanish  colonial 
regime,  the  Philippines  were  the  only  group  in  the  East  Indies 
that  improved  in  dvilization  in  the  three  centuries  following 
thdr  discovery.  The  chief  defect  in  the  Spanish  Philippine 
policy  was  that  while  it  made  converts  it  did  not  make  dtizens. 
Self-reliance,  free^thought  and  mental  growth  were  not  encour- 
aged. Progress  in  scientific  knowledge  was  effectively  blocked 
by  the  friuB.  Their  presses  confined  their  activities  to  the 
production  of  catechisms,  martyrologies  and  handbooks  in  the 
native  languages  after  the  fashion  of  the  presses  of  Mexico.  Five 
hundred  such  works  were  printed  and  distributed  in  Manila 
akme  bdore  1800.  To  reach  the  masses,  unfamiliar  with 
Spanish,  manuals  of  devotion  and  outlines  of  Christian  doctrine 
were  transUted  into  the  various  native  languages.  Of  the  Bible 
itself,  no  part  was  translated  or  publisbol.  A  knowledge  of 
ieading  and  writing  was  generally  diffused  throughout  the  group. 
The  era  of  discontent  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  1825  when 
the  loss  of  her  colonies  on  the  mainland  of  America  caused  Spain 
to  take  a  more  immediate  interest  in  the  Philippines, 
and  increased  emigration  to  the  islands.  Between 
1840  and  1873  thirty  newspapers  were  founded.  The 
introduction  of  secular  books  and  papers,  more  or  less  surrepti- 
tiously, helped  to  spread  the  seeds  of  sedition.  In  1852  the 
Spanish  Fil^ino  Bank  was  established.  In  1856  foreign  trade, 
hitherto  confined  to  Manila,  was  permitted  to  enter  the  port  of 
IloOo,  and  foreign  traders  were  allowed  to  open  branch  houses 
outside  of  the  capital-  The  change  In  Spain's  economic  policy, 
induding  an  attempt  to  explioit  the  coalfidda  and  to  encourage 
both  agriculture  and  commerce,  helped  to  awaken  hitherto 
dormant  dements.  In  x6ox  the  Jesuits  had  opened  a  college 
in  Manila  for  the  educatioa  of  Spanish  youth*  In  1768  they 
had  been  expelled.  In  1859  they  were  permitted  to  return 
ttn  the  understanding  that  they  were  to  devote  ihemsdves  to 
education. 

The  Spanish  Revolution  of  x868  caused  a  further  influx  of 
Spaniards  and  also  the  bitroduction  of  the  pernicious  "spoils 
system."  With  jevery  change  of  mimstxy  in  Madrid  came  a  new 
lot  of  hungry  politicians  anxious  to  fill  even  the  more  humble 
colonial  offices.  The  opening  of  the  Sues  Canal  m  1869,  followed 
by  the  esublbhment  of  direct  steam  communication  between 
Spaia  and  the  Philippines,  sounded  the  death  knell  of  the  peaceful 


Bnoi 


missionary  era  and  brou^t  about  the.  definite  eiktiy-  cf  the 

islands  into  the  world  of  commerce  and  progress. 

The  friars,  by  perpetuating  medieval  conditions  in  a  country 
that  was  now  bdng  opened  to  contact  with  thedvilixed  worid, 
increased  the  feeling  of  discontent  The  natural  result  was  a 
violent  conflict.  The  more  advanced  Filipinos  desired  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  whereby  the  incum- 
bendcs  in  Christianised  towns  and  villages  should  be  held  by 
regular  dergy  and  not  by^friars*  Filipinos  had  for  generations 
been  ordained  into  priesthood  although  not  recdvtd  into 
monastic  orders.  This  measure  was  really  aimed  at  the  political 
and  economic  supremacy  of  the  Spaaish4>om  friars,  who  bad 
by  this  time  acquired  400,000  acres  of  agricultural  land,  more 
than  half  of  it  in  the  vidnlty  of  Manila.  The  agrarian  question 
added  to  the  growing  discontent.  All  the  revolutions  began  in 
the  province  of  Cavit^,  where  the  friars  owned  125,000  acres. 
In  1872  the  secret  agents  of  the  friars  induced  the  native  garrison 
at  Cavit6  to  mutiny  and  thus  give  the  friars  an  excuse  to  press  for 
vigorous  action.  The  mutiny  was  not  successful,  but  Father 
Burgos,  the  leader  of  the  reform  party,  was  publicly  garrotted 
with  three  other  native  priests;  and  the  native  dergy  were 
declared  to  be  incompetent  to  have  the  cure  of  sotils.  Several 
of  the  richest  and  best  educated  Filiphos  were  conviaed  of 
treason  and  banished. 

With  the  increased  facilities  for  European  travd  FIlq>ino6 
began  to  visit  Europe  and  return  with  new  and  broader  notions 
of  life.  The  most  distinguished  of  the  travellers  was  p^^^ 
Josi  Rizal  ( 1 861-1896).  Bom  in  Calainha,  in  the 
province  of  Luzon,  of  pure  Tag&Iog  parentage,  he  attended 
the  newly  reopened  Jesuit  university  in  Manila.  He  was  then 
sent  to  Europe  to  complete  his  studies,  first  in  Madrid,  where  he 
became  a  doctor  of  mcdidne,  and  later  in  Germany,  where  he 
received  the  degree  of  Ph.O.  He  came  into  touch  with  advaiKcd 
methods  of  scientific  research,  acquired  great  ability  as  a  writer, 
keen  perception  of  truth  and  an  unflinching  realization  of  the 
defects  of  his  own  people,  and  the  unpleasant  but  essential  fact 
that  to  have  better  government  they  must  first  deserve  it.  His 
propaganda,  aimed  at  the  small  body  of  Filipinos  who  had  suffi- 
cient education  to  appredate  political  satire,  was  very  effective. 
His  most  famous  novd«  Noli  me  tangere,  was  published  in  x886u 
In  this  he  drew  a  masterly  picture,  not  oi^y  of  the  life  and 
immorality  of  the  friais  but  also  of  the  insolent  Filipino  chiefs 
or  caciqius,  subservient  to  the  powers  above,  tyranniol  to  those 
below,  superstitious,  unprogressive  and  grasping.  Cadquisn 
or  "  bossism,"  government  by  local  aristocrau,  was  the  prime 
feature  of  village  life  in  the  islands  during  the  entire  period 
of  Spanish  rule  and  existed  long  before  their  arrival. 

The  campaign  of  Rizal,  Marcelo  dd  Pflar,  Gradano  Lopei 
Jaena  and  Apolinario  Mabini,  the  leaders  in  the  "Young 
Filipino  Party/'  was  a  protest  against  both  the  domioatioa 
<^  the  friars  and  economic  and  administrative 
cadquism.  To  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  friars, 
Rizal  was  obliged  to  flee  to  £ur(9)e.  In  1892  he 
returned  to  the  islands  on  the  assurance  of  the  governor,  Eulogk) 
Dcspujols  y  Dusay,  that  he  might  live  there  in  peace.  Hs 
enemies,  however,  succeeded  in  having  him  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  treason.  Meanwhile  he  had  organized  a  rdorm  party  under 
the  title  of  Liga  FUipiua,.  Its  object  had  been  to  procure,  by 
pacific  means,  several  reforms  in  the  government  of  the  islands, 
the  chief  of  which  were  the  expulsion  of  the  friars,  and  the  with- 
drawal of  the  governor-general's  arbitrary  power  to  deport 
Filipinos.  The  friars  importuned  Despujols  for  Rizal's  life  but 
he  persistently  refused  their  demand,  and  met  the  case  half-way 
by  banishing  Rizal  to  Mindanao.  Incensed  by  the  failure  of  their 
plot,  the  friars  obtained  the  recall  of  Dcspujols. 

The  new  governor,  Ram6n  Blanco,  was  like  Dcqynjols  and 
many  of  his  predecessors,  humane  at  heart,  but  he  could  do  little 
more  than  bold  in  check  the  tyrannical  schemes  of 
the  clergy.  The  banishment  of  Rizal  convinced  the 
reform  party  that  peacdul  endeavour  was  futile. 
A  secret  organization,  the  Katipunan^  was  therefore  started 
to  secure  rdorms  by  force  of  arms.    It  was  founded  by  Andrcft 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


399 


Bonifado,  a  sdiooImutM'  of  Cavit#.  In  i39^iS96'the  friars' 
acting  as  spies  for  the  government,  obtained  the  banishment 
of  many  hundreds  of  natives. 

On  the  day  after  the  Katipunan  conspiracy  had  been  brought 
prematurely  to  light  by  a  traitor,  Jthree  hundred  prominent 
Filipinos  were  lodged  in  prison.  This  precipttated 
the  revolt  Tht  insurrectas  attacked  the  dvil  guard 
outside  the  dty,  but  were  unsuccessful.  A  week  later 
some  hundreds  of  insurgents  attacked  th«  powder  magazine  at 
San  Juan  del  Monte,  but  were  completely  routed.  Four  of  their 
chiefs  were  taken  prisoners  and  executed  in  Manila.  Ten  days 
after  the  plot  was  discovered  Manila  and  five  other  provinces 
were  officially  proclaimed  in  a  state  of  siege.  The  insurrectos 
concentrated  all  their  energies  upon  Cavitfi  province.  Several 
villages  fell  into  their  hands. '  The  insurgent  commander-in-chief 
was  Emilio  Aguinaldo.  He  was  bom  in  1869  in  CavitI,  ten  of  a 
native  farmer  of  considerable  ability,  and  of  a  half-caste  mother 
whose  father  was  a  Chinaman.  After  attending  the  Tag&log 
school  at  Cavity  he  entered  the  Jesuit  College  in  Manila  but  did 
not  graduate.  In  1893  he  became  municipal  alcalde  of  Cavit6, 
and  later  joined  the  Katipunan. 

The  government  was  in  a  difficult  position.  General  Blanco 
had  extremely  few  European  troops  at  his  disposal,  and  it  was 
doubtful  how  far  native  troops  could  be  trusted.  Reinforce- 
ments were  on  the  way  from  Spain,  but  the  demands  of  Cuba  had 
already  depleted  the  Peninsula  of  the  best  fighting  material. 
Blanco,  blamed  for  not  acting  at  once,  was  readied.  In 
December  1896  General  Camilo'Garda  de  Pobvieja  (b.  1838}- 
arrived  as  his  successor,  with  General  Jos6  Lachambre  (b.  1846) 
as  chief  of  staff.  Before  Blanco  left  he  had  released  Rizal  and 
allowed  him  to  go  to  Spain,  but  the  friars  caused  his  arrest  and 
he  was  sent  back  to  Manila,  where  he  was  executed  by  Polavieja's 
orders  in  December  1896. 

Lachambre  took  the  field  in  Cavit£  with  energy  and  succeeded 
in  quelling  the  rebellion  in  that  province.  He  was  then  despatched 
north.  Numerous  small  battles  were  fought  with  Aguinaldo 
and  the  insurgents,  who  were  repeatedly  defeated  only  to  re- 
appear in  other  places.  Polavieja's  demand  for  more  troops 
having  been  refused,  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  spring 
of  1897  by  General  Femando-Primo  de  Rivera.  Hostilities 
continue^*  but  the  wet  season  set  in,  making  operations  extremely 
difficult.  Before  Primo  de  Rivera  could  make  much  headway 
against  the  insurgents  affairs  in  Cuba  became  So  serious  that  the 
Spanish  government  cabled  him  that  pacification  was  most 
urgently  desired.  As  a  result  he  suspended  operations  and  signed 
the  treaty  of  Biacabat6  (Dec.  is,  1897),  by  which  Aguinaldo 
and  thirty-five  of  his  chief  followers  were  allowed  to  retire  to 
Hongkong  with  a  cash  indemnity  of  400,000  pesos.  The  Madrid 
government  refused  to  confirm  the  terms  of  peace,  and  the  peace 
rejoicings  In  Manila  were  followed  by  the  persecution  of  all 
those  who  were  known  to  have  sympathized  with  the  movement. 
On  the  isth  of  February  1898  in  Havana  harbour,  the  U.SJS. 
"  Maine  "  was  blown  up.  On  the  isih  of  March  Primo  de 
s^hh*  Rivera,  learning  that  theAmerican  Commodore  George 
Americsa  Dewey  was.  mobilizing  his  fleet  in  the  harbour  of 
^^'  Hongkong,  called  a  council  at  -which  the  Spanish 

Admiral  Patricio  Montojo  (b.  1839)  stated  that,  in  the  event  of 
a  conffict,  his  own  fleet  would  be  inevitably  destroyed.  Primo 
de  Rivera  was  now  recalled  and  General  BasiUo  August!  (b.  1840) 
took  his  place.  With  a  new  governor-general  all  plans  had  to  be 
reconsidered.  Brfore  suitable  defences  could  be  made,  word 
came  irom  Hongkong  that  Dewey  had  started  for  Manila  and 
Montojo  hurriedly  sailed  from  Subig  Bay  to  Cavit^,  barely  in 
time  to  anchor  before  Dewey  arrived.  Few  among  his  crew 
understood  handling  a  gun  properly,  and  owing  to  the  poor  care 
which  his  vessels  had  received  they  were  actually  inferior  to 
the  individual  vessels  of  the  American  squadron.  Commodore 
Dewey  arrived  in  the  Bay  of  Manila  on  the  ist  of  May,  and  totally 
destroyed  or  disabled  the  Spanish  fleet.  The  surrender  of  the 
city  was  refused.  The  Americans  occupied  Cav{t6.  The  battle 
of  Manila  Bay  and  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  fleet  destroyed  the 
prtitlft  ol  Spain  throughout  the  ialapdfc    lafuntctjoaaUgui 


in  nearly  every  province.  Aguinaldo  and  his  friends  werv 
aUowed  to  cone  to  Cavst6  »  an  Anciicaii  tranqioct.  With  the 
approval  of  Commodore  Dewey,  wlio  allowed  arms  to  be  supplied 
him,  Aguinaldo  successfully  renewed  his  campaign  against  tiie 
Spaiuards  until  practically  all  Luzon,  except  the  city  of  Manila 
and  suburbs,  was  in-  his  control.  Reinforcements  arrived,  and 
on  the  13th  ol  August  Manila  was  taken  by  the  AmericanSt  under 
General  Wesley  Metiitt  (b.  1836) 

The  refusal  of  General  Merritt  to  permit  AguiiMldo's  troops 
to  enter  Manih  created  resentment  on  the  part  of  the  Filipinos* 
A  so<alled  constitutional  convention  was  held  at  Malolos,  and 
a  constitution  was  adopted.  At  the  same  time  the  Visayan 
Republic  was -organized,  and  it  professed  allegiance  to  Aguin- 
aldo's  gpvemment.  Neither  Aguinaldo's  government  nor  the 
Visayan  government  was  able  to  maintain  order,  and  the  whole 
country  was  subject  to  the  looting  of  .robber  bands.  The  treaty 
of  peace  between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  by  which  the 
Philippine  Islands  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  former,  was 
signed  in  Paris  on  the  xoth  of  December  1898,  but  it  was  not 
confirmed  by  the  Senate  until  the  6th  of  February  1899.  Daring 
this  period  the  Filipino  army  renudncd  under  arms.  On  the  4th 
of  Febnmry  hostilities  broke  out  between  the  Americans  and 
the  Filipinos.  The  hitter  were  defeated  on  the  5th,  at  Paco, 
with  heavy  loss.  The'  American  troops,  now  under  General 
£.  S.  Otis  (b.  2838),  following  up  the  enemy,  drove  K*yii 
them  out  of  Malolos  and  then  withdrew  to  «i»iki««  ite 
Manila  to  await  reinforcements,  which  brought  ^■•**"* 
the  total  American  force  up  to  about  60,000  men.  It  it 
unnecessary  to  trace  in  detafl  the  gradual  conquest  of  the 
islands,  or  the  hundreds  of  engagements,  often  small,  between 
the  rebels  and  the  Americans.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the 
country,  and  the  hope  of  securing  independence  from  a  possible 
overthrow  of  the  Republican  party  in  the  United  States,  the 
war  was  prolonged  for  two  or  three  years.  With  the  capture 
of  Aguinajdo  on  the  33rd  of  March  1901,  the  resistance  became 
little  more  than  that  of  guerrillas. 

Civil  government  was  introduced  as  fast  as  possible.  During 
1899  the  Schurman  commission,  headed  by  Dr  Jacob  G. 
Scburman  of  Cornell  University,  was  sent  by  rb^rmtt 
President  McKinley  to  report  on  the  state  of  affairs,  ^mtrfs; 
In  February  1900  a  second  and  more  powerful-  "**'' 
commission  was  appointed,  consisting  of  Judge  W.  H.  Taft, 
Professor  D.  C.  Worcester  (b.  x866),  General  L.  E.  Wright 
(b.  1846),  Mr  H.  C.  Ide  (b.  2844),  and  Professor  Bernard  Moses 
(b.  1846).  Under  the  presidency  of  Mr  Taft  it  began  to  exercise 
a  legislative  jurisdiction  in  September  190a  Its  first  act  was 
to  appropriate  li^ooopoo  for  the  construction  and  improve* 
ment  of  roads.  It  next  provided  for  the  improvement  of 
Mam1a  harbour,  which  involved  an  expenditure  of  $3,000,000* 
The  fifth  act  extended  to  the  islands  the  benefits. of  a  civil* 
service  based  on  merit.  In  1901  a  general  school  law  was 
passed  under  which  xooo  American  school  teachers  were  intro- 
duced. They  were  scattered  among  500  towns,  to  teach*  2500 
Filipino  teachers  English  and  modem  methods  of  school 
teaching.  Other  legislation  provided  for  the  organization  of 
a  judiciary,  a  supreme  court,  the  enactment  of  a  code  of  civil 
procedure,  the  establishment  of  a  bureau  of  forestry,  a  health 
department,  and  an  agricultural  bureau  and  a  bureau  of  con- 
stabulary, made  up  of  native  soldiers  officered  by  white  men. 
Ladronism  was*  very  widely  distributed  under  Spanish  rule, 
and  the  old  guardia  civil  committed  outrages  almost  equal 
to  those  of  the  brigands  themselves.  The  new  constabulary 
has  been  eminently  successful  in  maintaining  law  and  order* 
Great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  scientific  mapping  of  the 
islands. 

On  the  4th  of  July  1901  the  office  of  military  governor  was 
abolished,  the  miUtary  forces  being  largely  recalled,  and  th« 
part  remaining  being  made  henceforth  subordinate  CMT 
16  the  civil  authorities.  Mr  Taft  became  governor-  Oovrw 
general.  A  general  amnesty  was  granted  to  all  "♦■^ 
rebels  and  political  prisoners  who  would  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  United  States.  On  the  ist  of  July  i^s  President 


PHILIPPOPOLIS— PHUIPPSBURG 


Roaevilt  iiEiud  an  Kt  oubliihing  Ha  dvQ  govcnunent 
oF  Iht  PhilippliKi  niid  previdjog  for  a  Dew  legbUiEve  body. 
A  census  wws  BUtboriied  iDd  vm  lakea  ia  ipoj.  The  ict  o[ 
1901  also  luthoriled  the  purchue  of  lud  belonging  to  the 
Irian.  Although  amoag  luch  aa  ignonDt  and  diversified  body 
1*  tliat  oS  the  Filipiooa  public  opinioo  can  hardly  be  said 
to  exist,  there  a  no  doubt  that  Uie  hatied  of  the  fiian  was 
practically  univeisaL  When  the  revolution  came  the  memberi 
of  the  four  oideis  had  to  See  lor  their  lives,  although  the  people 
who  killed  or  imprisoDcd  tboie  they  could  alrb  wire  generally 
good  Cathohca.  As  the  insular  govimiiicill  could  not  aalaly 
allow  the  frisis  to  ictara  to  their  puitfaes  the  ftian'  lands 
were  bought  for  {7,000,000.  Mr  Taft  omoaged  the  delicate  task. 
a[  conducting  Degotlationi  with  the  Vaticaa  without  aiouiing 
liic  bojtilily  ol  either  Catbolio  or  Protcstauu.  On  the  lit  el 
February  1904  Geneial  L.  E.  Wright  became  governor.  He 
ni  soaeeded  la  iga;  by  Mr  H.  C.  Ide,  who  was  succeeded 
by  Gtoeral  Jama  T.  Smith  in  1906.  The  elections  [or  the 
bat  FhPippine  Awembly  voe  hdd  oa  the  iolh  of  July  igoj, . 
and  ji  Naltonaliiis,  16  PtogtFuists,  33  iDdepeodenu  and  others 
were  etecttd.  The  toul  vole  cast  was  about  100,00a.  In 
many  diilricti  the  \tiiDrudisls'  candidates  prooiised  that  il 
they  were  retuniod  ijnm«iiate  independence  would  loDaw. , 
When  the  Ancmbly  met  it  became  apparent  that  the  great 
rmjority  were  more  aoaious  to  ad  as  a  digni5ed  branch  of  the 
lesulalure  than  to  maialaia  cgnuslency  with  thcli  pre-election 
declarations.  The  legjslalure  convened  for  its  second  sesiioii 
on  the  1st  o[  February  igoQ.  During  this  session  ji  laws  were 
paaed,  o[  wbich  >j  had  been  btroduced  by  the  Cominission 
■nd  «4  by  the  Assemhiy.  Among  the  acts  waa  one  providing 
fai  the  mniinuance  ol  Spanish  as  the  oSdal  language  of  the 
couns  until  iqiy,  an  act  providing  for  baDltruptgr;  and  an 
■ct  filing  the  age  of  majoiily  at  :i  yean. 

f^Dvcmor  Smith  left  the  islands  in  May  1909  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  W.  CanuiDn  Forbo.  On  the  61h  of  August  iQog 
the  Payne  and  Colloa  bills  became  law,  greatly  promoting  trade 
between  the  Islands  and  the  Uiuted  States  (see  OimtHiuiuiUims 
aid  CirmMiriei.  Oa  the  :nd  of  Xovcmber  1909  delegates 
were  dected  for  Jhe  second  Philippine  Ascmbly.         (R  Br.) 

BiBLiociaruv.— See.  in  gentisl,  A.  P.  C,  Griffin,  A  Uil  i,}  Boolu 
am  tiu  Philipjnne  Iilaidi  in  lh€  Library  of  Cmirui  (n'oshinglon. 
190J),  with  refpiencps  to  periodical!;  T.  H.  Fardo  de  Tavcra, 
BMuiUta  fiitM  (ibid.  1901);  W.  E.  Retana.  ilMnile  WUio- 
fifieo  dt  ia  hiitoria  iaieTaJ_  3e  Fili^tKU  {3  vcJs.,  Madrid^  it 


— -  ,.. . ^  FUipincs  {3  «iab.,  vi^miu,  luuu 

.  TtiaeitUbliefiiii^Htnwi  C\fulrid,  1895):  J.  A.  Robenioi 
yptpliy  cS  Ihc  Plnlippi<il  Iliaail  IClpvtIand,  CShjo.  1908).    Fc 

tf  UM   Fkilifpiiu  Iliaif-  ■<.,  Wajhinpoi 

Prtmiuiiaill  CQKBttr  ,  ulimarj  S  ll 

tu  /ilm^  (IVaihiogtoo.  iJ  Sttnry  Publ 


tattottt  or  tne  uepanmcDC  01 
Kiports  of  the  niilippine  Com 
Sir  John  Bowrinl.  A  Villi  le 
■S»)i  D.  C.  WoiceMer,  Tht  i 
([JiwYorli,i»9a)i  F.W.Atkini 
WS);  C,  H.  A,  F.  Linduy.  : 
Anertcan  Rtila  (Philadelphia,  I 
lfUti£nil(Nf«york.l904):   ^ 

ptKa  (Londoa,  189a);   J.  A.  U.._ „. 

CatJUij  (ibid.  19^):  J-  B-  Deviu,  An  Obmi 

«>o«on.  1905);    R,  R.  Uia,  Philippine  IilcM 
.  C.  Potter.  Tki  Eojl  Tit^ty  end  Tt-morr 

Blimtnitntt,   Dii   PlliUppir—    ■" — "■ — 

Omr   PkiKbp--—    ■•--"— 


fanjj  (London. 
■mS  Itrfr  P„fU 
■iland,  (BoMon, 

iiiJor,  riu  Ccnii 

I  and  lit  Plnlip- 

—ft  in  Tinm  nnl 

a  lilt  Pkilippinri 

Willis, 


0;     H.   i 


,,  .  PnHrm.  a  Study  14  Anmiam  Colanal  Falii, 
(New  Vort.  19001  Ediih  Mowl.  Vntfritl  LaUrt  ef  an  OSaal', 
Wijc  lihid,  I908i;  W.  B.  Freer,  7^  PUlippint  Exftrimai  of  a* 
Amrri^an  TatktT  WiA.  1906I;  t.  G.  Scharman,  P*aI*<M /liairi 
(ibid.  1901):  W.  H.  Tatt,  Cmltetnmtm  tn  lla  PhttipptnistiiA. 
190a);  *nASptiiilgiptfiuAcP,c,idtnt»mtluPimppuaQXit\v^ 
iMloo,  1908);  and  R.  C.  McCngor.  Ututal  0/ PkJippint  Birdi 
(New  York.  T909).  For  the  hijtoty  of  the  iihmdt.  teeE  H.  Blair 
and  ].  A.  Robeiiion,  Tki  Pliiiippiiu  laanda.  lam-rSoS  (ss  volj . 
Orrdand,  i»3-1909):  }■  Men,,™  y  Vldai.mua^  ™Ja.  PHi- 
ftn,  (3  voii,  Madnd,  1887-189S);  Juan  de  b  Coneepdon 
(17J4-1787),  Jluloria  tnwral  di  Ptilipimt   (14  voli.,   ManiU 

i78B-ir9j}-    Gaifur  de  San  AauBi     ' .       .    - 

Jsi    iiioJ    PVlipir-    ■-    -■-'       " 


(1    voU,    Valladolid.    1890):    Le    Genii 
I  ifr  riU,  (Pari..  TjSiJrF.  Colin  La*. 


IHKeBrry,  CmguBi/  and  £ariy  Hisury  af  ill  Pk^ppimi  liLmdi 
(Cleveland,  1907):  F.  Combn  (ib»-i66}).  HtiUma  it  Uindamur 
y/o;[!(Madiid.i8oT):  J.  M.  Ci«illoy  Jimenei,  H /Cij«>.M*(d 
filti^iUr,$mo  n  paipinaa  (Madrid,  1*97);  E.  k.  Dclraa*  La  /». 
nifTmuM  it  F-dipinnl  m  igQd  y  iSgy  (1  vok,  Bjmfcna,  1899); 
F.  D.  Millet.  Tkt  EiftdOsen  u  On  Pkiipptna  (Loadon.  1899); 
and  J,  FelUcen*  y  Lipei.  id  Kcrdoduln/a^HU  (Manila,  t»ao). 

PHILIPPOPOLIS  (Bulgarian,  Hotda;  Turkish,  fdVxi,  the 
capital  of  Eaiiem  Rumclia,  and  of  the  depinment  of  Philip- 
popolis,  Bulgaria;  situated  in  the  midst  of  picturesque  granite 
eminences  on  lie  tight  bank  of  the  river  Waiitaa,  96  m,  E.SX. 
of  Sofia  and  57  nt  W.N.W.  of  Adrianople,  Pop,  (1904)  4S,S7i, 
of  whom  a  large  majonty  are  Bulgarian^  and  the  remainder 
chiefly  Twks,  Greeks,  Jews,  Armenians  or  gipsies.  Philip- 
popolis  is  on  the  main  railway  from  Vienna  to  Constantinople, 
via  Belgrade  and  Sofia.  The  Maritaa  is  navigable  up  to  this 
point,  and  as  the  city  has  commUnicatioa  by  nil  both  witb  tbe 
pott  of  Ded(agaicb  on  Ihe  Uediterranean  and  that  of  Buitas 
on  the  BUck  Sea,  and  is  situaied  in  a  remaikably  fertile  country, 
it  has  become  the  chief  commercial  centre  of  southern  Bulgaria, 
and  is  the  scat  of  both  Greek  and  Bulgarian  archhishopi. 
Tbe  residences  of  the  richer  Greeks  and  Bulgarians  occupy  Ibe 
slopes  of  the  largest  eminence,  the  Janboi-tfpi,  in  the  centre 
of  the  city;  between  it  and  the  Nobtel-t<p(,  from  the  summit 
of  which  there  is  a  mignificenl  view  of  the  dty,  is  Ihe  Annenian 
quaiier;  near  the  biidge  over  the  Maiitia  is  the  poorer  Turkish 
CLUarter;  and  souib-wcst  of  the  Jomhat-t^pf  there  is  a  subtirh 
o(  villas.  On  the  Bunari-tfp*  a  monument  has  been. erected 
by  iheRussiansincommemontionof  ihewarof  1877,  and  near 
this  is  the  new  palace  of  the.  king  of  Bulgaria.  The  Sahub- 
(fpi  is  crowned  by  a  dock-tower.  Not  far  from  it  are  the 
beautiful  Eihibiiion " "  -  - 


utheM 


konak  (palace)  of  the.  Turkish  pashas,  the  public  park  foirncd 
by  the  Rui^ans  in  i£77,  the  gymnasium,  and  Ihe  new  Gieek 
cathcdraL  The  dLy  has  a  large  commerce  in  lice,  attar  of  roses, 
and  cocoons;  other  exports  being  wheal,  wine,  tobacco,  alcohol 
and  hides. 

Eumolpia,  a  Thradan  town,  was  captured  by  FhiL'p  o( 
Maccdon  and  made  one  1^  his  ImnJer  pons:  hence  its  name 
of  Mmppopalii,  or  "Philip'a  City,"  Under  the  Romans 
Philoppopolis  or  Trimonllum  became  the  capital  o(  Thracia; 
and,  even. after  its  capture  by  the  Goths,  when  >oo,ooo-personi 
arc  said  to  have  bcni  slain,  it  oiniinued  to  ^  a  Oouiishing 
diy  till  it  was  again  sacked  by  the  Bulgarians  in  1*05.  It 
passed  under  Turkish  rule  in  ijOj;  in  iSiB  ll  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake;  and  in  1S46  JlsuHeicd  froni  ■  Kverc  can< 
flagtaiion.  During  the  war  of  1877-78  tbe  dty  was  occupied 
by  the  Russians  (see  also  Bulcaiia:  Bislory). 

PHIUPPSBOHO,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grsod  duchy  of 
Baden,  situated  on  a  sluggish  arm  of  the  Rhine,  15  m.  N.  ol 
Karlsruhe,  on  the  railway  Bruchsal-(jCniK;rshnm.  Pop.  (190s) 
1615.  It  has  manufactures  of  tobacco  and  cigars,  and  mme 
trade  in  callle  and  bop^  Philippsburg,  formerly  an  impartant 
fortress,  ori^nally  belonged  to  the  ccdesiasliiil  principality 
ol  Spires,  and  was  named  Udenhdm.  In  1338  it  was  surrounded 
with  walls  by  bishop  Gerhard.  A  later  bishop  of  Spins, 
Philipp  Christoph  von  SOletn,  made  the  place  his  residence  early 
in  the  17II1  cenlun'.  slrengthcnedibefortificalions,  and  renamed 
it  Philippsburg  alter  himself.  At  the  pence  of  Westphalia  in 
164S  the  French  remained  In  possesion  of  the  town,  but  in 
1679  il  was  restored  to  Germany,  and  though  again  captured 
by  the  French  in  i583  il  was  once  more  restored  in  1697.  In 
17J4  Ihe  dilapidated  fonrtss  fcD  an  easy  prey  lo  the  Frendi 
under  Marshal  Berwick,  who.  however,  lost  his  He  beneath 
its  walls-  Il  was  rbtored  to  Germany  In  1735,  and  was  a^iia 
besieged  by  Ihe  French  in  1799.  The  town  was  assigned  10 
Baden  in  iSoj. 

See  Nap^  tkiMOn  dm  »»di  nuttpOkrt  (Philimiabnxi  »>t). 


PHILIPPUS,  M.  J.— PHILISTINES 


nnUFPOS.  MARCUS  JULIOS,  RomMi  empeior  ajk  »44 
to  949,  often  odied  "  Philip  the  Arab,"  was  a  native  of  Bostia 
in  Acahk  Tnchonitis.  Havins  entered  the  Roman  anny,  he 
rose  to  be  praetorian  praefect  in  the  Fenian  campaign  of  Gordian 
IIL,  and,  iospiring  the  Mldien  to  slay  the  young  emperor,  was 
raised  by  them  to  the  purple  (344).  Of  his  reign  liule  is  known 
except  that  he  celebrated  the  secular  games  with  great  pomp 
in  34S,  when  Rome  was  supposed  to  have  reached  the  thousandth 
year  of  her  existence.  A  rebellion  broke  out  among  the  legioos 
of  Moesia,  and  Decius»  who  was  sent  to  queU  it,  was  forced  by 
the  troops  to  put  himself  at  their  head  and  march  upon  Italy. 
Philip  was  defeated,  and  slain  In  a  battle  near  Verona.    Accord- 

ing  to  Christian  writers,  be  was  a  convert  to  Christianitv. 

See  Aurelius  Victor,  Cuesares,  28;  Eutropius,  'uu  3;  Zooaias, 
xii.  19. 

PHILIPS,  AHBR06B  (c.  1675-1749),  English  poet,  was  born 
in  Shropshire  of  a  Leicestershire  £amily.    He  was  educated  at 
Shrewsbury  school  and  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellow  in  1699.    He  seems  to  have  lived  chiefly 
at  Cambridge  until  he  resigned  his  fcQowship  in  1708,  and  his 
pastorals  probably  belong  to  this  period.    He  worked  for  Jacob 
Tonson  the  bookseller,  and  his  Pastorals  opened  the  6th  volume 
of  Tonson *s  Miscellanies  ((709),  which  also  contained  the 
pastorals  of  Pope.    Philips  was  a  stanch  Whig,  and  a  friend 
of  Steele  and  Addison.   In  Nos.  aa,  23, 30  and  3a  (1713)  of  the 
Guardian  he  was  injudiciously  praised  as  the  only  worthy  suc- 
cessor of  Spenser.   The  writer  of  the  papers,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Thomas  Tickell,  pointedly  ignored  Pope's  pastorals. 
In  the  Spectator  Addison  applauded  him  for  his  simplicity,  and  for 
having  written  English  eclogues  unencumbered  by  the  machinery 
of  classical  mythology.    Pope's  jealousy  was  roused,  and  he 
sent  an  anonymous  contribution  to  the  Guardian  (No.  40)  hi 
which  he  drew  an  ironical  comparison  between  his  own  and 
Philip's  pastorals,  censuring  himself  and  praising  Philips's  worst 
passages.    Philips  Is  said  to  have  threatened  to  cane  Pope  with 
a  rod  he  kept  hung  up  at  Button's  coffee-house  for  the  purpose. 
It  was  at  Pope's  request  that  Gay  burlesqued  Philips's  pastorals 
in  his  Shepherd's  Week,  but  the  parody  pleased  by  the  very 
quality  of  simplicity  which  It  was  intended  to  ridicule.    Samuel 
Johnson  /lescribes  the  relations  between  Pope  and  Philips  as  a 
"  perpetual    reciprocation    of    malevolence."     Pope  lost    no 
opportunity  of  scoffing  at  Philips,  who  figured  in  the  Bathos 
and  the  Dunciad,  as  Macer  in  the  Characters',  and  In  the  "  In- 
structions to  a  porter  how  to  find  Mr  Curll's  authors  "  he  is  a 
*'  Pindaric  writer  in  red  stockuigs."   In  1718  he  started  a  Whig 
paper.  The  Freethinker,  In  conjunction  with  Hugh  Boulter,  then 
vicar  of  St  Olave's,  Southwark.    He  had  been  made  justice  of 
the  peace  for  Westminster,  and  in  17 17  a  commissioner  for  the 
lottery,  and  when  Boulter  was  made  archbishop  of  Armagh, 
Philips  accompanied  him  as  secretary.    He  sat  in  the  Irhh 
parliaiyient  for  Co.  Armagh,  was  secretary  to  the  lord  chan- 
cellor in  1726,  and  in  1733  became  a  judge  of  the  prerogative 
court.     His  patron  died  in  1743,  and  six  years  hter  Philips 
returned  to  London,  where  he  died  on  the  i8th  of  June  1749. 

His  contemporary  reputation  rested  on  his  pastorab  and 
epistles,  particularly  the  description  of  winter  addressed  by  him 
from  Copenhagen  (1709)  to  the  earl  of  Dorset.  In  T.  H.  Ward's 
English  Poets,  however,  he  is  represented  by  two  of  the  simple 
and  charming  pieces  addressed  to  the  infant  children  of  Lord 
Carteret  and  of  Daniel  Pulteney.  These  were  scoffed  at  by 
Swift  as  "  little  flams  on  Miss  Carteret,"  and  earned  for  Philips 
from  Henry  Carey  the  nickname  of  **  Nambv^Pamby." 

PhUlp^s  works  ore  an  abridgment  of  Bishop  Hacfcct's  Lite  of. 
John  Williams  (1700);  The  ThouMond  atid  One  Days:  Persian  Tales 

, ^ijaa).  from  the  French  of  F.  P6th  de  la  Croix;  three 

playa:  7%r  Dtstrest  Moiker  (i?'^).  en  adaptation  of  Radne's  Andro- 
maqite;  The  Briton  (iTsa);  Httmfrey,  duke  of  Gloueesler  (1733). 
Many  d  his  poems,  which  Included  some  trindtetions  from  Sappho, 
Amicreon  and  Pindar,  were  pablished  separately,  and  a  collected 
edition  appeared  in  1748. 

PHILIPS,  JOHN  (1676-1708),  English  poet  and  man  of  letters, 
son  of  Pr  Stephen  Philips,  archdeacon  of  Shropshire,  was  born 
at  his  lather's  vicarage  at  Baraplon,  Oxfordshire,  on  the  30th  of 
December  1676.    He  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Christ 

XXI  7* 


401 

Church,  Oiford.  HewasacaKfdIreaderefVlrgii  and  of  Milton. 
In  1701  his  poem,  The  Splendid  SkUHng,  was  pubBshed  without 
his  consent,  and  a  second  unauthorized  venion  in  1705  induced 
him  to  print  a  correct  edition  m  that  year.  The  Splendid  SkiUmg, 
which  Addison  in  The  Tmltr  oaUcd  "  the  finest  burlesque  poem 
in  the  British  knguage,**  ledtcs  in  Mlltonic  blank  rent  th6 
miseries  consequent  on  the  want  of  that  pieoe  of  money.  Its 
sooocss  iatndttced  Philips  to  the  notice  of  Robert  Harley  and 
Henry  St  John,  who  commiiwfc>ned  him  to  write  a  Tory  oo«oter> 
blast  to  Joseph  Addiion's  Campaign,  Philips  was  happier  In 
burlesquing  his  favourite  author  than  in  genuine  faniution  of 
a  heroic  theme.  His  MMlborough  is  modelled  on  the  warriors 
of  Homer  aad  Viigil;  he  rides  precipitate  over  heaps  of  fallen 
bones,  changing  the  fortune  of  the  battle  by  his  own  right  arm. 
Cyder  (1708)  is  noddled  on  the  Georgies  of  VlrgiL  Cerealia, 
am  ImUatian  of  MiUoss  (1706),  althouish  prhited  without  hk 
name,  may  safely  be  ascribed  to  him.  In  all  his  poems  except 
Blenheim  he  fonnd  an  oppeitunity  to  insert  a  eulogy  of  tobacco. 
Philips  died  at  Hereford  on  the  1 5th  of  February  1708/9.  There 
is  an  inscription  to  his  memory  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

See  The  Whole  Works  ot .  .  .  John  PhOips  .  .  .  To  whiek  i$ 
pr^ixed  his  kfe,  by  Mr  ICfSeweU  (yd  ed.,  1730);  Johnson.  Lims 
of  the  Poets ;  and  Biographta  Bntaumca, 

PHIUPS,  KATHARIKB  (1631-1664),  English  poet,  daughter 
of  John  Fowler,  a  merchant  of  Bueklosbury,  London,  was  bom 
on  the  ist  of  January  163  r.  Her  father  was  a  Presbyterian, 
and  Katharine  is  said  to  have  read  the  Bible  through  before  ihe 
was  five  yean  old.  On  arriving  at  yean  of  discretion  she  broke 
with  Presbyterian  tndltions  In  both  religion  and  polities, 
became  an  anient  admber  of  the  king  and  his  church  policy, 
and  in  1647  married  James  Philips,  a  Webh  loyalist.  Her 
home  at  the  Priory,  Cardigan,  became  the  centre  of  a  "sodety 
of  friendship,"  the  memben  of  which  were  known  to  one  another 
by  fantastic  names,  Mn  Phih'ps  being  '*  Orinda,"  her  husband 
**  Antenor,"  Sir  Charics  Cottenl  <*  Poliarcfaus.*'  Hie  "  match- 
less "  Orinda,  as  her  admiren  called  her,  posed  as  the  apostle 
of  female  friendship.  That  there  was  mndi  solid  worth  under  her 
affectations  is  proved  by  the  respect  and  friendship  she  inspired. 
Jeremy  Taylor  in  1659  dedicated  to  her  his  "  Discourse  on  the 
Nature,  Offices  and  Measures  of  Friendship,"  and  Cowley,  Henry. 
Vaughan  the  SQurist,  the  earl  of  Roscommon  and  the  earl  ii 
Cork  and  Orrery  all  celebrated  her  talent.  In  t66t  she  went 
to  Dublin  to  punue  her  husband's  claim  to  certain  Irishestatesr 
and  there  she  completed  a  tianalation  of  CoraeiUe's  Fompie, 
produced  with  great  success  in  1663  in  the  Smock  Alley  Theatre, 
and  printed  in  the  same  year  both  in  Dublin  and  London.  She 
went  to  LoBdoo  in  March  1664  with  a  neariy  completed  tnnsla- 
tkm  of  Comeille's  Horace,  but  died  of  smallpox  on  the  sand  el 
June.  The  literaxy  atmosphere  of  her  drde  is  preserved  in  the 
excellent  UtUn  of  Orinda  to  PbUoHkus,  published  by  Bernard 
Lintot  in  1705  and  1709.  "  Poliarchus  "  (Sir  Charics  (>)tterel> 
was  master  d  thecenmonies  at  the  court  of  the  Restoratton,  and 
afterwards  translated  the  romances  of  La  (^alprendde.  Mn 
Phflips  had  two  children,  one  of  whom,  Katharine,  became  the 
wife  of  Lewis  Wogan  of  Boubton,  Pembrokeshire.  According 
to  Mr  Gome,  this  lady  may  have  been  '*  Joan  Philips,"  the 
author  of  a  volume  of  Female  Poems  .  .  .  WHtten  by  BpheKa, 
which  are  in  the  style  of  Orinda,  and  display  genuine  feeling 
with  very  little  resenre. 

See  E.  W.  Gotae,  Seeenteentk  Cenhiry  Studies  (1683).  Poewu, 
By  the  Incomparable  Mrs  JC.  P.  appeared  surreptitioudy  in  1^ 
and  an  authentic  cdkifHi  in  1667.  Selects  Poems,  edited  with  an 
appreciation  by  Miss  L,  I.  Guiney,  appeared  in  1904:  but  the  best 
modern  edition  is  in  Saintabury'a  Minor  Pools  ej  tks  Carolino  Period 
(vol.  L,  1905). 

PRIUSmiES,*  the  general  name  for  the  people  of  Phlfistla 
(Ass.  Palaitu,  PUiUw,  Eg.  ^-r-0,  a  district  embracing  the  rich 
lowlands  on  the  Meditefraneaa  oossi  from  the  neighbourhood 

^ "  Philisdne."  as  a  term  of  contem|>t,  hosdilty  or  reproach, 
appears  first  in  Engltth.  In  a  sense  equivalent  to  "  the  enemy, 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  17th  ccntuiy,  and  later  as  a  slang 
term  for  a  baih'ff  or  a  sheriff's  officer,  or  merely  for  drunken  or 
vkrious  people  generally.    In  German  univerrities  the  townsfolk 


4oa 


PHILISTINES 


of  J»llt  (JoiPfw)  to  tht  EgyptUa  detert  louth  of  Gaza  (on  the 

subsequent  extension  of  the  ntme  in  its  GreelL  form  Palsestina, 
see  Palestine). 

c.  Egyptian  Evidence. — ^The  name  is  derived  from  the  Puxasati, 
one  of  a  great  confederation  from  north  Syria,  Asia  Minor  and 
the  Levant,  which  threatened  Egypt  in  the  XXth  Dynasty.  They 
are  not  among  the  hordes  entmierated  by  Rameses  II.  or  Mer- 
neptah,  but  in  the  eighth  year  of  Rameses  III.  (c.  taoo^x  190)  the 
Pui^sati  hold  a  pronunent  place  in  a  widespread  movement 
on  land  and  sea.  The  Syrian  states  were  overwhelmed  and  the 
advance  upon  Egypt  seemed  inesistible.  Rameses,  however, 
collected  a  large  fleet  and  an  army  of  native  troops  and  mer- 
cenaries and  cUimed  decisive  victories.  The  Egyptian  monu- 
ments dqpict  the  flight  of  the  enemy,  the  heavy  ox'carts  with 
their  women  and  children,  and  the  oonfusion  of  their  ships. 
But  the  sequel  of  the  events  is  not  certain.  Even  if  the  increas- 
ing weakness  of  the  Egyptian  Empire  did  not  invite  a  rqsetition 
of  the  incursion,  it  oouLl  have  allowed  the  survivors  to  settle 
down,  and  about  a  century  later  one  of  the  peoples  formerly 
closely  allied  with  the  Puiasati  is  found  strongly  entrenched 
at  Dor,  and  together  with  the  more  northerly  port  of  Byblos 
treats  with  scant  respect  the  traditional  suzerainty  of  Egypt. ^ 
That  some  definite  political  changes  ensued  in  this  age  have  been 
Infeued  on  other  grounds,  and  the  identiftcatian  of  the  Purasati 
with  the  Philistines  may  permit  the  assumption  that  the  latter 
succeeded  in  occupying  the  district  with  which  they  have  always 
been  associated. 

The  Egyptian  monuments  rq>resent  the  PurssatI  with  a  very 
distinctive  feather  head-^ireBs  resembling  that  of  the  Lyciana 
and  Myoenaeans.  Their  general  physiognomy  is  hardJy  Cilician 
or  Hittite,  but  European.  Their. arms  comprise  two  short 
swords,  a  longer  spear,  a  round  shield,  and  they  sometimes  wear 
a  coat  of  mail;  a  curious  feature  is  their  tactics  of  fighting  in  a 
circle  of  protecting  shields.  The  chariots  resemble  the  Hittite 
with  two  crossed  receptacles  for  the  weapons,  but  obviously 
these  were  not  used  by  the  Purasati  alone.  On  archaeological 
grounds  the  Purssati  have  been  connected  with  the  people  of 
Keftiu,  i.e,  Myoenaeans  of  Crete,  although  a  wider  application 
of  this  term  is  not  to  be  excluded. 

See  further,  G.^Maspero,  Strug^  ^if  the  NaUcns,  po.  461  8q(|.; 
W.  M.  MlUler,  Asien  u.  Europe,  pp.  354  sqq. ;  UitteU.  i.  torderasiat. 
6esa.  pp.  i-4a  (1990).  pp.  113  iqq.  (1904);  H.  R.  Hall.  British 
School  if  Athens,  viii.  157  sqa..  x.  154  sqq.;  Proc,  Sec.  BiU.  Arch. 
xxxi.  (1909)  passim;  R.  WoU,  Rm.  orpMo/..  L  5a  tqq.  (1904): 
R.  Duiiaud,  Ree.  de  Vhist,  des  relig.,  u.  5a  sqo.  (1905).  More  re* 
cendy,  A.  Wiedemann,  Orient,  iit.  ZeiL  (1910),  cola.  49  eqq.  dis* 
putes  thit  identification  of  Kelt  with  Crete. 

a.  History, — Biblical  tradition,  -  too,  has  rsoogntsed  the 
Philistines  as  immigrants  from  Caphtor  (Amos  ix.  7).  They 
appear  in  the  pre-Mosaic  age  (G«u  xxL  3a,  34,  xzvL),  at  the 
&u)dus  of  the  Israelites  iJEx,  xiii.  i7>  xv.  14),  and  the  invasion 
of  Palestine.  They  are  represented  as  a  oonfederatiott  of  five 
cities  (Ashdod,  Ascalon  [Ashkelon],  Eluon,  Gath  and  Gaaa) 
which  remained  unconqutfed  (J<m^u&  ^'  '  Mq**  Judges  iiL  3; 
contrast  Joshua  xv.  45'47f  xix.  43).  The  institution  of  the 
Hebrew  monarchy  («.  1000  b.c.)  follows  upon  periods  of  Phflutine 
oppression  (Judges  ili.  31,  x.  7,  ix,  xiii,  x-5;  see  Samson;  Eu; 
Samubi;  Saul;  David}.    The  subjugatioB  of  them  is  ascribed 

wff  called  by  the  students  PhiUster;  they  were  "  outsidert.**  the 
enemy  of  the  choien  people.  It  is  suppcMcd  that  tins  use  aroae 
in  1693  in  Jena  after  a  "  town  and  gown  "  row  in  which  a  student 
had  been  lolled  and  a  sermon  preached  on  the  text  **  the  Philistines 
be  upon  you.  Samson  "  (see  Qwsrterly  Revieie.  April  1899.  438,  note, 
quoted  in  the  New  Eng^tsh  thctionary).  "  PfuUstine  "  thus  became 
the  name  of  contempt  applied  by  the  cultured  to  those  whom  they 
considered  beneath  tiiem  in  intellect  and  taste,  and  was  first  so 
used  in  English  by  Cariyle,  and  Matthew  Arnold  {Essays  in  Criticism, 
"  Heinrich  Hebe,"  L865)  gave  the  word  its  vogue  and  its  final 
connotation,  as  signifying  "  inaccessible  to  and  impatient  of 
ideas."-{ED.l       "•    ^"*  »~ 

^So  the  Pipyras  tint  poblished  by  W.  GoMiiischeff  {Ree.  de 
IrasatuB,  xxL.  74  sqq.).  on  which  see  A.  Ermaa.  ZeO.  /.  aegypt. 
Shrache,  pp.  1-14X1900):  W.  M.  MQller.  MiUeU.  d.  varderassoL 
CeseU.  pp.  14  sqq.  (19Q0) ;  J.  H.  Breasted.  Hist,  of  Et.  pp.  513  aqq.  *. 
Historical  Ruords,  iv.  274  sqq. :  H.  W.  Hogg,  in  the  Theoiog.  Series  I. 
of  the  publications  of  umveraity  of  Manchester,  p.  90  seq. 


to  Samud  (x  Sam.  vil.  t$),  SWd  (ziv.  47),'*od  David  (a  Sam. 
vuL  x;  for  Solomon  see  i  Kings  x.  ao);  but  they  evidently 
recovered  their  mdependence,  and  we  find  that  twice  within  a 
short  time  the  northern  Israelites  laid  uege  to  Uie  border  fortress 
of  Gibbethon  (x  Kings  xv.  27,  xvi.  15).    Although  this  place 
has  not  been  identified,  it  Is  mentioiied  in  a  list  of  Danite  ckies 
with  Aijabn,  Ekron,  Eltekeh  and  Timnah  (Joshua  xiz.  44,  xxL 
33),  names  of  in^Mrtanoe  for  the  hiaUtry,    Somewhat  later  the 
evidence  becomes  fuller,  and  much  valuable  light  is  tluown  upon 
the  part  which  the  Philistine  coast  played  in  the  political  Instory 
of  Palestine.    Gaaa,  the  most  southerly  and  famous  of  the 
Philistine  towns,  was  the  terminus  of  the  great  caravan-toute 
from  Edom  and  south  Arabia,  with  whose  Bedouin  it  was 
generally  on  good  terms.    It  was  '*  the  outpost  of  Africa,  the 
door  of  Asia  "  (G.  A.  Smith),  the  stepping'Off  point  for  the 
invasion  of  Egypt,  and  the  fortress  which,  next  in  importance 
to  Lachish,  barred  the  maritime  road  to  Phoenicia  and  Syria.* 
It  Is  necessary  to  realize  Gaza*s  position  and  itslinks  with  trading 
centres,  since  conditions  in  the  comparalivety  small  and  half- 
desert  land  of  Judah  depended  essentially  upon  its  relations  with 
the  Edomltes  and  Arabian  tribes  on  the  south-east  and  with 
the  Philistines  on  the  west.'    Jehpshaphat*s  supremacy  over 
Philistines  and  Arabians  (a  Chron.  xvii.  11,  partly  implied  in 
I  Kings  xxii.  47)  is  followed  by  the  revolt  of  Libnah  (near 
Lachi^)  and  Edom  against  his  son  Jehoram  (a  Kings  viiL  30. 23). 
The  book  of  Chronicles  mentions  Philistines  and  Arabians,  and 
knows  of  a  previous  warning  by  a  prophet  of  Mareshah  (east 
of  Lachish;  a  Chron.  xx.  37,  xxi.  z6).    In  like  manner,  the 
conquests  of  Uzriah  over  Edom  and  allied  tribes  (3  Kings  xiv. 
aa,  see  3  Chron.  xxvi.  7)  and  over  Gath,  Ashdod  and  Jabnefa 
(i(>id.  V.  6)  find  their  sequel  in  the  alliance  of  Samaria  and  Damas- 
cus against  Ahaz^  when  Edom  recovered  its  independence  (so  read 
for  *'  Syria  *'  in  a  Kings  xvL  6),  and  the  Philistines  attacked 
Beth-shemesh,  Aijalon,  Timnath,  &c.  (a  Chron.  xxviii.  17  seq.).* 
These  notices  at  least  represent  natural  conditions,  and  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions  now  are  our  authority.    Tiglath-pileser 
IV.  (734  B.c)  marched  down  and  seized  Gaza,  removing  its  gods 
and  goods.   Its  king  Hanun  had  fled  to  Mu$ri,  but  was  pursued 
and  captured;  Ascalon,  Judah  and  Edom  appear  in  a  list  of 
tributaries.    Mu$ri  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Arabian 
Idibi'il  (of  the  desert  district),  but  continued  to  support  anti- 
Assyrian  leagues  (see  Hosusa),  and  again  in  720  (two  years  after 
the  fall  of  Samaria)  was  in  alliance  with  Gaza  and  north  Palestine. 
Assyria  under.  Sargon  defeated  the  southern  confederation  at 
Rapihi  (Raphia  on  the  border  of  Egypt)  and  captured  Hanun; 
the  significance  of  the  victory  is  evident  from  the  submission 
of  the  queen  of  Aribi  (Arabia),  the  Sabaean  Itamara,  and  Mu$ri. 
This  Mu$ri  appears  to  have  been  a  district  outside  the  limits  of 
Egypt  proper,  and  although  tribes  of  the  Delta  may  well  have 
been  concerned,  Its  relations  to  Philistia  agree  with  the  inde- 
pendent  biblical  account  of  the  part  played  previously  by  Edom 
and  Arabian  tribes  (see  MizftADt).    But  the  disturbances  con- 
tinued, and  although  desert  tribes  were  removed  and  settled  in 
Samaria  in  715,  Mu^ri  and  Philistia  were  soon  m  arms  again. 
Ashdod  (see  Isa.  xx.)  and  Gath  were  taken  and  sacked,  the 
people  removed,  and  fresh  colonies  were  introduced.    Judah. 
Edom  and  Moab  were  also  involved,  but  submitted  (7x1  BX.). 
Scarcely  ten  years  passed  and  the  whole  of  Palestine  and  Syiin 
was  again  torn  with  intrigues.     Sennacherib  (Sargon'a  snc- 
cessor  in  705)  marched  to  the  land  of  the  *'  Hittites,"  traversed 

*See  G.  A.  Smith,  HUkCeot,  «f  Hhe  Holy  Land,  dhs.  hu  seq.; 
and  M.  A.  Meyer,  History  of  the  City  e(  Goaa  (New  York,  1907)- 
For  the  traditions  assocaating  Gasa  wrth  Crete,  see  the  latter. 
Index,  s:o.  Minos;  the  resemblance  between  the  Minaeans  of  South 
Arabia- <«nd  Cretan  Minos  has  afforded  grounds  for  aU  Idnda  off 
speculations,  ancient  (Pliny  vi.  157)  and  modern. 

*  Between  the  central  judaeaa  plateau  and  the  latter  lay  the 
"  lowlands  "  (ShephClah),  a  disttia  open  equally  to  Judaeaaa  and 
Philistines  alike. 

*  Cf.  Gasa  and  Edom  against  Judah  in  Amos  L  6,  and,  for  ^e 
part  played  by  Damaacuft,  the  later  vktMitudes  under  the  Nabat- 
aeans  (Joicphas,  Ant.  xiii.  13.  3).  It  is  difficult  to  date  the  altiaace 
of  Syria  and  Philistia  against  Israel  in  Isa.  ix.  11  seq.  (on  the  tcaet. 
sea  the.  commentaries). 


PHILISTINES 


403 


'tike  flOitt  and,  daieeiidliig  from  SkloD,  took  Jafli,  Betk-^hfOB, 

B«Mbcnik,  Ekron  and  Timnah  (ail  in  the  district  aacribcd  to  tlie 

aouthernDaii).  At  Eitekeli(alM  in  Dan)  the  alliea  were  defeated. 

Faitlier  tenth  eame  tlie  turn  of  Aaealon,  Lachith  and  Libnah; 

Jttdah  under  Heaekiah  auffend  aevenly,  and  iu  weetem  cities 

veie  tnmsfefted  to  the  feitlifui  irnsMla  of  Elcioo,  Aslidod  and. 

Gaau    The  fmmfidiate  mbeeqaent  ewenta  are  obacnre  (see 

futher  Hezexub).   In  tlie  7th  oentniy  Oaaa,  Aaoalon,  Aahdod 

and  Eloon  were  Assyrian  vassals,  togetlwr  with  JudaihyMoab 

and  Edom—in  all,  twenty-two  hints  of  the  "  Hittitca  "^-and 

the  discovefy  of  Assyrian  oontnct-tablets  at  Geier  (c  650) 

may  indicate  the  presence  of  Assyrian  garrisona.    But  at  tlie 

As^rian  power  declined  Egyptian  monarchs  fbimed  plaaa  of 

aggrandiiement.     Herodotus  mentions  the  Scythian  invasion 

and  sadt  of  the  temple  of  Aphrodite  Urania  (Astarte)  at  Ascalon, 

also  the  prolonged  siege  of  Aslidod  by  Aammetichus,  and  the 

occupation  of  Kadytis  (?  Gasa)  l>y  Nccho  <i.  105,  iL  157  aqq., 

iii.  5).    But  the  Babylonian  Empire  followed  upon  tnditloiial 

Knes  and  thnist  back  Egypt,  and  Nabonidus  (553  B.a)  claims 

his  vassals  as  far  as  Gasa.    The  Peiaians  took  over  the  realm 

of  their  predenssors,  and  Gasa  grew  in  importance  as  a  seat  of 

international  commerce.    Nehemiah  speaks  not  of  Philistines, 

but  of  Ashdodites  (iv.  7),  speaking  an  *'  Ashdodite  "  dialect 

(zixi.  34);  just  as  Strabo  regards  the  Jews,  the  Idumaeans,  the 

Gasans  and  the  Ashdodltes  as  four  cognate  peoples  having  the 

common  diaracteristic  of  combining  agriculture  with  commeree. 

In  southern  Philistia  at  least,  Arabian  Immigntion  became 

more  pronounced.   In  the  time  of  Chmbyaes  Araba  were  settled 

at  Jenysos  south  of  Gaaa  (Herod,  m.  5),  and  when  Alexander 

marched  upon  Egypt,  Gaaa  with  its  army  of  Araba  and  Pei^ana 

offered  a  strenuous  resbtance.    Recent  discoveries  near  Tdl 

Sandabannah  (or  Mareshah)  have  revealed  the  presence  of 

North  Arabian  (Edomite)  names  about  the  and  century  b.c.* 

On  the  history  of  the  district  see  further  Jews;  Maccabees; 

Palestine. 

3.  PkilisUne  Traditiotur—Tbit  interdependence  of  the  south 
Palestinian  peoples  follows  from  geographical  conditions  which 
are  unchangeable,  and  the  fuller  U^t  thrown  upon  the  last 
decades  of  the  8tb  century  b.c.  illuminates  the  more  fragmentary 
evidence  elsewhere.*    Hence  the  two  sieges  of  the  Philistine 
Gibbethon  by  the  Israelites  (above)  obviously  have  some  signifi- 
cance for  Judaean  history,  but  the  Judaean  annals  unfortunately 
afford  so  help  (see  Asa).    Again,  the  Aramaean  attack  upon 
Israel  by  Hazael  of  Damascus  leads  to  the  capture  of  Gath 
(2  Kings  xH.  17),  and  this,  together  with  the  statement  that  he 
took  "  the  Philistine  "  from  Jehoahas  of  Israel  (ibid.  xiii.  sa, 
Lttdan'a  recension),  bears  upon  Judah,  but  the  statements  are 
iaolat^wfr     Somewhat  later,  the  Assyrian  king  Adad*m'rari  IV. 
claimed   tribute  from  Edom,  PhiUstia  and  Betb-Orori  (the 
Israelite  kingdom);  the  curious  omission  of  Judah  has  suggested 
that  it  was  then  included  with  the  second  or  third  of  these  (see 
Jews,  (  12).    The  Philistines  naturally  had  a  prominent  place 
in  popular  tradition,  and  the  story  of  Isaac  and  the  Fhilbtine 
Abimelech  (Gen.  zxvi.,  cf.  xxL  32)  Is  of  great  interest  for  its 
unbiased    representation  of  intercourse,  enmity,  alliance  and 
covenant.    But  it  is  important  to  notice  that  a  parallel  story 
(juc.)  is  without  this  distinctively  Philistine  background,  and 
tliU   variation  is  significant.     Oat  account  of  the  Israelite 
invasion   conceived  a  conquest  of  earlier  giant  inhabitants 
(AxOLkJoi)  who  survived  in  Gaza,  Gath  and  Ashdod  (Joshua  zL 
SI  seq.,  contrast  xiii.  3),  but  were  driven  out  from  Hebron  by 
Caleb  Goshua  xv.  14,  cf.  Num.  xiit  as,  38).    The  Philistines 
tbemselves  are  called,  the  remnant  of  the  AnSkim  (Jer.  xlvii.  s> 
ao  the  Septuagbt),  or  as  CapbtOilm  replace  the  earlier  Awim 

s  Peters  and  ThierKh.  Poihkd  Tcmb9  in  Ikt  SuropMs  cf  MaHs»a 

•  Tliua.  the  capture  of  Geaer  by  Egypt  (1  Kings  Ix.  16)  was  pre- 
sumably onW  part  of  tome  more  extendve  opftatioBt,  but  their 
fetation  to  SMshak't  great  Psleitine  campaign  Is  nncotain;  see 
A.  Alt,  I  trod  «.  Ae^pUH,  pp.  10-38  (Leiprig,  1909).  It  woaU 
uooafe  to  infer  much  from  the  Eg.  refereoce  to  the  *' 


be  uoL 

My.  meaning  ambiguouB) 

X^  i.  98). 


of  Canaan  and  PhiUstia 


u». 


(Dent,  ft  S3,  see  Joalraa  adiL  3).  SUmid'a  gnat  defeat  of  the 
Philistines  leada  to  *'  peace  between  Israel  and  the  Amtriits  ** 
(i  Sam.  vil.  14);  and  the  migration  of  the  Danites  is  placed  after 
Samson's  conflicts  with  the  PhiKsrinft  (Judps  xviiL  seq.),  or  is 
due  to  the  pressure  of  Amorites  (L  34).  Even  in  David's  fi^its 
with  the  FbiUstines  in  Judah,  Jerusalem  is  Jcbusite,  nei^bour^ 
ing  non-Israelite  cities  are  Hivite  or  Amorite  (Joshua  ix.  7, 
3  Sam.  xxL  s),  and  his  strange  advetnrisa  find  a  dose  parallel  hi 
the  semi-mythical  sons  of  Anak  (s  Sam.  zxL  16,  18,  ao,  as). 
Thia  fluctuation,  due  partly  to  the  different  drdea  in  which  the 
biblical  narratives  took  slmpe,  and  partly  to  definite  rmhaping 
of  the  traditions  of  the  past,  seriously  oomplicatea  all  attempts 
to  eombfaae  the  early  histoiy  ol  Israel  with  the  external  evi- 
denoei  The  history  of  the  Phillstme  district  goes  back  long 
before  the  Ume  of  the  Pursaatl  (c.  laoo  B.a),  and  if  the 
references  to  Philistines  in  pre-Mosaic  times  are  treated  as 
anachronisma,  those  which  can  be  applied  to  the  xstb-xith 
century  do  sot  at  once  acquire  an  historical  valued  Therefe^ 
enceaof  thetimeof  tlieExodaa,tlieInvasfc>nandtlie'*  Judgea  " 
^^hatever  chronological  scheme  be  adopted— must  be  taken 
in  connexioB  with  a  careful  examination  of  all  the  evidence. 
It  is  Inherently  not  improbable  that  a  xeoollectmn  haa  been 
preserved  of  Philistine  oppressions  in  the  xxth  century,  but  it 
is  extremely  diflicult  to  sketch  any  adequate  sequence  of  events, 
and  among  the  conflicting  traditions  are  situations  equally 
applicable  to  kter  periods*  of  hostility.  Biblical  history  haa 
presented  its  own  views  of  the  Israelite  and  Judaean  monarehies; 
Isnd  has  ita  enemies  who  come  pouring  forth  from  the  south 
(i  SsBL  xiii.  17,  tS),  while  the  founder  of  the  Judaean  dynasty 
has  intimate  rdations  with  a  Philistine  king  Achish  (or  AUme- 
ledi,  Pik  xzxiv.),  or,  from  another  point  of  view,  dean  the 
district  of  a  prehistoric  race  of  giants.  In  the  stories  ef  Samson 
and  Samud,  the  Philistines  are  located  in  the  matitimft  plain, 
whereas,  in  the  oldest  traceable  account  of  Saul'srise  (apparently 
shortly  before  1000  b.c.)  they  hold  Israd  (t  Sam.  ix.  x6,  idii.  3  seq., 
7.  xiv.  r,  II,  ai).  But  there  is  no  historical  continuity  b^ween 
the  two  situations,  and  the  Immediate  prelude  to  the  achieve- 
ments of  Saul  and  Jonathan  is  lost.  The  biblical  evidence  doca 
not  favour  any  omtlnued  Philistine  domination  since  the  time 
of  Rameses  in.,  who  indeed,  later  in  his  reign,  made  an  expedi- 
tion, not  against  the  Purasati,  bat  into  Noxth  Syria,  and,  aa 
appears  from  the  P^yyrus  Harris,  restored  Egypthm  supremacy 
over  Palestine  and  Syria.  Upon  the  (incomplete  external 
evidence  and  upon  a  careful  criticism  <rf  the  biWcal  histoiy  of 
this  period,  and  not  upon  any  promiicuoas  combination  <rf  the 
two  sources,  must  depend  the  value  of  the  piauaible  though 
broad  reconstructiens  which  have  been  proposed.^ 

Considenble  stress  is  often  laid  upon  Goliath's  armour  of 
bronse  and  his  iron  weapon,  but  even  David  himself  has  helmet, 
sword  and  coat-of-mail  at  his  disposal  (t  Sam.  JcviL),  and  suits 
of  armour  had  already  been  taken  from  Mesopotamia  by  Teth- 
mosisHL  Chariots  ofironareasctibed  to  the  (3anaanites  (Joshua 
rvii.  16,  x8.  Judges  L  19,  iv.  3);  but  if  eariy  references  to  iron 
are  treated  as  unhistorical  (Gen.  iv.  21^  Num.  xxxi.  aa,xxzv.  x6, 
Deut.  iv.  ao,  viiL  9,  xix.  5,  zxvii.  5,  zxviii.  48,  xxxilL  2%,  Joshua 
vi  19,  24)  Goliath's  iron  spear-bttd  must  be  judged  together 
with  the  whole  narrative  in  the  lii^t  of  a  consistent  historical 
criticism.* 


*The  lahabitaBts  of  Ascalon  bedeged  by  Raaseses  11.  are  repre- 

Btcd  as  Hittkea.  For  an  attempt  to  treat  the  pre-Mo«nc  reCcr- 
eaoes  as  historical,  see  A.  Noordtxij.  DtPiUsHjnen  (Karapen,  1905). 

«See  00  these.  W.  M.  MiUlcr.  ktUkO,  4.  90rdtras$4A  Cts3L 
P>  39  aeq.:  G.  F.  Moore»  £iKy.  3i6.,  art.  "  Philistines,"  coL  37SO 
ieq^  ana  cf.  H.  W.  Hon,  0^.  cfl.  p.  91.  For  the  suggestion  that 
the  "  PhtliBtuMS  "  have  m  cettaan  cases  taken  the  ph^e  of  another 
ethnic  ice  &.  A.  Cook,  Crd.  NcHiu  on  0.  T.  HiUory^  pp.  4^  aeq.. 
127  seq.,  xsx  aeq.,  X36  seq^  144:  d.,  from  another  point  of  view, 
T.  K.  Oieyoe,  Dedimeamd  rati  ofKiH^  cfjpdak  (1908),  pp.  xa.  sqq. 

*  The  introduction  of  iron  has  been  ascribed  to  abmit  looo  B.C. 
(Macdister.  OmtI.  SUOam.  p«  311  |i9QSl«  ^  against  p.  laa  [1904J: 
H.  Vincent.  Canaan  d^aprh  VexpUrotiffn  r^ctnU,  p.  a35  seq.).  It 
need  hardly  be  takl  that  the  height  and  might  of  Gohath  must  be 
rq;arded  in  the  same  way  aa  Num.  sdii.  3a:  Dcut.  ii.  11.  The  man 
of  the  heroic  age  are  giants,  aa  were  the  *Ad  and  Thamnd  to  the 
later  Arabs. 


4^ 


PHILISTUS 


4.  CMKlMdiMu.— >The  Phflittlnes  appear  in  tIie(Md  Tcstanent 
as  a  Setnitie  or  at  least  a  thoroughly  Scmitised  peopk.  Their 
-proper  names  ahow  that  before  and  even  duxing  the  Persian 
age  their  langiiagirs  differed  only  dialectically  from  Hebrew. 
Among  theexoeptions  must  be  reckoned  Adnsh  (Sept.  ^ovs), 
with  which  haa  been  oompaxed  Ikausu,  a  lung  of  Eloon  (7th 
century)  and  the  **Keftian"  name  Akaskau  of  the  XlXth 
Egyptian  dynasty.  Names  in  -atk  (Goliath;  Ahuzzath,  Gen. 
txvL)  are  not  restricted  to  Philistines,  and  Phxool  (ibid.)  is 
too  obscure  to  serve  as  evidence.  The  religion  is  not  novel. 
The  male  god  Dagon  haa  his  partner  Astarte  (qq-v.),  and 
Baal-xd>ub,  a  famous  oracle  of  Ekroo  (a  Kings  L)  finds 
a  parallel  in  the  local  *'baals''  ol  Palestine.^  Even  when 
the  region  seems  to  be  completely  Hellenized  after  the 
Persian  age,  it  »  not  so  certain  that  Greek  culture  pervaded 
all  classes  (see  G.  F.  Moore,  Ency.  Bib,  ooL  S7^)t  although 
a  certain  amount  of  foreign  influence  probably  made  itsdf 
felt  upon  the  coast-towns  at  all  times.  The  use  of  the 
term  d>X60iiXoi  in  Maccabaean  and  later  writings  (ci  the 
oootemptttous  hatred  of  Ben  Sira,  Ecdesiasticus  L  t6,  and  the 
author  of  Jubilees  xziv.  30  sqq.)  ccNrrectly  expresses  the  con- 
ditions of  the  Greek  age  and  the  Maccabaean  wars,  and  naturally 
any  aUusion  to  the  situations  of  many  centuries  previously  is 
quite  unnecessary.  Similarly,  the  biblical  evidence  represents 
the  traditions  in  the  form  whidi  th^  had  reached  in  the  writer's 
time,  the  true  date  of  which  is  often  uncertain.  Antagonism 
betvNsen  Philistines  and  Israelites  was  not  a  persisting  feature, 
and,  although  the  former  are  styled  *'  undrcumdsed  "  (chiefly 
in  the  stories  in  the  book  of  Samud),  the  term  gained  new  force 
when  the  emulsion  of  undrcurndsed  aliens  bom  the  sanctuary 
of  Jerusalem  was  proclaimed  in  the  writings  ascribed  to  Ezekiel 
(ch.aUv.).* 

In  fact  the  question  arises  whether  the  history  of  the  PhOistincs 
is  not  that  of  a  territorial  designation,  rather  than  that  of  the 
lineal  descendants  of  the  Purasati,  who,  if  one  ol  the  peoples 
who  took  part  in  the  events  of  the  XHih  Dynasty,  may  well  have 
bequeathed  their  name.  Hie  Mediterranean  coast-land  was 
always  exposed  to  incursions  of  aliens,  and  when  Carians  appear 
as  toynl  and  temple  guards  at  Jerunlem  (a  Kings  xL  4),  it  is 
sufficient  to  recall  old  Greek  traditions  of  a  Otrian  sea-power 
and  relations  between  PliiUstia  and  Greek  lands.*  Even  the 
presence  of  Cariana  and  limians  in  the  time  of  Psammetichus  I. 
may  be  assumed,  and  whoi  these  are  planted  at  Defneh  it  is 
noteworthy  that  this  is  also  ck)sely  associated  with  a  Jewish 
cdooy  (viz.  Tshpanhes,  Jer.  xliiL  seq.).  Although  the  Purasati 
appear  after  the  r5th-X4th  centuries,  now  illuminated  by  the 
Amama  tablets^  their  own  history  is  perhaps  earlier.*  But  there 
is  no  reason  at  present  to  believe  that  their  entrance  caused  any 
bmk  in  the  archaeological  history.  The  apparently  "  Aegean  " 
influence  which  enters  into  the  general  *'  Amama  "  period  seems 
to  begin  before  the  age  of  the  Amama  tablets  (at  Lschisb),  and 
it  pssses  gradually  into  later  phases  contemporary  with*  the 

>  See  further,  F.  Schwally.  Zeit,  Wissms.  TJuoL  xjodv.  103-108. 
A  few  HelMVw  wo«ds  have  been  recardcd  as  Philistine  loan-words, 
to  notably  pOUgesh.  "  concubine  (raXXojcf,  raXXacIs,  Lat.  ^/^x), 
add  seren  irApajvot)  the  title  applied  to  the  five  lofds  of  the  Philistine 
conrederation;  seren  otherwise  means  "axle,"  and  may  have  been 
amlied  meUphoricaUy  like  the  Anb.koA  (W.  R.  Smith).  On  the 
other  hand,  a  common  or^in  in  Asia  Minor  is  also  possible  for 
these  words. 

*In  the  prophetical  writings  the  PhtUstiaes  are  denounced 
{with  Ammon,  Moab  and  Edom)  for  their  vengcaooe  upon  Judah 
(EiMc.  XXV.  1^17).    With  Tjrre  and  Sidon  thev  are  cooaemned  for 

gundering  Judah,  and  for  lodoapping  its  children  to  sell  to  the 
reeks  (Joel  iii.  4-8;  cf.  Amos  L  6-13;  i  Mace  iiL  41).  They  are 
threatened  with  a  fo^  from  the  north  (Jer.  xxv.  so;  Isa.  xlv.  29-31 ; 
see  ZapRAMiAH).  as  also  is  Phoenicia  (Jer.  xlvii.  s-7^  upon  whom 
they  depend  (a.  Zech.  ix.  3^).  Judah  is  promssod  reprisals 
fZeph.  il.  7;  Obad.  19),  and  a  remnant  of  the  Philistines  may  become 
worarippers  of  Yahweh  (Zech.  ix.  7).  The  historical  backgrounds  of 
these  passages  are  disputed. 

'See  J.  L.  Myres,  Journal  of  HdUnie  5biiMSi  xxvL  84  sqq. 
(1906);  especially  pp.  to8, 127  sqq. 

*Tnis  is  suggested  by  the  recent  diKovery  at  Phaestos  in  Crete 
of  a  disk  with  evidence  for  a  native  script;  see  A.  J.  Evans,  Seripta 
MinM  (psford.  1900),  pp.  aa  sqq.;  E.  Meyer,  StanrngsbmckU  of 
the  Berlin  Academy  for  the  aist  of  October  1909. 


Xsrsdite  monttchy.  There  Is  a.  faidy  conUnuoui  intanocmBB 
with  external  culture  (Cyptjote»  ear^  and  Jate  Greek),  and,  if 
Gath  be  identified  with  Tel  e^r^ifi.  Bliss  and  Macahster,  who 
excavated  it,  found  no  trace  cl  any  interruption  in  its  history. 
Only  at  Geeei^— perhapa  Philtttine,  a  Sam.  v.  as— has  there 
been  found  evidence  for  a  strange  race  with  several  distinctive 
features.  Bricked  vault  tombs  were  discovered  oontsining 
bodies  outstiMched  (not  contracted);  the  deposits  were  of  an 
unusually  fine  character  and  oomprised  silve ,  alabaster  and 
even  iron.  The  culture  aK>ears  to  find  Carian  and  Lydiaa 
parsllels,  and  has  been  ascribed,  provisionally  to  the  i3th:-xoth 
centuries.  So  far,  however»  ol  the  cities  lying  within  or  im- 
mediately exposed  to  Philistine  iofluence,  the  discoveries  at 
Geser  aro  unique.* 

According  to  the  biblical  traditions  the  Philistines  are  the 
remnant  of  Caphtor  (Jer.  xlvii.  4,  Amos  ix.  7),  and  the  CaphtArim 
drove  out  the  abori^nal  Ayva  from  Gaza  and  district,  as  the 
Horiies*and  Rephaim  were  di^^laced  by  Edom  and  Ammon 
(Deut.  it  23).  Thest  Capbtdrlm,  together  with  Ludim  (Lydians) 
and  other  petty  peoples,  apparently  of  the  Delta,  are  onos 
reckoned  to  E^pl  (Gen.  x.  14).*  By  Caphtor  the  Septuagint 
has  sometimes  understood  Cappadocia,  which  indeed  may  be 
valid  for  its  age,  but  the  name  is  to  be  identified  with  the 
Egyptian  K(a)ptar,  which  in  later  Ptolemaic  times  seems  to 
mean  Phoenicia,  althou^  Keftiu  had  had  anbtha  connotatioa. 
The  Cherethites,  associated  with  the  Philistine  district  (i  Sam. 
xxx;  Z4, 16,  Ezck.  xxv.  16,  Zeph.  IL  5  seq.),  are  sometimes  recog- 
nized 1^  the  Septuagint  aa  Cretans,  and,  with  the  Pclethites 
(often  taken  to  be  a  rhyming  form  of  Philistines),  they  form 
part  of  the  royal  body-guard  of  Judaean  kings  (2  Sam.  viiL  xS, 
XV.  x8.  XX.  7, 1  Kings  L  3d,  44;  in  a  Sam.  xx.  23  the  Hebrew  text 
has  Carites).  However  adequate  these  identifications  may 
seem,  the  persistence  of  an  independent  clan  or  tribe  of  Chcre- 
thites-Cretans  to  the  close  of  the  7th  century  would  imply  an 
unbroken  diain  of  nearly  six  himdred  years,  unless,  as  is  in- 
herently moro  probable,  later  immigrations  had  occurred  within 
the  interval.  But  upotf  the  ethnological  relations  either  of  the 
south  Palestinian  coast  or  of  the  Delta  it  would  be  unsafe  to 
dogmatize.  So  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  then,  the  first  mention 
of  the  Philistines  belongs  to  an  age  of  disturbance  and  change 
in  connexion  with  movements  in  Asia  Minor.  Archaeological 
evidence  for  their  influence  has  indeed  been  adduced,'  but  it  is 
certain  that  some  account  must  be  taken  also  of  the  influence 
by  land  from  North  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  The  influences, 
whether  from  the  Levant  or  from  the  north,  were  not  confined 
to  the  age  of  Rameses  HI.  alone,  and  the  biblical  evidence, 
especially,  while  possibly  preserving  some  recollectk>n  of  the 
invasion  of  the  Purasati,  is  in  evtxy  case  late  and  may  be  shaped 
by  later  historical  vicissitudes.  It  is  impossible  that  Palestine 
should  have  remained  untouched  by  the  external  movemenU 
in  connexk>n  with  the  Delta,  the  Levant  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
it  is  possible  that  the  course  of  internal  history  in  the  age  Immedi- 
ately before  and  after  xooo  BX.  ran  upon  lines  different  from 
the  detailed  popular  religious  traditions  which  the  biblical 
historians  have  employ^  (See  further  Paieshne:  SisUry.) 

For  older  studies,  see  F.  Hitrig,  VrtuehkkU  der  PkUisler  (184S). 
with  the  theory  of  the  Pelasnc  origin  of  the  Philistines;  K.  Stark, 
CoMa  u,  d.  pkxtut.  KUste  (1852),  and  (with  special  reference  to  earSer 
theories)  w.  Robertson  Smith's  art.  in  Bncy,  BriL,  9th  ed. 

(SwA.C.) 

PHIUSTUS,  Greek  historian  of  Sicfly,  was  bom  at  Syracuse 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  (433  B.C.).  Be 
was  a  faithful  supporter  of  the  elder  Dionysius,  and  commander 

•See  R.  A.  S.  Macalister,  Qnarterfy  Stat,  of  the  Palestine  Explor. 
Fund,  pp.  319  sqq.  (1905).  PP-  197  "qq-  .(»907).  and  J.  L.  Myna. 
tbkl.  pp.  340  sqq.  (1907).  Oa  the  other  hand,  H.  Thierwa  would 
connect  the  painted  pottery  of  Tel  es^S&fi,  &c.  with  the  PLSistiacs 
(Jakrbuch  d,  Anh.  Inst.  col.  378  sqq.,  Berlin,  1908);  cf.  also  H.  K 
Hall.  Proc.  Soe,  BibL  Ank.  xxxi.  J335. 

*  9.  13  seq.  may  be  a  secondary  addition  "  written  from  apecsaSv 
inrimate  acquaintance  with  the  (later  ?)  Egyptian  geography* 
0.  Skinner,  Genesis^  p.  314). 

'See  D.  G.  Hogarth,  Ionia  and  the  Eut,  pp.  38  seq.  (OsSocd. 
1909) ;  Evans,  Scrtpta  Minoa,  pp.  77  sqq. 


PHILLAUR— PHILLIPS,  A. 


4»5 


of  the  dtadd.  In  386  be  excited  the  jeaioiiay  of  the  tyiant 
by  secretly  marrying  hie  niece,  and  was  sent  into  banishment. 
He  settled  at  Thorii,  but  af torwozda  removed  to  Adria,  where 
he  remained  until  the  death  of  Dionysius  (366).  lie  was  then 
recalled  by  the  srounger  Dionysius,  whom  he  persuaded  to 
dismiss  Plato  and  Dion.  When  Dion  set  sail  from  Zacynthus 
with  the  object  ol  liberating  Syracuse  from  the  tyrannis,  Pbilistus 
was  entrusted  with  the  ooounand  of  the  fleet,  but  he  was  defeated 
and  put  to  death  (356).  Daring  his  stay  at  Adria,  Philistus 
occupied  himself  with  the  composition  of  his  ZaceXixd,  a  history 
of  Sidly  in  eleven  books.  The  first  part  (bks.  L-viL)  comprised 
the  history  of  the  island  from  the  earhcst  times  to  the  capture 
of  Agrigentum  by  the  Carthaginians  (406);  the  second,  the 
history  of  the  elder  and  the  younger  Dionysius  (down  to  363). 
Fh>m  this  point  the  work  was  carried  on  by  Philislus's  fdlow 
countryman  Athanas.  Cicero  (ad,  Q.  Pr.  sL  13),  who  had  a 
high  opinion  of  his  work,  calls  him  the  miniature  Thocydidcs  " 
(puaSlms  Thucydidts)*  He  was  admitted  by  the  Aleiandnan 
oitics  into  the  canon  of  UstoriogTaphers,  and  his  work,  was 
highly  valued  by  Alexander  the  Great. 

See  Diod.  Sic.  xiis.  103.  xiv.  8.  xv.  7,  xvi.  it,  16:  Plutarch,  Dion, 
11-36;  Cicero,  Brutus,  17,  De  oratore,  ii.  13:  Quintillan,  InstU. 
X.  I,  74:  fragment*  and  life  in  C.  W.  Mdller.  Fragmenta  htsloricorum 
graecorum,  vol.  i.  (1841);  C.  Wachsmuth,  Einlettung  tn  das  ^vdtum 
der  alien  Cesckvckle  (tSoO;  E.  A.  Freeman.  Htsiory  0/  Sictij  (1891- 
1894);  A.  Holm.  CtscktcUe  Steiitens  im  AUert.  (1870-1898). 

PHILLAUR*  a  town  of  British  India,  in  JuQundur  district, 
Punjab,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Sutlej,  8  m.  N.  of 
Ludhiana.  Pop.  (1901),  6986.  Founded  by  the  Mogul  emperor 
Shah  Jaban,  it  was  kmg  of  hnportanoe  as  commanding  the 
crossing  of  the  Sutlej.  At  the  Mutiny  in  1857  the  fort  contained 
the  siege  train,  which  was  sent  safdy  to  Delhi;  but  the  sepoy 
regiment  in  the  cantonment  shortly  afterwards  mutinied  and 
escaped.  The  fort  b  now  occupied  by  the  police  training  school 
and  the  central  bureau  of  the  criminal  identification  department. 

PHILUVORB,  SIR  ROBERT  JOSEPH  (1810-1885),  English 
judge,  third  86n  of  s  well-known  ecclesiastical  lawyer,  Dr  Joseph 
Philiimore,  was  bom  at  Whitehall  on  the  5th  of  November  18 10. 
Educated  at  Westminsterand  Christ  Church, Oxford,  where  a  L'fc- 
long  friendship  with  W.  E.  Gladstone  began,  his  first  appointment 
was  to  a  clerkship  in  the  board  of  control,  where  he  remained 
from  1833  to  1835.  Admitted  as  an  advocate  at  Doctors' 
Commons  in  1839,  he  was  caQed  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple 
in  184 1,  and  rose  very  rapidly  in  his  profession.  He  was  engaged 
as  couiusel  in  almost  every  case  of  importance  that  came  before 
the  admiralty,  probate  or  divorce  courts,  and  became  success- 
ively master  of  faculties,  commissary  of  the  deans  and  chapters 
of  St  Paul's  and  Westminster,  official  of  the  archdeaconries  of 
Middlesex  and  London,and  chancellor  of  the  dioceses  of  Chichester 
and  Salisbury.  In  1853  he  entered  parliament  as  member  for 
Tavistock.  A  moderate  in  politics,  his  energies  were  devoted 
to  non-party  measures,  and  in  1854  he  introduced  the  bill  for 
allowing  vi^  voce  evidence  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  He  sat 
for  Tavistock  until  1857,  when  he  offered  himself  as  a  candidate 
for  Coventry,  but  was  defeated.  He  was  appointed  judge  of 
the  Cinque  Ports  in  1855,  Queen's  Counsel  in  1858,  and  advocate- 
general  in  admiralty  in  1862,  and  succeeded  Dr  Stephen  Lushing- 
ton  (1782-1873)  as  judge  of  the  court  of  arches  five  years  later. 
Here  his  care,  patience  and  courtesy,  combined  with  unusual 
lucidity  of  expression,  won  general  respect.  In  1875,  In  accordance 
with  the  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act,  he  resigned,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Lord  Penxanoe.  When  the  Judicature  Act  came 
into  force  the  powers  of  the  admiralty  court  were  transferred 
to  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  and  Sir  Robert  Philiimore  was 
thervfore  the  last  judge  of  the  historic  court  of  the  lord  high 
admiral  of  England.  He  continued  to  sit  as  judge  for  the  new 
admiralty,  probate  and  divorce  division  until  1883,  when  he 
resigned.  He  wrote  EccUsiastieal  Law  iff  ike  Church  of  Ettjsfand, 
a  book  which  still  holds  its  ground,  CommentarUs  on  International 
Law,  and  a  translation  of  Lessing's  Laoeoon.  He  married,  in 
1844,  Charlotte  Anne,  daughter  of  John  Denison  of  Ossington 
Hall,  Newark.  He  was  knighted  in  i863«  and  created  a  baronet 
In   x88x.    He  died  at  Shiplake,  near  Henley-dn*Thames,  on 


the  4tb  of  Fdmiaiy  188$.  Hk  ddcsi  son.  Sir  Waller  G  F. 
Philiimore  (ik  1845),  also  distinguished  as  an  authority  on 
ecdesiastical  and  admiralty  law,  became  m  1897  a  judige  of 
the  high  courL 

PHILLIP,  JOHN  (18x7-1867),  Scottish  painter,  was  bom  at 
Aberdeen,  Scotlsnd,  on  the  19th  of  April  18x7.  His  father,  an 
old  soldier,  was  in  humble  circumstances,  and  the  ion  became 
an  errand-boy  to  a  tinsmith,  and  was  then  apprenticed  to  a 
painter  and  glazier.  Having  received  some  technical  Instruction 
from  a  local  artist  named  William  Mercer,  he  be0ui,  at  the  age 
of  about  fifteen,  to. paint  portraits.  In  ^834  he  niade  a  vety 
brief  visit  to  London.  About  this  tiote  he  became  assistant  to 
James  Forbes,  an  Aberdeen  portrait-painter.  He  bad  already 
gained  a  valuable  flatron.  Having  been  sent  to  repair  a  window 
in  the  house  of  Major  P.  L.  Gordon,  his  interest  in  the  works  of 
art  in  the  bouse  attracted  the  attention  of  their  owner.  Gordon 
brought  the  young  artist  under  the  notice  of  Lord  Panmure, 
who  in  1836  sent  him  to  London,  promising  to  bear  the  cost  of 
his  art  education.  At  first  Phillip  was  placed  under  T.  M.  Joy, 
but  he  soon  entered  the  scho(^  of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1830 
he  figured  for  the  first  time  in  the  royal  academy  exhibition  with 
a  portrait  and  a  landscape,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was 
represented  by  a  more  ambitious  figure*picture  of  *'  Tasso  in 
Disguise  relating  his  Persecutions  to  his  Sister."  For  the  next 
ten  years  he  supported  himself  mainly  by  portraiture  and  by 
painting  subjects  of  national  incident,  such  as  **  Presbyterian 
Catechizing,"  "Baptism  in  Scotland,"  and  the  "Spaewifc." 
His  productions  at  this  period,  as  well  as  his  earlier  subject- 
pictures,  are  reminiscent  of  the  practice  and  methods  of  Wilkie 
and  the  Scottish  genre-painters  of  his  time.  In  1851  his  health 
showed  ti!gni  of  delicacy,  and  he  went  to  Spain  in  search  of  a 
warmer  climate.  He  was  brought  face  to  face  for  the  first  time 
with  the  brilliant  sunshine  and  the  splendid  -colour  of  the  south, 
and  it  was  in  coping  with  these  that  he  first  manifested  his 
artistic  individuality  and  finally  displayed  his  full  powers.  In 
the  "  Letter-writer  of  Seville  "  (1854),  commissioned  by  Queen 
Victoria  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  the  artist  is 
struggling  with  new  difBculties  in  the  portrayal  of  Unwonted 
splendours  of  colour  and  light.  In  1857  Phillip  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1859  a  full  member.  In 
1855  and  in  i860  further  visits  to  Spain  were  made,  and  in  eadi 
case  the  painter  returned  with  fresh  materials  to  be  embodied 
with  increasing  power  and  subtlety  in  the  long  scries  of  works 
which  won  for  him  the  title  of  "  Spanish  Phillip.*'  His  highest 
point  of  execution  is  probably  reached  in  "  La  Gloria  "  (1864) 
and  a  smaller  single-figure  painting  of  the  same  period  entitled 
"  El  Cigarillo."  These  Spanish  subjects  were  varied  in  i860 
by  a  rendering  of  the  marriage  of  the  princess  royal  with  the 
crown  prince  of  Prussia,  executed  by  command  of  the  queen, 
and  in  1863  by  a  picture  of  the  House  of  Commons.  During  his 
last  viat  to  Spain  Phillip  occupied  himself  !n  a  careful  study  ol 
the  art  of  Velazquez,  and  the  copies  which  he  made  fetched  laige 
prices  after  his  death,  examples  having  been  secured  by  the  royal 
and  the  royal  Scottish  academies.  The  year  before  his  death  he 
visited  Italy  and  devoted  attention  to  the  works  of  Titian.  The 
results  of  this  study  of  the  old  masters  are  visible  in  such  works 
as  "  La  Lotcria  Nadonal, "  left  uncompleted  at  bis  death.  During 
this  period  he  resided  much  in  the  Highlands,  and  seemed  to  be 
returning  to  his  first  love  for  Scottish  subjects,  painting  several 
national  scenes,  and  planning  others  that  were  never  completed, 
lie  died  in  London  on  the  37th  of  February  1867. 

His  works  weie  collected  in  the  International  Exhibition  of 
1873,  and  many  of  them  are  engraved  by  T.  Oldham  Barlow.    In 

addition  t'  ""^ ''^'^ ' — "* '^"'  ^^^  '-••—- 

the  more 

"  El  Pasco 

(1855).  "  A  Gipsy  Water-carrier  in  Seville  "  (1855).  "  The  Prayer 

of  Faith  shall  save  the  Sick  "  (1856).  "  Tbc  Dying  Contrabandist  " 

(1856).  "The  Prison  Window^' /i 857).  "  A  Hufl^*  (1859).  "  Early 

Career  of  Murillo  "  (1865),  "  A  Chat  round  the  Brasero  "^  (1866). 

PHILLIPS,  ADELAIDE  (1833-1882),  Anericait  contralto 
singer,  was  bom  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  EngUnd,  her  family 
emigrating  to  Amexka  in  x84a    Her  inothcK  taught  dancing. 


4o6 


PHILLIPS,  E.— PHILLIPS,  S. 


ind  Adebide  began  a  career  on  the  Boston  stage  at  ten  yean 
old.  Bat  in  1850  her  ulent  for  singing  became  evident,  and 
through  Jenny  Lind  and  othen  ^e  was  sent  to  London  and  to 
Italy  to  study.  In  i8ss  she  returned  to  America  an  accom- 
plished vocalbt,  and  Cor  many  years  she  was  the  leading 
American  contralto,  equally  successful  in  oratorio  and  on  the 
concert  platform.  She  died  at  Carbbad  on  the  3rd  of  Octobo* 
1882, 

PHILUP8,  EDWARD  (1630-1696),  English  author,  son  of 
Edward  Phillips  of  the  crown  office  in  chancery,  and  his  wife 
Anne,  only  sister  of  John  Milton,  the  poet,  was  bom  in  August 
1630  in  the  Strand,  London.  His  father  died  in  1631,  and  Anne 
Phillips  eventually  married  her  husband's  successor  in  the  crown 
office,  Thomas  Agar.  Edward  Phillips  and  his  younger  brother, 
John,  were  educated  by  Milton.  Edward  entered  Magdalen 
Hall,  Oxford,  in  November  1650,  but  left  the  university  in  165 1 
to  be  a  bookseller's  clerk  in  London.  Although  he  entirely 
differed  from  Milton  in  his  religious  and  political  views,  and 
seems,  to  judge  from  the  free  character  of  his  Mysteries  of  Lave 
and  Eloquence  (1658),  to  have  undergone  a  certain  revulsion 
from  his  Puritan  upbringing,  he  remained  on  affcaionate  terms 
with  his  uncle  to  the  end.  He  was  tutor  to  the  son  of  John 
Evelyn,  the  diarist,  from  1663  to  1672  at  Sayes  Court,  near 
Deptford,  and  in  1677-1679  in  the  family  of  Henry  Bennet, 
earl  of  Arlington.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown  but  his 
last  book  is  dated  1696. 

Hu  most  important  work  is  Tkeatrum' poetarum  (1675),  a  list  of 
the  chief  poets  of  all  a^  and  countries,  but  principally  of  the  English 
poets,  with  short  critical  notes  and  a  prefatory  Utscourse  of  the 
Poets  and  Poetry,  which  has  usually  been  traced  to  M ikon's  hand. 
He  also  wrote  A  New  World  m  Words,  or  a  General  Duitonary 
(1658).  which  went  through  nuny  edition*,  a  new  edition  of  Baker's 
Chronule,  of  whkh  the  section  on  the  period  from  1650  to  16^8  was 
written  by  himself,  from  the  royalist  standpoint;  a  supplement 
(1676}  to  John  Speed's  Theatre  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  1684 
Enchirtdion  linguae  lattnae,  said  to  have  been  taken  chiefly  from 
notes  prepared  by  Milton.  Aubrey  states  that  all  Milton's  papers 
came  mto  Phillips's  hands,  and  in  1694  he  published  a  translation 
of  his  Letters  of  State  with  a  valuable  memoir 

His  brother,  John  Phillips  (1631-1706),  in  1652  published 
a  Latin  reply  to  the  anonymous  attack  on  Alilion  entitled  Fro 
Regt  €i  faopulo  angficano.  He  appears  to  have  acted  as  un- 
official secretary  to  Milton,  but,  disappointed  of  regular  political 
employment,  and  chafing  against  the  discipline  he  was  under, 
he  published  in  1655  a  bitter  attack  on  Puritanism  entitled  a 
Satyr  agfiinst  Hypocrites  (165s).  In  1656  he  was  summoned 
before  the  privy  council  for  his  share  in  a  book  of  licentious 
poems.  Sportive  Wit,  which  was  suppressed  by  the  authorities 
but  almost  immediately  replaced  by  a  similar  collection,  Wit 
and  Drollery,  In  Montelion  (1660)  he  ridiculed  the  astrological 
almanacs  of  William  Lilly.  Two  other  skits  of  this  name,  in 
1661  and  1662,  also  full  of  course  royalist  wit,  were  probably  by 
another  hand.  In  1678  he  supported  (he  agitation  of  Titus  Gates, 
writing  on  his  behalf,  says  Wood,  "  many  lies  and  villanies." 
Dr  Ootes*s  Narrative  of  the  Popish  Plot  indicated  was  the  ^rst 
of  these  tracts.  He  began  a  monthly  historical  review  in  1688 
entitled  Modern  Hi^ory  or  a  Monthly  Account  of  all  considerable 
OccurrenceSf  Civil,  Ecclesiastical  and  M Hilary, (oUovted  in  1690  by 
The  Present  State  of  Europe,  or  a  Historical  and  Political  Mercury, 
which  was  supplemented  by  a  preliminary  volume  giving  a 
history  <^  events  from  1688.  He  executed  many  translations 
from  the  French,  and  a  version  (1687)  of  Don  Quixote, 

An  extended,  but  by  no  means  friendly,  account  of  the  brothers 
is  given  by  Wood,  Alhen.  oxon.  (ed.  Bliss,  iv.  764  seq.).  where  a 
long  list  of  their  works  is  dealt  with.  This  formed  the  basis  of 
WiHiam  Godwin's  Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Phillips  (1815).  with 
which  is  reprinted  Edward  Phillips's  Life  of  John  Milton. 

PHILUPS.  JOHN  (1800-X874),  English  geologist,  was  bom 
on  the  25th  of  December  t8oo  at  Marden  in  Wiltshire.  His 
father  belonged  to  an  old  Welsh  family,  but  settled  in  England 
as  an  officer  of  excise  and  married  the  sister  of  William  Smith, 
the  "  Father  of  English  Geology."  Both  parents  dying  when 
be  was  a  child,  Phillips  came  under  the  charge  of  his  uncle;  and 
after  being  educated  at  vaxioos  schools,  he  accompanied  Smith  on 
Ua  wmadeviags  in  ooHBczion  with  his  geological  aupa.    In  the 


spring  of  1814  Smhli  vent  to  Yoik  to  deliver  a  ooiiiie  ol  kctans 
on  geology,  and  his  nephew  acoompamed  him.  Phillips  accepted 
engagements  in  tbe  principal  Yorkshire  towns  to  arcuge  their 
museums  and  give  ooucses  of  lectures  on  thecoUectaons  «>«*«t»wt 
therein.  York  became  his  residence,  where  lie  obtained,  io 
1825,  the  iitnation  of  keeper  of  the  Yorfcshiie  museua  and 
secretary  of  the  Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society.  From  that 
centre  he  extended  his  operations  to  towns  beyond  the  oounty; 
and  in  1831  he  included  University  College,  London,  in  the  sphere 
of  his  activity.  In  that  year  the  British  Asaodation  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  was  foimded  at  York,  and  Phillips  was 
one  of  the  active  minds  who  oxganiaed  its  machinery.  He 
became  in  1833  the  first  assistant  secretary,  a  post  which  he  held 
until  1859.  In  1834  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  geok^ 
at  King's  College,  London,  but  retained  his  post  at  Yorit.  In 
1834  he  was  elected  F.R.S.;  in  later  years  he  received  hon. 
degrees  of  LL.D.  from  Dublin  and  Cambridge,  and  D.CX.  from 
Oxford;  while  in  1845  he  was  awarded  the  Wdlaston  Medal  by 
the  Ceotogical  Society  of  London.  In  1840  he  resigned  his  charge 
of  the  York  museum  and  was  appointed  on  tbe  staff  of  the 
geological  survey  of  Great  Britain  under  De  la  Beche.  He  spent 
some  time  in  studying  the  Pahieosoic  fossils  of  Devon,  Cornwall 
and  West  Somerset,  of  which  he  published  a  descriptive  memoir 
(1841);  and  he  made  a  detailed  survey  of  the  region  of  tbe 
Malvern  Hills,  of  which  he  prepared  the  elaborate  account  that 
appears  m  vol.  ii.  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Survey  (1848).  In  1844  he 
became  professor  of  geology  In  the  university  of  Dublin.  Nine 
years  later,  on  the  death  of  H.  E.  Strickland,  who  had  acted  as 
substitute  for  Dean  Buckland  in  the  readenhip  of  feology  in 
the  university  of  Oxford,  Phillips  succeeded  to  the  post  of  d^Nity, 
and  at  the  dean's  death  in  1856  became  himself  reader,  a  post 
which  he  held  to  the  time  of  his  death.  During  his  revdence 
in  Oxford  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the  foundation  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  new  museum  erected  in  1859  (see  his  Notices  of  Rocks 
and  Fossils  in  the  University  Museum,  1863;  and  The  Otford 
Museum,  by  H.  W.  Acland  and  J.  Ruskin,  1859;  reprinted  with 
addiiMns  1893).  Phillips  was  also  keqper  of  the  Ashmokan 
museum  from  1854-1870.  In  1859-1860  he  was  president  of 
the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and  in  1865  president  of  the 
British  Association.  He  dined  at  All  Souls  College  on  the  a3rd 
of  April  1874,  but  on  leaving  he  slipped  and  fell  down  a  flight 
of  stone  stairs,  and  died  on  the  following  day. 

From  the  time  he  wrote  his  first  paper  '*  On  the  Directkm  of  the 
Diluvial  Currcnu  in  Yorkshire  "  (1827),  down  to  the  last  days  of 
his  life.  Phillips  continued  a  constant  contributor  to  the  literature 
of  science.  The  pa^cs  of  the  Philosophical  Magasine,  the  Jowuyud 
of  the  Geolo^ual  Society,  the  Ceologtcat  Magasine  and  other  pubises 
ttons  contain  valuable  essays  by  him.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  numerous  separate  works,  which  were  of  great  benefit  in  exxciwl- 
ing  a  sound  knowledge  of  geology.  Among  these  may  be  specially 
mentioned :  JlluUrations  of  the  Geology  of  Yorkshire  (in  two  parts.  t8^ 
and  1836;  3nd  cd.  of  pt.  i  in  1835.  ^m  ed.,  edited  by  R.  Etheridge; 
in  1875);  A  Treatise  on  Geology  (1837^1839):  Memoirs  of  Witiiam 
Smuh  (1844):  The  Raen,  Mountaixs  and  Sea-Coast  ^  Yorktkin 
(1851):  Manual  of  Geology,  Practical  and  Theoretical  (1855);  L4fe 
on  the  Earth;  its  Onetn  and  Succession  (i860):  Vesuvius  (1869): 
Geology  of  Oxford  and  the  Valley  of  the  Thames  (1871).  To  these 
should  be  added  his  Monograph  of  BrUtsh  Betemnitidao  (i860. 


for  the  Paloeontoffraphical  Sodcty,^and  his  geological  map  of 
British  Isles  (1847). 
See  Biographical  Memoir,  with  portrait,  in  Geol.  Mag.  (July  1870). 

PHILUPS,  SAMUEL  (1814-1854),  EngUsh  journalist,  the  son 
of  a  Jewish  tradesman  In  London,  was  bom  on  tbe  s8ili  «f 
December  1814.  He  was  educated  at  University  College. 
London,  and  then  at  GOttingen.  Having  renoiwccd  the  Jewisk 
faith,  he  returned  to  En^nd  and  entered  Sidney  Sussex  (>>llcse, 
Cambridge,  with  the  design  of  taking  orders.  His  father's  death, 
however,  prevented  this,  and  in  184 1  he  took  to  Utenxy  v<»k. 
He  wrote  a  novel,  Caleb  Stubely  (i86s),  and  ether  tak%,  nad 
about  1845  began  a  connexion  with  The  Times  as  literary 
In  the  following  year  he  purchased  the  John  Bull 
and  edited  it  for  a  year.  Two  vohimes  of  his  Essays  ffm  The 
Times  appeared  in  185a  and  1854  Phillips  took  an  active  pan 
in  the  formation  of  the  Crystal  Palace  Company,  and  wvote 
their  deitriptive  guides.    In  1851  the  univenity  of 


PHILLIPS,  S.—PHILLIPS,  WENDELL 


407 


conferred  upon  liim  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.    He  died 
at  Brighton  on  the  14th  of  October  1854. 

FHUXIPS*  STEPHBH  (z86fr-  ),  British  poet  and  dramattst, 
was  bom  on  the  aSth  of  July  1868  at  Somertown  near  Oxford, 
the  son  of  the  Rev.  Stephen  Phillipe,  precentor  of  Peterborough 
Cathedral  He  was  educated  at  Stratford  and  Peterborough 
Gnmmar  Schools,  and  entered  Queen's  CoQege,  Cambridge; 
but  during  his  first  term  at  Caznbridge,  when  F.  R.  Benson's 
dramatic  company  visited  the  town,  he  joined  it,  and  lor  six 
ycaxB  played  various  small  parts.  In  1890  a  slender  vohime  of 
verse  was  published  at  Oxford  with  the  title  Primaverat  which 
contained  contributions  by  him  and  by  his  cousin  Laurence 
BinyoD  and  others.  In  1894  be  published  EnmuSt  a  long  poem 
of  loose  structuie  in  blank  verse  of  a  philosophical  complexion. 
In  1896  appeared  Christ  in  Hades,  forming  with  a  tpw  other 
short  pieces  one  of  the  slim  paper*covered  volumes  of  Elkin 
Mathews's  "ShOling  Garland."  This  poem  arrested  the  at- 
tention of  watchful  critics  of  poetry,  and  when  it  was  foUowed 
by  a  colleaion  of  Poems  in  1897  the  writer's  position  as  a  new 
poet  of  exceptional  gifts  was  generaDy  recognized-  This  volume 
contained  a  new  edition  of  "  Christ  in  Hades,"  together  with 
"  Marpessa,"  "  The  Woman  with  the  Dead  Soul,"  "  The  Wife  " 
and  shorter  pieces,  including  the  fine  lines  "  To  Milton,  Blind." 
The  volume  won  the  prize  of  £100  offered  by  the  Academy  news- 
paper for  the  but  new  book  of  its  year,  ran  through  half  a  dozen 
editions  in  two  years,  and  established  Mr  Phillips's  rank  as  poet, 
which  was  sustained  by  the  publication  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 
in  1898  of  his  poem  "  Endymion."  George  Alexander,  the 
actor-manager,  mov<^  perhaps  by  a  certain  clamour  among  the 
critics  for  a  literary  drama,  then  commissioned  Mr  Phillips  to 
write  him  a  play,  the  result  being  Paolo  and  Francesco  (1900), 
a  drama  founded  on  Dante's  famous  episode.  Encouraged  by 
the  great  success  of  the  drama  in  its  literary  fotm,  Mr  Alexander 
produced  the  piece  at  the  St  James's  Theatre  in  the  course  of 
1901.  In  the  meantime,  Mr  Phillips's  next  play,  Herod:  a 
Tragedy t  had  been  produced  by  Beerbohm  Tree  on  the  31st  of 
October  1900,  and  was  published  as  a  book  in  1901;  Ulysses,  also 
produced  by  Beerbohm  Tree,  was  published  in  1902;  The  Sin  of 
David,  a  drama  on  the  story  of  David  and  Bathsheba,  translated 
into  the  times  and  terms  of  Cromwellian  England,  was  published 
In  X904;  and  Nero,  produced  by  Beerbohm  Tree,  was  published 
in  1906.  In  these  plays  the  poet's  avowed  aim  was,  instead  of 
attempting  to  revive  the  method  of  Shakespeare  and  the  Elica^ 
betbans,  to  revitalize  the  method  of  Greek  drama.  Paolo  and 
Prancesea  (which  admitted  certainly  one  scene  on  an  Eb'zabethan 
model)  was  the  most  successful,  the  subject  being  best  adapted 
to  the  lyrical  cast  of  Mr  PhiUlps's  poetical  temperament;  but  all 
contained  fine  poetty,  skilfully  stage-managed  by  a  writer  who 
had  practical  experience  of  stage  craft. 

See  the  section  on  Stephen  Phillips  in  Poets  of  the  Younger  Genera- 
tion, by  William  Archer  (1902) ;  also  the  articles  on  "  TraEcdv  and 
Mr  Stephen  Phillips,"  by  William  Wat«m,  in  the  PortnitkUy  Review 
(Mareh  1898);  "  The  Poetry  of  Mr  Stephen  Phillips."  in  the  Edin. 
burgk  Review  (January  1900);  "  Mr  Stephen  Phillips."  in  the  Century 
(January  1901),  by  Edmund  Cossc;  and  "  Mr  Stephen  Phillips, 
in  the  QuarteHy  Ranew  (April  1902).  by  Arthur  Symons. 

For  bibliography  up  to  July  1903,  see  English  luustraied  Magflzine 
new  series,  voL  xxix.  p.  443. 

PHILUPS.  THOMAS  (1770^x845),  English  portrait  and 
subject  painter,  was  bom  at  Dudley  in  Warwickshire  on  the 
18th  of  October  1770.  Having  acquired  the  art  of  glass- 
painting  at  Birmingham  he  visited  London  in  1790  with  an 
introduction  to  Benjamin  West,  who  found  him  employment 
on  the  windows  in  St  George's  Chapel  at  Windsor.  In  1792 
Phillips  painted  a  view  of  Windsor  Castle,  and  in  the  next  two 
years  he  exhibited  the  "  Death  of  Talbot,  Eari  of  Shrewsbury, 
at  the  Battle  of  CastiDon,**  "  Ruth  and  Naomi,"  "  Elijah  re- 
storing the  Widow's  Son,"  "  (>ipid  disarmed  by  Euphrosync," 
and  other  pictures.  After  1796,  however,  he  mainly  con- 
fined himself  to  portrait-painting.  It  was  not  long  before 
he  became  the  chosen  painter  of  men  of  genius  and  talent, 
notwithstanding  the  rivalry  of  Hoppner,  Owen,  Jackson  and 
tawrence;  and  he  left  behind  portraits  of  nearly  all  the  ilha- 1 


trious  characters  of  his  day.  In  1804  he  was  elected  associate 
and  in  x8o8  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1824  PhiUips 
succeeded  Fuseli  as  professor  of  painting  to  the  Royal  Academy, 
an  office  which  he  held  till  1832.  During  this  period  he  de- 
livered ten  Lectures  on  the  History  and  Principles  of  Painting, 
which  were  published  in  1833.    He  died  on  the  soth  of  April 

1845. 

PHILUPS,  WENDELL  (x8i  1-1864),  American  orator  and 
reformer,  was  bom  in  Boston  on  the  29th  of  November  x8xi. 
His  father,  John  Phillips  (x 770-1823),  a  man  of  wealth 
and  influence,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  X788,  and 
-became  successively  "  town  advocate  and  public  prosecutor," 
and  in  1822  first  mayor  of  Boston,  then  recently  made  into  a  dty, 
Wendell  Phillips  Idmself  attended  the  public  Latin  school, 
entered  Harvard  College  before  he  was  sixteen,  and  graduated 
in  X83X  in  the  same  class  with  the  historian  John  Lolhrop 
Moth^.  He  graduated  at  the  Harvard  law  school  in  X834, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston.  He  soon  came  under 
the  influence  of  the  anti-slavery  movement,  witnessing  in  1835 
the  mobbing,  in  Boston,  of  William  Uoyd  Oairison.  On  the 
8th  of  December  X837  a  meeting  was  held  at  Faneuil  Hall  to 
express  the  sentiments  of  the  people  on  the  murder  of  Elijah  P. 
Lovejoy,  at  Alton,  Illinois,  for  defending  his  press  from  a  pro- 
slavery,  mob.  In  the  course  ei  the  meeting  a  speech  was  made 
in  opposition  to  its  general  current  by  James  T.  Austin  (1784- 
1870),  attorney-general  of  the  state,  who  said  that  Lovejoy 
had  died  "  as  the  fool  dieth,"  and  compared  his  murderers  to 
the  men  who  threw  the  tea  into  Boston  harbour  just  before  the 
War  of  Independence.  The  speech  seemed  likely  to  divide  the 
audience,  when  Wendell  Phillips  took  the  platform.  *'  When 
I  heard,"  he  said,  '*  the  gentleman  lay  down  principles  which 
placed  the  murderers  of  Alton  side  by  side  with  Otis  and  Han- 
cock, with  Quincy  and  Adams,  I  thought  these  pictured  lips 
(pointing  to  their  portraits)  would  have  broken  into  voice  to 
rebuke  the  recreant  American,  the  slanderer  of  the  dead."  This 
appeal  not  merely  determined  the  sentiment  of  the  meeting, 
it  gave  Wendell  Phillips  his  first  fame  and  determined  his 
career.  Although  loving  his  profession,  and  this  especially 
for  the  opem'ng  it  gave  in  the  direction  0^  public  life,  he  prac- 
tically stepped  outside  the  sphere  dearest  to  young  Americans^ 
and  Uved  henceforth  the  life  of  an  agitator,  or,  like  his  father, 
that  of  a  "public  prosecutor."  Accepting  unhesitatingly  the 
leadership  of  Garrison,  and  becoming  like  him  gradually  a 
disunionist,  he  lived  essentially  a  platform  life,  interested  in  a 
variety  of  subjects,  but  first  and  chiefly  an  abolitionist.  Id 
1865,  however,  after  the  Civil  War,  he  broke  with  Garrison 
over  the  question  of  discontinuing  the  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
and  from  that  date  until  the  society  was  disbanded  in  X870  hie, 
instead  of  Garrison,  was  its  president.  He  was  not,  moreover, 
like  his  great  leader,  a  non-resistant,  nor  was  he,  on  the  other 
hand,  Hke  John  Brown,  borne  on  by  irresistible  necessity  to 
overt  action.  Nor  did  he  find,  like  his  fellow-worker,  Theodore 
Parker,  the  leisure  to  keep  up  his  scholarship  and  lead  in  part 
the  life  of  a  student.  Early  study  and  travel  had  indeed  fur** 
nishcd  him  with  abundant  material  for  rhetorical  illustrationv 
and  he  was  aha  a  great  reader  of  newspapers,  but  he  used  to 
say  that  he  knew  in  his  whole  life  but  one  thing  thoroughly, 
namely,  the  history  of  the  English  Civil  War,  and  there  were 
few  occasions  when  he  could  not  draw  from  it  the  needful  illus^ 
tratSon.  His  style  of  eloquence  was  direct  and  brilliant,  but 
eminently  self-controlled.  He  often  surprised  his  hearers  by 
the  quietness  of  his  beginnhigS)  and  these  were  very  often  the 
sp^ches  which  turned  out  most  brilliant  and  most  irresistible 
ere  the  close.  He  may  be  said  to  have  introduced  the  direct 
and  colloquial  manner  upon  the  American  public  platform,  as 
distinct  from  the  highly  elaborated  and  often  ornate  style 
which  had  been  established  by  Edward  Everett;  nor  has  there 
ever  been  a  reversion  since  his  day  to  the  more  artificial 
method.  He  wa^  capable  at  times,  nevertheless,  of  highly 
sonorous  periods  with  siipcib  climaxes;  yet  his  favourite 
st^e  was  the  convtisational.  His  logic,  while  never  obtruded^ 
was  rarely  at  fault';  but  he.  loved  the  flash  of  the  capier«  «a4 


4o8 


PHILLIPS,  W.— PHILLPOTTS 


was  never  happier  dian  when  he  had  to  face  down  a  mob  and 
utterly  foil  it  by  sheer  superiority  in  fencing.  The  two  volumes 
of  his  speeches,  as  edited  by  James  Kedpath,  were  fortunately 
made  from  verbatim  reports,  and  they  wisely  enclose  in  paren- 
theses  those  indications  of  favour  or  dissent  from  the  audience 
which  transformed  so  many  of  his  speeches  into  exhibitions  of 
^diatorial  skill.  He  was  a  tribune  of  the  people,  assodated 
unflinchingly  not  merely  with  the  unpopular  but  with  the 
unpolished;  always  carrying  about  him  not  merdy  a  certain 
Roman  look,  but  a  patrician  air.  After  slavery  had  fallen 
Phillips  associated  himself  fredy  with  reformers  occupied  in 
other  paths,  herein  separating  himself  from  the  other  patrician 
of  the  movement,  Edmund  Quincy,  who  always  frankly  said 
that  after  slavery  was  abolished  there  was  nothing  else 
worth  fighting  tor.  Among  other  things,  Phillips  contended, 
during  his  later  years,  for  prohibition,  woman  suffrage  and 
various  penal  and  administrative  reforms.  He  was  not  always 
the  best  judge  of  character,  and  was  sometimes  allied  in  these 
movements  with  men  who  were  little  more  than  demagogues. 
But  the  proof  he  gave  by  his  transfer  of  energies  thai  the  work 
of  reform  was  never  quite  finished — this  was  something  of 
peculiar  value,  and  worth  the  risk  of  some  indiscretions.  The 
life  of  a  reformer  did  not  in  itself  make  him  thoroughly 
happy;  he  chafed  more  and  more  under  its  fatigues,  and  he 
always  felt  that  his  natural  place  would  have  been  among 
aenatois  or  ambassadors  ^  but  he  belonged  essentially  to  the 
heroic  type,  and  it  may  well  have  been  of  him  that  Emerson 
was  thinking  when  he  wrote  those  fine  words:  "  What  forests 
of  laurel  we  bring  and  the  tears  of  mankind  to  him  who  stands 
firm  against  the  opinion  of  his  contemporaries."  His  domestic 
life  was  most  happy,  though  his  wife  was  a  confirmed  invalid, 
sddom  quitting  her  room.  She  was  a  woman  of  heroic  nature 
and  very  strong  convictions.  Her  husband  used  to  say  that 
she  first  made  him  an  abolitionist.  They  had  no  children,  but 
adopted  an  orphaned  daughter  of  Mrs  Eliza  Garnaut,  a  friend, 
and  this  young  girl  (afterwards  the  wife  of  George  W.  Smalley), 
brought  much  light  and  joy  into  the  household.  Their  worldly 
circumstances  were  easy,  though  they  were  always  ready  to 
impoverish  themselves  for  the  sake  of  others.  Wendell  Phillips 
died  in  Boston  on  the  2nd  of  February  1884. 

See  Lorenzo  Scars,  Wtnddl  Phillips,  Orator  and  Agitator  (New 
York,  1909)  (T.  W.  H.) 

PHILUPS,  WILUAM  (1775-1828),  British  mineralogist  and 
geologist^  son  of  James  Phillips,  printer  and  bookseller  in 
London,  was  bom  on  the  lotb  of  May  1775.  He  early  became 
interested  in  mineralogy  and  geology,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London  (1807).  His 
Outlines  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology  (181 5)  and  EicmetUary  Intro- 
duction to  the  Knowledge  of  Mineralogy  (18 16)  became  standard 
textbooks.  His  digest  of  English  geology,  A  sdectum  of  Facts  from 
tkt  Best  Authorities,  arranged  so  as  to  form  an  Outline  of  the  Geo- 
logy of  Engtand  and  Wales  (1818),  formed  the  foundation  of  the 
larger  woric  undertaken  by  Phillips  in  conjunction  with  W  D. 
Conybeare,  of  which  only  the  first  part  was  published,  entitled 
Outlines  of  the  Geology  of  England  and  Wales  (1822).  This 
volume  made  an  era  in  geology.  As  a  model  of  careful  original 
observation,  of  judicious  compilation,  of  succinct  description 
and  of  luminous  arrangement  it  has  been  of  the  utmost  service 
in  the  devdopment  of  geology  in  Britain.  In  this  work  Phillips 
fcprinted  his  admirable  description  of  the  chalk  cliffs  of  Dover 
and  other  parts  of  East  Kent,  published  in  1819  in  Trans.  Ced. 
Soe.  voL  v.  Phillips  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
He  was  dected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1827.  He 
died  on  the  2nd  of  April  1828.* 

His  brother,  Ricbaxd  Pkilups  (1778-1851),  was  distin- 
guished as  a  chemist,  and  became  F.R.S.  in  1822.  He  was 
appointed  chemist  and  curator  to  the  Museum  of  Economic 
(afterwards  Piactical)  Geology,  then  situated  in  Craig's  Court 
(1859).  He  was  the  author  of  papers  published  in  the  Annals 
of  Philosophy  and  Philosophical  Magaune.  In  1796  the  two 
brothers,  together  with  William  Allen  and  Luke  Howard,  took 
poit  |n  forming  the  Aakesian  Society. 


PHILLIPSBURO,  a  town  of  Warren  county.  New  Jeraey, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Delaware  river,  opposite  Easton,  Pennsylvania, 
and  about  51  m.  N.N.W.  of  Trenton,  N.J.  Pop.  (1900)  10,053, 
of  whom  9QO  were  foreign<bom;  (1910  U.S.  census)  13,903. 
Served  by  the  Central  of  New  Jersey  and  other  railways,  the 
town  is  situated  in  the  river  bottom  and  on  a  biufi  which 
commands  beautiful  views.  The  river  is  spanned  here  by 
several  bridges.  ITie  town  has  railway  shops  and  various  manu- 
factures. In  X905  the  value'  of  the  factoiy  products  was 
$6,684,173  (45*8  %  more  than  in  1900).  PhiUipsburg  was  settled 
about  1750.  It  was  only  a  straggling  village  when  the  Monis 
Banking  and  Canal  Company  was  chartered  in  1824,  but  its 
growth  was  accderated  by  the  canal  (no  longer  used),  by  the 
establishment  in  1848  of  an  iron  furnace,  and  by  the  oompledoa 
of  the  Centra]  Railroad  of  New  Jersey  to  this  point  in  1852; 
the  town  was  incorporated  in  186 1. 

PHILUPSITB,  a  mineral  of  the  zeolite  group;  a  hydrated 
potassium,  calcium  and  aluminium  silicate,  approzinuiting 
to  (Ks,  Ca)AU(SiCh)4*4H30L  It  varies  somewhat  incompodtioa, 
and  a  variety  ("  pseudophillipsite ")  containing  rathar  less 
silica  has  the  formula  (Kt,  Ca)«ALiSiiOa'9H«0.  Ciystals  are 
monodinic,  but  only  complex  cruciform  twins  are  known,  these 
being  exactly  like  twins  of  harmotome  {q.v.),  Ciystab  of 
phiiUpsile  arc,  however,  usually  smaller  and  more  tranqparoit 
and  glassy  than  those  of  harmotome.  Spherical  groups  with 
a  radially  fibrous  structure  and  bristled  with  crystals  on  the 
surface  are  not  uncommon.  The  hardness  is  4},  and  the 
specific  gravity  2-2.  The  species  was  established  by  A.  htry 
in  1825  and  named  after  William  Phillips.  Frendi  authors 
use  the  name  christtanite  (after  Christian  VIII.  of  Penmaik), 
given  by  A.  Des  Cloizeaux  in  1847. 

Phillipaite  is  a  mineral  of  secondary  origin,  and  occius  with 
other  zeolites  in  the  amygdaloidal  cavities  of  baac  volcanic 
rocks:  «.f.  in  the  basalt  of  the  Giant's  Causeway  in  County 
Antrim,  and  near  Mdboume  in  Victoria;  and  in  leodtite  near 
Rome.  Small  ciystals  of  recent  formation  have  been  observed 
in  the  masonry  of  the  hot  baths  at  Plombiires  and  Bourbonne- 
les-Bains,  in  Franos.  Minute  spherical  aggregates  embedded 
in  red  day  were  dredged  by  the  "  Challenger  "  from  the  bottom 
of  the  Central  Padfic,  where  they  had  been  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  lava.  (L.  J.  S.) 

PHILLPOTTS.  HENRY  (x778'iS69),  English  bishop,  was  bora 
at  Bridgwatw  on  the  6th  of  May  1778,  and  was  educated  at 
Gloucester  College  school  and  at  Corpus  Christi  College.  Gzford. 
He  became  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1795,  took 
orders  in  1802,  and  was  sdect  university  preacher  in  X804. 
In  1805  he  received  the  living  of  Stainton4e-Street,  Duduun,  and 
in  addition  was  appointed  to  Bishop  Middleham,  Durham,  in  the 
succeeding  year.    For  twenty  years  he  was  chaplain  to  Sbute 
Barringion,  bishop  of  Durham.    He  was  appoined  vicar  ot 
Gateshead  in  1808,  prebendary  of  Durham  in  1809,  and  vicar 
of  St  Margaret,  Durham,  in  i8iOu    After  holding  the  rich  living 
of  Stanhope,  Durham  from  1820,  and  the  deanery  of  Chester 
from  1828,  he   was  consecrated   bishop  of  Exeter  in  1S31, 
holding  with  the  see  a  residentiary  canonry  at  Durham.    His 
published  works  indude  numerous  speeches  and  pamphlets, 
including  those  connected  with  his  wdl-knoiHi  Roman  Catliofic 
controversy  with  Charles  Butler   (1750-1832).    He  was    an 
energetic  supporter  of  the  Tory  party,  even  when  ft  acted 
contrary  to  his  views  in  passing  the  Roman  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion Act  of  1829.    He  died  on  the  i8th  of  Septemba  XR69L 
"  Henry  of  Exeter,"  as  he  was  commonly  called,  vai^one  of  iht 
most  striking  figures  in  the  English  Church  of  the  x8th  century. 
His  intellect  was  strong  rather  than  broad,  his  position  bcioc 
that  of  the  traditional  High  Churchman,  with  little  sympathy 
either  with  the  Evangelicab  or  with  the  Tractarians.    On  the 
one  hand  the  famous  Gorham  judgment  was  the  outcome  of  his 
refusal  to  Institute  to  the  living  of  Brampford  Speke  a  dergymaa 
George  Cornelius  Gorham  (i  787-1857),  who  had  openly  <£s- 
a vowed  his  belief  in  baptismal  regeneration;  on  the  other  he 
denoimced  the  equally  famous  Tract  XC.  in  his  episcopal 
I  charge  of  1843*    As  b^op  he  was  a  strict  disdplinariaa*  and 


PHILO 


409 


dU  iDoeh  to  lestora  wder  in  a  diooeae  of'  wUcfa  the  dergy 
bad  become  extnordiBarily  demoralisecL  Though  eccused  of 
avarice  aod  pluralum,  Phillpotts  was  generous  in  his  gifts  to 
the  cfaiuch,  founding  the  theological  college  at  Exeter  aod 
spending  large  sums  on  the  restoration  of  the  cathedraL 

FHILO,  Jewish  Hellenist,  and  author  of  an  epic  poem  in 
Creek  hexameters  on  the  history  of  Jerusalem.  Alexander 
Polyhistor  (c.  105-35  B.C.)  quotes  several  passages  of  the  poem, 
and  is  the  source  of  the  extracts  in  Ensebius  (Praepofoiio 
eMngdkaf  ix.  30,  24,  37).  This  is  probably  the  Philo  who  is 
sientioned  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  (Stronu  L  3i»  14c)  and 
by  Josephus  {Contra  Apionem,  i.  23),  who  caUs  him  "  the  elder/' 

See  M.  Philippson's  work  on  the  Jewish  poets  Enchiel  and  Pbifo 
(Berlin.  iSjo). 

PHILO,  often  caUed  Phzlo  Judaeus,  Jewish  philospher, 
appean  to  have  spent  his  whole  life  at  Alexandria,  where  he 
was  probably  born  c.  so-xo  B.C.  His  father  Alexander  was 
alabajnch  or  arabarch  (that  is,  probably,  chief  farmer  of  taxes 
00  the  Arabic  side  of  the  Nile),  from  which  it  may  be  conduded 
that  the  family  was  •  influential  and  wealthy  (Jos.  Ant,  xviii. 
8,  i).  Jerome's  statement  {De  vir,  HI.  zi)  that  he  was  of 
priestly  race  is  confirmed  by  no  older  authority.  The  Only 
event  of  his  life  which  can  be  actually  dated  belongs  to  aj>.  40, 
when  Philo,  then  a  man  of  advanced  years,  went  from  Alexandria 
to  Rome,  at  the  head  of  a  Jewish  embassy,  to  persuade  the 
emperor  Gains  to  abstain  from  claiming  divine  honour  of  the 
Jews.  Of  this  embassy  Philo  has  left  a  full  and  vivid  account 
iDt  UgaHent  ad  Gaium).  Various  fathers  and  theologians 
of  the  Church  state  that  in  the  time  of  Claudius  he  met  St  Peter 
in  Rome;*  but  this  legend  has  no  historic  value,  and  probably 
arose  because  the  book  De  tita  contem^athaf  ascribed  to'Philo, 
in  which  Eusebius  already  recognised  a  i^orification  of 
Christian  monasticism,  seemed  to  indicate  a  di^iosititm  towards 
Christianity. 

Though  we  know  so  little  of  Philo's  own  life,  his  numerous 
extant  writings  give  the  fullest  information  as  to  his  vkws  of 
the  universe  and  of  life,  and  his  religiotts  and  scientific  aims, 
and  so  enable  us  adequately  to  estimate  his  position  and  impor- 
tance in  the  history  of  thought.  He  is  quite  the  most  important 
icpresentAtiye  of  Ucllenistie  Judaism,  and  his  writings  give 
vs  the  clearest  view  of  what  this  development  of  Judaism 
was  and  aimed  at.  The  devdopment  of  Judaism  in  the 
diaspora  (q.v.)  differed  in  important  points  from  that  in  Palestine, 
where,  since  the  successful  opposition  of  the  Maccabee  age  to 
the  Hellenisation  which  AnUochus  Epiphanes  had  sought  to 
%arry  through  by  force,  the  attitude  of  the  nation  to  Greek 
culture  had  been  cssentiatty  negative.  In  the  diaspora,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Jews  Imd  been  deeply  influenced  by  the 
Greeks;  they  soon  more  or  leas  forgot  thdr  Semitic  mother- 
iongue,  and  iHth  the  language  of  HeDas  they  appropriated 
much  of  Hellenic  culture.  They  were  deeply  impresBed  by  that 
Irresistible  force  which  was  blending  all  races  and  nations  into 
one  great  cosmopolitan  unity,  and  so  the  Jews  too  on  thdr 
dispersion  became  in  speech  and  nationality  Greeks,  or  rather 
"  Hellenists.'*  Now  the  distinguishing  character  of  Hellenism 
is  not  the  absolute  disappearance  of  the  Oriental  civilizations 
before  that  of  Greece  but  the  combinatton  of  the  two  with  a 
preponderance  of  the  Greek  element.  So  it  was  with  the  Jews, 
but  in  their  case  the  old  religion  had  much  more  persistence 
than  in  other  Hellenistic  circles,  though  in  other  respects  they 
too  yielded  to  the  superior  force  of  Greek  dvilizatfon.  This  we 
must  hsAd  to  have  been  the  case  not  only  in  Alexandria  but 
throughout  the  diaspora  from  the  commencement  of  the  Hellen- 
istic period  down  to  the  later  Roman  Empire.  It  was  only  after 
andent  civilization  gave  way  before  the  barbarian  Immigrations 
and  the  rising  force  of  Christianity  that  rabbinism  because 
supreme  even  among  the  Jews  of  the  diaspora.  This  Hellenistico- 
Judaic  phase  of  culture  is  sometimes  called  **  Alexandrian,"  and 
the  expression  is  justifiable  if  it  only  means  that  in  Alexandria 
it  attahied  its  highest  development  and  flourished  most.  For 

•  Euaeb.,  H.  E.  fi.  17,  l;  Jcr.  ut  supra;  Phot  BiW.  Cod.  105; 


here  the  Jews  began  to  busy  themselves  with  Greek  literature 
even  under  their  dement  rulers,  the  first  Ptolemies,  and  here 
the  law  and  other  Scriptures  were  first  translated  into  Greek; 
here  the  process  of  fusion  began  earliest  and  proceeded  with 
greatest  rapidity;  here,  therefore,  also  the  Jews  first  engaged 
in  a  sdenttfic  study  of  Greek  philosophy  and  transplanted  that 
philosophy  to  the  soil  of  Judaism.  We  read  of  a  Jewish  philo- 
sopher Aristobulus  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor,  in 
the  middle  of  the  3nd  century  B.C.,  of  whose  philosophical 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  fragments  have  been  preserved 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Eusebius.  So  far  as  we  can 
judge  from  these,  his  aim  was  to  put  upon  the  sacred  text  a 
sense  which  should  appeal  even  to  Greek  readers,  and  in  par- 
ticular to  get  rid  of  all  anthropomorphic  utterances  about 
God.  Eusebius  regards  him  as  a  Peripatetic.  We  may  suppose 
that  this  philosophical  line  of  thought  had  its  representatives 
in  Alexandria  between  the  times  of  Aristobulus  and  Philo,  but 
we  are  not  acquainted  with  the  names  of  any  such.  Philo 
certainly,  to  judge  by  his  historical  influence,  was  the  gieatest 
of  all  these  Jewish  philosophers,  and  in  his  case  we  can  follow 
in  detail  the  methods  by  which  Greek  culture  was  harmonized 
with  Jewish  faith.  On  one  side  he  is  quite  a  Greek,  on  the  other 
quite  a  Jew.  His  language  is  formed  on  the  best  classical 
models,  especially  Plato.  He  knows  and  often  dtes  the  great 
Greek  poets,  particulariy  Homer  and  the  tragedians,  but  his 
chief  studies  had  been  in  Greek  philosophy,  and  he  speaks  of 
Heraclilus,  Plato,  the  Stoics  and  the  Pythagoreans  in  terms  o^ 
the  highest  veneration.  He  had  appropriated  their  doctrines 
so  completely  that  he  must  himself  be  reckoned  among  the 
Greek  philosophers;  his  system  was  eclectic,  but  the  borrowed 
elements  are  combined  into  a  new  unity  with  so  much  originality 
that  at  the  same  time  he  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  representing 
a  philosophy  of  his  own,  which  has  for  its  characteristic  featute 
the  constant  prominence  of  a  fundamental  religious  idea. 
Philo's  closest  affinities  are  with  Plato,  the  later  Pythagoreans 
and  the  Stoics.*  Vet  with  all  this  Phik>  remained  a  Jew,  and  a 
great  part  of  his  writings  is  expressly  directed  to  recommend 
Judaism  to  the  respect  and,  if  possible,  the  acceptance  of  the 
Greeks.  He  was  not  a  stranger  to  the  spedfically  Jewish 
culture  that  prevailed  in  Palestine;  in  Hebrew  he  was  not  pro- 
ficient, but  the  numerous  etymologies  he  gives  show  that  he 
had  made  some  study  of  that  language.*  His  method  of  exegesis 
is  fai  point  of  form  identical  with  that  of  the  Palestinian  scribes, 
and  in  point  of  matter  coincidences  are  not  absolutely  rare.^ 
But  above  aU  his  whole  works  prove  on  eveiy  page  that  be  felt 
himself  to  be  thoroughly  a  Jew,  and  desired  to  be  nothing  else. 
Jewish  "  philosophy  "  Is  to  him  the  true  and  highest  wisdom; 
the  knowledge  of  God  and  of  things  divine  and  human  which 
is  contained  in  the  Mosaic  Scriptures  is  to  him  the  deepest  and 
the  purest. 

If  now  we  ask  wherein  Philo's  Judaism  consisted  we  must 
answer  that  it  lies  mainly  in  the  formal  claim  that  the  Jewish 
people,  in  virtue  of  the  divine  revelatlonglven  to  Moses,  possesses 
the  true  knowledge  in  things  religious.  Thoroughly  Jewl^ 
is  his  recognition  that  the  Mosaic  Scriptures  of  the  Pentateuch 
are  of  absolute  divine  authority,  and  that  everything  they 
contain  is  valuable  and  significant  because  divinely  revealed. 
The  other  Jewish  Scriptures  are  also  recognized  as  prophetic, 
i.e.  as  the  writings  of  in^ired  men,  but  he  does  not  place  them 
on  the  same  lines  with  the  law,  and  he  quotes  them  so  seldom 
that  We  cannot  detennine  the  compass  of  his  canon.    The 

'  The  fathers  of  the  Church  have  specially  noticed  his  Platonism 
and  Pythagoreanism ;  an  old  proverb  even  says,  with  some 
exaegeration,  4  nx&nay  ^iXb»tfti  #  ^Xaw  vXaroMpCfti  (Jerome,  Photius 
andSuidas,  nt  ntpra),  Clement  of  Alexandria  directly  calls  him  a 
Pythagorean.  Eusebius  UI.  B.  ii.  4,  3)  observes  both  tendencies. 
Recent  writers,  especially  2eller.  lay  wdgnt  also  on  his  Stoic  affinities, 
and  with  justice,  for  the  elements  which  he  borrows  from  Stoicism 
are  as  numerous  and  important  as  those  derived  from  the  other 
two  schools. 

*  See  the  lisfof  these  in  Vallarsi's  edition  of  Jerome  0>i>  73i-73^)> 
and  compare  Siegfried.  "  Philonischc  Studien,  in  Merx's  Arckw.  tl 
«43-«63  (1872). 

*  See  Siegfried.  Pkih,  pp.  142-159^ 


4K> 


PHILO 


fi 


dediive  and  nonn^tive  authority  is  to  biin  the  *'  holy  laws 
o{  Moses,  and  this  not  only  in  the  sense  that  everything  they 
contain  is  true  but  that  all  truth  is  contained  in  them.  Every- 
thing that  is  right  and  good  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Greek 
philosophers  bad  already  been  quite  as  well,  or  even  better, 
taught  by  Moses.  Thus,  since  Philo  had  been  deeply  influenced 
by  the  teachings  of  Greek  philosophy  be  actually  finds  in  the 
Pentateuch  everything  which  he  had  learned  from  the  Greeks. 
From  these  premises  he  assumes  as  requiring  no  proof  that  the 
Greek  philosophers  must  in  some  way  have  drawn  from  Moses, 
a  view  inde^  which  is  already  expressed  by  Aristobulus. 
To  carry  out  these  presuppositions  called  for  an  exegetical 
method  which  seems  very  strange  to  us,  that,  namely,  of  the 
allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture.  The  allegorical  method 
had  been  practised  before  Fhilo's  date  in  the  rabbinical  schools 
of  Palestine,  and  he  himself  expressly  refers  to  its  use  by  his 
predecessors,  nor  does  he  fed  that  any  further  justification 
it  requisite.  With  its  aid  he  discovers  indications  of  the  pro- 
foundest  doctrines  of  philosoi^y  in  the  simplest  stories  of  the 
Pentateuch.^ 

This  merely  formal  principle  of  the  absolute  authority  of 
Moses  is  reaUy  the  one  point  in  which  Philo  still  holds  to 
gcnuindy  Jewish  conceptions.  In  the  whole  substance  of  his 
phikMophy  the  Jewish  point  of  view  is  more  of  less  completely 
modified— sometimes  almost  extinguished — by  what  he  has 
learned  from  the  Greeks.  Comparatively  speaking,  he  is  most 
truly  a  Jew  in  his  conception  of  God.  The  doctrine  of  mono- 
theism, the  stress  laid  on  the  absolute  majesty  and  sovereignly 
of  God  above  the  world,  the  prindple  that  He  is  to  be  worshipped 
without  images,  are  all  points  in  which  Philo  justly  feels  his 
superiority  as  a  Jew  over  popular  heathenism.  But  only  over 
popidar  heathenism,  for  the  Greek  phitosophers  had  long  since 
arrived  at  least  at  a  theoretical  monotheism,  and  their  influence 
on  Phik>  is  nowhere  more  strongly  seen  than  in  the  detailed  de- 
velopment of  his  doctrine  of  God.  The  specifically  Jewish  (f  .e. 
particularistic)  conception  of  the  dection  of  Israd,  the  obligation 
of  the  Mosaic  law,  the  future  glory  of  the  chosen  nation,  have 
almost  disappeared;  he  is  really  a  cosmopolitan  and  praises  the 
Mosaic  law  just  because  he  deems  it  cosmopoliUn.  The  true 
sage  who  follows  the  law  of  Moses  is  the  dtizen  not  of  a  particular 
state  but  of  the  world.  A  certain  attachment  which  Philo  still 
manifests  to  the  particularistic  conceptions  of  his  race  is  meant 
only  "in  majorem  Judaeorum  gloriam."  The  Jewish  people 
has  received  a  certain  prderence  from  God,  but  only  because 
it  has  the  most  virtuous  ancestry  and  is  itsdf  distinguished  for 
virtue.  The  Mosaic  law  a  binding,  but  only  because  it  is  the 
most  righteous,  humane  and  rational  of  laws,  and  even  its  out- 
ward ceremonies  always  disdoae  rational  ideas  and  aims.  And 
lastly,  outward  prosperity  is  promised  to  the  pious,  even  on 
earth,  but  the  promise  belongs  to  all  who  turn  from  idols  to  the 
true  God.  Thus,  in  the  whole  substance  of  his  view  of  the 
universe,  Philo  occupies  the  standpoint  of  Greek  philosophy 
rather  than  of  national  Judaism,  and  his  philosophy  of  the  world 
and  of  life  can  be  completely  set  forth  without  any  reference 
to  conceptions  specifically  Jewish. 

His  doctrine  of  God  starts  from  the  idea  that  God  is  a  Being 
absolutely  bare  of  quality.  All  quality  in  finite  beings  has 
limitation,  and  no  limitation  can  be  predicated  of  God,  who  is 
eternal,  unchangeable,  simple  substance,  free,  seU-suffident, 
better  than  the  good  and  the  beautiful.  To  predicate  any 
quality  (irai^rqs)  of  God  would  be  to  reduce  Him  to  the  sphere 
of  finite  existence.  Of  Him  we  can  say  only  that  He  is,  not  what 
He  is,  and  such  purely  negative  predications  as  to  His  bdng 
appear  to  Philo,  as  to  the  later  Pythagoreans  and  the  Neo- 
pUtonists,  the  only  way  of  securing  His  absolute  devation 
above  the  world.  At  bottom,  no  doubt,  the  meaning  of  these 
negations  is  that  God  is  the  most  perfect  being;  and  so, 
conveiscly,  we  are  told  that  God  contains  aU  perfection,  that 
He  fills  and  encompasses  all  things  with  His  being. 

A  consistent  application  of  Fhilo's  abstract  conception  of 

*  For  detail*,  see  GfrOrer.  Phiio,  I  GB^  tcq.;  Zeller,  PhO.  der  Gr. 
(jid  «d..  vol.  iii..  pc.  ii.,  pp.  346-353);  Siegfned,  PhUo,  PP>  160  aeq. 


God  wo*ld  ezdade  the  possibility  of  any  active  reiattoft  of  God 
to  the  world,  and  therefore  of  religion,  for  a  Bdng  afaaolutdy 
without  quality  and  movement  cannot  be  conceived  as  activdy 
concerned  with  the  multipUdty  of  individual  things.    And  so  b 
faa  Philo  does  teach  that  the  abaolote  perfection,  purity  and 
loftiness  of  God  would  be  violated  by  direct  contact  with  imper* 
feet,  impure  and  finite  things.  But  the  possibility  of  a  eonnerioa 
between  God  and  the  worki  is  reached  through  a  distinction 
which  forms  the  most  important  point  in  his  theobgy  and  cos- 
mology; the  proper  Bdng  of  God  is  distinguished  from  the 
infinite  multiplicity  of  divine  Ideas  or  Forces:  God  himself  is 
without  quality,  but  He  disposes  of  an  infinite  variety  ol  divine 
Forces,  through  whose  mediation  an  active  relation  of  God  to 
the  world  is  brought  about.    In  the  details  of  his  teaching  as 
to  these  mediating  entities  Philo  is  guided  partly  by  Plato  and 
partly  by  the  Stoics,  but  at  the  same  time  he  makes  use  of  the 
concrete  religious  conceptions  of  heathenism  and  Judaism. 
Following  Phito,  he  fir^  calls  them  Ideas  or  ideal  patterns  d 
all  things;  they  are  thoughts  of  God,  yet  possess  a  real  existence, 
and  were  produced  before  the  creation  of  the  sensible  world, 
of  which  they  are  the  types.    But,  in  distinaion  from  PUto, 
Fhilo's  ideas  are  at  the  same  time  effident  causes  or  Forces 
{Jkivhtimit  which  bring  unformed  matter  into  order  conformably 
to  the  patterns  withiu  themsdves,  and  are  in  fact  the  media 
of  all  God's  activity  in  the  world.    This  modification  of  the 
Platonic  Ideas  b  due  to  Stoic  influence,  which  appears  also 
when  Philo  i^ves  to  the  V6km,  or  ImvLimt  the  name  of  X^oi,  tx 
operative  ideas — ^parts,  as  it  were,  of  the  operative  Reason. 
For.  when  Philo  calls  his  mediating  entities  Xftyw,  the  sense 
designed  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  Stoics  when  they  call  God 
the  Logos,  ix.  the  Reason  which  operates  in  the  world.    But 
at  the  same  time  Phik>  maintains  that  the  divine  Forces  are 
identical  with  the  "  daemons  "  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  "  angcb  " 
of  the  Jews,  i.e.  servants  and  messengers  of  God  by  means  ol 
which  He  communicates  with  the  finite  worki.   All  this  shows  how 
uncertain  was  Fhilo's  conception  of  the  nature  <rf  these  media- 
ting Forces.    On  the  one  haind  they  are  nothing  dse  than  Ideas 
of  individual  things  conceived  in  the  mind  of  God,  and  as  soc^ 
ought  to  have  no  other  reality  thau  that  of  immanent  existence 
in  God,  and  so  Philo  says  expressly  that  the  totality  of  Ideas, 
the  laba^iot  vmrrb%t  is  simply  the  Reason  of  God  as  Creator  (Aeov 
>tirt<n  4^  KofffiorouiuvTos).    Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  they  axe 
represented  as  hypostases  distinct  from  God,  individual  entities 
existing  independently  and  apart  from  Htm.    This  vadUatkm, 
however,  as  Zdler  and  other  recent  writers  have  justly  remariud, 
is  necessarily  involved  in  Phib's  premises,  for,  on  the  one  hand,  it 
is  God  who  works  in  the  world  through  His  Ideas,  and  therdore 
they  must  be  identical  with  God;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  God 
is  not  to  come  into  durect  contact  with  the  world,  and  thcfd<»t 
the  Forces  through  which  He  works  must  be  distinct  from  Him. 
The  same  inevitable  amphiboly  dominates  in  what  is  taugltf  as 
to  the  supreme  Idea  or  Logos.    Philo  regards  all  individual 
Ideas  as  comprehended  in  one  highest  and  most  general  Idea  oc 
Force— the  unity  of  the  individual  Ideasr— which  he  calb  the 
Logos  or  Reason  of  God,  and  which  is  again  regarded  as  operative 
Reason.    The  Logos,  therefore,  is  the  highest  mediator  between 
God  and  the  world,  the  firstborn  son  of  God,  the  archangel  who 
is  the  vehicle  of  all  revelation,  and  the  high  priest  wbo  aUnds 
before  God  on  behalf  of  the  worid.    Through  him  the  worU 
was  created,  and  so  he  is  identified  with  the  creative  Word  ol 
God  in  Genesis  (the  Greek  X^tm  meaning  both  "  reason  "  and 
"  word  ").    Here  again,  we  see,  the  philosopher  b  unable  to 
escape  from  the  difficulty  that  the  Logos  b  at  once  the  immanrnt 
Reason  of  God,  and  yet  also  an  hypostasb  standing  between 
God  and  the  world.    Tlie  whole  doctrine  of  thb  mediatorisi 
hypostasb  b  a  strange  intertwining  of  very  dissimiUr  threads; 
on  one  side  the  way  was  prepared  for  It  by  the  dder  Jewish 
dbtincUon  between  the  Wbdom  of  God  and  God  Himself,  of 
which  we  find  the  beginnings  even  in  the  OM  Testament  ijc^ 
xxviii.  I  a  seq.;  Prov.  viii.,  ix.),  and  the  fuller  development  in  the 
books  of  Ecclesiasticus  and  Wisdom,  the  latter  of  which  como 
very  near  to  Fhilo's  ideas  if  we  substitute  for  the  term  " 


PHILO 


4'« 


that  of  (divine)  "  Reuon.'*  In  Greek  phlloeophy,  again,  PhHo, 
as  we  bave  seen,  chiefly  follows  the  Platonic  doctrines  of  Ideas 
and  the  Soul  of  the  World,  and  the  Stoic  doctrine  of  God  as  the 
\iyot  or  Reason  operative  in  the  world.  In  its  Stoic  form  the 
latter  doctrine  was  pantheistic,  but  Philo  could  adapt  it  to  his 
purpose  simply  by  drawing  a  sharper  distinction  between  the 
Logos  and  the  world. 

Like  his  doctrine  of  God,  Philo's  doctrine  of  the  world  and 
creation  rests  on  the  presupposition  of  an  absolute  metaphysical 
contrast  between  God  and  the  worid.  The  world  can  be  ascribed 
to  God  only  in  so  far  aa  it  b  a  cosmos  or  orderly  world;  its 
material  substratum  is  not  even  indirect^  referable  to  God. 
Matter  (tXi^,  or,  as  the  Stoics  said,  cMa)  is  a  second  principle, 
but  in  itself  an  empty  one,  its  essence  being  a  mere  negatk)n  of  all 
true  being.  It  is  a  lifeless,  unmoved,  shapeless  mass,  out  of 
which  God  formed  the  actual  world  by  means  of  the  Logos  and 
divine  Forces.  Strictly  speaking,  the  world  is  only  formed,  not 
created,  since  matter  cfid  not  originate  with  God. 

Philo'a  doctrine  of  man  is  also  strictly  dualistic,  and  b  mainly 

derived  from  Plato.    Man  is  a  twofold  being,  with  a  higher  and 

a  lower  ori^.    Of  the  pore  souls  which  fill  airy  space,  those 

nearest  the  earth  are  attracted  by  the  sensible  ax^  descend  into 

sensible  bodies;  these  souls  are  the  Godward  side  of  man.    But 

on  his  other  side  man  is  a  creature  of  sense,  and  so  has  in  him  a 

fountain  of  sin  and  all  eviL    The  body,  therefore,  is  a  prison,  a 

coffin,  or  a  grave  for  the  soul  wliich  seeks  to  rise  again  to  God. 

From  this  anthropology  the  principles  of  Philo's  ethics  are 

derivod,  its  highest  maxim  necessarUy  bdng  deliverance  from 

the  wori^  of  sense  and  the  mortification  of  all  the  impulses  of 

sense.    In  carrying  out  this  thought,  as  in  many  other  detaila 

of  his  ethical  teaching,  Philo  closely  follows  the  Stoics.    But  be 

is  separated  from  Stoical  ethics  by  his  strong  religious  interests, 

which  carry  him  to  very  different  views  of  the  means  and  aim 

of  ethical  development.    The  Stoics  cast  man  upon  his  own 

resources;  Phib  points  him  to  the  assistance  of  God,  without 

whom  man,  a  captive  to  sense,  could  never  raise  himself  to  walk 

fn  the  ways  of  true  wisdom  and  virtue.    And  as  moral  effort 

can  bear  fruit  only  with  God's  help,  so  too  God  Himself  is  the 

goal  of  that  effort.    Even  in  this  life  the  truly  wise  and  virtuous 

is  lilted  above  his  sensible  existence,  and  enjoys  in  ecstasy  the 

vision  of  God,  his  own  consciousness  sinking  and  disappearing 

in  the  divine  light.    Beyond  this  ecstasy  there  lies  but  one 

further  step,  viz.  entire  liberation  from  the  body  of  sense  and 

the  return  of  the  soul  to  its  original  condition;  it  came  from  God 

and  must  rise  to  Him  again.    But  natural  death  brings  this 

consummation  only  to  those  who,  while  they  lived  on  earth, 

kept  themselves  free  from  attachment  to  the  things  Of  sense;  all 

others  must  at  death  pass  into  another  body;  transmigration  of 

souls  is  in  fact  the  necessary  consequence  of  Philo's  premises, 

thoogh  he  seldom  speaks  of  it  expressly. 

Philo's  Yiterary  labours  have  a  twofold  obiect,  being  directed  cither 
to  expound  the  true  sense  of  the  Mosaic  law,  i^,  the  philosophy 
which  we  have  just  described,  to  his  Jewish  brethren,  or  to  convince 
heathen  readers  of  the  excellence,  tne  supreme  purity  and  truth. 
of  the  Jewish  religion,  whose  holy  records  contain  the  cleepest  and 
most  peKect  phiTosophy,  the  best  and  most  humane  legislation. 
Thus  as  a  literary  figure  Philo,  in  conformity  with  bis  edueation  and 
views  of  life,  standi  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Jews,  seeking  to 
gain  the  Jews  for  Hellenism  and  the  Greeks  for  Judaism,  yet  always 
taking  It  for  granted  that  his  standpoint  really  is  Jewish,  and  just 
on  that  account  truly  philosophical  and  cosmopolitan. 

The  titles  of  the  numerous  extant  writings  of  Philo  present  at 
6rst  sight  a  roost  confustiur  multiplidty.  More  than  three-fourths 
of  them,  however,  are  reauy  mere  sections  of  a  small  number  of 
larger  works.  Three  such  great  works  on  the  Pentateuch  can  be 
distinguished. 

I.  The  smallest  of  these  is  the  Z^jiara  col  Mrnt  (Qmaeshcnex 
ei  soluiiones),  a  short  exposition  of  Genesis  and  Exodus,  in  the 
form  of  qocstutt  and  answer.  The  work  b  cited  under  tbu  title 
by  EuseWus  (J7.  B.  ii.  18.  1.  5;  Prae^.  E»,  vii.  13).  and  by  later 
writers,  but  ttie  Greek  text  is  now  almost  wholly  lost,  and  only 
about  one-half  preserved  in  an  Armenian  transition.  Genens 
seems  to  have  occupied  tix  books.*  Eusebius  tells  us  that  Exodus 
filled  five  books.  In  the  Armenian  translation,  first  published  by 
tbc  learned  Mechitarist.  J.  Bapt.  Aucher,  in  i8»6.  are  preserved  four 

A  Se^  especially  Mai*  Seripu,  •■«.  im^ttlk  vol.  vii  pt.  i.  ppiioo, 
1061  to^ 


books  on  Gsnesb  and  two  on  Baodus.  but  wkh  lacunae.  A  Latin 
fragment,  about  half  of  the  fourth  books  on  Genesis  (PAtf .  Jnd.  CII* 
guaetU. . . .  super  Gen.),  was  first  printed  at  Paris  in  15SO.  Of 
the  Greek  we  bave  numerous  but  short  fragments  in  varioun 
Florilegia.*  The  intcrpreutioos  in  thb  wwk  are  partly  litecal  and 
partly  allegorical. 

11.  Phib's  most  important  work  b  the  N^yuiv  kpfir  A^XrtotJUi 
(Euseb.  if.  £.  iL  18,  1 :  Phot.  BiU.  Cod.  103),  a  vast  and  ommous 
allegorical  commentary  on  Genesb,  dealing  with  chaps,  vltw,, 
verse  by  verse,  and  with  select  paasages  in  the  btar  cbaptcis.  The 
leadcfs  ia  view  are  mainly  Jesn.  for  the  form  b  modelled  on  the 
rabbinic  Midiash.  The  roam  idea  b  that  the  characters  which 
appear  ia  Genesb  an  properly  allegories  of  sUtcs  of  the  aoul  {ipbwm 
rsc  fvxvi).  AU  persons  and  actions  being  interpret«i  ia  thb 
sense,  the  work  as  a  whole  is  a  very  extensive  body  of  psychokiey 
and  ethics.  It  begins  with  Geo.  u.  i.  for  the  De  murndt  9pifici», 
which  treats  of  the  creation  according  to  Gen.  L,  iL,  does  not  befoi^ 
to  thb  series  of  sllegorical  commentaries*  Init  deals  with  the 
actual  history  of  creation,  and  that  under  a  quite  different  literary 
form.  With  thb  exceptfon.  however,  the  Yi^itm  ^XrycpUt  includes 
all  the  treatises  in  the  first  vcdume  of  Maogey's  edkioa,  vis.—* 

fsrtarwR,  lib.  i.,  M.  >.  43-^S)i  on  Gen.  iL  1-17.  (a)  Wit.  Itp.  AMl  Mripe« 
{Ug,  ott.  Hb.  iL.  M.  i.  66-86).  on  Gen.  ii.  iMu.  la.  MMiu  1^  4XX. 
rp{r«i  ^Le^.  all,  lib.  iiL.  M.  i.87>i37),  on  Gen.  in.  8ty-i9.  The 
cooamentanes  on  Gen.  iii,  ib-Sa,  so-43  are  kwt.  (4)  IM  rflr  xc^mAii 
i«i  Tit  ^kcnflrm  j^^tn  aai  roO  «n«Mme  wpirw  U  MpAnv  Kits 
{JD€  tkentbim  *t  fiowmeo  itadio,  M.  i  138-ifo}.  on  Gen.  in.  24  and 
W.  I.  (3)  IXy<  ^  UptmntSnM  'AfiA  n  «a2  KAI0  (Z}«  sa4tifiMsAbdU 
a  Camit  M.  L  163-190),  on  Gen.  iv.  a-4.  The  oommentafies  on 
Gen.  iv.  ^7  are  lest.  (6)  n^  rx»  r*  xfip^  r^  cprfrrsM-^JMip 
lnrl#w#M  {Qucd  detmus  potion  msuUorisMeatt  M.  i.  I9i'da5),  on 
Gen.  iv.  ^15.     (7)    lUpi  rdr  toO  fcw^i^^^ou  KAtr  trii*^  cai  4k 


iMrcWi«nw  ytnrni  (pe^skrilaUCamif&c.,  M.  i.  336-s6i>.  on  Gen.  iv. 
16-35;  thb  book,  which  b  wanting  in  editions  prior  to  Mamtcy's,  b 
incorrectly  given  by  him,  but  much  mom  correctly  by  TiacSendorf , 
PMbiMO,  pp.  84-143.  None  of  the  preceding  b  mentioned  by  its 
special  title  by  Euseb.  HJS.  ii.  18.  while  he  cites  all  that  foUow 
by  their  titles.  The  reason  must  be  that  all  op  to  thb  point,  and 
no  further,  axe  included  by  him  in  the  NAfmr  I^Ar  iXAsTs^Cai ;  agree* 
lag  with  thb  we  find  that  these,  and  these  only,  are  cited  under  that 
cencral  title  in  the  Florikgia,  especially  the  so<aUcd  Jokaunu 
Mowoekus  tneHltu  (see  Mangey  s  notes  bdore  each  book).  We  may 
therefore  condude  with  oonfidenoe  that  Philo  published  the  con- 
tinuous commentaiies  on  Gen.  iL-tv.  under  the  title  AUegoria  of 
Iko  Sa€nd  JLows.  and  tiM  following  commentaries  on  select  passages 
under  special  titles,  though  the  identity  of  literary  character  eattUes 
us  to  regard  the  latter  as  part  of  the  same  great  literary  plan 
with  the  former.  (8)  Ut^  yiytatntr  {JDt  piomiitus,  M.  i.  a6A-27a), 
on  Gen.  vL  1-4.  (9)  *0r»  Irpfwror  ri  9u»  {Qitod  Doms  sU  tmmwUhiHf, 
M.  i.  S7S-S99),  on  Gen.  vi.  4-ia.  <io)  n^  ymto^ftm  {JDo  agrinrflaMt 
M.L  300-338),  on  Gen.  ix.soa.  (11)  II^^vraiwv<asNA«TA<«tnpa» 
fpe  ptoiilsitsiM  Noe,  M.  I  3^9-356).  on  Gen.  tx.  aob.  (is)  II«^  iitfp 
(De  obrietote,  M.  i..3S7-d9i)>  on  Gen.  ix.  at ;  the  introduction  shows 
that  thb  book  was  preceded  by  another  whkh  put  together  the 
views  of  the  philosophers  about  drunkeaaeas.  (i3)II^To6l|b>#fMte 
U>«  xs6rtrlalf,  M.  1.  399-403),  00  Gen.  ix.  24.  (14)  Umi  oYtidbomt 
AiaMnwr  {fie  amfutiaii*  litipurumt  M.  1 404-435).  on  Gen.  xi.  t-Q. 
(15)  OcaI  iiMdat  C/>tf  nrfcmflsiMilfrniAssift,  M.  t.  436-473),onGen.  xik 
I-^  (16)  Iltfi  ro9  rit  6  tOm  Mur  vpttYMn**  kWs'Jiwi  «?ast 
rcfiMi  dmmirmi  hanti  sd,  M.  L  473«-Si8),  on  Gen.  xv.  i~i8. 
(17)  TUfi  r^  «lf  9k  wpevMtiitcrm,  ovtUw  (J)*  eontrtssm  qtuorendao 
orudiiiOHio  cauto,  M.  i.  5l9-:345).  on  Gen.  xvi.  1-6.  (18)  n^  4v)fUm 
(fio  profuiu,  M.  L  546-577)*  on  Gen.  xvL  6>14.  (19)  II<^  cfir 
iwroiofMtfaipiifwp  K«l  &r  iMca  fitnv^iktoirui  {Do  muiaiUmo  nomimtm, 
M.  i.  578-^19).  <>A  Gen.  xvH.  1-33 ;  in  thb  work  Philo  mentions  that 
he  had  written  two  books,  now  wholly  kwtp  n^  Ic^i^  (M.  i.  ^86). 

(30)  n^  rm  Ato»linrrMit  •trai  ro^  ifttpoiK  (J)e  ssmiNM,  lib.  i.,  Sf .  i. 
630-658),  on  the  two  dreams  of  Jacob,  Gen.  sxviii.  and  xxxi. 

(31)  Book  iL  of  the  same  (M.  1.  659H^).  on  the  dreams  of  Joseph, 
the  chbf  butler,  the  chief  baker,  and  Pharaoh,  Gen.  xxxvii.  and 
xl.,  xlL  Eusebius  makes  Philo  the  author  of  five  booln  00  dreams; 
three,  therefore,  are  lost. 

•  III.  A  work  of  a  very  different  kind  b  the  sroup  of.  writinn 
which  we  may  call  "  An  Exposition-of  the  Mosaic  law  lor  Gentilesi/' 
which,  in  spite  of  their  very  various  contents^  present  on  nearer 
examination  indubitable  macks  of  dose  connexion.  In  them  Philo 
seeks  to  give  an  orderly  view  of  the  chief  points  of  the  Momic 
legislation  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  to  recommend  it  as  valuable  to 
Gentile  readers.  The  method  of  exposition  b  somewhat  mors 
popular  thaa  in  the  allc|;orical  commentaries,  for,  though  that 
method  of  interpretation  is  not  whoUy  exduded,  the  main  object 
b  to  give  such  a  view  of  the  legblatlon  as  Philo  accepted  aa  ois* 
torical,  Thb  work  has  three  rnaia  diviaioiis:  (a)  an  Account  of 
the  creation  («p«|io««tta)  which  Moses  put  first  to  show  that  hb 


*  See  Opp„  ed.  Mangey.  ii.  648-680:  Mai.  op.  cii.,  vol*  vii.  pt.  i, 
96  aeq.;  tuseb.  Praep.  Bo.  vii.  13.  A  fragment  on  the  chcrubiiOt 
Exod.  XXV.  18.  has  been  pubtiahed  oy  Mai,  Class.  AmU,  iv,  430  SS9« 
by  Grossmaaa  (1856)  and  by  Tiachendorf  (p.  144  scq.)b 


4ia 


PHILO 


legi«lation  was  conformed  to  the  will  of  nature,  am)  that  therefore 
thbee  who  followed  it  were  true  cosmopolitAAB;  (fr)  the  Biographies 
of  the  Virtuou9~-b<»ng,  so  to  speak,  the  living  unwritten  laws  wnich, 
tinltke  written  la««,  present  the  general  types  of  moral  conduct: 
(c)  Legidation  Proper,  in  two  suMivisions — (a)  the  ten  principal 
chapters  of  the  law,  (B)  the  special  laws  belonging  to  each  of  these 
ten.  An  appendix  aaos  a  view  of  such  laws  as  do  not  fall  under 
the  rubrics  of  the  decalogue,  arranged  under  the  headings  of  certain 
cardinal  virtues. 

The  treatises  which  belong  to  this  work  are  the  following:  (i)  Utpl 
fv  Mumkai  mai^omAvt  (J)*  mttndi  officio,  M.  i.  1-42).  This  work 
does  not  fall  within  the  number  01  the  allegorical  commentaries. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  introduction  to  the  treatise  D«  Abrahamo 
makes  clear  its  immediate  connexion  with  the  De  mundi  opificio. 
The  position  of  the  Dt  mundi  officio  at  the  head  of  the  allegorical 
commentaries,  whkh  is  at  present  usual  in  the  editions,  seems  indeed 
to  go  back  to  a  very  eady  date,  for  even  Eusebius  cites  a  passa^ 
from  it  with  the  formula  d«&  roO  vpiiron  tQv  «If  rAr  961W0  {Praep.  Eq. 
viti.  12  fin.,  ed.  Gaisford).  The  group  of  the  BIm  tfo^wr  is  headed 
by  (a)  Bfoi  9o^iA  rotf  cord  MoattikUM  rtK&uJUnnot  4  r^pi  p6i»U9  iiyp64u0 
\6].  6  km  v<aI  'Afipcti^t -{De  AbrahamOf  M.  ii.  i-*4o).  Abraham 
IS  here  set  forth  as  the  type  of  iiiuaK^KutH  dpcr^,  «>.  of  virtue  as  a 
thing  learned.  This  biography  of  Abraham  was  followed  by  that 
of  Isaac  as  a  type  of  ^vaud^  ifitr^,  «>.  of  innate  or  natural  virtue, 
which  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Tacob  as  representing  Inmrutii 
AptHii  ix.  virtue  acquired  by  practice;  but  both  these  are  now  lost. 
H^nce  in  the  editions  the  next  treatise  is  (3)  Bto  mkiruAt  trtp  ivrl 
vcpl  luoM  {De  Josepho,  M.  ii.  ^i-yg),  where  Joseph  is  taken  as  the 
pattern  of  the  wise  man  in  his  civil  relations.  Ttie  Biographies  of 
the  Virtuous  are  followed  by  (4)  Utpl  ru^  U«a  XonrUm  &  m^i&XaMi 
P^IMV  Oai  iDtdeealogo,  M.  it  i8(>-209)  and  (5)  Utpl  rwr  i^oHfiopAww 
y  «t8tt  961UIW  dt  rd  9wrdn^a  ca^dXoia  rfir  iUa  VAirwr  (De 
specialihus  UiSms;  the  unabridged  title  is  given  by  Eusebius,  H.B.  iL 
18,  5).  Here  under  the  rubrics  of  the  ten  commandments  a  system- 
atic review  Of  the  roeeial  laws  of  the  Mosaic  economy  is  given;  for 
example,  under  the  first  and  second  commandments  (divine  worship) 
a  survey^  is  taken  of  the  entire  legislation  relating  to  priesthood 
and  sacrifice;  under  the  fourth  («.«.  the  Sabbath  law,  according  to 
niito's  reckoning)  there  is  a  survey  of  all  the  laws  about  feasts; 
under  the  sixth  (adultery)  an  account  of  matrimonial  law;  and  so 
on.  According  to  Eusebius  the  work  embraced  four  books,  which 
teem  to  have  reached  us  fentire,  but  in  the  editions  have  bees 
perversely  broken  up  into  a  considerable  number  of  separate 
tractates,  (a)  The  first  book  (on  the  first  and  second  command- 
ments) includes  the  folk>wing:  De  circumcisiene  (M.  ii.  310-212); 
De  menarckmi  lib.  i.  (m.  2ii;^22) ;  De  mauorckio,  lib.  ii.  (ii.  232-2321 ; 
De  praemiis  sacerdotMm  (ii.  233-337);  De  victimis  (ii.  837-3501; 
De  saer^leaMtibuSt  or  De  victtmas  eJ^erentUtus  (ii.  2^1-364);  De 
mtfcede  merelrieis  mm  accipienda  %n  sacrarium  (ii.  364-369). 
(6)  The  second  book  (on  the  tnnxi,  fourth  and  fifth  commandments, 
tx.  on  perjury,  Sabbath  d>servance,  and  filial  piety)  is  incomplete 
in  Mangey  Qi.'  370-308]^,  the  section  De  utienarie  (on  the  Saboath 
and  feasts  in  general)  bong  imperfect,  and  tnat  De  cehndis  pareutibus 
being  entirely  wanting.  Mai  to  a  large  extent  made  good  the  defect 
{De  eopkinifesto  ei  de  colendisparenltbus,  Milan,  1818),  but  Tischen- 
docf  was  the  first  to  edit  the  full  text  {Pkihneth  pp>  1-83).  U)  The 
third  book  relates  to  the  sixth  and  seventh  commandments  (aaultery 
and  murder;  M.  ii.  399-334).  (d)  To  the  fourth  book  (relating  to 
the  last  three  commandments)  belongs  all  that  u  found  in  Mangey, 
ii.  335-374«  that  is  to  say,  not  merely  the  tractates  Dejudice  (ii.  344-^ 
348)  and  De  eoncupiueniia  (ii.  348-358),  but  also  those  De  jusMta 
(u.  358-361)  and  De  creatione  prindpum  (iL  361-374).  The  last- 
namecl  is,  properly  speaking,  only  a  portion  of  tne  DejusiUia, 
which,  however,  certainly  belongs  to  the  fourth  book,  of  which  the 
supencription  expressly  beara  that  it  treats  also  npl  iueimaifip* 
With  this  tractate  begins  the  appendix  to  the  work  De  speciatibus 
legibus^  into  which,  under  the  rubric  of  oeitain  caidinaJ  virtues, 
such  Mosaic  laws  are  brought  together  as  cookl  not  be  dealt  with 
under  any  of  the  decak)gue  rubrics.  The  contintiation  of  this 
appendix  forms  a  book  by  itself.  (6)  Utpl  rpcAr  d^«rdr  fim  npl 
Mptlas  get  ^\u96pfarUts  $fl  pitTvtia*  {De  fertUudine,  M.  ii.  375- 
^3:  De  carUate,  ii.  383^-405:  De  foenHeniia,  iL  405-407).  Finally, 
in  less  intimate  connexion  with  this  entire  work  is  another  treatise 
•till  to  be  mentioned,  (7)  U»pl  t0\m  tal  knnpLm  {De  fraemiis  ei 
poenitf  M.  ii.  406^438)  cuod  TLfl  kpQm  {De  execraHombus,  M.  ii. 
429-457),  two  parts  which  constitute  a  nnglc  whole  and  deal  with 
the  promises  and  threatenings  of  the  law. 

IV.  Beddea  the  above-nauned  three  great  works  00  the  Penta- 
teuch, Philo  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  isolated  writings,  of 
which  the  following  have  reached  us  either  in  their  entirety  or  in 
fiagments.  (1)  Utpi  fiUm  UuHm  (Vita  Mosu,  lib.  L-nl..  M.  ii. 
80-179).  It  is  usual  to  group  thb,  aa  beina  biographkal  in  its 
chaiaetcr,  with  the  B(m  c«aAi>,  and  thus  to  incorporate  it  imme- 
diately after  the  De  Jeeepko  with  the  laige  work  on  the  Mosak: 
legislation.  But,  as  has  been  seen,  the  Wm.  «o^Ar  are  intended  to 
represent  the  general  types  of  morality,  ikhite  Moses  is  by  no  means 
•o  deak  with,  but  as  a  unique  individual.  Ail  that  can  be  said  is 
that  the  Kterary  character  of  the  Vita  Metis  Is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Utrger  work.  "As  in  the  latter  the  Mosaic  legislation,  so  in  the 
(brracr  the  activity  of  the  kglslator  himMlf ,  is  deliaeatad  for  tha 


benefit  of  GcntikTreaderL  <3)  Il«pl  reS  rArra  eamloSar  iStmt  il>rfi^yr 
f^^uod  omnis^  probus  libefj,  M.  ii.  445'-470).  In  the  introduction 
to  this  treatise  reference  is  made  to  an  earlier  book  which  had  for 
its  theme  the  converse  proposition.  The  complete  work  was 
still  extant  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  (//.  JB.  it.  18,  6):  n^  n»  leBKam 
<Z»a*  ydrrtt^afiXar,  &4(ft  ierhiwtpl  mg  ir^ara  saosJcucr  l^d$epw  ehfou 
The  genuineness  ol  the  writing  now  possessed  by  us  is  not  undis- 
puted: but  see  Lucius.  Der  lu:'senismus  (1S81),  pp.'  13-23.  (3) 
Els  ^Xdnor  {Adversiu  Flaccum,  M.  ii.  SI?"S44.)  and  (4)  II«pt  iip«rS0 
tal  rpt€0dae  rpbt  TiXoif  {De  letaiieiie  id  Guium;  M.  ii.  545-600). 
These  two  worics  have  a  very  intimate  oonncadon*  la  the  first 
Phtlo  relates  how  the  Roman  governor  Flaccus  in  Alexandria, 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Caligula,  allowed  the  Alex- 
andrian mob,  without  interference,  to  insult  the  Jews  of  that  city 
in  the  grossest  manner,  and  even  to  persecute  them  to  the  shedding 
of  bkmd.  In  the  seooad  he  tdls  how  the  Jewa  had  been  subjected 
to  still  greater  suCTerings  through  the  command  of  Caligula  that 
divine  honours  should  oe  everywhere  accorded  to  him,  and  how 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria  in  vain  sought  relief  by  a  mission  to  Rome 
which  was  headed  by  Phila  But  both  together  were  oidy  parts  of 
a  larger  work,  in  five  books,  of  which  the  fint  two  ana  the  hat 
have  perished.  For  it  is  dear  from  the  introduction  to  the  Adeersms 
Ftaccum  that  it  had  been  preceded  by  another  book  in  which  the 
Jewish  persecutions  by  Sejanus,  under  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  were 
spoken  of,  and .  the  Chrimicen  of  Easebius  (ed.  Schoene,  iL 
150,  151)  informs  us  that  these  penecutions  of  S^jaaua  were 
related  in  the  second  book  of  the  work  now  imder  discussion.  But 
from  the  conclusion  of  the  Legatio  ad  Caium,  which  we  still  oosrsil 
we  learn  that  it  was  also  followed  by  another  book  which  exhibited 
the  ToXtfi^Ia,  or  change  of  Jewish  fortunes  for  the  better.  Thus 
we  make  out  five  books  in  all-^the  bumbcr  actually  given  by 
Eusebius  {H.E.  ii.  5.  x).  (5}  Uipl  Tpofelas  {De  praeidenlta);  Tha 
work  has  reached  us  only  m  an  Armenian  translatioii,  whidi  haa 
been  edited,  with  a  Latin  translation,  by  Aucher  (see  below),  1823. 
It  is  mentioned  by  its  Greek  title  in  Eusebius  {H.E.  ii.  18,  6;  Praep. 
£v.  viL  ao  fin.,  viiL  13  fin.,  ed.  Gaisford).  The  Armenian  teat 
gives  two  books,  but  of  these  the  first,  if  genuine  at  all,  at  any 
rate  appears  only  in  an  abridged  and  somewhat  revisoa  stated 
Eusebius  {Praep.  Ep.  viii.  14)  quotes  from  the  second  book  to  an 
extent  that  amounts  to  a  series  of  excerpts  from  the  whole.  The 
short  passage  in  Pra^,  Be.  viL  3i,  is  abo  taken  from  this  book; 
and  it  appean  that  EuBebiua  knew  nothing  at  all  about  the  first. 
(6)'AXUai>5Aot  4  rtpl  roO  \trft»  f x<crA  <\oTa  fda(Pc  AUxandro  eljmcd 
propriam  rationem  muta  aninuuia  kabeant;  so  Jerome,  De  Vir.  JU.  c 
11) ;  the  Greek  title  is  given  in  Euseb.  H.E.  iL  X8,  6,  Thw  also  nov 
exists  only  in  an  Armenian  translation,  which  has  been  edited  fay 
Aucher.  Two  small  Greek  fragments  occur  in  the  Flerilegkim 
of  Leontius  and  Johannes  (Mai,  Scr,  vet.  nov.  coU,  vii.  i,  pp.  09,  xooa). 
(7)  Tiroficrucd,  a  writing  now  known  to  us  only  through  fmgmenta 
preserved  in  Euseb.  Praep.  Be.  viii.  6,  7.  Tne  title,  as  Benuys* 
has  shown,  means  "  Counsels,"  "  Recommendation^**  the  refeceaoe 
being  to  such  laws  of  the  Jews  as  can  be  recommended  also  to  ooo* 
Jewish  readers.  (8)  Utpl  'lovSalwr.a  title  met  with  in  Euseb.  £r.£.  u. 
18, 6.  The  writing  is  no  doubt  the  same  as  *H  bitip"  IovS«I«r  hmiUrflm, 
from  which  a  quotation  is  given  in  Euseb.  Praep'.  Ee.  viii.  11.  To 
this  place  also,  perhaps,  belongs  the  De  naUfttete  (M.  iL  437-444). 
whico  treats  of  that  true  noblesM  of  wisdom  in  which  the  Jewish 
people  also  is  not  wanting.' 

V.  The  doubtful  treatises:  (l)  IIcpl  filw  BrnpntrutA  |  lordr 
iptrdie  {De  vita  contemplatrpa).  This  contains  the  sole  cmeinal 
account  of  an  ascetic  community  known  as  the  Therapeutae  qta) 

having  their  home  on  the  shorea  of  Lake  Mareotia.    Thcae 

held  by  Eusebius  and  many  other  Christian  writers  to  be  the  e 
Christian  monks,  which  of  course  could  not  be  the  case  if  it^ 
genuine  work  of  Philo.  On  this  account,  amongst  others,  it  was 
held  to  be  spurious  by  Graets  and  P.  E.  Lucius;  and  this  view 
gradually  received  the  assent  of  most  modem  scholars.  Latterly, 
however,  L.  Massebieau  has  shown  with  great  thoroughness  that 
in  language  and  thought  alike  it  is  essentially  Phtlonic.  and  the 
genuineness  of  the  book  has  also  been  affirmed  by  P.  Wendland, 
and  especially  by  F.  C.  Ccnybeare.  (3)  Utpl  d^oiwfss  wtirj— 
(Pe  incorruptibUtlate  maadt),  declared  unauthentic  by  Z.  Frankcl 
and  J.  Bernays,  has  been  successfully  defended  by  F.  Cumont. 

(3)  n^  «c6r|iaw  {De  tnuudo).  It  is  generally  agreed  that,  in  L. 
Cohn's  words,  this  is  "  nothing  but  a  compilation  from  various 
portions  of  the  vepi   du^upotas  wbepuon  and  other  Philonic  worics.** 

(4)  Two  discourses,  De  Sampsene  and  De  lena,  extant  only  in  Armen- 
ian, and  certain  other  writings  of  the  same  kind.  These  appear 
only  to  have  been  imputed  to  Philo  by  chance,  and^certainly  cannot 
claim  to  be  his  worx.  (5)  Utpl  toO  vdrra  ^vovioiar  ttfoi  OiMi»w 
(Qued  omnis  probus  liber  sU)  has  been  questioned  by  Z.  Frankcl 
and  R.  Ansfcid ;  but  their  arguments  would  rather  point  to  its  being 

an  early  work  of  Phik>,  which  P.  Wendland  believes  to  be  the 

(6)  n«/it  rpemotae  {De  pravidentia),  which   we 

>  See  Diels,  Doxoerapki  Craeci,  1879,  pp.  1-4;  ZcUcr,  PkC  d.  Gr. 
111.  3.  p.  340  (3rd  ed). 


i.  3.  p.  340  (3rd  ed). 

>  Monatsb.  d.  Berl.  Akad.  (1876),  pp.  580-609. 

>  This  conjecture  is  Dttue's,  TM.  JM  «.  Krtt,  (i«33). 


1037. 


IV'99"» 


PHILO  OF  BYZANTIUM— PHILODEMUS 


♦»3 


«ily  in  M  AnMiuan  vcteion.  comistftof  two  books,  the  fint  ^  wlA:h 
appears  to  be  in  a  Chriatian  recension,  but  there  a  no  reason  for 
denying  Ets  Philunic  origin. 

Editions. — ^Till  recent  days  the  best  edition  was  that  of  Mangcy 
(a  vols.,  London,  174a) ;  the  handkst  the  Holm  duodecimo  (Leipzig, 
iSsi).  Both  are  stilt  very  useful,  but  for  scholars  they  will  be  super- 
seded by  the  enlaigcd  and  critical  edition  of  Leopold  Cohn  and 
Paul  Wendland  (Berlin,  i896r>i90j).  See  also  papers  by  Cohn  in 
Hermes,  xxxviii.  (1903)  and  xliii.  (1908).  There  is  an  English  trans- 
lation of  the  old  text  by  C  D.  Yonge  (4  vols.,  London,i854). 

Literature. — ^Thc  best  special  s>tudics  of  fltilo  will  tic  found  in 
SJegtried,  Fkilo  «m  Alex.  (jcna.  1675);  Drummorul^  Phila-Judaevs 
<London,  1888).  For  his  place  in  pnilosoDhy,  see  zdlcr,  PkU.  der 
Griecken  (1881}.  For  his  relation  to  Piuestinian  speculation,  B. 
Rittcr,  Pk'do  und  die  lialacha  (Leipzig,  1879}.  An  excellent  gcnenil 
account  will  be  found  in  SchQrer,  Tn$  Jewish  People  in  Ike  time  oj 
Jesns  Christ  (Eng.  trans.,  1891),  or  in  Dr  Edcrshcrm'&.  article 
on  Philo  in  the  DteHotuir^  of  Christian  Biopaphv. '  For  the  question 
of  the  genuineness  and  historical  value  of  the  De  vita  eontemphlira, 
sec  L  Massebieau,  in  Revue  de  Fhistoire  des  religions,  vol  xvL  (Paris, 
1887) :  F.  (1  Conybcare,  Philo:  AbptU  the  Contemplattue  Life  (Qxford. 
'895);  G.  Fayot,  Etudes  sur  Us  thirapeutes  (Ccnivc,  1880),  P  E. 
Lucius,  Die  Therapeuten  CSHnaeburg,  1880);  P.  Wendland.  Die 
Therapeuten  (Leipzig,  1896).  Also  F.  Cumont,  Philo,  de  aet.  mMitdi 
(1891);  J.  Bernays  in  the  Ahhand.  der  k,  Akad.  der  Wtu.  (1876}. 

(E.  S.*;  C  Bi.) 

PHILO    OP    BTZAHTIUM.    Greek    writer    on    mechanics, 

flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.  (according 

to  some,  a  century  earlier).    He  was  the  author  of  a  large  work 

Mtixayucfl  airyra^is),  of   which   the   fourth  and  (in  epitome) 

fifth  books  are  extant,  treating  of  missiles^  the  construction  o£ 

fortresses,  provisioning,  attack  and  defence  (ed.  R.  Schonc.  1893, 

with  German  translation  in  H.  Kochly^s  Gricchische  Kricgs- 

schriflstdt^iTy  vol.  i.  1853;  E.  A.  Roch.is  d*AigIun,  PdiorcHique 

des  Crccs,  1873).    Another  portion  of  the  work,  on  pneumatic 

engines,  has  been  preserved  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  translation 

{De  ingcniis  spiritualibus)  made  from  an  Arabic  version  (cd. 

W.  Schmidt,  with  German  translation,  in  the  works  of  Heron  of 

Alexandria,  vol.  L,  in  "Tcubncr  Scries,"  1899;  with  French 

translation  by  Rochas,  La  Science  des  phihsophes  .  .  .  dam 

rantiquili,  1883). 

A  httlc  treatise  On  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  wrongly 
attributed  to  Philo,  probably  l)eli>ngs  to  the  6th  century  a.d  It 
is  printed  in  R.  Hercncr's  Adian  (1856). 

PHILO  OP  LARISSA.  Greek  philosopher  of  the  ftrst  half  of 
the  ist  century  B.C.  During  the  Mithradatit  Wnrs  he  left 
Athens  and  took  up  his  readcnce  in  Rome.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
CJitomachus,  whom  he  succeeded  as  head  of  the  Third  or  New 
Academy.  Aooording  to  Sextua  Empiricus,  he  was  the  loimder 
of  tb«  Fourth  Academy,  but  other  wrilcn  refuse  to  admit  the 
separate  existence  of  more  than  three  academics  (see  Agaocmy, 
Greek).  Ja  Rome  he  lectured  on  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  and 
collected  around  him  many  eminent  pupib,  amongst  whom 
Cicero  was  the  most  famous  and  the  most  enthusiastic  None 
of  his  works  b  extant;  our  knowledge  of  his  views  is  derived 
from  Numcnius,  Sextus  Empiricus  and  Cicero.  Ir  general,  his 
philosophy  was  a  pcaction  against  the  sceptic  or  agnostic  position 
of  the  Middle  and  New  Academy  in  favour  of  the  dogmatism  of 

Plato. 

Sec  Grysar,  Die  A  kademiker  Philo.  und  A  ntiachus  ( 1 849) ;  Hcnnann, 
De  Philone  Larissaeo  (Ckittingcn,  1851  and  1855). 

PHILO,  HERENNIUS,  of  Byblus,  Greek  grammarian,  was 
born,  according  to  Suld4s,  in  a.d.  42.  He  lived  into  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  of  which  he  wrote  a  history,  now  lost.  He  was  the 
author  of  various  works:  On  Ike  Acquisition  and  Choice  of  Books; 
On  CUics  and  their  F^ttnous  Men,  epitomized  by  the  grammarian 
Aclius  Serenos,  and  one  of  the  chief  authorities  used  by 
llcsychiu^  and  Stephanus  of  Bysantium;  On  Synonyms,  of  which 
there  is  extant  an  epitome  by  Ammonius  Grammaticus.  But  he 
is  chiefly  known  for  his  translation  of  the  Phoenician  history  of 
Sanchuniathon,  who  was  said  to  have  lived  before  the  Trojan 
war  Of  this  work  considerable  fragments  have  been  preserved, 
chiefly  by  Eusebius  in  the  Praeparatio  evangelica  (\  9, 10;  iv  16). 
They  present  a  euhemeristic  rtchaufi  of  Phoenician  theol<^ 
and  mythology,  whiah  is  represented  as  translated  from  the 
original  Phoenician.  Sanchuniathon  ts  probably  an  imaginary 
personage,  whose  name  is  formed  from  that  of  the  Phoenician 
god  Sanchon. 


Editions  of  «he  fifif^moats  by  J.  C  OreHi  {i8t6)  aad  C  Milfcr, 

Frai.  hut.  graec.  vol.  lii.  In  1836  F.  Wageaicld  brooght  out  what 
claimed  to  be  a  complete  translation  by  Philo  (from  a  MS.  discovered 
in  a  convent  in  Portugal,  now  considered  spurious).  There  are 
EngKsh  tnnslatioos  by  1.  P.  Cory  (i8»8)  and  Bishop  R.  Cumberiand 
(I7*>). 

PHILOCHORUSk  of  Athens,  Greek  historian  daring  the  ^rd 
century  b  c,  was  a  member  of  a  priestly  family.  He  was  a  seer 
and  interpreter  of  signs,  and  a  man  of  considerable  influence. 
He  was  strongly  anti-Macedonian  in  politics,  and  a  bitter  oppo< 
oent  of  Demetrius  PoUoroetes.  When  Antlgonus  Gonatos,  the 
son  of  the, latter,  besieged  and  captured  Athens  (»6i), 
Philochorus  was  put  to  death  lor  havbig  supported  Ptekmy 
Philaddphus,  who  had  encouragsd  the  Athenians  in  their 
resistance  to  Macedonia.  His  investigations  into  the  usages 
and  customs  of  his  native  Attica  were  embodied  In  an  Atthis^ 
in  seventeen  books,  a  history  of  Athens  from  the  earliest  times 
to  263  B.C  Considerable  Iragments  axe  preserved  in -the 
lexicographers,  scholiasts,  Athcnaeus,  and  elsewhere.  The  work 
was  epitomized  by  the  author  himself,  and  Later  1^  Asinius 
PoUio  of  Tralles  (perhaps  a  frcedman  of  the  famous  Gaius 
Asioius  PoUio).  Philochorus  also  wrote  on  oracles,  divination 
and  sacrifices;  the  mythology  and  religious  observances  of  the 
tetrapolis  of  Attica;  the  myths  of  Sophocles;  the  lives  of  £uri« 
pides  and  Pythagoras;  the  foundation  of  Salarois.  He  compiled 
chronological  lists  of  the  archons  and  Olympiads,  and  made  a 
collection  of  Attic  inscriptions,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Greece, 

Fragments  and  life  in  C  W.  Milller,  Fragmenta  hisloricorum 
graecorum,  vol.  i.  (1841):  A.  Bdckh,  Cesammeltekleine  SchrWen,  vol. 
v.  (1871),  on  the  plan  of  the  work  j  J.  Strenge,  Quaestiones  philochoreae 
(Gdttingfn,  i868>:  C.  Wachsmutri,  Einteituug  in  das  Studium  der 
aUen  Ceschkhtt  (1895). 

PHILOCTBTES,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Poeas  king  of  the 
Malians  of  Mt  Oeta,  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen  and  a  celebrated 
hero  of  the  Trojan  War.  Homer  mcrdy  states  that-  he  was 
distingtiished  for  his  prowess  with  the  bow;  that  he  was  bitten 
by  a  snake  on  the  Journey  to  Troy  and  k:ft  behind  in  the  inland 
of  Lemnos;  and  that  ne  subsequently  returned  home  in  safety. 
These  brief  allusions  were  elaborated  by  the  **  cyclic  "  poets, 
and  the  adventures  of  Philoctctes  formed  the  subject  of  tragedies 
by  Aeschylus,  Sbphoclcs  and  Euripides.  In  the  later  form  of 
tite  stoiy  Philoctctes  was  the  friend  and  armour-beartr  of 
Heracles,  who  presented  him  with  his  bow  and  poisoned  arrows 
as  a  reward  for  kindling  the  Urc  on  Mt  Oeta,  on  which  the  hem 
immobtod  himself.  Philoctetes  remained  at  Lemnos  tiU  the 
tenth  year  of  the  war.  An  oracle  having  declared  that  Troy 
could  not  be  token  withoot  the  anrows  of  Heracles,  Odysseus 
and  DIomedos  (or  Neopfolemus)  were  sent  to  fetch  Philoctetes. 
On  his  arrival  before  Troy  he  was  healed  of  his  wound  by 
Machaon,  and  slew  IHiris;  shortly  afterwards  the  city  was 
taken.  On  his  return  to  his  own  country,  finding  that  a  rev'olt 
had  broken  out  agaimt  him,  he  again  took  ship  and  sailed  for 
luly,  where  he  founded  Petilia  and  Cremisaa.  He  fell  fighting 
on  the  side  of  a  band  of  Rhodisn  colonists  against  some  later 
immigrants  from  PaUene  in  Achaea.  His  tomb  and  sanctuary 
were  shown  at  Moealla,  on  the  coast  of  Bnsttium. 

Of  the  Aeschylcon  and  EuripMean  tragedies  only  a  ttfw  frasments 
remaiin;  of  the  two  by  Sophodcs^  one  is  extant,  the  other,  dealing 
with  the  fortunes  of  Philocictvs  hcfo^  Troy^  is  lost.  Some  light  is 
thrown  upon  the  lost  plays  by  Dio  Chrysostom,  who  in  one  of  his 
discourses  (52)  describes  his  reading  of  the  three  tragedies,  and  In 
another  (^)  gives  a  prose  version  of  the  opening  of  the  Philoctetes 
of  *  Euripides.  Pliiloctctca  was  also  the  aubjcct  of  tragedies  by 
Arhocus  of  Erctria,  Euphorion  of  Chalcis  and  the  Roman  tragedian 
Accius.  According  to  F,  Marx  {Neue  Jahrbucher  fUr  das  Idasstsche 
Altertum,  1904,  p.  073-685).  Phitoctetes  did  not  appear  in  the  original 
le^d  of  Troy.  He  is  a  form  of  the  Lemnian  Hephaestus^  who 
alighted  on  the  island  when  fiong  out  of  Olympus  ay  Zeus.  Like 
him,  he  is  (amc  and  an  outcast  for  nine  ypars;  Jike  him^^he  as  bipoght 
back  in  time  of  need.  His  connexion  with  the  fall  of  Troy  indkates 
that  the  fire-god  himself  set  fire  to  the  city;  in  like  manner  no  other 
than  the  fire^god  was  thought  worthy  to  kindle  the  pyre  of  Heradesi 

Sec  Homer.  Iliad,  ii.  718,  Odyssey,  iii.  190^  viii^  019;  Sophockt, 
Philoctetes,  and  Jcbb's  Introduction;  Diod.  Sic.  iv.  38;  Philostratus, 
fferoica,  6;  Strabo  vi.  254:  HjTjinus,  Fab.  36,  loa. 

PHILODEMUS,  Epicurean  philosopher  and  poet,  was  bom 
at  Gadara  in  Coeht-Syria  early  in  the  ist  centuty  B.C.,  and 


414 


PHILOLAU9— PHILOLOGY 


scltled  in  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero.    He  was  a  friend  of 

Calpumtus  Pibo,  and  was  implicated  in  his  profligacy  by  Cicero 

(in  Pisonem,  29),  who,  however,  praises  him  warmly  for  his 

philosophic  views  and  for  the  eUgans  iascma  of  hb  poems 

(cf«  Horace,  S(Uiresi  1.  a.  120).    The  Greek  anthology  contains 

thirty-four  of  his  epigrams.    From  the  excavations  of  the 

villa  at  Hcrctilancum  (9.0.)  there  have  been  recovered  thirty* 

^  treatises  attributed  to  Philodemus,  aad  it  has  been  suggested 

that  the  villa  was  actually  owned  by  him;  but  thb  is  generally 

denied.    These  works  dad  with  music,  rhetoric,  ethics,  signs, 

virtues  and  vices,  and  defend  the  Epicurean  standpoint  against 

the  Stoics  and  the  Pmpatetics. 

The  Rhfhric  has  been  edited  by  Sudhaus  (1893-189$):  the  Pc 
Ira  and  the  De  PUtaU  by  Gorapcrz  (1864  to  1865):  the  De  Afustca 
by  Kcmplcc  (1884):  P«  Vitiis  by  Ussing  (1868):  De  AforU  by  Mcklcr 

ii886).    See  UerciU.  Volunt.  (Oxford,  1824  and  1861);  Mayor  on 
Ikero't  Dt  Natura  deorum  (1871). 

PHILOLAUS  (b.  e.  480),  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Pytha- 
gorean school,  was  bom  at  Tarentum  or  at  Ootona  *  (so  Diog. 
Lai^rt.  viit.  84).  He  was  said  to  have  been  intimate  with 
Democritus,  and  was  probably  one  of  his  teachers.  After  the 
death  of  Pythagoras  great  dissensions  prevailed  in  the  cities  of 
lower  Italy.  According  to  some  accounts,  Philolaus;  obliged 
to  flee,  took  refuge  first  in  Lucania  and  then  at  Thebes,  where 
he  had  as  pupils  Simmias  and  Ccbes,  who  subsequently,  being 
still  young  men  (Mayf<rKoi),were  present  at  the  death  of  Socrates. 
Before  thb  Philolaus  had  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  was  the 
teacher  of  Archytas.  He  entered  deeply  into  the  distinctively 
Pythagorean  number  theory,  particubrly  dwelling  on  the 
properties  inherent  in  the  decad — the  sum  of  the  first  four 
numbers,  consequently  the  fourth  triangular  number,  the  Idrattys 
(see  VU.  Pyikag.  ap.  Phoi,  Bibl.  p.  7x2)— which  he  called  great, 
all-powerful,  and  all-producing.  The  great  Pythagorean  oath 
was  taken  by  the  sacred  Mradyt.  The  discovery  of  the  regular 
solids  is  attributed  to  Pythagoras  by  Eudemus,  and  Empedodes 
is  stated  to  have  been  the  first  who  maintained  that  there  are 
four  elements.  PhiIolaus»  connecting  these  ideas,  held  that  the 
elementary  nature  of  bodies  depends  en  their  form,  and  assigned 
the  tetrahedron  to  fire,  the  octahedron  to  air,  the  icosahcdron 
to  water,  and  the  cube  to  earth;  the  dodecahedron  he  assigned 
to  a  fifth  element,  aether,  or,  as  some  think,  to  the  universe 
(see  Plut.  de  PL  Ph.  ii.  6,  ic  5^  roC  iuUKoHpao  r^v  roC  rayr6t 
a^a«pa#  and  Stob.  Ed,  Phyt.  L  xoi  h  rut  o^alpas  6Xx6s).  This 
theory,  however  superficial  from  the  standpoint  of  observation, 
indicates  considerable  knowledge  of  geometry  and  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  the  study  of  the  science.  Following  Parmenidcs* 
Philolaus  regarded  the  soul  as  a  "  mixture  and  harmony  "  of 
the  bodily  parts;  he  also  assumed  a  substantial  soul,  whose 
existence  in  the  body  is  an  exile  oh  account  of  sin. 

Philolaus  was  the  first  to  propound  the  doctrine  of  the  motion 
of  the  earth;  some  attribute  thb  doctrine  to  Pythagoras,  but 
there  b  no  evidence  in  support  of  their  view.  Philolaus  supposed 
that  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  the  five  planets,  the  sun,  moon 
and  earth,  all  moved  round  the  Central  fire,  which  he  called  the 
hearth  of  the  universe,  the  house  of  Zeus,  and  the  mother  of 
the  gods* (see  Stob.  Ed.  Phyt.  i.  488);  but  as  these  made  up 
only  nine  revolving  bodies  he  conceived,  in  accordance  with  his 
number  theory,  a  tenth,  which  he  called  counter-earth,  kmix^tav. 
He  supposed  the  sun  to  be  a  dbk  of  glass  which  reflects  the  light 
of  the  universe.  He  made  the  lunar  month  consist  of  29)  days, 
the  lunar  year  of  354,  and  dte  solar  year  of  365I  days.  He  was 
the  first  who  publbhed  a  book  on  the  Pythagorean  doctrines, 
a  treatise  of  which  Plato  made  use  in  the  composition  of  his 
Timaeus.  Thb  work  of  the  Pythagorean,  to  which  the  mystical 
name  Bdicxfu  b  sometimes  given,  seems  to  have  consisted 
of  three  books:  (i)  Hfpt  c^tfyioe,  containing  a  general  account 
of  the  origin  and  arrangement  of  the  universe;  (2)  IIcpl  ^ua««)t, 
an  exposition  of  the  nature  of  numbers;  (3)  VUfX  ivx^tt  on 
the  nature  of  the  souL 

^  Boeckh  places  his  life  between  the  70th  and  95th  OlymjMads 
(49^396  B.C.).  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates  and  Democritus, 
but  aeaior  to  them,  and  was  probably  somewhat  junior  to  Empe- 
<iocln^  so  that  hb  btnh  may  be  placed  at  about  480. 


See  Boeckh,  Pkildaus  des  Pythattfeers  Lekreu  nehtt  de»  Brwdt- 
sticken  seines  Werkes  (Ucrlin.  1819):  Schaarschmidr.  Dm  anttUkkt 
SchnftsUlierei  des  Philolaus  (1864):  also  Fabriciaft.  BiUioUuu 
graecai  Zcller,  History  0/  Greek  Philosophy  i  Cha^net,  Pttkatm 
et  la  philosophie  pythagoncieune,  coMlenatU  lesfrapnents  de  rkildaa 
cl  d'ArehitttS  (1873):  Th.  Comperx.  Creeh  Thtukers  (Eng.  trau. 
(1901),  i.  123  son..  §43  sqq.  and  authorities  there  quoted  ;'also  art 
PvTUACORAS.  For  fragments  see  Ritter  and  PreUer,  Hia.  PhUosopk 
ch.  iL 

PHIL0UX27,  the  generally  accepted   comprehcnshre  name 
for  the  study  of  the  word  (Gr.  X670S),  or  languages;  it  designates 
that  branch  of  knowledge  which  dcab  with  human  speech,  and 
with  all  that  speech  discloses  as  to  the  nature  and  history  o( 
man.    Philology  has  two  principal   divbions,  corresponding 
to  the  two  uses  of.  "  word  "  or  *'  speech,"  as  signifying  either 
what  is  said  or  the  language  in  which  it  b  said,  as  either  the 
thought  expressed — which,  when  recorded,  takes  the  form  of 
literature — or   the   instrumentality   of    its   expression:   thesa 
divisions  are  the  literary  and  the  linguistic.    Not  all  study  <A 
literature,  indeed,  b  philological:  as  when,  for  example,  the 
records  of  the  ancient  Chinese  are  ransacked  (or  notices  of 
astronomical  or  meteorological  phenomena»  or  the  principles  of 
geometry  are  learned  from  the  textbook  of  a  Creek  sage;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  study  Ptolemy  and  Euclid  for  the  history 
of  the  sciences  represented  by  them  b  philological  more  than 
scientific.    Again,  the  study  of  bnguage  itself  has  its  literary 
side:  as  when  the  vocabubry  of  a  community  (say  of  the  aiKient 
Indo-Europcans  or  Aryans)  b  taken  as  a  document  from  whirb 
to  Infer  the  range  and  grade  of  knowledge  of  its  speakers,  their 
circumstances  and  their  institutions.    The  two  divisions  thus 
do  not  admit  of  absolute  distinction  and  separation,  though 
for  some  time  past  tending  toward  greater  independence.   The 
literary  is  the  older  of  the  two;  it  even  occupied  until  recenlly 
the  whole  field,  since  the  scientific  study  of  language  itself  has 
arisen  only  within  the  iQlh  century.    Till  then,  literary  philology 
included  linguistic,  as  a  merely  subordinate  and  auxiliary  part, 
the  knowledge  of  a  language  being  the  necessary  key  to  a  know* 
ledge  of  the  literature  written  in  that  bnguage.    When,  there- 
fore, instead  of  studying  each  language  by  itself  for  the  sake 
of  its  own  literature  men  bcgam  to  compare  one  language  with 
another,  in  order  to  bring  to  lljght  their  relationsSiips,  their 
structures,  their  hbtorics,  the  name  "comparative  philology** 
naturally  enough  suggested  itself  and  came  into  use  K»r  the  new 
method,  and  thb  name,  awkward  and  trivial  though  it  may  be, 
has  become  so  firmly  fixed  in  English  usage  that  It  can  be  only 
slowly,  if  at  all,  displaced.    European  usage  '(especially  Cierman) 
tends  more  strongly  than  Englbh  to  restrict  the  name  i^ibkgy 
to  its  older  office,  and  to  employ  for  the  recent  branch  of  know* 
ledge  a  specific  term,  like  those  that  have  gained  iliore  or  ka 
currency  with  us  also;  as  glottic,  glossology,  linguistics,  linguistic 
science,  science  of  language,  and  the  like.    It  n  not  a  question 
of  absolute  propriety  or  correctness,  since  the  word  philology 
is  in  its  nature  wide  enough  to  imply  all  language-study  of 
whatever  kind;  it  h  one,  rather,  of  the  convenient  dbtinctioa 
of  methods  that  have  grown  loo  independent  and  important 
to  be  any  lon^r  well  included  under  a  common  name. 

I. — The  Science  of  Language  in  generai. 
Philology,  in  all  its  departments,  began  and  grew  vp  as 
classical;  the  hbtory  of  our  civilisation  made  the  study  of 
Greek  and  Latin  long  the  exduuve,  still  longer  the  f^^^^t 
predominant  and  rcgubling,  occupation  of  secular  iH^sdtae^ 
scholarship.  The  Hebrew  and  its  literature  were  held 
apart,  as  something  of  a  diilerent  order,  as  sacred.  It  was  aol 
imagined  that  any  tongue  to  which  culture  and  literatsic 
did  not  lend  importance  was  worthy  of  serious  attention  fnus 
scholars.  The  first  essays  in  comparison,  likewise,  were  made 
upon  the  cbsskal  tongues^  and  were  as  erroneous  in  melkoA 
and  fertile  in  false  conclusions  as  was  to  be  expected,  consideriag 
the  narrowness  of  view  and  the  controlling  ixcjudices  of  those 
who  made  them;  and  the  admission  of  Hebrew  to  the.cotnparisoa 
only  added  to  the  confusion.  The  change  which  the  pa>t 
century  has  seen  has  been  a  part  of  the  general  scientific  movf 
ment  of  the  age,  which  has  brought  about  the  calabliahmcfll 


PHILOLOGY 


41^5 


of  10  many  new  bnnchts  of  knowledge^  both  historical  and 
physicalt  by  the  abandonment  o(  sfaacUtng  prejudices,  the 
freedom  of  inquiry,  the  recognition  of  the  dignity  of  all  know- 
ledge, the  wide^reaching  auemblage  of  facts  and  their  objective 
comparison,  and  the  resulting  constant  improvement  of  method. 
Literary  philology  has  had  its  full  share  of  advantage  from  this 
movement;  but  linguistic  philology  has  been  actually  created 
by  it  out  of  the  crude  observations  and  wild  deductions  of 
earh'er  times,  as  truly  as  chemistry  out  of  alchemy,  or  geology 
out  of  diluvianism.    It  is  unnecessary  here  to  follow  out  the 
details  of  the  devek>pment;  but  we  may  well  refer  to  the  decisive 
influence  of  one  discovery,  the  decisive  actwn  of  one  scholar. 
It  was  the  discover/  of  the  special  relationship  of  the  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  languages,  depending  in  great  measure  upon 
the  introduction  of  the  Sanskrit  as  a  tNtn  in  their  comparison, 
and  demonstrated  and  worked  out  by  the  German  scholar  Bopp, 
that  founded  the  science  of  linguistic  philology.    While  there 
is  abundant  room  for  further  improvement,  it  yet  appears  that 
the  grand  features  of  philologlc  study,  in  all  its  departments, 
are  now  so  distinctly  drawn  that  no  rcvolutkm  of  its  methods, 
but  only  their  modification  in  minor  respects,  is  henceforth 
probable.    How  and  for  what  purposes  to  investigate  the 
literature  of  any  people  (philology  in  the  more  proper  sense), 
combining  the  knowledge  thus  obtained  with  that  derived  from 
other  sources;  how  to  study  and  set  forth  the  material  and 
stnicture  and  combinations  of  a  language  (grammar),  or  of  a 
body  of  related '  languages  (comparative  grammar);  how  to 
co<«rdinate  and  interpret  the  general  phenomena  of  language, 
as  variously  illustrated  in  the  infinitely  varying  facts  of  different 
tongues,  so  as  to  exhibit  its  nature  as  a  factor  in  human  history 
and  its  methods  of  life  and  growth  (linguistic  science) — these 
are  what  phik^gy  teaches. 

The  study  of  language  is  a  division  of  the  general  science  of 
anthropology  (^.v.),  and  is  akin  to  all  the  rest  In  respect  to  its 
PtiutoB  lo  objects  and  its  methods.  Man  as  we  now^see  him 
AaiMrop0'  is  a  tivofold  .being:  in  part  the  child  of  nature,  as 
'v^  to  his  capacities  and  desires,   his   endowments  of 

mind  and  body;  in  part  the  creature  of  education,  by  train- 
ing In  the  knowledge,  the  arts,  the  social  conduct,  of  which 
his  predecesM>rs  have  gained  possession.    And  the  problem 
of    anthropology    is    this:    how    natural    man    has   become 
cultivated  man;  how  a  being  thus  endowed  by  nature  should 
have  begun  and  carried  on  the  processes  of  acquisition  which 
have  brought  him  to  his  present  state.     The  results  of  his 
predecessors'  labours  are  not  transmuted  for  hb  benefit  into 
natural  instincts,  in  language  or  in  anything  else.    The  child 
of  the  most  civilized  race,  if  isolated  and  left  wholly  to  his  own 
resourced,  aided  by  neither  the  example  nor  the  instructfen  of 
his  fellows,  would  no  more  speak  the  speech  of  bis  ancestors 
than  he  would  build  their  houses,  fashion  their  clothes,  practise 
any  ol  thdr  arts,  inherit  their  knowledge  or  weahh.    In  fact, 
he  would  possess  no  language,  no  arts,  no  wealth,  but  would 
have  to  go  to  work  to  acquire  them,  by  the  same  processes 
which  began  to  vdn  them  for  the  first  human  beings.    One 
advantage  he  would  doubtless  enjoy:  the  descendant  of  a 
cultivated  race  has  an  enhanced  aptitude  for  the  receptfon  of 
cultivation;  he  is  more  cultivable;  and  this  is  an  element  that 
has  to  be  allowed  for  in  comparing  present  conditions  with  past, 
as  influencing  the  rate  of  progress,  but  nothing  more.    In  all 
other  respects  it  is  man  with  the  endowments  which  we  now 
find  him  possessed  of,  but  destitute  of  the  gradually  accumulated 
results  of  the  exercise  of  his  faculties,  whose  progress  we  have 
to  explain.    And  it  is,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  by  studying 
recent  observable  modes  of  acquisition,  and  transferring  them, 
with  due  allowance  for  different  circumstances,  lo  the  more 
primitive  periods,  (hat  the  question  of  first  acquisition  or  origin 
is  to  be  solved,  for  language  as  for  tools,  for  arts,  for  family 
and  social  organization,  and  the  rest.    There  is  just  as  much 
and  just  as  little  reason  for  assuming  miraculous  interference 
and  aid  In  one  of  these  departments  as  in  another     If  men 
have  been  left  to  themselves  to  make  and  improve  instruments, 
to  form  and  perfect  modes  of  social  organization,  by  implanted 


powers  directed  by  natural  desires,  and  under  the  preamre  of 
circumstances,  then  also  to  make  and  change  the  signs  that 
constitute  their  speech.  All  expressions,  mm  all  instruments,  are 
at  present,  and  have  been  through  the  known  past,  made  and 
changed  by  the  men  who  use  them;  the  same  wiU  have  been  the 
case  in  the  unknown  or  prehistoric  past.  And  we  command 
now  enough  of  the  history  of  language,  with  the  processes  of 
its  life  and  growth,  to  determine  with  confidence  its  mode  of 
origin — within  certain  limits,  as  wiU  appear  below.     < 

It  is  beyond  all  question,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  desire' 
of  communication  was  the  only  force  directly  impelling  men 
to  the  production  of  language.  Man's  sociality^  camupi 
his  disposition  to  band  together  with  his  fellows,  i^««««v* 
for  lower  and  for  higher  purposes,  for  mutual  help  "^'^^ 
and  for  sympathy,  is  one  of  his  most  fundamental  character^ 
istics.  To  understand  those  about  one  and  to  be  understood 
by  them  is  now,  and  must  have  been  from  the  very  beginning, 
a  prime  necessity  of  human  existence;  we  cannot  conceive  of 
man,  even  in  his  most  undeveloped  state,  as  without  the  recogni> 
lion  of  it.  Communication  is  still  the  univcisally  recognised 
office  of  speech,  and  to  the  immense  majority  of  speakcra  the 
only  one;  the  common  man  knows  no  other,  and  can  only  with 
difficuhy  and  imperfectly  be  brought  to  see  that  there  is  any 
other;  of  the  added  distinctness  and  reach  of  mental  action 
which  the  possession  of  such  an  instrumentality  gives  him  be 
is  wholly  unconscious:  and  it  is  obvious  that  vbzt  the  oompara* 
tivcly  cultivated  being  of  today  can  hardly  be  made  to  realize 
can  never  have  acted  upon  the  first  men  as  a  motive  to  actbn. 
It  may  perhaps  be  made  a  question  which  of  the  two  uses  (rf 
speech,  communication  or  the  facilitation  of  thought  is  the 
higher;  there  can  be  no  question,  at  any  rate,  that  the  former 
is  the  broader  and  the  more  fundamental.  That  the  kind  and 
degree  of  thinking  which  we  do  nowadays  would  be  impossible 
without  language-signs  is  true  enough;  but  so  also  it  would  be 
impossible  without  written  signs.  That  there  was  a  time 
when  men  had  to  do  what  mental  work  they  could  without 
the  help  of  writing,  as  an  art  not  yet  devised*  we  have  no  difl&> 
calty  In  realizing)  because  the  art  is  of  comparatively  recent 
device,  and  there  are  still  communities  enough  that  arc  working 
without  it;  it  b  much  harder  to  realize  that  there  was  a  time 
when  speaking  also  was  an  art  not  yet  attained,  and  that  men 
had  to  carry  on  their  rude  and  rudimentary  thinking  without 
it.  Writing  too  was  devised  for  conscious  purposes  of  com* 
munication  only;  Its  esoteric  uses,  like  those  of  speech,  were 
at  first  unsu^)ccted,  and  incapable  of  acting  as  an  inducement; 
they  were  not  noticed  until  made  experience  of,  and  then  only 
by  those  who  look  beneath  the  surface  of  things.  There  is  no 
analogy  closer  and  more  instructive  than  this  between  speech 
and  writing.  But  analogies  are  abundant  elsewhere  in  the 
hblory  of  human  development.  Everywhere  it  is  the  lower 
and  more  obvious  inducements  that  are  first  effective,  and  thai 
lead  gradually  to  the  possessbn  of  what  serves  and  stimulates 
higher  wants.  All  the  arts  and  Industries  have  grown  out  of 
men's  effort  to  get  enough  to  eat  and  protection  against  cold  and 
heat — just  as  language,  with  all  Its  uses,  out  of  men's  effort  to 
communicate  with  their  felk>ws.  As  a  solitary  man  now  would 
never  form  even  the  beginnings  of  speech,  as  one  separated  from 
society  unlearns  hb  speech  by  dbuse  and  becomes  virtually 
dumb,  so  early  man,  with  all  hb  powers,  would  never  have 
acquired  speech,  save  as  to  those  powen  was  added  sociality 
with  the  needs  it  brought.  We  might  conceive  of  a  solitary 
man  as  housing  and  dressing  himself,  devising  rude  toob.  and 
thus  lifting  himself  a  step  from  wiklness  toward  cultivation; 
but  wc  cannot  conceive  of  him  as  ever  learning  to  talk.  Recogni* 
tion  of  the  impulse  to  communication  as  the  efficient  cause  of 
language-making  b  an  element  of  primary  importance  in  the 
theory  of  the  origin  of  language.  No  one  who  either  leaves  it 
out  of  account  or  deniies  it  will,  however  ingenious  and  enter, 
taining  his  speculations,  cast  any  leal  light  on  the  eariiesl 
history  of  speech.  To  Inquire  under  what  peculiar  cinnimstances, 
in  connexion  with  what  mode  of  individual  or  combined  action, 
a  first  outburst  of  oral'  expression  may  have  taken  pkice,  b,  on 


41 6 


PHILOLOGY 


the  other  hand,  quite  futile.  The  needed  circuiastances  were 
always  present  when  human  brings  were  in  one  another's  society; 
there  was  an  incessant  drawing-on  to  attempts  at  mutual 
Understanding  which  met  with  occasional,  and  then  ever  more 
frequent  and  complete  success.  There  inheres  in  most  reasoning 
upon  this  subject  the  rooted  assumption,  governing  opinion  even 
when  not  opaly  upheld  or  consciously  made,  that  conceptions 
have  real  natural  names,  and  that  in  a  state  of  nature  these  will 
somehow  break  forth  and  reveal  themselves  under  favouring 
circumstantts.  The  falsity  oi  such  a  view  is  shown  by  our 
whole  further  discussion. 

The  character  of  the  motive  force  to  speech  determined  the 
character  of  the  beginmngs  of  speech.  That  was  first  signified 
Btgiaaingt  wfalcl)  was  most  capable  of  intdligible  signification, 
etSp€t€h  not  that  which  was  first  in  order  of  importance, 
mMdWriOn^g^^  judged  by  any  standard  which  we  can  apply  to  it, 
or  first  in  order  of  conceptional  development.  All  attempts  to 
determine  the  first  spoken  signs  by  asking  what  should  have 
most  impressed  the  mind  of  primitive  man  are  and  must  be 
failures.  It  was  the  exigencies  and  possibilities  of  practical 
life,  in  conditions  quite  out  of  reach  of  our  distinct  concep- 
tion, that  prescribed  the  earliest  signs  of  communication.  So, 
by  a  true  and  instructive  analogy,  the  beginnings  of  writing 
are  rude  depictions  of  visible  objects;  it  is  now  thoroughly 
recognizt^d  that  no  alphabet,  of  whatever  present  character, 
can  have  originated  in  any  other  way;  everything  else  is  gradu- 
ally arrived  at  from  that — as,  indeed,  in  the  ingeniously  shaping 
hands  of  man,  from  any  central  body  of  signs,  though  but  of 
small  extent,  all  else  is  attainable  by  processes  of  analogy  and 
adaptation  and  transfer.  Now  what  is  it  that  is  directly 
signifiable  in  the  world  about  us?  Evidently  tlie  separate 
acts  and  qualities  of  sei^ble  objects,  and  nothing  else.  In 
writing,  or  signification  to  the  eye,  the  first  element  is  the  rude 
depiction  of  the  outline  of  an  object,  or  of  that  one  of  the  sum 
of  its  characteristic  qualities  which  the  eye  takes  note  of  and  the 
hand  is  capable  of  intelligibly  reproducing;  from  that  the  mind 
understands  the  whole  complex  object  itself,  and  then  whatever 
further  may  in  the  circumstances  of  its  use  be  suggested  by  it. 
So,  for  example,  the  picture  of  a  tree  signifies  primarily  a  tree, 
then  perhaps  wood,  something  made  of  wood,  and  so  on;  that 
of  a  pair  of  outstretched  wings  signifies  secondarily  flight,  then 
soaring,  height,  and  whatever  else  these  may  lead  to.  No 
concrete  thing  is  signifiable  in  its  totality  or  otherwise  than  by 
a  facile  analysis  of  its  constituent  qualities  and  a  selection  of 
the  one  which  is  both  sufiicicntly  characteristic  in  itself  and 
capable  of  being  called  up  by  a  sign  before  the  mind  addressed, 

And  what  quality  shall  be  selected  depends  in  great  measure 
upon  the  instrumentality  used  for  its  signification.  Of  such 
ittttrmmttf  instrumentalities  men  possess  a  considerable  variety, 
tautt^  •f  We  must  leave  out  of  account  that  of  depiction,  as 
**"'""**  just  Instanced,  bcctuse  its  employment  belongs  to 
a  much  more  advanced  state  of  cultivation,  and  leads  the 
way  to  the  invention  not  of  speech  but  of  the  analogous  and 
auxiliary  art  of  writing.  There  remain  gesture,  or  changes  of 
position  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  especially  of  the 
most  mobile  parts,  the  arms  and  hands;  grimace,  or  the  changes 
of  expression  of  the  features  of  the  countenance  (in  strictness, 
a  variety  of  the  preceding);  and  utterance,  or  the  production 
of  audible  sound.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that,  in  the  first  stages 
of  communicative  expression!  aU  these  three  were  used  together, 
each  for  the  particular  purposes  which  it  was  best  calculated 
to  serve.  The  nearest  approadi  to  such  action  that  is  now 
possible  is  when  two  persons,  wholly  ignorant  of  one  another's 
speech,  meet  and  need  to  communicate — an  imperfect  corre- 
spondence, because  each  is  trained  to  habits  of  expression  and 
works  consciously,  and  with  the  advantage  of  long  experience, 
towards  making  himself  understood,  yet  it  is  good  for  its  main 
purpose.  What  they  do,  to  reach  mutual  comprehension,  is 
like  what  the  first  speechless  men,  unconsciously  and  infinitely 
more  slowly,  learned  to  do:  face,  hands,  body,  voice,  are  all 
put  to  use.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  gesture  at  first 
performed  the  principal  part,  even  to  such  extent  that  the 


earliest  human  language  may  be  said  lo  have  been  a  kngna^e 
of  gesture  signs;  indeed,  there  exist  at  the  present  day  such 
gesture-languages  as  those  in  use  between  roving  tribes  of 
diflcrent  speech  that  from  time  to  time  meet  one  another  (the 
most  noted  example  is  that  of  the  gesture-language,  of  a  very 
considerable  degree  of  development,  of  the  prairie  tribes  of 
American  Indians) ;  or  such  signs  as  are  the  natural  resort  of 
those  who  by  deafness  are  cut  off  from  ordinary  spd^en  inter- 
course with  their  fellows.  Yet  there  never  can  have  been  a 
stage  or  period  in  which  all  the  three  instrumentalities  were 
not  put  to  use  together.  In  fact,  they  are  still  all  used  together; 
that  is  even  now  an  ineffective  speaking  to  which  grimace  and 
gesture  ("  action,"  as  Demosthenes  called  them)  arc  not  added 
as  enforcers;  and  the  lower  the  grade  of  development  and  culture 
of  a  language,  the  more  important,  even  for  intelligibilily,  is 
their  addition.  But  voice  has  won  to  itself  the 
chief  and  almost  exclusive  part  in  communication, 
insomuch  that  we  call  all  communication  "language'*  (ije. 
"  tonguincss  ")  just  as  a  race  of  mutes  might  call  it  "handioess" 
and  talk  (by  gesture)  of  a  handincss  of  grimace.  This  is  not 
in  the  least  because  of  any  ck>scr  connexion  of  the  thinking 
apparatus  with  the  muscles  that  ftct  to  produce  audible  sounds 
than  with  those  that  act  to  produce  visible  motions;  not  because 
there  are  natural  uttered  names  for  conceptions  any  more  than 
natural  gestured  names.  It  is  simply  a  case  of  *'  survival  of 
the  fittest,"  or  analogous  to  the  process  by  which  iron  has  become 
the  exclusive  material  of  swords,  and  gold  and  silver  of  money: 
because,  namely,  experience  has  shown  this  to  be  the  material 
best  adapted  to  this  special  use.  The  advantages  of  voice  are 
numerous  and  obvious.  There  is  first  its  economy,  as  employing 
a  mechanism  that  is  available  for  little  else,  and  leaving  free 
for  other  purposes  those  indispensable  instruments  the  hands. 
Then  there  is  its  superior  pcroeptibleness:  its  nice  differences 
impress  themselves  upon  the  sense  at  a  distance  at  which  visible 
motions  become  indistinct;  they  are  not  hidden  by  intervening 
objects;  thuy  allow  the  eyes  of  the  listener  as  well  as  the  hands 
of  the  speaker  to  be  employed  in  other  useful  work;  they  areas 
plain  in  the  dark  as  in  the  light;  and  they  are  able  to  catch  ami 
command  the  attention  of  one  who  is  not  to  be  -reached  in  any 
other  way.  We  might  add  as  the  third  advantage  a  superior 
capability  of  variation  and  combination  on  tlie  part  of  spoken 
sounds;  but  this  is  not  to  be  insisted  on,  inasmuch  as  we  hardly 
know  what  a  gesture-language  might  have  become  if  men's 
ingenuity  in  expression  had  been  expended  through  aU  time 
upon  its  elaboration;  and  the  superiority,  however  real,  can 
hardly  have  been  obvious  enough  to  serve  as  a  motive:  certainly, 
there  are  spoken  languages  now  existing  whose  abundance  of 
resources  falls  short  of  what  is  attainable  by  gesture.  Oral 
utterance  is  the  form  which  expression  has  inevitably  taken, 
the  sum  of  man's  endowments  being  what  it  is;  but  it  would  be 
a  mistake  to  sui^pose  that  a  necessity  of  any  other  kind  is 
involved  in  their  relation.  The  fundamental  conditions  of 
speech  are  man's  grade  of  intellectual  power  and  his  social 
instinct;  these  being  given,  his  expression  follows,  avaiiling 
itself  of  what  means  it  finds  best  suited  to  its  purpose;  if  voice 
had  been  wanting  it  would  have  taken  the  next  best.  So,  in 
certain  wcU-known  cases,  a  marked  artistic  gift  on  the  part  of 
individuals  deprived  of  the  use  of  hands  has  found  means  of 
exercise  in  the  feet  instead.  But  men  in  general  have  hands, 
instruments  of  exquisite  tact  and  power,  to  serve  the  needs  of 
their  intellect;  and  so  voice  also,  to  provide  and  use  the  took 
of  thought;  there  is  no  error  in  maintaining  that  the  voice  is 
given  us  for  speech,  if  only  we  do  not  proceed  to  draw  from  such 
a  dictum  false  conclusions  as  to  the  relation  between  thought 
and  utterance.  Man  is  created  with  bodily  instruments  suited 
to  do  the  work  prescribed  by  his  mentsi  capacities;  therein 
lies  the  harnwny  of  his  endowment. 

It  is  through  imitation  that  all  signification  becomes  directly 
suggestive.  The  first  written  signs  arc  (as  already  noticed^ 
the  depictions  of  visible  objects,  and  could  be 
nothing  else;  and,  by  the  same  necessity,  the  first 
uttered  signs  were  the  imitations  of  audible  sounds.   To  rcpioduce 


PHILOLOGY 


417 


toy  ionitd  of  which  the  odfiiiftf hig  csnse  or  the  drcmnstances 
of  production  are  known,  brings  op  of  coune  before  the  con- 
cepiioa  that  sound,  along  with  the  originator,  or  drcvrnttatices 
of  origination,  or  whatever  eise  may  be  natnrally  associated  with 
it.    There  are  two  spcqai  directions  in  which  this  mode  of  sign- 
making,  is  fruitful:  imitation  of  the  sounds  of  external  nature 
(as  the  cries  of  animals  and  the  noises  of  inanimate  objects 
when  in  motion  or  acted  on  by  other  objects)  and  imitation  of 
human  sounds.     The  two  are  essentially  one  in  principle, 
although  by  some  held  apart,  or  even  opposed  to  each  other,  as 
respectively  the  imitative  or  onomatopoctic  and  the  exclamatory 
or  interjectional  beginnings  of  speech;  they  differ  only  in  their 
spheres  of  signiAcance,  the  one  being  especially  suggestive  of 
external  ob^^cts,  the  other  of  inward  feelings.    There  are  natural 
human  tones,  indicative  of  feeling,  as  there  are  natural  gestures, 
poses,  modes  of  facial  expression,  which  either  are  immediately 
intelligible  to  us  (as  is  the  warning  cry  of  the  hen  to  the  day- 
old  cbicken),  or  have  their  value  ta^tgjht  us  by  our  earliest 
experiences.    If  we  hear  a  cry  of  joy  or  a  shriek  of  pain,  a  laugh 
or  a  gioan,  we  need  no  explanation  in  words  to  tell  ns  what  it 
Signifies  any  more  than  when  we  see  a  sad  face  or  a  drooping 
attitude.    So  also  the  characteristic  cxy  or  act  of  anything 
outside  ourselves,  if  even  rudely  imitated,  is  to  us  an  effective 
Reminder  and  awakener  of  conception.    We  have  no   reason 
to  question  that  such  were  the  suggestions  of  the  beginnings 
of  uttered  expression.    The  same  means  have  made  their  con- 
tributions to  language  even  down  to  our  own  day;  we  call  words 
so  produced  "  onomat(HX>etic  "  ii.e.  "  name>making  "),  after 
the  example  of  the  Greeks,  who  could  not  conceive  that  actually 
new  additions  to  language  should  be  made  in  any  other  way. 
What  and  how  wide  the  range  of  the  imitative  principle,  and 
what  amount  of  language-signs  it  was  capable  of  yielding,  is  a 
subject  for  special  investigatloa**or  rather,  of  speculation,  since 
anything  like  exact  knowledge  in  regard  to  it  will  never  bd 
attained;  and  the  matter  is  one  of  altogether  secondary  om- 
sequence;  it  is  sufRdent  for  our  purpose  that  enough  could 
certMDly  be  won  in  this  way  to  serve  4s  the  effective  germs  of 
speech. 

All  the  natural  means  of  expression  are  still  at  our  command, 
and  are  put  to  more  or  less  use  by  us,  and  their  products  are  as 
intelligible  to  us  as  they  have  been  to  any  generation 
of  our  ancestors,  back  to  the  very  first.    They  are 
analogous  also  to  the  means  of  communication  of  the  lower 
animals;  this,  so -far  as  we  know,  insists  in  observing  and 
interpreting  one  another's  movements  and   natural  sounds 
(where  there  are  such).    But  language  is  a  step  beyond  this, 
and  different  from  it.    To  make  language,  the  intent  to  signify 
must  be  present.    A  cry  wrung  out  by  pain,  or  a  laugh  of 
amusement,  though  inteUigible,  is  not  language;  either  of  them, 
if  conscioasly  reproduced  in  order  to  signify  to  another  pain  or 
pleasure,  is  language.    So  a  cough  within  hearing  of  any  <me 
attracts  his  attention;  but  to  cough,  or  to  produce  any  other 
sound,  articulate  or  inarticulate,  for  the  purpose  of  attracting 
another's  attentwn,  is  to  commit  an  act  of  language-making, 
such  as  in  human  hist<«y  preceded  in  abundance  the  establish- 
ment of  definite  traditional  signs  for  conceptions.    Here  begins 
to  appear  the  <Uvislon  between  hu^ian  language  and  all  brute 
expression;  since  we  do  not  know  that  any  animal  but  man  ever 
definitely  took  this  step.    It  would  be  highly  interesting  to  find 
out  just  how  near  any  come  to  it;  and  to  this  point  ought  to  be 
especially  directed  the  attention  of  those  who  are  investigating 
the  communication  of  the  lower  animab  in  its  relation  to  hinnan 
communicntik>n.    Among   the   animab  of  highest  intelligence 
that   associate  with  man  and  learn  something  of  his  ways,  a 
ccrtaii»  amount  of  sign-making  expressly  for  communication 
is  not  to  be  denied;  the  dog  that  barks  at  a  door  because  he 
knows  that  somebody  will  come  and  let  him  m  is  an  instance  of 
it;  perhaps,  in  wild  life,  the  throwing  out  of  sentinel  birds  from 
^  ^Bock,  whose  warning  cry  shall  advertise  their  fellows  of  the 
threat  of  dan^^i  u  ss  near  an  approach  to  it  as  is  anjrwbene 

made. 
But  the   actual  permanent  beginmngi   of  speech  arc  only 


reached  when  the  natural  basb  is 'still  further  abandoned,  and 
signs  begin  to  be  used,  not  because  their  natural  suggestive- 
ness  is  seen  in  them,  but  by  imitation,  from  the  L*itgan§ 
example  of  others  who  have  been  observed  to  use  C6»iv«- 
the  same  sign  for  the  same  purpose.  Then  for  the  '^■«'> 
first  time  the  means  of  communication  becomes  something 
to  be  handed  down,  rather  than  made  anew  by  each  indl- 
vkioal;  it  takes  on  that  traditional  character  which  is  the 
essential  character  of  all  human  institutions,  which  appears  not 
less  in  the  forms  of  social  organization,  the  details  of  religious 
ceremonial,  the  methods  of  art  snd  the  arts,  than  in  language. 
That  all  existing  speech,  and  all  known  recorded  speech,  is 
purely  traditional,  cannot  at  all  be  questk)ned.  It  is  proved 
even  by  the  single  fact  that  for  any  given  conception  there  are 
as  many  different  spoken  signs  as  there  are  languages— say  a 
thousand  (this  number  is  rather  far  within  than  beyond  the 
truth),  each  of  them  intelligible  to  him  who  has  learned  to  use 
it  and  to  assodate  it  with  the  conception  to  which  it  belongs, 
but  unintelligible  to  the  users  of  the  nine  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  other  signs,  as  these  are  all  unintelfa'gible  to  him;  unless, 
indeed,  he  learn  a  few  of  them  also,  even  as  at  the  beginning  he 
learned  the  one  that  he  calls  his  own.  What  sin^e  sign,  and 
what  set  of  signs,  any  individual  shall  use,  depends  upon  the 
community  into  the  midst  of  which  he  is  cast,  by  birth  or  other 
circumstances,  during  his  first  yeafs.  That  it  does  not  depend 
upon  his  race  is  dcmoostrated  by  facts  the  most  numerous  and 
various;  the  African  whose  purity  of  descent  U  attested  by  every 
feature  is  found  all  over  the  world  speaking  just  that  language, 
or  jargon,  into  the  midst  of  which  the  fiites  of  present  or  former 
slavery  have  brought  his  parents;  every  dvilixed  community 
0»ntains  ekments  of  variow  lineage,  combined  info  one  by 
unity  of  speech;  and  instsnccs  are  fluent  enough  where  whole 
nations  speak  a  tongue  of  whkh  their  ancestors  knew  nothing; 
for  example,  the  Celtic  Gauls  and  the  Germanic  Normans  of 
France  speak  the  dfaUoct  of  a  geographically  insignificant  district 
in  central  Italy,  while  we  ourselves  can  hardly  utter  a  sentence 
or  write  a  line  without  bringing  in  more  or  less  of  that  same 
dialect.  There  is  not  an  item  of  any  tongue  of  which  we  know 
anything  that  is  **  natural "  expression,  or  to  the  possession  of 
which  its  speaker  is  brought  by  birth  instead  of  by  educatkm; 
there  is  even  very  little  that  is  traceably  founded  on  such 
natural  expression;  everywhere  Mnt  or  human  attribution 
reigns  supreme,  and  the  original  ^iocf  or  natural  sigidficance 
has  disappeared  and  is  only  to  be  found  by  theoretic  induction 
(as  we  have  found  it  above).  It  seems  to  some  as  If  a  name  like 
cMckco  (one  of  the  most  striking  avmihible  casesof  onomatopoeia^ 
were  a  "  natural "  one;  but  there  k  just  as  much  Moir  hi  It  as 
in  any  other  name;  it  implies  the  observation  of  an  aggregate  of 
qualities  in  a  certain  bird,  and  the  selection  of  one  among  them 
as  the  convenient  basis  of  n  mutual  undeistandlSg  when  the  bird 
is  in  question;  every  animal  conspicuous  to  us  must  have  its 
designation,  won  in  one  way  or  another;  and  in  ibh  case  to 
imiute  the  characteristic  cry  is  the  most  available  way.  If 
anything  but  convenience  and  availability  weie  involved,  all 
our  names  for  aninuils  would  have  to  be  and  to  remain  imitations 
of  the  sounds  they  make^  That  the  name  of  ciukM  is  applied 
also  to  the  female  and  young,  and  at  other  than  the  ^ging 
season,  and  then  to  related  species  which  do  not  make  lAtt  same 
soond-^all  helps  to  show  the  essentially  conventional  character 
of  even  this  name.  An  analogous  process  of  elimaation  of 
original  meaning,  and  reduction  to  the  vahie  of  conventional 
designation  merdy,  is  to  be  seen  in  every  part  of  language 
throughout  its  whcde  history.  Since  men  ceased  to  derh^e  thdr 
names  from  signs  having  a  natural  suggestiveaess,  and  began 
to  make  them  from  other  names  already  in  use  with  an  under- 
stood value,  every  new  name  has  had  its  etymology  and  its 
historical  occasion — as,  for  example,  the  name  quwrantitu  from 
the  two-score  {ifuarafOaint)  of  days  of  precautioaaiy  confine- 
ment, or  voUvmeittxa.  its  being  rolled  up,  or  hook  from  a  beecb- 
wpod  staff,  or  copper  from  Cyprus,  or  itauuy  from  a  fanded 
influence  of  the  moon,  or  priestit<m  being  an  older  {Tpmfibnfioii 
person,  or  butterfly  from  the  butter-yellow  colour  of  a  cotaia 


430 


PHILOLOGY 


Such  A  languace  is  hi  below  oun  in  ezpUdtnm;  but  it  would 
suffice  Cor  a  great  d«d  of  successful  oommunication;  indeed  (as 
will  be  showp  farther  on)  there  are  many  languages  even  now 
fa  existence  which  are  little  better  off.  So  a  look  ol  approval 
or  disgust,  a  gesture  of  beckoning  or  repulsioni  a  grunt  of  assent 
or  inquiry,  is  as  Mep*^""*  ss  a  sentence,  means  a  sentence,  is 
translatable  into  a  sentence,  and  hence  may  even  in  a  certain 
way  be  called  a  sentence;  and  in  the  same  way,  bilt  only  so,  the 
original  roots  of  language  may  be  said  to  have  been  sentences. 
In  point  of  fact,  between  the  holophrastic  gesture  or  uttered  sign 
and  the  sentence  which  we  can  now  substitute  for  it— for  example 
between  the  sign  of  beckoning  and  the  equivalent  sentence,  "  I 
want  you  to  come  ber«  "—lies  the  whole  history  of  development 
of  inflective  speed). 

What  has  been  this  history  oC  development,  bow  the  first 
scanty  and  formless  signs  have  been  changed  into  the  immense 
Ocwfep.  variety  and  fullness  of  existing  speech,  it  is  of  course 
anmt  •#  impoflsible  to  point  out  in  detail,  or  by  demonstration 
l-^^v^i*  of  facts,  because  nearly  the  whole  process  is  hidden 
in  the  darkness  of  an  impenetrable  past.  The  only  way  to  cast 
any  light  upon  it  is  by  careful  induction  from  the  change  and 
growth  winch  are  seen  to  have  been  going  on  in  the  recent  periods 
for  which  we  have  recorded  evidence,  or  which  are  going  on  at 
the  present  time.  Of  some  groups  of  related  languages  we 
can  read  the  life  for  three  or  four  thousand  years  back,  and  by 
comparisoa  can  Infer  it  much  farther;  and  the  knowledge  Vtiva 
won  is  what  we  have  to  apply  to  the  explanation  of  periods  and 
languages  otherwise  unknown.  Nothing  has  a  right  to  be 
admitted  as  a  factor  in  language-growth  of  which  the  action  is 
not  demonstrable  in  recorded  language.  Our  own  family  of 
languages  is  the  one  of  whose  development  most  is  known,  by 
observation  and  well-warrantcd  inference;  and  it  may  be  wcU 
here  to  sketch  the  most  important  features  of  its  history,  by 
way  of  general  illustration. 

AplMtrcnlly  the  earliest  dass-distinction  traceable  in  Indo- 
European  speech  is  that  of  pronominal  roots,  or  signs  of  position, 
itiad^  'fon>  the  more  general  mass  <rf  roots.  It  is  not  a 
Bmnp^mm  formal  distinction,  marked  by  a  structural  difference, 
SpncM.      i^i^  SQ  (jif  g3  ^n  \^  seen,  is  founded  only  on  the 

assignment  by  usage  of  certain  elements  to  certain  offices. 
Formal  distinction  b^gan  with  combination,  the  addition  of  one 
dement  to  another,  thdr  fusion  into  a  single  word,  and  the 
reduction  of  the  one  part  to  a  subordinate  value,  as  sign  of  a 
certain  modification  of  meaning  of  the  other.  Thus,  doubtless 
by  endings  of  pronominal  origin,  were  made  the  first  verb- 
forms,  or  words  used  only  when  predication  was  intended  (since 
that  is  all  that  makes  a  verb),  conveying  at  first  a  distinction 
of  persons  only,  then  of  persons  and  numbers,  while  the  further 
distinctions  of  tense  and  mode  were  by  degrees  added.  To  the 
nouns^  which  became  nouns  by  the  setting  up  of  the  separate 
and  special  class  of  verbs,  were  added  in  like  manner  distinctions 
of  case,  of  number,  and  of  gender.  With  the  separation  of 
noun  and  verb,  and  the  establishment  of  thdr  respective  in- 
flexion, the  creative  work  of  language-making  is  virtually  done; 
the  rest  is  a  matter  of  differentiation  of  uses.  For  the  noun 
(noun  substantive)  and  the  adjective  (noun  adjective)  become 
two  parts  of  speech  only  by  a  gradually  deepened  separation  of 
use;  there  is  no  original  or  formal  distinction  between  them; 
the  pronouns  as  a  rule  merdy  add  the  noun-inflexion  to  a  special 
set  of  stems;  adverbs  are  a  part  of  the  same  formation  as  noun- 
casea;  prepositions  are  adverbs  with  a  specialized  construction, 
of  secondary  growth;  conjunctions  are  the  products  of  a  like 
specialiaation;  articles,  where  found  at  alU  are  merely  weakened 
demonstratives  and  numerals. 

>  To  the  process  of  form-making,  as  exhibited  in  this  history, 
bdoog  two  parts:  the  one  external,  consisting  in  the  addition 
of  one  existing  element  of  q>eech  to  another  and  thdr  combina- 
tion into  a  fin^  word ;  the  other  internal,  consisting  in  the  adap- 
tation of  the  compound  to  its  special  use  and  involving  the 
subordination  of  one  element  to  the  other.  Both  parts  appear 
.also  abundantly  in  other  departments  of  language-change,  and 
^U^oughout  the  whole  history  of  our  languages;  nothing  has  to  be 


assumed  for  the  eirBcat  fotmalSoiii  whkhls  soi  pbfaly  nkNi|tat«i 
in  the  latesu    For  example,  the  Ust  important  additioo  to  the 
formative  anMiratus  of  English  is  the  common  adverb-making 
suffix  4y,  coming,  as  already  pointed  out,  from  the  independent 
adjective  like.    There  was  nothing  at  first  to  distinguish  a 
compound  like  godly  igfldUkt)  ixom  one  like  Uorm-tossed,  save 
that  the  former  was  more  adaptable  than  the  other  to  wider 
uses;  resemblance  is  an  idea  easity  generalized  into  appurtenance 
and  the  like,  and  the  conversion  of  godlike,  to  g/odly  is  a  simple 
result  of  the  processes  of  phoneli):  change  described  farther 
on.    The  extension  of  the  same  dement  to  combination  with 
adjectives  fnstead  of  nouns,  and  its  conversion  to  adverb- 
making  value,  is  a  much  more  striking  case  of  adaptati<m,  and 
is  nearly  limited  to  English  among  the  Germanic  languages  that 
have  turned  like  into  a  suffix.    A  similar  striking  case  of  com- 
bination and  adaptation  is  seen  in  the  Romanic  advcrbrmakiog 
suffix  mente  or  mentt  coming  from  the  latin  ablative  menUt 
'*  with  mind."    So,  to  nkake  a  Roaaanic  future  like  dmmer»^ 
"  I  shall  give,"  there  was  needed  in  the  first  place  the  pre- 
existing dements,  d^mner,  *'  to  give,"  and  ai, "  I  have,"  and  their 
combination;  but  this  is  only  a  part;  the  other  indiq>ensabk 
part  is  the  gradual  adaptation  of  a  phrase  meaning  "  I  have 
(something  before  mel  for  giving  "  to.  the  expression  of  «mple 
futurity,  donabo.    So  far  as  the  adaptation  is  concerned  the 
case  is  quite  paralld  to  that  of  foi  donni,  "  I  have  given," 
&c.  (equivalent  phrases  or  comlunations  are  found  in  many 
languages),  where  the  ex|xcssion  of  possession  of  something  that 
is  acted  on  has  been  in  like  manner  modified  into  the  expresskm 
of  past  action.    Faralld  in  both  combination  and  adaptatioa 
is  the  past  tense  looed,  according  to  a  widdy  accepted  thewy, 
from  low-did,  while  we  have  again  the  same  acjaptatioB  without 
combination  in  the  equivalent  phrase  did  lotOi 
.  That  these  are  examples  of  the  process  by  which  the  whok 
inflective  structure  of  Ind.-European  language  was  built  up  admits 
of  no  reasonable  question*    Our  belief  that  it  is  so  rests  upon  the 
solid  foundation  that  we  can  demonstrate  no  other  process,  and 
that  this  one  is  sufficient.    It  is  true  that  we  can  prove  such  an 
origin  for  our  formative  dements  in  only  a  small  minority  .of 
instances;  but  this  is  just  what  was  to  be  expected,  considering 
what  we  know  of  the  disguising  processes  of  language-growth. 
No  one  would  guess  in  the  mere  y  of  aMy  (for  abU-ly)  the  present 
of  the  adjective  /tike,  any  more  than  in  the  altered  final  of  sad 
and  the  shortened  vowel  of  led  the  effect  of  a  did  once  added  to 
send  and  lead.    The  true  history  of  these  forms  can  be  shown, 
because  there  happen  to  be  other  facts  Idt  in  existence  to  show  it; 
where  such  facts  are  not  within  reach  we  are  Idt  to  infer  by 
analogy  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.    The  validity  of  our 
inference  can  only  be  shaken  by  showing  that  there  are  forms 
incapable  of  having  been  made  in  this  way,  or  that  there  are  and 
have  been  other  ways  of  making  forms.    Of  the  former  there  is 
evidently  but  small  chance;  if  a  noumform  meaning,  **  with 
mind  "  can  become  the  means  of  conversion  of  all  the  adjectives 
of  a  language  into  adverbs,  and  a^  verb  meaning  "  have  "  (and, 
yet  earlier,  "  sdzc  ")  of  signifying  both  future  and  past  time, 
there  is  obviously  nothing  that  is  impossible  of  attainment  by 
such  means.    As  regards  the  latter,  no  one  appears  to  have 
even  Attempted  to  demonstrate  the  genesis  of  formative  dements 
in  any  other  way  during  the  historical  periods  of.  language;  h 
is  simply  assumed  that  the  early  methods  of  bnguage-makin^ 
will  have  been  something  different  from  and  superior  in  spcm- 
taneity  and  fruitfulness  to  the  later  ones;  that  certain  forms, 
or  forms  at  certain  periods,  were  made  out-and-out,  as  forms; 
that  signs  of  formal  distinction  somehow  exuded  from  roots 
and  stems;  that  original  words  were  many-mcmbered,  and  that 
a  formative  value  settled  in  some  member  of  them — and  the  like. 
Such  doctrines  are  purely  fanciful,  and  so  opposed  to  the  teac^ 
ings  both  of  observation  and  of  sound  theory  that  the  epithet 
absurd  Is  hardly  too  strong  to  apply  to  them.  If  the  later  races,  of 
developed  intelligence,  and  trained  in  the  methods  of  a  fulkr 
exprcsuon,  can  only  win  a  new  form  by  a  long  and  gradual  pro- 
cess of  combination  and  adaptation,  why  should  the  earlier  axMl 
ccNn^arativdy  untrained. generations  have  been  able  to  do  mxty 


PHILOLOGY 


MmteHal 


better?  The  edvaatage  ought  to  be,  if  Miywhcfe*  on  our  side. 

The  prosrass  of  Unguege  in  every  dq>ertment,  accomiKiDyfaig 

jiirftwirf  ^'^^  repxescnting  the  advance  of  the  race,  on  the 

whole,  in  the  art  of  speaking  as  in  other  arts,  is  f rwn 

the  grosser  to  the  more  refined,  from  the  physical 

to  the  moral  and  intellectual,  from  the  material 

to  the  XormaL   The  conversion  of  compounds  into  forms,  by  the 

reduction  of  one  of  their  elements  to  formative  value,  is  simply 

a  part  of  the  general  process  which  also  creates  auxiliaries  and 

form-words  and  connectives,  all  the  vocabulary  of  mind,  and  all 

the  figurative  phraseology  that  gives  life  and  vigour  to  our 

speech.    If  a  copula,  expressive  of  the  grammatical  relation  of 

predication,  could  be  won  only  by  attenuation  of  the  meaning 

of  verbs  signifying  "  grow."  "  breathe,"  "  stand,"  and 'the  like; 

i(  our  auxiliaries  of  tense  and  mode  all  go  traceably  back  to 

words  of  physical  meaning  (as  Move  to  **  seize,"  may  to  "  be  great 

or  strong,"  skaU  to  '*  be  under  penalty,"  and  so  on);  if  cf  comes 

from  the  comparatively  physical  off,  and  /or  from  "  b^^ne,  for- 

ward  ";  if  relative  pronoims  are  q>ecializcd  demonstratives  and 

interrogatives;  if  rig/U  means  ctymologically  "straight,"  and 

wrong  means  "  twisted  ";  if  spirit  is  "  blowing,"  and  intelUct  a 

**  picking  out  among,"  and  undersiaudini  a  **  getting  beneath," 

and  deokopmtiU  an  *' unfolding";  if  an  event  UUtet  plact  or 

€omts  to  pasSf  and  tben^ro^s  oiU  of  mind  and  is  forgotUn  (opposite 

of  goU€n}r-<hetk  it  is  of  no  avail  *o  object  to  the  grossness  of 

any  of  the  processes  by  which,  in  earlier  language  or  in  later, 

the  expression  of  formal  relations  is  won.    The  mental  sense  of 

the  relation  expressed  is  entirely  superior  to  and  independent 

of  the  means  of  its  expressioo.    He  who,  to  express  the  plural  of 

man,  say*  what  is  equivaloit  to  mon^man  or  heap-man  (devices 

which  aze  met  with  in  not  a  few  languages)  has  just  as  good  a 

tense  of  plurality  as  he  who  says  men  or  homines]  that  sense  is 

no  more  degraded  in  him  by  the  coaiseness  of  the  phrase  he  uses 

to  signify  it  than  is  our  own  sense  of  eventuality  and  of  pastness 

by  the  undisguised  coarseness  of  take  flau  and  ham  Uen,    In 

than,  it  is  to  be  laid  down  with  tho  utmost  distinctnem  and 

confidence,  as  a  law  of  Ungusge-growth,  that  there  is  nothing 

formal  anywhere  in  language  which  was  not  once  material; 

that  the  formal  is  made  out  of  the  material,  by  processes  whkh 

began  in  the  earliest  history  of  language  and  are  still  in  action. 

We  have  dropped  here  the  restriction  to  our  own  or  Indo- 
Europenn  language  with  which  we  began,  because  it  is  evident 
Lmwm^     that  what  is  true  of  this  family  of  speech,  one  of  the 
c*«ifl««etf  most  highly  organixed'that  exist,  may  also  be  true  of 
Oroiwtk.      ^^  rest— most  be  true  of  them,  unless  some  valid 
evidence  be  found  to  the  contrary.   The  unity  of  human  nature 
makes  human  speech  alike  in  the  character  of  its  beginnings  sod 
in  the  general  features  of  its  after-history.    Everywhere  among 
nien  a  certain  store  of  expression,  body  of  traditional  signs  of 
thought,  being  given,  as  used  by  a  certain  community,  it  is 
capable  of  increase  on  certain  accordant  lines,  and  only  on  them. 
In  some  languages,  and  under  peculiar  drcumstanccs,  borrowing 
fi  a  great  means  of  incitase;  but  it  is  the  most  external  and  least 
ofsanicaUy  important  of  all.   Outraad-out  invention  (which,  so 
far  as  we  caa  see,  must  be  of  the  kind  called  by  ns  onoroato- 
poetic)  is  found  to  play  only  a  very  insignificant  part  in  the 
historical  periods  of  bmguage— clearly  because  there  are  other 
ftff^  easier  modes  of  gaining  new  expression  for  what  needs  to  be 
expsessed.   In  tlie  oourie  of  jdKMietic  change  a  word  sonttt^nes 
varies  into  two  (or  more)  forms,  and  nukes  so  many  words,  which 
are  difiarently  turned  to  account.    Everything  beyond  this 
must  be  the  prodact  of  combination;  there  is  no  other  way,  so 
f  ax  as  ooncems  the  extonab  of  speedi.   Then,  partly  as  aocom- 
panyias  and  aiding  this  ipetemal  growth,  partly  as  separate  from 
and  supplementing  it,  there  is  in  all  lanffuage  an  intemai  growth, 
iTft«fc-«"g  no  appearance  in  the  audible  part  of  speech,  consisting 
in  nauUtpiication  of  meanings,  their  modificaUoo  in  the  wa(jr  of 
preciafioB  or  comprehension  or  cooeotness,  the  restriction  of 
words  to  certain  uses,  and  so  on.   Along  with  these,  too,  a  con- 
stant change  of  phonetic  form  constitutes  an  inseparable  part 
of  the  life  of  language.   Speech  is  no  more  stable  with  respect  to 
the  aonnda  of  which  it  is  composed  then  with  respect  to  its 


421 

forma,  iu  VOcabokry,  or  the  body  of  conceptiotis 
signified  by  iL  Even  nearly  related  languages  differ  as  much  in 
their  spoken  alphabets  and  the  combinations  of  sounds  they 
admit,  and  in  their  uttered  forms  of  words  historically  the  same, 
n  in  any  other  part;  and  the  same  is  true  of  local  dialects  and 
of  class  dialects  within  the  same  community.  Phonetic  change 
hss  nothing^  whatever  to  do  with  change  of  meaning;  the  two 
are  the  product  of  wholly  independent  tendencies.  Sometimes, 
indeed,  they  chance  to  coincide,  as  in  the  distinction  of  nnrOAe 
**  small,"  and  mtmOe  "  moment  ";  but  it  is  only  by  chance,  as 
the  spoken  accordance  of  second  in  its  two  meanings  ("  next  " 
and  "  sixtieth  of  a  minute  ")  shows;  words  that  maintain  their 
identity  of  value  most  obstinately,  like  the  nimicrals,  arc  liable 
to  vary  indefinitely  in  form  (so  four,  ftdvor,  ^uaiuoTf  rkfaoft-ti, 
&c,  from  an  original  JhK/u»r-;jf«e,  quin^me,  irhn,  cotCj  ftc.,  from 
penkwe — while,  on  the  other  hand,  hbo  ixnd  three  show  as  striking 
an  accordance  of  form  as  of  meaning  through  all  the  same 
languages);  what  is  far  the  most  common  is  that  the  word 
becomes  very  unlike  its  former  self  in  both  respects,  like  priest 
from  the  Greek  Tp&^impos  (presbyter) ,  literally  **  older  man." 
Human  convenknce  is,  to  be  sure,  the  governing  motive  in 
both  changes;  but  it  is  convenience  of  two  different  kinds:  the 
one  mental,  depending  on  the  fact  (pointed  out  above)  that  a 
name  when  once  applied  belongs  to  the  thing  to  which  it  is 
applied,  to  the  disregard  of  its  etymologicai  connexions,  does  not 
need  to  be  changed  when  the  thing  changes,  and  is  ready  for 
new  application  to  anything  that  can  be  brought  into  one  class 
with  the  latter;  and  the  other  physical,  depending  on  the  organs 
of  speech  and  their  successive  movements,  by  which  the  sounds 
that  make  up  the  word  are  produced.  Phonetic  convenience  is 
economy  of  dOfort  on  the  part  of  those  organs;  and  to  no  other  law 
than  that  of  economy  of  utterance  have  any  of  the  phenomena 
of  phonetic  change  been  found  traceable  (though  it  is  also  to  be 
noted  that  some  phenomena  have  not  hitherto  been  successfully 
brought  under  it,  and  that  the  way  of  effecting  this  is  still 
unclear).  "  Euphony,"  which  used  to  be  appealed  to  as  expboA- 
tion,  is  a  false  principle,  except  so  far  as  the  term  may  be  made 
an  idealiied  synonym  of  economy.  The  ear  finds  that  agreeable 
which  the  organs  of  utterance  find  facile.  Economy  in  utterance 
is  no  isolated  tendency;  it  is  the  same  that  plxys  its  part  in  all 
other  kinds  of  human  action,  and  In  language  appears  equally 
in  the  abbreviatioa  of  the  sentence  by  leaving  out  parts  that  can 
be  spared  without  loss  of  intelligibility.  It  is  an  insidious 
tendency,  always  lying  in  wait,  like  gravitation,  to  puU  down 
what  is  not  sufficiently  held  up — the  holding-up  force  in  lan- 
guage being  the  faithfulness  of  tradition,  or  accurate  repro- 
duction by  the  learner  and  user  of  the  signs  which  he  has  acquired. 
No  generation  of  men  has  any  intention  to  speak  otherwise  than 
as  its  predecessor  has  spoken,  or  any  consdOusness  that  it  is 
doing  so;  and  yet,  from  generation  to  generation,  words  are 
shortened,  sounds  are  assimilated  to  one  another,  and. one 
dement  passes  out  of  use  while  a  new  one  is  introduced.  Abbre- 
viation and  assimilation  are  the  most  conspicuous  depart- 
ments of  phonetic  change,  and  those  in  which  the  nature  of  the 
governing  tendency  is  most  plainly  seen.  *  Taken  by  itself, 
one  sound  is  as  easy  as  another  to  the  person  who  has  accustomed 
himself  to  it  from  childhood;  and  those  which  the  young  child 
most  easily  acquires  are  not  these  which  in  the  history  of  spttch 
are  least  liable  to  alteration^  it  is  espeddly  in  the  combinations 
and  transitions  of  n^iid  speaking  that  the  toogne,  as  it  were, 
finds  out  for  itadf  easier  ways  of  performing  its  task,  by  dropping 
and  slurring  and  adi4>ting.  To  trace  ovt  the  infinitely  varied 
items  of  this  chaagef  to  co-ordinate  and  omnpare  them  and 
discover  their  reasons,  constitutes  a  spedal  department  of 
languagfrstudy,  which  is  treated  under  the  head  of  Fuonexics. 
It  only  needs  to  be  pointed  out  here  that  phonetic  change  pU^ 
a  necessary  part  in  the  stnictural  development  of  language, 
by  integrating  compound  words  through  fusion  and  loss  of  identity 
of  their  component  parts,  and,  what  is  of  yet  more  importance, 
by  converting  them  into  forms,  through  disguise  of  identity  of 
one  of  the  parts  and  its  phonetic  subordination  to  the  other  part. 
It  is  this  that  turns*  for  example,  the  compound  gpd4ika  iaftn 


4^2 


PHILOLOGY 


tJbe  derivttSve  codVy»  the  compomid  iaat^id  into  the  veffaal 
form  Unied.  And  yet  one  fuither  result  sometimes  follows:  an 
internal  change  is  wrought  by  phonetic  influence  in  the  body  of 
a  word,  which  change  then  may  in  the  further  history  of  the 
word  be  left  as  the  sole  means  of  distinction  between  one  form 
and  another.  It  is  thus  that,  in  the  most  recent  period,  the 
distinction  of  led  from  icad  and  met  from  Meet  and  so  on  has  been 
made,  the  added  auxiliary  which  originally  made  these  preterites 
induced  a  shortening  of  the  root>vowel,  and  this  was  left  behind 
when  the  auxiliary  disappeared  by  the  usual  process  of  abbrevia- 
tion. It  is  in  the  same  way  tluU  the  distinotions  of  men  from 
man,  of  wen  from  was,  of  set  from  sit,  with  all  their  analogues, 
were  brought  about:  by  a  modification  of  vowel-sound  (Ger. 
UndatU)  occasioned  by  the  presence  in  the  following  syllable  of  an 
f- vowel,  which  in  the  older  stages  of  the  language  is  still  to  be  seen 
there.  And  the  distinctions  of  sing,  sant,  sung  and  song,  of  Hnd, 
bound f  band  and  bond,  are  certainly  of  the  same  kind,  though  they 
go  back  so  far  in  the  hatory  of  our  family  of  languages  that  their 
beginnings  are  not  yet  clearly  demonstrable;  they  were  in  their 
origin  phonetic  accidents,  inorganic,  mere  accompaniments 
and  results  of  external  combinations  which  bore  the  office  of 
distinction  of  meaning  and  were  sufficient  to  it;  In  some  of  our 
languages  they  have  been  disregarded  and  effaced,  in  others  they 
have  risen  to  prominent  importance.  To  regard  these  internal 
changes  sa  primary  and  organic  is  parallel  with  assuming  t}ic 
primarineas  of  the  formative  apparatus  of  language  in  general; 
like  this,  it  ignores  the  positive  evidence  we  have  of  the  secondary 
production  of  such  differences;  they  are,  like  everything  else  in 
linguistic  structure,  the  outcome  of  combination  and  adaptation. 
Borrowing,  or  the  taking-in  of  material  out  of  another  language, 
has  been  more  than  once  referred  to  above  as  sometimes  an 

important  element  in  language-history,  though  less 
^^m!xS  cl^P*(^ching  and  organic  than  the  rest.    There  is 

nothing  anomalous  about  borrowing;  it  is  rather 
in  essential  accordance  with  the  whole  process  of  language- 
acquisition.  All  our  names  were  adopted  by  us  because  tfa^ 
were  already  in  use  by  others;  and  a  community  is  in  the  same 
way  capable  of  taking  a  new  name  from  a  community  with  which 
it  comes  in  cobtact  as  an  individual  from  individuals.  Not  that 
it  seeks  or  admiu  in  this  way  new  names  for  old  things;  but  it 
accepts  new  things  along  with  the  names  that  seem  to  bcl<mg  to 
them.  Hence  any  degree  of  intercourse  between  one  community 
and  another,  leading  to  exchange  of  products  or  of  knowledge, 
is  sure  to  kad  also  to  some  borrowing  of  names;  and  there  is 
hardly  a  language  in  the  world,  except  of  races  occupying 
peculiariy  isolated  positions,  that  does  not  contain  a  certain 
mroount  of  foreign  material  thus  won,  even  as  our  English  has 
elements  in  its  vocabulaiy  from  half  the  other  tongues  in  the 
world.  The  scale  of  borrowing  is  greatly  increased  when  one 
people  becomes  the  pupil  of  another  in  respect  of  iu  dvilixation: 
hence  the  abundant  rlsBiiral  elements  in  all  the  European 
tongues,  even  the  non-Romanic;  hence  the  Arabic  material  in 
Persian  and  Turkish  and  Malay;  hence  the  Oiinese  In  Japanese 
and  Corean;  and,  as  a  further  result,  even  dead  languages,  like 
the  Greek  and  Latin  and  the  Sanskrit,  become  stores  to  be  drawn 
upon  in  that  learned  and  conscious  quest  of  new  expression 
which  in  the  school-stage  of  culture  supplemoits  or  even  in  a 
measure  replaces  the  unoonsdous  growth  of  natural  speech. 
So,  in  mixture  of  communities,  which  is  a  hi^ly-intensified 
form  of  contact  and  intercourse,  there  f<rflows  such  mixture  of 
qieech  as  the  conditions  of  the  case  determine;  yet  not  a  mixture 
on  equal  terms,  thmugh  all  the  departments  of  vocabulary  and 
grammar;  the  rpsulting  speech  (just  as  when  two  individuals  learn 
to  speak  alike)  is  essentially  that  of  the  one  constituent  of  the 
new  community,  with  more  or  less  matcxial  borrowed  from  that 
of  the  other.  What  is  most  tasSfy  takcb  in  out  of  another 
language  is  the  names  of  concrete  things;  every  degree  of  removal 
from  this  involves  additional  difficulty— names  of  abstract 
things,  epithets,  verbs,  connectives,  forms.  Indeed,  the  borrow- 
hig  of  forms  in  the  highest  sense,  or  forms  of  inflexion,  is  well- 
nigb  or  quite  impossible;  no  example  of  it  has  "been  demonstrated 
in  any  ol  the  htatoaical  periods  of  language,  though  it  is  some- 


tlmet  adventvMBly  ainmed  =as  a  part  of  prehittotic  giowtft. 
How  nearty  it  may  be  approached  b  instanced  by  the  presence 
in  English  of  such  learned  plurals  as  phenomena  and  Urata^  This 
extreme  resistance  to  mixture  in  the  department  of  iniexioB  is 
the  ground  on  which  some  deny  the  possibilily  of  mixture  in 
language,  and  hence  the  existence  of  such  a  thing  as  a  mixed 
language.  The  difference  is  mainly  a  Terbal  one;  but  it  woidd 
seem  about  as  reasonable  to  deny  that  a  region  is  inundated  so 
long  as  the  tops  of  iu  highest  mountains  are  above  water. 
According  to  the  simple  and  natural  meaning  of  the  tenn,  nearly 
all  languages  are  mixed,  in  varying  degree  and  within  varying 
limits,  which  the  circumstances  of  each  case  must  explain. 

These  are  the  leading  processes  of  change  seen  at  work  in 
all  present  speech  and  in  all  known  past  speech,  and  hence  to 
be  regarded  as  having  worked  through  the  whole  Mstoiy  of 
speech.     By  their  operation  every  existing  tongue  has  been 
developed  out  of  its  rudimentary  radical  condition  to  that 
in  which  we  now  see  it.    The  variety  of  existing  languages 
is  weU-nigh  inffaiite,  not  only  in  Uieir  material  ^t  in  their 
d^ree  of  development  and  the  kind  of  resulting  atfuctuie. 
Just  as  the  earlier  stages  in  the  history  of  the  use  of  toob  are 
exemplified  even  at  the  .jresent  day  by  races  which  have  never 
advanced  beyond  them,  so  is  H  in  regard  to  language  also~ 
and,  of  course,  In  the  latter  case  as  in  the  former,  this  state  of 
things  strengthens  and  establishes  the  theoiy  of  a  gradual 
development.    There  is  not  an  element  of  linguistic  structure 
possessed  by  tome  languages  idiich  Is  not  wanting  in  ^^^_ 
others;  and  there  are  even  tongues  which  have  nojy^^^ 
formal  structure,  and  which  cannot  be  shown  ever 
to  have  advanced  out  of  the  radical  stage.    The  most  noted 
example  of  such  a  rudimenUxy  tongue  is  the  Chinese,  whkh 
in  iu  present  condition  lacks  all  formal  distinction    of  the 
parts  of   speech,   all  inflexion,   all   derivation;  eadi   of  iU 
words  (all  of  them  monosyllabies)  is  an  integral  sign,  not 
divisible   into  parU  of   separate  ajgrnficance;  and  cadi  in 
general  is  usable  wherever  the  radical  idea  is  wanted,  with  the 
value  of  one  part  of  speech  or  another,  as  determined  by  the 
connexion  in  which  it  stands;  a  condition  parallel  with  that 
in  which  Indo-European  speech  may  be  regarded  as  eadsting 
prior  to  the  beginnings  of  iu  career  of  formal  development 
briefly  sketched  above.    And  there  are  other  tongues,  related 
and  unrelated  to  Chinese,  of  which  the  same  dcaariptioii,  or  one 
nearly  like  it,  might  be  given.    To  call  such  languages  radical 
is  by  no  means  to  mainum  that  they  exhibit  the  primal  toots 
of  human  apeech,  unchanged  or  only  phonetically  changed,  or 
that  they  hkve  known  n<^iRg  of  the  combination  of  elen»fwt 
with  element.    Of  some  of  them  the  roou  are  in  greater  or 
less  part  dissyllabic;  and  we  do  not  yet  know  that  aB  di»> 
sylbbism,  and  even  that  all  complexity  of  syllable  beyond  a 
single  consonant  with  following  vowel,  b  not  the  result  of 
combinatwn  or  reduplication.     But  aH  combination  it  not 
form-making;  it  needs  a  whole  dass  of  combteatfons,  vith  a 
recognized  common  dement  In  than  producing  a  xecogniaed 
common  modification  of  meaning,  to  aoake  a  fMn.  The  snase 
demenu  which  (m  Latin,  and  even  to  some  extent  in  English 
also)  are  of  formal  value  in  eoiMtani  and  pro-did  lack  that 
chaiacter  in  eost  and  proaek;  the  tame  like  whkh    makes 
adverbs  in  frw^y  and  ngld4f  b  present  without  any  sach  value 
in  iuek  and  wkiek  (from  so4ike  and  wko  like);  cost  and  ^rwiffc, 
and  suck  and  which,  are  as  purdy  radical  in  Enf^fah  as  other 
words  of  which  we  do  not  happen  to  be  able  to  denonstiaitc 
the  composite  character.     And  so  a  Chinese  maoo^Uabk 
or  an  Egyptian  or  Polynesian  diasyUabb  b  ladical,  uakaa  tbcre 
can  be  demonstrated  in  some  part  of  it  a  formative  vajhie;  aad 
a  bnguage  wholly  composed  of  such  wordab  a  wot-JangiMiy. 
Recent  Investigation  goes  to  show  that  Chinese  had  at  aome 
period  of  iu  history  a  formal  devdopment,  sinoe  extinguiihed 
by  the  same  processes  of  phonetic  decay  which  la  Engiisli  have 
wiped  out  so  many  signs  of  a  formal  diaracter  and  broug^  back 
so  considerable  a  part  of  the  vocabulary  to  monoflyUabbm.    In 
languages  thus  constituted  the  only  possible  cMcnal  alteratioa 
b  that  phonetic  chai^  to  which  all  human  Mpttck,  inm  the 


PHIL0LCX5Y 


423 


vny  beginning  oC  its  ttaditiraal  life,  is  liable;  tbe  otiy  growLb 
it  iQtenMd,  by  that  multiplication  anid  adaptation  and  improve- 
ment of  meaninp^  wbich  is  equally  an  inseparable  part  of  aU 
iaaguage-histoiy.  This  may  include  the  reduction  of  certain 
dements  to  the  value  of  auziliaries»  particles,  fonn-words,  such 
as  play  an  important  part  in  analjrtical  tongues  like  English,  and 
are  perhaps  also  instanoed  in  prdustocic  Indo-European  speech 
by  the  cbsa  ai  pronominal  loots.  Phrases  take  the  place  of 
oompounda  and  of  inflexions,  and  the  same  element  may  have 
an  auxiliary  vslue  in  certain  oonnevona  while  retaining  its  f  uU 
force  ia  others,  like,  for  instance,  our  own  have.  It  is  not  ea^ 
to  defiene  tkt  distinrtion  between  such  phrase<oUocations  and 
the  Kfy'Mitwg*  of  ag^utination;  yet  the  distinction  itself  is 
in  general  dearly  enough  to  be  drawn  (like  .that  in  French 
between  d^mrai  and  ci  dantU)  when  the  whole  habit  of  the 
language  is  well  understood. 

Such  languages,  constituting  the  small  minority  of  human 
tongue*,  are  wont  to  be  called  "isolating,"  i«.  using  each 
element  by  itself,  in  its  int^ral  form.    All  besides 
are  "agglutinative,"  <Mr  ox>re  or  less  compounded 
into  words  containing  a  formal  part,  an  indicator 
of  cUsa^value.     Here  the  differences,  in  kind  and  degree, 
are  very  sreat;  the  variety  ranges  from  a  scantiness  hardly 
superior  to  Chinese  isolation  up  to  an  intricacy  compared 
with  which  Indo-European  structure  if  hardly  fuller  ihaa 
Chinese.    Some  brief  characterisation  of  the  various  fanuUea 
of  language  in  this  respect  will  be  given  farther  on,  in  con- 
aexion  with  their  classification.    The  attempt  is  also  made  to 
classify  the  great  mass  of  agglutinating  tongues  under  different 
beada:  those  are  ranked  as  simply  "  agghitinative  "  in  whkh 
there  ia  n.gedetal  conservation  of  the  separate  identity  of  not  or 
stem  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  formative  dement,  aul&x  or  pceha, 
on  the  other;  while  the  name  "inflective/*  used  in  a 
higher  and  pregnant  sense,  isgiven  to  those  that  admit 
ft  superior  fusion  and  integration  of  the  two  parts,  to  the  disguise 
aadioaa  of  separate  identity,  and,  yet  more,  with  the  devdop- 
■le&t  of  an  internal  change  as  auxiliary  to  <»  as  substitute  for 
the  origiBal  sgglutination.    But  there  is  no  term  in  linguistic 
•dence  ao  uncertain  of.  meaning,  so  arbitrary  of  applicatiou,  so 
dependent  on  the  idiosyncrasy  of  its  user,  as  the  tenn  "  inflec- 
tive."    Any  language  ought  to  have  the  right  to  be  called  in- 
flective that  has  inflexion;  that  is,  that  not  merely  distinguishes 
parts  of  speech  and  roots  and  stoma  formally  from  one  another, 
but  ako  conjugates  iu  verbs  and  declines  its  nouns;  and  the 
name  is  sometimes  so  used.    If,  again,  it  be  strictly  limited  te 
signtfy  the  possession  of  imner  JUxion  of  roots  and  stems  (as  if 
simply  nodutiaated  forms  could  be  called  "  esflective  ">,  it 
marks  only  a  difference  of  degree  of  agglutination,  and  should 
be  cnrefnlly  used  as  so  doing.    As  describing  the  iundamental 
and  pvodominant  character  of  language-strueture^  it  belongs 
to  onlx  one  family  of  languagts,  the  Semitic,  where  moat  of  the 
work  of  grammatical  distinction  is  done  by  internal  changes  of 
voivel,  <lie  origin  of  which  thus  far  ehides  all  attempts  at  explana* 
tioa^  By  perhaps  the  majority  of  students  of  language  ii  js,  aa 
ft  0Bitefmily  deseriptive  tide,  restricted  to  that  family  and  one 
other,  the  todo-European  or  Indo*(}ermaaic;  but  such  a  dasai- 
ficatiott  IS  not  to  be  approved,  for,  in  respect  to  this  character- 
istic, Indo-Enropean  speech  ranks  not  with  Semitic  but  with 
the  greet  body  of  agglutinative  tongues^  To  few  of  these  can 
the  name  bo  altogether  denied,  since  there  is  hardly  a  body  oi 
leUted  dialecu  in  existence  that  docs  not  exhibit  some  item 
of  "  inflective  "  structure;  the  Aryan  is  only  ihe  one  among 
themk  that  haa  moat  to  sbonk   Outtids  the  Septic,  at  any  tate, 
one  sboukl  not  speak  of  inflective  and  noiMnflecttve  languages, 
but  only  of  lanouges  more  inflectiTe  and  leas  inflectiveu  . 

To  nGOOont  for  the  great  and  aaikingdiffeiences  of  atmctnre 
^ni^yg  httOian  languages  ia  beyond  the  power  of  the  linguistic 
student,  and  will  doubtlesa  always,  continue  ao.  We 
'*^  are  not  likaly  to beableevea  todemonMraie  a  corre* 
lalioa  of  caparitiea,  aayiog  that  a  race  which  haa 
done  this  and  that  in  other  departments  of  huaMn  aetivi^ 
might  h«vf  been  tspected  to  forai  aoch  and  ancb  a  kngwfg- 


Every  tongue  represents  the  general  outcome  of  the  capadty 
of  a  race  aa  exerted  in  this  particular  direction,  under  the 
influence  of  historical  drcumstaoces  which  we  can  have  no 
hope  of  tradog  There  are  striking  apparent  anomalies  to 
be  noted.  The  Chinese  and  the  Egyptians  have  shown  them- 
sdves  to  be  among  the  most  gifted  races  the  earth  has 
knovm;  but  the  Chinese  tongue  is  of  unsurpassed  jejuoe> 
nesa,  and  the  Egyptian,  in  point  of  structure,  little  better, 
while  among  the  wild  tribes  of  Africa  and  America  we  find 
tongues  of  every  grade,  up  to  a  high  one,  or  to  the  highest 
This  shows  clearly  enough  that  mental  power  is  not  measured 
by  language-structine.  But  any  other  linguistic  test  woid4 
prove  equally  insuflirient.  On  the  whole,  the  value  and  rank 
of  a  language  are  determined  by  what  iu  users  have  made  it 
do.  The  reflex  action  of  its  wpeech  on  the  mind  and  culture  of 
a  people  is  a  theme  of  high  interest,  but  of  extreme  difiiicultyt 
and  apt  to  lead  its  investigators  away  into  empty  dedamstion; 
taking  everything  together,  its  amount,  as  is  shown  by  the 
instances  already  referred  to,  is  but  sinalL  The  question  h 
simply  one  of  the  facilitation  of  work  by  the  me  of  one  set  of 
tools  rather  than  another;  and  a  poor  tool  in  skilful  hands  can 
do  vastly  belter  work  than  the  best  tool  in  unskilful  hands-* 
even  as  the  ancient  Egyptians,  without  ated  or  steam,  turned 
out  products  which,  both  for  colossal  grandeur  and  for  exquinte 
finish,  are  the  despair  of  modem  engineers  and  artists.  In  such 
a  history  of  dcvdopment  as  that  of  human  veech  a  fortunate 
turn  may  lead  to  results  of  unf(»eseen  value;  the  earlier  steps 
determine  the  later  in  a  degree  quite  beyond  their  own  intrinsic 
importaxwe.  Everything  in  language  depends  upon  habit  and 
analogy;  and  the  formation  of  habit  is  a  sbw  process,  while 
the  habit  once  formed  exerdacs  a  comtxaining  as  wdl  as  a 
guiding  influence.  Hence  the  persistency  of  language-struc* 
ture:  when  a  certain  sum  and  kind  of  expression  is  produced, 
and  nukde  to  answer  the  piuposes  of  expression,  it  ranains 
the  same  by  inertia;  a  ahift  of  direction  becomea  of  extreme 
difficulty.  No  other  reason  can  at  present  be  given  wAxy  in 
historical  time  there  haa  been  no  marked  development  out  of 
one  grade  of  structure  into  another;  but  the  fart  ao  more  shakes 
the  linguistic  scholar's  bdief  in  the  growth  <A  structure  thut  the 
absence  of  new  aaimsl  apedea  worked  out  under  his  eyes  shakes 
the  confidence  of  the  believer  in  animal  devdopment.  The 
modifying  causes  and  their  modes  of  action  are  daarly  aeeni 
and  there  is  no  limit  to  the  results  of  their  action  except  what  is 
impoaed  by  circumstances. . 

It  is  in  vain  to  attempt  to  use  dates  ia  langnage-historyv 
to  say  when  this  or  that  step  in  devdopment  was  taken,  and  how 
long  a  period  it  cost*  especially  now  that  the  changed  views 
as  to  the  antiquity  of  man  are  making  it  fnobable  that  only 
a  amall  part  of  the  whole  history  is  brought  within  the  reach 
even  of  our  deductions  from  the  most  andent  VMyti 
recorded  dialects.  At  any  rate,  for  aaght  that  we  Ortivaf 
know  or  have  reason  to  believe,  sll  existing  dialects  ^f^ 
are  equally  old;  every  one  alike  has  the  whole  immessomble 
past  of  language-life  behind  it,  has  'reached  its  present 
oonditimi*  by  advance  along  its  own  hae  of  growth  and 
change,  from  the  first  beginnings  of  human  expression.  Many 
of  these  separate  lines  we  dearly  see  to  converge  and  unite,' 
as  we  fc^ow  them  back  into  the  past ;  but  whether 
ihty  all  ultimatdy  converge  to  one  point  is  a  ciuestion  quite 
beyond  our  power  to  ans#er.  If  in  this  immensity  of  time 
many  langnagrn  heve  wen  so  little,  if  everywhere  language* 
growth  has  becmeo  slow,  then  we.  can  only  differ  as  to  whether 
it  is  reasonably  certain,  or  probable,  or  only  possible,  that  then 
should  have  been  .a  considcnble  first  peiiod  of  human  rrisfimce 
without  traditional  speech,  sad  a  yet  more  considerable  one 
before  the  fixation  of  so  nnach  as  should  leave  abiding  traces  in 
ttB<  descendants,  and  .that  meanwhile  the  race  sheold  have 
multiplied  and  scattered  into  independent  communitiea;  And 
the  mere  poasibilily  is  enough  to  exdude  all  dogmatic  assertioB 
oC  the  unity  of  origin  of  human  speech,  even  assuming  unity  of 
origin  of  the  humaa  race.  For  to  prove  that  identity  by  the 
still  exiating  facte  of  language  is.  utfcriy  eat  of  the  question} 


42+ 


PHILOLOGY 


tBe  meUmorphosing  effect  of  oonsUnt  change  has  been  too 
great  to  allow  it.  In  point  of  fact,  taking  languages  as  they 
now  eiist^  only  those  have  been  shown  related  which  possess 
a  common  structuxe,  or  have  together  gxown  out  of  the  more 
primitive  radical  stage,  since  structure  proves  itself  a  more 
constant  and  reliable  evidence  than  materiaL  And  this  is 
likely  ever  to  be  the  case;  at  any  rate,  to  trace  all  the  world's 
languages  so  far  back  toward  their  beginnings  as  to  find  in  them 
evidences  of  identity  is  beyond  the  wildest  hope.  We  must 
be  content  with  demonstrating  for  those  beginnings  a  unity  of 
kind  as  alike  a  body  of  formless  roots.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
since  this  unity  is  really  demonstrated,  since  all  structure  is 
the  result  of  growth,  and  no  degree  of  difference  of  structure, 
any  more  than  of  difference  of  material,  refuses  explanation. as 
the  result  of  discordant  growth  from  identical  beginnings,  it  is 
equaBy  inadmissible  to  claim  that  the  diversities  of  language 
prove  it  to  have  had  different  beginnings.  That  is  to  say,  the 
question  of  the  unity  of  speech,  and  yet  more  that  of  the  unity 
i  the  race,  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  student  of  language; 
the  best  view  he  can  attain  is  the  hypothetical  one,  that,  if 
the  race  is  one,  the  b^innings  of  speech  were  perhaps  one — 
but  probably  not,  even  then.  This  n^^tive  conclusion  is 
so  clearly  established  as  to  leave  no  excuse  for  the  still  oft> 
repeated  attempts  to  press  language  into  service  on  either  side 
of  the  controversy  reH>ecting  human  unity  of  race. 

That  all  making  and  changing  of  language  is  by  the  act  of 
its  speakers  is  too  obvious  to  call  for  discussion.  No  other 
Vaetatdom  ^^"^  capable  of  acting  and  of  producing  effects  is 
Onwik  cither  demonstrable  or  conceivable  as  concerned 
itnmk  in  the  work.  The  doctrine  that  language  is  an 
ladh'MBafc.  Qfguinm,  growing  by  its  own  inherent  powers, 
exempt  from  the  interference  of  those  who  use  if,  is  simply 
to  indefensible  paradox.  Every  word  that  is  uttered  is  so 
by  an  act  of  human  will,  at  first  in  imitation  of  others,  then 
more  and  more  by  a  formed  and  controlling  habit;  it  is  acces- 
sible to  no  change  except  by  influences  working  in  the  speaker's 
mind  and  leading  him  to  make  it  otherwise.  Not  that  he  is 
aware  of  this,  or  directs  his  action  knowingly  to  that  end.  The 
whole  process  is  unconscious.  If  any  implication  of  reflective 
or  intended  action  can  be  shown  to  inhere  in  any  doctrine  of 
linguistic  science,  it  vitiates  that  doctrine.  The  attitude  of  the 
ordinary  speaker  towards  his  language  is  that  .of  unreasoning 
acceptance;  it  seems  to  him  that  his  names  for  things  are 
their  real  names,  and  all  others  unintdligent  nicknames;  he 
thinks  himself  to  possess  his  speech  by  the  same  tenure  as  his 
sight  or  hearing;  it  is  *'  natural  '*  to  him  (or,  if  he  reasons  about 
it,  he  attributes  it  to  a  divine  origin,  as  races  beginning  to 
philosophize  are  wont  to  ascribe  their  various  social  institutions 
lo  their  gods);  he  knows  nothing  of  its  structure  and  relations; 
it  never  occurs  to  him  to  find  fai^t  with  it,  or  to  deem  it  insuffi* 
dent  and  add  to  or  dumge  it;  he  is  wholly  unaware  that  it 
does  change.  He  simply  satisfies  his  sodai  needs  of  communi- 
cation by  means  of  it;  and  if  he  has  anything  to  express  that 
is  different  from  what  has  been  exi»essed  before,  he  takes  the 
shortest  wi^  to  a  provision  for  the  need;  while  any  relaxation 
of  the  energy  of  utterance  tends  to  a  variation  in  the  uttered 
combinations;  and  thus  changes  come  by  his  act,  though  with- 
out his  knowledge.  His  sole  object  is,  on  the  basis  of  what 
language  he  has,  to  make  known  his  thought  in  the  most  con- 
venient way  to  his  fellow;  everything  else  follows  with  and 
from  that.  Human  nature  and  circumstances  being  what  they 
are,  what  follows  actually  is,  as  already  shown,  incessant 
growth  and  change.  For  it  we  have  not  to  seek  special  disturb- 
ing causes  in  the  history  of  the  speakers,  although  such  may 
oome  in  to  heighten  and  quicken  the  change;  we  know  that 
even  in  a  small  community,  on  a  narrow  islet,  cut  off  from  all 
intercourse  with  other  communities,  the  speech  would  grow 
different— as  certainty,  if  not  as  rapi()ly,  as  anywhere  in  the 
worid-^and  only  by  the  actfani  of  ik%  speakers:  not  that  the 
speakers  of  a  kngnags  act  in  unison  and  simidtaneously  to 
pioduee  a  given  change.  This  must  begin  in  an  individual, 
or  more  or  ksa  accordantly  in  a  limited  number  of  individuals^ 


and  ^read  from  such  exam]^  through  the  community.  D>kift> 
tion  by  one  or  a  few,  acc^ance  and  adoption  by  the  lest^ 
such  is  the  necessary  method  of  all  linguistic  change,  and  to  be 
read  as  plainly  in  the  facts  of  change  now  going  on  among  onw 
sdves  as  in  those  of  former  language.  The  doctrine  ol  the 
inaccessibility  of  language  to  other  action  than  that  ol  its 
speakers-does  not  imply  a  power  in  the  individual  qieaker  to 
create  or  alter  anythhig  in  the  common  speech,  any  more  thsB 
it  implies  his  desire  to  do  so.  What  he  suggests  by  his  example 
must  be  approved  by  the  imitation  of  his  fellows,  in  order  to 
become  language.  The  conmKHi  q>eech  is  the  common  pio- 
perty,  and  no  one  person  has^y  more  power  over  it  than 
another.  If  there  are,  for  example,  a  thousand  ipeakcn  of  a 
certain  dialect,  eadi  one  wields  in  general  »  thousandth  part  of 
the  force  required  to  change  it— with  just  so  much  vioie  as  may 
bdong  to  his  excess  of  influence  over  his  fellows,  due  to  icoog- 
nized  superiority  of  any  kind  on  his  part.  His  action  is  limited 
only  (by  their  assent;  but  this  is  in  effect  a  very  narrow  limita- 
tion, ensuring  the  adoption  of  nothing  that  b  not  in  near  accor- 
dance with  the  already  existing;  th<yugh  it  is  ah»  to  be  noted 
that  he  is  as  little  apt  to  strike  off  into  startling  change  as  they 
to  allow  it;  since  the  governing  power  of  already  fonned  habits 
of  q)eech  is  as  strong  in  him  as  in  them.  That  change  to  whidi 
the  existing  habits  naturally  lead  is  tuy  to  bring  about;  any 
other  is  practically  impossible.  It  is  this  tendency  on  the 
purt  of  the  collective  speakers  of  a  hmgwage  to  appcove  or 
reject  a  proposed  change  according  to  its  conformity  with 
their  already  subsisting  usages  that  we  are  ftoeostomed  to  call 
by  the  fanciful  name  *'  the  genius  of  a  langvago." 

On  the  reUtion  of  the  part  i^yed  in  language-change  by 
the  individual  to  that  by  the  community,  in 
the  incvitableness  of  chuige,  rests  the  ex]4anstion  oi 
the  dialectic  variation  of  hmguage.  If  language  were 
staUe  there  would  of  course  be  no  divarication;  but 
since  it  is  always  varying,  and  by  items  of  difference  thnt 
from  individuals  and  become  general  by  diffuMon,  there 
imiformity  of  change  only  so  far  as  diffusion  goes  or  ns  the 
influences  of  communication  extend.  Within  ^  liaslU  of  a 
single  community,  soaII  or  large,  whatever  change  arfBcscpicaik 
gradually  to  all,  and  so  becomes  part  of  the  general  speech; 
but  let  that  community  become  divided  into  two  (or  moic) 
parts,  and  then  the  changes  arising  in  either  part  do  not  spnad 
to  the  other,  and  there  begins  to  appear  a  difference  in  linguistic 
usage  between  them.  It  b  at  first  slight,  even  to  fnsignificnnce; 
not  greater  than  exists  between  the  dialects  of  difleicnt  toraHrirs 
or  ranks  or  occupations  in  the  same  community,  withoot  detxK 
ment  to  the  general  unity  of  speech.  This  unity,  namdy,  rests 
solely  on  mutual  intelligibility,  and  is  compatible  with  no 
small  amount  of  individual  and  doss  difference,  in  vocahulary, 
in  grammar  and  in  jMonundation;  indeed,  in  the  strictest 
sense,  each  indjvidual  has  a  dialect  of  his  own,  diffcicnt  from 
that  of  every  other,  even  as  he  has  a  handwriting,  a  eooBtenanoe, 
a  chasocter  of' his  own.  And  every  item  of  chsuhge,  as  It  takes 
fdace,  must  have  bs  season  of  cxbtence  as  a  local  or  <laaB  or 
trade  peculiarity,  before  it  gains  uaivenat  cnnency;  some  of 
them  linger  long  in  that  condition,  or  never  emerge  fiom  it. 
All  these  differences  in  the  speech  of  different  sub^ommnnltics 
within  the  some  community  axe  essentially  dialectic;  they  dUler 
not  in  kind,  but  only  in  degree,  from  those  which  sepoimte  the 
best-marked  dialects;  they  are  kept  down  by  general  coBinnnd- 
cstlon  within  the  limit  of  general  mutual  intdllgibiKty.  Where 
that  lestcoining  influence  ceases  the  limit  is  grsdnatly  bat 
surely  overpassed,  and  real  dialects  are  the  resulL  Wnm 
what  we  know  of  the  life  of  language  we  can  tay  podtlvdy 
that  continued  uniformity  of  speech  without  contlniied  coea> 
munity  is  not  practicable.  If  It  were  poMlble  to  divide  aiti- 
fididly,  by  an  impoaable  chasm  or  woD,  a  people  one  for 
ages,  and  continuing  to  occupy  the  same  seats,  the  i*«gMp» 
of  the  divided  ports  woukl  at  once  begin  to  be  dialecticaQy 
different;  and  after  salBdent  time  had  dopsed  each  would  have 
become  imirtfffigiblc  to  the  other.  That  h  to  say,  whmcvef 
a  commnnity  of  uniform  speech  breaks  op^  iu  speech  brcahs 


phil<m:ogy 


4^5 


up  alsD;  nor  do  we  kaoir  of  any  otber  caoifc  q(  dialectic 
divenity. 

In  applying  this  explanation  of  dialectic  growth  we  have 
to  allow  for  modifying  circumstances  of  various  nature,  which 
alter  not  indeed  the  fact  but  the  rate  and  kind  of  divarication. 
Some  languages  grow  and  change  much  more  rapidly  than 
others,  with  a  coneoponding  effect  upon  divarication,  since 
this  is  but  a  result  of  discordant  growth.    Usually,  when  there 
is  division  of  a  community,  the  parts  get  into  different  external 
circumstances,  come  in  contact  or  mingle  with  different  neigh- 
bouring communities,  and  the  like;  and  this  quickens  and 
increases  their  divergence  of  speech.    But  the  modifying  factor 
of  by  far  the  highest  importance  here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  history 
of  language,  is  civilization.    Civilisation  in  its  higher  forms  so 
multiplies  the  forces  of  oommunication  as  to  render  it  possible 
that  the  widely-divided  parts  of  one  people,  living  in  circura- 
stances  and  under  institutions  of  very  different  character, 
should  yet  maintain  a  substantial  oneness  of  speech;  of  this 
there  is  do  more  striking  example  than  the  two  great  divisions 
of  the  English-spea king  people  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 
On  the  otber  hand,  a  savage  people  cannot  spread  even  a  little 
without  dialectic  disunity;  there  are  abimdant  examples  to  be 
met  with  now  of  mutually  unintelligible  speech  between  the 
smallest  subdivisions  of  a  race  of  obviously  kindred  tongue — 
as  the  different  dusters  of  huts  on  the  same  coral  islet.    It  is 
with  lingdstic  imity  precisely  as  it  b  with  poUtical  unity,  and 
for  the  same  reasons.    Before  the  attainment  of  civilizatk>n 
the  human  race,  whether  proceeding  from  one  oentro  of  dis> 
persion  or  from  several,  was  spread  over  the  earth  in  a  state  of 
utter  disintegration;  but  every  centre  of  civilisation  becomes 
also  a  centre  of  integration;  its  influences  make  for  unity 
of  speech  as  of  all  other  social  institutions.     Since  culture 
has    become  inomtestably   the   dominant  power  in   human 
history,  the  unifying  forces  in  language  have  also  been  stronger 
than  the  diversifying;  and  with  culture  at  its  full  height,  and 
spread  equally  to  every  land  and  race,  one  universal  language, 
like  one  universal  community,  is  not  an  absurdity  or  theoretic 
impossibility,  but  only  a  Utopian  or  millennial  dream. 

Dialectic  variation  is  thus  simply  a  consequence  of  the 
movements  of  population.  As  the  original  human  race  or 
races,  so  the  divisions  or  communities  of  later  formation,  from 
point  to  point  through  the  whole  life  oi  man  on  the  earth, 
have  spread  and  separated,  but  jostled  and  interfered,  have 
conquered  and  exterminated  or  mingled  and  absorbed;  and 
their  speech  has  been  affected  accordini^y.  Hence  something 
of  these  movements  can  be  read  in  the  present  condition  of 
languages,  as  in  a  faithful  though  obscure  record — more,  doubt- 
less, than  can  be  read  in  any  other  way,  however  little  it  may 
be  when  viewed  absolutely.  Dialectic  resemblances  point 
inevitably  back  to  an  earlier  tmity  of  speech,  and  hence  of 
comrmintty;  from  what  we  know  of  the  history  of  speech, 
they  are  not  to  be  accounted  for  in  any  other  way.  The  longer 
the  separation  that  has  produced  the  diversity,  the  greater  its 
degree.  With  every  generation  the  amount  of  accordance 
decreasea  and  that  of  discordance  increases  the  common 
origin  of  the  dialects  is  at  first  palpable,  then  evident  on  examina- 
tion, then  to  be  made  out  by  skilled  research,  then  perhaps 
no  longer  demonstrable  at  all;  for  there  is  plainly  no  limit  to 
the  possible  divergence.  So  long,  now,  as  any 
J^J2J**' evidence  of  original  unity  is  discoverable  we  call 
^**^'  the  languages  "  related  dialects,"  and  combine  them 
into  a  "  family."  The  term  "  family  "  simply  signifies  a  group 
of  languages  which  the  evidence  thus  far  at  command,  as 
estimated  by  us,  kads  tts  to  regard  as  descended  by  the  ordinary 
processes  of  dialectic  divarication  from  one  original  tongue. 
That  it  does  not  imply  a  denial  of  the  possibility  of  wider 
rdationahip  is  obvious  from  what  has  been  said  above.  That 
there  Is  abundant  roont  for  error  in  the  classification  repre- 
sented by  it  is  also  dear,  since  we  may  take  purely  acddental 
resemblances,  or  the  results  of  borrowing,  for  evidence  of  common 
descent,  or  may  overlook  or  wrongly  estimate  real  evidences, 
vhich  more  study  and  improved  method  will  bring  to  light. 


Gfoupisg  into  families  is  nothing  more  than  the  best  cUasifi- 
cation  attainable  at  a  given  stage  tn  the  progress  of  linguistic 
science;  it  is  in  no  small  part  provisional  only,  and  is  always 
hdd  liable  to  modification,  even  sweeping,  by  the  resulu  of 
further  research.  Of  some  families  we  can  follow  the  history 
by  external  evidences  a  great  way  back  into  the  past;  thdr 
structure  is  so  highly  devdoped  as  to  be  traced  with  confidence 
everywhere;  and  their  territory  is  wdl  within  our  reach:  such 
wc  regard  with  the  highest  degree  of  confidence,  hardly  allow* 
ing  for  more  than  the  possibility  that  some  other  dialect,  or 
group,  or  now-accepted  family  even,  may  sometime  prove  its 
right  to  be  added  on.  But  these  are  the  rere  exceptions;  in 
the  great  majority  of  eases  we  have  only  the  languages  as  they 
now  exist,  and  in  more  or  less  scanty  collections,  of  every  d^ree 
of  trustworthiness;  and  even  their  first  grouping  is  tentative 
and  incomplete,  and  involves  an  adjournment  of  deeper  ques- 
tions to  the  day  of  more  light.  To  complete  and  perfect 
the  work  of  dassification  by  rdationship,  or  the  establish- 
ment ol  families  and  thdr  subdivisions,  is  the  first  object  of 
the  comparative  study  of  languages.  No  other  classification 
has  a  value  in  the  least  comparable  with  it;  that  by  grade  of 
structure  is  a  mere  recreation,  leading  to  nothing;  that  1^ 
absolute  worth  is  of  no  account  whatever,  at  any  rate  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge.  On  genetic  relationship,  hi 
the  first  place,  is  founded  all  investigatk>n  of  the  historical 
development  of  languages;  since  it  is  in  the  main  the  comparison 
of  related  dialects,  even  in  the  case  of  families  having  a  lon^ 
recorded  history,  and  elsewhere  only  that,  that  gives  us  know- 
ledge of  thdr  earlier  condition  aiul  enables  us  to  trace  the 
lines  of  change.  In  the  second  jdace,  and  yet  mora  obviously, 
with  this  classification  is  connected  all  that  language  has 
to  teach  as  to  the  affinities  of  human  races;  whatever  aid 
linguistic  science  renders  to  ethnology  rests  upon  the  proved 
relationships  of  human  tongua. 

That  a  classification  of  languages,  to  which  we  have  now  tp 
proceed,  is  not  equivalent  to  a  classification  of  races,  and  why 
this  is  so,  is  evident  enough  from  the  prindples 
which  have  been  brought  out  by  our  whole  discuuion  J^^ 
of  languages,  and  which,  in  their  bearing  tipon 
this  particular  point,  may  wdl  be  recafutulated  here.  No 
language  is  a  race<haracteristic,  determined  by  the  q;>ecial 
endowments  of  a  race;  all  languages  are  of  the  nature  of  in- 
stitutions, paralld  products  of  powers  common  to  aU.  mankind 
— the  powers,  namely,  involved  in  the  application  of  the  fittest 
available  means  to  securing  the  common  end  of  communica- 
tion. Hence  they  are  indefinitdy  transferable,  like  other 
institutions— like  religions,  arts,  forms  of  sodal  organization, 
and  so  on — under  the  constraining  force  of  circumstances. 
As  an  individual  can  learn  any  language,  fordgn  as  well  as 
ancestral,  if  it  be  put  in  his  way,  so  also  a  community,  which 
in  respect  to  such  a  matter  is  onty  an  aggregate  of  individuals. 
Accordingly,  as  individuals  of  very  varioSus  race  are  often 
found  in  one  community,  speaking  together  one  tongue,  and 
utterly  ignorant  of  any  other,  so  there  are  found  great  com- 
munities of  various  descent,  speaking  the  dialecu  of  one  common 
tongue,  which  at  some  period  historical  drcumitances  have 
imposed  upon  them.  The  conspicuous  example,  which  comes 
into  every  Mie's  mind  when  this  subject  is  discussed,  is  that 
of  the  Romanic  countries  of  southern  Europe,  all  using  dialects 
of  a  language  which,  S500  years  ago,  was  itsdf  the  insignificant 
dialect  of  a  small  district  in  central  Italy;  but  this  is  only  the 
most  important  and  striking  of  a  whole  dass  of  shnilar  facts. 
Such  are  the  results  of  the  contact  and  mixture  of  races  and 
languages.  If  language>history  were  limited  to  growth  and 
divarication,  and  race-history  to  spread  and  dispersion,  it  wouU 
be  a  compamtivdy  easy  task  to  trace  both  backward  towanl 
thdr  origin;  as  the  case  is,  the  confusion  is  inextricable  and 
hopdeis.  Mixture  of  race  and  mixture  of  speech  are  coinddcnt 
and  connected  processes;  the  latter  never  takes  place  withoat 
something  of  the  former;  but  the  one  is  not  at  all  a  messure 
of  the  other,  because  drcumstances  may  give  to  the  specdi 
of  the  one  dement  of  popuUtion  ft  greatly  disproportiopuc 


4.?6 


PHILOLOGY 


prepondennoe.  Thus,  there  to  left  in  Piench  only  an  insig- 
nificant trace  of  the  Celtic  diatects  of  the  predominant  race- 
constituent  of  the  French  people;  French  is  the  speech  of 
the  Latin  conquerors  of  Caul*  mixed  perceptibly  with  that 
of  its  later  Prankish  conquerors;  it  was  adopted  in  its  integrity 
by  the  Norse  conquerors  of  a  part  of  the  land,  then  brought 
into  Britain  by  the  same  Norsemen  in  the  course  of  thdr  further 
conquests,  this  time  only  as  an  element  of  mitture,  and  thence 
carried  with  English  speech  to  America,  to  be  the  language  of 
a  still  further  mixed  community.  Almost  every  possible  phase 
of  language-mixture  is  traceable  in  the  history  of  the  abundant 
words  of  Latin  origin  used  by  American  negroes.  What  events 
of  this  character  took  place  in  prehistoric  tinle  we  shall  never 
be  able  to  tell.  If  any  one  chooses  to  assert  the  possibility  that 
even  the  completely  isolated  dialect  of  the  little  Basque  commun- 
ity may  have  been  derived  by  the  Iberian  race  from  an  intrusive 
minority  as  small  as  that  which  made  the  delts  of  Gaul  speakers 
of  Latin,  we  diould  have  to  admit  it  as  a  possibility — ^yet 
without  detriment  to  the  value  of  the  dialect  as  indicating  the 
iacrfated  race-position  of  its  speakers.  In  strictness,  language 
is  never  a  proof  of  race,  either  in  an  individual  or  in  a  com- 
munity; it  is  only  a  probable  indication  of  race,  in  thd  absence 
of  more  authoritative  opposing  indications;  it  is  one  evidence, 
to  be  combined  with  others,  in  the  approach  towards  a  solution 
of  the  confessedly  insoluble  problems  of  human  history.  But 
we  must  notice,  as  a  most  important  circumstance,  that  its 
degree  of  probability  is  greatest  where  its  aid  is  most  needed, 
in  prehistoric  periods  and  among  uncultivated  races;  since  it 
is  mainly  civilization  that  gives  to  language  a  propagative  force 
di^Toportionate  to  the  number  of  its  q)eakers.  On  the  whole, 
the  contributions  of  language  to  ethnology  are  practically  far 
greater  in  amount  and  more  distinct  than  those  derived  from 
any  other  source. 

The  genetical  classification  of  languages,  then,  is  to  be  taken 
for  just  what  it  attempts  to  be,  and  no  more:  primarily  as  a 
classification  of  languages  only;  but  secondarily 
as  casting  light,  in  varying  manner  and  degree,  on 
movements  of  community,  which  in  their  turn 
depend  more  or  less  upon  movements  of  races.  It  is  what 
the  fates  of  men  have  left  to  represent  the  tongues  of  men 
^-a  record  imperfect  even  to  fragmentarincss.  Many  a  family 
once  as  important  as  some  of  those  here  set  down  has  perhaps 
been  wiped  out  of  existence,  or  is  left  only  in  an  incons|ncuous 
fragment;  one  and  another  has  perhaps  been  extended  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  race  that  shaped  it~-which,  we  can 
never  tell  to  our  satisfaction. 

T.  Indo-European  (Indo-Cermanic)  Famt/y.— To  this  family 
belongs  incontestaUy  the  first  place,  and  for  many  reasons: 
the  historical  pontion  of  the  peoples  quaking  Its  dialects,  who 
have  now  long  been  the  leaders  in  the  world^s  history;  the 
abundance  and  variety  and  merit  of  its  literatures,  andent  and 
modem,  which,  especially  the  modem,  are  wholly  unapproached 
by  those  of  any  other  division  of  mankind;  the  period  covered 
by  iu  records;  and,  most  of  all,  the  great  variety  and  richness 
of  its  development.  These  advantages  make  of  it  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  history  of  human  speech  with  wfaidi  no  other  family 
can  bear  a  moment's  comparison  as  to  value,  however  impor- 
tant various  other  families  may  be  in  their  bearing  on  one  and 
another  point  or  department  of  history,  and  however  necessary 
the  combination  of  the  testimony  of  all  to  a  solution  of  the 
problems  involved  in  speech.  These  advantages  have  made  Indo- 
European  language  the  training-ground  of  comparative  philology, 
and  its  study  will  always  remain  the  leading  branch  of  that 
•dence.  Many  matters  of  Importance  in  its  history  have  been 
brought  up  and  used  as  illustrations  in  the  preceding  discussion; 
but  as  its  constitution  and  asceruined  devek>pment  call  for 
a  fuller  and  more  systematic  exposition  than  they  have  found 
here,  a  spedal  section  is  devoted  to  tbe  subject  (see  Part  II. 
below;  abo  Indo-European  Lancuace). 

s.  Semitic  FamUy.-^Thls  family  also  is  beyotid  all  question 
the  second  in  importance,  on  account  of  the  part  which  Its 
peoples  •  (Hebrews,    Phoenicians,    Assyrians,    Syrians,   Arabs, 


Abyssinians,  ftc^)  havt  play«d  iu  history,  and  of  the  rank  of 
its  Uieratures.     For  a  spedal  treatment  of  it  see  SBsaiic 
LaWcuacbs     Some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  language  hax^e 
been  alluded  to  above,  in  the  monotony  and  rigidity  of  hs 
trihtctai  roots,  and  in  the  extended  use  which  it  makes  of 
internal  vowel-change  ("inflexioo"  in  the  spedal  sense  of 
that  term)  for  tbe  purposes  of  grammatical  distinctioo*  it  is 
more  peculiar  and  unlike  all  the  other  known  families  oi  lan- 
guage than  these  are  uiUike  one  another.    There  ate,  and  per- 
haps will  always  be,  those  to  whom  the  peculiarities  just  men* 
tioned  wiU  seem  original,  but  if  the  views  of  language  and  its 
history  taken  above  are  in  the  main  true,  then  that  opinion 
is  untenable;  Semitic  language  must  have  grown  into  Its  present 
forms  out  of  beginnings  accordant  in  kind,  if  not  identical 
in  substance,  with  those  of  other  families;  and  the  only  question 
remaining  to  be  solved  is,  through  wiiat  processes  and  under 
what  governing  tendencies  Semitic  speedi  diouki  have  arrived 
at  its  present  state.    And  with  this  solution  is  most  obviously 
and  incohtestably  bound  up  that  of  the  other  interesting  and 
much  discussed  question,  whether  the  Semitic  family  can  be 
shown  to  be  related  with  other  families,  especially  with  the 
Indo-European.    To  some  the  possessxm  in  common  of  gram- 
matical gender,  or  of  the  classification  of  objects  in  general  as 
masculine  and  feminine,  is  of  itself  enough  to  prove  such  rela- 
tionship; but,  though  the  fact  is  a  striking  one,  and  of  no 
small  importance  as  an  Indication,  this  degree  of  Wue  can  by 
no  means  be  attributed  to  it'  in  the  present  state  of  our  know* 
ledge— any  more  than  to  any  other  ringle  item  of  structure 
among  the  infiiute  variety  of  such,  distributed  among  the 
multitude  of  human  tongues.   Mkny  othen  compare  the  Semitic 
and  Indo-European  "roots"  with  one  another,  and  believe 
themselves  to  find  there  numerous  indications  of  identity  of 
material  and  signification;  but  these  ahw  must  paaa  for  insuffi^ 
dent,  until  it  i^all  prove  possible  by  their  aid  to  worit  out  an 
acceptable  theory  of  how  Semitic  structure  should  have  grown 
out  of  such  radical  elements  as  underlie  Indo-European  struc- 
ture, or  out  ci  the  accordant  initial  products  of  a.  stmctonl 
growth  that  afterwards  (fiverged  into  two  so  discordant  fonnSk 
To  show  that,  both  the  material  and  the  metbod  have  been 
hitherto  wanting,  and  any  confident  decision  is  at  least  pie> 
mature;  but  present  probabilities  are  strongly  against  tbe 
solubility  of  the  question.    While  many  general  oonaiderations 
favour  the  ultimate  usdty  of  these  two  great  dviUsed  and 
dvilizing  white  races  of  neighbouring  homes,  and  no  disoocdance 
of  q>eech  (as  was  shown  above)  Can  ever  be  made  to  prove  their 
diversity  of  origin,  it  seems  In  a  high  degree  unlikely  that  -the 
evkience  of  speech  will  ever  be  made  to  prove  them  one. 

3.  Hamitic  FamUy. — ^The  prominent  importanoe    of    this 
family  (see  Hamitic  Languages)  is  due  to  a  single  one  of  iu 
members,  the  Egyptian.   It  occupies  the  north-eastern  coimer  of 
Africa,  with  the  border-lands  of  that  continent  stretching  west- 
ward along  the  «^le  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  south- 
ward to  beyond  the  equator.    It  falls  into  three  prindpri 
divisions:  (x)  the  andent  Egyptian,  with  ita  descendant,  the 
more  modem  Coptic  (itself  now  for  some  centuries  extinct; 
see  Egypt,  Copts);  (2)  the  Libyan  or  Berber  langnagr%  of 
northem  Africa;  (5)  the  Ethaopic  Ungnages  of  eastern  Africa* 
Its  situatton  thus  plainly  suggests  the  theory  of  its  intnnioa 
from  Asia,  across  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  and  its  gradual  spread 
from  that  point;  and  the  theory  is  strongly  favoured  by  the 
physical  character  of  the  Hamites,  and  the  historical  position, 
especially  of  the  Egyptians,  so  strikingly  different  from  that  of 
the  African  races  in  genenL     Linguistic  evidences  of   tht 
relationship  of  Hamite  with  Semite  have  also  been  aonglkt. 
and  by  many  believed  to  be  found;  but  the  nudntenance  of 
the  two  families  in  their  sepanteness  is  an  indication  that  thoae 
evidences  have  not  yet  been  accepted  as  satisfactory;  and  snc^ 
Is  indeed  the  case.'  The  Egyptian  is  a  language  of  extreme 
simplidty  of  structure,  almost  <of  no  structure  at  alL    Its  ndknl 
words  are  partly  monosyllabic,  partly  of  mote  than  one  ayUablc, 
but  not  in  the  latter  case  any  more  than  in  the  former  showiag 
traceable  signs  of  extension  by  fonnativt  prooascs  from 


PHILOLOGY 


4«T 


ebmentt.  It  has  no  derivative  appAratus  by  which  Doun-$teiDs 
arc  made  (rom  roots;  the  root  is  the  stem  likewise;  there  is 
nothing  that  can  be  properly  called  either  declension  or  con* 
jugation;  and  the  same  pronominal  particles  or  suffixes  have 
now  a  subjective  value,  indicating  use  as  a  verb,  and  now  a 
possessive,  indicating  use  as  a  noun.  There  is  np  method 
known  to  linguistic  science  by  which  the  relationship  oC  such  a 
tongue  as  this  with  the  highly  and  peculiarly  inflective  Semitic 
can  be  shown,  short  of  a  thorough  working  out  of  the  history 
of  development  of  each  family  taken  by  itself,  and  a  retracing 
in  some  measure  of  the  steps  by  which  each  should  have  arrived 
at  its  present  position  from  a  common  starting-point;  and  this 
has  by  no  means  been  done.  In  short*  the  problem  of  the 
relation  of  Semitic  with  Hamitic,  not  less  than  with  Indo- 
European,  depends  upon  that  of  Semitic  growth,  and  the  two 
must  be  solved  together.  There  are  striking  correspondences 
between  the  pronouns  of  the  two  families,  such  as,  if  supported 
by  evidences  frony  other  pa  rtsof  their  material,  would  be  taken 
as  signs  ot  relationship;  but,  in  the  absence  of  such  support, 
they  are  not  to  be  relied  upon,  not  till  it  can  be  shown  to  be 
possible  that  two  languages  could  grow  to  be  so  different  in 
all  other  respects  as  are  Egyptian  and  Hebrew,  and  yet  retain 
by  inheritance  correspojiding  pronouns.  And  the  possession  of 
grammatical  gender  by  Indo-European,  Semitic  and  Hamitic 
speech,  and  by  them  almost  alone,  among  all  human  languages, 
though  an  extremely  noteworthy  fact,  is  (as  was  pointed  out 
above)  in  the  present  condition  of  linguistic  science  quite  too 
weak  a  basis  for  a  belief  in  the  original  identity  of  the  three 
families. 

Egyptian  is  limited  to  the  delta  and  valley  of  the  N3e,  and  is 
the  only  Hamitic  language  which  has  ancient  records,  of  the 
others  the  existing  forms  alone  are  known. 

The  Libyan  or  Berber  division  of  the  family  occupies  the 
inhabitable  part  of  northern  Africa,  so  far  as  it  has  not  been 
displaced  by  intr\&ive  tongues  of  other  connexion — in  later 
times  the  Arabic,  which  since  the  Mabommedan  conquest  has 
been  the  cultivated  tongue  of  the  Mediterranean  coast,  while 
the  earlief  Vandal,  Latin  and  Punic  have  disappeared,  except 
in  the  traces  they  may  have  left  in  Berber  dialectic  speech. 
The  principal  dialects  are  the  Kabyle,  the  Shilha  and  the 
Tiurek  or  Tamashek,  corresponding  nearly  to  the  ancient 
Numidian,  Mauretanian  and  GaetuUan  respectively. 

The  third  or  Ethiopic  division  includes  as  its  chief  members 
the  Beja  or  Bish&rfn,  the  Saho,  the  Dankali,  the  Somali,  and 
the  more  inland  Galia;  the  first  two  lying  along  the  Red  Sea 
north  of  Semitic  Abyssinia,  the  others  south  of  it,  to  the  equator. 
By  some  authorities  (Lepsius,  Bleek)  there  is  added  to  the 
Hamitic  family  as  a  fourth  division  a  group  from  extreme 
southern  Africa,  the  Hottentot  and  Bushman  languages.  The 
ground  of  this  classification  is  the  possession  by  the  Hottentot 
of  the  distinction  of  grammatical  gender,  and  even  its  designa* 
tion  by  signs  closely  corresponding  to  those  used  in  the  Ethiopic 
division.  Others  deny  the  sufficiency  of  this  evidence,  and 
rank  the  Hottentot  as  a  separate  group  of  African  dialeas. 
adding  to  it  provisionally  the  Bushman,  until  better  knowledge 
of  the  latter  shall  show  whether  it  is  or  is  not  a  group  by  itself. 
If  the  Hottentot  be  Hamitic,  we  shall  have  to  suppose  it  cut 
of!  at  a  .very  remote  period  ttom  the  rest  of  the  family,  and 
forced  gradually  southward,  while  all  the  time  suffering  mixture 
both  of  speech  and  of  blood  with  the  negro  races,  until  the 
physical  constitution  of  its  speakers  has  become  completely 
metamorphosed,  and  of  its  original  speech  no  signs  are  left 
save  those  referred  to  above;  and  while  such  exceptional 
phonetic  peculiarities  have  been  worked  out  as  the  use  of  the 
dicks  or  clucking  sounds:  and  this  must  be  regiurded  as  at 
least  extremely  difficult. 

4.  Monosyliabie  or  Souiii-easkm  Asiaite  Family. — ^This  body 
of  languages  may  well  enough  be  the  next  taken  up;  and  here 
again  (as  was  the  case  with  the  preceding  family)  on  account 
of  the  piimninent  importance  of  one  of  its  dialects  and  of  the 
people  speaking  it^the  Chinese  people  and  Unguage.  The 
Utritory  of  the  family  includes  the  whole  aouth-eastera  corner 


of  Asia:  China  on  the  north-east.  Farther  Indb  in  the  leutb, 
and  the  fiigh  pkiteau  of  Tibet,  with  the  neigfaboaring  HUnalayaii 
regions,  to  the  westward.  The  ultimate  iiniiy  of  all  these 
languages  rests  chiefly  upon  the  evidence  of  thor  form,  as  being 
all  alike  essentiaUy  monosyllabic  and  isohuiait,  or  destitute 
of  formal  structure;  the  material  correspondences  among  them, 
of  accordant  words,  are  not  suifidtnt  to  prove  them  related. 
The  Chinese  itself  can  be  follow^  up,  in  contemporary  records, 
to  a  period  probably  not  far  from  2000  B.C.,  and  the  language, 
the  people,  and  their  institutions,  are  then  already  in  the  maio 
what  they  have  ever  since  continued  to  be  (see  China);  the 
other  leading  tongues  come  into  view  much  later,  as  they  receive 
culture  and  rcUgion  from  China  on  the  one  hand  (the  Annamites), 
or  from  India  on  the  other  (the  Tibetans,  Burmese,  Siamese); 
and  the  territory  includes  great  numbers  of  wihl  tribn  unknown 
until  our  own  times,  whose  race-relations  and  language-relations 
are  as  yet  very  obscure.  Current  opinion  tends  to  regard 
the  Annamites,  PegUans  and  Cambodians  (the  Mon>KJuner 
group)  as  f(Hining  a  more  neariy  related  group  or  diviskm,  and 
as  having  been  the  earlier  population  of  Farther  India,  in  part 
dispossessed  and  driven  forward  by  the  later  intrusion  from  the 
north  of  Siamese  and  Buxtaese,  of  whom  the  former  are  mors 
nearly  related  to  the  Chinese  and  the  latter  to  t&e  Tibetans. 
The  Mon-Khmer  group  is  itself  more  nearly  rdated  to  the 
Kolarian  and  Malay-Polynesian. 

The  character  of  the  languages  of  this  family,  especially 
as  instanced  by  its  most  important  member,  the  Chinese,  has 
been  pretty  fully  set  forth  in  the  general  discussions  above. 
They  arc  languages  of  roots:  that  is  to  say,  there  is  not  demon* 
strable  in  any  of  their  words  a  formative  part,  limiting  the  word, 
along  with  others  similarly  characterized,  to  a  certain  office 
or  set  of  offices  in  the  formation  of  the  sentence.  That  the 
words  are  ultimate  -roots,  come  down  from  the  first  period  of 
language-making,  we  have  no  reason  whatever  to  believe; 
and  they  may  possibly  have  passed  through  processes  of  growth 
which  equipped  them  with  some  scanty  supply  of  forms; 
but  no  evidence  to  that  effect  has  yet  been  produced.  The 
indications  relied  on  to  show  an  earlier  polysyllabism  in  the 
fomily  (though  already  in  Chinese  reduceid  to  monosyllabism 
before  the  earliest  historical  appearance  of  the  language,  some 
4000  years  ago)  are  the  comparatively  recent  loss  of  certain 
final  mutes  in  (Chinese  words,  and  the  presence  on  a  consider- 
able  scale  in  Tibetan  spelling  of  added  initial  and  final 
consonants,  now  silent  in  the  literary  dialect,  but  claimed  to 
be  still  uttered  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  If  the  theory 
connecting  these  phenomena  be  estabUshed,  the  Tibetan  wiU 
approve  itself  to  be  by  far  the  most  primitive  of  the  dialects 
of  the  family,  furnishing  the  key  to  the  history  of  the  rest. 

For  further  details  respecting  the  various  tongues  of  the 
monosyllabic  family,  the  articles  on  the  different  divisions  of 
its  territory  (Burma;  China;  Siau;  Tibet,  &c.)  may  be  con« 
suited.  The  languages  all  ahke  show  an  addition  to  the 
resources  of  distinction  possessed  by  languages  in  general,  in 
the  use  of  tones:  that  is  to  say,  words  of  which  the  alphabetic 
elements  are  the  same  differ  in  meaning  Kcording  as  they  are 
uttered  in  a  higher  or  a  lower  tone,  with  the  rising  or  the  falling 
infleson,  and  so  on.  By  this  means,  for  example,  the  mono- 
syllabic elements  of  the  literary  Chinese,  numbering  but  500 
as  we  should  write  them,  are  raised  to  the  number  of  about 
1500  words. 

5.  Ural-Altaic  (5cy/&iaii,  rnrontiaii)  Fomi/y.—- China  ind 
Tibet  are  bordered  on  the  north  and  west  by  the  eastern  branches 
of  another  immense  family,  which  stretches  through  central 
and  northern  Asia  into  Europe^  overlapping  the  European 
border  in  Turkey,  and  reaching  across  it  in  Russia  and  Scan^ 
dinavia  to  the  very  shore  of  the  Atlantic.  Usage  has  not  so 
definitely  determined  as  in  the  case  of  most  other  families  by 
what  name  it  ^all  be  called;  Turanian  is  perhaps  the  com- 
monest  appellation,  but  also  the  most  objectionable.  Five 
principal  branches  are  generally  reckoned  as  composing  tho 
family.  The  two  easternmost  are  the  TUngusian,  with  the 
&lanchu  for  its  principal  division,  and  the  Mongol  (see  Mokooui) 


4^8 


PHILOLOGY 


Of  these  two  the  language  is  exceedingly  simple  in  structure, 
being  raised  but  little  above  the  formlessness  of  the  Chinese.  The 
Tungusian,  however,  some  authorities  would  couple  with  Japanese 
as  a  separate  branch.  The  three  others  are:  the  Turkish  or 
Tatar,  the  dialects  of  which  reach  from  the  mouth  of  the  Lena 
(Yakut)  to  Turkey  in  Europe;  the  Samoyed,  from  the  Altai 
down  to  the  arctic  shore  of  Asia,  and  along  this  to  the  White 
Sea— an  unimportant  congeries  of  barbarous  tribes;  and  the 
Fittno>Hungarian,  including  the  tongues  of  the  two  cultivated 
peoples  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  also  those  of  a  great 
part  of  the  population  of  northern  and  central  Russia,  to  beyond 
the  Ural  Mountains,  and  finally  the  Lappishi  of  northern  Scan- 
dinavia. The  nearer  relation  of  the  Samoyed  is  with  the 
Finno-HuBgarian.  The  Turkish  is  a  type  of  a  well'-developed 
language  of  purely  agglutinative  structure:  that  is,  lacking 
that  higher  degree  of  integration  which  issues  in  internal  change. 
Whether  this  degree  is  wholly  wanting  in  Finnish  and  Hun- 
garian is  made  a  question;  at  any  rate,  the  languages  named 
have  no  reason  to  envy  the  tongues  technically  called  "  inflec- 
tive." Of  a  value  not  inferior  to  that  of  inflective  characteristics 
is  one  that  belongs  to  all  the  Ural-Altaic  tongun,  in  varying 
measure  and  form,  and  helps  to  bind  them  together  into  a  single 
familjr — ^the  harmonic  sequence  of  voweb,  namely,  as  between 
root  and  endings,  or  a  modification  of  the  vowels  of  the  endings 
to  agree  with  that  of  the  root  or  its  final  syllable. 

While  the  physical  race-characteristics  known  as  Mongolian 
are  wanting  in  the  speakers  of  the  western  dialects  of  this 
family,  they  are  conspicuously  present  in  the  people  of  Japan 
and  Korea;  and  hence  the  tendency  of  scholars  to  endeavour 
to  connect  the  languages  of  the  two  latter  countries,  since  they 
ako  are  of  agglutinative  structure  (see  Japan  and  Kokea)  with 
the  family  now  under  treatment,  as  also  with  one  another. 

Other  languages  of  north-eastern  Asia,  too  little  known  to 
group,  and  too  unimportant  to  treat  as  separate  families,  may 
be  mentioned  here  by  way  of  appendix  to  their  neighbours  of 
the  most  diversified  and  widespread  Asiatic  family.  They  are 
the  Aino,  of  Yeao  and  the  Kurile  Islands  with  part  of  the  neigh- 
bouring coast;  the  Karachatkan;  and  the  Yukagir  and  Tchukt- 
chi  of  the  extreme  nortb-east.  These  are  sometimes  combined 
with  the  Eskimo  under  the  title  of  the  Arctic  or  Hyperborean 
languages. 

The  opinion  has  been  hdd  by  many  scholars  that  the  agglu- 
tinative dialects — Sumerain,  Accadian,  &c.— of  the  presumed 
founders  of  Mcsopotamian  culture  and  teachers  of  the  Assyrian 
Semites  (see  Babylonia)  belonged  to  the  Ural-Altaic  family, 
and  specifically  to  its  Finno-Ugrian  branch;  but  the  data  for  this 
view  are  still  very  uncertain.  The  mere  possession  of  an 
agglutinative  structure  cannot  be  taken  as  proving  anything 
m  the  way  of  relationship. 

6.  Dravidian  or  Simth  Indian  Family.-^ThSs  is  an  important 
body  of  nearly  and  clearly  related  tongues,  spoken  by  about 
$0,000,000  people,  doubtless  representing  the  main  population 
of  an  India  at  the  time  when  the  intrusive  Indo-European  tribes 
broke  in  from  the  north-west,  and  still  filling  most  of  the  southern 
peninsula,  the  Deccan,  together  with  part  of  Ceylon.  They  are 
languages  of  a  high  grade  of  structure,  and  of  great  power  and 
euphony;  and  the  principal  ones  have  enjo3red  a  long  cultiva- 
tion, founded  on  that  of  the  Sanskrit.  As  they  obviously  have  no 
Indo-European  affinities,  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  connect 
them  also  with  the  Ural-Altaic  or  Turanian  family,  but  altogether 
without  success,  although  there  is  nothing  in  their  style  of 
structure  that  should  make  such  connexion  impossible.  « 

7.  Malay' Polynesian  Pamily.-^Hoi  all  the  tribes  that  make 
up  the  non-Indo-European  population  of  India  speak  Dravidian 
dialects.  The  Santals  and  certain  other  wild  tribes  appear  to 
be  of  another  lineage.  These  are  now  generally  known  as 
Kolarian,  and  are  connected  with  the  Malay-Polynesian  family. 

The  islands,  greater  and  smaller,  lying  off  the  south-eastern 
coast  of  Asia  and  those  scattered  over  the  Pacific,  all  the  way 
from  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island,  are  filled  whh  their  own 
peculiar  families  of  languages,  standing  in  a  more  or  less  distant 
ttUttonship  to  the  languages  of  the  Mon-Khmer  group,  and  the 


Kolarians  on  Che  mainland  and  the  Kicobar  idanden.  The 
principal  one  among  them  is  the  great  Malay-Polynesian  family. 
It  falls  into  two  principal  divisions,  Malayan  and  Polynesian. 
The  Malayan  includes,  besides  the  Malay  proper  (see  Malays), 
which  occupies  the  Malaccan  pem'nsula  (yet  doubtless  not  as 
original  home  of  the  division,  but  by  immigration  from  the 
islands),  the  languages  also  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  &c.,  of 
the  Philippine  iJands,  of  part  of  Formosa,  and  of  Madagascar, 
together  with  the  coasts  of  Celebes  and  other  islands  occupied 
in  the  interior  by  Papuans.  The  Polynesian  division  includes 
most  of  the  tongues  of  the  remaining  scattered  groups  of  Islands, 
and  that  of  New  2>aland.  Probably  to  these  are  to  be  added,  as  a 
third  division,  the  Mdanesian  dialects  of  the  Melanesian  Arcfai- 
pelagb,  of  which  both  the  physical  and  the  linguistic  peculiari- 
ties would  in  that  case  be  ascribed  to  mixture  with  the  black 
Papuan  races.  All  these  languages  are  extremely  simple  in 
phonetic  form,  and  of  a  low  grade  of  structure,  the  Polynesian 
branch  being  in  both  respects  the  lowest,  and  some  of  the 
Malayan  dialects  having  reached  a  development  considerably 
more  advanced.  The  radical  elements  arc  much  oftencr  oi 
two  ^Uables  than  of  one,  and  reduplication  plays  an  important 
part  in  their  extension  and  variation.  MaJay  literature  goes 
back  as  far  as  to  the  xjth  century,  and  there  are  Javan  records 
even  from  the  early  centuries  of  our  era,  the  result  of  religion 
and  culture  introduced  into  that  island  from  Brahmanic  India. 
In  recent  years  more  active  investigation  has  been  carried 
on  with  a  view  to  tracing  out  the  special  laws  of  historical 
development  prevailing  in  the  family. 

8.  Other  Oceanic  Families. — At  least  iwo  other  families,  un- 
connected with  the  preceding  and  with  one  another,  are  found 
among  the-  Pacific  Idands,  and  only  there.  The  continental 
island  of  Australia,  with  its  dependency  Tasmania  (wher^  bow- 
ever,  the  native  tongue  has  now  become  extinct),  has  Us  own 
body  of  probably  related  dialects,  as  its  own  phy|ical  tjrpe. 
They  have  been  but  imperfectly  investigated,  their  irfportazKe, 
except  to  the  professed  student  of  language,  being.nothing;  but 
they  are  not  destitute  of  a  rude  agglutinative  structure  of  their 
own.  Still  less  known  are  the  Papuan  or  Negrito  languages, 
belonging  to  the  black  race  with  frizzled  hair  inhabiting  nxkst 
of  New  Guinea,  and  found  also  in  the  interior  of  some  of  the  other 
islands,  having  been  driven  from  the  coasts  by  superior  intruders 
of  the  Malay  race. 

9.  Cancasian  Languagesj^^i  the  existing  languages  of  Asta 
there  remain  to  be  mentioned  only  those  of  the  Caucasian  moun- 
tains and  highlands,  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  pressed 
upon  the  north  by  Slavonians  and  Turks,  upon  the  south  by 
Armenians  and  Kurds  and  Turks.  Its  situation  makes  of  the 
Caucasus  a  natural  eddy  in  all  movements  of  emigration  between 
A«a  and  Europe;  and  its  b'nguistic  condition  is  as  if  remnants 
of  many  families  otherwise  extinct  had  been  stranded  and  pce- 
served  there.  The  dialects  north  of  the  principal  range — Cir- 
cassian, Mitsjeghian,  Lesghian,  8k. — have  not  been  proved  to  be 
related  either  to  one  another  or  to  those  of  the  south.  Among 
the  latter,  the  Georgian  is  much  the  most  widespread  and  impor- 
tant (see  Gxorcia)  and,  alone  among  them  all,  possesses  a 
literature.  The  Caucasian  dialeas  present  many  excepiiooal 
and  difficult  features,  and  are  in  great  part  of  so  high  a  grade 
of  structure  as  to  have  been  allowed  the  epithet  inflective  by 
those  who  attach  q)ecial  importance  to  the  distinction  thus 
expressed.  . 

10.  Remnanis  of  Families  in  Europe, — The  Basque  people 
of  the  western  Pyrenees,  at  the  angle  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  are 
shown  by  their  speech  to  be  an  isolated  remnant  of  some 
which  was  doubtless  once  much  more  widely  sfwead,  but 
now  everywhere  else  lost  its  separate  identity;  as  such  it  is  of 
extreme  interest  to  the  ethnologist  (see  Basqvss).  The  Basqae 
language  appean  to  be  unrelated  to  any  other  on  earth.  It  is  of 
a  very  highly  agglutinative  structure,  being  equalled  in  intricncy 
of  combination  only  by  a  part  of  the  American  dialects.  Limited 
as  it  Is  in  territory,  it  falls  imo  a  number  of  well-markad  dialects^ 
so  that  it  also  may  not  be  refused  the  name  of  a  **  family." 

The  only  other  case  of  the. kind  worth  noting  is  that  of 


PHILOLOGY 


429 


BtivBcan  hngnage  oC  norfbem  centnl  Italy,  whidi  long  ago 
became  extinct,  in  canaeqaenoe  of  the  conquest  #nd  abeorption 
oi  Etniria  by  Rome,  but  whick  Mill  exista  in  numerous  brief  in- 
scriptions (see  Eikuxia).  Many  attempta  have  been  made  to 
connect  the  ^■"g**^gr  irith  other  families,  and  it  has  even  quite 
recently  been  pronomiced  Aryan  or  Indo-European,  of  the 
Italicaa  branch,  by  scholars  of  high  rank.  But  its  supposed 
Indo-European  rdatiimship  was  at  once  shown  to  be  erroneous 
when,  in  189a,  a  aniaU  booli  which  had  been  used  to  pacic  a 
mummy  waa  d^Kovered  in  the  museum  at  Agram,  and  pubUstwd. 
The  probability  of  relationship  with  the  ancient  Lydian,  as  was 
the  opinion  hdd  in  ancient  times,  haa  been  increased  by  recent 
research,  and  is  Hkely  soon  to  be  Tcrified  or  dispnyvad  by  the 
discovoy  of  Lydian  records. 

In  order  to  complete  this  review  of  the  languages  of  the  Old 
World  it  only  remains  to  notice  those  of  Africa  whidi  hwe  not 
been  already  mentioned.  Unbare  grouped  under  two  heada:  the 
languages  erf  the  south  and  those  of  the  centre  of  the  continent. 
II.  Sowtk  African  or  ^aniu  FomUy.-^TMB  is  a  very  extensifve 
and  distinctly  marked  family  (see  Bamto  Lahcuacis),  occupy- 
ing (except  the  Hottentot  and  Bushman  territory)  the  whole 
southern  peninsula  el  the  continent  from  some  degrees  north 
of  the  equator.    It  is  held  apart  from  all  other  known  families 
of  language  by  a  single  prominent  characteristic'-the  extent 
to  which  it  makes  use  of  prefixes  instead  of  soflixes  as  the  appar- 
atus of  grammatieal  distinction;  its  inflexion,  both  dedenaional 
and  conjugational,  is  by  appended  dements  which  precede  the 
stem  or  root.    The  most  oon^Icuoua  part  of  this  Is  the  variety 
of  prefixes,  different  in  shigular  and  plural,  by  which  the  various 
classes  or  gendeia  (not  founded  on  sex;  the  ground  of  cbasificsr 
ttoa  is  generally  obacuie)  of  nouns  are  divhignhhed;  these  then 
reappear  in  the  other  memben  of  the  sentence,  as  adjectives 
and  verba  and  pronouns,  which  are  determined  by  the  noon, 
thus  producing  an  alliterative  concord  that  runs  through  the 
sentence.     The  pronominal  determinants  of  the  verb,  both 
subject  and  object,  also  come  before  it;  but  the  determinanU 
of  mode  of  actwn,  as  causative,  &c.,  are  mostly  ni&xed.    The 
language  in  general  ia  rich  in  the  means  of  formal  distinctfon. 
Those  dialects  which  border  on  the  Hottentots  have,  apparently 
by  derivation  from  the  latter,  the  dicks  or  ducking-sounds 
which  form  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  Hottentot  spoken  alphabet. 
14.  Central  African  Languaggs.'-Thc  remaining  languages  of 
Africa  form  a  broad  band  across  the  centre  of  the  continent, 
between  the  Bantu  on  the  south  and  the  Hamitic  on  the  east 
and  north.    The  Bantu  group,  extending  from  north  ol  the 
equator  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  a  vast  variety  of  dialecu, 
is  the  most  impwtant  of  all  African  languages.    To  it  bdonga 
Swahili,  the  language  of  Zanxibar,  only  lesa  valuable  aa  a  means 
of  communlcatk>n  and  trade  than  the  Haussa  of  the  Sudan,  the 
most  important  of  the  dialects  under  the  influence  of  the  Hamitic 
languages.    The  African  languages  axe  by  no  means  to  be  called 
a  family,  but  rather  a  great  mass  of  dialects,  numbering  by 
hundreds,  of  varying  structure,  as  to  the  relations  of  which 
there  is  great  discordance  of  opinion  even  aitx)ng  the  most  recent 
and  competent  authorities.    It  is  no  place  here  to  enter  into 
the  vexed  questions  of  African  linguistics,  or  even  to  report  the 
varying  views  upon  the  subject;  that  would  require  a  space 
wholly  disproportioned  to  the  importance  of  African  speech 
in  the  general  sum  of  human  Unguage.    There  is  no  small 
variety  of  physical  type  as  well  aa  of  speech  in  the  central  belt; 
and,  pardy  upon  the  evidence  of  lighter  tint  and  apparently 
higher  endowment,  certain  races  are  set  off  and  made  a  separate 
division  of;  •udh  is  the  Nuba-Fulah  division  of  F.  MOUcr, 
rejected  by  Lepsius.    The  latter  regarded  all  the  varieties  of 
physical  and  linguistic  character  In  the  central  belt  as  due  to 
mixture  betv^ccn  pure  Africans  of  the  south  and  Hamites  of  the 
north  and  east;  but  this  is  at  present  an  hypothesis  only,  and 
a  very  improbable  one,  since  it  implies  modes  and  Ksults  of  mix- 
ture to  which  no  analogies  are  quotable  from  languages  whose 
history  Is  known;  nor  does  it  appear  at  all  probable  that  the 
colliaion  of  two  races  and  types  of  speech  should  produce  such 
en  immense  and  diverse  body  of  transitional  types.     It  is  far 


from  imposaible  that  the  present  prominenoe  of  the  South 
African  or  Bantu  family  may  be  secondary,  due  to  the  great 
expansion  under  favouring  drcumstances  of  a  race  onOb  haviii|{ 
no  more  importance  than  bdongs  now  to  many  of  the  Central 
African  races,  and  speaking  a  tongue  which  differed  from  tbdn 
only  as  theirs  differed  from  one  another.  None  of  the  Central 
African  languages  is  a  prefix-language  in  the  same  degree  as  the 
Bantu,  and  in  many  of  them  prefixes  play  no  greater  part  than 
in  the  world's  Unguages  in  general;  others  show  spedal  forma 
or  traces  of  the  prefix  structure;  and  some  have  features  of  an 
extraordinary  character,  hardly  to  be  paralleled  elsewhere. 
One  group  in  the  east  (Oigob,  &c.)  has  a  gender  distinction, 
involving  that  of  sex,  but  really  founded  on  relative  power 
and  dignity:  things  di^taraged,  induding  women,  are  put  in  one 
dass;  things  extolled,  indudiug  men,  are  put  in  the  other. 
This  is  perhaps  the  most  significant  hint  anywhere  to  be  found 
of  how  a  gender-distinction  like  that  in  our  own  Indo-European 
languages,  which  we  usually  regard  as  being  essentially  a  dis- 
tinction of  sex,  while  in  fact  it  only  includes  such,  may  have 
arisen.  Common  among  the  African  languages,  as  among  many 
other  families,  eq)cciaUy  the  American,  is  a  generic  distinction 
between  animate  beings  and  inanimate  things. 

13.  American  Languages. — With  these  the  case  is  doaely 
the  same  as  with  the  Central  African  languages:  theie  is  aa 
immense  number  of  dialects,  of  greatly  varied  structure  (see 
Indians,  North  American).  Even  among  neighbouring 
families  like  the  Algonquin,  Iroquois  and  Dakota,  whose  agree- 
ment in  style  of  structure  (polysynthctic),  taken  in  connexion 
with  the  accordant  race-type  of  their  speakers,  forbids  us  to  regard 
them  as  ultimately  difTcrcnt,  r.o  material  correspondence,  agree- 
ment in  words  and  meanings,  is  to  be  traced;  and  there  are 
in  America  all  the  degrees  of  polysynthettsm,  down  to  the 
lowest,  and  even  to  its  entire  absence.  Such  being  the  case, 
it  ought  to  be  evident  to  every  one  accustomed  to  deal  with  thia 
dass  of  subject^  that  all  attempts  to  connect  American  languages 
as  a  body  with  languages  of  the  Old  World  are  and  must  be 
fruitless. 

IMeralure. — Many  of  the  theoretic  points  discussed  above 
are  treated  by  the  writer  wilh  more  fulness  in  his  Language  and 
the  Study  of  Language  (1867]  and  Life  and  Crewlh  of  Language 
(1875).  Other  English  works  to  consult  are  M.  MttUer's  Lectures 
on  the  Science  of  Language;  Farrar's  Chapters  on  Langttage; 
Wedgwood's  Origin  of  Language  (all  more  of  less  anti- 
quated); Sayce's  Principles  of  Philology  and  Introduction  ta 
the  Science  of  Language,  &c.;  Sweet,  The  History  of  LaugnagB 
(1900).  In  German,  sec  Paul's  Principien  der  SprachgesehidUa 
(Malle,  z88o);  DelbrCck's  Einleilung  in  das  Sprachstudium 
(Leipzig,  1880;  4th  ed.,  1909;  5th  ed.,  1910;  there  is  also 
an  English  version);  Brugmann  and  DelbrUck's  Crundriss 
der  vergfeichenden  Crammatih  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen 
(1886-1900;  a  second  edition  of  the  first  volume  was  pub- 
lished in  1897,  two  parts  of  vol.  ii.,  induding  the  stem- 
formation  and  dcdension  of  the  noun  and  pronoun  appeared 
in  Z906  and  1909);  also  the  works  of  W.  von  Humboldt  and  oif  H. 
Steinthal,  the  most  important  of  whose  linguistic  works,  Charah" 
teristik  der  hauptsSchlichsten  Typen  des  Sprachbaues  (1861). 
was  recast  and  brought  up  to  date  under  the  same  title  by  F. 
Mistdi  (1893).  See  also  handy  summaries  covering  the  same 
ground,  but  without  bibliography,  in  F.  N.  Finck's  Die  Sprach- 
stSmme  des  Erdkreises  (1909)  and  Die  Haupttypen  des  Sprach^ 
haus  (1910).  Many  of  the  languages  of  India  and  Farther 
India  have  been  treated  in  the  Linguistic  Survey  of  India, 
edited  by  Dr  G.  E.  Grierson  (a  government  publication  still 
in  progress).  A  short  popular  account  of  the  subject  is  given 
in  Porzczinski's  Einleilung  in  die  Sprackwissenschafl  (1910), 
a  German  translation  of  a  Russian  original.  The  Bantu 
languages  have  been  treated  by  Black,  Torrand,  and  most  recently 
by  Mcinhof,  whose  LautUhre  der  Bantu  Sprachen  (1910)  is  the 
most  complete  handling  of  the  subject.  As  to  the  dassifica- 
tion  and  relationships  of  languages,  see  Hovelacque's  La  Linguis* 
tiqne  (Paris,  1876)  and  F.  MUller's  Crundriss  der  Sprackuntsen* 
schaft  (Vienna,  3  vols. ;  a  fourth  was  left  incomplete  at  the  authar'e 


♦39 


PHIL0LCX5Y 


death).  Both  works  ue  tSntdy  soaewhatr  antiquated.  As 
to  the  history  of  the  study,  see  Lench's  SprackpkUosophie  der 
AUen  (1S40);  Stcintbal's  GeschkkU  itr  SpraekwissetuGkaJt  M 
denGrkcken  und  Rdmtm  (1863);  Benfey's  CcsekichU  der  Sprach- 
Vfissemschaft  und  OrieaUUuchm  PhiMogie  in  Dentschhnd  (1869); 
Sandys's  Hiskny  cf  Classical  Schalarskip  Cj  vob.,  1906-1908); 
Vilh.  Thomsen's  Sprogqrdinfkaiem  Hist^rim  KcnpaUUfranchUng 
(190a).  (W.D.W.) 

U.—ComparaHve  PkOology  cftke  tndo-Buropean  Languages, 
The  study  of  Indo-European  comparative  philology  has  from 
its  outset  necessarily  been  in  dose  connexion  with  the  study  of 
Sanskrit,  a  language  unparalleled  amongst  its  cognates  in 
antiquity  and  dbtinctness  of  structuie,  and  consequently  the 
natural  basis  of  comparison  in  this  field.  It  is  therefore  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  we  find  no  dear  views  of  the  mutual 
relation^p  of  the  individual  members  of  the  Indo-European 
family  or  their  position  with  regard  to  other  languages  until 
Sanskrit  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  European  philologists, 
or  that  the  introduction  of  Sanskrit  as  an  object  of  study  was 
closely  followed  by  the  discovery  of  the  original  community 
of  a  vast  range  of  languages  and  dialects  hitherto  not  brought 
into  connexion  at  aU,  or  only  made  the  objects  of  baseless 
spteculations.  We  meet  with  the  first  dear  concep- 
tion of  this  idea  of  an  Indo-European  community 
of  languages  in  the  distinguished  English  scholar 
Sir  William  Jones,  who,  as  early  as  1786,  expressed  himself 
as  follows:  "  The  Sanskrit  language,  whatever  may  be  its 
antiquity,  is  of  wonderful  structure;  more  perfect  than  the  Greek, 
more  copious  than  the  Latin,  and  more  exquisitely  refined  than 
either,  yet  bearing  to  both  of  them  a  stronger  afTinity,  both  in 
the  roots  of  verbs  and  in  the  forms  of  grammar,  than  could  have 
been  produced  by  accident;  so  strong  that  nophOoIogcr  could 
examine  all  the  three  without  bcUcvmg  them  to  have  sprung 
from  some  common  source  which,  perhaps,  no  longer  exists. 
There  is  a  similar  reason,  though  not  quite  so  forcible,  for  suppos- 
ing that  both  the  Gothic  and  the  Cdtic,  though  blended  with  a 
different  idiom,  had  the  same  origin  with  the  Sanskrit.'*^  But 
neither  Sir  William  Jones  nor  any  of  his  older  contemporaries 
who  had  arrived  at  similar  conclusions  ever  raised  this  important 
discovery  from  a  brilliant  aper^u  into  a  valid  scientific  theory 
through  a  detailed  and  systematic  comparison  of  the  languages 
fn  question.  To  have  achieved  this  is  the  undoubted  merit  of 
the  German,  Franz  Bopp  {q.v.)^  the  founder  of  sdcntific  philology 
of  the  Indo-European  languages,  and  subsequently 
J*5[J*JJ[  through  this  example  also  the  founder  of  comparative 
philology  in  gencrsd.  Next  to  him  Jacob  Grimm  (^.9.) 
must  be  mentioned  here  as  the  father  of  Mslorical  grammar. 
The  first  part  of  his  famous  Deutsche  Crammalik  appeared  in 
1819,  three  years  after  Bopp  had  published  his  first  epoch- 
making  book,  Ueber  das  Conjugationssystem  der  Sanskritsprache. 
Bopp's  results  were  here  at  once  utilized,  yet  Grimm's  whole 
system  was  entirely  independent  of  that  of  Bopp,  and  had  no 
doubt  been  worked  out  before  Grimm  knew  of  his  illustrious 
predecessor.  In  fact,  their  scientific  aims  and  methods  were 
totally  different.  Bopp's  interest  was  not  concentrated  in 
comparison  as  such,  but  chiefly  inclined  towards  the  explanation 
of  the  origin  of  grammatical  forms,  and  comparison  to  him  was 
only  a  means  of  approaching  that  end. 

In  this  more  or  less  spccuhilive  turn  of  his  interest  Bopp 
showed  himself  the  true  son  of  a  philosophical  period  when 
general  linguistics  received  its  characteristic  stamp  from  the 
labours  and  endeavours  of  men  like  the  two  Schlcgels  and  Wilhelm 
von  Humboldt.  Jacob  Grimm's  aims  were  of  a  less  lofty 
diaracter  than  those  of  Bopp,  whose  work,  to  his  own  mind, 
was  crowned  by  his  theory  of  the  origin  of  inflcxfon  through 
agglutination.  In  confining  his  task  to  a  more  limited  range 
than  the  vast  field  of  Indo-European  languages  embraced  in 

^  For  this  quotation  and  the  following  historical  sketch  in  eencral 
lice  Th.  Bcqfey,  CesckukU  der  Sprackvnssenschaft,  p.  43S  (Munich, 
1869),  and  especially  B.  Delbrtick,  Jntroductton  to  the  Study  of 
Lan^uge,  p.  1  (Leipaig,  1883 ;  a  fifth  German  edition  appeared  in 
1909). 


Bopp's  reseaidies,  and  rhm  fixing  hb  attention  on  «  geo^  of 
idioms  exhibiting  a  striking  reguluity  .in  their  mutual  retstion- 
ship,  both  where  they  coindde  and  idtere  they  differ,  he  made  it 
his  foremost  object  to  investigate  and  iHuatrate  the  coatinuous 
progress,  subject  to  definite  laws,  by  which  these  languages  had 
been  devdoped  from  thdr  common  source.    He  thus  raised 
the  hitherto  neglected  study  of-  the  devek>pment  of  sounds 
to  an  equal  level  with  the  study,  of  grammaUeal  fonm,  which 
had  so  far  almost  exdusivdy  absorbed  all  the  interest  of  linguistic 
research.     Grimm's  discovery  of  the  so-called  "  Lautvenchie* 
bung,"  or  Law  of  the  Permutation  oi  Consonants  in  the  TeutcMiic 
languages  (which,  however,  had  been  partly  found  and  pro- 
claimed before  Grimm  by  the  Danish  scholar  Rask),  became 
especially  important  as  a  stimulus  for  iortber  investigation  in 
this  line.    Grimm's  infiuence  on  comparative  philology  (which 
is  acoondazy  Only  to  that  of  Bopp,  although  be  was  never  a 
comparative  phildogist  in  the  sense  that  Bvpp  was,  and  did  not 
always  derive  the  benefit  from  Bopp's  works  which  th^  might 
have  afforded  him)  is  dearly  traceable  in  the  work  of  Bopp's 
successors,  amongst  whom  Friedrich  August  Pott  (xSoi^xBS?) 
is  universally  judged  to  hold  the  foremost  rank.    In  his  great 
work,   Elytmdogische  Forschungen  at^  dem  Geiiete  der  indo- 
getmamschen  Sprachen,  «it/  besonderem  Besug  auf  die  Lamtum- 
vnndlung  im  Satuhril,  Griechiseken,  Lakimuhen^  Uttauiscken, 
und  CotUscken  (Lemgo,  xSjj-xSjd),  we  find  Indo-European 
etymology  for  the  first  time  based  on  a  scientific  investigatioa 
of  general  Indo-European  phonology.  Amongst  Pott's  contem- 
poraries Thoodor  Benfey  deserves  mention  on  account  of  his. 
Grieckisches   WurzeUexicon    (Btflin*   1839),   n  work      gff^fn, 
equally    remarkable    for   copiousness    of    contents 
and  power  of  combination,  yet  showing  no  advance  on  B4^pp's 
standpoint  in  its  conception  of  phonetic  changes. 
.  A  third  period  in  the  history  of  Indo-European  plnlology 
is  marked  by  the  name  of  August  Schldcher,  whose  Cirm- 
pcndium   der   vergleiekenden   CrammaHk    der    indo-  ji^n  t  a,, 
gemtaniscken  Sprachen  first  appeared  in  x86x.    In 
the  period  subsequent  to  the  appearance  of  Pott's  Eiymoiogiscke 
Forsckungen,  a  number  of  distinguished  scholars,  too  large  to 
be  recorded  here  individually,'  bad  devoted  their  labouxs  to 
the  different  branches  of  Indo-European  philology,  especially 
assisted  and  promoted  in  their  work  by  the  rapidly  progressing 
Vedic  (and  Avestic)  studies  that  had  been  inauguratod  by  Rosen, 
Roth,  Benfey,  Westeigaard,  MttUer,  Kuhn^  Auf recht  and  otbers. 
Moreover,  new  foundations  had  been  toid  for  the  study  ol  the 
Slavonic  languages  by  Miklosich  and  Schldcber,  of  Lithuanian 
by  Kurschat  dnd  Schleicher,  of  Celtic  by  Zeuss.     Of   the 
dassical  languages  Greek  had  found  a   most   disllngtixabed 
representative  in  Curtius,  while  Corssen,  Mommaen,  Aufrecbt, 
Kirchhoff,  &c.,  had  collected  most  valuable  materials  t^wuds 

*The  extensive  progress  made  in  this  period  ts  best  illustrated 
by  the  foundation  of  two  pcriodksils  especially  devoted  to  Indo- 
European  compaFative  philok)gy,  Kuhn's  Zetlsckrift  fur  uerg^ 
chenie  Sprackforsckung  (now  aj  vols.,  Beriin,  from  1851).  aad 
Kuhn's  BeitrtM  sur  vergleiekenden  Sprackforsckung  (8  vols.,  Berlin, 
from  1858}.  Bcnfcy's  school  is  more  especially  represented  by  the 
contributors  to  Benfey's  Orient  und  Occident  (3  vols.,  GflttlngFa. 
(rom  1863),  and  subsequently  through  Beucnberger'a  Beitrigg  tmr 
Kunde  der  tndogemtantuken  SpracMn  (30  vols.,  GOttiogen,  from 
1877):  this  journal  has  now  be«n  amalgamated  with  Kuhn's  Zrit- 
sckrift.  The  views  of  the  "  New  Grammarians  '* — Leitden,  Bm?- 
mann,  Osthoff  and  their  schools-^are  represented  in  IndogermanisuU 
Forschungen  (27  vols.,  stnci:  1890).  The  GOttin^en  school  has  a 
further  representative  in  CloUa^  now  (X910)  in  its  third  vtdame. 
The  history  of  the  meaning  of  words  has  a  special  periodical  for  itself. 
Wdrtcr  und  Saeken,  now  in  its  second  volume.  Besides  those 
mentioned  there  are  many  journals,  publications  of  academies,  Ac.. 
in  Belgium,  Sweden.  Denmark;  Italy,  &c.,  which  no  strious  studeac 
of  comparative  philologY  can  ignore.  France  possesses  two  pftnodt- 
cals  of  the  same  kind,  the  Revue  de  Linguisligue  (Paris,  from  i96S) 
and  the  Mhnoires  de  la  Sociiti  de  Linguistique  de  Paris  (also  from 
1868),  while  England  is  represented  by  thtrrooeedings  and  7>a*f- 
actions  of  the  Pbiiologidil  Societies  of  London  and  Camfaridse,  (Ik 
Classieal  Reviem  (23  vds.,  since  1887).  and  the  Classirai  Owftriy 
(4  vols.,  ftinoe  1907),  and  America  by  the  Transactions  efike  Americmm 
PkUotoiical  Association  (from  t868),  the  American  Jommoi  ef 
Philology  (30  vols.,  from  1880).  Classical  PhUotogy  (5  vols.,  t 
1906),  and  other  more  specialist  otgaos. 


PHILOLOGY 


431 


the  eltiddttfoii  «l  Lctln  aad  tM  eogimte  Itific  idtitm.  In 
his  Comptndium  Scfailcidier  undertook  and  solved  the  difficult 
tuk  of  sifting  down  the  countless  details  amassed  since  the 
days  of  Bopp  and  Grimm,  and  thus  maUng  tlie  individual 
languages  stand  ont  clearly  on  their  common  background, 
while  Bopp's  attention  had  been  especially  occupied  with  what 
was  common  to  all  Indo-European  tongues.  There  ate  two 
prominent  features  which  characterise  this  part  of  Schleicher's 
work — his  assumption  and  partial  reconstruction  of  a  pre- 
historic parent  speech,  from  which  the  separate  Indo-European 
languages  were  sopposed  to  have  sprung,  and  the  estab^ 
Uslmaent  of  a  long  series  of  phonetic  laws,  legulating  the 
changes  by  which  that  development  of  the  individual  idioms 
had  taken  place.  On  Schleicher's  views  of  and  contributions 
towards  general  comparative  philology  (which  he  erroneously 
proposed  to  consider  as  a  branch  of  natural  science)  we  need 
not  enter  here.  (See  Ewoluiion  and  the  Science  of  Language  in 
DanriH  and  Modem  Scienctf  t^og,  pp.  536  sqq.) 

For  some  time  after  Schleicher's  premature  death  (in  1868) 
Indo-Eoropean  philology  continued  in  paths  indicated  by  him 
and  Curtius,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  school  founded 
by  Benfey,  who  had  always  stood  on  independent  ground, 
llie  difference  between  the  two  schools,  however,  was  less 
strikingly  marked  in  their  writings,  because  it  chiefly  concerns 
general  views  ot  language  and  the  Indo-European  languages  in 
particular,  although  the  chazacteristic  task  of  the  period  alluded 
to  was  that  of  working  out  the  more  minute  details  of  com- 
parison; but  behind  all  this  the  general  interest  still  clung  to 
Bopp'S'  old  giottogonic  problems.    In  1876,  however,  a  new 
movement,   inspired  in  the  first  instance  by  the 
works  of  W.  D.  Whitney,  began,  and  a  younger 
school  of  linguists  has  sprung  up  who  are  united 
In  their  opposition  to  many  theories  of  the  older  generation, 
yet  often  differ  materially  both  with  regard  to  method  and 
the  solution  of  individual  prbblems.    In  its  present  state  this 
younger  school  (often  branded  with  the  name  of  Neo-Gram- 
marians,    "  Junggnmmatiker,"    by   its   opponents   real   and 
imaginary)  is  marked  by  certain  distinct  tendencies.    In  the 
first  place,  they  are  inclined  more  or  less,  and  the  older  members 
of  the  achocrf  perhaps  more  than  the  younger,  to  abandon 
giottogonic  problems  as  insoluble,  if  not  for  ever,  yet  for  the 
present  and  with  the  scanty  means  that  Indo-European  philo- 
logy alone  can  furnish  for  this  purpose.    In  this  they  are  in 
opposition  to  the  whole  of  the  older  schooL  In  the  second  place, 
they  object  to  the  use  of  all  misleading  metaphorical  com- 
parisons of  processes  in  the  history  of  language  with  processes 
of  organic  development— comparisons  used  at  all  times,  but 
espedaJly  cherished  by  Schleicher.    In  the  third  place--and 
tfi«>  bM*  been  of  the  greatest  practical  importance — they  hold 
that  our  general  views  of  language  and  our  methods  of  com- 
parison should  be  formed  after  a  careful  study  of  the  living 
languages,  becatise  these  alone  are  fully  controllable  in  every 
minute  detail,  and  can  therefore  alone  give  us  a  clear  insight 
into  the  working  of  the  different  motive  forces  which  shape 
and  modify  kinguage,  and  that  the  history  of  earlier  periods 
of  language,  consequently,  can  only  be  duly  illustrated  by  trac- 
ing out  the  share  which  each  of  these  forces  has  had  in  every 
individaal  case  of  change.    (K  these  forces  two  are  found  to 
be  especially  prominent~i>honetic  variation  and  formation  by 
analogy*     They  genorally  work  in  turns  and  often  in  opposi- 
tion Caone  another,  the  former  frequently  tending  to  diflerentift- 
tion  of  Murlier  unities,  the  latter  to  abolition  of  earlier  differences, 
eipectaUy  to  restoration  of  conformity  disturbed  by  phonetic 
change.     There  are,  however,  other  important  differences  in 
the  action  of  the  two  forces.     Phonetic    change 
SaV^     ftffecU  exclusively  the  pronandation  of  a  fauiguage 
^"•'**       by    substituting   one   sound    or   sound-group    for 
anotber.     From    this    shnple   fact   it    is   self-evident    that 
phonetic    changes  ss  such  sdaitt  of  no   exceptioBS.     Prs- 
nunciation — that  b,   the  use  of  certain   sounds  in  certain 
conbinationa^is  perfectly  unoonsdoos  in  natural  unstudied 
speech,    AOd   every  speaker  or   geacratioa  «f   speakcis  has 


only  one  way  of  ntteraaoe  for  Indfvidoal  looads  or  their 
combinations.  If,  therefore,  a  given  sound  was  once  changed 
into  anothor  under  given  circumstances,  the  new  sound  mutt 
necessarily  and  unconsciously  replace  its  predecessor  in  every 
word  that  falls  under  the  same  rules,  because  the  older  sound 
ceases  to  be  practised  and  therefore  diaq>pears  from  the  language. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  sound  of  the  short  so-called  Italian  a 
in  English  has  become  exchanged  for  the  peculiarly  EagUsh 
sound  in  Maw,  hat,  &c.,which  is  so  exclusively  used  and  practised 
now  by  English  speakers  that  they  feel  great  difficulty  in  pro- 
nouncing the  Italian  sound,  which  at  an  earlier  period  was 
almost  as  frequent  in  English  as  in  any  other  language  that  has 
preserved  the  Italian  sound  up  to  the  present  day.  Again, 
the  sound  of  the  so-called  long  English  a  in  make,  paper,  &c., 
although  once  a  monophthong,  is  now  pronounced  as  a  diph- 
thong, combining  the  sounds  of  the  English  short  e  and  «,  and 
no  trace  of  the  old  monophthong  is  left,  except  where  it  was 
fdlowed  by  r,  as  in  Aorv,  man  (also  airfthdr,7ii»en,  ftc),  where 
the  ft  has  a  broader  sound  somewhat  approaching  that  of  the 
short  a  in  htU,  This  last  instance  may  at  the  same  time  serve 
to  illustrate  the  restrictions  made  above  as  to  sounds  changing 
their  pronunciation  in  certain  groups  or  combinations,  or  under 
given  circumstances  only.  We  may  learn  from  it  that  phonetic 
change  need  not  always  affect  the  same  original  sound  in  the 
same  way  in  all  its  combinations,  but  that  nei^bouring  sounds 
often  influence  the  spedal  direction  in  which  the  sound  Is 
modified.  The  different  sounds  of  the  English  a  in  make  aad 
kare  are  both  equivalents  of  the  same  Old  En^iah  sound  A 
(»the  Italian  short  a)  in  macian,  kara.  The  latter  sound  has 
been  ^lit  in  two,  but  this  process  again  has  taken  place  with 
perfect  reguUrfty,  the  one  sound  appearing  before  r,  the  other 
before  all  other  consonants.  It  is  easy  Co  see  that  the  common 
practice  of  comprising  the  histoiy  of  the  Old  Engfish  a  in  the 
one  rule— that  it  was  changed  into  the  sound  of  the  d  in  tnake 
except  when  followed  by  an  r — can  only  be  defended  on  the 
practical  ground  that  this  rule  is  convenient  to  remember, 
because  the  words  exhibiting  the  former  change  are  mme 
numerous  than  the  instances  of  the  latter;  apart  from  this  there 
is  nothing  to  justify  the  assumption  that  one  of  these  changes 
is  the  rule  and  the  other  the  exception.  The  fact  is,  that  we 
have  two  independent  cases  of  change,  which  ought  to  be  stated 
in  two  distinct  and  independent  rules  according  to  the  difiietent 
positions  in  which  the  original  A  stood  before  the  splitting 
began.  It  is  also  easy  to  observe  that  the  variety  of  modify- 
ing influences  may  be  much  more  manifold  than  in  the  prrsent 
instance  of  make  and  kare,  and  that  the  number  of  special 
phonetic  rules  in  such  cases  must  be  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  progress  made  in  the  investigation  of  the  said  modifying 
powers. 

In  truth,  however,  the  study  of  phonetic  laws  falls  into  several 
different  stages,  and  the  meaning  attached  to  the  phase  pkoneiie 
lam  has  varied  at  each  of  these  stages.  Moreover,  the  sweeping 
nature  of  the  original  generalizations  has  become  so  hedged  in 
and  contracted  by  hmitatioas  that  a  recent  writer  has  been 
compelled  once  more  toformuhitethe  question  whether  phonetic 
laws  actually  exist.  It  must  be  admitted  in  the  first  pbce  that 
the  word  law  has  been  ill  chosen  for  use  in  this  connexion.  In 
phonetic  laws  there  is  no  dement  which  can  be  identified  as 
coming  under  the  definition  of  a  law  as  propounded  by  a  jurist 
like  John  Austin.  There  is  no  authority  which  enunciates  the 
law,  there  is  no  penalty  for  the  breach  of  it.  But  the  philologists 
who  first  used  the  term  were  not  thinking  of  law  in  its  strict 
signification,  but  of  its  use  in  such  metaphorical  eiqnessiona  as 
scientific  laws,  for,  as  already  mentioned,  Schleicher  and  Iris 
followers  in  the  middle  of  the  x^th  century  had  taken  a  keen 
interest  in  the  development  of  the  natural  sdences,  and  had  to 
some  extent  assimilated  their  terminology  to  that  employed  in 
those  sciences.  It  was,  however,  soon  recognised  that  the  laws 
of  language  and  those  of  natural  science  were  not  really  alike  or 
akin.  A  scientific  **  law  "  is  only  a  brief  method  of  ezpresfeing 
the  fact  that  umversal  experience  shows  that  certain  causes 
utttveisally  produce  Gertain  effects.   In  chemistry  two- atoms  vi 


432 


PHILOLOGY 


hydrogen  lad  one  of  oxygen  will  make  water,  and  tfaey  will  make 
nothing  else  at  ai^  time  or  at  any  place  the  world  over.  Phonetic 
laws,  however,  do  not  hold  true  universally.  They  are  often 
curioualy  limited  in  the  area  to  which  they  apply*  In  andent 
Greek,  for  example,  the  sound  S'  between  two  vowels,  which 
had  been  handed  down  from  the  original  language  whence  Greek 
and  the  sister  languages  are  derived,  regularly  disappears;  in 
Latin,  on  the  other  hand,  it  changes  into  -r-;  thus  an  original 
genitive  of  a  neuter  substantive  we  find  represented  in  Greek  by 
yhe-otf  a  form  which  comparison  with  other  languages  shows 
to  be  traceable  to  an  earlier  ^lenes^iu,  preceding  the  separation 
of  the  languages,  while  the  same  orii^nal  stem  with  a  different 
vovwl  in  the  ending  appears  in  Latin  as  gener-is.  Similarly  an 
early  ^euso  appears  in  Greek  aa  <Sw,  in  Latin  as  uro.  This 
disappearance  of  original  intervocalic  t  pervades  all  Greek 
dialects — the  apparent  exceptions  come  under  the  heading  of 
analogical  change;  with  a  very  few  exceptions  similarly  explic- 
able Latin  intervocalic  s  has  become  r.  But  Latin  was  originally 
limited  to  a  veiy  small  part  even  of  Italy,  and  the  next  neigh- 
bours of  the  Latins  on  the  east  and  south — the  Sa  bines,  Cam- 
panians  and  Samnitcs — retained  this  intervocalic  s  without 
changing  it  into  r.  On  the  other  hand,  the  neighbours  to  the 
north-east — ^the  Umbrians  in  and  beyond  the  Apennines — 
shared  in  this  rhotacism.  Yet  the  Celts,  who  bordered  on  the 
Umbrians  along  the  Po,  and  who  spoke  a  language  in  many 
respects  veiy  closely  akin  to  the  dialects  of  Italy,  in  this  regard 
agree  rather  with  Greek  than  the  Italic  languages.  In  Latin, 
again,  the  period  of  action  of  the  bw  which  changed  intervocalic 
s  into  r  did  not  in  all  probability  exceed  the  century  from'4so  B.C. 
to  3 so  B.C.  So  unlike,  indeed,  are  phonetic  laws  to  the  laws  of 
natural  science  in  universality  that  an  opponent  of  the  dogma 
which  declares  that  phonetic  laws  have  no  exceptions  has 
compared  them  with  the  laws  of  fashion.  The  comparison  is 
not  so  outrageous  as  it  may  seem  at  first  sight.  For  in  language 
there  are  two  kinds  of  sound  change,  that  which  is  unconscious, 
vnivenal  at  a  given  time  and  within  a  given  area,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  which  belongs  only  to  a  particular  class  or 
clique,  deviates  consciously  from  the  pronunciation  of  the 
majority,  is  therefore  not  xmiversal,  and  exercises  no  permanent 
influence  on  the  language.  The  second  kind  of  sound  change 
corresponds  exactly  to  the  laws  of  fashion;  it  is  in  fact  one  of 
them.  Such  sound  changes  are  the  pronunciatio^n  of  the  En^ish 
ending  -ing  as  •«ff\  which  was  fa^onable  in  the  middle  of  the 
19th  oentuiy.  This  had,  though  probably  without  the  know- 
ledge of  those  who \tsed  it,  an  historical  justification  in  the  earlier 
forms  from  which  most  of  the  English  words  now  ending  in 
-ing  are  descended,  and  which  survive  in  numerous  local  dialects. 
A  similar  conventional  mi^ronnndation  was  the  lisp  affected 
by  some  would-be  artistic  persons  at  a  somewhat  later  period. 
Bdonging  to  an  entirely  different  social  stratum,  and  now 
equally  obsolete,  was  the  London  pronunciation  of  the  first  half 
of  the  19th  century  typified  in  Tony  and  Sam  Weller's  treatment 
of  V  and  w  in  the  Pukwuk  Papers.  This,  however,  made  a  much 
nearer  approach  to  being  a  gennine  dialect  peculiarity.  It 
undoubtedly  pervaded  the  pronnnciation  of  the  lower  classes 
in  London  at  one  time;  had  it  survived  it  might  concdvably 
have  spread  over  a  wider  and  wider  area  until  it  embraced  the 
whole  population  d  England.  A  later  diange,  that  of  the 
diphthong  ai  into  ti  (so  that  <2ay,  daUy  are  pronounced  dy,  dyiy)^ 
has  spread  from  Essex  and  the  East  End  of  London  over  a  large 
part  of  London  and  of  the  adjacent  counties,  and  is  still  widening 
its  range  both  geographically  and  aodally.  The  history  of  these 
sound  changes  has  not  yet  been  investigated  in  detail  with  the 
thoroughness  which  it  deserves. 

There  is,  then,  a  part  of  sound  change  which  is  a  matter  of 
fashion  and  which  is  conscious,  liiis  sound  change  appears 
frequently  in  the  pronunciation  of  individuals  who  have  migrated 
from  one  part  of  a  country  to  another.  In  many  parts  of 
Scotland,  for  example,  the  prepositbns  with  and  of  appear  in 
dialect  only  in  the  forms  wi*  and  o\  which  were  originally  the 
unaccented  forms.  In  the  conscious  attempts  to  pronounce 
them  as  they  i^pcar  in  literary  English,  the  educated  Scotsman, 


if  he  remains  in  his  aativd  plaee,  «s  a  rule  piwioiincei  them  as 
wUk  (with  the  final  sound  unvoiced  aa  it  appears  in  the  Scottish 
legal  preposition  Mdinl*)  and  at  ^,  the  final  sound  hcce  also 
being  unvoiced.  II  he  migrates  to  En^and  or  to  Austtalia  he 
will  probably  in  ooune  of  time  adopt  the  proniindation  with  a 
voicni  fiiud  sound.  In  the  course  of  years  haUt  wfll  become 
second  nature,  and  in  this  respect  the  speaker's  pronnndation 
will  become  identical  with  that  of  his  neighbowa.  It  is  dear, 
however,  that  changes  of  this  nature  cannot  take  placeon  a  large 
scale.  U  a  large  number  of  persona  migrate  in  n  body  and 
continue  to  Uve  in  dose  intercourse  with  one  another  and  but 
little  in  contact  with  the  outside  world,  changes  nidi  aa  take 
place  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  individual  emigrant  do  net 
occur.  There  can  be  no  imitation  of  alien  sounds,  for  tlwre  are 
none;  w>  greater  effort  to  be  intelligible  is  required,  lor  the  audi* 
ence  has  not  changed.  Hence  it  has  been  often  renaricod  that 
a  popuUtion  which  history  shows  to  have  remained  undisturbed 
for  very  long  periods  in  the  same  geographical  situation  manifests 
but  little  change  in  its  language.  Thus  in  Arabia  and  Lithuania 
the  population  has  remained  practically  unmixed  in  the  saiae 
habitat  for  thousands  of  years,  with  the  result  that  the  ^'y^sflrt 
spoken  there  remainat  the  present  day  the  most  archaic  membcn 
of  the  linguistic  families  to  which  thQr  respeotivdy  bekm^ 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  obvious  that  a  phonetic 
law  is  oidy  an  observed  uxdformity  in  the  treatment  of  a  aound 
or  a  combination  of  sounds  within  a  linguistic  area  at  a  given 
time.  In  the  definition  the  term  Hnguistk  ana  is  a  very  variable 
quantity.  Thus  it  is  a  phonetic  law  that  a  sound  of  the  original 
Indo-European  language,  the  predse  pronunciation  of  which 
cannot  be  determined,  but  which  was  at  any  rate  a  palatal  aound 
(i^),  appears  in  the  Indo-European  group  (Sarukrit,  Zend,  OU 
Persian,  with  their  descendants),  in  Armenian,  in  BaUo-SUvonic 
and  Albanian,  in  the  form  of  a  sibilant,  while  in  Greek,  the 
Italic  dialects,  Germanic  and  Cdtic,  it  appears  aa  a  A-sound  (see 
Imdo-Eukopean  Languages).  Here  the  linguistic  area  is 
extremely  wide,  and  it  is  dear  that  the  difference  between  the 
two  groups  of  languages  must  be  dated  back  to  a  very  early 
period.  Again,  it  Is  a  phonetic  law  of  Greek  that  the  original 
combinatwn  s^  at  the  beginm'ng  of  words  is  retained  in  Greek. 
How  then  are  we  to  cxpli^  the  existence  side  by  side  of  wrkfm 
andr^os  ?  The  former  a|^>arently  complies  with  the  law,  the 
latter  does  not..  The  former  has  by  its  side  the  vcxb  vrkyu, 
while  rfyof  is  supported  only  by  the  rare  rkyn.  Yet  the  fonns 
of  the  verb  and  substantive  found  in  the  Germanic  lairpuifes 
leave  no  doubt  that  the  forms  without  1-  represent  an  extremdy 
old  form,  for  the  English  lAoIcA  could  not  have  changed  its 
original  U  into  (A-  if  it  had  been  preceded  by  s^,  the  law  being  as 
strict  for  English  as  lor  Greek  that  initial  sU  remains  undianged. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  phonetic  law  may  be  limited  to  a  vcty  small 
area.  Thus  In  the  dialect  of  Eietria,  and  nowhere  dae  withia 
the  area  of  the  Ionic  dialect  of  andent  Greek,  do  we  find  the 
change  of  the  sound  which  appears  elsewhere  in  Greek  aa  •«- 
between  vowels  into  -p-:  airnp»  for  afrqmy  (acr.  sing.), 
vofitifiidniptp  for  vofiofiabunp  i^td  pi.  subjunctive).  Why 
this  change  should  take  place  here  and  nowhere  else  we  do 
not  know,  although  it  may  be  conjectured  that  the  cause  waa  a 
mixture  with  immigrants  speaking  a  different  dialect,  a  mixture 
which  ancient  tradition  supported.  Undoubtedly  snch  mixtures 
are  the  chief  conditions  of  i^ohetic  change,  the  dBTect  of  which  is 
um'venal.  The  maimer  in  which  the  change,  takes  place  is  that 
the  bads  of  articulation,  the  method  in  which  the  aound  is 
produced,  becomes  changed.  Thus  along  the  **  Higfalaiid  line  '* 
in  Scotland,  where  the  English  and  Gadic-speaking  populatioos 
had  their  linguistic  frontier  for  centuries,  the  wh-  of  English,  the 
Anglo-Saxon  hw-^  becomes  universally  /-,  vka  t  becoming  fa  T 
wkUc,  fite,  &C.,  /  bdng  the  sound  which  it  was  most  easy  to  $ubst>* 
tute  for  the  difficult  kw'.  The  history  of  Spanish  m  the  different 
communities  of  South  America  exodlently  illnstntcs  this  point. 
After  the  discovery  of  America  there  was  a  large  BKflax  of 
Spaniards  into  Chile,  who  ultimatdy,  and  chiefly  by  iattraiar* 
riage,  incorporated  amongst  them  a  considerable  dement  firons 
amongst  the  native  Araucanbn  Indians.    The  wfaU  baa 


PHILOLOGY 


433 


that  the  locgiw^  of  Chile  is  Sfwaiah,  pronouiced  not  with  the 
fenuine  sounds  of  Spanish,  but  with  the  sounds  of  the  Anuicanian 
language  substituted  for  them.  Elsewhere  in  Spanish  America 
the  language  of  the  conquciois  remained  compcuutively  pure, 
because  the  Spaniards  were  much  fewer  in  number,  and  had 
therefore  to  maintain  themsdves  as  a  caste  apart.  For  the  same 
reason  Latin  has  ^t  up  into  the  numerous  bmnches  which  we 
know  Bs  the  Romance  lang^iagn.  The  particular  line  of 
development  which,  eg,  French  followed  as  compared  with 
Spanish  or  with  the  language  of  the  Rhaetian  Alps  was  condi- 
tioned by  the  nature  of  the  sounds  in  the  language  which  pre- 
ceded it  in  the  same  area,  and  which  was  q>oken  by  the  ancient 
Gaub  who  adopted  Latin.  The  difficulty  found  in  all  of  these 
cases  b  precisely  of  the  same  kind  as  that  which  an  adult  at  the 
present  day  speaking  one  language  finds  in  attempting  to  learn 
the  pronunciation  of  another  language.  On  the  one  hand,  it 
is  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  musdes  for  many  years 
accustomed  to  perform  one  set  of  movements  can  be  forced  into 
performing  another  set  which  are  very  similar  but  yet  not 
identical;  on  the  other  hand,  to  an  untrained  ear  the  difference 
between  the  two  sounds  may  remain  imappredated.  The  result 
is  that  the  new  language  is  pronounced  with  the  sounds  of  the 
speaker's  original  language.  If  the  new  language  is  adopted  by 
a  whole  people  to  whom  it  was  originally  foreign,  the  children 
naturally  learn  it  from  their  parents  with  the  sounds  of  the  old 
language  which  has  now  become  obsolete.  Tluis  the  basis  of 
aiticuli^on  Is  changed,  and  if,  as  was  the  case  with  Latin,  this 
procea  be  frequently  repeated  among  peoples  ^>eaking  languages 
with  articulation  widely  di£Fering  one  from  another,  it  is  clear 
that  a  series  of  different  dialects  of  the  adopted  language  has 
been  created.  This  kind  of  change  is  immediate  and  imiversal 
throu[^out  the  whole  area  where  linguistic  change  has  taken 
place. 

Analogical  change,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  affect  the 
pronundaticn  of  a  language  as  a  whole  in  the  way  that  phonetic 
change  does,  but  is  confined  to  the  formation,  inflexion,  syntax 
and  meaning  of  single  words  or  groups  of  words,  and  therefore  is 
very  apt  to  bear  an  entirely  arbitrary  and  irregular  charaaer. 
A  few  instances  will  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  this  and  also  to 
show  how  the  apparently  irregular  phenomena  of  analogy  may 
be  classified,  (a)  In  Old  En^ish  a  certain  number-of  substantives 
formed  their  plurals  by  mutation  d  the  root  vowels,  as  /dt,  fU, 
or  bdCt  bic.  In  Modem  English  this  system  of  inflexion  has  been 
preserved  in  some  cases,  as  in  fooi^  feet,  and  altered  in  others,  as 
bcokf  books.  Now,  while  foot,  fed  and  book  are  the  regular 
modem  pho.jetic  equivalents  of  the  old  fdty  fUy  boe,  the  plural 
books  can  in  no  way  be  phonetically  traced  back  to  the  old  bic, 
the  phonetical  equivalent  of  which  in  Modern  English  would  be 
*betck.  The  only  possible  explanation  of  a  form  Eke  books  is 
that  the  older  bic  was  at  some  date  given  up  and  replaced  by  an 
entirety  new  lormation,  shaped  after  the  analogy  of  the  numerous 
words  with  a  plural  in  -s  without  modification  of  the  root-vowel. 
Such  changes,  which  are  very  numcaxnis,  exemplify  the  first  kind 
of  analogy,  rhicli  is  generally  termed  formal  analogy^  Other 
examples  arc  the  almost  entire  disappearance  &om  the  language 
of  the  forms  in  er  and  en,  which  were  earlier  used  as  plurals  in 
Engli^  That  they  were  origiiKilly  stem  and  not  case  suffixes 
does  not  affect  the  point.  In  Middle  English,  as  in  Modem 
English,  oxtn  was  spdt  as  a  plural ;  oxen  survives,  but  eyan,  except 
in  such  dialect  forms  as  the  Scotch  t^en,  has  been  repkiCcd  by  the 
form  in  ^4:  «yes.  Similarly  in  MidcUe  English  the  suffix  -er 
existed  in  many  words  which  had  been  originally  of  the  neuter 
gender.  Thtis  the  plural  of  clUld  was  ckiUer,  of  calf  was  iro/wr, 
traces  of  wh  ch,  besides  the  survival  in  dialect  of  childer  and  of 
cclvtr  (become  by  the  i6th  century  in  northern  Scotch  c^ — 
pronounced  as  caAr— -which  is  sUll  in  common  use),  arc  to  be 
found  in  the  place,  and  hence  peisonal,  names  Childer-ley  and 
Calvcr>ley.  The  old  plural  of  brotker  was  brUker,  where  the 
suffix,  however,  contained  an  original  -r,  not  -5  changed  into  -r, 
as  did  childer  and  caher.  In  Old  English,  alongside  the  form  for 
child  making  a  plural  chUdor,  there  had  been  a  masculine  form 
making  its  plural  in  'S.  It  woukt-not  have  been  surprising  theie- 

XXI  0 


fore  if  in  Modern  English  the  plural  of  ckild  had  been  ckiUs,  But 
in  spite  of  the  common  tendency  to  make  the  plural  of  all  noun- 
stems  in  -^r,  ckild  has  gone  in  the  opposite  direction  and  has  not 
only  maintained  its  -f,  but  has  added  to  it  the  -en  of  stems  like 
oxen  and  «yefk  In  Widif  we  find  a  similar  pluhd  to  calf,  calveren, 
but  here  coins  has  long  replaced  in  the  literary  language  both 
the  earlier  forms. 

(b)  Let  us  now  take  another  instance  from  the  English  verb. 
In  Old  EngUsh  the  different  persons  of  the  preterite  indicative 
in  the  so-called  strong  (irregular)  verbs  were  generally  distin- 
guished by  different  root-vowels;  ridan,  "  to  ride,"  and  bindanf 
"  to  bind,"  for  instance,  form  their  preterities  thus;  ie  rdd,  OA 
ride,  ki  rid,  wi,  gi,  kU  tidon,  and  ic  band,  OS  buttdci  ki  band,  wi, 
g8,  kii  bundon.  In  modem  English  this  difference  in  the  root- 
vowels  has  been  abandoned,  and  rode,  bound  now  stand  for  all 
persons,  rode  being  the  modem  phonetic  equivalent  of  the  xst 
and  3rd  sing.  rOd,  while  bound  represents  the  ti-  form  of  bindam. 
When  one  form  or  set  of  forms  ousts  other  varying  forms  from 
the  same  paradigm,  the  change  is  described  variously  as 
material  or  logical  analogy.  Inasmuch  as  a  similar  process  of 
levelling  to  that  seen  in  rode  has  beCn  carried  through  in  all 
preterites  of  Modem  English,  regularity  prevails  even  hero,  though 
a  few  traces  of  the  old  conffict  are  still  visible  in  such  poetic 
forms  as  sung  for  the  preterite  side  by  side  with  sang.  But 
when  we  look  to  its  residts  in  the  individual  verbs  we  soon  find 
that  the  choice  amongst  the  different  forms  triuch  might  have 
served  as  starting-points  has  been  entirely  arbitrary.  It  is 
indeed  impossible  to  say  why  the  old  singular  form  should  have 
been  chosen  as  a  model  in  one  case,  as  in  rode,  and  the  old  plural 
form  in  another,  as  in  bound.  From  these  and  numerous  similar 
instances  we  must  draw  the  conclusion  that  it  is  beyond  our 
power  to  ascertain  whence  analogical  changes  start,  and  to 
what  extent  they  may  be  carried  through  when  once  begun. 
All  we  can  do  is  to  d^sify  carefully  the  single  cases  that  come 
under  our  observation,  and  in  this  way  to  investigate  where 
such  changes  are  especially  apt  to  take  place  and  what  is  their 
general  direction.  As  to  the  latter  points,  it  has  been  observed 
before  that  levelling  of  existing  differences  is  one  of  the  chief 
features  in  analogical  change  (as  in  the  case  of  rode  and  bound). 
As  to  the  former,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  before  any  ana- 
logical change  can  take  place,  some  mental  connexion  must  exist 
between  the  words  or  forms  serving  as  models  and  those  which 
are  remodelled  after  the  types  suggested  to  the  minds  of  the 
speakers  through  the  former.  Of  such  natural  mental  combina- 
tions two  daases  deserve  special  notice:  the  mutual  relationship 
in  which  the  different,  say  inflexional,  forms  of  the  same  word 
stand  to  each  other,  and  the  more  abstract  analogies  between 
the  inflexional  syston  of  word-groups  bearing  a  similar  character, 
as,  for  instance,  the  different  declension^  of  nouns  and  pronouns, 
or  the  different  conjugations  of  verbs.  The  instance  of  rode, 
bound  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  former  categoiy,  that  of  books 
the  latter.  In  the  first  case  a  levelling  has  taken  place  between 
the  different  forms  of  the  root-vowels  once  exhibited  in  the 
different  preterite  forms  of  ridan  or  bindan,  which  deariy 
constitute  a  natural  group  or  mental  unity  in  consequence  df 
their  meaning.  The  form  of  rode  as  a  pliural  has  simply  been 
taken  from  the  oM  singular  rdd,  the  long  a  of  which  has  become 
in  Modern  En^h  0,  that  of  bound  as  a  singular  from  the  old 
plural  bundon,  the  »-  sound  of  which  has  in  Modem  English  come 
to  be  pronounced  as  a  diphthong,  hi  the  case  of  book,  books  for 
bde,  bic,  this  explanation  would  fall  shon.  Although  we  might 
say  that  the  vowel  of  the  singular  here  was  carried  into  the  plural, 
yet  this  would  not  explain  the  plural  -s.  So  it  becomes  evident 
that  the  old  declension  of  bdc,  bic  was  remodelled  after  the 
declension  of  words  like  arm,  arms,  which  had  always  formed 
their  plurals  in  -s.  The  changes  indicated  may  generally  be 
shown  by  a  proportion,  the  new  analogical  formation  being  the 
unknown  quantity  to  be  ascertained.  Thus  in  the  case  cited 
above,  arm:  arms  «■  book:  x;  and  clearly  the  form  to  be 
ascertained  is  books.  Isolated  words  or  forms  which  are  no 
part  of  natttral  groups  or  systems,  inflexional,  fomuttive  or  syn- 
tactical must  be  regarded  as  commonly  safe  from  alterations 

2a 


+3+ 


PHILOLOGY 


(hrou^  analogy,  and  aie  tberefore  of  e^cial  value  'with  regard 
to  estabtiahing  rules  of  purely  phonetic  development. 

(c)  In  syntactical  analogy  the  mental  connexion  between  the 
two  series  of  constructions  between  which  the  change  takes 
place  is  generally  still  more  conspicuous.  The  connexion  may 
be  one  of  similar  or  of  contrasted  meaning.  In  Latin,  adjectives 
of  fullness,  like  other  adjectives,  no  doubt  originally  were  followed 
by  the  genitive  case;  participles,  on  the  other  hand,  were  followed 
by  the  instruments^  ablative.  Thus  Plautus  in  the  Atdtdaria 
813  and  elsewhere  could  say  auScm  auri  plenam^  "  a  pot  lull  of 
gold,"  or  8oa  atdam  onustam  aura,  "  a  pot  laden  wUh  gold." 
From  these  the  transition  was  easy  to  the  construction  aidam 
onustam  am,  as  if  in  En^ish  one  should  say  (as  was  possible 
in  Earlier  En^sh),  "  a  pot  laden  of  gold."  In  English,  con- 
trasted words  often  tend  to  assimilate  thnr  syntactical  construc- 
tions. Thus,  the  adjectives  like  and  similar  are  followed  by 
the  preposition  to  (though  in  Modem  English  like  need  have  no 
preposition),  and  upon  the  analogy  of  such  words,  different  and 
aterse,  with  which  correct  speakers  and  writers  couple  from,  arc 
by  no  means  rarely  foUowed  by  to.  Nor  is  it  uncommon  to 
hear  or  to  see  differ  mth  instead  of  differ  fromt  upon  the  analogy 
of  ayee  vUh,  Curiously  enous^,  Latixi,  from  which  differ  is 
descended,  is  found  to  follow  the  same  analogy  even  in  good 
writers.  Thus  Cicero  {Academica  Pr.  ii.  143 )  combines  dissidere 
with  ctnM,uIater  does  Seneca(£^t5/ii/a«,  x8.  x). 

(4)  In  the  development  of  analogy  in  meaning,  similarity  of 
sound  is  often  the  effective  cause.  Thus  impertinetU  is  properly 
irrdevant,  not  to  the  points  and  is  sttU  so  used  in  legal  language; 
its  more  common  signification  of  "  saucy "  arises  from  its 
accidental  resemblance  in  sound  to  pert^  a  word  which  curiously 
enough  has  reversed  its  meaning,  being  now  used  in  the  sense 
of  mal-apertf  while  the  Old  Frendi  apert^  aspert  (a  confusion  of 
Lat.  apertuSf  "  open,"  with  expertus,  "  skilled  "),  meant  both 
"  open  "  and  "  skiifid."  Thus  from  very  early  times  the  verbs 
fly  and  ftee  have  been  confused,  though  they  are  of  entirely 
different  origins.  When  Middle  English  began  to  lose  its  verb 
endings  in  •<»,  it  was  very  easy  for  the  verb  /rren, "  teach,"  and 
hmen,  "  learn,"  to  be  confused.  Hence  frequently  in  Eliza- 
bethan English  learn  stands  side  by  side  with  teacke  in  the  same 
signification.  Cf .  Tottell's  Miscellany,  p.  x  29  ( Arber) : 

'*  I  would  not  have  it  thought  hereby 

The  dolphin  swimme  I  mcane  to  teaehei 
Nor  yet  to  learn  the  Fawcon  flic: 
I  rowe  not  so  fane  past  my  rcacne." 

It  is  true  that  the  distinction  between  phonetic  and  analogical 
change  has  always  been  acknowledged  in  comparative  philology. 
At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied  that  analogical  changes 
were  for  a  long  time  treated  with  a  certain  disdain  and  contempt, 
as  deviations  from  the  <»ly  course  of  development  then  allowed 
to  be  truly  "  organic  "  and  natural,  namdy,  that  of  gradual 
phonetic  change  (hence  the  epithet  ''false"  so  constantly 
attached  to  analogy  in  former  times).  Ansongst  those  who  have 
recently  contributed  most  towards  a  more  correct  evaluation  of 
analogy  as  a  motive  power  in  language,  Pnrfcssor  Whitney  must 
be  mentbned  in  the  first  place.  In  Germany  Professor  Scherer 
{Zur  Gesduckle  der  deutschen  Sprocket  x868)  was  the  first  to 
apply  analog  as  a  principle  of  explanation  on  a  hirger  scale, 
but  in  a  wilful  and  unsystematic  way.  Hence  he  failed  to 
produce  an  immediate  and  lasting  imim^pn,  and  the  merit  of 
having  introduced  into  the  piactioe  of  modem  comparative 
philology  a  stzictly  systematic  consideration  of  both  phonetic 
and  analogic  changes  as  ooK)rdInate  factors  in  the  develop- 
ment of  language  rests  with  Professor  Lcskien  of  Le^aig,  and 
TtnNtw  *  <^*"°^'  of  younger  scholars  who  had  more  or  less 
School.  experienced  his  personal,  influence.  Amongst  these 
Brugmann,  OsthoS  and  Paul  rank  foreinost  as  the 
most  vigoiDua  and  successful  defenders  of  the  new  method,  the 
oorrectness  of  which  has  since  been  practically  adcnowledgcd  by 
most  of  the  leading  philologistsof  all  shades  of  opinion. 

While  the  syntax  of  individual  languages  was  one  of  the  first 
features  which  attracted  the  grammarians'  attention,  at  any 
nte  in  ao  far  aa  particular  authors  differed  fsom  a  given 


standard,  it  U  only  in  very  recent  times  that  syntax  has 
received  methodical  treatment  from  the  comparative  pmnt  ol 
view.  It  may  indeed  be  said  that  almost  the 
whole  fabric  of  the  comparative  syntax  of  the  symtmiu 
Indo-European  languages  u  it  exists  to-day  has 
been  reared  by  one  man — Professor  Berthold  Delbriick  oC  Jena. 
In  a  series  of  brilliant  studies  beginning  with  a  pamphlet  on.  the 
Locative,  Ablative,  and  Instnunental,  published  in  1867,  and 
continued  in  his  Syntadical  Researches  {Syntaklische  Forsck' 
uHgen)  in  five  volumes,  comprising  a  treatment  of  the 
conjunctive  and  optative  moods  in  Sanskrit  and  Gredc  (1871), 
the  theory  of  the  Sanskrit  tenses  (1877),  the  order  of  words  in 
early  Sanskrit  prose  (Qatapatha  Brahmana;  1878),  the  founda- 
tions of  Greek  syntax  (X879),  and  the  syntax  of  the  oldest  San- 
scrit {AlHndische  Syntax),  dealing  exclusively  with  the  literature 
of  the  Vedas  and  Brahmnnns  (1888),  Professor  Delbrfidc  laid 
the  foundations  lor  his  treatment  of  comparative  syntax  in 
three  volumes  (1895,  X897,  1900),  which  has  formed  the 
completion  of  Bru^nann's  Grundriss  der  verffekkenden 
GrammaUk  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen.  The  only  work 
by  another  hand  (on  a  large  department  of  the  subject) 
which  deserves  to  be  mentioned  by  the  side  of  Delbr^'s 
studies  is  the  small  treatise  by  Hubschmann  on  the  theory 
of  the  cases  (Zur  Casuslekret  1875).  ^ot  the  comparative 
neglect  of  this  field  of  investigation  there  are  several  reasons. 
The  earlier  philologists  had  so  much  to  do  in  determining  the 
languages  which  should  be  included  within  the  Indo-European 
group,  and  in  organizing  the  fidd-  of  research  as  a  whole,  that 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  if  they  were  unable  to  devote  much 
attention  to  lyntax.  In  the  'seventies,  when  attention  began  to 
be  more  directed  towards  comparative  syntax,  the  remarkable 
discoveries  made  by  Vemer  with  regard  to  accentuation,  and 
by  Brugmann,  Colllt2  and  others  with  regard  to  the  phon<^ogy 
of  the  Indo>Europcan  languages,  again  distracted  attention 
from  the  subject.  Moreover,  the  research  in  itself  is  infinitely 
more  difficult  than  that  into  sounds  and  forms;  for  the  latter 
may  be  carried  on  by  the  help  of  grammars  and'  dictionaries 
with  a  comparatively  small  knowledge  of  the  titcrature  of  any 
individual  language,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  study  of  syntax 
is  impossible  without  a  thorough  and  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  literature  and  modes  of  expression  in  each  separate  language. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  matter  for  wonder  that  Delbriick  has  confined 
himself  in  the  investigation  of  syntax  to  a  part  only  of  the  lan- 
guages whose  sounds  and  forms  are  discussed  by  Brugmann 
in  the  earlier  volumes  of  the  Grundriss.  To  cover  the  whole 
ground  is  b^ond  the  powers  of  a  single  man,  and  there  is  a 
great  lack  of  preliminary  studies  on  the  syntax  of  many  of  the 
languages. 

-  One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  connected  with  syntax, 
but  primarily,  as  it  appears,  a  question  of  morphology,  is  the 
origin  of  granunatical  gender.  It  caxmot  be  said  to  be  an  advan- 
tage to  the  languages  which  possess  it,  while  languages  ^ich, 
like  English,  have  dropped  it  except  for  an  occarional  mctapbor. 
suffer  no  loss.  Nor  is  the  problem  confined  to  the  htstoiy  of 
gender  in  the  substantive.  Even  more  perplexing  b  the  intro- 
duction of  gender  into  the  adjective.  The  pronouns  of  the  first 
and  second  persons,  which  are  certainly  very  old,  show  no  trace 
of  gender;  the  pronouns  of  the  third  peison,  which  are  more  of 
the  luttnre  of  deictic  adjectives,  generally  possess  it.  To  the 
question  how  grammatical  gender  arose  in  the  substantive,  the 
answer  was  till  compantivdy  recently  supposed  to  be  tbM 
primitive  man  was  given  greatly  to  perMmification,  endowing 
inanimate  things  with  life  and  attributing  to  them  influences 
benign  or  the  reverse  opon  his  own  existence.  The  answer 
is  not  quite  sufficient,  for  though  this  tendency  to  personification, 
which  philologists  hJave  perhaps  unduly  decried  or  altogether 
denied,  might  account  for  life  being  attributed  to  inanimate 
objects,  it  hardly  explains  why  some  ^oold  be  treated  as  mascu- 
line and  others  as  feminine.  Nor  is  it  true,  as  has  also  been 
suggested,  that  in  the  case  of  the  lower  animals  the  generic  name 
for  the  larger  and  stronger  animjUs  is  masnilinr  and  that  for  the 
smaller  oir  weaker  feminine.   In  both  Crock  nnd  Uttin  the  wntf 


PHILOLOGY 


435 


h  masculine  and  the  foi  feminihe,  bnt  the  hunb  or  the  chicken 
iriiich  the  fox  robs  from  the  fold  or  the  henroost  is  rarely  feminine, 
generally  maynfine.  Nor  docs  this  ezi^anation  account  for 
the  mouse  in  those  languages  being  of  the  masculine  gender, 
idiUe  the  ferret  or  cat  whidi  caught  them  is  feminine  iyakff, 
fdts).  An  explanation  which  completes  the  theory  of  personifi- 
cation, if  it  does  not  altogether  drive  it  from  the  field,  has  been 
put  forward  by  Brugmann.'  In  its  briefest  form  this  explana- 
tion is  that  gender  wai  attached  to  certain  suffixes  because  they 
chanced  to  occur  frequently  in  words  which  markedly  implied 
sex.  Id  the  Indo-European  languages  the  commonest  suffix 
indicating  feminine  gender  is  dL  According  to  this  theory  it 
had  originally  nothing  to  do  with  gender,  but  as  some  early  words 
for  woman  or  wife  ended  with  this  sound  it  came  to  be  identified 
with  feminine  gender.  Similariy  the  ending  os  in  ^stems 
occurred  often  in  names  connected  with  males  and  so  became 
identified  with  the  masculine  gender.  But  many  stems  indicate 
either  gender  indifferently,  and  even  the  very  old  sex  words 
father  and  moikcr  have  the  same  ending.  But  when  masculine 
and  feminine  endings  have  beAi  attached  to  certain  suffixes  in 
this  way,  how  comes  it  that  in  one  series  of  stems  the  neuter  should 
be  marked  not  by  an  absence  of  all  suffix  but  by  a  separate 
suffix  in  -m?  These  are  the  o-stems,  other  forms  of  which  have 
hem  markedly  identified  with  the  masculine  gender.  As  this 
characteristic,  like  the  others  mentioned,  goes  back  apparently 
to  a  time  before  the  sq)aration  of  the  Indo-Euxopean  languages, 
explanation  can  hardly  pass  beyond  speculation.  It  is,  however, 
to  be  noted  that  the  neuter  form  of  the  nominative  is  phonetic- 
ally identical  with  the  accusative  form  of  the  masculine,  and 
it  has  been  ingeniously  argued'  that  such  forms  were  used 
originally  in  the  accusative,  such  neuters  not  forming  the  subject 
to  a  verb.  To  the  same  writer  the  most  plausible  explanation 
of  the  presence  of  gender  in  the  adjective  is  due,  viz.  that  gender 
began  with  the  deictic  pronoun  *S0  "that  man,"  *sd  '^that 
woman,"  and  that  hence  it  passed  to  the  adjective  with  which 
the  pronoun  was  so  frequently  accompanied.  If  this  explanation 
be  right,  analogy  has  brought  into  the  Indo-European  languages 
the  usdess  multiplication  of  gender  marks  in  such  sentences  as 
the  Latin  kae  puleroe  feminae  eaesae  sunif  where  the  feminine 
gender  is  indicated  no  less  than  four  times  without  any  obvious 
gain  over  the  English  These  fair  women  were  Hain^  where 
grammatical  gender  is  no  longer  obviously  indicated  at  all. 

Closely  related  to  thb  question  is  that  of  the  history  of  the 
neuter  plural,  which  was  first  fully  worked  out  by  Professor 
Johannes  Schmidt  of  Berlin.'  The  curious  construction,  most 
common  in  ancient  Greek,  whereby  a  neuter  plural  is  combined 
with  a  wtgular  verb,  is  now  demonstrated  to  be  an  archaic 
survival  from  the  time  when  the  neuter  plural  was  a  coUeclive 
singular.  Thus  a  word  like  the  Latin  iugitm  was  a  single  yoke, 
the  plural  iuta,  however,  which  was  earlier  luftf,  was  a  collection 
of  yokes,  with  the  same  final  df  as  is  found  generally  in  feminine 
substantives.  The  declension  ought  therefore  to  have  been 
originally!  nominative  iugd,  gem'tive  iugASt  &c.,  like  mensa,  &c., 
of  the  fiirst  declension.  But  as  iuguum  was  used  in  the  neuter 
angular  for  both  nominative  and  accusative,  tugB  when  it  was 
felt  as  the  corresponding  plural  was  used  for  the  accusative  as 
well  as  the  nominative,  while  the  other  cases  of  the'  plural  were 
taken  over  from  the  mascub'ne  0-stems,  with  which  the  singular 
neuter  in  -«-«  was  so  closely  connected.  That  collective  words 
should  be  used  for  the  plural  is  not  surprising;  the  English 
yosiSh,  first  an  abstract,  next  a  collective,  and  finally  an 
individual,  is  a  case  in  point. 

For  the  early  history  of  the  syntax  of  the  verb  Greek  and 
Sanskrit  are  important  above  all  other  languages,  because  in 
them  the  original  forms  and  .the  original  tisagcs  are  better  pre- 
served than  they  are  elsewhere.  And  it  is  in  the  verb  that  the 
£reflt  difficulties  of  comparative  syntax  present  themselves.  The 
ooun  system  is  so  jvell  preserved  in  several  languages  that,  when 

*■  Tcchmer^s  InlemaiietuU  ZeiUekrifl  fOr  Sfirnekwissensckafh  iv. 
loa. 

■  B.  I.  Wheeler,  Journal  of  Germanic  Philology,  ii.  m8  sqq. 
*  FlwalbtUungjOi  der  indog/trmaniteken  NeUra  (.tSS^), 


the  number  of  the  original  cases  had  once  been  determined,  the 
sifting  of  the  pro^thnic  usages  attaching  to  each  case  was 
tolerably  easy,  for  besides  Sanskrit  and  (to  a  less  extent)  Latin, 
Lithuanian  and  Slavonic  have  kept  the  pro-ethnic  case  system 
admost  complete.  The  ideas  also  wiiich  had  to  be  expressed 
by  the  cases  were  on  the  whole  of  a  very  concrete  character,  so 
that  here  the  problem  was  much  simplified.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  ideas  expressed  by  the  forms  of  the  verb  arc  of  a  much  more 
subtle  nature,  while  the  verb  system  in  all  languages  except 
Greek  and  Sanskrit  has  broken  down  eariier  and  more  completely 
than  the  aotm.  It  is  clear  that  the  verb  of  the  original  Iod&- 
Eozopean  language  possessed  two  voices,  and  forms  correspond- 
ing to  what  we  call  the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  and  Optative 
moods,  and  to  the  Present,  Imperfect,  Future,  Aorist,  and  Perfect 
tenses.  The  imperative  mood  seems  primitively  to  have  been 
confined  to  the  second  penon  singular,  "just  as  the  vocative, 
whidi,  like  the  imperative  is  a  stem  form  without  suffix,  was 
confined  to  the  singular.  The  infinitive,  as  is  well  known,  is 
ilk  all  hmguages  of  this  ^stem  not  originailv  a  verbal  but  a 
substantival  form.  The  pluperfect,  where  it  has  developed, 
seems  to  be  a  mixed  form  arising  from  the  application  of  aorist 
endings  to  a  perfect  stem.  Thus  far  the  history  of  the  verb 
system  is  tolerably  dear.  But  when  we  attempt  to  define  the 
origiiud  meaning  of  the  moods  and  of  the  tenses  we  pass  into  a 
rc^ott  where,  in  ^^ite  of  assiduous  investigation  in  many  quartcn 
during  recent  years,  the  scanty  amount  of  light  thrown  on  the 
problem  has  only  served  to  make  the  darkness  visaUe.  Ab 
regards  the  tenses,  at  kast,  it  has  been  shown  that  without  doubt 
there  is  no  difference  in  formation  between  present,  future  and 
aorist  stems,  while  the  earliest  meaning  of  the  perfect  was  that 
of  a  special  kind  of  present  expressing  either  repeated  or  intensive 
action  or  a  state.  It  has  also  been  proved  that  the  original 
meaning  of  the  aorist  is  not  past  in  time,  and  that  in  fact  the 
only  elemeirt  whereby  these  languages  could  express  remoteness 
in  time  was  the  augment.  The  ai^gment  seems  to  have  been 
origiimlly  a  pronominal  deictic  pardde.  Thus,  as  there  was  no 
original  pluperfect,  as  neither  perfect  nor  aorist  originally 
referred  to  past  time,  and  as  the  future,  except  fai  Lithuanian 
(with  dight  traces  in  Slavonic)  and  the  Indo-Imnian  group, 
cannot  be  dearly  distinguished  from  the  aorist,  the  system  as 
a  method  of  exprening  tinoe  absolutely  breaks  down.  The 
tenses  in  fact  did  not  originally  express  the  times  when  the  action 
took  place,  but  the  t3npe  of  action  which  took  pbce.  Thus  the 
present  system  in  the  main  expressed  continued  or  durativc 
action,  the  aorist  only  the  fact  that  the  action  had  taken  place. 
The  action  indicated  by  the  aorist  might  have  been  of  consider* 
able  duration,  or  It  mig^l  have  been  begun  and  ended  in  a  moment; 
its  characteristics  in  this  inspect  are  not  In  any  way  indicated 
by  tbe  aorist  form,  which  Intimates  oidy  that  the  action  is 
viewed  as  a  completed  whole  and  not  as  a  continuous  process. 
The  present  system,  however,  is  built  up  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways  (thirty-two. according  to  Brugmann's  enumeration).  It 
is  a  priori  unlikely  that  such  a  multipUdty  of  formations  had 
not  originally  some  reason  for  iu  existence,  and  Dclbriick  thhiks 
that  he  has  discovered  a  difference  in  syntactical  value  between 
various  forms.  The  reduplicated  present  forms  of  the  type  seen 
in  Sanskrit  jtgdH,  Greek  Kko/a,  ftc,  he  regards  as  expressing 
originaUy  an  action  which  consisted  of  repeated  acts  of  the 
same  nature  (iterative),  though  this  iterative  meaiung  frequently 
passed  into  an  intensive  meaning.  Presents  of  the  type  seen 
in  Sanskrit  t('tyaa,  "  is  thirsty,"  and  Greek  xolp(a,  "  am  gl^d  »* 
(for  ^xow).  where  the  (  (y)  of  the  suffix  has  modified  the  first 
syllable  and  disappeared,  he  regards  as  curshe — i.e.  they  express 
continuous  action  without  reference  to  its  be^ning  or  end. 
Verbs  which  have  regard  to  the  beginning  or  end  of  the  action 
he  calls  tenmnative,  and  finds  them  represented  (a)  in  verbs 
with  -fi-  suffixes,  Sanskrit  n^rf,  6piwn,  "sets  in  motion," 
iywiu,  **  break  to  preccs  ";  (ft)  in  verbs  with  the  suffix  -j*^, 
Sanskrit  gdckati,  "goes"  (to  a  defim'te  destination),  Greek 
fiAanu,  &c.  The  tools  he  classifies  as  momentary  (punktueD) 
or  non-momentary,  according  as  they  do  or  do  not  express  an 
action  which  is  bc^;un  and  ended  at  once. 


436 


PHILOLOGY 


This  method  <A  classification  was  no  doubt  suggested  in  the 
fiist  instance  by  the  characteristics  of  the  Slavonic  verb  system. 
In  this  system  a  dear  distinction  is  drawn  in  nearly  all  verbs 
between  those  which  express  a  process  (durative  verbs)  and  those 
which  express  a  completed  action  (perfective  verbs).  When 
perfective  and  durative  verbs  are  formed  from  the  same  root,  the 
perfective  are  distinguished  from  the  durative  forms  (a)  by  having 
a  preposition  prefixed,  or  (b)  by  having  a  diflerent  stem  forma- 
tion. Tlitts  in  the  Old  Bulgarian  (Old  Ecclesiastical  Slavonic) '  to 
tirike  (hit)  and  to  strike  dead  are  expressed  by  the  same  verb,  but 
in  the  latter  meaning  a  preposition  is  found  which  docs  not  appear 
in  the  former,  hiti  (infinitive),  "to  strike";  UrbiU,  "to  strike 
dead."  To  strike  is  durative;  to  strike  dead  is  perfective.  As  an 
example  of  difference  of  stem  formation  expressing  this  difference 
of  meaning,  we  may  quote  sisti^  "  to  sit  down  "  (perfective), 
sidtH,  "  to  sit "  (durative).  Verbs  with  a  suffix  in  -n-  have 
often  a  perfective  meaning:  cf.  the  Sanskrit  and  Greek  verbs 
quoted  above.  The  perfective  verbs  correspond  in  meaning 
to  the  Greek  aorist,  and  are  to  be  carefully  distingniahed  from 
perfeci  forms.  The  same  distinction  of  meaning  is  often  achieved 
in  other  languages  also  by  means  of  prepositions,  e,g.  in  Latin 
(Seneca,  Bpp.  xdii.  xo),  Quid  autem  ad  rem  pertinet,  quamdiu 
vites,  quod  evitare  non  possisf  "  What  does  it  matter  how  long 
you  go  on'  avoiding  Idxirative]  whi^  you  cannot  escape  ^serf  ec- 
tive]."  From  this  example,  however,  it  is  dear  that,  though 
the  means  en4>loyed  to  make  the  distinction  are  different,  there 
it  no  difference  in  meaning  between  such  perfective  verbs  and 
those  das^fied  by  Delbrfldc  as  terminative.  Here,  as  in  many 
other  parts  of  this  study,  the  ideas  are  new,  and  grammatical 
terminology  has  not  )ret  sufficiently  crystallized,  and  still  leaves 
something  to  be  desired  both  in  deamess  and  in  i^Kcisicm. 

As  regards  the  moods,  the  difficulty  has  been  to  find  any 
criterion  whereby  the  functions  of  one  mood  should  be  differen- 
tiated from  those  of  the  others.  It  has  long  been  recognised 
that  the  difference  between  indicative  and  subjunctive  is  one 
of  meanirtg*  and  not  one  of  formation;  that,  e,g.,  ih  Sanskrit 
ilkarali  (jnl  sing.  prcs.  indie),  "beazsr"  is  morphologically 
identical  with  konatit  **  nay  slay  "  (3rd  sing.  pres.  subj.),  and 
that  the  latter  is  described  as  a  subjunctive  only  because  of 
the  meaning,  and  because  there  exists  a  dissyllabic  form,  kantit 
which  makes  the  indicative  "  slays."  Similarly  in  Gredi  it  is 
impossible  to  distinguish  morphologically  between  iraiftw,  "  I 
afcall  check"  (fut.  indie.)  and  rdmo,  "  let  me  check"  (ist  aor. 
snbj.).  Moreover,  in  the  earliest  forms  of  the  languages  which 
preserve  the  moods  best  (Greek  and  Sanskrit),  the  connexion 
syntactically  between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  forms 
is  closest.  Not  only  does  the  future  express  futurity,  but  also 
the  determination  of  the  subject  to  carry  out  the  action  expressed, 
which,  in  Delbrttck's  discussion  of  the  moods,  is  precisely  the 
point  chosen  as  characteristic  of  the  subjunctive.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  present  optative  differs  from  the  present  (and  future) 
indicative  and  present  subjunctive  in  having  a  special  mood 
suffix,  and  in  having  secondaiy  while  they  have  primary  penonal 
endings.  Nevertheless  its  meaning  overlaps  that  of  th^  other 
forms,  and  some  excellent  authorities,  like  Professor  W.  W. 
Goodwin,  see  in  future  indicative,  subjunctive  and  optative 
only  different  degrees  of  remoteness  in  the  future,  the  remoteness 
being  least  in  the  future  and  greatest  in  the  optative.  Delbrilck, 
however,  abides,  with  slight  modifications,  by  the  distinction 
whidi  he  propounded  in  187 1  that  the  subjunctive  expresses 
Will  and  the  optative  Wish.  Here  again  the  problem  haa  not 
been  solved,  and  it  is  doubtful  how  far  any  definite  solution  is 
likely  to  be  arrived  at,  since  there  are  so  many  gaps  in  our  know- 
tedge  of  mood  forms.  These  gaps,  owing  to  the  break-up  of  the 
system  at  so  early  a  period,  it  is  hardly  probable  we  shall  ever 
be  able  to  fill.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  do  a  great  deal  more 
than  has  yet  been  done  even  in  the  most  familiar  languages. 
In  Latip,  for  instance,  even  now,  the  facts  for  the  uses  of  the 
moods  witliin  the'  two  centuries  of  the  cUuuical  period  are  very 
imperfectly  known,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  more 
has  been  done  in  the  last  hundred  years  for  Sanskrit  than  has  been 
done  in  two  thousand  years  of  continuous  study  lor  Latin  or  Greek. 


A  still  later  addition  to  the  domaiA  of  Phik>logy-^he  study 
of  meaaing^tM^^^K'Q's  fewer  difficulties,  but  until  recent  yean 
has  been  equally  ne^^ected.  The  study  is  so  recent  that  the 
literature  of  the  subject  is  still  cxtremdy  small.  The  only 
attempts  to  deal  with  it  on  a  large  scale  are  M.  Brial's  Essai  de 
Simantique  (1897),  now  translated  into  English  under  the  title 
of  Semantics  (1900),  with  a  valuable  introduction  and  appendix 
by  Dr  Postgate,  and  M.  de  la  Grslserie's  Essai  d*nue  Simauiiqme 
itiiegrale  (1908),  a  work  which  deserves  mention  for  its  attempt 
to  make  a  thorough  dassificatiott  and  a  cuiiesponding  termino- 
logy for  semantic  phenomoia,  but  the  value  of  which  is  much 
diminished  by  has^  compilation  and  inqxrfect  knowledge  of 
many  of  the  languages  quoted.  From  the  practical  point  of  view 
many  o£  the  phenomena  have  been  riassified  in  works  on  rhetoric 
under  the  headings  of  Meti4>hor,  Synecdoche  and  Metonymy. 
The  psycholopcal  prindpAe  behind  this  superficial  daasificition 
is  that  of  association  of  ideas.  Here,  as  dsewhere,chan8es  proceed 
not  by  acddent,  but  according  to  definite  principles.  Heie, 
as  dsewhere  in  language,  in  histocy,  and  the  other  moral  scieiioes, 
the  particular  principle  in  operation  can  be  ascertained  only 
by  begmning  with  the  result  and  working  bade  to  the  cause. 
In  the  development  of  meaning  much  more  than  in  phonetics  is 
this  necessarily  the  case.  In  phonetics  all  speakers  of  the  same 
dialect  start  vrith  approximately  the  same  sound.  But  the  same 
comMnatlon  of  sounds  which  we  call  a  word  does  not  recall  the 
same  idea  to  all  persons  who  use  that  word.  The  idea  that  the 
phrase  railway  staJieis  calls  up  in  the  mind  of  a  Londoner  is  veiy 
different  from  that  which  occurs  to  the  mind  of  a  child  acquainted 
only  with  a  wayside  station  serving  the  wants  of  a  country 
village  of  a  few  hundred  inhaintants.  The  word  Aerrw^  suggests 
one  idea  or  train  of  ideas  to  the  fisherman  who  catcha  the  fish, 
another  to  the  mcrdtaat  who  pun^aaes  it  from  the  fisherman, 
a  third  to  the  domestic  who  cooks  it,  and  so  on.  To  members 
of  the  same  family  the  same  word  may  often  have  widely  diff cratt 
associations,  and,  if  ao,  the  metaphon  ioi  which  the  word  will 
be  employed  will  differ  in  each  case. 

For  the  history  of  metning  it  is  neceisary  to  have  regard  to 
all  the  forma  of  assodation  of  ideaa  which  psychology  recognises. 
These  are  contiguity  in  place  or  in  time,  resemblance  and  contrast. 
Contrast,  however,  as  J^  S*  Mill  and  Bain  have  shown,  ia  not  a 
simple  form  of  association,  but  is  evolved  partly  from  contiguity, 
partly  from  resemblance.   An  artificial  hollow  generally  implies 
also  an  artificial  hdght  made  of  the  materials  excavated  from 
the  hollow.    Hence  in  most  languages  some  words  occur  with 
the  two  contrasted  meaninggt.    Thua  in  English  we  find  dybe 
in  use  both  for  a  ditch  and  for  a  mound  fronbcd  by  a  ditch,  the 
word  ditch  being,  in  fact,  but  a  dialectal  form  of  dyke.    In 
Scotland,  on  the  other  hand,  where  earthen  mounds  'and  stone 
walls  form  more  frequent  boimdaries  between  fidds  than  in 
England,  the  word  dyke  is  now  practically  limited  to  elevated 
boundaries,  while  ditch  is  limited  to  excavated  boundaries. 
Thus  the  proverb,    -"  February  fill  dyke^,"  which  in  En^and 
implies  that  the  Fcbruaiy  rains  will  fill  the  ditches,  is  often  under- 
stood in  Scotland  to  mean  that  in  February  the  snow  will  be 
levd  with  the  tops  of  the  stone  or  turf  waUs.    Similarly  in 
Latin  Tadtus  can  say  fossas  proruere,  which  can  only  apply  to 
levelling  raised  mounds;  while  in  Greek  Xenophon  also  talks 
of  the  ditch  (trench)  thrown  up  {ri/^pot  &pafit^^iikvn).    It 
is  only  natural,  therefore,  that  other  words  with  several  mean- 
ings should  be  used  siroilarly:  moat,  originally  a  mound  of  earth 
or  peat,  has  come  to  mean  a  big  ditch;  while,  convcrsdy,  soldiers 
in  trenches  are  not  so  much  in  ditches,  as  the  iv-ord  ought  to 
signify,  as  behind  breastworks.    Sometimes,  when  two  acUocs 
opposed  to  one  another  are  contiguous,  a  word  seems  to  change 
to  the  exact  opposite  of  its  original  meaning.    Thus  the  EngUsJi 
verb  wean,  which  meant  originally  to  accustom  (to  cooked  food), 
has  been  transferred  to  the  necessary    preliminary,  to  di^ 
accustom  to  the  breast. 

Resemblances  may  be  (1.)  genuine,  and  (a)  of  external  appear- 
ance, or  <^)  of  other  characteristics;  or  (ii.)  fandful  or  analogical. 
From  resemblance  in  the  external  appearance  of  the  object,  the 
Word  gem,  which  in  Latin  {gemma)  usually  means  a  bud,  lias 


iQ  EngUth  aa  onien-    Example 
»l  of  Htcnul  ippcali 


[h  JuliuB  Ci 
ti  Cvtint.  i. 
"  Lord."  CO 
ihc  ZcDd  proper  naine  HuHBvah  (Cbosnin).   Ai>lrtiiirp( 
out,  ihe   latablsntes  wbicb  bav<  ctuiblalied  >  caDiw 
beiwuD  ^  ud  M^JuKiU  (pnpcriy  inelevtBI]  ue  is  Ki 
only.    The  ume  ii  irue  oi  the  s^pUKd  rcbilMa  of  tbt  ^ 
til  Lo  fnUiiu,  cuUir  and  nUId.     While  Jrow  til  Rally  a 
II  (cf.  Geiman  TtrtiK).  moU  rtofit  toa 


»ilbn 


-    There 


in  funciioD.  Thus,  iboofh  Uk  ht  and  Ute  oak.  have  go  iMtm- 
bLaa  one  la  \he  oLber,  Ibe  votifij  a  now  geneiiU)-  iiloMlficd 
with  the  Latin  qutiati  ij>  etyn^ogy  (cf.  /tfnr.  and  fiHiJUWr)^ 
in  Ihc  MiDc  way  ai  Ihe  LaUnidfu,  "  beecb,"  ii  «tUi  the  Gn(^ 
ii^bi.  "  oak,"  the  UKn  o(  (be  awil  having,  ia  the  cooneot  titat 
nitralioni,  paiatd  ftodi  ■  land  with  oaka  to  •  lud  with  in  in 
the  one  cam,  and  ttata  a  bod  of  beecfae)  to  >  )«ad  Of  oaki  io  Iha 
ether.    RetemUaoce  u  Ihe  baaia  of  eielaphnr  baa  a  veijr  vidclr 


ufll  vaded  forma  of  change  innm 
the  U»  ol  oonllguily.  Fetfaa|ia  U 
conligulty  i>  thai  vten  the  mi 
ring  Icature  or  anditim  reptac 


"  Whalti 


The  mint 
ing  depend, 

the  word  for  tne  ocject  noma  to.  jn  tne  i 
the  Mediterranean  the  heal  of  midday 

lepurkcd  upon  by  Aocbyliu  CliiM.  jAj): 
bit  noonday  couch,  nindlot  and  wnvelea*  Mda  UK  tea  to  len." 
From  the  (keek  word  nUia,  "  butaiag  hot,"  arue)  thnugb 
Late  Latin  the  Engliih  caiwi,  urbeie.  the  absenoe  of  wind  i*  tlia 
only  idea  pieient,  ilial  of  heat  having  altogether  diiappeand. 
Again,  in  bitift,  which  a  ibbrcviated  for  ku^tlm*,  iha  wont 
whkb  aurvive*  pnptrly  nmns  mli  ox.  aad  the  coigianlly  more 
important  element  iaJoat.  In  a  canbinationlikesUHrtagk  the 
word  has  gone  a  itage  furthers  the  original  meaning  oi  hom 
baa  alio  disappeared.    There  ia  no  longer  any  tbmi^t  cd  as 


PHILOLDCY  +37 

iadicaltlhtdiieBM.   Tte  nrina  dwi«ea  la  meubic.  «Ud>  arc 
_  .  ii  origin  is  cottigaily. 

Tlnia  «e  have  Un  wcdea  fei  the  genm;  the  bnlcbei,  «1b  pro- 
ody  «Hd  FrtDcb  foe),  haa  ouusd  the  OtdMr. 

But  we  have  aba  Ihe  genua  foe  tb«  apecta;  com,  as  &  nilt, 

meana  Jn.Kntfiinri  wheat;  in  Scotland  oau;  in  Amoica,  ma&e. 

Tbe  indivldiial  bccoma  eclleclive  aa  in  corpa,  niiry,  body  (of 
leo);  tilt  coUccIive  becomea  individual  when  Latin  raeeemi, 
bmich  of  ttapei."  peases  into  Eogliafa  "  nidn."    Hen  would 

coiM  Ibe  a»<alkd  melioiaiive  and  pejorative  developsieiita  In 
-nuaiiiig,  wbcfeby,  t,t,  iiogard,  "  the  aty-waid,"  beconei 

the  liile  of  a  gremt  oftcer  of  Che  nalm  and  the  name  of  •  line  of 

'  nga;  or,  on  tbe  otbei  tide,  tan  (Latin  lattifiu)  paaaea  from  tbc 
LDe  of  a  geld  coin  to  that  of  one  of  pniVErUally  iiuignificaDt 
ilue.  Hete,too,wouldc(Hiw>iaiiy eupbomittkiueavbidiai^ 
rihem 

for  Ibe  ai 

do  not  exhaust  the  Iwnn  ol  conliguily  wUcb  appcu  in 

bnt  they  an  eeough  lo  ibow  how  lutrtachiog  tbe  eSeci  oi  lat 

lype  of  aiaodaiion  oi  ideas  ii  upon  laagaagti  vii  how  eUenaive 

'  "  ia  which  still  oUt  for  invtitigalioa  before  the  atady  of 

attaini  the  aaiie  developmtnl  aj  the  inveitigatiBn  of 

hmochc*  oI  the  hiuory  of  langtapt, 


i;  the  only  idea  that 


ealat 


\pau.)  ol  St  H 
■h  waapreaervedaaaaacredrelicby  thcFrankishlunga,! 
ward  dat^.  The  word  was  first  nansfcned  Imn  (ha 
I  to  tbe  holy  place  wherein  it  waa  kept,  and  thence  to 
lar  ahrines,and  ultimately  to  any  place,  not  being  a- church, 
re  prayers  were  said,    A  jit  was  .originally  not  the   ' 


e  fiddle  ' 


'e  often  replaced  b^ 


.    His 


aames  of  liquors 

■a  of  the  place,  pari,  Aary,  cfcm^iatiK,  or  by  a  qualifying  adjec- 
tive aa  in  Waitiy.  property  "burnt,"  from  Ibe  Dutch  brmi*- 
wiin;  01,  again,  only  the  lets  impactinc  dement  of  tbe  word  h 
Klaloed  aa  is  wAiiily,  hitnlly  "  waier,"  for  the  older  aijiie- 
kMi^,  a  COTTuplJon  of  Gaelic  worda  mcuiiiig  the  "  water  of  hie  " 
(«fiui  tifiu).  Replacement  of  lubatanlivea  by  ibeir 
ing  adjectives  is  common  in  moat  languages.  Oac 
conuDOD  melhod*  of  coining  a  name  for  a  new  altic 
il  Ihe  name  of  ihe  |^r  ot  people  whence  it  comei 
have  tra^  Uwn  (from  I«od),  cravat  (Croat),  ooach  fronKoia 
id  Hungary,  hilboea  (both  fetlen  and  awoids)  liDm  the  iron 

j&venlots— pinchbeck,  toDline,  ailhoueltc,  giiUotinc,  dernck^ 
Iri  the  word  loih,  which  comes  indirectly  from  Latin  cafaa,  "  a 
l»i,"  the  thmg  contained  has  taken  iu  name  from  the  container. 
Similarly  nurtar,  "  cement,"  derivesils  name  from  the  mortar 
En  which  il  was  mixed,  while  in  bo£  the  material  (boxwood,  LaL 
buxus,  Greek,  ir^£of)  baa  usurped  the  place  of  the  ankle  made. 
In  ie^r  Ibe  diiease  (Lai,  Itpra,  Ibe  rough  disease,  fnm  Greek, 
KevpA  tiaoi)  has  been  rnjde  into  Ihe  name  of  the  suflcnr,  who 
was  earlier  called  a  leprous  man. 
autMtantive  kprsty  baa  to  be  la! 


&  Wheeler, 
ol  Piiul'l  .' 


icipin  itr  Sfr^MukicUi  (wd  ed,.  i«98);  Von 
Bit  SfraciimiiiMiHlH/l  (ind  oiC,  1901)  i  Strong.  Logei 
.Tl<ilulc>jr^Lufu(((iS«iJ,(iiailafHatiiBal^lhric 

Sit 


i"£ 


.ul'I  i'rittititn,  with  many  Eicrllvnt  eiampln;  vj 
-. ...ipu  rle  Liituistiiat  tiyduiep^a  (1907).  Fr 
iroveriv  Ktardinr  PItonelieLawi:  Cuttiat,  Zur  Krik 
.Sprujl|f*>ifiUiifi  Bnicmann,  Zum  tnra|a»  Slatidia 
"'*l/'i ^'"p'fcfc-^t,  ^"- *'*  rj»M*/.fc,f*f-  fttaiditjtu 


tdliudt,  Oltr  4U  I^miMitMi  gttpi  die  JumarammaJiitr 
I;  Tarbcll. "  FhoneiicLii^'  in  trofjailioni  ifAmiricfw 
'—yiiitin  for  IBM,  pp.  t  aqq,;  Wcchulet.  "CiFbt  a 

"^tV.be  fQf  Hemarm'sudiiM?  w'uodT'Sa 
...,.-...>  (ipoo).  vol.  i.;  Oanal.  iMnru  m  lii  Saiii  ^ 
Laniiiati  (1911I),  Itclurc  iv.  For  Analogy:  Wheeler,  "  Analogy 
and  the  Scope  of  Iti  Applicalinn  in  LaBBUag*  "  (tBS?),  Ctrndl 
OiKtmilf  SHiAa  <■  Oauiat  Pkihhtj-  For  the  Clateilicatian  of 
"-- -    -■■'  *     • 'D^  '" 


.     ■JWalefiii    _  . 
VHki'piyiJSoti'  (I 


i>))i  the  fint  (ditio* 


Neuaa,  Ai 

EngliEh  in  lour 

tr  iiiko-prmavis^itu 

PsMWelaeeWandt. 

bibti«rapliy  of  ibe 
oond  M  the  Awanw 

'urmanirhtiKFmikiiitmMiitiiriiby W-Stmibcig.   (F.Ci.!E.SiJ 

SuauuiY  or  Phuolocicii.  AancLU 

In  addition  to  the  gesetk  claisificaiian  of  langnagc*  gMn 
above  (dd  pp.  4)6-419),  aome  faithcr  gaidance  aa  10  Um  aclnal 
htadlnga  under  whkb  tht  phSologiCBl  section  ia  arruged  Buy 
be  of  aetvkeu  the  student. 

The  plwt  of  the  whole  KCtion  1)  Ihe  aitlde  Am»n, 
which  traces  Ihe  faislory  of  langBage  and  wtiling  to  the  earlieM 
rfigri,  embadyiog  the  naulta  ot  aidueological  studies  In  all 
onmliiea,  together  with  (he  genera]  roodoiiDOa  baaed  (bcnon. 
In  thia  article  fwith  further  detaila  tmder  Cam)  will  (u  found 
in  account  of  the  cantroveray  regarding  (h<  Cre(an  disomrite 
of  Dr  A.  J.  EvaiB.  SDpp)emen[ary  to  this  Compatative  survey 
arc  tbe  anidea  Piunxnumv,  Inaimottt.  Wmuno  and 
Phohitics.  The  Ant  two  deal  with  ancient  documenti  of  all 
kindK  PauiociANn  with  Ihoso  ipedmcna  of  andenl  writing, 
literary,  economic  or  legal,  which  were  committed  to  rhHccs, 
tabled  at  toUi  by  the  use  o<  the  itilui,  the  reed  or  (he  pen  1 
I  alOM  or  Oiefal. 


438 


PHILOLOGY 


WutlHO  deals,  chiefiy  froin  the  anthropological  sUndpoinc, 
with  primitive  attempts  to  record  ideas  in  an  intelligible  form, 
e.f .  with  "  knot'Signs,"  "  message-sticks,"  picture-writing  and  the 
like.  Phonetics  covers  the  whole  subject  oC  speech  sounds  and 
pronunciation,  the  organs  of  speech  and  national  sound  systems. 

Supplementary,  from  another  point  of  view,  to  the  article 
AtPKABtT  is  a  complete  series  of  articles  on  the  letters  of  the 
English  ali^bet.  In  these  articles  the  history  of  the  iBdividual 
letters  is  traced  from  the  Phoenician  through  Aramaic,  Greek 
and  Roman  to  modem  times.  All  these  articles  may  be  read 
in  connexi(«  with  a  comparative  table  is  the  article  Aifeabet 
(adjin.)f  which  shows  m  parallel  columns  the  earliest  equivaknU 
of  the  modem  English  letters,  i^.  Brahnu,  Kharo^thi^  oldest 
Athiopic,  Sabcan,  Nashki,  Tema,  Sindjirli,  the  Moabite  stone, 
Phoenician,  Greek,  Latin,  Cyrillic  and  GiagoUtic.  Another 
important  comparative  table  of  written  signs  is  contained  in  the 
article  Slavs,  riiowing  the  various  Cyrillic,  GiagoUtic  and  Latin 
letters  used  by  the  Slav  peoples. 

Passing  from  articles  dealing  with  the  method  and  general 
subject-matter  of  philology,  the  student  will  find  articles 
on  the  great  families  of  languages,  each  with  its  subordinate 
articles  on  q)ecial  languages  and  dialects. 

X.  Jwdo-Eurofean  Languaifs.'-<X  articles  on  language-families, 
the  most  important  is  that  under  the  heading  Indo-Eukopcan 
Languages.  This  great  division,  which  is  doilt  with  from  the 
comparative  standpoint  in  the  second  part  of  the  article 
pKiU)LOCY,  is  under  its  own  heading  treated  in  detail.  The 
artide  begins  with  a  sulxlassification  into  two  main  groups — 
the  so-called  (A)  cerUum  and  (B)  rolfm  groups — each  of  which  is 
further  divided  into  four  sections.  In  accordance  with  this 
classification  there  are  separate  articles  on  the  individual  ancient 
and  modem  languages  and  dialects. 

A.  (i)  GsEEK  Language  (supplemented  by  sections  under 
HouER,  Dorians,  &c.);  (2)  Latin  Language  (with  Osca 
Lingua,  Iguvium,  &&,  and  articles  on  the  Italic  tribes  and 
places,  e.g»  Veneti,  Caere);  (3)Celtic,  s.t,  Celt  (with  subsidiary 
articles);  and  (4)  Teutonic,  s.v.  Teutonic  Languages,  Scandi- 
navian Languages,  and  the  like. 

The  modern  descendants  of  these  languages  are  aU  further 
treated  separately.  Thus  following  Latin  Language  is  the 
article  Rouance  Languages,  which  traces  the  development  of 
the  Latin  tongue  during  its  gradual  differentiation  into  Italian, 
French,  Spanish,  Rumaxiian,  &c.;  while  a  more  detailed  account 
of  these  will  be  found  under  Italian  Language;  French 
Language;  Spain:  Language,  Rumanu:  Language.  There 
is  also  a  special  article  Provencal  Language,  dealing  with  the 
Romanic  speech  of  southern  France.  The  Teutonic  languages 
are  simiUu-ly  dealt  with  m  detail  under  English  Language  (in- 
cluding Anglo-Saxon);  DtrrcH  Language;  German  Language. 
Scandinavian  Language  itself  includes  Icelandic,  Norwegian, 
Swedish,  Danish. 

B.  In  the  talem  group  of  the  Indo-European  family  the  four 
divisions  are  as  follows: — 

(x)  Indo-Iranian  or  Aryan.  This  division  may  be  sub- 
divided into  {a)  Indo-Iranian,  treated  mainly  in  the  article 
I^KSia:  Language  and  Literaiun  (induding  Zend,  Old,  Middle 
and  New  Persian,  and  the  modem  dialects),  and  (6)  Indian. 
The  Indian  langiiagrs  are  discussed  primarily  uiider  Indo- 
Aryan  Languages,  which  describes  the  relations  of  Pitaect 
SamikrUt  Prakrii^  and  gives  a  paradigm  of  the  various  languages 
of  the  three  great  divisions  of  India.  This  central  article  refers 
to  the  separate  articles  Pbaca,  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit,  which 
in  torn  are  supplemented  by  a  number  of  articles  on  particular 
languages.  Of  these  reference  may  be  made  to  Bemcau; 
BiHARi;  GujARATi  AND  Rajastbani;  Hxndostani;  Kask-* 
MiRi;  Marathi;  PaxX  The  gipsy  languages,  which  may 
probably  be  assigned  t«  the  Indo-Izanian  division,  are  described 
under  Gipsies. 

(s)  The  account  of  Armenian  wUl  be  found  under  Armshun 
Lavouace  and  Literature. 

(3)  The  Balto-Slavonic  Languages.  Of  these  the  three 
coiDpriied  io  the  Baltic  group,  vis.  LithuaniaD,  Lettic  and  Old 


Prussian,  are  described  under  the  heading  Litbuahiass  and 
Letts.  For  the  Slavonic  group,  the  chief  artide  is  Slavs: 
Language,  which  deals  with  the  dements  common  to  all  the 
Slavonic  tongues,  with  their  early  history  and  differentiadoa. 
It  contains  a  comparative  table  of  alphabets.  It  is  supple- 
mented by  an  article  Old  Slavonic,  and  by  further  informatioo 
under  the  headings  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Poland, 
BoBEiOA,  Croatla-Slavonu,  Slovaks,  Slovenes,  Sorbs, 
Kashubes,  Polabs. 

(4)  The  Albanian  dialects  are  treated  under  Albania. 

3.  Semiiic  Languages.— ^Ai  the  heading  of  this  section  stands 
the  artide  Seiotxc  Languages,  supplemented  by  Hebrew 
Language,  Aramaic  Languages,  and  linguistic  sections  under 
Phoenicia,  Ethiopia,  and  the  like. 

3.  HamUic  Languages. — ^The  central  article  in  this  family 
is  Hamitic  Languages,  which  is  supplemented,  so  far  as  the 
Cushitic  or  Ethiopian  group  is  concerned,  by  further  informatioo 
in  the  artides  Egypt;  Ethiopia;  Abyssinu;  Somaliland;  and. 
so  far  as  the  Libyan  group  is  concerned,  by  the  artides  Berbers 
and  Kabyles. 

4.  The  chief  feature  of  the  Monosyllabic  fanifly  is  the  section 
Language  under  China,  supplemented  again  by  similar  sections 
in  artides  on  other  countries  of  south-eastern  Asia,  and  by  the 
article  Tibeto-Burman  Languages.  There  is  also  a  language 
section  under  Japan  which  discusses  the  affiiuties  between 
Chinese,  Korean  and  Japanese. 

5.  The  Ural' Altaic  family  is  described  in  outUne  in  the 
artide  Urai^Altaic,  which  gives  the  general  relationships  of 
Turkislh,  Finno-Ugrian,  Mongol  and  Manchu,  and  of  minor  sub- 
divisions such  as  S3rryenian,  Mordvinian  and  Votyak.  Tuikoh 
is  discussed  hi  the  article  Turks:  Language,  whidi  deals  with 
Osroanii  proper  and  the  Tatar-Turkish  languages  generally.  The 
artide  Finno-Ugrian  is  a  comparative  survey  dealing  with  the 
language  of  the  Finns,  Lapps,  Samoyedes,  &c.;  while  Magyar  is 
treated  separately  ui  Hungary  :  Language.  Under  Monoou  there 
is  a  spedal  section  Language,  discussing  the  three  groups  of  East 
Mongol,  West  Mongol  (including  Kalmuck)  and  Buriat. 

6.  The  principal  languages  of  southern  India,  e.g.  Tamil, 
MalayHam,  Kanarese,  Tdugu,  &c.,  are  dealt  uritb  genoally 
under  the  heading  DRAvmiAN;  while  there  is  a  separate  article 
Tamils,  containing  a  section  on  their  language;  and  brief  notes 
under  the  headings  BsABin,  Telugu,  MakayAlam,  &c. 

7  and  8.  The  scattered  languages  of  the  Malay-PolyncsiaR 
famfly  and  other  Oceanic  peoples  are  treated  princq;Mlly  In  the 
artide  Malays,  which  further  information  is  given  under  the 
headings  Polvnesu;  Samoa;  Java;  Negritos,  Baitas,  Ac. 

9.  The  Caucasian  family  is  described  chiefly  in  the  artide 
Gborgu:  Ethnology.  Further  information  will  be  fotuid  ia 
Caucasu:  Ethnology. 

la  Of  the  remaining  European  languages  only  two  need 
spedal  mention:  Basque,  which  is  treated  in  a  spedal  section 
under  the  heading  Basques;  and  the  lost  Etruscan,  whkh  is 
treated  under  Etruru  and  Latin  Language. 

II.  The  principal  languages  of  southern  and  central  Africa 
are  treated  fully  under  Bantu  Languages.  Thetn  is  a  ^ricf 
account  of  the  Bushman  language  under  Bushmen,  and  of  the 
Hottentot  Unguages  under  1ioTTENTOT&, 

I  a.  Intermediate  African  Languages. — ^Amoi^  tha  niiincR»ua 
languages  spoken  by  the  people  of  the  great  central  bdt  of  tte 
African  continent,  the  most  important  is  the  Hausa,  deacribcd 
under  that  heading. 

13.  ifffMfiea.— The  whole  question  of  the  languages  of  the 
North  American  Indians  is  dealt  with  in  the  artide  Indians, 
North  American,  which  contains  an  elaborate  Bnguisric 
paradigm. 

BibliograpTiIcal  information  wHt  be  found  in  practicalli^  aU  the 
above  headings.  In  addition  to  the  most  modem  authoritiea  there 
quoted,  there  will  be  found  in  the  article  DiCTUNtART  a  yrgy  fal 
hat  of  older  lexicographical  works. 

The  above  summar^r  docs  not  purport  to  present  dogmatically  a 
ri^d  philological  ctassification.  It  aisregaras  nuny  problems,  and 
is  intended  solely  to  enable  the  studcnr  readily  to  and  the  nsaterial 
of  which  he  nay  be  in  seaich. 


PHILOMEL—PHILOPONUS 


4W 


FBIlAIIEIi  (Fr.  Pkilmeh;  Ger.  Pkihmeh  or  SiaMteigeh 
ft  mnacftl  iBstrtttteat  timilar  to  the  violia,  but  bsving  fiour  steel, 
win  stiincs.  The  phikmiel  baft  a  body  with  incunrations  aixmlar 
to  thofte  of  the  guitar;  theiefoce,  without  coraer  blocks^  the  o«t- 
Koe  of  the  upper'  lobe  forms  a  wavy  shonider  lemiiiieoent  of 
the  vids  but  more  ornate  and  fanciful.   The  ptg'box  aometines 
tanninaies  in  a  fancy  head  instead  of  a  sciolL    The  phikmel, 
never  used  in  the  oschestia,  is  the  insTroment  of  the  dilettanti, 
frequently  played  in  Germany  with  the  bowed  aithcr.    The 
aoooidance  of  the  philoinei  is  the  same  as  for  the  vioUa;  the 
timbre  is  shiiil  and  ciysta]*like.   There  is  also  an  alto  philomel 
conrespondiag  to  the  viola.    The  bowed  melodion  is  similar 
to  the  philomd,  and  has  four  steel  strings  of  the  laaae  scxordance 
aa  the  violin,  but  arranged  in  inverse  order;  instead  of  being 
held  Ufce  the  violin  and  ph£kMncl,  under  the  chin,  it  is  placed 
on  the  knees  of  the  perfomer,  so  that  a  hook  under  the  finger- 
board rests  against  the  table.  (K.  S.) 

PHIION,  Athenian  architect  of  the  4th  oentoxy  B.C.,  is  known 
as  the  leaner  of  two  important  W0Tfc8-*Hhe  portico  of  the  great 
Hall  of  the  Mysteries  at  Eleusis  and  an  arsenal  at  Athens.  Of 
the  last  we  have  exact  knowledge  irom  an  inscription.  E.  A. 
Gardner  {AneietU  Alhenst  p.  S$f)  observes  that  it  "  is  perhaps 
known  to  us  more  in  detail  than  any  other  lost  monument  of 
antiquity."  It  was  to  hold  the  nggoig  of  the  galleys;  and  was 
so  contf tved  that  all  its  contents  were  visible  from  a  central 
hall,  and  so  liable  to  the  inspection  ol  the  Athenian  denM»cracy< 
(See  Athens.) 

PMIU>PATB18,  the  title  of  a  daah«ue  formerly  attributed 
to  Lucian,  but  -now  generally  admitted  to  be  spurious.  Its  date 
and  purport  have  long  formed  the  subjea  of  discussion.   The 
scene  is  laid  at  Constantinople*    A  certain  Ttiephon,  who  has 
been  convened  to  Christianity  by  a  bald,  fc>ng*noaed  Calfliaean, 
wl^  was  icftnied  up  through  the  air  into  the  third  heaven  (an 
evident  allusion  to  St  Paul),  meets- a  friend,  Czitias,  who  lain  a 
state  of  great  excitement.    Triephon  inquires  the  season,  and 
the  invocation  of  Zeus  by  Critias  leads  to  a  discussion  on  pagan- 
iam  and  ChriBtianity»  in  which  ^1  the  gods  {woposed  by  C^ias 
are  rejected  by  Triephon,  who  finally  suggests  that  Critiaa  should 
swear  by  the  Trinity.    (The  subtitle,  4  AtJe^Nii^rat,, refers  to 
this  "  instruction  "  of  Critias  in  matters  relating  to  Christianity.) 
Critias  goes  on  to  relate  how,  be  had  been  introduced  to  a  gather- 
ing ol  pessimists,  who  {msdicted  all  kinds  of  disturbances  in 
the  empire  and  defeat  at  the  hands  oi  its  enemies.   In  the  mean- 
time a  third  pereon  appears  on  the  scene,  with  the  news  that 
the  imperial  armies  have  obtained  a  glorious  victory.    The 
hope  is  expressed  that  Babel  (Bagdad,  the  chief  city  of  the  caJiphs) 
may  soon  be  destroyed,  Egypt  subdued  (that  is,  reconquered 
from  the  Arabs),  and  the  attacks  of  the  Scythians  (Russians 
or  Bulgarians)  repuls^    The  whole  concludes  with  thanks 
tp  the  unknown  god  of  Athens  that  they  have  been  permitted 
to  be  the  subjects  of  such  an  emperor  and  the  inhabitants  ol 
such  an  empire.    The  FJiilopalrit  was  for  a  long  time  regarded 
as  an  attack  upon  Christianity,  and  assigned  to  the  time  of 
Julian  the  Apostate  (emperor  361-363).    Chronological  Indica* 
tions  (e.£*  the  allusion  to  a.  massacre  of  women  ip  Crete)  led 
Niebuhr  to  ascribe  it  jto  the  reign  of  Nicephorus  Phocas  (063- 
969) t  and  this  view  is  now  generally  supported.    There  being 
St  that  time  no  pagans  in  ConsUntim^,  the  "  pessimists  '* 
referred  i  to  must  be  Christiansr-eitbcr  monks,  eq>ccially  the 
intimate  iriends  of  (be  patriarch  of  CoostantinopJe,  who,  ag* 
grieved  at  the  measures  taken  by  Phocas  in  regaurd  to  the 
property  of  the  Church,  were  ready  to  welcome  the  defeat  of 
the  imperiaii  arms  and  the  ruin  of  the  empiric;  or  harmless  vision- 
aries, who  claimed  to  predict  the  future  by  fasting,  prayer  and 
vigil*    In  any  case,  the  author,  whether  he  was  a  sophist  com- 
missioned by  Phocas  to  attack  the  naonks,  or  some  professor 
who  hoped  to  profit  by  singing  the  imperial  praiscsy  represents 
the  viows.of  the  "  patriotic  "  (as  the  title  shows)  as  .opposed  to 
the  "  unpatriotic  "  party.    According  to  another  view,  which 
assigns  the  diabgue  to  the  time  of  Heraclius  .(6io~^*)»  (lie 
author  was  a  Christian  fanatic,  whose  object  was  to  make  known 
the  existence  of  a  conventicle  of  belated  pagans*  tlw  enemies 


sUke  of  the  Christian  faith  and  the  eriipire;  it  is  doubtful, 
however,  whether  such  a  pagan  community,  sufficiently  numer' 
ous  to  be  of  importance,  actually  existed  at  that  date.  The 
object  of  the  first  and  longer  portion  of  the  dialogue  was  to 
combat  the  humanism  of  the  period,  which  threatened  a  revival 
of  polytheism  as  a  rival  of  Christianity. 

BiBLiocRAPHY.^Editions  bv  J.  M.  Cesnev  (17 15)  and  C.  B.  Hase 
in  the  Bonn  Corpus  scripiorum  hist,  byz,  (1828),  vol.  xi. ;  also  included 
in  jacobitx's  edition  of  Lucian  (1839).  See  R.  Crampe.  PhiUh 
patris.  Ein  heidnischts  Konvenlikel  ats  sUbtnten  Jahrhunderts  zm 
Conslanlinopfl  (1894):  R.  Garnett,  "  Alms  for  Oblivion  "  ia  CornhiU 
Magazine  (May,  1901):  C.  Stach.  De  PhihpairiOe  (Cracow,  1894)^ 
who  ehows  its  late  origin  by  linguistic  tests;  S.  Reinach  In  Ratut 
anhlolovque  (1902),  vol.  1.;  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  "  Ueber  das  Alter  des 
Dialoes  Pnilopatris  "  in  hts  KUine  hislariicke  Sehriflen  (1843),  vol.  ii. 
and,  lor  furtner  authorities,  article  by  Von  DobschQtz  in  Henog« 
H»«^B  IUalemykhp64teJilrpr9kstantuckf  TktchiU  (1904). 

PHILOPOBIIBN  (253-184  B.C.),  Greek  general,  was  bom  at 
Megalopolis,  and  educated  by  the  atadenoc  phitosophers 
Ecdemas  and  Demophanes  or  Megalophanes,  who.  had  dis* 
tinguished  themselves  as  champions  oif  freedom.  Avoiding 
the  fashionable  ai^  luxurious  gymnasia,  he  devoted  himself 
to  military  studies,  huntmg  and  border  forays.  In  tsf^a 
Philopocmcn  skilfully  evacuated  Megalopolis  bdfow  the  attack 
of  Cleomenes  III.,  and  distinguished  himself  at  SeUosia  (ss«). 
The  next  elevan  years  he  spent  as  a  condottiere  in  Crete. 
Elected  conunander  of  the  League's  caValry  on  his  return,  he 
reofganized  that  force  and  d^eated  the  Aetolians  on  the  Elean 
frontier  (2  to).  Appointed  to  the  chief  command  two  years 
later,  he  introduced  heavy  armour  and  dose  formation  (m  the 
infantry,  and  wit)i  a  wtU-trained  army  beat  Macbanidas  of 
Sparta,  near  Mantinea.  The  new  "liberator''  was  now  so 
famous  that  Philip  V.  of  Macedon  attempted  to  poison  him. 
In  303-^s  Phihipoemen  drove  Nabis,  the  Spartan  tyrant,  from 
Meseene  and  routed  him  off  Tegea.  After  anothdr  long  sQJoua 
in  Crete  he  again  received  the  command  against  Nabis.  Though 
nnsuccessfnl  at  sea,  he  almost  annihilated  Nabis's  land  force 
netr  Gylhium,  but  was  previented  by  the  Roman  Flemlninus 
from  taking  Sparta.  In  190  Philopoemen  protected  Sparta, 
which  meanwhile  had  joined  the  League  and  thereupon  seceded, 
but  punched  a  renewed  defeaion  so  cruelly  as  to  draw  the 
censure  of  Rome,  upon  his  country.  At  Meisime  he  likeiHefe 
checked  a  revolt  (189),  but  when  that  city  agam  rebelled,  in  184, 
he  was  captured  in  a  skirmish  snd  promptly  executed.  His 
body  was  recovered  by  the  Achaeans  and  buried  with  great 
solemnity. 

Philopoemen's  great  merit  lies  in  his  having  restored  to  his 
compatriots  that  military  efficiency  without  wUch  the  Achaean 
League  for  all  iu  skilful  diplomacy  could  never  stand.  Towards 
Rome  he  advocated  a  courteous  but  independent  attitude.  Id 
pditics  he  was  a  democrat,  and  introdticed  reforms  of  a  popular 
character  (see  Acbaeam  Laague). 

Polybras'  Hishries  (x.-xkiii.)  are  our  chief  authority.  These  and 
a  spcoal  tfcatiae  on  Philopoonea  (now  k»t)  were  u«l  by  Pluurch 
^hitopotmtn).  Fausanias  (viii.  49-51)*  Livy  (xxxi.''«xxviiL),  and 
indirectly  by  Justin  (xxx.-xxxiv.). 

PHILOPONUS,  JOANNES  QoHir  the  Gsauxarian),  Greek 
philosopher  of  Alexandria,  lived  in  the  later  part  of  the  5th  asd 
the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  of  our  era.  The  surname  Cram' 
matfcus  he  assttmed  in  virtue  of  bis  lectures  on  language  and 
literature;  that  of  PAihponms  owing  to  the  large  number  t4 
treatises  he  composed.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Ammopius  Hermiae, 
and  i^  supposed  to  have  written  the  h'fe  of  Aristotle  sometimes 
attributed  to  bis  master.  iTp  Fhiloponus  are  attributed  a  large 
number  of  works  on  theology  and  philosophy.  It  is  said  that, 
though  he  was  a  pupil  of  Ammonius,  he  was  at  first  a  Christian, 
and  he  has  been  credited  with  the  authorship  of  a  commentary 
on  the  Mosaic  Cosmogony  in  eight  books  dedicated  to  Scrglus, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  edited  by  BaJthasar  Cozderius 
in  1630.  Other  authorities  maintain  that  this,  as  well  as  the 
DispuUUto  de  paschale,  was  the  work  of  another  author,  John 
the  Tritheist.  It  was  perhaps  this  Fhiloponus  who  tried  to  save 
the  Alexandrian  library  from  the  qdiph  Omar  after  Amu's 
victory  in  639. 


440 


PHILOSOPHY 


The  more  certaih  writings  of  Philoponus  conmt  of  oommenteriea 
on  Aristotle.  These  include  works  on  the  Pkysica,  the  Prior  and  the 
Posterior  Analylics,  the  Meteorohgica,  the  De  antma,  the  De  tenera- 
tione  aHimalium,  the  De  generalione  et  interitu  and  the  Mebxpkysica. 
These  have  been  frequently  edited  iknd  are  interesting  in  connexion 
with  the  adoption  of  Artstotdiaxusm  by  the  Cfaristtan  Chaich, 
They  aeem  to  have  embodied  the  lectures  of  Anunonius  with  addi* 
tions  by  Philoponust  and  are  remarkable  rather  for  elaborate  care 
than  for  miginality  and  insight.  He  wrote  also  an  attack  on  Prbdus 
{De  detemitaU  mundi).  Two  treatises  on  mathematics  are  ascribed 
to  him:  A  Commentary  on  the  Mathemciics  of  Nicomackus,  edited 
by  Hoche  (1864  and  1867),  and  a  Treatise  an  the  Use  of  Uu  Astr^dabe, 

fmblish(^  by  Hase.    The  latter  is  the  roost  andent  work  on  this 
nstrument.  and  its  authenticity  is  rendered  almost  certain  by  its 
reference  to  Ammomus  as  the  oiaster  of  the  author. 

PHIlOSiOPHY  (Gr.  4l\ot,  fond  of,  luid  vo^,  Tvisdom),  « 
general  term  whose  meaning  and  scope  have  varied  very  con- 
siderably according  to  the  usage  of  different  authors  and  different 
ages.  It  can  best  be  explained  by  a  survey  of  the  steps  by 
whidi  phihnophy  d^erentiated  itself,  in  the  histoxy  of  Greelc 
thdught,  Siom  tho  idea  of  knowledge  and  culture  in  general. 
These  steps  may  be  tiaced  in  the  ^adual  spedfication  of  the 
term.  The  tnidition  which  assigns  the  first  emplojrment  of 
the  Greek  word  ^cXoao^a  to  Pythagoras  has  hardly  any  daim  to 
be  regarded  as  authentic;  and  the  somewhat  self<conscions 
modesty  to  which  Diogenes  LaJirtius  attributes  tho  dioioe  of 
the  designation  is,  in  all  probability,  a  piece  of  etymology 
crystallized  into  narrative.  It  is  true  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  earliest  uses  of  the  word  (the  verb  ^Xom^iv  occuss  in 
Herodotus  and  Thucydides)  imply  the  idea  of  the  punuii  of 
knowledge;  but  the  distinction  between  the  cd^,  or  wis^  man, 
and  the  ^cXiao^,  or  lover  of  wisdom,  appears  first  in  tho 
Platonic  writings,  and  lends  itself  naturally  to  the  sohslU^ 
Socfadc  irony.  Tlie  same  thought  is  to  be  found  in  Xenophon, 
and  is  doubtless  to  be  attributed  to  the  historical  Socrates. 
But  tbe  word  booji  bst  this  special  implication.  What  is  of 
real  interest  to  us  is  to  trace  the  progress  from  the  idea  of  the 
phstosbpber  as  occupied  with  any  and  every  department  of 
knowledge  to  that  which  assigns  him  a  ^)eda]  kind  of  knowl«lge 
as  his  province. 

A  specific  sense  of  the  word  first  meets  as  inl^lato,  who  defines 
the  phikisopher  as  one  who  apprehends  the  essence  or  reality  of 
things  in  opposition  to  the  man  who  dwells  in  appearances  and 
the  shows  of  sense.  The  philosophers,  he  says,  "  are  those  Who' 
are  able  to  giasp  the  eternal  and  immutable";  they  are  "those 
who  set  thei<  affections  on  that  which  in  each  case  really  exists  " 
(J^^.  480).  In  Phito,  however,  this  distinction  is  applied 
chi«Qy  fa  an  ethical  and  religious  direction;  and,  while  it  defines 
phflesophy,  so  far  correctly,  as  the  endeavour  to  express  what 
things  are  ia  thetrultimate  oonstitutioni  it  is  not  yet  accompanied 
by  a  sufficient  differentiation  of  the  subsidiary  inquiries  by 
wbidi  this  ultimate  question  may  be  approached.  I^c,  ethics 
and  physics,  psychology,  theory  of  knowledge  and  metaphysics 
are  aill  fused  together  by  Piato  in  a  semi-religious  synthois.  It 
is  not  till  we  come  to  Aristotle^tbe  encyclopaedist  of  the  andent 
world — ^that  we  find  a  demarcation  of  the  different  philosophic 
disciplines  corresponding,  in  the  main,  to  that  still  current. 
The  earliest  philosophers,  or  "  physiologers,"  had  occupied 
thentsdvcs  diiefly  with  what  we  may  call  cosmology;  the  one 
question  which  covers  everything  for  them  is  that  of  the  under- 
lying substance  of  the  world  around  them,  and  they  essay  to 
ithswer  this  question,  so  to  speak,  by  simple  inspection.  In 
Socrates  and  Plato,  on  the  other  luind,  the  start  is  made  from  a 
conaidention  of  man's  moral  and  intellectnal  activity;  but 
knowledge  and  action  are  confused  with  one  another,  as  in  the 
Socratic  doctrine  that  virtue  s  knowledge.  To  this  correspond 
the  Platonic  confusion  of  logk  and  ethics  and  the  attempt  to 
sbbsCitute  a  theory  of  concepts  for  a  metaphysie  of  reaKty. 
Aristotle's  methodic  intellect  led  him  to  separate  the  different 
aspects  of  reality  here  confotmded.  He  became  the!  founder 
«l  logic,  psydiology,  ethics  and  aesthetics  as  separate  sciences; 
while  he  prefixed  to  all  such  (comparatively)  special  inquiries 
the  investigation  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  existence  as  such,  or 
of  thRMe  first  prindples  which  are  common  to,  and  presupposed 
in,  every  narrower  field  of  knowledge.    For  this  investigation 


Aristotle's  most  usual  name  is  "  first  philosophy  **  or,  as  a  mod^ 
might  say,  '*  first  principles  ";  but  there  has  since  been  appvo- 
priated  to  it,  apparently  by  acddent,  the  tkle  "  m^aphysics." 
**  Phiiosophy,"  as  a  term  of  general  application,  was  not,  indeed 
restricted  by  Aristotle  or  his  successors  to  the  disciplines  just 
enumerated.  Aristotle  himself  includes  under  the  titte,  besides 
mathematics,  all  his  physical  inquiries.  It  was  only  in  the 
Alexandrian  period,  as  Zeller  points  out,  that  the  special  sdesccs 
attained  to  independenH  cultivatfoa  Nevertheless,  as  the  mass 
of  knowledge  aocumukted  it  naturally  came  about  that  the 
name  "  philosophy  "  ceased  to  be  applied  to  inquiries  oonoemed 
with  the  particvdAn  as  such.  Tbe  deuils  of  physica,  for  caample, 
were  abandoned  to  the  sdentifie  specialist,  and  phfloaophy 
restricted  itself  in  this  department  to  the  qoestioa  of  the  rdaticHi 
of  the  pbyrical  universe  to  the  ultimate  ground  or  author  of 
thhigs.  This  inquiry  which  was  long  caileid  "  ratiottal  bosmo- 
logy,"  may  be  said  to  form  part  of  the  general  subject  of  mela* 
physics,  or  at  all  events  a  pendant  to  it.  By  the  graduid  siftmg 
out  of  the  special  sciences  phfloaophy  thus  came  to  embrace 
primarily  the  inquiries  grouped  as  "  metaphysics  "  tt  "  first 
philosophy."  These  would  embrace,  according  to  the  WoUBan 
scheme  long  current  in  fdiitasophical  textbooks,  ontology  proper, 
or  the  sdence  of  being  as  such,  with  its  three-btandi  sciences  of 
(rational)  psychology,  eosmotogy  and  (rational  or  natural) 
thcofogy,  dealing  with  the  three  chief  forms  of  beinir->the  soul, 
the  world  and  God.  Subsidiary  to  metaphysics,  as  tbp  central 
inquiry,  stand  the  sciences  of  logic  and  ethics,  to  wliich  may  be 
added  aesthetics,  constituting  three  nonnatliw  acicncea — 
sciences,  that  is,  which  do  not,  primarily,  describe  facts,  but 
rather  prescribe  ends  or  set  forth  Ideals.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  if  logic  deals  with  conceptions  wliich  may  be  considered 
constitutive  of  knowledge  as  such,  and  if  ethics  dMh  with  the 
harmonious  realization  of  human  life,  whldi  is  the  liighest 
known  form  of  existence,  both  sduices  must  have  a  great  deal 
of  weight  in  the  settling  of  the  general  question  of  metaphysics. 

In  sum,  then,  we  may  say  that  "  philosophy  "  has  come  to  be 
understood  at  least  in  modem  times  la  a  general  term  covering 
the  various  disaplines  juSt  enumerated.  It  htt  frequently 
tended,  however,  and  still  tends,  to  be  used  as  spedaHy  con- 
vertible with  the  narrower  tenh  *  metaphysics.^  This  is  not 
unnatural,  seeing  that  it  is  only  so  far  as  they  bear  on  the  one 
central  question  of  the  nature  of  existence  that  phSosephy 
spreads  its  mantle  over  psychology,  logic  or  ethics.  The 
particular  organic  conditions  of  perception  and  the  associative 
Uws  to  which  the  mind,  as  a  part  of  nature,  is  subjected,  are 
facts  in  themselves  indifferent  to  the  phflosopher;  and  therefore 
the  devdopment  of  psychology  into  an  independent  sdence, 
which  took  place  daring  the  latter  half  of  the  19th  century  and 
may  now  be  said  to  be  complete,  represents  an  entirdy  natnral 
evolution.  Similarly,  lof^c,  so  far  as  it  is  an  art  of  thought  or  a 
doctrine  of  fallacies,  and  ethics,  so  far  as  It  is  occupied  with  a 
natural  history  of  impulses  and  moral  sentiments,  do  ndtber  of 
them  belong,  except  by  courtesy,  to  the  phiios^fafc  province. 
But,  although  this  is  so,  it  is  perhaps  hanSy  desirable  to  deprive 
ourselves  of  the  use  of  two  terms  instead  of  one.  It  will  not  be 
easy  to  infuse  Into  so  abstract  and  bloodless  a  term  as  *'  ineta- 
phyrics  "  the  fuller  life  (and  espedaOy  the  indusion  of  etUcal 
considerations)  suggested  by  the  more  ooncrete  term  "philoso^y.'* 

We  shall  fint  of  all,  then,  attempt  to  differentiate  phifosophy 
from  the  spedsf  sdences,  and  afterwards  proceed  to  take  up  one 
by  one  what  have  been  cafled  the  pldlosophical  sdences,  with  tbe 
view  of  showing  bow  far  the  usual  subjed-matter  of  eadi  is 
reaOy  philosophical  in  its  bearing,  and  how  far  It  beloBgs  rather 
to  the  domain  of  "  sdence  "  strictly  so  called.  Tlie  order  in 
which,  for  deamess  of  exposition,  it  will  be  most  convenient  to 
consider  these  cfisdpKncs  will  be  psychology,  epistemology  or 
theory  of  knowledge,  and.  metaphysics,  then  logic,  aesthetics  and 
ethics.  Finally,  the  oonnexiofi  of  the  last-mentioned  with 
poh'tics  (or,  to  speak  more  modemly,  with  jurisprudence  and 
sodology),  with  the  philosophy  of  history  and  the  philosophy  of 
rdlgfon,  will  call  for  a  few  woids'on  the  tclatkni  of  th< 
to  general  phSosophy. 


THILOSQPHY 


44J 


Pha&s9pky  and  Natw^Scwice.'-ln  dutfingwiriimg  phaloaophr 
frMp  the  sciences,  it  may  not  be  anm.at  the  outset  to  guud 
agninst  the  poasibie  misundentandiag  that  phUosophy  is  con- 
ceraed  with  a  sub  jectF-matter  diffenmt  £eopt,  and  itx  some  obocuie 
way  tzaoscending,  the  subject-matter  of  the  sciences.  Now 
tbu  psychology^  or  the  observational  and  experiaM&tal  study 
«l  mind,  may  be  said  to  have  been  definitively  included  among 
the  positive  sciences,  there  is  not  even  the  apparent  ground 
which  once  existed  lor  such  ati  idea.  Philosopl^,  even  under 
its  most  disccedtted  name  of  metaphysics*  has  no  other  subject- 
matter  than  the  nature  of  the  real  world,  as  that  woild  lies 
around  us  in  everyday  life,  and  lies  open  to  observers  on  emery 
side.  But  if  this  is  so,  it  may  be  asked  what  function  can  xemoin 
lot  philoflophy  when  every  portion  of  the  field  is  almady  lotted 
out  and  endosed  by  specialists?  Philosophy  claims  to  be  the 
science  of  the  whole;  but»  if  we  get  the  knowledge  of  the  parts 
from  the  di£Ferent  sciences,  what  is  there  left  for  philosophy  to 
tell  us  ?  Tb  this  it  ia  suiBdc&t  to  skiswer  genendty  that  the 
tjmthcsis  of  the  ports  is  something  more  than  that  xfetaikd 
knowledge  of  the  potts  in  separation  which  is  gained  by  the  man 
of  science.  It  is  with  the  ultimate  synthesis  that  philosophy 
ooncems  itself;  it  has  to  show  that  the  subject»niatter  which  we 
are  all  dealing  with  in  detail  really  is  a  whole,  consisting  of 
articulated  members.  Evidently,  th«refore»  the  relation  existing 
between  philosophy  and  the  sciences  will  be^  to  some  extent^ 
one  of  rociproGal  influence.  The  sciences  may  be-aoid  to  furnish 
phikeophy  with  its.  matter,  but  philosophical  crit.inHm  reacts 
upon  the  matter  thus  f  umkbed,  and  transforms  it.  Such  trans- 
formation is  inevitable,  for  the  parts  only  exist  and  con  only  be 
fuUy,  «<e.  truly,  known  in  their  lelatioii  to  the  whole.  A  pure 
specialist,  if  such  a  being  were  possible,  would  be  merely  an 
instrument  whose  reaulta  luid  to  be  oo-ordinated  and  used  by 
others.  Now,  though  a  pure  specialist,  may  be  an  abstraction 
of  the  mind,  the  tendency  of  specialists  in  any^  depurtment 
naturally  is  to  lose  sight  of  the  whole  in  attention  to  the  particular 
categories  or  modes  of  nature's  working  winch  h^ipen  to  be 
exemplified,  and  fruitfully  applied,  in  their  own  sphere  <rf  investi- 
gation;  and  in  proportion  as  this  is  the  case  it  becomes  necessary 
for  their  theories  to  be  co-ordinated  with  the  tesults  of  other 
inquirers,  and  set,  as  it  were,  in  the  light  of  the  whole.  This  task 
of  co*ordinat{on,  in  the  broadest  sense,  is  undertaken  by  phik>* 
uapbj;  for  the  philosoi^er  is  essentially  what  Plato,  in  a  ha;qpiy 
moment,  styled  him,9iiMimio£e,theman  who  takes  a  "qFnoptic" 
or  com|)Khensive  view  of  the  universe  as  a  whole.  The  aim  of 
philoiophy  (whether  fulfy*  attainahle  or  not)  is  to  ekbibit  the 
univene  as  a  rational  system  in  the  harmony  of  ail  its  parts; 
and  ocoocdmgly  the  philoaopher  refuses  to  consider  the  parts 
out  of  their  relation  to  the  whole  whose  parts  they  are.  Philo- 
sophy corrects  in  this  way  the  abstractions  which  are  inevitably 
made  by  the  scientific  specialist,  and  may  claim,  therefore,  to  be 
the  only  "  concrete  "  science,  that  is  to  say,  the  only'  science 
which  takes  account  of  all  the  dements  in  the  problem,  and  the 
only  science  whose  results  can  claim  to  be  true  in  more  .than  a 
provinond  sense. 

For  it  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  the  way  in 
which  we  commonly  speak  of  "  facts  **  is  calculated  to-  convey 
a  false  impression.  The  world  is  not  a  coUection  of  Individual 
facts  existing  side  by  side  and  capable  of  being  knownseparately< 
A  fact  is  nothing  except  in  its  reUtions  to  other  facts;  and  as 
these  relations  are  multiplied  hi  the  progress  of  knowledge  the 
nature  of  the  so-called  fact  is  faidefinitely  modified.  Moreover, 
every  statement  of  fact  involves  certain  general  notions  and 
theories,  so  that  the  "  facts  "  of  the  separate  sciences  cannot  be 
stat^  except  in  terma  of  the  conceptions  or  hypotheses  which 
are.  assumed  by  the  particular  sdenoe.  ThuS  mathematics 
assumes  space  as  an  existent  infinite,  without  Investigating  in 
what  sense  the  existe»x  or  the  mfinity  of  this  Unding,  sa  Kant 
called  it,  can  be  asserted.  In  the  same  way,  physics  may  be 
said  to  assume  the  notion,  of  material  atoms  and  forces.  These 
and  similar  assumptions  are  ultimate  presuppositioas  or  working 
hypotheses  for  the  sciences  themselves.  But  it  is  the  office  of 
lihikMophy,  as  a  theory  of  knowledge,  to  submit  audi  conceptions 


to  a  critical  aifolysia,  with  a  view  todisoover  how  far  they  can 
be  tkmtgki  oaf,  or  how  far^  when  this  is  done,  they  tef ute  them- 
selves, and  caU  for  a  diiforent  form  of  statement,  if  they  are  to  he 
taken  as  a  statement  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  the  leal.^  The 
first  statement  may  frequently  turn  out  to  have  been  merely 
provisionally  or  relativolytrue;  it  is  then  superseded  by,  or 
rather  mcvitabiy  merges  itself  in,  a  less  abstract  account.  In 
this  the  same  "facts"  appear  differently,  because  no  longer 
scpamted  from  other  aspects  that  belong  to  the  full  reality  of 
the  known  worid.  There  is  no  such  thing,  we  have  said,  as  an 
individual  fact;  and  the  nature  of  any  fact  is  not  fully  known 
unless  we  know  it  in  all  ita  relations  to  the  system  of  the  universe, 
or,  in  Spinoea's  phrase,  m^  specie  atlemUatis,  '  In  strictness, 
there  is  but  oiic  res  comfieta  or  concrete  fact,  and  it  is  the  business 
of  philosophy,  as  science  of  the  whole,  to  esqMurtd  the  chief 
rdations  that  constitute  its  compkx  nature. 

The  lost  abatractkm  which  it  becomes  the  duty  of  phflosophy 
to  remove  is  the  abstraction  from  the  knowing  subject  which  is 
made  by  all  the  sdences,  induing,  as  we  shall  see,  the  science 
of  psychology.  The  sciences,  one  and  all,  deal  with  a  world  <rf 
objects,  but  the  ultimate  fact  as  we  kAow  it  is  the  existence  of 
an  object  for  a  subject.  Subject-object,  knowledge,  or,  more 
widdy,  sdf-consdousness  with  Its  implicates — ^this. unity  in 
duality  is  the  ultimate  aspect  which  reality  presents.  It  has 
generally  been  considered,  therefore,  as  constituting  in  a  special 
sense  the  problem  of  philosophy.  Philosophy  may  be  said  y>  be 
the  explication  of  what  is  involved  in  this  relation,  or,  in  Kantian 
phraseology,  a  theory  of  its  poadbflity.  Any  wouhl-be  theory 
of  the  universe  ithich  makes  its  central  fact  impossible  stands 
self-condemned.  On  the  other  hand,  a  sufficient  analysis  here 
may  be  expected  to  yvAd  us  a  statement  of  the  reality  of  things 
in  its  last  terms,  and  thus  to  shed  a  light  hnrkwaids  upon  the.  true 
nature  of  our  subordinate  conceptions. 

Psychology,  Epistemology  and  Mehpkysics.-^Thhi  leads  to  the 
consideration  of  the  main  divisions  of  philosophy— Psycrology 
(^.e.),  epistemology  (theory  of  knowledge,  ErkenMnisstheorie), 
and  metaphysics  (ontok)gy;  see  MzTAniYSic).  A  spedal  relation 
has  always  existed  between  psychology  and  systematic  philo^ 
Sophy,  but  the  doscness  of  the  connexion  has  bmi  characteristic 
of  modem  and  more  particularly  of  Engfidi  thought.  The 
connexion  is  not  difficult  to  exphfn,  seeing  that  in  psychc^ogy, 
or  the  science  of  mind,  we  study  the  fact  of  intdligence  (and 
moral  action),  and  have,  so  far,  in  our  hands  the  fact  tb  which 
all  other  facts  are  relative.  From  this  point  of  view  we  may 
even  sec  a  truth  in  Jacobi's  dicttim  as  quoted  by  Sir  W.  Hsmilton : 
"  Nature  conceals  God;  man  reveals  God."  Nature  by  itself, 
that  is  to  say,  is  msuffident.  The  ultimate  explanation  of  things 
cannot  be  given  by  any  theory  whidi  exdodes  from  its  survey 
the  intdligence  in  which  nature,  as  it  were,  gathers  hersdf  up. 
put  knowledge,  or  the  mind  as  knowing,  willing,  &c.,  may  be 
looked  at  in  two  different  ways.  It  may  be  regarded  simply  as  a 
fact;  in  which  case  the  evolutions  of  mmd  may  be  traced  and 
reduced  to  laws  in  the  same  way  as  the  phenomena  treated  by 
the  other  sdences.  This  study  gives  uS  the  science  of  empirical 
psychology,  or,  as  it  Is  now  termed,  psychology  sans  phrase.  In 
order  to  gjvt  an  adequate  account  of  its  subjed-matlcr,  psych- 
ology may  require  higher  or  more  complex  categories  than  are 
employed  in  the  other  sdences,  just  as  biology,  for  example, 
cannot  work  with  methanlcal  categories  alone,  but  introduces 
the  conception  of  dcvdopmcnt  or  growth.  But  the  affinities  of 
such  a  study  are  manifestly  with  the  sciences  as  such  rather  than 
with  phflosophy;  and  the  definitive  establishment  of  psychology 
as  an  independent  science  has  already  been  alluded  to.  Since 
it  has  been  taken  up  by  specialists,  psychology  is  bdng  estab- 
lished on  a  broader  basis  of  mduction,  and  with  the  advantage, 
in  some  departments,  of  the  employment  of  experimental 
methods  of  measurement.   But  it  is  not  of  mind  in  this  aspect 

>  The  revisional  ofikae  which  phikMOphy  here  assumes  constitutes 
her  the  critic  of  the  scieoces.  It  is  In  this  connexbo  that  the  raeaa- 
ing  of  ttw  definition  .of  f4iik»ophy  a«  "  the  tcienee.of  prindples  " 
can  best  be  seen.  This  is  perhayis  the  most  usual  defioitkm,  and. 
though  vague,  one  of  the  least  misleading. 


44-2 


PHILOSOPHY 


that  such  assertions  can  be  made  as  those  quoted  above.  Mind, 
as  studied  by  the  psychologist — ^mind  as  a  mere  fact  or  pheno- 
menon— grounds  no  inference  to  anything  beyond  itself.  The 
distinction  between  mind  viewed  as  a  succession  of  "states  of 
consciousness  "  and  the  further  aspect  of  mmd  which  phUosophy 
considers  was  very  dearly  put  by  Croom  Robertson,  who  also 
made  a  happy  suggestion  of  two  terms  to  designate  the  double 

point  of  view: 

"  We  may  view  knowlec^  as  mere  subjective  foocCion,  but  it 
has  its  full  meaning  only  as  it  is  taken  to  reprcaent  what  we  may 
call  objective  fact,  or  is  such  as  is  named  (in  duTerent  circumstances) 
real,  valid,  true.  As  mere  subjective  function,  which  it  b  to  the 
psychologist,  it  is  best  spoken  oi  by  an  unambiguous  name,  and  for 
this  there  seems^none  better  than  Intellection.  We  may  then  say 
that  psychology  is  occupied  with  the  natural  function  of  InUUection^ 
seeking  to  discover  its  laws  and  distinguishing  its  various  modes 
(perception,  representative  imagination,  conception,  &c.)  according 
to  the  various  circumstances  in  which  the  laws  are  found  at  work. 
Phibsophy ,  on  the  other  hand,  is  theory  of  KmawUdge  (as  that  which 
IS  known).  — "  Psychology  and  Philosophy/'  Mind  (1883).  pp.  15, 16. 

The  confusion  of  these  two  points  of  view  has  led,  and  still 
leads,  to  serious  philosophical  misconception.  It  is  hardly  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that,  in  the  English  school  since  Hume, 
psychology  superseded  properly  philosophical  inquiry.  And  we 
find  even  a  thinker  with  a  wider  horizon  like  Sir  W.  Hamilton 
encouraging  the  confusion  by  speaking  of "  psychology  or  meta- 
physics," ^  while  his  lectures  on  metaphysics  are  mainly  taken 
up  with  what  belongs  in  the  strictest  sense  to  psychology  proper, 
with  an  occasional  excursus  (as  in  the  theory  of  perception)  into 
epistemology.  The  distinction  between  psychology  and  theory 
of  knowledge  was  fint  clearly  made  by  Kant,  who  repeatedly 
insisted  that  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason  was  not  to  be  taken  as  a 
psychological  inquiry.  He  defined  his  problem  as  the  quid  juris 
or  the  question  of  the  validity  of  knowledge,  not  its  quidfacii  or 
the  Jaws  of  the  empirical  genesis  and  evolution  of  intellection  (to 
use  Croom  Robertson's  phraseology).  Since  Kaht  philosophy 
has  chiefly  taken  the  form  of  theory  of  knowledgeor  of  a  criticism 
of  experience.  Not,  indeed,  a  preliminary  criticism  of  our 
faculties  or  conceptions  such  as  Kant  himself  proposed  to 
institute,  in  order  to  determine  the  limits  of  their  application; 
such  a  criticism  ab  extra  of  the  nature  of  our  experience  is  essenti- 
ally a  thing  impossible.  The  only  criticism  which  can  be  applied 
in  such  a  case  is  the  immanent  criticism  which  the  conceptions 
or  categories  exercise  upon  one  another.  The  organized  criticism 
of  these  conceptions  is  really  nothing  more  than  the  full  expli- 
cation of  what  they  mean  and  of  what  experience  in  its  full 
nature  or  notion  is.  This  constitutes  the  theory  of  knowledge 
in  the  only  tenable  sense  of  the  term,  and  it  lays  down,  in  Kantian 
language,  the  (fonditions  of  the  possibility  of  experience.  These 
conditions  are  the  conditions  of  knowledge  as  such,  or,  as  it  may 
be  put,  of  objective  consciousness— of  a  self -consciousness  of 
a  world  of  objects  and  through  them  conscious  of  itself.  The 
inquiry  is,  therefore,  logical  or  transcendental  in  its  nature,  and 
docs  not  entangle  us  in  any  dedsion  as  to  the  conditions  of  the 
genesis  of  such  consciousness  in  the  individual.  When  we  inquire 
into  subjective  conditions  we  are  thinking  of  facts  causing  other 
facts.  But  the  logical  or  transcendental  conditions  are  not 
causes  or  even  factors  of  knowledge;  they  are  the  statement  of 
its  idea.  Hence  the  dispute  between  evolutionist  and  transcen- 
dentalist  rests,  in  general,  on  an  ignoralio  elenchi;  for  the  history 
of  the  genesis  of  an  idea  (the  historical  or  genetic  method)  does 
not  contain  an  answer  to — though  it  may  throw  b'ght  on— the 
philosophical  question  of  its  truth  or  validity.  Speaking  of  this 
transcendental  consdousness,  Kant  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  is 
not  of  the  slightest  consequence  "  whether  the  idea  of  it  be  clear 
or  obscure  (in  empirical  consdousness),  no,  not  even  whether 
it  really  exists  or  not.  But  the  possibility  of  the  logical  form  of 
all  knowledge  rests  on  its  relation  to  this  apperception  as  a  faculty 
or  potentiality  "  (WerkCf  ed.  Hartenstein,  iil.  578  note).    Or,  if 

^  '  It  is  true  that  he  afterwards  modifies  this  misleading  identifica- 
tion by  Introducing  the  distinction  between  empirical  psychology 
or  the  phenomenoloi^  of  mind  and  inferential  psychology  or  on* 
tolonr.  4j».  metai^ysics  proper.  Rut  he  Continues  to  use  the  terms 
**  philesopliy,"  *'  metaphysics,"  and  "  mental  scieooe  "  m  eynony* 


we  retnrn  to  tho  distinction  between  epistemology  and  pcfcliol> 
oSYt  by  way  of  iUnstrating  the  nature  of  the  former,  we  may 
tsike  the  following  summing  up  by  Professor  James  Waid  in  a 
valuable  article  on  '*  Psychological  Prindplcs  "  in  Mind  (April 
1883,  i>p.  x66, 167)  i  "  Comparing  psychology  and  cpiriteaioiogy, 
then,  we  may  say  that  the  former  is  essentially  genetic  in  itft 
method,  and  might,  if  we  had  the  power  to  revise  our  existing 
terminology,  be  called  biology;  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
essentially  devoid  of  everything  historical,  and  treats,  st$b  specie 
iteUrmitatiSf  as  Spinoza  might  have  said,  of  human  knowledge, 
conceived  as  the  possession  of  mind  In  gcneial." 

Kant's  problem  is  not,  in  its  wording,  very  different  from  that 
which  Locke  set  before  him  when  he  resolved  to  **  inquire  into 
the  original,  certainty  and  extent  of  human  knowledge  together 
with  the  grounds  and  degrees  of  belief,  opinion  and  assent." 
Locke's  Essay  is  undoubtedly,  in  its  intention,  a  contribotiofi 
to  the  theory  of  knowledge.  But,  because  time  had  not  yet 
made  the  matter  clear,  Locke  suffered  himsdf  to  digress  in  his 
second  book  into  the  psychological  question  of  the  origin  of  our 
ideas;  and  his  theory  of  knowledge  is  ruinKt  by  the  failure  to 
distinguish  between  the  epistemolog^cal  sense  of  "idea "as 
significant  content  and  the  psychologioal  sense  in  which  it  is 
applied  to  a  fact  or  proccsa  in  the  individual  mind.  The  same 
confusion  runs  through  Berkeley's  arguments  and  vitiates  his 
ccmdusions  as  wdl  as  those  of  Hume.  But  appearing  with  these 
thinkers  as  the  proUem  of  perception,  epistemology  widens  its 
scope  and  becomes,  in  Kant's  hands,  the  question  of  tlie  posst- 
bility  of  experience  in  general.  With  Hegd  it  passes  Into  a 
completely  articulated  "  logic,"  which  apparently  daims  to  be 
at  the  same  time  a  mctapfaysic,  or  an  ultimate  expresslan  of  the 
nature  of  the  real. 

This  introduces  ns  to  the  second  part  oi  the  question  we  are 
seeking  to  determine,  namely  the  lebtion  of  epistemology  to 
metaphysics.  It  is  evident  that  philosophy  as  theory  of  know- 
ledge must  have  for  its  complement  philosi^hy  as  metaphysics 
(ontology)  or  theory  ol  bdng.  The  question  of  the  truth  of  ovr 
knowledge,  and  the  question  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  what  we 
know,  are  in  reality  two  sides  of  the  same  inquiry;  and  therefore 
our  epntemologic^  results  have  to  be  oatologically  expressed. 
But  it  is  not  every  thinker  that  can  see  his  way  with  Hegd  to 
assert  in  set  terms  the  identity  of  thought  and  being.  Hence 
the  theoiy  of  knowicxige  beconwa  with  smne  a  theory  of  hnmaa 
ignoFUioe.  Thas  is  the  case  with  Herbert  Spencer's  doctrine 
of  the  Unknowable,  which  he  adiraneesas  the  result  of 
logical  consideratioitt  in  the  philosoiducal  prelegoineoa  to 
system.  Very  similar  positions  were  maintained  by  Kant  and 
Comtc;  and,  under  the  namcof  "  agnostidsm  "  (9.?.),  the  theoiy 
has  popularised  itsdf  in  the  outer  coorts  of  philosophy*  and  on 
the  shifting  borderland  of  philosophy  and  literature.  The  truth 
is  that  the  habit  of  thinking  cxduavdy  from  the  staadpoiat 
of  the  theory  ol  Icnowledge  tends  to  beget  an  undue  subjectivity 
of  temper.  And  the  fact  that  it  has  become  usual  for  men  to 
think  from  this  standpoint  is  very  plainly  seen  in  the  alaMwt 
universal  description  of  philosophy  as  an  analysis  ol  *'  cipcri> 
ence,"  instead  of  its  moreoId-lasfaioBed  deaignatjon  as  an  inqjiaiy 
into  "  the  nature  of  things."  As  it  is  matter  of  twiverBal  agiee- 
ment  that  the  problem  of  being  must  bfc  attached  indirectly 
through  the  problem  of  knowledge,  this  substitution  may  be 
regarded  as  an  advance,  more  especially  as  it  Implies  that  the 
fact  of  experience,  or  of  self •<onadous  existence,  is  the  chief  fact 
to  be  dealt  with.  But  if  so,  then  self^^onsdousncss  must  be 
treated  as  itsdf  real,  and  -as  organieally  related  to  the  rest  of 
existence.  U  telf-consdousness  be  treated  in  this  objective 
fashion,  then  we  pass  naturally  from  epistemology  to  Bieta4>hys>cs 
or  ontology*  (Foe,  although  the  teem  "ontology  "  has  been  as 
good  as  disused,  it  still  temams  true  that  the  aim  of  philosophy 
must  beto  furnish  us  with  an  ontology  ore  coherent  and  adequate 
theory  of  the  nature  of  reality.)  Bilt  if,  on  the  other  band, 
knowledge  and  reality  be  ab  tm'ltf  opposed  to  one  another— if 
consdousness  be  set  on  one  side  as  overagainst  reality,  and  nrrely 
hoMing  up  a  mirror  to  it— then  it  folbws  with  equal  natttnlness 
that  the  indy  real  aouast  be  something  which  lurks  unrevcalcd 


PHILOSOPHY 


443 


beUndtkesibleet'sKDnsetiUtioiiof  iL  HaioecoinetbedifiiBff- 
eot  varieties  of  a  so-<^ed  phenomenaUsm.  The  upholden  of 
«ach  a  iheoiy  'irould,  in  teneral,  deri<ie  the  term  *  ncUphytlca  " 
or  *'  ootology  ";  but  it  is  evident,  none  the  lt»,  that  their  portion 
itieU  inpUea  a  certain  theory  of  the  universe  and  of  our  own 
place  ia  it,  and  the  establishment  of  this  theory  constitutes  their 
metaphysics. 

Without  prejudice,  then,  fo  the  claim  of  Cfristemoiocy  to 
constitute  tlie  oentral  philosophic  discipline,  we  nuty  simply 
note  its  liability  to  be  pressed  too  far.  The  eatdusive  pre- 
«ecupation  of  men's  minds  with  the  question  of  knowledge 
during  the  neO'Kantian  revival  in  the  'wventics  of  the  last 
iientury  drew  from  Lotse  the  caustic  criticism  that  **  the  continual 
aharpening  of  the  knife  becomes  tiresome,  if  after  all,  we  have 
nothing  to  cut  with  it."  Stillingdcet's  complaint  against  Locke 
was  that  he  was  "  one  of  the  gentlemen  of  this  new  way  of 
feasoning  that  have  almost  discarded  substance  out  of  the  reason- 
able part  of  the  world."  The  same  may  be  said  with  greater 
truth  of  the  devotees  of  the  theory  of  knowledge;  they  seem  to 
^ve  no  need  of  so  oM-fashioned  t  commodity  as  reality*  Yet, 
after  all,  Fichte's  dictum  holds  good  that  knowledge  as  know- 
ledge— i.«.  so  long  as  it  is  looked  at  as  knowledge — is,  iptcfact^, 
not  reality.  The  result  of  the  foregoing,  however,  h  to  show  that, 
■a  soon  as  ^tstemology  draws  its  conclusion,  it  becomes  meta- 
physics; the  theory  of  knowledge  passes  into  a  theory  of  being. 
The  ontirfogical  conclusion,  moreover,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as 
something  added  by  an  external  process;  it  is  an  immediate 
implication.  The  mctaphysic  is  the  epistemology  from  another 
point  ol  view — regar<fed  as  completing  itself,  and  explaining 
in  the  course  of  its  exposition  that  relative  or  practical  separation 
of  the  individual  knowcr  from  the  knowable  world,  which  it  is  a 
sheer  assumption  to  take  as  absolute.  This,  not  the  so-called 
assumption  of  the  implicit  unity  of  being  and  thought,  is  the 
really  unwarrantable  postulate;  for  it  is  an  assumption  which 
we  are  obliged  to  retract  bit  by  bit,  while  the  otJier  offers  Uic 
whole  doctrine  of  knowledge  as  its  voucher. 
.  togUt  Aesthetics  end  £tkict,^-U  the  theory  of  knowledge 
thus  passes  insensibly  into  metaphysics  it  becomes  somewhat 
difficiUt  to  assign  a  distinct  sphere  to  logic  (9.V.).  Ueberweg's 
defmitfoB  of  it  as  "  the  science  of  the  regulative  laws  of  thought " 
(or  "  the  normative  sdenoe  of  thought ")  comes  near  enough 
to  the  traditional  sense  to  enable  us  to  compare  profitably  the 
usual  subject-matter  of  the  science  with  the  definition  and  end  td 
pihilosophy.  The  introductioa  of  the  term  "regulative"  or 
*'  dorroative "  is  intended  to  differentiate  the  science  from 
psychology  as  the  science  of  mental  processes  or  events.  In  this 
reference  logic  does  not  teU  us  bow  our  intellections  connect 
themselves  as  mental  phenomena,  but  how  we  ought  to  connect 
our  thoughts  if  they  are  to  realise  truth  (either  as  consistency 
with  what  we  thought  before  or  as  a^ceement  with  <rf)served 
facts).  Logic,  therefore,  agrees  with  epistemology  (and  differs 
firom  psychology)  in  treating  thought  not  as  mental  fact  but  as 
knowledge,  as  idea,  as  having  meaning  ia  relation  to  an  objective 
World.  To  this  extent  it  must  inevitably  form  a  part  of  the  theory 
of  knowledge;  Bui,  if  we  desire  to  keep  by  older  landmarks  and 
maintain  a  distinction  between  the  two  disciplines,  a  ground  for 
doing  so  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  all  the  main  definitions 
of  logic  point  to  the  investigation  of  the  laws  of  thought  in  a 
subjective  reference — with  a  view,  that  is,  by  an  analysis  of  the 
operation,  to  ensure  its  more  correct  performance*  According 
to  the  old  phrase,  logic  a  the  art  of  correct  thinking.  Moreover 
we  commonly  find  the  logidan  assuming  that  the  process  of 
thought  has  advanced  a  certain  length  before  his  examination 
o(  it  bccpos;  he  takes  his  noateriol  full-farmed  from  perception, 
without,  as  a  rule,  inquiring  into  the  nature  of  the  conceptions 
which  are  involved  in  our  perceptive  experience.  Occupying 
k  position,  therefore,  within  the  wider  sphere  of  the  general 
theory  of  knowledge,  ordinary  logic  consbta  in  an  analyus  of  the 
■ature  of  general  statement,  and  of  the  conditions  under  which 
we  pass  voKdly  from  one  general  statement  to  another.  But 
the  logic  of  the  schools  is  eked  out  by  contributions  from  a  variety 
of  sources  («.£.  from  grammar  on  one  side  and  from  psychology 


on  anoUw),  and  eanaot  cblm  the  ttiity  of  an  independent 
science. 

Aesthetics  (f.f.)  may  be  treated  as  a  department  of  psychology 
or  physiolngy,  and  in  England  this  is  the  mode  of  treatment  that 
has  been  most  general.  To  what  peculiar  excitation  of  our 
bodily  or  mental  organism,  it  is  asked,  are  the  emotions  due 
which  make  us  declare  an  object  beautiful  or  sublime?  And, 
the  question  being  put  in  this  form,  the  attempt  has  been  made 
in  some  cases  to  explain  away  any  peculiarity  in  the  emotiotis 
by  analysing  them  into  simpler  elements,  such  as  primitive 
organic  pkasuies  and  prolonged  asaodatinns  of  usefulness  or 
fitness.  But,  just  as  psychology  in  general  cannot  do  duty  for  a 
theory  of  knowkdgei  so  it  holds  true  of  tins  particular  application 
of  psychology  that  a  mere  reference  of  these  emotions  to  the 
snecimnism  and  interactive  play  of  our  faculties  cannot  be  re- 
garded  as  an  account  of  the  nature  of  the  beautiful.  Perhaps  by 
talking  of  "  emotions  "  we  tend  to  give  an  unduly  aubjcctive 
colour  to  the  investigation;  it  would  be  better  to  apeak  of  the 
ptrctpium  of  the  b^tifuL  Pleasure  in  itself  is  unqualified, 
and  affords  no  differentia.  In  the  case  of  a  beautiful  object  the 
resultant  pleasure  borrows  its  specific  quality  from  the  prraenoe 
of  determinationa  essentially  objective  in  their  ruituie,  though 
not  reducible  to  the  categories  of  scieitce.  Unless,  indeed,  we 
conceive  onr  faculties  to  be  constructed  on  some  arbitrary  plan 
which  puts  them  out  of  relation  to  the  facts  with  which  they  havte 
Ud  deal,  we  have  a  prinm  facie  right  to  treat  beauty  as  an  objective 
detecminatioo  of  things*  •  The  question  of  aesthetics  would  then 
bq  formulated— What  is  it  in  things  that  makes  them  beautiful, 
and  what  is  the  relation  of  this  aspect  of  the  universe  to  its 
ultimate  nature,  as  that  is  expounded  in  metaphysics?  The 
answer  constitutes  the  substance  of  aesthetics,  considered  as  a 
l»anch  of  philosophy.  But  it  is  not  given  simply  in  abstract 
terms;  the  philosophical  treatment  of  aesthetics  indudn  abo 
an  exposition  of  the  concrete  phases  of  art,  as  these  have  appeared 
in  the  history  of  the.world,  jrelating  themselvea  to  different  pbuises 
of  human  cdture. 

Of  ethics  (ji.9.)  it  may  also  be  said  that  many  of  the  topica 
commonly  embraced  under  that  Utle  are  not  strictly  philosophical 
in  tbdr  nature.  They  are  subjects  for  a  adentific  psychology 
employing  the  historical  method  with  the  conceptions  of  heredity 
and  devdopment,  and  calling  to  Its  aid,  as  such  a  psychology 
will  do,  the  investigations  of  all  the  soddogical  sciences.  To 
such  a  psychology  must  he  rdegated  all  questions  as  to  the 
cffigin  and  development  of  moral  ideas.  Similarly,  the  question 
debated  at  such  length  by  English  moralists  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  moral  faculty  (moral  sense,  consdence,  &c.)  and  the  contro- 
versy concerning  the  freedom  of  the  wUl  belong  entirely  to 
psydidogy.  If  we  exdiMle  such  questions  in  the  interest  of 
systematic  correctness,  and  seek  to  determine  for  ethics  a  definite 
subject-matter,  the  science  may  be  said  to  fall  into  two  departr 
menta.  The  first  c^  these  de(Us  with  the  notion  of  duty,  and 
endeavours  to  define  the  good  or  the  ultimate  end  of  action;  the 
second  Uys  out  the  scheme  of  concrete  duties  which  are  deducible 
from,  or  which,  at  least,  are  covered  by,  this  abstractly  stated 
principle.  The  second  of  these  departments  is  really  the  proper 
subject-matter  of  ethics  considered  as  a  separate  sdence;  but  it 
is  often  conspicuous  by  its  absence  from  ethical  treatises.  How- 
ever moralists  may  differ  on  first  principles,  there  seems  to  be 
remarkably  little  practical  divergence  when  they  come  to  lay 
down  the  particular  laws  of  morality.  It  may  be  added  that, 
where  a  systematic  account  of  duties  is  actually  given,  the 
connexion  of  the  particular  duties  with  the  universal  formula 
is  in  general  more  formal  than  reak  It  u  only  under  the  head  of 
casuistry  (y.v.)  that  ethics  has  been  much  cultivated  as  a  separate 
sdence.  The  fixst  department  of  ethics,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
the  branch  of  the  subject  in  virtue  of  which  ethics  forms  part  of 
philosophy.  As  described  above,  it  ought  rather  to  be  called,  in 
Kant's  phrase,  the  mctaphysic  of  ethics.  A  theory  of  obligation 
is  ultimatdy  found  to  be  inseparable  from  a  mctaphysic  of 
personality.  The  connexion  of  ethics  with  metaphysics  will  be 
patent  as  a  matter  of  fact,  if  it  be  remembered  how  Flato'b 
philosophy  is  summed  up  in  the  idea  of  the  good,  and  how 


I    I  '  I 


THILOSOPHY 


Aristotle  afao  employs  tke  eMcntiatty  ethical  notion  of  end  as  the 
ultimate  category  by  which  the  universe  may  be  explained  or 
reduced  to  unity.  But  the  necessity  of  the  oornexion  is  also 
apparent,  onleit  we  are  to  suppose  that,  as  regards  the  course  of 
universal  nature^  man  is  altogether  an  mperium  in  imptriot  or 
rather  (to  adopt  the  fordUe  phrase  of  Marcus  Aurelius)  an 
abscess  or  excrescence  on  the-  nature  of  things.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  we  must  hold  that  man  is  essentially  related  to  what 
the  same  writer  calls  "  a  common  nature,"  then  it  is  a  legitimate 
corollary  that  in  man  as  inteltfgaice  we  ought  to  find  the  key  of 
the  whole  fabric  At  ali  events,  this  method  of  approach  must 
be  truer  than  any  which,  by  restricting  itself  to  the  external 
aspect  of  phenomena  as  presented  in  space,  leaves  no  scope  for 
inwardness  and  life  ami  all  that,  in  Lotse's  language,  g^ves 
"  value  "  to  the  worid.  The  argument  ex  andogia  kominis 
has  often  been  carried  too  far,  but  if  a  "  diief  end  of  man  "  be 
diKoverable — ^Mpdnnvey  d7a06i',  as  Aristotle  wisely  insisted  that 
the  ethical  end  must  be  determined — then  it  may  be  assumed 
that  this  end  cannot  be  irrelevant  to  that  ultimate  "  meaning  " 
of  the  universe  which,  according  to  Lotze,  is  the  quest  of  philo- 
sophy. If  "  the  idea  of  humanity,"  as  Kant  called  it,  has  ethical 
perfection  at  its  core,  then  a  universe  which  is  really  an  organic 
whole  must  be  ultimately  re^resentable  as  a  moral  otder  or  a 
spiritual  kingdom  such  as  Leibnitz  named,  in  words  borrowed 
from  St  Augustine,  a  city  of  God. 

Philosophy  of  the  SUiSo  (PdUical  PMhiophy),-  PhUosopky  of 
History^  Philosophy  of  Religion, — ^In  Plato  and  Aristotle  ethics 
and  politics  are  indissoIuUy  connected.  In  other  words,  seeing 
that  the  highest  human  good  is  realizable  only  in  a  community, 
the  theory  of  the  state  as  the  organ  of  morality,  and  itself  in  its 
structure  and  institutions  the  expnission  of  ethical  ideas  or 
qualities,  becomes  an  integral  part  of  philosophy.  The  difTicutty 
already  hinted  at,  which  indi^dualistic  systems  of  ethics  experi- 
ence in  connecting  particular  duties  with  the  abstract  principle 
of  doty  is  a  proof  of  the  failure  of  their  method.  For  the  content 
of  morality  we  are  necessarily  referred,  in  great  part,  to  the 
experience  crystaUized  In  laws  and  institutions  and  to  the  un- 
written law  of  custom,  honour  and  good  breeding,  which  has 
become  organic  in  the  society  of  which  we  are  members.'  Plato's 
Republic  and  Hegel's  Philosophie  Set  Rechts  are  the  most  typical 
examines  of  a  f  uUy  developed  philosophy  of  the  state,  but  in  the 
earlier  modem  period  the  prolonged  discussion  of  natural  rights 
ahd  the  social  contract  must  be  regarded  as  a  contribution  to 
such  a  theory.  Moreover,  if  philosophy  is  to  complete  its 
constructive  work,  it  must  bring  the  course  of  human  history 
within  its  survey,  and  exhibit  the  sequence  of  events  as  an  evolu- 
tion in  which  the  purposive  action  of  reason  Js  traceaMe.  This 
is  the  task  of  the  philosophy  of  history,  a  peculiariy  modem 
'study,  due  to  the  growth  of  a  humanistic  and  historical  point 
of  view.  Lessing's  conception  of  history  as  an  *'  education  of 
the  human  race  "  is  a  typical  example  of  this  interpretaf Ion  of 
the  facts,  and  was  indeed  the  precursor  which  stimulated  many 
more  elaborate  German  theories.  The  philoso^y  of  history 
differs,  it  will  be  observed,  from  the  purely  scientific  or  descriptive 
studies  covered  by  the  general  title  of  sociology.  Socidogy 
conceives  Itself  as  a  natural  science  elucidating  a  factual  sequence. 
The  philosophy  of  history  is  essentially  teleological;  that  is  to 
say,  it  seeks  to  interpret  the  process  as  the  realization  of  an 
immanent  end.  It  may  be  said,  therefore,  to  involve  a  complete 
metaphysical  theory.  Social  institutions  and  customs  and  the 
different  forms  of  state-organization  are  judged  according  to  the 
degree  in  which  they  promote  the  realization  of  the  human 
Ideal.  History  is  thus  represented  by  Hegel,  for  example,  as  the 
realization  of  the  idea  of  freedom,  or  rather  as  the  reconciliation 
of  individual  freedom  and  the  f^lay  of  cultured  interests  with 
the  stable  objectivity  of  law  and  an  abiding  tonsdousness 
of  the  greater  whole  in  which  we  move.  So  far  as  the  course 
of  universal  history  can  be  truly  represented  as  an  approxf- 
matioo  to  this  reconciliation  by  a  widening  and  deepening 
of  both  the  elements,  we  may  claim  to  possess  a  philosophy  ef 
history.  But  although  the  possibility  .of  such  a  philosophy 
•eems  Implied  in  the  postulated  natiooality  of  the  universe, 


many  would  hold  that  it  temaiiis  as  yet  aa  miaeUeved 
ideal. 

There  only  remains  to  be  briefly  notked  the  relation  of  philo- 
sophy to  theology  and  the  nature  of  what  is  called  Pbllosopby 
of  Religion.  By  theology  is  commonly  understood  the  syste- 
matic presentation  of  the  teaching  of  seme  positive  or  hbtorical 
religion  as  to  the  existence  and  attributes  of  a  Suprane  Bcmg. 
including  his  relation  to  the  wolid  and  especially  to  tntA.  But 
these  topics  havcaho  been  treated  by  phUosophers  and  religious 
thinkers,  without  depeadenoe  on  any  historical  data  or  spectal 
divine  revelation,  under  the  title  of  Natural  Theology.  Natural 
Theology  b  specially  associated  with  the  Stoic  theories  of  provi- 
dence in  andent  tkMs  and  with  elaborations  of  the  srgumoit 
from  design  in  the  x8th  century.  But  there  is  no  warrant  for 
restricting  the  term  to  any  spedal  mode  of  approaching  the 
problems  indicated;  and  as  these  form  the  central  subject  of 
metaphysical  inquiry,  no  valid  distinction  can  be  diawn  betwcea 
natural  theology  and  general  metaphysics.  The  philosophy  o( 
religion,  on  the  other  hand,  invest^tea  the  nature  of  the 
religious  consdousness  and  the  vahie  of  its  pronounceBsents  om 
human  life  and  man's  relation  to  the  ground  of  things.  Umty, 
recondliatfon,  peace^  joy,  "the  victory  that  overcometh  the 
worid  "-—such,  in  slightly  varying  phrases,  Is  the  content  of 
religious  faith.  Does  tUs  consdousness  represent  an 
insight  into  ultimate  fact,  (v  is  it  a  pitiful  illusion  of  the 
bora  of  man's  hopes  and  fearsand  of  his  fundamental  ignocanoe? 
The  philosophy  of  religion  assumes  the  first  alternative.  The 
function  of  philosophy  in  general  is  the  reflective  anatyas  of 
experience,  and  the  religious  experience  of  mankind  is  priiaa  fade 
entitled  to  the  same  consideracionas  aayother  fcnrmof  oooscioQS 
activity.  The  certainties  of  religious  faith  are  matter  of  feeling 
or  immediate  assurance,  and  are  expressed  in  the  pictorid 
language  of  imagination.  It  becomes  the  function  of  phfloaopby. 
deeding  with  these  utterances,  to  relate  them  to  the  results  ef 
other  spheres  of  experience,  and  to  determine  their  real  mraning 
in  the  more  exact  terms  of  thought.  The  philosophy  of  reiigioii 
also  traces  in  the  different  historical  forms  of  rsHgioua  belief  and 
practice  the  gra<lual  evolution  of  what  It  takes  to  be  the  troth  of 
the  nutter.  Such  an  account  may  be  distinguished  ftoss  what 
is  usually  called  the  sdenoe  of  reHgioo  by  the  teleological  or 
metaph^cal  presuppositions  it  involves.  The  science  of  religion 
gives  a  purely  historical  and  compsrative  account  of  the  vnrioos 
manifestations  of  the  religious  instinct  without  pronouncing  en 
thdrrektive  tmth  or  value  and  without,  therefore,  ptofeasiag 
TO  apply  the  idea  of  evolution  in  the  philosophical  sense.  That 
idea  is  f  uixUmentd  in  the  philosophy  of  religion,  which  thetefete 
can  be  written  only  from  the  standpoint  of  a  constmctive  aacta- 
phyiical  theory. 

It  is,  indeed,  only  from  the  standpoint  of  such  a  theoiy  that 
the  definitions  and  divisions  of  the  dillterent  phlksephical 
disdplines  adopted  in  this  article  can  be  said  to  hold  good.  But 
those  whov  like  the  positivlsts,  agnostica  and  sceptics,  deny  the 
possibility  of  Metaphysics  as  a  theory  of  the  ultimate  nature  of 
things,  are  still  obliged  to  retain  philosophy  as  a  theory  of 
knowledge,  in  order  to  justify  -the.  asserted  Jimiution  or  impo- 
tence of  human  reason.- 


view.  Ed.  Zeiler's  History  of  Greth  PhOosoph^  still  holds  th«' field 
afi  the  best  oontiauous  expoaition  of  che  autqect.  but  SBOie  leocnt 
work  in  the  early  period  is  represented  by  H.  Dids-and  J.  Bumct, 
while  Zdlcr's  view  of  Plato  may  be  said  to  have  been  supcrscdod  by 
the  later  researches  of  Lewis  CampbclK  H.  Jackson  and  others. 
T.  Gomperz's  Greek  Thinkers  is  an  able,  if  somewhat  diffuse,  survey 
of  the  philosophical  devdopmont  in  coonczaoa  with  the  genefal 
movement  of  Creek  life  and  culture.  It  doc*  not  go  bcyoacT Flato^ 
B.  Haur6iu,  A.  StSckl  and  Karl  Werner  givQ  theiullcst  and  mt^st 
trustworthy  histories  of  the  medieval  period,  but  the  subject  is 
very  carefully  treated  fay  Erdmann  and  Ucbcrweg.  and  a  mefiil 
compendium,  written  from  a  Roman  Catkoik  standpoint,  is  De 
Wulf's  UisUiry  o/  Mediew^  Philosophy  (loop;  Eag.  trans.,  1907}. 
For  modern  times,  in  addition  to  the  general  histories  already  named, 
the  works  of  Kuno  Fischer,  R.  Falclcenberif  and  H.  Hflffding.  and 
it.  Adamaon'e  Lectwts  on  tko  Development  .of  Modem  PhUosophyt 


PHILOSTRATUS--.PHILOXENUS 


amy  be  ^MckUly  nMMioMd.  Writer*  on  the  history  of  pkikMOphy 
gcneFal])^  prefix  to  their  work  a  diacus&ion  of  the  scope  of  phikMopby, 
Its  divisions  and  its  relations  to  other  departments  of  Icnowlodge, 
'  and  the  account  Kjyen  by  Windelband  ana  Ucbcnveg  will  be  found 
MMciaily  good.  The  Intreductions  to  Philosophy  pablished  by  F. 
Paulsen,  O.  KOlpc.  W.  Wundt  and  G.  T.  Ladd,  deal  lamly  with 
this  subject,  which  is  alio  tnHltcd  by  Henry  Sidgnnck  in  bis  PkUo- 
iopkyt  itf  Sco^  and  BHaiiom  (1902),  oy  Ernest  NaviMe,  La  Definition 
de  la  pkihsc^kis  (1894)  and  by  wundt  in  the  introduction  to  his 
System  der  Fkihiapkie  (1889).  A  useful  work  of  general  reference 
is  J.  M.  BaMwin's  Dictimary  0/  FkUotapky  Mrf  PsyckotopJA  vols. , 
I90»-I90S).  (A.  5.  K-P.) 

PH1L0STRATU8»  the  name  of  8«veral,  O^iree  (or  four),  Greek 
sophists  of  ihe  Roman  imperial  period~-(i)  Philostratus  "  the 
Atheniao "  {c  x 70-245),  (a)  h»  oepbew  (?)  Philostratus  "  of 
Lemnot "  (bora  €.  190);  (3)  a  graadson  (?)  of  (2).  01  these  the 
most  famous  is  Philostmtus  "  the  Athenian,"  author  of  the  I^fe 
fff  ApoUonius  Tyemit  which  he  dedicated  to  JiiUa  Domna,  wife  of 
Alexander  Several  and  mother  of  Caracalla  (see  Apoixoffzus 
or  Tyana).^  He  wrote  also  Bioi  ^o<^urnM>  {Liaes  0/  the  S^pkisis), 
Gymnasiicus  and  Epistdac  (mainly  of  an  erotic  character).  Very 
little  is  known  of  hjs  career.  Even  his  name  is  doubtfuL  The 
Lio€S  9J  Uu  Sophists^wet  the  praenomen  Flaviui,  which,  however, 
is  found  elsewhere  only  in  Tzetzes.  Eunapius  and  Synesius 
call  him  a  Lemnian;  Photius  a  Tyrian;  his  letten  refer  to  him 
as  an  Athenian.  It  is  probable  that  be  was  bom  in  I^emnos, 
studied  and  taught  at  Athens,  and  then  settled  in  Kome  (where 
he  would  natunJly  be  called  athemensis)  ad  a  member  of  the 
learned  circle  with  which  Julia  Domna  surrounded  beiaelL  He 
was  bom  probably  in  179,  and  is  said  by  Sukias  to  have  been 
living  in  the  reign  of  Philip  (244-849).  The  fact  that  the  author 
of  Apolhnius  is  also  the  author  of  the  Litts  0/  tht  Sopkisls  is 
confirmed  by  internal  evidence.  The  latter  is  dedicated  to  a 
consul  Antonius  Gordianus,  perbajw  one  of  the  two  (Sordians 
who  were -killed  in  238.  The  work  is  divided  into  two  parta:  the 
first  dealing  with  the  ancient  Sophists,  #.|.  Goigias,  the  second 
with  the  later  school,  «.g.  Hexodes  Mticus. 

The  Lives  arc  not  in  tCe  true  sense  bioj^raphical,  but  rather  pictur> 
<*5quc  impressions  of  leading  representatives  of  an  attitude  of  mind 
full  of  curiosity,  alert  and  versatile,  but  lacking  scientific  method, 
prefecring  the  ettenial  caeelleaoe  of  style  aad  manner  to  the  solid 
achievements  of  serious  writtns.  The  philosopher,  as  he  my^ 
invest  igates  truth ;  the  sophist  eiabelUshes  it.  and  takes  it  for  granted. 
The  Cyrttndstlcus  contains  interesting  matter  concerning  the  Olympic 
games  and  athletic  contests  generally.  The  Letters  breathe  the  spirit 
of  the  New  Comedy  and  the  Alexandrine  poets:  pbrtbna  of  Letter  33 
arealnfKMt  literally  translated  in  Ben  Jonaon's  Seng  to  Ctlia,  "  Drink 
to  me  only  with  thine  eyes."  The  'npttudt,  lonutdy  attributed  to 
PhilostratUB  the  Athenian,  is  probably  the  work  of  roilostratus  the 
Lenuiian.  It  is  a  oopular  disquisition  on  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan 
War  in  the  form  oi  a  cooveraation  between  a  Thracian  vlne-dresaer 
on  the  shore  of  the  Hellespont  and  a  Phoenician  mettbant  who 
derives  his  knowledge  from  the  hero  Protestlaus,  PaJaroodes  is 
exalted  at  the  expense  of  Odysseus,  and  Homer's  unfairness  to  him 
is  attacked.  -  It  has  been  suggested  that  Philostratus  is  here  de- 
■cribinB  a  series  of  heroic  paintings  in  the  paboe  of  Julia  Domna. 
His  other  work  is  the  E1c6ns  (/maginsr),  ostensibly  a  description 
of  64  pictures  in  a  Neapolitan  gallery.  Coethc,  VVdckcr,  Bninn, 
E.  Bcrtraftd  and  Hclbfg,  among  others,  have  held  that  the  descrip- 
tions are  of  actually  earning  works  of  art,  while  Heyne  and  Friedcr- 
icha  deny  this,  in  any  case  they  are  iateresdng  as' lowing  the  way 
in  whfch  anckint  artists  treated  mythologlasrand  other  subjects, 
And  arc  written  with  artistic  knowljcdsc  and  in  attractive  language. 
This  work  ts  imitated  by  the  third  Philostcatus  (or  by  some  later 
sophist)  of  whose  descriptions  of  pictures  17  remain. 

There  is  great  difficulty,  doe  to  a  confused  sUtement  of  SoBlas, 
in  disentangling  the  works  and  even  the  peraonalitics  of  these 
Philostrad.  RcTcrence  is  there  made  to  Philostratus  as  the  son  of 
Vcrus,  a  rhetorician  in  Nero's  time,  who  wrote  tragedies,  comedies 
and  treatises.  SuTdas  )1ius  apncajs  to  give  to  Philostratus  the 
Athenian  a  life  of  200  ycarsl  wc  must  be  content  to  assume  two 
Lcnmian  Pbilostmti,  both  aopburts,  living  in  Rome.  See  further  a  full 
discussion  by  KJkfQoschcr,  in  PuitelaiusXi907),  suppL  Xm  pp^A^g-S^h 

Of  works  Dcaring  the  name  Philostratus  there  is  a  collected  edition 
by  C.  F.  KayscT  (Zurich,  1844:  Leipzig,  1870*1871),  sind  another  by 
Wcstermann  (Paris,  1849),  with  l.atin  trandation;  these  supersede 
thoee  by  F.  Morel  (Paris,  1608)  and  OkrariuS  (Lctpsia^  1709).  There 
Q^c  s<^>arate  editbns  of  the  Eikones  by  Schcnfcl  and  Keisch  (Leipzig, 
looi);  of  the  Cymnasticus  by  Mynas  (1858),  who  disoovcrca  the 
MS.,  Datiemberg  (Paris,  1858),  Volckmar  (Aurich,  1862),  and 
espcoaily  Julius  Jflthwer  (1909),  with  Jntrod.,  comments  and  Ger. 

<  As  T^mnos  w^s  an  Athenian  island,  any  Lemnian  oould  be 
calted  an  Athenian^ 


4+5 

tr^nsk;  of  75  enistles  by  Boissonade  (Paris,  184^).  The  Lifg  of 
ii^l/ontiu,  was  first  published  bv  Aldus  (1502):  a  French  translatran 
by  Bfaise  de  Vigenerc  appeared  in  1^96;  an  English  translation  of 
the  first  two  books  was  published  m  London  (1680)  by  Charles 
BkMint.  with  some  notes  by  Lord  Herbert  of  Cheriiury  (prohibited 
in  England  in  1693,  it  was  reprinted  on  the  Continent) ;  a  full  tniuria- 
tion  appeared  in  1903.  Critical  works  on  the  Eikones  are  numerous : 
K.  Fncderichs,  DteFhUostratischen  Bilder  (1860);  Cktethc,  "  PhUo- 
strats  Gemalde  '*  in  Complete  Works  (ed.  Stuttgart,  1879):  Brunn. 
Die  PkUoslrotisehen  BUder  (i860):  A.  Bougot,  l/ne  Coitrio  antique 
(1681);  E.  Bcrtrsnd.  Un  Oitiqno  d^art  dans  tantiquHe:  PkdostroU 
et  son  ieole  (1882);  Bergk,  "  Die  PhUostrate  "  in  FjSnf  Abbandlungen 
tur  Ceschichle  der  t^ieckischen  Phihsophie  u»d  Astronomie  (1883); 
Sdimid,  AtHcismus  iv.  7,  on  the  attribution  of  the  works. 

FHILOZBHUS,  of  Cythera  (433-380  B.C.),  Greek  dithytambic 

poet.    On  the  conquest  of  the  i^and  by  the  Athenians  he  was 

taken  as  a  prisoner  of  war  to  Athens,  where  he  came  Into  the 

possession  of  the  dithyrambic  poet  Melanippides,  who  educated 

him  and  set  him  free.    Philozcnus  afterwards  resided  in  Sidly, 

at  the  court  of  Dionyshis,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  whose  bad  verses 

he  declined  to  i»aise,  and  was  in  consequence  sent  to  work  in  the 

quarries.    After  lea^ng  Sidly  he  travelled  in  Greece,  Italy  and 

A^a,  redting  his  poems,  and  died  at  Ephesos.  According  to 

Suldas,  Philoxenus  composed  twcnty-foor  dithyrambs  and  a 

lyric  poem  on  the  genealogy  of  the  Aeaddae.  In  his  hands  the 

dithyramb  seems  to  have  been  a  sort  of  comic  opera,  and  the 

music,  composed  by  himself,  of  a  debased  character.     His 

masterpiece  was  the  Cyclops^  a  pastoral  burlesque  on  the  love 

of  the  Cydopa  for  the  fair  Gaktca,  written  to  avenge  himself 

upon  Dionysius,  who  was  wholly  or  partially  blind  of  one  eye. 

It  was  parodied  by  Aristophanes  in  the  Ptutus  (290).    Another 

wock  of  Philoxenus  (sometimes  attributed  to  Philoxenus  of 

Leucas,  a  notorious  parasite  and  button)  is  the  ActiTMr  (Dinner), 

of   which  consideraUe  fragments   have  been  preserved   hy 

Athenaeus;:  This  Is  an  elaborate  bill  of  fare  in  verse,  probably 

intended  as  a  satire  on  the  luxury  of  the  Sicilian  court.    The 

great  popularity  of  Philoxenus  is  attested  by  a  complimentary 

resolution  passed  by  the  Athenian  senate  in  393.    The  comic 

poet  Antiphancs  spoke  of  him  as  a  god  among  men;  Alexander 

the  Great  had  his  poems  sent  to  him  in  Asia;  the  Alexandrian 

grammarians  received  him  into  the  canon;  and  down  to  the  time 

of  Polybius  his  works  were  regularly  learned  and  annually  acted 

by  the  Arcadian  youth. 

Fragments,  with  life,  by  G..  Bippart  (1843);  T.  Befgfc,  Poetae 
lyrki  graecL 

PHILOXENUS  (Syriac,  Aks£nfiyl),  of  Mabb6g,  one  of  the 
best  of  Syriac  prose  writers,  and  a  vehement  champion  of  Mono- 
physite  doctrine  in  the  end  of  the  5th  and  beginning  of  the  6th 
centuries.  He  was  bom,  probably  in  the  third  quarter  of  the 
Stb  century,  at  Tahal,  a  ullage  in  the  district  of  Beth  Garmai 
east  of  the  Tigris.  He  was  thus  by  birth  a  subject  of  Persia,  but 
all  his  active  Gfe  of  which  we  have  any  record  was  passed  in  the 
territory  of  the  Greek  Empire.  The  statements  that  he  had  been 
a  slave  and  was  never  baptized  appear  to  be  malicious  inventions 
of  his  theological  opponents.  He  was  educated  at  Edcssa, 
perhaps  in  the  famous  "  school  of  the  Pctaians,"  which  was  after- 
wards (in  489)  cxpdled  from  Edessa*  on  account  of  its  connexion 
with  the  Nestorian  heresy.  The  years  which  followed  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  (451)  were  a  stormy  period  in  the  Syrian  Church. 
Philoxenus  soon  attracted  notice  by  his  strenuous  advocacy  of 
Monophysite  doctrine,  and  on  the  expulsion  of  Calandio  (the 
orthodox  patriarch  of  Antioch)  in  485  was  ordained  biahop  of 
Mabb5g*  by  his  Monophysite- successor  Peter  the  Fuller  (Bar- 
hcbracus,  Ckron.  cccl.  L  183).  It  was  probably  during  the  earlier 
years  of  his  episcopate  that  Philoxenus  composed  his  thirteen 
homilies  on  the  Christian  life.  Later  he  devoted  himseU  to  the 
revision  of  the  Syriac  version  of  the  Bible,  and  with  the  help  of 
his  chorepiscopus  Polycarp  produced  in  508  tbe  so-called  Philo- 
xcnian  version,  which  was  in  some  sense  the  received  Bible  of  the 
Monophysitcs  during  the  6th  century.  Meantime  he  conilnned 
his  ecclesiastical  activity,  workihg  as  a  tatter  opponent  of 

*  Acrording  to  Barhcbiacua  {Chron.  eed.  iL  55)  through  the  efforts 
of  Philoxenus  himself. 

*  Hierapolis'of  the  Greeks,  Manbii  of  the  Arabs,  a  few  miles  wept 
of  the  Euphrates  about  btitude  36i^ 


44.6 


PHILTRE— PHLEBITIS 


Fbvbn  n.,  who  hid  icr:cpled  tbs  decica  oi  the  CoaacD  of 
Chslcedon  and  wMpiiriarchoI  Anliochfrom498  tosii.  Th. 
Monopby&ita  had  Iht  sympathy  of  the  emperor  Anastasiiu 
ILod  vcre  finally  succoslul  Ed  0U3I  Log  FlavLin  ia  ^E]  ud  replndn} 
him  by  Eheif  paitlaaa  Scverui.  Of  FhiloxcDiu's  part  in  thi 
ilruggle  vc  possess  not  loo  (rusEwoTthy  accounts  by  bo^liU 
wrItMS,  such  OS  Theophanes  i.nd  Theodonu  LecLoi.  We  luion 
thatin4(iBhe  was  slaying  at  Edcssi';  in  oi  about  J07,  iccordlng 
to  Thcophanei,  he  wassummoDcd  by  the  empeiuc  to  ConttanlJ- 
nople;  and  he  Gcmlly  presided  at  a  flypod  at  Sidon  nhich  waathe 
means  ol  procuring  the  replacement  of  Flavian  by  Sevetui.  Eul 
the  Iriumph  »a$  shotl-Uved.  Justin  I.,  vbo  luccetded  Acatia- 
tiuj  in  jiS,  was  le»  favourable  10  the  party  of  Sevenis  and 
'■  iqihey  were  boih  sentcnccil  to  banishment. 
to  Philippopolis  in  Thiace,  and  afterwards  to 
"  ideathbyfoulpliyinsi]. 
s  a  controvenZafist,  Pliii- 
eboUr.  u'  ekcant  writer, 
'.  Of  the  cUd  BKOument 
OB  of  the  Bible— only  the 


1  in  Syria, 


Fhiloxcc 


pcactical  rclrgioui  ccal ' 


There  are  aT«  enant  pottioni  of  commentHrie*  on  th 
1  hii  pen.    Of  the  RceHeoee  of  hie  nyle  and  ol  hi 

1 '-'-tojudie  from  the  Ihineeahomiliii 

:ier  which  have  I  '■     ' 


X  been  edited  and 


Philoi. 


it  lelien 


ampJieiry,  the  lear  e(  God. 


edited.'    Several  _ 

ElUo^  <N.  M.) 

PHIITRB  (tit.  ^jWRhibi,  from  Gr,  ^rpot,  ^Ua,  to  love), 
■  (bug  or  olber  medicinal  diink  >uppo«cd  10  have  the  magica] 
property  of  eiching  love. 

PHtHBOS,  in  Creek  legend,  »n  of  Agenor,  the  bb'nd  hing  of 
Solmydeuus  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  lie  was  skilled  in  the  art 
ol  navigation,  and  ApoUo  had  bestowed  upon  him  the  gift  of 

Emphcty.  Ilij  blindness  was  a  punishment  from  the  gods  for 
It  having  revealed  the  counsels  of  Zeus  10  monab,  or  for  hii 
irtjitmcnt  of  hli  sons  by  his  first  wife  Cleopatra.  His  second 
wife  having  accused  her  slepsoni  of  dishonourable  pioposals, 
Fhineus  put  out  their  cyea,  or  ciposed  them  to  the  wild  beasts, 
or  buried  them  In  the  ground  up  to  thdr  waliLi  and  ordered 
them  10  be  Hvutged,  Zeus  oOered  him  the  choice  nf  death  or 
bUndnea.  Phlneui  chose  the  latter,  whereupon  Helios  (the 
nn-gpd),  offended  al  the  illgbl  thus  put  upon  him,  sent  the 
Hirpies  to  torment  him.  In  aoother  story,  ihc  Argooauts. 
(amongst  whom  were  CabS  and  Zelcs,  the  brothers  of  Oeo.  ■ 
patra),  on  their  arrival  in  Thrace  found  lh(  sons  of  Phineus 
half-buried  in  the  earth  and  demanded  their  liberation.  Phineus 
refused,  and  a  fighi  look  place  in  which  he  was  sbln  by  Heracles, 
who  freed  Oeopatra  {who  had  been  thrown  into  prison) 
and  her  sons,  and  reinstated  them  as  rulers  of  the  kingdom. 
Tragedies  on  the  subject  of  Phineus  were  wrilicn  by  Aeschylus 
and  Sophocles.  These  would  directly  appeal  to  an  Athenian 
tudieiKc,  Phinnis's  first  wife  having  been  the  daughter  of 
Orilhyia  (daughter  of  Erechlhcus,  king  of  Athens),  who  had 
been  carried  off  by  Boreas  to  his  home  in  Thrace.  The  punish- 
ment oi  Pbineui  vould  naturally  be  re^udcd  as  a  jusi  tetribu- 

<  CkrmicU  of  Joshua  Styliles.  eh.  30. 

■  On  these  aod  other  pointi  He  Budn't  {ntmdoctlon  10  his  second 
voluaib  which  ceiHaiM  aba  ■  lin  o(  the  other  worin  oC  Phitoxenus 
and  a  number  of  Dluslradve  catract*- 

•OiK  by  MaRln  (h  Cnmma 


maiia  dmleiurhia  tt  Aaariiim 
Cuidi  Ua  Laun  H  FOMint  ai 


tlon  Ibr  the  la 


It  put  tipon  > 


B  ol  the  nyal  hnae  ti 


ApoUodonu  L  9.  11,  Oi.  ij.  y,  Sophodee,  AhUmi,  066.  with 
Jefab'i  luiei:  Diod.  Sie.  iv.  u,  44;  Servhu  on  AmnI  ill  aoa; 

ScIidL  on  ApoUoniui  lUiodiui  il:!?!: 

PHIPS  (or  PmFFs),  SIR  WIUIAM  (i6si-i6gs},  colonial 
governor  of  Missachusetti,  was  bora  on  the  ind  of  Fcbruiy 
1&51,  at  Woolwich,  Maine,  nest  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec 
river.  Ha  was  1  shepherd  ucti!  be  wo*  eighteen,  and  (hen  k 
ship  carpenter's  apprentice  for  four  yean;  worked  ■(  hii  Irade 
in  Boston  lor  a  year,  at  this  time  learning  la  read  and  wriiei 
and  with  his  wife's  property  establiihed  a  ship-yard  on  the 
Sheepscot  river  in  Maine,  but  soon  abandoned  Ic  because  of 
Indian  disorden.  In  t684~i6Si,  with  a  commnsion  from  the 
British  Crown,  ho  searehed  vainly  for  a  wrecked  Spoiush 
ireuure  ship  1^  which  he  had  heard  while  on  a  voyage  to  the 
Bahimas;  hg  found  tbia  vescel  In  16II7,  and  from  it  recoveml 
£300,000.  01  Ibis  amount  much  went  to  the  duke  of  Albe- 
marle, who  had  fitted  out  the  second  expedition.  Phipi  re- 
ceived £16,000  as  his  share,  was  knighted  by  James  II.,  and  was 
appointed  sheriff  of  New  England  under  Sir  Edmund  Andros. 
Pooriy  educated  and  Ignorant  of  law,  Phipl  could  acCDmrlisli 


little, . 


:o  Englan. 


tti,  found  a  revoluli 


at  In  control,  and  at 
He  Joined  tbe  NotJi 
ras  soon  appointed  by 


entered  into  the  life  of  thi 
Church  (Cotton  Malher-i)  at  Bo 

the  General  Court  commander  ,  ,  .   . 

French  in  Canada,  which  tailed  In  April  iSgo  and  easily  captnied 
Pott  Royal.  A  much  larger  eipedilion  led  by  Phipt  in  July 
against  Quebec  and  Montreal  ended  disastrously.  Phip« 
generously  bought  at  their  par  value,  m  order  to  give  tbOD 
credit  in  the  colony,  many  of  the  tolmiy's  bills  Issoed  to  pay 
for  the  otpcdition.  In  the  winter  of  1690  be  tAumed  to  Eng- 
land, vahily  sought  aid  for  another  expedilion  against  Canada, 
and  urged,  with  Increase  Mather,  the  colonial  agent,  a  restora- 
tion of  the  colony's  charter,  annulled  during  the  r^gn  of 
Chules  n.  The  Crown,  U  the  suggestion  of  Uaihci.  sppMnted 
him  the  first  royal  governor  under  the  new  chatlei.  Oa  teachiaf 
Botlon  in  May  1691,  Phips  found  (he  colony  !a  a  very  dis- 
ordered condition,  and  though  honest,  perseverfog  and  ioifis- 
posed  (0  ejialt  his  prerogadve  at  the  eq^ense  of  the  people,  be 
WIS  unfitted  for  (he  difficult  position.  He  appiuoted  >  specU 
commlsiinn  to  try  the  witcbcnJt  cases,  but  did  nothing  (0 
stop  the  wlichcnft  minis,  and  suspended  the  sittings  of  tbe 
court  only  after  great  atrocities  had  been  cnmmitied.  In 
defending  (he  (lonticr  he  displayed  great  energy,  but  Ui 
policy  of  building  forts  was  eipenslve  and  therefore  un; 
Having  the  manners  of  a  ijlh-cenlury  sea  captain,  he 
involved  In  many  quartcls,  and  engaged  in  a  bitter 
with  Governor  Benjamin  Fletcher  ol  New  York, 
cotnphiints  to  the  home  government  retailed  in  his  bong 
summoned  to  England  (0  answer  charges.  White  in  Umdon 
awaiting  (rial,  he  died  on  (be  iS(h  of  February  ifigj. 

See  CoHon  Mather'.  Lifi  sf  Hii  Ea^kiuy  Sir  WiBitm  nfla 
n.andoH,  i«97;  lepubliihcd  hi  his  ifen^u  in  inu);  Fiaau 
Bowen'a  -'Life  at  &r  William  Phlph"  In  lared  Sparti'i  Amtncaa 
Bwmf/n.  iR  iKH.  vol.  vU,  (New  York,  1956);  •■""  —  -  -■■■ 

setts 


in  Phip.,"  i 


acrfes  I  vol,  it.  (Portland,  1M7II  EfthW  Myrand's  Sir  WUham 
PlHfMiaiil  QmAie  ((Juebec,  l«9j);  Tbom..  ftotchinion't  Hliun 
efUaaackwtaii  (j  vols.,  BoMoo;  jrd  ed.,  I7^j)r  nrd  J.  G,  Palfrey^ 
ifuMry  o/ff<w  &.(fc»J  (3  voto.,  £to.Ion,  Ig5«-l900). 


&>(fc»d  {3  voto.,  £to.ion,  ig5«-i9so). 
PBLBBinS  (from  Gr,  ^Xtf,  a  vein),  inflammation  of  a  nia. 
When  a  nn  Is  inflamed  the  blood  in  It  Is  apt  (o  form  a  dot, 
or  (hiombus,  which,  if  loosened  and  displaced  from  lit  original 
position,  nay  be  cartied  as  an  embolus  toirards  the  beut  and 
(here  be  aircated;  or  it  may  pass  through  (b«  cavities  of  the 
heart  into  the  longs,  (here  to  lodge  and  10  ^ve  tise  (0  alarming 
symptoms.  If  the  thrombus  la  foimed  In  (he  Inflamed  vein 
ol  a  pile  It  may  pass  as  an  embolus  (see  Uaeuoulhouk)  into 
(be  liver.  U  an  embolus  is  carried  Ihrongh  the  left  side  of  the 
hean  it  may  eater  the  large  vessels  u.  the  loot  of  the  neck  and 
teach  the  brain,  giving  rise  to  serious  uiebt>l  (UiIuiWki  h 


PHLEGON— PHOCAEA 


447 


to  a  fatal  panlysh.    The  thrombu  may  be  fonncd  in  gout 
and  rheumatism,  or  in  consequence  oi  stagnation  of  the  blood- 
current  due  to  slowing  of  the  circuiation  in  various  wasting 
diseases.    When  a  thrombus  forms,  absolute  rest  in  the  re* 
cumbent  posture  is  to  be  strictly  enjoined;  the  great  danger 
is  the  displacement  of  the  clot.  An  inflamed  and  clotted  vein, 
if  near  the  surface,  causes  an  elongated,  dusky  elevation  beneath 
the  skin,  where  the  vein  may  be  felt  as  a  hard  cord,  the  size, 
perhaps,  of  a  cedar  pencil,  or  a  pen-holder.   Its  course  is  marked 
by  great  tenderness,  and  the  tissue  which  was  drained  by  the 
branches  of  that  vein  are  livid  from  congestion,  and  perhaps 
boggy  and  pitting  with  oedema.    If,  as  often  ha|^ns,  the 
inflamed  vein  is  one  of  those  running  conspicuously  upwards 
from  the  foot — a  saphenous  vein  (<ra0<^;  distinct) — the  patient 
should  be  placed  in  bed  with  the  limb  secured  on  a  spJint  in 
order  to  protect  it  from  any  rough  movement.    Should  the  clot 
become  detached,  it  might  give  rise  to  sudden  and  alarming 
faintness  possibly  even  to  a  fatal  syncope.    Thus,  there  is 
always  grave  risk  with  an  infbmed  and  clotted  vdn,  and  modem 
surgery  shows  that  the  safest  course  is,  when  practicable,  to 
place  a  ligature  on  the  vein  upon  the  beart^de  of  the  clotted 
piece  and  to  remove  the  latter  by  dissection.    When,  as  some- 
times happens,  the  dot  is  ihvaded  by  septic  organisms  it  is 
particularly  liable  to  become  disintegrated,  and  if  parts  of  it 
are  carried  to  various  regions  of  the  body  tJiey  may  there  ^ve 
rise  to  the  formation  of  secondary  abscesses.    In  the  ordinary 
treatment  of  phlebitis,  in  addition  to  the  insistence  on  perfect 
rest  and  quiet,  fomentations  may  be  applied  locally,  the  limb 
being  kept  raised.    Massage  must  not  be  employed  so  long  as 
there  is  any  risk  of  a  clot  being  detached.  (E.  O.*) 

PHLEOON.  of  TraUcs  in  Asia  Minor,  Greek  writer  and  faced- 
noon  of  the  emperor  Hadrian,  flourished  in  the  and  century  a.d. 
Hia  chief  work  was  the  Olympiadst  an  historical  compendium 
in  sixteen  books,  from  the  ist  down  to  the  aagth  (^ympiad 
(776  B.C.  to  A.D.  X37),  of  which  several  chapters  are  preserved 
in  Pbotius  and  Synceilus.  Two  small  works  by  him  are  extant: 
On  Mands,  containing  some  ridiculous  stories  about  ghosts, 
prophecies  and  monstrous  births,  but  instructive  as  regards 
ancient  superstitions;  On  Long4ived  Pirsons,  a  list  of  Italians 
who  had  passed  the  age  of  100,  taken  from  the  Roman  censuses. 
Other  works  ascribed  to  Phlegon  by  Suldas  are  a  description  <d 
Sicily,  a  work  ob  the  Roman  festivals  in  three  bpoks,  and  a 
topography  of  Rome. 

tragmenta  in  C  MQIIcr,  Frag.  hisl.  graec.  iiL;  of  the  Mands  and 
Long-lived  in  O.  Keller,  Rerum  naturalium  seriHores,  L  O877); 
t¥cc  also  H  Oids,  "  Phlcgons  Androgyncnorakd  in  Stbyuintscne 
Bidtter  (1890). 

PHLOGOPITB,    a    mineral    belonging    to    the    group    of 
micas  (^.v).    It  is  a  magnesium  mica,  differing  from  Uotite 
in    containing  only  a  little  iron;   the  chemical  formula  is 
(H,K,(MgF)]tMgtAl(SiO«)s.    It  crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic  sys- 
tem, but  the  crystals  are  roughly  developed.   There  is  a  perfect 
cleavage  parallel  to  the  basal  plane;  the  cleavage  flakes  are  not 
quite  fio  clastic  as  those  of  muscovite.    Sometimes  it  is  quite 
colourless  and  transparent,  but  usually  of  a  characteristic  yellow- 
ish-brown colour,  and  often  with  a  silvery  lustre  on  the  cleavage 
surfaces,  hence  the  trade  name  "  silver  amber  mica  **  for  some 
varieties.    The  name  phlog(H>ite  is  from  Gr.  ^kBr/<airbt  (fiery- 
looking),  the  mineral  being  somethnes  brownish-red  and  coppery 
in  appearance.    The  hardness  is  sJ-Ji  a*^^  ^be  specific  gravity 
3< 79-3*85.    Hie  optic  axial  plane  is  parallel  to  the  plane  of 
symmetry  and  the  axial  angle  o^'^xo^     Phlogopite  occurs 
chiefly  as  scales  and  plates  embedded  in  oystalline  limestones 
of  the  Arcbean  formation.    The  mica  mined  in  Canada  and 
Ceylon  is  mainly  phlogopite,  and  is  largely  used  as  an  insulator 
for  electrical  purposes.    In  Canada  it  occoxs  with  apatite  in 
pyroxene  rocks  which  are  intrauve  in  Laurcntian  gneisses  and 
crystalline  limestones,  the  principal  mining  district  being  in 
Ottawa  county  in  Quebec  and  near  Burgess  in  Lanark  county, 
Ontario.       In    Ceylon,    the    mineral   forms   irregular  veins, 
rarely  exceeding  one  or  two  feet  in  width,  tiavcning  granu* 
Bte,  especially  near  the  .contact  of  this  reck  with  crystalline 
Hmcstoae.      *  (U  J.  &) 


PHLOX  (Nat.  Ord.  Polemoniaceae),  a  genus  of  about  30 
species,  mostly  perennial  hardy  plants  of  great  beauty,  natives 
of  North  America  (one  occurs  in  Siberia),  with  entire,  usM^ly 
opposite,  leaves  and  showy  flowers  generally  in  termina  dusters. 
Bach  flower  has  a  tubular  calyx  with  five  lobes,  and  a  salver 
shaped  corolla  with  a  long  slender  tube  and  a  flat  limb.  The 
five  stamens  are  given  off  from  the  tube'  of  the  corolla  at  diflerent 
heights  and  do  not  protrude  beyond  iL  The  ovary  is  three- 
celled  with  one  to  two  ovules  in  each  cell;  it  ripens  into  a  three- 
valved  capsule.  Many  of  the  species  and  varieties  are  tall 
heibs  yielding  a  wealth  of  bloom  throughout  the  summer  and 
eariy  autumn.  These  require  a  deep,  rich,  and  rather  heavy 
loam,  and  a  cool,  moist  position  to  flourish. 

The  dwarf  perennial  species  and  varieties,  the  "  moss  pinks  " 
of  gardens,  are  charming  plants  for  the  rockery  and  as  edging 
to  beds  and  borders.  They  are  trailing  and  tufted  in  habit« 
the  branches  rooting  at  the  nodes.  They  succeed  in  poorer 
soil,  and  drier  situations  than  the  tall  kinds.  Seed  is  seldom 
produced.  Propagation  is  effected  by  cuttings  in  July  and 
eady  August,  placed  in  a  cold  frame,  and  by  division  of  the 
plants,  which  should  be  lifted  carcfuUy,  and  cut  into  tooted 
portions  as  required.  The  tufted  kin<b  decay  in  patches  in 
irinter  if  the  situation  is  moist  and  the  weather  mild  and  wet. 

PUox  Dntntmondii  and  its  numerous  varieties  are  half-hardy 
annuals  in  Britain.  It  is  a  small-growing  hairy  plant,  flowering 
profusely  during  the  summer  months^  For  early  flowering 
it  should  be  sown  in  heat  in  March  and  April  and  trapsferred 
out  of  doors  in  June.  It  succeeds  if  sown  out  of  doors  in  April^ 
but  the  flowering  season  is  later  and  shorter. 

The  tall-growing  border  phloxes  are  divided  into  eady  and 
late  flowering  kinds  respectively,  the  former  derived,  mainly 
from  P.  Uberrima  and  P.  suJriUiccsa,  and  the  latter  from 
P.  maadata  and  P.  pamculata.  The  salvcr-shaped  flowers 
with  cylindrical  tubes  range  from  pure  white  to  almost  bri^t 
scarlet  in  odour,  passing  through  shades  oi  pirtk,  purple,  magenta 
lilac,  mauve  and  salmon.  New  varieties  are  obtained  by  the 
selection  of  seedlings.  Owing  to  the  frequent  introducUoa 
of  new  kinds,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  current  lists  published, 
by  groweis  and  nurserymen.  The  "  moss  pi&ks,"  P.  subulata 
and  its  varieties,  are  all  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  alpine  garden. 

The  varieties  are  relatively  few.  The  following  Kst  includes 
aoariy  all  the  best  kinds: — 

P.  sUbulata,  pink  with  dark  centre ;  Aldborouthensis^  rose ;  annuhta, 
bluish  white,  nnged  with  purple;  atrdiUuina,  deep  V^^catropurpurta 
purple-roK  and  crimson;  Brightness,  brieht  rose  with  scarict  eye; 
eampatia^  dear  rote;  Faixy,  lilac;  G.  F.  Wilson,  mauve;  c^sarf^^lara* 
pink,  crimson  blotch;  Little  Dot,  white,  blue  centre;  Netsmh  i>ure 
white;  Vivui,  rose,  carmine  centre;  all  these  are  about  4  in.  nigh. 
P.  dtvarkaUit  lavender,  height  I  ft.;  P.  ocata,  rose,  I  ft.;  P.  reptans, 
rose,  6  in.;  and  P.  amoena,  rose,  9  in.,  are  also  charming  alpines. 

P.  DrummMdii  varieties  cone  true  from  seed,  but  are  nsoally 
sown  in  mixturet 

PHOCAEA  (mod.  F^kta  or  Pokka)  an  ancient  city  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  famous  as  the  mother  dty  of 
Marsdlles.  It  was  the  most  northern  of  the  Ionian  cities,  and 
was  situated  on  the  coast  of  the  peninsula  which  separates  the 
gulf  of  Cyme,  occupied  by  Aeolian  settlers,  from  the  Hcrmaean 
Gulf,  on  which  stood  Smyrna  and  Clasomenae.*  Its  posititm 
between  two  good  harbours,  Naustathmus  snd  Lampter  (Livy 
xxxviL  31),  led  the  inhabitants  to  devote  themselves  to 
maritime  pursuits.  According  to  Herodotus  the  Phbcaeans 
were  the  first  of  all  the  Greeks  to  undertake  distant  voyages, 
and  made  known  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  T^nrhenia  and  Spain. 
Arganthonius,  king  of  Tartessus  in  Spain,  invited  them  to 
emigrate  in  a  body  to  his  dominions,  and,  on  their  declining, 
presented  them  with  a  large  sum  of  money.  This  they  employed 
in  constructing  a  strong  wall  around  their  dty,  a  defence  wUch 
stood  them  in  good  stead  when  loi^a  was  attacked  by  Cynu 
in  546.  Eventually  they  determined  to  seek  a  new  home  in 
the  west,  where  they  already  had  flourishing  colonies,  e.g, 

*  It  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a  band  of  enugraats  from 
Phocis,  under  the  guidance  of  two  Athenian  leaders,  named  Pbik>* 
genes  and  Damon,  bnt  it  joined  the  Ionian  confederacy  by  accepting 
the  government  of  Athcnun  rulers  of  the  house  01.  Codrua. 


*+8 


RIOCAS— PHOCIS 


AUUa  in  Cbnicft  and  Mustlia  (mod.  ManeOks).  A  krge  part 
of  the  emigrants  proceeded  only  as  f ar  aa  Chios,  letumed  to 
Phocaca,  and  submitted  to  the  Persian  yoke. 

Phocaea  continued  to  exist  under  the  Persian  government, 
but  greatly  reduced  in  popolatioa  and  commerce.  Though  it 
joined  in  the  Ionian  revolt  against  Persia  in  500  it  was  able  to 
send  only  three  ships  to  the  combined  fleet  which  fought  at 
Lade.  But  a  Phocaean  took  the  supreme  command.  It  never 
again  played  a  prominent  part  in  Ionian  history,  and  is  rarely 
mentioned.  In  the  time  of  Timur  Fujah  was  a  fortress  of 
Sarukhan,  but  had  been  previously  in  Genoese  hands.  The 
ruins  still  visible  on  the  site  bear  the  name  of  Palaea  Fokia,  but 
they  are  of  little  interest.  The  modem  town  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  still  known  as  Fokia,  was  founded  by  the  Genoese 
in  143 1  on  account  of  the  ridi  alum  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 
It  has  a  fair  natural  harbour,  which  is  the  nearest  outlet  of  the 
rich,  district  of  Menemen.  About  t88o,  while  the  Gediz  Chai 
was  throwing  its  silt  unchecked  into  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna  and 
gradually  filling  the  navigable  channel,  there  was  talk  of  reviving 
Fokia  as  a  new  port  for  Smyrna,  and  connecting  it  with  the 
Cassaba  railway.  But,  in  deference  to  Smymiote  protests,  a  new 
estuary  was  cut  for  the  Gediz.  Fokia  has  acquired  local  impor- 
tance however  as  a  port  of  call  for  coasting  steamers,  and  it  is 

used  to  some  degree  as  a  summer  restdence  by  Smymiotes. 

(aG.  H.) 

PHOCAS,  East  Roman  emperor  (603-6x0),  was  a  Cappadodan 
of  humble  origin.  He  was  still  but  a  centurion  when  chosen  by 
the  army  oi  the  Danube  to  lead  it  against  Constantinople.  A 
revolt  within  the  city  soon  afterwards  resulted  in  the  abdication 
of  the  reigning  emperor  Maurice,  and  in  the  elevatbn  of  Phocas 
to  the  throne,  which  seems  to  have  been  accomi^ished  by  one 
of  the  drcus  factions  against  the  wish  of  the  troops.  Phocas 
proved  entirely  incapable  of  governing  the  empire.  He  con- 
sented to  pay  an  increased  tribute  to  the  Avars  and  allowed  the 
Persians,  who  had  declared  war  in  604  under  Choaroes  II.,  to 
overrun  the  Asiatic  provinces  and  to  penetrate  to  the  Bosporus. 
When  the  African  governor  Heradius  dedared  against  him, 
Phocas  was  deserted  by  the  starving  p<^ulace  of  Constantinople, 
and  deposed  with  scaicdy  a  stnig^^e  (610).  He  died  in  the 
same  year  on  the  scafiokL 

See  J»  B.  Bury,  The  Later  Rfiman  Empire  (London,  1889).  iL  l97'-ao6. 

PHOCIOH,  Athenian  statesman  and  general,  was  bom  about 
402  B.C.,*  the  son  oT  a  small  manufacturer.  He  became  a  pupil 
of  Plato  and  in  later  life  was  a  dose  friend  of  Xenocrates.  This 
academic  training  left  its  mark  upon  him,  but  it  was  as  a  soldier 
rather  than  as  a  philosc^her  that  he  first  came  into  notice. 
Under  Chabrias  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  great  sea-fight 
of  Naxos  (376),  and  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  loyally 
sit|HX>rted  his  chief.  He  won  the  confidence  of  the  allies  by 
his  justice  and  integrity.  In  351-349'  he  entered  the  Persian 
service  and  helped  to  subdue  a  rebdlaon  in  Cyprus.  Hence- 
forward he  always  held  a  prominent  position  in  Athens,  and 
although  he  never  canvassed  be  was  eleaed  general  forty-five 
times  in  aU.  In  politics  he  is  known  chiefly  as  the  consistent 
oppcment  of  the  anti'Macedonian  firebrands,  headed  by  Demos- 
thenes, Lycurgus  and  Hypcrddcs,  whose  fervent  eloquence  he 
endeavoured  to  damp  by  recounting  the  plain  facts  <rf  Athens's 
military  and  financial  weakness  acMi  her  need  of  peace,  even 
when  the  arms  of  Athens  seenaed  to  prosper  most.  But  although 
he  won  the  respect  of  his  audience,  his  advice  was  frequently 
discarded.  Yet  his  influence  was  felt  at  the  trial  of  Aeschines 
in  343(  whom  he  hdped  to  defend,  and  after  the  disaster  <rf 
Chaerooda  (338),  when  he  secured  very  lenient  terms  from 
Philip.  He  also  rendered  good  service  in  the  field:  in  348  he 
saved  the  force  operating  against  the  philo-Macedonian  tyrants 
io.Euboea  by  the  brilliant  victory  of  Tamynae.  Under  the 
Macedonian  predominance  his  reputation  steadily  increased. 

'  Diodonts'  sUtement  that  Phocion  was  75  at  his  death  {U.  that 
be  became  general  at  30  and  was  elected  45  years  in  succession) 
wonki  give  394''393  av  the  date  of  birth;  but  he  must  have  been 
quite  25  as  second-tixomnuuid  at  Naxos  (376). 

'  The  chronokigy  b  uncertain ;  the  dates  given  for  this  petfed  are 
Bdoch's((MtdU«<*«Gs«9UdhlciL). 


Though  by  no  means  indimtd  to  tnickle.to  th«  Macedoniana, 
as  is  shown  by  his  protection  of  the  refugee  Harpalus  and  his 
spirited  campaign  in  defence  of  Attica  in  323,  he  won  the  confi- 
dence of  the  conquerors,  and  in  the  restricted  democracy  which 
Antipatcr  enforced  he  became  the  virtual  ruler  of  Athens.  Old 
age,  however,  was  telling  on  him;  «4ien  Polyperchon  by  his 
proclamation  of  "  freedom  "  raised  a  new  crisis  in  318,  Phocion 's 
dilatoriness  was  interpreted  as  aaive  treason  on  Cassaoder's 
behalf,  and  the  people,  indted  by  the  restored  demociats» 
deposed  him  from  oflke.  Phodon  fled  to  Polyperchoo,  but 
was  sent  back  by  the  latter  to  be  tried  at  Athens.  The  assembly, 
containing  numerous  slaves  and  all  the  city  naob,  shouted 
Phodon  down  and  condenmed  him  to  death  unheard.  Not 
long  after,  the  Athenians  decreed  a  public  burial  and  «  statue 
in  his  honour. 

Phodon's  character  and  policy  were  throughout  inspired  by 
his  philosophic  training,  which  best  eqslains  his  remaikable 
purity  of  character  and  his  prudent  coundls.  To  the  same 
influence  we  may  ascribe  his  reserve  and  his  reluctance  to 
co-operate  heartily  dther  with  the  people  or  with  the  Macedonian 
conquerors  who  put  thdr  trust  in  him:  a  greater  spirit  of  energy 
and  enterprise  might  )uve  made  him  the  saviour  of  his  oouatry. 
Phodon  remained  famous  in  antiquity  for  the  pithy  Rayiogs 
with  which  he  used  to  parry  the  eloquence  of  his  opponents. 
Demosthenes  called  him  "  the  chopper  of  ny  periods." 

Plutarch  {Life  of  Phocion)  draws  much  ^ood  inforaiatioa  fraoi 
Philochonis  and  Uuris  («rho  reproduces  Hieronyrous  of  ^Cardia^; 
hb  numerous  anecdotes  arc  icpcated  in  other  works  of  his  and  ta 
Aelian  iyor.  hist.).  Diodorus  ^xvi.-xviii.)  is  likewue  based  on 
Duns.   See  Holm.  Ch.  Hisl.  vol.  iii.  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1896). 

(M.  O.  B.  C) 

PS0CI8,  an  ondent  district  of  central  Greece  (now  a.  depart- 
ment, pop.  63,346),  about  635  sq.  m.  in  area,  bounded  on  the 
W.  by  Osolian  Locris  and  Doris,  on  the  N.  by  Opuntian  Locris, 
on  the  E.  by  Boeotia,  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Corinthiaa  Gulf. 
The  massive  ridge  of  Parnassus  (8068  ft.),  which  tniverMs  the 
heart  of  the  country,  divides  it  into  two  distinct  penions. 
Between  this  central  burrier  and  the  northern  frontier  range  of 
Cnemis  (3000  ft.)  is  the  narrow  but  fertile  valley  of  the  Ccphiasus, 
along  which  most  of  the  Phodan  townships  were  scattered. 
Under  the  southern  slope  of  Parnassus  were  situated  the  two 
small  plains  of  Crisa  and  Antlc3rra,  separated  by  Mt  CirpMs, 
an  offshoot  from  the  main  range.  Being  ndther  ridi  in  material 
resources  nor  well  placed  for  commercial  enterprise,  Phodi  was 
mainly  pastoral  No  large  dtics  grew  up  within  its  territory, 
and  its  chief  places  were  mainly  of  strat^c  importance. 

The  early  history  of  Phods  remains  quite  obscure.  From 
the  scanty  notices  of  Greek  legend  it  may  be  gathered  that  an 
influx  of  tribes  from  the  north  contributed  laijgdy  to  its  pop«lft> 
tion,  which  was  reckoned  as  Aeolic  It  is  probable  that  the 
country  was  ori^nally  of  greater  extent,  for  there  was  a  tradition 
that  the  Pbocians  once  owned  a  strip  of  land  round  Daphnus 
on  the  sea  opposite  Euboco,  and  carried  thdr  fnmticr  to  Ther> 
mopylae;  in  addition,  in  cariy  days  they  controlled  the  great 
sanctuary  of  DelphL  The  restriction  of  their  tenc&tocy  was  doe 
to  the  hostility  of  their  neighbours  of  Boeotia  and  Thcssaly, 
the  latter  of  whom  in  the  6th  century  even  carried  thdr  raids 
into  the  Cephissus  valley.  Moreover  the  Dorian  popitlation 
of  Ddphi  constantly  strove  to  establish  its  indqicAdenoe  and 
about  590  B.C.  induced  a  coalition  of  Greek  states  to  pcodaim  a 
"  Sacred  War  "  and  free  the  orade  from  Phodan  supervisioo. 
Thus  their  influence  at  Delphi  was  restricted  to  the  poasciisioB 
of  two  votes  in  the  Amphictyonic  Conndl 

During  the  Persian  invasion  of  480  the  Phodaas  at  first 
joined  in  the  national  defence,  but  by  their  irresolute  oondnct 
at  Thermopylae  lost  that  position  lor  the  Greeks;  in  the  cam- 
paign  of  Plataea  they  were  enrolled  on  the  Persian  side;  la 
457  an  attempt  to  extend  thdr  influence  to  the  head  waters  of 
the  Cephissus  in  the  territory  of  Doris  brought  a  Spartan  army 
into  Phods  in  defence  of  the  "  metropolb  of  the  DoiianSi."  A 
similar  enterprise  against  Ddphi  in  44B  was  again  frustrated 
by  Sporu,  bnt  not  long  afterwards  the  Phodana  recaptured 
the  sanctuary  with  the  help  of  the  Athenians,  wtth  whom  they 


PHOCYUDES— PHOENICIA 


449 


li&d  entered  into  alliance  in  454.  Tlie  lubsequcnt  decline  of 
Athenian  Iand-ix>wer  had  the  effect  of  weakening  this  new 
connexion;  at  the  time  of  the  Peloponncsian  War  Phocis  was 
nominally  an  ally  and  dependent  of  Sparta,  and  had  lost  control 
of  Delphi. 

In  the  4th  century  Phocis  vas  constantly  endangered  by 
its  Boeotian  neighbours.  After  helping  the  Spartans  to  invade 
Boeotia.  during  the  Corinthian  War  (595-04),  the  Phodans 
were  placed  on  the  defensive.  They  received  assistance  from 
Sparta  in  3B0,  but  were  afterwards  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
growing  power  of  Thebes.  The  Phocian  levy  took  part  in 
Epaminondas'  inroads  into  Peloponnesus^  except  in  the  final 
campaign  of  Mantinea  (37o-<69),  from  which  their  contingent 
was  withheld.  In  'return  for  this  negligence  the  Thebans 
fastened  a  religious  quarrel  upon  their  neighbours,  and  secured 
a  penal  decree  against  them  from  the  Amphictyonic  synod 
(356).  The  Phocians,  led  by  two  capable  generals,  Philomelus 
and  Onomarchus,  replied  by  seizing  Delphi  and  using  its  riches 
to  bire  a  mercenary  army.  With  the  help  of  these  troops  the 
Phocian  League  at  first  carried  the  war  into  Boeotia  and  Thessaly, 
and  though  driven  out  of  the  latter  country  by  Philip  of  Macedon, 
maintained  itself  for  ten  years,  until  the  exhaustion  of  th< 
temple  treasures  and  the  treachery  of  its  leaders  placed  it  at 
Philip*s  mercy.  The  conditions  which  he  imposed — the  obliga- 
tion to  restore  the  temple  funds,  and  the  dlsp>ersion  of  the 
population  into  open  villages — were  soon  disregarded.  In 
339  the  Phocians  began  to  rebuild  their  cities;  in  the  following 
year  they  fought  against  Philip  at  Chaeronea.  Again  fn  323 
they  took  part  in  the  Lamian  War  against  Antipatcri  and  III 
ijg  help>ed  to  defend  Thermopylae  against  the  Gaub. 

Henceforth  little  more  is  heard  of  Phocis.    During  the  3rd 

century  it  passed  into  the  powerof  Macedonia  and  of  the  Aetolian 

League,  to  which  in  196  it  was  definitely  annexed.    Under  the 

dominion  of  the  Roman  republic  its  national  league  was  dissolved, 

but  was  revived  by  Augusttis,  who  also  restored  to  Phocis  the 

votes  in  the  Delphic  Amphictyony  which  it  had  lost  in  346  and 

enrolled  it  in  the  new  Achaean  synod.    The  Phocian  League 

IS  last  heard  of  tmder  Trajan. 

See  Strabo.  pp.  401,  419.  424-^425;  Pausantasx  t'4;  C.  Freeman, 
History  of  Federal  GoeemmeiU  (cd.  1893,  London),  pp.  If3-Tl4;  Gv 
Kaiarow,  De foederis  Pheetneium  insUtutis  (Leipag,  1899);  B.  Head, 
BisUfriA  numorum  (Oxfond,  1887),  pp.^87-aft8. 

(M.  0.  B.  C.) 

PHOCTIIDES.  Greek  gnomic  poet  of  Miletus,  contemporary 
of  Theognis,  was  bom  a^bout  560  B.C.  A  few  fragments  of  hu 
"  maxims  "  have  been  preserved  (chiefiy  in  the  Florilegium  of 
Stobaeus),  in  which  he  expresses  his  contempt  for  the  pomps 
and  vanities  of  rank  and  wealth,  and  setsforthinsiinplelanguage 
his  ideas  of  honour,  justice  and  wisdom.  A  coapU^e  didactic 
poem  (230  hexameters)  called  Iloujfia  tnw^udar  or  7i0/uu, 
bearing  the  name  of  Pbocylides,  is  now  considered  to  be  the 
work  of  an  Alexandrian  Christian  of  Jewish  origin  who  lived 
between  170  b.c.  and  a.0u  50.  The  Jewish  clement  is  shown  in 
verbal  agreement  with  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  (especially 
tbe  book  of  Siracb);  the  Christian  by  the  doctrine  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  Some 
Jewish  authorities,  however,  nuuntain  that  there  are  in  reality 
no  traces  of  Christan  doctrine  to  be  found  in  the  poem,  and 
that  ibe  author  was  a  Jew.  Tbe  poem  was  first  printed  at 
Vciiice  in  149$,  and  Was  a  favourite  school  textbook  during 
tbe  Reformation  period. 

See  fragments  and  the  spurious  poem  1R.T.  Be^i^  Peelae  lyrici 
rraecii  ii.  Uth  ed..  1882);!.  Bemavs  Uher  das  Phokylidetsche 
Cedicki  (1858) ;  Pheeylides,  Poem  of  Admonition^  with  introduction 
and  comnwotaries  by  J.  B.  Fetding,  and  translation  by  H.  D.  Good- 
win (Andover,  MajB^  1870);  F.  Susemihl.  Ceuhichte  aer  fritchischm 
jjiumhtr  in  der  Alexambtneruii,  (iSoa),  u.  64a;  S.  lOauss  («.*. 
«'  Peeudo*Phocylidcs  ")  in  The  Jewish  Bn^fdopedia  and  E.  Scfattrcf. 


SisL  of  the  Jesoisk  People,  div.  ii..  voL  iij^  J13-316  (Eag.  trans 
s886),  wliere  full  bibliographies  an  givtto.  Then  is  an  ^-^*-  — ^ 


PkoeyUdes, 


by^  W.  Hewect  (Watfoni,  ie4o)»  The  Perceptive  Poem  0/ 


PHOIBB*  in  astionoisy,  tbe  ninth  satellite  of  Saturn  in 
ocder  of  discovery,  or  tfie  tenth  and  outemkost  new  knowri)  In 


the  order  of  distance.  It  was  discovered  by  W.  H.  Pickering 
in  1899  by  photographs  of  the  stars  surrounding  Saturn.  It  is 
remarkable  in  that  its  nootion  around  the  planet  is  retrograde. 
(See  Saturn.) 

PHOEBUS  (Gr.  for  "bright,"  "pure,"),  a  common  epithet 
of  ^>oUo  {q.v.),  Artemis  in  like  manner  is  called  Phoebe,  and 
in  the  Latin  poets  and  their  modem  followers  Phoebus  and 
Phoebe  are  often  used  simply  for  the  sun  and  moon  respectively. 

PHOENICIA,  in  ancient  geography,  the  name  given  to  that 
part  of  the  seaboard  of  Syria  which  extends  from  the  Eleutherus 
(Nahr  el'Keblr)  in  the  north  to  Mt  Carmel  in  the  south, » 
distance  of  rather  more  than  two  degrees  of  latitude.  These 
limits,  however,  were  exceeded  at  various  times;  thus,  north 
of  the  Eleutherus  lay  Aradus  and  Marathus,  and  south  of 
Carmel  the  border  sometimes  included  Dor  and  even  Joppa. 
Formed  partly  by  alluvium  carried  down  by  perennial  streams 
from  the  mountains  of  Leban<Hi  and  Galilee,  and  fringed  by 
great  sand-dunes  vrhich  the  sea  throws  up,  Phoenicia  is  covered 
with  a  rich  and  fertile  soil.  It  is  only  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Eleutherus  snd  at  Acre  ('Akkft)  that  the  strip  of  coast <land  wideitf 
out  into  plains  of  any  ske?  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  open 
country  behind  Bejrat;  but  for  the  most  part  the  mountains, 
pierced  by  deep  river-valleys,  approach  to  within  a  few  miles 
of  the  coast,  or  even  right  down  to  the  sea,  as  at  RSs  en-N&^Ora 
(Seals  Tyriorum,  Jos.  Bdl.  jud,  ii.  xo,  s)  and  Ras  eUAbiad 
(Pliny's  Promunturium  Album),  where  a  passage  had  to  ;be  cut 
in  the  rock  for  the  caravan  road  which  from  time  immemorial 
traversed  this  narrow  belt  of  lowland.  From  the  Banks  of 
Lebanon,  espedaUy  from  the  heights  which  he  to  tbe  north  oC 
the  (^ilsialyeh  or  KasimiyJi  (LH&ny)  River,  the  traveller  looks 
down  upon  some  of  the  finest  landscape  in  the  worid;  in  general 
features  tbe  scenery  is  not  unhke.  that  of  the  Italian  Riviera, 
but  surpasses  it  in  grandeur  and  a  peculiar  depth  of  colouring. 

With  regard  to  natural  products  the  country  has  few  worth 
mentioning;  minerals  are  found  in  the  Lebanon,  but  not  in  any 
quantity;  traces  of  amber-digging  have  been  discovered  .on  the 
coast;  and  the  purple  shell  {:murex  tntneulns  and  hrandaris) 
is  still  plentiful.  The  harbours  which  played  so  important  a 
part  in  antiquity  are  nearly  all  silted  up,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  Beirftt,  afford  no  safe  anchors^  for  the  large  vessels  of 
modern  times.  A  few  bays,  facing  towards  the  north,  break 
the  coast'line,  and  small  rocky  islands  are  dotted  here  and  there 
just  off  the  shore.  Sidon,  Tyre  and  Aradus,  though  now 
connected  with  the  mainland,  were  built  originally  upon  islandfl^ 
the  Phoenicians  preferred  such  sites,  because  they  were  con-* 
venient  for  shipping  and  easily  dt^ended  against  attack. 

The  chief  towns  of  ancient  Phoenicia,  as  we  know  of  them  from 
the  Amarna  tablets  (15th  centuiy  D.C.)  and  from  Egyptian,  Aisyrian 
and  the  Oki  Teotameot  docusicntB,  were  the  following:  Acco  (no# 
Acre  or  'Akk&,  Jnd|[.  I  31).  Achab  (now  ca-Zib.  ibid.),  Ahlab  (in 
AiiQrrian  Mahalltba*  ibid.; — three  towns  on  the.,  coast  south  of  Tyre, 
l^nfih  OoBh.  xix.  38},  T^re  (Phoen.  $&r.  now  $arK  Zarephatb 
or  Sarepta  (1  Kings  xvil  9  now  Sarofand),  Sidon  (now  $aidll). 
Ber>'tus  (Diruta  in  Egyptian,  Biruna  in  the  Amarna  tablets,  now 
Betriit),  Bybltts  (in  Pbocn.  and  Hebr.  Gebal,  now  Jebeil),  Arka,  80  m. 
north  of  Sidon  (Gen.  x.  17.  now  *Ark&).  Sin  (Asavr.  Sianiiu,  ibid.) 
Simyra  (Gen.  x.  18.  now  $umril).  Maiathus  (now  Amrit)  not  impor- 
tant till  the  Macedonian  penod,  Arvad  or  Aradus  (in  Bioen. 
Arwftd,  now  Ruftd,  C»cn.  x.  18;  Csek.  xxvii.  8,  ii),  the  most 
northerly  of  tbe  great  Phoenidan  towns,  and  always  fanona  as  a 
maritime  statCk  • 

Rau  and  Language.— The  Phoenicians  were  an  early  offshoot 
from  the  ^mitio  stock,  and  belonged  to  the  Canaanite  branch 
of  it.  Curiously  enough  in  Gen.  x.  Sidon,  the  "first-born" 
fof  Canaan,  is  classed  among  the  descendants  of  Ham;  but  the 
table  of  nations  in  Gen.  x.  is  not  arranged  upon  strict  etfano' 
graiShic  principles;  perhaps  religious  antagonism  induced  the 
Hebrews  to  assign  to  the  Canaanites  an  ancestry  different  from 
their  own;  at  any  rate  the  close  connexion  which  existed  from 
an  early  date  between  tbe  Phoenicians  and  the  Egyptians  may 
have  suggested  the  idea  that  both  peoples  belonged  to  the  same 
race.  The  Phoenicians  themselves  retained  some  memory  of 
having  migrated  from  older  seats  on  an  eastern  sea;  Herodotus 
(i.  I ;  vii.  89)  calls  it  the  "  red  sea,"  meaning  probably  the' 


45° 


PHOENICIA 


Persian  Gulf;  the  tradition,  therefore,  seems  to  show  that  the 
Phoenicians  believed  that  their  ancestors  came  originally  from 
Babylonia.  By  settling  along  the  Syrian  coast  they  developed 
a  strangely  un-Semitic  love  for  the  sea,  and  advanced  on  different 
lines  from  the  other  Canaanltcs  who  occupied  tho  interior. 
They  called  themselves  Canaanltes  and  their  land  Canaan; 
such  is  their  name  in  the  Amama  tablets,  Kinahhi  and  Kinahni; 
and  with  this  agrees  the  statement  assigned  to  Hccataeus 
(Fr.  kisL  gr.  i.  17)  that  Phoenicia  was  formerly  called  Xpa, 
a  name  which  PhUo  of  Byblus  adopts  into  his  mythology  by 
making  "  Chna  who  was  afterwards  called  Phoinix  "  the  cponym 
of  the  Phoenicians  (Fr.  kist.  gr,  iii.  569).  In  the  rrign  of 
Antiochus  IV.  and  his  successors  the  coins  of  Laodicea  of  Libanus 
bear  the  legend  "Of  Laodicea  which  is  In  Canaan ";>  the  Old 
Testament  also  sometimes  denotes  Phoeiuda  and  Phoenicians 
by  "Canaan"  and  "Canaanites"  (Isa.  xxiii.  ix;  Obad.  ao{ 
Zeph.  i.  11),  though  the  latter  names  generally  have  a  more  ex- 
tended  sense.  But  "  Sidonians  "  is  the  usual  designation  both  in 
the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  A^yrian  monuments  {Sidunnu); 
and  even  at  the  time  of  Tyre's  greatest  ascendancy  wa  read  of 
Sidonians  and  not  Tynans  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  Homer; 
thus  Ethbaal  king  of  Tyre  (Jos.  Aiit.  vlll.  13,  2)  is  called  king 
of  the  Sidonians  in  x  Kings  xvi.  31.  In  the  Homeric  poems  wc 
meet  with  2ij6kioc,  itBopifi  (Od.  !v.  618;  IL  vi.  390;  Od,  xiii. 
285;  //.  vi.  agx)  and  ^cbniKt,  ^oitdiof  {Od,  xiii.  472,  xiv.  288 
seq.,  &c.)i  and  both  terms  together  (Od.  iv.  83  seq.,  //.  xxiii. 
743  seq.)*  And  the  Phoenicians  themselviA  used  Sidonians 
as  a  general  name;  thus  in  the  oldest  Phot^nician  inscription 
known  {CIS.  I  5»JV5/.,  No.  xi),  Hiram  II.  king  of  Tyre  in 
the  8lh  century  is  styled  "  king  of  the  Sidonians."  But  among 
the  Greeks  "  Phoenicians  *'  was  the  name  most  In  use,  ^odtMt 
(plur.  of  4D?yt|)  for  the  people  and  ^mvbcif  for  the  land  (cf. 
Phoenix).  The  former  was  probably  the  older  word,  and  may 
be  traced  to  ^ou*6«>«."  blood-red  ";  the  Canaaxilte  sailors  were 
spoken  of  as  the  "  red  men  "  on  account  of  their  sunburnt  skin; 
then  the  hind  froiir  which  they  came  was  called  after  them; 
and  then  probably  the  original  connexion  between  ^M^i^  and 
^ou4t  was  forgotten,  and  new  forms  and  meanings  were 
Invented.  Thus  ^n$  camo  to  mean  a  "date-palm";  but 
the  date>palm  is  not  in  the  least  characteristic  of  Phoenicia, 
And  can  hardly  grow  there;  ^6m^  in  this  sense  has  no  connexion 
with  the  original  meaning  of  Phoenician.  A  derivation  has  been 
sought  elsewhere,  and  the  Egyptian  Fenh  proposed  as  the 
origin  of  the  name;  but  the  woM  Penh  was" apparently  used  of 
Asiatic  barbarians  in  general,  without  any  qjedol  reference  to  the 
Phoenicians  (W.  M.  MtiUer,  Asien  u.  Buropa^  p.  208  seq.).  The 
Lat.  Pocnm  is  of  course  merely  an  adaptation  of  the  Greek  fonn.* 
Xanfwaff.'— Imcriptions,  coins,  topographical  names  preserved 
by  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  names  of  persons  and  the  Punic  passages 
in  the  Potnidus  of  Plautus;  all  show  conclusively  that  the  Phoenician 
lan^age  bdoiwed  to  the  North>Scniltic  group,  and  to  that  aub- 
division  of  it  which  is  called  the  Canoamte  and  includes  Hebrew  and 
the  dialect  of  Moab.  A  comparison  between  Phoenician  and  Hebrew 
reveals  close  lesemblanccs  both  in  grammatical  forms  and  In  vocabu- 
lary; in  some  respects  older  features  have  been  preserved  in  Phoeni- 
cian, others  arc  later,  others  again  are  peculiar  to  the  dialect;  many 
words  poetic  or  rare  or  late  in  Hebrew  arc  common  in  Phoenician. 
Hence  we  may  conclude  that  the  two  languages  developed  indepen- 
dently from  a  common  ancestor,  which  can  be  no  otner  than  the 
andeat  Caoaanitc,  of  which  a  few  words  have  survived  in  the 
Canaanite  glosses  to  the  Amarna  tablets  (written  in  Babylonian).' 
But  in  forming  an  estimato  of  tho  Phoenician  language  it  must  oc 
lemembcred  that  our  materiaf  is  scanty  and  limited  in  ranee;  the 
Pfaoenidans  were  in  no  sense  a  literary  people;  moreover,  with  one 
exception  {CIS,  i.  5).  almost  all  the  inscriptioos  are  subsequent 

*  Cooke,  North-SemHie  Inscripthru  .  (elsewhere  abbreviated 
NSr.),  Na  149  B.  8. 

*  lo  this  passage  "  Phoenicians  "  is  a  general  name  for  carriers 
of  commerce,  not  the  inhabitants  of  a  particular  country.  Similarly 
"  Sidonian  "  in  //.  vi.  209,  is  taken  to  mean  Semites  in  general. 
Eieewhere  "  Phoenicians  "  are  merrhants,  kidnappers.  Sac.,  Sidon- 
ians "  are  artists;  to  indicate  nationality  both  names  seem  to  be 
used  indifferently,  rj{.  Od.  xiii.  272,  xiv.  3HS,  xv.  414. 

„,fScc  especially  Pictschmann.  Cesck.  d.  Phdnizier,  13  sqq.,  and 
Mfincklcr,  Keiiintckr.  u.d.A.  T.. ^rd  cd.,  127.  * 

^*A.^'**?**"**'y  *«  K>v«>  in  A^r.»,  652  seq.;  •■««  further  Bohl, 
Pw  Spn£kt  d.  Amuriutkrujt  (1909). 


to  the  «th  century  B.C.:  the  majority  bekmg  to  the'  4th  esntvry 
and  later,  by  which  time  tne  language  must  have  undergone  a 
ceruin  amount  of  decay."  Indirectly,  however,  the  Phoenicians 
rendered  one  great  service  to  literature;  they  took  a  targe 
■hare  in  the  development  and  diffusion  01  the  alphabet  which 
forms  the  foundation  of  Greek  (Herod,  v.  58)  and  of  all  European 
writing.  The  Phoenician  letten  in  their  earlier  types  are  practically 
identical  with  those  used  by  the  Hebrews  {e.g.  the  Siloam  ioscr. 
NSI.  No.  2),  the  Moabites  (i.g.  the  Me»ha  stone,  ibkl.  No.  i),  and  the 
Aramaeans  of  north  Syria  {e.g.  the  Zenjlrii  inscrr.  ibid.  Nos.  61-63). 
They  panod  through  various  modifications  in  tlie  coune  of  time; 
after  leaving  the  mother  country  the  script  acquires  a  more  cursive, 
flowing  style  on  the  stones  from  Cyprus  and  Attica;  the  tendency 
become*  more  strongly  marked  at  the  Punic  stage;  until  in  the 
neo>Punic.  from  the  destruction  of  Carthage  (146  B.C.)  to  the  1st 
century  A.D.,  both  the  writing;  and  the  language  reached  their  roost 
degenerate  form.  As  a  rustic  dialect  the  bnguage  lasted  on  in 
North  Africa  till  the  5th  century  a. a  In  his  sermons  St  Augiutine 
frequently  quotes  Punic  words. 

BuUry.'-'The  Phoenicians,  in  Imitation  of  the  Egyptians; 
claimed  that  their  oldest  cities  had  been  founded  by  the  goda 
themselves,  and  that  their  race  could  boast  an 
antiquity  of  30,000  years  (Africanus  in  SynccUus, 
p.  31).  Herodotus  quotes  (ii.  44)  a  more  moderate 
tradition  which  placed  tiic  foundation  of  Tyre  2300  years  before 
his  time,  ».e.,  c.  2756  s.c.  According  to  Justin  (xviiL  3)  the 
Phoenicians,  who  had  long  been  settled  on  the  coast  and  occupied 
Sidon,  founded  Tyre  in  the  year  before  the  fall  of  Troy;  possibly 
the  date  X19S  b.c.,  given  byMcnondcrof  Ephesus(in  Jos.  Atit. 
vili.  3,  X  and  c.  A  p.  L  x8)  as  that  from  which  the  era  of  T>Te 
begins,  may  refer  to  the  epoch  which  JusUn  mcnllons.  little 
certainty,  however,  con  be  allowed  to  these  traditional  chrono- 
logies. It  is  probable  that  in  remote  ages  Babylonia  exerdscd 
a  considerable  influence  upon  Syria  and  its  coast  towns;  but 
Mr  L. W.King  has  shown  that  thetradition,  which  was  stq>pofted 
to  connca  Sargon  I.  {e.  3800  B.C.)  with  the  westem,Iand  and 
sea,  has  been  misunderstood;  it  was  the  sea  in  the  east,  ix.  the 
Persian  Oulf,  which  Sargon  crossed  {Cbronidcs  amc€rning 
Early  Bah.  Kings,  vol.  i  ch.  2,  1907). 

The  extension  of  the  EgypUxin  empire  in  the  direction  of 
Asia  began  about  x6oo  B.c.  under  Ahmosi  (Aohmcs^  Amasis)  I., 
the  founder  of  the  XVIIIih  Oynasty,  who  carried, 
his  arms  into  Syria,  and  conquered  at  least  Palestine 
and  Phoenicia,  the  latter  bdng  thecoontry  called 
DQ-hi  on  the  Egyptian  motitiments  (MUlter,  As.m.  "WS.^ 
Eur.  p.  x8i).  Whether  the  campaign  of  Thothmes  (Tethmosis) 
I.  to  the  Euphrates  produced  any  lasting  results  is  doubtful; 
it  was  Thothmes  HI.  (t  503^x449)  who  repeated  and  consolidated 
the  earlier  conquest,  and  established  Egyptian  suacrafaity 
over  all  the  petty  states  of  Syria  and  Phoenicia  (see  Ecvt: 
History^  I.).  For  the  geography  and  civiliaation  of  Canaan  about 
t4oo  B.C.  we  have  valuable  evidence  in  the  Egyptian  papyrus 
Anastasi  I.,  which  mentions  Kepuna  (Gubna,  Gebal-ByWcs) 
the  holy  city,  and  continues:  "  Come  then  to  Bciytus,  to  SJdoo, 
to  Sarepta.  Where  is  the  ford  of  Nat-*ana  (?  Nahr  el-Kflsimlyeh, 
or  a  town)?  Where  b  'Eutu  (?  Usu,  Palaetyrus)  ?  Another 
city  on  the  sea  is  called  a  haven,  D'ar  (Jyrt)  is  its  name,  water 
is  carried  to  it  in  boats;  it  is  richer  in  fish  than  in  sands."  *  But 
the  fullest  information  about  the  state  of  Phoenicia  in  the  isth 
and  14th  centuries  B.C.  comes  from  the  Amama  tablets,  among 
which  are  many  Icttcts  from  the  subject  princes  and  the 
Egyptian  governors  of  Phoenicia  to  the  Pharaoh.'  It  was  a  time 
of  much  political  disturbance.  TheHittites  (f.v.)  were  invading 
Syria;  nomads  from  the  desert  supported  tlie  invasioa;  and 
many  of  the  local  chiefs  were  ready  to  seise  the  opportunity 
to  thxow  off  the  yoke  of  Egypt.   The  towns  of  PhoenSda  were 

*For  the  Phoen.  inscrr.  aoe  Corfms  inscripHemmm  stmiikarmm^ 
pt.  i.,  brought  up  to  dote  provisionally  bv  Mpcrttirt  ^ififr. 
shn.  A  selection  is  published  by  Lidsbarski,  Hndimck  d.  wmdatm. 
Epignphik  (1698);  Cooke,  Textbook  of  ffortk-SemUie  Imeriptiont 
(1903),  with  translaibns  and  notes;  Landau,  BeUrigo  s.  AUotumsk. 
d.OritnU  (1899-1906); Lidsbarski,  AUatm.  Texie  {xtjoj),  pt.L 

*See  W.  M.  Mulkr,  he  dL  pp.  S7>  <73  aqq.«  184  sqq.;  Jcrenie^ 
Das  A.  T.  im  Lickte  d.  all.  OritnU,  p.  302  seq. ;  JUcords  of  tko  Pad. 
iL  109  acq. 

'\^^TidHer.  Tett-et-Am.  tetters  Nos.  37  sqq.;  Fetrie,  Syrim  ni 
Egfpt  miko  TtU  d  Am.  Letters. 


PHOENIGTA 


+S» 


divided;  Andns,  Simyn,  Sidoa  supported  tlie  rebellion;  Rib- 
bab»d»  tbe  vwuX  of  ByUus,  and  Abi-melecb,\ing  of  Tyre,  beld 
out  for  Egypt;  but  while  all  the  towns  mad«  professions  of 
fidelity,  they  were  scheming  for  thdr  own  interests,  aad  in  tbe 
end  Egypt  lost  them  all  except  Byblus.  The  tablets  which 
reveal  this  state  of  affairs  are  written  in  the  language  and  script. 
of  BabyLonia,  and  thus  show  indirectly  the  extent  to  which 
Babylonian  culture  had  penetrated  Palestine  and  Phoenicia; 
at  the  same  time  they  illustrate  the  closeness  of  the  relations 
between  the  Canaanite  towns  and  the  dominant  power  of 
$gypt.  After  the  reign  of  Amenophis  IV.  (1370-1366)  that 
power  cfl^psed  altogether;  but  his  successors  attempted  to. 
recover  it,  and  Ramses  (Rameses)  II.  reconquered  Phoenicia 
as  far  as  Beirdt,  and  carved  thr^  tablets  on  the  rock  beside  the 
Nahr  el-Kelb  to  commemorate  bis  victories;  under  the  XlXth 
and  XXth  Dynasties  this  seems  to  have  remained  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Egyptian  Empire.  But  in  the  reign  of  Ramses  III. 
(r.  xaoo)  great  changes  began  to  occur  owing  to  the  invasion 
ot  Syria  by  peoples  from  Asia  Minor  and  Europe,  which  ended 
in  the  establishment  oJ  the  Philistines  on  the  coast  near  Ashkelon. 
The  successors  of  Ramses  UI.  lost  their  hold  over  Canaan;  the 
XXIst  Dynasty  no  longer  intervened  in  the  affairs  of  Syria; 
but  Sheshonk  (Shishak),  the  founder  of  the  XXIInd  Dynasty, 
about  928  B.&  endeavoured  to  assert  the  ancient  supremacy  of 
Egypft  (cf.  1  Kings  xiv.  35  sqq.},  but  his  successes  were  not 
lasting,  and,  as  we  leaqi  from  the  Old  Testament,  the  power  of 
Egypt  became  henceforward  practically  ineffective.  Not  until 
608  did  a.  Pharaoh  (Necho)  lead  an  Ega^tian  army  so  far  north, 
and  he  was  defeated  by  Nebuchadrezzar.  During  the  period 
which  elapsed  before  the  rise  of  the  Assyrian  power  in  Syria 
the  Phoenicians  were  left  to  themsdves.  This  was  the  period 
oi  their  development,  and  Tyrt  became  the  leading  city  of 
Phoeniciar 

Between  the  withdrawal  of  the  Egyptian  rule  in  Syria  and 
the  western  advance  of  Assyria  there  comes  an  interval  during 
fjrfi#OTr  which  the  city-states  of  Phoenicia  owned  no  suzerain. 
tf*ac»  •#  The  history  of  this  period  is  mainly  a  history  of 
moMlde.  Tyre,  which  not  only  rose  to  a  sort  of  hegemony 
among  the  Phoenician  states,  but  founded  colonies  beyond 
tbe  seas  (below).  From  970  to  772  bx.  the  bare  outline  oi 
events  is  supplied  by  extracts  from  two  Hellenistic  historians, 
Menander  of  Ephesus  and  Dius  (largely  dependent  upon  Menan- 
der),  which  have  been  preserved  by  5osephus,  Ant.  viii.  5,  3 
and  e.  Ap,  i.  17,  x8.  From  the  data  given  in  these  passages 
we  learn  that  Hiram  I.,  son  of  Abi-baal,  rdgned  in  Tyre  from 
970  to  95^  B.C.  He  enlarged  the  island-town  to  the  east,  restored 
and  enriched  the  temples,  built  new  ones  to  Heracles  (f.e. 
Melkarth  or  Melqarth)  and  Astarte,  founded  the  feast  of  the 
awakening  of  Heracles  in  the  month  Peritius,  and  reduced  the 
inhabitants  of  Utica  to  their  allegiance.  The  Tyrian  annals, 
moreover,  alluded  to  the  connexion  between  Hiram  and  Solomon. 
Before  this  time,  indeed,  the  Phoenicians  had  no  doubt  lived 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  Israelites  ^  (cf .  Judges  v.  17 ;  Gen<  xlix. 
13);  but  the  two  nations  seem  to  have  drawn  closer  in  the  time 
of  Solomon,  a  Sam.  v.  xx,  whi(ji  brings  David  and  Hiram 
togetber,  probably  antedates  what  happened  in  the  following 
leign.  For  Solomon's  palace  and  temple  Hiram  contributed 
cedar  and  fir  trees  as  well  as  workmen,  receiving  in  exchange 
larg6  annual  payments  of  oil  and  wine,  supplies  which  Phoenicia 
must  have  drawn  regularly  from  Israelite  districts  (x  Kings  v.  9, 
II ;  cf.  Ezek.  xxvii.  17;  Ezr.  iii.  7;  Acts  xii.  20;  Jos.  AtU.  xiv.  lo, 
6) ;  fi  Daily,  in  return  for  the  gold  which  he  furnished  for  the  temple, 
Hiram  received  the  grant  of  a  territory  in  Galilee  (Cabul,  r  Kings 
Ix.  zo^x4)-'   This  idliance  between  the  two  monarchs  led  to  a 

>  In  Judges  X.  12  (cf.  ».  6.  iii.  3)  the  Sidoniana  are  mentioned 
among  the  oppressors  of  Israel :  but  there  is  no  record  of  any  invasion 
of  Israel  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  statement  is  due  to  the  poet- 
exilic  editor  who  introduced  generalizations  of  ancient  history  into 
the  book  oi  Judf^ 

*  Jos.  Ant.  vui.  ^,  I,  dates  the  building  of  Solomoh*t  temple  in 
tbe  I  ith  year  of  Hiram,  and  420  years  after  the  foundation  of  Tyre. 
This  ffivea  a  Tyrian  era  which  began  in  1198-1197  B.C.,  «.«.  at  the 
tloie  wben  the  Philistines  settled  on  the  coast  of  Canaan,  an  event 


joint  eipeditioii  from  Eciongebcr  on  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  (strictly' 
Aqiba)  to  Ophir  (?  on  the  east  coast  of  Arabia,  see  Opbjs)  for 
purposes  of  trade.  The  list  of  Hiram's  successors  given  by 
Josephus  indicates  frequent  changes  of  dynasty  until  the  time- 
of  Ithobai  I.  priest  of  Astarte,  whose  reign  (887-855)  markd  a 
return  to  more  settled  rule.  In  contrast  to  Hiram  I.,  king  of 
Tyre,  Ithobal  or  Ethbaal  is  styled  in  x  Kings  xvi.  31  "  king  of 
the  Sidonians,"  i.e.  of  the  Phoenicians,  showing  that  in  the 
interval  the  kings  of  Tyre  had  extended  their  rule  over  the  other 
Phoenidan  cities.  Under  Ethbaal  further  expansion  is  recorded: 
Botrys  north  of  Byblus  and  Aosa  in  North  Africa  are  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  him;  the  more  famous  Carthage  owed  its  origin 
to  the  civil  discords  which  followed  the  death  of  Mettenl.  (820), 
his  next  successor  but  one.  According  to  tradition,  Metten's 
son  Pygmalion  (820-773)  slew  the  hui^i^d  of  his  sister  Elissa 
or  Dido;  whereupon  she  fled  and  founded  Carthage  {q.v.)  in  Libya 
(813;  Justin  xviii.  4H^).  At  this  point  Josephus's  extracts 
from  Menander  come  to  an  end. 

From  the  time  of  Ethbaal  onwards  the  independence  of 
Phoenicia  was  threatened  by  the  advance  of  Assyria.  So  far 
back  as  x  xoo  bx.  Tiglath-pfleser  L  had  inyaded  North  AM^ma 
Phoenicia,  and  in  order  to  secure  a  harboiur  en  the  ibat,97tm 
coast  he  occupied  Arvad  (Aradus) ;  but  no  permanent  *^^^ 
occupation  followed.  In  the  9th  cenlury,  however,  the  system- 
atic conquest  of  the  west  began.  In  876  B.C.  Assur-nazir-pal  III. 
"washed  his  weapons  in  the  great  sea,"  and  exacted,  tribute 
from  the  kings  of  Tyre,  Sidon,  Byblus  and  other  cities,  including 
Arvad  {Keilinsckr,  Bibliotkek,  i.  109).  The  inscriptions  of 
his  son  Shalmaneser  II.  mention  the  taking  of  tribute  from  the 
Tyrians  and  Sidonians  in  846  and  again  in  849;  the  Byblians 
are  included  at  the  latter  date,  and  among  the  kings  defeated 
at  Karkar  in  854  or  853  was  Metten-baal,  king  of  the  Arvadites 
(ibid.  pp.  X4X}  I43>  Z73)'  Thus  Shalmaneser  completed  the 
conquests  of  his  predecessor  on  the  Phoenician  coast,  and 
established  a  supremacy  which  lasted  for  over  a  hundred  years 
and  was  acknowledged  by  occaaonal  payments  of  tribute. 
In  74X  Tiglatb-pileser  III.  mentions  on  his  tribute-lists  "  QirOm 
o£  Tyre  ";  and  here  for  the  first  time  a  piece  of  native  evidence 
becomes  available.  The  earliest  Phoenician  inscription  at 
present  known  {CIS.  i.  s^NSI.  No.  ix)  is  engraved  upon 
the  fragments  of  a  bronze  bowl  dedicated  by  a  certain  governor 
of  Qarth-hadasht  (or  Karti-Hadasti,  "  New  City,"  i.e.  Citium), 
"  servant  of  Hiram  king  of  the  Sidonians  to  Baal  of  Lebanon." 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  Hiram  II*  was  not  only  king 
of  Tyre,  as  the  Assyrian  inscription  calls  him,  but  of 
Sidon  too;  and  further,  that  by  this  time  Tyre  had  established 
a  colony  in  Cyprus  (q.v.).  In  Tiglath-pilcser's  Philistine 
campaign  of  734  Byblus  and  Aradus  paid  tribute,  and  an 
Assyrian  chief  officer  (the  Rab-shakeh)  was  sent  to  Tyre 
and  extorted  from  the  king,  now  Metten  or  MattQn,  the 
large  sum  of  150  talents  of  gold  {KB.  ii.  23).  For 
the  period  which  follows  a  certain  amo\mt  of  information  is 
furnished  by  Menander  (in  Jos.  Atil.  ix.  14,  2).  Elulaeus  IX.,  in 
Assyrian  Lull,  who.  ruled  under  the  name  of  Pylas,  was  king  of 
Tyre,  Sidon,  and  other  cities  at  this  time  {c.  725-690),  and  at 
the  beginning  of  his  reign  suffered  from  an  invasion  by  Shaf- 
maneser  IV.  or  Salampsas  Qos.);  this  was  probably  the  expedi- 
tion against  Hoshea  of  Samaria  in  725; "  the  king  of  Assyria . . . 
overran  all  Phoenicia,  but  soon  made  peace  with  them  all 
and  returned  back."  In  the  reign  of  Sargon  Phoenicia  itself 
seems  to  have  been  left  alone;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Citium 
revoked,  showing  that  the  authority  of  Tyre  in  Cyprus  had 
grown  weak;  and  Sargon  received  the  submission  of  seven 
Cyprian  princes,  and  set  up  in  Lamaca  (probably  in  709)  the 
triumphal  stele  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum  (Schrader,  Cuneif. 
I  mar,  ami  O.  T.,  2nd  ed.,  vol.  ii.  p.  87).  But  Elulaeus,  according 
to  Menander,  suppressed  the  revolt  of  Citium,  and  eariy  in  the 
reign  of  Sennacherib  joined  the  league  of  PhiUstia  and  Judah, 

I  which  had  considerable  effect  upon  the  cities  of  Phoenicia  (above, 
Justin  xviii.  3).  in  the  Tyrian  annals  (Jos.  c.  Ap.  i.  18)  the  reference 
was  probably  to  the  felling  of  timber  in  Lebanon  for  Hiram's  temples; 
Josephus  then  misinterpreted  this  by  i  Kings  v.  6. 


PHOENICTA 


JB  ilUaocc  with  EgrPt  ud  ElhiapU,  whith  aimed  M  thn>*lDg 
oS  the  oppnuivs  tynuuy  oi  Anyrii;  u  uiut],  bovEVcr,  the 
dty-iute*  of  FhacDidi  could  doc  cambiiK  even  igiiut  & 
mminQn  f«,  aod  inen)  broke  away  from  Tyre,  n  Menander 
tells  in,  and  sid{?d  wllh  Asiyria,  In  the  great  campaign  of  701 
Sennacherib  came  down  upon  the  rcvolLEng  provinces;  he  lorced 
Lull,  king  D[  Sidon,  to  fly  for  refuge  10  Cyprus,  look  hit  chief 
dliea,  and  let  up  Tiiba^lu  (EthbaaJ)  ai  king,  impoaing  a  yearly 
tnbute  {KB,  ii,  gi).  The  blockade  of  Tyre  by  sea,  ^gnifi- 
cuidy  paued  over  In  Sennacherib's  inscriplkm,  is  deteribed  by 
MeDindec.  The  liiand-diy  proved  la  be  Impregnable,  but  it 
wu  [he  only  poueulon  left  of  wbal  had  been  the  ementive 
kingdom  of  Elulieiu.  SeDiucbcilb,ha«evei,3af>caceDmp!Ithed 
his  object  as  Id  break  up  the  combiaitton  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
which  had  grown  Into  a  pontrf  u1  stale,*  Al  Sdon  the  succeuoi 
of  Ethbtal  nts  Abd-mllkalh;  <n  alllince  nilh  &  Cllidin  chief  he 
rebelled  agiUiut  Esubiddoh  about  tbi  year  678,  nilh  disaslrous 
consequences.  Sidon  was  enmhilalcd;  Abd-milktlb  fell  Into 
the  binds  of  Esarhnddon,  wha  fouoded  a  new  Sidon  on  the 
ntaintind,  peopled  ll  with  foreignen,_aad  called  [I  after  his  own 
DtBct  The  old  Dime,  bowever,  survtved  fn  popular  usage; 
bnl  (be  cbiTsctei  of  tbe  clly  wsa  ehisged.  and  till  (be  time  of 
Cyius  the  kingdom  of  Sidon  ceased  to  eidst  (KB.S.  115  leq., 
14s;  KA  T.'  88).  Tyre  also  came  In  for  iu  ihire  of  hardship. 
Elulaeua  wu  f^lowcd  by  Bail,  who  in  6;)  consented  to  Join 
Hrhaka,  the  Ethiopiiin  king  of  Egypt,  la  s  rebcUlon  'against 
Aaiyria.  Esarhaddon,  on  his  way  in  Egypt  for  the  second  lime, 
determined  to  deal  out  punishment;  he  blockaded  Tyre,  and 
nised  earthworks  on  the  shore  and  cut  oS  tbe  water-supply; 


.    His  I 


nfou 


Zenjirll  TtpreHnls  tbe  great  king  holding  Baai  of  Tyre  and 
Tlrbaki  of  Egypt  by  cords  fastened  in  their  lips;*  there  is  no 
eridence,  however,  that  headually  took  cither  of  them  prisoner. 
Early  b  tbe  reign  of  Assur-hani-pal  Tyn  was  begged  again 
(t68),  but  Assur-bani-pal  succeeded  no  better  than  his  prede- 
COSOTS.  NeverthclesaBaalsubmlltedintbeend,  along  with  the 
princes  of  Cebal  and  Arvad,  Klanaseeh  of  Judah,  and  tbe  other 
Canaanite  chiefs;  in  the  island  of  Cyprus  Ihe  Assyrian*  carried 
all  before  them  (KB.  ii.  i4g  seq.,  i6g,  i?]).  .On  hb  return 
from  tbe  Arabian  campaign  Asiur-baoi-pal  severely  pumshed 
tbe  rebellious  inhabitants  of  Uihu  (Palaetynis)  and  Akko,  and 
transported  tbe  survivors  to  Assyria  (ibid.  '^g).  In  Phoenicia, ' 
as  elsewhere,  Assyrian  rule  created  nothing  and  left  nothing 
behind  It  but  a  record  of  barbaious  conquest  and  extortion. 
An  inlerciting  sidelight  is  thrown  upon  this  period  by  tbe  list 
of  the  Tbalussocrides  in  the  CLrmkrin  of  Euscbiui  (p.  "6,  cd. 
Scboene),  which  places  the  4;  years  of  the  sea -power  ik  Phoenicia 
a(  a  date  which,  wiib  much  probability,  may  be  conjectured 
to  lie  between  700,  when  Cyprus  mbmitied  to  Saigon,  end  664. 
when  Egypt  Ihiew  ofl  tbe -rule  of  Assyria.     If  this  dating  Is 

these  years,  we  can  understand  why  Tyre  gave  n  much  trouble 
10  the  Assyrian  kings." 

In  the  last  crisis  of  the  dying  power  of  Assyria  the  Egyptians 
tor  a  short  time  laid  hands  on  Phoeniirii:  but  after  their  defeat 
n,Hm-    "  ■!>e  battle  of  Carcbemish  (605),  the  CliaMaeans 


beyond  Ihe  sea,  i.e.  the  Phoenician  settlements  nn  the  Meditet- 
ranexn,  aeenis  lo  imply  that  the  Pboenidan  slates  recovered 
tome  measare  of  independence;  if  Ihey  did  it  cannot  have 
lasted  long.    In  jBB  Apries  (Pbanob  Hophta)  made  an  attempt 


1  The  above  interpretaikm  of  Mi 


lie  AnnTlan  evidel 
U.     For  a  diflm 


be  later  war  of  uaduddon  and  Ajaur-bani-pal  againK 
'"  SndHhirU  [Berlin,  >««]). 


•  fihn  lTm™  J™-Il.'3dl.  Sl^la  <t906).  ntvl.  H  to 
i>(  WineUer,  baAOt  Onnu  (1905),  vol.  vlL  pt.  a. 


to  i£^ace  the  CJiitdaeaa  iupreDacy;  he  defeated  Tyre  umI 
Sidon,  and  terroriud  the  other  citic*  into  tuhndntoo  (HenMl. 
ii.  i6t;  Diod.  Sic.  i.  6S).  Some  of  the  Phaenidan  chiefs,  unong 
them  Ithobai  II.,  the  new  king  of  Tyre,  while  forced  lo  yield  lo 
a  change  of  matten,  were  bold  enough  to  declare  their  hostility 
to  the  Babyloniant.  Thit  ttaie  of  aSeirs  did  not  escape  the 
vigilance  ol  Nebuchadrcuar.  Alter  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  be 
marthed  upon  Phoenida;  Aprles  withdrew  bis  army,  and  the 
siege  of  Tyre  began.  For  thirteen  yean  the  great  merchant 
city  held  out  (585-57];  Jos.  c.  d^.  L  )i;cf.  Esek.  ixvi.  1  se^.). 
Eiekiel  says  that  Nebuchadieuar  and  his  h»t  bad  no  reward 
fol  their  heavy  service  against  Tyre,  and  tbe  presumption  is 
that  (he  city  capitulated  on  (avouiabte  lemu;  for  Ithob^'s 
rngn  ends  with  the  close  of  the  siege,  and  tbe  nyil  famflj-  it 
subsequently  found  in  Babylon.  The  king  appointed  by 
Nebuchidreiiar  was  Baal  II.  (574-5i}4),  after  whose  death  ■ 
republic  was  formed  under  ■  tingle  suSele  «  "  Jndge  "  (ililfN). 
Josephut  [/oe.fff.Jitagatnouraatborityfar  the  changes  of  govern- 
ment wbich  fallowed  urrtD  the  monarchy  ^ras  revived.  At 
length  under  Hiram  III.  Phoenida  passed  from  the  ChaMaeuB 
to  tbe  Pcnfans  (538),  and  it  the  same  time  Ama^a  <Ahraod)  n. 
of  Egypt  occupied  Cyprus  {Herod,  ii.  rflj).  There  aeenn  to 
have  hiren  no  struggle;  the  great  liege  and  (be  spbtequent 
dvil  disorden  had  exhausted  Tyre,  and  Sidon  took  ftl  [dace 
as  the  leading  state.  About  tbit  time,  too,  Canhage  made  ao 
eHort  for  independence  under  Hanno  the  Great  (sjS-Jir),  tbe 
real  founder  of  its  fortunes;  the  old  dependence  upon  Tyre  was 
changed  for  a  mere  relation  of  piety  observed  by  the  annua} 
sending  of  delegates  (tkupof)  to  the  festival  of  Melkarth  (Arrfao 
ii.  14;  F^ilyb.  lul.  »,  It).  The  disasters  and  hnnffiationi 
widch  befell  Tyre  during  thfs  and  tbe  foregoing  perfod  might 
suggest  that  Its  prosperity  had  been  serionsly  damaged.  But 
Tyre  always  counted  for  more  fn  commerce  than  in  pofitia; 
and  in  tbe  year  5S6,  just  before  the  great  siege,  Eaekitl  draws 
a  vivid  picture  (ch.  ncvii.)  of  the  extent  and  splendour  of  its 
commercial  relations.  Even  wben  cut  off  from  its  posMsriom 
00  the  msinland  the  dly  itself  was  not  captured;  Its  seafarfn^ 
trade  went  on;  and  though  by  degrees  the  colonies  were  lost, 
yet  the  ties  of  race  and  sentiment  remained  strong  enoo^  to 
bind  the  Pboeniciani  of  .the  mother-country  (0  thdr  kindred 
beyond  the  seas. 

A[  trldngihiaaitheiMenfarmalPbee- 

nli  live  ineriptimi  the  chM  of  Ita  city 

ia  -ui  iiiJwayi«alkd  kiof.    Tbe  n^ 

ho  >  and  the  aini  could  not  be  chdecA 

Du  »wcr.  however,  waa  limited  by  Ilie 

oK  '  wv  or  peic*  to  be  decided  at  Tvn 

■n  oa  anlaat  hit  wiU  (Airiai  ii.  Ig  ud 

16  itofMcUunhuTynwatibctccaDd 

m;  Itcd  iHth  the  prince  was  a  eouncit 

of  Icbal  (Bybtus)  Iram  the  catliesi  tinier 

to  It  Sidon  ihiicauDeilceimitedaf  loa 

m  .pt  alto  al  Tyic'  Intciiptleaa  <tf  Eka 

iP  tlion  a  Sah  (chieO  >■>  Sidoa.  Cypnit 

an  pDUIioB  was  it  ll  difKculi  to  lay;  in 

iftriet  Eovemor.    Dirrijig  Heliv 
a  iqii£Uc  took  the  place  of  xtm 

is^uden);  they  held  oftcc  for  abort  lerma,  aad 
ruled  tocclher  (or  hi  year*.    Much  later,  in  the 

5d  century  B.C..  an  intoiption  from  Tyir  mentfeni  a  tuHere  (KS/. 
0.8)  vithoutaddiasmonloourknowledge.  Canbaie. of eoBne. 
vat  govenied  by  two  lafletct,  and  these  oBteiaaie  rnqueady  aanit 
in  connciian  nib  Ihe  Carthagjini^  eolimici  {NSl.  p.  UJ  acq.); 

itself  had  any  neh  magittntea.  Undo-  the  Pei^na  a  federal  bond 
wai  fotmcd  comprihng  Sidon.  Tyre  and  Aradui.  whoee  duty  it 
wai  10  eontrlbnte  300  iriremes  to  the  I^rnaa  fleet  (Herod,  vii.  09), 


sJte.t 


•So  the  Ikbyfoniaru.  ranaanitn  (l-l-  In  the  case  o(theNef*ifini, 
Gen.  vi.  a).  Arab..  C.mVs.  traced  tbe  dearenl  of  hetnlc  faniilLe.  » 
ihe  pldi.  W.  R.  Smilb,  KwUfiand  Uarriap,  p.  106;  S.  t.  Cnni|-a 
Primilhr  Srm.  Rll,  To-iar  (London,  loot),  p.  Its  «q. 

'An  inter,  from  Tyre  may  be  read,  * 'Abd  ha'al  diief  of  the 
llundrrd.-  nSI.  p.  IJ9;  Clenaoni-Canncau,  Aned  rank,  tr. 


FHOfiNIGEA 


4f>3 


tlwkMertowiBbdaf  under  the  comoiBiid  of  the  gnsftt  cities.  AradttB 

blua  a 
three 

cities  separated  by  a  stadium  from  each  other,  and  provided  a  meet- 
ing-place for  the  federal  oouncil,  which  waschieOy  ocomied  ia  draKngt 
with  the  Persian  government  (Oiod.  xvi.  ^i).  But  federation  on  a 
larger  scale  was  never  possible  in  Phocmcia,  for  the  reason  that  no 
sense  of  f>oIitical  unity  existed  to  bind  the  dtflPererft  states  ta»sethcr. 
Commercial  interests  dominated  everythini;  else,  and  while  these 
stinuilated  a  municipal  life  not  without  vigour,  civil  discipUne  and 
loyahy  were  but  Iccbly  felt.  On  occasion  the  towns  could  defend 
their  independence  with  strenuous  courage;  the  higher  qualities 
which  malee  for  a  progressive  national  life  the  Phoenicians  did  not 


Phoe&ida  now  became  put  of  the  fifth  satnpy  of  the  PieiBiui 
Empire,  and  entered  upon  a  spell  of  comparative  peace  and 
'n»f%i«iuv  growing  prospeiky.  Fa¥oiiKd  for  the  sake  of 
**»*■*  w>»  their  fleet,  and  having  common  interests  against 
Mi&a  Greece,*  the  Phoenicians  were  among  the  most 
loyal  snbjecu  ojf  the  empire.  At  this  period  Sidoa  occu* 
pied  the  position  of  leading  state;  in  the  fleet  her  king 
ranked  next  to  Xetxes  and  before  the  king  of  Tyn  (Hood, 
viii.  67);  her  ritnation  afforded  advantages  for  expansion 
whicb  Tyre  on  its  small  and  densely  popuhted  island  could  not 
riva  L  Tlie  city  was  distinguished  by  its  cosmopolitan  character ; 
the  satrap  resided  there  when  he  came  to  Phoenicia,  and  die 
Persian  m6narch  had  his  paradise  outside  the  waHs.  In  the 
6fst  half  of  the  4th  century  Straton  I.  (in  Phoen.  *Abd-*asktwt 
or  Bod-*ashlart)  was  king,  c.  374~3<Vt.  He  cultivated  friendly 
relations  with  Athens,  indicated  In  a  decree  of  ^oM»to<Btichel, 
Rec.  dHnser.  gr.  No.  93  '^  CIG,  No.  87);  his  court  was  fsmed 
for  its  luxury;  and  the  extent  to  whidk  phJkHellenic  tendencies 
prevailed  at  this  time  in  Sidon  is  shown  by  the  royal  sarcophagi) 
noble  specimens  of  Greek  art,  which  have  been  excavated  in  ttie 
necropolis  of  the  dty.  It  was  in  the  lelgn  of  Straton  that  Tyre 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Evagoras,  king  of  Salamis,  who  had  already 
supplanted  Phoenician  with  Greek  dvilixation  in  Cyprus  (Isocr. 
Boag.  6a,  Paneg,  x6z;  Diod.  xv.  3).  Straton  made  friends  with 
Nicocles,  son  of  Evagoras,  and  with  him  came  to  an  untimely 
end  through  their  implicatk>n  m  the  great  revolt  of  the  satraps, 
363  B.C.  (see  the  story  of  Stmton's  death  in  Jerome,  cd9.  JaUn. 
I.  4s).  A  new  revolt  of  Sidon  against  the  Persians  took  place 
under  Ring  Tennes  owing  to  the  insults  offered  to  the  Sidonians 
at  the  federal  diet  in  TripoUs.  With  the  akl  of  Nectanebus 
of  Egypt,  who  had  grievances  of  his  own  to  avenge,  the  Sidonians 
carried  the  rest  of  Phoenicia  with  them  and  drove  the  satraps 
of  Syria  and  Cilida  out  of  the  country.  -  'Tennes,  however, 
betrayed  his  people  and  opened  the  dty  to  Artaxeraes  III.; 
the  inhabitants  to  the  number  of  40,000  are  said  to  have  set 
fire  to  their  houses  and  perished;  Tennes  himself  was  executed 
after  he  had  served  the  ends  of  the  great  king  (346  B.C.;  Diod. 
xvi.  4f'4S).  The  last  king  of  Sidon  was  Straton  II.  (*Abd- 
Tashtart,  346-333)  before  the  Persian  Empire  came  to  an  end.* 

Towards  the  close  of  the  sth  century  the  Phoenician  coins  begin 
to  supplement  our  historical  soarcea  (see  NmaSMATics).  From  the 
tame  of  Darius  the  Pcrsuo  monarchs  issued  a  gold  coinage^  and 
reserved  to  themselves  the  right  of  doing  so;  but  they  allowea  their 
aatrafM  and  vassal  states  to  coin  silver  and  copper  money  at 
discretion,  fience  Aradus,  Byblus,  Sidon  and  Tyre  issued  a  coinage 
of  tlMir  own,  of  which  many  specimens  exist:  the  coins  are  stamped 
as  a  rule  with  emblem  or  name  of  the  city,  sometimes  with  the 
name  of  the  ruler,'  Thus  from  the  coins  of  Byblus  we  learn  the 
names  of  four  kings,  *£l-pa'al,  'A2-ba*al  (between  360  and 340  D.C.). 
Adar-mclek,  *Ain-el ;  from  the  coins"  of  the  other  cities  it  is  difficult 

*  The  naval  expeditions  against  Greece  in  480-449  and  Sparta 
in  3^^387  were  mainly  fitted  out  by  Phocolcia'  See  PfiksiA: 
Anctent  Huhr^,  for  the  whole  of  this  section. 

*  Justin  xviii.  3  tells  a  story  about  Tyrt  during  this  period: 
the  city,  after  being  worn  out  though  not  defeated  in  long  wars 
with  the  Persians,  was  so  enfeebled  that  it  was  seised  by  the  ifaives, 
wtK>  fose  and  massacred  their  masters:  one  Staton  alone  escaped 
aod  was  afftrwardamade  king.  The  reference  to  the  Persians  is 
obviously  iacorrect;  the  story,  i(  it  caii  be  taken  seriously  at  all. 
must  refer  to  one  of  the  sirgcs  by  the  Assyrians  or  Chaldaeans,  and, 
am  Meyer  sugscsts  (Ene%  Btb.  col.  3760),  may  be  derived  from  tne 
story  of  Abdubnymus  01  SidoA  mcfKtonefi  below. 

«See  especially  E*  Babdon.  Lt$  Ptru*  Atktmimits,  and  cf. 
JV5/.  No.  149. 


to  ofateia  mach  IhformMlen.  The  •native'  Inscrfptfoas,  however, 
now  become  avaifaible,  though  most  of  them  bekmg  to  the  period 
whkh  folknrs,  and  only  a  few  have  been  discovered  in  Phoenicia 
itself.  One  of  the  eaiiiest  of  these  is  the  inscription  of  Byblus 
{CIS.  i.  i^NSt.  Na  3),  dating  from  the  Pteslan  period;  it 
records  a  dedkatkm  made  by  Yehaw-milk,  king  of  Gebal.  and 
mentions  the  name  of  the  king's  grandfather,  Uri-miik,  bat  the 
exact  dates  of  their  reign  are  not  given. 

When  Alexander  the  Great  entered  Phoenicia  after  the  battle 
of  Issus  iiii  B.C.},  the  kings  were  absent  with  the  Persian  fleet 
in  the  Aegean;  but  the  dtics  of  Aradus,  Byblus  and  j^ 
Sidon  welcomed  htm  readily,  the  last-named  showing  Mmetdo^am 
special  zf:al  against  Persia.  The  Tyriansalso  offered  P»rio4» 
submission,  but  refused  to  allow  the  conqueror  ^^'^"-^ 
to  enter  the  dty  and  sacrifice  to  the  Tyrian  Heracles.  Alexander 
was  determined  to  make  an  example  of  the  first  who  shouk} 
offer  opposition,  and  at  once  began  the  siege.  It  lasted  seven 
months.  With  enormous  toil  the  king  drove  out  a  mole  from 
the  mainland  to  the  island  and  thus  brought  up  his  engines; 
ships  from  the  other  Phoenician  towns  and  from  Cyprus  lent 
him  their  aid,  and  the  town  at  length  was  forced  in  July  333; 
8000  Tynans  were  slain,  30,000  sold  as  slaves,  and  only  a  few 
notables,  the  king  Azemtlkos,  and  the  festal  envoys  from  Carthage 
who  had  taken  refuge  In  the  sanctuary  of  Melkanh,  were  spared 
(Diod.  xvii.  40-46).  It  is  not  unlikely  that  2^ch.  ix.  9-4  refers 
to  this  famous  siege.  For  the  time  Tyre  lost  its  political 
existence,  while  the  foundation  of  Alexandria  presently  changed 
the  lines  of  trade,  and  dealt  a  blow  even  more  fatal  to  the 
Phoenician  cities. 

During  the  wars  of  Alexander's  successors  Phoenicia  changed 
hands  several  times  between  the  Egyptian  and  the  Syrian 
kings.  Thus  in  3x3  Tyre  was  captured  from  Antigonus  by 
Ptolemy  L,  the  ally  of  Seleucus;  in  287  it  passed  into  the  domin- 
k>n  of  Sdcucus;  in  275  again  It  was  captured  by  Ptolemy  II. 
Philadelphus,  and  began  to  recover  itself  as  an  autonomous 
munidpality.  From  the  year  375  "the  people  of  Tyre " 
reckoned  their  era  {CIS.  1.  j^NSL  No.  9,  cf.  xo).  The 
Tyrian  coins  of  the  period,  stamped  with  native.  Creek  and 
Egyptian 's)rmbols,  illustrate  the  traditional  relations  of  the 
dty  and  the  range  of  her  ambitions.  A  special  interest  attaches 
to  these  silver  tetradiachms  and  didrachms  (staters  and  half- 
staters),  because  they  were  used  by  the  Jews  for  the  payment 
of  the  temple  tax  as.*'shdLels  of  the  sanctuary  "  (iV5/.  pp. 

3S«»44).    '      _ 

Among  tne  Phoenician  states  we  know  most  about  Sidon 
during  this  period.  The  kingship  was  continued  for  a  long 
time.  The  story  goes  that  Alexander  raised  to  the  throne  a 
member  of  the  royal  family,  Abdalonymus,  who  was  living  in 
obscure  poverty  and  working  as  a  gardener  (Justin  xi.  10;  Curt. 
iv.  i;  Diod.  xvii.  47  wron^y  connecting  the  story  with  Tyre). 
In  313  Ptolemy,  then  master  of  Phoenicia,  appointed  his 
general  Philodes  king  of  the  Sidonians,  and  a  decree  in  honour 
of  this  king  has  been  found  at  Athens  (Michel,  No.  3S7,  cf.  i  ^61) ; 
but  he  cannot  have  reigned  long.  For  at  the  end  of  the  4lh 
and  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century  we  have  evidence  of  a 
native  dynasty  in  the  important  inscriptions  of  Tabniih,  £&h- 
mun-'azar  and  Bod-*a&htart,  and  in  the  scries  of  inscriptions 
(repealing  the  same  text)  discovered  at  Bostan  esh-Sh£kh  near 
Sidon  (NSI.  Nos.  4,  5,  6  and  App.  i.).*  The  Uist-named  texts 
imply  that  the  first  king  of  this  dynasty  was  £shmun-*azari 
his  son  Tabnith  succeeded  him»  then  came  Esbmun-'azar  II., 
who  died  young,  then  Bod-*ashtart,  both  of  them  grandsons 
of  Eshmtm-'azar  L  With  Bod-*ashtart,  so  far  as  we  know, 
the  dynasty  came  to  an  end,  say  about  350  b.c;  and  it  is  not 
unlikdy  tkat  the  Sidonians  reckoned  an  era  of  independence 
from  this  event  iNSI.  p.  95  n.). 

Of  the  other  Phoenician  cities  something  is  known  of  the  history 
of  Aradus.    Its  era  began  in  359  B.C.,  when  it  probably  became  a 

republic  or  free  city.    White  the  rest  of  Phoenicia  passed  under  the 

■  I      ••  ■■  ■ ^^— >—  II         I II       .1  ■■  -    I  I  II 

*The  date  of  this  dynasty  has  been  much  disputed:  but  the 
reference  to  **  the  lord  of  kings  "  in  the  great  inscr.  of  Esbmun- 
*asar  (tine  18)  points  to  the  Ptolemaic  period,  for  the  Persian  monarch 
I*  always  styled  "  king  of  kings."  The  interpretation  uf  many 
OccaiU  of  Uie  laser.  fromBostaaiMi-Shekh  is  still  ttttQer^A. 


1-S4. 


PHOENICfA 


rule  oC  Ptolemy  IL  and  his  sttcccssors  between  a8t  And  197.  Anidus 
lemained  in  the  kin|{doin  of  the  Sclcucids,  who  greatly  favoured  the 
dty  and  increased  its  privileges  (Strabo  xvi.  3,  14;  Polyb.  v.  68). 
But  its  subject-towns  availed  themselves  of  the  political  changes  of 
the  period  to  throw  off  their  allegiance;  Marathus  from  77B  begins 
to  issue  a  coinage  bearing  the  heads  of  the  Ptolemies,  ana  later  on 
Karne  asserted  its  independence  in  the  same  way;  but  in  the  end  the 
Aradians  recovered  their  supremacy.  Diodorus  records  a  barbarous 
attempt  made  by  the  Aradians,  about  148  B.C.  to  destroy  Marathus, 
which  was  frustrated  by  the  pity  and  courage  of  an  Aradian  fisher- 
man  (xxxiii.  5).  At  last  in  the  time  of  Tigrancs,  the  Armenian 
holder  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Sclcucids,  or  soon  afterwards,  the 
coins  of  Marathus  cease;  the  dty  was  levelled  to  the  ground,  and  its 
land,  with  that  of  Simvra,  was  parcelled  out  among  the  Aradians 
(Strabo  xvi.  2,  12).  Akko  issued  coins  of  its  own  down  to  367  B.C., 
if  the  reckoning  was  from  the  Seleucid  era  (31a  B.C.);  in  267  it  was 
converted  into  a  Greek  city  by  Ptolemy,  and  called  Ptolemais 

i Polyb.  iv.  37;  Strabo  xvi.  a,  25;  cf.  Acts  xxi.  7).  Laodicea  of 
.ibanus  was  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  on  the  plain  south-east 
of  Hemesa  (Uomf)  in  the  region  of  the  upper  Orontes,  and  became 
an  important  city;  its  coins  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.  bear  the  interest- 
ing legend  in  Pboemcian,  **  Of  Laodicea  whicn  is  in  Canaan  "  CNSI. 
p.  349^  Geq.).  Another  Laodicea  "  by  the  sea  "  (ad  mart),  also  of 
Seleucid  foundation,  is  probably  to  oe  idcntiAed  with  the  ruined 
site  called  Umm  el-'Awilmid  near  the  coast  between  Tyre  and  Akko; 
several  fMioenidan  inscriptions  have  been  found  there  (e.g.  CIS.t 
L  7  a  NSI,  No.  9 ;  Clemxwt  Ganncau,  JUcueily  t.  v.). 

After  the  death  of  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  In  164  B.C., 
revolts  and  adventurcxs  made  their  appearance  in  many  parts 
of  Syria,  heralding  the  collapse  ojf  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucids. 
Bcrytus  was  destroyed  by  the  tisarper  Trypho  in  140  B.C.  Tyre 
in  120  and  Sidon  in  xxx  received  complete  independence,  and 
inaugurated  new  eras  from  these  dates.  Byblus  and  Tripolis 
fell  into  the  hands  of  "  tyrants  "  (Strabo  xvi.  2,  x8;  Jos,  Ani. 
xiv.  3,  3),  and  Arab  robbers  plundered  their  territories  from 
strongholds  in  the  Lebanon.  From  83-69  b.c.  the  entire  kingdom 
was  held  by  the  Armenian  Tigranes. 

At  last  in  64  B.C.  Pompey  arrived  upon  the  scene  and  established 
order  out  of  chaos.  Phoenicia  was  incorporated  into  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria;  Aradus,  Sidon,  Tyre  and  Tripolis 
were  confirmed  in  their  rights  of  self-government 
and  in  the  possession  of  their  territories.  In  14  B.C. 
Augustus  rebuilt  Bcrytus  as  a  Roman  colony  and  stationed  two 
legions  there;  later  on  Ptolemais,  Tyre  and  Sidon  received 
colonic  status.  Under  the  beneficent  government  of  Rome  the 
chief  towns  prospered  and  extended  their  trade;  but  the  whole 
character  of  the  country  underwent  a  change.  During  the 
Macedonian  period  Greek  influences  had  been  steadily  gaining 
ground  in  Phoenicia;  relations  with  the  Greek  worid  grew  closer; 
the  native  language  fell  into  disuse,  and  from  the  beginning  of 
the  Roman  occupation  Greek  appears  regularly  In  inscriptions 
and  on  coins,  though  on  the  latter  Phoenician  legends  do  not 
entirdy  vanish  till  the  and  century  A.D.;  while  the  extent  to 
which  Hellenic  ideas  penetrated  the  native  traditions  and 
mythologies  is  seen  in  the  writings  of  Philo  of  Byblus.  For  the 
purposes  of  everyday  life,  however,  the  people  spoke  not  Greek, 
but  Aramaic.  As  elsewhere,  the  Roman  rule  tended  to  obliterate 
characteristic  features  of  national  life,  and  under  it  the  native 
language  and  institutions  of  Phoenicia  became  extinct. 

Navigation,  Trade,  Colonies. — ^The  Phoenidans  were  essentially 
a  seafaring  nation.  Fearless  and  patient  navigators,  they 
ventured  into  regions  where  no  one  else  dared  to  go,  and,  always 
with  an  eye  to  their  monopoly,  they  carefully  guarded  the  secrets 
of  their  trade  routes  and  discoveries,  and  their  knowledge  of 
^inds  and  currents.  At  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century  It.c.  a 
Fhoenidan  fleet  is  said  to  have  circumnavigated  Africa  (Herod, 
iv.  42).  To  the  great  powers  Phoenician  ships  and  sailors  were 
indispensable;  Sennacherib,  Psammctichus  and  Necho,  Xerxes, 
Alexander,  all  in  turn  employed  them  for  their  transports  and 
sea-fig|its.  Even  when  Athens  had  developed  a  rival  navy 
Greek  observers  noted  with  admiration  the  discipline  kept  on 
board  the  Phoenician  ships  and  the  skill  with  which  they  were 
handled  (X^n.  Oee.  viii.);  all  the  Phoenidan  vessels  from  the 
round  merchant-boat  (7aCXos— after  which  the  island  of.  Caulus, 
now  Gozo,  near  Malta  was  called)  to  the  great  Tarshish-ships, 
tlie  "  East-Indiamen  "  of  the  ancient  world,  excelled  those  of 
the  Greeks  in  speed  and  equipinent.    As  E.  Meyer  potnu  out, 


the  war  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Pmhuis  was  maialy  a 
contest  between  the  sea-powers  of  Greece  and  Pboenida.  At 
what  period  did  Phoenicia  first  rise  to  be  a  power  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean? We  are  gradually  appEoaching  a  sdution  of  this 
obscure  problem.  Recent  discoveries  in  Crete  (q.v.)  have  biought 
to  light  the  existence  of  a  Cretan  or  "  Minoan  "  sea-power  of 
remote  antiquity,  and  it  is  dear  that  a  great  deal  of  what  used 
to  be  described  as  Phoenician  must  rccdve  quite  a  different 
designation.  The  Minoan  sea^powa*  was  at  last  bioken  tip  bjr 
Invaders  from  the  north,  and  a  Carian  rule  became  dominant 
in  the  Aegean  (Herod,  i.  X7x;  Thucyd.  1.  4,  8).  It  was  a  time 
of  disorder  and  conflict  due  to  the  immigration  of  new  races 
into  the  andent  seats  of  civilisation,  and  it  synchroniaed  with 
the  weakening  of  the  power  of  Egypt  in  the  countries  which 
bordered  on  the  eastern  Mediterranean.  .  This  was  in  the  lath 
century  B.C.  The  Tyrian  trader  saw  that  his  opportunity  waa 
come,  and  the  Aegean  lay  open  to  his  merchant  vessels.  WhcR 
much  is  still  obscure,  all  that  seems  certaiir  is  that  the  antiquity 
of  Phoenicia  as  a  sea  and  trading  power  has  been  greatly 
exaggerated  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times;  the  Minoan 
power  of  Cnossus  preceded  it  by  many  centuries;  the  influence 
of  Phoenicia  in  the  Aegean  cannot  be  carried  back  /niich  earlier 
than  the  lath  century  B.C.,  and,  comparative^  speaking,  it  was 
"  foreign,  late,  sporadic"^ 

A  vivid  description  of  the  Phoenicians*  trade  at  the  tune  of 
Tyre's  prosperity  is  given  by  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  12-25),  and  it  sliows 
bow  extensive  were  their  commercial  relations  not  oniiy  by  sea* 
but  by  land  as  welL  It  was  they  who  distributed  to  the  rest 
of  the  world  the  wares  of  Egypt  and  Babylonia  (Herod,  i.  i). 
From  the  lands  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  regular  trade-routes 
led  to  the  Mediterranean  with  trading-stations  on  the  way, 
several  of  which  are  mentioned  by  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  sj).  In  Egypt 
the  Phoenician  merchants  soon  gained  a  foothold;  they  akme 
were  able  to  maintain  a  profitable  trade  in  the  anarchic  times 
of  the  XXIInd  and  XXIIIrd  Dynasties  ($25-650  B.C.),  when  aU 
otho*  foreign  merchants  were  friglitened  away.  Though  there 
were  never  any  regular  colonies  of  Phoenicians  in  Egypt,  the 
Tynans  had  a  quarter  of  their  own  in  Memphis  (Herod.  iL  i  is). 
The  Arabian  earavan-trade  in  perfume,  spices  and  incense  passed 
through  Phoenician  hands  on  its  way  to  Greece  and  the  West 
(Herod,  iii.  107);  these  articles  of  commerce  were  mainly  pro- 
duced not  in  Arabia,  but  in  East  Africa  and  India,  and  the  trade 
had  its  centre  in  the  wealthy  state  of  Sheba  in  Yemen.  Between 
Israel  and  Phoenicia  the  relations  naturally  were  dose;  the 
former,  provided  certain  necessaries  of  life,  and  received  in 
exchange  artides  of  luxivy  and  splendour  (Esek.  xxvii.  i6-ift}.* 
Israelite  housewives  sold  thdr  homespun  to  Phoenidan  pedlan 
(Prov.  xxxi.  24  R.V.MJ;  in  Jerusalem  Phoenician  merchants 
and  money-lenders  had  their  quarter  (Zoph.  L  11),  and  after 
the  Return  we  hear  of  Tyrians  selling  fish  and  all  manner  of  ware 
in  the  dty  (Nch.  xiii.  x6),  and  introdudng  other  less  desirable 
imports,  such  as  foreign  cults  (Isa.  Ixv.  xx).  The  Phoenidan 
words  which  made  their  way  into  Greek  at  an  early  period  indi* 
cate  the  kind  of  goods  in  which  the  Phoenicians  traded  with  the 
West,  or  made  familiar  through  their  commerce;  the  following 
are  some  of  tbemj-^v<r6$,  x^rwi',  Pucvot,  iS6vri,  t»*f^^  ^d^Xo, 
KOnpct,  ^Kor,  itva,  TaXXeuctt,  /SdcrvXor.-  Another  valuable 
article  of  commerce  which  the  Phocra'dans  brought  into  the 
market  was  amber.  They  can  hardly  have  fetched  it  themselves 
from  the  Baltic  or  the  North  Sea;  it  came  to  them  by  two  well- 
marked  routes,  one  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Adriatic,  the  other 
up  the  Rhine  and  down  the  Rhone.  A  deposit  of  amber  has 
also  been  found  in  the  Lebanon,  and  perhaps  lUc  Phoexudaas 
worked  this  and  concealed  its  origin. 

^  Burrows,  Diueteries  in  CrOe  (1907),  140  soq.  It  may  be  noted 
that  the  traditional  or  conjectural  d.ite9  baaco  upon  the  list  •!  the 
Thala«socraciet  pmerved  by  Euscbius  carry  us  back^o  the  13th 
century  B.C.   Sec  Professor  John  L.  Myret's  essay  referred  to  above, 

|m  (4)- 

'Sec  EupolemuB  (lao-iou  BX.)  quoted  by  Alexander  Polybistor, 
who,  in  a  supposed  letter  from  solotnon  to  the  kins  of  Tyre^ 
mentions  the  lood-suppliea  r«|utrcd  by  the  Tyriana  and  promised 
from  Palestine  (Fr.  UtU.  Cr.  iit.  226), 


PHOENICIA 


455 


Tlie  Plioenidan  colonies  vfett  aSt  suii^posed  to  have  b«en  founded 
from  Tyre:  with  regard  to  the  colonies  in  Cyprus  and  north 
Africa  this  was  undoubtedly  true.    Cyprus  possessed  resources 
6f  timber  and  copper  which  could  not  fail  to  tempt  the  keen-eyed 
traders  across  the  water,  who  made  Citium  (from  Kittim,  the 
name  of  the  original  non-Semitic  inhabitants)  their  chief  settle- 
ment, and  thence  established  themselves  in  Idalium,  Tamassus, 
Lapethus,  Lamaka,  Qarth-hadasht  (Karti-hadasti)  and  other 
towns.    In  the  inscriptions  of  the  4th  to  3rd  centuries,  the 
Phoenician  potentates  in  the  island  call  themselves  "  lungs  of 
Kitton  and  Idalion  "  (NSL  pp.  55-89).    But  the  Phoenician 
rule  was  not  so  ancient  as  used  to  be  supposed.   At  an  early 
period  Greeks  from  the  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor  had  settled 
in  Cyprus  before  the  Phoenicians  founded  any  colonics  there; 
and  it  is  noticeable  that  in  the  Assyrian  tribute-lists  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  7th  century  {KB.  ii.  pp<  149,  941)  not  one  of  the  ten 
Cyprian  kings  mentioned  appears  to  be  Phoenician  by  name. 
Menander  states  (Jos.  AnL  ix,  14,  3)  that  the  kings  of  Tyre 
ruled  over  Cyprus  at  the  close  of  the  8th  century;  but  a  clear 
proof  that  the  Phoenician  rule  was  neither  andent  nor  uninter> 
rupted  is  given  by  the  fact  that  the  Cyprian  Greeks  took  the 
trouble  to  invent  a  Greek  cuneilorm  character  {Cypriote)  modelled 
on  the  Assyrian. 

Homer  represents  the  Phoenicians  as  present  in  Greek  waters 
for  purposes  of  traffic,  but  not  as  settlers  (//.  xxiii.  744).  They 
occupied  trading-stations  on  some  of  the  Aegean  islands  and 
on  thie  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  One  of  their  objects  was  the  colIeC'> 
tion  of  murez,  of  which  an  enormous  supply  was  needed  for  the 
dyeing  industry;  specially  famous  was  the  purple  of  the  Laconian 
waters,  the  isles  of  Elisbah  of  Esek.  xxvii.  7.  But  a  great  deal 
of  what  was  formerly  assigned  to  Phoenician  influence  in  the 
Aegean  at  an  early  period — pottery,  oinameats  and  local  myths 
— must  be  account«l  for  by  the  vigorous  civilization  of  andent 
Crete.  In  the  Greek  world  the  Phoenicians  made  themselves 
heartily  detested;  their  characteristic  passion  for  gain  (rd 
0KXox^»iftl<'^fW»  Pbito,  Rep.  iv.  435  £.)  was  not  likely  to  in« 
gratiate  them  with  those  who  were  compelled  to  make  use  of 
their  services  while  they  suffered  from  their  greed. 

Farther  west  in  the  Mediterranean  Phoenician  settlements 
were  planted  first  in  Sidly,  on  the  south  coast,  at  Hexadea  or 
Ras  Melqarth;  the  islands  between  Sidly  and  Africa,  Melita 
(Malta)  on  account  of  its  valuable  harbour,  Gaulus  and  Cossura 
were  also  occupied  (Diod.  v.  12);  and  a  beginning  was  made  with 
the  colonization  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica;  but  farther  west  still, 
and  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  to  the  right  and  Idt  of  the  straits, 
more  permanent  colonies  were  established.    It  was  the  trade 
with  Taxshish, «.«.  the  region  of  Tartessus  in  south-west  Spain, 
which  contributed  most  to  the  Phoenicians'  wealth;  for  in  this 
region  they  owned  not  only  profitable  fisheries^  but  rich  mines 
of  silver  and  other  metals.   The  profits  of  the  trade  were 
enormous;  it  was  said  that  even  the  anchors  of  ships  returning 
from  Spain  were  made  of  silver  (Diod.  v.  35).    From  Gadcira 
(Panic  Cddir,  Lat.  GadeSf  now  Cadiz),  the  town  which  they  built 
on  an  island  near  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquiver,  the  Sidonian 
ships  ventured  farther  on  the  ocean  and  drew  tin  from  the  mines 
of  nottb-west  Spain  or  from  the  richer  deposits  in  the  Cassiteridcs, 
i.e.  the  Tin  Islands.   These  were  discovered  to  be,  not  a  part  of 
Britain  as  was  imagined  at  first,  but  a  separate  group  by  them- 
selves, now  known  as  the  Scillics;  hence  it  is  Improbable  that 
the  Phoenicians  ever  worked  the  tin-mines  in  ComwalL 

The  rich  trade  with  Spain  led  to  the  colonization  of  the  West. 
Strabo  dates  the  settlements  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hcrtulcs  soon 
after  the  Trojan  War  (i.  3,  3),  in  the  period  of  Tyre's  first  expan- 
sion. Lixus  in  Mauretania,  Gadesand  Utica,  are  said  to  have  been 
founded,  dne  after  the  other,  as  far  back  -as  the  1 2th  centUiy  B.C. 
Most  of  the  African  colonics  were  no  doubt  younger;  we  have 
traditional  dates  for  Aoza  (887-855)  and  Carthage  (813).  A 
ItLXgit  part  of  North-^est  Africa  was  colonized  from  Phoenicia; 
owing  to  these  first  settlers,  and  after  them  to  the  Carthaginians, 
the  Phoenician  language  became  the  prevailing  one,  just  as 
y-i>*in  aJid  Arabic  did  in  later  times,  and  the  country  assumed 
<^uite  a  Phoenician  character. 


In  the  days  of  Tyte's  greatness  her  power  rested  difeetly  on  the 
colonies,  wliich,  unlike  those  of  Greece,  remained  subject  to  the 
mother-dty,  and  paid  tithes  of  their  revenues  to  its  chid  god, 
Melqarth,  and  sent  envoys  annually  to  his  feast.  Then  at  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  century  B.C.  the  colonial  power  of  Tyre  began 
to  decline;  on  the  mainland  and  in  Cyprus  the  Assyrians  gained 
the  upper  hand;  in  the  Greek  islands  the  Phoenidans  had  already 
been  displaced  to  a  great  extent  by  the  advancing  tide  <^  Dorian 
colonization.  But  as  Tyre  decay«i  in  power  the  colonies  turned 
more  and  more  to  Carthage  as  their  natural  parent  and  protector. 
For  effective  control  over  a  colonial  empire  Carthage  had  the 
advantage  of  situation  over  faraway  TVre;  the  traditional 
bonds  grew  laz  and  the  andent  dues  ceased  to  be  ]iaid,  though 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  6th  centuty  Carthage  tendered  tithes 
to  the  Tyrian  Mdqarth.  And  the  mother-country  cherished 
its  claims  long  aftee  they  had  lost  reality;  in  the  and  oentury 
B.C.,  for  example,  Sidon  stamped  her  coins  with  the  legend, 
"Mother  of  KambE  {ix.  Carthage),  Hippo,  Kition,  Tyre" 
{NSr.  p.  353). 

lianufactureSf  Inventions,  Art— From  an  early  date  the  towns 
of  the  rboenidan  coast  were  occupied,  not  only  with  distributing 
the  inerchaMtise  of  other  countries  but  with  working  at  industries 
of  their  own;  especially  purplc-dydng  and  textile  fabrics  (//.  vi. 


^  copper  -<i        . . 

implies,  Od.  xv.  434)  furnished  the  ore  which  was  manufactured  into 
articles  of  commerce.^  Egyptian  monuments  freouently  mention  the 
vessels  of  jsold  and  silver,  iron  and  copper,  made  by  the  Dahi,  <*.«. 
the  Phocmcians  (W.  M.  MQUcr,  As.  u.  £ur.  306) ;  and  in  Cyprus  and 
at  Nimrud  bronze  and  silver  paterae  have  been  found,  engraved 
with  Egyptian  deigns,  the  work  of  Phoenidan  artists  (see  table- 
cases  C  and  D  in  the  Nimrud  gallery  of  the  Brit.  Mus.).  The  inv«»' 
tion  of  these  various  arts  ana  industries  was.populariy  aseribcd  to 
the  Phocmcians,  no  doubt  merely  because  Phoenician  traden 
brought  the  products  into  the  market.  But  dyeing  a'nd  embroidery 
probably  came  from  Babylon  in  the  first  instance;  glass-making 
seems  to  ha\'e  been  borrowed  from  Egypt :  the  invention  of  arithmetic 
and  of  wci^ts  and  measuccs  must  be  laid  to  the  credit  of  the  Baby- 
lonianA.  The  andcnta  believed  that  the  Phoenidans  invented  tne 
use  of  the  alphabet  (e.g.  Pliny,  N-H.  v.  13.  df.  vU.  57;  Lucan, 
Bell.  Civ.  iii.  220  sco.) ;  butit  is  unlikely  that  any  genuine  tradition  on 
the  subject  existed,  and^  though  the  Phoenician  theory  has  found 
favour  in  modem  times  it  is  opea  to  much  Question.  The  Phoeni- 
dans cannot  be  said  to  have  invented  any  of  the  arts  or  indostrics, 
as  the  ancient  world  imagined;  but  what  they  did  was  something 
hardly  less  meritorious:  they  developed  them  with  singular  skill, 
and  oisscminated  the  knowledge  and  use  of  them. 

The  art  of  Phoenida  is  characterized  generally  by  its  dependence 
upon  the  art  of  the  ndghbouring  races.  It  struck  out  no  original 
line  of  its  own,  and  borrowed  freely  from  foreign,  especially  Egyptian, 
models.  Remains  of  sculpture,  engraved  bronzes  and  gems,  thoyr 
dearly  the  source  to  which  the  Phoenician  artists  went  for  inspira- 
tion; for  example,  the  uracus-fricze  and  the  winged  disk,  the  ankh 
or  symbol  of  Ufc,  arc  Egyptian  desiirns  frequently  imitated.  It  was 
iiV  the  times  of  the  Persian  monarchy  that  Phoenician  art  reached 
its  highest  development,  and  to  this  period  belong  the  oldest  sculp* 
tuies  and  coins  that  have  come  down  to  us.  A  characteristic 
specimen  of  the  former  is  the  stele  of  Yehaw-milk.  king  of  Gebal 
{CIS.  i.  i),  in  which  the  king  is  represented  in  Persian  dress,  and 
the  goddess  to  whom  he  is  offering  a  bowl  looks  exactly  like  an 
Egyptian  Isis-Hathor;  the  inscription  mentions  the  various  objects 
ofDronze  and  gold,  engraved  work  and  temple  furniture,  which  the 
king  dedicated.  The  whole  artistic  movement  in  Phoenicia  may  be 
divided  into  two  great  periods:  in  the  first,  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  4th  century  D.c,  Egyptian  influence  and  then  Babylonian 
or  Asiatic  influence  is  predominant,  but  the  national  element  is 
strongly  marked;  while  in  the  second.  Creek  influence  has  obtained 
the  mastery,  and  the  native  element,  though  making  itself  felt, 
is  much  less  obtrusive.  Throughout  these  periods  works  of  art, 
such  as  statues  of  the  gods  and  sarcophagi,  were  imported  direct 
at  first  from  Egypt  and  afterwards  mainly  from  Rhodes.  The 
oldest  example  of  native  sarcophagi  arc  copied  from  Egyptian 
mummy-cases,  painted  with  colours  and  ornamented  with  carvings 
in  k>w  rclid;  towards  and  during  the  Greek  period  the  contours  of 
the  body  begin  to  be  marked  more  clearly  on  the  cover.  The  finest 
sarcophagi  that  have  been  found  in  the  necropolis  of  Sidon  (now  in 
the  imperial  Museum,  Constantinofde)  are  not  Phoenidan  at  all, 
but  exquisite  specimens  of  Greek  art.  The  Phoenicians  s|)ent  much 
care  on  their  burial-places,  which  have  furnished  the  most  important 

^Traces  of  andent  mining  for  iron  have  been  found  in  the 
LcbatKHi ;  d.  LXX.  1  Kings  ii.  46c  (cd.  Swete);  which  has  been  taken 
to  sefer  to  this  quairying  in  search  of  iron;  Jer.  xv.  I3.  See 
Benzinger  on  i  Kings  ix.  19. 


456 


PHOENICIA 


I  Ihe  DIhtr.    While  la 


T  pcrpcndiciilsr  ihmtt  led  to  thcie  CKCflvitkin*. 

■ 'iiiaed  down  lo  the  chuBbeti.    The 

oorfoltea  in  ■  larcophiciiitlp  Df,  Bocording 

.    The  Bouibi  bI  ibc  (onin  vcn  walk? 

'  DCCllioailllv  cipfri  (Phocn,  nutftMljh) 

.    Thetfcat HpukJirml  nuMnimenli, 


tih-Shelih  near  SMoa  have  unearthed  jparu  oC  the  endnuiv  or 
rauadalkMU  ol  Ibe  tencje  ol  Ethmun  INSI.  p.  4i»)l  >bc  conduiu 
of  Rai  tl-'Ain.  aoulh  of  Tyre,  vc  coniideml  to  be  a[  ancient  dau. 
With  rccard  lo  the  plan  and  clts[n  of  ■  PboeniciBD  temple.  LI  is 
probable  that  they  were  in  many  resprcIa^iimiLir  to  those  of  the 

mi^ni  of  a  H^Tuary'  nae  Anii^  In  tih'iSi  ^e^^ia  a  irlla  lUndl^ 
in  the  niid«t  of  *  lai^  eourt  bnm  out  of  Ihe  tdcIt.  lo^Iher  with 
other  buildingi  in  »n  Egypliui  alylc.  The  Iwn  pillar,  before  the 
porch  of  Solomon'i  temple  (l  King!  vil.  ll)  iTmind  ui  of  Ibc  t*a 

5'IIan  which  HcnxkHui  aw  bi  the  lemi^  ol  Melqinh  at  Tyre 
■IcTod.  ii.  44l.  and  of  those  whieh  Mood  before  the  templet  of 


xJ.  ii.  u] 
osand  Hii 

■e  Phocniciai 


_  _, im  W.  R.  Smith.  Kd.f/Sai.  p.  i6»  aeq.]. 

'Like  Ihe  Canuiiiitei  of  whom  mey  formed  a  biaDC 
'  their  Tdinon  with  the  greac  powen  ai 
[uie.^  The  goda  whom  they  wordiippi 
ially  lo  the  earth;  the  fertile  ficH,  tre 


anbly  or 


le  Tyrian  Mdqanh  I 


Sfor"" 


»nne  aapect.'    The  godi 

ihe  common  Semitic  name  for  Cod:  but  neither  the  sn^lar  nor  the 

'CI  by  ilsell  hai  been  found  only  once  :■  Ihe  fcm.  '^th  il  a'w  rari! 
(ibid.  pp.  115.  158}.  The  god  or  coddca  wa»  geDeraJly  laliwi  Ihe 
Ba-il  or  Ba'alath  of  inch  and  such  a  place,  a  litle  which  wai  uKd  not 
only  by  the  Canasnitei.  bui  by  the  Aianueana  (BeVI)  and  Bahylo- 
Biani  (Bd)  u  well.  There  was  no  one  particular  sod  called  Baal; 
[be  woird  is  not  a  pmper  name  but  an  appdiaiive,  a  description  el 
the  dcily  u  oirur  or  mfiTKii:  and  11m  ame  is  the  case  with  Milk 
or  Melelt,  'Adoa.  ■'--         1--  ■■       ■    ■        -•        -~ 


man  Mbt^JdhI,  anttrr.    The 

wbit  the  name  was;  the  Baal  of  Tyre  was  Melqanh  (Melkarth). 
which  again  mcanf  merely  "  king  of  Ihe  city  ";  nmilarly  among  Ihe 
.Aramaeans  Ihe  Ba*a[  of  Hamin  was  Ihe  mi»n.«xl  SSa.  A>  eaet 
city  or  dittrici  had  Its  own  tla'ai,  Ihe  anlhoT  at  iH  fertlHty.  Ihe 
"  husband  "  (a  common  meaning  of  b*a/)  of  the  bnd  which  he  fertl> 
liied.  »  there  were  many  Ba*als,  and  the  OM  Tesiamenl  wrilcn 
could  allidc  10  Ibc  Ba'llim  ot  the  adghbadrint  Canaanites.  Some- 
timn  Ibe  god  received  a  diiliiuni^tint  allribirle  which  Indiealo* 
an  avociatHHi  not  with  any  pariicvlar  place,  hut  with  some  qieeiat 
chancterinic;  the  mou  common  forms  arc  Ba'al-hammlti.  ihe  chid 
deity  of  Punic  north  Afiica.  perhapa  "Ihe  alosrinB  Ba'al.'*  ibe  god 
of  fcrtiliiing  warmth,  and  Ba^l^hamlm.  "Ba'al  of  ihe  heaveu."' 
The  latter  deity  was  widely  venerated  throoghoul  ihe  Nonh- 
Semitic  vorld:  his  name,  irluch  does  not  appear  in  Ihe  Phoenician 
ioscripliou  before  Ibe  jrd  century  p.c.  implies  perhaps  a  more 
liniveral  conception  olJeity  Ihan  enisled  In  the  earlier  days.' 


(April  190(1),  pp.  iit-141,' 


t    lord    -El,    whieh    Ba'al-thillcm  . 


•  Probalily  -  Ihe  delesled 


".'.'/r?. 

*^l!i?ue'il!l"itil 

in  •rhieh  Zaldr,   kini  of 
of  bii  god   Bc'ci^shamin 


The  worship  li  the  female^loog  *llh 


iait  Ishtar.  and.  aa  used  in  Phoenibu,  fa.practidlly  the  onuivalenl 
of  "goddesk"  She  represented  Ibc  pnnciple  of  fcn^lky  aiad  genera- 
tion; Rfcrencu  to  her  cult  al  Cdut,  Sidon.  Ashkelon.  In  Cyprui 
Bl  Kition  and  Faphot,  in  Sidly  at  Eiyi,  la  Gaulns,  at  Cailfaiie. 
art  fnquent  in  the  iiucriptiou  and  eiscwlieffa.  Tha  caomH 
ipithnriUrnaMl  K-tm^  Kiithn  I*  Cncu]  ,Cyaii»aod  F*phia. 
show  ihat  (he  wa<  idenlKied  with  Aphmdila  aadveau.  Tbou^ 
not  primarily  a  moon-goddeu,  ihe  soraetlmH  appean  in  iffii 
chimcter  (Lucian.  Dra  lyr.  }  4;  Hcndlan  *.  «,  10),  and  Kerodoli 
describes  her  temple  al^hlutoBH  that  of  Ihe  bcncalyAi'  " 
U.iDS).  W*  tndWuKciated  with  Ba-al  and  called  "Ihe 
Ba'al,*-  M.  hi  


ing  is  disputed, 

jS\fil~  (NSI. 

honoured  at  Canhage.  Is  Taniih 
[  it  iinown  ti  her  characMviitica; 

Ba-ul,";--   '-■ ■      " 


above,  has  all  ihe  appearance  ol  lus,  who,  accordingto  Ibc  kEei>d 
preserved  by  Fliiiarch  {dt  II.  rt  Oj.  iO,  journeyed  to^ybTu.  wherr 

poundeiTwiih  ihe  naniea  of  B^yloDian  aDin^bun  ikilirt  {HSL 
p.  loi).    Closer  in limacy  wilh  the  Creek  world  """"ajlj  brmigSl 

becameappa  rem  when  ^.lol  Sidon  or  Ba>l-shamgm  was  IdnWifcd 

&C. ;  the  nocioo  ol  a  sHprwna  Ba'al,  wbicb  6nd*  CMwessHn  IB  the 
Greek  w;ui  and  SiaXrIi  or  a<P^  (iKe  goddeuol  Byblut).  ans  no 
doubt  encouraged  by  (orrign  inltuence*.  On  the  other  band,  the 
Phoeidclani  produced  a  considerable  efleet  upon  Gnck  and  ItomtB 
olMrn.  iworlally  from  iIh  toUgioas  ccnlm  in  Cypnu  and  Sicily. 

er  of  diviniiiea  are  knosrn  only  at  clemcnlt  in  pr 

'      (Sancbunialhan), 'AM-wim.  ^.yal 


_Cabd,*.g. _ 

•.g.  Bod-mehianh).  cUenc  or  gaeK  (gee,  i 
reiigkMu  Uea  ol  ihegwsi  of  adeity  had  lis  oni 


ding  hotpital 

Of'Si'^l).  Ijii 

....  nailed  one)  It  not 

Probably  like  01I1 
sn  every  high  hill , 


Ihe  old  Semitic  riihl 

ll  (brathei  of  Milkaih),  HIrani  (brother 
atngnhcr  ceniia,  and  can  hardly  be 

Ibe  Pheeniciani  offered  wonhip 


these  the  boj^yiio  (n 


Bnico  or  iHlkted  "•™*- 

[timet  ilood  a  conical  slone. 

Ihe  Roman  coins  of  Bybhn 

.    4».  Perrol  et  CUiiiei.  JTut. 

■Ito  Oh]ie<alKli.Rfliler,  Cmi.  fL  ivi,  tk 

(JV5/?N^l'^,.'l3^.30,fa.J!Md^y5 


tlicse  the  btvlyiio  (melnrfc  ttonc: 

o(  the  gods.   nitara,a«ln.ha<Ia 

I u. .!_: —  Iwn*.  ibid.  pp.  «u  tea.):  but  it  it  not  Icnon  whethec 

Cailifnli).  an  Invariable  featun  of  a  Canaoniu  lane- 
lal  in  a  rhocnician  temple  (iblJ.  pp.  50  teql,    Th« 


PHOENIX 


vnoBB  Ibt  Phowaciam  wen  tfulMoua  (Alhoae 
>lwOI<]T«uiocnt(ibid.|i.  117).   Tlu (hauty pn 


iknJ  dlsair  (PBtphny. 

_ ^, I  g™  iM  iMnju  It  Cmm  or  El  ■Cfiaiai 

bt»  fMly  «a  vHa  hit  coaatiy  vu  Umtoicd  wtth  wai  IFr.  luL 

a,  ilL  S70J:  it  wu  ngarded  at  ■  patriolic  act  when  mnLllcar 
nw  bioueU  iipon  the  pyn  after  the  dinitrooi  battle  tH  Himen 
(KenxL  ifL  167).  Tlie  nd  vbo  demnded  theo  vicllini.  and 
•■pedaUy  ihs  huntH  ol  cUMia,  iiiim  to  haw  bees  Hilk.  Ike 
H^ledioc  Moloch  anhe  Old  Tmubu.  1b  thitooaaeiiion  nay  b» 
nntiooed  the  cuusio  of  burninf  the  chief  god  of  Ibe  cily  in  emp, 
via  thepenonof  ■tiuininnpreieDtalive,  acTyreaDdin  tbeTyrun 
a>loiiie>.  McliaiCulhaRiadGodeiitbeciiitaB  kateddowa  ts* 
laM  tliu  (tea  Flaw.  Ik.  (tl.  eh.  T  J.  Another  bonibta  inifioe  ina 
iKblarly  demanded  by  FboeaiciaA  jeligiQa:  wooca  ■rrrfipH  tbcir 
nnialty  at  Ibe  ihnnri  of  Auaite  In  the  belief  that  tbey  thai  pro- 
pltiatedlhegoddeHandvoalinfavour  (Fiucr, Ibid. eh. lil.) ! I>ca> 
tkHU  rilei  were  the  nalural  accomiiaidBiciil  of  the  vonblp  of  tbo 
rvpfoductlve  powert  of  aatdR.  Thoc  taaalt  anatitotaa  are  called 
^iMmmitiiillk,  it.  acted  mea,  woui,  in  tba  Old  TcMaoKot 
CDeue.  nui.  18;  i  Kin|>  xiv.  34.  Ac.).  Ollvr  peraooa  attached  to  a 
temple  were  priette.  auguri,  tlcTlficcn,  barb«i.  olBciala  in  durac 
of  tlie  eimomi.  nanoL  «c  INSI.  t4o.  »)i  w  hMr  aim  ef 
Mt^houa  flildi  and  oorponliofu^  pertupa  adnuJutrtiva  oouDOla, 
aaodatairwilb  the  Mnctuarin  (ibid.  pp.  u.  iii,  lu.  144  Kq.). 
N«  doubl  the  Pboeniaana  had  (Hir  Agenda  and  mylha  to  account 


„SSZ  ■'■'^  Oau^,  tb»  diler  in  deuila.  ai 
«»HeK  ia  atRcneni.  The  one,  of  Sidoalac 
■erved  by  Danuudui  {dr  frim,  prwifnii,  li^) 
Ini  hanoa  a  Neoplatonic  interpretation;  thit 
probably  the  wiiibiB  which  Strabo  aacrib 
lic^iH,  who  Und  before  die  Trojaa  liis 

lladrian);lieprofeiaedliu1hchad  uirdi 
Id  Sancbuniathaii  («.•,),  an  nnci^nt  PI 
derind  hia  laformntio*  Irom  tha  oi 
(liwiiPiTt"™!;  M.  inam  nr  fii't 
Ehc  Phoenician  templet,  rhila'a  R»mi 
at  Icut  in  Itagmenti,  by  Eiucbiui  in  Pi 
ir.  llL  S61  KtaTt.  It  cannot,  however,  be  t 
of  aenakH  nnaddan  bclieta.  ForSuid 
iefloa;  and  Pbilo'a  tMtaieat  iivitiaicil 


?^^M 


''■''''whTi'^ 
^'al-hanuDftn)  in 


Athavl 


and  further  by  a  palriotfaibi 


la  handed 

finally  ha  a _. ., 

other  evidence,  an  furiy  ikU  aupponed.  He  ahowi  at  any  tale 
that  aome  sort  of  a  theolo^  eiiatrd  in  hia  day;  particularly  inlFrtR. 
Ini  ii  hit  dricrlptHin  of  the  aymbolic  finire  of  Cronnt  with  eya  before 
and  behind  and  aiii  winfa  open  and  foMed  (Fr.  MA  r-  &  S«9).  ■ 
figure  which  >•  npnmud  on  the  ecnna  of  G^nl-ByAoa  (ind  cea- 
tury  B.C.)  (a  the  mythical  founder  of  the  cily.  It  la  evident  that 
the  EDda  were  ngaided  at  bdni  iplimalely  tonccrned  wilh  Ihe 
Uvea  and  fonuaet  of  their  wonhippera.  Tbc  vaat  number  of  email 
votive  tahiHa  found  at  Canhan  provn  Ihia:  Ibey  wen  all  fauoibed 
by  cratdul  davoBee  "  to  Ibe  hdy  Tanith.  Face  of  St'al,  and  Ihe 
lenrBa'al-haiuila.becauK  be  hiaidtheii  voice."  The  care  which 
thw  Phoenician*  beatoired  upon  the  buiial  of  the  dead  hai  been 
■Ihjdcd  10  above;  pillart  (mojfiMK)  wrIT  art  up  to  commtmorile 
the  dead  anraif  Ibe  livtng  (r.r.  tiSI.  Noa.  it.  19.  ji,  JJ):  if  (hm 
wcra  BO  childnn  to  fulfil  the  jioat  duty,  a  mooumenl  wouM  be  •« 
uby  a  nun  durinf  hit  lileluDC  (ibid.  No.  16;  cf.  1  Sam,  avUi.  ig). 
Aar  violation  ol  Ihe  tomb  was  regarded  wkh  the  ireateat  hoiror 
gbU-No..*.)).  Thegravewatc«Bplafemin(-placer|b«.No>.4, 
a.  16;  ii).  aad  the  deponed  lay  It  m  in  the  underworld  with  Ihe 
ScMina,  th*  weak  onea  (Ihe  laina  wonl  and  Idea  in  the  CHd  TeMa- 
Hit.  laa.  air.  a,  xxvL  14.  I»i  Job  a»L  5:  P^  boorviU.  11.  &c.]. 
The  curunia  nottoa  prevailed,  at  it  ^  aln  among  the  Ciecha  aod 
Roman*,  that  it  wai  poiilble  10  coramunieate  with  the  god.  of  the 
underworld  by  dropping  Into  a  grave  a  wnaU  toll  of  kad  (biMb 
rfiasrtnil.  Nil.  No.  fM.  ina:rUKd  with  the  mettige,  fOunlly  a 


An  entllenl  and  critical  aeeonnt  of  Philo'a  woit  ia  ^wn  by 
[Tuge.  £Mu  w  Im  >«l.  ffw  (Ud  ed.,  lyos).  ch.  li. 


^OBIflX  [Gr.  ^abi{),  K  fabalnu  sacred  Urd  of  11k  Egypliuii. 
The  Crtck  word  is  abo  uwd  (or  a  datc-palin,  a  tamkal  Iti- 
ittunent  like  ■  guitar,  and  the  colour  purple-red  ot  oiniHRi. 
According  to  th*  Mary  told  to  Herodoius  (U.  ii),  (be  Utd 
came  from  Arabia  every  t/aa  yam.  hearing  his  Islher  enbalmed 
In  a  ball  of  myith,  and  buried  Wm  in  the  temple  of  Ihe  tun. 
Heiaitatua,  who  bad  never  i«n  the  pboenii  himself,  did  not 
believe  thii  story,  but  be  tells  us  that  the  pictures  of  it  repitsenled 
a  bird  wllh  gotdcn  and  red  plumage,  doicly  cesemUing  an  ca^ 
la  ^ze  and  ihspc.  Accordltif  to  FGcy  {Nui.  kisl.  i.  1),  there 
[s  only  OHO  phoeciii  it  a  time,  and  he,  at  the  close  of  hb  long  life, 
builds  htmsclf  a  nest  with  (wigs  cf  cassia  and  fraAkinceste,  on 
whkh  he  dies;  from  his  corpse  is  genented  a  worn  which  growt 
into  the  young  phoenii.  Tacitus  (.f  tin,  vi.  18)  siys  that  the 
youDg  bird  lays  hu  father  on  the  altar  in  the  cily  of  (he  ami.  ot 
bums  him  (here;  bill  the  most  familiar  form  ot  tbe  IcgcDd  is  that 
in  tbe  Pkyiinlagiu  ((.>.),  where  the  phoenli  is  detcribed  as  aa 
Indian  bird  which  subsists  on  air  for  500  years,  after  wMeh, 
lading  his  wings  wflh  spices,  ho  flies  to  Bdiopolia,  entan  tbe 
temple  there,  and  Is  burned  to  ashes  oo  tbe  ^lar.  Next  day 
(he  young  phoczdx  Is  already  feathered;  on  the  third  day  hb 
fjnlons  are  full  grown,  he  ulutes  tbe  prIeM  ud  Sle*  away,  Tbe 
period  at  which  the  phoenii  reappears  is  very  variooily  ittted, 
some  aulhon  giving  a)  much  as  1461  or  even  7006  years,  but 
500  yean  J]  the  period  usu^  named;  and  Tacitus  (elk  us  (hat 
tbe  bird  was  said  to  have  a[>peared  Sm  under  Setcatris  (SosMirf  )i 
then  nnder  Ami^s  (Abmosi)  H.,  under  Ftolemylll.,  and  once 
(gain  In  ad.  34,  after  an  intecval  so  rfion  tbat  fbt  grmilTnrw 
'  '  Ust  phoenii  wu  inspected.  The  phoenix  Ikat  wM  ih 
ncinlheyearof  tbe  secular  gama(«,D,  47)  wi 
admided  to  be  an  imposture.' 

jiaiions  of  these  stories  tftaratlarfie  them  at 
popular  tales  nlher  than  oflicisl  theology;  but  they  evidently 
must  have  had  points  oi  attachment  in  (he  mystic  Ttti|loti  at 
Egypt,  nnd  indeed  both  Horaponaa  and  Tsriiua  apeak  ol  tbe 
phoenii  ii  a  symbol  of  tbe  sun.  Nowureknowfrem  the  D»i< 
(ta  Dtoi,  and  other  Egyptian  texts,  (hat  ■  stork,  bcron  or  egret 
ealkdtbetami  \^  wm  one  ol  lh|E  sacred  synUiola  of  the  wonhip 

iopolii,  and  A.  Wiedemann  ("  Die  Fhiinit.S:>ge  im  alten 
-._.loii"  in  Zdlukrifl  JtH  asyt'i"^  Spraiii.  ivi,  89)  has 
made  it  tolerably  clear  that  Ibe  iciiii  wis  a  symbol  oi  ihc  riung 
son,  whence  it  is  lepteaeiiled  as  "  scl!-genecating  "  and  called 
Ibe  soul  of  Ra  [ihe  sun),"  "  the  hesil  ol  the  tewwed  Sun." 
l  tbe  mystic  symbolism  of  the  morning  sun,  especially  ia 
jmeiion  with  tho  doctrine  of  the  future  life,  could  thus  be 
Itansfcrttd  lo  tbe  bcmt,  and  the  language  of  Ibe  hymns  in  which 
the  Egyptians  praised  Ibe  luraimiy  of  dawn  as  be  drew  near 
-  -  ■leired  tc     ~ 


aUta 


of  c.  c,  c 


CI  (Mnm 


iSej).  stolen 

"  m  Hc?x;v^*rh\e  io^',"m ';^m  of'th; 

Jew  Eiechle 

quoted  by  EiHcbius  (Pmrt.  tr.  ii.  19.  30)  appear* 

»phoe«lJ   Her.  the  s«e«  song  >•  bat  nnlipned- 

an^-hicl 

r^^^j:i^^r,t'-^^^t^ii?''sJ^ 

o[l"  i^.';"  p 

lian.  Dt  r«».  un,H.  e.  Ill  Clemen  Roflt.  £f>p.  ad 

OioAiai,  ■ 

45  8 


PHOENIX— PHCMMETICS 


ffom  Arabia,  delighting  the  gods  with  Us  ftagrance  sad  rising 
from  the  sinking  flames  of  the  morning  glow,  was  enough 
to  suggest  most  of  the  traits  materialized  in  the  classical  pictures 
of  the  phoenix.  That  the  benu  is  the  prototype  of  the  phoenix 
IS  further  cotifirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  former  word  in  Egyptian 
means  also  "  palm-tree,"  just  as  the  latter  does  in  Greek.  The 
very  various  periods  named  make  it  probable  that  the  periodical 
return  of  the  phoenix  belongs  only  to  vulgar  legend,  materia- 
lizing what  the  priests  knew  to  be  symbolic.  Of  the  birds  of  the 
heron  family  the  gorgeous  colours  and  plumed  head  spoken  of 
by  Pliny  and  others  would  be  least  inappropriate  to  the  purple 
heron  {Ardea  purpwea),  witb  which,  or  with  the  allied  Ardea 
einereat  it  has  been  identified  by  Lepaius  and  Peters  (AUetU 
TtxU  ies  Todtmbucks,  1867,  p.  51).  But  the  golden  and  puiple 
hues  described  by  Herodotus  may  be  the  colours  of  sunrise  rather 
than  the  actual  hues  of  the  purple  heron.  How  Herodotus 
came  to  think  that  the  bird  was  like  an  eagle  is  quite  unexplained; 
perhaps  this  is  merely  a  slip  of  memonr. 

.  Many  commentators  still  underetand  the  word  Vn,  chA,  In  Job 
xxix.  18  (A.V.  "  cand  *'\  of  the  phoenix.    This  interpretation  is 

Errhaps  as  old  as  the  (onginal)  Septuagint,  and  is  current  with  the 
ter  Jews.  Amonr  the  Arabs  the  story  of  the  phoenix  was  confused 
with  that  of  the  suamandcr;  and  the  samand  or  samandal  (Damiri, 
ii.  36  acq.)  is  represented  sometimes  as  a  Quadruped,  sometimes  as 
a  bird.  It  was  firmly  believed  in,  for  tne  incombustible  cloths 
woven  of  flexible  asbestos  were  popularly  thoueht  to  be  made  of  its 
hair  or  plumage,  and  were  themselves  caUecfby  the  same  name 
<cf.  Yaqut  i.  5S9.  and  Dozy,  i.v.).  The  *ankd  (Pcrs.  Hmurgfi)^  a 
stupendous  bud  like  the  roc  (rukh)  of  Marco  Polo  and  the  Arainan 
Nithts,  also  borrows  some  features  of  the  phoenix.  According  to 
Kazwtni  (i.  420)  it  lives  1700  yean,  and  when  a  young  bird  b  hatched 
the  parent  of  opposite  sex  bums  itself  alive,  in  the  book  of  KclUa 
end  Dimtu  the  sim&r  or  *anlfd  m  the  king  of  birds,  the  Indian  garMa, 
00  whom  Vishnu  rides.  ^ 

PHOENIXt  the  capital  of  Arizona,  U.S.A.,  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Maricopa  county,  situated  on  the  Salt  river,  in  the 
aouth  central  part  of  the  state.  Pop.  (1890),  3152;  (1900), 
S544  (93s  being  foreign-bom  and  148  negroes);  (X910J  11,134. 
It  is  served  by  the  Arizona  Eastern  and  the  Santa  F£, 
Prescott  &  Phoenix  railways,  the  former  connecting  at  Mari> 
copa  (35  m.  distant)  with  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  latter 
connofting  at  Ash  Fork,  near  Prescott  (194  nu  distant),  with 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  F6.  The  dty  is  a  popular  winter 
and  health  resort,  with  a  fine  dry  climate.  The  dty  is  the  see  of 
%  Protestant  Episcopal  bishopric.  About  3  01.  north  of  the  dty 
is  -the  Phoenix  (non-reservation)  boarding-school  for  Indians, 
supported  by  the  United  States  government,  with  an  average 
attendance  of  about  700  pupils.  The  dty  lies  in  a  great  plain, 
ia  the  centre  of  a  region  of  pastures,  gardens  and  orchards,  the 
largest  and  most  beautiftd  fanning  district  of  Arizona,  irrigated 
with  water  stored  by  the  great  Roosevelt  dam  (about  70  m. 
northeast  of  Phoenix).  Local  interests  are  almost  entirely  in 
agriculture,  stodt-raising  and  fruit-growing.  In  the  stirrounding 
region  are  several  large  ostrich  farms  and  a  small  exhibition 
ranch.  Phoenix  was  settled  in  1870,  became  the  connty-aeat 
on  the  organization  of  Maricopa  county  in  X871,  was  incorporated 
in  x88i,  and  became  the  capital  of  Arizona  in  1889. 

PHOENIX  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  eight  small  islands  hi  the 
Padfic  Ocean,  about  3*  S.,  and  172*  W.,  belon^png  to  Great 
Britain.  They  have  a  land  area  about  x6  sq.  m.  and  a  popula* 
tion  of  60.  Their  names  are  Phoenix,  Gardner  (Kemin),  Hull, 
Sydney,  Bimie,  Enderbuty,  Canton  (Mary)  and  McKean.  To 
the  north-west  of  the  group  (between  the  equator  and  i"  N.) 
lie  two  more  islets— Baker  and  Howland.  The  islands  were 
annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  rSS^-tSgs. 

PHOENIZVILLB,  a  borough  of  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Schuylkill  river  at  the  mouth  of  French  Creek, 
above  28  m.  north-west  of  Philaddphia.  Pop.  (1890),  85x4; 
(x^oo),  9x96,  of  whom  222X  were  foreign4>om  and  278  were 
negroes;  (19x0  census),  10,743.  It  *>  served  by  the  Pennsylvania 
(Schuylkill  division)  and  the  Philaddphia  &  Readmg  railways, 
and  by  dectric  raflway  to  Spring  City  (pop.  in  xgio,  2880), 
5  m.  north-west  of  Phoenixville  on  the  Schuylkill.  Phoenixville 
b  chiefly  a  manufacturing  borough.  Its  blast-fumaccs  and  iron 
mills  were  long  among  the  largest  in  the  country,  and  the  manu- 


facture of  ated  IS  still  the  borough's  prwiominant  indusUy. 
Phoenixville  was  settled  in  1732,  and  was  inoorporated  in  1849. 

PHONETICS  (Gr.  ^H),  voice),*the  science  of  speech-sounds 
and  the  art  of  pronunciation.  In  its  widest  sense  it  is 
the  "  adence  of  voioe/'  dealing  not  only  with  articulate,  but  also 
with  the  inarticulate  sounds  of  animals  as  well  as  men.  The 
originally  synonymous  term,  "phonology,"  is  now  restricted 
to  the  history  and  theory  of  sound-changes.  The  most  obvious 
of  the  practical  ^plications  of  phonetics  b  to  the  acquisition 
of  a  correct  pronunciation  of  ^ordgn  languages.  But  its  applica- 
tions  to  the  study  of  the  native  luiguage  are  not  less  important: 
it  is  only  by  the  hdp  of  phonetics  that  it  is  possible  to  deal 
effectivdy  with  vulgarisms  aiui  provincialisms  of  pronunciation 
and  secure  uniformity  of  speech;  and  it  is  only  on  a  phonetic 
basis  that  the  deaf  and  dumb  can  be  taught  articulate  speech. 
From  a  more  theoretical  point  of  view  phonetics  is,  in  the  first 
place,  the  sdence  of  linguistic  observation.  Without  phonetic 
training  the  dialectologist,  and  the  missionary  who  is  ccmf rooted 
with  a  hitherto  unwritten  language,  can  neither  observe  fuBy 
nor  record  accuratdy  the  phenomena  with  which  they  have  to 
deal.  These  investigations  have  greatly  widened  the  scope  of 
the  sdence  of  language.  The  modern  philologist  no  longct 
despises  colloquial  And  illiterate  forms  of  speech.  On  the 
contrary,  he  considers  that  in  them  the  life  and  growth  of 
language  is  seen  more  clearly  than  in  dead  literary  languages, 
on  whose  study  the  science  of  comparative  philology  was  at  first 
exclusively  built  up.  It  was  not  till  phiMogbts  began  to  ask 
what  were  the  real  facts  underlying  the  comparisons  of  the  written 
words  in  Sanskrit,  Creek,  Latin,  and  the  other  Indo-European 
languages,  embodied  in  such  ^neralizatioos  as  Grinmi's  Law, 
that  "  letter-science  "  developed  into  "  sound-sdence  "  0[>hoiio-' 
logy).  The  rise  and  decay  of  inflexions,  and  the  dcvdopment 
of  grammatical  forms  generally,  are,  from  the  formal  point  of 
view,  mainly  phonetic  problems;  and  phonetics  enters  more  or 
less  into  every  department  of  historical  and  compacattve 
grammar. 

Hetkods  9J  Study  and  /mef/ifa/ftra.— Phonetics  is  the  sdence 
of  speech-soimds.  But  souiuis  may  be  considered  itfusa  two 
opposite  points  of  view-*-^e  organic  and  the  aeousHe.  Ftom  the 
organic  point  of  view  a  sound  is  the  result  of  certain  actions  and 
positions  of  the  organs  of  qx^ch,  as  when  we  define  /  as  a  lip- 
teeth  (dento'labial)  cooaonant.  This  is  the  point  of  view  of  the 
speaker  of  a  language.  To  the  hearer,  on  the  other  haad^  /  is 
not  a  lip-teeth,  but  a  hiss  consonant  s'milar  to  that  denoted 
by  ih.  This  is  the  acoustic  point  of  view.  Theoretically,  tiK 
organic  study  of  phonetics  is  a  branch  of  anatomy  and  physiology: 
that  part  of  these  sdenoes  which  deals  with  the  orgamn  of  ^>eeck 
(see  Mouth)  and  their  functions  (see  Voice);  while,  from  the 
opposite  point  of  view,  the  study  of  phonetics  is  based  on  that 
branch  of  physical  sde&ce  known  as  acoustics  (see  Souisd), 
together  with  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  oxgans  of 
Hearing   (f.v.). 

Unfortunately,  this  basii  Is  stin  imperfect.  The  prindpks  of 
acoustics  are  wdl  established,  and  we  know  much  about  the 
anatomy  of  th6  ear.  But  how  the  ear  transmits  to  the  brain 
the  impression  of  sound  is  still  a  mystery.  Again,  although  the 
mechanism  of  the  vowd  is  dear  enough,  there  is  still  no  generally 
reodved  acoustic  theory  of  its  formation.  In  fact»  from  thiia 
physical  sdence  point  of  view  there  is  as  yet  no  adence  of 
phonetics. 

The  real  function  of  phonetics  is  philological  and  literary.  The 
only  sound  basis  of  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  phoneli^  is  the 
practical  mastoy  of  a  limited  ntimber  of  sounds^that  is  to  say. 
of  the  sounds  which  are  already  familiar  to  the  learner  in  his 
own  language.  It  is  evident  that  the  more  familiar  a  sound  »« 
the  easier  it  is  to  gain  inught  into  its  mechanism  and  to  recogiuze 
it  when  heard.  It  is  indispensable  to  cultivate  both  the  oxganic 
and  the  acoustic  sense.  These  processes  we  are  fontinuaHy 
carrying  out  in  ordinary  conversation.  AU,  therefore,  that  ive 
have  to  do  in  dealing  with  native  sounds  is  fo  develop  this 
unconscious  orgaxuc  and  acoustic  sense  into  a  consdous  and 
analytic  one.   The  first  step  is  to  Icara  to  isolate  cadi  tonad:  to 


PHONETICS 


+59 


prawmKoe  it*  at  to  u  pomSbU,  aptft  from  its  coolest;  and  t« 
pmcrvo  it  unriiamed  through  every  v«i»tk>a  ei  leniEih  and 
loDce,  and  in  every  coohinatiea  oC  wttods.  The  neit  step  » to 
ejiAt)tte  ite  fonnetioiL.  Let  the  student,  for  iottance,  compare 
the  tiro  ronaanants  ia  atieh  a  word  as  fite  by  kolatinf  and 
lengthening  them  till  he  can  both  hear  and  fed  the  voioe-vibra* 
tk>B  in  the  second  one.  In  the  same  way  let  him  kam  to  feel  the 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  toogve  and  lips  in  passing  from 
one  vowd  lo  another.  When  the  native  somids  have  been 
thorevgUy  studied  in  this  way,  theleanler  wiUpnoeed  to  icn^ffk 
souadsi  dedudag  each  new  sound -foom  those  which  axe  already 
famihar  tohim. 

The  natural  aiethod  of  tearnbg  soondt  U  nu^nfy  a  subjective 
oat^  We  Usten  patiently  till  our  ears  are  steeped,  as  it  trere^  in 
the,  lound;  aod  then,  alter  repeated  trials,  we  hit  on  the  csaa 
position  of  the  organs  of  speech  by  which  wc  can  reproduce  the  sound 
to  the  sfjeaker's  satiifaction.  But  the  natural  method  admits 
also  of  objective  control  and  criticism  of  the  movements  of  the  Kps 
aod  jawa  Vy  direct  observation.  The  movements  and  positioBS  of 
the  tongue  and  soft  palate,  and  other  modifications  of  the  mouth 
and  throat  passages  arc  also  more  or  less  accessible  to  observation— 
in  the  case  of  self-observation  with  the  help  of  a  small  mirror  held 
fai  the  hand.  If  the  mirror  is  small  enough  to  go  into  the  mouth, 
aod  is  fixed  obUqudy  to  a  handle,  so  that  it  can  be  held  sgaiast 
dJM  back  of  the  mouth  at  such  an  angle  as  to  reflect  a  ray  oi  Ueht 
down  the  throat,  we  have  the  laryngoscope.  JLaryngoscopy  has 
confirmed  earlier  results,  and  has  also  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  throat  sounds.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  a  fmttiul 
source  of  error.  There  has  beqa  great  discrepancy  betweeo  the 
results  obtained  by  diifercnt  observers;  and  maoy  rauits  wl^h 
were  at  first  ^recei vied  with  implicit  confidence  for  thdr  supposed 
rigorously  scientific  and  objective  character  have  been  found  to 
be  worthless.  It  seemed  at  first  as  if  ROntgcn's  discovery  of  the 
so-called  X*rays  would  meet  the  waat  of  a  means  of  direct  obseiva- 
tioo  of  the  positioas  of  the  tongue,  not  lengthways,  but  from  the 
side,  as  dso  of  the  interior  of  the  throat.  But  altnough  the  checks 
are  to  a  certain  extent  transparent  to  these  rays,  the  shadow  of  the 
tongue  projected  on  the  screen  is  too  indistinct  to  be  of  any  use. 
.  But  there  are  other  methods  besidea  those  of  direct  observation 
by  which  the  positioas  of  the  tongue  may  be  objectively  detcnnined 
and  measured  with  more  or  Icn  accuracy.    The  interior  of  the 


idght  of  the  tongue  

apparent :  in  the  formation  of  the  first  vowd  the  tongue  is  pressed 
strongly  against  the  artificial  palate,  while  in  that  of  the  socoid 
it  only  just  touches  it,  and  in  that  of  the  third  it  docs  not  touch 
at  all. 

Several  forms  of  apparatus  have  been  devised  for  a  more  aeenrSte 
determination  of  the  tMsitions  of  the  tongue  and  the  other  movable 
organs  of  speech.  The  best  results  hitherto  as  regards  the  vowd- 
positions  have  been  obtained  by  Grandgcnt,  who  uses  disks  of  card- 
board of  various  sizes  fixed  to  silver  wires.  A  full  descriptk>n  of 
this  and  other  methods  will  be  fonad  in  Scripture's  EUmeiOt  a/ 
J£xJ>erinuntal  PkomUct* 

There  are  other  methods  whose  resulu  are  obtained  only 
Indirectly.  The  simplest  of  these  are  the  paiatographic,  by  which 
are  obtained  *'  palatograms  "  recording  the  contact  of  the  tongue 
with  the  palate.  The  apparatus  roost  nnerally  used  consists  c4  a 
thin.  abclMtke  artificial  pdate.  which  is  covered  with  chalk  and 
|ilaced  in  the  mouih;  when  the  sound  is  made,  the  articulation 
of  the  tongue  is  inrerrcd  from  the  contact-marks  on  the  plate. 
This  method  is  evidently  tiipitcd  in  its  application.  It,  too,  has 
the  drawttack  of  not  bdng  applicable  to  the  sounds  foraied  in  the 
Jxack  ol  the  mouth.  The  outUnts  of  pdatograms  are  much  vaguer 
than  they  appear  in  the  pubhshed  drawings  of  them;  and  it  u  a 
question  whether  the  thickness  even  «  the  thinnest  pUtc  docs  not 
mocKfy  the  record. 

The  methods  hitherto  considered  are  all  comparatfvdy  sunpie. 
Tbey  reouire  no  spoctd  knowledge  or  training,  and  are  acccssTble 
to  b\\m  out  there  are  more  dsborate  methods— with  which  the 
nAme  "experimental  phonetics"  is  more  specially  connected — 
involving  ^pedal  tiahitf^  in  practicd  and  theoretiad  phyncs  and 
mathematics,  and  requiring  the  help  of  often  eompticated  and  costly, 
and  not  easily  accessibk,  apparatus.  The  mvestioation  of  the 
speech  curves  of  phonomph  and  gramophone  records  is  a  typical 
example.  Good  examples  of  these  methods  are  afforded  by  E.  A. 
Meyer's  hivestlgatkms  of  wwd-quantity  in  English  (Englische 
Lautdauer,  Uppsala^  1901}).  Thdr  charscteristic  feature  is  their 
dcUca<^»  and  the  minuteness  of  their  distinctions,  which  often  go 
beyond  the  range  of  the  human  car.  Although  their  results  are 
often  of  vahie,  they  must  always  be  recdvcd  witlUcaUtion:  the 
nottfoeo  CI  errer  are  so  numerous. 

Tbo  cUims  of  instmnental  phonetics  have  been  so  prominently 
bcpushc  forward  of  late  yean  that  they  can  no  kmger  be  Ignored,  even 
t>y  tne  most  conservative  of  the  older  generaUon  of  phoneticians* 


But  it  is  possible  to  go  too  Car  the  other  way.  Some  of  the 
younger  generation  seem  to  think  that  the  instrumental  methods 
have  superseded  the  naturd  ones  tn  the  same  way  as  the  Arabic 
supcrssoed  the  Roman  numerals.  This  assumptkM  has  had  disas- 
trous results.  It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that  instnimeatd 
phonetics  is,  strictly  spealdng,  not  phonetics  at  all.  It  is  only  a 
help:  It  only  supplies  materials  which  are  useless  till  they  have  been 
tested  and  accepted  from  the  linguistic  phonetician's  point  of  view. 
The  final  arbiter  la-  all  phonetic  questions  is  the  trained  ear  of  a 
practical  phooetadaa:  differences  which  cannot  be  perocived  must 
— or  at  least  may  be--'ignorBds  what  contradicts  the  trained  ear 
cannot  be  accepted. 

SfiUMd-NakUion;  Spdiine  iS^ar».->Next  to  the  analysis  of 
the  sounds  themsdvea,  the  most  important  problem  of  phonetics 
is  their  mplesentatioD  by  means  of  w4tten  and  printed  symbols. 
The  tmditieoal  or  **  aomic  "  orthogmphics  of  mmU  languages 
are  only  imperfectly  pheiietic.  And,  imioitunatdy,  ol  the 
languages  in  most  general  use*  two  are  etceptionaUy  unphoaetic 
in  their  orthographies,  French  showing  the  greatest  divergence 
between  sound  and  syinbol,  while  English  shows  the  maximum 
of  irregularity  and  arbitmriness.  The  German  orthography  is 
oomparativdy  phonetic:  it  has  hardly  any  silent  letters^  and  it 
generally  has  one  symbol  for  each  sound,  each  symbol  having 
only  me  value,  the  exceptions  falling  under  a  few  simple  ntles, 
which  are  easily  remembered.  There  ate  other  languages  which 
have  still  more  phonetic  orthographies,  such  as  Spanishr  Wdsh 
aod  Finmsh.  But  even  the  best,  of  them  are  not  perfect:  even 
when  they  ere  not  actually  misleading,  they  are  always  inade* 
quate.  On  the  other  hsnd,  no  system  oi  wvhing  is  wholly 
unpfaonetic*  Even  in  French  and  £ngliah  there  are  many  words 
whose  spelfing  not  even  the  most  radical  reformer  would  think 
of  alicrhig.  In  lact,  ail  wiiiing  which  has  once  emerged  from 
the  hieioglyidiic  stage  is  at  fiat  purely  phonetic,  as  far  as  its 
defective  means  will  albw.  The  divergence  between  sound  and 
sjrmbol  which  makes  spelling  unphonctic  is  the  residt  of  the 
retention  of  phonetic  spellings  after  they  have  beooroo  un« 
phonetic  through  changes  in  the  pronundation  of  the  words 
themselves.  Thus,  such  English  spelling  as  knig^  and  wrigki 
were  still  pkbonetic  in  the  time  of  Chaucer;  for  at  that  time  the 
initial  consonants  of  those  words  were  still  pronounced,  and  the 
gA  still  had  the  sound  of  ck  in  German  ich.  So  also  s«e  and  sea 
are  written  differently,  not  by  way  of  arbitrary  distinction,  but 
because  they  were  pronounced  cUilcrcnily  tiU  within  the  last 
few  centuries— as  they  sUU  are  in  Irish-English. 

Where  there  is  no  traditional  orthography,  as  when  Old 
English  (Anglo-Saxon)  was  first  vrritten  down  in  Latin  letters, 
spelling  was  necessarily  phonetic;  but  where  there  is  a  large 
literature  aod  a  dass  of  professional  scribes,  the  influence  of 
the  traditional  orthography  becomes  stronger,  till  at  last  the 
invention  of  printing  and  the  diffusion  of  one  standard  dialect 
over  a  large  area  occupied  originally  by  a  variety  of  other  dialects 
Butke  changes  of  spelling  as  inconvcoient  as  they  were  once  easy 
and  natural.  The  ideal  orthography  for  printers  is  one  which 
is  absolutely  uniform  over  the  whole  territory  of  the  language, 
and  absolutely  unchangeable.  In  such  orthographies  as  those 
of  the  present  English  and  French  there  is  no  longer  any  living 
corre^K>ndence  between  sound  and  symbol;  they  are,  in  in* 
tention  at  least,  wholly  unphonctic;  they  are  preserved  by 
graphic,  not  by  oral,  tradition. 

But  unphoneticoess  has  its  practical  limits.  A  purdy  un- 
phonctic degradation  of  an  originally  phonetic  system  of  writing 
—one  in  which  there  is  absolutdy  no  correspondence  between 
sounds  and  letters — could  not  be  mastered  even  by  the  most 
retentive  memory:  it  would  be  even  more  difficult,  than  the 
Chinese  writing.  Hence  a  phonetic  reaction  is  inevitable.  In 
the  middle  ages  the  spelling  was  periodically  readjusted  in 
accordance  with  the  changes  of  pronunciation— as  far,  of  course, 
as  the  imperfections  of  the  existing  orthography  would  allow. 
This  adjustment  went  on  even  after  the  introduction  of  printing 
In  fact,  it  is  only  within  the  last  hundred  years  or  so  that  the 
orthographies  of  English  and  French  have  become  fixed. 

One  result  of  this  fixity  is  that  any  attempt  to  continue  the 
process  of  adjustment  assumes  a  revolutionary  character. 
When,  in  1849,  the  pioneers  of  the  modecn  tpelUng-refonp 


460 


PHONETICS 


movefnent— A.  J.  ElHar  and  I.  Phman-^rougiit  out  ihtPcnetic 
Nu%,  few  of  those  who  joined  in  the  chorus  of  ridicule  ezdted  by 
the  new  alphabet  stopped  to  consider  that  this  uncouthness  was 
purely  the  mult  of  habit,  and  that  the  Authorized  Version  of 
the  Bible  in  the  spelling  of  its  first  edition  would  seem  to  us  not 
less  strange  and  uncouth  than  in  the  new-fangled  phonotypy 
of  Messrs  Ellis  and  Piunan.  Nor  did  they  stop  to  consider  that 
phonetics  and  phonetic  speBing,  so  far  from  being  innovations, 
aft  as  old  as  civilization  itself.  The  Alexandrian  grammarians 
were  not  only  phoneticians — they  were  spelling-reformers;  they 
invented  the  Greek  accents  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  pro- 
oundation  of  Greek  easier  to  foreigners.  The  Romans,  too,  were 
phoneticians:  they  learnt  preek  by  phonetic  methods,  and  paid 
great  attention  to  niceties  of  pronunciation.  The  Sanskrit 
gmmmariaas  were  still  better  phonctfcians» 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  English  spelling  was  still  phonetic  as  laU 
as  the  time  of  Shake^)care — ^in  intention,  at  least.  But  although 
people  still  tried  to  write  as  they  spoke,  the  inherited  impecfec- 
tions  of  their  orthography  made  it  more  and  more  difficult  for 
them  to  do  so.  Hence  already  in  the  1 6th  century  a  number  of 
spelling-reformers  made  their  appearance,  including  flawiral 
scholars  such  as  Sir  John  Cheke,  and  A.  Gill,  who  was  head-master 
of  St  Paul's  School  in  London.  Gill  has  left  ns  eactracU  from 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  in  phonetic  qwUing;  but,  strange  to 
say,  nothing  of  Shakespeare's,  although  he  and  Shakespeare 
were  exact  contemporaries.  But  Gill's  and  the  other  alpliabets 
proposed  were  too  intricate  and  cumbrous  for  popular  use. 

Nevertheless,  some  important  phonetic  refoimt  were  success- 
fully carried  through,  such  as  getting  rid  of  most  of  the  super" 
lluous  final  e's,  utilizing  the  originally  superfluous  distinctions 
in  form  between  i  and  i,  u  and  t,  by  using  i,  u  only  as  vowels, 
y,  V  only  as  consonants,  instead  of  at  ran^m — a  rkorm  which 
seems  to  have  begtm  in  Italy.  Another  important  reform  was 
the  introduction  of  «a  and  oa,  as  in  sea  and  foo^  whidi  had 
hitherto  been  written  with  u  and  ao^  being  thus  confused  with 
tee  and  hooL 

All  these  were  as  much  phonetic  reforms  as  it  would  be  to 
utilize  long  1  and  tailed  s  ( {  ,  5 )  to  denote  the  final  consonants  in 
^sh  and  rouit  respectively;  a  reform  first  suggested  by  A.  J. 
Ellis,  who  was  himself  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  works 
of  these  eariy  phoneticians  and  to  utilize  them  in  the  investiga- 
tions enshrined  in  his  great  work  on  Eariy  English  Prffnunctation. 

With  all  its  defects,  the  present  English  spelling  is  stiU  mainly 
phonetic;  we  can  still  approximately  guess  the  pronunciation 
of  the  vast  majority  of  words  from  their  spelling.  So  when  we 
say  that  English  spdling  is  nnphonetic  we  merely  mean  that 
it  is  a  bad  phonetic  spelling;  and  all  that  spelling-reformers  aim 
at  is  to  make  this  bad  into  a  good  phonetic  spelling,  that  is,  an 
effident  and  easy  one.  But  the  difficulties  are  great;  and  the 
more  we  know  of  phonetics,  and  the  more  we  experiment  with 
different  systems  of  spelling,  the  more  formidable  do  they  appear. 
One  of  the  difficulties,  however,  that  is  commonly  supposed  to 
stand  in  the  way  of  spelling-reform  is  quite  imaginary:  namely, 
that  it  would  destroy  the  historical  and  etymological  value  of 
the  present  system.  Thus  £.  A.  Freeman  used  to  protest 
against  it  as  "  a  reddess  wiping  out  of  the  whole  history  of  the 
language."  Such  critics  fail  to  see  that  historical  spelHng,  if 
carried  out  consistently,  would  destroy  the  materials  on  wUch 
alone  history  can  be  based;  that  these  materials  are  nothing  else 
but  a  series  of  phonetic  spellings  of  different  periods  of  the 
language,  and  that  if  a  consistent  historical  and  etymological 
spelling  could  have  been  kept  up  from  the  beginning,  there  would 
have  been  no  Grimm's  Law,  no  etymology;  in  short,  no  com- 
parative or  historical  philology  possible. 

The  advantages  of  beginning  a  foreign  language  fai  a  phonetic 
notation  are  many  and  obvious.  In  the  first  place,  the  learner 
who  has  once  mastered  the  notation  and  learnt  to  pronounce  the 
sounds  the  letters  stand  for,  is  able  to  read  off  at  once  any  text 
that  is  presented  to  him  without  doubt  or  hcsitaHon,  and  without 
having  to  burden  his  memory  with  rules  of  pronunciation  and 
spelling.  Another  advantage  of  phonetic  spelling  is  that  when 
the  kamer  sees  the  words  written  in  a  representation  of  their 


•aual  spoktD  fofm  he  is  able  to  veeogoin  them  at  once  vhcs 
he  heait  them.  And  if  the  leafner  teglas  with  the  plmictie 
notation,  and  uses  it  exdusivdy  tilt  he  luia  thonoghly  mastered 
the  apoken  language,  hk  wiH  thea  be  able  to  learn  the  oidiBary 
spelling  without  fear  of  oonfuaioii,  tad  quicker  than  he  wosU 
otherwise  have  done. 

Spelling-teform  may  be  canied  out  with  vuknit  degiees  of 
thoroQ^iness.  After  the  lailofe  of  many  schemes  of  ladical 
reform,  an  attempt  waa  made  to  begin  irith  those  naneraas 
spellings  which  are  both  ixliphonetic  and  unhistorical,  or  are 
against  the  analogy  of  other  traditional  apdlings.  Accordingly, 
in  i88x  the  Philological  Sodety  of  London  "  apvoevd  {tic)  of 
certain  partial  oorectiona  (sk)  «f  Eni^sh  spelliags/'  whidi  were 
also  approved  of  by  the  American  Spelliag-reform  Assoriatiop; 
atfd  a  list  of  them  was  issued  jointly  by  the  two  boffies,  and 
recommended  for  general  adoption.  A  similar  movement 
has  been  started  in  France.  But  the  general  feeling  appears  to 
be  that  it  is  better  to  keep  the  ordmary  spelling  nnchanged,  and 
wait  till  it  is  possible  to  supersede  it  by  one  on  a  more  or  leas 
independent  basis. 

If  the  existing  Roman  alphabet  is  made  the  basis  of  thenew 

phonetic  notation  of  any  one  language,  the  moetobvioaa  coaae 

is  to  select  one  of  the  various  trsditimial  representations  of  each 

sound,  and  use  that  one  symbol  exdusivdy,  omitting,  of  course, 

at  the  same  time  aU  silent  letters^    A.  J.  JE^'aJSMffijA  Classic  is 

an  example  of  such  a  phonetic  qwlling  on  a  national  baaia.   Hie 

fo&owing  is  a  spedmen:— 

Ingglish  Glosik  iz  veri  eezi  too  reed.  W!dh  proper  tratoio^  a 
cheilcTfoar  yecrz  oald  kan  bee  redili  taut  too  reed  Glbak  bucks. 

But  a  system  which,  like  this,  writes  short  and  long  vowds 
with  totally  different  symbols  <i,  ee)  is  only  half  jrfionetic:  it  6 
phonetic  on  an  tmphonetic  basis. 

A  fully  phonetic  system,  in  which,  for  instance,  long  vowds 
and  diphthongs  are  exproMcd  by  consistent  modificatioas  or 
combinations  of  the  symbcris  of  the  short  vowels,  and  in  wiiich 
simple  sounds  are,  as  far  as  is  reasonable  and  convenient,  ex- 
pressed by  single  letters  instead  of  digraphs  such  as  sh,  must 
necessarily  discard  any  national  basis.  The  best  basia  on  the 
whole  is  obtained  by  giving  the  letters  thdr  original  oomnoii 
European  sounds,  ix,  hy  returning  to  the  Late  Latin  pronunda* 
tion,  with  such  modifications  and  additions  as  may  be  advisable. 
As  regards  the  voweb  at  least,  thia  LaUn  basis  is  very  wdl 
preserved  in  German  and  Italiaa.  In  French,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  Latin  tradition  was  greatly  corrupted  already  in  the  earliest 
period  through  the  rapid  changes  which  the  language  underweaL 
Thus  when  the  Latin  u  in  lima  assumed  the  sound  it  now  has 
in  French  luney  the  symbol  u  was  still  kept;  and  when  theeoond 
«  afterwards  developed  again  out  of  the  diphthong  0m,  this  Agrapb 
was  used  to  denote  the  sound.  So  when  the  French  system  of 
spelling  came  into  use  in  England  after  the  Norman  Conqocst 
these  unphenetic  qrmbols  were  intrt)duced  into  En^Ksh  spdiing, 
so  that  such  a  word  as  Old  English  and  Eariy  Middle  English 
Afif ,  "  house,"  was  written  kous  In  the  Late  Middle  English  of 
Chaucer,  although  the  sound  was  still  that  of  Sootdi  Aom,  em  (ow) 
being  also  used  to  denote  a  true  diphthong  (ou)  in  suck  fiords  as 
kneUf  know,  from  Old  English  enSwan. 

By  returning,  then,  to  the  original  values  of  the  letters  we 
get  the  "  Romic  "  or  international  (CoBtinental)  baaia  aa  opftosed 
to  the  Glossic  or  national  basis.  Thus  the  passage  quoted  abow 
appears  as  follows  In  Sweet's  "  Broad  Roinic  "  notation^^ 

i  n  cli/  glpak  Iz  veri  iizi  tu  riid.  wis  prope  treimi)  a  t/sUd  fae  jiac 
ould  kan  bii  redili  tot  to  riid  gloaik  bun. 

Another  important  general  distinction  Is  that  between  '*  broad  " 
and  "  narrow  "  systems  of  notalbn.  A  broad  notation  is  one 
which  makes  only  the  practically  necessary  dislinctioBS  in  eadi 
language,  and  makes  them  in  the  simplest  manner  possible, 
omitting  all  that  is  superfluous.  From  a  practical  point  of  view 
the  necessary  distinctions  arc  those  on  which  differences  of 
meaning  depend.  A  distinction  of  sound  which  is  trffntfrrtnt 
in  one  language  may  be  unsignificant  in  another.  Tlius  the 
distinction  between  dose  t  and  open  i,ii5  significant  in  fVench, 
as  in  fUcher,  pidur;  so  if  in  French  phonetic  writing  the  former 


PHONETICS 


461 


fe  dcDoced  by  (e),  it  is  neccasaiy  tp  find  a  oeir  symbol  (#)  for  the 
open  soood.    But  in  languages  such  as  English  and  German, 
where  the  short  e  is  alwaya  open,  there  is  no  piactical  objection 
to  using  the  unmodififd  (e)  to  denote  the  open  sound,  even  if  we 
regard  (e)  as  the  proper  tymhoX  of  the  close  sound.    And  in 
those  langusgfs  in  whidi  the  short  4  is  always  open  and  the  h»g 
$  slways  close  it  is  enough  to  maik  the  distinction  of  quantity, 
and  leave  tlie  distioctioQ  of  quality  to  be  inferred  from  it  (e^  ee). 
In  such  a  case  as  this  it  is,  of  course,  possible  to  spply  the  prin- 
ciple of  ignoring  superfluous  distinctions  in  the  opposite  way:  by 
writing  the  long  and  short  vowels  In  such  a  ksguage  {«,  c), 
leaving  the  quantity  to  be  inferred  from  the  quality.   But  the 
former  method  is  the  more  convenient,  as  it  does  not  require 
any  new  letter.   The  **  broad  "  principle  is  cspedally  convenient 
m  writing  diphthongs.    Thus  in  English  Broiui  Eomic  we  write 
the  dif^thongs  in  high  and  k<m  with  the  same  vowel  as  ask  (hal, 
hau,  aask),  although  all  these  (a)*s  represent  different  sounds  in 
ordinary  southern  English  pronundatioii.    But  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  tliese  diphthongs  varies  so  much  in  different  parts  of  the 
£n£^ish-speaking  territory,  and  the  distinctions  are  so  minute 
that  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  express  them  in  writing;  and 
as  these  distinctions  are  non-significant,  it  would  be  useless  to 
do  so.    (ai)  and  (au)  are  symbols,  not  of  special  diphthongs,  but 
of  two  classes  of  diphthongs:  they  can  stand  for  any  diphthongs 
Vhich  begin  with  a  vowel  resembling  the  Italian  a,  and  end  with 
approximations  to  i  and  u  respectively.   Theoretically  it  would 
be  just  as  correct  in  English  and  German  to  write  these  diphthongs 
(ae,  ao).    But  these  notations  are  misleading,  because  they 
suggest  simple  sounds. 

In  comparing  the  sounds  of  a  variety  of  languages,  or  of  dialects 
of  a  language,  and  stiU  more  in  dealing  with  sounds  In  general, 
we  require  a  '*  narrow,"  that  is  a  minutely  accurate,  notation 
covering  the  whole  field  of  possible  sounds.  It  is  evident  from 
what  has  been  said  above  that  such  a  universal  scientific  alphabet 
is  not  suited  for  practical  work  in  any  one  language.  But  the 
S3rmbo]a  of  such  a  notation  as  Sweet's  "  Narrow  Romic  *'  are  of. 
the  greatest  use  as  keys  to  the  exact  pronunciation  of  tho  vaguer 
symbols  of  the  Broad  Romic  notations  of  each  language. 

To  prevent  confusion  between  these  two  systems  of  notations 
Broad  Romic  symbols  are  enclosed  in  (  ),  Narrow  Romic  in  [  ]> 
which  at  the  same  time  serve  to  distinguish  between  phonetic 
•nd  nomic  q>ellmgs.  This  in  English  •  (i)  ^  [i]  means  that 
ithc  English  vowel  in  Jnny  is  the  "  wiide "  sound,  not  the 
"  namcrw  "  one  In  French  fini,  although  in  the  Broad  Romic 
notations  of  both  languages  (finl)  is  written 'for  Jinny  and/»> 
alike. 

Narrow  Romic  was  orl^naHy  based  on  A.  J.  ElKs's  "  ^alaeo- 
typc,"  in  which,  as  the  name  implies,  no  new  letters  are  employed. 
The  symbols  of  Palaeotype  are  made  up,  as  far  as  possible,  of 
the  letters  generally  accessible  in  printing-offices,  the  ordinary. 
Roman    bwer-case    letters    being    supplemented    by    italics 
and    small  capitals  (i;  i,  i)    and  turned  letters  (d,3),  many 
digraphs  (th,  sh)  being  abo  used.   This  ndtation  was  a  reaction 
from  £Ilis^i  eaiUer  phonotopy,  In  which  a  large  number  of  new 
letters  were  used.    Some  of  these,  however,  such  as  /« (sh), 
3a«(zh),  were  afterwards  adopted  into  Broad  and  Narrow 
Romic     In  his  Palaeotype  Ellis  also  discarded  diacritical 
letters,  which,  as  he  Kghtly  says,  are  from  a  typographical 
poifit  of  view  equivalent  to  new  letters.    In  Narrow  Romic  a 
certain  number  of  diacritical  letters  are  used,  such  as  (fl,  1), 
most  of  which  are  already  accessible.    Palaeotype  Is  a  Roman- 
value  notation,  the  main  difference  as  regards  the  values  of  the 
symbols  between  It  and  the  later  systems  being  that  It  Is  more 
complex  and  arbitrary.    Ellis  afterwaids  had  the  unhappy  idea 
of  constructing  a  "Universal  Glossic'*  on  an  English-values 
basis,  which  b  evea  more  cumbrous  and  difficult  to  remember 
than  Pahieolype. 

Sweefk  Romic  systems*  were  mxnile  the  basis  of  the  "  Inter- 
national "  alphab<*t  used  in  Le  MaUre  Pkonitique,  which  Is  the 
organ  of  the  InUnuUunuA  phonetic  AssocidicHf  directed  by 
p.  Passy.  *  Although  this  system  is  at  the  present  time  more 
widely  luowh  ano  used  than  ai^.othtfjr,  and  although  it.  is 


oonstnicted  on  the  intenrntiodal  Romic  principle,  it  is  not  really 
an  international  system.  It  is  rather  an  attempt  to  make  a 
special  adapution  of  the  Romic  basis  to  the  needs  of  the  French 
Unguage  into  a  general  notation  for  all  languages.  But  the 
phonetic  structure  of  French  is  so  abnormal^  so  different  from 
that  of  other  languages^  that  the  attempt  to  force  a  Broad 
Romic  French  noutinn  iob  such  a  language  as  Englbh  is  even 
more  hopeless  than  it  would  be  to  reverse  the  process.  Although 
well  tutted  for  Fieoch,  this  alplmbet  most  from  a  wider  pou^L  of 
view  be  regarded  as  a  failure;  it  i»  too  minute  and  rigid  for 
practical,  and  yet  not  precise  enough  for  scientific  purposes. 
In  short,  although  it  has  done  excellent  service,  and  has  helped 
to  dear  the  way  for  a  notaUoa  which  shall  command  geneml 
acceptance  it  cannot  be  regarded  aa  a  final  solution  of  the 
problem. 

Of  the  numerous  other  notations  now  in  use,  some  still  adhe^ 
to  the  diacritic  principle  of  X^epsius's  Standard  Alphabet  (1855), 
intended  for  missionary  use,  but  fonnd  quite  unfit  for  that 
purpose  because  of  the  enormous  number  of  new  types  required- 
Most  of  them  prefer  to  use  new  letters  formed  by  more  or  less 
consistent  modifications  of  the  existing  italic  letters.  A.  J. 
Lundell's  Swedish  dialea  alphabet  and  O.  Jespereen's  Danish 
dialect  alphabet  are  good  specimens  of  this  tendency.  In  the 
latter  Roman  letters  are  used  for  special  distinctions,  just  as 
italic  letters  are  used  in  the  Romic  systems. 

But  in  ^ite  of  all  diversity,  there  is  much  agreement.  Aa 
regards  the  vowels,  the  following  approximate  values  are  now 
pretty  generally  accepted: — 

a    as  in  father.  i    as  in  it. 

a!      „    time.  o      ,;    beau  (Fr.). 

an     „    houie.  «e     „    pcur  (Fr.). 

>      u    man.  a      m    falL 

e       „    6U  (Fr,)»  oi     „    oiL 

ei      M    veil.  ou    m    souL 

f        „    there.  u      „    full. 

a       „    further.  y      „    unc  (Fr.). 

Vowd-length  is  in  some  ^tems  denoted  by  doubHng  (aa), 
fn  others  by  spedal  marks  (a:  &c),  the  diacritic  in  d  being  used 
only  In  the  nomic  orthographies  of  dead  and  oriental  languages. 

The  only  consonant-symbols  that  require  special  notice  are 

the  following: — 

c  as  in  ty4k  (Hung.).  n  as  in  ring. 

e  I,  ick  (German).  r      „    fish, 

o  '  M  then.  p      „    thin. 

i  ,.  you.  _  w     „    we. 


J         H  nagy  (Hung, 
ff        t,  ogni  (lul.). 


) 


X      u    loch, 
ogni  (Ital.J.  5      ft    rouge. 

All  the  systems  of  phonetic  notation  hitherto  considered 
are  based  on  the  Roman  alphabcL  But  although  the  Roman 
alphabet  has  many  advantages  from  a  practical  point  of  view, 
it  is  evidently  impossible  to  build  up  a  consistent  and  systematic 
notation  on  such  an  inadequate  foundation  of  arbitrary  signs. 
What  Is  wanted,  for  scientific  purposes  especial^,  is  a  notation 
Independent  of  the  Roman  alphabet,  built  up  systematically*^ 
an  alphabet  In  which  there  is  a  definite  lelfttion  between  sound 
and  symbol. 

This  rekLtion  may  be  regarded  either  from  the  organic  or  the 
acoustic  point  of  view.  The  tendency  of  the  earlier  attempts  at 
an  a  priori  universal  alphabet  was  to  symbolize  the  consonants 
orgaaically,  the  vowels  acoustically,  as  in  £.  Brttcke's  Pkondisdte 
Transsetiplian  (1863).  It  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that 
the  vowels  as  well  as  the  consonants  must  be  represented  on  a 
strictly  organic  basis.  This  was  first  done  in  A.  M.  Bell's 
Visile  Speech  (1867),  which  appeared  again  (1882)  In  a  shorter 
form  and  with  some  modifications  under  the  title  of  Sounds  ami 
their  RdoHons,  Bell's  pupil,  H.  Swret,  gave  a  detailed  criticism 
at  Visible  Speedi  in  a  paper  on  Sound^otation  (Trans,  of  Philo- 
logical Society,  x88o-x88i),  in  which  he  described  a  revised  form 
of  it  called  tht  Or  game  Alph<^t,  which  he  afterwards  employed 
in  his  Primer  of  Phonetics  and  other  works.  Sweet's  Narrow 
Romic  notation  already  mentioned  is  practically  a  transcription 
of  the  Q^nic  Alphabet  Into  Roman  letters. 

Such  notations  are  alphabetic:  they  go  on  the  general  principle 
of  providing  separate  symbols  for  each  simple  sound.   But  as 


4612 


PHONETICS 


the  nttmber  of  possibly  shftdct  of  soiiads  is  almost  infinite,  even 
the  most  minntdy  accurate  of  them  can  do  ao  only  within  certain 
limits.  The  Organic  Alphabet  especially  makes  a  large  use  of 
**  modifiers  "— <haracters  which  are  added  U>  the  other  symbols 
to  indicate  nasal,  palatal,  &c.,  modifications  of  the  sounds  repre- 
sented by  the  latter,  these  modifiers  being  generaHy  represented 
by  italic  letten  in  the  Narrow  Romic  transcription;  thos  Qn)^ 
nasalised  G). 

In  the  Roman  alphabet  such  symbols  as  /,  v  are  arbftrary, 
showing  no  connection  in  form  either  with  one  another  or 
with  the  organic  actions  by  which  they  are  formed;  but  i^  the 
Organic  symbol  of  v,  for  instance,  we  can  see  the  graphic  repre- 
sentation of  its  components  "  lips,  teeth,  vmce-mummr."-  By 
omitting  superfluous  marics  and  utiliring  variens  typographical 
devices  the  notation  is  so  simplified  that  the  symbols,  in  spite  of 
their  minute  accuracy,  are  often  simpler  than  in  the  correspond- 
ing Roman  notation.  The  siraplidty  of  the  system  is  ^own 
by  the  fact  that  it  requires  only  about  no  types,  as  compared 
with  the  280  of  LepBius*S  very  imperfect  Standard  Alphabet. 

AD  the  systems  hitherto  considered  are  also  alphabetic  In  a 
wider  sense:  they  are  intended  for  oontintious  writing,  the  more 
cumbrous  '^narrbw"  notations  b«ng,  however,  generally 
employed  only  In  writing  single  words  or  short  groups.  An 
"  analphabetic  "  basis  was  first  definitely  advocated  by  Jespersen, 
who  represents  each  sound  by  a  group  of  symbols  resembling 
a  chen^cal  formula,  each  symbol  representing  not  a  sound,  but 
an  element  of  a  sound:  the  part  of  the  palate,  tongu^,  &c., 
where  the  sound  is  formed,  the  degree  of  separation  (openness) 
of  the  organs  of  speech,  and  ao  on.  The  two  great  advantages 
of  such  a  system  are  that  it  allows  perfect  freedom  in  selecting 
and  combining  the  elements  and  that  it  can  be  built  up  on  the 
foundation  of  a  small  number  of  generally  accessible  signs. 

As  regards  Jespersen's  scheme,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  he 
has  not  worked  it  out  in  a  more  practical  manner:  that  in  his 
choice  of  the  thirty  odd  symbols  that  he  requires  he  should  have 
gone  out  of  his  way  to  mix  up  Greek  with  Roman  letters,  together 
with  other  characters  which  woidd  be  avoided  by  ai^  one  con- 
structing even  a  scientific  alphabetic  notation.  And  his  use 
of  these  symbols  is  open  to  much  criticism.  In  fact,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  the  analphabetic  principle  has  yet  had  a  fair  trial 

The  Organs  0/  Speech. — Most  ^)eech-sounds  are  formed  with 
air  expelled  from  the  lungs  (voice-bellows),  which  passes  through 
the  two  contractible  bronchi  or  bronchial  tubes  into  the  also 
contractible  wind-pipe  or  trachea,  on  the  top  of  which  is  fixed 
the  larynx  (voice-box).  Across  the  interior  of  the  larynx  are 
stretched  two  elastic  ledges  or  cushions  called  "  the  vocal 
chords."  They  are  inserted  in  front  of  the  larynx  at  one  end, 
and  at  the  other  they  are  fixed  to  two  movable  cartilaginous 
bodies  "  the  aretynoids,"  so  that  the  passage  between  them — 
the  glottb — can  be  narrowed  or  dosed  at  pleasure.  The  glottis 
is,  as  we  see,  twofold,  qonsisting  of  the  chord  glottis  and  the 
cartilage  glottis.  The  two  can  be  narrowed  or  dosed  independ- 
ently. The  chords  can  also  be  tightened  or  relaxed,  lengthened 
and  shortened  in  various  degrees^ 

When  the  whole  glottis  is  wide  open,  no  sound  is  produced 
by  the  outgoing  breath  except  that  caused  by  the  friction 
of  the  air.  Sounds  in  whose  formation  the  glottis  is  In  this 
passive  state  are  called  "  breath  "  sounds.  Thus  (0  is  the 
breath  consonant  corresponding  to  the  "  voice  "  or  "  voiced  " 
consonant  (v).  In  the  production  of  voice,  the  chords  are 
brought  dose  enough  together  to  be  set  In  vibration  by  the  air 
passing  between  them.  In  the  "  thick  "  register  of  the  voice 
(chest  voice)  the  chords  vibrate  in  their  whole  length,  in  the 
"  thin  "  register  or  falsetto  only  In  part  of  their  lengths  U  the 
glottis  is  narrowed  without  vibration,  "whisper"  is  the  result. 
In  the  "  weak  whisper  "  there  Is  narrowizig  the  whole  glottis; 
in  the  "  strong  whi^jKr,"  which  Is  the  ordinary  form,  the  chord 
glottis  is  entirely  dosed,  so  that  the  breath  passes  only  through 
the  cartilage  glottis.  In  what  is  populariy  called  "  whisper  **— 
that  is,  speaking  without  voice— <he  breath  sounds  remain 
unchanged,  whfle  voiced  sounds  substitute  whisper  (in.  the 
phonetic  sense)  for  voice.  Thus  in  whispering  such  A  ^Qvi  as/eef 


the  (0  remains  unchanged,  'whOe  the  folfowing  vowd  send  con- 
sonant are  formed  with  the  glottb  only  half  closed.  Whispered 
sounds— both  voweb  and  oonaonants — occur  in  ordinary  load 
speech  in  many  languages.  Thus-  the  final  consonants  m  sudi 
English  words  as  Ua9es,  oHigt  are  whispered,  except  when 
followed  liathottt  a  pause  by  a  voiced  sound,  as  in  oW^ni, 
where  the  (5)  is  fully  voioed. 

Above  the  i^ottis— stm  within  the  latyTOE-^comes  the  "  upper  ** 
or  "  false  "  glottis,  by  whidi  the  passage  can  be  narrowed.  On 
the  top  of  the  larynx  h  fixed  a  leaf-like  body,  tfie  "  epiglottis," 
which  In  swaOowing,  and  sometnncs  in  speech,  Is  pressed  down 
over  the  opening  of  the  larynx.  The  contractible  cavity  between 
the  hrynx  and  the  mouth  Is  called  the  "  pharynx."  The  roof 
of  the  mouth  consists  of  two  parts,  the ''  soft "  and  the  "  haxd 
palate."  The  lower  pendulous  extremity  of  the  soft  palate, 
the  "uvtla,"  in  its  passive  state  leaves  the  passage  Into  ^ 
nose  open.  In  the  formation  of  non-nasal  sounds,  such  as  (b), 
the  uvula  Is  pressed  up  so  as  to  close  the  passage  from  the 
pharynx  into  the  nose.  If  (b)  Is  formed  with  the  passage  open, 
it  becomes  the  corresponding  nasal  consonant  (m).  The  other 
extremity  of  the  (hard)  palate  Is  bounded  by  the  teeth,  behixui 
which  are  the  gums,  extending  from  the  teeth-rim  to  the  arch-rim 
— the  projection  of  the  teeth-roots  or  alveolars. 

There  is  great  diversity  among  phonetidans  as  regards  the 
2;(iapptng  out^-the  divisions — of  the  palate  and  tongue,  anjl 
their  names.  Foreign  phonetidans  generally  adopt  very  minute 
distinctions,  to  whtch  they  give  Latin  names.  Bell  In  his 
Vitible  Speech  makes  a  few  broad  fimdamental  divisions. 
In  the  arrangement  adopted  here  (mainly  based  on  his)  sounds 
formed  on  the  soft  palate  are  called  "  bade,''  and  are  subdivided 
into  *' inner"* nearer  the  throat,  and  "outer "•nearer  the 
teeth,  farther  sabdi  visaons  being  made  by  the  terms  "  innermost," 
**  outermost,"  the  position  exactly  half  way  between  these  two 
last  bdng  defined  as  ''intermediate  back.*'  Sounds  formed 
on  the  hard  palate  ot  teeth  may  be  induded  under  the  oommoa 
term  "  forward,"  more  accuratdy  distinguished  as  "  teeth " 
(dental),  "  gum,"  "  front "  (palatal,  afterwards  called  "  lop  ** 
by  BeQ),  which  last  is  really  equivalent  to  "  mid-palatal," 
induding  the  whole  of  the  hard  palate  behind  the  gums.  AU 
of  these  divisions  are  further  subdivided  int6  "inner,"  to., 
as  with  the  back  positions. 

Of  the  tongue  we  distinguish  the  "back"  (root),  ''fnnt" 
or  middle,  "  point "  (Up),  and  "  blade,"  which  indudes  the 
point  and  the  surface  of  Che  tongue  immediate^  bdund  it,  Ths 
tongue  can  also  articulate  against  the  lips,  which,  again,  can 
articulate  against  the  teeth.  The  .lip  passage  can  be  dosed, 
or  narrowed  Ih  various  degrees.  Sotmas  tnodified  by  Up-narrow- 
ing are  called  "  tip-modified  "  (labialized)  or  "  round  "  (rounded), 
the  last  being  specially  used  in  speaking  of  vowds. 

Speechsowids.'—Tbt  most  general  test  of  a  simple  as  opposed 
to  a  compound  sound  (sound-group)  b  that  it  can  be  T»w£tKi«f«| 
without  change.  As  regards  platt  of  articulataon,  no  wnsd 
is  really  sunple:  every  sound  is  the  result  ot  the  shape  q(  the 
whole  configurative  passage  from  the  lungs  to  the  lips;  and  the 
ultimate  sound-dements,  such  as  voice,  are  never  heard  isolated. 
Ihe  most  indistinct  voice-murmur  is  as  much  the  mult  of  the 
shape  of  the  supergjottal  passages  as  th6  dearest  and  most 
distinct  of  the  other  vowels;  and  its  organic  foixnatioii  is  as 
definite  as  theirs  is,  the  only  difference  bdng  that  while  in  what 
We  regard  as  unmodified  voice  aU  the  organs  except  the  vocal 
chords  a»  In  their  passive,  neutral  positions,  the  other  vowds 
are  formed  by  actively  modifying  the  ^pe  <^  the  supcr-gk>ttal 
passages— by  raiaog  the  tongue  towards  the  palate,  narrowing 
the  lips,  &c 

The  most  important  dements  of  speech-sounds  are  those  ^^licli 
are  dependent  on  the  shape  of  the  glottis  and  of  the  mouth 
passage  respectively.  It  is  on  the  rdation  between  these  two 
factors  that  one  of  the  oldest  distinctions  between  sounds 
is  based:  that  of  vowd  and  consofwU,  In  vowels  the  dement- 
of  voice  is  the  predominant  one:  a  vowd.is  voice  modified  by 
the  different  shapes  of  the  superdottaI.passa|[es.  In  coasonants« 
on  the  other  hand,  the  state  of  the  glottis  is  only  secondar/. 


PHONETICS 


46a 


CoDioittnts  us  fenowIlF  the  ttttlk  of  audible  frkiSon,  as  in  (0. 

or  of  complete  stoppage,  as  in  (p).   If  Uie  glottis  is  at  tlxe  same 

time  left  open,  as  in  (f,  p),  the  consonant  is  "  breath  "  or 

*'  voiceless  " — if  it  is  narrowed  enough  to  make  the  chords  vibrate, 

as  in  (v,  b),  the  consonant  is  "  voice  "  or  *'  voiced  ";  intermediate 

positions  producing  the  corresponding  "  whispered  "  consonanta. 

Vowds  are  chaxacterized  negatively  by  the  absence  of  audible 

Action  or  stoppage:  if  an  (i)  is  formed  with  the  tongue  so  dose 

to  the  pslate  as  to  cause  buzangi  it  becomes  a  variety  of  the 

front  consonant  (j).   There  is,  of  oouise,  no  difficulty  in  fonaiog 

a  vowel  with  the  glottis  in  the  position  for  bfeath  and  whisper. 

Thus  breath  (i)  may  often  be  heard  in  Frendi  in  such  words  as 

otnii  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  the  result  being  practically  a 

weak  £on&  of  the  front-bceath  consonant  (c).    The  division 

between  vowd  and  consonant  is  not  an  absolutely  definite  one. 

As  we  see,  the  closer  a  vowel  is-Hbat  is,  the  narrower  its  con- 

figurative  passage  is— the  more  like  it  is  to  a  consonant,  and  the 

more  natural  it  is  to  devocalise  it.    Some  voice  consonants, 

on  the  other  hand,  have  so  Httlo  bus  that  acoustically  they 

constitute  a  dass  between  consonants  and  vowds    a  dasa  of 

"  vowd-like  "  or  "  liquid  "  consonants,  such  as  n,  m,  1). 

The  changes  in  sounds  which  result  from  active  narrowing  of 
the  passages  admit  of  an  important  distinction  aa  "  sound- 
modifying''  and  "  sound-colouiing,"  althou|^  the  distinction 
is  not  always  definite.    Nasality  and  rounding  are  examples 
of  sound-modifying  processes,    "nius  we  hear  a  certain  resem- 
blance between  (b)  and  (m),  (i)  and  (y),  but  we  regard  ail  these 
four  as  distinct  and  practically  independent  sounds.    Con- 
traction of  the  pharynx,  on  the  other  hand,  as  also  of  the  false 
glottis  and  windpipe/ have  only  a  sound-colouxing  effect:'  if  a 
vowd  is  formed  with  such  contractions  its  quality  (timbre) 
Is  altered,  but  it  stiU  remains  the  same  vowd.    It  fc^ows  from 
the  definition  of  ^)eech-sounds  that  they  admit  of  a  twofold 
classification;  (i)  organic  and  (a)  acoustic.  As  already  remarked, 
the  older  phoneticians  used  to  classify  the  consonants  osjganl- 
oslly,  tlie  vowels  mainly  firom  the  aooastk  point  of  view.   The 
first  to  give  an  adequate  ot^ganic  classification  of  the  vowds  was 
the  au^or  of  Visible  Speech,    Bell  gave  at  the  same  time  an 
independent  acoustic  dassificalion  of  the  consonants  aa  weU  aa 
the  vowds.   His  acoustic  classification  consists  simply  In  arrange 
ing  the  sounds  in  the  order  of  their  *'  pitches  "  (tone-hdghts). 
The  pitches  of  the  breath  consonants  are  absolutdy  fixed  in  each 
individual  promindation,  while  those  of  spoken  vowds  can  be 
varied  indefinitely  within  the  compass  of  each  voice  bytlghtning 
tiie  vocal  chords  In  various  ways  and  diortening  thdr  vibrating 
portions:  the  tighter  and  shorter  the  vibrating  body,  the  quicker 
its  vibrations,  and  the  higher  the  tone.    2u|  when  a  vowd 
is  whispered  or  breathed  nothing  is  beard  bat  the  reaonoDoe 
of  the  configurative  passages,  especially  in  the  mouth,  and  the 
pitches  of  these  resonant  cavities  are  as  fixed  as  those  of  the 
breath  consonants;  in  other  words,  a  whispered  (or  breathed) 
vowel  cannot  be  sung.  Althou^  the  absolute  pitches  of  voicdess 
sounds ,  may  vary  from  individual  to  individual  the  rdatiota 
of  the  pitches  are  constant:  thus  in  all  pronundations  (c)  and 
whispered  (i)  are  the  highest,  breath  (w)  in  what  and  whispered 
(u)  nearly  the  lowest  lis  pitch  among  oonsonanta  and  vowels 
respectively. 

If  phonetics  were  an  Ideally  perfect  sdence  there  would  be 
no  occasion  to  discuss  whether  the  acoustic  or  the  organic  study 
of  the  vowds  and  the  other  speech  Sounds  is  the  more  important: 
a  full  description  of  each  sound  would  necessarily  imply  (t)  ah 
exact  determination  of  its  organic  formation,  (2)  an  acoustic 
aAolysis  of  the  sound  itsdf,  both  from  the  objective  physical 
point  of  view  and  from  the  subjective  one  of  the  impression 
received  by  the  ear,  and  (3)  an  expUnatfon  of  how  (2)  is  the 
necessary  result  of  (i).  Even  this  last  question  has  already 
been  solved  to  some  extent.  In  fact,  the  connection  between 
the  organic  formation  and  the  acoustic  effect  is  often  sdf-cvident. 
It  is  evident,  for  instance,  that  0)  and  (c)  owe  their  dear  sound 
and  high  pitch  to  their  being  formed  by  short,  narrow  passages 
in  the  front  of  the  mouth,  while  (u)  owes  its  low  pitch  to  being 
in  exactly  the  opposite  way,  the  sound  bdng  farther 


;Au£9ed  and  the  pitf^  ooasequently  stiU  note  lowered  by  the 
rounding. 

One  reason  why  it  is  impossible  to  classify  the  vowels  exdu« 
sivdy  on  acoustic  prindples  is  that  two  vowds  formed  in  quite 
different  ways  may  have  the  same  pitch.  Thus  the  "high- 
front-round"  (y)  and  the  "high-mixed"  (X)  have  the  same 
pitch,  the  tongue-retraction  of  the  mixed  position  of  the 
latter  having  the  same  effect  as  the  rounding  of  the  former. 
It  is  evident,  therdore,  that  the  fundamental  classification  of 
the  vowels  must,  like  that  of  the  consonants,  be  purdy  organict 
And  although  Uk  piactical  purposes  it  is  often  convenient  to 
dassify  sounds  partly  from  the  acoustic  pobit  of  view,  a  full 
sdentiiGc  treatment  must  keep  the  two  points  of  view  strictly 
apart,  and  make  a  qiedal  chapter  of  the  relations  between  them. 

Vowds, — ^The  most  obvious  distinction  between  vowds  is  that 
whidi  depends  on  the  shajv  of  the  ttpa  in  thdr  ankuktion.  In 
such  non-roand  voweb  as  (i)  and  (a)  the  lips  are  nasdve,  or  even 
iepanted  and  spnead  out  at  their  coraert.  by  wnidi  the  vowels 
assume  a  dearer  reK>nanc3e.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lips  are 
actively  approximated,  they  beepOM  the  round  vowds  (y)  and 
••  open^  (o>  rettectivdy. 

Vowds  are  wnned  with  (fiffefmt  degrses  of  roandinr.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  narrowness  of  the  lip-passase  corresponds  to  the 
narrow  iwiss  of  the  ORMRh-passagt.  Tnas,  m  naasing  from  the 
vowel  of  <so  to  those  of  no  and  mm  the  back  of  ui«  tongue  is  pro* 
gretsively  lowered,  and  the  .rounding  is  diminished  in  the  sama 
propoftKNi. 

But  there  Is  alsO'  abnormal  rounding.  Thus,  if  we  prenonnce 
(0)  with  the :  lips  in  the  position  they  have  in  forming  <a),  the 
resulting  "  over-rounded  "  vowd  sounds  half-way  between  (o)  and 
(u) ;  the  seeood  element  d  the  di|>hthong  (ou)  in  go  is  formed  in  this 
way.  CoofWrsdy,  the  (u)  in  ^  is  "  andeivrouaded  "  in  the  Nertk. 
d  England;  the  tongoe  position  to  kept,  but  the  lips  am  ody 
brottght  together  a  little  at  the  corners,  as  in  (3). 

The  mouth  poaitioas  of  the  vowds  arc  the  result  of  two  factors; 
fi)  the  hdght  of  the  toiigue~its  nearness  to  the  palate — and 
(a)  the  degree  of  its  retraction.  Bdl  (fistinguishes  three  degrees 
of  heMt:  m  hto  eystem  (u)  u  "  high."  thelo)  d  iey  u  **  and," 
and  the  (d)  d  tarn  Is  "  low.  *  He  aJao  has  three  degrees  of  retrBC*i> 
tion :  in  **  oack"  vowds,  such  as  (u),  theroot  d  the  tongue  is  drawn 
to  the  back  d  the  mouth,  and  the  vdiole  tongue  slopes  down  from 
back  to  front.  In  "  front "  vowds,  such  as  (i),  the  front  d  the 
tongue  is  raised  towards  the  hard  palate,  so  that  the  tongue  elopes 
down  from  front  to  back. 

Most  d  these  slope-pontions  yidd  vowels  d  a  distinct  and  dear 
rssonanoe.  There  is  also  a  dass  d  "  flat "  vowds,  such  as  (a), 
in  whidi  the  tongue  to  in  a  more  or  less  neutml  position.  If  the 
tenooe  is  raised  irom  the  low-flat  position  d  (aa)  in  bird  to  the 
high  positkm.  we  get  the  (I)  d  North  Welsh  dye  "  man,"  which,  as 
already  observed,  u  acoustically  dreilar  to  (y). 

The  flat'Voweb  wcro  caUod  ''^  mixed  "  by  Bdttn  accordance  with 
hto  view  that  they  are  the  result  d  combimag  back  and  front  articiH 
totion.  And  ahnoaefa  thto  view  to  now  gencrdly  abandoned*  the 
term  "  mixed  "  to  stifl  retained  by  the  Engbsh  school  d  phonetiGtoas. 

In  this  way  BcU  mapped  out  the  whole  mouth  by  the  following 
cardinal  pomts:^- 


hi^-back 
mid-back 
low-back 


high-mixed 
mtd-mlxcd 
low-mixed 


high-front 
mid-front 
low-front 


la  this  arrangement  "  hurh-back,"  &c,  are  fixed  pdnts  like  those  d 
latitudeaiid  longitude.  Thus  normal  "  high  "  means  that  the  tongue 
to  Bsiped  asrdose  to  the  patote  as  to  powibto  without  causing  coor* 
Bonantal  friction,  and  "  back  "  implies  retrecdon  d  the  same  Idnd. 
Intermedtoie  positions  are  defined  as  "  raised,"  "  lowered,"  "  inner," 


cnwxm 


The  most  original  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  disputed  part 
d  BeU's  vowd-sdieme  to  hto  dtotinctioa  of  "  primary  "  and  "  wide." 
AU  voweto  fall  under  one  d  these  categories.  Thus,  the  primary 
French  0)  and  the  cormpoadiiig  English  wide  (0  are  both  high- 
front-vowds,  and  yet  they  are  distinct  in  sound:  the  English  vowd 
to  a  aemitone  lower  in  pitch.  Bell  explained  the  greater  openness 
of  the  wide  vowels  as  the  result  of  greater  expansion  of  the 
pharynx;  and  he  considered  the  other  dass  to  be  ^  most  oeariy 
aUied  to  the  consonants  ■whence  their  name  "  primary " — the 
voice-passages  in  the  (brmation  d  prunary  voweto  being  expanded 
oaly  M  far  as- to  remove  all  fricative  quality.  But  dtcrationt 
in  the  shape  of  the  pharynx  have  only  a  sound-colouiing.  not  a 
BOund-modirying.  effect:  and  Sweet  showed  that  the  distiiiction 
depend  *      "^  '  *' '  '  *  ^'^  *        l-^?— --• 


narrow 


s  on  the  shape  d  the  tongue^  and  accordingly  substituted 
m  "  for  Bell's  "  nrimary."    He  also  showed  that  the  distinc* 


tion  applies  to  consonants  as  well  as  voweto:  thus  the  narrow 
French  <w)  in  out  is  a  consonantixation  d  the  narrow  French  (u) 
in  fen,  while  the  English  <w)  preserves  the  wide  quality  d  the  {»} 
Inent 
In  forming  narrow  soonda  there  to  a  feeling  d  tension  in  that 


46+ 


PttONfETICS 


part  of  the  tongue  where  the  aoaiid  b  formed^  the  tongue  being 
clenched  or  bunched  up  lengthwise,  ao  as  to  be  more  convex  than 
in  its  relaxed  or "  wide "  condition.  .     .  . 

The  distinction  between  narrow  and  wide  can  often  be  ignored 
in  practical  phonetic  writing,  for  it  generally  depends  on  quantity: 
length  and  narrowness,  shortness  and  wideness  going  together. 
When  the  distinction  u  marked,  wide  vowels  may  be  expressed  by 
italics^  as  in  German  (biino,  b»n).  , 

Bell's  category  of  "  mixed-round  "  vowels  had  from  the  bcginmn^ 
been  a  source  of  difficulty  to  students  of  VisMe  Speech.  But  it 
was  not  till  1901  that  Sweet  showed  that  they  are  only  mixed  as 
regards  position!  they  are  really  the  corresponding  Dack*round 
vowels  moved  forwaiti  into  the  middle  of  the  mouth  while  pre- 
serving the  sbpe  df  back  vowels,  instead  of  having  the  tongue 
flat  as  in  the  (unround)  mixed  vowels.  They  are  "out-back" 
vowels:  there  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  outer  back  pontion  of  such 
a  back-round  vowd  as  the  English  {u)  compared  with  the  (dll  bacdc 
(«)  in  Germoa  imUIro* 

In  the  same  way  by  moving  the  tongue  backwards  while  forming 
a  front  vowel  anouier  series  of  "  in-front "  vowels  is  obtained. 

llie  "  in-mixed  "  vowels  are  obtained  by  shifting  thf  neutral 
mixed  posiciona  into  the  full  back  positk>n,  keeping  the  tongue 
flat,  so  that  these  vowels  migh^also  be  called  "  bacVflat." 

The  out-back,  in-front  and  in-mixed  vowels  are  included  under 
the  commoft  dcMgnation  of  "  shifted,"  as  opposed  to  "  normal " 
vowds. 

There  is  a  larae  number  of  other  .vowel-schemes,  of  which  a  survey 
wiU  be  found  in  W.  Vietor's  ElemenU  der  Pkomtik.  Many  of  the 
older  opes  are  in  the  form,  of  triangles,  with  the  three  chief  vowds 
a,  i,  M  at  the  three  corners,  the  other  vowels  being  inserted  between 
these  extremes  accocding  to  their  Acoustic  relations.  Since  the 
ai:q)caraiice  of  Visible  Speech  many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
fit  his  new  voweb  into  these  older  schemes. 

Of  all  the  vowel-schemes  the  one  now  moat  generally  known  is 
perhaps  that  of  the  International  Phonetic  Awociation  already 
mentioned.  In  this  scheme  the  distinction  of  narrow  and  wide, 
though  admitted  and  occasionally  marked,  b  not  an  integral  part 
of  tire  system,  the  voweb  being  classified  first  as  "  velar  (back) 
and  "  pabtel  (front),  and  then  according  to  openness  aa  "  close," 
"  hatf-dow."  "  medium."  *'  half-open  "  and  "  open." 

ComonBHis. — ^These  are  the  result  of  audible  f  rictioa  or  stoppage, 
which  may  be  accompanied  either  with  breath,  voice  or  whisper. 

Gxisenants  admit  of  a  two-fold  division  (i)  by  form,  and  .<2)  by 
iriace.  Thus  (p,  b)  are  by  place  Up-coasonaats,  while  by  form 
diey  are  stopped  consonants  or  "  stops.*' 

.  If  the  mouth-stoppage  b  kq>t.  and  the  nose-passage  b  opened, 
the  stop  becomes  the  corresponding  "  nasal " ;  thus  (b)  with  the 
•oft  palate  lowered  becomes  the  nasal  (m). 

In  "  open  "  consonants  the  sound  b  formed  by  simply  narrowtitk 
the  passage,  as  in  the  back-open-breath  (x)  in  Scotch  and  German 
loek.  In  some  open  consonants,  such  as  the  lip-teeth  (0,  there,  b 
slight  coatact  «  the  organs,  but  without  impeding  the  flow  of 
breath. 

In  "  divided  *'  consonants  there  b  central  stoppage  with  open- 
ings at  the  sides,  as  in  the  familiar  point<dividea  (1).  These  con- 
sonants are  sometimes  "  unibteml  " — with  the  opmng  oa  the  «de 
only— the  character  oC  the.  aound.  not  being  sensibly  modified 
(hereby* 

When  open  and  divided  consonants  are  formed  with'  the  aose- 
passage  open  they  are  said  to  be  "  nazalized."  Thus  (m)  with 
incomplete  Up-dqsure  becomes  the  nasalised  lip^pea-voice^  con- 
sonant. 

"  Trilb  **  (or  rolled)  ooiisonants  are  a  specbl  variety  of  un-stopped 
consonants  resulting  from  the  vibration  of  flexibb  parts  against 
one  another,  as  when  the  lips  are  trilled,  or  against  some  firm 
surface,  as  when  the  point  of  die  tongue  trills  against  the  gums 
in  the  Scotch  (r),  or  the  uvula  against  the  back  ci  the  tongue,  as  in 
the  Northumbrian  bunred  (r),  and  the  French  and  German  (r^, 
where — especially  in  German — ^the  trill  b  often  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum or  suppressed  altogether. 

As  njgaixb  the  place  01  consonants,  there  b,  as  already  remarked, 
great  diventty  among  irfionetidans,  both  in  mapping  out  the  palate 
and  tongue  and  in  the  names  given  to  these  divisbns.  The  dassi* 
fication  and  nomencbture  given  here  is,  in  the  main,  that  of  BeU. 

By  pbce,  then,  we  distingubh  seven  main  classes  of  consonants: 
bock,  front,  point,  bbde,  fan,  lip,  and  lip-teeth. 

"  Back  "  (guttncal)  consooanu  are  formed  between  the  root  of 
the  tongue  and  the  soft  pabte.  In  most  bnguages  the  positions 
of  these  consonants  vary  according  to  those  m  the  accompanying 
voweb:  thus  the  bock-stop  and  back-nasal  in  hing  are  more  forward 
than  in  amquer, 

''Front'  (pabtal)  consonants  are  formed  between  the  middb 
of  the  tongue  and  the  hard  paUte,  the  point  of  the  tongue  lying 
passively  behind  the  lower  teeth.  It  b  easy  to  make  the  front- 
opeiHvoice  (j)  in  vm  into  the  corresponding  stop  Q)  by  narrowing 
we  PMwge  till  there  b  complete  closure^  as  in  Hungarian  nary 
(npl)  wortd."  In  the  same  way  the  open  breath  (5)  in  German 
wArnay  be  made  into  the  stop  (c)  -  Hungarian  /v.  0)  nasalised 
becoM  (ft)— Itahan  r>«,  Spanish  «.  French  tn  In  Hpu.  The  frent- 
divided-voice  consonant  is  the  Itaibn  gl  and  Spanish  IL    These  are 


all  simpb  sounds,  dbtinct  from  the  (Ij),  (hj)  id  Frefxii  mm!  Cngfish 
miUiam  and  English  emum. 

"  Point "  consonants  when  formed  against  the  teeth  are  called 
"point-teeth"  (dental).  English  (f)  m  thin  u  the  point-teeth- 
open-breath  consonant,  (ff)  in  then  the  corresponding  voice  con- 
sonant. If  (8)  b  modified  by  turnins  the  tip  of  the  tongue  back 
into  the  inner  position-^about  on  the  areh-rim-~it  becomes  the 
untriUed  (r)  in  English  ncrii$gt  in  which  position  the  tongue  b 
easily  trilled*  the  trilling  becoming  more  and  more  duBcuIt 
the  more  the  tongue  b  approximated  to  the  point-teeth  position. 
In  French  and  many  other  bnguages  all  the  point  consonants 
(t,  d,  n,  I),  &c..  are  formed  on  the  teeth,  except  (r),  which  b  always 
more  retmcted  that  the  cither  point  consonants.  If  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  is  turned  so  far  back  aa  to  articulate  with  its  lower  cdee 
a^inst  the  arch  of  the  pabte — that  is^  farther  back  than  for  the 
"inner"  position— it  b  said  to  be  "inverted."  Inverted  (r)  b 
frequent  ui  the  dialect*  of  the  south-west  of  EnglaacL  The 
opposite  of  inversion  is  "  protrusion,"  in  which  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
articubtes  against  the  upper  lip. 

"  Bbde  "  consonants  are  formed  by  the  blade  or  flattened  tip 
of  the  tongue  against  the 'gums,  as  in  English  (s,  z),  or  against  the 
teeth,  as  in  the  oorrnponding  French  sounds.  If  these  consonants 
are  modified  by  turning  the  tongue  a  littb  back,  so  as  to  bring  tki» 
point  more  into  pby,  they  become  the  "  blade-point "  consonants 
(/,  5)i  OS  in  fish,  measure,  (f)  is  acoustically  a  dull  (s).  In  some 
bnguases,  such  as  (merman,  sounds  simibr  to  (/)  and  (z)  arc  formed 
partly  by  rounding,  which  lowers  the  pitch  of  the  hiss  in  the  same 
way  as  retraction  does,  so  that  the  tongucvorticubtion  b  only 
imperfectly  carried  out.^  When  the  rounding  b  very  marloBd 
there  is  only  a  slight  raiang  of  the  front  of  the  tongue,  as  in  some 
Swedbh  dialects;  and  if  the  tongtie-articubtion  is  progressively 
shifted  back,  and  the  rounding  diminbhed  in  the  same  proportion, 
(/)  can  at. last  develop  into  the  pure  back-open  consonant  (x),  as 
in  the  present  pronunciation  of  Spanish  x  and  j. 

The  EngUsh  point  consonants  (t,  d,  n,  1)  are  formed  on  the  gums 
just  behind  the  teeth,  the  point  of  the  toi^e  being  flattened,  so 
that  they  are  almost  bbde  consonants. 

"  Fan  "  (spread)  conaonaiits;;-^the  "  emphatic "  consonants  of 
Arabic — are  modifications  of  point  and  bUae  consonants,  in  which 
the  sides  of  the  tongue  are  spread  out,  so  that  the.  hiss  of  such  a 
consonant  as  (s)  is  formed  partly  between  the  sides  of  the  tongue 
and  the  back  teeth,  which  gives  a  peculiar  deep,  duU  qtio&y  to 
these  sounds. 

"  Up  "  cooaonants,  such  as  (p.  m),  and  "  lip-teeth  "  cofannants^ 
such  as  (f,.  v),  offer  no  difficulty.  The  simpb  lip-open-fareath 
consonant  does  not  occur  in  English;  it  b  the  souna  produced  ta 
blowing  out  a  candle.  The  corresponding  voice  sound  b  frequent 
in  Ciefmaui— especbUy  in  Middb  Germany<-4n  such  wiotqt  as 

If  the  lip<open  consonants  are  modified  by  raising  the  bach  of  the 
tongue,  they  become  the  "  lip-back  "  consonants  (wh,  w)  in  English 
whai,  we,  which  may  also  be  regarded  as  consonantiicd  («>.  In 
them  the  lip  artbubtbn  predominates.  In  the  "hacr-^p** 
consonants,  as  in  German  osieii,  the  reverse  b  the  cose* 

This  last  b  one  of  a  large  number  of  "  lip-modified  "  conaonantik 
oC  which  the  already-mentioned  CJerraan  «CA  b  a  further  example. 

In  a  simibr  way  consonants  may  be  "  front-modified.  (i)  b 
pecttlbrly  susceptiUe  to  such  modincations.  In  French  and  other 
bnguages  it  b  formed  with  the  tongue  more  convex  than  in  EngUsh, 
and  consequently  with  a  tendency  to  frofit-modific^ion.  Front- 
modified  (s)  and  point  (r)  may  be  heard  in  Russbn  in  such  words 
as  rsttf  "  goose,"  tsari  *'  emperor,"  where  the  final  voweb  are  silent. 

some  consonants  are  formed  below  the  mouth. 

When  the  glottb  is  sharply  opened  or  closed  on  a  passage  at  breath 
or  vobe  aa  dFect  b  produocSd  simibr  to  that  of  a  stop  in  the  noatli* 
such  as  (k).  Thb  glottal  stop  "  b  the  sound  produced  in  kic- 
cuping;  and  b  an  independent  sound  in  some  bnguages,  such  aa 
Arabic,  where  it  b  called  "  hamsa."  InCiermanall  worasbeginninr 
with  a  stressed  (accented)  vowd  have  a  more  or  less  dbtinct  gkmal 
stop  before  the  vowel. 

^(jf  the  passages  below  the-  glottb,  the  bronchiab  and  the  wind* 
pipe  arc  both  susceptibk  of  contraction. 

Spasmodb  contraction  of  the  bronchbl  passages  b  the  maia 
factor  in  produdbg  vdiat  b  known  as  "  the  asthmatic  wfaeese." 
If  thb  contraction  b  regubted  and  made  voliuitary  it  results  ia 
the  deep  hiss  of  the  Aramc  kd*  If  thb  sound  is  voiced^  it  causes 
a  peculiar  intermittent  vibration  of  voice,  which  b  habitual  with 
some  speakers,  especblly  in  (Germany.  If  thb  effect  b  softened  fa^ 
slightly  expanding  the  bronchbl  passogco,  an  (r)«lilQe  sound  ■ 
produced,  which  b  that  of  the  Arabic  'ate. 

Contraction  of  the  windpipe  produces  a  sound  similar  to  the 
Arabic  hS,  but  weaker,  which  when  followed  by  a  vowd  has  the 
effect  of  a  strong  aspirate.  When  voiced  it  becomes  a  mere  colourer 
of  tfie  accompanying  voice-ninnnur,  or  vovtl,  to  which  it  aooparts 
a  deep  timbrtw 

Non-expiratory  .&Mmds.— All  the  sounds  hitherto  described 
imply  out-breathing  or  expiration.  Many  of  them  can  also  be 
formed  with  in-breathinjg  or  inspiration.  In  English  it  b  a  not 
wicommon  trick  of  speech  to  pronooaoe  no  in  thb  toaaneri  to  < 
emphatic  denbU 


PHONETICS 


46j 


ScrBtODIIBBUU 

>rt  (omw)  iriibom  dtbir  lis  or  otit-b»>ihi<i|. 

bulBkbrwKhlhc 

uiiKbclhnslo. 

fomint-HKiion. 

uop."Qfdl:t.' 

thf  <DCii.c  or  Up.  .n:  put  In  Ibc  p»il»o  fo(  > 

i-fcliS-i". 

ucbrd  out  Imm 

ir.'^"! 

»'[S?bV^I^ 

by  the  >ir  nJihiiw 

ia  lo  till  ihc  'v 

ui  the  poinl-cllck 

it  the  iUcricclion 

ICD  JoU     iB  nuiiy 

Bvacc  lutiuCB  cliclu  in;  n  fan  o( 

htoundK 

»rHdy,phonclio 

hu  U.  do]  with 

which  icci 

mpany  lynlhciii 

oI»imdi.    AJthotighiK 

lencemayconMl 

oliiiDglopotd.a 

•ingle  vo 

*d,  Kiuiidi  mOBtly 

ooe  uotb 

X.    The  oriinuy 

di.»iHi  imo  «nt 

ncHuid  voids 

iilogicil, 

I  than  up 

into  wofd»  uotil 

ve  know  whit  the 

abl.  lo  » 

olyw  Iheta  gnm- 

maticiUy.    But  Ih 

t  iogicl  divisio 

to  ume  eitcat  oil 

the  phonetic  d 

vision  into 

'  brealh-groupa," 

maitodoSbyour 

rubilily  to  utle 

moretb* 

I  Mitiin  number 

oUjltablninjucc 

»»o  without  p. 

uungtotllufaruth.    With- 

ach  o[  IhcH 


n  the  woidi,  except  vben  wc  ptUK  fo 


y  piua 


only  necoury  pliooctu:  aivuioDt  wiutin  IDe  bieuh-group 
ue  IhOH  into  lylliblci,  »undi  nnd  intervening  "  glides."  fiul 
befarecODAideringthaelut  it  willbenecestnry  touy  lometbiag 
■bout  the  geot'il  iocton  oi  lynthcsis:  quantity,  sutss  9JdA 

j.'hsl'f^lon^or  mi 


cU»ei 


h  thfre  deBTtefl;  !■ 


The  R 


in  French  n.    Umtr. 


German  iRdnfl.  where  the  &1ia1conaonailtiiqili1c>hDrt.  Conioiian 
like  voweU,  tend  to  become  fhort  when  unKreued.  But  in  sot 
laaguacea.  nich  ai  Fiaoiah  and  Kun^rian.  ttreu  haa  no  cRect  ' 
quantity.  ¥>  thM  in  theie  4aogiiAftca  lone  vowel*  and  doable  co 
II  (miuently  In  uauraaed  ai  ' 


Roni 


ih  we  often  lengthen  final  unlreued  voweU  in 
I  in  ttlal  a  fiiiyl    Some  languages  ,iucli  ■•  the 


are  halE-loni. 

in™vhUe  lo 
dependeal  tn 


breath  ii  expelEd  Cmm  the 

vibnlioaa:  Ibe  bigger  the 
arealcr  the  alreu,  of  which  we  may  diitinguish 
IT  wc  cfiaiingiu^  only  three,  tliry  are  called  w 
sfrswf.    The  mt  d  itres  in  dillcreni  bngiugn 

EnglSJi.  OB  the  otiiet  '     '        ' ' -' 


1  the  lylbl 
egre*  tJ  io 


I  dittiaguiah  the  mcaninfla  of  wordi  and  to  mark 

ie  cioKty  wnnected  the  queuion  d  ayUabU-diBinoK. 
it  conlsiiung  a  "  lyllibic  "  oc  lyllable- 
aMe  to  constitute  a  •yitable  by  hieLT. 


only  reETll^ 


Iwo  togelher  only  l,— ^-^--- 

group  become.  di»l 

<orre»pond«  wlh  Itie  ocjinning  ra  I'le  »iic~ 
is  utieied.  Thni  in  alaK  the  ilrong  ilreaa  ■ 
besin  on  Ibe  (I),  and  in  icttaui  on  the  le 
bcianging  IO  the  lint  lyllable,  (o  thai  Ihe  (I 
vci«ly  bog.  aa  in  book  (bukk)  by  itiell. 

/atiaalin  oc  variation  of  tone  (pitch)  di 
of  Ihe  Hund-vibialiani:  Ihe  mote  rapid  the  viuTaLHio^  i 
thr  pilch.    Intonation  ia  beaid  only  m  voiced  aoumta  aa 
only  onct  capable  of  variationt  of  pitch. 

In  linpng  ih*  voice  generally  dwclU  on  each  iwle  withoul  (bance 
cl  pitch,  and  then  kapa  up  «  down  to  Ihe  next  asie  ai  quicUy 


e  lylUblc 

a  lyllabic  lunclioo.  and  the  whole 
c  ear.  The  beginning  of  a  tyllabU 
oI  the  ■trea-impulie  wiih  which  il 
rong  fireaa  and  the  aecond  f.yllahl< 
^  on  Ihe  ■econd  (k).  Ibe  (iiK  (V 
0  thai  Ihe  (kk)  ia  hen  double,  nol 


'fishSf 


ncD.     ID  aponng,  online  over  naiv^ 

.  u  that  an  abiofutcly  level  lone  baldly 
[  in  the  liiing  and  failing  inReciioni  of 
betwnn  "  voice.glid«  Iponamentot 
ahbough  the  diuiBctkn  ia  not  •odiflsile 


SS& 


which  begiiDa  high. 


Ih  (ha  ainply  iote 
Dpean  languages. 

me  bnguagea,  ai 


e   diatinguiihcd. 


«y  ate  all  implied  by 
{or  it  [>  auumed  tha 

he^m^eju,.a. 

way  is  taken. 

•  glide  ia  dependent  o 
tw!U  which  iriio,iIa 

chamcler  may 

1  by  stress  and  quantity. 

:  the  •'  off-glid«>  "  Irom  the  conwnanta 

it  tkttil  being  kept  open  duiinglhe 

Inal  coDSonanl.  to  silcn 

ce.    The  "on- 

tSe(t)ii,onth*othe 
gtoti,  being  mainlaiD. 

hand,  ■  voice- 
at  till  the  stop 

the  laoiuiBCS  at  the  south  of  Euio^ 
loilowed  by  voice-glides.  Thua  in 
scape  of  breath  after  the  (k),  as  there 
Isniuign  again  have  bteath  OD-glidcs 


ig  strea  ia  put  on  tin  brealh-gUde  of 
most  as  a  full  Independent  consonant, 
ite."  Aspirated  steps  may  be  heard 
[□elation  of  such  voids  as  Icll,  and  also 

lop  i>  emphasised  in  a  aimilar  way  ibe 
iinskilt  and  its  modern  draccndania 
ril  dhanu. 
poilSDt  fioni  an  acotiitlc  pdnt  of  vi< 


>detd,  > 


■t  pure  glidi 


ingina 

udible.    Invoicc- 

topi,  on 

he 

1/rant 

c  made  audible  a 

he 

English 

these  lotler  aie 

lully  vo 

ccd 

sounds,  as  in  ct 

1  but  » 

UHboi 

by  a  patue,  as  in 

p.!  they 

are 

locality,  full  voice  being  facaid  only 
nencd.  So  alio  initial  English  (a)  at 
imperfect  vocaliiy  undei  the  same 
undi  like  (si).  In  French  and  other 
olce-glldca  after  •voicelesa  cc 

be  fDithtr  EDodiGed  It 


+66 


PHONETICS 


by  voice-glidei  we  modifi^  by  nimiilteufcm  closure  of  the 
glottis,  the  larynx  being  raised  by  means  of  its  muscles,  so  that 
it  acts  IQce  a  plug,  compressing  the  air  between  the  closed  glottis 
and  the  mouth-stop,  so  that  when  the  latter  is  released  a 
peculiar  choky  effect  is  given  to  the  off'glide. 

Rounded  glides  may  be  heard  in  Russian  in  such  vrordi  as 
komncUif  where  the  rounding  of  the  (o)  is  anticipated  in  Uie 
preceding  consonant,  being  heard,  of  course,  only  in  the  off- 
glide  of  the  consonanL  T^e  acoustic  effect  is  between  that  of 
(kwo)  and  ordinary  (ko). 

Glideless  consonant-combinations  remain  to  be  considered. 
The  general  articulative  principle  of  taking  the  shortest  way 
between  sounds  in  juxtaposition  necessarily  results  in  certain 
transitions  being  effected  without  any  glide  at  aU.  This  fa 
regularly  the  case  when  the  consonants  have  the  same  place, 
and  differ  only  in  form,  a&  in  (nd,  dlt),  yirhere  the  point  of  the 
tongue  remains  unmoved  through  the  whole  sound-group. 
In  such  combinations  as  (mf)  the  very  alight  glide  is  often  got  rid 
of  entirely  by  assimilating  the  place  of  the  first  consonant  to 
that  of  the  second,  so  that  the  (m)  becomes  a  lip  teeth  consonant, 
as  in  English  nymph. 

Even  when  consonants  are  fonned  in  different  parts  of  the 
mouth  it  is  often  possible  to  join  them  without  any  ^de.  In 
English  such  combinations  as  G^t,  pi)  ftrc  glide1es$,  the  point 
pS  the  tongue  being  brought  into  position  before  the  pre<^ng 
vlop  is  loosened.  In  French  and  most  other  langxiagcs  such 
consonants  are  separated  by  a  brcath-gUdc. 

Combinations  of  stops  and  vowel-like  consonants  (tr,  gl.kw) 
are  glideless  in  English  and  most  other  languages.  In  English 
the  breath-glide  after  a  voiceless  stop  unvoices  the  beginning 
of  the  following  vowel-like  consonant;  thus  try  is  almost  (trh- 
rai). 

Vtmel-glides. —Vo^li  are  begun  and  ended  in  various  ways. 
In  the  gradual  bei^tnning."  which  U  the  usual  one  in  English 
and  French,  the  elottu  is  gradually  narrowed  while  bceath  is  Ixsing 
emitted.  In  the  clear  "  beginning  the  breath  is  kept  bac|^  tiU  the 
glottis  is  closed  for  voice,  which  begins  without  any  breathtneas." 
German  favours  the  clear  beginning,  generally  exaggerating  it  into  a 
glottal  stop. 

In  the  gradual  as  well  as  the  dear  beginning  the  atreas  begins 
on  the  vowel.  If  in  the  former  it  is  thrown  back  oo  the  breath- 
glide,  the  latter  is  felt  as. an  independent  element  and  becomes 
the  aspirate  "  or  (h),  which  in  English  and  most  other  languages 
is  a  glide  not  only  in  the  throat  but  in  the  mouth  as  well,  the  tongue 
and  tips  graduaiiy  moving  up  into  the  position  ipr  the  following 
vowel  while  the  glottis  is  being  closed. 

There  is  also  a  "  strong  '^  aspirate,  which  aftura  in  Finnish 
and  other  languages,  in  the  formation  of  which  the  fun  vowel  position 
is  assumed  from  the  beginning  of  the  aspiration,  which  is  tnereforc 
a  voicdeas  VDweL 

In  moat  languages,  when  an  aspi.rate  comes  between  voiced  sounds 
it  i^  (brmed  with  imperfect  vocafitjr,  the  contrast  of  which  with  the 
full  vocality  of  the  otho*  sounds  is  enough  to  produce  the  effect 
of  breath.  Thus  In  English  behold  (he  voice  runs  on  without 
avv  actoal  break,  the  glottal  doaure  being  simply  relaxed,  not 
fufly  opened  for  breath,  as  in  the  emphatic  aha  I  In  some  languages, 
such  as  Bohemian,  this  "  voice-aspirate "  is  used  everywberei 
initially  as  well  as  medially. 

Vowels  are  finished  analogously,  either  by  a  gradual  opening  of 
the  glottis,  or  by  a  cessation  of  asfnration  while  the  glottis  is  still 
doaed  for  voice.  If  atress  is  put  on  the  gradual  endi^  it  becomes 
a  distinct  aspirate,  as  in  the  aanskrit  "  visarga  "  in  such  a  wqnl  as 
mancb» 

Organic  Basis, — ^Every  language  has  certain  general  tendendes 
which  control  the  formation  of  its.  sounds,  constituting  its 
"organic  basis"  or  basis  of  articulation.  The  tendency  of 
the  present  English  is  to  flatten  and  lower  the  tongue  and  draw 
it  back  from  the  teeth,  while  the  lips  are  kept  as  much  as  possible 
in  a  neutral  position.  The  flattening  of  the  tongue  makes  our 
voweb  wide  and  favours  the  devdopmcnt  of  mixed  vowels, 
and  i^ves  the  dull  quah'ty  which  is  espedally  noticeable  in  our 
(1);  and  its  retraction  is  unfavourable  to  the  development  of 
teeth  sounds;  while  the  neutrality  of  the  lips  eliminates  front- 
round  vowels.  In  such  a  language  as  Trench  everything  is 
revoraed.  The  tongt/e  fs  arched,  and  raised,  and  advanced,  and 
the  h'ps  articulate  with  energy.  Hence  French  sotmds  tend 
to  narrowness,  dentality  and  distinct  rounding. 

National  Sound-syOems.—^Mii  language  uses  only  •  part  of 


the  general  phonetic  materiaL  Eadi  one  has  only  &  Hmitcd 
number  of  sounds;  and  each  one  makes  only  a  limited  use  of 
the  synthetic  distihctions  of  quantity,  stress  and  intonation.  As 
we  have  seen,  many  of  these  differences  between  individual 
languages  are  the  result  of,  or  may  be  referred  to,  differences 
in  their  organic  basis. 

Just  as  cognate  languages  differ  from  each  other  in  phonetic 
structure,  so  also  dialects  of  the  same  languages  differ  from  each 
other  more  or  kss.  Thus  the  sound-system  of  Lowland  Scotch— 
which  is,  historically,  a  dialect  of  Northern  English — differs 
considerably  from  that  of  standard  English.  Standard  English 
itself  was  originally  that  mixture  of  the  Midland  and  the  Southern 
dialect  which  was  spoken  in  London  in  the  middle  ages,  fust  as 
standard  French  fa,  hfatorically,  the  dialect  of  t^t  district 
of  which  Paris  fa  the  centre.  Standard  English,  like  standard 
French,  fa  now  more  a  class-dialect  than  a  local  dialect:  it  fa 
the  language  of  the  educated  all  over  Great  Britain.  But  it 
is  not  yet  perfectly  uniform.  It  fa  still  liable  to  be  influenced 
by  the  local  dialects  in  grammar  and  vocabulaiy,  and  still  more 
in  pronundation. 

Again,  English,  like  all  other  Uving  languages,  changes  fnnn 
generation  to  generation.  Pronundations  which  are  vulgar 
in  one  century  may  become  fashionable  in  the  next.  Sounds 
which  are  dfatinct  in  one  generation  may  be  confoimded  in 
another,  and  new  dfatinctions  may  be  made,  new  sounds  may 
arise.  A  ^wken  language  is,  therefore,  necessarily  a  vague 
and  floating  entity,  and  English  fa  no  exception  to  the  rule. 
Hie  very  fixity  of  its  written  form  gives  all  the  freer  play  to 
the  influences  which  cause  change. 

A  standard  spoken  language  is,  strictly  speaking,  an  abstrac- 
tion. No  two  speakers  of  standard  English  pronounce  exactly 
alike.  And  yet  they  all  have  something  in  common  in  eveiy 
sound  they  utter.  There  are  some  divergendes,  some  peculiari- 
ties of  pronunciation,  which  pass  unnoticed,  while  others,  leas 
considerable  perhaps  in  themsdves,  are  at  once  fdt  as 
archaisms,  vulgarisms  or  provincialisms,  as  the  case  may  be, 
by  the  majority  of  educated  speakers. 

Sounds  cf  Sn^/if i.— The  following  fa  a  oonvenfant  rlsaaiilcatiott 
of  the  vowefa  of  standard  English  >—s 


1 

a 


e 
d 


uu 


aa,  au 


ou, 
oi 


o 


la   eo    ua 

Here  the  voweja  are  in  four  rows:  (t)  notmally  abort,  or,  more 
correctly,  monophthongic,  (2)  long,  or  half-diphthongic,  (3)  fuB 
diphthongs,  (4)  murmur-diphthongs. 

Those  under  (r)  are  often  lengthened  in  monosyflablea  sodi  as 
len,  ipcd,  but  they  always  remain  absolutely  monophthongic.  The 
only  one  in  the  next  row  that  is  alwajrS  stnctly  monophthongic  fa 
(»3j:  all  the  others,  as  we  shall  see,  tend  to  Mcome  more  or  leas 

often  exagger- 
arapeecn. 
,  to  the  (aa) 

in  eatm,  (aa)  is  the  mid-back-wide  vowd,  and  (a)  defers  from  it 
only  in  being  narrow.  Acoustically,  (a)  fa  a  muffled  or  obacore  (aa) : 
and  the  same  effect  may  be  produced  by  advancing  the  toagne 
from  tlie  mid-back  to  the  corresponding  out-back  podtion,  jse- 
serving  the  wide  articulation:  this  pronuncfation  of  «  fa  comnoa 
in  the  south  of  England.  Historically,  theae  sounds  are  the  result 
of  unrounding  and  older  (u). 

(a),  as  in  sefa,  is  a  nuxed  vowel,  tending  to  wideness  and  mid 
position,  which  occurs  only  unstressed,  (m)  in  iKm,  eahEJk,  b  low^ 
mixed-narrow.  It  fa  the  result  of  absorption  of  an  older  (r), 
weakened  into  (a). 

(e).  as  in  man,  is  low-frontwide,  from  dider  retd-back-wide. 

(i)  in  -if  fa  high-front-wide.  The  long  (ii)  in  Ml  fa  narrow  in  the 
north  of  England,  while  in  the  south  it  fa  wide  (i)  fdlowed  by  (j). 

(e)  in  men  fa  generally  mid-front-wide,  (ei)  m  mane  ia  tlie  same 
vowel  either  narrow  or  wide,  raised  in  ita  fatter  half  towards  (0. 

(u)  in  good  fa  hich-back-wide-round.  Narrow  (uu)  in  loo  hecomrs 
(kw)  in  Boutbem  Englfah. 

(o)  in  not  fa  low-back-wide-round,  tn  (ou),  as  &t  «•,  the  m>d- 
back-round  vowel,  dther  narrow  or  wide,  is  over-rounded  in  ita 
fatter  half.    (0),  as  in  oU.  fa  low-back-narrow-round. 

The  full  diphthongs  (ai,  au, oi), as  in  eye,nov,  ou,  all  end  fn  lowered 
high  voweb.  Thdr  first  elements  are  only  roughly  indicated  by 
the  transcriprion;  and  vary  in  the  mouths  of  different  speakers. 
That  of  (ai)  is  generally  the  out-mld-back-wide.  that  Of  (au)  the 
broader  low-mixnl-wide,  that  of  (d)  the  mtd-back-wide-roand. 

The  murmur-diphthongs  (ia)  as  isk  Aare,  (ea)  as  in  asr,  (ua)  «s  in 


iPHDNOORAPH 


4*7 


auali.  nu»I  of  which  KiO  CI 

BlILlOCIAfl 

Snel.  A  Plan 

.    Gnndiii^  itr  J 

Sicmnltiir  P\ 

Ciib«L,Lcipd| 

bppW  lo  D(  P 


aif  the  EsiLiib  D 


Alliik 


lOxfard,  l»)i). 
Douiion  to  Ihe 
F'ima  of  Sfnh 
P.  Pauy.  £Jn 
CSihea.  i^oj) ; 

paOXOOBAPH  CCr.  ^p4,  KHUd,  Yfii^u. 
fattrumcnt  lot  iiaptinliag  the  vibnlions  »E  ulma  oa  a  movui 
■aTface  ol  tinfofl  oi  wu  [n  inch  m  torm  tluit  the  (xjgiiul  wiuiiti 
can  be  fsitbfuHy  reproduced  by  tuilsble  raccfaanum.  Many 
KltemiiU  had  bees  mitde  by  earlier  ejpeiiqieDlcra  la  obtala 
tracingi  of  tbv  vibntiona  of  bodica  cmilting  aousdi  such  u 
tuning- forks,  membTanea,  and  glan  or  metallic  dlski.  In  iBoT 
Thomas  Young  [lalarts.  l.  mO  desnibed  a  method  of  tccorfing 
tbe  vibiuiom  of  a  luomg-Ioik  on  the  luilace  of  a  druQi;  his 
nietbad  «a  lulty  earned  out  by  WUhelm  Wenhcim  in  iSat 
{RtJitrcliti  sur  rilasliciU,  V-  men.).  Reconhng  tba  vibrUinB 
of  >  membrane  ica>  Gisl  aoomplithed  by  L«n  Scott  in  iS;7  by 
the  invention  of  lie  "  phnnaulograph,"  which  may  be  regarded 
■a  the  prccuisorof  Ihe  phonograph  [Canipitt  tnidtii,  53.  p.  loS), 
Tbii  ioitrument  consisted  of  a  thin  membruc  to  which  a  ddiate 
lever  was  attached.  The  membrane  na  alntiied  over  the 
Tiarm*  ccd  of  u  irn^ularly-fihaped  funnel  or  drum,  while  (he 
end  of  the  lever  or  marker  was  brought  against  the  surface  of 
a  cylinder  covered  iwith  paper  on  which  soot  had  been  deposited 
(rom  ■  flame  of  tiitpentiiie  or  cimphor.  The  cylinder  wai 
ized  on  >  fine  screw  moving  hotiiontaUy  when  the  cylmder 
was  rotated.  The  toarlcer  Ibui  dodlbed  ajpiral  line  on 
bUcbened  surface.  When  sounds  were  transmitted  to 
Membiwie  and  the  cylinder  was  rotated  the  oecillationa  of 
marker  were  recorded.  Thus  tracings  of  vibiattona  * 
obtained.  Tills  instrument  wai  inudi  Improved  by  Earl 
Rudolpb  EEnig,  of  Paris,  who  also  made  with  it  nuny  valuable 
obacrvktioni.  (See  tfalurt,  Dec  a£,  1901,  p.  1S4].  The 
mechanism  of  the  recording  lever  or  marker  was  Impioved  by 
William  Heniy  Barlow,  hi  1B74,  m  in  inatruinent  called  by  ' ' 
tie  "  logograph"  (rroiu.  Xey-  Stc,  1874).  The  ne«  1 
was  KOnig's  invention  of  manometiic  flames  by  nbich  the 
oaciU&tiom  of  a  thin  membrane  under  sound-pressurea  acted 
OD  s  small  raaeivoir  of  gas  connecled  with  a  fiame,  and  the 
oscillaliooi  were  viewed  in  a  rolslfng  itclaogular  mimir,  accord- 
ing to  a  method  devised  by  Charles  Wbeaisiane.  Thus  flame. 
pjcture&  of  the  vibiatlAB*  oi  sound  were  obtained  {Pbu-  Ann., 


0  Queiques  ejpirinca  tfotdH- 
^1).    CiarenccB1akeiniS7aemplQyedlhedlbm- 
liesd  ol  the  huoiss  ear  as  a  kgograph,  and  thus  obtained  tiadng^ 
■imilar  ta  rtww  made  .by  aKifidri  mrniWinWd  dirti  jAnkk. 


}llr  OMitlmal.,  iItII,  <f.  1.].  In  (b»  sama  ;r<*'  S^ma^ 
Tbeodor  Stein  photographed  the  vibniions  oI  tuning-forka, 
viaUn  stiinp,  Ic,  (fiu.  Am,  187^,  p.  141).  Thus  Irom 
Thomaa  Voung  downwunts  suconiful  eflorls  had  beoi  made 
to  rccDrd  graphically  on  ntoving  mirtactf  the  ribntioDS  of  lomala, 
but  Ihe  sounds  so  recorded  couhl  not  be  leproduced.  Tbfa 
was  accomplished  by  T.  A.  Ediaon  in  1876,  the  fint  pttsit 
beingdaled  Janualj  1S77. 

phfHwffnph  a  ^iiral  [Towe  «»  cut  ea  a  biav  dnun 
icuantal  icnv,  n  that  wbcD  the  drum  wh  rouied 
''■"''■"'"■      ■  anautofreph.    TTie  recorder 

_.    _ „    , ent    or    atU-brr'— '-    -"■'- 

■inrtched   vvtt  the  end  dt  a    sbort   braia   cynnder   a' 


u  an  imperfect  instrumesl. 


pctasure  corraipondlM  (0 

.-M  indentatkrns  oa  tGs  tli 

Toovb     These  ioden""''""" """" 

ro  repcoduce  tba  loui 

yUnder.  and  the  cyllD 

tras  brcHiahc  to  the  n 
.ben  rotated  lotwanU 
Ibe  elevatlans  and  dcp 
etevatEsns  and  depra 

Ji»^to  move  la'llx 
vttmte  by  the  lound-a 

weia  pfndund,  and  li 

liderable  accuracy.  I 
aoipli&ed  the  tracings 
vowebi  and  submitted 
irnwi.  Jt^.  SBC.  Elin 

Pretce,  and  Lahr  (le 
Pkonorm^,  by  eouol  ■ 

The  tinfoil  pt 
both  as  regards  Ihe  m 

(tinfoil)  and  the  geoeial  raecbanina  of  the  In 
improvements  were  attempted.  From  1877  to  iSSl  £<UmIi 
wu  (ngaged  in  working  oul  the  details  ol  the  wai-cyliDdec 
phonograph.  In  1885  A.  C.  Bell  and  6.  Tafnler  patoted  Ibe 
"  grapbopbMie,"  and  in  1887,  Enile  BeiSner,*  Ceniian  domtcOed 
In  Amelia,  patented  lb*  "gramophone,"  wherein  the  eylioder 
wu  coaled  with  lampblack,  and  tba  bictioii  belviea  it  and 
the  ftylua  was  made  uniform  tor  all  TJbratioiia.  Inddentalfy 
It  may  be  mentioned  that  Charles  Cron  deposited  In  1877  a 
sealed  packet  with  the  Acsdfmie  its  Sciences,  Paris,  canlalids^ 
a  suggotion  for  reproducjng  aound  from  a  Scott  phonautagrai£ 

record.    The  ImprovtBesta  made  by  Ediaaa  ililnl  chM^ 

(i)  In  suhatituiing  for  tlniall  crlinden.or  disks  made  of  a  wan 
aubstaoca  on  which  permanent  lecorda  are  taken;  {a)  in  lubtll- 
tutlng  a  thin  glaaa  plate  for  tba  ptidmunt  membiane;  (j)  in 
isquoving  the  mechanical  action  of  tha  maiher;  nti  (4)  In 
diiving  the  dram  ciriybig  the  wax  cfEnder  at  a  uniform  and 
r^id  speed  by  an  elecUic  motor  placed  hi ' 
In  the  GtK  place. 

but    it    rradil}'    ta^    *,-..    H-^t^-utm    _,uc    uy     um    *i»imu,    «hh,m    H 

now  a  liny  bit  of  npphke.  Tba  aaifcir.  wben  used  (or  ncordini. 
it  ahod  mtb  a  chis4  ihnnd  edge  of  lapphint  but  tba  MpiihiR  is 
RKindtd  when  the  marker  ts  und  lor  RDndadng  the  tMnd.  Ite 
maiker  also,  iasttad  ol  bciac  a  MiH  neidle  coalag  fmn  tbe  eeaii* 
of  the  nembnne  or  ihsi  plita.  ia  now  a  levw.  wilihlad  *o  a*  B) 
k«p  It  la  contact  wKb  the  ntfsce  d(  iIm  wax.  A  abode  idxatkn 
tt  a  pan  »«  eonaisM  a  fa  incnoK  of  prmura  foBeaHd  tnra 
dlniaiitloa  td  pnaewa.    Wlwi  ibe  dhk  oTglaB  I*  nhnlnHl  «i 


4.«S  PHONOGRAPH 

^  w«r  oyOiite  It  loudof,  tin  reiu  a(  tkt  ■urkir  i>  4a|kd    lack  iput. 
dovmudi,  and  ttni  cuCi  dicply  Into  tbe  wui  and  nira  then  b    300  ydi.  mi- 

diniiBDtloa  of  pRiuin  Uic  paiBi  li  uriea  iipwuils.  »  M  to  Ki  las    -'- ■ 

-dttj^y-  Id  nprndiKaDg  tnc  MHind.  ike  bluat  cod  «f  tbv  mulKr 
fWH  evtr  *]l  IM  «lmUiga>  ud  Jracmioai  la  the  boUoa  t4  tbc 
(nan  cut  ea  the  nx  crUntkr.  Thctc  i>  this  iocRanf 
tmnmiited  upvud)  to  Cbe  (Uh  duk  vhen  the  pant  nin 
cteVKlion,  jind  leu  ptcuiiit  whea  the  poJAt  njiu  over  a  d 
OB  the  *n  cylindn-.  The  tUu  diik  u  this,  u  ft  wa 
inwinli  *Ad  itituit  oulnrdi  «th  adt  vihnWB.  but  d 


Imv«  been  iflected  ta  tha 

hu  been  lubMltuud  for 

»iiBder  hu  ban  iKiau*! 

Inn  et  in.  K>  >S  ia-.  vUbl  tbi  didi  ii  u  is. 
la  diunetcr.  tte  cyUnden  mkc  about  tm 
irvolutioiu  per  tecoDd,  B  that  witb  the 
nailer  cylinder  the  poiat  trf  the  markef 
Inii  onr  neatl*  14  la.  in  m  Hoood.  while 
siththelacEnttninaaKralButjaiB.  Tbe 
■BUka  MimiondiBt  to  th*  iadividaal 
idbndoiii  of  tsOM  u  hl^  pitch  m  tbcn- 
fare  leia  likdy  to  b*  crstidid  tORtber 
■itfa  tbi  later  edindtr,  attd  Ana  Eigbcr 


the  dniB  btaiiai  the  cylindar  ma  t 
ad  a  Bcm  the  tbccad  of  vhicb  wii  ■ 
lb*  iodlp  and  by  a  aytttv  of  fwinfl 
ttoovca  oa  the  cyiiDdrr  wai  »u  to 
bch,  or  ft,  of  an  jack  a«an.    It  ou 


with  the  larn  CTUDdcr  a  aolral  froani*  id  om 

deectibed  by  the  ncorder.  ud  >>th  a  ud  el 
icjia  per  Ktood  thu  diUance  u  toveiedL?  tke 

ion.  which  <Aa  be  coaiJy  doDC,  the  time  may  be  cduuderahly 

J^  the  plate  ouchine  the  ditk  ia  fixed  to  a  table  vhich  b  ntared 
E  ■  Kurd  mefd  of  about  76  rvyolutiens  a  Diiouta.  The  sfxaj  d  the 
of  the  laUe  ia  alio  uailonii.  aad  by  a  i^obr 
nnofB  the  wax  blank  uoder  tbe  atHind'thn  to  the 
itine  poiBE,  which  detadiea  a  hoe  unbitAen  Ihnd  <t 
wu  M  it  cuu  uito  tbe  turiaci  ol  tbe  blank  to  a  depth  et  jt->o4- 
thoiiundiha  ot  an  Inch  bc^iudiif  at  about  half  aa  inch  froa  ok 
drcmnlcrciice  aJid  oontinuin^  the  apiial  noove  to  irithia  a  eoupb 
fif  LDchcA  of  the  cenire,  accordiri  to  the  length  of  the  moiie  to  be 
rerorded.  The  e»eii<iil  dilTeimce  between  the  diik  and  ryKoda 
nuthine  h  (hat  in  the  former  the  waves  are  recorded  by  honzantti 
motion  over  the  diaJc»  vIuId  Id  the  tatter  the  wava  art  murded 

The  follawing  b  the  nwfiu  Dfvtaaifi  of  maline  a  tenrd.  Tie 
penoo  makinc  the  record  linp  «■  pUya  b  front  ofa  horri  cc  ftinnd 
used    lor    the    purpose    of    lacuiing    the    aoiind-wa\'ea    upcn    the 

and  (he  recordioE  appariELU  in  dur^  of  ap  operator  on  the  other. 


peTEuuioB  which  may  be  lequired.    On  the  oihu  akle  of  the  Km 
HtheKuad-boxand  tlkerecordiogcyliiidtTOrdlik, 

Cylinder  rccorda  arc  duplkaicd  by  taking  a  plaater  cast,  cJcelin- 
ptallng.  and  then  ming  it  aa  a  matrbi.  ne  disk  record  admin 
of  liiudaj  treatment.  After  duatirf  with  craphile  it  b  riectro- 
pUtid  w  about  la  mm.  thick.   Thu  tomr  -^ 

The  aianti  b'^ea  iikke1-pSted'u._  ^ 

In  prcaaiaf  out  the  CDCWDcrdal  lecoida  by  m 

praa.  t}^  laatetial  h^  bebig  a  tough  and  elaai 

ia|  aheuac  and  other  eompouoda  auch  aa  wood  chancal,  faariua 
aujfihate.  earthy  colourinf  matte; '■  — " —  " — *■ 


iiphate.  earthy  colourinf  mattcra  and  cottiMi  Oodt. 
There  b  itur  a  defect  to  be  overcome  in  tbe 
that  b  the  Uidnt  of  the  needle  produced  by  Iti 
reeordiBg  aad  iDBcouhed  in  rewuiiietian.     It 
remedyinff  thb  the  atylua  aci 
OB  a  pdShcd  lutfacc  a  Rne  < 

rrdeoa  very  rapidly,  forming  a  nnuoua  nage  inattvi  n  a 
in  a  WBi  bhnk.    A  negative  ia  ukiDot  tbe  ncBrtmoA  tbi 


Fio.  il.— Mfchanlam  of  Edbon  Phoasgraph. 

^  I      Tbe  auxeto-gramophone  or  auxetopiwne.  patented  by  Sfaort  ■ 

>ie  tonthcr:  and  I  t8^  and  improved  by  the  Hon.  C.  A-  hrwus,  b  aiatUar  in  aco^c 
ihmdiif  wUeh  ia  I  to  tha  graBOphoaa  but  attalna  In 


■omewhat  diflieidl 
»h««liBita»n.dii' 


PHONOGRAPH 


+<I9 


™lD^in  pirintiDn  tdwi^l  V<h  ikiiH  iiUcfa  aocnslLy  i^uccd 
ihr  Hui4i  RiMdt4.     In  toSMdoB  Wirt  the  ■ouBd-hpn  Ij  ttic 


lad-b^  If 


apparlliJt  ftr  iUpplTint  ompieiini  ilr.  eonAtm 

po»«  ttaelrw;  motdt  dnvii^  Ibt  mmprBior.  an  oi[  f. 

and  ■  duit  nllKior  w  Imp  at  ur  Bbnluicly  im  trim  lonign 
nibnucci  likely  lo  biuifcre  niih  tlu  mama  of  thr  vatvc 

The  practical  pcssibiiitid  ol  (he  (laoiDplMnB  ire  Mug 
naliud  in  mur  countries.  Matiicn  oi  the  rei^nla  of  nil- 
known  «ni»ll  have  been  dcposilfd  attta  Bcifah  MuMum 
tad  U  the  Gwad  Op*™  in  Parij.  Auntii  ertihiijlied  a  public 
l^onogtam  tecDtd  office  In  1903,  in  which  are  coBccied  (olk- 
longa  and  recordt  of  all  kinds  for  enriching  the  department 
oI  ethnognphy.    The  lame  idea  li  being  carried  out  in  TSeBMny 

A  _o 


The  loudness  wmlM  coneBpond  to  the  depth  of 

itt  on  the  cylinder  or  the     ' ' 

:  depth  of  a  series  of  succc 


:h  indivtdtnL 

Tie  gtealet 
01  successive  marJcs  produced  by  a  loud 
lepT^uciion,  would  be  the  untjitude  of 
reunions  of  the  gk^  disk  and  the  louder  would  be  the  tone 
iduced.  Lastly,  the  fonn  oi  the  marks  conespoDding  to 
-idual  vibrations  would  determine  the  qfoliiy  a'  the  tone 
ite  repiodiHed.  by  which  nc  can  dislingufsh  the  lone  of 
iBSlrumrnt  Itom  another,  or  tbe  Mnsaiion  produced  by  > 
of  pure  and  aaple  quality,  like  Ibal  from  a  ifcll-bowed 
ig-fotk  or  an  open  organ  pipe,  and  that  given  by  a  trumpet 
1  orchesira,  in  which  the  sounds  oi  many  instrumenti  are 
led  together.  When  the  phonogiaph  records  Ibe  sound 
it  does  not  record  the  lor  -    '  --"^  ' * 


ts  the  Ion 


re  [on 


d  by  all  the  i 


to  theve 


iGnitdy  varied,  will  reproduce  backwanli, 
as  bai  been  ciplained,  . 

-      «ting  on  the  glass  M   ^  It  « 

[e,     the      particular        J  JV  11         IB 


waves,  is  imprinted^ 
When  reproduced,  the 
wave-Jorms  again  tuiil 
in  tbe  air  •*  very  com-  j 


Fio.». 


by  private  sodetia  md  by  royal  oiUKums.  In  Hungary  records 
of  tiie  various  dialccti  hawe  been  secured.  The  possibilities  ol 
the  gramophone  as  a  teacber  are  far-teachlng,  not  only  in.  tbe 
domain  of  music  but  in  learning  langugea,  Ac 

To  undentand  how  the  phonograph  records  and  reprodnct* 
musical  loaa,  it  is  necatuy  to  temenbei  (i)  that  t^  <" 
lie^Htncy  depnids  on  the  number  A  vlbnuions  executed  by  the 
vibrating  body  In  a  ^ven  period  of  lime,  or  on  tte  duration 
of  each  -vibratioiii  (i)  that  inkwBy  or  AwdiuH  depesa*  on  the 
amplitude  of  the  movemeot  of  [he  vibrating  bddyjand  tj).'*'^ 
jMfl/r(y,li"i*reorc/aiij,  first,  depei 
vibratians,  or  ratbaon  the  pt- 


be  iormcif  the  individual 


•uug  »  ^mple  penduUf  vibrailoa  producing  a  puee  i 
decomposing  more  or  less  coapletely  a  compound  vibt 
the  aiiAple  pendular  vibtalifcB  ef  *1uch  it  is 
we  apply  this  to  tbe  record  of  the  phonograph, 


IT  of 


ipoted.    If 

r-r-.  ^^    '*"'! 

itly  rapid  velocity  of  the  record, 
,„„  „.  .Jirf  of  a  (attain  pitch  will  be  heard  when  the  marker 
ns  over  a  number  ol  elevations  and  depreaiioBS'conesptnding 
,  the  frequency  of  that  note.  Thns  it  the  note  m  produced 
f  lOo  vibratinnj  pec  second,  and  luppOM  that  it  laJtei  m 
le  uiu^cfor  A' of  a  second,  »  marks,  cadi  made  in  rh  "^  ' 
eond,  would  be  imprinted  on  the  wax.  Consequently,  m 
production,  tbe  marker  would  run  over  the  »  marks  to  ,"1  of 
■eoond,  and  a  tone  of  tbM  fieqtwniy  would  be  feproduCed.- 


plei  Knsatioa  Ukrs 
place,  and  wc  diiUo- 
guish  the  trumbotie  from 
the  oboe,  or  the  human 
mice  from  the  violin 
jbbligato. 

Many  eflorts  have  been 
made  ts  obtain  graphic 


phanatraf^ 
\i)  alh>i< 


wave.lamis 


■Kendrick  took       /3 

nhotopaphs  of  a  inuU  portion  of  «■ 

a«4  Wyi.,  July  1S9S).    Heal»dP  by 

vol.  imiiL;   Pnw.  Jl^.  Sse.  £diii  »1 

S-mni  ni  Sptat  Wait  u  meal  >n, 

1S97:  and^Wc'i^'iy'M-.voLii.  As 

■Inaity  uentlpoBd.  ao  hiag  ago  u  i  ng 

had  uamlnad  Ibe  marki  on  the  nr 

Ludinur  Uemaan,  of  KMcriMfg,  <  }o. 

uilng  tt>  wax-rarliiidec  phooogBph  la 

the  curves  on  ihe  wax  cylinder,  a  •  ■ 

inuU  minor  attached  to  the  idhrali  lOg 

allowed  10  tall  on  a  senritiVE  pUte  <  'V 

tiavellim.     (For  nfcieiKes  to  Me  KC 

ScUJa'i  njiMw;  ft  t»>.)    B«  •■ 

ingcnww  an  accurate  method  ol  ^ — -»  — --- .  --. —  - —    f** 

e^inder.  Hj  measured  b)i  olenn.oi  a  micmKope  Ibe  uansvenj 
diamelec  ait  the  Inipreivons  on  the  mriace  of  the  cyllader,  aa 
diaeiEBl  (gemally  equidiitant)  paru  of  the  period,  and  ht  inKn 


PHONOGRAPH 


l.S.>9T.tltaP,iie.Ri>f.Sa!. 


MrcMi.  /.  i.  Ml.  PMyiitl.  Bonn,  Bd 
hiin..   iW). 

From  a  (onsinlcitnn  u  ih*  Dutch  Otarhlnaluyncalatlal 
5ed«]r  Dt  Bocln  bu  pmBiiwd  ih*  iutb«  in  trlta  il»  umm- 
panyidc  DhLHmloni.  wUch  «n1t  Alw  th«  reader 
oltfcttiiurtofllK        ■  ■ 


tu  on  Iho  wu(  cylinder  produced  by  varioi 


he  cam  urn  atakoA  aad  wwlbwd.  u  la  %.  4. 
E  ctin«fl  of  the  laaa  VDwd  louddB  on  tlic  bme  cvll&dv 
ra  by  two  oBthadi,  dut  ttf  Usabui  aad  that  d  Bck^ 

•a-    «■*■'•  f  f  •'  *'  *' 


mB 


Inb;.  S'HiHiheiadMlatbBtondHVBiaita.Mtncby  Dt  Boeke, 
aged  59,  on  the  noira  tdtffah^,  and  pear  tac  freaueadet  of 
1>8.  I44i  I'D,  ITO'6.  191,  nj'j.  1*0  and  156.  Tie  nuniben  u  to 
40  ihuw  tJie  marki  pndund&y  the  Hme  virtvel.  blag  by  hie  BO, 
aged  11.  h  will  be  fecu  that  the  boy  lani  the  nots  euctly  an 
octave  higher.    FLg.  6  ^idva  the  marlu  produced  by  loiiK  miiiical 


Plc.6. 

indt.    Each  iha**  00  the  rifhi^hand  tide  the  «rve  dedum) 

ill  tAnaoaic  aiulyiU  alter  the  thcoteiD  of  Fourfer,  \tt  vhtch  the 
JLiuiea  reprcteat  the  amplitude  of  the  lubicquenl  borADnic 
urifuentft^  No.  4]  it  Ibt  period  of  the  lound  of  a  phcfa-pipe 
(41;  double  vibntiani  per  lecDnd).  No.  4>  the  pcTiod  of 


PHONOLrm— PHQRMIUM 


47  « 


Wt-hftiul  aide  of  each  drftwinfln,  by  Boeke's  method,  of  two  period* 
of  the  narks  of  tbe  vowel.  The  marki  are  ihown  for  the  Dutch* 
GeraiMi,  En^liah  and  French  laiig!ua««.  The  lounds  of  the  voweti 
are o,  like  a  in  "  go  ";  ot,  like  oo  var'  too  ";  «,  like  the  German  d 
in  "  FObrer  ":  a.  like  a  in  "  hard  ";  e.  like  a  in  "  take  ";  it,  not  in 
English  words,  but  somewhat  like  2  in  "  bell ";  and  «,  like  <«  in 
*'bcer."  The  first  section  contains  onhr  Dutch  vowel  sounds, 
either  sung^  or  spoken  by  Bocke  or  members  of  his  family.  The 
second  section  contains  curves  from  the  voice  of  Professor  Hermann, 
the  third  from  the  voice  of  the  author  from  a  cylinder  sent  by  him 
to  Dr  Bocke.  and  the  fourth  from  the  voice  of  Mons.  H.  Marichelle, 
professeur  de  I'lnstitut  dcs  Sourds-Mucts.  also  forwarded  by  him 
to  Dr  Bocke.  Thus  curves  and  marks  of  the  same  vowel  are  shown 
from  the  voices  of  men  of  four  nationalities. 

On  the  construction  of  the  gramophone,  see  L.  N.  Rcddie,  Jovm. 
Soc.  Arts  (1908). 

PHONOUTB  (Gr.  ^ur^,  sound,  and  Xf9of,  stone),  in  petrology, 
a  group  of  volcanic  lavas  containing  much  nepbelineandsanidine 
felspar.    The  term  "  clinkstone  "  was  formerly  given  by  geolo- 
gists to  many  fine  grained  compact  lavas,  which  split  into  thin 
tough  plates,  and  gave  out  a  ringing  sound  when  struck  with  the 
hamma.    Some  of  these  clinkstones  weve  phonolites  in  the 
modem  sense,  but  as  the  name  dinkstoni;  was  used  for  a  large 
variety  of  rocks,  many  of  which  have  no  close  affinities  with  one 
another,  it  has  been  discarded  and  "  phonolite  "  is  substituted  for 
it.    The  group  includes  rocks  which  are  rich  in  alkalis  with 
only  a  moderate  percentage  of  silica;  hence  they  contain  no  free 
quartz  but  much  alkali  felspar  (sanidine  and  anorthoclase)  and 
nepheline.     Large  plates  of  sanidine  are  often  visible  in  the 
rocks;  the  ncphcline  is  usually  not  obvious  to  the  unaided  eye. 
Most  phonolites  show  fluxion  structure,  both  in  the  orienlatlaB 
of  their  phenocrysts  and  m  the  smaller  crystals  which  make  up 
the  ground-mass;  and  this  determines  to  a  large  extent  the  platy 
jointbig.    Although  vitreous  and  pumiceous  forms  are  known 
they  are  rare,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  these  rodis  are 
finely  crystalline  with  a  dull  or  shimmering  lustre  in  the  grouftd- 
mass.    Marked  characteristics  are  the  readiness  with  which  they 
decompose,  and  the  frequency  of  veins  and  cavities  occupied  by 
natrolite,  analcite,  soolecite'  and  other  zoolitcs.    Small  Uack 
gralna  of  augite  or  hornblende  and  sometimes  blue  specks  of 
hatiyne  may  be  seen  in  the  rocks  when  they  are  fresh. 

The  dominant  minerals  are '  Sanidine,  nepheline,  pyroxene, 
amphibole,  various  fehpathoids  and  iron  oxides.  Tlie  sanidine 
b  usually  in  two  generations,  the  fiist  consisting  of  large  crystals 
of  flattened  and  tabular  shape,  while  the  second  generation  is 
represented  by  small  rectangular  prisms  arranged  In  parallel 
streams  in  the  ground-mass;  these  felspars  are  neariy  always 
simply  twinned  on  the  Carlsbad  plan.  They  contain  often  as 
much  soda  as  potash.  The  nepheline  takes  the  form  of  hexagonal 
prisms  with  fiat  ends,  and  may  be  completely  replaced  by  fibrous 
acofites,  so  that  it  can  only  be  recognized  by  the  outlines  of  its 
pseudomorphs.    In  some  phonolites  it  is  exceedingly  abundant 


magnetite  and  aicctui  occur  in  the  phonolUes,  and  4>beDe  is  often 
rather  common.  Another  mineral  which  is  more  frequent  in 
phonolites  than  in  many  other  rocks  is  brown  melanite  garnet. 

The  majority  of  the  rocks  of  this  group  arc  of  Tertiary  or 
Recent  age,  hut  in  Scotland  Carboniferous  phonolites  occur 
in  several  localities,  e.g.  Traprain  in  Haddingtonshire,  also 
in  the  Eildon  Hills  and  in  Renfrewshire.  In  Brazil  phonolites 
belonging  to  the  same  epoch  are  also  known.  There  are  several 
districts  in  Europe  where  Tertiary  or  Recent  phonolites  occur 
in  considerable  numbers,  as  in  Auvergne  (Mont  Dore),  the  Eifel, 
and  Bohemia.  The  Wolf  Rock  which  lies  off  the  south  coast  of 
Cornwall,  and  is  the  site  of  a  well-known  lighthouse,  is  the  only 
mass  of  phonolfte  in  England;  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  remains 
of  a  Tertiary  lava  or  intrusion.  The  Canary  Islands,  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  Sardinia,  Aden,  British  East  Africa  and  New 
Zealand  contain  many  types  of  phonolites;  they  are  known  also 
in  New  South  Wales,  whUe  in  the  United  States  phonolites 
occur  In  Colorado  (at  Cripple  Creek)  and  in  the  Blade  Hills  of 
South  Dakota. 

Lendte  occurs  in  place  of  nepheline  in  a  small  group  of  phono* 
lltes  (the  leudte-phonolites),  known  i»indpally  from  Rocca 
Monfina  and  other  places  near  Naples.  Blue  haOyne  Is  rather 
a  conspicuous  mineral  in  some  of  these  rocks,  and  they  aJbo 
contain  a  good  deal  of  sphene.  When  sanidine^  nepheline  and 
leudte  all  occur  together  in  a  volcanic  rock  it  is  cbssed  among 
the  Icudtophyres  (see  Fetkology,  Ph&te  III.  fig.  a). 

The  chemical  analyses  of  phonolites  given  below  show  that  these 
rocks  are  very  rich  in  alkaus  and  alumina  with  only  a  moderate 
amount  of  aikca,  while  lime,  magnesia  and  iron  oxides  are  present 
only  in  saull  quantity.  They  have  a  dose  resemblance  in  these 
rospecta  to  the  nepheline-syenites  of  which  they  provide  the  effusive 
type*  (J-  S.  F.) 

PHORCTS  (Phorcus,  Psokcyn),  in  Greek  mythotogy,  son  of 
Pontus  (Sea)  and  Gaea  (Earth),  father  of  the  Graeae,  the  Gorgons, 
Scylla,  and  Ladon  (the  dragon  that  guarded  the  golden  apples 
of  the  Hesperides).  In  Homer  {Odyssey,  xiii.  96)  be  is  an  agod 
sea^ity,  after  whom  a  harbour  in  Ithaca  was  named.  Accord-* 
ing  to  Yarro  (quoted  by  Servius  in  Aeueid,  v.  824)  Phorcys  was 
a  king  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  who,  having  been  defeated  by 
Ring  Atlas  in  a  naval  engagement  in  the  course  of  which  he  was 
drowned,  was  subsequently  worshipped  as  a  marine  divinity. 

PRORIinm,  or  New  Zealand  Flax  (also  called  "New 
Zealand  hemp  ")f  a  fibre  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  Pkormium 
tenax  (naL  ord.  Liliaccae),  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  the  Chatham 
Islands  and  Norfolk  Island.  This  useful  plant  is  one  of  tho 
many  which  were  discovered  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Dr 
Solandcr  who  accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  first  voyage 
of  discovery.  The  seeds  brought  home  by  Banks  in  1771  did 
not  succeed,  but  the  plant  was  introduced  by  him  to  the  R9yal 
Gardens  at  Kew  in  1789,  and  was  thence  liberally  dtitribntcd 


SiOi 

A|rf), 

FciO, 

FcO 

MgO 

CaO 

NaiO 

K,0 

H/) 

I.  phdnolice,  WoU  Hock.  Cornwall 
II.  PbonoHtc.TeplitzcrSchbssbciv.  Bohemia 
III.  Lcuciic-phonofitc,  Rocca  Monhna,  Italy 

5646 
58-16 
58-48 

23-29 
21-57 
19.56 

2-70 
2-77 

097 
4-99 

tr 

f36 

0-53 

1-47 

3'OI* 

2-6o 

Ii'i3 
5-97 
3-»4 

2-8l 

6-57 
10.47 

2-05 
2'03 
0*24 

in  the  ground-mass,  and  these  rocks  form  transitions  to  the 
ncphelinitcs  (ncphelinitoid  phonolites)  (see  Petrology,  Plate  III. 
fig.  i);  ">  others  it  is  scarce'  and  the  rt>cks  resemble  trachytes 
containing  a  little  nepheline  (tnuJiytoid  phonolites).  The 
fclspachoid  minerals,  sodaliie,  hafiyne  and  nosean>  which 
crystallize  in  isometric  dodecahedra,  are  very  frequent  compo- 
nents of  the  phonolites;  their  ciystals  are  often  corroded  or  partly 
dissolved  and  their  outlines  may  then  be  very  irregular.  SmaU 
rounded,  endosures  of  glass  are  often  numerous  in  them.  The 
pyroxenes  may  be  pale  green  diopside,  dark  green  acgirine-augile, 
or  blackish  green  aegirine  (soda  iron  pyroxepe),  and  in  many 
cases  are  complex,  the  outer  portions  being  aegirine  while  the 
centre  is  diopside.  Fine  needles  of  aegirine  are  often  found  in 
the  ground-mass.  The  commonest  hornblende  is  dark  brown 
barkevicite.  fiiotite  and  olivine  are  not  really  frequent  in 
these  rocks,  and  usually  have  been  affected  by  resorption. 
The   Qirdinaiy  accessory  minerals  44  tgncous  rocks,  apatite, 


in  Great  Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  grows  luxuri- 
ant^ in  the  south  of  Ireland,  where  it  was  introduced  in  1798, 
and  also  flourishes  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  is  generally 
cultivated  as  an  ornamental  garden  plant  in  Europe.  It  has 
been  introduced  for  economic  purposes  into  the  Azores  and 
California.  The  name  Phormium  is  from  Gr.  0op/iAt,  a  basket, 
in  allusion  to  one  of  the  uses  made  of  its  leaves  by  the  New 
2^1anders. 

In  its  native  country  the  plant  is  generally  found  near  the 
coasL  It  has  a  fleshy  rootstock,  creeping  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  soil  and  sending  up  luxuriant  tufts  of  narrow,  sword^ 
shaped  leaves,  from  4  to  8  f L  long  and  from  2  to  4  in.  in 
diameter.  The  leaves  are  vertical,  and  arranged  in  two  rows  at 
ill  the  garden  flag;  they  are  very  thick,  stiff  and  leathery,  dark 
green  above,  paler  below,  with  the  margin  and  nerve  reddish- 
orange.  From  the  centre  of  the  tuft  ultimately  arises  a  tali 
flower-bearing  stem,  5  to  15  ft.  high,  bearing  on  Its  ntmieroua 


i^^ 


PHORONIDEA 


bnnchei  a  vety  hi 


t  number  til  larfd  red  ar  ycUov,  somnrhil 


oHlock.    The  pbnt  wiil  _ 
h'ghl  ridi  soil,  by  Ihe  side  ol 
i  Iiom  Ihe  wind. 


new  lateral  growl hs  fi 
in  alrtiost  any  wjl,  hi 
riven  and  brooki,  where  sneiieren  11 
PhDrnrium  lui  been  treaivd  ai  1 
Zalaad.  tbmqili  onty  to  a  linutfd  0 
Ttw  puicriai  dependence  hu  been  pui 
aniK«lihe  wildKrockiandonBeEipbi 

by  (he  MaorlL    AmoDf  IheK  people _^-  _ 

aniele  of  eoniideraUe  impDnance.  ^kJln^  ckrakt,  matt,  co 
6*hiBg;UnH.ftc.,iH  v^uablc  propcnwa  havtiuaiinmed  Ibe  _._ 
lion  01  trader*  even  bcfoia  caloium  kuM  m  Ibe  iiliAib.  The 
leavet,  for  Abre-yieldiaB  purpoKap  cotne  to  malurily-  ia  aboi  ' 
v%  montliip  and  tbe  habil  of  Ihe  Maorii  h  to  cut  then  down  tw> 
ayear.  rvjcctiqg  tbe  outer  and  ieaviag  Ibe  central  immaiHiT  teavt. 
Ptaornmini  ia  HTparcd  with  srcat  car*  by  nalrvBmctbodB,  only  the 
nutore  ftbree  iroid  Ibe  undcr-ilde  of  Ihe  leaves  bant  lahen^  Thcte 
arc  csllecICd  in  water,  Kuped  over  the  td^c  of  a  ahctl  to  free  tbcr 

waihed  in  a  running  itrcam,  (ollowcd  by  rcnnrd  anplDf  till  Ih 

iaglywaMelul.  ootnuinlhaaone-lounfaof  lhclB^fibrebeig(lhciE- 

(hat  *M  known  in  Ibe  markM,  and  h  wai  on  ifie  nulerial  «  tare- 
fuHy,  but  wanrfully,  iclected  that  the  reputation  of  the  fibn  ' 

mlooiui  ID  engage  in  Ihe  IndUMry.  and  the  ludiWn  deniand 
all  available  lEta  cauicd  »an  aftcrwaidi  by  the  dvH  War 
AmcT^ca  Breatty  nimulaicd  iheir  endeavours.  Machinery  1 
invented  ia  dUntegraling  the  leaves  and  liHim  the  Abn,  and 
ihe  aanie  llnte  expenmeiHs  were  made  with  the  view  of  nbcain 

il  by  walerrelliiif.  and  by  means  of  alluline  soliitiont  and  ot 

cbeinkal  afeacles.     But  tnc_fibff  produced  by  tb«a  rapid  and 

Maori  lundiw^,  mail 
are.  by  machine  ptrpoi 
feet  uticA.  which  alane 
and  girenph  at  the  i 


dc«.'yrf. 


IU.M  .with  He  I 


which  would  trcat'the  fibre  Mt&laclorily,  and  a  (grther  (ijo  Iw 
a  procass  of  trvalinK  the  tow;  arul  with  a  view  to  cmting  funbar 
iincnsl  in  the  matter  a  member  of  a  conmbiioa  of  inquiry  vj^ted 
England  duiintt  1^97.  The  rremhim  nas  aeain  issued  in  18M. 
In  1001  It  was  slated  that  a  Gernun  ehemlil  had  dlKO^Yred  a 
methodofwontinE  and  •pinnlni  the  New  Zealand  fibte.  An  idel 
of  the  F«f  nl  of  ihe  growth  of  iha  fibn  may  be  (athered  fcom  Ibe 
....,..,         [j^  i9osaauiunledto»B^7b«ieB»l,aMJue 


of  nearly  iTOO.ooo. 
capable  of  beln^  spur 


m'Colourcd   fibre  wilh   a 


...  which  All  »  t„- _.  .., _. 

h  is,  however,  principally  a  cordafje  ibfv.  and  in  tensile  urenBl 
it  ia  Kcond  only  to  nunila  hemp;  but  it  does  not  bear  well  th 

Abre  has  come  into  u^  as  a  smtahic  matcriaJ  lor  bindcr-lwiae  1 
nied  In  sdl-tHnding  reaping  machinn. 
PHORONIDBA,  a  mologlcal 


often  (trfarious,  the  lubes  wh 
individuals  can  hardly  be  Ihe 


M  of  practically  woild-w 
reroids  of  iw  larva,  .!«.■« 
has  nol  been  found.    Flu 

nail.     These  anociat 


gmenl  developing  into  a  complete  plmranls  (De  Selys-Long- 
impi).  The  ininial  is  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  six  inches 
.  aniiralij)  in  IcuKih,  The  Iree  end  of  the  long  vennifonn 
iy  end!  in  a  horseshoe -shaped  "  lophophorc,"  ot  tenlade- 
iring  region  (fig,  i,  a),  which  ilriklngty  tcscmUes  Ihal  of  Ihe 
ylacldaemaloui  Polyioi  (see  Foiyiot). 


in  eirher  side  vrith  the  pwwe  beiwc 


The  To^o^^re.  the  apcrtur 
glandular  "  lophoi^Wfal  org 
Sown  Ibe  body  nearly  to  t! 


id  the  anus:  and.  In  ihe  concaviiy  nl 
^  of  Ihe  nephridia  (aj.)  which,  accord- 
is.  open  into  the  two  large  sensory  or 
ans  '•  the  oiiAcn  of  wUdi  are  earn  at 


. — TheTedlauilarEndofPloriMii,  with  moat  el  ibe  uttladd 

/.  EJewnt  aeasil. 

g,  Oac  of  Ibe  two  eSefeal  lephn- 

phorol   vessels,  uithinfl    to 

r  affennt  veas^ 


side  of  lU  loop  of 
meaenterie*  Vi  - 


LAphophotal  organ. 


eailralii.  shoving  the  spirally 

Peaillnn  of  the  mouth. 

p..  Nephridial  surfac*. 
I.,  Naphridial  opening. 
I.,  Bases  of  Dum  tentacles. 

ivided  with  rilher  one  oriwo 


■nembrane.  A  general  nefve<pieitus  probably  exii 
lidcrable  pans  of  Ihe  skin,  and  there  are  apeoat  nei 
[ralions  in  Ihe  region  of  ihe  epiatome  and  along  a  di 

The  pan  which  Ket  at  the  base  ot  the  epislame  ia  m 

ianl  in  poailian.   IliiseidbySchulla  (1 1)  id  develop,  ;..,~^.,— 

si  Ihe  eciodefm:  and  in  (his  cmdiiloa  ia  conpited  by  Un  with 


lit  taBuB  BoK^  Bovsaa  ffm^B  t 
LofwchaaiciL    TTu  vascular  tvMein 


i^  mptctivclyi 


mORONIDBA. 


+73 


Ji  fi^loin  lb*  buB  o(  the  tcnticles  and 


by  De  Sclys-Lonechaiiipj,  lU  blood  Is  AH' 
I  (oO  to  ■  cmcmtic  lophophonl  vnne]  (rf 
iMdH.   EichoCthntoinlaiuiiiaikUia 


Fic.  J.— Diapam  of 


C    Poitaior  aurfjue. 
d.r.,  AficTrnt  lopbophora 


M./.Ureirriinihridial 

pbnlbuo. 
ir,      Onopkuua^ 


endina  vcucl  »hich  biriimlM  al  i1>  base  (see  fii,  j).    Ouo  ot  these 
brancne*    commnnicaiM   irith   the   aHerenl    Imbopbofal    - — -■ 
vhile  tbt  other  one  owna  inlo  cfae  creKcnlk  cHeiTiit  lof>h 
vEnd  (r.«.).    Fmn  tHii  th    " 
which  ptenc  the  cocLaouc  i 
on  the  »nicrior  sdc  d(  the 
a  union  whb  the  left  one.  i 
vcoel.  which  nva  ell  nana 

the  bmly.    Heoc*  the  Woe . __.  „ 

veual  thfodfth  a  tpUnehiuc  Hnui  whkh  HurnxuHa  (be  ri 

The  cinulaiKin  it  maintained  by  the  rhylbmTcal  «>iitiBC „ 

the  allcftait  vcmH  and  by  Im  ftgular  conifaclioni  of  vnnc  of  the 
other  tcimIi.  The  nfnwliictm  or0i»  lie  ■»  the  left  (ide,  near 
tha  aba«al  eod,  both  ovaiy  and  lettia  beiaa  tnient  in  the  lame 
individiwl  ki  tone  of  the  aFecie?.  They  are  Hid  to  be  developed 
from  the  coelomk  cpLihetiupi  ^'hich  tovcrs  Ihe  efferccsl  veHefor 
It*  cae«.  The  reproduclivi  eejia  osm  to  Ihe  eiiprior  by  mean. 
of   the    nephtidia.    Reprodnetion  by  bodd!n|[ 


Drrtlopmil  oxd  jtJIiiiMa,— The  en<  of  PliermA  an  HutI  and 
UBi^ly  iindanD  their  eariy  derefotneDC  attached  to  the  tcntaclea 
of  the  adult.  The  altachment  it  probably  eflected  (Maniniian} 
by  the  aecrvtion  of  the  lophopboral  orgAni  (fig.  a,  jf.).    Afier  ihr 

fotmation  of  an  invaginalo  gaitnila  the  lanial  ' —  ' 

acquired.    On  qulllintlheihellei  ol  Ihefnr— 


11  c^cttd  prhkci^Uy  b< 
gchiithe  prlacipal  part  «t  th*  m 


ilaclti  the  enSiyn 

ika  Ifiw.  4)  chanctctiied 
'— ONiquelynMad  the 


into  two  ponlons.     The  poit«ptal 

cavity  n  a  vMcular  tnce.  -"«  ■'  ■ 
the  danal  veml  ol  ibe  lai 
lophophonl  vaacuLaj  crc«ce 


uibed  by  Goodhcb  (5)  at  "  tojeno- 
;Aa  hu  led 

leftioo  aod  thelaral 

thealiii 


TtBxMyT  Ailer  the  - -  — 

tima  k  dcniopi  ■  lute  ventral  iuvaiini —  ..  ...  _ 
(fig.  4,  I.  iv.).  At  the  mcfanHUiihowa.  thid  »ac  ia  everled 
abiaoiury  canal  ia  drawn  inlo  it  in  the  form  of  a  loop  (£«. 
Mot  of  the  piaelenlaculir  iFgioo  aod  the  larval  teaucka  1 


body-nil 


C  then  taiuD  iato  the  atimcstary  caaaL  vbitn  they  are 
.  The  Tetattaoa  of  the  auifaoea  after  the  raetancrphoaia 
riy  very  different  Iran  those  which  obtuned  ja  the  larva. 


The  devdoiicneiit  of  FiffMil  wat  aupiKKd  i^  Caldwell  (1)  to 
fareiih  Ihe  eiplaiuthia  of  the  ictalkwa  ollhe  uriacei  in  Biuhio- 
poda.  Polytoa  aari  ptihapa  the  Slponcoloid  Ciphyrea.  la  which 
thC'  oatottoellc  endence  i>  leaa  clear.  Caldwell  a  viewa  wei* 
accqited  by  Lankctler  (I)  in  the  ^h  e^tion  of  Ihia  work.  Ihf 
Riyuim  Podaxoala  boiiiE  there  laKltuted  to  include  the  Kroupa 
jiiK  nntionid,  tosether  with  the  PlcTobtanchia.  The  peduncle 
ol  tha  Bnchiopoda  ww  nppganl  to  cormtnad  Htb  the  evened 
Teaoal  aacof^riiMfrag^,  i>i>t  thequeatinn  ia  compUcsited  Iw  th* 
want  of  any  complete  InvestigatHH  ol  the  developDtent  <4  tha 

tlie  leKra.  Tbim  ia,  howewr,  a  conadenble  anwunt  of  re- 
alBbUnce  betwaen  the  lo^nFluirc  al  Pluraiit  iimrofii,  wiih  it* 
apinDy  rwntedepda.aDdthat'of  a  typical  Brnchiopod;  nordotha 
aouctuEml  delaila  of  the  aduh  Brachupoda  forbid  the  view  that 
Ihey  may  be  itlated  to  Fkertmis.    The  compamiive  atiKlr  ol  th* 

(nnunMe  wi-"-    ■"• '-      '-    "-'■-"-—    •<■ 1- 

"1 'of  the  fir« 


merely  dialed  ponloii*  of  the  body-cavLly  ar 

indeed  nephrfdia  at  all.  But  a  aertoua  Dbjectkni  to  the  compdicwn 
'-  thai  the  development  of  Phylactolaemnla  can  be  eiplamed  by 
1 —  1 V ■'< — = .  ...._.  ^ —  =„  ^y,^  Polyzoi 

-_-— , -^Bhly  modifil^ 

i  iDcuwphcTe.  and  thia  would  give  it  tome  daim  to  be  regarded 
aa  dlitantly  related  to  the  Entoproct  Polyxca  and  to  other  groupt 


47+ 


PHORORHAC05— PHOSPHATES 


Phoronis  ha«  long  been  regarded  as  a  possible  ally  of  Rkabio^cura 

J  see  Ptbrobranchia):  and  Masterman  (lo)  has  attempted  to 
Icmonstrate  the  existence  in  Aclintdrocha  of  most  of  the  structures 
which  occur  in  the  Ptcrobranchia.  According  to  his  view  the 
pracoral  hood  of  ActiHotrxka  (cf.  fig.  4)  corresponds  with  the 
*' proboscis"  of  Pterobranchia ;  the  succeeding  region,  as  far  as 
the  bases  of  the  tentacles,  with  the  collar;  and  the  post-tentacular 
region  with  the  metasomc.  Mastcmrian's  more  detailed  comparisons 
have  for  the  most  part  been  reiccted  by  other  morphologists.  One 
of  the  most  formidable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  attempt  to 
reduce  Actinolroeka  to  the  Pterobranchtate  type  of  structure  ts  the 
condition  of  the  coelom  in  the  former.  There  is  indeed  a  p^ectiy 
definite  transverse  septum  which  divides  the  body-cavity  in  the 
region  of  the  tentacle-bases.  Even  if  it  be  admitted  that  the  post* 
septal  space  may  be  the  metasomatic  cavity,  the  pracseptal  space 
can  haraly  be  regarded  as  coelomic  in  nature,  since  it  is  in  continuity 
with  the  vascular  system;  while  Masterman's  conclusion  that  the 
cavity  of  the  praeonil  hood  (the  supposed  proboscis-cavity)  fs 
separated  from  that  of  the  supposed  collar  has  received  no  con- 
firmation. In  spite  of  these  dinicultits  it  must  be  conceded  that 
the  dorsal  flexure  of  the  atimentary  canal  of  the  Pterobranchia 
is  versr  PkeroHis-\ike,  It  has.  moreover,  been  shown  (see  especially 
Goodrich,  5)  that  shortly  before  its  metamorphosis,  ActinotrocM 
develops  a  coelomic  ^>ace  which  lies  immediately  in  front  of  the 
oblique  septum,  and  gives  rise  later  to  the  cavity  of  the  lophophorc 
and  tentacles.  Regarding  this  as  a  collar-cavity,  it  becomes 
possible  to  agree  with  Masterman  that  the  region  shown  in  fig.  4,  i. 
oetween  the  tentacles  and  the  praeoral  hood,  is  rcallv  a  collar 
the  coelom  of  which  develops  reiativel)r  late.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  lophophorc  of  Phofonis  is,  on  this  assumption,  a  derivative 
of  the  collar  just  as  it  is  in  the  Pterobranchia.  The  epistome  of 
the  adult  Pkoronis  cannot  well  be  the  proboscis  since  its  cavity  is 
continuous  with  the  lophophoral  codom,  and  because  the  praeoral 
hood  of  Actinotrecha  is  entirely  lost  at  the  metamorphosis.  It  is 
possible  that  this  consideration  will  account  for  the  want  of  an 
anterior  body-cavity  in  Pkoronis.  Since  the  proboscis  is  a  purely 
larval  oi^n  In  this  genus,  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  coelomic 
•pace  which  properly  belongs  to  it  fails  to  develop,  but  that  the 
praeor^  hood  itself  is  none  the  less  the  morphological  representative 
of  the  proboscis.  In  spite  of  the  criticisms  which  have  been  made 
oil  the  conclusion  that  Pkoronis  is  allied  to  the  Pterobranchia,  it 
is  thus  possible  that  the  view  is  a  sound  one,  and  that  the  Phoronidoa 
should  take  their  place,  with  the  Entcropneosta  and  the  Ptcro- 
branchia,  as  an  order  of  the  Heniichordata. 

Bibliography. — (1)  Benham,  Quart,  Joum.  Mie.  Soc  xxx.  las 
(1890);  (a)  Caldwell,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.xxxly.  571  (1883):  (3)  Con, 
Zeilsckr.  triss.  Zod.  li.  480  (i8Qr):  (4)  Fowler,  art.  "  Hemichorda," 
Bncy.  Brii.  xstix.  349  (190a);  (5)  Goodrich,  Quart.  Joum.  Mic.  Soc. 
xlvii.  103  (1904);  (6)  Harmer,  5f6ofa  Rep.  xxvi.  11^,  his  (Ptero- 
branchia), (1905);  (7)  Ikeda.  /.  CM.  Set.  Japan,  xiii.  507  (1901^; 
(8)  Lankestcr,  art. 
(9J  De  a 
Jueeresunt. 

scL  acad.  belgique,  voL  i.  (1904);  Fattna  u.  Flora  .G.  v.  Neapel, 
30  Monogr.  (19107};  (10)  Mastcrhian.  Quart.  Joum.  Mic.  Soc.  xl. 
a8i  (1898);  xhii.  375  (1900};  (11)  Schultx,  Zeilsckr.  viss.  ZooL 
Ixxv.  .391,  473  (1903);  (12)  Shearer,  Mink:  Moot.  Stat.  Neapd, 
xviL  487  (190(6);  (13)  Shipley,  Cambr.  Nal.  HisL  u.  ^yi UM). 

PH0IU>RHA(X)8,  the  best-known  gemu  of  the  extinct 
Patafonian  Stcreomitkes  (see  Bird:  Fosstl\,  Among  the  bones 
found  in  the  strata  of  the  Santa  Ctnz  formation  (nowconsidered 
•s  mainly  of  mid-Miocene  date)  was  the  piece  of  a  mandible 
which  F.  Ameghino  described  in  1887  as  that  of  an  edentate 
■  mammal,  under  the  name  of  Pkorysrkacos  longissimus  {Bolct. 
Mus.  dt  la  Plata,\.  24).   In  iSgx  {Re^,  Argent.  Hist.  Nat.  i.  225) 


\cmsLj,  11905;;  (7;  ixeoa.  j.  %^ou.  oet.  japan,  xni.  507  {19011; 

Lankestcr.  art.    "  Polyzea."  Bncy.  Brit.  xix.  430,  433  (188^): 

De  Selys-Longchamps,  Arck.  BioL  xviii.  495   (1902);   Wtss. 

resunt.  (N.  F.)  vi.  Abt.  Helgoland  (1903),  I/eft  i.;  Mim.  classe 


(Fnm  lift-«ic*9e(M  in  Brit.  Vtm.  NaL  Hot.) 

Skull  of  Phororhacoa,  longissimus. 

ke  amended  the  name  and  recognised  the  bone  as  that  of 
a  bird,  Pkarorhacos,  which  with  Brontomis  and  others  con- 
stituted the  family  Phororhacidae.  About  six  species  of  the 
type  genus  are  now  known,  the  most  complete  being  Ph.  infiatus, 
with  skull,  mandible,  pelvis,  linkba  and  some  of  tbe  vertebrae. 


These  birds 'wnc  at  first  consMcnd  ts  either  belonging  t«  tBe 

Katitae,  or  at  least  related  to  them,  until  C.  W.  Andrews,  after 
much  of  the  interesting  material  bad  been  acquired  by  the  British 
Museum,  showed  the  gruiform  affinities  of  Pkororkacos  ilHSf 
i8q6,  pp.  1-12),  a  conclusion  which  he  was  able  to  further  cor- 
roborate after  the  clearing  of  tbe  adherent  stony  matrix  from  the 
skulls  (Tr.  Z.  S.  1901,  xv.  pp.  55-86,  pis.  i4-»7)-  The  skull 
of  Ph.  toHgissimus  is  about  2  ft.  long  and  10  in.  high;  that 
of  Ph.  infiatus  is- 13  in.  long,  and  this  creature  is  supposed 
to  have  stood  only  3  ft.  high  at  tbe  middle  of  the  back.  The 
under  jaw  is  slightly  curved  upwards  and  it  contains  a  large 
foramen  as  for  instance  in  Psophia  and  in  Myctcria.  The 
strongly  hdokcd  upper  beak  is  very  high,  and  very  much  com- 
pressed laterally.  The  palate  is  imperfectly  dcsmognatbous, 
as  in  DicholophuSf  with  an  inconspicuous  vomer.  The  quadrate 
has  a  double  knob  for  its  articulation  with  the  skull,  and  basip- 
terygoid  processes  are  absent.  What  little  is  known  of  the 
shoulder-girdle  (breastbone  still  unknown)  points  to  a  flightless 
bird,  and  so  do  tbe  short  wing  bones,  although  these  arc  stout. 
The  pelvis  has  an  ischiadic  foramen.  The  hind  limbs  arc  dis- 
tinctly slender,  the  tibia  of  Ph.  infiatus  being  between  15  and 
16  in.  in  length. 

For  further  detail  see  F.  Ameghino,  "  Sur  Ics  oiscaux  fossHes  de 
la  Patagonie."  BoleL  insL  geogr.  argentino,  xv..  chs.  11  a.nd  12 
(1^5);  f^*  P'  Moreno  and  A.  Mercerat,  Catdloto  de  los  pdjercs 
fosiles  de  la  Reputdica  ArgenttnOf  An.  Mus.  La  Plata  (iSoi ;  «Hth 
21  plates).  (H.  F.  a) 

PHOSGENTTB,  a  rare  mineral  oonsistitig  of  lead  chlorocar- 
bonate,  (PbCl)sCOa.  The  tetragonal  (holosymmclric)  cxystab 
are  prismatic  or  tabular  in  habit,  and  are  bounded  by  smooth, 
bright  faces:  they  are  tisually  colourless  and  transparent,  and 
have  a  brilliant  adamantine  lustre.  Sometimes  the  crystals 
have  a  curious  helical  twist  about  the  tetrad  or  principal  axis. 
The  hardness  is  3  and  the  specific  gravity  6-3.  The  mineral  is 
rather  sectile,  and  consequently  was  early  known  as  "  ooneoa 
lead "  (Ger.  Hornhlei).  The  fanciful  name  phosgenite  was 
given  by  A.  Breithaupt  in  1820,  from  phosgene,  the  old  name 
of  carbon  oxychloridei  because  the  mineral  contains  the  elements 
carbon,  oxygen  and  chlorine.  At  Cromford,  near  Mallock,  it 
was  long  ago  fouird  In  an  old  lead  mine,  being  assodatod  with 
an^esite  and  matlockite  (PbiOCU)  in  cavities  in  decomposed 
gaiena :  hence  its  oommonmame  cronf ortite.  Fine  crystals  are  also 
found  in  galena  at  Monteponi  near  Iglesias  in  Sardinia,  but  the 
largest  are  those  recently  found  near  Dimdas  in  T^amania. 
Crystals  of  phosgenite,  and  also  of  the  corresponding  bromine 
compound  [FbBr^CQi,  have  been  prepared  artificially. 

(U  J.  S.) 

PHOSPHATES,  {n  chemistry,  the  name  given  to  salts  of 
phosphoric  acid.  As  stated  under  Phosprorits,  phosphoric 
oxide,  PsOs,  combines  with  water  in  three  pro[>ortioiis  to  form 
H«OPsOi  or  HPOa,  metaphosphoric  add;  iH^-V^  or  H4P^ 
pyrophosphoric  acid;  and  3H]0-P30i  or  H1PO4,  orthopbosphoric 
or  ordinary  phosphoric  acid.  These  acids  each  ^ve  origin  to 
several  scries  of  salts,  those  of  ordinary  phosphoric  acid  being 
the  most  important,  and,  in  addition,  are  widely  distributed 
in  the  mineral  kingdom  (see  bek>w  under  Mineral  Pkaspkaies). 

Orthopbosphoric  add,  HjPOd,  a  tribasic  add,  is  obtained 
by  boiling  a  solution  of  the  pentoxlde  in  water;  by  oxidixing 
red  phosphorus  with  nitric  acid,  or  yellow  phosphorus  under 
the  Surface  of  water  by  bromine  or  iodine;  and  also  by  decompos- 
ing a  mineral  phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid.  It  usually  forms 
a  thin  syrup  which  on  concentration  in  a  vacuum  over  sulphuric 
acid  deposits  hard,  transparent,  rhombic  prisms  which  melt  at 
41*7*.  Onlong  heating  the  syrup  is  partially  converted  into  pyro- 
phosphoric and  metaphosphoric  adds,  but  on  adding  water  and 
boiling  the  ortho-add  is  re-formed.  It  gives  origin  to  three 
classes  of  salts;  M'H,Pa  or  M'H^PjO.;  M'aHPO*  or  MTira. 
M',P04,M%P|OiorM'"POi,whereinM',Ai',M'"deiiote»iaono., 
di«,  and  tri-valent  metal.  The  first  set  may  be  called  monometaCk. 
the  second  dimetallic,  and  the'  third  trimetalllc  salts.  Pcr-acrd 
salts  of  the  alkalis,  eg,  (K,Na,NH4)U«(P0«)>,  are  also  known, 
these  may  be  regarded  as  composed  of  a  monometallic  jdiospJutt 


THOSPHATK 


wi 


with  pimphoric  «cid»  tints  M^HtPO*  HiPOb^  Tbe  dnte  |>riadpil 
groups  <tiffer  remarkably  in  thek  behaviour  towards  indicators 
The  monometallic  salts  are  strongly  acid,. the  dimetaUic  are 
MUtial  or  faint^  alkaline,  whilst  the  soluble  trinetallic  salts 
are  strongly  alkaline.  The  monomeUlUc  salts  of  the  alkalii 
and  alkftHfte  earths  may  be  obtained  in  aystal  form,  bnt  those 
ol  tbe  h^vy  metals  are  only  stable  when  in  solatiDB.  The 
soluble  triactallic  salts  are  decomposed  by  carbonic  add  into 
a  dimetallic  salt  and  an  add  cai:bonate.  All  sohibfe  orthophos- 
phates  give  with  sflver  nitrate  a  cfaaractenatic  yellow  precipitate 
of  silver  phosphate,  AgiPOi,  sohibleSn  ainmonia  and  in  nitric 
sdd.  Since  thci  reaction  with  the  add  salu  is  attended  by 
Ubetation  of  nitric  adds  NaHsP04+3AgNQi«AgiFQ<+NaNCH 
+2HNQ1,  KsiHPOH-jAgNOk-AgsPOi+sNaNOk+HNOx,.  it 
is  neceaiary  to  neutralise  the  nitric  add  if  the  complete  pre* 
dpitation  of  the  pbes|)^ric  add  be  desired..  The  three  series 
abo  differ  when  heated;  tbe  tiimttaUic  saltsv  containing  fixed 
bases  are  tinalteied,  whilst  the  mono-  and  dimetallic  satm  yidd 
meta*.aod  pjrrophQ^phates  mspectively.  If  the  heathig  be  with 
charcoal,  the  trimeteilic  salts  of  tbe  elkalis  and  alkaline  earths 
are  onaltered,  whilst  the  mono-  and  di-salts;glve  free  phosphortas 
and  a  trimetallic  salt.  Other  piedpitants  of  phospherie  add 
or  its  aahs.in  solution  are:  ammonium  molybdate  In  nitric 
add,  which  gives  oa  heating  a  canary^yelhiw  predpitate  of 
ammonium  phoaphomolybdate,  i>(Mo(M  (NH«)3P04t  insoluble 
in  acids  but  raulUy  soluble  in  ammonia;  magnesium  chbride, 
ammofiMim  chloride  and  ammoAia,  which  give  on  standing  in 
a  warm  place  a  white  crystalline  predpitate  of  magnesium 
ammonittm  phosphate,  Mg(NH4)PQ4'6H«0,  which  is  soluble  iii 
adds  but  highly  insohible  in  ammonia  solutions,  and  on  heating 
to  ifdneas  gives  magnesium  pyrophosphate,  MgiPdO?;  uranic 
nitrate  and  ferric  chloride,  which  give  a  yellowish-white  pre- 
dpitate, soluble  In  hydrochloric  acid  and  ammonia,  but  insoluble 
in  acedc  add;  mercurous  nitrate  which  gives  a  white  predpitate, 
soluble  in  nitric  add,  and  bismuth  nitrate  which  gives  a  white 
precipitate,  insoluble  in  nitric  add.    * 

Pyropkosphoric  acid,  H^PjOi,  is  a  tctrabosic  add  which  may  be 
regarded  as  derived  by  eliminating  a  molecule  of  water  between 
two  molecules  of  ordinary  phosphoric  add;  its  constitution  may 
therefore  be  written  (HO)tOP-OPO(OH)j.  It  may  be  obtained 
as  a  glassy  mass»  indistinguishable  from  metaphosphoric  add, 
by  heating  phosphoric  acid  to  2x5°.  Whoi  boiled  with  water 
it  forms  the  ortho^icid,  and  when  heated  to  redness  the  meta* 
acid.  After  neutrajizatlon,  it  gives  a  white  predpitate  with 
silver  nitrate.  Being  a  tetrabasic  add.  it  can  form  four  classes 
of  salts;  for  example,  the  four  solium  salts  NsiPsOr,  NasHPaOr, 
NatHsP^r,  NaHaP^Ot  are  known.  The  naost  important  is 
the  normal  salt,  Na^PsO?,  which  is  readily  obtained  by  heating 
disodium  ortbopfaosphate,  NstHPO^.  It  forms '  monodSnic 
prisnns  (with  loHtO)  which  are  permanent  in  air.  All  soluble 
pyrophosphates  when  boiled  with  water  for  a  long  time  are 
oonverted  into  orthophosphates. 

Metaphosphork  acid,  HPOi,  is  a  monobasic  acid  which  may  be 
tt&xdcd  as  derived  from  orthophosphoric  add  by  the  abstractiox^ 
of  one  molecule  of  water,  thus  UiP04-'HsO»HPQi;  its  constitu* 
Hon  is  theiefore  <HO)POi.  The  add  is  formed  by  dissolvfaig 
pho^horus  penioxSde  in  cold  water,  or  by  strong^  heating 
orthophosphoric  acid.  It  forms  a  colourless  vitreous  mass, 
hence  its  name  "  glacial  phosphoric  acid."  It  is  readily  solnble 
in  water^  themhition  being  gradually  transformed  into  the  ortho- 
acid,  a  reactioii  which  proceeds  much  rastt  nptd^fnt  boBiag. 
Altbou^  the  add  ismonebaaic,  salts  of  pdymeric  forms  exist  of 
the  typea  (MPOkXi,  where  ji  may  be  r,  s,  a,  4*  6.  They  may  beob- 
tained  by  heating  a  monometaUie  octhophosphate  of  a  fixed  base, 
or  a  dimetallic 'OrthophoBiAate  of  one  fixed  and  one  voIatBe  base,. 
e.g.  miccocosmicsalt:  MHsP04-HPQ>4-H,0, (NH4)  NaHP04- 
NaPO«-M>IHA*fHiO;  they  may  also  be  obtained  by  acting 
with  pbosphems  pentoside  on  trlmetaHic  orthophMphates; 
KaiPOA+PA^aNaPO).  The  salts  are  usually  non-crystalline 
and  luaible.  On  boiling  their  solutions  they  yield  orthophos- 
.phaies*  whilst  thota  of  the  heavy  ipetals  ofi  boiling  with  water 
"ie  orthapbpsphata  and  orthophesphoric  add: 


3AgP(^-f  sHiO-AgJiO^+sHaPOi.  On  heatings  with  an  oxide 
or  carbonate  they  yi^Id  a  trimetaDic  orthophosphate,  carbon 
dioxide  being  evolved  in  the  latter  case.  Metaphosphoric  acid 
can  be  distingiiished  from  the  other  two  acids  by  its  power 
of  coagulating  albumen,  and  by  not  befav  predpitated  by  mag- 
nesium and  ammonium  chlorides  in  the  presence  of  ammonia. 

(C.E.*) 

Mmar(d  Phosphates, — ^Those  varieties  of  native  caldum 
phosphate  which  are  not  distinctly  crystallized,  like  apatite  (9.9.), 
but  occur  in  fibrous,  compact  or  earthy  masses,  often  nodular, 
and  more  or  less  impure,  are  induded  under  the  general  term 
phosphorite.  The  name  seems  to  have  been  given  originally 
to  the  Spanish  phosphorite,  probab^  because  it  phosphoresced 
when  heated.  This  mineral,  known  aS  Estremadura  phosphate, 
occurs  at  Logibsaan  and  Cioeres,  where  it  forms  an  important 
deposit  in  day-slate.  It  may  contain  from  55  to  62%  of  calcium 
phosphate,  with  about  7%  of  magnesium  phosphate.  A  some> 
what  similar  mineral,  forming  a  fibrous  incrustation,  with  a 
mam  miliary  surface,  and  containing  about  9%  of  caldum  carbo- 
nate, is  known  as  staiTelite,  a  name  given  by  A.  Stein  in  1866 
from  the  locality  Staitcl,  in  the  valley  of  the  Lower  Lahn, 
where  (as  also  in  the  valley  of  its  tributary  the  Dill)  lai^e  deposits 
of  pho^horite  occur.  Dahllite  is  a  Norwegian  phosphorite, 
containing  caldum  carbonate,  named  in  x883  by  W.  C.  Br£^gger 
and  H.  Biickstr5m  after  the  Norwegian  geologists  T.  and  J. 
DahlL  OsteoUte  is  a  white  earthy  phosphorite  occurring  in  the 
defts  of  basaltic  rocks,  named  in  1851  by  J.  C.  Bromeis  from 
the  Greek  UnioVy  bone. 

Phosphorite,  when  occurring  in  large  deposits,  is  a  mineral  of 
much  economic  value  for  convenian  into  the  superphosphate 
largdy  used  as  a  fertilizing  agent.  Many  of  the  impure  sub- 
stances thus  utilized  are  not  strialy  phosphorite,  but  pass 
under  such  names  as  "  rock-phosphate,"  or,  when  nodular,  aa 
**  coproUte  "  (^.v.),  even  if  not  of  true  coprolitic  origin.  The 
ultimate  source  of  these  mineral  phosphates  may  be  referredf 
in  most  cases  to  the  apatite  widely  distributed  in  crystalline 
rocks.  Being  soluble  in  water  containing  carbonic  add  or 
organic  adds  it  may  be  readily  removed  in  solution,  and  rsay 
thus  furnish  pbnts  and  animals  with  the  phosphates  required 
in  their  structures.  On  the  decay  of  these  structures  the  phos-, 
phates  are  returned  to  the  inorganic  world,  thus  complieting 
the  cycle. 

There  are  thrfee  sources  of  phoephates  which  are  of  importanca 
geofogically.  They  occur  (a)  in  crystalline  igneous  and  mcta- 
morphic  locks  as  an  original  constituent,  {b)  in  veins  associated 
with  igneous  rocks,  and  {c)  in  sedimentary  rocks  dther  as  organic 
fragments  or  in  secondary  concretionary  forms. 

The  first  mode  of  occurrence  is  <rf  little  significance  practically, 
for  the  crystalline  rocks  generally  contain  too  little  phosphate  to 
be  valuable,  thouKh  occaaionally  an  igneous  rock  may  contain 
enough  apatite  to  (orm  an  inferior  fertflizin^  agent, «./».  the  trachyte 
of  Cabo  de  Gata  in  eoutfa-east  Spain,  which  contains  12-15%  of 
phosphoric  acid.  In  many  deposiu  o(  iron  ores  found  in  connexion 
with  igneous  or  metaroorphic  rocks  small  quantities  of  phosphate 
occur.  The  Swedish,  Norwcgbn,  Ontario  and  Michigan  mine* 
yield  ores  of  this  kind ;  and  though  none  of  them  can  be  profitably 
worked  as  a  source  of  phosphate,  yet  on  reducing  the  ore  it  may 
be  retained  in  the  slags,  and  thus  rmdeced  available  (or  agriculture. 

Another  group  of  phosphatic  deposits  connected  with  igneous 
rocks  comprises  the  apatite  wins  of  south  Norway.  Ottawa  and 
other  districts  in  Canada.  These  are  of  pneamatolytic  origin 
(see  PMEiniATOLVsis),  and  have  been  formed  by  the  action  of  vapoure 
emanating  from  cooling  bodies  of  basic  eruptive  rock.  Veins  of 
this  type  occur  at  Oedegarden  in  Norway  and  Dundrct  in  Lapland. 
From  1500  to  3500  tons  of  apatite  are  obtained  ycariy  in  Norway 
from  these  veins.  In  Ontario  apatite  has  been  worked  for  a  long 
time  in  deposits  of  similar  nature.  The  total  output  of  Canada 
in  1907  was  only  6S0  tons. 

The  phosphatic  rocks  which  ooctir  among  the  sedimentary  strata 
are  the  ndndpal  sources  of  phosphates  Tor  coramcrte  and  agri- 
culture.  They  are  found  in  formations  of  all  ages  from  the  CaMbnaa 
to  those  whknk  are  aocumularing  at  the  present  day.  Of  tbe  latter 
the  best  known  is  guano  (see  M  anurbs  and  M  akurinc). 

Where  guano-beds  arc  exposed  to  rain  their  soluble  constituents 
are  removed  and  the  insoluble  matters  Idt  behind.  The  soluble 
phosphates  washed  out  of  the  guano  may  become  fixed  hv  emering 
lato  combination  with  the  elements  of  the  rock  beneath.  Many 
of  tbe  oceanic  isleu  are  composed  of  coml  Umestoae.  which  m  this 


476 


PHOSPHORESCENCE 


way  become*  pbotphfttlsod;  tHhen  «re  igntoua,  cooasting  of 
Uaoiyte  or  basalt,  and  thcae  rocks  are  abo  phosphatizcd  on  their 
surfaces  but  are  not  to  valuable,  inasmuch  as  the  presence  of  iron 
or  alumina  in  any  quantity  renders  them  unsuited  tor  the  prepafa* 
tion  of  artificial  manures. 

The  leached  guanoa  and  pfaoq>hati2cd  rocks*  which  are  groaped 
with  them  for  commercial  purposes,  have  been  obtained  la  great 

Suantities  in  many  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  (such  as  Baker, 
lowland,  Jarvis  and  McKean  Islands)  between  long,  i^"  to  iSo** 
W.  and  lat.  lo*  N.  to  lo"  S.  In  the  West  Indies  from  Vene- 
suela  to  the  Bahamas  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  many  islands 
yield  supplies  of  leached  guanos;  the  foUowinjg;  are  important  in 
this  respect :  Sombrero,  Navassa,  Aves,  Aruba,  Cuiacoa.   Christmas 

Jsland  nas  been  a  great  source  of  phosphates  of  uiis  type:  also 
aluit  Island  in  the  Maldive  Archipelag^o,  Banafaa  or  Ocean  Island, 
and  Nauru  or  Pleasant  Island.  On  Christmas  Island  the  phoq>hate 
has  been  quarried  to  depths  of  loa  ft.  To  these  leached  guanoa 
and  phosphatized  limestones  the  name  sombrerite  has  been  ^ven. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  ^oo.ooO  tons  of  pho^hate  were  obtained 
in  Aruba,  1,000.000  tons  from  Curacoa  since  the  depoats  were 
discovered  in  1870,  aad  Christmas  Island  in  1907  yielded  290,000 
tonsi 

In  the  older  formations  the  phosphates  tend  to  become  more 
and  mor6  mineralized  by  chemical  processes.  In  whatever 
form  they  were  originally  deposited  they  often  suffer  complete 
or  partial  solution  and  are  redepostted  as  concretionary  lumps 
and  nodules,  often  called  coprolites.  The  "  Challenger  "  and 
other  oceanographic  expeditions  have  shown  that  on  the  bottom 
of  the  deep  sea  concretions  of  phosphate  are  now  gathering 
around  the  dead  bodies  of  fishes  lying  in  the  oozes;  consequently 
Che  formation  of  Uie  concretions  may  have  been  caMcd  on 
simultaneously  with  the  deposition  of  the  strata  in  which  they 
occur. 

Important  deposits  of  mineral  phosphates  are  now  woiled 
cn  a  large  scale  in  the  United  States,  the  annual  yield  far  sur- 
passing that  of  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  most  active 
operatiolis  arc  carried  on  in  Florida,  where  the  phosphate  was 
first  worked  in  1887  in  the  form  of  pebbles  in  the  gravels  of 
Peace  river.  Then  followed  the  discovery  of  "hard  rock- 
phosphate,"  a'  massive  mineral,  often  having  eavitics  lined 
with  nearly  pure  phosphorite.  Other  kinds  not  distinctly  hard 
and  consisting  of  less  rich  phosphatic  limestone,  are  known  as 
**  soft  phosphate  ":  those  found  as  smooth  pebbles  of  variable 
•colour  are  called  "  land  pebble-phosphate,"  whilst  the  pebbles 
of  the  river-beds  and  old  river-valleys,  usually  of  dark  colour, 
are  dbtinguished  as  "river  pebble-phosphate."  The  land 
pebble  is  worked  in  central  South  Florida;  the  hard  rock  chiefly 
between  Albion  and  Bay  City.  In  South  Carolina,  where 
there  are  important  deposits  of  phosphate,  formerly  more 
productive  than  at  present,  the  "  knd  rock  "  H  worked  near 
Charleston,  and  the  "  river  rock  "in  the  Coosaw  river  and  other 
streams  near  Beaufort.  The  phosphate  beds  contain  Eocene 
fossils  derived  from  the  tindcrlying  strata  and  many  fragments 
of  Pleistocene  vertebrata  such  as  mastodon,  elephant,  stag, 
horse,  pig,  &c.  The  phosphate  occurs  as  lumps  varying  greatly 
in  size,  scattered  through  a  sand  or  day;  they  often  contain 
phosphatized  Eocene  fossils  (MolIusca,&c.).  Sometimes  the 
phosphate  is  found  at  the  surface,  but  generally  it  is  covered  by 
alluvial  sands  and  clays.  Phosphate  mining  began  in  South 
Carolina  in  x868,  and  for  twenty  years  that  state  was  the  prin- 
cipal producer.  Then  the  Florida  deposits  began  to  be  worked. 
In  i8q3  the  phosphates  of  Tennessee,  derived  from  Ordovician 
limestones,  came  into  the  market.  From  North  Carolina, 
Alabama  and  Pennsylvania,  also,  phosphates  have  been  obtained 
but  only  in  comparatively  small  quantities.  In  1900  mining  for 
phosphates  was  commenced  in  Arkansas.  In  1908  Florida 
produced  1,673,651  tons  of  phosphate  valued  at  11  million 
dollars.  All  the  other  states  together  produce  less  pho^hate 
than  Florida,  and  ^mong  them  Tennessee  takes  the  first  place 
with  an  output  of  403,180  tonSb 

'  Algeria  contains  important  deposits  of  phosphorite,  especially 
near  Tebessa  and  at  Tocqueville  in  the  province  of  Constantine. 
Kcar  Jebel  Kouif,  on  the  frontier  between  Algeria  and  Tunis, 
there  are  i^hosphate  workings,  as  also  in  Tunis,  at  Gafsa.  The 
depodts  belong  to  the  Lon^r  Eocene,  where  it  rests  unconform- 
tlbtj  npon  the  Cretaceous.    The  joint  prodnction  of  Tunis  and  I 


Algeria  in  xqoi;  was  sot  less  than  a  mOKon  tons.  Phosphatei 
occur  also  in  Egjrpt,  in  the  desert  east  of  ICeneh  and  In  the 
Dakla  oasis  m  the  Ljbyan  dasert. 

Fiance  is  rich  in  mineral  phosphates,  the  chief  depoaks  bdng 
the  departments  of  the  Pas-d*-CaIals,  Somme,  Aisoe,  Oise  in 
and  Alense,  in  the  north-east,  and  another  group  In  the  depart* 
ments  of  Lot,  Tam-at-GaxoBne  and  Awyion,  in  the  south-west: 
phosphates  occur  also  In  the  Pyrenees*  The  deposits  near 
Caylus  and  in  Quercy  occupy  fissures  said  pockets  in  Jurassic 
limestone,  and  have  yielded  a  remarkable  assemblage  of  the 
relics  d  l^rtlaxy  mammals  and  othei  fossils.  Phosphates 
occur  in  Belgium,  espedally  near  Mons,  aad  these,  like  those 
of  north-east  France,  are  {mnapally  in  the  Upper  Qiallt.  Tuo 
varieties  of  phosphate  rock  are  recognixed  in  tlwse  districts, 
via.  the  phosphatic  chalk  and  the  phosphate  aand,  tiie  latter 
resulting  from  the  deeompoaitiDn  of  the  former.  Large  and 
valuable  deposits  of  the  sajod  have  been  obtained  ia  tasks  aad 
depressions  on  the  surface  of  the  chalk.  The  production  is 
on  the  whole  dlmfailslMng  'in  Belgfum  (rSoyooo  tons  in  1907), 
but  in' France  it  Is  still  large  (s^  5,000  tonaln  r907). 

In  the  Lahn  ifistiict  of  Nassau  (Germany)  there  arepbosphate 
beds  in  Devonian  rocks.  The  deposits  were  rich  but  irTqpile' 
and  local,  and  were  much  worked  from  1866  to  XM4,  but  are  oe 
longer  of  eoonomic  importance.  In  northern  Eatrtnsadora  la 
Spain  and  Alemteao  In  Pbrtogal  there  are  vehi  dqioaits  of 
phoqifaate  of  lime.  As  much  as  ^oofioo  tons  of  phoqibatc  have 
been  raised  in  thne  provinces,  but  hi  1906  the  total  prodnctioa 
of  Spain  was  only  xjoo  tons.  Large  deposits  of  pbeephate 
occur  in  Russia,  and  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kotch  have 
attracted  some  attention;  It  is  said  that  the  CTHaceOna  locks 
between  the  rivers  Dniester  and  Volga  oontain  very  large 
supplies  of  phosphate,  though  p*obably  of- low  grade. 

Phosphatic  nqidules  and  concrerions,  with  pho«phat!aed  foasSi 
and  their  casts,  occur  at  various  gcoloncat  horizons  in  Great  Britain. 
Ban^  of  black  nodules,  highlv  phosphatic  ai«  foimd  at  the  top  of 

orth  wales;    bods  of  concretkms 


the  Bala  limestone  in  North 

the  Jurassic  series;  and  important  deposits  arc  known  in  the 
Cretaceous  strata,  especially  in  the  Lower  Grccnsand  and  at  the 
base  of  the  Gault.  The  Lower  Greensand  phosphates  have  beee 
worked,  under  the  name  of  '*  ct»prolitcs,"  at  Pottoa  in  Bedford 
and  at  Upware  and  Wickm  in  Cambridgeshire.  The  Cainb 
Greensand,  rich  in  phosphatic  nodufes,  occurs  at  the  base  of 
Chalk  Marl.  The  chalk  occasionally  becomes  phosphatiJEcd,  as  at 
Taplow  (Bucks)  and  Lewes  (Sussex).  At  the  base  of  the  Red  Cng 
in  East- Angiia,  ami  occasionally  at  the  base  of  the  oilier  Plioceae 
Crags,  Uiere  is  a  "  nodule-bed,'  consisting  of  pho^hatic  nodules, 
with  rotfcd  teeth  and  bones  which  were  formerly  woriced  as  '*  cofao- 
lites**  for  the  preparation  of  artincial  manure.  Professor  R.  }. 
Strutt  has  found  that  phosphatixed  nodules  and  bones  are  rich  is 
radioactive  constituents,  and  has  brought  this  into  relation  with 
their  geological  age. ' 

BiBLioCRAPuy.— For  American  phosphates  see  The  Phnpism 
of  America,  by  Francis  Wyatt  (§th  cd..  New  York  and  Loodoa. 
189^);  the  Annual  Reports  on  Mineral  Resources  of  the  V^.  (\}S. 
Geol.  Survey),  including  some  valuable  reports  by  C  W.  Hayc& 
also  those  in  RothwcU's  Mineral  Industry i  '*  Nature  and  Ornki  ci 
DeposiU  of  Phosphate  of  Ltme/*  by  R.  A.F.  Penrose,  J un-.^aOTr^ 
Ceol.  Survey,  No.  46  (1S88);  Ftonia,  South  Carolina  and  Canadu* 
Pkosbhtties,  by  C.-C.  Hoycr  Miller  (London,  1802);  and  The  S^m- 
metaliie  Minerals,  by  G.  P.  Merrifl  (1004).  Many  of  the  above 
include  descriptions  Of  mineral  phosphates  in  other  peats  of  the 
world.  For  a  general  discuuion  of  the  origjui  of  the  phosphates 
sec  "  The  Natural  History  of  PhosphatcJOcpasits,"  byj,  J.  H.  T«ll. 


Proc.  Ctd.  Assoc,  xvi.  369  (1900).     Consult  also 
sw  Us  phosphaleSt  by  A.  Deckers  (U^,  i894)> 

^.S.F.;F.W.R.-> 

PROSPHORBSCEirCB^  a  name  given  to  a  variety  of  pfayakal 
phenomena  due  to  different  causes,  but  all  oon^stlns  in  the 
emtssion  of  a  pale,  asofe  orless  ilt^efined  li^t,  not  obrioady 
due  to  combustion.  The  iMfd  was  fiitt  used  by  phjnidsas  to 
describe  the  p/operty  possessed  by  many  tnibetSLnces  «f  tbeat- 
selvcs  becoming  Indiinous  aflJer  exposure  to  light.  This  piopeny 
has  been  noticed  from' early  times.  Pliny  speaks  of 
gems  which  shine  with  a  Kghf  of  their  own,  and  Alberti 
knew  that  the  diamond  becomes  phosphorescent 
ately  heated.  But  the  first  discovery  of  thn  property 
apparently  attracted  scientific  attetttk»n  seems  to  have 
that  of  the  Bologna  stone  <bariubtsu]ph!die>t  which  < 


PHOSPHORESCENCE 


477 


by  Vineeiud  Casearlob,  a  cohUcr  of  Bologna,  in  about  x6oa. 
Thb  was  {oUowed  by  the  discovery  of  a  number  ol  other  sub- 
stances which  become  luminous  either  alter  exposure  to  Ug^t 
or  on  heating,  or  by  attrition,  and  to  which  the  general  name  of 
**  phosphor!  "  (from  ^  and  ^post  bringing  Ught)  was  given. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Uoxnberg's  pho^onis  Ccaldum 
chloride),  John  Canton's  phosphorus  (calcium  sulphide)  and 
Baldoinls  phosphorus  (caldum  nitrate).    Of  late  years  it  has 
beoi  found  convenient  to  limit  the  strict  meaning  of  the  word 
"  phosphorescence  "  to  the  case  of  bodies  which,  after  exposure 
to  light,  become  self-luminous  (even  if  only  for  a  fraction  of  a 
second).    The  general  term  *Uuntineseence"  has  been  proposed 
by  E.  Wiedemann  to  include  all  cases  in  which  bodies  give  off 
Ught  not  due  to  ignition.    This  general  term  embraces  several 
subdivisions.     Thus>  fluorescence  (f.v.)  and  phosphorescence 
are  indudcd  under  the  same  heading,  "photoluminesi^nce," 
being  distinguished  from  each  other  only  by  the  fact  that 
fluorescent   bodies  emit  their  characteristic  L'ght  only  while 
under  the  influence  of  the  exciting  illumination,  while  phos- 
phore^ent  bodies  are  luminous  for  an  appreciable  time  after 
the  ezdtmg  light  is  cut  off. 

Phosphorescence,  in  its  restricted  meaning  as  above  explained, 
is  most  strildnKly  exhibited  by  the  artiflcial  sulphides  of  calcium, 
strontium  ^nd  barium.  If  any  of  these  substances  is  exposed  for 
some  time  to  daylight,  or,  better,  to  direct  Mintight,  or  to  the  light 
of  the  electric  arc,  it  will  thine  for  hours  in  the  dark  with  a  soft 
coloured  Usht.  The  colour  depends  not  only  on  the  nature  of  the 
substanceTout  also  on  its  physical  condition,  and  on  its  tcrapcraturc 
during  insolatioo,  that  is,  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays.  Thus  the 
phosphorescent  light  emitted  by  calcium  sulphide  may  be  orange- 
yellow,  yellow,  green  or  violet,  according  to  the  method  of  pre- 
paration and  the  materials  used.  Balinun's  luminous  paint,  a 
preparation  of  calcium  sulphide,  shines  with  a  white  light.  The 
colour  a^ao  depends  on  the  temperature  during  exposure  to  light. 
Thus  A.  E.  Bocqucrel  found  that  the  light  given  by  a  specimen  of 
strontittm  sulphide  changed  from  violet  to  blue,  green,  yellow  and 
orange,  as  tne  temperature  during  the  corresponding:  previous 
insolation  was  ao*,  40*,  70*,  100*  or  200*  C.  The  duration  of 
phosphorescence  varies  greatly  with  different  sttbstaoocs.  It  may 
ttst  tor  days  or  for  only  a  fraction  of  a  second.. 

As  in  the  case  of  fluorescent  bodies,  the  liirht  produced  hy  phos* 
phorescent  substances  consists  commonly  of  rays  less  refrangible 
Chan  those  of  the  exciting  light.  Thus  the  ultra-violet  portion  of 
the  spectrum  is  usually  the  most  cfl&dent  in  exciting  rays  belonging 
to  tlu»  visible  part  01  the  spectrum.  V.  Klatt  and  Ph.  Lenard 
\Wied.  Ann,^  1839,  xxxviii.  90),  have  shown  that  the  phosphorescence 
off  calcium  sulphide  and  other  phosphori  depends  on  the  presence 
of  minute  quantities  of  other  substances,  such  as  copper,  bismuth 
and  nianganeac.  The  maximum  intensity  of  phosphorescent  Ught 
ia  obtained  when  a  certain  definite  proportion  of  the  impurity  is 
praeent,  and  the  intensity  is  diminished  if  this  proportion  is  increased. 
It  appears  likely  that  when  a  phosphorescent  body  is  exposed  to 
Cght,  tne  energy  of  the  light  is  stored  up  in  some  kind  of  strain 
energy,  and  that  the  phosphorescent  light  is  g^ven  out  during  a  mOre 
or  las  alow  recovery  from  this  state  of  strain.  Klatt  ana  Lenard 
have  shown  that  the  sulphides  of  the  alkaline  earths  lose  the  property 
of  phosphorescing  when  subjected  to  heavy  pressure.  Many 
fluorescent  solutions  become  briefly  phosphorescent  when  rendered 
■olid  by  gelatin.  , 

When  the  duration  of  phosphorescence  is  brief,  some  mcdianical 
device  becomes  necessary  to  detect  it.  The  earliest  and  best- 
known  instrument  for  this  purpose  b  Becquerel's  phosphoroscope. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  shallow  drum,  in  whose  ends  two  eccentric 
holes,  exactly  opposite  one  another,  are  cut.  Inside  it  are  find 
two  eqinl  rutal  disks,  attached  perpendicubrly  to  an  axis,  and 
dividca  into  the  same  number  of  sectors,  the  alternate  sectors  of 
each  being  cut  out.  One  of  these  disks  is  dose  to  one  end  of  the 
drum,  the  other  to  the  opposite  end,  and  the  scctore  are  so  arranged 
that,  when  the  disks  are  made  to  route,  the  hole  in  one  end  is  open 
while  chat  in  the  other  is  closed,  and  vko  versa.  If  the  eye  be 
placod  near  one  bole,  and  a  ray  of  sunlight  be  admitted  by  the  other. 
It  is  obvious  thst  while  the  sun  shines  on  an  object  inside  the  drum 
the  aperture  next  the  eye  is  ck>scd,  and  vice  versa.  If  the  disks  be 
made  tt»  revolve  with  neat  velocity  by  means  of  a  train  of  toothed 
wheels  the  object  will  be  presented  to  the  eye  almost  instantly 
sifter  it  has  been  exposed  to  sunlight,  and  these  presentations  succeed 
one  another  so  rapidly  as  to  produce  a  sense  of  continuous  vision. 
By  means  of  this  apparatus  we  can  test  with  considerable  aocuracv 
the  duration  of  the  phenomenon  after  the  light  has  been  cut  off. 
For  this  purpose  we  require  to  know  merely  the  number  of  sectors 
in  the  disks  and  the  rate  at  which  they  are  turned. 

Thermoluminesctnce. — ^Some  bodies  which  do  not  emit  light  at 
onlinary  temperatures  in  a  dark  room  begin  to  do  so  if  they  are 
hctttad  to  a  tem^amcurs  bdow  a  vialbk  red  hsat.   la  the  sas*  of 


ehh»opiBA«,a  variety  of  flnor^spar,  the  htafc  of  the  hand  is  saAdent 
Many  ycUow  diamonds  exhibit  thb  form  of  hminescenoe.  It 
has  been  shown,  however,  that  aprevious  exposure  to  light  is  always 
necessary.  Sir  James  Dewar  found  that  if  ammonium  platino* 
cyanide,  Balmatn's  paint  and  some  other  substances  are  cocJed  W 
the  temperature  of  liquid  air  and  exposed  to  light,  they  do  not 
phosphoresce,  but  as  soon  as  they  are  allowed  to  warm  up  to  tht 
ordinary  temperature  they  emit  a  brilliant  light.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  bodies,  such  as  gelatin,  Celluloid,  parafiin  and  ivory, 
are  phosphorescent  at  very  low  temperature^  but  lose  the  property 
at  ordinary  temperatures. 

Tribdumituscence  (from  rpifiop,  to  rub)  b  luminescence  excited 
by  friction,  percussion,  cleavage  or  such  mechanical  means.  Calcium 
chloride,  pnvpared  at  a  red  heat,  exhibits  this  property.  If  sugar 
is  broken  in  the  dark,  or  two  crystaU  of  quartz  rubbed  together, 
or  a  piece  of  mica  deft,  a  flash  of  light  b  seen,  but  this  b  probably 
of  electrical  origin.  Closely  allied  to  thb  form  of  luminescence  Is 
crystaliotuminescfnce,  a  phosphorescent  light  seen  when  some 
substances  crystallize  from,  solution  or  after  furion.  This  property 
is  exhibited  by  arsenious  add  when  crystallbing  from .  solution  in 
hydrochloric  acid. 

ChemUuminescence  b  the  name  given  to  those  cases  In  which 
chcmkal  action  produces  light  without  any  great  rise  of  temperature. 
Phosphorus  exposed  to  moist  air  in  a  dark  room  shines  with  a  so^ 
light  due  to  slow  oxidation.  Decaying  wood  and  other  vegetabla 
substances  often  exhibit  the  same  property.  * 

Eiecirotuminesunee  is  luminescence  due  to  electrical  causes. 
Many  gases  arc  phosphorescent  for  a  short  time  after  an  electric 
discharge  has  been  passed  through  them,  and  some  solid  sub- 
stances, especially  dbmonds^and  ruoies,  are  strongly  phosphorescent 
when  exposed  to  kathode  rays  in  a  vacuum  tube. 

Soe  generally,  Winkclmann.  Handbuch  der  Physik,  Bd.  vl.  (1006); 
E.  Becquercl,  La  Lumiere  (1867).  (J.  K.  C.) 

Phosphorescence  in  Zoology, 

The  emission  of  light  by  living  substance  b  a  widespread 
occurrence,  and  b  part  of  the  general  metabolbm  by  which  the' 
potential  energy  introduced  as  food  b  transformed  into  kinetic 
energy  and  appears  in  the  form  of  movement,  heat,  decttirity 
and  l^ht.  In  many  cases  it  b  probably  an  acddental  by- 
product, and  like  the  heat  radiated  by  Hving  tissues,  b  not 
necessarily  of  use  to  the  organbm.  But  in  other  cases  the 
capacity  to  produce  light  b  awakened  on  stimulation,  as  when 
the  wind  ripples  the  surface  of  the  sea,  or  when  the  water  b 
disturbed  by  the  blade  of  an  oar.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  response  to  the  stimulus  may  be  protective,  and  that  enemies 
are  frightened  by  the  flash  of  light.  In  luminous  insects  and 
deep-sea  fish  the  power  of  emitting  light  appears  to  have  a 
special  significance,  and  very  elaborate  mcchanbms  have  been 
developed.  The  pale  glow  of  phosphorescence  has  a  certaia 
resmnblaace  to  the  light  eknittcd  by  phoqihoruo,  and  it  was  an. 
early  suggestion  that  the  phenomenon  in  living  organisms  was 
due  to  that  substance.  Phosphorus,  however,  and  its  luminous 
compounds  are  deadly  poisons  to  all  living  tissues,  and  never 
occur  in  thom  in  the  course  of  natural  metabolbtn,  and  the 
phosphorescence  of  life  cannot  therefore  be  assigned  to  the  oxi* 
dation  of  phosphorus.  On  the  other  hand,  it  b  certably  tho 
result  of  a  process  of  oxidation,  as  the  emission  of  Ught  continues 
only  in  the  presence  of  ojcygen.  J.  H.  Fabre  showed  in  185$ 
that  the  luminous  fungus,  AgaricuSt  discharges  more  carbonic 
add  when  it  is  emitting  U^t,  and  Max  Schultze  in  1865  showed 
that  in  insects  the  luminous  cclb  are  closely  associated  with  the 
tiacheae,  and  that  during  phosphorescence  they  withdraw 
oxygen  from  them.  In  1880  B.  Radslssewskl  showed  that, 
many  fats,  ethereal  oib  and  alcohols  emit  light  when  slowly' 
combined  with  oxygen  in  alkaline  fluids  at  approprbte  tempera* 
turea.  Probably  the  phosphorescence  of  organisms  b  due  to  a 
similar  process  acting  on  the  many  fats,  oib  and  similar  sub- 
stances found  in  living  ceUs.  The  colottr  varies  much  in  different 
organisms;  giecn  has  been  observed  in  the  glow-sworm,  fire^flies, 
brittle-atars,  centipedes  and  aimelids;  blue  in  the  Italian  £re-fly 
{Ludola  iiatica);  blue  and  light  green  are  the  predominant 
colours  in  the  phosphorescence  of  marine  organisms,  but  red 
and  lilac  have  also  been  observed.  The  Lantern-Fly  {Fulgora 
Pyrcrhynckus)  b  said  to  have  a  purple  Ught,  and  £.  H.  Gi^oli 
has  recorded  that  an  individual  Appendieularia  appeaitd  first, 
red,  and  then  blue,  and  then  green.  P.  Panceri,  chiefly  in  the 
case  of  Salps^  and  S.  P.  Langley  and  F.  W.  Very  in  the  case  of 
PyrffphoruSf  have  investigated  the  light  spearoscctpifiaUy,  An(| 


+78 


PHOSPHORITE— PHO^HDRUS 


found  that  it  oontistcd  of  a  oofttinuous  huA  witliottt  aepante 
bright  lines.  The  solar  iqiectruxn  extends  farther  both  towards 
the  violet  and  the  red  ends,  but  is  less  Intense  in  the  green  when 
^ual  luminosities  are  compared. 

Many  of  the  bacteila  of  putrefactSon  afe  phosphorescent,  and  thb 
tight  emitted  by  dead  fish  or  molluscs  <^  nesh  is  probably  due  in 
every^  case  to  the  presence  of  these.  Under  the  miscroscope,  the 
individual  bacteria  appear  as  shining  points  of  light.  The  phosphor- 
escence of  decaying  wood  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  mycelium  ot 
Agflriciu  meUeus,  and  various  other  species  of  Agaricus  nave  been 
found  to  be  luminous.  The  great  displays  of  phosohoresccnce  in 
sea-water  are  usually  due  to  the  presence  of  very  large  numbers 
of  small  luminous  org^isms,  either  protosoa  or  protophyta.  Of 
these  NocUluca  miliaris  and  species  of  Pfridinium  and  ryrocyslU 
are  the  most  frequent,  the  two  former  near  land  and  the  latter  in 
mid-ocean* 

In  higher  animals  the  phosphorescence  tends  to  be  linuted  to 
special^  parts  of  the  body  which  may  form  elaborate  and  highly 
specialised  luminous  organs.  Many  coelenterates  show  the  b^n- 
omg  of  such  localioition  ;  in  medusae  the  whole  surface  may  be  lumin- 
ous, but  the  light  is  brighter  aloi^;  the  radial  canals*  in  the  ovaries, 
or  in  the  marginal  sense-organs.  In  Pennatulids  each  polyp  has 
eight  luminous  bands  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  digestive  cavity. 
Some  Chsetopods  {Ckaetopterus  and  Tomopuris)  have  lununous 
organs  at  the  bases  of  the.  lateral  processes  of  the  body.  Pyrosoma, 
a  colonial  peluic  ascidian,  is  responsible  for  some  of  the  most  strik- 
ing displays  of  phosphorescence  in  tropical  seas;  it  has  two  small 
IMtches  of  cells  at  thie  base  of  each  inhatcnt  tube  which  on  stimula- 
tion discharge  light,  and  the  luminosity  has  been  observed  to  spread 
through  the  colony  from  the  point  of  irritation. 

Amonsst  the  Crustacea,  many  pelagic  Copepods  are  phosphor- 
escent. W.  Giesbrecht  has  shown  that  the  light  is  produced  by  a 
fluid  secreted  by  certain  dermal  glands.  A  similar  fluid  in  other 
Copepods  hardens  to  form  a  protective  case,  and  it  may  be  that  the 
display  of  light  is  in  such  casQs  an  accidental  by-product.  Glands 
in  the  labrum  of  the  Ostracnd  Prrocypris  and  on  the  maxillae  of 
the  Mysid  GiuikophausiA  similarly  produce  a  luminous  secretion. 
In  the  Euphaosiacea,  on  tbe  other  hand,  phosphorescence  is  pro- 
duced by  elaborate  luminous  oreans  which  are  situated  on  the 
thoracic  appendages  and  the  abdomen,  and  which  were  at  first 
believed  to  be  ocular  or^ns;  The  deep-sea  Decapod  Crustaceans 
belonjfing  to  many  families  are  luminous.  A.  Alcock  observed 
that  m  some  of  the  deep-sea  prawns  a  luminous  secretion  was  dis- 
charged at  the  bases  of  the  antennae,  but  in  most  cases  the  luminous 
pr^ns  are  numerous  eye-like  structures  on  the  limbs  and  body. 
'  The  rock-boring  mollusc,  Pholas,  which  Ptiny  knew  to  be  phos- 
phorescent, has  luminous  organs  along  the  anterior  border  of  the 
mantle,  two  small  triangular  patdies  at  Uie  entrance  of  the  anterior 
siphon,  and  two  long  parallel  cords  within  the  siphon.  The  cells 
of  these  on^ns  have  peculiar,  eranulated  contents.  W.  E.  Hoylc, 
in  his  presidential  address  to  the  Zoological  Section  of  the  British 
Association  in  1907,  brought  together  observations  on  the  occur- 
rence of  luminous  organs  in  no  less  than  thirtythree  species  of 
Ccphalopods.  In  Heter<fUuUM,  Sepiola  and  Rossia  the  light  is 
produced  bv  the  secretion  of  a  glandular  organ  on  the  ventral 
side  of  the  body  behind  the  funnel.  The  secretion  glows  through 
the  transparent  wall  with  a  greenish  colour,  but,  at  least  in  the  case 
of  HeUnOeutkis,  eontiaues  to  glow  after  being  ejected  into  the  water. 
In  most  cases  the  lununous  organs  are  nonglaadular  and  may  bo 
Mmple,  or  possess  not  only  a  generator  but  a  reflector,  lens  and 
diaphragm.  The  different  organs  shine  with  different  coloured 
lights,  and  as  the  Cephatopods  are  for  the  most  port  inhabitants 
ot  the  depths  of  the  sea,  it  has  been  suggested  that  they  serve  as 
recognition  marks. 

Some  centipedes  (e.f.  Geophihn  dectricus  and  G.  phosphoreus) 
are  luminous,  and,  if  allowed  to  crawl  over  the  hand,  are  stated  to 
leave  a  luminous  trail.  Amongst  Insects,  elaborate  luminous 
ofgans  are  developed  in  several  cases.  The  abdomen  of  a  Ceylonese 
May-fly  iTtUganodts)  is  luminous.  The  so-called  New  Zealand 
*'  glow-worm  » the  larva  of  the  fly  BolelophikL  luminosa^  and  some 
gnats  have  been  observed  to  be  luminous,  although  the  suggestion 
IS  that  in  their  case  disease  is  present  and  the  tight  emanates  from 
phosphoresoent  bacteria.     An  aitt  (Oryo)  and  a  poduran  Maaro- 

ewrus)  are  occasionally  luminous.  The  so<alled  lamem  flies  are 
omoptera  allied  to  the  Cicadas,  and  the  supposed  luminous  organ 
is  a  huge  projection  of  the  front  of  the  head,  regarding  the  luminosity 
of  which  there  Is  some  donbt.  The  g^ow-worms  and  true  fire-flies 
are  beetles*  Eg((s,  larvae  and  adults  are  in  some  cases  luminous. 
The  ofgans  consist  of  a  pale  transparent  superficial  layer  which 
jpves  the  light,  and  a  deeper  layer  whirh  may  act  as  a  reflector. 
They  are  in  dose  connexion  with  the  tracheae  and  the  light  is  pro- 
duced by  the  oudation  of  a  substance  formed  under  the  influence 
of  the  nervous  system,  and  probftbly  some  kind  of  organk:  fat. 
In  the  females  the  (rfmephorescenoe  is  probaUy  a  seanai  lure;  in 
the  males  its  function  is  unknown. 

Phosphorescent  organs  known  as  phohpkores  are  charsctcristic 
structures  in  many  of  the  deep-sea  Tcleostome  fishes,  arvd  have 
been  davtioped  in  widdy  diffctent  families  <3tomtaf«ds«,  Sccpelidae, 


Hoicsawtdu  and  Awmalo^dae)^  whilst  numerous  simple  lununooa 
o^:ans  have  been  detected  in  many  species  of  Sdachii.  Tlie  number, 
distribution  and  complexity  of  the  organs  vary  much  in  different 
fish.  They  are  most  frequent  on  the  sides  and  ventral  surfioe  of 
the  aaternr  part  of  the  body  and  the  bead,  and  may  cxteul  to  the 
tail.  The  simpler  forms  are  generally  arranged  in  rows,  soraetimm 
mctamerically  distributed:  the  more  complex  organs  are  larger 
and  less  numerous.  In  Opostomias  micrionits  there  is  a  large 
orcan  on  a  median  barbd  hanging  down  from  the  chin,  others 
below  the  eyes,  and  one  on  the  eloogated  first  ray  of  the  pectonl 
fin.  In  Sternoptyx  diaphana  there  is  one  on  the  tower  jaw,  and  in 
many  species  one  or  two  below  the  eyes.  The  luminous  organs 
appear  to  be  specialized  sldn  elands  which  secrete  a  fluid  that 
becomes  luminous  on  slow  oxidation.  The  essential  pavt  of  tbe 
Organ  remains  a  collection  of  gland  ceUs,  but  in  the  more  ftomrfrff 
types  there  are  blood  vessels  and  nerves,  a  protecting  membmiw, 
an  iris-like  diaphragm,  a  reflector  and  lens.  As  the  distribution 
and  probably  the  colour  of  the  light  varies  with  the  species,  these 
organs  may  serve  as  reoo^tion  marks.  They  may  also  attract 
prey,  and  irom  their  association  with  Uio  eyes  in  sudi  a  puitkm 
as  to  send  light  downwards  and  forwards  it  is  probable  that  in 
the  higher  types  they  are  used  by  the  fish  actually  as  lanterns  in  the 
dark  abysses  of  the  sea.  (P.  C.  MJ 

PHOSPHORITE,  in  mineralogy,  the  name  given  to  impure 
massive  apatite  {q.v.\  sec  also  Phosphates). 

PHOSPHORUS  (Gr.  4m$,  light,  ^/xu/,  to  bear),  the  name 
originally  given  to  any  substance  which  possessed  the  property 
of  phosphorescence  iq,v.),  i.c.  the  power  of  shining  in  the  dark, 
but  now  generally  restricted  to  a  non-metallic  element,  which 
was  first  known  as  Phosphorus  mirabUis  or  igneus.  This  dement 
is  very  widely  distributed  in  nature  in  combination,  but  is  never 
found  free.  In  the  mineral  kingdom  it  is  exceptionally  abun- 
dant, forming  large  deposits  of  phosphates  (9.V.).  It  is  also 
necessary  to  animal  and  vegetable  life  (sec  Manure).  It  ccctrrs 
in  the  urine,  blood,  tissues,  and  bones  of  animals,  calcium 
phosphate  forming  about  58%  of  bones,  which  owe  their  rigidity 
to  its  presence. 

The  dement  appears  to  have  been  first  obtained  in  1669  by 
Brand  of  Hamburg;  Krafft  bought  his  Secret  and  in  1677 
exhibited  spedmena  in  England,  where  it  created  an  immerise 
sensation.  Its  preparation  was  asskiuously  sought  for,  sad 
Kunckd  in  1678  and  Boyle  in  x68o  succeeded  in  obtaining  it 
by  the  same  process  as  was  discovered  by  Brand,  i.e,  by  evapora- 
ting urine  to  dryness  and  distilling  the  residue  with  sand.  Tbis 
method  was  generally  adopted  until  Z77S,  when  ScheeIc  prepared 
it  from  bones,  which  had  been  shown  by  Gahn  in  1769  to  cost  am 
calcium  phosphate.  Schede  treated  bone  ash  with  nitric  acid, 
predpitated  the  caldum  as  sulphate,  filtered,  evaporated  and 
distilled  the  residue  with  charcoal.  Nicolas  and  Feiletier 
improved  the  process  by  decomposing  the  bone-ash  directly 
with  sulphuric  acid;  whilst  Fourcroy  and  Vauqudin  introduced 
further  economies.  In  modem  practice  degreased  bones  (see 
Gelatin),  or  bone-ash  which  has  lost  its  virtue  as  a  filtering 
medium,  &c.,  or  a  mineral  phosphate  is  treated  with  suilkicfit 
sulphuric  add  to  precipitate  all  the  caldum,  the  caldum  sulphate 
filtered  off,  and  the  filtrate  concentrated,  mixed  with  charcoal, 
coke  or  sawdust  and  dried  in  a  muffle  furnace.  The  product  b 
then  distilled  from  Stourbridge  clay  retorts,  arranged  in  a  galley 
furnace,  previously  heated  to  a  red  heat.  The  temperature 
is  now  raised  to  a  white  heat,  and  the  product  led  by  malkabk 
iron  pipes  into  oondendn^  troughs  containing  water,  vben  it 
condenses.  The  chemical  reactions  are  as  follows-;  the  trcatmect 
of  the  calcium  phosphate  with  the  acid  gives  phosphoric  ackt, 
HsP04,  which  at  a  red  heat  loses  water  to  give  metaphosphoric 
add,  HPOs;  this  at  a  white  heat  reacts  with  carbon  to  give 
hydrogen,  carbon  monoxide  and  phosphorus,  thus:  2HP0^+ 
6C=H,+6CO+P.. 

Electrothermal  processes  are  also  employed.  Caldum  p3m»^ 
phate,  mixed  with  sand  and  carbon,  is  fed  into  an  electric 
furnace,  provided  with  a  dosdy  fitting  cover  with  an  outlet 
leading  to  a  condenser.  At  the  temperature  of  tbe  furnace  tba 
silica  (sand)  attacks  the  caldum  phoq>hate,  formlns  aHicatr, 
and  setting  free  phosphorts  pentoxide,  which  is  attacked  bjr 
the  carbon,  forming  phosphorus  and  carbon  naonoxide.  As 
phosphorus  boils  at  390"  C.  (554^  F.),  it  is  produced  in  the  form 
of  vapour,  which,  mingled  Wh  carbon  monoad^  pastes  to  i2tt 


PHOSPHORUS 


4^9 


eoadenaer,  wfiere  tt  b  condensed.   It  is  tTien  cast  tinder  vriter. 
The  calcium  silicate  remains  in  the  furnace  in  the  form  of  a 
liquid  slag,  which  may  be  run  off,  so  that  the  action  is  practicaUy 
continuous.    Kaolin  may  with  advantage  be  used  in  addition 
to  or  in  part  substitution  for  sand,  because  the  double  silicate 
thus  formed  is  more  fusible  than  the  single  silicate  of  lime. 
The  alternating  current  is  generally  used,  the  action  not  being 
electrolytic.    One  of  the  special  advantages  of  the  electrical 
over  the  older  process  is  that  the  distilling  vesseb  have  a  longer 
Ufe,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  not  externally  healed,  and  so 
subjected  to  a  relatively  high  temperature  when  in  contact  with 
the  corronve  slag  formed  in  the  process.   The  Readman-Parku 
process  (see  Jour.  Soc.  Chan.  Ind.,  X89X,  x,  445)  appears  to 
be  very  generally  adopted.    Readman,  experimenting  with  a 
Cowles  furnace  U  Staffordshire  in  x888,  patented  his  process, 
and  in  the  same  year  Parker  and  Robinson,  woridng  indepen- 
dently, patented  a  similar  one.    The  two  bventors  then  co* 
operated,  an  e3q>erimental  plant  was  run  successfully,  and  the 
patents  were  taken  over  by  the  leading  manufacturers.    With 
the  object  of  obtaining  a  valuat^  by-product  in  place  of  the 
stag  produced  in  this  furnace,  several  patentees  (r .{ .  Hilbext 
and  Frank,  BUlaudot,  Bradley  and  ]ic6bs,  and  others)  have 
sought  to  combine  the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide  and 
phosphorus  by  using  only  calcium  phosphate  and  -carbon, 
effecting  direct  reduction  by  carbon  at  a  h^h  temperatnre. 

The  crude  phosphorus  is  purified  by  melthig  tmder  water  and 
then  filtering  through  animal  black  and  afterwards  through 
chamois  leather,  or  by  treating  it,  when  molten,  with  chrotnlc 
acid  or  a  mbaure  of  potassium  bichromate  and  sulphuric  acid; 
this  causes  the  impurities  to  rise  to  the  surface  as  a  scum  which 
can  be  skimmed  off.  It  is  usually  sent  on  the  market  in  the 
form  of  sticks,  which  were  at  one  time  prepared  by  sucking 
the  molten  material  op  glass  tubes;  but  the  dangers  to  the 
workmen  and  other  disadvantages  of  this  method  have  led  to  its 
replacement  by  a  continuous  process,  in  which  the  phosphorus 
leaves  the  melting-pot  for  a  pipe  surrounded  by  water,  in  which 
it  solidifies  and  can  be  removed  aa  a  continuous  rod. 

Pra^erljei.— When  perfectly  pure  pihosphonts.is  a  white,  trans- 
parent, waxy  soUd,  but  as  usually  prepared  it  is  ydkmish  owing 
to  the  presence  of  the  allotropic  "  red  phosphorus,"  J.  Bdesekeo 
(Ahs,  Jour.  CJum.  Soc.,  1907,  ii.  343,  760)  prepares  perfectly 
pure  phosphorus  by  heating  the  crude  product  with  chromic 
acid  solution,  washing  and  drying  in  a  vacuum,  first  at  40% 
then  at  So'*.  It  remains  colourless  in  vacuum  tubes  in  the  dark, 
^ut  on  exposure  it  rapidly  turns  yellow,  ^t  35*  to  30"  C.  iris 
soft  and  flexible,  but  it  hardens  when  strongly  cooled,  and  can 
then  only  be  cut  with  diificulty.  The  f  racturo  is  distinctly  crys- 
talline; large  crystals,  either  regular  dodecahcdra  or  octahc^, 
may  be  obtained  by  crystallization,  from  carbon  bisulphide, 
sulphur  chloride,  &c.,  or  by  sublimation.  It  is  a  non-con- 
ductor of  electricity.  Its  denrity  at  o"  is  I'Sjd;  this  regularly 
dimimshes  up  to  the  melting-point,  44*3%  when  a  sudden  drop 
occurs.  Molten  phosphorus  is  a  visdd,  oUy,  highly  refractive 
liquid,  which  may  be  supercooled  to  33^  before  solidification.  It 
boils  at  ^po^t  forming  a  colourless  vapour  which  just  abont  the 
boiling-point  corresponds  In  density  to  tetratwnic  tnolecules, 
F4;  at  1500"  to  1700**,  however,  Biltz  and  Meyer  detected 
dissociation  into  P|  molecules.  Beckmann  obtained  P4  mole- 
cules from  the  boiling-point  of  carbon  bisul{^ide  solutions,  and 
Hert2  arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  from  the  lowering  of  the 
freezing-point  in  benzene  solution;  E.  Paterod  and  Naaini, 
however,  detected  dissociation.  Phosphorus  is  nearly  insoluble 
hi  water,  but  dissolves  in  carbon  bisulphide,  sulphttr  chloride, 
benzene  and  oil  of  turpentine. 

The  element  is  highly  inffanmiable,  taldng  fire  ia  air  at  34* 
and  burning  with  a  bright  white  flame  and  forming  dense  white 
clouds  ol  the  pentoxide;  in  perfectly  dry  air  or  oxygen,  however, 
it  may  be  distilled  uncluinged,  H.  B.  Baker  showing  that  a  trace 
of  water  vapour  was  necessary  for  combination  to  occur.  When 
exposed  to  the  air  a  stick  of  phosphorus  undergoes  slow  combus- 
tion, which  is  revealed  by  a  greenish- white  pho^horesoence 
wtieA  tho  stick  is  viewed  in  the  dark.   This  phenorarnon  was 


B^Mtiy  'ttodiad  by  fiej^fe,  who  fotmd  that  solutlont  fn  tone 
essential  oils  (oil  of  cloves)  showed  the  same  character,  whilst 
in  others  (oib  of  mace  and  anis«ed)  there  was  no  phosphorescence^ 
He  also  noticed  a  strong  garfic-Uite  odour,  which  we  now 
know  to  be  due  to  oione.  Frederick  Slare  noticed  that  the 
luminosity  increased  "whtn  the  air  was  rarefied,  an  observation 
oonlirmed  by  Hawkabee  and  Hombetg,  and  whkh  was  possibly 
the  basis  of  BeraeHus's  theoiy  that  the  luminosity  depended  on 
the  volatility  of  the  element  and  not  on  the  presence  of  oxygen. 
Lampadius,  however,  showed  that  there  was  no  phosphorescence 
in  a  Torricellian  vacuum;  and  other  experimentan  proved  that 
oxygen  was  essential  to  the  process.  It  depends  on  the  partial 
pressure  of  the  oxygen  and  also  on  temperature.  In  compressed 
air  at  ordinary  temperature  there  is  no  glowing,  but  it  may  be 
brought  about  by  heating.  Agab,  in  oxygen  under  ordinary 
conditions  there  Is  no  phosphorescence,  but  if  the  gas  be  heated 
to  25*  glowing  occurs,  as  is  also  the  case  if  the  pressure  be 
diminhhed  or  the  gas  diluted.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  many 
gases  and  vapours,  e.g.  CI,  Br,  I,NH«,  NsO,  NOi,  HsS,  SOk,  CSi^ 
CH4,  CaH«,  inhibit  the  phosphorescence. 

The  theory  of  this  action  is  not  settled.  It  Is  e«rtaln  that 
the  formation  of  hydrogen  peroxide  and  osone  accompany  the 
glowing,  and  in  1848  Schonbein  tried  to  demonstrate  that  it 
depended  on  the  oeone.  £.  Jungfleisch  {CompUs  retidus,  1905; 
Z40,  p.  444)  suggested  that  it  is  due  to  the  combustion  of  an 
oxide  more  volatile  than  phosphorus,  a  view  which  appears  to 
he  supported  by  the  observations  of  Scharfi  (Zeit,  phyuk.  Ckem,, 
1908, 63,  p.  178)  and  o<  L.  and  £.  Bloqh  {Comput  raidutt  1908, 
147,  p.  842). 

The  element  combines  directly  with  the  halogens,  sulphur 
and  sdenium,  and  most  of  the  metals  bum  in  its  vapour  forming 
phosphides.  Who^  finely  divided  it  decomposes  water  giving 
hydrogen  phosphide;  it  also  lednces  sulphurous  and  sulphuric 
acids,  and  when  boiled  with  water  gives  phosphine  and  hypo- 
phosphorous  acid;  when  slowly  oxidized  under  water  it  yields 
hypophoq>horic  add. 

AUotropic  Fhosphorus. — Several  aOotropic  forms  of  pho»- 
phorus  have  been  described,  and  In  recent  years  much  work 
has  been  done  towards  settling  their  identities.  When  the 
ordinary  form  immencd  in  water  is  eqiosed  to  light,  it  gradually 
loses  its  transparency  and  becomes  coated  with  a  thin  fihn. 
This  substance  was  regarded  as  an  allotrope,  but  since  it  b  not 
produced  in  non-aerated  water  it  is  probably  an  oxide.  More 
important  is  the  so-called  **  red  phosi^onia,"  which  is  produced 
by  heating  yellow  phosphorus  to  about  130*  for  14  hours  in  aa 
inert  atmosphere,  or  in  dosed  vessebi  to  300*,  when  the  change 
i»  effected  in  a  few  minutes.  £.  Kopp  in  1844  and  B.  C.  Brodic 
in  1853  showed  that  a  trace  of  iodine  ahw  expedited  the  change. 
The  same  form  is  also  produced  by  submitting  ordinary  phos- 
phorus to  the  silent  electric  discharge,  to  sunlight  or  the  ultra- 
violet light.  Since  this  form  does  not  inflame  until  heated  to 
above  350°,  it  is  manufactured  in  huge  quantities  foe  consump- 
tion in  the  match  industry.  The  process  consistsin  heatingydlow 
phosphorus  in  iron  pots  provided  with  air-ti^t  Bds,  which, 
however,  bear  a  long  pipe  open  to  the  air.  A  amall  quantity  of 
the  phosphorus  combines  with  the  oxygen  in  the  vesed,  and 
after  this  the  operatk>n  is  practicaUy  conducted  in  an  atmosphere 
of  nitrogen  with  the  additional  ^ety  from  any  risk  of  explosion.. 
The  product  ii  ground  imder  water,  and  any  unchanged  yoUow 
form  is  eliminated  by  boiling  with  caustic  soda,  the  product 
bdng  then  washed  and  dried  and  finally  packed  in  tin  boxes. 
The  red  variety  is  remarkably  different  from  the  yellow.  It  is 
a  dark  red  microcrystalline  powder,  hisoluble  in  carbon  bisuU 
phide,  oil  of  turpentine,  &c.,  and  having  a  density  of  3-2.  It  is 
stable  to  air  and  light,  and  docs  not  combme  with  oxygen  untfl 
heated  to  above  350*  in  air  or  960*  in  oxygen,  forming  the 
pentoxide.  It  is  also  non-poisonous.  When  heated  hi  a  vacuum 
to  530**  it  sublimes,  and  on  condens^on  form«  microscopic 
needles. 

Hittorf s  phosphorus  is  another  crystalline  aUotrope  fanned 
by  heating  phosphorus  with  lead  in  a  sealed  tube  to  rednesa 
and  removing  the  lead  by  boiling  the  product  with  nitric  and 


480 


PHOSPHORUS 


1,  PJl..    Pbc^dn 


brdK>cbbth*dd.  ItliiboobttincdtiybcMlatndpboqibanu 
under  pieaure  to  5&i°.  II  fonci  i  histcou.  newly  black 
cryiUUinc  miu,  compoied  of  mlnuu  ibambehedn.  C. 
Unckuid  P.  MijUel  {Btr.,  190B,  41,  P- 1404)  hive  aSmied  t 
(he  product  o[  the  £ntprocefl»4JvivicoiiLuuietd.  E.  dhen 
and  J.  Olie,  Job.  Wi-  Jtir.  Clttm.  Sec.,  1909,  il.  wB] 
retard  red  phoiphoiiu  as  m  lolid  lolulkia  of  the  vhitc  ia 
Hitiori'*,  but  Ihis  u  coiitndicted  by  A.  Stock  {Btr.,  1909,  41, 
p.  4510),  who  points  out  that  otdiiiuy  led  phoiphonu  melti 
■I  6oj"-fiio°,  whilst  Hiltorf'i  melu  i(  610°;  moreover,  the 
latter  ii  leu  leaciive  than  the  lormer  at  high  lempentuns. 

Aooiber  faia  wu  obtained  by  S..  SchcDch  IZcil.  Eitklnditm, 
1go5,  ii-  117)  aa  a  icarict  amorphouB  powder  by  deposition  ol 
•alutioni  of  phosphonu  in  the  tri-lodidc,  tiibromideoiBUlpbide 
{eSi).    It  phojpJwrcKc*  in  o»ne,  but  Dot  ia  aii,  and  ii  1 
poiunous;  Irom  ill  tolution  in  alcoholic  potuh  acids  prcdpi 
the  hydride  PnHt,  and  when  healed  il  Ii  uaiufotmed  iato 
ted    modiGottion.     It  baa  been   uied  in   cambiniiian  1 
potun'oia  cbloiaie  ea  a  coinpoiitJoD  for  mitchei  lo  itiilu 
any  titrfact-     finally  a  blade  phosphorui  iraa  deacribcd 
Thtnard  aa  foTined  by  rapidly-oxiliiig  mcllcd  phosphonu. 

FlaipUnt  <ph«]Aointed  bydrogtn).  PHi,  a  gu  [omied  In  the 

Cliefacdon  Dt  onanic  matter  contaioing  photphi 
GcnoEmbie  (Creil'i  Ank,  1789,  I.  UoJ  '-  -  -'- 
upod  phoepborup,  the  £««  »  pnured  ttni 
nuble.  Sometime  titer  Dainr.ljylKatisi pi 
a  phomhoretted  hydrogen  which  «»  ODt  nx 
Tlie»«H  wn  conSdered  to  bt  dbilK 
->i.,eo.p.lT^AiHiedtl 


tiooa  of  the  cauKic  afkalii  on  pboayhofm 
PHi+jNaHiPOi:  hydrogen  ni  PiH.  ui   . 

tiirte,  and  Che  eu  may  be  freed  from  Ibc  bete 

Into  ■  hi^lroehloric  acid  ■oiuUon  of  cepmiie . 

the  eolutioa,  when  pun  pfaoiphiiic  a  liberated  (Riban,  Comfitt 
rmimi.  SB.  p.  Ml).  Tha  pun  laa  mav  also  be  obtained  by  balioE 
pluxphanluni  Iodide  with  causdc  potash  [A.  W,  Hornunn,  Bit., 
J871.  4.  p.  300):  by  the  decompositHjn  ol  crystallnie  caWiuin  phos- 
phide or  of  ahiminiun  phosphide  with  mier  (H-  MoiiBD.  B<dL 
(K.itsi>L,tS99(3).]l,p.^:Maticiion.  Csinf4(iRWu  itoo.ijo. 

t  1391)1  and  by  the  redZictioa  ol  phospbonus  add  with  nascent 
^drogen- 
It  il  a  coloiirlecs*  ertremely  poisonous  eai^  poaeiiinr  a  charaeter- 

liqlddat^"c™  d  5id^.  -if]-  C.  IK.  01s™ki,  UimaU..  1866, 
7,  p.  371)-  It  ii  only  ilightl)'  siiliible  in  water,  but  ii  readily  uluble 
[n  soluuoni  ol  c<Khper  sulphate,  hypqchicxoiu  arid,  and  acid 
■oluiioTis  of  cuprous  chlonde.  It  hucns  kith  1  bilihtly  lumbious 
flsnc  and  is  ipontaneously  Inflaminable  at  about  loo*  C  When 
mim]  vlih  onecn  it  comlHBes  eapkhively  If  At  mbnare 
be  uader  diminiilied  preHUre.  and  la  ^alently  decenposed  by 
the  halogns.  It  is  alw  decomposed  when  heated  wlrn  sulphur 
or  wit  h  rnott  metals.  UI  Ihe  la  tttr  case  with  the  liberation  of  hydrogen 
and  formation  of  phoephide  of  the  metal.  It  combines  with  the 
halMe  derinilvea  of  bona  uA  dlcsn  to  form,  e^.  PH.iBFt, 
iPHrSCIi  [BeiMii,  Ctmf4a  wint,  1S90,  tlo.  «a,  pp.  Ifo,  S>6: 
iSqI.  113.  IL  7fl).  with  tha  iialafefi  acids  to  form  phospnonium  salts. 
FHJC(X-d.Br.Il,  and  with  sodammoniumaodpotuUTnnioniMni 
to  form  PHiNa,  PHiK  (Joarmis,  CamelamiMj.  ligt,  tii|,  p.  ;}7). 
It  oaidiiea  slowly  in  ak.  nnd  is  a  reducing  a^esit.  U  decomposes 
•rbea  keated.hy(lrofes.and  ndphosnhqnisbeiBBfotnied. 

Ujiiidl'limtikaHIUil  Bttttt"'-  Pint.  Bret  obtained  by  P.  Th^nard 
ICtm/illl  noifiu,  1S44.  1*.  p.  fal)  by  decomjiosim  calcium  phos- 

f'— igh  a  JTtSi^suniwnded  by  ■'fieeilr-™ — --*.-"-^-  ■ 
rrnuna.  Btr,.   Iteo.  33,   p.   1174)-     Il 

at  srsfi  C   h 

Filler.  Tt  i> 
-, .iBhe.     By  Ml....,,  „>  , _.  . J 

PiHi  (in*  ■  new  iiriude-  Pal^  asf  phosphine.  the  lomxr  bcint 
•n  odourlna,  eanaiy-yillow,  amsiplious  powdtr.  When  haled 
is  a  vacuum  it  evolvea  pbomhine.  and  lejva  an  oraogc-red  rmldue 
ol  a  second  new  hydiide.  P.H.  (A-  SlocW.  W.  BDItcher.  and  W. 
Lenger.  Brr..  1^.5.  41,  pp.  1839,  igJI.  -''"' 


n^ESn"! 


which  b  ■■ 
alcohol 


Tsr, 


SdU  Pkiiplwrinei 

phosphine  (Bes»n,  CvmfUt  mdi 
phOipUde  irtA  hi 


fim  obtained  by  Le  Vi 
Ahonn  tndilotioe  on  gai 
1.  111.  p.  973):  by'**  ">" 
by  the  dccompfsitton  of  cal 
lydrochlotk  scid.    It  is  a  f 


•olid,  which  Is  Insoluble  In  water.  It  bciraa 
300*  C.  Oxidiiing  agents  dccDm^iinc  it  with 
warmed  with  alcohnhc  potash  it  yields  gaieoi 
and  a  hypuphofphiie-    It  reduces  lUver  Blli 

fluaHomium  SnlU.—Tbi!  Mtridi.  PH/n, 

bi  Og;er  (Ce-fWj  rmiia.  1879.  89, 
thdn*  and  b>drochlon'  -^-'  — -  ---- 


*  ordmaiy  atmosT^ieric 
3t  cubra,  but  rmndly  disi 
trsaide.  PHirirTwas  6 


T , , It  is  readily  decomposed  by  aaUT 

and  also  by  carbonyl  chloride  (Bcuon,  Compta  readaj,  iBq6,  111. 
P-140]:  6PHiBr-l-sC0CI.-  loHCl -)- jCO -|- 6HBc -)- iPH,  ■«- 
Pdl>  The  mWs,  PHJ,  Erst  prepared  V  }■  Cny-l-uisac  (Amt. 
(Mm.  fAyi.,  1814.  91,  p.  14).  is  usually  obcained  by  the  nctioci  ol 
water  on  a  miature  of  phc^oms  and  iodiiie  (A-  W.  Hofmann, 
Bb,,  1873,  6,  p.  186).  It  Is  alio  prepared  by  the  action  □(  iodine 
on  ^seous  phosphine.  or  by  heating  amorphous  phoipliorus  wiih 
contcntrated  hydriodic  acid  solution  to  lao*  C  It  eryKalliaeB  ia 
large  cubes  and  nbHoes  readily.  It  la  a  strong  tcducmw  apiiL 
Water  and  the  caustk  alkalis  rodily  decompose  it  with  UBcratic* 
of  phosphine  and  t^e  fomiatioo  of  iodides  or  hydriodic  acid.  It  is 
also  decomposed  by  carbonyl  cbloridc  (Besson,  toe.  cil.). 
4PH  J+SCOCI,  -  i6HCl+8CO+P,l,-HP. 
Just  as  the  amines  arc  derieed  tiura  ammonia,  so  from  phosphine 
are  derived  the  primary.  Btccndary  and  totiary  organic  pfioapbinrs 
by  the  eacbaDge  of  hydrogen  for  allryl  group*,  and  cormpODttril 

vhn  thTalkil  Li^aTaR  heal^  wil^'pbasphi^i^'kicfidcud 
sine  oaide  to  150"  C.  {A.  W.  Hofmann,  *rr..  I8I1.  4,  PP-  43% 
60s),  thus:  aRI-l-aPH,I-l-ZnO-3R-PHrHI-l-Zii^>l&, 
iKl  -I-  PHJ  -I-  ZnO  -  RiPH-HI  +  Znli  -I-  hiO.    The  rTBCIH 

iary  phoiphine  being  then  hbetiled  from  its  hyilncKfide 


»'ur;.)X'tfi 


HtiuaUi 
+3CllJ. 


I»>  caoilic  loda.  The  tertiary  | 
(CwOlu  rmJai   184}.  11.  p.  >«i  .=*(, 
jtuether  with  the  quatemsry  pbosphofuu 
udidcfl  with  phosphoniom  Iodide  to  150-1  .     _.    . 

P(CH,)iHI-|-3Hf:P(CHi),Hl-l-CHj-P(CH.)J  .   _._  ,_ 

Fireoian.  Brr..  1897.  30.  p.  108S}.     They  are  •Ho  formed  try  the 

interactfcm  of  phosphor —  ■--■->—-■ -■ "— '-  "■->- • 

Hotmaim,  Awa^  iSsi, 
aPi^J, 

an  impleaaant  I 


:  aPa.-|-3  Zn  (( 

primary  aod  Kcondary  pha^lneaarecohmrleaa  emaf 
ih  the  exception  of  methyl  phosphide  art  Brpiid  at  01 


temperature.   Theypc 

They  oxidize  very  rapldtv  on  exposure,  hi  m. , ,  _,_ 

taneously  inAammable.  On  mddation  with  nilnc  add  the  prbaary 
compounds  give  punoalkyl  phoaphuiic  acids.  R-FOfOHk  the 
seeoadary  yUdbif  dialkyl  pbivUnic  adds,   P  <>»'"—      -^ 


belnf  readily  dttmnpoaed  t^  wi 

characterited  by  thor  readlneaa  ._  , ..  _. 

pcntavalent  phosphorus,  and  consequently  thnr  fosm  addir><4 
compounds  with  sulplnir.  carbon  buulphtde.  cruorine,  bswuae. 
the  halafen  adds  and  the  alkyl  haCdes  with  jpcat  njadiaesa    Oa 


ojtidalion  they  ^t 

™aMe  ts . 

elide  yield  the 


s?es,i 


Primary. 

Secondary. 

Tereiary. 

nmyl     .      .      . 

11 

•Si 

The  alkyl  phosphinii 


lislkylpha 


t.  ra  and  P^.  have 


i  RMiPOi  (M-Bi 
«?^eGn^  cS/tn^JOL,  PiU 


PHOSPHORUS 


481 


other  oaddei,  when  the  dement  it  tmrnt  in  a  SmHed  supply  of  air 
or  in  pure  6xygen  under  reduced  pressure  (E.  Jungfleiscn,  Ahs, 
Jour.  Ckem.  Soe.t  190^,  ii.  761),  and  also  when  a  solution  of  phos- 
phorus in  the  trichloride  or  tribroniide  is  exrKwed  to  tight.  It  is  a 
yellow  or  red  powder  which  becomes  daric  reel  on  heatinff ;  it  b  stable 
in  air  and  can  be  heated  to  300"*  without  deoomposition.  Its  ex- 
istence, however,  has  been  denied  by  A.  Stock  Oibs.  Jour.  Chem. 
Soc.,  1910,  ii.  I3i).  The  oxide  P|0  was  obtained  by  Besson  {C&mpUs 
ftndust  1897, 124,  p.  76^;  1901,  pp.  132, 1556)  by  heating  a  mixture 
of  phosphonium  bromide  and  phosphorus  oacychloride  in  sealed 
tubes  to  50*. 

Phosthorus  oxide,  P/3b.  discovered  by  Sage  in  1777,  Is  a  product 
of  the  limfted  combustion  of  phosphorus  in  air.  It  may  be  con> 
veniently  prepared  by  passing  a  rapid  current  of  air  over  burning 
phosphorus  contained  m  a  combustion  tube,  and  condensing  the 
oroduct  in  a  metal  condenser,  from  which  it  may  be  removed  by 
heating  the  condenser  to  50**— 60*  (Thorpe  and  Tutton,  Jonr. 
Chem.  S0C.1  1890,  pp.  545,  633;  189T,  p.  10x9).  Jungfleisch  has 
obtained  it  by  carrying  out  the  combustion  with  oxygen  under 
reduced  preesure,  or  diluted  with  an  inert  sas.  It  forms  crystals, 
apparently  nu>nocUniCf  which  melt  at  li-y  to  a  clear,  colourless, 
mobile  liquid  of  boiKng-point  173*  i  *.  Its  specific  gravity  is  a- 1 35  at  3 1  *. 
Vapoor  density  and  cryoscopic  determinations  point  to  the  double 
formula,  P/X.  It  is  oomparativriy  stable  up  to  300*,  bnt  when  heated 
in  a  sealed  tube  to  4^10*  it  gives  phosphorus  and  the  tetroxide  PiOi. 
It  is  unaffected  by  lig^ht  when  pure,  but  if  phosphorus  be  present, 
even  in  minute  quantity,  it  turns  yellow  and  ultimately  dark  red. 
It  oxidizes  on  exposure  to  air  to  the  pentoixide«  and  with  a  brilliant 
inflammation  when  thrown  into  oxygen  at  5o*-6o*.     It  slowly 


reacts  with  cold  water  to  form  phorahiorous  acid)  but  with  hot  water 
decomposed,  giving  much  red  phosfrfiorus  or  the 


it  »  energetically 


eubonde  being  formed  with  an  explosive  evolution  of  spontaneously 
inflammable  pnosphoretted  hydrogen ;  phosphoric  acid  is  also  formed. 
With  dilute  alkalis  phosphites  are  slowly  lormed,  but  with  concen- 
trated solutions  the  decompontion  follows  the  same  oourae  as  with 
hot  water.  With  chlorine  it  gives  phosphoryl  and  "  metaphos- 
phoryl  "  chlorides,  the  action  being  acoompamed  with  a  greenish 
flame;  bromine  gives  phosphorus  pentabron^de  and  pentoxide 
which  interact  to  givephosphoryl  and  "  metaphosphoryl  '*  bromides; 
iodine  gives  phomiorus  di-iodide,  PtUt  and  pentoxide,  PiOa;  whilst 
hydrochloric  arid  gives  phosphorus  trichloride  and  phosphorous 
acid,  whidi  interact  to  form  free  phosphorus,  phosphoric  add  and 

hydrochloric  add.  It  combines  violently  with  sulphur  at  x6o*  to 
form  ph0s^^  ..^-  -j-    «<«.«     ^^, ^  0 i^-..^...  • ._ 

tetragonal 

at  295*;  it  .  ,      _ 

metapho«phoric  add,  the  latter  changing  on  standing  into  ortho- 
phosphoric  acki.  Sulphur  trioxide  and  sulphuric  add  oxidise 
phosphorus  oxide,  ipving  the  pentoxide  and  sulphur  dioxide,  whilst 
sulphur  chloride,  SsCW,  gives  pbosphoryl  and  thiopbosphoryl 
chlorides,  free  sulphur  and  sulphur  dioxide.  Ammonia  also  reacts 
immediately,  giving  phosphorus  diamide,  P(OU)<NHi)t,  and  th« 
corresponding  ammonium  sah.  Phosphorous  oxide  is  very  poisonous, 
and  is  responsible  for  the  caries  set  up  in  the  jaws  of  those  emptoyed 
in  the  phosphorus  industries  (see  below).  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  pure  phosphorous  oxide  vapour  Is  odourlessj  and  the  odour  of 
phosphorus  as  ordinarily  perceived  is  that  ot  a  mixture  of  the  oxide 
with  ozone. 

Pkosphonu  telroxide,  PiO^  was  obtained  by  Thorpe  and  Tutton 
by  heating  the  product  of  the  limited  combustion  of  phosphorus 
in  vacuo  as  a  sublimate  of  transparent,  highly  lustrous,  orthorhombio 
crystals.  They  are  highly  deliquescent,  and  form  with  water  a  mix- 
ture of  phosphorous  and  phosphoric  acids:  PsO«-|-3HtO*HtPOs4' 
H|PO«.  The  vapour  density  at  about  1400*  is  230,  tA,  slightly  less 
than  that  required  by  P«Oi«  (West,  Jour.  Ckem.  Soe.f  1002,  p.  93O. 

Phosphoric  oxide,  or  phosphorus  perUoxide,  P^Oie,  formed  when 
phosphorus  is  burned  in  an  excess  of  air  or  oxygen,  or  from  dry 
phosphorus  and  oxygen  at  atmospheric  pressure  (Junefldsch,  loc. 
€it.).  was  examined  by  Boyle  and  named  ^'  flowers  of  phosphorus  " 
by  Marggraf  in  1740.  It  is  a  soft,  flocculent  powder,  which  on 
sublimation  forms  transparent,  monoclinic  crystals.  It  is  extremely 
deliquescent,  hissing  when  thrown  into  water,  with  which  it  combines 
to  form  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  reduced  when  heated  with  carbon 
to  phosphorus,  carbon  monoxide  bdng  formed  simultaneously. 
Its  vapour  density  at  1400*  points  to  the  double  formula  (West, 
Jour.  Chem.  Soe.,  1896,  p.  154)'  .  , .    ,         .      . 

CTxyo^tJf.— Phosphorus  forms  several  oxyadds:  hypophospherons 
acid.  HsPCH,  and  hypophosphoric  acid,  H«Pt(X  or  lltPOs.  of  which 
the  anhydrides  are  unknown ;  phosphorous  acid,  HiPOj,  derived  from 
i>«Ow;  monoperpbosphoric  add,  HiPOi;  perphosphoric  acid,  HiPsQr; 
and  meta-,  pyro-,  and  ortho-frfiosphoric  adds,  derived  from  P«Om,  for 
which  sec  Phosfhatbs. 

Hypopkisphorous  acid,  HPfOH)f,  discovered  by  Dulong  in  t8i6, 
and  obtained  crystalline  by  Thomson  in  1874  (Ber.,  7,  p.  994),  is 
prepared  in  the  form  of  its  barium  salt  by  warrahig  phospboras 
withbaryta  water,  removing  the  exce&s  of  baryta  by  carbon  dioxide, 
and  crystalHiing  the  filtrate.  The  add  may  be  prepared  by  eVaporat- 
ing  In  a  vacuum  the  solution  obtained  by  decomposing  the  barium 
salt  with  the  equivalent  amount  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  forms  a 
white  crystalline  mass,  liielting  at  17-4*  and  having  a  strong  add 


reaction.  Bzposore  to  air  givw  phoephcrona  and  pftosphorle 
adds,  and  on  heating  it  gives  nhoqAine  and  phosphoric  acid.  A 
characteristic  reaction  i»  the  lormation  of  a  red  predpitate  of 
cuprous  hydride,  CuiHt,  when  heated  with  copper  sulphate  solntioa 
to  60*.  It  is  a  monobasic  add  forming  salts  which  are  permanent 
in  air,  but  which  are  gradually  oxidised  In  aqpMoos  solution.  On 
faeatinf  they  yield  phosphine  aiul  leave  a  residue  of  pyrophoMihate, 
or  a  nuxture  of  meta-  and  pyropho«ohates,  with  a  little  pkosphoms. 
They  react  as  redudn^  aeents.  <Jn  boitii^  with  caustic  potash 
they  evolve  hydrogen,  yielding  a  phosphate. 

Phosphorous  acid,  PCOH)i,  discovered  by  Davy  in  x8ia,  may  be 
obtained  by  dissolving  its  anhydride,  PiObi  in  oold  water;  by 
immeisifM;  sticks  of  phosphorus  in  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
contained  in  a  well-closed  flask,  filtering  from  the  copper  sulphide 
and  precipitating  the  sulphuric  add  rimultaneoudy  formed  by 
barjrta  water,  and  concentrating  the  scrfution  itt  some;  or  by 
pasnng  chlorine  into  mdtcd  phoephorus  covered  with  water,  the 
prst  formed  phosphorus  tridiloride  being  decomposed  by  the  water 
into  phosphorous  and  hydrochloric  adds.  It  may  also  be  prepared 
by  leading  a  current  of  dry  air  into  phosphorus  trichloride  at  60* 
and  passing  the  vapoura  into  water  at  o*,  the  cryatahi  thus  fonned 
being  drained,  washed  with  ice-cold  water  and  dried  in  a  vacuum. 
The  crystals  melt  at  70*.  The  add  b  very  deliquescent,  and  oxidixea 
on  exposure  to  air  to  phosphoric  acid.  It  decomposes  on  heating 
into  phosphine  and  phosphoric  add.  It  b  an  energetic  redudng 
agent;  for  example,  when  boiled  with  copper  anlpnato  metallic 
copper  is  predpitatod  and  hydrogen  evolved.  Although  nominally 
tnbasic  the  commonest  metallic  salts  are  dibasic  Oreanic  ethers, 
however,  are  known  in  whidi  one,  two  and  three  of  die  hydrogen 
atoms  are  substituted  (Michaelis  and  Becker,  Ber.,  1897^  30,  p.  1003). 
The  metallic  phosphites  are  stable  both  dry  and  in  solution;  when 
strongly  heated  they  evolve  hydrogen  and  yield  a  pyrophosphate, 
or,  especially  with  the  heavy  metals,  they  give  hydr(^;en  and  a 
mixture  of  phosphide  and  pyrophosphate. 

Hypophosphoric  acid,  HJP^  or  HiPOi,  discovered  by  Salaer  la 
1877  among  the  oxidation  products  of  plkOs|rfioras  by  mdst  air, 
may  be  prepared  by  oxidising  phosphorus  in  an  aqueous  solution 
of  copper  nitrate,  or  by  oxidizing  sticks  of  phosphorus  under  water, 
neutralizing  with  sodium  carbonate,  forming  the  lead  salt  and  decom- 
posing thb  with  sulphuretted  hj^drogen  (J.  Cavalier  and  E.  Comee, 
Abs.  Jour,  Chem.  Soc.t  1910^  u.  31).  The  aqueous  solution  may 
be  boiled  without  decompoation,  but  on  Oonoentration  it  yields 
phosphorous  and  phosphoric  adds.  Deliquescent,  rectangular 
tablets  of  HiPiC^aH^O  separate  oat  on  concentrating  a  solution 
in  a  vacuum,  which  on  drying  further  give  the  add,  which  melta 
at  55*,  and  decomposes  suddeiuy  when  heated  to  70"  into  jriiosphor* 
ous  and  metaphosphoric  adds  with  a  certain  amount  of  hydrogen 
phosphide,  the  solution  is  stable  to  oxi^xing  agents  such  as 
dilute  hydrogen  peroxide  and  chlorine,  but  is  o^ddued  by  potassium 

Kermanganate  to  phosphoric  add;  it  does  not  reduce  saJts  of  the 
eavy  metals,  with  silver  nitrate  it  gives  a  white  predpitate, 
AgiPaOi.  The  sodium  salt,  Na^PiOfioHiO,  forms  monoclinic  prisma 
and  in  solution  is  strongly  alkaline;  the  add  salt,  NasHP^«-9HiO, 
forms  monoclinic  tablets.  The  formula  of  the  add  b  not  quite 
definite.  Cryoscopic  measurements  on  the  sodium  sah  points 
to  the  double  formula,  but  the  oivanic  esters  appear  to  be  derived 
from  HiPOa  (see  A,  Rosenheim  and  M.  Pritze,  Ber.,  1908, 41,  2708; 
E.  Comee,  Abs.' Jour.  Chem,  Soc.,  1910,  ii.  121). 

MoHoperphosphoric  and  perphosphoric  acids,  HtPOs  and  HiPA, 
were  obtained  by  J.  Schmidlin  ancl  P.  Massini  {Ber.,  1910,  ^3, 1162). 
The  first  b  formed  when  30%  hydrogen  peroxide  reacts  with  phos- 
phorus pentoxide  or  meta-  or  pyrophosphoric  acids  at  low  tempera- 
tures and  the  mixture  diluted  with  ioe-cold  water.  The  solution 
b  stroiij^ty  oxidizing,  even  converting  manganous  salts  to  perman- 
ganates in  the  cold,  a  property  not  possessed  by  moncmcnulphuric 
acid.  Perphosphoric  add  is  formea  when  pyrophosphoric  add  b 
treated  with  a  large  excess  of  hydrogen  peroxide. 

Halogen  Compounds. — Phosphorus  trifiuoride,  PF|,  discovered  by 
Davy,  may  be  obtained  mixed  with  the  pentafluoride;  by  direct 
combination  of  its  elements;  from  the  tribromide  and  arsenic  trifiuor- 
ide (Maclvor) ;  from  the  tribromide  and  zinc  fluoride,  and  from  dried 


(Moissan,  CompUs  rendus,  1904, 138,  p.  789) .  It  does  not  bum  in  air, 
but  explodes,  under  the  action  of  a  name  or  the  electric  spark, 
when  mixed  with  half  its  volume  of  oxygen,  giving  the  oxyfluoride, 
POFi«    It  b  slowly  decomposed  by  water  giving  hydrofluoric  and 

f'hosphoroua  acids,  or,  in  addition,  fluorphosphoroiis  acid,  HPP4. 
t  has  no  action  on  glass  in  the  cold,  but  when  heated  it  gives  phoe> 
phorus  and  silicon  tetrafluoride.  Phosphorus  pentajtuoride,  PF|, 
discovered  by  Thorpe  iProC'  Roy.  Soe.,  1877,  25,  p.  12a),  may  be 
obtained  bv  buminig  the  trifiuoride  in  fluorine,  from  the  penta* 
chloride  ana  arsenic  trifiuoride  and  from  the  trifiuoride  and  bromine, 
the  first  formed  fluorobromide,  PFiBrt,  decomposing  into  the  pentar- 
bromide  and  pentafluoride:  sPFiBff^->3PF«-i-2rBr|.  It  b  a 
colourless  gas  4}  times  heavier  than  air,  and  lujuefies  at  15*  under 
40  atmospheres,  solidifying^  when  the  pressure  is  diminished.  It  b 
incombustible  and  extinguishes  flame.  It  fumes  in  moist  air  and 
b  quickly  decomposed  by  water  giving  hydrofluoric  and  phosphoric 


4^2 


PHOSPHORUS 


acids.  It  don  not  dialodftte  on  hcatlns  m  do  the  pentachloride 
and  pentabromide,  thus  indkating  the  existence  of  pentavakat 
phosphoma  in  a  gaseous  compound;  dissociation,  however,  into 
the  trifluoride  and  free  fluorine  may  be  brought  about  by  induction 
sparks  of  150  to  300  mm.  in  length.  It  combines  directly  with 
ammonia  in  the  proportion  3PFt:5NHt.  and  with  nitrogen  peroxide 
at  -10"  in  the  proportion  PF«:N(^.  Phnphorus  trifluoroduMlaridgt 
PFsCIi»  prepared  from  chlorine  and  the  trifluoride,  is  a  pungent- 
smelling  gas,  which  at  »SQ*  gives  the  pcdtachloride  and  fluoride. 
The  trinuorodibromide  (see  above)  is  an  amber-coloured  mobile  liquid. 
PhospMryl  triJUtoride,  POFi.  may  be  obtained  by  exploding  2  volumes 
of  phosphorus  trifluoride  with  I  volume  of  oxygen  (Moissan,  1886); 
i^  heatmg  srparts  of  finely-divided  cryolite  and  3  parts  of  phoqshonis 
pentoxide  (Thorpe  and  Hambly,  Jour.  Chan,  Soc.  1889,  p.  7^); 
or  from  pho^boryl  chloride  and  zinc  fluoride  at  dO  to  50  .  It  is  a 
colourless  fuming  gas*  which  liquefies  under  oraina^  pressure  at 
-30*,  and  under  a  pressure  of  15  atmospheres  at  lo**;  it  may  be 
toUdificd  to  a  snow-like  mass.  Water  gives  hydrofluoric  and  pboe- 
phoric  acids.  The  corresponding  sulphur  compound,  thiophoq>noryl 
fluoride.  PSFi,  obtained  by  heating  lead  fluoride  and  phosphorus 
pentasulphide  to  aoo*,  is  a  colourless  gas»  which  mav  be  condensed 
to  a  clear  transparent  liquid.  It  spontaneously  inflames  in  air  or 
oxygen;  and  when  the  gas  is  issuinjs  from  a  jet  mto  air  the  flame  is 
greyidi  green,  with  a  faintly  luminous,  and  yellow  tip;  the  flame 
u  probably  one  of  the  coldest  known.  The  combustion  probably 
follows  the  equation  PSFs-l-d^PFi-f-SOk.  the  trifluoride  at 
a  higher  temperature  decomposing  accordiiw  to  the  equations: 
ioPFi+50i-6PF»+2Prf)i,  2PF»+0»-aP0Ft,  the  complete  re- 
action tending  to  the  equation:  ioPSFi-hi^0b"*6PFa+2PtOa-h 
loSOk.  The  gas  dissolves  in  water  on  shaking;  PSFa-f'4HsO ■> 
HiS-HH«P04-h3HF,  but  is  more  readily  taken  up  by  alkaline 
solutions  with  the  formation  of  fluoride  and  thiophosphate:  PSFa+ 
6NaOH->Na»PSOa+3NaF.  .Heated  in  a  glass  tube  it  gives  silicon 
fluoride,  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  PSFa"'PFa-hS;  4PPa+3SiQi>- 
3SiF4+P4+3Q^  Electric  sparks  give  at  first  free  sulphur  and  the 
trifluoride,  the  latter  at  a  higher  temperature  splitting  into  the 
pentafluorkle  and  phosphorus.  \^th  dry  ammonia  it  gives  am> 
moniura  fluoride  and  a  compound  P(NHt)iSF. 

Pkospkorut  trichloride  or  phosphorous  tktoride,  PCI«,  distdvoeu  by 
Qay-Lussac  and  Thdnard  in  1808,  ia  obtained  by  passing  a  slow 
current  of  chlorine  over  heated  red  phosphorus  or  throui^h  a  solution 
of  ordinary  pho^horus  in  carbon  disulphide  (purifying  in  the  latter 
case  by  fractional  distillation).  It  u  a  colourless,  mobile  liauid  of 
specific  gravity  1*6138  at  o**  and  boiling-point  76^  With  chlorine 
it  gives  the  ^ntachloride,  PCla,  and  with  oxygen  when  heated  pbos- 
phoryl  chloride,  POClt.  Water  gives  hydrochloric  and  phosphorous 
acids,  with  separation  of  red  ^osphorus  if  the  water  be  hot.  When 
led  with  hydrogen  into  liquid  ammonia  it  eives  NH^:PNHi,  which 
on  elevation  of  temperature  ^ves  Pt(NH)a  (Joannis,  Comples  rendus, 
>904t  13%  P'  3<^)-  By  submitting  a  mixture  of  phosphorous  chloride 
and  hydrc^^en  to  an  electric  discharge  A.  Besson  and  ^  Foumicr 

tCompUs  rendust  1901,  150.  p.  102)  obtained  phosphorus  dichloride, 
*tCli.  as  a  colourless,  oily,  strongly  fuming  liquid,  freezing  at 
-38"  and  boiling  at  180"  with  decomposition.  With  water  it  gave 
phosphorous  acid  and  a  yellow  indefinite  sdid.  It  decomposes 
slowly  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Phosphorus  poutacUoride,  rCla, 
discovered  by  Davy  in  1810  and  analysed  by  Dulong  in  i8i6»  is 
formed  from  chlorine  and  the  trichlonde.  It  is  a  straw-coloiued 
solid,  which  by  fusion  under  pressure  gives  prismatic  crystals.  It 
sublimes  when  heated,  but  under  pressure  it  melts  at  148*,  giving 
a  normal  vapour  density,  but  on  further  heating  it  dissociates  into 
the  trichloride  and  chlorine;  this  dissociation  may  be  retarded  by 
vapourizing  in  an  atmosphere  of  chlorine.  It  fumes  strongly  in 
moist  air,  t\y\nf  hydrochloric  add  and  phosphoryl  chloride,  POCla; 
with  water  it  gives  phosphoric  and  hydrochlork  acids. 

Phosphoryl  tricJUorid*  or  phosphorus  oxycUotide^  POCla,  correspond- 
ing to  phosphoric  acid,  CHO)aPO.  discovered  in  1847  by  Wurtz, 
may  be  produced  by  the  action  of  many  substances  containing 
hydroxy  groups  on  the  pentachloride;  from  the  trichloride  and 
potassium  chlorate;  by  leaving  phosphorus  pentoxide  in  contact 
with  hydrochloric  acid:  3PaOa-|-3HCl-POCla-f3HPOa;  or  by 
beating  the  pentacbbride  and  pentoxide  under  pressure:  3PCla+ 
P|0i-5P0Cla.  It  is  a  cotourless  liauid,  boiling  at  107-2%  and 
when  solidified  it  melts  at  0*8%    Water  gives  hydrochloric  and 


(CsH«)aP04.  ^Pyrophosphoryl  chloride^  P^tCl4.  corresponding  to 
pyropnospboric  acid,  was  obtained  by  <^thcr  ancf  Michaciis 
{Ber.,  1871, 4,  p.  766)  in  the  oxidation  of  phosphorus  trichloride  with 
nitrogen  pcroxido  at  low  temperature;  It  is  a  colourless  fuming 
liquid  which  boils  at  fibout  a  12*  with  soous  decomposition.  With 
water  it  Rives  phosphoric  and  hydrochloric  acids.  Thiophosphoryl 
Moride,  FSCla,  may  be  obtained  by  the  direct  combination  of  sulphur 
with  the  trichloride;  from  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  the  penta- 
chloride;  from  antimony  trisulphide  and  the  pentachloride;  by  heat- 
ing the  pentasulphide  with  the  pentachloride;  and  by  dissoiving  phos- 
phorus in  sulphur  chloride  and  distilling  the  solution:  2p+3§iClt"" 
4S4-2PSCIa.  It  is  a  colourless  roobiie  liquid,  boiling  at  125*1* 
and  having  a  pungent,  slightly  aromatic  odour.  It  is  slowly  dccom- 
Doaed  by  vatcr  giving  phosphoric  and  hydrochloric  aads,  with 


stilpburettcd  hydrocen;  alkatis  form  a  tbiophosphate.  $^  PS(OiC)ft 

ana  a  chloride. 

Phosphorus  tribromide,  PBra,  prepared  by  mixing  solutions  of  its 
elements  in  carbon  disulphide  and  aistilling,  w  a  transparent,  mobile 
liauid,  boiling  at  175*  and  resembling  the  trichloride  chemically. 
Tne  perUabromidftt  PBra,  which  results  from  j^iosphorus  and  aa 
excess  of  bromine,  is  a  yellow  solki,  and  closely- resembles  the  penta- 
chloride. The  bromochloride,  PCIaBri,  is  an  orange-coloured  solid 
formed  from  bromine  and  tlic  trichloride,  into  which  components 
it  decomposes  at  35*.  Phosphoryl  tribromidSt  POBra,  is  a  solid, 
melting  at  45*  and  boiling  at  105*.  Thiophosphoryl  bromide,  PSBra* 
obtained  after  the  manner  01  the  corresponding  chloride,  forms 
yellow  octahedra  which  melt  at  38*,  and  nave  a  penetrating,  an^ 
matic  odour.  V^th  water  it  gives  sulphur,  sulphuretted  hydrogca, 
hydrobromic,  phosphorous  and  phospnoric  acids,  the  sulpnur  and 
phosphorous  acid  being  produced  oy  tne  interaction  of  the  previously 
formed  sulphuretted  hydrocen  and  phosphork  acid.  Pyrophosphoryl 
thiobromide,  (PBr^)A  and  metaphosMoryl  thiobromide,  P^br,  axe 
also  known.  - 

Phosphorus  forms  three  iodides.  The  subtodide,  Pat,' was  ob- 
tained by  R.  Boulough  (ComMes  reudus,  1905, 141,  p.  256),  who  acted 
with  dry  iodine  on  poosphoms  dissolved  in  carbon  disulphide: 
with  alkalis  it  gives  Pa^OH^.  The  di-iodide  and  tri-iodide  are  formed 
similarly;  the  first  is  deposited  as  orange-coloured  prisms  which  mdt 
at  110"  to  a  red  liquid  (see  Doughty,  Jour.  Amer.  Chem.  Soe.,  1905, 


27,  p.  1444),  whilst  the  second  forms  dark-ted  hexagonal  plates 

':hmeltat55** 
StUphides  ma   T^Us-oWir.— Phosphorus  and   sulphur  oomfaiae 


energetically  with  considerable  rise  01  temperature  to  form  sulphides. 
The  researcnes  of  A.  Stock  (£cr.,  1908, 41,  pp.  5^8.  657;  1909,  42, jv 
2062:  1910, 43,  pp.  150,  414)  show  that  three  exist,  P3a.  P«Si,  Psba. 
The  first  b  prepared  by  heating  red  phosphonu  with  finely  powdoed 
sulphur  in  a  tube  sealed  at  one  end  and  filled  with  carbon  dioxide. 
The  product  is  extracted  with  carbon  disulphide  and  the  rcridue 
distilled  in  carbon  dioxide.  It  forms  light  yellow  crystals  fiosi 
benzene,  which  melt  at  1725'^and  boil  at  407^-408**  with  slight  decom- 
position. Alkalis  give  hydro^n  and  phosphine.  The  second, 
P4Sr,  b  obtained  by  beating  a  mixture  of  red  phosphorus  and  sulphur 
in  the  proportions  given  by  p4Sf +5  %  P4S1,  ana  crystallizix^  iroa 
carbon  disulphide  in  which  PaSa  is  readily  soluble.  It  forms  small, 
slightly  yellow  prisms,  which  melt  at  310*  and  boil  at  523*.    The 

resembling 

^f  p.  2719; 

m  carbos 

disulpHrde  solution  with  a  trace  of  iodine  to  120*^-130*.  It  exists 
in  two  formSf  one  having  the  formula  P4SM,  and  the  other  a  lower 
molecular  weight.  With  liquid^ ammonia  it  gives  PaSa-jNHa,  whidk 
b  a  mixture  of  ammonium  iminotrithiophosohate,  P(SNH«)a:  NH, 
and  ammonium  nitrilodithiophoq>hatc,  P(SNH«)a:N.  Waief  con- 
verts the  former  into  ammonium  tbiophosphate,  P0(SNH4)a-H]0. 
whilst  the  latter  heated  to  300*  in  a  vacuum  gives  thiopho^tbonc 
nitrile,  NiP;S  (Stock,  ibid.,  1906,  3^  p.  1967). 

Thiophosphates  result  on  dissolving  the  pentasulphide  in  alkalis. 
Sodium  monothiophosphatc,  NaaPSOa-iaHiO,  b  obtained  by  adding 
one  PaSt  to  six  NaOH,  adding  aJcohoI,  dissolving  the  precipatate  in 
water  and  heating  to  90^  On  cooling  the  salt  separates  as  white 
six-sided  tablets.  Sodium  dithiophosphate,  NaaPSaOi-iiHaO,  b 
obtained  by  heating^  the  above  solution  only  to  5o*-ss*,  cooling  and 
adding  akohol,  wmch  precipitates  the  dtthio  salt.    0^  besting  it 

{pivcs  the  monothio  salt.  Sodium  trithiophosphate  appears  to  be 
ormed  when  the  pentasulphide  acts  with  sodium  hydrosuJphadc 
at  20^  All  thiophosphates  are  decomposed  by  acids  giving  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen  and  sometimes  free  sulphur.  They  also  act  in  many 
cases  as  reducing  agents. 

Nitrogen  Compounds, — Phosphorus  pentachloride  comUncs  directly 
with  ammonia,  and  the  compound  when  heated  to  redness  loses 
ammonium  chloride  and  hydrochloric  acid  and  gives  phospban. 
PN1H4.  a  substance  first  described  by  Davy  in  181 1.  It  is  a  white. 
Infusible,  very  stable  solid,  which  decomposes  water  on  heating, 
giving  ammonia  and  mctaphosphoric  acid,  whilst  alkalb  give 
an  analogous  reaction.  With  methyl  and  ethyl  akx>hob  it  forms 
secondary  amines  (Vtdal,  Comptes  rendust  1891. 1 12,  p.  950;  1892, 1 15, 
p.  123).  The  diamide,  PN]H4.  was  obtained  by  Hugot  (ibid.,  190S, 
141,  p.  1235)  by  actin|[  with  ammonia  gas  on  phosphorus  trifarooiioe 
or  tn-iodide  at  -70";  it  is  very  unstable,  ana  decomposes  at  -25*. 
Phosphorus  combines  with  nitrogen  and  chbrine  to  form  several 
polymeric  substances  <rf  the  general  formula  (PNCla)  x,  where  s  may 
oe  1. 3, 4,  ^.  6, 7,  or  1 1 ;  they  may  be  obtained  by  heating  the  penu- 
chloride  with  ammoniom  chloride  in  a  sealed  tube  andf  separating 
the  mixture  by  fractional  distillation  (H.  N.  Stokes,  iinur.  Okem.  Jomr^ 
1898, 20,  p.  74D:also  see  Besson  and  Rossct,  Compus  rtndtu,  1906, 57. 
p.  143).  The  commonest  form  is  PaNiCU.  a  crystalline  solid,  insoluble 
m  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  beveral  pho^iboamadcs 
have  been  described.  The  diamide.  PO  (NHa)(NH).  results  when  the 
pentachloride  b  saturated  with,  ammonia  gas  and  the  first  fornsed 
chlorophosphamide,  PCla(NHa}ti  b  decomposed  by  water.  The 
triamide,  PO(NHt)ai  results  from  ammonia  and  pnosphorus  cnr^ 
chloride.  Both  these  compounds  on  heating  give  phosphomonarakx; 
PON.  of  which  a  polymer  (PON)i  had  b^n  dcscnbcd  by  Oddo 
(Cozs.  Mm.  JUtL,  1899, 29  (ii.),  p.  330).  Stokes  (^bmt.  Cham.  Jmm  « 


PHOTIUS 


483 


andTO«3H;<NH  wkiUt  tlie  compound  PO(OH>NH  was  obuincd 
by  Schin  {Amt.,  1857,  i<>3<  P*  ^^l  ^y  acting  witn  ammonia  on  the 
pentoxifie.  Numerous  otner  nitrt^en  compounds  have  been 
obtaioed. 

The  atomic  weight  of  phosphorus  was  determined  by  Berttlius, 
P^Iouze,  Jacquelin,  Dumas,  Schrotter,  Brodic  and  van  der  Plaats. 
More  recent  are  the  investigations  of  G.  Tcr  Cazarian  {QoniU.  rend., 
1909,  14S,  p.  1X^7)  on  hydrogen  phosphide,  which  gave  tne  value 
30*906,  and  of  G.  P.  Baxter  and  G.  Jones  (Joam.  Amer.  Cium  Soc., 
1910, 32,  p.  398)  on  silver  phosphate,  which  gave  the  value  31*04. 

Thsrapeutics, — The  phosphorus  used  in  Lhc  BritJ&h  pharma- 
copoeia is  obtained  from  odcium  phofiphate,  and  is  a  waxUke 
non-mctalUc  substance  soluble  in  oils  and  luminous  in  the  dark. 
There  are  various  medicinal  preparations.  In  young  animals 
phosphorus  has  a  remarkable  influence  on  the  growth  of  bone, 
causing  a  proliferation  of  the  jelly-like  masses  and  finally  a 
deposit  in  them  of  true  bony  material.  Owing  to  this  influeoce 
it  has  been  used  in  rickets  and  osteomalacia.  Its  most  effective 
use,  however,  is  as  a  nerve  tonic  in  paralysis  agitans,  locomotor 
ataxia,  impotence  and  nervous  exhaustion.  In  some  skin 
diseases  such  as  psoriasis,  chronic  eczema  and  acne  indurata, 
pho^horus  is  very  useful,  and  cases  of  diabetes  mellitus  and 
[ymphadenoma  have  improved  under  some  of  its  compounds. 
The  h3rpopho6pbite8  have  been  recommended  in  pulmonary 
affections,  being  said  to  act  as  free  phosphorus  without  being 
irritant,  and  the  glycto'o-pbosphates  are  certainJty  useful  to 
stimulate  metabolism.  Dilute  phosphoric  acid  is  used  as  a 
gastric  stimulant.  It  docs  not  resemble  phosphorus  in  its 
physiological  action  and  cannot  be  used  to  replace  it. 

ToxUMogy. — Poisonous  amounts  of  phosphorus  are  frequent^ 
taken  or  atlministered,  criminally  or  accidcsltally,  it  being  easily 
accessible  to  the  public  io  the  form  of  notches  or  of  vermin 
pastes.  They  may  have  bcisa  swallowed  sevend  hours  before 
symptoms  of  acute  poisoning  show  themselves,  with  nausea 
and  vomiting,  and  a  burning  in  the  oesophagus,  stomach  and 
abdomen.  The  important  thing  is  to  prevent  the  absorption 
of  the  poison,  so  emetics  and  purgatives  should  begivei^at  once. 
Sulphate  of  copper,  in  doses  of  3  to  5  gr.,  freely  diluted  and 
repeated  every  few  minutes  forms  the  harmless,  black  phosphide 
of  copper,  which  is  rapidly  eliminated  by  the  kidneys.  The 
stomach  may  be  washed  out  with  warm  water  and  then  with  a 
2  %  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash,  an  enema  of  the  same 
solution  being  given.  The  old  French  oil  of  turpentine  is  the 
best  antidote  to  use  in  phosphorus  poisoning,  delaying  the  toxic 
effects;  but  ordinary  oils  are  not  only  useless  but  harmful. 
When  some  time  has  elapsed  before  treatment  and  the  phos- 
phorus has  become  absorbed,  the  organic  degenerative  changes 
cannot  be  easily  controlled.  For  the  chronic  form  of  industrial 
poisoning  in  the  manufacture  of  lucifer  matches — ^a  form  of 
necrosis,  known  in  England  as  '^  phossy  jaw  "  and  in  France  as 
"  tnal  chimiqm"  a  localized  inflammatory  infection  of  the 
periosteum,  ending  with  the  death  and  exfoliation  of  part  of 
the  bone — see  Match. 

PHOTIUS  (c.  820-891),  patriarch  of  Constantinople  (858-867 
and  878-886).    From  his  early  years  he  displayed  an  extra- 
ordinary talent  and  appetite  for  knowledge,  and  as  soon  as  he  had 
completed  his  own  education  he  began  to  teach  with  distinguished 
success  grammar,  rhetoric,  divinity  and  philosophy.    T^  way 
to  public  life  was  probably  opened  for  him  by  the  marriage  of 
his  brother  Sergius  to  the  princess  Irene,  sister  of  Theodora,  who, 
upon  the  death  of  her  husband  Theophilus  in  843,  had  assumed 
the  regency  of  the  empire.   Photius  became  captain  of  the  guard 
and    subsequently  first  imperial  secretary.     The  dissensfens 
between  the  patriarch  Ignatius  and  Bardas,  the  imcle  of  the 
youthful  Emperor  Michael  III.,  brought  promotion  to  Photius. 
Ignatius  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  (Nov.  858),  and  upon 
tctusins  to  resign  bis  office  was  illegally  deposed,  while  Photius, 
although  a  laymui,  received  all  the  necessary  sacerdotal  orders 
within  six  days,  and  was  installed  as  patriarch  in  his  placa 
I^atius,  continuing  to  refuse  the  abdication  whkh  could  alone 
have  given  Fhotius's  elevation  a  semblance  of  legality,  was 
treated   with  extreme  severity.     His  cause  was  subsequently 
espoused  by  Pope  Nicholas  in  a  oiaaner  highly  oficofiive  ta  the 


Independent  feeling  6f  the  Eastern  Church.   Photius  felt  himself 

the  champion  of  Eastern  Christianity  against  Latin  pretensions; 
and  when  in  863  Nicholas  finally  anathematized  and  deposed 
him,  he  replied  by  a  €ounter«eicomn>nnication.  Meanwhile,  the 
situation  was  suddenly  changed  by  the  murder  of  Photius's 
patron,  Bardas,  by  order  of  the  emperor  Michael,  who  was 
himself  assassinated  by  his  colleague  Basil  in  the  following  year 
V867).  The  fall  of  Photius  Immediately  ensued;  he  was  removed 
from  his  office  and  banished  about  the  end  of  September  867, 
a  few  days  after  the  accession  of  Basil,  and  Ignatius  was 
reinstated  on  the  23rd  of  November.  About  876  Photius  was 
suddenly  recalled  to  Constantinople  and  entrusted  with  the 
education  of  Basil's'  children.  On  the  death  of  Ignatius, 
probably  in  October  878,  Photius,  after  a  decent  show  of  reluc- 
tance, again  fiUcd  the  patriarchal  throne.  He  then  proceeded 
to  obtain  the  formal  recognition  of  the  Christian  world.  In 
November  879  a  synod  was  convened  at  Constantinople.  The 
legates  of  Pope  John  YIII.  attended,  prepared  to  acluiowlcdge 
Photius  as  legitimate  patriarch,  a  concession  for  which  John 
was  much  censured  by  Latin  opinion.  He  stood  firm,  however, 
on  the  other  two  points  which  had  long  been  contested  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  the  ecclesiastical  jtnfedictian 
over  Bulgaria  and  the  introduction  of  the  "  fitioque "  clause 
into  the  creed.  He  (Usowned  his  legates,  who  had  shown  a 
tendency  to  yleld«  again  excommunicated  Photius,  and  thus 
aroused  the  open  hostility  which  has  never  been  appeased  to 
thb  day.  Strong  in  the  si:q>port  of  the  council,  Photius  simply 
ignored  him.  At  the  height  oif  glory  and  success  he  was  suddenly 
precipitated  from  his  dignity  by  another  palace  revolution. 
After  the  death  of  Basil  (886),  his  son  and  successor  Leo,  who 
had  formerly  been  devoted  to  Photius,  but  in  recent  years 
displayed  great  hatred  towards  him,  deprived  him  of  his  office 
and  banished  him  to  the  monastery  of  Bordi  in  Armenia.  From 
this  Ihne  Photius  disappears  frcmi  history.  No  letters  of  this 
period  of  his  life  are  extant,  which  leads  to  the  inference  that  bis 
imprisonment  %vas  severe.  The  precise  date  of  bb  death  is 
not  known,  but  it  is  said  to  hove  oocuired  on  the  6th  of  February 

For  long  after  Photios's  death  his  memory  was  held  in  no  ipectat 
honour  by  hi»  countrymen.  But  ihlten,  in  the  crusading  age,  the 
Greek  Church  and  state  werc^  alike  m  danger  from  Latin  encroach- 
ments, Photius  became  a  national  hero,  and  is  at  present  regarded 
as  little  short  of  a  saint.  To  this  character  he  has  not  the  least 
pretension.  Few  men.  it  is  probable,  have  boen  more  atrociously 
calumniated;  but,  when  every  specific  statement  to  his  prejudice 
has  been  rejected,  he  still  appears  on  a  general  review  of  his  actions 
worldly,  crafty  and  unscrupulous.  Yet  he  shows  to  no  little  advan- 
tage as  an  ecclesiastical  statesman.  His  firmness  was  heroic,  his 
sagacity  profound  and  far-seeinp^;  he  supported  good  and  evil 
fortune  with  equal  dignity]  and  his  fall  was  on  both  occasions  due 
to  revolutions  oeyoira  his  controL  In  erudition,  literary  power, 
and  force  and  versatility  of  Intellect  he  far  surpassed  every  contem- 
porary. 

The  most  Important  of  the  works  of  Photius  is  his  renowned 
BMioAcca  or  Myriobiblon  (ed.  1.  Bekker,  l824>i820,  a  collectioa 
of  extracts  from  and  abridgments  of  280  volumes  of  classical  aothors 
(usually  cited  as  Codices'^,  the  originals  of  which  are  now  to  a  great 
extent  lost.  The  work  »  spcdalKr  rich  in  extracts  from  historical 
writers.  To  Photius  we  are  indebted  for  almost  all  we  possess  of 
Ctesias,  Memnon,  Conon>  the  lost  books  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  the 
lost  writings  of  Arrian.  Theolc^  and  ecclesiastical  history  are  also 
very  fully  represented,  but  poetry  and  ancient  philosophy  are  almost 
entirely  ignored.  It  seems  that  ite  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  deal 
with  those  authors  with  whom  every  well-educated  man  would 
naturally  be  familiar.  The  literary  criticisms*  generally  distin* 
guished  by  keen  and  independent  judgment,  jsnd  the  excerpts, 
vary  considerably  in  length.  The  numerous  biographical  hotices 
ate  prabablv  taken  from  the  work  of  Hesychlus  of  Miletus.  The 
Lextcon  (A4|<wy  3?v^ft7wr<ft).  published  later  than  the  BibUoOuca,  was 
probably  in  the  main  the  work  of  some  of  his  pupils.  It  was  intended 
as  a  tx)ok  of  reference  to  facilitate  the  reading  of  old  classical  and 
sacred  authors,  whose  language  and  vocabulary  were  out  of  date. 
The  only  MS.  of  the  Lexicon  is  the  Codex  Galcanus.  formerly  in  the 
possession  of  Thomas  Gale  (9.V.),  and  now  in  the  library  of  Trinity 
College.  Cambridge  (ed.  S.  A.  Naber,  1864,  with  introduction  00  the 
authorities,  critical  commentary,  and  valuable  indexes).^  His  most 
important  theological  work  is  the  A  mpJnlochia,  a  collection  at  some 
300  questions  and  answers  on  difficult  points  in  Scripture,  addressed 
to  Amphilochras,  archbishop  of  Cyzicus  (ed.  Sophocles  Oeconomus, 
AtheoSi  1858).    Other  similar  works  are  his  treatise  hi  four  boola 


484 


PHOTOCHEMISTRV 


Bgaiast  the  Mankfaacaiis  and  Ftoufidaiuk  and  hn  contipverqr  with 
the  Latins  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  His  EfnsUes, 
political  and  private,  addressed  to  high  church  and  state  dignitanes, 
arc  valuable  tor  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  character  and  ver- 
satility of  the  writer  (ed.  J.  Valettas,  London,  1864).  A  lar« 
number  of  his  nieeches  and  homilies  have  been  edited  bv  S. 


MS.  containing  numerous  fragment*  from  various  verse  and  prose 
authors. 
After  the  allumons  in  his  own  writings  the  chief  contemporary 


mm  CmulatUinopd  (1867-1869).  As  a  dignitary  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  Cardinal  HergenrOther  is  inevitably  biased  against 
Photius  as  an  ecclesiastic,  but  his  natural  candour  and  sympathy 
with  intellectual  eminence  have  made  him  just  to  the  man. 

See  also  article  by  F.  Kattenbusch  in  Hcrzog-Hauck's  RetA- 
tncykhpadie  jw  proUstantisehg  Tkeolcgie  (i904)t  containing  fdU 
bibliographical  details;  J.  A.  Fabriciua,  Bibliotluca  gratca,  x.  670- 
776.  w.  1-37 ;  C.  Krumbacher,  CeschichU  der  hytantinischen  Litteratur, 

SP-  73-79.  515-524  (2nd  ed.,  1897) ;  J.  E.  Sandys,  History  of  Classical 
cholarskip  (3nd  ed.,  1906). 

PHOTOCHEmSTRY  (Gr.  ^,  light,  and  "  chemistiy ")»  » 
the  widest  sense,  the  bnmch  of  chemical  science  whidi  deals 
with  the  optical  properties  o£  substanceji  and  their  relations  to 
chemical  constitution  and  reactions;  in  the  narrower  sense  it  is 
concerned  with  the  action  of  light  on  chemical  change.  The 
first  definition  includes  such  subjects  as  refractive  and  dispersive 
power,  colour,  fluorescence,  phosphorescence,  optical  isomerism, 
spectroscopy,  &c.— subjects  which  are  treated  tmder  other 
headings;  here  we  only  discuss  the  subject  matter  of  the  narrower 
definition. 

Probably  the  earliest  photochemical  investigations  were 
associated  with  the  darkening  of  certain  silver  salts  under  the 
action  of  light,  processes  which  were  subsequently  utilized  in 
photography  (f.v.).  At  the  same  time,  however,  it  had  been 
observed  that  other  chemical  changes  were  regulated  by  the 
access  of  light;  and  the  first  complete  study  of  such  a  problem 
was  made  by  J.  W.  Draper  in  184.3,  who  investigated  the  combi> 
nation  of  hy^gen  and  chlorine  to  form  hydrochloric  add,  a 
reaction  which  had  been  previously  studied  by  Gay-Lussac  and 
Thenard.  Draper  concluded  that  the  first  action  of  sunlight 
consisted  in  producing  an  aUotrope  of  chlorine,  which  sub- 
sequently combined  with  the  hydrogen.  This  was  denied  by 
Bunsen  and  Roscoe  in  1857;  and  in  1887  Pringsheim  suggest^ 
that  the  reaction  proceeded  in  two  stages:  H^+  ClioCljO-f-  H«, 
2H»+CIiO«HiO+2HCL  This  view  demands  the  presence  of 
water  vapour  (H.  B.  Baker  showed  that  the  perfectly  dry  gases 
would  not  combine),  and  also  explains  the  period  which  elapses 
bd^ore  the  reaction  commenced  (the  "  photochemical  induction  " 
of  Bunsen  and  Roscoe)  as  taken  up  by  the  formation  of  the 
chlorine  monoxide  necessary  to  the  second  part  of  the  reaction. 
The  decomposition  of  hydriodic  add  into  hydrogen  and  iodine 
was  studied  by  Lemoine  in  X877,  who  found  that  80%  decom- 
posed after  a  month's  exposure;  he  also  observed  that  the  reac- 
tion proceeded  quicker  in  blue  vcssds  than  in  red.  A  broader 
investigation  was  published  by  P.  L.  Chastaing  in  1878,  who 
found  that  the  red  rays  generally  oxidized  inorganic  compounds, 
whilst  the  violet  reduces  them,  and  that  with  organic  compounds 
the  action  was  entirely  oxidizing.  These  and  other  reactions 
suggested  the  making  of  actinometcrs,  or  instruments  for 
measuring  the  actinic  effect  of  light  waves.  The  most  important 
employ  diver  salts;  Eder  developed  a  form  based  on  the 
reaction  between  mercuric  chloride  and  ammonium  oxalate: 
2HgCl.+  (NH«)tC*04-2HgCl  +  aNH4Cl+aCO„  the  extent 
of  the  decomposition  bdng  determined  by  the  amounts  of 
mercurous  chloride  or  carbon  dioxide  liberated. 

The  article  Photogkapby  {q.v)  deals  with  early  investigations 
on  the  chemical  action  of  light,  and  we  may  proceed  here  to 
modem  work  on  oiganic  compounds..  That  sunlight  accelerates 
the  action  of  the  halogens,  chlorine  and  bromine,  on  such  com- 
pounds, is  well  known.  John  Davy  obtained  phosgene,  COClj, 
by  the  direct  combination  of  chlorine  and  carbon  monoxide  in 
fanlight  (see  Weigcrt^  Ann.  d.  Fhys,,  1907  (iv.),  84.  p.  SS)i 


chlorine  combines  with  half  Its  volume  of  methane  eapfcaively 
in  sunlight,  whilst  in  diffused  Hght  it  substitutes;  with  toluene 
it  gives  benzyl  chloride,  CcHiCHiCl,  in  simlight,  and  chlortolueae, 
C«H4(CH)|C1,  in  the  dark;  with  benzene  it  gives  an  addition 
product,  C»H«CI«,  in  sunUght,  and  substitutes  in  the  dark. 
Bromine  deports  itself  similariy,  substituting  and  forming 
addition  products  with  unsaturated  compounds  more  readily 
in  sunlight.  Sometimes  isomerization  may  occur;  for  instance, 
Wislicenus  fotmd  that  angelic  add  gave  dibromangdic  acid  in 
the  dark,  and  dibromtighc  add  in  sunlight.  Many  substances 
decompose  when  exposed  to  sunlight;  for  example,  alkyl  iodides 
darken,  ovnng  to  the  liberation  of  iodine;  aliphatic  adds  (especi- 
ally dibasic)  in  the  presence  of  luranic  oxide  lose  carbon  dioxide; 
polyhydric  alcohols  give  products  identical  with  those  produced 
by  fermentation;  whilst  aliphatic  ketones  give  a  hydrocaibon 
and  an  add. 

Among  aromatic  compounds,  benzaldehyde  gives  «  trimeric 
and  tetrameric  benzaldehyde,  benzoic  add  and  hydrobcnzoin 
(G.  L.  Ciamldan  and  P.  Silber,  AUi.  R.  Accai  Lincti,  1909); 
in  alcoholic  solution  it  gives  hydrobcnzoin;  whilst  with  nitro- 
benzene it  is  oxidized  to  benzoic  add,  the  nitrobenzene  suffering 
reduction  to  nitrosobenzene  and  phenyl-^hydroxylamiae;  the 
latter  ^mcrizes  to  ortho-  and  para-aminophenoly  which,  in 
turn,  combine  with  the  previously  formed  benzoic  add.  Simi- 
larly acetophenone  and  benzophenone  In  alcoholic  sc4ulion  give 
dimethylhydrobenzotn  and  benzopinacone.  With  nltro  com- 
pounds Sach  and  Hilbeit  conduded  that  those  oontaimiig  a 
•CH*  side  group  in  the  ortho  position  to  the  'NOx  snmp  were 
decompMed  by  light.  For  example,  ortho-nitrobenzalddiyde  in 
alcoholic  solution  ^ves  nitrosobenzoicester  and  22'  azoxybens^ 
add,  with  the  intermediate  formation  of  nltrobensaldehyde^ 
diethylacecal,  N02-C«H4-CH(OCsHs)s  (E.  Bamberger  and  F. 
Elgar,  Attn.  1910,  371,  p.  3x9).  Bamberger  also  investigated 
nitrosobenzene,  obtaining  azoxybenzcne  as  chief  ptodiKt, 
together  with  various  azo  compoimds,  nitrobenzene,  aiuliBe, 
hydroquinone  and  a  resin. 

For  the  photochemistry  of  diazo  derivatives  see  Ruff  and  Srrir. 
Ber.,  1901,  34,  p.  1668,  and  of  the  terpencs  see  G.  L.  Ciamiaan  aad 
P.  Silber,  Ber.,  X907  and  X908. 

Light  is  also  powerful  in  producing  isomerization  and  poly- 
merization. Isomerization  chiefly  appears  in  the  formalioa 
of  stable  stcreo-isomers  from  the  labile  forms,  and  more  mdj 
in  inducing  real  isomerization  or  phototropy  (Marckwald,  18^). 
As  examples  we  may  notice  the  observation  of  Chattaway  {JeMnu 
Chem.  Soc.igo6f  89,  p.  462)  that  many  phenyttydraxiDoes 
(yellow)  change  into  azo  compounds  (red),  of  M.  Packia  and  F. 
Graziani  (AUi.  R.  Accad.  Linceij  1909)  on  the  /9-naphthyIbydn- 
zones  (the  a-compounds  are  not  phototropic),  and  of  A.  Seskr 
and  E.  G.  Shepheard  {Joum.  Chem.  Soc.,  1909,  9s,  p.  1943)  ca 
the  arylidene-  and  naphthylidene-amines,  whkh  change  noa 
yellow  to  orange  on  exposure  to  sunlight,  light  need  wA  act 
in  the  same  direction  as  heat  (changes  due  to  heat  may  be 
termed  tkermolropic).  For  example,  heat  changes  the  a  foxia  d 
benzyl-jS-amlnocrotonic  ester  into  the  /9  fonn,  whereas  figM 
reverses  this;  similarly  heat  and  light  have  reverse  actions  with 
4M-dlphenyl  ethylene, CHt:C(CsHi)s  (R.  Stocrmcr,  B«r.,  1909, 4:. 
p.  4865);  the  change,  however,  is  in  the  same  direction  vitk 
Senier  and  Shepheard's  compounds.  With  regard  to  podymexi- 
zation  we  may  notice  the  production  of  benzene  derivatives 
from  acetylene  and  Its  homologueSj  and  of  tetramelhyleixs 
from  the  olefines. 

Theory  of  Photochemical  Action, — ^Although  mudi  work  has 
been  done  in  the  qualitative  and  quantitative  study  of  jActO' 
chemical  reactions  relatively  little  attention  has  been  grrea  tc 
the  theoretical  explanation  of  these  phenomena.  Tbat  the 
/K>Iution  was  to  be  found  in  an  analogy  to  dectroljrsis  was 
suggested  by  Grotthuss  in  x8x8,  who  laid  down:  (i)  only  those 
rays  which  are  absorbed  can  produce  diemical  change,  (3)  the 
action  of  the  light  Is  analogous  to  that  of  a  voltaic  cell;  and  he 
regarded  light  as  made  up  of  positive  and  negative  dectndty. 
The  first  prindple  received  early  acceptance;  bat  the  dete4op- 
ment  of  the  second  Is  duo  to  W.  D.  Bancroft  who.  ha  a  sencs  of 


THOTtXmAPHT 


485 


fwpefi  in  the  JmrnmA  of  PkytUM  CAimhby  for  ^908  tnd  igdo, 
has  applied  it  generaOy  to  the  reactioitt  under  consideration. 
Any  electrolytic  action  demands  a  certain  minimum  electro- 
motive foEce;  this,  however,  can  be  diminished  by  suitable 
dcpolarixers,  which  generally  act  by  combining  with  a  product 
of  the  decomposition/     Simihiify,    in    some  photochemical 
reactions  the  low  electromotive  force  of  the  U^t  is  sufficient  to 
induce  decomposition,  but  in  other  cases  a  depoUrizer  must  be 
present.    For  example,  ferric  chloride  in  aqueous  aolutioa  is 
unchanged  by  light,  but  in  alcoholic  solution  reductioB  to  fenous 
chloride  occurs,  the  liberated  chlorine  combining  with  the 
alcohoL    In  the  same  way  Bancroft  showed  that  the  solvent 
media  employed  in  photogn^shic  plates  act  aa  depolarixers. 
The  same  theory  explains  the  action  of  wfntktrm,  which  may 
act  optically  or  chemically.   In  the  first  case  they  are  substances 
having  sdective  absorption,  and  hence  alter  the  senstivity  of 
the  system  to  certain  rays.    In  the  second  case  there  are  no 
strong  absorption  bands,  and  the  substances  act  by  combining 
with  the  decomposition  products.    Bancroft  applied  his  theory 
to  the  explanation  of  photochemical  oxidation,  .and  also  to  the 
chlorination  and  bromination  of  hydrocarbons.    In  the  latter 
case  it  is  supposed  that  the  halogen  produces  Ions;  if  the  positive 
ions  are  in  excess  tidt  chains  are  substituted,  if  the  negative  the 
nucleus. 

Standard  treatises  are:  T.  M.  Eder,  AMdiek  der  PkakfgnpkU, 
vol  L  pt.  a  (W6I) ;  H.  W.  Vogd,  Pkotockemie  (1906).  An  account  01 
the  action  erf  ught  on  (wganic  compounds  is  given  in  A.  W.  Stewart, 
iStfcoi/  Adoances  im  Organic  Chemiiiry  (190&). 

PHOTOCBAPHT  (Gr.  ^,  light,  and  yiA^v,  to  write), 
the  scienoe  and  art  of  producing  pictures  by  the  action  of  light 
on  chemically  prepared  (sensitiaed)  plates  or  filmSb 

Bisiary. 

It  would  be  somewhat  difficult  to  fix  a  date  when  what  we  now 
know  as  **  photographic  action  "  was  first  recorded.    No  doubt 

the  tanning  of  the  skin  by  the  sun's  rays  was  what  was  fint 
noticed,  and  this  is  as  truly  the  effect  of  solar  radiation  as  is 
the  ^^rV^^\^  of  the  sensitive  paper  which  is  now  in  use  in 
photographic  printing  operations.  We  may  take  it  that  K.  W. 
Scbeele  was  the  first  to  investigate  the  darkening  action  of 
sunlifl^t  on  silver  chloride.  He  found  that  when  silver  chloride 
was  exposed  to  the  action  of  light  beneath  water  there  was 
dissolved  in  the  fluid  a  substance  which,  on  the  addition  of 
lunar  caustic  (silver  nitrate),  caused  the  precipitation  of  new 
silver  chloride,  and  that  on  applying  a  solution  of  ammonia  to 
the  blackened  chloride  an  insoluble  residue  of  metallic  sDver  was 
left  behind.  He  also  noticed  that  of  the  rajrs  of  the  spectrum 
the  violet  most  readily  blackened  the  silver  chloride.  In  Scheele, 
then,  we  have  the  first  who  applied  combined  chemical  and 
spectrum  analysis  to  the  science  of  photography,  tn  1783 
J.  Sencbier  repealed  Schccle's  experiments,  and  found  that  in 
fifteen  seconds  the  violet  rays  blackened  silver  chloride  as  much 
as  the  red  rays  did  in  twenty  minutes.*  In  1708  Count  Rutnford 
contributed  a  paper  to  the  PhSosopkical  Tfo fractions  entitled 
"An'  inquiry  concerning  the  chemical  properties  that  have 
been  attributed  to  light,"  in  which  he  tried  to  demonstrate  that 
«]]  effects  produced  on  nlctallic  solution  could  be  brou^  about 
by  a  temperature  somewhat  less  than  that  of  boiling  water. 
Robert  Harrup  in  1802,  however,  conclusively  showed  m 
JficholscH*s  Journal  that,  at  all  events,  salts  of  mercury  were 
reduced  by  visible  radiation  and  not  by  change  of  temperature. 
In-  x8oi  we  come  to  the  next  decided  step  in  the  study  of 
photographic  action,  when  Johann  Wnhelm  Ritter  (x776*r8ro) 
proved  the  existence  of  rays  lying  beyond  the  violet,  and  found 
that  they  had  the  power  of  blackening  silver  chloride.  Such  a 
discovery  naturally  gave  a  direction  to  the  investigations  of 
others,  and  Thomas  Johann  Seebeck  (1770-X83X)  (between 
i8oa  and  1808)  and, in  x8ia,  Jacques £tienne  6<rard  (1789-1869) 
turned  their  attention  to  this  particular  subject,  eliciting  valuable 
Information.    We  need  only  mention  two  or  three  other  cases 

t  It  may  here  be  remarked  that  had  he  used  a  pure  spectrum  he 
would  have  found  that  the  red  rays  did  not  blacken  the  material 
in  the  flligfitest  degree. 


where  the  influence  of  light  was  noticed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century.  William  Hyde  Wollaston  observed  the  conversion 
of  yeUow  gum  guaiacum  into  a  green  tint  by  the  violet  rays,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  colour  by  the  red  ray»— both  of  which  are 
the  effect  of  absorption  of  li^t,  the  ori^nal  yellow  colour  of 
the  gum  absorbing  the  violet  rays,  whilst  the  green  colour  to 
which  it  is  changed  absorbs  the  red  rays.  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
found-  that  pQce^okmred  lead  oxide,  wiien  damp,  became  red 
In  the  red  rays,  whilst  It  blackened  in  the  vfelet  rays,  and  that 
the  green  mercury  oxide  became  red  in  the  red  rays-~agaln 
an  example  of  the  necessity  of  absorption  to  effect  a  molecular 
or  chemical  change  in  a  substance.  U.  R.  T.  Le  Bouvicr 
Desmorties  in  x8oi  observed  the  change  effected  in  Prussian 
blue,  and  Cari  WOhehn  BScknan  noted  the  action  of  the  two 
ends  of  the  spectrum  on  phosphonis,  a  research  which  John 
William  Draper  extended  farther  in  America  at  a  later  date. 

To  England  belongs  the  honour  of  first  producing  a  photo- 
graph by  utiliaing  Scheele's  observations  on  silver  chloride. 
In  June  1803  Thonuis  Wedgwood  (x  77x^1805)  publldied  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Institution  the  paper—*'  An  account  t4  a 
method  of  copying  paintings  upon  glass  and  of  making  profiles 
by  the  agency  of  B^t  upon  nitrate  of  silver,  with  obsexvatbns 
by  H.  Davy."  He  remarks  that  white  paper  or  white  leather 
moistened  with  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate  undergoes  no  diange 
when  kept  in  a  dark  place,  but  on  being  exposed  to  the  daylight 
it  speedify  changes  colotlr,  and,  after  passing  through  various 
shades  of  grey  and  brown,  becomes  at  length  nearly  Uack.  The 
altemtNMi  of  colour  takes  place  more  speedily  in  pn^ptmion  as 
the  light  is  more  intense. 

"  In  the  direct  beam  of  the  ran  two  or  three  minutes  ate  oofficient 
to  prodoce  the  futl  effect,  in  the  diade  sevefal  hours  aie  reqiiiied, 
and  Ught  tmnanitted  throug^h  diffeeent-oolonred  glasses  acts  upon 
it  with  different  degrees  of  mtensity.  Thus  it  is  found  that  red 
rays,  or  the  common  sunbeams  passed  through  red  glass,  have  very 
little  action  upon  it ;  yellow  and  green  are  more  efficadous,  but  blue 
and  violet  Ugnt  produce  the  moat  decided  and  powerful  effects." 

Wedgwood  goes  on  to  describe  the  method  of  using  this 
prepared  paper  by  throwing  shadows  on  It,  and  inferentially 
by  what  we  now  call  *'  conUct  pxinting.*'  He  states  that  he  hm 
been  unaMe  to  fix  his  prints,  no  wnshing  being  sufficient  to 
diminate  the  traces  of  the  sUver  salt  which  occupied  the  unex- 
posed or  shaded  portions.  Davy  in  a  note  states  that  he  has 
found  that,  though  the  images  formed  by  an  ordinary  csment 
obscura  were  too  faint  to  print  out  hi  the  solar  mlcroncope,  the' 
hnages  of  small  objects  could  easily  be  copied  on  such  paper. 

"  Tn  comparing  the  effects  produced  by  light  upon  nrarfete  of 
silver  (silver  chloride)  with  those  upon  the  nitrate  it  seemed  evident 
that  the  muriate  was  the  more  susceptible,  and  both  were  more 
readily  acted  upon  when  moist  than  when  dry — a  fact  long  ago  known. 
Even  m  the  twiTieht  the  colour  of  the  moist  muriate  of  stiver,  spread 
upon  paper,  slow^  changed  from  white  to  faint  violet ;  though  under 
similar  circomstaxKes  no  intermediate  alteration  was  produced 
upon  the  nitrate.  .  .,  .  Nothing  but  a  method  of  preventing  the 
unshaded  |>arts  of  the  delineations  from  being  coloured  by  exposure 
to  the  day  is  wanting  to  render  this  process  as  useful  as  it  is  elegant." 

In  this  method  of  preparing  the  paper  lies  the  germ  of  the 
silver-printing  processes  of  modern  times,  and  it  was  on^  by  the 
spread  of  chemical  knowledge  that  the  hiatus  which  was  to  render 
toe  "  process  as  useful  as  it  is  degant  **  was  filled  up — when 
sodium  thiosulphate  (hyposulphite  of  soda),  discovered  by 
Francois  Chaussier  in  1799,  or  three  years  before  Wedgwood 
published  his  paper,  was  used  for  making  the  print  permanent. 
Here  we  must  call  attention  to  an  important  observation  by 
Seebeck  of  Jena  in  x8xo.   In  the  Farbenlehre  of  Goethe  he  says: — 

"  When  a  spectrum  produced  by  a  properly  constructed  prism  is 
thrown  upon  moist  chloride  of  silver  paper,  if  the  printing  be  con- 
tinued for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  ivhtlst  a  constant  position 
for  thespeetrom  is  maintaiocd  bv  any  mcazts.  1  observe  the  folbwing. 
In  the  violet  the  chloride  is  a  neodish  brown  (sometimes  more  violet, 
sometimes  more  blue),  and  this  coloration  extends  well  beyond  the 
limit  of  the  violet ;  in  the  blue  the  chloride  takes  a  clear  blue  tint, 
which  fades  away,  becoming  liohter  in  the  greca.  In  the  yellow 
1  usually  found  the  chloride  unaKered ;  sotnetimes,  however,  it  had  a 
l^ht  yeuow  tint ;  in  the  red  and  beyond  the  red  it  took  a  rose  or  WUf 
tmt  This  image  of  the  spectrum  shows  beyond  the  red  and  the 
violet  a  redon  more  or  less  light  and  uncoloured.  This  is  how  the 
decompomloa  of  the  silver  duorkle  Is  aiso  in  this  rsgkm.    Beyond 


4S6 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


IHISTORY 


the,  brown  band,  .  .  .  whkh  was  produced  in  the  violet,  the  silver 
chloride  was  coloured  a  grey- violet  (or  a  distance  or  several  inches. 
In  proportion  as  the  distance  from  the  vfolet  increased,  the  lint 
became  hghtcr.  Beyond  the  red,  on  the  contrary,  the  chloriiie 
took  a  foelile  red  tint  for  a  considerable  distance.  When  moist 
chloride  of  silver,  having  received  the  action  of  l^ht  for  a  time, 
b  exposed  to  the  spectrum,  the  blue  and  violet  behave  as  above. 
In  the  yHlow  and  red  regions,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  found 
that  the  aivcr  chloride  becomes  paler;  ...  the  parts  acted  upon 
by  the  red  rays  and  by  those  beyond  take  a  light  coloration." 

This  has  been  brought  forward  by  J.  M.  Eder  as  being  the  6rst 
record  we  have  of  photographic  action  lending  itself  to  production 
of  natural  colours.  This  observation  of  Scebeck  was  allowed  lo 
Ue  fallow  for  many  years,  trntil  it  was  9^un  taken  up  and 
published  as  a  novelty. 

The  first  to  found  a  process  of  photography  which  gave 
pictures  that  were  subsequently  unaffected  by  light  was  Nic6- 
phore  de  Niepcc.  His  process,  which  he  called  provi^nally 
"hiliograpbie,  dessins,  et  gravuics,"  consists  in  coatmg  the 
surface  of  a  metallic  plate  with  a  solution  of  asphaltum  in  oil 
of  lavender  and  exposing  it  to  a  camera  image.  He  recommends 
that  the  asphaltum  be  powdered  and  the  oil  of  lavender  dropped 
upon  it  in  a  wine-glass,  and  that  it  be  then  gently  heated.  A 
polished  plate  is  covered  with  this  varnish,  and,  when  dried,  is 
leady  for  employment  in  the  camera.  After  icqtiisitc  exposure, 
which  is  very  long  indeed,  a  vety  faint  image,  requiring  develop- 
ment, is  seen.  Development  is  effected  by  diluting  oil  of 
lavender  with  ten  parts  by  volume  of  white  petroleum.  After 
this  mixture  has  been  aUowed  to  stand  two  or  three  days  it 
becomes  clear  and  is  ready  to  be  used.  The  plate  is  placed  in  a 
dish  and  covered  with  the  solvent.  By  degrees  the  parts 
unaffected  by  light  dissolve  away,  and  the  picture,  formed  of 
modified  asphaltum,  is  developed.  The  plate  is  then  lifted  from 
the  dish,  allowed  to  drain,  and  finally  freed  from  the  remaining 
solvents  by  washing  in  water.  Subsequently,  instead  of  using 
oil  of  lavender  as  the  a^haltum  solvent,  Niepcc  cmi)loyed  an 
animal  oil,  which  gave  a  deeper  colour  and  more  tenacity  to  the 
turf  ace-film. 

Later,  Louis  Jacques  Mand£  Daguerre  (t78o'iS5i)  and  Niepce 
used  as  a  solvent  the  brittle  residue  obtained  from  evaporating 
the  oil  of  lavendo-  dissolved  in  ether  or  alcohol— a  transparent 
solution  of  a  lemon-yellow  colour  being  formed.  This  solution 
was  used  for  covering  glass  or  silver  plates*  which,  when  dried, 
oouki  be  used  in  the  camera.  The  time  of  exposure  varied 
somewhat  in  length.  Daguerre  renoarked  that  "  the  time 
required  to  procure  a  photographic  o>py  of  a  landscape  is  from 
seven  to  eight  hours,  but  single  numuments,  when  strongly 
lifted  by  the  sim,  or  which  are  themselves  very  bright,  can  be 
taken  in  about  three  hours."  Perha{»  there  is  no  sentence  that 
illustrates  more  forcibly  the  advance  made  in  photography  from 
the  days  when  this  process  was  described.  The  ratio  of  three 
hours  to  T^th  of  a  second  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  progress  made 
«nce  Niepce.  The  devebpment  was  conducted  by  means  of 
petroleum-vapour,  which  dissolved  the  parts  not  acted  upon  by 
light.  As  a  rule  silver  plates  seem  to  have  been  used,  and 
occosonally  glass*,  but  it  does  not  appear  whether  the  latter 
material  was  chosen  because  an  image  would  be  projected 
through  it  or  whether  simply  for  the  sake  of  effect.  Viewed  in 
the  light  of  present  knowledge,  a  more  perfectly  developable 
image  in  half-tone  would  be  obtained  by  exposing  the  fihn 
through  the  back  of  the  glass.  The  action  of  light  on  most 
organic  matter  is  apparently  one  of  oxidation.  In  the  case  of 
asphaltum  or  bitumen  of  Judaea  the  oxidation  causes  a  hardening 
of  the  material  and  an  insolubility  in  the  usual  solvents.  Hence 
that  surface  of  the  film  is  generally  hardened  first  which  first 
fecb  the  influence  of  light.  Where  half-tones  exist,  as  in  a 
landscape  picture,  the  film  remote  from  the  surface  first  receiving 
the  image  Is  not  acted  upon  at  all,  and  remains  soluble  in  the 
solvent.  It  is  thus  readily  seen  that,  in  the  case  of  half-tone 
pictures,  or  even  in  copying  engravings,  if  the  action  were  not 
continued  sufficiently  long  when  the  surface  of  the  fibn  farthest 
from  the  gkus  was  first  acted  upon,  the  layer  next  the  glass  would 
in  some  places  remain  soluble,  and  on  development  would  be 
dsfiolved  away,  canyiag  t^  top  layer  of  haidwtd  resinous 


matter  with  it^  cnd<  thus  give  rise  to  4mperlect  pictures.   la 

carbon-iirinting  dcvcli^ment  from  the  back  of  the  exposed  fihn 

is  absolutely  essential,  since  it  depends  on  the  same  principles 

as  does  heliograpby,  and  in  this  the  same  mode  of  procedureis 

advisable. 

It  would  appear  that  Niepce  began  his  researches  as  earfy  as 
1814,  but  it  was  not  till  1827  that  he  had  any  success  worth  recount* 
ing.  At  that  date  he  communicated  a  paper  to  Or  Bauer  of  Kew, 
"the  secretary  of  the  Ro>^l  Society  of  London,  with  a  view  to  its 
presentation  to  that  society,  its  publication,  however,  was  pre* 
vented  because  the  process,  of  which  exanurfes  were  shown*  was  a 
secret  one.  In  an  authentic  MS.  copy  01  Niepce's  "  M^motre," 
dated  "  Kew.  le  8  D6cembre  1837,'*  he  says  that  "fn  his  framed 
drawings  maae  on  tin  the  tone  is  too  feeble,  but  that  l^  the  use  of 
chemical  agents  the  tone  mav  be  darkened."  This  shows  that 
Niepce  was  familiar  with  the  idea  of  using  some  darkening  medimn 
even  with  his  photographs  taken  on  tin  plates. 

Daguerreotype.— ^c  have  noticed  in  the  joint  process  of 
Daguerre  and  Niepce  that  polished  silver  plates  were  used,  and 
we  know  from  the  latter  that  amongst  tho  chemical  agents  tried 
iodine  suggested  itself.  Iodine  vapour  or  solution  apidied  to  a 
silvered  plate  would  cause  the  formation  of  silver  iodide  on  those 
parts  not  acted  upon  by  Ught.  The  removal  of  the  resinous 
picture  would  leave  an  image  formed  of  metallic  silver,  whilst 
the  black  parts  of  the  original  would  be  represented  by  the  daiker 
silver  iodide.  This  was  probably  the  origin  of  the  daguerreotype 
process.  Such  observers  as  Nicpee  and  Daguerre,  who  had 
formed  a  partnership  (or  prosecuting  their  researdies,  would 
not  teve  thus  formed  silver  iodide  without  noticing  that  it 
changed  in  colour  when  exposed  to  the  light.  What  parts 
respectively  Daguerre  and  Niepce  i^yed  in  the  Sev^kifmnl 
of  the  daguerreotype  win  probably  ae^r  be  knoiwn  with 
absolute  accuracy,  but  in  a  letter  from  Dr  Baoer  to  Dr  J.  J. 
Bennett,  F.R.S.,  dated  the  7th  of  May  X839,  the  former  says: — 

"  I  received  a  very  interesting  letter  from  Mons.  Isidore  Niepce, 
dated  lith  March  (about  a  month  after  die  pttblKatkm  of  the 
dagttcncotyDe  process],  and  that  letter  fully  conjfiras  what  I  su»* 
pocted  of  Dagiicrrc's  manoeuvres  with  poor  Nicopbore,  but  Mr 
Isidore  observes  that  for  the  present  that  letter  might  be  considered 
confidential." 

Dr  Bauer  evidently  knew  more  of  "poor  Niciphore's  *  work 
than  most  people,  and  at  that  early  period  he  clearly  thought 
that  an  injustice  had  been  done  to  Nicpee  at  the  hands  of 
Daguerre.  It  should  be  remarked  that  Nicfphore  de  Nicpee 
died  in  1833,  and  a  new  agreement  was  entered  into  between 
his  son  Isidore  de  Niepce  and  Daguerre  to  continue  the  prosecu- 
tion of  their  researches.  It  appears  further  that  Niepce  com- 
municated his  process  to  Daguerre  on  the  5th  of  December  1S29. 
At  his  death  some  letters  from  Daguerre  and  others  were  left 
by  him  in  which  iodine,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  &c.,  are 
mentioned  as  having  been  used  on  the  metai  plates,  and  their 
sensitiveness  to  light,  when  thus  treated,  commented  upofu 
We  are  thus  led  to  believe  that  a  great  part  of  the  success  iu 
producing  the  daguerreotype  is  due  to  the  elder  Niepce;  and 
indeed  it  must  have  been  thought  so  at  the  time,  since,  on  the 
publication  of  the  process,  life-pensions  of  6000  francs  and  4000 
francs  were  ^ven  to  Daguerre  and  to  Isidore  Niepcc  respectivdy. 
In  point  of  chronology  the  publication  of  the  discovery  of  ibe 
daguerreotype  process  was  nude  subsequently  to  the  Talbot- 
type  process.  It  will,  however,  be  convenient  to  continue  the 
history  of  the  daguerreotype,  premising  that  it  was  publi^ed  oa 
the  6th  of  February  1839,  whilst  Talbot^s  process  was  ^vcn  to 
the  world  on  the  25th  of  January  of  the  same  year. 

Daguerreotype  pictures  were  originally  taken  00  silver-plated 
copper,  and  even  npw  the  silvered  surface  thus  prepared  serves 
better  than  electro-deposited  silver  of  any  thickness.  An  outline 
of  the  operations  is  as  follows.  A  brightly^polished  sQver  pbte  ia 
cleaned  bf  finely-powdered  pumice  and  olive  oil,  and  tbca  by 
dilute  nitnc  add,  and  a  soft  buff  is  employed  to  give  k  a  briUiaoic 
polish,  the  slightest  trace  of  foreign  matter  or  stam  bdng  fatal  to 
the  production  of  a  perfect  picture.  The  plate,  thus,  prepared,  is 
ready  for  the  lodi«ng  operation.    Smalt  fragments  01  ioidr 


-  -    ,  -  iodiiie 

scattered  over  a  saucer,  covered  with  gSuae.  Over  this  the  plate 
is  placed,  face  downwards,  resting  on  supports,  and  the  vanosir 
from  the  iodine  is  allowed  to  form  upon  it  a  surface  of  silver  iooide. 
It  is  essential  to  note  the  colour  of  the  surface-formed  iodide  at  lt» 
several  stages,  the  varying  colours  being  due  to  in^dcHiaoe 


aiSTORW 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


487 


cftuted  by  tte  4Mr«i«ilt  thieicaeMtt  of  the  nttaotdr  thin  filn  of 
iodkie.  Tbe  ttaKC  of  majummn  scnaitiveacw  Is  obtained  ifhcn 
it  b  of  a  golden  ocange  coloilr.  In  this  state  tbc  plate  ia  witKdfawn 
and  removed  U>  the  dark  slide  of  the  camera,  ready  for  exposure. 
A  plan  frequently  adopted  to  give  an  even  film  01  iodide  was  to 
aturate  a  cud  with  iodine  and  hold  the  platea  short  distanos  above 
the  Ganl>  Long  exposures  were  required*  varying  in  Fsris  from  three 
to  thirty  mioutes.  The  length  of  the  exposure  was  cvideotly  a 
mattflr  of  judgment,  mote  particularly  as  over*cxpo8are  introduced 
an  evU  which  was  called  ''solariiatiott/'  but  wtuch  was  in  reality 
due  to  fitt  oxidation  of  the  iodide  by  pmlonged  exposure  to  light. 

As  a  matter  of  history  it  may  be  remarked  that  tho  development 
of  the  inuum  by  mercury  vapour  is  said  to  be  due  to  a  chance  dia- 
covery  of  iJaguerre.  It  appears  that  for  some  time  prevkms  to  the 
publication  olthe  daguerreotype  method  he  had  been  experimenting 
with  iodised  silver  plates,  praaudag  Imaoea  by  what  woohl  now  be 
called  the  "printing  out  praoess.  This  oporatjbo^  involved  so 
long  an  exposure  that  be  sought,  some  means  of  roduciag  it  by  the 
application  of  different  reagents.  Having  on  one  occasion  exposed 
such  a  plate  to  a  eamcra-imagc,  he  accidentally  placed  it  in  the  dark 
ja  a  Gupboard  containing  various  icfaemicalB,  and  found  after  the 
lapse  or  a  night  that  he  had  a  perfect  image  developed.  Dy  the 
process  of  exnaustioa  he  arrived  at  the  fact  tnat  it  W9s  the  mercury 
vapour,  which  even  at  ordinary  temperatures  volatnizca,  that  had 
caueod  this  intensifioatioh  of  the  almost  invisible  camera-image. 
It  was  this  diflCo very  that  enabled  the  exposures  to  be  very  consider' 
ably  shortened  from  those  which  it  was  found. noocssary  to  give  in 
mere  camera-^'fiim|[. 

The  development  of  the  image  was  effected  by  placing  the-cxposcd 
plate  over  a  slightly  heated  (about  75*  C.)  cup  of  mercury.  The 
vapour  of  mercury  condenseo  on  those  places  where  the  light  had 
acted  ia  an  almost  exact  ratio  to  the  intensity  of  its  actbn.  This 
produced  a  picture  in  an  amalgam,  the  vapour  of  which  attached 
itseU  to  the  altered  silver  iodide.  Proof  that  such  was  the  cose 
was  subsequently  aflForded  by  the  fact  that  the  mercurial  image 
could  be  removed  by  heat.  The  developing  box  was  so  constructed 
that  it  was  possible  to  examine  the  picture  through  a  srelbw  glass 
window  whilst  the  image  was  being  brought  out.  The  next  opera- 
tion was  to  fix  the  pfcture  by  dipping  it  in  a  solution  of  hyposulphite 
of  soda.  The  image  produced  by  this  method  is  so  delicate  that  it 
will  not  bear  the  slightest  handling,  and  has  to  be  protected  from 
•ocidontal  touching. 

The  lint  gnat  ImpTOvemcnt  in  the  daguefreotype  proceat 
waA  the  lesentitixing  of  the  iodized  film  by  bromine  vapour. 
John  Frederick  Goddard  publidied  Mb  account  of  the  use  of 
bromine  in  conjunction  -with  iodine  in  1846,  and  A.  F.  Jt  Clatldet 
(1797-1867)  etoipk>ytd  a  combination  of  (odine  and  cMorine 
vapour  in  1841.  In  1S44  Dagoerte  published  his  Improved 
method  of  preparing  the  plates,  which  la  in  teality  baaed  on  the 
use  of  bromine  with  iodine.  That  this  addition  pcrfnts  to 
additional  sensitiveness  will  be  MAdtly  undorstood  when  w« 
femark  that  axallod  instantaneous  pictures  of  yachts  In  full 
aail,  and  of  laige  sizo,  have  been  laken  on  platesiw  prepared — a 
lest  which  is  utterly  impossible  with  the  original  pr6c«ss  as 
described  by  Dagucrre.  The  next  improvement  In  the  process 
was  toning  or  gilding  the  image  by  a  sololioii  of  gold,  a  practice 
IntTodttCcd  by  H.  L.  Fiaeaa.  Gold  ddoride  is  mixed  with 
bjFposKilphiteof  soda,  and  the  levelled  plate,  bearing  a  BuftdeHt 
quantity  of  the  fluidi,  is  warmed  by  a  spirit>lamp  until  the  n* 
qtdred  vigour  Is  given  to  the  image,  as  a  consequence  of  which  it 
ia  better  seen  in  most  lights.  Nearly  all  the  daguerreotypes 
ffff««»  have  been  treated  in  this  manner,  and  no  doubt  their 
petmancacB  is  in  a  great  measure  doe  to  this  operatkm.  Imttges 
of  tins- class  can  be  copied  by  takfaig  electrotypes  from  them, 
as  abowB  by  Sir  W.  R.  Grove  and  others.  These  reproductions 
are  admirabM  in  every  way,  and  furnish  a  proof  that  the 
daiguetTcan  image  ia  a  tclici 

Pox-Tdbot  Process.-— In.  January  1839  Fox  Talbot  described 
tbe  fiist  of  his  prooessea,  photogenic  drawing,  in  a  paper  to  the 
Rojpal  Society.  He  states  that  he  began  experimenting  la  1834, 
4and  tbat  in  the  solar  microecope  he  obtaiiiod  an  outline  of  the 
object  tQ  be  depictod  in  full  sunshine  in  half  a  second.  He 
published  m  the  Jiriloiaphie^  Mngaxhe  full  detoHs  of  his 
matbod,  which  ooasisted  essentially  mioaking  paper  in comiuoQ 
salt,'  brushing  one  sttte  oaly  of  it  iritb  aboiit  a  is%  solutioo  of 
ailver  littate  in  water,  and  drying  at  the  fire.  Fox  Talbot 
stated'  that  by  repcatiajl;  the  alternate  -washes  of  the  silver  and 
aaltr— sUwsys  endiag,  bofwever,  with  the  fonner~~s'CAtcr  senii* 
tlvencss  was  attained.  Thb  as  the  same  in  every  respect  Sa  the 
.jnetted  psMtiaoi  by  Wedffwc{od  ia  i8os;  but,  when  we  cmae 


to  the  next  process,  which  he  called  "  calMype  "  or  "  beautiful 
picture^"  we  have  a  distinct  advance.  'Hiis  process  TVdbot 
protected  by  a  patent  in  1841. 

It  may  be  briefly  described  as  the  application  of  silver  iodide  to  a 
paper  support.  Carefully  selected  paper  was  bnii4ied  over  with  a 
eouition  o(  silver  nitrate  (too  grains  to  the  ounce  of  distilled  water), 
and  dried  by  the  fire.  It  was  then  dipped  into  a  aolution  of  potaa- 
siiim  iotJidc  (500  grains  being  dissolved  Jo  a  pint  of  watcr^,  where  it 
was  allowntd  to  stay  two  or  three  mtntitcs  until  silver  iodide  was 
fonncd.  In  this  state  the  iodide  is  scarody;  sensitive  to  light,  but 
is  sensiliacd  by  brushing  "  galkwiitrate  of  silver  "  over  the  surface 
to  wliich  the  silver  nitrate  had  been  first  applied.  This  "gallo- 
nitrate  "  is  merely  a  mixture,  consisting  of  too  grains  of  silver  nitrate 
dissolved  in  »  oz.  of  water,  to  which  is  added  one-sixth  of  its  volume 
of  acetic  acid,  and  immediately  before  applying  to  the  (xipcr  an  equal 
bulk  of  a  saturated  solution  of  gallic  aad  to  water.  The  prepared 
surface  is  then  ready  fpr  exposure  in  the  camera,  and;  after  a  short 
insolation,  develops  itself  in  the  dark,  or  the  developmeot  may  be 
hastened  by  a  fresh  application  of  the  **  gallo-nitrate  of  silver."  The 
picture  b  then  fixed  by  washing  it  in  dean  water  and  drying  slightly 
w  blotting  paper,  after  which  it  u  treated  with  a  solution  of  pota» 
sium  bromiac,  and  again  washed  and  dried.  Here  there  is  oo  mentioo 
mode  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  as  a  fixing  agent,  that  having  been 
first^usod  by  Sir  J.  Herschel  in  February  1840. 

In  a  strictly  historical  nodce  it  ought  to  be  mentioned  that 
development  by  means  of  gallic  acid  and  silver  nitrate  waa  first 
known  to  Rev.  J.  B.  Rcade.  When  impressing  images  in  the  solar 
microscope  he  employed  gallic  acid  and  silver  in  order  to  render 
more  senMtlve  the  silver  chloride  paper  that  he  was  using,  and  he 
accidentally  found  that  the  image  could  be  developod  without  the 
aid  of  light.  ^Itie  jaiority  of  the  discovery  was  claimed  by  Fox 
TaUx>t;  and  his  claim  was  sustained  after  a  lawsuit,  apparently  on 
the  ground  that  Rcade's  method  had  never  been  legally  pubtiKiied. 
Talbot  afterwards  made  many  slight  improvements  in  the  process. 
In  one  of  his  patents  he  recognises  the  vain*  of  the  proper  nxlng  of 
his  photogenic  drawings  by  hyposulphite  of  seda,  and  also  the 
production  of  positive  prints  from  the  calot^pc  negatives.  W^ 
pass  over  his  application  of  albumen  to  porcelain  and  its  subsequent 
treatment  with  iodine  vapour,  as  slso  his  application  of  albumen 
in  which  silver  iodide  was  held  m  suspension  to  a  glass  plate^  since 
in  this  he  was  orccoded  by  Niqioe  de  St  Victor  in  t^S. 

Albumen  Process  tm  Class *^^lt  was  a  decided  advance  when 
Niepce  do  St  Victor,  a  nephew  of  Nlo6phore  de  NIepce,  employed 
a  glass  plate  and  coated  it  with  iodised  albumen.  Tbe  originator 
of  this  method  did  not  meet  with  much  succesa  In  the  hands 
of  Blanqoart  £vMrd  ft  became  more  practicable;  but  it  was 
carried  oat  in  Its  graatest  perfection  by  G.  L»  Gray. 

The  outline  of  the  operations  Is  as  foHowst  The  vdiites  of  five 
fresh  eggs  are  mixed  with  about  one  hundred  grains  of  potassium 
iodide,  about  twenty  grains  of  potassium  bromide  and  ten  jnaina 
of  common  salt.  The  mixture  is  beaten  up  into  a  froth  and  allowed 
to  settle  for  twenty^four  hours,  when  the  clear  liquid  is  decanted  off. 
A  circular  pool  of  albumen  is  poured  on  a  glass  plase,  and  a  straight 
ruler  (iCTends  beiog  wrapped  with  waxed  paper  to  prevent  its  edge 
from  touching  the  plate  anywhere  eaoept  at  the  maxgins)  is  drawn 
over  the  plate,  sweeping  off  the  excess  of  albumen,  aad  so  loaving 
an  even  film.  The  plate  is  first  allowed  to  dry  spontaneously,  a 
final  heating  being  given  to  it  in  an  oven  or  before  the  fire.  The  neat 
hardens  the  altwmen,  and  it  beoomes  insoluble  and  ready  for  the 
silver  nitrate  bath.  One  of  the  difficulties  is  to  prevent  a[VBtallia* 
tion  of  the  salts  held  in  solution,  and  this  can  only  be  ejected  by 
keeping  them  in  defect  rather  than  in  cxcesa  The  mate  is  sensitized 
for  five  minutes  in  a  bath  of  silver  nitrate,  acidifica  with  acetic  add, 
and  exposed  whilst  still  wet,  or  it  may  be  slidktly  washed  aad  again 
dried  and  expqsed  whilst  in  its  desiccated  sUtc.  The  image  is 
developed  by  gallic  acid  in  the  usual  way. 

After  the  appUcation  of  albumen  many  modifications  were 
introduced  in  the  shape  of  starch,  serum  of  milk,  gelatin,  all  of 
which  were  intended  to  hold  iodide  iajtto  on  the  plate;  and  the 
development  in  every  case  seems  to  have  been  by  gallic  acid. 
At  one  time  the  waxed-paper  process  subsequently  introduced 
by  Le  Gray  was  a. great  favourite.  Paper  that  bad  been  mads 
tranfducent  by  white  wax  was  immersed  in  a  solution  of  potas* 
sium  iodide  until  impr^pated  with  It,  after  which  it  was  sensi- 
tized in  the  usual  way,  devdopmeht  being  by  galUc  add.  In 
Images  obtained  by  this  process  the  high  Jights  arc  represented 
by  metallic  silver,  whilst  the  shadows  are  traoslucent.  Such  a 
print  Is  called  a  *' negative."  When  silver  chloride  paper  It 
darkened  by  the  passage  of  light  through  a  negative,  we  get  the 
highest  lights  represented  by  while  paper  and  the  shadows  by 
darkened  chloride.    A  print  of  this  kind  is  called  a  "  positive." 

CoUodwn  Pr§cets,'^A  great  ioqietus  was  given  to  photography 


488 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


fHISTORV 


in  1850,  on  the  iatrodnction  of  ooUodion  {q»v.),  a  very  convenient 
vdiide  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  the  plates  are 
prepared,  and  alao  because  it  is  a  substance  as  a  rule  totaUy 
unaffected  by  silver  nitrate,  which  is  not  the  case  with  other 
organic  substances.  Thus  albumen  forms  a  definite  silver 
compound,  as  do  gelatin,  starch  and  gum.  The  employment  of 
collodion  was  first  suggested  by  Le  Gray,  but  it  remuned  for 
Frederick  Scott  Archer  of  London,  closely  followed  by  P.  W.  Fry, 
to  make  a  really  practical  use  of  the  discovery.  When  collodion  is 
poured  on  a  g^ass  plate  it  leaves  on  drying  a  hard  tran^>arent 
film  which  under  the  microscope  is  slightly  reticulated.  Before 
drying,  the  film  is  gelatinous  and  perfectly  adapted  for  holding 
•»  tiiu  salts  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohoL  Where  such  salts 
are  present  they  ctystaDiae  out  when  the  film  is  dried,  hence 
such  a  film  is  only  suitable  where  the  plates  are  read^  to  be 
immersed  in  the  silver  bath.  As  a  rule,  about  five  grains  of  the 
soluble  gun-ootum  are  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  ether  and  akohol,  both  of  which  must  be  of  low 
specific  gravity,  'j2S  and  '805  respectively.  If  the  alcohol  or 
ether  be  much  diluted  with  water  the  gun-cotton  (pyroxylin) 
precipitates,  but,  even  if  less  diluted,  it  forms  a  film  which  is 
*'  crapey  "  and  uneven.  Such  was  the  material  which  Le  bray 
proposed  and  which  Archer  brought  into  practical  use.  The 
opaque  silver  plate  with  its  one  impression  was  abandoned;  and 
the  paper  support  of  Talbot,  with  its  inequalities  of  grain  and 
thickness,  followed  suit,  though  not  immediately.  When  once 
a  negative  had  been  obtained  with  collodion  on  a  glass  plate — 
the  image  showing  high  li^ts  by  almost  complete  opacity  and 
the  shadows  by  transparency  (as  was  the  case,  too,  in  the  cabtype 
process) — any  number  of  impressions  could  be  obtained  by  means 
of  the  silver-printing  process  introduced  by  Fox  Tslbot,  and  they 
were  found  to  possess  a  delicacy  and  refinement  of  detail  that 
certainly  ec&psed  the  finest  print  obtained  from  a  calotype 
negative.  To  any  one  who  had  practised  the  somewhat  tedious 
calotype  process,  or  the  waxed-paper  process  of  Le  Gray  with 
its  sUll  longer  preparation  and  devebpment,  the  advent  of  the 
collodion  method  must  have  been  extremely  welcome,  since  it 
effected  a  saving  in  time,  money  and  uncertainty.  The  rapidity 
of  photographic  action  was  much  increased*  and  the  production 
of  a  different  character  of  pictures  thus  became  possbkw 

We  ffive  an  outline  of  the  procedure.  A  glass  pbte  Is  caiefnlly 
cleaned  by  a  detergent  racb  as  a  cream  of  tripoli  powder  and  spirits 
of  wine  (to  which  a  little  ammonia  is  often  added),  then  wiped  with  a 
•oft  rag,  and  finally  polished  with  a  silk  handkerchief  or  chamois 
leather.  A  collodion  containing  soluble  iodides  and  bromides  is  made 
to  flow  over  the  idate,  all  eaoeas  being  drained  off  when  it  it  covered. 
A  good  standard  formula  for  the  ooUodion  is— ^S  ^ins  of  {pyroxylin. 
5  OS.  of  alcohol,  5  oc.  of  ether;  and  in  this  hquid  are  dtsaolvrd  3) 
grains  of  ammonium  iodide.  2  grains  oS  cadmium  iodicte  and  3  grains 
of  cadmium  bromide.  When  the  collodion  is  set  the  plate  is 
immeraed  in  a  bath  of  rilvcr  nitrate-^  vertical  form  being  that 
nnostly  used  in  England,  whilst  a  horisontat  dish  is  used  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe—a  good  formula  for  which  b  ^50  grains  of  ulver 
nitrate  with  to  os.  of  water.  The  plate  is  steadily  lowered  into  this 
sohitioQ,  and  moved  in  it  until  all  the  repellent  action  between  the 
aqueous  solution  of  the  stiver  and  the  solvenu  of  the  collodion  is 
removed,  when  It  b  allowed  to  rest  for  a  couple  of  minutes,  after 
which  period  it  b  taken  out  and  placed  in  the  dark  dlde  ready  for 
exposure  In  the  camera.  After  unoergcnng  proper  exposure  the  plate 
b  withdrawn,  and  in  a  room  lighted  with  ycUow  light  the  developing 
solution  M  applied,  which  originally  was  a  solution  of  pyrogallic 
acid  in  water  restrained  in  its  action  by  the  addition  of  aoetk  add. 
One  of  the  dd  formulae  employed  by  r.  H.  Delamotte  was  9  grains 
of  pyronUic  add,  a  drachms  of  ghdal  acetic  add  and  3  oe.  of 
water.  The  Image  gradually  appeara  after  the  applicatkm  of  thb 
solution,  buikfing  itself  up  from  the  silver  nitrate  dinging  to  the  film, 
which  b  reduced  to  the  metallk  state  by  degrees.  Should  the 
denaity  be  insufficient  a  few  drops  of  silver  nitrate  are  added  to  the 
prvogalUc  add  solution  and  the  devekping  action  oontinued. 

In  1814  Robert  Hunt  introduced  another  redudng  agent,  which 
b  still  the  favourite,  viz.  ferrous  sulphate.  Bv  its  use  the  time  of 
necessary  exposure  of  the  plate  b  reduced  ana  the  Image  develops 
with  great  rapidity.  A  sampk  of  thb  devetopln^  solutron  b  30 
grains  of  fmous  sulphate,  ao  minilhs  of  acetic  acid,  with  i  ox.  of 
vrnttf.  Thb  often  leaves  the  iro^[e  thinner  than  b  requisite  for 
the  formatkm  <A  a  good  print,  and  it  b  intensified  with  pyrogallic 
acid  and  silver.  Other  intensifien  are  used  to  increase  the  deposit 
oa  a  pbte  by  means  of  mercury  or  uranium,  followed  by  other 
aolutieos  to  atatt  fuftbtr  darfcta  tiw  double  Mks  fonned  on  the  film. 


Such  f  ntensifylag  afeents  haVe  to  be  applied  to  the  image  after  the 
pbte  b  fiaedi  which  b  done  by  a  amcentrated  solutkm  of  hypo* 
aulphile  of  soda  or  by  potaarium  cyanide,  the  btter  salt  having  been 
firrt  introduced  by  Martin  and  Marc  Antoine  Augustin  Gaudin  ia 
1653  (La  Lumtkre,  April  33,  t8M).  Twenty>five  grains  of  potassium 
cyamde  to  one  ouooe  of  water  is  the  strength  of  the  solution  uaually 
empbyed.  The  veactioii  of  both  theae  fixing  agents  b  to  form  whh 
the  sensitive  salts  of  ailver  doubb  hysoauhihites  or  cyajUdea,  whidi 
are  BoloUem  water  and  aak.  Theuuhtyofbremkbamtbecollodioa 
prooesa  aeema  to  have  been  reeogniaed  in  its  eariieat  days,  Scott 
Archer  (1853)  and  R.  J.  Bingham  (1850)  both  mentioning  it.  We 
notke  this,  ainee  as  bte  aa  1866  a  patent-right  in  its  use  waa  aoaght 
to  be  enforeed  in  America,  the  patent  bemg  taken  out  by  Janoes 
Cutting  in  July  i8s4« 

PasitiM  PidMns  by  iht  CtOodioit  Pneas.^Jn  the  infancy 
of  the  ooUodion  prooeai  it  was  shown  by  Home  that  a  negative 
image  could  be  made  to  assume  the  appearance  of  a  positive 
by  whitening  the  metallic  silver  deposit.  Thb  he  effected  by 
using  with  the  pyrogallic  add  developer  a  small  qnanCity  o( 
nitric  add.  A  better  result  was  obtained  by  P.  W.  Fry  with 
ferrous  sulphate  and  ferrous  nitrate,  whilst  Hugh  Diamond  gave 
effect  to  the  matter  in  a  practical  way.  F.  Scott  Archer  used 
mercuric  chloride  to  whiten  the  Image.  To  Robert  Hunt, 
however,  nmst  be  rewarded  the  cradit  of  notidng  the  action  of 
thb  salt  on  the  image  (PkU,  Tram^  1843).  The  whitened  picture 
may  be  made  to  stand  out  against  black  vdvet,  or  bbck  varnish 
may  be  poured  over  the  fihn  to  give  the  necessary  black  back* 
ground,  or,  more  recently,  the  positive  pictures  may  be  produced 
on  japanned  iron  plates  (^^ROtype  plates)  or  on  japaimed  leather. 
This  process  b  still  occasionally  practised  by  itinennt  photo- 
graphers. 

Moisi  OModion  Pteeess.— It  h  seen  that  for  the  soooeasfid 
working  of  the  coDodion  process  it  was  necessary  that  the  plate 
should  be  exposed  very  shortly  after  ita  preparation;  thb  was 
a  drawback,  inasmnch  as  it  necessitated  tak&ig  a  heavy  equip- 
ment into  the  fidd.  In  1856,  Sir  William  Crookes  and  J.  SjpiDer 
published  in  the  PkUosopkical  Ucmatne  a  prooe»  whereby  they 
were  enabled  to  keep  a  film  moist  (so  as  to  prevent  dystaHitatina 
of  the  silver  nitrate)  several  days»  enabling  pUtes  to  be  prepared 
at  home,  exposed  ia  the  fidd,  and  then  developed  in  the  dark 
room.  Hie  plate  was  prepared  ia  the  usual  way  and  »  aolntion 
of  xinc  nitrate  and  silver  nitrate  ia  water  was  made  to  flofw  over 
it  The  hygroaoopic  natOM  of  the  anc  salt  kept  suificseat 
mobture  on  the  plate  to  attain  the  dcared  end.  Various 
mndifirariona  in  procedure  have  beta  made. 

Dry  PhUtj—li  would  appear  that  the  first  experimenU  with 
collodion  dry  plates  were  due  to  Marc  Antoine  Augustin  Gandia. 
In  La  iMmHre  of  the  ssnd  of  April  and  the  lyih  of  May  s8s4 
he  dcacribea  hb  tcMaicfaea  on  the  questkm;  mtShl  in  ^«»|j'*»** 
G.  R.  Muirhead,  on  the  4th  of  August  1854,  stated  that 
light  acta  almost  aa  energetically  on  a  dry  surface  as  on  a 
wet  after  all  the  silver  has  been  washed  away  from  the  fomcr 
previous  to  dedocation.  J.  M.  Taupenot,  however,  aeema  t* 
have  been  the  ficst  to  use  a  diy-plate  process  that  was  wtaBy 
workable.  His  origiflal  plan  was  to  coat  a  pUte  with  cioao&m, 
sensitiae  it  in  the  ordiiuuy  msnner,  wash  it,  cause  a  solution  ei 
albumen  to  flow  over  the  surface,  diy  it,  dip  it  in  a  bath  of  silver 
nitrate  acidified  with  acetic  add,  and  wash  and  dry  it  a«uk 
The  plate  was  then  in  a  oottditkm  to  be  exposed,  and  waato  be 
devebped  with  pyrogallic  add  and  silver.  In  thb  method  we 
have  a  double  maniimlation,  whidi  is  long  in  aecntion,  thon^ 
perfectly  effective. 

A  great  advance  waa  made  in  all  diy^ifaite  processes  by  the 
introdttdion  of  what  b  known  as  the  "  alkaline  devdoper," 
which  is,  however,  inapplicable  to  all  platea  en  whkh  silver 
nitrate  h  present  in  the  free  state.  Hie  devdopets  pteviwrfi 
described,  other  for  ooQodwh  or  paper  processes,  were  dependent 
on  the  reduction  of  metallir  silver  by  some  such  agent  as  fernnn 
sulphate,  the  reduction  taking  place  gnduaUy  and  the  reduced 
partides  aggregating  on  those  portions  of  the  film  whkh  had  beea 
acted  upon  by  light.  The  action  of  Sght  bdng  to  reduce  the 
silver  kxlide,  bromide  or  chloride,  .these  reduced  partidca  raatf 
acted  aa  audd  for  the  crystallised  metaL  It  will  be  evident 
that  in  such  a  method  of  devdlopmsnt  the 


HISTORYl 


PHOTCXJRAPHY 


489 


acts  at  dbtanccs  xvlatively  grent  compared  with  the  diamttcn 
of  the  molecules  themsdves.  If  it  were  possible  to  reduce  the 
altered  partides  of  silver  salt  it  was  plain  that  devdopmcnt  would 
be  more  rapid,  and  also  thst  the  number  of  molecules  reduced  by 
light  would  be  smaller  if  the  metallic  silver  could  be  derived  from 
silver  compounds  within  shorter  distances  of  the  centres  of 
molecular  attnction.  Alkaline  development  accomi^ished  this 
to  a  very  remarkable  extent;  but  the  method  is  only  really 
practicable  when  applied  to  films  oontaining  slvcr  luomide 
and  chloride,  as  silver  iodide  Is  only  sli^tly  amenable  to  the 
alkaline  development.  The  introduction  of  this  developer  is 
believed  to  he  of  Ameikaa  origin;  and  it  a  known  that  in 
the  year  1862  Major  C.  Russell  used  it  with  the  dry  plates  he 
introduced. 

An  alkaline  developer  conasts  of  an  alkalf,  a  redadng  agent 

and  a  restraining  asenC.   These  bodies,  when  combined  and  applied 

to  the  solid  silver  oromide  or  chloride,  after  being  acted  upon  by 

light,  were  able  to  reduce^  the  sub-bromide  or  sub-chloride,  and  to 

buiki  up  an  Itn^c  upon  it,  leaving  the  unaltered  bromide  intact, 

except  so  far  as  it  vras  used  in  the  building  up.    In  1877  Sir  W. 

Abney  investi^ted  this  action.    A  dry  plate  was  prepared  by  the 

both  process  in  the  usual  manner  (to  he  described  below),  and 

exposed  an  the  camera.   The  exposed  film  was  covered  with  another 

£lm  of  collodiobromide  emulsion,  which  of  course  had  not  seen  the 

fight.     An  image  was  obtained  from  the  double  film  by  means 

01  the  alkaline  developer,  which  penetrated  through^  the  upper 

unexposed  film.    The  development  was  prolonged  until  an  image 

appeared  through  the  unexposed  film,  when  the  plate  was  fixed, 

washed  and  dried.    A  piece  of  gelatinous  paper  was  cemented  on 

the  upper  film,  and  a  similar  piece  on  the  lower  after  both  had 

been  stripped  off  the  glass.    When  quite  dry  the  two  papers  were 

fordbly  separated,  a  film  adhering  to  each.   Ine  upper  film,  altkouek 

never  exposed  to  Ug^t^  showed  an  image  in  some  cases  more  intense 

than  the  under  film.   The  action  of  the  alkaline  developer  was  here 

manifest:  the  silver  bromide  in  close  contiguity  to  the  exposed 

particles  was  reduced  to  the  metallic  state.    Hence,  from  this 

and  similar  experiments,  Abney  concluded  that  silver  bromide  could 

not  exist  in  the  presence  of  a  freshly  i>redpitatcd  or  reduced  metallic 

silver,  and  that  a  sub-bromide  was  immediately  formed.  From  this 

it  will  be  seen  that  the  deposited  silver  is  well  within  the  sphere  of 

molecular  attraction,  and  that  consequently  a  less  exposure  (i.e. 

the  reduction  of  fewer  molecules  of  the  sensitive  salt)  would  give 

a  developable  image* 

The  alkalis  used  embraced  the  alkalis  themselves  and  the 
mono-carbonates.  The  sole  reducing  agent  up  till  recent  times 
was  pyrogallic  add.  In  the  year  1880  Abney  found  that 
hydroquinone  was  even  more  effective  than  pyrogallic  add,  its 
redudng  power  being  stronger.  Various  other  experimentalists 
tried  other  kindred  substances,  but  without  adding  to  the  list 
of  really  useful  agents  until  recently. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  effective:— 

Etkoncten  Developer. 

bikonogcn     ......  25  iwrts. 

Sodium  sulphite       •     •     •     .  50      ^ 

Sodium  carbonate    ....  50      „ 

Pocannum  bromide  ....  k      ** 

Water 1000      „ 

This  is  a  one-solution  developer,  and  acts  eneigetkally. 

M*td  Developer. 

Solution  A. 

Metol 3  parts. 

Sodium  sulphite .     .    ^     .     *  >8      „ 

Water      .•..•••        JOQ      „ 

Sotutrah  B. 

Sodium  carbonate    ....  6  parts. 

Potassium  bromide        ...  I       „ 

Water       . .100 

For  use,  take  one  part  of  A  to  from  f  to  3  parts  of  B. 

A  ntidot  Developer. 

Amidol 3  parts. 

Sodium  sulphite  .....        loo      „ 
Potassium  bromide        ...     i  to  3      „ 

Water .       1000      ,, 

This  developer  requires  no  addition  of  alkali. 

Orlof  Developer. 

Solution  A. 
Ortol  ........  IS  parts. 

Sodium  metahisnlphite  7      »• 

Water 1000     „ 


Solution  B. 
Sodium  carbonate    ....        100  parts. 
Sodium  sulphite        ....         125      „ 
Potasaum  bromide        ...  3      »> 

Water 1000     „ 

A  and  B  sdutions  are  mixed  together  in  equal  proportions. 
Besides  these,  there  are  several  more,  such  aS  adurol,  glydn, 

?^rocatechin.  which  have  been  used  with  more  or  less  succci's. 
hey  alV  give  a  black  irt  lieu  of  that  dark  olive-green  deposit  ol 
silver  which  is  so  often  found  with  pyrogallol  developers.  All  are 
alkaline  developers,  and  the  ims^  is  ouut  up  fnMn  the  sensitive 
salt  within  the  filso.  They  are  applicable  to  aelatin  or  oollodion 
plates,  but  for  the  latter  rather  more  bromUle  of  an  alkali  is  added, 
to  retard  fogging. 

Another  set  of  developeis  for  dry  plates  dependent  on  the 
reduction  of  the  silver  bromide  and  iht  metalUc  state  is  founded 
on  the  fact  that  certain  organic  aahs  of  iron  can  be  utilized.  In 
X877  M.  Carey  Lea  of  Philadelphia  and  William  Willis  announced 
almost  simultaneously  that  a  solution  ol  fenous  oxalate  in 
neutral  potassium  oxalate  was  effective  as  a  dcvek^r,  and  from 
that  time  its  use  haa  been  adcoowledged.  In  1882  J.  M.  Eder 
demonstrated  that  gelatino<silyer  chloride  plates  could  be 
developed  with  fenous  dtrate^  which  could  not  be  so  readily 
accomplished  with  ferrous  oanlateu  The  exposure  for  chloride 
plates  when  devek>ped  by  the  latter  was  extremely  prolonged. 
In  the  same  year  Abney  showed  that  if  ferrous  oxalate  were 
dissolved  in  potassium  dtrate  a  much  more  powerful  agent  was 
formed,  which  allowed  not  only  gelatino-chloride  plates  to  be 
readily  developed  but  also  ocrflodio-chloride  plates.  These  plates 
were  undevelopable  except  by  the  prcdpitation  method  until 
the  advent  of  the  agents  last-mentioned  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  chlorida  was  as  readily  reduced  as  the  sub-chloride. 

Amongst  the  components  of  an  alkaline  developer  we  men- 
tioned a  restrainer.  This  factor,  generally  a  bromide  or  chloride 
of  an  alkali,  serves  probably  to  form  a  compound  with  the  silver 
salt  which  has  not  been  acted  upon  by  Ught»  and  which  is  less 
easily  reduced  than  is  the  silver  salt  alone^^-the  altered  particles 
being  left  intact.  The  aAlon  of  the  restrainer  is  regarded  by 
some  as  due  to  its  combination  with  the  alkalL  But  whidicver 
theory  is  correct  the  fact  remains  that  the  restrainer  does  make 
the  primitive  salt  lest  amenable  to  reduction.  Such  restraincrs 
as  the  bromides  of  the  alkalis  act  through  chemical  means; 
but  there  are  others  which  act  through  physical  means,  an 
example  of  which  we  have  in  the  preparation  of  a  gelatin  plate. 
In  this  case  the  gelatin  wraps  up  the  partides  of  the  sOver 
compound  in  a  colloidal  sheath,  as  it  were,  and  the  devdoping 
solution  only  gets  at  them  in  a  very  gradual  manner,  for  the 
natural  tendency  of  all  such  redudng  agents  is  to  attack  the 
partides  on  which  least  work  has  to  be  expended.  In  the  case 
of  silver  sub-bromide  the  developer  has  only  to  remove  one  atom 
of  bromine,  whereas  it  has  to  remove  two  in  the  case  of  silver 
bromide.  The  sub-bromide  formed  by  light  and  that  sub- 
sequently produced  in  the  act  of  development  are  therefore 
reduced.  A  large  proportion  of  gelatin  compared  with  the 
silver  salt  In  a  film  enables  an  alkaline  developer  to  be  tised 
without  any  dicmical  restrainer;  but  when  the  gelatin  bears  a 
small  proportion  to  the  silver  such  a  restrainer  has  to  be  used. 
With  collodion  films  the  p>articles  of  bromide  are  more  or  less 
unenvcloped,  and  hence  in  this  case  some  kind  of  chemical 
restrainer  is  absolutdy  necessaiy.  We  may  say  that  the  organic 
iron  developers  require  less  restraining  in  thdr  action  than  do 
the  alkaline  developers. 

In  Major  Russell's  process  the  plate  was  prepared  by  Immennon  in 
a  strong  soludon  of  stiver  nitrate  and  then  washed  and  a  preservative 
applied.  The  last-named  agent  executes  two  functions,  one  bdne  to 
absorb  the  hadogen  liberated  by  the  action  of  light  and  the  other 
to  preserve  the  mm  from  atmospheric  action.  Tannin,  which  Major 
Russell  employed,  if  we  mistake  not.  b  a  good  absorbent  of  the 
halogens,  and  acts  as  a  varnish  to  the  film.  Other  collodion  dry-plate 
processes  carried  out  by  moans  of  the  silver-nitrate  bath  were  very 
numecous  at  one  time,  many  different  organic  bodies  bemg  also 
employed.  In  most  cases  ordinanr  iodised  collodion  was  made 
use  of,  a  small  percentage  of  soluble  bromide  bdng  as  a  rule  added  to 
it.  When  plates  were  devdo^  by  the  alkaline  method  this 
extra  bromide  induced  density,  since  it  was  the  ^ver  biomide  alone 
which  was  amenable  to  it,  the  icdide  being  almost  entirdy  unaffected 
by  the  weak  developer  which  was  at  that  time  in  general  use. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Dry-PhU  Balk  Precai, — One  of  llie  moil  luccexful  bal 
dry-platfi  pfoccucA  wu  introducnl  by  R.  Mannen  Gordor 
Tbc  plite  wu  givf  n  id  edging  oT  olbiunca  and  Lhtn  coated  wJL 
ordJQUy  iodized  coUodion  to  which  one  grain  per  ounce  i 
admium  bromide  had  been  added.  It  wai  kept  in  the  ulvc 
nilnte  bath  for  ten  Riinutcs,  after  wfakb  k  wu  waifae 
tboraughly.    Tfie  foUoviug  preaervjitivc  wi^  thca  apphcd: — 


'  \  SoEU*  cauly 


,.  \  Gallic  (ctd  . 


jr 


Tbne  ingredients  veto  mind  jnd  bdore  uw  and,  after 
filteting,  appUcd  foi  one  minute  ID  tba  plale,  which  waa  allowed 
to  drain  and  Kt  up  lo  dry  natunlly.  Great  latitude  is  odnuBible 
in  the  erpccure;  it  should  rarely  he  lea  than  four  limes  or  more 
than  twenty  times  that  which  would  he  lequired  for  a  wet  plale 
under  ordinary  ditumstances.  The  image  may  t»  developed 
with  ferrous  sulphate  totnincd  by  ■  solution  of  gelatin  and 
glacial  acetic  add,  10  whldi  ft  lotutioa  of  silver  nitrsle 
b  added  just  before  appliatioii,  <a  by  >a  alkaline  devdopcr. 

vet  ocpt  ooly  bai  the  chemical  ctmditkm 


Ihroi^h  the  gliM  plat 


aticrcd  by  the 
ifbMk.    Were 

Sl  oE  the  Bla» 


lime  ■hould 


of  Iba  Hne  dBnBiy  ■■  glaia.  and  ■ 
abnrti  an  iha  phutogiaphically  ac 
"  backins  a  plate." 

C*ttafun  EmKlsiin  iVMMWi.— In  1SJ4.  W.  B.  Bolton  and 
B.  J.  Sayce  published  the  (crm  of  a  ptocas  which  revolutionized 
photographic  nvnipulaiiopi.  In  the  ordiusry  collodion  process 
a  sentiiive  film  ia  procured  by  coaling  a  glass  plate  wiib  oJlodJon 

farm  lilver  iodide  and  btomide  ia  the  Glm.  The  question  that 
prsented  itself  to  Bolton  and  Sayce  nat  whether  It  might  not 
be  posiible  to  get  the  sensitive  sails  of  silver  farmed  in  the  collo- 
dion whilst  liquid,  and  s  sensitive  film  given  to  a  plate  by  merely 
kiting  this  collodion,  containing  the  salts  in  suapension^  Sow 
over  ths  glass  piste.  Caudia  bad  altenipted  to  do  this  with 
lilver  chloride,  and  later  C.  W,  Smipson  had  succeeded  in  perfect- 
citric  acid  aiid  silver  niuale;  but  the  chloride  until  tecintly  his 
conudercd  a  slow  working  salt,  and  nearly  incapable  of 


Up  to  the  t 


J  of  W.  B 
Ic  bid  been 


,d  B.J.  Sayce 


considered  the  stapl 

of  n 

lives;  and  though  br 

mide 

atber3,ithadootine 

witi, 

llhe 

ver  iodide  in  coUodio 

mors  of  the  process  1 

rned 

which  Ihcy  found  co 

lad  beea  used  by  Majc 
IS  nuich  favour  as  to 
late  mentioned  the  su 
let  Iliougbl  practicabli 


bg  the  tmul&ified  Knsilivc  sail  was  poured  over  a  glaA  plati 
allowed  to  set.  and  washed  till  all  the  laliiblc  aalts  rautiingltoi 
(he  dmible  deceoipoiiiiDa  of  ilie  soluble  bromide  and  the  lilvi 
oitrate,  together  vritb  the  unaltered  aolDbk  bntaids  or  dlvi 


allowed  lo  dry  and  then  uposed.  The  rapidity  of  these  pUtes 
WSJ  not  in  any  way  remarkable,  but  the  process  had  the  flteal 
advantage  of  doing  away  with  the  sensitising  nittvie  of  silver 

developed  by  the  alkalins  method,  nod  gave  imaga  which,  if 
Dot  primarily  dense  enough,  could  be  Intensified  by  the  appUca- 
Ikio  el  pyrogillic  add  and  silver  nitnite  u  in  the  wet  cnUodiaa 
ptnms.  Sudi  was  the  crude  germ  of  m  metbod  which  ■*> 
deitined  to  effect  a  cotn[Me  change  In  the  aspect  of  photo- 
graphic negativD  taking';  but  far  somq  time  It  Uy  dorinaat.  In 
fact  there  was  at  fiiit  mudi  to  discoimge  tiki  of  it,  lince  the 
{data  often  beome  nikd  oa  dsvdopmeat. 

M.  Carey  La  of  PhOadeloUa,  and  W.  Cooper,  lun..  gi  Radii«. 
may  be  laid  id  have  g^ven  Ibo  real  Impetus  Co  the  m^hod.  Carey 
Lea.  bv  intrDdiKinK  an  acid  Into  the  emulsioo,  esublished  a  praclic- 
able  cDilod  ion  emuluon  pracm.  which  was  rapid  and  at  the  «ame  line 

Lea  eoiployal  m  fair  excess  of  lUvcr  altrate,  and  Cc^oocl  H.  Stuart 


d  of  pyrDxWIn  and  lenHtive   lalt.     After 

:^ble  iimc,  ttic  pellicle  was  dried  oaturaDy 

"— '  -"—utile  pyroxvUn redindved  is  fwr 

n  of  nlvrr  bRnnidei  Aver  ehloaide 

d'aJIfSS 


^ 4;x^ 

of  dry  pkaiei  with  the  bath,  in  Older  to  preveni  the  almoq^har  frgca 
TendcnniEibc  Hixface  of  the  film  ipotly  or  tnsensilive  «i  deTeiop. 
meat.  This  modification  had  the  gnat  advantage  of  aUowieg 
a  lar^  quantity  of  lenaLtLve  salt  to  be  prepared  of  ptecnely  tbe  iudc 
vatoe  at  to  rapidity  of  action  and  qoaliiy  of  film- 

made  by  Colonel  Stun  WoRlef.whoiaJiueiS/jmads  known  the 
powerful  nature  of  a  itreii{fy  alnline  devehvcr  as  oppoaed  10  the 
weak  one  which  up  to  that  tInK  had  uiuaUy  been  cmployvd  for  a 
collodion  enuliian  plate,  or  Indeed  for  any  dry  piste. 
An  example  of  the  pnpwaiion  of  a  coUoivoii  dpultion  And  the 

d<  "' is  the  followutg:  zl  ot.  of  akobol,  5  oa.  of  ether,  75  graios 

of  in.     In  I  01,  ol  alcohol  are  diMotved  Joo  sraina  of  liac 

br  it  it  then  acidublcd  with  4  or  J  dropt  of  nitric  acid,  and 

be  le  operations.     An  emu^n  of  lilver  tmnaide  is   tomed 

ia  tK^nleally  eallod  "  ripen."  or,  In  oibcr  words,  to  becorae  envoy 
when  poured  out  opon  a  glass  cilu&  Whca  tlie  nnuliioa  has 
ripened  ic  may  be  used  at  once  or  be  ponied  out  into  a  Bai  diib  and 
the  aolmnu  Uhwed  to  evaporate  tBI  tbt  pfOaylin  beromet  gdatia- 
oue.  In  this  Rate  It  is  wuhcd  in  wuer  tiO  aU  the  loluUe  win  sie 
oiried  sway.  After  this  It  may  be  cilbv  spread  snt  on  a  ckith  .and 
dried  or  tnated  with  two  or  thna  4oaei  of  alcohol,  and  tWm  le- 
diaiDlved  in  citUBl  ports  of  alcohol  (■pcciiic  Elavity,  -So^)  and  ether 
fipecific  gravity,  -JXt).  In  Ihit  condilioa  n  li  a  waibed  emuhB«w 
arid  a  idB»  plate  C*B  be  onaird  with  it  and  the  film  dried,  or  11  may 

beer,  coffee,  gum,  &c.,  awlied.  ■ 

The  type  of  a  uaefal  alkaline  developer  for  collodion  plala  ia  aa 


:f£?-"-i? 


'  An  account  of  Sayn's  pnceai  <s  to  be  found  in  tbt  J'teUgroaMc 
Fnii i][ October  ii6s. orihe i>ltMg(n^ Jfmtf  of  tiM  Brae  (btc 
■  The  advaaiagea  of  this  lall  wn  poinad  out  by  Loon  Wanwrkc 


tECHNlQUQ 


devdo^cnt  is  coaductied  in  a  fist  dUf,  wontuhnitm  the  •olution 
b  pounsd  on  tlie  pUte.^  The  unredooed  nlu  are  diminated  by  either 
cyanide  of  potaaaiuni  or  sodium  hyposulphite.  Intensity  may  be 
grven  to  the  imi^e,  i(  requisite,  eitaer  before  or  after  the  "  finng  " 
opetation.  Where  resort  is  had  to  ferrous  oxalate  development, 
toe  developer  is  made  in  one  of  two  ways— (i)  by  saturating  a 
saiunated  solution  of  nential  potassium  oxalate  with  ferrous  oxalate, 
and  adding  an  equal  volume  of  a  sotution  (xo  grains  to  i  os.  of  water) 
of  potassium  bromide  to  restrain  the  action,  or  (2)  by  roixinK,  accord- 
ing to  Eder's  plan,  ^  volumes  by  measure  of  a  saturated  solution 
of  the  potassium  oxalate  with  i  volume  by  measuie  of  a  saturated 
solution  of  ferrous  sulphate,  and  adding  to  the  ferrous  ooalate 
solution  thus  obtained  an  equal  bulk  (rf  the  above  solution  ol  potas- 
sium bromide.  The  development  is  conducted  in  precisely  the 
same  manner  as  indicated  above,  and  tbe  image  is  fiaoed  by  one  of 
the  same  agents. 

Celaiin  Emulsion  Procas.—Tbii  facility  with  which  silver 
bromide  emulsion  could  be  prepared  in  coUodion  had  turned 
investigation  into  substitutes  foi*  it.    As  early  as  September 
187  X  Dr  R.  L.  Maddox  had  tried  emxibifying  the  silver  salt  in 
gelatin,  and  had  produced  negatives  of  rare  excellence.    In 
November  X873  J.  King  described  a  similar  process,  getting  rid 
of  the  soluble  salts  by  washing.    Efforts  had  also  been  made  in 
this  direction  by  J.  Burgess  in  July  1873.    R.  Kennett  in  1874 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  put  forward  the  gelatin 
cfaiulsion  process  in  a  practical  and  workable  form,  as  he  then 
published  a  fwrmula  which  gave  good  and  quick  results.    It  was 
not  tiU  1878,  however,  that  the  great  capabUities  of  sOver  bromide 
when  held  in  suspension  by  gdatin  were  fairly  known;  in  March 
of  that  year  C.  Bennett  showed  that  by  kccpmg  the  gelatin 
solution  liquid  at  a  low  temperature  for  as  long  as  seven  da>'s 
extraordinary  rapidity  was  conferred  on  the  sensitive  salt.    Tlie 
molecular  condition  of  the  silver  bromide  seemed  to  bt  altered, 
and  to  be  amenable  to  a  far  iiu>re  powerful  developer  th^n  had 
hitherto  been  dreamt  of.    In  1874  J.  S.  Stas  had  shown  thai 
various  modifications  of  sliver  bromide  and  chloride  were  possible, 
and  it  seemed  that  the  green  molecular  condition  (one  of  those 
noted  by  Stas)  of  the  bromide  was  attained  by  prolonged  w&rm- 
xog.    It  may  be  said  that  tbe  advent  of  rapid  plates  was  1878, 
and  tHat  the  full  credit  of  this  diiscovciy  should  be  allotted  to 
C.  Bdmett.    Both  Kennett  and  Bennett  got  rid  of  the  soluble 
salts  fitmi  the  emulston  by  washing;  and  in  order  to  attain  success 
it  was  requisite  that  the  bromide  should  be  in  excess  of  that  neces- 
sary to  combine  with  the  silver  nitrate  used  to  form  the  emulsion. 
In  June  1879  Abney  showed  that  a  good  emulsion  might  be 
formed  by  precipitating  a  silver  bromide  by  dropping  a  solution 
of  a  soluble  bromide  into  a  dilute  solution  of  silver  nitrate.    The 
supernatant  liquid  was  decanted,  and  after  two  or  three  washings 
witli  water  the  precipitate  was  mixed  with  the  proper  amount 
of  gelatin.    D.  B.  van  Monckhoven  of  Ghent,  in  experimenting 
with  this  process,  hit  upon  the  plan  61  obtaining  the  emulsion  by 
acting  on  silver  carbonate  with  hydrobromlc  add,  which  left 
no  soluble  salts  to  be  extracted.    He  further,  in  August  1879, 
announced  that  he  had  obtained  great  rapidity  by  adding  to  the 
bromide  emulsion  a  certain  quantity  of  ammonia.    This  addition 
rapidly  altered  the  sHver  bromide  from  its  ordinary  state  to 
tbe  green  molecular  condition  referred  to  above.    At  this  point 
we  have  the  branching  off  of  the  gelatin  emulsion  process  into 
two  great  divisions,  viz.  that  in  which  rapidity  was  gained  by 
long-contlnuod  heating,  and  tbe  other  In  which  it  was  gained  by 
tbe  use  of  ammonia — a  subdivision  which  is  maintained  to  the 
present  day.    Opinions  as  to  the  merits  of  the  two  methods  are 
much  divided,  some  maintaining  that  the  quality  of  the  heated 
emulsion  is  better  than  that  produced  by  alkalinity,  and  vice 
versa'     We  may  mention  that  in  188 1  Dr  A.  Hcxschd  introduced 
A  plan- /or  making  an  alcoholic  gelatin  emulsion  with  the  idea  of 
inducing  rapid  drying  of  the  fdates,  and  in  the  same  year  H.  W. 
Vogel  of  Berlin  introduced  a  method  of  combining  gelatin  and 
pyroxylin  together  by  means  of  a  solvent  which  acted  on  the 
gelatin  and  allowed  the  addition  of  alcohol  in  order  to  dissoIve< 
the  pyroxylin.    This  "  collodio-gelatin  emulsion  *'  was  only  a 
shortlived  process,  which  is  not  surprising,  sloce  Its  preparation 
iavolved  the  Inhalation  of  the  fiunes  of  ftcetic  add. 

*  For  further  details  the  reader  a  rcfcned  to  Inslnuiiom  in  Pkokh 
grapky,  iitb  ed.,  p.  362. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


491 


The  wanning  prftcm  introduced  by 'Bennett  was  soon  super- 
seded. Colonel  Stuart  Wortley  in  7879  announced  that,  l^ 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  vessd  in  which  the  emulsion  was 
stewed  to  150*  F.,  instead  of  days  being  required  to  give  the 
desired  senstbOity  only  a  few  liours  were  necessary.  A  further 
advance  was  made  by  boiling  the  emulsion,  first  practised,  we 
believe,  by  G.  Mansfield  in  1879.  Another  improvement  was 
effected  by  W.  B.  Bolton  by  emulsifying  the  silver  salt  in  a 
small  quantity  of  gelatin  and  then  raising  the  emulsion  to  boiling 
point,  boHlng  it  for  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour,  when  extreme 
rapidity  was  attained.  Many  minor  improvements  in  this 
process  have  been  made  from  time  to  time.  It  may  be  useful 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  relative  rapidities  of  the  various  processes 
we  have  dcscribe(^ 

Daguerreocypc,  originatly.     .     .     .  half  an  hour's  exposure. 
Calotype      .     .     •     .     <     .     .     .  a  or  3  minutes'      „ 

Collodion     . 10  aocoiuls'  „ 

Collodion  emulsuon      .     *     .     «     .  15  seconds'  n 

Rapid  gelatin  enulsion    .     .     «     «  I'^thaeoond  „ 

T£C3iNiQUB  OP  Photography 

Cdalin  Emidsions. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  two  representative  processes. 
All  operations  should  be  conducted  in  light  which  can  act  but 
very  slightly  on  the  sensitive  salts  employed,  and  this  is  more 
necessary  with  this  process  than  with  others  on  account  of  the 
extreme  ease  with  which  the  equilibrium  of  the  molecules  is 
upset  in  giving  rise  to  the  molecule  which  is  developable.  The 
light  to  work  with  is  gaslight  or  candleh'ght  passing  through 
a  sheet  of  Chance's  stained  red  glass  backed  by  orange  paper. 
Stained  red  gloss  allows  but  few  chemically  effective  rays  to 
pass  through  it,  whilst  the  orange  paper  diffuses  the  h'ght.  If 
daylight  be  employed,  it  is  as  well  to  have  a  double  thickness 
of  orange  paper.    The  foltowing  should  be  wdgbcd  out:*-- 

J.    Potassium  iodide    .  .     ...     .     .     .     .     5  S^ 

2.  Potassium  bromide 135  „ 

3.  Nelson's  No.  I  photographic  gelatin   .     .    30  „ 

4.  Silver  nitrate  175  n 

-  (  Autotype  or  other  hard  gdatin     •     .     .  xoo  „ 
V*  {  NeUon  s  No.  x  gelatin too  „ 

Nos.  3  and  S  ^rt  rapidly  covered  with  water  or  wadied  for  a  few 
seoonds  under  the  up  to  get  rid  of  any  dust.  No.  2  is  dissolved 
in  I  i  OS.  of  water,  and  a  little  tincturc  oi^iodine  added  till  it  assumes 
a  light  sherry  colour.  No^  i  is  dissolved  in  60  minims  of  water. 
No.  4  b  dissolved  in  }  os.  of  water,  and  No.  ^  is  allowed  to  swell 
up  in  I  OS.  of  water,  and  is  then  dissolved  by  neat.  All  the  flasks 
containing  these  solutions  are  placed  in  water  at  150*  F.  and  carried 
into  the  *^dark  room,"  as  the  oranfle-lighted  chamber  is  ordinarily 
called:  Nos.  3  and  4  are  then  mixed  together  in  a  jar  or  flask,  and 
No.  2  added  drop  by  drop  till  half  its  bulk  is  gone,  when  No.  i  is 
added  to  the  rcmaindcrv  and  the  double  solution  is  dropped  in  as 
before.  When  all  is  added  there  ought  to  be  formed  an  emulsion 
which  Is  very  ruddy  when  examined  by  ^slig^ht,  or  orange  by 
daylight.  Tne  flask  contaimng  the  emulston  u  next  placed  in 
bouing  water,  which  is  ke^  in  a  state  of  ebullition  for  about  three- 


quaners  of  an  hour.  It  is  thon  ready,  when  the  contents  of  the 
nask  have  cooled  down  to  about  100*  F.,  for  the  addition  of  No.  ^, 
which  should  in  the  interval  be  placed  in  s  ox.  of  water  to  swell 

.     ^      .  ••         ■  j«       ^1        J  t»S»^ LaI...      ^ ^t- ;  - ^t      —     t ^    J     t 


and  finally  be  dissolved.  The  gelatin  emulsion  thus  formed  is 
placed  in  a  cool  place  to  set,  tdusr  which  it  is  turned  into  a  piece 
of  coarae  canvas  or  mosquito  netting  made  into  a  bag.  By 
squeezing,  threads  of  gelatm  containing  the  sensitive  salt  can  be 
made  to  fall  mto  cold  water:  by  this  means  the  soluble  salts  are 
cxtrsctcd.  'This  is  neadily  done  in  two  or  three  houn  by  frequently 
changing  the  water,  or  by  allowing  ninninp^  water  to  flow  over  the 
cmubionrthrtads.  The  geUtin  is  next  dramcd  by  straiaini;  canvas 
over  a  iar  and  turning  out  the  threads  on  to  it,  after  which  it  is 
placed  in  a  flask,  and  warmed  till  it  dissolves,  half  an  ounce  of 
alcohol  being  added*  Finally- it  is  filtered  through  chamois  leather 
or  vsransdown  calico.  In  this  state  it  is  ready  for  the  plates. 

The  other  method  of  forming  the  emulsion  u  with  ammonia.  The 
same  quantities  as  before  am  weighed  out,  but  the  solutions  of 
Nos.  2  and  3  are  first  mixdd  tegether  and  No.  4  is  dissolved  in  i  oc. 
of  watcr»  and  strong  ammonia  of  specific  cravity  -860  added  to  it 
till  the  oxide  first  precipitated  is  just  rcdissolved.  This  solution 
is  then  dropped  into  Nos.  a  and  3  as  previously  described,  and 
finally  No.  1  u  added.  In  this  case  no  boiling  is  required :  but  to 
tocune  rapidity  it  is  as  well  that  the  emulsion  should  be  kept  an 
hour  at  a  tcnuieniture  of  about  90*  F..  after  which  half  the  total 
quantity  of  Ho.  5  is  added.  When  set  the  emulsion  is  washed, 
drained,  and  rcdissolved  as  before:  but  in  order  to  give  tenacity 


49« 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


rTBCH»^IQUe 


to  the  gelatin  the  renwiader  of  No.  5  h  added  b^org  the  addition 
o(  the  sucohol,  and  before  filtering. 

Coatint  the  Plates. — Glass  i^iates  are  best  cleaned  with  nitric 
add,  rinsed,  and  then  treated  with  potash  solution,  rinsed  apin,  and 
dried  with  a  clean  cloth.  They  are  then  ready  for  recoving  the 
emulsion,  which,  a(tcr  being  warmed  to  about  120*  F.,  is  poured 
on  them  to  cover  well  the  surface.  This  being  done,  the  plates 
are  placed  on  a  level  shelf  and  allowed  to  stay  there  till  the  gelatin 
is  thoroughly  set ;  they  are  then  put  in  a  drymg  cupboaid,  through 
which  a  current  of  warm  air  is  made  to  pass.  It  ahouU  be  rcmariced 
that  the  warmth  is  only  necessary  to  enable  the^air  to  take  up 
the  moisture  from  the  plates.  They  ought  to  dry  in  about  twelve 
hours,  and  they  are  ready  for  use. 

Exposure. — With  a  good  emulsion  and  on  a  bright  day  the  ex- 
posure of  a  plate  to  a  landscape,  with  a  lens  whose  aperture  is 
one-sixteenth  that  of  the  focal  distance,  should  not  be  more  than 
one-half  to  one-fifth  of  a  second.  This  time  depends,  of  course,  on 
the  nature  of  the  view ;  if  there  be  foliage  in  the  immediate  foreground 
it  will  be  longer.  In  the  portrait-studio,  under  the  same  cnrum- 
stances,  an  exposure  with  a  portrait  lens  may  be  from  half  a  second 
to  four  or  five  seconds. 

Development  of  the  Plate. — ^To  develop  the  image  either  a  ferrous 
oxalate  solution  or  alkaline  pyrogallic  add  may  be  used.  No 
chemical  restrainer  such  as  potassium  bromide  is  necessary,  since 
the  gelatin  itself  acts  as  a  physical  restrainer.  If  the  alkaline 
devewper  be  used,  the  following  may  be  taken  as  a  good  standard : — 

iPyrogallol 50  grs. 

Citric  acid 10    „ 

Water I  as. 

2.  \  Potassium  bromide 10  grs. 

Water i  oz. 

Ammonia,  880 i  dr. 

Water 9,, 

One  dram  of  each  of  these  is  taken  and  the  mixture  made  up 
to  a  OK.  with  water.  The  plate  b  placed  in  a  dish  and  the  above 
poured  over  it  without  stoppage,  whereupon  the  image  i;radual]y 
appears  and,  if  the  exfXMune  has  been  properly  timed,  gains  suffi- 
cient dennty  for  printing  purposes.  It  is  fixed  in  a  solution  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  as  m  the  other  processes  already  described, 
and  then  thoroughly  washed  for  two  or  three  hours  to  eliminate  all 
the  soluble  salt.  This  k>ng  m^ahiag  i*  necessary  oa.aooount  of 
the  nature  of  the  gelatin. 

Intensifying  the  JV«faltoe.— Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  intensify 
the  negative,  which  can  be  done  in  a  variety  of  ways  with  mercury 
salts.  An  excellent  plan,  introduced  by  Chapman  Jones,  is  to  use 
a  saturated  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  in  water.  After  thorough 
washing  the  negative  is  treated  with  ferrous  oxalate.  This  process 
can  be  repcatnl  till  sufficient  density  is  attained  V^th  nrast 
other  methods  with  mercAiy  the  Image  is  apt  to  beooqie  yellow  and 
to  fade:  with  this  apparently  it  Is  not. 

Varnishing  ike  aetfikee, — The  negative  is  often  protected  by 
receiving  first  a  film  of  plain  coUodkin  and  then  a  coat  of  Celiac 
or  other  photoeraphic  varnish.  This  protects  the  gelatin  frmn 
moisture  and  also  from  becoming  stained  with  the  silver  nitrate 
owing  to  contact  with  the  sensitive  paper  used  in  silver  printing. 
Another  varnish  is  a  soluti(Mi  of  celloidin  in  amyl  acetate.  This  is 
an  excellent  protection  against  damp. 

Prtnting  Processes. 

The  first  printing  process  may  be  said  to  be  that  of  Fox 
Talbot  (see  above),  which  has  continued  to  be  generally  em- 
pk>yed  (with  the  addition  of  albumen  to  give  a  surface  to  the 
print — an  addition  first  made,  we  believe,  by  Fox  Talbot). 

PSaper  for  printing  is  prepared  by  mixing  150  parts  of  ammonium 
dilonde  with  240  |nrts  of  spirits  of  wine  and  aooo  parts  of  water, 
though  the  proportions  may  vary.  These  ingredients  are  dissolved, 
and  the  whites  of  fifteen  fairly^eised  cyga  are  added  and  the  whole 
beaten  up  to  a  froth.  In  hot  weather  it  is  advissdile  to  add  a  drop 
of  carbobc  add  to  prevent  deoompmntioa.  The  albumen  is  allowed 
two  or  three  days  to  settle,  when  it  is  filtered  through  a  sponge 
placed  in  a  funnel,  or  through  two  or  three  thicknesses  offine  muslitt, 
and  ttansfenred  to  a  flat  dish.  The  paper  is  cut  of  amvenient 
sixe  and  allowed  to  float  on  the  solution  for  about  a  minute,  when 
it  is  taken  off  and  .dried  in  a  warm  room.  For  dead  prints,  on 
which  orfottrina  is  to  take  place,  plain  salted  paper  is  usefuL  It 
can  be  made  ol  the  following  proportiona— 90  parts  of  afflmonium 
chloride,  100  parts  of  sodium  citrate,  10  parts  ot  gdatia,  «ooo  parts 
of  distilled  water.  The  gelatin  is  first  dissolved  in  hot  water 
and  the  remaining  components  are  added.  It  is  next  filtered,  and 
the  paper  aUowed  to  float  on  it  for  three  minutes,  then  withdrawn 
and  dried. 

SensUkini  Botl.— To  sensitize  the  paper  it  is  floated  on  a  10% 
solution  of  silver  nitrate  for  three  minutes.  It  is  then  hung  up 
and  allowed  to  dry,  alter  which  it  is  ready  for  ose.  To  print  tmf 
Image  the  paper  is  placed  in  a  printing  frame  over  a  negative  and 
exposed  to  light:  It  is  allowed  to  print  till  such  time  as  the  image 
appears  rather  darkar  than  it  sh«nild  finally 


rofwng  oMd  Fttwvg  As  PrfM-^-The  next  opel«tk>n  is  to  tone  aad 
fix  the  print;  In  the  earlier  days  this  was  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  bath  of  sd  d'or^-^  mixture  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  and  jpAA 
chbride.  This  gilded  the  darkened  parts  of  the  print  which  light 
had  reduced  to  the  semi-metallic  state:  and  on  the  removal  of  the 
chloride  by  means  of  hypoei^phite  an  image  composed  of  mctaUie 
silver,  an  or^janic  salt  ol  silver  and  gold  was  left  behind.  There 
was  a  suspicion,  however,  that  part  of  the  coloration  was  due  to  a 
combination  of  sulphur  with  the  silver,  not  that  pure  silver  sulphide 
is  in  any  degree  fugitive,  but  the  sulphuretted  organic  salt  of  silver 
seems  to  be  liable  to  change.  This  gave  place  to  a  method  ei 
alkaline  toning,  or  rather,  we  should  say,  of  neutral  toning,  by 
employing  gold  chloride  with  a  salt,  such  as  the  carbonate  or 
acetate  ci  soda,  chk>ride  of  lime,  borax,  &o.  By  thb  means  there 
was  no  danger  of  sulphuritatfioa  during  the  toning,  to  wfakh  the 
method  by  sd  tor  was  prone  owing  to  the  decomposition  of  the 
hyposulphite.  The  substances  which  can  be  employed  in  tooing 
seem  to  be  those  in  which  an  alkaline  base  is  combined  with  a  weak 
acid,  the  latter  bdng  readily  displaced  by  a  stronfper  add.  such  as 
nitric  add,  which  roust  exist  mthe  paper  alter  printing.  This  branch 
of  photography  owes  much  to  the  Rev.  T.  F.^Hardwich,  he  having 
carried  on  extendvc  researches  in  connexion  with  it  during  1854  and 
subsequent  years.  A:  Davanne  and  A.  Girard,  a  little  later,  also 
investigated  the  matter  with  fruitful  results. 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  two  typical  toning-baths^— 

!Goki  chkiridc      , i  paru 

Sodium  carbonate    ......  xo  parts. 

Water  .   .     .    ; 5000  ^, 

#  X  J  Borax 100   „ 

W  1  Water 4000    „ 

Gold  chk>ride  ....:.  1  part. 


I 


05) 


Water 4000  paru 


In  the  latter  (a)  and  09)  are  mixed  in  eaual  parts  immediately 
before  use.    Eacn  of  these  is  better  used  only  once.    A  third  bath 

IS. — 

Gold  chk>ride 2  parts. 

Chhxide  of  lime 2    „ 

Chalk 40   „ 

Water .-    .     .     8000   „ 

These  are  mixed  together,  the  water  bdo^  warmed.    V^lien  cool 
the  solution  is  ready  Tor  use.    In  toning  pnnts  there  is  a  distinct 
difference  in  the  medms  epemndi  aroordm^  to  the  tosung-bath 
empbyed.   Thus  in  the  first  two  baths  the  print  must  he  thorooghly 
washed  in  water  to  remove  all  free  silver  nitrate,  that  salt  forming 
no  part  in  the  diemical  reactions.    On  the  other  hand,  where  free 
chlorine  is  used,  the  presence  of  free  silver  nitrate  or  some  active 
chlorine  absorbent  is  a  noeesuty.    In  1872  Abney  showed  tbat 
with  such  a  toning-bath  free  sflver  nitrate  m^ht  be  eUawoatcd. 
and  if  the  print  were  immersed  in  a  solution  of  a  salt  such  as  lead 
nitrate  the  toning  action  proceeded  rapidly  and  without  causing 
any  fading  of  the  image  whilst  toning,  which  was  not  the  case 
when  the  free  nlver  nitrate  was  totally  removed  and  no  other 
chlorine  absorbent  substituted.     This  was  an  important  factor. 
and  one  which  had  been  overkx>kcd.    In  the  third  bath  the  free 
silver  nitrate  should  only  be  partially  removed  by  washing.     The 
print,  having  been  partially  washed  or  thoroughly  wadietC  as  the 
case  may  be,  is  immersed  in  the  tonin^^bath  tut  ^e  ima|{c  attains 
a  purple  or  bluish  tone,  after  which  tt  is  ready  for  fixing. .   Tbe 
solution  used  for  this  purpose  is  a  30%  solution  of  hyposulphite 
of  soda,  to  which  it  is  best  to  add  a  dew  drops  of  ammonia  in  order 
to  render  it  alkaline.     About  ten  minutes  suffice  to  effect  the 
conversion  of  the  chloride  into  hyposulphite  of  stiver,  whick  is 
soluble  in  hyposulphite  of  soda  aira  can  be  removed  by  waakinf  . 
The  organic  salts  of  silver  seem,  however,  to  form  a  dittercnt  sak, 
which  IS  partially  insoluble,  but  which  the  ammonia  helps  to  removes 
If  it  is  not  removed  there  is  a  sulphur  compound  left  behind, 
according  to  J.  Spiller,  wfikh  by  time  and  eapoaure  betaeme 
The  use -of  potassium  cyanide  for  fixing  prints  b  to  be 
as  this  reagent  attacks  the  oiganic  ooloured  oxide  which,  if  1 
would  render  the  print  a  ghost.   The  washing  of  silver  prints  should 
be  very  complete,  since  it  is  said  that  the  feast  trace  of  hyposut|diite 
left  behind  renders  the  fading  cf  the  image  a  mere  matter  off  xiwmt. 
The  stability  of  a  print  has  been  sup^Mcd  to  be  iiw  I'lamii  by 
immersing  it,  after  washing,  in  a  solution  of  alunu    The  abtm. 
like  aay  acid  body,  decomposes  the  hyposulphite  into  sulphur  and 
sulphurous  acid.    If  this  be  the  case,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
destruction  of  the  hyposulphite  by  time  a  not  the  oocaston  of  faffing. 
but  that  its  hygroscopic  character  is.    This,  however,  is  a 
point.     It  is  uiual  to  wadi  the  prints  some  faoun  ia  raa 
water.    We  have  found  that  half  a  dozen  changes  of  water, 
between  successive  changes'  the.  application  of  a  ^x>nge  to   the 
back  of  each  print  separately,  are  equally  or  more  c 
On  drying  the  print  assumes  a  darker  tone  than  it  has  after 
the  fixmg  bath. 

Different  tones  can  thus  be  given  to  a  priat  by  different  tesun^ 
baths;  and  the  gold  itself  may  be  deposited  in  a  ruddy  form  or  aa 
a  blue  form.  The  former  molecular  condition  gives  the  red  and 
sepia  tones,  and  the  latter  the  hlne  aad  black  tooes.  The  ih^cr 
of  minute  subdivision  of  the  gokl  may  be  conceived  whea   si  w 


PHOTOGRAPHY 

i  albnmidiiKl  pftpn  fully  or 


493 


raiviDE  u  oincmicd.  In  Ihc  autumn  oi  thil  ycu  Ccoijc  Whu 
Simpaon  worked  out  ■  nmhod  irhicb  hat  b«n  mOR  or  Ioh  i 
caBuUy  employed.   The  formulA  appended  uSukphb'b: — 


■c  jATticululy  ii  it  be  applied  to  fluB  plau& 


The  id^'?  V.  ^. -™  -.»  ™.  w.^™  ^  ^..>.  ,.._..> 

the  kry  lo  ihe  whole  proceui    for,  udIcsb  some  body  were  pfevi 

offianic  oxkfe  of  lilveT.  no  vigour  would  be  obtaixia  in  printio 
li  pure  chlocid?  be  u»d.  thouah  an  apoarentty  Mrong  im^  wou' 


™.— A  modi6ed  emuluon  printing 
ride  and  ailver  cimte  in  Helarin,  (hen  betng  DO 
t  chloride      ..-.,-      40  part*> 


w:hloridc. 


*■(  Water 


ffenfly  Addrd,  the  gelatin  loliilioa  being  kept  in  brisk  agilation. 

niatin  eonuinlng  the  auipended  aalta  is  healed  for  five  minutCB  at 
DoilinB  point,  when  it  ii  alloued  to  cool  and  BubwiueDlly  BUghlly 
wKBhed,  u  la  the  selati no-bromide  emuldon.    Il  ia  ihen  leAOy  for 

ipplicalbii  ID  paper  or  glau.    The  print*  are  of  a  bcauliful  coloar. 

._j .._  /L-.j..  -__ -ihey  may  be  re»di' 

ilren^'bdon:  liver 


paper  or  glau.    The  pnnta  are  _. . 

- -  je  uirly  pcrmaoefll-    They  may  be  readily  loncd  by 

tbo  bocak  or  by  (he  chloride  ol  time  touing-bgih,  and  are  fixed  wilh 

not  all,  of  the  gelatin  papen  d 


^  J.  E.  Bi 
per^  which  i. 


Prinint  mlli_  SalU  of  [/nMi'iinL— The  HI 

*■■  Hibaequently  applied  to  phoLography 
Eogland;    One  of  the  ori^nal  (omiuUe  a 

aliihlly  liMd  previouily  uilh  gcbtin,  is  (k 
Wrien  dry  it  it  expoecd  beneath  a  ne^lWe, . 
u  prodiKM ;  but  it  can  be  developed  inu>  a  1 
•oltiticHi  oi  Blver  niira(e  lo  whicb  a  (r>ce  t 
added,  or  by  a  3  %  solution  ol  gold  chloridt 
(he  lilver  and  gold  are  deoonted  in  the  n 
developer  la  a  1%  aoloti 


«  theaa  ulutioa^ 

Sel/IOHint  PnpCTj.— Then:  are  eever^l  sett-toning  paper 
n  the  chloride  emulsion  proceaa.  These  contain  the  n 
mount  d  gM  to  tone  the  print.    The  print  It  producer 


potaaaiuia  iiilphacyanide.    The 
v«4k  hypdHilphile  of  teda. 

PrinHnt  nik  Ck 
the  Die  oTpol     ' 

UBCT.  U  latiifatDl  wl 
STJ^t  raya  through  a  r 


is  finished  by  in 
Quhm  TViilll.— The  hit 


obtaiAed.     In   iflab 
aiied  with  iodide  ol  n 


lithognpbic  atoBe,  an-.  . 
thmugb  a  bank-note,  by 


while  picture  oo  an  otaofe  mued  vaa 

,.A    o^^^.-^f^  aiuiddaoed  uiat  paper 

-     -  -  -    '  -  -a  bichrDnia(e  wai, 

Joaqih  Dixon  c< 


following  year,  produced  copica  of  hank- 

.. , ol  the  •eniidve  aurfaca 

by  variiliv  away  tbe  iinaiteied  fun  and 
ordinary  lithography.    Tbe  aaaie  ^ema, 

, — 1^  haa  been  unl  by  Slmonau  and  Toovey 

of  Bniwela,  and  prodocet  CBelleat  rcaukt.  Diioa'a  method, 
however,  wai  publiabed  In  the  Saauifc  Amtncam  lor  i>}4.  and 
eonaequently,  aa  iwardi  priority,  il  tanks  after  Fox  Tallxx'a  photo- 
eagravine  procen  lice  below),  published  in  1853.  On  tbe  IJth 
of  Deceinber  ISJJ  Alphonie  I'o^cevin  took  out  a  patent  in  England, 
ul  which  he  vaguely  described  a  method  of  uking  a  direct  carbon- 
print  by  rendering  gelatin  involute  through  the  action  of  light  on 
potaisiuni  biehracnale.  This  idea  ne  taken  up  by  John  Pouncev 
jj  r> — ..„__  _j._  _._t__.  ..  jIjj  jJjjj  ^  pniduce  veritable 
ca  I  Teitud  de   Beauregard  look 

ou  )i[evin'a  a(  the  end  ol  l8jj. 

Al  Eribing  a  kindred^  pnKes  ia  a 


lac  their  hold  on  the  paper  anc 
|g^  was  the  firM  to  cndeavDui 

■ays,  "  There  are  two  eiieiitiB 


Lshin^  the  unacted'UpoD  porttona  of  the 
pf  this  sort  printed  from  IK  front  or  pre-  ~ 
t  of  haH-tonea  by  waahlnf  away  more  or 
:.  acnirding  to  the  depth  lo  which  it  hu 
lied  by  the  insoluble  porta  being  on  (be 
ice  protecting  the  ic4uble  jstl  ffom  the 
I  in  washing;  so  that  eitflCT  nothing  ia 
very  kuig  till  the  inner  aoluhle  part  is 
whole  depth  oomea  bodily  awvy,  Katiu 
method  ol  orpoaing  through  the  back  of 
nd  unsatisfactory,  and  in  lS6a  Fargier 
ich,  alter  eapoaurv  to  light  of  tb*  iclBtia 
lent,  the  surface  was  coa^  with  coludion, 
varm  water,  where  it  acparated  fnHn  tlie 

,  for  he  had  used  this  meant  of  detachinc 
Lrbon  process,  in  which  ferric  chloride  and 


:  ?.  rX"^, 


n  hardened,  it  preve 

Zsi,  or  brslMp'i" 
iently  softened  the 

fuUy  opposed  this  pateni 
irtaric  acid  nvre  used. 

as  the  production  of 
made   by  coating   paper 


hot  water,  the  paperbaddnaBlrippedofT,  andlhe  tolublc 

...,-; i_JT^ --.-^^i   ,„         Ti„      ■  „... 

port  01  paper-    In  i 


John* 


colouniitf  ■ 

Ltnidon  too 

jc  which  had 

being  applied. 


mil 


its  tendency  to  twcll  further,  would  adhere  to  any  waterproof 
*  asgUsa-metal. waxedpapcr.&c. withoutaDyadhEiive 

Bg  applied.    This  wat  a  raost  iBportaB(  inprovemenL 

Johnson  also  applied  soap  to  tbe  gelatin  (o  prevent  its  eacessive 

brittleneia  on  diying,  and  made  Ufl  final  support  of  geialiniud 

'  red  inaoTuble  by  chrome  alum,    in  1S74  J,  R.  Sawytr 

gelatin  and  Uraled  with  an  anunoaiacsl  solution  of 
.,_. ■ .-U.J     Ti^  advantage 


Kriclun 


,n  Johns. 


i'nd)!'^r 


-bon-printing  baa  arrii 

P.  E.  Lirsenng.  (he  cs 

consiHt  of  f?9m  iJDIo: 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


he  gekHn  . 


pwtc  ol  roll-papM  are  puted  la 


■fiould  be  mixed  wilh  the  iap«Uenti  in  Eh<  Ahovn  lonnuk.     1 
cirbcm-IBflie  Ahen  prvpucd  ihould  be  Aoiied  on  &_  Knutui 

end  of  tKe  theet  of  tiaue  (cut  (o  the  prDptr  «ze>.  nuking  a  i 
Ot  ht  tnd  iRIipff  i1  anroll  jjong  the  Bjrluie  of  The  KnuIinnE  H 
lion,  where  it  it  ■llowcd  to  Rmain  (ill  the  Eclatin  film  ledi  h 
ll  b  then  tikcn  oH  and  hung  up  to  dry  in  a  dark  rooin  tlirou 
which  n  cuirenl  of  dry  varm  air  ii  pamn^,  Tinue  dried  quick 
Uioa£b  not  to  Beniitlw,  ii  more  maiu^eAbk  fo  work  ih^n  d  mi 
■Jow^  dried.  Aa  the  tinue  licotoured,  u  it  not  pouiblp  (oBKeni 
br  lupeetloa  vbelber  the  pnntina  oprntion  ii  aufhcientlv  cun 
out,  and  In  order  to  oanrtain  thii  it  ii  uuia]  to  place 
ordinary  eilvered  p^ier  in  an  actinocnecer,  or  photometer 
the  cartxHi'tiiiue  to  aiccrtain  the  aiBoum  of  light  that 

linipiieft  beinc  u  ■muenent  of  a  vvyinc  number 
of  fokf-beatePa  aldD.  The  value  of  I.  i.  j.  Ac.,  thii 
ijcia  aa  a  acnen  to  the  li^  ft  aKertained  by  exp 
poafnc  it  ialudccd  Ihu  a  iheet  <A  liwie  under  »m 
oi^^  ID  brexpoted  to  fighl  convi^ndiiw  to  a  gi' 
Ibickneaiet>  chkride  of  tifver  paper  u  plac^  aionnij 
T  and  allnved  la  remain  iRii 
a  number  of  IfakbnKa  eqi 


of  Sau'yn'i  flexible  HI  ppoH.     Wl 
id  pliud  Hal.    The  w, 


X^l^ 


tan  are  brou|tiI 


^  by  th«  ^blin 


•uppon   and   the  rarbon-tiHue.      When   dry   Ihe  Teiransfer-iapl 
Ijearini  Ilie  Eelatin  imap  <ari  be  Gripped  off  the  flexible  HJpf>or 

If  a  mwJrd  Deptivebe  uwd  the  image  may  be  Iramferred  at  one 
to  ita  find  auppon  instead  of  la  ibe  lemporary  flpjdble  njppar 

than  dwbl^trarufcr  priuta. 

i>nalin(  ttiO.  SalU  cf  Irn.— Sir  John  Henchd  and  Roben  Hur 


or  ctn^ng  Iradnga  {He  SlTH-cor"'" 


Bui  Paul  Orctoth 
|8S4.  for  In  hi*  [iniein 

C.  M.Teliie  SeMoMy 


Mm   of  ftelatiu   tmj,.^. 

ins  acted  upon  by  li^i  i 
ibDB  [BRa  whicti  hid  bt 


lampinR,  would 
lectedby  Light. 

before  bdnf  iRamfenvd  to  atoiK  or  bdc 
1 1  Wj)  and  C  R.  Mandul  g' Mela,  bowcvv, 

irw  tomwJaoi  ■--" • ■--=-  "— 

metallt  ptatet  witli      '    "^ 


le  eoa^lated  leiakjeJ 


inuable.      Ii 

ci  neat  l^^alfuTlighl  aflj^ 
ice  ID  the  film  and  the  ioate.  thi 

^  ^Tt^  c^M«>/>  pn>ci_  ihi 


may  be  coniidetcd.  if  nc 

■    \    Another  n 

_.  „ by  Emeu  Edwirdi ' 

lewdtkry  7>^.— Thlt  pcoee 
about  Ihe  year  1I64.  though  we 
wothlni  indepcndenlly  in  Ihe  aai 

In  October  1S64  a  deicription  e ._    „ _. 

PkeUtropliii  Km.  Mate  Antoine  A.  Gaudin  claimed  Ihe  priBci)ilt 
of  fk>  ...^.^A  («:.■;«»  that  jt  waa  old,  and  buhu  hi*  pfnefutota 
or  xd  with  tnndunot  ink  from  inuilio 

b1  It  at  the  «!»  tine  he  lemarked  thai 

Ih  iple  miEht  lead  to  important  null*. 

ll  -h  Woodbury  obtained,  and  for  wMch 

hf  eet  credil,     Woodbury  *"jb*rmieii  tiy 


lif  1 

muliipfvin|r  the  imprewons  b> 


_ -..^ lit  proceta  ia  dcicribed  by 

/>kiU[rai>liu  Jainul  for  April  lB6a  *•  followi^ 
produtm  in  the  usual  way,  bearing  to  the  odginal  tl 
...  A  pDuti^-e  it  printed  from  Ihit  negative  u 
{gebtinized)  paper,  b  preftaied  chat  Itw  ivacv  can  t 
ntone,  it  havngbeen  pntvuudy  eonred  wiin  greu;  ^nn.i^i  *  nu. 
The  impnanon  fa  devekified  by  wuhitif  away  the  toiubie  natter 
with  hot  water,  which  kavea  Iba  ink  on  the  Une*  ot  print  of  Ihe 
map  or  ennavinD."  Tfic  proceiB  of  Iranaferrini  it  accompfiabed  in 
the  onliiviry  way.  Eaiiy  in  iMo  Cofond  Sir  H.  Janet,  R-E. 
F.R.S..  braucht  torwanl  the  Soulhampton  method  of  photo-Uiho- 
ertphy.  which  had  been  caretuly  worlod  out  by  Cafptain  de  Cooncy 
Scott-  R.E-  The  "  papyrotype  pniceH  "  waa  publiahcd  by  Aboey 
ia  1S7D  (tee  LitHOCKtrilY  and  Paacus]. 

Pkolopafks  in  Nalurd  Cdawi. 
The  fint  BOlice  on  remrd  of  coloured  light  iinprcsiint  iu 
own  coloon  on  «  itn^Iive  aniiace  is  in  1  be  pasaage  already 
quoted  from  Ihc  Parbridtlire  of  Gocihe,  vhero  T.  J.  Seebcck 
ol  Jena  (1810)  dcscriho  fhc  Imprcision  he  ohlained  on  paper 
impiegDated  with  moist  tilvec  chloride.  ImSjgSirJ.  HetKbd 
(AUawtum,  No.  61s)  (ive  1  loinewhat  aimilar  deiccipttaii. 
In  1S43  Edsnond  Becquettl  aucceeded  la  rqirodudnc  opoo  a 
dAjuerrMtypc  plate  not  only  the  coloun  of  the  apeclruni 
but  alio,  up  to  a  certain  poiut,  the  coloura  of  dcawinsi 
aad  objecta.  Hii  method  of  preceedini  was  to  liTc  the 
rilver  plate  a  thin  coating  of  ailvcr  cUocMe  by  linnicniiis  ii  im 
ferric  or  cupric  chloridei.  Ii  may  alio  be  imnierscd  in  cfakHbie 
water  till  it  lakei  a  leeble  rote  linL  Becqueral  prriecrtd  M 
chknisiie  the  plate  by  immeniDn  In  a  luluiion  of  hydrochlonc 
acid  in  water,  attaching  it  lathe  poiitivc  pole  of  a  voltaic  coapla, 
whilst  Iho  other  pole  he  atiached  to  a  platinum  plate  abo 
immersed  in  the  acid  aoluiton.  Alice  a  minuie'i  lubjcction  la 
the  currenl  the  plale  took  aucceuively  a  grey,  a  ycILow,  1  vioUl 
anil  a  blue  [Int.  which  order  was  again  repealed.  Wbeu  Iht 
violet  llnl  appeared  for  the  Kcond  lime  ihe  plau  was  wiihdnmi 


TBCHNIQOq 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


495 


produced  the  spectram  coknns,  hot  it  was  foond  better  to  heat 
the  plate  till  it  fl-**iim«-H  a  rose  tiot.  At  a  later  date  N icpcc  dc  St 
Victor  ddonniced  by  chloride  of  lime,  and  made  the  surface  m<Me 
flcnsitive  by  applying  a  aolution  of  lead  chloride  in  dextrin. 
G.  W.  Simpson  also  obtained  coloured  Images  on  silver  chloride 
emu^on  in  collodion,  but  they  were  less  vivid  and  satisfactory 
than  those  obtained  on  daguerreotype  pbtes.  Poitcvin  obtained 
coloured  images  on  ordinary  silver  chloride  paper  by  preparing 
it  In  the  usual  manner  and  washing  it  and  exposing  It  to  light. 
It  waaaiterwafds  treated  with  a  solution  of  potassium  bichromate 
and  cupric  sulphate,  and  dried  in  darkness.  Sheets  so  prepared 
gave  coloured  images  from  coloured  pictures,  which  he  staled 
could  be  fixed  by  sulphuric  add  {Comples  rendus^  iS68, 6i ,  p.  1 1 ). 
In  the  BtdUlin  de  la  SociiU  Fntn^aist  (1874)  Colonel  St  Florent 
described  experiments  which  ho  made  with  the  same  object.  He 
immersed  Ofdlnary  or  albuminiscd  paper  in  silver  nitrate  and 
afterwards  plunged  it  into  a  solution  o£  uranium  nitrate  and  zinc 
chloride  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  add;  it  was  then  exposed 
to  Ught  till  it  book  a  violet,  blue  or  lavender  tint.  Before 
expostire  the  paper  wu  floated  on  a  solution  of  mercuric  nitrate, 
its  surface  dried,  and  exposed  to  a  coloured  image. 

It  is  supposed — though  it  is  very  doubtful  if  it  be  so— that  the 
nature  of  the  ddoride  used  to  obtain  the  silver  chloride  has  a 
great  effect  on  the  colours  impressed;  and  Niepce  in  2857  made 
some  observations  on  the  relationship  which  seemed  to  exist 
between  the  coloured  flames  produced  by  the  metal  and  the  cok>ur 
impressed  on  a  plate  prepared  with  a  chloride  of  such  a  metal. 
In  x88o  Abney  showed  that  the  production  of  colour  really 
resulted  from  the  oxidation  of  the  chloride  that  was  coloured  by 
Ught.  Plates  immersed  in  a  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide  took 
the  colours  of  the  spectrum  much  more  rapidly  than  when  not 
immened,  and  the  siae  oC  the  molecules  seemed  to  regulate  the 
colour.  He  further  stated  that  the  whole  of  the  spectrum  colours 
ttiigbt  be  derived  from  a  mixture  of  two  or  at  most  three  sizes  of 

molecules. 

In  1841,  Robert  Huntpublished  some  results  of  colour-(>hotography 
by  means  of  silver  fluonde.  A  paper  was  washed  with  silver  nitrate 
and  with  sodium  fluoride,  and  afterwards  exposed  to  the  spectrum. 
The  action  of  the  spectrum  commenced  at  tne  centra  of  the  n^^How 
tay  and  rapidty  prccceded  upwards,  arriving  at  its  maximum  in  the 
blue  ray.  Aa  far  as  the  iodigo  the  action  was  uniform,  whilst  in 
the  violet  the  paper  took  a  brown  tint.  When  it  was  previously 
exposed,  however,  a  yclk)w  space  was  occupied  where  the  yellow 
rays  had  acted,  a  green  band  where  the  green  had  acted,  whilst  in 
the  blue  and  indigo  it  took  aa  intense  blue,  and  over  thc^  violet 
there  was  a  ruddy  brown.  In  reference  to  these  coloured  images 
on  paper  it  must  not  be  forcotten  that  purc  salts  of  silver  arc  not 
being  dealt  with  as  a  rule.  An  organic  salt  of  silver  is  usualljr  mixed 
with  silver  chloride  paper,  the  organk:  salt  bdng  due  to  the  sizing  of 
the  paper,  which  towards  the  red  end  of  the  qxctrum  is  usually 
more  sensirive  than  the  chloride.  If  a  piece  of  ordinary  silver 
chloride  paper  is  exposed  to  the  spectrum  till  an  impression  is 
made,  it  will  usually  be  found  that  the  blue  colour  of  the  darkened 
chloride  is  mixed  with  that  due  to  the  coloration  of  the  darkened 
Ofganic  eomfjoond  of  silver  in  the  violet  irgtoo.  whereas  in  the  blue 
and  green  this  organic  compound  b  alone  aficcted,  and  is  of  a  difTer- 
ent  colour  from  that  of  the  darkened  mixed  chloride  and  organic 
compound.  This  naturally  gives  an  impression  that  the  dincrcnt 
rays  yield  different  tints,  whereas  this  result  is  simply  owing  to 
the  different  range  of  sendtivcness  of  the  bodies.  In  the  case  of 
the  silver  chlorinuscd  plate  and  of  true  collodio<hloride,  in  which  no 
organic  salt  has  been  dissolved,  we  have  a  true  coloration  by  the 
spectrum.  At  present  there  b  no  means  of  permanentlv  fixing  the 
coloured  frosges  i^ich  have  been  obtained,  the  effect  01  light  being 
to  dattrof  t&ua.  If  protected  from  oxy^  tbcv  last  longer  than 
if  they  have  free  access  to  it,  as  is  the  case  when  the  surface  is 
exposed  to  the  air. 

A  method  devised  by  Gabriellc  Llppmann,  of  l^aris,  by  whkrh  the 
natural  cohwrs  of  (4)jects  are  reproduced  by  means  of  Interference, 
may  be  briefly  described  as  foDows:  A  senative  plate  is  placed 
in  contact  with  a  film  of  mercury,  and  the  exposure  to  the  spectrum. 
or  to  the  image  of  coloured  ooicrts  to  be  photographed,  is  made 
through  the  back  of  the  plate.  On  development,  the  imag^  appears 
coloured  when  viewed  at  one  particular  angle,  the  colours  ueing 
apprsxlmately  those  of  the  object.  The  necessary  exposure  to 
ptoduce  this  result  was  very  prolonged  in  the  first  experiments 
in  which  the  spectrum  was  photographed,  and  a  longer  exposure 
had  to  be  given  to  the  rod  than  was  required  for  the  blue.  Llppmann 
at  first  employed  collodion  dry  plates,  prepared,  it  is  believed,  with 
attmmea,  and.it  requirrd  consKlerable  manipulation  to  bring  out 
Uw  colouis  conoctly.    A.  Lunu^  used  gelatin  plates  dyed  with 


appropriate  dyes  (orthochrsmatio  plates);  the  eqmsure  was  much 
dmiinishcd,  and  very  excellent  representations  were  produced 
of  all  natural  colours.  The  main  point  to  aim  at  in  the  preparation 
of  the  plate  seems  to  be  to  obtain  a  verv  sensitive  film  without  any, 
or.  at  all  events,  with  the  least  pouibic,  "  grain  "  in  the  sensitive 
salt.  A  formula  published  by  Lumi^  seems  to  attain  thb  object. 
Viewed  directly,  the  devdopicd  images  appear  like  ordinary  ncsa- 
tives,  but  when  held  at  an  angle  to  the  light  the  colours  arc  vivid. 
They  are  not  pure  monochromatic  colours,  but  have  very  much 
the  quaUty  of  colours  obtained  by  polarised  light.  It  appears 
that  thcv  are  produced  by  what  may  be  termed  "  nodes  "  of  different* 
oolouzed  lights  acting  within  the  film.  Thus  in  photographing 
the  spectrum,  rays  penetrate  to  the  reflecting  mercury  and  are 
reflected  back  from  it,  and  these,  with  the  inddent  waves  of  light, 
form  nodes  where  no  motion  exists,  in  a  somewhat  similar  way  to 
those  obtained  in  a  cord  stretched  between  two  points  when  plucked. 
In  the  negative  these  nodal  points  are  found  in  the  thkkncss  of  the 
silver  deposit.  When  white  light  is  sent  through  the  film  after 
the  image  has  been  developed,  theoretically  only  rays  of  the  wave- 
lengths which  formed- these  nodes  axe  reflected  to  the  eye,  and  thus 
we  get  an  impression  of  colour. 

Action  of  Light  on  Chemical  Compounds. 

Reference  has  been  made  above  to  early  investigations  on 
the  chemical  action  of  light.  In  1777  Karl  Wilhelm  Scheele 
(Hunt's  Researches  in  Light)  made  the  following  cxpcdments 
on  silver  salts: — 

**  I  precipitated  a  solution  of  nlver  by  sal-ammoniac;  then  I 
edulcorated  it  and  dried  the  precipitate  and  exposed  it  to  the 
beams  of  the  sun  for  two  weeks;  after  which  I  stirred  the  powder, 
and  repeated  the  same  several  times.  Hereupon  I  poured  some 
caustic  spirit  of  sal-ammoniac  (strong  ammonia)  on  this,  in  aH 
appearance,  black  powder,  and  set  it  by  for  digestion.  This  men- 
struum dissolved  a  quantity  of  tuna  comva  (horn  silver),  though 
some  black  powder  remained  undissolved.  The  powder  having 
been  washed  was,  for  the  greater  part,  dissolved  by  a  pure  acid  <» 
nitre  (nitric  add),  which,  by  the  operation,  acquired  volatility. 
Thb  solution  I  prccipttateo  again  by  means  of  sal'>ammoniac 
into  horn  silver.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  blackness  which  the 
luna  cornua  acquires  from  the  sun's  light,  and  likewise  the  solution 
(rf  stiver  poured  on  chalk,  is  Mfver  by  reduction, ...  I  mixed  so 
much  of  distilled  water  with  well-edulcorated  horn  silver  as  Wonkt 
just  cover  this  fwwder.  The  half  of  thb  mixture  I  poured  into  a 
white  crystal  phial,  exposed  it  to  the  beams  of  the  sun,  Snd  shook 
it  several  times  each  day ;  the  other  half  1  set  in  a  dark  place.  After 
having  expoaod  the  one  mixture  during  the  space  of  two  weeks,  1 
filtrated  tne  water  standing  over  the  horn  silver,  grown  already 
black :  1  let  some  of  thb  water  fall  by  drops  in  a  soKition  of  silver, 
which  was  immediately  precipitated  into  horn  silver." 

Thb,  as  far  as  we  know,  is  the  first  intimation  of  the  reducing 
action  of  light.  From  thb  it  b  evident  that  Scheele  had  found 
that  the  silver  chloride  was  decomposed  by  the  action  of  light 
liberating  some  /orm  of  chlorine.  Others  have  repeated  these 
experiments  and  found  that  chlorine  b  really  liberated  from  ths 
chloride;  but  it  b  necessary  that  some  body  should  be  present 
which  would  absorb  the  chlorine,  or,  at  all  events,  that  the 
chlorine  should  be  free  to  escape.  A  tube  of  dried  silver  chkuide, 
scaled  up  in  vacuo,  will  not  discolour  in  the  light,  but  keeps  its 
ordinary  white  colour.  A  pretty  experiment  is  to  seal  up  in 
vacuo,  at  one  end  of  a  bent  tube,  perfectly  dry  chloride,  and  at 
the  other  a  drop  of  mercury. .  The  mercury  vapour  volatilizes 
to  a  certain  extent  and  fiUs  the  tube.  When  exposed  to  light 
chlorine  b  liberated  from  the  chloride,  and  calomel  forma  on 
the  sides  of  the  tube.  In  this  case  the  chloride  darkens.  Again, 
dried  chloride  scaled  up  in  dry  hydrogen  discolours,  owing  to  the 
combination  of  the  chlorine  with  the  hydrogen.  Poitcvin  and 
H.  W.  Vogel  first  enundated  the  law  that  for  the  reduction  by 
light-of  thehaloidsaltsof  silver  halogen  absorbents  were  necessary, 
and  it  was  by  following  out  thb  law  that  the  present  rapidity  in 
obtaining  camera  images  has  been  rendered  possible.  To  put 
it  briefly,  then,  the  visible  action  of  light  b  a  reducing  action, 
which  b  aided  by  or  entirely  due  to  the  fact  that  other  bodies  are 
present  which  will  absorb  the  halogens. 

In  the  above  wc  have  alluded  to  the  visible  results  on  silver 
salts.  It  by  no  means  foDows  that  the  exposure  of  a  silver  salt 
to  Ught  for  such  a  brief  f>criod  as  to  leave  no  visible  effect  must 
be  due  to  the  same  effect,  that  b,  that  any  of  the  molecules  are 
absolutely  reduced  or  split  up  by  the  light.  That  this  or  some 
other  action  takes  place  b  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  silver 
salt  b  capable  of  alkaline  development,  that  b,  the  particles 


496 


PHOTCXJRAPHY 


[TECHNIQUE 


which  have  suffered  i  dunge  in  their  moTecules  can  be  reduced 

to  metallic  silver,  whilst  those  which  have  not  been  acted  upon 

remain  unaltered  by  the  same  chemical  agency.    Two  theories 

have  been  offered  to  explain  the  invisible  change  which  takes 

place  in  the  salts  of  silver.   One  is  based  on  the  supposition  that 

the  molecules  of  the  salt  can  rearrange  their  at6ms  under  the 

vibrations  caused  by  the  ether  waves  placing  them  in  more 

unstable  positions  than  they  were  in  before  the  impact  of  light 

took  place.    This,  it  is  presumed,  would  allow  the  developer  to 

separate  the  atoms  of  such  shaken  molecules  when  it  came  in 

contact  with  them.   The  other  theory  is  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the 

visible  effects  of  light,  some  of  the  molecules  are  at  once  reduced 

and  that  the  developer  finishes  the  disintegration  which  the  light 

has  begun.  In  the  case  of  the  alkaline  development  the  unaltered 

molecules  next  those  primarily  reduced  combine  with  the  reduced 

silver  atom  and  again  form  an  unstable  compound  and  aze  in 

their  turn  reduced. 

The  first  theory  would  require  some  such  action  as  that  fust 
mentioned  to  take  place  and  cause  the  invisible  image  fonmed  by 
the  shaking  apart  ol  the  light-etricken  molecules  to  beoome  visible. 
It  is  hard  to  see  why  other  unacted  upon  molecules  close  to  those 
which  were  made  unstable  and  which  have  been  shaken  apart 
by  the  developer  should  themselves  be  placed  in  unstable  equilibrium 
and  amenable  to  reduction.  In  the  second  theory,  called  the 
"  chemical  theory,"  the  reduction  is  perfectly  easy  to  understand. 
Abney  adopts  the  chemical  theory  as  the  balance  of  un8ubstantiate<} 
evklence  is  in  its  favour.  There  is  another  action  which  seems  to 
occur  almost  simultaneously  when  exposure  takes  place  in  the 
absence  of  an  active  halogen  absorbent,  as  is  the  case  when  the  ex- 
posure b  given  in  the  air,  that  is,  an  oxidizing  action  occurs.  The 
molecules  of  the  altered  haloid  salts  take  up  oxygen  and  form  oxides. 
If  a  sensitive  salt  be  briefly  exposed  to  light  and  then  treated  with 
an  oxidizing  substance,  such  as  potassium  |)k:hromate,  potassium 

Eermanganate,  hydrogen  peroxide,  ozone,  an  nnagc  u  not  developed, 
ut  remains  unaltered,  snowing  that  a  change  has  been  dfFocted 
in  the  compound  which  under  ordinary  circumstances  is  dcvdopaUe. 
If  such  an  oxidized  salt  be  treated  very  cautiously  with  nascent 
hydrogen,  the  oxygen  is  withdrawn  and  the  image  is  again  capable 
of  devek)pment.^ 

Spectrum  Ejects  on  Silver  Compounds.— Tht  next  inquiry  is 
as  to  the  effect  of  the  spectrum  on  the  different  silver  compounds. 
We  have  already  described  Seebeck's  (x8io)  experiments  on 
silver  chloride  with  the  spectrum  whereby  he  obtained  coloured 
photographs,  but  Scheele  in  1777  allowed  a  spectrum  to  fall  on 
the  same  material,  and  found  that  it  blackened  much  more 
readily  in  the  violet  rays  than  in  any  other.  Senebicr's  experi- 
ments have  been  already  quoted.    We  merely  mention  these 


have  become  the  foiindation  of  nearly  all  sabseqaent  reteardies 
of  the  same  kind.  The  effects  of  the  spectrum  have  been  studied 
by  various  experimenters  since  that  time,  amongst  whom  we 
may  mention  Edmond  Becquerel,  John  William  Draper,  Alphonse 
Louis  Poitevin,  H.  W.  Vogel,  Victor  Schumann  and  W.  de  W. 
Abney.  Fig.  z  is  compiled  from  a  cut  which  appeared  in  the 
Proc.  Roy.  Soe.  for  1S82,  and  shows  the  researches  made  by 
Abney  as  xcgaids  the  action  of  the  spectrum  on  the  three 
principal  haloid  salts  of  silver.  Na  7  shows  the  effect  of  the 
spectrum  on  a  peculiar  modification  of  silver  bromide  made  by 
Abney,  which  is  teen  to  be  sensitive  to  the  infra-red  rays. 

Efea  of  Dyes  on  SensUhe  Films.— In  1874  Dr  H.  W.  Vogd 
of  Berlin  fotmd  that  when  films  were  stained  with  certain  dyes 
and  exposed  to  the  spectrum  an  increased  action  on  develop- 
ment was  shown  in  those  parts  of  the  spectrum  which  the  dye 
absorbed.  The  dyes  which  produced  this  action  he  called 
''  optical  sensitisers,"  whilst  preservatives  which  absorbed  the 
halogen  liberated  by  light  he  called  "  chemical  sensitizers."  A 
dye  might,  according  to  him,  be  an  optical  and  a  chemical  aensi- 
tiler.  He  further  claimed  that,  if  a  film  were  prepared  m  which 
the  haloid  soluble  salt  was  in  excess  and  then  dyed,  no  action 
took  phice  unless  some  "chemical  sensitixer"  were  present. 
The  term  "  optical  sensitijBer  "  seems  a  misdomer,  since  it  is 
meant  to  imply  that  it  renders  the  salts  of  silver  sensitive  to 
those  regions  of  the  spectrum  to  which  they  were  previously 
insensitive,  merely  by  the  addition  of  the  dye.  The  &]ea  of  the 
action  of  dyes  was  at  first  combated,  but  it  was  soon  recognized 
that  such  an  action  did  really  exist.  Abney  showed  in  187$ 
that  certain  dyes  combined  with  silver  and  fonned  true  coloured 
organic  salts  of  silver  which  were  sensitive  to  light;  and  Dr 
Robert  Amory  went  so  far  as  to  take  a  spectrum  on  a  combinatioa 
of  silver  with  eosin,  which  was  one  <k  the  dyes  experimented 
upon  by  J.  Waterhouse,  who  had  ckisdy  fdlowed  Dr  Vogd,  and 
proved  that  the  spectrum  acted  simply  on  those  ports  which 
were  absorbed  by  the  compound.  Abney  further  demonstrated 
that,  in  many  cases  at  all  events,  the  dyes  were  themselves 
reduced  by  light,  thus  acting  as  nudei  on  which  the  sflver  could 
be  deposited.  He  further  showed  that  even  when  the  haloid 
soluble  salt  was  in  excess  the  same  character  of  spectnun  was 
produced  as  when  the  silver  nitrate  was  in  excess,  though  the 
exposure  had  to  be  prolonged.  This  action  he  concluded  was 
due  to  the  dye. 

Carreci  Rendering  of  Colours  in  Monochrome. — In  Plate  IV.,  fig. 

14  the  sensitiveness  of  a  plate  stained  with  bomocol 

is  shown,  and  it  is  evident  that  as  it  is  sensitivt 

throughout  the  visible  spectrum  there  must  be  some 
A(T+A(NOi  on  pttpcr  ....;.  P.     mesns  of  cutting  off  by  a  transparent  screen  so 

much  of  the  spectrum  luminosity  at  different  parts 
Aca-t-AcNOsoo  paper P.     that  every  colour  having  the  Same  luminosity  to  the 

eye  shall  be  shown  on  a  negative  of  equal  density. 
P.     When  this  is  done  the  relative  hminositics  of  all 

colours  will  be  shown  by  the  same  relative  densities 
^•^.  or  in  a  print  by  different  depths  of  greys.    Abney 

devised  a  sensitometer  which  should  be  used  to 


A(I+A(NOi  In  albamea 


A(T  pf«pand  in  bath.  tiMtad  with  KI, 
washed,  icdippcd  in  ulvcr  baUt,  dc> 
vdopcd  with  pjrrogallic  add. 

Grey  AffBr  in  gdatln.  dcvtiopcd  alk«« 
ISm  or  fcrrouft  oxaUia  .    .    . 


^ «  ascertain  the  colour  of  the  screen  that  should  be 


Oranse  AgBr  fn  eallodlan  or  tcl&tin, 
alkaliae  fanoua  onlata  or  acM  de> 

vtloper. 

Gitcn  AcBr  la  ooDodiod,  developed 
ierraua 


fle.) 


AcCI  fn  ooKodlMi.  eiceai  of  AgSOt  or 
NaQ  prtsent,  fenooa  citrate  or  add 
devdopiaent 

Af  I+A(Br,  wviitd  ttwa  AgNOi 

lAtX+ AfBr+ AgNOi  ooDodloQ.  vd 
plate,  aod  oc  alkaline  devdopct 

Fig.  I. — Spectrum  Effects  on  Salts  of  Silver. 
IP.  -  print ;  D.  -  developed ;  l.e.  -  long  exposure]. 

two  for  their  historical  interest,  and  pass  on  to  the  study  of  the 
action  of  the  spectrum  on  different  compounds  by  Sir  J.  Hcrschcl 
{Phil.  Trans.,  1840).  He  describes  many  experiments,  which 
>See  Abney,* "  Destruction  of  the  Photographic  Image,"  Pkil. 
.Va(.  (1878).  vol  v.;  also  Proc  Roy,  Soc  (1878).  voL  xxvil. 


employed.     By  proper  means  the  luminosity  of 
the  light  of  day  coming  through  a  red,  a  green,  a 
blue  and  an  orange  glass  can  be  very  accurately 
D.    measured;  if  Hn.  squares  of  those  coloured  ^aa&cs, 
^*^  together  with  a  white  glass  of  the  same  area,  be 
D.    placed  in  a  row  and  cemented  on  white  glass,  we 
^^^  have  a  colour-screen  which  we  can  moke  available 
p.     for  finding  the  kind  of  light-filter  to  be  employed. 
This  is  readily  done  by  reducing  the  hnnSnosity  of 
^)  the  h'ght  coming  through  all  the  glasses  to  that  of 
the  luminosity  ^  the  light  coming  through  the  blue 
glass.   If  the  luminosity  of  the  blue  be  5  and  that  ef 
the  white  light  loo,-  then  the  luminosity  of  the  former  must  be  re- 
duced toVvof  its  original  value,  and  so  with  the  other  glasses. 
The  luminosity  ol  the  light  coming  through  each  small  glass  square 
can  be  made  equal  by  rotating  in  front  of  them  a  disk  in  which 
apertures  are  cut  correaponding  to  the  reductiaii  lequhmL    The 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Graduation  Scale  on  Homocol  Stained  "Seed"  Plate. 


Graduation  Scale  on  Unstained  Plate. 


Impressed  Continuous  Spectrum. 


!iiiiiiii:i 


Spectrum  of  Bright  Lines  o[  Melals. 


PHOTOOBAPHT 


497 


UiH  rUm,  f«r  bMUUtce,  wanM  DM  be  covcRd  bjr  the  dU  at  ill, 
whik  oppasUi  the  vhite  square  the  diik  would  have  an  aperture 
Ot  an  antic  of  iS°.  When  a  plalc  a  eipoKd  bdiind  the  lov  ot 
glaa}  equutf,  with  the  licht  pauing  Ibrou^  the  nHatinfl  disk, 
having  tbe  appropriate  apertujea  for  each  Kbi«9i  the  Degrttlvc 
obiaincd  mouM  under  ordicaiy  tondilioni,  thow  squtiie  patchet 
0(  very  different  opacity.  A  lighl-liller  ot  some  lionaparent 
colbut,  il  placed  in  the  path  of  the  light,  will  alter  the  opadtica, 
and  evoiiually  one  can  be  found  which  will  only  alio*  such 
tolouitd  light  to  be  tranlmitled  as  will  cause  all  the  opadtlct 
in  the  negative  to  be  tlicsame.  As  the  lumbositio  of  the  whit* 
Ight  possng  ihiough  Uie  glasses  are  made  equal,  and  u  the 
photofilaphic  deposits  are  also  rendered  equal,  thb  light-filter, 
tf  used  in  CrDctof  the  camera  lens,  will  render  all  coloured  DhJHt* 
m  correct  monochreme  lununoiity.    Another  plan,  hand  on  the 

chrome  yellow,  emerald  green,  French  blue  and  white  so  a  disk, 
and  to  complete  the  annuluscs  with  hbck  w^meDts,  the  amount 
si  black  depending  on  the  luminosity  of  the  pifiinenta,  which  can 
be  readily  mcasund.  When  the  disk  i:  rolutnl,  rings  of  colour, 
modified  in  brightness  by  black,  are  Men,  and  each  ring  will  be 
of  the  same  iuminosly.  As  before,  a  screen  niebl-filtcr)  to  be 
Bsed  in  front  ol  the  lens  must  be  found  which  will  cause  the 
developed  imagei  of  all  the  rings  to  appeal  of  equal  opadly. 
It  must  be  lemembercd  thai  th*  light  in  nhicb  the  object  is 
to  be  photographed  must  be  the  same  as  that  in  which  the 
tmninowiy  of  the  glasses  or  pigments  b  measured. 

Aaitn  el  Uu  Spccltum  m  CMrmk  Sails.— Tit  salts  most 
Dtually  employed  in  pbotognpky  ate  the  hichmnates  of  the 
alkalis.  The  result  ol  spectrum  action  is  coofined  to  its^wn  moat 
rclrangible  end,  commencing  in  tlie  ultra-violet  and  reaching  as 
lar  a*  io  tlie  solar  ipectium.    ^Ig.  a  shows  the  relative  action  ot 


Ihe  various  parts  ot  the  ^Kctnm  on  potassium  bichromate.  If 
Other  bichromates  are  employed,  the  action  will  be  louad  to  1 
tolerably  well  represented  by  the  figures.  No.  i  is  the  eHect  of 
bngeipcHure,No.  a  of  s  shotiei  one.  It  should  be  noticed  Ihi 
the  solution  of  potassium  bichiomate  absorbs  thou  rays  aloi 
which  ate  effective  in  altering  the  bichromale,  Tbia  change 
only  ponible  in  the  presence  of  organic  matter  of  some  kiid,  >ui 
•s  getatm  or  albumen. 

Aclim  if  He  Spectrum  m  AifkiUlum.—IVit  icemi  to  be 
continued  bto  and  IkIow  the  red,  tbc  blue  rayi,  however,  an 
the  moat  eSective.  The  action  ol  light  on  this  body  Is  to  rcndei 
it  less  siduble  in  its  usual  lolvcnts. 

A€ti(m  af  At  Spcclrum  «  Salli  of  fr».— Tbe  commonesi 
fetiic  salt  in  use  is  the  oalate,  by  which  the  beautiful  platiootype 
pdol*  are  produced.   We  give  this  as  a  representation  (fig.  j)   ' 


;  chkjrfde.    IT  tl 


w  lelrangibility 


pmisiinra  ind  fe 

paper,  and  the  paper  oe  then  eipaaed  to  i 

1  is  eihibited  into  the  infta-red  regi 

nMances  b  which  these  ligbt-wavi 

ipsLlc  of  producing  any  effect.   Thi 

juddy  green,  and  analysis  shows  tha 

IS  generally  absorbs  those  of  higher  reltangibilily. 

|je«  c/LigU  m  Uranium.— The  salts  of  utanlura  are  anectea 

by  light  in  the  presence  ol  organic  maltet,  and  they  too  are  only 

'    1  upon  by  those  rays  which  they  absorb,    llus  nitrate  of 

ium,  which  shows,  too,  absorption-bands  b  the  green  blue, 

is  affcacd  more  where  these  occur  than  in  any  other  portion  o( 

the  spectrum. 

Some  salt*  ot  mercury,  gold,  copper,  tad,  mingineKi  mdyb- 
mum,  platinum,  vanadium,  are  affected  by  light,  but  in  a  less 
degree  than  those  which  we  have  discuued,     Tn  the  organic 


The  following  table  gives  the  names  of  the  observers  of  ttw 
:lioD  of  light  on  diSerent  substances,  with  the  date  of  publican 
on  of  the  several  observatlms.  It  is  nearly  identical  with 
le  given  by  Dr  Eder  b  his  CadikJilt  dir  Plmto-Chimii. 


Nitiate 

Chloride 

Chloride  in  Ihe  •pecuuin  .  . 
Chloride  photoeiaphicaHy  uied 
Chloride  blockenid      .     .     , 

iodide 

Iodide  by  utioo  of  iodlae  (o 

nttallK  silver). 

lid*  photoerapbicatly  used 

llde  with  gsiSc  acid      .     . 

lide  with  lerroui  sulphate  . 


Chloiii 


a  for  fig.  1. 


the  ^leclra  obtained  on  feme  sstts  b  gtBera!.  Here,  again,  we 
have  an  eiampte  of  the  law  that  exbts  as  to  the  cnirelalion 
between  absorption  and  chemical  action.  One  of  the  most 
RmarluUe  compounds  of  iron  is  that  eipetimenled  upon  by  Sir 
J.  Hendid  ud  iattr  by  Lord  Rayleigh,  vii.  lemcyiiude  of 


te  (^otographicariy  uie< 
teoaclk.     .     .     . 


1    J.  H.  Schulu  .     . 
.  Hellot  .     .     .     . 


Wedgwood 


ind  iodide  by  chlorine  t 


Sulphide  by  vapour  ol  n 

{on  meuUk  silver). 
Iiii^iiile  by  vapour  ol  obD*- 

phofus  (on  metaUic  suvic). 


Chloride  on  paper  .     .     .     . 

Chloride  in  ethereal  solution 
Chloride  wkh  lerrocyanide  i 

(etricyanide  of  _pol8wiuni. 
Chloride  and  aiilx  add  . 

Chmnule 

Plan  oL  gold  and  iodio*  npo 


Niepa. 
Scheele. 


.  Dibereiner 
.  Hunt  .  . 
.  Goddard    . 


4^8 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Chlglidi  (laaeuric)    .     . 

Cbbridc  with  oslk  add  . 
Sulphate       ■     . 
Oulau  (mmutlc) 
OaIiIc  (lUCRurom) 
^  ihate  and  amnxon 


Carboun  (nivrcuri 


Gay-LuuaciL 


:!ia™; 


-  Bmniichdt 

.  KbpnKli    . 

.  Diibcmgcr 

'.  HcTKhel    ! 

.  Hcnchd    . 


eWoridt  (ctptie  dinolvcd  in 

ether). 
Oalate  with  acidiuni  .     .     . 

Chnnetc 

Chromalc  vith  immDmuin 

Iodide   .'.'.'.'.'.'. 
Chloride- Ccuproiu)      ^     . 
Copper  plates  (iodUed) 

Sulphue 

Pouuium  pennanpoale 
Peroiude  and  cyanide  of  poia 

(hide 

Iodide 

Sulphite 

Rod  lead  ai^  cyanide  ol  poti 

Nimie 

Nimie  with  lefro-pnia^tH . 

Iodide 

Ti*. 

ileofctwui  ... 

Varitnu  SmAitimcea. 

CoballHlu 

Annie  niphide  (iTilgar) 


Chlorine  ajid  hydro^ca 

Chlorine  (tilhoniwd)  . 
Chlorine  ai^  ether 
Chlorine  In  vater  .     .     . 
Chlorine  and  ethylene 


lo^eand'eiliylc^?    '. 
Cyeaogen.  tDldtion  of 

Varioua  other  methyl  conapoi 
Hydrocvanic  acid  .      . 
dypcKhlorit^  (calcium  and 


.   BcnhoUel  . 

Gay.Luiiac  a 

Thiinard 

mllai      . 


ionlactim»  Ac-TT 
dccompottd.  all 


Eudoxia  macrcmboljlikia  (purple 

dye). 
OihiT  purple  dyea      .     . 

Oil)ieKnII]r   .... 
Nitncethel    -.     .     .     . 


lis 


of  V 


r  k«| 


II  Im  long  been  known  that  contact  ol  plates  with  »tM* 
lubstancet  u  mod  cniued  a  lenailive  surface  to  ahoir  "  f og  ~ 
on  development.  By  a  aomewhil  eibaustlve  Kria  of  cijktv 
menu,  RuueD  showed  thai  the  pmblble  cauM  of  Ihb  fog  a 
hydrogen  pennide,  unce  subitincn  which  favouml  iti  ht- 
malioD  produced  the  ume  eSecl.  Thk  is  uraevlut  reraaikabiv. 
BJ  Ihii  same  siibtUBc*  wllj  compleltly  destroy  the  rSect  that 
light  hu  had  on  a  Mnatlve  plale;  indeed.  It  aSonli  orke  nv  nf 
dc3lroying  a  light  irno^c  on  a  lensitlvc  coUodion  plate.  Th^ 
eupcHmeiUs  ol  RiUidl  give  i  warning  lo  alaic  eiposcd  places  Ix 
brief  periods.  It  ippean  that  ncgativci  wrapped  in  ["'"^'i 
paper  ate  secure  from  this  danger. 

Tlu  AtpHcalion  c{  Pkaliipt^y  lo  Quanliliilitx  U<aswa. — la 
order  to  employ  photography  for  the  measurtmenl  of  light  i; 
wu  neccsury  that  same  raeaat  tbould  be  devised  by  whitli  ibc 
opacity  of  the  dcpuit  prnducid  on  llie  devilapinent  of  k  phw 
could  be  delennined.  IiKbcUevcdlhitin  iS74thefirU  atteBHic 
was  made  by  Sir  W.  Abney  lo  do  this.  In  the  Pkl.  iTag.  h. 
(howed  bow  density  could  be  meaaured  by  means  of  aa  iaatra- 
r,  he  had  devised,  in  whidi  UaM{«iKnk 


TECHNIflUEl 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


499 


black  wedges  were  used  to  make  inatckea  bet wectt  the  naked  iigkt 

Und  the  same  light  after  passing  through  the  photographic  opacity 
that  had  to  be  measured.  In  1887,  ewing  to  the  perfecting  of 
the  rotating  sectors,  which  could  be  made  to  inowse  or  diminiah 
the  apertures  at  pleasure  during  its  rotation,  the  measurement  of 
opacities  became  easy.  The  Rumford  method  of  comparing 
the  light  through  the  deposit  with  the  naked  beam,  using  tke 
sectors  to  equalize  the  Ulumination,  was  adopted,  the  dqwaat 
being  placed  between  the  light  and  the  screen,  the  oompariaoa 
light  being  a  beam  reflected  from  the  same  light  on  to  the 
screen. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  photographic  depocit  scatters  light  more 
or  less,  the  0[>acities  measured  by  this  plan  were  slightly  greater 
than  was  shown  when  such  opacities  were  to  be  used  for  contact 
printing.  The  final  plan  adopted  by  Abney  was  to  place  the 
p9St  ot  the  plate  carrying  the  deposit  to  be  measured  behind  a  screen 

constructed  as  above.    C  D  (&g.  4)  i*  a 

Ct  • '.■   ' " '   "•-V>,|  dull  black  card  with  an  aperture  cut 

"'    in  it  which  may  be  of  any  desired  ^ape. 

■'\  This  aperture  was  covered  with  trans- 

1  parent  paper,  as  was  also  a  portion  B, 

\  the  same  size  as  A,  but  pasted  on  the 

^  black  card  itself,     light   thrown  from 

^  behind  A  would  be  matched  with  light 

FlO.  4.  thrown  on  to  B  from  the  front  when  a 

rod  in  the  path  of  this  last  beam  was  made  to  prevent  this  light 

falling  on  A.    When  a  portion  of  a  plate  bearing  a  deposit  wai 

8' laced  behind  and  close  to  A,  the  light  thrown  on  B  had  to  be 
hninishcd  by  the  sector  till  the  two  squares  appeared  equally  bright 
and  the  aperture  of  the  sector  was  noted  and  compared  with  that 
icc|dired  when  the  deposit  was  runovcd. 

With  this  screen  accurate  measures  of  printing  denntics  can  be 
madcj  ana  it  can  also  be  used  in  the  determination  of  the  core- 
prirativc  photographic  brightness  oC  the  light  issuing  from  different 
objects.  For  instance,  the  relative  brightness  of  the  difFcrent  parts 
of  the  corona  as  seen  in  a  total  eclipse  can  be  readily  determined  if 
a  "  time  scale  "  of  gradation  is  impressed  on  the  plate  on  which  it 
is  taken.  Both  scale  and  streamer  can  then  be  enlarged  optically 
and  thrown  on  the  part  of  the  screen -A.  The  measures  of  the 
streamer  densities  can  then  be  directly  compared  with  the  densities 
of  the  scale  and  the  rebtivc  "  photographic  "  brightness  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  streamer  be  asccrtamcd  by  comparison  with 
tbia  scsUe  also. 

The  same  method  of  measurement  was  adopted  in  ascertaining 
quantitatively  the  sensitiveness  of  the  spectrum  of  ordinary  plates 
And  of  plates  in  which  dyes  are  present.  The  figures  on  PI.  TV  show 
icproductions  of  plates  which  were  exposed  to  tne  Bpectram.  No.  I 
ia  a  continuous  spectrum  taken  with  the  dectrio  light :  no.  7  is  an 
impressed  Continuous  spectrum;  no.  8  shows  the^  bright  lines  of 
metals ;  no.  3  the  line  spectrum  of  volatilized  lithium  and  sodium 
to  indicate  the  position  of  the  spectrum  colours.  Nos.  4  and  a 
are  the  absorption  and  floorescent  spectra  of  eosin.  No.  5  is  the 
graduAttCMi  scale  lornied  by  a  bromogelatin  "Seed"  plate  stained 
with  nomocoti  a  cyanine  <!erivative  sensitive  to  the  red;  no.  6 
is  a  similar  scale  formed  by  an  unstained  plate.  The  small 
niimbers  placed  below  the  different  bands  show  an  empiric  scale 
which  ia  naade  to  apply  to  each  of  them.  The  fim  step  is  to  measure 


*to 


o         ioa»ao4osoeosa 
Ctnptrie  Seah  of  the  Bpeetrum 
Fic.  5. 

the  opacity  of  the  gradation  scale,  next  the  opacity  of  the  continuous 
spectrum  at  the  various  numbers  of  the  empiric  scale,  and  also  the 
(macity  of  the  other  bands  at  the  same  scale  numbers.  The  con- 
tinuott*  opoctrum  wiU  give  the  sensitiveness  of  the  fJate  to  the 
diffetent  ports  of  the  spectiuro  when  the  measures  of  its'  diffeitnt 
opacities  are  compared  with  those  of  the  scale  of  gradation,  and  a 
cvirve  of  aetisitivenCss  can  be  plotted  from  these  comparisons. 
It  ia  eviHent  that  the  measures  ot  the  other  two  bands  will  give  us 
LmfartaMtian  aa  to  the  fluorescence  and  the  absorption  of  The  eosin. 
Fis-  5  abovs  the  curve  of  opacity  of  the  image  of  the  spectrum  at 


its  different  pattSk  aod  alao  tha  conn  el  s^nsirtimwss  of  tlie  pbtt 
to  the  different  parts  of  the  spectrum.  This  last  u  derived  from  a 
comparison  of  the  measured  densities  with  those  of  the  gnidatioa 
scale. 

Measuremenf  of  the  Rapidity  of  a  P/ofe.— The  first  attempt  that 
was  made  to  ascertain  the  rapidity  of  a  plate  was  by  Abney 
{Phil.  Mag.  1874),  who  demonstrated  that  within  limits  the 
transparency  of  deposit  varied  as  the  logarithm  of  the  exposure. 

The  last  formula  has  been  accepted  for  general  use,  though  it  is 
believed  that  it  is  not  absolutely  correct,  though  very  approxi- 
mately true  and  sufficiently  near  to  be  ojf  practical  value.  This 
belief  is  based  on  the  further  researches  described  below.^ 

In  1888  Sir  W.  Abney  pointed  out  that  the  speed  of  a  plate  could 
be  determined  by  the  formula  T>E-^(IbiE+C)*,  where  T  is  the 
transparency,  E  is  the  exposure  (or  time  of  exposure X  intensity  of 
light  acting),  and  C  a  constant.  If  the  abscissae  (exposures)  are 
plotted  as  logarithms,  the  curve  takes  the  same  form  as  that  of 
the  law  of  error,  which  has  a  singular  point,  a  tangent  through 
which  lies  closely  along  the  curve  and  cuts  the  axis  of  Y  at  a  point 
which  has  a  value  of  3/VE.  If  the  total  transparency  be  unity, 
this  ordinate  has  a  value  of  1-312,  the  singular  point  having  a 
value  of  0'6o6.  The  ordinate  of  the  zero  point  of  the  curve  will  oe 
where  the  tangent  to  the  singular  point  cuts  the  line  drawn  at 
I '3 1 2.  The  difference  between  the  measurements  of  thb  sero 
point  for  two  kinds  of  plates  (<.e.  C  ia  the  formula)  from  the  points 
in  the  abscissae  marking  the  same  exposure,  will  give  the  relative 
sensitiveness  of  the  two  pbtea  in  tenns  of  log  x*.  In  1800  Hurter 
and  Driffield  Uourn.  Soc.  Chem,  lud,  Jan.  19,  1891)  worked  out  a 
less  emi)irical  lormub  connecting  the  exposure  £  with  the  density 
<A  deposit,  which  in  an  approximate  shape  nad  the  form  D  —  7log(E/i), 
where  D  is  the  density  of^ deposit  (or  log  i/T>.  t  the  "  Inertia  '^of  the 
plate,  T  the  transparency  as  the  deposit.  In  the  customary  way  a 
small  portion  of  a  plate  was  exposed  to  a  constant  light  at  a  fixed 
distance  and  for  a  fixed  time,  and  another  small  (}ortion  to  the  same 
light  for  double  the  time,  and  so  on.  By  measuring  the  densities  of 
the  various  deposits  and  constructing  a  curve,  a  large  part  of 
which  was  approximately  a  straight  line,  it  was  found  possible,  fay 
the  production  of  the^  straight  portion  to  meet  the  axis  of  X>  to 
give  the  relative  sensitiveness  of  difTcrcBt  plates  by  the  distance 
of  the  intersection  from  the  zero  point  L.  (See  also  Exposure 
Meters,  below,  under  1 1.  AvPAKATtis.) 

Effect  of  Temperature  on  Sensitiveness.— In  1876  Abney 
showed  that  heat  apparently  increased,  while  cold  diminished, 
the  sensitiveness  of  a  plate,  but  the  experiments  were  rather  of 
the  qualitative  than  the  quantitative  order.  In  1893,  from  fresh 
experiments,'  he  found  that  the  effect  of  a  difference  in  tempera- 
ture of  some  40*  C.  invariably  caused  a  diminution  in  sensitive- 
ness of  the  sensitive  salt  at  the  lower  temperature,  a  plate  often 
requiring  more  than  double  the  exposure  at  a  temperature  of 
about  — 18**  C.  than  it  did  when  the  temperature  was  inaeased  to 
+33*  C  The  general  deduction  from  the  experiments  was  that 
increase  in  temperatore  involved  increase  in  sensitiveness  so 
long  as  the  constituents  of  the  plate  (gelatin,  &c.)  were  unaltered. 
Sir  James  Dewar  stated  at  the  Royal  Institution  in  1896  that 
at  a  temperature  of  "  180^  C.  certain  sensitive  films  were  reduced 
in  sensitiveness  to  less  than  a  quarter  of  that  which  they  poasess 
at  ordinaiy  temperatures.  It  appean  also,  from  bis  subtequeat 
inqoiry,  that  when  the  samt  films  wcie  subjected  to  the  tempera- 
ture oif  liqcnd  hydrogen  (—252^  C.)  the  loss  in  lensiCiveness 
becomes  asymptotic  as  tho  absolute  zero  is  approached.  Pre- 
sumably, thexvfore,  tome  degree  of  lensitivencsa  wotdd  still 
be  prcscrred  even  at  the  absolute  zero. 

Effect  cf  Small  Intensities  of  Light  on  a  Sensitive  5(ilf.*^Whcn 
a  plate  is  exposed  for  a  certain  time  to  a  light  of  ^ven  intensity, 
it  is  commonly  said  to  have  received  so  much  exposure  (E).  If 
the  time  be  altered,  and  the  intensity  of  the  light  also,  so  that  the 
exposure  (time  X  intensity)  is  the  same,  it  was  usually  accepted 
that  the  energy  expended  in  doing  chemical  work  in  the  film  was 
the  same.  A  series  of  experiments  conducted  under  differing 
conditions  has  shown  that  such  b  not  the  case,  and  that  the  more 
intense  the  fight  (within  certain  limits)  the  greater  is  the  chemical 
action,  as  shown  on  the  development  of  a  plate.  Fig.  6  illustratea 
the  results  obtained  in  three  cases.  The  exposure  E  is  the  samo 
in  all  cases.   The  curves  are  so  drawn  that  the  scale  a£  abscissae 

*  Those  applicable  to  ike  correction  of  star  magnitudes  as  deter- 
mined by  photography  have  been  verified  and  Gonfitaieil '.  by 
Schwarxchtld,  Michaikc  and  others. 

*  Abney,  Proe.  Roy.  Soe.  1893. 

'  Abocy,  Pr0C  Roy»  Set*  1893,  and  Joum.  Camna  Clnb,  1893. 


5po 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


1TECHNIQUE 


is  the  intensity  of  tho  Ught  in  poweiB  of  —a,  and  the  ordlnates 
ihow  t]ie  percentages  Of  chemical  action  produced.  If  the 
chemical  action  remained  the  same  when  the  intensity  of  light 
was  reduced,  £  remaining  the  same,  each  of  the  curves  would 
be  shown  as  a  straight  line  at  the  height  of  loo,  which  b  the  trails- 
parency  of  deposit  with  the  unit  of  light.  As  it  is,  they  show 
diminishing  percentages  as  the  light  intensity  is  diminished. 


afUght 


Fig.  6. 


Thus,  when  the  intensity  of  the  light  is  reduced  to«V  o^  ^'^ 
original,  and  the  time  of  exposure  is  prolonged  64  times,  the  useful 
energy  expended  on  a  lantern  plate  is  only  50  %of  that  expended 
when  the  light  and  time  of  exposure  are  each  unity.  In  the  cases 
to  which  the  diagram  refers,  the  light  used  was  a  standard 
amyl  acetate  lamp,  and  the  unit  of  intensity  taken  was  this  light 
at  a  distance  of  a  ft.  from  the  plate,  and  the  unit  of  time  was 
10  seconds.  The  lamp  being  moved  to  x6  ft.  from  the  i^te, 
gave  an. intensity  of  ^the  unit,  and  the  time  of  exposure  had 
to  be  increased  to  640  seconds,  so  that  £  was  the  same  in  both 
cases.  Further,  it  was  found  that  when  the  limu  of  exposure 
on  different  parts  of  the  plate  were  successively  doubled,  light 
at  a  fixed  distance  being  used  for  one  series,  and  altered  for  a 
second  series,  the  dopes  of  the  curves  of  transparency  (t.e.  the 
gradation)  were  parallel  to  one  another.  This  investigation  is 
of  use  when  camera  images  are  in  question,  as  the  picture  is 
formed  by  different  intensities  of  light,  not  very  different  from 
those  of  the  amyl  acetate  lamp,  the  lime  of  exposure  being  the 
same  for  all  intensities.  The  dieductions  made  from  the  investi- 
gation are  that  with  a  slow  plate  the  energy  expended  in  chemical 
action  is  smaller  as  the  intensity  is  diminished,  while  with  a  quick 
plate  the  variation  is  much  less.  As  a  practical  deduction,  we 
may  say  that  to  obtain  proper  contrast  in  a  badly  lighted  picture 
it  is  advisable  to  use  a  slow  plate. 

Effect  of  very  Intense 
Idghl  on  a  Sensitive  Salt, 
— Another  investigati<Ki 
was  made  as  to  the  effect 
of  very  intense  light 
on  sensitive  surfaces.  In 
this  case  a  screen  of 
step-by-step  graduated 
opacities  was  made  use 
of,  and  plates  exposed 
through  it  to  the  action 
of  lights  markedly  differ- 
ing in  intensity,  one 
being  that  of  the  amyl 
acetate  lamp,  another 
that  of  the  arc  light, 
and  a  third  the  light 
emitted  from  the  spark 
of  a  Wimshuist  machine. 
The  ejqMsures  were  so 
made  that  one  of  the 
i  2  3  4-  S  6  7  ^P^^^*^  produced  on 
e^   /       ^  ^_.         -^j  *^c  P^te  from  exposure 

Sea/e  of  /nte/Wit/es  m      to  <ich  source  of  light 

Powers  of  2  was  approximately   the 

Fko.  7.  lame.      Tltt    unit     of 


S  90 
^  SO 

\ 

V 

> 

V 

k^ 

V 

xV 

• 

^    70 

1^  eo 
\so 

^  90 

J 

1 

« 

u\ 

s 

k 

o\ 

V 

V 

N 

s. 

\ 

\ 

> 

\ 

\ 

s 

intensity  of  light  b,  of  coone,  in  each  case  widely  different. 
The  slope  of  the  curve  due  to  the  spark  light  is  less 
steep  than  that  due  to  the  arc  light,  and  the  Utter,  again, 
is  much  leu  steep  than  that  due  to  the  amyl  acetate  lamp. 
A  further  investigation  was  made  of  the  effect  of  increasing 
the  time  of  exposure  when  the  intense  light  was  diminished, 
and  it  was  found  that  with  all  plates  the  useful  chemical 
energy  acting  on  a  plate  was  least  with  the  most  intense  light, 
but  increased  as  the  intensity  diminished,  thoug^i  the  time 
was  correspondingly  increased.  This  is  the  reverse  of  what  we 
have  recorded  as  taking  place  when  a  comparatively  feeble  Uc^t 
was  employed.  Further,  it  was  proved  that  the  variation  was 
greatest  in  those  plates  which  are  ordinarily  considered  to  be  the 
most  rapid.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  there  is  some  intensity 
of  light  when  the  useful  chemical  energy  is  at  a  maximum,  and 
that  this  intmsity  varies  for  each  kind  of  plate. 

Intermittent  Exposure  of  a  Sensitive  Salt, — ^The  saxne  investi- 
gator  has  shown  that,  if  a  total  exposure  is  made  up  of  inter- 
mitteat  exposures,  the  chemical  action  on  a  sensitive  salt  is  less 
than  it  is  when  the  same  exposure  is  not  intermittent.  It  was 
also  proved  that  the  longer  the  time  of  rest  between  the  inter- 
mittent exposures  {within  limits)  the  less  was  the  chrmifal  action. 
We  may  quote  <»ie  case.  Exposures  were  first  made  to  a  naked 
light,  and  afterwards  to  the  same  light  for  six  times  bnger,  as  a 
rotating  disk  intervened  which  had  12  apertures  of  ^  cut  in  it  at 
equal  intervals  apart,  and  720  intermittent  exposures  per  second 
were  given.  The  plate  was  moved  to  different  distanrrs  fron 
the  light,  so  that  the  intensity  was  altered.  The  ai^iarent  kss  of 
exposure  by  the  intervention  of  the  disk  mcreases  as  the  intensity 
diminishes,  the  ratios  of  the  chemical  energy  usefully  employed 
of  the  naked  light  exposure  to  that  of  the  interniitting  txposaics 
being: — 

For  intensity  t i  to  'Sis 

*t       t*        i t  i.  '500 

..       1^ I M  *423 

ft        If       ^ >  »  '370 

These  results  appear  to  be  explicable  by  the  theoretical  con- 
siderations regarding  molecular  motion. 

Effect  of  Mouochrotnatic  Light  of  Varying  Waoe4emgfks  em  e 
Setuitive  Salt. — It  has  been  a  subject  of  investigatkm  as  to 
whether  tho  gradation  on  a  phte  Is  altered  when  exposures  ait 
made  to  lights  of  different  colours;  that  is  to  say,  whether  the 
shades  of  tone  in  a  negative  of  a  white  object  niuminated  by, 
say,  a  red  light,  would  be  the  same  as  those  in  the  negative  if 
illuminated  by  a  blue  light.     Abney^  announced  that  the 
gradation  was  different;  and,  quite  independently,  Chapman 
Jones  made  a  general  deduction  for  isochromatic  plates  that, 
except  with  a  certain  developer,  the  gradation  was  steeper  (that 
is,  the  curve  shown  graphically  would  be  steeper)  the  greater 
the  wave-lengths  of  the  light  to  which  the  sensitive  salt  was 
subjected.    For  plates  made  ^th  the  ordinary  haloid  salts  of 
silver  Chapman  Jones's  deduction  requires  mo<tification.   'When 
monochromatic  light  from  the  ^>cctrum  is  employed,  it  b  found 
that  the  gradation  increases  with  wave-lengths  of  light  which 
are  less,  and  also  with  those  which  are  greater,  than  the  Cg^t 
whose  wave-lengths  has  a  maximum  effect  on  the  sensitive  silt 
experimented  with.    Thus  with  bromo-iodide  of  silver  the  maxi- 
mum effect  produced  by  the  spectrum  is  close  to  the  blue  lithium 
line,  and  the  gradation  of  the  plate  illuminated  with  that  Egkt 
is  less  steep  than  when  the  light  is  spectrum  violet,  green,  yeBov 
or  red.    From  the  red  to  the  yellow  the  gradation  is  much  the 
steepest.    Whether  these  results  have  any  practical  bearing  on 
ordinary  photographic  exposures  is  not  settled,  but  that  they 
must  have  some  decided  effect  on  the  accuracy  of.three~colour 
work  for  the  production  of  pictures  in  approximately  natural 
colours  is  undoubted,  and  they  may  have  a  direct  influence  co 
tho  determination  of  star  magnitudes  by  means  ol  |diotogrmphy. 

Reproduction  of  Coloured  Objects  by  means  of  Three  Fk«l^ 
graphic  Positives. — Ives's  Process. — ^A  practical  plan  of  produc- 
ing images  in  approximately  the  true  colours  of  nature  has  bcm 
devised  by  preparing  three  positives  of  the  same  object^  one 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  1900. 


nCHNIQOEl 


l>HOTOGRAPHY 


SO* 


ffittmiiuited  by  a  red,  the  other  by  a  green,  and  the  third  by  a  bhie 
light;  the  images  from  these  three  transpareDoes,  when  visuaHy 
eombined,  will  show  the  coloiizs  of  the  object.  This  plan  was 
•cientifically  and  ptactKally  worked  out  by  F.  E.  Ives  of  Phila- 
delphia, though  in  France  and  elsewhere  it  had  been  formulated, 
especially  by  Hauron  Da  Cros. 

The  following  description  may  be  taken  as  that  of  Ives's  pro> 
cess:  by  the  trichromatic  theory  of  colour-vision  every  colour  in 
nature  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  mixture  of  two  or  three  of  the 
tfare&«oloiur  sensations,  red,  green  and  blue,  to  which  the  eye  is 
supposed  to  respond.  Thus  a  mixture  of  a  red  and  green  sensation 
produces  the  sensation  of  ydlow;  of  a  green  and  blue,  that  of  a 
blue-green;  of  red  and  blue,  that  of  purple,  and  of  all  three,  that 
of  white.  For  the  sensations  we  may  substitute  those  colours 
whkh  most  nearly  respond  to  the  theoretical  sensations  without 
any  material  loss  of  purity  in  the  resulting  sensation.  We  must 
take  the  spectrum  of  white  h'ght'  as  the  only  perfect  scale  of  pure 
coknirs.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  red  sensation  in  the  eye  is 
exdted  by  a  large  part  of  the  visible  spectrum,  but  with  varying 
intensities.  If,  then,  we  can  on  a  photographic  plate  produce  a 
developed  image  of  the  spectrum  which  exactly  corresponds  in 
opacity  and  position  to  the  amount  of  red  stimulation  excited 
in  those  regions,  we  shall,,  on  iUummating'a  tram^Mtient  positive 
taken  from  such  a  negative  with  a  pure  red  light,  have  t  repre^ 
aeutation  of  the  spectrum  such  as  would  be  seen  by  an  eye  which 
was  only  endowed  with  the  sensation  of  red.  Similarly,  if 
negatives  could  be  taken  to  fulfil  the  like  conditjons  for  the  green 
and  for  the  blue  sensations,  we  shouM  obtain  positives  from  them 
which,  when  illuminated  by  pure  green  and  blue  light  respectively, 
would  show  the  spectrum  as  seen  by  an  eye  which  was  only 
endowed  with  a  green  or  a  blue  sensation.  Evidently  if  by  some 
artifice  we  can  throw  the  coloured  Images  of  these  three  positive 
on  a  screen,  superposing  them  one  over  the  other  in  their  proper 
relative  pontions,  the  spectrum  wHI  be  reproduced,  for  the  over- 
lapping colours,  by  their  variation  in  iiitensity,  will  form  the 
isoloars  intermediate  between  those  used  for  the  illumination  of 
tibe  positives.  For  the  purpose  of  producing  the  three  suitable 
negatives  of  the  spectrum,  three  light-filters,  through  which 
the  image  has  to  pass  before  reaching  the  photographic  plate, 
have  to  be  found.  With  all  present  plates  these  are  compromises. 
Rottghly  speaking,  the  screens  used  for  takmg  the  three  negatives 
are  an  orange,  a  bluish-green  and  a  blue.  These  transmit  those 
parts  of  the  spectrum  which  answer  to  the  three  sensations. 
When  these  an  obtained  an  image  of  a  cdoured  objea  can  be 
reproduced  in  its  true  colours. 

Abney  devued  scnsitometers  for  determining  the  colours  of  the 
screens  to  be  placed  before  the  lens  in  order  to  secure  the  three- 
colour  negativea  which  should  answer  these  retiuirements.  Their 
production  depends  upon  the  same  principles  indicated  as  neces* 
sary  for  the  correct  rendering  In  monochroioe  of  a  coloured  object. 
When  the  sensitometer  Ukes  the  form  of  glasses  through  which  (laht 
is  transmitted  to  the  plate,  the  luminosities  of  the  coloured  lishts 
transmitted  are  determined,  and  also  their  percentage  composition 
in  terms  of  the  red,  green,  and  blue  lights,  and  theiure  are  deduced 
the  luminosities  In  terms  of  red,  green  and  blue.  For  ascertaining 
what  screen  should  be  used  to  produce  the  red  negative  the 
luminosity  transmitted  through  each  glass  is  so  adjustt^  that  the 
luminosity  of  the  red  components  in  each  is  made  equal  by  rotating 
a  disk  with  correct  apertures  cut  out  ck»e  to  the  row  of  glasses. 
This  gives  a  sensitometer  of  equal  red  values.  A  coloured  screen  haa 
CO  be  found  which,  when  placed  in  front  of  the  lens,  will  cause  the 
opacities  of  the  deposit  on  the  plate,  corresponding  to  each  square 
of  glass,  to  be  the  same  throughout.  This  is  done  by  trial,  the 
colour  being  altered  till  the  proper  result  is  obtained.  In  a  similar 
way  the  '*  grecsi  "  and  "  blue  "  screens  are  determined.  Coloured 
pigments  rotating  on  a  disk  can  also  be  employed,  as  indicated  in 
the  paragraph  on  the  correct  rendering  of  colour  in  monochrome. 

As  to  the  cameia  for  the  amateur,  whose  f>lates  are  not  as  a  rule 
Ukrwe,  all  of  the  three  negatives  should  be  obtained  on  one  plate,  since 
only  in  this  way  can  they  be  developed  and  the  densides  increaanl 
together.  (For  commercial  work  the  negatives  often  caanot  be 
taken  on  tiie  same  plate,  as  it  woilld  make  the  plate  too  large  to 
inanipnlate.)  The  camera  may  be  of  an  ordinary  type,  with  a 
repeating  back,  bringing  successively  three  different  portions  of 
the  plate  opposite  the  lens.  It  is  convenient  to  have  a  slide,  in 
front  of  whidi  a  holder  containing  the  three  screens  can  be  fixed, 
whi<A  w3I  then  be  close  to  the  piite;  such  a  one  has  bccA  devised 
by  B.  Sufler-Shepherd.    The  Bght  pssaes  through  them  one  by 


one  as  the  plate  is  moved  Into  the  three  poutk>ns.  The  three 
exposures  are  given  acpaiatdy,  after  which  the  plate  is  ready  for. 
development.  The  three  sepsurate  exposures  are,  however,  a 
source  of  trouble  at  times,  particularly  m  the  case  of  landscapes,' 
for  the  lighting  may  vary  and  the  sky  may  have  moving  clouds, 
in  which  Case  the  pictures  would  show  variations  which  diould 
not  exist.  Sanger-bhephcrd  has  a  "one-exposure"  camera  by 
which  the  three  images  are  thrown  side  by  skie  on  the  plate.  Thus 
any  movement  in  the  picture  affects  all  three  negatives  alike. 
Abney  has  also  Introduced  a  "  one-exposure  **  camera  which  takes 
in  a  larger  angle  than  that  of  Sanger-Shepherd.  The  next  point 
M  the  exposures  which  should  be  given  through  each  screen.  This 
can  be  done  by  placing  in  front  of  the  plate  and  extending  its  whole 
length  a  scale  ol  gradation  through  which  the  light  coming  from  a 
sun-illuminated  white  card  passes,  as  well  as  through  the  screens. 
In  the  case  of  the  three^xposure  camera  the  times  of  exposure  are 
varied  till  the  densitibs  of  the  inune  of  the  gradation  appear  the 
same  in  each  of  the  three  images,  in  the  case  of  the  one-exposure 
camera,  the  light  reaching  the  plate  through  the  screens  is  altered 
by  cutting  off  with  a  shutter  more  or  less  of  the  lens  used.  As  the 
plates  employed  for  the  purpose  of  the  three-colour  negatives  must 
be  sensitive  to  every  colour,  the  ordinary  dark-room  light  should 
be  most  cautiously  used.  If  used  at  all,  it  should  be  very  feeble 
and  developmMt  must  be  carried  out  in  a  dish  with  a  cover  to  it. 
The  plate  is  manipulated  in  the  usual  way. 

Jol^s  iVoc«M.— Professor  J.  Joly,  of  Dublin,  in  1897  introduced 
a  colour  process  by  which  an  image  in  approximately  natural 
colours  could  be  thrown  upon  a  screen  by  an  optical  lantern, 
only  one  transparency  being  employed,  instead  of  three,  as  in 
the  Ives  process.  A  "  taking  "  screen  was  ruled  ^ith  alternating 
orange,  blue-green  and  blue  lines  tH  to  tH  io-  apart,  touching 
one  another  and  following  one  another  in  the  above  order. 
When  such  a  screen  was  placed  in  front  of  a  sensitive  plate  in  the 
camera,  and  exposure  made  to  the  image  of  a  coloured  object, 
there  were  practically  three  negatives  on  the  same  plate,  each 
being  confixied  to  the  area  occupied  by  lines  of  the  same  colour. 
The  5hades  of  coloiur  and  the  depth  of  the  colours  used  in  ruUng 
depended  on  the  brand  of  plate.  When  a  perfect  triime  negative 
was  obtained,  a  transparency  was  made  from  it,  and  in  contact 
with  this  was  placed  a  screen  ruled  with  lines  the  same  distance 
apart,  but  of  the  colours  corresponding  to  the  three  colour  sensa- 
tions, namely  red,  green  and  blue.  The  red  lines  were  made 
to  fall  on  the  image  taken  through  the  orange  lines,  the  green 
on  that  of  the  blue-green,  and  the  blue  or  violet  on  that  of  the 
blue.  On  the  screen  there  arc  practically  three  differently 
coloured  images  shown  by  one  transparency.  The  eye  blends  the 
different  colours  together  and  a  piaure  Is  seen  in  ^proximately 
the  correct  colours  of  the  original. 

Autochrome.-^A  very  remarkable  process,  founded  on  J  Joly's 
process,  was  introduced  in  1907  by  A.  Lumiire  et  ses  Fihi  of 
Lyons.  Starch  grains  of  veiy  minute  size,  some  of  which  were 
dyed  with  a  red  stain,  a  second  portion  with  a  green,  and  a  third 
portion  with  a  blue,  are  mixed  tc^ether  in  such  proportions  that 
a  fine  layer  of  them  appears  grey  when  viewed  by  transmitted 
light.  Under  a  magnifying  glass  the  grains  are  coloured,  but 
owing  to  the  want  of  focus  in  the  eye  the  colours  blend  one  with 
the  other.  Such  a  layer  is  embedded  on  the  surface  of  a  glass 
plate  in  a  waterproof  vehicle,  and  a  film  of  sensitive  emukion 
held  in  situ  in  some  material,  the  composition  of  which  has  not 
been  published,  covers  Uus  layer.  When  such  a  plate  is  placed 
in  the  camera,  with  th«  bach  oj  the  pUUe  next  the  lens,  the  light 
passes  througli  the  coloured  granules,  and  again  we  have  three 
negatives  on  one  plate,  but  instead  of  each  negative  being  repre- 
sented by  lines  as  in  the  Joly  process  they  are  represented  by 
dots  of  silver  deposit.  Owing  to  the  way  in  which  the  three- 
coloured  film  is  prepared,  it  is  evident  that  a  positive  taken  from 
such  a  negath^  could  not  be  backed  with  granules  of  the 
rig^t  colour,  as  the  grantdes  are  placed  at  random  in  the  layer. 
Lumi^,  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  converted  the  negative  into  a 
positive  in  a  very  ingenious  way.  The  plate  was  developed  with 
pyrogalHc  and  ammonia  in  the  usual  way,  but  instead  of  fixing 
it.it  was  plunged  into  a  solution  of  potassium  permanganate 
and  sulphuric  add.  This  dissolved  all  the  silver  that  had  been 
deposited  during  development  and  left  a  film  of  unaltered  silver 
saJt.  On  looking  throu|^  the  plate  the  colours  of  the  coloured 
layer  cbming  thtocrgb  the  different  dots  where  the  silver  was  at 


502 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


(APPARATtS 


fint  deposited  appeared  ia  view,  and  the  image  was  Ibe  image 
in  colour  of  the  object  photographed.  The  pUte  after  being 
washed  was  taken  into  the  li|^t  and  redeveloped  with  an  alka- 
line developer,  which  converteid  the  sensitive  salt  of  silver  to  the 
metallic  state.  The  iraafe  now  consisted  of  black  particles  of 
silver  and  the  coloured  image.  The  plate  was  next  fixed  in 
hyposulphite  of  soda  to  remove  any  unreduced  silver  salt  that 
might  be  left,  and  the  picture  after  washing  was  complete.  The 
coloured  image  so  obtained  is  a  very  dose  representation  of  the 
true  colours,  but  as  the  "  taking  "  screen  is  the  same  as  the 
"  viewing  "  screen  some  little  variation  must  result. 

PosiHves  in  Three  Colours.^lvcs  was  the  first  to  show  that  a 
transparency  displaying  approximately  all  the  a>lours  in  nature 
could  be  produced  on  the  same  princq>les  that  nndeilie  the  three* 
colour  printing.  This  he  effected  by  printing  each  of  the  three 
negatives,  produced  for  his  triple  projection  process  as  already 
described,  on  gelatine  films  sensitized  by  bichromate  of  potash. 
Each  of  the  three  transparent  films  was  dyed  with  a  colour  cora- 
pl«nentary  to  the  colour  of  the  light  which  he  transmitted 
through  the  positives  when  used  for  projection.  Thus  the  **  red  " 
positive  he  dyed  with  a  blue-green  dye,  the  **  green  "  positive 
with  a  purple  dye,  and  the."  blue  "  positive  with  a  yellow  dye. 
These  three  films,  when  superposed,  gave  the  colours  of  the 
original  object.  Sangcr-Shcpberd  has  made  the  process  a 
commercial  success  (see  Process)  an(f  produces  lantern  slides  of 
great  beauty,  in  which  all  colours  are  correctly  rendered.  Instead 
of  using  a  dye  for  the  "  red  "  tran^arency,  he  converts  the  silver 
image  of  a  positive  image  into  an  iron  salt  resembling  Prussian 
blue  in  colour.  (W,  DS  W.  A.) 

II.~Photocbapbic  Appaxatos 

Photographic  apparatus  consists  essentially  •(  the  camera 
with  lens  and  stand,  lens  shutters,  exposure  meters,  prepared 
plates  for  the  production  of  negatives  or  transparencies,  sensi- 
tive papere  and  apparatus  for  ptoduchig  positive  prints,  direct 
or  by  enlargement.  Besides  these  there  are  many  snbsidiaxy 
accessories. 

Since  the  introduction  of  hig|hly  sensitive  dry  plates  and  their 
extended  use  in  hand  cameras,  the  art  and  practice  of  i^oto- 
graphy  have  been  revolutionised.  Numerous  special  forms  of 
apparatus  have  been  created  suitable  for  the  requirements  of  the 
new  photography,  and  their  manufacture  and  sale  have  become 
important  industries.  The  value  of  the  exports  of  photographic 
materials  from  the  United  Kingdom  in  1906  was  £22,7x6.  The 
most  important  improvement  has  been  hi  the  construction  of 
anastigmatic  lenses,  which,  having  great  covering  power,  flatness 
of  field,  and  freedom  from  astigmatism,  can  be  worked  with  very 
much  larger  apertures  than  was  possible  with  the  earlier  forms  of 
rectilinear  or  aplanatic  lenses.  The  increased  rapidity  of  work' 
ing  thus  gained  has  rendered  it  easy  to  photograph  objects  in 
very  rapid  motion  with  great  perfection.  This  has  encouraged 
the  construction  of  the  very  light  and  c(M»pact  hand  cameras 
now  so  ttniversally  in  use,  whOe,  again,  their  use  has  been  greatly 
simplified  by  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sensitive 
plates  and  films  and  the  introduction  of  light,  flexible,  sensitive 
films  which  can  be  changed  fredy  in  daylight.  The  introduction 
in  1907  of  Messrs  Lumiere's  "  Antochrome  "  process  of  colour 
photography  has  also  been  a  great  advance,  tentHng  to  popularize 
photographic  work  by  the  facility  it  offers  for  reproducing  objects 
in  the  colonrs  of  nature. 

Tke  Camera. 

Historical. — The  camera  obscura  (q.v.)  was  first  applied  to 
photographic  use  by  Thomas  Wedgwood  between  1792  and  i8oa. 
No  description  of  his  camera  is  available,  btit  it  was  probably 
one  of  the  sketching  cameras  then  in  use.  In  x8ia  W.  U. 
WoUaston  found  that  by  using  a  meniscus  lens  with  a  concave 
surface  towards  the  object  and  the  convex  towards  the  screen,  a 
diaphragm  bdng  placed  in  front,  the  projected  image  of  the 
camera  obscuxa  was  greatly  improved  in  sharpness  over  a  larger 
field.  The  first  photographic  lenses  made  by  V.  and  Ch.  L. 
Chevalier  in  Paris  (1830-1840)  were  on  this  principle.  Tbt 
photographic  camera  in  its  simplest  form  is  a  rectangular  box, 


one  end  of  which  Is  fitted  to  canry  A  leos  and  the  opposite  oat 
with  a  recess  for  holding  the  f oauing  screen  and  plate  holdeni, 
these  ends  being  connected  by  a.  ngid  or  expanding  b— e  hoard 
and  body,  constructed  to  keep  out  all  h'ght  from  the  senaiave 
plate  except  that  passing  through  the  lens.  In  1816  Joseph 
Nic£phore  Niepce,  of  Chalon-sttr-Sa6ne,  for  his  photographic 
experiments  made  a  littJe  cadnera,  or  artificial  ore,  with  a  box 
six  inches  square  fitted  with  an  elongated  tube  carrying  a  len> 
ticular  glass.  There  are  now  in  the  Chalon  Museum  cameras  of 
his  with  an  iris  diaphragm  for  admitting  more  or  less  hght  to 
the  lens;  some  with  an  accordion  bellows,  othera  with  a  double 
expanding  rigid  body  for  adjustmg  the  focus.  The  iris  dia< 
phzagm  was  adopted  later  by  Chevalier  for  fan  photographic 
lenses.  In  1835  W.  H.  Fox  Talbot  constructed  simple  box 
cameras  for  taking  views  of  his  house  on^  sensitive  paper,  and 
dainocd  them  as  the  first  photographs  of  a  building  (FkU  Mag 
XS39, 14,  p.  ao6).  Fr.  von  Kobell  and  C.  A.  Steinheil,  early  in 
X839,  xnade  a  camera  with  an  opera  glass  lens  for  taking  land' 
scapes  on  paper.  Later  in  1839  J.  W.  Diaper  successfully  used 
a  camera  for  his  daguerreotype  experiments  made  of  a  4)eciade 
lens,  14  in.  focus,  fitted  into  a  cigar  box.  He  also  used  a  caarera 
fitted  with  a  concave  mirror  instead  of  a  lens.  Similar  cameras 
were  constructed  by  A.  T.  Wolcott  (1840)  and  R.  Beard  (1841) 
for  reversing  the  image  in  daguerreotype  portcaits.  They  have 
also  been  recommended  by  V.  Zenger  (1875)  and  D.  Mach  (1890) 
for  scientific  work. 

L.  J  M.  Daguerre's  camera,  as  made  by  Chevalier  in  1839  for 
daguerreotype,  was  of  Niepce's  rigid  double  body  type,  fitted 
with  an  achromatic  meniscus  lens  with  diaphragm  in  front  on 
WoUaston's  principle,  the  back  part  with  the  plate  moving  away 
from  the  lens  for  focusing,  and  fixed  m  its  pbce  with  a  thumb- 
screw. This  expanding  arrangement  enabled  knses  of  different 
focal  lengths  to  be  used.  With  modificatioos  cameraa  of  this 
type  were  in  use  for  many  years  afterwards  for  portrait  and 
studio  purposes.  For  work  in  the  field  they  were  found  incon- 
venient, and  many  more  portable  forms  were  brought  out,  among 
them  G.  Knight's  and  T  Otiewill's  single  and  double  folding 
cameras  (1853),  made  collapsible  wiih  hinges,  so  as  to  f<^  on  to 
the  base-board.  Cameras  with  light. bodies  made  of  waterproof 
doth,  &c,,  also  came  into  use,  but  these  were  superseded  by 
cameras  with  collapsible  bellows-body  of  leather,  which,  invented 
by  Niepce,  were  used  in  France,  m  1839,  by  Baron  A  P  de 
Siguier  and  others  for  daguerreotype  The  first  record  of  them 
in  England  15,  aj^parently,  J  Atkinson's  portable  stereoscopic 
camera  of  parallel-side  bellows  form  {Pk  Joum  1857,  3,  p  261), 
which  was  soon  followed  by  C.  T.  H.  Kmnear's  lighter  ocmical 
form,  made  by  Bell  of  Edinburgh  {Pk.  Joum  1858,  4.  p  i66> 
They  have  since  been  made  in  various  patterns,  conicai,  obbog 
and  square,  by  P.  Meagher,  G.  Hare  and  others,  and  are  sliU, 
in  modified  forms,  in  general  use  as  studio,  field  or  hand  cameras. 
When  wet  collodion  plates  were  used  many  cameras  were  fitted 
with  arrangements  for  developing  in  the  fidd. 

Information  on  these  and  other  early  cameras  wilt  be  found  ia 
the  phcto^phic  |oumals,  in  C.  Fabre's  TraU6  encydopfdtque  df 
photograph,  vol.  1.,  and  in  J.  M.  Eder^s  AusfOkrlickcs  Handtmck 
der  PMograpkte,  sod  ed.,  vol.  {..  pt.  ii. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  present  day  photography  b  the 
world-wide  use  of  the  hand  camera.  Its  convenience,  the  ease 
with  which  it  can  be  carried  and  worked,  and  the  remarkalHy 
low  prices  at  which  good,  us^ul  cameras  of  the  kind  can  be 
supplied,  concurrently  wftb  improvements  fa  njMd  lensStive 
plates  and  lenses,  have  conduced  to  this  result  It  has  also  ha4 
a  valuable  educational  influence  in  quickening  artistic  perccpU<Hi 
and  scientific  inquiry,  besides  its  use  in  depicting  scenes  and  rasi 
ing  eventa  for  historical  record.  Small  portiU>le  cameras  Iwd 
been  made  by  B.  G.  Edwards  (1855),  T.  Scaife  (PiMo^pli, 
1858),  A.  Bertsch  (i860),  T.  Ottewill  (i86x),  and  others,  but  it 
was  not  until  rapid  gelatin  dry  plates  were  avaikhle  in  Mi  ihml 
T.  Solas  brought  out  his  "  detective  "  caaaen  {Ph.  /mtm.  tSSi , 
P-  59)«  It  conabted  of  a  double  camera  (one  as  finder,  the  oUifer 
for  taking  the  picture)  enclosed  in  another  box,  suitably  covered, 
which  also  contained  the  double-filate  cankssaad  hadapcrtBrea 


AFPAIATOS) 

b  froRl  of  Ilie  viewtnf  uid  tiking  leaso.  In  uratbn  form  [he 
fisda  vu  omiucd.  A  month  latu  A.  Lciueiu  uid  J.  B. 
Ctnneuil-BoimBuil  patented  an  opera  glue  cunen.  Vtiiioiil 
loinn  oE  porUbk  magiziDe  cameru  loUovcd,  axoong  Ihem  A. 
Pumphrey's"  Repeating Caraera"(i8Si),W.Roucii'a"Eurtk»" 
(iSj;),  R.  Kiuienei'i  camen  (book  (omi.  iSeS),  and  otlien  In 
(olUpaiblc  or  boi  fotizu  dlagiuied  u  booki,  oatcba,  &c,  bui 
they  did  not  come  into  general  use  bdott  iSS8,  when  Ibe  Eait- 
man  Company  ol  Rschester.  U.S^.,  bnu^I  out  their  VHy 
portable  roU-film  nmeras,  now  known  under  the  trade  name  of 
"  Kodak."  Tlie  mHnuiaciuie  of  Ihoe  and  other  light  hand 
cimeru  hai  since  bciome  a  v«y  impoitut  and  fiouiiahins 
indiulry  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France  and  tbe  UnftBl 
Statefl.  It  ia  Dotewcrihy  that  the  moat  modern  form  of  hand 
Gunera,  the  leflea,  goeabackloaneatly  type  of  portable  camera 
otpcura,  figured  by  Johann  Zahn  In  i6Sd,  in  which  a  minor  waa 
used  for  reflecting  the  image  on  to  a  horitontal  FocuTing  screen, 
at  the  same  lime  reveraing  it.  The  fimt  photographic  camera  on 
Ihii  principle  waa  T.  Sulton'i  tiS6o),  which  haiiervedaa  abaaii 
for  many  lutnequenl  dcvelopmenti.  A.  C  Loman'i  (1SS9)  and 
R.  Knigener'i  (1&91)  were  early  eiaTnpIn  of  the  hand  cameia 
type,  but  £t«I  iiDpiovemenU  have  ibice  been  made- 
Modem  camera*  differ  »  much  in  deuih  d  imfrnvRl  crofutrnctitm 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Bidaof  tt 


■oniiy  w 


■hould  normally  b*  venical  and  pan 
perpendicular  te  -■' — — —  -'  "*--  - 


on  the  camera  fmnt  for  lainriK  the  lens  la  lake  in  irm  loir^rvtBii 

Xher  on  the  rinnD  front  accoidirtg  ai  the  camcia  i*  used  horiflfD- 

IcveL  U  further  tikine  ia  ncceeiaiy,  vbcii  I^ng  high  InilldiTin 
&e-.  the  iwin^'back  and  front  may  both  be  reciulrcd.  but  muil  be 
kept  vertical  and  parrilel  and  the  cfTcet  ia  that  of  an  abnonnai 

(ront.  The  vertical  and  iide  iwinim  are  alu  ukIuI  for  equaliiing 
tbe  definition  at  objccu  al  diffoent  dittancet  from  the  cxmen, 
but  tbey  alter  the  penpcctive-  Thev  awinfl-movemcnti  ihauld 
pnfnbly  be  round  the  central  horiiontal  or  vertical  axit  of  the 
back  or  tmnl,  but  are  freqiKntly  elTccted  by  timple  inclination  of 
the  back  or  leni  front  on  a  hlngb  When  the  risng  fnat  li  uied 
m  lent  of  emended  coveriiw  power  la  dewabte,  and  it  may  be  nccet- 
aary  to  itop  il  down  to  oMain  g«xl  definition  over  the  extended 
ar^  of  the  picture,  A  a^ht  tn^Hnnt!— 1  of  Ibe  lena  may  aba  be 
uaetui  in  readjunlng  the  fociia.  The  camera  and  plate  eairiera 
musi  be  perfectly  lliht'tighl  and  all  inner  bright  lurfaeea  made 
dead  black  to  prevent  renectiofli  from  bright  ipola  bdng  thrown 
on  the  plate.  The  btack  vacniih  uxd.  pnferably  of  theOae  and 
lampblKk  in  ipirit.  rauH  have  no  iltletenaot  cfiect  on  the  ptatta. 
Altfaough  the  Height  and  bulk  are  increated  it  la  convenicat  to  haw 

vreatest  Irngthof  the  j4ate maybe horiaontal or vertkaltaadeaired. 
Many  camera!  are  fitted  with  levolviiig  back!  to  be  uied  ia  dlbtr 
poaitton.  In  ume  French  cameras  the  back  part  of  the  camma 
wtib  the  bellDwa  ia  revenible.  to  be  used  uprigbt  or  borlaontaL 

fctaning  ^-Thi  earlier  earner^  were  focuied  by  drawing  oat 
(he  tack  and  damping  It  with  a  thDm1>*crew  worbng  in  a  dot  in 
-he  baae-boaid.    When  belkwa  cameiaa  were  introduced  they  were 

.J  1 ji — 1.1. Mill  used  (or  large  cony. 

ted  with  nek  and  piauo 


Ing  caiueraA.    Moit  modem  < 

both-     Many  halrfe 
once,  are  fitted  with  _._ 
/ocua  for  dutant  objecta, 
Kalf  Bttachtd  —  -■■-  ■- 


nquMiig  to  be  brought 


imenli  for  diuancc  of  near  objecli  a 


Ibefr 


^_...  .  „.ired.    The  ilidei  ihQ^iId 

Bt  earily  Into  the  cunera  and  the  Bhuttrra  run  unoolhly  out  and 
in.   Thry  mint  be  peilectly  light.tighl.  the  cDrncr  jaiotB,  the  hingea 
in  the^shuttcn,  and  the  o^cniogt  io  the  tidei  and  top  of  the  book- 
tea.    The  (hutterg  of  dark-ilidci 
''     '  is  perhapB 

ilid  BJidea.  single  and  double,  are  now 
J ...  J....... ...  of  wood  (or  iha  frame  and  metal  for  the 


lion  or  pititFciiaa  by  metal  rjatea 
tre  either  junled  or  nlid  and  remi 

%ht.    Various  font 
udelnw     ' 

ighV"'tl 


iiiTBle  plcb 


packets  oT  b&ns  arc  ir^de 

effect  a  great  Bairing  of  Irulk 
and  weight  (fig.  IJ-  Roll- 
holdcn  arc  alaoe  convenient 

eeiruloid  fil^Io'ln^tu'of 

rolled  on  spools,  which  can 
be  changed  ul  daylight. 
Changiiig  boaet  for  holding 

iou'fiima  in  ■haths.^an 

to  fit  OB  the  camera  in  plare  of 
changed  airtomatically  u  tha 
order  successively  at  the  back, 
exposure  and  the  number  of  the  1 

Sfadiff  cameras,  for  portnitun 


Fic  I.— Premo  FQm-pack. 

the  dark-slide  and  the  plates  sr 
■■   -1   plates  are  placed    I. 


ub)e-iunds  v 


(refb   piste  t,--.   

lure  txmg  recorded  at  tbe  name 

e  nnially  of  the  nuare  belion 
ge  and  heavy  koMi ;  sdluslable 

\y  fitted  with  lepeiting  backs, 
lat  the  plates  can  be  used  up- 
9  are  used  Ib^  aie  best  fitted 


IS  vertica]  and  horinntal  angular  move- 


504- 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


tocttliB  viih  tlif  rBfryinf  baud,  on  nriBcSat  Kaadi,  to  ivoi 

FMatU  ind  fitld  aneru  include  oratnu  of  tlw  Hire 
'      H  1  or  Durdoor  work  jind   ^ncnl    purpoic*  9n  f 

\  \n.    For  vpumipurpoab  [hey  fln  in 

SJ   fadhm  intended   for  ou 


Uaghcr  typH  fo 


^!ri."*i.i 


"^wS?" 


£]ini,  or  wiEh  film  nacla  or  other  dayliEbl 

FcUmt  •>«(  Himi  fJiMcnu.— Foldi 

Biodeni  pocUbk  c«iMi»  wbich  lut«  i 


-wort.    Thtywi 

ie^l^ihulor 
uh  bodcn.    Tlw 


olthe 

■SSTb., 

vllh  roll-hokkn  loT  Sexiblc 


,  gLu.  plito.  fell  ( 


ifiiu  VTui 

i]UArur^pUte  u  j  i 
mJI  Ibe  fttticm  ol  a  i 


package  cackdii;^  a 


iiiK'  ■''■     Koai  01  mem 

caiaenu.  wi^h'u  ip- 
paT4Cut  of  ihla  kind  oo 
A  Jighi  lund  Any  diaa 

>e  beUoin,  whidi  iliauld  be 


Fic  a. — Sinckir  FoLding  CAoen. 

of  on^inary  indoor  or  outdoor  wock  a 
•iie  ol  the  plKe.  And  tb«  eileuion  of  i 
quite  double  the  focui  of  the  luu. 

The  niiiJtiplicity  of  fornu  And  Amngement 
make*  it  diilicuit  to  cUuify  thciD  into  dinlnct  t 
be  mainly  divided  into  btJt  And  fiMin[  caioen 
tfli  cameras  with  encloted  ehaittinc  oiABanne 
Smi;  ;H  whh  enclned  mil  Sim  on  noollTCc]  wil 
na^Bftt.  chATiiing  bDis  or  n>U-Eolden:  M| 

uke  ilaa  plalo  in  the  ordinary  pjite-holdcn  will  take 
nitable  ilieatlu  or  can  be  fitted  will 


rtite(4lb. 


envekjpe  ilide«.  film-poclu 


BRipIi£ed   anil   adapted   far   rapid   locuting   And   eipoiinG.      Tin 

to  ihow  the  limili  oflha  lubject  on  the  plate,  the  focua  beine  ad- 

eed  by  the  iofiaily  catdiea  and  Cocuiini  lulei  alxive  noticed. 
Bf'bKhi  ud  fronta  an  often  diipenaed  with,  but  aie  desirable 
adjunct!,  and  a  riiing  and  failing  front  particularly  u.  Lenses  of 
fairly  farce  aperture.  7/6  to //S,  and  ;iood  covering  po^er,  preferafjly 
of  tne  anaatj^matk  type,  or  a  lapid  aplanaf,  ^ould  be  used,  but 

obieclivei  d4  larve  apeiture- 
with  tingle  lindicape  leoa 


autjclt     ■ 
Sj'?or°'tbt 


nd  for  ordinary  purposes  should  give  lairl 

Aflcesaaty,  jne  Soulier  should  be  cfficLCPt.  leguW  U1  action,  an 
readily  released  by  ^nlle  pmsuTV.  pneumaljc  or  otherwisi 
Mecbanisni  for  aulomaiially  changinE  plates  or  films  in  han 
cameraaol  the  boa  masasine  type  must  be  certain  In  action,  tunpl 
and  no4  nadily  put  out  ol  order,  spcraal  care  beifg  taken  to  avoi 


in  which  it  Is  to  Ik  used,  and  the  purpose  fcs-  which  it  Is  jvindliaAy 
requucd  For  ■:eDBcal  work  and  with  ttv  modeni  facilitiee  fvc 
canying  and  chanfirw  plates  and  films  in  dayligh^  Ibe  DumatnH 
foldiriliand  or^sund^csnieras  lor  plates,  flat  or  loll  fUms.vith  full 

In  which  A  lupiily  at  eat  Slma  or  plates  can  be  carried,  cbai«ed 
inflcbankally,  and  eapoted  fapidly  in  aaccewan,  arc  otovenient, 
but  ibeir  use  is  lioiltad  and  tbty  an  liable  Is  |cC  «»  of  aider. 


There  arc  two  types  of  light 
folding  hand  or  ctaod  cam- 
eras, ipecialty  adapted  for 

tn^  for  lakijic  glass  plates 
and  cut  filtnaf  and  the  fold- 

^-film  twm*.''  "ritt 
fonner  »i«   now  made  .of 

mahogany  or  metal  bodies, 
irooden  «  aluminium  base, 
bcftrds,  this  oietal  dark' 
slides  (Eg.  ]).  The  cameras 
of  the  pocket  Kodak  type 

but  made  to  take  roll  filraa    Fic.^- — Emeiaann's  Pock 
on  spools,  or  witb  an  attacb- 

menl  for  (ocuslng  glass  and  dark-slides  for  takuv  plati 
filint.    Attached  to  a  sling-strap  the  quarter-plale  si 

Quit*  convcoieKly  carried  la  a  dde-pocket.    Watisa' 
a  fociu  plane  shutter  Cfig.  4). 
The  ■*  Sellii  carbine  "  camera 

of  fairl/  large  apertuic,  dc 


certain  distance,  in  ' 
is  adjosEed   by  a 

All  of  them  arc,  hoi 
sl£°i^'^ie.  as*  in  th 


Xs 


^oc*l-pUne  Camci 
only  glass  pfales,  otbeis  plates  01 

"  Eureka  "  and  "  Vsle."  is  tbe 


Fic  5,— Pouble-magarine  Box 
wliich  a  supply  ol  plates  or  films  ir 
being  lilted  with  ll 

ment  is  simple  and  etle 
leather  or  cioih,  is  '  ' 
dust.     Tbe  camera: 
plates  ate   kepi  in 


FlO-  6.^The  Verasinfv, 


id  plAced  behind  tbe  re 
e  and  rtpaceable  by  «h 


MVAKATUq 

l|Wii>iiiM  dnio*  blivi  be»  inVnltd  fm  BfigctiBS  d»  iAur 
(fig-  S).  Seme  Eornu  Art  cficciive  and  populu  «  MDcovHt  ^  their 
coopBctiieH  and  rcAdinna  for  inoediaic  apDsurr.  but  thov  ia 
tlwayt«  nik  «f  the  mcchaaiHia  UUiu.  and  care  hu  to  be  bkm  Id 
<biriiiii  them  to  lay  the  plala  tiuTy  in  theii  places  The  very 
handy  binocular  cameras,  or  pM^-ivntUv.  rA  whkh  the  "  Vera- 
icope  "  (B^.  6}  ia  a  type»  are  of  this  clau,  ami  have  additional 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


SO* 


lliilald  tia^    Tbe 


FlO.  7.— BkIi'i  Dai-Cornn  Daylight' 

*lth  card*  bmiiarly  notched-   The  packof  GlmHandcKrtUiiplind 
Ld  a  magaiine  at  the  back  <d  the  camera,  and  by  cbe  mavrment  of 

'""  ;le.  'A"foWini°F>c»^ 


.  and  }.  Becli->  new 

being     a     daylight- 

'  fac~p£te>.  the  pljlet  bcini 

packed  ia  a  buodlc  of  ii()£ra 

-  Vril "  Camera.  ^^  ^tmrf  [torn  liX  and 

ill  dayliihl.     In 


3  ihow  Vbrl^' 
I.  Hood  if  Bnder. 
I,  Ground  ftlBH  • 


thB  rack^<-  ■>• 


^       pholD(raphinBaiUjpoU._ob;e. 


fcL"^ 


le  ^M  i^  iwly  ia  Ibi  Iowa 


ihti  Btjscipfe.  one 
:  botifi^  km  a>d 
otner  lont  of  twfa^lma  a 
a  ttMnr  Aicle  paDonnlc  pietnr 


and  an*  unially  made  (of 

fn  nqtoTcMwrMoii^  rwe^ni  it  necumy.  Ibouth  two  arc  cnn- 
aiient,  and  tan  be  wed  tooevhal  aa  bi  fif.  9.   Tbey  gaieral^ 

knaat  an  anfk  of  43'  imd  Ikrowiiii  up  tbe  Inufe  pcnjiKted  from 
1  to  a  boiitonUI  locuiinE  icmn,  on  amich  k  ia  vievrcd  tfarmwfa  a 
Me  hood  wbkti  toUi  down  m  tbe  uivtr  pan  of  the  omen  i^en 
in  ine  (i(.  lol.  Id  oedn  to  fcC  die  irealeet  rapitfty  of 
.„riHre  a  focal-pUna  ihallei  ii  genenlly  Gited.  and  l^  a 
Biifl*  Bwrcment  ot  the  ndia*  lbs  rnbror  it  moothly  llfled  and 

.V.  _i.^  „|  rimnltaaeomly.    They  •boaM  b*  6ned  with 

niea  troctint  at  lain  apertuna  for  very  rapid 
fotoH  tbe  leu  u  tMti,  but  mualty  there  ii  a  Iront 
no  nawpMion  for  toi^focue  leaiea,  with  rinnc  and  faBinf  Inwl* 
hidi  wmvm  motion  may  be  given,  a  awiDf-bark  not  briuE  lener' 
■■d  vilG  the  focal  plaae  ihutter.    In  Ibe  "  Eniei "  omti* 

niBtal  viewing  fcnen  and  reAeelar  are  made  to  iwina  linnl- 
ruhi.  fair  •  nek  lod  pinion  raovemegt.    Tbey  may  alio  have 
hKkt  for  quickly  chani^ng  tbe  peeition  of 


Flo.  1 1.— Section  of  "  «.Viit»  "  Panonmic  Caniera. 
n*  into  general  uie  tiU  the  uh  ot  carved  wrfaco  of  callukid 
1  euUed  wch  camera*  of  convenient  ue  and  nigln  to  be  nil 
the  nwkcl.  They  art  on  tbe  laBe  prindpla  aa  oh  made  bj 
,.«.,  u.^..,. ;..  ffl.<  f'»  curved  daguerreotype  plate*,  and  cowf-- 
"- "-  ■"'ylind™»pb»"of_i»» 


boi.  ud  by  alleiiu  Ihc  n»  al  which  Ibc  Itii*  u  nvglvid.  The 
pkluru  uken  einbiac*  lev  Ihu  iBo'.  The  eppumtiu  IbMi 
toHIhw  4Dd  B  quite  porubLe:  it  ii  fully  <k«chbcd  lo  MBgmrd'i 
LeC)li*4riiptp£itPta^i^-  TIk  "  A]-Vi(U"  (wi)  (ud -'^- 
"  Piomm  KoiUlE     (i$co)  ue  on  the  euiie  ptinciple,  but  Mni 

^T.rTEe? 


PHOTOGRAPHY 

B.1U1      I 

haftd  ukd  euTY-    * 
ji  ncyUted  6j    ] 


ivn  a  LaU-drde  vhea 


Ic  H|le  ol  vieo  11  il 
kuMJoIi 


cuun[arpU>n61ii>.X 
St  IB.,  filled  wiih  "To- 


la. 1>.—"AI-Vtaa 

Ceinen,  dfiua. 
Fonleimaipicwiinclepktunt.   Other  nsn «[ibDni 
I  driven  by  clockwork  have  becq  nude  for  making  a 


>.   Other 

.n  nude  W  mUfji  i  conpteti 

[hem  C.  DaiAoieceu'e  "  Qvtecnphe, ' 

icn  cu  De  uiea  witn  leiuei  of  differcflt  £«■  end  bkea  tha  Dtctum 

1  ndt-filin,  which  u  unrolled  u  the 

».  thefe       " 


itoi,   p.,  iSjl.     Com 


HFm  on  (he  w 


M^ituaid'.  ,r, 

rifhl-aeglrd  priimi 

cyiindrKal  liiin  Ihrough  an  anrie  at  jfio*  (I 
1907.  P-  91).  The  "PerijAote"  end  E( 
amm  m  inipfoved  lorn.  {E.  /*.,  i*)»,  j 
"'"    "       Colon"""    "" 


ila'itrpiBtSI'sK.  Fn»u7d.  >Ci," 
LnE   A.    Dajbreue   has   iapnvcd   Dn 


edcKribedio  3.  J.  A. 
"Panoiam"  (iBwl. 
le,"  J.  BHdiei  Lee'i 
cimeru   fined   with 

ntruueiiu  o(  pndnoB 

,..._.     Ifflpnved  lutrwAeou  for 

~^-r-. —  ,.-.»  "»..  ^erMMhetognphk  unermtui,  oq 

pruxHple  weriud  ui  b;  Di  C  PHflnch.  ol  Meen  Um  &  Cil. 


I»9I.    p.    SI7-      Colond    R.    W.    Si 
A.  Chcvalicf't  "  Fhotographic   Plat,    ._ 
"  Photo-Tbeodolite "    (itai).   and   uniUai 
leleecopeL  levelt  lod  divi^  dnlci.  an  i 
euiuble  lor  photoinphic  Hirveyini.     ln| 


(■9<>}).  an  beipc  pnctKaDy  devekipnl. 

ETDokBlTod'otheit  if],  uf  Edna  JoMiJn.  1!^'^?^; 
bIk  a  paper  by  Lieut,  F-  V.  Thoanpeeoi  id  Giepapinai  Jevrtai, 

Cf^mrrai  J^  Tlrn-Calimr  Fluitrapiy.—Muiy  formt  ol  tamm 

have  beeu  coutnicted  for  mahing  the  thite  negaiivea  lequLred 

for  rtichromatic  p^iocnphy-  They 

■  repeating  back  fitiod  with  thiee 

and    violet — throufb    vhicn    the 

I    fintile  colour-KnwIive  plate,  as  in 

i.   the  Sanaer-Shephenl  ryalem.    The 

Btely  in  fronl  of  the  fleniiti%¥  plate 


efpMure.    The  camera  ii  divided 

led  with  a  apecial  diaphragm  which 

^inf  lefuilivenefa  of  different  bolchce  of 
u  RnpRHcd  directly  en  the  [dale:  the 

— '' nRdtoaitocquaJiartheeine 

pCaua,  the  light  rayt  pacing 


lirt    imagn   a(«    la^n    throbgh    Ihre 


(AFPAKATUS 
of  tb*  Kfht  ce 


aa  ordinary  camera-    Other  ch^p^r  ooea  ar_  _..  . , 

pdociple.  Enlar^era  for  u«e  wiih  nrtiAdal  light  are  made  Uka  a 
magic  laniem,  with  a  condenier.  piojecling  an  enlarged  iiaap  od 
to  a  lentiEive  plate  or  pper  tied  oa  aa  eud  or  acrteo-  A  Hmpk 
arrangement  for  dayliEnt  enlarging  i«  to  fix  a  auilable  camera  on 
to  a  urser  one  by  a  UHjlng  Iroot,  and  mo'jnl  the  two  on  a  audio 
nand  tilled  n  that  the  image  may  be  iUsminated  by  the  opes  ilry. 

Ci-umoictroM"-— Many  ipecia]  ramecai  and  lenata  have  bcxa 
introduced  lor  taking  on  a  lonf  Beeibia  acn^ve  film  an  eatendrd 
teriei  of  tinall  phoiographa  of  the  eucceiaive  jpham  ol  movTiaenta, 
and  again  projecting  them  00  a  icreen  ao  at  to  reproduce  the  noe. 

hiographa,  ^,    Aa  each  photograph  lequiivi  a  certain  nininoio 

and  hectqng  the  film  in  poillion  uve  to  be  adojrted^and  ihere  are 
many  different  ntt  al  dolnf  it,  either  by  a  eoniinuoui  or  iaier- 

oidiiury  odluloid  filiaa.  but  in  narrow  haodi  from  i)  ia.  tu  i|  ia. 
in  width,  the  lentih  varyiBg  with  the  number  of  capcaum  re- 
quired, at  the  rata  of  IG  to  »  per  arcond.  They  an  perforated 
on  both  aidea.  ao  that  they  nay  run  true  and  ha\T  the  iwcetaary 
JDlemiiitenE  niotlDii,  the  perforatHHU  fitting  on  to  itudt  on  a  tpraehrt 
wheel  in  connexion  with  the  driving  wheel  and  crank  handle. 
Special  lentee  of  ihort  focua,  from  I  ia.  10  j  in.,  with  tuod  coi-erinf 
poKcr  and  large  apcnure*  JU  to  /It,  an  required  both  for  photo. 

the  ^urpoK,  but  if  a  IripAd  Hand  ii  uied  it  thould  be  well  brand. 
Sproalapparatui  it  requiitd  for  developing  and  fixing  the  eapoied 
umm.  Thrv  are  vtnnd  on  brge  rollerm  luinnrted  over  trouaha 
Hmiakiioi  the  neceuary  loluliontjiM  Cikiuiocuph^     **- 

Firlnni  [ie99);^r  UcKging.  Jfaa'tut  iv  traUiuliim 
— ifiir  (1907):  K.  W.  WWt-'"- — ■-     "'-    '-■ 


"« 


oran^e-ced  t^u.  anoih 


Qidioary  tevoivinf  aector  i 
iiittent  white  light,  ol  a 


intuit 


an  expoenre  it  made  through  the  red  and  graen  glaiiei  altemat*^. 
The  lomer  paaiet  white  and  yello*.  and  then  oranfl^e,  acarlet  to 
deepett  red:  whikt  the  latter  alu  pati  while  and  yeUuw.  graii. 
blue-^reen.  blue,  all  in  proportion  accordiag  tQ  the  led  and  greett 
aeniilivenna  of  the  tpeciaTly  lenBitiled  panchromatic  emulaion  oa 
lh<  film-    The  Bme  fhulter  and  colour  acreena  trt  tu«1    for  pro- 

an  latiifactDry  and  the  method  prrmiiiea  to  be  of  grtal  pricticai 

mHrrh  m  photfrc^crography,  ^lOto  ^miuauupy,  aamiioiiiical 
photcKiMhy.  Ac, 

TrtW  Sbx^.— Field  caneraa  an  utoally  aupponcd  so  miadca 
Irlpod  Kandi.  foldinr  in  two  «  man  aeciiaw,  ih*  haad  beiM 
(eptrateorEtedlnthebaaebaardof  thecameia.  The  leca  dwuld 
be  capabtevf  extenilon  fo  about  s  h.  aruj  adju4  *"'  '  """*  '" 
uit  «i  uneven  gnurHf-  A  tripod  ttand  may  bi 
he  firm  artd  rigid  when  set  on.  To  p~  ----■'--' 
rubber  or  corV  may  be  fitted  to  the  . 
caaet  It  may  be  OMirable  to  ttren^hen  it 


«  lishl,  bol  mat, 
dippirig,  thoet  U  iadi^ 

he'loiSf'brl'Tow" 


^X7e, 


Tiera  to  be  tecurely  fixed  in  awkwijd  poailiona. 

^S'    F^?hi^d  cami™  tS^^iy  light.  ponMr 
■alkiag-itkit  aunda  an  coaveaiaa. 


APPARATUS 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


507 


PkotograpkU  Objtuives  or  ttiuts. 

The  objective  is  the  moct  important  item  .of  photograpliic 
apparatus,  because  upon  it  depends  the  perfection  with  which 
a  correct  and  well-defined  picture  it  projected  opoo  the  ftant 
surface  of  the  sensitive  plate  of  objects  in  the  different  planes  form- 
ing^ the  field  of  view,  which  naturally  would  come  to  a  focus  on  a 
series  of  curved  surfaces.  This  flattened  pictuie  roust  be  equally 
illuminated  and  sharply  defined,  within  a  limit  of  coofunoii  from 
fU  to  rH  of  an  inch,  over  a  sufficiently  wide  anfte.  A  good 
oojective  must  also  pass  suflkient  light  to  produce  the  required 
effect  on  the  photographic  plate  with  snorf  exposures;  the  chemical 
and  visual  foci  must  coincide  exactly,  and  it  must  sot  distort 
straight  or  parallel  lines.  The  fulfilment  of  these  conditions  is 
compUcated  by  the  presence  of  sundry  focal  displacements  or  aberTa* 
tions.  (1)  Sphtrical  aberration^  or  noa-ooincidenoe  of  the  foci  of 
the  central  and  marginal  pencils  of  rays  passing  through  the  lensi 
It  is  corrected  by  varying  the  curves  of  the  component  lenses  and  by 
the  use  of  a  diaphragm.  U)  Conia.  or  blur,  due  to  lateral  spherical 
aberration  of  oblique  rayi^  and  mostly  found  in  unsymmetrical 
combinations  and  single  view  lenses.  It  as  partly  eliminated  by 
the  diaphragm.  (3)  Astigmatism,  which  accompanies  ooma  in 
single  leases,  and  is  usually  present  in  symmetrical  aplanats,  mani- 
fests itself  by  forming  two  wts  of  images  of  points  off  the  axis, 
lying  in  two  separate  curved  surfaces,  one  set  focosing  tangemially 
as  more  or  leas  horizontal  Unes,  the  other  radially  as  more  or  less 
vertical  lines.  It  increases  with  the  obliquity  of  the  m^^s  and 
causes  want  of  definition  and  difference  of  focus  between  horiaontal 
and  vertical  lines  away  from  the  centre.  (4)  Curvature  cf  fields 
also  increasing  with  tne  obliquity  of  the  rays.  (5)  Distortion, 
outward  or  inward,  according  to  the  nature  and  construction  of 
the  objective.  With  the  single  meniscus  view  lens,  used  with  its 
concave  surface  towards  the  object  and  a  diaphragm  in  front,  a 
square  will  appear  turrel  shaped  from  inward  contraction  of  the 
lines  towards  tne  centre:  but  with  the  convex  surface  towards  the 
object  and  the  diaphragrn  behind,  H  will  appear  with  concave 
sioes  from  outward  expansion  from  the  centre.  It  can  be  corrected 
by  using  two  such  leniws  with  the  convex  sides  outwards  and  a 
central  diaphragm,  as  in  oeriscopic  or  rectilinear  lenses.  'Lenses 
of  the  orthoscopic  and  telephoto  types  generally  show  the  btter 
form  of  distortion.  (6)  Cnromatic  oberratioH,  produced  by  the 
dispersion  of  the  white  light  passing  through  the  leas,  and  the 
dincrent  coloured  rays  composing  it  coming  to  a  focus  at  different 
distances  from  the  visual  focus  In  the  order  of  their  wave«iengths. 
It  thus  affects  tx>th  the  positions  and  sius  of  the  image  for  the  dif- 
ferent colours.  For  ordinary  photographic  work  it  suffices  for  the 
blue-violet  and  yellow  rays  to  be  coincident,  but  for  the  new  pro- 
cesses of  photography  in  three  colours,  apochromatic  lenses,  in 
which  perfect  coincidence  of  the  coloured  rays  is  secured,  are  re- 
quired to  obtain  the  accurate  register  of  the  three  images.  The 
corrections  are  effected  by  compensating  lenses  of  different  refractive 
powers  (see  Aberration). 

In  constructing  photographic  objectives  these  aberrations  and 
distortions  have  to  oe  neutralized,  by  regulating  the  curves  of  the 
different  positive  and  negative  component  lenses,  the  refractive 
und  dispersive  indices  of  the  glasses  from  which  they  are  made, 
and  the  distances  of  the  rxrfracting  surfaces,  so  as  to  make  the 
objective  as  far  as  possible  stipnahc  or  focusing  to  a  point,  giving 
an  image  well  defined  ai^d  nndistorted.-  This  perfect  correction 
could  never  be  effected  in  objectives  made  before  18B7,  and  very 
few  could  be  effectively  used  at  their  full  apertures,  because  althougfl 
linear  distortion  couM  be  overcome  there  were  always  residual 
aberrations  affecting  the  oblique  rays  and  necessitating  the  use  of 
a  diaphragm,  which  by  lengthening  out  the  rays  fraused  them  to 
define  clearly  over  a  latger  surface,  at  the  expense  of  luminous 
intensity  and  rapidity  m  working.  The  introduction  of  rapid 
gelatin  dry  plates  enabled  photographs  to  be  talwn  with  much 
greater  rafMdity  than  before,  and  kd  to  a  demand  for  greater 
intensity  oi  illumination  and  better  definition  in  lenses  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  necessarily  very  rapid  exposatcs  in  hand 
caAieras.  For  studio  and  copying  work  quick-acting  lenses  are 
also  valuable  in  dull  weather  or  m  winter. 

The  rapidity  of  a  leas  with  a  light  of  givetf  latendty  depends 
upon  the  diameter  of  iu  apertiire,  or  that  of  the  diaphraem  used, 
iwlattvely  to  the  focal  length.  In  order,  therefore,  to  obtain  iiH 
creased  rapidity  combinea  with  perfect,  definition,  soaie  ineans 
had  to  be  found  of  constructing  photographic  objeaives  with  larser 
effective  apertures.  This  necessity  had  long  been  recognised  and 
tnet  by  nuny  of  the  best  makere  for  objectives  of  the  single  meniscus 
and  apbnatic  types,  but  with  only  partial  success,  because  such 
objcctivea  are  dependent  upoa  the  diaphragm  for  the  further 
correction  necessary^  to  obUin  good  definition  over  an  extended 
liald.  The  difiicutty  was  in  the  removal  of  astigmatism  and  curva- 
ture of  the  field,  which,  as  J.  Pctaval  bad  shown,  was  impossible 
with  the  oki  optical  flint  and  crown  glasses.  In  1886  Messrs 
E.  Abbe  and  O.  Schott.  of  Jena,  introduced  several  new  varieties 
of  optical  glasses,  among  them  new  crown  alasscs  which,  with  a 
lower,  dispersion  than  flint  glassy  have  a  kightr  instead  of  a  lower 
fvfractive  M»wer.  It  was  thus  rendered  possible  to  overcome 
the  okl  difficulties  and  to  revoluttonize  photographic  optics  by 


Old  types. 


Near  types. 


enaUing  objectives  to  be  madf  free  from  astkmatiem,  working  at 

their  full  apertures  with  great  flatness  of  field  independently  ol 

the  diaphragm,  which  is  now  chiefly  used  to  extend  the  area  of 

definition  or  anjrfe  of  view,  and  the  so-called  '*  depth  oi  focus  " 

for  objects  in  different  planes. 

Photographic  objectives  may  be  claaed  as  foUowi:— 

I .  Single  achromatic  combinatibnsi^ '  "^ 

a.  Unsymmetrical  doublets. 

3.  Symmetrical  doublets. 

4.  Triple  combinations. 

5.  Anastigmatk  combinations    symmetlfcal 

and  onsymntetrical. 

6.  Telephotographic  objectives.^ 

7.  Anachromatic  combinations.  \ 

They  are  also  sometimes  classified  according  to  tbdr  rapidity,  as 
expressed  by  their  effective  apertures,  into  "  extra  rapid,"  with 
apertures  larger  than  //6;  *'  rapid,"  with  apertures  from  /AS  to  //8; 
"slow."  with  apertures  lessi  tnan  //ii.  Another  classification  is 
according  to  the  angle  of  view, "  narrow  angle  "  up  to  35*; "  medium 
angle  "  up  to  60*;  "  wide  angle  "  up  to  90*,  too*,  or  more.  Many 
leases  arc  made  in  series,  differii^^  in  rapidity  ana  angle  of  view  aa 
well  as  in  length  of  focus. 

l.SintU  Achromatic  Combinalion  or  Landscape  Lens. — ^This  is 
the  earl^  form  of  photographic  objective,  evolved  from  W.  H, 
Wollaston's  improved  single  periscopic  meniscus  camera  obscum 
lens  (1812).  It  was  made  achromatic  oy  Ch.  Chevalier,  and  so  used 
by  L.  J.  M.  Dagueirc,  though  it  rcamred  correction  for  chemical 
focus,  as  did  the  object  glasses  of  telescopes  or  opera  glasses  first 
used  for  photography.  The  single  bndscape  lens  usually  consists 
of  aa  achronutic  compound  meniscus,  formeid  of  a  biconvex  positive 
crown  cemented  to  a  Sicoacave  negative  flint  to  secure  achromatism 
and  partially  correct  the  spherical  aberration,  and  may  be  taken 
as  tke  type  of  the  "  old  photographic  acbromat  " 
(fig.  14).'  It  is  used  with  its  concave  side  towards 
the  objject  and  a  diaphragm  in  front,  thus  pro- 
ducing mward  or  barrel-shaped  distortion,  inherent 
in  this  type  of  objective,  and  rendering  it  unsuit- 
able for  copying  or  architecture,  thou^  not  very 
noticeable  in  landscape  work.  The  full  aperture 
has  to  be  kirgely  reduced  by  a  diaphragm  ta  im- 
prove definition;  so  it  is  slow,  though  many  im- 
proved forms  have  been  brought  out.  It  has 
always  been  nppular  for  pure  kindscape  work  on 
account  of  tne  equality'  of  illumination  over 
the  plate,  depth  of  focus,  and  the  softness  and 
brilliancy  of  the  ims^e  owing  to  Its  thinness  and 
freedom  from  reflecting  surfaces.  In  some  of  Its  improved  and 
**long  focus"  forms  it  is  preferred  by  portraitists  for  large 
heads,  on  account  of  the  general  softness  it  gives  when  used  with 
large  apertures. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  best-known  improved  objectives 
of  this  type:     T.  Grubb'f  **Aplanatic"   (1857),  //15  to  //30 


Fic.  la^Single 
L  a  n  a  s  ca  p  e 
LensL 


7^: 


■Y 


FiC  15.— CrubbV 
"  Aplanatic  "  Lens. 


[Fig.  i6.-^Rapid  Landscape  Lens. 
Long  FocusL 


(fig.  15) :  J.  H.  Dallmeyer's  *'  Wide  Angle  Landscape  Lens  "  (1665). 
//r^,  angle  75*.  In  it  distortieo  was  reduced  and  marginal  defi- 
nition improved.  .The "  Rapid  ng|    ■       ■■■■..      .» 


(long  focus)  Landscape  Lens" 
(1884). //12,  angle  40*  (fig.  16). 
was  a  modification  of  it.  and 
at  //8  is  useful  for  beads  in 
portraiture.  W.  Wray's 
''Landscape  Lens"  (1886). 
//it.  is  also  useful  for  por- 
traiture in  the  larger  sixes  at 
//8.  Fr.  Voigtttnder's  "  Widc- 
Angle  Undscape  Una  "  (1888) 


Fig.  17. — Rectilinear  Landscape 
Lens. 


*  In  the  diagrams  of  lenses  which  folkiw,  a  uniform  sjrstem  of 
indicating  the  nature  of  the  glass  employed  by  means  of  the  shading 
has  been  adopted. 

Flint  glass  b  incUcatcd  thus>— 

Crown  glass  of  low  vefrsctive  power  thus:— 

Crown  glass  of  high  refractive  power  thusr^ 

(These  two  are  used  indiscriminately  in  tenses  made 
before  the  introduction  of  the  new  Jena  glass.) 
Extra  li^t  flint  g^ass  thus:— 
In  most  cases  the  front  of  the  lens  is  on  the  right. 


H 


5o8 


PHOTOGRAPHY: 


SAPFARATUS 


//15,  aiMle  9b*»  with  anat  eoverfng  power  wid  depcb  o(  locua^ 
T.  R.  Kllmey«r'«  "  RcctUiiiear  Landscape  Lem"  0888).  //14. 
amle  60*  (fig.  17),  was  of  novel  cosstniction,  frte  from  distortion, 
bnUiant  in  working  and  inefut  for  copying.  Messrs  Ross's  "  Wide- 
An^e  Landscape  Lens  "  (1890).  //16,  angle  70*,  triple  cemented 
and  made  of  Teaa  glass.  Many  other  ejxellenc  objectives  of 
this  type  have  oeen  made  by  British  and  foreign  makers  and  are 
still  used,  though  somewhat  superseded  by  toe  fully  corrected 
anastignurts  speoally  made  to  work  singly,  or  as  single  elements 
of  anastigmatK  doublets,  as  noticed  in  |  5. 

3.  Unsymm€trical  DoMeU:  Old  Typ^s.^-ThoA  class  includes 
objectives  witli  oomparativdy  large  apertures  formed  of  two 
ditttmilar  oombinatioos,  in  most  cases  correcting  each  other,  with 
a  diaphragm  between  them.  In  some  the  single  elements  mav  be 
used  independently.  All  the  older  "  portrait  lenses,  some  of  the 
aplanatic  doublets  and  Fr.  von  Voigtlander's  "  Orthoscopic " 
Lens  (i8«),  now  disused,  are  of  this  type.  Even  with  the  present 
improvca  conditions,  the  portraitist  working  in  a  studio  requires 
a  quick-acting  objective  <m  large  effective  aperture  and  compara- 
tively short  focus,  giving,  a  brilliant  welMcfined  ima^  of  near 
objects  in  different  jrfanes  over  a  restricted  field  of  view.  The 
early  nngle  lenses  were  found  to  be  too  slow  for  portraiture  hy  the 
daguerreotype  and  talbotype  processes,  and  the  efforts  of  opticians 
were  directed  to  the  problem  of  obtaining  the  maximum  amount 
of  light,  together  with  good  definition  and  flatness  of  field,  and 
about  1840  compound  lenses  were  brought  out  by  Andrew  Ross  and 
C.  Chevalier,  consisting  of  two  achromatic  compounds,  one  at 
cadi  end  of  a  tube.  Ross's  lens,  made  for  H.  Collen,  is  interesting 
as  the  first  lens  corrected  photMraphically,  so  that  the  visual  and 
chemical  fod  were  eoinddent  (fig.  18).  Ch.  (Chevalier  also  com- 
bined lenses  of  different  fod,  as  {%  now  done  for  **  convertible  " 
objectives,  used  nngly  or  combined.  He  also  fitted  them  with 
iris  diaphragms.  These  forms  were  soon  superseded  by  the  com- 
pound portrait  lens,  calculated  by  J.  Petzval  and  brought  out  by 


Fig.  18.— First  English 

Portrait  Lens.  Fkc.  19/— Portrait  Lens^ 

Fr.  voo  VoigtUnder  in  1841^  It  conasts  of  two  dissimilar  achro- 
matic  combinations  widely  separated.  At  first  the  diaphragms 
Were  in  front,  but  now  they  are  central.  The  front  dement  is  a 
plano-convex  compoccd  of  a  Uconvex  crown  cemented  to  a  plano- 
concave flint,  while  the  back  clement  is  a  double  convex,  com- 
posed of  a  biconvex  crown  separated  by  an  air-space  from  a  concavo- 
convex  flint  (fig.  19)  This  lorm  of  obiective  quickly  supplanted  all 
other  for  portraitures,  and  is  still  largely  used,  though  it  nas  defects 
which  prevent  its  use  for  general  purposes  and  is  wing  superseded 
for'poraraiture  by  some  of  the  iiapid  anastigmats.  In  his  "  Quick 
Acting  Portrait  Lens "  (i860),  //4,  angle  55*,  J.  H.  DaBmeyer 
improved  the  oorrsction  lor  spherical  aberration,  stnd  in  hb  "  Bxtra 
Quick  Acting  Portrait  Lens  "  (i860),  //3-2.  used  for  dnematPgraph 
work,  attained  greater  rapidity.    In  the  "  Paitent  Portrait  Lens  " 

(1866),  //3.  //4  and //6»  angles 
50    to  55*  (fig.  20),  he  made 
great  changes  in  the  form  and 
relative  positions  of  the  back 
dements^  giving  a  fbtter  field 
"  and  freedom  from  flare  spot.   By 
separating  the  two  components 
of  the  back  element  more  or  less 
spherical  aberration  could  be  in- 
troduced to  give  softer  definition 
Jto.  20.— Dallmeyer's'Pfttent     »nd  greater  depth  of  focus.    In 
Portrait  Lens.  1875  Dr«  A.  Stcinheil  made  an 

unsymmetrical  aplanatic  por- 
trait combination  of  peculiar  construction,  working  at  fl%  2.  It  was 
an  improvement  on  his  similar  symmetrical  "  rortrait-Aplanat*" 


It  had  six  reflecting  surfaces  and  nearly  appiMcfaed  «  triplet 
(fig.  21).  Steinhdl's  **  Croup  Aplanats**  (187^, //6a.  angle  70*, 
were  an  improvement  on  the  ordinary  **  Aplanats,  but  were 
superseded  in  1881  by  the  "  Group  Antiplanets,'*  //s,  angle  70*, 
lenses  of  a  distinct  type  (fig.  22).  They  were  a  further  advance 
on  the  "  Aplanats,  wonciog  at  larger  apertures  and  giving 
better  definitioh.  This  lens  Is  interesting  as  the  first  in  which 
astigmatism  was  eliminated  by  combining  a  **  crowp-shaped  ** 
lens  of  high  refractivity,  with  a  *' flint-shaped  **  of  lower 
refractivity,  though  made  of  the  old  glasses.  In  his  "  Rapid 
Antiplanct "  (1893).  //^'{l<  *"S^  3^*  ^^  ^  Steinheil  improved 
the  '  Group  Antiplanet  as  regards  astigmatism  and  covering 
power  by  rcpladng  the  thick  back  combination  by  a  triple  long- 
locus  negative  etement  consbting  of  a  crown  between  two  flints, 
with  a  heavv'  barium  crown  in  tiie  front  element  instead  of  a  flint 
(fig>  33).  voigtiander,  who  XMiginally  constructed  the  Petzval 
DOTtrait  lens,  improved  it  in  1878  and  1885,  and  now  makes  two 
lenses  on  the  same  prindple,  senes  I.  fl%  2,  angle  28*.  for  ordinary 
portraiture  and  projection,  and  series  to.,  /^2-3,  anpe  21*  (t^oo) 
tor  astrophotography,  dnematonaphy,  &c.,  when  intense  inamtaa- 
tion  is  required  over  a  small  fiekl.    Eioth  are  quite  free  from  coma. 


Pig.  23.— R.  Stdnbdl's  Im->  Fic.  24.— Ordinary  Angle 

proved  Group  Antiplanet.  Actinic  Ooubltt. 

Most  of  the  above  are  portrait  objectives  of  large  aperture,  but 
unsymmetrical  doublets  nave  also  been  made  for  landscape  work. 
J.  T.  (^oddard's  *'  Combination  L.andscape  Lens  "  (1859)  was  one 
of  the  first,  and  was  free  from  distortion,  gave  a  flat  field,  and 
could  be  used  as  a  convertiUe  lens.  In  1864  T.  Ross  issued  his 
"  Actinic  Doublets,**  modified  from  the  Collen  lens,  in  three  series 


and  more  rapid.  The  separate  elements  could  be  used  alooe. 
Some  of  them  were  fitted  with  a  shutter  near  the  diaphragm.  Tbcy 
were  superseded  by  the  "  Symmetrical  "  lenses. 

3.  Synuneirical  DoubUts. — This  class  indudes  objectives  foraied 
oi  two  similar  combinations  of  lenses,  usually  of  the  convergent 
meniscus  form,  with  thdr  concave  surfaces  inwwrds  and  a  diaplira«a 
between  them;^  consequently  they  are  rectilinear  and  practic^y 
free  from  marginal  distortion.  Untd  the  introduction  of  anastir- 
matic  doublets  they  were  in  general  use  for  all  purposes  under  the 
names  "  Aplanat."^ "  Rectilinear."  "  Symmetrical.''^ "  Euryscope.- 
&c  They  are  still  largely  used  and  nave  been  improved  by  the 
use  ol  Jena  glasses  in  their  construction. 

The  first  recorded  lens  of  this  type  was  Dr  J.  W.  Draper's  com- 
bination used  in  1819  for  daguerreotype  portraits,  couisdag  of 
two  double<onvex  lenses  4  in.  diameter,  with  a  united  Iccna 
of  8  in.,  mounted  in  a  tube  with  a  diaphragm  3I  in.  In  from. 
In  1841  T.  DaN^dson  made  a  combination  of  two  sin^  landscape 
lenses  very  similar  to  the  later  rectilinear  doublets.  0dns  dower 
than  the  Petzval  portrait  lens  its  value  as  a  non-dbtortinglens  for 
general  purposes  was  not  recognized.  G.  S.  Cundell  (1844)  combined 
two  uncorrected  meniscus  lenses  with  a  diaphragm  between  them. 
In  i860  T.  Sutton  brought  out  hb  "Panoramic  Lens,'*  which 
worked  on  curved  plates  covering -about  100*.    It  was  followed 


I 


FkG.  25.— C  A.  Steinheil'a 
♦•  Ptriskop." 


I 


FkG.  21.— Portrait  Antiplanet.     Fic.  22.— Croup  Antiplanet. 
Form  I.  of  1874.  but  was  superseded  la  1881  by  the  *'  Portrait 
Antiplanet,'*  //4  and  free  from  astigwatbm  over  an  mng^  of  14*. 


Fig.  26.— a.  StdnheB's  "Aplanat.** 
by  C  C.  Harrison's  "  Gkibe  Lens  "  (i86a).  angle  75*,  oorapoaed  of 
a  qfmmetrical  pair  of  deep  compound  menisd,  the  exteiiw  sivfaces 
forming  p*rt  of  a  sphere.  Though  defective  and  dow  it  was  popolar 
for  a  time.  C.  A.  StdnheU's  "  Beriskop  "  (186$,  f/is-s.  ai«le  90*. 
was  a  syminetricai  doublet  formed  01  two  pteiii  crown  menssa 
with  central  diaphragm  (fig.  25).  It  gave  a  larger  fidd  thaa  tiK 
I'  Gk»be,"  the  lenses  bdng  closer  tMethcr.  Bcuig  nooachraamcic 
it  had  to  be  adjusted  for  chemical  tocua.  It  was  quite  free  Irom 
distortion^  with  a  very  -flat  field,  and  both  nodal  points  togethcc 
It  b  oonsideied  the  best  possitAe  combination  of  two  plain  lemc% 
and  b  still  used  in  some  of  the  cheaper  hand  cameras  with  flaed 
focus,  the  difference  of  the  chemical  and  visual  fod  bdmr  allowed  for 
in  the  camera  or  by  adjustable  lens  mounts.  G.  Rodeastock*a 
"  Bbtlgmats  "  are  or  this  chiss.  I.  Zontmaycr  made  a  dmilar  !■»- 
symmetrical  lens.  In  A.  Steinhni's  "  Apbnat "  (1866)  the  sane 
pnndpit  waa  canwd  out  with  achfooMtiftd  Icwea,  and  a  giMg 


APrAKAIVSI 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


509 


taprowtawne  wu  effcctad  in  tke 'cbostniBtiMi  of  aoA^lMCoitiiv 
objectives  of  fairljr  laige  aperture.  It  conaivtad  of  two  potitivt 
cemented  flint  meniaci,  each  compoeed  of  a  dense  flint  with  nq;ative 
focus  outude  and  a  light  flint  with  positive  focus  inside,  its  concave 
surfaces  facing  the  centre  (fig.  36).  This  use  of  flint  glasses  aJonc 
was  peculiar,  former  achromatic  lenses  having  been  made  of  flint 
and  crown.  These  lenses  were  made  in  three  rapidities:  "  Ordinary," 
//6  or//7,  angle  60*;  "  Landscape." //la  to//i5.  angle  90*,  also  used 
u  coavertibte  sets;  "  Wide  Angle  Landscape."  //20  to  //^s,  angle 
--"'    "  Wide  Ai«le  Reproduction,"  similar  to  the  last,  but  with 


•. 


104  .  -         ., 

sharper  definition.  The  Aplanat  "  had  many  advantages  over 
previous  doublets  and  the  triplet,  being  more  rapid,  perfectly 
symmetrical,  so  that  there  was  no  necessity  for  turning  them  when 
eniai^ng.  and  free  from  distortion  or  flarek  There  <wa8  no  chemical 
focuflk  Each  component  could  be  used  alone  for  landscape  work 
with  double  focus,  subject  to  the  ordinary  defects  of  single  lenses. 
By  the  use  of  Jena  glasses  in  the  "Universal  Aplanat"  (1886}  the 
components  of  this  lens  were  brodght  closer  together,  its  intensity 
increased,  and  it  was  made  more  portable.  J.  H.  Dallmeyer  had 
been  working  in  the  same  direction  simultaneously  with  Steinhcil, 
and  in  1866  brought  out  his  **  Wide  Angle  Rectilinear." //i<.  anzle 
lOO*.  made  of  flint  and  crown,  the  front  clement  being  larger  than  the 
back  (fig.  37).  It  was  slow  for  ordinary  purposes  and  was  succeeded 
in  1867  by  the  weU*known  "  Rapid  Rectilinear,"  //8,  on  the  same 


-e 


Fig.  27. — ^Wide-Angle 
Rectilinear  Lena. 


I^ic.  38.— Rapid  Rectilinear  Lena. 


principle  as  Stelnheil's  "  Anianat,  but  made  of  flint  and  crown 
(fig.  aS).  Ross's  "  Rapid  '^  and  *'  Portable  Symmetrical  "  lenses. 
Voifi^lAnder's  "  Euryscopes,"  and  other  similar  lenses  of  British 
and  fofwign  manufacture  are  of  the  same  type,  and  still  in  use.  ,They 
are  excellent  for  general  purposes  and  copying,  but  astigmatism  is 
always  present,  and  although  thev  can  be  used  with  larger  apertures 
than  the  triplets  they  displaced,  they  reouire  stopping  down  to  secure 
nMKi  marginal  definition  oiver  the  siae  o(  plate  they  are  said  to  cover. 
By  the  use  of  Jena  glasses  they  have  been  improved  to  work  at 
larger  apertures,  and  some  are  made  with  triple  cemented  elements. 

4.  Triple  Combinations:  OldTyf>es. — ^Thisclasscomprises  objectives 
competed  of  three  separate  combinations  of  glasses  widelv  separated 
from  each  other.  An  eariy  form  of  this  type  was  made  by  Andrew 
Ross  (1841)  for  W.  H.  Fox  Talbot,  others  by  F.  S.  Archer,  J.  T. 
Goddard  (1859),  T.  Sutton  (i860),  but  they  never  came  into  general 

use.  J.  H.  Dallracyer's  "  Triple 
Achromatk:  Lens ''  (i86i),//lo. 
angle  60*,  now  out  of  date, 
was  an  excellent  non-distorting 
lens,  very  useful  for  general 
work  and  copying  (fig.  39).  As 
made  by  Dallmeyer,  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  front  and  back 

F.O.  ,9.-TripI.ilch«>maUcL«n,.  rrbTS  TTfo^i^-'lLIS^ 
Triplets  *'  (i86i)«  //i6b  they  were  flat.  The  centre  lens  was  an 
achromatic  negative  serving  to  flatten  the  field. 

5.  Anastigmalic  CombimUions,  Sjmmtlrical  end  Unsymmetrieal.'^ 
As  already  stated,  it  was  found  practk:aJly  impossible  to  obtain 
flatness  of  field,  together  with  freedom  from  astigmatism,  in  objectives 
constructed  with  the  old  optical  glasses.  A.  Steinheil  attempted  it 
in  the  "  Antiplanets,"  but  with  only  partial  success.  The  Abbe  and 
Schott  Jena  glasses,  issued  in  1886,  put  a  new  power  into  the  hands  of 
opticians  by  largely  increasing  their  chok:e  al  glasses  with  different 
refractive  and  dispersive  powers.  Whereas  the  old  glasses  had 
high  fdfractivity  with  higher  dispersion,  in  the  new  ones  high  refrac* 
tivity  with  lower  dispersion  could  be  set  against  lower  relractivity 
with  higher  dispersion. 

Between  1887  and  1889  the  first  attempts  to  make  anasttgmatc 
objectives  with  the  new  glasses  were  made  by 
M.  Mittenzwei  of  Zwickau,  R.  D.  Gray  of  New 
Jersey,  E.  Hartnach  and  A.  Miethe  of  Berlin 
("  Fantoscope ").  K.  Fritsch  of  Vienna  ("  Apo- 
chromat  **)  and  Fr.  von  Voigtlftnder  of  Brunswick, 
with  more  or  less  success,  but  piogicss  was  hindered 
by  the  instability  of  some  of  the  eariy  glasses, 
whfeh  was  afterwards  overcome  by  sandwkrhinir 
the  soft  gfaisses  between  two  hard  ones.  In  f888 
Dr  H.  L.  H.  Schroeder  worked  out  for  Messrs  Roes 
the  "Concentric  Lens"  (fie.  30)  issued  in  1893 
(Ph.  Jour.,  16,  p.  376).  It  was  a  symmetrical 
ooublet  of  novel  construction,  each  element  con* 
sistlng  of  a  plano-convex  crown  of  high  refrsc- 
tivity  cemented  to  a  plano-concave  flint  of  lower 
but  abovt  equals  or  ^higher  dispenioo.     Both  the 


Fic.  30.--Con- 
ccntric  Lens. 


BBceiHttiPBd  sliiMaoee  were  spMettBaTand  cowcenttic  At  J/ktf  it  gavt 
sharp  definition  and  flatness  of  fidd  with  freedom  from  astigma* 
tism.  dastortkm  or  iare  over  an  angle  of  75*.  It  was  an  eacdlent 
lens,  though  slow,  and  has  been  superseded  by  the  "  Homocentric  '* 
and  other  niote  rapid  anastigmata.  Dr  Paul  Rudolph,  of  Messrs 
(>iri  Zeiss  &  Co..  Jeaa,  worked  out  in  18B9  a  newand  successful  method 
of  constructing  a  photographk:  objective  by  which  astigmatism  of 
the  oblique  rays  and  the  want  of  macginal  denoitiondue  to  it  couhi  be 


Fic.  31.— Anastigmat. 
Series  H.  Ji^-y. 


Fio.  33.— Anastipnat. 
Series  Ilia.  //9. 


g^ractiiirity. 


elimioated  without  loss  of  rapidity,  so  that  a  comparativdy  cartended 
field  oould  be  covered  with  a  large  aperture.  This  he  did  on  the  prin< 
ciple  of  the  oppoute  or  opposed  gradation  of  the  refractive  indices  in 
the  front  and  back  lenses,  by  a  combination  <rf  two  dissimilar  systems 
of  single  lenses  cemented  together,  the  positive  element  of  each  having 
in  one  case  a  hither  and  in  the  other  a  tower  refractive  index  than  that 
of  the  negative  dement  with  whkh  it  was  associated.  The  front 
system,  relied  upon  for  the  correction  of  spherical  aberration,  was 
made  of  the  old  glasses,  a  crown  positive  of  low  and  a  flint  negative 
of  hi^h  refracttvity,  whilst  the  bock  system,  relied  upon  for  the 
anastigroatic  flattening  of  the  field,  was  made  of  the  new  glasses, 
a  crown  positive  of  high  and  a  flint  negative  of  low  refractivity. 
Both  systems  being  mheiically  and  chromatkally  corrected  for  a 
large  aperture,  the  field  was  Ifattencd,  the  astigmatism  of  the  one 
being  corrected  by  the  opposite  astigmatism  01  the  other,  without 
destresring  the  flatness  01  the  field  over  a  large  angle  (see  E.  Jb., 
1891  anB  1803;   M.  von  Rohr's  Ceschichte,  and  O.  Lummcr,  Phoio* 

gapkic  Optus,  for  further  details).  They  were  issued  by  Messrs 
!iss  and  their  licencees  (in  Eng^land,  Messrs  Ross),  in  1890,  in  two 
different  types.  The  more  rapid  had  five  lenses  (fig.  ^i),  two  of 
ordinary  fosses  in  the  front  normal  achromat.  and  tnree  in  the 
back  abnormal  achromat,  two  crowns  of  very  high  refractive  power, 
with  a  negative  flint  fA  very  low  refractive  power  between  them. 


Fic.  33.— Anastignut, 
beries  VI. 


Fic.  34.— Sau  Anastigmat. 
Series  Via. 


The  fifth  lens  assisted  in  removing  tphancaX  aberratkms  of  higher 
orders  with  large  apertures.  The  second  type,  series  IIIo.,  //9, 
1899  (fig.  33),  had  only  two  lenses,  the  functions  of  which  -were  as 
above.  These  combinations  could  not  be  used  separately  as  siMie 
lenses.  They  are  now  issued  as  "  Protars,"  series  Ila.,  //8;  IIlo., 
J/9:  v.,  //i8.  In  1891  Dr  Rudolph  devoted  himsrif  to  peH'ecttng 
the  single  landscape  lens,  and  constriicted  on  the  same  principle  a 
sii^le  combination  of  three  lenses,  the  central  one  having  a  refractive 
inocx  between  the  indices  of  the  two  others,  and  one  of  its  cemented 
surfaces  diverging,  while  the  other  was  conveiging.  At  //I4*5  this 
lens  gave  an  anastigniatically  flat  image  with  freedom  from  ^herioil 
aberration  on  or  off  the  axia  It  was,  however,  not  broueht  out  till 
1893,  as  a  convertible  lens  or  "  Sats-Anastigmat,"  series  VI., //14 


and  VIa.,//7*7  (figs.  33  and  ^).  In  the  meantime  Dr  E.  von 
(C.  B.  Goerz)  andDr  A.  Stemneil  had  also  been  working  at  the  pro- 
blem and  had  independently  calculated  lenses  similar  to  Rudolph's, 
but^  whereas  he  had  devoted  himself  to  perfecting  the  single  lens* 
they  sought  more  perfect  correction  by  combining  two  sin«e  anas> 
twmatic  lenses  to  form  a  doublet.  Dr  Rudolph  bad  had  the  same 
idea,  bat  Messrs  Goerz  secured  the  priority  01  patent  in  1893,  and 
in  1893  brought  out  their  "  Double  Ana^mat,"  jaow  known  as 


Fio.  35. 
Ross-(k)erz  "  Dagor."  Series  lU.       Row^^kte.  Series  IV. 

"  Dagor.**  It  was  the  first  symmetrical  anastismat  which  combined 
freedom  from  astigmatism  with  flatness  of  field  and  great  covering 
power  at  the  large  aperture  of  //7'7  (fig-  35)-  Both  these  types  01 
»nr' and  Cocn's  ^' Dagor '^  ar     * "^        " — 


Zeiss's  "  PratanT 


>agor '  anastigmats  have  since 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


/Aij,  .Bd  .  _  ...      . 
Maftiog  for  IhrK^cdaur  nprodi 

]n    iS^  Dr  RiuMph  exicndtxt  lh«  application  of 


SerinVll.    //ii-s. 
evolvpd  up  to  looo,  Dr  Ru<lDl[>h  hav.  ^ 
(iwlarn  jTom   Ipricncal  abrrTatioii  «nd  atriEnulism.  and  aI 


e« 


tS' 


b«  Kr««cd  behtD 

fZm'L  '  '  " 


UJIii- 


■  Prou^ /'lis  and  //ft;!  «  //;, 
lini  Ibt  "  Pnjtar  "  Icni  rinclv.  ii 


tiKnul,//)*.  . 


Mciui  Tluikt  &  Kdcli  (lS9S).  Il  bai.IUM  cnniF  into  UK 

biQUKbi  DUIin  1996  a  nFiVByiniiwlr^quintBF^aty/frB. 

ie<i5  by  Mnan  Tayloi.  "^ylc*  A  HolMon  under  ihi  name  of  the 
"  "    -K  Uh."  ud  IMH  bv  M«n  VelgtUiKkr  u  tin  "Ttiplc 

"    It  cojidut  of  tnr»  biuLe  teniHt  two  of  them  pcailive 

*  ot  crown  gtut  with  higli  rcf nction  and  Unv  dfapcnwfl. 

tf  Ibc  iitfbitgni.  a  iiii(k  bicoocave  o(  ligbl  Hiol  (fig,  »).    All 


(l)Tk>» 
......  ..-. ...^  _  -jfrtcliv*  iBUiv'i 

coiiriStn^"intcn(.i[:'  (j7Th%k  mcniitui  flawn  •houkl  be  md. 
The  tm  ■•  Stigmatic  ■■  --a.  a  ponralt  kat.  «rin  1..  1896,  //4.  1- 
hu  bteil  inido  in  twolonni.  lirM  with  •  triple  (rant  km.  and  a  bac' 
*  of  •  (ioclc  thick  crown  iiiii  Dt  high  idac 


n  (Ac  41 


: .  11  1  .. 


1^  lensci  are      Ftc.  41- — StiEinatic  l^innlcLcDa. 

batrc?m'^nent  an  a  4iflil  lirkat*  enwn.    It  ■ 
4  tat  .pliedcal  and  chromatic  abeitatlon.  fiie  fitn 

Idol  to*.    DiftuaioiT  of  iocu.  li  obtained  bv  UBicie«ia« 

SeHM  II.  (itaJl  i> ■— -'-  ■-   -  "'"  — 

,n.  .■o.tang  =t  i:6  ov 


.r". 


«i^eb 


h 


.Sirrmalic  Lent, 
in  obfcctive  of  laifv 


apcfturu  baaed  on  iht  principle  of  the  Guna  te 

the  two  inner  onei  being  a  doobk  convex  and  a  doubl 
equal  tefraciive  but  diFlennt  diipenive  power,  cenv 

43)-     It!  IprciaL  poinla  art  ilagood  cohntr  conection. 

ftlurp  defnition  and  anaatignatic  AUneaa  of  htlcl  over  anawlc 
view  Iran  61*  to Jl*.    It  iia  ver>  apK]  vidc-«Aile  km  iBtfu)  < 

ir  r^DTtraiii  and  EToupak  photQ-nicM 
^ductiona  (w  £.  .It.,  iM,  p.  79,  Von 

"■'     * — hioiNticplanininihradut , 

ia  190]  (or  lhref«Aiiir  phototrapty.  and  are  alao 
_.rrophotD]trapliy.  the  circle  or  diffaaloa  bevnavetyamalL 
The  "  Unai  "  1  iQoa). //(  5  In  the  imaUer  and /M'5  in  Ihelaifer  alK^ 
■i«le  6s-  aod  «l%  waa  a  further  in^nnwioil  br  Ot  Rodi^k,     It 


Dt  fluii  don*  bvyta  cnw«  juH 

a  A>  MAgK  leiUBt,  DOUHT  boi^  ...», 

— Jl  adaiiud  (or  portinUort,  gimpi  or 

landtapcL  cfpvcUIIv  for  rapid  bvid  camera  «ark»  on  acoount  ol 
itB  conriaf  pomttt  with  Frecdoni  from  aidfiDatkn  uhI  ibarp 
dcfiFiiiion  inth  lailE  nlalivc  apenun. 


FHOTOGRAPHY 


In  1808  McuraGoen  patinWd  Mini  "  Double  Anisllpiut  Color," 
Krics  IJ..  //4-5  to/(ss.  H  U  a  symmclrical  doublet,  «ch  tlcnwnt 
^on5iilini  o(  two  ihin  lirslt  Icnwr:  a  poslivt  of  hijh  and  a  ncniivc 
j(  Ion  relraetive  index,  Kpaiatcii  by  an  air-iparr  (fio.  45).    li  11 

«.j._j  r .i-  .^-1 ; u.,  letrcMni;  ih*  filiaclivc 

10  the  mraclivt  power 
space  bctvcvn  a  double 
I  deeply  corved  aurTdccs 


t    AalDCsl  ol   field 


rTitfi"liief  aperlgrf,  Seriej  It.. //5'3 
ended  For  luDd  camtrai.  tbi  apenun 
■  Hypertoo,"  [1900)  //Ji,  argit  i  js',  to  i 


rront  of  the  Itl 
maigin   IE.  Ji..     . 
/,'6  S,  angle  64°  lo  JO 

"AlJSar,"      "'■•   ■ 


_AHiginati«n  am 

■"      '     "'^Ing^oliuii^alionWwaidilho 
■I  ibe  "  Cebt,"  but 


.  loj).    The  '■  Synl. 


RpfOducliona,  lull'toiie  p 


d  jentnl  puipoiM.    It  i>  a  lyniinclrK*!  di __ 

nutting  or_a  aegativa  and  pociiive  Kparalcd  by  an  airi 
d  ol  thttt  cenwnttd  h 


(fis.   46»-    TT^  ■«S"i 


t.Eyi.Ti 


oT  tlefinilnn  at  (uU  apenure  (W.  Zicbidike.  £.  Ji..  1904.  P-  t». 
Cocti'a  "  Paniai."/yo'3  (1904),  ha  coavenibk^-lein  anaitigni 
and  an  impiavEiiiEnl  on  tbe  ''  DaEor."  >■  (Jiat  Ihe  lintk  damn 
arc  completely  corrected  for  coma.and  thui  lOnii  efficient  lont-Foci 
Icnset  for  landiupe.&e..at  an  apenineef/fu'j.  while  tbe  double 
iormed  by  variou«combSiulioii«oJ  thenngleelrnicnti  arevniTtn 
cbipttivn  worWiiB  (rom  Jlbi  to  1777.  The  (injtle  elei 
(imilar  10  (Koee  cd  Ibe  "  Dagor,"  but  have  an  addilhnu 


laltheback  » 

im  ••  tUminatrd 


he  outer  tmet  the  three  cemented  ■nrfac 
K  1905,1155). 

ianeri  the^Aldli  Lefn."  f/i.  a  dovbl.. 
i  mnvcat  in  front  aod  a  nngk  dooblfr 


made  In  two  fomh  wiB  II.,  J»  (fis.  4T).  aad  leriee  Ifi. 

<>'|09)f//7-T  (^  4B^  Ib  tb(  latter  the  barE  tlemcnl  la  very  thin; 
■ad  dM  fmat  mab— tina  of  iiiBnha  focal  lenclh.  By  diicarding 
tha  aynuiietcical  fom  liopUcky  it  aocund,  while  open  or  rcAeding 
■vlacei  an  avoided.  Spedal  attcBtkui  hai  been  paid  to  perfeet 
tion  of  ^hoicai  aberTatioa  in  the  centre  of  the  field.  It  u 
'.•mallerandchoperthasierieill.  The  "  Duo  "  leni  of  the 
-iker  (1907)  'a  inieoded  to  tepbce  the  fnint  leni  and  double 

Haad^ho  more  witable  fir  csmerai  olib^nuntia*. 
l«"Oiya"a™«iKinat.  iniia  [I.  (i90B),/ft-6s,  angle  aj", 
ipfond  ionn.  Bcliw  an  uiuynimetrical  cemented  doublet 
'finii  ibe  defect!  incidental  to  alr-nace^  and  it  constricted 
Mr*  perfect  comction  tor  flilnew  of  field  ollh  large  aperluie 


[enenlly  lUied  thai  it  ii  impoHible  to 
^-^ — .icalty  and  anaeciematkally corrected  pi 
■WitbeoldopiialglaMi.  K.  Mania, of  Meur 
hat,  hsvever.  ehown  (B.  St..  1901.  p.  68)  that  i 
'''     '  lyJtem  of  leparuted  lentct.  and  1 

.  ihia  prjodplo  wai  iuued  by  Mean  Butch  la  1901. 


indl., //4'3.  hai 


teen  ioued-     It  « 


I  ^nunctricai 


Fw,  49— "Omnar,"  Fic   jo.— Ro«'t 

Seriei  111.  "  KonocentrK." 

blet,  each  element  contlttiug  of  a  negative  flint  menlKiti  of 
ktr  leliaction,  and  a  podlive  cfown  «l  tower  refractiDii  witb  an 
ipac*  between  (hem  in  tke  fern  of  a  ncguin  lent.  The  back 
lent  can  be  uied  alone.    The  "  Ijunar  ■'  lerHi.  by  C.  Rodeo- 


we  (Bg,  )0).    Il  it 

of  the  ciiject  are  convergnl  anin  into  ooc  point  in  the  iraage.  It  li 
-  ...  .-.-  . —  tpherical  UMt,  it  not  altered  in  fociu  with 
__..!   ....._  ....     ^eSijnf  po«r.    The 
coloured  iniagn  arc 
it  ipeciaUy  Hiilablc 


for  three-cobour  ana  proi 
with  diaphragat.  ■■  a 
doidiltt.    ItiiMnadeiB 

f^lcT  pr™.  work™( 


rendering  it  ipeciaUy  Hiilablc 
1k  back  feu  cinbeuied  alontr. 
[  about  daubk  the  Tocui  of  the 
»;ll.,//S*.andlll..//6-3  for 
_,._.  .  ..._..  _._.  ._;/8,forordio>ry  pu^po•e.:VI., 
/J»,  (or  proceu  work  and  thret-coloor  rcproduciion.  A  tier  leriet, 
lV„ti907)."  Compound  Hoinocwlric,"yi6.9,diner.  from  the  other. 
'  1  bemg  a  lymnieirical  doublet'  composed  ol  two  itiple  cemented 
ipnenu.  very  dote  lageibur  and  leparatcd  by  a  diaphngm.     Ii  it 


Flo.  JI.— VoigilSndcr'a 


1e  for  outdoor  w 


at  the  back  (fig.  s")-  The  t«o  halves  cannot  be  used  «|»rat(ly. 
The  glaiiet  usod  ai*  very  tiaotpurent,  pcrmancal  and  lenen  the 
tKondary  tpcctmm.  Three  «eries  are  made  by  MrEsrt  Rott.  Ic 
/liS  'or  cinematographic  work  and  poilraiiutc,  andy/4-j  forhand- 
canier*  Work  and  pormltiire;  IK., //e-j  lor  EeneialpurpoMs,  and 
VUl.,  Ihe  "  Apochromatic;  TcHar.  tpeciilly  correiied  lor  three- 
colour  work  and  reproduction.  They  all  give  fine  dchmtion  over 
a  larse  (1(1  Stid.  tiK  from  any  zonal  abenaiion.  The /A'S  ponr^t 
lenm,  wilfa  dovbli  the  field  and  covering  power  of  Ihe  Petival  len^ 
m  anattigmalic  and  free  from  distortion.  Metm  VoigtUnder'i 
"Heliar"(l9M),/^4-5,  angle  50*.  calculated  by  Dr  H.  finning.  i> 
an  obleHlve  of  larce  aivrture.  suitable  for  portrait!  and  wfy  apld 

curvature  of  field, wilblmdom  from  flare.    It  it  a  triplet' coodOlng 


5" 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


(APPARA-m 


of  •  oentcal  netatlve  lens,  with  cemented  double  (rant  and  back 
lcn*ea  {6^.  53).  The  negative  lenses  are  oC  light  silicate  flint,  the 
two  posiuve  of  the  heaviest  baryta  crown.  Uendes  being  a  rapid 
universal  lens,  it  is  specially  suitable  for  half-tone  process  work, 
with  a  large  diaphragm  (£.  Jb.,  1903.  p.  117).  The  "  Dynar" 
(1993)1 //6,  angle  60  j  is  of  somewhat  similar  construction,  but 
diners  from  the  "  Heliar  "  in  the  positive  lenses  of  the  cemented 

r'  "s  being  outside  instead  of  towards  the  central  lens.  It  can  only 
used  as  a  whole.  It  is  made  of  hard  colourless  Jena  glasses, 
giving  great  brilliancy  and  uniformity  of  illuminatk>n  over  a  large 
angle,  and  is  specially  adapted  for  very  rapid  hand<amera  work. 

Dr  R.  Steinheil's  "  Unofocal "  (1903),  //4*5  is  a  symmetrical 
doublet,  each  element  consisting  of  two  sinate  separated  lenses  of 
equal  refractive  power  and  of  eaual  focus  of  opposite  signs,  hence 
its  name.  Each  naif  can  be  used  as  a  single  lens  with  small  stops. 
In  its  construction  a  quite  new  principle  was  followed,  the  separation 
of  the  lenses  fulfilling  an  important  part  in  the  colour  correction,  as 
ex|)lained  by  Conrad  Beck  in  Ph.  Jownu  (1904).  44.  p.  i  TJ.  This  plan 
satisfies  the  Petzval  condition  and  removes  its  restrictions,  so  that 
a  lens  of  //4-5  can  be  produced  with  telescopic  central  definitiaa, 
perfect  freedom  from  distortion  and  flare  over  a  flat  field  of  60*, 
with  great  equality  of  illumination  (fig.  53).  They  are  made  by 
Messrs  Bock  in  two  series:  11.,  SIA'S*  foi"  portraiture^  rapid  hand- 
camera  work,  telephotography  and  projection;  and  l.,f/6,  in  which 
the  lenses  are  closer  together,  for  nand*camera  work  and  general 

Surposes.   E.  Arbeit's  '*^£uryplan  *'  anastigmats  (i903)«  made  by 
chulze  Bros..  Potsdam,  are  apochromatic  objectives  of  quite  new 
constructran.  giving  perifect  definition  with  large  apertures  over  a 


Fig.  53.— Beck-Steiahell 
"  Unofocal." 


Fig.  m* — Euryplan, 


Im  //4-5.  angle  8o^  II.,  //5-6.  angle 
90-;.III..//6:8to7-5.*ngleto;;  iy.,/?6.5.    ~ 


wide  asigle,  made  in  four  series 

..T  _  They  are  symmetrical 
doublets,  each  element  consisting  of  three  lenses,  a  new  achromat 
formed  of  a  biconvex  of  heavy  baryta  crown  of  high  refractivtty  and 
low  dispersion,  separated  by  an  air-space  from  a  positive  meniscus 
of  the  same  baryta  crown,  with  its  concave  side  towards  the  dia- 
phragm. In  series  1.,  //4*S«  the  two  positives  are  placed  outside 
(fig.  si),  in  series  II.  and  111.  they  are  inside.  The  single  elements 
are  fully  corrected  astigmatically  and  chromatically,  and  can  be 
used  singly  at  double  the  focus  [B.  Jb.  1904,  p.  35). 

Beck's  Isostigmar  "  (1907)  is  a  new  anastigmat  showin|[  a  dis- 
tinct departure  from  the  orainary  principles  of  construction,  tn  that 
it  does  not  fulfil  the  Petxval  condition  that  the  sum  of*  the  focal 
powers  of  its  individual  lenses  multiplied  by  the  rccifxocais  of  their 
respective  refractive  indices  should  be  equal  to  aero,  or  S(i//if)»o. 
It  IS  a  5-lens  combination,  two  separated  thin  single  lenses  in  the 

front  element  and  three  in  the  back 
(fix*  55)*  In  departing  from  the 
Petxval  condition  very  low  power 
lenses  can  be  used,  thus  reducing  the 
initial  errors  to  be  corrected;  no  indi- 
vidual component  having  a  shorter 
focal  length  than  One-half  that  of  a 
complete  objective.  A  special  feature 
is  the  excellent  correction  of  the  oblique 
spherical  aberrations  and  central  aber- 
rations, giving  a^  practically  fiat  field 
without  astigmatism  over  angles  from 


55.— Beck's 
stigmar." 


60    to  90*.    The  half  combinations  can  also  be  used  a^ne  with 

diaphragms  as  long  focus  lenses  of  different  foci  (Ph.  Journ.  1907. 47. 

~    "")•    It  is  issued  in  six  series:  I.  (1908), //i'5,  large  aperture, 

for  reflex  press  work  and  portraiture;  la.,  fi6-S,  angle  bo'-ds*. 


p.  191). 
series, 


latter  is  very  uKful  whan  am  extankiecl  use  of  die  ndog  frost  ■ 
required,  citner  at  a  wide  or  ordinary  angle.  V.  (1906),  //11, 
"  Process  "  lenses  spcciaU)^  corrected  to  give  a  flat  fidd  for  copying. 
They  can  be  fitted  with  suitable  reveniiig  prisms.  VI.  (1908),  jys-o^ 
variaUe  portrait  leases,  adjustable  for  sharp  or  soft  dennitioa  tn» 
the  back  of  the  camera  while  focusing. 

The  above  represent  the  principal  types  of  anastigniata,  bat 
many  more  objectives  ol  the  kind,  triple  or  quadruple,  cemented 
or  unoemented,  with  air-spaoes.  in  many  modifimticwas,  have  been 
issued  by  English  and  forei|:n  makers. 

6.  Tdepkotograpkic  Objutiau. — ^For  some  yean  put'  special 
objective,  or  attachments,  have  been  cDnatrocted  for  photographing 
near  or  distant  objects  on  an  enlarged  scale  with  an  orainary  camera, 
the  extension  required  being  very  miKh  less  than  would  be  needed 
to  oibtain  an  image  of  the  same  staa  with  an  ordinary  long-focus  lens 
without  enlai]pement.  They  consist  of  a  combination  01  a  positive 
converging  with  a  negative  dispersing  lens,  by  which  the  image  is 
picked  up  and  enlarged  to  varying  degrees,  according  to  the  system 
of  lenses  used  and  the  extension  given  to  the  camera,  thus  produditt 
the  same  effect  as  a  positive  lens  of  very  much  lon^  focus.  Enlarged 
ima^  of  this  kind  can  also  be  made  by  a  combination  of  two  con* 
veiling  lenses,  one  of  Uie«i  forming  an  image  of  the  object,  wbidi  a 
received  on  the  other  of  shorter  focus  and  projected  on  the  senskive 
plate,  being  enlarged  more  or  less  according  to  the  optical  conditiotts 
and  relative  positions  of  the  lenses  and  sensitive  plate.  The  photo- 
heliographs  at  Greenwich  and  other  solar  observatories,  desigaod 
by  warren  de  la  Rue,  are  on  this  principle.  Portable  apparatus 
of  the  kind  was  made  in  1869  by  MM.  Boric  and  de  Toumemire.  and 
later  by  Janet,  but  this  system  re<^utres  much  greater  extension  of 
the  camera,  entailing  more  loss  of  mtensity  of  the  image,  and  has 
never  come  into  use. 

The  modern  telcphotographlc  combination  is  generally  looked 
upon  as  an  application  otthe  principle  of  the  **  Barlow  **  lens,  but 
it  really  goes  back  to  the  Galilean  telescope  (£.  1610).    J.  B.  Porta 
mentions  the  combination  of  concave  and  convex  lenses  for  a\  ing 
enlarged  and  dearer  images  df  near  and  distant  objects  (Mofia 
Naturalise  lib.  17,  cap.  10,  1589).   J.  Kepler  showed  that  by  a  com- 
bination of  a  convex  with  a  concave  lens  images  of  objects  could  bt 
dei»ctcd  on  paner  of  a  larger  siie  than  by  the  convex  lens  aktne, 
but  reversed  (Diopiricff  Prob.  cv.   161 1).     Christopher  Schetser 
made  use  of  the  same  principle  in  his  "  Helioscope  "  for  solar  ofaaerva- 
tions  (Rosa  UrsinOj  cap.  vii.  1630).    F.  M.  Deschalcs  and  P.  Z. 
Traber  also  dealt  with  the  question,  and  in  f.  Zahn's  Oadus  artij^- 
cialis  Tdidiapiricus  (1686)  we  find  figured  a  reflecting  camera 
fitted  with  a  compound  enlarging  lens  on  this  principle.     In  his 
Nova  VioMrica  (1692),  W.  Molyneux  has  gl\'en  some  intercstlnj 
problems  for  calculating  the  position  of  the  compound  foctis  of  a 
convex  with  a  concave  lens,  aiso  the  angles  subtended  by  an  object 
on  the  focal  plane.    If  for  the  simple  uncorrected  glasses  then  usH 
we  substitute  a  system  of  photographically  corrected  positK'v  and 
negative  lenses,  suitably  mountedl  and  put  a  sensitive  plate  in  pUce 
of  the  paper,  we  have  the  modern  tclephotographic  arrangemrst. 
I.  Porro  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  a  combination  of  this 
kind  for  photographing  an  eclipse  in  l8S7t  And  later  for  terrestriiA 
objects.    It  consisted  of  a  small  achromatic  single  lens  combiced 
with  a  concave  lens.     Many  attempts  were  afterwarda  sonde  in 
France,  and  also  in  England,  to  utiliae  the  principle,  but  special 
lenses  for  the  purpose  were  not  available.   Ad.  Stelnkeil  coostiuned 
one  in  1889  for  the  Brussels  Obscnratory,  and  another  tn  1890  for 
the  Marine  Department  in  Beriin.     In   1891,  curioudy  enongh, 
three  such  combinations  were  worked  out  quite  independemly 
and  patented,  by  T.  R  Dallmeyer  in  London,  A.  Mietlie  in  Berfin 
and  A.  Dubosoq  In  Paris,    ^nce  that  time  these  combioatioiis 
have  been  gnBatiy  improved  by  increase  In  the  working  apertnres 
and  reduction  in  size  and  weight,  so  that  they  can  be  UMd  ta  hand 
cameras.    They  are  exceedingly  valuable  for  obtaining  detaih  of 
inaccesMble  obiccts  at  a  distance.  Whether  architectural  or  Xvp^ 
graphical,  and  for  photographing  animals  without  approaching  thrm 
too  closely.    Laripe  portraits  can  also  be  taken  with  much  Dctter 
perspective  effects  and  more  conveniently  than 
by  using  long*focus  lenses    much    nearer  to 
the  sitter.    With  the  very  perfect  telephoto* 

4-  « 


^< 


i 


.S^k^ 


B 


>••••«••■•> 


■•*•••*«>•*•  *«b> 


long  focus,  for  portraiture,  &c:  n.,//5-8,  angle  70*,  for  general  use, 
in.//7-7.  angle  65».  similar  to  II.  but  less  rapid ;  IV. //6-3.  angle  90'; 
wide  anele.  giving  satisfactory  definition  at  full  aperture  over  an  angle 
from  80  to  85*.  Having  such  a  large  reserve  ol  covering  power  the 


Ftc.  56. 


graphic  objectives  now  available  the  loas  of  intensity  of  iHaminM 
which  no  doubt  was  the  bar  to  cariy  piugiess  in  this  directiott, 
been  overcome,  and  definition  has  also  bceia  improved,  w  that 
shots  can  readily  be  made  with  combinatiofia  ol  hich  intcasity. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


APPARATUSl 


with  those  of  onliiiaiy  iatemky  tk«  cspOMVM  are  not  imdaly 

prolonged,  and  good  defioitioa  can  be  obuined  over  an  extended 

The  optical  principle  on  which  thece  combinatioos  ave  faaied 
ts  very  simple,  and  will  be  understood  (rom  fig.  56.  It  depends 
mainly  on  the  fact  that  in  order  that «  rco/  ima^  nay  be  thrown 
on  the  screen  ol  an  object  AB«  the  rays  proceeding  (torn  it.  which 
pass  through  the  positive  systeai  U.  must  come  to  a  focua  at  a 

foint  /  within  the  secondary  focus /'  o(  the  negative  system  Lu 
ailing  within  this  limit,  they  will  be  intercepted  by  Li  and  made 
k&s  convergent,  so  that  instead  of  coming  to  a  focus  at/,  they  will' 
continue  to  converge  till  they  reach  the  screen  at  /*.  and  will  there 
form  a  proportionally  larger  image  a*b'  of  AB  than  the  image  ab 
given  by  tne  positive  lens  atone  at  fx  just  aa  stated  in  Kepler's 
problem.  Moreover,  this  image  a'fr'  will  he  of  the  saone  siae  as  if 
It  had  been  produced  directly  by  a  positive  lens  Ls  with  a  focal 
teneth  equal  to  If",  and  this  tlistanrg  is  the  equivaloit  focal  length 
of  the  entire  system.  It  can  be  found  from  the  formula  F  ^fifyd, 
where  /i  and  /s  are  the  foca^  lengths  of  U  and  U  respectively,  and 
d^fi-\-fi''S,  s  being  the  distance  between  the  Icnaes.  In  many 
instruments  of  the  kind  a  scale  showing  the  valu«  of  d  is  engraved 
on  the  mount.  If  the  rays  from  AB  come  to  a  focus  in  front  of 
Lu  on  it,  or  beyond/*,  no  real  image  can  be  projected  on  the  screen. 
There  is  therefore  a  certain  limit,  which  is  greater  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  focus  of  the  negative  system,  within  which  the  focus 
of  the  positive  system  Lt  may  Tall  and  produce  a  series  of  weU<deftned 
images  on  the  screen,  which  can  be  varied  in  siae  bv  alteiing  the 
amount  of  separation  of  the  two  systems  of  lenses  witnin  the  above 
limit,  and  the  distance  of  the  screen  from  U-  Every  change  in  the 
position  of  the  screen  will  involve  a  corresponding  adjustment  of 
the  lenses.  The  greater  the  extension  of*  the  camera  and  the  closer 
the  lenses,  the  greater  the  «ae  of  the  image  and  vke  versa.  The 
camera  extenuon  for  a  given  ma^aificatioo  can  be  found  by  multiply- 
ing the  focal  length  of  the  negative  system  by  the  number  of  magnitl- 
cationf,  less  one.  The  magnification  produced  by  a  given  camera 
extension  is  found  by  dividing  the  latter  by  the  focal  length  of  the 
negative  system,  and  adding  one. 

In  its  usual  form  (fig.  $7)  the  telephotographic  combination  con- 
«at8  of  a  quick-acting  portrait  lens,  or  an  anastigmatic  doublet  of 


513 


jf7y,  is  sMttilu'  fo  ao  old  forai  of  "  Dbfyttc^lens  worked  out  by 
J.^  Petsval,  having  a  positive  front  and  negative  back  meniscus. 


f  IG.  S7.^T.  R.  Dallmeyer's  Compound  Telephotographic  Lens. 


large  aperture  and  rdative  intensity  of  suitable  focal  length,  fitted 
at  one  end  of  a  tube,  in  which  slides  a  smaller  tube  carrying  a  property 
corrected  negative  system,  which  may  vary  in  focus,  but  must  be 
of  shorter  focus  than  the  positive  (usually  about  half);  the  shorter 
the  focus  the  greater  the  magnifying  power  for  a  given  extension  of 
camera.  The  amount  of  separation  of  the  lenses  is  limited  on  the 
one  hand  by  the  position  of  the  focus  of  the  positive  system,  and  on 
the  other  by  the  focus  of  the  negative  system,  as  explained  above. 
«nd  can  be  adjusted  withbi  these  limitt  by  a  rack  and  pinion.  The 
tubes  are  adjusted  so  that  when  closed  up  the  two  foci  may  coincMe, 
or  nearly  so,  and  da*o,  or  its  minimum  value;  and  when  opened 
to  their  fullest  extent  the  focus  of  the  positive  may  fall  upon  the 
aegativ«  system,  or  so  that  d  may  not  exceed  the  focal  length  of  the 
pegatiw  system.  Within  these  limits  the  focal  length  of  the  com- 
bination will  be  pontive.  and  a  real  image  formed  on  the  screen. 
Several  forms  of  them  have  been  brought  out  by  various  makes, 
■ome,  as  Zciss's,  with  a  special  positive  lens,  other*  for  use  with  ana- 
•tigmats  and  other  lenses  of  large  apertures.  The  pcgative  lenses 
af«  also  made  of  various  powers. 

McMTS  Dallmeyer's  "  Adon  "  (1903)  is  a  telephotographic  leni, 
for  use  with  hand  cameras,  composed  of  two  achromatk  combine- 
tkXks  adjusted  for  parallel  rays,  a  front  positive  lens  4I  in.  focal 
length,  and  a  back  negative  lens  of  ai  in.  locus.  These  are  mounted 
to  permit  of  great  variation  in  the  separatmn.  so  that  when  the 
"  Adon  *'  is  fixed  on  the  fwU  of  a  suttable  lens,  near  or  disunt 
objects  may  be  taken  on  an  edarged  scale  without  altering  the 
fotus  of  the  camera,  or  the  enlaigement  can  be  varied  with  further 
extension  of  the  camera.  Used  abne  it  is  a  complete  telephoto 
Jens  of  moderate  magnifying  power,  and  will  cover  jplates  15  in.  X 
13  in.  In  1903  a  special  form,  the  "  Junwr  Adon?'  was  made  in 
iht«e  kinds  for  use  with  kodaks  and  similar  foUing  hand  cameras, 
single  and  double  extenskm.  giving  a  fixed  degree  of  magnification 
without  loss  of  rapidity,  while  focusing  can  be  effected  by  scale. 
it  is  intended  to  replace  the  front  lens  of  an  R.R.  or  anastigmatic 
Icna  and  cannot  be 'used  independently.  Messrs  Busch's  "Bis* 
Tdar,"  ff9  (1905),  is  another  compact  fixed  focus  telephoto  lens, 
■pecially  for  use  with  hand  cameras.  It  is  a  complete  lens  in  itself, 
requiring  no  attachments  and  can  be  fitted  to  a  central  shutter.  It 
in  nnaidein  three  sites  magnifyii^;  from  two  to  three  times.  An  im- 
pfovad  foQB  of  tbil  lens  (1908),  woridng  at  the  laige.  aperture  of 


I 


F1C.58.— "Bis-TeUr.* 


with  their  concave  surfaces  facing 

inwards  (fig.   ^).     As  in  the  old 

**  Orthosoopic  ^  and  lenses  of  that 

type  there  is  some  outward  dis- 

tortkm,  but  it  is  very  slight.    These 

lenses  are  made  in  five  sixes  with 

fod    from   8   to  22    in.,    requiring 

camera  extenaons  from  4i  m.  to 

III  in.    They  magnify  about  twice. 

Acoerdtng  to  K.  Martin,  a  telephoto- 

combination  of  the  Bi»>Telar  tvpe 

can  be  used  tn  a  reversed   podtion 

aa  a  projecting  lens  for  the  lantern, 

with  the  advantage  of  increasing  the  illumination  from  a  given 

source  of  hght  (£.  Jb,  1908.  p.  46). 

CapUin  Owen  Wheeler  proposed  in  1907  a  high-power  telephoto 
anrangement,  made  by  Messrs  Staley.  in  whkh  the  negative  attach- 
ment consists  of  three  negative  lenses,  any  single  one  of  which  can 
be  used  separately,  giving  magnifications  of  about  6,  9,  and  13  dia- 
meten  with  a  camera  extension  of  14  in.  By  combining  the -three 
a  magnification  of  30  diameters  is  attainable  with  the  same  short 
extension,  which  is  a  great  advantage  in  many  ways.  In  1908 
Messrs  Zeiss  issued  their  "  Special  Tele-objectives  "  in  two  sum 
woridng  at  //lo,  the  larger  with  an  aperture  of  3- 14  in.  and  32  ia. 
focal  length  fitted  in  a  special  "  tele-camera  "  for  plates  9  X  la  cm. 
with  a  monocuhir  field  elass  magnifying  fouV  times  as  folder.  The 
■mailer  one,  with  18  in.  focus,  is  adapted  for  hand  cameras  with  6  is. 
bellows  extension.  They  consist  of  specially  corrected  positive  and 
negative  combination  with  a  definite  focal  length  and  requiring  a 
definite  camera  extension,  and  are  specially  suiubte  for  balloon 
photography,  instantaneous  portraiture,  &c.  The  theory,  construc- 
tion and  use  of  telephoto  lenses  has  been  fully  described  by  T.  R. 
Dallmeyer  in  his  TeUpkolograpky. 

7.  Awicltromatic  Lens€s.— For  large  portraiture  a  certain  amount 
of  softness  and  diffusion  of  the  Image  nas  long  been  recognized  by 
artists  as  desirable,  and  in  1895  the  "  Dallmcycr-Bergheim  Lens'* 
was  constructed  with  this  special  object.  It  is  composed  of  a  singk 
uncorrected  positive  meniscus  front  lens,  with  a  diaphragm  in  front 
of  it,  and  an  uncorrected  negative  meniscus  back  lens,  and  in  the 
larger  sizes  it  has  great  range  of  focal  length  on  the  telephotographic 
principle.  The  spherical  and  chromatic  aberration  produced  by  the 
uncorrected  single  lenses  gives  the  diffusion  of  focus  which  produces 
the  peculiarly  soft  and  delicate  effect  aimed  at.  It  is  most  useful 
for  large  heads  and  life-size  studies,  the  great  depth  of  focus  conduc- 
ing to  uniformity  of  definition.  There  is  no  distortion,  and  by  uofh 
ping  down  to  about  one-third  perfect  definition  can  be  obtained. 
It  works  with  great  brilliancy,  both  elements  being  sinsle  glascea 
It  was  the  first  of  the  anachromatic  portrait  lenses.  Since  1903 
Messrs  C.  Puyo  and  L.  de  Pulligny  have  been  experimenting  with 
various  combinations  of  uncorrected  lenses  for  producing  the  same 
effect  in  portrait  and  landscape  photography  by  the  diffuHon  of 
focus  produced  by  chromatic  aberration,  and  suitable  lenses  of  this 
kind  have  recently  been  brought  out  in  Paris  aa  Us  ObjecHfs  d'artists. 
In  their  construction  the  principal  points  to  be  considered  ara 
B^herkot  aberralum,  to  be  minimized  in  the  form  and  arrangement  of 
the  lenses  selected;  distortion,  corrected  by  using  a  symmetrical 
sVstem ;  astigmatism,  avoided  by.  using  combinations  of  low  power. 
The  lenses  used  by  Puyo  have  been :  (i)  a  plano-convex  crown  with 
convex  side  in  front  at//8  or//9,  or  even  //s  for  heads;  (2)  a  simple 
thin  concavo-convex  meniscus,  with  concave  side  in  front,  is  belter 
and  suitable  for  full  lengths  at//io;  (3)  a  symmetrical  system  formed 
of  two  similar  crown  menisci,  cfoncave  sides  inwards,  is  generally 
useful  when  worked  at  //to,  or  even  //^.  Arrangements  are  made  in 
mounting  these  lenses  for  automatically  malcing  the  nece&sary 
correction  for  colour.  Another  form  is  the  "  Adjustable  Landscape 
Lens."  formed  of  an  anterior  plano-convex  crown,  3  cm.  diareeteri 
and  a  posterior  plano-concavfc  crown,  each  of  10  cm.  focus,  and 
the  same  radii  of  curvature.  In  contact  they  have  an  infinite  focus, 
but  when  slightly  separated  any  focus  can  be  obtained  up  to  about 
10  crn.  In  such  a  telephotographic  system,  properly  stopped  down, 
anasttgmatism,  flatness  of  nela.  and  rectiUnearity  arc  secured  over 
a  fairly  large  fietd.  These  lenses  are  fuBy  described  in  Les  Objeetifi 
i'artiste,  by  L.  de  Pulligny  and  C.  Puyo  (Paris,  1006),  and  variooa 
forms,  portrait  and  landscape,  have  been  made  by  Messrs  Hemagi% 
Turillon  &  Morin  (see  Fabre,  T,  E.  F,  Suppl.  D.  loi). 

Diaphragm  Apertures.— In  order  to  regulate  the  intensity  of  the 
illumination  by  the  lens,  to  enlarge  Its  field,  and,  in  the  case  of 
the  older  forms  of  objectives,  to  extend  the  area  of  good  marginal 
definition,  diaphragms  are  used,  usually  with  circular  apertures. 
They  are  made  in  different  ways:  (1)  as  single  metal  plates,  fitting 
ipto  a  slot  in  the  tens  tube  (Waterhouse  diaphragms);  (2)  Rototoryi 
a  ringle  plate  revolving  on  a  central  axis  and  pierced  with  apertures 
cut  to  fit  centrically  in  the  opening  of  the  lens;  (3)  Iris:  a  form  of 
diaphragm  now  very  generally  used,  and  very  convenient;  beoausd 
it  can  be  easily  adjusted  as  required  for  intermediate  aperturesi 
As  a  rule  they  are  placed  at  the  optical  centre  between  the  elements 
of  a  compound  lens  or  in  front  of  a  single  one. 
In  order  to  provide  a  uniform  system  of  diaphragm  apertures. 


SH 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


(APPARATDS 


the  Royal  PhotOEraphic  Society  in  l88i  dim  op  some  rules,  whkh 
were  revised  in  l))9i  and  again  in  1901.  The  former  standard  unit 
ff^  And  the  numerical  notation  used  with  it,  have  been  abolished 
in  favour  of  the  unit  //i  established  at  the  International  Congress 
in  Pari*  1900.  Intensity  ratio  is  defined  as  dependent  upon  the 
effective  aperture  of  a  lens,  and  not  upon  the  diameter  of  the  dia- 
phragm in  relation  to  the  focal  length  of  a  lens.  The  effective 
aperture  of  the  lens  is  determined  as  follows:  The  lena  roust  be 
focused  for  parallel  rays.  ^  An  opaque  screen  ia  then  placed  in  the 
principal  focal  plane,  and  a  ^nholc  is  made  in  the  centre  of  the  pUte 
(in  the  axis  of  the  lens) ;  an  lUuminant  is  placed  immediately  behind 
the  pinhole  itaelf .  when  the  diameter  of  the  beam  emetging  Irom  the 
front  surface  of  the  lens  may  be  measured.  (U  will  be  found  that 
except  in  the  case  of  the  diaphra^  being  placed  in  front  of  the  kns, 
{he  diameter  of  the  diaphragm  itself  is  seldom  that  of  the  effective 
aperture.)  Every  diaohragm  is  to  be  marked  with  Its  true  intensity 
ratio  as  above  defined,  but  the  present  intensity  ratios  are  retained 
in  their  order  of  aequence :  //i .  //l  -4,  //a.  //a-8,  f/4,  //5-6.  //8.  //i  i  ,j, 
//l6,  ff22'6,  //53.//4S*3i//64,  &c.,  each  diaphragm  requinng  double 
the  exposure  required  by  the  preceding  one.  In  other  cases  apertures 
•re  to  De  made  m  uniformity  with  the  scale,  with  the  exception  of  the 
highest  intensity,  e.g.  a  lens  of  f/6'3  would  be  marked  for  //6'3, 
//8,  &c.  The  corresponding  numbers  are  known  as/  numbers,  but 
are  only  applicable  lor  a  lens  focused  for  distance.  Other  systems 
of  notation  are  in  use,  but  the  above  is  generally  adopted  (see  Fabre, 
T.E.P.  Suppl.  C.  38).  Special  diaphragms  are  in  use  for  process 
work  with  ruled  screens  (see  N.S.  Amstuu,  Handbook  of  Pholo- 
OHg^aving,  1907).  Standards  for  the  screws  of  photographic  lens- 
flanse  fittings,  and  for  the  screws  fitted  to  cameras  for  attachment 
to  tne  stand  or  for  fixing  movable  parts,  have  also  been  laid  down 
(PA.  Jonm.  1901,  25,  p.  322). 

Inslautaneous  SktOUrs. 

The  general  use  of  rapid  dry  plates  and  hand  cameras  has  ren- 
dered it  necessary  to  have  some  mechanical  means  of  regulating 
exposures  in  small  fractions  of  a  second,  especially  for  objects  in 
rapid  motion,  and  this  instantaneous  shutter  has  become  an  essential 

Esrt  of  modern  photographic  equipment  in  many  forms  and  patterns, 
ut  practically  three  types  are  preferred — the  between-lens  shutter, 
the  roller-blind  shutters,  used  before  or  behind  the  lens,  and  the  focal 
plane  shutter,  in  front  of  and  close  to  the  plate  and  forming  oart  of 
the  back  of  the  camera.  The  usual  limit  of  rapidity  of  tne  two 
former  is  nominally  about  Hf  of  a  second,  and  for  ordinary. pur- 
poses higher  speeds  are  seldom  required,  while  with  the  latter  speeds 
of  iiAis  to  rAr«  of  a  second  may  be  attained. 
\  Two  important  factors  in  the  use  of  lens  shutters  are  ^^rapidity 
or  speedy  measured  by  the  total  duration  of  exposure  from  opening 
to  closing,  and  the  efficiency,  measured  by  the  ratio  of  the  time 
during  which  the  shutter  is  fully  open  and  the  time  occupied  in 
opening  and  closing.  Both  factors  are  more  or  less  variable,  either 
wtth  differences  of  construction,  of  diaphragm  opening  or  of  position 
of  the  shutter  with  regard  to  the  plate  and  lens.  In  any  case 
the  efficient  exposure  a  always  less  than  the  aciualt  and  may  be 
considerably  so. 

The  rapidity  required  of  a  shutter  in  photographing  moving 
objects  is  regulated  by  the  minimum  time  necessary  to  produot 
a  well'«xposed  image  upon  the  plate,  with  a  loss  o(  definition,  or 
blurring,  by  displacement  not  exceeding  tIs.  or  preferably  liv  to 
tU  of  an  indi,  if  enlargement  is  extended.  This  will  depend 
on  the  state  of  the  light  and  the  illumination  of  the  object,  the  rela- 
tive intensity  of  the  lens  as  measured  by  its  effective  aperture 
•fid  focal  length,  the  sensitiveness  of  the  plate,  and  the  amount 
of  effective  light  passing  through  the  shutter  during  the  eraosure. 
The  amount  of  displacement  to  be  guarded  against  depends  upon 
the  rate  of  movement  of  the  object,  the  direction  in  whicn  it  is  mov- 
ing with  reference  to  theaxis  of  the  lens,  its  distance  from  the  camera, 
•M  the  focal  length  of  the  lens.  It  will  be  proportionately  less  as 
the  distance  of  the  object  increases,  and  as  the  rate  of  its  motion 
•nd  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  for  a  given  distance  decrease,  and 
vice  versa.  It  will  be  greatest  when  the  object  is  movinj;  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  lens,  and  least  when  the  motion  is  directly 
towards  it ;  but  in  that  case  there  will  be  some  increase  in  the  apparent 
aixe  of  the  ^object  as  it  approaches  the  camera.  For  example: 
An  object  moving  i  m.  an  hour  advances  17*6  in.  per  second.  With 
a  lens  of  5-in.  focus  this  would  represent  a  displacement  on  the 
ground  glass,  for  an  object  ^o  ft.  away,  amounting  td  •146  in.  per 
second,  and  it^  would  require  iacposures  between  ^  and  i/y  of 
a  second  to  give  maximum  or  minimum  displacements  of  the 
Image  between  jU  and  yh  of  an  inch.  An  object  at  the  same 
distance  moving  ten  times  as  fast  would  require  I -10  of  the  above 
exposures.  If,  however,  the  distance  be  increased,  the  possible 
exposure  may  also  be  increased  in  the  same  proportion,  so  tnat  the 
object  moving  10  m.  an  hour  at  500  ft.  distance  would  only  require 
the  ori^nal  exposures  of  t*s  to  ^V  of  a  second.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  limits  of  exposure  for  an  object  moving  i  m.  an  hour  within 
to  ft.  of  the  lens  would  be  between  jV  and  .iW  of  a  second.  This 
Is  cntirsly  independent  of  the  scnntivcness  of^thc  pl.itc.  and  only 
represents  the  maximum  duration  of  exposure  permissible  in  order 
to  reduce  the  blurring  of  the  image  between  certain  limits.  The 
sensitiveness  of  the  plate,  and  the  intensity  and  amount  of  light 


acting  upon  it  through  the  lens  niid  shutter,  must  be  adjusted  so 
as  to  produce  the  denred  pbotogvaphic  effect  w^ithin  that  tloie. 
With  a  lens  of  8  in.  focal  length  the  displacement  would  have  in* 
creased  in  the  first  instance  to  '13  in.  per  second,  and  the  maximum 
exposure  permissible  would  be  from  iV  to  ^  of  a  second.  Thb 
shows  that  there  is  an  advantage  in  uflinc  short-focus  lenses  for  very 
rapid  exposures.  In  practice,  most  worlc  of  thb  kind  is  dOoe  upon 
quarter-plates  (^iXst  in.)  wkh  tenses  of  4i  to  ^  in.  focus.  As  the 
aisplaoement  will  be  greatest  for  an  object  moving  at  a  right  anrie 
•cross  the  axis  of  the  lens,  an  exposure  sufficient  for  this  case  y!td 
be  sufficient  for  any  other.  Sir  V^ftiliftm  Abney  has  discussed  this 
question  practically  in  his  ImtanlanMus  Phkoftafhy,  and  it  is 
treated  mathematically  by  W.  B.  Coventry  in  his  Teckmcs  of  ike 
Hand  Camera,  in  which  will  be  found  formulae  and^tables  for  ascer- 
taining the  distances  and  limiting  exposures  for  moving  objects, 
allowing  for  a  blur  of  tH  of  an  inch.  In  foreign  treatises  the  limit 
is  usually  calculated  for  •  displacement  of  -^  of  •  mittimetre,  or 
about  lU  of  an  inch. 

An  emcieot  shutter  should  fulfil  the  following  cooditSoos:  It 
should  be  light  and  compact.  sim|de  in  construction  and  action, 
strongly  made,  and  not  Uable  to  get  out  of  order;  capable  <rf  being 
set  without  admittii^  light  into  the  camtea;  easily  released  with  a 
slight  pressure  of  the  finger,  if  a  pneumatic  release  is  not  fitted,  and 
free  from  any  tendency  to  shake  the  camera  on  release.  It  shouU 
open  and  close  quickly,  allowing  the  largest  possible  proportioo  of 
tiie  exposure  to  be  made  with  the  full  aperture,  and  it  must  not  cut 
off  any  of  the  effective  Hght  passing  through  the  lens,  but  dtould 
distribute  it  evenly  all  over  the  plate:  though  in  landscape  work 
it  is  an  advantage  to  sive  the  foreground  more  exposure  than  the 
sky.  It  should  oe  acqustable  for  variable  instanuneons  and  for 
probnged  or  "  time  "  exposures.  With  a  good  shutter  there  is 
less  rialc  of  shaking  the  caaaeta  in  short "  time  ejrposures.  from  |  to 
I  second,  than  there  is  in  taking  off  •  cap.  Shatters  working  between 
die  lenses  must  permit  of  the  use  of  diaphragms  in  the  lenses,  and  of 
alterations  of  speed  while  set.  Above  all.  a  shutter  must  be  con- 
stant in  its  action,  giving  short  and  variable  exposures  ahrays  cor- 
rectly or  relatively  so,  an  important  condition  which  cannot  alwayi 
be  fulfilled,  and  the  exposures  marked  on  the  indicator  should  be 
capable  of  being  repeated  with  tolerable  certainty.-  Shutters  sbotdd 
also  be  adaptabki  for  use  with  different  lenses.  Three  methods  cf 
varying  the  speed  of  a  shutter  are  in  use:  (i)  by  altering  the  Icnfth 
of  the  slot;  (2)  by  the  retarding  action  of  a  pneumatic  braJce;  (3) 
varying  the  tension  of  a  spring.    The  latter  is  considered  by 

.  B.  Coventry  as  far  the  bert.  They  are  usually  rdeased  by  the 
pressure  of  the  finger  on  the  end  of  a  lever  holding  the  moving  part 
in  a  state  of  tension;  or  better,  by  J.  Cadett's  system  of  pneumatic 
pressure,  applied  by  means  of  a  compressible  rubber  bulb  and  tube, 
which  may  drive  a  piston  acting  on  tne  lever  hc^ng  the  shutter,  or 
infiate  a  collapsible  bnlb  at  the  other  end  of  the  tube  and  thus  esKrt 
the  necessary  pressure  on  the  lever.  W'ith  W.  Watson's  "  Antinous  ** 
Teleasea  flacible  wire  acts  directly  on  the  pi^n  or  trisgcr 

d,  locn 


^. 


of  a  cylinder  shutter.    It  is  also  adapted  for  roller-blind. 

flap,  and  various  forms  of  between-lcns  shutters.    It  is  diaiaNe; 

^cctive  and  convenient  (see  fig.  3).    In  many  cases  both  nasthodi 

can  be  used  as  desired,  the  mechanical  release  being  prcferabir  on 

account  of  its  convenience  and  freedom  from  liability  to  shake  tiK 

camera. 

The  following  are  the  principal  types  of  instantanc ^ 

(1)  Flap,  (2)  drop.  (3)  combined  drop  and  flap,  (4)  rotary. J^)  r« 
bUnd,  (6)  focal  plane.  (7)  moving  blade  centnl.  (8)  iria.  They 
be  applied  in  four  different  poutions:  (a)  in  front  of  the  lestt;  (k) 
centrally,  near  the  diaphragm:  (0  behind  the  lena  (d)  *'"«"*'»^i"'y 
in  front  of  the  sensitive  plate.  They  all,  however,  oome  nsKlcr  two 
main  classes:  Lateral,  including  those  in  which  the  csposmv 
commences  and  ends  at  the  circtnnferenoe  of  the  lens  ape 
and  Central,  those  in  which  the  exposure  begins  and  ends  at  tbe  < 
of  the  aperture.  Some  of  them  are  "  Uteral "  in  their  sini 
and  "  central  "  when  double.  Tlie  form  and  positicm  of  the  < 
aperture  of  a  shutter,  relatively  to  the  lens  and  plate,  have 
influence,  either  favourable  or  unfavourable,  on  the 
effective  light  passing  through  the  lens,  and  its  even 
over  the  plate.  This  is  especially  the  case  dining  the  ii 
phases  of  openii^  and  closing  the  aperture,  it  seems  to  be 
that  the  beat  position  for  lens  shutters  of  the  latenl  type  ii 
the  d)joctive,  and  for  those  of  the  oential  type,  betocctt  tfae- 
ponent  lenses.  In  this  latter  position  the  whole  of  tibe  ptete 
illuminated  during  the  full  penod  of  exposure,  with  a  | — ^  * 
increasing  intensity,  until  the  full  of>emng  is  readied,  and 
illumination  gradually  falls  off  imtil  the  shutter  is  cIm 
rooit  effective  shutter  is  one  in  which  the  first  and  tlurd  . 
incomplete  illuroinatkn.  during  the  Opening  and  cloiint^ 
shortest  compared  with  the  second  phase  of  full  opening. 

With  the  focal  plane  shuttere,  however,  different  portions  of  tko 
plate  are  exposed  m  succession,  the  lens  worUiv  at  its  foH  apertnsc 
and  effidency  throughout  the  exposure. 

To  secure  suooesaful  results  in  using  instantaoeons  shatters,  the 
operator  should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  woskiiig  of  kin 
shutter  and  iu  efficiency  in  various  circumstances  of  expoenre  witk 
tbe  lenses,  plates  and  developer  he  proposes  to  use:  ascertaining  tbc 
actual  value  of  the  various  exposures  narked  on  the  indsoatar,  na^ 


AFPAKATtBl 


PHOTOGRAKIY 


r  br  tbey  no  bf  dtpnKt«t 


ngalarlty.    Then  are 

«r enmuR  from  open    _        .._._. .  _, 

duKly  for  pnctiul  purpoHx.  TKty  depend  upon  ttie  muiuiemT 
ol  the  Race  led  en  i  muilin  pbte  by  die  pauaee  sf  a  brithi 
alumiiund  objeci  ttvoliiiif  ai  a  known  treed  or  fa)l<ng  vertical 

tlirDU|h  a  known  distance,  when  phfKofnphed  wi"-  -"-" 

el  ilie  ihuIBr  ininK  a  dirti  bacVgrouiid.    Th(.._. ,..,  

ehbDrtte  melhndi  (of  obtatnlns  more  accurate  tJctermlDatiDn}  of  the 
■■ repenodtandoTir 


«-  dkcnring  the  at 


nrMpondina  eflMl  ivi  npoHii 
w  ihuitcr  tVouffh  iti  imfere 


If  of  a  hinged 


,,., iA  PitUitnl^ii  iatlanlanlt.    i...., 

laijni  ikulteii  at  Ihn  National  Fhyvcal  Labsntory  w 
by  J.  ae  Graal  Hanut  lo  die  OpKtina,  i-"* 

1.  riap  SkUun.—ne  ilmple  flap  ihl 
flap  opening  upwardi  In  from  of  the  lens,  ^uuu^ik  laTvrunicD  iimciy 
diya  fof  Lanrl«ape  work,  and  atUI  useful  for  iniermitrent  nponifn 
ur  a>  >ky-ihadn  (or  lecLrinj  cloud  eflecti  or  incrtnine  ftutgnnind 

pact  fornu.  Tltey  are  DKtl  with  ftinjle  and  ^ubFe  Aapi  for  ponrai- 
mre  aad  itudki  work,  lor  wtin:h  purpose  tliev  are  made  id  act 
.F.I«Jy  and^  not  alliacl  the  aiHntitn  of  the  lilttr..     Coetry;. 


Fid.  U  — Cuerry'i 

Bmglc-liH]  Stmlter. 


Fic,  to. — Cucrry'a 
DoiiblC'aapStelHr. 

■hulter  it  hemispherical  In  fomi  and  cotlapublc,  the  tvo 
opening  out  ana  luldine  to^ihcr,  when  actuated  by  a  i 

Ulllng  Aap  with  pneumatic  ntcaK. 

3.  jynp  SkutWi. — The  old  ainiplc  drop  ihinier,  In  wliicb  a  plait 
having  an  opening  in  il  falls  In  front  of  (he  lens  aperture,  hai  be«i 
■upcrteded  by  tbc  more  compact  and  quicker-wDrliifip  rollcr-bli  ' 
Bhutt«fi|Wbicli  adon  much  the  URWpr|nCLple.   Ii  bada  thearttii 

circular,  stuan,  or  donnced— used  vhh  ttiutien  of  the  bie 
type,  but  it  it  now  generally  recognlicd  chat  a  morr  or  ten  extend 
rcctanfular  opening,  of  at  leaai  tne  full  width  of  the  lens  a^rttire, 
beat  for  iccundg  tho even  admiuion  of  light  lioni  all  pans  of  the  IrriB 
with  ihuitend  the  tectiliiKar  lateral  lype,  to  which  this  and  dmi 


3.    tTontianl  Diof  and  Flap  Shu 
mI^  of°nMnui,  niamon^  Sc.\u 


the  apermre,  released  the  drop  slide.  wliKh  Ir 
Thtv  were  utcful  and  elleclive  In  the  >     " 
cuvDTDUi  in  the  larter.     Speed  couli 
louBhlv  by  the  UK  ol  india-rubber  band 
4.  Kaivy  Ski,"         " 


s- — In  early  dry^plale  dayi 

rerc  brought  not,  under  the 
re  now  little  uaed.  In  thtK 
there  wag  also  aKflinelUp, 
ind,  havir-'  "    ' 


ItoJyihl 


Fto.«f--Ilo«"ryShi 
•  apring  and  the  v 
cnutoia  o4   the  ipi 


[poaure  obtained  by 
■prific,      JT    h    speeded    lor    eaposum  dI  fy.  IS 
on,  but  lorn  eSicicncy  at  the  hJgheat  speeds  1^  tbc 


made  by  which  lime  eiposum  of  J,  (.  ), 
1,  J,  J  second)  can  be  given  automaiically  the  pntsuir  of  iht  bulb 
openi^  Ibe  ikutler.  Aich  eloaes  of  ittdf  ar  the  caption  of  the 
eippiure  reoLiirtd.  The  uieory  of  ■butlera  of  thit  type  hat 
been  very  fully  diacuHcd  by  Covcntiy  (ap.  ok  p.  jq).  who  tbowi 
that  for  any  given  tension  of  the  tprinc  the  actual  eapoiiKe  decraia 
aa  ibe  ^la  d  the  lent  ^Mrtun  duiilidibti.  while  the  dfectiva 
apMn  iiaaina  cDostant  lor  all  aaenura*.  This  la  peculiar  10 
tkekieMI  shutter.  HealMabowaltal  withplueaof  verydMlerenl 
(Jpidiliea,  lioughjhe  «J>oaiE  maj;  be  Ihe  Hme,  the  actual  Rpaun 


at  of  Ihe  objeci 


maybelhesai 
J  Plate  and. 


piite  Chan  on  the  slow 

.,.  '  ihc^oTihetel 

hit  book  it^md  to;  th^  show  clearly 


e'Tii^lw 


It  it  bRIFT,  Iberclore 


ii  iba  mniiHi  but  pnwtictlly 


lechansm  similar  to  Ibe  lonfolng.  but  niniBfed  so  that  the  tlil 
1  the  curtain  may  move  rapidly  ckise  in  front  of  the  tensltivf  plaia. 

enf  dKFtnni  poniont  oi  ll  in  lum,  ttaeinleaiiiyol  the  tipotura 
_  iTgulated  b]r  the  width  of  the  tilt,  wheiber  adiusuble  or  not. 
ndlhenpidily  with  whichitisilHTvedlq'tbcunwiii^agaf  aipnng, 
be  advantagB  of  theK  ahuitna  ai*  now  beina  fully  appnciated, 
>e  principal  baini  that  they  aie  quite  iadcpendeol  ol  the  Jens,  so 
lal  one  ihuna  will  serve  for  diflennt  kntea,  and  any  luiiable  lent 
lay  be  used  at  i»  Full  lalensity,  witluHil  Ibe  Iota  ol  aflicicacT  in- 
sitnE  la  the  ordinary  fomt  of  Jena-sbuttcn.  They  thut  add 
leclivclf .  If  Bot  actually,  to  the  ipeed  al  a  alow  lens,  or  1/  a  lent  be 
opped  doim  there  ialeialoaaof  aoiclesicy.  wiih  a  gain  in  iKreated 
cplh  and  definilion.  They  are  partkularly  well  adapted  for  the 
ery  ihort  expowrea  nquirtd  in  pSotogiaiJilng  near  and  Quickly 
lOving  objects.  raciiH  hcnet,  diven,  Ac.  and  many  ndEcx  and  other 
I  fitted  with  them.     They 

rthtr  lor  abort  tipwut ■■■ 

vitiabirSdlli'm"' "         ™~""=' 


Gdtn-Amdiati  ihiitttr  hu 
fcovidbif  for  niivty  differ- 


PHOTOGRAPHY 

Iwii  StnOUn.—Titai  u 


morr  fully  by  Fabn  (r.  £.  P.  .SaeK,  C.  p.  llS).  and  [Mr  inetui 


iUjiEular  apcTiurca,  or 
ry  quickly  ovtr  a"'' 


bladn.  opFning  out  and  dorifif  anin^ 
tflicl«K7  th«  «li*  of  the  opening  fhouli 
ipenun  •(  ihc  kna    K  ach  plitc  navf 


irlumiiWion  of  ihc  km  varylnE  «s  l«if^u  tlie  flibtte  opening  u 
imaUrr  than  that  of  thr  diaphnfrm  uM,  It  ■  dninble,  thm- 
fivF,  to  Inrrraw  tht  «p«d  and  uk  ai  1am  an  aptftauv  af  povtiblv. 
K>  that  Ihe  diaiAtaim  u«d  nay  bt  tot&tl]>  owsvcRd  doiini  ih* 
imtKpaiioI  lb*  ocpDain. 


diaptuafin.  with  Hveral  faayca  Qf«nj( 
e  of  thf  Itnt  and  doling  again.     They  ar 


•Suutr  i>  tlH 


Ttrey  tan,  t 
convcnlbk  « 


omitJ^^ 


1APFAR&TU5 

w  principle  of 

UBuny  fitted 


_  ...J  bcil  fonq  lor  tqaurir^ 
over  fhc  plate,  provided,  at 
the  lull  apeituR  ol  llw  lent 


of  lenn  ol  diffennc 
Lfiit  mouni.  ^  Several 

»ilh  Ihiw,  lour  or 


iLutKr  Ifig.  6j)  nan  be  u 
tigarfinr    -■-""■■----"  ■ 


i«ll    be   foimd   in   the   voric*   by 
Abney,  Covenuy,  Eder,  Fabre  and  LoDde. 


oodiiiMU  of  lighi 
levited  for  aif*ti< 
lerivrd  froia 


.    Both  Eiicihadi  an  in 


with  carcfully'fvtordcd  oluenj 


:d  ol  (he  plitei  (>)  ibe 
a  time  of  itay;  Cil  the 

'v^»nra(''lhe  aciiiM  of 
many  caio  of  inidoubtrd 
dt  ii  left  to  the  judgfimt 


;,"fs'„. 


. - . ^, -. , .n  uie.    In  Ibe  early  dayi  cJ 

gel'Ilndry  plalet  ificir  raf^iiis  vtre  ilated  at  n  many  time*  line 

ipld  "^r "  oira n^''  leraii  whtrh,  though  niuble  Inr  one  make 
_  ^Ijle,  may  not  be  lo  for  olhen.  Thu  mi  liiHifOv*d  upon  by  th( 
adbplion.  ID  1^78.  of  Leoo  Wvnttlic't  "  ScnBlEDmeter."  vhirh  WH 


a  •nuani  of  diffcR 

Thit  wat  L^ced  ii 
■d  ttpoccd  for  thirty  b 


intendtlct,  nurbcd  vilh 


•\s:b 


ipowd  ptato  ivafl  then  devrlvfjed  ai 

Ta'iSso  f7'hLVi™  and  . . _ ,  „ 

tyttem  of  calcuktidg  Ibe  Kniiliveneat  of  platet  ol  diAeifnl  npac 
iici.     They  malie  a  leriei  ol  npoiure*  In  lecMde  oa  Smitr 

parta  dI  Ibe  plate  id  geomcfrlral  profrmlon  wilb  a  alandard  cane 
al  one  mcuv  diilanu.  Aticr  dcvelopcDcnt  tor  a  certain  £v 
period  wiih  a  itaodard  developer,  fining,  waibiDC  and  drying,  il 
'' ftrn^irlrt "  or  logarithnuol  (he  opactliet  of  the  dilTerent  porta  a 
by  a  Epecial  photometer  and  plot  ted  on  a  ikekioa  diagrai 


^"^ 


NETJ 


I'Jnaf'l^i'ab 


w  Journal  ^  Ih 
V  '■  Photo  Min 


Smiily  ftr  Clumkid  Iniiulry 


'"''•'^Juc 


ai  publX^  in  i; 
■"-  -— '-ivcoei.  .m 


APPARAIvq 

■koBtiiv  Ua  HidnatB  of  tbtfa  diSwtiit  iKuib,  aiHl  it  am  or 
las  the  btib  on  which  Ihe  ptattqndi  Eur  [ha  nodtn  Ea|^ 
dry-pUle  acunotrwnn  uid  cupoaiiie  BKten  u*  rakiitatpL  Scvcift] 
WWU1I9  of  pbotofneuy  uid  CDfuuRueiU  of  th«  netda  u(  diy 
iJatn  have  bccD  diicuMBl  at  Ihc  mRtingi  al  ih*  Caaph  Inltr- 
KBluntai  da  Pbilofra^ii,  in  1SS9,  1S91.  1900  ■nd  1905,  but  dd 
deboitF  ttandard  rea  beea  £na]ly  adopird.  la  Cemudy  the  uie 
of  J.  ScbeuKr'i  tfuuicomctK  haa  been  adiHited,  ipd  app&n  u  be 
"  '■  ■*  bucd  DD  e  lyBlem  a(  pnotoigrapbiiu  tht  giadu- 
by  rotjituif  Kctiin.    A  lull  nccouiu  cl  the  intuu- 

■e  FliaUpisfkiidit  Cermpamiliia  (l«9»)*  p.  469.  ud 
E^  ■'^■.  Chapman  Jooei  UtHlftbl  out  ft  caftveaieill 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


I.  M.'  EderVn' 


steaded  by  the  ai 
u.^  light  hiten,  &c. 


e.  *jX3t  i' 


, — — ^  .  ~-4  ol  twcnty-hve  v~^„  „  B<-^^<-<-»  w^.«»^. 

•  tenet  ol  coloured  aqiiare*,  blue,  cieen,  velloi*  and  nd,  aad 
a  tcrip  of  Beutnl  greVi  all  five  bnpi  of  apptcninaicly  equal 
lunuooiity:  a  icriet  of  louf  iquaRi  of  ipeciaJ  pure  cekHin,  each 
repreteotlBg  a  definite  portioa  of  Iba  uccuiun ;  alw  a  tptcc  of  Upc 
duioa,  over  which  ia  aupcfpoeed  a  half-uoe  negalive.     To  ua« 

behind  Iheueen  foi  a  '— ■■ ■■-  ' -' 

plaod  at  the    " 


tw  tecDodft  10  the  lichl  of  a  ilandard  ca 
-'  a  [ooc.  developed,  fiud  ud  w— 


,.fSl 


balatiofu  and  the  m 


fiaed  poiod  a£ 

The  next  importaiit  lector  1*  the  actiac  power  of  the  Utht- 
depeoda  aonially  on  the  hdtht  erf  tbe  tun  for  llv  lUtlude  of  1] 

place  at.tbe  time  when  the  -"-^ ^  "  *-' —  — ' 

faeicht  aunliftht  are  found  1 
of  tha  eim'ft  altitude  above 
it  pfacticaU)>  the  use  at  any  (iven  tim 

but  ia  liable  to  mere  or  Ittt  local  and  tr    ^    .  ,  _.  _ 

amowit  of  daad,  haie,  dutt,  dc,  pment  lo  lb*  atmoiDfiai  at  t 
tine    It  i>  alio  affected  by  (he  time  of  day.  incRaiini  trom  aiiifi— 

ia  the  atfectivc  diaphraAJU  aperture  of  die  lent  la  relatioa  m  lit 
focal  kiwtlL  In  moa  caaee  of  ordinary  ootdoor  ckpaetirA  Ehit 
can  b«  tiaen  at  ia  aormal  valu*.  but  beonnee  Hnallce  and  incnaaea 
capoeorv  if  the  focal  length  ii  much  incRaaed  for  phntisfnphinf 
near  olitjecta.  Beaidee  Iheie  principal  factnri,  the  nature  and  colodr 
of  the  obiecta,  tbcir  dtaeanoe,  and  the  amount  ok  liiht  Hcelved 
and  ceficcted  by  them  under  nrioiw  aeoHaiilieiic  csoditiani.  hava 
.  ap^AMf  {nAiina^  ott  tho  eapoftdre  leqinred.  W-  B.  Covmtn'  >•>■ 
|L  TS)  how  the  "litht  mefieinil^W  ^.'"f  ' 


•  ^J^Ja 


„,_, , r—  a  table  of  valuet  <4  L  (or  the 

latitude  of  London  lor  every  hour  of  the  day  in  poiodi  ol  ten  day* 
thrau^HBt  the  year,  alio  the  relaiive  Doeflidentj  for  "dUfuaed 
llght?^  ■'  doudy,  "  dull  "  and  "  very  duU."  TJWet  ol  ccpomret 
fur  diffemit  lobifctt  under  varyine  conditions  of  Uihl  have  boen 
pubCibed  by  W.  K.  Burton.  A.  5.  Ptetu,  F,  W.  Mills,  Su  D.  Salomooi 
■Dd  ctbert,  and  in  prepArioe  them  Pr  J.  A.  Scott't  tablea,  thowinc 
monlhjv  and  daily  variationi  of  1i{ht  ior  aHinniet  about  N. 
Ut.  S3  4  are  EenerallY  uaed-  The  more  modem  tablt!*.  tuch  at  are 
publtaned  in  tbe  printed  "eiipoture  riotebooks," 


ilile  tpeeii,  owing 

rd  of  light.  Thetubir 


Qtnlin  theBFiiu* 


■■ult'a  Caiad  du  Jcajp'  dr  ftojf  eir  M«ima^H,  and  timiltr  workt 
by  A.  de  la  Baume  Pfuvinel,  G.  de  C.  d'Eapinamui  and  othen- 

repretfotlng  the  coefficients  for  plate^peed,  light  and  diaphionn 
arearranged  aa  in  a  elide  rule,  to  that,  when  properly  aet,  tlie 
noTBal  eapojure  rmuited  can  be  found  by  iiBptrtioo,  and  in- 
cRsied  er  dimialthtd  according  to  ciicunuiancet.  In  Hurtcr 
■nd  Drilfidd'a  "  ArtlDogiraph  "  the  light  coefficknr  ia  givtn  by  a 
jjrinted  card  ifaowinf  the  curves  for  every  day  in  the  year  and  for 
every  hour  of  the  day.  (he  unit  being  the  ih  pit  of  the  bnEhl"t 
Double  diffuaed  daylighl  when  the  altitude  of  I  hi         '       '     "' 

■    ■  ledfordnghsdoi 


one  aclinograph  degree  of  light  wilT  produce  a  perfF«  negative 
rjf  an  otdinary  bodwape.  An  additional  Kale  it  given  for  Hvv 
■fiffereut  dtireet  of  illumination— '■  very  brtghl.  ■'■--'-'--" 
■■memn.';  ■■dull.;'  "very  d  "  "      ■   — -■-     '  ' 

rcsulnte  the  figure  to  be  c 


le,  of  lacton 


it  •pacbll*  aihond  lor  tot  wMi  tiatea  of  need  nnnben  icree. 

[wuhlbefi.AD.  loile.butcaabeuied  wltVany  i^teofWWh 


_. .190a)  it  made  in 

Kna1iun(fi^.69).   The  "  Dial  " 
ter  (I901I  &  a  limpler  form  in 

The  numbcn  diowing  the  apeed  ol  the  plate  in  use.  (be  /  vAue 

of  the  diaphraem,  a—'   "^ '= -"'  — =-   — — -■-   — ' 

brought  into  the  th 


5i8 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


(APPARATUS 


circumference  <A  a  loeket.-and  the  actinometer  at  the  back.  An 
"  Infallible  "  Printmeter  is  also  made  for  showing  exposures  in 
contact  printins  on  sensitive  papers,  but  can  also  be  used  for 
testing  speeds  oi  plates  and  papers.  Beck's  "  Zambex  "  Exposure 
Meter  gives  the  exposure  and  stop  to  be  used,  also  the  depth  of 
focus  to  be  obtained  with  different  diaphragm  apertures.  The 
required  exposure  is  set  to  the  "  speed  "  number  on  the  next 
scale  of  the  meter.  The  third  scale  corresponds  to  the  times 
oi  darkening  the  sensitive  paper  in  the  actinumctcr  attached  to 
the  meter,  and  shows  the  diaphragm  aperture  suitable  for  the 
given  exposure.  Other  scales  show  the  distances  that  will  be 
in  focus  with  the  different  stops  used,  arranged  so  that  the  focal 
depth  of  four  different  lenses  can  be  founo.  Several  other  ex- 
posure meters  are  made  on  the  principle  of  the  slide  rule,  with  scale 
corresponding  to  the  factors  of "  plate  speed,"  "  diaphragm  number," 
"light,"  "subject,"  "exposure."  and  the  exposure  is  found  by 
simple  inspection  without  an  actinometer.  They  are  designed 
for  use  with  particular  brands  of  plates,  but  can  be  used  for  otnera 
of  dmilar  speeds. 

Another  class  of  exposure  meters  comprises  those  in  which 
the  intensity  of  the  fight  is  estimated  vuually  by  extinction 
through  a  semi-transparent  medium  of  increasing  intensity,  such  as 
J.  Dwoudun's  (1888),  in  which  the  exposure  is  judged  by  the 
disappearance  of  a  series  of  small  dear  openings  on  a  graduated 
scale  of  densities  when  laid  on  the  most  Important  part  of  the  image 
as  seen  on  the  ground-glass.  Its  indications  are  not  very  definite, 
and  the  paper  scale  changes  in  density  after  a  time.  A  better 
form  is  EL  Degen's  Normal  Photometer "  (1Q03},  consisting  of 
two  sliding  violet  glass  prisms,  one  adjusted  for  the  diaphragm 
apertures,  the  other  for  the  actinic  illumination  of  the  object. 
They  arc  mounted  with  their  outer  faces  parallel.  In  use  the  upper 
slide  with  prism  is  drawn  out  so  that  the  pointer  coincides  with  the 
division  indicating  the  diaphragm  aperture  to  be  used;  the  object 
to  be  photographed  is  then  viewed  directly  through  openings  at 
one  end  of  the  instrument,  and  the  lower  slide  is  drawn  out  and 
pushed  back  slowly  till  the  object  viewed  is  almost  obscured. 
The  attached  pointer  will  then  indicate  the  exposure  required, 
or,  reversing  the  order,  the  diaphragm  aperture  for  a  given  exposure 
can  be  found.  Auxiliary  scales  are  attached  for  very  short  or  very 
tong  exposures.  The  pnnciplc  of  construction  is  that  the  logarithms 
of  the  times  of  exposure  are  proportional  to  the  thickness  of  the 
coloured  prisms.  "G.  Heyrde's  Actino-Photometer "  (1906}  is 
on  a  somewhat  similar  principlcj  and  consists  of  a  circular  metal 
box  with  dark  violet  gnss  viewing  screens  in  the  centre  of  both 
sides,  with  an  obscuring  iris  inside  the  case  worked  by  revolving 
the  back  of  the  box.  On  the  front  of  the  instrument  exposure 
tables  are  given  for  plates  of  every  rapidity,  and  for  diaphragm 
apertures  irom  fjx  to  7/45.  Exposure  meters  of  this  type  are 
•pecially  applicable  for  open-air  work  where  there  is  sumdent 
light  for  ready  measurement.  Other  simple  actinometers  are  in 
use  for  carbon  and  process  printing,  consisting  generally  of  traa^ 
lucent  graduated  scales  in  different  densities  M  paper,  coloured 
gelatin,  Ac,  or  of  a  photographed  scale  graduated  by  increasing 
exposures.  The  "  Burton  actinometer,"  for  pigrment  printing, 
made  on  this  principle,  contains  several  small  negatives  of  different 
densities,  one  of  which  u  selected  of  equal  depth  to  the  one  to  be 
printed,  and  the  progress  of  the  printing  is  estimated  by  exjKMing 
a  piece  of  sensitive  paper  under  it  and  examining  it  from  tune  to 
time. 

SvNsiTivB  Plates,  Films  and  Papers 

SmsiUoe  Dry  PiaUs. — ^A  special  feature  of  modem  photography 
is  the  use  of  trustworthy  ready-prepared  sensitive  dry  plates  and 
films  in  different  grades  of  sensitiveness,  so  that  there  is  no  necessity 
for  the  photographer  to  prepare  his  own  i>lates^  nor,  indeed,  could 
he  do  so  with  any  advantage.  The  practice  of  outdoor  and  studio 
photography  has  thus  been  very  greatly  simplified;  and  although 
with  wet  colkxlion  there  was  tne  advantage  of  seeing  the  results 
at  once  and  retaking  a  picture  if  necessary,  the  uncertainties  con- 
nected  with  the  use  of  the  silver  bath  and  collodion,  and  the  amount 
of  cumbrous  apparatus  necessary  for  preparing  and  developing 
the  plates,  far  outweighed  it.  There  is  also  an  enormous  saving 
of  time,  in  using  dry  plates  as  compared  with  wet,  by  deferring 
development.  In  tropical  climates,  also,  dry  plates  can  be  used 
when  work  with  wet  pUites  would  be  impossible.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  uncertainty  of  more  or  less  random  exposures  on  ready- 
prepared  plates  must  not  be  overiooked.  Besides  their  use  in 
taking  negatives,  gelatin  dry  plates  are  also  largely  used  for  print- 
ing transparencies,  lantern  slides,  enlargements,  ac.  For  negative 
work  they  are  prepared  with  an  emulsion  in  gelatin  of  silver  bromide, 
alone  or  with  the  addition  of  silver  iodide  or  chloride,  and  are  to 
be  obtained  in  five  or  six  degrees  of  rapidity; .  "  slow,"  for  photo* 
mechanical  or  "  process"  work;  "ordinary,  for  general  purposes 
when  quick  exposures  are  not  required;  "rapid,^'  for  landscape 
and  poctratts;  "extra  rapkl,"  for  instantaneous  exposures;  and 
**  doable  extra  rapud,"  for  very  quick  snapshot  work  in  dull  weather 
or  for  special  subjects.  These  latter  kinds  are  exceedingly  sensitive, 
and  require  jpeat  care  in  use  to  avoid  fog^  In  order  to  prevent 
halation,  or  irregular  action  by  reflectran  from  the  back  surface  of 
the  rian,  dry  plates  are  coated  with  a  non-actinic  "backing," 
mbiak  caa  easily  be  removed  before  devdopment. 


Self-developing  (hy  pbtes  were  introduced  ia  1906.  in  which  the 
dcvetoping  agent  is  mixed  in  the  film  itaelf,  as  in  the  lUord 
"  Amauto  "  plate,  which  only  requires  immersion  in  a  solution  of 
washing  soda  for  development,  or,  as  in  the  Wellington  "  WataJu  " 
plates,  applied  on  the  back  of  the  plate,  plain  water  only  brii^  re- 
quired for  development,  this  application  also  preventing  halation. 
The  slow  plates  osed  for  printing  lantern  slides  and  tranqiarcadcs 
are  usually  prepared  with  an  emulsion  of  silver  chloride  with  oc 
without  free  silver  nitrate  and  other  habkis. 

The  rendering  of  photographic  i^tes  isochromatic  or  sensitive 
to  all  colours  by  dyeing  them  with  eosin,  or  other  suitable-  dyes, 
has  been  greatfy  improved  by  the  use  of  new  dyes,  especially 
those  of  the  isocyanin  group,  prepared  by  Dr  E.  K&nig  of  the 
Hoechst  factory,  and  known  as  ''orthocbrom  T,"  "dicyanin/* 
*'mnaverdol,"  "  pinachrom "  and  "  pinacyanol,"  the  latter  of 
which  can  confer  on  a  silver  bromide  plate  as  high  a  degree  of 
sensitiveness  for  red  as  erythroan  does  for  yellow;  also  F.  Bav-cr*s 
"  Homocol,"  Dr  A.  Miethe's  "  ethyl  red,"  and  other  simUar  d>-cs 
(see  E.  Jb.,  IQ05,  pp.  Iflj*  336).  Panchromatic  plates  are  now  largely 
manufactuurea  and  used  for  all  photographic  work  in  which  a  true 
rendering  of  the  reUtive  colour  luminositks  is  essential,  and  more 
particulaHy  for  the  various  methods  of  ODtour  reproduction  in 
which  plates  are  nequued  to  be  sensitive  to  red,  green  and  Mue- 
violec  They  are  made  in  different  dcBieea  of  general  and  colour 
sensitiveness,  according  to  the  purpose  lor  which  they  are  required, 
the  ordinary  "  isochromatic  **  being  most  sensitive  lor  yellow  and 
green,  and  the  "panchromatic"  for  red,  orange  and  yellow,  as 
wdl  as  for  green,  blue  and  violet.  To  obtain  the  best  results 
from  all  these  i^tes  it  is  necessary  to  screen  off  the  blue  and  violet 
rays  with  yelkyw  or  orange  transparent  screens,  or  colour  filters, 
made  of  coloured  ^lass,  or  glass  coated  with  coloured  gebtin, 
collodkm,  &c.,  or  with  glass  cells  containing  solutrans  of  suitable 
dyes  or  salts.  For  the  various  processes  of  three-colour  reproduce 
tion  panchromatk  plates  and  nedal  red,  green  and  bloe^violet 
filters  have  to  be  used  for  taking  the  three  negatives,  their  intensities 
and  absorptions  being  carefully  adjusted  to  the  partkrular  i^tes 
in  use;  the  same  applies,  bat  less  strictly,  to  the  ydttow  screens 
used  with  ordinary  laochnmiatic  i^tes.  Dyes  specially  suitable 
for  these  oolouf^lters  have  been  prepared  by  Dr  E.  KOnis.  Varioas 
kinds  of  colour  screens  for  ordinary,  niicniscopic  and  tnchranatic 
work  are  made  oommerdally,  and  Messrs  Sdioct  of  Jena  mnke  a 
special  yellow  glasa  in  three  tints  lor  the  porpoae. 

Plata  far  Cohw  Pkotofrnpl^j-^ln  1868  Louia  Ducoa  du  Hanon, 
among  various  trichromatic  methods  patented  for  photegianhically 
reproducing  coloured  objects  in  the  colours  of  nature,  described  one 
in  which  the  trichromaric  principle,  instead  of  <beiiig  curied  oat 
on  three  separate  pfattes,  was  to  be  combined  in  one  plate  by  means 
of  a  transparent  medium  covered  by  a  tricfaromatk  screen  divided 


into  narrow  juxtaposed  lines  or  minute  spaces,  cones 
the  three  prunary  colours,  red,  green  ano  bhie-violet. 


the 

Ssrent  colour  of  each  of  these  Imcs  or  spaces  acting  as  a  ooloar 
Iter.  A  sensitive  panchromatic  plate  was  to  be  expoaed  ia  con* 
tact  with  this  screen  to  produce  a  oecative  with  fiaea  or  apots 
ootrespooding  to  the  rdative  strength  01  the  three  coloured  lights 
passing  thitHtgh  It,  so  that  a  di^iositive  print  on  glass  praperiy 
registocd  with  the  triookwr  screen  would  tkmw  the  object  in  its 
proper  colours.  This'method  could  not  be  carried  out  sucoeasfsdly 
lor  want  of  efficient  panchromatic  p4ates  and  other  difficultiea. 

Between  1892  and  1898  several  patents  were  taken  out  by  I.  W. 
McDonough  and  J.  Joly  for  various  methods  of  preparing  trvJiro- 
matic  ruled  screens  (Ph.  Jcum.^  1900^  p.  191 ).  The  Joly  method  was 
fairly  successful  in  action,  but  had  several  disadvantages  owing  to 
the  coarseness  of  the  lines»  the  necessity  Cor  having  two  screens, 
one  for  taking  and  another  for  viewing,  and  the  eost  of  maldag 
them  {B.  J.  A.,  1899.  p.  671).    The  "Florence "  chionutic  plate 

it90S),  worked  out  in  America  by  J.  Hk  Powrie  and  Fkirence 
i.  Warner,  waaanimprovemeot  on  the  J<^  method,  the  colour  ncreea 


being  photographically  printed  on  a  glass  plate,  coated  with  pan* 
chromatic  emuiaion  and  exposed  to  the  coloured  object  through 
the  screen  (PenroH  PiitontU  Annual,  1905-1906*  Pw  III).  Some 
good  results  were  produced,  but  it  hais  not  come  into  use. 

After  several  years  of  laborious  research,  Messrs  LumiAre,  of 
Lyons,  adopting  Ducos  du  Hauron's  coloured  grain  method,  suc^ 
OKdca  where  he  had  failed,  and  in  1907  brought  out  their  "  Auto- 
chrome  "  plates,  in  a  very  complete  and  practical  form,  maldng  it 
possible  to  produce  photographs  in  the  colour  of  r<atural  objects 
oy  one  exposure  instead  of  three,  as  in  the  ordinary  three-coloto' 
processes.  Class  plates  are  coated  with  an  adhcsi\'e  medium  over 
whkh  is  sjpntad  a  mixture  of  potato  starch  grains,  of  rokroscopsc 
fineness,  stained  violet,  green  and  orange,  the  iptersrkea  bemg 
filled  in  with  fine  carbon  powder  to  form  a  tricolour  acreen,  oark  by 
reflected  and  of  a  pinkish,  peariy  appearance  by  transmitted  Ugbf . 
This  is  varnished  and  coated  with  a  thin  sensitive  panchroccadc 
emulsion  of  gdatino-silver  bromide.  The  plates  are  exposed  in 
the  camera  from  the  back,  through  the  tricolour  films,  using  alao 
a  special  compensating  orange-ydlow  acreen,  before  or  bdUnd 
the  lens,  then  developed  as  usual,  produdnjg  a  negative  coloured 
image  in  the  complementary  colours,  which  w  then  treated  and 
versed  so  as  to  produce  a  positive  coloured  image  by  traasm* 
showing  the  picture  in  its  proper  cok>ui».   The  r»Hilts  thus 


4n  reicArlubly  |oad  and  prvcUcilIy  k 
caLour  photwtfhtiy  in  a  Aunple  ud  J 


PHOTOGRAPHY 

T  thr  pnfalvA  ol 


[D  CLFi 


itndErinE  is  not  u  perfect. 


"  colour  pliu  (t^)  cha  tiin^oEr 

■  ol  drculu  dolt  coKvred  altenutely 
the  inicimcdiuc  tpaia  blue.  It  it  uied 
bciriE  pUted  In  contact  with  a  panchro- 

)  tbe  £ni^ni  jHctun  after  developi 


d  yello> 


"KV 


iDia  ^'  gUte  (i^)  i>  a  tticoLoar  acreen  fcrniR 
plate  vieK  a  [otituie  of  hacly  divided  partklei 
-ance-red,  gnea  ind  blue-violet,  without  anj 
The  frain  gcneiillr  U  cuuiet  and  man 
lie  "  AutDchrome  "  riatej.  but  oplieally  com 
to  them  than  the  "Tlumei  "  or    Ommcolote  ' 


hrome,"  theae  proce^aeJ  are  stdl 
raid  the  night  of  (Um  plain. 


itnd  weight  and  no  lou  of  efiic 
timet  liabk  to  detetioatloa  b 

pomir.    They  art  ma*  in  t«- 

stiH  bring  Hied  eiactly  as  platci,  but  held  in  -  ■^.^.  v  — ,.., 
backed  with  a  caid  «  ilau  plale.  while  Ibe  Beiibla  are  made  up 
in  Kparale  ihealhs  wilh  cardbaatd  backing,  at  in  the  "  Kodaid  '' 

ol«'rkIui'i]«S"™"F£<ible"rini  of  ihiTkind  on  ilellulaid  have  for 
numy  yeart  post  aLta  been  prvpued  in  long  etript  of  dil?efent 
widths  tuilable  lor  uie  in  hand  camera!  of  the  Kodak  lypet  and  in 
nill.holden.     In  the  early  formi  of  roll-holdera  the  films  were  uied 

which  can  be  changed  in  dayliaht.  C  Silvy  teem)  (a  have  been 
the  ^Tst  10  emplay  ihii  method  in  1^70-    In  theie  canridm  the 

'^have'«,'l«"unrolled 


bSon  the'  film  ii  itldy  for  eif 

visible  through  a  red  screen  at  111 
have  been  iipoted,  the  black  pap 
end  when  tat  en  out  of  the  holder 
the  film  ii  develo|>ed.     At  the« 


prinripaily   lUM   for 

by  being  coaled  with  gelatin  on  both  ndea. 
hese  thin  filmt  have  the  advantage  that  they 
it  her  dde  wHthout  perceptible  loit  o<  deliniliM. 
rinting  by  the  lingte  trarufn'  cuboo  prooeHtt. 
pboto-nwbanieal  prinliiv  tnethode.  rlciiitie 
sheen  and  rolli  have  also  been  prepared  upon 


the  film  owing 
tbe  Bme  way 


II  used  in  nmeorcdogi 


iutnimenli.   Snipping! 

miv  introduced  by  Met 

tiiffn  for  prinliiM  from  either  tide. 
yiHUcpaphic  PnKlxmt  Fa 


LlnWflpberic  action  before  and 

idevelopablc.    Such  pipers 
at  and  other  peK-TecDrding 


rKitbioB'oc 
The  old  a" 


■  ^iidy-prepared  te .  ,_ 

of  titver  haloida  in  gelalin. 
diver  aiilli,  the  chloriite  li 

IriPrtSe.'Std'.. 

of  ikB«e  pdatlag  cut  papett  ai 


ii  photogrpphir  printing  papers 
t,  to  that  the  photognpher  has 
of  hia  tenaitive  plalea  or  papciK 
r  bten  generally  supeneded  by 

nher  aigai^ 

It  of  the"P^,P,''  or 
r  leu  (ne  lilver 
It  of  Eoid.    Some 


:htaflde  Id  coUodlsa.  ud  know 


lafgedents  and  ditcct  eopying 
and  with  which  an  iBviAle  im 


'.  at  the  devetopabte  bromide  papert  used  for 


••roiJ|h,"  "glMsy"  . 
ti.     They  are  largely 

or  dayiight,  for  enlarg 
cards,  «c.,  in  large  nu 


in  I90S  under  the  ui 
day  or  artificial  light 
("Eoaynotd  ")  penuaj 

the  print  being  detcrm 
purple  and  kog  eipn 

"VSr^lhe  'wrious''  m 
("  Autc^ypG."  &c.)   ts 


th  dry  plates,  la  silvtf  bicanidc.   nicae 
iriety  of  tints  and  surfaces,  "  smooth  " 

used  far  direct  printing  l^  artihcial 
eiventi,  and  for  printiag  phorographic 
ge  nujnbert  by  machiiier^i  the  prints  kpeiog 
with  an  almost  instantaneous  expoture.  aod 
y  beiag  passed  through  the  proper  tolutiont 
;rwiK. '  Papers  foe  the  platinotype  procesaet, 
(  plalinum  and  iitm,  are  also  manufactured 
ty  DC  foe  deveiopBient  ,with  potatac  oaalate' 

aviate  was  introduced  by  Mett^a  nuugnum 

re  required,  and  with  a  special  developer 
:nt  pEints  are  obtained  with  a  vtried  scale 


Lttuet,  Siioilar  papers,  prepared  with  pigmented  gum  instead  of 
elatifl,  are  used  in  the  ^um  bichromate  ^'  proceas,  and  "  isngle 
raosfer  "  papers,  c«ited  with  plain  gelatia.  are  used  in  the  pngment 
rinting  procesaet  to  receive  the  develaped  peint,  and  are  alto 
sefui  for  photo. lithography,  the  new  oii-piinting  "  methods, 
nd  in  tiicLramatic  printing  DA  paper  by  the  Sanger-Shepherd 

._.._^    __^    r^    t.»_?l._    .,A__...iri^    ,._    w„i..._    "OBJlype" 


^p^afat  /kt  IlBefapiiHiil.— The  reco 
the  two  principal  faclors  in  the  develoi 
graphic  dry  plates 


In  1B94  A.  Watkins  brought  out  hit  factorial  (ytUm  of  develop- 
menl  based  on  the  principle  "  that  with  a  correct  exposure  on  a 
given  plate  with  a  given  devcfopini  agent,  the  time  of  denknmeat 


I  terio  oT  abservatiani  he  ascertained  the  multiplying  facton  of 
most  of  the  drvelopera  in  ordinary  use,  and  in  1905  brought  out 
hit "  factorial  calcutlor  "  and  a  "  dark-room  dock  '■  For  f.dfitating 
[he  working  of  the  method.  The  former  is  made  of  alummium, 
Ind  eonsisti  of  two  circular  diiks  the  upper  amaller  one  rotating 
■nd  carrying  a  pointer.  The  outer  disk  is  marked  with  a  ecale  cM 
Watkins'^  factors  for  the  different  developers,  (i  niven  in  the  "m- 


FlC.  71.-WS1V 

ns's  FaclOlial 

""'sSE?  = 

disk  shews  the' 
the  pointer  is  SCI 
Ihe'^timeofat 

lime  of  appearano 
iS'^uir^  f  of 

he  developer  in  use,  and  tgi 
nner  tea le  will  be  found  Ihe 

520  PHOTOGRAPHY 

The  "  c^litor  "  on  be  ned  urth  «ny  erdiwfy  tlocli  ot  wire! 

in  100  Kcoadi.  white  the  minuu  hand  doe*  to  in  ir>  minum,  c 
nfltdent  Tor  tbe  loogett  ordinvy  dcvctopment.  (hough  it  rum  « 
If  nccesufVi  very  much   longer,  both   hands  ttarting  togelhr 

In  1908  Wslldiu  bnvght  out  mother  lyMem  of  "  thenrv 
dfirelopmeal  "  by  lime  dependent  on  the  uie  of  a  nandotd  "  Irm 
dcvekipcT."  the  duration  of  the  A 


uiar  t^te  in 

■  movable  1 

velopcT,  the     ..  .. 

beina  given  approidnalely 

which  thiu  like —  ''"  "  — 

iiuiU"wllh  tl 

ada^Hl  [or  ptatM,  fill 


I'spwToi'i 


ulaloc,"  on  the  bolEle  of  de- 

imeni  ipecd  of  varioui  platu 

.....  "Watliuii'  Plale  Speed  Lilt." 

tpeed  of  plate  "  and  '"  ipeed  of  d^¥elo(^ 


oburvalioD  of  the  pUtc  I 


"!i."i"S 


DntMmnL 
C.  W.  Pipef'i  '■ 


rofjkuu'  Ifaaiia/  0/  Ejpoatre  etid 

ft  "  photoflraphtr's  stop  cJock"  O906)  ia  a  niDrc 
ciauuAti:  <.nui.K.  Intendod  Tor  dk  not  «ily  in  "  time  d^rlopfnert  " 
but  for  all  pbotniaphic  opcfationt  in  which  accur^le  cxuitral 
in  ngard  Id  time  i>  of  imporunce,  it  ii  tilled  iriih  a  gong  and 
■miWBl  to  work  by  "  lime  "  or  "  bulb."    Once  ttarted,  by  pnuizre 

■trilling  the  vong  at  the  compleilon  of  every   rainjte,  when  the 


■nt  opfraiiom.  whUil  the  clocf(  addi  up  the  wpami 
vcnt>  the  occuirencc  of  cirois  difficult  to  avod  when 

lim  a  dial  with  60  diviuona,  a  sodIc  hand,  and  19 
flOflg.     Tl  can  tie  vet  to  ring  an  alarm  beji  at  tilt 

inaediattly  and  it  easly  read  in  Ihe  dark-room,  ii 
riding  up,  the  action  of  telling  providing  the  leiwon 
ina  movcmenu-  Tl  can  tie  napped  and  ataried  at 
kII  arranged  lo  sive  a  ihort  or  prolonged  nog.    5. 

d  60  ninulcs,  the  thick  hand  itcc^ing  the  iccondi 


constructed  for  develo|Hng  a  r 

with  ordinary  .or  dUute  develo 

■yttem  or  independently  of  it-    The  Kodak  "  Auioi 

ing  Tank  "  (1905)  >•  a  ujeful  arrangemcnl  by  whic 

pofed  roll  filmt  can  be  developed  in  dayli^hi.  wiiho 

m  dark-nciai  (fig,  74).    The  evpoaed  film  u  wound 


ipoied  piatea.  iDgetho- 
"  Automatic  Dcvdop- 


wfih  Ihe  Kodak'"  Ea'tdmn'iTpiaie-i^cloping' 
exposed  pfaler  art  removed,  in  Che  dark-rooi 
holders  and  placed,  in  pain  hock  to  back,  in  a 


be'inJmS^urin 
cdluUdlbi^  ei^la«l"la  0 


a  Film  Packa"  (ig,  yj). 


,.  Euiman  Kodak 


Son  the  bock.  They  arc  made  in  diHercnt  kindi  ihown  in 
aim"  catalogue*.  For  copying  targe  tracing*  and  engineers' 
Hngi  by  the  cyanotype  and  similar  proceiaea  targe  gUard 
es  are  used,  moiinled  on  a  Hand  with  aile.  ao  that  Ihey  may 
aqjty  tumed  over  for  itnilinK  or  fixed  at  a  tuitable  ai^  to 
liEhi.  Tlie  pTFAuie  is  given  oy  an  elattic  ciuhion  crvaninm 
igeraeni,  by  which  air  ia  pumni?d  oliI  from  under  an  india- 

y  unifom  prenurt  ol  about  14  1h  (0  the  square  inch  iriihout 


6i  in.  a  handy  ar«  umple  app 
broneht  out.  consisiing  of  a  Ian 

aSS^^'iS^'^'^lLl"""   '~  "''' 
another  [6.  /.  A.   It 


with  lai^  tiegativea  or  tneliJ 
ltd  and  other  nrvalitn  up  to  <ty 


■i'at  Ihe  opnat«"l^ 


ipour JTampa  au^) 


bigethcT  at  a  reguialed  iperd  in  ck 
ibed  in  Eder'i  JakSLk  [01  i»a8,  1 


a  (Ik 
ley.^i 


W.  de  W.  ,  _. 
R.  C.  Bayley.  Tii 

_,  .    ,, .     AuiJiliHiiiij  Jttmd- 

FkclotftUtt  (ind  cd.,  r'.  i.  (').  ^^)\  Jukilmclu/  jit 
PkaUrrapInt  ni  Rtpnidiatim  Tahxik  (£,  M.).  (ISST-Iqat). 
Valuable  for  refeimct  oa  all  forms  of  anstatua:  Dr  C.  Fabic 
Traill ntytStpidijut it plHMtriitk'u  {T.E.P.)  (voLL.  Itti);  Swfift- 
mi  I  A,  1891;  e.  1S97:  C.  igoiiD.  1906).  alioiivn  much  inknna- 

A  ■  Inuedurliait  Ib  Ot  Scirta  and  Pnittiir  irf  Plalrfnit*-/  (4tk  ed.. 
■  9041:  Brilili  Jgaraaf  PkolBpofikK  Almnmu  Id  1909  (s.  J.  AY. 
Palrnt  Office,  diridfaieiifi  i^  SptafiattiiiHt,  clas  i(K.  "  ncto- 
craphy  ";^lli>ltiinifrItr'<iua<Ul  liflqt  10  iSoi);  FknUtnitUt  Jfrm^ 
\Pk.  Jnm,.):  rtar  BMti «/  Fktln"pl'y  to  1907. 

Lctsri  tmt  Oflki :  C.  BoAi  and  A.  Andnwa.  Pktlampku  Lma 
f«lh  ed.);  W  K.  Burton,  Ofinl  for  fiabiraflicFl  lltal);  R.  S. 
Cole,  A  TwwUist  an  PkeUpapkic  OpiUi  (1099);  T.  R.  Llalln1i)Tr. 
TrfrbitDlDtraety  (1B99);  [.  A.  Hodgei.  PkobrnBUc  Uma  (itos); 
Captain  tloudaille.  Sur  we  mbkiSM  J'euu'  ninUifi^^  U  fnU^a 
drs  Mjrclifi  Bkiiotrafki(iiirl  11904)^  C.  L,  JolinsDn,  Ffcliigrajtir 
Opliri  and  Cdfoar  Pkiilatrapky  (1909):  O.  Lummei,  CnlnMuaa 
III  ^liolstrap*!!  Opiirt,  translated  and  augmmted  by  Pn^eiBa 
S.  P.  Thompnn  ( looo) :  Dr  A,  Mielhr,  Otitmt  AteMgnUtifar  las* 
ihtOtprmtna  KoUilmalinti.  IranaUiion  by  A.  NoaiiloB  ud  V. 
Haweidter  (iS9fi1:  lieuL-Colond  P.  Monsaid.  i.'Of««i  fttB. 

A  Fini  Bock  or  Ue  Laa  (1901)!  Dr  MTvoi  Kohr,  neanr  narf 
GtKhirku  ill  pkiUmfrmpliiidirn  Otjtilm  (l»99).  •  mo"*  vafwiblB 
iheomical  and  hiuoiical  aummary  of  phntocraphic  oMica  aad  wa 
i:.«M,^-  H.,..  <;.-hni.li  n,,  F^»clijeiM  "■  /■»■««■  Arc^. 
it  H.  SchiHder,  Dw  Ekmm^ 


nCTORIAU 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


521 


der  pkofvapkisekm  OpHk  (1891);  J.  T.  Taylor,  Tk»  Ofiics  of 
Phototrapky  and  Photographic  tenses  (3rd  ed..  1904);  The  *'  Photo- 
Miniature  Series.'*  No.  i  (1899).  Modern  Lenses,  No.  96  (1901). 
Tdepkotoeraphy;  No.  36  (i9<n).  Uns  FaOs  aud  Helpt;  No.  79 
0907).  The  Choke  aud  Uu  of  Photofraphic  Lesues, 

Hand  Cameras,  Shutters,  Exposure  meters,  ofc. :  Sir  W.de  W.  Abney^ 
Instantaneous  Photography  (1895):  H.  Boursault,  Cakul  du  temps 
de  pose  en  photographie  (1896);  W.  B.  Coventry,  The  Technics 'of 
the  Hand  Camera  (1901),  the  working  principles  et  lenses,  shutters, 
&c.«  lor  instantaneous  expoaufcs  are  treated  oiathcmaticaUy  and 
practically :  L.  David,  Die -Moment-Photographie  (1898):  G.  de 
Chapel  d  Espinassoux,  Traiti  praii^  de  ia  deierminalion  du  temps 
de  piose  (1890);  Dr  R.  KrQgener,  Die  Hand  Camera  und  ihre  Anwen- 
dung  f^r  die  Moment- Photographie  (16^)  i  A.  Londe,  La  Photo- 
graphte  instantmie,  theorie  et  pratique  (3rd  ed.,  1897):  F.  W.  Pilditch, 
Drop-Shutter  Photography  (1896);  A.  dc  la  Bautne  Pluvinel,  Le  Temps 
de  pose  (1890);  A.lVatkins.  The  Wathins  Manual  of  Exposure  and 
Development  (4th  ed..  1908).  The  Practical  Photographer,  No.  8 
(1904),  "  Hand  Camera  Work."  The  "  Photo-Miniature  Series,*' 
No.  3  (1899)*  fiand  Camera  Worhi  No.  37  (1902),  Jiim  Photography ; 
No.  56  (1903).  The  Hurter  and  Driffidd  System;  tio.  76  (1906). 
The  Hand  Camera;  No.  77  (1907),  Focal  Plane  Photography. 

Colour  Photography:  Agenda  Lumi^re,  La  Photographie  des 
eouleurs  el  Us  pUiaues  atUockromes  (1909);  G.  E.  Brown  and  C.  W. 
Piper,  Colour  Photography  with  the  Lumihe  Antochrome  Plates 
(1907);  Baron  A.  von  HQbl,  Three  Colour  Photography,  translated 
by  H.  O.  Klein  (1904):  Theorie  und  Praxis  der  Farben  Photographie 
mit  Autochrom  Plalten  (1908):  O,  L.  Johnson.  Photographic  Optics 
and  Colour  Photograph  (1909);  Dr  E.  KOni^.  Natural  Colour 
Photography  (trans,  by  E.  j.  Wall  (1906) :  Die  Autochrom  Phototrapkie 
wtd  aU  venoandten  DreifarbenrasUr-verfahren  (1908).        (J.  wa.) 

III.— Pictorial  Photography 

Pictorial  photography  differs  from  other  bmnches  of  photo* 
gnphic  practice  in  the  motive  by  which  it  is  prompted.  Employ- 
ing^ the  same  methods  and  tools,  it  sectks  to  use  photographic 
processes  as  a  means  of  personal  artistic  Expression.  Thus  in  the 
early  days  of  Fox  Talbot's  calotype,  about  1846,  David  Octavius 
Hill,  a  successful  Scottish  painter,  took  up  this  method  of 
portrayal,  and,  guided  by  an  artist's  knowledge  and  taste,  and 
unfettered  by  photographic  convention,  which  indeed  had 
then  scarcely  begun  to  grow,  produced  portraits  which  for 
genuine  pictorial  quality  have  perhaps  never  been  surpassed, 
especially  if  some  allowance  be  made  for  the  necessary  hn- 
perfections  of  the  "  Talbotypc  "  (sec  Plate  11).  Whether  they 
were  in  their  day  typical  examples  of  Talbotype  with  all  tlye 
latest  improvements,  Hill  probably  never  cared.  When,  again, 
a  few  years  later,  Sir  William  J.  Newton,  the  eminent 
miniature  painter,  read  a  paper  before  the  newly  formed 
Photographic  Society  of  Great  Britain  (now  the  Royal  Photo- 
graphic Society),  his  recommendation  to  depart  from  the 
CMStom  of  defining  everjrthing  with  excessive  sharpness  caused 
his  address  to  be  almost  epoch-making.  "I  do  not  conceive 
it  to  be  necessary  or  desirable,"  he  said,  "  for  an  artist  to  repre- 
sent, or  aim  at,  the  attainment  of  eveiy  minute  detail,  but  to 
endeavour  at  producing  a  bioad  and  general  effect.  ...  I  do 
not  consider  that  the  whole  of  the  subject  should  be  what  is 
called  '  in  tocus ';  on  the  contrary,  I  have  found  in  many  in- 
stances that  the  object  is  better  obtained  by  the  whole  subject 
being  a  little  out  of  focus."  The  doctrine  has  been  persistently 
repeated  ever  since,  but  only  within  the  last  decade  of  the  19th 
century  was  the  suppression  or  diffusion  of  focus  received  by 
photographers  genorally  with  anything  better  than  ridicule  or 
contempt,  because  it  was  unorthodox.  O.  G.  Rejiander,  Mrs 
Julia  Margaret  Cameron,  H.  P.  Robinson,  and  others,  by  precept 
or  practice,  strove  against  such  photographic  conventbns  as 
bad  arisen  out  of  those  technical  exigendea  to  which  pictorial 
qualities  were  so  often  sacrificed.  As  late  as  t868,  in  the 
Manned  of  Photographic  Manipulalion,  by  Lake  Price,  the  old 
advice  to  arrange  a  group  of  persons  in  crescent  form,  so  as  to 
adapt  the  subject  to  the  curve  of  the  field  of  the  lens,  was  repeated 
with  the  additional  reoommendation  of  plotting  out  on  the 
ground  beforehand  the  **  curve  of  the  focus  ".  as  a  guide.  As  a 
defiance  of  this  dictum,  Rejiander,  in  1869,  produced  a  group  of 
the  members  of  the  Solar  Club  in  which  some  of  the  chief  figures 
were  set  widely  out  of  the  **  curve  of  the  focus."  The  mere 
tedmicd  difficulties  of  this  performance  with  wet  collodion 
plates,  and  in  an  ordinary  uppec  room,  need  not  be  touched  upon 


here,  but  it  is  to  he  noted  as  one  of  those  triumphant  departures 
from  convention  which  have  marked  the  progressive  stages  of 
pictorial  photography.  At  about  the  same  period,  Mrs  Cameron, 
osrrying  the  recommendation  of  "  a  little  out  of  focus  "  rather 
further,  regardless  of  how  her  lens  was  intended  to  be  used  by 
its  maker,  secured  the  rendering  dictated  by  her  own  taste  and 
judgment,  with  the  result  that  many  of  her  portraits,  such  as 
those  of  Tennyson,  Carlyle,  &c,  aro  still  in  their  way  unsur- 
passed. Contemporaneously,  Adam  Salomon,  a  talented  sculp* 
tor,  "  sunned  "  down  the  too  garish  lights  of  his  photographic 
prints,  and  strengthened  the  high  lii^ts  by  working  on  the  back 
of  the  negative; 

But,  during  the  concluding  quarter  of  the  19th  century, 
probably  the  most  powerful  influence  in  pictorial  photography 
was  that  of  H.  P.  Robinson,  who  died  in  February  rpox,  and,  but 
for  a  brief  period  about  the  year  r87$,  was  one  of  the  most 
prolific  "  picture  makers."  Inspired  by  Rejiander,  of  whom  he 
was  a  contemporary,  Robinson  will  perhaps  be  best  remembered 
by  his  earlier  advocacy  of  combination  printing.  As  early  as 
1855  Berwick  and  Annan  exhibited  a  photograph  which  was  the 
result  of  printing  fron»-moro  than  one  negative,  a  figure  from  one 
plate  being  cunningly  introduced  into  a  landscape  print  from 
another.  Then  came  from  Rejiander  '*  The  Two  Ways  of  Life," 
in  which,  with  wonderful  ingenuity,-  thirty  different  negatives 
were  combined.  Robinson  followed,  and  between  1858  and  1887 
exhibited  numerous  examples  of  combination-printing,  one  of 
the  most  popular  and  fairly  typical  examples  being  "  Carolling  " 
(see  Plate  I)  ,which  received  a  medal  in  the  exhibition  of  the  Royal 
Photographic  Society  in  1887. 

Though  in  this  combination-priating  one  may  perhaps  perceive 
the  genu  of  incentive  towards  the  production  of  special  effects 
not  seen  in  the  original,  3ret  the  practice  was  not  destined  to 
become  very  pi^ular,  for  even  in  the  most  capable  hands  there 
remains  the  difficulty,  if  not  imposubility,  of  fitting  a  portion  of 
one  negative  into  a  print  from  another  and  still  preserving  true 
relative  tonality,  and  even  true  proportion.  Skilfully  produced, 
eminently  popular  in  character  though  "  Carolling  "  may  be, 
stich  errors  are  not  absent.  Of  this  combination-printing 
Dr  P.  H.  Emerson  has  said:  "  Cloud  printing  is  the  simplest 
form  of  combination-printing,  and  the  only  one  admissible  when 
we  are  considering  artistic  work.  Rejiander,  however,  in  the  early 
days  of  photography,  tried  to  make  pictures  by  combination- 
printing.  This  process  is  really  what  many  of  us  practised  in  the 
nursery,  that  Is,  cutting  out  figures  and  pasting  them  into  white 
spaces  left  for  that  purpose  in  the  picture-book.  With  all  the 
care  in  the  world  the  very  best  artist  living  could  not  do  this 
satbfactorily.  Nature  is  so  subtle  that  it  b  impossible  to  do 
this  sort  of  patchwork  and  represent  her.  Even  if  the  greater 
truths  be  registered,  the  lesser  truths,  still  important,  cannot 
be  obtained,  and  the  softnto  of  outline  is  easily  lost.  The  rela^ 
tion  of  the  figure  to  the  landscape  can  never  be  truly  represented 
in  this  manner,  for  all  subtle  modelling  of  the  oontoor  of  the 
figure  is  lost." 

Pictorial  photography  received  a  Urge  accession  of  votaries 
in  consequence  of  the  greater  facilities  offered  by  the  introduction 
of  the  gelatino-bromide,  or  dry-platc,  process,  which,  although 
dating  from  1880,  did  not  notably  affect  photographic  commtmi> 
ties  until  some  years  afterwards;  and  although  improvement  in 
appliances  and  mstniments  had  little  to  do  with  the  advance 
of  the  pictorid  side  of  photography,  yet^  indirectly  at  least,  the 
dry-plate  and  the  platinotype  printing  process  have  had  an 
undoubted  effect.  The  former  gave  enormously  increased 
facility,  and  dispensed  with  tedious  manipulations  and  chemical 
knowledge,  while  its  increased  light-sensitiveness  decreased  the 
limitations  as  to  subjects  and  effects.  The  platinotype  process 
was  discovoed  in  1874-1880  fay  W.  Willis,  who  employed  his 
chemical  skill  and  knowledge  to  give  the  world  a  printing  process 
more  likely  than  the  hitherto  prevalent  silver  papers  to  satisfy 
artistic  requirements. 

Up  to  2882  but  few  outdoor  photographers  had  ventured  to 
run  counter  to  the  general  dictum  that  photographs  should  only  be 
taken  duiring  sunshine  or  good  bright  light,  and  unquestioniag 


522 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


(FtCTORlAL 


coDscat  would  liave  been  given  everywhere  to  the  proposition 
that  it  would  be  absurd  to  'wotk  when  anything  like  fog  ot  atmo- 
spheric haze  was  present.  Isocfaromatic  pUtcs,  introduced  for 
the  purpose  of  equalizing  the  actinic  power  of  various  colour 
luminosities,  and  so  rendering  colours  in  correct  relative  value, 
were  reoommended  by  one  writer,  who  applauded  their  supposed 
advantage  of  enabling  the  photographer  to  photograph  distance 
without  any  suggestion  of  atmo^hcre.  That  evening  or  morn- 
ing haze  might  enhance  the  beauty  of  a  landscape,  or  that  the 
mystery  of  half-concealment  might  itself  be  beautiful,  does  not 
seem  to  have  occurred  to  the  photographer,  who  had  become 
infatuated  by  the  exquisite  clearness  and  sharpness  which,  with  a 
minimum  of  labour,  he  was  able  to  achieve.  It  is  therefore 
interesting  to  note  one  of  the  first  photographic  successes  which 
broke  away  from  this  convention,  just  as  Rejlander*s  Solar  Club 
group  defied  the  formula  of  arranging  human  figxu:es  like  the 
tiers  of  an  amphitheatre*  William  M'Leish,  of  Darlington,  a 
Scottish  gardener  who  had  taken  to  photography,  and  who  seems 
to  have  been  less  under  the  influence,  or  it  may  have  been  that  he 
was  ignorant,  of  the  old  dicta,  sent  to  the  Royal  Photographic 
Society's  Exhibition  in  1BS2  a  f^tograph  entitled  "  Misty  Morn- 
ing on  the  Wear,"  a  very  beautiful  view  of  Durham  Cathedral 
OS  seen  through  the  mist  from  across  the  river.  The  judges, 
although  they  that  year  awarded  eleven  medals,  passed  this  by; 
but  appreciation  came  from  outside,  for  newspaper  critics,  and 
practically  all  those  who  were  not  blinded  by  prejudice  and 
Conventionality,  declared  it  to  be  </rc  photograph  of  the  year. 
The  exhibitions  immediately  succeeding  revealed  numerous 
imitators  of  M'Leish,  and  both  figure  and  landscape  work  began 
to  be  shown  in  which  there  was  evidence  of  greater  freedom 
and  originality. 

Meanwhile  the  Photographic  Society  of  Great  Britain  had 
drifted  away  from  its  artistic  starting-point,  and  had  become 
chiefly  alnorbed  in  purely  scientific  and  technical  subjects.  But 
the  general  apathy  which  existed  in  respect  of  the  artistic  aspira- 
tions of  some  workers  was  the  forerunner  of  a  period  of  renaissance 
which  was  to  end  in  lifting  the  pictorial  side  of  photography  into 
a  greatly  improved  position.  In  x886  Dr  P.  H.  Emerson  read 
before  the  Camera  CtAb  a  paper  on  "  Naturalistic  Photography," 
which  served  as  an  introduction  to  the  publication  (iSSj)  of  his 
book  under  that  title.  UnquesdonaUy  this  book  struck  a 
powerful  blow  at  the  many  conventionalities  which  had  grown 
up  in  the  practice  of  photography;  the  chief  doctrines  set  forth 
being  the  differentiation  of  focus  in  difiercnt  planes,  a  more 
complete  recognition  and  truer  rendering  of  "  tone,"  a  kind  of 
truthful  impressionism  derived  from  a  close  study  and  general 
acquaintance  of  nature,  and  a  generally  higher  and  m<»-e  intel- 
lectual standard.  After  the  publication  of  a  second  edition  in 
X889  Dr  Emerson  publicly  renounced  the  views  be  had  published, 
by  issuing  in  January  of  1891  a  bitterly  worded,  black-bordered 
pamphlet,  entitled  Tke  Death  of  NaittralUtit  Photography.  But 
the  thoughts  whidi  the  book  bad  stirred  were  not  to  be  stilled 
by  its  withdrawal.  Towards  the  end  of  the  same  year  the 
conflict  which  within  the  Photographic  Society  had  become 
apparent  as  between  the  pictorial  enthusiasts  and  the  older 
school,  culminated  in  connexion  with  some  matters  respecting 
the  hanging  of  certain  photographs  at  the  exhibition  of  that  year; 
and  a  number  of  prominent  members  resigned  their  membership 
as  A  protest  against  the  lack  of  sympathy  and  the  insufficient 
manner  in  which  pictorial  work  was  represented  and  enoonragcd. 
This  secession  was  to  prove  the  most  important  event  in  the 
history  of  that  branch  of  photography.  The  secessionists  being 
among  the  most  popular  contributors  to  the  annual  exhibition 
galfaertd  round  them  numerous  sympathizeis.  In  the  foltowing 
year  they  formed  themselves  into  a  brotherhood  called  "  The 
linked  Ring,"  and  in  1893  held  their  first "  Photographic  Salon," 
at  the  Dudley  Galloy,  Piccadilly.  The  most  noteworthy  of  the 
early  adheients  attracted  to  the  new  body  was  James  Craig 
Annan,  whose  work  was  practically  unknown  until  he  exhibited 
it  at  the  first  Salon;  and  almost  at  once  he,  by  general  consent, 
took  a  position  amongst  pictorial  photographers  second  to  none 
if9e  Plate  Uh 


Aroused  into  greater  activity  by  these  events,  the  Royal 
Photographic  Society  began  to  pay  more  attention  to  what  had 
n6w  become  the  more  popular  phase.  At  subsequent  exhibitions 
the  technical  and  scientific  work  was  hung  separatdy  from  the 
"  Art  Section,"  and  a  separate  set  of  judges  was  elected  for  each 
section.  It  became  the  custom  to  allot  by  far  the  greater 
amount  of  space  to  the  "  artistic  ";  and  later,  artists  were  elected 
as  judges,  by  way  of  encouraging  those  who  were  devoted  to  the 
pictorial  side  to  send  in  for  exhibition.  In  the  autumn  of  xgoo 
the  New  Gallery  was  secured,  and  a  comprehensive  exhibition 
of  all  phases  of  photography  was  held. 

It  is  int<»-esting  to  note  that  as  a  distinct  movement  pictorial 
photography  is  essentially  of  British  origin,  and  this  is  shown 
by  the  manner  in  which  organized  photographic  bodiesin  Vienna, 
Brussels,  Paris,  St  Petersburg,  Florence  and.  other  European 
cities,  as  well  as  in  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  &c.,  following  the 
example  of  London,  held  exhibitions  on  exactly  similar  lines  to 
those  of  the  London  Photographic  Salon,  and  invited  known 
British  exhibitors  to  contribute.  The  internatimial  character 
of  the  "Linked  Ring"  encouraged  an  interchange  of  works 
between  British  and  foreign  exhibitors,  with  the  result  that  the 
productions  of  certain  French,  Austrian  and  American  photo- 
graphers are  perfectly  familiar  in  Great  Britain.  This,  in  the 
year  xgoo,  led  to  a  very  rcmar)ud)le  cult  calling  itself  "  The  New 
American  School,"  which  had  a  powerful  influence  on  contem- 
poraries in  Great  Britain. 

It  may  be  well  to  glance  at  such  improvements  of  process  or 
apparatus  as  have  not  been  dircct  and  essential  means  to  pictorial 
advance,  but  rather  modifications  and  improvements  made  ia 
response  to  the  requirements  of  the  artistic  aspirant.  *  Such  im- 
provements are  of  two  order* — those,  which  are  devised  with  the 
aim  of  securing  ereatcr  accuracy  of  delineation,  the  correction  of 
distortion  and  01  apparent  exaggeration  of  perspective,  *  and  the 
more  truthful  rendcnng  of  relative  values  and  tones;  and  those 
which  seek  to  give  the  operator  greater  personal  control  over  the 
finished  result.  While  great  advances  have  been  made  in  photo- 
graphic optics,  it  cannot  be -said  that  pictorial  work  has  beco 
thereby  materially  assisted,  some  of  the  most  successfol  exponents 
preferring  to  use  the  simplest  form  of  uncorrected  objective,  or 
even  to  dispense  with  the  lens  altogether,  choosing  rather  to  empkiy 
a  minute  aperture,  technically  called  a  "pinhole"  This  is  iKit 
one  example  of  many  which  might  be  quoted  to  be^  out  the  state- 
ment that  in  photography  the  advance  of  anything  in  the  nature 
of  artistic  qualities  lias  not  been  correlative  with  mechanical  tm- 
proyeroents.  The  hand  camera  can  only  be  said  .Go  have  had  an 
indirect  influence:  it  has  increased  the  photographer's  facilities, 
and  by  removing  the  encumbrance  of  heavy  tools  has  widened  his 
sphere  of  operations;  but  it  is  perhaps  in  connexion  with  the  plates 
and  printing  pcx>ccsses  that  more  direct  advantages  have  been 
gained.  The  fact  that  the  actinic  power  of  colours  is  not  pco- 
portional  to  their  luminosity  was  long  regretted  as  an  obstacle  to 
correct  representation;  but  by  the  introduction  of  orthochromatkr 
or  isochromatic  plates  in  18&  (when  B.  J.  Edwards  bought  the 
Tailfcr  and  Clayton  patent,  under  which  he  shortly  brought  oat 
his  orthpchromatic,  pbtes)  this  original  disability  was  removed; 
while  with  increased  rapidity  in  tne  isochromatic  plate  colour 
values  may  still  further  be  corrected  by  the  use  of  coloured  screens 
or  light  filters,  without  interfering  with  the  practicability  of  making 
sufficiently  rapid  exposures  for  most  subjects.  Again,  by  a  better 
knowledge  of  what  is  required  in  artistic  representation,  certaia 
modifications  in  the  formulated  treatment  of  ordinary  and  un>. 
corrected  plates  are  found  to  do  much  towards  removing  the  c\il: 
hence,  with  an  ordinary  plate  "  backed  "  so  as  to  counteract  over- 
exposure of  the  higher  lights,  an  exposure  may,  except  in  extreme 
cases,  be  given  of  length  sufficient  to  secure  the  feeble  rays  <^  the 
less  actinic  colours,  and  by  subsequent  suitable  development  a 
result  hardly  distinguishable  from  that  of  a  colour  corrected  plate 
may  be  secured.  Chemical  experiment  has  placed  In  the  photo- 
grapher's  hands  impnuved  and  easier  means  of  entire,  unequal  and 
local  intensification  and  reduction,  but  utility  of  these  is  restricted. 
By  the  artistic  worker  it  is  claimed  that  the  lens  and  camera  are 
but  the  tools,  and  the  negative  the  preliminary  sketch  or  study, 
the  final  print  standing  to  nim  in  the  same  relation  as  the  finish^ 
painting  does  to  the  artist.  In  the  production  of  the  print  various 
means  of  personally  controlling  the  formation  of  the  image  have 
been  resorted  to.  Tlius  the  kKal  development  of  (datinotype 
by  means  of  glycerine  has  its  champions,  but  it  seems  to  havt:  been 
little  used,  its  muaeitation  being  chiefly  due  to  two  or  three  promi- 
nent workers  n  New  York,  tiere  shouM  also  be  mentioned  the 
revival  in  1898  of  rough-surface  printing  paper%  chiefly  those 
sensitized  with  silver,  the  roughest  texture  arawing  papers  being 
employed  to  break  up  the  excessive  sharpness  of  the  photographic 
image,  ftnd  by  the  superficial  inequalities  introducing  the  effect 


PHOTOGRAPHY,  CELESTIAL 


523 


of  tmhktmmtm  to  ovMHkrk  iSmdawt  «wl  varftty  to  blank  irfikca. 
The  alinotc  foi^Eotten  prooeMof  Pouncy,  and  of  Poitcvin,  nofw  known 
as  the  gum  bichromate  proceaa,  was  rehabiihated  in  1894  by  M. 
Rouille  Ladevexe  expressly  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  pictoiial 
worker.    Perhaps  the  best  rcsolts  that  have  been  achieved  fay  it 
are  those  of  M.  Robert  Demachv  of  Paris,  though  many  EngU^ 
workers'  have  used  k  with  remarkable  suoocas.    In  it  paper  of  any 
kind  may  be  selected  as  the  support.    The  power  of  the  operator 
to  modify  the  printed  image  to  almost  any  extent,  even  to  intro- 
ducing and  eliminating  lights  and  shadows,  and  in  other  ways  to 
depart  widely  from  the  image  given  by  the  negative,  de|>ertds  upon 
the  fact  that  the  coating  of  gum  and  pigment  \which,  bnng  bichrcv 
matized,  becomes  insoluble  in  proportion  ns  it  is  acted  upon  by  light) 
holds  the  pigment  but  imperfectly,  and  yields  it  up  upon  a  vi|otous 
application  of  water.    Aixording,  therefore,  to  its  application  or 
retention,  the  operator  can  lighten  or  deepfn  in  tone  any  portion. 
Numberless  variations  of  other*  methods,  such  as  brush  devekjp- 
ment  and  local  toning  or  stopping,  have  been  suggested  with  the 
.same  object.  Other  workers  have  shown  that  by  dexterously  shutting 
off  and  admitting  the  light  to  various  parts  of  the  negative  whilst 
printing,  the  disposition  of  the  lights  and  shades  in  the  print  can 
be  modified  to  so  great  an  extent  as  to  alter  the  general  contour  of 
the  scene.     Exaraptea  .of  an  original  unaltered  print,  and  one 
which  has  been  tnus  modified,  aie  shown  in  the  aooompnnying 
plate.    Portions  are  shaded  in  by  alk>wing  the  light  to  have  access 
to  the  print,  either  through  the  negative — in  which  case  the  image 
with  allits  details,  prints  more  deeply— or  by  removing  the  negative, 
when  the  action  of  the  light  is  to  natten  and  suppress  both  deuil 
and  contrast..    Latterly  some  few  have  resorted  to  extensive 
working  on  the  negative,  both  on  the  back  and  on  the  film;  drawing 
by  hand  is  practised  on  the  film  to  render  too  prominent  features  less 
obtrusive,  and  objects  in  the  background  are  merged  by  an  intricacy 
of  lines  and  dross-hatching.    Many  of  the  results  are  very  pleasing, 
although  one  hesiutcs  to  justify  the  means,  however  good  the 
end.    On  the  other  hand,  to  exclaim  for  purity  of  method' and  the 
exclusion  of  extraneous  aids  is  very  like  setting  np  an  arbitrary 
atandard  no  less  unreasonable  than  those  conventiottB  against 
which  pictorial  photography  has  so  long  striven. 
'  AOTHORITIBS. — P.  H.  Emerson.  Nahtratiitk  Photoffrapkyi  H.  P. 
Robinson,    Picture-making    by  Pkol»graphy;'  Art     Pkotographf', 
Pictorial  Efftet  in  Photography-,  Ekmenli  of  a  Pictorial  Photograph', 
A.   H.  Wall,  Artistic  Landscape  Photography  (1S96);  A.  Horsley 
Hinton,   Practical  Pictorial  Photography  ii898).  and  subsequent 
editions;  C.  Puyo,  Soles  sur  la  photofraphit  artisti^  (I*aris>. 

(A«  H.  H.)' 
PHOTOGRAPHY,  CSLESTIAL    The  requisites  /or  cclcsti&l 
photography  are  best  explained  by  a  comparisoa  with  ordinary 
photography  in  several  essential  points. 

a.  Illumination. — In  taking  a  portrait  artificial  light  is  used, 
being  thrown  on  to  the  face  of  the  sitter  either  directly  or  by 
reflection.  If  the  day  is  dull  a  longer  exposure  is  required,  and 
artifidal  light  may  be  used  when  the  daylight  fails.  In  photo- 
graphing the  stars  there  is  00  quesiion  of  illuminating  them  by 
artificial  light;  for  the  strongest  searchlight  which  we  could 
throw  in  the  directioD  of  the  heavenly  bodies  would  have  no 
sensible  effect.  The  light  used  is  their  own,  and  its  feebleness 
renders  it  necessary  to  make  long  exposures,  the  length  increasing 
AS  we  attempt  to  get  images  of  fainter  objects.  The  invention 
of  ibe  dry  plate,  by  making  it  possible  to  give  very  long  exposures, 
caused  a  revolution  in  celestial  photography.  With  the  wet 
plate,  exposures  were  limited  to  the  few  minutes  during  which 
the  film  would  reqfain  wet; but  the  dry  plate  can  remain  in  the 
telescope  for  days,  weeks  or  even  years  if  necessary.  On  the 
approach  of 'daylight,  the  cap  is  put  on  the  camera,  or  the  plate 
removed  into  the  dark  room;  but  when  night  returns  the  plate 
is  put  back  in  tlie  lelescope,  which  is  accurately  pointed  to  the 
same  stars,  the  cap  is  removed,  and  the  exposure  is  resumed 
without  tjoy  loss  from  the  interruption. 

K  Maguification.'^ltt  taking  a  portrait  we  can  obtain  a  large 
or  small  size  by  {ilacing  the  camera  near  the  sitter  or  far  away. 
But  this  method  is  not  avaibble  for  the  heavenly  bodies,  since 
we  -cannot  sensibly  approach  theos.  To  magnify  an  image  we 
must  lengthen  the  focus  of  the  camera,  ehher  directly  or  in- 
directly. The  direct  method  is  to  construct  a  lens  or  mirror  of 
long  focus;  the  camera  becomes  similar  in  length  to  a  telescope; 
and  indeed  resembles  a  telescope  in  other  respects,  except  that 
we  take  away  the  eye-piece  and  put  in  a  i^tographic  plate 
instead.  If,  however,  we  already  have  a  lens  of  short  focus  which 
we  wish  to  use,  we  may  lengthen  the  focus  indirectly  by  using  a 
secondary  magnifier,  that  is  by  putting  in  another  lens  near  the 
focos  of  the  first.    In  either  case  the  profitable  magnification 


is  limited,  not  only  by  the  imperiec&ns  of  the  optical  apparatus 
but  by  disturbances  in  the  atmosphere.  Air  currents,  either 
outside  or  inside  the  telescope*  act  as  irregular  bases  of  varying 
shape,  and  produce  such  defects  in  the  image  that  we  gain 
nothing  by  enlarging  it  beyond  a  certain  point.  Such  air  dis- 
turbances do  not  trouble  the  ordinary  i^otographer  at  all,  or 
scarcely  at  all:  he  is  only  concerned  with  a  few  feet  of  air, 
whereas  the  celestial  photographer  cannot  escape  from  the 
necessity  of  looking  through  many  miles  of  it. 

€,  Sleadintss.^ln  taking  a  portrait  the  pbotogrspher  Is  only 
concerned  to  fix  his  camera  firmly  and  to  induee  his  sitter  to 
remain  still.  The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  constant  motion, 
though  their  real  and  ^ppuaA  movements  are  fortunately 
smooth,  except  for  air  disturbances  above  mentioned.  If,  there- 
fore, it  were  possible  to  devise  perfectly  smooth  clockwork,  we 
could  keep  the  camera  or  telescope  continually  pointed  to  the 
required  star  or  stars.  But  human  workmanship  has  not  yet 
made  ck>ckwork  of  sufficient  strength  and  accuracy  to  keep  a 
large  telescope  satisfactorily  pototed.  The  clockwork  which 
had  been  found  good  enough  for  use  with  visual  telescopes  was 
soon  found  to  be  quite  inadequate  for  photography.  The  first 
method  adopted  was  to  bind  two  telescopes,  one  visual  and  the 
other  photographic,  firmly  together;  and  1^  kMking  through  the 
visual  one  to  keep  som^  object  steadily  on  the  CMsswires  by 
using  the  slow  motion  screws;  meanwhile  the  other  telescope 
was  kept  properly  pointed  for  Uking  a  photograph.  As  it  was 
sometimes  found  that  extremely  fine  movements  were  required, 
electrical  arrangements  were  devised,  whereby  the  observer,  on 
simply  pressing  a  button,  could  accelerate  or  retard  the  rate  of 
the  clockwork  by  a  minute  amount,  instead  of  actuaUy  turning 
the  screws  by  hand.  And  about  the  same  time  the  idea  arose 
of  making  these  corrections  automatically.  This  automatic 
correction  is  based  on  the  principle  that  a  freely  swinging 
pendulum,  which  has  no  work  to  do,  will  naturally  keep 
much  better  time  than  the  clockwork  which  has  to  drive  a 
heavy  telescope;  and  if  such  a  pendulum  is  therefore  arranged 
to  send  a  current  every  second  through  certain  electro-magnets, 
ap|>aratus  can  be  devised  to  detect  whether  the  clockwork  is 
going  properly;  and  to  correct  it  in  the  right  direction,  if  it  Is 
not.  One  or  more  of  these  three  methods,  which  may  be  called 
hand-guiding,  electrical  control,  and  automatic  electric  control, 
are  tised  in  taking  all  celestial  photographs. 

The  Photographic  Image. — ^The  image  of  a  star  on  the  plate 
should  be,  theoretically,  merely  a  point;  but  in  practice  it  is  a 
small  patch  on  the  plate  which  grows  in  size  as  the  exposure  Is 
lengthened,  while  at  the  same  time  it  becomes  darker  in  the 
middle.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  light  Is  many-coloured,  and 
when  we  attempt  to  focus  It  by  a  lens,  we  can  only  get  a  very  few 
colours. into  even  approximate  focus;  the  other  colours  are  not 
brought  to  focus  at  all,  and  form  concentric  patches  of  fainter 
light  on  the  plate,  which  increase  in  size  with  the  error  of  focus. 
Thus  at  best  our  focusing  is  only  a  compromise.  When  the 
exposure  is  short,  those  colours  which  have  most  nearly  been 
brought  to  focus  have  an  effect,  while  the  faint  light  of  the  others 
may  produce  no  sensible  impression.  It  is  natural  to  select  for 
the  colours  to  be  brought  most  sharply  to  focus  those  which  arc 
most  important  photographically,  viz.  those  at  the  violet  end  of 
the  spectrum.  As  the  exposure  proceeds  the  faint  Kght  of  the 
other  colours  affects  the  plate  by  accumulation,  and  hence  the 
image  ^eads,  while  at  the  same  time.the  central  part  naturally 
becomes  blacker. 

A  reflecting  telescope  brings  all  colours  to  the  same  focus;  and 
it  might  appear,  therefore,  that  images  formed  with  It  will  not 
spread  in  this  way.  There  is,  however,  another  cause  of  spread- 
ing besides  that  due  to  colour;  neither  the  reflecting  telescope 
nor  the  lens  can  focus  all  the  light  received  by  them  for  more 
than  one  particular  star.  It  is  just  theoretically  possible  to 
construct  a  mirror  which  would  focus  all  the  light  from  a  star 
seen  in  the  direction  of  its  axis,  but  the  light  from  another  star 
seen  in  a  slightly  different  direction  would  not  be  truly  focused, 
since  directly  we  leave  the  axis,  some  parts  of  the  mirror  have  a 
focus  slightly  different  from  other  parU;  and  U  the  image 


524 


PHCrrOGRAPHY,  CELESTIAL 


piodnced  is  tnagnifiedf  it  is  seen  to  hare  a  sfaapfilikethatof  a 
kite.  As  the  exposure  is  probngcd  the  small  kite-shaped  figure 
gradually  increases  in  size  from  the  point  towards  the  head,  and 
this  defect  is  the  more  pronounced  the  farther  we  depart  from 
the  centre  of  the  plate.  The  result  is,  speaking  generally,  that 
the  images  near  the  centre  of  a  plate  may  be  fairly  small  and 
drcttlar,  but  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  centre  they  become 
distorted  and  large.  It  is  a  practical  problem  of  great  importance 
to  have  this  distance  as  great  as  possible,  so  that  the  field  of  good 
definition  may  be  large.  Estimating  in  terms  of  angular  distance 
from  the  centre  of  the  field,  the  reflecting  telescope  has  a  good 
field  oi  not  more  than  40';  a  telescope  with  one  compound  lens 
<the  ordinary  refractor)  a  fidd  of  aboi^t  i',  while  if  two  compound 
lenses  are  used  (as  is  the  case  in  portrait  photography)  the  field 
may  be  very  greatly  extended,  10**  on  5**  having  been  successfully 
covered.  This  is  naturally  a  very  great  advantage  of  the 
"  doublet "  over  other  forms  of  telescope,  an  advantage  which 
has  only  recently  been  fully  realized.  But  there  is  a  compen- 
sating drawback;  to  get  a  large  field  we  must  either  use  a  huge 
plate,  which  is  liable  to  bend  or  to  have  a  permanent  curvature; 
or  if  we  use  a  small  pkte  the  picture  will  be  on  a  small  scale,  so 
that  we  lose  accuracy  in  another  way. 

Star  Charts  may  thus  be  made  by  photography  with  any 
desired  combination  of  these  advantages.  The  Cape  Photo- 
graphic  Durckmusttrung  is  a  photographic  survey  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  by  means  of  250  plates  each  covering  ^  X  s"  taken 
at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  the  plates  being 
afterwards  measured  at  Groningen  in  HoUand  by  Professor  J.  C. 
Kapteyn  who  recorded  the  places  to  0**1  and  0"l  A  much 
higher  degree  of  accuracy  is  aimed  at  in  the  international  scheme 
for  a  map  of  the  whole  sky  undertaken  jointly  by  eighteen 
observatories  in  1887.  The  plates  are  only  3^  X  3^,  and  each  o( 
the  eighteen  observatories  mtist  take  about  600  to  cover  its  zone 
of  the  sky  once,  1300  to  cover  it  twice.  Exposures  of  6  min., 
3  min.,  and  3o  sec.  are  given,  the  telescope  being  p6inted  in  ji 
alighily  different  direction  for  each  exposure;  so  that  each  star  to 
about  the  9th  magnitude  shows  5  images,  and  stars  to  the  nth 
or  1 2th  magnitude  show  2;  which  has  the  incidental  advantage 
of  distinguishing  stars  from  dust-«pecks.  A  ristau  of  lines 
accurately  ruled  at  distances  of  5  mm.  apart  in  two  directions  at 
right  an^es  is  impressed  on  the  plate  by  artificial  light  and  de- 
vclo[>ed  along  with  the  star  images;  and  by  use  of  these  reference 
lines  the  places  of  all  stars  shown  with  3  min.  exposure  are 
measured  with  a  probable  error  which,  by  a  resolution  of  the 
executive  committee,  is  not  to  exceed  <*:o*2o".  An  additional 
scheme  for  a  series  of  charts  enlarged  from  similar  plates  with 
much  longer  exposure  has  proved  too  costly,  and  only  a  few 
observatories  have  attempted  it.  Meanwhile  Professor  E.  C. 
Pickering  of  Harvard,  by  using  doublet  lenses  which  cover  a  much 
larger  field  at  once,  has  photographed  the  whole  sky  many  times 
over.  The  plates  have  not  been  measured,  and  would  not  in 
any  case  yield  results  of  quite  the  same  accuracy  as  those  of  the 
international  scheme;  but  being  systematically  stored  at  the 
Harvard  Observatory  they  form  an  invaluable  reference  library, 
from  which  the  hislory  of  remarkable  objects  can  be  read  back- 
wards when  once  attention  is  drawn  to  them.  Thus  the  history 
of  the  asteroid  Eros,  discovered  in  1898,  was  traced  back  to  1894 
from  these  plates;  new  stars  have  been  found  on  plates  taken 
previous  to  the  time  of  discovery,  and  the  epoch  of  their  blazing 
up  recovered  within  narrow  limits;  and  the  history  of  many 
variable  stars  greatly  extended.  The  value  of  this  coUettion  of 
photographs  will  steadily  increase  with  time  and  growth. 

Spectroscopic  Star  Charts. — By  placing  a.  glass  prism  in  front 
of  the  object  glass  of  a  telescope  the  light  from  each  star  can  be 
extended  into  a  spectrum:  and  a  chart  can  thus  be  obtained 
showing  not  only  the  relative  positions,  but  the  character  of  the 
light  of  the  stars.  This  method  has  been  used  with  great  effect 
at  Harvard:  and  from  inspection  of  the  plates  many  discoveries 
have  been  made,  notably  those  of  several  novae. 

The  GeMutry  of  the  Star  Chart,— Ltt  OS  in  the  figure  be  the  object 

Ia»  with  which  the  photograph  is  taken,  and  let  its  optical  centre 

C    I>et  PL  be  the  plate,  and  draw  CN  peipendicular  to  the  sur- 


t 


tact  of  the  plate.  The  point  N  is  of  fundamenfal  Iroportance  in  tte 
eeometry  of  the  star  duut  and  it  is  aatuml  to  call  it  tnc  plate  oentxe; 
out  it  must  be  carefully  distio- 
guiehed  from  two  other  points  whidi 
would  theoretically,  but  may  not  in 
practice,  coincide  with  it.  The  first 
IS  the  centre  of  the  material  plate, 
as  placed  in  position  in  the  tdeacope. 
In  the  figtiie  NL  is  purpoady 
drawn  hifer  than  PN,  ana  thu 
material  centre  would  be  to  the 
right  of  N.  The  second  point  is 
that  where  the  optkal  axis  of  the 
object  gUss  (CG  in  the  figure)  cuts 
the  plate.  The  object  slass  is  drawn 
with  an  exaggerated  rilt  so  that  CG 
falls  to  the  right  of  CN.  To  secure 
adjustment,  the  object  gbss  diould 
be  "  squared  on  "  to  the  tube  by  a 
familiar  operation,  to  that  the  tube 
is  paralld  to  CG:  and  then  the  plate 
should  be  set  normal  to  the  tube 
and  therefore  to  CG.  This  is  done 
by  obaervii^  reflected  images,  com- 
bined with  rotation  of  the  ^te  in  its  plane. 

The  fidd  of  the  object  glass  will  in  geneol  be  curved:  so  that 
the  points  of  best  focus  for  different  stars  lie  on  a  surface  such  as 
AGS  (purpoady  exaggetated).  The  best  practical  results  for 
focus  will  thus  be  obtained  by  compromise,  placing  the  plate  so 
that  some  surs,  as  A,  are  focused  beyond  the  plate,  and  ochcn.  as 
B,  nearer  the  object  glass:  exact  focus  only  odng  possible  for  a 

Krtkular  ring  on  the  plate.  The  star  A  will  thus  be  represented 
a  small  patch  of  light,  pq  on  the  plate,  whkh  will  grow  in  siae  as 
above  explained.  When  we  measure  the  pocitioa  of  iu  image  we 
select  the  centre  as  best  we  can:  and  in  practkc  it  is  important 
that  the  point  selected  should  be  that  where  the  line  Cn  drawn  from 
the  star  to  the  optical  centre  cuts  the  plate,  if  this  can  be  done, 
then  the  chart  represents  the  geometrical  projection  of  the  heavens 
from  the  point  C  on  to  the  plane  PL.  The  stars  are  usually  conceived 
as  lying  on  the  celestial  sphere,  with  an  arbitrary  radius  and  centre 
at  the  observer,  which  is  in  this  case  the  Object  glass:  describing 
such  a  sphere  with  C  as  centre  and  CN  as  radius,  the  lines  ACB  and 
aCA  proiect  the  spherical  surface  on  to  a  tangent  plane  at  the  poutt 
N.  whkh  we  call  the  plate  centre.  If  we  point  the  telescope  to  a 
different  part  of  the  sky.  we  select  a  different  tangent  plane  on  wfaick 
to  project.  It  is  a  fundamental  property  of  projections  that  a 
straight  line  projects  Into  a  straight  line;  and  in  the  present  instance 
we  may  add  that  every  straight  line  corresponds  to  a  great  circle 
on  the  celestial  sphere.  Hence  if  we  measure  any  rectilinear  co- 
(Mdinates  (x,  y)  of  a  series  of  stars  on  one  plate,  and  co-onKnatet 
(X,  Y)  of  the  same  stare  on  another  plate,  and  (x.  y)  are  connected 
by  a  linear  relation,  so  must  (X,  V)  be.  This  property  leads  at 
once  to  the  equations 

X»(«x+6y+c)/(i-*x-/y).  Y.(ir+«y+y)/(i-*x-fy).  (i) 
the  numeraton  being  any  linear  functions  ol  (x.  y)  bot  the 
denominators  bdng  the  same  linear  function,  when  x«oi, 
y-O,  then  X-c  and  Y«*/.  whkh  are  thus  the  co-ordinates  of 
the  origin  of  (xv)  on  plate  (XY).  The  co-ordinate  of  the  omin  of 
(XY)  on  plate  (x>)  can  be  shown  to  be  (il.  /}  if  proper  units  of  length 
be  chosen. 

As  a  particular  case  the  co-ordinates 

XBCoticosft.    yatanSsina  (2) 

represent  the  rectangular  co-ordinates  of  a  star  of  RA  and  decKna- 
tion  a  and  S,  projected  on  the  tangent  plane  at  the  north  pole.  If 
the  same  star  be  projected  on  the  tangent  plane  at  the  point  iA«  DX 
then  its  recungular  co-ordinates  ((,  tl  will  be 

(  -  tan  («^A)  sin  J  sec  (^-  D),    ,  -  tan  (j-  D),  > 
where  uli  9»un  «  sec  («-A).  (  (i) 

the  axis  of «  bdng  directed  towards  the  pole.  It  can  readily  be  verified 
that  ({.  i|)  can  be  expressed  in  terms  of  (r.  y)  by  relations  of  the  form 
(I).  The  co-ordinates  ((,17)  have  been  named**  standard  conofrdiiutes'* 
and  represent  star  positions  on  an  ideal  plate  free  from  the  effects 
of  refractk>n  and  aberration.  For  plates  of  not  too  large  a  fi«M. 
differential  refraction  and  abciTation  are  so  small  that  thnr  pniduct 
by  squares  of  the  co-ordinates  may  be  neglected,  and  the  actual 
star  positions  (x,  y)  are  connected  with  (|,  i»)  by  linear  relatiocn. 
The  linearity  of  these  relations  is  obviously  not  disturbed  by  tte 
choice  of  origin  of  axes  and  of  orientation;  in  whkh  the  effects  ^ 
procession  and  mutation  for  any  epoch  may  be  included.  Hence 
to  obtain  the  standard  co-ordinates  ((,  n)  of  any  object  on  a  plate  it  is 
only  necessary  to  know  the  position  of  the  plate  centre  <the  poutc 
N  in  fig.  I)  and  the  six  constants  in  the  rdatjons 

l-iAx+By+C.    ip-Dx-fEy-fP.  (4) 

where  (x,  y)  are  rectilinear  co^irdinates  referred  to  any  axM>  Thv 
consunts  can  thooretkaUy  be  determined  when  then  a««  tluce 
rtars  on  the  plate  for  whkh  I,  f  are  known:  bot  in  practice  it  >s 
better  tp  use  as  many  "  known  "  stare  as  possible.    These  equatioai 


PHOTOMETRY 


525 


•It  imA  adaptad  to  iolutlott  by  leaat  iquares  or  any  cquivafenL 
device. 

Pfutognpky  of  Nehulas  tmd  ClusUrs.—Soxos  o!  the  earliest 
ind  nost  striking  successes  in  celestial  photography  were  the 
ptetures  of  nebulae.  Dr  A.  A.  Common  (i84i-f903)»  F  R.S., 
of  Ealing,  led  the  way  in  i88j  with  a  successful  pieture  of  the 
great  nebula  in  Orion,  taken  with  a  3  ft.  concave  mirror 
by  Calver.  Dr  Isaac  RoberU  (1829-1904)  was  the  &ist  to  show 
(he  real  structure  of  the  great  nebula  in  Andromeda,  by  a  photo> 
graph  also  taken  with  a  reflector.  In  the  cUar  atmosphere  of 
the  Lick  Observatory  in  Cahfomia,  small  nebulae  were  photo- 
graphed in  great  numbers  by  Professor  J  £  Keeler  (1857-1900): 
ind  it  was  shown  what  a  large  percentage  were  spiral  in  form. 
Prof.  G.  W.  Ritchcy,  at  the  Yerkes  Observatory,  has  followed 
up  these  successes  with  a  3-ft  reflector,  and  is  constructing  a 
5-ft.,  to  be  erected  on  Mt  Wilson  (CaL),  but  he  has  also  shown 
that  pictures  of  dusters  are  best  taken  with  a  telescope  of  long 
focus,  such  as  the  great  Yerkes  refractor,  and  incidentally 
that  this  telescope^  although  intended  for  visual  work,  can  be 
adapted  to  photography  by  usfaag  a  "  colour  screen  **  just  in  front 
of  the  plate,  which  sif  U  out  the  rays  not  brought  to  focus. 

Photography  of  the  Moon.—G.  W.  Ritchey  has  used  the 
same  device  of  a  colour  screen  for  the  moon,  and  obtained  teven 
better  pictures  than  those  obtained  at  Paris,  whkb  were  pre- 
viously the  best.  The  positions  of  a  large  nombeff  of  craters 
and  other  points  have  been  measured  by  l>r  J.  H«  G.  Franz 
and  S.  A.  Saunder  on  photographs,  and  a  new  epoch  in  lunar 
topography  has  thereby  been  created. 

Photography  of  the  Planets.— Somt  striking  soccessea  have 
been  obtained  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  Flagstaff,  Ariaona: 
by  cutting  down  the  aperture  of  the  object-gLsaa  some  of  the 
delicate  markings,  called  canals,  on  the  planet  Man  have  been 
photographed;  but  even  these  do  not  approach  what  can  be 
seen  by  the  eye. 

Photography  of  Comctsj—Somt  wonderful  pktuiea  have  been 
obtained  of  comets  by  Professor  £.  £.  Barnard  and  others. 
Here,  as  in  the  case  of  nebulae,  the  photograph  is  superior  Co 
the  eye  in  detecting  faint  luminosity,  and  delicaU  detaito  of 
the  tail  structure  have  been  photographed  which  could  never 
be  seen.  In  several  pictures  the  tails  have  an  appearance  of 
violent  shattering,  and  if  successive  pictures  can  bf  obtained 
-at  such  times  we  may  learn  something  of  the  nature  of  such 
disturbances* 

.  Sdar  Photography.— Tht  U^t  of  the  sun  is  so  Intense  thiCt 
the  chief  difficulty  is  to  obtain  a  short  enough  exposure.  When 
successfully  taken,  photographs  of  the  surface  show  the  well- 
known  spots  and  the  mottling  of  the  surface.  The  Image 
sensibly  falls  off  in  intensity  towards  the  limb,  owing  to  the 
absorption  of  light  by  the  solar  atmosphere;  uid  the  bright 
faculae  (which  are  thus  inferred  to  lie  above  the  main  absorbing 
layer)  are  seen  near  the  limb.  But  an  immense  advance  in 
solar  ph(^ography  was  mada  about  a  dozen  years  ago  by  the 
invention  of  the  spectroheliograph,  which  is  an  instrument  for 
photographing  in  the;  light  of  one  very  definite  cokmr^-^ay 
a  single  hydrogen  line.  'The  faculous  appearances  can  be  photo- 
graphed with  this  instrument  all  over  the  son's  disk,  instead 
of  merely  near  the  limb.  The  appearance  presented  varies 
enormously  with  the  line  selected,  or  (in  the  case  of  the  wide 
"  lines  "  in  the  spectrum,  such  as  the  H  and  K  lines)  with  the 
particubr  part  of  the  same  line  selected. .  But  for  a  full  acooonl 
of  such  matters  reference  must  be  made  to  the  articles  Sun  and 
Spectkoheuograph. 

Authorities.— Various  papers  in  the  UonOdy  NoHees  of  the  Royai 
Astronomical  Society  and  in  the  A sirophysicaf  Journal,  Also  the 
bulletins  and  circulars  of  the  Harvard.  Lick  and  Yerkes  Observa- 
Cor»e» ;  and  of  the  Executive  Committee  for  the  A  strograpkie  CaUdogue 
/publi»bed  by  Gauthicr  Vitlars  for  the  Paris  Academic  des  Sciences). 
See  also  more  especially  a  paper  by  G.  W.  Ritchcy  in  the  Decennial 
Pa  pen  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  reprinted  in  vol.  ii.  (1903)  o( 
Che  Yerkes  Observatory  Pubticalionf.  (H.K.T.) 

PHOTOMETRY  (from  Gr.  ^,  ^wrfc,  li^t,  iikrpoi>,  a  mcfr* 
sure),  the  art  and  sdence  of  comporing  the  intensities  or  illumin- 
ation powers  of  two  or  more  sources  ^  light.  AsisaUackatific 


measurements,  Its  methods  are  attempts  to  give  quantitative 
accuracy  to  the  crude  comparisons  made  by  the  eye  itself  The 
necessity  for  this  accuracy  in  practical  affairs  of  life  has  arisen 
because  of  the  great  development  of  artificial  lighting  in  recent 
times.  The  eye  soon  learns  to  associate  with  any  particular 
source  of  light  a  quality  of  brightness  or  power  of  illumination 
which  dbninishes  with  increase  of  distance  of  the  source  from 
the  eye  or  from  the  surface  illuminated.  This  quality  depends 
upon  an  intrinsic  property  of  the  source  of  light  itself,  generally 
known  as  its  "  candle  power."  The  aim  of  photometry  is  to 
measore  this  candle  power;  and  whatever  be  the  experiitocntal 
means  adopted  the  eye  must  in  all  cases  be  the  final  judge. 
In  the  photometric  comparison  of  artificial  lights,  which 
frequently  vary  both  in  size  and  colour,  direct  observation  of 
the  sources  themselves  does  not  yield  satisfactory  results.  It 
is  found  to  be  much  better  to  compare  the  illuminations  pro- 
duced on  dead  white  surfaces  from  which  no  regular  reflection 
t^cs  place,  or  through  colourless  translucent  material  uniformly 
illuminated  by  the  light  placed  on  the  further  side.  By  such 
processes  there  is  always  loss  of  light,  and  we  must  be  certain 
that  the  various  coloured  constituents  of  the  light  are  reduced 
in  the  same  proportion.  This  necessary  condition  is  practically 
satisfied  by  the  use  of  white  diffusing  screens. 

Two  principles   of  radiation   underlie   many  photometric 
applications,  namely,  the  inverse  square  distance  law,  and  J.  H. 
Lambert's  "cosme  law."    Both  can  be  established     tg^ff^ 
on    theoretical    grounds,   certain    conditions   being     squan 
fulfilled.    But  as  these  conditions  are  never  abso-     OMmaee 
lutely  satisfied,  the  applicatriUty  of  the  twb  laws     '*'"'* 
must  in  the  end  be  tested  by  experiment.    Since  we  find  that 
within  the  errors  of  observation  four  candles,  placed  together  at  a 
distance  of  s  ft.  from  a  diffusing  screen,  produce  the  same  illti- 
mlnation  as  one  candle  at  a  distance  of  t  ft.,  we  may  regard  the 
inverse  square  distance  law  as  satisfied.    Tlius  if  two  lights  ci 
intensities  A  and  B  produce  equal  illuminations  on  a  screen  when 
their  distances  from  the  screen  are  respectively  a  and  6,  we  at  once 
write  down  the  reIatM>n  between  the  two  btensities  in  the  form 
A  :  Bt^d*  :  K    The  theoretical  basis  of  the  law  follows  at  once 
from  the  universally  accepted  view  that  light  is  energy  radiating 
outwards  in  all  directions  from  the  source.    If  we  assume  thai 
there  Is  no  loss  of  energy  in  the  transmitting^^  medium,  theh  the 
whole  amount  of  radiant  energy  passing  in  one  second  across 
any  closed  surface  completely  surrounding  the  source  of  light 
must  be  the  same  whatever  the  size  or  form  of  the  surface. 
Imagine  for  simplicity  a  point  source  of  light,  or  its  equivalent, 
a  uniformly  radiating  spherical  surface  with  the  point  at  its 
centre,  and  draw  round  this  point  a  spherical  surface  of  unit 
radius.    Across  this  sur&ee  there  will  pass  a  definite  amount 
of  radiant  energy,  in  other  wonb  a  definite  total  luminous' 
flux,  E,  which  will  ht  the  same  for  all  concentric  spherical 
surfaces.    Since  the  area  of  a  spherical  surface  of  radius  r  Is 
4  r  I*,  the  flux  which  crosses  unit  area  is  E/4  r  r*.  This  quantity 
is  the  "illumination."    It  is  measured  in  terms  of  the  unit 
called  th^  /aiz,  which  Is  defined  as  the  Uluminatfon  produced  by 
a  light  of  unit  intensity  on  a  perfectly  white  surface  at  a  distance 
of  I  ft.    In  the  great  majority  of  photometers  the  iHumina- 
tions  are  compared,  and  the  intensities  arc  deduced  by  applying 
the  law  of  the  squared  distances;  .  .  *       ■  ■ 

Lambert's  cosine  law  has  to  do  with  the  way  in  which  a 
luminous  surface  scn<b  off  its  radiations  in  various  directions. 
It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  the 
disk  of  the  sun  appears  equally  bright  all  over  the  JCIlT*'* 
surface.     Careful  measurements  show  that  this  is 


not  strictly  true;  but  it  is  sufficiently  near  the  truth 
to  suggest  that  under  certain  definable  conditions  the  law 
would  h<rfd  accurately.  Again,  when  a  glowing  surface  is  viewed 
through  a  small  hole  in  an  opaque  plate,  the  brightne^  is  very 
approximatdy  independent  of  the  angular  position  of  the 
IncandeseeBt  surface.  Thb  h  the  same  phenomenon  as  the 
fifiit  mentioned,  and  shows  that  thcjmore  oblique,  and  therefore 
larger,  dement  of  surface  .sen<b  the  same  amount  of  radiation 
thfoiigb>th#  bote;    Hence'  the  amount  per  unit  surface  sent  off 


526 


PHOTOMBTRT 


at  a  given  angle  with  the  nonnal  must  be  less  than  that  sent  off 
tn  the  direction  of  the  normal  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  areas 
of  the  corresponding  normal  and  oblique  elements,  that  is,  as 
the  cosine  of  the  given  angle  to  unity.  For  most  practical 
purposes,  and  so  long  as  the  obliquity  is  not  great,  Lambert's 
law  may  be  assumed  to  hold. 

In  almost  all  accurate  methods  of  photometry  the  aim  is  to 
bring  the  illuminating  powers  of  the  two  sources  to  equality 
This  may  be  effected  by  altering  the  distance  of  cither  light 
from  the  illuminated  surface.  Or  we  may  use  polarized  light 
and  diminish  the  intensity  of  the  stronger  beam  by  suiuble 
rotation  of  a  Nicol  prism,  a  method  particularly  useful  in  spectre^ 
photometers.  The  same  result  may  also  be  effected  by  inter- 
posing absorbent  disks,  the  precise  absorbing  powers  of  which 
must,  however,  be  known  with  great  accuracy.  Another  useful 
method  is  that  first  described  by  H.  Fox  Talbot  in 
1834.  and  used  with  effect  by  Professor  William 
Swan  (1849),  and  more  recently  by  Sir  W  dc  W. 
Abney.  Talbot's  law  is  thus  enunciated  by  H.  von  Helmholta: 
"  When  any  part  of  the  retina  b  excited  by  regularly  periodic 
intermittent  light,  and  when  the  period  is  sufficiently  short,  the 
resulting  impression  will  be  continuous,  and  will  be  the  same  as 
that  which  would  be  produced  if  the  whole  light  were  distributed 
uniformly  throughout  the  whole  period."  Talbot  deduced  the 
principle  from  the  well-known  experiment  in  which  a  continuous 
luminous  line  is  produced  by  rapid  rotation  of  a  luminous  poinL 
If  the  principle  be  granted,  it  is  obvious  that  any  mechanism 
by  which  a  ray  of  light  is  obstructed  in  a  regulariy  rhythmic 
manner  during  definite  intervals  /,  separated  by  intervals  I, 
during  which  the  light  is  allowed  to  pas&,  will  have  the  effect 
of  reducing  the  apparent  brightness  of  the  ray  tn  the  ratio 
//(t  +  I').  This  is  frequently  accomplished  by  pladng  in  the  ray 
a  rotating  disk  perforated  by  radial  sectors,  tht  so-called 
Talbot  disk. 

If  photometric  results  are  to  be  of  general  value  it  is  essential 
to  have  a  unit  in  which  to  express  all  other  intensities.  For 
example,  electric  Ugbu  are  classified  according  to 
Jjjjjt  their  "candle-power."  The  candle,  in  terms  of 
whose  brightness  the  brightness  of  other  sources  of 
light  is  to  be  expressed,  must,  of  course,  fulfil  the  conditions 
demanded  of  all  standards.  It  must  give  under  definite  aad 
easily  realizable  conditions  a  definite  and  constant  luminous 
effect,  and  it  must  be  easily  reproducible.  The  earlier  attempts 
to  get  a  candle  of  constant  brightness  were  not  very  satisfactory. 
The  British  standard  is  a  sperm  candle  which  weighs  i  R>,  and 
loses  in  burning  120  grains  per  hour.  It  is  found  that  these 
conditions  are  not  sufficient  to  determine  the  luminous  power 
of  the  candle,  since  the  length  and  shape  of  the  wick,  the  height 
of  the  flame,  and  the  composition,  temperature  and  humidity 
of  the  atmosphere  all  have  an  effect  upon  its  brightness.  The 
same  is  true  of  other  similar  sources  of  light — for  example, 
the  German  standard  candle,  which  is  made  of  paraffin,  has  a 
diameter  of  2  cm.,  and  has  its  wick  cut  until  the  ffame  is  5  cm. 
high,  but  which  with  all  precautions  suffers  continual  altera- 
tions in  brightness.  For  ordinary  practical  purposes,  however, 
these  candles  are  steady  enough.  Other  kinds  of  flame  have 
also  been  used  as  a  standard  source  of  light.  The  oldest  of 
these  Is  the  French  Carcel  lamp,  which  is  provided  with  a 
cylindrical  Argand  burner,  and  gives  the  standard  brightness 
^i^j,j,  when  4a  grammes  of  colza  oil  are  consumed  per  hour. 
Mmrfuri  The  supply  and  draught  are  regulated  by  clockwork. 
f%«fM*  A.  G.  Venion-Harcourt's  pentane  standard,  in  which 
^'"^'^  a  mixture  of  gaseous  pentane  and  air  is  burnt  10  as 
to  maintain  a  flame  2'$  in.  high  at  ordinary  barometric  pressure, 
gives  good  results,  and  is  readily  adjustable  to  suit  varied  con* 
ditions.  Several  forms  of  this  standard  have  been  constructed, 
one  of  the  most  important  being  the  10  candic-power  pentane 
lamp,  in  which  air  saturated  with  pentane  vapour  is  burnt  in  a 
specially-designed  burner  resembUng  an  Argand  burner.  For 
photometric  purposes  a  definite  length  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
flame  b  used,  the  upper  part  being  hidden  withfak  ao  opaque  tube. 
The  amyl-ecetate  lamp,  designed  by  H.  voa  Heipcr>AUciieck  has 


been  ebborately  studied  by  theGettnan  authoiftfies,  and  at  pnscot 
b  probably  more  used  than  any  other  flame  for  photoooetxy.  It 
b  of  simple  construaion,  and  gives  the  standard 
brightness  when  it  bums  with  a  flame  4  cms.  in 
height  in  still  air  of  humidity  o-88%  and  free  of 
carbon  dioxide.  The  presence  of  carbon  dioxide  and  increase 
in  the  humidity  have  a  mailied  effect  in  diminishing  the  brilliancy 
of  the  flame.  II  the  vapour  pressure  b  e  and  the  barometric 
prenure  p^  the  strength  of  the  flame,  when  all  other  conditions 
are  fulfilled,  b  given  by  the  formub 

I  049 -5  S^lip-e) 
One  disadvantage  for  photometric  purposes  is  the  reddish  coknt 
of  the  flame  as  compared  with  the  whiter  artificial  lights  is 
general  use. 

For  an  interesting  account  of  the  various  experimental  iaveati* 
Rations  into  the  j^ropcrtics  of  the  Hefner  flame  see  E.  L,  Nichola. 

Standards  of  Light,"  Transactums  of  the  InUmational  EteUried 
C^ngrtUt  vol.  ii.  (St  Louis,  1901).  Angstrom's  deteminaUon  of 
the  radiation  of  the  flame  in  alMOlute  energy  units  b  abo  of  special 
interest. 

Attempts  have  been  made,  but  hitherto  with  limited  success, 
to  construct  a  convenient  standard  with  acetylene  flame. 
Could  a  satbfactory  burner  be  devised,  so  that  a  steady  brilliancy 
could  be  easily  maintained,  acetylene  would,  because  of  its 
intense  white  light,  soon  dispbce  all  other  flames  as  standards. 

J.  Violle  has  proposed  to  use  as  standard  the  light  emitted 
by  a  square  centimetre  of  surface  of  platinum  at  its  melting- 
point,   but   there   are   obvious   practical   difficuhies  in   the 
way  of  realizing  this  stiggestcd  standard.     J    E. 
Petavel,  who  carefully  examined  the  necessary  condi- 
tions for  producing  it  {Pfoc.  Roy.  Soc,  1899),  finds 
that  the  platinum  must  be  chemically  pure,  that  the  cnxdble 
must  be  made  «f  pure  lime,  that  the  fusion  must  be  by  means  of 
the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe,  that  the  gases  must  be  thoroughly 
mixed  in  the  proportion  of  4  volumes  of  hydrogen  to  3  of  oxygen; 
and  that  the  hydrogen  must  contain  no  hydro-carbons.    Under 
these  conditions  tlie  variation  in  the  light  emitted  by  the  molten 
pUtlnum  wotild  probably  not  exceed  x  %.    O.  Lummer  and  F. 
Kurlbaum  have  proposed  as  a  standard  a  strip  of  platinum  foil 
35  mm.  wide  and  •or  5  mm.  thick  brought  to  incandescence  by 
an  electric  current  of  about  80  amperes.    The  temperature 
b  gradually  increased  until  iVth  of  the  total  radiation  b  trans- 
mitted through  a  water  trough  a  cm.  in  width.    Thb  ratio  a 
dctermiBed  by  means  of  a  bolometer,  and  so  long  as  it  b  adjusted 
to  fyth  the  light  b  practically  constant. 

For  comparative  photometric  woric  the  incandescent  dectrfc 
light  b  very  convenient,  having  the  one  great  advantage  over 
candles  and  flames  that  it  b  not  affected  by  atmospheric  changes. 
But  it  does  not  satbfy  the  requirements  of  a  primary  standard. 
It  ages  with  use,  and  when  ran  at  constant  voltkge  gradually 
loses  in  briUianey,  partly  because  of  changes  in  the  fUaoipnt  itsdf , 
partly  becaose  of  the  deposit  of  carbon  on  the  interior  of  the 
bolb.  I^fcflsor  J.  A.  Fleming  has  shown  that  very  good  results 
can  be  obtained  if  carbon  filaments  carefully  selected 
and  ran  in  ordinary  bulbs  for  a  definite  time  at  a  /« 
little  above  their  normal  voltage  are  remounted 
in  large  dear  glass  bulbs  6  or  8  in.  in  diameter. 
If  used  sparingly,  and  never  above  their  marked  voltage,  these 
large  incandescent  bulbs  have  been  found  to  remain  constant 
for  years,  and  therefbre  to  be  eminently  suitable  as  secondary 
standards.  In  hb  Handbook  for  ike  Eledriccl  Laborctary  ami 
Testing  Room  (vol.  ii.)  Fleming  concludes  that  the  best  primary 
standards  are  the  Violle  incandescent  platinum  and  the  Vernon- 
Harcourt  pentane  one-candle  flame;  and  that  the  most  con- 
venient practical  standards  arc  the  Hefner  lamp,  the  tcn-cawUe 
pentane  lamp,  and  the  Fleming  large  bulb  incandescent  electiic 
lamp.  Comparisons  of  the  intemsitics  of  these  various  standards 
do  not  give  quite  concordant  results.  Thus  three  different 
authorities  have  estimated  the  xo-candle  pentane  lamp  as  being 
equal  to  ro-75,  iz^o,  11*4  Hefner  lamps. 

A  qxdally  oonstnicted  instrument  or  piece  of  i^iparatus 
for  ponipiring  Bghi  intaasftiet  or  iUumiDations  h  called  * 


^OTOMBTRY 


5^7 


I^toiAeter.  The  eariier  forms  of  photometers  were  very  simple 

tad  not  capable  of  giving  very  precise  results.   The  principles  of 

j^j^        construction  are,  however,  the  same  in  aU  the  recog- 

^fig,^      sized  forms  down  to  the  most  elaborate  of  recent 

inventions.    Two  of  the  earliest  forms  were  described 

by  P.  Bouguer  and  W.  Ritchie.   The  Ritchie  wedge  constitutes 

the  basis. of  many  varieties  of  type.    The  two  lights  to  be 

^  compared  illuminate  the  sides  of  the  wedge,  which 

Wa^'    ^  placed  between  them,  so  that  the  eye  set  in  front  of 

the  wedge  sees  the  two  sides  ilhiminated  each  -by  one 

of  the  lights.   The  edge  should  be  as  sharp  as  possible  so  that  the 

two  illuminated  surfaces  are  In  dose  contact.  The  Illuminations 

are  made  equal  cither  by  shiftmg  the  wedge  along  the  line 

joining  the  lights  or  by  moving  one  of  the  lights  nearer  to  or 

farther  from  the  U'edge  as  may  be  required.    The  lights  gfven 

out  by  the  sources  are  then  as  the  squares  of  the  distances  from 

'pumhrd'M  ^^^  matched  parts  of  the  surfaces,  .  Count  Rumford 

ptoto*       suggested  the  comparison  of  the  Intensty  of  the 

■••'^•'        shadows  of  the  same  object  thrown  side  by  side  on 

a  screen  by  the  two  lights  to  be  compared.    In  this  case 

the  shadow  due  to  one  source  is  lit  up  by  the  other  alone; 

and  here  again  the  amounts  of  light  given  out  by  the  sources 

are  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  from  the  screen  when 

the  shadows  arc  equally  intense.    The  shadow-casting  object 

should  be  near  the  screen,  so  as  to  avoid  penumbra  as  much 

as  possible;  yet  not  too  near,  so  that  the  shadows  may  not 

overlap. 

R.  Bunsen  suggested  the  very  simpTe  expedient  of  making 
a  grcasc-spot  on  white  paper  for  photometric  purposes.  When 
ftma—m*M  the  paper  is  equally  illuminated  from  both  sides 
f^oto'  the  grease-spot  cannot  be  seen  except  hy  very 
■•*"*  close  inspection.  In  using  this  photometer,  the 
souites  are  placed  In  one  line  with  the  grease-spot,  which  lies 
between  them  and  can  be  moved  towards  one  or  other.  To 
make  the  most  accurate  determinations  with  this  arrangement 
the  adjustment  should  first  be  made  from  the  side  on  which 
one  source  lies,  then  the  screen  turned  round  and  the  adjust- 
ment made  from  the  side  of  the  other  source — in  both  cases, 
therefore,  from  the  same  side  of  the  paper  screen.  Tkke  the 
mean  of  these  positions  (which  arc  usually  very  close  together), 
and  the  amounts  of  light  are  as  the  squares  of  the  distances 
of  the  sources  from  this  point.  The  efficiency  of  the  Bunsen. 
photometer  has  been  improved  by  using  two  inclined  mirrors 
so  that  the  eye  views  both  sides  of  the  paper  simultaneously. 

Sir  Chatiet  Wheatstone  sugfested  a  hollow  glaM  bead,  wlverrd 
intcmallyt  and  made  to  describe  very  rapidly  a  closed  path,  for 
_-.  ^^,  use  as  a  photometer.  When  it  is  placed  between  two 
t  ''Irha,  sources  we  ace  two  paraUd  curves  of  reflected  light, 
••"^*  one  due  to  each  aourte.  Make  these,  by  trial,  equally 
**  *  bright  {  and  the  amounts  o(  light  from  the  sourcM  are* 
again,  as  Xht  squares  of  the  distances. 

William  Swan's  prism  photometer,  invented  in  1859,  is  a  beautiful 
application  of  the  principle  embodied  in  Hansen's  grease-spot  photo* 
.  meter  (see  Trans.  Rty.  Soe.  Ed.  vol.  x».).  The  essential 
fZ^M^  ^^  ^  *kc  instruxneat  is  fundamentaUy  the  same  as 
gy**  that  described  by  O.  Lummcr  and  E.  Drodhun  in  1889. 
''^"■™*  It  corvusts  of  two  equal  right-angled  isosceles  glass 
prisms  placed  wtth  their  diagonal  faces  together  so  as  to  form  a  cube 

(fig.  1),  and  cemented  fogether  by 


A  .73 


m 


ftc.  r. 


a  smalt  patch  of  Canada  balsam, 
which  spreads  out  into  a  circle 
when  the  prisms  are  pressed  to- 
gether. In  the  figure,  which 
represents  a  central  section  of  the 
bi-prism,  the  Canada  balsam  is 
roprcsenled.by  the  letter  N.  The 
light  from  two  illuminated  sur- 
faces, PQ,  RS,  is  allowed  to  fall 
perpendicularly  on  the  faces  AS, 
AD.  In  each  case  that  part  of  the 
light  falling  internally  on  the-  por- 
tion of  the  diagonal  lace  whlcn  Is 
not  backed  with  the  Canada 
balsam  Is  totally  reflected.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  light  which 
falls  on  the  portion  bariFed  bv.the 
Canada  balsam  |s  almost  wholly 
transmitted.    Thus  an  eye  placed 


in  the  poricfam  «M  racsstvea  tight  li«m  beitl  seuroes,  the  surface 
RS  supplying  nearly  all  the  light  that  leeais  to  come  from  the  patch 
N,  and  the  surface  PQ  supolyiiig  all  the  Ught  which  seems  to 
come  from  the  region  immediately  surrounding  N.  The  patch  N 
will  in  general  be  visible:  but  It  will  quite  disappear  when  the 
luminosity  of  the  ray  77,  which  traverses  the  Canada  balsam,  ia 
exactly  equal  to  the  luminosity  of  the  rays  PA_Oe>  which  have  come 
after  toul  reflection  from  the  suriace  PQ.  This  condition  of  in- 
visibility of  N  IS  arrived  at  by  adjusting  the  positions  'of  the 
sources  of  hght  which  illuminate  the  surfaces  PQ,  RS.  The 
brightnesses  01  the  two  sources  will  then  be  as  the  squares  of  their 
distances  from  their  respective  scieens.  ' 

The  essential  part  of  Lumiaer  and  Brodbun's  photometer  is  a 
combination  of  prisms  very  similar  to  Swan's.  In  its  most  im* 
proved  form  the  bi-prism  or  "optical  cube**  has  one 
of  its  component  prisms  cut  hi  a  peculiar  manner.  *^y^f* 
The  diagonal  face  k  partly  cut  away,  so  that  the  central  ^ll!?**.f- 
part  only  of  tUs  face  can  be  brought  into  contact  with  ^^ 
the  diagonal  face  q(  the  other  prism.  The  Canada  balsam 
is  dispensed  with,  the  surfaces  being  pressed  closely  together 
BO  that  no  layer  of  air  is  left  between  them.  In  order  to  make  the 
instrument  oonvenient  for  use  with  an  optical  bench,  Lummer  and 
Brodhun  make  the  illuminated  surfaces  which  are  to  be  compared 
the  opposite  udes  of  an  opaque  screen  set  in  the  continuation  of 
the  diagonal  (CA)  of  the  bi-pnsm,  the  rays  being  brought  by  reflec- 
tk>n  from  symmetrically  situated  mirrors  so  as  to  entnr  the  sides 
AB_and  AD  perpendicularly.  Aa  imporUnt  modificatkNi,  due 
also  to  Lummer  and  Brodhun,  is  the  foUowing :  By  means  of  a 
sapd- blast  a  portion,  which  may  be  called  r,  is  removed  from  one 
half  of  the  diagonal  face  of  the  one  prism,  and  from  the  other  half 
of  the  same  pnsm  there  is  removed  in  like  manner  all  but  a  part  / 
corresponding  to  the  port  r.  The  por.ions  which  have  not  been 
removed  ars  pressed  dose  to  the  diaaonal  face  of  the  other  prism, 
and  become  the  parts  through  which  light  is  freely  transmitted. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  light  which  enters  the  second  prism  and  falls 
on  the  portions  of  surface  backed  by  the  layers  of  air  filling 
the  cut-out  parts  is  totally  reflected.  Tiie  general  result  is  the  pro- 
duction of  two  similar  luminous  patches  /  and  f,  each  of  which  ia 
Burrauttded  by  a  field  of  the  same  intenuty  as  the  other  patch. 
When  the  photometric  match  is  made  the  whole  region  will  be. 
uniformly  bright.  But,  by  insertion  of  strips  of  glass  so  as  to 
weaken  equally  the  intensity  in  the  surrounding  fieuls,  the  match 
will  be  obtained  when  these  fields  are  made  of  equal  intensity  and 
when  at  the  same  time  the  two  patches  differ  equally  in  intensity 
from  them.  Under  these  conditions  the  eye  is  aotc  to  judge  more 
certainly  as  to  the  equality  of  intensity  of  the  two  patciies,  and  an 
untrained  observer  is  able  to  effect  a  comparison  with  an  accuracy 
which  is  impossible  with  most  forms  of  photometer. 

J.  Joly's  diffusion  photometer  consists  of  two  equal  rectangular 
parallelepipeds  of  a  translucent  substance  like  paraffin  separated 
by  a  thin  opaque  disk.  It  Is  set  between  the  sources  ,^^ 
of  light  to  be  eoRipared  in  such  a  way  that  each  paraffin  vSLt^^^ 
block  U  iUuniinatod  by  one  only  of  the  aounes,  and  ia '^^"'"""^ 
adjusted  until  the  two  blocks  appear  to  be  of  the  same  brightness. 
The  method  is  made  more  sensitive  by  mounting  the  photometer 
on  an  elastic  vibrator  so  as  to  render  it  capable  of  a  dight  to- 
and-fro  osdllation  about  a  mean  position. 

A  form  of  photoaneter  which  is  well  adapted  for  measuring  the  ; 
Illumination  In  a  region  is  that  due  to  L.  Weber,    It  consists  of  a  ■ 
horizontal  tube  acro;»!i  one  end  of  which  is  fitted  another  „,.^.^_ 
tube  at  right  angles.    This  second  tube  can  be  rotated  pZ^lnmtier 
into  any  position  pentendicolSr  to  the  horisontal  tube.   ••**"  ^  • ; 
Whore  the  axes  of  the  two  tubes  meet  19  placed  in  the  later  forms  of 
the  instrument  one  of  Lummer  and  Brodnun's  modified  Swan  cubes. 
At  the  other  end  of  the  horizontal  tube  a  standard  ffame  is  set 
illuminating  a  piece  of  ground  glass  which  may  be  moved  to  any 
convenient  position  in  the  tube.    The  eye  looks  along  the  cross 
tube,  at  the  farther  end  of  which  is  placed  another  piece  of  ground 
glass  Hluminatcd  from  the  outside.    The  illomiiutions  of  the  two 
pieces  of  ground  glass  as  viewed  through  the  photometer  double 
prism  are  Drought  to  equality,  either  by  shift  of  the  ground  ^lass 
to  or  from  the  standard  light,  or  by  means  of  two  Nicol  pnsms 
placed  in  the  cross  tube^'  .One  advantage  of  the  instrument  is  its 
portatnlity* 

The  photometry  of  Incandescent  electric  lamps  has  led  to 
several  special  modifications  and  devices.  The  candle  power 
varies  distinctly  in  different  horizontal  directions,  facaa* 
and  one  measurement  in  any  paHfcular  direction  tftsMaf 
is  not  suflfrcSent.  Sometimes  the  Ismp  is  rotated  ^Sl'* 
about  three  times  a  second  about  a  vertical  axis  and  ^ 

an  average  value  thtJs  obtained.     But  there  is  always  a  risk 
of  the  filament  breaking;  and  fn  all  cases  the  effect  of  centrifugal  - 
force  must  alter  the  form  of  the  filament  and  therefore  the 
distances  of  the  different  parts  from  the  screen.     Accuracy' 
demands  cither-  (he  measurement  of  the  radiation  intensity  in 
a  number  of  directions  aU  round  the  kin>p,  or  one  combined  • 


538 


PHOTOMETRY 


measitreineDt  of  as  many.  n9%  %t  can  be  coDvenieatly  com- 
bined. One  of  the  best,metbods  of  effecting  this  is  by  noeaos  of 
Ar«tfa««rs*sC.  P.  Matth'ews's  integrating  photometer.  By  the 
lategraaagvisc  of  twelve  mirrors  arranged  in  a  semicircle  wbosb 
'^"'"'■••^•diametcr  coincides  with  the  axis  of  the  lamp,  twelve 
rays  are  caligbt  and  reflected  outward  to  a  second  set  of 
twelve  jnirrors  which  throw  the  rays  on  to  the  surface  of 
a  photometric  screen.  This  combined  effect  is  balanced  by  the 
iUumination  produced  by  a  standard  lamp  on  the  other  side  of 
the  screen  (see  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Elect.  Eng.,  1902,  vol.  xix.). 

So  long  as  the  lights  to  be  compared  are  of  the  same  or  neariy 
the  same  tint,  the  photometric  match  obtained  by  different 
iM^ro'  observers  is  practically  the  same.  If,  however,  they 
J*2J2J?  are  of  distinctly  different  colours,  not  only  do  dif- 
^*^"*^'ferent  observers  obtain  different  results  but  those 
obtained  by  the  same  observer  at  different  times  are  not 
always  in  agreement.  Helmholtz  was  of  opinion  that  photo- 
metric comparison  of  the  intensities  of  different  -coloured 
lights  possessed  no  real  intrinsic  value.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  in  a  rigorous  sense  this  is  true.  Nevertheless  it  is 
possible  under  certain  conditions  to  effect  a  comparison  which 
has  some  practical  value.  For  example,  when  the  intensities 
of  two  differently  cdoured  lights  differ  considerably  there  is 
no  difficulty  in  judging  which  is  the  stronger.  By  making  the 
one  light  pass  through  a  fairly  large  range  of  brightness  we  may 
easily  assign  limits  outside  which  the  intensities  are  undoubtedly 
different.  After  some  experience  these  limits  get  close;  and 
many  experimenters  find  it  possible,  by  taking  proper  precau- 
tions, not  only  to  effect  a  match,  but  to  effect  practically  the 
Ataty'M  same  match  time  after  time.  According  to  Abncy, 
Bxpert*  whose  memoirs  on  colour  photometry  {Phil.  Trans., 
BMte.  j835^  jggj)  fgjn,  J  niost  important  contribution  to 
the  subject,  the  observer  in  making  his  judgment  as  to  the 
equality  of  luminosity  iA  two  patches  of  colour  placed  side  by 
side  must  not  begin  to  think  about  it,  but  must  let  the  eye  act 
as  unconsciously  as  possible.  His  method  was  to  compare  the 
coloured  patch  with  white  light  given  by  a  particular  standard 
and  cut  down  to  the  proper  intensity  by  use  of  a  Talbot's 
rotating  sector,  which  coiUd  be  adjusted  by  means  of  a  suitable 
mechanism  while  it  was  rotating. 

I  At  the  same  time,  although  the  eye  may  be  able  to  effect  a 
definite  matching  of  two  patches  of  colour  of  a  particular 
luminosity,  it  has  been  long  known  that  a  change  in  the  lumi- 
nosity will  destroy  the  apparent  equality.  This  depends  upon  a 
physiological  property  of  the  retina  discovered  by  J.  E.  Purkinje 
in  182$  (see  below.  Celestial  Phoiomefry).  In  virtue  of  this 
property  the  Uue  and  violet  fend  of  the  spectrum  is  more  siimo- 
lating  to  the  eye  than  the  red  end  when  the  general  luminosity 
is  low,  whereas  at  high  luminosities  the  red  gains  relatively  in 
brightness  imtil  it  becomes  more  stimulating  than  the  blue. 
Unless  therefore  account  is  taken  in  some  definite  measuraUe 
manner  of  the  absolute  brightness,  there  must  always  be  some 
uncertainty  in  the  photometric  comparison  of  the  intensities 
of  differently  coloured  sources  of  light. 

Instead,  however,  of  trying  to  effect  a  photometric  match 
in  any  of  the  ways  w^hich  have  been  found  sufficient  when  the 
sources  arc  of  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  tint,  wc  may  effect 
important  practical  comparisons  in  what  is  called  hctcro- 
chromatic  photometry  by  an  appeal  to  other  physiological 
properties  of  the  eye.  For  example,  the  power  of  clearly  dis- 
criminating patterns  in  differently  coloured  lights  of  various 
intensities  is  obviously  of  great  practical  importance;  and  this 
power  of  detailed  discrimination  may  be  made  the  basis  of  a 
mctbod  of  photometry.  According  to  this  method  two  Ughts 
DheHa^a-  arc  arranged  so  as  to  illuminate  two  exactly  similar 
**om  Pini^  patterns  of  lines  drawn,  for  example,  on  the  sides 
''***^'  of  a  Ritchie  wedge,  and  their  distances  are  adjusted 
until  the  patterns  are  seen  equally  distinct  on  the  two  sides. 
Application  of  the  usual  distance  law  will  then  give  the  relation 
between  the  two  lights.  A  discrimination  photometer  con- 
structed on  this  principle  has  been  designed  by  J.  A.  Fleming. 
Its  cesulis  do  not  agrtsc  with  the  indications  ol  mx  ordinary 


luminosity  photometer;  lor  it  is  found  that  the  eye  csa  dis* 
criminate  detail  better  with  yellow  than  with  blue  light  of  the 
same  apparent  luminous  intensity. 

Another  and  very  promising  method  of  photometry  dq>ends 
upon  the  duration  of  luminous  impressions  on  the  retina,  J.  A.  F. 
Plateau  observed  in  1829  that  the  blending  intOAMtor 
a  homogeneous  impression  of  a  pattern  of  alternate '^MoomAx 
sectors  of  black  and  some  other  colour  marked  on  a  disk 
when  that  disk  was  rotated  occurred  for  rates  of  rotation 
which  depended  on  the  colour  used.  A  form  of  experiment 
suggested  in  Professor  0.  N.  Rood's  Modem  Ckromalics  seems 
to  have  been  first  carried  out  by  £.  L.  Nichols  {Amer,  Joum.  of 
Science,  z88i).  A  black  disk  with  four  narrow  open  sectors  was 
rotated  in  front  of  the  slit  of  a  spectroscope.  When  the  rotation 
was  not  too  quick  the  yellow  part  of  the  spectrum  appeared  as  a 
succession  of  flashes  of  light  separated  by  intervals  of  darkness 
of  appreciable  length,  whereas  towards  both  the  red  and  violet 
ends  no  apparent  interruption  in  the  steady  luminosity  could  be 
observed.  As  the  rate  of  rotation  increased  the  part  of  the 
spectnmi  in  which  flickering  appeared  contracted  to  a  smaller 
length  extending  on  each  side  of  the  yellow,  and  finally  with 
sufficiently  rapid  alternation  the  yellow  itself  became  stejidy.  • 
This  seems  to  show  that  the  retinal  image  persists  for  a  shorter 
time  with  yellow  light  than  w^ith  light  of  any  other  colour;  for 
with  it  the  intervals  of  darkness  must  be  shorter  before  a  con-, 
tinuous  impression  can  be  obtained.  Now  yellow  is  the  most 
luminous  part  of  the  spectrtmi  as  it  affects  the  normal  human 
eye;  and  £.  S.  Ferry  {Ameir,  Joum.  of  Scietue,  1892)  has  shown 
that  the  duration  of  luminous  impression  is  mostly,  U  not  entirely, 
determined  by  the  luminosity  of  the  ray.  Hence  the  determina- 
tion of  the  minimum  rate  of  intermittcnce  at  which  a  particular 
colour  of  light  becomes  continuous  may  be  regarded  as  a  measure 
of  the  luminosity,  the  slower  rate  corresponding  to  the  lower 
luminosity.  Although  in  the  experiment  just  described  the 
red  part  of  the  ordinary  solar  spectrum  Becomes  continuous 
for  a  slower  rate  of  intermittcnce  than  the  yellow  part,  yet  we 
have  simply  to  make  a  red  ray  as  luminous  as  the  yellow  ray  to 
find  that  they  become  continuous  fpr  the  same  rate  of  inter- 
mittence.  It  is,  however,  highly  improbable  that  the  duration 
of  impression  depends  oiily  on  the  luminosity  of  the  h'ght  and 
not  to  some  extent  upon  the  wave-length.  There  are  indeed 
phenomena  which  require  for  their  explanation  the  assumption 
that  the  duration  of  luminous  impression  docs  depend  on  the 
colour  as  well  as  on  t,hc  brightness. 

Nevertheless  the  luminosity  is  by  far  the  niore  important  factor, 
as  sho#n  by  Ogden  N.  Rood's  experiments.    He  found  {Amer, 
Joum,  of  Science,  1893)  that,  when  a  disk  whose  halves  ^_^ 
differ  in  tint  but  not  in  luminosity  is  rotated  rather  Srtwrf/ 
slowly,  the  eye  of  the  observer  sees  no  flickering 
such  as  is  at  once  apparent  when  the  halves  differ  slightly  in 
luminosity.    Rood  himself  suggested  various  forms  of  pbotCH 
mctcr  based  on  this  principle.  In  his  latest  form  {A  mer.  Joum.  of 
Science,  Sept.  1899)  the  differently  coloured  beams  of  Uj^t  which 
are  to  be  compared  photometrically  are  made  to  illuminate  the 
two  surfaces  of  a  Ritchie  wedge  set  facing  the  eye.    Between 
the  wedge  and  the  eye  is  placed  a  cylindrical  concave  lens, 
which  can  be  set  in  oscillation  by  means  of  a  motor  in  such  a 
way  that  first  the  one  illuminated  surface  of  the  wedge  and  then 
the  other  is  presented  to  the  eye  in  sufficiently  rapid  alternation. 
The  one  source  of  b'ght  is  kept  fixed,  while  the  other  is  moved 
about  until  the  sensation  of  flicker  disappears.    From  woiIl 
with  this  form  of  instrument  Rood  concluded  that "  the  accuracy 
attainable  with  the  flicker  photometer,  as  at  present  con- 
structed, and  using  light  of  different  coloun  almost  spectral 
in  hue,  is  about  the  same  as  with  ordinary  photometers  using 
plain  white  Ught,  or  light  of  exactly  the  same  colour.** 

Various  modifications  of  Rood's  forms  have  been  coostmctcd 
fcom  time  to  time  bv  different  experimenters.     The. 
Simmance  and  Abady  nicker  photometer  is  an  ingenkxis. 
and  yet  raccfianicalfy  simple  method  by  which  (as  it. 
were)  the  wedge  itself  is  made  to  ofciUate  so  as  to  throw 
on  the  eye   m  rapid   succession;   first   the  one  side  aad 
the  other.    The  rim  of  a  wheel  of  white  material  is  beveOed 


PHOTOMETRY 


S«9 


lb  apeculiar  maoiwr.  The  thup  e4ae.  which  paMeftal«hlly  qbUaiMlv 
across  the  rim  ftom  on«  side  of  the  wheel  to  the  other  and  oack 
a^tn,  b'the  meetms  of  two  exactly  similar  conica]  surfaces  facing 
different  ways  and  navini^  their  axes  parallel  tO|  but  on  opposite 
sides  of.  the  axis  of  rouuon  of'  the  wheel.  As  the  wheel  rotates 
with  its  rim  facing  the  eye,  the  intcfBoction  of  the  two  surfaces 
crosses  and  recrosses  the  line  of  vision  during  each  revolution. 
Hence  first  the  one  illuminated  side  and  then  the  other  are  pre- 
sented to  the  eye  in  rapid  alternation.  The  inventors  of  this  instru* 
ment  daim  that  their  instrument  can  gauge  accttiatdy  and  easily 
the  relative  intensities  of  two  lights,  whether  of  the  tame 
or  of  different  colour  {Phil.  Mag.,  1904).  There  b  no  doubt  that 
lesulta  obtained  by  different  observers  with  a  flicker  photometer 
•re  io  better  agreement  than  with  any  other  form  of  photometer. 
The  comparative  ease  with  wMdi  the  teUnce  is  obtained  even  when 
the  tints  aure  markedly  different  shows  that  its  action  depends  apon 
a  visual  distinction  which  the  eve  can  readily  appreciate,  and  thb 
distiiKtion  is  mainly  ofie  of  brightness. 

The  spectrophotometer  ii.  an  instrument  which  enables  as  tQ 

make  photometric  (x>roparisoos  between  the  sinularly  colouxed 

sptctn'       portions  of  the  spectra  of  two  different  sources  oi 

pbauuaetty-  light,  or  of  two  parts  of  the  same  origiq^  source  alter 

they  have  passed  throu(^  different  absorbiBg  media.    When 

it  is  desired  to  compare  the  intensities  of  the  spectca  from 

two  different  sources  a  convenient  form  is  the  one  described 

by  £.  L.  Nichols.    A  direct  vision  spectroscope  mouated  upon 

a  carnage  travels  along  a  track  between  the  twOvSources.    In 

front  of  the  slit  two  right-angled  triangular  prisms  are  set  so 

that  the  light  from  each  source  enters  the  one  side  of  one  prism 

perpendicularly  and  is  totally  reflected  into  the  spectroscope. 

The  two  spectra  are  then  seen  side  by  aide...  Attention  being 

fixed  on  some  chosen  narrow  portion,  say,  in  the  gneen,  the 

instxuEnent  is  moved  along  the  track  between  the  souKwa  until 

the  two  portions  appear  of  the  same  intently.  .  The  process  is 

then  repeated  until  the  whole  spectrum  has  been  explored. 

In  Lnmrner  and  Brodhun's  form  of  socctrophorometer  the  lays 
to  be  compared  pass  in  perpendicular  Gnes  through  the  modified 
,  Swan  double  prism,  and  then  together  side  by  side 


Fic.  a. 


fl'3' 


through  a  spectroscope.    By  means  of  a  simple  modifi 

■»<  ....^^^  cation  in  the  form  of  the  two  prisms.  Professor  D.  B. 
pbot9t0€Uf,  ^^^^  ^pj^    j^^^  ,^j  j,,^^  ^Yk^  combined  prism 

serve  to  produce  the  q>ectra  as  weU  as  to  effect  the  desired 
comparison.       In  this  arrangement  the  compound  prism  ABC 

(fig.  2)  is  made  up  of  two 
eqnal  fight-angled  prisms 
ADB  and  ADC  placed  with 
their  lonJRr  sides  in  contact, 
so  that  the  whole  forms  an 
equibtterat  prism  with  three 
polished  faees.  Part  of  tlw 
iBtcrfaoe  AD  is  silvered,  the 
silvering  forming  a  narrow 
central  strip  running  paralld 
to  AD.  Along  the  rest  of  the 
interiace  the  two  prisms  are 
cemented  together  with 
^Canada  balsam  or  other 
material  having  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  sslme  refractive 
index  as  the  glass.  When  two 
rays  R  S  enter  qrmmetrioally  froni  opposite  «des/ol  the  base  of  the 
compound  prism  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  the  ray  R  will  pass  through 
the  prism  except  where  the  silver  strip  intercepts  it,  and  will  form  a 
part  of  a  spectrum  visible  to  the  eye  placed  at  R',  while  to  the 
same  eye  there  will  be  visible  the  similarly  dispersed  ray  SS'tefieeted 
from  the  silvered  furiace.  Thus  two  systems  of  incident  paraltel 
rays  of  white  hght  will  form  on  emersence  two  spectra  with 
Gorrespondiag  rays  exactly  parallel.  With  these  and  other  forms 
of  instrument  the  aim  of  the  experimenter  is  to  make  the  two  spectra 
of  equal  intensity  by  a  method  whfch  enables  him  to  oompaie  the 
original  intensities  of  the  sources.  Iq  most  cases  the  relative 
intensities  of  the  portions  of  the  spectra  being  compared  cannot 
conveniently  be  altered  by  varyine  the  distances  of  the  sources. 
Recourse  is  therefoi^  generally  had  to  one  of  the  <Stlwr  methods 
already  mentioned,  saeh  as  the  use  of  polarising  prisms  or  of  rocating 
sectors.  Under  certain  eonditaoes  K.  Vierordt  s  method  of  allowing 
the  two  rays  to  pass  throush  slits  of  different  width  leads  to  good 
results,  but  too  great  confidence  cannot  be  placed  upon  it. 

In  other  types  of  spectrophotometer,  such  as  those  associated 
with  the  names  of  H.  Trannin,  A.  Crova^  H.  Wild,  G.  HOfner, 
J.  K5nigsberger,  K  KOnig,  F.  F.  Martens  and  othen,  the  equalisa- 
tion in  brightness  of  two  rays  is  effected  by  using  polarixed  light, 
which  can  be  cut  down  at  pleasure  by  rotation  of  a  Niool  prism. 
For  example;  in  the  K6nig'Martens  instrument  the  two  says 
vhkb  are  to  be  compared  enter  the  upper  aii4  lower  halves  of  a 


divided  slat.  After  passing  thronab  a  lens  they  pais  in , 

through  (i)  a  dispersing  prism,  (2)  a  Wollastoo  prism,  (3)  a  U- 
prism,  and  are  finally  focused  where  the  right  spectra  so  ^  . , 
produced  can  be  viewed  by  the  eye.    Of  these  only  two  J''*^' 
are  made  use  of*  the  otbem  being  cut  out.    These  two  ISff*^"^* 
aie  polarised  in  perpendicular  planes,  so  that  if  be-  zP^T'^^.^ 
twecn  the  spectrum  images  and  the  eye  a  Nicol  prism  '^"™*     , 
b  introduced  the  intensities  of  an)r  two  narrow  corresponding 
portions  of  the  two  spectra  can  be  readily  equalized.    In  terms 
of  the  an^Ie  of  rotation  of  the   Nicol   the  relative  intensities 
of  the  original  rays  can  be  calculated.    An  Important  application 
<^  the  spectrophotometer  is  to  measure  the  absorptive  powera 
and   exrinction   coeffidents   of   transparent   substances   for   the 
differently  cobured  rays  of  light.    By  apfMopriate  means  the  in- 
tensities of  chosen  corresponding  parts  of  the  two  contiguous 
spectra  are  made  equal— in  other  words,  a  match  is  establuhed. 
Into  the  {nth  of  the  rays  of  one  of  the  spectra  the  absorbent 
sufostafKC  is  then  introduced,  and  a  match  is  again  est^bOklied. 
A  measure  of  the  less  of  luminosity  due  to  the  interposition  ef  the 
absorbent  substance  is  thus  obtained. 

To  facilitate  experiments  of  thb  nature  Dr  J.  R.  Milne  has 
devised  a  spectrophotometer  which  presents  some  novelties  ot 
constmction  (see  Proceedtngs  of  Ae  Optical  Convention^  m«_^ 
I9(^r  vol.  i.).  The  tight  from  a  brightflame  is  suitably  f*^!l* 
prmected  by  a  lens  so  as  to  illuminate  asmall  hole  in  the  fSS"^  »^ 
end  of  the  collimator.  The  rays  from  thb  point-soun:e  *"«»"»•«*•• 
are  made  parallel  by  the  collimator,  and  then  pass.  partW  through 
the  absorbing  medium,  partly  through  the  space  above  it.  These 
two  parts  of  the  original  beam  are  transmitted  through  a  dispersing 
prism  and  then  Call  npon  a  screen  with  two  simibr  rectangular 
opemngs,  the  upper  one  allowintg;  the  uoabsorbed  part  of  the  beam 
to  pass,  the  lower  that  part  wnich^has  been  transmitted  through 
the  absorbing  medium.  The  objective  of  the  observing  telescope 
converges  the  rays  suitably  upon  a  Wollaston  prism,  so  that  two 
specua  are  sieen  side  by  snie,  having  their  light  polarised  in  .peri 
pendicular  planes..  A  Nicd  prism  b  placed  between  the  Wollaston 
prism  and  the  eye-piece  of  the  telescope,  and  by  its  rotation  in  the 
manner  already  described  the  intensities  of  any  two  corresponding 
portions  of  the  two  spectra  can  be  brought  to  equality.  By  carefiM 
attention  to  all  necessary  details  Milne  shown  that  bb  instniment 
satbfies  the  reauirements  of  a  good  spectrophotometer;  for  (i)  the 
ravs  through  tne  absorbing  medium  can  be  made  strictly  parallel: 
(2)  the  two  spectra  can  oc  brought  with  ease  accurAtcly  edge  to 
edge  without  any  diffraction  effects;  (3)  the  plane  of  the  delimiting 
screen  can  be  made  coniugate  to  the  retina  of  the  obaarver's  eye; 
.  (4)  not  onlv  do  the  two  spectra  touch  accurately  along  thdr  common 
edge,  but  the  two  fans  01^ rays  which  proceed  from  every  point  of  the 
common  edge  lie  in  one  and  the  same  plane:  (5)  the  eye  is  called 
upon  to  judge  the  relative  mtensities  not  of  two  narrow  slits  but 
ot .  two  broad  uniformly  iUomiaated  areas.  Milne  also  pouits  out 
that  thb  instrument  can  be  used  as  a  spectropolarimeter. 

£.  L.  Iillchols  considers  that  spectrophotometers  which  depend 
for  •  their  action  upon  the  pn^rties  of  polarized  light  are 
necessarily  open  to  serious  objections,  such  as:  selective  absorp- 
tion in  the  calcspar,  altering  the  relative  intc^iics  of  tiie  con- 
stituents in  the  original  rays;  selective  losses  by  reflection  of 
polarized  rays  at  the  various  optical  surfaces;  and  the  neces- 
sarily imperfect  performance  of  all  forms  of  polarizing  media. 
To  eliminate  these  defects  as  far  as  possible  great  care  in  cpn- 
stniction  and  arrangement  is  needed,  otherwise  conections 
must  be  applied. 

It  b  evident  that  if  the  successive  parts  of  two  spectra  are 
compared  photometrically  we  may  by  a  process  of  summation 
obtain  a  comparison  of  the  total  luminosities  of  the  lights  which 
form  the  spectra.  Thb  process  b  far  too  tedious  to  be  of  any 
practical  valuer  but  sufficiently  accurate  results  may  iq  certain 
cases  be  obtained  by  comparison  of  two  or  more  particular  parts  of 
the  8pectra,.for  example, strips  in  the  red,  green  and  blue.  Similar 
in  prindple  is  the  method  suggested  by  J.  Mac6  de  Lepinay^ 
who  matches  his  lights  by  looking  first  through  a  red  glass 
of  a  particular  tint  and  then  through  a  chosen  green.  If  R 
and  G  represent  the  corresponding  ratios  of  the  intensities, 
the  required  comparison   is  cal/culated    from    the    formula 

I  ■•  — t =-; rrsr  •  A.  Ctova,  ooe  of  the  earliest  workers 

I  -I-  o-soS  (1  —  GR) 

in  thb  subject,  effects  the  photometric  comparison  of  differently, 
colonred  lights  by  matching  those  monodhromatic  rays  from  the' 
two  sources  which  have  the  same  ratio  of  intensities  as  the 
whole  collected  rays  that  make  up  the  lights.  Careful  experi- 
ment alone  can  determine  thb  particular  ray,  but  were  it  oncn 
ascertained  for  the  various  sources  of  light  in  use  the  method 
would  have  the  merits  of  rapidity  and  accuracy  sufficient  ior 


530 


PHOTOMETRY 


pnctkal  Meds.   SpectiDphotoinetric  obacfvatldoi  ire  uutaucry 

to  detennine  the  potition  in  the  spectrum  of  the  particular  mono- 

chroBWtic  ray,  but  when  it  has  been  determined  a  coloured 

giaM  may  be  made  which  allows  light  in  the  neighbourhood  oi 

this  ray  to  pasa,  and  the  photometric  comparfson  mav  then  be 

effected  by  looking  throu|^  this  glass. 

This  article  has  been  confined  ttnctly  to  the  methods  of  vtHial 
photometry,  with  very  little  reference  to  the  resuks.  Comparison 
of  intenhities  of  radiation  by  photographic  means  or  hyr  methods 
depending  on  the  effects  of  beat  introduces  considerations  quite 
distinct  from  those  which  lie  at  the  basis  of  photometry  in  its  usual 
Hgnificatioo.  (C.  C.  K.) 

Celestul,  om  Stxixax,  PHoroMEny 

The  earliest  records  that  have  come  down  to  us  regard- 
log  the  reUiive  positions  of  the  stars  in  the  heavens  have 
always  been  accompanied  with  estimations  of  their  relative 
brightness.  With  this  brightness  was  naturally  associated 
the  thought  of  the  relative  magnitudes  of  the  luminous  bodies 
from  whence  the  light  was  assumed  to  proceed.  Hence  in  the 
grand  catalogue  of  stars  published  by  Ptolemy  (c.  150  aj>.)i 
but  which  had  probably  been  formed  three  hundred  years 
before  his  day  by  Hipparchus,  the  isoo  stars  readily  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  at  Alexandria  were  divided  into  six 
classes  according  to  their  lustre,  though  instead  oC  that  term 
be  uses  the  word  fujiBot  or  **  magnitude  ";  the  brightest  he 
designates  as  being  of  the  first  magnitude,  vnd  so  downwards 
till  he  comes  to  the  minimum  vuiUtt  to  which  he  assigns  the 
sixth-  These  magnitudes  he  still  further  divides  each  into  three. 
To  those  stars  which,  though  not  ranged  in  any  partlcuhir  order 
of  brightness,  nevertheless  exceed  the  average  of  that  order  in 
lu&ire  he  attaches  the  letter  /a,  the  imtial  letter  inpcffwy  (greater), 
and  to  those  in  the  same  order  which  exhibit  a  lustre  inferior  to 
that  of  the  average  he  affixes  the  letter  c,  the  initial  letter  of 
k\Atr<niP.  With  this  sort  of  subdivision  he  passes  through  all 
the  six  orders  of  magnitude.  He  does  not,  indeed,  tell  us  the 
precise  process  by  wUch  these  divisions  were  estimated,  but  the 
principle  involved  is  obvious.  It  is  one  of  the  many  remarkable 
instances  of  the  acuteness  and  precision  of  the  Greek  mind  that 
for  upwards  of  1500  years  no  real  improvement  was  made  in 
these  estimations  of  lustre.  J.  Flamsteed  extended  the  estima- 
tion of  magnitude  of  stars  visible  only  by  the  telescope,  and  he 
improved  Ptolemy's  notation  by  writing  4'3  instead  of  6,  ft— 
indicating  thereby  an  order  of  magnitude  brighter  than  the 
average  of  a  fourth,  but  inferior  to  that  of  a  third — and  3*4  for 
i,  c,  and  so  on;  but  it  was  not  till  the  year  1796  that  any  real 
advance  was  made  in  stellar  photometry.  Sir  W.  Heischel, 
instead  of  assigning  a  particular  magnitude  to  stars,  arranged 
them  in  small  groups  of  three  or  four  or  five,  indicating  the  order 
in  which  they  differed  from  each  other  in  lustre  at  the  time  of 
dhservation.  This  method  was  admirably  adapted  to  the 
discovery  of  any  variations  in  brightness  which  might  occur  in 
the  lapse  of  time  among  the  members  of  the  group.  Sir  William 
observed  in  this  way  some  1400  stars,  published  in  four  cata- 
logues in  the  Pkilosophiedi  Transactions  from  1796  to  1799;  and 
two  additional  catalogues  were  discovered  among  his  papers 
in  1883  by  Professor  £.  C.  Pickering  of  Harvard  (see  Harvard 
Annals,  xiv.  345),  and  have  recently  been  published  by  Colonel 
J.  Herschel  (PkU.  Trans.,  1906).  These  researches  of  the 
dd^r  Herschel  were  in  due  time  followed  by  those  of  his  son. 
Sir  John,  about  the  year  1836  at  the  Cape  Of  Good  Hope.  He 
both  extended  and  improved  the  methods  adopted  by  his  father 
at  Slough,  and  by  a  method  of  estimated  sequences  of  magnitude 
he  hoped  to  amnge  all  the  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  at 
the  Cape  or  in  England  in  the  order  of  their  relative  lustre, 
and  then  to  reduce  his  results  into  the  equivalent  magnitudes 
adopted  by  the  universal  consent  of  astronomers.  Sir  John, 
however,  like  his  father,  left  this  hnportant  labour  Incomplete. 
Not  only  is  the  work  one  of  great  and  continuous  effort,  but  the 
effects  of  ever-varying  meteorological  conditions  greatly  impede 
it.  Moreover,  there  is  an  unsatisfactory  indefiniteness  attending 
all  estimations  made  by  the  unaided  eye;  numerical  or  quantita- 
tlv*  conpatisoM  art  out  •f  the  qu^ion,  and  hence  we  find 


Sir  John,  In  the  yay  midst  of  ertaMKhIng  Us  "•eqvcnccs»" 
adopting  also  an  instrumental  method  which  might  lead  him 
to  more  definite  results. 

In  the  year  when  Sir  John  Henchcl  aNidaded  Us  pboto^ 
metric  work  at  the  Cape  (1838)  Dr  F.  W.  A.  Argdander  com- 
menced, and  in  1843  completed,  his  Uranomdria  imm,  in 
which  the  magnitudea  ol  all  stars  visible  to  the  iinaidfd  eye  in 
central  Europe  are  catalogued  with  a  piedsioB  And  conpletcnas 
previously  unknown.  It  contains  3SS6  stars,  and  ahbou^ 
it  will  probably  be  superseded  by  instrumental  photometry  it 
must  ever  remain  a  monument  of  inteUigeat  patience.  Aise- 
laader's  labours  were  not  mnfined  to  stars  visible  Co  the  naked 
eye;  by  the  aid  of  his  assistants,  Dr  E.  Schflnfeld  and  Dr  A. 
Krflger,  three  catalogues  of  magnitudes  and  cdestial  co-ordinates 
were  ultimatdy  published  (1859-1862)  as  the  Bonn  Dmrck- 
muskntng,  including  the  enormous  number  of  324.r88  stars. 
and  an  additional  volume  containing  133,659  stars  touthof 
the  equator  was  pubUshed  in  1886. 

Dr  B.  A.  Gould  (1824-1896),  in  faSs  UranomeHa  orientuu 
(1879),  has  done  similar  work  for  7756  stars  visible  only  in  the 
southern  lieniiq>here,  and  his  successor  at  C6rdoba,  J.  M.  Thome, 
has  pubBshcd  (1904)  three  volumes  of  the  Argentine  (C6rd(^) 
Dtuckmu^tnmi  containing  489,662  stars  between  dedtnatioo 
—22**  to  -*S2*.  There  have  been  other  worthy  labourcn  in  the 
same  fidd,  each  of  whom  has  rendered  cflident  service,  such  as 
Dr  E.  Heis  and  M.  J.  C.  Houseau. 

It  b  to  Sir  John  Herschd  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  first 
successful  attempt  at  stellar  photometry  by  what  may  be 
termed  **  artificial "  means.    He  deflected  the  light  of  the  moon 
(by  means  of  the  interaal  reflection  of  a  rectangular  prism) 
through  a  small  lens  o-r2  in.  in  diameter  and  of  very  dkoct 
focus  (0*23  in.)  so  as  to  fom  a  sort  of  artificial  star  in  its 
focus.    With  strings  and  a  wooden  pole  he  could  move  thb 
artifidal  star  of  comparison  so  as  to  be  in  the  same  line  of  si^t 
with  any  actual  star  whose  light  be  proposed  to  measure.  Other 
strings  enabled  him  to  remove  it  to  such  a  distance  from  the  eye 
that  its  bght  was  adjudged  to  be  sensibly  the  same  as  that  of 
the  star  compared;  and  the  distance  was  measured  by  a  gradu- 
ated upe.    While  he  was  thus  busy  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope* 
K.  A.  Stdnheil  at  Munich  had  completed  for  Dr  P.  L.  Seidd 
an  instrument  neatly  the  same  in  prindide  but  more  manayble 
in  form.    He  divided  the  small  object«^ass  of  a  tdeacopc  into 
two  halves,  one  of  which  was  movable  in  the  dircctian  of  its 
axis.   The  images  of  two  stars  whose  light  be  desired  to  compare 
were  formed  by  prismatic  reflection,  nearl]^  in  the  -same  line  of 
sight,  and  one  of  the  lenses  was  then  moved  uqitil  the  ligjht  of 
the  two  images  seemed  equal.    The  distance  through  which  it 
was  necessary  to  bring  the  movable  lens  furnished  the  data  for 
comparing  the  refaitive  lustre  of  the  two  stars  in  question. 
More  recently  other  photometers  have  been  devised,  and  de> 
scriptioos  of  three  of  them,  with  which  considex;^ble  researches 
have  been  conducted  will  pow  be  given.  With  the  first  mentiooed 
bdow  Professor  IHckeriog  of  Harvard  has  made  more  than  a 
million  measures  with  his  own  eyes.   The  results  of  his  observa- 
tions, and  of  those  of  his  assistants^  will  be  found  in  the  llan«rd 
Amudi  especially  in  vol.  xlv.  pubUshed  in  1901,  which  oon> 
tains  a  general  catalogue  of  about  24,000  stars  brighter  than 
magtiitude  7 '5,  north  of  declination  —40*.    With  Uie  ZfiUocr 
photometer  Drs  GusUv  Miiller  and  P.  Kempf  of  Potsdam  have 
recently  completed  a  similar  piece  of  work,  their  catakgisa  of 
stars  north  of  the  equator  brighter  than  7*5  containing  14.199 
stars  {P^siam  Pmblieaiions,  1907,  vd.  xvii.).    The  catalocue 
of  Professor  C.  Pritchard  was  smalkXp  coolalning  2784  stars 
brighter  than  magnitude  about  6-5  and  north  of  dfrlinnlina 
^  10";  but  it  was  published  in  1886,  when  very  little  had  yet  been 
done  towards  the  systematic  measurement  of  the  bri^tness 
of  the  stars  (Uranomctria  nova  oxoniensiSf  \6L  |i.  of  the  Oadord 
University  Observatory  publications). 

Pickering's  meridian  photometer  (Ann,  Asiron.  Obs.  Hisrv.  wk. 
xiv.  and  x»ii.)  eoosists  01  two  tdeaoopes  placed  ade  by  Mde  pointing 
due  east,  the  light  from  the  stars  On  the  meridian  bdOg  feffeetcd  into 
them  by  two  mirrors  indined  at  an  angle  of  45*  to  this  diicrtien. 
If  there  wtre  a  star  exactly  at  the  Peio»  otts  of  these  aairrota 


PHOTOMBTRT 

>■)■( 

M    W    btBl-    .... 

PoUrii,  wlih  wtikh 


tddiiiowiMl  ■ 

■o  thai  UK  Hanrard  phi3t«<iKtry  It  the  n 

alu  nvena  the  dou6te-imaB«  pru<q.     The  t  j 

TTlttin  poiMofi  of  the  imu«.  whicti  Bay  araoi  rh 

of  ■  nunbods.    Emm  «f  thi>  kind  ■»«(  ai  h 

nUtIv*  HighlHH  «l  twi  iur»  in  iIk  lunc  ei 

rtpratnUy  thwn;  a  mriking  iniunce  it  oivrn  b  a 

Lovcdale.  South  Alrica  (ifni.  iTgl.  B^.S.  Apt  n 

that  hn  eye4«limatfoni  of  Ibr  brifhliwH  of  in  v 

a  GQiTHkia  dvpsKUnc  «  tb«  p«tion4a|lc  oi 

■AT  TafwHi  ow  nearly  two  nuBikiada, 

In  ZMIiKi'i  iBHmment  u  uTiIkhI  nu  ii  ukrn  u  the  nandnn 

of  nmlpariMn.     There  h  only  one  Iclescopr.  and  iniide  the  iut> 

near  the  eye  end  U  a  pinte  of  Blue  pkctd  al  aa  anil 

M^^*      el  4S* Khb  Ika axU,  ■> thai  the  nntroiaa lampwh^ 

to  the  cyepiBe,  whils  the  light  tram  (he  lUr  paue 
throDfh  the  plate  UDOHtmcted.  The  lampll^hE  paaaea  ihrouRh  , 
jikol  pfiin  and  a  plate  of  rod  cmtal.  whKh  pvr  lomrol  ove 
Ih*  olaiiT!  thiMlfa  two  Nkah  which  can  be  routed  mind  Ih 

■      '  -■-  ■- '-'-^ paUIona  lead  oS  oo  a — ■" '  -'—■- 

ealana  which  forma  anil 


,.>  nved  (or 

!veral  ihtekiwHa  at  which 
■he  Usht  of  iheie  IdeKopic  atar-unaiei  k  eninfuiihed.  [n  thM 
way  tM  light  of  any  «1ar  can  lie  RadHy  compared  with  that  of 
pofaria  {or  any  other  lelecwd  auf)  al  the  momenl  ol  olaervi- 
tlon,  aod  that  a  caialoffuc  of  etar'nugnil  udn  can  be  fofoed. 
Two  material  impro^vmenti  >a|iefled  by  Dr  E.  J,  Scitia  aiv 
■nrthy  of  notkt  The  6m  WVot.  Rej.  Sot-  iM*  47-  '*»  »n«» 
a  alight  (Meet  ia  the  iDrm  of  (he  laxniiwnu    It  a  pencil  of  layi 

^Ibroughathin  wedieuf  (ioKdClui,  IhrrayidonH  all  pax 

.  .. ii.i .J,..     •brSpittaptupoMioBibsi- 


rme  a  cair  of  vcdrea  aith  th^  (htcknenca  tncnaiing  in  ' 
dinsHMuT  By  ilidiiw  one  mtt  the  ciiher  we  oUaa  a 

ptotc  ol  ikaaof  varying  ■'■" '  -   -" ' 

■enaible  aimeniooi  can  — _  -^  ,-_-_, — 

haialaapoinledoutaKtireeafeTTorintlieinelhadL.  . 
the  wedgt  and  thown  how  to  torrect  It.  The  Kale  vah»  wa« 
denernilned  by  Profemr  Pritchald  by  th«  IHC  s(  a  dauUr  ntnctuif 
priamof  quarUBndaNicOljviain.    Uung(hianielhad  iubsquendy, 


a  paialM 

oflqM  of 

pUhed  ladifactorily.     He 


inlerfeed  with  the  amin,.  ,, ,_ . 

Match  1890;  Abney.  ibid..  June  1*90).  ''      '" 


Sfnce  iSSs  sTMeinattc 
been  conMructtd  with  all 
great  fritenst  to  compare  Iht  rel 
paruon  haa  in  genera]  ahovn  a  uU$fi 
[maQ  differrnceA  nv 


itilojno  of  Udlar  brlghlncn  have 


and  injimnieiil.  One  cause  of  luch  <UBtnBca.  Ibe  reality 
of  which  li  nndoubied,  but  the  eSrcia  of  wbhh  have  ai  r« 
not  bccn4KThapa  fullj  wortcd  out.  ii  Ibe  "  Purkinjc  pbenom- 
enon  "  (fjlucirj  Arckit.  In.  ig7).  If  a  blue  lODm  of  light 
and  a  red  »urce  apl>ear  equatt;  bri^l  to  tbe  eye,  and  if  the 
Intenilly  ol  t*cb  be  dimiaisliid  in  tbe  hdic  laiio.  they  win  no 
toDf^r  appear  equally  bright, (bcbluenow  appearing  Ibe  brighter; 
in  more  general  lermi,  the  equaliidEg  of  two  diflerenlly 
coloured  lightb  by  the  eye  depends  upon  their  iulensffy.  1(  ^ 
clear  that  ibii  phenomenon  mutt  affect  all  pholomelrlc  wotl 
unini  the  tlan  are  all  naclly  of  the  ume  colour,  which  we 
know  they  are  nol  For  lei  ns  suppose  thai  both  the  comparison 
star  ol  the  mcHdian  pholameter  and  Ibe  artificial  star  of  the 
ZdQner  photometer  were  equaliird  irilb  a  bright  ilar  A,and  that 
they  could  be  alio  compared  infrr  rr  and  found  equally  bright. 

Ihey  will  no  longer  appear  equal  to  one  another  unfeas  Ihry  are 
waclly  lit  aame  in  colour  Id  other  words,  the  observed  ratio  of 
Inlensiiies  of  A  and  B  will  vary  with  the  colour  of  the  comparison 
star,  and  similarly  It  will  alio  vary  with  Ihc  apenure  of  Ihe 
teleacepe  employed.  Now  it  is  one  of  tbe  meritsof  the  Potsdam 
catalogue  above  mentioned  that  it  gives  est  imalFS  of  the  colours 
of  Ibe  stars  as  wed  as  of  their  niagnitudca—-v>  that  we  now  lor  the 

section  ol  ibdi  introducuon  it  ji  shown  ihal  two  of  the  Harvard 
phoLomelric  ctlaloguei  show  systematic  dlBerencei,  due  10 
colour,  and  arnoundng  to  nearly  hall  a  magnitude,  and  Ihat 
tbe  Purkinje  phctjomcnon  Is  a  satiafadoiy  ciplanatioD  ol  these 


This 


n  has  b 


Tierlcal  re 


eniible.     Bui  Iben 
ie  lad 


■ki,  via.  those  obtained  by  Sir  W.  Abney 
\rroc.  Any.  sac.  May  iSiji;  and  ifn.  Nal.  R.A^.  April  iSqi), 
giving  the  limiting  intensity  al  which  each  pure  colour  vanishes. 
If  we  ttut  with  lights  C  D  E  F  C  of  the  colours  usually  drnoled 
by  these  letters  in  Ibe  spetlrum,  and  each  so  bnghl  that  il 
appeals  to  He  rye  ai  bright  as  an  »my]-ac»lale  lamp  al  1  fl„ 
and  11  Iben  the  iniensily  ol  each  be  gradually  diminished,  Ibe 
C  light  Hill  disappear  when  the  original  intcnuty  has  been 
reduced  to^i.ooolen-millionthsof  the  original  value.  Thcothir 
colours  will  disappear  at  the  following  intensilies.  all  expressed 
in  tcn-miUionlht  of  the  original.  D  at  J50,  E  at  }5.  F  a[  17. 
and  G  al  is-  II  then  we  had  a  miilure  of  two  lights,  one  ol 
C  colour  as  bright  as  belorc,  and  the  other  of  C  colour  looo 

10  distinguish  ihc  C  light  at  all),  and  il  we  lonllnDally  reduced 
the  combined  inleniity,  the  lundnosily  ol  tbe  C  light  would 

:  tight  would  have'atl  disappeared,  white  ihe  C-lighi  would 'not 
Icocc  the  colour  ol  the  ligbt  would  appear  pure  violet,  though 
I  was  originally  deep  red.  This  eitreme  case  showi  that  Ihe 
'  last  ray  to  diuppcai  "  when  a  light  is  gradually  eitinguisbed 
Day  be  very  dilTerent  in  coboui  from  that  ol  the  onjpnal  licht. 
.nd  when  more  usual  lighi-mixture 

starKgbl,  whic 

10  disappear  "  is  louno  lo  oe  in  ine  gtEcn, 
cctruDi.  This  resull  has  two  imponaiM 
:be  wedge  pholamelcr.    In  tbe  first  place. 


d  begin) 


h  appear  oeirly  whit 


532 


PHOTOMBTHy 


either  the  wedge  itseK  should  be  of  a  greenish  hue,  or  green  light 
should  be  used  in  finding  the  scale-value  (the  constant  B  in  the 
formula  m-A+Bw).  In  the  second,  star  magnitudes  obtained 
by  extinction  with  the  wedge  will  agree  better  with  those  obtained 
by  photography  than  those  obtained  with  other  visual  photo- 
meters, since  photographic  action  is  chiefly  produced  by  rays 
from  £  to  G  in  the  spectrum,  and  the  £  light  of  ultimate  impor- 
tance with  the  wedge  photometer  is  nearer  this  light  in  character 
than  the  D  light  with  which  other  photometers  are  chiefly 
concerned.  It  would  also  appear  that  results  obtained  with  the 
wedge  photometer  are  independent  of  the  aperture  of  telescope 
employed,  which  is  not  the  case  with  other  photometers. 

Passing  now  to  the  consideration  of  photographic  methods, 
it  is  found  that  when  a  plate  is  exposed  to  the  stars,  the  images 
Ptotm'  of  the  brighter  stars  are  larger  and  blacker  thLn 
gia^iG  those  of  the  fainter  ones,  and  as  the  exposure  is 
p*o(o-  prolonged  the  increase  in  size  and  blackness  contin- 
''"^'  ues.  Much  of  the  light  is  brought  to  an  accurate 
focus,  but,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  perfect  achromatism  in 
the  case  of  refractors,  and  to  uncorrected  aberration,  diffraction, 
and  possibly  a  slight  diffusion  in  both  refractors  and  reflectors, 
there  are  rays  which  do  not  come  to  accurate  focus,  grouped  in 
rings  of  intensity  gradually  diminishing  outwards  from  the  focus. 
As  the  brightness  of  the  star  increases,  or  as  the  time  of  exposure 
ist  prolonged,  outer  and  fainter  rings  make  their  impression  on 
the  plate,  while  the  impression  on  the  inner  rings  becomes 
deeper.  Hence  the  increase  in  both  diameter  and  blackness  of 
the  star  disks.  As  these  increase  concurrently,  we  can  estimate 
the  magnitude  of  the  star  by  noting  either  the  increase  in 
diameter  or  in  blackness,  or  in  both.  There  is  consequently 
a  variety  in  the  methods  proposed  for  determining  star 
magnitudes  by  photography.  But  before  considering  these 
different  methods,  there  is  one  point  affecting  them  all 
which  is  of  fundamental  importance.  In  photography  a 
new  variable  comes  in  which  does  not  affect  eyc-observjitions, 
vi2.,  the  time  of  exposure,  and  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
how  to  make  due  allowance  for  it.  There  is  a  simple  law 
which  is  true  in  the  case  of  bright  lights  and  rapid  plates, 
that  by  doubling  the  exposure  the  same  photographic  effect 
Is  produced  as  by  increasing  the  intensity  of  a  source  of  h'ght 
twofold,  and  so  far  as  this  law  holds  it  gives  xis  a  simple  method 
of  comparing  magnitudes.  Unfortunately  this  law  breaks  down 
for  faint  lights.  Sir  W.  Abney,  who  had  been  a  vigorous  advo- 
cate for  the  complete  accuracy  of  this  law  up  till  1803,  in  that 
year  read  a  paper  to  the  Royal  S6ciety  on  the  failure  of  the 
law,  finding  that  it  fails  when  exposures  to  an  amyl-acetate 
lamp  at  i  it.  are  reduced  to  o"'0oi,  and  "signally  fails  "  for 
feeble  intensities  of  light;  indeed,  it  seems  possible  that  there  is 
a  limiting  intensity  beyond  which  no  length  of  exposure  would 
produce  any  sensible  effect.  This  was  bad  news  for  astronomers 
who  have  to  deal  with  faint  lights,  for  a  simple  law  of  this  kind 
would  have  been  of  great  value  in  the  complex  dcjj^rtment  of 
photometry.  But  it  seems  possible  that  a  certain  modification 
or  equivalent  of  the  law  may  be  used  in  practice.  Professor 
H.  H.  Turner  found  that  for  plates  taken  at  Greenwich,  when 
the  time  of  exposure  is  prolonged  in  the  ratio  of  five  star  magni- 
tudes the  photographic  gain  is  four  magnitudes  (Afon.  Not, 
R.AS.  Ixv.  775),  and  a  closely  similar  result  has  been  obtained 
by  Dr  Schwarzschild  using  the  method  presently  to  be 
mentioned. 

Stars  of  different  magnitudes  impress  on  the  plate  images 
differing  both  in  size  and  blackness.  To  determine  the  magni- 
OteawteTMlude  from  the  character  of  the  image,  the  easiest 
Uttot  quantity  to  measure  is  the  diameter  of  the  image, 
MagaHmdn.  an<j  when  measurements  of  position  are  being  made 
with  a  micrometer,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  record  the 
diameter  as  well,  in  spite  of  the  indefinitcness  of  the  border. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  various  laws  have  been  proposed  for 
representing  the  magnitude  of  a  star  by  the  diameter  of  its 
image,  though  these  have  usually  been  expressed,  as  a  pre- 
liminary, as  relations  between  the  diameter  and  time  of  exposure. 
TI1US  G.  P.  Bond  found  the  diameter  to  increase  as  the  square  of 


the  e«p06iire»Turtier  u  the  cube,  Pritchaid  as  the  fonidi  power, 
while  W.  H.  M.  Christie  has  found  the  bw  that  the  diameter 
varies  as  the  square  of  the  logarithm  of  the  exposure  within 
certain  limits.  There  is  dearly  no  universal  law — it  varies  with 
the  instrument  and  the  plate — ^but  for  a  given  instrument  and 
plate  an  empirical  law  may  be  deduced.  Or,  without  deducing 
any  law  at  all,  a  series  of  images  may  be  produced  of  stars  of 
known  brightness  and  known  exposiires,  and,  using  this  as  a 
scale  of  reference,  the  magnitudes  of  other  images  may  be 
inferred  by  intetpolatJon.  A  most  iniportant  piece  of  systematic 
work  has  been  carried  out  by  the  measurement  of  diameters  in 
the  Cape  Photographic  Durckimt^€ru*g  (Xnn.  Cape  O&nr. 
vols,  iii.,  Iv.  and  v.)  c^  stars  to  the  tenth  magnitude  in  the  aooth- 
ern  hemisphere.  The  measurements  were  made  by  Vroicaaat 
J.  C.  Kapteyn  of  Groidngen,  on  photographs  taken  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  Observatoiy;  he  adopts  as  his  purely  emptriol 
formula 

magnitude  *B/(diaroetcr  +  C). 

where  B  and  C  are  obtained  independently  for  every  plate,  from 
comparison  with  visual  magnitudes.  C  varies  from  10  to  28, 
and  B  from  90  to  260.  The  part  of  the  sky  photographed  was 
found  to  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  value  of  these  con- 
stants,  and  ft  was  in  the  course  Of  this  work  that  Kapteyn  found 
a  systematic  difference  between  stars  near  the  Milky  Way  and 
thoK  far  from  it,  which  may  be  bnefly  expressed  in  the  law,  tkt 
stars  of  the  MUky  Way  art  in  generof  bluer  than  ike  stars  in  oiktr 
regions  of  the  sky.  It  is  intended,  however,  in  the  pfesent 
article  to  discuss  methods  rather  than  results,  and  we  cannot 
here  further  notice  this  most  interesting  discovery. 

Of  methods  which  choose  the  bUcknesa  of  the  image  lathcc 
than  the  diameter  fot  measurement,  the  most  interesting  is 
that  initiated  independently  by  Pickering  at  Harvard  . 
and  C.  Schwarzschild  at  Vienna,  which  consists  JTid. 
in  taking  star  images  considembly  -out  of  focus. 
The  result  is  that  these  linages  no  longer  vary  appreciably  in 
size,  but  only  in  blackness  or  density;  and  that  this  gradatioQ 
of  density  is  Recognizable  through  a  wide  range  of  magnitudes. 
On  a  plate  taken  in  good  focus  in  the  ordinary  way  there  b  a 
gradation  of  the  same  kind  for  the  faintest  stars;  tbe  smalkci 
images  are  all  of  approximately  tbe  same  size,  but  vary  in  tone 
from  grey  to  black.  But  once  the  image  becomes  Mack  it 
increases  in  size,  and  the  change  in  density  is  not  esay  to  foBov. 
The  images-out-of-focus  method  seems  vecy  promising,  to  jndge 
by  the  published  results  of  Dr  Schwarzschild,  who  used  a  pre- 
pared comparison  scale  of  densities,  and  interpolated  for  any 
given  star  from  it.  The  most  satisfactory  photographic  na.ethod 
would  certainly  be  to  take  account  of  both  size  and  blackness. 
i.e.  to  measure  the  total  deposit  in  tbe  film;  as,  for  instance, 
by  interposing  the  whole  image  in  a  given  beam  of  Uglit,  and 
measuring  the  diminution  of  the  beam  caused  by  theobstructioB. 
But  no  considerable  piece  of  work  has  as  3ret  been  attempted  on 
these  lines. 

£ven  in  a  rapid  sketch  of  so  extensive  a  subject  some  notice 
must  bie  taken  of  the  application  of  photometry  to  the  determin*- 
tton  of  the  rebtive  amount  of  light  received  on  the , 
earth  from  the  sun,  the  moon  and  the  planets. 
'The  methods  by  which  these  ratios  have  been' 
obtained  are  as  simple  as  they  are  ingenious;  and  for  them 
we  are  mainly  indebted  to  the  labours  of  P.  Bougiuo-  and 
W.  C.  Bond  (1789-1859).  The  former  compared  the  figfat 
received  from  the  sun  with  that  from  the  moon  in  the  folkrwi^ 
fashion  in  1725.  A  hole  one-twelfth  of  a  Paris  indi  w«s  made 
in  the  shutter  of  a  dariiened  room;  dose  to  it  was  placed  n  coe> 
oave  lens,  and  in  this  way  an  image  of  the  sun  9  in.  in  dia* 
meter  was  received  on  a  screen.  Bouguer  found  that  this  bgfct 
was  equal  to  that  of  a  candle  viewed  at  x(S  in.  from  his  eye. 
A  similar  experiment  was  repeated  with  the  light  of  tlie  IvSX 
moon.  The  image  now  formed  was  only  two-thirds  of  na  inch 
in  diameter,  and  he  found  that  the  light  of  thia  image  wm 
comparable  with  that  of  the  same  can(Ue  viewed  at  a  distance 
of  50  ft.  From  these  data  and  a  vety  simple  calculation  it 
followed  that  the  light  of  the«UJi  was  about  as6»t89  limes  iliat 


FHRAATES 


533 


of  the  moon.    0(li«r  esperim^nU  ftrilowed,  mad  tht  avefage 

of  ^  the  results  was  that  the  light  of  thosun  was  about  300,000 

times  the  aveiage  light  of  a  fuU  moon,  both  being  viewed  in 

the  heavens  at  the  same  altitudes.    The  details  will  be  found  in 

Booguer's  TroiU  d'cpHqite.    W.  H.  WoUaston  in  1829  tried  a 

scries  erf  ezperitaents  in  which  the  xaitio  8oi,o7>  waa  ol^ained; 

but  the  omiaaioa  of  certain  necessary  precautions  vitiates  the 

result  {Pkii.  Trans.  18)9).    Bond  {Mem.  Amer.  Acai.  i86i» 

p.  ags)  sdopted  a  different  -process.    He  fonned  the  image  of 

the  sun  on  a  slvered  globe  of  some  10  in.  diameter;  the.  light  of 

this  image  was  reflected  on  to  a  small  mercurial  thermometer 

bulb;  and  then  this  second  image  was  compared  with  a  Bengal 

^ght  so  moved  that  the  lights  appeared  to  be  equaL   The  same 

process  was  adopted  with  the  full  moon  instead  of  with  the  8un« 

ThjB  rcsuU  was  that  the  son's  fa'gfat  was  470,980  times,  that  of 

the  moon.   Seidel  long  before  this  date  haid  compared  the  light 

of  the  mean  full  moon  with  that  of  Jupiter  in  mean  opposition; 

his  result  is  6430.   So  ako  this  light  of  Jupiter  was  found  to  be 

•4864  times  that  of  Venus  at  her  brightest;  and  Jupiter  was 

found  to  give  8*2  times  the  Ug^t  of  a  Lyrae.    If,  then,  these 

numbers  could  be  accepted  with  confidence,  we  should  have  the 

means  of  comparing  the  fa'ght  received  from  the  sun  with  that 

received  from  any  of  the  stars.    Adopting  these  precarious 

rrambers  on  the  authorities  of  Bond  and  Seidel  we  have  the- 

fcrflowing  results:-^ 

Sun's  light   «"  470,980  that  of  the  fun  moon. 

„          —  622.600,000      „      Venus  at  her  brightest. 

"  307*83S<ooo      n     luDiter  at  mean  opposition. 

*  S>970t5oo>ooo      „     biruiB. 


•• 


It 


•Lastly,  Bouguer,  by  comparing  the  light  of  the  full  moon 
viewed  at  different  altitudes  with  an  artificial  light,  found 
that  the  atntosphere  absorbs  'X877  of  the  light  incident  on  it 
at  the  aenith  of  any  pkce.    Professor  Pritchard,  from  photo* 
metric  measures  taken  at  Cairo,  found  this  number  to  be  '157. 
At  Oxford  it  was  •309.   Thus  Bouguer's  determination  indicates 
an  absorptive  capacity  in  the  atmosphere  of  Brittany  just  midway 
between  those  of  Oxford  and  Cairo.    Seidel  at  Munich  expresses 
"  surprise  "  at  finding  his  owti  results  so  nearly  accordant  with 
Bouguer^.    Although  rather  outside  the  domain  of  photometry 
in  the  strict  sense,  a  word  or  two  may  be  said  here  about  recent 
attempts  to  measure  the  heat  received  from  the  stars,  the  first 
being  made  with  the  "  radio-micrometer  *'  of  C.  V.  Boys.   {^oc. 
Roy.  Sac,  1890).    This  is  an  extremely  delicate  instrument  for 
Very  mtu    measuring  radiant  heat,  and  consists  of  a  very  light 
tfMfrom  thermo-electric  drcuit  (two  tiny  bars  of  antimony 
ii»  Start,    and  bismuth  soldered  together  at  one  edge,   the 
outer   edges  being  connected  by  a  hoop  of  copper  wire) 
suspended   by  a  quartz  fibre  (a  torsion  fibre  of  the  very 
greatest  seiisitiveness)  in  a  strong  magnetic  field.    A  minute 
quantity  of  radiant  heat  falling  on  one  of  the  junctbns  of  the 
drcuit  sets  up  a  current  in  the  circuit,  which  thus  rotates  in  the 
mAgnttlc  field  until  brought  to  rest  try  the  torsion  of  the  fibre. 
For  use  on  the  heavenly  bodies  the  radiant  heat  is  collected  to 
focus  by  a  reflecting  telescope  (an  object-glass  would  absorb  it), 
and  when  the  tek^cope  is  pointed  to  the  moon  the  varying 
radiatloTi  from  different  parts  of  the  dish  is  beautifully  shown. 
No  heat  comes  from  the  unlit  portion,  and  of  the  illuminated 
portion  the  maximum  is  obtained  from  near  the  limb.    But 
when  pointed  to  the  brightest  stars  no  indications  were  obtained, 
although  the  instrument  is  sensitive  enough  to  detect  the  heat 
from  a  candle  more  than  a  mile  off.    It  seems  certain  that 
indications  of  heat  from  the  stars  obtained  by  previous  observers 
must  be  spurious.   It  is  also  manifest  that  to  obtain  satisfactory 
results  even  more  sensitive  apparatus  must  be  devised,  and  by 
using  a  radiometer  and  the  powerful  resources  of  the  Yerkes 
Observatory  £•  F.  Nichols  succeeded  in  1808  and  1900  in  obtain- 
ing indications  of  heat  from  Arcturus  and  Vega,  as  well  as  fivm 
Jupiter  and  Saturn  {Astrapkysicat  Joum.  xili.,  101),  the  heat 
received  being  comparable  with  that  from  a  candle  6  m.  away. 
We  may  place  alongside  this  result  that  obtained  by  W.  J. 
Dibdin  iProc.  Roy.  Soc.  April  1892),  who  compared  candle- 
li^t   with  twenty-one  stars  ranging  to  the  sixth  magnitude^ 


and  fDttBd  At  light  of  a  seend  nngiiitiide  star  equal  to  thil- 
of  «  candle  at  1260  ft<  (H.  H.  T.)    - 

PHKAATEB  (FiouaATEs;  Pen.'  Frakdi,  vf/odem  P€fMt\  the 
name  of  five  Parthian  kings. 

I.  Phsaates  I.,  son  of  Priapatlus,  reigned  c.  17 $-170  s.c. 
He  subdued  the  Mardi^  a  mountainous  tribe  in  the  Elburz 
(Justin  xlL  5;  Isid.  Chaxac  7).  He  died  young,  and  appbinted  as 
his  successor  not  one  of  his  bods,  but  his  brother  Mithradates  L 
(Jnsthi  xli.  s). 

a.  PBSAAiEft  n.,  son  of  Mithradates  L,  the  conqueror  of 
Babyfonia,  reigned  138-127.  He  was  attacked  in  130  t^ 
Antiochos  VII.  Sidetes,  who,  however,  In  129  wss  defeated  and 
kiUed  in  a  great  bottle  hi  Media,  whidi  ended  the  Seleucid  rule 
east  of  the  Euphrates  (see  Selcucsd  Dynasty).  Meanwhile 
the  Ungdom  was  invaded  by  the  Scythians  (the  Tochari  of 
Bactria),  whi  had  helped  Anttochus.  Phraates  marched  against 
them,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  (Justin  xlii  i;  Johannes 
Antioch,yi'.  66). 

3.  Prkaates  ni.,  "  thfc  (5od  **  (Phl^gon,  /r.  la  ap.  Phothis 
cod.97  and  on  some  of  his  coins), succeeded  his  father/Sanatruces, 
in  70  B.C.,  at  the  time  when  I^cidlus  was  preparing  to  attack 
TIgranes  of  Armenia,  who  was  supreme  in  western  Asia  and  had 
wrested  Mesopotamia  and  several  vassal  states  from  the  Pluthian 
kingdom.  Naturally,  Phraates  declined  to  assist  Mithradates 
of  Pontus  and  Tigianes  against  the  Ronmns  (see  I^gkanes). 
He  sui^rted  his  son-fn-law,  the  younger  TIgranes,  when  he 
rebelled  against  his  father,  and  hivaded  Armenia  (65  B.C.)  ia 
alliance  with  Pompey,  who  abandoned  Mesopotamia  to  the 
Parthians  (Dfo.  Cass,  xxxvi.  45,  51;  Appkn,  iffVAi*.  104;  Lfv. 
BpU,  too).  But  Pompey  soon  overrode  the  treaty;  he  acknow- 
ledged the  elder  TIgranes,  took  his  son  prisoner,  occupied  tht 
vassal  states  Gordyene  and  OsroSne  for  the  Romans,  and  denied 
the  title  of  **  king  of  kings,'*  which  Phraates  had  adopted  again, 
to  the  Parthian  king  (Pint.  P^tf.  33,  38;  Dio.  Cass,  xxxvii. 
5  scq.).  About  57  Phraates  was  murdered  by  his  two  sons, 
Orodes  I.  and  Mithradates  ItT. 

4.  PHRAAtES  IV.,  son  of  Otodes  I.,  by  whom  he  was  appointed 
successor  in  37  B.C.,  after  the  death  of  Pacorus.  He  soon 
murdered  his  father  and  all  his  thirty  brothers  (Justin  xlii.  5; 
Plut.  Crass.  33;  I>lo  Cass.  xHt.  23).  He  was  attacked  hi  36 
by  Antonlus  (Mark  Antony),  who  matched  through  Armenia 
into  ^edia  Atropatene,  and  was  defeated  and  lost  the  greats 
part  of  his  army.  Believing  himsdf  betrayed  by  Atfavasdes, 
king  of  Armenia,  he  Invaded  his  kingdom  in  34,  took  him  prisoner, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  with  another  Artavasdes,  king  of  Atro- 
patene. But  when  the^war  with  Octavianus  Augustus  broke 
out,  he  could  not  maintain  his  conquests;  Phraates  recovered 
Atropatene  and  drover  Artaxes,  the  son  of  Artavasdes,  back 
into  Armenia  (Dio.  Cass.  xlix.  24  sqq.,  39  seq.,  44;  cf.  11.  16; 
Plut  AntoniuSt  37  seq.).  But  by  his  many  cruelties  Phraates 
had  roused  the  indignation  of  his  subjects,  who  raised  Thridate^ 
II.  to  the  throne  In  32.  Phraates  was  restored  by  the  Scythians, 
and  Tfridates  fled  into  Syria.  The  Romans  hoped  that  Augustus 
would  avenge  the  defeat  of  Crassus  on  the  Parthians,  but  he 
contented  himself  with  a  treaty,  by  which  Phraates  gave  back 
the  prisoners  and  the  conquered  eagles  (30  B.C.,  Afon.  Anc.  5, 
40  sqq.;  Justin  xlii.  5);  the  kingdom  of  Arroerua  abo  was  recog- 
nized as  a  Roman  dependency.  Soon  afterwards  Phraates, 
whose  greatest  enemies  were  his  own  family,  sent  five  of  his  sons 
as  hostages,  to  Augustus,  thus  acknowledging  his  dependence 
on  Rome.  This  plan  he  adopted  on  the  advice  of  an  Italian 
concubine  whom  he  made  his  le^timate  wife  under  the  name 
of  "  the  goddess  Musa  ";  her  son  Phraates,  commonly  called 
Pbraataces  (a  diminutive  form),  he  appointed  successor.  About 
4  B.C.  he  was  murdered  by  Musa  and  her  son  (Joseph.  Ant. 
xviii.  2, 4). 

5.  Phkaates  v.,  or  PrIuuutacbs,  the  younger  son  of  Phraates 
IV.  and  the  "  goddess  Musa,"  with  whom  he  is  associated  on 
his  coins.  Under  him  a  war  threatened  to  break  out  with 
Rome  about  the  supremacy  in  Armenia  and  Media.  But  when 
Augustus  sent  his  adopted  son  Oaius  Caesar  into  the  east  tti 
order  to  invade  Parthia.  the  Parthians  preferred  to  conclude  a 


534 


PHRANTZA— PHRENOLOGY 


treaty  (a.d.  i)»  by  which  onoea^un  Anaenfa  was  tecognided  as 
in  the  R^man  sphere  (Dio.  Cass.  Iv.  lo;  VeUeius  ii.  xoi).  Soon 
after  Pbraataces  and  his  mother  were  slain  by  the  ParChians, 
about  A.D.  5  (Joseph.  Ant,  xviii.  a,  4).  (Eo.  M.) 

PBRANTZA,  GEORGE  [GsoxGios  Phxantzes]  (140X-C.  1477), 
the  last  Byzantine  historian,  was  bom  in  Constantinople.  Ac 
an  early  a|;e  he  became  secretary  to  Manuel  II.  Palae<dogus,  In 
143a  protovestiarius  (great  chamberlain),  in  1446  praefect  of 
Sparta,  and  subsequently  great  logothete  (chancellor).  At  the 
capture  of  0>nstantin<^e  by  the  Turks  (1455)  he  fdl  into  their 
hands,  but  managed  to  escspe  to  Pebponnesus,  where  he 
obtained  protection  at  the  court  of  Thomas  Palaedogus,  deqxit 
of  Achaea.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Pdoponneaian  prince* 
(1460)  Phrantza  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Tardianiotes  in 
Corfu.  Here  he  wrote  ha  Ckronide,  containing  the  history  of 
the  house  of  the  Palaeologi  from  1458-1476.  It  is  a  most 
valuable  authority  for  the  events  of  his  own  times. 

Editions  by  I.  Bekker  (1838)  in  the  Corpus  scriplontm  hist,  ftjis., 
and  in  I.  P.  Migne,  Patrologta  gnucOt  dvi;  aee  abo  C  Knunbacher, 
CeschickU  der  byzatUiniscken  LiUeraJur  (1897). 

PHRAORTES,  the  Greek  form  of  Fravariisk,  king  of  Media. 
According  to  Herodotus  <i.  xoa)  be  was  the  son  of  Deioces,  and 
began  the  Median  conquests.  He  first  subjugated  the  Pmstans, 
and  then  a  great  many  other  peoples  of  Asia,  till  at  last  he 
attacked  the  Assyrians,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  in  A  battle, 
after  a  reign  of  twenty-two-  years  (about  646-^15  BjC.;  but 
perhaps,  as  G.  Rawlinson  supposes,  4he  fifty-three  years  of 
Deioces  ought  in  reality  to  be  transferred  to  him).  From  other 
sources  we  obtain  no  information  whatever  about  Phraortes; 
but  the  data  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  prove  that  Aasur-banl- 
pal  (see  Babylonia  and  Asstua).  at  least  during  the  greater 
part  of  bis  reign,  maintained  the  Assyrian  supremacy  in  Western 
Asia,  and  that  in  645  he  conquered  Susa.  The  Medians  too  were 
subject  to  him  as  far  as  the  Elbun  and  tbe  central  Irsnian 
desert. 

When  after  the  assassination  of  Smerdis  all  the  Iranian  tribes, 
the  Babylonians  and  the  Armenians  rebelled  against  Darius 
and  the  Persian  rule,  "  a  man  of  the  name  of  Fravartish  (i.«. 
Phraortes),  a  Mede,  rebelled  in  Media  and  spdce  to  the 
people  thus:  I  am  Khshathrita,  of  the  family  of  Uvakhshatra 
(Cyaaares)."  He  reigned  for  a  short  time,  but  was  defeated  by 
Hydames,  and  afterwards  by  Darius  himself,  taken  prisoner 
in  Rhagae  (Rai),  and  executed  in  Ecbatana  (520  B.C.;  see 
inscription  of  Darius  at  Behistun).  (Ed.M.) 

PHRENOLOGY,  (from  Gr.  M'l  mind,  and  Xiyor,  discourse), 
the  name  given  by  Thomas  Igoatius^orster  to  the  empirical 
system  of  psychology  formulated  by  F.  J.  Gall,  and  developed 
by  his  followers,  especially  by  J.  K.  Spurzheim  and  G.  Combe, 
by  whom  it  was  named  "  cranioscopy,"  "  craniology," 
"  physiognomy  "  or  "  zoonomy."  The  principles  upon  which 
it  is  based  are  five:  (i)  the  beam  is  the  organ  of  the  mind; 
(2)  the  mental  powers  of  man  can  be  analysed  into  a  definite 
number  of  independent  faculties;  (3)  these  faculties  ^re  innate, 
and  each  has  its  seat  in  a  definite  region  of  the  suri^ace  of  the 
brain;  (4)  the  size  of  each  such  r^on  is  the  measure  of  the 
degree  to  which  the  faculty  seated  in  it  forms  a  constituent 
element  in  the  character  of  the  individual;  (s)  the  correspon- 
dence between  the  outer  surface  of  the  skull  and  the  contour 
of  the  brain-surfape  beneath  is  sufficiently  close  to  enable  the 
observer  to  recognize  the  relative  sizes  of  these  several  organs 
by  the  examination  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  head.  It 
professes  primarily  to  be  a  system  of  psychology,  but  its  second 
and  more  popular  claim  is  that  it  affords  a  method  whereby  the 
disposition  and  character  of  the  subject  may  be  ascertained. 

History, — That  the  phenomena  oif  mind  are  in  some  measure 
connected  with  the  action  of  the  brain  has  been  recognized.from 
a  very  early  age  of  philosophy.-  It  is  true  that  Aristotle* 
describes  the  brain  as  the  coldest  and  most  bloodless  of  bodily 
organs,  of  the  nature  of  water  and'  earth,  whose  chief  purpose 
is  to  temper  the  excessive  heat  of  the  heart,  as  the  cooler  regions 
of  the  firmament  condense  the  vapours  rising  from  the  earth. 
*  D*  pcrtibus  animaliumt  ii.  c  7  (Paris,  16^,  p.  986}.  • 


In  his  view,  as  f n  that  of  most  of  the  etflier  writers  of  ether 
nations  of  antiquity,  the  heart  is  the  seat  of  Kfe;  to  it,  not  to  the 
brain,  the  Hebrew  writers  refer  thoughts  and  affcctioiis,  wfaiie 
they  considered  Judgment  as  seated  sometimes  in  the  head, 
sometimes  in  the  kidneys.'  This  was  likewke  the  teadbing  of 
the  ancient  Egyptian  philosophy;  and  hence,  irtiile  many  iftcs 
were  practised  and  prayers  cMSeied  for  the  preservation  of  the 
heart  of  the  deceased,  there  were  none  for  the  oonservution  of 
the  brain.*  We  learn  from  Diogeqes  Laertins^  that  Pythagorts 
held  more  accurate  physiotogical  views,  as  he  tau^^t  that  the 
mind  and  the  intellect  have  their  seat  in  the  brain.  The  theory 
of  Hippocrates  was  Pythagorean  cather  than«  Arisbotdian,  for, 
although  in  one  passage  in  ha  work  De  eordt  he  expresses  himself 
doubtfully,  yet  elsewhere  he  deariy  states  that  he  cooadcrsthe 
brain  to  be  the  index  and  messenger  of  the  intellect.*  The 
cerebral  seat  of  sense-perception  is  aho  taught  by  Plato,*  who 
puts  into  the  mouth  of  Socrates  the  theory  that  the  brain  is  the 
oigan  affected  by  the  senses,  whereby  memory  and  opinion  ariae, 
and  from  whence  knowledge  springs.  The  daasic  poets  abe 
notioe  this  dependence  of  mind  on  brain;  for  example,  in  the 
Ciouds  (v.  1276)  Strepsiades  accuses  Amynias  of  not  being  in 
his  right  nund,  and,  on  being  asked  why,  rttpooids,  **  You  seem 
to  me  as  if  you  had  had  a  concussion  of  the  brain." 

The  two  founders  of  anatomical  science,  Erasistratus  and 
Herophilus,  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  taught  net 
only  that  the  brain  was  the  seat  of  sensation  and  of  intellea, 
but  also  that  there  was  therein  a  certain  degree  of  localization 
of  function.  Erasistratus  believed  that  the  sensory  nerves  arose 
from  the  brain-membranes,  the  motor  from  the  cerebral  sub- 
stantt.  Herophilus  was  apparently  the  first  who  hdd  that  the 
vital  forces  raided  In  and  circulated  from  the  ventricles  of  the 
brain,  at  least  so  we  gather  from  Cebus  and  the  other  anthers 
who  have  preserved  his  views.  By  the  influence  of  the  wriiings 
of  Galen,'  which  directly  teach  that  the  brain  is  the  seat  of  soul 
and  intellect  the  Pythagorean  doctrine  prevailed  among  the  later 
philosophers.  According  to  the  Galenical  theory  the  animal 
spirits  have  theii't>rigin  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain,  and  pass 
into  the  heart  from  which  they  are  conveyed  by  the  arteries 
through  the  body.  Galen  in  one  plaoe  (viii.  159)  refers  their 
origin  to  the  brain-substance,  but  the  ventricular  theory  was  that 
adopted  by  his  followers^  some  of  whom  suggested  that  there  «u 
some  relation  between  the  shape  of  the  head  and  the  character 
and  disposition  of  the  mind.*  The  Arabian  {diysicians  Averrocs' 
and  Rhazes**  adopted  the  (galenical  doctrine  and  developed  the 
hypothesis  of  a  fourfold  ventricular  k>calization  of  faculties, 
which  the  Greeks  had  originated.  Avicenna^*  added  to  these  a 
fifth  region.    Such  of  the  early  Christian  authors  as  refmed  ia 

'  In  the  Chaldce  portion  of  Daniel  01.  3S.  iv.  5.  vii.  l]  visions  aol 
thoughts  arc  referred  to  the  head.  For  other  particulan  as  to  eaHv 
views  see  Na«se  on  the  psychical  relations  of  the  heart  in  TMtickr.  f. 
psyckiscke  Aente  (181 S),  vol.  i.  A  few  of  the  hiter  racdioal  wricen 
express  similar  views ;  ace  Santa  CruZtOpmcMtame^cOi  Madrid  (1624). 

>  Book  of  the  Deady  ch.  xxvi.-xxx. 

«  viii.  30; ed.Cobet,  Paris  (1850).  p.  Sll.^-^ptiras  M  cal  woSm,  ri  ;» 

•  De  morho  saer9,  on  0pp.  ed.  Kfihn,  t.  6  fa  seq.;  also  BpiA  wL 
824.  Among  later  writers  Licetus  of  Genoa  taught  the  oo-eacteiHbo 
of  soul  and  body,  upon  which  subject  he  wrote  two  books  (Padua, 
4616).  In  this  connexion  may  be  noted  a  curious  work  by  Schegldtrs. 
Dialogus  de  animae  prineipatu,Arislol«iis  et  Galeni nOionea proof ertms 
guibus  ate  cordis  kic  certbro,  prindpatum  altribuii  (TfllHngen,  1^42). 

•  Phaedoy  Valpy's  ed.  1833,  ch.  xlv.,  p.  ia8.  See  also  HaUer's 
Bibl.  anat.t  i.  30. 

'  De  usu  partium,  ed.  KQhn,  Hi.  70O.-*rA»  iihf  eSo  i«eM(c(s  nS 

wtpUxto$i  wk^wohh  Sec- also  v.  288,  viii.  IM.  av.  360^  In  kb 
Dtfiniiiones  medicae  (467,  xix.  439)  he  says  that  the  bcaia  has  a 
^fvxK^  £6va^»,  but  docs  not  specify  in  what  part  the  ix>wer  inheres. 

■  See  Paulus  Acgincta,  Stephen  s  ed.  1567,  cap.  ta,  col.  363,  oiho 
Actuarius,  De  actmUbns  et  offecHbus  spirUue  oHtmalis  (Ptara,  7596), 

•  Commeni.  in  Arist.;  Latin  tr,.  (Venice.  1550).  vi.  73. 

** "  Imaginatio    quidem     in    doubas    ventriculis    anterioribes 
perficitur.     Cogitatio  vero  in  medio  expletur.     Memoria  autcm 
posteriorem  poteidot  ventriculam."    De  re  medicOt  Gerard's 
(Basel.  1554).  i.9. 

*'  Lib,  canonis  (1507),  p.  19,  and  De  naturat^us,  c  6. 


PHRENOLOGY 


53i 


tfeeir  writings  to  the  rektion  of  sotd  to  body  nattirany  adopted 
the  teaching  of  Galea  which  they  accommodated  to  their 
theology,  thereby  conferring  on  it  an  importance  which  rendered 
correction  difficult.  Tertullian^  in  a  tense  expresses  hts  belief 
in  a  theory  of  localization  as  also  at  a  later  period  does  Thomas 
Aquinas.' 

£ady  in  the  zjth  century  Albertus  Magnua*  gave  a  detailed 
description  of  the  distribution  of  mental  and  psychical  fiaculties 
in  the  head.    The  anterior  region  he  assigned  to  judgment,  the 
middle  to  imagination,  and  the  posterior  to  memory.    A  some- 
what similar  allocation  was  made  by  Gordon,,  professor  of 
medicine  in  Montpeliier  (1296),*  who  assigned  conunon  sensation 
and  the  reception  of  impressions  to  the  anterior  comna  of  the 
lateral  ventricles,  phatUasia  to  the  posterior,  this  power  being 
two-fold  {jimagiuativa  and  OfgjUaliva)t  judgment  or  atstimativa 
ta  the  third  ventricle,  and  uMmory  to  the  fourth.*  figures  of  a 
similar  division  were  given  by  Petrus  Montagnana:*  and  Lodo- 
vico  Dolce^  stOI  later  by  Chiradelli  of  Bologna'  and  by  Theodore 
Gall  of  Antwerp.*    That  the  "vital  spirits"  resided  in  the 
ventricles  was  doubted  by  many,  and  denied  by  a  few  of  the 
anatomists  of  the  17th  century.    G.  Bauhin  in  x63X  ^  attacked 
the  oild  view,  and  Hoffmann  of  Altorf  showed  that,  as  the 
ventricles  were  dosed  cavities,  they  could  not  transmit  any 
materbil  -fluid.    That  these  spirits  existed  at  all  was  doubted  by 
Alexan^  Benedictus,"  Plater,^  and  a  few  others;  but  they  were 
believed  in  by  the  great  majority  of  17th  and  even  of  i8th  century 
medical  writers,  many  of  whon^copccived  that  the  ventricles 
were  semper  pleni  spiriiUms  anim$libus  Jhmmulis  similibus, 
quorum  bimeficiis  intelligimus,  senti/nus,  et  movemut^  and  the 
opponents  of  this  view  were  strongly  a  wailed  by  J.  Riolan  and 
others  as  revolutionary.     Columbus'*  ridiculed  the  idea  that 
the  convoluted  sorfsce  can  have  anything  to  do  with  intellect, 
as  the  ass,  «  proverbially  stupid  animtd,  has  a  convoluted  cere- 
brum.    According  to  his  view,  the  convolutions  are  for  the 
purpose  of  lightening  the  brain  and  facilitating  its  movements. 
The  grey  matter  of  the  surface  of  the  cerebrum  was  recognized 
as  the  true  dynamic  element  by  M.  Malpighi'*  and  T.  Willis.** 

1  De  onimc,  cxiv.  (ed.  Franeicer,  1597),  p.  a68. 

*  Summa  Ikeologiaet  cd.  Migne,  L  1094.  1 106-7.  Prochaska  and 
his  traaslator,  l^ycock  {Mwd  ani  Brain,  ii.  161),  charge  Duns 
ScotUB  with  holdmg  this  view;  probably  he  did,  out  he  does  not 
express  it i  as  be  Mmply  soectftes  the  cerdbrum  and  its  root,  the 
spinal  cord,  as  the  source  ot  the  nerves  along  which  acflsoiV  impulses 
travel.    Cofnment.  de  akima,  i.  515  (Leides,  x$97). 

<  Opera,  tii.  124,  vi.  20  (Leiden,  1651). 

«  Lilium  medicxnae,  loi  (Venice,  1494)'  1 

*  Avicenna's  6ft h  region  ia'interpiMed  between  fmafiiM/tna  and 
aestimativa  (J)e  noturaltlmSt  c.  vi.).  Thomas  Aquinas  combines  the 
last  two,  which  he  says  are  possjessed  by  the  same  eminences  C3Ui 
the  other  hand,  he  says  of  ratio  particutaris,  "  media  assignanf 
determinatum  or^anum,  scilicet  meoiam  partem  capitu  "  (L  1 106}. 

*  Physiognomia  {PiduoL,  i/^^i). 

▼  Dialogo  nel  quale  si  rarione  dd  moao  di  accrescere  e  cotuenar  la 
memoria,  27  (Venice.  1562}. 

*  Pkysiognomui,  1670. 

'  Tabulae  eUmenl.  scienliae  (Rome,  1632). 

**  Theatr.  anoU  (Basel,  1621,  iti.  ^14):  Caspar  HoflTroann,  D$  utu 
cerebri  (Leipzig.  I619).  See  also  Spigclius,  De  cor  p.  kumani  JabricJa, 
396  (Amsterdam,  1645);  Varolius  (i59i)>  P*  6(  Wepfcr,  Historiarum 
apopieciicarum  potissimum  anatomiae subjectontmauctarium  (Amster* 
dam,  1681).  Sec  also  many  of  the  anatomical  works  of  this  age, 
such  as  those  of  Ferncl,  Cabrol,  Argcntcrius,  Rolfinck,  &c. 

"  Alexander  Benedictus,  Anatomtca,  vol.  iii.  (Basel.  1527).  Qucr- 
cetanus  is  said  by  Laycock  (following  Prochaska  jto  have  assailed  this 
doctrine  of  spirits;  on  what  grouncT'is  not  afipareot,  as  he  certainly 
expresses  himself  as  a  believer  in  the  old  view:  see  Telras  graviss. 
ioiius  capitis  affect. x.  89  (Marburg,  1606)^  Possibly  Prochaska  may, 
allude  to  an  obscure  passajgc  in  the  work  of  the  other  Quercctanus 
(Eustachius).  Acroamaton  tn  tibrum  Hippocratis.  p.  14  (Basel.  1549). 
not  to  the  better-known  Josephaa  Armeniacus;  but  he  gives  no 

reference.  ,'   ,    ^ 

<s  Opera,  coL  92.  89  (Basel.  1625). 

IS  Joelit  opera  medteot  22  (Amsterdam,  i66i). 

M  ptf  fv  anatomiea,  p.  350  (Frankfort,  159^- 

>•  "  E^nat.  de  cerebto  et  cort.  cereb.  ad  Fracanatum."  in  0pp., 
vol.  n.  (Geneva,  1685). 

«*  De  atfima  brutorum,  p.  71  (Oxford,  1677),  "  hae  particulae  sub- 
tiilaaim— »  splritus  antmalet  dictae,  partium  istanim  substantias 
cortlcale*  porno  subeuntes,  exindc  in  utrivsque  mcdiCulUa,"  &c.; 
also  p^  7*  ■•*!• 


The  Utter  itgwrded  the  coavisluted  sorfaot  of  tb«  cMebrttm  a* 
the  seat  of  the  memoiy  and  the  will,  the  convolutions  being 
intended  to  retain  the  animal  spirits  for  th«  varioos  acts  c3 
imag^tioB  and  menocy.  Imagination  he  described  as  seated 
in  the  corpus  callosum,  aenso'pcrception  in  the  corpus  striatum, 
and  Mi^€(iiw  <l^erfiirft(i<l»  in  the  basal  parts  of  the  cerebrum  above 
the  cnm.  The  thalamJ  he  regarded  as  the  centres  of  si|^t  and 
the  cetebeUum  of  iiivoliuitary  acts.  Succeeding  anatomists 
simply  varied  these  loctUsations  according  to  their  respective 
fancies.  G.  11.  Landsi  placed  sense-perception  in  the  corpus 
callosum,  R.  Vieusseos  hi  the  centrum  ovale  majus.  R.  Descartes 
supposed  the  soot  to  be  seated  In  the  pineal  gland,  others  in  the 
brain-commissures  e^lteeially  the  pons-  Varolii.^'  Meyer  con- 
sidered abstnct  ideas  to  arise  fan  the  cerebellum,  and  memory 
to  have  its  seat  at  the  roots  of  the  nerves.^* 

Of  later  writers  three  deserve  sp«ckl  notke,  as  having  largely 
prepared  the  way  for  the  more  modem  sehool  of  phrenology. 
J.  A.  Unaer,  of  HaUO)  in  his  work  on  physwiogy  extended  the 
pre-existing  theories  of  localization.  Metager,**  twenty  years 
before  the  publieatioa  of  Prochaska's  work,  had  proposed  to 
make  a  series  of  observations  on  the  aaatondoal  characten  of 
the  brains  of  persons  of  marked  inteDeetual  pecuKarHy;  but 
apparently  he  did  not  carry  this  into  effect.  In  a  more  special 
manner  Prochaska  of  Vienna  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  father 
of  phrenology,  as  hi  his  work  on  the  nervous  system,  published 
in  Vienna  in  1784,  are  to  be  found  the  germs  of  the  later  views 
which  were  propounded  m  that  city  twelve  years  later." 

The  system  formulated  by  Gall  \q.9.)  is  thus  a  modem  expan< 
sion  of  an  old  emphical  philosophy,  and  its  immedijtte  parentage- 
is  easily  traced,  although,  according  to  OaH's  account,  it  was 
with  him  the  result  of  independent  observations.  These,  he 
tells  us,  he  began  to  make  at  an  early  age,  by  learning  to  correlate 
the  outward  appearances  and  mental  <)ualities  of  his  school- 
fellows. Gall's  first  published  paper  was  a  letter  in  the  Dentscker 
Merhtr  of  December  1798,  but  his  principal  expositions  were 
oral,  and  attracted  much  popular  attention,  wjiich  increased 
when,  in  1802,  he  was  commanded  by  the  Austrian  government, 
at  the  instame  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  to  discontinue 
his  public  lectures.  In  1804  he  obtained  the  cooperation  of 
Spunheim  (177(^1832),  a  native  of  Longwich,  near  Treves,  who 
became  his  pupil  in  1800,  and  proved  a  powerful  ally  in  pro- 
mulgating the  system  Master  and  pupil  at  first  taught  in 
harmony,  but  they  found  it  advisable  to  separate  in  1813;  and 
we  find  Spurzhcim,  several  years  after  their  parting,  declaring 
that  Gall  had  not  introduced  any  improvements  into  his  system 
since  their  separation  (notes  to  CheneWx,  p.  99).  **  My  philoso- 
phical view's,"  he  also  says,  "  widely  differ  from  those  of  Gall." 

In  Paris,  where  he  settled  in  1807,  Gall  made  many  influential 
converts  to  his  system.  F.  J.  V.  Broussais,  H.  M.  D.  de  Blain- 
ville,  H.  Cloquet,  G.  Andral,  £.  Geoffrey  Si-Hilaire,  Vimont  and 
othets  ad4^tcd  it  and  countenanced  its  progress.  Gall  visited 
Great  Britain,  but  the  diffusion  of  phrenology  here  was  chiefly 
due  to  Spttfzheim,  who  lectured  through  the  country  and  through 
America,  and  with  the  aid  of  his  pupil,  George  Combe,  attracted 
a  hirg^  popular  following.  His  most  influential  disciples  were 
J.  EUiotson,  Andrew  Combe,  Sir  G.,3.  Mackenzie,  R.  Macnisb, 
T.  Laycock  and  Archbishop  R.  Whately,  and  in  America  Caldwell 
and  J.  Godman.  On  the  opposite  side  many  influential  men 
took  up  a  strongly  antagonistic  position,  prominent  among  whom 
were  J.  Barclay  the  anatomist,  P.  M.  Roget,  Sir  Charles  Bell, 
Sir  W.  Hamilton,  F.  Jeffrey,  H.  P.  Brougham,  T«  Brown  and  Sir 
B  Brodie.  The  nature  of  the  system  rendered  it  eminently  fitted 
to  catch  public  attention,  and  it  rapidly  attained  to  so  great  a 

^  Pechner.  Biemenk  der  Psyekopkysik,  iL  396. 

'"Some  of  the  medieval  views  were  very  fanciful.-thus  Shabbethai 
b.  Abmham,  the  earliest  Jewish  writer  on  medicine  (d.  A.n.  9S9)> 
thought  that  the  spirit  01  life  has  its  seat  in  the  braio-membrane; 
expanded  over  the  brain  and  subarachnoid  fluid,  as  the  Shekinah 
in  the  heavens  arched  over  the  earth  and  waters.  See  Det  Mensek 
aU  Qftte^  EJbenbild^  cd.  JeUinek  (Uipcig,  1854),  and  Caatelli, 
CamMtHta  (Fkmnce,  t88d). 

**  Vetmisehte  medieiminJu  Sckriften  (1764).  L  58. 

»  See  Laycock's  tians^  in  Sydenk,  Society's  Pub,  (185X). 


53^ 


PHR£MOLQOY 


degree  of  pop\d$rity  that  in  xSja  tbeie  wtte  tventy-iuiie  phreno* 
logical  societies  in  Great  Britain,  and  several  jouroab  devoted 
to  phrenology  in  Britain  and  America;  .of  these  the  PAfeMf^ftea/ 
Jcnurnalt  a  quarterly,  edited  chiefly  by  George  Combe  with  aid 
from  others  of  the  Edinburgh  confraternity,  notably  Sir  George 
Mackepxie  and  Macniah,  **  the  modern  Pythagorean,^"  lived 
from  iSaj  to  1847,  thfough  twenty  volumes.  The  controversy 
in  many  places  was  heated  and  often  personal,  and  this  largely 
increased  the  popular  interest.  In  the  Edinburgh  BenaHht 
theory  was  severdy  criticized  by  Thomas  Brown,  and  afterwards 
in  a  still  more  trenchant  manner  by  Jeffrey.  In  Blackwood  it 
Mtaa  ridiculed  by  Professor  John  Wilson.  Being  a  subject  which 
lent  itself  easily  to  burlesque,  it  was  parodied  cleverly  in  a  bng 
rhyme  by  two  authors* "  The  Craniad,"  ^7  pages  loog,  published 
in  181 7,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  verse  was  pressed  into  its 
service  ia  the  rhyme  "  Phrenology  in  Edinburgh  "  in  1824.^ 
The  best  defence  of  the  system  was  that  by  Chenevix  in  the  third 
number  of  the  Foreign  QmrUrly,  afterwards  reprinted  with  notes 
by  Spurzheim. 

The  FacuUies  and  their  LocalUies.^Tht  system  of  Gall  was 
constructed  by  a  method  of  pure  emiMridsm,  and  his  so-called 
organs  were  for  the  most  part  identified  on  slender  grounds. 
Having  selected  the  place  of  a  faculty,  he  ^anvned  the  heads  of 
his  friends  and  casts  of  persons  with  that  peculiarity  in  common, 
and  in  them  he  sought  for  the  distinctive  feature  of  their  charac> 
teristic  trait.  Some  of  his  earlier  studies  were  made  among  low 
associates,  in  gaols  and  in  lunatic  asylums,  and  some  of  the 
qualities  located  by  him  were  such  as  tend  to  become  perverted 
to  crune.  These  he  named  after  their  excessive  manifestations, 
mapping  out  organs  of  murder,  theft,  &c.;  but  as  this  cast  some 
discredit  on  the  system  the  names  were  changed  by  Spurzheim, 
who  claimed  as  his  the  moral  and  religious  considerations 
associated  with  it.  Gail  marked  out  on  his  model  of  the  head 
the  places  of  twenty-six  organs  as  4round  enclosures  with  vacant 
interspaces.  Spurzheim  and  Combe  divided  the  whole  scalp 
into  oblong  and  conterminous  patches  (see  the  accompanying 
figures).  Other  methods  of  division  and  other  names  have  been 
suggested  by  succeeding  authors,  especially  by  Cox,  Sidney 
Smith  (not  Sydney),  Toulmin  Smith,  K.  G.  Cams  of  Dresden, 
Don  Mariano  Cubi  i  Solar,  W.  B.  Powell  of  Kentucky,  J.  R. 
Buchanan  of  Cincinnati,  Hittel  of  New  York.  Some,  like 
the  brothers  Fowler,  raise  the  number  of  (Mrgana  to  forty-three; 
but  the  system  of  Spurzheim  and  Combe  is  that  which  has 
always  been  most  popular  in  Britain. 

Spurzheim  separated  the  component  faculties  of  the  human 

mind  into  two  great  groups  and  subdivided  these  as  followa;-^ 

I.  FeeUngs,  divided  into— 

I.  Propensities,  internal  impulses  inviting  only  to  certain 

actions. 
i.  Sentiments,  impulses  which  prompt  to  emotion  as  well 

as  to  actioA. 

A.  Lower — those  common  to  man  and  the  lower  animals. 

B.  Hishcr— those  proper  to  man. 
II..  Intellectual  faculties. 

I.  Perceptive^  faculties. 
3.  Reflective  faculties. 

In  the  following  list  the  locality  and  the  circumstances  of  the 
first  recognition  of  the  organ  are  appended  to  the  names,  which 
are  mostly  the  invent  ions  of  Spurzheim.  Gall^s  names  are  placed 
in  brackets.* 

■Propenstiter. 

r.  Amativeness  (Instinct  de  la  giniration),  median,  below  the 
inion;  first  determined  by  Call  from  its  heat  in  an  hysterical  widow, 
svpposed  to  be  confirmed  by. many  observaiiooa,  and  referred  to 
the  ccrebcUuro.* 

' '  Other  buriesque  and  satirical  writings  were  published  at  this 
time,  notably  TTu  Pkrenehtttts,  a  farce  by  Wade  (1850} ;  The  Head- 
fieee^  «r  Phremeloiy  opposed  k»  Dimme  ReidtUim,  by  James  the  Less; 
and  A  HdmM  for  Ike  Hoadpiece,  or  Phfenelogy  incompatible  vUh 
Reaeon,  by  Daniel  the  Seer. 

'  For  topc^raphical  purposes  Braca's  names  are  adopted  as  the 
most  convenient  for  kicaiitkw  on  the  head. 

'  AfMllonfaift  Rhodius  speaking  of  the  love  of  Medea  for  Jason 
{ArfonoMiica^  tii.  760-765)  says,  lUpn  V  Av'  i#««X^  ^far-Mo04 
h  aki  TiV  tf ^  «|Uix»wra  hk  j(pob$,  A^  Ap«««i  Uw  mI  u^oXfi,  Hi 


2.  PhSopvogenitAveneM  iAmcur  de  la  pretfgUt^),  medisA,  os 
the  squama  occipitis,  and  selected  as  the  organ  for  the  love  of 
children  because  this  part  of  the  daill  is  usually  more  promioeot 
in  apes  and  in  women,  in  whom  the  love  .of  chiMrea  is  suppoaed 
to  be  stronger  than  in  men. 

^  Conceotrativeness,  below  the  obelion  and  over  the  lambda. 
This  Is  a  region  of  uncertain  function,  unnoticed  by  Gall,  but  6t- 
scribed  as  Inhabitiveness  bv  Spurzheim,  because  he  found  it  large 
in  cats  and  in  a  clergyman  fond  of  his  home.  It  has  since  been  con* 
sidered  by  Combe  to  be  the  seat  of  the  power  of  coooentmtioa, 
whereof  be  believed  Inhabitiveness  to  be  a  special  case. 

4.  Adhesiveness  (AmitU),  over  the  lateral  area  of  the  lambdddal 
suture.  This  region  was  prominent  in  a  lady  introduced  to  Gall 
as  a  model  of  friendship,  and  is  said  by  him  to  be  the  tcg^  where 
persons  who  are  closely  attached  pat  their  heads  together. 

5.  Combativeness  (Instinct  de  la  difenu),  above  the  astciioo;  it 
was  found  by  Gall  by  examinine  the  heads  of  the  most  quarrelsotae 
of  his  low  companions  whom  he  had'  beforehand  stimulated  by 
alcohol.  It  was  verified  by  comparing  this  region  with  the  same 
part  of  the  head  of  a  quanelsome  young  lady. 


6.  Destnictiveness  (Instinct  cttfnassier),  above  the  ear  racatift> 
This  is  the  widest  oart  of  the  skulls  of  carnivorous  animals,  *rd 
was  found  large  in  the  head  of  a  student  so  fond  of  torturing  aniiaals 
that  he  became  a  surgeon,  also  large  in  the  head  of  an  npotbecar; 
who  became  an  executioner. 

6a.  Alimentiveness,  over  the  temporal  muscle  and  nbom  the 
ear.  Hoppe  describes  it  as  being  large  in  a  gourmand  acquaintaaix 
and  he  therefore  supposes  it  to  be  the  origin  of  selecting  ichxI. 

7.  Secretiveness  (/c«ie,  Finesse),  the  po&terior  part  ol  the  squ^us- 
ous  suture. 

8.  Acquisitiveness  (^eniiment  de  la  proprUti),  on  the  upper  fr*:* 
of  the  front  half  of  the  squamous  suture.  This  fiart  of  the  head  Ci  • 
noticed  to  be  prominent  in  the  pickpockets  of  his  acquaintance. 

9.  Constructivencss  (Sens  de  mechaniqne),  on  the  ■tepha.rJr- 
detected  by  its  prominence  on  the  heads  of  persons  of  xneclkarir. 
genius.    It  was  found  large  on  the  head  of  a  milliner  of  onctMiunjs 
taste  and  on  a  skull  reputed  to  be  that  of  Raphael. 

The  organ  of  Vitativeness,  or  love  of  life,  is  supposed  lyy  O^sbe 
to  be  seated  at  the  base  of  the  skull.  To  this  locality  mTOphi:;^ 
referred  most  of  the  intellectual  powers. 

Lower  Senlimentt. 

10.  Self-esteem  (OrgueU',  fierli),  at  and  tmmediatdy 
obelion;  found  by  Gail  in  a  beggar  who  excused  his 

account  of  his  pnde.    This  was  confirmed  by  the  obae     

proud  persons  held  their  heads  backwards  in  the  line  of  the 

11.  Ijove  of  Approbatbn   (VanH4)t  outside  the  nhe" 
region  in  which  Gall  saw  a  protuberance  on  the  head  of 
who  fancied  herself  queen  of  France. 

13.  Cautrausness  (Circonspection),  on  ^the  parietal ... 

placed  here  because  an  ccclestastic  of  hesitatu^  dtapoaicioa 
.vacillating  councillor  of  state  had  both  large  panetal       * 


tbe 
thaa 


t.iC 


PHRENOLOGY 


537 


13.  Benevoleace  (BonU),  on  the  middle  of  the  frontal  bone  in 
Ifont  of  the  coronal  suture;  here  Gall  noticed  a  rising  on  the  head 
of  the  highly  oommcndcd  servant  of  a  friend,  as  well  as  on  a  bene- 
volent scnoolmate  who  nursed  his  brothers  and  sisters  when  they 
were  ill.    To  this  spot  Xenocrates  referred  the  intellectual  powers. 

14.  Veneration  (SentitnetU  rHigiiux),  median  at  the  brrgma. 
Gall  noted  when*  visitiag  churches  that  those  who  prayed  with  the 
greatest  fervour  were  prominent  in  this  region,  and  it  was  also 
prominent  in  a  pious  brother. 

15.  Conscientiottsaess,  Bclicvingness  (Forster)  unknown  to  Gall;- 
fccagniacd  by  Sparsheim  usually  from  its  deficiency,  and  placed 
between  the  but  and  the  parietal  eminence. 

16.  Firmness  {Fermeti},  median,  on  the  sagittal  suture  from 
behind  the  bregma  to  the  front  of  the  obelion.  Lavater  first 
pointed  out  that  persons  of  determination  had  lofty  heads> 

17.  Hope,  not  regarded  as  primary  by  Gall,  wno  believed  hope 
to  be  akin^  to  desire  and  a  function  of  every  faculty  which  desires 
and  left  this  territory  unallocated. 

18.  Wonder,  sakl  to  be  large  in  vision>seers  and  many  psychic 
researchers.  A  second  similar  o/gan  placed  between  this  and  the 
next  is  called  Mysterivingncss  by  Fonter,  and  is  sakl  to  be  the  seat 
of  belief  in  ghosts  and  in  the  supernatural. 

19.  Ideality  (Poisie),  noted  by  Gall  from  its  promkience  n  the 
busts  of  poets;  sakl  to  be  the  part  touched  by  the  hand  when  com- 
posing poetry. 

20.  wit  (ksprit  caustique),  the  frontal  eminence,  the  organ  of 
the  sense  of  the  ludicrous,  prominent  in  F.  Rabelais  and  J.  Swift. 

21.  Imitation  (FaatM  d'imiUfr),  dispositmn  to  mimicr>',  placed 
between  Benevolence  and  Wonder. 

Perceptive  Faculties. 

22.  Individuality,  over  the  frontal  sinus  in  the  middle  line; 
the  capacity  of  recognizing  external  objects  and  forming  ideas 
therefrom;  saki  to  have  been  large  in  Michelangelo,  and  small  in 
the  Scots. 

23.  Form  ^Mimoire  dts  pcrsottnes),  capacity  of  recognizing  faces; 
gives  a  wide  mterval  bcfween  the  eyes;  found  by  Gall  m  a  squinting 
girl  with  a  good  memory  for  faces. 

24.  Size,  over  the  trochlea  at  the  orbital  edge;  described  by 
Spurzheim  and  Vimont  as  the  capadty  of  estimating  space  and 
distance. 

25.  Weight,  outside  the  last  on  the  orbital  edge  and,  hke  it, 
over  the  frontal  sinus.  The  prominence  of  ridge  here  is  due  to 
large  siaus  or  a  prmecting  bone.  Certain  old  writers,  such  as  Strato 
Pbysicus,  k)cated  the  whole  intellect  in  this  ridge. 

26.  Colour,  also  on  the  orbital  edge  external  to  the  last. 

27.  Locality  (Sens  de  Iccaliti),  placed  above  Individuality  on 
each  tSdt,  and  corresponding  to  the  upper  part  of  the  frontal  sinus 
and  to  the  regkin  immediately  above  it. 

28.  Number,  on  the  external  angular  process  of  the  frontal  bone, 
large  in  a  calculating  boy  in  Vienna. 

29.  Order,  internal  to  the  last,  first  noted  by  Spurzheim  m  an 
orderly  idk>t. 

30.  Eventuality  (iHmoire  des  ehosts),  the  median  projectkui  above 
the  glabella,  supposed  to  be  the  ^eat  of  the  memory  of  eventSb 

31.  Time,  below  the  frontal  eminence  and  a  little  in  front  of 
the  temporal  crest. 

32.  Tune  (S*tu  des'tappcris  des  Ions),  on,the  foremost  part  of  the 
temporal  muide,  where  Gall  noticed  a  bti%e  on  the  head  01  a  musical 
proaigy  of  five. 

33.  Language  (Sens  des  mots),  behind  the  eye.  This  was  the 
first  organ  noticed  by  Call,  as  a  dcver  schoolfellow,  quick  at  lan- 
guages, had  prominent  eyes.  Old  authors  had  noted  the  con- 
nexion between  prominent  eyeballs  and  mental  devekoment ;  thus 
Gazzali  and  Sycnensis  Modicus  Cyprius  place  the  intdlect  and  aoul 
behind  the  eyeballs. 

R^leelim  FaeuUieK 

34.  Comparfson  (Saiaciti  comparative),  median,  at  the  top  of  the 
bare  npon  of  the  fordiead,  where  a  savant  friend -of  Gall's,  fond  of 
analogies,  had  a  prominent  boss. 

xs.  Causality  (Esprit  mitaphysique),  the  eminence  on  each  side 
of  Comparison,  noticed  on  the  head  of  Fichtc  and  on  a  bust  of  Kant; 
the  seat  of  the  faculty  of  correlating  causes  and  effects. 

The  first  kjoitification  of  each  organ  was  made  by  an  inductk>n 
from  very  Umited  data,  but  the  founders  and  exponents  of  the 
system  have  ooIlQcted  all  available  instances  wherein  cnlaigementsof 
each  of  these  regions  coexisted  with  increased  powers  of  the  faculty 
supposed  to  reside  therein,  and  in  some  tases  they  have  discovered 
coincidences  of  a  surprising  nature.  When,  however,  such  do  not 
exist,  a  convenient  excuse  is  found  by  reference  to  the  indefinite 
article  of  temperament,  or  by  a  supposed  explanatran  of  the  faculty 
in  qucstkm  as  not  simple  but  produced  by  the  co-operation  of  other 
influences.  Thus,  as  Sheridan  s  bump  of  wit  was  small,  he  is  said 
not  to  have  been  truly  witty;  but  to  have  had  comparison  and 
memory  strongly  developed.  The  giri  Labrosse  (described  in 
F<^ru«aac's  BuUettn  for  October  1S31).  who  exhibited  strong  amativc- 
ness  but  had  a  rudiroeatary  oerebeUunK  is  said  to  have  obliterated 


it  by  ovcf-uie.  Thwrtefl,  a  coW-bteoded  murdertr,  whose  organ  of 
benevolence  was  lar||e,  is  sakl  to  have  been  generous,  a^  he  once  gave 
half^a-guinca  to  a  friend,  Ac. 

The  method  whereby  the  sizes  of  organs  are  estimated  is  arbitrary 
and  the  boundaries  of  the  regions  indefinite.  The  attempts  of  Nicol, 
Straton  and  Wight  to  devise  mcchanicaf  and  accurate  modes 
of  measurement  have  not  been  very  successful  and  have  not  found 
favour  with  the  professional  phrenologist. 

Anaiomical  Aspect  of  Pkrenology.-^Tht  phrenological  con- 
troversy served  the  useful  purpose  of  stimulating  research  into 
the  anatomy  of  the  brain;  but  we  owe  very  little  of  soUd  progress 
to  the  advocates  oT  the  system.  Gall  is  the  only  writer  of  his 
creed  in  whose  urorks  original  observations  of  value  are  to  be 
found,  and  Dr  B.  HoU&nder  has  cited  many  interesting  and  care- 
fully recorded  anatomical  and  clinical  f^cts  in  his  writings. 
Although  the  study  of  the  surface  of  the  cerebrum  is  o£  the 
essence  of  phrenology,  yet  nowhere  in  the  circle  of  phrenological 
literature  are  the  convolutions  of  the  brain  accurately  described; 
our  knowledge  of  their  order  and  disposition  comes  from  the 
morphologist,  not  from  the  phrenologist.  The  first  real  step 
tpwards  their  systematic  description  was  made  by  L.  Rolando/ 
who  in  1850  described  the  fissure  to  which  his  name  is  attached, 
and  very  little  advance  was  made  until  the  publication  in  1856 
of  L.  P.  GratioletV  and  Buschke's'  memoirs.  These  works 
for  the  first  lime  placed  the  description  of  the  surface  of  the  brain, 
imperfectly  attempted  by  L.  A.  Desmoulins  in  1825/  on  a  satis- 
factory basis. 

A  description  of  the  anatomy  of  the  brain  is  given  under  the 
heading  Bbain,  so  it  is  necessary  here  only  to  refer  to  points  not 
indudoi  in  that  account 

1.  Any  psychological  theory  which  correlates  brain-action  and 
mental  phenomena  requires  a  correspondence  between  brain-size 
and  mental  power;  and,  speaking  generidly,  the  brains  of  those 
whose  capacities  are  above  the  average  al«  lauger  than  those  of  the 
general  run  of  their  fellow-men. 

2.  Direct  measurements  of  the  relative  devebpments  of  difTcrertt 
portions  of  brains  are  difficult  and  troublesome  to  make;  but  their 
importance  to  (durenokigists  b  so  great  that  it  is  remarkable  that  no 
attenspts  to  obtain  any  such  were  made  by  them.  The  series  given 
by  R.  Wagner  of  the  relative  sizes  of  the  cerebral  lobes  of  four 
brains  is  almost  the  only  record  of  importance  in  this  direction,  and 
is  appended. 


Bnioof 


Pudu.  cUnicii 
teacfacr    .    . 

CaosB.'nuthe- 
maUciaa  .    . 

Woifci 


ll 


143*4 


tyt 


iiya 


ty> 


60% 


fO'H 


6>3 


«5 


50 


i9-4 


501 


$» 


6rs 


M-4 


61 


66B 


i' 


•410 


•407 


*85 


J03 


•»7 


»M 


I- 
ll 

^5 


140 


•374 


J8S 


tio*7 


itaD 


074 


'409     -ao^     j/d    toy's   i>Q-9  vr*   1185 


iji-j 


tttrt   34t 


34  > 


1036    t^l 


i 

I 


IK3Q 


I49t 


IJ73 


From  this  it  appears  that  the  siroman  exceeded  Gauss  in  percep- 
tive and  reflective  organs,  exceeded  Fuchs  in  sentiment,  and  fell 
bek>w  the  workman  m  propensities.  It  must  be  said,  however, 
that  the  pKrenologkal  diviswns  do  not  accurately  coincide  with  the 
anatonucaU  It  woukl  fumiah  imporUnt  physiok>gM:aJ  daU  if 
the  brains  of  men  distinguished  for  special  qualities  were  examined 
in  this  or  some  comparable  way. 

3.  It  is  important  in  relation  to  phrenolo^  to  ascertain  the 
constancy  of  the  convolurions.  Many  varieties  in  the  detail  of 
the  surface-patterns  have  been  recorded  by  Tenchini.  Poggi.  Gia- 
oomini,  N.  RQdinger.  Cunningham  and  Sernow,*  but  the  general 
plan  is  fairiy  uniform.  A  still  more  important  question  has  been 
recently  raised  by  J.  N.  Langley,  viz.  how  far  identical  spots  on 

1  DeUa  Struttwa  deeli  emisferi  cerebrali  (Turin.  1830). 

*  Mimoiro  sur  Us  plis  cMbraux  de  t'komme  et  des  primates  (Paris, 
1856). 

^ Sckdde(,  Him,  and  Stele  (JcM,  iBs^).  ,„    .      «    . 

*  Magendie  and  Desmoulins.  Anal,  du  syst.  nerteux  (Pans,  1825). 
*Ri9tsta  sperimentaU  di  freniatria  (1883).  ii.  193:  ibUl.  iv.  403; 

ArdttajHr  Amtkropohgie  (1879).  ».  289. 


538 


PHRENOLOGY 


identical  coovoltttioiu  in  different  brains  fwosist  of  ncrve<el!s  with 
precisely  the  same  connexions.  The  convoluted  arrangement  results 
irora  growth  of  brain-surface  under  constraint,  hence  as  the  different 
tracts  of  surface  undcivo  proportional  overgrowth  they  may  fold 
along  different  lines.  The  occurrence  of  small  differences  in  the 
rate  of  overgrowth,  testified  to  by  the  varieties  of  the  resulttng 
pattern,  can  hardly  fail  to  cause  considerable  alteration  in  the  place 
i  of  definite  territories  of  grey  cells.  Some  method  (or  the  dctcr- 
mination  of  the  limits  of  these  shiftmgs  of  place  u  requu-ed  before 
comparisons  can  be  of  value  as  phrenological  data. 

4.  The  comparison  of  the  rate  of  growth  of  brain  with  the  develop- 
ment of  menul  faculties  is  important  not  only  to  the  phrenologist 
but  to  the  psychologist.  No  observations  on  this  point  were  made 
by  phrenological  writers,  who  only  refer  to  the  first  and  rather 
crude  observations  of  the  earlier  anatomists.  We  have,  however, 
recently  learned  from  the  reaeaiches  of  T.  L.  W.  von  Bischoff, 
Tucxec.  Cunningham,  and  S.  Exner*  many  particulars  as  to  the  rate 
and  progress  of  brain-growth.  At  birth  the  brain  weighs  one-tenth 
of  the  wdght  of  the  body,  and  averages  about  II  oz.  For  the 
first  srear  braia-crowth  and  consequently  expanrion  of  the  skull 
proceed'  with  8[Peat  rapidity,  the  growth  during  a  large  part  of  this 
period  avcragmg  one  cubic  centimetre  daily.  This  enormous 
increase  is  chiefly  due  to  the  rapid  development  of  medullated  nerve- 
fibres,  which  are  deficient  in  the  foetal  brain.  During  the  second 
and  third  years  growth  takes  place  more  slowly,  the  occipital  and 
rarietal  lobes  increasing  more  than  the  frontal  or  temporo-spnenoidal. 
During  these  and  the  four  succeeding  years  the  base  ebngates 
commensurately  with  the  Increasing  depth  of  the  face.  In  the 
sucth  and  seventh  years  the  frontal  lobes  grow  faster  than  the 
parietab,  and  at  seven  the  average  brain  has  attained  the  weight 
of  1340  grammes,  being  the  weight  of  the  body  as  1:2a  In 
the  period  between  seven  ^cars  and  puberty  growth  is  slight,  but 
at  puberty  the  whole  brain  grows  actively,  eqxcially  the  frontal 
km.  Thin  activity  lasts  until  about  eighteen  years  of  age,  then 
diminishes;  but  the  average  brain  docs  not  reach  its  maximum  size 
until  about  thirty,  from  a  little  after  which  period  the  brain  tends 
to  diminish  towards  senility.' 

5.  The  estinution  of  the  relative  devdopment  of  grey  and  white 
matter  in  the  several  lobes  ts  important  to  anv  theory  of  cerebral 
dynamics  which  allocaca  functions  specifically  diverse  to  each 

-  separate  part  of  the  brain-surface;  but  no  attempt  has  been  made  by 
the  phrenologist  to  obtain  prociae  results  in  this  direction,  nor  even 
to  determine  the  ^ydcal  constants  of  the  two  forms  of  brain-matter. 
The  recently  introauccd.  method  of  Bourgoin  and  B.  Danilewski, 
based  upon  the  differing  specific  gravities  of  grey  and  white  matter, 
promises  to  give  definite  information  as  to  the  rebtivc  amounts  of 
these  forms  of  brain-matter;  but  further  experiments  are  needed 
to  perfect  the  method.* 

6.  The  relations,  if  any,  between  the  alterations  which  take  place 
in  the  shape  and  poMtion  of  the  head  and  alterations  in  brain-surface 
have  been  speculated  on  by  the  phrenologist.  Broussats  is  reported 
to  have  said  that  his  organ  of  cav^sality  had  enlarged  with  increasing 
use.  and  a  list  of  cases  of  similar  alterations  of  head-shape  is  given 
bv  Deville  (Pkrin.  Jmtm.  xiv.  52),  most  of  which  are  simply  age- 
changes,  of  the  land  described  by  Professor  J.  Clclaad  (Phil. 
Trans.^  1870).  There  are  no  exact  measurements  recorded  which 
indicate  the  occurrence  of  topical  increases  of  a  normal  brain  in 
special  directions  coincident  with  the  ruUivation  of  definite  faculties. 
All  the  so-called  cases  arc  given  vaguely,  with  no  measurements, 
and  the  careful  measurements  of  George  Combe  in  such  cases  as 
were  available  to  him  diowed  no  appreciable  alterations  in  adult 
heads  even  at  tong  intervals  of  time  (see  also  Andrew  Combe,  Pkren. 
Joum.  X.  414). 

7.  The  phrenological  want  of  knowledge  of  the  topography  of 
the  brain-surface  was  necessarily  correlated  with  ignorance  of  the 
exact  relations  of  the  oonvohitiona  to  the  interior  of  the  cranial 
bones;  these  have  been  carefully  worked  out  by  E.  Huschke.  HefRer. 
W.  A.  Turner.  Cunningham  and  Reid.  Some  latitude,  however, 
must  be  allowed  in  topography,  as  the  exact  relation  of  convolution 
of  skull  varies  with  the  shape  of  the  skulL  Giacomini  showed  that 
the  fissure  of  Rolando  is  perceptibly  farther  back  from  the  coronal 
suture  in  dolichocephalic  than  in  brachycephalic  skulls,  and  it  is  still 
farther  back  in  the  extreme  boat-shaped  form  of  fon^-headcdness. 
Passet  shows  that  there  is  a  slight  topographkal  difference  in  the 

(Anh,f.  Amkrop.,  iMs.  xiv.  Sq).  and  in  the  heads  of  those 


with  a  symmetncally-shaped  skull  there  is  often  a  want  of  ktcral 

rmetry  of  convolution.  Artificial  deformations  likewise  alter 
topographical  relations  of  convolutions,  and  have  served  not  a 
little  to  puzae  the  phrenologist.  Thus,  the  artificial  dolkhocephaly 
of  the  Caribs  having  bul^  the  squama  ocdpitis,  they  decided  that 
these  people  must  be  amiable  k)vers  of  children,*  &c. 

,    >  Neurahgiscfus  CeiUralblUut  (iSBt).  p.  457. 

•  Webbach.  Mtd.  Jakrhuek.  der  k.  Gesdlsck,  dtr  AenU,  xvu.  l\i 
(Vienna,  1869):  Merkd,  BeilrdteM.  posUtmbryomaUn  EiUwiekdumg  aes 
wunsekl,  SchMd  (Bonn.  1882);  Calori.  Mem.  d4  Vaccad.  di  Bologna 
(1871).  X.  35.  Cunningham,  Cunningkam  Memoir^  Royal  Irish 
Academy. 

'  CemtredblaU  (1880).  No.  14 ;  Btilrite  sur  Bioloti*  (Stuttgart  1882). 

*  Martins  tells  us  that  toe  Caribs  castrate  tbcir  own  children, 


8.  The  existence  of  structural  differences  between  different 

of  cerebral  surface  is  imporunt  to  any  theory  of  oerebtal  kirtHfa- 
tion.  but  no  phrenologist  has  given  us  any  original  infarmatioaoathii 
point.  Since  the  investigation  of  I.  G.  F.  Baillaryer^and  Bevan- 
Lcwis  it  has  been  shown  that  some  local  dUffercnttatioiia  of  structure 
do  really  exist.  Thus  in  the  convolutions  abound  the  fisnire  of 
Rolando  the  ganelion-cells  of  the  fourth  layer  are  of  large  aiae  (jdant- 
cellsof  Betz).  and  in  the  convolutions  of  the  temporo-aphenoidau  lofac 
a  byer  of  small  anguUr  cdb  (granule-ceUa)  b  interposed  betspgeu  the 
larger  pyramidal  and  the  ganglion-cclta,  so  that,  while  in  the  parts 
of  the  Drain  above  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  the  gray  cortex  k  f or  Hk 
roost  part  fivc>byered,  below  and  behind  that  maure  it  b  aix4aycfcd. 
There  is  no  abrupt  passage  from  the  one  to  the  other,  the  <mly  anddea 
transition  of  structure  ol  the  grey  cortex  bctng  at  the  hippacaaipal 
sukus;  and  giant-cells,  although  of  smaller  size,  and  leas  uke  those 
of  the  anterior  comu  of  the  spinal  oord,  arc  scattered  over  other 
parts  of  the  cerdiral  grey  matter.* 

Other  local  variations  in  structure  have  been  described  by  ElSot 
Smith  and  other  hbtologists. 

The  teaching  of  anatomy  with  regard  to  phrenology  may  be 
summarised  thus:  (i)  the  rate  of  growth  of  twain  is  •concnrrrat 
with  the  rate  of  development  of  mental  faculty;  (2)  there  b  some 
degree  of  structural  differentbtion  as  there  are  varying  rates  of 
development  of  different  parts  of  the  cerebral  surface;  (3)  there  b 
no  accordance  between  the  regions  of  Gall  and  Spurshcim  and  definite 
areas  of  cerebral  surface. 

Physiological  AspecL^-Tht  theory  of  some  of  the  older  meu- 
phy5i<;ians,  that  the  mind,  in  feeling  and  reflection,  makes  use 
of  no  material  instrument  b  not  now  accepted  by  p^tlwlogists. 
It  was  advanced  by  Brougham  and  Jeffrey  as  against  the  theory 
of  phrenology;  but  the  doctrine  that  the  brain  b  the  oigin  (rf 
the  mind  H  now  universally  received.    While  it  b  probnbk  that 
certain  molecular  changes  in  the  grey  matter  are  antecedents 
or  concomitants  of  mental  phenomena,  the  precise  nature  of 
these  processes,  to  what  extent  they  take  place,  or  how  they  vaxy 
among  themsdves  have  not  as  yet  beien  determined  experi- 
mentally; the  occurrence  of  the  change  can  only  be  demoastxated 
by  some  such  coane  method  as  the  altered  pulsation  of  the  caiotid 
arteries,'  the  increase  of  the  temperature  of  the  bend,"  the 
abstraction,  during  brain-action,  of  blood  from  other  oiyans  as 
shown  by  the  plethysmograph,  or  the  formation  of  lecithin  and 
other  products  of  metabolbm  in  brain-substance.   As  yet  r» 
light  has  been  shed  on  the  connexion  between  the  molecular 
changes  in  the  nerve-cell  and  the  phenomena  of  thought  and 
feeling.    While  our  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  braia, 
especially  of  the  grey  nuclei  and  of  the  white  bands  uniting  them. 
has  in  recent  years  become  much  more  accurate  (see  nnkks 
Brain  and  Muscle  and  Nerve),  our  knowledge  of  the  ]phyuok>0 
of  the  nervecentresbstill  indefinite  and  fragmentary,  even  wh?a 
the  utmost  allowance  b  made  for  the  experimental  work  ci 
C.  S.  Sherrington,  A.S.F.  Grtinbaum,  F.  Golu  and  others;  and 
the  hypotheses  relating  to  the  division  of  labour  iathenerrc^ 
centres  b  chiefly  based  on  anatomical  structure.      Certab 
masses  of  grey  nerve-matter  situated  in  the  spinal  coed  and 
meduffa  oblongata  arc  so  linked  by  nerve-cords  to  organs  outside 
the  nervous  system  which  are  set  apart  for  the  discharge  oi 
separate  functions  that  they  obviously   form   parts   of   the 
mechanbm  for  the  fulfilment  of  such  functions.    In  cases  where 
these  can  be  subjected  to  experiment  we  learn  that  thvy  are 
nervous  centres  presiding  over  the  discharge  of  such  functktcs: 
and  it  has  been  determined  by  experiment,  or  else  deduced 
from  anatomical  structure,  that  in  those  lower  parts  of  tSe 
nervous  centres  which  are  more  directly  connected  with  the 
segmental  elements  of  the  body  there  Is  a  certain  localiratioa 
of  function;  hence  the  centres  of  pelvic  actions,  of  respiration, 
cardiac  action,  and  inhibition  of  vaso-motor  influence,  dcgtu*.- 
lion,  secretions,  &€.,  can  be  mapped  out  in  ascending  series.    As 
certain  of  these  centres  are  united  by  bands  of  fibres  to  the  larger 

fatten  and  cat  them,  an  abuse  of  the  orean  of  philoprogenitrvencss; 
see  also  Garcibso  de  la  Vega,  Hist,  dtt  Ituas,  i.  13. 

*  Mim.  do  Faead.  do  mMecine  (1S40).  viiL  1^9. 

*  For  further  particulars  of  structure,  in  addition  to  the  autlw^v 

? noted  at  i.  876,  see  Bevan-Lewis  and  Clark.  P.R.5,,  (1878),  ar.i 
'ktl.  Trans.  (1880  and  1882). 

'See  Eugene  Gley,  "Sur  les  conditions  (liyriologiqiaea  (fe  b 
penafe,"  in  Archives  de  physiolope  (1881),  p.  742. 

*  J.  S.  Lombard.  N.  Y.  Med.  Journal  (June  1867).  and  rrfmpNsf ,.' 
Researckos  om  the  Regional  Temperaimn  of  Iko  HoiU  (Loodott,  187SV 


PHRENOLOGY 


S39 


tnxf  bighcr-fying  grey  portions  of  the  nervous  centres  there  is 

an  a  priori  presumption  in  favour  of  the  extension  of  this  principle 

«f  localization,   litis  has  been  premised  on  metaphjftical  as  well 

as  on  anatomical  grounds.    A.  B.  Bonnet  long  ago  believed  each 

portion  of  the  brain  to  have  a  specifically  separate  function,  and 

Herbert  Spencer  has  said  that  "  no  physiologist  can  long  resist 

the  conviction  that  different  parts  of  the-  cerebrum  subserve 

different  kinds  of  mental  action.   LocaHaation  of  function  is  the 

law  of  all  organization;  separateness  of  duty  is  universally 

accompanied  with  separateness  of  structure,  and  it  would  be 

marvellous  were  an  exception  to  exist  in  the  cerebral  hemupheres. 

Let  it  be  granted  that  the  cerebral  hemi^heres  are  the  seats 

of  the  higher  psychical  activities;  let  it  be  granted  that  among 

these  higher  psychical  activities  there  are  distinctions  of  kind 

which,  though  not  definite,  are  yet  practically  fccognixable,  and 

it  cannot  be  denied,  without  going  in  direct  opposition  to 

established  physiological  principles,  that  these  more  or  less 

distinct  kinds  of  psychical  activity  must  be  carried  on  in  more 

or  less  distinct  parts  of  the  cerebral  hemisphere." 

For  a  -aiasterisr  cieview  of  the  old  and  the  new  association  and 
localizatioa  theories,  see  W.  Wuodt's  CnmdtAge  der  physioUtjufhtn 
Psychdogie,  \.  289  sqq.;  also  the  same  author's  Esiayt^  Leipzig 
(rS88),  pp.  I0()  sqq.  • 

There  is  a  large  weight  of  evidence  in  favour  of  the  existence 
of  some  form  of  locaUzation  of  function.    So  little  is  known  of 
the  physical  changes  which  underlie  psychigd  phenomena,  or 
indeed  of  the  succession  of  the  psychical  processes  themselves, 
that  we  cannot  as  yet  judge  as  to  the  nature  of  the  mechanism 
of  these  centres.    So  much  of  the  psychic  work  of  the  individual 
life  consists  in  the  interpretation  of  sensations  and  the  translation 
of  these  into  motions  that  there  are  strong  a  priori  grounds 
for  expecting  to  find  that  much  of  the  material  of  the  nerve- 
centres  is  occupied  with  this  kind  of  work,  but  in  the  present 
conflict  of  experimental  evidence  it  is  safor  to  su^iend  judgment. 
That  these  local  areas  are  not  centres  in  the  sense  of  being 
indispensable  parts  of  their  respective  motor  apparatuses  is 
clear,  as  the  function  abolished  by  ablation  of  a  part  returns, 
though  tardily,  so  that  whatever  superintendence  the  removed 
region  exercised  apparently  becomes  assumed  by  another  part 
of   the   brain.'     Experimental  physiology  and  pathology,  by 
suggesting  other  functions  for  parts  of  the  brain-surface,  are 
thus  directly  subversive  of  riiaqy  details  of  the  phrenology  of 
Call  and  Spurxbeim. 

Psychological  Aspecl.-^The  fundamental  hypothesis  which 
underlies  phrenology  as  a  system  of  mental  science  is  that  mental 
phenomena  are  resolvable  into  the  manifestations  of  a  group  of 
separate  faculties.     A  faculty  is  defined  as  "a  convenient 
expression  for  the  particular  states  into  which  the  mind  enters 
when  influenced  by  particular  organs;  it  is  applied  to  the  feelings 
as  well  as  to  the  intellect,  thus  the  faculty  ol  benevolence  means 
every  mode  of  benevolence  induced  by  the  organ  of  benevolence  " 
(Combe).     In  another  work  the  same  author  says  it  is  "  used 
to  denote  a  particular  power  of  feeling,  thinking,  perceiving, 
connected  with  a  particular  past  of  the  brain."   Theassumption 
is  contained  in  the  definition  that  the  exercise  of  a  faculty  is  the 
physical  outcome  of  the  activity  of  the  organ,  and  in  several 
of  the  standard  works  this  is  illustrated  by  misleading  anak>gies 
between  these  and  other  organs;  thus  the  organs  of  benevolence 
and  of  firmness  are  said  to  be  as  distinct  as  the  liver  and  pancreas. 
The  mind,  according  to  another  author,  consists  of  the  sum  of  all 
the  faculties.    In  this  view  the  unity  of  consciousness  is  some- 
what difficult  to  explain,  and  consequently  there  is  assumed 
by  others  a  single  unifying  substratum,  and  on  this  the  organs 
are  stipposed  to  act;  thus  thoughts  are  defined  as  ''relations 
of  the  simple  substance,  mind,  to  certain  portions  of  the  cn- 
cephalon  "  (Welsh,  Pkren.  Journ,  i.  206).    Gall  himself  believed 
that  there  was  but  a  single  principle  which  saw,  felt,  tasted, 
heard,    touched,   thought   and   willed   {Fondioiis  du  cerveau, 
i'    243)  r  ^od  the  American  exponent  of  phrenology,  Caldwell, 
says  "  the  mind  is  as  single  in  its  power  as  it  is  in  its  substance; 

>  for  cases,  see  Rochefontaine,  Archives  de  Pkysiolotjie  (1S83).  28; 
Bianchi,  La  Psukiatria,  L  97. 


it  is  a  quickeirfBg  ifld  operating  prind^ple,  eMential  to  all  the 
mental  faculties,  but  docs  not,  by  any  means,  possess  them 
Rsdf  "  {ElomaOtt  p.  t6).  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  the  sap* 
posed  relation  of  this  hypotiwtlcal  substiiAum  to  the  separate 
faculties  acting  on  it.  It  must  be  both  immaterial  and  uncon- 
nected with  the  brain,  as  the  whole  two  thousand  million  cells 
supposed  to  exist  in  thfe  cerebral  hemispheres  are  all  parcelled 
out  among  the  faculties,  voA  wme  are  left  for  the  unifying  nouf. 

Bach  organ  is  considered  as  engaged,  either  independently 
in  bringing  forth  its  own  product,  or  eoltectively  with  others  in 
elaborating  compound  mental  states,  and  according  to  their 
several  degrees  of  devek^yment  and  activity  they  are  considered 
capable  of  perceiving,  conceiving,'  reooHecting;  judging  or 
imagining  each  its  own  subject.  This  mechaniesl  conception 
of  the  division  of  labour  in  the  preductfon  of  the  phenomena 
of  mind  has  the  diarm  of  simplicity,  but  is  attended  with  the 
difficulty  that  arises  fai  discriminating  the  operations  of  the 
different  organs  one  from  the  other.  Phrenok^sts  are  apt  to 
be  vague  respecting  the  limits  of  the  several  faculties,  as  about 
the  boundaries  of  the  separate  organs.  It  was  pointed  out  by 
Jeffrey  that  the  lines  of  demarcation  between  benevolence, 
adhesiveness  and  philoprogenitiveness  were  indeterminate, 
although  the  organs  are  not  very  close,  and  the  same  applies 
to  other  organs. 

It  is  unfortunate  for  the  clearness  of  the  definition  that, 
although  historically  the  faculties  were  the  first  phenomena 
noted,  independent  of  and  previous  to  their  localization,  yet 
in  the  definition  the  faculties  trt  defined  in  terms  of  their 
localities. 

The 'following  arguments  are  adduced  in  favour  of  the  funda- 
mental separateness  of  the  faculties:  (x)  analogy— elsewhers 
in  the  animal  economy  division  of  labour  is  the  rule;  (2)  the 
variety  of  mental  endowment  observed  among  children  before 
they  are  iafiueoced  by  education,  and  the  inequaUties  in  the 
mental  endowments  of  individuals;  (3)  the  phenomena  of 
insanity,  especially  of  monomania;  (4)  the  varying  periods  at 
which  individual  faculties  attain  their  maximum  development; 
(s)  the  phenomena  of  dreams,  and  the  awakem'ng  of  a  limited 
number  of  facilities  during  them;  (6)  pain  being  felt  in  an  organ 
when  it  is  overtaxed.* 

Such  faculties  are  supposed  to  be  primary — (i)  as  exist  in 
some  animsls  and  not  in  others,  (2)  as  vary  in  their  development 
in  the  sexes,  (3)  as  are  developed  in  varying  proportions  with 
regard  to  oUier  faculties,  (4}  as  may  act  separately  from  othef 
faculties,  (5)  as  are  not  necessarily  simultaneous  with  other 
faculties  in  action,  (6)  ■#  axe  hereditary,  and  (7)  as  may  be 
singly  diseased. 

According  to  the  tlevelopnient  of  their  powers  mankind  m^y 
be  divided  into  six  classes:  (x)  those  in  whom  the  highest 
qualities  are  largely  developed  and  the  animal  quahlies  feeble; 
(2)  those  with  the  reversed  conditions  developed,  with  large 
animal  and  feeble  intellectual  and  moral  faculties;  (3)  those 
in  whom  good  and  evil  are  in  constant  war,  with  active  animal 
and  strong  intellectual  faculties  and  sentiments;  (4)  those  partial 
geniuses  in  whom  a  few  qualities  are  unusually  developed,  while 
the  rest  are  at  or  below  the  mediocre  standard;  (5)  those  men 
of  moderate  endowment  in  whom  some  faculties  are  nearly  or 
quite  deficient;  (6)  those  with  an  unvarying  standard  of 
undistinguished  mediocrity  in  all  their  faculties. 

It  is  perhaps  unfortunate  that  the  word  "  faculty  **  has  been 

used  in  this  sense  of  original  power  by  phrenologists.    It  would 

have  been  better  to  employ,  as  Mr  Lewes  suggests,  the  term 

'  It  is  interesting  in  this  connexiofn  to  note  that  in  a  case  published 
by  Professor  Hamilton  in  BtAtn  (April  1884),  where  a  tumour  existed 
on  the  occipital  lobe,  the  pain  was  persistently  referred  to  the  fore- 
head. Many  similar  cases  are  to  be  noticed  amon^  the  record*  of 
localized  brain-lestons.  Be9rin|f  on  this  point  also  it  is  worth  noting, 
once  for  all,  that  In  nothing  is  the  purely  hypothetical  nature  of 
phrenological  description  better  realized  than  in  the  accounu  of 
what  these  authors  call  the  "  natural  language  of  the  faculties," 
—that  poets  are  supposed  to  touch  idcalit)r  when  composing; 
musicians  to  press  on  tone  and  time,  and  painters  on  form  and 
colour,  when  In  the  exercise  of  their  arts!  Yet  we  are  graiely 
Uaght  this  in  the  standard  works  on  the  subject. 


538 


PHRENOLOGY 


identical  coavdutiotw  in  diffeient  bmins  oomist  *S  iierve<€ells  with 

f precisely  the  same  connexions.   The  convoluted  arrangement  results 
rom  growth  of  brain-surface  under  constraint,  bcnce  as  the  different 
tracts  of  surface  undergo  proportional  overgrowth  they  may  fold 
ttlottg  different  lines.    The  occurrence  of  small  differences  m  the 
rate  of  overgrowth,  testified  to  by  the  varieties  of  the  resulting 
.  pattern,  can  nardly  fail  to  cause  considerable  alteration  in  the  place 
4  of  definite  territories  of  grey  cells.    Some  method  (or  the  dctcr- 
^  mination  of  the  limits  of  these  shif tings  of  place  is  required  before 
comparisons  can  be  of  value  as  phrenological  data. 

4.  llie  comparison  of  the  rate  of  growth  of  brain  with  the  develop 
ment  of  mental  faculties  is  imporunt  not  only  to  the  phrenologist 
but  to  the  pBychoIog;ist.  No  observations  on  this  point  were  made 
by  phrenotogical  writers,  who  only  refer  to  the  first  and  rather 
cnioe  observations  of  the  earlier  anatomists.  We  have,  however, 
recently  learned  from  the  reseoiches  of  T.  L.  W.  von  Bischoff. 
Tuczec.  Cunningham,  and  S.  Exner^  niany  particulars  as  to  the  rate 
and  progress  of  Drain^growth.  At  birth  toe  brain  weighs  one-tenth 
of  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  averages  about  11  oz.  For  the 
first  year  brain-growth  and  consequently  expansion  of  the  skull 
proceed'  with  g^reat  rapidity,  the  growth  during  a  laree  part  of  thu 
period  averagmg  one  cuoic  centimetre  daily.  This  enormous 
increase  is  chiefly  due  to  the  rapid  development  of  medullatcd  nerve- 
fibres,  which  are  deficient  in  the  foetal  brain.  During  the  second 
and  third  years  growth  takes  place  more  slowly,  the  occipital  and 
paricul  lobes  increasing  more  than  the  frontal  or  temporo-spnenoidaJ. 
buring  these  and  the  four  succeeding  years  the  base  elongates 
commensurately  with  the  increasing  depth  of  the  face.  In  the 
sixth  and  seventh  years  the  frontal  lobes  grow  faster  than  the 
parietals,  and  at  seven  the  average  brain  has  attained  the  weight 
of  1340  grammes,  being  the  weight  of  the  body  as  1:2a  In 
the  period  between  seven  years  and  puberty  growth  is  slight,  but 
at  puberty  the  whole  bram  grows  actively,  especially  the  frontal 
M>a.  TtoM  acti^ty  lasts  until  about  eighteen  years  of  age,  then 
diminishes;  but  the  average  brain  docs  not  reach  its  maximum  size 
until  about  thirty,  from  a  little  after  which  period  the  brain  tends 
to  diminish  towards  senility.* 

5.  The  estimation  of  the  relative  devebpment  of  grey  and  white 
matter  in  the  several  lobes  is  important  to  anv  theory  of  cerebral 
dynamics  which  aliocata  functions  specifically  diverse  to  each 

-  separate  part  of  the  brain-surface;  but  no  attempt  has  been  made  by 
the  phrenologist  to  obtain  precise  results  in  this  direction,  nor  even 
to  determine  the  ^ysical  constants  of  the  two  forms  of  brain-matter. 
The  recently  iiuroauced  method  of  Bourgoin  and  B.  I>anilewski, 
based  upon  the  differing  specific  gravities  of  grey  and  white  matter, 
promises  to  give  definite  information  as  to  the  relative  amounts  of 
these  fomu  of  brain*matter;  but  further  experiments  are  needed 
to  perfect  the  method.* 

6.  The  relations,  if  any.  between  the  alterations  which  Uke  place 
in  the  shape  and  position  of  the  head  and  alterations  in  brain-surface 
have  been  speculated  on  by  the  phrenologist.  Broussais  is  reported 
to  have  saia  that  his  organ  of  cai\sality  had  enlarged  with  increasing 
use.  and  a  list  of  cases  of  similar  alterations  <A  head<shape  is  given 
by  Deville  (Pkrin.  J<mm.  xiv.  u),  most  of  which  are  simply  age- 
changes,  of  the  kind  described  by  Professor  J.  Cleland  {Phil. 
Trans.t  1870).  There  are  no  exact  measurements  recorded  which 
indicate  the  occurrence  of  topical  increases  of  a  normal  brain  in 
speda!  directions  coincident  with  the  culttvatfen  of  definite  faculties. 
All  the  80<alled  cases  arc  given  vaguely,  with  no  measurements, 
and  the  careful  measurements  of  George  Combe  in  such  cases  as 
were  available  to  him  showed  no  appreciable  alterations  in  adult 
heads  even  at  tong  intervals  of  time  (see  also  Andrew  Combe,  Pkren. 
Joum.  X.  414). 

7.  The  phrenological  want  of  knowledge  of  the  topography  oc 
the  brain-surface  was  necessarily  correlated  with  ignorance  of  the 
exact  relations  of  the  convolutions  to  the  interior  of  the  cranial 
bones;  these  have  been  carefully  worked  out  by  E.  Husdike,  Hefflcr. 
W.  A.  Turner,  Cunningham  and  Reid.  Some  latitude,  however, 
must  be  allowed  in  topography,  as  the  exact  relation  of  convolutk>n 
of  skull  varies  with  the  shape  of  the  skull.  Giacomini  showed  that 
the  fiwRire  of  Rolando  is  perceptibly  farther  back  from  the  coronal 
suture  in  dolichooephatic  than  m  brachyccphalic  skulls,  and  it  is  still 
farther  back  in  the  extreme  boat-shaped  form  of  long-beadedness. 
Passec  shows  that  there  is  a  slight  topographical  diRcrence  in  the 
two  sexes  {Arch,/.  AnArop.,  tSSa,  xiv.  89).  and  in  the  heads  of  those 
with  a  symmetncallY-shapcd  skull  there  Is  often  a  want  of  lateral 

rmetry  Of  oonvoiution.  Artificial  deformations  likewise  alter 
topographical  relations  of  convolutions,  and  have  served  not  a 
little  to  puzzle  the  phrenokigist.  Thus,  the  artificial  dolichocephaly 
of  the  Caribs  having  bulged  the  squama  occipitis,  they  decided  that 
then  people  must  be  amiable  lovers  of  children.*  &c. 

t    1  Neuralptisefus  CenlralblaU  (1S83).  p.  457- 

•  Weisbach.  Mtd.  Jahrhuck.  dtr  k.  Gesdiuh,  dtr  Aerdt,  xviL  113 
(Vienna.  1869):  Merkel,£et<fd{ss.  poH-tmbryonaien  Enlwkkdung  dies 
nuHukl.  ScMdd  (Bonn,  1882);  Calori.  Mem.  de  Faccad.  di  Belof^ 
(1871),  X.  35.  Cunningham,  Cunningham  Mewioir,  Royal  Irish 
Acatiemy. 

»  CemtralbiaU  (1880).  No.  14:  Beitrige  tur  Bichgie  (Stuttgart  1882). 

*  Martius  tells  us  that  the  Caribs  castiata  their  own  children, 


8.  The  existence  of  structural  differences  between  different  areas 
of  cerebral  surface  is  important  to  any  theory  of  cerebral  localizsr 
tion.  but  no  phrenologist  has  given  us  any  original  informatkMi  oatUi 
point.  Since  the  investigation  of  I.  G.  F.  Batllaryer^and  Be>mi- 
Lewis  it  has  been  shown  that  some  local  dafferentiations  of  stractaie 
do  really  exist.  Thus  in  the  convolutioAs  around  the  fissure  of 
Rolando  the  ganglion-cells  of  the  fourth  layer  are  of  latve  aiae  (riant- 
celts  of  Betz).  and  in  the  convolutions  of  the  teroporo-sphenoidal  lotx 
a  layer  of  small  angular  cells  (granule-cells)  b  interposed  between  the 
larger  pyramidal  and  the  ganglion-cclls,  so  that,  while  in  the  parts 
of  the  brain  above  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  the  cray  cortex  is  for  the 
most  part  hve-Uyercdt  below  and  behind  that  fissure  it  is  six^layend. 
There  is  no  abrupt  passage  from  the  one  to  the  other,  the  only  saddea 
transition  of  structure  of  the  grey  cortex  being  at  the  hippocarapaJ 
sulcus:  snd  giant-cells,  although  of  smaller  size,  and  leas  Uke  those 
of  the  anterior  comu  of  the  sfunal  oord,  are  scattered  over  other 
parts  of  the  cerebral  grey  matter.* 

Other  local  variations  in  structure  have  been  described  by  El&t 
Smith  and  other  histologists. 

The  teaching  of  anatomy  with  regard  to  phrenology  nay  be 
summarized  thus:  (i)  the  rate  of  growth  of  Drain  is  -coocuf lent 
with  the  rate  of  development  of  mental  faculty;  (2)  there  u  some 
degree  of  structural  dinercntiation  as  there  are  varying  rates  of 
development  of  different  parts  of  the  cerebral  surface;  (3)  there  is 
no  accordance  between  the  regions  of  Gall  and  Spursheim  and  definite 
areas  of  cerebral  surface. 

Physiological  Aspect. — ^The  theory  of  some  of  the  older  meu- 
physiqians,  thai  the  mind,  in  feeling  and  reflection,  makes  use 
of  no  material  instrument  is  not  now  accepted  by  p^dmlogets. 
It  was  advanced  by  Brougham  and  Jeffrey  as  against  the  theny 
of  phrenology;  but  the  doctrine  that  the  brain  i&  the  oisaa  of 
the  mind  i^  now  universally  received.    While  it  is  probabie  that 
certain  molecular  changes  in  the  g;rey  matter  are  antecedents 
or  concomitants  of  mental  phenomena,  the  precise  nature  ci 
these  processes,  to  what  extent  they  take  place,  or  how  they  vary 
among  themselves  have  not  as  yet  been  determined  espexi- 
mentdly;  the  occunence  of  the  change  can  only  be  demonstrated 
by  some  sticb  coarse  method  as  the  altered  pulsation  of  the  carotid 
arteries,'  the  increase  of  the  temperature  of  the  head,"  the 
abstraction,  during  brain-action,  of  blood  from  other  organs  as 
shown  by  the  plcthysmograph,  or  the  formatjon  ci  lecithin  and 
other  products  ot  metabolism  in  brain-substance.   As  yet  r^ 
light  has  been  shed  on  the  connexion  between  the  molecukr 
changes  in  the  nerve-cell  and  the  phenomena  of  thought  zsd 
feeling.    While  our  knowl^ge  of  the  anatomy  of  th«  brain, 
tspecii&y  of  the  grey  nuclei  and  of  the  white  bands  uniting  the^Tv 
has  in  recent  years  become  much  more  accurate  (see  articles 
Brain  and  Muscle  and  Nerve),  our  knowledge  of  the  phyaMogy 
of  the  nerve  centres  is  still  indefinite  and  fragmentary,  even  whec 
the  utmost  allowance  is  made  for  the  experimental  work  of 
C.  S.  Sherrington,  A.S.F.  Grfinbaum,  F.  Goltz  and  others;  and 
the  hypotheses  relating  to  the  division  of  labour  inthenerre- 
centres  is  chiefly  based  on  anatomical  structure.      Certain 
masses  of  grey  nerve-matter  situated  in  the  spinal  cord  and 
medttlhL  oblongata  arc  so  linked  by  nerve-cords  to  organs  outside 
the  nervous  system  which  are  set  apart  for  the  discharge  d 
separate  ftmctions  that  they  obviously   fonn   parts    of    the 
mechanism  for  the  fulfilment  of  such  functions.    In  cases  where 
these  can  be  subjected  to  experiment  we  learn  that  they  are 
nervous  centres  presiding  over  the  discharge  of  such  fiincLi<»a; 
and  it  has  been  determined  by  experiment,  or  ebe  deduced 
from  anatomical  structure,  that  in  those  lower  puts  of  the 
nervous  centres  which  are  more  directly  connected  whh  thf 
segmental  elements  of  the  body  there  is  a  certain  Iocaixzati<w 
of  function;  hence  the  centres  of  pelvic  actions,  of  rtsptraiioa. 
cardiac  action,  and  inhibition  of  vaso-motor  inlhience,  dcglutt- 
tion,  secretiotts,  &c.,  can  be  mapped  out  in  ascending  series.    As 
certain  of  these  centres  are  united  by  bands  of  fibres  to  the  larger 

fatten  and  cat  them,  an  abuse  of  the  orean  of  phibprogenitivcness: 
see  also  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  Hist,  des  Incas,  i.  la. 

*  iiim.  de  Vaead.  dt  mUecine  (1840).  viiL  1^9. 

*  For  further  particulars  of  structure.  In  addition  to  the  aathon 

? noted  at  i.  878,  see  Bevan-Lewis  and  Clark,  PJI.S,,  (1878).  and 
'kit.  Trans.  (1880  and  1883). 

'  See  Eug^  Gley,  "  Sur  les  conditions  physiolbgiquea  de  Is 
pcnsffo,"  in  Arekives  d€  physiologie  (1881),  p.  743. 

*  J.  S.  Lombard,  N.  Y.  Med.  Journal  (June  186^).  and  Bxperim^wtM. 
Researcku  am  the  Regional  Temperature  cf  Ike  Hood  (LondosL,  1872^ 


PHRENOLOGY 


S39 


am!  higher-lying  grey  portions  of  the  nervous  centres  there  is 

an  a  priori  presumption  In  favour  of  the  extension  of  this  principle 

of  localization.   This  has  been  premised  on  mttaphysic^  as  well 

as  on  anatomical  grounds.   A.  B.  Bonnet  long  ago  bdieved  eadi 

portion  of  the  brain  to  have  a  specifically  separate  function,  and 

Herbert  Spencer  has  said  that  "  no  physiologist  can  long  resist 

the  conviction  that  different  parts  of  the-  cerebrum  subserve 

different  kinds  of  mental  action.   Localization  of  fxmction  is  the 

law  of  all  organization;  separateness  of  duty  is  universally 

accompanied  with  separateness  of  structure,  and  it  would  be 

marvellous  were  an  exception  to  exist  in  the  cerebral  hemispheres. 

Let  it  be  granted  that  the  cerebral  hemispheres  are  the  seats 

of  the  highier  psychical  activities;  let  it  be  granted  that  among 

these  higher  peychkal  activities  there  are  distinctions  of  kind 

which,  though  not  d^nite,  are  yet  practically  recognisable,  and 

it  cannot  be  denied,  without  going  in  direct  opposition  to 

established  physiological  principles,  that  these  more  or  less 

dustinct  kinds  of  psychical  activity  must  be  carried  on  in  more 

or  less  distinct  parts  of  the  cerebral  hemisphere." 

For  a  -masterlsr  eeview  of  the  old  aikd  the  aew  asoociatioii  and 
localization  theories,  see  W.  Wundt's  Cnmdzdgi  der  tkjsialMJuchtn 
Psyck^ogjkt  i.  289  sqq.;  also  the  same  author's  Essays^  Leipzig 
(1888),  pp.  10^  sqq.  • 

There  is  a  large  weight  of  evidence  in  favour  of  the  existence 
of  some  form  of  localization  of  function.    So  little  is  known  of 
the  physical  changes  which  underlie  psychical  phenomena,  or 
indeed  of  the  succession  of  the  psychical  processes  themselves, 
that  we  cannot  as  yet  judge  as  to  the  nature  of  the  mechanism 
of  these  centres.    So  much  of  the  psychic  work  of  the  individual 
life  consists  in  the  interpretation  of  sensations  and  the  translation 
of  these  into  motions  that  there  are  strong  a  priori  grounds 
for  expecting  to  find  that  much  of  the  material  of  the  nerve- 
centres  is  occupied  wKh  this  kind  of  work,  but  in  the  present 
conflict  of  experimental  evidence  it  is  safer  to  suspend  judgment. 
That  these  local  areas  are  not  centres  an  the  sense  of  being 
indtfipensable  parts  of  their  respective  motor  ^>paratuaes  is 
clear,  as  the  function  alx^ished  by  ablation  of  a  part  returns, 
though  tardily,  so  that  whatever  superintendence  the  removed 
region  exercised  apparently  becomes  assumed  by  another  part 
of   the   brain.'     Experimental  physiology  auid  pathology,  by 
suggesting  other  functions  for  parts  of  the  brain-surface,  are 
thus  directly  subversive  of  many  details  of  the  phrenology  of 
Call  and  Spurzheim. 

Psychological  Aspect. — The  fundamental  hjrpothesis  which 
underlies  phrenology  as  a  system  of  mental  science  is  that  mental 
phenomena  are  resolvable  into  the  manifestations  of  a  group  of 
separate   faculties.     A  faculty  is  defined  as  "a  convenient 
expr^Bton  for  the  particular  states  into  which  the  mind  enters 
when  ioffuenced  by  particular  organs;  it  is  applied  to  the  feelings 
as  well  as  to  the  intellect,  thus  the  faculty  of  benevolence  means 
every  mode  of  benevolence  induced  by  the  organ  of  benevolence  " 
(Combe).    In  another  work  the  same  author  says  it  is  "  used 
to  denote  a  particular  power  of  feeling,  thinking,  perceiving, 
connected  with  a  particular  part  of  the  brain."   The  assumption 
is  contained  in  the  definition  that  the  exercise  of  a  faculty  is  the 
physical  outcome  of  the  activity  of  the  organ,  and  in  several 
of  the  standard  works  this  is  illustrated  by  misleading  anak>gies 
between  these  and  other  organs;  thus  the  organs  of  benevolence 
and  of  firmness  are  said  to  be  as  distinct  as  the  liver  and  pancreas. 
The  mind,  according  to  another  author,  consists  of  the  sum  of  all 
the  faculties.    In  this  view  the  unity  of  consciousness  is  some- 
what difficult  to  explain,  and  consequently  there  is  assumed 
by  others  a  single  unifying  substratum,  and  on  this  the  organs 
are  supposed  to  act;  thus  thoughts  are  defined  as  "  relations 
of  the  simple  substance,  mind,  to  certain  portions  of  the  en- 
cephalon  "  (Welsh.  Phren,  Journ.  i.  206).    Gall  himself  believed 
that  there  was  but  a  single  principle  which  saw,  felt,  tasted, 
heard,    touched,   thought   and  wiUed   {Ponctions  du  ccrveau, 
1-    243)  r  &°<1  the  American  exponent  of  phrenology,  CaldweU, 
say*  "  the  mind  is  as  single  in  its  power  as  it  is  in  its  substance; 

*■  For  cases,  kc  Rochefontaine,  Archwes  de  PkyuelofjU  (i88j).  28; 
Btancht,  La  Psickialria,  L  97. 


k  is  a  quickening  and  operatlttg  prfaic^,  eiae&tial  to  all  the 
mental  faculties,  but  does  not,  by  any  means,  possess  them 
Itself  "  (Eloments,  -p.  t6).  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  the  sup- 
posed relation  of  this  hypothletkal  substiaitttm  to  the  separate 
faculties  acting  on  it.  It  must  be  both  inunaterial  and  unoon* 
nected  with  the  brain,  as  the  whole  two  thousand  million  cells 
supposed  to  exist  In  tht  cerebral  hemispheres  are  all  parcdled 
out  among  the  faculties,  and  none  are  left  for  the  unifying  nout. 

Bach  organ  is  considered  as  engaged,  either  indepeadeatly 
in  bringing  forth  its  own  product,  or  collect  ivdy  with  others  in 
elaborating  compound  mental  states,  and  according  to  their 
several  degrees  of  development  and  activity  they  are  considered 
capable  of  peitxiving,  conceiving,'  recoUectlng;  jud^^g  or 
imagining  each  its  own  subject.  This  mechanieal  conception 
of  the  division  of  labour  in  the  production  of  the  phenomena 
of  mind  has  the  charm  of  nmplidty,  but  is  attended  with  the 
difficulty  that  arises  in  discriminating  the  operations  of  the 
different  organs  One  horn  the  other.  Phrencrieigists  ate  apt  to 
be  vague  respecting  the  limits  of  the  several  faculties,  as  about 
the  boundaries  of  the  separate  organs.  It  was  pointed  out  by 
Jeffrey  that  the  lines  of  demarcation  between  benevolence, 
adhesiveness  and  philoprogenitiveness  were  indeterminate, 
although  the  organs  are  not  very  close,  and  the  same  apfflies 
to  other  organs. 

It  is  unfortunate  for  the  clearness  of  the  definition  that, 
although  historically  the  faculties  were  the  first  phenomena 
noted,  independent  of  and  previous  to  their  localization,  yet 
in  the  definition  the  faculties  are  defined  in  terms  of  their 
localities. 

Theiollowing  arguments  are  adduced  in  favour  of  the  funda> 
mental  separateness  of  the  faculties:  (i)  analogy-^ehewhere 
in  the  animal  economy  division  of  labour  is  the  rule;  (2)  the 
variety  of  mental  endowment  observed  among  children  before 
they  are  influenced  by  education,  and  the  inequalities  in  the 
mental  endowments  of  individuals;  (3)  the  phenomena  of 
insanity,  especially  of  monomania;  (4)  the  varying  periods  at 
which  individual  faculties  attain  their  maximum  development; 
(5)  the  phenomena  of  dreams,  and  the  awakening  of  a  limited 
number  of  faculties  during  them;  (6)  pain  being  felt  In  an  organ 
when  it  is  overtaxed.* 

Such  faculties  are  supposed  to  be  primary-r-(i)  as  exist  in 
some  animals  and  not  in  others,  (2)  as  vary  in  their  development 
in  the  sens,  (3)  as  are  developed  in  varying  proportions  with 
regard  to  other  faculties,  (4)  as  may  act  separately  from  othe^ 
faculties,  (5)  as  are  not  necessarily  simultaneous  with  other 
faculties  in  action,  (6)  is  am  hereditary,  and  (7)  as  may  be 
singly  diseased^ 

According  to  the  Tievelopment  of  their  powers  mankind  may 
be  diWdcd  into  six  classes:  (i)  those  in  whom  the  highest 
qualities  are  largely  developed  and  the  animal  qualities  feeble; 
(2)  those  with  the  reversed  conditions  developed,  with  large 
animal  and  feeble  intellectual  and  moral  faculties;  (3)  those 
in  whom  good  and  evil  are  in  constant  war,  with  active  animal 
and  strong  intellectual  foculties  and  sentiments;  (4)  those  partial 
geniuses  in  whom  a  few  qualities  are  unusually  developed,  while 
the  rest  are  at  or  below  the  mediocre  standard;  (5)  those  men 
of  moderate  endowment  in  whom  some  faculties  are  nearly  or 
quite  deficient;  (6)  those  with  an  unvarying  standard  of 
undistinguished  mediocrity  in  all  their  faculties. 

It  is  perhaps  unfortunate  that  the  word  "  faculty  '*  has  been 

used  in  this  sense  of  original  power  by  phrenologists.    It  would 

have  been  better  to  employ,  as  Mr  Lewes  suggests,  the  term 

'  It  is  interesting  in  this  connexion  to  note  that  in  a  case  published 
by  Professor  Hamilton  in  Brain  (April  1884),  where  a  tumour  existed 
on  the  occipital  lobe,  the  pain  was  persistently  referred  to  the  fore- 
head. Many  similar  cases  are  to  be  noticed  amon^  the  recor«ls  of 
localized  bram-lcsiona.    Bearing  on  this  point  also  it  1$  worth  noting, 


— that  poets  are  supposed  to  touch  idealitjr  when  composing, 
musicians  to  press  on  tone  and  time,  and  painters  on  form  and 
colour,  when  in  the  exercise  of  their  arts!  Yet  we  are  grarely 
taught  this  in  the  standard  works  on  the  subject. 


540 


PHRENOLOGY 


"  fuDclioa ''  for  the  native  activity  oC  an  orgaii«  and  to  leave 

"  faculty  "  for  the  expreaaion  of  an  acquired  activity.  "  Faculty 
is  properly  limited  to  active  power,  and  therefore  Ja  abusiyely 
applied  to  the  mere  passive  affections  of  the  mind  "  (Hamilton, 
JLeclurcs,  i.  ijj)* 

'  An  attempt  has  been,  recently  made  by  Dr  Bernard  Hollander 
to  correlate  the  doctrines  of  phrenology  with  the  modem  physio- 
logical and  pathological  observations  which  bear  upon  the 
localization  of  function.  In  his  works  The  Mental  Fwtai$ns 
of  the  Brain,  under  the  sub-title  '*  The  Revival  of  Phrenology  " 
(1901),  and  in  Scientific  Phrenology  (190a),  the  author  endeavours 
to  bring  Gall's  c]ini<^  and  pathological  instances  into  line  with 
more  modem  observations.  He  deprecates  the  craniology  of 
Call,  as  far  as  it  deals  i^th  mere  "  bumps,"  and  honours  him, 
with  justice,  as  the  recorder  of  many  facts  worth  saving  out 
of  the  wreck  of  his  system;  and  he  endeavours^  though  with 
doubtful  success,  toesUblish  an  unbroken  connexion  between 
phrenology,  in  the  Greek  sense,  and  our  present  knowledge  of 
cerebral  localization. 

The  substance  of  HoII&nder*s  first  work  !s  of  two  kinds.  -The  one 
kind  u  a  tabulated  statement  of  many  hundred  cases  of  di^crent 
forms  of  mania,  with  injury  or  disease  limited  to  one  portion  of 
the  brain;  the  other  kind  ts  a  ubulated  statement  of  cases  of  injury 
or  disease  of  the  brain,  followed  by  perversian,  or  cacaltatton,  or  loss 
of  some  definite  instinct  or  faculty  of  consciousness. 

He  divides  the  tabulated  cases  of  mania  into  three  groups: 
(i)  Melancholia;  (ii)  Irascible  Insanity. "  Mania furiosa  ";  (iii)  Mania 
with  tumicion  and  deluuons  of  persecution.  For  these  three  groum 
of  cases  he  bys  down  the  following  rules :  (i)  Melancholia  is  especially 
associate  with  injury  or  disease  of  the  parietal  lobe  of  the  brain, 
more  particularly  witn  injury  or  disease  of  the  convolutions  under- 
lying the  paricui  eminences  of  the  skull,  ix.  the  supramarginal  and 
angular  convolutions,  (ii)  Mania  furiosa  is  espeoally  associated 
with  injury  or  disease  ot  the  central  portion  6k  the  temporal  lobe, 
(iii)  Mania  with  suspicion  and  delusions  ot  persecution  is  especially 
associated  with  injury  or  disease  of  the  posterior  portbn  of  the 
temporal  lobe. 

The  second  land  of  cases,  where  injury  or  disease  of  the  brain, 
strictly  localized  to  one  part  or  another  of  its  gcey  matter,  was 
followed  by  perversion,  exaltation  or  loss  of  some  one  instinct,  habit 
or  faculty,  includes  cases  of  kleptomania,  cases  of  voracious  hunger 
and  thirst,  cases  of  sexual  desire  exalted  or  lost,  and  cases  of  loss  of 
tertain  special  memories,  as  of  words,  tunes,  numbers  and  the  like. 

Hiese  two  collections  of  recorded  cases,  taken  from  a  vast  mass  of 
clinical  and  pathological  literature  accumulated  during  the  past, 
century,  have  been  arranged  by  Dr  Hollander  with  great  industry: 
so  as  to  extend  the  limits  of  the  studv  of  cerebral  localization,  and 
f o  advance  it  from  the  observatk>n  of  t  ne  motor  areas  and  the  special 
sense  centres  to  the  observation  of  the  higher  acts  and  states  ol  con- 
sciousness. Modern  phystolopy,  from  its  objective  point  of  view» 
is  engaged  over  finer  and  finer  issues  of  microscopic  and  experimental 
worte;  and,  from  its  subjective  point  of  view,  is  becoming  more  and 
nu>r«  p«ycholoeical,  seeking  a  higher  level  of  interpretatioft,  and  a 
.statement  of  the  departmental  life  of  the  brain  in  terms  of  ever- 
increasing  complexity.  The  motor  centres,  governing  the  voluntary 
purposeful  movements  of  the  body,  are  considered  to  be  not  simply 
motor,  but  "psycho-motor";  the  speech-centres  are  not  homo- 
geneous, but  are  on  experimental  gnninds  differentiated  into  sub- 
centrca  for  the  utterance  of  words,  the  recognition  of  words  and  the 
understanding  of  words;  the  visual  centres  are  in  like  manner  sub- 
divided acconling  to  the  consciousness  involved  in  the  complete 
act  of  vision.  There  is  room,  therefore,  for  a  '*  higher  phrenology," 
if  it  can  show  clear  evidence  in  favour  of  the  localization,  in  deter- 
minate regions  of  the  brain,  of  the  physical  changes  accompanying 
certain  states  of  consciousness. 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  cases  that  Dr  Holl&nder  has  tabulated,  it 
cannot  be  said  that  the  cases  of  mania  arc  convincing.  Some  of 
them  are  altogether  beside  the  mark;  e.g.  he  quotes  two  cases  of 
melancholia,  after  an  injury  ovef  the  left  parietal  bone,  which  were 
cured  by  an  operation  limited  to  the  scalp  (excision  of  a  painful 
scar,  removal  of  a  small  nerve-tumour  01  the  scalp);  in  neither 
case  was  anything  done  to  the  skull  or  to  the  brain,  but  both  patients 
were  cured  o(  their  melancholy.  A^pn,  the  acceptance  of  these 
rules  as  to  the  localization  of  these  insane  thoughts  involves  the 
localization  of  sane  thoughts  in  the  same  areas  of  the  brain,  and 
this  in  turn  involves  assumptions  that  arc  wholly  unwarranted  by 
our  present  knowledge.  Moreover,  cases  of  mama  arc  so  common 
that  it  might  be  possible  to  find  an  equal  number  of  cases  to  con- 
trovert his  rules:  we  want  consectttive,  not  pUhed  cases.  If  5000 
consecutive  fatal  cases  of  these  different  kinds  of  mania,  with  the 
post  mortem  record  of  each  case,  wcrc  tabulated,  we  should  then  begin 
to  stand  on  surer  ground.  Again,  though  Dr  Holl&ndcr  seems  to 
argue  wdl,  wherc  he  says  thlt  the  facial  and  other  rnqvcmcius. 
induced  by  direct  electrical  stimulation  of  certain  convolutions  are 
such  as  express  the  mental  states  which  he  attributes   to  those 


convolutions,  yet  this  argument  is  insecure,  partly  becanae  Siefring* 
ton's  recent  work,  on  the  motor  area  of  the  anthropoid  apes,  hai 
rcndered  it  necessary  to  reconsider  the  present  localization  of  the 
motor  area  in  man,  and  partly  because  the  interpretation  of  fadsl 
and  lauflcular  oiovemeats  as  represeoting  this  or  that  state  of  the 
emotions  is  always  precarious. 

The  second  kind  of  cases,  where  injury  or  disease  limited  to  one 
portion  of  the  brain  is  followed  by  perversion,  exaltation  or  kiss  of 
some  special  instinct  or  habit,  is  more  valuable  and  more  oonvinciog; 
especially  the  cases  oi  voracious  hunger  and  thirst,  those  of  true 
kleptomania,  and  those  of  the  loss  of  certain  special  memories, 
tt  .IS  not  so  easy  to  believe  that  the  cerebellum  is  in  any  primary 
way  associated  with  sexual  desire:  its  position,  its  structure  and  its 
proved  asaoclation  with  the  co-ordination  of  muscular  movemeats 
seem  ckKU-ly  to  indkate  that  its  work  is  wholly  aut»ordittate  and 
complementary  to  the  work  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres;  and  the 
evidence  adduced  in  favour  of  its  being  th^  "  seat  of  the  sexual 
impulses  hardly  amounts  to  more  than  a  probabiKty  that  tt  may 
transmit  or  CQ*ordinate  the  perf  ormaaoe  of  the  sexual  act. 

Practical  Application.^-**  Die  Sch&ddlehre  fst  allerdings  nkht 
so  sehr  Irrthum  in  der  Idee  als  Charlatanetk  in  der  AusfOhrung." 
says  one  of  its  most  acute  critics.    Even  though  no  fatUt  could 
be  found  with  the  physiology  and  psychology  of  phrenology, 
it  would  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  theory  could  be  utilized 
as  a  practical  method  oT  reading  character;  for,  although  the 
inner  surface  of  the  s^ill  is  moulded  on  the  brain,  and  the  outer 
surface  approximates  to  parallelism  thereto,  yet  the  correspon- 
dence Is  stxfiiciently  variable  to  render  conclusions  tbcrefroai 
nncertafn.    The  spongy  hyer  or  diploe  which  separates  the  two 
compact  tables  may  vary  conspicuously  in  amount  in  dxfferest 
parts  of  the  same  skull,  as  in  the  cases  described  by  Professor 
Humphry  {Jonm.  of  Anat.  viii.  137).    The  frontal  sinus,  that 
opprobrium  phrenologicvm,  is  a  reality,  not  unfrequently  of  large 
size,  and  may  whoHy  occupy  the  regions  of  five  organs.    Tlie 
centres  of  ouification  of  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones,  the 
muscular  crests  of  these  and  of  the  occipital  bones  also,  difier 
in  their  prominence  in  different  skulls.    Premature  synostoses 
of  sutures  mould  the  brain  without  doing  much  injury  to  its 
parts.    In  such  cases  there  arc  compensatory  ddatations  in  other 
directions  modifying:  sometimes  to  an  extrone  degree  the  rehtka 
of  brain-surface  to  skull-surface.    The  writer  has  found  sndi 
displacements  in  extremely  scaphocephalic  skulls;  the  same  b 
true  of  accidental  deformations  dtie  to  pressure  on  the  infantAe 
skull  before  it  cdnsoUdates.    Artificial  malformations  alter  the 
apparent  sknll  shape  considerably  while  they  affect  the  relative 
development  of  the  parts  of  the  brain  cortex  but  little.     Al 
these  and  other  cogent  reasons  of  a  like  kind,  whose  force  caa 
be  estimated  by  those  accustomed  to  deal  wiUi  the  compoocct 
soft  parts  of  the  head,  should  lead  phrenologists  to  be  earcfal 
in  predfcating  relative  brain-development  from  skull^sh^ic. 
Psychology,   physiology  and   experience  alike  OMitribuCc  ta 
discredit  the  practical  working  of  the  system  and  to  show  bow 
worthless  the  so-called  diagnoses  of  characUar  really  are.    Its 
application  by  those  who  are  its  votaries  is  seldom  woise  thaa 
amusing,  but  it  is  capable  of  domg  positive  social  harm,  ns  in  Hs 
proposed  application  to  the  discrimination  or  selection  of  nervaBis 
and  other  subordinate  officials.    It  has  even  been  proposed  to 
use  ft  for  the -purposes  of  the  guarantee  society  and  for  the 
selection    of    parliamentary    representatives.      The    sarcsstf 
suggestion  which  originated  with  Christopher  North  of  nMMtldxac 
children's  heada  so  as  to  suppress  the  evil  and  foster  the  good 
was  actually  repeated  in  good  faith  by  a  writer  on  phreimlo^, 
but  experience  of  the  effects  of  malformation  leads  one  to  t>c 
sceptical  as  to  the  feasibility  of  this  mode  of  produdi^  a  sociJ 
Utopia. 

BiBLiocRAFHr.— Prechasfca,  Funetiont  a/  the  Nertous  ^ntem  (tr. 
by  Laycock,  in  Sydenham  Society's  scries,  1851);  Call,  ReUurckes 

sur  le  syslkme  nerveux,  &c.  ^Paris,  1809),  Analomie  et  phyitdcg^ 
du  systhme  nerveux,  &c.  (Pans,  t8to-i8i9),  Tratti  its  dispoithm 
inniss  de  Vdme  et  de  V esprit  (Paris.  181 1)  and  Sw  Us  joncii  «/ 
du  cerveeu  (6  vols.,  1835):  Bcryk,  Bemerhuneen  a.  Zioeifet -uher  */«- 
Schddeliekre  des  Dr  Calls  (Lcipzia,  igoQ);  Morton,  Lftehtfatslnkg 
Darstellung  der  Gekirn-  una  Schadetiehre  (Lcipaig,  1 805);  Metz^.r. 
Ueber  den  menschiUhen  Kopf  (K6nig<ibcrg.  1803):  Wahhcr,  -Vea* 
Untertuchun%tn  der  Ctdl'schen  Cektm-  nnd  MadeUekre  (Mtinr  h. 
1804) :  Kesslcr,  FrUfung  des  GaU'uhen  Systems  (jena.  1805) :  llisrb j« 
DarsteUuHg  der  Call  schenCehirH-undSehadtilehre^&Q  (Berlin,  iek>s  . 
Ackermann,  Die  Qdt'uhe  Cehirntehre  tnderlegf  ^Hekl^lbczB.  t9aitt. 


PHR.YGIA 


541 


Himty,  EOrknmg  dicr  Coffidun  Uhn  (Halle,  iMS);  Thooias  I.  M. 

Forster,  "Sketch  of  the  New  Anatomy  and  Physiology  o(  the 

Brain,"  in  PampUeteer  (1815,  vol.  v ,  pt.  ix..  No.  10,  repnnicd 

with  additions,  1817);  Spurzhcim,  The  Pkynogtumual  System  of 

Call  and  Spmlmm  (Laadon.  iii5>,  Fkraulaty.  or  tke  DoOnne  of  the 

Mtad  (1835),  and  Tht  Anatofmy  pfike  Ummau  Bratu  (i836> ,  Gordon, 

Obsavatums  on  ike  Structure  of  the  Bratn,  com^tnng  an  estimate  ojf 

the  Clams  of  Coil  and  Sjmrxhetm,  &c.  (181 7) ;  Three  Famtltar  Lectures 

en  Cramolotical  Fkystoptom%  anonymous  and  satirical  (London, 

Wilaon,  i8t6);  G.  Combe,  Essays  am  Pknauloty  (Edinborgh,  1819). 

ElemenU  of  Pkrenohgy  (1824),  SysUm  of  PkrauSaty  (189s).  ConUttu- 

tion  ^  Man  (i827)«  Lectures  on  Phrenology  byooardman  (1839), 

and  Outlines  m  Phrenology  (1847);  Dewhurst.  Gutde  to  Human  and 

ComparaHae  Phrenology  (London.  1851);  Otto,  Phresnologten  elle? 

Galls  eg  Spmthaiwu  Hjeerme-  og   Orgrnktre  (CopenhagKn,    1825), 

BrouMaia,  Cows  da  pkrinehrie  (Para,  i8a6);  Vimont,  Tratti  da 

Phinolog^U  humaine  et  comparee  (1836) ;  NocT.  CrundzUu  der  Pkreno-, 

logie  (Leipzie,  1836  and  1856).  and   Dte  matertetle  CrunHage  des 

Sedemebens  (Leipxiff.  1874):  Macni^,  Intrvdueiton  to  Phrenohgy 

(Glaigow,  1836);  Capea.  Pkrmolaneai  Ltlnm  (Boston*   1836). 

Feirareae,  Memorie  rtsguardantt  la  Mtirtna  Jrwndog^fa  (i8«6-i838)» 

Watson,  Statistics  of  Phrenology  (1836) ;  Azais.  TraM  de  laMrinougte 

(Paris,  1839)  •  Sidney  Smith,  Pnnctptes  of  Pkrendogy  (Edinburgh, 


1K38);  Joshua  T.  Smith,  Synopsis  of  Pkrenohgy;  Fonchon,  La 
Maiirudtsma  at  la  phrbialogia  cambaitu.  (Piari«.  tSlo);  K.  G.  Cania, 
Grundsige  etner  nauen  mnd  trissensrhaJUiik  begntndaten  Kranmskopta 
(Stuttgart,  1841},  and  AOas  der  Krantoskofu  (^861).  Castle.  Dm 
Pkrenologie  (Stuttgart,  1845);  Struve,  Ceschukte  der  Pftrenol  gu 
(Heidelt)efV,l843)  i\A\iet,CouTsde^trhuilotie  (^109,1847)  •  FlourtJis, 
ExmmeH  de  la  pkrinologta  (Paris,  1843),  Da  U  Pkrineiagia  (1863); 
Sjemirier,  Phrinologia  moraU  (Paris,  1840),  Manano  Cubt  i. Solar, 
ixfons  de  phrinolog^e  (Paris,  1857):  Morcan,  Phrenohgyi  Donovan^ 
Pkrenohgy  \  Struve  and  Hirscnfeld,  Zeitscknfl  fUr  Pkrenologte 
(Heidelberg,  i84*-i84S):  Pkrenologkal  Journal  (20  vols.,  1823- 
1847);  Lelut,  Qi^tsi  ca  qua  la  pkHnohgtar  (1836),  and  IMit  da 
FarioMalogia  phrinolanqua  (1843);  Schevc,  Katael^smu  dor  Phresuh 
lane  (Leipzig,  1896) ;  Tuppcr.  Enmury  into  Dr  GaWs  System  (1819); 
Wayte,  Antipkrsnology  (1829);  Stone,  Observations  on  the  Pkreno- 
lorual  DevdopnunU  ^  Mtarderers  (Edinburgh,  1829);  Epps,  fforae 
Phnnalogieaa  (1839);  CtDck,  Compendium  of  Pkranalosy  (1878); 
Aken,  Pkraaolotjical  Bijou  (1839):  Hall.  Pkrano-Mapiet  (1843): 
HoIUInder.  Tke  Mental  Functions  of  tka  Bratn  (1901).  Scientific 
Phrenology  (1902).  (A.  Ma.) 

PHRYGIA.  tbe  name  of  a  laxige  countiy  in  Asia  Minor,  in- 
habited by  a  rac«  wiiich  tke  Graeks  called  ^ffbyth  Jreemtn,  * 
Roughly  speaking,  Phrygia  oompriscd  the  western  part  of  the 
i|reat  central  i^teau  of  Anatolia,  extending  aa  fax  cast  as  tbe 
river  Halys;  but  its  boundaries  were  vagae,*  and  varied  so  auicb 
at  different  periods  that  a  sketch  of  Sts  history  mast  precede 
any  account  of  the  geography*    According  to  unvarying  Greek 
tradition  the  Phrygians  were  m<»t  closely  akin  to  certain  trjbos 
of  Macedonia  and  Thrace;  and  their  near  relationship  to  the 
llellenic  stock  is  proved  by  all  that  is  knoiwn  of  their  language 
and  art,  and  is  accepted  i>y  almost  every  modern  authority. 
Tbe  country  named  Phrygia  in  the  better  known  period  of 
history  lies  inland,  separated  from  the  sea  by  Paphlagonia, 
BitbyrSa,.  Mysia  and  Xordia.    Yet  we  hear  of  a  Phrygian 
"  tbalassooacy  "  at  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  bxx   The 
Troad  and  tbe  district  round  Mt  Sipylus  are  frequently  called 
Phrygian,  as  also  is  the  seaport  Sioope;  and  a  d^trict  on  the 
coast  between  Sestus  and  the  river  Cius  was  regulariy  named 
Little  Phrygia;  names  like  Mygdones,  DoUones  and  Phryges  or 
Briges,  &c^  were  widely  current  both,  in  Asia  Minor  and  in 
Europe.     The  inference  has  been  generally  drawn  that  the 
Phrygians  belonged  to  a  stock  widespread  in  the  countries 
which  lie  round  the  Aegean  Sea.    There  is^  however,  no  con^ 
elusive  evidence  whether  this  stock  came  from  the  cast  over 
Armenia,  or  was  European  in  ori^  and  crossed  the  Hellespont 
into  Asia  Minor;  but  modem  opinion  inclines  decidedly  to  the 
latter  view. 

According  to  Greek  tradition  there  existed  in  early  time,  a 
Phrygian  kingdom  in  the  Sangarhis  valley,  ndcd  by  kings  among 
whom  the  names  Gordiua  and  Midas  were  commaq^K  It  was 
known  to  the  andeat  Creeks  of  Ionia  and  the  Troad  as  something 
great  and  half-divine.  When  the  goddess  appeared  to  her 
favourite  Anchiscs  she  represented  herself  as  daughter  oi  the 
Idxig  of  Phrygia;  the  Phrygians  were  said  to  be  the  oldest  people, 

«  Tlie  meaning  U  given  in  Hesych,  sjf. "  B/rfy*-" 

*  The  difSculty  ol  specifying  tbe  Kmits  gave  rise  ,to  a  provg'b — 


and  their  ka^aagfe  the  ociginal  speech  of  mankind,  the  PfarygiaD' 
kings  were  CamMiar  associates  of  tlie  gods,  and  the  hooea  ctf 
the  land  tried  their  akiU  against  the  gods  themselves,  we  hear 
of  the  wdl-walled  cities  of  Phrygia  and  of  the  nches  of  its 
kings.  Tradition  is  completely  oorreboiated  by  archaeological 
evidcBice.  In  the  moontainous  regno  on  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Saagarius,  between  Kutaiah  Eski  Shehr  and  Afium  (Afiom) 
Kara  Hissar,  there  exist  numerous  monuments  of  great  antiquity, 
showmg  a  style  of  maiked  individuality,  and  implying  a  hi^ 
degree  of  artistic  skill  among  the  people  who  produced  them. 
On  two  of  these  monuments  are  engraved  the  names  of  **  Midas 
the  King  "  and  of  the  goddess  *^  Kybile  the  Mother."  Even  the 
tale  "  king  "  (AmI)*  appears  to  have  been  borrowed  by  Greek 
from  Phrygian. 

It  is  mqxiasible  to  fix  a  date  for  the  beginning  of  the  Phrygian 
kingdom.  It  appears  to  have  arisen  on  the  ruins  of  an  older 
dviliaationt  whose  emtenoe  is  revealed  to  us  onSy  by  the  few 
monuments  which  it  has  left..  These  moauments,  whidi  are 
found  m  Lydia,  Phry^a,  Cappadocia  and  L}rcaonia,  as  well  as 
m  north  and  central  Syria,  point  to  the  existence  of  a  homo* 
geneotts  dvilization  over  those  counltries;  they  show  a  singularly 
mariied  style  of  art,  and  are  frequently  inscribed  with  a  pciculiar 
kmd  of  hierdglyphics,  engraved  bousUopkcdom;  and  they  ongi- 
naled  probably  from  a  peat  Hittite  kingdom,  whose  king»  ruled 
the  countries  from  Lydia  to  tbe  borden  of  Egypt.  There  can 
be  traced  in  Asia  Minor  an  ancient  rood-system,  to  whidi  bekmgs 
the  "  royal  road "  from  Sardis  to  the  Persian  ca^tal,  Susa 
(Herod,  v.  ssh  The  royal  road  followed  a  route  so  difficult 
and  circuitous  that  it  is  quite  unintdligiUe  as  the  direct  path 
from  any  centre  in  Persia,  Assyria  or  Syria  to  the  west  of 
Asia  Minor.  Jl  can  be  understood  only  by  reference  to  an 
imperial  centre  far  in  the  north.  Thb  old  trade-route  from 
Cappadocia  to  Sinope,  whidi  had  passed  out  of  use  centuries 
before  the  time  of  Stcabo  (pp.  540^  546),  fixes  this  centre  with 
precision.  It  most  be  far  enough  west  to  ctplain  why  trade 
tended  to  the  distant  Sinope/  hardly  accessible  behind  lofty 
and  rugged  mountaii»,  and  not  to  Aoaisos  by  the  short  and  easy 
route  which  was  used  in  the  Graeco-Romaa  periods  This  road*- 
system,  then«  points  distinct^  toacentreinborthemOtppadocia 
near  the  Halys.  Here  must  have  stood  the  capital  of  some  great 
eaipire  connected  with  ita  extremities,  Saxdis.  or  Ephesus  on 
tbe  ivest,  Sinope  oa  the  north,  the  Euphrates  on  the  east,  the 
Cilidan  Gates  on  the  south,  by  roads  so  well  made  as  to  oontinue 
in  use  for  a  long  time  after  the  centre  of  power  had  changed  to 
Assyria,  and  the  old  road'system  had  become  circuitous  and 
unsuitable.*  The  precise  spot  on  which  the  dty  stood  is  marked 
by  the  great  ruins  of  Boghsa  Keui,  probably  the  andcftt  Pteria, 
of  which  the  wide  circuit,  powerful  walla  and  wonderful  rock- 
sculptures  make  the  aite  indi^mtably  the  most  remarkable  in 
Asia  Minor.  On  this  site  Winckler  found  in  1907  the  records 
of  the  Hittite  kings  who  fought  against  Egypt  and  Aasyria. 

The  ancient  road  from  Pterfa  to  Sardis  crossed  the  upper 

Saogaxius  valley,  and  its  course  may  be  traced  by  the  monuments 

of  this  eariy  period.   Close  to  its  track,  on  a  lofty  plateau  which 

overhangs  the  Phrygian  monument  inscribed  with  the  name 

of  "  Midas  the  King,"  is  a  great  city,  inferior  indeed  to  Pteria 

in  extent,  but  siuroundcd  by  rock-sculptures  quite  as  remarkablr 

as  those  of  the  C^ppodociao  dty«    The  plateau  is  s  m.  in  cue- 

cumfercnce,  and  presents  on  all  sides  a  perpendicular  face  of 

rock  50  to  soo  ft.  in  hdghL    This  natural  defence  was  crowned 

by  a  wall  partly  Cydopean,  partly  built  of  large  squared  stones^* 

This  dty  was  evidently  the  centre  oi  the  old  Phrygian  kingdom 

*farucrm  on  the  Midaa  tomb.  It  is  czpieaaly  recocded  that 
rvpoMwc  is  a  Lydian  word.  BaaiXtbs  resists  ail  attempts  to  explain 
it  as  a  purely  Greek  formation,  and  tbe  termination  assimilates  it  to 
certain  Phrygian  words. 

*  Sino^  was  made  a  Creek  colony  in  751  B.C.,  but  it  is  said  to 
have  existed  long  before  that  time. 

*  When  the  Perdans  conquered  Lydia  they  retained,  at  least  for 
a  time,  this  route,  which  they  found  m  existence. 

*  The  stones  have  all  fallen,  but  the  line  where  they  were  fitted 
on  the  rocks  can  be  traced  by  any  careful  exi^rer.  The  small 
foctrtts  Pishmlsh  KaJcssi  is  a  miniature  of  the  great  dty  beside  tt> 
(See  Perrot,  Explor.  Arckiol.  p.  169  and  pi.  viil) 


542 


PHRYGIA 


of  the  SAnganus  valley,  but  at  least  one  el  the  moBAments  in 
U  seems  to  belong  to  the  older  period  of  Cai^adodan  supremacy, 
and  to  prove  that  the  dty  already  enstcd  in  that  carhcr  time. 
The  Phrygian  kmgdom  and  art  therefore  took  the  place  of  an 
older  civilization.  It  is  probable  that  the  tradition  of  battles 
between  the  Phrygians  aiad  the  Amazons  on  the  banks  of  the 
Sanganus  preserves  the  memory  of  a  straggle  betincn  the  two 
races  and  the  victory  of  the  Phiyges. 

Of  the  monuments  tb^  exist  around  this  city  two  classes  may 
be  confidently  referred  to  the  period  of  Phrygian  greatness. 
That  which  is  inscribed  with  the  name  of  "  Midas  the  King  "  is 
the  most  remarkable  example  of  one  dass,  in  which  a  large 
peipendicukir  surface  of  rock  is  covered  with  a  geometrical 
pattern  of  squares,  crosses  and  macanders,  surmounted  by  a 
pediment  supported  in  the  centre  by  a  pilaster  in  bw  rcUcf. 
In  some  cases  a  floral  pattern  occupies  part  of  the  surface,  and 
in  one  case  the  two  sides  of  the  pediment  are  filled  by  two 
sphinxes  of  archaic  type.*  In  some  of  these  monuments  a  door- 
way is  carved  in  the  lower  part;  the  door  is  usually  dosed,  but  in 
one  case,  viz.  the  sphinx  monument  just  alluded  to,  the  valves 
of  the  door  arc  thrown  wide  open  and  give  access  to  a  little 
chamber,  on  the  back  of  which  is  sculptured  in  rdief  a  rade 
image  of  the  Mother*goddess  Cybde,  having  on  each  side  of  her 
a  lion  which  rests  its  forepaws  on  her  shoulder  and  places  its 
head  against  hers.  Sometimes  a  grave  has  been  found  hidddh 
behind  the  carved  front;  in  other  cases  no  grave  can  be  detected, 
but  it  is  probable  that  they  are  all  sepulchral.'  The  imitation 
of  woodwork  is  obvious  on  several  monuments  of  this  kind. 
The  second  dass  is  marked  by  the  heraldic  type  of  two  animals, 
usually  lions  rampant,  facing  one  another,  but  divided  by  a  pillar 
or  some  other  device.  This  type  is  occasionally  found  conjoined 
with  the  preceding;  and  various  details  common  to  both  classes 
show  that  there  was  no  great  difference  in  time  between  them. 
The  heraldic  type  is  used  on  the  monuments  which  appear  to 
be  the  older,  and  the  geometrical  pattern  is  often  employed  on 
the  inscribed  monuments,  which  are  obviously  later  than  the 
earliest  uninscribed.  Monuments  of  this  class  arc  carved  on  the 
front  of  «  sepulchral  chamber,  the  entrance  to  which  is  a  small 
doorway  placed  high  and  inaccessible  in  the  rocks.  There  are 
also  many  rock  monuments  of  the  Roman  time. 

Early  Phrygian  art  stands  in  dose  relationship  with  the  art 
of  Cappadoda.  The  monuments  of  the  type  of  the  Midas 
tomb  are  obviously  imitated  from  patterns  which  were  employed 
in  doth  and  carpets  and  probably  also  in  the  tile«iK>rk  on  the 
inside  of  chamb^n  varying  slightly  according  to  the  material. 
Such  patterns  were  used  in  Cappadoda,  and  the  priest  in  the  it>ck« 
sculpture  at  Ibriz  wean  an  embroidered  robe  strikingly  similar 
in  style  to  the  pattern  on  the  Midas  tomb;  but  the  idea  of  using 
Che  pattern  as  the  Phrygians  did  seems  peculiar  to  themselves. 
The  heraldic  type  of  the  second  class  is  found  also  in  the  art  of 
Assyria,  and  was  undoubtedly  adopted  by  the  Phrygians  from 
earlier  art;  but  it  is  used  so  frequently  in  Phrygia  as  to  be 
qjedally  characteristic  of  that  country.*  While  Phiygian 
art  is  distinctly  non-Oriental  in  spirit,  its  resemblance  to  archaic 
Greek  art  is  a  fact  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  is  not  merdy 
that  certain  types  are  employed  both  in  Phrygia  and  in  Greece, 
but  several  favourite  types  fai  early  Greek  art  can  be  traced  in 
Phrygia,  employed  in  similar  spirit  and  for  similar  purposes. 
The  heraldic  type  of  the  two  lions  is  the  device  over  the  prindpal 
gateway  of  Mycenae,  and  stamps  this,  the  oldest  great  monument 
on  Greek  soil,  with  a  distinctly  Phryipan  character.  Mycenae 
was  the  dty  of  the  Pdopidae,  whom  Greek  tradition  unhesita- 
tingly ded^es  to  be  Phrygian  immigrants.  A  study  of  the  topo- 
graphy of  the  Argive  irfain  suggests  the  condusion  that  Mycenae, 

^Published  in  Jimm.  HeU.SSuL  (1684). 

'  The  monuments  of  PhrygU  fall  mto  two  groups,  which  probably 
mark  the  rites  of  two  dries  about  16  m.  distant  from  each  other, 
Metropolb  and  Conni.  One  group  lies  round  the  villages  of  Yaiili- 
Kaya,  Knrnbet,  Yapuldak  and  Bakshish;  the  other  beside  Liyen, 
Bei  Keui,  Demirli  and  Ayaxin. 

',The  herakUe  type  continues  on  gravestones  down  to  the  latest 
period  of  paganism.  Carpets  with  geometrical  patterns  of  the 
Midas-tomb  style  are  occasionally  found  at  the  praseat  time  in  the 
houses  of  the  peasantry  of  the  district. 


Midea  and  TIryns  form  a  group  of  dtfes  founded  by  an  {mmignnt 
people  in  opposition  to  Argos,  the  natural  capital  of  the  jdain 
and  the  stronghold  of  the  native  race.    Midea  appears  to  be 
the  aty  of  Midas,  and  the  name  is  one  more  link  in  the  chsia 
that  bmds  Mycenae  to  Phrygia.    This  connexion,  whatever 
may  have  been  its  character,  belongs  to  the  remote  period  when 
the  Phrygians  inhabited  the  Aegean  coasts.    In  the  8ih  and 
probably  in  the  9th  century  B.C.  communkation  with  Phrygu 
seems  toliave  been  maintained  especially  by  the  Greeks  of  Cyme, 
Phocaea  and  Smyrna.   About  the  end  of  the  8th  century  Midts. 
king  of  Phrygia,  married  Damodlce,  daughter  of  Agamemnon, 
the  last  king  of  Cyme.    Gyges,  the  first  Mermnqd  king  of  Lydia 
(687-^53),  had  a  Phrygiaft4nother.  The  worship  of  Cybde  spread 
over  Phocaea  to  the  west  as  far  as  Massilia:  rock  monuments 
in  the  Phrygian  style  and  votive  reliefs  of  an  Anatolian  typ^  are 
found  near  Phocaea.    Smyrna  was  devoted  to  the  Phrygian 
Meter  Sipylene.    It  is  then  natural  that  the  Homeric  poems 
refer  to  Phrygia  in  the  terms  above  described,  and  make  Priam's 
wife  a  Phiygian  woman.    After  the  fouodatiofe  of  the  Gre^ 
colony  at  Sinope  in  751  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  fanned 
the  link  of  connexion  between  Greece  and  Phrygia.    Phrypan 
and  Caj^Mtdodan  traders  brought  their  goods,  no  doubt  on 
camels,  to  Sin<^,  and  the  Greek  sailors,  the  oawwroi  of  Miletus, 
carried  home  the  worles  of  Oriental  and  Phrygian  mrtisana. 
The  Greek  alphabet  was  carried  to  Phrygia  and  Pteria,  other 
from  Sinope  or  more  probably  direct  east  from  Cjrme,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  8th  century.    The  immense  importance  of 
Sinope  in  early  times  is  abundantly  attested,  and  we  need  not 
doubt  that  very  intimate  rdations  existed  at  this  port  betwcea 
the  Ionic  colonists  and  the  natives.   The  effects  of  this  commeicc 
on  the  development  of  Greece  were  very  great.   It  affected  looia 
in  the  first  place,  and  the  mainland  of  Greece  indirectly;  the 
art  of  Ionia  at  this  period  is  almost  unknown,  but  it  was 
probably  closely  allted  to  that  of  Phrygia.^    A  strildng  fact  ia 
this  connexion  is  the  use  of  a  veiy  simple  kind  of  Ionic  capicsl 
in  one  early  Phrygian  monument,  suggesting  that  the  **  proto- 
lonic"  ookmn  came  to  Greece  over  Phrygia.    It  is  obviovs 
that  the  rcvdution  which  took  place  in  the  relations  betvces 
Phrygians  and  Greeks  must  be  due  to  some  great  movenaeni 
of  races  wltidi  distuited  the  <rfd  paths  of  communicatkA. 
Abd  is  probably  correct  in  pladng  the  inroads  of  the  barbarous 
Eurofiean  tribes,  Blthynians,  Thyni,  Mariandyni,  Ac,   into 
Asia   Minor  about  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century   b-C 
The  Phrygian  element  on  the  coast  was  weakened  and  in  ns&ny 
places  annihilated;  that  in  the  interior  was  stren^hcned;  and 
we.  may  mppos/t  that  the  kingdom  of  the  Sangarius  valley  dow 
sprang  into  greatness.    The  kingdom  of  Lydia  appears  to  have 
become  important  about  the  end  of  the  8th  century,  and  to 
have  oompletdy  barred  the  path  between  Phrygia  and '  Cywse 
or  Smyrna.      Ionian  maritime  enterprise  <4>ened  a  new  vay 
over  Sinope.* 

The  downfall  of  the  Phry^an  monarchy  can  be  dated  with 
comparative  accuracy.    Between  (80  and  670  the  Cimmeriaas 
in  their  destructive  progress  over  Asia  Minor  overran  Phrygisa; 
the  king  Midas  in  despair  put  an  end  to  his  own  life;  and  from 
henceforth  the  history  of  Phrygia  is  a  story  of  slavery,  desrada- 
tion  and  decay,  which  contrasts  strangely  with  the  eaxfier 
legends.    The  catastrophe  seems  to  have  deeply  impreascd  the 
Greek  mind,  and  the  memory  of  it  was  preserved.    Tbe  date 
of  the  Cimmerian  invasion  b  fixed  by  the  concurrent  tcatinsony 
of  the  contemporary  poets  Ardulochns  and  CalOnus,  of  the  late 
chronologists  Eusebius,  &c.,  and  of  the  inscriptions  of   the 
Assyrian   king  Esar-haddon.    The  Cimmerians  were   finafiy 
expelled  from  Asia  Minor  by  Alyattes  before  his  war  uriUi  the 
Medes  under  Cyaxares  ($90-585  B.C.).     Tbe    CiiUAUciian^ 
therefore,  were  ravaging  Asia  Minor,  and  presmnably   IscM 
possession  of  Fhry^,  the  only  country  where  they  adiiewed 

^  See  Furtwftngler,  Cddfuni  von  VaierMie»  Wlndnlm.  Ihrarr. 
(1884):  Hogarth,  &c.,  Tk*  Arckaie  AfftKuMBritish  Musenm.  wA. 
The  closest  analogies  of  old  Phrygian  art  are  to  be  found  in  the  eoniiivt 


fnMa 


PHRYGIA 


5+3 


complete  noeesB,  tilt  Bome  time  bet^vecn  6w  and  590  Thrygfa 
then  feO  under  the  Lydlan  power,  and  by  the  treaty  of  $^5  ^e 
Halys  was  definitely  fixed  as  the  boundary  betweear  Lydia  and 
iiiedia  Owe  Lydia  and  Peksia).  The  penod  from  675  to  585 
must  therefore  be  oonsadered  as  one  of  great  disturbiuice  and 
probably  of  complete  paralysis  in  Phiy^  After  585  the 
country  was  ruled  a^ain  by  its  own  princes  under  subjection 
to  LydiaA  supremacy..  To  judge  from  the  monuments,  it  appears 
to  have  recovered  some  of  its  old  prosperity;  but  the  art  of 
this  later  period  has  to  a  great  eattent  lost  the  strongly  marked 
individuality  of  Its  earlier  bloom.  The  later  sepulchral  monu- 
ments bdong  to  a  class  which  is  widely  spread  over  Asia  Minor 
fipom  Lyda  to  Pontus.  Hie  graves  axe  made  inside  a  chamber 
excavated  in  the  rock,  and  the  front  of  the  chamber  Imitates  a 
house  or  temple.  No  attempt  is  made  to  conceal  the  entrance 
or  to  render  it  inaccessible.  Thearchitectuialdetailaareinsome 
cases  unmvtakably  copied,  without  intentional  modification, 
from  the  architecture  of  Greek  temples;  others  point  perhaps 
to  Persian  influence,  while  several — which  are  perhaps  among 
the  early  works  of  this  period — show  the  old  freedom  and  power 
of  employing  in  new  and  original  ways  details  partly  leaned 
fr^m  abroad.  This  style  continued  in  use  under  the  Persians, 
under  whose  rule  the  Phrygians  passed  when  Cyrus  defeated 
Croesus  in  546,  and  lasted  till  the  Roman  period.  One  monu- 
ment appears  to  presu|^K>se  a  development  of  Greek  plastic  art 
later  than  the  time  of  Alexander'  and  b  almost  certainly  of 
the  Roman  time.  It  would,  however,  be  wrong  to  suppose 
that  the  influence  of  truly  Hellenic  art  on  Phrygia  began 
with  the  conquest  of  Alexander.  Under  the  later  Mermnad 
kings  the  Lydian  empire  was  penetrated  with  Greek  influence, 
and  Xanthus,  the  early  Lydian  historian,  wrote  his  history  in 
Greek.  Under  the  Persian  rule  perhaps  it  waa  more  difficult 
for  Greek  manners  to  spread  far  east;  but  we  need  not  think 
that  European  influence  was  absohitely  unfdt  even  in  Phrygia. 
The  probability  is  that  Alexander  found  in  all  the  large  cities 
a  party  favourable  to  Greek  manners  and  trade.  Very  little 
is  to  be  learned  from  the  ancient  writers  with  regard  to  the 
state  of  Phrygia  from  585  to  30a  The  ^ve-trade  flourished: 
Phrygian  slaves  were  common  in  the  Greek  market,  and  the 
Phrygian  names  Midas  and  Manes  were  stock-naaaes  for  slaves. 
Herodotus  (i.  14)  records  that  a  king  Midas  of  Phry^  dedicated 
his  own  chair  at  Delphi;  the  chair  stood  in  the  treasury  of 
Cypselus,  and  cannot  have  been  deposited  there  before  680  to 
660  Bx:.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  event  belongs  to  the 
time  of  Alyattes  or  Croesus,  when  Greek  influence  was  fevoured 
throughout  the  Lydlan  empire;  and  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  the  offering  (^  a  king  Midas  should  be  considered,  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus,  as  the  earliest  made  by  a  foreign  prince  to 
a  Greek  god.  The  Phrygian  troops  in  the  army  of  Xerxes  were 
armed  like  the  Armenians  and  led  by  the  same  commander. 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  cities  of  the  Sangarius  valley 
gradually  lost  importance  in  the  Persian  period.  The  final 
castastrophe  was  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls  about  270  to  S50; 
and,  though'  the  circumstances  of  this  invasion  are  almost 
unknown,  yet  wc  may  safely  reckon  among  them  the  complete 
devastation  of  northern  Phrygia.  At  last  Attains  L  settled 
the  Gaub  permanently  in  eastern  Phrygia,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  country  was  henceforth  known  as  Gslatia.  Strabo  mentions 
that  the  great  cities  of  ancient  Phrygia  were  in  his  time  either 
deserted  or  marked  by  mere  villages.  The  great  dty  over  the 
tomb  of  Midas  has  remained  uniidiabited  down  to  the  present 
day.  About  5  m.  west  of  it,  near  the  modem  Kumbet,  stood 
Metropolis,  a  bishopric  in  the  Byzantine  time,  but  never  men- 
tioned under  the  Roman  empire. 

Alexander  the  Great  placed  Fbrygia  under  the  command  of 
Antigonus,  who  retained  it  when  the  empire  was  broken  up. 
When  Antigonus  was  defeated  and  slain,  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  Ipsus,  Phrygia  came  under  the  sway  of  Scleucus.  As  the 
Fergamenian  kings  grew  powerful,  4nd  at  last  confined  the 
Gauls  in  eastern  Phrygia,  the  western  half  of  the  country  was 

*  A  forgoneum  of  Roman  period,  on  a  tomb  engraved  in  Jovm. 
BA  Slml  (PI.  xxvL). 


Incorporated  fn  the  kingdom  of  Fergamuffl.  Under  the  Roman 
empire  Phrygia  had  no  political  existence  under  a  separate 
government,  but  formed  part  of  the  vast  province  of  Asia.  In 
autumn  85  b.c  the  pflcifitcation  of  the  province  was  completed 
by  SuUa,  and  throughout  the  imperial  time  it  was  conunon  fcr 
the  Phrygians  to  date  from  this  era.  The  imperial  rule  was 
highly  iaYounble  to  the  spread  of  Hdlenistic  civilization, 
which  under  the  Greek  kings  had  affected  only  a  few  of  the 
great  cities,  leaving  the  mass  of  the  country  purely  Phrygian. 
A  good  deal  of  local  sdf-govemment  was  permitted;  the  cities 
struck  their  own  bronze  coins,  inscribed  on  them  the  nxunes  of 
their  own  magistntes,*  and  probably  administered  their  own 
laws  in  matters  purely  local  The  western  part  of  the  country 
was  pervaded  by  Graeco-Roman  civilisation  very  much  sooner 
than  the  central,  and  in  the  country  districts  the  Phrygian 
language*  continued  in  common  use  at  least  as  late  as  the  third 
century  after  Christ. 

When  the  Roman  empire  was  reorganized  by  Diodetian  at 
the  cad  of  the  jrd  century  Phrygia  was  divided  into  two  pro- 
vinces, dtstinguiahed  at  first  as  Prima  and  Secunda,  or  Great 
and  Little,  for  which  the  names  Pacatiana  and  Salutaris  soon 
came  into  general  use.  Pacatiami  comprised  the  western  half, 
which  had  long  been  completely  pervaded  by  Graeco-Roman 
manoets,  and  Salutaris  the  eastern,  in  which  the  native  man- 
ners and  language  were  still  not  extinct.  Each  province  was 
governed  by  a  praaes  or  ihr^fuiir  about  a.d.  41 2,  but  shortly  after 
this  date  an  officer  of  consular  rank  was  sent  to  each  province 
(Hierocles,  Syntcd.),  About  535  Justim'an  made  some  changes 
in  the  provincial  administration:  the  govemtMr  of  Pacatiana 
was  henceforth  a  comef,  while  Salutaris  was  still  ruled  by  a 
cansvUris,  When  th6  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire  were 
reorganised  and  divided  into  Ikemata  the  two  Phiygias  weie 
bndcen  up  between  the  Anatolic,  Opsician  and  Thracesian 
themes,  and  the  name  Phrygia  finally  disappeared.  Almost 
the  whole  of  Byzantine  Phrygia  is  now  included  in  the  vilayet 
of  Brusa,  with  theexoeptioB  of  a  small  part  of  Parorius  and  the 
district  about  Themisonium  (Kareyuk  Bazar)  and  Ceretapa 
(KayadibO,  which  belong  to  the  vilayet  of  Konia,  and  the 
district  of  Laodicea  and  Hierapolis,  which  belongs  to  Aidln. 
The  principal  modem  dtiea  are  Kutaiah  (Cotyaeum),  Eski 
Shdiir  (Dorylaeum),  Afiom  Kara  Ifiasar  (near  Piymnessos), 
and  Ushak  (Trajanopolis). 

It  is  impossible  to  say  anything  definite  about  the  boundaries 
of  Phrygia  before  the  5th  century.  Under  the  Persians  Great 
Phrygia  extended  on  the  east  to  the  Halys  and  the  Salt  Desert; 
Xenophon  (Anab.  i.  3,  19)  includes  Icom'um  on  the  south- 
east within  the  province,  whereas  Strabo  makes  Tyiiaeum  the 
boundary  in  this  direction.  The  southern  frontier  is  unknown: 
the  language  <rf  livy  (xxxviif.  is)  implies  that  the  southern 
Metropolis  (hi  the  Tchul  Ova)  belonged  to  Pisidia;  but  Strabo 
(p.  629)  induda  it  in  Phrygia.  Celaenae,  beside  the  later  city 
of  Apamea  (Dineir),  and  the  entire  valley  of  the  Lycus,  were, 
Phrygian.  The  Maeander  above  its  junction  with  the  Lycus 
formed  for  a  little  way  the  boundary  between  Phrygia  and  Lydia. 
The  great  plateau  now  called  the  Banaz  Ova  was  entirely  or  in 
great  part  Phrypan.  Mt  Dindymus  (Mund  Dagh)  marked  the 
frontier  of  Myida,  and  the  entire  valley  of  the  Tembrogius  or 
Tcmbris  (Pbrsuk  Su)  was  certainly  included  in  Phrygia.  The 
boundaries  of  the  two  Byzantine  Phrygias  were  not  always 
the  same. 

Taking  Hierodes  as  authority,  the  extent  of  the  two  provinces 
at  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  will  be  readily  gathered  from 
the  accompanying  list,  in  which  those  towns  which  coined  money 
under  the  Roman  empire  are  italidaed  and  the  name  of  the 
nearest  modem  village  is  appended. 

I.  Pacatina.— (i> X.a«f(cm  (Eski  Hinar) ^ (3) Hierapdis  (Pambuk 
KalesH);  CD  Mosyaa  (Gevexe);  ((4)  Motellopolis,  only  in  NotUiat 

■  This  liberty  was  not  granted  to  the  dries  of  any  other  provrace 
in  Anatolia. 

*  A  number  of  inscriptions  in  a  language  ptesomably  Phrygian 
have  been  discovered  in  the  centre  and  east  of  the  country;  they 
belong  generally  to  the  end  of  the  tnd  and  to  the  3fd  centmy. 


iiadTbUiepn:)  aTAcmiiu  in*  r«iiiM  « ttic  liii  ol  Uk  ^•mM.t 
MoaKuaKaar. 

Bendet  Ibae.  ccrtua  cilia  beyood  the  bounda  of  ilie  Byantior 
PhryELM  bctongnj  undB*  thf  Roman  nnptre  lo  Itie  provinw  of 
AtiaiHJ  8Tr  uhuIIv  CDnakfcrrd  Fhryvian:  (0  in  Bynniinc  pKadia. 
/•UlamrliMm  (Ak  Stdn).  HairlaMtfSuj  (i)  iB  Byanluw  GaUli*. 
.tnurriini  [A>_r  ur  Kimn  Hldj.),  dloKul  (AUlld  V  Alckiu). 
Trimmia  or  Tiocnuula  or  TncoaiU  (KaimaiJ;  (ij  b  Bynniiiic 
Lycii,  Cilj™  (Homiin).  

Holnu^fabout  Tduil  lo  Tyriuum  Ol^inl^  iU  vlUn  hjUkI  within 


d  ihrough  tl 


It  imUu  plalu  OF 


[Slnbo  p.  Uj).  Ilijc  Badu,  Bunar  Buhl,  Gcuk  Biuur,  Uiuk  Biiiii, 

tbcEnnl  pUvjau.  Danoz  On),  eoniiilini  0^  hill-country  Lolentfled 
by  nvm,  mch  of  whicb  flowm  thrnvh  A  fcrlile  VAl^y  al  vjiryine 
brtadth-  The  nortt^cm  lulf  it  drained  by  jivtti  wbicb  run  to  ih« 
Black  Sea;  o(  Ihe«  Ibe  taRcm  oin,  Ponuk  5u  (Tnnbrii  or  Tfm- 
bnsiuj),  Seidi  Su  (FinhtiiiuO,  Bardakihi  Tchai  OCmbals). 
aiKTBayal  Tchai  (Atandnn).  Ma  the  Samariui.  irhik  tbe  iMftii.' 
Tatiihanly  Tcbai  (Rhyndicud  >«>  5>>na'  Tchai  (Maciuiu),  men 
and  Sow  imo  the  PnipacKii.     TIk  Hnrniii  drain  a  unall  diiirici 

to  Lydia  and  My^.  Gmt  pan  tJ  •OElbnn  and  WHtem  Phryi^ 
t>  dnimd  by  the  Mataader  with  iu  tribnarica,  BandyUy  Tduii 
KEmciH),  Buai  Tchai,  Kopli  Su  (Hippuriiii).  and  Tcbunli  Su 
a^ycui);  moRovet,  loinc  upland  ptaiiu  od  the  uulh.  opecuOy  the 

with  the  Mamndei.  Finaily.  (heKinyiikOvain  theevdmieeouth- 
WM  draina  Ihrough  the  Kuana.  a  tribnuiy  of  Ibe  IiUib,  to  the 
Lyeian  So.  Pbrygia  Paroriui  and  ali  th«  rivvr-valleyi  an  earced- 
iuly  rcTtiifi  and  aniculturewaa  the  chief  DccupatioB  of  the  andent 

plouEh  ID  the  throne.  The  high-lying  plains  and  parti  of  Ibe  VHt 
XayloA  fumiih  food  paatura^.  which  fomicrly  noutiihed  countlCB 
Aoclta  of  ahcu  rheRamanaaiaaobtaincd  fine  boHH  from  Pbrygia. 
Ciapea.  hbidi  atill  gio*  abuadantly  in  vafioua  parti,  were  much 

few  amall  diatricta.  F^i  cannot  be  grown  in  the  country,  and  the 
ancient  rtfercncci  lo  Phrygian  fat  are  ciIIkt  enoneoua  or  due  to  ■ 
bne  u«  of  tbt  lerm  Phryiia.'  TrtaareeiceKllsgly  aramin  the 
coyntryi  and  the  pine-wooda  on  Ike  weurm  Iribulanei  of  the  San- 
■iriuand  thevaloniaoaka  inpaniaftheBanaaOvaandafewothrT 
dbtricti  form  cvceptiona.  The  underiTDund  tvealtb  i«  not  known 
to  be  gnal-  Iron  vai  worked  in  the  diUrict  ol  Cibyra,  and  the 
BorUe  ol  Synnada.  or  moir  comrlly  of  Oodoiium,  wu  lai)iHy 
UHd  by  the  Romani.     Copper  and  qjickiilver  were  minnl  in  the 


•"■iC 


Bc*ncry  ii  fenenlij 
arHy  ihow  etciking 


genemhy  m- 


n.  and  u  prohably  the  right  readiu,     Qlivu  cannot 
l«  thaee  apluda,  whifii  are  over  3DQ0  ft-  above  lea-kvd- 


rligioo  partakea  of  tl 

»~Cybele,  the  Moth.., , 

Cob*}-  ThaaM 

ludei  of  the  liTc  el  Sabaiiua,  the  deck  Dionyiafc  wi 


il  of  Phiytia.    The  lil , 

HI  people  and  tlwae  engaged  in  fomn  mdi 
U1lii«d  them,  and  Plato  and  DenK»faenei  La 
Teighid  anrnat  them ;  but  they  continued  to  ipread,  with  all  Ibeir 

•ide  taott  llM  pfflt,  wheaa  Rli|iiHi*  cnvin(a  w«  not  ■liiii< 
with  Ibe  piardy  cuoiii]  leligiona  of  Htlleniioi.  Tba  otxia  or 
myileria  were  open  10  all,  fieemen  or  ilavea.  wbohldiluly  pcilonned 
the  prtfimiitary  puriileatkHU.  a-""   —--—'  ^  -»-  — 

tiactiOfl  of  obariiaag  W  been  pafaKd  ouE  bt 


L  nich  ai  the  Eleuvii 


and  the  Pbrnian;  I 


luch  iimilaiiiy  between  the  two  rilnaJa.  la 
tier  Chriit  on^  the  niryvian  and  the  EcyptiaB 
laal  bold  on  Iba  Gtam-Koman  world,    nrypa 


ind  Eutebiui  <tf.£.  v.  i«)  m 


p^tdy  cvnct  in  bii  itattneu  that  in  the 

tbert  waa  a  Phiypan  city  is  which  every  livinf  loal  waa  Cbriadam. 
The  giol  Phrygian  laint  of  tbe  and  ecoiury  wu  DaQcd  A^iniua 
Marceltua  (AberauO;  the  maaa  of  letcndaand  miradei  in  the  Late 
biotraphyof  hin  long  brought  hb  very  eiiiteiKe  into  diipute.  bnt  a 
fragment  of  bia  (rav^tone.  diuvBTd  in  1M3,  and  now  pieained 
in  IheLaHraaMuaeumin  RsaM,  hupioVBd  that  lie  waa  a  real  pn^ 
lon.and'nukcail  pnjbableihat  the  wide-reaching  anvenioQ  ofllie 
people  attributed  to  him  dkl  aclualfy  lalte  place.  Tbe  itiuct 
enlhunullc  chtracler  of  the  oM  Phrygian  religioa  waa  nt  wholly 
loat  when  Ibe  coontry  became  QiriatiBn,  but  i*  clearly  traced  in  tlw 
vaiiout  beroita  that  ame  In  caatnl  ABatoUa.  Eapeoally  the  wiM 
ccilatic  chaiticter  and  lb*  ptopbeciet  oi  Ibe  Montaniita  mall  ibr 
old  type  of  irligion.  Monunug  {ice  Mohtahi3ii)  wu  bora  on  the 
harden  of  Phr>'gia  and  Myiia  (ptabaMv  wHth-eiit  Iron  PfaUadel- 
pfaia).  and  waa  vebcmcotly  oppend  by  AbaciUi. 

of  the  old  Phngian  langMC'  ""If  li"!*  •■  known;  a  fow  woida 
an  ^inved  in  Fleaychiuf  and  other  wriien>    Plato  mentions  thai 

er  af  the^RoDan  period  htn  bom 
ie  article  lo  unpuUiibtil 


af  Cybele,  but  analogy  and  indirect  argunc 


PHRYNE—PHTHALIC  AiGIDS 


54S 


Bandct  tilt  wads  almdy  quoted  of  Abd  «ik1  Perrot. 
utter'a  "  Kleioasicxi,"  m  his  Erdkunde  mm  Aiim\  Leake.  Asia 
Minor  (1834);  Kiepert  appendix  to  Franz.  FOnf  Imsckr.  u.  fHuJ 
StadU  KUtnanau  <i&a>),  Haaae,  in  Ench  and  Graber's  EmyUop. 
•rt. "  Pbrygien  " ;  Haaukon,  Trmds tnAsta  Minor  (164J):  Hinchfeld 
*'  Reuebencht,"  in  tbe  B«rk  Mcnntsbtr  {\%nU  Tttier,  An*  mmtw 
(1863);  Steuart,  AncunU  Monuments  o§  LyGa  qmL  Pkrygia,  beaidca 
the  aDedal  chapter  in  the  geogiai^ical  treatuei  of  Cramer,  Vivien 
St  Martin.  Fort>iger,  &c.$  numerous  articles  by  recent  travellen; 
J.  G.  C.  Anderson  in  Journal  of  HeUenic  Stkdles  (1898,  Ac  );  D.  G. 
H<«arth»  ibid.:  K«rte  ia  MiMkhL  Intk  Atken^  abiL,  and  his  book 
Cordium  (1904);  Humann  and  Judeicb,  Hterapdu  (1808):  Radct 
in  his  work  Bin  Phrygie;  Ramsay  [in  addition  to  articles  m  MUilml, 
InstitrAtken.  '  "  -  -^  ^    -  -  -       .  - 

JourmA 

fef/i  .        

vols.  L  ii.  (1895  aM.);  Stnius  m  tht  History  and  Art  of  tks  Easkm 
Frooincos  (IQOO);  Panttno  and  other  Studies  (1Q06);  Historical  Com- 
mentary on  Caletians,  6k.  (1899):  Cities  of  St  Paul  (1907);  see  also 
T.  Eisele,  '*  Die  Phrygiscbea  Kulte  "  in  Nene  Jakrb  f  das  Uass. 
Alkrimm  (ScpC  1909).  (W.  M.  Ra.) 

PRRYNK  Gitek  courtesan,  Eved  In  the  4th  century  b.c  Her 
leal  name  was  Mnesaiete,  but  owing  to  her  complexion  she 
was  called  Phiyne  (toad),  a  name  given  to  other  courtesans. 
She  was  bom  at  Thespiae  in  Boeotia,  but  seems  to  have  lived 
at  Athens.  She  acquired  so  much  wealth  by  her  extraordinary 
beauty  that  she  offered  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Thebes,  which 
had  b«en  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great  (536),  on  oondition 
that  tbe  words  "  Destroyed  by  Alexander,  Kstoiwi  by  Phryne 
the  courtesan,"  were  inscribed  u|M>n  them.  On  the  occasion 
of  a  festival  of  Poseidon  at  Ekusis  she  laid  sside  her  ganne&ts, 
let  down  ber  hair,  and  stepped  into  the  sea  in  tJie  sight  of  the 
people,  thus  suggesting  to  the  painter  Apelles  hk  gveat  picture 
ol  Aphrodite  Aaadyomene,  for  which  Phzyne  sat  as  model. 
She  wan  siso  (acoonling  to  some)  the  noodel  for  the  stAtue'of  the 
Cnidian  Aphrodite  by  Praxiteles-  When  accused  of  profaning 
the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  she  was  defended  by  the  orator 
Hypereides,  one  of  her  lovers.  When  it  seemed  as  iC  the  verdict 
would  be  unfavourable,  he  rent  her  robe  and  displayed  her  lovely 
bosom,  which  so  moved  her  judges  that  they  acquitted  her. 
According  to  others,  she  herseU  thus  ditiplaycd  her  charms. 
She  is  said  to  have  miade  an  attempt  on  the  virtue  of  the  philo- 
sopher Xenocrates.  A  statue  of  "Phryne,  the  work  of  Praxiteles^ 
was  placed  in  a  temple  at  Thespiae  by  the  side  of  a  statue  of 
Aphrodite  by  the  same  artist. 

See  Atbenaeus.  pp.  558.  567.  583.  S9$*  590^  S9i;  Adian.  For. 
Hist.  ix.  3a;  Pliny,  Hat,  HisL  xxxiv.  71. 

PHRYNICHUS^x.  Son  of  Polyphradmon  and  pupQ  of  Thespis, 
one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  tragedians.  Some  of  the  ancieats, 
indeed,  refarded  him  as  the  real  founder  of  tragedy.  He  gained 
hia  fint  poetical  victory  in  511  a.c.  His  famous  play,  the 
Captnm  of  MilelMS,  was  probably  composed  shortly  after  the 
conquest  of  that  dty  by  the  Persians.  Tlie  audience  was  moved 
to  teaz%  the  poet  was  fined  for  reminding  the  Athrnians  of  their 
misfortunes,  and  it  was  decreed  that  no  play  on  the  subject 
should  be  produced  again.  In  476  Phrynichus  was  successful 
with  the  Phoenissan,  so  called  from  the  Phoenician  women  who 
formed  the  chorus,  which  celebrated  the  defeat  of  Xerxes  at 
Salamis  (4B0).  Themistodes  acted  as  choragus,  and  one  of  the 
objects  of  the  play  was  to  remind  the  Athenians  of  bis  great 
deeds.  The  Porsians  of  Aeschylus  (473)  was  an  imitation  of 
the  Phoenissae.  Phrynichus  is  said  to  have  died  in  Sicily. 
Some  of  the  titles  of  his  plays,  Dauaides,  Actaeon,  AkesUs, 
TshUUms,  show  that  he  treated  mythological  as  wdl  as  con- 
temporary subjects.  He  introduced  a  separate  actor  as  distinct 
from  tbe  leader  of  the  chorus,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of 
(Ualogue.  But  in  his  plays,  as  in  the  earjy  tragedies  generally^ 
tbe  dramatic  element  was  subordinate  to  the  lytic  element  ns 
represented  by  the  chorus  and  the  dance.  According  to 
Suir^as,  Phrynichus  first  introduced  female  characters  on  the 
stage  (played  by  men  in  masks),  and  made  special  use  of  the 
trochaic  tetrameter. 
Fragments  in  A  Nauck,  Tra^eorum  graeeomm  fragmenta  (r887) 
3  A  poet  of  the  Old  Attic  comedy  and  a  contemporary  of 
Aristophanes.    His  first  comedy  was  exhibited  in  439  B.C.    He 


composed  ten  pbys,  of  whidi  the  SoHtary  (Mo»6r^soi) 
exhibited  in  414  along  with  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes  and  gained 
the  third  prize.  The  Mnsa  carried  off  the  second  prize  in  405, 
Aristophanes  being  first  with  the  ProgSt  in  which  he  accuses 
Phrynicfaus  of  employing  vulgar  tricks  to  raise  a  laugh,  of 
pfai^arism  and  bad  versification. 
Fesginenu  in  T.  Kock;  Com*corum  allieomM  fratmanta  (i860). 

3.  Phsynichus  AaABTOS,  a  grammarian  of  Bithynia,  lived 
in  tbe  snd  oentniy  A.D.  Acoovding  to  SuUss  he  was  the  author 
of  (t)  an  AMcitt,  or  On  Attic  Words,  in  two  books;  (2)  TtBtyim^ 
ffvrayuT^f  e  collection  of  subjects  for  discussion;  (3)  Zo^tortxi^ 
wofiuaanHit  or  Sophistical  Equipment,  in  forty-seven  (or 
seventy*four)  books.  As  models  of  Attic  style  Phrynichus 
assigned  the  highest  phce  to  Phto,  Demosthenes  and  Aeschines 
the  Socratic  The  work  was  learned,  but  prolix  and  garrulous. 
A  fragment  contained  in  a  Paris  MS.  was  published'  by  B.  de 
Montfauooo,  and  by  L  Bekker  in  his  Antcdola  fjratca  (1814). 
Another  work  of  Phrynichus,  not  mentioned  by  Photius,  but 
periiapa  identical  with  the  AiAciA  mentioned  by  Suldas,  the 
SdeOiom  {'EO^^rh)  of  AUic  Words  and  Pkrases,  is  exUnt.  It  is 
dedicated  to  Comeliuus,  a  man  of  literary  tastes,  and  one  of  the 
imperial  secretaries,  who  had  invited  the  author  to  undertake 
the  work.  It  is  a  -ooUectiDn  o£  current  words  and  forms  which 
deviated  from  the  Old  Attic  standard,  the  true  Attic  equivalenta 
being  given  feide  by  side.  The  work  is  thus  a  lodoon  anti- 
barbaium,  and  is  interssting  as  illustrating  tbe  changes  throu^ 
which  the  Greek  language  had  passed  between  the  4th  century 
B.C  and  the  and  century  aji. 

Editkmsof  the  IcVy^.  with  valuable  notes,  have  been  pubUsbed 
byC.A.Lobeck(i83o)andW  G  Rutherford  (1 881  );Lobeck devotes 
his  attention  chiefly  to  the  later,  Rutherford  to  the  earUer  usages 
noticed  by  Phrynkfaos.  See  also  J.  Brenous,  De  Phryntcko  Attietsta 
(1895). 

4.  An  Athenfan  general  in  the  Pdoponaesian  War.     He 

toc^  a  leading  part  in  establishing  the  oligarchy  of  the  Four 
Hundred  at  Athens  in  4X1  b  a,  and  was  assassinated  in  the  sam* 
year   (Thucydides  viii.). 

PHTiiALAZIirES  (benzoortbodiasines  or  benxopyridaxines), 
in  oifsnic  chemistry  a  group  of  heterocyclic  compounds  contain- 
ing  the  ring  complex  shown  in  formula  I.  They  are  isomeric 
with  the  dnnolincs  (g.v.).  The  psxwt  substance  of  the  group, 
pfathalasine,  CsH«Nt,  is  best  obtained  from  the  condensation, 
of .  f^ietrabromorthoxylene  with  hydraxine  (D.  Gabriel,  Ber., 
1893,  26,  p.  aato),  or  by  the  reduction  of  chlorphthalaxine  with 
phos|diorusandhydriodicadd(JSer.,t897,p.3034).  It  possesses 
basic  properties  and  forms  addition  products  with  alkyl  iodides. 
On  ozidatioa  with  alkaline  potassium  permanganate  it  yields 
pyridazine  dicarbosylic  add.  Zinc  and  hydrochloric  acid 
decompose  it  with  formation  of  orthoxylyiene  diamine. 

The  keto-hydro  derivative  pbihalaume,  CVicONs,  (formuU  H.). 
is  obtaiiwd  by  condensing  hydrazine  with  orthopbthalaldehydo- 
acid.  On  treatment  with  phosphorus  oxychloridc  it  yields  a  cnlor- 
phthalasine  whkh  with  sine  and  hydrochtoric  acid  gives  isoindole, 
CsHtN,  and  with  tin  and  hydrochloric  acid  phthalinudinek  C«UiON» 
the  second  nitrogen  atom  being  eliminated  as  ^i»T"iffni^i 

cc«  cC> 


I.  Phthalazine.  1 1.  Phthabsone. 

ACIDS,  or  Bbnzene  Dicaisox:tuc  Acdb, 
There  are  three  isomers:  (i)  oitbo,  or  phthalic 
,  or  isophthaUc  add;  <3)  para,  or  tevephthalio 


PHTHAUO 

CA(COiU)>. 
add;  (s)  noet 
add. 

Pktkalic  §dd  was  obtained  by  Laoient  in  1836  by  oxidixiBg 
naphthalene  Utxachloride,  and,  befieving  it  to  be  a  naphthalene 
derivative,  fie  named  it  naphthalenic  add;  Marignac  determined 
its  formula  sad  showed  Laurent's  supposition  to  be  incorrect, 
upon  which  Laurent  gave  it  iu  present  name.  It  is  manufactuied 
by- oxidizing  naphtlulene  tetrachloride  (prepared  from  naph- 
thalene, potassium,  chlorate  and  hydrochloric  aci(*)  with  nitric 
add,  or,  better,  by  oddlziog  the  hydrocarbon  with  fuming 
sulphuric  acid,  u^ng  raercuy  or  itercuric  sulphate  as  a  catalyst 
(German  pat.  91 ,  303).  Jt  aJto  results  on  the  oxidation  of  ortho* 


54^ 


PHTHISIS4-PHYLLITB 


diderivadvtft  of  bencenc  It  fonns  while  cxystals,  meking  at 
2x3^  with  xlecomposition  into  water  and  phthalic  anhydride; 
the  latter  forms  long  white  needles,  melting  at  128^  and  boiling 
at  284°.  Heated  with  an  excess  of  lime  it  gives  benzene;  caldum 
benzoate  results  when  ^•^M""'  phthalate  is  heated  with  one 
molecule  of  lime  to  33o*-35o^  The  add  (and  anhydride)  axe 
largely  used  in  the  coloiir  indostxy  (see  Fluorbgchm;  Phbmox^ 
pbihalexm). 

Phthalyl  chloride.  CJl«(COa)ior  CiH«(Cas)(CO)0,  formed  by 
heating  the  anhydride  with  phocpborus  chloride,  is  an  oil  which 
solidifies  at  o*  and  boils  at  275  .  In  some  reactions  it  behaves 
as  having  the  first  formula,  in  others  as  having  the  second.  Phthalyl 
chloride  with  phosphorus  pentachloride  gives  two  phthalylene 
tetrschloridcs,  one  melting  at  88*  and  the  other  at  47*.  They  cannot 
be  changed  into  one  another,  and  have  been  nven  tlw  fwaiilae 
C4H«(Cai)  (COa)  and  Cai«(Ca,)iO.  PhthaHmide,  Cm4(C0>«NH, 
is  formed  by  heating  phthalic  anhydride  or  chloride  in  ammonia 
gas  or  by  molecuku-  rearrangement  of  ortho-cyanbensoic  add. 
It  forms  N^metaUic  and  alkyl  salts.  Bromine  and  potash  give 
anthranilic  acid,  C»Hi(NHi)(C:QiH).    (See  iMOica) 

Isopklkalic  acid  is  obtained  by  ondizing  metarzylene  with 
chromic  add,  or  by  fusing  potassium  meta-sulpbobenzoate,  or 
meta-brombenzoate  with  potassium  formate  (terephthalic  add 
is  also  formed  in  the  last  case).  It  melts  above  300*,  and  dissolves 
in  7800  parts  of  c<^  water  and  in  460  of  boiling.  The  barium 
salt  (4-6U1O)  is  very  soluble  (a  distinrtion  between  phthalic  and 
terephthalic  adds).  Uviik  acttf,  s-methyl  isophthaiic  add,  is 
obtained  by  oxidizing  mesitylene  or  by  condensing  pyxoxaoemic 
add  with  baryta  water. 

Terephthalic  acid,  formed  by  oxidizing  para-diderivBtives 
ci  benzene,  or  best  by  oxidizing  caraway  oil,  a  miztuze  of 
cymene  and  cnminol,  with  chromic  acid,  as  almost  hisoluble  in 
water,  slcohol  and  ether;  it  sublimes  without  meking  when 
heated. 

For  the  reduced  phthaSc  acids  see  PoLTMBTByLSiiBS. 

PHTHISIS  (Gr.  #(<rtf  "  wastuig  **),  a  term  formerly  applied 
dike  '*  Consumption  ")  to  the  disease  of  the  lung  now  known 
as  Tuberculosis  {q.v.). 

PHYIrACnRT  (^Aoxrikpiey),  a  Greek  word  meaning 
*'  guard  "  (ic.  against  misfortune),  i^»  an  amulet.  It  b  applied 
in  the  New  Testament  to  the  kJUlin  or  "  prayer-thongs  "  worn 
by  orthodox  Jews  daily  at  morning-prayer  (whether  at  home  or 
in  the  synagogue).  The  title  emi^yed  in  Hebrew,  teJUHnf  seems 
really  to  be  derived  from  an  Aramaic  term  meaning  '*  attach* 
ments,"  *'  ornaments  ";  it  corresponds  to  the  BiblioJ  Hebrew 
word  rendered  "  frontleu  "  (totafStk).  The  lejUHn  or  phylac- 
teries are  worn,  one  on  the  left  arm  (the  "  hand-tefilla  *')»  utd 
the  other  on  the  head  (the  "  hesd-tefiUa  ")•  In  each  case  the 
leather  thongs  support  a  small  satchel  which  is  fastened  to  the 
arm  and  the  forehead  respectively,  and  contains  certain  passages 
of  the  Law  written  (in  Hebrew)  on  parchment,  viz.  Exod.  ziii. 
i-xo  amd  1 1-16;  Deut.  vi.  4-9  and  xL  13-21.  The  custom  of  wear- 
ing phylacteries  seems  to  have  been  derived  In  the  first  instance 
from  the  Pharisees.  By  the  Sadducees  and  the  generality  of 
the  people  in  the  time  of  Christ  it  seems  not  to  have  been 
practised.  Later  it  became — not  without  protest — one  of  the 
badges  of  orthodox  Judaism.  It  is  significant  that  the  custom 
is  entirely  unknown  to  the  Samaritan  community. 

The  phylacteries,  together  with  the  "  fringe  "  \tsitsith)  and 
door-post  symbol  (mowsa)— which  latter  consists  of  a  piece  of 
parchment,  owtaining  the  Hebrew  text  of  Deut  vi.  4-9  and  xi. 
t3-ai  cttdosed  in  a  glass  or  metal  tabe,  and  fixed  vpoa  the  right 
hand  post  of  the  door  of  each  dwelling-room  in  a  house — ^fdrkn 
the  three  sets  of  visible  signs  by  which  the  Israelite  is  constantly 
reminded  of  his  duty  to  God  (cf.  Num.  xv.  39*40;  DeuL  vL  9; 
Si.  so).  The  "  fringe  "  (or  "  tasseb  ")  was  originally  attadied 
to  the  coRunon  outer  garment — a  lax^e  square  wrap— the  loose 
end  of  which  hung  over  the  left  shoulder.  This  garmettt  with 
tassels  is  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  (cf.  Mait.  ix.  20; 
xiv.  36;  zxiiL  5  and  parallels).  Among  modem  Jews  it  has  sur- 
idved  in  two  forms:  (i)  the  fringed  praying  shawl  called  taHik 
worn  by  svery  male  orthodox  Jew  at  the  synagogue  morning  ser- 
vice; and  (3)  an  nnder-ganaent*  shaped  like  a.  chcst*proteclor. 


one  part  cnverhig  the  chest,  the  other  the  beck,  wMd)  fa 
worn  continuously  by  male  orthodox  Jews.  It  Is  called  Aiha 
iiCafi/0<A  (>.«."  Four  Cbinexs,"  Deut.  xxii.  X2)  or  *'h'tUeTalith," 
and  is,  of  oouxse,  ''fringed."  Both  phylactery  and  menus 
were  supposed  to  keq>  off  hurtful  demons  (Taxg.  on  Cant. 
viiL  3), 

See  Surenhusius.  Jfiidbao;  \.  9  seq.;  and  Bodensdutz,  Kink. 
Vtrf,  d.  heutigen  JiuUn,  tv.  9  leq.  (W.  R.  S. ,  G.  H.  Ba) 

PHYLARCHUS,  a  Greek  historian,  who  ^nrished  during  the 
time  of  Aratus,  the  stretegus  <rf  the  Achaean  League,  in  the  3rd 
century  b.c  His  birthplace  is  varlousiiy  given  as  Athens* 
Naucratis,  or  Sicyon.  He  was  probably  a  harive  of  Nsmstis, 
and  subsequently  migrated  to  Athens.  He  wsa  the  author  of  a 
history  in  28  bo^,  covering  the  poiod  from  the  expeditioo  d 
Pyiriius  king  of  Epirus  to  Pdoponnesus  (272)  to  the  death  of  th« 
Spartan  king  Cleomenes  (220)  after  hU  defeat  by  AntigoBia 
Doeon.  Polybius  (ii.  56-63)  charges  him  with  undue  paitislity 
for  Cleomenes  and  unfaixness  towards  Axatus;  Plutardi  {Anka, 
38 ),  who  is  of  the  same  opinion,  did  not  hesitate  to  use  him  freely 
in  his  own  biographies  of  Agb  and  Cleomenes. 

Fragments  and  life  In  C.  W  MOller,  Fragmenta  kislmctnm 
paecoruM,  vol.  i.  (1841),  monographs  by  J  F  Lucht  (l8|6)  and 
C.  A.  F  BrOckner  (i  839) .  C.  Wachsmuth,  Einktivnt  tn  das  StUiutr 
dor  aken  CtscUchtt  (1895) 

PHTU,  a  mountain  fortress,  on  a  pass  leading  from  Athem 
to  Boeotia  and  Thebes,  and  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  Attk 
plain.  It  is  situated  on  the  south-west  end  of  Mt  Pames.  It 
is  chiefly  famous  for  its  occupation  by  Thrasybulus  at  the  head 
of  the  Athenian  exiles  during  the  rule  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  is 
404  B.C.  After  defendmg  lumsdf  from  attack,  with  the  hd^ 
of  a  snowstorm,  he  siKceeded  by  a  venturesome  night  nsick 
in  seizing  Munychia.  Close  to  Phyle  Is  the  diff  called  Harma, 
over  which  tl>e  I^hian  lightnings  were  watdied  for  from 
Athens. 

PHTLUTS  (Gr  #XXor,  a  leaf,  probably  because  tkey 
yidd  leaf-like  plates,  owing  to  their  fiasiUty),  in  petroloor,  a 
group  of  rocks  whidi  are  in  practically  all  cases  metamoipbosed 
argillaceous  sediments,  consisting  essentialiy  of  quartz,  chkirite 
and  muscovite,  and  possessing  a  well-marked  psnlld  aiiaAS^ 
meiit  or  schistosity.  They  form  an  intermediate  term  is  tbe 
series  of  altered  days  or  shaly  depoaiu  between  dayaUto 
and  mica-schists.  Tlie  day-skites  have  a  veiy  aimiiar  mintfai 
constitution  to  the  phsrilltes,  but  are  finer  grained  and  a» 
distinguished  also  by  a  very  much  better  deavage.  In  tbe 
phyllites  also  white  nica  (musoovite  or  seriate)  is  man  abundast 
as  a  rule  than  in  slate,  and  its  crystalline  plates  are  laigcri  tbe 
abundance  of  mica  gives  these  rocks  a  glosay  sheen  on  thesawotb 
planes  of  fissility.  Many  of  the  best  Welsh  slates  ate  rich  is 
small  scales  of  white  mica,  which  polarize  brightly  betvees 
crossed  nicob.  The  Cornish  slates  are  still  more  micaoeoua  sad 
rather  coarser  gxained,  so  that  they  mig^t  be  called  mjo-iiatn 
or  even  phyllites. 

A  ndcroscepical  section  of  a  typical  phyllite  shows  green  ddeciM 
and  cdourleas  mica  both  in  irregular  pUtes  diipoaed  in  paraUd 
order,  with  a  greater  or  smaller  amount  of  quartz  whidi  forms  saoail 
lenticular  grains  elongated  parallel  to  the  (oUatioo.  Grains  of  troa 
oxide  (magnetite- and  haematite)  and  black  graphitic  dust  are  vey 
commonly  present.  Feldspar  is  absent  or  scarce,  but  some  phylliw 
are  characterized  by  the  development  of  small  rounded  grautf  ti 
albite,  often  in  considerable  numbers.  The  minute  needks  of 
rutile,  so  often  seen  in  day-slates,  are  not  often  met  with  in  pbyilites* 
but  this  mineral  forms  small  prisms  which  may  be  mtergrown  vitb 
black  magmerite;  at  odier  times  it  occurs  as  networks  of  sageaiic. 
Other  (riiyUites  contain  carbonates'  (usually  caldte  but  somediaa 
dolomite)  in  fiat  or  apindle-sbaped  crystails,  which  often  give  evidence 
of  crushing.  Very  tiny  blue  needles  of  tourmaline  are  by  no  meaoa 
rare  in  phyUites,  though  readily  overiooked.  Garnet  oocurs  aocne- 
times,  a  good  exan^ile  cf  ganietif erous  phyllite  being  f  amiabed  bv 
the  whetstones  of  tbt  Araeoae^  in  which  there  are  many  sasB 
isotropic  crystab  of  mafiiesan  garnet.  Hornblende,  often  la 
branching  feathery  crystau,  is  a  I^  frequent  accessory.  In  some 
phyUites  a  mineral  ot  the  dUoritoid  groop  makea  its  appearance: 
this  may  be  ottrelite,  nsmondine  or  other  variedes  of  chloritflid. 
and  occurs  in  burge  aub-hexagooal  plates  ahswing  cgmptex  twinidSB' 
and  lyii^  across  the  foliation  planes  of  the  rock,  so  that  they  seas 
to  have  developed  after  the  movements  and  presauits  which  gav* 
riss  to  the  (bliatioa  had  csaaod. 


PHYLLOXERA 


Ardcua,  (Jib  Hui  Mgunuiai^  £iunv,  the  AJpi.  Nanar.  ibe 
Appibckuiu.  tit  Gmi  Luloa  diilrict  in  Amcnci.  &c.  U  S.  F.) 
PHTLLOJCEHA  (Cr.  -UtA^,  leaf,  ud  hfh,  diy),  t,  gCDui 
of  insecLs  bdoDjtuiS  to  tlw  laqiily  of  Aphjdac,  oi  PUnl-lke,  in  the 
Hamapiemua  Ktlion  of  the  order  Uimipieis.  It  ii  ctiiefly 
known  from  itie  auial  iclaiiot,  ol  one  of  iu  pieties  to  the  aval. 
lerious  of  vioc-diseasea.  The  name  vu  £rs[  given  Id  1S34  to 
«pUnt-toiuc  which  waaobsetved  to"d:7  up  thekaves"of  wik« 
In  Proveaff.  About  twenly-aeveti  ipecicK  are  no*  known,  all 
chantcteriud  by  ko^h  not  exceeding  -o&  of  an  inch,  flat  winga, 

the  taneSj  with  digitulea,  but  without  cornicles  on  the  abdomen. 
The  foOowiiia;  full  dcfriplian  d  1^  cinly  qiccia  okicb  itucki 
■he  vine,  the  AjtUmcr.!  Kuluni,  or  Enpe-lc  -        .  . 


■nay  benadliy  Rcaiiiiied.  an  u  f^kwi.  Tbevin 
lar(ewleaim.aiiiftlHiMBnal]  ane*.   Whenthei 

ifiFir  edE»  (umet  luck,  and  withered.    Yhi  ff 
in  rhelrgrowtfiajid  their  din  i«  wrinkled.   If  iher 

ThcK  aiE  at  tnt  ytUmitS  in  cola' 


aaiy:  but  «  Ihf 
I.U  »»».<  .  ..town  or  bUck  col> 
rtllinp  wciir  be  e>3rair>od  with 
>f  1  yeliowi<l>-brTma  colour  ire  ob 
the>  an  Ihe  rcBl-formi 
;a[>)  of  FkjUsUnt  {fii.  I 


be  obeerred.     The  head  ban 
■mall  red  eyes  and  a  pair    <i 


(Rarficot 
boKii  in 


cnmenu  bear  four  ri>wi  d(  imalj  tubefcteA  on  their  dorul  nirface. 
The«B  root-dvfvl^in^  iniecta  are  femJea.  which  lay  parthenofenetic 

alout  and  lajA  thirty  to  forty  yelluw  en*  in  inuU  cliutera.  After 
ihe  lapae  of  nx.  eight  or  twelve  day?,  acctKdiin  to  the  lempcraturr. 
■he  larvae  hatch  o<it  ol  the  wga.   Tbeie  are  ithr  yeHo-  in  eulour 


Saftu 


beeomW  with 
w«ki  tfwy  h. 


repmduciiDn  the  diwue  coukl   be  iiolaied  by  aumonding  il 
intfclsl  paichea  with  a  d«p  ditch  liHJ  of  nne  kkIi  lubKance  1 

of  healthy  vines.    The  fertility  of  the  parihcnDpinetically  ptoduci 


tt  tbwsh  hatched  from  tl>e  aa 


tberof 

Lppw*  aaianiat 


aurfice  of  ihc-eanh. 
iia  Kflh  aad  la>t  moul 


HI  head  [%.  1).   Tbeayaan 


547 


Theae  winged  furma  are  about  r  nm. 
long  They  fty  about  fToB  Jidy  liD 
C^tbber,  tiviDE  upon  ibe  lap  of  ibe 
vinb  wlwh  »  oicUd  up  by  Ihe 
imruin  from  the  leave*  or  hudi. 
TIkv  lav  ihar  partfaenoeenetlrady 
produceo  egfft  in  the  ansTrt  of  the 
veiM  of  tlieTeavea.  tn  the  Oudl^  or,  if 


arget  a  f'n^t  '"'l/'^  " 
brt'hrfim  fawiaiheU 
:he  Pkyticxtt^  ■  male  (fie 
rvm  the  unaller  en.    R 


le  female  it  laijet  than  Ihe  male 


h^  ™le  iS   ,W  of  •JT  "'  ""  ^"^  ""  *^ 

d';c£:"v;^''^  gs^  ^^^  "^^ 

Mofthebatkofthevine,  •™*- 

Dtectivcly  coloured  ii  a  almoci  impos^le  to  find  it. 


It 


uienci 


S^!i 


FlCV-Wnil™  Female  pro- 
iced  from  lirje  ra  (hf.  3.  b), 
id  by  winged  lemale  (hg-  a). 


u-e 


ha  g^  ia  CDp^hlpcd,  ai 


£::: — 1/. 


jmpled  and  covered 
.  the  upper  Birfart 


548 


PHYSHARMONICA— PHYSIOCRATIC  SCHOOL 


of  the  leaf  is  Dcoteocd  by  nraiUr  atnictures.  VVithia  this  gall  the 
•tock^mother  lives  and  eurrounds  hcraelf  with  numerous  partheno* 
eenetioftlly  produced  egga — sometimeB  as  many  as  two  hundred 
m  a  single  gall ;  these  c^  rive  birth  after  six  or  eight  days  to  a 
numerous  progeny  (galhcola),  some  of  which  form  new  Kails  and 
multiply  in  the  Jeavcs,  whilst  others  descend  to  the  roots  and  become 
the  rxiot-dwelUng  forms  already  described.  The  galte  and  the  gall- 
producing  form  are  much  commoner  in  America  than  in  the  Old 
Wortd. 

The  particular  species  of  phylloxera  wfaicfa  attacks  the  vine 
is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  probably  originating  among  the 
wild  vines  of  the  Colorado  district.  It  was  first  observed  in 
i8s6  by  Asa  Fitch  (1809-1878),  who  did  not  suspect  its  mischief, 
and  called  it  Pemphigus  vUifoluu.  In  1863  it  was  independently 
discovered  by  West  wood  in  an  English  vinery  at  Hammersmith; 
he  was  ignorant  of  Fitch's  observation,  and  called  it  Pcriiymbia 
vitisana.  From  1858  to  1863  there  were  many  importations 
of  American  vines  for  grafting  purposes  to  Bordeaux,  Roque- 
maure  and  other  parts  of  France,  England,  Ireland,  Germany, 
Portugal,  &c.  It  is  practically  certain  that  the  deadly  phyl- 
loxera was  imported  on  these  phmts.  A  year  or  two  later  certain 
vine-growers  in  the  South  of  France  b^gan  to  complain  of  the 
new  vine-disease.  M.  Delorme,  of  Aries,  in  1865,  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  who  recognized  Its  novelty  and  had  a  presentiment 
of  disaster.  The  disease  steadily  spread  outwards  in  concentric 
circles  from  its  first  phice  of  lodgment  near  Roquemaure. 
Within  two  or  three  years  whole  departments  were  infested. 
In  1866  a  second  centre  of  infection  made  its  appearance  near 
Bordeaux.  The  vine-growers  were  at  their  wits'  end  to  account 
for  this  new  plague,  which  threatened  to  be  even  more  costly 
than  the  oldium.  The  completeness  of  the  ruin  which  threatened 
them  may  be  illustrated  by  the  statistics  ior  a  single  commune, 
that  of  Graveson,  whose  average  annual  production  of  wine  in 
the  years  i865-x8i67  was  about  220,000  gallons.  In  x868  this  fell 
to  121,000  gallons,  in  1869  to  48,400  gallons,  in  1870  to  8800 
gallons,  and  by  1873  to  11 00  gallons. 

In  1868  Planchon  proved  that  the  disease  was  due  to  a  ne,w 
^>ecies  of  phylloxera,  which  was  invariably  found  on  the  roots 
of  the  affected  vines,'  and  to  which  he  accordingly  gave  the 
prophetic  name  of  Phylloxera  vastatrix.  During  the  next  ten 
years  a  series  of  students,  of  whom  only  Riley  and  Balbiani  need 
be  mentioned  here,  worked  out  the  natural  history  of  Phylloxera 
vastatrix,  and  proved  its  identity  with  the  American  grape-louse. 
Its  devastations  rapidly  assumed  gigantic  proportions.  In 
France,  where  the  disease  was  by  far  the  most  prevalent — owing 
in  great  part  to  the  obstinacy  with  which  the  vine-growers  at 
first  refined  to  take  any  reasonable  precautions  against  its 
spread — M.  Lalande,  president  of  the  chamber  of  commerce 
at  Bordeaux,  in  x  888  calculated  the  direct  loss  to  the  country  by 
the  phylloxera  at  10  milliards  (£400,000,000),  or  double  the 
indemnity  which  had  been  paid  to  Germany  in  1871 1 

The  phylloxera  has  made  its  appearance  in  almost  evenr  vine- 
growing  country  in  the  world.  Thus  it  appeared  in  Austria-Hungary 
in  1868;  in  Italy,  in  spite  of  the  frantic  efforts  made — as  in  other 
countries — to  keep  it  out  by  strict  legislation  against  the  import  of 
vines,  in  1879;  in  Rusaa  in  1880;  in  Germany,  on  the  Rhine  and 
Moselle,  and  m  Switzerland  in  187a;  in  Madeira,  Spain  and  Portusal, 
about  1876.  The  pest  even  crossed  the  oceans,  and  appeared  in 
Australia,  at  Geeloi^.  about  1880;  it  has  since  twice  broken  out  in 
Victoria,  and  has  ravaged  the  vineyards  of  South  Australia  and  New 
South  Wales.  At  the  (Tape,  in  spite  of  a  long  endeavour  to  prohibit 
the  import  of  the  phylloxera,  it  ap>pcarcd  about  1884.  In  1885  it 
crossed  the  Meiiterranean  to  Algeria.  There  was  only  one  country 
where  its  ravages  were  long  unimportant;  that  was  its  home  in  the 
United  States,  where  the  native  vines  had  become,  by  the  operation 
of  natural  selection,  immune  to  its  attacks.  Yet  no  imported  vine 
has  ever  lived  there  more  than  five  years,  and  in  1890  the  phylloxera 
crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  seriously  damaged  the  vineyards 
of  California,  where  it  had  previously  been  unknown. 

Three  different  methods  of  fighting  the  pest  have  been  success- 
fully ad9pted.  One  is  to  kill  the  phylloxera  itself;  another,  to 
destroy  it  along  with  the  infected  vines,  and  plant  fresh  and 
healthy  plants;  the  third,  to  adapt  the  secular  therapeutics  of 
nature,  and  to  introduce  American  vines  which  a  long  acquain- 
tance with  the  phylloxera  has  made  immune  to  its  ravages. 
Insecticides,  of  which  the  bisulphide  of  carbon  (CSO  and  the 


siilpli»-caiboiiate  «f  pMailitim  (&SCS|)  lemtla  in 
injected  into  the  earth  to  kill  the  phylloxera  on  the  roots  of  the 
vine.  These  methods  were  chiefly  advocated  in  vineyards  of 
the  first  class,  where  it  was  worth  while  to  spend  a  good  deal  of 
money  and  labour  to  preserve  the  old  and  famous  vines:  the 
Ch&teau  Leoville  Poyferr£  and  Clos  Vougeot  are  instances. 
Some  good  judges  attribute  the  peculiar  and  not  nnplraVtrg 
flavour  of  certain  clarets  of  1888  to  means  thus  adopted  to  kill 
the  phylloxera.  The  second  plan  was  lorgdy  adopted  ia 
Switzerland  and  on  the  Rhine,  where  measures  resemUing  those 
taken  with  cattle  suspected  of  anthrax  were  appGed  to  all 
diseased  idneyards.  The  thiid  plan,  which  consists  in  xei^aBting 
the  affected  vineyard  with  American  vines— such  as  the  Vilis 
labrusca,  V.  riparia,  V,  rupestris  or  F.  numHcUa—^baA  proved 
the  most  generally  successful. 

A  very  good  biblioffraphy  will  be  found  in  tes  Inudes  de  Is  vifM, 
by  Professor  Majef  01  Montpellier  (1890),  which  is  the  best  book  oa 
the  subject.  Reference  ma)r  also  be  made  to  the  classic  memoirs 
of  Planchon,  culminating:  in  Lei  M«wi  de  la  phylloxera  de  U 
vitne  (1877);  Dreyfus,  Uber  Phylloxerinen  (1880);  Lachtcnstetn. 
Jutstoire  du  ph^loxera;  the  Rapports  annvils  a  la  comrnisxiom 
supirieure  du  Mylhxera;  and  tne  excellent  Report  oh  PkyNaxtre 
drawn  up  by  the  Hon.  J.  W.  Tavemer  (Vktoria,  1899,  No.  68). 

(W.  E.  G.  F.) 

PHTSHARMOMICA,  a  keyboard  instrument  fitted  with  free- 
reeds,  a  kind  of  hannonium  much  used  in  Germany.  The  phys> 
harmonica  resembles  a  small  harmonium,  but  is  differentiated 
from  it  by  having  no  stops;  being  without  percussion  action,  it 
does  not  speak  readily  or  clearly.  As  in  the  harmonium,  the 
bellows  are  worked  by  the  feet  by  an  alternate  naovement,  which 
also  affords  a  means  of  varying  the  dynamic  force  of  the  tone 
according  as  more  or  less  energetic  pedalling  increases  or 
decreases  the  pressure  of  the  wind  supply.  The  physharmonica 
was  invented  in  1818  by  Anton  Ittckel,  of  Vienna;  in  the  original 
instrument  the  bellows  were  placed  right  and  left  immediately 
under  the  shallow  wind-chest,  and  Were  worked  by  means  of 
pedals  connected  by  stout  wira  A  specimen,  having  a  compa» 
of  four  octaves  and  a  very  sweet  tone,  is  preserved  in  the  collec- 
tion of  Paul  de  Wit,  former^  in  Leipzig,  now  transferred  to 
Cologne.  (K.  S) 

PHYSICAL  raBNOMBNA,  m  the  terminology  of  spiritualiuB 
and  psychical  research,  molar  or  molecular  phenomena  in  the 
physiaU  world  not  traceable  to  ordinary  causes  and  referred  to 
the  action  of  spirits  or  of  mediums  in  abnormal  psychical  states. 
Among  the  phenomena  or  alleged  phenomena  are:  materializa- 
tion, levitation  or  dongation  of  the  medium;  passage  of  matter 
through  matter,  alteration  of  weight  in  a  balance,  tying  of  knots 
in  an  endless  cord,  apports  (objects  brought  from  a  distance)  oxuS 
movements  of  objects  (telekinesis);  the  production  of  writiDg. 
imprints  of  plaster  or  other  objects;  raps,  voices  and  other 
sounds,  including  music;  spirit  photographs;  %hts  and  perfumes 
To  these  may  be  added  immunity  against  the  effects  of  fire  and 
the  untying  of  ropes. 

Analogous  phenomena  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  worid 

(sec  PoLTEKcnsT;  FiREWALKiNC);  spectral  lights  are  associafed 

with  the  tombs  of  Mahommedan  saints,  with  Buddhist  shrines» 

with  religious  revivals,  with  Red  Indian  and  other  magKiass^ 

&c.,  and  as  sporadic  phenomena  in  the  H^hlands  and  Norway. 

Levitation  is  asserted  of  Australian  wizards,  the  rope^trick  of 

Eskimo  angckoks;  glyphs  and  direct  writing  are  foimd  in  Mexican 

and  Tibetan  cults. 

See  F.  Podmore,  Jiiedem  Spintnaiism;  F.  W.  H.  Mvecs,  Rmmom 
Personality,  ii.  506;  Journal  5.  P.  R.,  vi.  309  sq.  (N.  W.  T.) 

PHTSIOCRATIC  SCHOOL,  the  name  given  to  a  group  of 
French  economists  and  philosophers.  The  heads  of  the  school 
were  Francois  Qucsnay  (g.w.)  and  Jean  Claude  Maiie  Vincent. 
ueur  de  (joumay  (171 2-1759).  '^^  principles  ol  the  achoo]  had 
been  put  forward  in  175s  by  R.  Cantillon,  a  F^nch  merchant 
of  Irish  extraction  (Essai  sur  la  nature  du  commerce  ««  ^IroT^, 
whose  biography  W.  S.  Jevons  has  duddated,  and  whom  he 
regards  as  the  true  founder  of  political  economy;  but  it  was  m 
the  hands  of  Qucsnay  and  Goumay  that  they  acquired  a  system- 
atic, form,  and  became  the  creed  of  a  united  .group  of  think «» 


PHY3IGCRAT1C  SCH<X)L 


549 


and  pmcticd  men,  btnt  on  canyitig  them  iiklo  action.  The 
meroben  of  the  group  called  themselves  tes  iconamttUs,  but  it  is 
more  convenient,  because  unambiguous,,  to  designate  them  b;* 
the  name  pkynoaroUs  (Gr.  ^^lu  nature,  and  cpatrt^,  to  rule), 
invented  by  P.  S.  Dupont  de  Kemouis  (1739-1817),  who  was 
one  of  their  number.  In  this  name^  Intended  to  tixpnn  the 
fundamental  idea  of  the  school,  much  more  is  implied  than  the 
subjection  of  the  phenomena  ci  the  social,  and  In  particular  the 
economic,  world  to  fixed  relations  of  coezistettcc  and  succession. 
This  is  the  positive  doctxine  which  Kcs  at  the  bottoas  of  all  true 
science.  But  the  lav  of  nature  referred  to  in  the  title  of  the  sect 
was  something  quite  different.  The  thc6bgical  dogma  which 
represented  all  the  movements  of  the  universe  as  directed  by 
divine  wisdom  and  benevolence  to  the  production  of  the  greatcrt 
possible  sum  of  happiness  had  been  trsasformod  in  the  hands  of 
the  metaphysicians  into  the  conception  of  a  jus  ntUurae,  a 
harmonious  and  beneAdal  code  established  by  the  faivourite 
entity  of  these  thinkers,  nature,  antecedent  to  human  institu- 
tions, and  furnishing  the  model  to  which  they  should  be  made  to 
conform. 

The  general  political  doctrine  is  as  foOows:  Sodcty  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  individuals,  all  having  the  same  natural 
rights.  If  all  do  not  possess  (as  some  members  of  the  negative 
school  maintained)  equal  capacities,  each  can  at  least  best 
understand  his  own  interest,  and  is  led  by  nature  to  follow  it. 
The  social  union  is  really  a  contract  between  these  individuals, 
the  object  of  which  is  the  limitation  of  the  natural  freedom  of 
each  just  so  far  as  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  rights  of  the  others. 
Government,  though  necessary,  is  a  necessary  evil;  and  tho 
governing  power  appointed  by  consent  should  be  limited  to  tho 
amount  of  interference  absolutely  required  to  secure  the  fulfiU 
ment  of  the  contract.  In  the  economic  sphere  this  implies 
the  right  of  the  individual  to  such  natural  cnjo3rmcntsas  he  can 
acquire  by  his  labour.  That  labour,  therefore,  should  be  undis- 
turbed and  unfettered,  and  its  fruits  should  be  guaranteed  to 
the  possessor;  in  other  words,  property  should  be  aacicd.  Each 
citizen  must  be  allowed  to  make  the  most  of  his  labour;  and  there- 
fore freedom  of  exchange  should  be  ensuied,  and  competition 
in  the  market  should  be  unrestricted,  no  monopolies  or  privikgcs 
being  permitted  to  exist. 

The  physiocrats  then  proceed  with  the  economic  analyus  as 
follows:  Only  those  labours  are  truly  "  productive  "  which  add 
to  the  quantity  of  raw  materials  available  for  the  purposes  of 
man ;  and  the  real  annual  addition  to  the  wealth  of  the  com- 
munity consists  of  thccxccss  of  the  mass  of  agricultural  products 
(including,  of  -course,  metals)  over  their  cost  of  productbn. 
On  the  amount  of  this  produU  net  depends  the  wdl-being  of  tbc 
community  and  the  possibility  of  its  advance  in  dviUzaUon. 
The  manufaaurer  merely  gives  a  new  form  to  the  materials 
extracted  from  the  earth;  the  higher  value  of  the  object,  after 
it  has  passed  through  his  hands,  only  represents  the  quantity  of 
provisions  and  other  materials  used  and  consumed  initsclabora- 
tion.  Commerce  does  nothing  more  than  transfer  the  wealth 
already  existing  from  one  hand  to  another;  what  the  trading 
classes  gain  thereby  is  acquired  at  the  cost  of  the  nation,  and  it 
is  desirable  that  its  amount  should  be  as  small  as  possible.  The 
occupations  of  the  manufacturer  and  merchant,  as  well  as  the 
liberal  professions,  and  every  kind  of  personal  service,  arc 
"  useful  "  indeed,  but  they  are  *'  sterite,"  drawing  their  income, 
not  from  any  fund  whkh  they  themselves  create,  but  from  the 
superfluous  earnings  of  the  agriculturist.  The  revenue  of  the 
state,  which  must  be  derived  altogether  from  this  net  product, 
ought  to  be  raised  in  the  most  direct  and  simplest  way«— namely, 
by  a  single  impost  of  the  nature  of  a  land  tax. 

The  special  doctrine  relating  to  the  cxdusve  productiveness 
of  agriculture  arose  out  of  a  confusion  between  *'  value  "  on  the 
one  hand  and  "  matter  and  energy  "  on  the  other.  A.  Smith 
and  others  have  shown  that  the  attempt  to  fix  the  character  of 
"  sterility "  on  manufactures  and  commerce  was  founded  tn 
error.  And  the  proposal  of  a  »nglc  imp&i  territorial  falls  to  the 
ground  with  the  doctrine  on  which  it  was  based.  But  such 
influence  as  the  school  exerted  depended  little,  if  it  all,  on  these 


peculiar  tenets,  which  imked  some  of  its  wemLcis  did  not  hoM; 
Tlie  effective  result  of  its  teaching  was  mainly  destructive.  It 
continued  in  a  more  sj'stematic  form  the  efforts  in  favour  of  the 
freedom  of  industry  idready  begun  ui  England  and  France.  It 
was  to  be  eacpoctod  that  the  reformers  should,  in  the  spirit  of 
the  negative  philosophy,  exaggerate  the  vices  of  established 
systems;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  condemned  too 
absolutdy  the  eoooomlc  acUon  of  the  state,  both  m  principle 
and  in  its  historic  aMUiifcstations,  and  pushed  the  fauMS- 
fake  doctrine  bQrond  its  just  limits.  But  this  was  a  necessary 
mddent  of  their  conaexioii  with  the  levolnlioaary  movement; 
of  which  they  really  formed  one  wing.  In  the  course  of  that 
movement,  the  primitive  social  contract,  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people  and  other  dogmas  now  seen  to  be  untenable,  were 
habitually  invoked  In  the  region  of  politics  proper,  and  had  a 
transitory  utiUty  as  ready  and  effective  instruments  of  warfare. 
And  so  also  in  the  economic  sphere  the  doctrines  of  natural  ri^ts 
of  buying  and  selling,  of  the  sufficiency  of  enlightened  selfishnesa 
as  a  guide  In  mutual  dealings,  of  the  certainty  that  each  member 
of  the  society  will  understand  and  follow  his  true  interests,  and 
of  the  oolnddence  of  those  interests  with  the  public  wdfare, 
though  they  will  not  bear  a  dispassionate  examination,  were 
temporarily  useful  as  convenient  and  serviceable  weapons  for 
the  overthrow  of  the  estabBshed  order. 

These  conclusions  as  to  the  revolutionary  tendencies  of  the 
school  are  not  at  all  affected  by  the  fact  that  the  form  of  govern- 
ment preferred  by  (^ucsnay  and  some  of  his  chief  followers  was 
what  they  called  a  legal  despotism,  which  should  embrace 
within  Itself  both  the  legislative  and  the  executive  function* 
The  reason  for  this  preference  was  that  an  enlightened  central 
power  oould  more  promptly  and  efficadotisly  introduce  tho 
policy  they  advocated  than  an  assembly  representing  divergent 
opinions  sind  fettered  by  constitutional  checks  and  limitations. 
Torgot  used  the  absolute  power  of  the  Crown  to  ctafy  into 
effect  some  of  his  measures  for  the  liberation  of  industry,  though 
he  ultimately  failed  because  unsustafaied  by  the  reqiusite  force 
of  character  in  Louis  XVI.  But  what  the  physiocratic  idea 
with  respect  to  the  normal  method  of  government  was  appears 
from  Qucsnay's  advice  to  the  dauphin,  that  when  he  became 
king  he  should  '*  do  nothing,  but  let  the  laws  rule,"  the  taws 
having  been,  of  course,  first  brought  into  conformity  with  the 
jus  naturoi.  The  partiality  of  the  school  for  agricolture  was  in 
harmony  with  the  sentiment  in  favour  of  "  nature  '*  and  primi- 
tive simplicity  which  then  showed  itsdf  in  so  many  forms  in 
France,  especially  in  combination  with  the  revolutionary  ^irit* 
and  of  which  Rousseau  was  the  most  eloquent  exponent.  The 
members  of  the  physiocratic  jgroup  were  uoKloubtedly  men  of 
thorough  uprightness,  and  inspired  with  a  shKere  desire  for  the 
publk  good,  especially  for  the  material  and  moral  devation  of • 
the  working  classes,  (^uesnay  was  pbyaidan  to  Louis  XV.,  and 
resided  in  the  palace  at  Versailles;  but  in  the  midst  of  that 
corrupt  court  he  maintained  his  integrity,  and  spoke  with  manly 
frankness  what  he  bdicved  to  be  the  truth.  And  never  did  any 
statesman  devote  himself  with  greater  aini^ess  of  purpose  or 
more  earnest  endeavour  to  the  service  of  his  oountry  than 
Tuigot,  who  was  the  principal  practical  representative  of  the 
schooU 

The  physiocratic  sdKiot  never  obtained  much  direct  popular 
influence,  even  in  its  native  country,  though  it  strongly  attracted 
many  of  the  move  gifted  and  earnest  minds.  Its  menUsers, 
writmg  on  dry  subjects  in  an  austere  and  often  heavy  st^,  did 
not  find  acceptance  with  a  public  which  demanded  before  all 
things  charm  of  maimer  In  those  who  addressed  it.  The  physk>- 
cratic  tenets,  which  were  hi  fact  partly  erroneous,  were  regarded 
by  many  as  chimerical,  and  were  ridiculed  in  the  contemporary 
literature;  as,  for  example,  the  impdl  unique  by  Voltaire  in  his 
UHomme  aux  qtuuoMU  icus,  which  was  direaed  in  particular 
against  P.  P.  Mcrcicr-Lariviire  (i72o-i794).  It  was  justly 
objected  to  the  group  that  they  were  too  al»oIute  In  their  view 
of  things;  they  supposed,  as  Smith  remarks  in  speaking  of 
(^csnay,  that  the  body  politic  could  thrive  only  under  one 
precise  r^me — ^that,  namely,  which  they  recommended — and 


5S° 


PHYSIOGNOMY 


fboa^t  their  doctrines  umversally  And  immediately  appIicaUe 
in  practice;  They  did  not,  as  theorists,  suftdenlly  taite  into 
account  national  diversities  or  different  stages  in  sodal  develop- 
meat;  nor  did  they,  as  politicians,  adequately  estimate  the 
impediments  which  ign<»ance,  prejudice  and  interested  opposi- 
tion present  to  enlightened  statesmanship. 

The  physiocratic  system,  after  guiding  in  some  degree  the 
policy  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  awakening  a  few  echoes 
here  and  there  hi  foreign  oountiies,  soon  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
Uving  power;  but  the  good  eleniems  it  comprised  were  not  lost 
to  mankind,  being  incorporated  into  the  more  complete  construe* 
tion  of  Adam  Smith. 

See  the  article  on  QuBSNAT,  wkh  biUlogfaphy  appended  thereto, 
also  the  articles  on  NliaABBAU  and  Tu acor.   Most  French- histories 


coatain  an  account  of  the  school  j  see  especially  Tooqucvillc, 
L'Ancien  rignne  et  la  rbxAution,  ch.  lii.;  Taine.  Les  Origines  de  la 
France  cenUmparaiiu,  vol.  i. :  R.  Stourm,  Les  Finances  de  I'ancien 
figmt  et  de  la  rimdutum  (18S5):  Dm,  Hisloin  du  rigne  de  Louis 
XV I. \  also  L.  de  Lavergne.  &oii»misUt  Sranqais  du  XVIII*  tiide; 
H.  Higgs.  The  PkystoeraU  (London,  1897,  with  authorities). 

PHYSIOGNOMY,  the  English  form  of  the  middle  Greek 
^v<ri07M»/<la,  a  contraction  of  the  clawical  ^v^iefYi««|MrUi 
(from  ^dns,  nature,  and  yvi^iiuv,  an  interpreter),  (1)  a  term 
which  denotea  a  sunMised  science  for  the  **  discovery  of  the 
disposition  of  the  mind  by  the  lineaments  of  the  body  "  (Bacon); 
(a)  is  also  used  colloquially  as  a  synonym  for  the  face  on  outward 
a|^)earsncc,  being  variously  spelled  by  the  old  writers: /yfenamy 
by  Lydgate,  phisnomi  in  Udall's  translation  of  Erssmus  on 
Mark  iv.,  pkysnomie  in  Bale's  Engfish  Votaries  (i.  s.  p.  44),  and 
jufumue  in  All's  weU  that  ends  well,  iv.  5  (first  folio). 

Physiognomy  was  regarded  by  th<Me  who  cultivated  it  as  a 
twofold  science:  (i)  a  mode  of  discriminating  character  by  the 
outward  appearance,  and  (2)  a  method  of  divination  from  form 
and  feature.  On  account  of  the  abuses  of  the  latter  aspect  of 
the  subject  its  practice  was  forbidden  by  the  English  Uw.  By 
the  act  of  parliament  17  Gtorgt  II.  c.  5  (1743)  aU  persons  pre- 
tending  to  have  skill  in  physiognomy  wore  deemed  rogues  and 
vagabonds,  and  were  liable  to  be  publicly  whipped,  or  sent  to 
the  house  of  correction  until  next  sessions.'  The  pursuit  thus 
stigmatised  as  unlawful  is  one  of  great  antiquity,  and  one  which 
in  andent  and  medieval  times  had  an  extensive  though  now 
almost  forgotten  literature.  It  was  Vtry  eariy  noticed  that  the 
good  and  evil  passkms  by  their  continual  exerdse  stamp  their 
impress  on  the  face,  and  that  each  particular  passion  has  its  own 
expresskm.  Thus  far  physiognomy  b  a  branch  of  physiology. 
But  in  its  second  aspect  it  touched  divination  and  astrology,  of 
which  Galen*  says  that  the  physiognomical  part  is  the  greater, 
and  this  aspect  of  the  subject  bulked  Urgely  in  the  fandful 
Hterature  of  the  middle  ages.  There  is  evid^Kx  in  the  earliest 
dawifal  literature  that  physiognomy  formed  part  of  the  most 
ancient  practical  phikaophy.  Homer  waa  a  cbse  observer  of 
expression  and  of  appearance  as  correlated  with  character,  as 
is  shown  by  his  deacriptioB  of  Thersites*  and  elsewhere.  Hippo- 
crates, writing  about  450  B.C.,  expresses  his  bdief  in  the  influence 
of  environment  in  determimng  disposition,  and  in  the  reaction 
of  these  upon  feature,*  a  view  in  which  he  is  supported  Uter 
by  IVogus.  Galen,  in  his  work  11^  rwr  r^  ^hntfh  4Aur,  having 
discussed  the  nature  and  immortality  of  the  soul,  proceeds  in 
ch.  viL  to  a  brief  study  of  physiognomy  (ed.  Kuhn  iv.  795). 
In  this  passage  he  deprecates  current  physiognomical  specuU- 
tlons,  saying  that  he  might  criticise  them  but  feared  to  waste 
tame  and  become  tedious  over  them.  In  chapter  vtiL  he  quotes 
with  approbation  the  Hippocratic  doctrine  referred  to  above;  and 

1  The  Act  39  Elisabeth  c.  4  (i5?:r^*S98)  declared  "  all  persona 
iayniiy  to  have  knowledge  of  PhUiogaomie  or  like  Fantastlcall 
Ymaginacious  "  liable  to  be  fttri|>pcd  naked  (roni  the  middle  up- 
wards and  openly  whipped  until  hi»  body  be  bloudye."  This  was 
modified  by  13  Anne  c.  26  (1713),  sttU  further  by  17  George  II.  c.  5, 
whkh  was  renmacted  by  the  vagrancy  Act  Ito4i.  This  last  act  onfy 
■pecifiea  palmistry. 

'  Galen.  Ilipt  tmrmmSUtut  irpervwrruA  (ed.  KQhn  xix.  S30)- 

■  Iliad,  li.  214.  See  also  BlackwclPs  Inquiry,  (2nd  ed.  1736).  J>.  330. 
A  pbyMognomical  study  of  the  Homeric  heroes  b  given  by  Malaus, 
Cikrviwcr.  ed.  Dindorf,  v.  105. 

•  O^t  M^M»i  M4h9M».  fim^  (ed.  KQhn,  i.  547)< 


in  a  later  work,n4y>2  nrwOdctui  wpoypte^niA ,  he  speftlmor  the 
advantage  of  a  knowledge  of  pbysrognomy  to  the  physician.* 
We  lean  both  fram  lamblichus*  and  Porphyry'  that  Pytha- 
goras practised  the  diagnosb  of  the  characters  of  candidates  for 
pupilage  before  admitting  them,  although  he  seema  to  have 
discvBditcd  the  current  physiognomy  of  the  schools,  as  he 
rejected  Cyh>,  the  Crotonian,  on  account  of  hb  professing  these 
doctrines,  and  thereby  waa  brought  into  some  trouble.*  Pbto 
also  teUs  us  that  Socrates  predicted  the  promotion  of  Akibbda 
from  hb  appearance;  and  Apuldus*  speaks  of  Socrates  recog- 
nizing the  abilities  of  Plato  at  first  view.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  recorded  by  Cicero*  that  a  certain  physiognomist. 
Zopyrus,  who  professed  to  know  the  hablu  and  manners  of  mco 
from  their  bodies,  eyes,  face  and  forehead,  characterized  Socrates 
as  stupid,  sensual  and  dull  (bardiis),  **  in  quo  Aldbiades  cachLi- 
num  didtur  sustuUsse."  Alexander  Aphrodisicnsb  adds  that. 
when  hb  disdples  laughed  at  the  judgment,  Socrates  said  it  vis 
true,  for  such  had  been  hb  nature  before  the  study  of  philosopby 
had  modified  it.  Zopyrus  is  also  referred  to  by  MaximusTyrius" 
as  making  hb  recognitions  "  intuitu  solo." 

That  one's  occupation  stamps  its  impress  on  the  outward 
appearance  was  also  noticed  at  an  early  period.  In  the  cnrima 
poem  in  the  Sallier  papyros  (IL),  written  about  1800  b.c,  Ouaa, 
son  of  Khertu,  expatiates  on  the  effects  of  divers  handicrafts  oe 
the  workmen  as  compared  with  the  elevating  influences  of  a 
literary  life.*'  Josephus  teUs  us  that  Caesar  detected  the  pretence 
of  the  spurious  Alexander  by  his  rough  hands  and  surface." 

The  first  systematic  treatise  which  has  come  down  to  us  b 
that  attributed  to  Arbtotle,*'  in  which  he  devotes  six  chaptets 
to  the  consideration  of  the  method  of  study,  the  general  signs 
of  character,  the  particular  appearances  characteristic  of  the 
dispositions,  of  strength  and  weakness,  of  genius  and  stupidity. 
of  timidity,  impudence,  anger,  and  their  opposites,  &c.  Then 
he  studies  the  physiognomy  of  the  sexes,  and  the  chanactcn 
derived  from  the  different  features,  and  from  colour,  hair,  body, 
limbs,  gait  and  voice.  He  compares  the  varieties  of  mankind 
to  animab,  the  male  to  the  lion,  the  female  to  the  leopard.  The 
general  character  of  the  work  may  be  gathered  from  tbe  foDovicg 
spedmen.  While  discussing  noses,  he  says  that  those  wnk 
thick  bulbous  ends  bdong  to  persons  who  are  inaoisiuve. 
swinish;'  sharp-tipped  bck>ng  to  the  irasdble,  those  caailT 
provoked,  like  dogs;  rounded.  Urge,  obtuse  noses  to  the  mag- 
nanimous, the  lifm-like;  slender  hooked  noses  to  the  eagle-Eke. 
the  noble  but  grasping;  round-tti^Msd  retrous86  noses  to  the 
luxurious,  like  barndoor  fowl;  noses  with  a  very  slight  notch 
at  the  root  bdong  to  the  impudent,  the  crow-like;  while  snob 
noses  bdong  to  persons  of  luxurious  habits,  whom  he  eooipaRS 
to  deer;  open  nostrib  are  signs  of  passion,  &c 

The  practice  of  physiognomy  b  alluded  to  in  many  oi  tV 
Greek  classics.**  Apion  speaks  of  tbe  metoposcopbts,  who  jot'r 
by  the  appearance  of  the  face,  and  Qeanthes  the  Stok  says  it  s 

*  Op.  ciLt  xix.  530. 

*  n«pl  filav  Hi/Bayopuaiv  Mrot,  i.  1 7.  50  (Amsterdam,  1707). 

'  De  vita  Pytkagorae,  p.  16  (Amsterdam,  1707).  This  aotbor  tr9< 
us  that  he  applied  the  same  rule  to  hb  friends.  See  abo  Aob.» 
Cellius,  i.  ix. 

"  lamblickus,  p.  49. 

*  De  dogmate  Flatenis,  1.  567,  p.  34  (Ldden,  1714). 
**  ruKM.  quaesHonum,  Iv.  37.    uefato,  v. 

**  Diss.,  XV.  157  (Cambridge,  1703). 

»  Selea  Pafyn,  PI.  xv..  xix..  and  (Anaatasi)  ibid.,  cxxviu., 

^  Ant.,  xvii.  12,  a. 

•*  Authors  differ  in  thdr  views  as  to  its  authentidty.  but ^ 

LaCrtius  (v.  a^)  and  Stobaeus  (5erm.  clxxxix.)  both  bdievc  it  to  t« 

Bmuine.  The  chief  difficulty  b  the  rderence  to  a  certaui  aophec 
ionysius,  but  this  b  probably  an  interpobtkm.  There  aie  i^v^ 
sragnomic  references  in  other  writings  of  Aristotle  (cf.  Anal,  pr..  k 
c.  30;  Hist.  anim.A.  8.  &c.)  sufficient  to  iostify  the  attribution  erf  tV 
treatise  to  him.  On  this,  see  Franz,  Preface,  p.  vi.  acq.,  of  hb  Scnf^ 
lores  pkysiognownae  vetares  (Ldpdg,  1780). 

'*  See  an  Interesting  paper  on  "  Stictcmng  and  Yawning  as  S«gv 
of  Madness,"  by  Professor  Ridseway  {.Trans.  Comb.  Pku.  Soc^  i 
aoi),  which  refers  to  Aristoph.  Wasps,  64a.  with  which  he  conitutt 
Pbutus,  Menaeckmi,  279.  Other  references  exist  to  phyaiognoorv 
in  Casaodonis,  Isidoms,  Mdctius  and  NeoMsiua,  but  none  of  aay 
great  iaportanoe. 


PHYSIOGNOMY 


55» 


possible  ta  tell  babiu  from  tlie  a^wct  (cf.  Eccl'us.  six.  99,  50). 
Polemon  (c.  a.o.  150)  compUed  a  treatise  (published  1534,  in 
Latin)  on  the  subject,  similar  in  character  to  that  of  Aristotle; 
but  he  excels  in  graphic  descriptions  of  different  dispoaitions, 
and  differs  only  from  Aristotle  in  some  of  his  animal  comparisons. 
A  more  important  work  was  written  by  a  converted  Jew, 
Adamantius,  about  aj>.  415.  This  is  in  two  books,  the  6rst  on 
the  expression  of  the  eye,  the  second  on  pbysbgnomy  in  general, 
mostly  Aristotelian  in  character. 

Among  the  Latin  dasRical  authors  Juvenal,  Suetonius  and 
Pliny  in  well-known  passages  refer  to  the  practice  of  physiog- 
noroy,  and  numerous  allusions  occur  in  the  works  of  the  Christian 
Fathers,  espedally  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen  (for 
example,  the  familiar  passage  in  bis  work  against  Celsos,  I.  Si)-^ 
While  the  earUer  classical  physiognomy  was  chiefly  descriptive, 
the  later  medieval  authors  particularly  developed  the  predjktive 
and  astrological  side,  their  treatises  often  digressaog  into  chiro- 
mancy,  onycbomancy,  cUdomancy,  podosoopy,  qMsmatomancy, 
and  other  branches  of  prophetic  folk-lore  aad  magic. 

Along  with  the  medical  science  of  the  period  the  Arabians 
contributed  to  the  literature  of  physiognomy;  *A]i  b.  Ragel  wrote 
a  book  on  naevi;  Rhazcs  (1040)  devoted  sevcial  chapters  to  it; 
and  Averroes  (i  165)  made  many  references  to  it  in  his  Z>r  sanitate^ 
p.  8a  (Leiden,  1S57)*   Avicenna  also  makes  wme  acute  physiog- 
nomical remarks  in  his  X7e  ammaliiutt  which  was  translated  by 
Michael  Scot  about  1270.    Among  medieval  writers  Albertus 
Magnus  (bom  xaos)  devotes  much  of  the  second  section  of  his 
De  animaUbus  to  physiognomy;  but  this  chiefly  consists  of 
extracts  from  Aristotle,  Polonon  and  Loxus.   He  docs  not  enter 
into  tlie  animal  ccmiparisons  <rf  his  predecessors,  but  occupies 
himself  chiefly  with  simple  descriptive  physiognomy  as  indicative 
of  character;  and  the  same  is  true  ol  the  scattered  references 
in  the  writings  oi  Dons  Sootus  and  Thomas  Aquinas.    The 
famous  sage  of  Balwearie,  Michael  Scot,  while  court  astrologer 
to  the  emperor  Frederick  XL,  wrote  his  treatise  De  homnis 
phisiogHomiaf  much  of  which  is  physiological  and  of  curious 
interesL      It  was  probably  composed  about    1273,  but  not 
printed  until  1477.    Th&  wss  the  first  printed  work  on  the 
subject.    Physiognomy  also  forms  the  third  part  of  his  work 
De  secrelis  naiurae.    In  1355  Pietro  d'Abano  of  Padua  delivered 
in  Paris  a.  course  of  lectiurea  on  this  subject  (afterwards  edited 
by  Blondus,  1544)^  a  few  years   before  he  was  burned  for 
heresy. 

The  i6th  century  was  rich  in  publications  on  physiognomy. 
The  works  of  the  cUusical  authors  before  mentioned  were  printed, 
and  other  treatises  were  published  by  John  de  Indagine^  Codes, 
Andreas  Corvis,  Midiad  Bbndus,  Janos  Comaro,  Anselm 
Douxcid,  Pompeius  Ronnseus,  Gcatarolus,  Lucas  Gauriicus, 
Tricassus,  Cardanus,  Talsnierus,  Magnus  Hund,  Rothman, 
Johannes  Padovanus,  and,  greatest  of  all,  Giambatlista  ddla 
Porta.  The  earliest  English  works  were  aaonymous:  On  ike 
Art  of  PorOtUittg  Future  EvmU  by  Jnspedum  •/ Uu  H<utd(is<H), 
and  A  Pieasani  Introduction  to  the  Aft  of  Cktrowumcie  and 
Physiognonm  (15^).  Dr  Thomas  HUl's  work.  The  Conttmfic- 
tion  of  Afankynde,  contayning  a  nngular  Diseourso  after  the  Art 
of  PkyHognomky  published  in  1571,  is  a  quaintly  written  adapta- 
tion from  the  Italian  authors  of  the  day.  The  undated  book  on 
moles  and  naevi  by  "  Merlin  Britaankus,  **  after  the  modd  of 
'All  ibn  Rogd,  Is  of  about  the  same  date 

The  development  of  a  knore  accurate  anatomy  in  the  i7tb 
century  seems  to  have  diminished  the  bitetest  in  physiognomy, 
by  substituting  fact  for  6ction;  and  consequently  the  literatuve, 
though  as  great  in  quantity,  became  less  vahiable  fn  quaKty. 
The  principal  writers  of  this  age  were  T.  Campandla,  R.  Cocl*n« 
fus,  Clement,  Timpler,  J.  E.  Gallimard,  Moidenarius,  Septalius, 
Saunders,  C.  Lebnin  (a  precursor  ^Charles  Bell),  Ehhete,  de  la 
Belliire,  J.  Evdjm  (in  the  appendix  to  iVtfMiMioto),  Baldas, 
Bulwer   (in  his  Patkomyotomta),  Fachs»  Spontoni«  Gluradelli, 

*  For  Scriptural  allmions  to  phymoftnomy  see  Vecchiqs,  Ohuroa- 
tiones  in  div.  scHpt.  (Naples.  104 O.  Gther  dasdcal  references  are 
contaivied  in  the  Prooemium  to  tne  tS93  edition  of  the  works  of 
Baptista  Portae. 


Chlaramonti,  A.  Ingegneri,  Fhidla,  De  la  Chambre,  Zaaardus» 
R.  Fludd,  and  others  of  less  importance. 

The  1 8th  century  shows  a  still  greater  decline  of  interest  in 
physiognomy.  Historians  of  philosophy,  like  J.  Mcursius  and 
Franz,  re-edited  some  of  the  classical  works,  and  G.  G.  FiiUebom 
reviewed  the  relation  of  physiognomy  to  ^ilosopby.  Indeed, 
the  only  name  worthy  of  note  Is  that  of  J.  K.  LavatH-  {q.v.). 
The  other  authors  of  this  century  are  Peuschd,  Spon,  Sdiutz, 
Wegdin,  J.  PemcttI,  GIrtanner,  Grohnuinn,  and  several  anony- 
mous writers,  and  from  the  anatomical*  side  G.  M.  Landsi,  J. 
Parsons  and  Peter  Camper.  The  popular  style,  good  illnstra* 
tions  and  pious  spirit  pervading  the  writings  of  Lavater  have 
given  to  them  a  popularity  they  little  deserved,  as  there  is  no 
system  in  his  work,  which  chiefly  consists  of  rhapsodical  com- 
ments upon  the  several  portraits.  Having  a  happy  knadi  of 
estknating  character,  especially  when  acquainted  with  the 
histories  of  the  persons  in  question,  the  good  pastor  contrived 
to  write  a  graphic  and  readable  book,  but  one  much  inferior 
to  Porta's  or  Aristotle's  as  a  systematic  treatise.  The  treatises 
of  Nicoloi  and  of  Lichtenberg  were  written  to  rdute  his  theory. 
With  Lavater  the  descriptive  school  of  physiognomists  may  ht 
said  to  have  ended,  as  the  astrological  physiognomy  expired 
with  de  la  Belliire.  The  few  works  which  have  since  appearedi 
before  the  rise  of  the  physiological  school  of  Sir  Charles  Bell  and 
Charles  Darwin,  are  undeserving  of  notice,  the  development  of 
phrenology  having  given  to  pure  physiognomy  the  coup  de  gr/ke 
by  taking  into  itself  whatever  was  likely  to  h'vc  of  the  older 
sdence.  The  writers  of  the  igfh  century  are  Hdrstig,  Maas, 
Rainer,  Thon6,  A.  St5hr,  Sehler,  Dr  Rubels,  Polii,  Cardona, 
Msstriam,  Diez,  Qmis,  Piderit,  Burgess  and  P.  Gratiolet. 

The  physiological  school  of  physiognomy  was  foreshadowed, 
by  Parsons  and  founded  by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  whose  Essay  on^ 
the  Anatomy  of  tke  Eicpression,  published  in  1806,  was  the  first 
sdentific  study  of  the  physical  manifestation  of  emotions  in 
the  terms  of  the  musdes  which  produce  these  manifestations. 
In  the  kter  editions  of  this  essay  the  thesis  is  elaborate  ^ith 
greater  detail.  Moreau's  edition  of  Lavater,  in  1807,  was  some- 
what along  the  same  lines.  In  181 7  Dr  Cross  of  Glasgow  wrote 
his  defence  of  a  sdentific  physiognomy  based  on  genera]  physio- 
logical prindples.  The  experiments  of  G.  B.  A.  Duchenne 
iMieanisme  de  ta  pkysiognomie  humaine,  Paris,  1862)  showed 
that  by  the  use  of  electridty  the  action  of  the  separate  muscles 
could  be  studied  and  by  the  aid  of  photography  accurate^ 
represented.  These  observations  confirmed  by  experimental 
demonstration  the  hypothetical  conclusions  of  Bdl.  The 
machinery  of  expression  having  thus  been  indicated,  the  con- 
nexion of  the  physical  actions  and  the  psychical  state  was  made 
the  subject  of  speculation  by  Herbert  Spencer  {Psychology,  1855). 
These  speculations  were  reduced  to  a  system  by  Darwin  {Expres- 
sion of  Emotions^  1872),  who  formulated  and  illustrated  the 
following  as  fundamental  physiognomical  principles: — 

(l)  Certain  complex  acts  are  of  direct  or  indirect  service,  under 
certain  conditions  of  the  mind,  in  order  to  relieve  or  gratify  certain 
sensations  or  desires;  and  whenever  the  same  states  of  mind  anr 
induced  the  same  sets  of  actions  tend  to  be  performed,  even  when 
they  have  ceased  to  be  of  use.  (a)  When  a  directly  opposite  state 
of  mind  is  induced  to  one  with  which  a  definite  action  is  correlated, 
there  is  a  strong  and  involuntary  tendency  to  perform  a  reverse 
action.  (3)  When  the  scnsorittm  is  strongly  excited  nerve-force 
is  generated  in  excess,  and  Is  transmitted  m  definite  directions, 
depending  on  the  connexions  of  nerve-cells  and  on  habit. 

The  last  of  these  propositions  is  adversely  critldl^  by  P. 
Mantegazza  as  a  truism,  but  it  may  be  allowed  tostandwilh  the 
qualification  that  we  are  ignorant  concerning  the  nature  of  the 
influence  called  "  nerve-force."  It  follows  from  these  proposi- 
tions that  the  expression  of  emotion  is,  for  the  most  part,  not 
under  control  of  the  will,  and  that  those  striped  muscles  are  the 
most  expressive  which  are  the  least  voluntary.  To  the  fore- 
going may  be  added  the  following  three  additional  propositions, 
so  as  to  form  a  more  complete  expression  of  a  phyaognomica^ 
pbilosophy^^ 

(4)  Certain  musdes  concerned  in  producing  these  skin-folds  be- 
come strengthened  by  habitual  action,  and  when  the  skin  dimlBitbes 


S5« 


PHYSIOLOGUS 


in  etasdcky  «nd  lulnets  with  'advancing  age,  the  wrinkles  at 
right  angica  to  the  counc  of  the  rouacular  nbrea  become  permanent. 
Ou  To.  some  extent  habitual  muscular  action  of  this  kind  may,  by 
aWccting  local  nutrition,  alter  the  contour  of  such  bones  and  cartilages 
as  are  related  to  the  musclea  of  expression.  (6)  If  the  mental  dis- 
position and  pronencsa  to  action  are  inherited  by  children  from  their 
parents,  it  may  be  that  the  facility  in,  and  disposition  towards, 
certain  forma  cii  expression  are  in  Uke  manner  matters  of  heredity. 

lUostrations  of  these  theoretic  propositions  are  to  be  found  in 
the  works  of  BcU,  Duchenne  and  Darwin,  and  in  the  later  publi- 
cations of  Theodor  Pideritt  Mimike  und  Pkysiognomik  (1886)  and 
Mantegazza,  Physiognomy  and  Expression  (1890),  to  which  the 
^udent  may  be  referred  for  further  information. 

For  information  on  artistic  anatomy  as  applied  to  phynognomy 
see  the  catalogue  of  sixty-two  authors  by  Ludwig  Choulant,  Ce- 
Mchichte  und  BuHiopaphU  der  ancUomischen  Abbildung,  &c.  (Leipzig, 
185a),  and  the  Mrorka  of  the  authors  enumerated  above,  eqxxialfy 
those  of  Aristotle,  Frena,  Porta,  Cardan,  Corvus  and  Balwer.  For 
hysiognonw  of  disease,  besides  the  usual  medical  handbooks,  see 
let,  Essai  sur  I'expression  de  la  Jau  dans  Us  maladies  (Paris, 


phvsiogi 
Cabuchc 


i8oi)|  Mantcgazza,  Physiology  of  Pain  (1893),  and  Polli,  5aggio 
di  jistognomonia  «  polotnomonia  (1837).  For  ethnological  phyg- 
cwnomy,  see  amongst  older  authors  Gratarolus,  and  amongst  moderns 
toie  writers  cited  in  the  various  textbooks  on  anthropology,  especially 
Schadow.  Physionomies  nalionales  (1835)  and  Park  Hamson.  Joum. 
Anihrop.  Inst.  (1883).  The  study  of  the  physical  characteristics  of 
criminals  is  discussed  at  groat  fength  by  Lombroso.  VUomo  ddin- 
9i*^nte  (1897);  Fern,  L'Omiddio  (1895);  von  Bacr,  Der  Vetbreeker 
(1893) :  Laurent,  Les  Habituts  des  prisotu  (1890) ;  and  Havclock  Ellis. 
The  Criminal  (1901).  (A.  Ma.) 

PHTSIOLOGUS,  the  title  usually  given  to  a  collection  of  some 
fifty  Christian  allegories  much  read  in  the  middle  ages,  and  still 
existing  in  several  forms  and  in  about'  a  dozen  Eastern  and 
Western  languages.  As  nearly  all  its  imagery  is  taken  from  the 
aninud  world,  it  is  also  known  as  the  Bestiary.  There  can  be 
hardly  a  doubt  about  the  time  and  general  circumstances  of  its 
origin.  Christian  teachers,  especially  those  who  had  a  leaning 
towards  Gnostic  speculations,  took  an  interest  in  natural  history, 
partly  because  of  certain  passages  of  Scripture  that  they  wanted 
to  explain,  and  partly  on  account  of  the  divine  revelation  in  the 
book  of  nature,  ci  which  also  it  was  man's  sacred  duty  to  take 
proper  advantage.  Both  lines  of  study  were  readily  combined 
by  applying  to  the  interpretation  of  descriptions  of  natural 
objects  the  allegorical  method  adopted  for  the  interpretation  of 
Biblical  texts.  Now  the  early  Christian  centuries  were  anything 
but  a  period  of  scientific  research.  Rhetorical  accomplishments 
were  considered  to  be  the  chief  object  of  a  liberal  education,  and 
to  this  end  every  kind  of  learning  was  nuuie  subservient.  Instead 
of  reading  Aristotle  and  other  naturalists,  people  went  for* 
ixiformation  to  commonplace  books  like  those  of  Aelian,  in  which 
scraps  of  folk-lore,  travellers'  tales  and  fragments  of  misappre- 
hended science  were  set  forth  in  an  elegant  style,  'theological 
writers  were  not  in  the  least  prepared  to  question  the  worth  of 
the  marvellous  descriptions  of  creatures  that  were  current  in 
the  schools  on  the  faith  of  authorities  vaguely  known  as  "  the 
history  of  animals,"  "  the  naturalists,"  and  "  the  naturalist  "  in 
the  singular  number  {^vaioSiyo%)}  So  they  took  their  notions 
of  strange  beasts  and  other  marvels  of  the  visible  world  on 
trust  and  did  their  best  to  make  them  available  for  religious 
instruction.  In  some  measure  we  find  this  practice  adopt^  by 
more  than  one  of  the  Fathers,  but  it  was  the  Alexandrian  school, 
with  its  pronounced  taste  for  symbolism,  that  made  the  most  of 
it.  Clement  himself  had  declared  that  natural  lore,  as  taught 
In  the  course  of  hij^r  Christicn  education  according  to  the 
canon  of  truth,  ought  to  proceed  from  "  cosmogony  "  to  "  the 
theological  idea,"*  and  even  in  the  little  that  is  left  of  the  works 
of  Origen  we  have  two  instances  of  the  proceeding  in  question. 
And  yet  the  fact  that  these  reappear  in  the  Pkysiologus  would 
not  suffice  to  stamp  the  work  as  a  series  of  extracts  from  Alex- 
andrian writings,  as  parallels  of  the  same  kind  can  be  adduced 

'Origen,  Sel.  in  Ttnm.  xviL  11,  1»  rf  vipl  f^  l^rvMf: 
Epiphan.  Ade.  hoar.  i.  3,  p.  274  (ed.  D.  Petav.).  At  #«»»r  oi 
#«vwX6irai:  Origen,  Horn,  xvii.,  u  Gen.  xUv.  9,  "  nam  physblogus 
de  catulo  leonis  scribit." 

■  Strom.,  iv.  p.  564  (cd.  Potter),  i  Yw^  k«tA  ri»  dK  iXfMttt  coytftra 
V^orrU^  vmpmiUtm  4ti0t»Soyla,  <ii>X«ir  M  #«Mr7«<c,  Ac  roO  npl 
— rjiwfay  |pTi|r««  \irrov,  h$M«  ir^fiaifawa  M  r4  hfJ^trfuAr  «tt«f. 


from  Epiphanlus  {toe.  at.)  and  Ephraem  Syrus  {OpprSyr.iL 
17,  236).  Father  Cahier  would  even  trace  the  book  to  Tatian, 
and  it  is  true  that  that  heresiarch  mentions  a  writing  of  his  own 
upon  animals.  Still,  the  context  in  wluch  the  quotation  occurs 
makes  it  evident  that  the  subject-matter  was  not  the  nature  of 
particular  specie  nor  the  spiritual  lessons  to  be  drawn  therefrom, 
but  rather  the  place  occupied  by  animal  beings  in  the  system  of 
creatioiL  On  the  other  hand,  the  opinion  of  Cardinal  Pitra, 
who  referred  the  Pkysiologus  to  the  more  orthodox  though 
somewhat  peculiar  teaching  of  the  Alexandrians,  is  fully  borne 
out  by  a  close  examination  of  the  irregularities  of  doctrine 
pointed  out  in  the  Pkysiologus  by  Cahier,  all  of  which  are  to  be 
met  with  in  Origen.  The  technical  words  by  which  the  process 
of  allegorizing  is  designated  In  the  Pkysiolagnst  like  ifi/t^^da^ 
Bea/dOf  ianyiay^^  dXXiryopto,  are  familiar  to  the  students 
of  Alexandrian  exegesis.  It  has,  moreover,  been  remarked 
that  almost  all  Che  animals  mentioned  were  at  home  in  the 
Egypt  of  those  days,  or  at  least,  like  the  elephant,  were  to  be  seen 
there  occasionally,  whereas  the  structure  of  the  hedgehog,  for 
instance,  is  explained  by  a  reference  to  the  sea-porcupine,  better 
known  to  fish-buyers  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  fables  of  the 
phoenix  and  of  the  conduct  of  the  wild  ass  and  the  ape  at  the 
time  of  the  equinox  owe  their  origin  to  astronomical  symbob 
belonging  to  the  Nile  country.*  In  both  chapters  an  Egyptian 
month  is  named,  and  elsewhere  the  antelope  bears  its  Coptic 
name  of  "  antholops." 

That  the  substance  of  the  Pkysiolagus  was  borrowed  from 
commentaries  on  Scripture^  is  confirmed  by  many  of  the  sec» 
tions  (^)enlng  with  a  text,  followed  up  by  some  such  formula  as 
"  but  the  PhysiologUB  says."  When  zoological  records  failed, 
Egypto-Hellenic  ingenuity  was  never  at  a  loss  for  a  fanciful 
invention  distilled  from  the  text  itself,  but  which  to  succeeding 
cCpyists  appeared  as  part  d  the  teaching  of  the  original  Pkysio- 
logus. As  a  typical  instance  we  may  take  the  chapter  on  the 
ant-Uon<— not  the  insect,  but  an  imaginaxy  creature  suggested 
by  Job.  iv.  IX.  The  exceptional  Hebrew  for  a  lion  {layisk) 
appeared  to  the  Septuagint  translators  to  call  for  a  spedai 
rendering,  and  as  there  was  said  to  exist  on  the  Arabian  coast 
a  lion-like  animal  called  **  myrmcx "  (see  Strabo  xvi.  774-, 
Adian,  H.A,,  viL  47)  they  ventured  to  give  the  compound  noua 
"  myrmekoleon."  After  so  many  years  the  commentatcxs  had 
lost  the  key  to  this  unusual  term,  and  only  knew  that  in  cxunmon 
Greek  "  myrmex  "  meant  an  ant.  So  the  text  "  the  mynne* 
koleon  hath  perished  for  that  he  had  no  nourishment  "  set  thera 
pondering,  and  others  reproduced  their  meditations,  with  the 
following  result:  "  The  PkysuJogus  relates  about  the  ant-lion: 
his  father  hath  the  shape  of  a  lion,  his  mother  thai  of  an  ant; 
the  father  liveth  upon  fiesh,  and  the  mother  upon  herbs.  And 
these  bring  forth  the  ant-lion,  a  compound  of  both,  and  in  port 
like  to  either,  for  his  fore  part  is  that  of  a  lion,  and  his  hind  past 
like  that  of  an  ant.  Being  thus  composed,  he  is  neither  aUe 
to  cat  flteh  like  his  father,  nor  hexba  tike  hb  mother;  therefore 
he  perbheth  from  inanition  ";  the  moral  follows. 

At  a  later  period,  when  the  Church  had  learnt  to  look  with 
^suspicion  upon  devotional  hooks  likely  to  provoke  the  scoffing 
of  some  and  lead  others  into  heresy,  a  work  of  this  kind  could 
hardly  meet  with  her  approval.  A  synod  of  Pope  Gdasius,  hdd 
in  496,  passed  censure,  among  othersi  on  the  "  Liber  Physiologus» 
qui  ab  haereticis  conscriptus  est  et  B.  Ambrodi  nomine  signatus, 
apocvyphus*"  and  evidence  has  even  been  offered  that  a  similar 
sentence  was  pronounced  a  century  before.  Still,  in  spite  of 
such  meaiures,  the  Pkysiologus,  like  the  Church  Hisiory  of 
Euaebius  or  the  Pastor  0/  Hemuu,  continued  to  be  read  with 
genefal  interest,  and  even  Gregory  th«  Great  did  nol  disdain 
to  allude  to  it  on  occasion.  Yet  the  Oriental  versions,  which 
had  certainly  nothing  to  do  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  show  that 
there  was  no  systematic  revision  oade  according  to  the  catholic 

'  Cp.  Lccmans  on  Horapollo  1.  t6,  3x. 

<  Including  the  Apocrypha.  See  the  Icelawlk}  aooaat  of  the 
elephant,  also  a  decidedly  Alexandrian  fraEmcnt  upon  the  m^^^nm, 
founded  «i{)on  4  Mace  t.  3,  which  has  got  mto  the  sdtoUa  upon  the 
Odyssey  xvHi.  2  (ii.  533.  ed.  Dindori.  Oiuord,  1855). 


PHYSIOLOGDS 


553 


«Ua(Utd  oC  doctrine.  The  book  xemaiacd  oMolialiy  Uie  same, 
albeit  great  liberties  were  taken  with  its  details  and  outward 
form.  There  must  have  been  many  imperiect  copies  in  circula- 
tion, from  which  people  transcribed  such  sections  as  tbey  found 
or  chose»  and  afterwards  completed  their  MS.  as  occasion  served. 
Some  even  rearranged  the  contents  according  to  the  alphabet 
or  to  zoological  affinity.  So  little  was  the  collection  <onsidercd 
as  a  literary  work  with  a  definite  text  that  every  one  assumed  a 
right  to  abridge  or  enlarge,  to  insert  ideas  of  his  own,  or  fresh 
scriptural  quotations;  nor  were  the  scribes  and  translators  by 
any  means  scrupulous  about  the  names  of  natural  objects,  and 
even  the  passages  from  Holy  Writ.  Pkysidogus  had  been 
abandoned  by  scholan,  and  left  to  take  its  chance  anoong  the 
tales  and  traditions  of  the  uneducated  mass.  Nevertheless,  or 
rather  for  this  very  reason,  its  symbols  found  their  way  into 
the  rising  literature  of  the  vulgar  tongues,  and  helped  to  quicken 
the  fancy  of  the  artists  employed  upon  church  buildings  and 
furniture. 

The  history  of  the  Pkynologus  has  become  entwined  from  the 
beginning  with  that  of  the  commentaries  on  the  account  of 
creation  in  Genesis.  The  principal  production  of  this  kind  in 
our  possession  is  the  Hexaemeron  of  Basil,  which  contains  several 
passages  very  like  those  of  the  Physiologus.  For  instance,  in 
the  seventh  homily  the  fable  of  the  nuptials  of  the  viper  and  the 
conger-eel,  known  already  to  Aclian  and  Oppian,  and  proceeding 
from  a  curious  misreading  of  Aristotle  (Hist.  An.  v.  4,  540  b, 
Bekk.),  serves  to  point  more  than  one  moral.  Notwithstanding 
the  difference  in  theology,  passages  of  this  kind  could  not  but  be 
welcome  to  the  admirers  of  the  Alexandrian  allegories.  In  fact 
a  medley  from  both  Basil  and  the  Physiologus  exists  under  the 
title  of  the  Hexaemeron  of  Eustathius;  some  copies  of  the  first 
bear  as  a  title  Ilept  4>vci.oKar/ia%,  and  in  a  Milan  MS.  the 
"  morals  "  of  the  Physiologus  are  ascribed  to  Basil.  The  Leydcn 
Syriac  is  supplemented  with  literal  extracts  from  the  latter,  and 
the  whole  is  presented  as  his  work.  Other  copies  give  the 
names  of  Gregory  Theologus,  Epiphanius,  Chrysostom  and 
Isidore. 

As  far  as  can  be  judged,  the  emblems  of  the  original  Physio- 
logus were  the  following:  (i}the  lion  (footprints  rubbed  out  with 
tail;  sleeps  with  eyes  open;  cubs  receive  life  only  three  days 
after  birth  by  their  father's  breath);  (a)  the  sun-lizard  (restores 
its  sight  by  looking  at  the  sun) ;  (3)  the  charadrius  (Deut.  xiv. 
j6;  presages  recovery  ot  death  of  patients);  (4)  the  pelican 
(recalls  its  young  to  life  by  its  own  blood) ;  (5)  the  owl  (or  nykti- 
korax;  loves  darkness  and  solitude);  (6)  the  eagle  (renews  its 
youth  by  sunlight  and  bathing  in  a  fountain);  (7)  the  phoenix 
(revives  from  fire);  (8)  the  hoopoe  (redeems  its  parents  from  the 
UIs  of  old  age) ;  (9)  the  wild  ass  (suffers  no  male  besides  itself) ; 
(10)  the  viper  (born  at  the  cost  of  both  its  parents'  death);  (11) 
the  serpent  (sheds  its  skin;  puts  aside  its  venom  before  drinking; 
is  afraid  of  man  in  a  state  of  nudity;  hides  its  head  and  abandons 
the  rest  of  its  body) ;  (i  2)  the  ant  (orderly  and  laborious;  prevents 
stored  grain  from  germinating;  distinguishes  wheat  from  barley 
on  the  stalk);  (13)  the  sirens  and  onocentaurs  (Isa.  xiii.  21,  22; 
conipound  creatures);  (14)  the  hedgehog  (pricks  grapes  upon 
its  quills);  (15)  the  fox  (catches  birds  by  simulating  death); 
(16)  the  panther  (spotted  skin;  enmity  to  the  dragon;  sleeps  for 
three  days  after  meals;  allures  its  prey  by  sweet  odour);  (17)  the 
sea-tortoise  (or  aspidochelone;  mistaken  by  sailors  for  an  island); 
(18)  the  partridge  (hatches  eggs  of  other  birds);  (19)  the  vulture 
(assisted  in  birth  by  a  stone  with  loose  kernel);  (20)  the  ant-lion 
(able  neither  to  take  the  one  food  nor  to  digest  the  other); 
(2r)  the  weasel  (conceives  by  the  mouth  and  brings  forth  by  the 
ear);  (22)  the  unicorn  (caught  only  by  a  virgin);  (is)  the  beaver 
(gives  up  its  testes  when  pursued);  (24)  the  hyaena  (a  her- 
maphrodite) ;  (25)  the  otter  (enhydris;  enters  the  crocodile's  mouth 
to  kill  it);  (26)  the  ichneumon  (covers  itself  wilh  mud  to  kill 
the  dragon;  another  version  of  No.  25);  (27)  the  crow  (takes  but 
one  consort  in  its  life);  (28)  the  turtIe-dove(  same  nature  as  No. 
37);  (39)  the  frog  (either  living  on  knd  and  killed  by  rain,  or  in 
the  water  without  ever  seeing  the  sun) ;  (30)  the  stag  (destroys 
its  enemy  the  serpent);  (31)  the  salamander  (quenches  6re); 


(32)  the  diamond  tpoi«erfal  against  all  danger);  (33)  the  swallow 
(brings  forth  but  once;  mureading  of  Aristotle,  Hist.  An.  v.  13); 
(34)  the  tree  called  peridexion  (protects  pigeons  from  the  serpent 
by  iu  shadow);  (35)  the  pigeoM  (of  several  coknirs;  led  by  one 
of  them,  which  ia  of  apurple  or  golden  colour);  (36)  the  ant  elope 
(or  hydrippos;  caught  by  Its  horns  in  the  thicket);  (37)  the  lire- 
flints  (of  two  sexes;  combine  to  produce  fire);  (38)  the  magnet 
(adheres  to  iron) ;  (39)  the  saw-fi^  (sails  in  company  with  ships) ; 
(40)  the  ibis  (fishes  only  along  the  shore);  (41). the  ibex  (descries 
a  hunter  from  afar) ;  (4a)  the  diamond  again  (read  *'  carbuncle  "; 
found  only  by  night) ;  (43)  the  elephant  (conceives  after  partaking 
of  mandrake;  brings  forth  in  the  water;  the  young  protected 
from  the  serpent  by  the  fatlier;  triien  fallen  is  lifted  up  only  by  a 
certain  amaU  individual  of  its  01m  kind);  (44)  the  agat,p  (cm- 
ployed  in  pearl-fishing);  (4s)  the  wild  ass  and  ape  (mark  the 
equinox) ;  (46)  the  IncHan  atone  (relieves  patients  of  the  dropsy) ; 
(47)  the  heron  (touches  no  dead  body,  and  keeps  to  one  dwelling- 
place);  (4S)  the  sycamore  (or  wild  fig;  gmba  living  inside  the 
fruit  and  coming  out) ;  (49)  the  ostrich  (deir<MirB  all  sorts  of  things ; 
foigetful  of  its  own  eggs).  Besides  these,  or  part  of  them, 
certain  copies  contain  sections  of  unknown  origin  about  the  bee, 
the  stork,  the  tiger,  the  woodpecker,  the  spider  and  the  wild 
boar. 

The  Greek  text  of  the  Pkysiotogiu  exists  only  in  late  MSB.,  and 
has  to  be  corrected  from  the  translation*.  In  byrtac  we -have  a  full 
copy  in  a  I3th<entury  Leyden  MS.,  published  in  J.  P.  N.  Land  s 
Antcdota  tyriaea\  thirty-two  chapters  with  the  **  morals"  left  out 
in  a  very  fate  Vatican  copy,  published  by  Tychien:  and  about  the 
same  number  in  a  fate  MS.  of  the  British  Museum  (Add.  35878)- 
In  Armenian  Pitra  eave  some  thirt)r-two  chapters  from  a  Paris  MS. 
(13th  century).  The  Aethiopic  exists  both  in  London  and  Paris, 
and  was  printed  at  Leipzig  by  Dr  Hommel  in  1877.  In  Arabic 
we  have  fragments  at  Paris,  of  which  Renan  transfated  a  specimen 
for  the  SpiaUgfum  soUsmenstt  and  another  version  of  thirty-seven 
chapters  at  Leiden,  probably  the  work  of  a  monk  at  Jerusalem, 
which  Land  transfated  and  printed  with  the  Syriac.  The  Latin 
MSS.  of  %m  are,  after  the  Vatican  gfoasary  of  Ansileabns,  the  oldest 
of  which  we  know :  there  are  others  in  several  libimriM,  and  printed 
editions  by  Mai*  Hetder  and  Cahier.  Besides  these,  a  few  fragments 
of  an  old(abridgment  occur  in  Vallarsi's  edition  of  Jerome's  works 
(vol.  xi.  coL  218).  A  metrical  Pkysidoius  of  but  twelve  chapters 
is  the  wmIc  of  Theebaklus,  probably  abbot  of  Monte  Casdno  (a.o. 
1022-1015).  From  th»  was  imiutsd  the  dd-English  fragment 
printed  by  Th.  Wright^  and  afterwards  bv  Maetzner:  also  the  Old- 
French  Sensuyl  le  oesttaire  d'amours.  The  prose  Pkynologus  was 
d<Mie  into  Old  High  German  before  1000,  and  afterwards  into  rhyme 
in  the  same  idiom;  since  Von  der  Hagen  (1824)  its  various  forms 
have  found  careful  editon  among  the  leading  Germanists.  The 
Icefandic,  in  a  Copenhagen  MS.  oT the  13th  century,  was  printed  by 
Professor  Th.  Mfibius  m  his  Analecta  norroena  (and  ed.»  1877):  at 
the  same  time  he  gave  it  in  German  In  Dr  Hommel's  Aethiopic 
publication.  Some  Anglo-Saxon  metrical  fragments  are  to  be 
toimd  in  Grrin's  BiUioUuh,  voL  u  The  Proven^L  («.  1250),  pub- 
Kahed  in  Bartsch's  Chrtitomathit  ftropenfoU,  oralis  the  "morals,* 
but  is  remarkable  for  its  peculiarities  of  form.  Before  this  there 
had  been  transfations  into  French  dialects,  as  by  Philippe  de  Thaun 
(lUi),  by  Guitfaume,  "  clere  do  Normandie."  also,  about  the  same 
period,  by  Pierre,  a  dccgyman  of  Pfcardy.  All  the  Old-French 
roaterfah  have  not  yet  been  thoroughly  examined,  and  it  is  far 
from  improbable  that  some  versions  of  the  book  either  remain  to 
be  detected  or  are  now  k>st  past  recovery.  A  full  account  of  the 
history  of  the  Physiohgus  Aonld  also  embrace  the  subjects  taken 
from  It  in  the  productions  of  Christfan  art,  the  parodies  sugKeatcd 
by  the  original  work,  «.f.  the  Bestiair*  d'amour  by  Richard  de 
Fournival,  and  finally  the  traces  left  by  it  upon  the  encyck^paedical 
and  literary  work  of  the  fater  middle  ages. 

Nearly  all  the  information  now  obtainable  fa  to  be  found  in  the 
foUowing  works  and  soch  as  are  there  quoted:  S.  EPiphanius  ad 
physiologum,  ed.  Ponce  de  Leon  (with  woodcuts)  (Rome.  1587); 
another  edition,  with  copper-plates  (Antwerp,  1588);  S,Eustathntn 
hexahemeron  eommentartvs,  ed.  Leo  Alfatius  (Lyons,  1629;  cf.  H. 
van  Herwcrden,  Exercitt.  Critt.,  pp.  180-183.  Hague.  1862^:  Physw- 


85   scq. 

'^Nouveaux 

sotesmtnf*  iii. 

xlvii. 

proben 

der  ZoobtU  (Munich,  1872),  ^.  __,  „,  .  ,.  -  .  ,     ,,     , 

syriaea  (Leiden,  1874),  iv.  31  seq.,  115  aeQ-.  ""d  m  Verslaffn 
em  MededeeliHgen  der  kon.  Akad.  tan  Welensekafpen,  and  series, 
vol.  iv.   (Amsterdam.   i874)i     M6biua    and    Hommd  in  their 


554 


PHYSIOLOOV 


?ubtications  auotcd   above.     See  .aUo  Lauchcrt,   Ccickkku  des 
'kystoloius   (btrassbui^.    1889}   and    E.  petcn,   Der  irtechwke 
Fkynologus  und  seine  ortentatiscken  Obersetzungen  (Bcrlio,  1898}. 

PHTSIOLOGT  (from  Gr.  ^itffis,  nature,  and  \hm,  discourse), 
the  science  or  theory  oC  the  properties,  processes  and  functions 
of  living  organisms.  Physiology  is  distinguished  from  anatomy 
as  dealing  specifically  with  the  functions  of  an  organism,  rather 
than  its  structure.  The  two  main  branches  of  the  science  are 
animal  and  plant  (vegetable)  physiology,  and  in  animal  physi- 
ology that  of  man  stands  out  as  primarily  associated  with  the 
word. 

Ever  since  men  began  to  take  a  scientific  interest  in  the 
problems  of  life  two  distinct  rival  explanatory  principles  of  vital 
^^  phenomena  have  claimed  attention:  a  natural  and 
Y^^,  a  mystical  principle.  The  first  outcome  of  the 
scientific  attempt  to  explain  vital  phenomena  after 
the  natural  method  and  by  a  unitary  principle  was  th«  doctrine 
of  the  PtuHma,  held  by  the  followers  of  Hippocrates,  which 
found  its  clearest  expression  in  Galen's  system.  According  to 
this  doctrine,  the  origin  of  all  viul  phenomena  was  a  very  fine 
substance,  the  Pneuma,  which  was  supposed  to  exist  in  atmo- 
spheric air,  to  be  inhaled  into  the  lungs  of  man,  and  thus  through 
the  blood  to  reach  all  the  parts  of  the  body,  where  it  produced 
vital  phenomena.  This  doctrine — ^an  attempt  to  explain  the 
phenomena  of  life  which  was  not  altogether  natural,  but  even 
materialistic — was  accepted  by  the  middle  ages  together  with 
Galen's  system.  With  its  translation  into  the  Latin  spiriius, 
however,  the  conception  of  the  Pneuma  lost  its  originaf  force. 
The  spiriius  animates  of  the  middle  ages  developed  ere  long  into 
mystical  powers,  the  result  being  the  explanation  of  vital 
phenomena  by  a  supernatural  theory.  Not  until  the  scientific 
renaissance  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  did  views  again 
undergo  a  change.  After  the  establishment  of  a  scientific 
method  in  physiology  by  William  Harvey,  and  the  development 
of  Descartes'  mechanical  system  of  regarding  living  bodies,  the 
natural  explanation  of  vital  phenomena  once  more  universally 
found  favour.  Two  schools  afose,  which  endeavoured  by 
dissimilar  methods  to  find  a  mechanical  explanation  of  vital 
phenomena:  the  iaUopkysUalt  originating  with  the  gifted  and 
versatile  Borelli,  and  the  iatrockemical,  founded  by  the  Dutch- 
man, F.  de  la  BoS  (Sylvius).  But  when  both  chemical  and 
physical  methods  of  explanation  failed  at  such  problems  as,  for 
instance,  irritability  and  evolution,  another  change  in  opinion 
took  place.  By  degrees  there  emerged  once  more  the  tendency 
to  explain  vital  phenomena  by  mystical  means,  finding  expression 
in  the  Animism  of  Stohl,  to  quote  an  example;  and  in  the  second 
half  of  the  x8th  century  VUclism^  originating  in  France,  began 
its  victorious  march  throughout  the  whole  scientific  world. 
Again  the  opinion  came  to  be  entertained  that  the  cause  of  vital 
phenomena  was  a  mystical  power  (Joru  kypermicanigue) — that 
"  vital  force  "  which,  neither  physical  nor  chemical  in  its  nature, 
was  held  to  be  active  in  living  organbms  only.  Vitalism 
continued  to  be  the  ruling  idea  In  physiology  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  zgth  century,  and  its  supremacy  was  only  gradu- 
ally overthrown  by  the  great  discoveries  in  natural  science  of 
that  century.  The  chemical  discoveries  resulting  from  Wdhlcr's 
synthesis  of  urea  first  showed  that  typical  products  of  the  animal 
body,  the  production  of  which  had  hitherto  been  supposed  to  be 
solely  the  result  of  the  operation  of  vital  force,  could  be  obtained 
artificially  by  purely  chemical  methods.  Then  above  all  came 
the  discovery  of  the  law  of  the  Conservation  of  Energy  by  Robert 
Mayer  (1814-1878)  and  Hermann  von  Hclmholtz  (1821-1894), 
and  its  application  to  the  living  organism  by  Mayer,  Helmholtz, 
Pierre  Louis  Dulong  (1785-1838),  Edward  Frankland,  Max 
Rubncr  and  others,  to  prove  that  the  manifestations  of  energy 
by  the  organism  are  simply  the  result  of  the  quantity  of  potentiid 
energy  received  into  the  body  by  means  of  food.  Finally,  the 
stupendous  results  arrived  at  by  Darwin  and  the  establishment 
of  the  fundamental  hw  of  *' biogenesis  "  by  Ernst  Haeckel, 
prepared  the  way  for  a  natural  explanation  of  the  enigma  of 
evritttioa  and  structure  of  organisms.  Thus  by  the  second 
MC  of  the  t9th  century  the  doctrine  of  vital  force  was  definitely 


and  finally  otveithfown  to  make  way  for  the  triumph  of  the 
nxuural  method  of  explaining  vital  phenomena,  which  down  to 
the  present  time  has  continued  to  spread  and  flourish  with  an 
unparalleled  fertility.  It  wonld,  it  is  true,  appear  as  if  in  our 
day,  after  the  lapse  of  half  a  century,  mystical  tendencies  were 
again  disposed  to  crop  up  in  the  investigation  of  life.  Here  aod 
there  is  heard  once  more  the  watchword  of  Vitalism.  But  all 
the  so-called  neo-vifalistie  efforts — sucH  as  those  of  Alexander  von 
Bunge  (1803-1890),  Georg  Evon  Rindfleisch  (b.  1835),  Johannes 
Reinke  (b.  1849)  and  others — have  nothing  to  do  with  the  o!d 
vitalism.  They  originate  solely  in  a  widespread  confusion  «t(h 
regard  to  the  boundaries  of  natural  science,  their  principal 
tendency  being  to  amalgamate  psychological  and  speculative 
questions  with  problems  of  purely  natural.scicnce.  In  the  face 
of  all  these  efforts,  which  by  their  unfortunate  destgnation 
of  Vitalism  and  Neo-vitalism  give  rise  to  entirely  false  concep- 
tions, and  which  by  their  intermingling  of  psycholo|pcal  ques- 
tions and  questions  of  natural  science  have  led  to  mere  confusio.n 
in  research,  it  is  essential  that  natural  philosophy  should  be 
called  upon  to  realize  Its  own  limits,  and  above  all  clearly  to 
understand  that  the  sole  concern  of  physical  science  is  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  phenomena  of  the  material  world.  Physiolog}-. 
as  the  doctrine  of  life,  must  therefore  confine  itself  to  the  materal 
vital  phenomena  of  organisms.  It  is  self-evident,  however,  that 
only  such  laws  as  govern  the  material  world  will  be  fouod 
governing  material  vital  phenomena — the  laws,  that  is,  which 
have  hitherto  been  brought  to  their  most  exact  and  most  logical 
development  by  physics  and  chemistry,  or,  more  generally 
speaking,  by  mechanics.  The  explanatory  principles  of  vital 
phenomena  must  therefore  be  identical  with  those  of  inorganic 
nature — that  is,  with  the  principles  of  mechanics. 

The  investigation  of  vital  phenomena  in  this  sense  requires, 
in  the  first  place,  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  substratum  in  whick 
these  phenomena  are  manifested,  just  as  in  chemistry  ^^i^Mg, 
and  physics  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  composition  fflf  win  rf 
of  the  material  world  u  a  necessary  premise  to  the'*'*^ 
investigation  of  the  phenomena  of  inorganic  nature.     T^ 
knowledge  of  the  composition  and  structure  of  organisms  has  » 
the  course  of  the  scientific  development  of  anatomy  attained 
to  an  ever-increasing  minuteness  of  detail,  without  haviog 
as  yet  reached  a  definite  limit.    The  last  important  step  in  thu 
direction  was  the  discovery  by  Matthias  Jakob  Schleidcs 
(1804-1881)  and  Theodor  Schwann  (z8zo-x883)  that  all  ocg^'-.- 
isms  are  built  up  of  elementary  living  structural  components, 
lumety  of  cells  (see  Cytologv).   The  details  of  the  aaatomir:: 
construction  of  organisms  are  described  under  various  appn> 
priate  headings,  and  a  general  guide  to  these  will  be  found  under 
Anatomy  and  Zoology.    We  would  here  merely  point  out  tlut 
a  cell  is  the  simplest  particle  of  living  substance  which  a|^>ea» 
to  be  permanently  capable  of  life.     Different  elements  art 
essential,  however,  to  the  existence  of  the  cell— two,  at  least,  w 
far  as  has  hitherto  been  discovered — the  protoplasm  and  tbr 
nucleus.    It  must  at  present  be  regarded  as  at   least   \r^ 
doubtful  whether  the  centrosome,  which  in  recent  times  it  h^^i 
been  possiUe  to  demonstrate  as  existing  in  very  many  ccS^. 
and  which  appears  sometimes  in  the  protoplasm,  sometimes  .' 
the  nucleus,  is  a  general  and  third  independent  cell-constituent 
On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  special  constituent  parts  whi.  ^ 
appear  in  various  cell-forms  is  very  large.    A  question  whica 
has  long  been  discussed,  and  whidi  has  received  special  assi 
animated  attention,  is  that  with  regard  to  the  finer  structi^r* 
of  the  ceQs— with  regard,  that  is,  to  the  protoplasm  and  t^: 
nucleus  lying  in  it.    Views  on  this  subject  have  diverged  ver> 
widely,  and  several  totally  diverse  theories  have  been  oppose  J 
to  one  another.    One  theory  maintains  that  the  living  ceD- 
substance  has  a  reticular  structure;  another,  that  it  is  fibrinous. 
According  to  a  third  theory,  the  essence  of  the  construction  cf 
the  cell-substance  lies  in  the  granules  which  it  contains;  ani 
according  to  a  fourth,  ft  lies  in  the  ground-substance  in  which 
these  granules  are  embedded.    One  view  holds  this  grcKnd 
substance  to  be  homogeneous,  another  regards  it  as  pcoessix^ 
a  fine  foam-structure.    It  may  at  present  be  regarded  as 


PHYSIOLOGY 


555 


UKOiitrovcttiUe  Uuit  IMag  sobitMce  ii  noift  or  km  flukf,  tnd 
that  there  does  not  east  aay  §mtr«l  structure  Cor  all  cell-iorms. 
But  in  come  special  cases  all  tl^  theories  which  have  been  quoted 
are  to  a  certain  extent  oinrect.  In  different  c^  there  are 
reticular,  fibriUous  and  granular  diffcrentiatioos  reqwctively, 
and  differentiations  in  foam-structure;  in  many  cells,  however, 
the  protoplasm  appears  to  be  beyond  doubt  homogieneaus  and 
without  a  distinct  structure,  and  only  under  certain  conditions 
to  assume  changing  structures.  But  the  faa  which  Is  of  most 
importance  for  the  right  understanding  of  vital  phenomena 
is  that  the  cell-substance  is  always  more  or  less  fluid,  for  only 
in  a  fluid  substratum  can  such  intense  chemical  processes  be 
enacted  as  are  to  be  found  in  every  living  cell. 

Where  the  analytical  powers  of  the  microscope  in  anatomy 
can  go  no  farther,  chemical  analysts  ol  the  composition  of  the 
cell  steps  in.  By  its  means  the  dracovcry  is  made  that  there  is 
no  eUmentary  difference  between  organic  and  inoi]ganic  nature, 
Ux  only  sucL  chemical  elements  as  are  known  to  exist  in  the 
inorganic  world  are  found  in  the  organic.  On  the  other  hand, 
however^  the  living  ceU-substaace  possesses  chemical  compounds 
which  find  analogues  nowhere  in  inorgamic  nature.  The  charac- 
teristic organic  substances  which  are  present  in  every  cell  are 
protcids  and  proteid-compounds.  Besides  these  there  occur, 
widely  disseminated,  carbohydrates,  fats  and  other  organic 
substances,  which  partly  originate  in  the  decomposition  of 
proteids  and  their  compounds,  and  are  partly  used  for  their 
construction.  Lastly,  there  are  in  addition  great  quantities  of 
water  and  some  inorganic  salts. 

Such  are  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  substratum 
in  which  vital  phenomena  play  their  part.    When  we  consider 
ckaarai        vital  phenomena  themselves  in  the  various  living 
Pt*momoam  organisms — in  protista,  plants,  animals,  man — there 
ofL/*.         appears   an    incalculable   diversity    of  phenomena. 
Here,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  (he  structure  of  organisms, 
we  have  to  analyse  and  to  penetrate  ever  farther  and  deeper 
till   we  reach  the  fundamental  phenomena.     We  then  hod 
that  the  great  variety  of  vital  manifestations  may  be  traced 
back  to  a  few  fundamental  general  groups,  which  are  precisely 
the  same  groups  of  phenomena  as  those  to  be  observed  in  in- 
organic nature.    All  the  processes  that  take  place  in  the  oiganic 
world  may  be  regarded  from  the  three  different  standpoints  of 
their  changes  in  substance,  in  energy  and  in  form;  for  substance, 
rncrgy  and  form  are  all  necessary  to  our  conception  of  matter. 
Accordingly,  the  general  elementary  vital  i^enomena  Ukewise 
fall  into  three  groups— metabolism,  the  mechanism  of  enetgy, 
and  the  assumption  of  form.   Every  ceU»  so  long  as  it  is  living, 
takes  in  certain  substances  from  its  environment,  submits  them 
to  cbenucal  transformation  in  its  interior,  and  gives  out  other 
substances.    This  nulabolUm  is  manifested  in  sevefal  special 
functions — in  nutrition  and  digestion,  respiration  and  circu- 
lation.  Secretion  and  excretion.     The  essence  of  the  whole 
process  is  the  fact   that  while  out  of  these  ingested  stuffs 
living  substance  is  always  again  being  formed  by,  the  living 
substance  which  already  exists,  it  h  itself  continuslly  under- 
going decomposition,  and  the  products  of  this  decomposition 
arc    what     the    cell   gives  off  again  to  the  outside.     With 
metabolisnn,    however,    there    is    inseparably    associated    a 
transformalion   of  tnerty.     These   substances   taken   in   by 
the  cell  contain  a  large  quantity  of  potential  energy,  which 
is  transformed  into  kinetic  energy.    This  has  for  its  result  the 
manifold  activities  of  the  organism,  more  especially  motion,  heit, 
electricity  and  light.    Finally^  the  chemical  transformations  in 
living  substance  may  also  manifest  themselves  outwardly  in 
changes  of  fornix  as  is  the  case  generally  in  the  matter  of  growth, 
reproduction  and  development.    The  three  general  elementary 
groups  of  vital  phenomena  are  therefore  in  leah'ty  merely  the 
expression  of  the  various  aspects  of  one  and  the  some  process 
— of    the    actual  vital   process  itself.     The  ultimate  object 
>f  all  physiology  is  to  discover  what  this  vital  process  Is^— that 
,9    to    say,  what    is  the  exact  cause  of  these  manifold  vital 
[>henoinefia-*a  goal  from  which  it  is  at  the  present  day  stiU  very 
'emote. 


As  every  physical  and  cbemtcal  phenoBaenon  of  inotganie 
nature  occurs  only  under  distinct  conditions,  so  vital  phenomena 
are  also  dependent  upon  certain  conditions  of  life. 
Every  Uving  body,  ©very  living  cell,  requires  food,  JrlS?** 
water,  oxygen,  and,  lurther,  a  certaixi  temperature 
and  a  certain  pressure  in  its  environmenL  These  are  the  enteral 
conditions  ol  life.  But  the  sfoddl  conditions  on  which  depends 
the  continued  existence  of  the  individual  fonns  of  organism  areas 
numerous  ss  the  forms  of  aganiams  themsrives.  Now,  just  as 
the  physicist  or  chemist  varies  those  conditions  under  ^i^kh  a 
phenomenon  occurs  in  order  to  get  at  its  causes,  so  does  the 
physiologist  try  to  experiment  with  vital  phenoaoena,  altering 
the  vital  conditions:  and  testing  the  changes  which  are  thereby 
pioduccd.  The  great  importance  of  this  method  coaoists  in 
the  power  it  gives  the  experimenter  of  analysing  vital  phenomena 
systematically  from  definite  points  of  view.  Every  change  in 
its- normal  vital  conditions  which  produces  any  effect  whatsoever 
upon  an  organism  is  termed  a  sUmulus.  This  is  the  only  general 
definition  we  have  for  a  conception  which  is  of  such  vast  impor-. 
tance  to  physiology.  According  to  it,  experimental  physiology 
is  entirely  a  physiology  of  stimuli  It  further  folbws  from  this 
conceptkm  of  stimulation  that  there  must  be  an  enormous 
multiplicity  of  stimuli,  since  each  particular  vital  condition  may 
be  subjected  to  some  change  capable  of  acting  vpon  i%  as  a 
stimulus.  But,  besides  this,  other  factors  may  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  organisms  which  have  absolutely  no  place  among 
their  vital  conditions:  for  instance,  many  chcsnical  reagents  and 
electric  currents.  These  influences  come  under  the  general 
definition  of  stimulus,  because  they  likewise  imply  a  change 
in  the  conditions  under  which  the  organism  lives.  From  their 
qualitative  nature  stimuli  are  distinguished  as  chemical,  thermal, 
photk,  mechanical  and  electrical.  Each  of  these  several 
varieties  may,  however,  be  applied  quantitatively  in  various 
de^res  of  intensity,  and  may  in  consequence  produce  quite 
diffnent  results.  This  opens  up  to  experimental  physiology  a 
vast  field  of  research.  But  the  phyi^ogy  of  stimulation  is 
not  only  of  the  gjvatest  value  as  a  means  of  research:  its 
importance  is  much  increased  by  the  fact  that  in  nature  itself 
stimuli  are  everywhere  and  constantly  acting  ppon  the 
organism  and  its  parts.  Hence  the  investigation  of  their 
action  comes  to  be  not  merely  a  meoM,  but  a  direct  end  of 
research^ 

Although  it  is  not  at  present  .possible  to  define  all  the  laws  that 
govern  stimulation,  on  the  one  hand  because  the  number  of 
stimulating  effects  known  to  us  in  the  whole  oiganic 
world  is  as  yet  too  limited,  and  on  the  other  becauK  samii 
those  already  known  have  not  yet  been  thoroughly 
analysed,  yet  it  is  within  our  power  to  classify  stimula- 
ting effects  according  to  their  various  characteristicB,  and. 
to  ascertain  a  few  facts  concerning  their  general  and  funda* 
ipental  conformity  to  law.  The  first  fact,  apparent  from 
a  glance  at  a  great  many  of  the  various  forms  erf  stimulation, 
is  that  all  their  effects  are  manifested  in  either  a  quanti' 
/o/fte  or  a  qiMlilaiife  alteration  of  the  characteristic  vital 
phenomena  of  each  living  object.  The  quantitative  is  the 
luual  mode  of  action  of  stimuU.  It  is  generally  found  that  a 
stimulus  either  increases  or  dimintshcs  the  intensity  of  vital 
phenomena.  In  the  first  case  the  effect  is  one  <rf  excitation;  in 
the  second  of  depressbn.  It  is  the  more  important  to  bear  in 
mind  this  twofold  operation  of  stimuli,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
in  former  times  physiologists  were  very  apt  to  conceive  of 
excitation  and  stimulation  as  identical.  It  b  now,  however,  an- 
undisputed  iwd  that  depression  may  also  occur  as  a  typkal  effect 
of  stimulation.  This  is  most  apparent  in  cases  where  the  same 
stimulus  that  produces  excitation  may  on  being  applied  fcr  a 
longer  period  and  with  greater  intensity,  produce  depression. 
Thus  narcotics  (alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  morphia,  &c.)  on 
certain  forma  of  living  substance  produce  the  {Aenomena  of 
excitation  when  their  action  is  weak,  whereas  when  it  is  stronger 
they  produce  complete  depression.  Thus,  likewise,  temperature 
stimtdi  act  differently  upon  vital  phenomena  secording  to  the 
degree  ol  temperature:  very  h>w   tempcraturei  depressing^ 


556 


PHYSIOLOGY 


medium  tempenturev  exdfing  wiUi  increasing  intensity,  and 
hi^r  temperatures  from  a  certain  heiglit  upwards  again  de- 
pressing. The  effects  of  stimulation  are  not,  however,  always 
manifested  in  merely  quantitative  changes  of  the  normal  vital 
phenomena.  Sometimes,  espedatly  in  the  case  of  long  uninter- 
rupted and  chronic  stimuli,  stimulation  is  found  gradually  to 
produce  phenomena  which  are  apparently  quite  foreign  to  the 
normal  vital  phenomena  of  the  cell  in  question.  Such  qualitative 
alterations  of  normal  vital  phenomena  are  perceptible  chiefly  in 
chronk  «i«i«<««^  in  the  cells  of  different  organs  (the  heart,  liver, 
kidneys,  spleen,  &c.>,  in  which  the  vitid  conditions  become 
gradually  more  and  more  modified  by  the  cause  of  the  malady. 
To  this  category  pertain  all  the  so-called  chronic  processes  of 
degeneration  which  in  pathology  are  known  as  fatty  degeneration, 
mucous  degeneration,  amyloid  degeneration,  and  so  forth.  The 
characteristic  element  in  all  these  processes  is  that  the  normal 
metabolism  is  diverted  into  a  wrong  channel  by  the  altered  vital 
conditions  of  the  cells  of  the  organ  affected,  so  that  substances 
are  formed  and  accumulated  in  the  cell  which  are  entirely  foreign 
to  its  normal  Ufe.  But  this  class  of  stimulation  is  still  very 
obscure  as  regards  causes  and  inner  processes,  and  it  is  within 
the  range  of  possibility  that  the  ultimate  cause  of  the  qualitative 
changes  in  the  normsd  metabolism  is  to  be  found  timfAy  in  the 
processes  of  excitation  and  depression  which  chronic  stimulation 
produces  in  separate  parts  of  the  metabolism.  Thus,  at  least 
with  regard  to  fat-metamorphosis  (fatty  degeneration),  it  is 
highly  probable  that  fat  is  deposited  in  the  protoplasm  simply 
because,  owing  to  an  inadequate  supply  of  oxygen,  it  cannot, 
when  it  originates,  be  oxidised  in  the  same  proportion  as  it  is 
formed,  whereas  in  the  nomud  cell  all  fat  which  originates  in 
metatx>lism  is  consumed  as  soon  as  it  is  produced.  According 
to  this  conception,  therefore,  fatty  degeneration  is  attributable 
primarily  to  a  depression  of  the  processes  of  oxidation  in  the  cell. 
If  we  may  accept  this  view  as  correct  with  regard  to  the  other 
mctamorphic  processes  also,  the  qualitative  changes  in  vital 
phenomena  under  the  influence  of  stimuli  would  after  all  depend 
ttm(dy  upon  the  excitation  or  depression  of  the  constituent  parts 
df  the  vital  process,  and,  according  to  such  a  view,  all  stimuli 
would  act  primarily  only  as  exciting  or  as  depressing  agents  upon 
the  normal  process  of  life. 

In  accordance  with  the  three  groups  into  which  general  vital 
phenomena  are  divided,  it  follows  as  a  matter  of  course  that  the 
excitatk>n  or  depression  produced  by  a  stimulus  can  manifest 
itself  in  the  cell's  metabdism,  assumf^ion  of  form,  and  mani- 
festation of  energy.  The  effects  of  excitation  upon  the  produc- 
tion of  energy  are  the  most  striking,  and  were  therefore  in  former 
times  frequently  thought  to  have  a  claim  par  excellence  to  rank 
as  stimulating  effects.  These  reactions  attract  most  attention 
in  cases  where  the  production  of  energy  is  proportionately  very 
great— as  with  muscle,  for  instance,  which  is  made  to  twitch  and 
perform  work  by  a  feeble  stimulus.  Processes  of  discharge 
(Auslfisungsvorg&nge),  however,  lie  at  the  bottom  of  cases  like 
these.  Potential  chemical  en^gy,  which  is  stored  up  in  a  con- 
siderable quantity  in  living  sutotance,  is  converted  by  the 
impulse  of  the  stimulus  into  kinetic  energy.  Therefore  the 
amount  of  the  effect  of  stimulation — that  is  to  say,  the  quantity 
of  work  performed-rbears  no  proportion  whatever  to  the  amount 
of  energy  acting  as  a  stimulus  upon  the  muscle.  The  amount 
of  energy  thus  acting  may  be  very  small  as  contrasted  with  an 
enormous  production  of  energy  on  the  part  of  the  living  sub- 
stance. It  will  not  do  to  make  gcmralizations,  however,  with 
regard  to  this  proportion,  as  was  frequently  done  in  former 
times.  All  processes  of  stimulation  are  not  processes  of  discharge. 
The  influence  of  many  stimuli,  as  has  been  observed,  consists 
far  more  in  depression  than  in  excitation,  so  that  in  certjdn 
circumstances  a  stimulus  actually  diminishes  the  normal 
liberation  of  energy.  There  is  therefore  no  general  law  as  to 
the  proportion  which  the  amount  of  energy  acting  as  a  stimulus 
upon  living  substance  bears  to  the  amount  of  energy  liberated. 

Among  special  varieties  of  stimulation  there  is  one  dass  of 
stimtdl  which  has  attracted  particular  attention— namely,  those 
which  act  unilaterally  upon  free-moving  orpuiisms.     It  is 


principally  with  th«  lowest  forins  of  Ufe  that  we  have  bere  to  do 
—unicellular  protista  and  free-living  cells  in  the  bodies  of  higher 
organisms  (sperm-cells,  leucocytes,  &c.).  When  from  o*«di*i 
one  direction  a  stimulus-^be  it  chemical,  thermal,  ywaiti 
photic,  electrical,  or  of  any  oihtt  kind — acts  upon  '***' 
these  organisms  ki  their  medium,  they  are  fmpdled  to  move  hi  a 
course  bearing  a  definite  relation  to  the  source  of  the  atimolns— 
either  directly  towards  that  soUrce  or  directly  away  from  it, 
more  rarely  in  a  course  transverse  to  it.  This  directive  actioa 
of  stimulation  is  under  such  a  fixed  conformity  to  law,  that  it 
vividly  recalls  such  purely  physical  processes  as,  for  inaUnoe,  the 
attraction  and  repulsion  of  iron  partides  by  the  poles  of  a  magixt 
For  example,  if  light  falls  from  one  side  upon  a  vessd  full  of  water 
containing  unioeaidar  green  algae,  according  to  the  intensify  of 
the  light  these  organisms  swim  either  towards  the  tUuminaled 
side,  where  they  form  a  compact  mass  on  the  edge  of  the  vesid, 
or  away  from  it,  to  duster  on  the  opposite  edge.  In  the  sane 
way  infusoria  hi  water  are-  cha/erved  to  hasten  towards  or  to  flee 
from  certain  chemical  subttanoes,  and  leucocytes  in  oar  bodies 
act  in  the  same  manner  towards  the  metabdic  products  of  pus- 
forming  bacteria  which  have  penetrated  into  an  open  wound. 
The  suppuration  of  wounds  is  always  accompaided  by  aa 
amazing  conglomeration  of  leucocytes  at  the  seat  of  the  lesioa. 
Perhaps  the  most  striking  effects  are  those  of  the  constaac 
electric  current  upon^  unicellular  oiganisms,  ance  in  thb  esse 
the  motion  follows  the  cause  with  absolutely  automatic  regularity, 
certainty  and  rapidity.  Thus,  for  example,  after  the  estftbhshroeal 
of  the  current  many  Infusoria  (Paramaedum)  accumulate  at  the 
negative  pole  with  great  cderity  and  without  deviation,  and  tura 
round  again  with  equal  cderity  as  soon  as  the  direction  of  the 
current  is  altered.  As  such  cases  of  dkective  stimtdation  bsj 
occur  among  all  varieties  Of  stimuli  whenever  stimuE  act  unilater- 
ally, they  have  been  designated^  according  to  tht  direction  ia 
which  they  occur  in  relation  to  the  souice  of  the  stlnralns,  as 
positive  or  negative  chemotaxiii,  phototaids,  thcrraotazis, 
gaivanotaxis,  and  so  forth.  The  strange  and  perplexing  demeA 
in  these  phenomena  becomes  dear  to  us  as  soon  as  we  know  tte 
characteristic  method  of  locomotion  for  ^ch  form  of  organiBL 
and  whether  the  srimulus  in  question  in  the  given  inteis.f^T 
exerdaes  an  effect  of  exdtartion  <»r  of  depression  upon  the  ^wdil 
form.  The  direction  of  motion  is  the  essential  mechanicil 
result  of  unilateml  stimulation  of  the  organs  of  locomotioo. 
Sedng  that  these  reactions  are  exceedin^y  widely  distiiboied 
throughout  the  whole  organic  world,  and  possess  a  deep  faiolopcil 
significance  for  the  existence  and  continuance  of  life,  tbe  Inters 
they  have  awakened  is  thoroughly  justified. 

One  of  the  most  important  physiological  disooverfes  of  the 
19th  century  was  that  of  the  "  Spedfic  Enetgy  of  Sense^eb- 
stances."  Johannes  MQIler  was  the  first  to  establish 
the  fact  that  very  different  varieties  of  stimuli  applied 
to  one  and  the  same  organ  of  sense  always  produce 
one  and  the  same  variety  of  sensation,  and  that,  conversely,  the 
same  stimulus  applied  to  the  different  organs  of  sense  produces  a 
different  sensation  in  each  organ-Hhe  one,  in  fact,  which  is  ^ 
specific  attribute.    Thus,  for  example,  mechanical,  dectricx 
and  photic  stimuH  applied  to  the  optic  nerve  produce  no  other 
sensation  than  that  of  light;  and,  conversdy,  any  one  variety  d 
slimtilus— take  the  electrical,  for  example — ^produces  sensaticcs 
of  light,  hearing,  Uste  ov  smell,  according  as  it  affects  the  opt::, 
auditory,  gustatory  or  olfactory  nerves.     This  law   of  *U 
"  Specific  Energy  of  Sense-subsUnccs,"  as    Johannes  Mt:\r 
(i8o9~ift75)  called  it,  has  come  to  have  a  highly  irofxvta-.* 
bearing  upon  sdentific criticism,  since  it  proves  expeiiment&'r 
that  the  things  of  the  outer  world  are  in  themselves  in  ik>  wit 
discernible  by  us,  but  that  from  one  and  the  same  outward  object 
—the  dectric  current,  or  a  mechanical  pressure,  for  instance— wc 
receive  altogether  different  sensations    and    form    altogether 
different  conceptions  according  to  the  sense-organ    aiTected 
But  this  law  does  not  possess  significance  for  psychology  alorr 
as  regards  physiology  also  it  has  a  much  more  general  and  wcrr 
comprehensive  force  than  Mtiller  ever  antidpated.     It  hdis 
good,  as  demonstrated  by  Ewald  Hering  (b.  1834)  and  otbets. 


PHYSIOLOGY 


557 


aoc  of  scnse>sal»UAoe&  (Hily,  bal  of  ttviny  mibsUnte  genenlly, 
Each  cell  has  its  specific  energy  in  Johannes  MOiler'b  sense,  and 
in  its  extended  form  there  b  no  more  general  law  for  all  the 
operations  of  stimuli  than  this  law  of  specific  energy.    To  take 
examples,  whether  a  muscle  be  stimulated  by  a  chemical, 
mechanicml,  thermal  or  electrical  stknulus  the  rault  is  in  each 
case  the  same— namely,  a  twitching  of  the  musde.    Let  a  salivary 
gland  be  stimulated  chemically,  mechanically,  electrically  or 
in  any  other  way,  there  always  fc^ws  the  same  qpedfic  action — 
a  secretion  of  aliva;  no  matter  what  be  the  kind  of  stimulus 
atcting  upon  it,  the  liverKxU  always  reacts  by  producing  Ule, 
and  so  on.    On  the  other  hand,  one  and  the  same  stimulu»--the 
electric  current,  for  •  example-^ vcs  in  each  form  of  living 
substance  a  specific  resuh:  Iwitchmg  in  the  musde  secretion 
of  saliva  in  the  salivary  gland,  production  of  Inle  in  the  liver-cell, 
&c.    Thjit  b,  of  course,  with  the  proviso  that  the  effect  of  the 
stimulus  be  exciting  and  not  depressing.    The  following  general 
formulation,  however,  of  the  law  of  specific  energy  brings  the 
depressing  stimuli  -tho  within  its  scope:  **  Different  stimuli 
produce  in  each  form  of  living  substance  an  increase  or  a  dimi- 
nution of  its  specific  activity."    As  already  c^scrved,  it  will 
probably  be  found  that  those  weak  chronic  forms  of  stimubtion 
which  pcodtfoe  ^uaiiutive  changes  may  also  be  comprised  under 
thb  gniecal  law. 

The  knowledge  thus  far  acquired  from  analysb  of  vital 
phenomena  and  their  changes  under  the  hifluence  of  stimuli 
affords  but  a  very  indefinKe  temporary  basis -for 
TfuSr"^^  theory  of  the  aatual  vital  process  Itself,  of 
which  vital  phenomena  are  the  outward  manifes- 
tation. The  conceptions  to  which  phy!rf<dogical  research  has 
hitherto  attained  in  thb  matter  are  of  a  more  or  less  doubt- 
ful natoK*  The  facts  oontafaied  in  them  still  require  to  be 
linked  together  by  hypotheses  if  we  are  to  obtiafn  even  a 
vague  oulBne  of  what  lies  hidden  behind  the  great  riddle  of  life. 
Such  hypotheses,  serving  as  they  do  to  link  facts  consistently 
together,  are  absolutely  cssentbl,  however,  to  the  further 
ptnogress  of  research,  sind  without  their  aid  any  systematic 
investi^tion  would  be  Impracticable.  But  at  the  same  time  it 
must  never  be  forgotten  that  these  hypotheses  are  merely 
provisional,  and  that  whenever  they  are  found  to  be  no  longer 
in  harmony  with  the  widening  range  of  new  experiences  and 
ideas  they  must  either  be  proved  to  be  facts  or  be  subjected  to 
modification.  This  is  the  point  of  view  from  whidi  we  must 
deal  with  modem  ideas  concerning  the  nature  of  the  actual  vital 
proces&*-the  mechaifbm  Of  life. 

The  fundamental  fact  of  life  b  the  metabolbm  of  living 
substance  which  b  contintially  and  spontaneously  undergoing 
mttBt^fftm  decomposition,  and  building  itself  up  anew  with 
'the  hdp  of  the  foed-substanoes  it  takes  bii  These 
processes  of  decomposition  and  of  reconstruction  may  be 
briefly  designated  as  disumUaHon  (catabolbm)  and  assimiUiaUm 
(anaboiism)  respectively.  Kow  the  (question  arises:  How  are 
we  to  understand  thb  process  of  dissimilation  aiMl  assimilation 
from  a  mechanical  standpoint?  It  is  quite  evident  that  we 
have  to  do  with  some  chemical  occurrence;  but  how  are  the 
chemical  transformations  brought  about?  There  are  obviously 
two  possibilities.  It  b  conceivable  that  the  decomposition  of 
food-stuffs  and  the  formation  of  excretlon-products  in  the  cell- 
body  are  caused  by  the  repeated  casual  encounter  of  a  great  series 
of  chemieal  combinations  and  by  their  repeatedly  reacting  upon 
one  another  in  the  same  maimer,  bringing  about  transformations 
and  forming  waste  products  which  are  excreted,  while  at  the  same 
fame  certain  chemical  affinities  are  always  taking  in  from  without 
new  chemical  combinations  (food-stuffs)  and  unitii^  them. 
This  theory  was  in  fact  occasionaQy  advanced  in  former  times, 
particulariy  in  its  chemical  aspect,  and  Xht  belief  was  especially 
entertained  that  the  enxymes  in  living  substance  might  pby  an 
hnportant  part-  in  these  transformations.  This-  assumption, 
however,  leads  to  no  dear  and  lucid  image  of  #hat  takes  pbce. 
and,  moreover,  draws  too  largely  upon  auxiliary  hypotheses.  It 
^ma  therefore  met  with  but  little  acceptance.  The  other  possible 
explanation  of  metabolism  b  that  its  whole  process  b  confined 


to  one  single  dass  of  chemical  oorabtnations  whose  tendency  it 
is  to  be  constantly  undergoing  spontaneous  decomposition  and 
regeneration.  This  Utter  theory  was  founded  by  Ludimat 
Herman*  (b.  1838),  Eduard  Friedrich  PflOger  (b.  i8aQ)  and 
others,  and  has  met  with  universal  recognition  because  of  its 
naturalness,  ^mplicity  and  deamess. 

Starting  with  thb  hypothesis,  the  path  of  further  research 
lies  dear  and  well  defined  before  us.  In  the  first  place,  we  are 
obviously  met  by  the  question:  What  conception  are  pnuuu 
we  to  form  of  these  combinations  on  which  hinges  the 
whole  vital  process?  Among  the  organic  matters  which  compose 
living  substance,  protetds  perform  the  most  important  t»art. 
Proteids  and  proteid-compounds  form  the  only  organic  matter 
which  b  never  absent  from  any  cell.  They  form  also  the  greater 
part  of  all  the  organic  compounds  of  the  cell,  unless  reserve-stuffs 
are  accumulated  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  they  are  by  far 
the  most  complicated  of  the  compounds  of  living  substance. 
While  animal  life  b  impossible  without  proteid  food,  there  are, 
on  the  other  hand,  animals  which  can  continue  to  sobsbt  on 
proteid  atone.  This  series  of  facts  proves  very  conclusively 
that  proteids  and  their  compounds  play  by  far  the  most  Impor- 
tant part  of  all  organic  matter  in  the  processes  of  life.  The  idea 
thus  naturally  presents  itself  that  the  required  hypothetical 
compound  forming  the  central  point  of  metabolbm  wiQ  be 
found  to  bear  a  very  close  relation  to  proteids.  But  another 
point  must  be  here  considered.  The  proteids  and  their  com- 
pounds known  to  us  are,  comparatively  speaking,  stable  com- 
pounds, which  never  undergo  spontaneous  decomposition  so 
long  as  th<!y  are  protected  from  outward  injury,  whereas  the 
hypothetical  combination  which  lies  at  the  centre  of  organic 
metabolism  is  extraordinarily  Hable  and  continually  undergoing 
spontaneous  decomposition.  Therefore  we  have  to  think  not  of 
ordinary  proiijids  in  thb  case,  but  of  still  more  complicated 
combinations,  the  atoms  in  the  molecule  of  which  have  a  strong 
tendency  to  group  themselves  in  new  arrangements.  Owing  to 
the4r  fundamental  importance,  these  combinations  have  been 
termed  **  biogens."  When  ^e  come  to  inquire  how  such  labile 
btog^  moleoileii  are  built  up  out  of  the  proteids  of  food,  we 
find  our  knowledge  very  much  restricted.  Doubtless  the  intra- 
molecular addition  of  inspired  oxygen  has  much  to  do  with  it; 
for  living  substance  when  deprived  of  oxygen  loses  its  irritability 
•>-that  b  to  say,  its  tendency  to  decomposition.  The  fact  that  the 
decomposition  of  living  substance  b  always  associated  with  die 
formation  of  carbonic  acid— 4  drcumstaftce  obviously  necessi- 
tating the  »d  of  oxygen— abo  points  to  the  abtolute  indis- 
pensableness  of  oz3rgen  in  the  matter.  Pflager  has  further 
suggested -that  the  molecule  of  living  subsunce  owes  its  lability 
and  its  tendency  to  form  carbonic  acid  when  joined  by  oxygsa 
atoms  priadphlly  to  cyanogen  groups  which  are  contained  in  it. 
According  \A  thb-view,  the  foltowing  is  supposed  to  be  the  process 
of  the  formatioa  of  biogen.  molecules:  It  b  assumed  that  the 
biogen  molecules  already  present  in  living  substance  take  out 
of  the  proteids  of  food  certain  groups  of  atoms,  and  dispose  them 
so  as  to  produce  cyanogen-like  compounds.  The  addition  of 
oxygen  atoms  then  brings  the  biogen  molecule  to  the  maximum 
of  its  power  of  decomposition,  so  that-'-fiarlly  sponUneously, 
but  more  e^Hsdally  when  impelled  by  a  stimulus— it  breaks 
down  somewhat  explosively,  causing  the  formation  of  carbonic 
add.  In  this  proceeding,  according  to  the  hypothesb  which  b 
the  most  widely  accepted  and  the  most  fruitful  in  resulU,  would 
lie  the  very  germ  of  the  vital  process. 

If  we  accept  these  views  as  far  as  their  general  prindpie  b 
concerned,  assimilation  b  the  re-formation  of  biogen  molecules 
by  those  already  existing,  aided  by  food-stuffs;  j^^f^^^f^^ 
dissimibtion,  the  decomposition  of  biogen  molecules.  o/crff^/i/« 
To  this  primary  process,  however,  b  attached  a  whole 
series  of  secondary  chemical  processes,  which  serve  partly  to  work 
upon  the  food  so  as  to  fit  it  for  the  building  up  of  biogen  mole- 
cules, and  partly  to  fonn  out  of  the  direct  decomposition-products 
of  the  biogen  moiecales  the  characteristic  secretion-products 
of  living  substance  (Acwtlons  and  secretions).  The  various 
workings  of  matter  in  the  ccU  are  rendered  very  much  mora 


s6o 


PIANOFORTE 


regal  was  derived  from  the  ink  (rtgida)  or  graduated  scale  of 
keys,  and  its  use  was  to  give  the  siagers  in  religioos  processions 
the  note  or  pitch.  The  only  instrument  of  this  kind  known  to 
exist  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  at  Blair  AthoU,  and  at  bears  the 
very  late  date  of  1630.  The  Bruaseb  regal^  may  be  as  modern. 
Hiese  are  i"ftn«"'tf  of  how  long  a  aome>time  admiced  musical 
instrument  may  remain  in  use  after  its  first  intention  is  forgotten. 
We  attribute  the  adaptation  of  the  narrow  regal  keyboard  to 
what  was  still  called  the  monochord,  but  was  now  a  complex  of 
monochords  over  one  resonance  board,  to  the  latter  half  of  the 
14th  century  ;it  was  accomplished  by  the  substitution  of  tangents 
fixed  in  the  future  ends  of  the  balanced  keys  for  the  movable 
bridges  of  the  monocbord  or  such  stoppers  as  are  shown  in  the 
Shrewsbury  carving.  Thus  the  m<mochordium  or  "  payre  6f 
monochordb  "  became  the  clavichordium  or  "  payre  of  davi- 
chordls  " — pair  being  applied,  in  the  oki  sense  of  a  '*  pair  of 
steps/'  to  a  series  of  degrees.  This  use  of  the  word  to  imply 
gradation  was  common  in  England  to  all  keyed  instnsmenls; 
thus  we  read,  in  the  Tudor  period  and  later,  of  a  pair  of  regals, 
organs,  or  virginals.  Ed.  van  der  Straeten'  reproduces  a  so- 
called  clavichord  of  the  1 5th  century  from  a  MS.  in  the  public 
library  at  Ghent.  The  treatise  is  anonymous,  but  other  treatises 
in  the  same  MS.  bear  dates  1503  and  1504.  Van  der  Straeten 
is  o(  opinion  that  the  drawing  may  be  assigned  to  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century.  The  scribe  calls  the  instrument  a  davicim- 
balum,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  correct;  the  8'  strings  in  the 
drawing  are  stretched  from  back  to  front  over  a  long  sound- 
board, the  longest  strings  to  the  left;  8  keys,  4  long  and  4  short 
with  levers  to  which  are  attached  the  jacks,  are  seen  in  a 
horizontal  line  behind  the  keyboard,  and  behind  them  again 
are  pven  the  names  of  the  notes  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h.  In  the 
Weimar  Wunderbuch  is  a  pen-and-ink  sketch  of  the  "  cbvicim- 
balum*'*  placed  upon  a  table,  in  which  we  recognize  the 
familiar  outline  of  the  harpsichord,  but  on  a  amaller  scale. 
The  keyboard  shows  white  and  black  notes — the  latter  short 
keys,  one  between  each  group  of  two  white  keys,  precisely  as 
in  the  instrument  reproduced  by  Van  der  Straeten— but  no 
mechanism  is  visible  under  the  strings. 

The  earliest  known  record  of  the  clavichord  occurs  in  some 
rules  of  the  minnesingers,*  dated  1404,  preserved  at  Vienna. 
The  monochord  is  named  with  it,  showing  a  differentiation  of 
these  instruments,  and  of  them  from  the  davicytabalum,  the 
keyed  cymbal,  cembalo  (Italian),  or  psaltery.  From  this  we 
learn  that  a  keyboard  had  been  thus  early  adapted  to  that 
favourite  medieval  stringed  instrument,  the  '*  cembalo "  of 
Boccaccio,  the  "  sautrie  "  of  Chaucer.  There  were  two  forms  of 
the  psaltery:  (x)  the  tra(>ese,  one  of  the  oldest  representations 
of  which  b  to  be  found  in  Orcagna's  famous  Trionfo  della  Morte 
in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  and  another  by  the  same  painter  in 
the  National  Gallcty,  London;  and  (a)  the  contemporary  "  testa 
di  porco,"  the  pig's  head,  which  was  of  triangular  shape  as  the 
name  suggests.  The  trapeze  psaltery  was  strung  horizontally, 
the  "  istromento  di  porco  "  either  horizontally  or  vertically — 
the  notes,  as  in  the  common  dulcimer,  being  in  groups  of  three  or 
four  unisons.  In  these  differences  of  form  and  stringing  we  see 
the  cause  of  the  ulliniate  difiercnliation  of  the  spinet  and  harpsi- 
chord. The  compass  of  the  psalteries  was  nearly  that  of  Guide's 
scale;  but  according  to  Mersenne,'  the  lowest  interval  was  a 
fourth,  G  to  C,  which  is  worthy  of  notice  as  anticipating  the  later 
"  short  measure  "  *  of  the  spinet  and  organ. 

The  simplicity  of  the  clavichord  inclines  us  to  place  it,  in 
order  of  time,  before  the  davicymbalum  or  clavicembalo;  but 
we  do  not  know  how  the  sounds  of  the  latter  were  at  first  excited. 
There  is  an  indication  as  to  its  early  form  to  be  sees  in  the  church 
of  the  Certosa  near  Pavia,  which  compares  in  probable  date  with 

1  See  Victor  C.  Mahillon.  Catalogue  iexriplU  (1880),  I.  p.  320. 
No.  454:  re^  with  two  beltowi.  end  of  XVI.  C  COmpass  E  to  a'. 

*  La  Mustque  attx  Pays  Bos,  I.  378. 

*  See  Dr  Alwin  Schulz.  op.  €ii.,  bg.  ^4. 

*  V.  410  and-  414.  See  Ambros,  (ksckitkU  der  Musik  (1893). 
ii.  n6. 

^  L'Harmonie  vmheruUe  (Paris,  1636).  livre  III.  p.  107. 

*  A.  J.  Hipkin*,  History  0/  PiamiforU  (London.  1 896),  p.  51. 


the  Shrewsbtuy  example.  WequotetberefemieetolilRMBDr 
Ambros.^  He  says  a  carving  represents  King  David  as  holding 
aa  "  istromento  di  porco  "  which  has  eight  itiiags  and  as  many 
keys  lying  paiallel  to  them;  inside  the  body  .of  the  instrument, 
which  is  open  at  the  side  nearest  the  right  hand  of  King  David, 
he  touches  the  keys  with  the  right  hand  and  damps  the  strings 
with  the  left.  The  attribution  of  archaism  appUes  with  equal 
force  to  this  carving  as  to  the  Shrewsbtiry  one,  for  when  the 
monastery  of  Certosa  near  Pavia  was  built  by  Ambrogio  Fossana 
in  1473,  chromatic  keyboards,  which  imply  %  considerable  ad- 
vance, were  already  in  use.  There  is  an  ailth^tic  rq>resentatioa 
of  a  diromatic  keyboard,  painted  not  later  than  1436,  in  the 
St  Cecilia  panel  (now  at  Berlin)  of  the  famous  Adoratipn  of  the 
Lamb  by  the  Van  Eycki.  The  instnunent  depicted  is  «  positive 


Fig.  3.— Diatonic  Clavichord  Keyboard  (Guido's  Scale)  froea 
Virdung.   Before  X511. 

organ,  and  it  is  interesting  to  notice  in  this  realistic  painting  that 
the  keys  are  evidently  boxwood,  as  in  the  Italian  qnoeta  of  later 
date,  and  that  the  angel  plays  a  common  chord'-A  with  the 
right  hand,  F  and  C  with  the  left.  But  diatonic  organs  with 
eight  steps  or  keys  in  the  octave,  which  included  the  B  flat  and 
the  B  natural,  as  in  Guido's  scale,  were  long  preserved,  for 
Praetorius  speaks  of  them  as  still  existing  nearly  two  hundred 
years  later.  This  diatonic  keyboard,  we  leam  from  Srhasiiaa 
Virdung  {Uuska  gtlutsdU  wkf  Munesoffii,  Basel,  iszi)»  vas  the 
keyboard  of  the  early  clavichord.  We  fcprodoce  his  diacram  as 
the  only  authority  we  have  for  the  disposition  of  the 
key. 

The  extent  of  this  scale  is  exactly  Guido's.  Virdung's' 
of  the  chromatic  is  the  same  as  our  own  familiar  keyboard,  and 
comprises  three  octaves  and  a  ante,  from  F  below  the  bass  slave 
to  G  above  the  treble.  But  Virdung  tells  us  that  even  then 
clavichords  were  made  longer  than  four  octaves  by  repetiiioa 
of  the  same  order  of  keys.  The  introduction  of  the  chromatic 
order  he  attributes  to  the  study  of  Boetius,  and  the  coaaeqocnt 
endeavour  to  restore  the  three  mtisical  |nwfe  of  the  Grecka— the 
diatonic,  chromatic  and  enharmonic.  But  the  last-named  had 
not  been  attained.  Virdung  gives  woodcuts  of  the  daviehonliain, 
the  virginal,  the  davicymbalum  and  the  davicytherinm.  We 
reproduce  three  of  them  (figs.  3, 6  and  x  2),  ooittlsg  the  vbvbsI 


Fig.  3.— Virdung's  Clavichofdiam,  151 1 ;  nversed  <*^n*V 


as  obviously  incorrect.  Writers  on  musical  instruments  bavt 
continually  repeated  these  drawings  without  discerning  that  ia 
the  printing  they  are  reversed,  which  puts  the  keyboards  entirely 
wrong,  and  that  in  Luscinius's  Latin  translation  of  Virdnag 
{UusuriUXf  site  praxis  musicae,  Strasburg,  1536),  which  has  bees 
hitherto  chiefly  followed,  two  of  the  engravings,  the  davicim- 
balum  and  the  cUvicytherium,  are  tran^Msed,  another  caa5«  «f 
error.  Martin  Agricola  {hfusica  instrumerUaliSt  Wittenberg. 
1539)  has  copied  Virdung's  illustritions  with  some  ^fiacnees  of 
perspective,  and  the  addition,  here  and  there,  of  enon  fd  his 
own. 

«  Cesckkkte  ier  Musik,  iL  544-535. 


PIANOFORTE 


Stin  vulgarly  known 
lenglh.     He  derives  il 


inocbord,  Virdung'i  dAvkhord  wu 
,  all  ihc  strings  being  gr  ihcsanc 
ivichord  Irom  Cuido'i  monochord 
Irnm  the  psalteiy,  but,  It  the 
e  time,  confesses  he  does  not  know  when,  or  by  whom. 

«ing  ihe  short  sound-boird,  which  iltnyi  renaincd  ■ 
iliarity  o[  the  clavichord,  and  (be  Unight  uund- 
:d  bridge — necnsarlLy  so  when  all  the  tiringi  were  o[ 
length.  To  gain  an  angle  ol  incideocx  lor  Lhe  langems 
nu  (he  string!  the  keys  were  made  crooked,  an  eipedient 


(ding  toVirdung,  b 


rcctedio 


tnngs  lu 


csfroro 
II  fret  i>  Bund, 


the  strings  nie  merely  indicated.  The  Gei 
and  such  a  cJavichord,  in  that  language,  is  Jmownaaa  "gebun- 
denes  Clavichord"  both  /ret  (to  rub)  and  Burnl  (from  biadcH,  (o 
bind)  having  been  uken  over  from  the  lute  or  viol.  The  French 
and  Italians  employ  "  touche  "  and  "  lasto."  touch,  Ptaetorius 
who  wrote  a  hundred  years  bter  than  Virdung,  Bays  two,  three 
and  lour  tangents  were  thus  employed  in  slopping.  There  >ie 
eiiant  small  clavichords  having  ibm  lieyi  aiid  Ungenti  (o  one 
pail  of  Xtings  and  oihen  bave  no  more  than  two  tangents  lo  a 
note  formed  by  a  pair  of  strings,  instead  of  three.  Thus  seven 
pairs  of  strings  sulEce  for  an  octave  of  twelve  keys,  the  open 
notee  being  F,  C.  A,  B  flit,  C,  D,  E  flat,  and  by  an  uoeipbined 
peculiaiity,  perhaps  derived  from  wme  special  estimation  of  the 
,iotci  wbich  wu  connected  with  the  church  modes.  A  and  D  are 
left  throughout  free  Ciom  a  second  tangent.  A  correqionding 
value  of  these  notes  is  &hown  by  their  independence  of  chromatic 
alteration  in  tuning  the  double  Irijh  harp,  as  eipbined  by 
Vincenlio  Galilei  in  his  treatise  on  music  [OMnf  ''«"<'  ""tita, 
Florence,  isSi).  Adlung,  who  died  in  i;fii,  ipcaki  of  another 
fretting,  but  it  must  have  been  an  adaptation  to  the  modern 
major  scale,  the  "  free  "  nous  being  E  and  B.  Clavicbotds 
were  made  with  double  fretting  up  to  about  Ihe  year  1700 — 
that  is  to  say,  to  the  epoch  of  J,  S,  Bach,  who,  taking  advantage 


ually. 


licit  had  been  impossible  so  long  as  Ihe  fretting  was  ml 
ie  modern  scales  having  become  established.  Bach  was  now 
le  to  produce,  in  1711,  Dai  wcUltnftrirli  Clatitr,  the  first 
Uection  of  preludes  and  fugues  in  all  the  twenty-lour  major 
d  minor  scales  for  a  clavichord  which  was  tuned,  as  lo  coi> 

The  olden  clavichord,  here  called    manicordo  (as  French 

.4.    It  will  be  observed  that  the  lowest  octave  is  here  already 


i 


S; 


'iehonl)  d'Eleoi 


a  di  MomalvD.  f 

!  no  longer  ol  « 


"  bundfrti  "  or  frel-lree.  The  tilings  ai 
lenBth,  and  there  are  three  bridges,  dlvisii 
in  different  positions  on  (he  sound-board.  Menenne's  "  mnni- 
cordc  "  [Harmanu  unittrselle,  Paris  i6j6,  p.  iij),  shown  in  an 
engrKvIng  in  that  work,  has  the  strings  still  nnriy  of  equal 
(ength,  but  the  sound-board  bridge  is  divided  into  five.  The 
fretted  clavichords  made  in  Germany  in  the  last  years  ol  Ihe 
17th  centoiy  have  the  curved  sound-board  bridge,  hTie  a 
■pinet.   In  (be  davlcbord  the  tangcoti  always  form  the  second 


)n  damper  to  all  the  st 


is  a  list  of  doth,  interwoven  ji^t— ^ 

behind  the  tangent*     As  the  ^^^,^_ 

tangents  quilted  the  strings  (he  "^^^^^^^^^-b 
cloth  immediately  stopped  ill  I 

vibration.      Too    much    cblb  ( 

would  diminish  the  tone  of  this  I 

alreadyleebleinsiruQKnt, which  I 

gained    Ihe   name  of    "dumb  | 

spinet  "  [torn  its  use.    In  the  I 

clavichord  in  Rubens's  St  Cecilia  L— -- 

(Dresden  Gallery)— interesting  ^^,_ '  ' 

damping  doth  is  accurately  ?„.  5. -Clavichord  T.ugent. 
painted.    The  number  of  keys 

there  shown  is  three  octaves  and  a  third,  F 10  A— the  same  extent 
as  in  Handd's  clavichord  now  in  Ihe  museum  at  Maidswoe  (an 
Italian  instrument  dated  iji6,  and  not  (retted),  but  with  the 
peculiarity  of  a  combined  chromatic  and  short  octave  in  Ihe 
lowest  notes,  to  wbich  we  shall  have  to  refer  when  we  arrive 
at  the  spinet;  we  pass  ii  by  as  the  only  instance  we  have 
come  across  in  the  davicbord. 

The  clavichord  must  have  gone  out  of  favour  in  Gnal  Britain 
and  the  Netherlands  eariy  in  the  i6lh  century,  before  its  ex- 
pressive power,  which  is  of  the  most  tender  and  inli mate  quality, 
could  have  been,  from  the  nature  of  the  music  played,  observed, 
— the  more  brilliant  and  elegant  spinet  being  preferred  to  it- 
Like  the  other  keyboard  instruments  It  had  no  German  ncme, 
and  can  hardly  have  been  of  Cemuu  origin.  Holbein,  in  his 
drawing  of  the  family  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  ijiS.  now  al  Basel, 
indicates  the  pbce  for  "  Klavikordi  und  andei  Seytinspill." 
But  il  remained  longest  in  use  In  Gctminy— until  even  Ihe  begin- 
ning of  the  lEjih  century.  It  was  ibc  favourite  "  Kliviee  "  of 
the  Bachs.  Besides  that  of  Handel  already  noticed  there  are 
In  eiistence  davichords  the  former  possession  of  which  Is  attri- 
buted to  Moiact  and  Beeihovpn.  The  clavichord  was  obedient 
to  a  peculiarity  of  touch  posable  on  no  other  keyboard  instru- 
ment. This  is  described  by  C.  P.  Emmanuel  Bach  in  his  famous 
essay  on  playing  and  accompaniment,  entitled  Virtufli  Ubcr  dit 
wakji  Arl  das  Klaticr  lu  ipiiUn  ("  An  Essay  on  the  True  Way  lo 
play  Keyboard  Instruments.")  Il  is  the  Bcbimg  (irembUng),  a 
vibration  in  a  mdody  note  of  Ihe  same  nalure  as  the  tremolo 
frequently  employed  by  violinplayeis  to  heighten  the  eipres^ve 
eSect;  it  was  gained  by  a  repealed  movement  of  the  fleshy  end 
ol  the  Gnger  while  the  key  was  still  held  down.  The  Bitang  was 
indicated  io  the  notation  by  dots  over  the  note  to  be  affected  by 
it,  perhaps  showing  how  many  times  the  note  should  be  repealed. 
According  lo  the  practice  of  the  Bachs.  as  handed  down  lo  us  in 
ibe  above  mentioned  essay,  great  smoothness  of  touch  was 
required  to  play  the  clavichord  in  tune.  As  with  the  monochord, 
the  means  taken  lo  produce  the  sound  disturbed  the  attuncy 
of  the  string  measuremcnl  by  increasing  tension,  so  thai  a  key 
touched  too  Grmly  in  the  clavichord,  by  unduly  raising  the 
string,  sharpened  ihe  fnlch,  an  error  in  [laying  deprecated  by 
C.  P.  Emmanud  Bach.  This  answers  the  assertion  whkh  has 
been  made  that  J.  S.  Bach  could  not  have  been  nice  about 
tuning  when  he  played  from  prderence  on 


Then 


er  for  a  girl),  a 


projecting  keyboard  an 

the  psallcry  in  the  sound  board 
of  the  instrument  and  in  the  Iria 
ThcvirginalinVlcdung's 
reference  to  the  keyboar 


ed  by  Virdung  is  Ihe  virtual  (rirgin^ 
clogram  in  shape,  having  the  same 


562 


PIANOFORTE 


no  diffcKticc  bctvcta  it  ind  the  virginal  wtn  it  not  lor  1  pecuU- 
uily  of  kcybowd  compsu,  wlikh  cmphaticiUy  nfcn  ItHll  10 
the  ItaUui  "  spinctli,"  i  name  unnoiiced  byVtrdung  «  by  hit 
countiyman  Amold  Schliclt,  who,  in  the  ume  ycai  ijti,  pub- 
lished hii  Sfititl  dcr  Orsdmacha  (Oigsn-luilders'  Mlnoi), 
and  named  the  clsvtchonliuin  and  dlvicinibaluin  *t  lamiUar 
inslmmeiili.  In  the  £nt  place,  the  keyboard,  beginning  ippir- 
cntly  with  B  natural,  inilead  ol  F,  mikn  the  cbvicimlKiLuin 
■mailer  than  the  virginal,  the  sltingi  in  this  amngemeni  being 
tboKer;  in  the  neit  place  it  b  alDUBt  certain  that  Ihe  Ililian 
spinet  eompasa.  beginning  apparently  upon  a  semitone,  it 
identical  with  a  "short  measure"  or  "short  octave"  organ 
compass,  a  very  old  keyboard  arjaDgemenl,  by  which  Ihe  lofl^t 
note,  representing  B,  really  sounded  C  and  C  sharp  in  like 
A.   Theoriginof  ihismaybedediKcd  from  thepaalteiy 


to  have  b«cn  to  obiai 

'  closes  having  early  been  sought  for  as  ^ving  pleasure  to  Ihe  ear. 

Authority  lor  this  pnciict  is  la  be  found  in  Uenenne,  »ho,  in 

1436,  eipressly  dMciib«  it  as  occurring   in    his  own  iplnet 


,  1636,  liv.  ),  p.  107—"  Its  longest  siring  [his  spinel'sj  is 
little  more  than  a  fool  in  length  belween  Ihe  Iwo  bridges.  Ii 
has  only  Ihirly-one  keyt  [maichn]  In  its  keyboard,  and  as 
many  strings  over  lis  sound-board  (be  now  \thn  10  the  illuslra- 
lionj,  so  Ibal  there  ale  five  keys  hidden  on  accounl  oT  the  per- 
spective—that is  10  say,  three  diatonic  and  two  chromatic  [/ci'ufci, 
same  as  the  Latin  ^cl'i,  of  nhich  the  first  is  cut  into  two 
la  divided  sharp  forming  IwokeysJ;  but  these  sharps  serve  to 
go  down  to  the  third  and  fourth  below  the  first  step,  C  igl  [tenor 
def  C],  in  order  to  go  as  far  as  the  third  octave,  for  Ihe  eighteen 
principal  sleps  make  but  an  eighteenlti,  that  fa  to  say,  a  fourlh 

ing,  letters  as  C,  indicating  the  pitch  of  a  spinet  of  Ihe  second 

^^    I  1^        third  and  fourth,  reached  by  his  divided  sharp, 
I  ^-»     ate  consequently  the  lower  A  and  G;  or,  10 


might  b 


P,  bul  tor  Iha 


according  lo  his  di 

Mersenne's  stalemcni  suincicniiy  proves,  ui5i, 
the  use  in  spinels  as  wcU  as  in  organs  of  what 
He  now  call  "short  measure,"  and,  secondly, 
Ihe  object  ol  divided  sharps  at  ihe  lower  end 
of  the  ke>'board  to  gain  lower  notes.    He 

_^  k,  speaks  of  ore  string  only  to  each  note;  unlike 

^^^^^•sm.   ti^  double  and  triple  strung  clavichord,  those 

^  ,„      [niltumtnti.  clavicimbalum,  sianel,  or  virginal, 

FW. j.-Spioe.    -Icrived  Irom  Ihe  psaltery,  could  only  present 

"jack."         one  string  (o  the  mechanical  plectrum  wbxch 

twanged  II.    As  regards  Ihe  kind  of  plecli 


I.  It 


Mennc'i  oiuUne  dUgmn. 


,  af  Uaaal  Piuk,  p.  JI«)  H 


e»tliesl  used  we  have  no  evidence,    the  Bllle  crow-ouiH  points 
pfojecl  from  centred  longues  in  uprights  of  wood  known  u 

cks  "  (fig.  7),  which  also  carry  the  dampers,  and  rising  by 

depreSHon  of  the  keys  in  front,  ihe  quills 


heypluci 


m  In  pasung,  springs  al  firsl  ol 


brislle.  giving  energy  lo  the  twang  and  gON-ctning  Ih 
J.  C.  Scaliger  in  Fmlicei  liiri  stplim  dsSi,  p,  51.  c  r. 
that  the  Davicimbalum  and  Harpichordum  of  hi 
boyhood  are  r.ow  called  S[Hnet>  on  accounl  of  those  quU 
points  lab  BIh  mnrrBHibaiy,  and  sllribvta  Ihe  introductim 
of  Ihe  name  "  sfMnetla  "  10  them  (from  Ifine,  ■  thorn).  We  wil 
hsrpidiordum  for  Ihe  present,  bul  the  early  idenlit 
ind  spinetla  is  certainly  proved.       ^^ 


;er's  etymology    i 
r  Ponsicchi  c'  " 


Flor 


I    unlU 


urttntt,  di  D.  Adric 


discovered  another  derivalior 
■Mk  entilled  Cmilasimu  nd  jiwiM  dil. 
Batahien  (Bologna,  i«oS),  ihe  lollowin 


"  Spinel 


3  thus 


Ihoie  ii 


of  that  oblong  form,  who  was 

,  in  Ihe  possession  of  Francesco  Siivori. 
magnificent  community  of  hlontagnana, 
wiihin  whicb  was  this  inscriptioo— JaaHnri  Sjriiulxi  I'tMflj 
it,  A.D.  ijoj."  Scaliger"*  and  Banchieri's  stateoienls  may 
combined,  as  there  is  no  discrepancy  of  doles,  or  we  may 
rely  upon  whichever  seems  to  us  to  have  the  greater  aulhorilv. 
always  bearing  in  mind  Ibal  neither  invalidates  the  other.  The 
introduction  ol  crow-quill  points,  and  adaptation  lo  an  oblong 


a  late  ds 


eolSi 


common,  as  shown  by  Virdung,  in  anotnrr  country  as  eariy  n 
151 1.  After  this  date  there  arc  frequent  references  lo  spinels  in 
publicrccordsandolher  documents,  and  we  have  fortunately  the 
instruments  themselves  lo  put  in  eiidence,  preserved  in  public 
museums  and  in  private  collections.  A  spinel  dated  i<<)o  was 
shown  il  Bologna  in  iSSSi  another  old  a[»nel  in  the  ConscrM- 
icdre,  Paris,  is  a  peniagonil  insirument  made  by  Francesco  di 
Ponalupi^  at  Verona,  151].  The  Milanese  Rossi  were  lamoui 
spi  net-makers,  and  have  been  accredited  (Li  Ntbilili  di  UHaie. 
I  »sl  "i'li  an  Improvement  in  the  form  which  we  believe  wai 
Ihe  recessing  of  Ihe  keyboard,  a  feature  which  had  previousI>' 
entirely  projected ;  by  Ihe  recessing  a  greater  nidth  was  obtained 
(or  Ihe  aound-boird.  The  i(nneli  by  Anntbale  Rosso  at  South 
Kensinglon,  dated  Kspectlvely  15J5  (fig.  S)  and  i$i7i  show  ihb 


Fic  B.— Mdaneie  Soli 


n  heplagonal 


be  compared  with  Ihe  older  and  pum  fom 
>yMaicoJadra  (also  known  as  Maceo"dalh 
rmbali").    Besides  the  pentagonal  apiael- 


requlred  I 
The  appi 


1  of  the  keyboard  in  Italy  senenlly 
/  a  semitone,  E  10  Fi  but  we  may  regard 
c  lowest  natural  key  as  usually  C,  and  Ibe  kntcit  sharp  key 
usually  D,  in  these  im 
The  rectangular  spinet,  \  iraung  s  "  vii 
Ilaly  Ihe  fashion  oC  the  large  "  casson 
le  oldest  we  know  o(  in  Ibis  ilyle,  ai 
e  fine  spcdmen  beloa^ng  t  ■■  " 
■.aiainL'ArUal    ■'"-     ' 


>r  wedding  cbesis. 


PIANOFORTE 


5*3 


the  ncuofidti  InMraiKnt  In  luif  h  "iplMtu  iivoli"  In 
Eogknd,  fniiD  Htni?  VII,  to  Cberin  U.,  all  qnillH  injiiuinnits 

temporuy  lulian  davkardff  and  Flemiih  datiriiiffi^  From  the 
btWr.byBpocopc,  we  »iTive«I  Ihe  Frenth  iloKcin — Ibe  French 
(farter  ((Joni,  a  kiey),  >  keyboard,  being  in  its  lum  adopted  by 
the  Geimuu  to  denole  an;  keyboud  stnoged  ' 


FlQ.  9-— Spinetta  TavDlafViTsi  ilal)i  IJCS ;  Vict,  and  Albert 

Mereenne  {op.  lil.,  liv.  iii.,  p.  ijSj  gvvea  three  siKJ  [or  ipinfl» 
—one  i)  It.  vide,  tuned  to  the  ocuve  ol  the  "  ton  de  chapcUe  " 
C  in  hiidsy  a  half  lone  above  the  present  English  niedium  pitch), 
one  of  ii  fl.  Iiuitd  to  the  fourth  below,  and  one  ol  ;  It.  tuned 
to  the  ocuve  below  (he  £[st,  Ihe  last  being  ihenfoie  tuned 
in  unison  to  the  chapel  pitch.  He  uys  his  own  spinel  was  one 
ol  the  unallcst  il  Ural  customary  to  nake,  but  fum  (he  lettering 
ol  Ihe  keys  in  hii  drawing  1(  would  have  been  ol  the  second  size, 
01  the  ^net  tuned  to  the  fourth.  The  octave  ipinel.  ol  trapeie 
form,  was  known  in  Italy  as  "ottavina"  or  "spinetia  di 
MTCnata."  Il  bad  t  less  compass  oi  keys  than  (be  larger  insliu- 
mcnt,  being  apparently  three  and  (wo-lhird  octaves,  E  to  C — 
which  by  (he  "  short  measure  "  would  be  four  ocuvcs,  C  to  C. 
We  learn  Irom  Piaelorius  thai  these  Uttle  tpinetl  were  placed 

the  brilliant  tSnl.  In  the  double  rectangular  cbviiingel  ol  the 
Nciherlands,  in  which  there  wasa  movable  octave  insirumenl.  we 
recognize  a  similai  in(enlion.     There  is  a  fiat  spinet  ol  this 


Pio.  : 


,— EngUdi  Spin 


%luTia' 
ittlibS. 


vena),  by  Cantus  H 


kind  Bl  NDTetnberg.  Praetorius  illusttales  the  Italian  s[Hne(  by 
a  lorm  known  as  the  "  spinelia  liaversa,"  an  approach  towards 
(he  long  clavicembalo  or  harpsichord,  Ihe  tuning  pins  being 
innn«lia(ely  over  the  keyboard.  This  transposed  spinet,  mote 
powerful  ihan  the  old  t  ropeie  one,  became  fashionable  in  England 
■tier  the  Rett  oration,  Hawird,  Keene,  Slade,  Player,  Baudin,  the 
Mitchcocks,   UahoOD,  Haiby,  Ibc  Haiiir  family,  and  othen 


uth  "  qrinete  "  during  ■  period  tor  which  wc  have 
Sj  to  ij8i.    Pepys  bought  hh  "Eapincltc"  from 

rd  for  li.  July  ij,  .6*4- 

of  Keene  and  Player,  made  about  1700,  have 
divided  sharp!  at  the  basscndof  (be  keyboard,  as 
ion  by  Mersenne,  quoted  above,  ol  a  s|Hnc(  with 
sboit  measure.  Such  divided  ^arps  have  been  assumed  lo  be 
quarter  tones,  but  enharmonic  intervab  in  the  extreme  basi  can 
have  no  justiteation.  From  the  tuning  of  Handel's  Italian  clavi- 
chord already  mentioned,  which  has  tbia  peculiarity,  and  Irom 
Praetorius  we  find  (he  lurtbei  halves  ol  the  (wo  divided  sharps 
were  the  chromatic  semitones,  and  the  nearer  halves  (he  major 
thirds  bebw  i.e.  the  dominant  fourlhi  lo  the  neit  natural  k^. 
Thomas  Hitchcock  (lor  whom  there  are  dates  16&4  and  170J 
written  on  keys  and  jacks  of  spinets  bearing  Edward  Blunt's 
name  and  having  divided  bass  sharps)  made  a  great  advance  in 
oonstruciuig  spinets,  pving  Ibem  the  wide  compass  ol  Sve 
oclaves,  from  G  to  C,  with  very  fine  keyboards  in  which  the 
sharps  were  inlaid  with  a  slip  ol  (he  ivory  or  ebony,  as  the  case 
might  be,  of  the  oatutals.  Their  instruments,  always  numbered, 
and  not  dated  as  has  been  soinctimes  supposed,  became  models 
for  contemporary  and  subsequent  Englbh  makers. 

astronomer  of  that  name  (DiWo;?  jrlla  muska  atiluo  i  mtdami, 
Florence,  1581),  says  that  the  haipichoid  was  so  named  from 
having  resembled  an  "atpagiacentD,".  a  prostrate  or  "  couched" 
harp,  proving  that  the  divicymbal  was  at  tuii  Ihe  , 


te  bsrpichord  t 


1  there! 

d  clavicymbal  ai,  in  foi 
^rom  the  harp  and  psaltery,  or  from 
n  ordinary  tnpe«  psallcty.  We  are 
.  TheLalinnann"clavlcyinb*lum," 
by  spinet  and  virginal,  was  in  Italy  and 


nnbalo  (graveeembalo,  or  familiarly  cembalo  only) 
tin.  Much  later,  after  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts, 
name  was  accepted  and  naturaliied  in  England  as 
td,  which  we  will  define  as  the  long  Instrument  with 


II 

m  which  i(  has  ga 

ned  the 

Ge 

man  appellal 

on 

Flu 

e  can  point  out  no  long  inst 

nt  of  (his  kin 

Ida 

t 

nnan  cembalo  at  Sou 

th  Keosmgt 

nffig.  ..).    II 

ma 

Gemnino  of  Bologna 

wo  years  before  tb 

ePa 

risP 

lu 

pis  spinet.   Theoute 

r ease  is 

Ih 

nely  tooled  leather 

s 

net  keyboard  with 

compass  of 

nearly  lour  oc 

j!? 

,E 

The  keyboard  of  the  Italian  cembalo  was  afterwards  carried 
out  to  the  normal  lour  octaves.  There  is  an  existing  eiample, 
daled  1616,  with  the  bais  keys  carried  out  without  sharps  in 
long  measure  (unfortunately  altered  by  a  restorer).  It  is  sur- 
prising to  see  with  what  steady  perustence  the  Italians  adhered 
to  their  original  model  in  niakbig  Ihe  instriunenl.  As  ble  a* 
Ihe  epoch  of  Crlstofori,'  and  in  his  ij  11  cembalo  at  Florence,* 
we  still  find  the  independent  outer  case,  the  single  keyboard,  the 
two  unisoni,  without  power  to  reduce  to  one  by  using  stops. 
The  Italians  have  been  as  conservative  with  their  forms  of 
spinet,  and  are  to  this  day  with  their  organ:.  The  startling 
"piano  B  forte"  of  is^B,  brought  to  light  from  the  records  of 
Ihe  house  of  DTste  by  CounlValdrighi  of  Modena,'  alter  much 


,  of  the  pianoforl  , 
ibalo  with  power  lo  shift,  by  a  slop, 
lade  (or  Prii>ee  Ferdinand  del 
"    -  of  Detroit,  and 


Medici  in  r702,  recently  acquired  by  Mr  Siearns.  c 

pnMHIed  by  him  to  ihe  Uiuveruty  of  Michigan,  i;.- 

thne  keyboards,  thus  arranged:  t«.  highest  keybiuid, 
tiring  only:  ind,  middle,  ocuve  and  first  ■  -' — '  ' — 


A  harpsichDrd  similarli 
d  "  Vionnlius  Sodi  Florei 
KntedbyUnJ.CmbyBi 


with  Ibrec  ktyboardi, 
I,  Anno  Domiiii  im. 

im  Catalogue  (1901).  No.  559, 


5*4 


PIANOFORTE 


Fltmiili  pnctict,  and  mint  likely  brDUfht  to  II 
Flcmith  Riuiidini  who  founded  the  luUan  icho 
About  Ihe  year  lioo,  when  iccompaiunicnt 
mdoody,  Urge  etmblJoi  weie  nude  for  the  « 
out  the  bass  pan,  the  perloimer  lUnding  i< 


"  Two  Ur  pair  af  new  Idu  \Mnni  made  hup-tiihioii  ol 
DpRi.  with  ityt  a(  ivoiy.  hiving  the  Kint'i  Aim  cnmmtd  and 
tuppoEted  by  hii  Cnce'i  beula  wiihin  a  garter  [iJt.  aunduifl 


MuKUBi,  Flerence,  i 
dTawJDff  shoidd  pot  ht 
has  mistakea  the  wire 
llilngi,  and  omitted  I 
Eontally  across  the 
cvniERiuii).  We  reai 
futniUtc  of  Wan 
of  double  virgiD 


;  been  reversed;  but  he 

fling  upon  the  jacks  [or 

ti  ine  latler    itmchBl   bori- 

k  Caitlc,  IsM.  "  *  taite  piire 
1,"  and  in  the  Hcngrave 
'  one  great  piyn  of  double 
RuckEis,  the  great  davisbgd 


Duble  keyboud  and  st 
I  the  organ,  and  the  ( 
of  vhidi  was  fio  Ion 


Flo.   ■  I. — Roman  Oavittmbalo  by  Ceronimo  of  Bologna,  lui ;  ' 
Albert  Muieuin. 

inslrument  wi«  called  "  archicembilo,"'  a  name  abo  applied  to 
» large  cembalo,  made  by  Vilo  Traiunlino,  a  Venetian,  in  ite6, 

hundred  and  twenty-five  in  all— to  restore  the  three  genera  of 
Ibe  andtnt  Greeks.  How  many  attempts  have  been  nude 
before  and  since  Trasuntino  lo  purify  intonation  in  keyboard 
instnimenls  by  multiplying  keys  in  thcoclave?  Simultaneously 
with  Father  Smith's  well-known  eipeiirpem  in  the  Temple  otgin, 
London,  there  were  divided  keys  in  an  Italian  haipsicbord 
to  gain  a  separate  G  sharp  and  A  Hal.  and  a  separate  D  sharp 
and  E  flat. 
Double  keyboards  and  stops  in  the  long  cembalo  or  harpsichord 


kind  was 


leNelhcitands  early  in 
6nd  them  imported  into  England- 
quoted  by  Rimbault  in  his  Hillary  ^ 
fcclly  understood  by  him,  are  from  int 
ol  King  Hetity  VIII..  a>  utncled  by 


TTie 


:i«lhci 

following  cilationi, 

r  Harris  Nicolas  in 


cofTcf  with  uu  sloppca  broughl  tc 
brought  lo  the  More  other  iii  li,' 


Fto.  II.— Virdung's     Clavicy.  o: 

rhenum    (uprighi    Harpiiehoii!).  ii 
151 1 ;  litviciBf  lae»unUe(,  j 


keyed  one.  one  keyboard  be- 
ing over,  and  not  by  the  side 
olhet.    Again  from  the 


The  h. 


ucted,  eidcpl  in  Italy, 


!ichard  as  known 


made  by  Joseph 
:Dt  of  tbe 
ilbout  the 


piano  upper  and  forte  hmir  keyboard,  was  the 
invention  of  Hans  Ruclteis's  grandson,  Jean  Ruckcrs's  nephew. 
Jan  Couchet.  about  1640.  Before  that  lime  Ihc  double  keyboards 
in  Flemish  harpsichords  were  merely  a  transposing  cjpcdieoi, 
to  change  the  pitch  a  [ounh,  from  plagal  to  authentic  and  vice 
versa,  while  using  Ihc  ii me  BToups  of  keys.  Fortunately  there  a 
a  harpsichord  enisling  vjih  double  keyboards  unaltered,  date 
i6jH,  bcloiiginE  lo  Sir  Bernard  Samuclson,  formerly  in  the 
possession  of  MrSpencc,o[  Florence,  made  by  Jean  Rucken.  the 
keyboards  being  in  ihcir  original  position.    It  was  not  so  much 

chords  famous.  The  Rucken  harx»ichords  in  the  iSth  century 
were  fetching  such  prices  as  Bolo^a  lutes  did  in  the  T71h  or 
Cremona  violins  do  now,  There  are  still  many  specimens 
eiisiing  in  Belgium,  France  and  England.  Handel  had  a 
Rucken  harpsichord,  now  in  BuckinthaiD  Palace;  it  completa 
the  number  of  siiiy-lbrce  oisling  Ruckeis  irutruments 
catalogued  in  Grove's  Diiiioxcry  0/  Uiuii  and  Uuiuiani. 

After  the  Antwerp  make  declined,  London  became  ptt- 
eminent  for  harpsichords — the  representative  makers  bein( 
Jacob  Kiickmann  and  Burckhatd  Tscbudi,  pupils  of  a  Flenuik 
master,  one  Tabel,  who  had  settled  in  London,  and  vbsse 
business  Kirckmann  continued  through  marriage  with  Tabd's 
widow.  Tschudi  was  of  a  noble  Swiss  family  bclonginf  to  the 
canton  of  Glams.  According  lo  the  custom  with  foreign  name 
obtaining  at  thai  time,  by  which  Haendel  became  Hartdd. 
and  Schmidt  Smith,  KIrckmann  dropped  his  6na)  ■  and  Tschudi 
became  Shudi,  but  he  resumed  Ihc  ftdl  spelling  in  the  facia  of 
the  splendid  baii»sichords  he  made  in  i;M  for  Fndciick  the 
Great,  which  are  still  preserved  In  the  New  Mace,  Foudam. 
By  these  great  makers  the  harpsichord  became  a  larger,  hcavicr- 
strung  and  more  powerful  inslrument,  and  fancy  stopi  vtie 
added  to  vary  the  tone  cflects.  To  the  three  shifting  regi&len 
o[  jack*  of  the  octave  and  first  and  secontl  unisons  were  added 
the  "lute."  the  charai  of  which  was  due  to  the  favouring  of 
high  harmonics  by  plucking  the  sirinp  choc  to  the  bridge,  and 
"'     "'        "  "  ing  eflecl  produced  by  impeding 


rsbycc 


ft-handon 


.1  bnS 


Two  pedals  wi 

a  unison  and  lute.  This  pedal,  with  the  "  mathini  - 
luced  the  upper  keyboard  to  the  lute  register,  ihe  pktiia 
1  acted  upon  tbe  strings  near  the  wrest-plank  hiidft 


PIANOFORTB 


5*5 


M^,  ili«  b«c(  beyboiTd  u 


ffin  satot  power  ol  "  iwcU  or  crocmdo,  ka  inv«i 
Roger  PLeniiu,'  to  whom  ibo  Ibe  hup  Hop  may  be 
ittiibutcd.  Tliis  ingcDloa  hirpiidiard  toiker  hi 
itimulaled  to  gaip  Ibee  cOku  by  the  nuoni  ptinofoit 
IS  we  shall  Rnd,  ht  wu  the  Sni  to  nuke  in  EngUnd.  ' 
idea  of  pedals  lor  Ihc  haiptiduid  to  ul  u  naps  ippun 
been  John  Haywitd't  (?H»« 


ptefc9ied  a  kind  of 
"genouUlire,"  »n' 
long  slrip  si  buH 


'I  UtHum 


.    Tha  F 


:,  koom 


t  the 


ming  by 
"•ourdim."  A»  bo  improvnnmt 
upon  Pleniui'sclumsy  swell,  Shudl  in  i7^piteni«]  tht  Venetiin 
■well,  R  framing  oE  lokivR),  like  a  Venetiaa  blind,  which  opened 
by  the  moTement  of  the  pedal,  and  beaming  in  Englind  ■ 
favonHle  addition  to  barpfiichanti,  ivas  early  transferred  to  the 
Drgalii  in  which  it  replaced  the  rude  "uag's-head"  tweti.  A 
Ftcocb  haijsichord  matet.  Minus,     '  ■"  ""' 


a  full 
folding  bar 


hord, 


o(  Frederick  the  Cre: 


n  brIsJ,"  by  whi. 

ipfsed  of  in  a  imaller  ipice. 

'obably  formed  part  of  the  i 


n,  invi 


coUeclloit 


ilh  Ungt,  princM  >nd  mbin 


playing  purposes,  in 
auiofar^t  courts.  ThFFC  are  records  nf  their  invenlorics, 
imw^Mtiam  ohd  it  W3(  to  keep  such  a  cf^fection  in  playing  order 
■''*»  that  Prince  Ferdinand  dd  Medici  engaged  >  Paduan 

nan  of  genius  who  invented  and  produced  the  panotene.' 
We  fortunately  pouesa  the  record  of  this  invention  in  a 
literary  form  from  »  wcU-known  writer,  the  Marches*  Scipione 
MaSci;  hi>  detcriptioD  appeared  in  the  Gitrnali  ia  Mi'ali 
f  Italia,  ■  publication  conducted  by  Apostolo  Zeno.  TlK 
date  of  Maffei's  piper  was  iiii.  Rimbault  reproduced  it, 
with  ■  technically  inperfecl  Innalation,  in  hia  Hiilvry  tf  llit 
Piantferli.  We  kam  from  It  that  In  1109  Crislofaii  had 
coinpleled  toui  "  giavtcembali  col  piano  e  forte  "— keyed- 
pialleiie*  witb  soft  and  loud — three  of  them  being  of  the  long 
or  usual  harpalchord  form.  A  lynonyia  in  Italian  for  the 
origiiukt  cembalo  (or  paaltery)  is  "  sakerio,''  and  if  it  were  struck 
with  hammers  it  became  1  "saltefio  tedeato  "  (tfae  German 
iatklirtll,  or  diopping  board),  the  latter  bebig  the  common 
diddmei.  Now  the  £ist  mtieo  of  a  pianoforte  is  a  duldmer 
wiib  keys,  and  we  may  perhapi  not  be  wrong  in  supposing  that 
tbere  liid  b««a  many  attenpis  and  lilluiei  lo  put  a  keyboard 
to  A  duldmer  a  hammers  to  a  harpaiclKird  before  Cristafori 
•BCcnofoUy  wind  the  problem.  The  sketch  ol  his  action  in 
Maflei'*  essay  ihawi  an  iDComplcte  stage  in  the  invention, 
altbough  the  kernel  of  it — the  priaeipl*  of  itcapement  or  the 
coDtr^led  rehoond  of  the  hammer — is  already  there.  He  obtains 
ltbya,cenltedl*vcr  ((injmUo  mabilc)  or  hopper,  working,  when 
the  key  is  depressed  by  the  touch,  in  a  mall  projeclion  from 
the  centred  tammec-bult.  The  telum,  governed  by  a  spring, 
BOit  have  beca  uncertain  and  incapable  of  further  rcgulatiug 
tb«ii  could  be  obtaioed  by  modifying  the  strength  of  the  q>TingH 
I  Mace  describes  a  primitive  anell  eontrivanci  for  an  orgu 
G5  yea/i  fatfoie  PlealuB  took  out  hli  patent  (174O- 

'  The  laventioB  of  the  ^aeo  by  Crirtofcei,  and  bin  alone,  it  no* 
paat  diacuHion.  What  it  BtiJi  rMuircd  to  satisfy  curiosity  would  be 
tbc  diacovery  of  a  Fort  Bien  or  tirderici  louaft  piano,  said  to  ants' 
date  by  a  year  or  two  Zumpe's  inveniion  ol  the  instrument  in  London. 
The  name  For  Bien  was  derived,  consciously  or  uncouciausly,  from 
the  Saioa  Cennan  pcRiliirity  of  intcnhanting  B  and  P.     Amatf 

fw3(aee  Vuruinlrr  jMrlUitr  Blrkil its  UnaMrim, ■■  Saliburg." 
Dec  I*  ITJ').  Alw  wanted  is  Ihe 'loM  movemcni  ■■lor  the  long 
cr  ETua  pUiui,  tomeiunea  quoted  m  the  Broadwood  day-booKA 
of  the  Ian  quarter  of  ihe  iSih  century  with  rclereoce  10  the 
ml  by  tbe  Backers  Eoiliah  action. 


r,  Uk  hi 


rver,  two  fHanofoilcs  by 
id  1716,  which  show  a 
mucn  iznpiovei],  we  nuy  even  say  a  perfected,  conatniclion, 
for  the  whole  of  an  essential  piano  movement  is  tfieic.  The 
earlier  huliument  (now  in  the  Metrcpolitan  Museum,  New  York) 

hamncr-h^d  having  been  replaced  by  a  modem  one,  and  tbe 
hammer-butt,  instead  of  being  centted  by  means  of  the  boles 
provided  by  Cristofori  himaell  lor  the  purpose,  having  txen 
lengthened  by  1  laMher  hinge  screwed  10  the  blackii  but  llie 
17i«  one,  which  is  in  Ihe  Kiaui  Mnteutn  at  Florence,  retain* 
the  criglul  Itiiher  hinmieT'headi.  Both  instrumenta  poBesi 
alike  a  contrivance  for  dclermimng  the  radius  of  (he  hopper, 
and  both  hav*  been  uneapectedly  lound  lo  have  the  "check" 
(llJ.  taraiaailrllo),  which  leguLte*  Ihe  lall  of  the  hammer 
according  lo  the  strength  of  the  blow  which  has  impetkd  it  to 
the  strings.  After  this  lUscovery  of  the  actual  instruments  at 
CiistofOTi  there  can  be  no  longer  doubt  as  to  the  atliibulion  of 
(he  iDveniim  10  him  in  its  initiation  Bnd  its  practical  comply, 
tioo  with  escapement  and  check.  To  Cristofori  we  ate  indebted, 
not  only  lor  the  poiver  of  playing  jyiom  and  /wis,  but  (or 
the  iuEnite  variations  of  tone,  ot  tnenta,  which  nodet  (he 
instrument  so  deli^Iful. 

But  his  problem  wbs  not  solved  by  the  devising  of  a  working 
action;  there  was  much  more  to  be  done  to  inslal  the  pianoforte 
as  1  new  musical  InMtimient.    Tlie  resonance,  that  most  subtle 


Fio.  ij. — CrislolorCi  Eicapenient  Action.  1730.     Rettarcd  jn 

iB;S  "at  Cesare  FonticchL 

and  yet  aI]-cmbrBcin(fBCtor,had  been  eiperimentaUy  developed 

lo  a  certain  perfection  by  many  generations  of  spinet  andbaipd.. 


even  Cristofori's  light  hammers, 
framing  than  the  hatpsi- 
chord    had    needed.      To 

be  considenbly  increased 
the  iliengih  ol  the  bloA 
which   holds  the  tuning- 
pins,  and  as  be  coidd  not   i 
do  10  without  materially  I 
adding  to  its  thickness,  be  1 
adopted  tbe  bohl  eipedient  t 
of  inverting  it;  driving  his  I 
wreat-fHos,     harp-fashion,   \ 


wtie  attached  to  th 
lower,  ends.  Then, 
guarantee  the  security 


independent  siting  -  block 
round  it  of  stouter  vood 
than  had  been  used  in 
harpaicbords,  in  wbich  block  the  bitch-pins  were  driv 
hold  the  farther  ends  of  the  strings,  which  were  fqjae 
■  Coihmunicated  by  Baron  Alexander  Knua  (May  190C). 


366 


PIANOFORTE 


equal  distances  (unlike  the  liarpsicbord),  4he  dtmpeia  lying 
between  the  pairs  oi  unisoof. 

Crislofori  died  in  1751.  He  had  pupils,*  but  did  not  found  a 
school  of  Italian  pianoforte-making,  perhaps  from  the  peculiar 
Italian  conservatism  in  musical  instruments  we  have  already 
remarked  upon.  The  essay  of  Scipione  Maffei  was  translated 
into  German,  in  1725,  by  Kdnig,  the  court  poet  at  Dres- 
den! uid  friend  of  Gottfried  Silbermanh,  the  renowned  organ 
builder  and  harpsichord  and  clavichord  maker.'  Incited  by 
this  publication,  and  perhaps  by  having  seen  in  Dresden  one  of 
^  Cristofori's  pianofortes,  Silbermann  appears  to  have 

"""^  taken  up  the  new  instrument,  and  in  1726  to  have 
manufactured  two,  which  J.  S.  Bach,  according  to  his  pupH 
AgricoU,  pronounced  failures.  The  trebles  were  too  weak; 
the  touch  was  too  heavy.  There  has  long  been  another  version 
to  this  stoty,  viz.  that  Silbermann  borrowed  the  idea  of  his 
action  from  a  very  simple  model  contrived  by  a  young  musician 
named  Schroeter,  who  had  left  it  at  the  electoral  court  in  1731, 
and,  quitting  Saxony  to  travel,  had  not  afterwards  claimed  It. 
It  may  be  so;  but  Schroeter's  letter,  printed  in  Miizler's 
Bibliclhek,  dated  1738,  is  not  supported  by  any  other  evidence 
than  the  recent  discovery  of  an  altered  German  harpsichord, 
the  hammer  action  of  which,  in  its  simplicity,  may  have  been 
taken  from  Schroctcr's  diagram,  and  would  sufficiently  account 
for  the  condemnation  of  Silbermann's  earliest  pianofortes  if 
he  had  made  use  of  it.  In  either  case  it  is  easy  to  distinguish 
between  the  lines  of  Schroeter's  interesting  communications 
(to  Mitzler,  and  later  to  Marpurg)  the  bitter  disappointment 
he  felt  in  being  left  out  of  the  practical  development  of  so 
important  an  instrument. 

But,  whatever  Silbermann's  first  experiments  were  based  upon, 
it  was  ascertained,  by  the  investigations  of  A.  J.  Hipkins,  that 
he,  when  successful,  adopted  Cristofori's  pianoforte  without 
further  alteration  than  the  compass  and  colour  of  the  keys 
and  the  style  of  joinery  of  the  case.  In  the  Silbermann  grand 
pianofortes,  in  the  three  palaces  at  Potsdam,  known  to  have  been 
Frederick  the  Great's,  and  to  have  been  acquired  by  that 
monarch  prior  to  J.  S.  Bach's  visit  to  him  in  1747,  we  fuid  the 
Cristofori  framing,  stringing,  inverted  wrest -plank  and  action 
complete..  Fig.  15  represents  the  instrument  on  which  J.  S. 
Bach  played  in  the  Town  Palace,  Potsdam. 


Mahillon  of  Brussels,  however,  icquined  a  Fitderici  *'tipr|gU 

grand  "  piano,  dated  1745  (fig.  16).  In  Frcderici's  upright  ^ind 

action  wc  have  not  to  do  with  die 

ideas  of  either  Crislofori  or  Schroeter; 

the  movement  is  practically  identical 

with  the  hammer  action  of  a  Ger- 

ntan  dock,  and  has  its  counterpart 

in  a  piano  at  Nuremberg;  a  fact  which 

needs  further  elucidation.    We  note 

here  the  earliest  example  of  the  leather 

hinge,  afterwards  so  oomm6n  in  piano 

actions  and  only  now  going  out  of  use. 

Where  are  we  to  look  for  Schroeter's 

copyist  if  not  found  in  Silbermann, 

Frederid,  or,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 

perhaps  J.  G.  Wagner?   It  might  be 

in  the  harpsichord  we  have  mentioned, 

which,  made  in  1712  by  one  Brock  for 

the   elector  of   Hanovor   (afterwards 

George  I.  of  England),  was  by  him 

presented     to     the     Pro-    ^,  ^ 

testant  pastor  of  Schulen-  I  P 

berg,   near   Hanover,   and        S3  ~^        ^      ~ 

has     since     been     rudely    '^'^'  *^" — Fredcrid's  Upright  Grand 

(fig.    17).    There   is  an 

altered  harpsichord  in  the  museum  at  Basel  which  spears 
to  have  been  00  more  successful.  But  an  attempted  com» 
bination  of  harpsichord  and  pianoforte  appears  as  a  very  early 
^^^  intention.    The  English  poet  Mason,  the  friend 

^^^*^^  of  Gray,  bought  such  an  instrument  at  Ham* 
U  Y  burg  in  1755,  with  "the  cleverest  mechanism 
^     '         imaginable." 

It  was  only  under  date  of  1763  that  Schroeter' 
published  for  the  first  time  a  diagram  of  bis  pro- 


.  f'^i-TT^-  •,-.vu-==.r.-  --> 


■;^' ,:j::'7>t/*j«    ■•":  •-c_-"-j>-   — 


Fig.  15.— Stlberounn  Forte  Piano;  Stadtschloss,  Potsdam,  1746. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  stated  in  Germany  that  Frederid,  of 
Gera  in  Saxony,  an  organ  builder  and  musical  instrument 
maker,  invented  the  square  or  table-shaped  piano, 
the  "  fort  bien,"  as  he  is  said  to  have  called  it,  about 
i75g-'i76o.  No  square  piano  by  this  maker  is  forthcoming, 
though  an  "  upr^ht  grand  "  piano,  made  by  Domenico  del 
Mela  in  1739,  with  an  action  adapted  from  Cristofori's  has 
been  discovered  by  Signor    Ponsicchi  of  Florence.     Victor 

*Sct  Ccsare  Ponsicchi,  /i  Pianoforte,  stut  origin*  e  nUuppo 
(Florence,  1876),  p.  37> 

'This  trandatioa,  published  at  Hamburg  and  reproduced  in 
extemso,  may  be  read  in  Dr  Oscar  Paul's  Ctsckicklo  i€S  Clwien 
(Uipxig.  1868). 


Fic.  17.— -Hammer  and  Lifter  of  altered  Harpsichord  by  Brock. 
Instrument  in  the  collection  of  Mr  Keodrick  Pyoe,  Manchester. 

posed  invention,  designed  more  than  forty  years 
before.  It  appeared  in  Marpurg's  KrUiscke  Brieft 
(Bcriin,  1764).  Now,  immediatdy  after, 
Johann  Zumpe,  a  German  in  London,  who  fJH^^*^ 
had  been  one  of  Shudi's  workmen,  invented 
or  introduced  (for  there  is  some  tradition  that  Mason 
had  to  do  with  the  invention  of  it)*  a  square  piano, 
which  was  to  become  the  most  popular  domestic 
instrument.  It  would  seem  that  Zumpe  was  in  faa 
not  the  inventor  of  the  sqture  piano,  which  appears 
to  have  been  well  known  in  (}ermany  before  his 
date,  a  discovery  made  by  Mr  (jeorge  Rose.  In 
Paul  de  Wit's  Musical  Instrument  Museum<— fonneriy 
in  Ldpdg,  now  transferred  to  Cologne—there  is  a 
small  square  piano,  97  in.  long,  to  in.  wide  and 
4I  in.  high,  having  a  contracted  keyboard  of 
3  octaves  and  2  notes.  The  action  ol  this  small  instrument 
is  praaically  identical  in  every  detail  with  that  of  the  square 
pianofortes  made  much  later  by  Zumpe  (Paul  de  Wit,  KaiaUg 
dtt  musikkisUfriscken  Musounu,  Ldpzig,  1903.  No.  55, 
illustration,  p.  38).  Inside  is  inscribed:  *'  Friedrich  Hildebrandt, 
Instrumentenmacher  in  Ldpzig,  Quergasse,"  with  four  figures 

'  For  arguments  in  favour  of  Schroeter's  claim  to  the  invention 
of  the  pianoforte  see  Dr  Oscar  Paul,  op.  cit.  pp.  85-104,  who  was 
answered  by  A.  J.  Hipkins  in  Grove's  Did.  of  Music  and  Musicians. 

*  Mason  reauy  invented  the  "celcstina**  (known  as  Adam 
Walker's  patent  No.  1020),  as  we  know  from  the  correspondence 
of  Mary  Cran\'illc.  Under  date  of  the  i  ith  of  January  1775  she  des. 
cribes  this  invention  as  a  short  harpsichord  2  ft.  long,  but  played 
with  the  right  hand  only.  The  left  hand  controlled  a  kind  of  violin- 
bow,  which  produced  a  charming  sostinente,  in  character  of  tone 
between  the  violin  tone  and  that  of  muncal  glasses. 


PIANOFORTE 


567 


ftblMSt  legible  ?aul  At  W!t  fefert  the  !iiBtrument  to  the 
middle  of  the  rSth  century.  It  hu  fell  the  uppearance  of  being 
a  reduced  copy  of  a  well-established  type,  differing  veiy  little 
from  the  later  models,  except  that  it  has  no  dampen.  It 
seems  probable  that  thii  small  instrument  is  a  converted 
davichord,  and  that  the  action  may  have  been  suggested  by 
Schroeter's  model,  left  in  1721  at  the  Electoral  Court  of  Saxony. 
Bumey  tells  u«  all  about  Zumpe;  and  his  instruments  still 
existing  would  fix  the  date  of  the  first  at  about  1765.  Fetis 
narrates,  however,  that  he  began  the  study  of  the  piano  on 
a  square  piano  made  1^  Zumpe  in  1767.  In  his  simple  "  old 
man's  head  "  action  we  have  the  nearest  approach  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  Schroeter's  simple  idea.  It  will  be  observed  that 
Schroeter's  damper  would  stop  all  vibration  at  once.  This 
defect  is  overcome  by  Zumpe's  "  mopstick  "  damper. 

Another  piano  action  had,  howev«,  come  into  use  about  that 
time  or  even  earUer  in  Germany.  The  discovery  of  it  in  the 
jfffl^  simplest  form  is  to  be  attributed  to  V.  C.  MahiUon, 
who  found  it  in  a  square  piano  belonging  to  Henri 
Gosselin,  painter,  of  Brussels.  The  principle  of  this  action  is 
that  which  was  later  perfected  by  the  addition  of  a  good  escape- 
ment by  Stein  of  Augsburg,  and  was  again  later  experimented 


jwii 


Fio.  i8^-*-Schfoeter'ft  Model  for  an  Actien,  t7ar. 

upon  by  Sebastian  Erard.  Its  origin  is  perhaps  due  to  the 
contrivance  of  a  piano  action  that  should  suit  the  shallow  clavi- 
chord  and  permit  of  its  transformation  into  a  square  pianoj 
a  tranaformation,  Schroeter  t^  us,  had  been  going  on  when  he 


Fig.  19. — Zumpe's  Square  Piano  Action,  1766. 

wrote  his  complaint.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  hammer  is, 
as  compared  with  othw  actions,  reversed,  and  the  axis  rises 
with  the  key,  necessitating  a  fixed  means  for  raising  the  hammer, 
ha  this  action  effected  by  a  rail  against  which  the  hammer 


Fxc.  30.— Old  Piano  Action  on  the  German  principle  of  Escape- 
ment. Square  Piano  belonging  to  M.  Goisdin,  BniMcli. 

is  jerked  up.  It  was  Stein's  merit  to  graft  the  hopper  prindple 
npon  this  simple  action;  and  Moxart's  ^>prQbation  of  the  inven- 
tion»  when  he  met  with  it  at  Augsburg  in  1777,  is  expressed  in  a 
wdl-hnown  letter  addressed  to  his  mother.  No  more  "  blocking  " 
of  the  hammer,  destroying  all  vibration,  was  henceforth  to  vex 
his  mind.  He  had  found  the  instrument  thai  for  the  rest  of 
hil  short  life  replaced  the  haipskhord.  V.  C.  MahiUon  secured 
lor  his  ffiuseom  the  onl^  Johann  Andreaa  Stein  pianO  whidi 


is  known  to  remafai.  It  is  from  Augsburg,  dated  1780,  attd  has 
Stein's  escapement  action,  two  unisoos,  and  the  knee  pedal, 
then  and  later  common  in  Germany. 

Moeart's  own  grand  piano,  preserved  at  Salaburg,  and  the 
two  grand  pianos  (the  latest  dated  1790)  by  Huhn  of  Berlin, 
preserved  at  Berim  and  Charlottenburg,  because  they  had 


Fio.  ai.*-Stctli's  ActkM  (the  eariiest  MKalled  VienMie),  1780. 
belonged  to  Queen  Luise  of  Prussia,  follow  Stdn  In  alt 
paiticulars.  These  instruments  have  three  unisons  upwards, 
and  the  milting  movement  known  as  cdeste^  which  no  doubt 
Stein  had  ako.  The  wrest-plank  is  not  inverted;  nor  is  there  any 
imitation  of  Cristofori.  We  may  regard  Stdn,  coming  after  the 
Seven  Years'  War  which  had  devastated  Saxony,  as  the  German 
reinventor  of  the  grand  piano.  Stein's  instrument  was  accepted 
as  a  model,  as  we  have  seen,  in  Berlin  as  wdl  as  Vienna,  to 
which  city  his  business  was  transferred  in  1794  by  his  daughter 
Nanette,  known  as  an  accomplished  pianist  and  friend  of 
Beethoven,  who  at  that  time  used  Stein's  pianos.  She  had 
her  brother  in  the  business  with  her,  and  had  already,  in  1793, 
married  J.  A.  Streicher,  a  pianist  from  Stuttgart,  and  distin- 
guished as  a  personal  friend  of  Schiller.  In  1803,  the  tMrother  and 
sister  dissolving  partnership,  Streicher  began  himsdf  to  take 
his  full  share  of  the  work,  and  on  Stdn's  lines  improved  the 
Viennese  instrument,  so  popular  for  many  years  and  famous 
for  its  lightness  of  touch,  which  contributed  to  the  tptdal 
character  of  the  Viemiese  school  of  pianoforte  playing.  Since 
1862,  when  Stdnway's  example  caused  a  complete  revolution 
in  German  and  Austrian  piano-making,  the  old  woodeh  cheap 
grand  piano  has  died  out.  We  will  quit  the  early  German 
piano  with  an  iUuslratioa  (fig.  2»)  of  an  early  square  piano 


Fig.  aj.— German  Square  Action,  1783.      Piano  by  Wagner. 

Dresden. 

action  in  an  instrument  made  by  Johann  Gottlob  Wagner  of 
Dresden  in  1783.  This  interesting  discovery  of  MahiUon 's 
introduces  us  to  a  rude  imitaUon  (in  the  principle)  of  Cristofori, 
and  it  appears  to  have  no  relation  whatever  to  the  dock-hammer 
motion  seen  in  Frederid's. 

Burney,  who  lived  through  the  period  of  the  displacement  of 
the  harpsichord  by  the  pianoforte,  is  the  only  authority  to 
whom  we  can  refer  as  to  the  introduction  of  the  latter  instrument 
into  England.  He  tdls  us,*  in  his  gossiping  way,  n^i  _ 
that  the  first  hammer  harpsichord  that  came  to  Mri»i» 
England  was  made  by  an  English  monk  at  Rome,  £■■'** 
a  Father  Wood,  for  an  English  gentleman,  Samuel  Crisp  of 
Chesington;  the  tone  of  this  instrument  was  superior  to  that 
produced  by  quiUs,  with  the  added  power  of  the  shades  of  piano 
and  forte,  so  that,  although  the  touch  and  mechanism  were 
so  imperfect  that  nothing  quick  could  be  executed  upon  it,  yet 
in  a  slow  movement  like  the  "Dead  March"  in  Saul  it  eidted 
wonder  and  ddight.  Fulke  GreviUe  afterwards  bought  this 
instrument  for  xoo  guineas,  and  it  remained  unique  in  England 
for  several  years,  until  Plenfus,  the  inventor  of  the  lyricbord, 
made  a  pianoforte  in  imitation  of  it.  In  this  instrument  the 
touch  was  better,  but  the  tone  was  inferior.  We  have  no  date 
for  Father  Wood.    Plenius  produced  his  lyrichord,  a  wieMNlc 

*  Rces's  N«»  Cythpaedim,  art.  "  Harpdchord.*^ 


S6S 


huptidioit),  in  i»s-  When  Muon  iivporud 
17SS.  Fulke  GttviUe'*  could  Save  been  no  longn  uiu^uc  .« 
lUliinori^nolFalhei  Wood's  panopointiloi  copy  of  tristofori, 
bat  the  detcriplion  of  iU  capat^Uiliia  in  no  way  confinni  this 
lumHsition,  unless  vc  ftdopL  Lbe  very  pos^ble  Ihcory  Lhat  the 
InitnUMnt  lud  arrived  out  ol  order  ind  Iteie  waj  on  one  in 
London  who  could  pm  ii  right,  or  wouldpahaps  divine  that  it 
1TB3  wnng.  Bun»y  Tuilhei  tells  us  that  Ibc  arrival  in  London 
of  J.  C.  Bach  in  1759  was  Ihc  motive  lor  several  o£  ihe  Kcond- 
rate  hlipsichoid  makers  trying  lo  make  pianolortes,  bul  wilh 
no  psrlicular  iucchs.  _0t  These  Americm  Birkm  (d.  ij;6), 

the  lo-ciBed  En^Iih 
Criitafoii'9  ve  may  suppoM  he 


KANOFORTB 

pianoforte  ia 


13.— Gnnd  Piano  Action 


'76.    TIk  "  Eiifliih  "  ■ 


.'Ei. 


«ep^)g  the  ori^nil  Inventor.  There  i*  an  oM  play-blD  of 
Covoit  Garden  in  Mcsn  Broadwood's  posscuion  dated  the 
i£th  ol  May  176;,  which  has  Ihc  EoUowins  ani»nn«nienl>~ 
"End  of  A(t  1.  Miu  BdcUit  will  Hn(  a  (avouritc  tout  fram 
JmJUi.  ucompsnicd  by  Mr  Dibdln  to  ■  sen  ianmnicnt  ciU'd 

Is  la  Backers  as  the  ptobablc  malker 
"  Original  Forte  Piano  "  wu  played 
at  the  Itiilcbed  House  in  Si  Jamts'l  SUecl,  London,  in  1773. 
Ponsicchi  has  found  a  SicVcn  gtsnd  piano  at  Tiitoria,  dated 
that  year.  It  wis  Backers  who  produced  the  action  continued 
fn  the  direct  principle  by  the  firm  of  Dro 
reversed  lever  and  hammer-butt  iiitrodu< 
Collard  in  igjs- 

The  escapement  lever  is  suggested  by  CiistofotTs  iitit  action, 
lo  which  Backers  has  added  a  tontrivancc  tor  regulating  it  by 

liJ Jirr "  *  Crislotori'i  second  action.    No  more  durable  action 

tqtui,  whether  m^de  in  England  or  abroad,  to  Uk  dcnunds  of  the 


d  by  the  film  oi 


wne  the  aatistanti  ol  Blcttn  in  the  initaUatfen  ot  Ua  invatiM, 

On  his  deathbed  he  commended  it  to  Broadwood's  can,  bat 
Stodait  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  advance  it— Btoadweod 
tieing  probably  held  back  by  bispsrinenhip  willi  Uibnithtt- 
in-law,  Ihcson  ol  Shudi,  in  the  harpsichord  busincu.  (Theelder 
Shudi  had  died  in  1 77J  j  SlodartsooamadeacoiBidenbkrepu- 
lation  with  his  "  grand  "  piiiufoiies,  a  de^jgiulion  lie  *u  Die  fiiU 
to  give  them.  In  Slodart's  grand  piano  we  first  find  an  adapla- 
lion  from  the  lyrichoid  of  Pleniui,  of  (led  aidiei  between  Iha 


object  w 


.    Zumi; 


small  sq 


<n  enabled  to  retire,  and  his 
imitators,  who  wcie  Ic^on,  coniiDued  his  model  with  its  band 
stop*  lor  the  dampen  and  sourdine,  wilh  little  change  but  that 
which  sirUghlened  the  keys  from  Ihc  divergences  inherited  from 
Ihe  davickord.  John  Broadwood  \<xA  Ma  domalic  buinimcni 
first  in  hand  tb  improve  it,  and  in  the  year  17S0  succeeded  in 
entirely  reconstructing  it.  He  transferred  the  wrest-plank  and 
pins  from  the  right-hand  ode,  as  In  Ihe  clavichord,  lo  the  back 
of  the  case,  an  improvement  universally  adupted  afict  hispateni. 
No,  i]7q  ol  17R],  cipired.  In  this  patent  we  fini  find  the 
damper  and  piano  pedals,  since  universally  accepted,  but  at  first  in 
the  grand  p'^^^'"^i*  only,  Zumpc's  action  remaining  wilh  an 
altered  damper,  another  inventor,  John  Gob,  patented  (Xol 
1S71  of  17S6)  the  hopper  with  two  separate  escapements,  oat 
of  which  soon  became  adopted  in  the  grasih<qiper  of  the  square 
piano,  it  is  believed  by  Gdb  himself;  and  Petiold,  a  Parb  nakei, 
a|q>eaT3  to  have  taken  later  to  the  cscapemcni  effected  upon  Ihe 
key.  We  may  mention  here  that  the  square  piano  was  devet^ied 
and  continued  In  Englabd  until  about  the  yeai  i860,  when  il 
went  out  of  lajhion. 

To  return  to  John  Broadwood— having  launched  his  recon- 
structed square  p^no,  he  nest  turned  his  attention  to  the  grasl 
l^ano  to  continue  the  Improvement  of  It  from  Ihc  pfdnt  where 
Badl«rs  had  left  it.  The  grand  piano  was  in  framing  and 
rcKDuntc  entiidy  on  the  harpsichord  principle,  the  sound-boanl 
bridge  being  siiU  continued  in  one  undivided  length.  Tbe 
strings,  which  wcraof  brass  wire  in  U)e  bass,  descended  in  notes 
the  lowest  note  of  the  scale. 


I  for 


taking  the  ticb 
bridges  ol  11  ft. 


1  not  thought  ot.    Theory  reqafres  that  tbe  nola 

ould  be  mullipls  in  the  ratio  ol  1  to  i,  by  which, 

one  foot,  the  lowest  F  uf  the  eve- 

ilr  this  length  could  be  conveniently 
anoiaed,  we  see  at  ones  a  reason  fnt  the  above-OMnttoned 
delideniies.  Only  Ihe  three  oaiavei  ol  ibe  irehle.  which  bul 
lengths  practically  ideal,  could  be  tolerably  adjiuled.  Then 
the  Btriking-hne,  which  should  be  at  an  eighth  cc  not  kaa  than  a 
ninth  or  tenth  oi  the  vibrating  length,  and  had  never  be^ 
eared  for  in  the  harpsicbord,  wu  in  "  ' 
out  of  all  proportion,  with  correal 
tens.    Jofaa  Bniadwwd  did  not  Vi 


V  ikue  apoB  the  path 


PIANOFORTB 


569 


laandlTUUtihclhcubidta.  Re <*tled  fa  the ud  cF  pniraivl 
BO)  af  KJeow— HbcTiui  Cvnllo,  who  in  i  ;SS  publnhed  hit 
otcuIUkni  o[  ikc  tcnsian,  uid  Dt  Gay,  □(  the  Brilbh  MuKum. 
The  pmblon  »u  lolvcd  by  dviding  tbe  aaUDit-baint  faridgr, 
Ihc  Iowa  hall  of  iihich  wu  idvuiced  to  airy  the  bass  tirings, 
which  wen  Itill  of  brau.  The  Eist  sttnnpls  to  eqinliu  the 
touloD  lod  improve  the  strilcin^-piace  were  Jiere  Kt  Forth,  to 
the  gTe«t  tdvaatage  erf  the  itulrunMoti  which  b  Ui  wooden 
oodstrudkia  might  now  be  oKiaidered  complete.  The  greatest 
[dAilktB  of  that  tipoch,  eicepl  Mourt  and  Beethoven,  wen 
UMmbted  in  London— Gemcnli,  wba  <b*t  gun  the  pianoforte 

baipiicbard,  his  pupib  Cismet  and  lor  ji  lime  HuRimel,  later 
sn  John  Field,  and  al»  the  britiianl  virtuoii  Duueli  and  SLcibclI. 
To  pleaH  Dusaek,  Broadwood  in  1791  carried  hu  five-oclave, 
F  to  F.  keyboard,  by  Adding  keyi  upwards,  to  Ave  and  a  halt 
oflaves.  F  to  C.  In  1794  Ih«  additional  bau  holt  octave  to  C, 
which  Shudi  had  firat  introduced  in  hia  double  haip^chords, 
waa  given  to  the  jnano.  Steibdl,  while  in  England,  institoted 
tbo  lamiliir  signs  i«  the  employment  o[  the  pedals,  wUch 
owet  its  chirm  id  e»cttein*ni  of  the  imagination  instigated  by 
power  over  an  acouatical  phenomenon,  the  sympathetic  vibra- 
tion o(  tSe  strings.  In  1790  Clernenli  founded  ■  pianoforte 
muinlictoty,  to  be  subsequently  developed  and  airied  on  by 

Tba  fint  aqoaie  piano  made  in  Fiance  fa  said  to  have  been 
cooatructtd  ia  1776  by  Sebastian  Eiard,  ■  young  Alsatian. 
_  ■  In  17S6  he  came  to  En^nd  and  founded  the 
London  manafactary  of  harpi  and  pianoiortn 
bearinf  his  ntim  That  emincot  mechanidin  and  inventor 
la  aaid  to  have  at  fint  adopted  for  bis  pianos  the  English  models. 


Action,  1M4.    The  double 


E  of  the  hi 


r,  belor 


inE  tbe  hinged  lever  upwanli,  ts  alia 
the  key  hat  riwD  again. 
However,  in  171H  and  iSoi,  ta  Is  shown  liy  hii  palenU,  be  wu 
c^ainly  engaged  upon  tbe  demcntaiy  action  deficnbed  aa 
mppertiitung  to  CoSKtin'i  piano,  ol  probably  Cemuo  origin. 
In   his  long^toniinued  labour  ol  inventing  and  constructing 
a  dout^c  tAcapement  action,  Erard  appears  to  have  sought  to 
combine  the  English  power  of  gradation  o[  tone  with  ihc  Ceinuji 
Ijghtoeas  oi  touch.    Ke  toolc  out  hii  Gnt  paieol  [or  a  "  re] 
tioQ^'    action  in  iSoS,  claiming  for  it"the  power  of  gi 
lepeated  strokes  without  milling  or  [ailuie,   by  very  s 
uigular  TDOIioai  oC  the  key  itKlf."     He  did  not,  liowi 
tucceed  in  produqag  his  famous  repetition  or  double  eicaper 
ndion  until  iSli;  it  was  then  patented  by  his  nephew  F. 
Eiacd,  who,  whm  the  patent  eiplied  in  England  in  i&]5,  proved 
■  losa  from  the  difficuliiat  of  canying  01 
induced  tbe  Hoim  of  Lords  la  grant  u  cilcnsinn  of  the 

Erard  invented  In  iSoS  an  upward  bearing  to  the  wrcM-plank 
biiclge,  by  meani  of  igiafics  or  studs  of  metal  through  boles 
in  which  the  string  are  made  to  posd,  bearing  again&t  the  Vfliet 
aide^  The  wooden  biitlge  with  down-bearing  strings  is  civljr 
not  in  relalfon  with  upward^stiiking  hammers,  the  tendency 
at  which  mast  be  to  raise  the  strings  from  the  bridge, 
detriment  of  the  tone.    : 


is  principle 


wii  Introduced  by  mDlim  Slodart  tn  iSii.  A  ptosure-liai 
beariig  of  later  introduction  is  claimed  for  the  French  maker, 
Botd.  Ilic  £tat  to  see  the  importance  of  iron  sharing  with 
wood  (ultimately  almost  supplanting  it}  in  pianoiortc  framing 

waa  a  native  of  £n|dand  and  a  civil    engiaeel    by    „ ^^^ 

proles^n,    John    Isaac    Hawkins,    known    u    the 

lot  of  the  cver-polnlcd  pencil.     He  was  living  at  PhDa- 
ddpbia,  U.S.A.,  when  he  invented  and  £nt  produced  Ibe  familial' 


-j^Sls — 


1884.     The  doubl* 


cottage  pianoforte — "  portable  grand ' 

He  patented  It  In  America,  his  rather 

out  the  patent  for  him  In  England  m  me  u 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  illustration  here 


Isaac  Hawkina,  taking 


tondon',  but 

the  keyboard  bdng  raised,  and  1 

the  chief,  was  not  his  only  merit.    Ue  a 


icipated  neatty  eray 


Fio.  i8.-Hi^ni' 


n^pchanical  si 


has  since  liecn  introduced  as  novel.  Hie 
iS)  is  in  a  comiilete  Iron  frame,  independent 
n  this  frame,  strengthened  by  a  aytttfa  ol  iron 
imbined  with  an  iron  upper  bridge,  hia  lound- 
suipcndcd.  An  oppiratui  for  tuning  by 
s  n^ulates  the  tenuon  of  the  strings,  which 
-~  ■       ■         talaupparta. 

larkable  bundle  ol  inven- 
lited  by  Hawklnaliijnself^ 


n  the  thcckin 


PIANOFORTB 


It  beiQg  poor  In  (he  lane  UAh]  to  brioj 
r  lenrd  01  the  credit  he  dcKrvcd.  SouthKtUap 
Ken  ooe  of  the  Gnl  to  profit  by  HiKkini'i  id& 
out  the  high  cibinei  pimoFone,  with  hipited  >i 
I  1S07.    AU  that  he  coold,  howe 


>  still  frequently  u 


lieve  the 


,Lcp)  lor  producing  the  lower  or  cottage 
upright  piano  were  talcen  by  Robert  WoTnum,  who  in  iSil 
produced  a  diagonilly,  and  in  iSij  a  vertically^  itning  one. 
Woimim't  peifected  crank  action  (6g.  19)  wu  not  complete 
until  1S16,  when  it  wai  paienltd  (or  k  cabinet  piano;  but  it  waa 
not  really  introduced  until  three  yean  ' 
when  Womum  applied  it  to  his  Utile  "pii 
The  principle  oE  Ihii  centred  lever  check 
introduced  into  Paris  by  FlcyeP  and 


and  lb 


ce  Into  Germ 


■,  Iror 


Haw 


it  lion  bccams  introduced  a; 


Scauman  in  the  ei 
devUed  a  metal  s 
primarily  (or  compc 


y  of  the  Siodani 


lEabilily  by  a 
Icn,  b«ng  lin 


carrying  out  the  idea.  He  had  10  ally  1 
with  Siodait'i  fofemiD,  Tbom;  and  AUc 
Thom  patented  the  Invention  In  January 
The  firm  o[  Stodan  at  once  acquired 


It  epoch  Flc.  Jfl.-Womum 

Mulnic-      Up"tbt  Acik>r,   m 
lio      »(      "^  orijinal  of  lie  no 


:  a  combined  conitru 
material  giadually  a 


design  l>  showi 
long  birjibowT 

only;  Ihooe  ol 


vilhou' 


anger  t 


d  frai 


Grand  ^m!^"ajtt""Slie'R'r«  »  filed  iron  string-plale,  'the 
conpktB  metal  framing  lyaten  invention  of  one  of  Broad- 
Bwbed  over  the  itiinga.  ,™^',      workmen,      Samuel 

Hervt,  which  was  In  the  firii  fnitance  applied  lo  one  o(  ihe 
square  pianos  of  that  firm.  The  great  advanlige  in  the  find 
ptite  was  a  more  even  soUd  counterpoiK  to  the  drawing  or 
(eniUm  ol  the  iirlngi  and  the  abolition  of  their  undue  length 
^  Pleyel  BihibiLrd  a  tfnalT  lipri^ht  piano  in  Parii  in  1827.    F^cirt 


Eraid  dkl  net  <i 


upright  pi 


/JSa.: 


behind  the  bddgi,  a  raduction  irfiich  luu  CirtM*  l>d  (liad  loaM 
years  before,  but  uniucccsifully,  to  accompUih  *ilb  a  pbte  oi 
wood.  So  generally  was  attention  now  give*  10  improved 
methods  ol  resistance  that  it  hot  not  been  lound  possible  to  dc- 
letminc  who  hrst  practically  introduced  those  long  iron  « tied 
lesislancc  ban  which  are  so  lamiliar  a  (eiluro  ia  modera 
grand  pianos.  They  were  eiperlmenttd  on  «1  substilulea  loi 
Ihe  wooden  biadog  by  Joseph  Smith  in  tjgt;  but  Id  James 
Groadwood  belongi  the  credit  of  trying  them  fint  above  Ihe 
sound-board  in  Ihe  treble  part  of  the  scale  as  long  ago  a*  iSoS, 
and  again  io  1818;  he  did  oat  succeed,  however,  in  ttinf  Ihcra 
properly.  The  introduction  of  Sied  resislance  bars  is  really 
due  to  observation  of  Allan's  compenuling  tube^  which  were, 
at  the  same  time,  misting.  Sebastian  and  Fiene  ^ard  stem 
to  have  been  fint  in  the  field  in  iSij  with  a  complete  tyttem  d 
nine  resistance  bars  from  treble  lo  baas,  with  a  simple  mode  of 
fastening  them  through  the  lound-boaid  to  Ihe  wooden  boms 
beneath,  but.  althou^  Ihese  ban  appear  in  tbelt  patent  ol 
I A  J4,  which  chiefly  concerned  their  repetition  action,  the  Enids 
did  not  either  in  France  or  England  claim  them  as  of  cviginal 

in  Ilieir  ^lenL    James  Broadnood,  by  his  patent  of   iBi?, 

which  was  dearly  the  completion  of  the  wood  and  metal  inslru- 

fiied.  Drosdwood,  howevet,  left  the  brass  bars  out.  but  added 
1  founh  bar  in  the  middle  10  the  three  in  the  Ueble  ba  bad 
prevLOuily  used.  It  must  be  bome  In  inuid  that  b  ma  the 
way  in  the  old  wooden  construction  beforethe 
-'  ''  -         nt.     But  the  mi^  of  Ite 


of  the  baas  string  had  become  general-    T 
were  Incriaaed  10  five,  «i,  seven,  eight  and,  ts  we  nave  tea, 
even  nine,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  diScrent  En^ish  and 
French  makers  who  used  them  in  thsr  pu'raull  of  stability. 

The  neit  impoilanl  addition  to  Ihe  grand  piano  In  order  of 
time  was  ibe  hanoooic  bar  ol  Piene  Eraid,  iotrodueed  In  iSjJ. 
bar  of  alternate  presaing  and  drawing 


tapped  in 


this  favoured  Iheprodi 

lion  «1  bighet  haimoni 


Beethoven  and  CI 


PIANOFORTE 


Xl  H<U7  Foirin  Brautiraed,  H 


m  cf  Jimc*.  wh)  inndiaB  nf 
-frui-toii  of  Smidl  (TKbudl), 
iBvmtcd  >  piBd  pUnofortc  to  depend  pncikiU]' npoa  Iron,  in 
wUcli,  ta  kvidd  tba  eiMHpiai«Bilii(qiiilitia  cansed  by  the  bnsk- 
i^  o(  Ite  letlB  wltk  naliuaot  ban,  Iben  ibonkl  be  w  bu 
panOcI  (0  tbe  Miinp  except  i,  ban  bir,  while  tnMbiir  BugHl 
refklinc*  bu,  u  (a  enttn)])  novd  (euoie.  noNEd  ota  lbs 
Urinp  (ron  tbe  bu*  amec  of  the  wrcM-fdwA  to  »  pdnt  upon 
the  ilriDg-plue  when  the  (mtat  uconuktton  of  teniloD 
•tnin  wu  found.  Bioadwood  did  not  continiie,  witbiMt  iodc 
csfnpnmlw,  thi)  extieine  nnuBdukiii  of  ontiury  retittum 
meu*.  After  the  GiHt  EiUbitioB  of  iSji  he  enplayed  u 
oiduuxy  tcni^  bai  fa  tbe  middle  of  his  concert  grand  acalflf 
bia  ■"■^1*^  panda  having  frequently  two  nch  ai  veU  aa  tl 
long  baai  bar.  Alter  iMi  he  covered  hla  wnat-plank  with 
tUdi  plate  of  Iron  hito  which  the  innlog  p)a*  Kiew  at  well  i 
into  the  wood  beneuh,  thta  avoiding  tbe  cnuhlng  of  the  woe 
by  tbe  cointaat  piontte  of  the  pin  acroai  the  pidl  of  tbe  tiling, 
an  ultioiate  tonrce  of  daagti  to  dunbOity, 

Tbe  IntToductioa  of  froo  into  i^nofoile  atructare  mi  SSi 
ently  ami  independently  effected  in.  America,  tbe  lundainental 
"      '■        '   '       lo  uie  a  tingle  cullng  lor  the  meul  plate 

forging  or  calling  them  b  Kpalile  piece*. 
AlplBi      -  -       - 


Heal 


with  tbe  compentfition 
had  cut  an  iron  ring  for  a  iqnare  plaDO 
In  I  Sis,  which,  although  not  a  lucctM, 
(■ve  the  due  to  a  ihi^e  cHling  ndt- 
tance  franting,  euccetifully  accotni^ltbed 
by  Conrad  Meyer,  in  Philadelphia,  ' 
iSjj,  in  a  tquare  piano  which  itlU  edi  . 
and  was  ahown  in  tbe  Parit  Eikibittan 
of  1878.  Heyer'a  Idea  wai  improved 
npon  by  Jonaa  Chickering  (ilw'SJ)  of 
Boston,  vrbo  applied  it  ID  the  i^nd  piano 
u  well  as  to  tbe  squice.  and  brought  tbt 
principle  up  to  a  high  degree  of  perfFCthn 


treble  diiposilion  at  diverging  angle* — 
the  object  being  In  the  firtt  iostani 
get  longer  bats  strings  than  an  alUit 
hi  a  panllcl  tale,  and  in  the  nti 
open  out  the  sole  and  eitend  the 
of  bridge  pretiure 

iry   riavichnrdi 


o  get  a  clearer 


■unginthelov. 
ne  in  Ihil  very 


la  A  ain^  cattiog- 


part  of  tbe  laslmmi 
employed).  The  £isl  suggestion  lor  the  ovcrslringing  In  the 
piano  wat  made  by  .the  celebrated  Oule-player  and  inveator 
Theobald  Boehm,  who  carried  it  beyond  theory  In  Loodon,  In 
1831.  by  employing  a  iouH  firm  located  in  Chcapilde,  Genxh  k 
WoU.tonufcetomeovenlrungplinosfothlin.  Doebni expected 
to  gain  in  tonei  Pape,  *Ji  ingeiuoua  medunlcian  in  Faria,  tried 
a  like  aipeiiBient  to  gain  economy  in  dimensions,  hit  noiion 
b^K  ^  "Pl^y  "k  bot  piano  possible  with  the  least  ootlay  ol 
mcBiu.  Ttankinton  la  Londoc  contitnicd  Fape'i  model,  but 
Dather  Boelun'i  not  Pipe's  look  petmanent  nwt.  The  Great 
Exhibition  olrSsicvnlaincd  a  grand  piano,  made  by  Lichtenihal 
ct  St  Petertburg,  oveFtlnmg  in  order  lo  gain  symmetry  by  1*0 
vi^  tides  ID  the  cast.  It  wis  regarded  as  a  curiosity  only. 
Later,  In  iSjS,  Henry  Engelhard  Sleinway  (ocigioalty  SteUiwcg; 
^  ■  i/9/-igji),  who  bad  emigtated  from  Brmawick  to 

^"    "'■  New  Yoik  In  i«49,  and  had  eslablithed  the  firm  of 
Stdnway  k  Soot  Id  i<5]  fD  that  dty,  effected 


of  an  ovcntrxug  tcala  with  the  American  iron  Iran*,  wUch 
exfaibHed  in  grand  snd  square  Instrumenti  thowo  la  London 
in  the  International  EihiUtion  d  196],  eidted  the  attention  of 
European  pianefarte  nukers,  leading  ultimately  lo  Impofual 
results.  Tbe  Chiekeriog  fins  claha  to  have  iniidpated  thi 
StiMwayi  In  thia  invention.  Tbey  awt  that  Jonat  Cbl^irliQ 
hKib(guna>qaanplaBo«(hiacoahliNdtnl«DiiBig5}.  but, 
he  died  before  H  waa  completed,  and  It  wtt  bfoa^  on  later. 
It  li  often  dlfficDlt  10  ad)wllctto  opoa  tbi  dtimt  of  Inventon, 
to  rarely  is  an  inventloti  tbe  product  of  one  nan')  mind  alone. 
Howp^r,  tbe  princlplo  waa  taken  i^  and  generally  adopted  Ip 
America  and  Germany,  and  found  lollowen  elsewhere,  not  only 
in  grand  but  in  upright  piansa,  to  the  nunuUctuia  of  which 
It  gave,  and  particularly  in  Germany,  a  powerful  impetus. 


Fio.  jjir^einway's 


ingle  casting  and  0 


U84.    Metal  Inmlog  in 


Since  1S85  the  American  system  ol  a  met  al  ptate  in  one  easting. 
and  cross-  01  over-stringing  by  which  the  spun  bam  ttrings 
cross  tbe  longer  ttee!  diagonally,  hat  become  general  irmit 

musical  taste  has  remained  constant  to  the  older   '^■*" 

wooden  ttiucture  and  parallel  stringing  Ibionghout.  The  greater 
tenacity  ol  the  modem  cul-iteel  wire  favours  a  very  much 
higher  temion,  and  consequent  eadei  production  ol  the 
higher  partials  ol  tbe  notes,  permltttaig  a  )«(eimtg  unknown 
I  Beethoven,  Schununn  oc  Chopin.  Whlleln  iS«]  the  highest 
nsion  ol  a  concert  grand  piano  worked  out  at  iliteen  Ions, 
nee  iSIs  thirty  Ions  has  been  recorded.  Generally  ipeakhig, 
le  rise  In  tensoD  may  be  eiprtised  musically  by  the  btltmal 
ininot  third,  10  the  great  advantage  of  tbe  standing  In  tune- 
Irst  shown  by  Henry  Sleinway  tn  the  London  Eihibition  of 
U),  this  altered  construction  attracted  ezlraardbury  attention 
Parit  in  1S67,  and  determined  tbe  German  dfaectian  of 


nUter 


particularly  noticeable  when 
averags  of  eneUenca  attatav 

playhig.  Naturally  tbe  aitiilic  quaiily,  the  pettonal  i 
characteiiaes  all  firat-dass  inslruzncnta,  and  permits  that  libetty 
~  choice  lAich  appertaina  to  m  true  conception  of  art. 
Much  attention  baa  been  ^ven  of  late  yean  to  tin  touch  «l 
anoi,  to  make  it  lest  Ihlng  {or  the  modem  performer,  especially 
nu,  in  igSs-ilW,  Anton  Rubhulcin  weni  throng  the  barea- 
lean  feat  ot  seven  coasecnlive  Uitorical  ledtals,  repeated  Id  the 
capita)  dliet  and  principal  musical  centre*  of  Europe^  FMt*w 
tupendow  plqrer  a  light  loach  waa  Indiipcatabk.    In 


iT 


tht  competition  for  powei  piuo  Bukei 
inereidnf  ih*  weight  ol  touch  to  he  en 
tmtiL»  to  obtuD  the  fainleU  puniasimo  from  muldie  C,  at  the 
boiit  edge  oil heVey,  fiom  thi«  to  loui  ounas  »» i.  nol  uncon- 
■aon  weight.  The  Biotdwood  gnnd  piuo  vlach  Chopin  used 
In  hii  recitali  io  Losdon  and  Uancbeilei  b  1&4B,  an  iiutiUBicnt 
thai  hai  never  been  repaired  01  altered,  sbowi  the  lesistuicc  b* 
imuired !  the  middle  C  louiids  al  two  oUBca  and  a  haU,  and  to 
that  weight  piaoo-mihen  have  retumed,  reguding  two  ounces 
tod  lhiee-qu«rteT»  u  a  possible  majiniuin.  Owing  to  the 
peatcr  mbsUuM  of  ihe  haminers  in  the  ban,  Ibe  loudi  will 


PIANOFORTE 


Fit-  34.— Bnodwwd  B«Ic»  Grand. 

ihnyi  be  heavier  in  that  depacUoeni,  and  lighter  in  the  treble 
flDn  the  leser  weight.  In  balancing  the  keya,  allowaiKe  hu 
to  be  made  fen  llie  ahotteT  leverage  of  the  black  kcya.  When 
Uk  player  ttnichea  the  keya  farther  bode  the  leverage  11  piopot- 
tjonatcly  shortened  and  the  weight  incceased,  and  there  b  also 
an  aicerKUpg  sfale  in  Lhe  weight  of  the  player's  tJow  or  presstire 
Lo  foniseinw-     The  tum  of  lhe  aggregate  force 


(dbyai 


xital  of  BD  bout  u 


if  calcubted,  would  be  asloniihing. 

The  inogt  important  ttructurai  change  in  pianoa  in  tecznt 
yean  has  been  tbe  rejection  o(  auppon  given  by  metal  bars 
«r  Elnits  between  tb<  meial  [date  to  which  Ibe  strings  arc  hitched 
aid  (be  wtot-plaiik  wherein  the  luning-pins  are  inserted. 
These  ban  foriBed  pan  of  William  Alien's  invention,  brought 
forwud  by  Siodirt  in  181a.  and  were  fini  employed  for  rigidity 
in  place  of  coraprnaalioo  by  Ibe  Paris  Erartb  two  ytan  later. 
Broadwood  in  Lotidaa  mtrodudng  about  that  lime  tbe  &ied 
neUlphte.  The  patent  No.iiii, for  the  barlcis  or  <qKn-Ka]e 
piano,  taken  out  in  London  in  iS3£  by  H.  J.  Tcchudi  Sioadwood, 
kMnaikable  lor  aimpllficalion  of  <te&ign  ai  well  ai  oijiei  quaUlies. 
Tea  yean  elapoed  after  tbe  taUng  out  of  lhe  patent  befme 
lit  fent  hirkif  (rinrf  was  beard  in  pubbc  (Jamiaiy  1S9S  at  £t 
Jann-t  Hall).  Tbe  metal  frame,  bdled  in  the  MUal  oonner 
lA  tbe  bottoa  framing,  is  of  fi;iF  cafit  steel  entire^  free  from  any 
tK  stnita,  beiog  inatcad  luntad  tipamai  ihe^dgna 


m  a  coatlnuaus  flange,  i 
■creased  modem  tension 
and  equality  of  vibration  power  throughout  tl 
The  abseim  of  barling  and  bracing  tauls  to 
quality  of  lone  to  ofLcn  obacrvahle  in  piaj 
*'ab  heavy  iron  frames,  and  the  barlesa  Heel  frame  baog  so 
moch  more  elaaiic  than  the  latter,  no  loss  in  resraumc  ii  pcr- 
(Cplihle.  Tbe  lone  of  the  barlea  grand  is  of  singular  bctulj 
and  lonDrity  and  la  even  throughout  the  campasa. 

The  problem  of  raonance~-with  itringed  keyboard  initni- 

mcDla,  tbe  reinforcement  or  amplification  of  Mond — has,  itDOI 

tbe   day*  of    the   lute-    and   spintl-makera,    been 

ipirical.     With  lute,  guitar,  and  viol  or  violin  j||^^,^^^ 

c  sound-boi  comei  in,  combiniag  in  tbe  iBitrumeni  ir,,,,,,,, 

B  distinct  piopcttica  of  tiring  and  enclotcd  air  or 

nd.    With  tbe  spinet,  barpsicfiord  and  [uano  we  have  to  do 

chiefly  with  the  [date  ol  elastic  wood,  lo  amplify  Ihe  initial 

sound  of  the  atringa;  and  the  ol ' 


iligblly  0 
under-barring  ol  wood  for 
bat  abaothed  the  allci 
piana-najieiv     Tbe  violi 


:iib  a 


belly. 


^ 


haa  relation  to  it;  hut  the  recent 

abown  that  the  initial  tiring 
vibraliona  may  be  paiaed  Ibiough 
*  bridge,  be  concentrated,  and 
adequately     ' 


than  half  a 


ransf  erred     to    an 
The  piaim, 


'Cladi- 


be  to  reduced,  but  the  n 
meot  problem  ia  open  Id 

a  pmaUde  rival  The 
atoi "  loundboaid  ia  the  mvcniion 
o[  Albeit  Schula,  late  director 
of  the  piano  manufactoty  of 
RitmUlci  and  Siibnc  of  C«1lia- 
gpn.  Dr  Ktna'i  name  has  been 
uHCinted  with  tbe  invenloi's  In 
lhe  English  patent.  In  tbe 
"  Gladiatw  "  Iwo  slabs  ol  wood, 
with  grain  ot  opposed  direclioa 
to  give  lhe  necessary  tension,  are 
ghKd  together,  and  the  whole 
system  of  belly  ban  ia  done  away 
with.  Thetf  i&  a  thinning  round 
the  edge,  to  {acilitaie  promptneu 
of  speech.    A$  we  are  clill  feeling 

and  conpiehensive  slaiemcnt  of 


To  return '  lo  the  louc 
doirabiliiy  of  what  i 
repetiiioB— that  Ihe  ^ 
jad.  or  Hkixi,  which 


o-«.— Canr-aRepeaidM 

jn.    1,  the  bun  m  wBii* 

hunmr   to   the  stringt,   tbould    If*  hammer  i.  gl«f-^_^vi 
„    L      ■        _  iL_     .1..     "pringaltachedlotbeblill  W 

nevw  be  far  away  from,  tho  ,%„';,  of  «1k  eotd  p-e^ 
notch  or  note  which  receivca.thc  Amitii  a  wire  fUe.  T^ 
impulse — is  aa  much  an  object  object  ia  that  Iho«i|fa  Ibe  kef 
ol  conHderalion  with  pano-  jnay  be  «iU  ^aarf  i^ 
makers  now  as  it  ha)  been  since  ^  dSIuKe  to  ensue  » 
Sebastian  £iud  began  those  quick  myiMic  ts  the  bio*  ■ 
faperiitwnlt  in^gog  which  ended    nreited. 


in  fail  Euvm  "  doobk 

puna  io  1816,  bis  beomu  ftl,    BM  Joacph  Houy  Ouy 

in.  1S5}  (puent  No.  itSj)  iavcBted  &  •im  ' 

rapctitipp  Id  all  luuuBp  Dcglccted  aX  Clkc  limi 

icpattated  ukI  diiputcd  over  by  otikcn,  wl 

pRBttvad  in  the  records  td  tbc  pileul  oSce>  while  tbc  LDTcntot 

hu  left  DO  otber  mirk.     But  IbE  atHity  of  tbc  iuvcntiai  bu 

taat  to  lifbL    It  is  incitaaiiglj  used  in  ttae  tctiout  of  Dpiigbt 

pisnoa,  UKJ,  m  combinilioo  viUi  tbc  old  Englkfa  grtod  Action. 

it  ftKCtafoJlr  competing  irilb  Ibe  Enrd  iclioi  pmpa  ud 

tliB  Bntplified  Hen-Enid,  et  lue  yms  *p  voy  locnlly 

employed. 

Tlun  his  b«  1  gmt  ebanst  la  Ibt  frea  tedinli|u>  of  piuw- 
pUyinc,  putly  (avotind  by  tbc  dndopfBtDC  ol  piu»-ni>kuig, 
iwt.i-..  '"^  ie»cting  ind  cibli|nia  tbe  pisDomtom  to  keep 
"""tM.  jj,^  utention  inccBntly  ibve  le  the  afas  ud  cc 
qninmenU  d  tb>  pliyen.  It  b  tiue  tbit  tbe  gedu  al  B«t' 
boven  doniniiia  »  techniipie  that  hat  becoBUi  obntele,  umI  io 
mmplelely  that  the  adequate  perfenoaDCC  at  U>  piano  woika 
Mill  giTB  to  tbe  Kne  11  well  aa  the  tetflkct  the  hi^icit  plcuun, 
but  bb  aonolatioiis  to  Cnmci's  Sluditi,  a  jmuemd  by  Schindler, 
betnjr  tbe  dole  touch  of  lbs  claricbord-idaTer  and  the  Kudent 
of  C  P.  E.  Bach's  EtMj  «  aatiduri.Playimt,  as  veil  n  tbe 


PIANOFORTE 

veaknen  as 


573 


Fic.  36.— Modern  FfinoU. 

A.  Dlowinf  pedak  operated  by  feet  of  pl^tyer 
cnnk  tof««f  B,  which  «khu  ^"  "'"' —  """"" 
exhauui  air  rrom  all  workjnt 

D,  i>  peifonted  roll  puaog  1 
F  operated  by  a  pnrumalCc  mi 
ja  connected  (0  metnistyle  poi 
wilha  •pedslly  markKl  rdr  f 

lever  M  to  drarru  puno  key. 


and  belEowa  in  Pianola. 


played,  by  jMani  ot  an  exi™  perforation  1 
£(uic  roll  O:  one  hole  for  ban  melody  al 
edge  lor  titble  melody, 

N.  it  metal  icm  or  bcacliet  connected  to  Ti 


L  4ch  ajt^de  edce  f 


pedalling,  thuf  allowinE  [nat  change  of  ei 
v^tbout  Interferntf  with  ipeed  of  roll. 


aical  IsrtramcM  df  (he  eu)y  piuo.    The  la- 

[quc  u  original,  and  at  tbe  lime  (t,  iSjo)  so 

iiBsiovafale,  uinK,  loi  beiibility,  neitbcr  wrist  nor  arm,  Wilb 
Chopin,  to  phiy  loudly  waa  anatbeniB.  Tbe  modeni  free  ityle 
of  playing  comes  from  Ciemy — Irhom  Beethoven  despised  it 
hiving  DO  legato  (Andisf)— tbmugb  Lisu  to  the  Kabiuleina 
and  to  tbe  iplecdidly  equipped  pcrfomiem  of  onr  time,  10 
whom  Ibe  pedal  has  become  iadispenaabje  for  canlabile  and 

The  most  eipert  peiformets  aie  now  rivalled  technically  by 
the  recent  eilrurdiiuiy  iovauin  lA  the  American  aulomatic 
piano-playcn — tbe  Angelus,  PiantJa,  Apollo,  Ced-  i,-wi 

lian,  and  other  varieties  of  the  same  idea.  Tbe  uM  ^1^ 
of  Ibe  perforated  roll  acts  by  means  of  the  ingenioui 
and  indeed  faultieKs  appLicatioa  of  pneumatic  leverage  to  tbe 
oidiMiy  piano,  doing  duly  lor  the  pianist's  fingers;  and  ii  ia 
made  possible  to  play  louder  or  aoiller,  faitet  or  slower,  by 
mechanical  sirangement.  Such  an  instrument  lacks  the  player's 
touch,  which  is  as  personal  and  indispensable  [or  sympathy  u 


Still.  1 


or  her  repertory.  Hie  Apollo  hai  the  addition  ol  a  useful 
transpoaing  app«ratus-.«n  aid,  however,  tliat,  though  often 
tried,  has  never  yet  been  adopted;  it  is  possibly  (00  disturbing 
to  Ibc  musician's  ear.  Tiie  mechanical  tuning-pin  is  an  analo- 
gous experiment  chich  come*  regularly  under  notice  aa  the  yeaia 
ga  by,  to  be  as  persistently  rejected.    The  most  practiol  of 

Elhibitlon,  iS8s.  Here,  pressure  upon  the  slrhigs  above  tbe 
wrcst-plank  bridge  modified  their  tension  after  a  first  rough 
adjustment  to  piicb  had  been  eSectcd. 

in  a  frmch  palcnl,  1841.     A  United  Slalei  patent  for  a  keybcHrd 

FnnK  in  iSfiJ  by  M.  FDumcaui.  Between  tSn  and  1901  il  total 
of  S3  potenti  had  been  inued  in  Ihc  Stala.    The  lini  complete 

(So.  >47«>  1897)/ The  spedficalion  it  from  a  communication  10 
the  Bcilllh  potent  office  by  Edwaid  HoUinnrorth  White,  of  Mmden. 
New  Haven  counlv,  Conn..  U.S.A  There  is  a  pneumalk:  chcU. 
fukrum  bar.  fii^r  levers,  bcllovra  and  pedati.  The  whole  appamiua 
iicontnined  in  a  portable  ca^net  nujuntcd  upon  castort,aoes  to  be 
coDvenienilT  movedaboutaroon.  The  finger  levers  oc  key  striken 
lotrnpnod  vhh  a  coniktemble  portion  o(  the  nunual  keys  or  clavier 
olajBano.  Tbos  the  aulooiatic  iHano-plai«  toraprises  a  portable 
cabinet  provkfed  with  belkrwa  and  operating  pedals,  a  pneumatic 
aetuaElflg  mechanism,  a  tracker  adjusted  for  the  im  of  a  peifarated 
mmic-eheet,  a  pneumatic  motor  and  winding-rolL  mecnanisfn  to 
propd  the  music-thect,  and  a  series  of  finger  levers  opented  by  the 
piteumBtic  nrchaninn,  »  projecting  at  to  overhang  the  piano 
keyboard  and  play  upon  it.  with  rocken  or  levers  for  depressing 
'the  innno  pedals.  Sulncqucntly  the  apparatus  was  made  capable 
at  acceletaling  or  retarding  the  tempo  at  the  srill  of  the 
operator.     Ardl  of  munc,  la  in- vide  and  varying  in  length  accord. 

follownl  in  lS98,Ihe  Apollo  190D.    The  dil^erei 


S°mirb7a'_2mpk^o^ 
sU  these  dc^ 


Vli^l  1^ 


after  the  inventor.  Mr  Abiwn  IGncaid  VirgU,  an  American  mui 
teacher,  is  intended  to  shorten  tbe  period  of  study  by  dang  a»i 
with  tooe,  so  that  the  finger  technique  it  acquired  mechanically  aj 
unmusically,   while   value   of  tone,   readingy  eaprtwon,   vba 


-.-   -ndersund   by  muiddl   producIioL -._    —    .. 

ceplivity  through  the  ear.  is  delayed  uniD  tbe  players  hand  it 
formed  and  condderably  developed.  The  opinion  of  some  of 
Ibe  very  greatest  pisnIilB  Is  bnnight  forward  as  approving  of 

.1. , I-  .1 1,    r„  ^moMt.  of  Vladimir  de  Pachmann, 

long  before  ^he^Vi^  ~     ' 


t.     Bhi^  in 


H'oTto. — 

n  it  il  hardly  likely  that  tbae  sldlM  performen  use  this 
b  keyboard  with  tlie  gnsduated  weight  advised  for  advancing 


574 


PIANOSA   PIATTI 


.    It  H  dtowed  thai  the 

TUIbal  dationcerulaJyVcnuiniallR  all  that  may  Geuid  rciird- 
K^ia^  iof  Mr  Viml^  invMHioo!  that  it  a  mc'^ly  ^ml, 

A„f^tj^  1)1  ^Qgo-  attBchineDt  bems  aloqe  ^dibfe,  a  boon  lo  itit 
bearen  of  ordinary  tuina  pncLicE,  icaka  and  five-fiae«r 
Mi  Vinil'i  invenlKui  wa>  ciDduced  in  i»  cicmtniary 
8;i.  IbF  more  iatirfaclixy  Ptactiu  Clavier  dala  from 

1  1S95  by  Mr  VirgiL 

htdnuilcr  |Maina7. 

iMi):  m^aJ^S!!! 

.  Lutaniut,  Ifuwiia 
Fnnariui,  SytUtmn 

Wit  Cwretponda'oct. 
Vurict'l  ^muMoil 
rlt  Clwtor  (Cottlmi, 


'Pnuiit'SuU  of  MKic    ""'^ 

, „  i7ja);  W.  A.  MoMit, 

,  „. 4,  Tiim  SniaAu.  P>' J5,  pnUce 

SltOaii  it  piaiu  jau  (Ptuii.  iSos);  F'  J-  F«ti 


LofidcCL"  in  Goatu  muiiaU  {Tiri 

itOtJt  Pnni.  rtfftn  in  jury  IPtia,  iSjj 


■'li^ion  in.™ 
iMirind  ElCvIIIitni  iiiiidit 
1867):  J.  5.  Biiadoood,  .Ssmi 

Oil  WitsautlillUiclit  da  Fprltfiami  BaHtaxU  (Bern.  1B44);  S.  Ind 
P.  Etard,  I«lii™fil*ihli«,(Lon<i™    iBjll:  W.  Pole.    '  Musical 


^iM^  tondon,  iBsil; 

-cat  Enhibiiion,"  imni  Wt.  .    ._.        ..       _. 

(London.  iBsi).  and  In  Jnrm'  Betartt,  Inunuaiaiial  Eiliitniiatt 
(Uindon,  lUi):  I.  FiechhofI,  Vrrnc*  fl»r  CricHirtlr  Ai  Clutir: 
bKi  tVienaa.  iJU)!  Anonymoua.  HUa  nr  la  Irmui  Ji  ilU. 
£ranl(nili>.  l8u}l  C  A.  Andlt.  Dir  OuntrlMii.  (Monbach.  iBtj); 
H.  Wlicker  von  Contcrtluinni.  Da  flird  cda  die  BackaffcitZu 
ill  Phbsi  IB  (Km  Farmni  (Fianktnn.  IW).  and  Z^f  Clarialiaii 
in  uintr  Tkarii,  Takaik  nmd  Ckiduchu  (Fiankfon.  1870);  E.  f. 
Rindiaull.  Tin  PiaxofprU  (London.  lUo);  J.  Bioadwood  k  Soni 
/nUriufiDiul  BtUHlisn  (London.  iS6i)i  L  de  Burbure.  Ftcliailia 

A<i!ilJiiai  S^Mn  iSn  (Bnins'Iritlt  ily);  G  F.  sIvI^lTJl 
Pianejlint  piiit  tmlUt  (Naples.  1S6S);  fnlciili:  XtnJpnnli 
d/  Sptcificaiwns  rtialinr  to  Musuai  Imlrumnili  (London.  lB7Lj^ 
F.  RoiDbouti  and  T.  Van  Lcriui.  De  LiuBin  da  anhKiSiib  Si'l 
Luautildt  (vol.  L.  Anlmerp.  1S71;  and  vol.  iL.  Tbe  Hague); 
C,  EnicL  Uusical  lailrnm/tUi  in  Uit  StMk  KauioiU'  JifxHim 
Hlondon,  1874).  and  "Some  Account  of  the  Clavichord."  ia 
Uusical  Timtl  (Lomloni  July,  AuguU.  Scptcmbci,  iBjql;  E. 
Van  Dir  StrattBl.  U  Uuiifui  aux  Pnyt-btu.  vol.  iii..  (BniBel^ 
18;S);  (mklKOTW  «  Sons.  Tki  Pianojarlc  (Oorion,  lS74)t  C.  Chou- 
qnet.  t*  Uiuteiu  K-aJcnoUwi  nalwnoi  ii  mKliw  (Parll  lS;s). 
and  ExpoaUitn  mnaaitUt  tt  irMmalwnale  it  Faiii,  roppori  an 
jury  [Pari..  iB8o);  L.  PnUti.  DtOa  Oripnc  M  fiamfnU  (Ffc.cncc, 
1S76):  C.  Meyer  &  Sod.  On  Ou  FmB  Irm  PlaU  Fnm  Jar  Pamt 
(Philadelphia.  1876);  C.  Ponskchl,  B  Fiaiujtrti,  nu  arifiie  t 
iviluPpB  (Florence.  1876)1  Bounquec.  Eltmalary  Trcaliii  en 
AfiiiiuJ  /nlmvll  OAndon.  1876):  A.  Kisui,  CUabfiU  iri  lulrii- 
funU  id  muifW  di  nufe  JCmw  (Florid,  iSlS):  V.  MahDIon. 
Anjutoira  du  c/Htiovalffiri  toyai  dt  muligue  de  anaeHa  IBrusula, 
1S77  U  lAAl).  and  Catalctut  dci£ripi{f  <i  aiuivTifu  dii  mttilt 
imilrumental  an  ammaieire  toyai  d<  tniuiqiu  it  OrtaeUts  (Chrnl. 
1880-1*81);  L-  F.  ViHrishi.  Uunugiaiia  (Modcna.  1879);  E. 
Brtnsmad,  Bulay  of  Ikt  Pian^arli  (London,  1879);  S,  Blondel. 
»UIW(  dHoliUigK  it  fiano  (l^rih  1880);  A.  Rciumann.  /jUki- 
liirU  CttckidUt  da  rlniliJUil  Ifunt  (Leipiif.  1880-1S81):  A.  ], 
ElliL  "  Hialonr  of  Muiical  Pitch,"  «itb  appendices  in  JountoJ 
Hf  lia  S™iy  0/ jlrtj  O^ndon.  iSBo) ;  A.  j.  HipWei  varioui  aoid.. 
in  Cmve'i  Okliefiv^o/ lfw>c  sxJ  Jf uicuiu. -'^HlKory  of  the  Piaiw- 
iortei"  with  appeodit,  in  Jtunut  if  At  Stcutj  oj  Arlt  (Londoo, 
1881}.  and  "  Titc  PianofoRe  and  iii  Piecurwr^  in  the  En^uii 
IllMOitltd  Uat<iB<u  (London.  1884)10.  Bie.  HuUnj  of  llit  Puw- 
fp,u  (London,  i8»l.  J.  BUiethner  and  H.  Greiicliel.  Da  Piano- 
foiUhcu  ixrd  «l.  LiipilE.  1909] ;  5.  KauiilE.  Dai  FiaileliirU  in  llinn 
olkiUufaii  ^nAun  (SchMIUI.  191°):  F.  A.  (^oehlinier.  ClirliuUt 
ia  nan<JW.filEaicl.  igio).  (A.  J.  H.i  K.  S.) 


at  MahninB  (Elba),  [nn  wUd 

poial  is  osly  9;  ft.  above  Ka^lev 
tua  bsiuihed  to  il  bis  gnadBan 


It  I*  ;t  o.  S.W.  Fop.  (tttt), 
ia  qoite  2at,  ud  Iba  U<lM*t 
J.    Iti  area  ia  0  iq.  m.    Aofua- 

nuDH  OL  Dauu  Dear  me  oaroour  still  bcu  his  name.  It  clupged 
bands  aott  Ihaa  once  is  the  wan  between  Piia  and  Cowa  in 
the  11th  and  ijtb  cenlurio;  itom  13^  it  belonged  to  the  prince 
o<  Piombjao,  but  was  depopidaled  in  isjj  by  the  Turkish  eeet. 
and  only  reiettlfld  at  the  beginoing  ol  tbe  iglh  centuiy.  In 
1S57  a  penal  tolony  waa  ealabliihed  here. 

PlABim,  the  popular  name  of  a  Culholic  cducaiional  onlcr. 
ibe  "  cleiici  icgulares  scholarun  piantm,"  the  Pauline  Coamc*- 
tion  oI  Die  Mother  ol  God.  founded  by  Joseph  Calaunu  (Joce- 
pbusa  Main  Dei|al  Rome  in  the  beginning dI  the  i7(hcenlBr>. 
Calasania,  a  native  of  Calanni  In  the  province  ol  Hueaca  in 

Alc^i,  and  after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  Temo\*ed  ro 
Rotne  (isga).  Here  he  organiaed,  in  1607.  a  brotherhood  vhich 
ultimately,  in  1617,  became  an  independent  Congregalion. 
numbeiiog  a(  that  time  fifteen  priests,  under  Calataiua  as  iheii 
head.  To  the  ibiee  usual  vows  they  added  a  fourth,  thai  of 
devotion  lo  the  gratuiloua  instniction  of  youth.  In  1611  the 
CoDgregalion  received  a  new  constitution  from  Grepiry  XV.. 


d  aU  tl 


i(  the  IT 


■  ol  the  Jesuits  led  to  his  removal  fi 


privileges  of  ihe  Congiegaiion  wei 
1660,  1669  and  i6«8.  The  Piarist: 
ire  found  chiefly  in  Italy,  Spain,  tl 
and  cqMcially  in  Austria- Hungary, 
waa  icgulaied  by  the  «  —    ' 


rH.  In  I6*j  Ibe 
m  office;  owing  10 
i  of  its  privileges 


ling,  writing,  elem 


Syntaiis,  Hutnaniiai  or  Poc»s,  Bhetorica,  The  general  provost 
ollbeorderii  chosen  by  thegenetal  chapter,  and  with  a  general 
procurilor  and  four  assistants  readcs  11  Rome.  The  members 
are  divided  inlo  plofessora,  novices,  and  lay  brethren.  Their 
dress  ii  very  timilat  ID  that  ol  Ihe  Jesuits;  their  moilo  "  Ad 
majus  piettl[*  incremenlum! " 

For  Calaana,  we  Timon-David.  Vii  dt  Si  Joupk  CaUmmti 
(MarKilles.  1884};  on  Ihe  Piaiists.  P.  Helyot.  Hia.  dii  trim  Id-- 
ritmia  (1715},  iv.  181:  J.  A,  ScylTen,  Ordatlrrrrln  da  Ptttuun 
IHalle.  17SJ):  J.  Schaller,  Crdaiiin  iber  iit  Orim^lainnt  da  Pia,- 
tsUn  (Pngue,  iSojJ;  A.  Heimbucher.  OrAii  mm  Kenirrralumn 
(1897)  il.  171;  article!  by  O.  ZAckler  in  Htnot-Haucki  Xicl- 

C.  Kniel  ia  Wetter  and  Welie'i  Kifiiat-lciilHm  (189;).  vol.  li. 

RA'raA  (FUTu).  the  capital  of  the  department  ol  Neamiiu. 
RuB.ania,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  [he  livel  Biiltitia,  where 
il  cuts  a  way  through  the  Carpathian  foothills.  Pop.  (igoo), 
17,39]-  A  branch  railway  passes  through  the  (own.  and  at 
BscBU  meets  the  main  line  from  Czemowiu  in  Bukowini  to 
Galili,  The  church  ol  Si  John's  (01  the  Pilnce's)  monasicry 
wa<  founded  in  ii^j  by  Stephen  the  C real.  There  an  uir-miUs 
andteitile  factories  in  Fiaira,whichhasa  considerable  trade  in 
wine  and  timber.  Neamlcu  is  one  of  Ihe  most  densely  lorestfd 
regions  Id  Moldavia.  Lumber  lafts  src  floated  down  the  Bis- 
tritu  to  the  Seieih,  and  so  on  to  Cslati.  Tbete  ate  teveral 
monaatcHes  in  the  neighbourhood. 

PIATTI,  CARLO  ALFREDO  (1S11-19C1),  Italian  violoncellin . 
was  bom  at  Beigamo  on  Ihe  Sth  of  JanuaT>'  iSii.     He  «-as 

of  Milan.  From  iSjS  onwards  be  journeyed  over  Europe, 
playing  with  eilraordinary  success  in  all  the  important 
cities  ol  the  continenl.  lo  1844  be  appeared  before  the 
London  public  at  a  Pbilharnianic  Concert^  and  in  iSji),  on 
Ibe  foundation  of  the  Popular  Concerts,  be  (oak  up  the 
work  with  which  he  was  most  inlimaiely  oinnctled  lor 
thirty-nine  seasons,  retaining  until  1897  the  post  of  fir^l 
violoncello  at  IhcK  famoui  chamber  concerts,  during  the  bUU 


PIAUHY-^PICA 


575 


half  of  e&ch  wifcB.  His  purely  duilctl  style,  his  wide  musical 
sympathies,  and  Ua  gener^  cultiue  and  diami,  woulii  have 
ensured  him  a  high  positioik  even  without  his  maiveUously 
finhhed  technical  skilL  la  1894  the  fiftieth  amuvenaiy  ol  his 
fizst  appearance  in  London  was  celebrated  by  a  leo^on  given 
in  honour  of  him  and  his  lifelong  friend  Joachim.  He  retired 
from  public  life,  owing  to  a  severe  iUness,  in  1897,  and  until  his 
death  at  Beigamo  on  the  tgth  of  July  igox  di^dcd  his  time 
between  his  native  town  and  CadenaMyta.  As  a  composer  he 
attained  a  wide  popularity  with  some  graceful  and  p<^>ular 
songs;  he  did  excellent  work  as  an  editor;  and  he  was  an 
enthusiastic  collector  and  musical  antiquary. 

PIAUHT»  or  Puma,  a  north-eastern  state  of  Brazil,  bounded 
N.  and  W.  by  MaranhBo,  £.  by  Ceari,  Pemambuco  and  Bahia, 
and  S.  by  Bahia.  It  has  a  few  miles  of  Atlantic  coast-line  on 
the  N.,  and  the  Rio  Paxnahyba  forms  the  bouodoiy  line  with 
MaranhAo  throughout  its  entire  length.  Area,  116,593  sq.  m.; 
pop.  (1900),  334.328.  Part  of  the  state  on  the  AUantic  coast  and 
along  the  lower  Pamahyba  is  low,  swampy  and  malarial.  South 
of  this  the  country  rises  gradually  to  a  high  plateau  with  open 
campoa.  This  plateau  region  is  watered  by  numerous  tributaries 
of  the  Pamahyba,  chief  of  which  are  the  Urussuhy,  the  Canind£ 
and  its -tributary  the  Piauhy,  the  Gurgueia  and  its  tributary 
the  Parahim,  which  drains  the  large  inland  lake  of  Pamagu&, 
the  Longa,  and  the  Poty,  which  has  its  source  in  the  state  of 
Cear&.  The  Pamahyba  is  navigable  for  boats  of  3  ft.  draught  up 
to  Nova  York,  a  few  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Gurgueia, 
anci  could  be  made  navigable  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  Balsas. 
iKe  climate  is  hot  and  humid  in  the  lowlands  and  along  the  lower 
Pamahyba,  but  in  the  uplands  it  is  dry  with  high  sun  tempera- 
tures and  cool  nights.  The  principal  industry  is  stock-raising, 
which  dates  from  the  first  settlement  in  1674  by  Domingos 
AfFonso  Mafrense,  who  established  here  a  large  number  of  cattle 
ranges.  A  secondary  industry  is  the  raising  of  goats,  which  are 
able  to  stand  neglect  and  a  scanty  food  supply.  Sheep  have 
likewise  been  raised  in  Piauhy,  but  there  is  no  market  for  mutton 
and  their  wool  is  not  utilized.  The  agricultural  pnxiucts  are 
cotton,  sugar  and  tobacco.  Of  food-stu£b  the  people  do  not 
produce  enough  for  their  own  consumption.  Forest  products 
include  rubber,  camauba  wax  and  dyewoods.  The  exports  in- 
clude hides,  skins,  rubber,  wax,  tobacco  and  cotton.  The 
capital  is  Thcrezina,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pamahyba,  250  m. 
above  Pamahyba  (town),  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  line  of 
Ught-draught  river  boats.  The  town  dates  from  1852,  is  attrac- 
tively situated,  and  is  regularly  laid  out  with  broad,  straight 
streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  The  population 
of  the  mwucipio  in  1890  was  31,523,  which  includes  a  large 
rural  district.  Other  towns,  with  their  populations  in  X890, 
are  Oeiras  (19,858),  founded  in  17x8  imder  the  name  of  Moxa; 
Amarante  (i  5^525) ;  Valenca  (i  7,693) ;  and  Campo  Maior  (12425), 
the  figures  given  of  population  being  those  of  the  large  districts 
{municipios)  in  which  the  towns  are  situated. 

PIAZZA,  properly  an  open  square  or  place  In  an  Italian  town 
(Ital.  piasu,  from  Lat.  platea,  broad  space,  Gr.  tX^tvi,  broad). 
These  squares  were  usually  surrounded  with  a  colonnade  or 
arcade,  and  thus  the  word  has  been  loosely  applied  to  a  covered 
walk  or  arcade  along  the  front  of  a  building,  and  in  America, 
to  the  veranda  of  a  house. 

PIAZZA  ARMERINA,  a  city  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of 
Caltanisetta,  39  m.  by  road  E.S.E.  from  that  town,  and  the 
same  distance  S.  of  the  railway  station  of  Assoro-Valguamera, 
43  m.  W.  of  Catania,  situated  2360  ft.  above  sea-Ievel.  Pop. 
(1901),  24,1x9.  It  has  a  X5th-ccntury  cathedral,  with  a  fine 
campanile,  and  some  of  the  houses  show  Norman  or  Gothic 
architecture.  The  foundation  of  the  town  dates  from  the  xxth 
century,  and  the  dialect  is  Lombard. 
See  Slauceri  in  t'ArU  (1906),  14. 

PIAZZI,  GIUSEPPB  (i  746-1826),  Italian  astronomer,  was 
bom  at  Ponte,  in  the  ValteUina,  on  the  x6th  of  July  1746.  He 
entered  the  Theatine  Order  in  1764,  accepted  the  chair  of 
mathematics  in  the  academy  of  Palermo  in  1780,  and  persuaded 
the  viceroy,  Prince  Caramanico,  to  build  an  observatory  there. 


During  a  visit  to  Ragjland  in  1788  he  procured  tiom  Jesse 
Ramsden  a  five-loot  altazimuth,  with  which  he  collected  at 
Palermo,  X79a>i8i3,  the  materials  for  two  admirable  star- 
catalogues,  published  in*  Z803  and  18x4  respectively.  While 
engaged  on  this  work  he  discovered,  on  the  ist  of  January  1801, 
the  first  asteroid  or  minor  planet,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Ceres,  the  tutelary  ddty  of  Sidly.  He  died  at  Naples  on  the 
22nd  of  July  1826. 

See  B.  E.  Maineri,  V Astronomy  GumpU  Piasu  (Milan.  1871); 
R.  Wolf,  BiograpkieH,  Bd.  iv.  p.  27^;  MonaUicke  Correspondent 
(i8fO;  portrait),  xxi.  46;  Astr.  JaMnuh,  Itv.  218;  BulUHn  dew 
sciences  (1826),  vi.  339;  Edm.  Journal  0/  Sdenca  (1827).  vi.  193; 
Memoirs  Roy,  Astr,  So*,  iii.  119;  R.  Grant,  MiU.  Fhys,  Astronomy, 
pp.  238.  510,  549. 

PIBRAC,  OUT  DU  FAUR,  Sbigmeue  oe  (i  529-1584), 
French  jurist  and  poet*  was  bom  at  Toulouse,  of  an  old  family 
of  the  magistracy.  He  studied  law  there  with  Jacques  Cu  jas,  and 
afterwards  at  IVulua.  In  X548  he  waa  admitted  to  the  bar  at 
Toulouse,  at  once  took  high  rank,  and  rose  to  be  jug^-mage, 
an  office  in  languedodan  cities  about  equal  to  that  of  prisU. 
He  was  selected  in.  1562  as  one  of  the  three  representatives  of 
the  king  of  France  at  the  council  of  Trent.  In  1565  he  became 
general  advocate  to  the  parlemeat  of  Paris,  and  extended  the 
renaissance  in  juri^mdence  which  was  transforming  French 
jiistice.  In  1573  he  was  sent  by  Charles  IX.  to  accompany  as 
chancellor  his  brother  Henry  (afterwards  Henry  HI.)  to  Poland, 
of  which  country  Henry  had  been  elected  king.  Plbrac's  fluent 
Latin  won  much  applause  from  the  Poles,  but  his  second  visit 
to  Poland  in  1575,  when  sent  back  by  Henry  IIL  to  try  to  save 
the  Crown  he  had  deserted,  was  not  so  succci^ul.  Then  he  was 
employed  in  negotiations  with  the  so-called  polHiques,  and  he 
managed  to  keep  them  quiet  for  a  while.  In  1578  he  became  the 
chancellor  of  Marguerite  of  France,  queen  of  Navarre.  Although 
he  was  fifty,  her  beauty  and  inteUectual  gifts  led  him  to  aspire 
to  win  her  affection;  but  he  was  rejected  with  disdain.  He  died 
in  1584.  His  oratorical  style  was  too  pedantic,  but  quotations 
from  the  classics  had  a  fresher  meaning  in  his  day.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Ronsard,  de  Thou  and  L'H^^ital,  and  left,  among 
other  literary  remains,  elegant  and  sententious  guatraines, 

PIBROCH,  a  form  of  music  as  played  by  the  bagpipe.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Gaelic  piobaireachd,  the  art  of  the 
bagpiper.  This  special  form  of  bagpipe  music,  consisting  of 
a  series  of  variations  founded  on  a  theme,  was  called  the  wlar. 
These  variations  are  generally  of  a  martial  or  warlike  character 
and  include  dirges  and  marches  (see  Bagpipe). 

PICA,  the  name  of  the  European  representative  of  a  group 
of  diminutive  rodent  mammals,  also  known  as  taOIess  hares, 
mouse-hares,  or  piping  hares,  constituting  the  family  Ochotonidat 
with  the  single  genus  Ocholona.  From  the  more  typical  hares 
and  rabbits  they  differ  by  the  short  and  rounded  ears,  the  absence 
of  a  tail,  and  the  relatively  shorter  hind-limbs,  as  well  as  by 
complete  collar-bones.  The  soles  of  the  feet  are  hairy,  and  the 
fur  is  usually  soft  and  thick;  while  in  some  cases  the* last  upper 
molar  is  absent.  Picas  are  inhabitants  of  cold  and  desert 
regions.  They  dwell  either  in  the  chinks  between  rocks,  or  in 
burrows,  although  one  Himalayan  species  frequents  pine-forests. 
They  are  very  active,  and  most  of  the  species  utter  a  piping  or 
whistling  cry.  They  store  up  a  supply  of  grass  for  winter  use; 
in  Siberia  it  is  stacked  in  small  heaps.  The  Himalayan  Ochotona 
roylei  may  be  seen  in  the  daytime,  but  most  kinds  are  nocturnal. 
The  Siberian  species,  O.  alpina,  ranges  into  eastem  Europe,  but 
Central  Asia  is  the  headquarters,  although  a  few  species  range 
into  Arctic  America  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  size  picas 
may  be  compared  to  guinea-pigs.  Till  of  late  years  the  group 
has  been  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Lagomys.  There  are 
several  extinct  genera. 

Sec  Rodentia;  also  J.  L.  Bouhotc.  "The  Mouse-hares  of  the 
genus  Ochotona"  Proc,  Zod,  Soc.  (London,  1905).  (R.  L.*) 

PICA,  the  Latin  name  of  a  genus  of  oscine  passerine  birds, 
the  magpies.  The  Latin  word,  by  interchange  of  initial  p  and 
k^  is  possibly  the  Gr.  liaaa  (see  Magpie),  and  probably  the  same 
v/ord  as  picus^  the  woodpecker  {q.v.).  Another  derivation  would 
connect  both  pica  and  picus  with  the  root  pic-  of  pingere,  to 


57* 


PICARD— PICARESQUE  NOVEL 


pftint,  from  the  parti-coloured  appearance  of  the  bird.  It  is 
this  "  pied  "  or  black  and  white  look  of  the  page  that  probably 
gave  the  name  of  pica,  **  pie  "  or  "  pye/'  to  the  ordinal  printed 
in  black-letter  (see  Pie),  and  thence  to  a  size  of  type  in  printing 
coming  next  to  "  English  "  (see  TypooRAPRY).  The  Gr.  idffffa 
and  Lat.  pica  were  used  of  a  perverted  craving  for  unnatural 
foods;  and  the  word  has  been  adopted  in  this  sense  in  modem 
medical  terminology. 

PICARD,  LOUIS  JOSEPH  ERNEST  (zSaz-xS??),  French 
politician,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  24th  of  December  2821. 
After  taking  his  doctorate  in  law  in  1846  he  joined  the  Parisian 
bar.  Electeid  to  the  corps  IJgisIatif  in  x  858,  he  joined  the  group  of 
£inile  Ollivicr.  But  as  Ollivier  approximated  to  the  government 
standpoint,  Picard,  one  of  the  members  of  the  group  known  as 
Les  Cinq,  veered  more  to  the  left.  He  founded  in  z868  a  weekly 
democratic  journal,  L*£Ucteur  Kbn,  and  in  1869  was  dected 
both  for  Hfrault  and  Paris,  electing  to  ait  for  the  former. 
From  the  4th  of  September  1870  he  hdd  the  portfolio  of  finance 
in  the  government  of  National  Defence.  In  January  1871  he 
accompanied  Jules  Favre  to  Versailles  to  arrange  the  capitula- 
tion of  Paris,  and  in  the  next  month  he  became  minister  of  the 
interior  in  Thiers's  cabinet.  Attacked  both  by  the  Monarchist 
and  the  Republican  press,  he  resigned  in  May.  Later  in  the  year 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Brussels,  where  he  remained  for 
two  years.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  resumed  his  seat  in  the 
Left  centre,  and  in  1875  became  life  senator.  He  died  in  Paris 
on  the  i3lh  of  May  1877. 

PICARDY  {La  Picordie),  one  of  the  old  provinces  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Hainaut  and  Artois,  on  the  E.  by  Cham- 
pagne, on  the  S.  by  the  He  de  France,  and  on  the  W.  by  Nor- 
mandy and  the  English  Channel.  Its  maritime  frontier  ran 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Aa  to  the  difis  of  Caux,  and  it  included 
the  whole  of  the  basin  of  the  Somme  and  part  of  that  of  the 
Oise.  The  chief  towns  of  Picardy  were  Amiens,  Boulogne, 
Abbeville,  Laon,  Soissons,  Montreuil,  P^ronne,  Beauvais, 
Montdidier,  St  Quentin  and  Noyon.  Its  principal  rivers  were 
the  Somme  and  the  Oise.  Picardy  formed  part  of  the  arch- 
diocese of  Reims,  and  its  bishoprics  were  Amiens,  Beauvais, 
Scnlis,  Soissons,  Noyon  and  Laon.  In  1789  the  province  of 
Picardy  was  covered  by  the  three  bishoprics  of  Amiens,  Noyon 
and  Boulogne.  It  was  one  of  the  provinces  of  the  five  great 
fermes,  districts  subject  to  the  tarUf  of  1664,  and  in  judicial 
matters  was  imder  the  authority  of  the  parlement  of  Paris. 
Its  area  now  forms  the  department  of  the  Somme  and  parts 
of  the  departments  of  Pas  de  Calais,  Aisne  and  Oise. 

The  name  of  Picardy  does  not  appear  until  the  zath  century, 
but  was  employed  by  Matthew  Paris  and  was  in  general  use  in 
the  Z4th  century.  In  the  zjth  century  the  province  was 
divided  into  the  two  bailliages  of  Amiens  and  Vermandois,  but 
its  regular  organization  as  part  of  the  kingdom  of  France  only ' 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  z  6th  century.  At  this  time  it  was 
divided  into  north  and  south  Picardy.  North  Picardy,  or  Picardy 
proper,  formed  one  of  the  great  military  ^vemorships  of  the 
kingdom,  while  south  Picardy  was  included  in  the  He  de  France. 
North  Picardy  was  divided  into  upper  and  lower  Picardy,  the 
former  being  the  interior  part  of  the  province  and  the  ktter  the 
district  along  the  coast.  Upper  Picardy  comprised  the  districts 
of  Ami^nois,  Santerre,  Vermandois  and  Thi6rache,  and  lower 
Picardy  those  of  Ponthieu,  Vimeu,  Boulonnais  and  Calaisis, 
or  the  Pays  reconquis;  south  Picardy  included  the  districts  of 
Beauvaisis,  Laonnais  and  Soissonais. 

Under  the  Romans  Picardy  was  part  of  Belgica  secunda; 
it  was  inhabited  by  the  Morini,  the  Ambiani,  the  Veromimdui, 
the  Bellovaci  and  the  Suesaiones,  whose  names  still  appear  in 
Amiens,  Vermandois,  Beauvais  and  Soissons.  The  Romans 
intersected  the  district  with  roads  and  built  several  castra  to 
defend  the  valley  of  the  Somme.  In  the  3rd  century  Christianity 
was  preached  here,  and  St  Quentin  and  others  were  martyred. 
A  Utile  later  abbeys  were  founded,  among  them  Corbie,  St 
Val6ry  and  St  RiquJer.  Early  in  the  5th  century  Picardy 
became  the  centre  of  Merovingian  France,  for,  as  the  historian 
Idichelet  says,  *'rhistoIre  de  I'antique  France  semble  entassle 


en  Picardie."  Clovts  had  his  first  capital  at  Soissons,  Cbax)^- 
magne  had  his  at  Noyon,  and  Laon  was  the  capital  and  the 
refuge  of  the  later  and  feebler  Carolittgiaii  sovereigns. 

During  the  later  feudal  period  Picardy  was  the  borne  of  the 
counts  of  Vettnaadttte,  of  Clenaoat  and  of  Ponthieu,  the  size  of 
Coucy  and  others.  The  nefgbbouiing  dukes  of  Burgundy  cast 
covetous  eyes  vpon  the  province;  in  Z435,  by  the  famous  treaty 
of  Arras,  the  royal  towns  and  lands  In  the  valley  of  the  Soonine 
were  ceded  by  King  Charles  VII.  to  Burgundy.  However,  after 
the  death  of  Charln  the  Bold  in  1477  Picardy  was  finally  onated 
with  the  crown  of  France.  The  province  was  early  an  industzial 
district.  Flemish  immigrants  brou^t  with  them  the  liicxative 
trade  of  weAviog  doth,  and  the  Somme  towna  were  soon  compet- 
ing with  those  of  Flanders.  The  Picard  towns  were  noted  for 
their  love  of  independence,  which  often  broag|it  them  into 
oollbion  with  the  khigs  of  France  during  the  rath  centaiy.  At 
a  bter  time  the  province  received  a  number  of  Spanish  immi- 
grants. In  the  nuddle  ages  the  Picards  formed  one  of  the  four 
"  nations  "  at  the  university  of  Paris.  Picardy  has  a  high  place 
as  a  home  of  Gothic  art,  this  being  testified  to  by  the  superb 
cathedrals  at  Amiens  and  Noyon,  while  within  its  borders  is 
the  famous  chAteau  of  Coucy. 

'  Picardy  has  a  literature  of  its  own,  which  was  rich  azid  popular 
in  the  X2th  century.  It  sufiered  greatly  from  the  ravages  of 
the  Normans,  and  later  during  the  Hundred  Years'  War  and 
the  wars  between  France  and  Spain.  Within  it  are  the  famous 
fields  of  Crecy,  Agincourt  and  St  Quentin,  while  it  also  indndes 
places  of  coaierence  like  Gulnes,  Amiens  and  Picquigny.  The 
Picard  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  soldier,  being  sometimes  called 
the  "  Gascon  of  the  North,"  and  in  1558  Henry  II.  created  the 
rigimerU  de  Picardie.  Many  anthropological  remains  have  been 
foimd  in  the  Somme  valley. 

See  Labourt,  Essai  sur  r»rigine  des  vHUs  de  Picardie  (Amiens. 
1840):  Grenier,  Introduction  d  t'kistoire  ginfrale  de  la  province  de 
Picardie  (Amiens,  1856);  and  H.  Carnoy,  Liatratun  arale  de  la 
Picardie,  (1883). 

PICARB8QUB  MOVEU  THE.  This  spedal  form  of  the 
roman  d'aventures  may  be  defined  as  the  prose  autobiography  of 
a  real  or  fictitious  personage  who  describe  his  experiences  as  a 
social  parasite,  and  who  satirizes  the  sodety  which  he  has 
exploited.  The  picaroon,  or  rogue  type,  is  represented  by 
Encolpos,  Ascyltos  and  Giton  in  the  Satyricon  which  traditioo 
ascribes  to  Petronius;  it  persists  in  Ludan,  in  the  R&man  de 
Renari,  in  the  fatieaux,  and  in  other  works  popular  during  the 
middle  ages;  and  it  is  incarnated  in  real  life  by  sudi  men  of 
genius  as  the  Archpricst  of  Hita  and  Francois  Villon.  But  in 
its  final  form  the  picaresque  novel  may  be  regarded  aa  a  Spanish 
invention.  The  word  picaro  b  first  used,  apparently,  in  a  letter 
written  by  Eugenio  de  Salazar  at  Toledo  on  the  Z5th  of  Apc3 
r56o;  the  etymology  which  derives  ^caro  from  picar  (to  pick  up) 
is  unsatisfactory'  to  philologists,  but  it  suggests  the  picaroon^ 
chief  business  in  life.  In  the  Tesoro  de  la  lenpta  ceskOama 
(Madrid,  z6zx)  Sebastian  Covarrubias  y  Orozco,  the  best  of 
Spanish  lexicographers,  describes  a  pfcaro  as  a  man  of  loo^ 
character  engaged  in  menial  work  and — by  extension — a  rascal 
who  attains  his  ends  by  skilful  dissimulation;  and  the  earliest 
application  of  the  expression  pfcaro  to  a  character  in  fiction 
occurs  in  Mateo  Alem&n's  Guzmdn  de  Alfaracke,  the  first  part  of 
which  was  published  in  Z599.  But  a  genuine  netela  picaresea 
existed  in  Spain  before  the  word  pfcaro  became  generally 
current. 

The  earnest  spedmen  of  the  kind  is  La  Vida  de  LatarOh  de 
Tormes  y  de  susfortunas  y  adversidadcs,  an  anonymous  tale  long 
attributed,  on  insufiident  grounds,  to  Diego  Hunado  de  Mendoea 
(g.v.).  The  authorship  of  this  brilb'ant  book  and  the  drcumstances 
of  its  publication  are  obscure;  however,  tt  was  certainly  issued 
not  later  than  X554,  and  was  thrice  reprinted  before  X559,  whm  it 
was  placed  on  the  Index.  Imitations  of  so  succeasfid  a  story 
were  inevitable,  and  so  early  as  xsS5  there  appeared  at  Antwerp 
La  Segunda  parte  de  LoMoriUo  de  Tormes,  an  anonsrmous  sequel 
which  completdy  misinterpreted  the  irreverent  wit  of  the  oiiginaL 
The  first  {nrt  had  been  prohibited  because  of  its  attacks  on  the 


PICARESQUE  NOVEL 


577 


cImbt;  ia  the  Moond  pan  Um  Imo  b  iMCMiited  M  ft  devout  jm^ 
traiMforiMd  into  a  tunny  91  the  interocMioB  of  the  Viigin  Muy« 
who  thus  saved  him  (rom  death;  after  vMoy  extravagant  eipcri- 
encoi  in  this  form  he  is  restored  to  human  shapes  aad  proposes 
tp  teach  the  submarine  language  at  the  univenity  of  Sabmianca. 
This  dull  performance  naturally  failed  to  please  and,  meanwhile^ 
many  surreptitioua  copies  of  the  first  part  «rett  iatloduoed^tnCo 
^paln;  the  Inquiaitioa  finally  gave  up  the  attempt  tosuppiess  it, 
aad  in  1573  an  expurgated  editioa  waa  authorized.  With  thia 
mutilated  vecsion  the  Spanisb  public  waa  forced  to  be  content 
during  the  remaining  fifteen  years  of  Philip  IL's  reign.  Upon 
the  death  of  this  sombre  monarch  society  relaxed  its  hypodilkal 
pose  of  austerity,  and  In  1599  Mateo  Alem&n(f.v.)  published  the 
Pfiwur*  pQrtt  d€  CuamAm  de  Aifaroekt.  It  is  modelled  upon 
LuarUl»  44  Torwuty  being  the  autobiography  of  the  son  ol  a 
ruined  Genoese  money-lender;  but  the  writer  indulges  in  a 
tedious  series  of  moralizings.  This  contrasts  sharply  with  the 
laconic  cynicism  of  LauriUo  dt  Tonmta\  but  Cmm&m  de  Aif^raeke 
la  richer  in  Inventioo,  in  variety  of  episode  and  in  the  prcstntation 
of  character.  Its  extraordinary  popularity  tempted  a  Valendan 
lawyer  named  Juan  Josi  Martt  to  public  a  Segimdm  paru  de  ia 
vida  del  ^are  Ciamdn  de  Alfaradu  (1602)  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Mateo  Lujin  de  Sayavedra.  Though  partly  plagiarixcd  fivm 
the  manuscript  of  the  genuine  second  psit  to  which  Mart!  bad 
somehow  oBtained  access,  the  continuation  wsa  coldly  received; 
in  1604  Afem&n  brought  out  the  true  continuation,  and  revenged 
himself  by  introducing  into  the  narrative  a  brother  of  Marti—* 
ccasy  picaroon  of  the  lowest  morality  who  ultimately  commits 
suicide  in  disgust  at  his  own  turpitode.  In  LauriUe  de  Temet, 
aad  still  more  in  Gum&m  de  Aifaraeke,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  the  invented  episodes  and  the  personal  reminiscences 
of  the  authors.  The  Kiofe  enlretenide  { i6oj)  of  Agustf a  de  Rojas 
la  «  realistic  account  of  the  writer's  experiences  as  a  stroHiag 
actor  and  playwright,  and,  apart  from  its  considerable  literary 
merits,  it  ia  an  invaluable  contribution  to  the  history  of  the 
SpanisJs  stage  as  well  as  a  grsphic  record  of  contemporary  low 
life;  the  chief  character  in  the  book  is  called  the  eabaUero  del 
mUagre,  an  expression  which  recurs  in  Spanish  liteiatute  as  the 
equivalent  of  a  ekevalier  itindustrie. 

The  next  in  chronological  order  of  the  Spanish  picaresque  tales 
la  La  Picara  Jusiina  (160$),  the  hiMory  of  a  woman  picaroon, 
which  it  has  long  been  customary  to  ascribe  to  Andrte  Pfrea,  a 
Dominican  monk;  there  is,  however,  no  good  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  name  of  Francisco  LApea  de  Cbeda  on  the  title-page  Is  a 
pseudonym.  The  PUara  Jueiina  haa  wrongly  acouired  a 
reputation  for  indecency;  its  real  defects  are  an  affected  diction 
and  a  wact  of  originality.  The  writer  franidy  admits  that  he  has 
taken  material  from  the  Cdeslinat  from  LaxofiUe  de  Termest 
from  Guevara,  Timoneda  and  Alemin,  and  he  boastfully  asserts 
that  '*  there  is  nothing  good  in  ballad,  play  or  Spanish  poet, 
but  that  its  quintessence  is  given  here."  Unluckily  he  has  not 
the  talent  to  utilise  these  stolen  goods.  The  PUcra  Jusiina  was 
thrice  reprinted  during  the  seventeenth  century;  this  is  the  only 
basis  for  the  untenable  theory  that  it  is  the  source  of  the  ciUttfe- 
nismo  which  reaches  its  cfimax  in  Gradaa's  treatises.  The 
PUara  Justina  is  now  read  solely  by  philologists  in  quest  of  verbal 
eccentricities.  Gin£s  de  Pasamonte,  one  of  the  secondary  figures 
in  Don  Quixote  (1605-1615),  is  a  siivgulady  vivid  sketch  <rf  the 
Spanish  rogue,  and  in  the  comedy  entitled  Pedr^  de  Urdemalat 
Cervantes  again  presents  a  brilliant  panorama  of  plcatcsoue 
existence.  He  returns  to  the  subject  in  RmeeneU  y  Cortaditte 
and  in  the  CoUquio  de  Us  perros,  two  of  the  best  stories  in  the 
Ninelas  ejemplares  (1613).  The  attraction  of  picaresque  life 
waa  felt  by  pfous  and  learned  critics,  and  expounded  in  print 
In  the  Viage  dH  munda  (1614)  the  zealous  missionary  Pedro  de 
Ccvallos  interpolates  amusing  tales  of  what  befell  him  in  the 
slums  of  Andalusia  before  he  fled  from  justice  to  America,  where 
he  lived  as  a  sinful  soldier  till  his  spiritual  conversion  was 
accomplished.  Crist6bal  Suirez  de  Figueroa,  a  caustic  critic 
of  his  contemporaries  and  an  arbiter  of  taste,  did  not  think  it 
beneath  his  dignity  to  show  a  disconcerting  acqimintaace  with 
the  ways  of  professional  rogues,  and  ia  Bl  Pasagerp  it^tj)  he 


fins  in  the  aketch  of  the  knavish  iaa«keeper  aheady  outlined  by 
Cervantes  in  Deu  Qmxete.  Evidence  of  the  widely  diffused  taste 
for  picaresque  literature  a  found  in  EMwIftue  de  Gestae  (1617),  an 
interminable  story  written  in  Spanish  by  a  Frenchman  named 
Francob  Loubayssin  de  Lamarca,  who  brought  out  hn  book  at 
Paris;  two  years  previously  Loubayssin  had  introduced  some 
clever  but  risky  picaresque  episodes  in  his  Emgaiios  deste  sigh  y 
hisieria  sutedida  en  nnesins  iiempos.  But  hb  attempt  to  fill  a 
larger  canvas  is  a  complete  failure. 

The  roving  instinct  of  Vicente  Martfnea  Espinel  (^.v.)  had  led 
him  into  strange  and  dangerous  cmnpany  before  and  after  his 
ordination  as  a  priest,  and  a  great  part  of  h»  Releeienes  de  h 
nda  del  escudero  Mcrats  de  Obregjin  (1618)  is  manifestly  the 
confession  of  one  who  has  regretfully  outlived  his  pleasant  vices. 
The  baffling  compound  of  fact  with  fiaioo  and  the  lucid  style 
of  which  Espinel  was  a  master  would  suflke  to  win  for  Manes  de 
Obretin  a  permanent  place  in  the  history  of  ^lanish  literature; 
the  fact  that  it  was  hirgcly  utilised  by  Le  Sage  in  CU  Bias  has 
won  for  it  a  place  in  the  history  of  comparative  litevature. 
Within  five  months  of  its  poblicaiion  at  Madrid  a  fragmemary 
French  version  by  the  Sieur  d'Audiguler  was  issued  at  Paris,  and 
at  Paris  also  there  appeared  a  Spanish  picaresque  story  entitled 
La  Deserdenada  cedicia  de  los  hUnes  ajenos  (1619),  ascribed  con- 
jeaurally  to  a  certain  Dr  Carlos  Garda,  who  reports  his  conver* 
sation  with  a  garrulous  gaol-bird,  and  sapfptndM  a  glossary  til  dang 
terms  us«d  by  the  confraternity  of  thieves;  he  was  not»  however, 
the  first  woriier  in  this  field,  for  a  key  to  their  grou  Jargon  had 
been  given  ten  years  previously  by  Juan  Hidalgo  in  his  Romances 
de  germania  (1609),  a  series  of  gipsy  tiallada.  Every  kind  of 
picaroon  is  portrayed  with  intelligent  sympathy  by  Alonso 
Jer6nimo  de  Salas  BarbadtUo,  who  is  always  described  as  a  picar- 
esque novelist;  yet  he  so  constantly  neglects  the  recognized 
conventkms  of  the  Spanish  school  that  his  right  to  the  title  is 
disputable.  Thus  in  La  Hija  de  Cdestina  ( 16 1 2)  he  abandons  t  he 
autobiographical  form,  in  El  SublU  cordobis  Pedro  de  Urdemolaa 
(1630)  he  alternates  between  diak>gue  and  verse,  and  in  El  Necio 
bien  afortsinado  <i6ai>  the  chief  character  is  rather  a  cunning 
dolt  than  a  successful  scoundrel.  The  pretence  of  warning  new- 
comers against  the  innumerable  occasions  of  sin  in  the  capital 
is  solemnly  kept  up  by  Antonio  Lif^n  y  Vcrdugo  in  his  Cuia  y 
avisos  dejorasteros  que  vienen  d  la  eorie  (1620),  but  in  most  of  hb 
talcs  there  b  more  entertainment  than  decorum. 

The  profession  of  a  serious  moral  purpose  on  the  part  of  many 
picaresque  writers  b  often  a  transparent  excuse  for  the  intro- 
duction of  unsavoury  incident.  There  b,  however,  no  ground 
for  doubting  the  sincerity  of  the  physician  Jer6nimo  de  Alcali 
Yaflcx  y  Ribera,  who  at  one  time  thought  of  taking  holy  orders, 
and  studied  theology  under  St  John  of  the  Cross.  An  unusual 
gravity  of  intention  b  visible  in  Atonso,  luoso  de  muckos  emos 
(1624-1626),  in  whkh  the  repentant  pfcaro  Alonso,  now  a  lay- 
brother,  tells  the  story  of  his  past  life  to  the  superior  of  the 
monastery  in  which  he  has  taken  refuge.  It  abounds  with 
pointed  anecdotes  and  with  curious  information  concerning  the 
Spanish  gipsies,  and  this  last  characteristic  explains  George 
Sorrow's  hyperbolical  praise  of  the  work  as  competing  with 
Don  Quixote  in  grave  humour,  and  as  unequalled  "  for  knowledge 
of  the  human  mind  and  acute  observation." 

At  about  this  time  there  lived  in  Spain  an  ex-nun  named 
CataKim  de  Erauso,  who  fled  from  her  convent,  dressed  herself 
in  men's  clothes,  enlbted,  was  promoted  ensign,  and  saw  more  of 
life  than  any  other  nun  In  hbtory.  Broadsides  relating  the  story 
of  this  picaresque  amazon  were  circulated  during  her  IKelime, 
and  the  details  of  her  adventures  arrested  the  attention  of  De 
Quincey,  who  would  seem  to  have  read  them  in  a  Spanish 
original  which  has  been  admirably  translated  since  then  by  the 
French  poet  Joa6  Maria  de  Heredia.  The  Spanish  original,  in 
its  existing  form,  was  bsued  no  earlier  than  1829  by  Joaquin 
Maria  de  Ferrer,  whose  character  Is  not  a  satisfactory  guarantee 
of  the  work's  authenticity;  but  its  interest  is  unquestiimable. 
No  such  suspicion  attaches  to  the  Vida  of  A!ot\so  dc  Contrtras, 
first  published  in  1899;  thb  out-at-elboi^'s  soldier  faithfully 
records  how  he  became  a  knight  of  the  Order  of  Santiago,  how  he 


578 


PICARESQUE  NOVEL 


broke  All  the  ComiiuiiKlmems.  how  he  Covad  hiioielf  strmiulcd  in 
Madrid,  how  his  fine  air  caplivaled  Lope  de  Vega«  who  housed 
him  for  eight  months  and  dedicated  to  him  a  play  entitled  §Uy  sm 
rtinot  and  how  the  ca -captain  ended  by  **  resolving  to  retire  to  a 
tonely  spot  and  there  serve  Cod  as  a  hermit/'  Every  convention 
of  the  picaresque  novel  is  faithfully  observed,  and  the  incidents 
•re  no  doubt  substantially  true,  though  Contreias,  like  most 
converts,  judges  his  own  past  with  unnecessary  harshness.  This 
subtle  form  of  vanity  also  pervades  tlie  Cfmentcnas  de  d  dcseH* 
gaAado  de  si  mism^  of  Diego  duque  de  Estrada,  a  rakish  soldier 
and  inferior  dramatist  whose  autobiography  (begun  in  1614  and 
continued  at  tntervab  during  many  years)  was  not  printed  till 
i860.  A  far  higher  order  of  talent  distinguishes  the  Capilulaci" 
0Hes  de  lo  tida  de  la.  eorte  y  ejicuu  entreUnidu  in  tila,  a  bitterly 
unsparing  review  of  picaresque  Ufe  written  by  the  great  satirist 
Francisco  Gomez  de  Qucvedo  y  Villegas  (f.s.).  These  thumbnail 
sketches  were  the  preparatory  studies  worked  up  into  the  more 
elaborate  Vid^d4bus€6n  Don  PaUot  (1626),  the  cleverest  and 
most  revolting  book  of  iU  class.  There  is  no  attempt  to  scare 
the  wicked  by  means  of  awful  examples;  the  moral  ksiaon  b  con< 
temptuously  thrown  aside;  the  veil  of  romance  is  rent  in  twain, 
and  the  picaro—\ht  nephew  of  the  public  executioner— is  revealed 
as  he  is,  gloating  in  cruelty  and  revelling  in  the  conscious  enjoy- 
ment of  crime.  But  though  Quevedo  detests  mankind,  his 
morose  vision  of  existence  rarely  degenerates  into  caricature. 
In  his  repugnant,  misanthropic  masterpiece  the  sordid  genius 
of  the  Spanish  picaroon  finds  absolute  expression.  Nothing 
further  remained  to  be  done  in  the  matter  of  realism;  henceforth 
the  taste  for  picaresque  novels  grew  leas  keen,  and  later  wrriters 
uncoDSciously  began  to  humanixe  their  personages. 

The  Varia  fortuna  del  Mldad^  Pltadarc  (1626)  added  nothing 
to  the  estaUbhcd  reputation  of  Conaalo  Cfspedes  y  Meneses. 
A  dever  anonymous  story,  D»h  ftaimundc  el  tntrettnid^  (1627), 
missed  fire,  even  though  it  was  attributed  to  Quevedo;  yet  the 
author,  Diego  Tovar  y  Valderrama,  compiled  a  sprightly  diary 
of  the  events  which  make  up  a  picaroon'scrowdedday,and  failed 
solely  because  the  interest  in  rogues  was  waning. .  Other  writers 
of  undoubted  gifts  were  sk>w  to  see  that  the  fashion  had  changed. 
Alonso  de  Castillo  Solorxaoo  (^.s.)  tempted  the  public  with  three 
picaresque  stories  published  in  quick  succession:  La  NMa  de  las 
embuUes,  Teresa dc  A/a«aiMfei  (1634),  the  Avcntmasdd  BackUler 
Trapaxa  (1637)  and  a  sequel  to  the  latter  entitled  La  CarduAa  de 
StMlla  (1643).  Clever  as  Castillo  Sol6rzano's  stories  are,  their 
tricky  heroes  and  heroines  were  no  longer  welcomed  with  the  old 
enthusiasm  in  Spain;  the  BackUler  Trapaaa  was  destined  to  be 
continued  by  Mateo  da  Silva  Cabral  in  Portugal  and  to  be  ex- 
ploited by  Le  Sage  in  France,  and  to  these  two  accidents  it  ones 
its  survival.  Le  Sage  likewise  utilised  in  CU  Bias  episodes  taken 
from  El  Sif^  pilaffirUa  (1644),  the  work  of  Antonio  Enrfquea 
G6mex  (f.t-);  but  most  of  £/  Si^o  piiagftrica  is  in  verse,  and  as  it 
was  published  at  Paris  by  an  exiled  Portuguese  Jew,  its  circu- 
lation in  Spain  must  have  been  limited.  The  normal  primitive 
rogue  returns  to  the  scene  in  La  Vida  y  keckos  de  EstebaniUa 
Camdiet  (1646),  which  is  no  doubt  the  genuine  autobiography  that 
it  purports  to  be.  If  he  is  still  occasionally  read  by  students  he 
owes  it  to  the  fact  that  Le  Sage  drew  upon  him  in  the  Histoire 
d'Estevanille  Gonxdies.  By  the  general  public  he  is  completely 
forgotten,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  many  subsequent  Spanuh 
writers  who  adopted  the  picaresque  formula.  The  Busedn  is  the 
last  great  book  of  its  kind. 

Meanwhile,  the  rogue  had  forced  his  way  into  other  European 
literatures.  The  Antwerp  continuation  (iSSS)  of  Laaarilla  de 
Tormes  brought  the  original  to  the  notice  of  northern  readers, 
and  this  first  part  was  translated  into  French  by  Jean  Saugrain 
in  1 561 .  A  Dutch  version  was  issued  anonsrmously  in  1 579,  and 
it  seems  extremely  likely  that  the  book  had  been  translated  into 
English  before  this  date.  This  follows  from  a  manuscript  note 
written  by  Gabriel  Harvey  in  a  copy  of  the  Hewleghiss  given  him 
by  Edmund  Spenser;  Harvey  here  mentions  that  he  had  received 
the  H«Wcf2aix,Skoggin.Skclton  and  Laxarillo  from  Spenser  on 
the  soth  of  December  1578.  The  earliest  known  nlition  of 
Dsvtd  Rowland's  version  of  La$ariU^  de  Tormes  is  dated  is86j 


but  as  a  Ueence  to  print  a  tmnslatlon  of  lUs  tale  was  granted  ob 
the  sand  of  July  1568/1569,  it  is  probable  that  a  \sj6  edition 
which  appears  in  the  Harician  Catalogtie  really  existed. 
Numerous  reprints  <cS99»  1639, 166901670,  1672,  1677)  go  to 
prove  that  LauinU»  da  Tormes  was  vety  popular,  and  that 
Shakespeare  had  read  it  seems  to  follow  from  an  allusion  in 
JiiiUk  Ado  akosd  SatkiHg  (Act.  11.,  sc.  L):  **  Now  you  strike  like 
the  blind  man;  't  was  the  boy  that  stole  your  meat,  and  you  will 
beat  the  post/'  ■  To  Thomas  Nash  belongs  the  credit,  such  as  it  is, 
of  being  the  first  to  write  a  picaresque  novel  in  English:  Tka 
UnforluiuU  Traedler;  or  Ike  Life  0/  Jaik  Willou  ( 1 594)>  Nasb 
carefully  points  out  that  his  work  is  a  new  experiment,  **  being 
a  cbeane  di  fferent  veine  from  other  my  former  courses  of  writing ' ' ; 
the  only  possible  Spanish  model  that  he  can  have  had  was 
LazarUlo  de  Tormes,  but  he  has  nothing  of  his  predecessor's 
sardonic  brevity,  and  he  anticipates  later  Spanish  writers  by  his 
emphatic  insatcnce  on  the  pleasures  of  eating  and  drinking  to 
repletion.  Nash  led  the  way,  and  a  reference  to  **  Spanish 
pickaroes  "  in  hliddletoo's  Spanish  Cipsie  indicates  that  the 
picaroon  type  had  speedily  become  flamiliar  enough  for  London 
pla3<goers  to  nndentand  the  reference.  Interest  in  picaresque 
literature  was  kept  alive  in  England  by  a  translation  (1622)  of  a 
sequel  toLaaariUo  de  Tonnes  published  at  Paris  two  jreaia  earlier 
by  Juan  de  Luna,  who  came  to  London  to  supervise  the  English 
rendering;  by  James  Mabbe's  admirable  version  (i6ss)  of 
Cnsaedn  de  Aljarofhex  by  The  Son  of  the  Rogue  or  the  Police  Thief 
(1638),  an  anonymous  translation,  done  through  the  French,  df 
La  desordenada  codicia;  and  by  another  anonymous  translation 
(1657),  likewise  done  through  the  French,  of  Quevedo's  BmaOn, 
The  result  of  this  campaign  was  The  English  Ropu  deuribed  in 
theLi/eofMeriton  Lalroon,  a  villy  Extrooaganl  (166$),  by  Richard 
Head  and  Francis  Kirkman.  The  authors  of  this  farrago  insist 
on  the  En^ish  nationality  of  their  chief  character,  and  repudiate 
the  idea  that  they  are  in  any  way  Indebted  to  Alemin  and 
Quevedo.  It  fs  no  exaggeration,  however,  to  say  that  almost 
all  the  material  in  the  text  b  taken  from  Spanish  sources^  and 
even  the  thieves'  vocabulary  Is  stolen  from  John  Awddey's 
Fratemitye  of  Vaeohondcs  or  Thomas  Hamuui's  Caveaf,  or 
Warning  for  Common  Cursetors.  It  Is  not  till  Defoe^s  time  that 
the  English  picaresque  novel  acquires  any  real  importance, 
and  the  picaresque  intention  informs  much  of  hb  work  that 
contravene*  the  accepted  rules  of  composition.  There  b  a 
female  picaroon  in  l#0//  Flanders,  and,  as  Defoe  read  Spani^  it 
is  conceivable  ihst  Moll  Fboders  was  suggested  by  the  i*ir<r« 
Juslina;  but  this  rcseniblance  does  not  mal^  a  pkaresque  novel 
of  IfoU  Flanders.  The  satirical  spirit  which  b  lacking  in  MoO 
Flanders  b  abundantly  present-  in  Colonel  Jack,  which  bravely 
aims  at  exhibiting  '*  vice  and  all  kinds  of  wickedness  attended 
with  misery."  Henceforward  the  picsroon  b  natucaliaed  in 
Englbh  literature,  and  is  gloriously  reincarnated  in  Fielding's 
Jonathan  Wild  and  in  Smollett's  Ferdinand,  CoutU  Fo/Achb. 
The  classification  of  Sterne's  Trislram  Shandy  and  Morier's  Ueafi 
Baba  as  picaresque  noveb  b  not  strictly  accurate;  like 
Ptehwich  and  Otioer  Twisf  and  Barry  Lyndon,  they  are  rather 
varieties  of  the  peripatetic  novel,  hot  many  incidents  in  all  five 
recall  the  pleasing  wiles  of  the  Spanbh  picaroons. 

The  Dutch  translation  of  LoMarillo  dt  formes  (1579)  did  not 
enable  the  picaresque  novel  to  strike  root  in  Holland,  yet  from 
it  b  derived  one  of  the  best  Dutch  comedies,  De  Spaesuche 
Brabander  JoroHmo  (1616)  of  Gerbrand  Brcdero.  A  German 
translation  of  Cusmdn  de  Alfarache  was  published  by  Aegidius 
Alberitnus  in  1615;  both  LuarUlo  and  Rin<oneto  y  CortodSlo 
were  translated  by  Nidas  Ulenhart  in  1716,  and  in  i6t7  there 
appeared  an  anonymoMS  yenrion  of  the  PUara  Justina.  The 
Spanbh  tradition  was  followed  by  Martin  Frewden  in  a  coo* 
tinuatbn  (1626)  of  Cmmdn  de  Alfarache,  but  the  only  original 
picaresque  novel  of  real  vsiue  in  German  b  Grimmelhausen's 
Sin^icitsimus,  The  attempt  to  acclimatiae  the  picareaqye  novel 
in  Italy  failed  completely.  Baretso  Baresta  translaled  rasnii 
de  Alfarache,  LuariUo  de  Tormes  and  the  Picara  JmsHsta  in  1606, 
1622  and  1624  respectively,  and  Giovanni  Pietro  Franco  did  the 
Bnsedn  into  Italian  In  1634;  but  there  wit  no  important  antivc 


PICAYUNE— PICCINNI 


579 


4e«iclofNneiiC.  Tbe  uune  may  be  Mid  of  Pottogal;  for  thMigh 
SUva  Cabfal't  contihwilioii  of  the  BackiUtr  Trapau  b  called 
the  moit  remarkable  of  Portuguese  picaresque  romaBCcs^  it  is 
llgnifkaBt  that  O  ^oMlko  dt  Cmrdofva  remains  in  maiiusciipt. 

The  case  was  vefy  different  in  France,  where  pictures  of  low 

life  had  always  found  admirers.    The  first  translation  of  Lata- 

fHh  di  Twnus  appeared,  as  already  noted,  at  Paris  in  is6i;  the 

first  translation  of  tbe  first  part  of  CmrnAn  4t  Alfwcki  was 

issued  there  by  Gabriel  Chappuis  in  tfioo,  and  the  dictator 

Chapelain  deigned  lo  translate  both  parts  in  x6i^i6ao;  the  first 

ttaittlation  of  the  Nvnlas  ^jtrnpUum  was  pubUshed  at  Pant  in 

1618  by  Roaset  and  d'Audiguier;  and  French  translations  of 

Manas  de  Obregin,  of  La  DesonUnada  eadiciOt  of  the  Busetn  and 

of  the  Pkara  Justina  were  printed  in  1618,  x6ai,  1633  and  1655 

tcspectively.    Before  this  aeries  of  translations  was  completed 

Charles  Sorel  recoontsd  fn  Framcian  (1622)  *'  the  comic  mishaps 

which  befall  evil-doers,"  invoking  the  common  SKOise  that  it 

to  "hiwful  to  find  plMsure  at  their  expense."    Many  of  the 

episodes  in  Frantion  are  picaresque  in  tone,  but  unfortunately 

Sorel  wanders  from  his  subject,  and  devotes  no  small  part  of  his 

book  to  satirising  literary  men  who,  though  fribbles  or  paupers, 

are  in  no  sense  picaroons.    The  legitimate  Spanish  tradition  is 

followed  mors  closely  and  with  much  more  ability  by  Paul 

Scanon  in  the  Roman  comifut  (1651)1  in  which  horseplay  is 

predominant.    The  framewoA  may  have  been  suggested  by 

Aigustfn  de  Rojas  or  Quevedo,  both  of  whom  introduoe  a  strolling 

company,  and  such  characters  as  Uaadre,  AagiHque  de  TEtoile 

and  Raffotin  might  be  found  in  any  avenge  fMat/o  pkareua. 

Scarron  frankly  mentions  Castillo  Sol6Rano's  GardiOla  da  Saailia 

in  his  test,  and  his  FritauHtm  inaiUa  and  L$$  HjfaeHUs  are 

convincing  proofs  of  close  stody  of  Spanish  picaresque  stories: 

the  Ptieautian  imaiU  is  taken  from  doHMdn  da  Alfaaaeka,  and 

las  HypaerUta  is  merely  a  translation  of  Sales  Barbadlllo's 

Uifa  da  Cdntina,    The  JtamoH  hattrgtais  (1666)  of  Antoine 

Pureti^re  is  generally  described  as  a  picaresque  novel,  but  this 

invoTves  a  new  definition  of  the  adjective;  the  Raman  hawrftais 

indndes  some  portraits  and  more  satire  which  seem  suggested 

by  picmresque  reading,  but  it  is  concerned  with  the  foibles  of 

the  middle  class  rather  than  with  the  sly  devices  of  coomion 

yagnbonds. 

llie  Spanish  picaroon  lives  again  in  CU  BUUf  where,  witha 
dexterity  almost  rarer  than  original  genius,  a  master  of  literary 
manipulation  fuses  materials  uneartlied  from  foigotten  and 
•eendttgly  worthless  Spanish  quarries.  OilBlas  is  a  creation  of 
the  gentler,  sunnier  FVench  spirit;  Ulce  Beaumarcfaais'  Figaro  he 
is  a  Spaniard  bom,  reared  and  humanised  in  Paris,  and  these 
two  are  the  only  picaroons  whose  relative  icflneoMnt  hu  not 
been  gained  at  the  cost  of  verisimilitude.  But  the  oM  original 
scoundrel  was  not  yet  estinct:  in  the  interval  between  the  appear- 
mnee  of  the  BorkUr  da  SioiUa  and  the  Manafit  da  Fiffva  Restif 
de  la  Bretonne  produced  a  sequel  (1776)  to  the  Buttfin  a  sequd 
M>  dull  as  to  be  wellnigh  unreadable.  The  untamed  Spaniah 
rogue  had  become  impossible  towards  the  end  of  the  iSth  cen- 
tury: in  the  19th  he  was  deliberate^  rejected  when  Thiophile 
Gnutier  wrote  his  Carina  Fracassa.  YH  Gautier  consden^ 
tiou^  provides  a  Spanish  atmosphere;  tlM  persona#es  have 
Spanish  names;  the  knife  has  a  Spanish  inscription;  the  host 
speaks  French  with  a  Spanish  accent;  VaUombrense  parts  from 
the  marquis  with  a  Spanish  formula:  ^  beso  A  vucstra  melted 
Im  mano,  cabaBero."  CapHaina  Fracana  is  the  last  important 
book  which  continues  the  picaresque  tradition.  The  possibilitks 
of  picaresque  fiction  can  never  be  exhausted  whOe  human  nature 
fa  unchanged.  F«reda  (9.9.)  in  Ptdra  Sdnakaa  (1884)  touches 
the  old  theme  with  the  accent  of  modernity.  It  may  be  that 
Instead  of  one  continuous  tale,  Interrupted  by  episodical 
digressions,  the  picaresque  fiction  of  the  future  wfl]  take  the  form 
off  short  stories  independent  of  one  another;  but  thit  woidd  be 
tkoChing  more  than  a  convenient  mechanical  device,  a  readjust- 
metit  of  means  to  ends. 

BotiocK*niT.*-Fraak  Wadleifii  Chandler.  JtaasfKcysfftmHry. 
pt.  i.  (New  York,  i899>;FongBr  D«  Hana.il«  OmUim  «fik$  Hi$ltr/ 
Mflkt  Jiopda  Picaresca  in  Spain  (The  Hafnie-New  York.  1903} ;  W. 
Causer.  Der  arsU  Sthdmtnrcman,  Laaarwa  van  Tannas  (^uttgart. 


i889)c  H.  Badrr  Oarfce. "  The  Spaudh  Roguc-Sioiy  "  in  ShitfiVf  w 
Ewaptan  USfratnrt  (Oxford,  1900);  A.  Schultheiia,  Der  SckelnuMr 
roman  der  Spanur  und  seine  NachhiUunien  (Hamburg,  1893): 
F.  J.  Garri^,  EUudiodela  nopela  picaresca  (Madrid.  1891);  F.  M. 
Warren,  Hutory  oftk4  Natd  previous  la  the  Seventeen^  Century  (New 
York,  189s);  H.  Kocrtioc,  CesduckU  des  framadsiscken  Kamans 
im  //.  JaMrhunderl  (Opfmn  and  Leipaig.  1891):  ArvMe  Barine. 
"  Lea  gueux  d'Espagne  in  the  iSevM  des  deux  mondes,  vol.  laaxvi. 
(Paris,  1888);  A.  Morel  Fatio,  Etudes  sur  VEspagne  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
r888-i904).  (J.  F.-K.) 

PICATUra,  the  name  In  Florida  and  Louisiana  of  the  Spanish 
half-real,  •■  ^  of  a  dollar,  6\  cents,  and  hence  used  of  the  United 
States  5  cent  piece.  The  FVench  picaiUon,  from  which  the  word 
was  adapted  in  America,  was  an  old  copper  coin  of  Piedmont. 
Its  origin  is  doubtful,  but  is  possibly  rdatcd  to  the  Italian  piuoia, 
Uttle,  small.  In  America  the  word  isjused  of  anything  trifling, 
petty,  mean  or  contemptible. 

PICCAllIlllfT*  or  PicxANiNKY,  a  word  applied  originaDy  by 
the  negroes  of  the  West  Indies  to  their  babies.  It  is  adapted 
either  from  Span.  pequeHa,  small,  or  Port,  pequeninaf  very  small. 
The  word  ^read  with  the  slave  trade  to  America,  and  has  since 
been  adopted  in  Australia  and  in  South  Africa. 

PIOCIMIIIO,  mCOOU)  (t386-i444)>  Italian  condotHere,  bom  at 
Perugia,  was  the  son  of  a  butcher.  He  began  his  military  career 
in  the  service  of  Braccio  da  Montone,  who  at  that  time  was 
waging  war  against  Perugia  on  his  own  account,' and  at  the  death 
of  his  chief,  shortly  followed  by  that  of  the  lattcr's  son  Oddo^ 
Picdnino  became  leader  of  Bracdo's  candoUa.  After  serving 
for  a  short  period  under  the  Florentine  Republic,  he  went  over  to 
Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  duke  of  Milan  (1425),  in  whose  aervice 
together  with  Niccold  Fortebracdo  he  fou^^t  in  the  wars  against 
the  league  of  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  Venice  and  Florence.  He 
defeated  the  papal  forces  at  Castd  Bolognese  (i454)>  l>ut  another 
papal  army  under  Francesco  Sforza  having  ddeated  and  killed 
Fortebracdo  at  Fiordimonte,  Picdnino  was  left  In  sole  command, 
and  in  a  series  of  campaigns  against  Sforza  he  seised  a  number 
of  dties  in  Romagna  by  treachery.  In  1439  he  again  fought  in 
Lombardy  with  varying  success  against  Sforsa,  who  had  now 
entered  the  Venetian  service.  Picdnino  then  induced  the  duke 
of  Milan  to  send  him  to  Umbria,  where  he  hoped,  like  so  many 
other  eandoUitrit  to  carve  out  a  dominion  for  himself.  He  was 
defeated  by  Sforxa  at  Anghiari  (1440),  but  although  a  number  of 
his  men  were  taken  prisoners  they  were  at  once  liberated,  as 
was  usually  done  in  wars  waged  by  soldiers  of  fortune.  Again 
the  war  shifted  to  Lombardy,  and  Picdnino,  having  defeated 
and  surrounded  Sforza  at  Martlnengo,  demanded  of  the  viKontl 
the  lordship  of  Piacensa  as  the  price  of  Sforza's  capture.  The 
duke  by  way  of  reply  concluded  a  truce  with  Sforza;  but  the 
latter,  who,  while  professing  to  defend  the  Papal  States,  had 
established  his  own  power  in  the  Marche,  aroused  the  fears  of 
the  pope  and  the  king  of  Naples.  i|s  wdl  as  of  the  visconti,  who 
gave  the  command  of  their  joint  forces  to  Picdnino.  Sforza 
was  driven  from  the  Marche,  but  defeated  Picdnino  at  Monte- 
lauro,  and  while  the  latter  was  preparing  for  a  desperate  effort 
against  Sforza  he  was  suddenly  recalled  to  MOan,  his  army  was 
beaten  in  his  absence,  and  he  (fied  of  grief  and  of  his  wounds  in 
Z444.  Short  of  stature,  lame  and  in  weak  health,  he  was  brave 
to  the  point  of  foolhardiness,  wonderfully  resourceful,  and  never 
overwhelmed  by  defeat.  Hr  was  cruel  and  treacherous,  and 
had  no  aim  beyond  his  own  aggrandizement.  Picdnino  left  two 
sons,  Jacopo  and  Francesco,  both  distinguished  condoUieri. 

A  good  account  of  PIccinino  is  contained  in  vol.  iii.  of  E.  Ricottt*s 
Stor%a  detta  compamie  di  venlura  (Turin,  1845);  C-  B.  Poggio,  Vita 
di  N.  Piedmua  (Venice,  157s);  see  abo  the  general  hislonea  of  the 
period. 

PlOdlHf!,  RIOOOLA  (172(^1800),  TtaKan  musical  composer, 
was  bom  at  Bari  on  the  i6th  of  January  1728.  He  wss 
educated  under  Leo  and  Dtuante,  at  the  Conservatorio 
di  Sant'  Onofrio  fn  Naples.  For  this'  Pfcdnni  had  to  thank 
the  intervention  of  the  bishop  off  Bari,  his  father,  although 
himself  a  musidan,  being  opposed  to  his  son's  following 
a  musical  career.  His  first  opeia,  Le  'Donna  disptUase, 
was  produced  in  175$,  ahd  in  1760  he  composed,  at  Rome, 
the  ck^  toBtma  of  hte  early  life,  La  Cicckina,  assia  Is  bnana 


68o 


PIOCOLO-rPICCOLOMINI,  O. 


Figtitula,  an  opera  lujfa  wliich  attaia«d  a  European  success.  Six 
yean  after  this  Picdnni  was  invited  by  Queen  Marie  Antoinette 
to  Paris.  He  had  married  in  1756  his  pupil  Vincenza  Sfbilla,  a 
singer,  whom  he  never  allowed  after  her  marriage  to  appear  on  the 
slage.  AU  his  neat  works  were  successful;  but,  unhappily,  the 
directors  of  the  Grand  Op^ra  conceived  the  mad  idea  of  deliber- 
ately opposing  him  to  Cluck,  by  persuading  the  two  composers  to 
treat  the  same  subject — Ipkiiinie  en  Tauride — umultaneously. 
The  Parisian  public  now  divided  itself  into  two  rival  parties, 
which,  under  the  names  of  Gluckists  and  Picdnnists,  carried 
on  an  unworthy  and  disgraceful  war.  Cluck's  masterly  ipkl- 
gittie  was  first  produced  on  the  z8th  of  May  1779.  Piccinni's 
IpkiginU  followed  on  the  23rd  of  January  1781,  and,  though 
performed  seventeen  times,  was  afterwards  consigned  to  oblivion. 
The  fury  of  the  rival  ptrties  continued  unabated,  even  after 
Cluck's  departure  from  Paris  in  1780;  and  an  attempt  was  after- 
wards made  to  inaugurate  a  new  rivalry  with  Sacchini.  Still, 
Piccinni  held  a  good  position,  and  on  the  death  of  Cluck,  in  17S7, 
proposed  that  a  public  monument  should  be  erected  to  his 
memory — a  suggestion  which  the  Cluckists  themselves  declined 
to  support.  In  1 784  Piccinni  was  professor  at  the  Royal  School  of 
Music,  one  of  the  institutions  from  which  the  Conservatoire  was 
formed  in  1794.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  in  1789 
Piccinni  returned  to  Naples,  where  he  was  at  first  well  received  by 
King  Ferdinand  IV.;  but  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  to  a 
French  democrat  brought  him  into  irretrievable  disgrace.  For 
nine  years  after  this  he  maintained  a  precarious  existence  in 
Venice,  Naples  and  Rome;  but  he  returned  in  1798  to  Paris, 
where  the  ficide  public  received  him  with  enthusiasm,  but  left 
him  to  starve.  He  died  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  on  the  7th  of  May 
1800.  After  his  death  a  memorial  tablet  was  set  up  in  the  house 
In  which  he  was  born  at  Bari. 

Tht  most  complete  list  of' his  works  Is  that  given  in  the 
Rivisia  musicale  italiana,  viii.  75.  He  produced  over  eighty 
operas,  but  although  his  later  work  shows  the  influence  of 
the  French  and  Ccrman  stage,  he  belongs  to  the  conventional 
Italian  school  of  the  i8lh  century. 

See  also  P.  L.  Cinguen£,  Notice  sur  latieet  Us  outrage:  dt  UiceaSc 
Piccinni  (Paris,  1801);  E.  Demoircstcrrcs,  La  Musique  Jranqaue  au 
tS*  sOcU  Cluck  H  Piuinni  1774-1800  (Paris,  1872). 

PICCOU)  (Fr.  fetUe  JI<Ue  octave;  Ger.  PickelJlOU;  Ital  JIauto 
piccolo  or  oUavino),  a  small  flute  of  less  than  half  the  dimensions 
of  the  large  concert  flute  and  pitched  an  octave  higher.  The 
principles  of  construction  and  the  acoustic  properties  are  the 
same  for  the  piccolo  as  for  the  flute,  with  the  exception  that  the 
piccolo  does  not  omtain  the  additional  tail-piece  with  the  extra 
low  keys,  which  give  the  flute  its  extended  compass.  As  the 
pitch  of  the  piccolo  is  so  high,  the  highest  of  all  orchestral  instru- 
ments with  the  exception  of  a  few  harmonics  on  the  vioh'n,  the 
music  for  it  is  written  an  octave  lower  than  the  real  sounds  in 
order  to  avoid  the  ledger  lines.  The  piccolo  has  been  used  with 
good  effect  in  imitating  the  whistling  of  the  wind  in  storms,  as  in 
Beethoven's  Pastoral  Sytnp/iony^  Wagner's  Flying  Dutchman, 
and  in  conjunction  with  the  violins  in  tremolo  to  depict  the  rust- 
ling of  the  leaves  in  the  breeze,  as  in  the  "  Waldweben  ''  in 
Siegfried.  Verdi  employed  it  to  advantage  in  Falslaff  as  a  comic 
agent  in  humorous  situations.  The  piccolo  is  generally  in  D, 
sometimes  in  Eb  or  F.  (R.  S.) 

FICOOLOIIINI*  the  name  of  an  Italian  noble  family,  which 
was  prominent  in  Siena  {q,v.)  from  the  beginning  of  the  ijlh 
ctntury  onwards.  In  1220  Enghelberto  d'Ugo  PSccolomini 
received  the  M  of  Montertari  in  Val  d'Orcia  from  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  as  a  reward  for  services  rendered.  The  family 
acquired  bouses  and  towers  in  Siena  and  oastles  in  the  republic's 
territory,  induding  Montone  and  Castiglione,  the  latter  they  sold 
to  the  commune  in  1321.  Th^  obtained  great  wealth  through 
trade,  and  established  counting-bouses  in  Genoa,  Venice, 
Aquileia,  Trieste,  and  in  various  cities  of  France  and  Germany. 
Supporters  of  the  Guclph  cause  in  the  civil  broils  by  which  Siena 
was  torn,  they  were  driven  from  the  dty  in  the  time  of  Manfred 
and  their  houses  demolished;  ibey  returned  in  triumph  after 
tbe  Anfevin  victories,  were  expelled  once  more  during  the  brie! 


idgn  of  Conradin,  and  again  returaed  to  Siena  with  the  hc^ 
of  Charles  of  Anjou.  But  through  their  riotous  political  activity 
Che  Piccolomini  lost  their  commercial  influence*  whidi  puttA 
into  tiie  bands  of  the  Florentines,  although  they  retained  ihtit 
palaces,  castles  and  about  twenty  fiefs*  some  o|  which  were  in 
the  teiritory  of  Amalfi  and  9i  great  extent.  Many  mcmbcn  «f 
the  house  were  distinguished  ecclesiastics,  generals  and  statcsoca 
in  Siena  and  eliewheic;  two  of  them  were  popes,  via.  Aeneas 
Silvius  Ptccolonini  (Pius  11.,  f.v.)  and  Francesco  PiccokNniai 
<PiuaUL,f.v.), 

See  Riditer,  Die  Pktehmiui  (Bedin.  1874);  A.  LinnI  and  K 
Liberati,  Albero  delta  femigliu  Ptccelomimi  (Siena*  1899);  sad 
articles  by  A.  .Li«ni  in  the  Miscellanea  Uorica  senete,  yd  series 
12,  and  4th  series,  17  and  189. 

PlCCaLOMINI.   OGTAVJOt    Pkincb    (i599-i6s6),    duke  of 
AmaUi,  Austrian  general,  was  born  on  the  i  itJi  of  Nowenbcf  1 S99 
in  Florence,  and  carried  a*|iike  In  the  Spanish  service  at  the  age 
of  sixteen.    Two  years  later,  on  the  outbneak  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  in  Bohemia,  be  was  appointed  a  captain  in  a  cavaby 
regiment  sent  by  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  to  the  empeiar'i 
army,  and  he  fought  with  some  distinction  under  Bucquoy  at 
the  Weisser  Berg  snd  in  Hungary.    In  1624  he  served  for  s 
short  time  in  the  Spanish  army  and  then  as  lieuienant-cokmd 
of  Pappenheim's  cuirassier  regiment  in  the  war  in  the  Milanese. 
In  1627  he  re-entered  the  Imperial  service  as  colonel  and  captais 
of  the  lifeguard  d  WaUenstesa,  duke  of  Friedland.    In  tbii 
capadty  he  soon  fell  into  disgrace  for  practising  extortion  st 
Stargard  in  Pomerania,  but  his. adroitness  secured  him,  after  no 
long  interval,  the  rank  of  "  colond  of  horse  and  foot."    About 
this  time  the  appointment  of  his  younger  brother  to  the  sidi- 
bishopric  of  Siena  secured  bim  a  position  of  influence  in  the 
diplomatic  world.    Diplomatic  talent  was  ind^  almost  the 
birthright  of  a  member  of  an  lulian  family,  that  had  seen  two 
of  its  members  occupying  the  papal  chair,  and  Wallenstetn  freely 
made  nse  of  his  subordinate's  capacity  for  negotiation  and 
intrigue.    In  the  events  of  the  Maatuan  War  Piccolomini  thok  a 
prominent  port  in  the  dual  r6le  of  the  subtle  diplomatist  and  the 
plundering  soldier  of  fortune.    At  this  moment  came  the  invaaiea 
of  Germany  by  Gustavus  Adolphus.    Piccolomini  was  interned 
at  Ferrara  as  a  hostage  for  the  ratification  of  a  treaty,  but  he 
added  bis  voice  to  the  gaietftl  call  for  WaUenitdn's  reappoint- 
ment as  commander-in-chief.    He  was  not,  however,  indudcd  in 
the  list  of  promotions  that  foUowed  the  duke's  reappearance, 
and  he  served  under  General  Hoik,  an  officer  brought  in  from  the 
Danish  service,  in  the  preliminary  operations  and  in  the  battle 
of  LQtaen.    His  ambition  was  gratified  when,  on  reading  the 
ofllcial  report  of  the  battle,  the  emperor  made  him  a  gcMvd- 
feldwachtmeister.    At  the  ssme  time,  however,  Hoik  was  created 
a  fidd  marshal  at  Wallcnstein's  instance,  much  to  hia  rival's 
chagrin.    In  the  campaign  of  1633  Piccolomini  held  the  coaunand 
of  an  important  detachment  posted  at  KOniggr&ts  to  bar  the 
enemy's  advance  from  Silesia  into  Bohemia.    History  repeated 
itself  on  the  sante  ground  in  1756,  1778  and  x866;  in  the  first  o( 
these  cases  it  was  a  Piccolomini,  grand-nephew  of  Octavio,  who 
commanded  the  Austriaos;  in  the  last  the  victorious  Prussians 
passed  over  the  estate  of  Nachod,  which  after  163s  was  a  heredi- 
tary possession  of  the  family.    In  May  WaUensteia  cnteted 
Silesia  with  the  main  army  with  the  unavowcd  object  of  compd- 
ling  or  persuading  the  electors  ol  Brandenburg  and  Saxony  to 
make  common  cause  with  the  emperor  against  the  Swedes. 
Piccolomini  was  with  him,  and,  disapproving  of  the  duke's 
policy,  joined  in  a  military  conspiracy,  out  of  which  grew  the 
drama  that  ended  with  the  murder  of  Wallenstdn  oa  the  25th 
of  February  1^34.    Picoolomini's  own  part  in  the  tragedy  has 
been  set  forth  for  all  lime  in  the  pages  of  SchiDcr's  Waliesuiau. 
His  reward  was  his  marshal's  bAton,  100,000  gulden  and  the 
beautiful  estate  of  Nachod  in  the  Riescngebiige. 

He  was  Wallenstein's  pupil  as  well  ss  his  slayer,  and  had 
learned  the  art  of  war  from  that  master.  On  the  5th-6th  of 
Septeorfjer  in  the  same  year  he  distinguished  himsdf  ansoagst 
the  foremost  in  the  great  victory  of  NOrdlingen.  He  soon  saw 
the  necessity  for  following  out  the  lines  of  militaiy  poBcy  laid 


PICENE— PICHEGRU 


581 


down  by  the  duke,  but  ndtber  be  nor  Gallas,  the  new  lieutenAnt- 
general  of  the  emperor,  possessed  the  capacity  for  carrying  it 
out,  and  the  war  dragged  on  year  after  year.    Piccolomini  was 
in  1635  allied  with  a  Spanish  array,  and  bitterly  complained  that 
their  sloth  and  caution  marred  every  scheme  that  he  formed. 
In  1638  he  was  made  a  connt  of  the  empire,  and  in  1639,  having 
been  fortunate  enough  to  win  a  great  victory  over  the  French 
(rellrf  of  Thionville«  July  7,  1639),  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
office  of  privy  councillor  from  the  emperor  and  with  the  dukedom 
of  Amalfi  from  the  king  of  Spain.  B ut  instead  of  being  appohited, 
as  he  hoped,  Gallas's  successor,  he  was  called  in  to  act  as  oi  latus 
to  the  Archduke  Leopold  Wilhehn,  with  whom  he  was  defelted 
in  the  second  battle  of  Breitenfeld  in  1642.    After  this  he  spent 
some  years  in  the  Spanish  service  and  received  as  his  reward  the 
title  o(  grandee  and  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.   Some  years 
later,  having  reentered  the  Imperial  army,  he  was  again  dis> 
Appointed  of  the  chief  command  by  the  selection  of  the  brave 
veteran  Peter  Melander,  Count  Holzapfel.     But  when  in  1648 
Melander  fell  in  battle  at  Zusmarshausen,  Piccolomini  was  at 
last  appointed  lieutenanc<^neral  of  the  emperor,  and  thus  con- 
ducted as  generalissimo  the  final  campaign  of  the  weary  and 
desultory  Thirty  Years'  War.    Three  days  after  the  commission 
for  executing  the  peace  had  finished  its  labours,  the  emperor 
addressed  a  letter  of  thanks  "  to  the  Prince  Piccolomini,"  and 
awarded  him  a  gift  of  114,566  gulden.    Piccolomini  died  on  the 
iitb  of  August  1656.    He  left  no  children  (his  only  son  Josef 
Silvio,  the  *'  Jilax  "  of  Schiller's  IVaUenstctH,  was  murdered  by 
the  Swedes  after  the  battle  of  Jankau  in  1645),  and  his  titles  and 
estates  passed  to  his  brother's  son.   With  the  deat h  of  the  latter*s 
nephew  Octavio  Aeneas  Josef  in  1757,  the  line  became  extinct. 

PICBNB.  CnHn.  a  hydrocarbon  found  in  the  pitchy  residue 
obtained  in  the  distillation  of  peat-tar  and  of  petroleum.  This 
is  distilled  to  dryness  and  the  distillate  repeatedly  recrystalllzed 
from  cymene.  It  may  be  synthetically  prepared  by  the  action 
of  anhydrous  aluminium  chloride  on  a  mixture  of  naphthalene 
and  ethylene  dibromide  (R.  Lespieau,  BiUt.  toe.  chxm.^  iSqi, 
(3).  6,  p.  738),  or  by  distilling  a-dinaphthostilbene  (T.  Him,  Bet , 
i8q9,  32,  p.  3341).  It  crystallizes  in  large  colourless  plates 
which  possess  a  blue  fluorescence  It  is  soluble  in  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  with  a  green  colour  Chiomic  acid  in  glacial 
acetic  acid  solution  oxidizes  it  to  picene-quinone,  piccne-quinone 
carboxylic  acid,  and  finally  to  phthalic  acid.  When  heated  with 
hydrkxlic  acid  and  phosphorus  it  forms  hydrides  of  composition 
CbHm  and  CaHii  (see  £.  Bamberger  and  F.D.  Cbattaway,  Ann.^ 
1805,  284,  p.  61), 

nCBHUII,  a  district  of  andent  Italy,  situated  between  the 
Apennines  and  the  Adriatic,  bounded  N.  by  the  Senones  and  S 
by  the  Vestini.  The  Inhabitants  were,  according  to  tradition. 
an  offshoot  of  \he  Sabines.  Strabo  (v.  4,  t)  gives  the  story  of 
tfieir  migration,  led  by  a  woodpecker  (^ewi).  a  bird  sacred  to 
Mars,  from  which  they  derived  thefa*  name  Picentini  Xcf  Dion 
Hal*  i*  ■4f  5)1  just  as  the  Hirpini  derived  theim  from  Idrput^  a 
wolf.  The  district  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  eariy  in  the 
3rd  century  b.c.  and  the  whole  territory  was  divided  up  aoKMtg 
Lattn*speaking  settlem  by  the  Lex  Flaminia  fai  232  b.c  Hence 
we  have  very  scanty  recotds  of  any  no»-Latln  Language  that  may 
have  been  spoken  in  the  district  before  the  3rd  century.  Besides 
the  problematic  inscriptfons  from  Bdmonte,  Nereto  and  Cupra 
Maritima  (see  SABituc),  we  have  one  or  two  Latin  inscriptions 
(l>robably  of  the  2nd  or  even  the  i st  century  b.c.)  whkh  contain 
certain  forms  showing  a  distinct  affinity  wHh  the  dialect  of 
Iguvium  (cf.  the  name  PtfiJs-* Latin  Paeidii).  Hence  there 
seems  some  ground  for  believing  that  the  population  which  the 
Romans  dispossessed,  or  held  in  subjection,  really  spoke  a  dialed 
very  much  like  that  of  their  neighbours  in  Umbria. 

For  inscriptions,  see  R.  S.  Conway,  The  lUtlit  Diatetts,  p.  44^. 
where  the  place-names  and  personal  name*  of  the  dittnct  will 
aUo  be  found;  see  furtbar,  Livy,  E^  zv.;  BL  V.  Head,  Hiatmia 
Mumorum,  p.  19*  (R.  S.  C) 

It  was  in  Picenum,  at  Ascvlom,  that  the  Social  War  broke  oat 
in  €to  B.C.  At  the  end  of  (he  war  the  dtetrict  became  connected 
with  Porapeius  Strabo^  and  bis  son  Pompcy  the  Graat  tlutw  into 


the  stale  on  the  side  of  Sulla,  in  83  B.C.,  all  the  influence  he 
possessed  there,  and  hoped  to  make  it  a  base  against  Caesar's 
legions  in  49  B.C.  Under  Augustus  it  formed  the  fifth  region  of 
Italy,  and  included  twenty-three  independent  communities,  of 
which  five,  Ancona,  Firmum,  Asculum,  Hadria  and  Interamnia, 
were  col&niae.  It  was  reached  from  Rome  by  the  Via  Salaria, 
and  its  branch  the  Via  Caedlia.  It  was  also  on  a  branch  leading 
from  the  Via  Flaminia  at  Nuceria  CameUaria  to  Septempeda. 
There  were  also  communications  from  north  to  south;  a  road  led 
from  Asculum  to  Urbe  Salvia  and  Ancona,  another  from  Asculum 
and  Firmum  and  the  coast,  another  from  Urbs  Salvia  to  Potentia, 
while  finally  along  the  whole  line  of  the  coast  there  ran  a 
prolongation  of  the  Via  Fhuninia,  the  name  of  which  is  not 
known  to  us. 

At  the  end  of  the  2nd  century  a.o.  the  north-eastern  portion 
of  Umbria  was  divided  from  the  rest  and  acquired  the  name 
Flaminia,  from  the  high  road.  For  the  time  it  remained  united 
with  Umbria  for  administrative  purposes,  but  passed  to  Picenum 
at  latest  in  the  time  of  Constantine,  and  acquired  the  name  of 
Flaminia  et  Picenum  Annonariumy  the  main  portion  of  Picenum 
being  distinguished  as  Suburbicarium.  In  an  inscription  of  A.i>. 
390  Ravenna  is  actually  spoken  of  as  the  chief  town  of  Picenum. 
When  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  was  founded  the  part  of  Pice- 
num Annonarium  near  the  sea  became  the  Pentapolis  Maritima, 
which  included  the  five  cities  of  Ariminum,  Pisaurum,  Fanum 
Fortunae,  Sena  Gallica  and  Ancona.  The  exarchate  was  seiied 
by  Luitprand  in  727,  and  Ravenna  itself  was  taken  by  Aistulf 
in  7S2.  In  the  next  year,  however,  the  Emperor  Pippin  took 
it  from  him  and  handed  it  over  to  the  pope,  a  grailt  confirmed  by 
hfe  son  Charlemagne.  (T  As.) 

PICBESRU,  CHARLBB  (i  761-1804),  French  general,  was  bom 
at  Arbois,  or,  according  to  Charles  Nodier,  at  Les  Planches,  near 
Lons-le-Saulnier,  on  the  1 6th  of  February  1 761 .  His  father  was  a 
labourer,  but  the  friars  of  Arbois  gave  the  boy  a  good  educatk>n, 
and  one  of  his  masters,  the  Perc  Partaull,  took  him  to  the  military 
school  of  Brienne.  In  1783  he  entered  the  first  regiment  of 
artillery,  where  he  rapidly  rose  to  the  rank  of  adjutant-sub- 
lieutenant. When  the  Revolution  began  he  became  leader  of 
the  Jacobin  party  in  Besancon,  and  when  a  regiment  of  volun- 
teers of  the  department  of  the  Gard  marched  through  the  city 
he  was  elected  lieutenant-colonel.  The  fine  condition  of  his 
regiment  was  soon  remarked  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  his 
organizing  ability  was  made  use  of  by  'an  appointmeiM  on  the 
staff,  and  finally  by  his  promotion  to  the  rank  of  general  of 
brigade.  In  1793  Carnot  and  Saint  Just  were  sent  to  find 
rotuner  generals  who  could  be  tncccssful,  Carnot  discovered 
Jourdan,  and  Saint  Jusi  discovered  Hoche  and  Pichegro.  In 
co-operation  with  Hoche  and  the  army  of  the  Moselle,  Kchegm, 
now  general  of  division  and  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
had  to  reconquer  Alsace  and  to  reorganize  the  disheartened 
troops  of  the  republic  They  succeeded,  Picbcgru  made  use  of 
the  Han  of  his  soldiers  to  win  innumerable  small  engagements, 
and  with  Hoche  forced  the  lines  of  Haguenau  and  relieved 
Landau.  In  December  1793  Hoche  was  arrested,  it  is  said 
owing  in  part  to  his  colleague's  machinations,  and  Prchcgru 
became  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine-and- 
Moselle,  whence  he  was  summoned  to  succeed  Jourdan  in  the 
army  of  the  North  in  February  1794.  It  was  now  that  he  fought 
his  three  great  campaigns  of  one  year.  The  English  and  Austrians 
held  a  strong  position  along  the  Sambre  to  the  sea.  After 
vainly  attempting  to  break  the  Austrian  centre,  PIchcgru 
suddenly  tamed  their  left,  and  defeated  Clerfayt  at  Cassel, 
Menin  and  Courtral.  while  Moreau,  his  second  rn  command, 
defeated  Coburg  at  Tourcoing  in  May  1794;  then  after  a  pause, 
during  which  Pichegru  feigned  to  besiege  Ypres.  he  again  dashed 
at  Clerfayt  and  defeated  him  at  Rousaelaer  and  Hooglede,  while 
Jourdan  came  up  with  the  new  army  of  the  Sambre-and-Meuse, 
and  utterly  routed  th^  Austrians  at  Fleorus  on  the  27th  of  June 
1794.  Pichegru  began  his  second  campaign  by  crossing  the 
Medse  on  the  18th  of  October,  and  after  taking  Nijmwcgen 
drove  the  Austrians  beyond  the  Rhine.  Then,  instead  of  going 
into  winter-quarters,   he  prepared  his  amy  for    a  winter 


582 


PICHLER— PICKERING,  E.  C. 


campaign.  On  the  28th  of  December  he  crossed  the  Meuscuon  the 
ice»  and  stormed  the  island  of  Bommel,  then  crossed  the  Waal 
{n  the.same  manner,  and,  driving  the  English  before  him,  entered 
Utrecht  on  the  19th  of  January,  and  Amsterdam  on  the  20th 
of  January,  and  soon  occupied  the  whole  of  Holland.  This 
grand  feat  of  arms  was  marlied  by  many  points  of  interest, 
such  as  the  capture  of  the  Dutch  ships,  which  were  frozen  in 
the  Helder,  by  ^he  French  hussars,  and  the  splendid  discipline 
of  the  ragged  battalions  in  Amsterdam,  who,  with  the  richest 
city  of  the  continent  to  sack,  yet  behaved  with  a  self-restraint 
which  few  revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  armies  attained.  The 
former  friend  of  Saint  Just  now  offered  bis  services  to  the 
Thermidorians,  and  after  receiving  from  the  Convention  the 
title  of  "  Sauveur  de  la  Patrie,"  subdued  the  sans-culoUes  of 
Paris,  when  they  rose  in  insurrection  against  the  Convention  on 
12  Germinal  (April  i).  Pichegni  then  took  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  North,  the  Sambre-and-Meuse,  and  the  Rhine,  and 
crossing  the  Rhine  in  force  took  Mannheim  in  May  1795.  When 
bis  fame  was  at  its  height  he  allowed  his  colleague  Jounlan  to  be 
beaten,  betrayed  all  his  plans  to  the  enemy,  and  took  part  in 
organizing  a  conspiracy  for  the  return  of  Louis  XVIII.,  in  which 
he  was  to  play,  for  his  own  aggrandizement,  the  part  that  Monk 
played  from  higher  motives  in  the  English  revolution.  His 
intrigues  were  suspected,  and  when  he  offered  his  resignation  to 
the  Directory  in  October  1795  it  was  to  his  surprise  promptly 
accepted.  He  retired  in  disgrace,  but  hoped  to  serve  the  royalist 
cause  by  securing  his  election  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in 
May  1797.  He  was  there  the  royalist  leader,  and  planned  a 
toup  d'Hat,  but  on  the  18th  Fructidor  he  was  arrested,  and  with 
fourteen  others  deported  to  Cayenne  in  1797.  Escaping,  he 
reached  London  in  1798,  and  served  on  General  Korsakov**  staff 
in  the  campaign  of  1799.  He  went  to  Paris  in  August  i8oj  with 
Georges  Cadoudal  to  head  a  royalist  rising  against  Napoleon; 
but,  betrayed  by  a  friend,  he  was  arrested  on  the  28th  of 
February  1804,  and  on  the  15th  of  April  was  found  strangled 
in  prison.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that  he  was  murdered  by 
the  orders  of  Napoleon,  but  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  story. 
Pichegru's  campaigns  of  1794  are  marked  by  traits  of  an 
audacious  genius  which  would  not  have  disgraced  Napoleon. 
His  tremendous  physical  strength,  the  personal  ascendancy  he 
gamed  by  this  and  by  his  powers  of  command  made  him  a 
peculiarly  formidable  opponent,  and  thus  enabled  him  to  nuiin> 
lam  a  discipline  which  guaranteed  the  punctual  execution  of  his 
orders.  He  had  also,  strangely  enough,  the  power  of  captivating 
honest  men  like  Moreau.  He  flattered  in  turn  Saint  Just  and  \ 
the  Terrorists,  the  Thermidorians  and  the  Directors,  and  played 
always  for  his  own  hand~a  strange  egoist  who  rose  to  fame  as 
the  leader  of  an  idealist  arui  sentimental  crusade. 

There  is  no  really  good  life  of  Ptrhegru.  perhaps  the  best  is 
J  M  Ga&sier's  Vte  du  gbnitai  Fulugru  (Pans.  1815).  For  his 
treason,  (rial  and  death,  consult  Montuaillard's  Uimoms  amiernant 
la  iraktson  dt  Ptckegru  (1804);  Faucne-Borcl's  Mimotresi  Savary. 
Mtmotrts  sur  ta  mart  de  Pukfgru  (Paris.  1 825).  and  G.  Picrrct, 
Pukegru,  son  prods  tt  sa  mart  (1826J. 

PICHLER,  KAROUNB  (1769-1843).  Austrian  novelist,  was 
born  at  Vienna  on  the  7th  of  September  1769,  the  daughter  of 
Hof  rat  Franz  von  Greiner,  and  married,  in  1 796,  Andreas  Pichler, 
a  government  ofiidal.  For  many  years  her  salon  was  the  centre 
of  the  literary  life  in  the  Austrian  capital,  where  she  died  on  the 
9lh  of  July  t84j.  Her  early  works,  Oliner,  first  published 
anonymously  (1802),  IdylUn  (1803)  and  Ruik  (1805),  though 
displaying  considerable  talent,  were  immature.  She  made  her 
mark  in  historical  romance,  and  the  first  of  her  novels  of  this 
class,  AgaikocUs  (180S),  an  answer  to  Gibbon's  attack  on  that 
hero  in  the  Decline  and  Fatt  0/  the  Roman  Empiric  attained  great 
popularity.  Among  her  other  novels  may  be  mentioned  PU 
Belaserung  If  te«u  (1S24) ;  Die  Schweden  in  Prag  (1827):  Die 
Wiederereberung  0/ens  (1829)  and  HenrkUe  son  Engiand  (1832). 
Her  last  work  was  ZeilbUder  (1840). 

The  edition  of  Karoline  Pichler**  Sdmdieke  Werke  (1820-1845) 
comprises  no  leas  than  60  volumes.     Her  Denkwutdighnten  aus 
Uben  (4  vols.)  was  pufaliahcd  poathvmovily  in  1844.    A 


selection  of  her  narratives,  AuigemMU  BraMtmgeu,  appeared 
in  4  vols,  in  1894. 

PICKENS.  ANDREW  (1739-1817).  American  soldier  in  the 
War  of  Independence,  was  bom  ip  Paxton,  Bucks  county, 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  19th  of  September  1739.  His  family 
settled  at  the  Waxhaws  (in  what  is  now  Lancaster  county). 
South  Carolina,  in  1752  He  fought  against  the  Cherokces  in 
1761  as  a  lieutenant  In  the  War  of  Independence  he  rose  to 
bngadier-general  (after  Cowpens)  in  the  South  Carolina  militia. 
He  was  a  captain  among  the  American  troops  which  surrendered 
at  Ninety  Six  in  November  1775.  On  the  X4th  of  February 
i779>  ^ith  300-400  men,  he  surprised  arui  defeated  about  700 
Loyalists  tmder  Colonel  Boyd  on  Kettle  Creek,  Wilkes  county, 
Georgia;  on  the  20th  of  June  he  fought  at  Stono  Ferry,  and  later 
in  the  same  year  at  Tomassce  defeated  the  Cherokees,  who  were 
allied  with  the  British.  Upon  the  surrender  of  Charleston 
(May  1780)  he  became  a  pnsoaer  on  parole,  which  he  observed 
rigidly  until,  contrary  to  the  promises  made  to  him,  Major  James 
Dunlap  plundered  his  plantation,  he  then  returned  to  active 
service.  His  command  (about  150  men)  joined  General  Daniel 
Morgan  immediately  before  the  battle  of  0>wpens,  in  which 
Pickens  commanded  an  advance  guard  (270-350  men  from 
(korgia  and  North  Carolina)  and  twice  rallied  the  broken 
American  militia;  for  his  services  Congress  gave  him  a  sword. 
With  Colonel  Henry  Lee  he  harassed  Lieut  .•Colonel  Banastre 
Tarlcton,  who  was  attempting  to  gather  a  Loyalist  force  just 
before  the  battle  of  Guilford  Court  House;  and  with  Lee  and 
others,  he  captured  Augusta  (June  5,  1781)  after  a  siege.  At 
Eutaw  Springs  (Sept.  8,  1781)  he  commanded  the  left  wing 
and  was  wounded.  In  1782  he  defeated  the  Cherokees  again 
and  forced  them  to  surrender  all  lands  south  of  the  Savannah 
and  east  of  the  Chattahoochee.  After  the  war  be  was  a  member 
of  the  South  Carolina  House  of  Representatives  for  a  number 
of  years,  of  the  state  Constitutional  Convention  in  X790,  aiui  of 
the  National  House  of  Representatives  in  1793-1795.  He  died 
in  Pendleton  district,  South  Carolina,  on  the  E7th  of  August 
1817.  He  had  married  in  1765  Rebecca  Calhoun,  an  aunt  of 
John  C.  Calhoun.  Their  son,  Andrew  Pickens  (1779-1858), 
Served  as  a  lieutenant -cotonel  in  the  War  of  18x2,  and  was 
governor  of  South  Carolina  in  i8i6*x8i8. 

PICKENS,  FRANCIS  WIUCINSON  (1805-1869),  Ameiicail 
politician,  was  bom  in  Togadoo,  St  Paul's  parish,  South  Carolina, 
on  the  7th  of  April  X805,  son  of  Andrew  Pickens  (i779~>S38i 
and  grandson  of  General  Andrew  Pickens  (1739-1817).  He 
was  educated  at  Franklin  College,  Athens,  Georgia,  and  at  Sowtk. 
Cardina  College,  Ciriumbia,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  i829> 
In  1832  he  was  elected  to  the  state  House  of  Representatives, 
where,  as  chairman  of  a  sub-committee,  be  submitted  a  report 
denying  the  right  of  Congress  to  exercise  any  control  over  the 
states.  He  was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  National  Hoose 
of  RcfMesentatives  in  1834-1843,  served  in  the  South  Carolina 
Senate  in  1844-184$,  was  a  delegate  to  the  Nashville  Southern 
Convention  (see  Nashville,  Tennessee)  in  1850,  was  United 
Sutes  minister  to  Russia  in  1858-18^,  and  in  1860-1862 
was  governor  of  South  Carolina.  He  stroof^y  advocated  the 
secession  of  the  Southern  atates;  signed  the  South  Carolina 
ordinance  of  secession ;  protested  against  Major  Robert  Ander- 
sen's removal  from  Fort  Moultrie  to  Fort  Sumter;  sanctioned 
the  firing  upon  the  "  Star  of  the  West  "  (Jan.  9,  x86i),  vhich 
was  bringing  supplies  to  Anderson,  and  the  bombardment'^ 
Fort  Sumter;  and  was  a  sealous  supporter  of  the  Confederate 
cause.  At  the  close  of  his  term  be  retired  to  his  home  at 
Edgefieki,  South  Carolina,  where  he  died  on  the  astli  of 
January  1869. 

PICKERING.  EDWARD  CHARLES  (1846-  ),  American 
physicist  and  astronomer,  was  bom  in  Boston  on  the  ^i9th  of 
July  1846.  He  graduated  in  1865  at  the  Lawrence  Sdeniific 
School  of  Harvard,  where  lor  the  nest  two  years  he  was  a 
teacher  of  mathematics.  Subsequently  he  became  professor 
of  physics  at  tbe  Masaacfauietts  Institute  of  Technology,  and 
in  1876  he  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  and  director 
of  the  Harvaid  College  observatory.    In  1877  he  decided  to 


PICKERING;  T.— PICKERING 


583 


devote  one  of  the  telescopes  of  the  observatory  to  steUar  photo- 
metry, and  after  an  exhaustive  trial  of  various  forms  of  photO" 
meters,  he  devised  the  meridian  photometer  (see  PHOTOKKfRV; 
Stellar),  which  seemed  to  be  free  from  most  of  the  sources  of 
error.    With  the  first  instrument  of  this  kind,  having  objectives 
of  1*5  inch  aperture,  he  measured  the  brightness  of  4i<So  stan, 
including  all  stars  down  to  the  6th  magnitude  betn^ca  the  North 
Pole  and  -50*  decHnation.    With  the  object  of  reaching  fainter 
stars,  Professor  Pickering  constructed  another  instrament  of 
larger  dimensions,  and  with  this  more  than  a  million  observations 
have  been  made.    The  first  important  work  undertaken  with 
it  was  a  revision  of  the  magnitudes  giv«Q  in  tho  Boon  Durch- 
musteruHg.    On  the  completion  of  this,  Professor  Pickering 
decided  to  undertake  the  survey  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 
An  expedition,  under  the  diiectwn  of  Prof*  S.  I.  Bailey,  was 
accordingly  despatched  (18S9),  and  the  meridiaa  photometer 
erected  successively  in  three  different  poskioas  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Andes.    The  third  of  these  was  Arequipa,  at  which  a  perma- 
nent branch  of  the  Harvard  Observatory  is  now  h)cated.    The 
magnitudes  of  nearly  8000  southern  stars  were  detcnntncd, 
including  1428  stars  of  the  6th  magnitude  and  brighter.    The 
instrument  ^Rreis  then  returned  to  Cambridge  (U.S.A.),  where  the 
survey  extended  so  as  to  include  all  stars  of  magnitude  7*s  down 
to  -40'^  declination,  after  which  it  was  once  more  sent  back  to 
Arecpiipa.    In  1886  the  widow  of  Henry  Draper,  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  stellar  spectroscopy,  made  a  liberal  provision  for 
carrying  on  spectroscopic  investigations  at  Harvard  College  in 
memory  of  her  husband.     With  Professor  Pichamg^s  usual 
comprehensiveness,  the  inquiry  was  so  arranged  as  to  cover  the 
whole  sky,  and  with  four  telescopes — ^two  at  Cambridge  for 
the  northern  hemisphere,  and  two  at  Arequipa  in  Peru  for  the 
southern — to  which  a  fine  24-in.  photographic  telescope  waa 
afterwards  added,  no  fewer  than  75,000  photogvapha  had  been 
obtained  up  to  the  beginning  of  i$oi.    These  investigations 
have  yielded  many  important  discoveries,  not  only  of  new  stars, 
and  of  large  numbers  of  variable  stars,  but  also  of  a  wholly  new 
class  of  double  stars  whose  binary  character  is  only  revealed  by 
peculiarities  in  their  qwctra.    The  impvtant  conclusion  has 
been  already  derived  that  the  majority  of  the  stars  in  the  Milky 
Way  belong  to  one  special  type. 

PICKERING,  TIMOTHY  (1745-1839),  American  poliUdan, 
waa  bom  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  X7th  of  July  i74S' 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1763  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1768.  In  the  pre-revohitionary  controversies  he 
identified  himself  with  the  American  Whigs;  in  1773  he  prepared 
for  Salem  a  paper  entitled  SUUe  of  Ike  Rights  of  Ihe  CoUnisis;  in 
r 77 5  be  drafted  a  memorial  protesting  against  the  Boston  Port 
Bill;  and  in  1776  he  was  a  representative  from  Salem  in  the 
General  Court  of  Blassachusetts.  In  1766  he  had  been  commiBk 
sioned  lieutenant  and  in  1769  captain  in  the  Essex  county 
militia;  early  in  1775  he  published  An  Easy  Plan  of  Disci^ine 
fer  a  Miiitia,  adopted  in  May  1776  by  the  General  Court  for  use 
by  the  militia,  of  Massachusetts,  and  he  was  elected  colonel  of 
his  regiment.  In  the  same  year  he  became  judge  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  for  Essex  county,  and  sole  judge  of  the  maritime 
court  for  the  oountics  of  Su0elk,  Essex  and  Middlesex.  In  the 
winter  of  1776-1777  he  led  an  Essex  regiment  of  volunteers 
to  New  York,  and  he.  subsequently  served  as  adjutant-general 
(Jtine  1777-Jan.  1778)  and  later  as  quartermaster-general 
( 1 780- 1785) ;  he  was  also  a  member  of  the  board  of  war  from  the 
7th  of  November  1777  until  its  abolition.  With  the  aid  of  some 
officers  he  drew  up,  in  April  17^3,  a  plan  for  the  settlement  of 
the  North- West  territory,  wluch  provided  for  the  ezclusioD  of 
slavery.  In  1785  he  became  a  commisaion  merchant  in 
Philadelphia;  but  in  October  i786«  soock  after  the  ie^slature  of 
Pennsylvania  had  passed  a  bill  for  erecting  Wyoming  district 
into  the  county  of  Luzerne*  he  was  appointed  prothonotaiy  and 
a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  and  clerk  of  the  court  of 
sessions  and  orphans'  court  for  the  new  county,  and  was  com- 
missioned to  organise  the  county.  He  offered  to  purchase  for 
himsdf  the  Connecticut  title  to  a  farm,  and  in  the  following  year 
be  was  appointed  a  mcasber  of  a  commission  to  settle  claims 


according  to  the  terms  of  an  act,  of  which  he  was  the  author, 
confirming  the  Connecticut  titles  (see  WyoiiiMc  Valley  and 
WiLKES-BAtat).  Pickering  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania 
convention  of  1787  which  ratified  the  Federal  coasUtution»and 
of  the  PennQdvania  oonstitutionai  convention  of  1789-1790. 
In  November  1790  he  negotiated  a  peace  with  the  Seneca 
Indians,  and  he  oonduded  treaties  with  the  Six  Nations  in  July 
1 79 1 ,  in  Mardi  1 793  and  in  November  1 794.  Under  Washington 
he  was  postmaster-general  (1791-1795),  secretary  of  war  (1795), 
and  after  December  1795  seaetary  of  state,  to  which  position  he 
was  reappointed  (1797)  by  Adams.  In  1783,,  while  he  was 
qoaitermaster-general,  be  had  presented  a  plan  for  a  military 
academy  at  West  Point,  and  now,  as  secretary  of  war,  he  super* 
vised  the  West  Point  military  post  with  a  view  to  its  conversion 
into  a  military  academy.  As  head  ol  the  state  department 
he  soon  came  into  con|lkt  with  Adams.  His  hatred  of  France 
made  it  impossible  for  him  to  empathize  with  the  president's 
efforts  to  settle  Che  diffeiVnces  with  that  country  on  a  peaceabl  e 
basis.  He  used  all  his  influence  to  hamper  the  president  and 
to  advance  the  political  interests  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
until  he. was  dismissed,  after  refusing  to  resign,  in  May  1800. 
Returning  to  Massachusetts,  he  served  as  chief  justice  of  the 
court  of  common  pleas  of  Essex  county  in  1802-1803.  He  was 
a  United  States  senator  in  x8o3>i8ii  and  a  member  of  the 
Federal  House  of  Representatives  in  1813-1817.  As  an  ultra 
Federalist-— he  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  group  known 
as  the  Essex  Junto~-he  stronn^y  opposed  the  purchase  Of 
Louisiana  and  the  War  of  1812.  He  died  at  Salem,  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  2Qtb  of  Januaiy  1829. 

The  cAandard  biography  i&  that  by  his  son,  Octavius  Pickering 
(1791 -1868).  and  C.  w.  Upham.  TA*  Life  of  Timothy  Pukenng 
(4  vela.,  Boston.  1867-1873).  In  the  library  of  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Socket/  at  Boston,  there  are  sixty-two  manuscript 
vohimes  of  the  Pickering  papers,  an  index  to  which  was  published 
in  the  CoUoUums  of  the  soaety,  6th  scries,  vol.  viii.  (Boston.  1896). 

His  son,  John  Pick£rino  (1777-1846),  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1796,  studied  law  and  was  private  secretary  to  William 
Smith,  United  States  minister  to  Portugal,  in  i797-*-i799»  and 
to  Rufus  King,  minister  to  Great  Britain,  in  1 799-1801.  He 
practised  law  in  Salem  and  (after  1827)  in  Boston,  where  he 
was  city  solicitor  in  182  7-1846,  and  wrote  mudi  on  law  and 
especially  on  the  languages  of  the  North-American  Indians. 
He  was  a  fotmder  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and  published 
an  excellent  Comprekensite  Dicliouary  of  tko  Greek  Language 
(1826}. 

Sec  Mary  O.  Pickering  (bis  daughter),  life  of  John  Pukering 
(Boston.  1887). 

Timothy  Pickering's  grandson,  Charles  Pickesinc  (1805- 
1878),  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1823  and  at  the  Harvard 
Medical  School  in  i826»  practised  medicine  in  Philadelphia, 
was  naturalist  to  the  Wilkes  exploring  expedition  of  1838-1842, 
and  in  1843-1845  travelled  in  East  Africa  and  India.  He  wrote 
The  Races  of  Man.  and  their  Geographical  Distribution  {i^S), 
Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals  and  Man  (1854),  Geo- 
graphical Distribution  of  PUmts  (1861)  and  Chronological  History 
of  Plants  (1879). 

PICKERING,  a  market  town  in  the  Whitby  parliamentary 
division  of  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  ^2  m. 
N.E.  by  H.  from  York  by  the  North  Eastern  railway,  the 
junction  of  several  branch  Unes.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901), 
3491.,  The  church  of  St  Peter  is  Norman  and  transitional 
Norman,  with  later  additions  including  a  Decorated  spire.  It 
contains,  a  remarkable  series  of  mural  paintings  of  the  15th 
centuiy.  The  castle,  on  a  hill  to  the  north,  is  a  picturesque 
ruin,  the  fragmentary  keep  and  several  towers  remaining.  The 
work  b  in  part  Norman,  but  the  principal  portions  are  of  the 
14th  century.  One  of  the  towers  is  connected  in  name  and 
story  with  Fair  Rosamond..  The  casilc  was  held  by  Earl 
Morcar  shortly  before  the  Conquest;  it  then  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  Crown,  and  subsequently  passed  to  the  duchy  of  Lancaster. 
It  was  the  prison  of  Richard  II.  before  his  confinement  at  Pome- 
fract.  During  the  dvil  wars  of  the  17th  century  the  castle  was 
held  by  the  Royalists,  and  snficred  greatly  in  sicgr.   The  district 


58+ 


PICKET— PICO  DELIA  MIRANDOLA 


surrounding  Pickering  is  agricultural,  and  the  town  is  a  centre 
of  the  trade.  Agricultural  implements  are  manufactured,  and 
limestone  and  freestone  are  quarried  in  the  vicinity. 

PICKET,  Piquet  or  Picquet  (Fr.  piquei,  a  pointed  stake 
or  peg,  from  piquer,  to  point  or  pierce),  a  militaxy  term,  signifying 
an  outpost  or  guard,  supposed  to  have  originated  in  the  French 
army  about  1690,  from  the  drcumstanoe  that  an  infantry 
company  <»  outpost  duty  dispersed  its  musketeers  to  watch, 
the  small  group  of  pikemen  called  piqitet  remaining  in  reserve. 
Thus  at  tbe  present  day  thk  word  "  picquet  "  is,  in  Great  Britain 
at  any  rate,  restricted  to  an  infantry  post  on  the  outpost  line, 
from  which  the  sentries  or  "  groups  "  of  watchers  are  sent  out. 
In  the  United  States  a  "  picket "  is  sjmonymous  with  a  sentry, 
and  the  "  picket-line  "  is  the  extreme  advanced  line  of  observa« 
turn  of  an  army.  In  the  French  army  ptoquets  are  called 
"  grand'  gardes,"  and  the  phrase  "  grand  guard  "  is  often  met 
with  in  English  military  works  of  the  Z7th  and  i8th  centuries. 
A  body  of  soldiers  held  in  readiness  for  military  or  police  duties 
within  the  limits  of  a  camp  or  barracks  is  also  called  a  picquet 
or  **  inlying  picquet."  These  q>ecial  uses  of  the  won!  in  En^^ish 
are  apparently  quite  modem  (after  about  1750).  "  Picket " 
in  its  ordinary  meaning  of  a  peg  or  stake,  has  always  been  in 
common  military  use,  being  applied  variously  to  tlus  picketing 
pegs  in  horse-lines,  to  long  pointed  stakes  employed  in  palisades 
or  stockades,  to  straight  thin  rods  used  for  marking  out  the  line 
of  fire  for  guns,  &c.  Of  the  various  spellings  "  picquet  *'  is 
officially  adopted  in  Great  Britain  and  "  picket "  in  the  United 
States,  but  the  latter  is  now  invariably  used  when  a  peg  or  stake 
is  meant. 

Two  obsolete  meanings  of  the  word  should  also  be  mentioned. 
The  "  picket  "  was  a  form  of  military  punishment  in  vogue  in 
the  1 6th  and  27th  centuries,  which  consisted  in  the  offender 
being  forced  to  stand  on  the  narrow  flat  top  of  a  peg  lor  a  period 
of  time.  The  punbhment  died  out  in  the  i8th  century  and  was 
so  far  unfamiliar  by  x8oo  that  Sir  Thomas  Picton,  who  ordered 
a  mulatto  woman  to  be  so  punished,  was  accused  by  public 
opinion  in  England  of  inflicting  a  torture  akin  to  impalement. 
It  was  thoui^t,  in  fact,  that  the  prisoner  was  forced  to  stand 
on  the  head  of  a  pointed  stake,  and  this  error  is  repeated  in  the 
New  En^ish  DiciioMtry.  In  the  middle  of  the  19th  century, 
when  elongated  rifle  bullets  were  a  novelty,  they  wece  often,  and 
especially  in  America,  called  pickets.  The  ordinary  military 
use  of  the  word  gives  rise  to  compound  forms  such  as  "  pick^ 
boat  '*  or  "  picket  launch,"  large  steam  launch  or  pinnac»  fitted 
with  guns  and  torpedoes,  and  employed  for  watching  the  waters 
of  harbours,  &c.   For  picketing  in  strikes,  &c.,  see  bdow. 

PICKBTINO.  a  term  used  to  describe  a  practice  resorted  to 
by  workmen  engaged  in  trade  disputes,  of  placing  one  or  more 
men  near  the  works  of  the  employer  with  whom  the  dispute  is 
pending,  with  the  object  of  drawing  oflf  his  hands  or  acquiring 
information  useful  for  the  purposes  of  the  dispute.  In  Engfend, 
under  the  Conspiracy  and  I^ection  of  Property  Act  1875,  it 
is  an  offence  wrongfully  and  without  legal  authority  to  watdi 
or  beset  the  house  or  place  where  another  re^des  or  works,  or 
carries  on  business  or  happens  ,to  be,  or  the  approach  to  such 
house  or  place,  if  the  object  of  the  watching,  &c.,  is  to  compel 
the  person  watched,  &c.,  to  abstain  from  doing  or  to  do  an  act 
which  he  is  legally  entitled  to  do  or  to  abstain  from  doing  (§  7). 
The  definition  of  the  offence  was  qualified  by  a  proviso  exdading 
from  punishment  those  who  attend  at  or  near  a  house  or  place 
merely  to  obtain  or  communicate  information,  in  other  words 
what  is  termed  peaceful  picketing,  without  intimidation,  molesta- 
tion or  direct  efforts  to  influence  the  course  of  a  trade  dispute. 
This  enactment  led  to  a  great  deal  of  litigation  between  trade 
unions  and  employers;  and  trade  unions  were  in  some  instances 
restrained  by  injunction  from  picketing  the  works  of  employers, 
The  decisions  of  the  courts  upon  this  subject  met  with  severe 
criticism  from  the  leaders  of  trade  unions,  and  by  the  Trades 
Disputes  Act  1906  the  proviso  above  quoted  was  repealed,  and 
it  was  declared  lawful  for  one  or  more  persons  acting  for  them- 
selves or  for  a  trade  union  or  for  an  individual  employer  to  attend 
^  or  near  a  bouse,  &c,  *'  if  the  attendance  b  merely  for  the 


purpose  of  peacefully  obtaining  or  oommuaicaiiBg  infonmatioa 
or  of  peacefully  persuading  any  person  to  work  or  abstain  from 
working."  The  exact  effect  of  this  change  in  the  law  has  not 
yet  been  determined  by  the  courts,  but  during  the  Belfast  carters' 
strike  of  Z907  serious  riots  ensued  upon  the  efforts  of  the  authori- 
ties to  counteract  the  interference  with  lawful  business  caused 
by  free  use  of  picketing.  The  change  in  the  law  is  supplemented 
by  provisions  forbidding  actions  against  trade  unions  in  respect 
of  any  tortious  acts  alleged  to  have  been  committed  by  or  on 
behalf  o£  the  union. 

PICKLB.  In  the  wider  sense  the  term  **  pickle  "  is  applied 
to  any  saline  or  add  preservative  solution;  in  the  narrower  to 
vegetables  preserved  in  vin^ar.  The  word  appcan  to  be  an 
adaptation  of  Dutch  ^Ae/,  brine,  pickle;  d.  Cer.  PokeL  The 
ultimate  origin  is  unknown;  connexions  with  a  supposed  ia^ 
venter's  name,  such  as  Beukder  or  Bdckd  are  mere  inventions. 
A  solution  of  copper  or  sine  sulphate  is  used  as  a  "  pickle  "  for 
railway-sleepers  or  other  wood,  a  brine  containing  salt  and 
saltpetre  as  a  preservative  for  meat,  lime-water  as  "  pickle  " 
for  eggs.  Domestic  pickles  are  made  from  small  cucumbers, 
onions,  cauliflowers,  cabbages^  mangoes  and  unripe  walnuts, 
by  dther  steeping  or  boiling  them  in  salt-brine  and  vinegar. 
Chi  account  of  the  large  proportion  of  water  natural  to  these 
vegetables,  only  the  strongest  vinegar,  containing  from  s  to  6% 
of  acedc  add,  can  be  used.  For  the  better  kinds  vinegar  nude 
from  malted  or  unmalted  barley  is  as  a  rule  employed,  for 
cheaper  varieties  simply  dilute  acetic  add  obtained  from  acetate 
of  lime.  Sauces  such  as  Worcestershire  sauce,  or  Yorkshi/e 
relish,  consist  of  fluid  pickles,  that  is  of  salted  and  variously 
spiced  vinegar  solutions  or  emulsions  containing  tissue  oi 
vegetables  (tomatoes,  mushrooms,  &c.),  qr  of  fish  (sardines  or 
anchovies). 

PICKNELU  WIUiAM  LAMB  (1854-1897),  American  land- 
scape-painter, was  bom  at  Hinesburg,  Vermont,  on  the  ajrd 
of  October  2854.  He  was  a  pupil  of  George  Inness  in  Rome  for 
two  years,  and  of  J.  L.  G^r6roe  in  the  £coIe  des  Beaux  Arts, 
Paris.  With  Robert  Wylie  he  worked  for  several  years  in 
Brittany,  at  Pont  Aven  and  Concameau,  where  he  (tainted  his 
"  Route  de  Concarneau  "  (Cotcoian  Art  Gallery,  Washingtoa, 
D.C.).  His  "  Morning  on  the  Loing  "  received  a  gold  medal 
at  the  Paris  Salon  of  1895.  In  x88o  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Sodety  of  American  Artists,  and  in  1891  an  associate  of  tbe 
National  Academy  of  Design.  He  died  at  Marblchead,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  8th  of  August  1897. 

PICMIC*  a  form  of  entertainment  in  which  the  guesla  axe 
invited  to  join  an  excursion  to  some  place  whew  a  meal  can  be 
taken  in  the  open  air.  During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century 
the  essential  of  a  picnic  was  that  the  guesu  should  each  bring 
with  them  a  contribution  of  provisions.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  X9th  centuiy  a  aodety  was  formed  In  London  called  the 
'*  Picnic  Sodety,"  the  memben  of  which  supped  at  the  Pantheoo 
in  Oxford  Street,  and  drew  lota  as  U>  what  part  of  the  meaJ  each 
should  supply  (see  L.  Mdville,  The  Beaux  of  the  Regemcy^  i9o8v 
i.  932).  The  French  form  pique-^ique  h  said  to  be  of  recent 
introduction  in  1693  (Manage,  Did.  etym.).  It  is  doubtful 
whether  picnic  is  merriy  a  rhyming  word,  or  can  be  referred 
to  pique^  pick,  and  fiiytie,  small  coin. 

PICO,  an  Island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  oelonging  to  Portugal, 
and  forming  part  of  the  Aaores  archipelago,  ^op.  (1900). 
a4,02S;  area  175  sq.  m.  Pioo  la  a  conical  mountain,  rising  to 
the  height  of  7613  ft.  The  soil  consists  eatirdy  of  putverijcd 
lava.  The  so-called  Fayal  wine,  thou^  named  after  an  adjacent 
island,  was  formerly  produced  here,  and  hugdy  exported  to 
Europe.  But  in  1852  the  vines  were  attacked  by  the  Oidimm 
fungus  and  complctdy  destroyed,  while  the  orange-trees  suffered 
almost  as  much  from  the  Coccus  hesperidnm,  Tbe  people  were 
consequently  forced  to  emigrate  in  great  nunbm,  till  the 
planting  of  fig'tiees  and  apricots  alleviated  the  evil.  Pioo  abo 
produces  a  ^)ecles  of  wood  resembling  mahogany,  and  equal  in 
quality  to  it.    Its  chief  town  is  Lagens  do  Pieo.    Pop.  (9975). 

PICO  DBLLA  MIRANDOLA,  GIOVANNI,  CoiifNT  (t46s-t49^\ 
ItaUan  philosopher  and  writCT,  the  youngest  toa  of  Gitfvanas 


PICRIC  ACID— PICRITE 


58s 


Tmcesco  Pico,  prince  of  Mirandofa,  a  small  territory  about 
30  Italian  miles  west  of  Ferrara,  afterwards  absorbed  ia  the 
duchy  of  Modena,  was  born  on  the  24th  of  February  1463.  The 
family  was  illustrious  and  wealthy,  and  claimed  descent  from 
Constantine.  In  his  fourteenth  year  Pico  went  to  Bologna, 
where  he  studied  for  two  years,  and  was  much  occupied  with 
the  Decretals.  The  traditional  studies  of  the  place,  however, 
disgxisted  him;  and  he  spent  seven  years  wandering  throuf^  all 
the  schools  of  Italy  and  France  and  coUecthig  a  precious  library. 
Besides  Greek  and  Latin  he  knew  Hebrew,  Chaldee  and  Arabic; 
and  his  Hebrew  teachers  (Eliah  del  Medi^,  Leo  Abarbanel  and 
Jochanan  Aleman— -see  L.  Geiger  Johann  Reueklin  (i87i),p.  167) 
introduced  him  to  the  Kabbalah,  which  had  great  fascinations 
for  one  who  loved  all  mystic  and  theosophic  speculation.  His 
learned  wanderings  ended  (i486)  at  Rome,  where  he  set  forth 
for  public  disputation  a  list  of  nine  hundred  questions  and 
condusbns  in  all  branches  of  philosophy  and  theology.  He 
remained  a  year  in  Rome,  but  the  disputation  he  proposed  was 
never  held.  The  pope  prohibited  the  little  book  in  which  they 
were  contained,  and  Pico  had  to  defend  the  impugned  theses 
{D€  omni  re  scibili)  in  an  elaborate  Apt^ogia,  His  personal 
orthodoxy  was,  however,  subsequently  vindicated  by  a  brief 
of  Alexander  VI.,  dated  i8th  June  1493.  The  suspected  theses 
included  such  points  as  the  following :  that  Christ  descended 
ad  inferos  not  in  His  real  presence  but  gtuxid  ejfectum;  that  no 
image  or  cross  should  receive  latreia  even  in  the  sense  allowed 
by  Thomas;  that  it  is  more  reasonable  to  regard  Origen  as  saved 
than  as  damned;  that  it  is  not  in  a  man's  free  will  to  believe  or 
disbelieve  an  article  of  faith  as  he  pleases.  But  perhaps  the 
most  starth'ng  thesis  was  that  no  science  gives  surer  conviction 
bf  the  divinity  of  Christ  than  "  magia  '*  (U.  the  knowledge  of 
the  secrets  of  the  heavenly  bodies)  and  Kabbalah.  Pico  was 
the  first  to  seek  in  the  Kabbalah  a  proof  of  the  Christian  mysteries 
and  it  was  by  him  that  Reuchlin  was  led  into  .the  same  delusive 
path. 

Pico  had  been  up  to  this  time  a  gay  Italian  nobleman;  he  was 
tall,  handsome,  fair-complexioned,  with  keen  grey  eyes  and 
yellow  hair,  and  a  great  favourite  with  women.  But  his  troubles 
led  him  to  more  serious  thoughts;  and  he  published,*  in  his  28th 
year,  the .  Heplaplus,  a  mystlcd  exposition  of  the  creation. 
Next  he  planned  a  great  seven-fold  work  against  the  enemies 
of  the  Church,  of  which  only  the  section  directed  against  astrology 
was  completed.  After  leaving  Rome  he  again  lived  a  wandering 
life,  often  visiting  Florence,  to  which  he  was  drawn  by  his  friends 
Politian  and  MarsUius  Flcinus,  and  where  also  he  came  under 
the  influence  of  Savonarola.  It  was  at  Florence  that  he  died 
on  the  17  th  of  November  1494.  Three  years  before  his  death 
he  parted  with  his  share  of  the  ancestral  principality,  and 
designed,  when  certain  literary  plans  were  completed,  to  give 
away  all  he  had  and  wander  barefoot  througli  the  world  preach- 
ing Christ.  But  these  plans  were  cut  short  by  a  fever  which 
carried  him  off  just  at  the  time  when  Charles  VIII.  was  at 
Florence.  _  .  "  ■-       ■  - 

i  Pico's  works  cannot  now  be  read  with  much  interest,  but  the 
man  himself  is  still  interesting,  partly  from  his  influence  on 
Reuchlin  and  partly  from  the  spectacle  of  a  truly  devout  mind 
in  the  brilliant  circle  of  half-pagan  scholars  of  the  Florentine 

renaissance. 

>  His  works  were  published  at  Bologna  in  1496  by  his  nephew, 
Giov.  Fran.  Pico,  with  a  biography,  which  was  translated  by  Sir 
Thomas  More  as  Life  of  John  Picus,  Earl  of  Mirandola^  in  1510. 
See  the  essay  in  Walter  Pater's  RemaissoMe  (1878):  and  the 


study  by  J.  Kigg,  prefixed  to  the  reprint  of  More'a  Life  in  the 
."  Tudor  Library^  (London,  1890). 

PICRIC  ACID,  or  Tbimitbopbcnol,  C«HrOH(NOi)3  fr2-4-6], 
aa  explosive  and  dyestuff  formed  by  the  action  of  con- 
centrated nitric  add  on  indigo,  aniline,  resins,  silk,  wool, 
leather,  &c  It  is  the  final  product  of  the  direct  nitration  of 
phenol,  and  is  usually  prepared  by  the  nitration  of  the  mixture 
of  phenol  sulphonic  adds  obtained  by  heating  phenol  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  (E.  Eisenmann  and  A.  Arche, 
Eng.  pat.,  4539  (1889).  It  may  also  be  obtained  by 
oxidiang   the   synunetrical    trinitrobenzene .  with    potassium 


ferricyanide  in  alkaline  solution  (P.  Hepp,  Ann.  1882,  215, 
p.  352).  It  crystallizes  from  water  ui  yellow  plates  mdting  at 
I22*s"  C,  which  sublime  on  careful  heating,  but  explode  ^en 
rapidly  heated.  It  is  poisonous  and  possesses  a  bitter  taste, 
hence  its  name  from  the  Greek  rucpftt,  bitter.  It  has  a  strongly 
acid  reaction,  beir.g  almost  comparable  with  the  carboxylic 
adds.  By  the  action  of  bleaching  powder  it  is  converted  into 
chlorpicrin,  CCU'NOs.  Phosphorus  pentachloride  converts 
it  into  piciyl  chloride,  C«HtCl(NO,)s,  which  is  a  true  add 
chloride,  being  decomposed  by  water  with  the  regeneration  of 
picric  add  and  the  formation  of  hydrochloric  add;  with  ammonia 
it  yields  picramide^  CsHjNHiCNOi)*.  Silver  picrate  and  methyl 
iodide  yidd  the  methyl  ester,  which  gives  with  ammonia 
picramide.  Picric  add  forms  many  wdi-defined  salts,  of  a 
yellow  or  red-brown  colour.  It  also  yields  crystalline  compounds 
with  many  aromatic  hydrocarbons  and  bases.  It  imparts  a 
yellow  colour  to  wool  and  silk.  The  chief  application  of  picric 
acid  and  its  salts  is  in  the  manufacture  of  explosives.  When 
ignited,  picric  acid  bums  quietly  with  a  smoky  flame,  and  it  is 
very  difficult  to  detonate  by  percussion;  its  salts,  however,  are 
more  readily  detonated.  The  more  important  picric  powders 
are  mdinite,  bdicvcd  to  be  a  mixture  of  fused  picric  acid  and 
gun-cotton;  lyddite^  the  British  service  explosive,  and  skimose, 
the  Japanese  powder,  both  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
original  melinite;  Brught't  powder,  a  mixture  of  54  parts  of 
ammonium  picrate  and  45  parts  of  saltpetre;  Dcsignoltc's  powder, 
composed  of  potassium  picrate,  saltpetre  and  charcoal;  and 
emmensiU,  invented  by  Stephen  Emmens,  of  the  United  Slates. 

It  may  be  detected  by  the  addition  of  an  aqueous  solution  of 
potassium  cyanide,  with  which  it  gives  a  violet-red  coloration, 
due  to  the  formation  of  isopurpuric  acid.  R.  Anschutz  {Ber.,  1884, 
17,  p.  439)  estimates  picric  add  by  precipitation  with  acridine. 

PICRITE  (from  Gr.  vtxp6t,  bitter,  because  these  rocks  are 
rich  in  magnesia,  a  base  which  forms  bitter  salts),  a  rock  belong- 
ing to  the  ultrabasic  group,  and  consisting  mainly  of  olivine 
and  augite  often  with  hornblende  and  biotite  and  a  greater  or 
less  amount  of  plagiodase  felspar.  The  picrites  are  of 
*'  hypabyssal "  origin  and  in  their  natural  occurrence  are 
connected  with  doleritcs  (diabases  and  teschenites).  The 
distinction  between  them  and  the  pcridotites,  which  have  an 
essentially  similar  composition,  is  not  easy  to  define,  but  the 
peridotites  accompany  the  true  plutonic  rocks,  such  as  gabbro, 
norite  and  pyroxenite,  are  often  very  coarsely  crystalline,  and 
form  large  bosses  and  laccolites,  while  the  picrites  usually  are 
found  in  sills  or  intrusive  sheets. 

In  hand  spedmens  the  picrites  arc  dark  green  to  black;  the 
absence  or  scardty  of  lath-shaped  plagiodase  felspars  distin- 
guishes them  from  diabases  and  they  rarely  have  the  lustre- 
mottling  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the  peridotites.  Since  they 
contain  much  olivine  they  readily  decompose,  passing  into  deep 
green  and  brown  incoherent  masses  in  which  are  embedded 
rounded  lumps  of  harder  consistency.  They  have  a  high  specific 
gravity  (about  3*0)  and  may  be  distinctly  magnetic,  because 
they  are  rich  in  iron  ores.  Porphyritic  structure  is  rare  though 
occurring  sometimes  in  the  rocks  known  as  picrite-porphyrites; 
the  phenocrysts  are  olivine  and  au^te.  There  is  seldom  any 
fine-grained  or  glassy  groundmass,  and  the.  typical  micro- 
structure  is  holocrystalline,  moderately  fine  grained  and  some- 
what poikilitic.  Olivine  is.  abundant  in  rounded  pale  green 
crystals.  It  may  form  one  half  of  the  rock  but  rarely  more  than 
this.  The  augite  is  generally  brown  or  reddish-brown,  sometimes 
violet,  and  tends  to  endose  the  olivine,  yielding  poedlitic  aggre- 
gates. Brown  hornblende  often  occurs  as  marginal  growths 
around  the  pyroxene,  and  may  be  so  abundant  as  to  replace 
augite  to  a  large  extent;  rocks  of  this  cUss  are  known  as 
homblende-picrites.  Bright  green  or  pale-green  hornblende  are 
less  frequently  present,  and  in  jnany  cases  are  really  of  secondary 
origin.  Deep  brown  biotite  is  a  frequent  accessory  mineral 
and  both  biotite  and  hornblende  sometimes  endose  olivine. 
A  small  amount  of  basic  plagiodase  occurs  in  many  picrites; 
apatite,  iron  oxides,  chromite  and  spinels  are  minor  ingredients 
seldom  altogether  absent. 


586 


PICROTOXIN—PICTON 


The  minerals  of  picritea  are  very  frequently  dearnipoacd. 
Serpentine  partly  or  wholly  replaces  olivine,*  forming  radiate 
fibrous  masses  which  arc  green,  yellow  or  red  in  nucrosct^ic 
sections.  Sometimes  hornblende  (pilite),  talc,  chlorite  and  mica 
appear  as  secondary  products  after  olivine.  The  augite  passes 
into  chlorite  or  into  green  fibrous  or  platy  amphibolc.  Horn- 
blende and  biotite  are  often  fresh  when  the  other  components 
are  much  altered.  The  felspar  is  rarely  in  good  preservation 
but  yields  epidote,  prehnite,  sericite,  kaolin,  caldte  and  analcitc 
are  abundant  in  some  weathered  picritcs. 

Rocks  of  this  type  arc  well  represented  in  Great  Britain.  In 
the  central  valley  of  Scotbnd  several  masses  of  picrite  have  been 
discovered,  always  in  doce  association  with  okvine-dtabase  and 
teschcnitc. '  One  of  these  forms  the  island  of  Inchcolm  in  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  another  lies  near  Bathgate  (in  Linlithgowshire),  and  there 
are  others  at  Abcrdour  (Fife),  Ardrossan  and  Barnton  (Midlothian). 
They  belong  to  the  great  series  of  Carboniferous  eruptive  rocks  of 
the  Scottish  midland  valley.  These  picrites  arc  not  known  to  be 
represented  m  England,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  Devonbn 
picntes  in  Devon  and  (Cornwall  as  basic  members  of  the  diabase 
and  proterobase  scries  of  these  counties.  Some  of  them  contain 
much  augite  like  the  picrite  (often  called  palaeopicrite  as  being  of 
palaeozoic  age)  at  Mcnheniot  Station  in  Cornwall  and  the  picrite 
of  Highwcck  near  Newton  Abbot  in  Dcvon^ifc.  Others  arc  horn- 
blcndc'picrites  like  that  of  Cartuther  near  St  Germans,  CornwalL 
Hornblcnde-picrite  occurs  also  in  the  island  of  Sark  and  several 
beautiful  examples  have  been  described  from  Anelesey  and  from 
Penarfynnydd  in  North  Wales  and  from  Wickiow  in  Ireland. 
Picrites  occur  in  several  parts  of  Germany,  notably  in  the  Devonian 
rocks  of  the  Fichtelgcbirgc  and  Nassau,  where  they  accompany 
diabases  and  proterobascs  like  those  of  (Tornwalt  and  Devonshire. 
In  Silesia  and  Moravia  picrites  are  found  with  teschenitcs  like  those 
of  Central  Scotland.  In  some  of  the  continental  picrites  ensta* 
ttte  IS  present  but  is  rare.  In  North ,  America,  picrites  occur 
among  the  igneous  rocks  on  the  Hudson  river  and  in  Alabanui  and 
Montana.  (J.  S.  F.) 

PICROTOXIN,  a  neutral  principle  obtained  from  the  Cocculus 
indiCHS,  which  is  the  fruit  of  the  AnamirUt  paniculata.  It  is 
used  in  medicine  externally  as.  an  antiparasitic.  Internally  it 
has  been  successfully  used  to  check  the  night-sweats  of  phthisis. 
In  large  doses  it  is  a  powerful  poison,  causing  unconsciousness, 
delirium,  convulsions,  gastroenteritis  and  stimulation  of  the 
respiratory  centre  followed  by  paralysis,  from  which  death 
sometimes  results.  Formerly  low  class  publicans  sometimes 
added  Couulus  iniicus  berries  to  beer  to  increase  the  intoxicat- 
ing effects.    Its  chemical  formula  is  CuHmOi*  HtO. 

PICTET  DB  U  RIVE,  FRANCOIS  JULES  (1809-1872),  Swiss 
zoologist  and  palaeontologist,  was  bom  in  Geneva  on  the  37th 
of  September  1809.  He  graduated  B.  es  Sc.  at  Geneva  in  1829, 
and  pursued  his  studies  for  a  short  time  at  Paris,  where  under 
the  influence  of  Cuvier,  de  Blainville  and  others,  he  worked  at 
natural  histoiy  and  comparative  anatomy.  On  his  return  to 
Geneva  in  1830  he  assisted  A.  P.  de  Candolle  by  giving  demon- 
strations in  comparative  anatomy.  Five  years  later,  when  de 
Candolle  retired,  Pictet  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  and 
comparative  anatomy.  In  1846  his  duties  were  restricted  to 
certain  branches  of  zoology,  including  geology  and  palaeontology, 
and  these  he  continued  to  teach  until  1859,  when  he  retired  to 
devote  his  energies  to  the  museum  of  natural  history  and  to 
special  palaeontological  work.  He  was  rector  of  the  academy 
from  1847  to  1850,  and  again  from  x866  to  1868.  He  was  for 
many  years  a  member  of  the  Representative  Cotmcil  of  Geneva, 
and  in  1863  President  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  His  earh'cr 
published  work  related  chiefly  to  entomology,  and  included 
Rcckerckes  pour  servir  d  rhistoire  et  d  Panatomie  des  Pkryganides 
(1834)  and  two  parts  of  IJistoire  naturdle,  gittirale  d  particuliire 
des  insecUs  NeuropUres  (1842-1845).  Feeling  the  want  of  a 
hand-book,  he  prepared  his  TraUi  &imcntaire  de  paUontelope 
(4  vols.  1 844-1 846).  In  the  first  edition  Pictet,  while  adopting 
the  hypothesis  of  successive  creations  of  species,  admitted  that 
some  may  have  originated  through  the  modification  of  pre- 
existing forms.  In  his  second  edition  (1853-1857)  he  enters 
further  Into  the  probable  transformation  of  some  species,  and 
discusses  the  independence  of  certain  faunas,  which  did  not 
appear  to  have  originated  from  the  t)rpes  which  locally  preceded 
them.  He  now  directed  his  attention  to  the  fossils  of  Ms  native 
country,  more  especially  to  those  of  the  Cretaceous  and  Jurassic 


strata,  and  in  1854  he  commenced  the  publication  of  bis  great 
work,  iiatinaux  four  la  paUotUologte  sutsu^  a  senes  of  quarto 
memoirs,  of  which  six  were  published  (1854-1873).  In  this 
work  Pictet  was  aided  by  E  Renevier,  G.  Ompiche,  P-  de 
Loriol  and  others  Pictet  also  brought  out  MHanges  pdlonU- 
lcgtqt4€s  (i86^-x868).  He  died  at  Geneva  on  the  x  5th  of  March 
1872. 
Obituary  by  W.  S.  Dallas,  QuurL  Journ.  CeaL  Soc  (1873),  volxxix. 

PIGTON,  SIR  THOMAS  (1758^1815),  British  general,  was  the 
younger  son  of  Thomas  Picton.  of  Poyston,  Pembrokeshire, 
where  he  was  b(Mm  in  August  1758.    In  1771  he  obtained  an 
ensign's  commission  in  the  xath  regiment  of  foot,  but  he  did 
not  join  until  two  years  afterwards.    The  regiment  was  then 
stationed  at  Gibraltar,  where  he  remained  until  he  was  made 
captain  in  the  75th  in  January  1778,  when  he  returned  to 
England.    The  regiment  was  disbanded  five  years  later.    On 
the  occasion  of  its  disbandment  Picton  quelled  a  mutiny  amongst 
the  men  by  his  prompt  personal  action  and  courage,  and  was 
promised  a  majority  in  reward  for  his  conducL    This,  however, 
he  did  not  receive,  and  after  living  in  retirement  on  his  father's 
estate  for  nearly  twelve  years,  he  went  out  to  the  West  Indies 
in  1794  on  the  strength  of  a  slight  acquaintance  with  Sir  John 
Vaughan,  the  commander-in-chief,  who  made  him  his  aide-de- 
camp and  gave  him  a  captaincy  in  the  X7th  foot.    Shortly 
afterwards  he  wxis  promoted  major.    Under  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
cromby,  who  succeeded  Vaughan  in  X795,  he  took  part  in  the 
capture  of  St  Lucia  (for  which  he  was  promoted  lieutenant- 
colonel)  and  in  that  of  St  Vincent.    After  the  reduction  of 
Trinidad  Abercromby  made  him  governor  of  the  island.    He 
administered  the  island  with  such  success  that  the  inhabitants 
petitioned  against  the  retrocession  of  the  island  to  ^>ain,  and 
their  protest,  with  Picton*s  and  Abercromby's  representations, 
ensured  the  retention  of  Trinidad  as  a  British  possession.    In 
October  1801  he  was  gazetted  brigadier-general.    But  by  this 
time  the  rigour  of  his  government,  as  reported  by  his  enemies, 
had  led  to  a  demand  by  humanitarians  at  home  for  his  removal. 
Colonel  William  Fullarton  (i  754-1808)  procured  the  appointment 
of  a  commission  to  govern  the  island,  of  which  he  himself  was 
the  senior  member.  Captain  (afterwards  Admiral  Sir  Samuel) 
Hood  the  second,  and  Picton  himself  the  Junior.    Picton  there- 
upon tendered  his  resignation,  and  Hood,  as  soon  as  the  nature 
of  Fullarton's  proceedings  became  obvious,  followed  his  example 
(1803).    On  his  way  home  Picton  took  part  with  great  credit 
in  military  operations  in  St  Lucia  and  Tobago.     Realizing, 
however,  that  the  attacks  upon  him  were  increasing  in  virulence, 
he  quickly  returned  to  England,  and  in  December  1803  he  was 
arrested  by  order  of  the  privy  council.    He  was  tried  in  the 
court  of  king*s  bench  before  Lord  EUenborough  in  1806  on  a 
charge  of  unlawfully  applying  torture  to  extort  a  confession 
from  Luise  Calderon,  a  mulatto  woman  of  loose  character  who 
was  charged,  along  with  a  man,  with  robbery.    The  torture 
consbted  in  compelling  the  woman  to  stand  on  one  leg  on  a  fiat- 
headed  peg  for  one  hour.    The  punishment  was  ordered  under 
Spanish  law  (which  in  default  of  a  fresh  code  Picton  had  been 
appointed  to  administer  in  iSoi)  by  the  local  alcalde,  and 
approved  by  Picton.    On  these  groimds  the  court  retuzned  a 
merely  technical  verdict  of  guilty,  which  was  superseded  in 
x8oS  by  a  special  verdict  on  retriai.    It  should  be  mentioned 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  island,  who  had  already  given  turn 
a  sword  of  honour,  and  had  petitioned  the  king  not  to  accept 
his  resignation,  subscribed  £4000  towards  his  legal  expenses, 
which  sum  Picton  contributed  in  return  to  the  relief  of  the 
suffering  caused  by  a  widespread  fire  in  Port  <rf  Spain.   He  had 
meanwhile  been  promoted  major-general,  and  in  xSo^  he  had 
been  governor  of  Flushing  during  the  Waldieren  ejqiedttioB. 
In  x8to,  at  Wellington's  request,  he  was  appointed  to  command 
a  division  in  Spain.    For  the  remaming  yeats  of  the  Peninsular 
War,  Picton  was  one  of  Wellington's  principal  subordtnates. 
The  commander-in-chief,  it  is  true,  never  reposed  in  htm  the 
confidence  that  he  gave  to  Beresford  Hill  and  C^tufnrd.    But 
in  the  resolute,  thorough  and  punctual  execution  of  a  wrD- 
defined  taak^  Picton  had  no  superior  in  Xht  amy.    Hi&  dfbut. 


PICTOU— PIEDMONT 


587 


o«iii^  partly  to  his  natonOy  stern  and  now  embittered  temper, 
and  partly  to  the  difficult  position  in  which  he  was  placed,  was 
unfortunate.    On  the  Coa  in  July  1810  Craufard't  diirJsion 
became  involved  m  an  action,  and  Picton,  his  nearest  neighbour, 
refused  to  support  him,  as  Wdlington's  direct  orders  were  to 
avoid  an  engagement.    Details  of  the  incident  wUl  be  found  in 
Oman,  Feninsidar  War,  vol.  iii.    Shortly  after  this,  however, 
at  Busaco,  Picton  found  and  used  his  irst  great  oi^rtunity 
for  dbtinction.    Here  he  had  a  |^in  duty,  that  of  vepulsfng 
the  French  attack,  and  he  performed  that  duty  with  a  skill  and 
resolution  which  indicated  his  great  powers  as  a  troop-leader. 
After  the  winter  in  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  be  added  to  his 
reputation  and  to  that  of  his  division,  the  3rd,  at  Fuentes  d'Onor. 
In  September  he  was  given  the  local  rank  of  lieutenant-geBeral, 
and  in  the  same  month  the  division  won  great  glory  by  its  rapid 
and  orderly  retirement  imder  severe  pressure  from  the  French 
cavalry  at  El  Bodon.   In  October  Picton  was  appointed  to  the 
colonelcy  of  the  77th  regiment.    In  the  first  operations  of  18 is 
Picton  and  Oaufurd,  side  by  side  for  the  last  time,  stormed  the 
two  breaches  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Craufurd  and  Picton's  second 
in  command,  Major-General  Mackinnon,beingmortalIywounded. 
At  Badajoz,  a  month  later,  the  successftU  storming  of  the  fortress 
was  due  to  his  daring  self-reliance  and  penetration  in  converting 
the  secondary  attack  on  the  castle,  delivered  by  the  3rd  division, 
into  a  real  one.    He  was  himself  wounded  in  this  terrible  engage- 
ment, but  would  not  leave  the  ramparts,  and  the  day  after, 
having  recently  inherited  a  fortune,  he  gave  every  survivor  of 
his  command  a  guinea.    His  wound,  and  an  attack  of  fever, 
compelled  him  to  return  to  England  to  recruit  his  healthy  but 
ohe  reappeared  at  the  front  in  April  i8ij.    While  in  England  ho 
was  invested  with  the  collar  and  badge  of  a  K.B.  by  the  pritice 
regent,  and  in  June  he  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in  the 
army.    The  conduct  of  the  3rd  division  under  his  leadership 
at  the  battle  of  Vittoria  and  in  the  engagements  in  the  Pyrenees 
raised  his  reputation  as  a  resolute  and  skilful  fighting  general 
to  a  still  higher  point.    Eariy  in  1814  he  was  offered,  but  after 
consulting  Wellington  declined,  the  command  of  the  British 
forces  operating  on  the  side  of  Catalonia.    He  thus  bore  his 
share  in  the  Orthez  campaign  and  in  the  final  victory  before 
Toulouse. 

On  the  break-up  of  the  division  the  officers  presented  Picton 
with  a  valuable  service  of  plate,  and  on  the  24th  of  June  1814 
be  received  for  the  seventh  time  the  thanks  of  the  House  of 
Commons  for  his  great  services.    Somewhat  to  his  disappoint- 
ment he  was  not  included  amongst  the  generals  who  were  raised 
to  the  peerage,  but  early  in  1815  he  was  made  a  G.C.B.    When 
Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  Picton,  at  Wellington's  request, 
accepted  a  high  command  in  the  Anglo-Dutch  army.    He  was 
severely  wounded  at  Quatre  Bras  on  the  i6th  of  June,  but 
concealed  his  wound  and  retained  command  of  his  troops,  and  at 
Waterloo  on  the  i8th,  while  repulsing  with  impetuous  valour 
^  one  of  the  most  serious  attacks  made  by  the  enemy  on  our 
position,"  he  was  shot  through  the  head  by  a  musket  ball.    His 
body  was  brought  home  to  London,  and  buried  in  the  family 
vault  at  St  George's,  Hanover  Square.    A  pubKc  monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  by  order  of 
l>arliament,  and  in  1823  another  was  erected  at  Carmarthen  by 
subscription,  the  king  contributing  a  hundred  guineas  thereto. 

See  Robinmn's  Life  9f  Sir  Thomas  Picton  {London,  1836),  with 
which,  however,  compare  Napier's  and  Oman's  histories  of  the 
Peniasular  War  as  to  controveraal  poiots. 

PTCTOU,  a  seaport,  port  of  entry,  and  capital  of  Pfctou 
county,  Nova  Scotia,  90  m.  N.E.  by  N.  of  Halifax,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Intercolonial  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  3235.  It  has 
several  valuable  industries,  and  is  the  shipping  port  for  the 
adjacent  coal-mines.  The  Academy,  founded  in  f8i8,  played 
an  important  part  In  the  early  educational  history  of  the 
province,  and  still  enjoys  a  high  reputation. 

PICU8*  in  Roman  mythology,  originally  the  woodpecker,  the 
favourite  bird  and  symbol  of  Mars  as  the  god  of  both  nature 
and  war.  He  appears  later  as  a  spirit  of  tlie  forests,  endowed 
with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  haunting  springs  and  streams,  with 


a  spedal  saactuaiy  hi  a  grove  on  the  Aventiae.  As  a  god  of 
agriculture,  especially  connected  with  manuring  the  soil,  he  is 
called  the  son  of  Stercntus  (from  ilertus,  dung,  a  name  of 
Saturn).  Again,  Picus  is  the  first  king  of  Latium,  son  of  Saturn 
and  father  of  Faonns.  Virgil  (ifm.  vii.  170)  describes  the 
reception  of  the  ambassadors  of  Aeneas  by  Latinus  in  an  andent 
temple  or  paiaoe,  containing  figures  of  his  divine  ancestors, 
amongst  them  Picus,  famous  as  an  augur  and  soothsayer.  Ac- 
cording to  Ovid  iiidam.  ziv.,  320),  Circe,  while  gathering  herbs 
in  the  forest,  saw  the  youthful  hero  out  hunting,  and  immediately 
fell  in  love  with  him.  Picus  rejected  her  advances,  and  the 
goddess  in  her  anger  changed  him  into  a  woodpecker,  which 
pecks  impotently  at  the  branches  of  trees,  but  still  retains 
prophetic  powers.  The  purple  cloak  which  Pictis  wore  fastened 
by  a  golden  dasp  is  preserved  in  the  plumage  of  the  bird.  la 
the  simplest  form  of  art,  he  was  represented  by  a  wooden  pillar 
surmounted  by  a  woodpecker;  later,  as  a  youag  man  with  the 
bird  upon  his  head. 

PtcuMHus  is  merely  another  form  of  Picus,  and  with  him  is 
aiaociated  his  brother  and  double  Piluhnus.  PIcumnus.  a  nistic 
deity  (like  Pknu)  and  huBband  of  Pomooa.  is  specially  concenicd 
with  the  manurii^  of  the  soil  and  hence  called  Surquitinuf,  while 
Pilumnus  is  the  inventor  of  the  poundine  of  grain,  so  named  from 
the  pestle  (pitum)  used  by  bakers.  Under  a  different  aspect,  the 
pair  were  resided  as  the  guardians  of  women  in  childbed  and  ct 
new-born  children.  Before  the  child  was  taken  up  and  formally 
recognised  by  the  father,  a  couch  was  set  out  for  them  in  the  atrium, 
where  their  preceoce  guarded  it  from  alt  evil.  Augustine  {De 
civitate  del,  vl  9)  mentions  a  curious  custom :  to  protect  a  woman 
in  childbed  from  possible  violence  on  the  part  of  Silvanus,  the 
asaiscance  of  three  deities  was  invoked-^Inteicidona  (the  hewer). 
Pakiainaa  (the  pounder)  and  Deverro  (the  sweeper).  The«e  deities 
were  symboUcaUy  represented  by  three  men  who  went  round  the 
house  Vy  night.  One  smote  the  threshold  with  an  axe.  another 
with  a  pestle,  the  third  swept  it  with  a  broom — three  symbols  of 
culture  (for  trees  were  hewn  down  with  the  axe,  grain  pounded  with 
the  pestle,  and  the  fruits  of  the  6eld  swept  up  witn  the  broom) 
which  Silvanus  could  not  endure. 

PIDGIN  (or  Ptceon]  ENOUSH,  the  lingua  franea  of  the  sea- 
ports of  China,  the  Straits  Settlements  in  the  Far  East,  con- 
sisting  in  a  jargon  of  corrupted  English  words  with  some  inter' 
mixture  of  Portuguese  and  Malay,  following  Chinese  idiomatic 
usage.  It  is  employed  as  a  means  of  communication  between 
foreigners  and  the  native  Chinese.  The  word  "  pidgin  "  is  the 
Chinese  corruption  of  **  business." 

FIB.  (I)  The  name  of  the  bh-d  more  generally  known  as 
the  magpie  iq.v.).  The  word  comes  through  the  French  from 
Lat.  pica  (q.t.).  It  is  probably  from  the  black  and  white  or 
spotted  appearance  of  the  bird  that  the  name  "pie"  or  *'pye'' 
(Lat.  pica)  was  given  to  the  ordinal,  a  table  or  calendar  which 
supplemented  that  which  gave  the  services  for  the  fixed  festivals, 
&e.,  and  pointed  out  the  effect  on  them  of  the  festivals  rendered 
movable  by  the  changing  date  of  Easter.  An  English  act  of 
1549  (3  ft  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  10)  abolished  "pies"  with  aanuals, 
legends,  primers  and  other  service  books.  The  perti^doured 
appearance  of  the  magpie  also  gives  rise  to  the  term  "  piebald," 
applied  to  an  animal,  mora  particularly  a  horse,  which  is  marked 
with  large  Irregular  patches  of  white  and  black;  where  the  colour 
is  white  and  some  colour  other  than  black,  the  more  appropriate 
word  is  "  skew-bald,"  i.e,  marked  with  "  skew  "  or  irregtilar 
patches.  (3)  A  dish  made  of  meat,  fish  or  other  ingredients, 
also  of  vegetables  or  friiit,  baked  in  a  covering  of  pastry;  in 
English  usage,  where  *' fruit"  is  the  ingredient,  the  dish  is 
generally  called  a  "  tart,"  except  in  the  case  of  "  apple-pie." 
The  word  appears  eariy  in  the  14th  century  of  meat  or  fish  pies» 

The  expression  "  to  eat  hiunble-pie,"  i.e.  to  make  an  apology, 
to  retract  or  recant.  Is  a  facetious  adaptation  of  "  umbks  " 
(O.  Fr.  ncmbUSf  connected  with  Lat.  lumbus,  loin  or  unMlkiu, 
navel),  the  inner  parts  of  a  deer,  to  "  humble  "  (Lat.  hmmUis, 
lowly).  An  "  tmible-ple,"  made  of  the  inner  parts  of  a  decc 
or  other  animal,  was  once  a  favourite  dish.  "  Printers'  pie," 
i.e.  a  mass  of  confused  type,  is  a  transferred  sense  of  "  pie,"  the 
dish,  or  of  **  pie,"  the  ordinal,  from  the  difiiculty  of  decipherment. 

PIBDmMIT  (Ital.  PiemonU\  Low  Lat.  Pedtmons  and  Ptdo^ 
mpni^m),  a  territorial  diviuoa  {etmparUmwto)  of  aorthem 


588 


PIENZA— HER 


Italy,  bounded  N.  by  Switzerland,  W.  by  France,  S.  by  Liguria. 
and  E.  by  Lombaidy.  Physically  it  may  be  'briefly  described 
as  the  VLppcT  gathering-ground  and  valley  of  the  river  Po, 
enclosed  on  all  sides  except  towards  the  Lombard  plain  by  the 
vast  semfdide  of  the  Penmne,  Graian,  Cottian,  Maritime  and 
Ligurian  Alps.  In  2859  it  was  divided  into  the  four  provinces 
of  Alessandria,  Cuneo,  Novara  and  Torino  (Turin).  It  has  an 
area  of  11,340  SQ-  d>«  "^^  people  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agri- 
culture—growing wheat,  maiee  and  rice,  chestnuts,  wine  and 
hemp;  in  the  reeling  and  throwing  of  silk  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton,  woollens  and  clothing;  there  are  also 
considerable  manufactures  at  Turin,  Savigliano,  &c  The 
Piedmontese  dialect  has  been  rather  strongly  influenced  by 
French.  The  chief  towns  in  the  several  provinces  are  as  follows, 
with  their  communal  populations  in  iqoi:  Alessandria  (72,109), 
Asti  (39.251)1  Casale  Monfemto  (31.370),  Novi  Ligure  (17,868), 
Tortona  (17410).  Acqui  (i3,04o)«  Valenza  (10,956),  Ovada 
(10,384),  total  of  province  825,745,  nimiber  of  communes  343; 
Cuneo  (26.879)1  Mondovi  (18,982),  Fossano  (18,175),  Savigliano 
(17*340),  Saluxao  (16.028),  Btk  (15.821),  Alba  (13,637), 
Boves  (10,137),  total  of  province  670,504,  number  of  cam- 
munes  263;  Novara  (44,249),  Vcrcelli  (30,470),  Biella  (19.267) 
Trino  (i  2,138),  Borgomancro  (10,131),  total  oi  province  763,830; 
number  of  communes,  437;  Turin  (32o,69i),  Pinerolo  (i8/>39), 
Carmagnola  (11,721),  Ivrea  (11,696),  Moncoilieri  (11,467);  total 
of  province  1,147,414,  number  of  commimes,  442.  The  total 
population  of  Piedmont  was  2,738.814  in  1859,  and  in  1901 
3,407,493  The  large  number  of  communes  is  noticeable,  as 
in  Lombardy,  and  points  to  a  village  life  which,  owing  to  greater 
insecurity  and  the  character  of  the  country,  is  not  to  be  found 
in  centnd  and  southern  Italy  as  a  whole  There  are  numerous 
summer  resorts  in  the  Alpine  valleys.  The  chief  railway  centres 
are  Turin,  communicatmg  with  the  Mont  Ccnis  line,  and  with 
the  Riviera  by  the  railway  over  the  Col  di  Tenda  (in  process  of 
construction),  Novara,  Vercelli,  Asti,  Alessandria,  Novi  The 
communications  with  Liguria  are  difficult  owing  to  the  approach 
of  the  mountains  to  the  coast,  and  the  existing  lines  from  Genoa 
to  Ttirin  and  Milan  are  hardly  sufficient  to  cope  with  the  traffic. 

Piedmont  in  Roman  times  until  49  B.C.  formed  a  part  of  Gallia 
Transpadana,  and  in  Augustus'  division  of  Italy  formed  with 
what  was  later  known  as  Lombardy  the  xith  region.  It  Conned 
part  of  the  Lombard  kingdom,  and  it  was  not  till  about  aj>.  iooo 
that  the  house  of  Savoy  (q.v.)  arose.  The  subsequent  hjftory 
of  Piedmont  is  that  of  its  dynasty.  . 

PIENZA,  a  town  of  Tuscany.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Siena, 
9  m.  west  of  the  town  of  Montepukiano  by  road,  i6zi  ft.  above 
sea-IeveL  Pop.  (1901),  3730  (town);  3836  (commune).  The 
place  was  originally  called  Corsignano  and  owes  its  present  name 
to  Aeneas  Silvius  Piccolomini,  Pope  Pius  II.  iq.v,)  who  was  bom 
here  in  1405.  The  buildings  which  he  caused  to  be  erected  by 
Bernardo  Rossellino  in  1460-1463  form  a  noble  group  of  early 
Renaissance  architecture  round  the  Piaxza  del  Duomo.  The 
latter  retains  Gothic  details  in  the  interior,  but  the  facade  is 
simple  Renaissance  work.  The  other  three  sides  are  occupied 
by  the  episcopal  and  municipal  palaces,  and  the  Palaaao  Picco- 
lomini;  the  last,  resembling  the  Palazzo  RuceUai  at  Florence, 
is  the  finest,  and  in  front  of  it  is  a  beautiful  fountain.  The 
ef^soopal  palace  contains  a  museum  with  some  fine  ecclesiastical 
vestments,  enamels  and  other  works  of  art. 

PIBR  (elder  forms  ptr  or  pete,  from  Med.  Lat.  pera;  the  word 
IS  of  obscure  origiB,  and  the  connexion  with  Fr.  pierret  Lat. 
pern,  stone,  is  doubtful;  equivalents  are  Fr.  piedraUy  pUier, 
trvmeau]  Itai.  pUo;  Ger.  PfeUer),  the  term  given  in  architecture 
to  a  vertical  support  in  masonry  or  brickwork,  usually  rea- 
angolar  on  plan,  which  carries  an  arch  or  superstructure.  The 
term  is  also  sometimes  i^ven  to  the  great  circular  columns  which 
in  some  English  cathedrals  and  churches  cany  the  nave  arches. 
In  cariy  Christian  churches,  when  antique  columns,  such  as 
abounded  in  Rome,  were  n<A  procurable,  square  piers  took  the 
place  of  columns  and  sometimes  alternated  with  them.  The 
introduction  of  vaulting,  however,  in  the  xtth  centwy,  neces- 
iiuted  «  soppoft  of  much  greater  dimensions  than  those  whidi 


had  been  deemed  suflkient  when  the  roof  was  of  Undwr  odyt 
and  led  to  the  development  ol  the  compound  or  clustered  pier. 
To  give  extra  support  to  the  subordinate  arches  of  -the  nave 
arcade,  semicircular  shafts  or  pilastem  were  added,  carried  up 
to  the  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs  of  the  main  vault.  In 
Romanesque  work  the  pier  was  generally  square  on  plan  with 
semicircular  shafts  attadied,  the  angles  of  the  pier  being  worked 
with  smaller  shafts.  As  the  rings  or  orders  of  the  nave  arches 
increased  in  number,  additional  shafts  were  added  to  cany 
them,  and  the  pilaster  facing  the  nave  had  central  and  side  shafts 
rising  to  carry  the  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs  of  the  vault;  this 
development  of  the  compound  pier  obtains  throughout  Europe 
in  ail  vaulted  structures.  In  the  Early  English  period  the  pieis 
become  loftier  and  lighter,  and  in  most  important  buildings  a 
series  of  clustered  columns,  frequently  of  marble,  arc  placed 
side  by  side,  sometimes  set  at  intervals  round  a  circular  centre, 
and  sometimes  almost  touching  each  other.  These  shafts  are 
often  wholly  detached  from  the  central  pier,  though  grouped 
found  it,  in  which  case  they  are  almost  always  of  Purbeck  or 
Bethersden  marbles.  In  Decorated  work  the  shafts  on  plan  are 
very  often  placed  round  a  square  set  angle-wise,  or  a  lozenge, 
the  k>ng  way  down  the  nave;  the  centre  or  core  itself  is  often 
worked  into  hollows  or  other  mouldings,  to  show  between  the 
shafts,  and  to  form  part  of  the  composition.  In  this  and  the 
latter  pan  of  the  previous  style  there  is  generally  a  fillet  on  the 
outer  part  of  the  shaft,  forming  what  has  been  called  a  "  keel 
moulding  "  (9.9.).  They  are  also  often  tied  together  by  bands, 
formed  of  rings  of  stone  and  sometimes  of  metal.  About  this 
period,  too,  these  intermediate  mouldings  run  up  into  and  lom 
part  of  the  arch  moulds,  there  being  no  impost.  This  arrange- « 
ment  became  much  more  frequent  in  the  Perpendiaila.r  period; 
in  fact  it  was  almost  universal,  the  commonest  section  being  a 
lozenge  set  with  the  long  side  from  the  nave  to  the  aisle,  and  not 
towards  the  other  arches,  as  in  the  Decorated  period,  with  four 
shafts  at  the  angjLes,  between  which  were  shallow  mouldings, 
one  of  which  was  in  general  a  wide  hollow,  sometimes  with  wave 
moulds.  The  small  columns  at  the  jambs  of  doors  and  windows, 
and  in  arcades,  $nd  also  those  attached  to  piers  oc  standing 
detached,  are  generally  called  "  shafts  "  (f.v.). 

The  term  pier  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  solid  parts  of  a  wall 
between  windows  or  voids,  and  also  to  the  isolated  masses  of 
brickwork  or  masonry  to  which  gates  are  hung.        (R.  P.  S.) 

Piers  ef  Bridges. — The  piers  of  bridges  and  viaducts  on  land 
are  constructed  of  masonry  or  brickwork  and  occasionally,  in 
the  case  of  high  piers,  of  open  braced  ironwork,  as  exemplified 
by  the  cid  Crumlin  viaduct  in  Wales  and  the  Pecos  viaduct  in 
Texas.  These  piers,  besides  being  proportioned  in  cross-section 
to  the  weight  they  have  to  support,  are  widened  out  at  their  base, 
so  as  to  distribute  the  load  over  a  sufficient  area  for  it  to  be  borne 
by  the  stratum  on  which  it  rests  without  risk  of  settlement. 
Special  provisions  have  to  be  made  for  the  foundations  of  piers 
where  the  ground  is  soft  for  some  depth,  or  loose  water-bearing 
strata  are  encountered,  and  especially  where  the  piera  of  large 
bridges  crossing  rivers  have  to  be  constructed  under  water. 
In  soft  groimd,  bearing  piles  driven  down  to  a  firm  stratum,  and 
surmounted  by  a  planked  floor  or  a  layer  of  concrete,  provide  a 
convenient  foundation  for  a  pier;  and  in  places  where  timber  is 
abundant,  wooden  cribs  filled  with  rubble  stone  or  concrete 
have  been  used  in  the  United  States  for  raising  the  foundations 
for  piers  out  of  water.  For  river  piezs,  where  a  firm,  watertight 
stratum  is  found  at  a  moderate  depth  below  the  river-bed,  the 
site  is  often  enclosed  within  a>  coffer-dam  or  a  plate  iron  caisson 
carried  down  into  the  stratum  and  raised  out  of  water;  and  then, 
after  the  water  has  been  pumped  out  and  the  surface  layers 
removed,  the  pier  u  readily  built  within  the  enclosure  in  the 
open  air.  When,  however,  a  river-bed  consists  of  sUt,  sand  or 
other  soft  materials  extending  down. to  a  considerable  depth, 
brickwork  wells  are  gradually  sunk  to  a  firm  stratum  by  removing 
the  material  within  them  with  grabs,  and  on  them  the  piers  are 
built  out  of  water;  or  bottoml^  caissons  are  carried  down  by 
excavating  their  interion  under  compressed  air,  and  the  piers 
axe  built  on  top  of  them  within  a  plate-iron  enclosure  a  system 


■d^MdbiTlbipknoItlMBi6<iU<rD.SlL«ali,FonhBnd  other 
Urte  blkifct.  ind  OMDCial  (or  fomung  [oundations  on  lloping 
rock,  loch  A9  wu  eacouDlend  Id  pUco  nodot  ibc  Tilth  of 

Ths  methodi  indiciled  ibovs  u  cmploytd  for  the  lOuDdilioiiB 
(rf  the  picn  of  bridge*  uadei  favoocablt  eonditioni  belong 
eqiully  to  the  foandaliooi  of  oiher  iiiuctnRi  (ue  Fodmia- 
IKiNS),  but  Ifacrt  ire  sooK  method]  vhfch,  by  combining  bridge 
pjtn  and  their  (ounditim*  in  i  single  iiiuctuie,  appertain 
tntird;  to  picn.    Thus  iron  Krew  pita,  tunJi  by  turning  into 


PIER 

bolted  together  with  i  ipediny  at 


S»9 


oBg  batlam  ring,  somelimci 
utting  edge,  hive  been  aften 
river  picn  oi  hndge^  being 


eoclosed  within  »  wrought -lion 
caiiun,  usually  divided  into  lecljons 
by  vertical  paniliou,  which  is  lunli  - 
and  filled  up  iolid  in  the  Hme  way  ; 
dere,  a  lyttem  adopted,  for  , 
,  for  the  pien  of  the  bridge  ■ 
»  HiwLobury  River  In  New  ' 
'ilea. 

nwWi  Pitri.—'the  term  pier  ' 
>n>Ued  to  work*  ibellerlng  :, 
i,  tuch  as  the  Tynemouih  ; 
pien,  which  are  Mrictly  breakwatera.  I 
Landing  nages  alio,  whether  aolid 
or  open,  have  for  a  long  time  been  . 
called  pier*,  **  the  Adniirally  Ficr  : 
>od  the  Prince  of  Waiei't  Her  at  ' 
Dover;    but    the    open    promenade  '. 


pun 


t  type  of 


the  Mf t  bed  ol  a  river  till  they  reach  a 
■oSdeotly  consolidated  by  the  superincun 
it  CO  tnppoct  the  wido  blades  o!  the  sci 
inpoled  en  them,  wetc  formerly  often  ar 
cluster!  joined  together  at  the  top,  so  as  tc 


uUlsli 


fot  carrying  lightly  coniiructed 
and  elKwhere.  Hollow,  casi-iion,  cylindrical  piles  also,  i 
broad  drculir  disk  at  the  bottom  to  increase  iheir  b< 
surface,  have  been  osed  for  piers  founded  in  sandy  or  silly  i 


nd  do  not  inleitete  witli  the  drift  of  shingle  or  sand  liong  the 
oast  (Ag.  3).'  Timber  pik*  are  best  suited  fot  wiihstnnding 
he  shocks  of  vessels  al  landing  stages,  at  which  plices  they 
re  generally  used;  but  since  they  are  sub}ccl  to  the  airacks  of 


re  generally  adopted  lor  the  r 


u  (he  old  chun  pin  at  BriHhlcTi, 


Breton  in  l865~ia««. 


Fre.  ].— Promenade  Pier. 


■ubieqiieotly  extended;  whllit  a 

iciibed  above  (fig,  0:  whiln  the  1,1^, 
Tew  pilea,  adopted  u  eariy  u  1B47 


oil.  low-   Th 
trdi  prolonecr 


liRuai  driit  of  41 


I  Tin  EmpmiB  (iSSa),  L  380,  jSi  and  }S4. 


590 


PIERCE— PIERO  DI  COSIMO 


at  St  Leonards  (62.  3).  The  Jengtli  given  to  these  ptoinenadc 
piers  depends  maimv  on  the  slope  of  tnc  foreshore,  wnlch  dotcr- 
mines  the  distance  from  the  shore  at  which  a  sufficient  depth  is 
reached  for  steamer*  of  moderate  draught  to  come  alongside  the 
end  of  the  pier.  Thus,  -whereas  a  length  of  900  ft.  has  sufficed  for 
the  St  Leonards  pier  on  a  somewhat  stscp,  uuigly  beach,  the  pier 
a(  R/de,  constituting  the  principal  landing-place  for  the  Isle  of 
Wight  passengers,  has  had  to  be  carried  out  about  half  a  mile  across 
a  nat  alluvial  foreshore  to  reach  water  deep  enough  for  the  aeccss 
of  the  steamboats  crosMng  the  Solent.  The  vast  sands,  moreover, 
at  the  outlet  of  the  Ribble  estuary,  stretching  two  or  three  miles 
in  front  of  SouthpOrt  at  low  water  of  spring  tides,  have  necessitated 
the  construction  of  a  pier  439^  ft.  long  merely  to  get  out  to  an 
old  flood-tide  channel,  which  is  now  completely  8ey«»red  by  the 
sands  at  low  water  from  all  connexion  with  the  river. 

.    (L.F.V.-H.) 

PIEACB*  FRANKLIN  (1304-1869),  fotuteentb  piesldent  of 
the  United  States,  was  bom  at  HiUsborough,  New  Hampshire, 
on  the  23rd  of  November  1804^  His  father,  Benjamin  Pierce 
(1757-1839),  served  iq  the  American  acmy  throughout  the  War 
of  lDde[>eadenee,  was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  New  Hamp- 
shire House  of  Representatives  from  1789  to  2803,  and  was 
governor  of  the  state  in  1827-1829.  The  son  graduated  in  1824 
at  Bowdoin  College,  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  where  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  Nathaniel  Hawthorne.  Pierce  then  studied  law, 
and  in  1827  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  began  to  practise 
at  Hllbborough.  He  at  once  took  a  lively  fntemst  in  politics, 
and  from  1829  to  1833  served  in  the  state  House  oi  Representa- 
tives, for  the  last  two  years  as  Speaker,  In  1833  he  entered  the 
national  House  of  Representatives,  and  although  he  achieved 
no  distinction  in  debate  he  was  a  hard  worker,  and  a  loyal  sup' 
potter  of  the  policies  of  President  Jackson.  After  lour  years 
in  the  House  he  entered  the  Senate,  being  its  youngest  member. 
In  1842,  before  the  expiration  of  his  term,  be  resigned  his  seat, 
and  at  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  began  his  career  at  the  bar  in 
eacnest,  though  stiU  retaining  an  interest  in  politics.  In  1845 
he  declined  the  Democratic  nomination  for  governor,  and  also 
an  appointment  to  the  seat  in  the  United  Sutes  Senate  made 
vacant  by  the  resignation  of  Judge  Levi  Woodbury.  He 
accepted,  however,  an  appointment  as  Federal  District  Attorney 
for  New  Hampshire,  as  the  duties  of  thb  office,  which  he  held  in 
1845-1847,  were  closely  related  to  those  of  his  profession.  In 
1846  he  again  declined  public  honoucs,  when  President  Polk 
invited  him  to  enter  the  cabinet  as  attorne7>-general.  Soon 
after  th«  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  in  1846,  Pierce 
enlisted  as  a  private  at  Concord,  but  soon  (in  February  1847) 
became  colonel  of  the  Ninth  Regiment  (which  joined  General 
WinfieM  Scott  at  Pueblo  on  the  6th  of  August  1847),  and  later 
(March,  1847)  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  At  the 
battle  of  Conlrcras,  on  the  t9th  of  August  1847,  he  was  thrown 
from  his  horse  and  received  severe  injuries.  At  the  end  of  the 
war  he  resigned  his  commission  and  returned  to  Concord.  In 
1850  IMerce  became  president  of  a  convention  assembled  at 
Concord  to  revise  the  constitution  of  his  state,  and  used  his 
influence  to  secure  the  removal  of  those  provisions  of  the  con- 
stitution of  1792  which  declared  that  only  Protestants  should  be 
eligible  for  higher  state  offices.  This  amendment  passed  the 
convention  in  April  1852,  but  was  rejected  by  the  electorate  of 
the  state;  a  similar  amendment  was  adopted  by  popular  vote  in 
1877.  In  January  1852  the  legislature  of  New  Hampshire 
proposed  him  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency,  and  when  the 
Democratic  national  conventioa  met  at  Baltimore  In  tb*  follow^ 
ing  Juoe  the  Vii*ginta  delegation  brought  forward  his  name  on 
the  thirty-fifth  ballot.  Although  both  parties  had  declared 
the  Compromise  of  1850  a  finality,  the  Democrats  alone  were 
thoroughly  united  in  support  of  this  declaration,  and  therefore 
seemed  to  offer  the  greater  prospect  of  peace.  This  fact,  com- 
bined with  the  colourless  recoM  of  their  candidate,  enabled 
I  hem  to  sweep  the  country  at  tlie  November  election.  Pierce 
received  254  electoral  -votes,  and  General  WinficUd  Scott,  his 
Whig  opponent,  only  42.  The  Democrats  carried  every  state 
except  ilassachusctts,  Vermont,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  No 
president  since  James  Monroe  had  received  such  a  vote. 

Pieroe  was  the  youngest  man  who  had  as  yet  been  elevated 
to  tlie  presidency.    For  his  cabinet  be  choic  Wfllian  L.  Matey 


of  New  York,.socrclary  of  slaie»  Jeflenon  Davis  of  Miwiwipii, 

secreLiry.  of  war,  James  Gutl^ie  (179 9-1869)  of  Kentudiy, 
secretary  of  the  treasury;  James  C.  Dobbm  (i8i4*x&$7)  cl 
North  Carohna,  secretary  of  the  navy;  Robot  McClelland 
(1807-1880)  of  Micbigian,  secietaxy  of  the  interior;  James 
Campbell  (1813-1893)  of  Penasyivania,  postmaster^genenl; 
and  Caleb  Cushin^  of  Massachusetts,  attomey-generaL  Thb 
was  an  able  body  of  •  men,  and  is  the  only  cabinet  in  Americaa 
history  that  has  oontmued  unbroken  throughout  an  entire 
admmistration.  Although  Pierce  during  his  term  in  the  Senate 
had  severely  criticized  the  Whigs  for  their  removals  of  Demo- 
crats from  office,  he  himsplf  now  adopted  the  policy  of  replacing 
Whigs  by  Democrats,  and  the  country  acquiesced.  Pierce  had 
no  scruples  against  slavery,  and  opposed  anti-slavexy  agitation 
as  tending  to  disrupt  the  Union.  The  conduct  of  foreign 
relations  was  on  the  whole  the  most  creditable  part  of  his  adminis- 
tration. The  Kossta  Affair  (1853)  gave  th^  government  an 
opportunity  vigorously  to  assert  the  protection  it  wouM  afford 
those  in  the  process  of  becoming  its  naturalized  citizens.  When 
the  British  government  refusal  to  prevent  recruiting  for  the 
Crimean  War  by  their  representatives  in  America,  their  minister, 
John  F.  Crampton,  received  his  passports,  and  the  exeqiuturs 
of  the  British  consuls  at  New  York,  Fhiladdphia  and  Cindxmati 
were  revoked.  A  commercial  treaty  was  negotiated  with  Japan 
in  1854  after  Perry's  expedition  in  the  previous  year.  As  an 
avowed  expansionist,  Herce  sympathized  with  the  filibuster 
government  set  up  in  Nicaragua  by  William  Walker,  and  finally 
accorded  it  recognition.  It  was  during  this  term  also  that  the 
Gadsden  Purchase  Was  consummated*  by  which  45,535  sq.  m.  of 
territory  were  acquired  from  Mexico,  and  that  three  routes  were 
surveyed  for  railways  from  the  Mississippi  river  to  the  Pacific 
coast. 

When  the  Democratic  national  coaven lion  met  at  Cindnnati 
in  June  1856,  Pierce  was  an  avowed  candidate  for  renominatioo, 
but  as  his  attitude  on  the  slavery  question,  and  espedaUy  his 
subserviency  to  the  South  in  supporting  the  pro^Iavery  party 
in  the  Territory  of  Kansas,  had  lost  him  the  support  of  the 
Northern  wing  of  his  party,  the  nominatioa  ^ent  to  James 
Buchanan.  After  retiring  from  the  presidency  Pierce  returned 
to  Concord,  and  soon  afterwards  went  abroad  for  a  three  yeais' 
tour  in  Europe.  Many  Southern^  leaders  desired  his  renomina- 
tion  by;  the  Democratic  party  in  i860,  bvt  be  received  such 
suggestions  with  disfavour.  After  his  return  to  Amorica  be 
remained  in  retirement  at  Concord  until  the  day  of  his  dcmth, 
the  8th  of  October  1869. 

Pierce  was  not  a  great  statesman,  and  his  fame  has  been 
overshadowed  by  that  of  Benton,  Calhoun,  Clay  and  W^ebster. 
But  he  was  an  able  lawyer,  an  orator  of  no  mean  reputatioD, 
and  a  brave  soldier.  He  was  a  man  of  fine  appearance  and 
courtly  manners,  and  he  possessed  personal  magnetism  aad  the 
ability  to  make  ftlends,  two  qualities  that  contributed  in  great 
measure  to  his  success. 

A  portion  of  Piercers  correspondence  has  been  published  in  the 
American  Historical  Renem,  x.  110-127,  350-370.  D.  W.  Bartlett's 
Franklin  Pierce  (Auburn,  New  York,  1 8^),  and  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne's FmnUin  Pierce  (Boston,  i8Vh  are  two  **  campain " 
biographies,  and  arc  very  eulogistic,  j.  R.  Irelan's  History  e¥  Ae 
Life,  Administratica  and  Tines  ofFrankhn  Pierce  (Chicago,  1888), 
beiSg  voL  xtv.  of  his  Republic,  is  a  more  critical  work,  but  inaccu- 
rate as  to  details.  J.  E,.  Cbolcy^  Renew  ef  the  AdrntniMraUem  ^ 
General  Pierce  ^Ncw  York,  l854)>«nd  Anna  £.  Carrpll's  Review  e§ 
Piercers  il <f miff t5ira/<M»  (Boston,  T856)  are.  hostile  anti^idmlnistta- 
tion  tracts.  The  best  accounts  of  Pierce*s  administration  are  to 
be  found  in  James  Schoulor's  History  eftke  United  States,  vol.  v.  (new 
ed..  New  York,  1894);  J.  F.  Rhodes's  History  of  the  United  Stales, 
vols.  L  and  ii.  (New^'ork,  1899^1894); mad  J.  W.  Burge»'s  MiddU 
Period  (New  York.  1900). 

FIERO  DI  COSIMO  (1462-1521),  the  name  by  which  the 
Florentine  paunter  Pietro  di  l.orcnzo  is  gcoerally  known.  He  was 
born  in  Florence  about  1462,  and  worked  in  the  boUcga  of 
Cosimo  KosseTIi  (from  whom  he  derived  his  popular  name). 
Other  influences  that  can  be  traced  in  hb  work  are  those  ol 
Filippino  Lippi,  Luca  Signorclli,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and,  as 
has  been  recently  suggc^cd  by  Professor  R.  Muther,  that  of 
Hugo  van  dcr  Goes,  ^hose  Portinari  altar-piece  (now  at  the 


PIERRR-PIERREPONT 


59» 


Stiedaleof  S.  Maria.  Novella  in  Floreooe)  hdped  to  lead  the  whole 
of  Florentine  painting  into  new  rhannrh.  From  him,  moat 
probably,  be  acquired  the  love  of  landscape  and  the  intimate 
knowledge  of  thie  growth  of  flowers  and  of  animal  life.  The 
inflnencf  of  Hugo  van  der  Goes  is  twpedaXiy  apparent  in  the 
**  Adontion  of  the  Shepherds/'  at  the  Berlin  Museum.  He  had 
the  i^t  of  a  fertile  fantastic  imaginaticMi,  which,  as  a  result  of  a 
journey  to  Rome  in  1482  with  his  master,  Rosselli,  became 
diretted  towards  the  myths  of  classic  antiquity.  He  proves 
htmaelf  a  true  child  of  the  Renaissance  in  such  pictures  as  the 
"  Death  of  Procr»,"  at  the  National  Gallery,  the  "  Mars  and 
Venus»"  at  the  Berlin  Gallery,  the  "  Perseus  and  Andromeda  " 
aeries,,  at  the  Uffizi  in  Florence,  and  the  "Hyhis  and  the 
Nymphs"  belonging  to  Mr  Benson.  If,  as  we  are  told  by 
Vasari,  he  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in.  gloomy  retire- 
ment, the  change  was  probably  due  to  Savonarola,  ui\der  whose 
influence  he  turned  bis  attention  once  more  to  religious  art. 
The  "  ImmacuUite  Conception,"  at  the  Uffizi,  and  the  "  Holy 
FamQy,"  at  Dresden,  b^t  illustrate  the  reli^us  fervour  to 
which  be  was  stimulated  by  the  stem  preacher. 

With  the  exception  of  the  landscape  background  in  RosGclli's 
fresco  of  the  "  Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  in  the  SisUne  Chapel, 
we  have  no  record  of  any  fresco  work  from  his  brush.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  aa  a  portrait  painter, 
though  the  only  known  examples  that  can  be  dcifinitcly  ascribed 
to  him  are  the  portrait  of  a  warrior,  at  the  National  Gallery, 
(No.  895),  the  so-called  **  Bella  SimonetU,"  at  Chantilly,  the 
portraits  of  Giuliano  di  SanGallo  and  his  father,  at  the  Hague, 
and  a  head  of  a  youth,  at  Dulwkh.  Vasari  relates  that  Piero 
csBcdled  in  designing  pageants  and  triumphal  processions  for 
the  pleasuie^loving  youths  of  Florence,  and  gives  a  vivid  descrip- 
tion of  one  such  procession  at  the  end  of  the  carnival  of  1507, 
which  illustrated  the  triumph  of  death.  Piero  di  Cosimo 
exercised  considerable  influence  upon  his  fcUow  pupils  Albert!- 
nelU  and  Bartolommeo  della  Porta  and  was  the  master  of  Andrea 
del  Sarto.  Examples  of  his  work  are  also  to  be  found  at  the 
Louvre  in  Paris,  the  Harrach  and  Liechtenstein  collections  in 
Vienna,  the  Borghese  Gallery  in  Rome,  the  Spedale  degU 
Innocenti  in  Florence,  and  in  the  collections  of  Mr  John  Burke 
and  Colond  ComwaUis  West  in  London.  A  "  Magdalen  "  from 
his  brush  was  added  to  the  National  Gallery  of  Rome  in  1907. 

See  Piero  di  Cojimo,  by  F.  Knapp  (Halle,  1899);  Pitro  di  Cutmo, 
by  H.  Haberidd  (Breslau.  1901). 

PIBRRE,  the  capital  of  South  Dakota,  U.S.A.,  and  the 
oounty-scat  of  Hughes  county,  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Missouri  river,  (^poaite  the  mouth  of  the  Bad  river,  about 
185  m.  N.W.  of  Yankton.  Pop.  (1905)  2794;  (1910)  3^56- 
Pierre  is  served  by  the  Chicago  &  North- Western  nulway;  the 
Missouri  is  navigidl>le  here,  but  river  traffic  haa  been  practically 
•JI>andoned.  Among  the  principal  buildings  9xc^  the  state 
capitot  (1909)  and  the  post  office  building.  Pierre  has  a  public 
library,  ukI  is  the  seat  of  the  Pierre  Industrial  School  (co-educa- 
tional, opened  in  1890),  a  government  boarding  school  (non- 
reservation)  for  Indian  children.  The  city  has  a  large  trade  in 
livestock,  Md  is  a  centre  for  the  mining  districts  of  the  Black 
Hills  and  for  a  grain-growing  country.  Natural  gas  is  used  for 
lighting,  heating  and  power.  A  fur-trading  post.  Fort  La 
Framboise,  was  buUt  in  18x7  by  a  French  fur-trader  (from 
whom  it  took  its  name)  at  the  mouth  of  the  Teton  or  Little 
Missouri  liver  (now  called  the  Bad  River),  on  or  near  the  site  ci 
the  present  village  of  Fort  Pierre  (pop.  in  1910,  79a).  In  1822 
Fort  Tecuttseh  was  built  about  2  m.  up-stream  by  the  (^umbia 
Fur  Company,  which  turned  it  over  in  1827  to  the  American  Fur 
Company.  The  washing  away  of  the  river  bank  caused  the 
jUMndonment  of  this  post  and  the  erection  about  a  mile  farther 
up-stream,  and  a  short  distance  west  of  the  river,  of  Fort  Pierre 
Chouteau  (later  called  Fort  Pierre),  occupied  in  1832,  and  named 
iii  honour  of  Pierre  Chouteau,  jun.  (t789-x865).*    For  twenty 

*  PScne  Chouteau  in  1804  luooeeded  his  father,  one  of  the  founders 
<rf  St  Lottis,  in  the  Missouri  Fur  Company;  and  about  1834  Pratt, 
Chouteau  &  Company,  of  which  he  was  the  leading  member,  botjght 
the  entire  western  department  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  and 
in  1*838  ii«Mv>nlsed  under  tlie  name  of  Picne  Chouteau,  jun.,  ft 


years  thereafter  Fort  Pierre  waa  the  chief  fur-trading  depot 
of  the  Upper  Missouri  country.  In  1855  the  United  States 
government  bought  the  post  building  and  other  property  for 
$45,000,  and  laid  out  around  them  a  military  reservation  of 
about  370  sq.  m.  The  fort  was  the  headquarters  of  General 
William  S.  Harney  (1800-1889)  in  his  expedition  against  the 
Sioux  in  1856,  and  in  March  of  that  year  an  important  council 
between  General  Harney  and  the  chiefs  of  all  the  Sioux  bands, 
except  the  Blackfeet,  was  held  here*  The  fort  was  abandoned 
in  1857.  Pierre  was  Lud  out  in  1880,  was  incorporated  as  a 
village  in  1883,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1900. 

See  Major  Frederfek  T.  Wilaon.  *'  Fort  Pierre  and  Its  Netghbon." 
in  South  Dakota  Historical  ColUclions,  vol.  i.  (Aberdeen,  S.O.,  1902) ; 
and  Hiram  M.  Chittenden.  The  American  Fur  Trade  of  the  Far 
Wed  (3  vols..  New  York,  1903). 

PIERRE  DE  CASTELNAU  (d.  x3o8),  French  ecclesiastic,  was 

born  in  the  diocese  of  Montpelller.    In  x  199  he  was  archdeacon 

of  Maguclonne,  and  was  appointed  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  as 

one  of  the  legates  for  the  suppression  of  heresy  in  Languedoc. 

In  X202,  when  a  monk  in  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Fontfroide, 

Narbonne,  he  was  designated  to  similar  work,  first  in  Toulouse, 

and  afterwards  at  Vivicrs  and  Montpellier.    In  1207  he  was  in 

the  Rhone  valley  and  in  Provence,  where  he  became  involved 

in  the  strife  between  the  count  of  Baux  and  Raymond,  count 

of  Toulouse,  by  one  of  whose  agents  he  was  assassinated  on  the 

1 5th  of  January  x3o8.    He  was  beatified  in  the  year  of  his  death 

by  Pope  Ixmocent  III. 

See  De  la  BouIIlcric,  Le  Bienheureux  Pierre  de  Castelnau  et  Us 
AUngeois  au  XIII.  siUU  (Paris,  1866). 

PIERREFONDS,  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Oise,  9  m.  S.E.  of  Compi^gne  by  road.  Pop.  (1906), 
X482.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  feudal  stronghold,  a  masterpiece 
of  modem  restoration.  The  building  is  rectangular  in  shape, 
with  a  tower  at  each  corner  and  at  the  centre  of  each  of  the  walls, 
which  are  strengthened  by  crcnelation  and  machicolation.  A 
lofty  keep  defends  the  principal  entrances  on  the  south-west. 
The  interior  buildings  are  chiefly  modern,  but  the  exterior 
reproduces  faithfully  that  of  the  medieval  fortress.  Picrrefonds 
has  a  church  dating  from  various  periods  from  the  nth  to  the 
x6th  century,  and  ita  mineral  springs  are  in  some  repute.  The 
chAteau  was  begun  in  the  last  decade  of  the  14th  century  by 
Louis  d'Orldans,  to  whom  the  domain  was  given  by  Charles  VI., 
and  finished  early  in  the  15th  century.  It  was  subsequently 
held  by  the  Burgundians,  the  English  and  the  adherents  of  the 
League,  from  whom  it  passed  to  Henry  IV.  It  was  dismantled 
in  1622.  The  ruins,  bought  by  Napoleon  I.,  were  restored,  by 
order  of  Napoleon  UL,  from  1858  to  1895,  under  the  direction, 
first  of  Viollet-le-Duc  and  afterwards  of  £.  Boeswillwald. 

PIERRBPONT,  WIIXIAM  (c.  1607-1678),  English  poUtidan, 
was  the  second  son  of  Robert  Pierrepont,  ist  earl  of  Kingston. 
Returned  to  the  Long  Parliament  in  1640  as  member  for  Great 
Wenlock,  he  threw  his  influence  on  the  side  of  peace  and  took 
part  for  the  parliament  in  the  negotiations  with  Charles  I.  at 
Oxford  in  X643.  Pierrepont  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
of  both  kingdoms,  and  represented  the  parliamentary  party 
during  the  deliberations  at  Uxbridge  in  1645;  but  from  that 
time,  according  to  Clarendon,  he  forsook  his  moderate  attitude, 
and  "  contracted  more  bitterness  and  sourness  than  formerly." 
This  statement,  however,  is  perhaps  somewhat  exaggerated, 
as  Pierrepont  favoured  the  resumption  of  negotiations  with  the 
king  in  1647,  and  in  the  following  year  his  efforts  on  behalf  of 
peace  at  Newport,  where  again  he  represented  the  parliament- 
arians, brought  upon  him  some  slight  censure  from  Oomwell. 
For  his  services  at  Newport  he  was  thanked  by  parliament;  but 
he  retired  from  active  political  life  soon  afterwards,  as  he 
disliked  the  "  purging  "  of  the  House  of  Commons  by  Colonel 
Pride  and  the  proceedings  against  the  king.    In  spite  of  his 

Company.  Chouteau  built  (in  1830-1831)  the  "  Yellowttone,** 
which  went  up  the  river  to  the  present  site  of  Pierre  in  1831.  and 
was  the  first  steamboat  to  navigate  the  upper  waters  of  the  Mis- 
souri. Chouteau  lived  for  some  years  in  New  York  City,  and  while 
Kvin?  in  Sc  Louis  was  a  member  of  the  conventioa  (1830)  which 
i  drafted  the  first  consiitutiaa  of  Missouri. 


592 


PIERROT— PIETERSBURG 


moderate  views  Pierrepont  enjoyed  the  personal  friendship  ol 
CromweU;  but,  although  elected,  he  would  not  sit  in  the  parlia- 
ment of  1656,  nor  would  he  take  the  place  offered  to  him  in  the 
Protector's  House  of  Lords.  When  Richard  Cromwell  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Pierrepont  was  an  unobtrusive  but  powerful 
influence  in  directing  the  polky  of  the  government,  and  after  a 
short  period  of  retirement  on  Richard's  fall  he  was  chosen, 
early  in  x666,  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  He  represented 
Nottinghamdiire  in  the  Convention  Parliament  of  1660,  and 
probably  Mras  instrumental  in  saving  the  lives  of  some  of  the 
parliamentary  leaders.  At  the  general  election  of  1661  he  was 
defeated,  and,  spending  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement, 
he  died  in  X678.  Pierrepont  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Sir  Thomas  Harris,  Bart.,  of  Tong  Castle,  Shropshire,  by  whom 
he  had  five  sons  and  five  daughters.  His  eldest  son,  Robert 
(d.  1666),  was  the  father  of  Robert,  3rd  earl,  William,  4tb  earl, 
and  Evelyn,  ist  duke  of  Kingston^  and  his  third  son,  Gervase 
(1649-1715),  was  created  in  17 14  baron  Pierrepont  of  Hanslope, 
a  title  which  became  extinct  on  bis  death. 

PIERROT  (Ital.  Pedrolino),  the  name  given  to  the  leading 
character  in  the  French  pantomime  plays  since  the  18th  century; 
transferred  from  the  Italian  stage,  and  revived  especially  in 
recent  times.  He  is  always  in  white,  both  face  and  costume, 
with  a  loose  and  daintily  clownish  garb,  and  is  represented  as  of 
a  freakish  disposition.  Modem  picrrot  plays  have  converted 
the  pierrot  into  a  romantic  and  even  pathetic  figure. 

PIERSON,  HENRT  HUGO  [properly  Henry  Hugh  Pearson], 
(181 5-1873),  English  composer,  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr 
Pearson  of  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  bozo  in 
181 5;  his  father  afterwards  became  dean  of  Salisbury.  Picrson 
was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
was  at  first  intended  for  the  career  of  medicine.  His  musical 
powers  were  too  strong  to  be  repressed,  and  after  receiving 
instruction  from  Attwood  and  A.  T.  Corfe  he  went  in  1839  to 
Germany  to  study  under  C.  H.  Rink,  Tomaschek  and  Rcissigcr. 
He  was  elected  Rcld  Professor  of  Music  in  Edinburgh  in  1844, 
but,  owing  to  a  disagreement  with  the  authorities,  he  resigned 
in  the  following  year,  and  definitely  adopted  Germany  as  his 
country  about  the  same  time,  making  the  change  in  his  names 
noted  above.  His  two  operas,  Leila  (Hamburg,  1848)  and 
Contarini  (Hamburg,  1872),  have  not  retained  their  hold  upon 
the  German  public  as  his  music  to  Faust  has  done,  a  work  which 
until  quite  recently  was  frequently  associated  with  Goethe's 
drama.  He  was  never  recognized  in  England  as  he  was  in 
Germany,  for  most  of  his  career  fell  in  the  period  of  the  Mendels- 
sohn fashion.  His  most  important  work  was  the  oratorio 
Jerusalem,  produced  at  the  Norwich  Festival  of  1853,  and 
subsequently  given  in  London  (Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  1853) 
and  WOrzburg  (1862).  For  the  Norwich  Festival  (at  one  of 
the  meetings  a  selection  from  his  Faust  music  was  given  with 
success)  he  began  an  oratorio,  Heukiah,  in  1869;  it  was  not 
finished,  but  was  given  in  a  fragmentary  condition  at  the  festival 
of  that  year.  These  two  large  works  and  a  number  of  Pierson's 
songs,  as  well  as  the  three  overtures  played  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  reveal  undeniable  originality  and  a  wealth  of  melodic 
ideas.  He  was  weak  in  contrapuntal  skill,  and  his  music  was 
wanting  in  outline  and  coherence;  but  in  more  fortunate  con- 
ditions his  great  gifts  might  have  been  turned  to  better  account. 
He  died  at  Leipzig  on  the  28th  of  January  1873,  and  was  buried 
at  Sonning,  Berks.,  of  which  parish  his  brother,  Canon  Pearson, 
was  rector. 

PIETAS,  in  Roman  mythology,  the  personification  of  the  sense 
of  duty  towards  God  and  man  and  the  fatherland.  According 
to  a  well-known  story,  a  young  woman  in  humble  circumstances, 
whose  father  (or  mother)  was  lying  in  prison  under  sentence 
of  death,  without  food,  managed  to  gain  admittance,  and 
fed  her  parent  with  milk  from  her  breast.  To  commemorate 
her  filial  alTection  a  temple  was  dedicated  (t8i  b.c.)  by 
Manius  Acilius  Glabrio  to  Pietas  in  the  Forum  Holitorium 
at  Rome,  on  the  spot  where  the  young  woman  had  formerly 
lived.  .The  temple  was  probably  originally  vowed  by  the 
elder  Glabrio  out  of  gratitude  for  tho  pitioi  shown  during 


the  engagement  by  Us  son,  who  may  liave  saved  his  life,  as  the 
elder  Africanus  that  of  his  fother  at  the  battle  of  Ticinas(Livy 
xn.  46);  the  legend  of  the  young  woman  (borrowed  from  the 
Greek  story  of  Mycon  and  Pero,  Val.  Max.  v.  4,  ext.  i)  wais  then 
connected  with  the  temple  by  the  identificaticm  of  its  site  with 
that  of  the  prison.  There  was  another  temple  of  Pietas  near  the 
Circus  Flaminius,  which  is  connected  by  Amataoci  {Rmsia  it 
staria  anlicot  1903)  with  the  stoiy  of  the  pieUss  of  C.  Flaousiu 
(Val.  Max.  v.  4,  5),  and  regarded  by  him  as  the  real  seat  of  the 
cult  of  the  goddess,  the  Pietas  of  the  sanctuary  dedicated  by 
Glabrio  being  a  Greek  goddess.  Pietas  is  represented  on  coins 
as  a  matron  throwing  incense  on  an  altar,  her  attribute  being  a 
stork.  Typical  examples  of "  piety  '*  are  Aeneas  and  Aatooinm 
Pius,  who  founded  games  odlcd  Eusebeia  at  PateoH  in  honoiar  of 
Hadrian. 

Sec  Val.  Max.  v.  4,  7;  PUny,  Nat.  hist,  vii.  lar;  Livy  xl.  31; 
Festus,  5.V.;  G.  Wissowa,  /tf/tfuni  und  Kultus  dtr  Mlimer  (1901}: 
F.  Kuntae,  "  Die  Lcgende  von  der  guten  Tocbtcr,"  in  JcMSckm 
fur  das  ktattiscke  AlUrtum  (1904).  xiii.  a80r 

PIETERMARITZBURO,  the  capital  of  Natal,  situated  in 
29*"  46'  S.,  30*  13'  E.;  45  m.  in  a  direct  line  (71  by  rail)  WJf .W. 
of  Durban.  It  lies,  saoo  ft.  above  tlie  sea,  north  of  the  river 
Umsunduzi,  and  is  surrounded  by  wooded  hills.  Of  these  the 
Town  Hill,  flat-topped,  rises  1600  ft.  above  the  town.  Pop. 
(1904)1  3X>ii9>  of  whom  15,087  were  whites,  10,75a  Kaffirs,  and 
5280  Indians.  The  town  is  laid  out  on  the  usual  Dutch  South 
African  plan — in  rectangular  blocks  with  a  central  market  square. 
The  public  buildings  include  the  legislative  council  chambess 
and  the  legislative  assembly  buildings,  government  boose,  the 
government  offices,  college,  post  office  and  market  buildings. 
The  town-hall,  a  fine  building  in  a  modified  Renaissance  style 
(characteristic  of  the  majority  of  the  other  public  buildings), 
has  a  lofty  tower.  It  was  completed  in  1901,  and  replaces  a 
building  destroyed  by  fire  in  1898.  St  Saviour's  is  the  cathedral 
church  of  the  Anglican  community.  The  headquarters  of  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church  are  also  in  the  town.  There  are 
monuments  of  (^uecn  Victoria  and  Sir  Theophilus  Shepstone, 
and  various  war  memorials — one  commemorating  those  who 
fell  in  Zululand  In  1879,  and  another  those  who  lost  their  lives 
in  the  Boer  War  1899-1902.  A  large  park  and  botanical  gardens 
add  to  the  attractions  of  the  town.  A  favourite  mode  of  con- 
veyance is  by  rickshaw.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  agreeable, 
the  mean  annual  temperature  being  65*  F.  (55*  In  June,  71*  in 
February).  The  rainfall  Is  about  38  in.  a  year,  chiefly  in  the 
summer  months  (Oct.-Mar.),  when  the  heat  is  tempered  by 
violent  thunderstorms. 

Pietermaritzburg  was  founded  early  In  1839  by  the  ]iew!y<- 
arrived  Dutch  settlers  in  Natal,  and  its  name  commemorates 
two  of  their  leaders— Piet  Relief  and  Gerrit  Marita.  From  the 
time  of  its  establishment  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Volksraad  of  the 
Natal  Boers,  and  on  the  submission  of  the  Boers  to  the  Briiish 
in  1842  Maritzburg  (as  it  is  usually  called)  l>ecame  the  capital 
of  the  country.  It  was  given  a  municipal  board  in  1848,  and  im 
1854  was  incorporated  as  a  borough.  Railway  connexion  with 
Durban  was  made  In  1880,  and  in  1895  the  line  was  extended 
to  Johannesburg.  The  borough  covers  44  sq.  m.  and  indudcs 
numerous  attractive  suburbs.  The  rateable  value  is  about 
£4,000,000.  Various  industries  are  carried  on,  including  brick- 
making,  tanning,  brewing,  and  cart  and  wagon  building. 

See  J.  F.  Ingram,  The  Story  cf  an  African  City  (Maritxbuvg. 
189«). 

PIBTERSBURO,  a  town  of  the  Transvaal,  capital  of  the 
Zoutpansberg  district,  and  177  m.  N.N.E.  of  Pretoria  by  imiL 
Pop.  (1904),  3376,  of  whom  1620  were  whites.  The  town  is 
pleasantly  situated,  at  an  devation  of  4200  ft.,  on  •  smaO  tribo- 
tary  of  the  Zand  river  affluent  of  the  Limpopo,  utA  is  the  place 
of  most  importance  in  the  province  north  of  Pretoria.  From  H 
roads  run  to  Klein  Lelaba  and  other  gold-mining  centres  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  through  it  passes  the  old  route  to  MmshontA" 
land,  which  crosses  the  Limpopo  at  Rhodes  Drift.  The  Zout- 
pansberg district  contains  a  comparatively  dense  Kaffir  popular 
tion,  and  a  native  newspaper  is  published  at  Pietenbwf. 


Berkshire  Boar. 


Middle  White  Boar. 


Large  Black  Son. 
English  Breeds  of  Pig,  from  photographs  of  F.  Babbage. 


PIG 


SmaU  While  Boar. 


Tam  worth  Boar. 
b  Breeds  o(  Fig,  from  photographs  oE  F. 


PIETISM 


593 


PIBTUM,  n  movement  in  the  Luthenn  Church,  which  arose 
towards  the  end  of  the  xyth  and  continued  during  the  first  half 
of  the  following  century.  The  name  of  Pietists  was  given  to 
the  adherents  of  the  movement  by  its  enemies  as  a  term  of 
ridicule,  bice  that  of  "  Methodists  "  somewhat  later  in  England. 
The  Lutheran  Church  had,  in  continuing  Melanchthon's  attempt 
to  construct  the  evangelical  faith  as  a  doctrinal  system,  by 
the  17th  century  become  a  creed-bound  theological  and  sacra- 
mentarian  institution,  which  orthodox  theologians  like  Johann 
Gerhard  of  Jena  (d.  1637)  ruled  with  almost  the  absolutism  of 
the  papacy.  Christian  faith  had  been  dismissed  from  its  seat 
in  the  heart,  where  Luther  had  placed  it,  to  the  cold  regions  of 
the  intellect.  The  dogmatic  formularies  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
had  usurped  the  position  which  Luther  himself  had  assigned  to 
the  Bible  alone,  and  as  a  consequence  only  they  were  studied 
and  preached,  while  the  Bible  was  neglected  in  the  family,  the 
study,  the  pulpit  and  the  university.  Instead  of  advocating 
the  priesthood  of  all  believers,  the  Lutheran  pastors  had  made 
themselves  a  despotic  hierarchy,  while  they  neglected  their 
practical  pastoral  work.  In  the  Reformed  Church,  on  the  other 
band,  the  influence  of  Calvin  had  made  less  for  doctrine  than  the 
pract  ical  format  ion  of  Christian  life.  The  presbyterian  constitu- 
tion gave  the  people  a  share  in  church  life  which  the  Lutherans 
lacked,  but  it  involved  a  dogmatic  legalism  which  imperilled 
Christian  freedom  and  fostered  self-righteousness. 

As  forerunners  of  the  Pietists  in  the  strict  sense,  not  a  few 
earnest  and  powerful  voices  had  been  heard  bewaib'ng  the 
shortcomings  of  the  Church  and  advocating  a  revival  of  practical 
and  devout  Christianity.  Amongst  them  were  Jakob  Boehme 
(Behmen),  the  theosophic  mystic;  Johann  Amdt,  whose  work 
on  True  Christianity  became  widely  known  and  appreciated; 
Heinrich  MfiUcr,  who  described  the  font,  the  pulpit,  the  con- 
fessional and  the  altar  as  the  four  dumb  idob  of  the  Lutheran 
Church;  the  theologian,  Johann  Valentin  Andrea,  the  court 
chaplain  of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse;  Schuppius,  who  sought  to 
restore  to  the  Bible  its  place  in  the  pulpit;  and  Theophilus 
Grossgebauer  (d.  x66i)  of  Rostock,  who  from  his  pulpit  and  by 
his  writings  raised  "  the  alarm  cry  of  a  watchman  in  Sion." 
The  direct  originator  of  the  movement  was  Philip  Jacob  Spener, 
who  combined  the  Lutheran  emphasis  on  Biblical  doctrine  with 
the  Reformed  tendency  to  vigorous  Christian  life.  Bom  at 
Rappoltsweiler,  in  Alsace  on  the  13th  of,  January  1635,  trained 
by  a  devout  godmother,  who  used  books  of  devotion  like  Amdt's 
True  Chrisdamty,  accustomed  to  hear  the  sermons  of  a  pastor 
who  preached  the  Bible  more  than  the  Lutheran  creeds,  Spener 
was  early  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  a  moral  and  religious 
reformation  of  the  German  Church.  He  studied  theology,  with 
a  view  to  the  Christian  ministry,  at  Strissburg,  where  the 
professors  at  the  time  (and  especially  Sebastian  Schmidt)  were 
more  inclined  to  practical  Christianity  than  to  theological 
disputation.  He  afterwards  spent  a  year  in  Geneva,  and  was 
powerfully  influenced  by  the  strict  moral  life  and  rigid  ecdeslas^ 
tical  disdpline  prevalent  there,  and  also  by  the  preaching  and 
the  piety  of  the  Waldensian  professor,  Antoine  Leger,  and  the 
converted  Jesuit  preacher,  Jean  de  Labadie.^  During  a  stay  in 
Tubingen  he  read  Grossgebauer's  Alarm  Cry^  and  In  1666  he 
entered  upon  his  first  pastoral  charge  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
profoundly  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  danger  of  the  Christian 
life  being  sacrificed  to  zeal  for  rigid  orthodoxy.  Pietism,  as  a 
distinct  movement  in  the  German  Church,  was  then  originated 
by  Spener  by  religious  meetings  at  his  house  {caltegia  ptelatis), 
at  which  he  repeated  his  sermons,  expounded  passages  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  induced  those  present  to  join  In  conversa- 
tion on  religious  questions  that  arose.  They  gave  rise  to  the 
name  "  Pietists."  In  1675  Spener  published  his  Pia  desidtriOf 
or  Earnest  Desires  for  a  Reform  of  the  True  Etangelicat  Church, 
In  this  publication  he  made  six  proposab  as  the  best  means  of 
restoring  the  life  of  the  Church:  (i)  the  earnest  and  thorough 
study  of  the  Bible  in  private  meetings,  ecdesiolae  in  eedesia', 

*  Labadie  had  formed  the  ascetic  and  mystic  sect  of  "  The 
Regenerati  "  in  the  Church  of  Holland  (c.  1 660),  and  then  in  other 
parts  of  the  Reformed  Church. 

XXI    10* 


(2)  the  Christian  priesthood  being  universal,  the  laity  should 
share  in  the  spiritual  government  of  the  Church;  (3)  a  knowledge 
of  Christianity  must  be  attended  by  the  practice  of  it  as  its 
indispensable  sign  and  supplement;  (4)  instead  of  merely  didactic, 
and  often  bitter,  attacks  on  the  heterodox  and  unbelievers,  a 
sympathetic  and  kindly  treatment  of  them;  (5)  a  reorganization 
of  the  theological  training  of  the  universities,  giving  more 
prominence  to  the  devotional  life;  and  (6)  a  difTerent  style  of 
preaching,  namely, In  the  place  of  pleasing  rhetoric,  the  implant- 
ing of  Christianity  in  the  inner  or  new  man,  the  soul  of  which  b 
faith,  and  its  effects  the  fruits  of  life.  Thb  work  produced  a 
great  impression  throughout  Germany,  and  although  large 
numbers  of  the  orthodox  Lutheran  theologians  and  pastors 
were  deeply  offended  by  Spener's  book,  its  complaints  and  its 
demands  were  both  too  well  justified  to  admit  of  their  being 
point-blank  denied,  A  large  number  of  pastors  at  once  practi- 
cally adopted  Spener's  proposab.  In  Paul  Gerhardt  the  move- 
ment found  a  ringer  whose  hymns  are  genuine  folk  poetry.  In 
x686  Spener  accepted  an  appointment  to  the  court-chaplaincy 
at  Dresden,  which  opened  to  him  a  wider  though  more  difficult 
sphere  of  labour.  In  Leipzig  a  society  of  young  theologians 
was  formed  under  hb  influence  for  the  learned  study  and  devout 
application  of  the  Bible.  Three  magistri  belonging  to  that 
society,  one  of  whom  was  August  Hermann  Francke,  subse- 
quently the  founder  of  the  famous  orphanage  at  Halle  (1695), 
commenced  courses  of  expository  lectures  on  the  Scriptures  of  a 
practical  and  devotional  character,  and  in  the  German  language, 
which  were  zealously  frequented  by  both  students  and  townsmen. 
The  lectures  aroused,  however,  the  ill-will  of  the  other  theo- 
logians and  pastors  of  Leipzig,  and  Francke  and  his  friends  left 
the  city,  and  with  the  aid  of  Christian  Thomasius  and  Spener 
founded  the  new  university  of  Halle.  The  theological  chairs 
in  the  new  university  were  filled  in  complete  conformity  with 
Spener's  proposals.  The  main  difference  between  the  new 
Pletlstic  school  and  the  orthodox  Lutherans  arose  from  the 
conception  of  Christianity  as  chiefly  consbting  in  a  change  of 
heart  and  consequent  holiness  of  life,  whfle  the  orthodox 
Lutherans  of  the  time  made  it  to  consbt  mainly  in  correctness 
of  doctrine. 

Spener  died  in  1705;  but  the  movement,  guided  by  Francke, 
fertilized  from  HaBe  the  whole  of  Middle  and  North  Germany. 
Among  iu  greatest  achievements,  apart  from  the  philanthropic 
institutions  founded  at  Halle,  were  the  organization  of  the 
Moravian  Church  In  1727  by  Count  von  Zinzendorf,  Spener's 
godson  and  a  pupil  in  the  Halle  Orphanage,  and  the  estab- 
Ibhment  of  the  great  Protestant  missions,  Ziegcnbalg  and 
others  being  the  pioneers  of  an  enterprise  which  until  this  time 
Protestantism  had  strangely  neglected. 

Pietism,  of  course,  had  its  weaknesses.  The  very  earnestness 
with  which  Spener  bad  insbted  on  the  necessity  of  a  new  birth, 
and  on  a  separation  of  Christians  from  the  world,  led  to  exaggera- 
tion and  fanaticbm  among  followers  less  dbtinguished  than 
himself  for  wisdom  and  moderation.  Many  Pietists  soon  mal»> 
tained  that  the  new  birth  must  always  be  preceded  by  agonies 
of  repentance,  and  that  only  a  regenerated  theologian  could 
teach  theology,  while  the  whole  school  shunned  all  common 
woridly  amusements,  such  as  dancing,  the  theatre,  and  public 
games.  There  thus  arose  a  new  form  of  justification  by  works. 
Its  ecdesiaiae  in  eedesia  also  weakened  the  power  and  meaning 
of  church  organization.  Through  these  extravagances  a  reac- 
tionary movement  arose  at  the  beginning  of  the  x8th  century, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders  of  which  was  Loescher, 
superintendent  at  Dresden. 

As  a  distinct  movement  Pietbm  had  run  its  course  before  the 
middle  of  the  x8th  century;  by  its  very  indlviduah'sm  it  had 
helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  another  great  movement,  the 
Illumination  {AufklSrung)f  which  was  now  to  lead  the  world 
into  new  paths.  Yet  Pietbm  could  claim  to  have  contributed 
largely  to  the  revival  of  Biblical  studies  in  Germany,  and  to  have 
made  religion  once  more  an  affair  of  the  heart  and  the  life,  and 
not  merely  of  the  intellect.  It  likewbe  vindicated  afresh  the 
rights  of  the  Christian  laity  in  regard  to  their  own  beliefs  sod 


oiai 


PIETRO  DELLA  VIGNA- 


of  ihe  w 


iiiul  in 


If  Sal;ni, 


by  liw  Rtfai 

oi  (he  Piptcslaniism  cmted  by  Ihe  Rcformatian.    Tben  ctme 

a  lime  when  uiaibci  intcUcciiuil  power  loal:  paamsian  of  Ibe 

Some  wrilera  on  ibe  hiuoiy  ol  Pitiiipi— ^.(.  H(ppe  wid 
RitichI— have  includtd  under  it  neatly  all  religioui  leadrnciet 
amongst  Proleslanll  of  the  lail  Ibiet  cenluriea  in  the  direclwn 
al  a  nwre  lerioui  cullivaiEon  of  pcnonal  piely  than  thai  preva- 
lent in  the  vuioua  cUablishH  chuiehci.  kilxhl.  too,  Ireull 
Fieliim  ai  a  retrograde  movemrnl  of  Christian  life  tomrdt 
CalhoUcilm.  Some  hiiloiiani  sl»  speak  of  a  later  or  modern 
Pietism,  chataclrrijing  thereby  a  patty  in  Ih*  German  Cburcb 
which  was  probably  at  firjl  inllueiicfd  by  some  remaini  of 
Spener-j  Pietism  in  Westphalia,  on  the  Rhine,  in  Wutiiemberg, 
and  at  Halle  and  Berlin.    The  party  vai  chieHy  disiinguishtd 

Its  principal  theological  leader  being  HengstenbeTf,  aiul  its 
chief  literary  ot^  the  Evaatdiidit  KirihtBctUimg.    The  patty 


PIBTBO  DBLU  VIGHA,  or  PiEB  DCUB  Vkmi  [Pctids  de 
ViNEAi  or  DE  VwEisI  (c.  iioo-ii4g],  chancellor  >jid  secretary 
to  the  en^Kror  Frederick  II..  was  biHo  at  Capua  in  bLDible 
citcumiunca.  He  studied  law  at  Padua,  and  through  bis 
claitical  education,  his  ahilily  to  (peitk  Latia  and  bis  poetic 
gifts,  he  gained  the  lavonr  of  Frederick  II.,  who  made  him 
his  lecieury,  and  afterwards  judii  mapat  airiat,  councillor, 
governor  ol  Apulia,  pmthonotary  and  chancellor,  tlie  emperor, 
"  ol  whose  hcirt  he  held  the  keys,"  as  Dante  layi,  scat  him  to 
Rome  in  iiji  and  I)J7  to  negotiate  with  the  pope,  to  Padua 
io  iijQ  to  induce  the  ciiiient  to  accept  imperial  protection,  to 
England  in  Iii4-iijs  to  arrange  a  marriage  between  Frederick 
and  Isabella,  sister  of  King  Henry  III.  He  proved  a  skiUui 
and  tnitlwonhy  diplomat,  and  he  persistently  defended  the 
empetor  against  hia  IraduccTs  and  againat  Ihe  pope's  menaces. 
Uul  at  the  Council  of  Lyons,  which  had  been  summoned  by  Pope 
Innocent  IV.,  Ficlro  detla  Vigna  entrusted  the  defence  of  his 
Blaster  to  the  celebrated  jurist  Taddeo  of  Suetsa,  who  failed 
to  prevent  his  condemnation.      Fredenck,  whose  sus{ucions  bad 

prisoned  and  blinded  without  giving  him  a  chance  to  r^ut  his 
accusen.     Unable  lo  bear  his     ■ 


c,  however,  subject  tc 


idFlami 


I'iia,  in  i.i6.    The  tragic  fate  of  this  man  g 

averisr 

10  many 

kgends.    The  Cuelpb 

tradition  accuses  Piet 

ro  delU  Vigna,  u 

d  the  court,  of  heresy;i 

en  stated. 

probably  uithmit  any 

K  Bulhon 

ol  the  famous  work, 

De  Iribm  iMfaulwiiu 

where 

■m  Motea, 

Pieiro  deUa  Vigna  » 

as  a  man  of  peal  cuUui 

reihe 

science  and  the  fine  ai 

ns,  and  contributed  mu 

hlo 

h«  welfare 

of  Italy  by  wise  legish 

or  of  some 

of  the  bwi  of  Sicily,  a  TVocM 

See  Huillard-BifiiaUn.  Vi, 
(Pari..  18641:  Pmta,  Piir  d 
tanelli,J-Hribfb  Vift  {Cue 

na  (a  word  of  ohiture 


PIG 

iiUure  of  the  Ijth  century. 


r  de  poUstaU  impriali,  and 
ituw,"  in  the  style  of  BoKhius.  are 

arrtipndaiKi  it  Pivn  ii  ia  Yifm 
■  Vitmi  (Milan,  i^h  CaposHtaad 
,  1SS1):  also  Fuoaaica  ir 

onnected  with  the  Lo«  Gel. 


ilpigsai 


ie  white  breeds  an  liable 


ibly  Wales  and  C 
spotted  breed  lingers;  aitd  a  large  proportioi 

to  suQ-tcald,  and  black  pl_ 

adapted  than  while  lo  aposurc  in  strong  sunlight,  conlonniBg 

to  the  rule  that  animals  In  the  tropics  have  black  skins. 

The  La-ie  Wliilil  may  have  bi  Ihe  skifl  a  lew  blue  spoU  which 
grow  white  faair.  The  head  is  long,  light  in  the  jowl,  and  wide 
between  the  eyes,  with  long  thin  can  inclined  sli^lly  lorwud 
and  fringed  with  toag  fine  hatr.  The  neck  is  lone  1™'  nx 
coarse,  (be  rib*  an  deep,  the  Inn  wide  and  level,  the  tail  set 
high.andlhek^slraightandlet  well  outside  the  oflucv  Tbe 
who^  body,  iodudiDg  the  bick  ol  the  neck,  is  covend  with 
straight  silky  bilr,  which  denotes  quality  and  lean  nesl.  Pigs 
of  this  bleed  are  very  prolific,  and  they  may  be  ftown  to 
enormous  weights-over  1 1  cwt,  alive. 

The  UMle  WlilUi  are  built  on  1  imaUer  scale  than  Ibe  Laip 
Whites.  They  are  shorter  In  the  bead*  and  1^  and  fnUei  41 
the  jowl,  thicker  and  more  compact  in  Ihe  body.  The  am*  an 
quite  as  prolific  aa  those  ol  the  Large  White  breed,  and,  a*  iheii 
produce  maturei  earlier,  they  ate  much  in  demand  lot  bmding 

The  5M(iJ/lf:tiIr  pigs  are  beautifully  praponioncd.  The  head 
and  legs  arc  very  short,  and  the  body  short,  Ihick  and  wide^ 
the  jowl  Is  heavy,  Ibe  ears  pricked,  and  the  thin  skin  Udea  wish 
long  silky,  wavy,  but  not  curly,  hair,  whilst  (he  tail  ia  very  fine. 
A  deficiency  of  l^n  meat  isacommonchaiactcrislicol  ibebned. 

The  above  three  breed*  were  designated  Yotkihiic  WUtct. 
and  are  atiU  10  named  at  time*.  The  Middle  White,  formed  by 
crossing  the  large  and  Ihe  small  breeds,  is  not  lo  symnRrical 
as  the  parcnl  stiArks,  and  the  type  is  not  uniform. 

The  Lixulrulive  Curly  Ceelei  at  BeslaH  pig  la  a  locU  bntd 
of  great  sUeand  capacity  for  produdng  pork.  It  is  very  httc4y 
and  prolific,  but  aoiKwhat  coanc  in  the  bone.  It  boa  aa 
abundance  of  hat  curiy  hair,  a  sborl  lace  and  a  stnishi  aoac. 
and  the  ears,  nol  too  long  and  heavy,  fall  over  Ibc  laec  It 
crosses  well  wilh  Ibe  targe  While,  Ibe  Large  Black  and  ibe 
Berkshire. 

The  Lorte  Blut  breed,  which  vies  with  Ihe  Large  White  breed 
ior  size,  and  ia  probably  its  superior  as  a  bacon  pig,  hai  only 
since  iqoo  recnvcd  national  show-yard  leccgoiiioni  but  tbcie  i* 
ample  evidence  that,  with  its  chataclelislic  whole  black  colou 
wilb  a  mealy  hue,  length,  fine  hair  and  lop  ear,  ibc  Large  BUck 
eiisted  in  the  south  of  England  for  geaeraliona.  It  ha*  bees 
continitously  and  carelully  bred  in  Cornwall,  Devon,  Essex  aiod 
Suffolk,  and  from  these  centres  it  has  rapidly  spread  all  over  ihe 
country.  Large  Blacks  are  eiceedingly  rlocile,  and  the  cai^ 
hanging  well  lorwaid  owr  the  eyes,  conlribuLe  matetiaily  to  a 
quietness  of  babil  which  renders  them  peculiarly  tdapIMl  to 
field  grating.  On  account  of  their  hajdineaa  and  disposkitm  to 
early  maturity  Ibey  have  proved  valuable  lor  crosiing  puipoaes. 
The  Large  Black  Pig  Sodely  wns  incorporated  in  iftw. 

Tbc  Birkiklrc  is  a  black  pig  with  a  pinkish  skin,  and  a  litile 
white  on  Ihe  note,  loiehcod,  paslerna,  and  tip  to  Ihe  tail.  IL  hu 
a  moderately  short  head  with  heavy  jowl,  a  deep,  ccmpaji 
carcase,  and  wide,  low  and  well-developed  hiBd-<Ioattet»,  wilb 
heavy  faami.  The  skin  carries  an  abundance  of  fine  bab.  The 
Berkshire  is  an  early-maturity  breed  which  has  been  So 


PIGALLE— ^PIGEON 


595 


mbfed,  and  it  noi  to  hardy  and  prolific  as  most  breeds.  The 
boars  cross  well  wich  conunon  stock.  It  merits  the  most  credit 
Id  raising  the  quaUty  of  Irish  pi^.  In  America  it  is  in  Uw  front 
rank  Xor  numbers  and  quality  as  a  lazd-hog.  Tliere  it  often 
grows  to  be  a  larger  and  finer  animal  than  it  is  in  England. 

The  Smail  BUck  of  Back  Suffolk  was  produced  from  the  oki 
Essex  pig  by  crossing  with  the  Neapolitan.  It  resembles  tho 
Small  Wbite,  except  that  the  skin  is  ooal>bku:k  in  colour^  and 
the  coat  of  hair  is  not  usually  profuse.  Tlie  Small  Black,  moee* 
over,  is  rather  longer,  and  stands  somewhat  higher,  whilst  it 
yields  more  lean  meat  than  the  Small  White.  It  matures  early 
and  is  quick  to  fatten. 

The  Tamworik  a  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  pigs.  It  is  bardy, 
active  and  prolific,  and  nearly  related  to  the  wild  boar.  The 
colour  b  red  or  chestnut,  with  at  times  darkish  spots  <md  the 
skin.  The  bead,  body  and  legu  are  long,  and  the  ribs  deep  and 
fiat.  Originally  a  local  breed  in  the  districts  around  the  StaiSord* 
shire  town  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  it  is  now  extensively 
bred,  and  highly  valued  as  a  bacon  pig.  (W.  Fa. ;  R.  W.) 

In  America  nearly  all  the  breeds  may  be  classified  as  lard- 
hogs.  Baoon>pigs  fed  on  Indian  com  degenerate  into  lard- 
bogs,  run  down  in  sixe  and  become  too  small  in  the  bone  and 
less  prolific  by  inbreeding. 

The  FolMd'Ckinc,  the  most  popular  breed  in  the  United 
States,  is  thus  degenerating.  It  is  a  black  pig  like  the  Berk- 
shire,  but  has  short  lop-eaxs,  a  more  pointed,  straight  nose,  a 
more  compact  body,  and  more  white  markings.  It  is  a  breed 
of  mixed  blood,  and  is  beUevcd  to  have  originated  from  the 
"  Big  China  "  pig — a  large  white  hog  with  sandy  spots,  taken  to 
Ohio  in  1816,  and  blended  with  Irish  gntxiers  in  1^9,  and  with  a 
breed  known  as  Bayfields,  as  well  as  with  Berkshkea.  In  Iowa 
the  Berkshire  is  a  combined  lard  and  bacon  pig  in  high  favour. 

The  Durvc  Jersey  or  DurXy  of  a  red  or  cherry-red  cokmr — 
not  sandy  or  dark — ^is  the  most  popular  pig  in  Nebraska  and 
equal  to  any  other  in  lowa.  It  is  a  large  prolific  lard-hog,  easily 
making  300  lb  in  eight  months.  It  has  gained  rapidly  in 
popularity  since  the  beginning  of  this  oenttuy,  and  is  spreading 
to  other  centres. 

The  Ckeskr  WkUe^  named  from  Chester  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, is  one  of  the  four  leading  breeds  of  lard-^hogs  in 
America.  It  is  of  mixed  origin  and  bears  a  strong  family 
resemblance  to  the  Xtnoolnshiie  curly-ooated  pig.  The  early 
FngKah  tincestors,  the  breed  of  whkh  is  not  on  record  in 
America,  were  most  probably  of  Lincoln  origitt.  The  sow  is 
a  prolific  breeder  and  good  mother,  weighing,  when  nature  but 
not  iat,  450  Ib-Hhe  boar  avengmg  600  lb,  and  barrows  at  six 
to  eight  months  350  lb.  At  Vermont  Station,  in  a  127  days' 
test,  Chester  Whites  made  an  avenge  gain  of  1*36  lb  and 
drnsed  94*5%  carcase,  and  they  can  gain  fully  z  lb  of  live 
weight  for  3  lb  of  grain  consumed. 

MoMtemenL — The  brood  sow  should  be  lengthy  and  of  a  prolific 
•train,  known  to  milk  well.  She  is  moderately  fed  and  put  to  a 
boar  of  her  own  agji  when  Urge  enough,  i,e.  aeven  to  eight  montha 
aid.  She  remains  m  a  state  of  oestrum  for  about  three  days,  and 
if  not  prcsnant  comes  in  heat  again  in  three  weeks.  BreodinR 
•wine,  maw  aad  female,  run  roost  of  their  time  at  pasture  and 
TeoB&ve  a  liberal  allowance  of  green  food  or  raw  roots.  The  period 
of  gestation  b  sixteen  weeks.  Six  to  eight  pigs  are  reared  of  the 
first  litter,  and  ten  to  twelve  afterwaros.  Many  brood  lows  are 
fattened  to  greatest  pro6t  after  the  second  or  third  litter.  Two 
litters  are  produced  in  one  year,  as  pigs  are  usually  weaned  at  two 
months  ola.  and  the  sow  will  take  the  boar  at  from  thite  days  to 
a  week  after  the  pigs  are  removed,  according  to  condition.  A 
convenient  sty  to  hold  five  or  six  pigs  has  a  soathem  aspect,  and 
consists  of  a  covered  compartment  and  outer  court,  each  10  ft. 
square.  When  the  aninmls  are  fed  outside  the  inner  court  is  kejA. 
dean  and  dry,  and  there  the  pigs  lie.  The  labouring  man's  pig 
i»  his  bank,  artd  b  ft.>d  on  0cra|M,  small  potatoes  and  waste  products. 
In  connexion  with  cheese  dairies  pigs  are  largely  fed  on  sour  whey 
thickened  with  mixed  meal  producoi  from  any  or  all  of  the  grains 
or  pulses,  the  choice  depending  upon  the  market  price.  Food 
■BSty  with  advantage  be  oooked  for  very  young  jAgs;  but,  with  the 
espceptkm  of  potatoes,  which  should  never  be  given  raw,  roots  and 
mean  are  bat  ^ven  untooked.  Meal  mixed  with  pulped  roots 
for  a  few  hours  miproves  in  digestibility,  and  a  sprinkltns  of  salt 
is  an  improvement.  Meal  denved  from  Icguminotci  seeds  makes 
alae  -flesh  firm  and  imptoves  the  quality.    Fattening  pigs  am  fed 


91   7 

From  3  to  ^  lb  of  meal  consumed  results  in  an  increase  of  i  lb  of 
live  weight  in  a  pig,  which  is  the  most  economical  meat  producer  on 
a  farm.    Concentrated  and  digestible  foods  give  best  results,  a 

{>ig  has  a  small  stomach.  Fjord's  Danish  experiments  show  that 
or  fattening  pigs  i  lb  of  r>'e-  or  barlcy-mcal  is  equivalent  to  6  lb 
of  skim-milk  or  i  a  lb  of  whey,  and  t  lb  of  meal  equivalent  to  8  lb 
of  mangolds  or  4  lb  of  potatoes. 
LiTaaATuas.-:^!.  Coleman.  Ptgr  0/ Great  Britain  (1877);  Sanders 
*'  );  C.  M.  Rommel, 

Bureau  of  Animal 


Spencer,  Pig^:  Breeds  and_Manag<emeut  (i< 

Smins  Hm^aindty  '(1904);  R.  Wallace,  Farm  Live  Stock  of  Great 


t£iSi 

The  Hot  Industry  (1904;   Bull.  No.  47,  tj. 

Industry);  J.  Long,  The  Book  ^  the  Pig  (1906):  F.  D.  Coburn. 


Britain  (4th  cd.,  1907):  Douglas  Encyclopaedia  (1906):  C.  S.  Plumb, 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals  ii9o6)  the  Jlerd  Books  of  the 
Breed  Societies,  and  Reports  of  the  Agricultural  Departments  of 
Great  Britain,  Canada  and  the  United  Sutes.  (R.  W.) 

PIGALLB,  JEAH  BAPTISTB  (1714-1785),  French  sculptor, 

was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  26th  of  January  1714.    He  was  the 

seventh  child  of  a  carpenter.    Although  be  failed  to  obtain  the 

grand  prix,  after  a  severe  struggle  he  entered  the  Academy  and 

became  one  of  the  most  popular  sculptors  of  his  day.    His 

earlier  work,  such  as  "  Child  with  Cage  "  (model  at  Sevres)  and 

*'  Mercury  Fastening  his  Sandals  "  (Berlin,  and  lead  cast  in 

Louvre),  is  less  commonplace  than  that  of  his  malurer  years. 

but  his  nude  statue  of  Voltaire,  dated  1776  (Institut),  and  his 

tombs  of  Comte  d'Harcourt  {c.  1764)  (Notre  Dame)  and  of 

1  Marshal  Saxe,  completed  in  1777  (Lutheran  church,  Strassburg), 

are  good  specimens  of  French  sculpture  in  the  i8th  century. 

He  died  on  the  28th  of  August  1785. 

See  P.  Tarb6.  Vie  et  eeuv.  de  PigaUe  (1859) :  Suard.  Bloge  de  PigaUei 
MiUmgjes  de  httirature. 

PIOAULT-LEBRUH  (Picault  vz  x.'£pinoy),  CHARLES 
AMTOINE  GUILLAUME  (1753-1335),  French  novelist,  was  born 
at  Calais  (he  is  said  to  have  traced  his  pedigree  on  the  mother's 
side  to  Eustache  de  St  Pierre)  on  the  8th  of  April  1753.  His 
youth  was  stormy.  He  twice  carried  off  young  ladies  of  some 
position,  and  was  in  consequence  twice  imprisoned  by  letlre  de 
cachet.  The  first,  a  Miss  Crawford,  the  daughter  of  an  English 
merchant  whose  office  Pigault  had  entered,  died  almost 
immediately  after  her  elopement;  the  second,  Mile  de  Salens, 
he  married.  He  became  a  soldier  in  the  Queen's  Guards,  then 
a  very  unsuccessful  actor,  and  a  teacher  of  French.  At  tho 
breaking  out  of  the  great  war  he  re-enlisted  and  fought  at 
Valmy.  He  wrote  more  than  twenty  plays,  and  a  Lirge  number 
of  novels,  the  first  of  which  appeared  in  1787.  In  his  old  age 
be  took  to  graver  work,  and  executed  an  abridgement  of  French 
history  in  eight  volumes,  besides  some  other  work.  His  (Euvres 
computes  were  published  in  twenty  volumes  between  1822  and 
1824,  but  much  of  his  work  is  subsequent  to  this  collection. 
He  died  on  the  24th  of  July  1835.  The  style  of  Pigault 's  novels 
is  insignificant,  and  their  morality  very  far  from  severe.  As 
almost  the  father  of  a  kind  of  literature  which  later  developed 
enormously,  Pigault-Lebrun  deserves  a  certain  place  in  literary 
history.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of  his  novels  may  be 
mentioned  V Enfant  du  Carnaval  (1792)  and  AngHique  et  Jeanne- 
ton  dc  la  place  Maubcrt  (1799).  His  Citateur  (2  vols.,  1803),  a 
collection  of  quotations  against  Christianity,  was  forbidden 
and  yet  several  times  reprinted. 

PIGEON  (Fr.  pigeon^  Ital.  piccione  and  pipione,  Lat.  pipio, 

literally  a  nestling-bird  that  pipes  or  cries  out,  a  "  piper  " — 

the  very  name  now  in  use  among  some  pigeon-fanciers,  though 

"  squeaker "  in   the  more  usual  term).     The  name  pigeon, 

doubtless  of  Norman  introduction  as  a  poh'te  term,  seems  to 

bear  much  the  same  relation  to  dove,  the  word  of  Anglo-Saxon 

origin,  that  mutton  has  to  sheep,  beef  to  ox,  veal  to  calf,  and 

pork  to  bacon;  no  sharp  zoological  distinction  can  be  drawn 

(see  Dove)  between  dove  and  pigeon,  and  the  collective  members 

of  the  group  Columbae  are  by  ornithologists  ordinarily  called 

pigeons;    Perhaps  the  best-known  species  to  which  the  latter 

name  is  exclusively  given  in  common  speech*  is  the  wild  pigeon 

1  It  may  be  observed  that  the  '*  rock-pigeons  "  of  Anglo-Indtans 
are  Saftd'grousc  (}.».),  and  the  "  Cape  pigeon  "  of  saik>rs  is  a  petrd 


59^ 


PIGEON-FLYINff 


or  passenger  pigeon  of  North  America,  Ectopistts  mipanus^ 
rhich  is  still  found  in  many  parts  bf  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  though  now  almost  extinct  and  never  appearing  in  the 
countless  numbers  that  it  did  of  old,  when  a  flock  seen  by  A. 
Wilson  was  estimated  to  consist  of  more  than  2230  millions. 
The  often-quoted  descriptions  given  by  him  and  J.  J.  Audubon 
oT  pigeon-haunts  in  the  then  "  backwoods  "  of  Kentucky,  Ohio 
and  Indiana  need  not  here  be  reproduced.  That  of  the  latter 
w«s  declared  by  C.  Waterton  to  be  a  gross  exaggeration;  but 
the  critic  would  certainly  have  changed  his  tone  had  he  known 
that,  some  hundred  and  fifty  years  earlier,  passenger-pigeons  so 
swarmed  and  ravaged  the  colonists'  crops  near  Montreal  that 
a  bishop  of  his  own  church  was  constrained  to  exorcise  them 
with  holy  water,  as  if  they  had  been  demons.^  The  passenger^ 
pigeon  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  turtle-dove,  but  with  a 
long,  wedge-shaped  tail.  The  male  is  of  a  dark  slate-colour 
above,  and  purplish-bay  beneath,  the  sides  of  the  neck  being 
enlivened  by  violet,  green  and  gold.  The  female  is  drab- 
coloured  above  and  dull  white  beneath,  with  only  a  slight  trace 
of  the  brilliant  neck-markings.'  (See  plate  illustration  under 
Dove.) 

Among  the  multitudinous  forms  of  pigeons  veiy  few  can  here 
be  notic9d.  A  species  which  might  possibly  repay  the  trouble 
of  domcslication  is  the  wonga-wonga  or  white-fleshed  pigeon 
of  Australia,  Leucosarcia  picata,  a  bird  larger  than  the  ring-dove, 
of  a  slaty-blue  colour  above  and  white  beneath,  streaked  on 
the  flanks  with  black.  It  is  known  to  breed,  though  not  very 
freely,  in  captivity,  and  is  said  to  be  excellent  for  the  table. 
As  regards  flavour,  the  fruit-pigeons  of  the  genus  Treron  (or 
Vinago  of  some  authors)  and  its  allies  surpass  all  birds.  These 
inhabit  tropical  Africa,  India,  and  especisdly  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago; but  the  probability  of  domesticating  any  of  them  is 
very  remote.  Hardly  less  esteemed  are  the  pigtens  of  the  genus 
Plilopus  and  its  kindred  forms,  which  have  their  headquarters 
in  the  Pacific  Islands,  though  some  occur  far  to  the  westward  and 
also  in  Australia.  There  may  be  mentioned  the  strange  Nicobar 
pigeon,  Caloenas  (see  plate  illustration  under  Dove),  an  inhabi- 
tant of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  not  less  remarkable  for  the  long 
lustrous  hackles  with  which  its  neck  is  clothed  than  for  the 
structure  of  its  gizzard,  which  has  been  described  by  Sir  W.  H. 
Flower  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.y  i860,  p.  330),  though  this  peculiarity 
is  matched  or  even  surpassed  by  that  of  the  same  organ  in  the 
Pkaenorrhina  gdiath  of  New  Caledonia  {Rev,  de  zoologies  1862, 
p.  138)  and  in  the  Carpophaga  lalrans  of  Fiji.  In  this  last  the 
surface  of  the  epithelial  lining  is  beset  by  homy  conical  processes, 
adapted,  it  is  believed,  for  crushing  the  very  hard  fruits  of 
Onocarpus  vitifinsis  on  which  the. bird  feeds  (Proc.  Zod.  Sac., 
1878,  p.  102).  The  modem  giants  of  the  groups  consisting  of 
about  half  a  dozen  spedes  of  the  genus  Coura  and  known  as 
crowned  pigeons  (see  plate  illustration  under  Dove),  belong  to 
New  Guinea  and  the  neighbouring  islands,  and  are  conspicuous 
by  their  large  size,  beautiful  filmy  fan-shaped  crest,  and  the 
reticulated  instead  of  scutellated  covering  of  their  "  tarsi." 

A  very  distinct  type  of  pigeon  is  that  represented  by  Didun- 
cuius  strigiroslris,  the  "  Manu-mea  '*  of  Samoa, still  beh'eved  by 
some  to  be  the  next  of  kin  to  the  Dodo  (9. v.),  but  really  presenting 
only  a  superficial,  resemblance  in  the  shape  of  its  bill  to  that 
extinct  form,  from  which  it  differs  osteologically  quite-  as 
much  as  do  other  pigeons  (P.kU.  Trans.,  1869,  p.  349).  It 
remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  Papuan  genus  Otidiphaps,  of 
which  several  species  are  now  known,  may  not  belong  rather 
to  the  Didunculidae  than  to  the  true  Colurobidae. 

Pigeons  are  now  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Charadriiform 
or  plover-like  birds  (see  Birds)  and  are  placed  in  the  sub-order 

>  Voyages  du  Baron  dt  la  Honlan  dans  PAmiriqui  tepUntriomte, 
L  93t  94  Und  cd.,  Amsterdam,  1705).  In  the  firat  edition,  publbhed 
at  the  Hague  in  1703,  the  passage,  less  explicit  in  detaus  but  to 
the  same  eocct,  is  at  p.  80.  The  author's  letter,  describing  the  cir- 
cumstance, is  dated  May  1687. 

.'There  are  several  reoords  of  the  occurrence  in  Britain  of  this 
Pigeon,  but  in  moat  cases  the  birds  noticed  cannot  be  8uppo«ed  to 
have  found  their  ova  way  hither.  One.  which  was  shot  in  Fife  in 
i825»  may,  however,  have  croaied  the  Atlantic  unasristcd  by  nan. 


Columbne,  near  the  sand-gmiae  (9.*.).  Tliey  nre  divided  Inlo 
three  families,  Dididae,  which  includes  the  Dodo  (f.».)  and 
ScHtatrt^  the  Columbidae,  which  i&dude^  the  doves  and  pigeoa, 
and  the  Didunculidae,  of  which  the  curious  tooth-billed  pigooo, 
of  Samoa  is  the  only  fyampl<^,  The  body  is  always  compsct, 
and  the  bill  has  a  aof t  skin  or  cere  covering  the  nostrils.  The 
pigeons  ore  chiefly  vegetable  feedeis  and  have  t  hard  gizzard, 
and  all  drink  mudi  water;  they  perch,  and  have  a  note  of  the 
nature  of  a  **  coo."  The  nest  is  a  rough  platform  or  is  in  lioks 
on  the  ground  or  in  rocks.  The  eggs  are  two  or  thfee  and 
white,  and  the  young,  which  are  helpless  when  batched,  aie 
fed  by  a  secretion  from  the  crop  of  the  paraats.  (A.  N.) 

KGBON«FLYtHO>  the  sport  of  radng  homlng-pigeoAs  bred 
and  trained  for  the  purpose.  It  is  of  very  recent  date,  mlthoegh 
the  use  of  birds  as  •  means  of  canrying  messages  (see  Picson 
Post)  is  of  great  antiquity.  Belgium  may  be  considered  as 
par  4XctiUnce  the  home  of  the  sport,  the  fint  birds  flown  there 
probably  coming  from  Holland.  Long-distance  flying  begaii 
in  1818,  with  a  match  of  lOo  m.,  ^hile  in  i8ao  there  was  a 
race  from  Paris  to  Li^ge,  and  three  years  later  the  first  noe 
from  London  to  Belgium.  The  sport  is  now  a  fawonrfte  one  ia 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  France,  and,  to  a  less  degree^ 
in  some  other  countries,  although  nowhere  attaining  the  gencnl 
popularity  which  it  enjoys  in  Belgium,  where  nearly  every 
village  has  its  SocUU  a)hmbopkU*,  millions  of  pigeons  beti^ 
lent  over  the  French  border  to  be  raced  back.  The  annual 
Belgian  amcaurs  naiionai,  a  mce  of  about  500  m.  from  Toolocae 
to  Brussels,  was  inaugurated  ia  x88i,  in  which  year  the  first 
regular  races  in  Great  Britain,  from  Easter,  PlymoQih  and 
Penzance  to  London,  took  place.  The  velocity  attained  at 
that  time  was  about  1250  yds.  per  minute,  but  this  was  soon 
surpassed  in  the  races  of  the  Lonidon  Coliimbarian  Sodety,  ooe 
of  the  winners  in  which  attained  a  speed  of  1836  yds.  per 
ndnute. 

The  sport  was  introduced  Into  the  United  States  abont  the 

year  1875,  although  regular  radng  did  not  begin  until  t$T^ 

Since  then  it  has  gained  widespread  popularity,  the  American 

record  for  old  birds  at  300  m.  bdng  1848  yds.  per  miaate 

and  for  young  birds  (yearlings)  1665  yds.,  while  the  distance 

record  Is  1004  m.    The  American  "  blue  ribbon  "  champioo- 

ships  are  held  at  too,  200,  300,  400,  500  and  600  ra.     The 

speed  of  homing-pigeons  d^mb  very  greatly  upao.  the  state 

of  the  atmoapheie.    In  the  race  from  Moatargis  to  Bru«els  ia 

1876  in  bright  and  dear  weather,  all  the  priae^winaecs  nsade  the 

distance  of  270  m.  within  three  and  one-quarter  hoars,  wkile 

in  the  same  race  in  1877,  on  a  thidL  and  steirmy  day,  thirty  boos 

passed  before  the  first  bird  arrived. 

TVotstm.-^The  loft  should  be  on  a  eommandinr  sita.  It  b  beat 
made  in  the  shape  of  a  laraoroom,  suitaMy  subdivided,  prqtecnd 
from  vermin,  and  provided  with  drinking  troughs,  rock  sidt  and 
crushed  mortar  for  the  birds'  use.  It  sliould  be  fitted  with  a 
suficient  number  of  nests  about  2  ft.  longt  20  in.  ia  breadth  aad 
heiidit.  Arrangements  shovM  be  made  for  allowing  the  pigeaas 
to  fly  out  daily  for  eaeidse:  and  they  should  be  tnined  to  reenter 
the  loft  through  bobing  wires,  whjch  open  inwards  only,  i&to  a 
•mall  diamber,  to  which  an  electric  arrangement  may  be  fitted  so 
as  to  sound  a  bell  and  warn  the  owner  of  the  arrival  of  a  bird.  Tbe 
foodof  birds  in  trsiningoonabtt  of  vetch,  beans,  maiae,  peas,  beokea 
rioe  and  millet,  in  various  proportloni,  according  to  the  ooaaory, 
climate  and  season  of  the  year,  the  daily  allowance  for  eacli  bird 
being  about  40  nammes  weight.  Young  birds  may  be  fed  on  rke 
in  the  husk  and  bread.  They  are  called  ^'squealera"  for  a  week  or 
two  after  birth,  and  then  "  squeakers**  until  about 'three  montks 
old.  Each  brood  consists  of  two  eggs,  on  which  tnth  parents  nt 
in  turn,  the  cock  only  for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle  m  the  day. 
When  the  young  are  beiog:  brought  up,  only  one  of  tla:  parent  bieds 
is  taken  out  at  a  time.  One  meal  per  day,  given  before  the  fcinb 
are  let  out  in  the  morning,  is  sufficient.  Training  akoald  oomraeoce 
in  warm  weather,  when  the  bird  is  about  lour  months  old.  aad  it 
consists  ia  taking  it  out  in  a  cloeed  wicker  baalcet  aad  liberatiag  or 
"  tearing *'  h  at  gradually  increasic^  distances  tsom  its  loft,  widi 
eevenal  davs  interval  of  rest  between  the  flights.  The  usoal  pre^ 
lifflfnary  dmances  are  1,  2,  5,  to  and  15  or  20  m.  These  toaoES 
shouki  all  be  made  on  the  same  lias  between  the  loft  aad.  any. 
some  netghbouriag  dtv,  in  order  that  a  bird  may  always  have  la 
fly  in  the  same  genemi  directwn  durii^  the  season.  About  too  m. 
may  be  expected  of  birds  the  firrt  season;  they  reach  their  fuB 
distances  only  about  the  fifth  year.   -It  is  oomideied 


PIGEON  POST— PIGMENTS 


597 


tiain  the  youn^  komcn  alone.  •»  that  (key  mfty  heoome  indepeadeiit 
of  the  older  birds.  When  thoroughly  tratnea  they  may  be  0owa 
over  long  distances  about  once  a  week.  The  Belgian  fanciers 
generally  divide  their  birds  into  two  claaaefl,  one  for  oreeding  and 
the  other  for  facing,  though  the  latter  are  allowed  to  breed  within 
certain  limits.  Scwne  fanciers  always  choose  birds  with  chicks  in 
the  nest  for  long  journeys,  claiming  that  they  return  faster  with 
this  incentive.  A  seamless  metal  rinf  marked  with  the  owner's 
name  is  slipped  over  the  foot  of  the  pigeon  when  only  a  few  days 
oki,  and  dunng  its  cadng  career  the  loi^per  wing-feathers  are  stamped 
with  the  bird's  records.  At  the  start  of  a  nee  the  oocnpetiog  bards 
arc  tossed  together  by  a  starto"  who  takes  the  time.  Upon  being 
released  the  homer  ascends  rapidly  in  spirals  until,  apparently  des- 
crying some  familiar  landmarit  on  the  horizon,  it  will  fly  straight 
and  swiftly  towards  it.  As  the  birds  enter  their  home-lofts  the 
time  is  taken  by  the  owner.  A  bird  is  not  considefed  to  have  got 
*' home  "  until  it  has  actually  passed  through  the  door  of  its  loft. 


PIOraNFOfT.  Tlie  use  of  homing  frigeoDS  to  cany 
is  as  old  as  Sotomoii,  and  the  ancient  Greeks,  to  whom  the  art 
of  training  the  birds  came  probably  from  the  Persians,  conveyed 
the  names  of  Olympic  victots  to  their  various  cities  by  this 
means.  Before  the  dcctik  telegrq>h  thiS' method  of  conmmni- 
cation  had  a  oonsidefable  vogue  amongst  stockbrokers  and 
financiers.  The  Dutch  government  established  a  dvil  and 
military  pigeon  system  in  Java,  and  Sumatra  eady  in  the  i9tk 
century,  the  bixds  being  obtained  from  Bagdad.  Details  of 
the  employment  of  pigeons  during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  1870-71 
will  be  found  in  the  article  Post  and  Postal  SstviCE:  Prance, 
This  led  to  a  revival  in  the  training  of  pigeons  for  milhary 
purposes.  Ntimerous  private  societies  weve  established  for 
keeping  pigeons  of  this  cUss  in  aU  important  European  cotmtries; 
and,  in  time,  various  governments  estabfished  systems  of  com- 
munication for  military  purposes  by  pigeon  post.  When  the' 
possibility  of  using  the  bink  between  military  fortresses  had 
been  thoroughly  tested  attention  was  turned  to  their  use  for 
naval  purposes,  to  send  messages  between  coast  stations  and 
ships  at  sea.  They  are  also  found  of  great  nse  by  news  agencies 
and  private  individuals.  Governments  have  in  several  countries 
established  lofts  of  their  own.  Laws  have  been  passed  making 
the  destrtiction  of  such  pigeons  a  serious  offence;  premiums  to 
stimulate  efficiency  have  been  offered  to  private  societies,  and 
rewards  given  for  destruction  of  birds  of  prey.  Pigeons  have 
been  used  by  newspapers  to  report  yacht  mccs,  and  some  yachts 
have  actually  been  fitted  with  lofts.  It  has  also  been  found  of 
great  importance  to  establish  registiaiion  of  all  birds.  In  order 
to  hinder  the  efficiency  of  the  systems  of  foreign  countries, 
difficulties  have  been  placed  in  the  way  of  the  importation  of 
their  birds  for  training,  and  In  a  few  cases  falcons  have  been 
specially  trained  to  interrupt  the  service  in  war-time,  the 
Germans  having  set  the  example  by  employing  hawks  against 
the  Paris  pigeons  in  1870-71.  No  satisfactory  method  of 
protecting  the  weaker  birds  seems  to  have  been  evolved,  though 
the  Chinese  formerly  provided  their  pigeons  with  whistles  and 
bells  to  scare  away  burdsof  prey. 

In  view  of  the  development  of  wireless  telegraphy  the  modem 
tendency  b  to  consider  fortress  warfare  as  the  only  sphere  In 
which  homing  pigeons  can  be  expected  to  render  really  valuable 
services.  Consequently,  the  British  Admiralty  has  discontinued 
its  pigeon  service,  which  bad  attained  a  high  standard  of  effid* 
cncy,  and  other  powers  will  no  doubt  follow  the  example. 
Nevertheless,  large  numbers  of  birds  are,  and  will  presumably 
continue  to  be,  kept  at  the  great  inland  fortresses  of  France, 
Germany  and  Russia. 

See  L.  du  Pay  de  Podio,  Vie  Brieflawbe  im  ier  Kriegskunsl  (Ldprig, 
1872):  Brinckmeier,  AntucfU,  PJuge,  und  Dresntr  der  Brteftauben 
(Ilmenau,  1891). 

PraBON-SHOOnifO,  a  form  of  sport  consiuing  of  shooting 
at  live  pigeons  released  from  traps.  The  number  of  traps, 
which  are  six-sided  boxes,  falling  flat  open  at  the  release  of  a 
apring,  is  usually  five;  these  are  arranged  5  yds.  apart  on 
the  arc  of  a  drde  of  which  the  shooter  forms  the  centre.  The 
distance  (maximum)  is  31  yds.,  handicapping  bdng  deter- 
mined by  shortening  the  distance.  The  five  traps  ate  each 
connected  by  wins  with  a  case  ("  the  puller  ");  a  single  string 
polled  bf  a  man  statioaed  at  the  side  of  Che  shooter  works  a» 


artaofement  of  firings  and  cog-wheeb  hi  the  "  p«ller,"  and 
leU  fall  one  of  the  trapa;  it  is  impossible  to  know  beforehand 
wUch  trap  will  be  released.  At  a  fixed  distance  from  the  centre 
of  the  traps  is  a  boundary  within  which  the  birds  hit  must  fall 
if  they  are  to  count  to  the  shooter.  This  line  varies  in  distance 
in  the  various  dubs;  the  Natktnal  Gun  Club  boundary  being 
65  yds.,  that  of  the  Monaco  Club  being  only  ao  yds.  The 
charge  of  shot  aUowed  must  not  exceed  i|  oz.  The  best  type 
of  pigeon  is  the  blue  rock.  From  the  start  of  the  Huriingham 
Ckib  at  Ftdham  in  1867  pigeon-shooting  was  a  favourite  sport 
there;  it  was,  however,  stopped  in  1906.  The  principal  pigeon- 
shooting  centre  in  England  is  bow  at  the  National  Gun  Club 
grounds  at  Hendon.  The  great  international  competitions  and 
sweepstakes  take  place  at  Monaco.  An  artifidal  bird  of  clay, 
now  more  usually  of  a  composition  of  pitch,  is  often  suhMituted 
for  the  live  pigeon.  These  day  birds  are  also  sprang  from 
traps.  This  sport  originated  in  the  United  States,  where,  under 
the  name  of  "  trap-shooting,"  or  inanimate  bird  shooting,  it  is 
extiemdy  popular.  At  first  the  traps  invented  thnw  the  birds 
with  too  great  regularity  of  curve;  now  the  traps  throw  the 
birds  at  cttfferent  and  unknown  ang^  and  the  skill  required 
is  great.  In  day-bird  shooting  the  traps  usually  iiumber 
fifteen,  and  are  out  of  si^t  of  the  shooter.  The  Inanimate 
Bird  Shooting  Assodation  In  England  was  started  in  1893. 

PiGMBNTS  (Lat.  ^'fSMntam,  from  pingere^  to  paint).  It  is 
convenient  to  distinguish  between  pigments  and  paints,  the 
latter  bdng  prepared  from  the  former  by  the  addition  of  a 
vehide  or  medium.  Nor  are  pigments  and  dyes  identical, 
although  there  are  cases  in  which  the  same  ooloutmg  matter 
which  yidds  a  dye  or  stain  may  give  rise  to  a  pigment.  A 
pigment  is,  in  fact,  a  substance  whidi  Is  insoluble  in  the  vehicle 
with  which  it  is  mixed  to  make  a  paint,  while  a  dye  is  eoloble. 
Pigments  exhibit  various  degrees  of  transparency  and  opadty, 
and  ought  to  possets  such  qualities  as  these;  ease  In  working, 
chemicid  Indifference  to  each  other  and,  generally,  to  the  vehtdes 
employed,  also  stability  under  exposure  to  light  and  air.  As  a 
rule,  it  Is  desirable  that  pigments  should  not  be  seriously  affected 
in  hue  by  the  vehicle;  at  all  events,  whatever  change  dioes  occur 
ought  to  admit  of  calculation.  In  the  case  of  oil  cok>urs  it 
should  be  remembered  that  a  thorough  drying  of  the  paint  is 
preferable  to  the  formatfoo  of  a  surfaoe-skin,  and  that  a  few 
pigments,  notably  white  lead,  possess  properties  conducing 
to  this  desirable  result.  It  Is  scarcdy  necessary  to  add  to 
these  general  observations  concerning  pigments  that  thdr 
artistic  value  depends  primarily  upon  the  nature  and  amount 
of  the  optical  sensation  which  they  are  competent  to  produce. 

Although  the  number  of  available  pigments  is  great,  the 
number  of  chemical  dements  which  enter  into  their  composition 
is  not  large.  Very  many  richly-coloured  compounds  suaime. 
cannot  be  employed  because  they  lack  the  properties 
of  insolubility,  inertness  and  stability.  Pigments  are  drawn 
from  various  sources.  Some  are  natural,  some  artificial;  some 
are  inorganic,  some  organic,  some  are  dements,  some  mixtures, 
some  compounds.  It  Is  not  unusual  to  arrange  them  into  two 
groups,  tubsHantim  and  adfecHee.  Amongst  the  members  of 
the  former  group  such  a  pigment  as  vermilion,  where  each 
partide  Is  homogeneous,  may  be  dted  as  an  example.  Amongst 
the  adjective  pigments  rose-madder  may  be  named,  for  each 
partide  consists  of  a  a>]oariess  base  on  which  a  colouring  matter 
(alitarin)  has  been  thrown.  Most  of  the  Inorganic  pigments, 
whether  natural  or  artifidal,  belong  to  the  substantive  group; 
while  there  are  many  organic  pigments,  notably  those  of  artificial 
origin,  which  are  <A  adjective  character.  The  following  table 
prsKnts  a  summary  dassificatwn  of  pigments  according  to 
thdr  source  or  origin:— 


Mineral  pigments 
Organic  pigments 


{  Natural;  as  terre  verte. 
)  Artificial;  as  auredin. 

i  Animal :  as  carmine. 
Vegetable;  as  nuulder-lake. 
Arttfidal;  as  alixarin-orange. 


A  variety  of  procettes  are  in  use  in  order  to  fit  natural  coloured 
substances  for  employment  as  pigments.    The  fiist  step  is. 


598 


PIGMENTS 


in  many  caaes,  to  aelectt  or  "  pick  over,"  the  rair  material, 
rejecting  whatever  impurities  may  weaken  or  Injure  the  char- 

acteristic  hue  o£  the  product.  It  is  occask>nally 
^jHli^    necessary  to  treat  the  finely-ground  substance  with 

water  by  the  method  of  elutriatlon  or  washing-over; 
the  wash-waters  will  then  deposit,  on  standing,  various  grades 
of  the  coloured  body  required.  With  rare  cicceptions  native 
pigments  need  careful  grinding,  either  by  means  of  a  muller  on 
a  slab  or  by  edge  rollers,  or  horiaontal  miU-stones,  or  special 
machines.  The  substance  is  usually  ground  in  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, or  alcohol,  or  water;  oil-paints  are  of  course  finally  ground 
in  a  drying-oil,  such  as  Unseed  oil  or  poppy  oil^  water<olours 
require  gum-water,  or  gum-water  and  glycerin  if  they  are  to  be 
"  raobt "  paints.  In  the  case  of  all  pigments,  whether  mineral 
or  organic,  whether  natural  or  artifidal,  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  to  make  sure  that  they  are  free  from  saline  matters 
soluble  in  water.  Such  salts  are  removed  by  thorough  washing 
with  distUled  water.  A  treatment  of  this  kind  is  essential  in 
the  case  of  a  large  number  of  pigments  formed  by  chemical 
reactions  in  the  "wet  way."'  Characteristic  eaumples  are 
furnished  by  Prussian  blue,  viridian  and  lakes.  Sometimes 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  dangerous  impurities  Sy  solvents 
other  than  water,  such  as  carbon  bisulphide,  which  is  used  to 
extract  free  sulphur  from  cadmium  yellow.  Mention  may  here 
be  made  of  another  kind  of  preparative  treatment  which  is 
adopted  with  some  pigments:  they  are  subjected  to  the  action 
of  heat — moderate  in  some  cases,  strong  in  others.  Thus,  a  few 
substances,  such  as  ivory  black  and  yellow  ochre,  which  in 
ordinary  drcumstanoes  contain  much  non-essential  moisture, 
before  they  are  ground  in  oil  may  with  advantage  be  gently 
dried  at  a  temperature  not  above  that  of  boiling  water.  Again, 
there  are  pigments,  such  as  Prussian  brown,  ll^t  red  and  burnt 
sieima,  which  owe  their  hues  to  a  process  of  actual  calcination, 
the  first  of  these  being  thus  made  from  Prussian  blue,  the  second 
from  yeUow  ochre,  and  the  third  from  raw  sienna.  The  pigments 
known  as  burnt  carmine  and  burnt  madder  are  prepsired  at  a 
much  lower  temperature,  and  ought  to  be  described  as  roasted 
rather  than  as  burnt. 

The  substitution  of  one  pigment  for  another  is  rarefy  practised, 
but  it  is  not  so  unusual  to  find  that  a  costly  substance  has 

received  an  admixture  of  something  cheaper,  and 
gi^'^^  '**    that  an  inferior  grade  of  a  genuine  pigment  has  had 

its  hue  exalted  or  enhanced  by  some  unlawful  or 
dangerous  addition.  In  fact,  these  two  kinds  of  sophistication 
are  often  associated.  Thus  vermilion  is  adultemted  with  fed 
lead,  with  red  antimony  sulphide,  or  with  baryta  white  and  lead 
sulphate,  and  then  the  hue  of  the  mixture  is  restofed  to  the 
proper  pitch  by  the  introduction  of  the  powerful  but  fugitive 
colouring  matter  eoain.  Amongst  other  adulterations  which 
may  be  named  here  are  the  addition  of  chrome-yellow  (lead 
chromate)  to  yellow  ochre,  of  green  ultramarine  to  terre  verte, 
and  of  indigo  to  ivory  black;  this  last  mixture  being  a  substitute 
for  vine-black,  the  natural  blue-black.  The  detection  of  the 
above-named  sophistications  is  by  no  means  difficult  even  in 
the  hands  of  persons  unacquainted  with  chemical  manipulation, 
but  it  needs  a  tmined  analyst  when  quantitative  results  are 
required.  If  we  are  dealing  with  an  oil-colour,  the  first  step 
is  to  remove  the  oil  by  means  of  a  solvent,  such,  for  example, 
as  ether.  The  residual  pigment  is  then  allowed  to  dry,  and  the 
dry  powder  submitted  to  the  appropriate  physical  and  chemical 
tests.  Thus  a  suspected  vermilion,  having  been  freed  from  oil, 
is  heated  in  a  small  hard  glass  bulb-tube:  it  should  prove 
prdcrically  volatile,  leaving  a  mere  trace  of  residiie.  In  this 
particular  case  the  presence  of  a  red  hue  in  the  etheroextnct 
affords  evidence  of  adulteration  with^  an  organic  colouring 
matter,  such  as  eosin.  Then,  again,  we  may  detect  the  presence 
in  yellow  ochre  of  lead  chromate  by  pouring  a  littl6  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  water  and  dilute  hydrodiloric  acid  upon  one  portion 
of  the  dry  pigment,  and  boiling  another  portion  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  and  some  alcohol:  In  the  former  experiment 
blackening  will  occur,  in  the  latter  the  liquid  part  of  the  mixture 
will  acqpiire  a  greenish  tint.   So  also  green  oltimniarinD  jnay  be 


recognized  in  adulterated  terre  verte  by  the  additioB  of  dEnte 
hydrochloric  add,  which  destroys  the  colour  of  the  adulterant 
and  causes  an  abundant  evolution  of  the  evil-smelling  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen.  Moreover,  nothing  is  easier  than  the  vecegni- 
tion  of  indigo  in  vine  or  charcoal-black,  for  the  dry  powder, 
heated  in  a  glass  tube,  gives  off  purple  vapours  of  indigo,  which 
condense  in  the  cooler  part  of  the  tube  into  a  blackish  sublimate 

A  word  must  be  said  here  as  to  the  adulteration  of  white 
lead,  and  the  examtnaiion  of  this  most  important  pigment 
The  best  variety  of  white  lead  or  flake  white  contains  two 
molecules  of  lead  carbonate  to  one  <^  lead  hydrate,  and  is  wholly 
soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  while  barium  sulphate,  its  bkmc 
frequent  adulterant,  is  wholly  ins<^uble.  China<lay  knd  lead 
sulphate  will  dso  remain  undissohed;  but  whitening  or  chi& 
cannot  be  detected  in  this  way — indeed,  the  thotoagh  esamna- 
tion  of  white  lead,  not  only  Cor  sophistications  but  also  for 
correspondence  with  the  best  type  in  composition,  cauot  be 
carried  out  save  by  a  skilled  chemist. 

Pigments  may  be  *'>««^«'<«t>^  on. two  jyttems:  (x)  baaed  oa 
the  chemical  oompoaition;  (a)  based  on  the  colour.  On  the 
first  system  pigments  laU  into  nine  gtxmps,  seven 
of  which  are  fiskly  well  defined,  but  the  eiji^ih  and 
ninth  have  a  ■  somewhat  miscdlaneous  charactv 
The  groups  of  elements,  eoddcs,  sulphides,  hydrates,  cafboa- 
ates  and  silicates  present  this  characteristic,  naoeiy,  that  eadi 
member  of  any  one  group  is  irithout  action  upon  the  other 
nkembecs  of  the  group;  any  two  or  roon  may  therefore  be  nuxed 
together  without  fear  of  mutual  injury.  Hie  sane  satement 
may  be  made  with  feferenoe  to  the  various  inoigamc  saix%  of 
Group  Vni.  and  to  the  organic  compounds  of  GronpIX., 
although  in  this  large  £nal  group  there  are  two  pigracau  con- 
taining copper  (veidigris  and  eUMrald  green)  which  nnst  be 
regarded  with  siwpirion  The  inertntsa  of  the  tncmfaeis  oi 
the  same  group  towards  each  other  may  be  ez|riaiacd  w  the 
majority  of  cases  by  iihe  following  consideration  An  oode 
does  not  Act  upon  an  oxide,  nor  does  a  sulphide  affect  a  f«*rfrr** 
because  all  the  pigment  oaddes  have  taken  up  thdr  full  conple- 
ment  of  oxygen,  and  can  neither  give  nor  lose  this  clewwat  tt 
similar  oxides;  so  also  with  sulphur  in  the  sulphides.  A  fee 
details  regarding  the  several  membcn  of  the  nine  grovpa  ut 
now  offered:  •  ■ 


Gkoup  I.  EUments. — All  the  black  pinnents  in  ordinary  _ 
ivory  black,  Ump  black,  charcoal  black,  Indian  ink,  and  graptete. 
less  oomcfly  tcimed  black-lead  and  pliimha^n  icmnian  of  or  ooasaia 
carbon,  aa  etemeiit  not  liable  to  ql^noe.  The  metallic  pigamu 
goldi  silver,  aluminium  and  platinum,  Delong  here,  of  these,  silver 
alone  is  easily  susceptible  of  change,  tarnishing  by  combiaatieia 
with  sulphur. 

Gaoup  II  Oxides.'^The  oxides  have  genemlly  been  foracd 
at  a  high  temperature  and  are  not  easily  amenable  to  physical  er 
chemical  change;  they  are.  moreover,  not  liable  to  affim  oih«r 
pigments,  being  practically  inert,  red  lead  only  being  an  except>--« 
The  oxides  include  anc  white,  green  chromium  oxide,  Iwrsit  wabct 
(a  mixture  of  iron  and  manganese  oxide),  oobah  green  (CoO,niZsOi 
cobalt  blue  (CoOMbO>),  ooenileum  (CoCnSaOa).  Venetan  ruL 
light  red,  Indian  red  and  burnt  sienna  (all  chiefly  composed  of  feme 
oride),  and  red  lead  (PbiO<). 

Gkoup  III.  5itf^JW^.— Some  of  the  members  of  this  graiap  an 


liable  to  contain  free  aidphar»  and  adme  mavcive  op  thia 
to  the  metallic  bases  of  other  pigmaata.  Thus  cadmiam  ycilo* 
blackens  emerald  green,  producing  copper  sulphide.  Another 
pigment  of  this  group,  vermilion,  is  prone  to  a  molecular  i^iang^ 
wfiereby  the  red  form  passes  into  the  Mack  variety.  This  change. 
frequent  in  water-cokrar  drawings,  is  scarcely  observable  m  work» 

Eioted  in  oiL  The  sulphides  comprise  cadmium  vdkiw  UldS  . 
ng's  yellow  (A4S1)/  realgar  (A»3i).  antimony  red  (Sb^)  aa^ 
vennifion  (HgS).  It  is  convenient  to  give  places  in  the  same  gitoap 
to  the  various  lands  of  ultnmarine,  blue,  green,  red,  violet  and 
native,  for  In  all  of  them  a  pot  of  the  sulphur  present  occocs  in  tbc 
form  of  a  sulphide.  It  may  be  ctated  that  the  sulphides  of  arsenk: 
and  antimony  just  named  are  dangerous  and  changeable  pipnents 
not  suited  for  artistic  painting. 

Group  IV.  Hydrates  t  ^ylrMilM.— Several  native  «ni^» 
belong  here,  notwhv  ydlow  odiroi  raw  nmber,  raw  saesum  and 
Caopagh  brown,  tmae  substaoces  owe  their  colours  oaainly  to 
hydrates  and  oiddes  of  iron  and  of  manganese,  but  the  presence  d 
a  colourless  body  such  as  white  clay  or  barium  sulphate  is  mna] 
with  the  paler  pinnents.  A  false  yellow  othie  from  Cyprus  is 
seallf  a  basic  feme  aalphate»  and  does  net  properly  belanc  t»  this 


PIGMENTS 


59^ 


fgoup.  Beaides  the  yellow  and  browa  pinienU»  there  b  a  magnifi* 
cent  deep  green  pigment  in  this  group,  known  as  emerald  oodde  of 
chromium  or  virioian.  The  blue  copper  prepacalion  which  goes 
under  the  name  of  bleu  tumiire  and  mountain  blue,  a  very  unstable 

J}isment,  n  a^  essentially  a  hydrate,  thou^  by  no  means  pure. 
It  should  be  stated  that  au  the  earthy  or  native  Irydratee  belonging 
to  this  group  contain  water  in  two  states,  namely,  hyggnMoopic  or 
looseIy*attacned  and  constitutionaL  Before  grindiiig  them  m  oil* 
the  rrauction  in  the  amount  of  the  hygroscopic  moisture  by  means 
of  a  current  of  dry  air  or  a  gentle  warmth  often  improves  the  hue 
and  working  <|uaUty  of  these  pigments. 

Gtour  V.  Carhtmaks.— there  is  but  one  really  important 
member  of  this  group,  namdyr  the  old  and  typical  vauiety  of  white 
lead  (aPbCOi,  PbHsOO.  Like  green  verditer  (sCuCOi.  CuH/^). 
and  blue  verditer  (CuOl>«.  CuHiOi),  it  is  a  basic  carbonate.  Purified 
chaHc  or  whitentnff  (CaCOs)  belongs  here  also. 

Gaoor  VI.  Sukates. — Terre  verte,  which  b  a  natural  graeo 
ochre  containing  a  alicate  of  iron,  potassium  and  magnesium,  and 
one  other  silicate,  smalt,  an  artificial  glass  containine  a  silicate  of 
cobalt  and  potassium,  constitute  this  small  emup.  However,  some 
of  the  eehreouB  earths  contain  silicates  of  iron,  manganese  and 
aluminium,  as  well  as  hydrates  of  the  two  former  metals,  and  so 
have  some  claim  to  be  ranked  with  the  silicates. 

Group  VII.  CkromaUs. — These  salts  are  rich  in  oxygen.  When 
in  contact  with  some  of  the  more  alterable  organic  pigments  belong- 
ing to  Group  IX.  the  chromates  may  lose  oxygen,  acquiring  a 
somewhat  greenish  or  greyish  hue,  owing  to  the  formation  of  the 
lower  or  green  oxide  of  chromium.  The  chromate»  cannot  be 
trusted  as  pigments.  The  yellow  chromates,  those  of  barium, 
strontium,  nnc  and  lead,  are  represented  by  the  general  formula 
M"Ct04;  chrome  red  is  basic,  and  is  PbsCtOt. 

Group  VIII.  Various  Juorianie  Salis.—'TYua  group  b  mtended 
to  receive  a  number  of  pigments  which  are  soiitaiy,  or  almost 
solitary,  examples  of  various  classes  of  salts.  There  b  one  cobalti- 
nitrite,  aureolin  (KsCo(NOt)«,  associated  with  one  or  more  molecules 
of  water),  called  sometimes  cobalt  yellow;  one  antimonate,  that 
of  leadr  the  true  Naples  yellow;  one  tungstate,  that  of  chromium, 
known  as  tungsten  green;  a  roetaphosphate  of  nianganese,  which 
goes  under  the  name  of  Nurnberg  or  manganese  violet ;  and  several 
mixed  cobalt  compounds  containing  arsenates  and  phosphates  of 
that  metal,  and  represented  by  cobalt  violet  and  TMnard*s  blue. 
Two  sulphates  also  belong  here,  namely,  baryta  white  (BaSOi) 
and  lead  sulphate  (PbSOt) ;  also  SchweinTurt  green,  a  basic  copper 
arsenite.  It  is  obvious  that  of  the  members  of  so  miscellaneous 
a  group  of  pigments  no  general  characteristics  can  be  predicated. 
But  it  may  be  stated  that  the  two  sulphates,  the  tungstate  and  the 
cobalt  compounds  are  practically  inert  and  unalterable,  while  the 
copper  arsenite  and  the  lead  antimonate  are  sensitive  to  the  action 
of  sulphur  and  of  sulphides.  The  cobaltinitritc,  aureolin,  cannot 
be  salely  mixed  with  some  of  the  organic  pigments  belonging  to 
the  next  and  last  group. 

Group  IX.  OrianU  Compounds. — Most  of  the  members  of  this 
large  and  unwieldy  group  of  pigments  possess  this  character  in 
common,  proneness  to  oxidation  and  conaeauent  deterioration  in 
the  presence  of  light,  moisture  and  air.  Such  oxidation  is  acceler- 
ated by  the  action  of  some  highly  oxidised  pigments  belonging  to 
other  groups,  such  as  the  chromates  of  Group  VII.  and  aureolin 
of  Group  VIII..  this  action  being  partkrularly  marked  in  the  case 
of  the  yellow  lakes,  the  cochineallakes  and  indigo.  There  are  two 
pigments  consisting  of  copper  salts  in  thb  group.  They  are  verdigris 
—both  the  blue-green  and  the  green  varieties  being  basic  copper 
acetates — and  the  pigment  known  in  England  as  emerald-green, 
which  is  a  basic  cupric  aceto-arsenite.  These  copper  ptj^ments 
present  the  usual  sensitiveness  to  the  attack  of  sulphur  wnich  dis- 
tinguishes compounds  of  this  metal,  and  cannot  therefore  be  safely 
mixied  with  the  members  of  Group  III.,  and  more  particularly  with 
the  cadmium  colours.  About  nine  members  of  Group  IX.  may  be 
regarded  as  substantive  pigments.  These  include  Indbn  yellow 
(mainly  magnesium  and  calcium  euxanlhates),  gamboge,  sap  green, 
indigo,  Prussian  blue,  bitumen  or  asphalt,  bistre,  sepia,  and  the 
bituminous  variety  of  Vandyck  brown.  The  adjective  pigments 
include  a  great  variety  of  lakes  where  different  kmds  of  colouring 
matters  of  more  or  less  acid  character  have  been  thrown  upon  a 
base,  generally  of  colourless  aluminium  hydrate,  aluminium  (>hos- 
phate,  stannous  hydrate,  stannic  oxide,  bartya  or  lime;  sometimes 
colouRd  bases  containing  such  metals  as  co(>pcr,  chrdmium, 
manganese  or  iron  are  introduced  in  small  quantities  The  cokHir- 
ing  matters  used  are  both  natural  and  artificial^  Amongst  the 
former  may  be  named  Indian  lake,  from  the  resinous  exudation 
produced  in  certain  trees  by  the  attacla  of  Couus  lacca,  carmine, 
crimson  and  purple  lake,  from  the  colouring  matter  obtained  from 
the  cochineal  insect.  Coccus  cacti;  rose-madder  and  the  madder- 
lakes,  from  the  alizarin  and  allied  bodies  derived  from  the  root  of 
the  ordinary  madder  phnt  Rubia  tinctorum ;  and  yellow  lakes,  from 
quercitron  oark  (Quertus  tinOoria),  and  from  Persian  and  Avi^on 
berries  (species  of  Rkamnus  oc  Buckthorn).  The  lakes  derived 
from  allcaoet  root,  archil,  Brazil  wood,  and  red  sanders  wood  are 
of  very  small  interest  and  value.  The  same  judgment  may  be 
pronounced  upon  the  large  number  of  artificial  lakes  which  owe 
their  coloiirt  to  coal-tar  derivatives,  with  the  single  exception  of 


the  importuit  dtM  of  pSgnients  ofataihAd  fhtn  atflifiriRl  aUndn^ 
and  from  its  congeners  and  derivatives.  Of  these^  alizaria  m.*.) 
itself,  in  its  purest  state  and  associated  with  alumina  and  a  Uttle 
lime,  yiekls  those  pigments  which  possess  a  pink  or  rosy  hue.  When 
poipitfin  and  its  isonera.  anthrapurpuria  and  fiavopurpurin,  are 
present,  the  red  hue  b  more  pronounced,  and  may  even  tend 


the  sulpbonic  acids  of  alizarin.  These  lakes  present  a  wide  range 
of  hues.  Another  derivative  of  albarin.  known  as  /^nitro^lizann, 
yields  a  rich  orange  bke,  to  which  such  names  as  pure  orange, 
Orange  madder  and  marigold  have  been  applied. 

Stability, — Some  notion  of  the  relative  stability  of  pigmenti 
will  have  been  derived  from  the  remarks  abready  made  under 
"  Classification."  But  as  pennanence  b  of  no  Usa  importance 
than  chromatic  quality  in  the  case  of  pigments  used  In  the  fine 
art  of  painting,  to  whidi  the  present  article  b  mainly  devoted, 
further  particulars  concerning  certain  selected  pigments  may 
profitably  be  ^ven  here.  Beginning  with  white  pigments,  these 
three  may  be  named  as  useful:  white  lead.  Freeman's  white,  zinc 
white.  As  an  oil-coIouTi  white  lead  of  the  (^  type  b  generally 
the  best  to  use,  but  among  water-colours  its  place-  must  be 
taken  by  zinc  white  in  the  condensed  form  known  as  Chinese 
white.  Zinc  white,  in  ^>ite  of  the  qualities  whkh  recommend 
its  use  in  oily  namely,  the  fact  of  its  being  not  only  unaffected 
by  sulphur,  but  odourless  and  non-poisonous,  lacks  toughness 
as  an  oil-paint,  and  has  a  tendency  to  scale.  Freeman's  white, 
which  consists  essentially  of  lead  sulphite,  b  the  best  substitute 
for  white  lead  yet  devised.  The  small  percentages  of  zinc  white 
and  baryta  white  which  it  contfuns  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
adulterations,  for  they  greatly  increase  its  6ody,  and  though  of 
less  specific  gravity  than  lead  sulphate,  actually  raise  the  weight 
per  cubic  foot  of  the  dry  pigment.  Out  of  a  dozen  or  more 
familiar  yellow  paints,  a  selection  may  be  made  of  these  six: 
yellow  ochre,  raw  sienna,  mars  orange,  cadmium  yellow,  aureolin 
and  baxyta  yellow.  Concerning  two  of  these,  cadmium  yellow 
and  aureolin,  the  following  observations  may  be  set  dowa 
Cadmium  sulphide,  CdS,  exbts  in  two  forms,  which  in  some 
measure  correspond  to  the  two  modifications  of  mercuric  and 
antimonious  sulphides.  One  of  these  forms  b  yellow  and  the 
other  reddish  lorange.  When  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  sent 
into  a  weak,  cold,  and  neutral  solution  of  cadmium  salt,  the 
sulphide  which  separates  b  pale  and  yellow — the  orange  variety 
b  obtained  from  a  strong,  hot,  and  acid  solution.  The  pale 
variety  b  more  prone  to  change  than  the  darker  one;  but  as  oil 
colours  both  forms  are  suffidenlly  stable  for  use,  provided  they 
are  pure.  The  value  of  aureolin  as  a  pigment  depends  much 
up<Hi  its  mode  of  preparation.  A  new  variety  of  bright  yellow 
hue  was  described  by  Adie  and  Wood  in  1900,  and  b  represented 
by  the  formula  KsNaCo(NO0s»  HsO.  Of  red  pigments,  six  claim 
special  mention.  These  are  vermilion,  light  red,  Venetian  red, 
Indian  red,  red  ochre,  and  the  red  Lakes  derived  from  madder 
or  alizarin.  Vermilion  b  stable  in  oib,  but  as  water-colour 
paint  b  prone  to  change,  under  exposure  to  strong  light,  into 
the  black  modification  of  mercuric  sulphide.  The  iron-reds 
named  above,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  are  quite  permanent, 
but  so  much  cannot  be  said  of  the  various  madder-paints.  They 
are  of  far  greater  stability  under  exposure  to  Ught  than  any  other 
red  organic  pigments,  and  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  artist. 
It  must  be  noted  that  those  madder  and  alizarin  lakes  which 
contain  an  element  of  yellow  and  brown  are  less  stable  than 
those  ^  a  crimson  hue.  Five  green  pigments  may  be  recom- 
mended, namely,  viridian,  or  the  emerald  oxide  of  chromium, 
the  ordinary  green  oxide,  cobalt  green,  green  ultramarine,  and 
terre  verte.  Except  for  minor  decorative  work,  where  perma- 
nence b  of  secondary  moment,  one  is  obliged  to  exclude  from  the 
palette  emerald  green,  green  verditer,  verdigrb,  sap-green,  and 
the  numerous  preparations  which  owe  their  colour  to  mixtiu^s 
of  Prussian  blue  and  chrome  yellow,  and  are  sold  under  the  names 
of  green  vermilion,  chrome  green,  Brunswick  green,  and  so  on. 
All  these  fugmcnts  usually  contain  much  barium  sulphate. 
Similarly,  amongst  blue  pigments,  ultramarine,  cobalt  blue 
and  oomdeum  may-  be  retained,  while  smalt,  indigo  and  all 


6oo 


PIGOT— PIKE,  Z.  M. 


eopper  blues  ihould  be  rejected.  Praisiait  bloe,  or  the  mixture 
o(  this  pigment  with  a  white  base  which  is  usually  called  Antwerp 
blue,  can  scarcely  be  spared,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  choose 
a  sample  containing  no  potassium  compounds.  Coenileum, 
which  may  be  described  as  cobalt  staanate  presents  the  peculiar- 
ity of  appearing  a  greenish  blue  in  artificial  light,  not  a  purplish 
blue  like  that  of  ordinary  cobalt  blue.  Cobalt  violet  is  a  sound 
pigment,  while  manganese  metaphosphate  or  Niirnberg  violet 
is  said  not  to  be  safe  iA  oiL  Mars  violet,  an  artificially  prepared 
ferric  oxide,  is  dull  in  hue  but  permanent.  Passing  on  to  brown 
pigments,  it  is  matter  for  regret  that  there  are  no  permanent 
colours  possessing  the  artistic  capacities  of  asphalt,  madder 
brown,  and  the  old  bituminous  Vandyke  brown.  Cappagh 
brown,  burnt  sienna,  and  raw  and  burnt  umber  may  be  emi^yed 
safely.  Uttle  need  be  said  as  to  the  selection  of  black  pigments, 
for  all  are  permanent.  The  soot  from  burning  acetylene, 
which  has  recently  been  introduced,  forms  a  black  pigment  of 
remarkable  intensity. 

Uses. — Hitherto  pigments  have  been  considered  chiefly  in 
relation  to  the  requirements  of  the  painter  of  pictures.  In 
many  merely  decorative  arts,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  wall- 
papers and  the  painting  of  woodwork  and  of  iron,  the  pigments 
available  are  in  one  dIrectM>n,  that  of  cost,  more  restricted,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  many  alterable  or  weak  pigments  are  com* 
monly  empbyed.  In  paints  intended  for  the  protection  of 
iron-work,  the  nature  of  the  pigment  introduced  is  a  matter  of 
great  moment,  for- red  lead,  zinc  white  and  white  lead  are  found 
to  exert  a  strong  protective  influence,  which  is  not  observed  in 
the  case  of  the  vast -majority  of  pigments.  There  are  a  number 
of  other  uses  besides  those  just  named  for  which  special  pigments, 
or,  more  precisely,  special  paints,  are  employed.  Amongst 
such  preparations  may  be  named  luminous  paints,  anti-foulGig 
paints,  metallic  paints,  damp-proof  paints,  and  asbestos  and 
other  fire-proof  paints. 

AnTRORiTiES.— J.  Bersch,  Mam^Ourt  <f  Pigments,  translated 
from  the  snd  German  edition  by  A.  C.  Wright  (London,  1900); 
Cennino  Cennini,  The  Book  of  Ike  Art,  translated  by  Mrs 
Herringham  (Loodon,  1899):  Sir  A.  H.  Church,  Ckemuiry  ofPai$tU 
and  Painting  (London,  1901) ;  G.  H.  Hurst,  Painters'  Cciours,  Oils 
and  Varnishes  (London,  1901);  S.  Mierdnski,  Handbuck  der 
Farhen^Fahrikatum  (Vienna,  i8q8);  Riffault  (and  others).  Fabrtcant 
de  conkmrs  (Paris.  1884).  (A.  H.  C.) 

PIOOT,  GEORGE*  Baeon  (17x9-1777),  English  governor  of 
Madras,  was  bom  on  the  4th  of  March  17x9  and  altered  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company  in  1736;  alter  nineteen  years 
he  became  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  Madras  in  r755. 
Having  defended  this  place  against  the  French  in  1758-59  and 
occupied  Pondicherry  on  behalf  of  the  company,  he  resigned  his 
ofiice  in  November  1763  and  returned  to  England,  being  made  a 
baronet  in  1764.  In  the  following  year  he  obtained  a  seat  in 
parliament,  and  this  he  retained  until  his  deaths  in  2766  he  was 
created  an  Irish  peer  as  Baron  Pigot.  Returning  to  India  in 
1775  to  occupy  his  former  position  at  Madras,  Pigot  was  at  once 
involved  in  a  fierce  quarrel  with  the  majority  of  his  council, 
which  arose  out  of  the  proposed  restoration  of  the  rajah  of 
Tan  jore.  The  governor  was  arrested  by  order  of  his  opponents, 
and  was  still  a  prisoner  when  he  died  on  the  nth  of  May  1777. 
Meanwhile  the  conduct  of  Pigot  was  censured  by  the  court  of 
directors  in  England  and  the  order  for  his  restoration  was 
followed  immediately  by  another  for  hu  recafl.  This  happened 
about  a  month  after  his  death,  but  before  the  news  had  reached 
England.  In  1779  the  matter  waCS  discussed  in  parilament, 
and  four  of  those  who  were  responsible  for  his  arrest  were  tried 
and  were  fined  £1000  each.  *Pigot,  who  left  several  illegitimate 
children,  was  never  married,  and  his  barony  became  extinct. 

Two  of  the  govemm**!  brothen  were  men  of  repute.  Sir  Robert 
PtcOT  (1720-1796},  who  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy,  commanded  his 
regiment  (the  39th)  at  the  battles  of  LexinRton  and  Bunker  Hill 
during  the  War  of  American  Independenoe.  He  became  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  1783  The  other  brother.  Hugh  Pigot  (c.  1721-1793). 
was  a  sailor  After  some  years  of  service  he  became  an  admiral 
and  commander-in-chief  in  the  West  Indies  in  1782.  One  of  his 
sons  was  General  Sir  Hrnry  Pioot  (1750-1840).  and  another  was 
Hues  PiooT  (1 769-1797).  R  captain  in  the  navy,  who  was  murdertd 


during  a  murimr  in  September  1797  while  in  command  of  At 
"  Hermione." 

PIO-flTiCKINO,  or  Hoo-HtmrxNG,  the  chase  of  tbe  wild 
boar,  as  a  sport,  on  horseback  with  the  spear.  The  chase  on 
foot  was  common  among  andent  peoples,  aad  in  ceotial  Europe 
has  lasted  to  the  present  day,  although,  on  account  of  the 
introduction  of  fire-arms,  the  spear  has  gradually  became  aa 
auxiliary  weapon^  used  to  give  the  coup  de  grdu  to  a  wounded 
animal.  The  modern  sport  is  the  direct  descendant  of  bear- 
spearing  which  was  popular  in  Bengal  until  tbe  beginning  of 
the  Z9th  century,  when  the  bears  had  become  so  scarce  that 
wild  pigs  were  substituted  as  the  quarry.  Tbe  weapon  used 
by  the  Bengalese  was  a  short,  heavy,  btoad-Uadcd  javdia. 
British  ofilars  introduced  tbe  spear  or  lance  and  this  has  become 
the  recognised  method  of  himting  wild  pigs  in  India.  The 
season  for  hunting  in  northeni  India,  the  present  headquartos 
of  the  sport,  is  from  February  to  July.  The  best  hones  should 
be  quick  and  not  too  big.  Two  kinds  of  weapon  are  laed.  The 
long,  or  underhand,  spear,  weiring  from  two  to  three  pounds, 
has  a  light,  tough  bamboo  shaft,  from  seven  to  eight  feet  kng, 
armed  with  a  small  steel  head  <^  varying  shape.  This  spear  is 
held  in  the  hand  about  two-thixds  the  distance  from  the  pootf, 
with  the  knuckles  turned  down  and  the  thumb  along  tbe  shaft 
The  short,  or  jobbing,  spear  is  from  six  to  six  and  a  half  kct 
long,  and  somewhat  heavier  than  the  longer  weapon.  It  is 
graq)ed  near  the  butt,  with  the  thmnb  up.  Although  easier 
to  handle  in  the  jun^e,  it  permits  the  nearer  approach  d  xht 
boar  and  is  therefore  more  dangerous  to  man  and  moont. 

Having  arrived  at  the  bush-grown  or  marshland  bannl  el 
the  pigs,  the  quarry  is  "  reared,"  ije.  chased  out  of  its  cover, 
by  a  long  line  of  beaters,  usually  under  the  command  of  a 
mounted  shikari.  Sometimes  dogs  and  guns  loaded  with  smaD 
shot  are  used  to  induce  an  animal  to  break  cover.  Tbe  mosmtcd 
sportsmen,  placed  on  the  edge  of  the  cover,  attack  the  pig  as 
soon  as  it  appears,  the  honour  of  "  first  spear,"  or  "  spax  of 
honour,"  ije,  the  thrust  that  first  tlraws  blood,  being  msA 
coveted.  As  a  startled  or  angry  wild  boar  is  a  fast  nmner  and 
a  desperate  fighter  the  pig-sticker  must  possess  a  good  eye,  s 
steady  hand,  a  firm  seat,  a  cool  head  and  a  courageous  hen 
For  these  reasons  the  military  authorities  encourage  tbe  spi^ 
which  is  for  the  most  part  carried  on  by  the  tent  dubs  of  tk 
larger  Indian  stations. 

The  following  technical  terms  are  osed.  "Frank,'*  a  boar 
enclosure.  *' Ihow,"  the  tamarisk,  a  common  cover  for  Nmti. 
"  Jink  "  (of  the  boar),  to  turn  sharply  to  one  side.  **  Nuikb  ' 
a  dry  water-course.  "  To  pig,"  to  hunt  the  boar  •'  Pug,"  x** 
boar  s  footprint.  **  Pueging,"  tracking  the  boar.  **  Ride  to  hoc. ' 
to  hunt  the  boar.    "  Rootmn,"  marks  of  the  pig's  snout  in  tbe 

f [round.  "  SangUer  *'  (or  "  singular  "),  a  boar  that  has  separated 
rom  the  ** sounder."  "Sounder,"  a  family  of  wiU  sviM. 
"Squeaker/*  a  pig  under  three  years.  "Tusker,"  a  foll-grova 
boar. 

See  Pii-Sluking  or  Hog-ffuntini,  by  R.  S.  S.  Baden -Povd 
(London.  1889) 

PIKE.   ZEBULON    MONTOOMERT    (i779"i8i3).    Amcricaa 
explorer  and  soldier,  was  bom  in  Lamberton  (now  a  part  o( 
Trenton),  New  Jersey,  on  the  sth  of  January  1779,  son  of 
Zebulon  Pike  (1751-1S34),  an  oflicer  in  the  American  army. 
He  entered  his  father's  company  as  a  cadet  about  1794,  and 
became  an  ensign  (or  second  lieutenant)  in  1799  and  first  licv- 
tenant  in  the  same  year.    On  the  9th  of  August  1805  be  started 
with  twenty  men  from  St  Louis  to  explore  the  head- waters  of 
the  MississippL    At  Prairie  du  Chicn  he  met  some  Chipprwa 
chiefs  and  induced  them  to  expel  the  whisky-trtders  amoog 
them  and  to  make  peace  with  the  Sioux;  at  the  Falls  of  St 
Anthony  (Sept.  23)  he  bought  a  tract  9  m.  square  at  the  mouth 
of  the  St  Croix  for  a  fort;  and  at  Little  Falls  (in  the  middle  of 
October)  he  built  a  stockade,  where  he  left  seven  men.     He 
reached  Leech  Lake  ('*  Lake  La  Sang  Sue  ")i  which  he  caCed 
"  the  main  source  of  the  Mississippi,'*  on  the  ist  of  Fcbmaiy 
1806;  weRt*30  m.  farther  to  Cass  Lake  ("  Red  Cedar  ");  and. 
after  working  against  British  Influences  among  the  Indians^ 
turned  back,  and  went  down  the  Mississippi  from  Dean  Ovtk 
to  St  Louis,  arriving  on  the  joih  of  Aprfl.    In  1806  he  ««• 


Uud  S 


t  hoc 


PIKE 


a  govemowi 

tlogg  lbs  MiiHuri  ud  the  Ougc  inlo  the  pn*ent 
Kuuu  uh]  pmbibly  to  tbc  RepubUcui  river  io  the  KKith  of 
tbe  pment  Nebiuki,  vhen  oa  the  >vth  of  Scpiembei  he  held  i 
gniid  csuadi  ol  Ibe  Ptviuw*.  Then  (twly  in  Ociobei),  tuntini 
iKacIv  Hutb,  be  a»rched  lo  Ibe  Ariuam  riw,  which  be  mchcd 
Oh  the  Mill  oi  OcLober,  and  up  which  <aflcr  tbc  iBth  with  ooly 
i6  nun)  be  iient  to  the  Roytl  Goiie  (Dec  j),  hiving  firat 
Kcn  lb*  nviuclain  oiled  in  bii  bonour  Pike's  Peak  on  tbc 
9]rd  of  NovenlKi^  uui  then  went  nortb-west.  probably  up  Oil 
CteeklmcoCeftonCit^.  In»c«rchingfotlbc  Red  rivta  he  time 
to  tlK  South  Plilte,  mircbed  through  South  Park,  lc[l  ll  by  Tniul 
Cneh  pu>.  itruck  ovei  to  the  Aikuniu,  which  he  thaught  wu 
tbc  Red  Rtvei  foi  which  he  was  KuiUnc  v>d,  gang  sai/ih  ud 
Buth-wal,  came  to  the  Ria  Crude  del  None  labout  where 
AlamsM,  C«ne)(ia  county.  Colonda.  ii  now)  on  the  lolh  ot 
January  tSo;.  Tliere  on  the  Mh  ol  Fchcuaiy  he  and  a  amail 
number  ol  hii  eboi  wae  taken  priKtDcn  by  Sponub  aotboiitie*! 
who  leat  him  £nt  lo  SaUa  Ft,  Iken  to  Chihuahua  to  Gentnl 
Stlccdo,  and  by  a  nmndabtnit  way  to  the  American  donlicr, 
wbcrehewuieleaMdoothe  irtol  July  1B07.  He waa piomotcd 
captain  (August  1806),  major  (May  iBoB),  lieulcnanl-oolonel 
(Deci£o4}andcok>nelUuly  iSii).  In  1 80S  be  tried  in  nio  to 
get  an  appropriatioo  Imn  Congnaa  fof  kmielf  aod  hi*  ao).  H* 
wai  military  agent  in  New  Orleus  is  1809-1810,  wu  depaly 
quanecfnaMer-fenenl  in  Afnil-July  1811,  and  wta  in  active 
ttfikt  a  tbeWuoI  1811  as  adjutant  and  luafiectoc-feDeral  in 
the  canpaigD  against  Yoik  (now  Toronto),  Canada,  and  in  tha 
attack  on  York  on  the  i;ih  ol  April  1813  waa  b  inuDediile 
eommand  of  the  troofia  in  arlion  and  wu  killed  by  a  piece  al 
lock  which  fell  on  him  wbcD  the  BHiijh  garnun  in  iu  letieat 
Mt  file  10  Ibe  magaaine. 

Hit  Acumml />J  a*  Ei^iHit  IoiIk  Srmrai  tf  llu  iliiiiitipfi  tmi 
lltnuill  At  WisUr*  PaiU  a/  LseiiuiH  ...  sad  a  Tov  Amik 
llu   Iflfiar  Parli  oj  Nrn)  Spain    was   published   at   Philidelpbia 

pubKih^ina  F^och  venion  in  Pirii  in  Igl3,  and  a  Dutch  venion 

and  qotee  by  CUiott  Couea  wu  pubHshed  in  three  vdjmre  in  New 
York  in  l»9S-  Some  ot  Pike',  papers  lalen  (rom  Kim  in  Mciico 
are    now   in  the   McLean   archivn    (Stcdan   de    Aium<»     Intcr- 

lilhed  by  H.  E.  Brilton  in  Ihe  Amtriant  Hiiurrial  Rairm, 
(lOOJ-lOM).  liii.  ;4*-*J7.  See  the  »k«cli  by  Mtnry  Whiting  in 
vol  v.,  lena  J,  0^  Jand  S(aik.'i  Libiiiry  0/  AmnuaK  Bupafi}. 
ma,  fteib-walei  £]hes  genenlly  dslribuled  ovei  the  riven 
uui  lakei  of  £iuope,  northern  Ava.  and  North  Amcnci,  and 
fuming  a  imall  family  {Eiosidat)  ot  sott-nycd  fiabea.  Tbey  aiv 
nadHy  recogniicd  by  theit  elongate  comptcHed  body  covered 


European  Pike  C&n  '•uiu). 
with  amall  acales,  a  long  head,  kmg  and  qialulate  inoul.  and  vtiy 
Urge  mouth  anoed  with  itrung  and  loDg  teeth  in  Ibe  Jawt  and 
broad  bandi  at  imkllec  teeth  on  the  palate  and  tongue.  The 
leeth  point  backwirdi  or  can  be  depreiaed  w  ai  to  olei  no 
■  ■  ly  object  '        ■ 


withdrii 


The   dorsal   a 


X  placed  fac  back  on  the  tail,  thus  greatly  in 
pn^KiEitig  power  of  the  fiah.  and,  although  pike  arc  h; 
Riers  and  lead  rather  a  stdcniary  than  a  roving  Ule. 
cicelled  by  no  other  freah-watcr  &ih  in  rapidity  of  motit 


by  a  lio^  ttioke  of  tb<  tail,  they  dash  upoa  tbelr  prey  «r  dart 
out  oi  ie«ch  el  danger.  In  the  Old  World  one  species  only  ia 
known  lEiac  inciiu),  which  prclen  lakes  and  sluggish  reacba 
(rf  liven  to  strong  currents  or  aglLatcd  waters.  Its  eastward 
range  in  northern  Asia  is  not  known ;  it  extends  into  IjfiUnd  in 
the  north  and  into  centnl  Italy  and  the  vicinity  ol  Constant^ 
nople  in  the  south,  but  is  absent  in  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  Tbe 
European  species  occurs  also  in  North  America,  and  is  camruoti 
in  the  eutem  United  States  southwards  to  nacthcni  Ohio.  But 
Nortb  Americs  is  tenanted  by  other  species  of  pike  besides,  of 
which  Ibe  Uigeil  ii  the  musketsnge  or  maskinonge  of  the  Great 
Lakes  (£m  luh/ur) ;  it  commonly  attains  to  the  large  siie  which 
is  eiceptianally  recorded  of  £m  'iiciKi.  Tbe  other  Americas 
pike  are  o[  smaller  size,  and  geueiaUy  named  "pickerel";  but 
opinions  as  to  the  distinction  of  the  species  di5er  widely  among 
American  ichthyologists.  The  European  pike,  like  its  brethren, 
is  the  most  voracious  of  fresh-water  hshea;  it  probably  eaceeda 
the  shark,  lo  which  it  has  been  compared  by  many  writers,  in 
the  relative  quantity  of  food  it  consumes.  Large  specimens 
will  seise  rats  or  water-voles,  and  are  said  to  attack  even  foies 
and  small  dogs.  Ittdividuals  of  from  40  lb  to  50  tb  an 
not  scarce,  but  captures  of  tnwih  larger  one)  are  on  record- 
Pike  ate  wholesome  food,  and  much  esteemed  in  inland  counltie* 
— the  smaller  (dE  30  to  14  In.  in  length)  being  preferred  to 
the  larger  individuals.  They  are  prolific,  and  not  ea^y  eiler- 
minaled  in  a  water  in  wbidi  tbey  have  been  once  allowed  to 
spawn.  According  10  seuon  and  cliniate  they  spawn  b  April 
or  May,  and  sometimea  as  early  as  February. 

PIKE,  a  word  which,  with  its  collateral  forms  "  pick  "  and 
"  peak."  has  a*  its  basic  "■"■""g  ikat  of  anything  pointed  or 
tapering  to  a  point.  Tbc  oltimatc  etymology  is  much  disputed, 
and  Ibe  interrelatloo  of  tbe  coUatnsk  I)  very  contused.  In 
Old  English  tliere  ace  two  forma  (Ak),  one  with  ■  long  and  tbe 
other  with  a  short  vowel,  which  give  "pike"  and  "pick" 
respectively.  The  first  form  gave  in  the  i;th  century  the 
Vtriant  "  peak,"  first  with  refercDoc  to  the  peaked  shoes  then 
fashionable,  piiy^  idieni,  la  Ronuuiic  laoguagcs  are  found 
Ft.  Hi;  Span.  titn.  ItaL  fitcan,  lo  pierce,  *c.  There  are  also 
•imilar  words  in  Welsh,  Cornish  and  Breton.  The  Scandinavian 
forms,  (.(.  Swed-  and  tia.  fU,  are  probably  taken  from  En^isb. 
While  some  authorities  take  tbc  Celtic  as  the  original,  otben 
hxA.  to  Latin  for  the  source.    Here  tbe  woodpecker,  flew,  b 

andif.'no.'prickle  (English  spike,  spine).    Tbe  currtnt  diflerew 

lesa  dearly  marked,  though  in  diakcta  they  may  vary.  (1)  Piike: 
Apart  from  ibe  use  as  the  name  of  the  fish  (see  above), 
probably  a  shDrlened  form  of  pikc-fisb,  from  its  sharp,  pointed 
beak,  the  common  uses  of  the  word  are  for  a  lorig  halted  weapoD 
with  sharply  pointed  bead  of  iron  or  steel,  the  common  weapon 
of  the  foot-soldier  till  the  mlroduclian  of  the  bsyonet  (lee  SpIAl 
and  BavoNEl),  and  lor  a  bill  witb  a  pointed  summit,  appearing 
chiefly  ik  the  ataa  of  such  hills  in  Ciunberland,  Weatmorlaod 
and  North  West  Lancashire.  It  may  be  noticed  that  lb* 
proverbial  upreaoion  "  pbin  as  a  pike.staff  "  appears  originally 
a)  "  plain  as  a  pock-slaS,"  the  flat  plain  aided  staff  on  which  a 
pedlar  carried  and  rested  bis  pack.  The  use  ot  "  pike  "  for  a 
highway,  a  toll^ate,  Ac,  is  merely  short  lor  "  turnpike."  (l) 
Fick^  As  a  subMantive  this  forrn  is  chiefly  used  ol  the  common 
tiMl  ol  the  navvy  and  the  miner,  consisting  of  a  curved  double- 
coded  bead  set  st  right  angles  to  the  handle,  one  end  being 
aqnand  with  a  chisd  edge,  tbe  other  pointed,  and  used  lor 
looaening  and  breddng  hard  masKa  of  earth,  coal,  ftc.  (see 
Toou).  Tbe  other  name  for  this  tool,  "  pickaic."  a  a  comip- 
tiOD  of  the  earlier  fikyi,  Fr.  pimii,  M,  Lai.  fiaaivm,  farmed 
from  Fr,  fie.  tbe  leminaiion  being  adapted  to  tbe  familiar 
Kntfith  "  axe."  The  senaenievelopTnenl  of  the  verb  "  10  pick  " 
ia  not  very  clear,  but  the  following  meiDinga  give  Ibe  probable 
line:  to  dig  lolo  anything  Uka  a  bird  with  iu  beak,  in  order  to 
eilracl  01  ftmove  Knnething.  (o  gather,  pluck,  bence  to  select, 
choose,  (j)  Piak:  Tbc  chief  uses  are  lor  the  front  of  a  cap 
or  hat  projecting  sharply  ovei  tbc  eyes,  for  the  part  at  a  ship's 


6o2 


PIKE-PERCH— PILATE 


hold  where  it  nanows'towaitls  the  bows,  the  fore^[)eak«  or 
towards  the  stem,  the  after-peak,  for  the  top  comer  of  a  soil 
extended  by  a  gaff,  or  for  the  projecting  end  of  the  gaff  itself, 
and  for  a  pointed  or  conical  top  of  a  hill  or  mountain.  The 
name  of  the  liigh  tablc>land  district  in  Derbyshire  is  not  to  be 
connected  with  this  word,  but  probably  retains  the  name  of  an 
old  English  demon,  Pcac  (see  Peak,  T£[£). 

PIKB-PEECH  {Lucioperca),  fresh-waur  fishes  doaely  allied 
to  the  perch,  but  with  strong  canine  teeth  standing  between 
the  smaller  teeth  of  the  jaws  and  palate.  They  resemble  the  pike 
in  their  elongate  body  and  head,  and  they  are  also  most  danger- 
ous  enemies  to  other  fresh-water  fishes,  though  they  compensate 
for  their  destmctivencss  by  the  excellent  flavour  of  their  flesh. 
In  Europe  two  species  occur,  the  more  celebrated  being  the 
"  Zander "  of  North  Germany  or  "  Schiel "  of  the  Danube 
{Luchperca  sandra);  strange  to  say,  it  te  absent  In  the  system 
of  the  Rhine.  It  prefers  the  quiet  watera  of  brge  rivers 
and  dear  deep  Ukcs,  in  which  it  reaches  a  weight  of  as  lb 
or  50  lb.  The  second  (Lueicperca  widgensis)  is  limited  to  rivers 
in  southern  Russia  and  Hungary.  In  North  America  several 
pike-perches  have  been  described,  but  in  the  most  recent  works 
only  two  are  distinguished,  viz.  Ludoperca  americana^  which 
grows  to  a  weight  of  30  lb.  and  the  much  smaller  Ludoperca 
canadauis;  both  are  abundant  in  the  Canadian  lakes  and 
upper  Mississippi,  and  the  bttcr  also  in  the  CMo. 

PIKB^  PEAK,  a  famous  peak  of  the  Rampart  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  El  Paso  county,  Colorado,  U.$.A.,  about 
6  m.  W.  of  Colorado  Springs.  Though  surpassed  in  altitude 
(14,108  ft.)  by  many  summits  in  the  state,  no  other  is  so  well 
known.  The  commanding  ^jpearance  of  the  peak  is  very 
fine.  To  the  south  are  Cameron  Cone  (10,685  ft.),  Mt  Sachett, 
Mt  Bald  (fi.074),  Mt  Rosa  (zx,437),  and  Mt  Cheyenne  (9407). 
From  the  summit  the  magnificent  Sangre  de  Cristo  range  is  in 
the  iorcground,  while  on  a  clear  day  not  only  its  southernmost 
summit,  Blanca  Peak  (14,300  ft.)  is  visible,  but  also  the  Spanish 
Peaks  (13,708  and  13,623  ft.)  100  m.  to  the  south,  and  Long's 
Peak  100  m.  to  the  north,  and  between  them  Mt  LincolA,  Gray's 
Peak  nod  other  giants.  At  the  base  of  the  mountain  are 
Manitou  and  Colorado  Springs,  whence  tourists  can  make  the 
ascent  of  the  peak  (in  summer  safe  and  rdaiively  simple)  on 
horseback  or  by  a  cog-railway,  8-75  m.  long  (opened  in  1891), 
which  makes  a  total  ascent  of  8100  ft.  (maximttm  gradient 
I  in  4)  to  the  summit.  In  1905  a  powerful  searchlight  wu 
erected  on  the  summit. 

Pike's  Peak  was  discovered  in  November  x8o6  by  Lieut. 
Zebulon  M.  Pike.  He  attempted  to  scale  it,  but  took  the  wrong 
path  ttnd  found  himself  at  the  summit  of  Cheyenne  Moimtain. 
He  pronounced  the  mountain  undimbaUe.  In  1819  it  was 
successfully  climbed  by  the  exploring  party  of  Major  S.  H. 
Long.  

PILASTER  (Fr.  pUasire^  med.  Lat.  pUastrumi  from  pUa^  a 
piOar),  in  architecture,  an  engaged  pier  projecting  slightly  from 
the  wall,  and  employed  to  divide  up  and  decorate  a  wall  surface 
or  to  serve  as  respond  to  a  column.  One  of  the  earliest  examf^ 
(c.  zoo  D.C.)  exists  in  the  prop3daea  at  Priene  in  Asa  Minor, 
where  it  tapers  towards  the  top.  Pilasters  have  bases 
and  capitals  and  are  hequcntly  fluted  like  columns^  The 
Romans  would  seem  to  have  preferred  semi-detached  columns, 
but  for  their  amphitheatres  sometimes  pilasters  arc  employed, 
as  in  the  upper  story  of  the  Colosseum.  In  the  revival  of 
Classic  architecture  and  c^>eda]ly  in  Italy,  architects  seem 
to  have  considered  that  no  building  was  complete  without  a 
network  of  pilasters  on  every  storey,  and  France  and  En|^d 
followed  their  example;  and  not  onJy  externally  but  inside  the 
great  rathodrals  and  churches  the  pilaster  is  adopted  as  the 
simplest  and  best  way  of  dividing  the  bays. 

PILATE,  P<MmUS,  the  Roman  governor  of  Judaea  under 
whom  Jestts  Christ  suffered  cradfixion.  Of  equestrian  rank, 
his  name  Pontius  suggests  a  Samnite  origin,  and  his  cognomen 
in  the  gospels,  pikatus  (if  derived  from  the  piUus  or  cap  of 
liberty),  descent  from  a  frcedman.  In  any  case  he  came  in 
Ajf,  36  from  the  household  of  Tiberius,  through  the  influence 


<rf  S^nus,  to  be  procurator  over  part  ot  the  imperial  proviuce 
of  Syria,  viz.  Judaea,  Samaria  and  Idumea.  He  raled  ten  years, 
quarrelled  almost  continoously  with  the  Jews—^hom  S^soia, 
(^vergmg  from  the  Caesar  trtudition,  is  said  to  have  disliked— 
and  in  ajd.  36  was  recalled.  Before  he  arrived  TTberius  died,  and 
Pilate  disappears  from  history.  Euseblus  relates  (HisL  ted. 
n.  7>— but  three  centuries  later  and  on  the  authority  of  earlier 
writers  unnamed — that  he  was  exiled  to  Gaol  and  eommitted 
suidde  at  Vienne. 

PiUte  kept  the  Roman  peace  in  Pslestlne  but  with  fittk 
understanding  of  the  people.  Somctimca  he  had  to  yield;  as 
when  he  had  sent  the  sundazds.  by  night,  into  the  Holy  City, 
and  was  besieged  for  five  days  by  suppliants  who  had  nsbed  to 
Caesarca  (Jos.  Ami.  31;  B.  J.  U.  ix.  3,  3);  and  again  when 
be  hong  up  inscribed  shields  in  Jerusalem,  and  was  ordered  by 
Tiberius  to  remove  them  to  the  other  dty  {PhUc  ad  Coium  3S). 
Sometimea  he  struck  more  promptly;  as  when  the  mob  protested 
against  his  using  the  temple  treasure  to  build  an  aqucdua 
for  Jerusalem,  and  he  disguised  his  soldiers  to  disperse  them 
with  dubs  Qoa.  Ani.  xviii.  3,  3);  or  when  he  "  mingled  the 
blood"  of  some  tmknown  Galileans  "with  their  sacrifices** 
(Luke  ziiL  i);  or  slew  the  Samaritans  who  came  to  Mt 
Gerizim  to  dig  up  sacred  vessels  hidden  by  Moses  there  Qo^ 
Ant.  xviii.  4,  i)— an  inddent  which  led  to  his  recaU.  PIkIo, 
who  tells  how  any  suggestion  of  appeal  by  the  Jews  to  Tibcins 
enraged  him,  sums  up  their  view  of  Pflate  in  Agrippa'a  words, 
as  a  man  "  inilexible,  merciless,  obstinate." 

A  more  discriminating  light  is  thrown  upon  him  by  the  New 
Testament  narratives  of  Uie  trial  of  Jesus.  They  Stfstrate 
the  right  of  review  or  recognitio  which  the  Romans  retained, 
at  least  in  capital  causes;  the  charge  brought  in  this  case  of 
acting  advefsus  majutatem  poptdi  romani;  the  daim  made  t^ 
Jesus  to  be  a  king;  and  the  result  that  his  Judge  became 
convinced  that  the  claimant  was  opposed  ndther  to  tlie  pohlic 
peace  nor  to  the  dvil  supremacy  of  Rome.  The  rendt  is 
explained  only  by  the  dialogue,  recorded  exclusively  in  Johs, 
which  shows  the  accused  and  the  Roman  meeting  on  the  higbc£ 
levels  of  the  thought  and  consdence  of  the  time.  "  I  am  cove 
to  bear  witness  unto  the  truth  .  .  .  Pilate  answered.  What 
is  truth?"  Estimates  of  Pilate's  attitude  at  this  point  lia^ 
varied  infinitdy,  from  TertuUian's,  that  he  was  "already  is 
conviction  a  Christian  **-^am  pro  sua  cansumtia  CMriOiamms— 
to  Bacon's  '*  jesting  Pilate,"  who  would  not  stay  for  a  reply. 
We  know  only  that  to  his  pernstcist  attempts  thereafter  to  gel 
his  proposed  verdict  accepted  by  the  people,  came  their  tatal 
answer,  "  Thou  art  not  Caesar's  friend,"  and  that  at  last  he 
unwillingly  ascended  the  bema  (in  this  case  a  portable  j^klgmee*- 
aeat,  brought  for  the  day  outside  the  Piaetorium),  and  in  soA 
words  as  Ibis  ad  truetm  '*  delivered  Him  to  be  crucified." 

Pihte's  place  in  the  Christian  tragedy,  and  perhaps  also  is 
the  Creed,  stimulated  legend  about  him  in  two  directions,  equalh* 
unhistorical,    The  Gospd  of  NicodemuSf  written  by  a  Christiae 
(possibly  as  eariy,  Hschendorf  thought,  as  the  middle  oi  the 
3nd  century),  repeats  the  trial  in  a  dull  and  diluted  way;  but 
adds  not  only  alleged  evidence  of  the  Rtturrcciion,  but  the 
splendid  vision  of  the  descensus  ad  inferos — the  whole  profcssang 
to  be  recorded  in  the  Acta  PUati  or  offidal  records  of  the  goveri>or. 
The  Epistoia  PUaU  gives  Pilate's  supposed  account  to  TSbcrits 
of.  the  Remrrection;  and  the  Paradosis   PiUui   relates    ho» 
Tiberius  condemned  him  and  his  wife  Procia  or  Procula,  botk 
Christian  converts.    All  this  culminates  in  Pilate  bcins  canon- 
ized in  the  Abyssinian  Chunrh  (June  35),  and  his  wife  in  the 
Greek  (Oct.  S7).    On  the  other  hand  the  Mors  PilaH  tcUs  bow 
when  condemned  by  the  emperor  he  committed  suicide;  and 
his  bo<fy,  thrown  first  into  the  Tiber  and   then    the    Rbore. 
disturbed  both  waters,  and  was  driven  north  into  "  Losaoia."* 
where  it  was  plunged  in  the  gulf  near  Lucerne  and  below  Mt 
Pilatus  (originally  no  doubt  PSeains  or  doud-capped).    Ton 
whence  it  is  raised  every  Good  Friday  to  st  and  wasJi  iniacvailirg 
hands. 

BiBLtOGRArHV.— For  1es:ends  see  'nschendorTa  BoampgUa  ap**- 
rypha  (1863)  and  Apocryphal  Gospels,  Ante-Nfecne  Lrt».    (18S0). 


PILATUS— PILGRIM 


603 


The  earlier  PSIate  literature,  to  the  extent  of  no  trMttseB.  chicftv 
of  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries,  is  enumerated  in  G.  A.  Miilter  s 
Pontius  Pihtus  derfUnfU  Prokurator  v(m  Judda  (Stuttgart,  1888). 
See  in  loco  in  the  following  Enslbh  or  translated  histories  of  the 
life  or  time  of  Jesus,  Theodor  Keim,  E.  SchQrer,  A.  Edersheim, 
J.  P.  Lange,  Bernhard  Weii»  and  F.  W.  Farrar;  Expositor  (1884) 
p.  107  and  (iQOo)  p.  59;  also  H  Peter,"  Pontius  Pilatus,  der  r&mische 
Landpfleger  in  Judla,"  in  Neue  Jakrb.  f.  d.  U  AlUrtum  (190^). 
Sir  James  Fitzjames  Stephen,  in  his  Liberty^  Equality  and  FtaUmtty 
('873)1  P'  87,  starts  the  que^ion,  "  Was  Pilate  rij^htin  crucifying 
Christ :  his  somewhat  paradoxicaJ  answer  b  criticised  in  The  Trio* 
of  Jesus  Christ,  a  Ug/al  tnonopaph,  by  A.  Taylor  Innes  (1899). 

(A.  T.  1.) 

PILATUS.  LEO,  or  Leontius  [Leonso  Pilato]  (d.  1366), 
oae  of  the  earliest  promoters  of  Greek  studies  in  western 
Europe,  was  a  native  of  Thessalonica.  According  to  Petrarch,  he 
was  a  Calabrian,  who  posed  as  a  Greek  in  Italy  and  asan  Italian 
abroad.  In  1360  he  went  to  Florence  at  the  invitation  of 
BoccattiOyby  whose  Influence  he  was  appointed  tea  lectureship 
in  Greek  at  the  Studio,  the  first  appointment  of  the  kind  in  the 
west.  After  three  years  he  accompanied  Boccaccio  to  Venice 
on  a  visit  to  Petrarch,  whom  he  had  already  met  at  Padua. 
Petrarch,  disgusted  with  his  manners  and  habits,  despatched 
him  to  Constantinople  to  purchase  MSS.  of  classical  authors. 
Pilatus  soon  tired  of  his  mission  and,  although  Petrarch  refused 
to  receive  him  again,  set  sail  for  Venice.  Just  outside  the 
Adriatic  Gulf  he  was  struck  dead  by  lightning.  His  chief 
importance  lies  in  his  connexion  with  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio. 
He  made  a  bald  and  almost  word  for  word  translation  of  Homer 
into  Latin  prose  for  Boccaccio,  subsequently  sent  to  Petrarch, 
who  owed  his  introduction  to  the  poet  to  Pilatus  and  was  anxious 
to  obtain  a  complete  translation.  POatus  also  furnished 
Boccaccio  with  the  material  for  his  genealogy  of  the  gods, 
in  which  he  made  an  ostentatious  display  of  Greek  learning. 

See  Gibbon.  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  66;  G.  Voigt.  Die  Wiederhdebung 
des  etassischen  AUertkums  (1893);  H.  Hody,  De  Graecis  Ulustribus 
(174a);  G.  Tiraboschi,  Storia  duia  ktteratura  iialiauat  v.  691* 

PILAU,  a  favourite  Eastern  dish,  consisting  essentially  of 
rice,  boiled  with  mutton  or  other  meat,  fowl  or  fish,  and  flavoured 
with  spices,  raisins,  &c.  The  word  appears  in  Persian,  Turkish 
and  Urdu,  and  has  been  adopted  in  European  languages.  The 
form  pilaff,  showing  the  Turkish  pronunciation,  is  also  common. 

PILCHARD  (in  earlier  i6th  century  forms  pylcfutf  pilchar] 
of  unknown  origin;  the  Fr.  pilseir  is  adapted  from  Eng.),  Clupca 
piUharduSy  a  fish  of  the  herring  family  {Clupeidae),  abundant 
in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  Europe, 
north  to  the  English  Channel.  Sardine  Is  another  name  for  the 
same  fish,  which  on  the  coast  of  Britanny  and  Normandy  is  also 
called  cdan  or  cQiren.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  the 
other>  European  species  of  Clupea.  The  operculum  is  sctJptured 
with  ridges  radiating  and  descending  towards  the  suboperculum; 
the  scales  are  large,  about  thirty  along  the  lateral  line,  deciduous; 
the  ventral  fins  are  inserted  below,  or  nearly  below,  the  middle 
of  the  base  of  the  dorsal  fin;  the  dorsal  th  has  seventeen  or 
eighteen,  the  anal  from  nineteen  to  twenty-one  rays.  A  small 
blackish  spot  in  the  scapukry  region  is  very  constant,  and 
sometimes  succeeded  by  other  similar  marks.  There  are  no 
teeth  on  the  palate;  pyloric  appendages  exist  in  great  numbers; 
the  vertebrae  number  fifty-three.  The  pilchard  is  one  of  the 
most  important  fishes  of  the  English  Channel.  It  spawns  at 
a  distance  from  the  shore,  and  its  eggs  are  buoyant,  like  those 
of  many  othfcr  marine  fishes  and  unlike  those  of  the  herring, 
which  are  adhesive  and  demersal,  «.e.  develop  under  water. 
The  egg  of  the  pilchard  is  very  easily  distinguished  from  other 
pelagic  eggs  by  the  unusually  large  space  separating  the  vitelline 
membrane  from  the  contained  ovtmi..  Spawning  takes  place 
in  summer,  the  season  extending  from  June  to  October.  When 
commencing  their  migrations  towards  the  land  the  shoals 
consist  of  countless  numbers,  but  they  break  up  into  smaller 
companies  near  the  shore.  Pilchards  feed  on  minute  crtistaceans 
and  other  pelagic  animals  and  require  two  or  three  years  before 
they  attain  their  full  size,  which  is  about  xo  in.  in  length. 
The  sardines  of  the  west  coast  of  France,  which  are  tinned  in  oil 
lor  export,  are  immature  fish  of  the  same  stock  as  those  taken 


on  the  coasts  of  Oimwall;  they  are  $  to  7I  in.  in  length,  and 
though  such  fish  occur  also  on  the  Cornish  coast  it  is  only  in 
small  numbers  and  for  brief  periods.  In  the  Mediterranean 
the  sardine  does  not  exceed  7)  in.  in  length  when  mature. 
On  the  Pacific  coast  of  America,  in  New  2>aland  and  in  Japan 
a  pilchard  occurs  {Clupea  sagax)  which  in  its  characters  and  habits 
is  so  similar  to  the  European  pilchard  that  its  general  utilization 
is  deserving  of  attention.  Immense  shoals  are  reported  to  visit 
the  .east  coast  of  Otago  every  year  in  February  and  March. 
Clupea  scombrina  is  the  **  oil  sardine  "  of  the  east  coast  of  India. 

U.  T.  G.) 

PILE,  an  homonymous  word,  of  which  the  main  branches 
are  (i)  a  heap,  through  Fr.  from  0a,  pillar;  (2)  a  heavy  beam 
used  in  making  foundations,  literally  a  pointed  suke,  an  adapta- 
tion of  Lat.  pUum,  javelin;  (3)  the  nap  on  doth,  Lat.  pUus, 
hair.  In  the  first  branch  the  Lat.  pHa  (for  pigUi,  from  root  of 
pangere,  to  fasten)  meant  also  a  pier  or  mole  of  stone,  hence  any 
mass  of  masonry,  as  in  Fr.  pile.  In  English  usage  the  word 
chiefly  means  a  "  heap  "  or  "  mass  "  of  objects  laid  one  on  the 
top  of  the  other,  such  as  the  heap  of  faggots  or  other  combustible 
material  on  which  a  dead  body  is  cremated,  "funeral  pile," 
or  on  which  a  living  person  is  burnt  as  a  punishment.  It  also  is 
applied  to  a  large  and  lofty  building,  and  specifically,  to  a  stand 
of  arms,  "  piled  "  in  military  fashion,  and  to  the  series  of  plates, 
"  galvanic  "  or  "  voltaic  piles,"  in  an  crcciric  battery.  The 
modern  "  head  and  tail  "  of  a  coin  was  formerly  "  cross  and  pile," 
Fr.  croix  et  pile,  in  modem  Fr.  face  et  pile.  In  the  older  apparatus 
for  minting  the  die  for  the  reverse  was  placed  on  a  small  upright 
pillar,  pile,  the  other  on  a  puncheon  known  as  a  "  trussell  ** 
(Fr.  trousseau).  The  common  name  of  the  disease  of  haemor- 
rhoids iq,v.)  or  "  piles  "-  is  probably  an  extension  of  this  word, 
in  the  sense  of  mass,  swelling,  but  may  be  referred  to  the  Lat. 
pih,  ball.  The  name  of  the  pilum,  or  heavy  javelin  (lit. 
pounder,  pestle,  from  pinsercj  pisere^  to  beat),  the  chief  weapon 
of  the  ancient  Roman  infantry,  was  adopted  into  many  Teutonic 
languages  in  the  sense  of  dart  or  arrow,  cf .  Germ.  PJeil-,  in  English 
it  was  chiefly  used  of  a  heavy  stake  with  one  end  sharpened, 
and  driven  into  swampy  ground  or  in  the  bed  of  a  river  to  form 
the  first  foundations  for  a  building;  the  primitive  lake-dwellings 
built  on  "  piles  "  are  also  known  as  "  pile-dwellings."  For  the 
use  of  piles  in  building  see  Foundations  and  Bridges.*  In 
heraldry  a  charge  represented  by  two  lines  meeting  in  the  form 
of  an  arrow  head  is  known  as  a  "  pile,"  a  direct  adaptation  pro- 
bably of  the  Lat.  pUum.  The  division  of  this  intricate  word, 
followed  here,  is  that  adopted  by  the  New  English  Dictionary; 
other  etymologists  (e.^.  Skeat,  Etym,  Diet.,  1898)  arrange  the 
words  and  their  l4ittn  originals  somewhat  differently. 

PIL&Rlli*  a  wanderer,  traveller,  particularly  to  a  holy  place 
(see  PttcsiiiAGE).  The  earliest  EngUsh  forms  are  pilegrim  or 
p^egrim,  through  Fr.  pilerin  (the  original  O.  Fr.  peiegrin  is 
not  found),  from  Lat.  peregrinus,  a  stranger,  foreigner,  particu- 
lariy  a  resident  alien  in  Rome  (see  Praetor,  and  Rouan  Law). 
The  Lat.  pereger,  from  which  peregrinus  is  formed,  meant  "  from 
abroad,"  "travelled  through  many  lands"  {per,  through, 
and  ageff  country). 

It  was  customary  for  pilgrims  to  bring  back  as  proof  of  their 
pilgrimage  to  a  particular  shrine  or  holy  place  a  badge,  usually 
made  of  lead  or  pewter,  bearing  some  figure  or  device  identifying 
it  with  the  name  or  place.  These  "  pilgrim  signs  "  are  frequently 
alluded  to  in  Uterature-^notably  in  the  Canterbury  Tales  and  in 
Piers  Plowman.  The  British  Museum  and  the  Mus4c  Cluny  in 
Paris  have  fine  collections  of  them,  mainly  dredged  from  the 
Thames  and  the  Seine.  The  badges  were  generally  worn 
fastened  to  the  pilgrim's  hat  or  cape.  Among  the  best  known 
are  those  of  the  cockle  or  scallop  shell  of  St.  James  of  C^mposteUa 
in  Spain;  the  "vcrnide,"  a  representation  of  the  miraculous 
head  of  Christ;  the  tera  icon,  true  image,  on  St  Veronica's 
handkerchief,  at  Rome,  or  of  the  Abgar  portrait  at  Genoa,  of 
"  a  vemicle  hadde  he  sowed  on  his  cappe  "  {Cant.  Tales, "  Prol/' 
685);  the  Amiens  badge  of  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist  on  the 
charger,  the  cathedi:al  claiming  the  custody  of  the  relic  from 
iao6  (fig.  x);  and  the  palm  branches  or  cross  of  pahn  leal,  the 


6o4 


PILGRIMAGE  : 


bulee  (*  Ihe  •'  Pilmen"  pflgtinuge  to  tbt  Holy  Ltnd.  The 
moat  common  of  Che  Eniliali  |%riiiii'  ligru  IR  Ukk  of  ibt 
•hrioi  <■(  Tbomu  BKlict  ol  Csintcrbiu<r,  the  grcucM  cmtie 
of  pilfiimige  in  Engltod.     That  Ukc  >  vuidy  of   tonat. 


Fio.  1  — Pnirim^t  Sign,  Inm  Fio.  i.— Pilgrim- j  Sign,  from 

ibt  oihediiE  al  Amienj.  Cinlccbiuy. 

tomctimts  a  simple  T,  jomelinin  ■  bdl  marked  campaiu  Thame, 
the  Canttrbuiy  bell,  most  often  a  figure  of  thesainl.somelimH 
scaled,  ume  limes  Hding  on  a  hone,  and  earry'ng  his  episcopal 
cross,  and  with  hand  uptiTied  in  benediciion  (fig.  i).  Some- 
times the  badges  look  ibe  shape  of  small  ompiltt,  oi  vases. 
■s  in  ihe  caw  oE  the  badges  of  the  shrine  of  Our  Lady  of 
Wslsin^iam,  which  weie  marked  irilb  a  W  ind  ciown. 

See  W.  Andien.  Climk  Trasary  (ifoS).  inicte  "FilDrimi' 
SiKn<,"  by  Rov.  C.  5.  Tyack;  and  C<iiit  to  Mtiinai  Rom.  SriliiM 
Muitum.  p.  69. 

Tht  Eirgiij*  "  Pnpims'  IVay."— From  Winchester,  in  Hamp. 
■  ■  "     lerbiny,  in  K. 


inced,  « 


,n  Ihe  , 


bridle  path,  or  catt  track,  now  only  by  a  line  of  ancient  yews, 
hollies  or  oaki  which  once  bordered  il.  To  this  old  track  the 
Mine  of  "  pilgrims'  way  "  has  been  given,  for  along  il  passed 
Ihe  stream  of  pilgrims  coming  through  Winchester  Irom  the  south 
and  west  of  England  and  from  the  continent  ol  Europe  by  way  of 
Southampton  to  Cantcrbuiy  Cathedral  to  view  the  place  of  the 
martyidom  of  Thomas  Becket,  in  the  north  transept,  to  the  raUa 
in  the  crypt  where  he  was  first  buried  ailet  his  mutder,  101170, 
and  the  shrine  in  the  Trinity  Chapel  which  nae  above  hii  tomb 
after  the  tnnslatioa  of  the  body  in  im.  There  were  two 
festivals  for  the  pilgrimage,  on  the  iptb  of  December,  the  day 
of  the  manyidom,  and  on  the  7th  of  July,  the  day  oi  the  iiansla- 


The  s< 


image   1 


uraliy   b 


:royed  and  the  relics  of 
the  saint  scattered,  but  the  great  days  oF  the  pilgrimage  had 
then  puied.  Erasmus  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  gloria  at 
Ibc  shrine  and  of  all  that  was  shown  to  tbe  pilgrims  on  his  visit 
with  Colet  10  Canterbury  in  I5r4. 

The  piindpal  villages,  towns  and  places  neai  or  through  which 
Ihe  way  passed  are  as  loliow:  Winchester,  Alicsvord,  Ropley, 
Alton,  Famham  (here  Ihe  way  folkiws  the  prKent  main  road). 
Scale,  Pultenham,  by  the  ruined  chapel  of  St  Calhetiuc.  outside 
Cundford,  near  where  the  road  crosses  the  Wcy  above  Shallord,' 
and  by  the  cbapel  of  St  Martha,  properlj'  ol  "  tbe  mari/r,"  now 
restored  and  used  as  a  church,  Albury.  Shere.  Comshall,  Dorking 
(nearfaere  the  Mole  is  cioBed),  along  IhesoulhernsIopeofBoahiU 
to  Reigale,  then  through  Cation  Park,  Mcistham,  Otlord, 
Wrotham,  after  which  the  Medway  was  crossed,  Burhani,  past 
the  megalithic  monument  Kit's  Coty  House,  and  the  site  ol 
Boilcy  Abbey,  the  oldest  alter  Wiveriey  Abbey  of  Cisleician 
houses  in  England,  and  famous  for  its  miraculous  image  of  the 
Infant  saint  Rumbold,  and  Ihe  sliil  more  famous  winking  rood 
or  crutifii.  Tbe  toad  puses  Beit  by  HoUingbourne,  Lenham 
and  Charing.  Al  Oliord,  Wrothun  and  Cbaring  were  manor- 
booses  01  talher  pabce*  of  tbe  uchbisbops  ol  Canterbury;  al 
MoUingboume  was  a  manor  of  tlw  {lian  of  Cbristchuith.  Aller 
'  <  ShaKord  Pair,  the  chapels  on  tht  twn  hflli  and  tbe  Suney  UIli 
are  probably  ibe  sceae  ■■  BunyaR's  Pitpim't  Putina,  ve  E- 
Uomid  JaoMi,  AUu  «  Uu  i'ilgriK'j  »'a^  I'a  Iful  5>nf/ (is;ij. 


Hollingbooma  come  WatweU,  Eastwdl.  Boughtoa  AhqA, 
Codmersham,  Cbilham  Castle,  and  then  al  Harbledown,  where 
are  the  remains  of  Uie  Hospice  of  St  Nicholas,  tlie  nsd  >uiis 
Watting  Street,  by  which  came  tbt  main  atrcim  ol  pilgiuu 
from  London,  tbe  North  and  the  Midlands. 

This  road,  although  iu  name  of  the  Pilgrimi"  Way  has  for 
long  confiDed  it  to  the  road  by  which  tbe  pilgiims  came  ts 
Canterbury  from  Winchlsler,  follows  a  far  older  tract  Right 
back  into  British  and  even  older  times  tbe  main  direcUoa  which 
i;ommerce  and  travrileis  loUowed  across  southern  and  western 
England  to  the  Straits  of  Dover  and  the  Continent  lay  from 
Canterbury  along  tbe  southern  chalk  slope  of  the  North  Dovu 
to  near  Guildford,  then  by  the  Hog'a  Back  to  Famham.  At 
this  point  the  oldest  track  went  acnm  Salisbury  Flaia  towards 
Stonehenge  and  lo  on  id  CornwalL  Ftom  Famham  westwud 
the  only  piwlion  of  this  the  oldest  traii  that  can  now  be  traod 
is  a  smaU  portion  that  still  bears  the  name  ol  the  Haimw  [u. 
hoary,  old}  read.     It  waa  in  eajiy  limes  abandoned  lor  tht 

meice  from  the  Continent  and  tbe  south  and  sauth>wts  d 
England  was  diverted. 


\t  PUtti'Hs 
1  HilalR  "  ' 
Tki  A 


uly  in  Mr. 

nek  in  tbe 


Culkwdt 


ftJjn'M  Fattoj,"— In  American  history  tht 
Pilgrims  "  is  applied  10  the  eariiest  setUets  0*  the  cDlonr 
ol  Plymouth,  MassachuseiLs,  and  more  ■(>«ciiicaUy  tithe  £rsi 
company  of  emignuus,  who  sailed  in  the  "  Mayflower  "  ia  i6iOr 
They  were  from  Ihe  beginning  Separatists  Irnd  the  Church  ef 
Englajidl  they  bad  established  lodqxadent  (Congregatiaaal} 
churches  al  Scrvoby  and  Gaiiisborough  ^ly  in  the  17  th  century, 
and  some  of  them  had  Bed  to  Amsterdam  in  iGoS  to  avud 
persecution,  arul  had  removed  to  Leiden  In  the  followu«  yrti. 
They  sailed  from  Dclfishavea  late  in  July  \iv>,  from  Souihaiap- 
ton  on  the  sib  ol  AuguK,  from  Plymouth  on  the  6th  el 
S^tembcr,  and  late  in  l>ecember  1610  founded  tbe  celony  d 
Plymouth,  Massachuielts.  See  M*ss«3£uairrs:  FLVUotll. 
and  MavriowEK. 

ip,  LiL  pBitfiTialie),  a  jounti 
>me  place  reputedii 

Ihe  CathoUc  Cbtnt 
icir  acceptance  dales  from  the  jrd  and  4tb  centuries. 
I.  Til  eUpimate  in  p,c-Chrisliatt  ani  Bon-CinJIicui  K^ipM. 
-To  the  Cennanic  religions  the  pilgrimage  is  unknownL    0: 

tf  the  andcnl  seals  of  dviliialia 
Mediterranean.  The  fundameoial  concepIioD  Is  afi;:-'> 
he  Deity  resides— or  eietcises  a  peculiarly  powerf  J 
:b — in  some  definite  locality;  and  to  this  locality  tbt 
repair,  either  in  reverence  ol  their  god.  or  in  quest  of  iit 


These  journeys  play  ai 


tbe  other  hand,  i' 


drawn  Ihose  who  visit  hi 
One  of  the  oldest  hoir 


intgrimage  is  India.  There 
especially  lo  the  Ganges— 
the  hallowed  river  of  Hindu  belief.  On  the  l3anges  lia  Benares 
the  holy  city  of  Btahminism:  and  lo  look  on  Benares,  to  \^Jt 
OTplts,  and  to  be  washed  dean  in  the  purifying  river,  is  the 
yearning  of  every  juous  Indian.  Even  Buddhism— original i 
emonial— has  adopied  ihc  pilgrimage;  and  the 
lion  makes  Buddha  himself  dclernilne  its  gnafc 
Ihe  place  where  he  was  bom,  where  he  first  preached,  wbcrc 
the  highest  insight  dawned  on  him.  and  where  be  sank  into 
Nirvana.  The  four  ancient  sacred  tesorU  art  EapUai-asta. 
Gaya,  Benares  and  Kuunigara. 

In  Syria,  the  temple  of  Alargalis  in  Hlenpolii  wax  u  oi- 
memorial  resort  of  pilgrims.  In  Phoenicia,  a  similar  signibcaeee 
was  enjoyed  by  Ihe  shrine  of  Astane,  on  (he  richly-watend 
source  of  Ihe  river  Adonis,  till,  as  late  as  the  4ih  century  aiiet 
Christ,  it  was  destroyed  by  Constantlne  Ihe  Great.  In  EgTpt. 
tbe  great  antiual  and  monthly  festivals  of  the  twfisnom  goA 


PILGRIMAGE 


605 


gave  liN  to  all  nwnner  of  religioiiii  expeditioBs.  Even  ftaMmg 
Uie  Isroetilcs,  the  viaitatkm  o(  certain  cult-centies  prevailed 
irom  lemioie  antiquiiy;  but,  when  (lie  restriction  of  Yahweh- 
worship  to  Jerusalem  had  doomed  the  oM  ahrincSi  the  Jewish 
pilgrimafK  were  directed  solely  to  the  saaciuaiy  on  Mt  Moria 

Among  the  Greeks  the  habit  was  no  less  deeply  rooted.  Just 
as  the  mbAbitanis  of  each  town  honoured  their  tutelar  deity 
by  solemn  processioaa  to  his  temple,  so»  at  the  period  of  the 
Olympic  games,  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  -Olympia  formed  the 
coal  <»f  muititudea  from  eveiy  HeUeaic  countiy.  No  less  power- 
ful was  the  attraction  excrdsed  fay  the  shrines  of  the  oiacular 
divinities,  though  the  influx  of  pilgrioK  was  not  limited  to  certain 
days,  but,  year  in  and  year  out,  a  stream  of  private  persons, 
or  tnhtKAn  from  the  city-states,  came  flowing  to  the  tonplc 
of  Zeus  in  Dodonaor  the  shrine  of  ApoUo  at  DelphL 

The  unification  of  the  peoples  of  antiquity  in  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  the  resultant  amalgsm  of  religions,  gave  a  powerful 
impeltts  to  the  custom.  For,  as  East  and  West  still  met  at  the 
old  sanctuaries  of  Greece,  so-~aad  yet  nMue-^Greece  and  Rome 
repaired  to  the  temples  of  the  southern  and  eastern  deities.  In 
the  shrine  of  Isis  at  Philae,  Europeans  set  up  votive  inscriptions 
on  behalf  of  their  kindred  far  away  at  home,  and  it  may  be 
surmised  that  even  among  the  festival  crowds  at  Jettisalero  a 
few  Greeks  found  place  {John  xii.  30). 

The  pilgrimage,  hoxrever,  attained  its*  aenitb  tinder  I^m. 
For  Mahomet  proclaimed  it  the  doty  of  every  Mussulman,  once 
at  least  in  his  life,  to  visit  Mecca;  the  result  being  that  the  birth- 
place of  the  Prophet  is  now  the  religious  centre  of  the  whole 
Mahommedan  world  (see  Mahqmueoam  RfuciON;  Caravam; 
Mecca). 

U.  Tk»  Pi^rimag^  tatdar  Cknsiianity.'^The  pilgrimages 
of  Christianity  presuppose  the  existence  it  those  of  paganism; 
fff^lg^  but  it  would  be  an  error  to  maintain  that  the  former 
were  a  direct  development  of  the  latter.  For  primitive 
Christianity  was  devoid  of  any  point  by  which  these  journeys  of 
devotion  might  naturally  have  been  suggested.  It  was  a  religion 
without  temples,  without  sanctuaries,  and  withuut  ceremonial. 
The  sa>*ittg  of  the  JohanntDe  Gospei— that  God  is  to  be  adored 
neither  in  Jenxsalon  nor  on  Geiizim,  but  that  His  true  wonhipper 
must  worship  Him  in  spirit  and  in  tzuth-^  is  in  complete  harmony 
with  the  old  Christian  piety.  And,  accordingly,  in  the  andcnt 
Christian  literature,  we  find  no  trace  of  a  conception  that  the 
bdiever  should  visit  a  definite  i^ate  in  order  to  pay  homage  to 
his  Master.  The  evolution  of  the  Christian  pilgrimage  moved 
on  other  fines. 

Cicero  finely  observes  that,  in  Athens,  the  prions  architecture 
caused  him  las  pleasure  than  did  the  thought  of  the  great  men 
whose  work  was  done  in  it«  midst — **  how  here  one  had  lived, 
and  there  fallen  asleep;  how  here  another  had  disputed,  and 
there  by  buried  "  iDe  Ugg,  ii.  2).  This  feeling  was  not  weakened 
by  the  advent  of  Christianity,  in  fact,  we  may  say  that  it  was 
appreciably  strengthened.  Cicero  had  already  cotnparKi  the 
sites  consecrated  by  the  memory  of  some  illustrious  name  with 
: those  hallowed  by  recoUectiens  of  a  loved  one.  But  with  the 
Christian,  when  his  Redeemer  was  in  question,  both  motives 
coincided:  for  there  the  greatest  was  also  the  dearest. 

In  this  devotion  to  the  mcnxny  of  Jesus,  we  find  the  key 
to  the  ori^  of  the  Christian  pilgrimage:  the  faithful  repaired  to 
those  pbces  which  were  invested  with  memories  of  their  Lord's 
earthly  life.  And  these  journeys  must  certainly  date  from  the 
and  century.  For  Origcn  (d.  254)  mentions  that  in  Bethlehem 
the  cave  was  shown  where  Christ  was  bom,  and  in  it  the  rungcr 
lA  which  Mary  made  the  bed  of  her  child.  The  site  must  have 
been  much  visited  long  before  this,  since  Origen  remarks  that 
it  was  common  knowledge,  even  among  the  infidels,  that  there 
wastfaebirthplaceof  that  Jesus  whom  tho  Christians  worshipped 
iContr.  Cds»  i.  51).  But  those  who  visited  Bethlehem  must 
certainly  have  visited  Jerusalem  and  the  places  there,  so  rich  in 
memorials  of  their  Master.  And  the  S3rmpatby  of  Christendom 
aooo  led  them  beyond  this  immediate  cirde.  The  anonymous 
author  of  the  Cakifrlatio  ad  Craetou  a  work  of  the  2nd  century, 
visited  the  remnants  of  thoM  cells,  in  which--io  legend  related — 


the  seventy  interpreters  laboured  on  their  version  of  the  Old 
Testament:  nor,  when  he  came  to  Cumae  in  Campania,  did  he 
fail  to  have  shown  bun  the  old  shrine  of  the  Sibyl  {Cck,  ad  Cr, 
13  and  37).  Soon  we  begin  to  bear  the  names  of  the  pilgrims. 
In  the  course  ol  the  3rd  century,  as  Jerome  relates,  Firmilian, 
bishop  of  Cacsaiea  in  Cappadocia,  travelled  to  Palestine  to 
view  the  sacred  pbces  {De  Vu.  iil.  54);  while,  according  to 
Euscbius,  a  second  bishop  from  Cappadoda,  Alexander  by  name, 
visited  Jerusalem  in  order  to  pray  and  acquaint  himself  with 
the  holy  sites,  and  was  there  invited  by  the  community  to 
remain  with  them  and  assume  the  episcopate  of  the  aged 
Nardsaus  {Hist.  €cdi  vi.  xi).  With  regard  to  his  own  time»-> 
the  eariy  years  of  the  4th  century — ^the  same  authority  recounts 
that  believers  kept  streaming  to  Palestine  from  tik  regions^ 
there  to  offer  their  prayers  at  a  cavern  shown  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives  {Demonstr.  €vang.  vL  18). 

Thissutcrocnt,  that  the  Christiansof  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries 
were  in  the  habit  of  visiting  Jerusalem  for  prayer,  proves  that 
the  noD-Christian  conception  of  the  religious  pilgrimage  had 
already  entered  the  sphere  of  Chratlan  thought.  That  men 
travelled  for  purposes  of  prayer  implies  acceptance  of  the  heathen 
theory  of  sanctuaries  which  it  is  an  act  of  piety  to  visit.  We 
may  regret  the  fact,  for  it  sullied  the  purity  of  primitive 
Christian  tbought.  Nevertheless,  it  is  dear  that  the  develop- 
ment was  inevitable.  As  soon  as  the  non-Christian  ideas  of 
priests,  sacrifices,  houses  of  the  god,  and  so  forth,  were  naturalized 
in  the  Christianity  of  the  3rd  century,  it  was  but  a  short  step 
to  the  belief  in  holy  places. 

111.  The  PU$rimagc  in  tltt  Ancient  Church. — ^In  the  passagca 
dted  above,  Bethlehem  and  the  Mount  of  Olives  figure  as  the 
main  goal  of  the  pilgrim:  and  on  the  Mount  of  n^^ggt, 
Olives  the  mind  must  naturally  turn  to  the  Garden 
of  Gethsemane  and  the  scene  of  the  Ascension.  It  may  seem 
surptisittg  that  there  is  no  mention  of  Golgotha  and  the  Sepulchre. 
But  the  visitation  of  these  sites  was  rendered  impossible  to  the 
Christians  by  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  erection 
of  the  town  of  AeUa  Capitolina.  They  had  not  forgotten  them; 
but  the  grave  was  concealed  under  a  mound  of  earth  and  stones 
— SL  profanation  probably  dating  from  the  siege  of  the  dty  and 
^Titus's  attack  on  the  second  waU.  On  the  summit  of  this 
mound  there  stood,  in  the  days  of  Eusebius,  a  sanctaaxy  of 
Venus  (Eus.  Vit.  ConU.  iil.  a6,  30).  The  Sepulchre  and  the 
Hill  of  the  Crudfixion  were  bst  to  the  Christian  pilgrim;  and, 
consequently,  before  the  era  of  Comtantine,  the  one  hoty  site 
in  the  town  of  Jerusalem  was  the  so-called  Coenacnlumy  which 
received  its  name  in  later  years.  It  lay  south  of  the  dty,  near  the 
outer  wall,  and,  if  Epiphanius  is  to  be  believed,  was  already  in 
existence  when  Hadrian  (130-131)  visited  Jerusalem  {De  nuns, 
14).  It  was  regarded  as  the  house,  in  which  -**accordittg  to  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xii.  la  sqq.) — Mary,  the  mother  of  John 
Mark,  lived;  and  the  bdief  was  that  there  the  Lord  held  the 
Last  Sapper,  and  that  there  the  deven  assembled  after  the 
Ascension.  It  was  there,  also,  that  the  scene  of  the  Pentecostal 
effusion  of  the  Spirit  was  laid  (cf.  Cyrill.  Hicnu.  Cat.  xvi.  4). 

The  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  received  a  powerful  impetus 
from  the  erection  of  the  memorial  churches  on  the  holy  sites, 
under  Constantino  the  Great,  as  described  by  Eusebius  in  his 
biography  of  the  emperor  (iii.  25  sqq.)>  At  the  order  of  Con- 
stanline,  the  shrine  of  Venus  above  mentioned  was  destroyed, 
and  the  accumulated  rubbish  removed,  till  the  andcnt  rock- 
foundation  was  reached.  There  the  cave  was  discovered  in 
which  Joseph  of  Arimathca  had  laid  the  body  of  Jesus;  and 
above  this  cave  and  the  Hill  of  the  Crucifixion  the  imposing 
church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  was  built  (a.d.  326-336).  The 
churches  in  Bethlehem  and  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  were  erected 
by  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantinc,  who  hendf  undertook 
the  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.  These  churches  were  then 
endowed  with  new  sanctuaries  of  miraculous  powers;  and  relics 
of  Christ  were  found  in  the  shape  of  the  Cross  and  the  nails. 
Eusebius.  the  contemporary  of  ConsUntine,  is  silent  on  this 
point.  To  his  continuators,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  an  established 
fact  that  Hdena  brought  all  three  crosses  to  light,  and  ascertained 


6o6 


PILGRIMAiGE 


Ihe  genuine  Cross  by  the  instnnnentaUty  of  a  mirade, 
in  addition  to  discovering  the  naib  o£  the  Crudfixion  (Rufia. 
i.  7;  Socr.  L17;  Sozomen.  ii.  i;  Theod.  L  17).  It  is  impossible 
to  fix  tbe  date  at  which  the  supposititious  relics  wete  intmduoed 
into  tbe  church  <A  the  Sepulchre:  it  is  certain,  however^  that 
in  the  5th  century  the  Cross  was  there  preserved  with  scru- 
pulous reverence,  and  accounted  the  highest  treasure  <^  the 
sanctuaiy. 

After  the  4th  century,  monks  and  nuns  begin  to  form  no 
inconsiderable  part  of  the  pilgrimages— a  fact  which  is  especially 
manifest  from  the  numerous  notices  to  be  fotmd  in  Jerome, 
and  the  narratives  of  Thcodoret  in  the  Historia  rdi^sa.  In 
fact,  many  were  inclined  to  regard  a  journey  to  Jerusalem  as 
the  bounden  duty  of  every  monk—- an  exaggerated  view  which 
led  to  energetic  protests,  especially  from  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
who  composed  a  monograph  on  the  pilgrimages  (De  its  qui 
adtuni  Hierostd.).  Jeronw,  like  Gregory,  insists  on  the  point 
that  residence  in  Jerusalem  has  in  itself  no  religious  >ndue: 
It  is  not  locality,  but  character,  that  avails,  and  the  gates  of 
Heaven  are  as  open  in  Britain  as  in  Jerusalem  (Ep.  58,  3). 
These  utterances,  however,  must  not  be  misinterpreted.  They 
are  not  directed  against  the  pilgrimage  in  itself,  nor  even  against 
tbe  belief  that  prayer  possesses  special  efficacy  on  sacred 
ground,  but  solely  against  the  exaggerated  developments  of 
tbe  system. 

The  theologians  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  were  at  one 
with  the  masses  in  recognizing  the  religious  uses  of  the  p%rim- 
ages.  Jerome  in  particular  considered  it  an  act  of  faith  for  a 
man  to  offer  his  prayers  where  the  feet  of  the  Lord  had  stood, 
and  the  traces  of  the  Birth,  of  the  Cross,  and  of  tbe  Passion  were 
still  to  be  seen  {Ep.  47,  2). 

We  may  gain  some  impression  of  the  mood  m  which  tbe 
pilgrims  completed  their  journey,  when  we  read  how  Paula, 
the  friend  of  Jerome,  expresses  herself  on  her  vkit  to  the  church 
of  the  Sepulchre:  "  ^  oft  as  we  enter  its  precincts  we  see  the 
Saviour  laid  in  the  shroud,  and  the  angel  seated  at  the  feet  of 
the  dead!"  (Hieron.  Ep.  46,  2).  She  assured  Jerome  that, 
in  the  church  of  the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem,  she  beheld,  with 
the  eye  of  faith,  the  Christ-child  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes 
{Ep.  108,  xo).  But  with  these  thoughts,  others  of  an  entirely 
different  stamp  were  frequently  blended.  Pilgrimages  were 
conceived  as  means  to  ensure  an  answer  to  particular  prayers. 
So,  for  example,  Eudoda,  the  wife  of  Theodorius  II.,. vowed 
to  undertake  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  if  she  should  see  het 
daughter  married.  {Socr.  Hist.  eccl.  vii.  47).  And,  dosely 
as  this  approaches  to  pagan  ideas,  the  distincticm  between 
paganism  and  Christianity  is  completely  obliterated  when  we 
find  the  hermit  Julian  and  his  companions  travelling  to  Sinai 
in  order  to  worship  the  Ddty  there  resident  (Theod.  Hist, 
rel.  2). 

With  the  number  of  the  pilgrims  the  number  of  pilgrim-xtaorts 
also  increased.  Of  Jerusalem  alone  Jerome  relatea  that  the 
places  of  prayer  were  so  numerous  that  it  was  impossible  to 
visit  them  all  in  one  day  {Ep,  46,  9).  In  the  Holy  Land  the 
list  was  still  bnger:  the  natives  were  ready  to  show  everything 
for  which  the  foreigners  inquired,  and  the  pilgrim  was  eager  to 
credit  everything.  In  her  ejqxdition  to  the  East,  the  Paula 
mentx>ned  above  visited,  among  other  places,  Sarcpta  and 
Caesarea.  In  the  first-named  place  she  was  shown  the  tower 
of  Elijah;  in  the  second,  the  house  of  Cornelius,  that  of  Philip, 
and  finally  the  grave  of  the  four  virgins.  At  Bethleton  she 
saw,  in  addition  to  the  diurch  of  the  Nativity,  the  grave  of 
Rachel;  at  Hebron  the  hut  of  Sarah,  in  which  the  swaddling 
clothes  of  Isaac  and  the  remains  of  Abraham's  oak  were  on 
view  (Hieron.  Ep.  108).  A  similar  picture  is  given  in  the 
Trcvds  of  the  so-called  Silvia  Aquitana,  who  seems,  in  reality, 
to  have  been  a  Spanish  nun,  named  Ethecia  or  Eudberia.  She 
went  as  a  pilgrim  to  Jerusalem  {c.  380),  and  from  there  traversed 
the  whirfe  of  Palestine,  in  order  to  visit  every  site  which  was 
consecrated  by  memories  of  the  Lord's  earthly  life.  Nor  dkl 
she  neglect  the  scenes  of  patriarchal  history.  Of  greater 
antiquity  b  the  concise  account  of  his  travels  by  an  aoonymous 


pilgrim,  who,  in  aj>.  333,  undertook  the  Jouney  fram  Horde 
to  Palestine.  The  Ilintfory  of  tbe  African  TbeodosiiM  who 
visited  the  East  between  a.d.  520  and  aj)^  530  is  of  later  dau 
(P.  Geyer,  //•«.  kiefsd.  sacc,  iv>^viiL). 

While  pilgrim-resorts  were  thus  filling  the  East,  their  ooiinter- 
parts  began  to  emerge  in  the  West.    And  bene  the  startag- 
point  is  to  be  found  in  tbe  veneration  of  martyrs,  ^j.  m^w^ 
Care  for  the  tombs  of  martyrs  was  sanctioned  by 
immemorial    custom    of    the    Church;   but,    In    this   case 
also,  a  later  age  failed  to  pteseive  the  primitive  conception  ia 
its  purity;  and  Augustine  himself  was  obliged  to  defend  the 
usage  of  the  Church  from  the  imputation  that  it  Implaed  a 
transference  of  heathen  ceremonial  to  tbe  sphere  <rf  Christianity 
{Conir.  FausL  xx.  21).    The  martyrs  were  the  k)cal  heroes  «( 
particular  communities;  but  there  were  men  whose  life  and  death 
wece  of  significance  for  the  whole  of  Christcndom*-tbe  apostles. 
Of  these  Peter  and  Paul  had  suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome, 
and  it  was  inevitable,  from  the  ivature  of  the  case,  that  their 
graves  should  soon  become  a  resort,  not  only  of  Romans  bon, 
but  of  strangers  also.    Trtie,  the  presbyter  Cains  {e,  aoo)  who 
first  mentions  the  situation  of  the  apostolic  tombs  on  the  Vaticaa 
and  the  road  to  Ostia,  and  refos  to  the  memorials  there  erected, 
has  nothing  to  Say  of  foreign  Christians  journeying  to  Rone 
in  order  to  visit  them.    And  though  Origen  travelled  to  Roae, 
it  was  not  to  view  tfas  graves  of  dead  men,  but  to  rttsbfrii 
relations  with  the  living  flock  (Euseb.  Hist,  ecd,  n.  9$,  7;  vL 
14,  10);  stiO,  it  is  certain  that  the  Roman  cemeteries  wcie 
visited  by  numerous  pilgrims  even  in  the  3rd  centuiy:  for  the 
earliest  graffiti  m  the  papal  crypt  of  the  CoemeterioB  Caliisti 
must  date  from  this  period  (De   Rossi,  Roma  setter.  L   »$$ 
sqq  ;  Kraus,  Rom.  SolL  148  sqq.).   And  if  the  tombs  of  the  popes 
were  thus  vinted,  so  much  more  must  thn  hold  of  the  toote 
of  the  apostles.    After  these,  the  most  frequented  resort  at 
Rome  in  the  4th  century  was  the  i^ve  of  Hippolytiis.    The 
poet  Prudentios  describes  how,  on  the  day  ei  the  ssartyr^ 
death,  an  innumerable  multitude  of  pilgrims  fk>cked  roond  the 
site.     Even  on  ordinary  days  arrivals  and  depaxttucs  wen 
almost  incessant'-foreigners  being  everywhere  seen  "**"t**^ 
with  the  native  Latins.    They  poufed  balsam  on  the  sepukhie 
of  the  saint,  washed  it  with  their  tears,  and  covered  it  witli  tbor 
kisses,  in  the  belief  that  they  were  thus  siwuring  tlMiimihn  1  el 
his  intercession  or  testifying  thehr  gratitade  for  his  •—»«»—«■■ 
Prudentius  says  of  himself,  that  whenever  he  was  msk  in  sod 
or  body,  and  prayed  there,  he  found  help  and  retunied  in 
cheerfulness:  for  God  had  vouchsafed  His  saint  the  power  to 
answer  aU  entseaties  dPerist,  xL  175  sqq.).    Paulinas  of  Nda 
(d.  431)  ooncurs--his  custom  being  to  vuit  Ostia  each  yesr, 
and  Rome  on  the  apostolic  aimiversaries  {Ep,  so,  s;  4s,  t). 
Next  to  Rome  the  most  popular  xthgiotts  resort  was  the  tomb 
of  Felix  of  Nola  (August.  Ep.  78,  3) ;  while  In  Ganl  ihe  snnre  of 
St  Martin  at  Tours  drew  pilgrims  from  all  quartets    (FanL 
NoL  Ep.   17,  4).    Africa  poascaaed  no  sanctoaiy  to  ooaBpeiy 
with  these;  but  we  learn  from  Sulpidus  Sevens  («.  400)  that 
the  tomb  <ii  Cyprian  seems  to  have  been  viaited  even  li^  a  Gaol 
{Dial:  i.  3). 

The  motive  that  drew  the  pilgrims  to  the  graves  of  the  sninss 
is  to  be  found  in  the  conviction,  ejqsrcssed  by  Prudentius,  that 
there  divine  succour  was  certain;  and  henoe  came  the  befief  ia 
a  nevoT'ending  series  of  mirirles  there  performed  (cf ^  a.f. 
Eimod.  Tidn.  idb.  pro  sytt.  p.  3x5).  Doubt  was  onknown. 
St  Augustine  observes  that,  though  Africa  was  full  of  mnrtyis* 
tombs,  no  mirade  had  been  wrought  at  them  so  far  aa  his 
koowiedge  extended.  This,  however,  did  ix>t  lead  him  to  doubt 
the  truth  of  those  reported  by  others— a  fact  that  is  somewhat 
aurpriaing  when  we  reflect  that  the  f^enomenon  caused  him 
modi  disqtnet  and  perplexity.  Who^  he  aaks,  can  fathom  the 
design  of  God  4n  ordaining  that  this  should  happen  at  one  place 
and  not  at  anodier?  And  eventually  he  acquiesces  m  the 
condusion  that  God,  who  gives  every  man  his  iadividnni  gift 
at  pleasure,  has  not  willed  that  the  same  powers  diouhl  haw 
efficacy  at  every  sopukhre  of  the  saints  {Ep.  78, 3). 

IV.  Tk9  PUgrimaff  in  ike  Middit  i4^.— Tbe  oMdieval  Onuvh 


PILGRIMAGE 


607 


ftdo{>ted  the  custoin'of  the  pOgrimage  from  the  andent  Church. 
The  young  Germanic  and  Romance  nations  did  predfiely  as  the 
Greek  and  Romans  had  done  before  them,  and  the 
motives  of  these  devotional  journeys — ^now  much 
more  diihcult  of  execution  in  the  general  decay  of 
the  great  world'System  of  commerce — remained  much  the 
same.  They  were  undertalien  to  the  honour  of  God  (Pipp. 
Cap.  7 54-7 55.  c  4>,  for  purp«««  o*  prayer  (Ann.  HUd.  992), 
or  in  quest  of  assistance,  especially  health  ( VUa  GcUi^ii.^T)  Vita 
Liudg.  iii.  10).  But  the  old  causes  were  reinforced  by  others  of 
at  least  equal  potency.  The  medieval  Church  was  even  more 
profoundly  convinced  than  its  predecessor  that  the  miraculous 
power  of  Deity  attached  to  the  bodies  of  saints  and  their  relics. 
Bat  the  younger  nations— French,  English  and  German- 
were  scantily  endowed  with  saints;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  belief  obtained  that  the  home-countries  of  Christianity, 
especially  Rome  and  Jerusalem,  possessed  an  inexhaustible 
supply  of  these  sanctified  bodies.  Pilgrimages  were  consequently 
undertaken  with  the  intention  of  securing  relics.  At  first  it 
was  enough  to  acquire  some  object  which  had  Enjoyed  at  least 
a  mediate  connexion  with  the  hallowed  corpse.  Gregory  of 
Tours  (d.  594)  mentions  one  of  his  deacons  who  made  a  pilgrim- 
age into  the  East,  in  order  to  collect  relics  of  the  Oriental  saints; 
and,  on  hb  return,  visited  the  grave  of  the  bishop  Nicetius 
(St  Nizicr,  d.  573)  in  Lyons,  where  he  still  further  increased 
his  store.  His  testimony  showed  how  relics  came  to  be  distri- 
buted among  the  populace:  one  enthusiast  took  a  little  wax 
dropped  from  the  taper;  another,  a  portion  of  the  dust  which  lay 
on  the  grave;  a  third,  a  thread  from  the  doth  covering  the  sar- 
cophagus; and  he  himself  plucked  the  flowers  which  visitors 
had  planted  above  the  tomb.-  Such  were  the  memorials  with 
which  he  returned;  but  the  universal  belief  was  that  something 
of  the  miraculous  virtue  of  the  saint  had  passed  into  these 
objects  ( Vii.  patr.  8,  6).  Before  long,  however,  these  bumble 
trophies  failed  to  content  the  pilgrims,  and  they  began  to  devote 
their  efforts  to  acquiring  the  actual  bodies,  or  portions  of  them 
— frequently  by  honest  means,  still  oftencr  by  trickery.  One  of 
the  most  attractive  works  of  early  medievalism— Einhard's  little 
book,  Translatio  McrceUini  et  Prtri— gives  a  vivid  description 
of  the  methods  by  which  the  bodies  of  the  two  saints  were 
acquired  and  transported  from  Rome  to  Seligenstadt  on  the 
Main. 

Far  more  important  consequences,  hoivever,  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  the  medieval  mind  associated  the  pilgrimage  with  the 
forgiveness  of  sins.  This  conception  of  the  pilgrimage,  as  a 
means  of  expiation  or  a  source  of  pardon  for  wrong,  was  foreign 
to  the  andent  Church.  It  Is  quite  in  accordance  with  the 
leaner  consciousness  of  sin,  which  prevailed  in  the  middle  ages, 
that  the  expiatory  pilgrimage  took  its  place  side  by  side  with 
the  pilgrimage  to  the  glory  of  God.  The  pilgrimage  became  an 
act  of  obedience;  and,  in  the  books  of  penance  {PoenitentialUt) 
which  date  from  the  early  middle  ages,  it  b  enjoined — ^whethcr 
for  a  definite  period  {e.g.  Poen.  ValkeU.  i.  e.  19;  Thced.  Canl. 
i.  9,  16)  or  for  life  (Poen.  Cnmmeani,  vli.  n,  Casin.  »4) — as 
an  expiation  for  many  of  the  more  serious  sins,  especially 
murder  or  the  less  venial  forms  of  unchastity.  The  place  to 
be  visited  was  not  specified;  but  the  pilgrim,  who  was  bound 
by  an  open  letter  of  his  bishop  to  disclose  himself  as  a  pcntitent, 
lay  under  the  obligation,  wherever  he  went,  to  repair  to  the 
churches  and — more  especially — the  tombs  of  the  saints,  and 
there  offer  his  prayers.  On  occasion,  a  chain  or  ring  was 
fastened  about  his  body,  that  his  condition  might  be  obvious 
to  all;  and  soon  all  manner  of  fables  gained  currency:  how, 
here  or  there,  the  iron  had  sprung  apart  by  a  miracle,  in  token 
that  the  sinner  was  thereby  absolved  by  God.  For  instance, 
the  Vita  Uudgeri  recoums  the  history  of  a  fratridde  who  was 
condemned  to  this  form  of  pilgrimage  by  Jonas,  bishop  of 
Orleans  (d.  843);  1m>  wore  three  iron  rings  round  his  body  and 
arms,  and  travelled  bare-footed,  fasting,  and  devoid  of  linen, 
f  roBi  church  to  church  till  he  found  pardon,  the  first  ring  breaking 
by  the  tomb  of  St  Gertrude  at  Nivclles.  the  second  in  the  crypt 
ol  St  ftitr,  and  the  third  by  th«  grave  of  Liudger.   The  pilgrim- 


age with  a  predetermined  goal  was  not  recognized  by  the  books 
of  penance;  but,  irt  1059,  Peter  Damiani  imposed  a  pilgrimage 
to  Rome  or  Tours  on  the  derics  of  Milan,  whom  he  had  absolved 
(Acta  medici.  patrol,  lot.  145,  p.  98). 

As  the  system  of  indulgences  developed,  a  new  motive  came 
to  the  fore  which  rapidly  overshadowed  all  others:  pilgrimages 
were  now  undertaken  to  some  sacred  spot,  simply  in  order  to 
obtain  the  indulgence  which  was  vested  in  the  respective  church 
or  chapel.  In  the  nth  century  the  indulgence  consisted  in  a 
remission  of  part  of  the  penance  imposed  in  the  confessional, 
in  return  for  the  discharge  of  some  obligation  voluntarily 
assumed  by  the  penitent.  Among  these  obligations,  a  visit 
to  a  particular  church,  and  the  bestowal  of  pious  gifts  upon  it< 
held  a  prominent  place.  The  earliest  instance  of  the  indulgentiaf 
privilege  conferred  on  r  church  is  that  granted  in  ici6  by  Pontius, 
archbishop  of  Aries,  to  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Montmajour 
(Mons  Major)  in  Province  (d'Achery,  SpicH.  iii.  3S3  seq.)  But 
these  dispensations,  which  at  first  lay  chiefly  in  the  gift  of  the 
bishops,  then  almost  exclusively  in  that  of  the  popes,  soon 
increased  in  an  incessant  stream,  till  at  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages  there  were  thousands  of  churches  in  every  western  country, 
by  visiting  which  it  was  possible  to  obtain  an  almost  indefinite 
number  of  indulgences.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  character 
of  the  Indulgence  was  modified.  From  a  remission  of  penance 
it  was  extended,  in  the  13th  century,  to  a  release  from  the 
temporal  punishment  exacted  by  God,  w;hcther  in  this  life  or 
in  purgatory,  from  the  repentant  sinner.  And,  from  an  absolu- 
tion from  the  consequences  of  guilt,  it  became,  in  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries,  a  negation  or  the  guilt  itself;  while  simultaneously 
the  opportunity  was  offered  of  acquiring  an  indulgence  for  the 
souls  of  those  already  in  purgatory.  Consequently,  during 
the  whole  period  of  medievalism,  the  number  of  pilgrims  was 
perpetually  on  the  increase. 

So  long  as  the  number  of  pilgrims  remained  comparatively 
small,  and  the  difficulties  In  their  path  proportionately  great, 
they  obtained  open  letters  of  recommendation  from 
their  bishops  to  the  clergy  and  laity,  which  ensured  i^l^fuH 
them  lodging  in  convents  and  charitable  foundations, 
in  addition  to  the  protection  of  public  officials.    An  instance 
is  preserved  in  Markulf*s  formulary  fii.  49).    To  receive  the 
pilgrim  and  supply  him  with  alms  was  always  considered  the 
duty  of  every  Christian:  Charlemagne,  indeed,  made  it  a  legal 
obligation  to  withhold  neither  roof,  hcanh,  nor  fire  from  them 
(Admon.  gent.  789,  c.  75;  Cap.  Miss.  802,  c.  27). 

The  most  important  places  of  resort  both  for  voluntary  and 
involuntary  pilgrimages,  were  still  Palestine  and  Rome.  On 
the  analogy  of  the  old  Itineraria,  the  abbot  Adamnan  of  lona 
(d.  704)  now  composed  his  monograph  Dc  locis  Sanctis,  which 
served  as  the  basis  of  a  similar  book  by  the  Venerable  Bcde 
(d-  73  s) — hoth  works  being  edited  in  the  I  tin.  hierosol.  His 
authority  was  a  Prankish  bishop  named  Arculf,  who  resided  for 
nine  months  as  a  pilgrim  in  Jerusalem,  and  visited  the  remaining 
holy  sites  of  Palestine  in  addition  to  Alexandria  and  Constanti- 
nople. Of  the  later  itineraries  the  Dcscripiio  Icrrae  sanctae, 
by  the  Dominican  Burchardusde  Monte  Sion,  enjoyed  the  widest 
vogue.  This  was  written  between  the  years  1285  and  1295; 
but  books  of  travel  in  the  modem  tongues  had  already  begun  to 
make  their  appearance.  The  initiative  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  the  12th  and  X3fh  centuries,  and  the  Germans  followed  in  the 
T4th  and  isth  ;  while  the  Book  of  Wayes  to  Jerusalem  of  John  de 
Maundevilfc  (e.  1336)  attained  extreme  popularity,  and  was 
translated  into  almost  all  the  vernacular  languages.  Mosi 
pilgrims,  probably,  contented  themselves  with  the  brief  guide- 
books which  seem  to  have  originated  in  the  catalogues  of  indul- 
gences. In  later  periods,  that  of  Romberch  a  Kyrspe,  printed  at 
Venice  (1519),  stood  high  in  favour. 

A  long  list  might  be  compiled  of  men  of  distinction  who  per- 
formed the  pilgrimage  to  Palestine.  In  the  8th  century  one 
of  the  most  famous  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  Willibald,  who  died 
in  781  as  bishop  of  the  Prankish  diocese  of  Eichsttttt.  He 
left  his  home  in  the  spring  of  720,  accompanied  by  his  father  and 
brother.     The  pilgrims  traversed  France  and  Italy,  visiting 


6o8 


PILGRIMAGE 


every  religious  rcsoit;  in  Lucca  the  father  died,  and  the  brother 
remained  behind  in  Rome.    Early  in  72a  Willibald  began  his 
expedition  to  the  Holy  Land  alone,  except  for  the  presence  of 
two  companions.    He  travelled  past  Naples  to  Syracuse,  then 
on  shipboard  by  Cos  and  Samos  to  Ephcsus,  and  thence  through 
Asia  Minor  to  Damascus  and  Jerusalem.     On  St  Martin's 
day,  in  724,  he  arrived  in  the  Holy  City.    After  a  prolonged 
stay  in  the  town  and  its  environs,  WiUibald  proceeded  (727) 
to  Constantinople,  and  in  729  returned  to  Italy.    Such  is  the 
account  given  by  the  nun  of  Hcidcnheim  in  her  biography  of 
Willibald;  and  her  version  is  probably  based  on  notes  by  the 
pilgrim  himself  (Mon.  Germ.  hist.  scr.  xv.  80  sqq.).    In  the 
9th  century  the  French  monk  Bernard  visited  Palestine  with 
two  companions,  and  afterwards  wrote  a  simple  and  trust- 
worthy account  of  his  journey  {Patrol,  lat.  zai,  569  sqq.).    In 
the  loth  century  Conrad,  bishop  of  Constance  (9i34~97^),  per- 
formed the  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  three  times  {Vila  Chuonr.  7); 
and  to  the  same  period  belong  the  first  women-pilgrims  to 
Jerusalem  of  whom  we  have  any  cognisance — Hidda,  mother 
of  Gcro,  archbishop  of  Cologne  (Thictm.  Ckron.  ii.  16),  and  the 
countess  Hadcmod  of  Ebcrsberg  {Chron.  ehersb.).    The  leaders, 
moreover,  of  the  monkish  reform  movement  in  the  xoth  and 
nth  centuries,  Richard  of  St  Vanne  in  Verdun  and  Poppo, 
abbot  of  Stavclot  (978-1048),  had  seen  the  Holy  Land  with 
their  own  eyes  {Vita  Rich.  17;  Vita  Popp.  3).    In  the  year  1028 
Archbishop  Poppo  of  Trier  (d.  1047)  undertook  a  pilgrimage 
which  led  him  past  Jerusalem  to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
his  return  taking  place  in  1030  {Ccsta  Trevir.  Cont.  i.  4  seq.). 
But  the  most  celebrated  devotional  expedition  before  the  Crusades 
was  that  of  the  four  bishops— Sigfrid  of  Mains,  Gunthcr  of 
Bamberg,  William  of  Utrecht,  and  Otto  of  Rcgcnsburg.    They 
set  out  in   1064,  with  a  company  whose  numbers  exceeded 
seven  thousand.    The  major  portion,  however,  fell  in  battle 
against  the  Mahommcdans,  or  succumbed  to  the  privations  of 
the  journey,  and  only  some  two  thousand  saw  their  homes 
again(/l»na/.  AUah.,  Lamb.,  Disib.,  Marian.  Scot.  &c.).    Among 
Ihe  followers  of  the  bishops  were  two  clerics  of  Bamberg,  Ezzo 
and  Wille,  who  composed  on  the  way  the  beautiful  song  on  the 
miracles  of  Christ — one  of  the  oldest  hymns  in  the  Gorman 
language.    The  text  was  due  to  Ezzo,  the  tune  to  Wille  (Miillcn- 
hoff  and  Schcrcr,  Dcnkm&icr^  i.  p.  78,  No.  31).   A  few  years  later 
Count  Dietrich  of  Trier  began  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  with 
113  companions,  in  atonement  for  the  murder  of  Archbishop 
Kuno.    The  ship,  however,  which  conveyed  them  went  down 
with  all  hands  in  a  storm  (Berth.  Ann.  1073). 

As  a  result  of  this  steady  Increase  in  the  number  of  pilgrims, 
the  old  arrangements  for  their  accommodation  were  found 
deficient.  Consequently  hospices  arose  which  were  designed 
exclusively  for  the  pilgrim.  Those  on  the  Alpine  passes  are 
common  knowledge.  The  oldest,  that  on  the  Septimer  pass, 
dates  from  the  Carolingian  period,  though  it  was  restored  in 
1 1 20  by  the  bishop  Wido  of  Chur:  that  on  the  Great  St  Bernard 
was  founded  in  the  loth  century,  and  reorganized  in  the  13th. 
To  this  century  may  also  be  assigned  the  hospice  on  the  Simploni 
to  the  14th  those  on  the  St  Gothard  and  the  Lukmanier. 
Similarly,  the  Mediterranean  towns,  and  Jerusalem  in  particular, 
had  their  pilgrim-refuges.  Service  in  the  hospices  was  regularly 
performed  by  the  hospital-fraternities— that  is  to  say,  by  lay 
associations  working  under  the  authorization  of  the  Church. 
The  most  important  of  these  was  the  fraternity  of  the  Hospilaie 
hierosolymitanum,  founded  between  X065  and  1075;  for  hence 
arose  the  order  of  St  John,  the  earliest  of  the  orders  of 
knighthood.  In  addition  to  the  hospital  of  Jerusalem,  numerous 
others  were  under  its  charge  in  Acre,  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  Malta, 
&c.  Associations  were  formed  to  assist  pilgnms  bound  for  the 
East;  one  being  the  Confririt  des  pHerins  de  Terre-Saintc  in 
Paris,  founded  in  1325  by  Louis  de  Bourbon,  count  of  Clermont 
(afterwards  first  duke  of  Bourbon).  Its  church  was  in  the  rue 
des  Cordeliers.  Similar  institutions  existed  also  in  Amsterdam, 
Utrecht,  Antwerp  and  elsewhere  in  the  Netherlands. 

But  since,  in  the  middle  ages,  the  Holy  Land  was  no  longer 
held  by  a  Christian  Power,  the  protection  of  the  pUgrimi  was 


no  ks  necessary  than  their  Nsteoaixe:    TUs  fact,  alter  the 
close  of  the  nth  oeatuxy,  led  to  the  Crasades  (4.V.),  which  ia 
many  respects  are  to  be  regarded  as  armed  pilgrimagea.    For  the 
old  dream  of  the  pilgrim,  to  view  the  coontiy  where  God  had 
walked  as  man,  lived  on  in  the  CruBades— « fact  which  is  demon- 
strated by  the  letters  of  Bernard  of  Clairvauz,  with  the  aoogs  ol 
Walther  von  der  Vogdwekie  and  other  Crusaders.    And,  since 
the  strongest  motive  in  the  pilgrinukge  vaa  the  acquisiti(»  ol 
indulgences,  unnambered  thousands  were  moved  to  assume 
the  Cross,  when,  in  1095,  Urban  IL  promised  them  pleaazy 
indulgence  {Cone.  Claram,  c.  a).    The  conquest  of  Jenisaleni, 
and  the  erection  of  a  Christian  empire  in  Pdestinc,  naturslljr 
welled  the  influx  of  pilgrims.    And  though  in  1x87  the  Ho^ 
City  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  infidel,  while  io  1291  the 
loss  of  Acre  eliminated  the  last  Christian  possession  in  Palestine, 
the  pilgrimages  still  proceeded.    True,  aJFter  the  fall  of  the  dty 
and  the  loss  of  Acre,  they  were  forbidden  fay  the  Chinch;  but  the 
veto  was  impracticable.    In  the  lith  oentiuy  these  reUginis 
expeditions  were  still  so  common  that,  every  Sunday,  praym 
were  offered  in  church  for  the  pilgrims  (Honor.  Aug.  Spec,  ttd, 
p.  82S).    In  the  Z3th  century  the  aoaual  number  4rf  tboae  who 
visited  Palestine  amounted  to  many  thousands:  in  the  Z4th  and 
15th  it  had  hardly  shrunk.   In  fact,  between  the  years  xjoo  aad 
x6oo,  no  fewer  than  1400  men  ol  distinction  can  be  enumeratod 
from    Germany    alone   who   travelled    to    the   Holy    Lead 
(Rohricht  and  Meissner,  Demseke  PUgfrnism,  ppw  46^546). 
It  was  not  till  the  Reformation,  the  wars  of  the  x6lli  ccntuiy, 
and  the  k»s  of  Rhodes,  Candia  and  Cypnis  to  the  Tmka,  that 
any  appreciable  alteration  was  effected.     When  IgDatxos  de 
Loyola  (f.s.)  set  sail  in  1513  from  Venioe  to  Patertine,  only 
some  thirteen  souls  could  be  mustered  on  the  pi]gti0irehq>,  while 
ci^t  or  nine  others  sailed  with  the  Venetian  stato^vessel  as  far  as 
Cyprus.    A  considerable  number  had  abandoned  their  pilgrim- 
age and  returned  home  o  1  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Rhodes  (Dec 
25,  1522:  see  Acta  saiuL  Jul.  vii.  64a  seq.>. 

For  pilgrimage  overseas,  as  it  was  styled,  the  petmisMn  of 
the  Church  was  still  requisite.   The  pil^^roa  made  their  foonqr 
in  grey  cowls  fastened  by  a  broad  belt.    On  the  cowl  th^  won 
a  red  cross;  and  a  broad-brimmed  hat,  a  staff,  sack  and  govnl 
completed  their  equipment.   During  their  travels  the  beard  was 
allowed  to  grow,  and  they  {wepaxed  for  departure  by  confesson 
and  communion.  .  Of  their  hymns  many  are  yet  extant  (**  Jon* 
salem  mirabdis,"  "In  gottcs  namen  faren  wir,"  Ac).     The 
cmbarcation  took  place  either  in  France  or  Italy.    In  Frsaoe, 
Marseilles  was  the  main  harbour  for  the  pilgrims, 
ships  belonging  to  the  knights  of  St  John  and  ihe 
templars  conducted  the  commerce  with  Palestine,  and  canied 
annually  some  6000  passengers.   In  the  Italian  porta  the  niunber 
of  shipments  was  still  greater — cspedaily  in  Venice,  whence  the 
regular  passagium  started  twice  a  year.    The  Venetian  pilgrim 
ships,  moreover,  carried  as  many  as  1500  souls.    The  pilgrims 
formed  themselves  into  unions,  elected  a  "  master  "  and  ooe* 
eluded  their  agreements,  as  to  the  outward  voyage  and  mam, 
in  common.   After  Vew'oe,  Genoa  and  Pisa  occupfcSd  the  most 
prominent  position.   The  voyage  lasted  from  six  to  eight  weeks, 
the  stay  in  Jerusalem  averaging  un  daiys.   The  visiution  of  the 
holy  places  was  conducted  in  processions  hfeaded  by  the  Fran- 
ciscans of  the  Convent  of  Zion. 

The  expenses  of  the  journey  to  Palestine  were  no  light  matter. 
In  the  X2th  century  they  may  be  estimated  at  too  marks  of 
silver  (£aoo)  for  the  ordinary  pilgrim.  This  was  the  •mtotoai 
raised  in  1x47  by  one  Goswin  von  Rahderath  to  defngr  the 
expenws  of  his  pilgrimage  (/litderrkeiH,  Urk.  Bmck,  i.  No.  361). 
Later  the  cost  was  put  at  280-300  ducats  (£t40-£t59).  la  the 
13th  century  a  knight  with  two  squires,  one  groom,  aiMi  the  i«qaio 
site  horsey  had  to  disburse  8|  marks  of  silver  iot  Yui 
while  for  a  single  pilgrim  the  rate  was  rather  less  than  t 
In  the  x6th  century  Ignatius  de  Loyola  calculated  the  ciost  of 
the  voyage  from  Venice  to  Jaffa  at  some  6  or  7  goki  fiotias  (£3). 
The  expenses  of  the  princes  and  lords  were,  of  coume,  miBch 
heavier.  Duke  William  of  Saxony,  who  was  in  Jemsalean  in 
X461,  spent  no  less  than  j^xo^ooo  on  his  journey  (see  Prvc^ 


PILGRIMAGE 


6c^ 


KtdtmrtcuJtUkU  det  KntatHie,  ^.  to6  sqq.;  "Rthxidii,  Deuisekt 
PUgtrreisenf  p.  42). 

Great  as  was  the  number  of  pngrims  oversea,  it  was  yet 
far  exceeded  by  that  of  the  visitants  to  the  "  threshold  of 
the  apostles,"  s.e.  Rome.  As  was  the  case  with  Jerusalem, 
guide-books  to  the  city  of  the  iqxtstles  were  now  composed. 
The  oldest  is  the  Notitia  ecdesiarum  urbit  Rffmae,  which  was 
probably  compilKl  under  Honotius  I.  (625-^38).  The  mono- 
graph De  locis  s.  martyrum  is  of  somewhat  later  date.  Both 
are  to  be  found  In  Be  Rossi,  Ibma  soUerratieOt  i.  138  sqq.). 
The  lUmrarium  einsidleHM  (ed.  G.  Hinel,  Arekiv.  f.  PhSUdogU, 
V.  119)  belongs  to  the  second  half  of  the  8th  century.  Its 
composer  would  seem  to  have  been  a  duciple  (rf  Walalifrid;  for 
his  interests  are  not  confined  to  the  churches,  their  reliquaries, 
and  the  ecclesiastical  ceremonial  of  saint-days,  but  he  takes 
a  pleasure  in  transcribing  ancient  inscriptions.  William  of 
Malmesbury,  again,  when  relating  the  crusade  of  Count  Robert 
of  Normandy  (ioq6),  transfers  into  his  Ctsla  regum  an^um 
(iv.  I  351)  an  old  description  of  Rome,  originally  intended  for 
the  use  of  pilgrims.    This  may  have  dated  from  the  7th  century. 

The  pilgrimages  to  Rome  received  their  greatest  impetus 
through  the  inauguration  of  the  so-called  Year  of  Jubilee  {q.t.). 
On  the  22nd  of  February  1300  the  bull  of  Boniface  VIII., 
Antiquarum  habet  fidem^  promised  plenary  indulgence  to  every 
Roman  who  should  visit  the  churches  of  the  apostles  Peter  and 
Paul  on  thirty  days  during  the  year,  and  to  every  forever  who 
should  perform  the  same  act  on  fifteen  days.  At  the  dose  of  the 
Jubilee  this  dispensation  was  extended  to  all  who  had  expired 
on  the  way  to  Rome.  This  placed  the  pilgrimage  to  Rome  on 
a  level  with  the  crusades — the  only  mode  of  obtaining  a  plenary 
indulgence.  The  success  of  the  papal  bull  was  indescribable. 
It  is  computed  that,  in  the  Year  of  Jubilee,  on  an  average, 
200,000  strangers  were  present  in  the  city  during  the  day. 
The  greatest  number  of  the  pilgrims  came  from  southern  France, 
England  sending  comparatively  few  on  that  occasion  (see 
Grcgorovius,  Ges€h.  d.  Stadl  Rom.  v.  546  sqq.).  The  Jubilee 
dispensation  according  to  the  edict  of  Boniface  VIII.  was  to  be 
repeated  each  century;  but  thb  period  was  greatly  abridged  by 
succeeding  popes  (see  Jubilee,  Year  of),  so  that  in  the  years 
1350,  <39o.  1423,  1450.  1475.  iS<».  the  troops  of  pilgrims  again 
came  streaming  into  Rome  to  obtain  the  cherished  dispensation. 

Of  the  other  pilgrim-resorts,  we  shall  only  emphasize  the  roost 
important.  Priority  of  mention  is  due  to  St  James  of  Compo- 
stella  (Santiago,  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Galida).  Here  the 
attraction  for  the  pilgrim  was  the  supposed  possession  of  the 
body  of  James  the  son  of  Zebedee.  The  apostle  was  executed 
(a.d.  44)  by  command  of  Herod  Agrippa  (Acts  xii.  i);  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  medieval  period  it  was  believed  that  his 
corpse  was  laid  in  Palestine  (  Venanl,  Fortun.  carm.  v.  144,  viii.  3). 
The  first  connexion  of  the  apostle  with  Spain  is  to  be  traced  in 
the  Poema  dt  oris  h\  Mar.  ei  xii.  aposf.  dedic.t  which  is  ascribed  to 
Aldhelm  (d.  709)  and  contains  a  story  of  his  preaching  in  that 
country.  The  earliest  account  of  the  transference  of  his  relics  to 
the  Peninsula  is  found  in  Notker  Balbulus  (d.  912,  Marlyrd.  in 
Jul.  XX9,).  But  in  Spain  belief  in  this  cherished  possession  was 
universal;  and,  step  by  step,  the  theory  won  credence  through- 
out the  West.  In  X059,  Archbishop  Wido  of  Milan  journeyed 
to  St  James  (Damiani,  Acta  mtdici.  p.  98);  and  a  little  later  we 
hear  of  bands  of  pilgrims  from  Germany  and  France.  In 
England,  indeed,  the  shrine  of  St  James  of  Compostella  became 
practically  the  most  favoured  devotional  resort;  and  in  the  X2th 
century  its  visitation  had  attained  such  popularity  that  a  pil- 
grimage thither  was  ranked  on  a  level  with  one  to  Rome  or 
Jerusalem  (Honor.  August.  Spec.  eccl.  p.  828).  In  Paris,  after 
1419,  'there  existed  a  special  hospice  for  the  "  fraternity  of  St 
James,"  in  which  from  60  to  80  pilgrims  were  received  each  day, 
fed,  and  presented  with  a  quarter  of  a  denarius  (Dulaure,  Hist, 
de  Paris  (1842),  i.  531).  Even  in  the  period  of  the  Reformation 
the  **  Song  of  St  James  "  was  sung  in  Germany  (Wackemagel, 
Kirckenlied,  0.  No.  1246);  and  in.  1478  pilgrimages  to  that  shrine 
were  placed  by  Sixtus  IV.  on  official  equality  with  those  to  Rome 
tnd  Jerusalem  (Extrav.  comm.  c.  5;  De  poenit.  v.  9). 


In  France  St  Martin  remained  the'chief  goal 'of  the  pilgrim; 
while  Notre  Dame  de  Sous-Terrc  in  Chartres  (with  a  portrait 
of  the  "  bUck  Virgin  "),  Le  Puy-cn-Velay  (dep.  Haute  Loire), 
and  others,  also  enjoyed  considerable  celebrity.  In  England 
pilgrimages  were  made  to  the  tomb  of  the  murdered  archbishop, 
Thomas  Beckct,  in  Canterbury  CathedraL  The  setting  of 
Chaucer's  OtiUerbury  Tales  gives  a  vivid  idea  of  the  motley 
company  of  pilgrims;  but  it  seems  probable  that  Germany  also 
sent  a  contingent  (Gcrvas.  Cantttar.  chr.  ann.  1x84;  Ralph  de 
DioetOi  Tmag.  kist.  ann.  xt84).  In  addition,  Walsingham, 
Peterborough,  St  Davids,  Holywell,  and  St  Andrews  in  Scotland 
were  much  frequented.  In  lower  Germany,  Cologne  and  Aix-Ia- 
Chapelle,  in  SwitzerUmd  Einsiedeln,  were  the  principal  resorts. 

In  Italy  the  church  of  the  Archangel  on  Mt  Gargano  was  one 
of  the  most  ancient  centresof  the  pilgrimage,  being  visited  even  by 
the  monk  Bernard  {vide  supra).  Later  the  Portiuncula  church 
at  Assisi  displaced  all  other  religious  resorts,  with  the  exception 
of  Rome;  but  in  the  isth  century  it  was  overshadowed  in  turn 
by  the  "  Holy  House  "  at  Lorctto  on  the  Adriatic.  According 
to  an  extravagant  legend,  the  house  of  Joseph  and  Mary  in 
Nazartth  was  transported  by  angels, on  the  night  of  the  9th-ioth 
of  May  1291  to  Dalmatia,  then  brought  to  the  Italian  coast 
opposite  (Dec.  10,  X294),  till,  on  the  7ih  of  September  1295  it 
found  rest  on  its  present  site.  The  pilgrimage  thither  must  have 
attained  great  importance  as  early  as  the  X5th  century;  for  the 
popes  of  the  Renaissance  found  themselves  constrained  to  erect 
an  imposing  pilgrim  church  above  the  "  Holy  House." 

The  significance  of  the  pilgrimage  for  the  religious  life  of  latex 
medievalism  cannot  be  adequately  estimated.  The  possession 
of  an  extraordinary  relic,  a  bloody  Host,  or  the  L'ke,  Was  every- 
where considered  a  sufficient  claim  for  the  privileges  of  indul- 
gences; and  wherever  this  privilege  existed,  there  the  pilgrims 
were  gathered  together.  All  these  pilgrimages,  great  and  small» 
were  approved  and  encouraged  by  the  Church.  And  yet, 
during  the  whole  of  the  middle  ages,  the  voice  of  suspicion  in 
their  regard  was  never  entirely  stilled,  Earnest  men  could  not 
disguise  from  themselves  the  moral  dangers  almost  inevitably 
consequent  upon  them;  they  recognized,  moreover,  that  many 
pilgrims  were  actuated  by  extremely  dubious  motives;  and  they 
distrusted  the  exaggerated  value  set  on  outward  works.  The 
Roman  papacy  had  no  more  zealous  adherent  than  Boniface; 
yet  he  absolutely  rejected  the  idea  that  Englishwomen  should 
make  the  journey  to  Rome,  and  would  willingly  have  seen  the 
princes  and  bishops  veto  these  pilgrimages  altogether  (Ep.  78). 
The  theologians  who  surrounded  Chariemagne  held  similar 
views.  When  the  abbess  Ethelburga  of  Fladbury  (Worcester- 
shire) found  her  projected  pilgrimage  impracticable,  Alcuin  wrote 
to  her,  sa3ring  that  it  was  no  great  loss,  and  that  God  had  better 
designs  for  her:  "  Expend  the  sum  thou  hast  gathered  for  the 
journey  on  the  support  of  the  poor;  and  if  thou  givest  as  thou 
canst,  thou  shalt  reap  as  thou  wilt  "(,Ep.  300).  Bishop  Theodulf 
of  Orleans  (d.  821)  made  an  energetic  protest  against  the  delu< 
sion  that  to  go  to  Rome  availed  more  than  to  live  an  upright  life 
{Carm.  67).  To  the  same  effect,  the  synod  of  ChaIon-sur-Sa6ne 
(813)  reprobated  the  superstition  which  was  wedded  to  the 
pilgrimage  (c.  1$);  and  it  would  be  easy  to  collect  similar  judg- 
ments, delivered  in  every  centre  of  medievalism.  But,  funda- 
mentally, pilgrimages  in  themselves  were  rejected  by  a  mere 
handful:  the  protest  was  not  against  the  thing,  but  against  its 
excrescences.  Thus  Fridank,  for  instance,  in  spite  of  his  emphatic 
declaration  that  most  pilgrims  returned  worse  than  they  went, 
himself  participated  in  the  crusade  of  Frederick  II. 

V.  The  Modern  Pilgrimage.^The  Reformation  eradicated  the 
belief  in  the  religious  value  of  visits  to  a  particular  locality.  It 
is  only  pious  memory  that  draws  the  Protestant  to  the  sites 
consecrated  by  ecclesiastical  history.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  in  the  Eastern  Church  things  have  undergone  little  change, 
—the  pilgrims,  in  addition  to  the  Holy  Land,  visiting  Mt 
Athos  and  Kiev — the  developments  in  the  Roman  Church  show 
important  divergences.  The  Year  of  Jubilee,  in  i$25t  was 
unprecedented  in  its  scant  attendance,  but  the  jubilees  of  X575 
I  and  1600  again  sfw  great  armies  of  pilgrims  marching  to  Rome. 


6io 


PILIBHIT— PILLORY 


Fresh  pilgrim  resorts  now  began  to  spring  up,  and  medieval 
shrines,  which  had  fallen  on  evil  days,  to  emerge  from  their 
obscurity.  In  the  i6tb  century  we  must  mention  the  pilgrimages  to 
the  "  Hdy  Mount  "  at  G5rz  on  the  Austrian  coast,  and  to  Mont- 
serrat  in  Uie  Spanish  province  of  Barcelona:  in  the  17th  century, 
those  to  Luxemburg,  Kevelaer  (Gclderland),  Notre  Dame  de 
Fourvi^re  in  Lyons,  Heiligcnberg  in  Bohemia,  Rocrmond  in 
the  Netherlands,  &c.  .The  i8th  century,  which  witnessed  the 
religious  AufklSrung,  was  not  favourable  to  the  pilgrimage. 
Enlightened  bishops  and  princes  prohibited  it  altogether: 
so,  for  instance,  Joseph  U.  of  Austria.  Archbishop  Clement 
Wenceslaus  of  Trier  forbade,  in  1777,  the  much-frequented, 
medieval "  leaping-procession  "  of  Echtemach  (duchy  of  Luxem- 
burg). The  progressive  theologians  and  dcrgy,  moreover, 
assumed  a  hostile  attitude,  and,  in  1800,  even  the  Curia  omitted 
the  Year  of  Jubilee.  The  19th  century,  on  the  other  hand,  led 
to  an  extraordinary  revival  of  the  pilgrimage.  Not  only  did 
new  resorts  spring  into  existence — €.g.  La  Salette  in  Dauphin£ 
(1B46),  and  more  particularly  Lourdes  (1858)  in  the  dqurtmcnt 
of  Hautes  Pyr£n6cs — but  the  numbers  once  more  attained  a 
height  which  enables  them  to  compete  with  the  medieval  figures. 
It  is  computed  that  60,000  pilgrims  were  present  in  La  Salette  on 
the  39th  of  September  1847,  the  first  anniversary  of  the  appear- 
ance of  Mary  which  gave  rise  to  the  shrine.  The  dedication  of 
the  khurch  of  Lourdes,  in  1876,  took  place  in  the  presence  of  30 
bishops,  3000  priests  and  roo,ooo  pilgrims.  In  1877  the  number 
rose  to  250,000;  and  similar  statistics  are  given  of  the  German  and 
Austrian  devotional  resorts  The  sanctuaries  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
are  said  to  have  been  visited  by  65,000  pilgrims  on  the  X5th  of 
July  x86o;  and  on  the  following  Sunday  by  S3,ooa  From 
35,000  to  30,000  persons  take  part  each  year  in  the  resuscitated 
"  leaping-procession  *'  at  Echtemach;  and  the  annual  visitants 
to  the  "  Holy  Mount  "  at  Gdrz  are  estimated  at  5aooo.  No  new 
motives  for  the  pilgrimage  emerged  in  the  19th  century,  unless 
the  ever-increasing  cultus  of  the  Virgin  Mary  niay  be  classed 
as  such,  all  of  the  new  devotional  »tes  being,  dedicated  to ' 
the  Virgin.  For  the  rest;  the  desire  of  acquiring  indulgences 
maintains  its  influence:  but  doubting  voices  are  no  more  heard 
within  the  i»ale  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.   , 

BiBLiOGRAPBY. — Itinera  hierosolymiUina  saec.  JV.-VIII,,  rec. 
P.  Geyer  (Vienna,  1898):  I  tin.  hterosoi.  et  descr.  ttrrae  sanctae, 
cd.  T.  Toller  and  A.  Nlolinier  (Geneva,  1879-1885);  H.  Michelant 
and  G.  Raynaud,  Itiniraires  a  JirusaUm  ridig6s  en  franqais  au 
XI;  XII;  XIII*  Slides  (Geneva,  1882) ;  R.  R6hrichtaod  H.  Mcisoer. 
Deutsche  Pilgerreisen  nach  dem  keUiten  Land  (Berlin,  1882,  new  cd., 
Innsbruck,  1900);  L.  Conradi,  Vier  rheinische  Palastina-Pitger- 
sckrijten  des  XIV.,  X  V.,  X  VI.  Jakrhunderts  (Wiesbaden,  1883) ;  G.  B. 
de  Rom.  Awm  sotUrronea,  i.  128  sqq.  (Rome,  1864);  J.  Marx, 
Das  Watlfakrten  in  der  katholischen  Kirche  (Trier,  1842);  W.  E. 
Scudamore,  Did.  of  Christ.  Antiquities,  vol.  U.  (London,  1880). 

^A.   (1.  f 

PILIBHIT,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Bareilly 
division  of  the  United  Provinces.  The  town — pop.  (1901), 
33,490— contains  the  mosque  of  Hafiz  Rahmat  Khan,  the 
Rohilla  chieftain,  built  in  the  second  half  of  the  i8th  century. 
Trade  is  mainly  in  agricultural  produce,  and  in  the  products  of 
the  neighbouring  Himalayan  territory  and  Nepal. 

The  District  of  Pilibhit  has  an  area  of  1350  sq.  m.;  pop. 
(1901),  470,339,  showing  a  decrease  of  3%  in  the  decade. 
Though  so  near  the  Himalayas  it  is  entirely  a  plain.  In  its 
midst  is  the  Mala  swamp.  The  east  is  forcst-clad,  poor  and 
unhealthy;  on  the  other  side  of  the  Mala  the  land  becomes  more 
fertile.  The  chief  river  is  the  Sarda,  and  the  Gumti  rises  in  the 
east.  The  principal  crops  are  rice,  pulses,  wheat  and  sugar-cane. 
Sugar-refining  is  carried  on,  and  sugar,  wheat,  rice  and  hemp 
are  exported.  The  Lucknow-Bareilly  section  of  the  Oudh  & 
RohilkHand  railway  runs  through  the  district,  a  portion  of  which 
is  watered  by  the  Rohilkhand  canals. 

PILLAR  (O.  Fr.  piler,  Mod.  pilier,  Late  Lat.  pilare,  from  pila, 
column),  an  isolated  upright  structure,  of  narrow  width  in 
relation  to  its  hdght,  which  is  either  employed  as  a  support  for  a 
superincumbent  load  of  some  sort  or  b  set  up  for  commemorative 
or  ornamental  purposes.  In  the  first  sense  the  word  has  many 
common  applications,  as  to  columns  supporting  the  girders  of  a 


warehouse  floor  oc  the  deckbeans  of  a  ship,  to  the  single  eentrsi 
support  or  pedestal  of  a  table,  machine-tool,  &c,  and  10  the  oiasses 
of  coal  which  the  miner  leaves  in  certain  methods  of  working 
as  supports  to  the  roof  (see  Coal);  it  is  also  used  figuratively  of 
persons  in  such  phrases  as  a  "  pillar  of  the  state."  In  archi- 
tecture it  has  strictly  the  second  sense.  The  column  erected 
in  honour  of  Diodetian  at  Alexandria  is  known  as  Pompey's 
pillar,  and  the  ao-called  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus  are 
in  resility  pillars,  performing  no  structural  function  beyond  that 
of  carrying  a  statue.  In  India  the  only  example  is  the  iron 
pillar  at  Delhi,  which  fis  an  extraordinary  specimen  of  the  iron- 
worker's art  considering  the  remote  date  at  which  it  was  made. 
Up  to  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  the  term  "  pillar  "  was 
employed  to  dc^gnate  the  masses  of  masonry  in  a  church,  which 
carry  the  arcades,  but  now  the  term  "  {Her  "  is  invariably  adopted 
in  preference. 

PILLAU,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  Germany,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  East  Prussia,  on  the  spit  of  sand  {Nehrmtg) 
which  separates  the  Frische  Haff  from  the  Baltic,  on  the  north 
of  the  entrance  channel,  and  29  m.  by  rail  from  Kdnigsbcrg. 
Pop.  ( 1905),  7374.  It  is  fortified  and  has  a  harbour,  which  serves 
as  the  outer  port  of  Ktoigsberg*  and  to  some  extent  also  of  Elbing 
and  Braunsberg.  A  new  navigable  channel  was  in  1900- 1901 
constructed  across  the  Frische  HafI  from  PiUau  to  Kdnigsbcrg. 
PiUau  has  a  school  of  navigation,  and  is  a  well-known  pOoi 
station.  Ship-building,  sail-making,  fishing  and  the  working 
of  amber  arc  carried  on. 

Pillau  is  memorable  as  the  place  where  Gustavus  Adolphas  ol 
Sweden  landed' in  1636.  It  did  not  obtain  civic  privileges  unlil 
1 725,  but  was  fortified  shortly  after  that  date.  In  1807  it  offered 
a  stout  resistance  to  the  French.  By  a  treaty  of  the  24th  ol 
February  181  a  it  was  ceded  to  Napoleon,  but  00  the  6lh  of 
February  in  the  following  year  it  was  restored  to  Prussia. 

PILUOll,  a  light  saddle  without  pommel  or  bow,  especially 
a  pad  fastened  to  the  back  of  an  ordinary  saddle,  as  a  seat  for 
another  person,  generally  a  woman.  Pillions  were  also  used  to 
support  baggage.  They  were  in  common  use  from  the  i6th  to 
the  i8th  centuries.  The  word  ai^icars  to  have  been  adapted 
into  English  from  the  Irish  piUtHt  cushion,  formed  from  Lau 
pdlis,  skin.  In  the  sense  of  a  hat  worn  by  a  priest  or  doctor  of 
divinity,  "pillon"  or  "pylioh"  occurs  in  the  15th  and  i6ih 
centuries.  This  is  probably  from  Lat.  ^eus,  a  conical  felt  hat 
or  cap,  Gr.  riXor. 

PILLNITZ.  a  village  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  5  m.  above  Dresden.  Pop.  (1905), 
77a  The  new  palace  of  the  king  of  Saxony  was  built  in  tSiS 
on  the  site  of  a  building  which  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  fdace 
became  a  residence  of  the  electors  of  Saxony  about  1700,  and  the 
different  parts  of  the  palace  were  erected  at  various  times  during 
the  i8th  century.  By  the  convention  of  Pillnitz  in  August  1791 
the  emperor  Leopold  II.  and  Frederick  William  II.,  king  of 
Prussia,  agreed  to  take  common  action  against  any  attack  oa  the 
part  of  France;  this  compact  may  be  regarded  as  the  basts  of 
the  first  coalition  against  that  coimtry. 

See  A.  von  Minchwitz,  Ceschichie  von  PiUniU  (Dresden.  1893). 

PILLORY  (0.  Fr.  filori,  Prov.  espiaori,  from  Lat.  speemUh 
toriunit  a  place  of  observation  or  "  peep-hole  ")•  an  instrument 
of  punishment  which  consisted  of  a  wooden  post  and  frame  fixed 
on  a  platform  raised  several  feet  from  the  ground,  behind  which 
the  oilprit  stood,  his  head  and  his  hands  being  thrust  thrtrngh 
holes  in  the  frame  (as  are  the  feet  in  the  stocks)  so  as  to  be  h^ 
fast,  exposed  in  front  of  it.  This  frame  in  the  more  complicated 
forms  of  the  instrument  consisted  of  a  perforated  iron  drck, 
'  which  secured  the  beads  and  hands  of  several  persons  at  the  same 
time,  but  it  was  commonly  capable  of  holding  only  one. 

In  the  statutes  of  Edward  I.  it  is  enacted  that  every  pillory  ot 
"  stretch-neck  "  should  be  made  of  convenient  strength  ao  that 
execution  might  be  done  on  offenders  without  peril  of  tlMax 
bodies.  It  was  customary  to  shave  the  heads  whoDy  or  partiaBy> 
and  the  beards  of  men,  and  to  cut  off  the  hair  and  even  in  eztRaae 
cases  to  shave  the  heads  of  female  culprits.  Some  of  the  offences 
punished  in  England  by  the  pillory  will  be  found  enumerated  in 


PILLOW— PILOT 


6ir 


a  ittlate  of  Remy  m.  (x466).  By  tMs  "  Statate  of  the  PfBory  " 
it  W8S  ordeml  us  the  penaKy  for  '*  forestaHers  and  resraton, 
ttaen  of  deceitful  weights,  perjurers  and  forgers. "  Stow,  deacrfb- 
iog  CocDhiil  pilloiy,  says:  **  On  the  top  of  the  cage  (a  strong 
prison  of  tinUier)  was  placad  a  piUoiy  for  the  punidiment  of 
bakers  offending  in  the  assize  of  bread,  for  miUers  stealing  corn 
at  the  mill,  for  bawds,  scoids  and  other  offenders."  Until  1637 
the  i^Uory  was  leserved  lor  ssch  offenders.  In  that  year  an 
attack  was  made  on  the  Press,  and  the  pillory  became  tiw  recog- 
m'zed  punishment  of  those  who  puMiahed  books  without  a 
licence  or  libellsd  the  government.  Alexander  Leighion,  John 
Ulbum,  Prynne  and  Danlet  Defoe  were  among  those  who 
suJSiBfed.  Tlicse  were  popular  tevourites,  and  their  exposures  In 
the  piUocy  were  converted  into  pubUe  triumphs.  Titus  Gates, 
however,  was  put  in  the  pillory  in  1685  and  nearly  klUed.  In 
x8i6  the  pillory  was  abolished  except  for  perjuiy  and  suboma* 
tion,  and  the  perjuicr  Peter  James  Bossy  was  the  last  to  stand 
in  the  pillory  at  tbe  Old  Bail^  for  one  hour  on  the  asnd  of  June 
1830.  It  was  finally  abolished  in  1337  at  the  end  of  WiUiam 
IV.'s  reign.  In  France  the  pilloiy,  caUed  carcan,  was  employed 
till  183a.  In  Geraoany  it  was  known  as  ganger.  The  pillory 
was  ttSied  in  the  American  eokxnes,  and  provisions  as  to  its 
infliction  existed  in  the  United  States  statute  books  until  1839; 
it  survived  in  the  state  of  Delaware  until  1905. 

Finger^pillories  were  at  one  time  in  common  use  as  instru- 
ments of  domestic  punishment.  Two  stout  pieces  of  oak,  the 
top  bein£  hinged  to  the  bottom  or  fixed  piece,  formed  when 
cloacd  anumber  of  holes  suAdcotly  deep  to  admit  tlie  finger  to 
the  second  joint,  holding  the  faknd  imprisoned.  A  finger- 
pillory  Is  preserved  in  the  parish  church  of  Asbby-de4a*Zoucb, 
Leicestershire,  and  there  is  one,  stUi  in  its  original  situation 
against  the  wall,  at  Littkcote  Hall,  Wilts. 

PILLOW  (O.  Eng.  ^n;  LaU  pMntUy  a  cushion),  a  support  for 
the  head  during  sleep  or  rest.  The  pillow  of  Western  nations  is 
a  cushion  of  linen  or  other  material,  stuffed  with  feathers,  down^ 
hair  or  wooL  In  the  Bast  it  is  a  framework  made  of  bamboo 
or  rattan  with  a  depression  in  the  top  to  receive  the  neck ;  similarly 
blocks  of  wood  with  a  concave^haped  top  are  used  by  the  natives 
of  other  countries.  The  word  is  found  in  various  technical  ases 
for  a  block  or  support,  as  for  a  brass  bearing  for  the  journal  of  a 
abaft,  and  the  like.  In  ardiitecture  the  term  "  pillowed,"  or 
"  pulvinatcd,"  is  given  to  the  f  riese  of  an  otder  which  bulges  out 
in  the  centre  and  is  convex  in  section.  It  Is  found  in  frieacs  of 
some  of  the  later  works  of  the  Roman  school  and  Is  common  in 
Italian  practice. 

PILOCARPINE*  CuHi«NsQt,  an  alkaloid  found,  together  with 
isopilocarpine  and  other  related  compounds,  in  the  leaves  of 
jaborandi  (Filocar^  pmnaliJoHw).  It  was  first  isolated  by  £. 
Hardy  in  1875  {Btr.,  8,  p.  i594)>  and  is  a  crystalline,  very  hjrgfo* 
scopic  solid.  It  is  a  strong  poison.  It  has  the  properties  of  a 
monacid  base  and  contains  tlw  methykmino  group,  -NCHs. 
When  heated  with  hydrochk>ric  acid  it  gives  isopilocannne. 
Isopilocaiplne  was  isolated  in  1900  by  H.  A.  D.  Jowett  {Jowu, 
Chem.  S0C.  77,  p.  473),  and  is  a  colourless  oil  whidi  boib  at  361** 
C.  (10  mm.).  It  is  a  monacid  base  which  is  readily  soluble 
in  solutions  of  the  caustic  alkalis.  Jowett  is  of  the  opinion 
that  pilocarpine  and  isoptlocarpine  are  stereo-isoraen  of  the 
structure: — 


\CH;  C— CH,— CHCHi/ 


PILOllA*  a  town  of  northern  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Ovitdo; 
between  the  right  bank  of  the  river  PilolVa,  a  left-hand  tributary 
of  the  Sella,  and  the  Sierra  ^e  Abes  (3268  ft.).  Pop,  (1900), 
iS.aaS.  Though  officially  classed  as  a  town,  Pilofia  is  rather  a 
densely  populated  mining  and  agricultural  district.  It  is  served 
by  the  railway  from  Inficsto,  00  the  river  PiloAa,  to  Oviedo  and 
Gij^D. 

PILOT*  the  name  apph'ed  either  to  a  particular  officer  serving 
on  board  a  ship  during  the  course  of  a.  voyage  and  having  the 
charge  of  the  helm  and  the  ship's  route,  or  to  a  pemon  taken  on 
board  at  a  particular  place Iot  the  purpose  of  conducting  a  ship 
through  a  river,  road  or  channel,  or  from  or  into  a  port.    The 


latter  kind  is  the  onfy  one  to  which  the  term  is  now  apph'ed 
either  in  Brit»h  or  foreign  countries.  The  word  *'  pHot "  is 
not  the  early  name  for  the  man  who  guides  or  steers  a  ship. 
In  Old  English  the  name  is  I6dman,  i.e.  the  man  who  leads  the 
way.  *'  raot  "  does  not  appear  in  Eng^  till  the  x6th  century. 
The  origin  of  the  word  has  been  much  debated.  Many  et3rmolo- 
gists  find  it  in  the  Dutch  ^jUx^  (Hexham's  Didionary,  1658). 
This  has  been  identified  with  peiUood,  peU-Mh,  sounding  lead,  cf. 
German  peUen^  to  sound;  the  hat  part  of  these  words  is  the  same 
as  English  "lead,"  the  metal;  thefiist  pu:t,peiUn,Htot  feiden, 
to  mart  with  pegs  or  points  for  measuring,  cf .  pegti,  gauge.  The 
Ntm  Engtfsk  Dictionary,  on  the  other  hand,  finds  that  the  Dutch 
>«lMf,  the  earlier  form.  Is  taken  from  the  French.  The  source  is, 
therefore,  to  be  looked  for  hi  Romance  languages.  Du  Cange 
(Gloss,  Med.  et  Iirf.  £d/.) gives  PodottaOf  defined  as  quorum  est 
scire  intrare  ei  exire  porliis,  a  gloss  on  pedotte  e  timonieri  in  F. 
Ubaldini's  edition,  1640,  of  /  documetUi  d'amore  by  Francesco 
jda  Barberiao  (rsfi4~i348).  It  is  therefore  conjectured  that  the 
Italian  pilola  is  a  popular  conception  of  pedoUOf  and  a  possible 
source  may  be  found  In  the  Greek  v^r,  oar. 

In  England,  formerly,  pilots  were  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  lord  high  admiral;  and  in  the  i6th  century  there  are  many 
instances  of  the  admiralty  court  dealing  with  pilots  disciplinarily 
as  well  aa  chrilly,  holding  them  liable  in  damages  to  ownen  oif 
ships  lost  or  damaged  by  their  negligence.  For  some  consider- 
abfo  time  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  the  appointment 
and  control  of  pilots  have  been  in  the  hands  of  numerous  societies 
or  corporations  established  at  the  various  ports  by  charter  or 
act  of  Parliament,  such  as  the  Trinity  Houses  of  Deptford 
Strond  (London),  Klngston-upon-Hull,  Newcastle-on-T)me,  and 
Leith,  and  the  Society  of  Cinque  Ports  Pilots  and  Court  of 
Lodemanoge  (now  extinct).  These  societies  had  jurisdiction 
over  the  pilota  exercising  their  employment  within  .^^  .^^^ 
the  linrfts  of  such  ports,  and  in  many  cases  made  it 
compulsory  for  ships  resorting  thither  to  employ  them.  By 
degrees  the  London  Trinity  House  acquired  a  leading  position, 
which  was  confirmed  and  extended  by  the  general  Pilotage  Acts 
passed  In  the  iStfa  and  19th  centuries,  with  the  object  of  intro- 
ducing a  uniform  system  throughout  the  realm.  At  the  present 
day  the  United  Kingdom  is  divided  into  districts  for  the  purpose 
of  pik>tage  jurisdiction.  The  (London)  Trinity  House  has 
jurisdiction  over  the  Iwondon  district,  which  extends  from 
Orfoffdness  to  Dungeness,  and  comprises  the  Thames  and  Med« 
way  up  to  London  and  Rochester  bridges;  the  English  Channel 
district,  comprising  the  sea  between  Dungeness  and  the  Isle  of 
Wight;  and  the  Trinity  outport  districts,  which  include  any 
pilotage  districts  for  the  appointment  of  pilots  within  which  no 
particular  provisba  is  made  by  act  of  Parliament  or  charter, 
and  the  number  of  winch  is  40,  an  j^glish  and  Welsh.  There  are 
66  other  districts,  within  which  other  pilotage  authorities  have 
jurisdiction. 

The  present  general  pOotage  law  is  contained  in  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Acts  1894  to  1906.  Pilotage  authorities  are  defined 
as  bodies  or  persons  authorized  to  appoint  or  license  pilots,  or 
to  fix  gnd  alter  rates  of  pilotage  or  to  exereise  any  jurisdiction 
in  respect  of  pilotage.  They  are  subject  to  the  contrel  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  as  the  supreme  mercantile  marine  authority. 
Those  bodies,  however,  which  existed  at  the  time  of  the  passing 
of  the  act  retain  their  powers  and  jurisdiction,  so  far  aa  is 
covisistent  with  it.  The  board  has  power  to  appoint  ^^^ 
a  new  pilotage  authority  in  any  area  where  there  is 
none,  and  to  include  a  new  area  where  there  is  none  within 
an  already  existing  one  (but  in  either  case  pilotage  cannot  be 
made  compulsory),  or  to  transfer  pibtage  jurisdiction  over 
a  port  other  than  that  where  the  pikuage  authority .  for 
that  port  resides,  from  that  pilotage  authority  to  the 
harbour  or  other  local  authority  for  that  port,  or  to  the 
Trinity  House,  or  to  a  new  authority;  and  the  board  has  all 
powera  necessary  to  effectuate  such  transfer  and  oonsthuU 
the  new  authority.  The  board  may  also,  by  proviswnal  Oidef 
(which  requires  parliamentary  confirmation),  provide  fw  the 
leprescotation  of  pilots  or  shipowaen  on  the  pilotage  aUlhontj 


6ia 


PILOT 


of  toy  district,  aad'tlie  exemption  of  ships  from  compulsory 
pilotage  in  any  district.  Where  pilotage  is  not  compulsory, 
and  the  power  of  obtaining  pilotage  licences  unrestricted,  the 
board  can  in  the  same  way  give  the  pilotage  authority  powers 
with  respect  to  licences,  amount  of  pilotage  rates,  and  the  likew 
Pilotage  authorities  may,  by  by-laws  under  the  act  (which 
require  confirmation  by  order  in  council),  exeriipt  wholly  or 
partly  any  ships  or  classes  of  ships  from  compulsory  pilotage, 
and  regulate  the  means  of  obtaining  licences,  and  the  amount 
of  pilotage  rates,  subject  to  a  maximum  limit.  They  must 
make  yearly  returns  to  the  Board  of  Tkade  of  their  by-laws,  the 
names,  ages  and  sepriccs  of  their  licensed  pilots,  the  rates  of 
pilotage,  the  amounts  received  for  pilotage  and  their*  receipts 
and  expenditure;  and  if  they  fail  to  do  so,  the  board  may 
suspend  their  authority,  which  is  then  exercised  by  the  Trinity 
House. 

The  statutes  also  provide  generally  for  the  qualifications  of  pilots. 
A  "  qualified  "  pilot  is  one  duly  licensed  by  a  pilotage  authority 
^^^^  to  conduct  ships  to  which  he  does  not  belong. 
^^  On  his  appointment  he  receives  a  licence,  which  is  re- 
gistered with  the  chief  officer  of  customs  at  the  nearest 
place  to  the  pilot's  residence,  and  must  be  delivered  up  by  the 
pilot  whenever  required  by  the  licensing  pibtage  authority.  On 
his  death  this  licence  roust  be  returned  to  that  autlKvity.  By  an 
a.ct  of  1906  no  pilotage  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  the  master 
or  mate  of  a  British  ship  unless  he  is  a  British  subject;  this 
does  not,  however,  refer  to  the  renewal  of  a  certificate  granted 
before  1906  to  one  not  a  British  subject.  Pilotage  dues  are 
lecoverable  summarily  from  the  owner,  master,  or  consignees  of 
the  ship,  after  a  written  demand  for  them  has  been  made.  A 
pilot  may  not  be  taken  beyond  the  limits  of  his  district  without  his 
consent,  and  if  so  taken  he  is  entitled  to  a  fixed  daily  sum  in 
addition  to  the  dues;  if  he  cannot  board  the  ship,  and  leads  her 
from  his  boat,  he  is  enlitied  to  the  same  dues  as  if  he  were  on 
board;  and  he  must  be  truly  informed  of  the  ship's  draught  of 
water.  An  unqualified  pilot  may  in  any  pilotage  district  take 
charge  of  a  ship  without  subjecting  himself  or  his  employer  to  any 
penalty,  where  no  qualified  pilot  has  offered  himself,  or  where  a 
ship  is  in  distress,  or  in  circumstances  where  the  master  must  take 
the  best  assistance  he  can,  or  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the 
moorings  of  any  ship  in  port  on  docking  or  undocking  her;  but 
after  a  qualified  pilot  has  offered  himself  any  unqualified  pilot 
continuing  in  charge,  or  any  master  continuing  him  in  charge  of 
the  ship,  is  liable  to  a  penalty.  A  qualified  pilot  may  not  be 
directly  or  indirectly  interested  in  licensed  premises  or  ia  the 
selling  of  dutiable  goods,  or  in  the  unnecessary  supply  of  gear 
or  stores  to  a  ship  for  his  personal  gain  or  for  the  gain  of  any  other 
person.  He  can  be  punished  for  quitting  a  ship  before  the  com- 
pletion of  his  duty  without  the  consent  ol  the  master,  refusing  or 
delaying  to  perform  his  duty  without  reasonable  cause  when 
required  by  lawful  authority,  lending  his  licence,  acting  oS  pik>t 
when  suspended  or  when  intoxicated,  and  any  pilot  who  through 
wilful  breach  of  or  neglect  of  duty,  or  by  reason  of  his  drunken- 
ness, endangers  ship,  life  or  limb,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour 
and  liable  to  suspension  or  dismissal;  but  the  pilot  has  an  appeal 
in  cases  of  fines  over  £2,  of  suspension  or  dismissal,  suspension  or 
revocation  of  his  licence,  or  the  application  of  a  pilotage  fund  to 
which  he  has  contributed.  This  appeal  lies  in  England  to  a 
county  court  judge  havini^  jurisdiction  over  the  port  where  he  Is 
licensed,  or  a  metropolitan  police  magistrate  or  stipendiary  magis- 
trate with  the  like  power;  in  Scotland,  td  a  sheriff;  in  Ireland, 
lo  a  county  court  judge,  chairman  of  quarter  sessions,  recorder, 
or  magistrate.  Pilotage  certificates  may  abo  be  granted  by 
pOotage  authorities,  availabfe  within  their  districts,  to  masters 
and  mates  of  ships;  and  the  holder  of  such  a  certificate  may  pilot 
any  ship  in  respect  of  which  it  is  available  without  incnrring  any 
penalty  for  not  employing  a  qualified  pilot. 
i0  The  statute  further  makes  special  regulation  for  Trinity  House 
pilots.  Every  such  pilot,  on  his  appointment,  must  execute  a 
bond  for  {100  conditioned  for  due  observance  of  the  Trinity 
House  regulations  and  by-laws,  and  thereupon  be  is  not  liable 
iyr  neglect  or  Wttat  of  skill  to  anybody  beyond  the  penalty  of  tlie 


bond  and  the  amount  payable  to  him  for  pOota^  on  tlie  voyice 
on  which  he  was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his  so  becoming  Hable. 
The  licence  may  be  revoked  or  suspended  by  the  Trinity  House 
when  it  thinks  fit;  it  only  oontmues  in  force  for  a  year,  and  the 
Trinity  House  has  absolute  discretion  whether  it  shall  be  renewed 
or  not. 

A  pilot  boat  is  approved  and  licensed  by  the  district  pilotage 
authority  who  appoints  or  removes  the  master  thereof.  In  order 
to  be  easily  recognized,  she  has  printed  on  herstem 
in  legible  white  letters  the  name  of  her  owner  and^??. 
her  port,  and  on  her  bowi  the  number  of  her  licence; 
the  remainder  of  the  boat  is  usually  Mack.  The  pilot  flag  is  a  icd 
and  white  horixontal  flag  of  a  comparatively  large  size,  and  is 
flown  from  a  con^cuous  position.  When  the  flag  is  flown  born 
a  merchant  vessel,  it  indicates  that  a  licensed  pilot  ia  on  board 
or  that  the  master  or  mate  hdds  a  certificate  entitling  him  to 
pilot  the  ship.  By  order  in  council  of  zgoo^  on  and  after  the  itt 
day  of  January  1901  the  signals  for  a  pilot  displayed  together  or 
separately  are:  In  daytime,  there  is  (1)  hoisted  at  the  lore  the 
pilot  jack  (Union  Jack  having  round  it  a  white  border,  one-fifth 
of  the  breadth  of  the  flag);  (2)  the  tmemational  code  pilotage 
signal  indicated  by  P.T.;  (3)  theintenuitional  code  flag  S.  (wlatc 
with  small  blue  square  centre),  with  or  without  the  code  pennaBi; 
(4)  the  distant  signal  consisting  of  a  cone  point  upwards,  havasg 
above  it  two  balls  or  shapes  resembling  badls.  By  night,  (1 )  ike 
pyrotechnic  light  commonly  known  as  a  blue  light,  crery  fiAcea 
seconds;  (2)  a  bright  white  light,  flashed  or  shown  at  short  or 
frequent  intervals  just  above  the  bnlwarks,  for  abont  a  nuoute 
at  a  time. 

Pilotage  in  British  waters  may  be  either  compulsocy  or  five 
for  all  or  certain  classes  of  ships.    From  parliamentary  pilotage 
returns,  it  appears  that  it  is  compulsory  in  about 
64  districts  of  the  United  Kingdom  (of  which  two-  \ 
thirds  are  the  Trinity  House  districts),  free  in  32,  free ' 
and  compulsory  in  8,  while  in  3  cases  (Berwick,  DingwaD  and 
Colcrainc)  no  particulars  are  given.    British  warships  in  BritU 
waters  are  not  compelled  to  empby  apilot.the  navigatii^  ofin 
becoming  the  pilot  imder  the  direction  of  the  captain.    If  i 
pilot  be  employed,  the  captain  and  navigating   ofllccr  an 
not  relieved  from  responsibility.    They  supervise  the  pikt. 
and  should,  if  necessary,  remove  him  from  the  shtp^    In  tkt 
majority  of  foreign  poru  British  wardships  are  exempted  fmn 
emptying  pilots,  but  the  Sues  Canal  and  the  poru  of  Fiasce 
are  exceptions.    The  Merchant  Shipping  Act  1894  continues  the 
compulsory  employment  of  pilots  in  all  districu  where  it  «3S 
already  compulsory,  and  also  the  already  existing  exempcieas. 
and  there  is  no  power  in  any  pilotage  authwity  or  tiie  Board  «i 
Trade  to  increase  the  area  of  compulsory  pilotage,  though  tine 
is  to  diminish  it.    Compulsion  is  enforced  by  a  provision  in  tbe 
act,  that  within  a  district  where  compulsory  pilotage  exists,  the 
master  of  an  unexempted  ship  who  pilots  her  himself  vitbovt 
holding  the  necessary  certificate,  after  a  qualified  pilot  has  otflcftd 
or  signalled  to  take  charge  of  the  ship,  shall  he  liable  for  each 
offence  to  a  £ne  of  double  the  amount  of  the  piloiage  dma 
demandable  for  the  conduct  of  the  ship^    The  exemptions  inm 
compulsory  pilotage  still  exbting  in  Britkb  territorial  vatcn 
are  as  follows:   Ships  or  vessels'  with  British*  regiMcrs  tiadiaf 
to  Norway  or  the  C&ttegat  or  the  Baltic  (except  vessel  «o 
vojrages  between  any  port  in  Sweden  or  Norway  and  the  port  01 
London),  or  round  the  North  Cape,  or  Into  the  White  S^  ci 
their  inward  or  outward  voyages,  whether  coming  iq>  by  North  <r 
South  Channels;  any  constant  British  traders  inwards  feotn  pons 
between  Bouk>gne  inclusive  and  the  Baltic  coming  up  by  North 
Channel,  and  say  British  ships  or  vessels  trading  to  ports 
between  the  same  limits  on  their  outward  passages  and  mkeo 
coming  up  by  the  Sonth  Chsnneb;  Irish  traders  using  tlie  a«v>- 
gat  ion  of  the  Thames  and  Med  way;  ships  engaged  in  the  regaUr 
couting  trade  of  the  kingdom;  ships  or  vcaseb  wholly  laden  «->•  > 
stone  produced  in  the  Channel  Ishnds  and  Isle  of  Man  and  bcoor  *« 
thence;  ships-  or  vcsscb  not  exceeifing  60  tons,  whether  Brit  ^ 
or  bebnging  to  a  foreign  country  sptd&td  by  order  ia  coancA 
shlpswithaa  the  limiu  of  the  pott  or  pisee  to  which  ibey  belong,  i 


PILOT 


6i3 


this  is  not  a  place  pwtictilariy  provided  for  1^  Mt  ol  IVufiaivent 
or  diarter  as  regards  the  appointment  of  pilots;  ships  passing 
through  the  limits  oi  any  pilotage  district  in  their  voyafles  from 
one  port  to  another  port,  and  not  being  bound  to  any  port  or 
place  within  «uch  limits  or  anchoring  therein^  but  not  including 
ships  loading  or  discharging  at  any  place  situate  within  the 
district,  or  at  any  place  situate  above  the  district  on  the  same 
river  or  its  tributaries.  Ships  whose  masters  or  mates  arc  owners 
or  part-owners  o(  them,  and  living  at  Dover.  Deal,  or  the  Isle  of 
Thanet,  may  be  piloted  by  them  from  any  of  these  places  up  and 
down  the  Thames  or  Medway,  or  into  or  out  of  any  place  or  port 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  The  following 
ships  in  the  Londcm  district  and  Trinity  outport  districts  are 
also  exempt  when  not  carrying  passengers,  namely:  Ships 
cmfrfoyed  in  the  coasting  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom;  ships  of 
not  more  than  60  tons  burden;  ships  trading  to  or  from  any  port 
in  Great  Britain  wrthin  the  above  districts  to  or  from  the  port 
of  Brest  in  France,  and  any  port  in  Europe  (which  does  not 
include  the  United  Kingdom)  north  and  east  of  Brest,  or  to  the 
Channel  Islands  or  Isle  of  Man;  and  ships  navigating  within  the 
limits  of  the  port  to  which  they  belong.  The  port  to  or  from 
which  the  ship  must  be  **  trading  "  in  this  provision  has  been 
interpreted  by  the  decisions  to  mean  the  port  where  the  cargp 
a  substantially  discharged  or  loaded  respectively;  and  the  word 
"  coaster  "  similarly  has  been  held  to  apply  only  to  a  vessel 
carrying  to  one  port  of  the  United  Kingdom  a  cargo  which  has 
been  taken  in  at  another.  Every  ship  carrying  passengers 
between  any  place  in  the  British  Islands  and  any  other  place  so 
situate  must  carry  a  compulsory  pilot,  unless  her  master  or  matQ 
have  a  pilotage  certificate.  The  effect  in  Uw  of  the  ship  (British 
or  foreign)  being  in  charge  of  a  compulsory  pilot  under  the  act 
is  that  her  owner  and  master  are  not  answerable  to  any  person 
whatever  for  any  loss  or  damage  ocxasioned  by  the  fault  or 
incapacity  of  any  qualified  pilot  acting  in  charge  of  such  ship 
within  any  district  whero  the  employment  of  such  pilot  is  com- 
pulsory by  law.  In  order  to  take  advantage  of  this  privilege^ 
the  shipowner  must  show  (i)  that  a  properly  qualified  pUot  waa 
acting  in  charge  of  the  ship;, there  are,  however,  various  kinds  of 
qualified  pilots-^thequalifi^  pilot  whoisalways  capable  of  acting, 
and  the  qualified  pilot  who  is  liable  to  be  superseded  if  a  better 
can  be  obtained;  (a)  that  that  charge  was  compulsory;  the  pilot, 
however,  need  not  be  oompulsorily  employed  at  the  place  where 
the  accident  happened,  so  long  as  he  is  comptdsorily  employed 
within  the  district  where  it  happens;  (3)  that  it  was  solely  the 
pilot's  fault  or  incapacity  which  caused  the  damage.  Similarly, 
under  the  Harboun,  Piers  and  Docks  Clauses  Act,  the  owner  of  a 
vessel  is  not  liable  for  damage  done  thereby  to  docks  or  piers 
when  she  is  in  charge  of  a  duly  licensed  pilot. 

This  statutory  exemption  of  a  ship  in  charge  of  a  compulsory 
pilot  from  any  liability  for  her  nc|^ent  na^gation  by  that 
pilot,  is  only  declaratory  of  the  common  law  of  England,  and'  is 
based  on  the  principle  that  the  pilot  is  a  state  official  put  in 
charge  of  a  ship,  and  is  not  the  servant  of  the  shipowner  so  as  to 
make  him  Uable  for  his  negligence;  and  a  British  court  gives  the 
same  effect  to  any  foreign  or  colonial  (aw  which  makes  it  com- 
pulsory on  shipowners  to  put  a  pilot  in  charge  of  their  ship  when 
within  their  jurisdiction.  Most  foreign  codes,  however,  while 
agreeing  with  Enf^ish  law  in  making  the  presence  of  a  pilot  on 
board  compulsory,  difTer  from  it.  in  not  putting  him  in  charge  oi 
the  ship;  and  in  this  case  the  defence  of  compulsory  pilotage 
cannot  be  pleaded  successfully  in  British  eourts.  Judicial 
decisions  have  established  that  French,  Suez  Canal,  Danube  and 
Dutch  pilots  are  not  compulsory  pilots  in  the  British  sense  of  the 
word,  being  only  advisers  of  the  master,  or  *'  living  charts." 
Bat  if  the  pilot  is  put  in  charge  by  the  foreign  or  cblomal  law, 
although  that  law  expressly  provides  that  in  spite  of  the  owner 
surrendering  the  charge  of  the  ship  to  him  the  owner  shall  still 
remain  liable,  a  British  court  will  hold  the  owner  free  from 
liability,' on  the  ground  that  to  make  any  person  liable  for  a  tort 
committed  abroad,  the  act  complained  of  must  be  wrongful  not 
only  according  to  the  foreign  law,  but  also  by  English  law. 
This  consequence  whicl^  English  law  attaches  to  the  employment 


of  a  cxHBptiboiy  pQot  has  been  much  critidaBd  in  lectbt  thnea, 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  foreign  view  is  much  more  saAbfactoiy 
In  regarding  the  pilot  merely  as  the  adviser  and  not  the  superior 
of  the  master.  Moreover,  the  ad<^ion  of  the  foreign  law  on  this 
point  wotdd  restore  the  old  general  maritime  law.  The  poKcy 
of  the  law  was  at  one  time  incline  to  extend  this  principle  of 
compulsory  pilotage,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  for  the  benefit  of 
commerce  and  the  safety  of  seamen's  lives,  but  it  now  restricts 
it  within  as  narrow  limits  as  possible,  e.;.  the  presence  of  a 
compulsory  pih>t  on  board  a  tow  who  is  ditectmg  the  navigation 
of  a  tugdocs  not  protect  the  tug-owner  from  liability  for  ne^igent 
navigation.  As  already  pointed  out,  pilotage  authorities  have 
00  power  to  extend  its  scope. 

A  pilot  who  Is  oompulsorily  in  charge  of  a  ship  under  Engjtslf 
law  has  supreme  control  over  her  navigation,  superseding  the 
master  for  the  time  being;  and  if  she  is  a  tow  he  has  also  control  of 
the  navjgatkm  of  her  tug.  The  judicial  decisions  establish  that 
it  is  within  his  province  to  decide  whether  the  ship  shall  get  undet 
way,  the  proper  time  and  place  for  her  to  anchor,  the  way  of  canyitig 
her  anchor,  the  proper  orders  for  the  helm,  her  rate  of  speed,  and 
whether  the  sututory  rules  of  navigation  shall  be  complied  with ; 
and  the  master  and  crew  must  not  interfere  with  his  control,  and 
only  remain  liable  for  the  proper  execution  of  the  pihM's  orders 
and  the  trim  and  general  efficiency  as  to  look-out,  &c.,  of  the  ship. 
The  master,  however,  is  bound  to  supersede  the  pilot  in  case  of 
his  intoxicatibn  or  mam'fest  incapadty,  and  to  interfere  if  there 
»  a  clear  and  plain  prospect  of  danger  to  the  ship  in  following  the 
pilot's  directions,  e.g.  getting  under  way  in  a  thick  fog.  The 
pilot  is  entitled  to  receive  from  the  master  assistance  in  haviqg  his 
attention  called  to  anything  which  a  competent  mariner  would 
see  that  he  ought  to  know.  A  pilot  taken  voluntarily,  and  not  by 
compulsion  of  hw,  is  considered  as  the  servant  of  the  shipowner, 
and  as  such  renders  him  liable  for  his  acts  of  negligence  towards 
third  parties.  He  does  not,  it  seems,  Siq>ersede  the  master  in 
the  control  of  the  ship,  but  only  advises  him.  The  Admiralty 
and  the  Board  of  Trade  and  the  Trinity  House  all  take  the  view 
that  the  captain  or  master  is  bound  to  keep  a  vigilant  eye  on  the 
navigation  of  the  vessel  by  the  pilot,  and  insist  on  all  proper 
precautions  being  taken.  For  the  purposes  of  a  policy  of  marine 
insurance  a  ship  is  not  seaworthy  without  a  pSot  in  con^ndsory 
pilotage  waters;  and  where  there  is  no  legal  compdslon  to  have 
one,  but  the  locality  requires  navigation  by  a  person  having  local 
knowledge,  it  has  been  said  that  a  ship  must  take  a  pilot,  certainly 
when  leaving  a  port,  and  probably  on  entering  a  port  if  a  jMlot  ia 
available. 

A  pilot  can  sue  for  his  pilotage  fee  at  common  law  or  in 
Admiralty  (^.v.),  in  the  hitter  case  provided  that  the  contract 
was  made  and  the  work  done  not  within  the  body  of  a  county; 
but  he  has  a  summary  remedy  by  statute  which  is  of  easier 
appfa'catwn.  He  cannot  be  sued  in  Admiralty  for  damage  dona 
^  a  collision  caused  by  his  negligence  (e.f.onthe  Admiralty  side 
of  a  county  court  having  Admiralty  jurisdiction);  but  he  can  be 
made  liable  at  common  law  or  in  the  Admiralty  Division  of  the 
High  Court,  although  in  the  case  of  a  Trinity  House  pilot  his 
liability  Is  limited  to  the  amount  of  his  bond  and  pilotage  fee 
then  being  earned  (see  above);  but  the  court  has  refused  to  Join 
him  as  a  defendant  to  an  action  in  rem  brought  against  the  ship 
of  which  he  had  the  charge.  A  pilotage  authority  ^annotbo 
made  liable  for  the  negligent  navigation  of  a  ship  by  a  pitot  whkfa 
it  has  licensed,  for  he  Is  not  Its  servant,  though  it  has  been  held 
Hable  for  the  negligence  of  a  person  not  licensed  by  It  as  a  pitot, 
but  employed  by  it  for  wages  to  pilot  ships  hifo  a  harbour  under 
its  jurisdiction,  itself  taking  the  pilotage  dutsand  applying  them 
for  harbour  purposes.  A  pilot  is  not  in  common  employment 
with  the  master  and  crew  of  a  ship,  and  can  recover  for  any 
mjuxy  done  him  by  their  negligence.  He  may  be  entitled  to 
claim  salvage  from  a  ship  of  which  he  has  charge,  if  the  services 
he  renders  are  beyond  the  scope  of  his  fnlotage  contract,  either 
from  the  outset  or  owing  to  supervening  circumstances,  but  not 
otherwise,  whether  he  is  on  board  her  or  leading  her  fromhts 
boat.    (See  Salvage.) 

In  the  Unit0d  SbUtt  pilotage  laws  are  regulated  by  the  *rrspe<*tive 


6i6 


PINACOTHECA— PINCKNEY^  C.  C. 


(Lt^Min,  1700).  Slid  his  chronicic  of  John  H.  in  vol.  it  of  the  same 
collection  (Lisbon,  17Q2).  The  introduction  to  the  chronicle  of 
King  Duarte  contains  the  fullest  account  of  PIna's  life.       (£.  Pr.) 

PIKACOTHECA.  a  picture-gallery  (Gr.  rtivicoft^,  from  vha^, 
a  tablet  or  picture).  The  name  is  especially  given  to  the  building 
containing  pictures  which  formed  the  left  wing  of  the  Propylaea 
on  thtf  Acropolis  at  Athens.  Though  Pausanias  (Bk.  II.,  xxii.  6} 
speaks  of  the  pictures  "  which  time  had  not  effaced,"  which 
seems  to  point  to  fresco  painting,  the  fact  that  there  is  no  trace 
of  any  preparation  for  stucco  on  the  walls  rather  shows  that  the 
paintings  were  easel  pictul-es  0*  G.  Frazer,  Pau9anias*s  Descrip- 
lum  of  Greece,  1898,  ii.  252).  The  Romans  adopted  the  term 
for  the  room  in  a  private  house  containing  picttires,  statues, 
and  other  works  of  art.  It  is  used  for  a  public  gallery  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  as  at  Bologna  and  Turin.  At  Munich  there 
are  two  galleries  known  as  the  Old  and  New  Pinakothek. 

PINAR  DEL  RIO,  capital  of  Pinar  del  Rio  Province,  Cuba, 
about  107  m.  S.W.  by  railway  from  Havana.  Pop.  (1907), 
10,634.  The  city  is  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Guama.  It  Is  the 
centre  of  the  tobacco  industry  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  region.  Its 
port  is  La  Coloma,  on  the  southern  coast.  The  pueblo  was 
created  after  1773;  but  the  history  of  the  settlement  goes  back 
to  157 1,  and  the  parochial  church  dates  from  17 10. 

PINCKHEY,  CHARLES  (1757-1824),  American  statesman, 
was  bom  on  the  a6th  of  October  1757  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina;  he  was  the  son  of  Charles  Pinckney  (1731-1784),  first 
president  of  the  first  South  Carolina  Provincial  Congress  (Jan. 
to  June  X77s),  and  a  cousin  of  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney  and 
Thomas  Pinckney.  He  was  studying  law  at  the  outbreak  d 
the  War  of  Independence,  served  in  the  early  campaigns  in  the 
South,  and  in  1779  was  elected  to  the  South  Carolina  House  of 
Representatives.  He  was  captured  by  the  British  at  the  fall 
of  Charleston  (1780),  and  remained  a  prisoner  until  the  close 
of  hostilities.  He  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation  in  1784,  1785  and  1786,  and  in  1786  he  moved 
the  appointment  of  a  committee  "  to  take  into  consideration 
the  affairs  of  the  nation,"  advocating  in  this  connexion  an  en- 
largement of  the  powers  of  Congress.  The  committee  having 
been  appointed,  Pinckney  was  made  chairman  of  a  sub-commit- 
tee which  prepared  a  plan  for  amending  the articlesof  confedera- 
tion. In  1 787  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Federal  constitutional 
convention,  and  on  the  same  day  (May  29)  on  which  Edmund 
Randolph  (^.r.)  presented  what  is  known  as  the  Virginia  plan, 
Pinckney  presented  a  draft  of  a  constitution  which  is  known  as 
the  Pinckney  plan.  Although  the  Randolph  resolutions  were 
made  the  basis  on  which  the  new  constitution  was  framed, 
Pinckney's  plan  seems  to  have  been  much  drawn  upon. 
Furthermore,  Pinckney  appears  to  have  made  valuable  sugges- 
tions regarding  phrasing  and  matters  of  detail.  On  the  i8th  of 
August  he  introduced  a  scries  of  resolutions,  and  to  him  should 
probably  be  accredited  the  authorship  of  the  substance  of  some 
thirty-one  or  thirty-two  provisions  of  the  constitution.'   Pinck- 

'  The  *'  Pinckney  Plan  "  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable 
discussion.  When,  in  1818,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  preparing 
the  journal  of  the  convention  for  publication  and  discovered  that 
the  Pinckney  plan  was  missine,  he  wrote  to  Pinckney  for  a  coD^t 
and  Pinckney  sent  him  what  nc  asserted  was  either  a  copy  of  nis 
original  draft  or  a  copy  of  a  draft  which  differed  from  the  original* 
in  no  essentials.  But  as  this  was  found  to  bear  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  draft  reported  by  the  committee  of  detail,  Madison  and  others, 
who  had  been  members  of  the  conventkm,  as  well  as  historians, 
treated  it  as  spurious,  and  for  years  Pinckney  received  little  credit 
for  his  work  in  the  convention.  Later  hbtonans,  however,  notably 
J.  Franklin  Jameson  and  Andrew  C.  McLaughlin,  have  accredited 
to  him  the  suggestion  of  a  number  of  provisions  of  the  constitution 
as  a  result  oTthetr  efforts  to  rcconstnict  his  original  plan  chiefly 
from  his  speeches*  or  alleged  M)ceches,  and  from  certain  papers 
of  James  Wilson,  a  member  01  the  committee  of  detail,  one  of 
which  papers  is  believed  to  be  an  outline  of  the  Pinckney  plan. 
See  J.  F.  Jameson.  "Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Federal  Con- 
vention of  1787."  in  the  Annw^  Report  of  the  American  Historical 
Association  tor  1902,  vol.  i.;  A.  C.  McLaughlin,  "  Outline  of  Pinck- 
ney's  Plan  for  a  Constitution,"  in  The  Nation,  April  28,  1904;  an 
article  entitled  "Sketch  of  Pinckncy's  Plan  for  a  Constitution." 
in  the  American  Historical  Review  for  July  1904;  and  C.  C.  Nott, 
The  Mystery  of  Ike  Pinckney  Draught  (New  York,  1908),  an  attempt 
by  a  fonaer  cnie(-justice  of  the  U.S.  Court  of  CfaUms  to  prove  that 


ney  was  president  of  the  State  Convention  of  1790  that  framed 
a  new  constitution  for  South  Carolina,  was  governor  of  the 
state  from  1 789  to  1792,  a  member  of  the  state  House  of  Represen- 
tatives in  1793-1796,  and  again  governor  from  1796  to  1798. 
From  1799  to  1801  be  was  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  He  entered  public  life  as  a  Federalist ,  but  later  becaiec 
the  leader  in  organizing  the  Democratic-Republican  patty  la 
his  state,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  success  of  Thomas 
Jefferson  in  the  presidential  election  of  tSoo.  By  Jeffersoo*!! 
appointment  he  was  American  minister  to  Spain  from  1801  to 
1805.  In  general  his  mission  was  a  disthict  faSure,  his  arrogance 
and  indiscretions  finally  causing  the  Spanish  goveranaent  to 
request  his  recall.  He  was  elected  to  the  state  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1805,  was  again  governor  of  South  Carolina  inm 
t8o6  to  t8o8,  in  1810-1814  was  once  more  a  member  of  the 
state  House  of  Representatives,  m  which  he  defended  Presidest 
Madison's  war  policy,  and  from  1819  to  1821  was  a  member  of 
the  National  House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  opposed 
the  Missouri  Compromise  in  a  brilliant  speech.  -He  <&d  at 
Charieston,  South  Carolina,  on  the  29th  of  Octobier  1894. 

His  ton,  Hensy  LAuams  Pinckney  (1794-1863),  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  state  House  of  Representatives  in  1816-1832,  founded 
in  18x9  and  edited  for  fifteen  years  the  Charleston  Menmj, 
the  great  exponent  of  state's  rights  principles,  and  was  a  neBba 
of  the  National  House  of  Representatives  in  1833-1837. 

PINCRNBT»   CHARL88  OOTBSWORTH  (1746-1895),  Amcii- 
can  statesman,  was  bom  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  00  the 
25th  of  February  1746,  the  son  of  Charles  Pinckney  (d.  1758),' 
by  his  second  wife,  the  celebrated  girl  planter,  Bita  Luna. 
When  a  child  he  was  sent  to  Enghind,  like  his  brother  Tbomas 
after  him,  to  be  educated.     Both  of  them  were  at  Westauisicr 
and  Oxford  and  were  called  to  the  bar,  and  for  a  time  they 
studied  in  France  at  the  Royal  Military  Coilegeat  Caen.  .Rctnn* 
ing  to  America  in  1769,  C.  C  Pinckney  began  the  practice  cf 
law  at  Charleston,  and  soon  became  deputy  attorney-general  of 
the  province.    He  was  a  meml)er  of  the  first  Sooth  ^f{ff^ 
provincial  congress  in  1775,  served  as  colonel  in  the  Soeth 
Carolina  militia  in  1776-1777,'  was  chosen  president  of  the 
South  Carolina  Senate  in  1779,  took  part  in  the  Georgia  czped- 
tion  and  the  attack  on  Savannah  in  the  same  year,  was  captecA 
at  the  fall  of  Charieston  in  1780  and  was  kept  in  close  coefise- 
mcnt  until  1782,  when  he  was  exchanged.    In  X783  he  vas 
commissioned  a  brevet  brigadier-general  in  the  contineatil 
army.    He  was  an  influential  member  of  the  csonstitotkaal 
convention  of  1787,  advocating  the  counting  of  all  slaves  as  a 
basis  of  representation  and  opposing  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade.    He  opposed  as  "  impracticable  "  the  election  of  represe»> 
tatives  by  popular  vote,  and  also  opposed  the  payment  ci 
senators,  who,  he  thought,  should  be  men  of  wealth.     Sab«- 
quently  Pinckney  bore  a  prominent  part  in  securing  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  Federal  constitution  in  the  South  Carolina  ctmT«itMa 
called  for  that  purpose  in  1 788  and  in  framing  the  South  Carohoa 
State   Constitution  in  the  convention  of   1790.    After  the 
organization  of  the  Federal  government,  President  WashingioB 
offered  him  at  different  times  appointments  as  associate  justice  of 

the  Supreme  Court  (179})*  secretary  of  war  (1795)  and  secretary 
the  document  sent  by  Pinckney  to  Adams  in  i8t8  ia  a  gnuuoe 
copy  of  his  original  plan. 

*  Charles  Pinckney.  the  father,  was  long  prominent  in  coloniJ 
affairs;  he  was  attorney-general  of  the  province  in  17^3.  speaker  <i 
the  assembly  in  1736-1738  and  in  1740,  chiri  justKe  of  the  proviore 
in  1 752-1 753,  and  agent  for  South  Carolina  in  England  «a  17s >~ 
1758.  He  was  the  uncle  of  Charies  Pinckney  (1731-1784).  aiid  trw 
mat-uncle  of  Charies  Pincknev  (1757-1824).  Elua  Locas  Piackarv 
\e.  1722-1790  was  the  dauehter  01  Lieut.-Cokwiel  Geneve  Lurv 
of  the  British  army,  who  about  1738  removed  from  Antina  10 
South  Carolina,  where  he  acquired  several  plantations.  He  was 
almost  immediately  recalled  to  Antigua,  ana  bis  daughter  nndfr- 
took  the  management  of  the  plantattons  with  consptcuoiia  wscw^. 
She  is  said  to  tiave  been  the  first  to  introduce  mto  South  C«raia« 
(and  into  continental  North  America)  the  cultivation  and  aar~- 
facture  of  indigo,  and  she  also  imported  silkworuif  "in  1753  ^* 
presented  to  the  princess  of  Wales  a  dress  made  01  silk  from  ^et 
plantations.  She  was  married  to  Charles  Pindnwy  in  1744.  Sc« 
Harriott  H.  RavencI,  fi/ica  Pimclm^  (New  York,  1996^,  isi  che 
"  Women  of  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  Times  "  — '^ 


PINCKNEY,  T,— PINDAR 


617 


of  stale  (1795).  ^^^  of  which  he  dedined;  biu  ia  1796  he  sue- 
ceedcd  James  Moaroe  as  minister  to  France.  The  Directory 
refused  to  receive  him,  and  he  retired  to  Holland,  but  in  the  next 
year,  Elbridge  Gerry  and  John  Marshall  having  been  appointed 
to  act  with  him,  ht  a^n  repaired  to  Paris,  where  be  is  said  to 
have  made  the  famous  reply  to  a  veiled  demand  for  a  "  loan  " 
(in  reality  for  a  gift),  "  Millions  for.  defence,  bul  not  one  cent 
for  tribute,"  —another  version  is,  *'  No,  not  a  sixpence/'  The 
mission  accomplished  nothing,  and  Pinckncy  and  Marshall  left 
France  in  disgust,  Gerry  {q.v.)  remaining.  When  the  correspon- 
dence of  the  commissioners  was  sent  to  the  United  States 
Congress  the  letters  "  X,"  "  Y  "  and  "  Z,"  were  inscrud  in 
place  of  the  names  of  the  French  agents  with  whom  the  com- 
mission treated— hence  the  "  X  Y  Z  Correspondence,"  famous 
in  American  history.  In  1800  he  was  the  Federalist  candidate 
for  vice-president,  and  in  1S04  and  again  in  1808  for  president, 
receiving  14  electoral  votes  in  the  former  and  47  in  the  latter 
year.  From  1805  unlH  his  death,  on  the  i6lb  of  August  1825, 
he  was  president-general  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati.       ^ 

PINCKNET.  THOMAS  (1750-1828),  American  statesman  and 
diplomat,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  on  the  a5rd 
of  October  1730,  a  younger  brother  of  Charles  Cotcsworth 
Pinckney  (q.v.).    Educated  in  England,  he  returned  to  Charles- 
ton in  1773,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  i774<    During  the 
War  of  Independence  his  early  training  at  the  French  military 
college  at  Caen  enabled  him  to  render  effective  service  to  General 
Benjamin  Lincoln  in  1778-1779,  to  Count  d'Estaing  (1779).  to 
General  Lincoln  in  the  defence  of  Charleston  and  afterwards 
to  General  Horatio  Gates.    In  the  battle  of  Camden  he  was 
badly  wounded  and  captured,  remaining  a  prisoner  for   more 
than  a  year.    Subsequently  he  was  governor  of  South  Carolina 
in  1787-1789;  presided  over  the  state  convention  which  ratified 
the  Federal  constitution  in  1788;  was  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature  in  1791;  and  was  United  States  minister  to  Great 
Britain  in  1792-1796.    During  part  of  this  time  (1794-1795)  he 
was  also  envoy  extraordinary  to  Spain,  and  in  this  capacity  nego- 
tiated  (1795)  the  important  Treaty  of  San  Lorenzo  el  Real;  by 
that  treaty  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  East  and 
West  Florida  and  between  the  United  States  and  "  Louisiana  " 
was  settled  (Spain  relinqubhing  all  claims  east  of  the  Mississi|H>l 
above  31**  N.  lat.),  and  the  United  States  secured  the  freedom 
of  navigation  of  the  MississipiH  to  its  mouth  with  the  right  of 
deposit  at  New  Orieans  for  three  years,  after  which  the  United 
States  was  to  have  the  same  right  either  at  New  Orleans  or  at 
some  other  place  on  the  Mississippi  to  be  designated  by  Spain. 
in  1796  Pinckney  was  the  Federalist  candidate  for  vice-president, 
and  in  X797-180X  he  was  a  Federalist  representative  in  Congress. 
During  the  War  of  1812  he  was  a  major-general.    In  1835  he 
succeeded  his  brother  as  president-general  of  the  Society  of  the 
Cincinnati.    He  died  in  Charleston  on  the  znd  of  November 
1828.    IMnckney,  like  many  other  South  Carolina  revolutionary 
leaders,  was  of  aristocratic  birth  and  politics,  closely  connected 
with  England  by  ties  of  blood,  education  and  business  relations. 
This  renders  the  more  remarkable  their  attitude  in  the   War 
of  Independence,  for  which  they  made  great  sacrifices.    Men 
of  Pinckney's  type  were  not  in  sympathy  with  the  progressive 
democratic  spirit  of  America,  and  they  began  to  withdraw  from 
politics  after  about  1800. 

See  C.  C.  Pinckney,  Life  of  General  Thomas  Pinckney  (Boston, 
i«95). 

PINDAR  (Gr.  IItiiiSapot»  <.  S2>~443  Dc)»  the  great  lyric 
poet  of  ancient  Greece,  was  born  at  Cynoscephalae.  in  Boeotia, 
at  the  time  of  the  Pythian  games  {Jr.  175,  Bergk*,  193),' which 
is  taken  by  B5ckh  to  be  522  B.c  He  would  thus  be  some 
thirty'four  years  younger  than  Simonides  of  Ceos.  He  was  the 
son  of  Daiphantus  and  Clcodice  (or  Oeidice).  The  traditions 
of  his  family  have  left  their  Impress  on  his  poetry,  and  are  not 
without  importance  for  a  correct  estimate  of  his  relation  to  hts 
contemporaries.  The  dan  of  the  Aegidae — tracing  their  line 
from  the  hero  Aegeus — belonged  to  the  "  Cadmean  '*  element 

»  The  references  are  to  the  edition  of  Pindar  by  C  A.  M.  Fennel! 
(1893-1899).  and  the  fourth  edition  of  Berck's  Poelae  lyrict  graeci. 


of  Thebes,  m.  to  the  eMer  nobiUty  whose  suppoied  date  wem 
back  to  the  days  of  the  founder  Cadssus.  A  btandi  of  the 
Tbeban  Aegidae  had  been  settled  in  Achaean  times  at  Amyciae 
in  the  valley  of  the  Euroias  (Pind.  IstJtm.  vi.  14)^  and  aftec 
the  Dorian  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus  had  apparently  been 
adopted  by  the  Spartans  into  one  of  the  three  Docian  tribes. 
The  Spartan  Aegidae  helped  to  colonize  tbe  iahind  of  Them 
(Fytk,  V.  6&-70).  Another  branch  of  the  race  was  settled  at 
Cyrena  in  Africa;  and  Pindar  tclJs  how  his  Aegid  clan«nen  u 
Thebes  "  showed  honour  "  to  Cyrene  as  often  as  they  kept  the 
festival  of  the  Carnca  (Fyik.  v.  75).  Pindar  is  to  be  conceived, 
then,  assUnding  within  the  circle  of  those  families  for  whom  the 
heroic  myths  were  domestic  records.  He  had  a  personal  link 
with  the  memories  which  everywhere  were  most  cherished  by 
Dorians,  bo  less  than  with  those  whic]»  appealed  to  men  of 
"  Cadmean  "  or  of  Achaean  stock.  And  the  wide  ramifications 
of  the  Aegidae  throughout  Hellas  rendered  it  peculiarly  fitting 
that  a  member  of  that  illustrious  clan  should  celebrate  the  glories 
of  many  cities  in  verse  which  was  truly  PanheUenic. 

Pindar  is  said  to  have  received  lessons  in  flute-playing  from 
one  Scopelinus  at  Thebes,  and  afterwards  to  have  studied  at 
Athens  under  the  musicians  ApoUodorus  (or  Agathodes)  and 
Lasus  of  Hcrmionc.  In  his  youth,  as  the  story  went,  he  was 
defeated  in  a  poetical  contest  by  the  Theban  Corinna — who, 
in  reference  to  his  profuse  employment  of  Theban  mythology, 
is  said  to  have  advised  him  "  to  sow  with  the  hand,  not  with  the 
sack."  There  is  an  extant  fragment  in  which  Corinna  reproves 
another  Theban  poetess,  Myrtis,  "  for  that  she.  a  woman, 
contended  with  Pindar  "  (^t  /Said  ^oiw'  |/3a  lhi>6&pou>  tot*  ^) 
—a  sentiment  which  hardly  fits  the  story  of  Corinna's  own 
victory.  The  facts  that  stand  out  from  these  meagre  traditions 
are  that  Pindar  was  precocious  and  laborious.  Preparatory 
labour  of  a  somewhat  severe  and  complejc.kind  was,  indeed, 
indispensable  for  the  Creek  lyric  poet  of  that  age.  Lyric  com- 
position demanded  studies  not  only  in  metre  but  in  music,  and 
in  the  adaptation  of  both  to  the  intricate  movements  of  the 
choral  dance  (6px^<rrM4).  Several  passages  m  Pindar's  extant 
odes  gbnce  at  the  long  technical  development  of  Greek  lyric 
poetry  before  his  time,  and  at  the  various  elements  of  art  which 
the  lyrist  was  required  to  temper  into  a  harmonious  whde 
(see,  e.g.  01.  ill.  8,  vi.  91,  xiii.  18,  xiv.  15;  Pylk.  xii  33,  &c.)* 
The  earliest  ode  which  can  be  dated  (PytL  %,)  belongs  to.  thto 
twentieth  year  of  Pindar's  age  (502  bx  );  the  latest  (Olympi  v.) 
to  the  seventieth  (452  B.C.)  *  He  visited  the  court  of  Hiero  at 
Syracuse;  Theron,  the  despot  of  Acragas,  also  entertained  him; 
and  his  travels  perhaps  included  Cyrene.  Tradition  notices 
the  special  closeness  of  his  relations  with  Delphi;  **  He  was 
greatly  honoured  by  all  the  Greeks,  because  he  was  so  beloved 
of  Apollo  that  he  even  received  a  share  of  the  offeringsi  and  at 
the  sacrifices  the«pricst  would  cry  aloud  that  Pindar  come  in 
to  the  feast  of  the  god."*  His  wife's  name  was  Mcgacleia 
(another  account  says  Timoxcna,  but  this  may  have  been  a 
second  wife),  and  he  had  a  son  named  Daiphanttts  and  two 
daughters,  Eumetis  and  Protomache.  He  is  said  to  have  died 
at  Argos,  at  the  age  of  seventy-nine,  in  443  B.C. 

Among  the  Greeks  of  his  own  and  later  times  Pindar  was 
pre-eminently  distinguished  for  his  piety  towards  the  gods. 
He  tells  us  that,  "  near  to  the  vestibule  "  of  his  house  iPyih.  iil. 
78),  choruses  of  maidens  used  to  dance  and  sing  by  night  in 
praise  of  the  Mother  of  the  Gods  (Cybele)  and  Pan^iieilies 
peculiarly  associated  with  the  Phryf^n  music  of  the  flute,  in 
which  other  members  of  Pindar's  family  besides  the  poet  himseU 
are  said  to  have  excelled.  A  statue  and  shrine  of  Cybele,  which 
he  dedicated  at  Thebes,  were  the  work  of  the  Theban  artists, 
Aristomedes  and  Socrates.  He  also  dedicated  at  Thebes  a 
statue  to  Hermes  Agoraios,  and  another,  by  Calamis,  to  Zeus 
Ammon.  The  latter  god  claimed  his  especial  veneration  because 
Cyrene,  one  of  the  homes  of  his  Aegid  ancestry,  stood  "  where 
Zeus  Ammon  hath   his  seat,"  i.e.  near  the  oasis  and  temple 

'According  to  others,  his  latest  poem  is  the  eighth    Pythian 
ode,  450  or  446. 
*  Uuft&oov  Yi^ott  in  cd.  Aid. 


6i8 


PINDAR 


(Pylk.  iv.  t6>.  The  author  of  one  of  the  Greek  lives  of  Pfndar 
says  that,  "  when  Pausanias  the  kJng  of  the  Lacedaemonians 
was  Durning  Thebes,  some  one  wrote  on  Pindar's  house,  *  Burn 
not  the  house  of  Phidar  the  poet ';  and  thus  it  alone  escaped 
destruction."  This  incident,  of  which  the  occasion  is  not  further 
defined,  has  been  regarded  as  a  later  invention.*  Better 
attested,  at  least,  is  the  similar  clemency  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  he  sacked  Thebes  one  hundred  and  eight  years  after  the 
traditional  date  of  Pindar's  death  (335  B.C.).  He  spared  only 
(1)  the  Cadmcia,  or  citadel,  of  Thebes  (thenceforth  to  be  occupied 
by  a  Macedonian  garrison);  (2)  the  temples  and  holy  places;  and 
(3)  Pindar's  house.  While  the  inhabitants  were  sold  into 
slavery,  exception  was  made  only  of  (i)  priests  and  priestesses; 
(a)  persons  who  had  been  connected  by  private  ^la  with 
Philip  or  Alexander,  or  by  public  {e^a  with  the  Macedonians; 
(3)  Pindar's  descendants.  It  is  probable  enough,  as  Dio  Chry- 
sostom  suggests  (ii.  33),  that  Alexander  was  partly  moved  by 
personal  gratitude  to  a  poet  who  had  celebrated  his  ancestor 
Alexander  I.  of  Macedon.  But  he  must  have  beoi  also,  or 
chiefly,  influenced  by  the  sacredness  which  in  the  eyes  of  all 
Hellenes  surrounded  Pindar's  memory,  not  only  as  that  of  a 
great  national  poet,  but  also  as  that  of  a  man  who  had  stood 
in  a  specially  ch)8e  relation  to  the  gods,  and,  above  all,  to  the 
Delphian  ApoUo.*  Upwards  of  six  hundred  years  after  Pindar's 
death  the  traveller  Pausanias  saw  an  iron  chair  which  was 
preserved  among  the  most  precious  treasures  of  the  temple  in 
the  sanctuaiy  at  Delphi.  It  was  the  chair,  he  was  told,  "  in 
which  Pindar  used  to  sit,  whenever  he  came  to  Delphi,  and  to 
chant  those  of  his  songs  which  pertain  to  ApoUo  "  (x.  24,  5). 

During  the  second  half  of  Pindar's  life,  Athens  was  rising 
to  that  supremacy  in  literature  and  art  which  was  to  prove  more 
lasting  than  her  political  primacy.  Pindar  did  not  live  to  see 
the  Parthenon,  or  to  witness  the  mature  triumphs  of  Sophocles; 
but  he  kntw  the  sculpture  of  Calamis,  and  he  may  have  known 
the  masterpieces  of  Aeschylus.  It  Is  interesting  to  note  the 
feeling  of  this  great  Theban  poet,  who  stands  midway  between 
Homeric  epos  and  Athenian  drama,  towards  the  Athens  of  which 
Thebes  was  so  often  the  bitterest  foe,  but  with  which  he  himself 
had  so  large  a  measure  of  spiritual  kinship.  A  few  words  remain 
from  a  dithyramb  in  which  he  paid  a  Rowing  tribute  to  those 
"  sons  of  Athens  "  who  "  laid  the  shining  foundations  of  free- 
dom "  (voices  'AtforaW  ifiiiXoinv  ^ofwdy  icfntrib*  i\evetplas, 
fr  55,  BergkS  77),  while  Athens  itself  is  thus  invoked: 
&  rnl  \irafiaX  tad  UMrkiMPtu  md  haiiiiiM,  *EXX«Saos  tpnaita,  jcJ^ral 
•AtfoMU,  BoitiAifW  wroUapw  (fr.  54,  Bcrgk«,  76).  Isocrales, 
writing  in  353  B.C.,  states  that  the  phrase  'EXXdJoJ  tpHffna, 
"  suy  of  Hellas,"  so  greatly  gratified  the  Athenians  that  they 
conferred  on  Pindar  the  high  distinction  of  rpo^fa  (U. 
appointed  him  honorary  consul,  as  it  were— for  Athens  at  Thebes), 
besides  presenting  him  with  a  large  sum  of  ifioney  (Anh'dosis, 
166).  One  of  the  letters  of  the  pseudo-Aeschincs  (Ep.  iv.)  gives 
an  improbable  turn  to  the  story  by  saying  that  the  Thcbans 
hadfined  Pindar  for  his  praise  of  Athens,  and  that  the  Athcm'ans 
repaid  him  twice  the  sum.*  The  notice  preserved  by  Isocrates 
—less  than  one  hundred  years  after  Pindar's  death—is  good 
warrant  for  the  belief  that  Pindar  had  received  some  exceptional 
honours  from  Athens.  Pausanias  saw  a  statue  of  Pindar  at 
Athens,  near  the  temple  of  Ares  (i.  8,  4).  Besides  the  fragment 
just  mentioned,  several  passages  in  Pindar's  extant  odes  bespeak 
his  love  for  Athens.  Its  name  is  almost  always  joined  by  him 
with  some  epithet  of  praise  or  reverence.  In  alluding  to  the 
great  battles  of  the  Persian  wars,  while  he  gives  the  glory  of 
Plataea  to  the  Spartans,  he  assigns  that  of  Salamis  to  the 
Athenians  (Pytk.  I  76).    In  celebrating  (Pytk.  vii.)  the  Pythian 

I  ^  ^.!?¥*'''  ^^^fffi^nes  und  seine  ZeU.  iii.  1 19. 
.  .*'il.^  remarked  that  history  requires  us  to  modify  the  state- 
ment m  Milton  •  famous  bnes :— 

"  The  great  Emathian  conqueror  bade  spare 
The  house  of  Pindarus.  when  lempU  and  to^-er 
Went  to  the  jjround." 
Indeed,  the  point  of  the  incident  depends  much  on  the  fact  that  the 
temples  and  Pindar's  house  were  classed  together  for  exemption. 

•  Compare  Jcbb.  A  Uic  Orators,  ii.  1 43.  *^ 


victory  of  the  Athenian  Megades,  he  begins  thus:  "  Fairest  of 
preludes  is  the  renown  of  Athens  for  the  mighty  race  of  the 
Alcmaeonidae.  What  home,  or  what  house,  could  I  call  mine 
by  a  name  that  should  sound  more  glorious  fpr  Hellas  to  hear?" 
Referring  to  the  fact  that  an  Aeginetan  victor  in  the  games  had 
been  trained  by  an  Athenian,  he  says  {Nem.  v.  49)  "  meet  it  is 
that  a  ^aper  of  athletes  should  come  from  Athens" — and 
recollecting  how  often  Pindar  compares  the  poct'tf  efforts  to  the 
athlete's,  we  may  well  believe  that  he  was  thinking  of  his  owit 
early  training  at  Athens. 

Pindar's  versatility  as  a  lyric  poet  is  one  of  the  chamcteristio 
remarked  by  Horace  {Odes,  iv.  a),  and  is  proved  by  the  fragments, 
though  the  poems  which  have  come  down  entire  w^*- 
represent  only  one  class  of  compositions— the  ^"^ 
Epinieia,  or  odes  of  victory,  commemorating  successes  in  the 
great  games.  The  lyric  types  to  which  the  fragments  befeng, 
though  it  cannot  be  assumed  that  the  list  is  o)mplete^  are  at 
least  numerous  and  varied. 

<i)  T/iixM,  ffymns  to  deities— as  to  Zeus  Anunoo,  to  PteraqJwne. 
to  Fortune.    The  fragmentary  C/uw   entitled   Otfinkn   seems  to 
have  Gckbratcd  the  deities  of   Thebes,     (a)  niu«*»f,_^^^ 
paeans,  exprcsainff  prayer   or   praise  for  the  help  of"^^»~~* 
a    protecting   god,    especially    ApoUo,    Artemis    or    Zeus.     (3) 
^MfMtifioi,    Dithyrambs,  odes  of  a  lofty  and  impassioned  ttaa, 
sung  by  choruses  in  honour  of  Dionysus  (cf.  Pind.  OT,  xia.  li, 
rol  £kuarOaov  irW^  ^^onv  viF  /SofX&rfi  Xdptrn  ^itfupAi^     »bat 
Pindar   alludes   to   the   choral   form  jeiven   to   the   dithyiu^ 
c.  600  B.C.,  by  Arion— AnfXdnic,  "ox-driving,"  perhaps  moiuH 
•  winning  an  ox  as   pnie  ").     (4)   HpcmMm,  Procesnmel  Senrs, 
choral  chants  for  worshippers  approaching  a  shrioe.    Otoe  iia« 
written  by  Pindar  for  the  Delians,  another  for  tlie  AcnnciAns. 
^)  UofiOina,  Choral  Smgs  for  Maidens.    The  reference  m  Pjdk 
ui.  78  to  maidens  worshipping  Cybele  and   Pan  near  tbe  port's 
house  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  one  of  these  n«^«i»w  imoksd 
•*  Ran,  lord  of  Arcadia,  attendant  of  the  Great  Mother,  watcher  d 
her  awful  shrine "  (fr.  72,  Bcrgk*.  95).     (6)   Twopx^^mr^  Cko^ 
Uance-Songs,  adapted  to  a  hvely  movement,  used  fiom  «a  arty 
date  m  the  cult  of  Applb,  and  afterwards  in  that  of  other  gods. 
especially  Dionysus.    To  this  class  belongs  one  of  the  finest  W- 
mcnis  (84,  Bei^«,  107),  written  for  the  Thcbans  in  conncxioQ  m:^ 
propittatonr  rites  after  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  probably  that  of 
the  30th  of  April  463  B.C    (7)  *EnfcAttM.  Songs  9f  Praise  (for  ma. 
while  Bmpoi  were  for  gods),  to  be  sung  by  a  cwfMt  or  festal  cooiparr. 
In  strictness  hfit&tuov  was  the   genus   of   whkA  fviKcMr    ^a?  i 
species;  but  the  latter  is  more  conveniently  treated  as  a  distiac. 
kind.    Pindar  wrote  encomia  for  Thcron,  d^pot  of  Acragas.  sad 
Cor  AJocander  I.  (son  of  Amyntas),  king  of  Macedon.     (8)U)Lt. 
Festal  Songs.    The  usual  sense  of  c*i>Mir  is  a  drinking««onff    uia 
up  by  one  guest  after  another  at  a  banquet.     But  Puidars  cwh\^ 
were  choral  and  antistrophk:.    One  was  to  be  sung  at  Corinth  t\ 
a  chorus  of  the  kp66oiAoc  attached  to  the  temfSe  of  ApbRsdli 
Ourania,  when  a  qertainr  Xenophon  offered  sacrifice  before  goiu  ta 
compete  at  Olympia.    Another  brilliant  fragment,  for  ThfCtasRaai 
of  Tencdos,  has  an  erotic  character.    (0)  OA«w^  Dirges,  to  be  su* 
With  choral  dance  and  the  music  of  the  flute,  either  at  the  bimJ 
^  the  dead  or  in  commemorative  rituals.    Some  of  the  boa 
beautiful  fragmenU  belong  to  this  class  (fo^lio,  Bergk\  xao-iTtl 
One  of  the  smaller  fragments  (114.  Bergk*.  I37>— to  raenwry  rfaa 
Athenian  who  had  been  injtiatcd  into  the  Elcusinian   way^ter^ 
(lAdr  Mim) — has  been    conjecturally  referred  to  the  Op^rm  wfcjcfe 
Pindar  u  said  to  have  written  (schol.  Pytk.  viL  18)  for  Hipoocrat^ 
the  grandfather  of  Pericfes.    A  aumbef  of  small  (ragmeats.  wbkh 
cannot  be  certainly  classified,  are  usually  given  as  l(  M^^^mp  rfiw; 
"  of  uncertain  class."    On  comparine  toe  above  list  with  Honcv 
Odes,  iv.  2,  it  will  be  seen  that  he  alludes  to  No.  3  (ditkyrmbc    - 
to  Nos.  I,  2,  and  7  (jinc  deos  rcgtiM  canit);  and  to  No.  o  ikr*ii 
spansae  jtaenenne  raptum  Ploraty^%  well  as  to  the  eztaot  EiSncm 
(ntw  qnas  Elea  dowtum  reducU  Palma  caelestes).  ' 


The  Epinicia.— The  trufUcia  (sc,  M^Xq),  or  hnpUeeot  («. 
K/irn),  "  Odes  of  Victory,"  form  a  coUectioD  of  f€»ty<lbcR'  odes. 
traditionally  divided  into  fotir  books,  answering  to  the  Ukj 
groat  festivals:  (t)  'Gkutmm^imt  (sc,  C/inx):  fouteea  odes  icr 
winners  of  the  wfld  olive-wreath  in  the  Olympian  gimn.  beM 
at  Olympia  in  hoaour  of  Zeus  cmce  Jn  four  yean;  (a)  UwBm^umi 
twelve  odes  for  innneis  of  the  Uurel-wreatli  in  the  Fytfaiaa 
games  held  at  Delphi  in  honour  of  Apollo,  once  in  four  yea:^ 
the  third  of  each  Olympiad;  (3)  Ne/wonxot:  eleven  odes  fv 
winnen  of  the  pine-wreath  hi  the  Nemeaa  games,  held  at  Kenea. 
in  honour  of  Zeui^  once  in  two  years,  the  second  and  fourth  of 
each  Olympiad;  and  (4)  'M/uov7x(u:  seven  odes  for  ^isaen 
of  the  parsley  wreath  m  the  Isthmian  games,  held  at  the  fathsa 


PINDAR 


619 


of  Coritath,  in  hoooui  of  Poaeidan,  once  in  |wo  yean,  the  &nt 
and  thud  of  each  Olympiad.  The  Greek  way  of  diJog  an  ode 
is  by  the  nomm.  plw.  foUowed  by  the  ituBieral»  t.g,  "  the  nisUi 
Olympian  "  is  'OXv^anemat  9',  The  diranologicai  range  of 
the  collection  (so  far  as  ascertainable)  is  from  502  b  C  (Pyth.  x.) 
to  459  B.&  (Qi.  v.).  With  respect  to  the  native  places  of 
(he  victors,  the  geographical  dJstnbution  is  as  fdllovs:  Utw  the 
mainland  of  Greece  proper,  13  odes;  for  Acgina,  11;  for  Sicily, 
15;  for  tltt  Epixephyiian  Locrians  (southern  Italy),  a;  for 
Cyrene  (Africa),  3. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  odes  may  be  briefly  con- 
flideced  under  the  fbllowiog  heads:  (i)  Unguage;  (2)  treatment 
of  theme;  (3)  sentiment— religious,  mond  and  political;  U) 
relation  to  oontenqMraiy  art. 

I.  The  diction  of  Pindar  is  distmct  in  character  from  thai  of 

every  other  Greek  poet,  being  almost  everywhere  marked  by  the 

greatest  imaginative  boldness.    Thus  (a)  meUphor  is  4ued 

even  for  the  expression  of  conunon  ideas,  or  the  transhUjon  of 

familiar  jArsses,  as  when  a  cloak  is  caUed  (Ol.  ix.  97)  "  a  warm 

remedy  for  winds."    {b)  Images  for  the  highest  exoellenoe  are 

drawn  from  the  farthest  limits  of  travel  or  navigation,  or  from 

the  fairest  of  natural  o4>jects;  as  whea  the  superlative  hospitality 

of  a  man  who  kept  open  house  all  the  year  round  is  described 

by  saying,  "  far  as  to  Phasis  was  his  voyage  In  summer  days, 

and  in  winter  to  the  shores  of  Nile  "  (Islkm,  ii.  41);  or  when 

Olympia,  the  "  crown  "  or  "  flower  "  of  festivals,  is  said  to  be 

excellent  as  water,  bright  as  gold,  brilliant  as  the  noonday  sun 

(O/.  i.  ad  init.).    This  trait  n^t  be  caUed  ike  Pindaric  imagery 

of  the  superUUive.    {e)  Poetical  inversion  of  ordinary  phrase  is 

frequent;  as,  instead  of,  "  he  struck  fear  into  the  beasu,"  "  he 

gave  the  beasU  to  fear  "  {Pylh,  v  56)     (<f)  The  efforU  of  tbe 

poet's  genius  are  represented  under  an  extraordinary  number  of 

similitudes,  borrowed  from  javelin-throwhig,  chariot-driving, 

leaping,  rowing,  sailing,  ploughing,  building,  shooting  with  the 

bow,  sharpening  a  knife  on  a  whetstone,  mixing  wine  in  a  bowl, 

and  many  more,    (e)  Homely  images,  from  common  hfe,  are 

not  rare;  as  from  account-keeping,  usury,  sending  merchandise 

over  sea,  the  <rnniChi  or  secret  dispatch,  &c.    And  we  have 

such  homdy  proverbs  as,  "  he  hath  his  foot  in  this  shoe,*'  t.e. 

stands  in  this  case  {CH.  vi.  8).    (/)  The  natural  order  of  words  in 

a  sentence  is  often  boldly  deranged,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 

the  syntax  is  seldom  difficult.    i£i  Words  not  found  except  in 

Bindar  are  numerous,  many  of  these  being  compounds  which 

(like  bniplti^pofrot,  xora^vXXopociy,  &c.)   suited   the  dactylic 

metres  in  their  Pindaric  combinations.    Horace  was  right  in 

speaking  of  Pindar's  "nova  verba,"  though  they  were  not 

cx>nflned  to  the  "  audaces  dithyrambi." 

a.  The  actual  victory  which  gave  occasion  for  the  ode  is 
seldom  treated  at  length  or  in  detail — which,  indeed,  only 
exceptional  incidents  could  justify.    Pindar's  method  is  to  uke 
some  heroic  myth,  or  group  of  myths,  connected  with  the 
victor's  city  or  family,  and,  after  a  brief  prelude,  to  enter  on 
this,  returning  at  the  dose,  as  a  rule,  to  the  subject  of  the  victor's 
merit  or  good  fortune,  and  interspersing  the  whole  with  moral 
comment.    Thus  the  fourth  Pythian  is  for  Arcesilaus,  king  of 
Cyrene,  which  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  men  of  Thera, 
descendants  of  one  of  Jason's  comrades.    Using   this  link,' 
Pindar  introduces  his  splendid   narrative  of  the  Argonauts 
Many  odes,  again,  contain  shorter  mythical  episodes— as  the 
birth  of  lamus  (0/  vi.),  or  the  vision  o(  Bdlerophon  ((H  xiii ) 
— which  form  small  pictures  of  masterly  finish  and  beauty 
Particular  notice  is  due  to  the  skill  with  which  Pindar  often 
manages  the  return  from  a  mythical  digression  to  hts  immediate 
theme.    It  is  bold  and  swift,  yet  Is  not  felt  as  harshly  abrupt- 
justifying  his  own  phrase  at  <me  such  turn — ml  rwa  iHpar  iaaiu 
^paxif  (Pyth.  iv   247).     It  has  been   thought   that,  in   the 
parenthesis  about   the  Amazons'  shields  (quibus  Mos  unde 
dcductus  .        quaerert  diztuli,  Odss,  iv.  4,   18),  Horace  was 
Imitating  a  Pindaric  transition;  if  so,  he  has  illustrated  his  own 
observation  as  to  the  peril  of  imitating  the  Theban  poet 

3.  a.  The  religious  feding  of  Pindar  is  strongly  marked  in 
tbe  odes.    '*  Ftom  the  gods  are  all  means  of  human  exceUen<»/' 


He  wai  not  bdieve  that  the  yids*  wihcB  they  diaed  with  Tantalus, 
ate.  his  son  Pdops;  rather  Poseidon  carried  off  the  youth  to 
Olympus.  That  is,  his  reason  for  rejecting  a  scandak>us  story 
about  the  gods  b  purely  rdigious,  as  distinct  from  moral;  it 
shocks  his  conccplkm  of  the  divine  dignity.  With  regard  to 
oradcs,  he  inculcates  predsdy  such  a  view  as  would  have  been 
most  aooepuUe  to  tbe  Delphic  priesthood,  vis.  that  the  eods 
do  illufltiine  thdr  prophets,  but  that  human  wit  can  foresee 
nothing  iriiich  the  gods  do  not  choose  to  reveal.  A  mystical 
doctrine  of  the  soul's  destiny  after  death  appears  in  some 
passages  (as  (M.  ii.  66  sq.).  I^ar  was  familiar  with  the  idea 
of*  metempsychosis  (of.  ibid.  68),  but  tbe  attempt  to  trace  I^ytht- 
goreaaism  in  some  phrases  (Pyth.  U.  34.  iii-  74)  appears  unsafe. 
The  betid  in  a  fully  oonscious  existence  for  the  soul  in  a  future 
slate,  determined  by  the  character  of  the  earthly  life,  entend 
into  the  teaching  of  the  £leusinian  and  other  mysteries.  Com- 
paring tbe  fragment  of  tbe  0^»«t  (ii4>  BeigkS  i37)>  we  may 
probably  regard  the  mystic  or  esoteric  dement  in  Pindar's 
theotogy  as  due  to  such  a  source. 

b.  The  moral  sentiment  pervading  Pindar's  odes  rests  on  a 
constant  recognition  of  the  Umits  imposed  by  the  divine  will  on 
human  effort,  combined  with  strenuous  exhortation  that  each 
man  should  strive  to  reach  the  limit  allowed  in  his  own  case. 
Native  temperament  {^)  is  the  grand  source  of  all  human 
excellonce  (ifitrHJ,  while  such  excellences  as  can  be  acquired  by 
study  (&5«aercU  dperoX,  OL  ix.  100)  aro  of  relatively  smaL 
scope — the  sentiment,  we  may  remark,  of  one  whose  thoughts 
were  habitually  conversant  with  the  native  qualities  of  a  poet 
on  the  one  hand  and  of  an  athlete  on  the  other.  The  dements 
of  byUtt  6^fio9 — "  sane  happiness,"  such  as  has  least  reason  to 
dread  the  jealousy  of  the  gods—are  substance  sufficing  for  daily 
wants  and  good  repute  itHkoyLa)^  He  who  has  tboe  should 
not  "  seek  to  be  a  god."  "  Wealth  set  with  virtues  "  (irXovrof 
AptroM  MoifoX^i^es),  as  gold  with  predous  gems,  is  the  most 
fortunate  lot,  buaust  it  affords  the  amplest  opportunities  for 
honourable  activity.  Pindar  does  not  rise  above  the  ethical 
standard  of  an  age  which  said,  "  love  thy  (nend  and  hate  thy 
foe"  (d.  Pyth.  u.  83;  Islkm.  Ui.  65).  But  in  one  sense  he  has 
a  moral  elevation  which  is  distinctivdy  his  own;  he  is  the 
glowing  prophet  of  generous  emulatkm  and  of  reverent  self- 
control. 

c.  The  political  sentiments  of  the  Theban  poet  are  suggested 
by  Pytk.  xi.  52;  "  In  polities  I  find  the  middle  stale  crowned 
with  more  enduring  good;  iherdoro  praise  I  not  the  despot's 
portion;  those  virtues  naove  my  zeal  which  serve  the  folk  " 
If  In  Pytk.  li.  87,  a  democracy  is  described  as  6  X&fi/m 
0rpaTi6f,  "  the  raging  crowd,"  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  ode  is 
for  Hiero  of  Syracuse,  and  that  the  phrase  dearly  refers  to  the 
violence  of  those  democratic  revolutions  which,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  5th  century  B.C.,  more  than  once  convulsed  Sicilian 
dties.  At  Thebes,  after  the  Persian  wars,  a  "  constitutional 
oligarchy "  {tthyutodo-  ta^tuK,  Thuc.  iii.  62)  had  replaced 
the  narrower  and  less  temperate  oligarchy  of  former  days 
{bwfaarda.  ob  imrA.  vbiMOv),  and  in  this  we  may  probably 
recognize  the  phase  of  Greek  political  life  most  congenial  to 
Pindar  He  speaks  of  a  king's  lot  as  unique  in  its  opportunities 
(01  i  113),  he  sketches  the  character  of  an  ideal  king  (Pytk 
iii.  71);  but  nothing  in  his  poetry  implies  liking  for  the  rvpayWt 
as  a  form  of  government.  Towards  the  Greek  princes  of  Sicil> 
and  Cyrene  his  tone  is  ever  one  of  manly  independence;  he 
speaks  as  a  Greek  citizen  whose  lineage  places  him  on  a  level 
with  tbe  proudest  of  the  Dorian  race,  and  whose  office  invests 
him  with  an  almost  sacred  dignity.  In  regard  to  the  politics 
of  Hellas  at  Urge,  Pindar  makes  us  fed  the  new  sense  of  leisure 
for  quiet  pursuits  and  dvihzing  arts  which  came  after  the 
Persian  wars.  He  honours  *'  Tranquillity,  the  friend  of  dties  " 
i'Aauxla.  ^\&roXtr,  01.  iv  16).  The  epic  poet  sang  of  warn; 
Pindar  celebrates  the  *'  rivalries  of  peace." 

4  Pindar's  genius  was  boldly  original  at  the  same  time  he 
was  an  exquisite  artist.  "  Mine  be  it  to  invent  new  strains, 
mine  the  skill  to  bold  my  course  in  the  chariot  of  tbe  Muses, 
and  may  courage  go  with  me,  and  power  of  ample  grasp  "  {CH. 


620 


PINDARICS 


fx.  80).  Here  we  see  the  etulUng  sense  of  Inborn  strength, 
m  many  other  places  we  perceive  the  feebng  of  conscious  an 
—as  in  the  phrase  6(u5dXXiir,  so  apt  for  his  method  of  mlaying 
an  ode  with  mythical  subjects,  or  when  he  compares  the  opemng 
of  a  song  to  the  front  of  a  stately  building  (01.  vi.  3).  Pindar's 
sympathy  with  external  nature  was  deeper  and  keener  than  is 
often  discernible  m  the  poetry  of  his  age.  It  appears,  for 
example,  in  his  welcome  of  the  season  when  *'  the  chamber  of 
the  hours  is  opened,  and  delicate  plants  perceive  the  fragrant 
spring"  (fr  S3,  Bergk*,  75),  in  the  passage  where  Jason  invokes 
*'  the  rusning  strength  of  waves  and  winds,  and  the  mg^ts,  and 
the  paths  of  the  deep"  [Pylh,  iv.  195),  m  the  lines  on  the 
eclipse  of  the  sun  {fr.  84,  Bergk,^  107);  and  in  the  pictue  of 
the  eruption,  when  Etna,  "  pillar  of  the  sky,  nurse  of  keen  snow 
all  the  year,"  sends  forth  *'  pure  sprmgs  of  6re  unapproachable  " 
(Pyth.  i.  90).  The  poet's  feeling  for  colour  is  often  noticeable 
-*«s  in  the  beautiful  story  of  the  birth  of  lamus—when  Evadne 
lays  a^de  her  silver  pitcher  and  her  girdle  of  scarlet  web,  the 
babe  is  found,  *'  its  delicate  body  steeped  in  the  golden  and  deep 
puiple  rays  of  pansies  "  {CM.  vi.  ss) 

The  spirit  of  art,  in  every  form,  is  represented  for  Pindar 
by  Tcipn—**  the  source  of  all  delights  to  mortals  "  {01  i.  30)— 
or  by  the  personified  Charites  (Graces)  The  Charites  were 
often  represented  as  young  maidens,  decking  themselves  with 
eariy  6owers— the  rose,  in  particular,  being  sacred  to  them  as 
well  as  to  Aphrodite.  In  Pindar's  mind,  as  in  the  old  Greek 
conception  from  which  the  worship  of  the  Charites  sprang,  the 
instinct  of  beautiful  art  was  inseparable  from  the  sense  of  natural 
SeuJbtan.  beauty.  The  period  from  500  to  460  bc,  to  which 
most  of  Pindar's  extant  odes  belong,  marked  a  stage 
in  the  development  of  Greek  sculpture.  The  schools  of  Argos, 
Sicyon  and  Aegina  were  effecting  a  transition  from  archaic 
types  to  the  art  which  was  afterwards  matured  in  the 
age  of  Pheidlas.  Olympia  forms  the  central  link  between 
Pindar's  poetry  and  Greek  sculpture.  From  about  560  B.C. 
onwards  sculpture  had  been  applied  to  the  commemoration  of 
athletes,  chiefly  at  Olympia.  In  a  striking  passage  {Nem.  v 
ad.  tnU )  Pindar  recognizes  sculpture  and  poetry  as  sister  arts 
employed  in  the  commemoration  of  the  athlete,  and  contrasts 
the  merely  Ibcnl  effect  of  the  statue  with  the  wide  diffusion  of 
the  poem.  *'  No  sculptor  I,  to  fashion  images  that  shall  stand 
idly  on  one  pedestal  for  aye;  no,  go  thou  foilh  from  Aegina, 
sweet  song  of  mine,  on  every  freighted  ship,  on  each  light  bark  " 
Many  particular  subjects  were  common  to  Pindar  and  contem- 
porary sculpture.  Thus  (i )  the  sculptures  on  the  east  pediment 
of  the  temple  at  Aegina  represented  Heracles  coming  to  seek 
the  aid  of  Telamon  against  Troy— a  theme  brilliantly  treated 
by  Pindar  in  the  lifih  Isthmian;  (9)  Hiero's  victory  in  the 
chariot -race  was  commemorated  at  Olympia  by  the  joint  work 
of  the  sculptors  Onatas  anti  Calamis,  (3)  the  Gigantomachia, 
(4)  the  wedding  of  Heracles  and  Hebe,  (5)  the  war  of  the  Centaurs 
with  the  Laptihae,  and  (6)  a  contest  between  Heracles  and 
Apollo,  are  instances  of  mythical  material  treated  alike  by  the 
poet  and  by  sculptors  of  his  day.  The  contemporary  improve- 
ments in  town  architecture,  introducing  ^ndous  and  weU- 
paved  streets,  such  as  the  fficvpiar^  Mt  at  Cyrene  (Fytk  v 
87),  suggests  his  frequent  comparison  of  the  paths  of  song  to 
broad  and  stately  causeways  {vXarHoi  irpdvoSot—hcarhinnioi 
idXcuftK,  ffem.  vi  47;  Islhm.  vi.  22)  A  song  is  likened  to 
cunning  work  which  blends  gold,  ivory  and  coral  (Nem.  vii.  78) 
Pindar's  feeling  that  poetry,  though  essentially  a  divine  gift, 
has  a  technical  side  (ao^a),  and  that  on  this  side  it  has  had 
an  historical  development  like  that  of  other  arts,  is  forcibly 
illustrated  by  his  reference  to  the  inventions  {ffo^Aattara)  for 
which  Connth  had  early  been  famous.  He  instances  (1)  the 
development  of  the  dithyramb,  (3)  certain  improvements  in 
the  harnessing  and  driving  of  horses,  and  (3)  tbe  addition  of 
the  pediment  to  temples  (Of  xiii  21). 

In  the  development  of  Greek  lyric  poetry  two  periods  are 
broadly  distinguished.  During  the  first,  from  about  600  to 
500  B  c,  lync  poetry  is  local  or  tribal— as  Alcaeus  and  Sappho 
wnte  for  Lesbians,  Alcman  and  Stesichonts  for  Dorians.    During 


the  second  period^  sHiicfa  takes  iu  rise  in  the  seoK  of  HeUenie 
unity  created  by  the  Perdan  wars,  the  lyric  poet  addfcsses  al 
Greece.  Pindar  and  Siiaonides  are  the  great  representatives 
of  this  second  period,  to  which  Bacchylides,  the  ncfibew  of 
Simomdes,  also  belongs.  These,  with  a  few  minor  poets,  are 
dasaed  by  German  writers  as  die  uHttersaleH  Mtliker,  The 
Greeks  usually  spoke,  not  of  **  lyric,"  but  of  '*  mehc  "  poetry 
(fe  meant  to  be  sung,  and  not,  like  the  epic,  recited);  and 
*'  imiveisal  melic  "  is  lyric  poetry  addressed  to  all  Greece.  But 
Pindar  is  more  than  the  chief  extant  lyrist.  Epic,  lyric  and 
dramatic  poetry  succeeded  each  other  in  Greek  liteimture  by  a 
natural  development.  Each  of  then  was  the.  spontaneous 
utterance  of  the  age  which  brou^t  it  forth.  In  Pindar  we  can 
see  that  phase  of  the  Greek  mind'wfakfa  produced  Homeric 
epos  passmg  over  into  the  phase  which  produced  Atheniaa 
drama.  His  spint  is  often  thcnou|^y  dramatic — witness  sack 
scenes  as  the  Inurview  between  Jason  and  Pelias  (PyliL  iv.), 
the  meeting  of  Apollo  and  Chiron  {Pylk.  ix.),  the  episode  of 
Castor  and  Polydeucea  {Nem,  z.),  the  cnteitaimaent  oi  Ueracks 
by  Telamon  (Isikm.  v.).  Epic  narrative  alone  was  no  loager 
enough  for  the  men  who  had  known  that  great  tritogy  of  natioasl 
bfe,  the  Persian  uvasions,  they  longed  to  see  the  heroes  rooviag 
and  to  hear  them  speaking.  The  poet  of  Olympia,  accostoiiMd 
to  see  beaiitiful  forms  in  vivid  action  or  vivid  art,  was  vcft 
fitted  to  be  the  lync  interpreter  of  the  new  dramatic  ihipube. 
Pindar  has  more  of  the  Homeric  spirit  than  any  Greek  lyric 
poet  known  to  us  On  the  other  side,  he  has  a  genuine,  if  less 
evident,  kinship  with  Aeschylus  and  Sophodes.  Piadu^  work, 
like  Olympia  itself,  illustrates  the  spiritual  unity  of  (ke^  art. 

The  (act  that  certain  glosses  and  lacunae  are  common  to  all  oar 
MSS  of  Pindar  make  it  orobable  that  these  MSS.  are  derived  fran 
a  common  archetype.    Now  the  older  scholia  oa  Pindar,  whack 
appear  to  have  been  compiled  mainly  from  the  commentaries  of 
Didymus  (c    15  B  c  ),  sometimes  presuppose  a  purer  text  dua 
ours.    But  the  compiler  of  these  olacr  scholia  lived  after  Hcrodiaa 
(a  d   160)     The  archetype  of  our  MSS.,  then,  canmit  have  bee* 
older  than  the  end  of  the  and  century.    Our  MSS.  fall  into  t«« 
general  classes,  (i)  the  older,  representing^ a  text  which,  thooafc 
often  corrupt,  is  comparatively  irce  from  interpolations;  (3)  tie 
later,  which  exhibit  toe  traces  of  a  Byzantine  recension,  in  otL:r 
words,  of  lawless  conjecture,  down  to  the  i^th  or  15th  oentvx 
To  the  first  class  bctong  Parisinus  7,  breaking  off  in  FydL   * . 
Ambrosianus   1,   which  has  only   (H.   L-^xii.;   Mcdiceua  a;  aal 
Vaticanus  2 — ^the  two  last-naracd   being   of   the   highest    value. 
The  cditio  pnnccps  is  the  Aldine  (Venice.  1 513).   A  modem  study  ol 
Pindar  may  be  almost  said  to  have  begun  with  C.  G.  Hcy^'a 
edition  (1773)     Hermann  did  much  to  aovance  Pindaric  critiiiML 
But  August  BfiiUi  (181 1-1821).  who  was  assisted  in  hiscommeatary 
by  L.  Disscn,  ts  justly  regarded  as  the  founder  (rf  a  scientific  trcit> 
mcnt  of  the  poet.    The  edition  of  Thcodor  Bergk  {Pottae  lyna 
eraect.  new  ed   by  O   Schrbder.  1900)  is  marked  by  considcnUe 
boldness  of  conjecture,  as  that  of  Tycho  Mommsen  (1864)  by  a 
sometimes  excessive  adherence  to  MSS.    A  nxmsioa  by  W  Oral 
has  been  published  in  Teubner's  series  (2nd  ei!..  1806}.  also  vnth 
Prolegomena  and  commentaiy  (1896).  and  by  O.  Schrbder  (190S). 
The  complete  edition  of  J  W  Donaldson  (1841)  has  many  merit*: 
but  that  of  C    A.  M    FenneH  (1879--1883:  new  ed.,  i89t-i89»} 
IS  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  English  students.    The  OivmpU 
and  Pytkta  nave  been  edited  by  B.  L.  Gildcrslccve  (1885),  the 
Nemea  and  Jsthmux  by  1    B    Bury  (1890-1892);  the  Sckatta  by 
E   Abel  (1890,  unfinished)  and  A.  B.  Brachmann  (1903).    There 
IS  a  special  foxicon  by  J    Rampd  (1883).     The  tnnsUtioa  nt* 
English  prose  by  Emrst  Myers  (2nd  ed..  18S3)  is  excellent;  wrsr 
translation  by  T  C   Banng  (1873),  and  of  the  (Hympiam  Odes  by 
Cyril   Mayne   (1906)      Pindar's  metres  have  been  analysed   tf 
J    H    H    Schmidt,   m   Dtt  Kunstfomun  der  gnecktscken   Ponu 
(Leipzig.  1868-1872)      On  Pindar  generally,  see  monographs  b) 
A    F    Vilkmain  (l8u).  L   Schmidt  (1862).  G.  LQbbert  (188^1 
A.  CroiBCt  (1880),  W  Chnst.  CtichuhU  der  p-teckuchem 


(1898) ;  and  the  little  volume  by  F.  D.  Moricc  in  Blackwood's  ^«(«n{ 
Ciassutfor  Enghih  Readers.  Exhaustive  bibliographical  informatioB 
on  the  earlier  literature  will  be  found  ir.  Engneimann.  Scriptarra 
meet  (1881);  see  also  L.  Borncmann.  in  Bursian's  JakresberttkL 
(cxvi.  1904)1  with  special  reference  to  chronological  questions  and 
Pythta,  i .  u..  iii  Some  con»dcrable  fragments  of  the  paeans 
were  discovered  in  1906  by  B  P.  Grenfell  and  A.  S.  Hont  («ce 
Oxyrk^kus  papyrt,  pt.  v.  pp.  34-81):  some  critical  notes  wOI  be 
(ound  in  Ckusuii  Renew,  Feb.  1908  (A.  £.  Houanan). 

(R.CJ.;X.) 

PINDARICS,  the  name  by  which  was  known  a  dasa  of 
and  irregular  odes  greatly  in  fashion  in  England  during  the 


PINDARIS— PINE 


62 1 


of  the  17th  and  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century.  Tie  inven- 
tion is  due  to  Abraham  Cowley,  who,  probably  in  Paris — '*  a 
place  where  he  had  no  other  boc4cs  to  direct  him  " — and  perhaps 
in  1650,  found  a  teit  of  Pindar  and  determined  to  imiute  the 
Greek  poetry  in  English,  without  having  comprehended  Ihe 
system  upon  which  Pindar's  prosody  was  built  up.  Cowley 
published,  however,  in  1656,  fifteen  Pindarique  OdeSt  which 
became  the  model  on  which  countless  imitators  founded  their 
Pindarics.  The  erroneous  form  of  these  poems,  which  were 
absolutely  without  disdpUne  of  stnictuie,  was  first  exposed  by 
Cbngreve,  exactly  half  a  centuxy  later,  he  very  justly  describing 
them  as  **  bundles  of  rambling  incoherent  thoughts^  expressed 
in  a  like  parcel  of  irregular  stanzas,  which  also  consist  of  such 
another  complication  of  disproportioned,  uncertain  and  per- 
plexed verses  and  rhymes."  This  is  haiah,  but  it  describes  a 
l^daric  with  absolute  justice.  Cowley  had  not  been  aware 
that  "  there  is  nothing  more  regular  than  the  Odes  of  Pindar," 
and  that  his  poems  were  constructed  in  harmony  with  rigid 
prosodical  laws  in  strophe,  antistrophe  and  epode;  **  the  liberty 
which  Pindar  took  in  his  numbers,  which  has  been  so  much 
misunderstood  and  misapplied  by  his  pretended  imitators,  was 
only  In  varying  the  stanzas  in  different  odes,  but  in  each  par- 
ticular ode  they  are  ever  correspondent  one  to  another  m  their 
turns,  and  according  to  the  order  of  the  ode."  These  excellent 
critical  remarks  were  made  by  Congreve  in  his  Disctmrse  on  the 
Pindarique  Ode  of  1706,  and  from  that  date  forward  the  use  of 
Pindarics  ceased  to  be  so  lax  and  frantic  as  it  had  been  during 
the  previous  fifty  yeaxs.  The  time  had  now  passed  in  which 
such  a  critic  as  Sprat  could  praise  "  thu  loose  and  unconfined 
measure  "  as  having  "  all  the  grace  and  harmony  of  the  most 
confined."  It  began  to  be  felt  that  the  English  pindaric  was  a 
blunder  founded  upon  a  misconception.  If  we  examine  Cowley's 
"  Resurrection,"  which  was  considered  in  the  17th  century  to 
be  a  model  of  the  style,  and  "  truly  pindarical,"  we  find  it  to  be 
a  shapeless  poem  of  64  lines,  arbitrarily  divided,  not  into 
strophes,  but  into  four  stanzas  of  unequal  volume  and  structure, 
the  lines  which  form  these  stanzas  are  of  lengths  varying  from 
three  feet  to  seven  feet,  with  rhymes  repeated  in  wilful  disorder, 
the  whole  forming  a  mere  vague  caricature  of  Pindar's  brilliant 
odes.  The  very  laxity  of  these  pindarics  attracted  the  poets 
of  the  unlyrical  dose  of  the  X7th  century,  and  they  served  the 
purpose  not  only  of  Dryden  and  Pope,  but  of  a  score  of  lesser 
poets,  among  whom  OlcUiam,  Mrs  Bchn,  Otway,  Sprat,  Flatman 
and  many  others  were  prominent.  The  pindaric  became  the 
almost  necessary  form  in  which  to  indite  a  poem  of  compliment 
on  a  birth,  a  wedding  or  a  funeral.  Although  the  vogue  of  these 
forms  hardly  survived  the  age  of  Anne,  something  of  the  vicious 
tradition  of  them  still  remained,  and  even  in  the  odes  of 
Wordsworth,  Shelley  and  Coleridge  the  broken  versification  of 
Cowley's  pindarics  occasionally  survives.  Tennyson's  Ode  on 
the  Death  of  Ihe  Duke  of  WeUington  (1853)  \&  the  latest  important 
specimen  of  a  pindaric  in  English  literature.  (E  G.) 

PINDARIS,  a  word  of  uncertain  origin,  applied  to  the  irregular 
horsemen  who  accompanied  the  Mahratta  armies  in  India 
during  the  x8th  century  when  the  Mughal  Empire  was  breaking 
up;  loosely  organized  under  self-chosen  leaders,  each  band  was 
usually  attached  to  one  or  other  of  the  great  Mahratta  chieftains. 
Their  special  characteristic  was  that  they  received  no  pay, 
but  rather  purchased  the  privilege  of  plundering  on  their  own 
account.  The  majority  of  them  seem  to  have  been  Mahom- 
medans:  when  the  regular  forces  of  the  Mahrattas  had  been 
broken  up  in  the  campaigns  conducted  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 
and  Lord  Lake  in  i8o>-04.,  the  Pindaris  made  their  headquarters 
in  Malwa,  under  the  tacit  protection  of  Sindhia  and  Holkar. 
They  were  accustomed  to  assemble  every  year  at  the  beginning 
of  November,  and  saHy  forth  into  British  territory  in  search 
of  plunder.  In  one  such  raid  upon  the  Masulipatam  coast  they 
plundered  539  villages,  killing  or  wounding  682  persons, torturing 
3600  and  carrying  off  property  worth  a  quarter  of  a  mHIion 
In  X808-09  they  plundered  Gujarat,  and  in  181 2  Mirzapur  In 
1814  they  were  reckoned  at  35,000  to  30,000  horsemen,  half  of 
them  well  armed.    At  last  the  evil  became  intolerable,  and  in 


xSx7  the  marquess  of  Hastings  obtained  the  consent  of  the  East 

India  Company  to  the  or^Aized  campaign,  known  as  the  Pmdari 

War.    The  Pindaris  were  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  great 

army,  consisting  of  xao,ooo  men  and  300  guns,  which  converged 

upon  them  from  Beng^,  the  Dcccan  and  Gujarat  under  the 

supreme  command  of  Lord  Hastings  in  person.    Sindhia  was 

overawed  and  forced  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Gwalior,  consenting 

to  aid  in  the  extirpation  of  the  Pindaris,  whom  he  had  hitherto 

protected.    Tlie  Pcshwa  at  Pooim,  the  Bhonsla  raja  at  Nagpur 

and  the  army  of  the  infant  Holkar  each  took  up  arms,  but  were 

separately  defeated.   The  Pindaris  themselves  offered  liule 

opposition.    Amit  Khan,  by  far  their  most  powerful  leader, 

accepted  the  conditions  offered  to  him,  and  his  descendant  is 

now  Nawab  of  the  state  of  Tonk  in  Rajputana.    The  rest 

surrendered  or  were  hunted  down,  the  fate  of  Chitu,  one  of  the 

most  notorious,  being  to  perish  in  a  tiger's  den.    These  military 

operations  were  followed  by  the  pacification  of  Central  India 

under  the  administration  of  Sir  John  Malcolm. 

See  J  Grant  Duff,  Hiilcry  of  the  Mahrotlas  (1826) ;  and  Major 
Ross  of  Bladcnsburg,  Marquess  of  Hasttnts  (Rulers  of  India 
Series)  (1893). 

FIND  DADAN  KHAN,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Jhelum 
district  of  the  Punjab,  situated  near  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Jhelum,  on  the  Sind-Sagar  branch  of  the  North-Westem  railway. 
Pop.  (xgoi),  13.770.  It  is  an  important  centre  of  trade,  and 
its  manufactures  include  boats,  brass- ware,  pottery,  embroidered 
scarves  and  riding-whips. 

PINDUS,  the  ancient  name  of  the  rugged  group  of  mountains 
which  separates  Thessaly  from  Epirus,  and  branches  south  in 
various  directions.  The  geographical  name  is  sometimes 
extended  over  all  these  branches,  and  so  reaches  from  Aetolla 
to  the  Gulf  of  Lamia.  The  northern  part  of  the  ridge  was  known 
as  Lacmon.  There  is  no  modern  name  covering  the  whole 
range,  but  its  different  parts  have  separate  names.  Several  of 
them  attain  a  height  of  7000  ft.  or  more. 

PINE  (Lat.  PinuSf  Gr.  idrvs),  a  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  some  of  the  resinous  cone-bearing  trees  to  which  it  is  now 
applied,  and,  as  limited  by  modem  botanists,  the  designation 
of  a  large  genus  of  true  conifers,  differing  from  the  firs  in  their 
hard  woody  con^-scales  being  thickened  at  the  apex,  and  in 
their  slender  needle-shaped  leaves  growing  from  a  membranous 
sheath,  either  in  pairs  or  from  three  to  five  together — each  tuft 
representing  an  abortive  branch,  springing  from  the  axil  of  a 
partially  deciduous  scale-leaf,  the  base  of  which  remains  closely 
adherent  to  the  stem.  The  numerous  male  catkins  are  generally 
arranged  in  dense  whorls  around  the  bases  of  the  young  shoots; 
the  anther-scales,  surmounted  by  a  crest-like  appendage,  shed 
their  abundant  pollen  by  longitudinal  slits;  the  two  ovules  at 
the  base  of  the  inner  side  of  each  fertile  cone-scale  develop  into 
a  pair  of  winged  seeds,  which  drop  from  the  opening  scales  when 
mature — as  in  the  allied  genera. 

The  pines  are  widely  distributed  over  the  north  temperate 
zone,  in  the  southern  portions  chieffy  confined  to  the  mountains, 
along  which,  in  Central  America,  a  few  are  found  within  the 
tropic;  in  more  nOtthem  regions  they  frequently  form  extensive 
forests,  sometimes  hardly  mingled  with  other  trees.  Their 
soft,  straight-grained,  resinous  and  often  durable  wood  gives 
to  many  kinds  a  high  economic  value,  and  some  are  among  the 
most  esteemed  of  timber  trees. 

Of  the  two-lcavcd  species,  P.  syivesiris,  the  pine  of  northern 
Europe,  may  be  taken  as  a  type.  When  growing  in  perfection 
it  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  group,  and  perhaps  the  most  pictur- 
esque of  forest  trees;  attaining  a  height  of  from  70  to  120  ft., 
it  is  of  conical  growth  when  young,  but  in  maturity  acquires  a 
spreading  cedar  or  mushroom-like  top,  with  a  straight  trunk 
of  from  2  to  4  ft.  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  gnarled  twutcd 
boughs,  densely  clothed  at  the  extremities  with  glaucous  green 
foliage,  which  contrasts  strongly  with  the  fiery  red-brown  bark. 
The  leaves  are  rather  ^ort,  curved,  and  often  twisted;  the  male 
catkins,  in  dense  cylindrical  whorls,  fill  the  air  of  the  forest 
with  their  sulphur-like  pollen  in  May  or  June,  and  fecundate 
the  purple  female  fkmers,  which,  at  first  sessile  and  erect,  then 


become  Mcnnnd  on  ■  Ingtheling  italk;  I 
(he  kaglb  si  Ih*  lava,  do  nel  reach  nulu 
ol  Ihe  Mlovlng  y«i,  and  the  Bccdi  u 
lb*  Uiinl  ipnag;  Ihe  cone-Hala    i 


ncurved  p 

P.  lyiialHi  is  found,  In  grcalcr  or  leu  a 
of  Finmaik  imd  ihc  pl^u  ot  Bothnu  lo 
4Qd  even  th«  higher  foTdt-dopia  o[  Etri,  while 
unge  utends  from  the  ihorcs  ol  tbc  NoElb  Se*  I 
Nowhere  moie  sbuiKJant  than  in  <be  Suuidinavian  peninsula, 
(hi)  Uee  is  lh=  Ime  fir  (/iir,  /luu)  of  tie  old  Norscnien.  and  still 
cetalns  the  name  unon;  their  descendants  In  Britain,  though 
bolanically  now  classed  as  a  pine-  It  grows  vigorously  in  Lap- 
land on  the  lower  ground,  and  is  found  even  at  on  elevation  of 
outh  Norway  it  occurs  up  to  jooo  ft.,  though 


"  Norway  pine  "  liml 
n  the  comparatively  lower  sbpes  o 


Ihe  i 


derived 

euleni  dales:  in  the  highest  si 

bush.    It  furnishes  the  yeOow  deal  of  Ibe  Baltic  and  Norway. 

In  Gomany.  both  on  the  mountains  and  the  sandy  plains, 

woodi  of  "  kiefer"  are  tiequeni  and  widely  spread,  while  vast 

forests  in  Russia  and  Poland  are  cbleSy  composed  ol  thisspedes; 

the  Amur  region;  on  the  Eunipein  Alps  it  occuis  at  a  height  of 
5600  ft.,  and  on  the  Pyrenees  it  is  found  at  still  bigher  elevations; 
on  the  northern  side  ol  Etna  it  is  said  to  grow  at  above  7000  U. 
In  Britain  natural  forests  of  Scotch  fir  of  any  eilent  are  only  non 
found  in  the  Highlands,  chiefiy  cm  the  declivilies  of  the  Gram- 
pian*. In  former  ages  the  tree  covered  a  large  portion  of  the 
more  nonhem  palt  of  Ibe  island,  bs  well  u  of  Ireland;  the 
Dumecous  trunks  found  everywhere  in  the  mosses  and  peat-bogs 


T  and  men  fUucous 


wood  ui  the  Brainur  district  being  chieBy  en 
it  is  mainly  dlstingnished  by  its    ' 

leava  and  ovoid  cones  with  Uiinl  recurveo  ipuMl,  ana  e^teoally 
by  the  early  horiionlll  gioMh  of  its  ultimately  drooping 
boughs,  of  aU  vaiielio  ihii  it  the  most  pictiueique.  On  the 
European  continent  the  Hagenaupineol  Weatpbalii  it  eMeemed 
[or  the  stiaightneas  and  good  quality  of  its  timber.  The  heart- 
wood  of  the  finer  kinds  of  Scotch  hr  is  of  a  deep  browniab-red 
colour,  abounding  in  the  resin  to  which  its  durability  is  probably 
due.  For  all  iodooc  and  most  outdoor  piupoiet  it  is  ta  laslinl 
as  oak,  and  for  sliip  plonking  is  perhaps  httle  inferior;  from  its 
lighlnot  and  elastidly  it  is  well  adapted  for  the  oonatniclioD 
ol  yachts  and  other  tinal]  fait-«iling  cralt,  and  is  said  to  be  the 
best  ol  all  wood  foi  matU  and  large  tpara;  it*  wdgbl  varies  from 
JO  to  40  ft  the  cubic  foot.  Tie  sap-wnod  it  more  perishabie, 
but  it  is  u&eful  for  fcfius,  casks  and  a  variety  of  other  purposes; 
soaking  in  lime-water  renders  it  more  lasting;  great  oumbert  of 
young  pinet  aie  annually  cut  for  railway  tieepeia,  mining  limber 
and  numerous  agricultural  a[^lications;  large  quantities  aie 
consumed  for  wood-pavement.     The  quality  of  tbs  timber 


Fio.  I.— Scotch  FTr  (Piitu  nfttilrit). 
a.  Fertile  flower  of  mature  cone ;  *,  wlngerS  K«d ;  i,  letlBe  catkla 

depends  greitly  on  the  soil  and  posUon  In  which  (he  trees  are 
grown:  the  dry  slopes  of  granitic  or  gneissic  roountarm,  or  the 
deq>  well-drained  sandy  gravds  of  the  tower  country  teem  to 
tintwer  equally  well;  but  on  day  or  we(  peat  the  tree  rarely 


PINE 


623 


flourishes,  and  the  timber  is  always  indifferent;  it  is  usually 
said  that  the  wood  is  best  in  the  cold  climate  of  its  xnoce  northern 
habitata,  but  a  trunk  (4  ft.  in  diameter)  grown  on  the  sands  of 
Surrey  had  heart-wood  quite  equal  to  any  produced  in  Glenmort 
or  Rothiemurchus.  The  rapidity  of  growth  is  still  more  vari- 
able: in  Britain  full  maturity  is  attained  in  from  seventy  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  yeara,  but  in  Norway  the  trunk  increases 
much  more  slowly;  Schfibeler  states  that  a  treo  felled  in  the 
Alten  district  (about  70*^  lat.),  measuring  2  ft.  xo  in.  in  diameter 
without  the  bark,  showed  four  hundred  circles  of  annual  growth. 
In  Norway  the  tree,  growing  in  dense  forests,  is  generally  of  but 
moderate  girth,  and  probably  this  pine  nowhere  reaches  a  greater 
size  than  in  the  Scottish  woods;  a  plank  from  Glenmore  forest 
measured  nearly  5I  ft.  across,  and  from  5  to  4I  ft.  is  not  an 
unusual  diameter  for  a  British  pine  tree. 

Vast  numbers  of  Scotch  firs  are  raised  in  nurseries  for  artificial 
planting;  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring,  being  just  covered  with 
earth,  and  the  seedlings  transplanted  in  the  second  year  into 
rows  for  further  culture,  or  taken  direct  from  the  seed-bed  for 
final  pUnting;  sometimes  the  seed  is  sown  where  the  trees  are 
intended  to  grow.  A  plantation  of  Scotch  fir  requires  frequent 
and  careful  thinning  as  the  young  trees  increase  in  size;  but 
prum'ng  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  eicepting  for 
the  removal  of  dead  wood.  Plantations  in  England  are  generally 
ready  for  final  cutting  in  from  sixty  to  seventy  years,  and  many 
are  cleared  at  a  much  earlier  stage  of  growth.  P.  sylvestris  in 
Britain  is  liable  to  many  insect  depredations:  the  pine-chafer, 
Hylurgus  piniperdat  is  destructive  in  8oro«  places,  the  larva  of 
this  beetle  feeding  on  the  young  succulent  shoots,  especially 
in  young  plantations;  Hyhhius  abUtis,  the  fir-weevil,  eals  away 
the  bark,  and  numerous  lepidopterous  larvae  devour  the  leaves; 
the  pine-sawfiy  b  also  injurious  in  some  seasons;  the  removal  of 
all  dead  branches  from  the  trees  and  from  the  ground  beneath 
them  is  recommended,  as  most  of  these  insects  Uy  their  eggs 
among  the  decaying  bark  and  dead  leaves.  In  common  with 
other  pmes,  P.  tyhestris  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  varioua 
fungi.  Trametes  radiciperda  attacks  the  roots  and  penetrates 
to  the  stem,  causing  rotting  of  the  wood;  the  di^lase  is  difficult 
to  eradicate,  as  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus  travels  from  root  to 
root  in  the  soil.  Rotting  of  the  wood  at  the  base  of  the  trunk 
is  also  caused  by  Agaricus  nttUeui,  which  spreads  from  root  to 
root  in  the  soil  by  means  of  its  long  purple-black,  cord-like 
mycelial  strands  known  as  Kkmrnorfha,  Much  damage  is  often 
caused  by  species  of  Peridermium,  which  often  invade  the  cortex 
and  cambium  to  such  an  extent  as  to  "  ring  "  the  stem  or  branch, 
or  to  cause  an  abnormal  formation  of  turpentine  which  soaks 
into  the  wood  and  stops  the  upward  passage  of  water;  this 
causes  the  parts  above  the  diseased  area  to  perish.  In  England 
the  pine  is  largely  employed  as  a  "  nurse  "  for  oak  trees,  its 
conical  growth  when  young  admirably  adapting  it  for  this 
purpose;  its  dense  foliage  renders  it  valuable  as  a  shelter  tree 
for  protecting  land  from  the  wind;  it  stands  the  sea  gales  better 
khan  most  conifers,  but  will  not  flourish  on  the  shore  like  some 
other  species. 

The  pine  is  an  important  tree  in  the  economy  of  the  northern 
nations  of  Europe.  In  Scandinavia  and  Russia  houses  are 
chiefly  constructed  of  its  timber;  and  log-huts  are  made  of  the 
smaller  trunks  and  lined  and  roofed  with  the  bark.  The  inner 
bark  is  twisted  into  ropes,  and,  like  that  of  the  spruce,  is  kiln 
dried,  ground  up,  and  mixed  with  meal  in  times  of  scarcity;  in 
Kamchatka  it  is  macerated  in  water,  then  pounded,  and  made 
into  a  kind  of  substitute  for  bread  without  any  admixture  of 
flour.  In  recent  days  the  fibre  of  the  leaves  has  been  extracted 
in  some  quantity  and  appUed  to  textile  purposes  under  the  name 
of  waldwolk,  both  in  Germany  and  Sweden.  It  is  prepared  by 
boiling  the  needles  in  a  solution  of  soda  to  remove  the  resin, 
which  process  loosens  the  fibre  and  renders  its  separation  easy; 
it  has  some  resemblance  to  coarse  wool,  and  is  spun  and  woven 
into  blankets  and  garments  that  are  said  to  be  warm  and  durable; 
it  is  also  used  for  stuffing  cushions;  an  essential  oil,  obtained  by 
a  previous  distillation  of  the  leaves,  has  medicinal  virtues 
Miributed  to  it  by  some  Gen&an  practitimers. 


Large  quantities  Of  turpentine  are  extracted  from  this  pine 
in  Sweden  and  Russia  by  removing  a  strip  of  bark,  terminating 
below  in  a  deep  notch  cut  in  the  wood,  into  which  the  turpentine 
runs,  and  from  which  it  as  scooped  as  it  accumulates;  but  the 
product  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  silver  fir  and  other  ^)edes. 
Tar  is  prepared  largely  from  P.  sylvetiris;  it  is  chiefly  obtained 
from  the  roots,  which,  mingled  with  a  few  logs,  are  arranged  in  a 
conical  or  funnel-shaped  hollow  made  on  the  steep  side  of  a  hill 
or  bank;  after  filling  up,  the  whole  is  covered  with  turi  and  fired 
at  the  top,  when  the  tar  exudes  slowly  and  runs  into  an  iron 
vessel  placed  below,  from  the  spout  of  which  it  is  conveyed 
into  barrels.  Most  of  the  so-called  Stockholm  tar  is  thus 
prepared,  chiefly  in  the  province  of  Bothnia. 

CloKly  allied  to  the  Scotch  pine,  and  perhaps  to  be  regarded  as 
a  mer^  alpine  form  of  that  spedes,  b  the  dwarf  P.  montana  (or 
P.  PulnUioh  the  "  knimmholz  "  or  "  kniehdz  "  of  the  Germant— a 
recumbent  bush,  generally  only  a  few  feet  hbh,  but  with  long  zigmg 
ateuM,  that  root  occaaionaUy  at  the  knee-like  bends  where  they 
rest  upon  the  ground.  The  foliage  much  resembles  that  of  tM 
Scotch  fir,  but  is  diorter,  denser  and  more  rigid;  the  cones  aiC 
smaller  but  similar  in  form.  Abounding  on  the  higher  slopes  of  the 
Bavarian  and  Tirolese  Alps,  it  is  a  favourite  shelter  for  the  diamois; 
the  hunters  call  it  the  '*  latschen,"  from  its  recumbent  strsggling 
habit.  Krummholz  oil,  valued  in  Germany  as  an  outward  a^lica- 
tion  in  rheumatism  and  for  bruises  and  sprains,  is  distilled  from 
the  young  branches,  and  a  fragrant  white  resin  that  exudes  in 
some  quantity  from  the  buds  is  used  for  similar  purposes  and  as  a 
perfume,  under  the  name  of  Hungarian  balsam  it  is  sold  in  the 
towns  01  Germany,  being  probably  obtained  from  the  Carpathians. 

The  red  pine  of  Canada  and  New  England  {so  called  from  the 
colour  of  its  bark),  P.  minosa,  is  a  tree  of  considerable  size,  some- 
times attaining  the  dimensions  of  P,  sylvestris.  The  somewhat 
giauooua  leaves  form  dense  tufts  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and 
are  a  or  5  in.  kmg;  the  ovate  blunt  cones  are  about  half  that 
length.  The  tree  is  of  quick  growth  and  the  wood  stroiw  and 
resinousj  but  it  is  less  durable  than  Scotch  fir,  though  much  cm* 
plo]^  m  ship-building;  according  to  Emerson,  trunks  exist  in 
Maine  a  ft.  in  diameter.  A  sandy  soil  seems  to  suit  it  best,  and 
the  quality  of  the  wood  probably  much  depends  on  its  place  of 
growtlu  Red  pines  abound  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundfamd, 
and  the  tree  is  rather  widely  distributed  over  the  northern  parts  of 
the  continent;  it  rarely  forms  extensive  woods,  but  grows  chiefly 
in  clumps  among  other  trees,  at  least  in  its  more  souttem  habitats. 
Nearly  allied  is  P.  Banksiamat  the  grey  or  Labrador  pine,  some- 
times called  the  scrub  pine  from  its  dwarfish  habit;  it  is  the  most 
northerlv  representative  of  the  genus  in  America,  and  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  its  much  recurved  and  twisted  cones,  about  s  in. 
long.  The  trunks  are  too  small  to  be  of  great  economic  value,  but 
the  light  wood  is  used  by  the  natives  for  their  canoes. 

P.  LaridOy  the  Goracan  pine,  is  one  of  the  nobk»t  trees  tA  this 
group,  growing  to  a  height  of  100  or  even  150  ft.,  with  a  straight 
trunk  and  branches  in  regular  whorls,  forming  in  huge  trees  a 
pyramidal  head;  the  slender  leaves,  of  a  dark  green  tint,  are  from 
4  to  7  in.  long:  the  cones,  either  in  pairs  or  several  together,  project 
horizontally,  and  are  of  a  light  brown  colour.  This  pine  abounds 
in  Corsica,  and  is  found  in  more  or  less  abundance  in  Spain, 
southern  France,  Greece,  and  many  Mediterranean  countries;  it 
oceuis  on  the  higher  mountains  of  Cyprus.  The  tree  is  of  very 
rapid  growth,  but  produces  good  timber,  much  used  in  southern 
dockyards,  and  very  durable,  though  less  strong  than  that  of 
F.  syhalris;  the  heart-wood  is  of  a  brownish-tint.  In  southern 
France  it  has  been  planted  with  success  on  the  drift-sands  of  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  though  it  does  not  bear  the  full  force  of  the  sea* 
btast  as  weU  as  the  pinaster.  In  England  it  grows  well  in  sheltered 
situations  and  well-draittcd  soils. 

The  black  pinej  P.  austriaca,  generally  now  regaided  as  a  v»  iety 
of  P.  LarieiOt  derives  its  name  from  the  extreme  depth  of  its  foliage 
tints — the  sharp,  rigid,  rather  k>ng  leaves  of  a  dark  green  hue 
eiving  a  sombre  aspect  to  the  tre&  The  light-colourM,  gkMsy, 
noriaontal  cones  are  generally  in  pairs,  but  sometimes  three  or 
four  together.  ,The  tree  is  conical  when  sroung,  but  when  oki 
forms  a  spreading  head;  it  often  attains  a  large  size.  Southern 
Austria  and  the  adjacent  coumries  are  the  natural  habitats  of 
this  pine;  it  seems  to  flourish  best  on  locky  mountain  sides,  but 
in  England  grows  well  on  sandy  soils.  The  timber  is  valued  in 
its  native  country,  and  is  sakl  to  be  durable  and  to  stand  exposure 
to  the  weather  well;  various  resinous  products  are  extracted  from 
it.  P,  pjfmaiea  is  a  handsome  species  ctf  wramklal  form,  attaining 
a  larB^  ***^  <m  the  mountains  of  northern  Spain,  whence  it  extendi 
through  the  Mediterranean  region  to  Asia  Minor,  northern  Persia 
aad  Afghanistan.  The  leaves  are  long  and  of  a  light  bright  green : 
the  cones  are  solitary,  obk>ng,  conkal  and  of  a  yellow  tint.  The 
timber  is  used  in  Spanish  dockyards,  but  opinions  vary  as  to  its 
quality.  In  plantations  its  bright  foliage,  witn  the  orange  cones  and 
young  shoots,  render  it  an  ornamental  tree,  hardy  in  southern 
Britsub.    P.  bnUia,  the  Calabrian  pine,  is  regarded  as  the  mme 


624 


PINB 


P.  hakpetuist  another  Mcditemncan  fonn,  is  valued  for 
na  timber,  iriuch  is  white  with  a  fine  grain,  and  resinous  products. 
P.  p««MJlcr,  the  duster  pine  or  pinaster,  is  an  important  species 
from  Its  visofotts  growth  in  the  sand«drifts  of  the  coast,  for  the 
purpose  o(  binding  which  it  has  been  grown  more  extensively  and 
successfuUy  than  any  other  tree,  especiaUy  on  the  dunes  of  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  Growing  to  a  height  of  from  40  to  80  ft.,  the  deeply- 
furrowed  tmnk  occasionaHy  reaches  a  diameter  of  3  ft.  or  more 
at  the  baae»  where,  fiks  most  sand  trees,  it  usually  corves  upward 

K dually,  a  form  that  enables  the  long  tap-roots  to  withstand 
ter  the  strain  of  the  sea  gale;  when  once  establbhed.  the  tree 
k  rarely  overthrown  even  on  the  loosest  sand.  The  branches 
curve  upwards  like  the  stem^  with  their  thick  covering  of  long  dark 
green  mvett  pving  a  massive  rounded  outline  to  the  tree;  the 
ovate  cones  are  from  4  to  6  in.  long,  of  a  light  shining  brown  hue, 
with  thick  scales  terminating  in  a  pyramidal  apex;  they  are  arranged 
around  the  branches  in  the  radiating  clusters  that  give  name  to 
the  tree.  The  pinaster  grows  naturally  on  sandy  aoib  around 
the  Mediterranean  from  Spain  to  the  Levant.  On  the  drift*sands 
of  France,  especially  in  the  Gironde,  forests  have  been  formed 
mainly  of  this  oine;  the  seeds,  sown  at  first  under  proper  sheker 
and  protected  oy  a  thick  growth  of  broom  sown  simuttaneously, 
vegetate  rapidly  in  the  seansand,  and  the  trees  thus  raised  have, 
by  their  wind-drifted  seed,  covered  much  <tf  the  former  desert 
of  the  Landes  with  an  evergreen  wood.  These  forests  of  pinaster, 
apart  from  the  production  of  timber  in  a  once  treeless  district, 
luive  a  great  economic  value  as  a  source  of  turpentine,  which  u 
largely  obtained  from  the  trees  by  a  process  analogous  to  that 
employed  in  its  collection  from  P.  syhutris;  the  resin  b  yiekled 
from  May  to  the  end  of  September,  the  cuts  being  renewed  as  the 
supply  fans,  until  the  tree  is  exhausted;  the  trunks  are  then  felled 
and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  charcoal  and  lamp  bbu;k;  much 
tar  and  pitch  is  also  obtained  from  these  pinaster  forests.  In 
England  the  duster-pine  has  been  largely  planted  on  sandy  districts 
near  the  sea,  and  has  become  naturalized  in  Purbcck  and  other 
wild  tracts  jki  the  southern  counties,  but  the  summer  heat  is  too 
•mall  to  permit  of  its  resinous  products  acquiring  any  value;  the 
soft  coarse  wood,  though  pcrisbiable  in  the  natural  state,  has  been 
med  for  railway  deepers  after  saturation  with  creosote  or  pre> 
servative  solutions. 

P.  Pinea  is  the  stone  pne  of  Italy;  its  spreading  rounded  canopy 
of  light  green  foliage,  supported  on  a  tall  and  often  branchless 
trunk,  forms  a  strilang  feature  of  the  landscape  in  that  country, 
as  well  as  in  some  other  Mediterranean  lands.  The  beautiful 
feddish>brown  shining  cones,  roundly  ovate  in  shape,  with  pyraroi* 
dal  scale  apkes,  have  been  prised  from  the  ancient  days  of  Rome 
for  their  edible  nut-like  seeds,  whkh  are  still  used  as  an  article  of 
food  or  dessert.  They  do  not  ripen  until  the  fourth  ^r.  and  are 
kept  in  the  cone  until  required,  as  their  abundant  oil  soon  turns 
rancid.  The  tree  has  been  naturalized  in  many  warm  countries, 
even  in  China;  in  England  it  seldom  attains  any  larpe  siae.  as  the 
defkient  summer  heat  prevents  the  wood  from  matunnic:  but  trees 
occur  occasionally  in  plantations  so  or  xo  ft.  in  height;  the  wood, 
though  soft  and  deficient  in  the  resin  that  gives  durability  to  the 
timber  of  some  species,  is  valued  by  the  southern  carpenter  and 
cabinetmaker  for  iu  lightness,  its  fineness  of  grain,  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  worked. 

P.  mitts,  the  yellow  pine  of  the  northern  and  middle  states  of 
America,  is  rather  allied  to  the  three-leaved  section,  but  the  leaves 
are  mostly  in  pairs.  It  is  a  tree  of  large  size,  often  attaining  a 
height  of  70  ft.  and  upwards,  though  rarely  more  than  2  ft.  in 
dtameter  at  the  root;  the  k>wer  branches  spread  horizonully,  the 
upper,  converging  towards  the  trunk,  give  the  tree  somewhat  the 
aspect  of  a  spruce,  hence  it  is  called  in  some  districts  the  "  spruce- 
pine."  The  leaves  are  long,  slender,  and  of  a  bluish-green  hue: 
the  pendant  cones  are  about  i|  in.  long,  with  a  slender  point  to 
each  scale.  The  yellow  pine  is  one  of  the  most  important  timber 
trees  of  the  genus;  the  heart -wood  bcin^  very  durable  is  largely 
employed  in  ship-building  and  for  house  timber,  being  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  /*.  syheskis;  large  quantities  are  exported  to  Britain 
under  the  name  of  "  New  York  yellow  pine";  the  sapwood  is 
perishable. 

The  three-leaved  group  includes  several  of  the  nnost  valuable  trees 
of  America ;  among  them  is  P,  ripda^  the  pitch  fnne  of  the  northern 
states,  a  tree  of  from  40  to  50  ft.  in  height  with  rugged  trunk, 
occasionally  3  ft.  in  diameter;  the  short  oark-green  mves  are  in 
thick  tufts,  contrasting  with  the  pale  ydlowish,  usually  clustered 
cones,  the  scales  of  which  are  furnished  with  small  curved  spines. 
The  wood  is  very  hard  and  abounds  with  resin,  but  on  swampy 
land  b  of  inferior  quality  and  of  little  value  except  for  fuel,  lor 
whkh  the  pitch-pine  is  highly  prised;  on  drier  ground  the  grain 
b  fine  from  the  numerous  knots.  Large  ouantities  of  tar  and  pitch 
are  obtained  from  this  spedes.  The  tree  is  one  of  the  few  that  will 
flourish  in  salt-marshes. 

P.  palusiris  (or  P.  ctuiralis)  b  the  "  Georgia  pitch  pine."  or 
ydlow  pine  of  the  southern  states;  it  abounds  on  the  sandy  soils 
that  cover  so  much  of  Geonia,  the  Carolinas,  and  Florida,  and  on 
those  dry  lands  attains  its  nighcat  perfection,  though  oocasionally 
abundant  on  moist  ground,  whence  its  name.  The  most  marked 
intore  of  the  tree  b  hs  long  tufted  foliage— the  kavcs,  of  a  bright 


green  tint,  ^riradng  from  long  iHiite  sheaths,  bdog  often  a  Coot  ia 
length.  The  tall  columnar  trunk  furnishes  the  moat  valued  pine 
timber  of  the  states;  close-grained  and  resinous,  it  is  very  durable 
and  polbhes  well ;  it  b  largely  employed  in  American  shipyards,  and 
immense  quantities  are  exported,  espedally  to  Britain  and  the  West 
Indies.  This  tree  jrields  an  abundant  supply  of  tar  and  turpentine 
of  good  quality,  whkh  prrxlucts  are  collected  and  manufactured 
ia  the  "  pine-barrens  "  on  a  large  scale. 

P.  Tuda,  the  **  lobkilly  pine  "  of  the  backwoodsman,  a  tall  tree 
with  straight  trunk  and  sfireading  top,  covers  neat  tracts  of  the 
"  pine-barrens  "  of  the  southern  states,  but  also  irequently  spreads 
over  dewrted  arable  lands  that  hkve  been  impoverished  by  long  and 
bad  farming;  hence  the  woodsmen  call  it  the  '*  old-field  "  pine, 
while,  from  the  fiajEnnce  of  iu  abundant  resin,  it  b  also  known  as 
the  frankincense  pine.  It  b  a  fine  species  80  or  90  ft.  high,  having 
sometimes  a  girth  of  6  or  8  ft.,  with  a  broad  spreading  head;  the 
leaves  are  rather  long  and  of  a  light  green  tint,  the  cones  generally 
in  pairs,  the  scales  terminating  in  a  diarp  incurved  prkloe.  The 
timber  of  thb  pine  b  indifferent,  but  the  forea|ts  of  it  are  of  iai* 
portanoe  from  the  quantity  of  turpentine  they  yield;  the  trees  abo 
tumish  much  firewood  of  good  quality. 

P.  ponderosa,  the  yellow  pine  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Amefica, 
belongs  to  this  section;  it  is  a  fine  timber  tree  deserving  of  notice 
from  the  extreme  density  of  its  %»ood.  which  barely  floats  in  water; 
it  abounds  in  some  parts  of  the  western  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  is  the  most  widely  distributed  pine  tree  of  the 
mountain  forests  of  western  North  America.  The  leaves  are  very 
long  and  twbtcd,  the  small  oval  cones  armed  with  recurved  prickfes; 
the  tree  b  said  to  be  of  rapid  growthl  In  Oregon  and  Califoraia 
several  Urge  pines  of  thb  group  are  found.  P.  CwUeri  or  was 
carpa,  b  remarkable  for  its  enormous  cones  (sometinwis  a  foot  long. 
6  in.  in  diameter,  and  weighing  more  than  a  lb);  the  scales  end 
in  long  hooked  points  curving  upwards;  the  leaves  are  long,  rigid, 
and  i^lauoous  in  hue.  Nearly  related  to  thb  b  P.  Sabimiamm,  the 
nut-pint  of  California,  the  cones  of  which  are  7  to  9  in.  loog  and 
5  to  6  in.  in  diameter,  also  with  hooked  scales;  the  bige  nut -like 
seeds  are  eaten  by  the  Indbns;  the  tree  b  one  of  the  largest  ol  the 
section,  sometimes  attaining  a  height  of  120  ft.  and  upwards, 
while  trunks  have  been  fouiid,  it  b  said,  10  or  19  ft.  in  dtaaieter. 
p.  hmtifdiat  a  HiaMlayan  spedes,  b  remarkable  for  the  gnat  length 
of  its  lax  slender  leaves,  of  a  grass-green  tint;  the  conea  have  the 
points  of  the  scales  recurved.  It  Is  known  in  India  as  the  "  cheer 
pine  ":  the  wood  b  good,  resinous,  and  moderately  durable:  the 
tree  b  oommon  on  the  foot-hills  of  the  Himalayaab  P.  GereMiaa*. 
a  north-west  Himalayan  species,  b  a  meditun-eired  tree  with  a 
oonicad  head,  g^wii^  on  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the  nountaia 
range;  it  furmshes  edible  seeds.  The  leaves,  short  and  glaucous, 
like  those  of  the  Scotch  fir,  have  dedduous  sheaths;  the  cones  ha«e 
recurved  scale^points  like  those  of  the  cheer  pina.  P.  cmar*cB$ti, 
which  forms  forests  on  the  mountains  of  Grand  Canary  and  TcncriHe, 
growing  at  an  elevation  of  6000  ft.,  also  belongs  to  thb  group.  The 
leaves  are  long,  lax,  and  of  a  bright  green  tint;  the  cone-acales  are 
without  spines;  the  trunk  attains  a  Urge  uze,  and  yields  good  and 
durable  timber.  The  beautiful  Monterey  pine,  P.  imsigmis,  d» 
tiinubhed  by  the  brilliant  colour  of  its  toluge,  has  the  leaves  ia 
tuits  of  three  or  four;  the  lower  cone-scales  have  recurved  potots. 
Thb  fine  pine  has  been  planted  in  the  south-west  of  England,  but 
is  scarcely  hardy. 

The  pines  with  five  leaves  in  each  tuft  have  generally  deddoous 
sheaths.  The  most  important  economk  spedes  b  the  weU-kaowa 
white  pine,  P.  Strobiu,  from  its  large  growth  and  abundance,  as 
well  as  the  soft  even  grain  of  its  white  wood,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  North  American  timber  trees.  The  tree  abounds  from  Canada 
to  Geoma,  but  in  the  eastern  sutes  has  been  so  k>ng  nought  fer 
by  the  lumberer  that  most  of  the  okl  trees  have  Icmg  disappeared, 
and  large  white  pine  timber  b  now  only  found  in  quantity  in  the 
Canadian  Dominion.  Formerly  Maine  and  Vermont  were  celebrated 
for  the  size  of  their  pines,  but  few  of  these  great  trees  now  exi< 
in  New  England.  On  a  deep  rich  soil  P.  Sirobus  attains  a  hrigbt 
of  150  ft.,  and  trunks  without  a  branch  are  someUines  fowid  m 
or  90  ft.  long;  in  the  oarlbr  stages  of  growth  it  haa  a  pyraoudal 
form,  in  open  glades  the  lower  boughs  often  touching  tbegfound, 
but  in  old  age  it  acc^uires  a  wide  almost  cedar-like  top.  Tne  light 
blubh-green  foliage  is  somewhat  lax,  very  dense  in  yonng  trees; 
the  cooes  are  long  and  rather  curved,  with  thin  smooth  acafes  a 
little  thickened  at  the  apex,  and  generally  more  or  less  uiveied 
with  exuding  white  resin;  they  are  about  5  or  6  in.  in  length  and 
H  to  a  in.  broad;  the  male  catkins  are  of  a  btubh  tint;  the  cones 
ripen  in  the  autumn  of  the  second  year.    The  wood  eif  the  srhbe 

Cine  Is  durable  for  indoor  nie,  especially  when  protected  by  oasfli* 
ut  when  exposed  to  moist  air  it  rapidly  decays,  and  ft  b  very  linble 
to  dry  rot ;  it  is  said  to  be  best  when  groi/n  on  sandy  soils.  Inuner.je 
quantities  are  still  exported,  cspectalty  from  Canada,  its  smooth 
easily-worked  grain  rendering  it  a  favourite  wood  for  the  howsr 
carpenter  and  joiner;  it  weighs  about  28  lb  per  cubk  foot,  la  EaglniMl 
where  K  b  generally  known  as  the  "  Weymouth  pine."  ii  aucrerds 
well  on  deep  tight  soib  when  well-drained:  trees  have  attainrd 
occasionally  a  height  of  100  ft.  and  upwards  in  Britbh  plantations; 
but  it  is  apt  to  be  infested  with  American  blight  {Enosoma).  Ia 
northern  Germany  It  also  fra«rs  «•■.    Tht  diaatc  of 


A,  Code,  seed  and  needles.  ^>  l-^ne,  seed  and  needles. 


Stone  Pine  (.Piitus  Pinta). 
D,  Cone  and  seed. 


Cedar  o(  Lebanon  (Cedriis  Ltbani) .  Deodar  (Cedrus  Dadara), 

C,  Cone,  loliage  and  seed.  />*««  tr  A' 


PlNBiAPHLE— HNERO 

on  lew  naUE  tat  %  fnJMf  itvo  tlw  mm:Mwimma 
I,  tnd  It  aa  hardly  be  fwomnKDiInl  lor  Biitub  plutiiif  «bu- 


«i$ 


ig  liia  i>  P.  auliB,  the  Bfcoun  (4ik, 


V  ICPUDa  IB  IVIUOKWIDQ  DDIM«n 


?a  lanccly  planted  o(  late  at 


jeelth^sit 

w  Sikkim  HiiuJaya*;  it 

Inn  Ike  bnnchei  when 


like  P.  SBii>»t,  and  y>cld>  ■  v, 

macipkyUa.  Uke»»e  nativet  of ,  _.  .____ 

for  the  limine  kngth  ol  their  leavo;  the  lixma  u  laid  to  airuo 
tlun^a.  (C.  P.  J.) 

Pim-AFTLE.  Tlif  pine-apple  so  called  conasls  in  reality 
of  (he  inlloieicence  of  the  planr,  ihe  originaUy  lepaiaie  flowen  of 
which,  together  wilb  tbe  bractt  nippatting  Ibem,  become  fleshy 
■nd  coosolidated  into  one  niui.  Tbe  iwelling  and  fusion  ol 
the  tissues  take  place  after  the  procns  of  leniliutjon,  and  it 
may  be  Ihit  Ibe  lichly  perfumHl  succulent  mass  is  an  aid  m  the 
distribniloD  of  seed  by  avoiding  load  to  certain  animals.  In 
the  highly  developed  cultivated  pines,  howevef,  it  frequently 
bsppenl  thai  the  seeds  do  not  ripen  piopedy.  The  pine, 
Aaanas  lolinu,  'a  a  member  of  the  natural  ordei  Btomeliiceae, 
of  tn^ical  Aociican  origin,  nhcre  ii  is  widely  spmd;  and  il  i* 
now  nilutaliied  in  the  tropical  rejiDoi  of  the  Old  World. 

Evelyn  in  hi>  Dinry  mentiont  lasting  a  pioe-apple  fi<>°> 
Barbidot  M  Ihe  table  of  Cbarlo  U.,  and  Ibis  ii  we  believe 
the  ttn  mention  of  the  Iruii  in  English  Ulcrature.  A  pkluie, 
dI  which  a  copy  may  be  seen  at  th*  roonii  of  the  Royal  Horticul- 
lursl  Society  of  London,  reiwaeiits  the  loyal  ginkiiei.  Hi  Rom, 
presenting  on  bended  knee  the  &rst  pinfr4|if>]e  grown  in  Britain, 
tnd  it  is  surmised  that  this  mj.y  have  been  grown  Irom  the 
"iueken"  dI  thefniit  above  alluded  to  by  Evdyn,  though  it  it 
geneially  coniideied  thai  tbc  pine  was  oot  oiliivated  in  EngUsd 
till  1 71  a.    For  many  yean  pine-applee  were  cultivated  ■ 


r"' 


It  gaideps,  but  01 


hegrtnt 


it  West  Indies,  the  Azores,  Csoary  IsUotll,  &c.,  they  utt 
QO  longer  cultivated  in  Briuio  or  Europe. 

PIKE  BLDrF,  ■  dly  and  Ihe  county-sat  of  JcSenon  county, 
Arkansai.  II  S.A.,  (tlualFd  at  an  ittilude  of  about  no  ft  in  Ihe 
tUuvial  bottom!  of  Ihe  Arkaiut  river,  about  107  m.  Irom  ill 


BVBib,  aad  iboBt  4>  ■■-  S^  by  E.  of  Link)  Kock  Fnp  (191^, 
15,101.  It  ba*  «u  Ktive  rivei  trade  wiib  St  Louis,  Hemphi^ 
and  New  Orkua,  and  five  nilwuy  outieti— the  Mtsaosri  Fad6< 
and  III  biueh.  tbt  Pin  Blufl  &  Western,  (nd  the  St  Loun 
Soulb-Wettecs  and  its  two  bruidiB,  the  Pine  Blufl  &  Atku- 
su  Rivo  and  the  AltkcitiB'.  The  dry  has  many  Kboolt,  iitd  a 
burin  MS  college.  tb«  MaM  noiasJ  ttftaof  for  negroes,  and 
MeniB  iuiitDU,  endowed  by  Joeeph  MeMU  of  Pine  BhiS  wiih 
(100,000,  Large  quantlllea  of  cation  and  lumber  are  ihipped 
(trmt  the  dly  Aauog  the  manuraciurts  ate  (Dttoa-seed  oil, 
kimber  and  tuvsa,  and  furniture.    Pine  Blnff  has  shops  of  the 


were  valued  at  ti.qSg,!^ 
value  In  1900  Pine  Bl 
aaadtybi8S5. 


ISne^pple  {Aaonat  la/inii)  much  reduced. 
nilEL  FHIUPPE  (i74j-iB>6},^teochpbysIdui,  was  bom 
at  the  chiLtcau  of  Rascas,  Saint-Andri,  in  the  department  of 
Tarn,  Fran^e.on  the  aoih  of  April  1745.  He  studied  at  Lavaur 
and  afterwards  at  the  university  of  Toiilouse.  where  he  look  his 
doctor's  degree  in  1773.  From  Wontpelljer  he  removed  in  1778 
to  Paris,  engaging  there  ehiedy  in  lilernty  work  conoected  with 
his  prolcsiion.  His  first  publicalion  was  a  French  translation 
of  William  CuUen's  Namhgy  [t;Ss);  it  was  foUowed  by  an 
edition  of  Ihe  works  of  C.  Baglivi  (nSS).  and  in  1791  he  published 
a  Train  maHvi-tliiliisDpliiqiii  Jt  VdilBalim  HKnJale.  In  1701 
be  became  head  physician  of  Ibe  Bicctre,  and  two  yean  after- 
wards be  recdved  Ihe  corrcipouding  appdnuncnl  at  Ihe  Salpbi 
Itiiie,  where  he  began  to  deliver  a  course  of  clinical  lecluiesi 
these  foniuid  tbe  huis  of  bis  Kaopafiiie  fliiJtiofhiqiic  {iloS; 
6th  ed.,  1E18),  whicb  was  furlhct  devclaped  In  la  Mldaist 

1^3,  and  soon  alLeiwatds  was  appointed  professor  of  pathology 
in  the  £cole  de  MMecine  His  fame  reals  cnlircly  upon  Ihe 
fact  that  he  was  among  Ihe  Gisl  to  introduce  the  humane  treat-, 
mcni  of  Uic  intaoc.  He  died  at  Farii  on  Ihe  itith  of  October 
1S16. 

FINBRO,  >IR  ABTHDB  WIKD  (tSss-  ),  English  dramatisi, 
was  bora  Id  London  on  Ihe  141b  of  May  1S55,  Ihe  son  of  Johq 
Daniel  Pineio.  a  Jewish  solicitor,  whoM  family  was  ol  Portuguese 
origin,  long  cstiblished  in  London.  A.  W.  Pmero  was  engaged 
in  iB74BSinactoral  Ihe  Theatre  Koyal,  Edinburgh,  and  came 
to  London  in  1S76,  to  pby  at  the  Globe  Theatre.  Later  in'  die 
year  be  joined  the  Lyceum  company,  of  which  he  renuincd  t. 
nember  for  five  years.  The  hm  piece  of  his  to  see  the  footlights 


^26 


PINEROLO— PINK 


«M  ijtoo  a  Tcof.  ptttycd  In  October  (S77  At  the  Ck(bc  TlieAtra 
for  the  benefit  of  Mr  F.  H.  Macklin.  The  fint  pUi  to  make 
a  hit  was  The  Momey  Spinner  (Theatre  Royal,  Manchester, 
Nov  1880),  but  in  The  Sgmre  (St  James'a  Theatre,  Dec.  1881) 
he  attempted  wiious  drama,  aikd  gave  promise  of  the  qpaiities 
of  his  later  work.  In  1883  and  1884  Pineio  produced  wen 
pieces,  but  the  most  in4;>ortant  of  hia  works  at  this  period  woe 
the  sucoMsful  farces  produced  at  the  Court  Theatre;  The  Mciis^ 
Irak  (March  1885),  which  ran  for  more  than  a  year;  The  ScheU- 
mistress  (March  x886),  Dandy  Duk  G«n- 1887), revived inFehni- 
ary  1900;  The  Cahtnet  Minister  (April  1890),  and  The  Awuamni 
(Alarch  1893).  Two  comedies  of  sentiment^  Sweei  lasendef 
(Terry's,  March  x888)  and  The  Weaker  Sex  (Theatre  Royal,  Man- 
chester, Sept.  x888),  met  with  success,  and  Sweet  Laitnder  has 
enjoyed  numerous  revivals.  With  The  Profligflte  (Caxiidt, 
April  1889)  he  returned  to  the  serious  drama  which  he  had 
already  touched  on  in  The  Squire.  Out  of  deference  to  the 
wishes  of  John  Hare  the  play  was  fitted  with  the  conventional 
"happy  ending,"  but  the  original  denouement  was  restored, 
with  great  advantage  to  the  unity  of  the  play,  in  the  printed 
version.  The  Second  Mrs  Tanqueray  (St  James's,  May  27, 1893) 
dealt  with  the  converse  of  the  question  propounded  in  The 
Profiigate,  but  with  more  art  and  more  courage.'  "fhe  piece 
aroused  great  discussion,  and  placed  Pisero  in  the  front  rank 
of  living  dramatists  (see  Drama:  Recent  English).  It  was 
translated  into  French,  German  and  Italian,  and  the  part  of 
Paula  Tanqueray,  created  in  the  fint  place  by  Mrs  l^trick 
Campbell,  attracted  many  actresses,  among  others  Eleonora 
Duse,.  Ha  later  plays  were  The  Nefarious  Mrs  Ebhsmith 
(Garrick,  March  13,  1895),  The  Benefit  of  the  Doubt  (Comedy, 
Oct.  1895)1  The  Princess  and  the  Butterfly  (St  James's,  April  7, 
1897),  Trelatniey  of  the  Wells  (0>urt,  Jan.  30,  1898),  The  Cay 
Lord  Quex  (Globe,  April  8,  1899),  Iris  (Garrick,  Sept.  2x,  1901), 
UUy  (Duke  of  York's,  Oct.  8,  1903),  A  Wife  Without  a  Smile 
(Wyndham's,  Oct  9,  1904),  His  House  in  Order  (St  James's, 
Feb.  I,  1906),  The  Thunderbolt  (St  JamesV  May  9,  X90S)  and 
Mid-Channel  (St  James's,  Sept.  3,  1909).  Pfnero  was  knighted 
in  X909. 

His  Plays  {ti  vols.  189X-189O  have  prefaces  by  M.  C.  Salaman. 
See  al«o  H.  Hamiltoa  Fyfe,  A.  W»  Ptnero  (1903). 

PINBROLO  [PxGNEnoL],  a  dty  and  efriscopal  see  of  Piedmont, 
Italy,  in  the  i»ovince  of  Turin.  Vop.  (1901),  x 2,608  (town), 
18,039  (commune).  It  is  built  on  a  hill-side  just  above  the 
valleys  of  the  Chisone  and  the  Lemina,  at  a  height  of  1234  ft. 
above  the  sea,  24  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Turin.  The  railway  goes 
on  to  Torre  Pellice;  and  steam  tramways  run  from  Pinerolo 
to  Perosa,  and  to  Cavour  and  Saluzzo.  TUl  1696  it  was  strongly 
fortified  with  a  dtadel  on  Santa  Brigida,  a  castle  on  S.  Maurizio, 
and  dty  walls  constructed  by  Thomas  I.  of  Savoy.  It  has  a 
cathedral  (St  Donatus),  the  palace  of  the  princes  of  Acaia  and 
other  buildings  of  some  interest.  Cotton,  silk,  wool  and  hemp 
are  among  the  local  maimfactures. 

Pinerolo  was  bestowed  on  the  bishops  of  Turin  by  Otto  IIL  in 
996;  but  in  X078  the  countess  Adelaide  made  it  over  to  the 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Santa  Maria,  in  whose  possession  it 
remained  till  1x59.  Thomas  I.  of  Savoy  captured  the  castle 
in  1x88,  and  in  1246  the  commune  formally  recognized  the 
supremacy  of  Savoy.  Passing  in  1295  into  the  hands  of  Philip, 
son  of  Thomas  UI.,  Pinerolo  became  his  residence  and  capital, 
a  distinction  which  it  retained  under  Amadeus  VUI.  of  Savoy. 
Frauds  I.  of  France  obtained  possession  of  the  town  in  his 
descent  into  Italy,  but  Emmanuel  PhUibert  received  it  back 
from  Henry  m.  in  X574.  A  second  occupation  by  the  French 
occurred  tmder  Cardinal  Richelieu;  the  French  language  wss 
imposed  on  the  people,  great  fortifications  were  constructed,  and 
the  fortress  (I^gnerol)  was  used  as  a  state  prison  for  such  men  as 
Fouquet,  De  Caumont  and  the  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask  (see 
ItON  Mask).  Victor  Amadeus  bombarded  the  place  in  1693, 
and  ultimately  compelled  Louis  XIV.  to  relinquish  his  hold 
on  it;  but  before  the  withdraws!  of  the  French  troops  the 
defences  were  demolished.  In  1748  the  town  was  made  a 
bishop's  see. 


raMSTBD^  a  botanical  term'fw  ilowtn  which  oeciir  in  two 
forms,  one  of  which  shows  the  stigma  at  the  mouth  <A  the  ouoQa. 
as  in  the  primrose,  the  term  is  contrasted  with  thrum-eyed. 

PU|0*P01I0,  or  Tablb-Tennis,  a  miniature  variety  of  Iawii> 
tennis  played  on  a  taUe,  which  may  be  of  any  sise  not  less  than 
Sl  ft.  long  by  3  ft.  broad.  Various  attempts  were  made  to  adapt 
lawn-tennis  to  the  house,  but  the  re^  popularity  of  the  game 
began  when,  near  the  dose  of  the  X9th  century,  celluloid  baUs 
were  introduced,  and  the  game  was  called  ^ng-pong  from  the 
sound  of  the  balls  as  they  were  struck  by  the  racket  or  rebounded 
from  the  table.  In  1900  the  ball  was  improved  and  made 
heavier,  and  for  the  next  two  years  ping-pong  enjoyed  a  popular^ 
ity  never  before  attained  by  a  game  in  so  short  a  time,  not  only 
m  Great  Britahx  but  in  France,  the  Britudi  Colonies  and  America. 
Two  leagues  were  formed,  the  "  Table-Tennis  AsBodatton  **  and 
the  "Ping-Pong  Association,"  whose  laws  were  practicaUy 
identicaL  The  regular  tournament  table  is  9  ft.  loiug  by  5  ft 
broad,  and  the  net  is  a  little  less  than  7  in.  high.  The  bails, 
which  are  of  hollow  celluloid,  are  about  |  in.  in  diameter.  The 
racket  has  a  blade,  shaped  like  a  lawn-tennis  racket,  about  6  ia. 
long  and  a  handle  long  enough  to  grasp  comfortably,  aU  in  osc 
piece.  Rackets  are  made  dther  whoUy  of  wood  covered  vztk 
vellum,  cork,  sand-paper  or  rubber,  or  of  light  frames  oovererf 
with  vellum  or  some  other  laateriaL  The  table  was  at  fiist 
marked  out  in  courts,  but  is  now  plain.  It  should  be  unpofiahed 
and  stamed.  In  serving,  a  player  must  stand  directly  bASceA 
his  end  of  the  table  and  use  an  underhand  motion  only.  The 
ball  must  dear  the  net  and  strike  the  table  anywhere  on  the 
other  side.  The  game  is  then  continued  until  the  ball 
the  taUe  or  fails  to  pass  over  the  net.  Only  one 
allowed,  except  in  case  of  a  /ief.  The  scoring  is  the  same  ss  in 
lawn-tennis. 

See  Pin^Pong,  by  Anold  Packer  (Lofton,  1909);  TaUe  Temms, 
by  A.  Sinckir  (Loodon,  190s). 

PINK,  in  botany,  the  common  name  correspondixig  to  a  gcnoi 
of  CaryophyUacaet  the  Dianthus  of  botanista.  It  is  chacactetxced 
by  the  presence  of  simple  loaves  borne  in  paim  at  the  thkkcBed 
nodes,  flowers  terminating  the  axis  and  having  a  tubolar  calrx 
surrounded  by  a  number  of  overlapping  bracts,  a  showy  oortA 
of  five  free  long-stalked  petals,  ten  stamens  proceeding,  togr^ 
with  the  petals,  from  a  short  stalk  supporting  the  ovaiy,  wkick 
latter  has  two  styles  and  ripens  into  a  cyhndric  or  obloi^  ped- 
like  one-chambered  maiqr-^eeded  capsule  which  opens  at  ti* 
apex  by  four  ctdts  or  valves.    The  spedes  are  hexbaoea« 
perennials  of  low  stattupe,  often  with  very  showy  flowccs.    They 
are  natives  chiefly  of  southern  Europe  and  the  Meditenancaa 
region,  a  few  being  found  in  temperate  Asia  and  South  Africa. 
Four  spedes  are  wild  in  Britain.    Of  these,  D,  armeria,  Deptfofd 
pink  and  D.  ddUndes,  maiden  pink,  are  generally  distributed, 
D.  caesius,  Cheddar  pink,  occurs  only  on  the  ^in^fffonp  rocks 
at  (3ieddar.    Two  others,  D.  ptumarius  and  D.  earyopkyiius, 
are  more  or  less  naturalized,  and  are  interesting  as  b<dng  the 
originals  of  the  pinks  and  of  the  carnations  and  picotecs  of 
English  gardens.    Garden  pinks  are  derivatives  from  Di^nikws 
ptumarius,  a  native  of  central  Europe,  with  leaves  rough  at  the 
edges,  and  with  rose-coloured  or  purplish  flowers.    The  use  of 
"  pink  "  for  a  colour  is  taken  from  the  name  of  the  placL* 

The  pink  is  a  favourite  garden  flower  of  hardy  constitution. 
It  has  been  in  cultivation  in  England  ancc  1629,  and  is  a  great 
favourite  with  florists,  those  varieties  being  [weferred  whkh 

'Hie  ctymohwy  of  '* pink  "  is  disputed;  it  may  be  couucmd 
with  "  to  pink "  (apparently  a  naturaliaed  form  of  **  pidk  * ). 
property  to  prick  or  punch  noles  in  material  for  the  porpoae  of 
ornament,  hence,  later,  to  acalbp  or  cut  a  pattern  In  the  edge  <i 
the  material.  The  flower  has  jagged  edges  to  the  petals,  bat  the 
name  occurs  in  the  i6th  century,  and  the  falter  watuntmt,  "  to 
scallop,"  not  till  the  19th.  Others  connect  with  **piak/*  half- 
shut  Uinking  of  the  eyes,  as  in  "  plurapie  Bacehns.  with  pahc 
evne  **  (Shakspeare  Ant.  and  CI.  n.  vii.  I3i):  thb  woid  ia  aeea  ■ 
Dutch  pinken,  to  blink,  ihut  the  eyes,  and  may  be  conaectcd  wkh 
"  ^inch."  The  French  name  for  the  flower,  ontM,  little  ey«.  m^y 
point  to  this  derivation.  The  disease  of  horses,  known  sm  **  piak- 
eye,"  a  contagious  influcnsa.  is  so-called  from  the  oofeur  olthi 
inflamed  conjuncriva,  a  symptom  of  the  affection 


PlKHER'rON,  a.-^i»ik8:ney 


627 


have  the  musb  of  tlw  petab  entire,  aod  whicb  ue  wdl  maiked 
in  the  centre  with  brij^t  crinuon  or  dark  inxrple.    Its  grassy 
but  glaacons  fofiage  is  mocb  like  that  of  the  camatnm,  but  the 
whole  plant  is  smaller  and  more  tufted.    Pinks  require  a  free 
loamy  aoQ  deeply  trenched,  and  weH  enriched  with  cow-dung. 
They  are  readily  increased  by  cuttings  (pipings),  by  layers  and 
i>y  seed.    Cuttings  and  layers  should  be  taken  as  early  in  July 
as  practicable.    The  fanner  should  be  rooted  in  a  cold  frame  or 
in  a  sludy  spot  out  of  doors.    When  rooted,  which  will  be  about 
August,  they  should  be  planted  4  in.  apart  in  a  nursery  bed, 
iriiere  they  may  remain  tiOl  the  latter  part  of  September  or  the 
early  part  of  October.    The  chief  attention  required  during 
winter  is  to  press  them  down  firmly  should  they  become  lilted 
by  frosts,  and  in  ^ring  the  ground  should  be  frequently  stirred 
and  kept  free  from  weeds.    The  pink  is  raised  from  seeds,  not 
only  to  obtain  new  varieties,  but  to  keep  up  a  race  of  vigorous- 
growing  sorts.    The  seeds  may  be  sown  in  March  or  April  in 
pots  in  a  warm  frame,  and  the  young  plants  may  be  pricked  off 
into  boxes  and  sheltered  in  a  cold  frame.    They  should  be  planted 
out  in  the  early  part  of  the  simmier  in  nursery  beds,  in  which, 
if  they  have  ^)ace,  they  may  remain  to  flower,  or  the  alternate 
ones  may  be  transplanted  to  a  blooming  bed  in  September  or 
the  eariy  part  of  October;  in  cither  case  they  will  bloom  the 
following  summer     These  will  grow  in  any  good  garden  soil, 
but  the  richer  it  is  the  better 

The  border  varieties  are  useful  for  forcing  during  the  early 
spring  months.  These  are  propagated  from  early  pipings  and 
grown  in  nursery  beds,  being  taken  up  in  October,  potted  in  a 
ridi  loamy  compost,  and  wintered  in  a  oold  pit  till  reqiiired  for 
the  forcing  bouse. 

The  following  varieties  are  among  the  besL  For  borders  and 
fordng:  Ascot,  Camea,  Delicata,  Derby  Day,  Her  Majesty, 
Hercukt,  Anne  Boleyn,  Lady  Blanche,  Mrs  Sinkint,  Mrs  James 
Welsh.  Pifaig  Psrk.  Rubens.  Snowdoo,  Tom  Welsh.  Florists' 
diow  and  laced  varieties:  Attraction,  Beauty  of  Bath,  CJanw 
Criterion,  Ensign,  Galopln,  Hany  Hooper,  John  Ball,  Malcolm 
Dunn,  Mrs  D.  Gray.  RcliaRce,  William  PauL 

The  Carnation  (a.v.)  and  Pfcotee  are  modifications  of  Dian^Uu 
Gtryopkyttus,  the  Clove  Pink.  This  is  a  native  d  Earope,  nowing 
on  rocks  In  the  south,  but  in  the  north  usually  found  on  oU  walls. 
Jt»  occurrence  in  England  on  some  of  the  old  Norman  castles, 
as  at  Rochester,  is  suoposed  by  Canon  Ellacombe  to  indicate  its 
introduction  by  the  Normans:  in  any  case  the  plant  grows  in 
similar  situations  in  Normandy.  The  carnation  inclu<KS  thoae 
6owers  which  are  streaked  or  striped  icngthwise— the  picotees 
are  thoae  ip  which  the  petals  have  a  narrow  band  of  cobur  along  the 
edge,  the  remainder  of  the  petal  being  free  from  stripes  or  blotches. 
These  by  the  oM  writers  were  called  "  gillyflowers."  The  Sweet 
William  of  nrdens  U  a  product  from  Dtanlkus  barbaitu. 

The  Sca-riak,  or  Thrift,  Statice  Armena  (Armeria  wulmris),  is  a 
member  of  the  natural  order  Plun^ginmei  it  is  a  widely  distnbuted 
plant  found  on  rocky  and  stonv  sea-shores  and  on  lofty  moun- 
tains. There  are  many  improved  varieties  of  it  now  in  cultivation, 
one  with  almost  pure  white  flowers. 

PINKERTON,  ALLAN  (1819-1884),  American  detective,  was 
bom  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  oU  the  95th  of  August  1819.  His 
father,  a  sergeant  of  the  Ghsgow  municipal  police,  died  in  1838 
of  injuries  received  from  a  prisoner  in  his  custody*  In  1843 
Allan  emigrated  to  Chicago,  Illinois.  In  1843  he  removed  to 
Dundee,  Kane  county,  Illinois,  where  he  established  a  cooper- 
age business.  Here  he  ran  down  a  gang  of  counterieiters. 
and  he  was  appointed  a  deputy-sheriff  of  Kane  county  in  1840 
and  imBiediatciy  afterwards  of  Cook  county,  with  headquarters 
In  Chicago.  There  be  otganiaed  a  force  of  detectives  to  capture 
thieves  who  were  stealing  railway  property,  and  this  organization 
developed  in  1853  into  Pinkerton's  National  Detective  Agency, 
of  which  he  took  sole  chaige  in  1853.  He  was  capedaUy  sucoe«> 
f ul  in  capturing  thievw  who  stole  large  amounts  from  express 
companies.  In  1866  his  agency  captured  the  principals  in  the 
theft  of  $700,000  from  Adams  Express  Company  safes  on  a  train 
of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartlord  railway,  and  reoovered 
all  but  $bout  |i9,ooo  of  the  stolen  money  In  Febnmty  1861 
Pinkerton  found  evidence  of  a  plot  to  assassinate  President-elect 
Lincoln  upon  his  arrival  in  Baltimore  on  bis  way  to  Washington; 
as  a  lasttlt,  Liadoln  passed  through  Baltimore  at  an  eaily  hour 
In  tbe  monung  without  ateppinii    1m  April  iMi  PfaikcrtoB,  ott 


the  suggestion  of  General  George  B.  McCidlan,  organised  a 
system  of  obtaining  military  information  in  the  Soutlmrn  states. 
Prom  this  system  he  developed  the  Federal  secret  service,  Of 
which  he  was  in  charge  throughout  the  war,  under  iht  assumed 
name  of  Major  £.  J.  Allen.  Onef  of  his  detectives,  James 
McPaiian,  in  1873-1876  lived  among  the  MoDy  Maguires  (9.9.) 
in  Pennsylvania  and  secured  evidence  which  led  to  the  breaUng 
up  of  the  organisation.  In  1869  Pinkerton  suffered  a  partial 
stroke  of  paralysis,  and  thereafter  the  management  of  the 
detective  agency  devolved  chiefly  upon  his  sons,  HinOiam  Allan 
(b.  1846)  and  Robert  (184^1907).  He  died  in  Chicago  on  iht 
ist  of  July  1884.  He  published  The  Motty  y^gmret  omd  de 
Dettdhes  (:877),  Tke  Spy  of  the  RAdKtm  (1883),  in  whidi  he 
gave  his  version  of  President-elect  Lincoln's  journey  to  Washing* 
ton;  and  TkiHy  Years  a  Deteetite  (1884). 

PIXKBRTOH,  JOHN  (x  758-1836),  Scottish  archaeok)gist, 
numbmatist  and  author,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh  on  the  17th 
of  February  1 7  58.  He  was  articled  as  a  law  clerk  in  E^burgfa, 
and  his  ^egy  on  Ctttigmittar  CasAe  (1776)  was  printed  during 
his  clerkship.  In  1781  he  removed  to  London  to  devote  himself 
to  literary  work,  publishing  In  the  same  year  a  volume  of  Rimes 
of  no  great  merit,  and  Scottish  Tragic  Bailads.  These  were 
followed  in  1:^83  1^  Two  Ditkyrambic  Odes  en  EMikusiasm  ami 
Lauiker,  and  by  a  .series  of  Totes  in  Verse.  Under  the  title  of 
Sded  SeoUisk  Ballads  he  reprinted  b  1783  his  tragic  ballads, 
mth  a  supplement  comprising  BaOads  of  tke  Comk  Kind. 
Kitson  pointed  out  in  1784  that  the  so-called  andent  ballads 
were  some  of  them  of  modem  date,  and  Pinketton  confessed  that 
he  was  the  author  of  the  second  part  of  Hardy  Kannte  and  pert- 
author  of  some  others.  He  published  an  Essay  on  Medals  in 
X784,  and  in  1785,  under  the  pseudonym  of  **  Robert  Heron,"  his 
bold  but  eccentric  Letters  of  LUeratnre  depredating  the  fftffff^rsl 
authors  of  Greece  and  Rome.  In  1 786  he  edited  A  ncient  Seettisk 
Poems  from  the  MS.  tollcctionsof  Sir  Richard  Maitland  of  Leth- 
ington—4  genuhie  reproduction.  It  was  succeeded  in  1787  by  a 
cbmpilation,  under  the  new  pseudonym  of "  H.  Bcnnet,"  entitled 
The  Treasury  of  Wil,  and  by  his  first  imporunt  historical  work, 
the  DisserMhn  on  tke  Origin  and  Frogras  of  Ike  ScyMans  or 
G0l*r,  to  which  GtbbottacknowfedgedhimselfmdcA^ted.  Pinkerton 
next  ooUected  and  printed  in  1789  certain  Vilae  MmUmtm 
seoHaet  and,  a  Kttle  kter,  published  his  Enquhy  into  tke  Bistory 
of  Seetktnd  freeeding  tke  Reign  of  Malcolm  III.  His  assertion 
that  the  Celtic  race  was  incapable  of  assfanilating  the  highest 
forms  of  civilisation  exdted  *'  violent  ^sgust,"  but  the  Engniry 
was  twfce  reprinted,  in  1794  and  1814,  and  is  still  of  value  for 
Che  documents  embodied  in  it.  His  edition  of  Barbour's  Brwte 
and  a  MedtMic  History  of  England  to  tke  Revelulion  appeared  fai 
1790;  a  collection  of  Seettisk  Poems  reprinted  from  scarce 
Editions  in  1793;  and  a  series  of  bfa>graphical  dietdies,  the 
Jeenegrapkia  scoticSt  hi  the  years  1795^x797.  In  1797  he 
pubK^ed  s  History  of  Scotland  from^  tke  Accession  of  Vie 
House  of  Stuart  to  tkai  of  Jfory,  containing  much  valuable 
mateilaL  A  new  biographical  collection,  the  Gallery  of  Emineni 
Persons  of  Scotland  (1799),  was-succeeded  after  a  ^ort  interval 
by  a  Modem  Geograpky  digested  on  a  New  Plan  (x8o»; 
eidarged,  1807).  About  this  time  he  left  London  for  Paris,  where 
he  made  his  beedquarteiB  until  his  death  on  the  xoth  of  March 
r836.  His  remahiing  publications  were  the  Recdleclions  of  Paris 
in  tke  years  /^02-j-^#-5(x8o6)-,  a  very  useful  General  CoUecHon 
of  Voyages  and  Tfose^r  (x8o8-x8i4);  a  New  Modem  Atlas  (x8o8- 
1819);  and  his  Petrology  (x8xx). 

PIMKNICy,  WILUAM  (X764-X832),  American  lawyer  and 
statesman,  was  bom  in  Annapolis,  Maryland,  on  the  X7th  of 
March  1764.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786,  and  in  x  788- 
1793  practised  in  Harford  county.  In  1788  be  was  a  member 
of  the  state  convention  whidi  ratified  the  Federal  constitution 
for  Maryland,  in  1788-1793  and  b  X79S  of  the  House  of  Delegates 
(where  in  1788  and  1789  he  defended  the  right  of  slave-owners 
to  manumit  their  slaves),  and  in  1793-1795  of  the  state  executive 
coundl.  In  x  796-1804  he  was  a  commissioner  under  artide 
7  of  lay's  Treaty  of  1794  to  determine  the  claims  of  American 
merchants  for  damage  through  "  irreguUur  or  illegal  captures 


628 


PINNACE— PINOCHLE 


or  condeion&tioiis,"  and  during  this  time  adjusted  on  behalf  of 
Maryland  a  daim  of  the  sUte  to  stock  in  the  Bank  of  England. 
In  May  x8o6,  with  James  Monroe,  then  minister  at  London,  he 
was  commissioned  to  treat  with  the  British  government  con- 
cerning the  capture  of  neutral  ships  in  time  of  war;  in  iSoy-iSxx, 
after  Monroe's  return  to  America,  he  was  resident  minister  in 
i,ondon.  He  was  elected  to  the  Maryland  senate  in  September 
x8ii,  and  from  December  iSxx  to  January  x8x4  was  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  Sutes.  In  August  x8x4  he  was  wounded 
at  Bhidensburg.  He  served  in  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  January-April  i8x6,  and  in  x8x6-x8i8  was  mixiister 
plenipotentiary  to  Russia  and  special  miiuster  to  Naples,  where 
he  attempted  to  secure  indemnity  for  the  losses  to  American 
merchants  by  seizure  and  confiscation  during  the  rule  of  Murat. 
in  1809.  From  1820  until  his  death,  at  Washington,  on  the  25th 
of  Februaxy  X822,  he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  conference  comxnittee  on  the  bill  for 
Ihe  admission  of  Maine  and  Missouri,  which  in  its  final  form 
.  embodied  what  is  known  as  the  Missouri  Compromise.  Pixikney 
was  a  remarkably  able  lawyer  and  an  orator  of  the  old  schooL 

See  The  Lift  qf  William  Pinknty  (New  York,  1853)  by  his  nephew, 
William  Pinkney  (1810-1883),  who  was  Protestant  Episcopal 
bi^op  of  Virginia  in  1879-1883 :  and  Henry  Wheaton,  Some  Account 
of  the  lift,  Wrkingt,  aid  SpetSAes  of  WiUtam  pinkney  (New  York, 
1828). 

PINNACB,  the  name  of  two  types  of  vessel  or  boat,  one  a  light 
sailing  vessel  with  two  schooner-rigged  masts,  the  other  a  heavy 
eight-oared  man-of-war's  boat.  The  word  is  usually  referred 
to  Lat.  pinuSf  pine,  but  this  derivation  is  at  variance  with  the 
earlier  form  "  spinace." 

PINNACUB  (from  Lat.  pinnacuhtm,  a  little  feather,  piHna] 
the  Gr.  wrtpbyioy,  diminutive  of  rrifiu^t  wing,  is  also  used  in 
this  sense),  an  architectural  ornament  originally  forming  the 
cap  or  crown  of  a  buttress  or  small  turret,  but  afterwards  used 
on  parapets  at  the  oomer^  of  toweis  and  in  many  other  situations. 
Some  writers  have  stated  that  there  were  no  pinnacles  in  the 
Romanesque  styles,  but  conical  caps  to  circular  buttresses,  with 
finial  terminations,  are  not  uncommon  in  France  at  very  eariy 
periods.  VioUet-le-Duc  gives  examples  from  St  (jermer  and  St 
Remi»  and  there  is  one  of  similar  form  at  the  west  front  of 
Rochester  Cathedral.  In  the  X2th-centuxy  Romanesque  two  ex- 
.amplcs  have  been  cited,  one  from  Bredon  in  Worcestershire,  and 
.the  other  from  Clceve  in  Gloucestershire.  In  these  the  buttresses 
xun  up,  forming  a  sort  of  square  turret,  and  crowned  with  a 
pyramidal  cap,  very  much  like  those  of  the  next  period,  the 
Eariy  English.  In  this  and  the  following  styles  the  piimacle 
seems  generally  to  have  had  its  appropriate  uses.  It  was  a 
weight  to  counteract  the  thrust  of  the  vaults,  particulariy  where 
there  were  fiying  buttresses;  it  stopped  the  tendency  to  slip  of 
the  stone  copings  of  the  gables,  and  counterpoised  the  tlmist 
of  spires;  it  formed  a  pier  to  steady  the  degant  perforated 
parapets  of  later  periods;  and  in  France  especially  served  to 
counterbalance  the  weight  of  overhanging  corbel  tables,t  huge 
gargoyles,  &c  In  the  Eariy  English  period  the  small  buttresses 
frequently  finished  with  gableU^  and  the  more  important  with 
pinnacles  supported  with  clustered  shafts.  At  this  period  the 
pinnacles  were  often  supported  on  these  shafts  alone,  and  were 
open  below;  and  in  larger  work  in  this  and  the  subsequent 
periods  they  frequently  form  niches  and  contain  statues.  About 
the  Transition  and  during  the  Decorated  period,  the  different 
faces  above  the  angle  shafts  often  finish  with  gablets.  Those 
of  the  last-named  period  are  much  richer,  and  are  generally 
decorated  witli  crockets  and  finials,  and  sometimes  yiith  ball- 
flowers.  Very  fine  groups  are  found  at  Beverley  Minster  and 
at  the  rise  of  the  spire  of  St  Mary's,  Oxford.  Perpendicular 
pinnacles  differ  but  little  from  Decorated,  except  that  the 
crockets  and  finials  are  of  later  character.  They  are  also 
often  set  angle-ways,  particulariy  on  parapets,  and  the  shafts 
are  panelled.  In  France  pinnadcs,  like  spires,  seem  to  have 
been  in  use  earlier  than  in  England.  There  are  small  pin- 
nacles at  the  angles  of  the  tower. in  the  abbey  of  Saintes.  At 
Roullet  there  are  pinnacles  in  a  similar  position,  each  com- 
posed of  fo\u  small  shafts,  with  caps  and  bases  suxmouated  with 


small  pyramidal  ^pires;   In  all  these  examples  the  towers  have 
semiciradar-headed  windows. 

PnmoCK,  WIIXIAM  (x782-x84^,  English  publisher  and 
educational  writer,  was  bom  at  Alton,  Hampshire,  on  the  3rd 
of  February  X782,  and  was  at  first  a  schoolmaster,  then  a  book- 
seller. In  x8x7  he  went  to  London  and,  in  partnership  with 
Samuel  Mander,  beg^  to  publish  cheap  educational  works. 
The  firm's  first  productions  were  a  series  of  CoUckisms^  planned 
by  Pinnock,  consisting  of  short  popular  manuals,  arranged  in 
the  form  of  question  and  answer,  of  the  different  departments 
of  knowledge.  They  were  followed  by  abridged  editions  of 
Goldsmith's  histories  of  England,  Greece  and  Rome,  and  a  scries 
of  county  histories  which  were  no  less  profitable.  Pinnock  lost 
nearly  aU  his  money  in  outside  speculation,  and  died' in  London 
on  the  2ist  of  October  1843.  ids  son,  William  Hexixy  Pinnock 
(i 8x3-1885),  a  clergyman,  was  the  editor  and  author  ol  several 
clementaiy  textbooks  and  scriptural  manuals,  and  of  various 
works  on  ecclesiastical  law  and  usages 

FIHOCHtE.  or  Penuchle  (Ger.  Pinockd  or  Binocid,  of 
uncertain  etymology),  a  game  of  cards  probably  invented  by 
Germans  in  the  Uxiited  States  about  the  middle  of  the  igtJi 
century.  It  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  B£zique  (qjsX 
and  has  almost  entirely  usurped  the  place  of  the  older  game  is 
America.  Pinochle  may  be  played  by  two,  three  or  (oar 
persons.  Two  packs,  from  which  all  cards  below  the  nines  have 
been  ddeted,  are  shuffled  together,  forming  one  pack  of  48 
cards.  The  object  of  the  game  is  to  make  1000  points.  The 
cards  rank  as  follows:  ace  xx,  ten  xo,  king  4,  queen  3,  knave  2. 
The  nine  counts  nothing  unless  it  be  turned  for  tramps,  when  It 
scores  xo.  The  last  trick  scores  xo.  The  term  "to  ooeld'* 
(Ger.  melden,  to  announce),  as  used  in  pinochle,  means  **  to 
dedare."  "  Mdds "  are  combinations  which  are  declared 
during  the  play  of  the  hands.  They  are  ol  three  daases:  (1) 
''marriages"  and  '^-sequences,"  («)  "pinochles,*'  and  (3) 
"fcnirs."  The  "melds"  of  the  first  dass  score  as  follows: 
*'  marriage  "  (king  and  queen  of  any  plain  suit).  20;  **  n^-al 
mftfriage  "  (king  and  queen  of  trumps),  40;  "  sequence  "  (the 
five  highest  truiups),  tso.  In  the  second  dass  the  ''  netds* 
are  "  pinochle  "  (queen  of  spades  and  knave  of  diamonds),  40; 
"  double  pinodile  "  (both  queens  of  spades  and  knaves  of 
diamonds),  300;  **  grand  pinodile  "  (king  and  queea  of  si»da 
and  knave  of  diamonds),  80;  this  **  ndd  "  is  not  ofteo  pls^ 
in  America.  Of  the  tMrd  dass  the  "  mdds  "  are:  four  aces  ol 
different  suits,  xoo;  four  kings  of  different  suits,  80;  four  quceas 
of  different  suits,  6o{  four  knaves  of  different  suits,  40;  ei^ 
aces,  xooo;  eight  kings,  800;  eight  queens,  600;  cighl  knaves^ 
40a 

In  single  pinochle  (two  pbyers)  each  player  racdwea  tweht 
cards,  four  at  a  time,  the  twenty-fifth  being  turned  up  bcaick  tW 
stock  for  trumps.  The  non-dealer  leads  a  card,  to  which  tbe  deakr 
playa.  There  ts  no  obligation  cither  to  take,  follow  suit  or  trusap. 
The  winner  of  the  tridc  leads  again,  before  wfakb,  however,  he  taav 
'*  meld  "  any  one  coBibination  he  holds.  After  he  has  "  onelded," 
or  refused  to  do  so,  he  draws  a  card  from  the  top  of  the  stock  aad 
adds  it  to  his  hand  without  showing  it,  hU  acfvcrsary  doing  the 
same,  so  that  each  player  continues  to  hold  twelve  caras.  Pla^-ioc, 
announcing,  and  drawing  then  go  on  until  the  stodc  is  eadnnstcd 
All  combinations  "  melded  "  mu&t  be  laid  fsce  upward  on  the  table 
but  still  belong  to  the  player's  hand,  tbourh  they  nuy  not  be  takc« 
up  until  the  stock  has  givcdi  out.  \Vhco  this  happens  all  annoiuNT- 
ments  cease,  and  all  cards  exposed  are  replaced  tn  the  hands.  Tbe 
last  twelve  tricks  are  then  plavcd,  but  now  both  playov  muft 
follow  suit  and  must  win  the  trick  if  possible,  either  with  a  superior 
card  or  a  trump,    A  failure  to  do  this  is  a  •"  revoke  *'  and  is 

genalixed  by  the  loss  of  atl  points  made  by  *'  cards.*'  ie.  f<y  :te 
ve  highest  cards  in  each*  suit,  which  after  all  the  trids  have  bres 
played,  are.  counted  for  the  player  holding  them.  Ace  couats  11 
points,  ten  10,  king  4,  queen  3,  and  knave  a.  whatever  the  sdt. 
so  that  240  points  for  cards  "  are  divided  between  the  two  pla>cr^ 
Though  points  are  not  counted  during  the  pl^yt  a  mental  count  i» 
kept,  and  whenever  a  player  sees  that,  bjr  adalnic  the  vnhie  of  Kis 
*'  mdds  "  to  what  he  thinks  his  cards  will  count,  he  ha»  caovf^ 
to  win  the  game,  aamdy  1000  points^  he  "  calls  out  **  or  knocks  os 
the  table,  and  proceeds  to  expose  his  cards.  If  he  ialls  to  sbi>« 
enough  to  win.  he  loses  the  eame.   If  ndther  ^yer  knocksi.  th£ 

^0^  continues  until  one  of  them  scores  1250:  if  still  a  tie.  150a 
a  player  fails  to  make  good  a  "  rodd  *'  he  is  set  back  that  nnobis 
pf.poiola.    TbegMBe  js  scored  by.  counters  or  oa  a  aril' 


PINSK— PINTO 


629 


In  thrM-handcd  pinochle- the  ''meld*'*  an  exposed  before  a 
card  is  jA^ytdf  and  no  player  may  "  meld  **  after  he  hat  played 
to  the  fint  tnck.  A  rule  is  sometimes  made  that  an  overlooked 
comhioatbn  may  be  scored  by  the  other  players.  Four-handed 
pinochle  b  played  etiher  with  partners  or  eacn  player  for  himaell, 

PINIKt  a  town  of  Russa,  10  the  govemmeDt  of  Ifinak, 

at  the  confluence  of  the  Stnimen  and  Pina  riven,  196  bl  S.W. 

by  rail  of  Minsk.    Pop.,  27,938,  two-thirds  being  Jews.    Tlie 

town  canies  00  considerable  trade,  due  to  the  navigafade  river 

Pfna,  which  connects  it  with  the  fertile  regions  in  the  basin  of  the 

Dnieper,  and,  by  means  of  the  Dnieper-«nd-Bug  canal,  with 

Poland  and  Prussia,  whiTe  the  Oginafcy  canal  connects  it  with 

the  basin  of  the  NIemen.    Pottery,  leather,  oH,  soap  and  beer 

are  the  chief  products  of  the  local  indostries.    The  draining  of 

the  marshes  around  Pinsk  was  began  by  the  government  in 

x479,  and  by  1897  8,000,000  acres  had  been  drained  at  ah  average 

cost  of  3s.  per  acre.    Pinsk  (Pifiesk)  is  first  mentioned  In  1097  as 

a  town  belonging  to  Sviatopolk,  prince  of  Kier.    In  xijs  it 

formed  part  of  the  Minsk  principality.     After  the  Mongol 

faivasion  of  1239*41  it  became  the  chief  town  of  a  separate 

principality,  and  continued  to  be  so  untO  the  end  of  the  13th 

century.    In  1310  it  was  annexed  to  Lithuania;  and  in  1369, 

after  the  ui»mi  of  Lithuania  with  PcAand,  it  was  chief  town  of 

the  province  of  Brest.    During  the  rcbelliOQ  of  the  Cossack 

chief,  Bogdan  Chmielnicki  (1640),  the  Poles  took  it  by  assault, 

killing  14,000  pcnons  snd  burning  5000  houses.    Eight  yean 

later  the  town  was  burned  by  the  Russians.    Charles  XII.  took 

It  in  1706,  and  burned  the  town  with  its  stiburbs.    Pinsk  was 

annexed  to  Russia  In  1795. 

PIliSUTI,  CIRO  (i839*-i888),  Anglo-Italian  composer,  was 
bom  at  Siena,  and  was  educated  in  music,  for  a  career  as  a 
pianist,  partly  in  London  and  partly  at  Bologna,  where  he  was 
a  pupil  of  Rossini.  From  1848  he  made  his  home  in  England, 
where  he  became  a  teacher  of  singing,  and  in  1856  he  was  ihade 
a  professor  at  the  Academy  of  Music  in  Lond<m.  He  became 
wdl  known  as  a  composer  of  numerous  favourite  songs  and 
part-songs,  as  well  as  of  three  operas  brought  out  in  Italy,  and 
it  is  by  the  former  that  he  is  still  remembered. 

PINT  (derived  probably  through  Spanish,  from  Lat.  pitutap 
pkta,  a  painted  or  marked  vessel),  a  liquid  measure  of  capacity, 
equivalent  to  |  of  a  gallon.  The  imperial  British  pint«"'57  of 
a  litre,  34*66  cub.  in.  The  United  States  standard  pint«<47 
of  a  litre,  38}  cub.  in.  The  word  appean  in  French  as  ^utt 
tor  a  liquid  measure  as  early  as  the  13th  century. 

PINTO,  ANfBAL  (1825-1884),  Chilean  president,  was  bom  at 
Santiago,  Chile.  After  a  diplomatic  training  in  the  legation  at 
Rome  he  learned  the  practice  of  administration  as  inhndenii 
of  Concepdon,  and  from  1871  Co  1876  was  minister  of  war  and 
marine  under  Err&surix.  During  his  term  of  office  as  president 
(1876  to  i88x)  Pinto  had  to  deal  firat  with  a  severe  financial 
crisis,  and  then  to  conduct  the  struggle  with  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
in  which  he  displayed  great  coolness  of  judgment  and  devotion 
to  duty. 

•  PINTO,  FBRNAO  MBNBB8  (1509-1583),  Portuguese  adven- 
turer, was  bom  at  Montemdr^o-Velho,  of  poor  and  humble 
parents,  and  entered  the  service  of  a  noble  Isdy  in  Lisbon,  being 
afterwards  for  two  yean  page  to  the  duke  of  Aveiro  in  Setubal. 
Desiring  to  try  his  fortune'  in  the  East,  he  embarked  for  India 
jn  J  537  in  a  fleet  commanded  by  the  son  of  Vasco  da  Gama,  and 
for  twenty-one  yean  travelled,  fought  and  traded  hi  China, 
Tkrtary,  Pegu  and  the  neighbouring  countries,  saXng  in  every 
sea,  while  in  1542-1543  he  was  one  of  the  fint  Europeans  to 
visit  Japan,  where  he  Introduced  the  musket.  Though  he  was 
thirteen  times  a  captive  and  seventeen  times  sold  Into  slawry, 
his  gay  and  dauntless  spirit  t>rought  him  through  every  mis- 
fortune. He  was  soldier  and  sailor,  merchant  and  doctor, 
missionary  and  ambassador;  moreover,  as  the  friend  and  travel- 
ting  companion  of  St  Francis  Xavier,  he  lent  the  apostle  of  the 
Indies  the  money  with  which  to  build  the  first  Jesm't  establish* 
mcnt  In  Japan.  In  January  1554  Mendes  Pinto  was  in  Goa, 
waiting  for  a  ship  to  take  him  to  Portugal,  when  he  took  a  sudden 
resolution  to  enter  the  company  of  Jesus  and  devote  a  large  part 
of  the  cxpftal  he  had  accumlilated  to  the  eiMUigeHsation  of  Japan. 


The  viceroy  appointed  him  ambassador  to  the  king  ef  Bungo 
in  order  to  give  the  mission  an  oflkial  standing,  and  on  the  i8tb 
of  April  he  set  sail  with  the  provincial,  Fath»  Belchior  Nunes. 
Owing  to  bad  weather  and  contrary  winds,  however,  the  mis- 
sionen  did  not  reach  Japan  until  July  1556,  but  the  success  of 
the  mission  represented  a  notable  service  to  the  cause  of  ChriS' 
tianity  and  dviliaation.  On  the  14th  of  November  1556  Father 
Belchior  and  Mendes  Pinto  began  their  return  voyage  and  readhed 
Goa  on  the  17th  of  February  1557.  During  his  sUy  of  a  twelve- 
month there,  the  latter  left  the  company,  bang  disprnsH  from 
his  vows  for  want  of  vocation  at  hia  own  request,  though  ji 
modem  authority  states  that  he  was  ezpeUed  bentuse  he  was 
found  to  be  a  mvnmo^  t.«,  to  possess  Jewish  blood.  He  finally 
returned  to  Portugal  on  the  a  2nd  of  September  1558,  and  settled 
at  Pragal  near  Almada,  where  he  married  and  wrote  his  famoua 
book,  the  Ftrtirimalumi  the  MS.,  in  fulfilment  of  his  wishes, 
was  presented  by  his  daughter  to  the  Casa  FSa  iior  penitent 
women  in  Lisbon,  and  it  was  published  by  the  administjatoa 
in  16x4.  When  Philip  IL  of  Spain  came  to  Portugal  as  ka 
king,  be  listened  with  pleasure  to  the  account  of  Mendes 
Pinto's  travels^  and  hy  letter  of  the  xstb  of  January  X5S3 
gave  him  a  pension  for  his  services  in  the  Indies.  But 
the  reward  came  too  late,  for  the  great  traveller  died  on  the 
8tb  of  July. 

In  the  light  of  our  present^lay  knowledge  of  the  East,  Pinto 
is  regarded  as  having  been  on  the  whole  a  careful  observer  and 
truthful  narrator,  but  this  was  not  ahrays  the  case.  Some  witty 
countryman  of  his  own  parodied  his  name  into  FenUUf,  menUsf 
MintQl  V  Ferdinand,  do  yon  lie?  I  do!" );  and  the  English 
dramatist  Coogceve  only  expressed  the  general  opinion  of  the 
unlearned  when  he  wrote  in  lote  /or  Late  "  Mendes  Pinto  was 
but  a  type  of  thee,  thou  liar  of  the  first  magnitude."  It  must 
be  remembered  that  Pinto  wrote  the  Ptre^rimUiom  long  sub- 
sequent to  the  events  he  records,  and  this  fact  and  a  certain 
fertility  of  imagination  snfikiently  account  lor  inexactitudei. 
Furthermore,  as  the  book  was  only  published  posthumously, 
he  never  had  the  oi^wrtunity  of  correcting  the  proofs.  Some  of 
his  most  marvellous  stories  an  expressly  given  on  the  authority 
of  writen  belonging  to  the  oountrics  he  describes;  othen  he 
tells  from  heanay,  and  Oriental  informants  are  prone  to  es- 
aggeration.  But  il  he  somewhat  adomed  the  truth,  he  did  not 
wilfully  misrepresent  it.  The  book  itself  gives,  the  imprcssios 
of  sincerity,  and  the  editom  of  the  fint  edition  bear  witneis  tp 
the  probity,  good  faith,  and  truthfulncBs  of  Mendes  Pinto  as  a 
man.  Henera  •  Maldonado  prefaced  his  Spanish  transUtion  of 
the  Ptmgrmtttian  (1620)  by  a  lengthy  and  erudite  apology  to 
demonstrate  its  authenticity,  and  Gastilho  has  reinforced  his 
aquBSBts  by  modem  testimonies^  In  the  narrative  portions 
of  his  work  Pinto^s  style  is  simple,  dear  and  natural,  his  dictien 
rich,  particvlariy  in  sea  terms,  and, appropriate  to  hia  varying 
subjects.  There  is  an  entire  abaezKe  of:  artifice  about  the  book, 
which  must  always  rank  as  a  classic,  and  it  might  fairly  he  argued 
that  Mendes  Pinto  did  for  the  prase  of  Portugal  what  Canyteas 
did  for  its  poetry;  this  is  the  more  remarkable,  because  it  doe^ 
not  appear  that  he  ever  received  any  education  in  the  ordinary 
sense.  He  wrote  the  book  for  his  children  to  leara  to  read  by, 
and  modestly  excused  its  literary  defects  by  alleging  bis  rudeness 
and  UuJl  of  talent.  Tradition  has  it  that  the  MS.  was  entrusted 
to  the  chronicler  Francisco  de  Andrade  for  the  purpose  of  being 
polished  in  style  and  made  ready  for  press,  but  that  all  he  did 
was  to  divide  it  into  chapters. 

The  Peregrittaium  has  gone  through  niaiw  editions  subaejiuenc 
to  that  of  1614,  and  in  186^  Castilho  published  excerpts  in  his 
Livraria  classka  portuguna  with  an  interesting  notice  01  Mendes 
Pinto's  fife  and  writings.  Versions  exist  in  German  (5  editions). 
Frendi  (3  editions^  S^ish  (4  editions),  and  in  English  by  Hennr 
Cogao,  Loodoo  (1663.  1693  and— abridged  and  illustrated,  with 
ioU^uction  by  Arminius  Vaoib^ry— 1891}.  Cpean  omits  the 
chapters  relating  to  Mendes  Pinto's  intercoorse  with,  and  the  last 
days  of.  St  Francis  XavieT.  presumably  as  a  concession  to  anti- 
Catholic  prejudice. 

See  ChristoWto  Ayres.  FermOo  Mendes  Pinto  (Lisbon,  1904). 
Fer»do  Mtndes  Pinto  e  0  Japdo  (Lisbon.  1906):  also  Substdios  . . . 
para  a  biographia  de  Pernio  Mendes  Pinto  by  JordSo  de  Fieitas 
tCoimbra.  1905).  (E.  P*-) 


630 


PINTO— fINTORICCHIO 


PlflTO.  The  remailLable  brown,  black  and  blue  spots  of 
discoloration  of  the  whole  body  met  whh  ei\dcmicaUy  in  Mexico, 
Panama,  Colombia  and  Veneraela,  and  known  under  the 
name  of  "  pinto"  or  "  mal  de  los  pintos,"  were  first  claimed  by 
Gastambide  (Freste  med.  Bdzei  1881,  Nos.  33-41)  as  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  vegetable  parasite,  whose  spores  and  even 
mycelial  filamenb  may  be  detected  among  the  deeper  rows  of 
cells  of  the  rete  mucosum.  The  disease  appears  to  be  one 
of  the  many  forms  of  morbus  Mtseriae;  but  it  is  contagious,  and 
is  sometimes  seen  in  the  well-co-do.  .  In  some  villages  of  the 
western  districts  of  Tabasco  (Mexico)  it  has  been  estimated 
that  9%  of  the  inhabitants  suffer  from  the  pinto;  M'Clellan 
•ays  that  in  1826  in  the  City  of  Biexioo  he  saw  a  wh(^e  regiment 
of  "pintados." 

PINTURICCHIO  (1454-1 513),  Italian  painter,  whose  full  name 
w^  BsJUtAKDiNO  Di  BEtTi,  the  SOU  <rf  a  dtizen  of  Perugia, 
Benedetto  or  Betto  di  Btagio,  was  one  of  a  very  important  group 
who  inherited  the  artistic  traditions  and  developed  the  style  of 
the  older  Perugian  pamteis,  such  as  BonfigK  and  Fiorenzo  di 
Lorenso.  According  to  Vasari  he'was  a  pupil  of  Perugino;  and 
10  in  one  sense  no  doubt  he  was,  but  rather  as  a  paid  assistant 
than  as  an  apprentice.  The  strong  nmlhirity  both  in  design 
and  methods  of  execution  which  runs  through  the  works  of  this 
later  Perugian  school  is  very  striking;  paintings  by  Perugino, 
PinturJcchio,  Lo  Spagna  and  Raphael  (in  his  first  manner)  may 
often  be  mistaken  one  for  the  other.  In  most  cases,  especially 
in  the  execution  of  large  frescoes,  pupils  and  assistants  had  a 
large  share  in  the  work,  either  in  enlarging  the  master's  sketch 
to  the  full-sized  cartoon,  in  transferring  the  carroon  to  the  wall, 
or  in  pamting  backgrounds,  drapery  and  other  accessories. 
After  assisting  Perugino  in  the  execution  of  his  frescoes  in  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  Pinturicchio  was  employed  by  various  members 
of  the  Delia  Rovere  family  and  others  to  decorate  a  whole  series 
of  chapeb  in  the  churdi  of  S.  Maria  del  Pop<rio  in  Rome,  where 
he  appears  to  have  worked  from  1484,  or  earlier,  to  140*  with 
-Httle  interruption.  The  earliest  of  these  is  an  altarpiece  of  the 
**  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  ii^the  first  chapel  (from  the  west) 
on  the  south,  built  by  (Ordinal  Domenico  della  Rovere;  a  portrait 
of  the  cardinal  is  introduced  as  the  foremost  of  the  kneeling 
shepherds.  In  the  lunettes  under  the  vault  Pinturicchio  painted 
•mall  scenes  from  the  life  of  St  Jerome.  The  frescoes  which  he 
painted  in  the  next  diapef ,  that  built  by  Cardinal  Innocenao  Cibo, 
were  destroyed  in  1700,  when  the  chapel  was  rebuilt  by  Cardinal 
Alderano  Cibo.  The  third  chapd  on  the  south  is  that  of  Giov. 
della  Rovere,  duke  of  Sora,  nephew  of  Sixtus  IV.,  and  brother 
of  (xiuliano,  who  was  afterwards  Pope  Julius  II.  This  contains 
a  fine  altarpiece  of  the  "  Madonna  enthroned  between  Four 
Saints,"  and  on  the  east  side  a  very  nobly  composed  fresco  of 
the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin/'  The  vault  and  its  lunettes 
ate  richly  decorated  with  small  pictures  of  the  life  of  the  Viigin, 
surrounded  by  graceful  arabesques;  and  the  dado  b  covered 
■with  monochrome  paintings  of  scenes  from  the  lives  of  saints, 
medatfions  with  prophets,  and  very  graceful  and  powerfuUy 
drawn  female  figures  in  full  length  in  which  the  hifluenoe 
of  Signorelli  may  be  traced.  In  the  fourth  chapel  Pintu- 
ricchio painted  the  Four  Latin  Doctors  in  the  lunettes  of  the 
vault.  Most  of  these  frescoes  are  considerably  injured  by 
damp,  but  happily  have  suffered  little  from  restoration;  the 
heads  are  painted  with  much  minuteness  of  finish,  and  the  whole 
of  the  pictures  depend  very  largely  for  their  effect  on  the  final 
touchings  a  seccp.  The  last  paintings  completed  by  Pinturicchio 
in  thb  church  were  the  frescoes  pn  the  vault  over  the  retro-choir, 
a  very  rich  and  well-designed  piece  of  decorative  work,  with 
main  lines  axianged  to  suit  their  surroundings  in  a  veiy  skilful 
way.  In  the  centre  b  an  octagonal  pand  of  the  coronation  of 
the  Virgin,  and  round  it  medallions  of  the  Fout  Evangelbts-^-the 
spaces  between  them  being  filled  up  by  reclining  figures  of  the 
Four.  Sibyb.  Oa  etch.pendentive  b  a  figure  of  one  of  the  Four 
Doctora  enthroned  under  a  niched  canopy.  The  bands  which 
separate  these  pictures  haye  ebborate  arabesques  on  a  gold 
ground,  and  the  whole  b  painted  with  broad  and  effective 
touches,  very  telling  when  seen  (as  b  necessarily  the  case)  from 


a  considerable  distance  below.   No  finer  specimen  of  (he  decora- 
tion of  a  simple  quadripartite  vault  can  anywhere  be  seen. 

In  1493  Pinturicchio  was  summoned  to  Orvieto,  where  he 
painted  two  Prophets  and  two  of  the  Doctora  in  the  duomo.  In 
the  following  year  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  emplbyed  by 
Pope  Ale^utoder  VI.  (Borgia)  to  decorate  a  suite  of  six  rooms 
in  the  Vatican,  which  Alexander  bad  just  built.  These  noau, 
called  after  their  founder  the  App<irtamenH  Borpa,  nom  fona 
part  of  the  Vatican  library,  and  five  of  them  still  r^jun  the  fiae 
series  of  frescoes  with  whidi  they  were  so  skilfuBy  decorated 
by  Pinturicchio.  The  upper  part  of  the  walb  and  vaults,  not 
only  covered  with  painting,  but  further  enriched  with  deticate 
stuccb  work  in  relief,  are  a  masterpiece  of  deoprative  deiigR 
applied  according  to  the  truest  priiicipbs  of  mural  onuunent— a 
much  better  modd  for  imitation  in  that  respect  than  the  moie 
celebrated  Stanze  of  Raphael  immediately  over  the  Borgm 
rooms.  The  main  subjects  are:  (i)  the  Annunciation,  tht 
Nativity,  the  Magi,  and  the  Resurrection;  (1)  Scenes  froBitke 
lives  of  St  Catherine,  St  Antony  and  Other  saints;  (3)  alkgDricil 
figures  of  music,  arithmetic  and  the  like;  (4)  four  figures  in  half 
length,  with  rich  arabesques;  (5)  figures  of  the  planets,  the 
occupations  of  the  various  months,  and  other  subjects.  Ike 
sixth  room  was  repainted  by  Perino  dd  Vaga.> 

Though  not  without  interruption,  Pinturicdiio,  assbted  by 
hb  pupib,  worked  in  these  rooms  from  149a  till  X49S.  when  thqr 
were  completed.  Hb  other  chief  frescoes  in  Rome,  stiU  exist *ag 
in  a  very  genuine  state,  are  those  in  the  Ci^jpelh  Bufaltniattbe 
south-west  of  S  Maria  in  Ara  Coeli,  probably  esecuted  from 
S497  to  1500.    These  are  wdl-designed  compositions,  nobfe  is 
conception,  and  finished  with  njuch  care  and  refinement.  Cte 
the  altar  wall  b  a  grand  painting  of  St  Bernardino  ci  Siena 
between  two  other  saints,  crowned  by  angeb;  in  the  ui^)cr  part 
b  a  figure  of  Christ  in  a  vesica-glory,  surrounded  by  a&fd 
nusicbns;  on  the  left  wall  b  a  l4.rge  fresco  of  the  miracles  dooe 
by  the  corpse  of  St  BeroardinOk  rery  rich  in  cok>ur,  and  fufi  d 
very  carduUy  painted  heads,  some  being  portraits  of  oa«Bbeo 
of  the  Bufalini  family,  for  whom  these  frescoes  were  executed. 
One  group  of  three  females,  the  central  figure  with  «  child  at  her 
breast,  b  of  eq)ecial  beauty,  recalling  the  grace  of  RaphaeTi 
second  manner.   The  composition  of  the  main  group  round  the 
saint*s  corpse  appeara  to  have  been  suggested  by  Ciotlo*s  pairt* 
ing  of  St  Frauds  on  hb  bier  in  S.  Croce  at  Florence.    On  the 
vault  are  four  noble  figures  of  the  Evangelists,  usually  attributed 
to  Luca  Signor^i,  but  certainly,  like  the  rest  of  the  frescoes  a 
thb  chapd,  by  the  hand  of  Pinturicchio.    On  the  vault  ol  the 
sacristy  of  S.  C^ilia  in  Trastevere,  Pinturicchio  painted  tht 
Almighty  surrounded  by  the  Evangelists.    During  a  visit  is 
Orvieto  in  1496  Pinturicchio  painted  two  more  ^gures  of  the 
Latin  Doctora  in  the  choir  of  the  duomo^— now,  like  the  rest  d 
hb  work  at  Orvieto,  almost  destroyed.    For  these  he  rccei\xd 
fifty  gold  ducats. 

Among  his  panel  pictures  the  following  are  the  moat  unpoctanL 
An  altarpiece  for  S  Maria  de'  Fbsd  at  Peru^a,   painicd  ia 
M96-X49iSj  now  moved  to  the  picture  gallery,  b  a  ^^'^-^^^^ 
enthroned  among  Saints,  graceful  and  sweet  in  exprcaaion,  and 
very  minutely  painted;  the  wings  of  the  retable  have  atandisg 
figures  of  St  Augustine  and  St  Jerome;  and  the  ^edeHa  has 
paintiaga  in  minbture  of  the  Annunciation  and  the  EvaagcBsis. 
Another  fine  altarpiece,  similar  in  delicacy  of  detail,  and  probably 
painted  about  the  same  time,  b  that  in  the  cathedial  of  Saa 
Severino — the  Madonna  enthroned  looks  down  tovazds  the 
kneeling  donor.    The  angeb  at  the  sides  in  beauty  of  face  aai 
expression  recxU  the  nuinncr  of  Lorenzo  di  Credi  cr  I>a  \l::cL 
The  Vatican  piaure  gallery  has  the  brgest  of  Piniudcc^ie's 
panda— the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  with  the  apostles  a:^ 
other  saints  bebw.  Several  well-executed  portraits  occur 
the  kneeling  saints.    The  Virgin,  who  kneeb  at  Christ *a  feet 
recdve  her  crown,  b  a  figure  of  great  tenderness  and  beauty, 
the  lower  group  is  comp(»ed  with  great  skill  and  grace  in 
ment.    Other  important  pand  paintings  by  Pinturicchio 

.     «See  Cuattani.  Qtiadn  mO*  ^pparL  B^pA  (Rone.  t«ao>. 


HNWELL— PINZON 


63 « 


IB  thd  CfttlMdml  of  SpeOo,  in  the  SIwa  gilleiy,  at  FlMcme,  at 
Perugia,  and  in  other  coUectiona. 

In  xsoi  PintiiricclUo  painted  tevecal  fine  frescoes  in  S.  Maria 
llagsiofe  at  Spello— «il  very  deoontive  aad  fall  of  elaborate 
srcUtecttual  acceoorics.  One  of  them,  the  Aanundation,  is 
a^p)ed"Bemardinv8PintvrkfaivtPervriiiva."  The  most  strildng 
of  all  Pfntvriochio's  frteeoca,  both  for  brilliance  of  colour  and 
their  wonderful  state  of  preservatioo,  are  those  in  the  cathedrsl 
library  at  Siena,  a  large  room  bnilt  in  149$  by  Oudinal 
Fianccsco  Pkcolomini,  aftenrards  Pfus  III.  In  isos  th« 
cardinal  contracted  with  Pintuiicchio  to  decorate  the  whole 
room  with  arabesquei  on  the  Vanlt,  and  <m' the  waOs.ten 
scenes  from  the  Ufe  of  Aeneas  Sylvias  PIcooIomIni,  Piui  U.,  the 
uncle  of  Cardinal  Francesco. 

The  contract  nptaaMy  provided  that  the  cartoons,  their  trans- 
fcfcnce  on  to  the  walla,  mad  all  the  heads,  were  to  be  by  Pintnric- 
cliio's  own  hand,  thus  contiadictins  Vaaari's  assertion  that  the 
cartoons  were  the  work  of  Raphael.   The  document  provides  for  the 
price  of  these  frescoes,  namely  one  thousand  gold  ducats,  to  be 
paid  in  various  instalments.    The  work  was  begun  eariy  in  1503. 
put  WM  interrupted  (or  a  while  fay  the  death  of  Pius  III.    liis 
will,  however,  provided  for  the  completion  of  the  work  by,  his 
executors,  and  the  whole  series  were  finished  in  1507.   The  subjects 
are  (i)  the  journey  of  the  young  Sylvius  Ficcolomiai  to  the  Council 
of  rasel.  in  the  suite  of  Cardinal  Capranica;  h)  his  reception  by 
James  I.  of  Scotland  as  envoy  tran  the  Council  01  Basd;  ^)  his  beii^ 
crowned  with  the  poet's  laurel  by  Frederick  III.;  U)  his  reception 
by  Pope  Eugenitts  IV.  as  ambassador  from  Frederick  ill. ;  (5)  outside 
the  waU  oTSiena  he  presents  to  Frederick  III.  his  bride  ijeonora. 
infanta  of  Portugal;  (6)  he  leteivea  the  cardinal's  hat  from  Pope 
Calixtus  III.;  (7)  he  b  borne  In  procession  after  his  election  as  Pope 
Pius  II.;  (8)  be  presides  at  a  council  at  Mantua;  (9)  he  canonises 
St  Cathenne  of  Siena:  (10)  he  arrives  in  Ancona  to  promote  the 
crusade  against  the  Turks.    In  addition  to  these  there  is,  outside 
the  library,  over  the  door,  the  coronation  of  Pius  111.    In  the 
kywer  part  of  the  scene  of  St  Catherine's  canonixation  be  has  Intro- 
duced his  own  portrnt.  and  standing  by  him  is  a  youth  who  bears 
some  resemblaiioe  to  RaphaeL 

Id  1508  Finturicchio  painted  another  panel  of  the  Madonna 
enthroned  among  saints  for  the  church  of  the  Minor!  Conventuali 
at  Spdlo.  It  is  now  over  the  altar  in  the  sacristy.  On  his 
return  to  Siena  he  painted  a  whole  series  of  frescoes  on  the  walls 
of  the  Palano  Petrucd,  now  all  destroyed  except  one  scene  of 
the  return  of  Ulysses  to  Penelope  (or  possibly  CoUatinue  and 
Lueretia),  which  is  now  in  the  National  Gallery  of  London, 
transfernMl  to  canvas.  One  of  his  last  works,  painted  in  1513, 
the  year  of  his  death,  is  a  very  beautiful  and  highly  finished 
panel  with  Christ  bearing  His  Cross,  now  in  the  Palazso  Bor- 
Boineo  in  Milan.  Pinturicdiio  married  Crania  di  Niccold,  and 
had  by  her  two  sons  and  four  daughters;  there  is  probably  no 
truth  in  the  story  of  his  being  starved  byiiis  wife  duting  his  last 


Pinturicchio's  worth  as  a  painter  has  been  for  the  most  part 
undervalued,  partljr  owing  to  the  very  strong  prejudice  and  dislike 
which  tinges  Vasari's  biography  of  him.  Even  Crowe  and  Cava!- 
caselle  hardly  did  him  justice.    A  fairer  estimate  of  his  position 

dt  PnUm 


the  btatory  of  art  is  given  fay  VennigiMb, 

«M9  (Perugia,  iSjj):  >od  in  tne  valuaole  notes  and  appendix  of 
Milaneai's  edition  01  Vasari,  iiL  403-^1  (Florence,  1878).  Sec  also 
Schm»T90vf,  RaphaduHdPinturiukwtn  Suna  (Stuttgart.  1880),  and 
Pinturicckio  tn  Bom  (Stuttgart,  1882),  both  well  illustrated  by 
photo-iitbograpby.  0*  H.  M.) 

pmWBLL.  GBOROB  JOHN  (x84S-'t87s),  British  water-eolour 
pafBter,  was  bom  at  Wycombe,  and  educated  at  Heatherley's 
Acadciny.  He  is  one  of  the  most  hitercsting  penonaKties  ia 
the  tittle  group  bf  water-c«4ottr  painters  whkh  included  Piederkk 
Walker  *nd  A.  B.  Houghton,  a  group  whose  style  was  dbectly 
derived  from,  the  practice  of  drawing  upon  wood  for  book 
Illtistration.  He  was  one  of  the  most  ddightfnl  book  illustrators 
6f  hia  <tey*  poetic  hi  Ima^nation,  with  considerable  inventive 
power  and  an  admirable  sense  of  oolonr.  As  he  died  young  his 
worlts  are  few,  but  thefr  promise  was  so  great  that  had  he  Uved 
he  would  probably  have  attained  a  very  high  position.  His 
CBnAy  Ufa  '^"^  01^  ^^  considerable  privation.  In  M2  he  entered 
at  Heatlieriey's  studio  and  there  obtained  his  art  education. 
His  estrliest  drawings  appeared  in  Uttipnt  UvH.  He  did  a  Uttlc 
work  for  Pun  and  executed  several  designs  for  the  silvtrtmtthi, 
BlksaS^^B**   In  1863  hiafimdrawriag  appeared  in  Oaccim^afl^ 


and  from  thai  time  hto  wotk  wu  la  constant  demand.  Theft 
are  many  of  his  compoistians  in  G0od  W§nit,  The  Smdif 
Magaaine,  Tkt  Q$mir  and  LoniM  Sociefy,  but  his  most  important 
productions  snade  for  the  DaJafel  brotheis  were  iltusttatlons  of 
Goldsmith,  of  Jean  Ingebw's  poems,  Robert  Buchanan's  2lafted!i 
ojtke  AfedioHS,  and  the  ArtMan  Nitkts, 

Of  PinweU's  pictures  in  colour,  whkh  ate  distinguished  by  a 
remarkable,  jewel-like  qaatfty  and  marked  by  his  strong  love 
of  pure,  bri^t  colour  and  opalescent  e£Fect,  the  chief  are  the 
two  scenes  from  the  Pied  Piper  of  HameOn,  Gilbert  d  Beckel*f 
Troth,  Out  of  Tune  or  The  Old  Cross,  A  Seat  in  ^  Jam^s  Ptrk, 
and  The  Elixir  of  Life, 

In  1874  PinweU  fell  seriously  lU  and  went  to  Africa  for  the 
winter.  He  painted  several  remarkable  pictures  at  Tangier, 
but  his  strength  gradually  broke  down  and  he  returned  to  die  hi 
bis  wife's  arms  on  the  8th  of  September  1875.  PinweU  was  an 
exhibitor  at  the  Dudley  gallery,  and  in  1869  was  elected  associate 
of  the  Royal  Water-Colour  Society  and  fuU  member  in  1870; 
to  this  gaflery  be  contributed  fifty-nine  works.  A  posthumous 
ezhibiUon  of  his  works  was  held  1^^,1876  in  Bond  Street. 

See  Life  of  George  J.  PinweU,  by' George  C.  WtUjamson.  quarto. 
1900.  •  (G.CTW.) 

PIlfZON,  a  family  of  wealthy  Spanish  navigators,  of  Paloa 
in  Andalusia,  three  members  of  which — Martin  Alonzo,  Frandsco 
and  Vicente  Yafiea,  brothers— were  associated  with  Columbus 
in  the  discovery  of  America. 

Maxtik  Alonzo  Pinsqn,  bom  about  the  middle  of  the  xsth 
century,  gave  material  assistance  to  Columbtts  in  carrying  out 
his  project.  "  If  (}olon  was  the  head,  Pinzon  was  the  right  arm  ** 
(Asensm).  In'the  expedition  of  1492  he  ooouaanded  the  '*  Plnta,'* 
on  which  his  bcother  Francisco  was  pilot;  another  brother, 
Vicente  Yaflss,  commanded  the  "Nina."  On  the  6th  of 
(Xlober  Martin  Alonao  suggested  to  Columbus  (when  already 
ia  the  longitude  of  the  Bermudas)  to  change  the  course  of  the 
eapeditimi  from  due  west  to  south-west;  on  the  7th  of  October 
this  suggestlon-'^trengthened  by  the  observation  of  a.  flight 
of  Urds  to  the  south-west'-~was  adopted,  bringing  the  fleet,  four 
days  later,  to  the  landfall  at  Guanahani  (San  Salvadnr,  Watliag 
Island)  in  the  Bahamas  (Oct.  is,  1491).  On  the  sitt  of  Novem* 
her  X493,  near  the  east  end  <^  the  north  coast  el  Cuba,  Martin 
Ahmso  left  Columbus,  making  eastward  in  aeatdi  -  of  •  Ihe 
goki-land  of  which  they  had  heard  the  natives  speak.  On  the 
6th  of  January  1495  he  rejoined  the  admiral,  who  accepted  his 
eicoses.  But  on  the  return  journey  he  again  kft  his  leader^ 
and  when  Columbuararrivcd  at  Pakw  on  the  1 5th  of  March  149s 
he  leaned  that  Alonao  had  already  landed  at  Bayona  in  Galida. 
If  his  object  wis  to  forestall  Columbus  and  pose  as  discoverer  of 
the  New  World,  he  was  foiled;  audienoe  was  refused-Mm  by  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella;  and  soon  after  he  died,  perliaps 'of  chagrin. 

Vkbntb  YaAzy  PiMJoif,  who  commanded  the  **  Nina"  ia 
1491-1493,  also  gave  Cohimbus  material  help^  and  remained 
byal  to  his  leader  throughout.  In  after  years  he  made  important 
dbcoveries  on  his  own  aodoom.  Late  in  Dettmber  1499  he 
sailed  with  four  caravels  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  south-west, 
and  on  the  7th  of  February  -1500  he  struck  the  South  Americao 
continent  at  Cape  S.  Agostinho,  near  its  most  casteriy  projection 
(called  by  hhn  Cape  Saau  Blafia  de  la  Consoladon)  almost  thne 
months  before  the  Portuguese  navigator  Ckbral  reached  Bnml, 
the  discovery  of  which  is  generally  attributed  to  him.  IVocced* 
ing  aouthwuds  a  short  distance,  he  then  turasd  north,  fallowed 
the  coast  to  the  north-west,  discovcfed  the  Anaaon  eatuary, 
and  went  at  least  as  far  as  what  is  now*  Costa  Rica.  After  touch^ 
ing  at  Haiti,  and  losing  two  of  his  vessels  among  the  BahamaSt 
Vicente  returned  to  Pains  In  the  end  of  September  isod 
Although  concessions  were  made  to  him,  and  he  waa  created 
governor  of  the  newly  discovered  lands  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabellar  be  does  not  seem  to  have  ever  taken  poesessiatt.  Ia 
XS07  we  find  Vicente  satUng  with  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  abng  the 
east  coast  of  Central  America.  In  1509,  again  with  De  Soli% 
he  coasted  the  Atlantic  side  of  South  America  as  far  as  the  La 
Plata  estuary,  hoping  to  find  an  opening  westwards  leading  tb 
Isiaoda.  According  to  Hettwm,he  even  itadbed  '4o*S.j( 


03* 


PIO  DI  SAVOIA— PIOZZI 


passing  the  L&  Plata  without  rect^nUing  it,  and  torning  ba«k 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro,  but  this  is  probably  an 
eanggeration.  After  1 5  23  all  traces  of  Vicente  are  lost. 

See  Navarrete,  Cokcdon  de  fiajesx  Washington  Irving's  CotumJms, 
Bk.  XIV.,  ch.  ii.;  bibliography  in  Joaquioi  Cactano  da  Stlva's 
VOyapocaVAmavme  (Paris,  1861);  Herrera,  Jndias  Quid,,  Dec.  I., 
lib.  VI.  cap.  17;  lib.  vti.,  caps,  i  and  9  (Madrid,  1730);  Oviedo, 
Hist,  general  d*  las  Jnduis,  lib.  xxiiL  cap.  i  (Madnd,  1852);  O. 
Peachei,  Cesckichtf  der  Erdkunde,  ppu  230,  233.  249  (Munich.  i86^)s 
ZeUalter  der  Entdickungen,  pp.  ^05,  &c.,  426;  Jose  Maria  Aaensio, 
Cristoval  Colon,  su  vida,  sus  viajes,  sus  descobnmienlos  (Barcelona, 
1891);  Cesareo  Fernandez  Duro,  Colon  e  Pinxon, 

no  DI  8AV0IA,  an  andent  noble  ItaUan  family,  first  men- 
tioned by  good  authorities  in  the  14th  century.  Ttom  the  house 
of  Este  (q.v.)  they  received  the  lordship  of  Carpi,  and  later  they 
acquired  the  fiefs  of  Meldola,  Sassuolo,  &c  Many  members  of 
the  family  were  distinguished  as  ctrndoUieriy  diplomats  and 
ecclesiastics.  Alberto  Pio  obtained  from  the  house  of  Savoy 
in  1450  the  privilege  of  adding  "  di  Savoia'*  to  his  name  as  a 
reward  for  his  military  services.  Another  Alberto  Pio  (1475- 
>  531)1  who  was  French  ambassador  in  Rome,  won  fame  as  a  man 
of  learning,  and  Cardinal  Rodolfo  Pio  (1516-1564)  was  a  trusted 
adviser  to  Pius  III.  and  helped  to  establish  the  Inquisition  at 
Milan.  Ascanio  Pio  (d.  1649)  was  a  dramatic  poet  of  some  merit. 
Spain  conferred  the  title  of  pnnce  on  the  family,  and  one  branch 
of  it  is  to  this  day  established  in  Spain. 

See  P.  Litta.  I<  Famiglie  ceUhri  itdiane  (Milan);  G.  Oimpod 
Memorie  storicke  di  Marco  Pie  di  Stnoia  (Modena.  1876):  A.  Ceriant 
and  G.  Porro.  '*  II  Rotolo  epistografo  dei  principt  Pio  di  Savoia,"  in 
the  Arckwio  sUtrico  lomb9rao».  aer.  II.  an.  XI.  laic*  x,  ser.  III.  an. 
VIII.  96.  and  ter.  lU.  an.  XIX.  453- 

PIOHBIilO*  a  seaport  of  Tuscany,  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Pisa,  8  m.  by  rail  W.S.W.  of  Campigiik  Marittima  (which  is  53  m. 
S.S.E.  of  Pisa),  62  ft.  above  sea-leveU  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  penioaula  of  the  Monte  Maasoncello.  Pop.  (1901),  5979 
(town);  7703  (commune).  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls,  and 
contains  some  inUnesting  Renaissance  worka  by  a  master  of 
about  X458  under  the  influence  of  Alberts.  It  is  the  port  of 
cmbarcatioB  for  Elba,  the  nearest  point  trf. which  is  about  6  m. 
to  the  sottth-wcst,  and  ori^naUy  belonged  to  Pisa.  It  pves 
the  title  of  prince  to  the  Buonoompagni  Ludoviai  family,  who, 
howevtr,  no  longer  own  it. 

PKkNEER*  9roperiy  a  foot-soldier  <Med.  Lat.  pedot  ptdottis, 
through  O.  Fr.  ptaahier,  pieimier,  cf .  '*  pawn  **)  who  with  spade, 
aiie  and  other  implements,  precedes  an  army  or  smaller  miUtary 
body,  and  dears  or  makes  a  road,  digs  intrenchments,  prepares 
a  camping  ground,  &c  The  word  is  thus  applied  to  all  .who, 
actually  or  figurativdy,  are  first  in  exploring  or  working  ao 
qndiscovered  or  undeveloped  country  or  field  of  inquiry. 

PIOTRKOV  iCer,. PeUikau),  a  government  of  Russian  PcJand, 
bounded  by  the  government  of  Waraaw  on  the  N.,  Radom  and 
Kieloe  on  the  £.,  Kaliss  on  the  W.  and  Pniasian  Silesia  on  the  S. 
Area,  4729  •<!•  >n*;  P»P»  (1906,  estimate),  x  ,675,100.  GeotogicaUy 
it  repreaenu  a  continuatioa  of  Upper  Silesia,  and  is  built  up  of 
Upper  Carboniferous  deposits,  oonUining  near  Bendzb  a  bed 
of  ooal  a6s  sq.  m.  in  extent;  Permian  and  Jurassic  deposits, 
oontaining  sine  ores^  as  abo  lignite  and  liraonHe  iron  ores,  overUc 
the  Carboniferous.  The  surface  consists  of  a  series  of  heights, 
1000  to  1600  ft.  above  sea4evel,  intersected  by  ravines,  and 
stieh^ing  from  south-west  to  north-east.  The  govemmeni  is 
drained  by  the  Warta  and  the  Pilica,  and  was  formerly  covered 
with  lUck  forests.  It  was  colonised  by  Maxurs  and  Poles 
(Vdiko-Polyaas  and  Malo-Polyans).  The  govenunent,  which 
is  the  most  densely  peopled  in  the  Russian  Empire,  is  divided 
into  dght  districts,  of  which  the  chief  towns  are  FSotzkow, 
BendziniBtxesiny,  Czenstocfaowa,Lask,Lod8,  Nowo-Radom  and 
Raws;  Agriculture  and  cattle-breedingareeitehaiveiy  carried  on; 
fend  coal  and  iron  are  mined.  Textile  industries  developed  with 
extraordioaxy  rapidity  during  the  closing  years  of  the  19th  and 
the  optfnins  years  of  the  aoth  centuries,  the  towtas  of  Lods, 
^abianioe,  Zgen  and  Bendxin  all  bdng  important  centres. 
Other  brandies  of  productive  industry  are  distilleries,  breweries, 
flour^mills,  brickyards,  sugar,  cement,  glass  and  tandle  factories. 
Cranica  and  Sosaowioe,  in  thia  gDvemment,  are  twoiof  tha  bmsI 


important  custom-houses  in  :RtOsia,  and  the  aBttuai  trade  is 
estimated  at  £12,000,000. 

PIOTRKOW,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name»  and  formerly  the  seat  of  the  ht^  court 
of  Poland,  on  the  railway  from  Warsaw,  to  Vienna,  90  m.  south- 
west of  the  former  and  5  m.  west  of  the  river  Pilica.  Pop.  (1900), 
52,175.  It  is  a  well-kept  town,  with  numerous  gardens,  and  has 
flournnills,  Baw-roills,  tanneries,  agricultural  macfaanery  works, 
and  breweries.  One  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Poland,  Piotrkow 
was  in  the  xs^^  &nd  i6th  centuries  the  place  of  mectirig  of  tha 
diets,  and  here  the  kings  were  elected*  In  the  X4th  century 
Casimir  the  Great  built  here  a  castle  (now  a  military  church) 
and  surrounded  the  town  with  wails.  Here  in  x 769  the  Russians 
defeated  the  (Polish)  forces  of  the  Bar  Confederation. 

PIOZZL  RE5TBR  LYNCH  (1741^x821),  English  writer,  wdl 
known  as  the  friend  (Mrs  Thrale)  of  Samuel  Johnson  (9.V.),  was 
bom  on  the  i6th  of  January  1741,  her  father  bdng  John  Salos- 
bury  of  Bobbd,  Carnarvonshire.  Her  maternsd  undc.  Sir 
Robert  Salusbury  Cotton,  contemplated  providing  for  his  niece, 
but  he  died  without  having  carried  out  his  intention.  She  and 
her  mother  lived  in  London,  and  amongst  her  childish  reoolicc- 
tions  were  meetings  with  James  Qain  and  David  Garrick.  She 
recdved  a  solid  education,  for  she  was  acquainted  with  Laiia 
as  well  as  with  French,  Itsdian  and  Spanish.  In  X763  she  vas 
married  to  Henry  Thrale,  a  rich  Southwark  brewer,  whose  house 
was  at  Streatham  on  the  south-east  comer  of  Tooting  Bee 
Common.  There  Was  very  little  sympathy  between  the  Uveiy 
girl  and  Thrale,  who  was  thirteen  years  her  semor,  but  gradually 
she  drew  round  her  a  distinguished  drcle  of  friends.  She  was 
introduced  to'Samud  Johnson  in  1765  by  Arthur  Murphy,  who 
was  an  old  friend  of  her  husband's.  In  1766  Johnson  paid  a  long 
visit  to  Streatham,  and  from  that  time  was  more  or  less  domesti- 
cated with  the  Thrsles.  In  time  it  became  his  custom  to  spend 
the  middle  of  the  week  at  Streatham,  devoting  the  remaining 
days  to  his  own  heterogeneous  *'  family."  He  was  gcnuindy 
attached  to  his  hostess,  and  thoroughly  appreciated  the  luxury 
in  which  the  Thxales  lived.  They  were  able  to  soften  tone  oi 
his  eccentricities,  and  they  certainly  made  him  happy.  He 
travelled  with  them  in  Wales  in  1774,  and  In  Fiance  in  177 5. 
Dr  Bomey  gave  lessons  to  one  of  the  Miss  Thrales,  and  in  177$ 
he  briMight  his  daughter  Fanny  to  Streatham.  She  became  a 
warm  friend  of  Mrs  Thrale,  and  has  left  an  account  of  the 
Streatham  household  in  her  diary.  This  friendship  was  by  ao 
means  always  unclouded.  Fanny  Buraey  was  very  sensitive;, 
and  sometimes  thought  that  Mrs  Thrale  gave  hendf  airs  of 
patronage.  Meanwhile,  in  1772,  Thrale's  business  was  soxKisly 
infured,  and  he  was  threatened  with  bankruptcy.  The  sitaaiioB 
was  saved  by  his  wife's  efforts,  and  in  the  next  year  Thrak 
travelled,  leaving  her  !n  charge  of  his  affairs.  He  was  twice 
returned  for  the  borough  of  Southwark,  chiefly  through  ha 
efforts.  In  1781  Mr  Thrale  died,  and  Dr  Johnson  helped  the 
widow  with  her  business  arrangements,  advising  her  to  keep  oo 
the  brewery,  until  she  "  cured  his  honest  heart  of  its  indpient 
passion  for  trade,  by  letting  him  into  8ome«  and  only  some,  of 
its  mysteries.'*  The  brewery  was  finally  sold  for  £i5S<ooa 
Mrs  Thrale  had  met  Gabriele  Pioxzi,  an  Italian  musician,  in  lyfiOL 
Johnson  was  n^  in  failing  health,  and  coon  bcggn  to  feel  hiiMdf 
slighted.  His  suspicions  were  definitely  aroused  when  she  laid 
aside  her  mourning  for  Thrale  in  x  782,  and  the  Streatham  hoose 
iras  sold.  In  1783  her  engagement  to  Piossi  was  ^^nn^p^^^ 
The  objections  of  her  daughters  and  her  friends  mducad  bs 
to  bleak  it  off  for  a  time,  but  it  was  soon  resMmcd,  and  in  17S4 
they  were  married.  Johnson  told  Miss  Bumey  that  he  drove 
the  memory  of  Mrs  Thrale  from  his  mind,  burning  evcty  letter 
of  hers  on  which  be  couki  lay  his  hand.  The  Pioxxis  pveaently 
left  England  to  travd  in  Italy.  At  Florence  they  fdl  in  with 
Robert  Merry  and  the  other  *'  Ddla  Cruscan"  writers  ridknkd 
by  WiUtam  CifIo«d  in  his  Mae9iad  and  Boriad,  and  she  om> 
trifanted  some  verses  to  thdr  Fhrtmet  MhceUamy  in  X7&5.  is 
1786  she  published  Antedates  of  ike  late  Scmud  Jeknsfin,  ^arnif 
the  last  tmenty  jeari  </  his  lift,  which  was  severely  crUiciscd  by 
BoswttU.   She  was  fidicttled  by  *' Peier  Pindar  "  in  a«ax7  «mI 


i 


PIPE 


633 


0r  Ike  Britisk  Biographers^  A  Temn  Edogme  (1786). 
But  tfaottgh  Miu  Burney  and  fome  others  held  akx>£,  the  Piosus 
feand  filoiiy  of  friends  when  they  retnrned  to  London  in  17S7. 
VioKd  died  at  Biynbella^  &  villa  he  had  built  on  his  irife's 
Gnoanronshire  estate  in  iSoq,  and  Mn  Fk»a  gave  up  her 
Wdah  ptoperty  to  her  husband's  son,  and  spent  oMJst  of  the  rest 
of  her  life  at  Bath  and  Clifton.  When  long  past  seventy  she  took 
a  fancy  to  William  Augustus  Conway,  the  actor.  She  ntained 
her  vivadty  to  the  last»  celebrating  her  80th  birthday  by  &  baH 
to  six  or  seven  hundred  people  at  Bath.  She  died  «t  CliftoA 
on  the  ind  of  May  1821. 

From  1776  to  1809  she  kept  a  note-book  which  die  calk^ 
"  Thraliana."  Her  weU-knowa  pocra  of  the  "  Three  Warnings  " 
u  to  be  found  in  many  popular  collections.  Letters  to  and  from  (he 
lot*  Samuel  Johnson  appeared  in  1788;  Oharoations  and  fUflections 
made  in  the  course  of  a  Journey,  Ihrouek  France^  Italy  and  Gerwteny^ 
in  1789;  and  in  1801  she  pubbshed  Ketrospeciton:  or  a  renew  ^  the 
most  strihini  and  important  events,  characters,  and  situations  . . . 
which  the  last  eig)UeeH  hundred  years  have  presented  to  the  view  of 
mankind  (1801). 

See  Letters  and  Literary  Remains  of  lirs  Piosei  (ThraU),  edited 
with  notes  and  an  Introductory  AccotaU  rf  her  Life  and  Writinis 

K'  A.  Haymard  (1861);  Piosttana;  or  Recollections  of  the  late  Airs 
ossi  by  a  Friend  (1833),  the  anonymous  friend  being  Edward 
Mangin  (1773-1852);  L.  B.  Seelcy.  Mrs  Thrale,  afterwards  Mrs 
Piozai ...  (1891},  and  G.  Birkbcck  Hill,  Johnsonian  MiscdXanits 
(1897).    Also  works  noted  in  bibliography  to  Johnson.  SAulutL 

PIlPB,  a  term  used  of  a  musical  wind-instrument  of  tubular 
form,  and  hence  of  any  cylindrical  hollow  tube.  The  original 
applkatioa  of  the  term  is  to  the  musical  instrument  (see  Fipb 
AND  Tabok  below),  and  the  source  is  to  be  found  in  Lat.  pipare, 
to  cbirp,  of  a  bird.  The  general  meaning  cl  "  pipe,"  in  the  sense 
of  a  tube  for  such  purposes  as  carrying  water,  gas,  sewage,  kc.,  is 
treated  under  Tube.  Among  specific  uses  of  the  word  are  those 
for  the  hollow  stem  of  day^  wood  or  other  materiial  with  a  bowl  at 
one  end  in  which  tobacco  is  smoked  (see  below) ;  for  tbe  metal  or 
wooden  sound  tubes  in  an  organ  (f.*.);.  and  for  various  lorma  of 
cylindrical  veins,  hollows,  channels,  &c,  in  mining  and  geofegy. 
The  Great  Roll  of  the  Exchequer  was  known  as  the  "Pipe 
Roll ",  this  contained  the  various  "  pipes"  or  enrolled  accounts 
of  the  sheriffs,  &c.,  which  were  so  called  either  from  being  sent 
in  a  cylindrical  case  or  as  resembling  a  pipe  in  shape  when 
mkkd  (see  Reooios). 

Tobacco  Pip*,-^The  smbking  of  tobacco  hi  pipes  is  A  custom 
which  prevailed  in  America  for  a  period  of  unknown  duratk» 
previous  to  the  discovery  of  that  continent  by  Columbus.  The 
most  n»«ne**»  pipes  of  which  remains  exist  have  been  found  hi 
mouads  or  tumuli  called  pipe  mounds,  principally  in  Ohio^ 
Indkkiui,  miaois  and  Iowa.  These  mound  pipes,  which  are 
enrved  in  porphyry  and  other  hard  i^ones»  are  very  uniform  in 
type.  The  pipe,  cut  out  of  a,  single  piece  of  stone,  consbu  of  a 
sKgbtly  convex  platform  or  base,  generally  from  3  to  4  in.  in 
lei^b,  aad  about  an  inch  brood,  with  the  bowl  on  the  centre.  A 

fine  lH>le  is  pierced  from  one 
«nd  of  the  platform  to  the 
bottom  of  the  bowl,  the 
opposite  end  being  obviously 
for  holding  in  thehand  while 
the  pipe  is  being  smoked. 

•*  If  XM    t.  ..  M  Di  I"  ^^  commonest  forms  tbe 

Fxc.  r.~  Monltot    Pipe.  bowl  i»  a  simple  cyUnder  01 

urn  (fig*  x)f  but  in  many  cases  remarkable  artistic  skill  has 
been  dif^ilayod  in  carving  .the  bowls  into  miniature  figures  of 
birds,ittammalsirq;>tiics  and 
hvnuui  beads*  often  gro- 
tesque and  fantastic,  but 
always  vigorously  expressed 
(jig,  a).  These  mound  or 
platform  pipes  with  carved 
bumaaand  animal  formsare 
otiyects  of  the  highest  ethno- 
graphic interest  and  im^ 
portaaoe,  being  among  tbe 
most  characteristic  remains  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
Mississippi  vallor*    The  M/idit  area  over  which  theyi  as  weU  as 


Fig.  2j-rHcron  ^pe. 


maahtt  of  baked  day  pipes,  are  found  throughout  the  Amerkaa 
rontinmt  testifira  to  the  universal  prevalence  of  smoking  in  the 
pie>Colnmbaan  era.  Many  of  the  ancient  clay  pipes  found  in 
Mcrico,  &c,  are  daboiatcly  moulded  and  oroamettted,  wfa^ 
others  show  considerable  sunilarity  to  the  early  day  pipes  of 
Europe.  Among  the  North-American  Indian  tribes  the  tobacce 
pipe  occupies  a  position  of  peculiar  symbolic  significanoe  ia 
connexion  with  the  superstitious  riles  and  usages  of  the  race. 
The  calumet,  peace  pipe  or  medicine  pipe,  is  an  object  of  the 
most  profound  veneration,  entrusted  to  the  care  of  a  highly 
honoured  officii,  and  produced  and  smoked  with  much  ceremony 
only  on  occasions  of  great  importance  and  sdemnity.  It  is 
remarkable  that,  whilst  the  most  andent  American  pipes  had 
00  srparate  stem,  it  is  the  stem  only  of  the  medidne  pipe  which 
is  the  object  of  veneration  among  the  Indkns,  the  bowl  used 
being  a  matter  of  indifference.  The  favourite  material  for 
Indian  pipe  bowb  is  the  famous  red  pipe  stone  (catlinite),  a 
fine-grained  easily-worked  stone  of  a  rich  red  colour  of  tht 
C6teau  des  Prairies*  west  of  the  Big  Stone  Lake  in  S.  Dakota* 
The  quarries  were  foirmHy  neutral  ground  among  the  warring 
Indian  tribes,  many  sacred  traditions  being  associated  with  the 
locality  and  its  producL 

It  is  disputed  whether  pipes  for  smoking  were  at  all  known 
in  Europe  previous  to  the  discovery  of  America.  That  tobacco- 
smoking  was  unknown  is  certain;  but  pipes  of  iron,  bronze  and 
clay  have  been  so  frequently  found  associated  withRqpiaa 
renukins  and  other  antiquities  as  to  lead  many  authorities  to 
maintain  that  such  pipes  must  have  been  andently  used  for 
burning  incense  or  for  smoking  aromatic  herbs  or  hemp.  Through- 
out Great  Britain  and  Ireland  small  day  pipes  are  frequently 
dug  up,  in  some  instances  assodatcd  with  Roman  relics.  These 
are  known  amongst  the  people  as  elfin,  fairy  or  Celtic  pipes,,  and 
in  some  districts  supernatural  agendes  have  been  called  in  to 
account  for  their  cxisXence.  The  elfin  pipes  have  commonly 
flat  broad  heels  in  place  of  the  sharp  q;>ur  now  found  on  day 
pipes,  and  on  that  fiat  space  the  mark  or  initials  of  the  maker 
is  occasionally  found,  lliere  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  these 
pipes  are  older  than  the  X7th  century.  The  introduction  of  the 
tobacco  pipe  into  Europe  is  generally  ascribed  to  Ralph  Lane, 
first  governor  of  Virginia,  who  in  1586  brought  an  Indian  pipe 
to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  taught  that  courtier  how  to  use  the 
implement.  The  pipe-makers  of  London  became  an  incorporated 
body  in  1619,  and  from  England  the  other  nations  of  Europe 
learned  the  art  of  making  day  pipes. 

The  habit  of  smoking  with  pipes  spread  with  incredible 
rapidity;  and  among  the  various  peoples  the  pipe  assumed  spedal 
characteristics,  and  its  modifications  became  the  medium  of 
conveying  social,  political  and  personal  allusions,  in  many  cases 
with  no  little  artistic  skill  and  humour.  The  pipe  also  became 
the  object  of  much  inventive  ingenuity,  and  it  varied  as  greatly 
in  material  as  in  form — ^wood,  bom,  bone,  ivoiy,  stone,  predoes 
and  other  metals,  amber,  glass,  porcelain  and,  above  all,  day 
being  the  materials  employed  in  various  forma  By  degrees 
pipes  of  special  form  and  material  came  to  be  assodated  with 
particular  people,  €,g.  the  elongated  painted  porcelain  bowls 
and  pendulous  stem  of  the  German  peasantry,  the  red  clay  bowl 
and  long  cherry  wood- stem  of  the  Turk,  and  the  very  small 
metalHc  bowl  and  cane  stem  of  the  Japanese,  &c.  Among  other 
kinds  of  pipe  which  have  been  populajr  at  various  times  are  the 
"  corn-cob,"  where  the  bowl  is  made  of  the  cob  of  maize  or 
Indisa  corn,  and  the  **  calabash  "  with  the  bowl  of  a  small  gourd. 
The  "  churchwarden  "  is  a  day  pipe  with  a  slender  stem,  some 
X  6  or  20  in.  long.  The  most  luxurious  and  elaborate  form  of 
pipe  is  the  Persian  haly0mt  hookah  or  water  tofapcco  pipe.  This 
consists  of  three  pieces,  the  head  or  bowl,  the  water  battle  or 
base,  and  the  snake  or  long  flexible  tube  ending  in  the  mouthpiece. 
The  tobacco,  which  must  be  previously  prepared  by  steeping 
in  water,  is  placed  in  the  head  and  lighted  with  live  charcoal,  a 
wooden  stem  passes  from  its  bottom  down  into  the  water  which 
fills  the  base,  and  the  tube  is  fitted  to  a  stem  which  ends  in  the 
boftle  above  the  water.  Thus  the  smoke  is  cooled  asid  washed 
before  it  readies  the  smoker  by  passing  through  the  wiUcr  in 


634 


PIPE  AND  TABOR— PIPER 


,the  bottle,  and  by  being  dcawn  thraogii  tlie  ooA  of  tube  fro- 
^uently  some  yvds  in  Joigth.  The  bottles  are  in  many  cases 
jnade  of  carved  and  otberwise  ornamented  coGO<nul'  sheUs^ 
whence  the  apparatus  is  .called  ndrgUa,  from  nirgjUi  a  oooo- 
BuU  Silver,  gold,  damascened  steel  ami  precious  stanes  are 
im^y  used  in  the  malong  and  deooratiott  of  these  pipes  for 

wealthy  smokers.. 

Pip€  iiauttfacture. — ^The  rKular  pifte-making  iaduitrie»  divide 
into  many  branches,  of  which  the  more  important  are  the  clay  iMpe. 
meerschaum  (real  and  arttfidal),  and  wooden  bowl  tradek  Clay 
pipes  are  nutde  in  prpdigknis  numbers  by  hand  labour  -with  an  iron 
SBould  and  a  steel  wire  for  ioming  the  tube  of  the  stem.  Piptf- 
moulding  is  a  very  simple  operation  in  pottery,  and  the  work  is 
performed  with  astonishing  celerity.  A  number  oC  machines  have 
oeen  devned  for  automatic  pipe-moulding;  but  the  manual  opera- 
tions art  so  rapid  and  inexpensive  that  there  is  little  margin  for 
saving  by  the  substitutbn  of  nachinecy.  The  pipes  are  Very 
elighuy  med  so  as  to  keep  them  soft  and  porous;  and  so  cheaply 
maide  are  they  that  the  commoner  kinds  can  be  retailed  at  a  prom 
for  a  farthing  each.  The  principal  early  centres  of  the  clay-pipe 
faidustry  were  at  Broseley  in  SCanordshirc,  where  the  trade  has  been 
esublisoed  since  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century,  aad  at  Amesbury 
in  Wiltshire.  The  manufacture  is  still  carried  on  at  Broseley. 
Meerschaum  pipes  (see  Mberschaum)  are  the  luxury  of  the  European 
smoker.  The  favourite  wooden  pipe  generally  known  as  a  briar- 
wood  or  briar-root  pipe  is  really  inade  from  the  roots  of  the  tree 
heath.  Erica  awbarea  (Fr.  bruyht).  prindpaDy  obtained  on  the 
hills  of  the  Maremma  and  taken  thenoe  to  Leghorn.  There  the 
roots  ate  shaped  into  blocks  each  suitable  for  a  pipe,  the  cutting 
of  the  wood  so  as  to  avoid  waste  requiring  connderable  skill.  These 
blocki  are  simmered  in  a  vat  for  twelve  hours,  which  gives  them 
the  much«appceciaied  ytllowish4>rowa  hue  of  a  good  *'  briar-root.*' 
So  preparea  the  blocks  are  exported  for  boring  and  finishing.  Many 
devices  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
nicotine  liquor  from  reaching  the  smokier's  mouth  or.coUectug  in 
and  fouling  the  {Mpe. 

PIPB  AKD  TABOR  (Fr.  galouUt;  Ger.  Sckwegd  or  Stamen- 
tienpfeifit  a  popular  medieval  combination  of  a  small  pipe  or 
flageolet,  and  a  small  drum.  The  pipe  conusts  of  a  (cylindrical 
tube  of  narrow  bore,  pierced  with  three  holes,  two  in  front  and 
one  at  the  back,  all  very  near  the  end  of  the  pipe;  and  of  a 
mouthpiece  of  the  kind  known  as  whistle,  fipple  or  beak  common 
to  iht  JliUes  d  fee  or  recorder  family.  The  compass  of  this 
instrument,  with  no  more  than  three  holes,  exceeds  two  octaves 
in  the  hands  of  a  good  player,  and  is  chromatic  throughout. 
The  ftmdaraental  notes  of  the  open  pipe  and  of  the  three  holes 
cannot  be  produced;  the  scale  consists,  therefore,  entirely  of 
harmonics,  the  2nd,  3rd  and  4th  of  the  series  being  easily 
obtained,  and,  by  half  stopping  the  holes,  also  the  semitones 
which  are  xequired  to  complete  the  chromatic  scale.  The 
tabor  being  fastened  to  the  performer's  left  elbow,  the  hands 
remained  free,  the  right  beating  the  little  drum  with  a  stick  to 
mark  the  rhythm,  while  the  left  held  and  fingered  the  pipe  with 
thumb  and  first  two  fingers.. 

Mcrsenne  mentions  a  wonderful  virtuoso,  John  Price,  who  could 
lim  to  the  twenty-second  on  the  galoubet.  Praetorius  mentions 
and  .^ures  three  siaes  of  the  Staolantieapfeiff,  the  ticUe  20  in. 
long,  the  tenor  26  in.  and  the  bass  jOr  the  last  being  played  by 
means  of  a  crook  about  33  hu  long.  A  specimen  of  the  bass 
In  the  museum  of  the  Brussels  Conservatoire  has  for  its  lowest 
note  middle  O  The  pipe  and  tabor  are  said  to  be  of  Provencal 
0004 ;  it  is  certain  that  they  were  lAost  popular  in  Franco,  Eogiaad 
and  the  Netherlands,  and  they  figure  largely  among  the  miwcal  and 
lK>cial  scenes  in  the  illuminated  MSS.  of  those  countries.     (K.  S») 

PIPS-PISHES  {SyngnalkitM\  small  fishes,  which  with  the  Sea- 

iiorses  form  a  distinct  family,  Syngnathidac,  of  Lophobranchiate 


Fto.  \.'*^SynpuUhu  oou,  Male,  with  sulxaudal  pouch. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  periiliar  form  of  their 
.snout,  whidi  is  prodticed  into  a  more  or  kas  long  tub^  ending  in  a 


w^rtttW  maA  sntolt  nwiBth  whM»  <ip*FiS  wp*«i  J«  aiirf  fa  ♦«w^1tV«^ 

The  body  and  tail  are  kmg  and  thin,  snake-like,  enca»d  in  haxd 
integuments  which  are  dnHUed  into  regularly  aiianged  srgnenta. 
This  dcirmal  skeleton  ahows  several  loogitiidinai  tidgea^  no  tkat 
a  vertacal  section  tfaroiigh  the  body  represents  an  angiiiar  fignre, 
not  lomnd  or  oval  as  m  the  minority  of  other  fishes.  -A  docsd 
fin  is  always  present,  and  is  the  principal 
(itt  aome  species,  the  only)  organ  of 
looOBOtson.  The  ventral  fins  ate  as 
comtaiitly  absent,  and  the  other  fins 
may  or  may  not  be  developed.  The 
jB^l•opelungs  are  esctfctiheiy  small  and 
placed  near  the  upper  posterior  angle 
of  the  gill-cover.  Most  of  the  pipe- 
fishes aio  marine,  only  a  few  bdng 
fioviatik.  Pipe-fiidies  are  abundant  on 
such  coasts  of  the  tropical  and  temperate 
zones  as  offer  by  their  vegetation  teller 
to  these  defenceless  creatures.  They 
are  very  bad  swimmen,  slowly  moving 
through  the  water  by  means  of  the  rapid 
undxilatory  movement  of  the  dorsal  fin. 
Their  tail,  even  when  provided  with  a 
caudal  fin,  is  of  no  use  in  swinuning, 
and  not  prehensile  as  in  sea-horses.  Sped* 
mens,  therefore,  kre  not  rarely  found  at 
a  great  distance  from  land,  having  been 
restlessly  carried  by  cufrenta  into  the 
upea.  ocean;  one  qxdes,.  Syngnatkus 
pidapeus,  has  an  extraordinarily  wide 
range  over  the  tropical  seas,  and  ia  one 
of  the  common  fishes  inhabiting  the 
vegetation  of  the  Sargasso  Sea.  The 
ooknir  of  these  fishes  often  changes  with 
the  sea-weeds  among  which  they  may  be 
found,  passing  irun  brown  to  green  or 
even  brick-^ed.  In  pipe-fishes  the  male 
is  provided  with  a  pouch«^In  some  q>ecies 
on  the  abdomen,  in  othen  On  the  lower 
side  of  the  tail — in  which  the  ova  are  lodged  during  their 
development.  This  maiadpial  pouch  is  formed  by  a  fold  of 
the  skhk  developed  from  eac|i  side  of  the  trunk  or  tail,  the  free 
margins  Of  the  fold  being  firmly  united  hi  the  nedian  line 
throughout  the  period  during  which  the  eggs  are  being 
When  the  yoimg  are  hatched  the  folds  separate,  leaving  a 
sKt,  by  which  the  young  gradually  escape  when  quite  nfale  to 
take  care  of  themaelves.  Nearly  a  hundred  different  specks  of 
pipe-fishes  are  known,  of  v^ich  Sipkanosloma  iypkfe,  Syngmalkms 
aius  (the  Groat  Pipe-fish  up  to  r8  in.  in  length),  IftrtfUs 
OequmrtMS  (Ocean  Pipe-fish),  Nerophis  apkidian  (StcaigfatikOBed 
Pipe-fish),  and  Ner^pkii  ktmbriciformis  (Little  Fipe-fish)  are 
British  apedes.  The  last  three  are  destitute  of  a  cauial  fin. 

A  review  of  Che  extensive  Utexature  on  the  breeding  habits  of  the 
Syntnatkidae  is  given  by  E.  W.  Gudjcr,  "  The  Breeding  habits  and 
the  Segmentation  of  the  E^'of  the  Pipefish,"  Proc  VS»  JfaL  Mus, 
<t905),  wda.  447. 

PIPBIU  CARU  Count  (1647-^716),  Swedish  statcaman,  was 
bom  at  Stodthokn  on  thv  29th  of  July  1647.  He  entered  the 
foreign  office  after  completing  his  academical  cotirse  at  Upsala, 
accompanied  Benedict  Oxenstjttna  00  his  embassage  to  Ruxia 
in  r673»  and  attracted  thoattentioo  of  Charlies  XL  durfasg  the 
Scanian  War  by  ^extraordinary  energy  and  aUltty.  Tnr679he 
was  appointed  secretary  to  the  board  of  trade  and  ennobled.  la 
1689  he  was  made  oHoof  the  secretarito  of  state,  and  Chsotes  XL 
reoomdMnded  him  on  Hs  deathbed  to  his  son  and  succscaaer, 
Charles  XXL  Tlipti  became  the  most  eonfidentisll  of  tihe  new 
sovereign's  ministers.  In  1697  he  was  wade  a  senator  and  set 
over  domestic  affaiia  while  still  retaining  hH  state-wottarydiipw 
In  1^  he  was  created  a  eoont,  in  1701  appointed  <^anoetter 
of  UpsaU  University,  and  during  the  first  half  of  the  Cccnft 
Northern  War,  as  the  chief  of  Chari«S*s  peranriMriatkig  fftnaed- 
leiy,  he  was  practically  prime  mlnlstiir.  It  waaThis  mitfortvne, 
however,  to  be  obliged  to  support  a^system  «diidi  was  vat.  kit 


Fig.  3.--Sub<andal 
pouch  of  Simti'^MtkMs 
acuSt  with  the  young 
ready  to  leave  the 
poudi.  One  aide  of 
the  roembraae  of  the 
pouch  is  pushed  aside 
to  admit  of  a  view 
of  its  interior.  (Nat. 
sue.) 


PIPERAZIN-^MPPIN 


635 


was.  therefore  an  avowed  advocate  ot  a  pacific  poHcy.  He 
protested  in  vain  against  neariy  all  the  nuUtacy  ventures  of 
Ckarlcs  XIL,  e.g.  the  War  of  Deposition  against  Augvatus  of 
Saxony  and  Fdand,  the  invasion  of  Saxony,  the  nid  into  the 
Ukraine,  ir Again  and  again  he  insisted  that  the  pacific  overtures 
of  Peter  the  Great  shoiild  at  least  be  Uktf  considered,  but  his 
master  was  always  immovable.  Piper's  career  came  to  an  end 
at  Ptoltnva  (1709),  where  he  was  among  the  priaonen.  The  last 
years  of  his  life  vera  apmi  in  exile  in  Runia.  He  died  at 
Sddflsaelburg  on  the  apth  of  May  171&. 
See  W.  L.  Sveddius,  Ctunt  CwilHptr  (Stockholm,  l8te). 

(R«  N.  B.  j 

PIPBRAZnit  a  substance  formed  by  the  action  of  sodium 
glycol  on  ethylene-diamine  hydrochloride,  consisting  of  small 
aULsline  deliquescent  crystals  with  a  saline  taste  and  soluble 
in  water.  It  was  ociginany  Introduced  into  medidne  as  a 
solvent  fw  uric  add.  When  taken  into  the  body  the  drug  is 
partly  oxidized  atad  partly  eliminated  unchanged.  Outside 
the  body  piperazin  has  a  remarkable  power  of  dissolving  uric 
add  and  producing  a  soluble  urate,  but  in  clinical  experience 
it  has  not  proved  equally  successfuL  Lycetol,  lysidlne  and 
sidonal  are  bodies  having,  similar  action. 

PIPBRIHB»  CitHmNOs,  an  alkaloid  found  in  the  fruiU  of 
Piptr  niffum  and  P.  longum.  It  forms  white  prisms,  which 
melt  at  x  38^-2 19^  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is  a  Very  weak  base,  salts  being 
only  formed  with  mineral  adds,  and  these  are  dissociated  by 
water.  Alcoholic  potash  decomposes  it  into  piperidloe,  CtHuN, 
and  piperic  add,  CitIIioO«.  The  constitution  of  piperic  add 
was  elnddated  by  R.  Fittig  and  his  pupils  {Ann.^  vols.  152, 159, 
16S,  3i6,  S97)  and  shown  to  be  (i).    Piperine  consequently 


<0- 


CH.CH:CHCOOH 


H:CHCH:CH.CON(CH,)i 


(1) 


(2) 


OxklatkMi  with  potanium  pennannnate  converts  piperic  acid 
into  pipcronal,  C»H«Oa,  and  piperonyfic  add.  CaH^«.  The  latter 
when  neatcd  with  hydrochlonc  acid  to  1 70*,  or  water  to  200*, 
aeparatea  carbon  with  the  formation  01  jprotoeatechaic  acid, 
l>a-dk)«y-3>benzoic  acid.  C«H](OH>tCCX>H.  Cooversdy,  by 
heating  protocatechuic  acid  with  potash  and  methylene  iodide, 
pipcronylic  add  was  regained.  These  results  show  that  pipero- 
nylic  acid  is  the  methylene  ether  of  protocatechuic  acid, 
nperonal  (^.v.)  is  the  corresponding  alddiyde.  Piperic  acid  differs 
from  pipenuiyiic  add  by  the  group  C4H4.  and  it  wasjappareM  that 
these  carbon  atoms  must  be  attached  to  the  carbon  atimi  which 
appears  in  the  carboxyl  group  of  piperonylic  add,  for .  if  they  were 
directly  attached  to  the  benzene  ring  polycarboxyrtic  aCMs  would 
result  m  oxidation.  The  above  formuu  for  piperic  acid  was  con- 
firmed by  its  synthesis  by  A.  Ladeobitm  and  M.  Scholts  (£er.,  1894, 
^*  P^  ^S^)  from  piperonyl  acrolein  ([the  condensation  product  of 
pipcronal  and  acetaldchyde)  and  acetic  acid.    The  synthesis  of 

fnpcrine  foltows  from  the  interaction  of  piperyl  chloride  (formed 
rom  piperic  acid  and  phosphorus  pentachlonde)  and  |rfperidine 
(L.  RQgfaeimer.  Ber.,  i88a,  15,  p.  t|9a) 

PIPBRNO  (anc  Frhermtm),  a  town  of  the  province  of  Rome, 
Italy,  61  m.  $.£.  of  Rome  by  taiL  Pop.  (1901),  6756.  The 
nie<fievBl  town  was  founded  in  the  loth  centuiy  (?)  on  a  hill 
490  ft.  above  sea<-level,  by  refugees  from  the  Roman  town  of 
Privemum,  lower  down  (xi8  ft  above  sea<4evd)  on  the  highroad, 
li  m.  to  the  north,  at  the  mouth  of  a  low  pass  leading  through 
the  Vdbcian  mountains  to  the  valley  of  the  Sacco.  Here  are 
remains  of  an  arch  crossing  the  road  and  other  ruins  (mostly 
buried)  of  the  Roman  period;  b«t  the  remains  above  ground 
are  kisdy  medievaL  It  is  improbable^  however,  that  the 
nndeni  Volsdan  town  should  have  occupied  so  easily  accessible 
a  site;  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it  stood  on  the  site  occupied  by 
the  medieval  and  ttaodem  town,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  this. 
Privemum  was  a  Volsdan  town,  and  took  up  arms  against 
Rome  after  thtJoUndation  of  a  Latin  colony  at  Sctia  in  382  B.C. 
It  was  finally  fii|Hur«d  in  329  bjc.,  and  eleven  yeais  later  the 


tiibn  Oufaothu  was  foonded*  takiflg  Itir  nkme  fioin  the  river 
Oufem  (mod.  Uffente)  in  the  territory  of  Privemum.  Little 
is  known  of  it  subsequently.  The  medieval  town  has  a  pic« 
turesque  piasxa»  with  a  Gothic  cathedral  (1283),  which  pre* 
serves  a  fine  porch,  though  the  interior  was  modemiced 
in  1782;  n  Gothic  jielaaso  pubblioo;  and  other  Gothic 
churdics  exist  in  the  town.  Polygpnal  terrace  walla  of  the 
Romatt  or  pce^Roman  period  exist  at  various  places  in  the 
vicinity  (a  a  Gioveoak  and  L.  Mariani  in  HfoHMte  ie^  Semi, 
1899,88).  (T.As.) 

PIPBBONAL  (heliotnpine,  protocatechuic  aldehyde  methylene 
ether),  CsHfQi,  an  aromatic  aldehyde.  It  is  prepared  by 
oxidising  piperic  add  with  potasaium  permanganate  (R«  Fittig, 
Ann,f  1869,  152,  p.  35);  by  condensing  methylene  iodide  wi^ 
protocatechuic  aldehyde  (R.  Wegscheider,  Monals.t  1893,  14, 
p.388);orhyoKididogiaosafrolwithchn»aicadd.  It  forms  long 
colourless  crystals  which  mdt  at  37*  C.  and  bofl  at  263*  C.  It 
has  an  agreeable  smell,  resembliojg  that  of  hdiotvope,  and  is 
much  used  in  perfumery.  It  is  only  slightly  soluble  in  cold 
water,  but  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether.  When 
heated  with  dilute  hydxochloiic  acid  to  200*  C  it  sridds  proto* 
catechuic  aldehyde,  CtHsQi,  and  carbon.  It  readily  combines 
with  sodium  bisulphite  and  with  various  bescs  (ammonia, 
aniline,  methylamine,  ftc.). 

PIPR  (cognate  with  the  Lat  Pipio;  see  Pigeon),  the  name 
applied  by  ornithologists  to  a  group  of'  birds  having  a  great 
zesemUaace  both  in  habita  and  appearance  to  the  hrks  (f  .v.). 
They  differ  however  from  larks  in  sever^  important  characters, 
and,  having  been  fimt  separated  to  form  the  genus  Anihus, 
which  has  since  been  much  broken  up,  arc  now  generally  asso- 
ciated with  the  wagtails  (f  .v.)  in  the  Passerine  family  MUadUHat. 
Pipits^  of  which  over  fifty  spedes  have  been  described,  occur  in 
almost  al  parta  of  the  world,  but  in  North  America  are  iepre> 
seated  by  only  two  spedea— itTescoryr  sprapdif  the  prairie-brk 
of  the  north>westem  plains,  and  Antkus  IvdatUiamu,  the 
American  titUrk,  which  bst  is  very  nearly  alUsd  to  the  so-called 
water-fdpit  of  Europe,  A,  spip^UMa,  To  most  English  veadeca 
the  best  known  species  of  pipit  is  the  titlark  or  meadow-pipit, 
A .  pralensist  a  bird  too  conunon  to  need  description,  and  abundant 
on  pastures,  moon,  and  uncultivated  districts  ^nerally;  but 
in  some  localities  the  tree*pq>it,  A.  tn9ialis,  or  A.  arbweus  of 
soBie  authors,  takes  its  place,  and  where  it  does  so  It  asoally 
attracts  attention  by  its  loud  song,  which  is  not  tmlike  that 
of  a  canary,  but  ddivend  (as  appeua  to  be  the  habit  of  all  the 
pipits)  on  the  wfng  and  during  a  diort  drcuitous  flight.  Another 
spedes,  the  rock-lark,  A.  obsetmu,  scarcdy  ever  leaves  the  seap> 
coast  and  is  found  ahnost  all  loUnd  the  British  Isknds.  The 
South-African  genas  if ac^ffaTX,  remarkabhs  £or  the  extreme 
length  of  its  hind  daw,  is  generally  placed  among  the  pipits, 
but  differs  from  all  the  rest  in  its  brighter  colomtion,  which 
haa  a  curious  lesemblanoe  to  the  American  genus  SturneiU^ 
(see  iGipavs),  thou^  the  bird  is  certainly  not  allied  thereto. 

(A.  N;) 

nPPIN*  or  Pepin,  the  name  of  three  members  of  the  Caro* 
lingian  family. 

PifpxN  I.  (d.  640),  inoBftectly  called  Pippin  of  Landen,  was 
mayor  of  the  palace  to  the  youthful  Dagobert  L,  whom 
Clotaire  II.  had  placed  over  the  Ungdom  of  Aostrasia.  He  was 
disgraced  when  Dagobert  became  Mie  king  in  629,  and  had  to 
seek  refuge  in  Aquitaine.  Returning  at  Dagobert's  death  (639), 
he  governed  Austrasia  in  Sigdiert's  name,  but  died  in  the 
following  year. 

Tims  II.  (d.  714),  incorrectly  called  Pippin  of  Herstal, 
was  son  of  Adalgisclus  (son  of  Araulf,  bishop  of  Mctz)  by  a 
daughter  of  Pippin  1.,  called  in  later  documents  Begga.  Towards 
678  he  placed  himsdf  at  the  head  of  the  great  nobles  in  Austrasia 
to  combat  EbhiU,  the  mayor  of  the  palace,  and  Neuitria.  After 
some  reverses  he  gained  a  great  victory  after  Ebrobi's  death 
at  the  battle  of  Tertiy,  not  far  from  St  (^ntin.  Tliis  victory 
made  Pippin  iflmost  entire  master  of  GanL  He  ^>pointed 
one  of  his  sons  mayor  of  the  palace  of  Ncustria,  reserving  for 
.another  of  his  sons  the  mayoralty  of  Austrasia.   He  made  war 


^36 


PIPRAWA 


on  the  PriiiftiB  and  defeated  the!r  duke  Radbod;  and  part  of 
this  peofde  became  converts  to  Christianity.  He  also  defeated 
Wlllari,  the  duke  of  the  Alamanni,  and  subdued  his  country. 
The  Bavarians,  too,  recognised  the  Frankish  suzerainty.  The 
plans  he  had  formed  for  reforming  the  church  and  convoking 
councils  were  interrupted  by  his  death,  which  took  place  on 
the  1 6th  of  December  714. 

PxFPDi  III.  (d.  768),  the  Short»>  was  son  of  Charles  Martel. 
Before  his  death  in  741  Charles  Martd  had  divided  the  Frankish 
kii^dom  between  his  two  sons,  Carloman  and  Pippin,  giving 
Carloman  the  eastern  part  and  Pippin  the  western.  Since  737 
there  had  been  no  king  in  the  Frankish  realm;  in  the  diplomas 
the  two  brothers  bear  the  title  of  mt^ores  palatiif  while  the 
chroniclers  call  them  simply  pHncipes.  In  743,  however,  the 
mayors  decided  to  appoint  a  king  in  the  person  of  Childeric  III., 
who  was  apparently  connected  with  the  Merovingian  family. 
But  Childeric  was  a  mere  figure-head,  and  had  no  power. 
The  two  brothers  presided  over  the  tribunals,  convoked 
the  councils  at  which  the  Frankish  Church  was  reformed, 
assembled  the  host  and  made  war,  jointly  defeating  and  subdu- 
ing Duke  Hunald  of  Aquitaine.  In  747  Carloman  unexpectedly 
abdicated,  became  a  monk,  and  retired  to  a  monastery  near 
Rome,  subsequently  founding  on  Mt  Soractc  the  monastery 
of  St  Silvester..  From  the  time  of  the  abdication  Pippin 
was  sole  master;  and  in  751,  after  consulting  Pope  Zaeharias, 
he  took  the  title  ol  king  and  removed  the  feeble  Childeric 
to  a  monastery.  He  then  got  himself  crowned  by  St  Boniface, 
a  ceremony  which  was  new  to  France  and  which  gave  the 
iovereign  immense  prestige;  henceforth  (he  king  of  the  Franks 
called  himself  Gratia  Dei  rex  Fr^ncorunt,  Pippin's  reign  is 
marked  by  many  important  events.  He  received  in  France  a 
personal  visit  from  Pope  Stephen  II.,  who  conferred  on  him  the 
title  of  Patrician  of  the  Romans  and  recrowned  him.  In  return 
for  these  honours  Pippin,  at  the  appeal  of  the  pope,  made  two 
expeditions  into  Itaiy,  in  754  and  756;  and  he  became  the 
veritable  creator  of  the  papal  state  by  conferring  on  the  pope 
the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  which  he  had  wrested  from  Aistulf, 
the  king  of  the  Lombards.  Pippin  took  Septimania  from  the 
Arabs,  and  afta  a  stubborn  war  of  nearly  eight  years'  duration 
(760-68)  succeeded  in  taking  Aquitaine  from  its  duke,  Waifer. 
He  also  intervened  in  Germany^  where  he  forced  the  duke  of 
Bavaria,  Tassilo,  to  become  his  vassal.  In  763,  however, 
Tassilo  abandoned  Pippin  during  an  expedition  against  Aqui- 
taine. Pippin  made  several  expeditions  against  the  Saxons, 
but  failed  to  subdue  them.  He  entered  intorelations  with  the 
Eastern  Empire,  exchanging  ambassadors  with  the  emperor 
Constontine  Copronymus.  During  Pippin's  reign  Frankish 
institutions  underwent  some  modification.  .The  Frankish 
assemblies,  previously  hekl  in  the  month  of  March  {ckaimpt  At 
iMori),  but  under  Pippin  deferred  to  May  (dbam^i  dt  nuxt), 
came  to  be  more  numerous,  and  served  the  king  of  the  Franks 
as  a  means  of  receiving  the  gifts  of  his  subjects  and  of  promul- 
gating his  capitularies.  At  the  head  of  the  administration  was 
placed  the  archchaplain,  and  an  ecclesiastical  chancellor  was 
substituted  for  the  ancient  referendarius.  Ecclesiastical  reform 
was  continued  under  Pippin,  Bishop  Chrodegans  of  M^tz 
uniting  the  clergy  of  Metz  in  a  common  life  and  creating 
canons  (see  Canon).  Pippin  died  on  the  a4th  of  September 
768  at  St  Denis,  leaving  two  sons,  Charics  (Chariemagne)  and 
Carloman. 

See  H.  Bonndl,  Die  Anfdngt  its  kanliHtischeu  ffatuts  (Bcrlia, 
1866);  H.  Hahn.  JahrbUchtr  des  frankiscken  Reickts  741-7$^  (Berlin. 
1863):  L.  Odsner,  Jakrbichtr  dts  fraukiscktu  Reiches  unter  K^ig 
FippM  (Leipzig,  1871);  T.  F.  BOhmcr  and  E.  MOhlbacher,  Heiestm 
des  Kaiserrticks  nmttr  den  Karolingtm  (and  cd..  1899);  and  E. 
MQhlbacfacr,  Dtutsdit  Ctxkickit  uMier  dm  KaroUnitm  (Stuttgart, 
189^).  (C.  P?) 

PIPRAWA,  a  village  on  the  Biidpor  estate  in  the  Basti  district. 
United  Provintes,  India.  It  lies  on  the  Uska-Nepal  road  at- 
mile  19' 7  S;  and  about  half  a  mile  south  of  the  boundary  pillar 
numbered  44  on  the  frontier  line  between  British  and  Nepalese 

*  A  wmame  given  to  Pippin  HI.  on  the  strength  of  a  legendary 
affBcdote  related  by  the  nonk  of  Si  Gait. 


territory.  The  ^iUiige  is  bdthnMa*  the  vkt  d.thk  foUoviig 
discovery:^ — 

In  1896  interest  having  been  aroused  by  the  discovery,  only 
twelve  miles  away,  of  the  Buddha's  birthplace  (see  Luinun}, 
William  Pepp6,  then  resident  manager  of  the  Birdpur  csute, 
opened  a  ruined  tope  or  burial  mound  situate  at  Pipr&wa,  but 
nothing  of  importance  was  found.  In  January  1897  he  canied 
the  work  of  excavation  farther.  A  weU,  10  ft.  aq.,  was  dog 
down  the  centre  of  the  mound.  After  digging  thr(H#  18  ft 
of  solid  brickwork  set  in  day  a  massive  stove  coffer  was  found 
lying  due  magnetic  north  and  south.  Its  dimenrions  voe, 
4  ft.  4  in.  by  s  ft.  8}  In.  and  2  ft.  2^  in.  high.  The  stone  lid 
of  the  coffer  was  split  into  four  pieces;  but  the  coffer  lemaiDed 
perfectly  dosed,  so  accurately  was  the  lid  fitted  into  flaoges 
on  the  sides  of  the  box.  The  pieces  were  thus  firmly  bdd  in 
their*  place,  and  the  contents  of  the  coffer  were  found  intact 
These  consisted  of  five  vessels,  two  vases,  a  bowl  and  a  casket 
being  made  of  steatite,  and  the  fifth,  also  a  bowl,  of  crystal 
All  these  vessels  are  beautifully  worked,  the  crystal  bo«t 
especially,  with  its  fish-shaped  cover  handle,  being  as  a  work  of 
art  of  high  merit.'  The  coffer  is  of  fine  hard  sandstone  of 
superior  quality,  and  has  been  hollowed  out,  at  the  cost  of  vast 
labour  and  expense,  from  a  solid  block  of  rock.  Pcpptol- 
culates  its  weight,  lid  included,  at  1537  lb.  It  is  only  the  great 
solidity  of  this  coffer  which  has  preserved  the  contents.  A 
cover  of  one  of  the  vases  was  found  dislodged  and  lying  on  tbe 
bottom  of  the  stone  coffer.  As  this  cover  fits  very  well  it  most 
have  required  a  quite  violent  shock  to  remove  it.  Tto  was 
almost  certainly  the  shock  of  an  earthquake,  and  the  samesbock 
probably  caused  the  split  in  the  stone  lid  of  the  coffer  itself. 

The  vessels  contained  a  dark  dust,  apparently  disintegrated 
ashes,  small  pieces  of  bone,  and  a  number  of  small  pieces  of 
jewelry  in  gold,  silver,  white  and  red  cornelian,  amethyst,  topaz, 
garnet,  coral  and  crystal.  Most  of  these  aro  perforated  for 
mounting  on  threads  or  wires,  and  had  been,  no  doubt,  ori^aa&y 
connected  together  to  form  one  or  more  of  the  elaborate  girdles, 
necklaces  and  breast  ornaments  then  worn  by  the  woinen.' 
On  the  bottom  of  the  stone  box  there  was  similar  dust,  pieca 
of  bone  and  jewelry,  and  also  remains  of  what  had  been  vessels 
of  wood.  The  knob  forming  the  handle  of  One  of  these  voodea 
receptacles  was  still  distinguishable.  The  total  quantity  of 
scraps  of  bone  may  have  amounted  to  a  wineglassfuL 

An  inscription  ran  round  one  of  tbe  steatite  vases  just  bclo« 
the  ]ld.«  The  words  mean:  This  shrine  for  ashes  tf  At  Buddkty 
the  Exalted  One,  is  the  pious  work  oj  the  Sakiyas,  his  hrdknty 
associated  vnth  their  sisters^  and  their  children,  and  their  vitei. 
The  tbirtetsn  words,  in  a  local  dialea  of  Pali,  are  written  ia  veiT 
andent  characters,  and  are  the  oldest  inscription  as  yet  div 
covered  in  India.  Twelve  out  of  the  thirteen  are  weD-knows 
words,  the  interpretation  of  which  is  not  open  to  doubt  One 
word,  rendered  above  by  "  pious  work,"  has  not  been  found  dsc- 
wheie,  and  its  derivation  is  open  to  discussion.  The  explaoatioo 
here  adopted  as  most  probable  was  put  forward  by  Profetstf 
Pischel  of  Berlin.*  The  phrase  "  pious  work  "  probably  bad  t 
precise  technical  connotation  like  the  English  "  bcncfactioo/ 

The  monument  must  have  been  of  imposing  appearance.  Tbe 
diameter  (on  the  ground  level)  of  the  dk)me  is  xi6  ft.  For  S  ft 
from  the  summit  of  the  ruin  it  was  not  possible  to  trace  tk 
outline.  At  that  point  the  outer  wall,  if  one  may  10  caO  it, 
of  the  solid  dome  oould  be  traced,  and  had  a  djameter  of  t^  '>• 
The  dome,  therefore,  sloped  inwards  1  ft.  for  every  3  ft.  in  hdg^t, 
in  other  words,  it  was,  like  all  the  most  andent  at  tbeso  axtifidal 
burial  domes  in  India,  a  shallow  dome,  and  cannot  have  bees 
more  than  about  35  ft.  high  exclusive  of  tbe  ornament  or  "tee 
on  the  summit.  We  have  in  bas-idiefs  of  the  3rd  ccntinT 
representations  of   what  these  ornaments  were  ifte-^nall 

sAn  illustration  from  a  jAotograph  is  given  in  lUiys  Davids' 
Buddhist  India,  p.  131.  .. 

*  For  figures  of  the  jewelry  found  see  the  pfatr  in  Mr  P^P^ 
article,  reproduced  In  Kh^s  Davtda'  Buddhist  India,  p.  89*  '^ 
the  jewelry  of  the  time,  ibid.,  pp.  90,  91. 

*See  illustration  ibid.,  p.  129. 

^ZtHschnJt  dtr  dentschtm  mortmimlioehm  Ctttlhfktift.  vrl  JS^ 


PIQUA— PIQUBT 


63^ 


•qiMfft  tmrtiom^  Kke  a.  lUiie  or  tmtll  leMpIt/  tisnounted 
by  a  canopy  called  from  its  shape  a  T.  They  were  then  more 
than  a  third  of  the  height  of  the  dome  itself.  The  total  height 
of  this  Siklya  tope  will  therefore  have  been  approximately 
a  iittk  under  50  (L  It  was  probably  surrounded  by  a  carv«d 
wooden  imiling,  but  this  has  long  since  disappeared. 

M  sncfa  monuments  hitherto  discovered  in  India  were  put 
up  In  honour  of  sosie  religious  teacher,  not  in  memoiy  ol  roy^ 
persons,  generous  benefactors,  poUticans,  or  soldiers  or  privata 
persons,  bowewr  distinguished.  And  we  need  have  no  hesita- 
tion in'  accepting  this  as  a  monument  put  up  over  a  portion  of 
the  ashes  from  the  funeral  pyre  of  Ck>tama  the  Buddha.  The 
accoimt  of  the  death  and  cremation  of  the  Boddha,  preserved 
ia  the  Buddhist  canon,  states  that  one^ghth  portion  of  the 
ashes  was  presented  to  the  Sikiya  dan,  and  that  they  built  a 
thapa^  or  memorial  mound,  over  it.^ 

Mr  Pepp6  presented  the  coffer  and  vases  with  specimens  of 
the  jewelry  to  the  museum  at  Calcutta  where  they  still  are. 
He  sdso  save  specimens  of  the  trinkets  to  the  Asiatip  Society  in 
London. 

Pcpp£'s  original  article  is  in  the  Journal  of  ik»  Royal  Asiatic- 
Society  for  1808,  pp.  573  iqq. '  Comraents  upoa  it,  one  or  two  01 
them  accptical,  ai«  in  the  same  journal  1898,  pp.  579,  588,  387, 
868;  1899,  p.  4^5;  «99«»  P-  398;  1905.  P-  679;  1906,  pp.  149  sqq. 
See  also  A.  Banh,  Comptos  nndves  do  Vacademte  its  tfucrtptioms 
C1898),  xxvi.,  I47.  333:  Sylvain  Levy,  Journal  des  saoants  (1905) 
pp.  540  soq.;  and  R.  Pisdiel  and.Rnya  Davids  as  quoted  above. 

^^  ^  ^  Cr.w.R-D.) 

PIQUA,  a  City  of  Miami. county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Miami 
River  and  Uic  Miami  &  Erie  Canal,  73  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Columbus. 
Pop.  (1890),  9090;  (1900),  X 3,179,  of  whom  901  were  foreign-bom 
and  487  were  negroes;  (1910  census),  X3i388b  It  is  served 
by  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  Clucago  &  St  Louis,  and  the 
Cincinnati,  Hamilton  &  Dayton  railways,  and  by  inter-urbaa 
electric  lines  to  Lima,  Dayton  and  Covington.  It  has  a  park, 
a  public  library  and  a  public  hospital.  There  are  quarries  of 
blue  limestone  in  the  vicinity.  The  city  has  various  manu- 
factures, the  factory  products  being  valued  in  1905  at  $4,035,706. 
The  municipality  owns  and  operates  its  waterworks.  Oa.  or 
near  the  site  of  Piqua  was  one  of  the  principal  villages  of  the 
Chillicothe  division  of  the  Shawnee  tribe;  the  village  also  was 
called  Chillicothe.  It  was  destroyed  by  George  Rogers  Dark 
in  1782.  A  town  was  laid  out  here  in  1809  under  the  name  of 
Washington,  and  the  present  name,  that  of  another  division 
ai  the  Shawnee  tribe,  was  substituted  in  1823.  Hqua  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1846.  During  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  in  1763,  a  battle  was  fought  in  this  vicinity  chiefly  between 
the  Miamis,  Wyandots,  Otuwas  and  other  Indian  allies  of  the 
French,  and  the  Delawares,  Shawnecs,  Cherokees,  Catawbas 
«nd  other  Indian  allies  of  the  English,  the  English  allies  making 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  drive  the  French  allies  from  their 
fortified  position.  Fort  Piqua. 

See  Heniy  Howe,  Historical  ColUctions  of  Ohio  (Columbus,  1891). 

PIQ0ET«  a  game  at  cards,  probably  a  development  of  ronf<h 
a  game  mentioned  by  Bemi  in  1536;  la  ronfia  (included  in 
Rabelais^  list,  c.  1530)  may  be  regarded  as  the  same  game. 
The  point  at  piquet  was-  anciently  called  renjU,  -The  Spanish 
name  of  the  game  was  cientos  {centum,  a  hundred).  Piquet 
-was  played  in  England  under  the  name  of  cent,  or  saut,  probably 
as  early  as  1550  (contemporaneously  with  the  marriage  of 
Mary  to  Philip  of  Spain).  About  the  middle  of  the  X7th  century 
(shortly  after  the  marriage  of  Charles  I.  to  Henrietta  Maria  of 
France)  the  name  cent  was  dropped  in  England)  and  the  French 
equivalent,  piquet,  adopted.  It  is  played  by  two  persons, 
with  a  pack  of  thirty-two  cards — the  sixes,  fives,  fours,  threes 
and  twos  being  Uirown  out  from  a  complete  pack.  At  one  time 
the  pariie  was  the  best  of  five  games  of  a  hundred  up  (a  player 
not  obtaining  fifty  losing  a  double  game) .  But  now  the  partic 
u  genenlly  determine  in  six  hands,  the  j^yer  making  the 
largest  aggregate  score  being  the  vrinner.  The  number  of  points 
won  is  the  difiercnce  between  the  two  scores,  with  a  hundx^ed 

t  Tramdated  in  Rhys  Davids'  BudHusl  Suttas  (Oxford,  1881). 


td^  for  the  game.  If,  however,  the  \atet  faSIs  to  make  a 
hundred  in  six  hands,  the  number  of  points  won  is  the  sum  of 
the  two  scores,  with  a  hundred  for  the  game.  liquet  played 
in  this  way  is  called  RsMcom  PtqHd. 

The  dealer  deals  twelve  canb  to  hat  advenaiy  and  twelve  to 
himself,  two  at  a  time,  or  three  at  a  time.     He  then  places  the 

E'  '  it  undealt  cards,  called  the  "  stock,"  face  downwards  on  the 
e,  the  tap  five  being  for  the  cUer  hand  (non-dealer)  to  take 
1  fint  in  exchange  for  his  own.  The  players  now  look  at  their 
hands,  and  eatU  blanche  (see  later)  having  been  declared,  H  there 
Is  one,  put  o«t  (without  showing  them)  neb  cards  as  they  deem 
adviabte  in  order  to  improve  their  hands,  and  tahe  in  an  equiva- 
lent number  from  the  stock.  Each  player  mast  diacaid  at  least 
one  card.  If  the  elder  hand  discards  less  than  the  five  he  is  entitled 
to,  he  must  sute  hem  many  he  leaves.  He  is  entitled  to  look  at 
the  cards  he  leaves,  nplactiig  them  face  dowawuds  on  the  top  of 
the  stock.  The  yottneer  hand  then  makes  the  eOECbange  from  the 
remainder  of  the  stock  If  the  cUer  hand  leaves  anjr  of  the  top 
five^  the  younger  may  exchange  as  many  as  remain  m  the  stock, 
discardiag  an  equal  number.  If  the  younger  hand  leaves'  any 
cards,  he  annoooces  the  number  left.  He  nay  look  at  the  cards 
heleaves.  If  he  fcwks  at  them  he  must  show  them  to  the  dder  hand, 
after  the  eUer  has  nanted  the  suit  he  wilt  lead  first,  or  baa  fed  • 
canL 

If  the  younger  hand  elects  not  to  look  at  the  cands  left  the  ekier 
cannot  see  than.  The  younger  hand  must  make  his  election  before 
he  plays  to  the  card  first  led,  or,  if  so  required,  after  the  dealer  has 
named  the  suit  he  will  first  lead.  Each  player  may  examine  hh 
own  discard  at  any  time  during  the  hand;  hut  he  most  keep  it 
separate  fnmi  his  other  cards. 
The  ekier  hand  next  makes  a  declaration  of  what  he  has  in  his 


The  "point"  must  be  called  first  or  the  right  to  call  it  Is  lost. 
It  is  scored  by  the  player  who  announces  the  suit  of  greatest  strength, 
valued  thus:  ace  11 ;  court  cards,  10  each:  other  cards^  the  nemoer 
of  pips  00  each.  Thus  if  the  elder  hand's  best  suit  is  aee.  king, 
knave,  nine,  eight,  he  calb  "  five  caids."  If  the  younger  hand 
has  no  suit  of  five  cards,  he  says  "  good."  The  elder  hand  then 
says  "  m  spades,"  or  whatever  the  suit  may  be,  or  shows  his  point 
face  ttpwards.  If  the  younger  hand  has  a  suit  of  more  than  five 
cards,  be  says  ''not  good.  If  the  younger  hand  has  also  five 
cards,  he  says  "equal'^or  "what  do  they  make  ?  "  when  the  elder 
calls  "forty^ht"  (or  "making  eicfat."  short  for  Ibrty^ht), 
The  younger  must  not  inquire  what  the  point  makes  unless  he  baa 
an  equal  number  of  cards.  If  the  younger  hand's  five  raids  make 
lesa  than  forty<«ight  he  says  "good";  if  exactly  forty-eight,  he 

than  Corty^ht  he  aays  "  not  good.^'    The 


equal ";  if  ,     _  _ 

player  whose  point  is  good  reckons  one  for  each  card'bf  it;  if  the 
points  are  equal  neither  player  scores  for  point. 

"Sequences"  are  usually  called  next,  the  elder  hand  statinr 
what  his  best  sequence  is.  and  the  younger  saying, "  good,"  "  equal, 
or  "  not  good,"  as  in  the  case  ol  the  point.  Any  three  or  more 
consecutive  cams  of  the  same  suit  held  in  hand  constitutea  sequence. 
The  order  of  the  cards  is  as  fodows:  aoe  (highest),  king,  queen, 
knave,  ten,  nine,  eight,  seven  (lowest).  A  sequence  of  three  cards 
is  caUed  a  "  tierce  ^;  of  four,  a  "  quart  ";  of  five,  a  "  quint  ";  of 
six,  a  "  sixiime  ";  of  seven,  a  "  sepritee  ";  of  eight,  a  "  hnititeie.*' 
A  tierce  of  ace,  lung,  queen  is  called  a  "  tierce  major  ";  a  tierce  cC 
king,  queen,  knave  is  called  a  **  tierce  to  a  king  (and  so  on  for 
other  mtermediate  sequences  according  to  the  card  which  heads 
them);  a  tierce  of  nine,  eight,  seven  is  called  a  "  tierce  minor.** 
Sequences  of  four  or  more  cards  follow  the  same  nomenclature; 
0.g.  ace^  king,  queen,  knave  is  a  quart  major;  knave,  ten,  nine, 
eight,  is  a  quart  to  a  knave;  and  so  on  A  sequence  of  a  greater 
number  of  cards  is  good  against  a  sequence  .of  a  smaller  number; 
thus,  a  quart  minor  is  good  against  a  tierce  major.  As  between 
sequences  contaioiiy  the  same  numbs  of  cards,  the  one  headed 
by  the  highat  card  is  good;  thus,  a  quart  to  a  queen  is  good  against 
a  quart  to  a  knave.  Only  identical  sequences  can  be  eqoal.  The 
player  whose  sequence  is  good  reckons  one  for  each  card  ai  it, 
and  ten  in  addition  for  qumts  or  higher  sequences.  Thus  a  tierce 
counts  three ;  a  quart,  four ;  a  quint,  fifteen ;  a  sUiAme.  -sixteen ;  and  so 
on.  If  the  elder  hand's  sequence  is  good,  be  names  the  suit,  or  showB 
it  face  upwards.  If  the  highest  sequence  (or  the  sequence  first 
called)  is  good,  all  lower  sequences  can  be  reckoned,  notwithstanding 
that  the  advcraary  has  a  sequence  of  intermediate  value.  For 
example,  A  has  a  quart  to  a  queen  (good.)  and  a  tierce  minor.  Ho 
calls  and  reckons  seven,  notwithstanding  that  B  has  a  quart  to  a 
knave.  B's  quart  counta  nothing.  It  the  highest  sequence  is 
equal,  ndther  player  scores  anything  for  sequence,  even  though 
one  plajrer  may  hold  a  second  sequence  of  equal  or  inferior  value. 

"  Quatorzcs  "  and  "  trios  "  are  the  next  calls.  "  Quatoraes  "  arS 
oomposed  of  four  aces,  four  kin^  four  queens,  four  knaves,  or 
four  teoa,  in  order  of  value;  "  tnoe  "  of  three  of  any  of  these  A 
quatorse,  if  good,  reckons  fourteen;  a  trio,  if  good,  reckons  three; 
one  that  is  good  establishes  any  smaller  quatoraes  or  trios  ia  his 
hand. 
I    When  the  ekfer  hand  has  done  calling  he  leads  a  card.  BefoM 


638 


PIRAM— PIRATE 


PIRACY 


playifig  to  this  eard.  the  voaager  hand  recfcoiu  all  that  he  haa 
food.  Mating  of  what  canu  his  claioks  are  composed,  or  showing 
the  cards  daimed  for.  The  elder  hand  leads  any  card  he  pleases: 
the  youqger  ^ys  to  it.  The  yoangir  hand  must  follow  suit  if 
able;  otherwise  be  may  play  any  card  he  thinks  fit.  It  ia  not 
compulsory  to  win  the  trick.  The  leader  counts  one  for  each  card 
led,  whether  it  wins  the  trick  or  noc  If  the  second  plavcr  wins 
the  trick  he  alao  counts  one.  The  winner  of  the  last  trick  counts 
an  additional  one  for  the  hut  card.  The  tricks  are  left  face  upwaids 
in  front  of  the  player  who  wiaa  them.*  They  may  be  examined 
by  either  player* 

If  each  player  wins  six  tricka  the  cards  are  "  divkled,**  and  there 
is  no  furthier  score.  If  one  playa-  wins  more  than  six  tricks  he  wins 
'*  the  cards,'*  and  adds  tea  to  his  score.  If  one  player  wins  every 
trick,  be  winaa  eopoit  end  scarsa  forty  for  the  cards,  instead  oif 
ten. 

During  the  play  of  the  hand,  a  player  is  entitled  to  be  informed 
as  to  any  cards  his  adversary  holds  which  be  has  reckoned  as  good, 
or  has  declarsd  to  be  equaL  A  player  may  require  his  advenary 
to  exhibit  any  such  cards.    But  if  a  player,  havuag  played  three 

Srds  of  a  sixitoie,  declared  as  a  quint,  b  asked  how  many  he  has 
t.  he  need  only  reply  "  Twow'* 

During  the  progress  of  the  hand  eadh  player  repeats  aloud  the 
amount  of  his  score  for  the  time  being.  At  the  end  of  the  hand 
the  points  scored  are  reoorded  by  each  player.  If  there  ia  aiw 
difference  in  the  written  scores,  a  player's  score  of  his  own  hand  » 
deemed  to  be  the  correct  one. 

Bonmpie.-^\  (eUer  hand)  haa  dealt  Urn  ace,  kinr,  knave  of 

jidcs;  ace,  queen,  knave,  eight  of  hearts:  knave,  eight,  seven  of 

uba;  and  nine,  eMit  of  diamonds.  He  discarda  ki»  of  spaoea; 
e|^ht,  aeven  of  dubs;  and  nine,  eight  of  diamonds.  He  takes  ia 
mne,  eight  of  spades;  king  of  beaits;  nine  of  dubs;  and  long  of 
diaroono. 

B  (younger  hand)  has  ten,  seven  of  spades;  ten,  nine,  seven  of 
bearta;  king,  queen,  ten  of  dabs;  and  ao^  ^oeen,  knave,  ten  of 
dkunonds.  tie  discards  seven  of  spades}  and  mne,  seven  of  hearts. 
He  takes  in  queen  of  spades;  ace  of  dubs;  and  seven  of  diamonds. 

The  hand  then  proceeds  thus.  A  (calMne  his  point)  "  five  cards." 
B  says  **  equal,"  or  "  what  do  they  make?" 

iT'  forty-nine,"  or  "  making  nine."    B  '*  md.'* 

A  (counting  his  point)  "  five  "  and,  counttng  his  sequente,  which 
is  good)  "  a  quart  major,  nine.   Three  knaves?"    B"  not  food." 

A  (leads  ace  of  hearts  and  says)  "  ten."  B  "  four  tens,  fourteen, 
and  three  queens,  seventeen  "  (pbye  the  ten  of  hearts). 

A  (leads  the  remaining  hearu  and  says)  "  eleven,  twdve,  thirteen, 
fourteen."  B  (plays  seven,  ten,  knave,  queen  of  diamonrie,  and 
lepeatiog  his  score  says)  *'  seventeen." 

A  has  now  five  tricks,  and  in  order  to  win  the  cards  should  lead  any 
card  but  a  high  spade.  He  leads  king  of  diamonds,  and  saye 
"  fiftttn."  B  (wins  with  ace  and  says)  "  eighteen"  (and  then  leads 
the  winning  dubs,  saying)  "  nineteen,  twenty,  twenty-one,  twenty- 


vWO. 


cES 


"eighteen"  (and adding  teii  f or  the  cards)  "twenty-eight." 

A  then  wntes  on  his  scoring  card  a8;  23.  B  writes'  on  his  25; 
38.  The  pack  is  collected,  and  the  next  hand  commences. 
Three  scores  (omitted  in  order  to  nmplif  y  the  description  of  the 
game)  have  yet  to  be  mentioned. 

CarU  BlMckt.—li  other  player  haa  no  king,  queen  or  knave  in 
the  hand  dealt  him.  be  hokls  eorU  blameke,  for^hich  he  scores  ten. 
As  soon  as  a  pbycr  discovers  he  haa  a  cofft  Uanektt  he  must  tell 
his  adversary;  this  he  usually  does  by  saying  "  discard  for  carls 
blamkf."  The  adverre  discard  is  then  made  (as  explained  under 
discardiiv),  after  whkh  the  carls  Uondbs  ia  shown  by  dealing  the 
cards,  face  upwards  on  the  table;  they  are  then  taken  back  bto 
the  hand. 


.—if  the  cMer  hand  scores,  in  hand  and  pby,  thirty  or 
more,  before  the  younger  hand  counts  anything  in  that  deal,  he 
fdns  a  pique,  for  which  he  scores  thirty. 

Jtspiqm».^li  a  pbyer  scores  ia  hand  alone  thirty  or  more  before 
his  adversary  reckons  anything,  he  pdna  a  repiqtu,  for  which  he 
adds  sixty  to  Us  score.  Equalities  do  not  prevent  piques  or  repiquee. 
A  player  who  has  an  equal  point  or  sequience  scores  nothing  for  it. 
Thcrdbre  if,  notwithsUnding  the  equality,  a  ^yer  makes  thirty, 
la  hand  and  play,  or  in  hand,  by  scores  which  redeon  in  order 
before  anything  his  advenary  can  count,  he  gains  a  pkine  or  a 

ique* 

die  order  in  whkrh  the  soorea  accrue  Is  of  importance.  For  the 
sake  of  conveideooe,  the  dder  hand  finishes  his  reckoning  before 
the  younger  begins.  The  scores,  however,  whether  made  by  the 
elder  or  yuumer  hand  are  recordable  in  the  following  order:  (1) 
co/fe  MsncJbs;  (a)  point;  {%)  sequences;  (4)  qoatoraes  and  trios; 
is)  points  made  in  play;  (6)  the  cards.    This  will  often  affect  a 

Clue  or  repiqoe.  Thns.  a  pique  can  only  be  made  by  the  elder 
nd.  aa  the  one  he  redoons  in  play  when  he  leads  hb  first  card 
couNU  before  poinu  sobseouently  made  in  pb>r  by  the  younger 
hand.  The  youqger,  thereiore,  cannot  make  thirty  in  hand  and 
play  before  the  ekbr  eeoies  one.    But  the  one  redraoed  by  the 


fepiqiii 


dder  band  wheA  he  bade  lib  fbet  eaid  doea  not  pnwot  bbbdof 

repiqued,  because  scores  nuuie  in  hand  have  precadenoe  of  pdnta 
made  in  play.  The  dder  leads  his  first  card  and  oouna  for  it 
before  the  younser  reckons,  simply  as  a  convenient  way  of  stating 
that  he  haa  notning  in  hand  whidi  b  good.  Agaiiu  say  A  has  a 
^uint  (food),  a  tieroe,  and  a  quatorae  (pnd).  He  soores  thirty-two 
in  hand  aloiie;  but,  if  hb  point  b  not  good,  he  does  not  gain  a 
repique,  because  the  younj^  hand'a  point  b  recordabb  in  order 
bdore  the  sequences  and  quatorae.  Csris  ftbndb,  taking  pre- 
cedence of  all  ether  aoores*  saves  piques  and  repiqnes.  It  abo 
counts  towards  piques  and  repiquea,  A  cspof  decs  not  count 
towards  a  piqu&  as  the  cafiU  is  not  made  in  pby.  It  b  added 
after  the  pby  of  the  hand  is  over.  A  pUyer  who  reckons  nothing 
that  hana  as  a  penalty  b  not  piqued  or  repiqued  if  he  holds  any 
cards  which,  but  for  the  penalty,  would  have  reckoned  before,  his 
advenary  reached  thirty. 

See  "  Cavendish."  Tkt  Lam  of  Pimut  and  of  Rtbkvm  Pimtt, 
adopted  Irf  Ike  Portland  CUb,  with  a  Treatue  on  the  Game  (iSb); 
"  Cavendish,"  Guide  to  Piquet  (1898). 

PIRAII,  or  PERdr,  an  Island  in  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  foming 
part  of  Ahmadabad  district,  Bombay.  Formerly  notorioua 
as  the  stronghold  of  a  pirate  chieftain,  It  has  attained  fame 
among  palaeontologbts  for  the  Urge  quantity  of  foeni  remains 
discovered  here  in  1836,  similar  to  the  better-known  Siwalik 
fauna.  

PnUinSI.  OtOVAXNI  BATTISTA,  ttaUan  engraver  of  vicicnt 
an^tectural  subjects,  was  bom  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  i8th 
century,  and  studied  hb  art  at  Rome.  The  great  remains  of 
that  dty  kindled  hb  enthusiasm  and  deou^ided  portrayal 
Hb  hand  faithfully  imluted  the  actual  remains  of  a  fabric; 
hb  invention,  catching  the  design  of  the  original  ardiitcct, 
supplied  the  ports  that  were  wanting;  hb  akill  Introduced  groups 
of  vases,  altars,  tombs;  and  hb  broad  and  sdentific  dbtobalion 
of  light  and  shade  completed  the  picture,  and  threw  a  striking 
effect  over  the  whole.  C>ne  engraving  after  another  was  enoited 
with  much  brilliancy;  and,  as  the  work  went  on,  the  seal  of 
the  artist  only  waxed  stronger.  In  course  of  time  It  was  found 
necessary  to  call  in  the  aid  of  all  hb  chfldren  and  of  several 
pupib.  He  did  not,  in  fact,  shcken  in  hb  exotlons  till  hb 
death  in  1778. 

The  pbtes  of  Phnnesi,  In  which  the  severity  of  burin  work  b 
targdy  supplemented  by  the  freer  lines  of  the  etddng-needk,  were 
cuBbcted  and  twcserved  by  hb  son  and  coadjutor  Fnmoeaco^  Tbey 
were  publiahed,  to  the  number  of  about  sooo^  in  29  vob^  CoL  (Pnirb, 

1835-1837). 

PIRAMO.  a  leaport  of  Austria,  in  Isttia,  ss  m.  S.W.  of  THeste 
by  raiL  Pop.  (tgoo),  I3<339»  mostly  Italians.  In  addition  to 
vitl6ilture  and  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  its  ptindpal  resources 
are  ship*biuldlDg  and  fishing.  In  the  neighbourhood  ace  the 
most  extensive  works  in  Istria  for  the  extraction  of  salt  from  the 
sea-water,  which  produce  about  50,000  tons  of  salt  annually. 
Pirano  b  celebrated  for  the  victory  of  the  Venetians  over  the 
fleet  of  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbaroesa  in  1177.  It  passed 
under  the  domination  of  Venice  in  1283  and  becunedefinit^ 
incorporated  with  Austria,  together  with  the  other  paHif  iiimu  e( 
Venice  in  the  Istrian  Peninsula,  in  1813. 

PIRATB  AND  PIRACnr.  Sir  Edward  Coke  {InstU.  B.  X13) 
describes  a  pirate  (Lat.  pirata,  from  Gr.  vetpctrfv,  xiipv,  to 
attempt  or  attack),  as  hosHs  humarti  gtneris,  and  as  a  robber 
upon  the  sea.  Sir  J.  Fftzjames  Stephen  in  hb  DigeH  of  Crimitui 
Law  defined  piracy  as  follows:  "  Taking  a  ship  on  the  High  Seas 
or  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lord  High  Admiral  from  the 
possession  ov  control  of  those  who  are  bwfully  entitled  to  it 
and  carrying  away  the  ship  ttsdf  or  any  of  tu  goods,  ta^b, 
^>pard  or  furniture  under  drcumstances  which  wonki  luxt 
amounted  to  robbery  if  the  act  had  been  done  within  the  body 
of  an  Englbh  county  "  (cf .  A.G.for  Hong-Kong  v.  Kwok-aSing, 
1873,  L.R.  5  P.C.  r79).  Piracy,  bdng  a  crime  not  against 
any  particular  state  but  against  all  mankind,  may  be  punished 
in  the  competent  court  of  any  country  whete  the  offender  may 
be  found  or  into  which  he  may  be  carried.  But.  whflst  the 
practice  of  nations  gives  to  every  one  the  right  to  pursue  and 
exterminate  pirates  without  any  previous  decbration  of  war 
(pirates  holding  no  commission  or  delegated  authority  ^m  any 
sovereign  or  state),  it  b  not  aflowed  to  kill  them  without  triaJ 
except  in  battle.    Those  who  surrender  or  axe  taken  prisoners 


MKATE  AND  PIRACt 


^39 


ttost  In  bntti^t  betotv  ibe  ptoper  tribuaal  and  dealt  irith 

acconUngtoUw. 

h   Piracy  has  bean  dealt  with  in  a  Ufge  numbar  of  EngUsh 

statatas,  from  1536  down  to  the  Teititoiial  Watefa  Jurisdictioa 

Act  1878  (41  &  48  Vict.  c.  73),  which  provided  for  the  maifiten- 

anoe  of  the  existing  jnrisdiaion  for  the  trial  of  *'  any  act  of 

piracy  as  defined  by  the  law  of  nations." 

Doting  the  SpaniBh-American  War  the  Spanbb  government 
ia8aed(t998)a  decreededaring  that  **captain8,niastersand  officers 
of  vesieb,  which,  as  well  as  two-thirds  of  their  crew,  are  not 
American,  captured  while  committing  acts  of  war  against  Spain, 
even  if  they  are  provided  with  letters  of  marque  issued  by  the 
Unit«l  States'*  woold  be  regarded  and  judged  aspirates.  This  waS 
not  in  acooidance  with  the  international  practice  on  the  subject. 
A  public  ship  or  one  which  is  entitled  to  fly  the  flagof  a  belligerent 
ahd  navigates  under  the  cover  ol  state  papers,  by  the  veiy  sense 
of  the  term,  is  not  a  pirate.  Again,  during  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  the  word  **  piracy  "  was  freely  applied  in  BriUsh  news* 
papers  to  the  seisure  of  the  "  Malacca  "  and  other  vessels  hdd 
up  by  the  "  Peterburg  "  and  **  Smolensk,"  two  cruised  belonging 
to  the  Russian  Btadk  Sea  volunteer  fleet,  which  In  July  1904 
passed  as  merchantmen  through  the  Bosporus  and  Dardanelles 
and  were  transformed  to  their  real  character  on  the  open  sea. 
Tht  application  of  the  term  in  this  case  was  equally  inaccurate. 
•  The  conversion  o£  merchant  Into  war  ships  was  one  of  the 
subjects  dealt  with  by  the  second  Hague  Conference  (1907), 
bnt  It  was  agreed  that  *'the  question  of  the  place  where  such 
conversion  is  effected  remains  outside  the  scope  "of  the 
agreement." 

Piracy  is  essentially  a  crime  under  intematlona]  law,  and 
although  any  state  may  apply  its  penalties  to  its  own  subjects 
by  analogy,  as  was  done  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
in  connexion  with  the  repression  of  the  slave  trade,  they  cannot 
be  lawfully  applied  to  subjects  of  other  states.  (T.  Ba.) 

HhUfrical  Skekk.— It  has  at  all  times  been  more  difficult  to 
enforce  good  order  on  the  sea  than  on  the  land;  or  perhaps  we 
onght  to  say  that  the  establishment  of  law  and  order  on  the  sea 
has  in  all  ages  of  the  world's  history  followed,  but  has  not 
accompanied,  and  has  still  less  preceded,  the  creation  of  a  good 
police  on  the  land.  The  sea  robber,  or  pirate,  cinnot  male  a 
profit  from  any  part  of  his  booty  except  the  food  which  he 
consumes,  or  the  vessels  which  he  may  use,  unless  he  can  find 
a  market.  But  so  long  as  he  is  snre  that  he  will  somewhere  meet 
A  purchaser  for  the  gobds  he  has  taken  by  violence,  he  has  every 
encouragement  to  pursue  his  trade.  Therefore  from  the  times 
described  in  the  Odyssey,  down  to  (he  days  when  Sir  Henry 
Keppel  sailed  in  H.M.S;  "Dido "to  suppress  the  pirates  of 
Borneo,  and  when  Rajah  Brooke  <^  Sarawak  co-operated  with 
him  on  land,  we  find  that  the  prevalence' of  piracy  and  fbe 
suppression  of  it  have  been  closely  dependent  on  the  efforts 
made  to  rout  It  out  from  Its  htrking^places  on  the  coast,  and  the 
degree  of  success  achieved. 

•  Very  different  types  of  men  have  been  named  pirates.  They 
Iiave  ia  fact  been  so  unlike  that  to  class  them  all  together  would 
be  in  tbe  last  degree  unjust.  The  Greek  in  the  youth  of  the 
worfd,  and  the  Malay  of  Borneo  in  the  19th  centuiy,  knew  of 
BO  rule  of-moials  which  should  restrain  them  from  treating  all 
vifho  lay  outside  the  limits  of  their  dty  or  their  tribe  as  enemies^ 
to  be. traded  with  when  strong  and  plundered  when  weak.  They 
thigfat  be  patriotic,  and  law-abiding  men  towards  the  only 
ftutfaority  they  recognised.  Their  piracy  was  a  form  of  war, 
not  without  close  moral  anslogres  to  the  seiznre  of  Silesfa  by 
Fre^^rlck  the  Great,  the  attempted  seizure  of  Spain  by 
Kapoteon.  Indeed  the  story  of  this  latter  venture,  with  hs 
deceitful  preliminary  success  snd  its  final  disaster,  may  fairly 
be  compared  with  the  fall  of  Ulysses  and  his  companions  on  the 
Clcohes,  as  told  in  thb  ninth  book  of  the  Odyssey.  Yet  it  would 
be  IHfl^ly  uncritical  to  class  Ulysses  or  Napoleon  with  Captain 
Avery,  or  Captain  Kldd,  or  Bartholomew  Roberts.  We  are  not 
here  concerned  with  the  leg^  aspects  of  piracy,  but  with  the 
true  character  of  the  persons  to  whom  the  name  pirate  has  been 
spplied  at  vaifous  times.  The  term  was  applied  by  the  Romans 


to  Ihe  adventurers  against  whom  F6mpey  was  oommlMoned  to 
act  by  the  Gabinsaa  Law,  by  the  Eaglidi  of  the  9th  and  loth 
centuries  to  the  Vikings,  and  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  En|^ish» 
French  and  tiixieh  who  were  found  sailing  beyond  the  line. 
Sufferers  by  naval  commeree-destroyers  call  it  "  a  pirstiod 
form  of  warfare."  But  the  pirates  of  the  Roman  Repubhc 
Were  no  mere  "gang .of  robbers."  They  were  tht  victims 
of  a  time  of  conquest  and  "  general  overture  *^— -'*  the  mined 
Boen  of  all  nations,  the  hunted  refugees  of  all  vanquished  parties, 
everyone  that  was  wretched  and  daring — and  where  was  there 
not  misery  and  violence  in  this  unhappy  age?  It  was  no  longer 
a  gang  of  rbbbers  who  had  flocked  together,  but  a  compact 
soldtef  state,  In  which  the  freemasonry  of  exile  and  of  crime  took 
the  place  of  nationality,  sind  within  which  crime  redeemed 
itself,  as  it  so  often  does  in  its  own  eyes,  by  displa]mig  the  most 
generous  public  spirit."  Such  men  are  akin  to  the  fuontsctti 
of  lUdlan  lustory  or  the  Dutch  Beggan  of  the  Sea,  ihe  victims 
of  party  strife  In  the  cities,  who  took  to  the  sword  because  they 
had  no  other  resource.  MiiMis  mutandis  we  may  say  as  mudi 
for  the  Intmdera  beyond  the  Hne,  whom  history  calls  the  "Buo* 
cancers ."  (q.v.).  The  "  Vikings  "  (q.v.)  were  a  portion  of  the 
Barbarian  invasions.  The  "  Barbary  Pirates "  (f.v.)  stand 
apart.  As  for  the  piratical  character  of  the  commerce<lestroyer, 
ot  privatcer-^why  are  we  to  brand  Captain  Fortunatiis  Wright, 
the  Englishman  who  captures  a  French  merchant  ship,  or 
Captain  Robert  Surcouf,  the  Frenchman  who  captures  a  British 
East  Indiaman,  as  piratical,  and  not  make  the  same  repnoach 
against  Admiral  I.ord  Howe,  or  Admiral  Don  Cuis  de  C<Moba, 
who  with  a  fleet  captures  whole  convoys? 

The  pirate  pure  and  simple  is  that  member  of  an  orderly 
community  who  elects  to  live  on  the  sea.  by  violence  and  robbery, 
making  no  distinction  between  his  own  dty  or  tribe  and  any 
other.  The  old  |idage  that  "war  makes  thieves  and  peace 
hangs  them  "  has  ever  been  peculiarly  true  of  the  sea.  War 
has  always  been  conducted  there  by  the  capture  of  an  enemy's 
property,  and  by  divfsfon  of  the  spoU.  A  portion  of  the  naval 
forces  of  all  nations  has  been  composed  of  privateers,  letters  of 
marque  or  corsairs,  who  plundered  with  a  Bcence.  They 
have  eveiP  found  a  difficulty  in  drawing  t!ie  line  between  enemy 
and  neutral;  when  peace  returned  Some  of  them  fbttnd  it  hard 
to  be  content  wfth  honest  wages  earned  by  dull  industry.  NeboA 
dedared  that  all  privateers  were  no  better  than  pirates.  He 
was  borne  out  by  the  experience  of  Great  Britain,  whidi  at  tht 
beginning  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  had  to  take  strong  measures 
to  repress  the  excesses  of  its  privateers,  and  to  hang  a  good  few 
of  them  as  mere  pirates.  The  pfratcs  suppressed  by  Pompey  did 
not  aH  submit  to  rcmam  in  the  s^lemenfs  he  nfade.  Some 
continued  to  rob  at  sea.  If  we  can  trust  the  Pastoral  of  Longus, 
and  the  other  Gredc  romances,  the  pirate  was  a  known  type 
even  un^r  the  Roman  peace,  but  it  ts  highly  probable  that  he 
was  more  of  a  stock  literary  figure  than  a  reality.  Before  tht 
Roman  peace,  and  during  long  centuries  after  it  had  beeii 
diattered,  piracy  was  common.  It  grew  out  of  a  state  of  wa& 
In  modem  times — even  down  to  x8i  5 — a  recrudescence  of  piracy 
haii  followed  regular  hostilities.  But  there  are  other  conditions 
whk:h  have  a  material  influence,  such  as  the  need  for  a  lukkin^ 
pilace  ahd  for  a  recefver  of  the  plundered  goods.  An  archipelago 
provides  the  best  lurking-phices,  and  next  to  it  a  coast  of  many 
inlets.  Therefore  the  Gredc  Islands,  the  British  Isles,  the 
Antilles,  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  coast  of  Cilicia  in  Asia  Minor, 
of  Dalmatia,  of  Malabar  and  of  Norway,  have  aH  st  one  time 
or  other,  and  some  df  them  for  centuries,  been  haunts  of  pirated 
The  convenience  of  the  place  had  to  be  Completed  by  tne  con- 
veiupAce  of  the  market.  In  the  ancient  world,  and  the  middle 
ages,  the  market  never  failed.  One  dty  or  tribe  had  little  care 
for  the  sufferings  of  another.  The  men  of  the  Cinque  Ports 
who  plundered  the  men  of  Yarmouth  knew  that  thdr  crwn 
townsmen  would  never  call  them  to  account,  and  therefore  ihey 
had  a  safe  refuge.  Even  when  the  medieval  anarchy  had  c6mt 
to  an  end  on  hind,  the  sea  was  lawless.  When  peaCe  was  made 
wiih  Spain  after  the  death  of  Queen  EHzabeth  there  were  many 
who  codd  not  settle  down  to  a  life  of  tndustrv.   Some  took  the 


^^ 


PIRATE  AND  PIRACY 


plain  ooune  o!  betaking  themsdvcs  to  Algieis  or  Sake.  Bui 
there  were  many  who  prowled  nearer  home.  Sir  William 
MoDSoa,  in  his  Naval  Tracts,  tells  how  he  was  sent  in  1605  to  hunt 
pirates  out  of  the  ShetJands  and  the  Hebrides.  He  £ound  none 
at  sea  near  Scotland,  but  some  unemployed,  whom  he  shim>ed 
and  used  as  guides  and  informers,  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  At 
Broad  Haven  he  discovered  an  Irish  gentleman  of  the  name  of 
Cormat  (presumably  Cormac)  living  in  some  dignity.  His 
bouse  was  "  the  well-head  of  all  pirates,"  and  thc)ir  c^tains 
were  the  lovers  of  his  daughters.  Monson  found  agents  of 
merchants  of  London  and  of  Galway,  who  came  to  buy  the  goods 
which  the  pirates  had  to  sell  at  a  baigain.  He  put  that  inter- 
esting family  under  the  gallows,  and  frightened  them  into 
turning  king's  evidence.  It  was  his  boost  that  he  .had  cleared 
the  Irish  coast  of  pirates,  but  we  know  that  they  were  common 
late  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and  tlmt  under  the  name  of  "  sea 
Tories  "  they  abounded  during  the  Civil  War  both  in  Ireland 
and  in  the  Scilly  Isles.  Their  existence  was  prolonged  by  the 
weakness  of  the  government,  which  when  piracy  became  very 
rampant  took  the  disastrous  course  of  offering  pardon  to  all 
who  would  come  in  by  a  certain  date.  As  a  matter  of  course 
many  did,  and  when  their  booty  was  spent  returned  to  their 
piratical  trade.  Monson  says  that  the  pirates  he.  caused  to  be 
executed  bad  already  tasted  of  the  king's  mercy.  Wlnle  there 
were  friendly  harbours  to  anchor  in,  purchasers  to  be  met  and  a 
,vexy  fair  prospect  of  a  free  pardoni  piracy  was  not  likely  to 
cease. 

As  the  X7th  century  drew  on  the  law  and  the  police  became 
too  strong  for  such  person^  as  Mr  Cormat  at  Broad  Haven, 
and  his  pirate,  friends.  But  the  pirate  class  did  not  cease. 
It  was  only  driven  to  a  wider  field  of  operations — to  a  field 
which  in  fact  stretched  from  the  Red  Sea  to  New  Eo^^d. 
Qo  this  wide  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  everything  combined 
pof  favour  the  pirate.  In  the  West  Indies  there  was  a  "  well- 
^ea4  "  of  immense  capacity.  Spain  was  forced  late  and  reluc- 
tantfy  to  recognize  the  legitimacy  of  any  foreign  settlement* 
^he  would  rather  put  up  with  the  lawless  adventurers  known 
as  the  "  Brothers  of  the  Coast  "  and  the  "  Buccaneers  "  than 
cooperate  with  foreign  governments  to  suppress  them.  Even 
when  she  renounced  her  (uU  pretensions,  several  of  the  islands 
remained  unoccupied  except  by  the  lingering  remnants  of  the 
native  races.  Swine  and  cattle  had  been  let  k)ose  on  many  of 
them,  and  had  multiplied.  The  turtle  was  abundant  and 
•ucculenl.  There  was  no  want  of  food.  A  population  with 
predatory  instincts  had  been  formed  in  the  early  days  of  hostile 
iwttlemeot  and  buccaneering.  Jamaica  was  full  of  die  so-called 
•"  private  men-of-war "  whose  doings  are  prominent  in  the 
correiipondence  of  Uie  early  governors,  who  were  not  unoom- 
XBonly  their  associates.  Add  to  this  that  the  commercial 
policy  of  Spain  denied  to  her  colonists  the  right  of  trading 
^th  foreigners,  and  yet  t^at  she  could  not  supply  their  needs 
lietaelf .  Hence  arose  a  smuggling  trade  which  had  affinities  with 
piracy.  The  lawless  trader  was  not  liable  to  be  asked  awkward 
4|ue8tions,  as  to  the  origin  of  his  cargo,  by  the  Spanish  American 
who  purchased  it  on  the  sly  for  money  or  by  barter.  Nor  were 
any  questions  asked  him  when  he  brought  Us  cargo  to  Jamaica, 
San  Domingo,  the  Carolinas,  New  England  or  even  Europe. 
In  the  decay  of  Spain  her  navy  was  not  to  be  feared.  But  ii 
was  not  the  commercial  policy  of  Spain  alone  which  helped  the 
pirate.  Great  Britain,  and  France  also,  insisted  that  their 
colonists  should  trade  exclusively  with  or  through  them.  The 
odlpnists  were  always  ready  to  buy  "  good  cheap  "  from  the 
finugi^er,  and  never  ask  him  whether  the  East  Indian  produce 
-^tea,  silk,  spices  and  so  forth-**he  offered  for  sale  were  pur- 
chued  or  plundered  in  the  Red  ^  or  on  the  coast  of  Malabar 
or  of  CoromandeL  Add  to  all  this  that  the  police  and  patrol 
work  cl  regular  navies  was  but  svperficially  done  even  in  peace, 
and  hardly  at  all  in  war,  and  that  in  the  British  colonies  there 
was  no  judicial  machinery  for  trying  pirates  till  the  xxlh  and 
I2th  years  of  William  IIL  (1700,  1701),  and  it  will  be  seen 
that  all  the  conditions  favoured  the  pirate.  In  the  East  the 
dccajkpce  gf  the  Mogul  Empire  was  plunging  India  into  anarcby* 


And  it  ha4n&  naty.  Yet  a  bifs  native  iAdees&ted,«Qiidacted 
by  "  Moors,"  as  they  were  adied,  and  Madagascar,  a  great 
"  no<nan's-land,"  afforded  ample  anchomge  and  food.  To 
get  poaicstfon  of  a  ship,  to  sail  to  the  East,  to  plunder  the 
"  Moors,"  to  sell  the  booty  in  New  England  or  the  CaioUnai. 
to  spend  thepnduce  in  riotous  living,  and  go  to  sea  on  the  sane 
errand  again,  was  the  round  of  life  of  the  Urge  daas  of  knovn 
pirates,  who  jfonned  %  teoo^iiaed  element  of  the  populatioa  of 
MassachusetU  and  New  York  at  the  end  off  the  17th  eeatiuy. 
These  arenthe  men  we  know  best,  for  they  were  enooufsfed  by 
the  tolerance  Aown  them  to  come  into  the  light.  Othen  an 
buried  in,  or  only  dimly  visible  fn,  obscurity.  Soaoe  trace  of 
these  latter  may  be  found  in  the  Ulkf  Bo^s  of  the  Old 
Providence  Company,  a  puritan  society  formed  in  the  leign  of 
Charles  I.,  of  which  Pym  and  the  earl  of  Warwick,  aftervanh 
the  Parliamentary  admiral  of  the  Civil  War,  were  governors.  It 
wasfounded  tocoJoniae  Old  Providence  on  the  coast  of  Hondun^ 
a  place  not  to  be  confused  with  another  pirate  haunt.  Met 
Providence  in  the  Bahamas.  It  took  to  plain  piracy  and  was 
suppressed  by  the  Spaniar<b  in  1(38.  Warwick  made  a  regslir 
business  and  large  profits  by  fitting  out  "  pavateos,"  whicb 
were  in  fact  pirates  on  the  "  Spanish  main,"  not  the  »ai  of 
America,  as  some  have  thought,  but  the  coast  of  thesiainlaDd. 

The  lives  of  the  later  and  better  known  pirates  may  be  iOifr 
trated  by  the  career  of  Captain  Avery,  or  Every  (alias  Biidg- 
man),  whose  renown  was  great  at  the  end  of  the  17th  ostuiy, 
and  who  has  the  credit  of  having  inspired  Defoe's  X4/«,  Aitt^" 
tuns  and   Piracies  of  Captain  SiH^ton,     Avety  was  jaate 
of  a  Bristol  ship  hired  by  the  Spaniards  in  1694  to  acrvt  as  a 
coastguard  vettcl  in  S<Mith   America.    She   was  call^  the 
"  Charles  II.,"  commanded  by  one  Captain  Gibson,andiDOUDtai 
40  guns.    While  the  "  Charles  II.  "  was  lying  at  ConiDoa,  ia 
company  with  another  vessel  also  hired  by  the  Spaniards, 
waiting  finr  the  payment  of  wages  which  was  delayed,  Avoy 
persuaided  part  of  the  two  crews  to  seize  her  and  sail  with  ber 
on  a  piratical  voyage  to  the  East.    The  enterprise  was  caiiied 
out  without  bloodshed  or,  apparently,  coercion  of  those  who  vov 
unwilling  to  go.    Avery  uid  his  crew  sailed  to  Madagascar, 
a  regular  haunt  of  the  pirates.    Many  of  them  ended  by  renaor 
ing  for  life  among  the  natives.   The  adventurers  in  the  "  p'^^ 
II.,"  who  had  already  made  some  small  prizes,  English  sad 
Danish,  were  joined  at  the  island  by  others  ol  the  same  characta 
who  had  come  from  the  West  Indies.    From  Madagascar  they 
went  to  the  StraiU  of  Bab-el-&Iandeb|  to  lie  in  wait  for  the 
trade  from  India.   Several  prizes  were  taken,  and  finally  a  laiip 
and  valuable  ship,  belonging  "to  the  Great  Mogul  and  hii 
subjects,"  was  captured  about  ten  miles  from  Surat.  Aveiy 
and  his  crew  now  hastened  to  New  England  to  sell  their  bootr 
The  "  Charles  II."  was  disposed  of  as  a  privateer  at  Providcoce, 
and  the  pirates  bought  a  sloop  in  which  they  sailed  ak)D(  the 
coast  of  the  English  colonies,  selling  their  ^poil,  with  the  cemai 
of  the  colonists  and  the  coimivance  pf  the  officials^  who  vtxt 
bribed.    In  an  evil  hour  for  themselves  they  decided  to  Goee 
to  England.     The  Indian  governments,  exasperated  by  the 
piracy  practised  ^t  the  expense  of  their  subjects,  were  threatcmM 
reprisals  on  the  East  India  Company.    The  Company  mw 
complaints  to  the  government  at  home,  and  energetic  measmti 
of  repression  were  taken.     Avery  himself  escaped  04x01^ 
but  several  of  his  men  were  brought  to  trial,  condemned  SLd 
executed.     It  is  to  be  noted  that  when  first  tried,  on  the  19U 
of  October  1696,  they  were  acquitted.    They  were,  howe^'^i 
re^tried  on.  other  counts,  on  the  3ut  of  Oaober.    The  cha^ 
of  Lord  Chief  Justice  Holt  to  the  jury,  and  the  address  of  Sa 
Charies  Hedges,  the  admiralty  judge,  shows  that  ibcy  fw 
both  the  importance  and  the  uncertainty  of  securing  a  verdict 

The  cruise  of  Avery  is  not  only  a  typical  example  of  a  piiatkal 
venture,  but  it  is  an  important  date  in  the  history  of  the  poIioDf 
of  the  sea.  The  Engl^h  government  was  roused  to  a  •'"^J^ 
the  necessity  for  strong  measure^  to  repress  piracy.  AH  the 
steps  taken  were  not  according  to  knowledge.  The  eztrsf 
ordinary  private  venture  of  Lord  BeUamont  and  his  assocutes 
who  sept  out  .Captain  Kidd  {qjf.)t  a  man  of  piratical  anteccdcs^i^ 


PIRKE  ABOTH 


64! 


to  wippiMB  ptntfs  in  thfe''  Eastern  seas,  brofoght  deservM  discredit 
Qpon  them.  Tbe  deci^oA  taken  on  the  advice  of  Burchett, 
the  secretacy  ol  the  adminUty,  to  offer  a  pardon  to  all  who  would 
surrender  by  a  given  date — ^for  all  piracies  oommitted  before  tbe 
30th  of  April  to  the  east  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Ibe  30th 
of  June  1699  to  the  west — was  an  error.  It  induced  many  to 
come  in,  but  it  also  gave  all  pirates  the  hope  that  they  would 
ia  the  future  be  provided  with  similar  means  of  escape.  The 
estaltlishment  of  admiralty  courts  in  the  East  Indies  and  America 
and  tho  despatch  of  warships  were  more  effectual  methods. 
Yet  it  was  long  before  piracy  was  thoroughly  checked;  indeed  the 
signing  of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  followed-  by  a  recrudescence 
of  this  form  of  crime.  The  privateers  who  swarmed  in  the  West 
Indies  and,  as  long  as  the  war  lasted,  used,  in  the  phrase  of  the 
time,  to  join  the  squadrons  of  war-ships  *'  en  tbe  plundering 
account,"  could  not  Wttle  down  to  dull  industry.  They  leagued 
themaelvca  into  a  species  of  pirate  rtpublic,  with  its  capital  at 
Pfovideoce  in  the  Bahamas.  In  1718  a  special  force  had  to  be 
sent  against  them  under  Woodea  Rogers,  who  is  best  remem- 
bered now  for  having  taken  Alexander  Selkirk  from  the  island 
of  Juan  Fenandea,  in  the  course  of  a  privateering  voyage  into 
the  Pacitc  witb  tbe  *'  duke  "  and  "  duchesa  "  of  Bristol.  Rogers 
t^roke  up  the  Providence  settlement,  and  did  a  similar  piece 
of  service  on  the  coast  of  Madagascar.  Piracy  did  not,  however, 
die.  The  Asiento  (9.V.)  Treaty  having  given  Great  Britain  a 
monopoly  of  the  slave  trade  witb  Spanish  America,  the  monopol- 
iata,  «>.  the  South  Sea  Company  and  Royal  African  Company, 
vert  of  course  subject  to  the  competition  of  interlopers.  Tbe 
iaterkHpers  were  the  natural  friends  of  the  pirates,  who  divided 
their  activity  between  the  Antilles  and  the  west  (Soast  of  Africa, 
plundering  in  the  second,  selling  and  re-fitting,  not  without 
further  plunder,  in  the  first.  The  most  notorioua  of  these  free> 
bootera  was  Bartholomew  Roberts,  who  was  introduced  to 
piracy  by  Howd  Davis.  Roberts  was  the  nearest  known 
approacb  to  the  pirate  of  romance,  ostentatious,  brave*  not 
without,  touches  of  generosity.  He  was  killed  in  action  with 
Captain  Chaloner  Ogle,  of  H<M;S.  "  Swallow,"  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  in  i7ai. 

As  tbe  American  colonies  grew  more  settled  piracy  became 

iotolcarable  to  them.    Yet  it  lingered  on  the  coast  of  North 

Car^fna,  where  the  pirates  could  etther  terrorize  the  scattered 

inhabitants,  or  were  encouraged  by  dishonest  ofiidals.    Here 

flouri^Mxl  the  grotesqae  brute  known  as  Blackbeard,  Edward 

Teacb,   till  he  was  run  down  and  slain  by  Lieut.  Milvain 

in  1 7 18.    It  was  noted  that  several  of  those  who  hdped  to 

suppress  him  afterwards  "  went  aspirating  "  themselves.    So 

strong  was  the  piratica!  tradition  of  the  New  World  that  even 

inen  of  some  standing  fell  into  it.   **  Major  "  or  Captain  Stede 

Btonnet,    who  was  condemned  and  executed  at   Charleston, 

Sooth  Carolina,  as  a  pirate,  in  1718,  was  a  gentleman  of  some 

property  in  Barbadoes,  who  first  ventured  to  sea  in  a  ship 

of  bis  own.    Stede  Bonnet  had  taken  advantage  of  an  act 

of  grace,  had  come  in  on  a  proclamation,  and  had  returned 

to  a  pirate's  life.    The  last  great  explosiott  of  piracy  in  the 

West  Indies   followed  the    peace   of    1815.    Here  again  we 

find  the  old  conditions— privateers  and  other  unsettled  men, 

the  safe  hirking-place  and  the  receiver.    The  refuge  and  tho 

market  were  suppUed  by  the  Spanish  colonies,  which  were 

plunged  Into  anarchy  by  their  revolt  against  Spain.     The 

pirates  were  able  to  masquerade  as  '*  patriot "  navies.    The 

sloth  nnd  corrupcien  of  Spanish  captains-general  of  Cuba  were 

00  leas  fAvoofaUe  to  the   pirates^    The  south  coast  of  the 

{siand  became  a  haunt  of  these  villains  till  the  British  and 

American  governments  were  driven  to  combine  for  their  sup- 

pressiofl.    When  they  had  been  followed  bito  their  hlding-pbces 

nnd  their  vessels  sunk,  they  took  to  brigandage  on  hii»d,  and 

were  gairoCted  by  the  Spanish  authoriti^  in  self-defence.    The 

piracy  of  the  Greek  islands  went  on  to  later  years,  and  the 

Malays  were  not  umed  till  nearly  1850.    On  the  coast  and  the 

risers  kA  China  piracy  was  and  is  eademlc,  but  tbe  sailing  junk 

|ia5  BO  chatnet  with  the  modem  steamer    When  caaea  of  piracy 

lutve  occurred  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca  or  in  the  China  seas. 


by  wMch  Europeans  have  been  the  sufferen,  the  crime  has 
generally  been  peipctrated  by  men  who  shipped  as  passengers 
or  as  crew,  and  who  surprised  the  vessel  The  iMrate  has  been 
as  useful  to  the  author  of  modem  tales  and  poems  as  to  the 
wnters  of  the  Greek  romances.  When  he  is  seen  in  aothcntic 
evidence  be  is  found  to  have  been  for  the  most  part  a  pitiful 
rogue.  His  gains  were  but  small.  A  share  of  £}oo  was  wealth 
to  0  mere  sailor,  and  one  of  £1000  wealth  beyond  tbe  dreams  of 
avarice.  He  rarely  fought  a  wanhip  if  be  could  help  it,  and 
indeed  nothing  Is  more  sorpriring  than  hb  readfaiess  to  surrender 
when  the  fate  before  him  was  the  gaUows. 

AtrrnoRiTiBS.— The  oiratet  of  ^e  andent  world  are  admiiiiUy 
dealt  with  in  Momniien  a  History  of  Rome.  For  the  oaodem  pinite, 
«e  MooKMiB "  Naval Tmcta "  in  CkunktWi  Voyagts,  v. 5  (LoimIimi, 
1744-1746),  and  in  the  edition  of  the  Navy  Record  Society  (190a). 
But  the  best  accounts  are  to  be  found  in  the  Stale  Trials,  vols.  xiit.. 
xiv.,  XV  (London,  1812).  Captain  Charles  Johnson's  Cenerm 
History  of  the  Pynitts  (London*  1724)  must  be  used  with  cautioa. 
He  no  doubt  leaumt  much  from  pirates  who,  having  cone  in  on  a 
proclamation,  were  free  to  talk,  bat  he  cannot  always  be  reconciled 
with  authentic  records.  The  DocumeuU  rdativt  to  the  CotonUtt 
History  of  the  StaU  of  Sen  York  (Albany,  1856^1858)  conuin  many 
curious  detaSa.  For  th«  eastern  seas,  the  Crnnpendtous  History 
of  the  Indian  Wars;  mik  an  accautU  of  tbe  Rue,  Profytts^  Sifonglk 
and  Forus  of  Aneria,  the  Pyrate,  «c.,  by  Cleacnt  Downing  (London, 
t737)isusdfuL  (D.  HO 

PIRKB  ABOTH.  The  penultimate  tract  of  the  fourth  part 
of  the  Mishnah  is  the  booklet  of  proverbs  in  five  chapters  called 
Masiechdh  Ahoth  (traciatus  patrum),  belter  known  with  a 
sixth  chapter  as  Pirke  Aboth  (capitula  patrum).  For  Pirke 
A  both  in  English  see  The  Authorized  Daily  Prayer  Book  of  the 
united  Hebrew  congregations  of  the  British  Empire^  with  a  new 
translation  by  the  Rev  S.  Singer.  The  six  chapters  are  there 
appointed  to  be  read  one  on  each  Sabbath  afternoon  between 
Passover  and  New  Year.  Formerly  they  were  read,  in  places 
at  least,  on  the  six  Sabbaths  between  Passover  and  Pentecost 
only.  The  subsections  of  tbe  chapters  are  hereinafter  numbered 
as  in  the  Authorized  Prayer  Book. 

Chapters  t.„t(.-^The  Mosaic  sucoesuon  has  first  to  be  established. 
Moses  (t.,  1-3)  haviagrccctved  the  Torah  from  Sinai,  !t  was  handed 
down  to  Joshua,  the  tiders  (Josh.  xxiv.  ^i),  the  Prophets  and  tho 
men  of  tte  Great  Synagogue,  from  one  of  the  last  of  whom,  Simon 
Jiistus,  it  was  received  tnf  Anti^onoa  of  Socha  Next  are  named 
(t.  4-1  S)>  without  any  title,  as  links  in  the  chain  of  tradition,  five 
pairs  of  teachers,  the  last  Hillel  and  Shammai,  elsewhere  in  the 
Mishnah  called  mundi  patres  (Surcnh.  iv.  324).  Rabban  Jochanan 
ben  Zatchai  (ii.  o)  "  received  from  Hillel  ami  Shammai."  Sayings 
of  Jochanaa  ana  his  five  diacipies  foUow,  and  chaa  ii.  ends. with 
words  of  their  somewhat  younger  contemporary,  Kabbi  Tarphoa 
(jpit^Mf),  to  the  effect  Ars  tonga  vita  breois.  These  sections  (t.  i-i5i 
u.  9-21)  contain  the  "  Kern  der  Samnilung  "  (Strack).  After  the 
sayings  of  Shammai  (i*  iS)  oome  interpolated  sayings  0'  16^.  8) 
of  Rabhan  GamaUel  L,  Rabban  Simeon.  "  Rabbi,''  tje,  R.  lehudah 
ha-Nasi  (cent.  a.d.  i->2),  the  traditional  redactor  of  the  Misbnah, 
Rabban  UaniaUel  II.  and  Hniel,  which  break  the  sequence. 

Chapters  iti.,  ».— Maxims  of  numerous  authorities,  mostly 
Mishnah  teachers  and  called  Rabbis  (Matt.  xxii.  7  seq.;  J.  P.  p.  27), 
not  in  exact  chronological  order. 

Chapters  t.,  at.'-<Ihap.  v.  which  b  sai  teueris,  is  premunabty  of 
later  <me  than  what  precedes.  Naming  no  teacher  until  the  endi 
it  combines  historical,  legendary  and  didactic  clcmeats.  It  touches 
opon  the  miraculous  and  its  place  in  nature  (v.  9).  In  form  it  ia 
a  series  of  numbered  |(r6ups  of  things,  from  the  ten  creative  Savings 
to  tbe  triads  of  qualities  which  differentiate  the  disci{de»  of  Balaajn 
and  Abraham.  R*  Jacob  ben  Shimshon's  commentary  makes 
Aboth  end  with  tbe  sayinf  of  Jehudah  ben  Tenia  (v.  23),  "  Be 
bold  as  a  leopard,  and  swift  as  an  eagle,  and  fleet  as  a  hart,  and 
strong  as  a  lion,  to  do  the  will  of  thy  Father  who  is  in  heaven.** 
Chapter  vi..  on  aequisitio  leris,  'is  thought  to  have  been  added  for 
use  on  the  last  cf  the  she  sabbaths  above-menti^ied  (Stiack,  J.  P, 
Ap.  p.  6i).   In  some  manuscripts  there  are  seven  chapters. 

Pirk9  Aboth  serves  as  a  primer  to  the  student  of  nbbiniti 
Judaism.  For  the  most  part  in  simple  Hebrew,  it  has  a  few 
sayings  in  Anmaic  (1. 13-ii.,  7,  v.  25,  26)  and  some  adopted  Greek 
words,  as  ^ac(e(e  (iv  i3;Philo).  He  who  would  be  pious  should 
fulfil  the  dicta  of  Aboth  (Baba  Kam.  30*) •  It  gives  favourite 
aphorisms  of  leading  Jewish  teachen  who  flourished  in  or 
before  the  earliest  Christian  centuries,  and  supplies  material  for 
some  interesting  illustretSons  of  the  New  Testament.  Too 
heterogeneous  to  be  represented  by  a  few  extracts,  the  coUeetloa 


643 


PIRMASENS-i^PlROT 


nmst  be  read  through  to  be  appreciated.  Among  the  sayings 
of  Hillcl  wc  miss  the  best  known  one,  iVkal  is  kat^tit  to  tkte 
do  notf  &c.  (J.  F,  p.  142),  with  which  we  may  noiv  compare 
Ecclua.  xxxL  1$  Heb.,  "  Know  (?)  thy  neighbour  b  as  thyself, 
and  consider  what  thou  hatest."  Of  the  precept,  "  Make  a 
fence  to  the  Torah  "  (i.ii  cf.  iii.  17)  it  may  be  said  that  "every- 
thing is  therein."  As  a  doctrine  of  development  and  as  an 
ethical  principle  it  is  reflected  in  Clement  of  Alexandria's  view 
of  philosophy  as  a  ^parftiAs  of  the  vineyafd  (Strom.  I.  20)^  and 
Poiycarp's  saying,  "  He  that  has  love  is  far  from  aU  stn,"  The 
use  of  Aboth  in  the  synagogue  stamps  it  as  authoritative,  and, 
with  its  intrinsic  excellence,  has  led  to  its  being  "  the  most 
popular  of  all  rabbinical  writings."  For  midrsshic  comments 
upon  it  see  the  Aboth  of  Rabbi  Nathan  (ed.  S.  Schechter, 
Vienna,  1S87),  or  the  rendering  of  it  (new  ed..  New  York,  iqoo) 
In  M.  L.  Rodkinson's  translation  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud 
into  English.  (See  also  ApocavPHAL  LiTEitAnmE,  (  (M 
Testament ^  11.  d.) 

iBiBLfOCRA  PHY.-— Aboth  is  included  in  editiotis  of  the  Mishnah 
and  the  Talmud  Babli,  and  in  many  prayer 'books.  For  separate 
editions  from  about  14S4-1485,  see  Montz  btcinadineider's  Bodleian 
Catatotus,  oA.  iiS^iv),  2785,  and  <Khcr  works  cited  In  Herm. 
L.  Strack's  very  useful  rjaa 'jne.  Die  Spnteke  der  Vattr  (ed.  3, 
igoi).  See  also  C.  Taylor's  Saytngs  of  Ikt  Jewish  Fathers  (ed.  i, 
1 897,  referred  to  above  asJ.F.)n.  separate  A  ppendix  ( 1900)  describes 
or  enumerates  maauscrvKs  of  Aboth— and  Jewak  fyuydopedsat 
art.  "  Abot."  (C.  f.*) 

PIRH ASENSf  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Bavarian  Palatinate, 
40  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Spires,  on  the  railway  from  BiebermUhle. 
Popw  (1905),  34,002.  The  only  noteworthy  buildings  are  the 
town-hall  and  the  principal  Evangelical  church,  which  contains  a 
fine  monument  to  Louis  IX.  (d.  1700),  landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  who  made  the  town  his  residence.  The  staple 
industry  is  the  production  of  boots  and  shoes;  but  musical 
instruments,  leather  and  machines  ate  also  manufactured. 
Pirmascns  owes  its  name  to  a  St  Pirmin,  who  is  said  to  have 
preached  Christianity  here  in  the  Sth  century.  It  originally 
belonged  to  the  cotmt  of  Hanau-Lichlenberg,  but  passed  to 
Hcsse-DaimsUdt  in  1736.  In  September  1793  the  Prussians 
gained  a  victory  here  over  a  body  of  French  troops. 

See  T.  Weiss,  Ptmaaau  i»  der  Franxoseuxeit  (Pirmasens,  1905). 

PIRMBZ,  OCTAVB  (X832-X883),  Belgian  author,  was  bom  at 
Ch&telineau  in  1832.  He  belonged  to  a  well-known  Belgian 
family,  and  his  cousin,  fidouard  Pirroez,  was  distinguished  for 
his  works  on  Uterary  and  political  subjects.  He  lived  an  un- 
eventful life  at  his  ch&teau  Of  Aooc,  in  Hainaut,  irhere  be  died  in 
May  1883.  Pirmez  was  an  ardent  admirer  of  the  French 
romantiust&  His  works  include  Les  PeuUUes :  pensUs  d  maximes 
(1862);  Vktor  Huso  (1863);  Jours  de  soHtyde  (1869);  Himo; 
Somenirs  d^unjrin  (1880);  Heunsde  phUosopkie  (i  881);  and  the 
posthumous  Leltres  d  Josi  (1884).    These  books  form  a  history 

of  his  emotional  life,  and  reveal  an  extreme  melancholy. 

Sea  Vie  et  correspondauu  d^Octave  Pima  (1888),  by  Adolphe 
Siret  and  Jos6  de  Coppin. 

PIRMA*  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  the  kf  t  bank  of 
the  Elbe,  ix  m.  above  Dresden,  and  on  the  ndlway  to  Bodenbach 
and  PrBi;ue.  Pop.  (1905),  19,220.  The  town  i&  regularly  buHt, 
with  promenades  covering  the  site  of  the  old  fortifications; 
the  most  notable  edifices  are  the  fine  (jothic  parish  church,  built 
In  the  x6th  century  and  restored  in  1890,  and  the  <rfd  town-hall. 
Excellent  sandstone  is  found  on  both  banks  of  the  Elbe.  There 
are  manufactures  of  glass,  machinery,  cigars,  pottery  and  enam- 
elled goods;  and  there  is  a  trade  in  grain,  fruit  and  timber,  mainly 
carried  on  by  rivir,  and  a  Kttle  shipbuilding.  Pima,  originally 
a  Slavonic  settlement,  was  for  many  years  in  the  alternate 
possession  of  Bohemia  and  Mpjwrn,  but  it  became  permanently 
united  with  the  latter,  and  thus  with  Saxony,  in  1405.  The 
SooneosteiOy  a  fortress  on  a  commanding  eminence  above  the 
town,  was  erected  in  the  i.6th  century  on  the  site  of  an  <ridcr 
castle  by  the  elector  of  Saxony,  Augustus  I.  It  was  once  con- 
sidered the  most  Important  fortress  on  the  Elbe,  and  successfully 
withstood  the  Swedes  in  1639,  but  it  was  captured  and  dis- 
aumtled  by  the  Prussians  in  I7s8|  and  in  1823  was  occupied  by 
ihtFrsnch. 


See  R.  HoCnami.  Zsv  Ofsftutklo  dor  SladI  Firm  (FiiM,  iltih 
E.  KOneel,  Fuhrer  durck  Fima  (Pima.  1889);  tbe  l^haideiM 
der  Slam  Dresden  und  Fima,  edited  by  C.  F.  von  PtMem-Kktt 
(LeipzifT.  1875);  and  the  publications  of  the  Veretn  fir  Cesckid» 
der  iteA  Ftriia  (Pima«  1897  seq.). 

PIROGOB,  or  Piragua  (the  French  and  Spanish  forms  respec* 
tively  of  a  Caribbean  word  for  this  type  of  vessel.  It'  has  at  vsrioui 
times  taken  many  corrupt  forms,  e.g.  pertagua,  pefttougm,  ftOj- 
oagar),  originally  the  native  name  of  a  vessel  made  by  faoDovioK 
out  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  a  *'  dug-out  ";  hence  applied  to  msBy 
different  developments  of  this  type  of  vessel  used  In  tbe  Woi 
Indies  and  along  the  American  ooast.  An  early  improvcmc&t 
was  to  split  the  *'  dug-out  "  into  two  sections  and  insert  s  6it 
bottom  of  planking  to  widen  it ;  another  form  had  a  keboard,  was 
decked  in  at  either  end,  and  had  two  masts. 

PIRON.  ALEXIS   (1689-1773),   French  eptgramnatist  uA 
dramatist,  was  bom  at  Dijon  on  the  9th *of  July  1689.   His 
father,  Aim<  I^ron,  was  an  apothecary,  who  wrote  verse  in  the 
Burgundlan  patois.    Alexis  began  life  as  derk  and  secretary  to 
a  banker,  and  then  studied  law.    In  17 19,  when  neadyihrrtf 
years  old,  he  went  to  seek  his  fortune  lit  Paris.    An  acddcM 
brought  him  xaoney  and  notoriety.   The  Jealousy  of  the  regular 
acton  produced  an  edict  restricting  the  ThSdtre  de  la  Foire,  or 
licensed  booths  at  fair  times,  to  a  single  character  on  tbe  Aage- 
None  of  the  ordinary  writers  for  this  theatre  would  attempt  s 
monok>gue-drama  for  the  purpose,  and  Piron  made  a  grot 
success  with  a  piece  called  ArUquin  Deuedion,  rcpieseotiog 
Deucalion  immediately  aft^  the  Deluge,  amusing  hirosdfwitb 
recreating  in  succession  the  different  types  of  man.   Is  17'^  ^ 
produced  Les  Fits  ingrots  (known  later  as  Vtcde  des  ^es)  ^ 
the  Comidie  Fran^he.    He  attempted  tragedy  in  CtUidkhs 
(1730),  GiUavc  Vasa  (1733)  and  Femand  Cortis  (1 744).  ^  •*•* 
of  these  succeeded, and  Piron  returned  to  comedy  with  U  Ui^ 
manie  (1738),  in  which  the  hero,  Damis,  suffers  f^om  tbcvens 
nutnia.    His  most  intimate  associates  at  this  time  were  MBe 
(^inault,  the  actress,  and  her  friend  Marie  ThMse  (^ 
audon,  known  as  MUe  de  Bar.   This  lady  was  slightly  older  thu 
Piron  and  not  beautiful,  but  after  twenty  yeaxs'  acquaintaaa 
he  married  her  in  1741.    He  died  on  the  21st  of  j^anaaiy  i77Ji 
in  hiseighty4ourtb  year.    He  was  elected  in  1 753  to  tbe  Acadeny, 
but  his  enemies  raked-  up  a  certain  Ode  6  Priape,  dating  fnn  bb 
eariy  days,  and  induced  Louis  XV.  to  inteipose  his  veto.  Pboa 
bon^ver  was  pensioned,  and  during  the  last  half-century  ol  ^ 
life  was  n^ver  in  any  want.    His  best  title  to  temembrsace  lis 
in  his  epigmms.    The  buriesque  epitaph  on  himself,  in  whidi  be 
ridicules  the  Academy--* 

"  Ci'gtt  PiroB,  qui  ne  fnt  riea. 
Pas  rofime  acaddmiciea  "** 
is  wdl-known.  while  many  others  are  as  brillianL    Grimm  csBcd 

him  a  "  machine  k  saillies." 

Piroa^pubUshod  his  own  theatrical  works  in  1758,  and  after  w 
death  his  friend  and  literary  executor,  Rigoley  de  Juvigny.  y^ 
lished  his  (Etcvres  compUUs.  M.  Bonhomroe  produced  a  ciVKv 
edition  in  1859,  completed  by  Fohies  ekotsies  ol  pikes  imUHo  * 
1879- 

PIROT  (Turkish  Shehr-Koey),  a  Servian  town,  X2im.  froo  ibc 
Bulgarian  frontier  at  Tsaribrod,  on  the  railway  line  betvecs 
Nish  and  Sofia.  Pop.  (1900),  xo,4i&  Pirot  is  the  seat  of  tbe 
prefecture  for  the  department  of  the  same  name,  with  a  tribanaL 
several  schools  and  a  custom-house.  It  is  che  only  prop^ 
industrial  town  in  S^ via,  having  numerous  small  factories  ^ 
the  manufactute  of  thin  doth  ishayak)^  wooUes  braid  (f47*i")» 
and  especially  carpets.  Its  carpets  have  a  great  repuutioa  bi 
the  Balkan  Peninaula  for  their  quaint  designs,  diaiabUity  sad 
freshness  of  oobur.  Pilot  has  a  medieval  fortress,  believed  i* 
have  been  built  on  the  site  of  the  Roman  fortivsa  QmisMkn,  «* 
the  military  road  leading  from  Old  Nafasua:  to  Phllippopo^ 
The  town  is  of  great  strategical  impoitanCe.  for  which  nasoe 
the.  Russian  plenipotentiaries  at  Uie  Berlin,  eangrass  (iM) 
stubbornly  tried  to  include  it  within  the  Buigarian  frontier, 
while  Austria  and  some  other  Powem  insisted  tl^e  it  shooM  bt 
given  to  Servia.  In  the  war  between  Servia  and  Bulpii*  • 
1885  the  Bulfariaos  occtquied  and  hdd  it  unttt  tbe  «ondiuioa«f 
peace. 


PISA 


^3 


,«  town,  KicHaefSatopaH  see  and  capital  of  a  province  of 

the  tame  namey  TNucany,  Italy,  on  the  Arno^  7  m.  from  the  sea* 

and  49  iD<  west  of  Fbrence  by  rail   Pop.  <i88i),  43i779:  (1900), 

6i,>79.    It  still  retains  its  ancient  walls,  6}m.  in  dictiit,  and  is 

defended  by  a  citadel  on  the  soutb-west.    The  prindpal  streets 

run  alongside  the  river,  and  axe  lined  with  fine  buildittc^.  Besides 

the  cathedral,  the  baptistery  and  the  famous  kaning  tower,  the 

dcy  possesart  several  notable  choxchcs,  as  the  Renassance 

chuch  of  the  TuKan  order  of  St  Stephen,  built  in  1563  from 

plans  by  Vaaari;  San  Niccolo,with  a  fbur-storeyed  tower  (1230), 

built  by  Niccola  Pisano,  and  the  tomb  of  John  of  Swabia,  the 

panicide;  Santa  Caterina  (ia6«);  Santa  Maria  della  Spina,  in 

the  Italo-Gothk  style,  built  in  1230  and  restored  in  1872;  San 

Sepolchro,  erected  in  11 50  by  Diotisalvi;  San  Francesco,  with 

frescoes  by 'nuldeo  Gaddi;  and  the  basilica  of  San  Michde  (1018). 

Amongst  the  secular  buildings  may  be  mentioned  the  royal 

palace;  th»  afchiepiscopal  palace;  the  palace  of  the  order  of  St 

Stephen,  bvilt  by  Niccola  Pisano  and  reconstructed  by  Vasari; 

tilt  Upeaxingfai  (formerly  Laiafieducd)  palace,  built  of  Carrara 

floarble  in  1590;  the  Lanfranchi,  Agostmi  and  other  pahM«s; 

the  university  (147s);  a  targe  hospital  (i>$8);  and  fine  market 

haik.   Theit  are  statues  to  Cosimo  I.  (by  ^rancaviQa),  Arch- 

dulce  Leopold,  and  Ferdinand  1.    The  city  possesses  also  an 

academy  of  the  fine  arts,  with  a  gallery  of  paintings;  and  the 

university  a  Iftrary  of  xse,ooo  volumes,  a  natural  history 

nauseam,  botanical  garden  and  agricultural  schools.  The  univei^ 

sity,  founded  m  1358,  has  facultitt  of  law,  medicine,  mathematics 

and  philosophy  and  fitcrature,  and  is  to  this  day  one  of  the  most 

famous  in  Italy. 

The  architects  of  the  cathedral  were  Boachctto  and  Rinaldo, 
both  Itafians,  probably  Pisans.  It  is  in  plan  a  Latin  cross,  with 
an  internal  length  of  511  ^  ft.  and  a  breadth  of  252  ft.  The  navei 
too  ft.  high*  nu  double  vaalted  attics  and  the  tnnaepta  anele 
aisles:  and  at  the  intersection  of  nave  and  tranacpts  there  isa  cwpob. 
The  basilica  b  still  the  predominent  tyoe.  oM  the  infiuence  of 
the  domed  chnrchcs  of  Constantinople  and  the  mosques  of  Palermo 
is  also  apparent.  The  piltats  which  support  the  nave  are  of  marble 
from  Elba  and  GigUo ,  those  of  the  side  aislea  are  the  sooils  of  ancient 
Creek  and  Roman  buildings  bioagbt  by  the  Pinan  gaUeys.  Extern- 
ally the  finest  part  of  the  building  is  the  west  front,  tn  which  the 
note  stniek  by  the  range  of  arches  running  round  the  base  is  repeated 
liy  four  open  arcades.  Of  the  four  doors  three  are  by  John  of 
fiologoa.  who  was  gfeatJy  helped  by  FTancavilla.  Tacca  ajoaothen; 
that  -of  the  south  side,  of  much  older  date,  is  generally  aiipposfd 
to  be  the  work  of  Bonanno.  Of  the  interior  occoratioas  it  is  enough 
to  mention  the  ahan  of  the  nave,  said  ro  be  after  designs  by  Michel- 
•ngdot  and  the  mosaics  in  the  dome  and  the  apse,  which  were  among 
the  latest  designs  o(  Cimabue.  The  baptistery  was  completed 
only  in  127S.  and  marred  ia  the  i^th  century  b/the  introduciioa 
of  Gothic  details.  The  building  is  a  circle  100  ft.  in  diameter, 
and  is  t.o»eied  with  a  cone-surmounted  dome  190  ft.  high  on  which 
stands  a  statue  of  St  Raoiero.  The  lowest  range  of  semicircular 
lirchea  consists  of  twenty  columns  and  the  socood  of  sixty;  and 

ebove  this  is  a  row  of  eimtecn  windows  in  the  same  style  separated 
y  as  many  pnastem.  In  the  interior,  which  is  supported  by  four 
Inlaaten  ami  eight  columns,  the  most  strikifig  features  ore  the 
octagonal  font  and  the  hexagonal  potpic.  erected  In  1260  by  Niccola 
Pisano*  The,  campanile  or  "leaning  tower  of  Pisa"  is  a  round 
tower, 4he  noblest,  according  to  Freeman,  of  the  southern  Roman- 
esque. Though  the  walls  at  the  tnse  are  n  ft.  thick,  and  at  the 
top  about  hall  as  nrach.  they  are  constructea  throughout  of  marble 
The  Lmaeinent  Is  ttirroundeo  by  a  range  of  senricirctilar  arches  sup- 
ported by  fifteen  columns,  and  above  this  rise  six  arcades  with  thirtv 
columns  each.  The  eighth  storey,  which  contains  jChe  bells,  isof  much 
smaller  diameter  than  the  rest  of  the  tower,  and  has  only  twelve 
columns.  The  height  of  the  tower  is  r79  ft.,  but  the  ascent  is 
fessv  by  a  stair  in  the  wall,  and  the  visitor  hardly  perceives  the 
incltnatioB  t>U  he  reaches  the  top  and  from  the  k>wer  edge  of  the 
gallery  looks  **  down  '*  along  the  shaft  receding  to  its  base.  The 
tower  leans' or  deviates  from  the  perpendicular,  to  a  striking  extent, 
which  has  gmdually  increased :  it  was  1^)  ft.  out  of  the  perpendicular 
Ishen  meaaored  in  1639.  and  s6i  ft.  m  t9ta  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  architects,  Bonanno  and  William  of  Innsbruck, 
intended  that  the  campanile  fhoukl  be  bu2t  in  an  oblique  positwn; 
ft  would  appear  to  have  assumed  it  while  the  work  was  stiU  in 
lirugresB.  Tne  foundations  are  not  more  than  10  ft.  deep,  and  thdr 
cimisnievmce  only  that  of  the  tower.  Tlie  Campo  aanto,  lying 
to  the  north  of  the  cathedral,  owea  its  origin  to  Archbishop  Ubaldo 

*  In  Stmbo's  time  it  was  only  2  m.  away,  but  the  increase  of 
tli»  delta  at  the  amutb  of  the  fiver  has  sinee  then  poshed  forward 
|li9  cpaft-lins. 


Sifg^isoo).  who  made  the  spot  pecnliariy  sacred  by  briSBiag 
fty-three  shipknda  of  earth  from  Mount  Calvary.  The  boflotng, 
erected  in  the  Italian  Gothic  style  between  r278  and  IS83,  by  Cio* 
vanni  Pisano,  is  of  special  interest  chiefly  for  its  famous  frescoes. 

There  are  numerous  industries,  the  most  important  being  the 
manufacture  of  cottons.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  royal  stud-faum 
(horses  and  dromedaries)  of  Cascine  di  San  Rossore,  and  the 
mineral  baths  of  San  Giuliano,  alkaline-ferruginous,  with  tempera- 
ture 91*4"  to  105*8^  Fahr.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Ano,  joined 
to  the  city  by  a  sleam  tramway,  is  the  seaside  resort  of  Marina  di 
Pisa,  also  known  as  Bocca  d'Arno.  a  weU-known  centre  for  land- 
scape painters. 

The  old  town  occupied  the  site  of  the  andent  Pisae  on  the 
ri|^t  bank  of  the  Arno.  The  foundation  of  Pnae  is  by  tradition 
ascribed  to  a  very  remote  period,  and  it  was  often  (possibly  t»ly 
owing  to  the  similarity  of  name)  believed  to  have  been  founded 
from  Pisae  in  Etta.  It  is  first  moitioned  in  history  as  the  i^aoe 
at  which  a  Roman  army  from  Sardinin  latided  In  225  B.C.,  ita 
harbour  being  at  the  mouth  of  the  south  branch  of  the  Arno, 
north  of  Livomo.  Being  situated  on  the  coast  road  (Via 
Aeinilia)  it  was  important  as  a  frontier  fortress  agmnst  ligivia, 
to  which,  and  not  to  Etruiia,  it  really  bekmged,  peihaps,  up  to 
the  time  of  Sulla,  the  actual  boundary  lyiiig  between  K  and  Vada 
Volatetrana  (mod.  Vada).  .It  became  a  colony  fat  180  B.C.,  and 
was  important  for  the  fertility  of  its  territory,  for  its  quarried 
and  for  the  timber  it  yielded  for  ship-building.  Augastus  gave 
it  the  osme  of  Colonis  Julia  Pisana,  his  grandsons  Gaius  and 
Lucius  were  patrons  of  the  colony,  and  after  their  death  monu- 
ments wew  erected  In  their  honour,  as  is  recorded  in  two  long, 
inscriptions  still  extant.  Greek  vaes  hAve  been  found  within 
the  city  itself,  seeming  to  point  to  the  presence  of  Etruscan 
tomba  (G.  Ghirardini  ia  N^itUdezK  Scavit  1892,  147);  but  no 
remains  oo#  exist  except  of  the  Roman  period-^-some  scaitty 
ruins  of  baths  and  of  a  temple,  while  the  Piaasa  dei  Cavalieii 
follows  the  outline  of  the  andent  theatre; 

See  E.  Bormann,  Csrp  tecr  laL  A  272  (1888). 

LhCle  is  known  of  the  history  of  Pisa  during  the  barbarian 
invasions,  but  it  is  an  ascertained  fact  that  it  was  one  of  the  first 
towns  to  regain  its  independence.  Under  the  Byzantine 
dominion  Pisa,  like  many  other  of  the  maritime  dties  of  Italy, 
prdfited  by  the  weakness  of  the  government  at  Constantlnopte 
to  reassert  its  strength.  And  even  duifng  the  first  years  of  th^ 
harsh  Lombard  rule  the  need  recognized  by  these  oppressois  of 
defending  the  Italian  coast  from  the  attacks  of  the  Byzantines 
was  favourable  to  the  development  of  the  Pisan  navy.  Pew 
particulars  are  extant  concerning  the  real  concfif  ion  of  the  town; 
but  we  occasionally  find  Pisa  mentioned,  almost  as  though  H 
were  an  independent  dty,  at  moments  when  Italy  was  over* 
whelmed  by  the  greatest  cahimities.  According  to  Amari'S 
happy  expression,  *'  it  was  ah-eady  independent  by  sea.  whil^ 
still  enslaved  on  land.*'  Its  prosperity  notably  declined  after 
the  establishment  of  the  Lombard  rule  and  under  the  Franks 
It  again  began  to  flourish  tinder  the  marquises  of  Tuscany,  who 
governed  it  in  the  name  of  the  emperor. 

In  1003  we  find  records  of  a  war  between  Pisa  afad  Lucca, 
which,  according  to  Muratori,  wais  the  first  waged  between 
Italian  cities  in  the  middle  ages.  But  the  military  development 
and  real  importance  of  Pisa  in  the  nth  century  must  be  attrf- 
buted  to  the  continuous  and  desperate  struggle  it  maintained 
against  the  tide  of  Saracenic  invasuon  from  Sicily:  And,  althdngh 
the  numerous  legends  and  fables  of  the  6Id  chroniclers  disguise 
the  true  history  of  this  straggle,  they  serve  to  attest  the  im> 
portance  <}f  Pisa  in  those  days.  In  1004  the  Saracens  forced  the 
gates  and  sacked  a  quarter  of  the  town;  and  in  ion  they  re^ 
newed  Che  attack.  But  the  Pisans  repulsed  them  and  assumed 
the  offensive  hi  Cakbria.  Sidly,  and  even  in  Africa.  '  Still  more 
memorable  was  the  expedition  afterwards  undertaken  by  the 
united  forces  of  Pisa  and  Genoa  against  Mogahid,  better  known 
in  the  Italian  chronicles  as  Mugeto.  This  M<»lem  chief  had 
made  himself  master  of  Sardinia,  and  was  driven  thence  by  the 
allied  fleets  in  1015.  Again  invading  the  island,  he  was  again 
attacked  and  defeated  by  the  same  advcrsaiiea,  leaiving  %■ 


644 

■  brother  *nd  ion,  or,  ts  some  authoiitMi  avti,  a  wife  and  sod, 
prisoners  in  their  bands.  Sardinia  continued  to  l>e  governed 
by  native  "  judges  "  who  were  Kite  petty  sovereigns,  but  were 
now  subject  to  the  sway  of  Pisa.  This  was  the  primary  cause 
of  the  jealousy  of  the  Genoese,  and  of  the  wars  afterwards 
made  by  them  upon  Pisa  and  carried  on  until  its  power 
was  crushed.  Meanwhile  the  Pisans  flourished  more  and 
more,  and  continued  hostilities  against  the  Saracens.  In  1062 
thdr  ships  returned  from  Palermo  laden  with  spoil.  Thus 
it  is  not  surprising  that  Pisa  should  already  have  had  its  own 
code  of  laws  {CwsuHudini  di  mare),  which  in  1075  were 
approved  by  Gregory  VII.,  and  in  1081  confirmed  by  a  patent 
from  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  a  document  which  mentions  for 
the  first  time  the  existence  of  a  magistrate  analogous,  to  the 
consuls  of  the  republic,  although  the  lalicr,  according  to  some 
writers,  already  existed  in  Pisa  as  early  as  the  year  1080,  the 
point,  however,  is  doubtful,  and  other  writers  place  the  first 
authentic  mention  of  the  consuls  in  the  year  1094.'  The  oldest 
of  Pisao  statutes  still  extant  is  the  Br€9e  dei  consolt  di  marc  of 
1162. 

In  lOQQ  the  Pisans  joined  in  the  second  crusade,  proved  their 
valour  at  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  and  derived  many  commercial 
advantages  from  it;  for  within  a  short  lime  they  had  banks, 
consuls,  warehouses  and  privileges  of  all  kinds  in  every  Eastern 
port.   Thus,  while  the  commune  of  Pisa  was  still  under  the  rule 
of  the  marquises  of  Tuscany,  all  negotiations  with  it  were 
carried  on  as  with  an  independent  state  officially  lepreseoted 
by  the  archbishop  and  consuls.     The  aristocnts  were  the 
dominant  party,  and  filled  the  highest  offices  of  the  republic, 
which,  in  the  12th  century,  rose  to  great  power,  both  on  sea  and 
land,  by  its  wars  with  the  Luochese,  Genoese  and  Moslems.  In 
II 10  Pisa  made  peace  with  Lucca  after  six  years  of  continuous 
hostilities.    And  in  the  yean  rtij  and  1115  it  achieved  a  still 
greater  enterprise.   The  Pisan  fleet  of  three  hundred  sail.  com> 
manded   by   the  archbishop   Pietro  Moriconi,  attacked   the 
Balearic  Isles,  where  as  many  as  20,000  Christians  were  said  to 
be  held  captive  by  the  Moslems,  and  returned  loaded  with  spoil 
and  with  a  multitude  of  Christian  and  Moslem  prisoners.    The 
former  were  set  at  liberty  or  ransomed,  and  among  the  latter 
was  the  last  descendant  of  the  reigning  dynasty.  '  The  chief 
eunuch  who  had  governed  Majorca  perished  in  the  siegec    Im- 
mediately afterwards  the  fourteen  years'  war  with  Genoa  broke 
out.   The  two  republics  contested  the  dominion  of  the  sea,  and 
both  claimed  supreme  power  over  the  islands  of  Corsica  and 
Sardinia.    A  papal  edict  awarding  the  supremacy  of  Corsica 
to  the  Pisan  church  proved  sufficient  cause  for  the  war,  which 
went  on  from  it  18  to  1132.    Then  Innocent  II.  transferred  the 
supremacy  over  part  of  Corsica  to  the  Genoese  church,  and 
compensated  Pisa  by  grants  in  Sardinia  and  elsewhere.   Accord- 
in^y,  to  gratify  the  pope  and  the  emperor  Lothair  IL,  the  Pisans 
entered  the  Neapolitan  territory  to  combat  the  Normans.   They 
aided  in  the  vigorous  defence  of  the  city  of  Naplei,  and  twice 
attacked  and  pillaged  Amalfi,in  iijs  and  1137,  with  such  effect 
that  the  town  never  regained  its  prosperity^    It  has  been  said 
that  the  copy  of  the  Pandects  then  taken  by  the  Pisans  from 
Amalfi  was  the  first  known  to  them,  but  in  fact  they  were  already 
acquainted  with  those  laws.    The  war  with  Genoa  never  came 
to  a  real  end.    Even  after  the  retaking  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Moslems  (iiS?)  the  Pisans  and  Genoese  again  met  in  conflict 
in  the  East,  and  performed  maoy  deeds  of  valour.    They  were 
always  ready  to  come  to  blows,  and  gave  still  more  signal  proofs 
of  their  enmity  during  the  Sicilian  War  in  behalf  of  the  emperor 
Henry  VI.    From  that  moment  it  was  phun  that  there  onild 
be  no  lasting  peace  between  these  rival  powers  until  the  one  or 
the  other  should  be  crushed.    The  greatness  and  wealth  of  the 
Pisans  at  this  period  of  their  history  is  proved  by  the  erection  of 
the  noble  buikUags  by  which  their  dty  is  adortied.   The  founda- 

'  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Pisans  and  Floremines  dated 
the  bcgianifig  pf  the  year  ob  tncamaHone^  ijt.  f rontthe  asth  of  March. 
But  the  Florendnes  dated  it  from  thessth  following  and  the  Pisans 
from  the  25th  of  March  preceding  the  commencement  of  the  common 
^r.  The  nctir  or  oommoa  style  was  adopted  tbroughoot  Tuscany 
«n  the  year  1750^ 


tions  of  the  cathedral  were  laid  in  1065,  »<1  Hft  amseostioa 
took  place  in  xii8,  the  baptistery  was  begun  in  1152,  and  ihc 
campanile  (the  famous  leaning  tower)  in  1174.  And  all  thnc 
mai^cent  structures  were  mainly  the  work  of  Piaon  artists, 
who  gave  new  life  to  Italian  architecture,  as  th^r  titcnrsrdi 
renewed  the  art  of  sculpture. 

It  is  asserted  by  some  writers,  especially  by  Trond,  that  b  tlie 
1 2th  century  Pisa  adopted  a  more  democratic  form  of  govern* 
ment.    But  in  faa  the  chief  authority  was  still  vested  in  the 
nobles,  who,  both  in  Pisa  and  in  Sardinia,  exercised  almost 
sovereign  power.  They  formed  the  real  strength  of  the  rq>u)>iic, 
and  kept  it  faithful  to  the  empire  and  the  GhibeUioe  party. 
The  Guelph  and  popular  element  which  constituted  the  force 
and.  prosperity  of  Florence  was  hostile  to  Pisa,  and  led  to  iu 
downfall.    The  independent  of  the  former  dty  was  of  nock 
later  origin,  only  dating  from  the  death  of  Countess  MatiUs 
(i  115),  but  it  rapidly  rose  to  an  ever-increasing  power,  and  to 
inevitable  rivalry  with  Pisa.    Owing  to  the  political  and  oom* 
mercial  interests  binding  Floreace  to  the  Soman  court,  the  Gadpli 
element  naturally  prevailed  there,  while  the  growth  of  its  tnde 
and  commerce  necessarily  compelled  that  state  to  cocmsck  00 
waters  subject  to  Pisao  rule.    And,  although  Pisa  had  hitherto 
been  able  to  oppose  a  glorious  resistance  to  Genoa  and  Locca,  ii 
was  not  so  easy  to  continue  the  struggle  when  its  enemies  vers 
backed  by  the  arms  and  political  wisdom  of  the  Florentines,  who 
were  skilled   in  obtaining  powerful  allies.     The  chieoidm 
ascribe  the  first  war  with  Florence,  which  broke  out  in  i2]i, 
to  a  most  ridiculous  motive.  The  amboasajors  of  the  rival  stittf 
in  Rome  are  said  to  have  quarrelled  about  a  lapdog.   This 
merely  shows  that  there  were  already  so  many  general  and 
permanent  reasons  for  war  that  no  special  cause  was  needed  to 
provoke  it.    In  1 228  the  Pisans  met  and  defeated  the  uaiied 
forces  of  Florence  and  Lucca  near  Barga  in  the  Garfsgnaoa,  tad 
at  the  same  time  they  de^tchcd  fifty-two  gal]e)'S  to  asstf 
Frederick  II.  In  his  expedition  to  the  East.    Shortly  after  ibis 
they  renewed  hostilities  with  the  Genoese  on  account  of  Sardiiia 
The  judges  who  governed  the  island  were  always  at  strife,  tad, 
as  some  of  them  applied  to  Pisa  and  some  to  Genoa  for  asastsnce 
against  one  another,  the  Italian  seas  were  once  more  stained  with 
blood,  and  the  war  burst  out  again  and  again,  down  to  i359i 
when  it  terminated  in  the  decisive  victory  of  the  Pisans  and  the 
consolidation  of  their  supremac;y  in  Sardinia.    But  neanwbik 
Florence  had  made  alliahce  with  Genoa,  Lucca  and  all  tbc 
Guelph  cities  of  Tuscany  against  its  GhibeUine  livaL   The  pops 
had  excommunicated  Frederick  II.  and  all  his  adherents.  Aad, 
as  a  crowning  disaster,  the  death  of  Frederick  in  1250  proved  a 
mortal  blow  to  the  Italian  GhibeUine  cause.    Nevertheless,  tkt 
Pisans  were  undaunted.    Summoning  Siena,  Pistoia  and  tbe 
Florentine  exiles  to  their  aid,  they  boldly  faced  their  foe,  bat 
were  defeated  in  1254.    Soon  after  this  date  wc  find  the  old 
aristocratic  government  of  Pisa  replaced  by  a  more  popultf 
form.    Instead  of  the  consols  there  were  now  twehre  ddeis 
{amiani);  besides  thepodesti,  there  was  a  captain  of  the  people; 
and  there  was  a  general  council  as  well  as  a  senate  of  forty 
members.    The  rout  of  the  Tuscan  Guclphs  on  the  field  of  Modu* 
perto  (1260)  restored  the  fortunes  of  Pisa.    But  the  battle  cf 
Bcnevento  (r366),  where  Manfred  fell,  and  the  root  of  Tsglio* 
CO2S0  (r268).  seeing  the  ruin  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufcn  u 
Italy  and  the  triumph  o£  that  of  Anjou,  were  fatal  to  Pisa.  ^^ 
the  republic  had  always  sided  with  the  empire  and  favoured 
Conradin,  whose  cruel  end  struck  terror  fnto  the  GhibelliM 
faction.    The  pope  huried  an  edict  against  the  Pisans  ind 
tried  to  deprive  them  of  Sardinia,  while  their  merchants  vtie 
driven  from  Sidly  by  the  Angevias.    The  internal  condition  «f 
the  dty  was  affected  by  these  events.    Owing  to  the  increasint 
influence  of  the  Guelph  and  popufar  side,  to  which  the  xnoit 
ambitious  nobles  began  to  adhere  for  the  furtherance  of  pcnoow 
aims,  the  aristocratic  GhibeUine  party  was  rapidly  losing  gmeod. 
The  first  man  to  step  to  the  front  at  this  moment  was  Coost 
Ugolino  della  Ghcrardesca  of  the  powerful  house  of  that  aivt 
He  had  become  the  virtual  head  of  the  republic,  arwi,  in  ortftf 
to  preserve  its  independence  and  his  own  sway,  indined  to  (W 


PISA 


*4-5 


Godpltt  aad  the  popolar  p«rty,iix  sptte  of  the  GhOwlUiie  tradi- 
tions of  his  race.  He  was  supported  l^  his  kinsman  Giovanni 
Visconti,  judge  of  Gallura;  but  almost  aU  the  other  great  families 
vowed  eternal  hatred  against  him,  and  proclaimed  him  a 
traitor  to  his  party,  his  country  and  his  icin.  So  in  1374  he  and 
Visconti  were  driven  into  exile.  Both  then  joined  the  Florentines, 
took  part  in  the  war  against  their  native  city,  and  laid  waste  its 
tuiTouoding  territories.  In  1376  the  Pisans  were  oompcllod  to 
agree  to  very  grievous  terms — to  exempt  Florentine  merchandise 
from  aU  harbour  dues,  to  yiekl  certain  stroni^lds  to  Lucca,  and 
to  permit  the  return  of  Count  UgoL'no,  whose  houses  they  had 
burnt,  and  whose  lands  they  had  confiscated.  Thus  the  count 
again  became  a  powerful  leader  in  Pisa.  ViKonli,  however,  was 
dead.  ^ 

This  was  the  moment  chosen  by  Genoa  for  a  deH>erate  and 
decisive  struggle  with  her  perpetual  rival.  For  sone  years  the 
hostile  fleets  continued  to  harass  each  other  and  engage  in  petty 
skirmishes,  as  if  to  measure  their  strength  and  prepare  for  a  final 
effort.  On  the  6th  of  August  xa84  the  great  battle  of  Meloria 
took  place.  Here  seventy-two  Pisan  galleys  engaged  eighty- 
dght  Genoese,  and  half  the  Pisan  fleet  was  destroyed.  The 
chroniclers  speak  of  5000  killed  and  x  1,000  prisoners;  and, 
although  these  figures  must  be  exaggerated,  10  great  was  the 
nunU>er  of  captives  taken  by  the  Genoese  aa  to  give  rise  to  the 
saying — ^"To  see  Pisa,  you  must  now  go  to  Genoa."  This 
defeat  crushed  the  power  of  Pisa.  She  had  k)st  her  domink>n 
over  the  sea,  and  the  Tuscan  Guelphs  again  joined  in  attacking 
her  by  land.  Cowai  Ugolino  had  taken  part  in  the  battle  of 
Meloria  and  was  accused  of  treachery.  At  the  height  of  his 
country's  disasters  he  sought  to  confirm  his  own  power  by  making 
terms  with  the  Florentines,  by  yielding  certain  castles  to  Lucca, 
and  by  neglecting  to  conclude  negotiations  with  the  Genoese  for 
the  release  of  the  prisoners,  lest  these  should  all  prove  more  or 
less  hostile  to  himself.  This  excited  a  storm  of  opposition  against 
him.  The  archbishop  Ruggieri,  having  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  nobles,  was  elected  podesti  by  the  Lanfranchi,  Sismondi 
and  Gualandi,  and  a  section  of  the  popular  party.  The  city  was 
plunged  into  civO  war.  The  great  bell  of  the  commune  called 
together  the  adherents  of  the  archbishop;  the  bell  of  the  people 
summoned  the  partisans  oif  the  count.  After  a  day's  fighting 
(July  1,  1288)  the  count,  his  two  sons  and  his  two  grandsons 
were  captured  in  the  palazzo  del  popolo  (or  town  hall),  and  cast 
into  a  tower  belonging  to  the  Gualandi  and  known  as  the 
"  Tower  of  the  Seven  Streets."  Here  they  were  all  left  to  die  of 
hunger.  Their  tragic  end  was  afterwards  immortalized  in  the 
Divina  commedia.  The  sympathies  of  Dante  Alighieri,  the 
Florentine  patriot  and  foe  of  Rome,  were  naturally  la  favour  of 
the  victims  of  an  aristocratic  prelate,  opposed  to  all  reconciliation 
wi\h  Florence. 

The  Florentines  were  now  allied  with  Lucca  and  Genoa,  and 
%  few  of  their  vessels  succeeded  in  forcing  an  entry  into  the  Pisan 
port,  blocked  it  with  sunken  boats,  and  seized  its  towera.  Their 
own  internal  dissensions  of  1393  put  a  stop  to  the  campaign, 
but  not  before  they  had  concluded  an  advantageous  peace. 
They  and  all  the  members  of  the  Guelph  league  were  freed  from 
all  imposts  in  Pisa  and  its  port.  In  addition  to  these  privileges 
the  Genoese  also  held  Corsica  and  part  of  Sardinia;  and  through- 
out the  island  of  Elba  they  were  e:|cmpted  from  every  tax. 
They  likewise  received  a  ransom  of  160,000  lire  for  their  Pisan 
prisoners.  These  were  no  longer  numerous,  many,  having  suc- 
cumbed to  the  hardships  and  sufferings  of  ail  kinds  to  which 
they  had  been  e)q>osed. 

In  XJX2  the  arrival  of  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  gladdened  the 
hearts  of  the  Pisans,  but  his  sudden  death  in  1315  again  over- 
threw their  hopes.  He  was  interred  at  Pisa,  and  Uguccione  deUa 
Faggiuola  remained  as  imperial  lieutenant,  was  elected  podesti 
and  captain  of  the  people,  and  thus  became  virtual  lord  of  the 
dty.  As  a  GhibcUine  chief  of  valour  and  renown  he  was  able 
to  restore  the  military  prestige  of  the  Pisans,  who  under  his  com- 
mand captured  Lucca  and  debated  the  Flprentines  at  Montecatim 
on  the  29ih  of  August  13x5.  So  tyrannical,  however,  was  hb 
rule  that  in  1316  he  was  expelled  by  the  popuhur  fucy^    ihtt 


Pisa's  freedom  was  for  ever  lott    He  was  weaeeded  by  other 

lords  or  tyrants,  of  whom  the  most  renowned  was.  Castmcdo 
Castracane,  a  political  and  military  adventurer  of  much  the  same 
stamp  as  Uguccione  himself.  With  the  help  of  Louis  the  Bavai- 
ian,  Castruccio  became  bed  of  Lucca  and  Pisa,  and  was  victoiious 
over  the  Florentines,  bui  his  premature  death  m  1338  again  left 
the  city  a  prey  to  the  conflicts  of  qpposing  factions.  New  lords, 
or  petty  tyrants,  rose  to  power  in  turn  during  this  period  of  civil 
discord,  but  the  military  valour  of  the  Pisans  was  not  yet 
extinguished.  By  sea  they  were  almost  impot^t — Conica  and 
Sardinia  were  lost  to  them  forever;  but  they  were  still  formidable 
by  land.  In  1341  they  besieged  Lucca  in  order  to  prevent  the 
entry  of  the  Florentines*  to  whom  the  city  had  been  sold  for 
asoiooo  floriits  by  the  powerful  Mastino  deUa  Scala.  Aided  by 
their  Milanese,  Mantuan  and  Paduan  aUies,  they  gave  battle  to 
their  rivals,  put  them  to  rout  at  Altopascio  (Oct*  2),  and 
then  again  excluded  them  from  their  port.  Ihereupon  the 
Florentinesobtained  Porto  Tahunone  from  Siena  and  established 
a  navy  of  theirown.  By  this  means  they  ytttt  enabled  to  capture 
the  island  of  Giglio,  and,  attacking  the  Pisan  harbour,  caxried  off 
its  chains,  bore  them  in  triumph  to  Florence,  and  sii^iended  them 
in  front  of  the  baptistery*  where  they  remained  until  1848. 
Then,  in  pledge  of  the  brotherhood  of  all  Italian  dties,  they  wene 
given  back  to  Pisa,  and  placed  in  the  Campo  Santo. 

The  war  was  now  carried  on  by  the  free  companiea  with  varying 
forume,  but  alwuys  more  or  less  to  the  hurt  of  thePisana.  In 
1369  Lucca  was  taken  from  them  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.; 
and  afterwards  Giovan  GeJeazso  Visconti,  kaRywn  as  the  coont  of 
Virti^  determined  to  forward  his  ambitious  designs  upon  the 
whole  of  Italy  by  wresting  Pisa  from  the  Gambaooiti.  For  at 
this  time  the  conflkts  of  the  Raspanti  faction,  headed  by  the 
Gherardesca,  iidth  the  Bergolini  led  by  the  Gambacorti;  had  left 
the  bitter  fasnily  maaters  of  the  dty.  At  Visconti's  instigation 
Pieio  Gambacorti,  the  ruler  of  the  moment,  was  treacheronsly 
assassinated  by  Jacopo  d'Appiano,  who  succeeded  him  aa  tytant 
of  Pisa,  and  bequeathed  the  state  to  his  son  Gherardo.  The  latter, 
a  man  of  inferior  ability  and  daring,  sokl  Pisa  to  the  eount  of 
Virtilf  receiving  in  exchange  900,000  florins,  Piombino,  and  the 
islands  of  Elba,  Pianosa  and  Monte  Cristo.  Thus  in  X399 
Visconti  took  possession  of  Pisa,  and  left  it  to  his  natoral  son 
Gabriele  Maria  Visconti,  who  was  afterwards  eq>eUed  from  its 
gates.  But  even  during  this  century  of  disaster  the  Pisaos 
continued  to  cherish  not  only  commerce,  but  also  the  fine  arts. 
In  the  year  X278  they  had  entrusted  the  erection  of  their  fine 
Campo  Santo  to  Niccola  and  Giovanni  Pisano,  by  whom  the 
architectutal  part  of  it  was  com^ted  towards  the  end  of  the 
century.  In  the  following  year  the  first  artists  of  Italy  were 
engaged  in  its  decoration,  and  the  celebrated  frescoes  attributed 
to  Orcagna  (q.v.)  were  painted  on  its  walls.  Others  were  afttf- 
wards  supplied  by  Benozzo  Gozzoli  and  men  of  lesser  note,  and 
the  labour  of  ornamentation  was  only  discontinued  in  1464. 

Meanwhile,  in  1406,  the  Florentines  made  another  attack  upon 
Pisa,  besieging  it  simultaneously  by  sea  and  land.  Owing  to 
the  starving  condition  of  its  defenders,  and  aided  by  the  treachery 
of  Giovanni  Gambacorti,  they  entered  the  city  in  triumph  on 
the  9th  of  October,  and  sought  to  "  crush  every  germ  of  rebellion 
and  drive  out  its  citizens  by  measures-  of  the  utmost  harshness 
and  cruelty."  Such  were  the  orders  sent  by  the  Ten  of  War  to 
the  representatives  of  the  Florentine  government  In  Pisa,  and 
such  was  then  the  established  policy  of  every  Italian  state. 
Consequently  ior  a  long  time  there  was  a  continual  stream  of 
emigration  from  Pisa.  The  Medici  pursued  a  hnmaner  coufse. 
In  1473  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  tried  to  restore  the  ancient 
renown  of  the  Pisan  university.  To  that  end  he  filled  -it  with 
celebrated  scholars,  and,  leaving  only  a  few  chairs  of  letten  and 
phikMOphy  in  Florehce,  compelled  the  Florentines  to  ttsott  to 
Pisa  for  the  prosecution  of  their  studies.  But  nothing  oonld 
now  allay  the  inextinguishable  hatred  of  the  conquered  people. 
When  Charles  VIII.  made  his  descent  into  Italy  in  1494,  and  came 
to  Sartana  on  his  way  to  Tuscany,  he  was^relcomed  by  the  Pisans 
with  the  greatest  demonstrations  of  joy.  And,  although  that 
monarch  was  ostensibly  the  friend  of  Flwence,  they  did  not 


6^b 


PISA,  COUNCIL  OF— PISACA  LANGUAGES 


hesitate,  even  tn  his  presence,  to  assert  thdr  own  independence, 
and,  casting  the  Florentine  ensign,  the  Marzocco,  into  the 
Amo,  made  instant  preparations  for  war.  Between  1499 
and  1505  they  heroically  withstood  three  sieges  and  repulsed 
three  atucking  armies.  But  their  adversaries  always  returned 
Co  the  assault,  and,  what  was  worse,  yearly  laid  waste  their 
territories  and  destroyed  all  their  crops.  Sodcrinl,  who  was 
perpetual  gonfalonier  of  Florence,  and  Machiavelli,  the  secretary 
of  the  Ten,  urged  on  the  war.  In  1509  Florence  encamped  her 
forces  on  three  sides  of  the  distressed  city,  which  at  last,  reduced 
to  extremity  by  famine,  was  compelled  to  surrender  on  the 
8th  of  June  1509.  Thenceforth  the  Florentines  remained  lords 
of  Pisa.  But  now,  mainly  owing  to  the  efforts  of  Soderini  and 
Machiavelli,  the  conquerors  showed  great  magnanimity.  They 
brought  with  them  large  stores  of  provisions,  which  were  freely 
distributed  to  all;  they  tried  to  succour  the  suffering  populace  in 
eveiy  way,  and  gave  other  assistance  to  the  wealthier  ch&sses. 
Nevertheless,  emigration  continued  even  on  a  larger  scale  than 
in  1406,  and  the  real  history  of  Pisa  may  be  said  to  have  ended. 
In  Naples,  in  Palermo,  in  all  parts  of  Italy,  Switzerland  and  the 
ioulh  of  France,  we  still  find  the  names  of  Pisan  families  who 
quiued  their  bebvcd  home  at  that  time.  The  Florentines 
immediately  built  a  new  citadel,  and  this  was  a  great  bitterness 
to  the  Ksans.  The  Medici,  however,  remained  well  disposed 
towards  the  dty.  Leo  X.  was  an  active  patron  of  the  university, 
but  it  again  declined  after  his  death.  The  grand  duke  Cosmo  I., 
a  genuine  statesman,  not  only  restored*  the  unfvenity,  but 
instituted  the  "uffizio  dei  fossi,"  or  drainage  oflke  for  the 
rtdanation  of  marsh  lands,  and  founded  the  knighthood  of 
St  Stephen.  This  order  played  a  noble  part  in  the  protection  of 
Tuscan  commerce,  by  fighting  the  Barbery  pirates  and  establish* 
ing  the  prestige  of  the  grand-ducal  navy  (see  Msoia).  Under 
the  succeeding  Medici,  Pisa'a  fortunes  steadily  declined. 
Fefdinand  I.  initiated  a  few  public  works  there,  and  above  all 
itstoied  the  cathedral,  which  had  been  partly  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1595.  These  dieary  times,  however,  axe  brightened  by  one 
glorioiis  aame-^that  of  Galileo  Galild. 

The  population  of  Pisa  within  the  walls  had  been  reduced 
in  isst  to  8574  ioub,  and  by  1745  it  had  only  risen  to  the 
number  of  1 1,406.  Under  the  house  of  Lorraine,  or  more  correctly 
during  the  reign  of  that  enlightened  reformer  the  grand  duke 
Peter  Leopold  (1765-1790),  Pisa  shared  in  the  general  prosperity 
of  Tuscany,  and  its  population  consUntly  increased.  By  1840 
it  contained  21,670  aoub,  exdusive  of  tho  suburbs  and  outlying 
districts. 

AUTBoaiTiBS.— 'Paolo  Tnmci,  Annali  di  Fisa,  edited  by  E.  V* 
Montasio  (2  voU.,  Lucca.  l84>-i843),  which  comes  down  to  1840; 
Raoieri  Grusi.  Pisa  e  U  sue  aiiactnu  (Pisa,  1851),  which  is  a 
useful  hifltorical  guide;  Roncioni,  "  Istorie  Pisane,  in  the  Arckivio 
storieo  UtMano,  vol.  vi.,  ot.  I ;  **  Cronache  Pisane."  in  the  same 
Ankmh,  voL  vi..  pt.  a;  lor  the  early  constitution  of  the  city,  tee 
G.  Volpe'a  Sludii  ttiUe  istituatPiU,  eomumtUi  di  Pisa  (Pisa,  1902), 
and  for  the  laws,  F.  Booaini's  Statmli  ina^iti  diUa  citid,  di  Pisa 
(t  vols.,  Florence,  i8fi,  fltc).  The  mantime  and  commercial 
'htsto^  of  the  republic  is  dealt  with  in  A.  Schaube's  Das  Konstdat 
det  Mums  hi  Pisa  (Leipzig,  1888)  and  in  Pawinski's  Znr  BmlsUkungs- 

issducklt  des  Kofuuiats  in  dm  Cffmmwun  Nard-  und  MiUd-IlaUens 
Berlin,  1 867);  for  the  monuments  and  inscriptions  see  A.  Da 
fforrona,  Ptsa  Ulustrata  (Leghorn.  181 3)  and  G.  R.  dc  Flcurjr't 
Les  Monuments  de  Pise  an  nujen  ig^  (Paris,  1866):  also  Repetti's 
Dieiomaria  fWfroiSca  deOa  Toscana,  «.*.  "  Piaa.'*  For  Dante's 
oonneaion  with  Pisa,  see  DamU  e  «  Pisam,  by  Giovanni  Sforta 
(Pisa.  1873).  Among  the  more  recent  historical  gukles  to  Pisa 
of  a  popular  character  is  The  Story  0/  Pisa  and  Lueea,  by  Janet 
Ross  and  Nellie  Erichsen,  in  Dent's  "Medieval  Towns  *'  (flondon, 
1907),  and  T.  B.  Supioo's  Piea,  in  the  "  Italia  arlisUca  Series." 

(P.  V.) 

PISA*  OODlfCIL  OF  (1409)/  The  great  schism  of  the  west 
had  already  lasted  thirty  years,  and  the  efforts  which  had  been 
made  to  restore  luity  within  the  Church  by  the  simultaneous 
ftsignation  of  the  two  rival  pontiffs  had  been  in  vain,  when  in  the 
spring  of  1408,  the  state  of  affairs  being  despenue,  the  idea  arose 
of  assembling  a  council  to  effect  a  union  without  the  co<«peration 
of  the  popes.  The  initiative  came  from  those  cardinals  who  had 
one  after  the  other  seceded  either  from  Gregory  XII.  ot 
Benedict  XJU.   They  were  forestalled  by  the  popes,  who  eadt 


summoned  a  council,  the  former  to  Cividale  (tn  FriuII).  the 
latter  to  Perpignan,  so  the  dissident  cardinals  sent  out  antedated 
letters  inviting  Christendom  to  assemble  at  Pisa  on  the  151b 
of  March  1409.  Their  appeal  met  with  a  response  in  a  great 
part  of  Italy,  France,  Navarre,  Portugal  and  En^nd,  and  in 
Germany  in  the  states  subject  to  Wenccslas  king  of  the  Romans, 
the  electors  of  Cologne  and  Mainz,  the  margrave  of  Brandeo* 
burg,  ftc.  For  a  time  the  number  of  the  fatheis  eiceeded  five 
hundred. 

The  day  after  the  opening  of  the  council,  proceedings  were 
started  against  the  two  popes,  who,  it  was  a^eed,  were  to  be 
eliminated.  An  act  of  accusation,  containing  in  37  articles  the 
chief  eomphiSnts  against  them,  was  read  out  to  the  people;  not 
only  their  policy,  but  their  orthodoxy  was  attacked,  and  there 
was  even  an  insinualion  of  sorcery.  The  reason  is,  that  in  order 
to  depose  them  with  some  show  of  legality,  it  was  necessary,  ss  a 
preliminary,  to  convict  them  of  heresy,  andit  began  to  be  seen 
that  their  tenacity  of  power,  and  the  ruses  by  which  they  evsded 
the  necessity  of  abdicating,  however  harmful  might  be  tbdr 
ccMisequences,  did  not  in  themselves  oonstifute  a  cleariy-defioed 
heresy.  On  the  stfa  of  June  1409  was  read  the  definitive  sentence: 
that  as  heretics,  and  therefore  separated  from  the  Church,  Pedm 
de  Luna  (Benedict  XIII.)  and  Angelo  Corrario  (Gregory  XII.) 
were  ipso  faelo  deposed  from  any  office;  they  must  not  be 
obeyed,  nor  assisted,  nor  harboured.  In  the  course  of  the 
rejoicings  which  followed  this  sentence  among  the  populace  of 
Pisa,  occurred  the  somewhat  scandalous  event  of  the  bunung 
of  two  images  crowned  with  parchment  mitres,  yepresentiog 
Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  It  was  m  vain  that  the 
ambassadors  of  Benedict  Xlil.  presented  themselves  at  Pits. 
The  crowd  greeted  their  arrival  with  mockery  and  derision,  and 
being  treated  as  the  envoys  of  heretics  th^  escaped  without 
having  obtained  a  hearing. 

In  order  to  complete  their  task  the  cardinals  present  at  Ffaa, 
authorized  by  delegation  of  the  council,  shut  themselves  up  in 
conclave,  and  elected  one  of  their  number,  Peter  Fhiiarges, 
cardinal  of  Milan,  as  the  new  pope,  who  assumed  the  name  of 
Alexander  V.  They  had  hoped  to  save  the  Church,  but  unforttia- 
ately  the  result  of  their  efforts,  generous  as  they  were,  was  that 
the  schism  increased  m  bitterness,  and  that  instead  of  the  unity 
for  which  the  Chureh  cx«ved,  three  popes  continued  to  flourish. 
Both  the  deposed  pontiffs  protested  against  the  legality  of  the 
council  of  Fisa;  each  had  numerous  partisans,  and  the  thesis, 
constructed  rather  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  which 
attributed  to  a  synod  assembled  by  the  cardinab  the  right  of 
constituting  itself  judge  of  a  sovereign  pontiff,  was  far  from  beiii| 
establbhed. 

Originally  the  council  of  Fba  was  to  have  occupied  itself  not 
only  with  effecting  the  union,  but  alM  with  the  reform  of  the 
Church.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  confined  itself  to  expressing 
certain  desiderata  In  a  *'  Kbellus  supplicatorius  "  which  7t  sub* 
milled  to  the  new  pope.  Alexander  V.  only  partially  acceded 
to  these  demands,  many  of  which  constituted  serious  encroach- 
ments on  the  prerogative  of  the  Holy  See;  he  then  declared  the 
work  pf  reform  suspended,  and  dissolved  the  council  (August  j, 

1409). 

See  Jacques  Lenfant,  Histoire  du  coneite  de  Pise  (Utrecht.  1731): 
Manai.  ConcU,f  xxviL;  F.  Stuhr,  Die  Ortanisatiou  mmdCexUftr 
ordnung  des  Ptsaner  und  Konskuuer  Kom*  (Schwerin,  1891):  N. 
Valots.  La  France  el  le  grand  sekisme  f  Occident^  iv.  l-io?,  17s  m<1» 
(Pari*  190s).  (N.V) 

PliACA  LANOOAQBS*  the  name  wMch  has  been  given  to  a 
family  of  languages  spoken  immediately  to  the  south  of  the 
Hindu  Kttsh,  and  north  of  the  frontier  Of  British  Ind^  The 
family  includes  the  group  of  Ktfir  languages  spoken  in  Kafiristia, 
Rhowar,  spoken  in  the  Chltral  country,  and  the  group  of  Shint 
Unguages,  which  Includes  the  Shini  of  Gilgit,  KOhlstAnT,  spoken 
in  the  KoUstans  of  the  Indus  and  Swat  rivers,  and  Kashmiri 
Of  all  theM  Kashmiri  is  the  only  one  which  has  received  any 
liteiuy  cultivation,  and  of  which  the  number  of  spoken  is 
known.  The  Piiica  languages  are  Aryan  by  origin,  butsre 
neither  Iranian  nor  Indo-Aryan.  (See  iMDO^AftYAW  LaKorACcs 
and  Xumtmn )  fG.A.Gt.) 


PISACANE— PBANO,  A. 


6+7 


IttMUft  CABUX  4nke  rf  Su  ( 


iSjo;  I 


?^i^ 


"'"'*'*■'  idoi  be  tmicnted  in  iS<7,  ud  after  i  liKKt  Umy 
in  Eqiland  aDd  France  tetved  in  tlii  Ftmdi  tray  in  Algeria. 
Hie  icvojotloa  oF  ia4e  Rcdtcd  him  to  Italy;  be  [Jaycd  >  put 
ia  (be  brief  but  gloriDue  bistorr  of  ibe  Romu  RcpnUi:,  uut  au 

After  it»  e»pturt  by  the  Fitach  be  again  went  Into  eiHp,  firat  to 
I«odoo  uid  Ibco  to  Ctnai,  maintaiiiing  hiimell  by  ladling. 
He  TCgoded  the  role  oi  ibe  bouir  of  Savoy  ai  no  better  than  tbat 
nf  Antria.  When  Maczini,  undeterred  by  the  [ailure  of  tbe 
■banhx  Mikn  liiing  on  Ibe  6tli  ol  February  iSsj.  determined  to 
Mi^nke  an  eipeditioD  to  provoke  m  ming  in  the  Neopotilaa 
kingdom,  PiHcanc  oflcKd  himacU  for  Ibe  UiL,  and  Mlled  ftun 
Genoa  with  a  few  folkwera  (iocluUiiig  Giavauu  NicoteraJ  on 
boaid  tbe  "  Cicliaii "  on  tbe  istb  of  June  iSj;,  Tbey  landed 
on  tbe  Inland  of  Ponza,  where  tbe  guards  were  overpowered 
aod  lotne  hundreds  of  priioncn  liberated,  and  on  tiM  28tb 
arrived  at  Sapri  in  Calabria  and  attempted  to  reach  tbe  Cilento^ 
Bui  hanfly  any  aisiilance  troiD  the  iDhabitanU  wai  forlbuiTniBt, 
and  the  invaden  were  qiticLly  oveipowecd,  Piiacane  hirateU 
being  lulled. 
SeS  P.  M.  BOoltl,  U  SfBliai^  di  Safri  (Salerno,  1907). 
PIUI^  CHRlSnHB  DI  (i]64-c.  14J0),  French  poet,  of 
Italian  lurlh,  »a>  bora  at  Venice  in  IJ64.  When  abe  wa>  four 
a  old  abe  wu  brDughl  lo  ber  lather,  a  cnundllor  ct  the 
etian  Republic,  in  Paris,  where  be  held  oSce  ai  aitrologer 
[0  Cbailei  V.  At  fifteea  Chriitioe  married  ftienne  du  Cailel, 
who  became  ChnTlei'i  notary  and  lecittary.  Alter  tbe  Icing'a 
deatbin  ijSoherfalheilotlhisappoinlment.and  died  won  alteri 
and  when  Chrisiine'i  huiband  died  in  ijSg  ihe  found  benell 
without  a  protector,  and  with  three  children  depending  on  her. 
Tliu  determined  her  to  have  tccoune  to  letten  u  a  mtaui  of 
KvebTiood.  Her  firal  bilUdj  were  mitten  lo  tie  merooiy  of  her 
htuband,  and  aa  love  poeuii  were  the  fuhion  ibe  continued  to 
write  othera— ^u,  piWaii,  rondrotts  and  jcux  A  wndre — tbou;^ 
ibe  took  the  precaution  Ici  anure  b^  readen  (Crtri  baloiUt,  No. 
50)  that  they  were  merely  cKiciua.  la  1^99  the  began  to  study 
tbe  Latin  poet*,  and  between  that,  time  and  140;,  as  she  hcnclf 
declarea,  abe  compotni  some  fifteen  important  woikt,  chieHy 
in  pcoae,  besides  minor  pieces.  Tbe  earl  of  Salisbury,  who  was  in 
Paris  on  the  occaibn  ol  tbe  marriage  oi  Kichard  II.  with  Isabella 
ol  France  (ij«6),  took  her  elder  son,  Jean  du  CaHri  (b.  I3a4l, 
and  reared  him  as  his  own;  the  boy,  after  Salisbury's  death 
(1400).  being  received  by  Fbilip  of  Burgundy,  at  itboae  dsire 
Christioe  wrote  I<  ZitTfibi/ai'ti  d  («ia«  auniri  du  wyrc  ray 
CkarUt'  (140s),  valuaUe  Bi  a  fint-hand  picture  of  Charles  V. 
and  bis  court.  Ilei  UuUHhK  it  SutIikk.  in  nbich  the  finds 
rooRi  for  a  great  deal  of  hiiloiy  and  philosophy,  was  preacnled  to 
the  same  palnm  on  New  Year's  Day,  1494.  It  posKues  an 
lolroduciion  of  great  autobiogni^cal  interest.  In  £it  ViiioH 
(a«os)  abe  tella  her  own  faiatory.  by  way  of  defence  against  those 
who  objected  10  her  pretcniionB  as  a  moralist.  Henry  IV.  of 
England  desired  betloniikehiscourtbcrhome.andshe  received 
k  like  invitation  from  Galcaiio  Viiconti,  tyrant  of  Milan.  She 
preferred,  bowevcr,  10  remain  in  Fiance,  where  sbe  enjoyed  Ibe 
favmr  at  Charles  VI..  the  dukes  ol  Beny  and  Burgundy,  tbe 
ducbew  of  Botirbon  and  others. 

nuisline  was  a  champion  of  hct  own  sel.  In  her  Dit  it  la 
ran  (1401)  aha  describes  an  order  ol  the  rcao,  the  members  ol 
which  bind  IbemKlves  by  vow  to  defend  the  honom  oi  women. 
Hit  ^^''""'"""''''■wwC'Jiwl  is  a  defence  of  women  ag^nst 
tbe  satire  of  Jean  dc  Meun.  and  Initiated  a  prolong  dlqiute  with 
two  sreat  schobrs  of  her  lime,  Jew  de  Monlreuil  [d.  1415)  and 
Oontbicr  Col.  who  undertook  the  defence  of  the  Xmon  <fe  la 
fast.  Christine  frrote  about  1407  two  books  for  women.  La 
cot  its  inula  and  Lt  Litn  da  mh  vertui,  or  Lt  Trlior  dt  la 
alt  ^'  i"iti.  She  was  devoted  to  her  adopted  country. 
During  tbe  civil  wars  she  imii  i  LammUlimi  (1410]  and  a  live 
■See  C.  B.  Fetltol.  CeBttlion  nmHUt  du  mlMoiru  nlaliji  t 
■■  ■  '-•-  ' ■    •..aBdvi^Ilt9.&c)- 


41]).  biA  atter'tht'diuutera  of  tbe  ca 


i,  h  fo.  {i4i»-i4: 

ol  Agincourt  sbe  retired  to  a  ooovent.  We  liave  no  more  ol  hev 
work  tuiti]  ]4>9,  whan  the  bnkn  her  aiknce  to  write  a  aong 
in  bsoouT  of  Joan  of  Arc  Of  the  drcumstances  ol  her  death 
aoibing  ia  known  but  it  probably  took  placo  about  this  time^ 
Her  CiU  iet  iamet  contains  many  interesting  contemporary 
portraits,  and  hn  li'we  itt  Irnt  Nrins  contains  detaila  al 
domestic  life  in  tbe  France  of  the    early    15th    ontnry    not 


UWplied  b; 


esfTai 


i»  I18I 


■yfor 


I.  i«ss).  It  ii  p 


lani  MtT  FUai.  ed.  U 


by  PuKhel  (BcHia.  lUyi 
Tnomaw  (Psiia,  iB^};  I 

and  Frinlficb  Koch  (Coilai .„ , , , 

wbo  was  chronicler  of  France  under  Louii  XL,  wu  Chriniiie's 
grandson.     Koccleve  Imluted  bet  BpOn  ~     ■-      -- 
^-  Letter  of  Cupid  "  (Ctaixmn  ani  Mut  .  _«. 

1I97).     A  (nMlalioi.  of  her  £plU»  fOlUa  w_ „.  ..^, 

by  Stephen  Scrope  for  bit  Mepiatber,  Sir  John  FaMoU.  and  is  jn- 
vrved  In  a  MS.  at  Loogleat.  This  was  edited  (tWM)  fee  the  Roi- 
burglie  Ctab  by  W,  C.  V.  Warner  as  TU  EfiuU  tj  oam  If  HttUr, 
<••  Oe  Bull  c/  KiyOlluii.  Th,  Itmt  Pntcrbl  «/  Ciriilw  il 
Piu,  tnuUted  by  Earl  Rivna,  wai  printed  in  rajS  by  U«on, 
■bo  himself  tian^led,  by  order  ol  Heniy  VII.,  her  J,iwt  ia  biU 
tarmn,  a  it  ckatUnt,  a  ueuiie  on  Ibe  act  of  war,  bated  chictlT 
on  Veielius.    Her  CM  ia  immtM  vu  tiamUtgd  by  Brian  Anilay 

PIIANI,  VnTOR  [d.  13*0).  Venetian  lutoiiral.  was  In  command 
of  Ibe  Venetian  9eel  in  1378  during  [he  war  against  tbe  Genoese, 
wbooi  he  defeated  oH  Capo  d'Auio;  subsequently  be  rttsptucid 
Cattaro,  Sebenico  and  Arbe,  which  had  been  seised  by  tho 
Hnngsrisns,  the  aDiea  of  tbe  Genoese.  But  tbe  Goloe*  SMt 
completely  defeated  Fisani  al  Pcla  in  May  i}79.  and  on  bis  mum 

home  their  victory,  and  tiesieged  and  captured  Chloggia,  wboeby 
Venice  itidf  was  in  danger.  The  people  thereupon  demanded 
tbe  liberation  of  Fisani.  in  whose  ikill  they  had  the  fuBcat  cun- 
fidence.  The  government  gave  way  and  appointed  the  aged 
commander  admiral  of  tbe  Ocel  once  more.  Tbrougb  his  able 
Blrategy  and  daring  he  recaptured  Chioggia,  defeated  the  Genoese 
and  threatened  Genoa  itself  until  tbat  republic  agreed  10  peace 
terras.  Pisani  died  in  i]9o  while  on  his  way  to  Manfrcdonla 
with  a  squadron  to  ship  provisions. 

S«  Viiiorio  Lanarini.  "  La  morte  a  11  monunHnto  di  Vettor 
IS»ni."  in  Ibe  NuBai  arckma  fade,  vol.  ll.,  pc.  ii.  (1896). 

PtEAHO,  AITDRRIi,  alio  known  as  Ahdkea  ba  PoHTunu 
(c.  iijo-i  143),  Italian  sculptor,  was  bom  about  1170,  and  llrst 
learned  (he  trade  of  a  goldunith.    He  became  a  pupil  ol  Gioraoni 


64S 


PISANO,  G,— PKANO,  M. 


three  miM-Iamed  bcimie  doon  of  the  Floccaiinc  btptulny. 
tbceuliettDne — ihUantheuuitiiide — ttuihevoikof  Andna; 
h<  tpeot  D1U17  yun  on  iti  And  it  wai  linjJlv  set  up  in  1536.^  ll 
CODiiili  ol  D  numba  of  amiilt  quslntliil  jmnda — the  tDvet  eight 
CentuniDg  UD^le  fiflum  ot  the  Vircoes,  gnd  the  rat  uenei  f roiD 
the  LiEe  ot  the  BapliBt.  Andrtf  PifiOno,  while  living  ia  FlonncD, 
llu  pioduced  rnnny  impartwit  •roiiij  oI  mnrble  acotptun,  ill 

probably  they  were  ictuaJiy  deii^oed  hy  that  artist,  is,  for  in- 
•luce,  the  double  band  ol  bcnuiiful  pancl-nlicls  which  Andres 
flKcuted  for  the  great  carapanilc.  Tiie  uibjecta  of  IheK  irt  lb* 
Foot  Gicat  Fnpheti,  the  Seven  Vinun,  the  Seven  Sicnmenti, 
Ihc  Seven  Woilu  of  Merry  and  the  Seven  Fluetl.    The  duomo 


muted  ti 


alhedi 


10  of  Orvi 


whkh  hid  already  been  daigntd  and  begun  by  Imenio  Mn 

The  eiact  di.te  of  hli  death  it  cot  knoicn,  hi 

fhorlly  before  ihB  year  ij^Q. 

Andrea  Fbina  hil  two  ma.  Nino  and  To 
■By  Ibe  former,  tculpton  of  cofwdenhic  ab 


d  Hfi  ( 


.-a 


of  human  feeiiiu  ai 

Ihe  CilhalH:  ideal  of ,-,..     - 

Andrea  di  Cionc.  tvllcr  known  at  Otcsgiu  (g.c.].  Balduccio  di 
F\n.  anolhtr,  and  in  one  branch  (iliat  of  •culptuii)  equollt  jri'tod 
pucil.  eucuted  Ihe  nwideiful  ihrinf  of  S.  EuiiorgiD  at  M^mi— 
a  no«  majBiftccBt  man  of  aculptured  bf  uiea  and  relklk. 

PISAHO,  OfOVAHIfl  (c.  iisnjsa},  Italian  architect  and 
iculptor,  wu  the  ion  ol  Niccola  FJBUO.  Together  «ilh  Amollo 
dd  CanbiD  >ad  otiier  pupils,  he  developed  and  extended  into 
olba  pan*  of  Italy  Ibe  nniisuoM  of  (cutpture  which  in  the 
nain  ma  due  to  Ua  fathec'i  Ulent.  After  he  had  ipcnl  the 
fint  part  of  hit  life  al  hopte  aa  a  pu[ul  and  fcUow  voiker  ot 


Pan  of  Ike  toat.  of  Benedicl  XI,  by  Ciovanid  Piaaaa. 
Niccola,  the  younger  Piuno  nat  lumnwned  beineen  117a  and 
ti;4  to  Napln,  where  be  worked  foi  Charlea  ef  Adjou  dq  the 
Cajlel  Nuovo.  One  of  bi>  eiuliat  independent  petfonnanccs  was 
the  Campo  Santo  at  PUa,  6niihed  about  1183;  along  with  Ihia  he 
eieculdl  various  plecdoftculpiureoverthe  main  door  an  d  inii  de 
Ihe  cloiiiet.  The  lichnt  in  dnign  of  all  hn  woiki  (finished 
about  11S&}  iain  the  cathedral  ol  Arena— a  magnificeni  marble 
U^  alUi  and  letcdos,  ademed  bolh  in  front  ajid  at  the  back 
irith  counlleis  ligutes  and  reliefs — noil  lyilluitntlvc  of  the  lives 
of  St  Grcgoiy  and  St  QooalOi  whoK  bones  are  enshiincd  there. 
The  actual  execution  ol  Ihls  wu  piDbably  wholly  Ibe  work  of  his 


'  of  the  n. 


■atheilral 


ceeded  Lorenso  Maitaoi,  «bo  went  to  Otvicto  to  build  the  les* 
amhitiona  but  equally  magnificent  duomo  which  had  juit  been 
founded  there.  Thedesfgncrfthegorgeousfacadeof  that  duomo 
lias  been  attributed  to  him,  but  il  ii  more  probable  thai  he  only 

*Tliidi*eaa*cdoar.  IJJOi  >eCm  tstbaorigiaal  wunodiL 


church  d  S.  Dommica  In  1)04,  hut  Ktde  at  tbcorigUlMmtiR 

remunt.  Tbenorth  ltBneep«,h*«tver,iliU<ooUiMW>btMti- 
ful  tomb  of  Benediei  XI.,  iriih  i  ilce^g  figun  of  Ik*  I»p«i 
guarded  by  angebwhodraw  aside  the  cnrtaJo.  Oaeof  Gionaait 

moat  beautiful  architectdnl  ■     '  

S.  Maria  della  Spina  (now  re] 


lU  Giovanni's  works,  but  eipedilly  ia  iba  pulpit  of  S.  i^ndietU 
ristoia,  eiccuged  ahout  1300.  Anothor  pulpit,  designid  ea  ihi 
same  linei,  wi«  made  by  hfan  for  the  nl<e  of  Ksa  Cilbtdnl 
between  1310  and  1311.  The  last  part  ol  Giovaanl's  life  via 
ipenl  at  Pralo.  near  Florence,  where  with  many  pupila  he  woittd 
at  the  cathedral  till  his  death  about  i  jjo. 

See  M.  Saneifindt,  Vhir  St  BiUarrItt  iti  Ctamaa  Kniw,  <tc 
(locul:  A.  Brach,  Wca<a  aiW  Ciatswri  iSiut  mtf  Ae  Jtuli*  ^ 
XIV.  }tiiiim<itBUi*  Siaa  {1904). 


.    Though  hi 


A  (c.  Tn)6-i>7g),  Italian  sculptor  a 


sS  hlmscU  Piia 


nPisa,  w 


son  of  "  Peir 
oubtful,  e 


:i>lly  u 


)lary  of  Sien 


irTird"a 


"  dc  Senii  "  appear*  10  be  a  conjectural  addition.  Anotla 
document  among  the  archives  o>  the  Sienese  Clthednl  caBi 
htm  son  of  "  Petrus  de  Apulia."  Most  modem  iiilera  accept 
the  latter  statement,  and  believe  thai  he  not  ontv  «9S  a  miive 
of  the  province  of  Apulia  In  louthem  Italy,  t 


nrly  InsI 


In  the  It 


of  sc 


older  writers,  prefer  to  accept  the  theory  of  Niece 
being  Tuscan,  suppose  that  be  *u  a  native  of  a  s 
called  Apulia  near  Lucta. 

EicepI  ihiough  his  works,  but  Utile  is  known  of  t 


oltbe 


of  Niccola'a  life. 


arlyaa,, 


wCutd 


'eb«ti! 


Naples  by  Frederick  II.,  to  do  work  in  Ibe  i 
del  I'Uovo.  This  fact  supports  the  theory  of  his  soutfaem  oricin. 
though  not  perhaps  very  strongly,  as,  some  years  befme,  Ibe 
Pisin  Bonannus  had  been  chosen  by  Ihe  Norman  king  as  tht 
sculptor  to  cut  one  of  the  bmnie  doors  for  Monreale  CathednL 
•here  it  stiQ  eiists.  The  earliest  existing  piece  of  seulplutt 
wbtdi  can  be  attributed  to  Niccola  is  a  beautiful  lelief  of  ibt 
Depo^tion  from  Ibe  Cross  In  the  tympanum  of  the  aicfa  of  a  side 
door  at  San  Marthio  at  Lucca;  it  is  remarkable  for  its  granid 
c<3inpo«tion  and  ddicate  linish  of  execution.  The  date  is  aboai 
1137.  In  1160,  as  an  incised  inKrlpltOD  records,  he  finished  Ihe 
marble  pulpit  for  Ihe  Piaan  faipilttery;  this  is  on  Ibe  whole  tic 


tof  hi 


•oris. 


keptu 


it  preKnu  that  oinous  oombinalioa  si 
ll  deiaila  which  i>  one  of  Ibe  cbaracn- 
lilKiLue  of  nortbeni  luly  1  thouth  »■■{ 
lb  in  rrlitf  and  in  the  round,  the  general 
t  sacribxd  to  thii.  bit  Ihe  aculpiaiT  ■ 
vbgle.    In  this  respect  ft  b  •upcrior  Is 


,_  _„  pdRt  01 

DciiiB  overloaded  wilh  Tcllefs  d 

.,- ,.— Adoration  ofllie  Magi,  the  fVewi 

the  Crucibxion  and  ttie  I>aonL    Tbeie  are  a 
three,  works  of  the  biAheir  beauty,  lad  a  wonderlul  ulvanCF  oi 
anything  of  the  sort  that  hod  beta  prrHlucfd  by  Kiccola'a  pnrV- 
ctBOIS.    The  drapery  jt  fnceruliy  arranged  in  broad  limple  ft^di: 

•Lately  boitty  of  the  Madonna  cnuid  hat^y  be  siifpaased.  Ttie 
panel  with  the  Adorvion  of  the  Magi  ii  perhaps  the  ooe  m  vh^ 
NiceolA's  stitdy  of  the  antique  u  nwn  apparent  (see  Ggim).  Tba 
veiled  and  diademed  figuie  of  the  Virgin  Molher,  nied  »  a 
■■■ — e.  iKalli  Ibe  Roman  Innoi  the  bead  of  JoHf 

iJ  Vuksn:  ^ile  the  ynithful  beauty  01  aa  < 
e  dignity  irf  a  Jupiter  are  suggeiud  by  Ihe  m 


Kaiiviry.il 


InibeTemi 


h  bchiad  he 


■  See  Scbulw,  0tafa(«l)r  <(r  XXHl  ■ 


PISANQ,  .V;-J'ISCICM,TURE 


*♦« 


■nd  kneeling  Jichtci  vI  thr  MicL    Ccruin  fieuEa  b  otlien  gf  tli« 
parvTt  UT  op  leu  drcply  imbuco  with  clagical  rmliDf. 

The  aeit  impoiUnl  »oik  of  \iccoIa  m  ditc  Is  Ihe  Ana  dj  Saa 
DtHDCDico,  in  the  dmich  at  Balogm  consecraled  Id  Out  uiol, 
wlio  died  in  1131.  Only  tit  main  part,  Ibc  ncluil  uicophicu 
coveted  nitb  iculptuied  cdiels  of  St  Dominic'i  Lfe,  is  the  woik 
o(  Xiccnb  and  his  ptipils.  The  sculptured  httt  ud  curved  nwf 
with  its  bnciful  anuimciiU  are  later  addiiioni.    TUi  "  Am  " 


Thx  Adoration 


f  the  Mo^,  o 


,  by  Nice 


J)  in  the  pul^t  or  thfi 


vaa  nude  wbeo  St  Dominic  was  canoniicd,  and  his  bones  uans- 
latedj  it  vas  finished  in  1J&7,  not  by  Niccola  himseifj  but  by  his 
pupils.  The  moat  magniScent,  though  not  the  moot  beautiful, 
sf  Niccola'i  works  is  Ihe  great  pulpit  in  Siena  calhedial  (iibS). 
It  Is  mu^  brger  than  that  at  Pisa,  though  somewhat  ^jirjiTjif  in 
genemi  design,  being  an  octagon  on  cusped  arches  and  coluiiuis> 
lis  stairs,  and  a  Urge  landing  at  Ihe  top,  with  carved  balusleis 
and  panels,  licb  with  semi-cla^ucal  foliage,  aia  an  addition  qf 
■bout  ijoo.  The  pulpit  ilseli  is  much  ovectoadcd  with  sculplurt, 
and  each  lelief  is  far  loo  oowdod  with  figures.  An  attempt  to 
sain  magnificence  of  eflect  has  dcsimyed  the  dignified  limplicity 
lor  fthich  the  eailier  pulpil  is  so  remarkable. 

Niccola *s  last  great  work  of  Bculplure  was  Ihe  fountain  In  ihe 
piiua  opposite  the  west  end  of  the  cathedral  at  Perugia,  Tliis 
u  a  series  of  basins  rising  one  above  another,  each  nith  sculplured 
bas-ieliefsi  it  was  begun  in  1174,  and  completed,  eicepi  tie 
topmost  basin,  which  is  of  biauie,  by  Niccola'i  son  and  pupil 
GiovannL  , 

Niccola  Ksano  was  not  only  pre-eminent  as  a  sculptor,  but 
vas  also  the  greatest  Italian  aichitecL  of  his  century;  he  designed 
A  number  of  very  important  buildings,  though  not  all  which 
mre  attributed  to  ijim  by  Vasan.  Among  those  now  txisiing 
Ihe  cbict  are  the  maio  part  of  the  cathedral  at  Flitoia,  the  church 
and  coijvenl  of  Su  Marghiaiia  at  Cartona,  and  Sta  TriniiA  at 
Florence,  The  church  of  Sant'  Antonio  at  Padua  has  also  been 
»ttribated  to  him,  but  without  reason.  Unfortunately  bis  archi- 
tectural works  have  In  most  caMs  been  much  illcred  and  toodem- 
iied.  Fnccota  was  ilao  a  skilled  engineer,  and  was  compelled 
;by  the  Flortotina  10  destroy  the  great  tower,  called  the  Cuanla- 
vwrlc,  whidi  overshadowed  the  baptistery  at  Floieoce,  and  had 
(ot  long  been  Ihe  scene  of  violent  eonllii-ts  between  the  Guelphl 
and  Chibellines.  Ha  managed  skiUully  »  that  it  should  fail 
'without  injuring  Ihe  baptistery,  Niccola  Pisano  died  at  Pisa 
!n  Ibeycar  1378,  leaving  his  son  Giovanni  a  worthy  successor  to 
his  gnat  talents  both  as  an  architect  and  sculpMr. 

Thoujli  his  imponance  aa  a  reviver  of  Ihe  old  Iraditloni  of 
beaoty  m  an  has  been  To  9omt  exlent  ^oggeTalcd  by  Vaiari,  yet 
It  it  pmbable  that  Nicmla.  nnre  than  any  other  one  aian,  wa*  the 
laeaQ*  ot  ataninf  thai  "  b«v  Unh  "  of  the  fiiaAtc  ans  whkdi.  in 
the  ycon  foUowing  hia  death,  waa  so  fanile  m  eounileaa  woriu  of 
the  nioft  unrivaUcd  beauty.  Both  Nictola  and  h^  Km  had  many 
pufrita  of  ginit  arthrtic  power,  and  tbeae  arrM  the  InAuence  of  the 
FiaBni  thrasfhoM  Tnaany  and  northem  Italy,  so  that  the  whe^e 
art  oj  thp  aucocednv  aeneraiioiia  may  km  md  to  have  owed  the 
greater  {art  of  it>  ra^  development  to  this  ooe  family. 

See  ScuLnuu,  and  geaeial  hiilaties  of  JtaUan  art;  Symonds, 


JaJirkundtrU  in  Suna  (StraadHU^  19iH). 
PISAHO,  VmORB  <c.  nio-nsi).  comnwnly  odlcii  Pm-; 
itiLLo,  Iiahan  medallist,  was  a  native  el  San  Vigilio  ml  Laga  ia 
ilie  tenitoiy  of  Verona.  Spacimena  of  his  iMtk  M  a  painter  at* 
still  eiunt  in  Rome,  Venice,  Verow  aad  PiMoi*.  ud  eMttle 
hhs  to  a  plate  of  foaw  dislinctkiii  ia  the  bistocy  of  that  ait. 
The  tJalional  Gallery  in  Loadoo  pataaei  «  vay  Am  qKdmia 
of  Piundlo's  work— a  paiwl  paioltd  with  oiBiaMroJikcdtlkBgr. 
During  the  laiia  purtion  of  hit  life  ho  lind  in  RoMe,  wbtn  b 

PIUDBUK  Imod.  Peaaio,  (.>.],  an  andcsl  town  of  Uadui*  as 
the  Via  FLimiaia,  >6  m.  bom  Arimfnun  and  S  iroD  Faana 
FeiluuB.  A  Koman  cslony  wm  founded  bett  in  the  lenitocjr 
of  tbo  Calli  Sensnealn  [g4  ■.&,  at  the  moulh  oi  tbedvtr PiiaiirM 
(mod.  Foglia;  the  sea  hw  uce  tlica  needed  about  kaif  a  aliM. 
Whether  ii  took  ihe  place  <^  to  tuliiir  lowaot  not,  iaaot  kaowsi 
an  importani  Gaulish  cemetety  ha*  been  dianniwd  our  Iba 
villageof  Novjlata  between  FiiauflUaaiMlFaniwi,  but  lowkichaf 
these  centra  (if  either)  il  beloBrd  is  BBcwIain  (£.  Brilio  In 
U«wimfiifHLuiui[iggj],v.  S5aqq.}.  Ini74B.c.weheai  that 
the  ceosora  built  a  temple  of  Jupiter  hoe  asd  paved  a  nmi. 
T.  Accius,  the  counsel  who  opposed  Cicero  in  Ihe  case  vhcti  ha 
defended  Ctuentitia  b  a  still  extant  speech,  wai  a  native  of  PfBaw- 
Catullus  refers  to  the  town  as  dec^deDt  or  unh^Ui^,  bat 


enlioned  by  dasacai  autlion. 


by  facts:  for  ills  not  infrequently  m 
It  was  occupied  by  Caesar  in  «  . 
under  [he  seccmd  triumviiate.  UcQce  it  bears  Ihe  name  Colonia 
Julia  Felix.  We  hear  little  of  it  under  the  empire-  Jl  waa 
deslroysd  by  the  Goths  in  sjq,  and  restored  by  Beliiaiiuain  54s. 
From  the  loscriptioDS,  neariy  loo  in  number,  an  Idea  of  Ibe  im- 
portance of  the  town  may  be  gained.  Among  Ihem  ate  a  group 
if  Upfi  lound  on  the  site  of  a  sacred  grove  of  the  matrons  ol 


xalli,  a: 


bndge  over  the 
place  for  the 


Pisaun     . 

probably  to  the  date  of  Ihe  f 

some  remaiDS  of  the  town 

Foglia.     Il  was,  like  Arii 

manufacture  of  bricks  and  pottery,  though  the  factories 

always  be  precisely  localiced. 

PDCBS  (the  fishes),  ia  uinmoioy,  lite  Iwelflh  sign 
zodiac  [j,s.),  represented  by  two  fishes  lied  tofielber  b 
tails  and  denoted  by  the  lymbol  X-  It  is 
mentioned  by  Eudoxus  (4th  century  a.c)sDd  Aratus  (jid ' 
I.e.);  »Bd  catalogued  by  Ptolemy  {38  stars),  Tycho  Brane  (]0j 
and  Ilcveliiis  (jfl).  1°  Greek  legend  Aphrodite  and  Eros,  while 
on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  was  suiprisied  by  Typlioa,  and 
tougfat  safety  by  Jumping  into  the  water,  whare  they  wen 
changed  into  two  fishes.  This  fable,  however,  ai  in  many  other 
sunllaj  cases,  is  probably  nothing  more  than  an  adaptation  of  an 
older ElsypLiaolale.  b  PiKiiim,isa  finedoublestarofmagnitude 
3  and  4;  is  PiuiuM,  is  another  double  slai,  Ihe  components 
being  a  while  star  of  the  Alh  magnitude  and  a  purjdlsh  star  of 

ifani  awmUi,  the  •oMhen  U,  (t  a  eoaBdlatlaa  ol  th* 
nudieni  bemiipheM^  meeaioiMd  by  EutVvva  and  Aiuui,  and  qua* 
logucd  by  Ploleitly.  who  deicrihcd  iS  •tan.  The  most  imponanl 
(tar  is  1  fi>ii>  aiuhalii  or  Fonulhaul.  a  ttar  ol  Ihe  Gnt  ouipitudt, 

Piicffl  woians,  Ihe  flying  fish;  Is  a  new  conileUation  iotroductii 
by  Jslu  Bayer  in  1603. 

PISCICULTDRS  (from  Lat,  j 
fish  which  can  be  kept  successful!: 
lives  fcom  egg  to  adult  is  exceedingly  limilcd  in  number.  The 
various  breeds  of  goldfish  are  familiar  examples,  hut  the  carp 
is  almost  the  only  food-fish  capable  of  similar  domestication. 
Various  other  fuod-fishes,  both  msnnc  and  fresh-water,  can  be 
kept  Id  ponds  for  longer  or  shorter  pericxlB,  but  refuse  to  breed, 
while  in  other  cases  the  fry  obtained  from  captive  bleeders  will 
not  develop.  Consequently  there  ate  two  main  typa  of  piaci- 
cullore  to  be  distinguished;  (1)  the  rearing  in  confinemcnf 
of  young  Eshes  to  an  edible  stage,  and  (a)  the  stockii^  ol 
saluial  walen  arilh  eggi  or  fry  from  captured  breeden, 


650 


PrSClCULTURJE 


Piik-ftttring.—Oi  the  fint  type  of  pisdoilture  there  are  few 
examples  of  commercial  importance.  The  pond-culiure  of 
carp  is  an  important  industry  in  China  and  Germany,  and  has 
been  intzoduoed  with  some  success  in  the  United  States,  but 
hi  Engfauid  it  has  long  fallen  out  of  use,  and  is  not  likely  to  be 
Kvfved  so  long  as  fresh  fish  can  be  obtained  and  distributed  so 
readily  as  is  now  the  case.  Other  examples  are  to  be  found  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  lagoons  of  the  Adriatic,  and  of  the  salt- 
marshes  of  various  parts  of  France.  Here,  as  in  andent  Greece 
and  Rome,  it  is  the  practke  to  admit  young  fish  from  the  sea 
by  sluices,  into  artificial  enclosures  or  "  viviers/'  and  to  keep 
them  there  until  they  are  large  enou^  to  be  \faed.  An  in- 
teresting modification  of  this  method  of  cxiltivation  has  been 
introduced  into  Denmark.  The  entrances  to  the  mner  lagoons 
of  the  Limfjord  are  naturally  blocked  against  the  immigration 
of  flatfish  by  dense  growths  of  sea-grass  iZoslera),  ahhoug^ 
the  outer  lagoons  it  annually  i&vaded  by  large  numbers  of 
small  plaice  from  the  North  Sea.  The  fishermen  of  the  dis- 
tfia  coose<iuently  combined  to  defray  the  expenses  of  tranfr- 
fdanting  large  numbers  of  small  plaice  from  the  outer  waters 
to  the  inner  lagoons,  where  they  were  found  to  thrive  far  better 
than  in  their  natural  habitat.  The  explanation  has  been  shown 
by  Dr  PeterBen  to  be  due  to  the  abundance  of  food,  coupled 
with  the  lack  of  overcrowding  of  the  small  fish.  This  tnuis- 
phmtation  of  plaice  in  Denmark  has  been  annuaOy  repeated 
for  several  years  with  the  most  successful  results,  and  a  suitable 
subvention  to  the  cost  is  now  an  annual  charge  upon  the  govem- 
■Mnt  funds* 

As  a  result  of  the  intematlonat  North  Sea  fisheiy  investiaations, 
it  has  been  proposed  to  extend  the  aame  prindole  (or  the  develop- 
meat  of  the  deep  sea  fishery  in  the  neignbournDod  of  the  Dci«er 
Bank.  Experiments  with  labelled  [4aice,  carried  out  in  I9e4l>y 
the  Marine  Biological  Association,  snowed  that  small  plaice  trans- 
planted to  the  Dogger  Bank  in  spring  grew  three  times  as  rapidly 
as  those  on  the  inshore  grounds,  and  the  same  result,  wito  in- 
lignificant  variations,  has  been  obtained  by  similar  experiments 
in  each  succeeding  year.  In  this  case  the  dciep  water  round  the 
Dogger  Bank  acts  as  a  barrier  to  the  emigration  of  the  small  plaice 
from  the  shores.  It  has  consequently  been  proposed  that  the  small 
pbice  should  be  transplanted  in  millions  to  ttie  Bank  by  well  vessels 
every  spring.  It  is  claimed,  as  a  further  result  of  the  experiments, 
that  from  May  to  October  the  young  fish  would  be  practic&Uy  free 
pn  the  shallow  part  of  the  Bank  from  the  risk  of  premature  capture 
by  trawlers,  and  that  the  increased  value  of  the  fish,  consequent 
opon  their  phenomenal  growth-rate,  would  greatly  exceed  the  cost 
of  transplantation. 

.  The  methods  of  oyster-  and  mussel-culture  are  nmilar  in  principls 
to  those  just  described.  A  breeding  stock  is  maintained  to  supply 
the  i^und,  or  the  "  collectors,"  with  spat,  and  the  latter,  when 
safRaently  grown,  is  then  transplanteci  to  the  most  favourable 
feeding-grounds,  care  being  taken  to  avoid  the  local  over-crowding 
whidi  is  so  commonly  observed  among  shell-fish  under  naturau 
oonditioas. 

PUk^kalcking.'^Tht  second,  and  inore  familiar,  type  of 
pisdcultttre  is  that  known  as  fish-hatching,  with  v^ich  must 
be  associated  the  various  methods  of  artifidal  propagation. 

The  fertilization  of  the  spawti  is  very  easily  effected.  The 
eggs  are  collected  either  by  "  stripping  "  them  from  the  mature 
adult  immediately  alter  capture,  or  by  keying  the  adults 
ahve  until  they  are  ready  to  spawn,  and  then  stripping  them 
or  by  keeping  them  in  reservoirs  of  sea-water  and  aUowing 
(hem  to  i|>awn  of  their  own  accord.  In  the  two  former  cases 
a  little  milt  is  allowed  to  fall  from  a  male  fish  into  a  vessel  con- 
^ining  a  small  quantity  of  water — fresh  or  salt  as  required — 
and  the  eggs,  are  pressed  from  the  female  fish  into  the  same 
vessel.  In  fresh-water  culture  the  eggs  thus  fertilized  may  be 
at  once  distributed  to  the  waters  to  be  stocked,  or  they  may  be 
kept  In  special  receptacles  provided  with  a  suitable  stream  of 
water  untfl  the  try  are  hatched,  and  then  distributed,  or  again 
they  may  be  reared  in  the  hatchery  for  several  months  untH 
the  fry  are  active  and  hardy. 

The  hatching  of  eggs,  whether  of  fresh-water  or  salt-water 

^fishes,  presents  no  serious  difficulties,  if  suitable  apparatus  is 

employed;  but  the  resting  of  fry  to  an  advanced  stage,  without 

serious  losses,  is  less  easy,  and  in  the  case  of  sea-fishes  with 

pelagic  eggs,  the  larvae  of  which  are  exceedingly  small  and 


tender,  b  StiB  an  tmaolved  problem,  althooi^  recent  woik, 
carried  out  at  the  Plymouth  laboratory  of  the  Marine  "Bkh 
logical  Association,  is  at  least  promising.  It  has  been  found 
possible  to  grew  pure  cultures  of  various  diatoms,  and  by  ieedisi 
these  to  delicate  larvae  kept  in  sterilized  sea-water,  great  suc- 
cesses have  been  attained.  In  fresh-water  culture  little  ad^in- 
tage,  if  any,  has  been  found  to  result  from  artificial  hatdun^ 
unless  this  b  followed  by  a  successful  period  of  rearing.  Thus 
the  Howietown  Fishery  Company  recommend  their  custODcn 
to  stock  their  streams  either  with  unhatched  ova  or  with  three- 
month-old  fiy.  Their  experience  is  "  that  there  is  bo  hall-Arsy 
house  between  ova  sown  in  redds  and  three-month-oU  fry. 
Younger  fry  may  do,  but  only  where  ova  would  do  as  wdl,  and 
at  half  the  cost."  In  marine  hatcheries,  on  the  other  hsBd, 
it  is  the  invariable  practice  to  hatch  tbe  eggs,  although  the 
fry  have  to  be  put  into  the  sea  at  the  moat  critical  period  of 
their  lives.  If  it  is  a  risky  matter  to  plant  out  the  uAtaA 
young  fry  of  trout  under  an  age  of  three  months,  it  woukl  seem 
to  be  an  infinitely  more  speculative  proceedhtg  to  plant  out 
the  delicate  week-old  larvae  of  sea-fishes  in  an  environment 
which  teems  with  predaceons  enemies. 

Okftfis  and  Utility  oj  Pith-katckeries.—Tht  earlier  advocates 
of  artificial  prepagation  and  fish-hatching  seem  to  have  been 
under  the  impression  that  the  thousands  of  fry  resulting  fnaa 
a  ain^e  act  of  artifidal  propagation  meant  a  corrc^Mtading 
increase  in  the  numbers  of  edible  fish  when  once  they  had  beea 
deposited  in  stutable  waters;  and  also  that  artificial  fertilisation 
ensured  a  greater  proportion  of  fertih'zcd  eggs  than  the  natural 
process.  For  the  second  of  these  propositions  there  is  no  evi- 
dence, while  the  first  proposition  is  now  everywhere  discredited. 
It  is  recognized  that  the  great  fertility  of  fishes  is  natureV 
provision  to  meet  a  high  mortafity-^-greater  in  sea-fishes  with 
minute  pelagic  eggs  than  in  fresh-water  fishes  with  larger-yolked 
eggs,  partly  because  of  the  greater  risks  of  marine  pela|^  Be, 
and  partly  because  of  the  greater  delicacy  of  marine  larvse 
at  the  time  of  hatching.  ArtSfidally  propagated  eggs  and  fry 
after  planting  ihust  submit  to  the  same  mortality  as  the  otha 
eggs  and  fry  around  them.  Consequently  it  is  useless  to  plant 
out  eggs  or  fry  unless  In  numbers  sufficient^  great  to  app^^ 
dably  increase  the  stock  of  eggs  and  fry  already  existing. 

It  is  this,  combined  always  wfth  the  suitability  of  the  ex- 
ternal conditions,  whidi  accounts  fbr  the  success  of  the  best 
known  experiments  of  American  pisciculturists.  The  artifi- 
cially propagated  eggs  of  the  shad  from  the  eastern  rivers  of 
the  United  States  were  planted  fat  those  of  Califomhi  and  the 
Mississippi,  where  the  species  did  not  natxirally  occur.  The 
conditions  were  suitable,  and  the  species  became  at  once  accli- 
matized. Similarly  reservoirs  and  streams  can  be  stocked 
with  various  kinds  of  fish  not  previously  present.  But  in  the 
case  of  indigenous  spedes  the  breeding  stock  most  be  very 
seriously  reduced  before  the  addition  of  the  eggs  or  fry  of  a 
few  score  or  hundreds  of  fish  can  appreciably  increase  the  k)cil 
stock. 

In  the  case  of  sea-fishes  ft  is  becoming  increasingly  recog- 
nized that  the  mSllioAs  of  cod  fry  which  are  annually  tuxned  oat 
of  the  American,  Newfoundland  and  Norwegian  hatcheries 
arc  but  an  insignificant  fraction  of  the  billions  of  fry  which  sre 
natural^  produced.  A  single  female  cod  liberates,  according 
to  its  size,  from  one  to  five  million  eggs  in  a  single  season.  Yet 
the  annual  output  of  fry  from  each  of  these  hatcheries  rardy 
exceeds  200  millions,  i.e.  the  natural  product  of  a  few  hundred 
cod  at  most.  In  Britain  marine  hatcheries  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  Fishery  Board  for  Scotland  hi  the  bay  of  Nigg* 
near  Aberdeen,  by  the  Lancashire  Sea  Fisheries  Committee  at 
Peel,  and  by  the  government  of  the  Isle  of  Man  at  Port  Erio. 
These  estabiisluaents  have  been  principally  devoted  to  the 
hatching  of  the  eggs  of  plaice.  But  again  the  maximun  ovst- 
put  of  fry  from  any  one  of  these  establishments  has  not  exceeded 
40  millions  In  any  single  year.  As  a  sin^  female  plaioe 
produces  aboat  soo,ooo  eggs  per  annum,  this  oatpat  docs  not 
exceed  the  natural  produce  of  a  few  hundred  fish.  Under  these 
cfrcumstances  the  probable  utility  of  the  operations  could  be 


MSdNA^PISIDIA 


65  r 


tdnnHf^  oaly  if  the  liy  mn  MdtHUiy  and  coiddbe  pkated 
ia  sbiuUe  loftitif  where  young  fish  mn  m^maiSfy  ecane. 
But  the  try  daft  with  the  cuxxents  as  helplessly  at  the  eggs, 
aiKi  the  a  priori  ohjections  to  the  utflky  of  the  operationB  have 
ia  ao  caae  been  met  hj  evidenoe  of  tangiHw  tanltai  The 
plaice  fiy  hatched  ia  the  Scottish  fstahKthmfnt  have  been  dis- 
tributed iof  maoy  yean  in  the  watecs  of  Loch  F^ne.  Yet  in 
this  area,  acoofdiag  to  the  iovcatigatiana  of  llr  Wflhanison 
(RiP«a  ol  the  Scottish  Fishoy  Boaxd  for  1898),  acady  500 
millions  of  plaioe  eggs  are  natunlly  produced  in  one  spawning 
season.  Evidence  is  stiU  Ucksng  as  to  whether  the  so  to  50 
fflilUon  fry  annually  added  fR>m  the  hatchery  have  *ppie< 
ciably  increased  the  quantities  of  young  plaioe  on  the  sutroundr 
ing  shores.  Supposing  this  could  be  established,  the  question 
would  still  remain  whtf^icr  the  same  icault  could  not  be  obtained 
at  £sr  leas  eipense  by  dlipmM'ng  with  the  hatching  opciationa 
and  distributing  the  eggs  direct^  after  fertilizatioii. 

In  the  United  Statea  the  utility  of  the  ood^iatching  opera* 
tions  has  been  constantly  asserted  by  reprrsgatsffvea  of  the 
Bureau  of  Fisheries,  but  practicaUy  the  only  evidence  adduced 
ia  tbeoccasional  appcaianoe  of  unusual  numbeis  of  cod  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  has  not  been  established  that  the  flactua- 
Uona  in  the  local  cod  fisherifa  bear  any  fixed  relation  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  hatdiing  operations,  while  the  earlier  reports  of  the 
(^^yim{«^iii«mw  of  Fisheries  contain  evidence  that  similar  fluctu** 
ations  occurred  before  the  hatrhing  of  "fish  commission 
cod"  had  begun. 

The  aitoation.may  be  summed  up  in  the  wooda  of  Mr  Fkyer, 
H.M.  Supeiiniending  Inspector  of  Fisheries,  who  critlodly 
examined  the  evidence  bearing  upon  the  opetationa  of  the 
Newfoundland  Hatchery  at  Dildo  (Reports  x.-xiL  of  the 
Inspectors  of  Sea  Fi^ieries,  £.  &  W.):  "Where  the  cstab- 
fiahment  of  a  hatchery,  even  on  the  smallfst  scale,  is  followed 
by  an  increased  take  of  fish,  there  is  a  tendency  to  connect 
(he  two  aa  cause  and  effect  on  insu£kient  evidence,  and 
withoot  any  tegard  to  the  maqy  conditions  which  have  always 
led  to  ifayictuations  in  the  case  of  any  particular  kind  of  fish." 

The  most  exact  investigations  bearing  upon  this  problem  are 
those  which  have  been  recently  undertaken  in  Norway  in  con- 
aexioa  with  the  cod*hatcliing  operations  at  Arendal  under 
f^m^f  f«  Danncvig.  Four  fjords  were  selected  in  the  sooth 
coast  of  Norway  in  proximity  V^  the  hatchery,  and  the  usual 
number  of  by  (10-30  millions)  were  planted  in  the  q>ring  ia 
^t^cnate  fjcvds*  leaving  the  intermediate  Qoids  uasupplied. 
The  relative  number  of  young  cod  in  the  various  fjords  was 
then  carefully  investigated  throughout  the  succeeding  summer 
and  autumn  months.  It  was  found  that  there  waa  no  relation 
between  the  abundance  of  young  fish  and  the  pnsence  or  ab- 
wtnet  of  "  artificial "  fry.  In  1904, 33  million  fry  were  planted 
in  Sondelefjord  and  young  fish  were  exceptionally  abundant 
In  the  following  autumn  (three  times  as  abundant  as  in  1903 
when  no  fry  were  planted).  But  their  abundance  was  equally 
^rffcii^  in  other  fjords  in  which  no  fry  had  been,  planted, 
while  in  1905  all  the  fjords  were  deficient  in  yoong  cod  whether 
they  had  been  planted  with  fiy  from  the  hatchery  or  noL 

For  a  summary  of  these  in^nestigations  see  papers  on  **  Artifidad 
F^h-hatchiagMn  Norway,"  by  Captain  Dannevig  and  Mr  Dahl« 
in  the  Jltfort  of  the  Lancashire  Sea  Fisheries  Labofateiy  for  1906 
(Liverpool,  I907)< 

It  wouU  thus  seem  dear  that  the  attempts  hidierto  made  to 
hKBease  tlm  supply  of  sea^fish  by  artificial  hatrhing  hava  been 
imaacoessfuL  llie  experieaoe  gained  has  doubtlos  not  been 
wa^ad,  but  the  directwn  to  be  taken  by  future  woA  is  plain. 
The  energy  and  money  devoted  to  hatrhing  opentions  shouU 
be  diverted  to  the  serious  attempt  to  discover  a  means  of  rearing 
on  a  laige  scale  the  just>hatched  fry  of  the  more  sedentary 
species  to  a  sturdy  adolescence^  When  that  haa  been  done  (it 
lias  been  achieved.by  the  present  writer  in  the  case  of  the  sea 
fiah  CdHu  with  demciaal  eggs,)  it  would  be  poamble  to  deposit 
the  young  fish  in  suitable  localities  on  a  hixge  scale,  with  a 
laaeonable  prospect  of  influencing  the  local  abundance  of  the 
species  of  fish  in  question. 


For  further  detaOs,  aee  J.  T.  CaimiMham,  Hatmti 
t  MarkdatU  Marim  Fishes  of  the  BriUsk  Isiawds  (Londoa.  ite6)~s 
A  Moane/tff  Fish-CuUufe  (Washington,  1897^;  Roch^  La  CtMun 


its  men  (Pbis,  1896);  W.  Gantang,  Expenments  en  the  Tmms' 
fUmtahm^  Marked  Flake  (Firtt  Report  of  the  North  Sea  Faherica 
iBvcstigatioa  Comiaittrr,  1905)*  (W.  Ga.) 

PBGOIA*  a  Latin  word  first  Mpgiied  to  a  fish-pond,  and  later 
used  for  any  pool-of  water  for  bathhigt  fto,  c^her  natural  or 
artificial,  and  also  for  a  tank  or  reservoir.  In  errlfiiastiral 
usage  the  tenn  was  given  to  a  shaOow  stone  basin  (the  French 
CMcMf)  pUced  near  the' alter  in  a  ^urcl,  with  dndns  to  take 
away  the  water  used  in  the  aUutions  at  the  mass.  "  Piscinae  " 
seem  at  first  to  have  been  mere  caps  or  small  barins^  supported 
on  perforated  stems,  placed  dose  to  the  wall,  and  afterwards  to 
have  been  recessed  therein  and  covered  with  niche  heads*  which 
often  nwifaincd  ahelvcs  to  serve  as  aumbries.  They  are  rare 
m  F.ngland  till  the  13th  century,  after  which  there  is  scarcely  an 
altar  without  one.  They  frequently  take  the  form  of  a  double 
niche^  with  a  shaft  between  the  arched  heads*  whidi  are  oftco 
filled  with  ehOiocate  (rsdng. 

PISBK,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  55  m.  S.  of  Prague  by  niL  Bop. 
(1900),  r  j,6o8,  mostly  Czech.  It  lies  on  the  right  hank  of  fhe 
WotUwa,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  intersstiag  stone  bridge 
of  great  antiquity.  The  most  pronnnent  buikUngs  are  the 
church  of  the  Narivity,  the  town^hall,  and  a  castle  dating  from 
the  15th  century.  The  industries  axe  iron  and  brass  founding, 
brewing,  and  the  mannfartwre  of  shoes,  paper,  cement  and 
l^urkiah  feses.  FIddspar,  quarts  and  granite  are  quarried  ia 
theenvuons.  The  name  of  Piaekt  which  isttheCsech  for  sand,  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  the  goid^washing  fonaeriy  carried  oa 
m  the  bed  of  the  WotUwa  (x57i--i62i). 

In  ^19  it  was  captured  by  the  imperialist  geaetal,  Kaii 
Bonavcntura  de  Longiieval,  Gnf  von  Bnqnoy,  and  suffned  so 
severely  that  the  dtiaena  opened  their  gates  to  his  opponent, 
Ernst  von  Mansield.  This  waa  punished  in  October  of  the 
following  year,  when  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  aacked  the 
town  and  put  nearly  all  the  hahaUtsnts  to  the  sword.  Pisek 
was  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  the  Hussites.'  It  was  oouined 
by  the  French  in  1741. 

PISIIMA*  in  ancient  geography,  th^  name  given  to  a  country 
in  the  south  of  Asia  Minor,  immediately  north  off  Pam|Aylia 
by  which  it  was  separated  from  the  Mediterranean,  while  it 
was  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Phiygia,  on  the  £.  by  Lycaonia, 
Isauria  and  Cflida,  and  on  the  W.  and  S.W.  fay  Lyda 
and  a  part  of  Phrygia.  It  was  a  rugged  and  mountainoua  dis- 
trict, comprismg  aome  of  the  loftiest  portions  <rf  the  great  range 
of  Mt  Taurus,  together  with  the  offshoots  of  the  same  chsjii 
towards  the  centrd  t«d>le-land  of  Phrygia.  Such  a  region  was 
naturally  occupied  from  a  very  early  period  by  wild  and  lawless 
races  of  mountaineers,  who  were  very  imperfectly  reduced  to 
subjectkm  by  the  powers  that  succesrivdy  established  their 
dominion  in  Asia  Minot.  The  Pisidians  are  not  mentioned  by 
Herodotus,  either  among  the  nations  that  were  subdued  by 
Croesus,  or  among  those  that  furnished  contingents  to  the  army 
of  Xeixes,  and  the  first  mention  of  them  in  hlstoiy  occurs  in 
the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon,  when  they  furnished  a  pretext  to  the 
younger  Cyrus  for  levying  the  army  with  which  he  designed  to 
subvert  hte  brother's  throne,  whBe  he  pretended  only  to  put 
down  the  Piridiaos  who  were  continually  harassing  the  neigh- 
bouring nations  by  their  htwlcss  forays  (Anab.  1.  x,  ix;  iL  1,  4. 
ftc.).  They  are  afterwards  mentioned  frequently  by  later 
writers  among  the  inland  lutlons  of  Asia  Minor,  and  assume  a 
more  prominent  part  in  the  history  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to 
whose  flsarch  through  their  country  they  opposed  a  deter< 
mined  resistance.  In  Strabo's  time  they  had  passed  uiuler 
the  Roman  dominion,  though  stiU  governed  by  their  own  petty 
chiefs  and  retaining  to  a  considerable  extent  their  predatory 
habits  (giving  rise  to  such  wars  as  that  carried  on  by  Quirinius, 
about  8~6  BX.). 

The  boundaries  of  Pisidia,  like  those  of  most  of  the 
inland  provinces  or  regions  of  Aria  Minor,  were  not  dearty 
defined,  and  appear  to  have  fluctuated  at  different  times.  This 
waa  espedaUy  the  case  on  the  ride  of  Ljrda,  where  the  upland 


6sa 


PISO— PISSARRO 


dktiict  of  Milyas  wu  toiiKtiraes  indnded  in  Flsidk,  ftt  otlicr 
times  assigned  to  Lyda.  Some  writers,  indeed,  considered  the 
Plsidians  as  the  same  people  with  the  Milyans,  wiiile  othen 
regarded  tliem  as  descendants  of  the  Solsrmi,  but  Strabo  speaks 
of  the  language  of  the  Pisidians  as  di^inct  from  that  of  the 
Solymi,  as  veil  as  from  that  <rf  the  Lydians.  The  «3iofe  of 
Fi^dia  is  an  elevated  rtiffxm.  of  tablelands  or  upland  vatteys  in 
the  midst  of  the  ranges  oi  Mt  Taurus  which  descends  abruptly 
on  the  side  of  Pamphylia.  It  contains  several  small  lakes,  and 
two  of  large  siae,  Bey-^hdier  Lake,  the  andent  Karalis,  and 
the  double  lake  now  called  the  Egerdir  Oeul,  of  which  the  andent 
name  was  Limaai.  The  latter  is  a  fresh-water  lake  of  about 
30  m.  in  length,  situated  in  the  north  of  Pisidia  on  the  frontier 
of  Phrygia,  at  an  elevation  of  3007  ft.  Karalis  is  a  larger 
body,  also  of  fresh  water,  and  at  a  distinctly  hi^er  levd  above 
the  sea.  The  only  rivers  of  importance  are  the  Cestrus  and 
the  £iuymedon,  both  of  which  take  their  rise  in  the  highest 
ranges  of  Mt  Taurus,  and  flow  down  through  deep  and  narrow 
valleys  to  the  plain  of  Pamphylia,  which  th^r  traverse  on  their 
way  to  the  sea. 

Notwithstanding  its  rugged  and  mountainous  character, 
Piadia  contained  in  ancient  times  several  considerable'  towns, 
the  ruins  of  Whidi  have  been  brought  to  light  by  the  re- 
searches of  recent  travdlers  (AnindeU,  Hamilton,  Danidl,  G. 
Hirschfeld,  Radet,  Stenett,  Lanckoronski,  Ramsay,  &c),  and 
show  them  to  have  attained  under  the  Roman  Empire  to  a  degree 
of  opulence  and  prosperity  far  beyond  what  we  should  have 
looked  for  in  a  country  of  predatory  mountaineers.  The  most 
in^)0ctant  of  them  are  TermeaBus,near  the  frontier  of  Lyda,  a 
strong  fortress  in  a  position  of  great  natural  strength  and 
commanding  one  of  the  prindpal  passes  into  Pamphylia; 
Cremoa,  another  mountain  fortress,  north  of  the  preceding, 
impending  over  the  valley  of  the  Cestrus;  Sagalassos,  a  little 
farther  north,  a  large  town  in  a  strong  position,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  among  the  most  remarkable  in  Asia  Minor;  Sdge,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Eorymedon,  surrounded  by  nigged  moux»- 
tains,  notwithstanding  which  it  was  in  Strabo's  time  a  largo  and 
opulent  dty;  and  Antioch,  known  for  distinction's  sake  as 
Antiocfa  of  Pisidia,  and  cdebrated  for  the  visit  of  St  PauL  This 
was  situated  in  the  extreme  north-«ast  of  the  district  imme- 
diatdy  on  the  frontier  of  Phrygia,  between  Lake  Egerdir  and 
the  range  of  the  SuUan  Dagh  and  was  reckoned  in  the  Greek 
and  earlier  Roman  period,  e.g.  by  Strabo,  as  a  dty  of  Phrygia. 
; '  Besides  these  there  were  situated  in  the  rugged  mountain 
tract  west  of  the  Cestrus  Cretopolb,  (Hbasa,  Pogla,  Isinda, 
Etenna  and  Comanuu  Pednelisns  was  in  the  upper  vaUey 
of  the  Eurymedon  above  Selge.  The  oidy  place  in  the  district 
at  the  present  day  deserving  to  be  called  n  town  is  Isbarta,  the 
residence  of  a  pasha;  it  stands  at  the  northern  foot  of  the 
main  mass  of  Mt  Taurus,  looking  over  a  vnde  and  fertile  plain 
which  extends  up  to  the  northern  chain  of  Taurus.  North  of 
this  and  immediately  on  the  borders  of  Phrygia  stood  Apottonia, 
called  also  Mordiaeum.  Large  estates  in  Pisidia  and  the 
adjoining  parts  of  Phrygia  belonged  to  the  Roman  emperors; 
and  their  administration  has  been  investigated  by  Ramsay  and 
Others. 

We  have  no  due  to  the  ethnic  character  and  rdations  of 
the  Pisidiana,  except  that  we  learn  from  Strabo  that  they  were 
distinct  from  the  neighbouring  Solymi,  who  were  probably  a 
Semitic  race,  but  we  find  mention  at  an  early  period  in  these 
mountain  districts  of  various  other  tribes,  as  the  Cabali,Mtlyans, 
ftc,  of  all  which,  as  well  as  the  neighbouring  Isaurians  and 
Lycaonians,  the  origin  is  wholly  unknown,  and  the  absence  of 
monuments  of  thdr  hinguages  must  remain  so.  A  few  short 
PisSdian  inscriptions  have  been  pubUshed  by  Ramsay  in  Revme 
des  itudet  onektmes  (1895,  ppw  353-*363).  No  inscriptions  in  these 
other  bnguages  are  known.  (W.  M.  Ra.) 

PISO.  the  name  of  a  distinguished  Roman  plebeian  family 
of  the  Calpomiaa  gens  which  continued  in  existence  till  the  end 
of  the  smi  century  aj>.  Nearly  fifty  of  its  members  were 
prominent  in  Roman  history,  but  the  following  deserve  particular 


1.  LuGMS  C4L901MID1  Pko  CAMOwmu«,Reana  sUteiBUB, 
was  the  father-4n->lawof  JuKusCaaaar.  In58BX.,whenoontiil,he 
and  his  colleague  Aulas  Gabinius  entered  into  a  ooBi|»ct  with 
P.  Clodius,  with  the  object  of  getting  Cioero  out  of  the  nay. 
Psio's  rewani  was  the  province  of  Macedonia,  which  he  admbis* 
tered  from  57  to  the  beginning  of  S5*  vhoi  he  was  recsBed, 
perhaps  in  oonsecpienoe  of  the  violent  attack  SMule  upon  \m 
by  Cicerain  the  senate  in  lus  speech  De  provmeiis  eonsidarihL 
On  his  return  Pbo  addressed  the  senate  in  his  defence,  sad 
Cicero  replied  with  the  eoarse  and  exaggerated  invective  knomi 
as  In  Fisomem,  Piso  issued  a  pamphlet  by  way  oC  rejomdcr, 
and  there  the  gutter  dropped,  Qcere  being  afnud  to  bring  the 
father-in4aw  of  Caesar  to  triaL  At  the  outbitak  of  the  dvil 
war  Piso  offered  hit  services  aa  mediator,  but  when  Csesar 
marched  upon  Rome  he  left  the  dty  by  way  of  protesL  Hedid 
not,  however,  definitdy  dedare  for  Pompey,  bat  lensised 
neutral,  without  focfdtmg  the  nspfcct  of  Caesar.  After  the 
murder  of  the  dictator  he  insisted  on  the  providoas  of  his  will 
bong  strictly  carried  out,  and  for  a  time  opposed  Antoejr. 
Subsequently,  however,  he  became  one  of  hbsuppoiten;siid  • 
is  mentioned  as  taking  part  in  an  embassy  to  Antony's  cusp  tf 
Mutina  with  the  object  of  bringing  about  a  recondliatkn. 

2.  Li7ai78  CALFtminus  Pxso,  sumamed  Frugi  (the  worthy), 
Roman  statesman  and  historian,  was  tribime  in  149  bjC 
He  is  known  chiefly  for  his  ier  Calpumim  rtpdm^mm, 
wUdi  brought  about  the  syttem  of  guaatiames  ferpduae  sad  s 
new  phase  of  criminal  procedure.  As  praetor  (136)  and  consol 
(133)  Piso  fou|^  against  the  slaves  in  Sicily.  He  enensetically 
oppoied  GaiQsGiBcchus,especiallyinooanexionwithhiscoTnla«. 

See  Annalists:  C.  Ctchodes  in  P^ulyWisK>wa**  Jkal  M(>ci«- 
Padie  (1897).  vol.  iii.,  pt*  i;  H.  Peter,  Historitormm  romaMenm 
reliquiae  (1870),  vol.  i.;  Teuffd-Schwabe,  HisL  of  R/mian  UL  (£(f. 
trans.),  |  i^,  ^.  On  the  fex  Calpumia,  Corpus  inxr.  htinarMm,u 
K<K  igSi  with  Monunsen'e  commentary;  A*  H.  J.  Graeiridgc  Hut. 
oj  Amm,  iss~io4  B.C.  (1904). 

3.  Gna£Ds  Calpubnius  Piso,  Roman  statennan,wasooasii] 
in  7  Bx.,  and  aubsequently^  governor  of  Spain  and  prooonsal  ol 
Africa.  In  a.d.  17  Tiberiys  aKx>inted  him  govenoc  «f  Syiis, 
with  secret  instructions  to  thwart  Germs nfms,  to  whom  the 
eastern  provinces  had  been  assigned.  The  indignation  of  ths 
people  at  the  death  of  Oermanicus,  and  the  suspidon  that  Piss 
had  poisoned  him,  forced  Tiberias  to  order  an  invcstigatkio. 
Piso  committed  suidde,  thougib  it  was  rumoured  that  Tlbcriai, 
fearing  incriminating  •disdosures,  had  put  him  to  dcathj 

See  H.  Schiller,  Gaekkkle  itr  rdmudkn  KmisantU  (1883).  vol  i 

4.  Gaius  CALPOSKitis  Piso,  Roman  statesman,  orator  and 

patron  of  literature  in  the  xst  century  aj>.,  is  known  chiefly  for 

his  share  in  the  conspiracy  of  a.d.  65  against  Nero  ig.9.).  He  was 

one  of  the  most  popular  men  in  Rome,  partly  for  hb  skill  in 

poet^  and  music,  partly  for  his  love  of  luxuiy  and  generosity. 

It  is  probably  the  last-named  who  is  referred  to  by  Calpamiut 
Siculut  under  the  name  of  Meliboeus,  and  he  is  the  subiea  of  the 
panegyric  De  lawU  PiseniMm 

PUSARRO,  CAHILLB  (183x^1903),  Fiench  painter,  ym 
bom  at  St  Thomas  in  the  Danish  Antilles,  of  Jewish  parentt 
of  Spanish  extraction.  Ho  went  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
and,  as  a  pupil  of  Corot,  came  into  close  tooch  with  the  Barbiaoa 
masters.  Though  at  first  he  devoted  himsdf  to  subjects  of 
the  kind  which  will  ever  be  associated  with  the  name  of  Millet, 
his  interest  was  entirely  absori>ed  by  the  landscape,  and  iu>t  by 
the  figures.  He  subsequently  fell  under  the  spell  of  the  risng 
impressionist  movement  and  threw  in  his  lot  with  Monet  sod 
his  friends,  who  were  at  that  time  the  butt  of  public  ridicule. 
Like  Monet,  he  made  sunlight,  and  the  effect  of  sanKght  on  the 
objects  of  nature^  the  chief  subjects  of  his  paintings,  whether  ia 
the  country  or  on  the  Paris  boulevards.  About  i88s  he  took 
up  the  laboriously  sdentific  method  of  the  pointUlists,  but  after 
a  few  3rears  of  these  experiments  he  returned  to  a  broader  and 
more  attractive  manner.  Indeed,  in  the  dosing  yean  of  Us 
life  he  produced  some  of  his  finest  paintings,  in  whidi  he  set 
down  with  admirable  truth  the  peculiar  atmosphere  and  cokwr 
and  teeming  life  of  the  boulevaids,  streets  and  bridges  of  Paris 
and  Rouen.    He  died  in  Paris  in  1903. 


PISTACHIO  NUT— PfStOIA,  SYNOD  OF 


<>53 


PiMtrro  is  refirMented  in  the  Cafflebotta  room  at  the  Luxem- 
bourg, and  in  almost  every  colloctioa  of  impressionist,  paintings. 
A  number  of  bis  finest  works  are  in  the  ooUectioa  o(  M.  Duiand* 
Ruel  in  Paris. 

PISTACHIO  im*  the  fruit  of  Pisldcia  vera  (natural  order 
Anacardiaceae),  a  small  tree  wbich  b  a  native  of  Syria  and 
gencraUy  cultivated  in  the  Mediterranean  region.  Although  a 
deKeidus  not  and  much  pdaed  by  the  Greeks  and  other  Eastern 
nations,  it  is  not  well  known  in  Britain  It  is  not  so  brge  as  a 
buel'nut,  but  is  nther  longer  and  much  thinner,  and  the  shell 
is  coivefed  with  a  somewhat  wrinkled  skin.  The  pistachio 
But  Is  the  tptcie^  named  m  Gen.  xliii  1 1  (Heb.  }^^  Ar.  bofm)  ss 
forming  part  of  the  present  which  Joseph's  brethren  took  with 
them  from  Canaan,  and  in  Hgypt  it  is  still  often  placed  along 
with  sweetmeats  and  the  like  in  presents  of  courtesy  The 
amaU  nut  of  Pisiana  Lenhsau^  not  larger  than  a  cherry  stone, 
also  ooDses  from  Smyrna,  Constantinople  and  Greece.  P, 
Lentiscus  is  the  mastic'  tree,  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean 
legion,  forming  a  shrUlxor  small  tree  with  evergreen  ptnnately* 
compound  leaves  with  a  win|^  stalk.  **  Mastic "  (from 
matiieart,  to  chew)  is  an  aromstic  resinous  exudation  obtained 
by  making  incisions  in  the  bark.  It  is  chiefly  produced  Fn  Asia 
Minor  and  is  used  by  the  Turks  as  a  chewing  gum.  It  is  also 
used  as  a  varnish  for  pictures.  P  Terebintkus,  the  Cyprus 
turpentine  tree,  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  Asia  Minor  and 
North  Africa,  yiekis  turpentine  from  incisions  in  the  trunk.  A 
gall  is  pfodoced  on  this  tree,  which  Is  used  in  dyeing  and  tanning. 

PIflTIU  a  term  in  botany  for  the  female  or  seed^bearing 
organ  ti  a  flower  (^.v.).  The  Lat.  ptstittum  (diminutive  from 
pimeri,  fistum,  to  pound),  a  pestle,  a  club-headed  instrument 
used  for  crushing  or  braying  substances  in  a  mortar  iq.v),  was 
taken  as  the  name  for  tlm  organ  from  its  sfmllarity  in  shape, 
and  thente  adapted  in  Fr  pistH  about  the  middle  of  the  iSth 
century  In  its  complete  form  a  pistil  consists  of  three  parts — 
•vary,  at  the  base,  containing  the  bodiea  whkh  become  seeds, 
ttyk  (Or  ffrSXof,  pilUr),  and  stigma  (Gr  oiiyna,  mark,  or^wff 
to  brand),  the  part  which  in  impregnation  receives  the  pollen 

PHTOIA*  or  PiST€|A  (anc  Pistcna$)^  a  town  and  episcopal 
see  of  Tuscany;  ItAly,  in  the  province  of  Florence,  from  which  it 
is  ax*m.  N  W  by  rail.  Pop.  (1006),  37ri>7  (town),  68,iji 
(commune).  It  is  situated  on  a  slight  eminence  (aio  ft.)  near 
the  Ombione,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Ama  It  is  on  the 
nite  of  the  Roman  Pistoriae,  which  is  hardly  mcntkined  in  ancient 
times,  except  for  the  destruction  of  Catiline's  forces  snd  th^ 
'slaughter  of  their  leader  near  it  in  63  BC,  and  as  a  station  on 
the  road  between  Florentta  and  Luca,  and  earlier  still  by 
Plautus,  but  only  with  jesting  allusion  to  the  similarity  of  the 
name  to  the  word  pistpr  (baker).  Hairlly  any  mscriptions  of 
the  anciest  town  have  been  found,  but  excavations  in  iqoz  (see 
G.  Pellegrini  in  Notiue  degii  Scavi,  1004,  p  24 1 )  in  the  Piazzo  del 
Duomo  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  large  private  house,  which 
belonged  to  the  end  of  the  ist  century  B.C.  Some  mosaic 
pavements  were  found,  belonging  perhaps  to  the  3rd  century 
A.D.,  while  the-  house  appears  to  have  fallen  into  ruin  Ht  the 
beginning  of  the  5lh.  Remains  of  fdur  subsequent  periods 
were  discovered  above  it.  It  was  found  that  the  tradition  that 
the  cathedrrt  occupied  the  site  of  a  temple  of  Mars  was  ground- 
less; for  the  house  appears  to  have  extended  under  it.  Amml- 
anus  Marcellinus  (5th  century)  mentions  Pistoriae  as  a  city  of 
Tuscia  Annonaria.  During  the  middle  ages  Pistoia  was  at 
times  a  dangerous  enemy  to  Flocencev  and  the  scene  of  eonstant 
■  conflicts  between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  it  was  there 
that  the  great  party  struggle  took  place  which  resulted  in  the 
creation  of  the  Bianchi  and  Neri  factions  (see  Dante,  Inferno. 
zxiv.  lai  to  end).  In  1303-06  it  was  besieged  and  eventually 
taken  by  the  armies  of  Florence  and  Lucca,  and  in  1335  it 
became  subject  to  Castruccio  of  Lucca.  In  1351  it  was  obliged 
to  surrender  to  Florence,  and  thenceforth  shared  its  fate. 

llie city  is  still  surrounded  by  walls,  dating  from  shortly  after 
the  siege  of  1303--06;  while  two  inner  Imes  of  streets  represent 
two  earlier  snd  inner  lines  of  wall  In  the  early  devtlopinent 
of  architecture  and  sculpture  Pistoia  played  a  very  important 


part;  these  arts,  as  they  e:i&ted  hi  Ttiscany  before  the  time  of 
Niccola  Pisano,  can  perhaps  be  better  studied  in  Pistoia  than 
any«'here  else,  nor  is  the  dty  less  rich  in  the  later  works  produced 
by  the  school  of  sculptors  founded  by  Niccola.  In  the  14th 
century  Pistoia  possessed  a  number  of  the  most  skilful  artists 
in  silver-work,  a  wonderful  specimen  of  whose  powers  exists  now 
in  the  cathedral— the  great  silver  altar  and  frontal  of  St  James, 
originally  made  for  the  high  altar,  but  now  placed  in  s  chapel 
on  the  south  skle.  The  cathedral  is  partly  of  the  isth  century, 
with  4  porch  snd  facade  with  small  arcades— in  black  and  white 
marble,  as  is  the  case  with  several  other  churches  of  Pistoia — 
but  was  remodelled  in  the  13th  centuiyv  and  modernized  inside 
in  the  worst  taste.  Besides  the  alver  altar  It  cont^ns  many 
fine  works  of  sculpture;  the  chief  are  the  monument  of  Cbo  da 
Pistoia,  lawyer  and  poet,  Dante's  contemporary  (1337).  by 
Cellino  di  Nese,  surrounded  by  his  scbolaxs,  and  Verroochio's 
finest  work  \n  marble,  the  monument  to  Cardinal  Forteguerrv 
(1474),  with  a  Urge  figure  of  Christ,  surrounded  by  angels,  in 
high  relief.  The  day  model  for  it  is  in  the  South  Rensingtoo 
Museum.  The  monument  has  unfortunately  been  mlteie<L 
The  octagonal  baptistery  is  by  CeUino  di  ^cse  (1^39).  Among 
the  earlier  churches  the  principal  is  Sant'  Andieak  enriched  with 
sculpture,  and  probably  designed  by  Gruamons  and  )iis  brother 
Adeodatus  in  x  136;  in  the  nave  is  Giovanni  Pisano's  magnificenk 
pulpit,  imitated  from  his  father's  pulpit  at  Pisa.  Other  churches 
of  almost  equal  Interest  are  S.  Gwvanni  Fuordvitus  (so  c^ed 
because  it  was  outside  the  line  of  the  earliest,  pentagonal, 
enceinte  of  the  middle  ages),  with  one  of  the  long  sides  elabotw 
ately  adorned  with  small  arcades  in  the  Pisan  style,  in  black  and 
white  marble,  also  with  sculpture  by  Gruamons  intz)  oa  the 
facade.  Within  is  a  beautiful  group  of  the  Visitation  by  Luov 
della  Robbia.  There  is  also  a  fine  pulpit  by  Fra  Gt^elmo 
deir  Agnello  of  Pisa  (1270).  S.  Bariokvneo  in  Paotano  is  aa 
interesting  basilica  of  1167.  San  Francesco  al  Prato  iy  a  fine 
church  of  the  end  of  the  13th  century  with  interesting  figescoes 
of  the  school  of  Giotto.  San  Domenico,  a  noble  church,  begun 
in  1394,  contains  the  beautiful  tomb  of  FiJjppo  Lazari  by 
Bernardo  and  Antonio  Rosscllino  ( 146^  1468).  In  addition  to  itt 
fine  churches,  Pistoia  contains  many  noble  palaces  and  public 
buildings.  The  Palazso  del-Commune  and  the  Palazzo  I'retorio, 
once  the  residence  of  the  podcsti.  are  both  fine  specimens  of 
14th-century  domestic  architecture,  in  good  preservation.  The 
quadrangle  of  the  latter  contains  many  weU-painted  armorial 
bearmgs  of  the  podestAs.  The  Ospedale  del  Ceppo,  buitt 
originally  in  the  13th  century,  but  remodelled  in  the  15th,  is 
remark^e  for  the  reliefs  in  enamelled  and  coloured  tcrra-cotta 
with  which  its  exterior  is  richly  decorated.  Besides  various 
medatltons,  there  is  a  frieze  of  figures  in  high  relief  extending 
along  the  whole  front,  over  its  open  arcade.  The  reliefs  consist 
of  a  series  of  groups  representing  the  Seven  Works  of  Mercy  and 
other  figures,  these  were  executed  by  Giovanni  Della  Robbia 
between  1514  and  1525.  and,  though  not  equal  to  the  best  work 
of  Luca  and  Andrea,  are  yet  very  fine  in  conception  and  model- 
ling, and  extremely  rich  in  their  general  decorative  efiecL  The 
last  on  the  right  was  added  in  1585  by  Pabdini. 

The  industries  of  Pistoia  include  iron  and  steel  works,  esped* 
ally  maoufacttties  of  glass,  silk,  macaroni,  woollens,  olive  oil, 
ropes,  paper,  vehldes  and  fire-arms.  The  word  "pistol"  is 
derived  (apparently  throtigh  pistoUse,  a  daggei^-dagger  and 
pistol  being  both  small  arms)  from  Pistoia,  where  that  weapon 
was  largely  manufactured  in  the  middle  ages. 

PISTOIA,  STMOD  OF*  a  diocesan  synod  held  In  1786  under 
the  presidency  of'Scipione  de'  Ricci  (i 741-1810);  bishop  of 
Pistoia,  and  the  patronage  of  Leopold,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany, 
with  a  view  to  preparing  the  ground  for  a  national  council  and 
a  reform  of  the  Tuscan  Church.  On  the  26th  of  January  the 
grand  duke  issued  a  circular  letter  to  the  Tuscan  bishops 
suggesting  certain  reforms,  especially  in  the  matter  of  the 
restoration  of  the  authority  of  diocesan  synods,  the  purging  of 
the  missals  and  breviaries  of  legends,  the  assertion  of  episcopal 
as  against  papal  authority,  the  curtailing  of  the  privileges  6f 
the  monastic  orders,  and  the  better  education  of  the  clergy. 


6S+ 


In  QHte'd  tbi  botiDe  ulitnde  of  tbe  (Bit  miiority  of  Ac 

bbli^,  Biihop  dt'  Ricci  iuued  on  ihc  jist  o[  July  ■  iiunmau 
to  ■  dioctun  ■ynod,  wiiich  wu  lolcmnly  opmed  on  the  iSih  of 
September.    It  vu  utendcd  by  Iji  beneficnl  leculu  uid  ij 

ierif^  oF  decreet  wbicht  hvl  i1  been  possible  to  carry  tbem  uUo 
effect,  wotdd  have  mvolved  i  dnitic  relorm  oE  tbe  Cbuieb  on 
Iht  lines  ulvodted  by  "  Febroniui  "  C<ee  Fkbionumuu). 

The  fint  decree  {Decrdum  ie  fiAt  at  eakna)  declared  that  tbe 
Cltl»1ie  Churcb  tiai  no  liEtit  to  inlioduce  nen  doimu.  but  only 
la  piwefve  in  iu  orieiMl  purity  the  failli  once  delivered  by  Chri« 
to  Hli  apoMlee,  and  II  inliULble  only  ■>  fer  at  il  CDnlom  to  H<dy 
ScriMHn  nd  trun  tinditinn:  the  Ckuicb.  mmDver  it  ■  purely 
uMlHal  body  aod  Ku  w  auihoniy  la  Ihuift  lecubr,  OllitT 
decma  dciuiuiHxd  the  abtue  of  induucncet,  ol  lettivali  oi  uintL 
•nd  of  procn^ne  and  tUEeened  refonni^  othen  ayaiD  enjoined 
tte  ekdBf  of  kbeiit  on  Sonday  durinf  divine  lervLce.  the  itiue  ol 
■rvfcfrtoola  wiih  FataUel  irtnilarioni  in  i)ie  vemaculai.  aad 
ncomnendad  tbe  aboii  '  .-•..-     e 

St  Benedin,  Ibe  rulci  < 

ol  a  latioMl  ODUnciL 

Tboc  deems  were  inued  togetber  with  a  pastonl  letter  of 
Bishop  de'  Ricei,  and  were  warmly  approved  by  tbe  pond-duke, 
■t  wbote  ifiitaiice  a  national  lynod  of  the  TtBcao  ^diops  met 
(t  Florenr*  on  Ibe  ijrd  of  April  l^S^,  Tbe  temper  of  thb 
assembly  was,  bowever,  wholly  diOerenl,  Tbe  blthopi  refliud 
10  alio*  a  Toice  to  any  not  of  their  own  order,  and  in  the  end  tbe 
decree)  of  Pislola  were  supported  by  a  minority  of  onlylbree. 
Tfaey  were  finally  condemned  at  Rome  by  ibe  bull  A%ctcrem 
JUei  of  tbe  iSth  of  August  1704.  De'  Ricd,  deprived  of  tbe 
personal  nippon  of  the  gliDd-dulie  (now  tbe  empcroi  Leopold  I.), 
eipoeed  to  pHMure  from  Rome,  and  thieitined  with  mob 
irkilence  as  a  tinpected  destroyer  of  boly  rtlicSn  resigned  his  see 
In  ITQ1,  and  lived  in  Florence  as  a  private  genQeman  until  his 
death  Id  1810.  In  May  r«o;,  on  the  letum  of  Fope  Pius  Vtl. 
from  Paris,  he  bad  signed  an  act  of  tobmissioD  to  tbe  paDal 
decliloD  of  1T94> 

n  1  wli!  Jn  !«*  "setiiit 

publiiiwl  by  Cenre  Cuasi  at  Fnio  in  t^jri  Ibete  were  pnnnpily 
out  an  ifaE  Indci.  See  alio  De  Potter,  Vie  ^  5riWoa  di'  Riui 
h  vola,  BrjiKli,  laio,  bi9cd  on  a  MS.  life  tnda  MS.  i 
Ihc  tynod  placed  an  the  Index  in  1813.    There  are  — —  - 

iiiZAi,SuriaanltMli  ruum.  vja.  iL  and  iii 

TbeacusfihetynadufPiBCM  wrepuWiihediii  Italian  and  Laii 
■lFiviaIni7M. 

PISTOL,  a  unall  Gre-arm  detlgned  for  quick  work  and  peraontl 
protection  at  close  quarters,  and  lor  uw  In  one  hand.  Itwaa 
originally  made  as  a  tingle  and  alto  dnuble-barrelled  smoolh 
bon  muuk-loadei,  iDvolving  no  departure  in  pcioci[^  ' 


ii.  (Florence,  IBs*!. 


nt  time  at  PiMoto  In  Italy,  whoice  tbey  ncsvt  their  nne. 
Camlnelleo  VltdU,  obo  SouAbcd  In  ij^o,  ii  tbe  accndilrd 
Lor.  Tbe  ent  pnlob,  in  tbe  iCtb  century,  badibonwitk 
barrels  and  heavy  butu,  nearly  it  d^leji^  M  tbe  buid. 
Shortly  alietwards  the  paiitm  cbanitd.  Ibe  butu  betog  lenpb- 
coed  out  aboott  in  a  line  with  the  barrels.  These  ady 
pistols'  were  usually  fitted  with  tha  whed-lock  (te*  Cdli). 
Short,  heavy  pistol^  called  "  daggt,"  wen  in  conungo  Mt 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  caoluiy,  with  butts  ol  fvoty,  bflee, 
llaid  wood  or  melaL  A  tbiietlcd  Italian  dagg  ol  itjo.  it 
eumpk,  had  adigbily  bcU-iuKd  bwrd  of  abmilS  b.  inkigih 
and  14  Ihk.  Tbe  Oemian  wheel-lock  miUtaiy  pbtob  «d 
by  tbe  Reitert,  and  these  made  fcr  nnblea  and  gentkvcn,  Wfie 
profusely   and 


n  lb*   I 


171b   ( 


of  wbicb,  sdvei 

caused  tbe  production  of  facially  acoirate  and  weU-nsde 
liDgle-barrelled  pistols,  roliabla  at  Iwenly  pices.  Tbe  pallsa 
of  thil  piilol  tddoni  varied,  iu  accuracy  al  thoct  range  equilhal 
that  of  more  modem  onea,  ihe  priocii^e  of  a  heavy  ballei  inl 
light  charge  ol  powdet  bdnf  employed.  Tbe  firu  deuUc' 
barrelled  pislols  were  very  bulky  weapons  mndo  with  the 
baiiels  laid  alongside  one  another,  necesHUting  two  locks  ud 
two  banunen.  There  wu  also  the  "over  and  utKUr"  piUeli 
one  bane]  being  laid  over  the  other.  This  was  a  man  pwiihk 
weapon,  only  requiring  one  lock  and  hammer,  thn  Hcood  baod 
being  turned  nund  by  baod,  alio  the  fini  bad  been  fired,  ei, 
as  an  iliemative,  the  fiash-hole  being  adjiisltd  (o  tbe  tio^ 
barrel  by  a  key.  These  pistols  were  first  nade  with  ffinl  and 
lied  locks  aiid  sulisequenlly  lor  percuttion  cap*.  DoubU 
"  over  and  ander "  pistols  were  also  made  with  a  tiif^ 
meduBitm  that  ictved  to  diachargt  both  bancla  in  Inin. 

Knalitti.—A  revolver  is  a  lingleJiarTtlkd  pIHnI  with  1 
revolving  breech  containing  several  chamber!  for  Lbe  caiUidcet. 
thus  enibliog  succetiive  shots  to  be  rapidly  find  (reen  the  waa 
weapon  without  idoading.  The  ordinary  pisiel  ii  now,  andku 
been  for  many  years  paal,  eupoicdod  by  tbe  latulvu'.  Ik* 
first  revolver,  Eied  with  lbe  pennaskin  cap,  was  mnde  with  lie 
whole  of  ilie  barrels.  ti>,  leveii  or  eight.  reVDlviDg  in  eae  pica, 
and  was  known  m  lbe  "  peppet-bea."  It  was  "  tin^  actiBa." 
14,  the  htntner  was  raited  and  the  bsmls  revidved  by  Ihe  pnl 

aim  could  be  tajun  with  it  owmg  chiefly  to  the  soenglh  mi' 
resisunce  of  the  mainspring  and  the  tooteqnent  ItfOBg  piA 
required  on  Ibe  Iriggir.  Tbe  principle  «l  *  rendving  breech  <■ 
one  bsnel,  which  tuptncdcd  Ibe  "  pepper-boi,"  b  an  old  eae 
in  the  history  of  iirc-iimt,  ditug  Irom  the  rMta  ccMnry.    At 


Fin-  ■.— Dagg  (Royal  Uirited  Service  tulltntlon}. 

oidjnaiy  Gn^rms  of  the  day.  With  the  introduction  of  revol.  I  first  ihc  breech  cyHnder  was 
vers  and  breecb-loadiog  pistols  and  the  ap^dicatioo  of  "  rifling  "  |  arquebus  or  miifhUrt,  ^ 
(o  mushetbarreli,  came  alto,  in  tbe  early  bait  of  the  iplh  century,  I  1  For  ihe  uic  e(  loog  hai 
Ibe  rlUng of  pittol.barrels.  I  iiihceuuriet,  ■«  Aaav:ifi 


volved  by  hai^,  aata  tbe  ir 


pisrot 


65s 


IWn-  of  tflndon,  boi  tbi*  wu  lubuqUcntlT  lopnoed  bf  t  itiHf  titd,  U  dcccmiy,  ly  the  iiImhi  kctkn  alaat.  Uuy 
iDUiKlui:ini  tcaird  mwhaaiMa,  by  ohicb  Ihc  piijl  of  Iht  trincr  !  Rvolvcn  lai  the  Coll  prisdpk  mm  in  nw  during  tbc  Crimcui 
or  lit  cocUng  of  Uk  biiBUMi,  or  bmh,  do  Ibe  woik.    TbcK  J  Wu  uid  the  ladun  MuLliqi,  ud  proved  of  vtJubUi  leivkc  la 
txM>  t  piMd  of  Ibe  ttme  of  Ctatrtei  I,  whtck  ta  routed  autv- 1  Brititb  officen. 
mitldUy  u  (be  huuDti  ii  railed.  I     A*  ria-Bie.  pln-firt  ud  cwtnl-Cic  cuuMco  wer«  tucn*- 


wa3  produced  in  Ei^Iuid. 
■epnjate  Ipring  10  male  Itic  chimber.  In  igj5,  u  Amtdmi, 
Samuel  Coh,  produced  ud  patented  the  Gni  pnciiol  revolving 
[Hstol.  the  Idea  ol  which  wai  obliincd  by  him,  it  a  •taled,  from 
an  ancicnl  "  nvoMng  "  weipan  in  the  Tower  al  London.  The 
ihambm  of  iht  fint  Coll  revolver  were  loaded  with  powder  and 
bulleu  from  the  nuiilr  end.  and  each  chamber  had  a  nipple 
thai  required  10  he  capped  It  wai  the  inven' 
cap  tlisl  made  the  Colt   revolvci  possible 


I  were  conitraclcd 
Spiinffield.  II.SA 
pnduced  Ibc  Snt  meUt  ciitridgn  tor  rtvotveti.  Pin-Gi 
canKdgrt,  ptprr  and  mcianic,  wore  used  on  the  cooilqent  of 
Europe  lor  Leiaucheui  and  other  revolven.  ud  (heie  and  rin- 
firc  cvtndcn  ut  iliD  ucd  for  revotvm  of  (mall  olibre.  fint 
liflce  the  cenlral-fiie  rartridge  hai  proved  iu  uputority  (or 
been  Eenerally  applied  to  piitel  canridgt*! 


was  algwu  inaupci 

Tho  linl  American  revolver  makers  caused  the  cockin) 
the  hanmer  10  revolve  the  cylirtder.  while  the  English  mal 
cHectcd  Ihi4  by  the  piiU  ol  Ihe  trigger.  In  iWu-  Adam: 
Lonilon,  and  alto  Tranier  of  Birminghani.  bnuglii  out 
doubte-actioB  reiolvcr.  ia  vhich  ihe  revolution  of  rte  tylii 
could  be  eflccicd.by  both  iKae  mrihodi  When  the  levo 
ii  a>cked  and  £red  by  pmslng  Ibc  (ngger,  (realer  ripidi 


ctiar.is  of  lyp*. 
',  remained  practically 
the  sane  weapon  at  before,  with  a  dunged  chamber.  A 
hingfd  flip  uneoveicd  the  bracfa-thambci  on  the  right,  and  m 
(sell  chamber  reiiHied  that  poini  the  erapty  cartridge  ciii  wB 
[jecled  by  means  of  an  cjcding-rod  corded  !n  a  tube  atlacbtd 
to  the  under  side  of  the  barrel  and  kept  in  plicc  by  a  (plr^ 
ipiing.  and  Ihe  diamber  relaaded.    The  neat   improvemcnl 


en  fa  obtained  than  when  the  hammer  is  eockcd  with  the  thumb, 
tnil  acnincykimpaiicd.aa  thtiriggcrrequiiet  aUntpuUaMl 
fonsMefable  lone  h  onlsr  to  caniprm  iht  maiiiqiring  a*d 
rrviilve  tha  cylinder.  The  double  adkiD  revidvtr  MB.  then- 
lore,  a  great  sdvtnce  on  the  ungle  action.  enaUIng  Ibe  Gt«I  and 
■ho  fbDofrlnif  Ihots,  f(  desired.  lo  be  tccurately  ArM  by  a 
(noderale  pres"ure  of  rhe  trigger  alter  the  hammtr  had  been 
(Vcfted  by  the  Ihwmb;  w.  tlltniati*cly,  Ihc  melver  canld  be 


bmrd  on  the  frame  of  the  pbtoL  The  eniaeter,  being  [all  to 
the  pivol,  retained  the  cartridges  until  the  thambei  vai  pushed 
dear  ol  them.  Then  the  cbambrr  wis  made  lo  swing  on  one 
•kit,  as  in  the-  Colt  pitiol  illuiiraied,  enabling  all  the  cartridges 
10  hv  ■bnultaseously  ntracted.  Finally.  stU^citractaig  levol. 
Vers  with  ioinied  frames  were  Introduced,  in  which  the  droppikg 


eouily  in  all  Ibe  chambcn  ol 


656 


the  [HitoL  A  iprini  Rtunu  (ha  ntnctor  to  itg  pUct  when  the 
empty  aniiStt  aaa  h»ve  bwri  ejwied,  md  briogi  the  biirel 
10  u  ugle  of  Bbont  45°.  for  KPDTemence  En  IouUd^.  The 
Mundneu  uid  ligidJty  of  Ihf  weapon  depend  upoD  the  efSdency 
of  the  CDDiiuSoB  between  the  borteli  uid  the  ttanding  breech, 
Add  A  top  oup  boll  bu  proved  the  itrongest  lod  handint  with 
the  pE»toI»  M  with  the  ihoC-gun. 

Thii  type  oi  revolver  ocieiuiied  rtth  Messrs  SEBith  k 
Whwd,  but  they  and  other  gunmeken  have  gnaily  iniproved 
upon  the  ariginij  niodel.  Between  the  Ameriean  paltecn  and 
the  English,  as  made  by  Meun  F.  Weblcy  &  Son,  the 

diaeience  is  that  in  the  Smith  li  V "     ■--'-■■— 

bell 


and  Erlgjer  whcd  £he  laidi  is  puilvd  to  iJae  nu  Eer  opi 
~i;.j.,  ..J  J —  .;(  unlock  then  nntll  thi  eiSii' 
Ibycbelueh.  TheeySaikrin 
.aA>au-e<  tbeconfE).  The 


[iTjIhe  cylinder 
iod  Is  supporled  op 


io  the  fnne  below  the  bamd  aod  piraa  oa  lis  pnti 
.,„.  ,..,.  ....'Fjcci«  rod  with  it>i|)rin|  nsKslluBUfh  theeeiiut 
of  ibe  cyiiDder  arbour  um  is  tcrninated  in  rear  by  the  ticcur 
wiih  ■  lUcbet  (y).  Pashing  againil  the  fnxit  end  e(  the  ijhioi 
rod  will  empty  the  dianben.  the  cylinder  beint  twuag  oul  <« 
lowring.  The  thumb-piece  of  Ibe  lai^  (j)  sfidet  to  the  «r  is  tki 
fafl  liiti  «i  the  fiuae,  UDloddng  the  cyEnder  tot  opcaiag,  bM  apoi 
doHDi  the  cylhider,  the  bcdy  ol  the  tutk  firmly  eoKn  a  rchs  in 
the  ejector,  loeldng  the  cylader  in  position  Cor  fawg. 


the  standing  hreeth;  whereas  in  the  U'ebley  the  boll  is  upon  the 
ilandini  brcccfa  vui  grips  die  eiiremity  of  the  hinged  barrel. 
Neither  mechariism  is  as  strong  as  could  be  wished  if  bcavy 
charges  of  smokclesa  nilio-compounds  an  to  be  used-    This 

M  the  pistol  can  be  op^ed,  the  ruttidge*  eitracte 
weapon  rehMded  with  one  hand. 

The   Cell'l  DeMr-acUnn  Rnmlttr,  aiibn  jg,  modrl  ll, 

"  '  fd  SialH  army,  coniins  (figt.  j  and  »)  of  the  buiel  (B).  the 
rj  wiihM  chambers,  ilw7rame(,F),andthclirini  ------- 

nceL    The  muzzle  velocity.  wiTh  a  cliar^  of 


cylinder  <C}  wi 


nel^F),  and  the  fifing 

'The  lock  mechanism  consists  of  Ibe  hammer  tk),  wiili  its  scirrup 
M.  ttifiup  pin  If),  HTUt  (».  nnil  pin  jil.  itnit  spnng  It).  Ih< 
ingger  CJ :  the  nbound  bver  (I):  the  hand  (•)'  with  Iheiprwg  Uf; 
■he  cyUndB  boh  (t).  with  its  soring  (i);  the  locking  lever  (1)^ 
■the  main  spring  {ar),  and  rebound  lew  nring  (it)-  The  hammer 
<*).  Irifger  (II,  and  rebound  lever  (J)  11*  pivoted  on  their  leipectin 
pins.  lAich  are  Uilcned  in  ihe  left  side  of  the  Inmt.  The  loww 
end  of  Ihe  rebound  levn  spring  (*)  is  arcured  lu  tlie  frame  and  tbs 


the  triuer  causes  lU  upper  edge  1l  engajre  ll>F  Krul,  and  Ihcrvb 
laiact  the  hammer  until  nearly  in  the  liilI^Dck  poaitian,  when  1h 

of  the  mainspring.  wiU  faU  and  strike  Ihe  artridge-  A  prajectio 
on  Ibe  upper  part  a(  the  trigger,  wortitu  hi  a  dot  in  the  fnnn 
prewoa  ibe  cyleider  from  making  moie  then  one-iixih  of  a  revoli 
tkn  at  a  lime  by  entering  one  es  Ibe  grooves  nouett  the  rear  en 
ol  the  turface  of  the-eylnder.  When  the  rylinder  ia  swung  oi 
Ibe  parte  art  arranged  10  prrveni 


..  _        ai  ^  the  hand  "^  Ihe  t*tcb«  (y)     Tic  revolver  it 

tKkedby  hand  by  wlihdnwing  the  hammer  by  the  KTHire  a) 
the  tha.t4  «illl  hs  fbil-eoek  mlh  engaees  la  the  raa.  sharp  n-ne. 
••  Ihe  tng^i'  Pulling  the  trigger  then  relceir*  the  hammer, 
aUswina  ii.  firing  fin  ifi  u,  movHorward  and  nrifce  Ihe  cartridge 
The  Wking  lever  it  invnlnl  1^  its  new  in  a  rrrrs  in  The  left 


F1C.&.— Pepper-tan  lEvohv. 
This  escape  conodes  the  surrounding  paitiiid 

-' .terially  dimioi^es  the  prcnart  la  ik 

I  velocity  of  Ibe  hulB. 
in  ine  nagani  revolver,  adopted  by  RuBu, 
this  disadvantage  has  been  overroitw  by  eia- 
ploying  ■  long  tartridge  case  which  extends  beyond  the  mc 
of  the  buOtt  and  bridges  the  gap  between  barrel  and  cyliadn 
as  the  cylinder  is  moved  forward.  A  "  mitniUeuae  "  piMol  hu 
also  been  coniltucied  by  the  Braeodlia  Armoury  Co..  Ltd.,  «a 
the  '■  pepper-boi  "  piindpJe,  with  hied  barrels,  eilba-  (out « 
sii,  arranged  in  pnitl.  and  a  spedil  stiikiug  mtcbaiiiam.in  wlikh 
thereisnorevoMngthamberanjInoeacipeofgasaltlio  bntcL 
It  ^ves  stronger  shooting  than  a  revolver,  but  is  more  COD- 
brous,  and  has  ihe  aoioua  defect  that  the  s^och  ol  the  dis- 
charge of  one  barrel  tometimea  prematurely  fiieta  second  hand 
In  tSGj,  Sharp,  an  American,  patented  an  inveoIi»>  to 
remedy  the  escape  ol  gas,  in  wluch  the  lour  baneli  of  the  ^tai 


ind  S. — Colt  double-action  revolver. 

dl  length  out  ol  OM  bkxi  of  wlaL    Ti* 

irward  bf  an  onda  lencr  is  load,  aod  ih) 

ly  a  revolving  head  to  tbe  hamiBCi,  Kt  by  iJm 


orked  by  the  pull  oi  the  trigs 


Fisrot 


657 


Inalon  ind  Rkadint  «■ 


:  do*  pinwMH,  I  ind  fim  ■.  chuge  of  1}  draou  of  powdtt  wiihoul  unplouDt 
L  moil.    The  duetling  pinol,  u  nude  by  Cininne  Rcnetie  al 

in  packet  piilol     Parii,  is  capable  of  wonderfully  iccunte  ihoaling.  firing  1  g 
ie.    There  a  no  I  miUiinelTe  spherical  bullet  and  about  u  gn.  o[  powder.    Tbii 


kUbr'tNlit.t 

?s.i 

Clih* 

B»nel. 

L^gA 

Crtridp.      1 

Weiih? 

Bullet 
Weitht. 

Cok 

SDUthftWw       . 

Wlbky     .... 

New  Packet  or  pocVct  IMiiiive 
tloubk  Action*: 

Sif                  BbS?  model     '. 

S                   MarklV"     : 

t 

1 

i 

1 

1 
t 

i 

Bi 

'1 

40 

31) 

;i 

3  Cot 

ir. 

1 

i 

'8 

himmeror  equivalent  protuberance  10  olch  at  (be  jriMoi  Ii     weapon  ii  lai  tu 

dnm  fmm  thepocket^or  to  enrangle  ii  the  weapon  faJli.     An 

automatic  safely  boll,  whose  length  Ues  half  across  the  palm 

el  the  hand,  aod  easures  cenauily  ol  freedom  at  the  lime  of     when  fitted  wi 

rinoliof,  blockl  the  sctiM  until  the  piilot  is  final/  gtqiped 

for  use. 


in  accuracy  to  »  revolver.  Single-barrelled 
hi  the  11  or  597/>3o  calibre  cariiidges, 
6  to  to  in.  iu  length,  are  also  madCt  and 


.—The  Webley-f osbecy  an 


lincUy  n, 


iciple  ot  utilizing  the  recoil  at  each  shot  to  operate  the 
mechiniim  is  applied  to  the  revolver.  In  appearance  [he  •.eapoe 
'  veiysininanolheWebley  servicemodel.  The siniple prenuie 
the  lorefingct  on  the  tciggsc,  the  pressure  being  leleaied 
4  ween  each  ahol,  li  all  Ifaat  is  required  to  fin  the  lii  lucceasivt 
ols  nl  the  rc\Fa1ver.  It  is  supplied  wHb  a  lafeiy  ball  woAed 
by  a  Ihumb-picc^  and  Meters  Webley  have  tntinduced  a  clip 
'oader  which  enables  the  sii  chimben  to  be  reloaded  al  Ibe  same 
icne.  This  weapon  has  met  with  conaiderabie  aucceu,uid  !> 
nade  bi  two  calibres,  the  -455,  6  abot,  3  tb  jt  oL  m  weighl; 
and  the  -jS  model,  8  shot,  2  lb  3  en.  in  weight. 

advanced  type  ol  pistol,  and  it  is  anticipaled  by  eipcrtt  that 
they  will  ultimately  supersede  the  iBvolver.  They  are  made 
with  onehairel  and  »  magaiine,  on  ihc  principle  of  the  repeatini 
rifle,  thus  doing  away  with  the  eicape  of  gas  thit  takes  pUce  in 
revolvers  between  the  chamber  and  the  barrd. 

Automatic  plttt^  are  so  conitrucied  that  (he  [iirce  ol  the  recoil 
Is  ulDlied  to  open  the  breech,  em  net  the  empty  case,  cock  the 
pistol,  reload  the  chamber  with  the  top  cartridge  from  the 
magadne.andclosc  the  breech,  leaving  Ihe  pistol  tAdy  to  fin  on 
again  pressing  the  trigger. 

The  Mauser  "  Kll-loading  "  pistol  [fil-  9)  ii  one  o[  the  clHieit 

lo  shot,  with  a  metal  clip  loader  from  which  (he  cArtrid|{ce  art 
"stripped"  iolo  the  muaxine,  weight  3i  lb,  Eer^th  U  barrel 
Sl  in.i  bullet  85  graina.  initial  vdocily  about  ij^  f.t. 

Tbaburd  (I)  and  body  (I)  are  iRoac  iriece;  the  latter  roni^ni 
tbebolcdi.  thebanelaiidbodyilideDnihelmmeU):  iheio-ihot 

.__E1!«me  (*)°ind  l«k°^r"^™nKind'iIi  thc'rear^rt  of  il. 
The  boll  Oil  which  i>  uuaie.  ilidei  in  the  body,  and  ii  kepi  presced 
??..:5-  . ".i...'.L.  ■^■-t'(^.|"'|hf'Jrik«Vod  ( — 


wtetics  of  piMok  are  atOI  made— the  siull  pocket  piilol.  for 

eiample,  and  occasionally  the  heavy  douhlc-bairelled  bone 
piatoL  At  ooe  time  tlicH  Itlter  were  much  used,  ol  'j;]  bore, 
■1  wall  at  Ibe  weU-b»wii  short,  large-bore  pistol  known  a*  [he 
Dentogei.  uanally  of  -41  cdibre.  The  double  bone  pislol  Is 
new  usually  made  for  a  lO-bort  cartridge  and  spherical  bullet, 
ud  wcisha  about  ji  lb.    It  1*  s  dumay,  but  effective  weapon, 


•pnne  bean  aiainii  ihc  I...     ,„.     _ _.  —  _ 

conutined  in  the  boh.  TKt  bolt  ii  locked  by  the  boll-loi 
Thia  is  ^ted  through  \^t  Ecnrre  and  Ati  on  to  the  proicclion 
(ji)  under  the  body;  it  it  uppofted  ai  the  moment  of  finng  by 
a  projectkn  on  the  locli  frame  (ii>:  the  top  of  Ibe  boll-lock  hai 
—  . — I  !..)_  ^iijfh  i„  ,i„  loaded  and  cocked  position  (it  into 

I  the  bolt,  and  the  bottom  of  Its  front  end  [in  front  of 

iJic  body  attachjnent  (1  ]}]  has  anolhcr  tooth  f  14]  which  bean  on  the 


rodier  (15).    This  re 


itun.  ''^"actit 


6$» 


ii»»  "I 


<  Wnlttr  InJ  lirtt  the  cartndM.     Al  l(i«  momcnl   Iht  bofi 
'  ■■     -'by  ItetoJTlrawpro'jKtion'irjl      Bui.ih'-'^^     '' 

,- ___..iJV,, 

li  uudup  llwbDii  ipnof  W 


ffr; 

body  and  boli  rrcDkling  tc(t , ,  -.  - , — -  -.  -  -  --, 

bvll-lock  (lO)  i>  n  )>iii«r  lupporlcil.  Ihc  mkcr  <!})  acting  on  Iht 

pioicctioa  (M).    Thia  the  barrd  and  body  o 

*        -    '^'™'"'^^„*th?^otiJ«  c»«"''wSen  M.  tne. 
■     ^-  .  S«1I.  drivrs  Iht  boh  forwj 


id  iKcm 


■  wah  (13)  iR  the  b< 


Ihe  MiE  ihot-    The  releunK  of  the  triEser  bnnEi  the  h 
10  iu  fonnET  poHiujTi.  oickine  the  piiiol, 
Thii  pl.^n.  uniiily  lupplied  w!ih  >  w 


The  CtU  Antamalii  PisUl.  aliiii   it  (tx.  10)  1 
main  rum.  umely  (he  ftamt  (F),  IhEbiTnlCB),  II 

l).  wnich  b  bo 


d(  (S),  ai 


,    Atttr  beinc  clur^  will 
:h  Jighlly  project,  [rom  tti. 


of  thf  hdndir,    Thii  p^ 

H  ^  irifjer  BiHfd  (i>f  in  which  iIk  (ri«r  U)  ■ 

d,  utd  ia  the  rat  ABd  atiove  t^  nip  the  firips  mecl^niiiii  it 

,_ld  Ib  Ibe  put  of  tbe  fnine  aried  ibe  RceiverTRJ.   The  firing 

mechiiUnn  conAu  oT  the  hanuner  M,  tbe  dv  (p),  (he  triinr  (0. 

ecv  device  (■).  (he  naliHiiriiv  M  ud  HT  ifviiit  01,  tK  knnr 

'~1CT  lefviiic  10  «ien4e  Ibe  maguwe  cvtch-    The  Iw 

extendi  Eonvanf  ln>ai  ibe  haadki,  and  to  it  the  banel 

twaihort  LJnkt,Dne(f}nrarthefn>nt  endof  ihebarfel. 

bae'Tln'la  anta'i-t 


;sr£ 


HtTcl  tlifhtly  doit^w4id«.  but  k«[ 

KTAM  a  liibuur  «aal  lor  Ibe  mractor  kprinc  {t>.  wbi 
cloied  by  a  ptur  (a)  faflened  in  ihr  lecavci  by  the  k 
(0  of  the  front  banel-link.  The  upper  lutfan  of  tlu 
two  lrin[ftudinal  rroovee  on  iti  iSdca  form  the  ttat 
which  it  cuirted  tnenon  in  it»  rtarward  and  (orwan 
The  rnr  fart  of  the  itide  fonn<  (he  holt  or  bimh  b 


^^.iir)~l 


•H  of  a  iplnl  qmni.  t\ 


^,id  of  which  Tola  agairiK  —^ ,-,  -^—  ,—  — 

whicharrieia  pfalon  (p).  The  real  fan  of  Ibe  bey  (m)  ha>  a  iUfbt 
ncna,  and  when  the  Itey  it  hi  in  pCace  rlie  front  cud  of  The  iHrarror 
•bring  mta  in  thb  ROM,  ibenb]/  conliiunK  the  Wy  btcaLly. 

(he  ilide  to  (heir  forwud  pontiofi-  Upon  Ibe  barrei  are  prcnidefl 
three  lian<ver«  ribi  (t),  and  in  (he  IntefSoi  of  the  ilide  are  ihree 

dide  vridy  together  wbenfn  (beir  forward  po«iiion.  Detwren  rhe 
.  locldi^  imum  and  (he  bolt,  (he  ilide  hai  an  opening  on  iit  nxhi 
ride  for  (be  eienion  of  (he  «itr>d(e  cm  (]).  ""I  'be  belt  a  pro- 


•pnng  h).  and  a  faing  pin  lodi  ifi     Tlu  h*ls  b  imud  ai  d* 

in  contact  with  ibc  canridee  pnnvr.  When  raiKd,  rhr  firbf  pt 
leclr  reieaw  Ibe  brrng  pin.  ar>d  in  (hit  portion  alio  lenit  a«  (ht 
rear  ni^ii.  bong  provided  on  ihe  top  with  a  fiehling  notch 

The  Dprmlini  of  Ibc  piiiol  ii  at  follovi;  When  a  charitd  niu- 
(ine  (M)  u  inwrtnl,  (Re  alide  (SI  ■•  dnwn  once  (o  Iht  toiler 
hand,  thereby  cocinnf  (be  baniDer  (k).     Id  tide  peatiH  of  th 

topmoal  cartridge  »  ai  (o  lirinE  it  in(a  the  path  of  the  bdl  (K|. 
On  rttcaiing  (he  ibde.  i(.  wiih  ihc  boll,  ia  carried  lomnj  br  ik 
retraclor  wing  (r).  and  during  ibb  nMvcnieni  the  bdl  ImB  iht 
topmott  cartridge  into  the  barret  (6).    Ai  (be  dide  appnacbn  ■■ 

linlti  (t.  >1,  and  thul  ihe  lacking  ribi  {ki  on  Ihc  barrel  in  Ofiiid 
in(D  the  correipooding  faclting  itcesKi  in  the  alide.  The  Und 
and  tlide  are  thereby  jnlerlDcked,  and  the  piitol  ready  for  6nH 

A  .llghi  pull  on  t^  trleger  0)  now  icttia  i«  imm  ibc  w  l>) 
■o  ai  to  ideaw  the  hammer  W  and  Ate  a  ihoi.  The  lonr  d(  ilt 
powder  gate*  driviiw  (be  bullal  from  ihe  Ijicrel  u  eierted  iru- 

banel  to  recoil  (ogeiher.  After  mo^^ing  reanrarde  tofdher.  for  > 
diitance. enough  loeniuielhi  bulle(  haeinapaHed fien  tbe tuni. 


the  nnacur  ipnac.  nntil.  aa  (he  alidi  anivca  at  ita  reannal  paf 
lisn.  (be  eapiy  ibell  i>  ejected  Imm  (he  aide  of  the  piHol  tad 
another  cartridge  raiicd  in  front  of  the  boit.  Doring  (be  relaniar 
forward  moven>en(  of  Ifie  i^ide.  cauied  by  the  rrtractor  iprijig, 
(he  cartridse  n  drfven  Into  the  baTrrl.  and  (he  iTidr  and  bane)  vt 
in(vlockedT  (but  makiag  the  piiio)  nady  tor  another  ihiil.  That 
operation*  may  be  continued  to  long  aa  there  aie  canridn  in  ikt 
magazine,  each  dbebarge  reauinni  only  the  eliahi  puU  on  i^ 
(rigger.  The  pimot  n  provided  iiith  a  lafety  device  (al  •*** 
make*  ii  impouibi*  (a  rekaie  "'""  "" --*-..  ^i-  -tj^  „j 


loR^'.'i^ 


at  (htf  Aoment  of  firing  by  a  tonle  hhq(.  Tfa«  barrri  (l  A)  aid 
body;  (I  B)  >lidc  in  the  frame  0  i^).  <te  boll  Ii)  >bdei  m  (he  bt« 
and  iabeid  up  to  (he  breech  by  the  K^tgie  joiat  ^aAd4aAd  tbefiM 
sand  T.whicliiecirtiibcUnladf  theUHgtMOclwbadiL  Tbecnm 
of  pin  (6)  b  below  Aoie  at  (he  other  pn.  ae  M  the  ioiiM  aaa* 
beiHlat.the  moment  of  IMm.  Oa  (be  lar  liak  U)  ihcn  b  a  aMl 
(9)  which' bcomaected  (o  iTir  tecnl  spiine  fiol  la  (lie  grift  Tiv 
g«irf  b  filed  by  a  .pring  utriher,  like  a  rifle,  inaead  of  by  a  bi—w 
TbeMrikerbwiihiaibiibohi  li  ■»  axlud  i.  (h>  .ai jiljii*iia  W 
a  c^w  on  tbe  End  ol  the  fiont  link  (]  A)  Mid  beU  (hill  wbBi  rail 

%i]^,%  Al'e^Mhe •Me''ai"^!S^.'  Tbe^Mj^  K  liS^, 
-  the  grip.  Tbe  aciioa  it  B.hillawa:  (he  Cnl  canii^  b  law 
m  (he  mi^vijne  Iw  pulling  baclc  Ihe  lltfgli  tfriaf  A*  ■■*£" 
-  Eoggle  joint  b  released  the  rtccvl  nmag  acta  and  forctt  ■■■ 
bolthorae.  wiihihecartrideelnrrontof  ft.  0«  prewng  ibetngt" 
(be  barrel  and  body  recoUa  Btlto.    Tbaa  (W  teggle  joHl  oW 


PI3TOLE— PITCAIRK 


659 


fftiiMt  carved  ranpt  os  the  aidee  of  the  non-rccoiUoc  fnme  and 
i«  forced  up,  wo  that  thereafter  the  bolt  alone  recoils  (the  cicctor  is 
limtUr  in  principle  to  that  of  a  rifle).  The  recoil  spring  then  acts 
■a  before  on  idoadlag. 

Other  varietka  of  the  autoiMitic  piftol  are  the  *'  Maanlichcr," 
the  "  M^n."  the  "  Betpnann  "  and  the  "  WeUey."  The  last, 
being  simple  in  construction,  small  and  light,  weight  18  oz.  and 
length  over  all  only  6}  to.,  may  be  datied  as  a  pocket  pistol. 

QudiUiU  of  Automatic  Pistals.-^In  refenoce  to  the  general 

qualities  of  antomatir  pistola,  while  tbeM  weapons  have  the 

iidvaatage  over  nevolven  of  longer  range  sod  greater  rapidity 

of  fire  aad  recharging,  oa  the  other  band  they  are  necessarily 

more  complicated  in  their  mechanism,  which  has  to  do  the  work 

of  extraction,  reloading  and  cocking  that  in  the  revolver  is  done 

by  hand.    A  stoppage  may  occur  through  a  cartridge  missing 

fire,  or  continuous  unoontrolled  fire  may  take  place  through 

the  trigger  spring  breaking  until  the  magazine  is  exhaust^ 

Their  action  is  a^  to  some  extent  uncertain,  as  it  depends  on 

the  recoil  of  the  discharge,  which  may  be  affeacd  by  variables 

in  the  caitridge;  also  the  effective  automatic  working  of  the 

moving  parts  depends  upon  their  cleanliness  and  lubrication.   As 

automatic  pistols,  like  revolvers,  are  intended  for  personal 

defence  at  short  range  and  for  sudden  use  in  emergencies, 

simplicity  of  mechanism  and  certainty  of  action  are  in  their  case 

of  paramount  importance.    There  is  usually  no  time  to  rectify 

a  stoppage  or  jam,  however  slight.    From  a  military  point  ol 

view,  th^ore,  before  the  revolver  is  altogether  superseded  by 

the  automatic  pistol,  it  is  most  desirable  that  the  latter  should  be 

as  certain  in  its  action  under  service  conditions  as  the  former 

Some  automatic  pistols,  as  already  stated,  are  sighted  up  to 

xooo  yards,  and  provided. with  attachable  butts.    The  practical 

value  of  these  improvements  is  open  to  question,  as  the  sighting 

of  a  pistol  differs  materially  when  used  with  and  without  a  butt, 

and  under  do  drcumstanccs  can  the  accuracy  of  shooting  of  a 

pistol,  even  with  a  butt,  equal  that  of  a  carbine. 

The  tendency  in  automatic  pistols  has  been  to  reduce  the  bore  to 
•3  in.,  and  increase  the  mutzlc  velocity,  on  the  lines  of  modern 
small-bore  rifles.  These,  again,  would  appear  to  be  advantages 
of  minor  importance  in  a  weapon  intended  for  use  at  short  range 
In  the  field,  where  a  heavy  bullet  of  fairly  lar^e  dtameter.  with  a 
inoderate  muzsle  vdocity.  has  a  more  imnwdate  and  paralysing 
effect*  and  is  therefore,  from  this  point  of  view,  and  |>articubrly 
in  savage  warfare,  preferable  to  a  smalt  projectile  of  high  muzzle 
velocity.  (H.  S.>K.) 

PI8T0L&  the  French  name  given  to  a  Spanish  gold  coin  in 
use  from  1537;  it  was  a  double  <scu(U,  the  gold  unit,  and  was 
worth  s6s.  ziid.  sterling.  The'  name  was  also  given  to  the 
louis  d*or  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  and  to  other  European  gold 
coins  of  about  the  value  of  the  SfMnish  coin. 

PISTON  (through  Fr  from  Ital.  pistone  or  pestMC,  a  great 
pestle,  from  Late  Lai.  pistare,  to  pound,  a  frequentative  form  of 
classical  Lat.  piHstre)^  in  the  steam  engine,  a  disk  or  partition 
placed  inside  the  cylinder,  from  end  to  end  of  which  it  moves 
alternately  under  the  pressure  of  the  steam.  By  means  of  the 
'*  piaton-rod "  attached  to  it  this  forwaid  and  backward 
motion  is  communicated  to  the  machinery  which  the  engine 
>s  employed  to  drive,  and  is  in  moA  cases  converted  into  rotary 
motion  by  a  "  connecting-rod,"  one  end  of  which  is  jointed  to 
the  '*  cross-head  "  carried  at  the  end  of  the  piston-rod,  while 
the  other  turns  the  crank  on  the  crank-shaft  The  piston  in 
£a9f,  oil  and  air  engines  has  a  similar  function,  but  in  a  pump, 
instead  of  imparting  motion,  it  has  motion  imported  to  it  by 
^me  prime-mover  In  every  case  the  piston  must  fit  (he 
cylinder  so  accurately  that  as  little  ss  possible  of  the  working 
fluid,  whether  it  be  steam,  gas  or  water,  can  escape  past  it. 
packing  of  various  forms  being  commonly  placed  round  its 
periplitfry  in  order  to  secure  this  fit.  In  music,  the  valves  which 
in  certain  wind  instruments,  such  ss  the  comet,  enable  the 
player  to  iocrcaBe  the  length  of  the  airHrolumn  and  thus  lower 
the  note  produced,  are  known  as  pistons.   (See  Valves.) 

PIT  (O.  £.  pyU,  cognate  with  Du.  put,  Ger  Pfutu^  &c..  all 
vltim«tdy  adaptatwns  of  Lat.  puieus,  well,  fornied  from  root 
p^^,  to  cleanse,  whence  punu,  clean,  pure),  a  term  of  wide 
Application  for  a  hole,  cavity  or  excavation  in  the  earth  or  other 


surface;  thus  it  is  applied  to  th«  (scavatioos  made  In  the  ground 
for  the  purpose  of  extracting  minerals,  «.g.  chalk,  gravel  or  sand, 
or  for  carrying  on  some  Industry,  eg.  tan-pit,  saw-pit,  or  to  the 
group  of  shafts  which  form  a  coal-mine.  Roots  and  othes 
vegetables  can  be  stored  in  the  winter  in  a  pit,  and  the  term  is 
thus  transformed  to  a  heap  of  such  vegetables  covered  with 
earth  or  straw.  The  word  is  also  used  of  any  hoUewor  dcpicssioa 
in  a  surface,  as  in  the  body,  the  arm^pit,  the  pit  of  the  stomachi 
or  on  the  skin,  as  the  scars  left  by  small-pox  or  chicken-pox. 
As^ipplied  to  a  portion  of  a  huijdii:^  or  constructioo,  the  wora 
first  appeam  for  9n  enclosure,  often  sunk  in  the  ground,  in  which 
cock-fighting  was  carried  on,  a  "  cock-pit."  Jt  would  seem  a 
transference  of  this  usage  that  gave  the  common  name  to  that 
part  of  the  auditoriiun  of  a  theatre  which  is  on  the  floor,  the 
French  parUne.  In  the  United  States  a  special  usage  is  that 
of  its  application  to  that  part  of  the  &x>r  q>ace  in  an  exchange 
where  a  particular  branch  of  business  is  transacted;  thus  in 
the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade,  tranaactiona  in  the  grain  trade  are 
carried  on  in  what  is  known  as  the  "  Wheat  Pit." 

in  Scottish  legal  history  there  waa  a  baronial  privilege  which 
in  Latin  is  termed  fwca  et  fosta,  "fork  (i.e.  gallows)  and  pit  "; 
here  the  term  has  usually  been  taken  to  refer  to  the  orowning-pit, 
to  which  women  criminab  were  put  to  death;  others  take  it  to  refer 
to  an  ordeal  pit.  There  is  a  parallel  phrase  in  M.  Dutch,  putt* 
ends  fo/fAm:  here  puUe  Is  the  pK  in  whkh  women  weie  buried  alive 
as  a  peaaky. 

PITCAIRIf,  an  {stand  in  the  rald-eastem  Pacific  Ocean,  in 
as*  3'  S.,  130**  6'  W.,  belonging  to  Great  Britain.  It  h'es  south 
of  the  Paumotu  archipelago,  100  ro.  from  the  nearest  member  of 
this  group.  Unlike  the  majority  of  the  Islands  in  this  region,  it 
is  without  coral  reefs,  but  rises  abruptly  with  steep  and  nigged 
cliffs  of  dark  basaltic  lava.  The  extreme  elevation  is  ovei 
2000  ft.,  and  the  area  2  sq.  m.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  volcanic 
and  fertile,  but  the  gradual  utilization  of  natural  timber  increases 
the  liability  to  drought,  as  there  afr  no  streasns..  The  dhMte 
is  variable  and  rainy.  Stone  axes,  remains  of  carved  stone 
piUars  similsr  to  those  of  Easter  Island,  and  skeletons  with  a 
peori-mussel  beneath  the  head  have  been  found  in  the  island* 
though  it  was  uaiidiabited  when  discovered  by  PhOlp  Cartem 
in  1767.  PficaSro  was  the  name  of  the  midshipman  who  fint 
observed  it. 

The  island  was  destined  to  become  the  scene  of  a  cudoos 
social  experiment.  On  the  sBth  d  April  1789  a  mutmy  broke 
out  on  board  the  "Bounty,"  then  employed  by  the  British 
government  in  conveying  jroung  bread-fruit  trees  from  Tahiti 
to  the  West  Indies.  The  commander,  Lieutenant  William 
Bligh,  was  set  adrift  in  the  launch  with  part  of  the  crew,  but 
managed  to  make  his  way  to  Timor  in  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
The  twenty-five  mutineers  at  first  all  returned  to  TahitL  Some 
remained,  and  six  of  these  were  ultimately  court*mart{alled  in 
England,  three  being  executed  in  1792.  Meanwhile  in  1790 
a  party  consisting  of  Fletcher  Christian,  the  leader  of  the 
mutiny,  eight  Englishmen,  six  Polynesian  men  and  twelve 
Polynesian  Women  had  taken  possession  of  Pitcaim  Island  and 
burned  the  *'  Bounty."  Trcachety  and  debaucheiy  filled  the 
first  years  of  the  annals  of  the  beautiful  island.  By  1800  all 
the  men  were  dead  except  Alexander  Smith,  afterwaicds  known 
as  John  Adams,  who  rose  to  a  sense  of  his  re^)onsibality  and 
successfully  trained  up  the  youthful  generation  left  in  his  charge. 
An  American  vessel,  the  "Topaze,"  discovered  the  strange 
colony  in  1808;  again,  by  accident,  it  was  visited  by  the 
"  Briton,"  Captain  Sir  F.  Staines,  and  the  "Tagus,"  Captain 
Pipon,  in  1817:  and  by  the  exploring  ship  "  Btossom  "  in  1825* 
On  the  death  of  John  Adams  on  the  29th  of  March  1829  Geoige 
llunn  Nobbs,  who  had  settled  at  Pitcairn  in  1828,  was  appointed 
pastor  and  chief  magistrate.  Through  fear  of  drought  the 
islan<lcrs  removed  to  Tahiti  in  1830,  but  disapproved  of  both  the 
climate  and  the  morab  of  this  island,  and  returned  to  Pitcaim 
in  I  S3 1.  Shortly  after  this  an  adventurer  named  Joshua  Hill 
appeared,  and,  claiming  government  authority,  tyrannized 
over  the  islanders  till  his  removal  by  a  British  man-of-war  in 
1838.  In  1856  the  whole  of  the  islanders— 60  married  persons 
and  134  young  men*  womta  and  chikfrea— -were  landed  on 


PITCAIRNE,  A.— PITCH,  MUSICAL 


[DtcllKt,  monb  gnd  energy,  and 
bably  diiit  inlo  imbrriliiy.  Later 
tbiiwu  in  ciBggeratian.alLhouth 
wu  unqucniomUy  low  on  Om 


Id  iSjj  and  1S78  the  colon] 
by  Ihe  end  of  Ihc  cealury  ii 
bringing  a  delerio.Mion  ol 
(tat  the  iiUndin  would  pr 

■he  iiandard  ol  monllly 
whole. 

In  relicianlbeiiltnden  an  Seventh  I>ayAdi'nithls.  "Tbey 
bave  adopted  In  eitnoidinarypatuil,  derived  fiam  the  language 
of  (he  Tahilian  women  who  accompanied  the  mntineera  of  the 
"  Bounty  "  to  Pilcalin  Island,  although  mat  o!  the  idolll 
tan  ipeat  the  English  Unguage  lairly  well  "  (R.  T.  SfmoM, 
Report,  lOOj).  The  island  is  a  British  colony  by  settlement, 
uid  is  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  High  Commissioner  tor  the 
Weslem  Pacific  (since  1898).  There  is  a  govetning  body  chiseo 
:g  Ibe  islanders,    '  


reJ 


''l>ieB> 


,  tielons,  baninai  and  othc 
dBcc.  GoBti  and  chickeni  run  wild, 
with  Uaogiieva  la  a  veuet  avmed  by 


r. 


Poyapr  10  Pil- 
puBu  Facifii 


"fr%: 


"«""'? 


_.. ikeniiwdcr  Insd  Piicaini"  in  Patrmatti  UillriluTJim 

(1401).  llviL:  FufiamefUary  t^penC.  0148.  Bnil  Cd.  754  (London. 
ilm.  tVi):  Cd.  im  lOM^  190s;  Mr  B.  T.  Simons  leponj. 
.  mCAIRHB.  ABCRIBAUI  (iSji-iTij).  Scottish  phydcian, 
KM  bom  at  Edinburgh  on  the  i;lh  of  December  1651.  After 
tbcaining  lome  classical  education  ai  the  school  of  Dalkeith, 
Pltcaimi  entered  Edinburgh  University  in  1M8,  and  look  hit 
4egnc  of  H.A.  In  1671.  Having  been  tent  (o  France  lor  (he 
braeEt  of  his  beallh,  he  was  induced  at  Paris  to  begin  the  Hudy 
of  medicine,  and  after  courses  at  Edinburgh  and  Parle  he 
tbtiincd  in  1680  the  degree  of  KLD.  at  Khcims.  He  began 
practice  it  Edlnbatgh,  and  In  a  than  time  acquired  so  great  i 
Rpulilion  Ihal  in  1641  he  was  appointed  profenor  of  medicine 
U  Ltiden.  Among  his  pnpilt  were  Richard  KIcad  and  H. 
Boerhaavc,  and  both  of  them  attributed  much  of  ihelr  skill 
10  what  they  had  leained  from  Pilciime.  In  i6^j  IHlraitne 
Rlumcd  (0  Scotland  to  marry  a  daughter  ol  Sir  Archibald 
Stevenson,  an  eminent  physician  In  Edinburgh.  The  lamtly 
sbjecled  10  her  going  abioad,  lo  he  did  not  return  to  Leiden, 
but  settled  ante  more  in  Edinburgh.    He  rose  to  be  the  first 

tion  both  in  England  and  Holland.  Soon  after  his  return  lo  Edin- 
burgh, feeling  the  great  want  of  the  means  of  anatomical  study, 
be  importuned  ihe  town  council  to  permit  himself  and  cenain 
Of  hia  medical  friends  to  ireal  without  fee  (he  sick  paupcrt  In 
"  Paul's  Work,"  on  condition  of  being  allowed  to  dissect  such 
Of  the  bodies  as  were  unclaimed  by  (heir  rebdves,  and  iheieloie 
had  10  be  buried  at  the  town's  eipcnse.  Strangely  enough 
■his  proposal  was  strongly  opposed  by  (he  chief  surgeons  of  the 
place.  bu(  uhimately  the  (own  council  had  Ihe  good  sense  to 
tomply  with  Piicaime's  request,  and  in  this  way  he  may  be  said 
tahave  the  credit  ollayipg  the  foundationer  the  great  Edinburgh 


PImlne'i  medlnl  opinions  aK  chiefly  contained  in  1 
of  DiiwMlma  mtdtcat  which  he  published  in  1701 
IT>)).  Tn  (best  be  discvtsa  Ihe  applicalion  of  geoi 
phytic,  the  circulallon  of  Ihe  blood  in  the  imDtlcr  vei 
diffemtce  in  the  quantity  of  the  blood  contained  in  I 
of  animals  In  Ihe  womb  and  of  the  tame  animals  aft 
the  motions  by  which  food  becomes  fil  (0  supply  ihe  b 
qneithin  at  lo  hiventan  !n  medicine  (in  which  he  lepcli 
at  teniin  nedicU  tfttcBveiiei  •(  modeni  timet  h*v 


IS  known 


iKipi 


rs),  tbc  c 


ig  medicines,  and  the  effects  ol  acldt  and  alkalit  in  Dedidiir. 
itcairns  was  a  good  dat^cal  scholar,  and  wrote  L4thi  vcn% 
rciiionally  with  EsmelhiDg  more  Ihao  meet  imitative  dcvema 
nd  skill.  He  was  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  comni;, 
kt  AiiimUy,  or  ScrUk  Rc/armaHen,  and  of  a  MliHcJ  p«B 
labd,  containing  witty  dietcbet  of  prominent  nesbrteriaa 
Ivinet  of  the  time,  whom,  u  >  loudly  avowed  Jacobite,  be 
rongly  disliked.  He  was  prone  to  irreverent  and  nbaU  Jtsti, 
nd  thus  gained  the  tepulation  of  becag  an  nnbclievo  and  la 
IheisI,  though  be  was  a  professed  deist.  The  sloriei  aboui  Ui 
vec-indnlgence  in  drink  are  probably  exaggerated.  He  "H 
rpcaledly  involved  in  violent  quarrels  with  bis  mcdica!  brethra 
nd  others,  and  once  or  twice  got  into  acrapet  with  the  govern- 
lent  on  account  of  his  indiscreet  political  utleiances.  AmiKg 
his  friends,  however,  he  waa  evidently  well  litcd,  and  he  is 


icledi 


h  great  kinc 


id  generc 


iho  needed  hit  help.  Thomai  Buddiman,  Ihe  Scelld 
schi^r,  for  eiamplc,  wpt  rescued  from  a  life  ol  absconi;  bf 
his  encouragement  and  assistance,  and  by  no  one  *u  bi 
memory  more  gralefuliy  cherished.  Mead,  loo,  appein  nfwl 
to  have  [orgotien  what  he  owed  to  hia  old  teacher  a(  Leila. 
A  son  of  Tllcaime's  bad  gone  out  in  Ihe  nbcllion  of  ifis,  •■>! 
having  been  condemned  to  dcalb,  was  »ved  by  the  aittt 
interposition  of  Mead  with  Sir  Robert  Walpote.  He  I^aiH 
very  artfully,  that  if  Walpole's  health  had  been  bettered  by  ba 
skill,  or  if  members  of  the  toytl  fiBiily  were  prrsencd  by  Ui 
care.  It  was  owing  to  the  Instruction  he  had  received  frws  Di 
Pitcairae.  pacaltne  died  in  Edinbuighon  Ihe  lothof  Octoba 
17TJ.  He  had  been  a  great  collector  of  books,  and  his  libniy. 
which  it  laid  to  have  been  of  considerable  value,  was,  Ihnn^ 
the  infliience  of  Ruddiman,  disposed  of  to  Feler  lie  Great  d 

PITCH,  (i)  (O.  Eng.  pic,  an  sdapta^on  of  Ul.  fa,  piA, 
Cr.  Tfffsa,  rlrro,  allied  niih  Cr.  rlrm,  pine-tree.  Lai.  pittil, 
the  name  ol  various  substances  of  dark  colour  end  of  ejlienlj 
viscid  and  lenaciout  conuslency  when  iub;ccled  lo  hraL 
Sirictly  the  term  la  applied  lo  the  resinous  substance  obtiinel 

or  the  non-resinous  subsiance  similarly  produced  itom  Cul-iu 
(q.v.).  The  name  b  also  applied  to  the  natural  nrineral  (tb. 
nances,  j.e.  aspbdl  or  bitumen  (jf.t.).  (1)  A  noun  of  vaiiM 
meanings  which  are  tomewhal  difliculi  to  connect  with  ibt 
verb  from  i«blch  they  appannity  mutt  be  derived.  "Ta 
pitch  "  means  primarily  to  thiuu  in  or  fii  a  stake  or  oiktr 
pointed  object  inlo  Ihe  ground,  hence  to  i^ac*  in  a  Bird 
poiition,  tei  in  order,  cast  or  (brow,  hence  lo  hidine  or  tlofa. 
The  etymology  is  obscure,  hut  it  appears  in  Nan  hem  dialicli 
as"  pick,"  of  which  it  may  be  a  variantithereiitomcdialcidtr 
in  conneriing  this  form  with  "  pick,"  variant  of  "  pike  "  («*)■ 
PITCH.  MgUCAL.  The  pilch  of  a  musical  tound  is  amaO; 
defined  by  lis  absolute  position  in  (he  vale  and  by  its  relative 
position  vnth  regard  to  olher  muucal  sounds.  I(  is  pncidr 
defined  by  a  vibration  number  recording  the  frequency  of  Ik 
pfilaaiions  of  a  tt! 


ion  to  and  fro  (swing  both  wi 
lit;  elsewhere  Ihe  V" 

h,  dating  from  iSqo 
870.4  (double  vi 


Britain  and  Americs  lie  cotnpku 
of  a  pendulum)  ii  lakn  it 
Ane  direclioa  only  (sviaf 
liy  olhcial  aUndard  it  lk< 
om  iDjg,  preserveu  hy  a  timing-fork  vibratric 
>>■  435-45I  "  ■  tempenlure  ul  15*  Cetiligndt 
(Sg°  Fahr.)  in  a  second.  The  vibration  number  staled  in  ita 
edict  establishing  the  Diapason  Normal  is  8jo  (4)5),  whicb  fa 
comparison  will  be  here  adhervd  10,  The  natural  baas  fori 
standard  musical  pilch  is  the  voice,  panicularly  Ihe  B>ali 
voice,  which  has  been  ol  greater  importance  Wtloricilly.   Tbeit 

period  of  which  we  have  evidence,  more  than  other  phyiin' 
atlrlbnln.  Tbe  only  difference  lo  be  reckoned  with  may  k 
slug  for  e>ccl,  and  •)<• 


PITCH,  MUSICAL 


661 


ntead  tlie  €omptm  «f  tftevoice  upmirda.  OdicrwiiB  we  mat 
ttsume  iw  distiirbiog  attention  has  taken  place  for  tniore  than 
MOO  yean  in  ito  poritiob  and  extent.  Vibratioiis  inefeaae  in 
rapidity  as  a  note  riaea  and  decrease  as  it  falls.  Any  note  may 
be  a  pitch  note;  for  ordiestFaa  custom  has  settled  iqKui  o*  ia 
thelreMe  ckf,  for  organs  and  pianoa  in  Gxeat  Britain  t^,  SBd  for 
ttoden  bnssimthmients  b  flat*. 

We  are  not  irithout  a  due  to  the  pitch  anal  in  tlie  daask 

Greek  and  Alezandrian-  ages:  tho  vocal  octave  to  wUdi  the  ^yre 

was  adapted  waa  noted  as  from  cAo^,   As  in  choruses  baritone 

and  low  tenor  singers  always  prevail,  d-iT,  at  French  or  at 

medium  pitch,  would  really  be  the  Greek  aingiog  octave;  we 

may  therefore  regard  it  as  a  tone  fewer  than  that  to  which  wn 

are  accuatomed.    But  to  sing  the  lower  Gceek  modes  in  or  neaf 

the  vocal  octave  it  waa  necessary  to  tranqioae  (jmrvfiokti)  a 

fourth  upwards,  which  is  effected  In  modem  notation  by  a  flat 

placed  upon  the  b  line  of  the  staff;  thus  moduhiting  from  our 

major  key  of  C  to  that  of  F.   This  transposition  has  had,  aa  we 

thall  see»  mtich  to  do  with  the  history  of  our  subject,  ultiipBately 

influencing  the  ecclesiastical  chant  and  lasting  untS  the  xyth 

century  of  our  era.    It  does  not  appear  from  any  evidence  that 

the  keyboards — when  there-  were  more  than  one— of  the  early 

oxgansi  woe  arrangedfor  tianapoaition»  but  it  is  certain  that  the 

Hemish  haTpsichc^ds  to  1650  were  made  with  double  k^boarda 

to  accommodate  it  (see  Hipkins'  History  of  the  PiancfoHe,  iSgj). 

But  a  positive  identity  of  pitch  cannot  be  claimed  for  any  period 

of  time,  and  certainly  not  for  the  early  organs;  the  foot-rule  of 

the  organ-buflder,  f^di  had  to  do  with  the  lengths  of  the 

pipes,  and  which  varied  in  every  country  and  iMovince,  could 

easily  cause  a  difference  of  a  semitone.    Scale  and  wind-pressure 

are  also  important  factors.    But  with  all  these  often  opposed 

oon<fitfoBs,  we  find  less  variation  than  might  be  expected,  the 

main  fud  really  in^wrtant  divergence  bdng  due  to  the  necesti ty 

of  transpositfoup  which  added  a  very  high  {Mtch  to  the  primarily 

convenient  fow  one. 

The  first  to  attempt  to  define  pitch  would  seem  to  have  been 
Arnold  Schlick  (Musica  ausgeieutscAi  muf  atugeugeH^  Heidelberg^ 
1511),  who  gives  a  measure,  a  line  of  4}  Rhmish  inches,  which,, 
be  says,  multiplied  sixteen  tiroes,  should. be  the  lowest  F  of  1^ 
small  organ,  lie  gives  no  diameter  or  wind-pressure.  Dr  A.  J. 
Ellis  used  this  hidication  to  have  an  organ  pipe  made  which 
with  one-sixteenth  diameter  and  a  wind-pressure  of  i\  in.,  at 
one-fourth  Schlick's  length,  gave/*  301  ^  from  whidi  he  derived 
a  just  major  third  of  o*  37^,  which  would  compare  very  well  with 
an  old  Greek  aK  Schlick  goes  on  to  say  the  organ  is  to  be  suited 
to  the  clioir  and  properly  timed  for  ainmng,  that  the  singer 
may  not  be  forced  to  sing  too  high  or  too  low  and  the  organist 
have  to  play  chromatics,  which  is'  not  handy  for  every  one. 
Further,  he  says  pitch  cannot  be  exactly  defined,  because 
voices  vary;  he  nevertheless  gives  the  measure  above  men- 
tioned for  the  low  F,  but  if  a  larger  organ  is  buill  to  include  the 
atill  lower  C,  then  this  C  must  be  1/  (Ac  same  measwementt  the 
reason  being  that  a  greater  part  of  church  musk  ends  in  **  gram- 
bus,"  a  won!  understood  by  Schlick's  editor  to  mean  the  trans- 
position of  a  fourth.  The  kiiger  high-pitch  organ  wUI  therefore 
be  at  a*  509-6.  The  Halberstadt  organ,  about  whkh  so  mnch 
has  been  written,  was,  according  to  Praetorius  {Syniarma 
musicum,  WfilffenbUticl,  z6i8),  built  ui  z36r,  and  repaired  or. 
rebuilt  1495;  He  gives  the  longest  pipe  of  this  organ,  B  natiuai, 
as  3s  Brunswick  feel»  and  the  circuinference  3)  ft.  He  further 
tells  us  this  pitch  was  a  tone,  nearly  a  tone  and  a  half,  higher 
than  a  suitable  church  pitch  (Chorton),  for  which  he  gives  a* 
diag;ram.  Dr  Ellis  had  pipes  (now  preserved  in  the  Boyal 
Institutwn,  Loadon)  made  to  reproduce  both  these  pitches  at 
3I  in.  wind'prcssure.  The  Halberstadt  pitch  was  found  to  be 
a*  505-8;  the  CkcrtOH,  aH'^*  £Ui8  tised  mean-tone  tempera- 
ment in  calculating  this  lower  pitch;  but  as  he  used  just  intona- 
tion for  the  Halborstadt,  it  seems  preferable  to  substitute  it  for 
the  Chorton,  thus  reducing  it  to  e*  422*&  Pnietorius's  Cmnpwr- 
ion^  or  chamber  pitch,  formulated  in  his  dhigrams  for  vofces 
and  instruments,  is,  he  says,,  a  whole  tone  higher;  equivalent, 
therefore,  to  a*  475*65.    Near^  all  the  German  organs  in  hia 


time  were  tuned  to  this  higher  pitdL  EUis  offered  the  suggestfoa 
of  a  much  higher  pitch  for  this  Cammerton  in  his  lecture  **  On 
the  History  of  Musical  Pitch,"  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts^ 
London  (/Mm.  Soe.  Arts,  March  5, 1S80),  but  the  present  writer 
is  unable  to  accept  It.  The  lower  vibmtfon  number  is  justified 
by  due  conakleration  of  t^  three  divisions  of  the  male  voic«i 
bass,  tenbr  and  alto,  as  given  by  Praetorius,  whose  Cawtmertom 
very  cfosely  corresponds  with  Bernhardt  Schmidt^  Durham 
organ,  1663*1668,  the  original  pitch  of  which  has  been  proved  by 
Professor  Armes  to  have  been  a'  474-t.  The  HalbeiMadt  pitch 
is  nearly  a  tmdtcmt  higher,  which  agafo  agrees  with  the  state- 
ment of  Praetoritts,  and  also  Schlick's  high  C  organ.  Yet  it 
would  seem  there  had  been  a  still  higher  pitch  usmI  in  the  old 
ecclesiastical  muaic.  Upon  this  intoestmg  questfon  Praetoriui 
b  confused  and  difficult  to  understaiul,  bi^  he  never  waven 
about  the  transpositfon  of  a  fourth.  In  one  passage  he  disthict^ 
says  the  old  organ  high  pitch  had  been  a  whole  tone  above  hIa 
Cammerton,  with  whkh  we  ahall  find  his  ttrtia  minore  oombhies 
to  make  the  requued  interval  The  term  tertia  minoi^  or 
iufirion,  is  used  by  Pnetornis  to  describe  a  fow  pitch,  often 
preferred  in  EngUnd  and  the  Netherlands,  fa  Italy  and  in  iocne 
parts  of  (jermany.  An  organist,  instead  of  transposing  a  whole 
tone  down  from  the  Cammerton,  would  for  the  tertia  mhton 
have  to  fwnspose  a  minor  third.  A  corroboration  of  this  pitch 
b  foinnd  in  A.  Silbermann's  great  organ  in  Strasborg  minster 
(Z7r3-i7x6),  the'  pitch  of  which,  taken  in  1880  and  reduced  to 
50*  Fahr.  (as  are  all< pitches  in  this  article),  b  ^  303*fl.  An  old 
organ  at  Versailles  (1789)  was  very  near  thb  example,  a*  395*8. 
Sfr  F^Psderick  Gore  Ousd^  {wide  EQb's  lecture)  regarded  the 
French  tonde  dupdU  as  being  about  a  minor  third  bcfow  the 
Diapason  Normal,  o^  435,  And  said  that  most  of  the  untonched 
organs  In  the  Rpench  catbedrab  were  at  thb  low  pitch.  Straa* 
burg  was  French  territory  in  1713,  but  Silbermann's  organ  b 
not  quite  a  whofo  tone  below.  EUb  quotes  an  organ  at  LlUt^ 
d>  374*S|  but  no  other  instance  of  the  very  fow  Schlkk  pitch  b 
reomded,  although  trial  of  the  French  cathedml  organa  might 
perhaps  result  fo  the  findfog  of  eramplra,  EUb  gives  Dom 
B6dos  (VArt  dufaetured*orgues,  Paris,  1766)  aa  authority  for  a 
mbui  tone  a>  376*6.  Tb  return  to  the  tertia  minare,  Dt  K. 
Smitb,  of  Camlwidge,  in  1759,  had  the  organ  of  Trinity  (}ollcge» 
buakby  Bernhardt  Schmidt,  kwered  a  whole  tone,  to  reduce  it 
to  oenain  Roman  pitch  pipes  made  about  17901  Hb  ^ei^ 
miaationa  of  pitch  by  a  weighted  wire  art  not  trustworthy; 
EUb  thinks  they  are  not  safe  within  four  or  five  vibratfoni  per 
second,  but  grvea  a  mean  pitch  for  thb  organ,  when  akeked,  of 
^  39S*a«  St  MichacFs  church  at  Hamburg,  buiU  as  late  as 
1762  and  unaltered  in  1880^  had  a  X7th'century  pitch,  a^  407*9.' 
Ilib  b  about  a  semitone  befow  the  Dbpason  Nomial  and  a 
just,  minor  third  fower  than  the  St  Jaoobi  organ  in  the  same 
dty  (1688),  measured  by  Herr  Schmahl,  a'  489-2.  What  waa 
remarkable  in  thb  organ  was  that  it  had  one  stop  which  was  an 
equal  minor  third  fewer,  a^  4x1*4^  The  difiierence  of  a  mfaior 
tliitd,  or,  aa  we  shall  see  bter,  a  whole  tone,  had  replaced  the 
earlier  fourth.  Sir  Frederick  Gore  Ooseley's  oomparbbn  of  the 
church  and  chamber  pitchea  of  Orlando  Gibbona  (vide  Ellb'a 
lecture)  deariy  shews  tfie  minor  third  in  CSrcat  Britain  in  the  first 
half  of  the  1 7th  cettuiy*  But  the  luurrowbig  oontfoucd.  Bem* 
hardt  Schmidt.  beUer  known  in  England  aa  Father  Smith,  waa 
invited  about  1660  to  build  the  organ  for  the  Chapel  Royal, 
Whitehall;  two  years  later  he  built  the  organ  m  Durham 
Cathedrala^474-r,differencea  whole  tone,  and  pcactioBllyagree- 
'mg  with. the  Cammerton  oi  Praetorius.  The  Hampton  Court 
O^gaa  of  z69oahowB  that  Schmidt  had  further  foweied  hb  pitch 
a  semitone,  to  ^  441*7.  What  happened  at  Durham  waa  that 
at  aome  subsequent  date  the  pipes  were  shifted  up  a  semitone 
to  bring  the  orgaA  feto  conformity  with  thb  fower  pitch,  .with 
which  St  b  probable  Schmkh'a  organs  fo  St  Paul's  and  the 
Tomple,  and  abo  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  agreed.  Thb 
fowering  tendency  towards  the  fow  church  pitch,  and  the  final 
adoptfon  of  the  latter  aa  a  general  mean  pitch  throughout  the 
i8th  century,  was  no  doubt  influenced  by  the  introductton  of 
the  vfolfo,  which  |vottld  not  bear  the  high  teoifoa  to  which  the 


PITCH,  MOSICAn 


lute)  uhI  viab  famd  been  ilraloed.  HaipaicbiMdi  but  laof  been 
pRlcnn)  ■>  Ihc  unia  minort.  The  CiorUn  cl  Pnetoriiu, 
•■  4ii'8,  a  pnaially  the  time  piub  ■■  thai  ol  the  laifc  tbe 
pottseflsJOD  of  which  hu  bcvD  itiributd  to  KuMld,  e^  433'S. 
It  i>  >  very  Itir  ineu  betwocn  C.  SnbcnnioD'i  iSlh-ccntury 
Dntdeo  pitch,  a'  41;,  ud  tbe  orguu  of  Rentlui  Huiii,  a' 
4iS-i.  Slein  luDcd  Moutl'i  piino  to  *  lock  a'  ^iiS,  tsd  the 
Bioulvowl  pluot  uied  (t  tbe  lAodon  PbUhunKmic  Sodelir 
la  iUfnt  coKstl  Mti)  iKR  tuned  to  1  lock  if  Jot-S,  whkfa 
fivo»miantoMo'4"JJ- 

'  Auonikc  to  SduDdJcr  INudcrrkaaiscii  Mmik-Ziiliml, 
1855,  NoL  S  end  q)  end  the  icpoit  of  tbe  Fcencb  CommJwian, 
ttS9,  the  rise  in  pitch  begui  tt  lb<  Congrcu  of  VltniA  in  1S16, 
the  miltticy  bonda  beua  the  am;.  Wiih  tbe  inpcavementi 
in  wind  iiuUuinriitt  thia  conliniied.  u  i  moie  bcilliiot  eSect 
was  gained.  Irx  iftij  Wcbec'i  EtiryaiUlie  is  recorded  u  havioi 
been  played  in  Vienna  at  s'  4]T'S-  •nd  ia  >Bj4  Kmiiiei'i 
KcdUlafr  at  a'  440.  Tbr  meuuiemenu  an  dDubiful,  but  the 
v^aid  (endcDcy  11  clutr.  Sclieiblei,  by  bii  limple  and  accucaie 
tonometer,  bu  teforded  pilchci  in  Vienna  alxiut  1S34  from  a' 
tii-9  to  440-)-  About  that  time,  or  it  may  be  a  few  yean 
•arlier,  Sii  Gcoiie  Smart  established  a  lock  loc  the  PhiUitcnwnic 
Sodety,  0'  4)ja-  Focka  intended  for  this  vibtation  noraber, 
■tauped  "Phiihannomc,"  were  sold  ai  Late  as  J84G.  But  about 
that  year  tbe  periocming  pitch  of  the  SodMy  bid  Rwhed 
4Si'j.  Sir  Michael  Cca[a  was  tbe  conductot  i&t^iB54,and  fcon 
h^  acceptance  ol  that  bigh  pilch  tbe  fork  became  known  as 
Cnls's.  and  its  Incquion  was  attributed  to  him,  tboogh  on 
iniufficieni  grounds.  Id  1S74  a  fuclber  rise  in  the  tink  to  e*  454 
was  instigated  by  Sir  Chides  Hillf.  Tbe  Brilisb  aany  ts  bound 
by  His  Msjaly's  Rula  ud  RegulitioDS  to  pij.y  It  Ibe  Philhac- 

■s  tbe  uaodard  for  the  Military  TniniDg  School  at  KneUcr  Hall. 
But  the  Pbiihirmontc  Sodcty  adopted  the  Diapason  Notmil  in 
1S9&,  and  the  niiUlaiy  bands  hare  not  gone  with  il.  Id  point 
at  iaci,  they  ire  (rsduiilly  gdng  bigher,  and  the  brass  bands, 
which  are  lo  impoiUnt  in  tbe  North  of  Eogliiid  ind  in  Wales, 
we  not  behind  ihcm. 

It  wu  the  brepressible  upward  tendency  that  caused  the 
French  govemmeni  in  igjg,  actbig  with  the  advice  of  HalEvy, 
Ueyeibeer,  Auber,  Ambroise  Thomas  and  Rossini,  to  esubtiah 
by  Uw  tbe  Diaftsam  jVsraui,  Other  counlries  have  gndoiUy 
telhnnd.  and,  wiib  ten  eiceptlons,  the  Ion  inldi  derived  bmu 
the  DiapasDO  Normal  nay  be  said  10  penail  ihcoughout  the 
■uslcal  WDcU.  Great  Bcitain  has  been  the  laat  to  fall  in,  hut 
the  predominance  of  iIk  low  pitch,  mtrodaced  at  Covent  Garden 
Open  line*  i&So,  is  assucicL  The  propciclon  ol  Queen's  UaU, 
London,  did  much  lor  il  when  ibey  undeclooh  tbe  alteniiaii,  it 
■rut  cxpesse,  ol  their  large  concert  organ,  which  had  only  jiut 
been  eeecttd.  In  i3g6  the  Pbithaimonic  Sodtiy  decided  upon  * 
perfonning  pitdi,  oslemibiy  1,1  68°  Fihr.,  of  a'  439;  and  in  1899 
Uetirs  Broadwood  nude  1  suci«s(ul  eSorf  to  get  lUs  vibration 
number  accepted  by  their  competilore  in  Great  Britain,    Tin 

not  yet  lowertd.  ud  witb  the  mililiry  and  brass  bands. 

The  coosldentlon  o(  lempeiilure  a*  afiecling  Ihc  use  of  a 
standard  pitch  was  not  attended  to  when  (he  Fnndi  government 
famed  its  oidonDancc.  Hie  15*  Ceoiigrade  illacbed  to  tbe 
ducriplnn  of  the  studird  lork  En  Pahs  wia  Intended  lor  the 
dtiniliDn  ud  verification  of  tbe  fork  only.  The  alteration  of 
the  fork  due  to  heal  is  scarcely  perccplibJe,  but  wind  inatmmenls. 
and  pinkululy  the  organ,  else  nlnKai  proponionately  to  the 
increase  in  Eenpcnluie  of  the  surrounding  air,  because  sound 
travels  at  an  enhanced  nie  as  the  lenpecatare  risn.  Tht 
coeRxtent  of  this  rise  Is  cquivaknl  lo  hall  a  Vibration  (o  j) 
per  degree  Fahr.  pee  Kcond,  D.  ].  BUikley  (£iiay  n  UusUel 
PIkk,  CaUlogue  of  tht  Royal  Military  Eihibilion.  Chelsea, 
i89<s|,  and  Victor  Mahllkin  (Cdlobfu  itxrip^l  il  t*alyti^%t  du 
Ifuiit,  BniuUes,  trolilAne  vohime,  qipendice,  1900)  have 
neorded  thdr  experience  ol  wind  instruments  under  chRngrs 
•I  lempelatnie.  The  Frencb  CciTuniseton.  in  slablishlng  the 
Diapason  Normal,  ihouH  have  dween  a  tcDpetatiue  of  so^  C. 


There  would  (hOi  havi 

wouM  be  a  gml  advintsge  lo  flst  thi*  hjghec  ft 
•dopted.  It  »a)  proposed  io  iba  StiBun-CsnEi 
in  18S5.  but  UDI  carried.  Table  U.,  showlnB  oi 
obttiaed  in  >a^,  fac  the  meisuRincBls  o(  wU 
responsible,  prove  how  chimerical  it  is  to  .bi 
nccutacy  than  is  toand  between  4js  and  44s  *ibi 

TMel. 


t49^  (o  1690.  Ptteh  deKendiiig. 


"  Schick.  Heidelberg  t5>i 
bi.  Hutbarg  .  IMS-I&fl 
-----.  Himbuil        IMJ 


liiiloltoo.    Pin^  la 


AnKikl  SthKck.  Hcidclbcii .  1311 
Stnsbng  Mhuter.     A.  SI- 

Trinity  Colkte,  Cambiidgc .  IIS» 
Vtrjalllcs  oraan  ....  1780 
Pn.«Driu.  ■•^crtis  rainoit-  liifi 
St  Micbaet's,  Hamburg  .  .  1761 
Pascal  TisMn's  uadngJorfc, 


Sljacobi,HM>bu.g," 

-..■ibeig.  < ,., 

Seville  CBthednl.  .  Ilgt-ITOD 
OM  Enrlnh  tuning-Fcirk  <.  171} 
.IrT^erial     RiiBiiui    Cjnirt 

Stein's  tanlDE-lork.  Vienna'  1780 

Handel's  I uning-lork  .    .      .  17)1 

PraetorlBs.  CkrrtM  .  .  .  t61> 
Pepunem's    tunlng'lark 

(Brndwwd)   ....  1B13 


Sir  Giarte  Smsn.  Ftilllisr- 
Schdbkr    No     1..    VSenna  ' 

Monnrs"uo!rg-loti[.  Pari  ' 
Sch^4s  No.  '11..  Fkris  ' 
Ri  '[ak,Dres. 


open iSji 

Hulfsli's  lunliw-lnrk  .  .  .  IS41 
Na^onn.  San  Carlo  .  iSj? 
Sociaty  ol  Arts  intended  lor 

M«-      S™     i_M6    lbs 


Smith  and  EHk 
M'LndandEnii 

Ecfmahl ', 


tiUa  and  EUi 

£IIi>  .... 
EUiiandHipkioi 


Silwblet     . 
ragnarddcUToi 
ScbeiUtr      . 

NUn     .     . 

SdKibkr     .     . 

:agiiaSdelsToi 
Scbeibisc     .-  . 

Schribler     ,     , 


s: 


:w 


l>uli  fiud  eptn 


te-! 


PrrCHBEBtTOE— PITCHER  PLANTS 

bcudHivcdriantcr«UliicniclH.  OnihtMberhi 


663 


PhHIunnonlc^  ti 


OicbcBnl  PIkL.    18m, 


*'.%° 


Vtritel  by  A.  I.  H(pUiu. 
tbc  trmtcdUut  Band  uy  bf 


Bu[  {«  LcipiiK  1 


PnCHSlBNDR  01  OiAKTiaTi,  ■  ndncnl  ^iccin  coupling 
dMnliiUy  o(  urtniam  oiidc,  0(  jmpoiUiKe  u  i  Muicc  of 
nnniuin  tad  ndium.  It  fa  a  wrj'  heavy  (sp«d£c  graviiy  90- 
0'7),  compacl  mineral  wiih  t.  toncboidal  lo  uncvtn  (raclurt,  uid 
•  bnmUi  to  velvct-Uuk  coloic  and  piicky  hiMR.  Ciystab 
Are  mm  they  have  the  form  gf  regulu  eccahedra  ot  \esi 


.  Tfce  fci 


■  si.' 


.  . ,  ml  i[  mt  cuiy  called 
pitdtUendt,  bfoiiue  o<  its  ippmiiDn;  but  hs  me  n*tUM 
utt  not  jccognized  uniil  17B9,  vhu  M-  Hi  Kliprotk'i  uslyiit 
of  ii  mulled  La  the  dhtmrfry  of  tbe  cttment  uruuiua,  Anily» 
o(  nulenl  from  different  localttui  elhlbil  vide  vaiimtionl  in 
diemica]  composition.  In  additios  to  unnium  oiids,  then 
tn  Ihociuln.  ccrimn  (lad  lanthanum),  yltriuin  ud  lead  oKidcfl, 
c*^  vuyinf  inunount  from  1  tlaccop  to  io%i  CBkiunt,  inn, 
nugnesHm,  nxan^nesc,  tilica,  water,  Ac,  are.aho  prascat  Id 

(UOi.  11-73;  U0>,  I3'S9%)  ilu  vary  couideribly.  The 
mineral  b  often  described  as  a  umnate  of  uranyl.  Lead,  IhorLum 
and  ceriuin ;  but  In  the  least  altered  material  fiom  Branchville 
la  Connecticut  the  uranous  oiide  predominates,  whLbt  in  altered 
qieciraeiii  uranic  oiide  H  in  eictis.  In  the  doxly  allied 
mineral,  thorianitc,   thorimn  predominates  (TfaOn   76;    UO^, 

be  obtained  ani£cially  as  cubic  cryslali,  II^  MCna  probable 
tbat   pitchtteide   consbts  of  bompTpbau)  tn^funi  of  tlie«e 

The  ndio-aclive  properties  o[  pitchblende' are  ol  special 
iaienit.  The  fact  that  this  mineral  i>  mote  ilnNigLy  radio-actLve 
than  metaltLc  uianium  led  to  the  discovciy  in  it  oi  the  ticmenu 
ndiuRi,  polonium  and  actinium.  When  pttcbblcnde  n  ignited 
01.  dinidvcd  in  diLulc  sulphuric  acid,  a  gu  i>  evolved  which 
coosifU  lafgely  of  helium  and  Bi|on:  tcrtestrial  helium  nat  fint 
lecofnixed  in  this  mineral. 


., nally  found  in  tlie  lr\rtai 

4|ili>ni»  at  Uom  Arendal  and  oihct  plocck  Ctysttif  arc  found 
under  timilarcoiuiilioMai  Middlcio«niii4BraiJchvLilcinCoiinHii- 
tjil,  Llano  county  in  Tcia.  ("  niveniie  "J,  Miicliril  county  in  Nnnh 
Caraiina.  ViLlenveirtt  in  OnbR:,  and  oHier  American  loeaLiTin. 


n  properly  renrictcd,  a 


tunc*  ai  lav  aa  6*5;  Ihcriun.  rrrivini 


teiblin  Is 
:<Aind^  S| 


Khar  Mowuaim 


,  ar  ioharnigcorRennadt,  Maricnt 
■aehimsthat  and  Pnibnn  In  B 


r,   Gili^n 


_,  JiiK,  la  PHiwilh,  Xednitli,  CnmF 

ebcwhne  In  Cornwall. 

Often  atiDcLalHl  with  pitebblende.  and  renking  froin  in  alm- 
t(en,  if  an  orange-ytlMw,  amorphoui,  fum-ISke  miperal  called 
fumnile,  wUeh  it  a  hydrooa  uranic  vilde  with  annll  amount*  of 
bad.  afciuB,  irofl.  6t.  (L.  J.  S.) 

PITCHBR.  it)  A  tarfe  vtssd  lot  holding  liquids,  derived 
tlinnicb  Fi.  (ton  Med.  Lat.  ^kothhi;  the  Lai.  vaHant  UcaiiiiH, 
Cr.  ffinc,  hat  pvea  Ibe  Cer  Bakrr,  Eng.  beaker  (f .?.).  (i)  One 
who  "  lutches,"  tJ.  Ihtaws,  caiti.  But;  the  naiM  ol  the  player 
in  the  ■ame  1^  base-ball  who  pitches  or  delivers  Ibe  ball  to  the 

PITCHQI  PLAMTB,  ia  botany,  the  Dane  0vcn  to  ptteti  ia 

in  form.  The  plant  generally  uodeisiood  by  tbi  mtnt  is 
Sipcnlha,  a  genus  containing  nearly  liaty  species,  nativB  ol 
tropical  Asia,  nonh  Australia  and  (one  only}  of  Mada^^iscar. 
North  Borneo  is  especially  rich  in  species.    They  are  shrubby 

LLlu  ptaloigationi  of  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  beyond  the  leaf-tip. 


ioniiT— imnoel-  or  coniucopia-thap«d  piithera— occur*  ii 
Wper  pan.  In  Iha  lEneairial  i] 
winp  traverse  iht  length  of  the  pitdiei;  in  the  tubular  or  fund- 
shaped  fsnD  the  wings  arenarrDw  or  tidge-IUu.  The  moalh  of 
tiw.piccber  ha*  a  corrugated  rim  (ptristomB)  farmad  by  is- 
carviag  of  the.mar^n,  the  conni  Hirfacc  Dl  which  b  Srm  and 
shining.    It  it  ti*VBie4  b; 


664 


PITCHER  PLANTS 


X  Iroi 


llULpcd  cJcpansioD.  A  itudy  o[  Lhc  dcvclopmcDl  ol  the  piltbclt 
specially  in  the  yoimg  ^tchen  o£  BcedLing  plimlit  ihowi  llut 
Ifac  inflated  portion  is  a  dcveltqmiciit  of  Ihi  midrib  oI  the  leaf, 
wblle  the  Kings,  which  arc  epcciiUl]'  vfU  tepretnted  in  ibe 
tetreMiial  type  ol  pitcher,  rcpiewot  the  upper  portion  of 
tbe  kai-blade  which  bu  become  Mpanied  from  Uu  lower 
porlioa  tiy  the  tcodrili  the  lid  is  rFgitded  u  repmentiDg 
two  leaflets  vhich  have  become  fuud.  The  shott  straight  or 
curved  process  Irom  the  back  of  the  pitcher  behiiid  the  lid 
nprcaenU  tbe  ottanic  ap»  ol  Ihc  leaf  <A  in  fig.  i). 
<  The  site  of  the  pitcher  varies  widely  in  the  diSerent  species, 
Iron  an  inch  lo  a  foot  or  moR  in  depth.  Tbe  colour  also  Tariei 
COuMerably,  even  in  diSerent  pilchen  of  the  une  Individual, 


Flo.  J.— Leaves  of  Sarraenta  /vfaMe. 
\,  Acinctivc  turfan  of  lid;  B.  conducimf ;  C.  (landutar:  and  D. 
detentive  surface ;  aHgniAed'   A  and  Dare  taVcnfroo  S.fi — 


formly  green  or  more  or  lesa  ^mted,  hlotc. 
Una,  largely  or  wholly  of  j 
gUnda,  yielding  a  sweet 


oulh  of  t> 


vaoiN.EJvirdi- 

irs  on  the  stem  and 
alk  to  the  tid  and 


n  the  base  of  the  leaf^t 
peiislome.  Embedded  in  the  incurved  margin  01  the  r>m 
which  affords  a  very  insecure  foothold  to  Insecii,  are  *  number 
of  large  glands  eicreling  a  sweet  juice.  The  cavity  of  (he 
irilcher  is  in  some  species  lioed  throughout  with  a  smooth 
glistening  surface  over  which  ^ands  are  uniformly  dittrlbutcd; 
these  glands  secrete  a  liquid  which  is  found  in  the  pitcher  even 
it  (he  young  state  while  it  is  ttm  hermetically  chxcd  by  the  lid. 
h  other  species  the  gland*  are  confined  to  the  lov  portion  of 
the  cavity  autface,  whUe  the  upper  part  bear  »•  imoolh  t(»y 
(Ccretian  oa  which  it  is  Impoisihle,  or  at  any  rate  exlmntly 
dilKculI,  lor  insects  to  secure  a  foothold.    Thi 

"  delentive  "  gland-bearing  area.  It  has  been  proved  thai 
the  secretion  contains  a  digestive  ferment  capable  of  rendering 
tirotetd  matter  Klubhi.  Insects,  eipedally  running  insects, 
whidi  have  loUowtd  the  track  of  honey  gUndt  upwatdi  from 
the  stem  ilong  the  leaf,  reach  the  mouth  of  the  pitcher,  and  ' 
thMf  •flona  Milp.thi  ittnaivt  iMrgiDBl  ^a«dt  Id  over  ia 


tbe  Squid.  The  imoMh  walls  above  the  VipSd  tSoti  u  IM- 
bold,  >ad  Ihey  are  drowned^  iheii  bodies  are  digested  and  ihi 
products  of  digeslioi  ate  uiiioiatcly  absorbed  by  the  tfahdi  in 
the  pitchei-walL     Thus  Nefmllus  secures  a  supply  id  utio- 

similar  to  that  adopted  by  the  Stilish  smideir,  buiterwen, 
and  other  insectivorous  plaats. 

Ttaeside'SaddlBplaiU,5lrraciiiia,n>tiveoI  theealtccn  Cniled 
Stales,  is  also  known  a*  a  pitcher-plant.  There  ue  about  icTeB 
species,  herbs  with  clusters  of  tadlcil  leaves  some  or  aH  of  whidi 
are  mote  or  less  trumpet-  or  pitcher-tbaped.  Tbe  leaf  has  a 
broadly  sheathing  base  succeeded  by  a  shot  sulk  beuiof  the 
pitcher,  which  represents  a  much  enlarged  midiib  with  a  cine- 
like  lamina.  Above  the  rim  of  the  pitcher  is  a  broad  flattened 
lid,  which  it  also  a  timinat  development.  The  surface  of  the 
leaf,  especially  the  laninar  wing,  bears  glaoda  which  la  spriag 
exude  large  glistening  drops  olneclar.  Tbe  Ud  and  nHMtb  of  the 
pitcher  arc  brighter  coloured  this  the  rot  of  the  leaf,  which 


Fm.  Sf-Cettafjftii  Wffciilarii.  showing  onliaary  leaves  indpitchii^ 
Uw  ri|^t  haud  one  cut  open  to  show  ivtcnial  structuib 

and  in  IndividuAls  according  to  exposure  to  sunlight  and  ocha 
conditions.  This  forms  the  attractive  area,  and  the  inner  nr- 
face  of  the  lid  also  bears  numerous  glands,  ss  well  as  downward- 
poijiting  hairs,  each  ^h  a  delicately  str&aled  surface  (fig.  a.  A), 
Below  it  is  the  conducting  surface  (fi)  of  glassy  epidermal  cdk, 
with  short  downwtid-diiected  points,  trbich  facilitiile  the 
descent,  but  impede  the  urent  ii  *n  insect.  Then  come  the 
glandular  siJrface  (C),  which  a  fonoed  oi  Bu»th  polislied 
epidermis  with  oumerous  glands  that  SKrele  the  fluid  atucnta 
of  the  pitcher,  arui  hnally  the  detentive  surface  (D),  of  which 
the  ceils  are  prndoced  into  Ung  and  Btrong  bristka  vUcb  paiM 


Fic.  4.— Morphology  of  I^hen. 
IV,  Odinaiy  leaf  of  Ccphaliinii. 

C'and  D,  Othcc  abnoonai  loni 

■     "tn-^M  lonnation  of 


PITCHSTONE— PTTHECANTHRDPUS  ERECTUS 


665 


feast  is  largely  sbar«d  by  unbidden  ifiMsts.  Not  to  speak  of 
hisects  yi/hlch  feed  upon  the  pitcher  itself,  some  drop  their  eggs 
inlo  the  putrescent  mass,  where  their  larvae  find  abundant 
nourishment,  while  birds  often  slit  open  the  pilcheis  with  their 
bealcs  and  devour  the  maggots  in  their  turn. 

CepkttlotHs  fotticularis,  a  native  of  south-west  Australia, 
a  sm^  herbaceous  plant,  bears 
ordinary  leaves  dose  to  the 
ground  as  well  as  pitchers. 
The  latter  somewhat  resem* 
Ue  in  general  form  thoae  of 
Nepenthes,  The  lid  ia  especially 
attractive  ta  insecU  from  Its  bright  colour  and  honey  aecsetloB; 
three  wings  lead  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  pitcher,  on  the 
inside  of  which  a  row  of  sharp  spmes  points  downwards, 
and  below  this  a  circular  ridge  (r,  fig.  3)  armed  with  papillae 
serves  as  a  conducting  area.  A  nnmbcr  of  ^anda  on  the  in^ 
terior  of  the  pitcher  secrete  a  plentiful  fluid  which  has  digestive 
pcoperties.  Comparison  with  monstrous  focms  shows  that  the 
pitcher  of  Cepkdatus  arises  by  a  calceohite  pouching  from  the 
upper  surface  of  the  ordinary  spathulate  leaves,  the  bd  here 
arising  foom  the  proximal  side  of  the  pitcher-ovifice. 

•PITCHSfONB  (German  PtcksUin^  from  iA&  resemblance  to 
pitch),  m  petrology,  a  glassy  igneous  rock  having  a  resinous 
lustre  and  breaking  with  a  hollow  or  oonchoida)  ftacture.  It 
differs  from  obsidian  pritadpally  in  Its  rather  dull  hisire,  for 
obodiaa  is  bright  and  vitreoua  In  appearance;  all  pitchstoncs 
also  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  in  combination 
amounting  to  from  5  to  10%  of  their  weight  or  10  to 
10%  of  their  vdnme.  The  majority  of  the  rocks  of  this 
class  occur  as  intrusive  dikes  or  veins;  they  are  gittssy  forms 
of  quarts  pondftyiy  and  other  dike  rocks.  Their  dull  lustre 
may  be  ^nnected  with  the  great  abundance  of  minute  crystal- 
lites and  microlites  they  nearly  always  contain.  These  are 
visible  only  in  microscopic  sectk>ns,  and  thctr  varied  shapes  make 
pitclstones  very  interesting  to  the  microscopist.  Although 
pAchstones  are  known  wliich  are  of  Devonian  age  {t.g.  the 
gfaissy'  dadte  of  the  Tay  Bridge  in  Fife,  Scotland,  and  the 
andcsite-pitchstones  of  the  Cheviot  Hills),  most  of  them  are 
Tertiary  or  recent,-  as  like  all  natural  glasses  they  tend  to  ctys* 
talUze  or  become  devitrified  in  course  of  time.  In  some  of  the 
older  pitchstoncs  the  greater  part  of  the  mass  Is  changed  to 
a  dull  felsitic  substanoei  while  only  nodules  or  kernels  of 
unaltered  glasa  remain. 

Some  pHchstones  are  very  add  rocks,  containing  70  to  75  *%  of  stitca, 
and  kavedoK  chemical  affinities  to  graniccb  and  rhyolites.  Others 
contain  more  alkalis  and  lew  silica,  being  apparently  vitreous  cyfies 
of  trachyte  or  keratophyrc;  others  have  the  OMnposition  of  dacice 
and  andesate,  but  the  olack  basaltic  glasses  are  not  usually  classified 
among  the  pltctistones.  Very  well  known  rocks  of  this  group 
occur  at  Ghemnita  and  Meissen  in  Saxony.  They  are  brown  or  dark 
green,  very  often  perlitic  (sec  PETaoLOCV,  Plate  I.,  fig  5).  and  show 
progrrasive  devitrification  starting  from  cracks  and  joints  and  spread* 
mg  inwards  through  the  mass.  For  a  long  time  the  pitchstohe  dikes 
of  Artan  in  Seot&nd  have  been  famous  among  geologists  for  the 
great  beauty  and  variety  of  skeleton  crystals  they  contain.  Thcte 
pitchstoncs  are  duU  pecn  in  hand  specimens.  Some  of  them  con- 
tain ph^nocrysuof  feUpar,  augite,  &c.:  others  do  not,  but  in  all  there 
b  great  abundance  of  branching  feathery  trystalline  growths  in  the 
ground  mass:  they  resemble  the  branches  01  fir  trees  or  the  fronds 
or  fcm%  numits  crystalline  rods  being  built  together  in  aegregates 
which  often  recall  the  frost  patterns  on  a  window-pane.  •  It  is  »up- 
posed  that  the  mineral  they  consist  of  is  hornblende.  In  addition 
to  these  larger  growths  there  are  many  small  microlites  scattered 
through  the  glass,  also  hair-like  trichites,  and  fine  rounded  gtobulites. 
When  phenocrysuare  present  the  small  crystals  are  planted  On  their 
Mirfaces  like  Krasa  growing  from  a  turf-oqvered  wall.  These  pitch- 
stones  are  beueved  to  proceed  from  the  great  eruptive  centres  which 
were  active  in  western  Scotland  in  early  Tertiary  times.    Another 

K'tchstone  of  the  same  period  forms  a  great  craggy  ridge  or  scuir 
the  island  of  Ein  (Scotland).  At  one  time  regarded  as  a  lava 
flow  occupying  an  «d  stream  channel  it  has  recently  been  described 
as  an  intrusive  sheet.  It  is  from  aoo  to  300  ft*  thick.  The  rock  Is 
a  dark,  nearly  black,  pitchstone-porphyry,  with  glancing  idiomor- 
phie  crystals  of  felspar  in  a  vitreous  base.  It  contains  no  quartz: 
the  felspar*  are  anorthodase,  and  with  them  there  arc  nomrrous 
crystals  of  green  augite.  The  ground  mass'concains  small  crystallites 
of  felspar,  and  is  of  a  rich  brown  colour  in  thin  section  with  well 
developed  perlitic  structure  (see  Pbtrolocy,  Plate  11.,  fig.  1).    In 


diemical  oMnpefaitiott  this  rode  resembles  the  trachytes  rather  than 
the  rhyolites.  In  Isigg  and  Skye  there  are  many  dilccs  of  pitchatone, 
mostly  of  intermediate  vather  than  of  acid  chiMcter.  all  ooanected 
with  the  great  eruptive  activity  which  chaiacteriaed  that  region  in 
eariy  Tertiary  times. 

The  folkywing  analyses  give  the  chemical  corapodtion  of  a  few 
updl-knowo  pitchsu 


SiOk 

AI,0. 

Fe«0» 

MgO 

CaO 

Na/) 

K*0 

M£> 

I.  Mdssen,  Saxony  .     .     . 
11.  Corriegills.  Arran       .     . 
III.  Scoir  of  Elgg.  Scotland 

7a.4J 
73*07 

II '06 
ii-a6 

14-01 

0-7S 
324 

4-43 

0-38 

.    tr. 

0-^ 

1*35 

1-53 

3f0I 

9*86 
0^ 
41$ 

3-»0 
5-6l 
698 

7.64 
5-45 

2*70  . 

The  first  two  <A  these  contain  much  water  for  rocks  the  ingredients 
of  which  are  bat  little  decomposed.  They  are  of  add  or  rhyoHtie 
character,  while  the  third  ia  richer  in  allcalb  and  omtains  less  silica; 
it  belongs  more  naturally  to  the  intermediate  rocks  (or  trachytes.) 

O.S.F.) 

PITBSCI  {Pitesti),  also  written  PiTEsn  and  Pttest,  tha 
capital  of  the  department  of  Argesh,  Rumania^  situated  among 
the  outlymg  hills  of  the  Carpathians,  on  the  river  Argesh,  which 
is  here  joined  by  several  sxnaller  streams.  Pop.  (1900),  15,570. 
The  surrounding  ui^ands  produce  good  wine,  fruit  and  grain, 
besides  being  rich  in  petroleum  and  salt;  and,  as  the  main 
Walachian  raUway  is  met  at  Pitesd  by  lines  from  C&mpulung 
and  Henhannstadt  In  Transylvania,  the  town  has  ^,  ooosider- 
able  trade.   It  has  manufactures  of  lacquer  and  varnidi. 

PITH  (O.E.  pitha,  cognate  with  Du.  .^'/,  kernel  of  a  nut), 
properly  the  medulla,  the  central  column  of  spongy  celluhir 
tissue,  in  the  stems  of  dicotyledonous  plants  (see  Plants: 
Anatomy).  The  word  is  thence  applied  to  the  spinal  cord  or 
marrow  in  animals,  to  the  medullary  end  of  a  hair,  and  to 
that  which  forms  the  central  part  or  core  of  any  object  or 
substance;  hence,  figuratively,  vigour,  energy,  concentrated 
force.  Very  light  hats  or  helmets  are  made  of  the  dried  pith 
of  the  Indian  spongewood  or  hat  plant  {Asschynonune  aspera, 
the  native  name  being  Solah).  These  pith  hats  ate  worn  by 
Europeans  in  India  and  the  East.  The  Chinese  Ricepaper-tree 
{Aralia  or  Fatsia  papyrijera),  from  the  pith  of  which  the  ddi- 
cate  white  film  known  as  "^  rice-paper  "  is  made,  is  also  known 
as  the  pith -plant. 

PITHBCAMTHROPUS  ERECTUS  (Erect  Ape-Man),  the 
name  given  by  Dr  Eugene  Dubois,  of  the  Dutch  army  medical 
service,  to  the  imaginary  creature  which  he  constructed  from 
fossilised  remains  found  by  him  in  Java.  These  fragments 
consisted  of  a  thigh-bone,  two  teeth,  and  the  upper  part  of  a 
skull,  and  were  unearthed  hi  1B91-1892  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
fiengawan  River  near  Trinfl.  Tlie  skuU  appears  to  have  been 
low  and  depressed  with  strong  supraciliary  ridges;  the  teeth 
are  very  large,  and  the  femur  is  quite  human.  The  teeth  and 
skull  were  found  together,  the  femur  a  few  yards  away  a  year 
afterwards.  The  discoverer,  however,  stated  it  as  his  belief 
that  the  fragments  were  portions  of  the  same  skeleton  and 
belonged  to  a  creature  half-way  between  man  and  the  higher 
apes  and  of  the  Pleistocene  age.  Much  discussion  followed  the 
**  find,'*  and  many  authorities  have  given  an  opinion  adverse  to 
Dr  Dubois*s  theory.  The  prevailing  opinion  is  that  the  bones 
are  human.  They  are  not  held  to  represent  what  has  been 
called  "  the  missing  link,'*  bridging  over  the  gulf  between  man 
and  the  apes,  but  almost  all  authorities  are  agreed  that  they 
constitute  a  further  link  in  the  chain,  bringing  man  nearer 
his  Simian  prototype.  L.  Manouvrier  concludes  that  Homo 
javanensis  walked  erect,  was  of  about  medium  height,  and  was 
a  true  precursor,  possibly  a  direct  ancestor,  of  man.  He  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  cranial  capacity  decreases  in 
proportion  to  the  antiquity  of  the  human  skulls  found,  and 
that  the  pithecanthropus  skull  has  a  capacity  of  from  900  to 
1000  cc. — that  is, "  stands  at  the  level  of  the  smallest  which  have 
been  occasionally  found  amongst  the  reputedly  lowest  savage 
peoples." 

See  Dubois.  PHhecantkropus  trtctui  (Batavia,  1894) ;  a  later  paper 
read  by  Dr  Dubois  before  the  Berlin  Anthropological  Society  was 
translated  in  the  Smithsonian  Retort  for  1898.  Also  a  paper  read 
by  Dr  D.  1.  Cunningham  bdore  tne  Royal  Dublin  Society,  January 
33,  1895  (reported  m  Nature^  February  38.  1 895);  O.  C.  Marsh. 


666 


PITHIV1ERS-:PITMA1^ : 


Am9ri€m  Jmru.  tf  Sekne$  (Inne  1896);  "  Le  Fidwcanthniput  el 
I'origine  de  I'homoie."  in  BtM.  de  la  see.  d^atukrop.  de  Paris  (1896). 
p|K  460-67;  L.  Maiiouvrier, "  OiacuflMondu  pithccanthropas  cucctus 
oomme  prtcurteur  de  rhomme."  in  Bulk  «•(.  4'Mttkrop,  de  Pans 
(189s),  pp.  13-47  and  316-320:  L.  Manouvrier.  BttU,  soc.  d'antkrop. 
(1896),  p.  419  aqq. :  "  The  Trinil  Fcinur  contrasted  with  the  Femora 
at  various  savage  and  civilized  races,"  in  J^mrmU  «f  AnoL  Mid 
PhysieL  (1896).  xxxi.  1  seq.;  Vircbow.  "  Ober  den  Pithecanthropus 
erectus  Dufoob  "  in  Zettsdv^ftf.  Etknohpr  (1895).  PP-  33fit  435t  ^8: 

PTTHIVIERS,  a  town  of  noxth  ccotral  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondiasement  in  the  department  of  Loiret«  28  m.  N.N.E.  of 
Orleans,  on  the  railway  to  Maicaherbes.  Pop.  (1906),  5676. 
The  church  of  St  Solomon,  chiefly  in  the  Renaissance  style, 
and  remains  of  the  andent  ramparts  are  of  interest.  Staiues 
have  been  erected  of  the  mathematician  Denis  Poiason  (d. 
1840),  and  of  the  physician  and  agriculturist  Duhamel  de  Mon- 
cean  (d.  1782),  natives  of  Pithlviers.  The  town  is  an  agri- 
cultural market,  and  an  important  centre  for  the  saffron  of  the 
region  of  G&linaris  the  cultivation  of  which,  originally  intro- 
duced by  the  Jews  of  Avignon  in  the  1 2th  century  was  fostered 
by  Louis  XIV.  The  shrine  of  St  Solomon  in  the  9th  century 
and  that  of  St  Gregory,  an  Armenian  bishop,  in  the  loth, 
formed  the  nuclei  of  the  town;  and  the  donjon  built  at  the  end 
of  the  loth  century  for  H61dise,  lady  of  Ptthivicts,  wa^  one  of 
the  finest  of  the  period. 

PITHOM,  one  of  the  "  treasure  cities  "  stated  to  have  been 
built  for  Pharaoh  by  the  Hebrews  in  Goshen  during  the  Oppres- 
sion (Exod.  1.  11).  We  have  here  the  Hebraized  form  of  the 
Egyptian  Petdm  **  House  of  (the  sun-god)  Etdm,"  in  Greek, 
PatQmos,  capital  of  the  8th  nome  of  Lower  Egypt  and  situated 
in  the  Wadi  Tumilat  on  the  canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea. 
Succoth  (Egyptian  Thuket)  was  identical  with  it  or  was  in  its 
hnmediate  neighbourhood.  The  site,  now  Tell  el  Maskhuta, 
has  yielded  several  important  monuments,  including  the  t>est 
preserved  of  the  trilingual  stelae  of  Darius  which  commemorated 
his  work  on  the  canal.  The  earliest  name  yet  found  is  that  of 
Rameses  H.  of  the  XlXlh  Dynasty,  but  in  one  case  he  hits 
usurped  earlier  work,'  apparently  of  the  XHth  Dynasty  (a 
sphinx),  and  the  city  was  evidently  very  andent.  Several  of 
the  monuments  from  Pithom  have  been  removed  to  Ismailia 
on  the  Suez  CanaL 

See  Ed.  Naville.  The  Store'  City  of  Pithom  and  Oif  route  of  Ike 
Exodus  (London.  1885):  W.  M.  F.  Pctrie,  Tonis,  pc.  i.  (London, 
1885):  W.  CoUniscbeff.  "  Stdle  de  Oariw  "  in  JUcuetl  de  tmeux 
relates  d  la  phtMctu  et  rarck6oIogie  igypttentus  ot  asxvrumues,  xiiL 
99.  and  the  articre'RAiiESEs.  (F.  Ll.  C.) 

PITHOU.  PIERRB  (1S39-1596),  French  lawyer  and  scholar, 
was  bom  at  Troycs  on  the  ist  of  November  1539.  His  taste  for 
literature  was  early  seen,  and  his  father  Pierre  (1496-1 556> 
cultivated  it  to  the  utmost.  He  was  called  to  the  Pans 
bar  in  1560.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  second  war  of  religion 
in  1567,  Pithou,  who  was  a  Calvinist,  withdrew  to  Sedan 
and  afterwards  to  Basel,  whence  he  returned  to  France 
on  the  publication  of  the  edict  of  pacification.  Soon  after- 
wards he  accompanied  the  due  de  Montmorency  on  bis 
embassy  to  England,  returning  shortly  before  the  massacre  of 
St  Barlbolomcw,  in  which  he  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life. 
Next  year  he  followed  the  example  of  Henry  of  Navarre  by 
abjuring  the  Protestant  faith.  Henry,  shortly  after  his  own 
accession  to  the  throne  of  France,  recognized  Pithou's  talents 
and  services  by  bestowing  upon  him  various  legal  appointments. 
The  most  important  work  of  his  life  was  his  cooperation  in  the 
production  of  the  Satire  Minippie  (1595),  which  did  so  much 
to  damage  the  cause  of  the  League;  the  harangue  of  the  Sieur 
d'Aubray  Is  usually  attributed  to  his  pen.  He  died  at  Nogent- 
tur-Seine  on  the  ist  of  November  1596.  His  valuable  library, 
specially  rich  in  MSS.,  was  for  the  most  part  transferred  to 
what  is  now  the  Bibliotheque  Nationolc  in  Paris. 

Pithou  wrote  a  great  number  of  legal  and  historical  books,  besides 
|>rer)aring  editions  of  »e\*craT  ancient  authors.  His  earliest  publica- 
tion was  Adeersariorvm  subsecivorttm  lib.  II.  (1565).  Perhaps  his 
dKdon  of  the  Letts  Vissgpikarmm  (1579)  was  his  most  valvablo  cxin- 
tfibutkm  to  htstorkml  science:  in  the  same  line  he  edited  the  Capittda 
of  Charicmagne,  Loub  the  Pious,  and  Charles  the  Bakl  In  1588.  and 
he  aho  assisted  his  brother  Fran^oia  in  preparing  an  edition  oif  the 


Corpus  juris  ecMouiei  ^Mij).  Hh  LUtrlis  it  rSfjiite  f^ieem 
(11994)  IS  reprinted  in  his  Opera  sacra  juridica  kis  ortce  wastdtoMts 
eeuecla  (160^).  In  classical  literature  he  was  the  first  who  made  the 
worid  acquainted  with  the  Fables  of  Phaedrus  (1596):  he  slsoetfitd 
the  PervtpUum  Veueru  (15^),  and  Juvenal  and  Pitrsius  (1585). 

Three  of  Pithou's  brothers  aqquired  distinction  as  iurists:  Jeak 
(lS24-l6o3),authorof  TraUi  de  police  et  du  ^euvememeni  des  Hpeb^ 
ttques,  and,  in  colbboration  witii  his  twin  brother  Nicolas  (1U4- 
1398).  of  InstttutioH  dumarmte  cArerMH :  and  FaxNCOis  (tM3-twi), 
author  of  Clossartum  ad  ttbros  eapitularium  (1588),  Tratte  it  Its- 
communication  et  de  Vtnterdttt  6fc-  (1587)* 

PmOUANO,  a  town  in  Italy,  province  of  Giosaeto.  Pop. 
(19Q1),  4416.  It  is  the  cathedad  city  of  the  bishopiic  Bimcd 
after  the  neighbotning  town  of  Sovana,  and  poaacsscs  a  i6(li' 
century  cathedfal  and  a  church  of  Che  iith-isth  ceaturio, 
Pitigliano  waaoriginaQy  a  fief  of  the  coimtihip  of  Sovana, 
which  in  1293  came  by  marriage  into  the  posansion  of  the 
Orsini.  In  1410  Sovana  was  taken  by  the  Sienocie,  but  bjr  the 
terms  of  a  peace  oonduded  in  141 7  the  Orsini  retained  Pitigliaao, 
Gentile  Oriifii  (aiwasriniilcd  1434)  assuming  the  tille  «l  count  of 
Piti^iano.  The  most  famous  of  the  line  of  counts  was  Niccob 
III.  (1442-tsto),  a  celebrated  condoUure,  Under  hb  succcsaon 
Pitigliano  became  the  scene  of  ceaseless  family  feuds  cvloda- 
ating  in  assassinations.  Inis6a  the  Medici  of  Florence  idicd 
part  of  their  territories,  and  acquired  the  rest  by  exchange  is 
I  s8o.   The  Orsini  stronghold  still  stands  in  the  town. 

P1TU)CHRY.  a  viUagc  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  38|  m.  N.W. 
of  Perth  by  the  Highland  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  1541.  It  lies 
on  the  left  bonk  oi  the  Tummel,  a  little  below  the  coafluenoe 
of  that  river  and  the  Garry,  sso  ft*  above  the  sea.  It  ii  a 
favourite  health  resort  and  tourist  centre.  Anwrng  the  im* 
mediate  attractions  are  the  pass  of  KiUieciankie,  the  falls  of 
Tummel,  the  exquisite  prospect  called  "  Queen's  View  "  (namd 
after  Queen  Victoria)  and  Loch  Tumnotel,  6  m.  to  the  wcsL 
One  m.  S.E.  of  the  vUlage  is  the  Black  Spouti  a  watecfali  of 
80  ft.  formed  by  the  Edradour. 

PITMAN.  SIR  ISAAC  (1813-1897).  English  pfaonognpher. 
was  bom  at  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire,  on  the  4th  of  January  i8t), 
and  was  educated  at  the  local  grammar  school.    He  started  ia 
life  as  a  clerk  in  a  cloth  factory,  but  in  1831  he  was  sent  to  tbe 
Normal  College  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society  is 
London.     Between  1832  and   1839  he  held  masterships  H 
Barten-on-Humber  and  Wolton-under-Edge,  but  he  was  da- 
missed  by  the  authorities  when  he  became  a  SwcdenbocgiaB, 
and  from  1839  to  1&43  he  conducted  a  private  school  of  his  owi 
at  Bath.    In  1829  he  took  up  Samuel  Taylor's  system  of  sboft* 
hand,  and  from  that  time  he  became  an  enthusiast  in  devckipiiv 
the  art  of  phonography.    In  1837  he  drew  up  a  manual  «l 
Taylor's  system  and  offered  it  to  Samuel  Bagster  (t77i-*i8s2)' 
The  publisher  did  not  accept  the  work,  but  suggested  tbaj 
Pitman  should  invent  a  new  system  (see  SHoaTHAKp)  oi  ba 
own.     The  result   was  his  Slatograpkic  Soundkaud  (1837)- 
Bagster's  friendship  and  active  help  had  been  scanred  by  Pit* 
man's  undertaking  to  verify  the  half-million  references  in  the 
Comprehcttsne  Bible,  and  he  published  the  inventor's  boob 
at  a  cheap  rate,  thus  helping  to  bring  the  system  within  die 
reach  of  all.     Pitman  devoted  himself  to  perfecting  phono- 
gnphy  and  propagating  its  Use,  and  established  at  Bath  a 
Phonetic  Institute  and  a  Pkondic  Journal  for  this  purpose; 
he  printed  in  shorthand  a  number  of  standard  wocfcsy  and  bii 
book  with  the  title  Pkomograpky  (1840)  went  through  many 
editions.   He  was  an  enthusiastic  spelling  reformer,  and  ad<^ed 
a  phonetic  system  which  he  tried  to  bring  into  general  use. 
Pitman  was  twice  married,  his  first  wife  dlying  m  1857,  and  ha 
second,  wliom  he  married  in  1861,  surviving  him.    In  1894  he 
was  knighted,  and  on  the  22nd  of  January  1897  he  died  at  Bath- 
Sir  Isaac  Pitman  popularized  shorthand  at  a  time  when  tk 
advance  of  the  newspaper  piess  and  modem  business  methods 
were  making  it  a  matter  of  great  oonmcrciad  importance.    Bis 
system  adapted  itself  readily  to  the  needs  of  journalism,  and 
its  use  revolutionized  the  work  of  reporting.    He  was  a  noa* 
smoker,  a  vegetarian,  and  advocated  temperance  principles. 

His  Ufe  was  written  by  Alfrrd  Baker  (1908)  and  (1902)  by  ks 
brother,  ^enn  Picnuin  (1813-191 1). 


PITdNI— PITt,  WILLIAM 


667 


FITONI,  Q19SBPn  OTTAVIO  (1657-1743).  Italian  masical 

composer,  was  born  at  Kieti  on  the  i8th  of  March  1657.    He 

came  to  Rome  as  a  boy  and  sang  in  the  choir  of  SS  Apostoti. 

Foggia  gave  him  Instructions  in  counterpoint,  and  he  became 

maestro  di  CappcIIa,  first  at  Terra  di  Rotondo  and  later  (1673) 

at  Assisi.    In  1676  he  went  to  Rieti,  and  in  1677  to  Rome, 

where  he  held  various  appointments,  dying  on  the  f^t  of  Jeb^ 

niary  1743  as  maestro  di  Cappella  at  St  Marco»  w|iere  he  waf 

buried.     Pitoni  appears  to  have  devoted  himself  exclusively 

to  church  music,  and  although  he  did  not  disdain  the  modem 

style  with  instrumental  accompaniment,  he  is  best  known  by 

his  Masses  and  other  works  in  the  manner  of  Pialestrina. 

Several  volumes  of  his  autograph  composition  are  in  the  Saniint 
Library  at  Mdnster. 

FITT,  THOMAS  (1653-1 726),  British  East  India  merchant  and 
politician,  usually  called  "  Diamond  Pitt/'  was  born  at  Bland- 
ford,  Dorset,  on  the  5th  of  July  1653.  In  early  life  he  went 
to  India,  and  from  his  headquarters  at  Balasore  he  made  trading 
journeys  into  Persia  and  soon  became  prominent  among  those 
who  were  carrying  on  business  in  opposition  to  the  East  Indfa 
Company.  Twice  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  company, 
the  second  time  being  when  he  reached  U)ndon  in  1683.  but 
after  litigation  had  detained  him  for  some  years  in  England  he 
returned  to  India  and  to  his  former  career.  Unable  to  check 
him  the  East  India  Company  took  him  into  its  service  in  i6qs, 
and  in  1697  he  became  president  of  Fort  St  George,  or  Madras 
Pitt  was  now  very  zealous  in  defending  the  interests  of  his  em- 
ployers against  the  new  East  India  Company,  and  in  protecting 
their  settlements  from  the  attacks  of  the  natives;  in  directing 
the  commercial  undertakings  of  the  company  he  also  appears 
to  have  been  very  succe^ful.  Soon,  however,  he  had  a  serious 
quarrel  with  William  Fraser,  a  member  of  his  council,  and  con- 
sequently he  was  relieved  of  his  office  in  1709,  although  he  was 
afterwards  consulted  by  the  company  on  matters  of  impor- 
tance. During  hb  residence  in  India  Pitt  bought  for  about 
£20,000  the  ftne  diamond  which  was  named  after  him;  in  171 7 
he  sold  this  to  the  regent  of  France,  Philip  duke  of  Orieans, 
for  £80,000  or,  according  to  another  account,  for  £135,000. 
It  is  now  the  property  of  the  French  government.  During 
his  former  stay  In  England  Pitt  had  bought  a  good  deal  of 
property,  including  the  manor  of  Old  Sarum,  and  for  a  short 
time  he  had  represented  thb  borough  in  parliament.  After  his 
final  return  from  India  in  17 10  he  added  to  bis  properties  and 
again  became  member  of  parliament  for  Old  Sarum.  He  died  at 
Swallowfield  near  Reading  on  the  sSfh  of  April  1726.  His 
eldest  son,  Robert,  was  the  father  of.  William  Pitt,  earf  of 
Chatham  (f.v.);  ancf  of  Thomas  Pitt  (d.1761),  whose  son  became 
the  first  Lord.  Camdford;  his  second  son,  Thomas  Pitt  {c.  1688* 
1729),  having  married  Frances  (d.  1772),  daughter  of  Robert 
Ridgeway,  4th  earl  of  Londonderry  (d.  17x4),  was  himself 
created  earl  of  Londonderry  in  17  96. 

Pnr,  WILLIAM  (1759-1806),  English  statesman,  the 
second  son  of  William  Pitt,  earl  of  Chatham,  and  of  Lady 
Hester  GrenviUe,  daughter  of  Hester,  Countess  Temple, 
was  bom  at  Hayes,  near  Bromley,  Kent,  on  the  28th  of 
May  1759.  The  child  inherited  a  name  which,  at  the  time 
of  his  birth,  was  the  most  illustrious  in  the  civilized  world, 
and  was  pronounced  by  every  Englishman  with  pride,  and 
by  .«vtiy  enemy  of  England  with  mingled  admiration  and 
terror.  During  the  first  year  of  his  life  every  month  had 
its  illuminations  and  bonfires,  and  every  wind  brought  some 
messenger  charged  with  joyful  tidings  and  hostile  standards. 
In  Westphalia  the  English  infantry  won  a  great  battle  which 
a'rrested  the  armies  of  Louis  XV«  in  the  midst  of  a  career  of 
conquest;  Boacawen  defeated  one  French  fleet  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal;  Hawke  put  to  flight  another  In  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
Johnson  took  Niagara;  Amherst  took  Ticondcroga;  Wolfe  died 
by  the  most  enviable  of  deaths  under  the  walls  of  Quebec, 
Clive  destroyed  a  Dutch  armament  in  the  Hugll,  and  established 
the  English  supremacy  In  Bengal;  Cooie  routed  Lally  at  Wande- 
wash,  and  established  the  English  supremacy  in  the  Camatic. 
The  nation,  while  loudly  appbudihg  the  Successful  warriors. 


considered  them  all,  on  sea  and  on  land,  in  Europe,  in  America, 
and  in  Asia,  merely  as  instruments  which  received  their  direc- 
tion from  one  superior  mind.  It  was  the  great  WtlHara  Pitt 
who  had  vanquished  the  French  marshals  In  Germany  and 
French  admirals  on  the  Atlantic — who  had  conquered  for  his 
country  one  great  empire  on  the  frozen  shores  of  Ontario 
and  another  under  the  tropica!  sun  near  the  mouths  of  tht 
Ganges.  It  was  not  in  the  nature  of  things  that  popularity 
such  as  he  at  this  time  enjoyed  should  be  permanent.  That 
popularity  had  lost  its  gloss  before  his  children  were  old  enough 
to  understand  that  the  eari  of  Chatham  was  a  great  man.  The 
energy  and  decision  whidi  had  eminently  fitted  him  for  the 
direction  of  war  were  not  needed  in  time  of  peace.  The  lofty 
and  spirit-stirring  eloquence  which  had  made  him  supreme  in 
the  House  of  Commons  often  fell  dead  on  the  House  of  Lords. 
Chatham  was  only  the  ruin  of  Pitt,  but  an  awful  and  majestic 
ruin,  not  to  be  contemplated  by  any  man  of  sense  and  feeling 
without  emotions  resembling  those  which  are  excited  by  the 
remains  of  the  Parthenon  and  of  the  Colosseum.  In  one  re* 
spcct  the  old  statesman  was  eminently  happy.  M^atever 
might  be  the  vicissitudes  of  his  public  life,  he  never  failed 
to  find  peace  and  love  by  his  own  hearth.  He  loved  all  his 
children,  and  was  loved  by  them;  and  of  all  his  children  the 
one  of  whom  he  was  fondest  and  proudest  was  his  second  son. 

The  child's  genius  and  ambition  displayed  themsefves  with  a 
rare  and  almost  tmnatural  precocity.  At  seven  the  interest 
which  he  took  In  gnive  subjects,  the  ardour  with  £-^*j|u 
which  he  pursued  his  studies,  and  the  sense  and  ^^ 
vivacity  of  his  remarks  on  books  and  on  events  amazed 
his  parents  and  instructors.  One  of  his  sayings  of  this 
date  was  reported  to  his  mother  by  his  tutor.  In  August 
1766,  when  the  world  was  agitated  by  the  news  that 
Mr  Pitt  had  become  earl  of  Chatham,  little  William  ex« 
claimed,  "  I  am  glad  that  I  anl  not  the  eldest  son.  I  want 
to  speak  in  the  House  of  Commons  like  papa."  At  fourteen 
the  lad  was  in  intellect  a  man.  Haylcy,  who  met  him 
at  Lyme  in  the  summer  of  1773,  was  astonished,  delighted, 
and  somewhat  overawed,  by  hearing  wit  and  wisdom  from  so 
young  a  mouth.  The  boy  himself  had  already  written  a  tragedy, 
bad,  of  course,  but  not  worse  than  the  tragedies  of  his  friend. 
This  piece  (still  preserved)  is  in  some  respects  highly  curious. 
There  is  no  love.  The  whole  plot  h  political;  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  the  interest,  such  as  it  is,  turns  on  a  contest  about  a 
regency.  On  one  side  is  a  faithful  servant  of  the  Crown,  on 
the  other  an  ambitious  and  unprincipled  conspirator.  At 
length  the  king,  who  had  been  missing,  reappears,  resumes  his 
power,  and  rewards  the  fathful  defender  of  his  rights.  A  reader 
who  should  judge  only  by  internal  evidence  would  have  no 
hesitation  In  pronouncing  that  the  play  was  written  by  some 
Pittite  poetaster  at  the  time  of  the  rejoicings  for  the  recovery 
of  George  III.  In  17S9. 

The  pleasure  with  which  William's  parents  observed  the 
rapid  development  of  his  intellcaual  powers  was  alloyed  by 
apprehensions  about  bis  health.  He  sjiot  up  alarmingly  fast; 
he  was  often  ill,  and  always  weak;  and  it  was  feared  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  rear  a  stripling  so  tall,  so  slender,  and 
so  feeble.  Port  wine  was  prescribed  by  his  medical  advisers; 
and  it  is  said  that  he  was,  at  fourteen,  accustomed  to 
take  this  agreeable  physic  in  quantities  which  would,  in  our 
more  abstemious  age,  be  thought  -much  more  than  sufficient 
for  any  full-grown  man.  It  was  probably  on  account  of  the 
delicacy  of  his  frame  that  he  was  not  educated  like  other  boys 
of  the  same  rank.  Almost  all  the  eminent  English  statesmen 
and  orators  to  whom  he  was  afterwards  opposed  or  allied — 
North,  Fox,  Shelbume,  Windham,  Grey,  WeDesley,  GrenviUe, 
Sheridan,  Canning — went  through  the  training  of  great  public 
schools.  Lord  Chatham  bad  hhnself  been  a  distinguished 
Etonian;  and  it  is  seldom  that  a  distinguished  Etonian  forgets 
his  obUgations  to  Eton.  But  William's  infirmities  required 
a  vigilance  and  tenderness  such  as  could  be  found  only  *t  home 
He  was  therefore  bred  under  the  paternal  roof.  His  Stadia 
were  superintended  by  a  clergyman  named  Wilson;  and  those 


668 


PITT,  WILLIAM 


Studies,  though  often  iaterrupted  by  illness,  were  prosecuted 
with  extraordinary  success.  He  was  sent»  towards  the  close 
of  the  year  1 773,  to  Pembroke  Hall,  in  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridjSe.  The  governor  to  whom  the  direction  of  William's 
academical  life  was  confided  was  a  bachelor  of  arts  named 
Pretyman/  who  had  been  senior  wrangler  in  the  preceding 
year,  and,  who  though  not  a  man  of  prepossessing  ^pearance 
or  brilliant  parts,  was  eminently  acute  and  laborious,  a  sound 
scholar,  and  an  excellent  geometrician.  A  dose  and  lasting 
friendship  ^rang  up  between  the  pair.  The  disciple  was  able, 
before  he  completed  his  twenty«eighth  year,  to  make  his  pre- 
ceptor bishop  of  Lincoln  and  dean  of  St  Paul's,  and  the  preceptor 
showed  his  gratitude  by  writing  a  life  of  the  disciple,  which 
enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  worst  biographical  work  of 
its  siae  in  the  world.  Pitt,  till  he  graduated,  had  scarcely  one 
acquaintance,  attended  chapel  regularly  morning  and  evening, 
dinied  every  day  in  hall,  and  never  went  to  a  single  evening 
party.  At  seventeen  he  was  admitted,  after  the  fashion  of  those 
times,  by  right  of  birth,  without  any  examination,  to  the  degree 
of  master  of  arts.  But  he  continued  during  some  years  to 
reside  at  college,  and  to  apply  himself  vigorously,  under 
Pretyman's  direction,  to  the  studies  of  the  place,  while  mixing 
freely  in  the  best  academic  society. 

The  stock  of  learning  which  Pitt  bid  in  during  this  part  of 
his  life  was  certainly  very  extraordinary.  The  work  in  which 
he  took  the  greatest  delight  was  Newton's  Prhtcipia.  His 
liking  for  mathematics,  indeed,  amounted  to  a  passion^  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  his  instructors,  themselves  distinguished  mathe- 
maticians, required  to  be  checked  rather  than  encouraged. 
Nor  was  the  youth's  pro5ciency  in  classical  learning  less  remark- 
able. In  one  respect,  indeed,  he  appeared  to  disadvantage 
when  compared  with  even  second-rate  and  third-rate  men  from 
public  schools.  He  had  never,  while  under  Wilson's  care,  been 
in  the  habit  of  composing  in  the  ancient  languages;  and  he 
therefore  never  acquired  the  knack  of  versification.  It  would 
have  been  utterly  out  of  his  power  to  produce  such  charming 
elegiac  lines  as  those  in  which  Wellcslcy  bade  farewell  to  Eton, 
01  such  Virgilian  hexameters  as  those  in  which  Canning  described 
the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  But  it  m^  be  doubted  whether  any 
scholar  has  ever,  at  twenty,  had  a  more  solid  and  profound 
knowledge  of  the  two  great  tongues  of  the  old  civilized  world. 
He  had  set  his  heart  on  being  intimately  acquainted  with  all  the 
extant  poetry  of  Greece,  and  was  not  satisfied  till  he  had 
mastered  Lycophron's  Cassandra. 

To  modem  literature  Pitt  paid  comparatively  little  attention. 
He  knew  no  living  language  except  French;  and  French  he 
knew  very  imperfectly.  With  a  few  of  the  best  EngUsh  writers 
he  was  intimate,  particularly  with  Shakespeare  and  Milton. 
The  debate  in  Pandemonium  was,  as  it  well  deserved  to  be,  one 
of  his  favourite  passages;  and  his  early  friends  lised  to  talk,  long 
after  his  death,  of  the  just  emphasis  and  the  melodious  cadence 
with  which  they  had  heard  him  recite  the  incomparable  speech 
of  Belial.  He  bad  indeed  been  carefully  trained  from  infancy  in 
the  art  of  managing  his  voice,  a  voice  naturally  clear  and  dccp- 
toned.  At  a  later  period  the  wits  of  Brqokes's,  irritated  by 
observing,  night  after  night,  how  powerfully  Pitt's  sonorous 
elocution  fascinated  the  rows  of  country  gentlemen,  reproached 
him  with  having  been  "  taught  by  his  dad  on  a  stool  " 

His  education,  indeed,  was  well  adapted  to  form  a  great 
parliamentary  speaker*  The  classical  studies  of  Pitt  had  the 
effect  of  enriching  his  English  vocabulary,  and  of  making  him 
wonderfully  expert  in  the  art  of  constructing  correct  EngUsh 
sentences.  His  practice  was  to  look  over  a  page  or  two  of  a 
Greek  or  Latin  author,  to  make  himself  master  of  the  meaning, 
and  then  to  read  the  passage  straight  forward  into  his  own 
language.    This  practice,  begun  under  his  first  teacher  Wilson, 

P  Gcorn  Prctvman  (1750-1827)  was  vnior  wrangler  in  177a.  In 
J803,  on  iallin^  heir  to  a  iar^e  estate,  be  auumed  the  name  m  Tom- 
nne.  Frum  Lincoln,  to  which  ace  be  had  been  elevated  in  I787. 
he  was  translated  to  Winchester  in  1820.  Tomline.  to  whom 
Fht  when  dyinfe  had  bequeathed  his  papeis,  published  his  MoHoirs 
'U^.J^  ^Wmiam  PiU  (down  to  the  cIok  of  1792J  in  l8ai  (3  vols. 


was  continued  under  Pretymai^.  OI>«U  the  femaios  of  MUiqjiHty , 
the  orations  were  those  on  which  he  bfestowcd  the  most  minute 
examination.  His  favourite  employment  was  to  compare 
harangues  on  opposite  sides  of  the  same  question,  to  analyse 
them,  and  to  observe  which  of  the  arguments  of  the  first  speaker 
were  refuted  by  the  second,  which  were  evaded,  and  which  were 
left  untouched.  Nor  was'  it  only  in  books  that  he  at  this  time 
studied  the  art  of  parliamentary  fencing.  When  he  was  at 
home  he  had  frequent  opportunities  of  hearing  imptortant 
debates  at  Westminster;  and  he  heard  them,  not  only  nilh 
interest  and  enjoyment,  but  with  close  scientific  attention. 
On  one  of  these  occasions  Pitt,  a  youth  whose  abilities  were 
as  yet  known  only  to  his  own  family  and  to  a  small  knot  of 
college  friends,  was  introduced  on  the  steps  of  the  throne  in  the 
House  of  Lords  to  Fox,  his  senior  by  eleven  yean,  who  was 
already  the  greatest  debater,  and  one  of  the  greatest  orators,  that 
had  appeared  in  En^and.  Fox  used  afterwards  to  relate  that, 
as  the  discussion  proceeded,  Pitt  repeatedly  turned  to  him,  and 
said,  "  But  surely,  Mr  Fox,  that  might  be  met  thus,"  or  "  Yes; 
but  he  lays  himsdf  open  to  this  retort.'*  What  the  particular 
criticisms  were  Fox  had  forgotten;  but  he  said  that  he  was  much 
struck  at  the  time  by  the  precocity  of  a  lad  who,  throuj^  the 
whole  sitting,  seemed  to  be  thinking  only  how  all  the  speeches  00 
both  sides  coiUd  be  answered. 

He  had  not  quite  completed  his  nineteenth  year  when,  en 
the  7th  of  April  1778,  he  attended  his  father  to  Westminster. 
A  great  debate  was  expected.    It  was  known  that  France  had 
recognized  the  independence  of  the  United  States.    The  duke 
of  Richmond  was  about  to  declare  his  opinion  that  all  thought 
of  subjugating  those  states  ought  to  be  relinquished.    Cha'.hjim 
had  always  maintained  that  the  resistance  of  the  colonies  to  the 
mother  countiy  was  justifiable.    But  he  conceived,  very  errone- 
ously, that  on  the  day  on  which  their  independence  ^ould  be 
acknowledged  the  greatness  of  England  would  be  at  an  end. 
Though  sinking  under  the  weight  of  years  and  infirmities,  he 
determined,  in  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  family,  to  be  in  his 
place.     His  son  supported  him  to  a  seat.    The  excitenMrni 
and  exertion  were  too  much  for  Che  old  man.    In  the  very  act 
of  addressing  the  peers,  he  fell  back  in  convulsions.     A  few 
weeks  later  his  corpse  was  borne,  with  gloomy  pomp,  from  the 
Painted  Chamber  to  the  Abbey.   The  favourite  child  and  naire- 
sake  of  the  deceased  statesman  fdlowed  the  coifin  as  chief 
mourner,  and  saw  it  deposited  in  the  transept  where  his  own 
was  destined  to  lie.    His  elder  brother,  now  earl  of  Chatham, 
had  means  sufficient,  and  barely  sufficient,  to  support    the 
dignity  of  the  peerage.    The  other  members  of  the  family  were 
poorly  provided  for.    William  had  little  more  than  £joo  a  year. 
It   was   necessary   for   him  to  follow  a  profession.    He  bad 
already  begun  to  "  eat  his  terms."   In  the  spring  of  x  780  he  came 
of  age.    He  then  quitted  Cambridge,  was  called  to  the  bar, 
took  chambers  in  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  joined  the  western  circuit. 
In  the  autiunn  of  that  year  a  general  el^tioa  took  f>Uce; 
and  he  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  university;  but  be 
was  at  the  bottom  of  the  polL  He  was,  however,  at  the  request  cf 
an  hereditary  friend^  the  duke  of  Rutland,  brought  into  parliamect 
by  Sir  James  Lowther  for  the  borough  of  Appleby. 

The  dangers  of  the  country  were  at  that  time  such  as  might 
well  have  disturbed  even  a  constant  mind.  Army  after  amy 
had  been  sent  in  vain  against  the  rebellious  colonists 
of  North  America.  Meanwhile  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
humbled  to  the  dust  a  few  years  before  by  the  gem'us 
and  vigour  of  Chatham,  had  seized  the  opportunity  of  revenge. 
France  and  Spain  had  united  against  Eo^^d,  and  had  rec«iily 
been  joined  by  Holland.  The  command  of  the  Mediterranean 
had  been  for  a  time  lost.  The  Briti^  flag  had  been  scarcdy 
able  to  maintain  itself  in  the  British  Channel.  The  ooctlwcB 
powers  professed  neutrality;  but  their  neutrality  had  a  mcnaciDg 
aspecL  In  the  East,  Hyder  Ali  had  descended  on  the  Camatic. 
had  destroyed  the  little  army  of  Baillie,  and  had  spread  tcnw 
even  to  the  ramparts  of  Fort  St  George.  The  diaoontents  U 
Ireland  threatened  nothing  less  than  civil  war.  In  Zn^i^J 
the  authority  of  Lord  North's  government  had  sunk  to  Oat 


PITT,  WILLIAM 


669 


lowest  point.  Tbe  kiog  and  the  House  of  Commons  were 
a!liice  unpopular.  The  cry  for  parliamentary  reform  was  scarcely 
less  loud  and  vehement  than  afterwards  in  1830. 

The  Opposition  consisted  of  two  parties  which  had  once  been 
hostile  to  each  other,  but  at  this  conjuncture  seemed  to  act 
together  with  cordiality.  The  larger  of  these  parties  consisted 
of  the  great  body  of  the  Whig  aristocracy,  headed  by  Charles, 
narqucss  of  Rockingham.  In  the  House  of  Commons  the  adhe- 
rents of  Rockingham  were  led  by  Fox,  whose  dissipated  habits 
and  mined  fortunes  were  the  talk  of  the  whole  town,  but  whose 
commanding  genius,  and  whose  sweet,  generous  and  affectionate 
disposition,  extorted  the  admiration  and  love  of  those  who 
most  lamented  the  errors  of  his  private  life.  Burke,  superior 
to  Fox  in  largeness  of  comprehension,  in  extent  of  knowledge, 
and  in  splendour  of  imagination,  but  less  skilled  in  that  kind  of 
logic  and  in  that  kind  of  rhetoric  which  convince  and  persuade 
great  assemblies,  was  willing  to  be  the  lieutenant  of  a  young  chief 
who  might  have  been  his  son.  A  smaller  sccuon  of  the  exposi- 
tion was  composed  of  the  old  followers  of  Chatham.  At  their 
head  was  William,  ear!  of  Shelbume,  distinguished  both  9s  a 
Statesman  and  as  a  lover  of  science  and  letters.  With  hun  were 
leagued  Lord  Camden,  who  had  formerly  held  the  Great  Seal,  and 
whose  integrity,  abiUty  and  constitutional  knowledge  com> 
manded  the  public  respect;  Barr£,  an  eloquent  and  acrimonious 
dedaimer;  and  Dunning,  who  had  iong  held  the  first  place  at 
the  English  bar.  It  was  to  this  party  that  Pitt  was  naturally 
attrsctol 

On  the  26th  of  Februaiy  17S1  he  made  his  first  speech  in 
favour  of  Burke's  plan  of  economical  reform.  Fox  stood  up 
at  the  same  moment,  but  instantly  gave  way.  The  lofty  yet 
animated  deportment  of  the  young  member,  his  periect  self- 
possession,  the  readiness  with  which  he  replied  to  the  orators 
who  had  preceded  him,  the  silver  tones  of  his  voice,  the  perfect 
structure  of  his  unpremeditated  sentences,  astonished  and 
delighted  his  hearers.  Burke,  moved  even  to  tears,  exclaimed, 
*'It  is  not  a  chip  of  the  old  block;  it  is  the  old  block  itself." 
"  Pitt  win  be  one  of  the  first  men  in  parliament,"  said  a  member 
of  the  OMMSttion  to  Fox.  "  He  is  so  already,"  answered  Fox, 
fai  whose  nature  envy  had  no  place.  Soon  after  this  debate 
Pitt's  name  was  put  up  by  Fox  at  Brookes's  Club.  On  two 
subsequent  occasions  during  that  session  Pitt  addressed  the 
house,  and  on  both  fuUy  sustained  the  reputation  which  he 
bad  acqaOed  on  his  first  appearance.  In  the  summer,  after  the 
prorogation,  be  again  went  the  western  circuit,  held  severs) 
hfiefs,  and  acquitted  himself  in  such  a  manner  that  he  was  highly 
oomplimentcd  by  Buller  from  the  bench,  and  by  Dunning  at 
the  bar. 

On  the  t7th  of  November  the  parliament  reassembled.   Only 

forty-«i|^t  hours  before  had  arrived  tidings  of  the  surrender  of 

Cocnwallis  and  his  army.    In  the  debate  on  the  report  of  the 

addreis  Pitt  spoke  with  even  more  energy  and  brilliancy  thaa 

Oft  aay  fonner  occ^aon.  He  was  warmfy  applauded  by  his  allies; 

but  it  was  remarked  that  no  person  on  his  own  side  of  the 

bouse  was  so  loud  in  eulogy  as  Henry  Dundas,  the  lord  advocate 

of  Scotland,  who  wpcke  from  the  ministerial  ranks.   From  that 

nigbt  dates  his  connexion  with  Pitt,  a  connexion  which  soon 

became  a  ckMe  intimacy,  and  which  lasted  till  it  was  dissolved 

by  death.  About  a  fortnight  later  Pitt  spoke  in  the  committee 

of  lufftly  on  tbe  army  estimates.     Symptoms  of  dtssension  had 

begun  to  anwar  on  the  treasury  bench.  Lord  Georgi:  Geimaino, 

the  aecietaiy  of  state  who  waa  emtedally  charged  with  the  direc- 

ftbm  of  the  war  bi  America,  bad  held  language  not  easily  to  be 

fCGOttcfled  with  decUratioiis  ntade  by  the  first  k>fd  of  the  treasury. 

Pitt  Holloed  the  dkcnpancy  with  much  force  and  keenness. 

I^ovd  Geoige  and  Lofd  North  began  to  whiiper  together;  and 

Welboce  EHb,  an  tedent  phceinan  who  had  bettk  drawing 

sftlaiy  almost  every  quarter  liaoe  the  days  of  Heniy  Pclham, 

bent  down  between  them  to  put  in  a  woid.   Such  interruptions 

flometiibca  discompose  Y«teran  speakers.    Pitt  stopped,  and. 

tonfcing  at  the  group,  said  with  admirable  readinesa^  "  I  shall 

wak  tiU  Nestor  has  ceanposed  the  dispute  between  Agamemnon 

•nd  AduBes.'*   After  several  deleatSb  or  vicloiics  hardly  to.  be 


distinguished  from  defeats,  the  ministry  resigned.  The  king, 
reluctantly  and  ungraciously,  consented  to  accept  Rockingham 
as  first  minister.  Fox  and  Shelbume  became  secreurics  of 
state.  Lord  John  Cavendish,  one  of  the  most  upright  and 
honourable  of  men,  was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Thurlow,  whose  abilities  and  force  of  character  had  made  him 
the  dictator  of  the  House  of  Lords,  continued  to  hold  the  Great 
ScaL  To  Pitt  was  offered,  through  Shelbume,  the  vice-treasurcr- 
ship  of  Ireland,  one  of  the  easiest  and  most  highly  paid  places 
in  the  gift  of  the  Crown,  but  the  offer  was  without  hesitation 
declined.  The  young  statesman  had  resolved  to  accept  no  post 
which  did  not  entitle  him  to  a  scat  in  the  cabinet ,  and  a  few 
days  bter  (March  1782)  he  announced  that  resolution  in  the 
House  of  Commons. 

Pitt  gave  a  general  support  to  the  administration  of  Rocking- 
ham, but  <nnittcd,  in  the  meantime,  no  opportunity  of  courting 
that  ultra-Whig  party  which  the  persecution  of  Wilkes  and  the 
Middlesex  election  had  colled  into  existence,  and  which  the 
disastrous  events  of  the  war,  and  the  triumph  of  rq)ui>lican 
principles  in  America,  had  made  formidable  both  in  numbers 
and  in  temper.  He  supported  a  motion  for  shortening  the 
duration  of  parliaments.  He  made  a  motion  for  a  committee 
to  examine  into  the  state  of  the  representation,  and,  in  the  ^)eccb 
(May  7,  1782)  by  which  that  motion  waa  introduced,  avowed 
himself  the  enemy  of  the  dose  boroughs,  the  strongholds  el 
that  corruption  to  which  he  attributed  all  the  calamities  of 
the  nation,  and  which,  as  he  phrased  it  in  one  of  those  exact  and 
sonorous  sentences  of  which  he  had  a  boundless  command,  had 
grown  with  the  growth  of  England  and  strengthened  with  her 
strength,  but  had  not  diminished  with  her  diminution  or  decayed 
with  her  decay.  On  this  occasion  he  was  supported  by  Fox. 
The  motion  was  lost  by  only  twenty  votes  in  a  house  of  more 
than  three  hundred  members.  The  Reformers  never  sgain  had 
so  good  a  divison  till  the  year  1831. 

The  new  administration  was  strong  in  abilities,  and  was  more 
popular  than  any  administration  which  had  held  ofiice  since 
the  first  year  of  George  III.,  but  was  hated  by  the 
king,  hesitatingly  supported  by  the  parliament, 
and  torn  by  internal  dissensions.  It  was  all  that 
Rockingham  could  do  to  keep  the  peace  in  his  cabinet;  and 
before  the  cabinet  had  existed  three  months  Rockingham 
died.  In  an  instant  all  was  confusion.  The  adherents  of 
the  deceased  statesman  looked  on  the  duke  of  Portland  as 
their  chief.  The  king  placed  Shelbume  at  the  bead  of  the 
treasury.  Fox,  Lord  John  Cavendish,  and  Burke  Immediately 
resigned  their  offices;  and  the  new  prime  minister  was  left  to 
constitute  a  government  out  of  very  defective  materials.  It 
was  necessary  to  find  some  member  of  the  House  of  Comr 
mons  who  could  confront  the  great  orators  of  the  (Opposition; 
and  Pitt  alone  had  the  eloquence  and  the  courage  which  wer^ 
required.  He  was  offered  the  great  place  of  chancellor  of  the 
crchrqurr  and  he  accepted  it  (July  1782).  He  had  scarcely 
completed  his  twenty-third  year. 

The  parliament  was  speedily  prorogued.  During  the  recen 
a  negotiation  for  peace  whidt  had  been  coounenced  under 
Rockingham  was  brought  to  a  successful  termination.  England 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  her  revolted  colonies;  and 
she  ceded  to  her  European  enemies  some  places  in  the  Mcditec- 
ranean  and  in  the  GuU  of  Mexico.  But  the  tenns  which  she 
obtained  were  quite  as  advantageous  and  honourable  as  the 
events  of  the  war  entitled  her  to  expect,  or  as  she  was  likely 
to  obtain  by  persevering  in  a  contest  against  immense  odds. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  reason  to  believe  that  Fox,  if  he  had 
remained  in  office^  would  have  hesitated  one  nutment  about 
concluding  a  treaty  on  such  conditions.  Unhappily  Fox  was,' 
at  this  crisis,  hurried  by  his  passions  into  an  error  which  mad|e 
his  genius  and  his  virtues,  during  a  long  course  of  years,  almoi^t 
useless  to  his  country.  He  saw  that  the  great  body  of  the  House 
of  Commons  was  divided  into  three  parties — his  own,  that  of 
North,  and  that  of  Shelbume;  that  none  of  those  three  parties 
was  Urge  enough  to  stand  alone;  that,  therefore,  unless  two  of 
them  united  there  must  be  a  miserably  feeble  administiation, 


tiJO 


PlTfi  WILLIAM 


or,  mote  probably,  a  rapid  soccessfon  of  miserably  feeble 
adminisintions,  and  this  at  a  time  when  a  strong  government 
was  essential  to  the  prosperity  and  respectability  of  the  nation. 
It  was  then  necessaiy  and  right  that  there  should  be  a  coalition. 
To  every  possible  coaOtion  there  were  objections.  But  of  all 
possible  coalitions  that  to  which  there  were  the  fewest  objections 
was  undoubtedly  a  coalition  between  Shelbume  and  Fox.  It 
would  have  been  generally  api^uded  by  the  followers  of  both. 
It  might  have  been  made  without  any  sacrifice  of  public  principle 
on  the  part  of  either.  Unhappily,  recent  bickerings  had  left 
in  the  mind  of  Fox  a  profound  dislike  and  distrust  of  Shelburne. 
Pitt  attempted  to  mediate,  and  was  authorized  to  invite  Fox 
to  return  to  the  service  of  the  Crown.  "  Is  Lotd  Shelburne," 
said  Fox,  "  to  remain  prime  minister  ? "  Pitt  answered  in 
the  afiirmative.  "  It  is  impossible  that  I  can  act  under  him," 
said  Fox.  "Then  negotiation  is  at  an  end,"  said  Pitt;** for 
I  cannot  betray  him."  Thus  the  two  statesmen  parted.  They 
were  never  again  in  a  private  room  together.  As  Fox  and  his 
friends  would  not  treat  with  Shelburne,  nothing  remained  to 
them  but  to  treat  with  North.  That  fatal  coalition  which  is 
cmphaticilly  called  "  TTie  Coalition"  was  formed.  Not  three- 
quarters  of  a  year  had  elapsed  since  Fox  and  Burke  had  threat* 
ened  North  with  impeachment,  and  had  described  him  night 
after  m'ght  as  the  most  arbitrary,  the  most  corrupt,  and  the  most 
Incapable  of  ministeis.  They  now  allied  themselves  with  him 
for  the  purpose  of  driving. from  office  a  statesman  with  whom 
thoy  cannot  be  said  to  have  differed  as  to  any  important  question. 
Nor  had  they  even  the  prudence  and  the  patience  to  wait  for 
some  occasion  on  which  they  might,  without  inconsistency, 
have  combined  with  their  old  enemies  in  opposition  to  the 
governmenL  That  nothing  might  be  wanting  to  the  scandal, 
the  great  orators  who  had,  during  seven  years,  thundered  against 
the  war  determined  to  join  wiih  the  authors  of  that  war  in 
passing  a  vote  of  censure  on  the  peace. 

The  parliament  met  before  Christmas  1782.  But  it  was  not 
tiH  January  1783  that  the  preJiminary  treaties  were  signed. 
On  the  17th  of  February  they  were  taken  into  consideration  by 
the  House  of  Commons.  There  had  been,  during  some  days, 
Boating  rumours  that  Fox  and  North  had  coalesced;  and  the 
debate  indicated  but  too  clearly  that  those  rumours  were  not 
unfounded.  Pitt  was  su£Fering  from  indisposition — he  did  not 
rise  till  his  own  strength  and  that  of  his  heareis  were  exhausted; 
and  he  was  consequently  less  successful  than  on  any  former 
occasion.  His  admirers  owned  that  his  speech  was  feeble  and 
petulant.  He  so  far  forgot  himself  as  to  advise  Sheridan  to 
confine  himself  to  amusing  theatrical  audiences.  This  ignoble 
sarcasm  gave  Sheridan  an  opportunity  of  retorting  with  great 
felicity;  "After  what  I  have  seen  and  heard  to-night,"  he 
said,  "  I  really  feel  strongly  tempted  to  venture  on  a  competition 
with  so  great  an  artist  as  Ben  Jonson,  and  to  bring  on  the  stage 
a  second  Angry  Boy. "  On  a  division,  the  address  proposed 
by  the  supporters  of  the  government  was  rejected  by  a  majority 
of  sixteen.  But  Pitt  was  not  a  man  to  be  disheartened  by  a 
nn^e  failure,  or  to  be  put  down  by  the  most  lively  repartee. 
When,  a  few  days  later,  the  Opposition  proposed  a  resolution 
directly  censuring  the  treaties,  he  spoke  with  an  eloquence, 
energy  and  dignity  which  raised  his  fame  and  popularity  higher 
than  ever.  To  the  coalition  of  Fox  and  North  he  alluded  in 
bnguage  which  drew  forth  tumultuous  applause  from  his 
followers.  "If,"  he  said,  "this  ill-omened  and  unnatural 
marriage  be  not  yet  consummated,  I  know  of  a  jusi  and  lawful 
{mqpediment;  and,  in  the  name  of  the  pubh'c  weal,  I  forbid  the 
banns."  The  ministers  were  again  left  in  a  nunority,  and 
Shdbume  consequently  tendered  his  resignation  (Mareh  31, 
1783).  It  was  accepted;  but  the  king  struggled  long  and  hard 
before  he  submitted  to  the  terms  dictated  by  Fox,  whose  faults 
he  detested,  and  whose  high  spirit  and  powerful  intellect  he 
detested  still  more.  The  first  place  at  the  board  of  treasury 
was  repeatedly  offered  to  Pitt;  but  the  offer,  though  tempting, 
was  steadfastly  decUned.  The  king,  bitterly  complaining  of 
Pitt's  faintheartedness,  tried  to  break  the  coaUtioo.  Every 
art  of  aeduction  was  piactiied  on  North,  but  in  vain.    During 


several  weeks  the  country  remained  without  a  government 
It  was  not  tin  all  devices  had  failed,  and  till  the  aspect  of  the 
House  of  Commons  became  threatening,  that  the  king  gave 
way.  The  duke  of  Portland  was  declared  first  lord  of  the 
treasury.  Thuriow  was  dismissed.  Fox  and  North  becaroe 
secretaries  of  stale,  with  power  ostensibly  equaL  But  Fu 
was  the  real  prime  minister.  The  year  was  far  advanced  before 
the  new  arrangements  were  completed;  and  nothing  very 
important  was  done  during  the  remainder  of  the  session.  Pitt, 
now  seated  on  the  Opposition  Bench,  brought  the  question  of 
parliamentary  reform  a  second  time  (May  7,  t783)  under  the 
consideration  of  the  Commons.  He  proposed  to  add  to  the 
house  at  once  a  hundred  county  members  and  several  members 
for  melropohtan  distrias,  and  to  enact  that  every  borough  of 
which  an  election  committee  should  report  that  the  majority 
of  voters  appeared  to  be  corrupt  should  lose  the  f  rtuichise.  The 
moticMi  was  rejected  by  293  votes  to  149. 

After  the  prorogation  Ih'tt  visited  the  Continoit  for  the  first 
and  last  time.  His  f  ravelling  compaition  was  one  of  hn  most 
Intimate,  friends,  William  Wilberforce.  That  was  the  time  ef 
Anglomania  in  France;  and  at  Paris  the  son  of  the  great  Chatham 
was  absolutely  hunted  by  men  of  letters  and  women  of  fashkn^ 
and  forced,  much  against  his  will,  into  political  disputatioo. 
One  remarkable  saying  which  dropped  from  him  during  tha 
tour  has' been  preserved.  A  French  gentleman  expressed  socae 
surprise  at  the  imaiense  influence  which  Fox,- a  man  of  pleasure, 
ruined  by  the  dice-box  and  the  turf,  exercised  over  the  English 
nation.  "  You  have  not,"  said  Pitt,  "  been  under  the  wand  of 
the  magician." 

In  November  1783  the  pariiament  met  again.    Tlie  govern- 
ment had  irresistible  strength  in  the  House  of  Cornmooa,  and 
seemed  to  be  scarecly  less  strong  in  the  House  of  Lords,  bat 
was,  in  truth,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  dangers.    The  Vnf 
was  impatiently  waiting  for  the  moment  at  which  he  cotM 
emandpate  himself  from  a  yoke  which  galled  hikn  so  sm^qgly 
that  he  had  more  than  once  seriously  thought  of  retiring  to 
Hanover;  and  the  king  was  scarcely  more  eager  for  a  change 
than  the  nation.    Fox  and  North  had  committed  a  fiatal  error. 
They  ought  to  have  known  that  coalitions  betwcea  paxttcs 
which  have  long  been  hostile  can  succeed  only  when  tike  wish 
for  coalition  pervades  the  lower  ranks  of  both.    At  the  beBJm&ac 
of  1783  North  had  been  the  recognized  head  of  the  jald  T^ 
party,  which,  though  for  a  moment  prostrated  by  the  ^itaslroas 
issue  of  the  American  war,  was  still  a  great  power  in  the  state. 
Fox  had,  on  the  other  hand,  been  the  idol  of  the  Wh^ga.  and  af 
the  whole  body  of  Protestant  dissmters.    The  coalhioii  t 
alienated  the  most  zealous  Tories  from  North  and  the 
zealous  Whigs  from  Fox.    Two  great  multitudes  were  at 
left  without  any  head,  and  both  at  once  turned  tbdr  eyea  om  Pitt. 
One  party  saw  in  him  the  only  nan  who  could  rescue  the  Idng; 
the  other  saw  in  him  the  only  man  who  oould  puiify  the  paztta- 
ntent.    He  was  supported  on  one  side  by  Archbishf^  Markhaai, 
the  preacher  of  divine  right,  and  by  Jenkinaon,  the  captain  «i 
the  praetorian  band  of  the  king's  friends;  on  the  other  side  bv 
Jebb  and  Priestley,  Sawbridge  and  Cartwright,  Jack  Winoea  aa4 
Horne  Tooke.    On  the  benches  of  the  House  of  Cooumobs, 
however,  the  ranks  of  the  mmisterial  majority  were  ualNtikcm; 
and  that  any  statesman  would  venture  to  hnve  sudk  a  majocit? 
was  thouglit  impossible.    No  prince  of  the  Kanovcriaja  fine 
had  ever,  under  any  provocation,  ventured  to  appeal  immt  the 
representaU've  body  to  the  constittient  body.    Tht 
therefore,  notwithstanding  the  sttden  h)oks  and  motttiod 
of  d^easure  with  which  their  suggestions  were 
the  doset,  notwithstanding  the  roar  of  oUoqay  vfaich  was 
rising  hMider  and  louder  every  day  from  eveqrcomcr  of  the  iaIaBd 
thought  themsdves  secure.   Soch  was  thdr  cenfidence  ~ 
strength  that,  as  boob  as  the  pailiamMtt  had  uhH,  |hay 
forward  a  singularly  bold  and  original  plan  for  the 
of  the  British  territories  in  India.    What  was  propoBcd  in  ¥kx'% 
India  bill  was  that  the  whole  authority  which  till  that 
been  exerched  over  those  territories  by  the  East  ladia 
should  be  transferred  to'sevea  Gotamfissjooeaa  who  vera  to  ha 


FITT,  WILLIAM 


671 


"nuutd  by  iMiduuneiitj  and  Here  not  to  be  RattbvaUs  atthe 
plewttie  oC  ibe  down.  Earl  FiUwiUiain,  tbe  most  iniiiaate 
penoaal  f  ria>4  oif  f  <»>f  was  to  be  chairman  of  Una  board,  and  tbe 
ekksiaon  o(  Norib  «raa  to  be  ooe  of  tbe  mcniben. 

AiioaD  aa  tbe  outJinca  of  tbe  acbeme  were  kaown  all  tbe 

batted  wbkb  ibe  €oaUtk»n  bad  ezdted  bust  fortb  witb  an 

^^.  ^^  aatounding  fgptoeion.     Burke,  irbo»  wbctber ,  right 

j0,         at  wiQiig  in  tbe  condutiona  to  wbich  be  caaw,  bad 

at  Icaat  tbe  merit  of  kx>kixig  at  tbe  subject  in  tbe 

agbt  point  of  view,  vainly  reminded  bia  beareia  of  that 

m'gbtjr  popuIatiDn.  wboee  daily  rice  might   depend   on  a 

tola  of  tbe  British  parUamenL     Ue  apoise  witb  even  mace 

tbaa  Ua  wonted  power  of  tbonght  and  language,  about  the 

defolatioB  of  JRebilcuod,  about  tbe  speliatiDn  of  Beaares,  about 

tbe.ewl  policy  which  bad  suffered  tbe  unks  of  tbe  Camailc  to  go 

to  ruin;  but  be  could  scarcely  obtain  a  bearing.   Tbe  contending 

paitfei^  to  their  shame  it  must  be  said,  would  listen  to  none  but 

l^n^piK  topics    Out  of  doors  tbe  cry  against  tbe  ministry  waa 

almost  universal.    Town  and  oountry  were  united.    Corpora* 

tions  eidainicd  agabut  tbe  viokitjon  of  tbe  charter  of  tbe 

greatest   corporation  in  tbe  realm.    Toiiea   and    democaata 

joined  in  pronouncing  the  proposed  board  an  ttnoonstitutkmal 

body.    It  waa  to  consist  of  Fox^  nominees.    The  effect  of  bis 

bill  waa  togive»  not  to  tbe  Crown,  but  to  him  personally,  whether 

in  .office  or  in  opposition,  an  enorroooa  power,  a  patronage 

aufficient  to  countsrbafauioe  tbe  patronage  of  the  treasury  and 

of  tbe  admiralty,  and  to  dedde  the  elections  for  £f  ty  boroughs. 

Ha  knew,  it  waa  said,  that  he  was  hateful  alike  to  king  and 

peopie;  and  he  had  devised  a  plan  which  would  make  him 

independent  of  both.     Some  nicknamed  him  CronrwcU,  and 

aooe  Carlo  Khan.     Wilberforce,  witb  hb  usual  felicity  of 

atpttssfoB,  and  with  very  unusual  bitterness  of  feeling,  dcacribed 

the  scbene  as  tbe  genuine  offspring  of  the  coalition,  as  marked 

with  "the  features  of  both  its  parents,  the  comiptk>n  of  one  and 

the*violeiw«  of  tbe  other.    In  spite  of  all  opposition,  however, 

the  biU  waa  supported  in  every  stage  by  grent  majociiica,  was 

sapidiy  .passed,  and  waa  sent  up  to  the  Lords.    To  the  general 

aatotuahment,  when  the  second  reading  waa  moved  in  the 

upper  house,  the  Opposition  propoaed  an  adjournment,  ami 

canied  it  by  eighty-aeven  votea  to  seventy-nine.    The  cause  el 

thin  strange  turn  of  fortune  was  soon  loiown.    Pitt's  cousin 

Earl  TempK  bad  been  in  tbe  reyai  closet,  and  had  there  been 

aOtborised  (to  Jet  it  be  known  that  bis  awjesty  would  consider 

all  wb»  voted  for  the  bill  aa  his  etbemies.    The  ignominious 

oommiiaion  was  performed,  and  instantly  a  troop  of  lords  of 

tlM  bedchnmbcr,  of  bishops  who  wished  to  be  translated,  and 

A*0*         of  Scotch  peera  who  wished  to  be  re>elected^  madia 

MtmHtar      faasto  to  change  sides.  <  On  a  later  day  the  Lorda 

'^*^'  lejected  the  faiL    Foa  and  North  were  imme<&Ucly 

directed  to  send  their,  aeab  to  tbe  palace  by  their  underHseot- 

tan»i  arid  Pitt  waa  appointed  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 

Chsaoelkrof  the  exchequer  (December  1783). 

The  flBiiatal  opinioa  was  that  there  would  be  an  immediate 
dfMolistioA*  But  Pitt  wisely  determined  to  give  the  pobUe 
1^^'*"^  tuaae  to  gather  strength.  On  this  point  he  differed  from 
fcu  kfnirr*"  TlBmpl&  The  oonseqeence  was  diat  Tbmple,  who 
UmA  been  appointed  one  of  that  secretaries  of  state,  resigned  ids 
^<E*^  loKt3^ei^t  bourn  after  be  bad  accepted  it,  and  thus  vdieved 
thm  Jicfv  cpwetiunent  from  a  great  load  ef  unpopularity;  for  all 
iiicr&  of  aenae  and  honour,  however  strong  mi|^t  be  their  dislike 
of  tbe  J^dim  BUI,  disapproved  of  the  manner  in  which  that  IhII 
fcfrri  heen  thnsm  out.  Tbe  fame  of  tbe  young  priale  annister 
pfCfletved  Ha  whiteness.  He  couM  dedaoe  wkhc  pcsfect  treib 
fliat,  tf  uaomstitutioiial  macbinatlona  bad  been  employed,  he 
^A  been  no  party  ta  them. 

Ho  was,  however,  sunounded  by  dUficdkies  and  dangers. 
In  tbe  House  of  Lorda^  indeed,  he  bad-  a  4najeaty;nor  eouki  any 
omtor  of  the  Opposition  in  that  assembly  be  considered  as  a 
toMtch  for  Thurlow,  who  was  now  again  chancellor,  or  for  Camden, 
wbo  cordfally  supported  the  son  of  his  old  friend  Chatham, 
But  in  the  other  house  there  was  not  a  single  eminent  speaker 
among  the  official  men  wbo  sat  round  Pitt.    HIa  nmst  useful 


wasl>mida%  who,  though  he  had  not  doqueoce,  had 
senae,  knowledge,  reacfiness  and  boldness.  On  the  opposite 
benches  waa  a  powerful  majority,  led  by  Fox,  who  was  auf^rted 
by  Burke,  Nonh  and  SberidafL  Tbe  heart  of  the  young  minia- 
tcr,  atout  aa  it  was,  almost  died  within  him.  But,  whatever 
his  intemal  emotions  sii^  be,  bia  langiuigr  and  dq»rtment 
indicated  nothing  bi^  unconquerable  iSmuess  and  haughty 
confidence  in  bis  own  powers.  His  contest  agaiaat  tbe  House 
of  Commons  lasted  from  the  X7th  of  December  1783  to  the  8tb 
of  March  1784.  In  sixtecn  dividons  tbe  Opposition  triumphed. 
Again  and  again  the  king  waa  requested  to  dlsnus  bis  minlstem; 
but  he  was  determined  to  go  to  Germany  rather  than  yield. 
Pitt's  resolution  never  wavered.  The  cry  of  tbe  nation  in  his 
favour  became  vehement  and  almoat  furious.  Addresscft 
assuring  him  of  public  siqiport  came  up  daily  from  every  part  of 
the  kingdonu  The  freedom  of  the  dty  of  London  waa  presented 
to  bim  in  a  gold  box.  He  was  sumptuously  feasted  in  GroceraT 
Hall;  and  the  shopkeepers  of  the  Strand  and  Fleet  Street 
illuminated  their  booses  in  bia  honour.  These  thinp  could  not 
but  produce  an  effea  within  the  walls  of  parliament.  Tbe 
ranks  of  the  majority  began  to  waver;  a  few  passed  over  to  the 
enemy;  some  skulked  away;  many  were  lor  capituUting  whUe 
it  was  stiff  possible  to  capitulate  with  the  honours  of  war. 
Negotiationa  were  opened  with  the  view  of  forming  an  ad>uhi»> 
tmtionon  a  wide  Imsis,  but  they  bad  scarcely  been  opened  when 
they  were  dosed. '  The  Opposition  demanded,  as  a  preliminary 
article  of  the  treaty,  that  Pitt  should  resign  the  treasury;  and 
with  this  demand  Pitt  stesdfastly  refused  td  comply.  While 
the  contest  was  raging,  the  clerkship  of  the  Pclb,  a  sineciirc  plaoe 
for  life,  worth  three  thousand  a  year,  and  tenable  whh  a  seat 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  became  vacant.  The  vppoiaimetA 
was  with  tbe  chanceUor  of  the  exchequer;  nobody  doubted  that 
he  would  appoint  himself,  and  nobody  could  have  blamed  him 
if  he  had  done  so;  for  such  sinecure  offices  had  always  been 
defended  on  the  ground  that  they  enabled  a  few  men  of  eminent 
abilities  and  email  incomes  to  live  without  any  profession,  and 
to  devote  themselves  to  the  service  of  the  state.  Pitt,  in  a{Nte 
of  the  remonstrances  of  fab  friends,  gave  the  Pdls  to  bis  fathei'S 
old  adherent,  Cok)nel  Barri,  a  man  distinguished  by  talent  and 
eloquence,  but  poor  and  afflicted  witb  blindness.  By  this 
arrangement  a  pension  which  the  Rockingham  administration 
had  gruted  to  Barr6  was  saved  to  tbe  pubUc.  Pitt  had  bit 
reward.  No  minister  was  ever  more  ranooromly  libelled;  bat 
even  when  he  was  known  to  be  oveswhclmed  witb  debt,  whek 
milHoas  were  pabsing  through  his  bawls,  when  the  wealthiest 
magnates  of  the  realm  were  soliciting  bim  for  mirquisatca  and 
garters,  his  bitterest  enemies  did  not  dare  to  accuse  bim  of 
touching  unlawf  id  gain. 

At  length  the  bard-fought  fight  ended.  A  final  icmon^ 
stranoe,  dnwn  up  by  Burke  with  admirable  skill,  waa  carried 
on  the  8th  of  March  by  a  single  vote  in  a  full  house.  The 
supplies  bad  been  voted;  tbe  Mutiny  Bill  had  been  psased; 
and  the  parliament  was  dissolved.  The  popular  oonsthuent 
bodies  all  over  the  country  were  in  general  entbusiasitc  on  the 
side  of  tbe  new  government.  A  hundred  and  sixty  of  the 
soppocters  of  the  coalition  lost  their  seats.  The  first  lord  of  tbe 
tressory  himself  came  in  at  the  head  of  the  poll  for  tbe  university 
of  Cambridge.  Wilbetforte  was  elected  knight  of  the  great 
shire  of  York,  in  oppoeitioa  to  the  whole  iaflmnce  of  the  Itit»> 
wiiliohns,  CavendidieB,  Duttdaaes  and  Savilcs.  In  the  midst 
of  such  triumplb'  Pitt  completed  bfs  twenty-fifth  year.  He 
was  now  the  greBtest  subjea  that  England  had  seen  during 
many  gencrationsi  He  domiaeend  abselutely  over  tbe  cabhiet, 
and  was  the  favourite  at  once  of  the  sdvtrdgn,  of  the  parliament 
and  of  the  rudion.  Hia  father  had  never  been  so  pdwerful,  ncv 
Walpole,  nor  Maribocough. 

Pitt's  first -adhunistratum  (r784-i8or)  lasted  seventeen  ycariC 
That  long  period  is  divided  by  a  steon|^y  marked  Kne  hito 
two  abnost  exactly  equal  partn  The  first  part  pm^  rt^ 
ended  and  the  seoood  began  in  tbe  autumn  off  tj^,  AtmitM  ■ 
Thmughout  both  pMts  Pitt  displayed  in  the  highest  ^"•^'•^  ' 
degree  tbe  talcnu  of  a  parBsmmtaiy  kadcr.   Duiiag  the  fint 


6j» 


PITT,  WILLIAM 


pKtt  he  was  fortunate  and  in  many  ntpeetB  a  tkilful  admiois- 
tiater.  With  tiie  difficulties  which  he  had  to  encottnter  daring 
the  second  part  he  was  laltogethtf  incapable  of  contending; 
but  his  eloquence  and  his  perfect  mastery  of  the  tactics  of  the 
House  of  Commons  concealed  his  incapacity  from  the  multitude. 
\  The  d^t  years  which  followed  the  general  election  of  1784 
were  as  tranquil  and  prosperous  as  any  eifi^t  years  in  the  whole 
history  of  Kngland  Her  trade  increased.  Her  manufactures 
flouziUied.  Her  etcbequer  was  full  to  overflowing.  Very  idle 
apprehensions  were  generally  entertained  that  the  public  debt, 
though  much  less  than  a  third  of  the  debt  which  we  now  bear 
with  ease,  would  be  found  too  heavy  for  the  strength  of  the 
nation.  But  Pitt  succeeded  in  persuading  first  himadf  and  then 
the  whole  nation,  his  opponents  induded,  that  a  new  sinking 
fund,  which^  so  far  as  it  differed  from  former  sinking  funds, 
differed  for  the  worse,  would,  by  virtue  of  some  mysterious 
powtf  of  pmpagation  belonging  to  money,  put  into  the  pocket 
of  the  public  creditor  great  sums  not  taken  out  of  the  pocket 
of  the  tax-payer.  The  minister  was  almost  universally  cxtolted 
as  the  greatest  of  financiers.  Meanwhile  both  the  branches 
of  the  house  of  Bourbon  found  that  En^and  was  as  formidabie 
aft  antagonist  as  she  had  ever  been.  France  had  formed  a  plan 
for  reducing  Holland  to  vassalage.  But  England  interpoBed, 
and  Fkance  receded.  Spain  interrupted  by  violence  the  trade 
of  the  English  mochants  with  the  regions  near  the  Oregon. 
But  England  armed,  and  Spain  receded.  \^thin  the  i^and 
there  was  profound  tranquillity.  The  king  was,  for  the  first 
time,  popular.  From  the  day  on  which  Pitt  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  affairs  there  was  an  end  of  secret  influence.  Any 
attempt  to  uAdermine  him  at  court,  any  mutinous  movement 
among  his  followers  in  the  House  of  Commons,  was  certain  to 
be  at  once  put  down.  He  had  only  to  tender  his  resignation 
and  he  could  dictate  his  own  terms.  For  he,  and  he  alone, 
stood  between  the  king  and  the  coalition.  The  nation  loudly 
applauded  the  king  for  having  the  wisdom  to  repose  entire 
confidence  in* so  excellent  a  minister.  His  people  heartily 
prayed  that  he  might  long  reign  over  them;  and  they  prayed 
the  more  heartily  because  his  virtues  were  set  off  to  the  best 
advantage  by  the  vices  and  follies  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  who 
lived  in  close  intimacy  with  the  chiefs  ol  the  Opposition. 

How  strong  this  feeling  was  in  the  public  mind  appeared 
signally  on  one  great  occasion.  In  the  autumn  of  1 788  the  king 
rt»  became  insane.    The  Opposition,  eager  for  office, 

Mfgmqr,  committed  the  great  ind^cretion  of  asserting  that 
'"'■  the  heir  apparent  had,  by  the  fundamental  laws  of 
England,  a  right  to  be  regent  with  the  full  powers  of  royalty. 
Pitt,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  it  to  be  the  constitutionJai 
doctrine  that  when  a  sovereign  is,  by  reason  of  in^mcy,  disease 
or  absence,  inctpafafe  of  exercising  the  ttgfd  fimdons,  it  belongs 
to  tbe  estates  of  the  realm  to  determine  who  shall  be  the  vice* 
gment,  and  with  what  portion  of  the  executive  authority  sucb 
vicegeient  shall  be  entrusted.  A  long  and  violent  contest 
followed,  in  which  Pitt  was  supported  fay  the  great  body  of  the 
people  with  as  much  enthusiasm  as  during  the  first  months 
of  his  administration.  Tories  with  one  voice  applauded  him 
for  defending  the  sick-bed  of  a  virtuous  and  unh^py  sovcreiga 
against  a  disloyal  faction  and  an  undutif ul  son.  Not  a  few 
Whigs  applaudod  him  for  asserting  the  authority  of  parliaments 
and  tbe  principles  of  the  Revohitioa,  in  oppositioii  to  a  doctrine 
which  seemed  to  have  too  much  affinity  with  the  servile  theory 
of  indefeasible  hereditary  ri^t.  The  middle  dasa,  always 
pealoQs  on  the  side  of  decency  and  tbe  domestic  virtues,  lootel 
forward  with  dismay  to  a  reign  resembling  that  of  Charles  II. 
That  tbe  prince  of  Walea  must  be  regent  nobody  ventured  to 
deny.  But  be  and  bis  friendK  were  so  unpopular  that  Pitt  oonld, 
with  general  approbation,  propose  to  limit  the  txwcrs  of  tbe 
Mgtnt  by  icstrictioDS  to  which  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  aubject  a  prince  beloved  and  tnafted  by  the  eoHntiy.  Some 
intareated  men,  fully  expecting  a  change  of  admlnlstmtioa, 
went  over  to  tbe  Opposition.  But  tbe  majority,  purified  by 
these  desertions,  dosed  Us  ranks»  and  presented  a  mora  firm 
anay  thaa  ever  to  the  enemy.    In  every  dhdrieo  Piti  ms 


victorimis.  When  at  length,  afier  a  stormy  interregmim  of 
three  months,  it  was  anaounoeid,  on  the  very  eve  of  the  inaugun* 
tion  of  the  regent,  that  the  king  was  himself  again,  tbe  aatim 
was  wild  with  delight.  Pitt  with  difficulty  escaped  from  the 
tumultuous  kindness  of  an  innumerable  multitude  which  insiited 
on  drawing  his  coach  from  St  FauJ's  Churchyard  to  Downing 
Street.  This  was  the  moment  at  which  his  fsme  and  fortune 
may  be  said  to  have  reached  the  aenith.  W»  Influence  in  Ue 
daset  was  as  great  as  that  of  Carr  or  VilliefB  bad  been.  His 
donoinbn  over  the  parliament  was  more  absolute  thaa  that  ol 
Walpole  or  Pelham  had  been.  He  was  at  the  same  tkne  at 
high  in  the  favour  of  the  populace  as  ever  Wilkes  or  SschevcRlt 
had  beAi.  But  now  the  tide  was  on  the  torn.  Only  ten  dsyt 
after  the  triumphant  procession  to  St  Paul'a,  the  itat» 
general  of  France,  after  an  mterval  of  a  hundred  and  seveaiT- 
four  years,  met  at  Versailles. 

The  nature  of  the  great  Revolution  which  followed  Iru  king 
very  imperfectly  understood  in  England.    Burke  saw  mack 
further  than  any  of  his. contemporaries;  but  whatr 
ever  his  sagadty  descried  was  refracted  and  dis- 
colottTBd  by  his  passions  and  his  imagination.    More 
than  three  years  dapsed  before  the  princq;>Ies  of  the  £ag)iih 
administration   underwent  any    material    change.     Notknf 
could  as  yet  be  milder  or  more  strictly  constituUonal  thaa  tbe 
minister's  domestic   poligr.     Not  a  sin^  act  indicating  as 
arbitrary  temper  or  a  jealousy  of  the  people  could  be  imputed  lo 
him.    In  office,  Pitt  had  redeemed  the  pledges  whidi  he  bad, 
at  his  entrance  into  public  life,  given  to  the  supporters  of  pariin* 
mentary  reform.   He  had,  in  2785,  Jxoug^t  forward  a  Judkaooi 
plan  tor  the  representadve  system,  and  had  prevailed  oa  the 
king  not  only  to  refrain  from  talking  against  that  plan,  bat  to 
recommend  it  to  the  houses  in  a  speech  fnm  the  throne.^  TVi 
attempt  failed;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  if  the  Frendi 
Revolution  had  not  produced  a  violent  reaction  of  public  fedisg; 
Pitt  would  have  performed,  with  little  difficulty  and  no  danger, 
that  great  work  which,  at  a  later  period.  Lord  Gfcy  could  accom- 
plish only  by  means  which  for  a  time  loosoied  the  very  fonada* 
tions  of  the  commonwealth.    When  the  atiodties  of  the  davt 
trade  were  first  brought  under  the  oonsideratkMi  of  pariiaaeot 
no  abolitionist  was  more  aealous  than  Pitt.    A  hiunane  bill, 
which  mitigated  the  horrors  of  the  middle  passage,  w«s,ia  i78t, 
carried  by  the  ehx]uencB  and  determined  spirit  of  Pitt,  in  ^^lite 
of  the  opposition  of  some  of  his  own  foHengiies.    la  1791  be 
cordially  concurred  with  Fox  in  maintaining  the  sound  ooaMitiH 
tional  doctrine  that  an  impeachment  is  not  tenainated  by  a 
dissolution.    In  the  course  of  the  same  year  tbe  two  great 
rivals  contended  side  by  side  in  a  far  more  in^Mrtant  caoae; 
ThQr  are  fairiy  entitled  to  divide  the  high  bonoor  of  having 
added  to  the  sUt«te>book  the  inestiaable  law  wfakh  placa 
the  liberty  of  the  pvess  under  the  protection  of  juries.   On  one 
occasion,  and  one  alone,  Pitt,  during  the  first  half  of  his  long 
administration,  acted  in  a  manna*  unworthy  of  an  euii|^ilieBei 
Whig.    In  the  debate  on  the  Test  Aa  he  stooped  to  grstifr 
the  master  whom  ho  served,  tbe  nnivasity  which  he  rcpfcsenici 
and  the  great  body  of  dergymom  and  country  gentlemen  oa 
whose  support  he  rested,  by  talking,  witb  little  faessthMm 
indeed,  and  with  no  asperity,  the  language  of  a  Tory.    WA 
this  single  exoeptioo,  his  conduct  from  the  end  of  t^  to  the 
middle  of  1793  was  that  of  an  honest  fncnd  of  dvil  and  reiigioM 
liberty. 

Nor  did  anythmg^  during  that  period,  indicate  that  he  loved 
war,or  harboured  any  malevolent  feeling  against  amy  nei|^lbo■^ 
ing  nation.  Tboae  Frendi  writers  who  have  represented  him 
aa  a  Hannibal  sworn  tm  dnUbood  by  bis  father  to  bear  eteraal 
hatred  to  France,  as  having,  by  mysteiions  fotrigaes  and  Isvidi 
bribes,  indicated  the  leading  Jacobana  to  commit  thoee  cxcemes 
which  diahoBouied  tbe  ScnKifaitu>n».  as  having  been  the  real 


^The  spc^  with  whidi  the  hang  opeaed  tbe  amine  of  I74S 
concluded  with  an  aasuraace  that  hb  majeity  would  heartily  coa- 
cur  in  every  measure  which  could  tend  u>  secure  tbe  true  pnndpie* 
of  tfie  eontrltution.  These  woids  were  at  the  time  understood  to 
teler  to  Fkt's  Reform  BilL 


pm;  wiLWAM 


673 


atttbor  of  the  iirtt  oMfitioD,  kndw  notMng  of  |Jk  diancter  or 
of  h»  history.  SofarwubefrombeiogadeadlyeibemytoFKince 
that  his  laudable  attempts  to  bring  aboot  a  closer  oon&exioii 
with  that  conntiy  by  meana  of  a  wise  and  'libexml  treaty  of 
commerce  brought  on  him  the  severe  censure  of  the  Opposition. 
Re  was  told  in  the  House  of  Commons  that  he  was  a  degenerate 
son,  and  that  hb  partiality  for  the  hereditary  foes  of  our  iahmd 
was  enough  to  make  his  great  father's  bones  stir  uncier  the 
pavement  of  the  Abbey. 

And  this  man,  wtioee  nattie,  if  he  had  been  so  fortunate  as  to 
die  in  1792,  wouM  have  been  associated  ivith  peace,  with  free- 
dom, with  philanthropy,  with  temperate  rcfohn,  with  mild  and 
constitutional  administration,  lived  to  associate  his  name  with 
arbitrary  government,  with  harsh  lows  harshly  executed,  with 
alien  bills,  with  gagging  bills,  Vkh  suspensions  of  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act,  with  cruel  punishments  inflicted  on  some  political 
agitators,  with   unjustifiable  prosecutions  instigated  against 
Others  KRd  with  the  most  costly  and  most  sanguinary  wars  of 
modern  times.    He  lived  to  be  held  up  to'oblo^uy  as  the  stem 
oppressor  of  England  and  the  indefatigable  disturber  of  Evrope. 
I^ets,  contrasting  his  earfier  with  his  later  years,  likened  him 
sometimes  to  the  apostle  who  kissed  in  order  to:  betray,  and 
sometimes  to  the  evil  angels  Who  kept  not  their  first  iesUte. 
By  the  French  press  and  the  French  tribune  every  crime  that 
d^graced  and  every  calamity  that  afflicted  France  was  ascribed 
to  the  monster  Pitt  and  his  guineas.    WUle  the  Jacobins  were 
dominant  it  wu  he  who  had  corrupted  the  Oironde,  who  had 
raised  Lyons  and  Bordeaux  ugainst  the  Convention,  who  had 
suborned  Paris  to  asiassinato  Lepelletier,  and  Cecilia  Rcgnault 
to  assassinate  ttobes^iierre.    When  the  Thermidorian  reactkm 
came,  all  tlie  atrocities  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  were  imputed,  to 
him.    Collot  D'Herbois  and  Fouquief  TinviUe  had  been  his 
penin'oners.   It  was  he  who  had  hired  the  aurderers  of  September^ 
who  hod  dictated  the  pamphlets  of  Marat  and  the  cartnagnoleS 
of  Bar^,  yAo  had  paid  Lebon  to  deluge  Arras  with  blood  and 
Carrier  to  choke  the  Loire  with  corpses.    The  truth  is  tbat  he 
Ijked  neither  war  nor  arbitrary  government.    He  was  a  k^ver 
of  peace  and  freedom,  driven,  by  a  stress  agatost  which  it  was 
hardly  possible  for  any  will  or  any  inteHect  to  struggle,  o«t  of 
the  course  to  which  his  inclinations  pointed,  and  for  which  his 
abilities  and  acquiren\|ents  fitted  him,  and  forced  Into  a  poliqr 
repugnant  to  his  feelings  and  unsuited  to  his  talents. 

Between  the  spring  of  1789  and  the  dose  of  tjga  the  publk 

mind  of  England  underwent  a  great  change.   If  the  change  oft 

Pitt's  sentiments  attracted  p«cullar  notice,  it  was  not  because 

he  dumged  more  than  his  neighboun ,  for  fo  fact  he  changed 

less  than  most  of  them,  but  because  Us  position  was  fst  more 

conspicuous  than  theirs,  because  he  was,  tltt  Bonaparte  appeared, 

the  individual  who  filled  the  greatest  space  hk  the  eyes  of  the 

inhabitants  <rf  the  civilised  worid.    During  a  short  time  the 

nation,  and  Pitt  as  one  of  the  nation,' tooked  with  interest  and 

approbation  on  the  French  Revolution.   But  soon  vast  confisca- 

tions,  the  violent  sweeping  away  of  andent  institutions,  the 

domination  of  dubs,  the  barbarities  of  mobs  maddened  by 

famine  and  hatred,  produced  areaaion.  The  court,  the  nobility, 

the  gentry,  the  dergy,  the  manufacturers,  the  merchants,  ih 

short  niileteen-twentieths  of  those  who  had  good  roofs  over  tlieir 

iieads  and  good  coats  on  their  backs,  became  eager  intolerant 

Antijacobins.    This  feeling  was  at  least  as  strong  among  the 

tninister's  adversaries  as  amoing  his  suppcntets.    Fox  in  vain 

Attempted  to  restrain  his  foUowers«   All  his  genius,  all  his  vast 

personal  influence,  could  not  prevent  them  from  rising  up  against 

hifn  Jn^  general  mutiny.    Burke  set  the  example  of  revolt; 

and  Burke  was  in  no  long  time  joined  by  Portland,  Spencer, 

F!t2william,  Loughborough^  Carlisle,  Mahnesbnry,  Windham, 

Btlioci    In.  the  House  of  Commons  the  followers  of  the  great 

Whig  stat»nan  and  orator  diminished  from  about  a  hundred 

and  sixty  to  fifty.    In  the  House  of  Lords  he  hod  but  ten  or 

twelve  adherents  left.   There  can  be  no  doubt  that  ther€  would 

have  been  a  similar  mutiny  en'  the  ministeifal  benches  tf  Pitt 

had  obstinately  resisted  the  general  wish.    Pressed  at  once  by 

hia  mastei'' and  by  bi»  cetteagues,  by  old  friends  and  by  old 


opponents;  lie  afaaadionady  'dowly  and  rehictantfy,  the  policy 
adiich  was  dear  to  hia  heart.  He  lid>ottred  hard  to  avert  the 
European  war.  When  the  European  war  broke  out  he  still 
flattered  himself  that  it  woald  not  be  necessary  for  this  country 
to  take  either  sfcie.  In  the  sprmg  of  1793  he  congratulated 
the  parliament  on  the  prospect  of  long  and  profound  peace,  and 
pro^  US'  sincerity  by  proposing  large  remissions  of  taxation. 
Down  to  the  end  of  that  year  he  contmued  to  dierish  the  hope 
that  England  might  be  able  to  preserve  neutrality.  But  the 
passions  which  raged  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel  were  not  to 
be  restrained.  The  republicans  who  ruled  France  were  infianied 
by  a  fanatidsm  resembling  that  of  the  Mussulmans,  who,  with 
the  Koran  in  one  hand  and  the  sword  in  the  other,  went  forth 
conquering  and  converting,  eastward  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and 
westward  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  higher  and  middle 
dasses  of  England  were  animated  by  seal  not  less  fiery  than  that 
of  the  crusodexa  who  raised  the  cry  of  Dius  mdt  at  Clermont. 
The  impulse  in^ch  drove  the  two  notwns  to  a  collision  was  not 
to  be  arrested  by  the  abilities  or  by  the  authority  of  any  single 
man.  As  Pitt  was  in  front  of  hk  fellows,  and  towered. high 
sbove  them,  he  seemed,  to  lead  them.  But  in  fact  he  was 
violently  pushed  on  by  them,  and,  had  he  held  back  but  a 
Uttle  more  than  he  did,  would  have  been  Uirust  out  of  their 
way  or  trani|ded  under  their  f  eet« 

He  yidded  to  the  current;  and  from  that  day  his  misfortunes 
began.  The  truth  is  that  there  were  only  two  consistent  courset 
before  him.  Since  be  did  not  choose  to  oppose 
himself,  skie  by  side  with  Fox,  to  the  public  feeling,  ylH^^ 
he  should  have  taken  the  advice  of  Burke,  and  diould 
have  availed  himself  of  that  feeling  to  the  f\ili  extent.  If  it 
was  impossible  to-  preserve  peace,  he  should  lave  adopted  the 
only  policy  which  should  lead  to  yictory.  He  should  have 
proclaimed^  a  holy  war  for  religion,  morality,  property,  order, 
public  law,  and  ^ould  have  thus  opposed  to  the  Jacobins  an 
energy  equal  to  their  own.  Unhappily  h^  tried  to  find  a  middle 
path;  and  he  found  one  which  united  all  that  was  worst  in  both 
extremes.  He  went  to  war;  but  he  could  not  understand  the 
peculiar  character  of  that  war.  He  was  obstinately  blind  to  the 
plain  iact  that  he  was  contendingogainst  a  state  which  was  also 
a  sect,  and  that  a  new  quarrd  between  England  and  France 
was  of  quite  a  different  kind  from  the  old  quancls  about  colonic^ 
in  Amaica  and  fortresses  in  the  Netherlands.  It  was  pitiable 
to  hear  hiito,  year  after  year,  proving  to  an  admiring  audience 
that  the  wicked  republic  was  exhausted,  that  ahe  couU  not  hold 
out,  that  her  credit  was  gone,  that  her  aasignaU  were  not  wort^ 
nbre  than  the  paper  of  which  they  were  mode — as  if  credit  was 
necessary  to  a  government  of  which  the  [mnciple  was  rapine, 
as  if  Alboin-  could  not  turn  Italy  into  a  desert  tlQ  he  had 
negotihted  a  loan  at  5%,  as  if  the  exchequer  bills  of  Attila 
had  been  at  par.  It  was  impossible  that  a  man  who  so  com^ 
pktdy  mistook  the  nature  of  a  contest  could  carry  on  that 
ooBtest  successfully.  Great  st%  Pitt's  abilities  were,  his  mSHtary 
administration  was  that  of  a  drivdlcr.  In  such  an  emergency, 
and  with  soch  meansr  such  a  statesman  as  Rkhelteu,  as  Louvtris, 
as  Chatham,  aa  WeUeslcy,  would  have  created  in  a  few  months 
one  of  the  finest  armies  in  the  world,  and  would  soOn  have 
discovoed  and  brought  forward  generals  worthy  to  command 
such  an  army.^  Germany  mig^t  have  been  saved  by  akiother 
Blenheim;  Flanders  recovered  by  another  Ramillies;  another 
Poitiers  might  have  delivered  the  Royalist  and  Catholic  pro- 
vinces of  France  from  a  yoke  which  they  abhorred,  and  might 
have  spread  terror  even  to  the  barriers  of  Paris.  But.  the  faist 
ia  that,  after  dght  years  of  war,  after  a  vast  destruction  of  life, 
after  an  «qicnditure  of  wealth  far  exceeding  the  expenditure 
<of  the  AibericOn  War,  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  of  the  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession  and  of  the  War  of  the  SparasK  Succes- 
sion united,  the  English  army  under  Pitt  was  the  laugfaing«stQck 
of  an  Eorope.  It  could  not  boast  of  one  single  brilbant  exploit. 
It  had  never  shown  itsdf  on  the  Continent  but  to  bcf  b^ten, 
chased,  forced  to  re^mbark  or  forced  to  capitulate.  To  take 
some  sugar  island  in  the  West  Indics>  to  scatter  some  mob  «tf 
half  :ttaked  Irish  peasanta— such  were  the  most  splendid  victories 


674 


PITT,  WILUAM 


won  by  dM  Biitiali  troops  under  Pitft  tapka.  The  EngBsk 
navy  no  mwmnnagrmfnt  could  ruin.  But  during  A  long  pexiod 
whatever  mismanagement  oould  do  was  done.  The  caiii  of 
Chatham,  without  a  single  qualification  for  high  public  trust, 
Was  made,  by  ffatemal  partiality,  first. lord  of  the  admtndty, 
and  was  kept  in  that  great  post  duiing  two  yean  of  a  war  in 
which  the  very  existence  of  the  state  depended  on  the  effidency 
of  the  fleet.  Fortunately  he  was  suoceeded  by  Geoige,  Earl 
Spencer,  one  of  those  chiefs  «£  the  Whig  party  who,  in  the  great 
schism  caused  by  the  French  RevolutioB,  had  followed  Buifce. 
Lord  Spencer,  thou|^  inferior  to  many  ol  his  colleagues  as  an 
orator,  was  decidedly  the  best  administrator  among  them. 
To  him  it  was  owing  that,  a  long  and  gloomy  sttcccssioo  of 
days  of  fasting,  and  most  emphatically  of  humiliation,  was  inter* 
fupted,  twice  in  the  short  space  of  eleven  months,  by  days  of 
thanksgivittg  for  great  victories. 

It  may  seem  paradoxical  to  say  that  the  incapacity  which  Pitt 
showed  in  all  that  related  to  the  conduct  of  the  war  fii,  in  some 
sense,  the  most  decisive  proof  that  he  was  a  man  of  very  extra- 
ordinary abilities.  Yet  this  is  the  simple  truth.  While  his 
schemes  were  confounded,  while  his  predictions  weoe  ialsified, 
while  the  coalitions  which  he  had  laboured  to  form  were  faUing 
to  pieces,  while  the  expeditions  which  he  had  sent,  forth  at 
enormous  cost  were  ending  in  rout  and  disgMce,  while  the  enemy 
against  whom  he  was  feebly  contending  was  subjugating 
Flanders  and  Brabant,  the  electorate  of  Mains  and  the 
electorate  of  Treves,  Holland,  Piedmont,  Liguria,  Lombardy, 
his  authority  over  the  House  of  Commons  was  constantly 
becoming  more  and  more  absolute.  There  was  his  empire. 
There  were  his  victories— his  Lodi  and  his  Areola,  his  Kivoli 
alid  his  liarengo.  Of  the  great  party  whidi  had  contended 
against,  him  during  the  first  eight  3rears  <rf  hb  administntion 
more  than  one-half  now  marched  under  his  standard,  with  his 
old  eompetitor  the  duke  of  Portland  at  their  head;  artd  the 
rest  had,  after  many  vain  struggles,  quitted  the  field  in  de^Nur* 
Session  followed  session  with  scarcely  a  single  division.  In  the 
eventful  year  1799  ^he  largest  minority  that  oould  be  mustered 
against  the  government  was  twenty-five. 

In  Pitt's  domestic  policy  there  was  at  this  time  assuredly  no 
want  of  vigour.  While  he  offered  to  French  Jacobinism  a 
rcsbtance  so  fed>le  that  it  only  enoouragrd  the 
p^fg^,  evil  which  he  wished  to  suppress,  Iw  put  down  En^ish 
Jacobinism  with  a  strong  hsxid.  The  Habeas 
Coit>us  Act  was  repeatedly  suspended.  Public  meetings  wefe 
plaocd  under  severe  restraints.  The  govemment  obtained 
from  parliament  power  to  send  out  of  the  country  aliens  who 
were  suspected  of  evil  designs;  and  thai  power  waS'  not  suffcied 
to  be  idle.  Writers  who  propounded  doctrines  advSise  to 
monarchy  and  axistocracy  were  proscribed  and  punished  with* 
out  mercy.  The  old  laws  of  Scotland  against  sedition,  laws 
whfch  were  considered  by  Englishmen  as  barbarous,  and  Which 
a  succession  of  governments  had  suffered  to  rust,  were  now 
furbished  up  and  sharpened  anew.  Men  <rf  cultivated  minds 
and  polished  maimers  were,  for  offences  ^^ch  at  Westminster 
would  have  been  treated  as  mere  misdemeantfurs,  sent  to  herd 
with  fekms  at  Botany  Bay.  Some  reformers,  whose  opinions 
were  extravagant,  and  whose  language  was  Intemperate,  but 
who  had  never  dreamed  of  subverting  the  government  by 
physical  force,  were  indicted  for  high  treason,  and  were  saved 
Irom  the  gallows  oidy  by  the  righteous  verdicts  of  juries. 

One  part  only  of  Pitt's  conduct  during  the  last  eight  years  of 
the  x8th  century  deserves  high  praise.  He  was  the  first  English 
minister  who  fanned  great  designs  for  the  benefit  of 
Ireland.  Had  he  been  able  to  do  all  ths^  he  wished, 
it  is  probable  that  a  wise  and  libend  poUcy  would 
have  averted  the  rebellion  of  1798.  But  the  difficulties  which 
lie  enoouttteced  were  great,  perhaps  insumaouatable;  and  the 
Roman  Catholics  were,  rather  by  his  misfortune  than  by  his 
.fmiU,  thrown  into  the  hands  of  Jscobins.  There  was  a  third 
great  ibing  of  the  Irisbry  against  the  Englishry,  a  rising  not  less 
formidable  than  the  risiagi  c*  1641  and  i6Sp.  The  Englishry 
nortiasd  victMious;  aal  it.  was  asosasaiy  for  Pitt»ai  it  had  besn 


Mi* 


BSccssaiyfdr  OiiMrCnttwdl  end  William  of  Orsags  hebri  lun, 
to  oMttider  how  the-Victoiy  should  be  used.  Us  deteanised  to 
make  Ireland  one  kingdom  with  Eugland,  and,  at  the  same  Ubm. 
to  relieve  the  Riunao  Catholic  laity  from  civil  diiabilitics,  isd 
to  grant  a  public,  maintenance  to  the  Roman  Catholic  doiy. 
Had  he  been  aUe  to  csny  these  noble  designs  into  effect  ibe 
union  would  have  been  a  union  isideed.  But  Pitt  oouki  ciccuu 
only  one-half  of  what  he  had  projected.  He  succeeded  in  okuia- 
ing  the  consent  of  the  parliaments  of  both  kaagdems  to  the 
uniooi  but  thst  tecpndliatien  of:raoes  and  aects  wiAkout  which 
the  union  could  tidat  only  in  name  was  not  aocompKihci 
The  king  imagiBed'  that  bis  coronation  oatb  bound  kirn  to 
refuse  his  assent  to  any.  bill  for  relieving  Roman  Quholics  ism 
dvU  disabilities.  Duodas  tried  to  expjain  the  matter,  but  «m 
told  to  keep  bis  Scotch  metaphysics  to  himself.  Piu  and  FUfk 
shiest  colleagues  resigned  their  offices  (March  14, 1801). 

It  was  aeoemary  that  the  kingshoukl  make  a  new  anrangesMst 
But  by  this  time  his  ai^er  and  distreis  had  brought  bad  thi 
malady  which  had,  many  yean  beforst  incapacitated  him  ioi 
the  diachaigs  of  bis  functions.  Ht  actually  asseinbled  ha 
family,  read  the  coronation  oath  to  them,  and  told  them  that, 
if  he  broke  it,  the  crowa  would  inunediately  pass  to  the  hooe 
of  Savoy.  Ic  was. opt  until  after  an  iaterrepium  of  sevcnl 
weeks  that  he  vegaiMd  the  luU  use  of  his  small  faculties,  and  thit 
a  ministry  sfter  his  own  heart  was  .at  length  formed.  la  a 
age  pre»eminendbr  fruitful  of  jMrliawentary  talents,  a  cabioct 
wss  Conned  oontsiniog  hard^  a  single  man  who  in  pariianestaiy 
talents  oouM  be  constderod  as  even  of  the  second  rate.  Hesiy 
Addingten  was  at  the  head  of  the  treasury.  He  had  bees  u 
eatfly,  indeed  an  heeediiaiy  friend  of  Pitt,  and  had  mmh^' 
by  Pitt's  influenee  bet n  placed;  a^ile  still  a  jFOuag  ^jjgw^ 
man,  in  the  chuir  of  the  House  of  Commons,  He  "" 
was  univerBally  adssitted  to  hiive  been  the  best  Speaks 
that  had  sat  in  that  ehair  since  the  retirement  of  Oosloe. 
But  nature  had  not  l^estowed  on  him  very  vigorous  facultia; 
and  the  highly  rc^ecuble  situation  which  he  long  occupied 
with  honour  had  rather  unfitted  than  fitted  him  for  the  dje* 
charge  of  his  new  duties*  Nevertheleas,  during  many  nontK 
his  power  seemed  to  stand  film. .  The  nation  was  put  tau 
high  good  husaour  by  a  .peaoe  with  France.  Hie  enthuuMW 
with  which  the  lyper  and  Middle  classes  had  rushed  into  the 
war  had  spent  itself.  •  Jacobinism  was  no  longer  focmidahk. 
Everywkere  theie  was  a  stiong  reaaion  against  what  w 
called  the  athcfsticai  and  snafrjiifal  j>hlloio|Uky  of  the  i&h 
ccBtur^.  Booapaitet  now  fiist  ooasult  was  busied  in  coostnict' 
ing  out  of  the  ituns  of  old  institutions  a  new  ecdcsiastkil 
esubUshmcnt  and  a  new  order  cf  knighthood.  The  treaty  if 
Amiens  was  thcrBfore.hsiled  by  the  gieat  body  of  the  InjfiA 
people  with  entsavsgaat  joy.  The  popslarity  of  the  ipii^ 
was  for  the  moment  Jmrncnse.  His  w»nt  of  luuliamcBtaiy 
ability  was,  ss  yet*  of  little  ooesei|uenoe;  for  be  had  scared^ 
any  aidvetMfy  to  enootmter.  The  old  Opposition,  delighted  hf 
the  peace,  regarded  Urn  with  layout  A  new  OppositioD  hid 
indeed  been  f  oi«»cd  by  seme  of  the  late  nf  niater^  and  «> 
kdby  GtcnviUeia  the  House  of  Loids  and  by  Windham  ia  the 
House  of  Csmnons. .  But  the  new  Opposition  oould  scarody 
muster  ten  votes,  and  waa  segmkd  with  no  fnvour  by  the 
country. 

On  Pitt  the  mhusten  relwd  as  on  their  firmest  sqpperi. 
He  had  not,  like  some  of  his  eoUeagucs,  retired  in  anger.  He 
had  esprteedthegteafeest  respecC'ior  theoooscieoiiousaaivk 
whkh  had  taiea  prtssw^on  of  the  aoyal  mind;  and  he  bid 
promised  his  snoessssif  aH  the  hdp  in  hia  power.  But  i^  «« 
hardly  possible  thsi  ti^  unfen  should  he  dvfable.  ^^ 
conscioue  of  tmpuifot  pewem,  imagiaiid'tbat  the  Flaca  which  kj 
hadqaitted  waa  now  oocupied  .Ivy'a  nMra.puppe^  which  he  had 
set  up,  which  he  sias:te  fovem  whflei  he  suffered  it  to  reaaiB, 
and  wbicH  he  Wsi  to  ffiog  askfeansooa  as  he  wished  to  reaatf 
his  old  pdsitiofk  Noc  wsa  it  feng.bsfore  he  hegaa  to  pine  kf 
the  power  wfak^  he  had  lelinqnishcdL  Addhiaton,  en  ^ 
other  hand,  was  by  no  means  Inclined  to  descend  from  his  bi^ 
positilML    He  took  his  elevatmft  qaht  serious^»  attributed  il 


PITT,  •WILETAM 


675 


CD  hH  own  meritt  and  ooosfdeted  Hmieif  is  one  of  cfat  greet 

triumvirate  of  EngUah  statesmen,  ss  irortby  to  make  a  thM 

with  Pitt  and  Fox.    Meanwhile  Pitt's  most  intimate  friends 

exerted  themselves  to  effect  a  chan^  of  ministry.   His  favooiite 

disdple,  George  CamuagT  was  indefatigable.     He  spoken  Jie 

wrote;  he  mtrigned;  he  tried  to  induce  a  Isige  number  «i  the 

sitpportefs  of  the  government  to  sign  a  vowid  lobin  desiring  a 

change;  he  made  game  of  Addiogton  aad<of  Addington'k  lela^ 

tions  in  a  sucoesaAHi  of  lively  paaqninades.    The  minister^ 

partisans  lekHted  with  equsl  eoimo^y,  if  not  witbeqnal  vivacity^ 

Pitt  oovdd  keep  out  of  the  affray  only  by  keeping  out  of  potttica 

altogether;  and  this  it  soon  bwame  impossible  for  him  to  do. 

The  treaty  of  Amiens  had  scarcely  been  signed  when  the  restless 

ambition  and  the  insoppoitabie  insolence  of  the  Flat  Consul 

convinced  the  great  body  of  the  English  people  Uiat  the  peace 

so  eagerly  wdcomed  was  only  a  precarieua  aindstlce.    As  it 

became  clearer  and  deaxer  that  a  war  for  the  dignity,  the  inde* 

pendence,  the  very  extstence  of  the  nation  was  at  hand,  men 

looked  with  incrMsing  uneasiness  on  the  weak  and  laingukl 

cabinet  which  would  have  to  contend  against  an  enemy  who 

united*  more  than  the  power  of  Louis  the  Great  to  more  than 

the  genius  of  Fmderick  the  Great.  They  bnaghied  that  Pitt  was 

the  only  statesman  wii»  could  cope  with  Bourpaite.    This 

feeling  was  nowhere  stronger  than  among  Addhigton's  own 

colleagues.    The  pressure  put  on  him  was  so  ftiong  that  he 

could  not  help  yielding  to  it.    His  fira  proposition  was  thai 

some  Insigniiicant  nobtenaa  should  be  fiist  kvd  of  the  treasury 

and  nominal  head  of  the  administration,  and  that  tihe  real  power 

should  be  divided  between  Pitt  and  himself,  who  were  to  be 

secretaries  of  State.   Pitt,  as  might  have  been  expected,  refosed 

even  to  discuss  such  a  scheme,  and  talked  of  it  with  bitter  mirth. 

"  Which  secretaryship  was  offered  to  you?"  his  friend  Wiiber^ 

force  asked.     **  Really,*'  saM  Pitt,  "  I  had  not  the  curiosity 

to  inquire.*'    Addington  was  frightened  into  biddfaig  higher. 

He  offered  to  resign  the  treasury  t»  Pftt  on  condition  that  there 

sbotdd  be  no  extensive  change  in  the  government.    But  Pitt 

would  listen  to  no  such  tenns*    Thencasne  a  ditpvte  such  as 

often  arises  after  negotiations  orally  conducted,  even  when  the 

negotiators  are  men  of' strict  honour.    Pitt  gav«  one  account 

of  what  had  passed;  Addington  gave  another;  and,  though 

the  discrepaAcies  were  not  such  as  necessarily  imfdied  any 

intentional  viola^on  ef  truth  on  either  side,  both  were  greatly 

exasperated. 

Meanwhile  the  quarrd  wHh  the  First  Cdnsol  had  to  come  to 
a  criaik  On  the  i6th  of  May  1805  the  king  sent  a  message 
calling  on  the  House  of  Commons  to  support  him  in  withstanding 
the  ambitious  and  encroaching  policy  of  France;  and  en  Ibe 
2  and  the  house  took  the  message  into  consideration. 

Fitt  huA  now  been  living  many  months  in  retifenent.  There 
had  hOen  a  general  election  since  he  had  spoken  in  parUament, 
and  there  ittn  two  hundred  members  who  had  never  heard  him. 
It  was  kikown  that  on  this^aaion  he  would  be  in  his  place,  and 
curiosity  was  wound  up  to  the  highest  point.  Unfortunately, 
the  shorthand  writers  were,  in  consequence  of  some  mistake, 
flhut  oat  on  that  day  from  the  gallery,  so  that  the  newspapers 
eoRtaloed  only  a  very  meagre  report  of  the  proceedings.  But 
several  accounts  of  what  paned  are  extant;  and  of  those  accoimts 
the  most  interesting  is  contained  in  an  ui^ublished  letter 
written  by  a  very  young  member,  John  William  Ward^  after- 
wards eari  of  Dudley.  When  Pitt  rose  he  was  received  with 
loud  cheering.  At  every  pause  in  bis  speech  there  was  a  burst 
of  applause.  The  peforatk>n  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
most  animated  and  magnificent  ever  heard  in  parliament. 
"  Pitt's  speech,"  Fox  wrote  a  few  days  later,  "  was  admired 
very  much,  and  very  justly.  I  think  it  was  the  best  he 
ever  made  in  that  style."  The  debate  was  adjourned;- and 
on  the  second  ni|Jit  Fox  replied  to  it  in  an  oration  which, 
sa  the  most  teelous  Pittites  were  forced  to  acknowledge, 
left  the  pahn  of  eloquence  doubtful.  Addington  made  a 
intiable  appearance  between  the  two  great  rivals;  and  it 
was  observed  that  Pitt,  while  exhorting  the  Commons  to  stand 
rcsolotcly  by  the  executive  government  against  France,  saSd 


not  a  word  iwdktttng  esteem  or  friendship  ior  the  prittw 
mimster. 

War  was  speedily  dedamd.  The  First  Consul  threatened  to 
mvade  Eagbad  at  the  head  of  the  conquerors  of  Belgium  and 
Italy,  and  formed  a  great  camp  near  the  StrsiU  of  Dover.  On 
the  other  side  of  those  stralu  the  whole  British  population 
was  sesdy  to  rise  up  aa  ooe  man  in  defence  oi  thesoiL  In  the 
spring  of  1804  it  became  evident  that  the  weakest  of  ministries 
would  have  to  defend  Itself  sgaiast  the  strongest  of  Opporitionsi 
anOppositioa  made  up  oi  three  OppositioBs»  eacb«f  which  would, 
separately,  have  been  formidable  fxbm  ability,  and  which* 
when  uikted,  wese  also  lonnidahle  from  number.  It  was 
oecessary  to  give  way;  the  ministry  was  dissolved,  and  the 
task  of  performing  a  government  was  entrusted  (May  1804) 
to  Pitt.  Pitt  ms  of  oi^nion  Chat  there  waa  now  aa  opportunity, 
such  as  had  never  before  offered  itself,  and  such  as  might  never 
offer  itself  sgain,  of  uniting  in  the  pubUc  service^  on  honourabls 
terms,  aH  the  eminent  talents  oi  the  kiagdom.  f^^. 
The  treasury  he  reserved  for  himBelf ;  and  to  Foa  smm# 
he  peepcsed  to'  sasign  a*  share  of  power  little  inferior  *tmaatUim 
to  his  own.  The  plan  was  excellent;  but  the  king  ^'**^ 
would  not  hear  oi  it.  J>ull*  obstinate,  unforgiving,  and  at  that 
time  half  mad»  he  positively  sefused  to  admit  Fox  into  his 
service.  In  an  evil  hour  Pitt  yielded.  All  that  was  left  was 
to  coQstract  a  goveearoeat  out  of  the  wxedt  of  Addington's 
feri>le  administration.  The  small  circle  of  Pitt's  personal 
retamen  furmshed  him  with  a  very  few  useful  assistants, 
particularly  Dundas  (who  had  been  created  Viscount  Melville), 
Lord  Harrawby  end  Canning. 

Such  was  the  insuqricious  manner  in  iridch  j^tt  entered  on 
his  second  administration  (May  is,  1804).  The  whole  history 
of  that  admmistratum  was  of  a  piece  with  the  commencement. 
Almost  every  month  brought  some  new  disaster  or  disgrace. 
To  the  war  with  France  was  doon  added  a  war  with  Spain. 
The  opponents  of  the  miaistry  were  numerous,  idde  and  active. 
His  most  useful  ooedjutora  he  soon  lost.  Sickness  defnivod 
him  of  the  help  of  Lord  Haxfowby.  It  was  discovered  that 
Lord  Melville  had  been  guilty  of  hi^y  culpable  laxity  in  trans* 
actions  rdating  to  pubUc  money.  He  was  censured  by  the 
House  of  Commons,  driven  from  office,  ejected  from  the  privy 
eonndl  and  impeached  o^  high  crimes  and  misdemeanoura. 
The  bhnr  fell  heavy  on  Pitt,  His  dilBculties  compelled  Jiim 
to  resort  to  various  expedients.  At  one  time  Addington  wss 
persuaded  to  accept  office  with  a  peerage;  but  he  brou^t  no 
additional  strength  to  the  government.  While  he  remained 
in  place  he  was  jeabus  and  punctiUous;  and  he  soon  retired 
again.  At  another  time  Pitt  renewed  bis  efforts  to  overcome 
bis  msster's  aversion  to  Fox;  and  it  was  rumoured  that  the 
kmg's  obstinacy  was  gradually  giving  way.  But,  meanwhile, 
it  was  impossible  for  the  minister  to  conceal  from  the  public 
eye  the  decay  of  his  health  and  the  .constant  anxiety  which 
gnawed  at  his  heart.  All  who  passed  htm  in  the  park,  all 
who  had  interviews  with  him  in  Downing  Street,  saw  misery 
written  in  his  face.  The  peculiar  look  which  he  wore  during 
the  last  months  of  his  life  was  often  pathetically  described  by 
Wilberforce,  who  used  to  call  it  the  Austerlitz  look. 

Still  the  vigour  of  Pitt's  intellectual  faculties  and  the  intrepid 
haughtiness  of  bis  spirit  remained  unaltered.  He  had  staked 
everything  on  a  great  venture.  He  had  succeeded  in  forming 
another  mighty  coalition  against  the  French  ascendancy.  The 
united  forces  of  Austria,  Russia  and  England  might,  be  hoped, 
opposd  an  insurmountable  barrier  to  Ae  ambition  of  the  common 
enemy.  But  the  genius  and  energy  of  Napoleon  prevailed. 
While  the  English  troops  were  preparing  to  embark  for  Germany, 
while  the  Russian  troops  were  sbwly  coming  np  from  Poland, 
he,  wiUi  rapidity  unprecedented  hi  modem  war,  moved  a  hundred 
thousand  men  from  the  shores  of  the  ocean  to  the  Black  Forest, 
and  compelled  a  great  Austrian  army  to  surrender  at  Ulm.  To 
the  first  faint  rumours  of  this  cslamity  Pitt  would  give  no 
credit.  He  was  irritated  by  the  alarms  of  those  around  bim. 
"  Do  not  beUeve  a  word  of  it"  he  said;  "  it  is  sU  a  fiction." 
The  next  day  he  received  a  Dutch  newspaper  containing  the 


676 


PITT,  IWILMAM 


capkiiUtioD.  He  knew  no  Dutch.  It  was  Sunddy,  And  the 
public  offices  were  shut.  He  carried  the  paper  to  Lord  Malmesr 
bury,  who  had  been  nunistcr  m  Holland;  and  Lonl  Malmesbury 
tcsaslated  it.  Pitt  tried  to  beac  up,  but  the  shock  was  too 
great;  and  he  went  away  with  death  in  his  face. 

The  news  of  the  battle  ol  Trafalgar  arrived  foor  days  later, 
and  seemed  for  a  moment  to 'revive  him.  Forty-eight  hours 
after  that  most  glorious  and  most  mournful  of  viaories  had 
been  announced  to  the  country  came  the  Lord  Mayor's  Day; 
said  Pitt  dined  at  GuildhalL  His  popularity  had  declined. 
But  on  this  occasion  the  multitude^  greatly  exdled  by  the 
lecent  tidings,  welcomed  him  enthusiastically,  took  off  hb 
horses  in  Cheapside,  and  drew  his  carriage  up  King  Street. 
When  his  heakh  was  drunk,  he  letuzned  thanks  in  two  or  three 
of  those  stately  sentencses  of  which  he  had  a  boundless  command. 
Several  of  those  who  heard  him  laid  up  his  words  in  their  hearts; 
for  they  were  the  last  words  that  he  ever  uttered  in  public: 
"  Let  us  hope  that  £n|^d,  having  saved  herself  by  her  energy, 
may  save  Europe  by  her  exanH>le." 

This  was  but  a  momeotary  rally.  Austerlita  soon  completed 
what  Ulm  bad  begun.  Eariy  in  December  Pitt  had  retired  to 
Bath,  in  the  hope  that  he  mi^t  there  gather  strength  for  the 
approaching  session.  While  he  was  languishing  there  on  his 
sofa  arrived  the  news  that  a  dedrive  beetle  had  been  fought 
and  lost  in  Moravia,  that  the  coalition  was  dissolved,  that  the 
Continent  was  at  the  feet  of  France.  He  sank  down  under  the 
btow.  Ten  days  later  he  was  so  emaciated  that  his  most 
intimate  friends  hardly  knew  htm.  He  came  up  from  Bath  by 
slow  journeys,  and  on  the  izth  of  January  1806  readied  his 
villa  at  Putney.  Pariiament  was  to  meet  on  the  21st.  On 
the  20th  was  to  be  the  parliamentary  dinner  at  the  house  of  the 
first'Iord  of  the  treasury  in  Downing  Street;  and  the  cards  were 
already  issued.  But  the  days  of  the  great  minister  were  num- 
bered. On  the  day  on  which  he  was  carried  into  his  bedxoo(n 
at  Putney,  the  Marquess  Wellcsley,  whom  he  had  long  k>ved, 
whom  he  had  sent  to  govern  India,  and  whose  administration 
had  been  eminently  able,  energetic  and  successfid,  arrived  in 
London  after  an  absence  of  eight  years.  The  friends  saw  each 
other  once  more.  There  was  an  affectionate  meeting  and  a 
last  parting.  That  it  was  a  Isst  parting  Pitt  did  not  seem  to 
be  aware.  He  Candcd  himself  to  be  recovering,  talked  on  various 
subjects  cheerfully  and  with  an  undouded  mind,  and  pronounced 
«  warm  and  discerning  eulogium  on  the  marqub's  brother 
Arthur.  "I  never,"  be  said,  "met  with  any  military  man 
with  whom'  It  was  so  satisfactory  to  oonveise."  The  eicdtement 
and  exertion  of  this  interview  were  too  much  for  the  sick  man. 
He  fainted  away;  and  Lord  Wdlesl^  left  the  house  convinced 
that  the  dose  was  fast  ap|»oaching. 

And  now  members  of  parliament  were  fast  coming  up  to 
London.  The  chiefs  of  the  Opposition  met  for  the  purpose  of 
ccmsidering  the  course  to  be  taken  on  the  first  day  of  the  session. 
It  was  easy  to  guess  what  would  be  the  language  of  the  king's 
Wptcdi,  and  of  the  address  which  wobld  be  moved  in  answer  to- 
that  speech.  An  amendment  condemning  the  policy  of  the 
government  had  been  prepared,  and  was  to  have  been  proposed 
m  the  House  of  Comnxms  by  Lord  Henry  Petty  (afterwards 
jrd  marquess  of  Lansdowne).  He  was  unwilling,  however, 
I0  come  forward  as  the  accuser  of  one  who  was  incapable  of 
defending  himself.  Lord  GrenviUe,  who  had  been  informed 
1^^^^  of  Pitt's  state  by  Lord  Wellesley,  and  had  been 
deeply  affected  by  it,  earnestly  recommended 
forbearance;  and  Fooc,  with  characteristic  generosity  and  good 
nature,  gave  his  voice  against  attacking  his  now  helpless  rival. 
**  Sunt  tocrymae  rerum,"  he  said,  ^'  et  meotem  mortalia  tang- 
gunC."  OtttheCrstday,  therefore,  there  was  no  debate.  It  was 
lumourcd  tliat  evening  that  Pitt  was  belter.  But  on  the  follow- 
ing morning  hb  physicians  pronounced  that  there  were  no  hopes. 
It  was  asserted  in  many  after-dinner  speeches,  Grub  Street 
•legics  and  academic  prize  poems  and  prise  declamations  that 
the  great  minister  died  exclaiming,  "  Oh  my  country! "  Thb 
IS  a  fable,  but  it  is  true  that  the  last  words  which  he  uttered, 
while  he  knew  what  he  said»  were  broken  ezdamations  about 


die  alanaitg  state  of.pabtit  affairs.  He.  oessed  lo  bnstk  os 
the  morning  of  the  ajni  of  January  1806,  the  twenty-fiftb 
anniversary  of  the  day  o&  which  he  first  took  Jus  seat  is 
parliament. 

It  was  moved  in  the  House  of  Cooubbos  that  Pitt  should  be 
honoured  with  a  public  luaersl  and  a  monument.  The  moUos 
was  Apposed  by  Foi  in  a  ^Mech  wluch  deserves  to  be  studied 
as  a  model  of  good  taste  and  good  feehng.  The  task  was 
the  most  invidious  that  ever  an  orator  undertooki  but  it  vai 
performed  with  a  humanity  and  delicacy  which  wese  vannljr 
acknowledged  by  the  mourning  friends  of  htm  who  was  gooe. 
The  motion  was  carried  by  288  votes  to  89.  The  sand  of  Feb- 
ruary was  fixed  for  the  funeral  The  oocpse,  having  lain  b 
state  during  two  days  in  the  Painted  Chamber,  was  boiae  vUL 
great  pomp  to  the  northern  tiansq>t  of  the  AbbQr.  A  splendid 
train  of  princes,  nobles,  bisbops  and  privy  coitnciUocs  foUovcd. 
The  grave  of  Piit  had  been  made  near  to  the  spot  where  his  greK 
father  hty,  near  also  to  tlie  spot  where  his  great  rival  was  soon 
to  Uc^  WUberforoe,  who  carried  the  banner  before  the  heane, 
described  the  awful  ceremony  with  deep  feeling.  As  the  oofia 
descended  into  the  earth,  he  said,  the  eagle  face  of  Cbatkan 
from  above  seemed  to  look  down  with  constematkm  into  tbe 
dark  house  which  was  receiving  all  that  remained  of  so  muck 
power  and  gloiy. 

Pitt  was  emphatically  the  n^an  of  parliameataiy  government, 
the  type  of  hb  dasi^  tlie  minion,  the  child,  the  spoiled  cfaikl. 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  a  distinguished  ^,  ^^ 
member  of  the  House  oi  Commons  at  twenty-cme. 
The  ability  which  he  had  displayed  in  the  House  of  Cootmons 
made  hiA  the  BMst  powerful  subject  in  Europe  before  he  was 
twenty-five^  It  was  when  the  House  of  Commons  was  to  be 
convinced  and  persuaded  that  he  put  forth  alljiis  pe«cn> 
Of  those  powers  we  must  form  our  estimate  chieQy  Iroo 
tradition;  for,  of  all  the  eminent  speakers  of  that  age^  Pitt  bas 
suffered  most  from  thereporters.  Even  while  he  was kili  living, 
critics  Tcsnarked  that  Jiis  efequenoe  could  not  be  preserved,  tbat 
he  must  be  heard  to  be  appreciated.  They  more  than  <»ce 
applied  to  him  the  sentence  in  which  Tadtus  describes  the  (ate 
of  a  senator,  whose  rhetoric  was  admired  in  the  Augustan  age: 
"  Haterii  canorum  illud  et  proflueas  cum  ipso  simul  exstinctatt 
est."  There  is,  however,  abundant  evidence  tbat  nature  bad 
bestowed  on  Pitt  the  tajeots  of  a  great  orator;  and  those  taksts 
had  been  devdoped  in  a  very  peculiar  maimer,  first  by  his  educar 
Uott,  and  secondly  by  the  hig^  officaal  position  to  which  he  rose 
early,  and  in  which  he  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  public 
life.  . 

At  his  first  appearance  in  parliament  he  showed  hiiosd 
superior  to  ail  h^  contemporaries  in  command  of  language. 
Hf  coxUd  pour  forth  a  long  succession  of  round  and  statdr 
periods*  without  premeditation,  without  ever  pausing  for  a  vofd, 
without  ever  r^icating  a  woni,  in  a  voice  of  silver  deanicss 
and  with  a  pronunciation  so  articulate  that  not  a  letter  was 
slurred  over.  He  had  less  amplitude  of  mind  and  less  ricbocft 
of  fma^atiott  than  Burke,  less  ingenuity  tha£  Windham,  less  vil 
than  Sheridan,  less  perfect  mastery  of  dialectical  fence  and  bs 
of  that  highest  sort  of  doquence  which  consists  of  reason  and 
passion  fused  together  than  Fox.  Yet  the  almost  unanioMO 
judgment  of  those  who  were  in  the  habit  of  listening  to  tbat 
remarkable  race  of  men  placed  Pitt,  as  a  speaker,  above  Bwtei 
above  Windham,  above  Sheridan  and  not  bdow  Fox.  His 
declamation  was  copious,  polished  and  splendid.  In  po^ 
of  sarcasm  he  was  probably  not  surpassed  by  any  sp^^^ 
ancient  or  modera;  end  of  this  formidable  weapon  be  nude 
merciless  use.  In  two  parts  of  the  oratorical  art  which  are« 
the  highest  value  to  a  minister  of  sUte  he  was  stngulariy  czpeit 
No  man  knew  better  how  to  be  luminous  or  bow  to  be  obscuze. 
When  he  wished  to  be  understood,  he  never  failed  to  make 
himself  understood.  Nothing  was  out  of  place;  iy>thing  «^ 
forgotten;  minute  details,  dates,  sums  of  money,  were  all  faits- 
fttlly  preserved  in  his  memory.  On  the  other  band,  when  be 
did  not  wish  to  be  explidt— and  00  man  who  is  at  the  head  a 
affairs  always  wishes  to  be  explicit— he  had  a  marvcUous  povtf 


677 


lebadH 


e  wMch  left  on  hit 


The  cftetl  el  onloiy 
«n  the  ctaitcler  of  ibi 

■icaken  wbow  ctoqucue  had  man  of  what  miy  be  ciUnl  ibc 
nn,  aunt  dC  tfai  Stvoui  unpurted  by  oiofai  quilitid,  than  Fox 
udPill.  ThcipcccbaoIFtuom  treat  pin  of  their  chum 
W  thu  wutDth  and  mllotat  of  heart,  that  lympalhy  with 
himaa  luSering,  thai  adiniratioa  tor  craylhin^  gnai  and 
beaulttui,  and  thai  hatred  ol  cruelly  and  injiuticc.  which  inlereit 
and  ddifhl  ua  even  in  the  nust  defective  reports.  No  penon. 
on  the  other  hand,  could  hear  Filt  williout  perrnving  him  to  be 

acjoiu  of  Ida  own  rcctitudeandoEhisovn  intcUcclual  ujperioriLy, 
incapable  of  the  low  vices  of  fear  and  envy,  but  too  prone  to 
fed  aod  to  show  diidain,     f'ride,  indeed,  pervaded  Ihcwhole 

nood.  and  above  all.  in  whkh  he'  bowed.  Such  pn'de,  of  couoe, 
inflicted  many  waunda.  But  bi>  pride,  though  ft  made  him 
bitleiiy  diiliked  by  iodividuals.  intpircd  the  great  body  of  bii 
foUowci*  in  parliament  ud  thnuigboui  the  rouniry  with  leqiKt 
and  confideiice.  It  was  that  of  tbe  uugnanimooi  man  io  hndy 
dejciibed  by  Ariiioilc  In  the  EfAiti,  ol  the  man  who  thinks 
hinueU  werthy  of  great  things,  being  in  truth  wonliy.    Ii  wat 

of  low  cupidity.  There  was  socnething  Dot>]c  iii  the  cyniol 
difdain  witb  which  the  mighty  minisLer  icairered  riches  and 
titlei  to  right  and  left  among  those  who  valued  them,  while  he 
spurned  them  out  of  his  way.  Poor  himself,  he  was  surrounded 
1^  friendi  on  whom  he  had  bestowed  three  thousand,  six 
tbouaand,  ten  thousand  a  year.  Plain  Mister  himself,  he  had 
nade  more  lords  than  any  three  mlcialen  that  had  pnceded 
him.  The  larter,  for  which  the  first  dukes  in  the  kingdom  were 
■1  repeatedly  offend  to  him,  and  oSered  in  vam. 
}[  h!i  private  life  added  much  to  the  dignity 
of  bis  public  character.    In  the  relalioDS  of  son,  brother,  uncle. 

even  playful.  He  indulged,  indeed,  somewhat  too  freely  in 
iniie>  which  he  had  early  been  directed  to  take  as  a  medicine, 
and  which  use  had  nude  a  necessary  oi  life  to  Um.  But  it  was 
vtry  wldom  that  any  indication  of  undue  eiceu  could  be 
detected  in  his  tones  or  gestures;  and,  in  truth,  two  bottla  ol 
port  were  little  more  to  him  than  two  dishes  of  tea.  He  bad. 
when  he  wai  hnt  introduced  into  the  dubs  el  St  James's  Street. 
Ibown  a  (trong  seme  for  play;  hut  he  had  Ibe  prudence  tnd  the 
reaolutton  to  atop  before  this  tasie  had  acquired  the  strength 
ol  habiU  From  the  passion  wEuch  generally  cierciaes  the  most 
tyrannieal  dominion  over  the  young  he  pouessed  an  immunity, 
which  is  probably  to  be  ascribed  partly  to  his  temperament  and 

very  shy;  and  he  was  very  busy.  The  strictness  of  his  morals 
furnished  nich  buSoons  -as  Peter  Pindir  and  Captain  Morris 
with  a&  louhaustible  theme  for  merriment  of  rK>  very  delicate 
fcfoft.  But  the  great  body  of  the  middle  class  oi  Englishmen 
colild    oot  M«  the  joke.     They  warmly  praised  the  young 

fraillie*.  if  be  had  frailties,  with  decorous  obscurity. 

TIw  memory  ol  Pitt  ba>  been  assailed,  timet  innumerable, 
oitsa  justly,  elleD  untuitly;  but  it  has  suffered 


ontcnding.  wj 


many  yean,  hi 


,  Fer,  during 
rallying  cry  of  a  clau 
Ol  men  with  whom,  at  one  of  thole  terrible  con- 
Juocturc*  which  confound  all  ordinary  distinctions,  he  wat 
■ccklenlidly  and  temporally  connected,  but  to  whom,  on  almoat 
»U  great  question!  of  prindple,  he  wit  diametrically  opposed. 
The  haters  of  parliamentary  reform  called  Ihemsel" 


:mber  thai  Pitt  made  ttirei 


ought  Ihal  t\ 


sdicatioi  that  h*  ■faouU  nc 


could  a 


y  CathoUc  i 


It  FitI  had  re 


,    The 


defendcrsol  the  Teat  Act  called  themselves  Pitlitea.  though  they 
could  not  be  ignorant  that  Pitt  had  laid  belore  George  III. 
unanswerable  reasons  for  abolishing  Ibe  Teat  Act.  The  enemie* 
of  free  trade  called  themselves  Pitlitet,  though  Pin  wu  fat 
more  deeply  imbued  with  the  doctrines  of  Adam  Smith  than 
either  Foi  or  Grey.  The  very  negnj-diivera  Invoked  the  tiaim 
of  Pitt,  whose  eloquence  was  never  more  conspicuously  db- 
playcd  than  when  he  spoke  of  the  wrengl  of  the  negro.  This 
mythical  Pitt,  who  resembles  the  gennine  Pitt  as  little  as  tha 
Charlemagne  of  Arioilo  resembles  the  Charlemagne  of  Eginhard, 
has  had  his  day.  History  will  vindicate  the  real  man  from 
calumny  disguised  uniler  the  semblaoce  of  adldation.  and  w3l 

intentions     and     Hberal     opinions,     prtscmiitently    qualifledr 
intellectually  and   morally,   for  the  part  of  a  parliametitaty 
i--j-_  — J  ~ipable  of  adminisiering  with  prudence  and  medera- 
mment  of  a  prosperous  and  tranquil  country,  but 


leader,! 


rr  grievously,  both  o: 


the  tide  of  weaknea 


tbU  EiKjidopaedia  and  ircluded  in  the  9th  ediEloa 
-vrd  above  in  it*  eneruiaU,  hut  has  been  ahortcBed 
Among  fltandard  biogtaphica  are  the  sth  Earf 


in  (ht  "  Jweli 


intiaU,  bu 
Eiwliih"^ 


(1^1'.  SeealBthei^iMociaphiurKtetoTheRev.WilUaml 
anicle  on  Krt  in  the  Dkl,  Hal.  Biat,.  and  also  the  laBie  hiiloiun  a 
app.  i.,  pp.  4bt-46^,  to  hfs  vol.  X.  (for  the  yean  t76o-iSoi)  oC 
The  P^iiiioi  autary  fff  Ent/and  Ct905),  dealing  with  the  autboritiea 
for  the  period. 

PfTTA,  in  ormtbology,  fioia  the  Tetugu  fiUa,  meaning  a  small 
bird,  latinized  by  Vieillot  in  itti6  lAiulyic,  p.  41)  ai  ^  name 
of  a  genus,  and  aioce  adopted  by  Enj^h  orulthohigiMa  as  (he 
general  name  (or  a  group  of  binb,  called  by  the  FteiKh  £rlte>, 
and  remarkable  for  Iheit  great  beauty.'    For  a  tang  while  the 


PiUa  de^ms,  male  and  female- 
pittas  were  commonly  supposed  to  be  allied  to  the  Tuididae, 
and  some  En^ish  writers  applied  to  them  Ibe  name  of  "  water- 
ihroshes  "  and  "  ant-thrushes,"  though  there  was  no  evidence 
of  their  having  aquatic  habits  or  predilections,  or  of  their  preying 
especially  upon  ants;  hut  the  fact  that  they  formed  a  separate 
'In  ornithology  the  word  ii  first  found  aa  part  of  the  native 

the  "'raanlisM-  to  Ray'a  5)myiJo'(p.  195).  on  llie  authorily  of 
Bnckley  (see  OiHTTHOLOcr).  fhii  bird  is  ibe  PUIa  inn/miii  of 
modem  omithologiKa.  and  it  said  by  Jerdnn  (Birii  if  Mia,  i.  S03) 
now  10  bat  the  felugu  name  1^  Fmihinii. 


67» 


PITTACUS— JTTTSBURG 


Unily  wat  giadually  admieted.  Their  positfon  was  putljr 
dclerniined  by  A.  H.  Garrod,  who»  haviog  obtained  csampUa 
for  diaaection,  in  a  committiication  to  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London,  printed  in  its  Frpceedings  for  1876,  proved  (pp.  sit,  513) 
that  the  Pitlidae  belonged  to  that  section  of  Pasaerine  birds 
which  he  muned  Mesomyodi.  slooe  their  syrinx,  like  that  of  the 
Tyrannidae  (see  King-Bikd),  has  its  muscles  attached  to  the 
odddle  of  its  half*rings,  instead  of  to  their  extremities  as  in  the 
higher  Passerines  or  Aoomyodi.  They  are  now  pUced  as  a 
separate  family  Piltidae  of  the  ClamatoreS'  division  "of  the 
Anisomyodine  Passercs,  There  are  about  fifty  species,  divided 
into  a  number  of  genera,  confined  to  the  Old  World,  and  ranging 
from  India  and  North  China  to  Australia,  New  Guinea  and  New 
Britain,  with  one  species  in  West  Africa,  the  greatest  number 
being  found  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  Few  birds  can  vie  with 
the  pittas  in  brightly-contrasted  coloration.  Deep  velvety 
black,  pure  while  and  intensely  vivid  scarlet,  turquoise-blue 
and  beryl-green — ^mostly  occupying  a  considuable  extent  of 
surface— are  found  in  a  great  many  of  the  spcdea~-to  say 
nothing  of  other  composite  or  intermediate  hues;  and,  though  in 
some  a  modification  of  these  tints  is  observable,  there  is  scarcely 
a  trace  of  any  blending  of  shade,  each  patch  (k  colour  standing 
out  distioctly.  This  is  periuips  the  more  remarkable  as  the 
feathers  have  hardly  any  lustre  to  heighten  the  effect  produced, 
and  in  some  species  the  brightest  colours  are  exhibited  by  the 
plumage  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  body.  Pittas  vary  in  size 
from  that  of  a  jay  to  that  of  a  lark,  and  generally  have  a  strong 
bill,  a  thick-set  form,  which  b  mounted  on  rather  high  legs  with 
scutellated  "  tarsi,"  and  a  very  short  tail.  In  many  of  the  forms 
there  is  little  or  no  external  difference  between  the  sexes. 

Placed  originally  among  the  Pittidae,  bat  now  created  to  form  an 
allied  family  ^Phik^ittidac,  is  the  ecnus  Pbilepitta,  consisting  of  two 
species  peculiar  to  Madagascar.  The  two  species  which  compose  it 
luive  little  outward  resemblance  to  the  pittas,  not  having  the  same 
•tvie  of  coloration  and  being  apparently  of  more  artx>real  habits. 
The  sexes  differ  greatly  in  furnace,  and  the  males  have  the  skin 
found  the  eyes  bare  of  feathers  ana  caruncuhued.  (A.  N.) 

-  P1TTA01I8,  of  Mytilene  in  Lesbos  (c.  650-570  B.C.),  one  of  the 
Seven  Sages  of  Greece.  About  61  x,  with  the  assistance  of  (he 
brothers  of  the  poet  Alcacus,  he  overthrew  Melanchnis,  tyrant 
of  Lesbos.  In  a  war  (606)  between  the  Mytilenaeans  and 
Athenians  for  the  possession  of  Sigcum  on  the  Hellespont  he 
slew  the  Athenian  commander  Phiynon  in  sin^  combat.  In 
C89  his  fellow  citixens  entrusted  Pittacus  with  despotic  power 
(with  the  title  of  Aesymnetes)  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  them 
against  the  exiled  nobles,  at  the  head  of  whom  were  Alcaeus  and 
his  brother  Antimcnides.  He  resigned  the  government  after 
holding  it  for  ten  years,  and  died  (en  years  later.  According  to 
Diogenes  Lai^tius,  who  credits  him  with  an  undoubtedly  spurious 
letter  to  Croesus  (with  whom  his  connexion  was  probably 
legendary),  PitUcus  was  a  writer  of  elegiac  poems,  from  which 
he  quotes  five  lines.  Hb  favourite  sayings  were:  "  It  b  hard 
to  be  good,"  and  "  Know  when  to  act." 

See  Herodotus  v.  27,  94;  Dbg.  La?rt.  {.  4;  Lucian,  Afocrofttl,  18; 
Strabo  xiii.  600,  617-618;  Aristotle,  PolUtcs,  iL  12,  iiL  14;  T.  Bergk, 
Podae  Ijrici  graeci, 

PiTFANCB  (through  O.  Fr.  pUatuet  from  Lat.  pieku,  loving- 
kindness),  properly  a  gift  to  the  members  of  a  religious  house  for 
masses,  consbting  usually  of  an  extra  allowance  <^  food  or  wine 
on  occasions  sudb  as  the  anniversary  of  the  donor^s  death, 
fesUvab  and  the  like.  Tlie  word  was  early  transferred  to  a 
charitable  donation  and  to  any  small  gift  of  food  or  money. 
>  PTTT-RIVBRS,  AUGUSTUS  HENRT  LANE-FOX  (1827-1900), 
English  soldier  and  archaeoh>gist,  son  of  W.  A.  Lane*Fox,  was 
bom  on  the  14th  of  April  1827.  It  was  not  till  1880  that  he 
awianed  the  name  of  Pitt-Rivers,  on  inheriting  the  Doisetshire 
and  Wiltshire  estates  of  hb  great-unde,  the  second  Lord  Rivers. 
Educated  at  Sandhurst,  be  received  a  commission  in  the 
Grenadier  Guards  in  1845,  being  captain  1850,  lieutenant- 
colonel  1857,  colonel  1867,  major-general  XS77  and  lieutenant- 
general  1882.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  War.  and  was  at 
the  Alma  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  Hb  talent  for 
experimental    research    was    otilind    in    investigation    into 


iaqiroveaieiiti  of  the  amly  lUbi  ad  hr  was  laigdy  mpmSk 
for  starting  the  Hythe  School  of  Musketry.    It  a  Ml,  kov* 
ever,  for  hb  militaiy  carter,  but  for  hb  work  as  aa  lathio* 
pologbt    and    ardiaeologbt,    that    General    Pitt-Rivers  iriB 
be  remembered.     Hb  interest  in  the  evolvtion  of  the  liAe 
eariy  extended  itself  to  other  weapons  and  instninents  m  the 
history  oi  man,  and  he  became  a  collector  of  anides  illustntiif 
the  development  of  human  invention.    Hb  colleaioB  bcaoe 
famous,  and,  after  being  exhibited  in  1874-1875  at  the  Bethnd 
Green  Museum,  was  presented  in  1883  to  (he  univerrity  of 
Oxford.   When,  in  1880,  General  Pitt-Rivers  obtained  possasios 
of   hb  great-ancle*8  estates — ^pmcticaDy  untouched*  by  the 
excavator  since  they  had' been  the  battleground  of  the  Wot 
Saxons,  the  Ramans  and  the  Britoii    he  devoted  hiaodf  to 
exploring  thens.    Hb  excavations  roond  Ruahrooie  resitllcd  is 
valuable  "  finda";  he  founded  a  local  museum  and  pubUsbcd 
several  illustrated  volumes.    As  a  scientific  archaeokigiit  he 
attained  high  nuik.    Oxford  gave  him  the  DX:.L.  in  1886;  he 
was  president  of  Che  AnthiopologicBl  Institute,  and  F  JLS.  He 
married,  in  1853,  Alice  Maigaict,  dauhter  of  the  second  Lord 
Stanley  of  Aldoiey,  and  had  a  nuitefoos  family;  fab  lecosd 
daughter  became  m  XS84  the  wife  of  Sir  John  Labbock  (Lord 
Avebury).    General  Pitt*Rivets  died  at  RushmoR  on  the  4th 
p(  May  19001. 

PinSBURG,  a  city  of  CraWfocd  eonoty,  Khmss,  U^A, 
about  130  m.  S.  of  Kansas  City.  Pop.  <t88o),  614;  (>Mi 
6697;  (1900)  io,iia,  of  whom  860  woe  forefgn-bom;  (i^io 
census),  14,75$.  It  b  situated  at  the  intersection  of  four  grett 
railway  systema— the  Atchison  Topeka  &  SaaU  Ff,  the  St 
Louia  &  San  Fiandsco,  the  Kansas  Qty  Southern  (which  nun- 
tains  shops  here),  and  the  Missouri  Padfic,  and  b  «rved  bf 
inter*urban  electric  railways.  The  dty  b  the  sent  of  the  State 
Manual  Tkahiing  Normal  School  (1903)  and  of  the  Pittsborf 
Business  College.  Pittsburg  b  situated  near  the  lead  and  aoc 
region  of  soiitb'>eaBt  Kansas  and  soutb-west  MisMWri,  b  in  (he 
midst  of  n  large  and  rich  bituminous  coalfield,  and  lies  sear 
natural  gas  and  oil  fiekb.  Among  the  manufactures  are  nsc 
spelter-^here  are  large  amdteiB  here — day  products  (chicily 
vitrified  btick,  sewer  pipe  and  tile;  the  cby  bdng  obtained  fna 
a  great  underiying  bed  of  shale),  blasting  powder,  pachisi* 
house  products  and  pUning-mlU  products.  The  total  valoe  d 
the  city's  factory  products  in  1905  was  $1,814,939.  Pittsbef 
was  settled  about  1^79,  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1880,  ind 
became  a  dty  of  the  flnt  dasa  In  1908. 

PITfSBURO,  or  Pittssurch,^  the  second  laigest  city  ^ 
Pennsylvania,  TJ.S.A.,  and  the  oountjr-seat  of  Allegheny  opuB^Tt 
on  the  Allegheny,  Monongahda  and  Ohio  rivers,  440  m.  by  ni 
W.  by  S.  of  New  Yoric  City,  360  m.  W.  by  N.  of  PhibddpUt. 
368  m.  N.W.  of  Washhigton  and  468  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Oaap' 
Pop.  (1890),  a38,6i7;«  (1900),  321,616,  of  whom  84,878  •« 
foreign-bom,  17,040  were  negroes  and  154  were  Chinese;  (i9» 
census,  after  the  annexation  of  Allegheny),  S33f995-  ^  ^ 
84,87s  foreign-bom  In  1900,  21,992  were  natives  of  Gtxwasf, 
18,620  of  Ireland,  8902  of  England,  6243  of  Russian  Pohad. 
5709  of  Italy,  4107  of  Russia,  3553  of  Austria,  3515  of  Genais 
Poland,  2 $39  of  Wales,  9964  of  Scotland,  9124  of  HungUT' 
X072  of  Sweden  and  1093  of  Austrian  Poland.  Aica  (indudi< 
Allegheny,  annexed  In  1906),  40*67  iq.  m.  Plttabnrg  b  served 
by  the  Pennsylvania  (several  dlvbions),  the  Baltimore  h  Ohio, 
the  Pittsbufg  &  Uke  Erie  (controlled  by  the  Hew  York  Ceatnl 
System),  the  PitUburg,  Cmdnnatf ,  Chicago  it  St  Loob  (coatiw 
by  the  Pennsylvanb  Company),  the  Pittsbing,  Chaniets  t 
Youghiogheny  (controlled  jointly  by  the  two  preoedfag  ra3«a)'s» 
21  m.  of  track),  the  Buffalo,  Rochester  9t  Pittsbnig,  and  tbc 
Wabash-Pittsburg  Terminal  (60  m.  to  Pittsburg  jmdiA 
Ohio;  controlled  by  the  Wabash  railway),  and  the  Pfttsfcof 
Terminal  (abo  controDed  by  the  Wabash  and  opciating  tki 

>  "  Pittdrargh  "  b  the  officbl  apelling  of  the  charter  and  ^ 
but  "  Pit^ig  "  b  the  spelling  adopted  by  the  VS,  GMfnii^ 
Board  ana  u  in  more  general  use. 

*  In  previous  census  yeare  the  population  was  as  follows:  (1^* 
156s;  (ttoo).  7»A» ;  (i«40>.  at  ."5  J  (l«6o).  49.«i  J  (««*>).  IS*.  3*^ 


PITTSBUAG 


67^ 


West  Side  Belt».ffom  Pittsbuzg  to  Qanrton,  it  iii.y  railimys,  and 
by  river  boats  on  the  Ohio,  Monongabda  and  AUe^cny. 

Picturesque  rolling  plateaus,  the  three  rivers  and  narrow 
valleys,  from  which  rise  high  hills  or  precipitous  bluSs^  are  the 
(xindpal  natural  features  of  the  district  over  whidi  the  city 
extends.  Retail  houses^  wholesale  houses,  banks,  tail  office 
buildings,  hotels,  theatres  and  railway  terminals  are  crowded 
into  the  axigle,  or  "The  Point,"  formed  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Allegheny  and  Monongahehi  rivers,  with  Fifth  Avenue  as  the 
principal  thoroughfare,  espedaily  for  the  retail  houses,  and 
F6urth  Avenue  as  the  great  banking  thorooghfiare.  Factories 
extend  for  miles  along  the  .banks  of  all  three  riven  into  th^ 
tributary  valleys;  and  are  the  cause  of  Pittsburg's  nickname, 
"  The  Smoky  City."  The  more  attracUve  residential  districu 
are  on  the  plateau  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  district  between 
the  Allegheny  and  Monoogahela  rivers  and  on  the  hills  over- 
looking^ the  Allegheny  river  from  the  north.  Overiooking  the 
Mooongahela  river  is  Schcnlcy  Park  (about  422  acres),  the  first 
city  park,  of  which  about  400  acnes  were  given  to  the  city  in  1890 
by  Mrs.  Mary  £.  Schenley.  About  2  m.  to  the  nortfa,QvcilookSng 
the  Allegheny  river,  is  Highland  Park  (about  366  acres),  which 
contains  the  city  xeservoim  and  a  picturesque  lake.  Adjacent 
to  Schenley  Park -are  Homewood  and  Calvary  cemeteries;  and 
adjacent  to  Highland  Park  is  Allegheny  cemetery^  Across  the 
Allegheny  river,  in  the  Allegheny  district,  are  the  beautiful 
RiTervic*  Park  (240  acres),  in  which  is  the  Allegheny  Obscrva>> 
toty,  and  West  Park  (about  xoo  acn^.  A  number  of  bridges 
span  the  rivets. 

The  city  has  some  fine  poMic  buildings,  office  buildings  and 
churches.    The  Allegheny  county  court-house  (X864-X8S8)  is 
one  of  H.  H.  Richardson's  masterpieces.    The  Nixon  theatre 
is  also  notable  axclutecturally.    The  high  Frick  Office  building 
has  eaterior  w^lls  ol  white  .granite;  in  its  main  hall  is  a  stained^ 
ffUss  window  by  John  La  Farge  representing  Fortune  and  her 
wheeL    A  Urge  government  buikHng  of  pohriied.  granite  con- 
tains the  post  office  and  the  customs  offices.   St  Paul's  Cathedrsd 
(RAmaa  Cadmlic,  xgc^-^tgod)  is  largely  of  Indiana  limestone. 
The  city  is  the  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  Frotcatant  Efrfsce- 
pal  Usbop.   In  Schenley  Park  is  the  Carnegie  Institute  (esUb* 
Kthed  -by  a  gift  o£  $10^000,000  from  Andrew  Carnegie,  who  n«le 
further  contribations  of  $9^000,000  for  hs  mainteudice),  with 
a  main  building  containing  a  library,  a  department  of  fine  artS) 
i  niuseum  (see  Muskums  or  Scxemce)  and  a  music  hall,  and 
sevcnlseiknate  buildingB  for  the  techsioal  scfaoob,  y/rhkh  bad 
3lros  students  in  1^.    The  mafai  building,'  dedicated  in  April 
i^of ,  lis  666  iU  kmg  and  400  ft.  wide;  in  its  great  entrance  ball 
b-  a'  scries  of  mural  decorations  by  John  While  Alekandcr^  a 
Mtfiivc'of  -the  dly.    The  Uluaty,  k^  which  the  maiitiitioo  had 
fti  beginnhig  In  1895,  contama  aboiit  306,000  .volumes.    The 
Phlpps  Conservstoiy  was  presented  to  the  dty  in  xSqs  by  Henry 
Pfaippa  (b.  1839),  a  stetl  mamfcfactiirer  associated  with  Andrew 
Cirhegle.    It  is  the  'largest  in  America,  and,  with  its  Hall  of 
Botany,  which  is  utilized  in  ktstruothig^sdiool  children  in  botany, 
is  ^uated  la  Schenley  Park.    The  conservatory  is  maintained 
by  municipal  apptopriatiohs.   There  is  a  aoological  garden  in 
Highland  Fork. '  In  December,  1907  it  was  decided  that  the 
several  departments  of  the  Western  Universilj^,  of  Pennsylvania, 
then  in  different  parts  of  the  city,  should  be  brought  together 
en  a  new  campus  of  43  acres  near  the  Camepe  Institute.    In 
July  T^  the  name  was  changed  to  "  The  Vniversiiy  of  Pitts* 
btirgh,"    The  unrvcrsfty  embraces  a  college  and  engineering 
school,  the  Western  Pennsylvania  School  of  Bljnes  and  Mining 
Enginecriag,  a  graduate  dqiartment,  an  evening  school  of 
cxonomics,  accouiits  and  finances,  a  summer  school,  evening 
Classes,  Saturday  clasess,  attii  departments  of  astronomy  (the* 
Allegheny  Observatory,  in  tjie  Allegheny  district),  law  (the  Pitts- 
kurg  ttkW  School),  medicine  (the  Western  Pennsylvania  ^fedical 
CoRege),  pharmacy  (the  Pittsburg  College  of  Pharmacy)  and 
dcnlistiy  (the  Pittsburgh  Denial  College).    The  instittitfOn  had 
it»  bepnningin  the  Pittsburgh  Academy,  whiqh  was  opened  about 
1770  and  was  incorporated   in   1787.    It  was  incorporated 
m^    the    WMem    University    ol     PemMy)«aaia    in    •rfti9^ 


but  was  only  a  college  from  that  date  until  X89S,  when 
the  Western  Pennsylvania  Medical  College  became  its  depart- 
ment  of  medkine.  In  1695  the  department  of  law  was  added, 
the  Pittsburgh  College  of  Pharmacy  was  united  to  the  university, 
and  women  were  for  the  first  time  admitted.  In  1896  the 
department  of  dentistry  wsb  established.  In  1909  the  university 
hod  151  instructors  and  1243  students.  In  the  east  end  iis 
the  Pennsylvania  College  f6r  Women  (Presbyterian;  chartered 
in  1869),  with  preparatory,  collegiate  and  musiosl  depart- 
ments. In  the  Allegheny  district  are  the  Allegheny  Theologfcal 
Seminary  (United  Presbyterian,  1825),  the  Western  Theologicsl 
Seminary  (Presbyterian,  opened  1827),  and  the  Reformed 
ftesbyterian  Theological  Seminary  (1856).  Ahhough  Alle- 
gheny Is  now  a  part  of  Pittsburg,  the  two  public  school  systems 
remain  independent.  The  Pittsburg  High  School  (five  buildings 
In  19x0)  has  a  normal  course;  and  there  are  various  private 
schools  and  academies. 

The  Pittsburg  GaxdU-Timts  is  probably  the  oldest  newa- 
paper  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains;  the  Cautte  was  founded 
in  X786  and  in  1906  was  consolidated  with  the  Times  (1879);. 
Other  prominent  newspapers  of  the  city  are  the  DispaUk 
(X846),  the  CkronkU  TeUtrupk  (X841),  the  P«s<  (1792;  daily, 
1842),  whkh  is  one  of  the  few  influential  Democntlc  newspapers 
in  Pennsyivanja,  the  Leader  (Sunday,  X864;  dafly,  1870)  and 
the  Press  (1883).  Two  German  dailies,  one  SUvonic  daily,  one 
Slavonic  weekly,  two  Italian  weeklies,  and  iron,  building,  oosi 
and  glass  trade  journals  are  published  in  the  city.  In  Pituburg 
is  the  puUishing  house  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
The  Ckrislian  Advocate  (weekly,  Methodist  Episcopal,  1834)  is 
published  here  under  the  auspices  of  the  general  conference,     t 

The  oldest  hospital  la  the  Reineman  (private;  X803)  for 
maternity  cases;  the  municipal  hospital  (x876>  is  for  contagtous 
diseases;  the  Sistets  of  Charity,  the  Sisteis  of  Mercy»  the  Institis- 
tion'of  Protestant  Deaconesses^  the  Presbyterian  Church  and 
the  United  PresbytcriaQ  Woman'a  Association  each  have  charge 
of  A  heq>ital;  and  there  is  also  an  eye,  ear  and  throat  hospitsi 
(1895).  The  Western  Pennsytvvuiia  Institutton  fot  the  inatruo- 
tion  of  the  deaf  mid  dumb  (1876),  in  Edgewood  Pariit  is  hi  part 
maintained  by  the  state.  And  the  state  assists  the  Home  for 
Aged  and  Itafitm  Coloved  Women  (xSaa),  and  the  Home  for 
Colored  Children  (t88x).  Among  other  cMtable  institutions 
are  the  Curtis  Home  (1894)  for  destitute  women  and  gMs,  the 
Bethesda  Homo  (X890)  for  homeless  girls  and  their  chitdreiiv 
the  Florence  Crittentoa  Homo  (1893)  for  liomelesB  and  nirfor- 
tunate  women,  tho  Rosdia  fVmndling :  Asylum  and  Maternity 
Hosfiital  (tSox),  the  Protestant  HoiAe  for  Incurables  (x883)»  th^ 
Pittsburg  Newsboys'  Home  (1894),  the  Children's  Aid  Society 
of  Western  Pennsylvania,  the  Pituburg  Association  for  tbt 
Improvement  of  the  Poor  mid  the  Western  Pennsyhrama 
Humane  SOdety. 

Pittsburg  is  in  the  mfdst  of  the  most  productive  eoalfieldi 
in  the  country;  the  region  Is  also  rich  In  petrolWum  a^  natund 
|aa.  The  dty  is  oM  one  of  the  nudn  lines  >oi  oommUnicaiion 
between  the  east  and- the  w«st,  ta  the  ceatfe  of  a  vast  raBwiy 
system,  and  has  freight  yards  with  a  total  capacity  for  meie 
than  60,000  cars.  Us  harbour  has  a  total  length  on  the  thtce 
riven  Of  97*«  m.,  aflul  an  atr^Mage  width  of  about  1000  ft.,  and 
has  been  deepened  b^  the  constniaion  (fn  .f  877-X885)  of  the 
Davis  Jsland  dam,  by  dredging,  tinder  a  federal  project  of 
rS^.  Slack  -water  navigation  has  been  secured  «n  the  Alio* 
gheny  by  locks  and  dams  (1890  and  1896  sqq.)  at  an  expense 
op  to  July  1909  of  fx  ,658,804$  and  up  to  that  time  $263,625 
had  been  spent  for  open-diannel  work.  Hie  'Monongahett 
from  Pittsburg  to  the  West  Vli^nla^ate  Hne  (91 -5  m.)  wal 
improved  In*  X836  sqq.'by  a  private  company  which  built  seven 
locks  and  dams;  th»  property  was  condemned  and  bought 
for  13,761 ,6ts  by  the  Utiited  States  government  In  1897,  end; 
uMer  the  project  of  r899  for  rebuilding  three  of  the  locks  and 
enhirging  another,  and  that  of  1907  for  a  new  lock  and  dam 
and  for  other  improvements,  $2,675,692  was  spent  up  to  July 
i909i  Coal  is  brought  to  the  city  from  the  coalfields  by  bonis 
owche  Allegheny  and  Monongahcia  rivers  as  well  as  t^  vail,  and 


68o 


PITTSBURG 


great  fleets  of  barges  tarry  coal  and  other  heavy  freight,  such 
as  steel  rails,  cotton  ties,  sheet  iron,  vrire  and  nails,  down  the 
Ohio  in  the  winter  and  spring.  A  ship  canal  to  provide  water 
communication  between  Pittsburg  and  LAke  Erie  has  been 
projected.  The  railways  have  a  heavy  tonnage  of  coal,  coke  and 
iron  and  sted  products,,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  iron  ore  that 
is  produced  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  is  brought  to  Pittsburg. 
In  1908  the  river  traffic  amounted  to  9,000,146  tons,  most  of 
which  was  carried  on  barges  down  the  Ohio.  Pittsburg  is  also 
«  port  of  entry;  In  1907  the  value  of  its  imports  amounted  to 
$3,4x6,367,  and  in  1909  to  $2,062,162. 

The  value  of  the  factory  products  in  1905  was  $i65,498,88x, 
and  to  this  may  be  added  $15,830,272  for  those  of  the  dty  of 
Allegheny,  making  a  total  of  $21  r, 259,1 53.  In  the  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  products  Pittsburg  ranks  first  among  the  cities 
of  the  United  States,  the  value  of  these  products  amounting 
in  1905  to  $88,250,805  or  53*3  %  of  the  total  for  all  manufactures; 
if  the  manufactures  of  Allegheny  be  added  they  amounted  to 
$92,939,860  or  43*7%.  Several  neighbouring  cities  and  towns 
aie  also  extensivdy  engaged  m  the  same  industry,  and  in  1902 
iyiegheny  county  produced  about  24%  of  the  pig-iron,  nearly 
34%  of  the  Bessemer  steel,  more  than  44%  of  the  open-hearth 
steel,  more  than  53  %  of  the  crucible  steel,  more  then  24%  of  the 
ateel  rails,  and  more  than  59%  of  the  structural  shapes  that  were 
made  in  that  year  in  the  United  States.  In  1905  the  value  of 
Pittsburg's  foundry  and  machine  shop-products  was  $9)631,514; 
of  the  product  of  steam  railway  repair  shops,  $3,726,990 
(being  424*8%  jnove  than  in  1900);  of  malt  liquors,  $3,166,829; 
of  slaugfaitering  and  meat-packing  products,  $2,733,027; 
of  cigars  and  cigarettes,  $2,297,228;  of  glass,  $2,i30}54o; 
and  of  tin  and  teme  plate,  $1,645^576.  Electrical  machinery, 
apparatus  and  supplies  were  manufactured  largely  in  the  dty 
Rvalue  in  1905,  $11796,557),  and  there  waa  another  large  plant 
for  thdr  manufacture  imniediatdy  outside  of  the  dty  Umits. 
Coke,  cut  cork,  rolled  brass  sxkd  copper  were  other  important 
products  in  X905.  In  1900,  and  for  a  long  period  preceding, 
Pittsburg  ranked  first  among  American  dties  in  the  manufacture 
of  glass,  but  in  1905  it  was  outranked  in  this  industry  by  Muncie, 
Indiaaa,  Millville,  New  Jersey,  and  Washington,  Pennsylvania; 
bat  in  the  district  outside  of  the  dty  Umits  of  Pittsburg  much 
glass  is  manufactured,  so  that  the  Pittsburg  glass  district  is  the 
greatest  in  the  country,  and  there  are  large  glass  factories 
M  Washington  (x8  m.  south-west),  Charleroi  (20  m.  south)  and 
Tarenttmi  (15  m.  north-east).  In  Pittsburg  or  the  imm«liate 
vidnity  are  the  more  important  plants  of  the  United  States  Sted 
O)rporation,  induding  tliat  of  the  Carnegie  Company.  Here, 
too,  Are  the  phints  of  the  Wcstinghouse  Company  for  the 
ffisnufacture  of  electrical  apparatus,  of  air  brakes  invented  by 
George  Westinghouse  (bom  1846),  and  of  devices  for  railway 
signals  which  he  also  invented.  In  the  Allegheny  district  the 
H;  J.  Heiwf  Company  has  1u  main  pickle  plant,  the  largest 
establishment  of  ihe  kind  in  the  country. 
.  The  Pittsburg  charter  of  i8z6  vested  the  more  important 
powers  of  the  dty  government  in  a  common  council  of  15 
nembers  and  a  select  coundl  of  9  members,  and  until  1834  ihe 
mayor  was  appointed  annually  by  these  dty  councils  from  their 
own  number.  By  the  Wallace  Act  of  the  state  legislature  in 
1874  a  form  of  government  was  provided  for  dties  of  three 
dasses,  and  Pittsburg  became  a  city  of  the  second  class  (popuIa> 
lion  between  too,ooo  and  300,000);  under  the  act  of  1895  a  new 
daasification  was  made,  under  which  Pittsburg  remains  in  the 
second  class.  An  act  of  1887  had  amended  the  provisions  of 
Ihe  Wallace  Act  in  regard  to  second  class  ci&ies  by  changing  the 
terms  of  select  councibnen  from  two  to  four  years  and  of  common 
touBcilmen  from  one  to  two  years.  In  190X  a  new  act  was 
passed  fbr  ;the  government  of  cities  of  the  second  dass.  It 
provided  that  the  executive  be  a  "  city  recorder  ";  this  provision 
was  repealed  in  1903,  when  the  title  of  mayor  again  came  into 
use.  The  mayor  holds  office  for  three  years,  has  the  powers 
and  jurisdiction  of  a  justice  of  the  peace,  appoints  the  heads  of 
departments  (public  safety,  public  works,  collector  of  delinquent 
taiest  aaaetioiSa  dty  treasurer,  law,  charities  and  cotrectioo. 


and  sinking  fund  commttdon),  and  may  remove  any  of  tltt 
officers  he  has  appointed,  by  a  written  order,  showing  ainc, 
to  the  select  council.  The  dty  controller  is  elected  by  popuitf 
vote.  The  legislative  bodies  are  the  sdect  and  common  coandl, 
elected  under  the  law  of  1887;  by  a  three*fifths  vote  it  nay  pn 
resolutions  or  ordinances  over  the  mayor's  veto.  The  deput* 
ment  of  public  safety  controls  the  bureaus  of  police,  detectives, 
fire,  health,  electridty  and  building  inspection;  the  dcpaitmeat 
of  public  works  controls  bureaus  of  surreys,  constnictioB, 
highways  and  sewers,  dty  property,  water,  asacasmeat  of  water 
rents,  parks,  deed  registry,  bridges  and  light.  In  igog  tk 
tHzabb  valuation  was  $100,771,32;,  and  the  tax  rate  was  lyi 
mills  for  dty  property,  9*2  mUb  on  rural  property  ml 
6'9  mills  on  agricultural  property.  The  tax  rate  for  separate 
indebtedness  varied  from  6  miUs  in  Allegheny  to  16-2  aSk 
in  the  43rd  ward.  The  water-supply  of  Pittsburg  is  taken 
from  the  Allegheny  river  and  pumped  into  reservoirs,  tbt 
highest  of  which,  in  Highland  Park,  is  367  ft.  above  the  livo; 
and  there  is  a  slow  sand  filtration  plant  for  the  fiUxationof  the 
entire  supply. 

Pittsburg  owed  its  origin  to  the  strategic  value  of  its  liie  is 
the  struggle  between  the  English  and  the  French  for  the  poaei^ 
sion  of  the  North  American  continent.  A  few  FrenclMMS 
attempted  to  establish  a  settlement  here  in  1731,  but  were  sooa 
driven  away  by  the  Indians.  In  1753,  after  the  French  had 
laid  formal  claim  to  this  region  and  the  Ohio  Land  Compuj 
had  been  formed  with  a  view  to  establishing  a  aettlenieot  vitha 
it,  Robert  Dinwiddle,  governor  of  Virginia  and  a  sharehddcr 
in  the  Ohio  Company,  sent  Ctoagfi  Washington  with  a  letter 
to  "  the  coounandant  of  the  Frendi  forces  on  the  Ohio  "  (thcs 
stationed  at  Fort  Le  Boeuf,  near  the  present  Waterior4,  aboot 
XI 5  m.  north  of  the  head- waters  of  that  river)  asking  Uai  t* 
account  for  his  invadon  of  territory  daimcd  by  the  Eosliik 
This  was  Washington's  firsf  important  public  service.  He 
reached  the  present  site  of  Pittsburg  on  the  a4th  of  November 
r7S3f  and  subsequently  reported^  that  what  is  now  caBed 
"  The  Point,"  !.«.  the  tongue  of  land  formed  by  the  coafliieaa 
of  the  Monottgahela  and  Allegheny  rivers,  waa  a  OMch  nflfc 
favourable  dtuation  for  a  fort  and  trading  poat  than  the  <ae 
about  two  miles  up  the  Monoogahda  (near  the  present  siteef 
McKees  Rocks)  which  had  heca  tenutivdy  selected  by  the 
Ohio  Company.  Accordingly,  on  the  17th  of  February  i7S4< 
a  detachment  of  about  40  soldiers,  under  the  comfluod  d 
Captain  William  Trent,*  reached  "  The  Point,"  and  begsa  » 
build  a  fortification  (under  the  auspices  of  the  Ohio  Conpuv)» 
which  it  seems  to  have  been  the  intention  to  call  Fort  Tresi* 
and  which  was  the  beginning  of  the  permanent  settlemcBt  hoc 
by  whites.  On  the  17th  of  the  foUovdng  April,  however,  Eaoi^ 
Edward  Ward,  commanding  the  soldiers,  in  the  aheeecc  d 
Captain  Trent,  was  forced  to  evacuate  the  unfinished  forUfiatioi 
by  t  party,  of  about  1000  Fccnch  and  IndiasSk  under  Capitis 
Contrecoeur,  who  immediatdy  occupied  the  works,  which  he 
enlarged  and  completed,  and  named  Foot  IXuqoesiie,  in  boiKX 
of  Duqucsne  de  Menneville,  governor  of  New  France  in  i7S^ 
1755.  In  the  foUowing  summer  Washington  attempted/* 
retoyer  this  fort»  in  a  campaign  which  indiided  the  skiioi^ 

'  His  /(9»mai,  published  in  1754,  gives  a  concise  and  lucid  acooost 
of  this  expedition. 

>  William  Trent  (c.  1715-1778)  was  a  native  of  Lancaster  teo^ 
Pennsylvania,  became  a  captaia  in  the  state  militia  In  1746  fjj 
aerveo  against  the  French  and  Indian^,  was  for  many  yean.  sRff 
1749,  a  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  and  general  aes»»ix^ 
the  peace  for  Cumbcriand  county,  Pennsylvania,  and  in  I75*>:^'r 
was  Che  partner  of  George  Cregan  In  an  extensf««  trade  viuu* 
Indians.  Aooording  tooiieacooant.hcviaieed  thcaitrof  Pittthtft 
and  examined  its  availability  for  fortification,  in  A«4gust  ITST" 
before  the  arrival  of  Washington.  In  1755  be  became  a  ineobtf 
of  the  council  of  Lieut.-Govemor  Robert  H.  Morris,  and  J 
1758  he  accompanied  General  Foibes's  cxpeditiee  a^nst  Fon 
Duoueanek  He  acted  many  tinws  as  Indian  agent;  hw  wciativ* 
tracle  with  the  Indians,  conducted  from  a  trading  house  near  ho" 
Pitt,  was  ruined  during  Pontiac*s  conspiracy.  At  the  b^fV!?* 
of  the  War  of  fndepencrence  he  waa  given  a  major's  ^commiy"'^ 
raise  tipopa  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  See  Jciamut  9[C*ft^ 
Witfiom  7>c»l(Cindaaatt,  Ohio,  i87i)««diccd  by  AUred  T.  C«odP>» 


HTTSBURG 


684 


tewpmoiUy  ooosidicRd  tht  bcgfnaiB^of  the  Ttfnn  snd  Iikdfiui~* 
seven  Years'— War)  oatbe  28th  of  May  1754,  at  Great  Meadom 
(in  what  is  now  Wharton  township,  Fayette  county,  PfcnnsyU 
vania,  about  50  m.  south-east  of  Pittsburg),  between  a  detacb> 
■sent  under  his  command  and  a  scouting  psjrty  under  N.  CouIob 
de  Jumonville,  in  which  Jumonville  and  several  of  his  men  were 
killed;  the  building,  at  Great  Meadows,  by  Washington,  of  Fort 
Necessity,  and  its  capitulation  (July  3);  and  the  retreat  of 
Washington  to  Virginia.  Another  expedition,  led  by  Major- 
General  Edward  Braddock,  resulted  in  the  engagement  known 
as  "  Braddock's  Defeat "  (July  9,  1755),  foo^t  within  the 
present  boiough  of  Btaddock  (about  8  m.  east  of  Fort  Duquesne), 
ia  which  Braddock's  force  was  practically  annihilated,  and 
Braddock  was  mortally  wounded,  dying  four  days  later.  The 
fort  was  finally  recaptured  by  the  English  in  k7S8i  •*  the  result 
^  an  elaborate  expedition  (involving  about  7000  trao|Ss) 
planned  by  Brigadier-^^eneral  John  Forbes  (i7x&-'X759)*  and 
prosecuted,  with  the  assistance  of  Colonel  Geoige  Washington 
and  Colonel  Henry  Bouquet,  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties. 
General  Forbes  himself  was  so  ill  that  he  had  to  be  carried  in  a 
litter  throu^out  the  campaign.  The  tropps  having  rendes- 
voused  during  the  summer  (of  1 75S)  at  Ray's  Town  (now  Bedford, 
Pennsylvania),  and  at  Loyalhanna  creek  (now  in  Westmoreland 
county),  about  so  m.  to  the  north-west  (where  Fort  Ligonicr 
was  built),  Colonel  Bouquet,  commanding  the  division  at  the 
latter  place,  despatched  Major  James  Grant  (i7ao-i8o6)  at  the 
bead  of  about  850  men  to  reconnoitre  the  fort.  Grant  advanced 
to  a  hill  (still  kaowa  by  his  name,  and  upon  the  crest  of  which 
the  court-house  now  stands)  within  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
of  the  fort.  Here  he  rashly  divided  his  force,  and  in  a  sortie 
of  French  and  Indians,  on  the  morning  of  the  14th  of  September, 
one  of  his  divisions  was  surrounded,  and  a  general  rout  ensued 
in  wUch  about  270  of  Grant's  men  were  kflled,  about  40  were 
wounded,  and  others  (including  Grant)  were  taken  prisoners. 
Forbes's  army  advanced  to  within  about  15  m.  of  the  fort  on 
the  a4th  of  November,  wheieupon  the  French  blew  up  part  of 
the  works,  set  fire  to  the  buildings  and  retreated  down  the  Ohio 
in  boats.  The  English  occupied  the  place  on  the  next  day  and 
General  Forbes  ordered  the  immediate  erecti<«  of  a  stockade 
fort  near  the  site  ot  the  old  one.  In  reportfaag  to  Lieut.-Govemor 
William  Denny  (Nov.  26)  the  success  of  the  expedition  he  dated 
bis  letter  from  Fort  DuqUesne  "or  now  Pittfr-Bouigh,"  and  this 
name,  with  its  subsequent  modification  "  Pitt^urgh,"  was 
thereafter  more  commonly  used  than  that  of  Fort  Pkt,  which, 
as  designating  the  fortification  proper  appears  to  have  been 
first  sppUed  1^  General  John  Stanwix  to  the  enlarged  fort  built 
(at  a  cost,  it  was  estimated,  of  £60,000)  chiefly  under  his  direction 
during  1759-1760. 

The  first  considerable  settlement  arou&d  Che  fort  tprang  up 
in  1760;  it  wai  composed  of  two  groups  of  houses  and  cabins, 
the  "  lower  town,"  near  the  fort's  ramparts;  and  the  "  upper 
town,"  built  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  the  Monongahela,  and 
extending  as  far  as  the  present  Market  Street.  In  April  1761, 
according  to  a  census  of  the  settlement^  outside  of  the  fort,  taken 
for  Colonel  Bouquet,  there  were  3$a  inhabitants  and  104  houses. 

Fort  Pitt  was  one  of  the  important  objective  points  of  Pontiac*s 
oonspimcy  (1763),  and  aa  soon  as  the  intentions  of  the  Indians 
became  evident,  Captain  Simeon  Ecuyer,  the  Swiss  officer  in 
command  61  the  garrison  (which  then  numbered  about  sjo); 
had  the  houses  outside  the  ramparts  levelled  and  prepared  for 
a  siege.  7%e  Indians  attacked  the  foit  on  the  sind  of  June 
(1763),  and  kept  up  a  continuous,  though  ineffective,  fire  upon 
it  ifrom  the  27th  of  July  until  the  ist  of  August,  when  they  drew 
off  and  advanced  to  meet  the  relieving  party  under  Colonel 
Bouquet.  They  were  defeated  a^  Bui^y  Run,  and  Colonel 
Bouquet  relievcxl  the  fort  on  the  xoth  of  August  (see  Pomtiac); 
In  1764  Colonel  Bouquet  added  to  the  fort  a  lidoubt,  the  "  Block 
House,"  which  still  stands,  the  sole  remaining  Uwet  of  Fort  ^tt, 
and  is  owned  and  cared  for  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Amoican 
Revolution^ 

A  second  town,  laid  out  in  1 764,  by  Colonel  John  Campbell  (with 
the  permissios  of  the  commandant  at  Fort  Pftt),  is  bounded  in 


the  pntant  dty  by  Wat«  Stnet,  Maifcet  Street,  SwomI  Avenue 
and  Ferry  Street,  and  comprises  fonr  blocks.  In  Noveasbei 
1768,  at  a  genanl  council  of  the  Six  Nations  with  Sir  Wfllian 
JohnsoD  and  representatives  of  Pennsylvania  and  Vifgfaii» 
held  at  Fort  Stanwix,  on  the  iite  of  the  present  Rome,  New  Yorll 
(f.s.),  at  which  was  s^ed  a  treaty  establisUag  the  boundary 
line  between  the  English  possemions  and  the  toiitory  claimed 
by  the  Six  Nations,  the  Indians  sold  for  $10^000  to  Thonai 
Penn  (1702-1775)  and  Richard  Penn  (1906-1771),  respeclivdyt 
the  second  and  third  som  of  William  Piemk-^the- founder  of 
Pennsylvania-^by  his  second  wife,  the  remaining  land  in  the 
province  of  Pennsyivania  to  which  they  dained  title,  namely 
the  trsct  lying  south  of  the  west  bunch  of  the  Svsqpidiamia 
river  and  of  a  straight  line  fnm  the  north-west  comer  of  what 
is  now  Cambria  county  to  the  present  Kittsamng  (in  Armstrong 
county),  and  all  of  the  territory  east  of  the  AUe^eny  river  below 
Rittanning  and  south  of  the  Ohio  river.  To  this  tcaasactioa 
the  commissioner  from  Virginia  seems  to  have  made  no  cbjectioftf 
though  the  tract  induded  the  Fort  Pitt  region  and  other  territory 
then  claimed  by  Virginia.  In  January-liarch  1769  the  Peluia 
caused  to  be  surveyed  the  "  Manor  of  Pittsburgh,"  a  tract  of 
about  5700  acres,  iqduding  much  of  the  original  dty,  intending 
to  reserve  it  for  thdr  private  use;  but  in  the  following  April  they 
offered  at  public  sale  the  lands  in  the  remainder  of  thdr  purchase 
of  the  preceding  year.^  At  this  time  the  settlement  about  Foit 
Pitt  consulted  of  about  twenty  houses,  occupied  chiefly  by  Indian 
traders.  By  order  of  Gcoerai  Thomas  Gage  the  fort  was 
abandoned  as  a  military  post  in  October  1779,  and  was  partly 
dismantled.  In  January  1774  it  was  occupied  by  an  armed  force 
under  Dr  John  Connolly,  a  partisan  of  Lord  Duiimore,  govemot 
of  Virginia,  and  by  him  was  named  Fort  Dunmore  (which  name, 
however,  was  never  formally  recognized),  this  being  one  el 
DunsBore's  overt  acts  oatendbly  in  support  of  his  contention 
that  the  Fort  Pitt  region  was  induded  in  Augusta  county, 
Virginia.  In  the  following  April  Connolly  took  fordble  posses^ 
sion  of  the  court-house  at  Hanna's  Town  (near  the  present 
Greeiisburg),  the  county«seat  of  Westmoreland  county  (which 
then  included  the  Fort  Pitt  region),  a  few  days  afterwards  arrested 
the  three  justices  who  lived  in  Pituburg,  and  for  the  remainder 
of  the  year  terrorised  the  settlement.  Lord  Dunmore  himseH 
issued  a  procUmarion  dated  '*  Fort  Dunmore,"  17th  September 
(1774),  in  which  he  called  upon  the  inhabitants  to  ignore  the 
authority  of  Pennsylvania,  and  to  recognize  only  that  of  Virginia. 
A  3rear  afterwards  Fort  Pitt  was  occufned  by  a  company  of 
Virginia  sddiers  by  order  of  the  Virginia  Provincial  ConvenUoti 
(assembled  at  Williamsburg  in  August  1775),  but  this  move 
apparently  was  more  for  the  defence  of  the  frontier  in  the  coming 
war  than  an  expressfon  on  the  Pennsylvania- Virginia  boimdary 
dispute;  and,  in  November,  Connolly  was  arrested  at  Fredericks* 
burg,  MaryUnd,  on  the  charge  of  furthering  Dunmore*s  plans 
for  invading  the  western  frontier.  The  boundary  itself  was  in 
controversy  until  1780,  and  the  marking  of  the  boundary  tines 
was  not  completed  until  1785.  During  the  War  of  Independence 
the  fort  was  maintained  as  a  frontier  Indian  post,  and  iB  a  pro* 
tectlon  against  the  British  at  Detroit.  Soon  after  the  dose  of 
the  war  it  was  neglected,  and  by  1791  it  was  in  bad  repair;  there- 
fore at  the  time  of  thi  Indian  hMtilities  of  1 792  another  stockade 
fort  was  built  near  the  bank  of  the  Allegheny  river  and  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  above  the  site  of  Fdrt  Pitt,  Uiis  new  fort  bdng 
nauned  Fort  Lafayette,  or,  as  it  was  more  commonly  called,  Fort 
Fayette.  After  General  Anthony  Wayne's  ddeat  of  the  Indians, 
at  Fallen  Timbers,  Ohfo  (Aug.  so,  X794)>  Pituburg  fost-its 
importance  as  a  frontier  post. 

In  January  1784  the  sale  of  the  land  induded  in  the  "  Manor 
of  Pittsburgh  "  was  begun  by  the  grandsons  of  William  Penn, 
John  Penn  (1729-1795),  the  second  son  of  Richard  Penn  and 
Ueutenant-governor  of  Pennsylvania  in  i763-«t77i  and  in  1773- 
1776;  and  John  Penn  (1760*1834),  the  fourth  son  of  Thomas 
Penn;  and  in  the  following  June  a  new  series  of  town  lots  was 
laid  out  in  which  was  incorporated  Colonel  Campbell's  survey- 
Thereafter,  settlers,  chiefly  Scotch  and  Irish,  came  rapidly. 
*  This  tract  was  confiscated  by  Peniuyl vania  in  r 779. 


683 


PITTSFIELD— HTTSTON 


Pittifaug  ukd  Hi'  vldntty  iri tneaaed  modi  of  the  dJioider ,  and 
tome  of  the  violence  tgainst  person  and  property,  incideDt  to 
the  Whisky  luauncction  of  1 791-94.  Delegates  from  Alle^ 
^eny,  Weatmoveland,  Washington  and  Fayette  counties  met 
here  00  the  7th  of  September  1791,  and  passed  resolutions 
aeverdy  dcnminring  the  txdat  tax;  and  a  similaily  constituted 
gathonbg,  on  the  24th  of  August  179a,  voted  to  proscribe  all 
persona  who  assisted  in  the  enf<»cemcnt  of  laws  taxing  the 
QUinu&cture  of  liquor.  Thereafter  various  persons  who  had 
paid  the  excise  tax,  or  had  assisted  in  collecting  it,  were  tarred 
and  feathered  or  had  their  houses  or  barns  burned.  General 
John  NeviUe  (1731-1803),  having  accepted  the  office  of  chief 
eidse  inspector  tot  Western  Pennsylvania,  his  fine  country 
residence,  about  7  m.  south-west  of  Pittsburg,  was  attacked  by 
a  nab  of  about  500  men  on  the  x6th  and  X7th  of  July  1794. 
The  defenders  of  the  property  (who  faiduded  a  squad  of  soldiers 
from  the  garrison  at  Pittsburg)  killed  two  and  wounded  several 
of  the  attacking  party,  but  they  were  finally  forced  to  surrender, 
and  General  Neville's  mansion  and  other  Inuldings  woe  burned 
to  the  grotmd.  A  mass  nkeeting  of  about  5000  dtixens  of  the 
above-mentioned  counties  (many  of  them  armed  militiamen), 
at  Braddock's  i^eld,  on  the  xst  and  and  of  August  X794,  threat- 
ened to  tske  possession  of  Fort  Lafayette  and  to  bum  Pittsburg, 
but  cooler  counsd  prevailed,  and  after  voting  to  proscribe  several 
persons,  and  marching  in  a  body  through  the  streets  of  the  town, 
the  crowd  dispersed  without  doing  any  damage.  Upon  the 
arrival  in  the  following  November  of  the  troops  sent  by  President 
Washington,  a  military  court  of  inquiry,  held  at  Pittsburg, 
caused  the  arrest  of  several  persons,  who  were  sent  to  Phila- 
delphia for  trial,  where  some  of  them  were  fouqd  guilty  and 
sentenced  to  terms  of  imprisonment,  but  the  sentences  wero 
not  enforced. 

The  town  was  made  the  oounty-seat  in  1 791 ,  it  was  hicorparated 
as  a  borougjh  in  1794,  the  charter  was  revived  in  1804,  and  the 
borou^  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1816.  As  early  as  the  year 
of  its  incorporation  as  a  borough  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore 
merchants  had  established  an  important  trade  with  it.  Their 
goods  were  carried  in  Conestoga  wagons  to  Shippensburg  and 
Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania,  and  Hagerstown,  Maryland,  taken 
from  there  to  Pittsburg  on  pack  horses,  and  exchanged  for 
Pitt^MUg  products;  these  products  were  carried  by  boat  to  New 
Orleans,  whero  they  were  exchanged  for  sugar,  mdasses,  &c, 
and  these  were  canied  throu^  Uie  gulf  and  along  the  coast 
to  Baltimore  and  Philaddphia.  Boat-building  was  begun  in 
Pittsburg  in  1797  or  earlier;  the  galley  "  Presidait  Adams,*' 
built  by  the  government,  was  launched  here  in  1798,  and  the 
"  Senator  Ross,**  comfJeted  in  the  same  year,  was  launched  in 
1799.  In  1797  glassworks  which  were  the  first  to  use  coal  as 
a  ftid  in  makiiBg  ^ass  were  built  here;  later  PitubuiK  profited 
greatly  by  the  use  of  its  great  store  of  natural  gas  in  the  manu- 
facture of  ^ass.  In  s8o6  the  manufacture  <rf  iron  was  well  begun, 
and  by  1895  this  had  become  the  leading  industry.  On  the  xoth 
of  April  t84S  *>  oonnderable  potion  of  the  dty  was  swept  by 
fire,  and  in  July  2877,  during  the  great  railwa.y  strike  of  that 
year,  a  large  amount  of  property  was  destroyed  by  a  mob.  The 
commerdal  importance  of  the  dty  was  increased  by  the  canal 
from  Pittsbuiv  to  Philaddphia,  built  by  the  state  in  XB34  at  a 
cost  of  $10,000,000.  The  first  petroleum  pipe  line  reached 
Pittsburg  in  1875.  A  movement  to  consolidate  the  cities  of 
Pittsburg  and  Allei^ny,  together  with  some  adjacent  boroughs, 
was  begun  in  X853-X854.  It  failed  entirely  in  that  year  but 
b  1867  Lawrenceville,  Peebles,  OOins,  Liberty,  Pftt  and  Oak- 
land, all  lying  between  the  two  rivers,  were  annexed  to  Pittsburg; 
in  1873  there  was  a  further  annexation  of  a  district  embracing 
S7  sq.  m.  south  of  the  Monongahela  river;  in  1906  Allegheny 
iq.t.)t  althott^  a  large  majority  of  those  voting  on  the  question 
b  that  dty  were  opposed  to  it,  was  annexed,  and  in  November 
1907  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  declared  valid 
the  act  of  the  state  legisbture  under  which  the  vtote  was  taken. 


Ittusli^akd  JBitUn  of  ti»  Commntwt^kk  ef  I^kmtihaHm  (Haniibafti 


York,  1809) ;  G.  H.  Thuraton,  PiUsburfft  and  AiUgkny  is  liU  Cm- 
ttnnial  Ypar  (Pittsbuig,  1876};  (or  a  hwtory  of  the  variotts  {om« 
such.  Report  «/  tite  Commission  to  locate  the  Frontier  Forts  0/  ?«n> 
syhaniat  vol.  li.  (Harrisbuiv,  Pa.,  x8o6) ;  and  for  a  thonMign  studv 
CM  economic  and  aocial  conditions  in  nttrfjurg,  P.  U.  KcOogs  (ei;, 
TThe  PMOurg  Swney  (6  vols,.  New  York,  1910  aqq.).  piepand  oads 
the  direction  of  the  Sage  Foundation. 

PITT8PIBLD,  a  dty  and  the  county-scat  of  Berkshire  coontyi 
BiassachusetU,  U.S.A.,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  smoag 
the  Berkshire  Hills,  and  about  X50  m.  W.  of  Boston.  Pop. 
(1890),  r7,28x;  (X900),  21,766,  of  whom  4344  were  foreign4ion: 
(19x0  census),  jz.rax.  Area,  about  4r  sq  m.  It  is  lervd 
by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  HarUord  and  the  Bostos  k 
Albany  (New  York  Central  ft  Hudson  River)  railways,  tad  \tj 
two  inter-urban  dectric  lines.  Pittsfidd  is  a  popular  saanMr 
resort;  it  Ues  in  a  plain  about  xooo  ft.  above  sea-levd,  ii  nv* 
rounded  by  the  picturesque  Bericshfcre  Hills,  and  is  situated  is 
a  region  of  numerous  lakes,  one  of  the  largest*— Lake  Footoosae 
-^bdng  a  summer  pleasure  resort.  On  eitber  ade  cf  the  dty 
£k>w  the  east  and  west  branches  of  the  Housatonic  river.  Stsad- 
ing-in  the  public  green,  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  is  the  origmal 
statue  (by  Launt  Thompson)  of  the  ^'  Msaacbusetts  Cote 
Bearer,"  which  has  been  rqnoduced  on  the  battlefield  of 
Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania.  The  prindpal  insdtutions  arc  tbe 
House  of  Mercy  Hospital,  with  which  is  connected  the  Heuy 
W.  Bishop  Memorial  Training  School  for  nurses^  the  Bctkshin 
Home  for  aged  women,  the  Berkshire  Athenaeum,  centaioiag 
the  public  library,  the  Crane  Art  Museum  and  a  Youi^  Men't 
Christian  Association.  Prominent  buildings  are  St  Joseph** 
Cathedral  aiui  the  buildings  of  the  Berkshire  Life  Insmace 
Company,  the  Agricultural  National  Bank  and  the  Bcrksbire 
County  Savings  Bank.  In  the  south-western  part  of  Pittafidd, 
on  the  boundary  between  it  and  Hitnoock,  is  Shaker  Vihfe, 
settled  about  X790  by  Shakers.  PittsfieU  has  water-power  asd 
important  manufacturing  industrica.  In  1965  its  futory 
products  were  valued  at  $8,577,358,  or  49*x  %  more  thaa  a 
X900.    Fully  hidf  of  the  manulactuRS  coadst  of  textile  9xkk 

The  first  settlement  hx  what  is  now  Fktsfield  was  made  is 
X743,  but  was  soon  abandoned  on  account  of  Indian  tnobki 
In  1749  the  settlement  was  revived,  bat  the  settlers  did  art 
bring  thieir  families  to  the  frontier  until  1758.  TIm  aettkacH 
was  first  called  "  Boston  Plantation,*'  or  "  Poontooaock,"  btf 
in  X761,  when  it  was  inonrporttcd  as  a  township,  the  name  m 
changed  to  Pittsfield,  in  honour  of  the  ddcr  WxUiam  Pitt  b 
t89t  Pittsfield  was  chartered  as  a  dty.  It  wan  here,  is  tk 
Appleton  (or  Plunkett)  House,  known  as  "  Elm  KnoU,"  sad 
built  by  Thomas  GoM,  father-iiirlaw  of  Nathan  Appleton,  that 
in  X845  Henry  W.  Longfellow  (who  married  Nathan  Appletao'i 
daughter)  wrote  his  poem  "  The  Oki  Oock  on  the  Stairs."  Ftf 
thirty  years  (x84a-i872)  PittsfieM  wia  the  bene  of  the  fie* 
John  Todd  (r8oo-t87s),  the  author  of  numerous  books,  of  vbkk 
LtOmet  to  CkiUrm  (1834;  and  series,  1858)  ud  The  Siuda^t 
Mamtai  (1835)  were  once  widdy  read*  From  1807  to  j8x6 
Elkanah  Watson  (x758*i843),  a  prominent  fanaer  and  mercbiBt, 
Uved  at  what  is  now  the  Country  Club,  and  while  there  iaiUO' 
duced  the  merino  sheep  into  Berkshire  county  and  orgsaiad 
the  Berkshire  Agricultural  Society;  he  is  remembered  for  ^ 
advocacy  of  the  building  of  a  canal  connecting  the  Great  LakA 
with  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  as  the  author  of  Mtmoirs  i  Ma 
Md  riNKr  ef  tke  RttdtUiM  (1855),  edited  by  his  son,  W.  C 
Watson. 

Pl'ITH'fUH*  a  dty  of  Luaeme  <x>unty,  Pennsylvaiua,  U5A, 
on  the  Susquehanna  river  just  bcbw  the  mouth  of  the  Lads* 
wanna,  about  xr  m.  S.W.  of  Scnnton  and  about  9  m.  N.£-  c' 
Wilkes-BaxT^.  Pop,  (1890),  xo^joa;  (1900),  ia»ss6,  of  wfaoa 
3394  were  fordgn-bcmi;  (1910  census),  16,267.  It  is  seiwd 
by  the  Erie,  the  Lehigh  Vsfley,  the  Defaiware,  Lackawanca 
&  Western,  the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  the  Ddaware  A 
Hudson,  and  the  Lackawanna  ft  Wyoming  Valley  raihraTs; 
there  is  an  dectric  railway  from  Pftuten  to  Senuiton,  soda 


PITYRIASIS— PIUS  (POPES) 


683 


beh-lioe  dectric  rtilway  connects  Httston  wSth  Avoca,  NanU> 
coke,  Plymouth  and  Wilkcs-Barre.  Two  bridges  connect  the 
dty  with  the  borough  ol  West  Pittston  (pop.,  1910,  6848). 
Pittston  is  in  the  midst  of  the  richest  anthndte  coal  region  of 
the  sute,  and  fize-day  also  abounds  in  the  vicinity.  In  1905 
the  value  of  the  factory  products  was  $1,474,938  (47*8%  more 
than  in  1900).  Pittston,  named  in  honour  ol  William  Pitt, 
caxl  of  Chatham,  was  one  of  the  five  ori^nal  towns  founded  in 
the  Wyoming  Valley  by  the  Susquehanna  Company  of  Conr 
necticut;  it  was  first  settled  about  1770  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  iSoj.   It  was  chartertKl  as  a  dty  in  1894. 

PITYRIASIS  VERSICOLOR  (Gr.  nrvfilaats,  scurf,  from 
virupor,  bran),  a  skin  disease,  consisting  of  patches  of  brownish 
discolorations  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  mostly  on  the  front 
of  the  body,  and  often  attended  with  itching,  espedally  after 
}ieating  exerdse.  The  pigmentation  seems  to  radiate  from  the 
orifices  of  hair-follides.  The  epidermis  is  in  a  scaly  condition 
over  the  patch,  and  among  the  d^fris  of  the  epidermic  cell  there 
may  be  seen  minute  oval  spores  due  to  a  vegetable  parasite, 
the  Microsporon  Jurjur.  The  disease  is  mostly  one  of  adult  age, 
found  all  over  the  world,  and  not  associated  in  any  special  way 
with  poor  general  health.  The  treatment  consists  of  rubbing 
in  an  ointment  of  potassium  sulphide  or  one  of  the  mercurial 
ointments,  or  u^ng  sulphur-soap  habitually. 

PIURA,  the  northernmost  maritime  department  of  Peru, 
bounded  north  by  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.  N  £.  by  Ecuador,  S 
by  the  departments  of  Cajamarca  and  Lambayeque,  and  W  by 
Che  Padfic.  Area,  14.849  sq.  m. ,  pop.  (xoo6,  estimate),  1 54,080— 
both  totals  exclusive  of  the  province  of  Tumbes.  or  Tumbcz 
(area,  about  1080  sq  m  ;  pop.,  in  1906.  about  8000),  which 
has  been  administratively  aepacated  from  the  department  for 
militaiy  reasons.  The  department  belongs  partly  to  the  arid 
coastal  plain  that  extends  from  the  GuM  of  Guayaquil  southward 
nearly  to  Valparaiso,  and  partly  to  a  broken  mountainous  region 
belonging  to  the  Western  Cordilleras.  The  coastal  zone  is 
traversed  by  the  Tumbes,  Chira  and  Piura  rivers,  which  have 
thdr  sources  In  the  melting  snows  of  the  higher  Andes  and  flow 
westward  across  the  desert  to  the  coast.  The  valleys  of  the 
Chira  and  Piura  are  irrigated  and  maintain  large  populations 
Rough  cotton,  called  *'  \-egetabIe  wool.**  and  tobacco  are  the 
prindpal  products,  and  are  also  produced  in  the  valley  of  the 
Tumlxs  and  in  some  of  the  elevated  mountain  districts.  On 
the  upland  pastures  cattle  have  long  been  raised,  and  goat- 
breeding  has  been  added  in  modem  times.  Mules  also  art  reared. 
Petroleum  is  an  important  product,  and  there  are  wells  at  a 
number  of  phices  along  the  coast,  from  Tumbes  to  Sechura.  the 
most  productive  being  those  of  Talara  and  Zorritos.  There  are 
sulphur  deposits  in  the  Sechura  desert,  and  salt  is  manufactured 
«t  some  places  on  the  southern  coast.  The  making  of  Panama 
bats  from  the  fibre  of  the  "toquilla"  palm  is  a  household 
Industry.  The  capital  is  Piura  (est.  pop.  9100  in  1906),  on  the 
Piura  river,  about  35  m.  (direct)  E.S.E.  of  Paita,  and  164  ft. 
above  sea-levd.  It  was  founded  by  Pizarro  in  1531  under  the 
name  of  San  Miguel,  at  a  place  called  Tangarara,  nearer  Paita, 
but  the  present  site  was  afterwards  adopted.  A  railway  (60  ro 
long)  by  way  of  Sullana  connects  with  the  port  of  Paita,  and 
an  extension  of  6  m.  runs  S.S.E.  to  Catacaos.  Other  towns  of 
the  department,  with  their  estimated  populations  In  igo6,  are; 
Tumbes,  or  Tumbez  (3300),  the  most  northern  port  of  Peru,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Pizarro 
landed  in  1531;  Paita;  Sechura  (6450),  on  Sechura  Bay  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  department,  with  exports  of  salt  and  sulphur. 
SuOana  (5300),  an  Inland  town  with  railway  connexions  in  the 
fertile  Chira  valley;  Morropon  (3800)  on  the  upper  Piura.  Huan- 
cabamba,  the  centre  of  a  tobacco  district  in  the  mountains, 
and  Tambo  Grande  (6100)  and  Chulucanas  (4600),  both  in  the 
fertile  Piura  valley  above  the  capital 

PIUS,  the  name  of  ten  popes. 

Pius  I ,  pope  from  about  141  to  154.  He  was  the  brother  of 
Hennas,  author  of  the  Shepherd 

Pius  II.  (Enea  Silvio  de*  Piccolomini,  known  in  literature  as 
Aeneas  SUvius).  po|>e  from  1458  to  1464,  was  bom  00  the  i8th 


of  October  140s,  at  Corsignano  (afterward  called  Pleiua  after 
him),  near  Siena.  His  family,  though  poor,  was  noble,  and 
dainied  to  trace  descent  from  Romulus.  The  eldest  of  eighteen 
children,  he  had  to  work  on  the  farm  with  his  father,  until  a 
priest  tau^t  him  the  rudiments  of  letters,  which  enabled  hnn, 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  to  go  as  a  poor  student  to  Siena,  dividing 
his  time  between  severe  humanistic  studies  and  a  life  of  sensual 
pleasure.  He  was  attracted  to  Florence  by  the  teaching  of 
FQdfo.  His  father  urged  him  to  become  a  lawyer,  but  he 
accepted  the  position  of  secretary  to  Domenioo  Capranica, 
bishop  of  Fenno,and  went  with  1dm  to  the  council  of  Basel, 
where  he  stayed  several  years  (1431-1435),  changing  masters 
whenever  he  could  improve  his  position.  As  secretary  of  the 
bishop  of  Novara  he  became  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  against 
Pope  Eugenius  IV.;  his  master  was  caught  and  imprisoned,  and 
Aeneas  only  saved  himseU  by  a  hasty  flight.  He  waii  next 
(143  s)  employed  as  secretary  of  Cardinal  Nidiolas  Albergati 
(d.  1443)  At  the  congress  of  Axras,  where  peace  was  made  between 
France  and  Burgundy.  From  here  he  took  a  long  Journey  to 
Scotland  and  England,  on  a  secret  diplomatic  mission,  he  had 
numerous  adventures,  in  one  of  which  he  near^  lost  his  Kfe. 
In  1436  he  was  back  at  Basel,  and,  although  a  layman,  obtained 
a  seat  in  the  council  and  exercised  considerable  influence.  In 
order  to  control  it  belter  Eugenius  tried  to  get  the  council  to 
move  to  Florence;  a  minority  agreed  and  seceded;  the  majority, 
however,  stayed  where  they  were  and  took  vigorous  measures 
against  the  pope,  culminating  in  his  deposition  on  the  a  5th  <A 
June  X438.  Aeneas  took  an  active  part  In  the  coundl;  and 
though  he  still  declined  to  take  orders,  he  was  given  a  position 
on  the  conciliar  conclave  which  eleaed  Amadeus  of  Savoy  as 
pope  under  the  title  of  Felix  V.  In  return  for  his  services  Fells 
made  Aeneas  papal  secretary. 

A  new  period  of  his  career  opened  !n  1442,  when  he  was  sent 
by  the  council  to  take  part  in  the  diet  of  Frankfort-on-Main. 
H^re  he  met  Frederick  III.  of  Germany,  who  made  him  poet 
laureate  and  his  private  secretary.  He  ingratiated  himself 
with  the  chancellor,  Kaspar  Schlick,  at  Vienna,  one  of  whose 
adventures  he  celebrated  in  Lucrelia  and  Euridiu,  a  novel  in 
the  style  of  Boccacdo.  At  this  period  he  also  wrote  his  witty 
but  immoral  play,  Ckrisis.  In  1446  be  took  orders  as  subdeacon, 
and  wrote  that  he  meant  to  reform,  *'  forsaking  Venus  for 
Bacchus,"  chiefly  on  the  ground  of  satiety,  and  also,  as  he 
frankly  wrote,  because  the  clerical  profession  offered  him  more 
advantages  than  he  could  secure  outside  it. 

Aeneas  was  useful  to  Frederick  as  a  diplomatist,  and  managed 
to  give  all  parties  the  impression  that  he  was  the  devoted 
advocate  of  each.  During  the  struggle  between  pope  and 
council  he  induced  Frederick  to  be  neutral  for  a  while.  He  took 
an  important  part  in  the  diet  of  Nuremberg  (1444),  and  being 
sent  on  an  embassy  to  Eugenius  In  the  following  year  he  made 
his  peace  with  the  pope.  At  the  diet  of  Frankfort  (Sept.  1446) 
Aeneas  was  instrumental  in  changing  the  majority  of  the  dectors 
from  their  hostile  position  towards  pope  and  emperor  into  a 
friendly  one.  He  brought  the  good  news  to  Eugem'us  shortly 
before  his  death  (Feb.  7, 1447),  and  made  friends  with  the  new 
pope.  Nicholas  V.,  by  whom  he  was  made  bishop  of  Siena.  He 
was  an  agent  of  Frederick  in  making  the  cdebrated  concordat 
of  Vienna  (also  called  concordat  of  Aschaffenburg)  in  February 
1448.  Hb  services  to  pope  and  emperor  brought  him  the  titles 
of  prince  of  the  empire  and  cardinal,  positions  which  he  used 
rather  unscrupulously  to  get  as  many  lucrative  benefices  into 
his  hands  as  pos^ble.  Those  in  Germany  brought  him  two 
thousand  ducats  a  year. 

The  death  of  Calixtus  m.  (who  succeeded  Nicholas  V.) 
occtured  on  the  5th  of  August  1458.  After  a  hot  fi^t  in  the 
conclave,  in  which  it  seem^  that  the  wealthy  French  cardinal, 
Guillaume  d'Estouteville,  archbishop  of  Rouen  and  bishop  of 
Ostia,  would  be  elected,  the  intrigues  of  Aeneas  and  of  his  friend 
Rodrigo  Borgia  Oater  the  notorious  Alexander  VI )  gave  the 
victory  to  the  cardinal  of  Siena,  who  took  the  title  Pius  II ,  with 
a  reminiscence  of  Virgil*s  "  plus  Aeneas.*'  The  humanists 
hailed  his  election  with  joy,  and  flocked  around  to  secure  a  share 


684 


PIUS  (POPES) 


of  the  good  thiiig»»  but  they  wen  bitterly  dlsappobited,  as  Pius 
did  not  prove  himself  the  liberal  and  undiscrixnioaling  patron 
they  hoped.  The  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453  had  'bade  a 
deep  impreuion  upon  Pius,  and  he  never  ceased  to  preach  the 
crusade  against  the  Turk.  In  September  1459  he  opened  a 
congress  at  Mantua  for  the  purpose  of  considering  what  could 
be  done  in  this  direction.  His  proposals  for  the  raising  of  troops 
and  money  met  with  general  opposition.  The  French  were  angry 
because  Pius  had  crowned  the  Spanish  claimant,  Ferdinand, 
king  of  Naples,  and  thus  disposed  of  the  pretensions  of  Ren£ 
of  Anjou.  The  Germans  also  objected  to  Pius's  plans,  but  finally 
agreed  to  furnish  some  trcx^M  and  money,  promises  which  they  did 
not  carry  out.  Pius  felt  how  much  the  position  of  the  papacy  had 
fallen  in  importance  since  the  days  of  Urban  and  Innocent  lU., 
and,  believing  that  the  change  was  dixe  to  the  general  councils 
which  had  asserted  power  ov^r  the  popes,  he  changed  his 
position,  which  before  his  dection  to  the  papal  throne  had 
been  that  of  a  warm  advocate  of  the  condUar  claims,  and  issued 
(Jan. .  X460)  the  bull  Execrabilis  et  in  prisiinis  temporibus  in- 
MtdUus,  in  which  he  condemned  as  heretical  the  doctrine  that 
the  councils  were  superior  to  the  popes,  and  proclaimed  the 
anathema  against  any  one  who  should  dare  to  appeal  to  one. 
He  issued  another  bull  at  the  same  time,  promising  forgiveness 
of  sins  to  those  who  would  take  part  in  the  crusade,  and  then 
dissolved  the  a>ngres8. 

While  Pius  was  at  Mantua  war  broke  out  between  the  French 
and  Spanish  in  southern  Italy,  and  a  rising  of  the  barons  devas- 
tated the  Campagna.  Hurrying  back  to  Rome  Pius  succeeded 
in  quelling  the  disorders,  and  sent  his  nephew  Antonio  Todes- 
chini  to  the  aid  of  Ferdinand,  who  made  him  duke  of  Amalfi 
and  gave  him  his  natural  daughter  Maria  m  marriage.  This 
measure  still  further  alienated  the  pope  from  the  French,  with 
whom  he  was  at  that  time  negotiating  for  the  abrogation  of  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction.  When  Louis  XL  came  to  the  throne 
(Nov.  1461).  he  sent  to  Pius  saying  that  he  had  abolished  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  hoping  in  return  to  get  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  for  his  countryman  Ren€  of  Anjou.  When  Pius  refused 
to  do  anything  to  the  prejudice  of  Ferdinand,  Lotiis  changed 
his  attitude,  and  allowed  the  protests  of  the  univerutyof  Paris 
and  the  parlements  to  persuade  him  to  restore  the  ancient 
liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church.  At  the  same  time  a  serious 
quarrel  with  the  Germans  prevented  anything  being  done 
towards  a  crusade.  George  Podiebrad,  king  of  Bohtaiia,  was 
plotting  to  depoae  the  emperor  Frederick  III.,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  Pius.  Diether,  archbishop  of  Mains,  took  the  side 
of  Podiebrad,  and  replied  to  Pius's  measures  by  appealing  to  a 
general  coundl.  He  was  declared  deposed  by  the  pope,  but 
kept  his  seat,  and  in  1464  compelled  the  pope  to  recognize  him 
again.  The  quarrel  with  Podiebrad,  who  was  accused  of 
supporting  the  Utraquist  heresy,  continued  with  increasing 
bitterness,  but  without  any  deci^ve  result,  imtil  the  death  of 
Pfua.  In  the  meantime  the  pope  did  what  he  could  to  further 
the  cause  of  the  crusade.  The  discovery  of  alum  mines  at  Tolfa 
gave  him  an  unexpected  pecuniary  resource,  and  to  stimulate 
iiit  zeal  of  Christendom,  Pius  took  the  cross  on  the  i8th  of  June 
1464.  He  set  out  for  Venice,  where  be  intended  to  sail  for  the 
East,  but  he  was  attacked  with  a  fever,  and  on  the  14th  of 
August  1464  he  died. 

Pius  II.  was  a  voluminous  author.  Bendes  poems,  a  novd 
and  a  play,  he  wrote  a  number  of  orations,  which  were  con- 
sidered models  of  eloquence  in  their  day.  His  most  valuable 
work,  however,  is  his  Commentcria,  a  history  of  his  own  Ufe 
and  times,  told  !n  an  interesting  and  rational  manner.  He  is 
very  frank  about  himself,  and  most  of  the  adverse  judgments 
which  have  been  pronounced  on  his  character  have  been  based 
on  his  own  confessions.  He  was  an  opportunist,  sailing  along 
with  any  favourable  breeze,  and  not  quite  enough  in  earnest 
about  aoythbg  to  pursue  the  same  tack  steadily  for  long.  We 
must  give  him  the  credit,  however,  of  advocating  a  statesman- 
like policy  in  the  interests  of  the  whole  of  Europe  in  trying 
to  get  the  powers  to  unite  against  the  Turks,  who  threatened  to 
overwhelm  them  aU. 


dnnng  the  Reformatum,  vol.  ii.  (London,  t882);L.  naMt.Htstarjtf 
the  Popes  Irom  Ike  clou  ef  ike  Uiddie  Agu  (Eng.  tnau..  1896,  vol.  n.); 
Voigt,  Ftus  //.  (185^1863).  The  Commentaries  of  Pius  «tre  piith 
lisbed  in  1584,  under  the  name  of  G(^>elinut  PcriOfta.  His  other 
works  are  found  in  Aeneae  Stimi  opera  omnia  (Baael,  i$5i)-  See 
also  W.  Boulting.  Aeneas  Sihnus  (1909).  (P.  Sm.) 

Pius  ni.  (Francesco  Nanni-Todeschlni-Piccolomini),  pope 
from  the  32nd  of  September  to  the  18th  of  October  1503,  vu 
bom  at  Siena  on  the  gth  of  May  1439.  After  studying  Uw  at 
Perugia,  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Si6na  and  caroinal-deacoii 
of  St  Eustachio,  when  only  twenty-two  years  of  age,  by  ha 
uncle  Pius  U.,  who  permitted  him  to  assume  the  name  and  anas 
of  the  PicCoIomini.  He  was  employed  by  subsequent  popes  in 
several  important  legations,  as  by  Paul  II.  at  the  diet  of 
Regensburg,  and  by  Siztus  IV.  to  secure  the  restoration  of 
ecclesiastical  authority  in  Umbria.  He  bravely  opposed  tlie 
policy  of  Alexander  VI.,  and  was  elected  pope,  amid  the  dii- 
turbances  consequent  upon  the  death  of  the  latter,  through 
the  interested  influence  of  Cardinal  dcUa  Rovere,  afterwards 
Julius  II.,  and  was  crowned  on  the  8ih  of  October  1503.  He 
permitted  Cesare  Borgia  to  return  to  Rome,  but  promptly 
took  in  hand  the  reform  of  the  curia.  Pius  was  a  man  d 
blameless  life,  and  would  doubtless  have  accomplished  mud 
had  he  lived.    His  successor  was  Julius  II. 

See  L.  Pastor,  History  of  the  Popes,  vol.  vi..  trans,  by  F.  1.  Antrobas 
(London,  1898);  M  Crei^hton.  History  of  the  Pajbaey,vtA.v.  (U»- 
don,  1901).  F.  Gresorovius.  Rome  ix  the  MtdaU  A§ts*  vol  vii, 
trans,  by  Mrs  G.  W  Hamilton  (London.  1900-1902);  Piccdoinuu. 
"II  Ponslficsito  di  Pio  U  L,"  injirchino  stor.  Ual^  vol.  v.  (Fiicnze.  1903). 

Pius  IV.  (Giovanni  Angelo  Medici,  or  "  Medighino  ").  V^ 
from  1559  to  1565,  was  born  at  Milan  on  the  31st  of  March  i499i 
of  an  obscure  family,  not  related  to  the  Medici  of  Ftoreoce  (a 
claim  to  such  relationship  was  advanced  after  Giovanni  Angelo 
had  attained  to  prominence).  The  fortune  of  the  family  vu 
established  by  an  elder  brother,  Gian  Giaoomo,  who  fouc^t  hii 
way  to  the  marquisate  ol  Marignano  and  distinguished  hi» 
self  in  the  service  of  the  en^>eror.  Giovanni  Angek)  studied 
in  Bologna  and  Pavia,  and  for  some  time  followed  the  bv. 
Entering  the  service  of  the  Church,  he  found  favour  with  Paul  IIL 
who  entrusted  him  with  the  governorship  of  several  importaiit 
towns,  and  ui  1549  made  him  a  cardinaL  Julius  HI.  sent  hin 
upon  missions  to  Germany  and  Hungary.  With  Paul  lY.  he 
was  out  of  favour,  because  not  in  sympathy  with  his  policy,  vA 
accordingly  retired  to  Milan.  In  the  protracted  and  momentois 
conclave  that  followed  the  death  of  Paul  the  election  of  Pitf 
(Dec  25,  1559)  was  due  to  a  compromise  between  the  Spsnish 
and  Fr»ch  factions. 

In  temperament  and  habit  Pius  was  the  antithesis  of  hit 
predecessor:  affable,  vivacious,  convivial.  He  was,  moreoT«ii 
astute,  diplomatic  and  experienced  in  affairs.  He  allowed  d* 
reform  movement  free  course,  but  tried  to  repair  certain  ts- 
justices  of  Paul. IV.  (for  example,  releasing  and  reinsutiog 
Morone,  who  had  been  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  heresy),  v^ 
mitigated  some  of  his  extreme  decrees.  But  to  the  nephevsof 
Paul  he  showed  no  mercy:  they  were  charged  with  various  criraei 
condemned,  upon  testimony  of  suspicious  validity,  and  ezecuird 
on  the  5th  of  March  1561.  The  Colonnest,  who  had  been  acti^'^ 
in  the  prosecution,  recovered  Paliano.  But  under  Pius  V. 
judgment  was  reversed,  the  memory  of  the  Caraffa  rehabilitated, 
and  restitution  made  to  the  family.  Pius  IV  himself  was  ooC 
guiltless  of  nepotism;  but  the  bestowment  of  the  cardinalite 
and  the  archbishopric  of  Milan  upon  his  nephew,  the  pure  aad 
upright  Carlo  Borromeo,  redounde^d  to  the  honour  of  bis  pontifi- 
cate and  the  welfare  of  the  church. 

With  England  kist  to  the  papacy,  Germany  ovcrwhebningty 
Protestant,  and  France  on  the  verge  of  dvil  war,  Piui  realised 
how  fatuous  was  the  anti-Spani^  policy  Of  his  predeco5or. 
He  therefore  recognized  Ferdinand  as  emperor,  and  conc2listc<l 
Philip  IL  with  extensive  ecclesiastical  privileges.  But  sub- 
sequently, antagonized  by  Philip's  arrogance,  he  faiclined  to- 
wards France,  and  gave  troops  and  money  for  the  war  agiic^ 
the  Huguenots. 


FlUS  ^PBS) 


685 


AfCer  a  suspension  of  tea  yean  tbe  oouncilof  Ttent  leooovefied 
on  the  i8th  of  January  1562.  Among  the  demands  presented 
by  the  various  nations  were,  the  recognition  of  the  equality  of 
the  episcopate,  communion  in  both  kinds,  clerical  marriage,  and 
the  use  of  the. vernacular  in  Church  services.  It  required  aU  the 
pope's  diplomacy  to  avoid  compliance  on  the  one  hand,  and  a 
breach  with  the  powers  on  the  other.  Thanks  to  Morone  and 
Borromeo,  however,  he  achieved  his  end.  The  council  was 
dissolved  on  the  4ih  of  December  1563,  and  its  deci;ees  and 
definitions  confirmed  by  the  pope  (Jan.  36,  1564),  who  reserved 
to  hlmaclf  the  sole  right  of  interpretation.  The  decrees  were 
immediately  accepted  by  most  of  the  Catholic  states;  only 
tardily,  however,  and  with  reservation  by,  France  and  Spain. 
Various  naeasufes  were. taken  for  carrying  the  decrees  into  effect: 
residence  was  strictly  enjoined;  plurality  of  benefices  prohibited; 
the  Inquisition  resumed,  under  the  presidency  of  Ghislieri 
(afterwards  Pius  V.);  a  new  edition  of  the  Index  published 
(1564);  and  the  "Tridentine  creed"  promulgated  (Nov.  13, 
1564). 

After  the  termination  of  the  cotmcU  Plus  indulged  his  desire 
for  ease  and  pleasure,  to  the  great  offence  of  the  rigorists.  A 
certain  fanatic,  Benedetto  Accoiti,  brooding  over  the  pope's 
unworthines9,  felt  inspired  to  remove  him,  but  his  plot  was 
discovered  and  punished  (1565).  Fms  fortified  Rome,  and  con- 
tributed much  to  the  embellishment  of  the  dty-^-among  other 
works,  the  church  of  Sta  Maria  degli  Angcli  in  the  Baths  of 
Diocletian;  the  Porta  Pia;  the  Villa  Pia  in  the  Vatican  Gardens; 
and  the  Palace  of  the  Cooservatori.  He  died  on  the  gth  of 
December,  and  was  succeeded  by  Piu»  V. 

See  Panvinio/  continuator  of  PUtina,  Z?«  vitis  pontiff,  rgm.  (a 
contemporary  of  Pius);  Ciaconius,  Viiae  et  res  gestae  summorum 
Pontiff,  rom.  (Rome  1601-1602;  also  contemporary);  T.  MOUcr, 
Das  Konkiave  Pius  IV.  (Gotha,  1889;  more  comprehcasive  than  the 
title  sugsests);  Ranke,  Popes  (Ene.  trans.,  Austin),  i.  323  seq.,  358 
eeq. }  and  y.  Reuroont,  Cesik.  der  Stadt  Rom.  uL  2»  534  scq.,  730  seq. 

Pius  V.  (Michela  Ghislieri},  pope  from  1566  to  157a,  was  bom 
lOBL  the  17th  of  January  1504,  in  the  Milanese.  At  the  age  of 
iiouiteea  be  became  a  Dominican  monk.    His  austere  life,  his 
vehemence  in  attacking  hereof  and  his  rigorous  di$cipUne  as 
prior  of  several  monasteriea  proved  his  fitness  for  the  work  of 
reform,  and  he  was  appointed  inquisitor  in  Como,  where  his 
ceal  provoked  such  exposition  as  to  compel  his  recall  (1550). 
The  chief  inquisitor,  Caraffa,  convinced  of  his  value,  strai^tway 
sent  him  upon  a  mission  to  Lombardy,  and  in  «55i  appoiatcd 
him  commissary-general  of  the  Holy  Officiu  Wbqi  Caraffa 
became  pope,  Ghislieri  was  made  bishop  of  Nepi  and  Sutri, 
f^rHjn^i  (1557),  and  finally  grand  inquisitor,  which  office  he 
discharged  in  a  manner  to  make  the  name  of  "  Fca  Michele  doU' 
Inquiaizione "  a  terror.    In  this  oflke  he  was  c<»tinued  by 
Pius  IV.,  whom,  however,  he  repelled  by  his  excessive  severity, 
and  antagoniaed  by  his  censoriouaness  and  obstinacy.    But  the 
movement  with  which  he  was  so  fuUy  identified  was  irresistible; 
and,  after  the  death  of  Pius  IV.,  the  rigorisu,  led  by  Bortomeo, 
had  no  difficulty  in  making  him  pope  (Jan.  7, 1566). 
.   Though  pope,  Pius  did  not  cease  to  be  a  monk:  his  ascetic 
mode  of  life  and  his  devotions  suffered  no  interruption.    With- 
out delay  be  applied  himself  to  the  work  of  reform.    Decrees 
and  ordinances  were  issued  with  astonishing  rapidity:  the  papal 
court  was  rid  of  everything  unseemly,  and  became  a  model  of 
sobriety;  prostitutes  were  driven  from  the  city,  or  confined  to  a 
oertam  quarter;  severe  penalties  were  attached  to  Sunday  dese- 
cration, profanity  and  animal  bahing;  clerical  residence  was 
enforced;  conventuals  were  compelled  to  live  in  strict  seclusion 
according  to  their  vows;  catechetical  instruction  was  eiuoined. 
A  new  catechism  appeared  in  is$6,  followed  by  an  improved 
breviary  (xsfiS),  and  an  improved  missal  (1570).    The  use  of 
indulgences  and  dispensations  was  restricted,  snd  the  penitential 
system  reformed. 

Pius  was  the  avowed  enemy  of  nepotism.  One  nephew,  it 
is  true,  he  made  cardinal,  but  allowed  him  no  influence:  the  rest 
of  his  relati>^es  he  kept  at  a  distance.  By  the  constitution 
Admonet  nos  (March  39)  zsd?)^  be  forbade  the.  reinvcstiture 


of  fiefs  that  should  reveit  to  the  Ho^See,  and  bound  the 
cardinals  by  oath  to  observe  it.  In  March  1569  Pius  orderf»j 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  the  states  of  the  Church.  Eor 
commercial  reasons  they  were  aJiowed  to  renAsin  in  Rome  and 
Ancuna,  but  only  upon  humiliating  conditions.  I4  February 
<57x,  the  Umiliati,  a  dsgcnerete  monastic  order  of  Mibm,  waa 
suppressed  on  account  of  its  complicity  in  an  attempt  upon  the 
life  of  the  archbishop,  Carlo  Boovmeo. 

The  election  of  Pius  to  the  papacy  was  the  enthronement  of 
the  Inquisition:  the  utter  extinction  of  heresy  was  iiis  darling 
ambition,  and  the  possession  of  power  only  intensified  his  passion* 
The  rules  governing  the  Holy  Office  weie  sharpened;  eld  charg?^ 
long  suspended*  were  revived;  rank  offered  no  protection,  bu( 
rather  exposed  its  possessor  to  fiercer  attack;  none  wcm  pursued 
more  rclemlessly  than  the  ctdtured,  among  whom  many  of  th9 
Protestant  doctrines  had  found  acceptance;  princes  and  statcfl 
withdrew  their  protection,  and  courted  the  favour  of  the  Holy 
See  by  surrendering  distinguished  offenders.  Cosmo  de'  Medici 
handed  over  Pietro  Camesecchi  (and  two  years  later  received  in 
reward  the  title  of  grand  duke,  Sept.  1569);  Venice  delivered 
Guido  Zanetli;  Philip  II.,  Bartok>m£  de  Carransa,  the  arch- 
bishop of  Toledo.  In  March  1571  the  Congregation  of  the 
Index  was  established  and  greater  thoroughness  introduced  into 
the  pursuit  of  heretical  literature.  The  result  was  the  flight  of 
hundreds  of  printers  to  Switzerland  and  Germany.  Thus  heresy 
was  hunted  out  of  Italy:  the  only  regret  of  Pius  was  that  he 
had  sometimes  been  too  lenient.  In  1567  Pius  condemned  the 
doctrines  of  Michael  Baius,  a*  professor  of  Louvain,  who  taught 
justification  by  faith,  asserted  the  suflicicncy  of  the  Scriptures^ 
and  disparaged  outward  forms.  Baius  submitted;  but  his 
doctrines  were  afterwards  taken  up  by  the  Janscnista. 

The  political  activities  of  Pius  were  controlled  by  one  principle, 
war  upon  the  heretic  and  infidel.  He  spurred  Philip  II.  on  in  tlw 
Netherlands,  and  approved  the  bloody  work  of  Alva.  He 
denounced  all  temporizing  with  the  Huguenots,  and  commanded 
their  utter  extermination  (ad  internecionem  usque).  While  it 
cannot  be  proven  that  he  was  privy  to  the  massacre  of  St 
Bartholomew,  still  his  violent  counsels  could  not  fail  to  stir  up 
the  most  savage  passions.  He  exclaimed  loudly  against  the 
emperor's  toleration  of  Protestantism,  and  all  but  wished  his 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  He  urged  a  general  coalition 
of  the  Catholic  states  against  the  Protestants;  and  yet  published, 
ui  sharper  form,  the  •bull  In  cocsta  domini  (1568),  which  was 
regarded  by  these  very  states  as  an  attack  upon  their  sovereignty. 
One  of  his  cherished  schemes  was  the  invasion  of  England  and 
the  dethronement  of  Elizabeth,  whom  he  excommunicated  and 
decbrcd  a  usurper  (Feb.  25, 1570);  but  he  was  obliged  to  content 
himself  with  abetting  plots  and  fomenting  rebellions.  He  did, 
however,  effect  an  alliance  with  Spain  and  Venice  against  the 
Turks,  and  contrU)uted  to  the  victory  of  Lepanto  (Oct.  6. 

.>57i).  5 

Thus  lived  and  wrought  Pius,  presenting  "  a  strange  union 
of  singleness  of  purpose,  magnanimity,  austerity  and  profound 
religious  feeling  with  sour  bigotry,  relentless  hatred  and  bloody 
persecution  "  (Ranke).  He  died  on  the  ist  of  May  1572;  and 
was  canonized  by  Clement  XI.  in  1713. 

See  Ciaconius,  Viiae  et  res  testae  summorum  pontiff,  jom.  (Rome, 
1601-1602;  a  contemporary  m.Piui):  Acta^  sanctorum,  mcij,  torn.  L 
pp.  616  seq.,  contaimng  the  life  by  Gaburio  (1605),  based  upon  an 
earlier  one  by  Catena  (i«|86):  Falloux,  Hist,  de  St  Pie  V.  (3rd  ed., 
Parb,  iSsfih  culoftstic:  Mcndham.  Life  and  Pouti/uatt  0/  Si  Pius  V. 
(U>ndon.  iSja),  a  bitter,  polemic.  The  Jifc  of  Pius  has  al«o  been 
written  by  Fuenmayor  (Madrid.  I59S).  Paolo  Alessandro  Maffci 
(Rome,  1717),  and  by  T.  M.  Graneno  TBoIogna,  1877).  His  Ictten 
haw  been  edited  by  Catena  (vuftf  su^a),  Goubau  (Antwerp,  1640),  aiMl 
a  aelect' number  in  a  French  translation,  by  de  rotter  (nirb,  1826). 
See  also  HilUger,  Dio  WaU  Pius  V,  Mum  PapsU  (Leipzig,  1691  >.; 
Ranlce,  Popes  (Eng.  trans.,  Austin),  i.  361  seq.,  384  seq^j  and  vofi 
Reumont,  Cesik.  &r  SUidt  Rom.  ni.  2,  557  seq.  (T.  F.  C.)  . 

FiiTS  VI.  (Giovanni  Angclo  Braschi),  pope  from  1775  to  1799^ 
waa  bora  at  Cescna,  on  the  27th  of  December  1 71 7.  After  taking 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  he  went  to  Ferrara  and  became 
the  private  secretary  of  Cardinal  Ruffo,  in  whose  bishopric  of 
Ostia  upi  Velietri  he  held,  the  post  of  judilort  until  x7Jd.    Uis 


686 


WOS  (POPES) 


skill  in  the  conduct  of  a  mission  to  the  cobrt  of  Naples  won  him 
the  esteem  of  Benedict  XIV.,  who  appointed  him  one  of  his 
secretaries  and  canon  of  St  Peter's.  In  1758  he  was  raised  to  the 
prelature,  and  in  1766  to  the  treasurership  of  the  apostolic 
diamber  by  Clement  Xlil.  Hiose  who  chafed  under  his 
conscientious  economies  cunningly  induced  Clement  XIV.  to 
create  him  cardinal-priest  of  San  Onofrio  on  the  26th  of  April 
i773(  A  promotion  which  rendered  him  for  the  time  innocuous. 
In  the  four  months'  conclave  which  followed  the  death  of 
Clement  XIV.,  Spain,  France  and  Portugal  at  length  dropped  their 
objection  to  Braschi,  who  was  after  all  one  of  the  more  moderate 
opponents  of  the  anti-Jesuit  policy  of  the  previous  pope,  and  he 
was  elected  to  the  vacant  see  on  the  tsth  of  February  177s. 

His  earlier  acts  gave  fair  promise  of  h'bcral  rule  and  reform  in 
the  defective  administration  of  the  papal  states.  He  showed 
discrinnnation  in  his  benevolences,  reprimanded  Potenziani,  the 
governor  of  Rome,  for  unsuppressed  disorders,  appointed  a 
council  of  cardinals  to  remedy  the  state  of  the  finances  and 
relieve  the  pressure  of  imposts,  called  to  account  Nicolo  Bischi 
for  the  expenditure  of  moneys  intended  for  the  purchase  of  grain, 
reduced  the  annual  disbursements  by  the  suppression  of  several 
pensions,  and  adopted  a  system  of  bounties  for  the  encourage^ 
ment  of  agriculture.  The  circumstances  of  his  electlori,  however, 
involved  him  in  difficulties  from  the  outset  of  his  pontificate. 
He  had  received  the  support  of  the  ministers  of  the  Crowns  and 
the  anti-Jesuit  party  upon  a  tacit  understanding  that  he  would 
continue  the  action  of  Clement,  by  whose  brief  Dominus  ac 
redemptor  (1773)  the  dissolution  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  had  been 
pronounced.  On  the  other  hand  the  selanti,  who  believed  him 
secretly  inclined  towards  Jesuitism,  expected  from  him  some 
reparation  for  the  alleged  wrongs  of  the  previous  reign.  As  a 
result  of  these  complications  Pius  was  led  into  a  series  of  half 
measures  which  gave  little  satisfaction  to  either  party:  although 
it  is  perhaps  largely  due  to  him  that  the  order  was  able  to  escape 
shipwreck  in  White  Russia  and  Silesia;  at  but  one  Juncture  did 
he  even  seriously  consider  its  universal  re-establishment,  namely 
in  1792,  as  a  bulwark  against  revolutionary  ideas.  Besides 
facing  dissatisfaction  with  this  temporizing  policy,  Pius  met  with 
practical  protests  tending  to  the  limitation  of  papal  authority. 
To  be  sure  "  Febronius,"  the  chief  German  literary  exponent  of 
the  old  Galiican  ideas,  was  himself  led  (not  without  scandal)  to 
retract;  but  his  positions  were  adopted  in  Austria.  Here  the 
social  and  ecclesiastical  reforms  undertaken  by  Joseph  11.  and 
his  minister  Kaunitz  touched  the  supremacy  of  Rome  so  nearly 
that  in  the  hope  of  staying  them  Pius  adopted  the  excep- 
tional course  of  visiting  Vienna  in  person.  He  left  Rome  on 
the  77th  of  February  1782,  and,  though  magnificently  received 
by  the  emperor,  his  mission  proved  a  fiasco;  he  was,  however, 
able  a  few  years  later  to  curb  those  German  archbishops 
Krho,  in  1786  at  the  Congress  at  Ems,  had  shown  a  tendency 
towards  independence.  In  Naples  diflliculties  necessitating 
certain  conce^ons  in  respect  of  feudal  homage  were  raised  by 
the  minbter  Tannucci,  and  more  serious  disagreements  arose 
with  Leopold  I.  and  Scipione  de'  Ricd,  bishop  of  Pistoia  and 
Prato,  upon  the  questions  of  reform  in  Tuscany;  but  Pius  did 
not  think  fit  to  condemn  the  offensive  decrees  of  the  synod  of 
Pistoia  (1786)  tilt  nearly  eight  years  had  elapsed.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution  Pius  was  compelled  to  see  the 
old  Galilean  Church  suppressed,  the  pontifical  and  ecclcuastical 
possessions  in  France  confiscated  and  an  effigy  of  himself  burnt  by 
the  populace  at  the  Pahis  RoyaL  The  murder  of  the  republican 
agent,  Hugo  Bassevillc,  in  the  streets  of  Rome  (January  1793) 
gave  new  ground  of  offence;  the  papal  court  was  chari^  with 
coraplidty  by  the  French  Convention:  and  Pius  threw  in  his 
lot  with  the  league  against  France.  In  1796  Napoleon  Invaded 
Italy,  defeated  the  papal  troops  and  occupied  Ancona  and 
Loreto.  Pius  sued  for  peace,  which  was  granted  at  Tolentino 
«n  the  19th  of  February  1797;  but  on  the  iSlh  of  December  of 
that  year,  in  a  riot  created  by  some  Italian  and  French  revolu- 
tionisU,  General  Duphot  of  the  French  embassy  was  killed  and  a 
new  pretext  furnished  for  invasion.  General  Berthier  marched 
to  Rome,  entered  it  unoppoioi  on  tlie  ijth  of  February  1798, 


and,  proctaiffluig  a  republic,  demanded  of  the  pope  the  rcmindi- 
lion  of  his  temporal  authority.  Upon  his  refusal  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  on  the  20th  of  February  was  escorted  from  ihe 
Vatican  to  Siena,  and  thence  to  the  Certosa  near  Florence.  Tk 
French  declaration  of  war  against  Tltscany  led  to  his  remoTal 
by  way  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  Turin  and  Grenoble  to  the  dtadd 
of  Valence,  where  he  died  six  weeks  later,  on  die  a9th  of  August 
1799.    Pius  VII.  succeeded  him. 

The  name  of  Pius  VI.  is  associated  mth  many  and  oftes 
unpopular  attempts  to  revive  the  splendour  of  Lc»  X  in  tbe 
promotion  of  art  and  public  works — the  words  "  Mumfictnia 
Pii  VI.  P.  M."  graven  in  all  parts  of  the  city,  giving  rise  amongst 
his  impoverished  subjects  to  such  satire  as  the  insertion  of  s 
minute  loaf  in  the  hands  of  Pasquin  with  tWt  fatscriplio& 
beneath  it.  He  is  best  remembered  in  connexion  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  museum  of  the  Vatican,  begun  at  his  suggestiog 
by  his  predecessor,  and  with  an  unpractical  and  ezpeoshre 
attempt  to  drain  the  Pontine  marshes. 

Aqtkokitibs.— Zfipfiel  and  Benrath,  "P!u»  VI.,**  in  He^o^ 


VI.  M  vie,  son  pantifitai,  d'aprhs  Us  areknes  vatuanes  <i  di  mmbtaa 
documents  intdOs  (a  vols..  Paris.  1907).  (W/W.  R.') 

Pius  VII.  (Luigi  Baniaba  ChiaramontO,  pope  from  tSoo  to 
1823,  the  son  of  Count  Scipione  Chiaramonti  and  the  deepir 
religious  Countess  Ghini,  was  bom  at  Cesena  on  the  i4tk  d 
August  X740  (not  1742).  After  studying  at  Ravenna,  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  he  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St  Maiy  is 
his  native  town:  here  he  was  known  as  Grcgorio.  Almst 
immediately  he  was  sent  by  his  superiors  to  Padua  and  to  Rose 
for  a  further  course  of  studies  in  theology.  He  then  held  vaiioai 
teaching  appointments  in  the  colleges  of  his  order  at  Pansa  and 
at  Rome.  He  was  created  an  abbot  of  his  order  by  his  ttbtivc 
Pius  VI.,  who  also  appointed  him  bishop  oi  Tivdi  on  tbe  16U1 
of  December  1782,  and  on  the  t4th  of  Pebmaiy  X785,  beaose 
of  excellent  conduct  of  office,  raised  him  to  the  caidloalateaai 
the  sec  of  Imola.  At  the  death  of  Pius  VI.  the.  conclave  net  at 
Venice  on  the  30th  of  November  1799,  with  the  resaltthit 
Chiaramonti,  the  candidate  of  the  French  cardinal-archbishop 
Maury,  who  was  moat  skiUially  supported  by  tbe  secreUiy  d 
the  conclave  Ercole  ConsalVi,  was  elected  pope  on  th»  14th  d 
March  1800.  He  was  crowned  on  the  21st  of  that  mooth; 
in  the  following  Jidy  he  enteicd  Romor  on  the  nth  of  Ai«tf 
appointed  ConsaM  cardinal-deacon  and  secfetaiy  of  state,  uA 
busied  himself  with  administrative  reforms. 

Ills  attention  yms  at  once  directed  to  the  ecdeaiaatical  uiu&j 
of  France,  where,  apart  from  tbe  broad  schism  on  the  qucstioi 
of  sobmisaion  to  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy,  disripte 
had  been  so  far  neglected  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  cfaurcto 
were  cloaed,  dioceses  existed  without  bishops  or  with  moie  thu 
one,  Jansenism  and  clerical  marriage  were  on  the  incressc,  uA 
indilTeterfce  or  hostility  widdy  prevailed  amongst  the  people- 
Encouraged  by  Napoleon's  desire  for  the  re-eitabtishment  of  tke 
Roman  Catholic  religion  In  France,  Pius  negotiated  the  celebrated 
concordat,  which  was  signed  at  Patte  on  the  tsth  oi)v!fyvA 
ratified  by  Pius  on  the  14th  of  August  1801  (see  CoHCOto*T)- 
The  importanec  of  this  agreement  was,  however.  conslderaWf 
lessened  by  the  "artidci  orguriqucs  **  appended  to  it  by  the 
French  govemmenf  on  the  8th  of  April  t8o2.  In  1804  Napoin* 
opened  negotiations  to  teoife  at  tiie  pope's  hands  Ins  foraM^ 
consecration  as  emperor.  After  some  hesitation  Plus  was  indiKe<! 
to  perform  the  ceremony  at  Notre  Dame  and  to  extend  bis  ritf 
to  Paris  for  four  months;  but  in  return  for  these  favours  he  «• 
able  to  obtain  from  Napoleon  metely  one  or  two  minor  cooco* 
slons.  Pius,  who  arrived  in  Rome  on  Ihe  i6th  of  May  180$,  p^ 
to  the  college  of  cardinals  ii  rose-coloured  tepott  of  his  capoicDC^ 
but  disillusionment  was  rapid.  Napoleon  soon  began  todiirefifd 
the  Ttaiian  concordat  of  1803.  and  himself  decreed  the  dissolutio" 
of  the  marriage  of  his  brother  Jerome  with  Miss  Pattenns  d 
Baltimore.  The  Irritation  between  Franco  and  tbe  Vaticai 
increased  so  rapidly  that  on  the  ^nd  of  Februaiy  1808  Rome  ««• 


PIt»  {?OPBS) 


68; 


•ceupwd  by  General  MMIk;  a  inentb  bUertlie  pfovSiooi  «f 
Aocona,  Macerau,  Fermo  and  Ufbiao  were  uniUd  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  and  diploinatic  relations  between  Napoleon  and  Rome 
were  broken  off;  finally,  by  a  decree  issued  Iron  SchOnbninn 
on  the  17th  of  May  1809,  the  emperor  united  the  papal  states  to 
France.  Pius  retiliated  by  a  bull  excommunicating  the  invaders; 
and,  to  prevent  insurrection,  MioUis*--cither  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility, as  Napoleon  afterwards  asserted,  or  by  oid^  of  the 
latter-~employed  General  Radet  to  take  pqasessioo  of  tJhe  pope's 
person,  llie  palace  on  the  Quixinai  was  biokeo  open  during 
the  night  of  July  5th,  and,  on  the  persistent  refusal  of  Pius  tp 
rescind  the  buU  of  excommunication  and  to  renounce  his  temporal 
authority,  he  was  carried  off,  &cst  to  Grenoble,  thence  after  an 
interval  to  Savona  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa.  Here  he  steadfastly 
refused  canonical  institution  to  the  bishops  nominated  by 
Kapoleon;  and,  when  it  was  discovered  that  he  was  maintaining 
a  secret  correspondence,  be  was  deprived  of  all  books,  even  of 
pen  and  ink.  At  Length,  his  nerves  shattered  by  insomnia  and 
fever,  he  was  willing  to  give  satisfactory  oral  assurances  as  to 
the  institution  of  the  French  bishops. 

In  May  1812  Napoleon,  on  the  pretext  that  the  English  might 
liberate  the  pope  if  he  were  left  at  Savona,  caused  the  aged  ajtd 
sick  pontiff  to  be  transported  to  FontaaoeUeau;  the  journey  was 
so  hard  that  on  Mount  Cenis  Pius  received  the  viaticum.   Arriv- 
ing safely,  however,  at  Fontainebleau,  he  was  lodged  in  a  suite 
of  regal  magniikence  to  await  the  return  of  the  emperor  from 
Moscow.    When  Napoleon  arrived,  he  entered  into  personal 
negotiations  with  the  pope,  who  on  the  asth  of  January  iBxj 
assented  to  a  concordat  so  degrading  that  his  conscience  found 
no  relief  till  the  a4th  of  March,  when,  on  the  advice  of  the  cardinal 
Pacca  and  Gmsalvi,  he  abrogated  it;  and  on  the  9th  of  May  he 
proceeded  to  defy  the  emperor  by  declaring  invalid  all  the  oflicial 
acts  of  the  new  French  bishops.    In  consequence  of  the  battle 
of  Leipzig  and  the  entry  of  the  allied  forces  into  France,  Napoleon 
wdered  in  January  1814  that  the  pope  be  returned  to  Savona  for 
safe  keeping;  but  soon  the  course  of  events  forced  him  to  liberate 
the  pope  and  give  back  the  States  of  the  Church.    On  the  19th 
of  March  Pius  left  Savona,  and  was  received  with  rejoicing  at 
Rome  on  the  24th  of  May.    While  Consalvi  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  was  securing  the  restitution  of  nearly  all  the  papal 
territory,  reaction  had  full  awing  at  Rome;  the  Jesuits  were 
restored;  the  French  legislation,  much  of  which  was  of  great 
lodal  \^ue,  was  repealed;  the  Index  and  the  Inquisition  wer^ 
revived.    On  his  return  Consalvi  conducted  a  more  enlightened 
and  highly  centralized  administration,  based  largely  on  the 
famous  Motu  pronto  of  1816;  nevertheless  the  finances  were  in  a 
desperate    condition.     Discontent    centred    perhaps    in    the 
Carb&narit  a  Liberal  secret  society  condemned  by  the  pope  in 
x82r.    The  chief  triumphs  of  Consalvi  were  the  negotiation  of  a 
aeries  of  valuable  concordats  w^th  all  the  Roman  Catholic  powers 
save  Austria.    In  the  latter  years  of  Pius's  life  royalty  often 
came  to  Rome;  the  pope  was  very  gracious  to  exiled  kings  and 
showed  notable  magnanimity  toward  the  famfly  of  Napoleon. 
He  also  attracted  many  artists  to  the  city,  Including  the  greatest 
sculptors  of  the  time,  one  of  whom,  the  Protestant  Thorwaldsen, 
prepared  the  tomb  in  which  repose  the  remains  of  the  gentle  and 
courageotis  pontiff,  who  passed  Into  rest  on  the  Mth  of  A'ugust 
1823.  His  successor  was  Leo  XH. 

AuTBOKinsfl.— ZSpffid  and  Beorath,  "  Ptus  VII.,**  ia  Herzog- 
Haudc.  Beakruykhpddietxy,  45J;^458  (Ldpzik.  I904)j  {long  list  of 
older  literature):  Ifano  Rinierl.  La  Dtphmatfa  phnttfiettt  nd  secoh 
XIX.  (Rome,  190*).  two  Volumes  treatiAg  the  yiart  rSoo^iSos, 
ft^aed  largely  oa  Vatican  aQurcte;  I.  Rinieri*  Naptbime  J*io  VII, 
iiSp^-iSli)*  rdoMwwi  Mtancke  tu  docnmenU  incdiU.  delV  archivio 
inHcano  (Turin,  1906);  H.  Chotard,  te  Pope  Pie  VII.  d  Savone 
(Paris,  1887);  Mary  H.  Airies,  Pim  the  SeveiUh  (London,  1897),  a 
Mputar  Roman  Catholic  biogntphy  t  Leo  KSnla,  S.J.  Pius  VII.  DU 
YalniarisaiUm  mid  das  RskkskotOmdai  (Innabnidc,  1904)1  bsasd 
chiefly  00  Vienna  material ;  H.  Welschinger,  Le  Paptf  st  VsmUfcur^ 
t8o4-tSt$  (Piaris,  1905);  Louis  MadeUn,  La  Rome  de  NapoUon:  la 
dtfmimtHonJhm^st  d  Koine  de  tSoQ  d  1814  (Paris,  1 906),  an  elaborate 
•tudy ;  L.  G.  Wickham-Legg. "  The  ConooidMs  "iCtnibridee  Modsm 
History f  vol.  la.  ch;  7.  IQ06X;  Lady  BlennerluMcttt.''  The  Papacy 
»k1  the  CathoUc  Church  ^'  (Cambrtdtf  Modem  ilttJtof  v^  voL  x-jcK  $, 
i^).  Both  theselut  have  good  bibliographies.        ^V.  W.  tt.»)  ]^ 


Fius  VHI>  (Fssnotsco  Xaviero- CastigUooi),  pope  fsom  1839 
to  1830,  who  came  of  a- notable  family  at  Cin^  near  Anooaa, 
was  bonn  00  the  soth  of  NovendMr  1761.  He  studied  camw  law 
at  Rome,  became  vicar^gBBcrsi  at  Anagni  and  biter  at  Faao,and 
in  i8oo  was  appointed  bishop  of  MontaltD.  Because  he  tcf used 
the  oath  of  allegiaoce  to  the  Napoleomc  Ung  of  Italy  he  was 
carried  captive  to  France;  bat  hi  18x6  his  steadfastneia  was 
rewarded  by  his  bemg  craated  canlinal-pikst  of  Sta  Mafia  in 
Trastevete;  and  this  Mune  year  he  was  tnadatBd  from  the  see 
of  Montalto  to  that  of  Casena.  In  1821  he  was  made  cardinal- 
bishop  of  Fiascati,  also  grand  penitentiary;  and  Utcr  be  beoamt 
prefect  of  the  CoDgiegation  of  the  Index.  In  the  oooc^ve 
which  foUowed  the  death  of  Leo  XII.,  Castaglioni,  the  candidate 
of  France,  was  elected  pope  on  the  31st  of  Match  1839^  He 
avmded  nepotism,  sbandoned  the  system  of  espionage  employed 
by  his  predecessor,  and  publidied  an  enpydical  condoonlnf 
Bible  societies  and  secret  associations.  He  rejoiced  over 
CuhoUc  ensandpatioa  in  England,  recognized  Louis  Philippe  aa 
king  of  the,  French,  and  exhibited  a  pacific  spirit  in  desling  with 
the  problem  of  mixed  marriagea  in  Germany.  Worn  out  with 
work,  he  died  on  the  morning  of  the  ist  of  December  1830^  Hit 
successor  was  (^egoty  XYI. 

AuTKoaiTiBs.^Zdpfld  and  Benmth,  "  Pius  VIIIm**  in  Herao*^ 


ii.  ^i-^  (London,  1906);  P.  B.  Gams,  Series  episcoporum  ucUsiaa 
cotkoHcae  iRxgtxubuiz,  1873).  ^W.  W.  R.')! 

Pius  IX.  (Giovanni  Maria  Mastai-FerrettQ,  pope  from  1846 
to  k87S»  was  bom  on  the  13th  of  May  1792  at  Sinigag^,  the 
fourth  son  of  Count  Jerome  and  Countess  Catherine  Vollaxi;  the 
family  of  Mastai  was  of  andent  descent,  and  the  title  of  oount 
came  to  it  in  the  17th  centuiy,  while  later  the  elder  hranch«^ 
allied  by  marriage  with  the  Ferretti  family,  took  that  name  in 
addition.  He  spent  some  time  at  the  CoUjqge  of  Piatista  In' 
Volatcrra,  and  then  proceeded  to  Rome  with  the  intention  of 
entering  the  pontificU  giutrd  as  an  olBoer.  In  spite  iifhia' 
good  oonnexions,  he  was  disappointed  to  thia  aim  as  it  became 
known  that  he  suflfei^ed  from  epilepsy.  The  nudady,  however^ 
was  surmounted;  and  in  1819  he  was  ordained  pdest.  After 
ministering  for  some  time  in  hb  native  town,  he  accompanied 
Cardinal  Muxxi  to  Chile  (1823),  On  his  return  he  was  entrusted 
by  Leo  XII.  with  the  direction  of  the  Roman  ho^>ital  of  Saa 
Michele:  |n  1830  he  received  the  archbishopric  of  S^leto,  in 
1832  the  bishopric  of  Imola,  and  in  1840  Gregory  XVL  created 
him  a  cardinal,  with  the  title  Santi  Pietro  e  I^IareceUino. 

On  the  death  of  Gregory  XVL  (June  i,  1846)  the  Coll^a 
of  Cardinals  met  in  conclave  on  the  X4th  of  June«  But  theic 
deliberations  were  destined  to  last  but  a  short  while;  for,  on  tha 
i6thof  June,  Cardinal  Mastai  Ferretti  had  aUeady  obtained  the 
requisite  two-thirds  majority,  and  aseended  the  papal  chair 
imder  the  title  of  Plus  IX.  In  his  various  capacities  he  ha4 
gained  much  popularity:  he  had  shown  himself  to  be  of  a  kindly 
dbpositioa  and  a  zealous  churchman,  and  his  reputation  for 
piety  and  tact  stood  high;  he  possessed,  too,  a  winning  peisonalit/ 
and  a  handsome  presence. 

The  reign  of  Pius  IX.  began  at  an  extremely  critical  time.  The 
problem  of  the  government  of  the  Papal  States,  transmitted  to 
liim  by  his  predecessor,  stood  in  urgent  need  of  solution,  for 
the  actual  condllions  were  altogether  intolerable.  The  irritation 
of  the  populace  had  risen  to  such  i|  pitch  that  it  found  vent  ia 
revolts  which  could  only  be  quelled  by  the  intervention  of  foreign 
powers;  and  the  ferment  in  the  dominions  of  the  Church  was 
accentuated  by  the  fact  that  the  revolutionary  spirit  was  in  the 
ascendant  in  all  the  states  of  Europe.  The  proclamation  of  a 
general  amnesty  for  all  political  offenders  made  an  excellent 
impression  on  the  people;  and  Pius  at  once  instituted  prcparationa 
for  a  reform  of  the  administration,  the  judicature  and  the  financial 
system.  The  regulations  affecting  the  censorship  were  mitigated, 
and  a  breath  of  political  liberalism  vitalized  the  whole  govern- 
ment. Pius  at  once  acquired  the  reputation  of  a  reforming 
pope.  But  the  prestige  so  gained  was  not  sufficient  to  calm  the 
people  permanently,  and  two  demands  were  urged  with  ever 
increasing  energy — a  share  b  the  government  and  a  national 


688 


pros  (POPES) 


^Italian  poBcy.  T1ia<|>iioblem  of  gMng  the  people  a  due  iKare 
ia  the  govemment  was  one  of  peculiar  difficulty  in  the  papal 
stateai.  It  waa  not  simply  a  question  of  adjusting  the  daJms 
of  monafch  and  subject:  it  was  necessary,  at  the  same  time,  to 
oust  the  dcfgy-who,  till  then,  had  held  all  the  more  important 
offices  in  their  own  handa<~irom  their  dominant  position,  or  at 
least  to  limit  their  privileges.  That  the  clerical  character  of  the 
adminntration  could  not  be  indefinitely  retained  was  plain 
enough,  it  would  seem,  to  any  dear-thinking  statesman:  for, 
since  the  restoration  of  the  papal  state  in  tSi4,  the  pemidous 
effects  o£  thSB  confusion  of  the  spiritual  and  the  secular  power 
could  no  longer  be  denied.  But  Pius  IX.  lacked  the  courage 
and  perq>icadty  to  draw  the  inevitable  condusions  from  these 
premises;  and  the  higher  deigy  at  Rome  were  naturally  opposed 
to  a  policy  which,  by  laicising  the  administration,  would  have  de^ 
prived  them  of  the  power  and  privileges  they  had  so  long  enjoyed. 
In  these  drcumstances  it. is  not  surprising  that  the  pope,  while 
making  concessions  to  his  people,  did  so  with  reservations  which, 
to  far  from  restoring  peace,  served  only  to  aggravate  the  turmoil. 

By  a  molu  propria  of  the  2nd  of  October  1847  the  govemtnent 
of  the  dty  <A  Rome  was  reorganized  and  vested  in  a  council  of 
100  members,  not  more  than  four  of  whom  were  to  be  derics. 
But  the  pope  reserved  to  himself  the  ti|^t  of  nominating  the 
first  memben,  and  the  new  senate  was  only  later  to  have  the  right 
of  filling  up  vacancies  by  co-optation.  The  institution  of  a 
state  council  (consuita)  was  annoimced  on  the  loth  of  April  1847; 
and  on  the  Z4th  of  October  it  was  called  into  existence  by  a 
matu  propria.  It  consisted  of  24  coundilora,  who  were  to  be 
selected  by  the  pope  from  a  list  of  candidates  to  be  submitted 
by  the  provincial  assemblies.  A  cardinal  and  one  other  prelate 
were  to  be  at  its  head.  The  consuita  was  to  be  divided  into 
four  sections;  dealing  with  (1)  Jegislation,  (1)  finance,  (3)  internal 
administration,  U)  the  army  and  public  works.  Matters-  of 
importance  were,  however,  to  be  sulMnitted  to  the  College  of 
Cardinals,  after  being  debated  in  the  considta.  A  malu  propria  of 
the  apth  of  December  altered  the  constitution  of  the  ministerial 
coundl.  Nine  mutually  independent  ministries  were  formed, 
and  the  principle  of  the  responsibility  of  the  ministers  was 
established:  but  all  the  positions  werd  filled  by  clerics. 

The  agitation  for  constitutional  govemment  was  urgent  in  the 
demand  for  further  concessions;  but  they  came  too  late.  On  the 
1 3th  of  February  a  proclamation  of  the  pope  transferred  three 
portfolios  to  the  laity;  but  the  impression  produ^rd  by  the  news 
of  the  re¥(rfution  in  Paris  nullified  the  effect.  At  the  formation  of 
the  Antonelb*  ministry  (March  it),  only  the  throe  departments 
of  foreign  affairs,  finance  and  education,  were  reserved  by  the 
dergy;  while  the  remaining  six  were  entrusted  to  laymen.  On 
the  14th  of  March  1848  Pius  took  the  last  step,  and  puUished  a 
constitution  {Fundamental  Statute  for  the  Seadar  Government  of 
Ike  States  of  the  Churth).  Two  chambers  were  to  be  formed. 
The  first  {(dto  consi^io)  consisted  of  members  hominated  for 
life  by  the  pope;  the  second,  of  a  hundred  elected  deputies. 
Yhe  laws  adopted  by  these  two  chambers  had  first  to  undergo 
the  scrutiny  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  before  being  submitted 
to  the  pope  for  his  assent  or  rejection.  Ecclesiastical,  or 
ecclesiastico-political,  affairs  were  exempted  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  parliament;  which  was  further  required  to  abstain  from  the 
enadment  of  laws  conflicting  with  the  discipline  of  the  Church, 
and  from  criticism  of  the  diplomatic  and  religious  relations  of 
the  Holy  See  with  foreign  powers. 

The  utility  of  this  constitution  was  never  tested ;  for  the  demand 
for  an  extension  of  popular  rights  was  now  ecUpsed  by  a  still 
more  passionate  aspiration  towards  the  national  unity  of  Italy. 
This  nationalist  mov|mcnt  at  once  took  head  against  Austria. 
On  (he  tSth  of  March  the  revolution  broke  out  in  Milan,  and  Ring 
Albert  of  Sardinia  undertook  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  the 
emperor.  When  news  of  the  cvcnU  at  Milan  reached  Rome 
the  populace  was  swept  away  in  a  whirlwind  of  enthusiasm: 
the  Austrian  embassy  was  mobbed;  the  imperial  arms,  surmount- 
ing the  main  gale  of  the  palace,  were  torn  down;  and  great  troops 
of  voluntcen  clamoured  to  be  led  against  Austria.  Pius  was 
carried  away  at  first  on  the  flood-tide  of  excitement,  and  seemed, 


after  his  ptodamttlob  of  th^  30th  of  Match,  oh  the  point  ef 
conferring  his  blessing  upon  the  war  against  Austria^  Bat  the 
counie  of  political  events  during  the  next  few  weeks  danq>ed  his 
ardoun  When,  on  the  a^lh  of  April,  in  his  allocatiui  to  the 
cardinals,  he  piodaimcd  the  papal  neutrality,  the  Romans 
received  his  vadUation  as  a  sign  of  treachery;  and  the  storm, 
.  precluded  from  discharging  its  fury  on  Austria,  broke  over  his 
head.  When  the  mhiistry  in  power  resigned  offioe  on  the  istof 
May,  the  Mamiani  administration  was  formed,  only  one  deric 
hdng  included.  Mamiani  himself,  whose  writings  wen:  on  the 
Index,  had  little  sjrmpathy  wkh  the  pope,  and  <Ud  all  that  was 
possible  to  contplete  the  secularization  of  govemment  in  the 
States  of  the  Church.  He  received  his  dismissal  on  the  ist  of 
August,  and  was  followed  by  Count  Fabbri,  then  by  Count  de 
Rossi,  who  made  the  last  attempt  to  restore  order  by  a  moderate 
h*beral  policy.  On  the  isth  of  November,  as  hewns  aboat  to 
open  the  Chambers,  he  was  assassinated  on  the  staircase  leading 
to  the  hall  of  session.  A  state  of  anarchy  ensued.  Armed 
bands  gathered  before  the  Quirinal,  and  attempted  to  storm  it. 
To  avoid  further  bloodshed  the  pope  was  compelled  to  assent  to 
the  formation  of  a  radically  democratic  ministry  under  Galetti. 
The  Swiss,  who  composed  the  papal  guard,  were  disbanded;  acd 
the  protectk>n  of  the  pontiff  was  transferred  to  the  dvtt  milita; 
in  other  words,  Pius  IX.  was  a  prisoner.  On  the  evening  of  the 
24th  of  November  he  contrived  by  the  aid  of  the  French  awl 
Bavarian  ambassadors — the  due  d'Harrourt  and  Count  Spaur— 
to  leave  the  palace  unobserved,  in  the  dress  of  a  common  priest, 
and  to  reach  Gaeta  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  From  this  rcfoge 
he  issued  a  breve  on  the  27th  of  November,  protestmg  against 
the  sacrilege  practised  on  himself,  declaring  all  aaions  forced 
upon  him  nuU  and  void,  and  appointing  a  commisston  to  carry 
on  (he  govemment  in  hii  absence.  Since  the  Chamber  decUncd 
to  recognize  this  step,  and  the  pope  was  equally  resolute  ia 
refusing  to  hold  any  intercourse  with  the  deputation  which  it 
despatched  to  him,  a  supreme  Giunta  was  provisionally  created 
by  the  Chamber  on  the  zith  of  December  to  discharge  all  the 
functions  assigned  to  the  executive  power  by  the  constitutioo. 
On  the  17th  of  the  same  month  Pius  made  a  public  protest; 
and,  as  soon  as  the  elections  for  a  national  assembly  were  an- 
nounced, he  forbade  any  partidpaljon  in  them,  menadng  the 
disobedient  «ith  the  penalties  of  the  Church  (Jan.  t,  lS4<;^ 
The  elections,  however,  were  held;  and  on  the  9th  of  February  the 
constituent  assembly  decreed,  by  142  votes  to  23,  the  crectioa 
of  a  Roman  republic.  Pius  answered  by  a  protest  dated  the  I4^k 
of  February.  All  the  ecclesiastical  property  of  the  Rooian  state 
was  now  declared  to  be  vested  in  the  republic;  convents  acd 
rdigious  edifices  were  requisitioned  for  secular  purposes;  bece* 
volent  Institutions  were  withdrawn  from  clerical  influence;  and 
church  establishments  were  deprived  of  the  right  to  realize  thdr 
possessions.  In  the  beginning  of  December  Pius  had  already  ap- 
pealed to  the  European  powers  for  assistance;  and  on  the  7th  of 
Fcbmary  1849  it  was  resolved  in  the  Consistory  to  approach 
offidally  France,  Austria,  Spain  and  Naples,  with  a  >new  to 
their  armed  intervention.  The  French  republic,  under  the 
presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon,  was  the  first  state  to  throw  troofs 
into  Italy.  Oh  the  24th  of  April  General  Oudinot  appcareJ 
before  Civita  Vecchia;  only  to  be  defeated  a(  first  by  GaribaldL 
But,  after  receiving  reinforcements,  he  prosecuted  the  war 
successfully,  and  made  his  entry  )nto  Rome  on  the  3rd  of  July. 
while,  in  .the  eariy  part  of  May  an  Austrian  army  advanced  into 
the  north  of  the  papal  states.  On  the  14th  of  July  Oudinot 
proclaimed  the  restoration  of  the  pontifical  donunion;  and. 
three  days  later,  Pius  IX  issued  a  manifesto  entrusting  the 
government  to  a  commission  appointed  by  himself. 

On  the  i2lh  of  April  1850  Pius  returned  to  Rome,  supported 
by  foreign  arms,  «nbit(ered,  and  hostile  henceforward  to  cvny 
form  of  political  libcraUsm  or  national  sentiment.  In  Gaeta  be 
had  mentally  cut  himself  loose  from  all  Ideas  of  progress,  and  had 
thrown  himself  into  the  arms  of  the  Jesuits.  His  subsequent 
policy  was  stamped  by  reaction.  Whether  it  might  have  been 
possible  to  avoid  the  catastrophe  of  1870  is  a  difficult  qucslMfi. 
But  there  can  be  no  question  whatever  that  the  poKcy  which 


PIUS  (POPES) 


689 


nas  now  i&augurated,  of  reitoring  the  old  pre-revolutionary 
conditions,  sealed  the  fate  of  the  temporal  dominion  of  the 
papacy.   He  made  no  attempt  to  regain  the  estranged  affections 
of  tl«  populace,  and  took  no  measures  to  liberate  himself  and  his 
subjects  from  the  incubus  of  the  last  few  years.   He  even  sought 
to  exact  vengeance  for  the  events  of  that  period:  the  state 
officials,  who  had  .compromised  themselves,  lost  their  offices; 
and  all  grants  in  aid  were  forfeited  if  the  recipients  were  dis- 
covered by  the  secret  comnussioos  {Mtuigjli  di  ctnswa)  to  have 
taken  part  in  the  revolutionaiy  movement.     The  tribunate 
extorted  declarations  on  the  part  of  witnesses  by  flogging, 
deprivation  of  food,  and  like  methods  of  torture.    In  many  cases 
the  death  sentence  was  executed  at  their  instance,  though  the 
guilt  of  the  accused  was  never  established.    The  system  of 
precautionary  arrest,  as  it  was  termed,  rendered  it  possible  for 
any  man  to  be  thrown  into  prison,  without  trial  and  without 
verdict,  simply  oa  the  ground  that  he  lay  under  suspicion  of 
plotting  against  the  government.    The  priests,  who  usurped 
the  judicial  function,  displayed  such  cruelty  on  several  occasions 
that  officers  of  the  Austrian  army  were  compelled  to  lecord  a 
protest.    The  consequence  of  these  methods  was  that  every 
victim— innocent  or  guilty— ranked  as  a  martyr  in  the  estimation 
of  his  fellow-ciUsens,    A  subsidiary  result  was  the  revival  of 
brigandage,  which  found  a  suspicious  degree  of  support  among 
the  people.    Corruption  was  rampant  among  the  officials;  the 
police  were  accused  of  illicit  bargaining  with  criminals;  and 
nothing  but  contempt  was  entertained  for  the  papal  army,  which 
was  recruited  from  the  dregs  of  humanity.    To  this  was  added  a 
disa^rotts  financial  administration,  under  wluch  the  efficiency 
and  credit  of  the  country  sank  to  appalling  depths.   The  system 
of  taxation  was  calculated  with  a  view  to  relieving  the  Church 
and  the  clergy,  and  imposing  the  main  burden  upon  the  laity. 
In  this  department  the  family  of  Cardinal  Antonelli  seems  to  have 
played  a  fatal  part.   The  secretary  of  state  was  bom  in  humble 
circumstances:  when  he  died  he  left  a  fortune  of  more  than 
100,000)000  lire,  to  which  a  daughter  succeeded  in  establishing 
her  claim.     His  brothte*  Felippo  was  president  of  the  Roman 
Bank,  and  his  brother  Luigi  the  head  of  the  Annona— an  office 
created  to  regiiUte  the  import  of  grain.    The  pope  himself  had 
neither  the  will  nor  the  power  to  institute  searching  financial 
reforms;  possibly,  also,  he  was  ignorant  of  the  facts. 

The  mismanagement  which  obtained  in  the  papal  dominions 
could  not  escape  the  observation  of  the  other  powers.  As  early 
as  the  Conpess  of  Paris  in  1856  the  English  ambassador.  Lord' 
Clarendon,  had  directed  an  annihilating  criticism  against  the 
government  of  the  pontiff; and  a  convincing  proof  of  the  justice 
of  his  verdict  was  given  by  Pius  himself,  in  his  treatment  of  the 
famous  Mortara  case.  A  Jewish  boy  of  this  name  had  been  torn 
from  his  parents  in  Rome  and  the  rite  of  baptism  performed 
on  him  without  their  knowledge  or  consent.  The  pope  flatly 
refused  to  restore  the  "  Christian  "  to  his  Jewish  parents,  and 
turned  a  deaf  ear  both  to  the  protest  of  public  opinion  and  the 
diplomatic  representations  of  France  and  England.  The  sequel 
to  this  mode  of  government  was  that  the  growing  embitterment 
of  the  subjects  of  the  Church  came  to  be  sympathised  with  ouuide 
the  bounds  of  Italy,  and  the  question  whether  the  secular 
authority  of  the  papacy  could  be  albwed  to  continue  became  a 
much-debated  problem.  Even  the  expression  of  the  doubt  was 
symptomatic.  In  i8s9  appeared  an  anonymous  brochure,  Le 
Pape  ei  k  eongrhs,  composed  by  Laguerronniire,  the  friend  of 
Napoleon  III..  In  which  it  was  proposed  to  ensure  the  pope 
"  un  revenu  considerable  "  and  the  city  of  Rome,  but  to  rdieve 
him  of  a  political  task  to  which  he  was  not  competent.  In  t86i 
another  anonymous  pamphlet.  Pro  causa  Halica  ad  episcopos 
(atholicos,  was  published  in  Florence,  advocating  the  ccdesiastico- 
polKical  programme  of  Cavour;  and  the  pope  was  horrified  when 
he  discovered  that  it  came  from  the  pen  of  Passaglia,  the  professor 
of  dogmatic  theology.  In  spite  of  all,  the  national  idea  gained 
strength  in  Italy,  and  the  movement  towards  unity  found  power- 
ful champions  in  Ring  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia  and  his 
great  statesman  Cavour.  Free  scope  was  given  when  the  under- 
tundiog  between  the  two  powers  proCectifig  the  papal  sute^ 

XXI   s» 


France  and  Aaatrfai*-liioke  down.  So  ioon  as  Napoleon  and 
Cavour  had  come  to  an  agreement  war  ensued,  France  and 
Sardinia  being  ranged  against  Austria  (1859).  The  result  was 
that  Austria  lost  the  greater  part  of  her  Italian  possessions,  while 
the  pope  also  fori^eited  two-thirds  of  his  dominions.  By  the  war  of 
1866,  in  which  Italy  fought  on  the  Prussian  side,  Victor  Emmanuel 
gained  Venice  in  addition;  so  that  the  States  of  the  Church  now 
formed  the  last  remaining  obstacle  to  complete  national  unity. 
In  September  1864,  France—who  had  been  the  protectress  of 
these  states  smce  i849~bad  concluded  a  treaty  with  Victor 
Emmanuel,  undertaking  to  withdraw  her  garrison  from  Rome  in 
two  years  time;  while,  on  his  part,  the  king  agreed  to  abstain 
from  any  attack  on  the  papal  dominions,  and  to  guarantee  the 
safety  of  the  pope  and  the  pairimamum  Pttn,  The  emperor 
Napoleon  had,  in  point  of  fact,  recalled  his  troops  in  1866;  but 
in  1867,  when  Garibaldi  crossed  the  frontiers  of  the  papal  state 
at  the  head  of  his  volunteers,  he  declared  the  treaty  violated  and 
again  threw  his  regiments  into  Rome.  Three  years  later  the 
time  came  when  he  could  employ  his  arms  more  advantageously 
elsewhere,  and  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Germany  Rome 
was  evacuated.  The  news  that  the  French  Empire  had  fallen 
produced  an  electrical  effect  in  Italy:  the  Italian  parliament 
called  on  the  king  to  occupy  Rome;  on  the  8th  of  September 
Victor  Emmanuel  crossed  the  borders;  and  on  the  soth  of 
September  the  green-white-and-red  of  the  tricolour  floated  over 
the  Capitol.  The  protesU  of  Pius  IX.  remained  unheeded,  and 
his  attempts  to  secure  another  foreign  intervention  met  with 
no  success.  On  the  2nd  of  October  Victor  Emmanuel  instituted 
a  pUbisdU  in  Rome  and  the  possessions  of  the  Church  to  decide 
the  question  of  annexation.  The  result  of  the  suffrage  was 
that  iS3,68z  votes  were  given  in  favour  of  union  with  Italy, 
and  1507  against  the  proposed  mooiporation:  that  is  to  say 
only  the  direct  dependants  of  the  Vatican  were  opposed  to  the 
change.  The  papal  sUte  was  now  merged  in  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  which  proceeded  to  define  its  dt^omatic  relations  with 
the  Holy  See  by  the  Uw  of  the  13th  of  May  1871  (see  ItaIy: 
History). 

In  Ills  capacity  as  head  of  the  Church,  Pius  IX.  adhered  to 
the  principles  of  the  Ultramontanist  party,  and  contributed 
materially  to  the  victory  of  that  cause.  The  political  reaction 
which  followed  the  revolutionary  era  in  most  quarters  of  Europe 
offered  a  favourite  soil  for  his  efforts;  and  in  seveml  countries 
he  found  it  possible  to  regulate  the  relations  between  ChurA 
and  state  from  the  standpoint  of  the  curia.  In  1851  be  con- 
cluded a  concordat  with  Queen  Isabella  II.  of  Spain,  procbiiming 
Roman  Catholicism  the  sole  religion  of  the  Spanish  people,  to 
the  exclusion  of  every  other  creed  (art.  1);  and  we  find  the 
same  provision  in  another  concordat  with  the  South  American 
republic  of  Ecuador  (i86a).  A  third  concordat,  negotiated 
wKh  thie  emperor  Francis  Joseph  I.  of  Austria  (1855),  entrusted 
the  supervision  of  schools  and  the  censorship  of  literature  to 
the  clergy,  recognized  the  canon  law,  and  repealed  all  secular 
legislation  conflicting  with  it.  France  came  into  line  with  the 
wishes  of  the  pope  in  every  respect,  as  Napoleon  needed  clerical 
support  in  his  political  designs.  Even  in  Germany  he  found  no 
resistance;  on  the  contrary,  he  was  able  to  secure  advantageous 
compacU  from  individual  states  (Hesse,  1854;  WOrttemberg, 
1857).  In  fact,  the  growing  tendency  to  romanize  Catholicism — 
to  bring  it,  that  is  to  say,  into  close  connexion  with  Rome,  and 
to  a  state  of  dependency  on  the  guidance  and  instructions  of  the 
curia — made  special  progress  in  Germany. 

Among  the  most  Important  acts  of  Pius  IX.  must  be  counted 
his  proclamation  of  the  d<^;ma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  by  the  bull  InefabUis  thus,  on  the  8th  of 
December  1854.  In  this  bull  the  preservation  of  Mary  from  every 
stain  of  hereditary  sin,  in  the  first  moment  of  her  conception, 
was  declared  to  be  a  divinely  revealed  truth,  which  consequently 
demanded  universal  acceptance  (see  Immaculate  CoNCEpnoN). 
By  this  means  a  view,  which  till  then  had  been  no  more  than  a 
pious  belief,  was  elevated  Into  a  dogma  to  be  held  dejide;  thou^ 
grave  doubts  on  the  subject  had  always  been  entertained,  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  Church  itself.    For  the  inner  life  of  that 

2a 


690 


PIVOTr-PIZARRO 


Church  this  solution  of  the  controversy  ivas  of  great  significance, 
and  created  a  desire  for  further  dogmatic  decisions  on  the  Virgin 
Mary — ^her  resurrection  and  ascension.  But  the  procedure  of 
Pius  IX.  proved  of  far-reaching  importance  from  another  point 
of  view.  True,  he  had  taken  the  opinion  of  the  bishops  on  the 
subject,  and  had  received  the  assent  of  a  large  majority;  none 
the  less,  the  verdict  was  pronounced  by  himself  alone,  not  by  an 
ecumenical  coundL  Thus,  by  arrogating  the  function  formerly 
exercised  by  the  ecumenical  council,  he  virtually  laid  claim  to  the 
infallibility  which  had  always  been  regarded  as  inherent  only 
in  the  doctrinal  pronouncements  of  such  a  council:  in  other 
words,  he  availed  himself  of  a  privilege  not  accorded  to  him  till 
the  1 8th  of  July  1870. 

*  Though  the  Marian  dogma  of  1854  received,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  an  enthusiastic  welcome  in  Roman  Catholic  circles, 
another  measure  of  the  pope,  ten  years  later,  excited  a  painful 
sensation  evra  among  the  orthodox  members  of  the  Church.  As 
reigning  sovereign  of  the  papal  states  Pius  IX.  had  passed 
through  a  "  liberal  period  ":  as  head  of  the  Church,  he  had  never 
been  liable  to  attacks  of  liberalism.  Nevertheless,  his  return  from 
exile  left  its  mark  on  his  spiritual  administration.  For  from  this 
period  onwards  he  deliberately  and  stubbornly  set  his  face  against 
the  influence  of  modernism  on  ecclesiastical  life;  showed  his 
displeasure  at  and  distrust  of  the  scientific  theology  and  philo- 
sophy which  marked  a  moderate  advance  (GUnlher,  Frohs- 
chammer  and  D6llingec);  and,  entrenched  in  the  stronghold  of 
medieval  ideals,  combated  the  transformations  of  the  new  order 
of  society,  and  the  changes  in  the  relationship  between  Church 
and  state,  which  obtained  in  most  countries  of  Europe  since 
the  French  Revolution.  After  long  and  careful  consultation,  the 
adverse  criticisms  which  he  had  expressed  on  various  occasions 
were  published  on  the  8lh  of  December  i664>  together  with  the 
encydical  Quanta  cura,  under  the  title  SyUabus  complectens 
pratcipuos  nostrae  aetatii  errores  (see  Syllabus).  In  this  Pius 
claimed  for  the  Church  the  control  of  all  culture  and  all  science, 
and  of  the  whole  educational  system.  He  rejected' the  liberty 
of  faith,  conscience  and  worship  enjoyed  by  other  creeds;  and 
bade  an  easy  farewell  to  the  idea  of  tolerance.  He  claimed  the 
complete  independence  of  the  Church  from  state  control;  upheld 
the  necessity  of  a  continuance  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Roman  See;  and  finally,  in  the  last  clause,  declared  that  *'  the 
pontiff  neither  can  be  nor  ought  to  be  reconciled  with  progress, 
liberalism  and  modern  civilization."  The  publication  <A  this 
syllabus  created  a  profound  impression:  for  it  declared  war  on 
modem  society,  and  committed  the  papacy  to  the  principles  of 
Ultramontanism  (^.f.).  But,  as  any  attempt  to  translate  its 
precepts  into  practice  would  entail  a  disastrous  conflict  with  the 
existing  regime  as  established  by  law,  Roman  Catholic  circles 
have  frequently  shown  a  tendency  to  belittle  the  significance  of 
the  manifesto  and  to  deny  that  its  rules  are  absolutely  binding. 
But  these  well-meant  explanations,  however  coroprehensibte, 
are  refuted  by  the  unequivocal  pronouncements  of  Pius  IX., 
Leo  XIII.,  and  many  recognised  ecclesiastical  authorities — e.^ 
Cardinal  Manning,  archbishop  of  Westminster,  who  described  the 
syllabus  as  an  emanation  from  the  highest  doctrinal  authority 
in  the  Church. 

The  aentth  of  Pius's  pontificate  was  attained  on  the  i8th  of 
July  1870  when  the  Vatican  council  proclaimed  the  infallibility  of 
the  pope  and  the  universality  of  his  episcopate,  thus  elevating  him 
to  a  pinnacle  which  none  of  his  predecessors  had  reached  and  at 
the  same  time  fulfilling  his  dearest  wish.  That,  personally,  he 
laid  great  stress  on  the  acceptance  of  the  dogma,  was  a  fact  which 
he  did  not  attempt  to  conceal  during  the  long  preliminary  deliber- 
ations of  the  council;  and  his  attitude  was  a  not  inconsiderable 
factor  in  determining  its  final  resolutions.  But  the  loss  of  the 
papal  states,  immediately  afterwards,  was  a  blow  from  which  he 
never  recovered.  Whenever  he  brought  himself  to  speak  of  the 
subject — and  it  was  not  rarely— he  repeated  his  protest  in  the 
bitterest  terms,  and,  to  the  end  of  his  days,  refused  to  be  recon- 
ciled with  the  "  sacrilegious  "  king  of  Italy.  When,  in  Germany, 
the  situation  created  by  the  Vatican  council  led  to  the  outbreak 
of  the  Knlturkanpf ,  Pius  IX.  failed  to  display  the  tact  peculiar 


to  his  successor.  For,  in  the  encydical  Qiud  ummquam 
(Feb.  s,  1875),  he  took  the  rssh  step  of  declaring  invalid  the 
Prussian  laws  regulating  the  relationship  between  Church  and 
sute— the  only  result  being  that  the  feud  was  still  further 
embittered. 

In  these  later  years  the  dark  days  of  his  "  captivity  "  were 
amply  compensated  by  the  proofs  of  reverence  displayed  by  Roman 
CatboUc  Christianity,  which  accorded  him  magnificent  ovations 
as  his  period  of  jubilee  began  to  fall  due.  The  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  of  his  pontificate  was  celebrated  with  great  sfdendour 
on  the  x6tb  of  June  1871 ;  for  he  was  the  first  pope  who  had  thus 
reached  the  traditional  "years  of  Peter."  In  187s  bis.ScAh 
birthday  gave  occasion  for  new  demonstrations;  and  1875  was  a 
so-called  "year  of  jubilee."  Finally,  in  1877,  the  fifty  years  of 
his  priesthood  were  completed:  an  event  which  brought  him 
innumerable  expressions  of  loyalty  and  led  to  a  great  manifests- 
tion  of  devotion  to  the  Holy  See  from  all  the  Roman  Catholic 
world.  Gn  the  7th  of  Februaiy  1878  Pius  IX.  died.  His 
successor  was  Leo  XIII. 

BxoGaAPMiEa.-^Qlskamp,  Papd  Pim  IX,  in  sehiem  Ltbm  mad 
Wirken  (3nd  ed.,  MOntter,  1870):  Legge,  Pius  IX.  (London.  3  vols^ 
1872) ;  Gillet,  PU IX. 1 5a  vie  et  Us  acUs  <U  son  ponlijuat  (Paiis,  1877} ; 
Shea,  Life  and  Pontificcle  of  Pius  IX.  (New  YoHc,  1877);  Trolkme; 
Life  of  Pius  IX.  (London,  a  vols.,  1877) ;  F.  v.  DOtKnger  "  Pius  IX  " 
in  his  Kleint  SchrifUn,  cd.  Reuach  (btutt^ct,  1890),  p.  558  aqq.); 
Stepischnegg,  Papst  Pius  IX.  und  seint  Zett  (a  vols.,  Vienna.  1879): 
Wappmansperger,  Ltben  und  Wirken  des  Papstes  Pius  IX.  (Regcns- 
burg,  1879);  Pougeois, //ufoirtf  de  Pie  IX.,  son  pontifUat  et  son  sihU 
(6  vols.,  Paris.  1877-1886):  Fr.  Nielsen,  The  ttisloryoftke  Pafocj  im 
ike  i^  Century^  translated  under  the  direction  of  A.  F.  MaMHi« 
vol.  li.  (Loodon,  1906).  For  his  work  as  sovereign  of  the  papal 
states,  see  F.  v.  D6Uinger.  Kink*  und  Kircken,  PapsUum  und 
Kirckmstaat  (Munich,  1861);  M.  Brosch,  Cesckitkte  des  Kirckgn- 
Uaales,  vol.  it.  (Gotha,  188a):  A.  F.  Numberger.  PapsUum  und 
Kirckauiaal  (3  vols.,  Mainz.  1897-1900);  C.  Mlrbt "  Die  Ccschicht- 
achreibung  des  vatikanischen  Konzils,"  in  the  Historiscke  Zeitsckrtflt 
101.  Bd.  (3.  Folge,  5  Bd.)  1908,  p.  530-600. 

Sources. — Acta  Pit  IX.  (4  vols.,  Rome,  (854  sqq.);  Acta  saxctei 
sedis  (Rome,  1865  sqq.).  A  selection  of  the  documents  for  the  his- 
tory o(  Pius  IX.  will  be  found  in  C.  Mirbt,  Qmlten  tur  CesckukU 
des  PapsUums  und  des  r&miscken  Katkolicismus  (and  ed.,  Tubingen, 
ujoi),  iS  42>-44^f  pp.  36l-390«  (C.  M.) 

Pros  X.  (Giuseppe  Sarto)^  elected  pope  in  1903,  was  bom  oa 
the  and  of  June  1835,  of  humble  parents,  at  the  little  town  of 
Riete  in  the  province  of  Treviso,  Italy.  He  studied  theology  at 
the  episcopal  seminaries  of  Treviso  and  Padua,  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1858.  For  seventeen  years  he  acted  as  parish  priest  at 
various  small  places  in  Venetia,  untU  in  1875  he  was  appointed 
canon  of  the  cathedral  and  superior  of  the  seminary  at  Troiso. 
In  1880  he  refused  the  bishopric  of  Treviso,  but  in  18S4,  on  the 
express  command  of  Leo  XIII.,  he  accepted  that  of  Mantua.  Ota 
the  lath  of  June  1893  he  was  created  a  cardinal,  and  three  days 
later  was  nominated  patriarch  of  Venice.  In  Venice  be  nude 
himself  very  popular  owing  to  his  piety,  his  simplicity  and  ge»> 
ality,  and  by  his  readiness  to  act  in  harmony  with  the  Italian 
government.  He  succeeded  Leo  XIII.  in  his  election  to  the 
papal  chair  on  the  4ih  of  August  1903.    (See  Papacy,  oJ  jSn.) 

PIVOT  (Fr.  pivot;  probably  connected  with  Ital.  pivolo,  peg,  pin, 
diminutive  of  ^im,  pipa,  pipe),  that  .on  which  something  turns, 
specifically  a  metal  pointed  pin  or  short  shaft  in  roachiDcry.  such 
as  the  end  of  an  axle  or  spindle.  The  term  occurs  frequently  ia 
combination  with  other  words,  chiefly  in  technical  usage,  e.g. 
**  pivot-gearing,"  for  a  system  of  gearing  in  machinery  which 
admits  of  the  shifting  of  the  axis  of  a  driving  wheel,  so  that  the 
power  may  be  communicated  in  various  directions. 

PIZARRO»  FRANCISCO  («.  1471  or  ]47S~i54x)>  dtscovercr 
and  conqueror  of  Peru,  was  bom  at  Trujillo  in  Estrcmadun. 
Spain,  about  1471  (or  1475).  He  was  an  illegitimate  sod  of 
Gonzalo  Piaarro,  who  as  colonel  of  infantry  afterwards  served  ia 
Italy  under  Oonsalvo  de  Cordova,  and  in  Navarre,  with  sosae 
dbtinction.  Of  Piiarro's  early  years  hardly  anything  ia  kxkown, 
but  he  appears  to  have  been  pooriy  cared  for,  and  his  educatioa 
was  negleaed.  Shortly  after  the  news  of  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World  htd  reached  Spain  he  was  in  Seville,  and  thence  found 
his  way  across  the  Atlantic  There  he  is  heard  of  in  1510  as 
having  takaa  part  in  an  expedition  from  Hispaaiola  to 


PIZ21CATO— PLACENTA 


691 


ludci  AIoiuo  de  Ojcdi,  by  wbotn  he  *■«  enlnatnj  wilb  ihe 
dtrf*  of  the  urjonuiuie  seldcmcal  >t  S^a  Setuutlan,  I{c 
■cconpaninl  Balboa  (whom  be  allcrwvdt  bclped  Lo  hiinc  to 
tbe  block)  in  lb«  diKov«y  ol  Ibe  Pidbcj  >ad  uixkc  Pedmiu 
d'Avila  he  received  i.  rtpartimmUi.  end  beoime  *  utile-lumR  it 
F4UDU-  Here  in  isii  he  colercd  into  ■  partnenhip  wiib  t, 
prlett  Duned  HenuuKlo  de  Luqut^  and  ■  toJdier  lumed  Dicto  dc 
Alntgn,  for  purposes  of  exp1ont»a  nid  (Vnqiiat  tovarda  Ibc 


ifleraitds  teneved  their 
ipeeing 
the  opiilc 


cooquit  ud  divide  eqiwUy  a.inaii|   themieii 

empire  tbey  hoped  to  mth^    EKphorations  were  tnen  uoocnajLea 

down  Ihe  »nl  eoasl  or  South  Ameria,  in  which  Kiaito,  though 

>th>ut  9*  S.  And  oblpincd  diitinct  iccounti  ol  Ihe  Peravian 
Empire.  The  govetnoc  of  Psoim»  showing  little  diipoaition  (o 
mcouiage  theidnnlurers.  Piiano  resolved  lo  apply  to  the  love. 
reign  in  penon  loi  help,  indwiibthla  abject  uiledlromPuumm 
foe  Spain  in  Iheipringol  ijiS,  reaching  Seville  in  early  inminer. 
Charles  V.  wa>  *on  over,  and  on  Ihe  i6Ih  of  July  istg  waa 
taecDted  at  Toledo  the  ianuiut  lapUulncion.  by  which  Kzarro 
••I  upon  eenain  condiiioni  made  governor  and  captain-general 
o(  (he  province  of  New  Caalile  lor  Ihe  diitann  ol  sac  league! 
along  the  newly  diwovered  coasi,  and  inveiied  wiih  all  the 
authority  and  prerogaiivra  of  a  viceroy,  his  associalM  being  left 
[d  wholly  lecsndary  positions.  One  e(  the  condiiion*  ti  the  grant 
was  that  within  lii  monlhi  Piiarro  diouM  niw  a  anffidently 
equipped  force  ol  Iwo  hundrrd  and  fifty  men,  of  whom  one 
hundred  might  be  drawn  (lom  the  coloiiies;  ai 

aailedclandestinely  from  San  Lucar  in  January  Ck>d.|, 
■jjo.    He  was aficrwardi  joined  Ijy  hi* brother  L' 

Hernando  with  theicmainiog  veueU,  and  when 
the  eapedilion  left  Panama  in  Januaiy  ol  the 
following  yeu  it  numbered  three  ships,  one 
hundred  and  eighty  men,  and  twenlyseven 
hocKS.  The  lu^eqiKnt  moveinents  ol  Piitrro 
belong  10  the  histoiyol  Peru  (fH.}.  Alter  the  i,_ 
final  efforl  oC  the  Incai  to  recover  Cu«n  in  n 

>5jft-J7    ^^    l*"    Jefeated    by    Di 


reaideoce  of  cbe  bi^iopa ' 
i'aniin),  in  lodificilion, 
the  assembly  ol  troops  fo 


of  part*  of  a  toim  bdng  knnni  a* 
London,  formerly  the  site  of  the  town 
'  "'  I.    A  "  plan  of  arms  "  (Fr-  piact 


a  large  army  can  be  ooUecied  under  ct 


eight  ii 


s  the  "  iftetbiitl 


.  with  Ihe  foetal  membrane 
weighi  about  a  pound. 

In  order  to  explain  Ihe  formatton  of  rbe  placenla  it  is  mci 
ro  encroach  lo  tDme  extent  on  the  domain  ol  phyiiolocy.  I 
each  menatrual  period,  during  the  child.beariog  ngff  ol  a  «i 
the  mucovi  nteinbraiie  of  (be  uterus  hypenrmliiea,  and,  i 
period,  i>  caM  off  and  lenewed,  bu(  if  a  feniliaed  ovum  nach 
ulerui  (heus)iiR  off  is  peat  ported  umil  (he  birth  of  (he  child. 
.L_  i._.  ...,.  .L-  ...-\fneJ  raueooi  membraae  Uni»  Ihe  in 
rlatcr,  i(  Is  spoken  of  as  tbe  "  dvci 
iiw  the  uterus,  Binks  into  and  ei 
drcidua,  and,  as  it  enlargn,  il 


oflheuier      _._ 

The  lertHiied  ovum,  oo  reachiiu 
itself  in  the  already  prepant' 
one  part  of  the  decidua  ly...,  . 
r  decidua  eerrotina  "  or  "  batali 
suri'ace  of  the  enlatving  ovum  ("c 
and  one  pan  lining  iTieieK  of  the  ut 


"J,  one  part  I 
ciduareH^' 
nia("  decidua 


,1  their  juri 


witch),  a 


icfora 


..played  by  plucking  the  strings  j,„  ii,  V^Ji^irJ^ 

■itb  the  Sngera  iiutead  of  using  the  bow.  ,;,),  ,  piu^  „(  g| 

PIZZO,  a  seaport  of  Calabria,  Italy  in  Ihe  which  contain  m: 
province  of  CManiaro,  7*  m.  by  rml  N.E;  of  _,  „  ,  _ 
RcgEio.  Aualed  on  a  aleep  diff  oveclookme  the  Gull  of  Santa 
Eufemia  jji  It.  abovesea-level.  Pop.  (1901),  5i7»-  Ilhasan 
old  cast le.  in  whith  Joachim  Mural, ei-king  of  Naples,  wiishot  on 
the  ijth  of  October  1B15.  The  people  engage  in  tunny- and  cctal- 
fisbing.  In  1783  "he  town  wss  almost  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake, and  it  suHered  some  damage  from  Ihe  same  cause  in  1905. 

PLACARD  dstheenl.  Fr.  plackart.  I.om  ptaqnitr;  mod.  ftsqvr, 
to  plasiit),  a  bill  or  poster  pasted  or  affiled  to  a  wall  or  in 
any  ptominenl  portion  lot  the  purpose  of  giving  notice  lo  the 
public  of  a  pioclamation,  police  or  other  regulations,  01  of 
forthcoming  events  or  the  like. 

PLACE  (ihiough  Fr.  from  Lat,  ffolM.  street:  Gr.  wXarft,  wide), 
a  definile  position  in  space,  whether  of  limited  or  unlimited 
Client,  sitUAlion  or  locality^;  also  posllon  in  s  series  or  rank; 
01  an  office,  01  employment,  particularly  one  in  Ihe  service  of  a 
(ovemment.  Special  applications  ire  to  an  open  space  In  a 
town,  a  group  of  buildings,  cow  of  houses,  or  as  the  name  of  a 
raidence  or  manot-houK.     In  certain   caiei  (Ins  Uitet  use 


o"^«id?a  'aiid^hJ«''Z  *'^ 


laiid  and  embnced  space* 


glands  dilate  and  Bj'  '        ■■ ■■ 


693 


PLAGIARISM- 


clofiHtei  cnormou^y.  and  in  u»  lain 
•tig«  conuinf  two  irlcrio  (umHllul)  and  nnly  one  vein  |D>lng 
la  at  oUlwnlioit  of  Ihe  ritht  one)  embrddtd  in  wnw  loost  cnniwc- 
tln  tlwK  kunwB  u  "  Whinoo'i  ieUy."  At  lirK  the  «alk  of  ihi 
Mlk-uc  !•  quiu  dutlacl  (rhb  tliu,  IMI  bicc  Ihc  I»o  itiucluiEi 
becofue  bound  up  to«lb«  (kc  fig.  7),  af  i«r  vhich  Ihcy  are  kiwwn  aa 
Ilia  "  iiiabilical  cord."  A  diuinction  muic  be  nude  belwun  Ihe 
■nantole  ttallr  and  Ihe  ■Ilanuiii:   the  latter  ii  an  enlodermd  out' 

caii*l,  ahldi  in  the  human  tubjeit  only  rrachei  a  link  njr  inward 


nand'b^ndT 


nf  of  thr  ailamola  ar>d,  a: 


(Mnpanhm  Analtmy- — If  Ihe  ploccnta  ia 


br  repTdfd  Ki 
mit  and  rmbr 
I   IhrouglHW   1 


PLAGIOCLASE 

bdonf,  Ihe  ova  have  a  treat  deni  of  yolk.'  aad  the  T™t  '■■''■ "  * 


leAplacei 


dieyelt'lKiid 
:al  or  tfophak 


ifwy  have  no  alUniok  pUccni 

umbilical  and  allanloir  placeniae  _ _  .-- —  -- 

u  hi  ihc  «e  of  (he  hedgehog,  the  handicsM  and  the  nam.  Ii 
moat  of  ibc  lovn  pbcmial  Bianai^  iha  aUuuia  ii  nucli  nun 
devetopcd  tban  in  mm.  and  ibc  moB  primiiive  lypc  of  nliRmi  i> 
that  in  whkh  villi  arc  (ormtdover  ihr  vhiAt  lurface  of  the  Ehonc* 
projecting  into  I  hr  dec  idua  oJ  I  hp  tuhtibT  eomu  of  Ificutrruv  Piii 

»lule.''^SCntt«''vilU  arc'mllrrtnl  hlto  a  nu'mter  of  round  I  Jl.oc 
cotylcdoM. a* in'tymrt  niminanti,  the  lypeisipokenoljii'rejl* 

In  Ibc  Camivora,  de^nt,  procavia  (Hyiai)  and  alnl  \lA 
(QrvcttfDput).  Iherc  i»  a  "  joniry-placenta  "  which  foron  a  pnw 
round  the  embryo.  In  lloihi  and  [emun  Ihe  placenia  it  oonr 
ihaped,  white  in  rodcnli,  inHclivnrei  and  ball,  il  il )  veuni 
diik  or  cioKlv  apfiUtd  pair  of  diiki,  ihua  differing  l^^^ 
which  ia  known  aa  a  "  meladiicoidal  placenta.''^  Il  alU  Ilia 
be  Ben  Ihal  the  lorm  ol  Ihe  placenta  i%  not  an  aliittil"' 
Iniuworthy  Indicallofl  of  Ihc  lyitemic  poiilion  of  ill  vena. 
In  Ihe  dlHuie  and  cMykdonoua  placentae  the  villi  di  u 
peoemic  very  deeply  into  ihe  deeidiia.  and  at  binh  are  ani'T 
wilbdiawn.  the  decidua  being  left  behind  in  Ihe  utcnit. « 1^ 
thew  placentae  an  epoken  of  aa  non-dcciduatc  whiV  ai» 

'  For  t[ml»  iktallt  aee  S.  W.  W.  Tamer,  Lalitm  nib  Ca- 

ptralimAiiaUmytfUitPlaumla  (Ediabuigh.  I6M:  A.IW»>°>. 
''  Mammalian  Ova  and  Ihe  Foinulion  oftbe  Pla«nia,"./«n 


■ire.?-) 


PLAOIARISN,  an  ipproprlati 
ol  the  same  at  original 


purfoiner  by  Ma 
in  the  Digcsl  ol 
■nd  Ibe  ukimit 


without  ackno*1.ed(nKiil  d  lb 
The  Ul.  tiaciaritu  nwam  » 
:tor  el  a  sl»ve  ot  chikl.  tbouit  ^1 
n  fenje  of  *  litcnry  pateic  ■ 
,  <}).    The  word  Haeiiii  i>  'f* 


The  idea  of  pbg^aria 

and  ha^  grown  up  wit] 

works  of  the  intcUccL. 

PLAGIOCLASE,  an  imporlanl  group  of  n 
mincraLs.  conatituljng  an  isomorphouft  serin  bell 
or  ioda-Ieltpar  and  anorthile,  or  lime-lcbpi 
mediaie  menben  are  thui  soda.lime-fclspan. 
Iheii crytlalloginpl  cal, optical  and  olhcrphyiical 
vary  pcogressivsly  with 


Fio  ».— Diagiam.  Later  uage  in  the  dvvclnpmcnt  ol  the  place 
ihowing  the  rebtioni  ol  ihe  Foetal  villi  to  the  placental  unuiei. 
lu>iop  ol  the  amnion  with  Ihe  inner  luHacc  ol  ihe  chorion,  and 

KlhilTtK  boS'5  ill  »™i.  °ln  Btiie  ol  ib^"i^S^r!!hark., 
e.g.  Ihe  blue  ihark  (Carchariai).  the  yolk-Mc  ha*  lidgei  which  lil 
inw  groovei  in  the  will  of  Ihe  oviduct  and  allow  an  interchange  ol 
nuttriaU  bM«cn  the  maternal  and  loelal  blood.  Thit  iian  eumple 

rUfani),  among  thclekonean  fiabn.  Iwo  or  three  hundred  young 
•re  novriahed  in  Ihc  Iwllow  ovary,  which  dcvehwa  villi  lecreling 
nulrilivv  material.  Among  ifae  Amphibia  Ihe  alpine  Hlamander 
(.SafiiHudni  nlra)  otuiuhei  iti  vouni  in  iuoviducta  until  ihegilted 
atan  of  developoient  b  pan.  while  in  the  Reptiii>  Ihe  young  of  a 
vitTtMrout  liaard  I5rpi  choMdnl  ettlUiih  ■  mnmunJcaiien  between 
the  yelk-tae  anierhirly  and  the  illiniait  poMerioily.  on  Ibe  one 
hand,  and  the  waHi  ol  the  oviduct  on  ihc  other,  in  thii  way  both 
an  umbilical  and  an  allantoic  placenlB  are  formed. 

The  mammalt  are  divided  into  PUeentalia  and  ApUnnlalia; 
In  the  bller  group.  10  which  Ihe  tnonotremea  and  moal  manupialt 


llbile    (NaAISiiOi)     and    anMtbit 

(C»Al,SiA).     Thii  vuialioB  b  continuous  in  ihe  im"- 

but  tpocific  nsmfi  are  apjJied  10  membcn  ialling  btw" 

";     terniB  arbilruy  Umiit.  via.:  Albiie,  Ab  {-NaAISiA'. 

h!     Oligodue.    AbiAni     lo    AbiAn,^    Andciine,    AbiAni  11 

Ab>An,;    Ubradorile,    Ab.An,    to    AbiAiu;    B>tom«. 

AUAm  to  Ab.An.;  Anarthitc,  An  ( -  CaAUSiiO. 

All  Ihe  memljcra  ol  Ibe  ieiit»  cryilalliic  in  the  •""•JJ 

(iticlinic)  lyslcm.     They  possess  t  pcrteci  deavag*  P"^ 

to  Ibe  basal  pinacoid  P  (001)  and  a  tomcwhal  less  pmnoubTd 

ele»vage  paralld  lu  the  pinacoid  U  (010).    The  ingle  bttwn 

Ihcie  two  deava«ei  vaiin  from  U°  14'  in  albite  lo  S5*  ;<>'  * 

inorthite.     It  wat  on  account  of  tlie  oblique  angle  beOt^ 

the  c^nvicn  (bat  A.  Bieilhuipt  in  1S47  gave  the  n»me  pi^ 

disc (Ci.tWit"". oblique,  and  <XSr,  locleave)tolheief'l'P>J* 

lo  distinguish  them  Irom  Ihe  onhoclaie  felspar  in  whiih  i« 

corrcjponding  cleavage  angle  is  1  right  lo^e.     Il  should  h 

noted  ihil   the  polish— and   potash -sodi-febpir».   micnitli« 

(»...)  in  inoclhodaje.  though  also  inonhic,  ire  not  ioch«« 

in  the  pligioclise  icHci  el  soda-lime-fclspus.     Crystili  >" 


PLAGUE 


693 


osually  ubtihr  m  habit,  panlH  to  the  plane  U,  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  figuie;  sometimes,  however,  they  are  flattened 
parallel  to  P,  thk  being  a  characteristic  habit  of  the  peridine 
variety  of  albite;  mioroUtic  crystals  forming  the  ground-mass 
of  volcanic  rocks  are  usually  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the 
edge  between  P  and  i#. 

Twinning  i»  an  important  chaiactcr,  which  is  almost  invariably 
present  and.  affords  a  ready  means  of  distinguishing  the  plagioclaaes 
from  other  felspars.  Most  frequent  is  the  twinning 
according  to  the  "  albite  law  "  with  M  as  tvrin-plane. 
One  half  of  the  twin  is  turned  through  180*  about 
the  normal  to  this  plane  and  the  two  portions  are 
united  along  the  same  ^ne  (for  figures  of  twinned 
crystals  sec  Albite).  The  baisai  planes  of  the  two 
portions  are  inclined  to  each  other  at  a  salient  or 
re-entrant  angle  of  7*  la'  in  albite  and  8*  20'  in 
anorthitc.  'Uiis  twinnix^  is  usually  polysyntbetic, 
being  many^  times  repeated,  and  giving  rise  to 
numerous  thin  lamellae,  which  are  the  cause  of  the 
fine  striations  on  the  cleavage  pbnes  P  and  parallel  to  the  edge  PAf , 
BO  characteristic  of  the  plagioclases  as  seen  in  hand  specimens. 
Viewed  in  polarized  light,  thm  sections  of  twinned  crystals  show  a 
very  characteristic  banded  structure  parallel  to  Af.  A  second  twin- 
law  is  known  as  the  "pericUne-law**  because  of  its  frequent  occur- 
rence in  pericliae.  Here  the  axis  of  rotation  is  the  edge  x  P  (the 
crystallographic  axis  h)  and  the  plane  of  composition  is  the  "  rhombic 
section  " :  the  latter  is  a  plane  which  intersects  the  prism  faces  T 
and  /  in  a  rhomb;  it  is  not  a  possible  face  of  the  crystal,  and  its 
position  varies  in  the  different  species.  In  addition  to  being 
twinned  according  to  these  two  laws,  plagioclase  imy  also  be 
twinned  on  the  Cailsbad-,  Baveno-  and  Manebach-laws,  as  in 
orthoclase  (^.v.). 


a  specific  infections  fever,  one  variety  being  characterized  by 
buboes  (glandular  swellings)  and  carbuncles.  This  definition, 
excludes  many  of  the  celebrated  pestilences  recorded  in  history 
— 4uch  as  the  plague  of  Athens,  described  by  Thucydldes;  that 
not  less  celebrated  one  which  occurred  in  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Roman  world 
(aj).  Z64-180)/  which  is  referred  to,  though  not  fully  dcscTibed* 
by  the  contemporary  pen  of  Galen;  and  that  of  the  jid  century 
(about  253),  the  ssrmptoms  of  which  ate  known  from  the  allusions 
of  St  Cyprian  (Sermo  it  mortaiUate).  There  is  a  certain  iesem> 
bhince  between  all  these,  but  they  were  very  different  from 
Oriental  plague.  "Plague"  was  formerly  divided  into  two 
chief  varieties:  (i)  mUd  plague,  pestis  minor^  larval  plague 
(Raddiffe),  peste  frusU,  in  which  the  special  symptoms  are 
accompanied  by  little  fever  or  general  disturbance;  and  (2) 
ordinary  epidemic  qr  severe  plague,  peslu  majors  in  which  the 
general  disturbance  is  very  severe.  Cases  which  are  rapidly 
fatal  from  the  general  disturbance  without  marked  local  symp- 
toms have  been  distinguished  as  fulminant  plague  {pesiis  sideratu, 
peste  JoudroyanU), 

Hislory  up  to  iSSo.—Tht  first  historical  notice  of  the  plague 
is  contained  in  a  fragment  of  the  physician  Rufus  of  Ephcsus, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  preserved  in  the  CdUciions  ^ 
Oribasius*  Rufus  speaks  of  the  buboes  called  pestilential  as 
being  specially  fatal,  and  as  being  found  chiefly  in  Libya, 
Egypt  and  Syria.  He  zefeis  to  the  testimony  of  a  physician 
Dionysius,  who  Uved  probably  in  the  5rd  century  bx.  or  earlier, 


Constanls  of  Plaiioclau  Felspars. 


Composi- 
tion. 

sxv 

AIiO,. 

Na/>. 

CaO 

Sp.gr. 

Melting- 
point 
(Centigrade). 

Cleavage 
Angle 

Angle  of 
Rhombic 
Section.* 

Mean 

Refractive 

Index 

/J. 

Optical  Extinction. 

OnP* 

OnJlf.» 

In  sections 
J.M. 

Ab 

AbaAni 

AbiAni 

AbiAbi 

An 

68*7 

63-0 

55-6 
49-3 
43» 

195 

24 'O 

28*3 
32-6 
36.7 

1 1*8 

f:i 

0 

0 

S-3 
io*4 

153 

20-I 

2>624 

2659 

2-69A 
2-728 
2-75» 

1340; 
I4'9; 
1477* 
I532* 

86*24' 
86*8' 
86*14' 
86*4' 
•85-So' 

+  a7* 

if: 

1-534 

1558 
I -570 
1-582 

+  4*30' 

+  '>\ 
-  5   »o' 

-17*40' 

-37' 

-M9* 

-16* 

+48* 

+53* 

*  Angles  measured  to  the  edge  PU, 


The  optica]  characters  of  the  pdagioclases  have  been  the  subject 
of  much  study,  since  they  are  of  great  value  in  determining 
the  constituents  of  rocks  in  thin  sections  under  the  microscope. 
The  mean  indices  of  rdPractmn  and  the  angles  of  extinctk>n  on  the 
ciravages  P  and  M  are  given  in  the  accompanying  table.  (The 
meaning  of  the  -f  and  —  directions  will  be  seen  from  the  figure, 
where  the  face  P  slopes  from  left  to  rieht,  i.e,  the  angle  between  the 
normals  to  the  faces  lettered  Pand  AT  is  leas  than  90*).  The  extinc- 
tion angles  on  other  faces,  or  in  sections  of  known  orientation  in  the 
crystal,  also  give  constants  of  determinative  value:  for  example,  in 
sections  perpendicular  to  the  plane  M  the  extinctions,  which  in 
crystals  twinned  according  to  the  albite-Iaw  are  symmetrical  with 
respect  to  this  place,  reach  the  maximum  values  given  in  the  table. 
Not  only  do  the  directions  of  extinction  (axes  of  ligfat-elasticity) 
varv  in  the  different  species,  but  also  the  optic  axial  angle,  so  that 
while  albite  iaoptically  positive,  anorthite  is  negative,  and  a  member 
near  andesine  has  an  axial  angle  of  90*.  The  figures  seen  in  conver- 
gent polarised  light  through  the  P  and  if  cleavages  are  characteristic 
of  the  different  speciea  A  detailed  summary  of  the  optical  charac- 
ters and  their  employment  in  discriminating  the  several  members 
of  the  plagioclase  series  is  given  by  H.  Rosenbuch,  Mikroskopiscki 
Physiog^aphie  der  Mineralien  und  CesUitu  (4th  ed.  Stuttgart,  1905). 

Tlw  plagioclaaes  occur  as  primary  constituents  of  igneous  rockf 
of  ainuMt  every  kind,  and  are  also  frequent  as  secondary  minerals 
in  metamorphic  rocks.  Albite  and  digodaaeare  more  characteristic 
df  acidic  rocks,  whilst  the  basic  mernbers  at  the  anorthite  end  of 
the  series  are  characteristic  of  rocks  containing  less  silica.  The 
comporitlon  may,  however,  vary  even  in  the  same  crystal,  soncd 
cryiMala  with  a  basic  nucleus  and  with  shells  successively  more  end 
more  acid  towards  the  exterior  being  common. 

For  further  particulars  respecting  individual  spedes  and  their 
modes  of  occurrence  see  ALnrrn ;  Amdbsimb  ;  AMOKTHtrs ;  Bttowiots 
LanRADOUTS;  Ouooclasb.  (L.  J.  S.) 

PLAGUE  (in  Gr.  Xo^i^s ;  In  LaL  pestis,  Pesiilenlia),  in  medicine, 
a  term  given  to  any  epidemic  disease  causing  a  great  mortality, 
and  o^ed  in  this  sense  by  Galefi  and  the  sndent  medical  writers, 
but  now  confined  to  a  special  disease,  otherwise  called  Oriental, 
LevsBlioc^  <K  Bubonic  Plague,  which  may  be  shortly  defined  as 


and  to  Dioscorides  and  Posidomus,  who  fully  described  these 
buboes  in  a  work  on  the  plague  which  prevailed  in  Libya  in 
their  time.  Whatever  the  precise  date  of  these  physicians 
may  have  been,  this  passage  shows  the  antiquity  of  the  plague 
in  northern  Africa,  which  for  centuries  was  conridered  as  its 
home.  The  great  plague  referred  to  by  livy  (Ix.  Epitome) 
and  more  fully  by  Orosius  (Htstor.  iv.  ix)  was  probably  the 
same,  though  the  symptoms  are  not  recorded.  It  is  reported 
to  have  destroyed  a  million  of  persons  in  Africa,  but  is  not  stated 
to  have  passed  into  Europe. 

It  is  not  till  the  6th  century  of  our  era,  in  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
that  we  find  bubonic  plague  in  Eun^,  as  a  part  of  the  great 
cycle  of  pestilence,  accompanied  .by  extraordinary  natural 
phenomena,  which  lasted  fifty  years,  and  is  described  with  a 
singular  misunderstanding  of  medical  terms  by  Gibbon  in  his 
forty-third  chapter.  The  descriptions  of  the  contemporary 
writers  Procopius,  Evagrius  and  Gregory  of  Tours  are  quite 
unmistakable.*  The  plague  of  Justinian  began  at  Pdusium  in 
Egypt  hi  A.D.  543;  it  spread  over  Egypt,  and  in  the  same  or  the 
next  year  passed  to  Constantinople,  where  it  carried  off  10,000 
persons  in  one  day,  with  all  the  symptoms  of  bubonic  plague. 
It  appeared  in  Gaul  in  546,  where  it  is  described  by  Gregory  of 
Tours  with  the  same  symptoms  as  lues  inguinaria  (from  the 
frequent  seat  of  buboes  in  the  groin).  In  Italy  there  was  a 
great  mortality  in  543,  but  the  most  notable  epidemic  was  in 
565,  which  so  depopulated  the  coimtry  as  to  leave  it  an  easy 
prey  to  the  Lombards.    In  571  it  is  again  recorded  in  Liguria, 

>  Amm.  MarcdL  xxiii  7;  see  Hecker,  De  peste  Anlemiana  (Beriin, 
183s). 

'Lib.  xliv«  cap.  17— <£aofes  de  Oribosft  ed>  Bussemaker  and 
Darembci|(  (Paris,  1851),  iii.  607. 

'Evagnusb  BitL  eceles.  iv.  39;  Procopius,  De  beUo  persiohi 
iL  22,  23. 


694 


PLAGUE 


and  in  590  a  great  epideinic  at  Rome  is  connected  with  the 
pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great.  But  it  spread  in  fact  over  the 
whole  Roman  world,  beginning  in  maritime  towns  and  radiating 
inhlnd.  Ii^  another  direction  it  extended  from  Egypt  along  the 
north  coast  of  Africa.  Whether  the  numerous  pestilences 
recorded  in  the  7th  century  were  the  plague  cannot  now  be  said; 
but  it  is  possible  the  pestilences  in  England  chronicled  by  Bede 
ij\the  years  664, 673^  679  and  6S3  may  have  been  of  this  disease, 
especially  as  in  690  pejiis  mgutttaria  is  again  recorded  in  Rome. 
For  the  epidemics  of  the  succeeding  centuries  we  must  refer  to 
more  detailed  works.^ 

It  is  impossible,  however,  to  pass  over  the  great  cyde  of 
epidemics  in  the  t4th  century  known  as  the  Black  Death. 
rA«Atae*  Whether  in  all  the  pestilences  known  by  this  name 
DemiM.  ^^  disease  was  really  the  same  may  admit  of  doubt, 
but  it  is  dear  that  in  some  at  least  it  was  the  bubonic 
plague.  Contemporary  observers  agree  that  the  disease  was 
introduced  from  the  East;  and  one  eyewitness,  Gabrid  de 
Mussis,  an  Italian  Uwyer,  traced,  or  indfced  accompanied,  the 
march  of  the  plague  from  the  Crimea  (whither  it  was  said  to  have 
been  introduced  from  Tartary)  to  Genoa,  where  with  a  handful 
of  survivors  of  a  Genoese  expedition  he  landed  probably  at  the 
end  of  the  year  1347.  He  narrates  how  the  few  that  had  them- 
selves escaped  the  pest  transmitted  the  contagion  to  all  they 
met.*  Other  accounts,  especially  old  Russian  chronides,  place 
the  origin  of  the  disease  still  farther  east,  in  Cathay  (or  China), 
where,  as  is  confirmed  to  some  extent  by  Chinese  records, 
pestilence  and  destructive  inundations  are  said  to  have  destroyed 
the  enormous  number  of  thirteen  millions.  It  appears  to  have 
passed  by  way  of  Armenia  into  Asia  Minor  and  thence  to  Egypt 
and  northern  Africa.  Nearty  the  whole  of  Europe  was  gradually 
overrun  by  the  pestilence.  It  reached  Sicily  in  2346,  Constanti- 
nople, Greece  and  parts  of  Italy  early  in  1347,  and  towards  the 
end  of  that  year  Marseilles.  In  1348  it  attacked  Spaift,  northern 
Italy  and  Rome,  eastern  Germany,  many  parts  of  France 
Induding  Paris,  and  England;  from  England  it  is  said  to  have 
been  conveyed  to  the  Scandinavian  countries.  In  England  the 
western  counties  were  first  invaded  early  in  the  year,  and  London 
In  November.  In  1349  we  hear  of  it  in  the  midlands;  and  in 
subsequent  years,  at  least  till  1357,  it  prevailed  in  parts  of  the 
oountry,  or  generally,  especially  in  the  towns.  In  1352  Oxford 
lost  two-thirds  of  her  academical  population.  The  outbreaks  of 
1361  and  1368,  known  as  the  second  and  third  plagues  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  UL,  were  doubtless  of  the  same  disease,  though 
by  some  historians  not  called  the  black  death.  Scotland  and 
Irdand,  though  later  affected,  did  not  escape. 

The  nature  of  this  pestilence  has  been  a  matter  <rf  much 
coalroveisy,  and  some  have  doubted  its  being  truly  the  plague. 
But  when  the  symptoms  are  fully  described  they  seem  to  ju^ify 
this  cottdosion,  one  character  only  bdng  thought  to  make  a 
distinction  between  this  and  Oriental  plague,  vis.  the  q[>ecial 
implication  of  the  lungs  as  ^wn  by  q>itting  of  blood  and  other 
symptoms.  Guy  de  Chauliac  notes  this  feature  in  the  earlier 
epidemic  at  Avignon,  not  in  the  later.  Moreover,  as  this  com* 
plication  was  a  marlced  feature  in  certain  epidemics  of  plague 
in  India,  the  hypothesis  has  been  framed  by  Hirsch  that  a  special 
variety  of  plague,  pesUs  indica,  still  found  in  India,  is  that  whidi 
overran  the  world  in  the  14^^  century.  But  the  same  symptoms 
(haemoptysis)  have  been  seen,  though  less  notably,  in  many 

>  See  Noah  Webster's  Hulorv  of  Epidemk  Distoses,  8vo  (a  vols., 
London,  1800)  (a  work  which  makes  no  pretension  to  medical 
learning,  but  exhibits  the  history  of  epidemics  in  connexion  with 
physical  disasters — as  earthquakes,  famines,  &&);  Lcnch,  Kleine 
Pest-Chronik  (8vo,  1880)  (a  convenient  short  compendium,  but  not 
always  accurate) ;  "  Athanasii  IGrchcri  Chronoloeia  Pcstium " 
(to  A.l>.  1656),  in  ScnUinium  pestis  (Rome,  1658:  Leipzig,  1671, 
itp) ;  Basconoe,  History  of  Epidemic  PatiUnces  (London,  1851,  8vo). 
The  most  complete  medical  history  of  epidemics  b  nSser  s 
Ces€kickU  der  epidemischen  KmnkheUtn  (xrd  ed.,  Jena,  1882), 
forming  the  third  volume  of  his  History  of  Moiicint. 

'See  the  original  account  reprinted  with  other  documents  in 


Tod  in  Deuisfhiwtd  (Bcriin,  1882). 


plague  epidemics,  even  in  the  latest,  that  hi  Russia  in  1878^1879, 
and,  moreover,  according  to  the  latest  accounts,  are  not  a  spedsl 
feature  of  IncUan  plague.  According  to  a  Surgeon-Genefsl 
Frands  {Trans,  Epidem.  Soe.  v.  398)  "  haemorrhage  is  not  an 
ordinary  accompaniment "  of  Indixm  plague,  though  when  seen 
it  is  in  the  form  of  haemoptysis.  It  seems,  therefore,  impossible 
to  make  a  special  variety  of  Indian  pUgue,  or  to  refer  the  black 
death  to  any  such  special  form.  Gabrid  de  Mussis  describes 
it  even  in  the  East,  before  its  arrival  in  Europe,  ma  a  bubonic 
disease. 

The  mortality  of  the  blade  death  was,  as  is  wdl  known, 
enormous.  It  is  estimated  in  various  parts  of  Europe  at  two- 
thirds  or  three-fourths  of  the  population  in  the  first  pestilence, 
in  England  even  higher;  but  some  countries  were  Inudi  kss 
severely  affected.  Uecker  calculates  that  one-fourth  of  the 
population  of  Europe,  or  35  milBons  of  persons,  died  in  the 
whole  of  the  epidemics. 

In  the  15th  century  the  plague  recurred  frequently  in  neariy  all 

Rrts  of  Europe.  In  the  hnt  Quarter  It  was  very  destructive  in 
ily,  in  Spain  (espedally  Barcelona  and  Seville),  in  Germany  and 
in  Enghind,  where  London  was  severely  visited  in  1400  and  1406, 
and  again  in  1438.  In  1427,  80,000  peraons  died  in  Dantzk  and 
the  neighbourhood.  In  1438*1439  the  plague  was  in  Germaoy, 
and  its  occurrence  at  Basel  was  described  by  Aeneas  Sylvius,  after> 
wards -Pope  Pius  !L  In  I448>I450  Itahr  ([Kicchei7,  G«roiafiy 
(Lerach,  from  old  chronicles),  France  and  Spain,  were  ravaged  by 
a  plague  supposed  to  have  arisen  in  Asia,  scarcely  less  destractiwe 
than  the  bnck  death.  England  was  probably  seldom  quite  free 
from  plague,  but  the  next  great  outbreak  is  recorded  in  147a  aod 
following  years.  In  1466,  40,000  persons  died  of  plague  in  Para; 
in  1477-148^  die  dties  of  northern  Italy  were  devastated,  and  in 
1485  BrusBeu.  In  the  fifteenth  year  ot  Henry  VII.  (1499-1500) 
a  severe  plague  In  London  caused  the  long  to  retire  to  Calais. 

^  The  i6th  centuiy  was  not  more  free  Trom  plague  than  the  15th. 
Simultaneously  With  a  terrible  pestilence  which  is  reportea  to 
have  neariy  depopulated  China,  plague  prevailed  over  Germany, 
Holland,  Italy  and  S|»in,  In  the  first  decade  of  the  century,  and 
revived  at  various  times  in  the  first  half.  In  152^  there  was  tjagoe 
in  Edinburgh;  in  London  In  1537-1539.  and  again  1547-1548;  and 
also  in  the  north  of  England,  though  probably  not  absent  before. 
Some  of  the  epidemics  of  this  period  In  Italy  and  Gcrroany  are 
known  by  the  accounts  of  eminent  phvslcians,  as  Vochs,  Fracastor« 
Mercurisuis,  Borgarucd,  Ingrassia,  Massaria,  Amid,  &c..*  whose 
writings  are  important  beoiuse  the  question  of  contagion  first 
began  to  be  raiaied,  and  also  i>lague  had  to  be  distifwuiuied  fcook 
typhus  fever,  which  began  in  this  century  to  appear  in  Europe. 

The  epidemic  of  1563-1564  in  London  and  England  was  veij 
severe,  a  thousand  dying  weekly  in  London;  In  Paris  about  ths 
time  plague  was  an  everyday  occurrence,  of  which  some  were  less 
afraid  than  of  a  headache  (Boiganiccl).  In  1570,  200,000  pcraooa 
died  in  Moooow  and  the  neighbourhood,  in  1572,  ^,000  at  Lyoos; 
in  i<s68  and  1574  plague  waa  at  Edinburgh,  and  m  1570  at  Near> 
caatle.  When,  however,  in  1575  a  new  wave'^of  plague  passed  over 
Europe,  its  origin  was  referred  to  Constantioopk;,  .whence  it  was 
said  to  have  mread  by  sea  to  Malta,  Sicily  and  Italy,  and  by  laad 
through  the  Austrian  territories  to  Germany.  Others  contmded 
that  the  disease  originated  locally:  and,  indeed,  considering  pneviooa 
history,  no  importation  of  plague  would  seem  neceasaiy  to  eacplaia 
its  presence  in  Europe.  Italy  suffered  severely  (Venice,  in  1576* 
k>st  70,000);  North  Europe  not  less,  though  later;  Loodoa  ia 
1580-1582.  In  158^  Breslau  witnessed  the  most  deatructiva 
plague  known  in  its  history.  The  great  plague  of  ijma  ia  Loadoa 
seems  to  have  been  a  part  of  the  same  epidemic,  whidi  waa  hardly 
extiaguuhed  by  the  end  of  the  century,  and  »  noted  in  I,ondo^ 
asaia  in.  ^99.  On  the  whole,  this  century  shows  a  decrease  of 
plague  in  Europe. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century  pbgue  was  stiD  mvvailcnt 
in  Europe,  though  considerably  less  so  than  in  the  aaiddle  a^i  ■ 
In  the  second  half  a  still  greater  decline  is  observable,  and  by  the 
third  quarter  the  disease  lud  disapp^red  or  was  dlsappeariox  frona 
a  great  part  of  western  Europe.  The  epidemics  in  England  wiB 
be  most  conveniently  coosidercd  in  one  scries*    From  thia  tioae 


*  Vochs,  O^usculum  do  pestHentia  (tS37) ;  Fraoaatoriita, 

Contagiooe,  &c.,"  Opera  (Venice,  i55^rnieron.  Mercurialia*  Dm 
P*sle,  praesertim  de  Veneta  et  PotowMi .  (Basel,  1577);  Proap 
Borgarutlus,  De  peste  (Venice,  1565),  8vo;  Filippo  Ini^uria.  7t 
fortmUtoneddpestiferomorho  .  .  .  Palermo  e  .  .  rernodiSicii 
(157^-157^  4to,  PSlermo,  IJI76-1577);  A.  Maasana,  Da  pat 
(Venice.  1597):  Diomedcs  Amicus,  Tres  traddifu  (Vcnioe,  is^\» 
4to;  Victor  de  Bonagentibus,  Decern  proUemalu  de  paste  (Venice. 
l&S<^),  8vo:  Georgius  Aericola,  De  feste  libri  tres  (Basel,  1554)  8vo. 
The  works  of  EngKsh  physicians  of  this  period  are  of  little  ^'  " 
value:  but  Lodge's  Treatiu  of  Iks  Ptaem  (London,  i«0|})  < 
mention. 


PLAGUE 


695 


oowanb  we  hvn  the  guidanee  bf  the  **  WHk  ef  Moilifity  '*  (saved 
fai  Loudotit  vhicb,  d»ush  drawn  up  on  the.  evidence  of  igaorant 
peraooa*.  are  doubtlew  roughly  true.    The  acoetaba  of  Jamca  I.  in 
i6q3  was  marlBed  by  a  very  destructive  plague  which  kiUed  38,000 
in  London.    In  this  and  aubaequent  yean  the  disease  was  widely 
diffused  in  England— for  4nstanoe,  Oxford,  Derbyshire,  Newcastk. 
It  prevailed  at  the  same  time  in  Holland,  and  had  ddne  so  aome 
years  pnsv'voudf  In  northern  Germany.    In  the  same  year  (160^) 
one  miiUon  persons  are  said  to  have  died  ol  plague  in  Egypt. .  This 
ph^gue  is  said  to  have  lasted  eight  years  in  London.   At  all  eventa 
us  1609  we  have  the  second  great  plague  year,  with  a  mortality  of 
11,78$.    After  this  there  is  a  remission  till  about  1620,  when  pfa^e 
•gain  began  to  spread  in  northern  Europe,  especially  Genneny 
and  Holland,  which  was  at  that  time  ravaged  by  war.    In  1625 
(the  year  of  the  siege  of  Breda  in  Holland)  is  the  third  great  London 
plague  wi^  35417  deaths-^thoueh  the  year  1624  was  resBarkafaly 
exeaapt,  and  1636  neatly,  ao.    In  1630  was  the  great  plague  of 
Milan,  described  by  Ripamonti.*'    la  1632  a  severe  epidemic, 
apparently  plague,  waa  in  Derbyshire.    1636  is  the  fourth  grsat 
plague  year  in  London  with  a  mortality  of  10400,  and  even  in  the. 
nfaft  year  ^063  persons  died  of  the  same  disease.    The  same  year 
7000  out  of  30,000  inhabitants  of  Newcastle  died  of  plague;  in  1635 
It  waa  at  Hnll.    About  the  same  time,  16^51^1637.  plague  was  pre- 
valent in  HoUand,  and  the  epidemic  of  Nijrowegen  is  cekbrated 
as  having  been  described  by  Dtenicrbroeck,  whose  work  (Tractctus 
dg  pesU,  ato,  1641-1665)  is  one  of  the  most  important  on  the  subject. 
The  English  epidenuc  was  widely  spread  and  lasted  till  1647,  In 
which  year,  the  mortality  amounting  to  3597,  we  have  the  fifth 
epidemic  in  London.    The  army  diseases  <n  the  Civil  Wars  were 
coiefly  typhus  and  malarial  fevers,  but  plague  was  not  unknown 
among  them,  as  at  Wallingford  Castle   (WUlis.  "Of  Feavera/' 
Work$i  ed.  16S1,  p.  131)  andDunstar  Castle.    From  this  time  till 
1664  little  was  beard  of  plague  in  England,  though  it  did  not  cease 
on  uie  Continent.    In  Irehuid  it  is  said  to  have  been  aeen  for  the 
last  time  in  1650.* 

In  1 6156  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  all  recorded  epidemics 

in  Europe  raged  in  Naples;  it  'is  said  to  have  carried  oR  300,000 

persons  in  the  mace  of  five  months.    It  passed  to  Rome,  but  there 

was  much  less  latal,  making  14,000  victims  only — a  result  attri> 

buted  by  some  to  the  precautions  and  sanitary  measures  introduced 

by  Cardinal  Gastaldi,  whose  work,  a  splendid  folio,  written  on 

this  occasion  {Troitatus  de  aoertenda  ei  profiiganda  pesU  ptdUtco* 

iegtUis^  Bologna,  1684)  is  historically  one  of  the  most  important 

on  the  subject  of  quarantine,  &c.    Genoa  lost  60,000  inhabitants 

from  the  same  disease,  but  Tuscany  remained  untouched.    The 

comparatively  limited  spread  of  this  frightful  epidemic  in  Italy  at 

this  time  Is  a  most  noreworthy  fact.   Minorca  b  said  to  have  been 

depopulated.     Nevertheless  the  efndcmic  spread  in  the  next  few 

years  over  Spain  and  Germany,  and  a  little  later  to  Holkind,  where 

Amsterdam  in  1663-1664  was  again  ravaged  with  a  mortality  given 

as  50,ooo«  lalso 'Rotterdam  and  Haarlem.    Hamburg  suffered  in 

1664. 

The  Great  Plague  of  London, — ^The  preceding  enumeration  will 

have  prepared  the  reader  to  view  the  great  plague  of  1664-1665 

ihvai  'A  its  true  relation  to  others,  and  not  as  an  isolated 

piagamaf     phenomenon.    The  preceding  years  had  been  nnustt- 

Uoadoa,      ally  free  from  plague;  and  it  was  not' mentioned  in 

the  bills  of  mortality  till  in  the  autumn  of  J664  (Nov.  a)  a  few 

isolated  cAses  were  observed  in  the  parishes  of  St  Giles  and 

St  Martin 's,  Westminster,  and  a  few  occurred  in  the  following 

winter,  wbich  was  very  severe.    About  May  1665  the  cfisease 

again  became  noticeable,  and  qiread,  but  somewhat  slowly. 

Boghurst,  a  contemporary  docUM',  notices  that  it  crept  down 

Holborn  and  took  six  months  to  travd  from  the  western  suburbs 

(5t  Giles)  to  the  eastern  (Stepney)  through  the  city.    The 

mortality  rapidly  rose  from-43  in  May  to  590  in  June,  6137  in 

July,  i7«o36  in  August,  31,159  in  September,  after  which  it 

began  to  dtellne.    The  total  number  of  deaths  from  plague 

m  that  year,  according  to  the  bills  of  mortality,  was  68,596,  in 

a  population  estimated  at  460,000,*  out  of  whom  two-tbirds 

are  supposed  to  have  lied  to  escape  the  conUgion.   This  number 

is  lilcely  to  be  rather  too  low  than  too  high,  since  of  the  6432 

deaths  from  spotted  fever  many  were  probably  really  from 

plague,  though  not  declared  so  to  avoid  painful  restrictions. 

In  December  there  was  a  sudden  fall  in  the  mortality  which 

continued  through  the  winter;  but  in  x666  nearly  2000  deaths 

from  plag:ue  are  recorded. 

>  T5>scphus  Ri|>amontius,  De  peste  amttjdjo  (Milan,  1641),  4to. 

*  For  this  period  see  Index  to  Rememhraiuia  in  Arckhes  of  City 
ttf  London  J<79-r66A  (London.  1878) ;  Richardson,  Ptogue  andPestt- 
ience  in  North  ^  Bngland  (Newcastle,  185a). 

s  Graunt,  Obftfw^iohi  on  the  Biils  of  Mortality  (3rd  ed.,  London, 

1663)- 


Acoordhig'60  Wijie  authorities,  espedally  Hodgies^  the  pbgue 
was  imported  into  London  by  bales  of  merchandise  from  Holland, 
which  came  originally  from  the  Levant;  according  to  others  il 
was  introduced  by  Dutch  prisoners  of  war;  but  Boghurst 
regarded  it  as  of  local  origin.  It  is  in  favour  of  the  theory  that 
it  spread  by  some  means,  frorai  HoUand  that  plague  had  been  all 
but  extinct  in  london  for  some  seventeen  years,  and  prevailed 
in  HoUand  in  1663-1664.  But  from  its  past  history  and  local 
conditions,  London  might  weU  be  deemed  capable  of  producing 
such  an  epidemic.  In  the  bOIs  of  mortality  since  1603  there  are 
only  three  years  when  no  deaths  from  plague  ftrte  recorded. 
The  uncleainliness  of  the  city  was  comparable  to  that  of  oriental 
cities  at  the  present  day,  and,  affording  to  contemporary 
testimony  (Garendires,  Angfiae  fiageUum^  London,  1647,  p.  85), 
little  improved  since  Erasmus  wrote  his  well-known  description. 
The  spread  ol  the  disease  only  partiaUy  supported  the  doctrine 
of  contagion,  as  Boghurst  says:  "  The  disease  spread  not 
altogether  by  contagion  at  first,^  nor  began  only  at  one  place 
and  spread  further  and  further  as  an  eating  sore  doth  all  over 
the  body,  but  feU  upon  several  places  of  dty  and  suburbs  like 
rain."  In  fact  dissemination  seems  to  have  taken  place,  as 
usual,  by  the  conversion  of  one  house  after  another  into  a  focus 
of  disease,  a  process  favoured  by  the  fatal  custom  of  shutting 
up  infected  houses  with  aU  their  inmates,  whidi  was  not  only 
almost  equivalent  to  a  sentence  of  death  on  aU  therein,  but 
caused  a  dangerous  concentration  of  the  pdson;  The  well- 
known  custom  of  marking  such  houses  with  a  red  cross  and  the 
legend  "  God  have  mercy  upon  usl''  was  no  new  thing:  it  is 
found  ht  a  proclamation  in  the  possession  of  the  present  writer 
dated  1641;  and  it  was  probably  older  stflL  Hodges  testifies 
to  the  futiUty  and  injurious  effects  of  these  regulations.  Tbe 
lord  mayor  and  magistrates  not  only  carried  out  the  appointed 
administrative  measures,  but  looked  to  the  deanUness  of  the 
city  and  the  rdief  of  the  poor,  so  that  there  was  little  or  no 
actual  want;  and  the  burial  arrangements  appear  to  have  been 
wcU  attended  tOb  The  cdiege  of  physicians,  by  royal  command, 
put  forth  such  advice  and  prescriptions  as  were  thought  best  for 
tlie  emergency.  But  it  is  dear  that  ndther  these  measures  nor 
medical  treatment  had  any  effect  in  checking  the  disease.  Early 
in  November  with  colder  weather  it  began  to  dedine;  and  in 
December  there  was  so  Uttle  fear  of  contagion  that  those  who 
had  left  the  dty  "  crowded  back  as  thick  as  they  fled."  As  has 
often  been  observed  in  other  plague  epidemics,  sound  people 
could  enter  infected  houses  and  even  sleep  in  the  beds  of  those 
who  had  died  of  the  plague  "befdre  they  were  even  cold  or 
deansed  from  the  stench  of  the  diseased"  (Hodges).  The 
symptoms  of  the  disease  being  such  as  have  been  generally 
observed  need  not  be  here  considered.  The  disease  was,  as 
always,  most  destructive  in  squalid,  dirty  neighbourhoods  and 
among  the  poor,  so  as  to  be  called  the  **  poor's  plague."  Those 
who  Uyed  in  the  town  in  barges  or  ships  did  not  take  the  disease; 
and  the  houses  on  London  Bridge  were  but  Uttle  affected.  Of 
those  doctors  who  remained  in  the  dty  some  dght  or  nine  died, 
not  a  brge  proportion.  Some  had  the  rare  courage  to  investigate 
the  mysterious  disease  by  dissecting  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 
Hodges  impUes  that  he  did  so,  thou^  he  left  no  fuU  account  of 
his  observations.  Dr  George  Thomson,  a  chemist  and  a  disdple 
of  Van  Helmont,  foUowed  the  example,  and  nearly  lost  his  life 

by  an  attack  which  immediately  followed.* 
The  plague  of  1665  was  widely  spread  over  England,  and  was 

*  On  the  plague  of  1665  see  Nath.  Hodges,  Loimologia  sive  peslis 
nuperae  apvd  ^pulum  londinensem  narratio  (London,  1672)  8vo — in 
English  by  Quincy  (London,  1720),  (thcchief  authority) ;  AotMoypo^Ia 
or  an  Expertmtnial  Relation  of  the  last  Plague  in  the  Cit\  of  London, 
by  William  Boghurst,  apothecary  in  St  Gi1cs*s-in-the-Fiefds  (London, 
1666), — a  MS.  in  British  Museum  (Sloane  349),  containing  im- 
portant details;  George  Thomson.  AOIMOTOMIA,  or  the  Pest 
Anatomiud,  8vo  (London,  1666);  Sydenham,  "  Fcbris  pcstilentialis 
et  pestis  annorum  1665-1666,"  Opera,  ed.  Greenhill,  p.  96  (London, 
1844):  Colkction  ef  Scarce  Pieces  on  the  Plague  in  1605  (London. 
I7ai),  8vo;  Defoe  s  fascinating  Journal  of  a  Cititenj  whicn  should 
be  read  and  admired  as  a  fiction,  but  accepted  with  caution  as 
history;  T.  Vincent  (minister  of  the  gospel),  Cod's  Terrible  Voice 
in  the  City,  8vo  (London,  1667);  Calendar  of  Stale  Papers  (1665- 
1666; "  Domestic  "  series),  by  M.  E.  Green. 


696 


PLAGUE 


feoenlly  icgAiiled  as  haviojt  been  tnntraitted  from  Umdoo,  as  it 
appomed  moady  later  than  in  the  metropolb,  and  in  many  caaes  the 
importation  by  a  particular  person  could  be  traced.  Places  near 
London  were  earliest  afiected,  as  Brentford,  Greenwich,  Deptford; 
but  in  July  or  Aunist  1665  it  was  already  in  Southampton,  Sunder> 
laml,  Newcastle,  Ike,  A  wider  distribution  occurred  in  the  next 
year.  Oxford  entirely  escaped,  though  the  residence  of  the  court 
and  in  constant  communication  with  London.  The  exemption  was 
attributed  to  cleanliness  and  good  drainage. 
-  After  1666  there  was  no  epidemic  of  plague  in  London  or  any 
part  of  England,  though  sporadic  cases  appear  in  bills  of  mortality 
up  to  1670;  and  a  column  611ed  up  with  "o"  was  left  till  1703, 
when  it  finally  disappeared.  The  disappearance  of  plague  m 
London  was  attributed  to  the  Great  Fire,  but  no  sudi  cause  existed 
in  other  dties.  It  has  also  been  ascribed  to  quarantine,  but  no 
effective  quarantine  was  established  till  1720^  so  that  the  ioesaation 
of  plague  m  England  must  be  regarded  as  spontaneous. 

But  this  was  no  isolated  fact.  A  similar  cessation  of  plague  was 
lioted  soon  after  in  the  greater  part  of  western  Europ^  In  1666  a 
severe  plague  raged  in  Cologfue  and  on  the  Rhine,  which  was  pn>> 
kw^ed  till  1670  in  the  districtr ..  In  the  Netheriands  there  was 
pt^e  in  1667-1660,  but  there  are  no  definite  notices  of  it  after 
167a.  France  saw  the  last  plague  epidemic  in  1668,  till  it  reappeared 
in  1720,  In  the  years  1675-1684  a  new  plague  epidemic  aj^iearcd 
In  North  Africa,  Turkey,  Poland,  Hungary,  Austria  and  Germany, 
progressing  generally  northward.  Malta  lost  11,000  persons  m 
1675.  The  plague  of  Vienna  in'  1679  was  very  severe,  causing 
76,000  or  probaoly  more  deaths.  Prague  In  1681  lost  83,000  by 
plague.  Dresden  was  affected  In  t68o,  Magdeburg  and  Halle  in 
i68a — in  the  latter  town  with  a  mortality  of  43^  out  of  a  popula- 
tiott  of  about  10,000.  Many  North  German  aties  suffered  about 
the  same  time;  but  in  1683  the  phkgue  disappeared  from  Germany 
till  the  epidemic  of  1707.  in  Spain  it  ceased  about  1681;  in  Italy 
certain  aties  were  attacked  till  the  end  of  the  century,  but  not 
later  (HIrsch). 

Piaipie  in  lh$  j8tk  Crn/nry.— At  the  beginning  of  this  period 
plague  was  very  prevalent  in  Constantinople  and  along  the  Danube. 
In  1703  it  caused  great  destruction  in  the  Ukraine.  In  1704  it 
began  to  roread  through  Poland,  and  later  to  Silesia,  Lithuania, 
Prussia  and  a  great  part  of  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  in  Prussia 
and  Lithuania  a8f ,000  persons  perished :  Dantrig,  Hamburg  and 
other  northern  cities  suffered  severely.  Copenha|;cn  was  attacked 
in  1 7 10.  In  Stockholm  there  was  a  mortality  01  40,000.  Certain 
places  near  Brunswick  (10*  E.)  marked  the  western  limit  of  the 
epidemic;  and  cholera  was  arrested  at  the  same  tpot  in  later  years 
(Hftser). 

At  the  same  time  the  plague  spread  westward  from  the  Danube 
to  Transylvania  and  Styria,  and  (1713}  appeared  in  Austria  and 
Bohemia,  causing  great  mortality  m  Vienna.  Thence  it  passed  to 
Prague  and  Ratisbon — ^to  the  former,  possibly  to  the  latter,  almost 
certainly  conveyed  by  human  intercourse.  This  city  (la*  E.)  was 
the  western  limit  reached  in  this  year.  Hflser  sUtes  that  the 
plague  disappeared  everywhere  in  Europe  after  the  great  hurricane 
of  the  a7th  of  February  1714. 

In  171 7  (dague  raged  severely  In  Constantinople;  and  hi  1719 
it  made  a  fresh  progress  westward  into  Transylvania,  Hungary, 
Galkria  and  Poland,  but  not  farther  (about  20*  E.).  It  thus 
appears  that  each  successive  invasion  had  a  more  easterly  western 
limit,  and. that  the  gradual  narrowing  of  the  range  of  plague,  which 
benn  in  the  17th  century,  was  still  going  on. 

This  process  suffered  a  temporary  interruption  by  the  outbreak 
of  plague  of  southern  Fiance  in  1720-1722.  In  1720  Marseilles 
became  affected  with  an  epidemic  plague,  the  ori^'n  of  which  was 
attributed  by  some  to  contagion  through  the  ship  of  a  Captain 
Chataud  whkUi  arrived  on  the  20th  of  May  1720.  Irom  Syria,  where 
plague  at  that  time  prevailed,  though  not  epidemically  when 
he  sailed.  Six  of  the  crew  had  died  on  the  voyage  to  Leghorn, 
but  the  disease  was  declared  not  to  be  plague.  Cases  of  plague 
occurred,  however,  on  the  ship,  and  on  the  22nd  of  June  among 
porters  unloading  the  cargo.  Hence,  according  to  oelicvcrs  in 
contagbn.  the  disease  passed  to  families  in  the  "  old  town,"  the 
poorest  and  unhealthiest  quarter.  In  the  meantime  other  ships 
had  arrived  from  Syria,  which  were  put  in  quarantine.  According 
to  others  the  plague  arose  in  Marseilles  from  local  causes;  and  re- 
cently discovered  data  show  that  suspicious  ca»cs  of  contagious 
disease  occurred  in  the  town  before  the  arrival  of  Chalaud's  «iip.* 
Opinions  were  divided,  and  the  evidence  appears  even  now  nearly 
balanced,  though  the  believers  in  contaqgion  and  importation 
gained  the  victory  in  public  opinion.  The  pestilence  was  fearfully 
severe.  Thousands  01  unburied  corpses  filled  the  streets,  and  in 
all  40,000  to  60,000  persons  were  carried  off.  In  December  1721 
the  plague  passed  awav,  though  isolated  cases  occurred  in  1722. 
It  passed  to,  or  at  least  oroke  out  in,  Aries  and  Aix  in  1720,  causing 
great  mortality,  but  In  Toulon  not  till  1721.  when  it  destroyed 

i/Crloh'oii  kistcrwHf  de  la  pesU  de  MatseiUe  (Cologne,  1721, 
Paris,  1722,  &c.):  Chicovf^eau,  Vemy,  Ac.,  Observations  et  rtfUxUms 
.  ,  .  de  la  pesU  (Marseilles.  1721);  Chicoyncau,  7>tti/4  d*  la  pesU, 
Paris,  1744):  Littr«.  article  *^PMe,**  i«  DiUimmain  da  mMuitu, 
xxiv.  (Paris.  1841). 


two-thirdk  id  the'popnhtkM.'  The  dphlenik 

over  Provence,  but  not  to  other  parts  ol  France, 

that,  as  confessed  by  D'Antrechaus,  consul  of  Toukn.  a  bdintr 

in  the  exclusive  power  of  contagion,  there  were  abvodaat  opfot- 

tunities.    The  disease  was  in  fact,  as  in  other  cases,  self-ttmitel 

In  all  87,659  persona  are  said  to  have  diied  out  of  a  populaboa  d 

neariy  250,000.* 

This  great  epidemic  caused  a  panic  ia  England  which  led  to  tkc 
introduction  (under  Mead's  advice)  of  quarantine  Rgulawn, 
never  previously  enforced,  and  also  led  to  the  puUication  of  muf 
pamphlets,  &c.,  beside  Mead's  wt|l>kBown  Diuauru  m  PtstikaM 
CoHlagiom  (London,  1720). 
.    Planu  us  Sicily  in  1743,-^Aa  outbreak  of  jAagut  at  Mcanaa  is 

1743  IS  important,  not  only  for  its  faullty,  bat  as  one  of  diestpoar 
est  cases  in  favour  of  the  theory  of  imported  contagbn.  Mcasisi 
had  been  free  from  plague  since  1624,  and  the  Sicilians  prided  dbc» 
selves  OQ  the  rigour  of  the  ouarantine  hwa  which  were  tlni|^ 
to  have  preserved  them.  In  May  1743  >  vessel  arrived  fnn  Cons. 
on  board  of  which  had  occurred  some  suspidous  deaths.  The  Aq> 
and  cargo  were  burnt,  but  soon  after  cases  of  a  suspicious  lorn 
of  disease  were  observed  in  the  hospital  and  in  the  poorest  psrti 
of  the  town;  and  in  the  sammer  a  fcafful  epidemic  of  phm 
devebped  itself  which  destroyed  40,000  or  50.000  persons,  aao 
then  became  extinct  without  Kwcading  to  other  parts  cl  Sicily. 

Spnad  of  Plapufrom  tka  East, — Independent  of  the  episodes  el 
Marseilles  and  Messina,  the  spread  of  plague  from  the  Esst  coO' 
tinued  to  exhibit  the  above»mentioned  law  of  limitatba.   lo  173^ 

1744  the  disease  was  in  the  Ukraine,  Hungary,  the  borders  of  Csra- 
ima,  Moravia  and  Austria,  extending  along  the  Carpathians  u  w 
as  Poland  (20*  E.),  and  also  is  Bukowina  (25*  E.).  It  lasted  OB 
1745,  and  then  disappeared  from  those  parts  for  fifteen  yean.  Is 
i755-'>757  pl^ue  prevailed  in  parts  of  European  Turkey,  whoce 
it  on  one  oocasbn  extended  into  Transylvania,  in  the  neighlxNa' 
liood  of  Cronstadt,  where  it  was  checked  (a5*5*  E.).* 

In  1770  a  destructive  plague  arose  in  Moldavia  during  the  Ru«^ 
Turktth  War,  and  shortly  afterwards  in  Wallachia,  amucouv 
endemic  in  the  former  country  at  least.  It  affected  also  Trsasyt* 
vania  and  part  of  Hungary,  and  still  more  severely  PoUad,  M 
was  confined  to  Podolia,  Volhynia,  the  Ukraine  and  east  Gslias 
(S*  E.),  not  even  penetrating  as  far  as  Warsaw.  After  dattnywi, 
it  is  said,  300,000  persons,  and  without  being  checked  by  uy 
quarantine  regulations,  the  plagtie  died  out  finally  in  March  iTJU 
being  remarkable  for  its  short  duration  and  spontaaeouslimiuu* 
(Hiser). 

In  another  direction  the  plague  spread  over  Little  RusBi»ia  177O1 
and  desobted  Kieff,  while  in  the  next  year  it  broke  out  b  Moko* 
and  produced  one  of  the  most  destructive  epidemics  of  awdos 
times.  More  than  SD*ooo  persons,  neariy  ont-fourth  of  the  pofna- 
tion,  were  carried  off.* 

The  remaining  European  pbgue-epidemics  of  the  l8tb  centixT 
were  inconsiderabb,  but  on  that  very  account  noteworthy.  Tns- 
sylvania  was  again  affected  in  1785,  Slavonb  and  Livonia  (* 
district  of  eastern  Galicb)  in  179JS-IX9^  (25*  E.),  Vdhynis  « 
1798.  The  disease,  while  reappearing  in  the  seats  of  the  tenibie 
eariier  epidemics,  was  more  limited  in  its  range  and  of  shorter 
duration.*  An  epidemic  in  Dalroatb  in  1 783-1 784  is  notewoctby 
in  connexion  with  later  outbreaks  in  the  same  region.  In  the  laA 
years  of  the  centunr  (1799-1800)  there  was  a  new  epidemic  in  Sjrn 
and  Egypt,  where  it  affected  the  French  and  afterwards  the  Esfbfe 
army. 

Plague  in  Ike  tglh  Cen/Kry.— Plague  appeand  at  Constsnu- 
Dopb  in  1802-1803,  about  the  same  time  in  AnnenU  (Kin)i 
and  in  x8ox  in  Bagdad.  It  had  prevailed  since  179^  ^ 
Georgia  and  the  Caucasus,  and  in  1803-1806  began  to  spieM 
from  the  north  of  the  Caucasus  into  Russia,  till  in  1806  it  «* 
established  at  or  near  Astrakhan,  and  in  1807  reached  Zsrci, 
200  m.  higher  up  the  Volga.  Tliese  localities  an  inlcresiial 
as  being  near  those  where  plague  appealed  in  iS??"'^?^ 
It  is  also  said  to  have  entered  the  govenunent  of  Santoyi 
but  probably  no  great  distance.*  The  plague  lemaiDcd  is 
the  Caucasus  and  Georgia  till  1819  at  least.  In  1828^1831  it 
was  in  Armenia,  and  again  in  1840*1843,  since  which  Uiac  it 
has  not  been  heard  of  in  that  country. 

•  D'Antrechaus,  Rdatian  da  la  posit  da  Taidan  «§  '7*' (^ 
I7S6);  G.  Lambert.  Histaira  de  la  pesU  de  Toedtm  em  tjxi  (ToolA 
1861),  quoted  by  H&ser,  Cesck.  der  epidem,  Krankk.  - 

'  Adam  Chenot,  Abhandlung  von  der  Pea  (Dresden,  tTT^Jl  <" 
Peste  (Vienna,  1766).  ,  . 

« Samoitowttz,  liimoire  xar  la  peste  en  Rmeie,  t77*  (P^ns,  nvi' 
Mrrtcns.  De  Id  peste  eH  iTft  (Puis,  1784).  ..  .   bw 

•Lorinser,  Pesl  des  artents  (Bertin.  l437)  p.  103;  Schmud,  r«« 
in  Syrmien,  1795  (2  vols.,  Pcsth,  1801). 

■From  the  annals  of  the  Moravian  community  of  Sarepcs* 
the  Volga,  Gesckiehte  der  BrUder-Cenmnda  Sanpla,  by  A.  Ol«^ 
(Sarepta  and  Beriin,  1865);  also  Tholonn.  SpSddmias  da  paMP 
Camata  (Paris,  1879). 


PLAGUE 


697 


In  i8e8  plague  «u  at  ConsUntinopk,  in  1809  at  Smyrna 
In  iSia  waa  a  more  gcaeral  epidemic  a0ectuig  ihoe  places  and 
alto  Egypt.  An  outbreak  at  Odessa  is  supposed  to  have  been 
iMought  from  Constantinople,  and  thence  to  have  passed  to 
Transyl/ania.  In  1813  a  severe  plague  at  Bucharest  is  sup* 
posed  to.  have  been  brought  froi^  Constantinople.  About  the 
same  time  plague  prevailed  in  Bosnia,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
passed  thence  to  Dalmatia  in  1815.  Jn  1814-1815  it  again 
appeared  in  Egypt,  and  once  more  invaded  the  oontbient  oi 
Europe  in  Albania  and  Bosnia.  Two  insular  outbreaks,  Malta 
in  1813  and  Corfu  in  i8is,  attracted  much  attention  as  being 
both  thought  to  be  cases  of  importation  by  sea-traffic/  and 
there  seems  good  reason  for  this  opinion. 

A  panic  spread  through  Europe  in  i8xs  in  consequence  of  an 
outbreak  in  Noja  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Italy  According  to 
one  view  it  was  imported  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Dalmatia, 
though  no  definite  history  of  contagion  was  established;  accord- 
ing  to  oiherv  it  originated  endemically  in  that  i^kce.  It 
remained,  however,  strictly  confined  to  a  small  district,  perhaps 
in  consequence  of  the  eactraordinarily  rigocotis  measures  of 
isolation  adopted  by  the  Italian  government.  In  i8a8  an 
isolated  epidonic  appeared  in  Greece  in  the  Morea,  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  by  troops  from  Egypt.*  In  i824~x8as  an 
outbreak  took  place  at  Tutchkoff  in  Beasarabia;  the  town  was 
strictly  isolated  by  a  miliury  cordon  and  the  disease  did  not 
spread.*  Cronstadt  in  Transylvania  was  the  scene  of  a  small 
outbreak  in  i8a8,  which  was  said  to  be  isolated  by  similar 
measures  (Lorinser).  A  far  more  serious  epidemic  was  connected 
with  the  campaign  of  the  Russian  army  against  Turkey  in 
1828^x839.  Moldavia,  WaUachia  and  Bessarabia  were  widdy 
affected;  the  disease  broke  out  also  in  Odessa  and  the  Crimea, 
and  isolated  cases  occurred  in  Transylvania.  The  most 
northeriy  pmnta  reached  by  the  plague  were  near  Cutnomitz 
on  the  frontier  of  Bessarabia  and  Bukowina,  and  its  limitaUon 
was  as  before  attributed  to  the  Russian  and  Austrian  military 
cordons. 

In  183 1  another  epidemic  occurred  in  Constantinople  and 
Boumdia;  in  1837  again  in  Rotmielia  and  in  Odeisa'->its  last 
appearance  in  these  regions,  and  the  last  on  the  European 
continent  except  an  isolated  outbreak  in  Dalmatia  iu  1840,  and 
one  in  Constantinople  in  184 1.* 

The  plague-epidemics  in  Egypt  between  1833  and  1845  &>« 
very  important  in  the  history  <rf  plague,  since  the  disease  was 
almost  for  the  first  time  sdentifically  studied  in  its  home  by 
skilled  Kuropean  phystdans,  chiefly  French.  The  disease  was 
found  to  be  less  contaguNis  than  reported  to  be  by  popular 
tradition,  and  most  of  the  French  school  went  so  far  as  to  deny  the 
contagiousness  of  the  disease  altogether.  The  epidenuc  of  1834- 
183s  was  not  less  destructive  than  many  of  those  notorious 
in  history;  but  in  X844-Z845  the  disease  dbappeared. 

In  Z853  plague  appeared  in  a  district  of  western  Arabia,  the 
Asir  country  in  North  Yemen,  and  it  »  known  to  have  occurred 
in  the  same  district  in  1815,  as  it  did  afterwards  in  1874  and 
1879.  In  1874  the  disease  extended  within  lour  days'  march  of 
Mecca.  From  the  scantiness  of  population  the  mortality  was 
not  great,  but  it  became  clear  that  this  m  one  of  the  endemic 
feats  of  plague.' 

In  June  1858  intelligence  was  received  in  Constantinople  of  an 
outbreak  of  disease  at  the  small  town  Benghazi,  in  the  district 
of  Baxca,  province  of  Tripoli,  North  Africa,  which  though  at 
first  misunderstood  was  clearly  bubonic  plague.  From  later 
researches  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  began  in  1856  or  in 
1855.    The  disease  did  not  spread,  and  ceased  in  the  autumn,  to 

*  Faulkner,  On  the  Ptcpu  in  iialta  (London.  1820).  8vo:  J.  D. 
Tully.  History  of  the  Plapu  in  Malta,  Goto,  Corfu  and  Cefkatonia 
(London.  i83i).8vo:White.  TruUist  on  the  Plague  Ut  Corf v)  (London 
1847);  Calvert,  *'  On  the  Plague  in  Malta,  1813."  iied.'Cki,  Tram- 
metiunSf  vL  t. 

•  L.  A.  Gosee.  Relation  ie  la  peste  en  Grice,  1827^1898  (Paris, 


319. 


»858>- 

•  torinser,  Pest  des  ononis,  p.  311 

*  For  the  authoritiea,  lee  Haser.  Op.  eii. 
■  J.  N.  iUdcliffe,  Report  ef  Local  Coetmmeni  Baaed  tSTQ-iSSo, 

suppL,  p-  43. 


return  with  leas  vMenee  in  1859,  when  it  died  out.  In  the 
autumn  of  1873  it  returned,  but  came  again  to  a  spontaneous 
termination.* 

After  the  epidemic  of  Benghazi  in  1856-1859,  plague  was  next 
heard  of  in  the  district  of  Maku,  in  the  extreme  north-west  of 
Persia  in  November  1863.  It  occurred  in  a  scattered  popuhition, 
and  the  mortality  was  not  absohitdy  large.' 

In  1867  an  outbreak  of  plague  was  reported  in  Mesopotamia 
(Irak),  among  the  marshes  of  Hindieh  bordering  on  the  tower 
Euphrates.  The  epidemic  began  in  December  t866  (or  probably 
earlier)  and  ceased  in  June  1867.  But  numerous  cases  of  non- 
fatal mild  bubonic  disease  (mild  plague  or  pesHs  minor)  occurred 
both  before  and  after  the  epidemic,  and  according  to  Tbolozan 
similar  cases  had  been  observed  neariy  every  year  from  1856  to 
x86s.« 

The  next  severe  epidemic  of  plague  in  Irak  began  in  December 
t873  But  facu  collected  by  Tbolozan  show  that  pesiis  minora 
or  sporadic  cases  of  true  j^gue,  had  appeared  in  1868  and 
subsequent  years.  The  outbreak  of  1873-1874  begsn  about  60  m. 
from  the  origin  of  that  of  1867.  It  caused  a  much  greater 
mortality  and  extended  over  a  much  wider  area  than  that  of 
X867,  induding  the  towns  of  Ketbela  and  Hilleh.  After  a  short 
Interval  It  reappeared  at  Divanieh  in  December  r874,  and  spresd 
over  a  much  wider  area  than  in  the  previous  e|Mdemics.  This 
epidemic  was  carefully  studied  by  Surgeon-Major  Colvill.*-  He 
estimated  the  mortality  at  4000.  The  epidemic  ceased  in  July,' 
but  broke  out  again  eariy  in  1876,  and  in  (his  year  extended 
northwards  to  Bagdad  and  beyond.  The  whole  area  now 
affected  extended  isio  m.  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and 
the  total  number  of  deaths  was  believed  to  be  20,000.  In 
K877  plague  also  occurred  at  Shuster  in  south-west  Berria, 
probably  conveyed  by  pilgrims  returning  from  Irak,  and  caused 
great  mortality. 

After  its  customary  cessation  in  the  autumn  the  epidemip 
began  agdn  in  October  1876,  though  sporadic  cases  occurred 
all  the  summer.  The  disease  appeared  in  1877  in  other  parts  of 
Mesopotamia  also  with  less  severity  than  in  1876,  but  over  a 
wider  area,  being  now  announced  at  Samara,  a  town  70  m.  above 
Bagdad  on  the  Tigris.  The  existence  of  plague  in  Bagdad  or 
Mesopotamia  was  not  again  announced  till  the  year  1884,  when 
accounts  again  appeared  in  the  newspapers,  and  in  that  July  the 
usual  offidal  statement  was  made  that  the  plague  had  been 
stamped  out. 

In  1870-1871  it  appeared  in  a  <Bstrict  of  Mokri  in  Persian 
Kurdistan  to  the  south  of  Lake  Urumiah  (far  removed  from  the 
outbreak  of  1863).  The  epidemic  appears,  however,  to  have 
died  out  in  1871,  and  no  further  accounts  of  plague  tiiere  were 
recdved.  The  district  had  suffered  in  the  great  epidemic  of  plague 
in  Persia  In  t839-x835.  In  the  winter  1876-1877  a  disease  which 
appears  to  have  been  plague  appeared  in  two  villages  in  the 
extreme  north  of  the  province  of  Khorfisan,  about  35  leagues 
from  the  south-east  an^e  of  the  Caspian  Sdi.  In  March  1877 
plague  broke  out  in  Resht,  a  town  of  20,000  inhabitants,  in  the 
province  of  Ghilan,  near  the  Caspian  Sea  at  its  south-west  an^e, 
from  which  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  trade  with  Astrakhan. 
In  1832  a  very  destructive  plague  had  carried  off  half  the 
inhabitants.  In  1877  the  plague  was  very  fatal.  From  March 
to  September  4000  persona  were  calculated  to  have  died.  The 
disease  continued  till  the  spring  of  1878.  In  1877  there  was  a 
doubtful  report  of  the  same  disease  at  Astrabad,  and  also  in  some 
parts  near  the  I^tso-Afghan  frontier.  In  1878  plague  again 
occurred  in  Kurdistan  in  the  district  of  So-uj-BuIak,  said  by  Dr 
Tholozan  to  be  the  same  as  in  the  district  of  Mukri  where  it 
occurred  in  1870-1871.  These  scattered  outbreaks  of  plague  in 
Persian  territory  ate  the  more  remarkable  because  that  country 

*  Thoknan,  La  Peste  en  Tnrmtie  dans  les  temps  modemes  (Paris. 
1880). 

'  J.  Netten  RadcUffe.  Report  of  the  Medical  Ofctr  9/  the  Ph'»y 
Council,  9k.  (1875):  also  in  Papers  on  Levantine  rlagne,  presented 
to  parliament  (1870),  p.  7. 

■  Tholoxaft.  La  Peste  en  Turquie,  p.  86. 

•  See  his  report  dted  by  Radcliffe,  Papers  on  Leeantine  Ptaiue 
(1879). 


698 


PLAGUE 


had  been  generally  noted  for  iu  freedom  from  plague  (as  com* 
pared  wiih  Asiatic  Turkey  and  the  Levant). 

A  few  cases  of  plague  occurred  in  January  1S77  at  Baku  on 
the  west  shore  of  the  Caspian,  in  Russian  territory.^ 

An  outbreak  of  plague  t)n  European  soil  in  1878*1870  on  the 
banks  of  the  Volga  caused  a  panic  throughout  Europe.'  In 
the  summer  of  1877  a  disease  prevailed  in  several  villages  in 
the  neighbourhood  oi  Astrakhan  and  in  the  city  itself,  Yihkh  was 
clearly  a  mild  form  of  plague  (pestis  minor).  It  caused  no 
deaths  (or  only  one  due  to  a  complication)  and  died  out  appar- 
ently spontaneously.  An  official  physician,  Dr  Ka&torsky,  who 
investigated  the  matter  for  the  government,  declared  the  disease 
to  be  identical  with  that  prevailing  in  the  same  year  at  Resht 
in  Persia;  another  physician,  Dr  Janlzky,  even  gave  it  the  name 
of  pestis  nostras.  In  October  1878  some  cases  appeared  in  the 
sianiUa  or  Cossack  military  settlement  of  Vetlanka,  ijo  m. 
from  Astrakhan  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  which  seem  to 
have  puzzled  the  physicians  who  first  observed  them,  but  on 
the  30th  of  November  were  recognized  as  being  but  the  same 
mild  pbgue  as  had  been  observed  the  year  before  near  Astrakhan 
by  Dr  Ddppner,  chief  medical  officer  of  the  Cossacks  of  Astra- 
khan His  report  on  the  epidemic  is  the  only  original  \>ne  we 
have.  At  the  etui  of  November'  the  disease  became  suddenly 
more  severe,  and  most  of  those  attacked  died;  and  from  the  ai&t 
of  December  it  became  still  more  malignant,  death  occurring  in 
aomc  cases  in  a  few  hours,  and  without  any  buboes  being  formed. 
No  case  of  recovery  was  known  in  this  period.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  it  rapidly  declined,  and  in  the  first  weeks  of  January 
still  more  so.  The  last  death  was  on  the  24th  of  January.  In 
the  second  half  of  December,  when  the  disease  had  already  lasted 
two  months,  cases  of  plague  occurred  in  several  neighbouring 
villages,  all  of  an  extremely  malignant  type,  so  that  in  some 
places  all  who  were  attacked  died.  In  most  of  these  cases  the 
disease  began  with  persons  who  had  been  at  Vetlanka,  though 
this  was  not  universally  established.  The  inhabitants  of  these 
villages,  terrified  at  the  accounts  from  Vetlanka.  strictly  isolated 
the  sicki  and  thus  probably  checked  the  spread  of  the  disease. 
But  it  evidently  suffered  a  spontaneous  decline^  By  the  end  of 
January  there  were  no  cases  left  ia  the  district  except  at  one 
village  (Selitrennoye),  where  the  last  occurred  on  the  9th  of 
February.  The  total  number  of  cases  in  Vetlanka,  out  of  a 
population  of  about  1700,  was  417,  of  whom  362  died.  In  the 
other  villages  there  were  about  62  deaths  from  plague,  and  not 
more  than  two  or  three  cases  of  recovery.  In  consequence  of 
the  alarm  excited  by  this  appearance  of  plague  upon  European 
soil,  most  European  governments  sent  special  commissions  to 
the  spot..  The  British  commissioners  were  Surgeon-Major 
Colvill  and  Dr  J.  F.  Payne,  who,  like  all  the  foreign  commis- 
sioners, reached  the  spot  when  the  epidemic  was  over.  With 
respect  to  tlie  origin  of  this  epidemic,  the  possibility  of  its  having 
originated  on  the  spot,  as  in  Resht  and  on  the  Euphrates  in 
very  similar  situations,  is  not  to  be  denied.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  show  that  the  contagion  was  brought  home  by  Cossacks 
returning  from  the  Turkish  War,  but  on  absolutely  no  evidence. 
In  the  opinion  of  Dr  Payne  the  real  beginning  of  the  disease  was 
in  the  year  2877,  in  the  vicinity  of  Astrakhan,  and  the  sudden 
devek)pment  of  the  malignant  out  of  a  mild  form  of  the  disease 
was  no  more  than  had  been  observed  in  other  places.  The  Astra- 
khan disease  may  have  been  imported  from  Resht  or  Baku,  or 
may  have  been  caused  concurrently  with  the  epidemics  of  these 
places  by  some  cause  affecting  the  basin  of  the  Caspian  generally. 

Plague  in  India.— It  used  to  be  held  as  a  maxim  that  plague 
never  appeared  east  of  the  Indus;  nevertheless  it  was  observed 
during  the  igth  centiuy  in  jnore  than  one  distiivct  centre  in 
India.  So  long  ago  as  181 5  the  disease  appeared  in  Guzerat, 
Kattywar  and  Cutch,  "after  three  years  of  severe  famine." 

*J-  Netten  RadcIifTc,  Reports;  Tholozan.  Histaire  d«  la  pesie 
bubomqut  em  Perse  (Paris,  1874). 

'  'See  Radcliffe.  Reports  (i 879-1880):  Hirach  and  Sommerbrodt, 
Pest-Epidewtie  1878-1879  in  Astrachan  (Berlin.  1880);  Zuber, 
La  PesU  d' Astrakhan  en  1878-1879  (Paris,  1880) ;  Colvill  and  Payne. 
BePeri  to  ike  Lord  President  oi  the  Council  (1879). 

'  Tb^  dates  arc  all  reduced  to  new  style. 


Li  reappeared  early  next  year,  in  the  same  locality,  when  ii 
extended  to  Sind  as  for  as  Hyderabad,  and  in  another  direction 
south-east  as  far  as  Ahmcdabad  and  Dhollerah.  But  it  disap- 
peared from  these  parts  in  1820  or  early  in  1821,  and  was  not 
heard  of  again  till  July  1836,  when  a  disease  broke  out  into 
violence  at  the  town  of  Pali  in  Marwar  in  Kajputana.  It 
spread  from  PaU  to  the  province  of  Meywar,  but  died  out  spon- 
taneously in  the  hot  season  of  1837.  The  origin  oi  these  two 
epidemics  was  obscure.  No  importation  from  other  countries 
could  be  traced. 

In  1833  (though  not  officially  known  till  later)  an  epidetnic 
broke  out  at  Kedomath  in  Gurwhal,  a  sab-district  of  Kumaon 
on  the  south-west  of  the  Himalayas,  on  a  high  situatioa.  In 
1834  and  1836  other  epidenucs  occurred,  which  at  last  attracted 
the  attention  of  government.  In  t840'x8so,  and  again  in  1852, 
the  disease  raged  very  severely  and  spread  southward.  In  1S53 
Dr  Francis  and  Dr  Pearson  yttn  appointed  a  commission  to  in< 
quire  into  the  malady.  In  1876^x877  another  outbreak  occurred. 
The  symptoms  of  this  disease,  called  mdia  mwrte  or  makaman 
by  the  natives,  were  precisely  those  of  oriental  plague.  The 
feature  of  blood'^pitting,  to  which  much  importahce  had  bcea 
attached,  appeared  to  be  not  a  common  one.  A  veiy  remarkable 
circumstance  was  the  death  of  animals  (rats,  and  more  raidy 
snakes)  at  the  outbreak  of  an  epidemic.  The  rats  brought  vp 
blood,  and  the  body  of  one  examined  after  death  by  Dr  Fnndi 
showed  an  affection  of  the  lungs.* 

Oriental  plague  was  observed  in  the  Chinese  province  ef 
Vunium  from  1871,  and  also  at  Pakhoi,  a  port  in  the  Ton^usg 
Gulf,  in  1882 — ^being  said  to  have  prevailed  there  at  least  fifteen 
years.  In  both  places  the  symptoms  were  the  same,  d 
undoubted  bubonic  plague.  At  Pakhoi  it  recurs  oeariy  every 
year.* 

In  1880  therefore  plague  existed  or  had  existed  within  ten 
years,  in  the  following  parts  of  the  worid:  (1)  Benghazi,  Afrka; 
(2)  Persian  Kurdistan;  (3)  Irak,  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphntcs; 
(4)  the  Astr  country,  western  Arabia;  (5)  on  the  lower  Volga, 
Russia;  (6)  northern  Persia  and  the  ^res  of  the  Caspiaa; 
(7)  Kumaon  and  Gurhwal,  India;  (8)  Yunnan  and  PaUm, 
China. 

Liter ATURfi. — ^See  the  following  worVs.  be^es  thoae  ilitufy 
quoted:  Kamintus.  Re^men  contra  epidimiam  sioe  pestem,  410, 
c.  1404  (many  editions);  Jacobus  Soldua,  Opui  insane  de  pesu, 
4to  (Bologna,  1478) ;  Alex.  Bencdictus,  De  observatiane  tn  pestdentu, 
4to  (Venice,  1493);  Nicolaus  Massa.  Defebre  pesttlentia,  4to  [Venice. 
»556,  &c.);  Fioravanti,  Regtmento  ddU  pnle,  8vo.  Venice,  1556: 
lohn  Woodall,  The  Surf/eon's  Mate.  foBo  (Lx>ndon,  1630):  Van 
Hclmont.  Tumtdus  pestss,  8vo  (CoU»ne,  1644.  &c.);  Munton. 
Trattato  dd  gooemo  delta  peste,  Modena,  17 14:  John  Howard, 
An  Account  of  Lazaretloes  in  Europe,  &c.,  4x0  (London,  I7S*^U 
Patrick  Rusaell.  A  Treatise  of  the  Plagtte,  410  (London.  1791*: 
Thomas  Hancock,  Researches  into  the  Laos  of  Pestdente.  8vo 
(London,  1821);  Foder6.  Lefons  sue  les  fpidtmies^  Suu,  4  vola  8vo 
(Paris.  1822-1824);  S^gur  Dupcyron.  Kecherckes  kistorieues,  Sk» 
svr  Us  pesU  (1837);  Bulard,  La  Feste  orientate,  8vo  (Pans.  iSy))'. 
Grie«nger,  Die  Infectionskrankkeiten  (and  cd.,  8vo,  Erfangen. 
1864).  (J.  F.  P.) 

History  sinee  r^o.—The  moM  striking  feature  of  the  eaHy 
history  of  plague  sunmmrlxed  above  Is  the  gradual  retroceasxn 
of  plague  fiom  the  west,  after  a  scries  of  exceedingly  desimetive 
outbreaks  extending  over  several  centuries,  and  its  eventoil 
disappearance  from  Europe.  It  appean  to  have  come  to  a 
sudden  end  in  one  country  sf ter  another,  and  to  have  been  seen 
there  no  more.    Those  iyiAg  most  to  the  ^vest  ireie  the  lint 

<0n  Indian  plague,  sec  Francis.  Trans.  Epidem.  Soc.  LmI 
iv.  407->4o8;  John  Murray,  ibid.,  vol.  iv.  part  2;  J.  N'.'R*dcbft; 
Reports  of  Load  Gooemmenl  Board 
1880);  Parlianuntary  Papers 
in  North- West  Provinces  of  . 
tion);  Hirsch,  Handbuch  der  hisiorischen'geoar.  Potketegu,  1.  f09 
(i860).  (Eng.  trans,  by  Crcighton,  London,  i8«3);  H/Bcter's  Vf^w- 
krankheiten  des  Mittdallersl^rMn,  1865).  p.  loi;  WcbU  Petkelope 
indica  (2nd  ed.,  Calcutta.  1848). 

*See  J.  N.  Radcliffe's  Report  for  1879-1880.  p.  «;  Maasoo  ■ 
Reports  of  Imperial  Chinese  Customs,  special  series  No.  a,  for  baU- 
year  ended  the  31st  of  March  1878,  15th  issue  (Shanghai):  Lovry. 
'*  Notes  on  Epidemic  Diiease  at  Pakhoi "  (1882).  iUd..  04th  >«*«• 
P-  4>i 


PLAGUE 


699 


to  be  freed  from  its  presence,  namely,  England,  Portugal  and 
Spain.  From  aU  these  it  finally  disappeared  about  1680,  at  the 
doee  of  a  period  of  pandemic  prevalence.  Northern  and  central 
flurope  became  free  about  i7X4>  and  the  south  of  France  in 
1732.  The  last  outbreak  in  northern  Russia  occurred  in  1770. 
After  this  plague  only  appeared  in  the  south-east  of  Europe, 
where  in  turn  it  gradually  died  away  during  the  first  half  of  the 
19th  centoiy.  In  1841  its  long  reign  on  this  continent  came  to 
aa  end  with  an  isolated  outbreak  in  Turkey.  From  that  time 
until  quite  recently  it  remained  extinct,  eKept  in  the  East. 
The  province  of  ^trakhan,  where  a  very  small  and  limited  out* 
break  occurred  in  1878,  is  politically  in  Europe,  but  geographi- 
cally it  belongs  rather  to  Asia.  And  even  in  the  East  plague 
was  confined  to  more  or  less  deady  localized  epidemics;  it  showed 
DO  power  of  pandemic  diffusion.  In  short,  if  we  regard  the  his- 
tory of  this  dbease  as  a  whole,  it  appears  to  have  lost  such 
power  from  the  time  of  the  Great  Plague  of  London  in  1665, 
which  was  part  of  a  pandemic  wave,  until  the  present  day. 
There  was  not  merely  a  gradual  withdrawal  eastwards  lasting 
nearly  two  hundred  years,  but  the  outbreaks  which  occurred 
during  that  period,  violent  as  some  d  them  were,  showed  a 
constantly  diminishing  power  of  diffusion  and  an  increasing 
tendency  to  localization.  The  sudden  reversal  of  that  long 
process  is  therefore  a  very  remarkable  occurrence.  Emerging 
from  the  remote  endemic  centres  to  which  it  had  retreated, 
plague  has  once  more  taken  its  place  among  the  z3rmotic  diseases 
with  which  Western  communities  have  to  reckon,  and  that 
which  has  for  more  than  a  century  been  little  more  than  a  name 
and  a  tradition  has  become  the  familiar  object  of  investigation, 
carried  on  with  all  the  ardour  and  all  the  resources  of  modern 
science.  In  what  follows  an  attempt  will  be  made  to  summarize 
the  facts  and  indicate  the  condusioas  to  be  drawn  from  recent 
experience. 

Diffusion. — ^At  the  outset  it  Is  characteristic  of  this  subtle 
disorder  that  the  present  pandemic  diffusion  cannot  be  traced 
with  certainty  to  a  definite  time  or  place  of  origin.  Herein  it 
differs  notably  from  other  exotic  diseases  liable  to  similar 
diffusion.  For  instance,  the  last  visitation  of  cholera  could  be 
traced  clearly  and  definitely  to  a  point  of  origin  in  northern 
India  hi  the  spring  of  1892,  and  could  be  followed  thence  step 
by  step  in  its  march  westward  (see  Cbolska).  Similariy, 
though  not  with  equal  precision,  the  last  wave  of  influenza  was 
shown  to  have  started  from  central  Asia  in  the  spring  of  1889, 
to  have  travelled  through  Europe  from  east  to  west,  to  have 
been  carried  thence  across  the  sea  to  America  and  the  Antipodes, 
until  it  eventually  invaded  every  inhabited  part  of  the  globe 
(see  iNfLVENZA).  In  both  cases  no  doubt  remains  that  the 
all-important  means  of  dissemination  is  human  intercourse. 
The  movements  of  plague  cannot  be  followed  in  the  same  way. 
With  regard  to  origin,  several  endemic  centres  are  now  recog- 
nised in  Asia  and  Africa,  namely,  (i)  the  district  of  Assyr  in 
Arabia,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Red  Sea;  (2)  parts  of  Meso- 
potamia and  Persia;  (3)  the  dbtrict  of  Garwhal  and  Kumaon 
fai  the  North>-West  Provinces  of  India;  (4)  Yunnan  in  China; 
(S)  East  and  Central  Africa.  The  last  wss  recently  discovered 
by  Br  Koch.  It  indudes  the  district  of  Kisiba  in  German 
East  Africa,  and  extends  Into  Uganda.  In  applying  the  term 
"  endemic  centres  "  to  these  localities,  no  very  predse  meanmg 
can  be  attached  to  the  word.  They  are  for  the  most  part  so 
remote,  and  the  infomlkition  about  them  so  scanty,  that  our 
knowledge  is  largely  guesswork.  What  we  mean  is  that  there 
b  evidence  to  show  that  under  various  names  a  disease  identical 
with  plague  has  been  more  or  less  continuously  prevalent  for  a 
number  of  years,  but  bow  long  and  bow  continuously  Is  not 
known.  Whether  any  of  them  are  permanent  homes  <rf  plague 
the  evidence  does  not  enable  us  to  say.  They  seem,  at  any 
rate,  to  have  harboured  it  since  its  disappearance  from  Europe, 
and  probably  further  investigation  would  disclose  a  still  wider 
prevalence.  For  instance,  there  are  good  reasons  for  bdievSng 
that  the  island  of  Reunion  has  been  subject,  since  1840  or  there- 
abouts, to  outbreaks  under  the  name  of  '*  lymphangUi  infec- 
Ifewv,"  in  etegant  euphemism  obnneterlstlcdly  French.    In 


all  the  cottntrics  named  plague  appean  to  behave  very  much  as 
it  used  to  do  in  Europe  from  the  time  of  the  Black  Death  on- 
wards. That  IS  to  say,  there  are  periods  of  quiescence,  with 
epidemic  outbreaks  which  attract  notice  at  irregular  intervals. 

Taking  up  the  story  at  the  pomt  where  the  earlier  historical 
summary  leaves  off,  we  get  the  following  list  of  coumrica  in 
which  plague  is  known  to  have  been  pieseat  in  each  year  (see 
Local  Government  Board's  Rqwrts):  x88o^  Itoopotamia; 
x88i,  Mesopotamia,  Persia  and  China;  188a,  Persia  and  China; 
1883,  China;  1884,  China  and  India  ii^makemariji  tS&St  Persia; 
1886, 1887, 1888,  India  (as  ^toMamari);  1889,  Arabia,  Peoia  and 
China;  1890,  Arabia,  Peisia  and  Chhia;  1891,  Arabia,  China 
and  -Iiidia  (as  makamanj;  189a,  MesopoUQua,.  Peaia,  China, 
Russia  (in  central  Asia);  1893,  Arabia,  China,  Russia  and 
India  (as  makamarij;  1894,  Arabia,  China  and  India  (as 
mahamari);  1895,  Arabia  and  China;  1896,  Arabia,  Asia 
Minor,  Chhia,  Japan,  Russia  and  India  (Bombay);  1897,  Arabia, 
China,  Japan,  India,  Russia  and  East  Africa;  1898,  Arabia, 
Ptersia,  China,  Japan,  Russia,  East  Africa,  Madagascar  and 
Vienna;  1899,  Anbia,  Persia,  China,  Japan,  Moopotamia, 
East  Africa,  West  Africa,  Philippine  Islands,  Straits  Settlements, 
Madagascar,  Mauritius,  Rtenion,  Egypt,  European  Russia, 
Portugal,  Sandwich  Islands,  New  Caledonia,  Paraigoay,  Argen- 
tine, Brazil:  1900,  to  the  foregoing  should  be  added  Turkey; 
Anstialia,  Califomia,  Mcsdco  and  Glasgow;  in  1901,  South 
Africa  and  in  1902  Russia  chiefly  at  Odessa. 

This  list  is  probably  by  no  means  exhaustive,  but  h  sufficiently 
indicates  in  a  summary  fashion  the  extent  of  that  wave  of  diffu- 
sion which  set  in  during  the  dosing  yean  of  the  X9th  century. 
It  did  not  fully  gather  way  till  1896,  when  plague  appeared  in 
Bombay,  but  our  modem  knowledge  of  the  disease  dates  from 
1894,  when  it  attached  Hong  Kong  and  first  presented  itself  to 
accunte  observaribn.  From  this  point  a  more  detailed  account 
may  be  given.  Plagoe  was  recof^iized  at  Hong  Kong  in  May 
1894,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  imported  from 
Canton,  where  a  violent  outbreak— said  to  have  caused  xoo,ooo 
deaths-^as  in  progress  a  few  months  earlier,  being  part  of  an 
extensive  wave  of  infection  iriiich  is  believed  to  have  come 
originally  out  of  the  province  of  Yunnan,  one  of  the  recognized 
endemic  centres,  and  to  have  invaded  a  huge  number  of  places 
in  that  part  of  China,  induding  Pakhoi  and  other  seaports. 
Hong  Kong  was  severely  affected,  and  has  never  since  been 
entirely  free  from  plague.  In  two  intermediate  yean— 1895 
and  1897— ^ery  few  cases  were  recorded,  but  more  recently  the 
epidemk:  has  gathered  force  again.  The  following  table  gives 
the  cases  and  deaths  in  each  of  the  six  years  1894-1899: — 


Year. 

Cases. 

Deaths. 

Case  Mortality. 

1894 

1895 

1896 

"897 

1898 

1899 

Total     .      . 

2833 

45 
1204 

21 
1320 
i486 

3550 

1078 

18 

1175 

1415 

% 
90 
80 
89 

89 

95 

6909 

6272 

907 

The  excessively  Ugh  rate  of  mortality  is  probably  due  in 
part  to  under-statement  of  the  number  of  cases.  Concealment 
b  practised  by  the  Chinese,  who  are  chiefly  attacked,  and  it  is 
easier  to  conceal  sickness  than  death.  Plague  appears  to  have 
been  equally  penlstent  and  destructive  on  the  mainland  in 
southern  China  during  the  period  indicated,  but  no  accurate 
details  are  available.  In  1897  the  Portuguese  settlements  of 
Lappa  and  Macao  were  invaded.  In  addition  to  the  provinces 
of  Yunnan,  Kwang-si  and  Kwang-tung  in  southern  China, 
plague  is  reported  to  have  been  present  for  several  years  in  a 
district  in  Mongolia  to  the  north  of  Peking,  and  distant  about 
**  twelve  days'  ride."  More  recently  several  localities  in  Mon- 
golia and  Manchuria  have  been  affected.  Formosa  was  attacked 
in  1896,  and  suffered  considerably  in  subsequent  years;  in  1899 
tlie  Japanese  goverament  officially  reporUhd  2633  cases,  with 


VxV 


\*N 


PLAGUE 


,  v.w  ».^.^  H,^  .^H*  U  «t  •**«♦.  Spwking  generally,  the  disease 
K.*  »>..*.*^^l  **sl  ii^JiH  iKe  Fw  Easl  since  1894.  bui  prease 
v«,ss.,..M^H  «*  UUiiiK.  wetpt  with  regard  to  Hong  Kong. 
\\  \  \s.sy^^mf^  im  Wt  ^•P^  im  the  Causes  of  Ike  Plague  tn 
K  «.  Ky^  v*N^Vl^  iffwta  the  endenuaty  oC  the  plague  in  that 
*^*^t  l7l»»  ro«i»talned  by  {a)  infecUon  among  rats  often 
«vuM«U««t  with  lAtectloui  material  in  rat  runs  or  in  bouses,  the 
\4«\Mii4  which  haa  not  been  destroyed,  {b)  retention  o(  infection 
Ih  hvk^wM  which  ai«  rat-iidden,  and  (c)  infected  clothing  of  people 
^hii  hav9  been  111  or  died  of  plague.  He  considers  the  outbreaks 
%tt  (avouNd  by  the  seasonal  heat  and  moisture  of  the  spring 
and  early  summer,  and  the  movement  from  place  to  place  of 
Infected  rats  or  persons.  He  also  believes  that  human  beings 
may  infect  rats.  In  310  cases  ot  pUgue  eiamlned  by  Simpson 
56%  were  bubonic,  40%  septic  and  4%  pneumonic. 

In  1896  plague  appeared  in  the  dty  of  Bomlwy.  It  was 
certainly  present  in  August,  but  was  not  recognized  tutil  the 
33id  of  September,  and  the  diagnosis  was  not  bacteriologicalty 
confirmed  until  the  13th  of  October.  This  fact  should  be 
remembered  iriien  failure  to  recognise  the  disease  on  its  first 
appearance  occurs  elsewhere.  The  origin  of  the  Bombay  inva- 
sion is  shrouded  in  obscurity.  It  is  not  even  known  when  or 
in  what  part  of  the  dty  it  b^^  (Condon,  Tke  Bombay  Flague). 
Several  theories  have  been  put  forward,  and  imponstion  by 
sea  from  China  is  the  theory  which  has  met  with  most  acceptance. 
The  native  form  of  plague,  known  as  makamari,  is  confined  to 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalaya.  It  is  described  above, 
but  that  account  may  be  supplemented  by  seme  earlier  references 
unearthed  by  the  Bombay  GaaeUeer  (vol.  hr.).  Ibn  Batesta 
notices  two  destructive  pestilences  in  the  I4t]i  century,  and 
Ferishta  one  in  1443,  which  he  calls  la*un,  and  describes  as  very 
unusual  in  India.  At  the  end  of  the  i6tJi  century  there  was  a 
pestilence  following  a  prolonged  famine,  and  in  the  17th  century 
two  violent  epidemics  are  recorded  under  the  names  la'un  and 
wdba.  In  the  second  of  these,  which  occurred  in  the  Ahmedabad 
district  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  in  1683-^,  buboes  aie 
distinctly  described.  In  the  i8th  century  several  pestilences 
are  recorded  without  description.  It  is  at  least  probable  from 
these  notes  that  even  before  the  undoubted  outbreak,  which 
began  in  Cutch  in  x8i3,  India  was  no  stranger  to  epidemic 
plague.  To  return  to  Bombay  and  1896:  the  infection  spread 
gradually  and  slowly  at  first,  but  during  the  first  three  months 
of  1897  not  only  was  the  town  of  Bombay  severely  affected,  but 
district  after  district  in  the  presidency  was  attacked,  notably 
Poona,  Karachi,  Cutch  Mandvi,  Bhiwandi  and  Daman.  The 
number  of  cases  and  deaths  reported  in  the  presidency,  exclusive 
of  the  dty,  in  each  year  down  to  the  end  of  1899,  was  as  follows:— 


Year. 

Case& 

Deaths. 

Caar  Mortality 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

Total     . 

367 
49.125 
90.506 

131.794 

36.797 

68.061 

tot  .485 

% 
74  3 
74  7 
752 
77-0 

27J.792 

306,6i6 

758 

The  corresponding  figures  for  Bombay  dty  are:-* 


Year. 

Cases. 

Deaths. 

Caae  Mortality 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

Total 

2.530 
11.963 
19.863 
19.484 

ijof 
10.333 
I8.160 
15.830 

% 

711 

857 
QI'3 

81 '3 

53.840 

46.033 

85-4 

The  total  for  the  prc^dency,  including  the  city,  in  four  years 
was  335,633  cases  with  353,549  deaths  in  a  poptilation  of 
36,960,431  (census  of  1891).  The  population  of  the  city  is 
831,764,  but  during  the  earlier  league  period  large  numbers 
fled,  so  that  the  foregoing  figures  do  not  give  the  true  plague 


incidence  according  to  population.  Moreovn,  conceahneot 
was  extensively  practised.  The  most  striking  fact  brought  out 
by  the  tables  just  given  is  the  hu^e  and  steady  increase  year 
by  year  in  the  presidency,  in  ^Mte  of  all  efloiu  10  arrest  the 
spread  of  infection.  It  has  gone  on  since  1899,  and  it  has  not 
been  confined  to  Bombay,  but  has  extended  over  the  whde  of 
India.  In  1897  it  had  already  penetrated  to  Rajputana,  the 
Punjab,  the  North  West  Provinces  and  the  Central  Provinces. 
In  the  following  year  Bengal,  Madras,  Haidarabad  and  Myson 
were  invaded.  Not  all  these  provinces  suffered  alike,  but  on  the 
whole  plague  steadily  strengthened  iu  hold  on  India  generally. 
and  hardly  relaxed  it  in  any  part.  The  most  notewonhy 
details  available  are  as  follows,  tijcen  from  the  plague  mortality 
returns  published  June  1908.  In  the  Punjab  from  179  deatto 
in  1897  the  mortality  reached  a  maximum  of  334,897  in  1903, 
in  Agra  and  Oudh  they  rose  from  73  in  1897  to  3)3,802  in  1903, 
and  in  Madras  Presidency  from  1658  in  1899  to  30,133  in  1904* 
The  most  Striking  figures,  however,  are  those  for  Bombay  and 
Bengal  which  are  given  bdow,  as  wdl  as  the  total  moitality  is 
India. 


Yor. 

Bengal  Presidency 
(including  Cakrutta). 

Bombay  Preadency 
(including  Bombay  City). 

AD  India. 

Illllllllll 

219 

3.364 

78I639 

136.084 
59.619 

2.2 19 

86I19I 

96.592 

33.196 

138.359 

184.752 
S8I.369 

223.957 
71.363 
51.525 

3.319 

103.369 

73476 

236433 

453.655 

681445 
938.010 

940.831 

300J55 

Outside  China  and  India  plague  has  caused  no  great  mortidity 
in  any  of  the  countries  in  which  it  has  appeared,  with  the 
exception  perhaps  <rf  Arabia,  about  which  very  little  is  knows. 
But  some  of  the  outbreaks  are  interesting  for  other  ressona» 
and  require  notice.    The  first  case  is  the  singular  oocurmoe  of 
three  deaths  at  Vienna  in  October  1898.    The  earliest  riaia 
was  on  attendant  named  Borisch,  emj^oyed  in  the  pathohigiral 
laboFstoiy  of  the  Vienna  General  Hospital,  ud  told  off  to  look 
after  the  animals  and  bacteriological  oKMuntus  devoted  to  the 
investigation  of  plague,  cultures  of  which  bad  been  brought 
from  India  by  the  medical  commissioners  sent  by  the  Ro>il 
Academy  of  Science  in  1897.    Borisch  was  drunk  and  out  all 
night  on  the  8th  of  October;  on  the  14th  of  October  he  fell  iH 
Plague  was  suspected,  but  Dr  MUller,  who  attended  the  man  and 
had  studied  the  disease  in  India,  would  not  admit  the  diagnoait 
on  clinical  grounds,  nor  was  it  bocteriologically  estabhshed 
until  the  loth  of  October    Barisch  died  on  the  181  h  of  October. 
On  the  30th  one  of  the  nurses,  and  on  the  31st  Dr  MuIler,  fell  iB. 
Both  died  of  pneumonic  plague,  from  which  also  Barisch  had 
undoubtedly  suffered.    A  second  nurse  and  a  sbtcr  of  mercy 
had  feverish  attacks,  but  no  further  case  occurred.    Baiisck 
was  shown  to  have  been  careless  in  the  performance  of  his  duties, 
and  to  have  disregarded  instructions;  and  the  inference  is  that 
he  conveyed  the  infection  to  his  mouth,  and  so  to  the  lunp. 
from  the  baiteriological  specimens  or  inoculated  animals.  The 
melancholy  incident  illustrates  several  pmnts  of  interest:  (i)  the 
correctness  of  the  bacterial  theory  of  osasatioa,  and  the  identity 
of  the  bacittus  pcstis  as  the  cause;  (3)  the  infectious  character 
of  the  pneumonic  type  of  disease;  (3)  its  high  fatality;  (4)  ^ 
difficulty  of  diagnosis. 

The  next  occurrence  of  special  interest  Is  the  appearance  ef 
plague  in  Portugal  in  1899,  after  on  absence  of  more  than  mo 
years.  It)  origin  is  shrouded  in  obscurity.  Oporto,  the  seat 
of  the  outbreak,  hod  no  cwinexion  by  sea  with  any  place  knova 
to  be  infected,  and  all  attempts  to  trace  introduction  ended  in 
speculation  or  assumption.  The  most  probable  theory  was  that 
soldiers  returning  home  from  infected  Portuguese  possrssiooi 
in  the  East  brought  it  with  them,  but  this  does  not  explain  the 
selection  of  Oporto  and  the  sicapo  of  other  plsfiss.    ThecaxlicA 


PLAGUE 


701 


cases,  tcoorffing  to  Tetraspectite  inqniiy^  occurred  in  June  1899; 
suspicions  were  aroused  in  July,  but  the  diagnosis  was  not 
established  until  August.  The  conclusion  reached,  after  careful 
Investigation  by  Dr  Jorge,  the  medical  officer  of  heailth,  that  the 
commencement  really  dated  from  June,  is  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  about  that  time  the  riverside  labourers,  who  wa«  first 
affected,  began  to  notice  an  iUness  among  themselves  sufficiently 
novel  to  attract  their  attention  and  that  of  an  English  ship- 
owner, who  from  their  description  suspected  plague.  Through 
him  the  suspicion  was  conveyed  to  the  Medical  Times  and 
CauUe,  in  which  the  suggestion  of  plague  at  Oporto  was  made 
before  any  public  mention  of  it  in  the  town  itself.  The  outbreak 
never  assumed  large  proportions.  It  gained  ground  by  degrees 
until  October,  after  whldi  it  declined,  and  eventually  ceased  in 
February  1900.  No  recrudescence  has  been  officially  announced. 
The  number  of  cases  recorded  in  a  population  of  150,000  was  310, 
with  XX4  deaths,  representing  a  case  mortah'ty  of  36-7%.  They 
were  widely  scattered  about  the  town  and  outlying  suburbs; 
but  no  further  extension  occurred,  except  some  isolated  cases  at 
Braga,  a  town  35  m.  distant,  and  one  at  Lisbon,  in  the  person 
<rf  the  distinguished  bacteriologist.  Professor  Camara  Pestana, 
who  contracted  the  disease  in  making  a  post-mortem  at  Oporto, 
and  died  in  Lisbon. 

The  only  other  appearance  of  plague  in  Europe  in  1899  was 
on  the  Volga.  Three  places  were  affected,  namely,  Kolobovka, 
and  Krasnoyarsk,  in  the  province  of  Astrakhan,  and  Samara, 
higher  up  the  river.  All  three  outbreaks  were  small  and  Ihnited, 
and  no  further  extension  took  place.  A  commission  appointed 
by  the  Russian  government  pronounced  the  disease  to  be 
undoubtedly  plague,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  very  fatal  The 
origin  was  not  ascertained. 

The  most  interesting  extensions  of  plague  m  1900  were  those 
in  Australia  and  Glasgow.  The  following  towns  were  affected 
in  Australia:  Sydney,  in  New  South  Wales;  Adelaide,  in  South 
Australia;  Melbourne,  in  Victoria;  Brisbane,  Rockhampton, 
Townsville,  Cairns  and  Ipswich,  in  Queensland;  Freemantle, 
Perth  and  Coolgardie,  in  West  Australia.  In  none  of  these, 
-with  the  exception  of  Sydney,  did  plague  obtain  a  serious  hold. 
The  total  number  of  cases  reported  in  Queensland  was  only  123, 
with  53  deaths.  In  Sydnqr  there  was  303  cases,  with  Z03 
deaths,  a  case  mortality  of  34%.  The  infection  is  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  from  Noumea,  in  New  Caledoida,  where  it 
was  present  at  die  end  of  1899;  and  the  medical  authorities 
believe  that  the  first  case,  which  occurred  on  the  19th  of  January, 
was  recognized.  The  outbreak,  which  hardly  reached  epidemic 
proportions,  lasted  about  six  months.  That  in  Glasgow  was  on 
a  stiU  vmaller  scale.  It  began,  so  far  as  couM  be  ascertained, 
in  August  1900,  and  during  the  two  months  it  lasted  there  were 
34  cases  and  15  deaths.  Once  more  the  disease  was  not  at  first 
recognised,  and  its  origin  could  not  be  traced.  In  1901  plague 
invaded  Sooth  Africa,  and  obtained  a  distinct  footing  both  at 
Cape  Town  and  Port  Elizabeth.  The  total  number  of  cases 
down  to  July  was  760,  with  36a  deaths;  the  number  of  Europeans 
attacked  was  196,  with  68  deaths,  the  rest  being  natives^  Malays, 
Indians,  Chinese  and  negroes.  With  regard  to  Great  Britain,  a 
few  ship-borne  cases  have  been  dealt  with  at  different  ports  from 
time  to  time  since  1896,  but  except  at  Glasgow  the  disease  has 
nowhere  obtained  a  footing  on  land. 

CamsaHon. — Plague  is  a  speofic  infectious  fever,  caused  by 
the  baeUhu  fesHs^  which  was  identified  hi  1894  by  Kitasato, 
and  subsequently,  but  independently,  by  Yersin  (see  Paxasitic 
Diseases).  It  is  found  in  the  buboes  in  ordinary  cases,  in  the 
blood  hi  the  socaUed  *'  septicaemk  "  cases,  and  in  the  sputum 
of  pneumonic  oases.  It  may  also  be  present  in  the  urine.  Pm< 
mortem  it  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  spleen  and  liver. 
Nothing  is  known  of  its  natural  history  outside  the  body,  but 
on  coltivation  it  is  apt  to  undergo  numerous  involution  forms. 
Its  presence  in  a  patient  is  regarded  as  positive  diagnostic  proof 
of  plague;  but  faihire  to  find  or  to  identify  it  does  not  possess 
an  equal  negative  value,  and  should  not  be  too  readily  accepted, 
for  many  iiutances  are  recorded  in  which  expert  observers  have 
oi^r  sBWwded  in  dcnwost  rating  its  ptmmtot  after  icpaatcd 


attempts.  It  Is  dear,  from  the  extreme  variations  in  the  severity 
of  the  illness,  that  the  resisting  power  of  individoab  varies 
greatly.  According  to  the  Plague  Research  Committee  of 
Bombay,  the  predisposing  causes  are  "  those  leadmg  to  a  lower 
state  of  vitality,"  of  which  insuffident  food  is  probably  the  most 
important.  There  is  no  evidence  that  age,  sex  or  race  exercises 
a  distinct  predisposing  influence.  The  largest  inddenoe  in 
Bombay  was  on  yoong  adults;  but  then  they  are  more  numerous 
and  more  exposed  to  infection,  because  they  go  about  more 
than  the  younger  and  the  older.  Simffarly,  the  comparative 
immunity  of  Europeans  in  the  East  may  be  explatned  by  thdr 
different  conditions  of  fife.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  distinc* 
tion  drawn  between  ptsiu  minor  and  ptsHs  major  has  a  real 
aetiological  basis.  Very  mild  cases  occurring  in  the  course  of 
an  outbreak  of  typical  plague  may  be  e]q>Iained  by  greater  power 
of  resistance  in  individuals,  but  die  epidemic  prevalence  of  a 
mild  iUness  preceding  the  appearance  of  undoubted  plague 
suggests  some  difference  or  modification  of  the  exdting  cause* 
"  It  is  impossU>le,"  writes  Sir  Richard  Thome  (Local  Government 
Board  Report,  1898-1899),  '*  to  read  the  medical  history  of  this 
disease  in  almost  every  part  of  the  worid  without  being  impressed 
with  the  frequency  with  which  recognized  pUgue  has  been  pre* 
ceded  by  ailments  of  such  slight  severity,  involving  some  bubonic 
enhrgement  of  ghuds  and  some  rise  in  body-temperature,  as 
to  mask  the  real  nature  of  the  malady."  Considering  the  great 
importance  of  arresting  the  spread  of  infection  at  the  outset, 
and  the  implicit  reliance  placed  upon  bacteriological  criteria^ 
the  aetiology  of  such  antecedent  ailments  deserves  more  atten* 
tion  than  has  hitherto  been  paid  to  it.  Of  course  plague  does 
not  stand  alone  in  this  respect.  Epidemic  outbreaks  of  other 
diseases—for  Instance,  cholera,  diphtheria  and  typhoid  fever^» 
are  often  preceded  and  followed  by  the  prevalence  of  mild  illness 
of  an  allied  type;  and  the  true  significance  of  this  fact  is  one  of 
the  most  important  problems  in  epidemiology.  In  plague, 
however,  it  is  of  special  importance,  on  account  of  the  peculiariy 
insidious  manner  in  which  this  disease  fautens  itself  upon  a 
locality. 

The  path  by  which  the  bacillus  enters  the  body  varies.  In 
pneumonic  cases  it  is  presumed  to  enter  by  the  air-passageS^ 
and  in  bubonic  cases  by  the  skin.  The  Bombay  Plague  Research 
Committee,  whose  experience  is  unequalkd,  say:  **  In  a  number 
of  instances  points  of  inoculation  were  found  on  the  extremities 
of  patients,  from  which  plague  cultures  were  obtained,  and 
in  these  cases  buboes  were  found  above  the  point  of  inoculation. 
In  the  majority  of  instances,  however,  no  local  indication  could 
be  found  marking  the  point  at  which  the  microbe  was  implaur 
ted."  From  the  fact  that  bacilli  are  hardly  ever  found  in  the 
blood  of  bubonic  cases  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  are  arrested 
by  the  lymphatic  glands  next  above  the  seat  of  inoculation,  and 
that  the  fi^t — ^which  is  the  illness — takes  place  hngdy  in  the 
bubo;  in  non-bubonic  cases  they  are  not  so  arrested,  and  the 
fight  takes  place  in  the  general  circulatory  qrstem,  or  m  the 
lungs.  As  might  be  expected  from  these  considerations,  the 
bubonic  type  is  very  little  infectious,  while  pneumonic  cases 
are  highly  so,  the  patients  no  doubt  charging  the  swroundtng 
atmosphere  by  coughing.  Whether  infection  can  be  introduced 
through  the  digestive  tract  by  infected  food  n  doubtfuL  The 
badllus  is  non-resistant  and  easily  killed  by  heat  and  gennidde 
substances,  particularly  adds.  Little  Is  known  of  its  toxic 
action;  only  a  weak  toxin  has  been  obtained  from  cultures. 
Of  the  lower  animals,  mice,  rats,  guinea-pigs,  rabbits,  squirrek 
and  monkeys  are  susceptible  to  the  baicillus;  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  pigs,  dogs  and  cats  are  more  or-kas  resistant,  but 
cats  and  dogs  have  been  known  to  die  of  plague  (Oporto,  Daman, 
Cutch  and  Poena).  In  the  Great  Plague  of  London  they  were 
believed  to  carry  the  infection,  and  were  killed  in  vast  numbers. 
The  badllus  has  been  demonstrated  in  the  bodies  of  fleas,  flies, 
bugs  and  ants. 

Clinical  Charaeters.— One  of  the  results  of  recent  observation 
is  the  classification  of  plague  cases  under  three  heads,  which 
have  already  been  mentioned  several  times:  (i)  bubonic, 
(a)  pneumonic^  (3)  scptioaetnir.    (The  word  *'  pestinciDettic  "  b 


702 


PLAGUE 


abo  used  instead  of  "  scpti<Minic,'*  and  thongh  etymologically 
objectionable,  it  is  otherwise  belter,  as  "  septicaemic  "  already 
has  a  specific  and  quite  different  meaning.)  It  should  be  under- 
stood that  this  classification  is  a  clinical  one,  and  that  the 
second  and  third  varieties  are  just  as  much  plague  as  the  first. 
It  is  necessary  to  say  this,  because  a  misleading  use  of  the  word 
"  bubonic  "  has  given  rise  to  the  erroneous  idea  that  true  plague 
is  necessarily  bubonic,  and  that  non-bubonic  types  are  a  different 
disease  altogether.  The  word  "  plague  " — or  "  pest."  which  is 
the  name  used  in  other  languages — ^had  originally  a  general 
meaning,  and  may  have  required  qualifications  when  applied  to 
this  particular  fever;  but  it  has  now  become  a  specific  label, 
and  the  prefix  "bubonic"  should  be  dropped. 

The  iUneas  varies  within  the  widest  limits,  and  Exhibits  all 
gradations  of  severity,  from  a  mere  indisposition,  which  may  pass 
almost  unnoticed,  to  an  extreme  violence,  only  equalled  by  the 
most  violent  forms  of  cholera.  The  mild  cases  are  always 
J>ubonic;  the  other  varieties  are  invariably  severe,  and  almost 
always  fatal.  Incubation  is  generally  from  four  to  six  days, 
but  it  has  been  observed  as  short  as  thirty-six  hours  and  as 
long  as  ten  days  (Bombay  Research  Committee).  Incubation, 
however,  is  so  difi&cult  a  thing  to  determine  that  it  is  unwise  to 
lay  down  any  p(»itive  limit.  As  a  rule  the  onset  is  sudden  and 
well  marked.  The  symptoms  may  be  described  imder  the 
headings  given  above,  (z)  Bubonic  cases  usually  constitute 
three-fourths  of  the  whole,  and  the  symptoms  may  therefore 
be  called  typical.  In  a  well-marked  case  there  b  usually  an 
initial  rigor — in  children  convulsions — followed  by  a  rise  of 
temperature,  with  vomiting,  headache,  giddiness,  intolerance  to 
light;  pain  in  epigastrium,  back  and  limbs;  sleeplessness,  apathy 
or  delirium.  The' headache  is  described  as  splitting;  delirium 
is  of  the  busy  type,  like  delirium  tremens.  The  temperature 
varies  greatly;  it  is  not  usually  high  on  the  fixst  day— from  loi*' 
to  Z03''— «nd  may  even  be  normal,  but  sometimes  it  rises  rapidly 
to  104**  or  105^  or  even  107*^  F.;  a  fall  of  two  or  tiiree  degrees 
on  the  second  or  third  day  has  frequently  been  observed.  The 
eyes  are  red  and  injected;  the  tongue  is  somewhat  swollen,  and 
at  first  covered  with  a  thin  white  fur,  except  at  the  tip  and 
edges,  but  later  it  is  dry,  and  the  fur  yeUow  or  brownish.  Pros- 
tration is  mas-ked.  Constipation  is  the  rule  at  first,  but  diarrhoea 
may  be  present,  and  is  a  bad  sign.  A  characteristic  symptom 
in  severe  cases  is  that  the  patient  appears  dazed  and  stupid,  is 
thick  in  speech,  and  staggers.  The  condition  has  often  been 
mistaken  for  intoxication.  There  is  nothing,  however,  in  all 
these  qonptoms  positively  distinctive  of  plague,  unless  it  is 
already  prevalent.  The  really  pathognomom'c  sign  is  the  appear- 
ance of  buboes  or  inflamed  glands,  which  happens  early  in  the 
illness,  usually  on  the  second  day;  sometimes  they  are  present 
from  the  outset,  sometimes  they  cannot  be  detected  before  the 
third  day,  or  even  later.  The  commonest  seat  is  the  groin,  and 
next  to  that  the  axilla;  the  cervical,  submaxillary  and  femoral 
glands  are  less  frequently  affected.  Sometimes  the  buboes  are 
multi|de  and  on  both  sides,  but  more  commonly  they  are 
onilateraL  The  pain  is  described  as  lancinating.  If  left,  they 
usually  suppurate  and  open  outwards  by  sloughing  of  the  skin, 
but  they  may  subside  spontaneously,  or  renuun  hard  and 
indurated.  Petecfaiae  occur  over  buboes  or  on  the  abdomen, 
but  they  are  not  very  conunon,  except  in  fatal  cases,  when  tbty 
appear  shortly  before  death.  Boils  and  carbuncles  are  rare. 
(})  Fneumonic  plague  was  observed  and  described  in  many  of 
the  old  epidemics,  and  particulariy  by  two  medical  men,  Dr 
Gilder  and  Dr  Whyte,  in  the  outbreak  in  Kathiawar  in  x8i6; 
but  its  piecise  significance  was  first  reoogmaed  by  Childe  in 
Bombay.  He  demonstrated  the  presence  of  the  badlli  in  the 
sputa,  and  showed  that  the  inflammation  in  the  lungs  was  set  up 
by  primary  league  infection.  The  pneumonia  is  usually 
lobular,  the  onset  marked  by  rigors,  with  difficult  and  hurried 
breathing,  cough  and  expectoration.  The  prostration  is  great 
and  the  comae  of  the  illness  rapid.  The  breathing  becomes  very 
hurried— forty  to  sixty  respirations  in  the  minute— and  the  face 
dusky.  The  expectoration  soon  becomes  watery  and  profuse, 
with  littia  wfaitikh  specks,  which  contain  peat  cpiantitics  of 


badlli.  The*  temperature  is  high  and  irregular.  The  phynol 
signs  are  those  of  broncho-pneuraonia;  oedema  of  the  lunp 
soon  supervenes,  and  death  occurs  in  three  or  four  days.  (3)  In 
septicaemic  cases  the  symptoms  are  those  of  the  bubonic  type, 
but  more  severe  and  without  buboes.  Prostration  and  cerebral 
S3rmptoms  are  particularly  marked;  the  temperature  rises 
rapidly  and  very  hi^.  The  patient  may  die  comatose  within 
twenty-four  hours,  but  more  commonly  death  occurs  on  the 
second  or  third  day.    Recovery  is  very  rare. 

There  is  no  reason  for  doubting  that  the  disease  described 
above  is  identical  with  the  European  plagues  of  the  i4ih  and 
subsequent  centuries.  It  does  not  differ  from  them  in  its  clinical 
features  more  than  qiidemics  of  other  diseases  are  apt  to  vary 
at  different  times,  or  more  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  differeoce 
of  handh'ng.  The  swellings  and  discolorations  of  the  skin  which 
play  so  large  a  part  in  old  descriptions  would  probably  be  equally 
striking  now  but  for  the  surgical  treatment  of  buboes.  Similariy, 
the  comparatively  small  destructiveness  of  modem  plague,  even 
in  India,  may  be  explained  by  the  improved  sanitary  conditions 
and  energetic  measures  dictated  by  modem  knowledge.  The 
case  mortality  still  remains  exceedingly  high.  The  fewest 
recorded  is  34%  in  Sydney,  atud  the  highest  95%  at  Hong  Kong 
in  1899.  During  the  first  few  weeks  in  Bombay  it  was  calculated 
by  Dr  Viegas  to  be  as  high  as  99%.  It  is  very  much  hig))er 
among  Orientals  than  among  Europeans.  In  the  Bombay 
hosptuls  it  was  about  70%  among  the  former,  and  between  30 
and  40%  among  the  latter,  which  was  much  the  same  as  in 
Oporto,  Sydney  and  Cape  Town.  It  appears,  therefore,  thai 
plague  is  less  fatal  to  Europeans  than  cholera.  The  average 
duration  of  fatal  cases  is  five  or  six  days;  in  the  House  of  Come* 
tion  at  Byculla,  where  the  exact  period  could  be  well  observed, 
it  was  five  and  a  half  days.  Patients  who  survive  the  tenth  or 
twelfth  day  have  a  good  chance  of  recovery.  Convalescence 
is  usually  prolonged.  Second  attacks  are  rate,  but  have  been 
known  to  occur. 

Diagnosis. — When  plague  is  prevalent  in  n  locality,  the 
diagnosis  is  easy  in  fairly  well-marked  caaea  of  the  bubooic 
type,  but  leas  so  in  the  other  varieties.  When  it  is  not  prevalent 
the  diagnosis  is  never  easy,  and  in  pneumonic  and  septicaemic 
cases  it  is  impossible  without  bacteriotogioal  assistance.  The 
earliest  cases  have  hardly  ever  been  even  suspected  at  the  tine 
in  any  outbreak  in  a  fresh  fecality.  It  may  be  tnken  at  first  for 
almoet  any  fever,  particulariy  typhoid,  or  for  venereal  disc^e 
or  Ijrmphangitis.  In  plague  countries  the  diseases  with  which  it 
is  most  liable  to  be  confounded  are  malaria,  relapsing  fever  sod 
typhus,  or  broiKho-pneumonia  in  pneumonic  caica. 

Treaiment. — ^The  treatment  of  pbtgue  is  still  symptomatic 
The  points  requiring  most  attention  ate  the  cerd>ral  s)mu>toms 
— headache,  sleeplessness,  delirium,  ftc. — and  the  stale  of  the 
heart.  Alcohol  and  cardiac  stimulants  may  be  required  t« 
prevent  heart  failure.  Speaking  generally,  it  is  inportant  to 
preserve  strength  and  guard  against  coUap^  detracts  of 
supra-renal  gland  have  been  found  usefuL  Buboes  shoukl  be 
treated  on  ordinary  surgical  principles.  An  antitoixic-  senm 
has  been  prepared  from  horses  by  the  Institut  Pasteur  in  France, 
but  has  not  met  with  success.  The  results  in  India  oblaiael 
by  British  and  various  foreign  observen  were  uniformly  unfa- 
vourable, and  the  verdict  of  the  Research  Conuntttce  (190?) 
was  that  the  senun  had  "  fafled  to  influence  favouxably  the 
mortality  among  those  attacked."  Success  was  aomewbtt 
noisily  daimed  for  aa  hnproved  method  tried  in  OpcKto,  hat  the 
evidence  is  of  little  or  no  vahie.  Of  143  cases  treated,  n  died; 
whQe  of  73  cases  not  treated,  46  died;  but  the  fomer  woe  aB 
hospital  patients,  and  included  several  convakaoent*  and  nasy 
cases  of  extreme  mildness,  whereas  the  non-tenim  cases  wcie 
treated  at  home  or  not  at  all,  some  being  only  dasoovcred  wbrs 
death  had  made  further  conoealaent  impostfble.  Later  ob9e^ 
vationa  have,  however,  esuUished  that  the  Y cnin-Roux  seruB 
is  of  undoubted  benefit  when  used  early  in  the  caae^  in  fact 
during  the  first  twenty-four  houn.  Very  laiie  doses,  so 
much  as  150  cc.  may  be  injected  suhcutonoousiy  or  prefcxaUy 
hitnvenausly,  and  it  is  Mntad  to  mo&if  the  whole  oount  ^ 


PLAGUE 


703 


the  diicue.    Aoother  Benira  has  been  pftputA  by  Lustig  and 

GaleotU. 

Morbid  Anatomy. — (x)  Bubonic  cases.  A  bubo  is  found  to 
consist  of  a  chain  of  enlaifed  glands,  surrounded  by  a  masB  of 
engorged  connective  tissue,  coagulated  blood  and  serum* 
Nearly  all  the  lymphatic  glands  in  the  body  are  « little  swollen, 
but  the  lymphatic  vessels  show  h'ttle  or  no  change.  The  spleen 
and  liver  are  always  enlarged,  the  fonnez  to  sometimes  twice  or 
thrice  its  natural  siae.  The  lungs  are  engorged  and  oedematous, 
and  o£ten  show  haemorrhages.  The  kidneya  are  enlar^td  and 
congested.  The  serous  membranes  show  petechiae  and  hae- 
morrhages. The  right  side  of  the  heart  is  frequently  dilated, 
with  clots  in  the  cavities.  The  heart  muscle  is  normal,  or  soft 
and  friable.  The  snbstance  of  the  l»:ain,  spinal  cord  and  nerve* 
trunks  is  normal,  but  the  membranes  are  engorged.  (2)  Pneu- 
monic cases.  The  lymphaiic  glands  are  hardly  alBfected.  There 
ia  general  engorgement  and  oedema  of  the  hinp^  with  pneumonic 
patches  varying  in  sise  and  irregularly  distributed.  (5)  Septi- 
caemic  cases.  Nearly  all  the  lymphatic  g^da  in  the  body  are 
involved,  and  have  a  chafacteristic  appearance.  They  are 
enlarged  to  the  si^  of  an  ahnond,  rounded,  firm  and  pink;  there 
is  some  engorgement  and  oedema  on  section;  the  substance  ia 
rather  soft,  and  can  be  scraped  off  with  a  knife.  The  surrounding 
tissue  is  not  engorged  or  oedematous.  The  description  of  the 
other  organs  given  under  (i)  applies  also  to  (a)  and  (3). 

DisMminalioH^—Glytn  the  bacillus^  the  questions  arise,  How 
is  it  disseminated^  and  What  are  the  conditions  that  favour  ita 
propagation?      That  it  is  convtyred  from  person  to  person  ia 
an  undoubted  fact,  proved  by  innumerable  cases,  and  tacitly 
implied  by  the  word  "  infectious,"  which  is  universally  allowed. 
The  sick  are  a  source  of  danger«and  one  means  of  dissemination, 
and,  since  the  illness  may  be  so  slight  as  to  pass  unrecognized, 
an  obviously  insidious  one.    The  ambulatory  plague  patient 
goes  fax  to  explain  the  spread  of  the  disease  without  leaving  any 
track.     But  there  is  evidence  that  persons  may  cany  the  infec- 
tion and .  give  it  to  others  without  being  ill  at  all  themselves. 
One  such  case  occurred  at  Glasgow,  and  another  at  Oporto. 
In  the  Glasgow  case  the  wife  of  a  laundryman  empk>yed  in 
handling  plague  Uncn  ccmtracted  the  disease.    She  was  brought 
into  connexion  with  it  in  no  other  way,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  she  took  it  from  her  husband,  though  he  was  not  ill 
at  all  himself.     The  Oporto  instance  is  still  more  conclusive. 
Two  little  girls  had  plague  at  Argoncilhe,  a  suburb  some  miles 
from  Oporto,  and  were  the  only  cases   which  occurred  in 
that  place.     Their   father   was    a    riverside    labourer,    who 
lodged    during  the  week  in  Oporto,   but    went    home    for 
Sunday.     He  was  not  ill,  but  several  cases  of  plague  occurred 
in  the  house  in  which  he  lodged.    How  the  poison  passes  from 
oike  person  to  another  is  less  clear.    In  pneumonic  cases  patients 
no  dovibt  spread  it  around  them  by  coughing,  and  others  may 
take  it  up  through  the  air-passages  or  the  skin;  but  even  then 
the  range  of  infection  is  small,  and  such  cases  are  comparali%eIy 
rare.     In  ^he  vast  majority  of  cases  the  bacilli  are  in  the  lym- 
phatic or  the  drculatory  system,  and  aerial  convection,  even 
for  a  short  distance,  seems  highly  improbable.    This  view  is 
borne  out  by  the  experience  in  hospitals  and  with  "  contacts," 
which  goeis  to  show  that  with  reasonable  care  and  under  fair 
conditions  the  risk  of  infection  from  ordinary  plague  patients 
is  very  small.    When  persons  live  crowded  together  in  close 
contact,  and  when  they  are  careless  with  regard  to  discharges 
of  all  kinds  from  patients,  the  risk  is  obviously  much  increased. 
Discharges— vomited   matters,  sputa,  urine  and  faeces— arc 
possible  media  by  which  plague  is  spread  from  person  to  person. 
They  also  contaminate  clothing,  which  thus  becomes  another 
iii«ans  of  dissemination  capable  of  acting  at  a  distance.    This 
is  the  most  probable  explanation  of  the  two  cases  of  indirect 
infection  related  above.      Failure  to  catch  or  induce  plague 
from  clothing  that  has  been  worn  by  plague  patients  proves 
nothing.     Such  clothing  is  not  necessarily  infectious;  indeed, 
the   probability  is  that  tt  is  not,  unless  contaminated  by 
discharges.    There  is  no  evidence  that  merchandise  and  food- 
rtufis  are  means  of  dissemination,  but  a  great  deal  of  evidence 


against  such  a  theory.  Then  we  come  to  the  lower  animals. 
Attention  has  been  concentrated  on  rats,  and  some  observers 
seem  disposed  to  lay  upon  them  the  whole  blame  for  the  propa- 
gation and  spread  of  plague,  which  is  held  to  be  essentially  a 
rat-borne  disease.  The  susceptibQity  of  rats  has  been  noted 
from  remote  times  and  in  many  countries,  particularly  in  China, 
but  it  has  never  attracted  so  much  attention  as  during  the  recent 
prevalence  of  plague.  From  one  place  after  another  a  great 
mortality  among  rats  was  reported,  and  the  broad  fact  that  they 
do  die  of  plague  is  incontestable.  It  is  therefore  easily  intelligible 
that  they  may  play  an  important  part  in  multiplying  and  fixing 
the  poison  on  a  locality.  As  to  how  they  convey  it  from  man 
to  man  the  greatest  probability  is  in  favour  of  the  flea  as  an 
intermediary.  Mortality  among  rats  is  said  to  precede  the 
appearance  of  human  plague,  but  the  evidence  of  this  is  always 
retrospective  and  of  a  very  loose  character.  At  Sydney  a 
careftd  investigation  was  made;  and  the  conclusion  reached  by 
Dr  Tidswell  was  that "  there  was  no  ground  for  even  a  suspicion 
that  our  epidemic  was  being  maintained  by  any  process  ti  direct 
contagion  between  man  and  man,"  but  that  rats  were  the 
carriers.  In  Glasgow  the  experience  was  just  the  contrary; 
Pecaonal  connexion  was  traced  in  every  case,  and  rats  excluded; 
there  was  no  mortality  among  them,  and  of  300  caught  and 
examined  none  had  plague  (Chalmers).  Similarly,  at  Oporto, 
personal  connexion  was  traced  in  all  the  earlier  cases;  there  was 
no  mortality  among  rats,  and  no  evidence  to  connect  them 
with  the  outbreak  Gorge).  Again,  a  comparison  between  rat- 
infested  and  rat-free  districts  in  Bombay  showed  a  much  higher 
incidence  of  plague  in  the  latter.  A  campaign  against  rats  In 
Bombay,  by  which  50^00  or  60,000  were  killed  in  a  short  time, 
had  no  effect  in  checking  the  disease.  Plague-rats  have  rarely 
been  found  ia  ships  sailing  from  infected  ports;  and  though 
millions  of  these  animals  anist  have  been  carried  backwards  and 
forwards  from  quay  toquay  betwcenHong-Ksng,  Bombay  and  the 
great  European  ports,  they  have  not  brought  the  disease  ashore. 
By  far  the  most  important  communication  on  the  r61e  of  rats 
in  the  spread  of  i^gue  is  formed  by  the  "  Report  on  the  Plague 
Investigations  in  India  "  (Journal  of  Hygiate,  vol.  vi.  No.  4; 
vol.  vii.  No.  3,  rgo7).  The  chief  conclusions  arrived  at  in  the 
report  as  the  result  of  experiments  are  the  following:— 

t.  Healthy  rats  contracted  p1ap:ue  from  fnfected  rats  when  the 
only  apparent  means  of  communication  between  the  two  was  the 
rat  fl«a  {ptUex  ehtopU). 

2.  In  a  I  experiments  out  of  38,  55%  of  healthy  rats  living  in 
flea-proof  cages  have  contracted  plague  after  receiving  fleas  collected 
from  Txits  either  dead  or  dying  of  septicaemic  plague;  consequently 
it  is  proved  the  rat  flea  can  transmit  plague  from  rat  to  rat. 

3.  Close  and  continuous  contact  of  pUu^e-tnfocted  animals  with 
healthy  ones  does  not  infect  the  latter  i{  mas  are  excluded. 

4.  Should  fleas  be  present  an  epizootic  at  once  starts  and  spreads 
in  porportion  to  the  number  of  fleas  present. 

5.  Guinea-pigs  set  free  in  plague-infected  houses  become  infected 
uith  the  rat  flea  and  develop  plague  in  a  certain  percents^ee. 

6.  Fleas  caught  on  plague-mfected  rats  arc  able  to  infect  rats 
placed  in  flea-proof  cages. 

7.  Guinea-pigs  placed  in  plague-infected  houses  do  not  contract 
pbgue  if  they  are  protected  from  fleas;  tho«e  (placed  in  cages  pro- 
tected by  a  border  of  sticky  paper  at  least  six  inches  in  radius, 
which  tite  fleas  cannot  jump  over,  do  not  contract  plague;  the  others 
not  similarly  protected,  do. 

8.  Chronic  plague  may  prevail  in  rats. 

On  this  report  it  may,  therefore,  be  taken  that  aerial  infection, 
except,  perhaps,  in  pneumonic  cases,  may  be  excluded,  and  that 
the  chief  source  of  infection  is  the  ilea.  It  was  also  shown  that 
animals  may  become  infected  through  the  faeces  of  a  flea  which 
has  been  fed  on  plague-infected  rats.-  This  may  serve  to  explain 
the  manner  in  which  plague-infected  linen  and  clothing  may 
convey  the  disease.  The  report  also  considers  it  proved  that 
the  bacillus  pcstis  multiplies  in  the  stomach  of  a  flea  and  may 
remain  a  considerable  time  within  its  host. 

Browning  Smith  says  the  following  facts  are  admitted  as  known. 
(1)  Plague  can  be  carried  by  fleas  from  an  unhealthy  rat.  (a)  A 
flea  can  retain  the  plague  bacilli  alive  for  seven  or  ei^ht  days, 
(t)  Man  is,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  infected  through  the  skin,  though 
the  puncture  may  not  be  seen.  (4)  The  rat  flea,  when  finding  no 
I  rats,  will  atuck  roan  sod  it  will  akp  attack  other  aaimahi   . 


704 


PLAGUE 


Veiy  little  Uglit  has  be«n  thrown  on  the  conditions  which 
favour  the  prevalence  of  plague.  We  do  not  know  why  it  has 
developed  a  diffusive  activity  of  late  years,  nor  why  it  has 
attacked  some  places  and  consistently  passed  by  others,  such 
as  Singapore.  The  words  "  dirt "  and  "  insanitary  conditions  " 
are  much  used»  but  such  general  terms  explain  nothing.  Singa> 
pore,  where  plague  has  several  times  beoi  introduced,  but 
never  taken  hold,  is  probably  quite  as  dirty  and  insanitary  as 
Hong-Kong,  and  it  is  pertinently  remarked  by  the  Bombay 
Research  Committee  that  filth  per  se  has  but  little  influence, 
inasmuch  as  "  there  occurred  in  the  House  of  Correction  at 
BycuUa,  where  cleanliness  is  brought  as  near  to  perfection  as  is 
attainable,  an  outbreak  which  exceeded  in  severity  that  in  any  of 
the  fidthy  ckawls  and  tenements  around."  Again,  in  Oporto 
there  is  an  area  which  combines  every  possible  sanitapr 
defect — dense  overcrowding,  great  poverty,  no  light,  no  air, 
no  drainage,  no  scavenging,  water  brought  in  buckets.  Plague 
got  into  this  quarter,  but  did  not  spread  there;  on  the  other 
hand,  it  appeared  in  other  and  vastly  superior  parts  of  the 
town.  Yet  in  at  least  one  case  neither  the  patient  nor  the  "  con- 
tacts "  were  removed,  but  were  all  shut  up  in  one  room  with 
a  sentry  at  the  door  and  another  in  the  street.  The  seasonal 
variations 'have  been  well  marked  and  extremely  regular  in 
Bombay.  The  disease  begins  to  be  active  in  late  autumn  or 
the  beginning  of  winter,  and  reaches  its  height  in  February  or 
March,  dying  down  in  the  summer.  Baldwin  Latham  made  an 
elaborate  examination  of  the  meteorological  conditions,  and 
more  particularly  of  the  vapour  tension,  from  which  he  draws 
the  conclusion  that  the  seasonal  variations  are  due  to  exhalation 
from  the  ground.  His  observations  are  original  and  worth 
attention.  A  simpler  explanation  is  that  the  people  live  more 
indoors,  and  are  so  more  exposed  to  infection  during  the 
plague  season.  The  curve  shows  two  rises,  one  at  the  begin- 
ning of  winter,  and  the  other  at  the  commencement  of  the 
monsoon,  and  at  both  these  times  the  people  are  driven  indoors. 
A  broad  survey  of  the  epidemiological  facts  suggests  some 
general  conclusions.  The  outbreaks  fall  into  two  well-defined 
groups:  (i)  those  in  which  the  disease  is  destructive  and  per- 
sistent, (2)  those  in  which  its  effects  are  slight  and  transient. 
In  the  former  the  poison  clearly  fastens  on  the  locality,  and 
gradually  increases  its  hold.  The  place  is  infected,  not  merely 
the  people  in  it;  for  if  they  evacuate  it,  the  disease  soon  ceases 
among  them,  and  if  they  return  in  a  short  time,  they  are  again 
attacked.  Now  the  poison  is  contained,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  in  the  discharges  from  patients,  and  in  such  infected 
localities  the  standing  conditions  and  the  habits  of  the  people 
combine  to  retain  the  discharges  on  the  premises.  The  floors, 
mostly  of  mud  covered  with  dung,  are  fouled  with  spittle, 
vomit,  and  urine,  and,  being  seldom  or  never  cleaned  out,  foster 
a  gradual  accumulation  of  poison,  to  which  infected  rats  and 
the  concealment  of  illness  contribute.  These  are  just  the  con- 
ditions which  prevailed  in  Europe  in  the  old  plague  days.  They 
do  not  prevail  now  in  those  "  white  countries  "  which  have  been 
invaded  but  have  repelled  the  attack  with  comparative  ease 
and  little  loss.  It  may  be  concluded,  with  some  confidence, 
from  experience  and  theory  alike,  that  localities  where  they  do 
not  prevail  may  fail  to  keep  plague  out,  but  have  very  little  to 
fear  from  it,  except  the  disturbance  of  trade  caus^  by  the 
traditional  terrors  that  still  cling  to  the  name. 

Prevention. — ^The  principles  are  the  same  as  those  which 
govern  the  prevention  of  other  infectious  diseases.  "  Sanitary 
cordons  "  and  the  like  are  obsolete.  International  -procedure 
is  supposed  to  be  regubted  by  the  Venice  convention  of  1897 
(see  Qijarantine),  but  that  instrument  contains  an  optional 
clause,  which  allows  countries  to  do  as  they  please  with  their 
own  frontiers.  Except  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  they  all 
retain  quarantine  in  a  more  or  less  stringent  form  at  seaports. 
It  is  generally  used  as  a  system  of  local  extortion  imposed  upon 
travellers  and  ship^^ng.  According  to  the  Venice  convention, 
ships  are  divided  into  (1)  healthy,  (2)  suspected,  (3)  infected, 
(i)  Healthy  are  those  free  from  plague  throughout  the  voyage, 
<3)  suspected,  those  in  which  iplMpne  has  oociincd»  but  no  frcib 


case  within  twelve  days;  (3)  inlbetttl,  those  in  whkh  pbgne  has 
occurred  within  twelve  days.  Great  Britain  relics  on  medical 
inspection,  removal  of  sick  or  stispected  cases,  and  supervisioo 
of  the  healthy  arriving  on  an  infected  ship;  infected  ckthing 
is  burnt  and  infected  ships  are  disinfected.  The  procedure  b  the 
same  as  for  cholera,  but  it  has  been  equally  tucoeasfuL  Ships 
passing  through  the  Sues  Canal  are  subject  to  similar  inspectkw; 
sick  persons  are  landed  at  Moses  Wells,  and  suspected  ones 
detuned.  The  ridn  of  importing  plague  from  Ioi&m.  has  beea 
materially  lessened  by  medical  inspection  of  outwaid-bound 
ships  at  the  principal  ports.  This  has  been  very  thon>u|hly 
carried  out  at  Bombay  with  good  restilts.  In  1897  pilgrimafes 
from  India  to  the  Uedjaz  were  prohibited.  By  the  Venice 
convention  a  number  of  articles  of  merchandise  are  daaied 
as  susceptible  and  liable  to  be  refused  admission,  but  the  oalir 
ones  which  there  js  any  reason  to  consider  dangerous  are  used 
clothing  and  rags.  A  watch  should  be  kept  on  rats  at  ports 
of  arrival  and  on  board  ships  from  infected  countries. 

When  plague  is  present  in  a  place,  the  measures  to  be  tato 
are  the  usual  ones  for  dealing  with  infectious  disease,  with  some 
additions.  The  sick  and  suqiected  should  be  removed  in  spedil 
ambulances  to  an  isolation  hospital,  their  soiled  liDen,Ac., 
should  be  burnt,  and  the  premises  disinfected.  Corrosive 
sublimate  in  an  acfcl  solution  is  the  best  disinfectant,  but  sol* 
phuric  acid,  x  in  250,  ii  eflicient  and  cheaper.  Suspected  esses 
should  be  bestowed  in  a  spedal  isolated  building  until  the 
diagnosis  is  fully  determined.  "  Contacts  "  should  be  kept 
under  observation.  Rats  should  be  exterminated  as  far  is 
possible,  especially  by  means  of  the  Danyss  virus,  which  spreads 
a  disease  amongst  rats  which  cannot  be  communicated  to  man. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  dealing  with  the  hospital 
linen  and  discharges  from  patients.  Hospiud  staffs  shouki  be 
kept  apart.  Inoculation  with  Haffkine's  prophylactjc  .fluid  ' 
should  be  offered  to  all  persons  willing  to  avaO  themselves  of 
it.  It  is  especially  desirable  for  hospital  and  ambulance  staffs 
to  be  inoculated  with  a  vaccine  prepared  from  steriUaed  collares 
of  plague  bacillus.  Inoculation  is  harmless,  and  the  results 
obtained  in  India  justify  a  favourable  <^nion  of  its  protective 
efficacy.'  At  Hubli,  where  nearly  the  whole  population  was 
inoculated  between  the  nth  of  May  and  the  37th  of  September 

*  The  system  of  inocubtion  against  plague  with  a  fluid  pi^epand 
from  sterilized  virus  of  the  disease  was  introduced  in  India  by  Pro- 
fessor Haffkine  earlv  in  1897.  The  composition  of  this  fluid  was 
subjected  to  a  seaitnmg  inquiry  by  the  Indian  Plague  Commissioa. 
who  pronounced  its  emptoyment  to  be  free  from  danger,  and  it 
was  used  on  a  Urge  scale  in  various  parts  of  India  without  producinc 
injurious  effects.  In  September  1003  the  standard  method  01 
manufacturing  this  fluid  was  changed  by  the  director  of  the  Plai^iK 
Institute  on  hut  own  authority,  with  the  object  of  expeditiiif  tiie 
procvsa,  aiKl  thus  meeting  the  hcavy^  demand  then  being  laade 
by  the  Punjab  governnicnc  in  connexion  with  a  large  scheme  <rf 
inoculation.  The  change  involved  the  omission  of  a  small  pro- 
portion of  carbolic  acid  which  had  up  tilt  then  been  added  to  the 
origirul  fluid  as  a  further  precaution  against  contamination.  The 
new  fluid,  or  water  agar  process,  contauied  no  carbolic  acid,  other 
methods  being  relied  upon  to  ensure  its  purity.  On  the  6th  d 
November  1902,  nineteen  persons  who  had  been  inoculated  o« 
the  30th  of  October  in  the  village  of  Malkowal  from  a  single  bottk 
(labelled  53-n)  of  the  new  fluid  were  found  to  be  soffenng  froo 
tetanus,  and  all  of  them  subsequently  died.  A  coinmis»oo,  oo- 
sisting  of  Sir  Lawrence  Jenkins,  Lieut.-Cok>nel  Bomford,  M.D^ 
principal  of  the  Medical  College,  Calcutta,  and  Major  Senipi^ 
R.A.M.C.  director  of  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Kasault,  was  appointed 
by  the  government  of  India  to  inquire  into  the  disaster.  They 
found  that  the  germ  of  tetanus  had  been  Introduoed  inro  the  flaid 
before  the  bottle  was  opened  at  Malkowal,  and  they  thoujtht  it  pR^ 
bable  that  this  might  have  occurred  owing  cither  to  insuftneat 
sterilization  or  to  the  process  of  filling  the  bottle  from  a  larjcr 
flask  having  been  performed  with  dcKCtive  prerautiofts.  They 
also  expressed  the  opinion  that  cariioKc  add  was  a  valuable  af^ 
in  restraining  tetanus  growth  when  added  to  plague  prophybcuc, 
and  they,  therefore,  thought  that  its  omission  was  a  grave  mistafcc. 
Experiments  undertaken  in  India  by  two  indepetident  inquine^ 
appeared  to  confirm  the  view,  and  their  conclusions,  togefhcr  with 
the  data  on  which  they  were  based,  were  submitted  with  the  report 
of  the  comroi»sion  for  examinatmn  and  further  experiment  to  the 
Lister  Institute  in  London.  With  reference  to  the  findings  of  the 
Malkowal  commission  the  Institute  were  asked  to  report:  (t)  Os 
the  comparative  efficacy  of  the  standard  and  new  fluidi  as  « 


PLAICB— PLAIN  SONG 


705 


iSgS,  tba  DKU  BKuUUty  uiKni  the 
■mong  tlie  unioocuULtd  131%.  At  Dl 
iooculUcd  f6%,  luunoculitcd  14-6%! 
11%,  uniooculatcd  !')%.  la  >U  tl 
deilt  wiLh  were  luge  mid  thi  tcM  fair. 
Simpuii,  in  Tkt  FtaitUiamr  (Dec. 
oi  the  rc*uiu  gf  HiSkine'i  icnim  inocu 


V-,. 

UltiMOdl 

[S97-i9«>a«n(>.     .     . 
1900-1901        „       .     .     . 

I9ai-I9in       

190J-1903       „       .     .     . 

i 

In  Poou.  out  of  i%i)i  uiuDOcuteicd 
«'g%  wMe  in  1300  iDocuUlcd  cuet  It 
■Ik  pttpua  ft  Mw  prophyUctic  frai 
(WDM-pii,  and  one  oI  the  moot  intse 
of  Strang  {ArchitJUrSdiiffi-inaiHpiu 
wbo  luea  foe  piodudog  immimiiy  in 
culture  of  the  blcillut  falit.    He  imE 


ftttuk,  ind  greatly  modifio  the  ilUieu 
How  long  the  protection  Lut*  bu  not 
■ppcus  to  be  levenl  montlii  it  leul. 

Tke  Duin  >iiIhDiiIia  for  [be  meucli 
of^iaL  FCportft  at  ncuE  y«n  from  li 
gcDcrally  W.  J'  Sunpeoii,  A  Tttaiiu  ok  P 

Srotection  anlnit  pUgue;  (3)  on  the  coi 
uid  to  ronuraiiuiian;  and  Cs)  on  the  , 
vtrui  in  the  Malkowil  casa.  Their  rc( 
|qo4)  contained  the  following  coDclufti 
KoT  no  nwn  to  diHer  fnm  the  co«l 
that  the  new  prophylaclk  ii  aot  lea 
(i)  Tbe  laititute  Hol  opoion  that  in 

andard  method  '  of  niai 


'nititutc  B  in  cntin  ai. 

jf  S%  cmH»lic  acid Tb 
plague  prnphylactic,  " 


Iditior  in  pie 
ilch  might  be 

Lb  thd«e  of  the  canm] 

h  b  Impoutble  to  < 

the  euodard  tUHd  mhhiU  be  manufaciur 
Tbu  AuKi  waa  ateriliied  by  oxtbods  afifJ 
Commiweo  and  contained  the  mmiii 
acid.  It  W19  bottled  by  a  new  method  fn 
The  remit  of  the  faquinoe  by  the  e 
-  -Itnte  led  ,to  a  ("p^cicd  mtrever 
"-''ily  of  Mr  Hallkinei  bbonioi 

oioguu  in  EngUnd  warmly  took  up  hi 
"  IteiurD  of  Papeia"  waa  laucd  In  JUi 
of  Uw  s?!!"  of  July  Ihm  appaiKl » letlei 
MthotogiMa,  Ronald  Rou.  R.  T.  Hewie 
SmpHn.  R.  F.  C.  Uiih.  W.  R.  Smill 
KfeftTs.  Fl,™;  and  C.  Hnnter  Sinr 
cvideiice»  ao  far  from  showing  that  Mr 
to  blame,  made  it  dear  to  UtMC  aequ 
work  Ibat  it  could  have  bad  nothing  I 
They  flgn«l  ihat  there  wa.  Bmng  ev 
contamlnalian  took^laci:  wbco  the  uill 

pnaclitiid  by  the  Bombay  la^ratof} 
raiiun  to  uerilije  the  foisipa  which  were 
and  which  during  the  proccw  wen  dio] 
they  complained  of  the  inadequa^  of 
Indian  govemnient,  and  ealkd  for  ^ 
The  evldeoce  ihowtd  thai  it  had  been 
that  the  tctamn  pmu  had  entered  Ihe 
opened,  and  that  a  grave  injuilice  bad 
Acting:  on  lhl>  view,  in  November  19c 
Invited  MrHaffkuieagdnM  talcenpwi... 


PLUCB  {fVWrniotar  tUoit).  %  spKiea  Of  Bat-fi^  coramOB 
\  the  coaitB  of  northern  Europe  from  Iceland  to  tbe  Bay  ol 
iaay.  It  ii  readily  recogniied  by  the  yeUowoToiuge-coloured 
loti  which  are  placed  in  a  row  along  the  donat  and  aaal  fint, 
id  scatteicd  over  the  body.  The  eyca  are  on  the  right  tide,  and 
the  teeth  In  the  iiwi  compreiKd  and  truncate.  The  Kalea  an 
minute  and  Inxioth.  Flake,  like  other  flu-fittao,  pnfcr  a 
■andy  flat  bottom  to  a  Eodiy  ground,  and  occur  la  auitable 
^~  in  in  peat  abundance^  they  qiawn  eariy  in  apring,  and 
finest  condition  in  the  month  of  May.  Individuals  of 
01  eight  poundi  weight  aie  conaidered  dih  ol  large  aii«, 
but  ipedmeiu  of  double  that  wti^t  have  been  caught. 

See  the  momigraph  by  F.J.  Cole  and  J.  Tohutone  (Uvcrposl. 
noi):  and  W.  (dniane'a  "  Seporli  on  Ihe  Natural  Hiitoiy  dlbe 
FUicQ"    iRapporii  ft   fmcit-wertamx  dn  cpiun/ iHUmatwndJ  pvf 


,  190s  icq.). 


PUIS  (Gael.  ftaiiCi,  Ir.  plaid,  mually  taken  La  b«  derived  ttom 
atL  piaU,  ihecpEkln,  Lat.  pdlii.  ikln),  an  ontti  gatinenl. 
in&laiing  of  an  oblong  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  which  has  formed 
le  principal  outer  put  of  the  costume  of  the  Highlanders  of 
Scotland.  The  wearer  wrapped  himself  in  the  plaid,  Ihc  lower 
portion,  reaching  to  the  luiees  and  belled,  forming  tbe  ktFt. 
the  lower  portbn  was  separated,  being  called  Ihe  fliUi- 
ttt.  the  plaid  being  used  as  a  covering  for  the  shoulders  and 
upper  pan  of  the  body.    The  plaids  were  usually  of  a  checked 


.     The  word  is  thus  ui 


of  any  d 


pattern.  "  Sbepbecd's  plaid  "  is  a  doth  with  a 
leqtier  of  black  on  a  while  ground. 

PUIK  (O.  Fr.  ^ain,  from  Lat.  planum),  a  level  lurface;  hence 
In  phy^cal  geography  a  tract  ol  country  generally  quite  flat  or 
Geocrapoi).  The  adjective  "  pbun  " 
rignifies  "  levil,"  and  thence  smoolh,  clear,  simple,  ordinaiT,  &c. 

PUIHFIELD,  a  dly  of  Union  county.  New  Jersey,  U.S.A., 
abouti4m.W.byS.af  NewYorkCIiy.  Pop.  (i9ioU.S,cen>>u), 
jOjSSQ.  It  is  served  by  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jeraey  and 
by  dcclric  lines  coaoecting  with  neighbouring  townt.  It  i* 
situated  for  the  most  part  on  a  plain;  north-east  ue  height! 
occupini  by  the  suburb  ol  Netberwood,  and  north  in  Somerset 
county,  on  the  slope  ol  the  £rst  Watchung  Mountain,  is  the 
borough  of  Noitb  PlainGeld  (pop.  iqid  U.S.  ceniua.  611;), 
which  forms  with  riainlkld  virtually  a  sin^e  residential  and 
business  community.  PLainBeld  is  one  of  the  most  attractive 
lal  suburbs  oC  New  York.  The  city  has  on  eicellent 
public  school  system,  a  good  public  library,  with  an  art  gallery 
and  museum.  The  Muhlenberg  hoepital,  club  houses  and  a 
driving  track  are  features  of  the  dty.  The  value  of  the  factoiy 
products  increased  from  $i,43!)434  in  1900  to  (^,571,134  in 
igas,  or  46'£%.  Ftainfidd  was  settled  in  16S4.  but  It  was  not 
until  ij]S  tbat  the  hnt  frame  house  wu  erected.  Id  1760  a 
(rial  mill  was  erected,  and  for  several  yean  the  place  was 
called  Milltown.  The  township  of  Flainfield  was  created  out  of 
WcstGcId  township  in  1S47,  and  in  1367  PUinGdd  wu  chartered 
city. 


PUIH  SOHfl.  or  PuUB  Chaht  (G«/<™ 

Jfuitc;  Lat.  csntu 

planus; 

loriBiK 

;    Fr.  ^atii 

chant),  a  style  of 

Jmiwnou.  music,  easily 

zablebycen 

«n  strongly  marked 

chartd 

risiic^  some 

very  a 

ents  of  which  sre 

believed 

to  have  been 

in  use 

from* 

emote  period. 

and  to 

lave  been  thence  ttanslerred  to 

thcritu 

1  of  the  Christ 

inChu 

ch. 

The 

heories  ad  vane 

the  origin  0 

this  solemn  form  of 

ecclesia. 

lical  music  are 

innum 

-rable.     The 

most  widely  spread 

slhatlheoJde 

of  it  origin. 

led  with  the  Pssltns 

Ihemse 

ves,  or  at  least 

from  tbe  ta 

«  synigogue  music. 

Anoihe 

theory  traces! 

e  origin  of  plain  long  to  the  early  Greeks; 

that  tbe  scales  in  which  its  melodies  are  composed  are  named 
after  the  old  Greek  "  modes."  But,  beyond  the  name,  no 
conneiinn  wbatever  exists  between  the  two  tonalities.  Less 
reasonable  hypotheses  attribute  the  origin  of  Ihe  gilaln  song  to  the 
Phoenidans,  to  (he  Egyptians,  to  the  early  Christian  converts, 
and  to  (he  musicians  of  the  middle  ages. 


•job 


PLAINTIFF 


Towards  the  dose  of  the  4th  century  Ambrose  of  Mflan, 
feftraig  the  lost  or  corruption  of  the  ven<»able  melodies  which 
had  been  preserved  by  means  of  oral  tradition  only,  endeavoured 
to  restore  them  to  their  primitive  purity,  and  to  teach  the  clergy 
to  sing  them  with  greater  precision.  A  still  more  esctensive 
work  of  the  same  nature  was  undertaken,  two  centuries  later, 
by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great.  And  thus  arose  two  schools  of 
ecclesiastical  music,  still  known  as  the  "  Ambrosian  "  and  the 
"  Gregorian  chant  ** — ^tfae  first  of  which  is  practised  only  in  the 
diocese  of  Milan,  while  the  hitter  is  univeisaUy  accepted  as  the 
authorized  '*  Roman  use."  In  order  to  explain  the  essential 
differences  between  these  two  schools,  wo  must  describe  in  detail 
some  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  plain  song. 

The  melodies  which  form  the  repertoire  of  plain  chant  are  not 
written  in  modem  major  and  minor  scales,  but  in  certain 
tonalities  bearing  names  analogous  to  those  of  the  early  Greek 
"modes,"  though  constructed  on  very  different  principles. 
Of  these  "  modes,"  fourteen  exist  in  theory,  though  twelve  only 
are  in  practical  use.  The  intervals  of  each  "  mode  "  are  derived 
from  a  fundamental  sound,  called  its  "  final."  ^  The  compass  of 
each  mode  comprises  eight  soundsr—  that  of  the  first,  thiid,  fifth, 
seventh,  ninth,  eleventh  and  thirteenth  "  modes  "  extending 
to  the  octave  above  the  "  final,"  and  that  of  the  second,  fourth, 
sixth,  eighth,  tenth,  twelfth  and  fourteenth  extending  from  the 
fourth  note  below  the  final  to  the  fifth  note  above  it.  Con- 
sequently, the  '*  finals  "  of  the  first  series,  called  the  **  authentic 
modes,"  occupy  the  lowest  place  in  each  system  of  sounds,  and 
those  of  the  second  series,  called  the  "  plagai  modes,"  the  middle 
place — ^the  same  "  final "  being  common  to  one  "  authentic  " 
and  one  "  plagal  mode."  The  following  table  exhibits  the  entire 
system,  expressed  in  the  alphabetical  notatkm  peculiar  to  modem 
English  music— the  "  final "  being  indicated  in  each  case  by  an 
asterisk,  and  the  position  of  the  semitones,  from  which  each  mode 
derives  its  distinctive  charaoter,L  by  brackets. 


AMmlU  Utdu, 

I.  DoifaD,  'D.  ^T^,  G«  A.  iTc,  Di 

j.Ptayiiui.  cO.  O.  A.  bT^.  D.  B. 

S.  I9«ia.  •  F,  O,  A,  O.  D.  O. 

7.  HMydhB«*C,  A.  ^Tc.  D,  ^f^,  0. 

9.  Aeoliu,  'A,  f^,  D,  C^,  O,  A. 
II.  Ucrim,  ^Ct,  D.  C^.G^A,  B, 
«.  loaitt.  •CD.O.O.A.fd 


a  Bypodsdu,  A.lO>  *D.  O.  (k  A 
4.  Bypophqriitii.£B',D.*O.G,A^ 
«.  B!rpolydhB.C  D.^.O.  A.  iCci 
9.  BypoiafMtrdbn.D.O.*GA.C^,D. 

la  BmoMoHn.  O.0.*A  O.  D.  E. 

I*.  ByftUalmt, r,G, A,  •fb, D,  O. 

M-  «JToioBlBi.  0,A,lf5b.D,O.  O. 


Nos.  ri  and  la  in  this  series  are  rejected,  for  technical  reasons 
into  which  we  have  not  space  to  enter;  they  are  practically  useless.* 

Of  these  modes  Ambrose  used  four  only^-the  fiist  four 

''authentic  modes,"  now  numbered  r,  3,  s  and  7.    Gregory 

acknowledged,  and  is  said  by  some  historians  of  credit  to  have 

invented,  the  first  four  **  plagal  modes  "— 'Nos.  a,  4,  6  and  8. 

The  use  of  the  remaining  "  modes,"  except  perhaps  the  ninth, 

was  not  formally  authorized  until  the  reign  of  Charlemagne, 

who  pubh'shed  an  official  decision  upon  the  subject.    In  one  or 

other  of  the  twelve  "  modes  "  recognized  by  this  decision  every 

pkun-chant  melody  is  composed.    The  nui^ber  of  such  melodies 

preserved  to  us,  the  genuineness  of  which  is  undoubted,  is  very 

large;  and  the  collection  is  divided  into  several  distinct  classes, 

the  most  important  of  which  are  the  melodies  proper  to  the 

Psalm-Toties  and   Antiphans;   the  Ordinwium   Missae,   the 

IniroUSf  Graduals  and  Offerlcria;    the  PraefatitmeSf  Versicvli 

and  RispMUoria;  the  Hymns  and  Sequences;  and  the  Lamenta' 

Hones,  Exuliet  and  other  music  used  in  Holy  Week. 

f   Of  these  classes  the  most  interesting  by  far  is  that  which 

includes  the  paalm-tones,  or  psalm-tunes,  called  by  modem 

English  historians,  the  "  Gregorian  tones."    The  oldest  of  these 

are  tones  z,  $,  5  sind  7,  as  sung  by  Ambrose.    The  antiquity  of 

tmies  1,  4,  6  and  8  is  less  firmly  established,  though  there  is  no 

doubt  that  Gregory  the  Great  sanctioned  their  use  on  strong 

traditional  evidmoe.    In  addition  to  these,  a  peculiariy  beautiful 

melody  in  mode  9,  known  as  the  Tonus  peregrinus,  has  been 

sung  from  time  immemorial  only  to  the  psalm  In  exitu  Isfod. 

'  AaalonMit  to  the  tonic  or  key-note  of  the  modem  scale. 
*  For  fuller  information  on  tfaie  subject  see  the  article  "  Modes,'* 
In  Grove's  Dictionary  0/  Music 


The  oldest  versfon  of  tUs  mdody  now  ezUnt  h  andoubtedlyto  a 
certain  extent  impure;  but  tradition  imputes  to  it  a  very  high 
antiquity,  and  even  our  doubts  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the  dov 
generally  accepted  reading  extend  only  to  one  single  note.  A 
widely  accepted  tradition  points  out  this  mdody  as  the  tune 
sung  to  In  exitu  Israd,  as  part  of  the  Great  Hallel  (see  Psaub), 
which  is  generally  (but  hardly  tightly)  identified  with  the  hymn 
sung  by  Christ  and  His  apostles  immediately  after  the  Last 
Supper. 

Cktd  very  powerful  axgnment  in  favour  of  the  Jewish  origin  of 
the  psalm-tones  lies  in  the  peculiarity  of  thdr  constniction. 
It  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  pofect  adapution  of  these  venerable 
melodies  to  the  laws  of  Hebrew  poetry,  as  opposed  to  those  which 
governed  Greek  and  Latin  verse.  The  division  of  the  tunc 
mto  two  distinct  strains,  exactly  balandng  each  other,  pomu 
assuredly  to  the  intention  of  singing  it  to  the  two  contrasted 
phrases  which,  inseparable  from  the  tonstitution  of  a  Hcbretr 
verse,  find  no  phoe  in  any  hiter  form  of  poetry.  And  it  is  very 
remarkable  that  this  oonstnictional  peculiarity  was  nnrr 
imitated,  either  in  the  earliest  hjrmns  or  antq>lions  we  possess 
or  in  those  of  the  middle  ages— evidently  becaifte  it  was  found 
impossible  to  adapt  it  lo  any  medieval  form  of  verse--«veB  to 
the  To  Deum,  which,  thoo^  a  manifest  reproductkm  oi  the 
Hebrew  psalm,  was  adapted  by  Ambrose  to  a  melody  of  vny 
different  formation,  and  naturally  so  rince  so  many  of  its  i^nses 
consist  of  a  single  dause  only,  balanced  in  the  foUowing  \-eise. 
This  peculiarity  now  passes  for  the  most  part  un&oticed;  and  the 
Te  Deum  ia  constantly  sung  to  a  psalm-tone,  vory  much  to  the 
detriment  of  both.  But  in  the  middle  ages  this  abuse  «as 
unknown;  and  so  it  came  to  pass  that,  unto  the  "  School  of  the 
Restoration  "  gave  birth,  in  England,  to  the  single  dnat, 
avowedly  built  upon  the  lines  of  its  Gregorian  predecessor,  and  a 
somewhat  later  period  to  the  double  one,  so  constructed  is  to 
weld  two  verses  of  the  psalm  into  one,  often  with  utter  disregud 
to  the  sense  of  the  words,  the  venerable  psalm-tones  stood  quite 
alone->tbe  only  mdodies  in  eidstence  to  which  the  psahns  cinld 
be  chanted.  And  so  intimate  is  the  adaptation  of  these  pUin- 
chant  melodies  to  the  rhythm  as  well  as  to  the  sense  of  the  sacred 
text,  even  after  its  tnuulation  into  more  modem  languages, » 
strongly  do  they  swing  with  the  000  and  emphasise  the  other, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  composition  of  the  music  vas 
not  coeval  with  that  of  the  poetry. 

Next  in  antiquity  to  the  psalm-toncs  are  the  melodies  adapted 
to  the  antipbons,  the  offertoria,  the  graduals  and  ibe  intnuts. 
sung  at  High' Mass.  Those  proper  to  the  Ordinarium  missoc  are 
probably  of  later  date.  Those  belonging  to  hymns  and  sequences 
are  of  all  ages.  Among  the  latest  we  possess— perhaps  the  veiy 
latest  of  any  great  importance — is  that  of  Lauda  Sion,  a  veiy 
fine  one,  in  modes  7  and  8,  adapted  to  the  celebrated  seqoesce 
wntten  by  Thomas  Aquinas  about  1361. 

To  the  melodies  adapted  to  the  LamenUttiones  and  the  Exsdid, 
as  sung  in  the  Church  of  Rome  during  Holy  Week,  it  is  abso- 
lutely impossible  to  assign  any  date  at  all.  All  we  know  is  that 
they  are  of  extreme  antiquity,  and  beautiful  beyond  all  descrip- 
tion. The  melody  oj  E^euUet  is,  indeed,  very  frequently  cited 
as  the  finest  example  of  plain  song  in  existence. 

To  assert  that  mek>d)es  so  old  as  these  have  been  handed 
down  to  us  in  their  original  purity  would  be  absurd.  But  the  ^ 
presence  of  corruption  rarely  passes  undetected  by  the  initiated;  * 
and  vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  punfjr 
the  received  text  by  reference  to  the  oldest  and  most  trustworthy 
MSS.  attainable.  Such  an  effort  was  begun  on  a  very  extensive 
scale  by  the  "  Congregation  of  Rites,"  at  the  mstigatioo  ^ 
Pope  Pius  DC,  m  the  year  z868;  and  the  labours  of  that  learned 
body,  together  with  those  of  the  monks  d  Soksmes  and  eke* 
where,  have  done  much  towards  the  restoration  of  plain  chaat 
to  the  highest  state  of  purity  possible.  In  England  the  Flaio* 
Song  and  Medieval  Musk  Society,  founded  m  1888,  has  also  doac 
valuable  work  by  its  publications.  (W. S. R) 

PLAUmPF,  one  who  brings  a  <'plafait"  (Low  Lat.  plantts 
ptangere,  beat  the  breast,  lament),  the  name,  in  law,  of  the 
party  who  brings  an  action  against  another,  who  is  called  the 


PLAIT— PLANAWANS 


707 


"  defendant."  In  suits  for  divorce  the  party  bringing  tbe  suit 
is  styled  the  "petitioner/'  the  party  against  whom  it  is 
brought  tlie  **■  respondent." 

PLAIT  (through  O.  Fr.  pleU,  from  Lat.  t^kihtm^  folded, 
plicare,  to  fold),  properly  a  fold,  especially  a  fold  of  doth,  now 
usually  in  the  collateral  form  "  pleat."    "  Plait "  is  now  princi- 
pally appUed  to  entwined  strands  of  ribbon,  bur,  straw  or  fibre. 
PLAN  (from  Lat.  planus,  flat),  a  diagram  on  a  flat  surface; 
hence  by  analogy  any  deliberate  scheme  or  design.    In  archi- 
tecture, a  "  plan  "  is  a  horizontal  geometrical  section  of  the 
walls  of  a  building,  or  indications,  on  a  boriaontal  plane,  of  the 
relative  positions  of  the  walls  and  partitions,  with  the  various 
openings,  such  as  windows  and  doors,  recesses  and  projections, 
chimneys  and  chimney-breasts,  colimms,  pilasters,  Ac.    This 
term  is  sometimes  incorrectly  used  in  the  sense  of  design  {q.v.). 
PLANARIAlfS,  a  well-defined  group  of  animals,  characterized 
externally  by  their  ovoid  or  vermiform  shape,  their  gliding 
movement  and  their  soft,  unsegmented,  ciliated  bodies:  inter- 
nally by  that  combination  of  low  somatic  type  of  structare  and 
complex  gonidial  organization  which  is  .characteristic  of  the 
Platyelmia  (q.v.).    Their  low  type  of  bodily  structure  may  be 
exemplified  by  the  facts  that  the  mouth  is  the  only  means  of 
ingress  to  and  egress  from  the  blind  alimentary  sac,  and  that  no 
vascular  system  is  differentiated.    Most  Planarians  are  aquatic 
and  the  dlia  that  cover  the  body  produce  by  their  beating  a 
stirring  of  the  water.    Hence  the  class  is  generally  known  by  the 
name  Turbellaria. 

Planarians  form  one  of  the  basal  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
They  are  the  simplest  of  mutticellidar  creeping  things.  In  them 
the  gliding  moveme.nt  has  become  habitual.  The  lowest 
Planarians  are  still  largely  free-swimming  animalcuUe  and  we 
can  trace  within  the  limiu  of  the  group  the  development  of  the 
creeping  habit  and  the  consequences  that  flow  from  it.  It  has 
led  to  the  differentiation  of  anterior  and  posterior  extremities; 
to  the  formation  of  bilateral  symmetry;  and  to  the  development 
of  a  mucilage  protecting  the  body  against  friction^  It  entails 
the  concentration  of  the  scattered  nervous  system  on  the  ventral 
surface  and  at  the  anterior  end,  and  it  has  induced  the  Segregation 
of  the  diffused  sense-organs  in  the  head.  The  Planarians  occupy 
a  position  midway  between  the  simple  planula  larva  of  Coelen- 
terates  and  the  segmented  Annelids.  They  have  probably 
sprung  either  from  an  early  Codomate  stock,  or  represent  an 
independent  class  descended  from  a  two-layered  parentage 
distinct  from  that  of  the  Codenterates;  a  view  which  is  adopted 
in  the  present  artide. 

Occurrence.— Most  TurbeUaria  are  aquatic  They  abound  on 
the  seashore  and  in  fresh  water,  amongst  weeds  or  under  cover 
of  stones,  shells  and  sand.  Few  of  them  are  pelagic  or  deep- 
water  forms,  and  only  some  half-dozen  Planarians  are  known  to 
be  parasitic  A  large  number  of  land  Planarians  are  known, 
chiefly  froxn  tropical  and  south  temperate  countries. 

The  majority  of  marine  Planarians  are  nocturnal  or  cryptozoic, 
hiding  away  during  the  period  of  low  tide  to  avoid  desiccation 
of  thdr  soft  sticky  bodies  and  coming  out  at  night  or  during  high 
tide  to  feed.  They  are  mostly  carnivorous,  and  thdr  movemenu 
are  oorrelated  largely  with  the  nature  of  their  food.  The  smaller, 
more  active  species  occur  in  companies  amongst  the  finer  sea- 
weeds over  which  they  creep  or  swim  in  pursuit  of  their  food. 
The  larger  marine  species  occur  singly  or  in  pairs  on  Asddians, 
NuUipores  or  Polyzoe,  from  whence  as  the  tide  rises  they  issue 
to  feed.  By  the  time  the  next  low  tide  exposes  them,  these 
Planarians  have  so  completely  digested  their  meal  that  we  know 
very  little  of  its  nature.  The  common  fresh-water  Planarians 
form  either  little  companies  of  a  dozen  or  more,  usually  of  a 
sin^e  spedes,  huddled  together  under  •  stone  or  in  some  cranny 
(see  Pearl  [8]*),  or  sodetiet  of  several  spedes  that  inhabit 
Sphagnum  and  other  fresh-water  vegetation.  This  fresh-water 
planarian  £auna  is  of  two  kinds,  the  fauna  of  permanent  and  that 
of  temporary  sheets  of  water  and  both  show  a  cerUin  ads^Ution 
to  their  environment.  The  latter,  bdng  subject  to  greater 
extremes  of  temperature  than  the  lacustrine  Planarians,  produce  I 
«    s  These  rdcrences  are  to  the  literature  at  the  end  of  xku  artide.     I 


thif^-aheUed  eggs  only.  The  development  of  these  eggs  is  rapid 
in  warm  water,  skyw  in  cold:  so  that  a  pool  after  a  few  days  of 
early  tpidag  sunshine  is  soon  populated  and  provision  is  made  for 
the  continuance  of  the  race  should  a  coki  snap  follow.  The 
lacnstrine  Planarians  exhibit  a  different  form  of  adaptation. 
The  eggs  laid  by  many  of  these  animals  are  dther  thin-shelled 
and  rapidly  hatched  or  thidc'«helled  and  slowly  hatched.  The 
lake-water,  however,  is  in  quing,  even  after  suluhine,  of  a  much 
lower  temperature  than  that  of  pool-water,  but  the  masses  of 
Sphagnum  and  other  weeds  that  border  lakes  and  manhes  are 
often  warmer  than  the  open  water  and  may  be  as  much  as  xj**  or 
15"  C.  higher  in  temperatare.  Here  the  Planarians  assemble  to 
benefit  by  the  warmth,  and  under  such  favourable  conditions 
lay  thin-shelled  eggs  which  rajfidly  develop;  whilst  in  colder 
sunoandings  or  at  the  onset  of  winter  thick-shelled  resting 
eggs  are  laid.  In  this  manner  we  can  understand  the  abun- 
dance of  Planarian  life  in  cold  meres  and  transitory  pools  in 
Great  Britain,  Scandinavia,  Finknd,  Denmark  and  North 
America. 

In  contrast  to  the  general  habit  among  Turbellaria  of  haunting 
dim  or  dark  placea,  the  station  chosen  by  a  few  spedes  is  exposed 
and  strongly  illuminated.  The  marine  Convdula  and  Pdy' 
ckaerus  and  the  fresh-water  Vortex  viridis  may  be  taken  as 
examples.  Canvoluia  paradesa  occurs  among  brown  weeds  which 
recdve  much  light  during  neap  tides  and  strong  direct  sun 
or  light  every  fortnight.  Pdyckaerus  creeps  about  the  New 
England  shore  without  resorting  habitually  to  cover,  and  is  also 
strongly  insolated.  Voflex  resembles  the  green  Hydra  of  our 
ponds  in  choosing  the  lightest  side  of  its  surroundings;  and 
finally,  Centolmta  roseeffemis  paints  the  beach  green  in  Brittany, 
part  of  Normandy  and  Natal.  In  every  such  case  the  Planarian 
is  coloured  brown  or  green  by  the  presence  of  photosynthetlcally 
active  cells  and  the  singular  heliotropic  habit  of  these  TurbeUaria 
is  assodated  with  the  iflumination  necessary  for  the  activity  of 
thdr  coloured  cells. 

Only  one  branch  of  the  Planarians  has  become  terrestrial,  but 
this  has  spread  over  almost  all  the  whole  globe.  One  spedes 
(Rkynchddemtu  /erftslris,  fig.  i,  e)  is  fairly  common  in  Great 
Britain  under  stones,  logs  and  occasionally  on  fungi,  but  the 
Holarctk  countries  (North  America,  Europe  and  North  Africa, 
North  Asia)  are  extremdy  poor  in  terrestrid  spedes.  In  coun- 
tries lying  in  the  centre  and  in  the  south  of  the  great  continents 
and  in  the  south  temperate  continental  islands  and  ardtipdagoes 
these  land  Planarians  become  more  abundant  and  varied;  and 
being  frequently  transported  with  earth  or  plants  they  are  often 
found  in  hothouses  and  botanical  gardens  far  from  thdr  native 
country.  Thdr  distribution  offers  some  points  of  special 
interest  showing  a  dose  relationship  between  the  South  American 
fauna  and  that  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand:  between  the  land 
Planarians  of  Madagascar,  of  Oylon  and  of  Indo-Malaya:  and 
a  mariced  contrast  between  Japan  and  the  rest  of  the  Palaearctic 
region  (see  Von  Graff  [1],  rSpg). 

External  Characters.-^VlsaxKnua  range  from  the  minute  forms 
no  larger  than  Infusoria  to  ovate,  marine  spedes,  6  in.  in 
diameter  and  to  ribbon-like  land  forms  8  in.  in  length.  Hie 
majority  are  small,  somewhat  cylindrical  organisms  with  a 
flat  creeping  surface.  Others,  oomprfsing  the  common  fresh* 
water  and  marine  forms,  are  flattened  and  leaf-like,  often 
provided  with  a  pair  of  tentacles  near  the  front  end  of  the 
body,  and  in  some  cases  the  whole  dorsal  surface  is  betet  with 
papillae.  The  hmd  forms  are  elongate  and  smooth,  and  thdr 
anterior  extremity  is  often  modified  into  the  arcuate  shape 
of  a  cheese-cutter,  Thdr  movements  are  usuidly  of  a  gliding 
character.  The  minuter  forms  perform  short  excursions  Into 
the  water  round  their  staU'on,  and  in  so  doing  recall  Infusoria. 
The  larger  forms,  in  addition  to  gliding  like  pellicles,  fold  the 
expanded  anterior  part  of  thdr  body  into  a  couple  of  finsi 
with  which  they  swim  after  the  fashion  of  a  skate.  The 
folded  margins  of  other  forms  dasp  the  weeds  on  which  they 
live.  Adhoion  is  effected  by  the  mucous  investment  of  the 
body  and  frequently  1^  some  spedally  devdopcd  kwsl  secretiop 
of  dime,  or  by  a  sucker.     By  these  means,  aided  by  dicb 


7o8 


PLANAMANS 


ijgil-freqiiciitiiig  and  ayptic  bibits,  the  TurtKllu 

■oft-bodied,  tit  abls  lo  witfaiumd  the  vifdenccDl  the 

Hie  interior  end  in  ill  tUbdliria  it  the  lite  o 


the  chief 


tnuuformed  into  an  invagin- 
able  pnboacia  ol  hl^y  tactile 
nature.     Such    fanu    lead 


The   aittened  n 


ol  a 


a  mottled  ippeiTucx.    The 

iilDi&caiice  .of  ihcM  coloun  ii 

Dot  lully  undentood,  but  in 

wme   caaei  of   aympubetic 

coloialioQ     the     deiivallve 

-  fuDClioD  of  the  pifRienU  ia 

Fio.  1.  jaobabiy  to  aid  cryptic  re- 

a,  Cnmlala  faniaa,  Oe.  lemblance.     The     leneitrial 

ti  Vtrux  irindis,  M- Sich.  FUnariana  exhibit  the  most 

MFvatfd    anierior   eaireiniiy  dinal  llnpiog  and 

<a(ur  lah.  Schmidt).  which    appear    to 

.,  gJirmluxUtmui  urrairit,  O.  F.  nlacioa  lo  the  en 

(all"  Kennd),  of  Iheae  enentially 


wley). 


Moa.    (alter 

■Ua.  O.  Sch.,  al- 
.tf*Wa 


n(aRer%ht 


The      fic9h-wi 


ilourlcu 


n   the  ' 


le  Inih-va 


;    frtsh-w 


apeciea. 


narine.  b  and  _ 

r  and  f  are  tei'    liana  a  green  cobt 
nHriiu.      nil    Luuad  *in    CtTat    conitantly   in   ton. 
eittpi  a.  iporadically  In  oihi 

Thii  gnen  eScct  ii  due  to  the  Inlection  of  the  riaoatian  by  a 
minute  algi  which  mulLlpliei  in  the  tissues  and  may  pnlouodiy 
aHect  the  habiti  and  even  the  itniclun  ol  iu  "  bott."  The 
plana rian  ao  aflected  acquiits  a  heliolropic  habit;  it  bctomea 
gngarious  and  in  eiiieme  caaa  ceaaea  lo  ingnt  solid  food.  Id 
CuimMa  rtiujfnaii  the  green  celli  have  become  indispciuable. 
They  luactioD  both  ai  the  nutritive  and  eicreiocy  oigans  ol  the 
naoarian,  and  the  young  animal  cannot  dcvdop  until  it  la 
infected  and  has  acquired  a.  vipply  of  these  green  cells  which 
become  Incorporated  into  its  tissues  tG»nt)ie  and  Kecble  [;|). 
Biowa  algal  cells  (ZoooulbeUae}  an  known  id  other  apedcs  of 

^Mrf,— The  food  of  TutbeUuiins  consisU,  in   the  imaliei 


other  Tuibcllatiansi  in  the  larger  ones,  oi  worms,  moUusci  aac 
insects.  The  fine  feeders  capture  Ihcii  food  chiefly  al  night  b] 
gulping  down  the  minuie  oiganitms  that  settle  oc  swim  in  the! 
acighbourbood.  The  couM  feeden  enclose  their  pn:y  with  i 
coating  of  stime  and  then  proceed  either  to  engull  it  io  Ihei 
eipantibie  moulb  or  to  perforate  it  by  their  liumpet-Ukc  pharynx 
The  iBanlb  is  imaikAhly  variable  in  position  (£g.  2),  In  man] 
is  idaced  ceclrally  on  the  ventral  suriai 


i,but  in  ■ 


In  ti 


-.1  the 


narkaUy  elongate  forma  it  occupies 
DC  DinaereDd  of  the  auinial.  Id  the  cylindrical 
ocis)  a  similar  variahilily  in  the  position  of  the 

e  MnKlare  of  the  TnTbelUrit  though  (nstly 
eoafonu  ID  a  singie  type  of  lonatic  orgauution 
ly  In  tba  higher  iovcnebratcs.   The  sexual  orgsos. 


3  the  other  hand. 


,  leiatRl  to  t]wVi>s; 

rCi  uojaachj  Pki  Phaiyu; 


The  ginent  atnict 
gbodulai  epUtnnia  as 


I.  iiigu;)i: 

vl  charact---  — ,  —  

envelope  corervd  eilenaUy 


w  the  Kructnre  ol  the  aim 
Its  the  Icil  half  of  a  Irani 
LcoelDui  planarian  RaWofixi 
h  a  digeiiin  polynucMr  m 


■r  figure  repres 
Ite^&^aflhe 

■attend  (xntnl  paito- 

a  firmer  peripaenl  rose 

_jstIay»r(EI'lisadhateaepiiJen«i; 

ig  on  (BIO.  a  basement  membrane  (darit  Uac)i  the  row  << 
beneath  thb  icpreseau  the  loi^Bdinal  mdia  (U- 


id  ajpin  from  th 


.-.  - the  oioath _.  ..... 

ihiH  aproctoui  gut  and  the  intetumefli 

ielly-like,  Taniotatr-' ' •■ 

At  excretory 


olated  inatachyiM  made  up  «f  b 


idariiy^hi5low3oM  aiound  part  of  thcgotrWiie 

?«  higher. aidinah.  .A jeryous  system  i.  pn 
an  antenor  l>nin  aAd  of  lamiryiiig  gaagJicH 
l#v#laDHl  ill  relation  to  the  nuuQilar  iDi^um* 
the  perception  ol  Ughl  and  pnn 


PLANARIANS 

re  dsvdapcd,  pnbabtv  In  omlatiHi  wHk  tt 


uc  hermaphrDdl  . 

ftftir  AtlauiinK  maturity,  tiKDiIm  in  muy  PUurvBt 
ft  IvnitKL  BT  and  u  vooa  crhiuAEd  by  tbe  RpbiEd  **!     _,„„  .^. 
""^^''^ThT  ■'"'^'Si^  'bJi^  "'''^  predoeliaii  of  ((p  mid  ipa. 
luund  in  <^"jj^»'"  '"«^^Mu  to  be  »  monili,  tbut  lunndii 

/iifc[ii««iil.— The  eiiidmiiii  i>  ciliated  ind  liighLy  gUni.— . 
Ifiwu'ij' ™ 'iii"fil'*3!'*Tl.°  riiJdiri  °'  '''^'  ""*  ""■-"" 
fiintot  baiB0ga»ii>  ■«!(.     TTwe  iwl>  or  "AibdiuJ^m 


oHonEitudiuloi 


.    .  .  .  Itnnh.    Btk)w  the  rairniit 
rm\mattBU).abyetil  riiruW  mu  ■cl«  ( Q  ind 

oiu  (tindi  (fim)  in  pTDdudng  iluimnites  (RmJ 


•ured  red  of  wi 
1.  ,Tl.tir  nJl, 


^llov,  ind  In  highly  cTi 


do«  the  etHdcrmii  produce  _ 

lirqutntly  on   ihe  lining   nKmbrane  of  tlit   nule  ind   Id 
copubtory  durtt- 

Beloii  tile  rpiilemili  i>  a  finn  bmrnimt  mmibmie  into  wl 
circular  lod  itinn-  longitudLiul  groupt  ind  lubdivKfed  in  the  1i 
iDtmi  by  d^nil  fi6l»,  and  in  tlw  nun  highly  diflerenli 
tlitiuuni  IbCR  in  ut  miuniUr  liytn.  two  ol  rach  kuid, 
1  Bumbtr  ol  Tutbclliiii.  tlw  muKulalun  Ii  modiBed  to  ion 
interior  or  pntsior.  am 


Ob  llwriiht  hind 
which  the  ihibd 


ument  oI  Miuilima  tinpa,  O.  Scb. 

1  epiderniii  (i)  •ith  perfont>a«t  (0  thn 

u]  pr(}|cct.   Beneath  ihii  the  buement  in 

onal  iimj,  and  lonEitudinaL  Vm)  tbr^ 


AUmmlary  5«.— The 
phirynx  Dpening  *-— *- 


LCVirdt  through  ttu  mouth  and  in 
Mdlln  dIgiBtive  orain  wbicb  miy  be  solid  or  hoElov, 
ler  CIH   ilnlfht,   lobin   or  branched.      These  cha 


the  KiaUKM^Ua  •rhh  atmiilit  m  ukI  the  TViela^bb  uH  ihl 
KUbdocotudi  ire  limber  divided  into  time  gm[4i  iba  Acoeli 


Fin.  6.— Mils  tninka  rf  rm 

Exaeloiv    SvMcm    ol  Fia.  7.— Flame 
ftnto     dmrnitrjii,     O, 

-irwigh     tbe     mouth;     pk,  t,     iimhe     i  n,  or 

Pbirym.  1,  bejinaingo/ct 


celli  comiin  Bematocyna  ui  a  few  Planiriint  (tficraiMBa.  Sum*- 
Mmt.  dmrmi  tirilit  ind  Stjbii^laiia  tarda).    WbeUwt  tkw 


PLANARIANS 


ietbiKhcy  u 

, iniiul*  fatf  n  by  the  Plaruiivip  u  bu  b«a  ihovn  (ol 

la  Ikt.Hsatocyiti  of  Eolidt.    (jj  Cdk  pntdinnc  idculii 

o(t«  uBcand  laielber  in  baiurio.  nolsbly  lo  in  the  i 


Eyn  ve  tepcn 

inTridadi 
huodnd  « 

•iHwii  thai  the' 

ciud  ilnicturo 

by  pvnwiit  and  pcovided  with 


1  PtaurLuu.    Tm  lypn 

'Peiy^aimcad  thi  matiia  lA  iln  body  all 
be  ]in«l.    The  lir 


B  (>(  Ihc  ai 


ir£ 


■1  cdtfioup  a 


Ly  knon  eyn  arc  cdnpo^d  of  rnd-fvUa 

Jhioflit «  bundle  of  GbriUae  (iht  termini 

of  the  nerve),  and  the  diuil  end  of  the  lod-eell  Ir  »••-«_<  l„ 

Mriatfd  uwally  bniad  border  trhaa  die  ■clioa  ol 

A  [nHip  ol  luch  ipttialiicd  rod-celb  ii  enclotfq  id  a 

cup  opepuic  either  outwifda  or  Invarda  and  torrted  b^ 

nave.    The  wbsk  a  uiuilh  depre«ed  ber— -  "-' 

but  is  aoiH  Acoela  and  Alloeacaela  tbe  ej 

postion.     Id  Mr  Polyctldl  eyn  may  Inc 

Tikladi  may  decreaie  tn  ■umber  by  fusi 

marpnal  and  often  radia]  disfvwtiDn  o(  lb 

proeEomial  poaftion  of  the  paiied  eyei.  a" 

of  the  intennediale  poiiliaa  Ihit  Flaiur 

radiate  Coelentera  and  (he  bilateral  Adh 

■canaUy.   bula    fev   lomu    (Mi 


—Plan  of  an  Acoelaui 


reptodBOioa.     Tbt 


PLANARIANS 


S.l3^Pt. 


vAKin^  itmctuRo,  attta  at  gnat  CDniplcjuty.  whicb  wc  au- 
iveUjpcd  for  Che  nceplion  oi  the  fe^iliied  egg  prEVioua  lo 


"  '■fbtf^oel 


The  Ai:iiela  proent 
ir)  the  male  ftrniK 
product  of  a  tiiig\t  I 


.    Ifl  (hu^up(fig. 


umplest  artanget._ —  ,.- 

diiie  in  fuUicleA  each  d  whmh  _  , 

m-imilher-cdl.     Fcsm  these  fidliclei.  (he 

»»»p>  ^,-^'- tbc  paired  tpcrm-duct,  which  openi  by 

a  fin^  apermrv  near  ilic  himler  end  oi  the  aiuma],  uul  it  provijed 
Iritb  a  boxple  unarmed  glandular  '-' *=-      ""*-  f— ...i-  ,»».  «n-  — 


le  fcnule  Eeroi-celb  _ 

J,  .^ ,  —  celb  of  which  appear 

;g  iTie  yours  t^gi  with  nourishmenr 
nsfcirco  to  the  oviduct.   At  the  poir 


~K 


niu  of  the  Anidouj  Tuibetlar 
iiweinent  uodergon  a  developmt 

MtA  wiiE*yoTk  which  £,  e^iaKdTy' 


—Pclyetuuna—tha 
which  [orcahadowi 
r  tormt     In  pay 


Tlie  reiMJiiiin;  RhaMmielida  poHns  lepanu  nvaria  and  yoll 
itandt.  _  The  biikm  betwrni  (he  Ik  leu  al  diicti  ukei  plan  I 
the  oeintal  ■triun  wtiidt  ia  pfovided  with  a  ipaiDotheoi  for  (I 
leitiKBtioii  of  the  an.  but  In  (t  leut  one  mb-bmily  fCylixir. 
iCmwo)  llie  ^emoehica  open  by  ■  ipedal  doni)  pm.  The 
ova.  CORther  with  the  yolk  and  ipermaloioa,  aie  then  trantrern 
(o  WKXber  atrial  divenlculam— the  ulenn.  in  which  a  iheli  >i  lonm 
and  fioB  wUcb  Ihey  an  depoiited  In  the  fom  ol  a  cncDan.  I 
additiai.  a  aiueular  pa>a:h,  the  to-called  "buna  copulalrbL," 
unnllr  pivegt.  The  nule  miana  ol  Rhabdocoelida  are  no  Ici 
conplo.    The  [Met  ai«  either  follicutar  (ADseociicla)  or  compel 


—Plan  of  a  Polycladid. 

il,  Siomach. 

1,    Te»ieular  folUcte. 
nllnal     ■.    Ulerui. 

t>f.  Va)  defere 


.  .    -varianlotlklc 

t*.  Pharyna. 

fti,  Pbaiynteal  poncb. 


'pulatory  organ,  with 


directly  or  directly  with  the 

prD\^iJed  with  ^lidular  and 
compleiily.  andTin  addiiion 


-a  (AfonDriyiifJiw,  Prottjmlmi)  Ih 


male  ore^ 
by  Ihi<  fa 
From  I.. 

It  iT'^^U^.' 


inlbe  I 

uti;  of  Proth^nckus  a  po&ut^y  cxplainisEj 
we  pan  readily  (a  Ihe  Tricladi.    In  both 


PLANARIANS 

|i>n.     In  PolyTliih 


™>olli{6i,lJ)._^ 


wfixh  may  open  fftpHrftleLv  la  the  cjilenar  { 
ic  teii«  are  equallv  oitTuied  and  Ihe  aeimlna]  vi 
jKUlir  cvertiUe  lac  which  open*  ' 


frmale  njiital  khc-  In  Siyicovmum,  however,  thia  pcQial  organ 
apeni  ihrDugh  ibe  inauth,  ai  in  ceruin  EUiabdococUdi.  McHeaveT. 
h  may  be  fuired  ITkytmiitm)  or  ntulliple.  Tbut  in  AMnymui 
tkdve  Of  dMtfe  pain  occur.  In  Crypitettida  two.  [our  or  lix  may 
be  preienc,  but  in  Ihu  icddi  they  all  lie  in  ■  cofnmoo  lar.  In 
PtlftaUt  twen^  pom  occur  iwifed  abovl  lli«  Itmale  poie,  but 


■enriiBl^diKt.    lint  a 


ducEioiL  tn  con&miatkM  of  this  eoDdUNon  we  have  the  otwva- 
tloB  ol  LarH  (si  tlul  rinifia  Raha  the  body  d  olher  Polvcladi 
wilb  in  peaS  when  bnnight  into  contact  with  them.  (Sn  Whit- 
man )»],)     Tbe  (iniB  laHlatit  iVItn  from  all  other  PolyrUdi 

'■E5S5."' 


. — TTie   devrfoproenl 


H  of  PolycladB.  develops 


the  (brmUionu  diikicatcd  mceBcyte* 
and  microcylea.  The  latter  give  Hk 
I  lo  Ihe  epidennli  which  ia  laid  dawn 
'  in  bilatenl  (beett,  the  lormer  to  ibe 
variou*  iotcma]  oiiina.  There  ii  ro 
dutinction  o(  genn-*"'*"  "*^  »'" 
gut  u  gndually  on 
maenrnymr.  the  rr 


^nchyma.     Thepharyitj 
•'■?*■"*'  ,„       .the  finl   oiiarn  to  appeal   (Bmlal 

■nWu,  L..  (P^ydaih*),  a^i,  (fifren  in  certain  psrtkular 
nth  proviiional  oluinl  i„^  ,KaI  of  other  RhabdocotUda 
focBia.  The  ova  conuin  yolk-granuLn.  *ni 

yatk-cdla  are  lUent.     Cnnipa  oT  luch  tggi.  each  with  i>i  owr 
.t_.(    ._  ..'J  ■_  _  .  .I..-.    ..  ^„v(lope.     Each  ovum  Hgmcnli  intc 
■wd  oTa  cUialBj  outer  fiycr  .ixl  1 


m-byered_cml»vo  tompo- 

'"'!Iri''^a"'  ""oTCiw^i 
i!f  "ie^l^pment   o('  the 


lonc.    The 


m  Identilisl  by  Uljini 
punded  by  w 


u  baopciu  in  Ibe  capiular  □ 


n  imperfect  Fy  unilersrood. 


neemoftbePol 

kh  a  ■miinow  envvloae.  ^-v-.  .,,..',. 
and  in  efi-ihell  which  may  Ik  opei 
ipedet «  ibrou^  a  direct  dmlopmeni 


tlihe  those  of  the  Acacia 

pTDvJ4i«]   with   yolk 

The   iTHiDrity   of 

-r-- ~  Ksmenf.iion  of  Ihe 

jnd  UpltfUnt  hai  tieen  worked  out  by  Ling 

rcHlia  n-inMrpnitd  br^  WOn  .ud  otber*  (Hubrccbi 


lloru  to  other  Tuitelbria 


■yncytiil  or  tubulti. 


II.  AleMKMti  (fif.  II}.— Got  and  [■ 
ler  a  umple  ilrajvht  lac.  Vitellari 
impact-    Fenii  aixTpharyni  c'ten  co 


ifiila,   Ancploiium 


.5SSS 


texine  ilnlghl  or  Mnte.  Tnin  foUKulir.  Peilii  and 
■imple.  One  family  witb  otolitli.  All  marine  cicept  Fti 
Umati  (deep-water.  Geneva)  and  the  Btlhrvplaiiidt. 

Sutxirder  B.  PtudrtcMfUs,— Large  fomia  with  Batteai 
branched  inteetine,  folUcular  leMea  and  foUicuLar  ovaria  or 
ovariei  and  yolk-glande. 

Tribe  I.  T-rk£.f^..-lntstinc  with  tbree  main  bnn 
pair  cJ  compact  ovaria  end  numerous  yoik-gUndt  coan 
■  common  duct,  h  ftinglc  geoiral  aperture.  Frc*h-*i« 
Flauru,  Daiirixattum,  PiUyaKi,  common.  Pmliir  I 
Lake  Baikal.  Marine  lormi:  Gamla  itrmnUala.  BiOt 
ternal  paraiite  of  Limnliu).  Teneuriil  loima:  Rliymc 
CBpCmu.  BipaHMm, 

Tribe  IL  /'ofKiuiJuli.— Body  leaf-like.  InleMine  coa 
a  median  MomacFi  with  nuy  braivhed  or  reiiculaia  cncc 
and  ovaricf  loJIicular:  genital  op 


litvhd)  ArMum  «u  dcr  iHf.  /uMImI  ax  Cm  1904.  tooj.  1906). 
til^Turbcniiit.'  In  Btonn'i  JCJUm  r.  Ord»u»  d.  ftuBnnt'- 
vol.  iL  1  (aI  rirMfarw  ob  PamiUm  t.  Winln  (Cm,  iml ;  U)  ^ 
Un>,~  DHe  PotycUden,"  Anna  •«>  Flm  vf  Ikt  6*9  if  Kf°: 
voTU.  {I»a4)j  (W  F.  F.  Llidbv  (Folycladi)  in  Zoolnical  B~» 
of  EipcdHionj  conducted  by  Dr  ttrtlhry,  Stanley  Gardiner  in* 
C.  Ctoaaland.  Cambridrt  Umv.  Pnai.  ud  Pm.  tail.  Sk.  ("9»- 

r);  (7)  Cunbic  11^  Kecble  (Cmn  aUt  lA  Omtttli}.  ^ 
,  Hun  Sci.  (iwn.  1907);  (8)  E.  R.  Fnrt  (Konuuei  i> 
PlanariaM),  ibid,  tiooj);  &i  Whitman  (Hypodenale  InvV; 
lion),  /«!•.  Uerf*£a  (i»90),  iv.  j6t;  (10)  Hei«  (Eyad 
Plinarlani),  Zetlnitr.  /^hii.  ZmI.,  vJTui.  Ut97):  (n)  Camm 
(ditto).  "Die  Schorgtne  der  Thfere"  (iMs).  n»  A-  A'  ^: 
Hubmht  (affinitiei),  Ziiuctr.  f.  Ntlmwiii  (Jena,  Ifo]);  «3! 
Bmlaii  (Develepmeni  of  Rhabdocoeb).  ZiUuit.  I.  mu.  M 
(1405).  Beitda  Iheae  apecial  worki,  uieful  leneral  Brrwiaa  f 
Ihe  Tuibetlaria  will  be  found  in  Camtri^tl  TfoUnl  if>>«^  ■- 
1-50;  A  JVnrin  m  Zidtty  (Black),  iv.  1-41,  and  the  idBOCB 
tivea  by  iheie  worki. 

Appaiii  tt  lit  TMrhtOariM. 

Ctu  TrwiuaplalMn.—TKt  tnM  clas  of  Pfalydoila  iwy" 

a  special  int«Hi.    Ii  rnnnecti  the  Tnrbdlaria  (aid  la  P*""™" 


he  anterior  or  lateral  marrin.  of  the  body.   TkJ 
boui  ]  mm.  in  length,  and  the  Oalicned  >ai^ 

li^'ncMpWopod,  biS'ta°cJ«Jll«ta'ihrpon«« 


PLANCEER— PLANCK,  G.  J. 


7'3 


Im doral  Kiface  !•  niitiap  into  ilna  ir 


Ln  Chile.  Mub(iuiar,  I 


:ks  of  Kibclmrul 


.    The  brain,  which  ii  plucd  01 

eiat  (D  lii  main  Imgltiidlrul  Inctt  intcrco- — 


iyncyl^unc^nd  by  a  ihkli  culicic""'  Cilia  and  XbdiTci 
tnnn.  Fanuly  I.  !  T«niK«^l>dae:  4-1]  ulenur  Itn- 
■    Family  II.  :  Acdnodaelylellidae.    Lateral  tentacular  pro- 

'Hainll.  JVoclHy  Utnarul  Valumi  [iBo]):  Plate.  SiU- 
.  Akai.  Will.  BirltH  (iS^),  fi.  Sij.  (F.  W.  Ca.)      . 

or  PuHCHiEi  (O.  Fr.  flafitr,  or  (iatukie, 
rchitccture.  a  terco  «ameLimes  uied  in  the  umc 
1,  but  marc  correctly  applied  to  Ibe  lo&l  of  the 


duced  by  AUrcd  de  Vigny  to  Franfoli  Bldoi.lic  bcgaa  U  wrilt 

1840.    He  mumcd  hii  connexion  Kilh  Ibe  jouroil  in  1846  and 

iBS7.  Cuatave  Plaoche  waa  an  allogetfaer  hoDcit  critic  ud 
tcliued  to  accept  a  plan  (lom  Napoleon  III,  [or  lur  of  compro- 
mising  hii  Irtedom.  He  was  ia  eariy  lile  a  lemnt  admirer  of 
George  Sand,  aad  be  laviibed  pniii  on  De  Vigny.  But  be  had 
nothing  bul  a«vn  foe  Victor  Hugo,  wbinc  euiier  draraaa  be 
characteriied  as  odea,  IboM  faUowiDg  Le  Kai  I'anian  aa  anti- 
theaei,  and  the  later  ones  u  aalhiii(  but  i^rdode.  His  critical 
papcn  were  colleclcd  under  the  tillet:  Partnili  lilltraira  (1836- 

£lida  IV  ftctte  jiamaiH  (iSss). 

Sk  EriKH  Mofliigiil,  in  tbi  Btimtia  itux  nmtin  (June  %tii); 
Hauleld  and  Meimier,  La   Cntivm  liOlmm  ia  XIX'  nttU 

PLAMCHl   /AMES   HIAniKHI    (ijq«-i88o).   Engllsli  dt>- 
itlJilist  and  antiquary,  was  bom  In  London  on  the  ifCh  of 
February  i;ffi,  the  ion  of  a  walchmaker  of  Huguen  ' 
In  iSio  he  »atanicl«l  10  a  bookseller.    In  181B  hi 
malic  piece,  a  burlesque  entitled  AxuviK 
was  produced  at  Drury  Lane  theatrv. 


ifint  c 

o.KintefLiaUBrUi 


ie  play-w 


Gatden 


ncipal  wotk. 


Iij  he  designed  Ibe 
'.ing  John  at  Covent 
.  This  wu  Ibe  Gril 
itoricil  drama  hid  bttu  "  dntsed "  in  lb> 
costume  of  Ihe  period.  In  iSjg  he  begui  wtillng  regularly  for 
Covent  Garden  theatre,  and  in  1B30  was  manager  of  the  AdHphi. 
On  Mme  Veslris  taking  the  Olympic  theatre  in  t8jT,  PUncht 

The  Erst  of  these,  Olympic  Rods,  a  burlesque,  was  given  on  the 
opening  nigbi  of  the  theatre,  (be  pecionnaiice  being  pven  in 
correct  classical  costume.  In  1B43  his  Fair  One  Kilk  llu  GMtn 
LiKii  was  produced  by  Webster  at  the  Haymarket,  la  1847 
Mme  Vestiis  became  manageress  of  the  Lyceum  theatre.and 
Plancbf  was  engaged  as  her  leading  author  and  de^gner,  his 
ptincipal  iucchs  being  the  lilatut  «/  JtXBdt  (1844).  Subae- 
quenlty  he  wrote  for  ■  number  of  other  manigemenla,  bis  lait 
dramatic  piece  being  Kint  Ckriilwul  [1S71),  but  tie  also  wrote 
the  songs  for  Babii  and  Bijta  at  Covent  Garden  [1S71).  In 
addition  to  his  dramatic  worlt  Planch^  enjoyed  a  considerable 

Fellow  «f  the  Society  of  Aoliquaiies,  and  aided  In  the  foundation 
of  the  British  Archaeological  Association  in  1843.  In  1834  he 
published  TKe  Biiiory  «/  Brilisk  CsUinvt.  In  1S54  he  «a> 
appointed  Rouge  Croii  puisuiviuK  of  aims  at  the  Heralds' 
College,  and  in  i&bd  Somerset  herald.  !n  1869,  at  the  request  of 
the  War  OfGce,  he  arranged  the  collection  of  armour  at  the 
Tower  of  London  in  cbnnological  order.  He  died  at  Chekca  00 
Ibejolbof  Uay  1S80. 

Plincht'i  RcaOatiinu  mi  RtjlaUaiu  were  pub[iJied  [n  1871. 

PLAHCK,  OOnUKB  /AKOB  (1751-1833),  German  PiotcaUnt 
divine  and  historian,  was  born  at  NUttingen  in  Wllrtlembeig. 
where  bis  lather  was  a  notary,  on  the  ijlh  ol  November  its'. 
Educated  for  the  ProteslanI  ministry  at  Blaubeuren,  Bfben- 
■"■■  tfmifli/at  Tdhingen  in  I7J4, 


.780,  I 


1  profess 


of  tl 


GSttingen  in  17S4.  At  Tubingen  be  wrote  Dai  Tiirbnli  lintl 
nam  Eitimanna.  In  17S1  he  published  anonymoqaly  the  £iat 
volume  of  hit  CiithicUi  da  froUslantisilKn  Lihrbegriji;  the 
second,  also  anonynioua,  a[^»arii]g  In  1783,  and  it  waa  completed 

CachitUt  itr  cktiiaith-liiicUidmi  Gmlluiaflitcrjuiiatt  in  hvs 
volumea  (1803-1809).  Both  are  works  of  conaidetable  impor- 
tance, and  an  characleiiied  by  abundant  learning.  He  died  on 
the  jiK  of  August  1833.  Hia  son  Heinricb  Ludwig  Planck 
(1785-1831),  alaoptofetur  of  theology  at  GSttingen,  published 
BenutkMtcH  ubo  int  froai  Britj  an  dot  TimalluiLs  (1808!  and 
Airiu  d.  fkUai.  RditieiuUlat  (1811). 


714  PLANCK,  K.  C— PLANET 

PLUCK,    KARL  CKUtTUH  (1810-1880).  Germu  ] 


jnllMi) 


0IJ.1. 


:  of  pbjiouphy  in 
1840  and  Prueldimtnl  in  1S4S.  During  Ibis  peridd  ihc 
jnBuenCF  of  Rcifl  led  him  to  oppoic  the  dominiat  Hcgciiiniim 
ot  Ihe  lime.  In  iSso-i8;i  he  published  bii  «te»l  booli.  Dii 
Wdltlla,  in  which  he  developed  1  complete  original  lyttem  o[ 
philoiaphy,  bued  on  Ibe  realiuic  view  ibii  tbaugbt  ibould 
proceed  Ifoib  nilure  lo  the  faighest  (onn*  of  tiiiKDce  in  Ihe 
ipiritiul  fife.  Not  ooly  did  FUnck  oppose  the  idealitm  of  hii 
cnfrtrei;  his  viesi  wste,  in  inotbei  aspect,  directly  antagonistic 
lotbeDnrwiniaiitbeoTj'Of  de>cTnt,irbichbespeci&callyitluked 
in  WairkcU  ind  ffocUeif  ifu  Darmniiima  (NDrdlingen,  iSji). 

that  his  books  meie  practically  disregarded,  and  Planck  irii 
deeply  incensed.  Tlie  ill  >ucc«u  of  Dit  WdtaUa  nerved  him  lo 
new  efforts,  and  he  repeated  his  views  in  Kaieckiimui  da  Rttkti 
(iSji),  GrutuUium  «-|icr  WitUHuJuft  da  Nmar  [1864).  Side 
UMd  Gtvil  ii&ji),  and  numerous  other  books,  which,  however, 

Ulm.  whence  he  came  hnally  to  the  seminary  ol  Maulbrono.  He 
died  on  the  7tb  of  June  iSSe  in  an  asylum  alter  a  thorl  period 


into  the  ) 


leatha 


in(au 


ly  o(  his  1 


,1869), 


,    Pluick'i 


who  published  itiniSSi  under  the 

PUlemfkie  io  NHur  tout  itr  Ua 

eUboniely  developed,  but  his  melhod  of  eiposilion  Uld  heavily 

againsl  their  accepluKe.    Ui  regarded  hinucU  as  the  Mcuuh 

of  the  Geraan  people. 

Bcwie  the  worki  above  quoted,  he  wrote  SytUM  da  rrimai 
iduliimu  <igsi)i  AiUlmt«lBtu  MnJ  PtyiWaiti  an/  iHiKmiiia- 
iiHa/lfulcr  Cmndlafi  (1874)^  a  political  Ireativ.  BUmaKk :  Sid- 
dtniiMand  and  dtr  dnitc/u  NalionaJitaal  (1871);  and  Lt^itkn 
CaaMbjlUt  aail  lu/arfub  Zmtnlnittnl  (lB»). 

See  Untrid.  JCarf  Plattk,  dtam  Wtrkt  Kiiil  WMa  CTItbfawcn. 
iMl);  and  Schmidt.  "  Dai  Lebemidell  KacI  Chriuian  Planckt," 
in  the  VarlrifT  ia  piOiitiifUsckni  GaiOithafl  (Berlin.  1S96). 

PUNB.  I.  In  botany,  the  common  name  otl  handsome  tree 
known  botanically  as  Ptaiatuu  oriaialis^  a  native  of  Greece  and 
wcsletn  Asia,  a  favourite  shade-tree  of  the  ancient  Creeks  and 
Bonn  HI,  aadiatrodmed  by  the  laltet  to  south -west  Europe.  It 


h 


1  and  s,  Baae  of  leaf-ualk  ihowing  bad-proteciing  cap. 

4,  Mala.  5- Femak  inAoreacenee. 

7,  A  ftuii  with  encloied  leed.  cut  lenglbwne. 
B  on«  of  the  tiMit  niccessfol  trta  to  London  and  other  large 
towns;  the  iftiooth  face  of  the  leaf  Isea^y  washed  by  rain;  and 
Ihe  periodical  peeling  of  the  bark  dto  selves  lo  get  rid  (^  im- 
puritiei.  II  is  a  large  tree  with  widely  spreading  branche»  and 
alternate,  palmately  five-lobed  leava,  resembling  those  of  the 
sycamore  in  shape,  but  quite  huiless  and  of  a  Imghter  green- 
The  bud  in  the  leaf  aiil  is  protected  during  its  development  by 
Ihe  hollow  base  ot  the  letf-stalk,  which  lifts  oB  like  an  eitin- 
tnUici  when  the  leaf  falls  in  autunn.    Tbe  nlnBte,  ■■-'■'-—' 


le  flowers;  the  small 


s  heads,  which  contain  either 

gradually  separate  in  drying 
1.    The  wood,  which  is  hard 


three-lobed  leaves;  var. 


lie  London  plane .  which  ha 


mt  and  growing  to  its  largest  aiie  in  I  hi 
I  of  the  lower  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi 
nto  England  early  in  the  I7lh  centui] 
within  western  and  cenlralEurope.  I 
H  afKtrIk  Amtria)  refers  toit  as  Ihe 


a  (he  usually  solitary  baUs  of 


1.  The  name  of  a  carpenter's  hand-tool,  used  for  leveUiog  and 
smoothing  (LaC.  ^nmu,  level)  Ihe  surface  of  wood.  The  machine 
tool  used  fora  similar  purpose  for  metak  is  generally  koowD  as  a 
planing-machine  or  planer. 

PUNBT  (Gr.  iW^nti,  a  wanderer),  in  the  ancient  ulio- 
nomy,  one  of  seven  heavenly  bodies  cturatlciied  by  being  in 
motion  relative  to  the  tied  stan.  which  last  appeared  immovable 
defined  the  planets  1 


opaque  body  moving 
it  applies  to  the  satel 
^dxefi.     Each  ol  ll 


y.  Venus.  Mars,  Jup 


.    la 


are  classified 


round  a  plane!  larger  than 
I  revolution  round  Ibe  sua- 
aother  is  tenncd  a  primary 


membei*  of  the  tolar  ayiiem,  i 
meni  is  described.  The  earth  01 
order  of  the  major  plancis  froti 


nth  the  sun,  form  the  pliiicipal 
dec  which  bead  their  amngr- 
rhich  we  live  is  the  thiid  in  the 
the  sun.  With  resfiect  10  the 
rdalivc  to  the  eitth,  Ihe  other  planets 

rcury  and  Venus,  sdiich  revolve  between 
The  Mipcriol  planets  are  thoae  whose 
oroili  are  outside  that  of  the  earth.  The  synodic  revodulion  ol 
an  inferior  planet  is  the  rime  in  which  it  performs  a  revnlDtioa 
rrlalivcta  the  line  joining  the  earth  and  Ihe  sun.  This  is  grealcf 
than  its  actual  time  ol  revcdution.  The  pbalcs  or  appeansca 
presented  by  such  a  planet  depend  upon  ita  configuratioa  with 
respect  to  the  earth  and  sun,  and  therefore  go  through  tbeic 
complete  periods  in  a  synodic  revolution.    At  superior  conjunc- 

eanh  so  that  it  ptescnlt  the  form  of  a  full  moon.  As  it  moves 
towards  inferior  crmjunclion.  Ibe  lines  from  the  plaiKt  to  ihc 
sun  and  lo  the  earth,  01  the  angle  sun-earth  as  seen  tnja  Ihc 
the  phase  depends,  continually  make  a  greater 


r.    Then, 
loClh 


t  approaches  Inlerio 


ntfori 


while 


Lbe  circle  hounding  the  disk  cootinaally  incn 
ippioacholtheplanet  to  the  earth,  the  crescent  becomes  Ibisrvr 
ind  thinner  until,  near  inferior  conjunction,  Ihe  planet  il  i» 
longer  visible.  After  conjunction  the  phases  occur  in  Ihe  reveist 
irder.  The  brilliancy  ol  the  planet,  as  dieuured  by  ibt  IMal 
imoonl  of  light  we  receive  from  il,  goes  through  a  similar  cycle 
if  change,  Tbt  point  of  greatest  bnUiancy  ft  between  iBfenee 
gaiioQ.  In  the  case  at  Venus  ibis 
lui  week*  bcfen  and  shet  iatcrioi 


PLANET 


my}}' ' 

«« 

4  f.  . 

— 

M 

te=iLyJL- 

e' 

-t  h-h« 

•™4 

Dcw: 

,ij 

In  Ihe  figum  given  •have  uf  ihown  ihc  relative  orbiti  of  the 
plancu.  the  octiiB  of  Man.  tlic  Earth.  Venu<  Knd  Mimiy  (ig.  I) 
bnns  dtlWd  (OS  igUf  Iitenly  lima  that  of  tbe  outer  ernes— Neptuiw. 
Uruuu,  5atuni,  Jupatcr  (%.  a).  Tbc  pcfiitionB o[  tbc  planeUAA 
len-tUy  inttrvab;  their  wilual  positicfion  Ihc  HI  of  raiuiary  l^fQ  ft 
tuon,  of  their  iitHk*  mn6  never  adhs,  nnd  the  punts  when  they 
■I*  futlHM  dbUBt  amh  ■ad  huib  of  ih*  idiiitie.  h*  ibo  (iven. 


bloDn)  ue  KiBniuiy  compuvd  (Sg.  J) ;  end  then  thoxn 

J —  u  uutler  Hale)  in  coraparison  with  the  more  distant  on« 

the  BleDin-ayiKnis  al  Silum.  Ucanui. 


jj ;  and  then  ihi 


7i6 


PLANET 


The  phases  of  *^a' superior  planet  are  less  strongly  marked, 
because  the  Unes  from  the  planet  to  the  earth  and  sun  never 
increase  to  a  right  angle.  The  result  is  that  although  the  appar- 
ent disk  of  Mars  is  sometimes  gibbous  in  a  very  marked  degree,  it 
is  always  more  than  half  illuminated.  In  the  case  of  the  other 
superior  planets,  from  Jupiter  outward,  no  variation  in  phase  Is 
perceptible  even  to  telescopic  vision.  The  entire  disk  alwa>'s 
seems  fully  illimunated. 

The  most  favourable  time  for  viewing  an  inferior  planet  is  near 
that  of  greatest  brilliancy.  As  it  recedes  further  from  the  earth, 
although  a  continually  increasing  proportion  of  its  disk  b  illu- 
minated by  the  sun,  this  advantage  is  neutralized  by  the  diminu- 
tion in  its  siae  produced  by  the  increasing  distance.  When  a 
superior  planet  is  in  opposition  to  the  sun  it  rises  at  sunset  and  is 
visible  all  night.  This  is  also  the  time  when  nearest  the  earth, 
and  therefore  when  the  circumstances  are  most  favourable  for 
observation. 

The  greater  the  distance  of  a  planet  from  the  son  the  less  is 
the  speed  with  which  it  moves  in  its  orbit.  The  orbit  being 
larger,  the  time  of  Its  revolution  is  greater  in  a  yet  laiger  degree. 
An  appronmation  to  the  general  bws  of  speed  in  different 
planets  is  that  the  linear  speed  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
square  root  of  the  mean  distance.  From  this  follows  Kepler's 
third  Law,  that  the  squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  are  pro- 
'  portional  to  the  cubes  of  the  mean  distances. 

NUes  on  the  Plate  showing  Planetary  Spectra. 

Only  those  lines  and  bands  are  mentioned  which  arc  peculiar  to 
the  planets;  the  Fraunhofer  lines  are  therefore  omitted. 


Wave 
length. 

Remarks. 

4600 

4800 

5090 

5190* 

5370 

S430 

5570* 
5700* 

5980 
6090 
6190 

6400 
6500* 

6560 
6670* 

I6780 

6830 
7020 

(7140 

7360 
7500 

F  hydrogen,  H(t  strong. 

Broad. 

Broad,  unsymmetrical, 
strong. 

Broad,  unsymmctrical, 

strong. 
Strong. 

Very  strong. 

Broad  (?). 

C  hydrogen,  Ho.^ 
Broad  band. 

Bright  region  due  to  ab- 
sence 01   selective  ab- 
sorption which  is  strong 
both  above  and  below. 

Strong,  narrow,  near 
above  B. 

Strong,  broad. 

Bright,  unabsorbed  region 
similar  to  that  at  6780. 
Strongest  band  present. 
Band  (?). 

Neptune. 

Neptune.  Uranus,  Saturn  (?) 
Neptune,  Uranus. 
Neptune.  Uranus. 
Neptune,  Uranus. 
Neptune.  Uranus,  Saturn, 

Jupiter. 
Neptune.  Uranus  (?). 
Neptune.  Uranus,  Saturn  (?) 

Jupiter  (?). 
Neptune.  Uranus. 
Neptune,  Uranus. 
Neptune,  Uranus,  Saturn, 

Jupiter. 
Neptune,  Uranus. 
Neptune.  Uranus,  Jupiter, 

Saturn  (?). 
Neptune.  Uranus. 
Neptune,  Uranus,  Saturn, 

Jupiter. 
Neptune,  Uranus. 

Neptune,  Uranus,  Saturn, 

Jupiter. 
Neptune.  Uranus,  Saturn, 

Jupiter. 
Neptune,  Uranus. 

Saturn.  Jupiter. 
Saturn. 

It  was  once  supposed  that  the  planets  were  surrounded  by 
comparatively  dense  atmospheres.  The  question  whether  such 
Spectmamt^  the  case,  and,  if  so,  what  Is  the  physical  conslitu- 
4fa«-  tion  of  the  atmospheres,  is  a  difficult  one,  on  which 
^J*J2J*'  little  h'ght  is  thrown  except  by  the  spectroscope. 
'  If  any  of  these  bodies  is  surrounded  by  a  transparent 

atmosphere  like  that  of  the  earth,  the  light  which  reaches  us 
from  it  will  have  passed  twice  through  this  atmosphere.  If 
the  latter  were  materially  different  in  its  constitution  from 
that  of  the  earth,  that  fact  would  be  made  known  by  the 
spectrum  showing  absorption  lines  or  bands  different  from 
those  found  in  the  solar  spectrum  as  we  observe  it.  If,  how- 
ever, the  planetary  atmosphere  had  the  same  composition  as 
ours  we  should  see  only  an  intensification  of  the  atmospheric 
Unesi  which  might  ba  imperceptible  were  the  atmoaphcre  isn. 


Actual  observation  has  thus  far  shown  no  wdl  nxaiked  devi*- 
Uon  in  the  spectra  of  any  of  the  inner  group  of  planets,  Macuxy, 
Venus  and  Mars,  from  the  solar  spectrum  as  we  see  it.  It 
follows  that  any  atmospheres  these  planets  may  have  must, 
if  transparent,  be  rare.  The  evidence  in  the  cases  of  Venus  and 
Mars  b  given  in  the  articles  on  these  planets.  Taking  the  outer 
group  of  planets,  it  is  found  that  the  ^>eclnmi  of  Jupiter  shows 
one  or  more  very  faint  shaded  bands  not  found  in  that  of  the 
suiu  In  Saturn  these  bands  become  more  marked,  and  in 
Uranus  and  Neptune  many  more  are  seen.  The  spectra  in 
question  have  been  observed  both  optically  and  photographically 
by  several  observers,  among  whom  Huggins,  Vogel  and  Lowell 
have  been  most  succcssftil.  It  may  be  said,  in  a  general  way, 
that  seven  or  el^^t  well  marked  dark  bands,  as  well  as  some 
fainter  ones  are  observable  in  the  spectra  of  the  two  outer 
planets.  The  general  condusion  from  this  is  that  these  placets 
are  surrounded  by  deep  and  dense  atmospheres,  semi-trans- 
parent, of  a  constitution  which  is  probably  very  different  from 
that  of  the  earth's  atmosphere.  But  it  has  not,  up  to  the  present 
time,  been  found  practicable  to  determine  the  chemical  constitu- 
tion of  these  appendages,  except  that  hydrogen  seems  to  be 
an  important  constituent.  (See  Plate.) 

Intimately  ossodatcd  with  this  subject  is  the  question  of  the 
conditions  necessary  to  the  permanence  of  an  atmosphere  round 
a  planet.  Dr  Johnstone  Sioney  investigated  these 
conditions,  taking  as  the  basis  of  his  work  the 
kinetic  theory  of  gases  {Trans,  Roy.  Dubl.  Soc.  vi.  ^"T*" 
305).  On  this  theory  every  molecule  of  a  gaseous  ^""'* 
mass  is  completely  disconnected  from  every  other  and  is  in 
rapid  motion,  its  velocity,  which  may  amount  to  one  or 
more  thousand  feet  per  second,  depending  on  the  temperature 
and  on  the  atomic  weight  of  the  gas.  At  any  temperature  the 
velocities  of  individual  molecules  may  now  and  then  increase 
without  any  well-defined  limit.  If  at  the  boundary  of  an  atmo- 
sphere the  velocity  should  exceed  a  certain  limit  fixed  by  the  mass 
and  force  of  gravity  of  the  planet,  molecules  might  fly  away 
through  aifMot  as  independent  bodies.  The  absence  of  hydrogca 
from  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth,  and  of  an  atmosphere  from 
the  moon,  may  be  thus  explained.  If  the  fundamental  hypo- 
theses of  Dr  Stoney's  investigations  are  correct  and  complete,  it 
would  follow  that  neither  the  satellites  and  minor  planets  of  the 
solar  system  nor  &fcrcury  can  have  any  atmosphere.  If  the 
separate  molecules  thus  flying  away  moved  accorcting  to  the  laws 
which  would  govern  an  ordinary  body,  they  would,  after  leaving 
their  respective  planets,  move  round  the  sun  in  independent 
orbits.  The  possibility  Is  thus  suggested  that  the  matter 
producing  the  zodiacal  light  may  be  an  agglomeration  of  gaseous 
molecules  moving  round  the  sun;  but  several  questions  respecting 
the  intimate  constitution  of  matter  will  have  to  he  settled  before 
any  definite  conclusions  on  this  point  can  be  reached.  It  is  not 
to  be  assumed  that  a  molecule  would  move  through  the  ether 
without  resistance  as  the  minutest  known  body  does,  and  there 
is  probably  a  radical  difference  between  the  minutest  partkk 
of  meteoric  natter  and  the  molecule  of  a  gas.  The  rdalions  of 
identity  or  difference  between  such  finely-divided  matter  as 
smoke  and  atmospheric  base  and  a  true  gas  have  yet  to  be  fuUy 
establisbed,  and  until  this  b  done  a  definite  and  satisfactory 
theory  of  the  subject  docs  not  seem  possible. 

Since  the  ladiatlon  of  heat  by  a  planet  is,  with  our  present 
instruments,  scarcely  capable  of  detection  and  measurement, 
the  temperature  of  these  bodies  can  be  estimated 
only  from  general  physical  laws.  The  laws  govern-  •ftnw 
ing  the  radiation  of  heat  have  been  so  devdoped'***"^ 
during  recent  years  that  it  is  now  possible  to  state  at  least 
the  general  principle  on  which  a  conclusion  as  to  the  tem- 
perature of  a  planet  may  be  reached.  At  the  same  time  our 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  which  prevaO  on  other  pbnets 
is  so  limited,  especially  as  regards  their  atmospheres,  that  only 
more  or  less  probaUe  estimates  of  the  temperature  oC  their 
surfaces  can  even  now  be  made.  Summarily  stated,  some  ni 
the  physical  principles  are  these^— 

K.  A  netttraUy  coloured  body-~iuMiecata«ding  by  UuA  tcon 


Flaoetary  Spectra,  photographed  at  Lowell  Observatory,  Flagstaff,  Ariza 
By  V.  M.  Slipher. 


ComparisoD  spectograms  of  the  Moon  and  Mars,  sbowlng  absotption  bands  in  that  of  the  latter, 

which  denote  Che  presence  of  water  vapour  in  the  Martian  atmosphere  (see  Mabs). 


PI.TI  II.  PLANET 

RepnscntiUve  SlEtlit  Spectn,  photocnphed  it  LowcU  Obwrv^tocr,  FliiMiS,  Ai 


PLANETS,  MINOR 


717 


one  which  abioifes  the  same  fnctioii  of  the  thermal  ndutioa 
falling  i^xm  it  whatever  the  wave  length  of  this  radiation — 
exposed  to  the  sun's  radiation  in  void  spKt  tends  to  assume 
a  definite  temperature,  called  the  normal  temperature,  the 
degree  of  which  depends  upon  the  distance  of  the  body  from 
the  sun.  This  is  a  result  of  Kirchhoff  *s  laws  of  radiation. 

3.  An  atmoq>here  surrounding  such  a  body,  if  at  rest,  will 
tend  to  assume  a  state  of  thermal  equilibrium,  in  which  the 
temperature  will  be  the  same  at  ail  heights. 

3.  If  the  atmosphere  is  Jcept  in  constant  motion  by  an  inter- 
change between  its  higher  and  lower  portions,  the  tendency  is 
towards  adiabatic  equilibrium,  in  which  the  temperature 
diminishes  at  a  constant  rate  with  the  height,  until  it  may 
approach  the  absolute  2ero.  The  rate  of  diminution  depends 
upon  the  intensity  of  gravity  and  the  physical  constants  of 
the  gases  composing  the  atmosphere.^ 

4.  In  the  actual  case  of  a  planet  surrounded  by  an  atmospbere 
and  exposed  to  the  sun's  radiation,  the  actual  rate  of  diminution 
of  temperature  with  height  above  the  surface  of  the  planet  lies 
between  the  extreme  limits  just  defined,  the  rate  varying  widely 
with  the  conditions.  The  general  tendency  nill  be  towards  a 
condition  in  which  the  temperature  at  the  base  of  the  atmosphere 
is  higher  than  the  normal,  while  in  the  upper  regions  it  is  lower. 
The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  planet  on  which  the 
atmosphere  rests  is  determined  partly  by  the  sun's  radiation 
and  partly  by  the  temperature  of  the  air.  MVhat  we  should 
generally  expect  in  the  absence  of  any  selective  absorption  by 
the  air  is  that  the  temperature  of  the  lower  air  would  be  higher 
than  that  of  the  material  surface  on  which  it  rests.  But  this 
condition  might  be  reversed  by  the  effect  of  such  absorption 
in  cither  the  air  or  the  material  of  the  planet. 


ment.  Something  of  this  sort  has  been  suspected  in  the  case 
of  Jupiter,  which  has  several  points  of  resemblance  to  the  sun. 
The  planets  Uranus  and  Neptune  which,  but  for  their  atmo- 
spheres, would  ^proximate  to  the  absolute  zero  in  temperature, 
may  be  prevented  from  doing  so  by  the  dense  atmosphere 
which  the  spectroacc^  shows  around  them. 

A  very  elaborate  investigation  of  the  probable  mean  tempera- 
tures  of  the  surfaces  of  the  several  planets  has  been  made  by 
J.  H.  Poynting,  PkU,  Trans,  (vol.  20SA,  1904). 

Tables  of  Plcnetary  EUmenU  and  CmsImIs. 

Table  I.  gives  the  elements  determining  the  motions  of  each 
major  pUnct.  and  Table  II.  certain  numbers  pertaining  to  its 
physical  condition.  ^  For  explanation  of  terms  used  see  Orbit. 
riie  elements  are  given  for  the  epoch  l^|oo.  Jan.  o.  Greenwich 
mean  time,  except  tne  mean  longitudes,  which  are  for  1910.  Jan.  o. 

In  intcrpnKing  or  using  th6  numbers  it  must  be  remembered 
that  only  the  mean  disunces  and  mean  daily  motions  can  be 
regarded  as  well  determined  and  invariable  quantities.  The  other 
elements  are  subject  to  a  secular  variation,  and  all  vary  more  or 
less  from  the  action  of  the  pbnets.  In  Table  II.  the  reciprocal  of  the 
mass  is  given,  the  mass  of  the  sun  being  unity.    Some  of  th 


and  other  Quantities  are  extremely  uncertain.  'Thb  is  esbccially 
the  case  with  the  mass  of  Mercury,  which  the  astronomical  tables 

Fiut  at  1/6.000,000  that  of  the  sun,  while  C.  W.  Hill  has  computed 
rom  an  estimate  of  the  probable  density  of  the  planet  that  it  is 
probably  less  than  i/i  1.000.000.  In  the  table  we  assume  the 
round  number  1/10.000.000.  The  volumes  are  derived  (mm  micro* 
metric  measures  of  the  diameters,  which  arc  more  or  less  uncertain. 
From  these  and  the  mass  follows  the  dcnuty  of  each  pbnet.  From 
this  again  is  derived  the  intensity  of  gravity  at  the  surface:  this 
is  also  frcqurnily  unceruin.  Finally  the  normal  temperature  is 
that  which  a  black  or  neutrally  coloured  body  would  asMime  when 
every  part  of  it  is  equally  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  by  a  rapid 
revolution.  As  has  already  been  intimated,  the  actual  temperature 
may  also  d<^pend  upon  the  interior  heat  of  the  planet,  which  is  an 
unknown  quantity.  (S.  N.) 


Table  I.— Elements  of  the  Orbits  of  the  Eight  Major  Planets. 


PUnct. 

Mean  Distance  from  Sun. 

Eccentricity 
of  Orbit. 

Longitude 
of  Peri- 
helion. 

Longitude 
of  Node. 

Inclina- 
tion. 

Period  of 
Revolution. 

Mean  Daily 
Motion. 

Mean  Long. 

itudc  1910. 

Jan.  0. 

^ronomical 
Units. 

Thousands 
of  Miles. 

Mercury    .     . 
Venus        .     . 
Earth        i     . 
Mars    .     • 
Jupiter       .     . 
Saturn       .     . 
Uranus      .     . 
Neptune    . 

0-3870987 
0-7*333 » 5 

l-OOOOOOO 

1-523688 

5202804 

9-538844 

19-19096 
30-07067 

36.000 
67.260 

93.998 

141.701 

483.853 

887.098 

1.784.732 

2.796.528 

0-205614 
0-006821 
0-016751 

0093309 
0-048254 
0-05606 1 

0-047044 
0-008533 

75:  54; 
130*  to' 
101  •  13' 

334;  13' 
12*  36' 

90:4/ 

169: 3\ 

43*45' 

<9\ 
75*  47' 

48747; 
99:37' 

73:  29 
130*  41 

7*0' 
3*^4' 

i*li' 
1*19' 
a»30' 
0*46' 

1*47' 

Dar» 

«7-969«56 

224-700798 

365-256300 

686-979702 

43325879 
10759-2010 
3058629 
60187-65 

4*0927 

l*'602l 

o*-9856 

0*- 52403 
o*-083O9i 

©••033460 
o*'Oii770 
0*006020 

3;  3»; 
":53 
99:17 

iK  39 

181:43' 

28*  55' 

286'  42* 

107*  I' 

Tabus  II.— Physical  Constanu  peruining  to  die  Major  Planets. 


Planet. 

Angular  Semidlameter. 

At 

Diat. 

Diameter 
in  Miles. 

Reciprocal  of 
Mass. 

(CXsmass-l} 

Density. 

Gravity  at 
Surface. 

(0)-!) 

Orbital 

Velocity. 

Mile«perscc 

< 

Normal 

Temperature 

Centigrade. 

Equatorial. 

Polar. 

(Water- 1) 

ce-i) 

Mercury 

1-30' 
8-46' 

330* 
846' 

I 

2.976 

10.000.000 

3-5 

•633 

0-24 

29-76 

'< 

Venus    .     . 

I 

7.629 

408,000 

505 

•9>3 

b.88o 

21-77 

K 

Earth     .     . 

8-79' 

876' 

I 

7.917 

333.430 

\n 

J -000 

l-OO 

18-52 

19* 

Mars      .     . 

iK 

4-76: 

1 

4.316 

3.093.500 

•666 

0-363 

iS-oo 
812 

-36: 

Iupiter  • 
baturn 

1875: 

17-65' 

7-8§' 

5-203 

86.259 

». 04735 

1-363 
0-678 

•247 

268 

-'< 

8-75' 

9539 

72.772 

3.500 

•123 

i-»3 

6-00 

-177; 

Uranus 

190: 

i-90' 

19-19 

32.879 

22.869 

»  »3 

-204 

0-85 

4-24 

-'*»5; 

Neptune 

I'lO* 

i-xo' 

3007 

29.827 

19.314 

1-79 

•322 

1-22 

3-40 

-218" 

It  would  follow  from  these  laws  that  the  temperature  of  the 
superior  planets  diminishes  rapidly  with  distance  from  the  sun, 
and  must  therefore  be  far  below  that  of  the  earth,  unlcs&.they 
are  surrounded  by  atmospheres  of  such  height  and  density  as 
to  be  practically  opaque  to  tl^e  rays  of  heat,  or  unless  they  have 
no  solid  crust. 

The  resemblance  of  the  spectra  of  Mars,  Jupiter  and  Saturn 
to  that  of  the  sun  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  atmospheres 
of  these  planets  are  transparent  down  to  the  reflecting  surface 
of  the  body.  The  temperature  of  these  surfaces  must  therefore 
be  determined  by  Kirchhoflf's  law,  unless  they  resemble  the  sun 
in  being  entirelyliquid  or  gaseous,  or  in  having  only  solid  nuclei 
ttitrounded  by  liquid  matter  in  a  condition  of  continual  move* 


PLANETS,  MINOR.  The  minor  planets,  commonly  known 
as  asteroids  or  ^anctoids,  form  a  remarkable  group  of  small 
platictary  bodies,  of  which  all  the  known  members  but  three 
move  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Until  recently 
they  were  all  supposed  to  be  contained  within  the  region  just 
mentioned;  but  the  discovery  of  one,  which  at  perihelion  comes 
far  within  the  orbit  of  Mars,  and  of  two  others,  which  at  aphelion 
pass  outside  the  orbit  of  Jupiter,  shows  that  no  well-di.^ned 
limit  can  be  set  to  the  sone  containing  them.  Before  the  exist- 
ence of  this  group  was  known,  the  apparent  vacancy  in  the  region 
occupied  by  it,  as  indicated  by  the  arrangement  of  the  phnets 
according  to  Bode's  law,  had  excited  remark  and  led  to  iho  belief 
that  a  planet  would  eventually  be  found  therei    Towards  the 


7i8 


PLANETS,  MINOR 


end  of  the  iSth  century  the  conviction  that  nch  a  planet  existed 
was  so  strong  that  an  assodatton  of  astronomers  was  formed 
to  search  for  it.  The  first  discovery  of  the  looked-for  planet 
was  not,  howevert  made  by  any  member  of  this  association,  but 
by  Glusqppe  Piaid  of  Palermo.  On  the  ist  of  January  1801 
he  noted  a  small  star  in  Taurus,  which,  two  days  later,  had 
changed  its  place,  thus  showing  it  to  be  a  pbnet.  Shortly  after 
Piazzi's  discovery  the  body  was  lost  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
was  not  again  seen  until  near  the  following  opposition  in  i8of 
1S02.  The  orbit  was  then  computed  by  C.  F.  Gauss,  who  found 
its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  to  correspond  with  Bode's  law, 
thus  giving  rise  to  the  impression  that  the  gap  in  the  system 
was  fiUed  up.    The  planet  received  the  name  Ceres. 

On  the  28th  of  March  1802  H.  W.  M.  Olbers  (1758-1840) 
discovered  a  second  planet,  which  was  found  to  move  in  an  orbit 
a  little  larger  than  that  of  Ceres,  but  with  a  very  large  eccen* 
tricity  and  inclination.  This  received  the  name  of  Pallas.  The 
existence  of  two  planets  where  only  one  was  expected  led  Olbers 
to  his  celebrated  hypothesis  that  these  bodies  were  fragments 
of  a  larger  planet  which  had  been  shattered  by  an  internal 
convulsion;  and  he  proposed  that  search  should  be  made  near 
the  common  node  of  the  two  orbits  to  see  whether  other  frag- 
ments  could  be  found.  Within  the  next  few  years  two  other 
planets  of  the  group  were  discovered,  making  four.  No  others 
were  found  for  more  than  a  generation;  then  on  the  8th  of 
December  1845  a  fifth,  Astrea,  was  discovered  by  K.  L.  Henckc 
of  Driesen.  The  same  observer  added  a  sixth  in  1847.  Two 
nwre  were  found  by  J.  R.  Hind  of  London  during  the  same  year, 
and  from  that  time  discovery  has  gone  on  at  an  inaeasing  rate, 
until  the  number  now  known  is  more  than  six  hundred  and  is 
growing  at  the  rale  of  thirty  or  more  annually. 

Up  to  1890  discoveries  of  these  bodies  were  made  by  skilful 
search  with  the  telescope  and  the  eye.  Among  the  most  success- 
ful discoverers  were  Johann  Palisa  of  Vienna,  C.  U.  F.  Peters 
(18 1 3-1890)  of  Clinton,  New  York,  and  James  Craig  Watson 
(1838-1880)  of  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan.  In  recent  times  the  dis- 
coveries are  made  almost  entirely  by  photography.  When  a 
picture  of  the  stars  is  taken  with  a  telescope  moved  by  dock- 
work,  so  as  to  follow  the  stellar  sphere  in  its  apparent  diurnal 
rotation,  the  stars  appear  on  the  plates  as  minute  dots.  But 
if  the  image  of  a  planet  is  imprinted  on  the  plate  it  will 
generally  appear  as  a  short  line,  owing  to  its  nu>tion  relative  to 
the  stars.  Any  such  body  can  therefore  be  detected  on  the 
plate  by  careful  examination  much  more  expeditiously  than  by 
the  old  method  of  visual  search.  The  number  now  known  is  so 
great  that  it  is  a  question  whether  they  can  be  much  longer 
individually  followed  up  so  as  to  keep  the  run  of  their 
movements. 

Among  the  distinctive  features  of  the  planets  of  this  group 
one  is  their  small  size.  None  exists  which  approaches  either 
Mercury  or  the  moon  in  dimensions.  The  two  largest,  Ceres 
and  Juno,  present  at  opposition  a  visible  disk  about  1'  in  dia- 
meter, corresponding  to  about  400  miles.  The  successively 
discovered  ones  naturally  have,  in  the  general  average,  been 
smaller  and  smaller.  Appearing  only  as  points  of  light,  even 
in  the  most  powerful  tdescopcs,  nothing  like  a  measure  of  their 
size  is  possible.  It  can  only  be  inferred  from  thdr  apparent 
magnitude  that  the  diameters  of  those  now  known  may  range 
from  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  upwards  to  three  or  four  hundred, 
the  great  majority  bdng  near  the  lower  limit.  There  is  yet  no 
sign  of  a  limit  to  their  number  or  minuteness.  From  the  in- 
creasing rate  at  which  new  ones  approaching  the  limit  of  visibib'ty 
are  being  discovered,  it  seems  probable  that  below  this  limit 
the  number  of  unknown  ones  is  Mmply  countless;  and  it  may 
wdl  be  that,  could  samples  of  the  entire  group  be  observed, 
they  would  indude  bodies  as  small  as  thme  which  form  the 
meteors  which  so  frequently  strike  our  atmosphere.  Such  bdng 
the  case,  the  question  may  arise  whether  the  total  mass  of 
the  group  may  be  so  great  that  its  action  on  the  major  planets 
admits  of  detection.  The  computations  of  the  probable  mass 
of  those  known,  based  upon  thdr  probable  diameter  as  concluded 
from  the  light  which  they  reflect,  h^ve  led  to  the  result  that  their 


oombiaed  action  must  be  very  minute.    Bnt  it  may  well  be  a 
question  whether  the  total  mass  of  the  countless  unknown 
planets  may  not  exceed  that  of  the  known.    The  best  answer 
that  can  be  made  to  this  question  is  that,  unless  the  smaller 
members  of  the  group  are  almost  perfectly  black,  a  number 
great  enough  to  produce  any  observable  effect  by  their  attractiwi 
would  be  visible  as  a  faintly  illuminated  band  in  the  sky.    Such 
a  band  is  occasionally  visible  to  very  keen  eyes;  but  the  observa- 
tions on  it  are,  up  to  the  present  time,  so  few  and  uncertain  that 
nothing  can  positivdy  be  said  on  the^  subject.       On  the  other 
hand,  the  faint  *'  Gegenachdn"  opposite  the  sun  is  sometimes 
regarded  as  an  intensification  of  this  supposed  band  of  b'ghi, 
due  to  the  increased  reflection  of  the  sun's  light  when  thrown 
back  perpendicukrly  (see  Zodiacal  Light).    But  this  amp- 
position,  though  it  may  tie  wdl  founded,  docs  not  seem  to  fit 
with  all  the  facts.    All  that  can  be  said  is  that,  while  it  is  possible 
that  the  light  reflected  from  the  entire  group  may  reach  the 
extreme  limit  of  visibility,  it  seems  scarcely  possible  that  the  ma» 
can  be  such  as  to  produce  any  measurable  effect  by  its  attraction. 
Another  feature  of  the  group  is  the  generally  large  inclinations 
and  eccentricities  of  the  orbits.    Coinparaiivdy  few  of  these 
are  dther  nearly  circular  or  near  any  common  plane.    Con- 
sidering the  rdations  statistically,  the  best  concq)tion  of  the 
distribution  of  the  planes  of  the  orbits  may  be  gained  by  con- 
sidering the  position  of  thdr  poles  on  the  celestial  sphere.    The 
pole  of  each  orbit  is  defined  as  the  point  in  which  an  axis  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  intersects  the  celestial  sphere.    When 
the  poles  are  marked  as  points  on  this  sphere  it  is  found  that 
they  tend  to  group  themsdves  around  a  certain  position,  noi 
far  from  the  pole  of  the  invariable  plane  of  the  planetary  system, 
which  again  is  very  near  that  of  the  orbit  of  Jupit».    This 
statistical  result  of  observation  is  also  inferred  from  theory, 
which  shows  that  the  pole  of  each  orbit  revolves  around  a  point 
near  the  pole  of  the  invariable  plane  with  an  angular  motion 
varying  with  the  mean  distance  of  the  body.    This  would  result 
in  a  tendency  toward  an  equal  scattering  of  the  poles  around 
that  of  Jupiter,  the  latter  bdng  the  centre  of  position  of  the 
whole  group.    From  this  it  would  foUow  that,  if  we  referred 
the  planes  of  the  orbit  to  that  of  Jupiter,  the  nodes  upon  the 
orbit  of  that  planet  should  also  be  uniformly  scatter^.    Ex- 
amination, however,  shows  a  seeming  tendency  of  the  nodes 
to  crowd  into  two  nearly  opposite  regions,  in  longitudes  of  about 
180°  and  330^    But  it  is  difficult  to  r^ard  this  as  an>lhing 
but  the  result  of  accident,  because  as  the  nodes  move  along  at 
unequal  rates  they  must  eventually  scatter,   and  must   have 
been  scattered  in  past  ages.    In  other  words  it  does  not  seem 
that  any  other  than  a  uniform  distribution  can  be  a  permanent 
feature  of  the  system. 

A  similar  law  holds  true  of  the  eccentricities  and  the  perihelix 
These  may  both  be  defined  by  the  position  of  the  centre  oi  the  orbit 
relative  to  the  sun.  If  a  be  the  mean  distance  and  e  the  eccentricity 
of  an  orbit,  the  geometry  of  the  ellipse  shows  that  the  centre  of  ihie 
orbit  is  situated  at  the  distance  <u  from  the  sun,  in  the  direction  of 
the  aphelion  of  the  body.  When  the  centres  of  the  orbits  are  bu  J 
down  on  a  diagram  it  is  found  that  they  are  not  scattered  equally 
around  the  sunbut  around  a  point  lying  $ 

in  the  direction  of  the  centre  of  the  A^ 

orbit  of  Jupiter.    The  statistical  law 
governing   these   may   be   seen   from  ^^'os^'. 


hg.  I.    Here  S  represents  the  position 
of  the  sun,  and  J  that  of  the  centre  of 

the  orbit  of  Jupiter.     The   direction  r      t  ^ 

JS  produced  is  that  of  the  perihelion    ^  ric.  1. 

of  Jupiter,  which  is  now  near  longitude  12*.  As  the  perihelkm 
moves  by  its  secular  variation,  the  line  SI  revolves  around  S. 
Theory'  then  ^ows  that  for  every  asteroid  there  will  be  a  oertaia 
point  A  near  the  line  SI  and  moving  with  it.  Let  C  be  the  actual 
position  of  the  centre  o?  the  planetoid.  Theory  shows  that  C  is  in 
motion  around  A  as  a  centre  in  the  direction  shown  by  the  arrow,  the 
linear  eccentricity  ae  being  represented  by  the  line  SC  It  follows 
that  e  will  be  at  a  minimum  when  AC  passes  through  Sk  and  at  a 
maximum  when  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  position  of  A  is 
different  in  the  case  of  different  planetoids,  but  is  generallv  about 
two-thirds  of  the  way  from  S  to  J.  The  lines  AC  for  different 
bodies  are  at  any  time  scattered  miscellaneously  around  the  region 
A  as  a  centre.  AC  may  be  called  the  constant  of  eccentricity  oTtlse 
plaoeioid.  while  SC  lepresenu  iu  actual  but  varying  ccoentrictty* 


PLANK 


719 


Cnmpmi  cf  iht  Ptatulmdsj^k  curious  feature  of  these  bodies 
is  that  when  they  are  cbsaified  accotding  U>  their  distances  from 
the  sun  a  tendency  is  seen  to  cluster  into  groups.    Since  the 
mean  distance  and  aaean  amotion  of  each  planet  are  connected 
by  Kepler's  third  law,  it  follows  that  this  grouping  may  also  be 
described  as  a  tendency  toward  certain  times  of  revolution  or 
certain  values  of  the  mean  motion  around  the  sun.    This  feature 
was  first  noticed  by  D.  Kirkwood  in  1870,  but  at  that  time  the 
number  of  planetoids  known  was  not  sufficient  to  bring  out  its 
true  nature.    The  seeming  fact  pointed  out  by  Kirkwood  was 
that»  when  these  bodies  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
mean  motions,  there  are  found  to  be  gaps  in  the  series  at 
those  paints  where  the  mean  motion  is  commensurable  with 
that  of  Jupiter;  that  is  to  say,  there  seem  to  be  no  mean  daily 
motions  near  the  values  59S',  748'  and  898',  which  are  respec- 
tively  3,  a|  and  5  times  that  of  Jupiter.    Such  mean  motions 
are  nearly  commensurable  with  that  of  Jupiter,  and  it  is  shown 
in  celestial  mechanits  that  when  they  exist  the  perturbations 
of  the  planet  by  Jupiter  wiU  be  very  large.    It  was  therefore 
supposed  that  if  the  commensurabiHty  should  be  exact  the  orbit 
of  the  planet  would  be  unstable.    But  it  is  now  known  that  such 
is  not  the  case,  and  that  the  only  effect  of  even  an  exact  com- 
mensurabiHty would  be  a  libra tion  of  long  period  in  the  mean 
motion  of  the  planetoid.    The  gaps  cannot  therefore  be  ac- 
counted for  on  what  seemed  to  be  the  plausible  supposition  that 
the  bodies  required  to  fill  these  gaps  originally  exbted  but  were 
thrown  out  of  their  orbits  by  the  action  of  Jopiter.    The  fact 
can  now  be  more  precisely  slated  by  saying  that  we  have  not 
so  much  a  broken  series  as  a  tendency  to  an  accumulation  of 
orbits  between  the  points  of  commensurabiHty.    The  law  in 
question  can  be  most  readily  shown  in  a  graphical  form.    In 
fig.  3  the  horizontal  line  represents  distances  from  the  sun, 


limits  of  (he  groups  shown  in  the  figure.  Eros  is  so  near  the 
sun,  and  its  orbit  is  so  eccenuic,  that  at  perihebon  it  is  only 
about  o*i6  outside  the  orbit  of  the  earth.  On  those  rare  occasions 
when  the  earth  is  passing  the  perihelion  point  of  the  orbit  at 
neariy  the  same  time  with  Eros  itself,  the  parallax  of  the  latter 
will  be  nearly  six  times  that  of  the  sun.  Measurements  of  parallax 
made  at  these  times  will  therefore  afford  a  more  predse  vahie 
of  the  solar  parallax  than  can  be  obtained  by  any  other  pureiy 
geometrical  measurement.  An  approach  almost  as  close  as 
the  nearest  geometrically  possible  one  occurred  during  the  winter 
of  1893-1894.  Unfortunately  the  existence  of  the  planet  was 
then  unknown,  but  after  the  actual  discovery  it  was  found  tint 
during  this  opposition  its  image  imprinted  itself  a  number  of 
times  upon  the  photographs  of  the  heavens  made  by  the  Harvard 
Observatory.  The  positions  thus  discovered  have  been  ex* 
tfcmely  useful  in  determining  the  elements  of  the  orbit.  The 
next  near  approach  occurred  in  the  winter  of  i9oo>i9oi,  when 
the  planet  approached  within  0*3 a  of  the  earth.  A  combined 
effort  was  made  by  a  number  of  observatories  at  this  time  to 
determine  the  parallax,  both  by  micrometric  measures  and  by 
photography.  Owing  to  the  great  number  of  stars  with  which 
the  planet  had  to  be  compared,  and  the  labour  of  determining 
their  positions  and  reducing  the  observations,  only  some  frag- 
mentary results  of  this  work  are  now  available.  These  are 
mentioned  in  the  article  Parai-lax.  So  far  as  can  yet  be  seen, 
no  other  approach  so  near  as  this  will  take  place  until  January 
1931. 

A  few  «f  the  minor  planets  are  of  such  special  interest  that 
seme  pains  will  doubtku  be  taken  to  determine  their  orbits 
and  continue  observations  upon  them  at  every  available  <^posi- 
tion.  To  this  class  belong  those  of  which  the  orbits  arc  so 
eccentric  thatjbey  either  pass  near  that  of  Jupiter  or  approach 


•      •••••■ 


aT 


TT 


•  4 


•     •••••■•»#••         ••• 


•  •  •  • 

•   •  •  •  •  a 
*  ■   ■  •  •«  ■ 


V  >   • 


>   *       t    ' 
• •  ■   • • •• 

••••••*•■••  •  •    • 

•«•••••■••••*••   •• 


•  ••• 


aa  *i  ao  ••  as 

Fig.  2. 


»y 


a-s 


a-8 


t4 


r» 


TT 


ao 


increasing  toward  Ihe  left,  of  which  certain  equidistant  numerical 
values  are  given  below  the  line.  Points  on  the  line  corresponding 
to  each  o*oi  of  the  distances  are  then  taken,  and  at  each  point 
a  perpendicular  line  of  dots  is  drawn,  of  which  the  number  is 
equal  to  that  of  the  planetoids  having  this  mean  distance,  no 
account  being  taken  of  fractions  less  than  001.  The  accumula- 
tions between  the  points  of  dose  c<Nnmeosurability  with  the 
mean  motion  of  Jupiter  nwy  be  seen  by  inspection.  For 
example,  at  the  point  a  59  the  mean  motion  is  thirre  times  that 
of  Jupiter;  at  the  point  a -81  twice  the  mean  motion  is  equal  to 
five  times  that  of  Jupiter;  at  3*24  the  mean  motion  is  twice  that 
of  Jupiter.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  strong  tendency  toward 
grouping  near  the  values  a'75,  and  s  lesser  tendency  toward  3*1 
and  a*4.  It  Is  probable  that  the  grouping  had  its  origin  in  the 
original  formation  of  these  bodies  and  may  be  plausibly  attributed 
to  the  formation  of  three  or  more  acpente  zings  which  were 
broken  up  to  form  the  group. 

Continuing  the  question  beyond  these  large  collections,  it 
will  be  seen  that  between  the  values  3*a2  and  3-33  there  are  no 
orbits  at  all.  Then  between  3*3  and  3-5  there  are  nine  orbits. 
The  space  between  3* 5  and  3-9  Is  thus  far  a  complete  blank; 
iheo  there  are  three  orbiu  between  3*90  and  3*95,  not  shown 
in  the  diagram. 

A  group  of  great  interest,  of  which  only  three  members  are 
yet  known,  was  discovered  during  the  years  1906^907.  The 
mean  distance  of  each  member  of  this  group,  and  therefore  its 
time  of  revolution,  is  so  near  that  of  Jupiter  that  the  relations 
of  the  respeaive  ovbhs  are  yet  unknown.  The  case  thus  offered 
for  study  is  quite  unique  in  the  solar  system,  but  its  exact  nature 
cannot  be  determined  untO  several  mofe  years  of  observation 
ore  available. 

Sevcml  plsactoids  of  mueh  interest  an  fituated  without  the 


near  that  of  the  earth.  With  most  of  the  others  little  more  can 
be  done  than  to  compute  their  elements  with  a  view  of  subse- 
quently identifying  the  object  when  desired.  Unless  followed 
up  at  several  oppositions  after  discovery,  the  planet  is  liable  to 
be  quite  losL  Of  those  discovered  before  1890  about  fifteen 
have  not  again  been  found,  so  that  if  discovered,  as  they  doubt- 
less will  be,  identification  will  be  difficult. 

The  system  of  nomenclature  of  these  bodies  is  not  free  from 
difficulty.  When  discoveries  began  (o  go  on  aL.a  rapid  rate, 
the  system  was  introduced  of  assigning  to  each  a  number,  in 
the  order  of  its  discovery,  and  using  as  its  symbol  its  number 
enclosed  in  a  circle.  Thus  Ceres  was  designated  by  the  symboKD; 
Paiku  by  0,  &c.,  in  regular  order.  Thb  system  has  been  con- 
tinued to  the  present  time.  When  photography  was  opplied 
to  the  search  it  was  frequently  doubtful  whether  the  planet  of 
which  the  Image  was  detected  on  the  plates  was  or  was  not 
previously  known.  This  led  to  the  use  of  caintal  letters  in 
alphabetical  order  as  a  temporary  designation.  When  the 
alphabet  was  exhausted  a  second  letter  was  added.  Thus  there 
are  planetoids  temporarily  designated  as  A,  B,  &c.,  and  AB, 
AC,  &C.  The  practice  of  applying  a  name  to  be  selected  by 
the  discoverer  has  also  been  continued  to  the  present  time. 
Originally  the  names  were  selected  from  those  iA  the  gods  or 
goddesses  of  classical  mythology,  but  these  have  been  so  far 
exhausted  that  the  name  is  now  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
peison  selecting  iL  At  present  it  is  customary  to  use  both  the 
number  and  the  name,  the  former  being  necessary  to  the  ready 
finding  of  the  planetoid  in  a  list,  while  the  name  serves  for  more 
certain  identification.  (S^  N.) 

PLANK,  a  flat  piece  of  timber,  sawifand  planed;  it  is  tecbni^ 
cally  distinguished  from  a  "  board  "  by  its  greater  thickness,  and 
sbould  Bcasuie  from  s  to  4  in.  in  thickness  and  from  16  to  1 1  in. 


yio 


PLANKTON 


inwidtli.  Theiracdcaaw*thn)u|]itliBPr.ftoiKtc(fTinnpa(t- 
AdcuiUb,  Lu.  planca,  a  oualized  mdipuiion  probubty  o!  Gi. 
rUf,  umettuDg  flat,  apccuUy  ft  flat  ttoiu.  Tbe  luc  oC  the 
word  "pluk  "  is  tliiiciiKOfiinutkletak  political  psog 
ii  o[  ADMiicBD  oiigiD  tod  'a  due  to  tbc  me  ci  "  plitfort 
tbe  prognmne  ItseU. 

PUHKTOH,  a  uma  invenled  by  Pn>fia»i  Victor  1 
fee  the  diifting  popuUtion  rA  the  lea.  Tlii*  li  1  okk 
beadiDg  nndei  vhich  to  diicuu  col  only  flankitn  proper,  but 
tbe  loiUgi.  or  crawling  population  (rf  the  lo-botir  "  —'- 
inveillgaifea  of  theee  >ubi(£K  data  [torn  the 
"  Cballenget "  eipcdiliOB,  vhlcb,  deipite  iti  mi 
■till  itauU  out  ai  the  most  impoRint  of  the 
expedliloua,  alike  by  the  work  achieved,  the  dutance  Inverted 
the  time  ocmpicd,  and  the  money  devoted  to  the  publicatior 
of  the  roultL  It  laid  Ihe  feuodilioa  ot  our  knowledge  ol  the 
phyiica  aod  chemiHry  (d  ocean  niter,  ol  oceanic  and  at  moapheric 
ciuTeot],  of  tbe  eoDlouI  of  tbe  Ma-bottom,  and  of  tbe  main 
featuici  of  distribtitkHi  of  deep^ea  life.  Later  vork  has  con- 
Gimtd  and  expanded,  but  not  revoked,  tbe  cODclasiou  Ibui 
attuned.  But,  In  spite  irf  thia  and  of  levenl  (ubwqaenC 
eipediuom,  it  cannot  be  pielcnded  tbal  He  are  in  a  poaiiion 
to  formulate  genenl  canons  of  mirloe  dittribution  other  than 
of  the  mojl  leoiative  tharacter.  Two  fallacies  underlie  many 
attempts  to  define  disttibutional  oceanic  areaa  for  ipccial  groi^H: 
tbe  one,  that  auch  areoa  can  be  nude  to  bear  ume  relation  to 
existing  geographical  or  even  national  divisions;  the  other,  that 
what  II  true  for  one  group  ol  Ibe  animal  kingdom  muil  hold 
good  equally  lor  uiothet.  Il  is  necessary  at  the  outset  to  divest 
oneself  ol  these  errors,  oceanic  conditions  depend  only  very 
bdirecLly  upon  the  diilribulion  of  the  land,  and  strongly  swim- 
ming or  freely  floating  aolmtJs  are  not  lo'be  conGntd  by  the 
same  factors  ai  determine  the  disttibution  of  sessile  forms,  whose 

/u  Wyvillc  Thomson  pointed  out  Ion;  ago,  there  is  but  one 
ocean.  Tliis  surrounds  the  soulhern  half  ol  the  globe,  and  has 
two  Urge  guUi,  gcnenily  called  the  Atlantic  end  Pacihc  Oceans, 
which  meet  Ibrough  nutow  channels  in  Ihe  snuU  Arclic  Ocean, 
and  a  half  gull,  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  iird  Pacific 
eahibit  a  striking  homology  of  atmospheric  pressure  and  of 
prevalent  wfod  and  current;  the  Indian,  to  a  great  eileot, 

Il  modified  by  the  neighbourhood  ol  vul  land  moMO.  The 
prevalent  winds,  dependent  on  Ihe  fairly  constant  distribulica 
of  atmospheric  piessure  over  tbe  great  oceans,  are  the  most 
important  deleiminant  of  currenta     As  at  most  points  in  the 


Ihe  water  are  mainly  det 

ermined  by  the  corre 

Ihe  condition  at  tbe  plac 

whence  Ihe  witer  cam 

must  precede  any  gen 

Regard  must  be  had 

ot  merely  to  the  supi 

iperfirial  currents 
r.  nut  also  to  ine  movements  of  the  deeper  layer. 
lie  pc4ct,  logethet  with  polar  precipitilion  of  bail, 
yields  brge  quantities  ol  water  ol  low  salmiljr 


ilowly  norlh  and  south  Iri 
Lhc  gresl  open  ocean*  at 

Kinperiiurt  gndually  dc 


milormly  low  i 


id  beiiam  ihe 
creases  (occpl  where  alltcted  by  local 
circumstances),  and  in  lie  middle  laycn  the  eiistence  ol  alow 
curreou  Is  suspected  The  told  bottom  water  wells  up  to  the 
luifice  in  cenain  areas,  reptidng  the  surface  water  drained 
away  by  currents,  netably  to  ihe  westward  ol  the  great  land 
masses.  Ocean  water  b  remarkably  unilorm  as  regards  its 
coniained  salts  and  g»ec,  and  ii  does  not  seem  likely  that  we 
can  look  (o  Ihcse  la  eiplun  the  lacti  oi  distribution.     In  lis 


.lethebt 


er  ol  Ibe  ocean 
has  drilled  fr< 


fialure,  Ihe  surface 
:  equaloc  paievards 


somewhere  beiweeo  t**  ud  ttf  F.,  kdnc  oi  (tirdnf  hnt  oa  Us 
way.  In  tbe  case  ol  nurow  ot  "  ckatd  "  sesit,  wii  Deu  laod 
, «- water  doe*  not  exhibil  that  luifarBity  oi  eompsaltioa 
but  even  in  siu^  case*  the 


thoB^  lass  obi4oudy  than  in  the  open  ocean,  seems  to  be  a  very 
important  agcdl  ia  disltibutioa. 

Tbe  fauna  ot  Ihe  sea  is  divisible  into  ti»  fJMnjUn,  tbe  swim- 
ming or  drifting  laona  which  never  rest*  od  tbe  bottom  (genual^ 
taken  now  to  include  E.  Huckel'i  nttlBii,  tbe  straig  swlmioca, 
such  a*  fish  and  cephaloiwdi),  and  ihc  bttulm,  which  Is  find 
to  or  crawl*  upon  the  bottom.  These  group*  require  a  further 
subdivision  according  to  depth — the  more  necessarily  sn^,  lo 
some  Eoologists,  any  water  over  loo  fathoms  is  "  deep  "  or  evea 
"  sbyssaL"    It  is  simplest  to  begin  with  the  benthos.     Fran 


Falkland  Ci 
Ninh  Alls 


'.    PtfoCoTf 


E<)uitarul  (also  >'  P>ci(Sc  and  Indian). 

ol^wXsullSircl™) 

imbiqiic  Cuneni  (rccurvtd  oil  Cape  AguUiu). 


"'SmX 


Drifl.     f.  il 


and  South  Amer 
the  shore  seawards  we  may  diitin 

the  lidsl  lone,  betwcn  bigh  and  low  water-mark,  is  subdivf 
by  its  fauna  and  lloca.  Tlicre  generally  lirilows  on  this  a  ' 
gentle  slop*  to  the  depth  ol  about  loo  lathoms.  locally 
led  the 


ic  jslsnds.  and  even  swi 
r  Unri.  Ian  to  Ibe  bolloi 


KfOfliAM.    AivUhtbobiUowEUociidal 

dunctCT  qI  Ibe  (oa!l  Unn  the  deeper  unci.  Evoywheie, 
bowevrr,  the  epibenlhic  ituu  if  arpoHd  to  ortiln  dcEiutt 
eavinmnenial  conditntii,  u  nanpurd  vitK  4  deeper  (luni: 
Buine!)',  1  high  ot  [«irly  high  lempenlurt  (eicept  near  the  polti) ; 

■  (aitly  good  Light,  with  iii  imponuil  comequenn.  ■  vegcuble 

[o  ■  suitable  habiut.  irhich  the  vaiied  nature  ol  the  bollom 
near  land  B  likely  to  funuih.     Fasing  farther  leawiidi,  wc  tlntl 

■  Mceper  (hifie  to  about  the  joo-luhoin  line,  the  so-called 
OnatiaeaUil  ilope.    Li  thk  lou  the  envitoiiDMnl  I>  ahuluiely 


Buclun,    "CkoUnc^"    Kipvil   on    "Oceanic  Cuiulauan.") 

Benjucb  Curreoii.  Note  III*  marktdl)'  difliienl  latiludn  o( 
the  effect  of  the  Falktaad  Cunciit  acajut  the  Btul  dunfit. 
dilferenl.    The  ■ilrr.  no  longer  <uh}eet  to  teaional  ntiii 


.  of  the  Ic 


of  organic  matter,  brought  down  by  river  aclton,  produced  by 
disintegrated  aca-weed,  and  due  to  the  death  odurlaceorgannms. 
logether  with  the  finer  clayey  malerials  oi  land  waste,  settles 
to  the  bottom  in  quiet  water,  near  the  icxi-iilhani  coniour,  thus 
making  the  mid-line  the  ricb«t  leeding-ground  in  the  ocean 
(Slumy).  The  mud-Uoe  is  the  real  upper  limit  of  Iha  «in*; 
It  typically  begins  at  about  loo  fathoms,  but  may  begin  at  jto  lo 
fathoms  b  deep  sheltered  firths,  or  be  pushed  down  to  joo 

miy  be  lermtd  the  mtKhetUlm:  it  i)  not  so  abundant,  nor  so 
sharply  chltactcriicd.  u  the  epibenlhos,  and  yet  is  tuBiciently 
^Mincl  to  deserve  at  any  rale  a  piovbional  Buoe.     Another 


Btnb*othMii 

the  prcBuce  at  Ibe  mlcr;  at  a  depth  of  Joo  fatboms  thi*  ia, 
roughly  ipaikini,  half  a  Ion  to  the  aquaie  inch.  It  is  very 
doubtful  whether  thb  eDOtinota  pnaaure  ouko  tbe  tlighleat 
differenre  to  narijie  juvencbrates,  Ibe  timues  of  which  are 
imifomily  permeated  by  fluids,  so  that  the  preiture  is  unifonn  in 
every  direction^  but  afumala  with  free  gasea  naturally  require 
lime  to  adjust  the  gas-pressure  when  altering  Iheir  levels.  As 
regards  the  penetration  of  light,  assimllaiivr  rays  useful  to  plant 
lite  probably  do  BDI  reach  beyond  150  fatbnmi.  Photographic 
rays  have  been  detected  as  low  as  910  fathoms,  and  il  any  Ughl 
penetrate  beyond  this  depth,  it  will  auiiist  only  of  blue,  violet 
and  ullra-vlolet  nyi:  It  haa  been  suggested  that  the  red  colour 
prevalent  b  many  deep-sea  animals  may  be  a  screen  from  these 
buttlul  lays.  Beh»  the  lop-fatbora  line  the  ocean  bottom 
eihibits  alraosl  uniform  condituins  eveiywheie,  varied  only  by 
the  character  oi  tbe  bottom  deposit  and  the  amount  of  food 
supply.  In  this  lone,  which  extendi  from  about  500  fathoms  to 
the  greatest  deptha  (which  may  in  some  cases  exceed  jooo 
faihoms,  or  more  than  si  m.),  the  temperature  at  any  ^ven 
point  is  uniform  thtaughaut  the  ytai,  arid  is  alwayi  very  low^ 
Iho  mean  at  3soo  fathoms  is  jj-3*  F.;  at  greater  depths  and  in 


from  higher  Levels;  the  pressure 


0  the  fauna  which 
name  tyfoliaiiluii 


special  tauna  is  shown  by  ...^ 
imbera  of  ipeciH  captured  b 


KK;, 


^.ssS- 

iT^h^zH^ 

ffS'S-,  :  : 

»i% 

3: 

Out  of  ihc  Js^.  of  its  ipecin  whieb  1 

Ihcepiber 

beniboa  aL 


.,^jtoi,i^40%  in^ 
s.  13%  Aand  wHh 


&e.,  an  H^iallythoKoI  the  correipandln'i  depths  Dlihe  bent  has! 
aa  n^s  the  lood,  however,  the  mewplanklon  can  only  defend 

prove  to   be   lufliaeatly   diKiocI   to  be  aepinlety   ctoucd   » 
typoflamiUm. 

The  najn  subdivisions  of  the  marine  fauna  having  tliu  been 
briefly  sketched,  it  is  advisable  la  romider  ibem  in  ■omewhat 
more  detail.    The  tpibetuMci  a  obviously  that  fauna  ^ 

to  which,  eircept  In  polar  re^ons,  light  and  warmth  '■■■"■^ 
■re  neeeisary',  aud  the  abMnce  of  these  at  greater  iLeplba  Js 


724 


PLANKTON 


epibenthos  of  warm  seas  appears  ta  be  espedall/  wealthy  in 
such  forms  as  secrete  heavy  calcareous  skeletons;  but  in  colder 
water,  among  the  epibenthos  of  polar  or  sub-polar  regions,  and 
the  hypobenthos  everywhere  in  open  oceans,  the  predominant 
forms  are  those  which  exhibit  Little  or  no  calcareous  secretion: 
even  the  apparent  exceptions,  Madreporaria  and  Echinoderma 
from  great  depths,  tend  to  develop  slighter  skeletons  than  their 
warm-water  congeners.  The  following  table  will  serve  to 
illustrate  this  point,  and  to  give  an  idea  of  the  composition  of 
the  epibenthos  of  cold  and  warm  seas  and  of  the  hsrpobenlhos: 
the  figures  are  the  percentages  of  total  species  captured  in  each 
locality  by  H.M.S.  *'  Challenger,"  the  balance  being  made  up 
by  few  specimens  in  scattered  groups: — 


Kersuclcn 

Area— over 

1360  fm. 


Madreporaria    . 
Alcyonaria 
Shelled  Molluaca 
Dccapoda 
Echinoderroata  .> 
Actiniaria 
Hydrozoa 
Annelida       .    1     . 
Crustacea  1 

except  Decapodai 
Tunkata      .     .    -. 


;  } 


0-8 
i-a 
80 
3-6 

6-8 

6-8 

l6'5 

4-4 


817 


Kcrsuelen 

Area— o  to 

150  fm. 


o-o 

I'O 
19-7 

0-8 
II-7 

46 

8-0 

35-0 

6-8 


77-6 


Cape  York— 
0  to  u  fm. 


91-2 


While  the  Madreporaria  represent  only  3*3%  of  the  species  at  the 
tropical  starion,  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  probably  made 
up  80%  or  more  of  the  weight. 

The  epipUnktoH  is  dependent  either  directly  or  prosmatefy 
upon  light,  warmth  and  the  presence  of  plant  life.  The  wealth 
of  minute  organisms  near  the  surface  is  inconceivable 
to  those  who  have  not  seen  the  working  of  a  two-net: 
it  may  be  gauged  by  the  fact  that  a  single  species  is  sometimes 
present  in  such  quantities  as  to  colour  the  sea  over  an  appreciable 
area,  and  by  the  estimate  that  the  skeletons  of  epiplankton  from 
a  square  mile  of  tropical  ocean  a  hundred  fathoms  dcefy  would 
yield  16  tons  of  lime.  In  the  tropica  the  wealth  of  spedes,  and 
towards  the  poles  the  number  of  individuals  of  comparatively 
few  species,  are  characteristic  of  the  latitudes.  In  temperate 
and  tropical  regions  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the 
epiplankton  near  land  and  that  far  out  at  sea:  the  former  is 
termed  neritk;  it  extends,  roughly  speaking,  at  least  as  far  out 
as  the  mud-line,  and  is  characterized  by  the  predominance  of 
what  may  be  termed  kemibenthic  forms,  that  is,  benthic  forms 
with  a  planklonic  larval  stage  {Dccapoda,  Polyckaeta,  &c.),  or 
with  a  planktonic  phase  (roetagenetic  Medusae).  The  horisontal 
barriers  to  the  neritic  plankton  are  practically  those  mentioned 
as  governing  the  epibenthos;  indeed,  it  would  seem  that  the 
distribution  of  hemibeothic  adults  is  dietermlned  by  that  of  their 
more  delicate  larvae.  Special  cooditJons  of  wind  and  current 
may  of  oourse  carry  Into  the  neritic  sone  forms  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  open  sea,  and  vice  versa.  In  the  neritic 
epiplankton  of  polar  vraters  the  larvae  of  bemibenthic  forms  are 
almost  absent;  Indeed,  the  development  of  cold-water  benthos, 
whether  shallow  or  abyssal,  appears  to  be  in  most  cases  direct, 
this  Is,  without  a  larval  metainorphotta.  The  epiplankton  of 
the  open  sea  is  described  as  oceanic,  it  ooosists  almost  entirely 
of  kahplcniUomc  forms  and  their  luvae.  The  chief  barrier  to 
horiaontal  distribution,  here  as  elsewhere,  is  doubtlcs  tempera- 
ture. For  eiami^,  through  the  reports  of  the  "  National "  cruise 
(German  Plankton  Expedition)  runs  the  same  stoiy;  one  fauna 
duuracterized  their  course  from  Shetland  to  Gieoiland  and 
Newfouadlaiid,  another  the  travtne  ol  the  GuU  Stream,  Sargasso 
Sea  and  the  Equatorial  Currents.  The  influence  of  temperature 
may  be  ganged  In  another  way:  where  hot  and  cold  currents 
meet,  oocw  ** frontier"  distrias,  in  which  the  respective 
organbms  are  Intermingled,  and  can  only  exist  till  thdr  maxima 
or  minima  are  reached.  Well-raariced  eiamplw  of  such  districts 
oecur  off  New  Jeney  (Gull  Stream  and  Labrador  Current),  in 


the  China  Sea  (warm  currents  of  the  south-west  monsoon  and 
Kamchatka  Current),  ia  the  Faeroe  Channel,  south  of  the  Cape 
(recurving  of  the  Agulhas  Current):  in  some  of  these  the  range 
of  variation  amounts  to  as  much  as  50*  F.  in  the  year,  with  the 
result  of  a  colossal  death-rate  of  the  plankton,  and  its  corollary, 
a  rich  bottom  fauna,  fbr  which  food  is  thus  amply  supplied. 
The  majority  of  the  oceanic  epiplankton  appears  to  be  stene* 
thermal;  for  example,  few  components  of  the  wdl-chancteriaed 
fauna  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Sargasso  Sea  ever  reach  the  British 
shores  alive,  although,  if  current  and  salinity  were  the  determin- 
ing factors  and  not  temperature,  this  fauna  should  reach  to 
Shetland,  and  even  to  Lofoten.  It  will  <aly  be  possible  to  make 
satisfactory  distributional  areas  for  these  oceanic  forms  by  such 
systematic  traverses  as  that  of  the  "  National ";  at  present  it 
would  seem  that  adjacent  q>ecies  have  such  different  maiima 
and  minima  that  every  species  must  be  mapped  sq>aratdy 
(compare  the  distribution-maps  of  the  "  National  *'  Plankton 
Expedition).  Some  members  of  the  epiplankton  are,  however, 
extraordinarily  eurythermal  and  eurybathic;  for  ewmp>f, 
Catauus  femmarckicus  ranges  from  76*  N.  to  52*  S.  (excepting 
perhaps  for  loP  each  side  of  the  equator),  and  is  apparently 
indifferent  to  depth. 

In  the  first  hundred  fathoms  at  sea  the  fall  of  tempenture  is 
gradual  and  slight,  and  forms  practically  no  hindrance  to  the 
diurnal  osdUaiion  of  the  oceanic  epiplankton— the  alleged  rise 
and  fall  of  almost  the  entire  fauna.  Roughly  speaking,  the 
greatest  number  of  animals  is  nearest  the  surface  at  midnight; 
but  different  species  sink  and  rise  at  different  times,  and  to  or 
from  different  depths.  Apart  from  this  diurnal  osdllaUon, 
unfavourable  conditions  at  the  surface  send  or  keep  the  favna 
down  in  a  remarkable  way:  for  example,  in  the  Bay  of 
few  organisms  are  to  be  found  in  the  first  fathom  in 
light,  but  on  a  still,  hot  day  the  next  few  fathoma  teem  with  life; 
yet  after  a  few  minutes'  wind  or  nm  these  upper  layers  will  be 
found  almost  deserted.  This  leads  to  the  oonsideratioa  of  the 
kydrostaiics  of  the  plankton:  apart  from  strong  swinunen,  the 
majority  contests  the  tendency  to  sink  either  by  some  means  o( 
diminishing  q>ecific  gravity  (increasing  floating  power)  or  1^ 
increased  frictional  resistance.   The  former  is  genially  attained 

(a)  by  increase  of  bulk  throu]^  development  of  a  fluid  secxetioa 
of  low  specific  gravity  (vacuoles  of  Feramini/erat  Radielariay  &c ) ; 

(b)  or  of  a  gelatinous  secretion  of  tow  qieeific  gravity  (MedmsMt 
Chaetopod  and  Echinoderm  larvae,  Ckaeloptatka,  Tkaliaeaa: 
the  characteristic  transparence  of  so  many  oceanic  forma  is 
probably  attributable  to  this);  {e)  by  secretion  or  retenlioo  of 
air  or  other  gas  {Pkysaliaf  Minyas,  Endne) ;  (<0  by  development 
of  oil  i^ules  (Capeppda,  Clado€«ra,  fish  ova).  Incicaaed 
frictional  resistance  is  obtained  by  flattening  out  of  the  body 
(PkyUasoma,  Sappkuina),  or  by  its  expansion  into  latcnl  pro>- 
cesses  {TamopterUt  Ciaucus)^  or  by  the  devetopment  of  loag 
delicate  spines  or  hairs  <pelagic  Foraminiftra,  many  XadiUaria^ 
many  Chaetopod  and  Decapod  larvae).  In  many  cases  two  or 
more  of  these  are  combined  in  the  same  organism.  Notwith- 
standing the  above  adaputibns,  some  of  which  are  adjustabfe, 
it  is  difficult  to  underMand  the  mechanics  of  the  comparatively 
rapid  oscillations  of  the  epiplankton,  of  which  both  causes  and 
methods  are  stilT  obscure. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  distribotion  of  the  Theooaomaioas 
Pteropoda — a  purdy  oceanic  group— how  difficult  it  will  prove 
to  draw  distributimial  areas  for  classes  of  epiplankton.  P. 
Pelseneer  recogniics  in  all  ten  such  provinces  {**  CkaUemgtw " 
Reports!  "  ZooL,"  xix.,  xxiii.)  and  42  good  species:  of  the  latter 
I  is  confined  to  the  Arctic,  4  to  the  Antarctic  province,  but  of 
the  renuuning  37  species  and  d^t  provinces  jo%  occur  is 
all  eight,  z6%  in  seven,  and  only  3S%have  as  yet  been  captared 
in  a  single  province  only. 

The  metoplanklan  has  only  recdved  serious  attentfan  datior 
the  last  few  years.  In  the  "  Challenger,"  open  nets  tom-ed  at 
various  depths  seemed  to  show  the  existence  of  a 
deep-water  plankton,  but  this  method  gives  no 
certain  information  as  to  the  horizob  of  capture, 
the  nets  being  open  in  their  passage  down  and  iq>.    C 


PLANQUETTE— PLANTAGENET 


725 


OOMtnicted  the  fint  efiident  net  which   could    be    opened 
mnd  shut  at  known  depths,  ittlng  a  propeller  mechanism 
{BiU.  Zaol.  vol.  i.);  and  he  improved  his  original  pattern 
for  the  *'  National "  and  "  Valdivia  "  expeditions.    The  present 
writer  has  devised  a  net,  of  which  the  opening  and  closing 
are  effected  from  the  deck  by  heavy  weights;  this  has  been 
used  successfully  on  the  "  Siboga  "  ei^editioa  and  in  crunes  of 
the  "  Research  "  {Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1898).   W.  Garstang  has  con- 
structed an  ingenious  net  which  b  useful  in  comparatively 
shallow  water,  but  is  open  to  criticism  as  being  too  light  for  depths 
beyond  100  &thoms;  and  several  other  t3rpes  are  in  use.    The 
existence  of  a  mesoplankton,  that  is,  of  a  plankton  living  between 
xoo  fathoms  from  the  surface  and  the  bottom,  has  been  generally 
considered  as  definitely  proved  by  these  nets.    On  the  other 
hand,  A.  Agaasix,  using  thie  Tanner  tow-nets,  contends  that  while 
a  mixture  of  surface  and  bottom  species  may  occur  in  a  closed 
sea  near  Und,  there  is  no  intermediate  fauna  in  the  open  ocean 
between  about  200  fathoms  from  the  surface  and  the  bottom; 
his  conclusions,  based  on  negative  evidence,  have  not  met  with 
general  acceptance.    Animab  captured  below  the  first  hundred 
fathoms  in  the  open  sea  (the  Mediterranean,  for  special  physical 
reasons,  is  on  a  special  footing)  are  divisible  into  at  least  three 
categories:  (1)   those  which  are  eurythermal  and  eurybathic, 
e.g.  Calanus  finmarckicus;  (a)  those  which,  so  far  as  we  know, 
are  purely  mesoplanktonic  and  never  come  to  the  surface,  for 
example,  the  Radiolarian  family  Tuscaroridae;  (3)  those  which, 
like  some  Schitopoda^  ^lend  a  larval  period  in  the  eptplankton, 
and  seek  deeper  water  when  adult,  raing  to  the  surface,  if  at 
all,  only  at  night.    But  until  the  publication  of  the  results  of 
expeditions  provided  with  efficient  mesoplankton  nets,  generally 
zations  about  this  fauna  had  better  be  stated  with  all  reserve. 
There  is,  however,  a  certain  amount  of  evidence  to  show  that 
the    mesoplankton    includes    different    organisms  in  different 
latitudes;  that  surface  animals  of  the  north  and  south,  unable 
to  spread  into  the  warmer  surface  water  of  lower  latitudes,  there 
sink  into  the  cooler  waters  of  the  mesoplankton;  the  distribu* 
tional  area  of  such  an  organism  will  be  in  three  dimensions 
bounded  by  isotherms  (isobathytherms)  and  isothermobaths. 
As  with  the  hypobenthos,  there  seems  to  be  no  theoretical  reason 
against  the  universal  distribution  of  the  mesoplankton. 

When  a  more  s^tematic  investigation  of  the  various  horizons 
has  been  carried  out,  many  of  the  present  cases  of  supposed 
diicontinuous  diUribvUon  will  doubtless  dls^>pear.  There  are, 
however,  undoubted  cases  of  discontinuity  where  physical 
barriers  have  cut  across  a  distributional  area,  an  example  of 
which  may  be  cited  here.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama  was  appar- 
ently only  upraised  about  Miocene  time,  having  been  previously 
an  archipelago  through  which  a  great  drcumequatorial  current 
could  pass;  consequently  the  benthos  of  the  Panama  region 
shows  marked  alliance  with  the  Caribbean,  with  which  it  was 
formerly  continuous,  but  practically  none  with  the  Indo^PadfiCr 
To  the  same  cause  is  doubtkss  attributable  the  distribution  of 
the  five  Decapoda  which  are  characteristic  of  the  Sargasso  Sea, 
which  are  drcumequatorial  oceanic  types,  only  occasionally 
littoral:  three  of  these  are  known  only  from  the  Atlantic,  one 
occurs  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  one  in  the  Atlantic,  Pacific 
and  Indian  Oceans.  The  damming  of  a  great  drcumequatorial 
current  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  probably  also  responsible 
for  that  dislocation  of  currents  which  resulted  in  the  present 
rdations  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  North  Atlantic  Drift  to  the 
(Abrador  Current,  and  cut  the  Atlantic  Boreal  founa  into  two 
diaoontinaous  districts  (a  and  a',  fig.  5). 

Under  the  head  of  discontinuous  distribution,  the  alleged 
phenomenon  known  as  HpUarity  must  be  mentioned.  In 
sumnuuiaing  the  work  of  the  "  Challenger,"  Sir  John  Murray 
maintained  on  the  basis  of  the  reports  that  numerous  specks 
occurred  in  both  polar  and  sub-polar  areas  which  wero  absent 
from  the  tropic.  He  regarded  them  as  the  hardy  survivors  of 
a  univmrsal  fiiuna  which  had  withstood  that  polar  cooling  which 
set  in  towards  the  close  of  the  Mesozoic  period  (Murray,  Trans, 
Roy.  Sac.  Edin.  vol.  zzxviii.,  1896;  G.  Pfeffer,  Verh.  deutsck.  Zool. 
Cetdlteh.  ix.  1699).    ^I^  view  and  tte  facU  on  which  it  was 


based  have  been  acutely  contested,  and  the  question  is  still  far 
from  settlement  (for  lists  of  the  literature  see  A.  E.  Ortaann* 
Am.  NaL  mm.  583;  and  Miss  £.  M.  Pratt,  Mom,  Mantkestor 
Soe,  voL  xlv.,  X901).  As  regards  the  purdy  epibenthic  and  sessile 
fauna,  there  are  a  few  undoubted  Instances  of  actual  specific 
identity;  in  spme  classes,  however,  such  as  the  Echinoderras,  this 
does  not  appear  to  hold  (if oaiterfer  Magaikatnscke  SommeketMi 
and  F.  Raner  and  F.  Schaudinn's  Fomia  arcHca);  but  even 
in  these  the  general  oompodtion  of  the  fauna  and  the  picsence 
of  certain  identical  and  peculiar  genera  seem  to  point  to  some- 
thing  more  than  a  mere  "  convergenee  "  due  to  stnular  environ- 
ment. As  regards  the  pbmkton  of  the  two  polar  regions  and 
such  epibenthic  forms  as  extend  also  into  deep  water,  the 
suggestion  has  been  made  that  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  benthos 
and  planktcm  are  really  continuous  by  way  of  deep  water  in  the 
main  oceans,  where  the  organisms  can  find  a  suitably  low  tem- 
perature. As  an  instance  of  this,  C.  Chun  {Bmek.  tmsckeu  dom 
arkt.  utid  anlarkt,  PUmkUmt  1897)  dtcs  Krokma  kamata,  a 
characteristic  Arctic  and  sub-Arctic  constituent  of  the  epi- 
phmkton  and  mesoplankton,  known  only  from  the  meso|Jankton 
in  the  tropics,  but  rising  to  38  fathoms  at  40^  S.  26**  E.  More 
exact  information,  such  as  may  be  expected  from  the  various 
Antarctic  expeditions,  is  required  to  settle  this  interesting 
question  with  its  faur-reaching  corollaries.  (G.  H.  Fo.) 

See  abo  ZooLOCicat  DisTaiauTiON:  (  Uanno, 

PLANQUETTE,  ROBERT  (1850-  ),  French  mudcal  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Paris  on  the  3xst  of  July  1850,  and  educated 
at  the  Conservatoire.  As  a  boy  he  wrote  songs  and  operettas 
for  caf6  concerts,  and  sprang  into  fame  as  the  composer  of 
Let  Cloches  de  ComeviUe  (Paris,  1877;  London,  1878).  In  this 
work  he  showed  a  fertile  vem  of  mdody,  which  won  instant 
recognition.  There  is  m  his  mudc  a  touch  of  pathos  and 
romantic  feeling,  which,  had  he  cared  to  cultivate  it,  would  have 
placed  him  far  above  contemporary  writers  of  opira  houjfe^ 
Unfortunately,  he  did  little  but  repeat  the  formula  which 
originally  brought  him  reputation.  Lo  Chetaiier  Gaston  was 
produced  in  1879  with  little  success.  In  z88o  came  Les  VoUp* 
geurs  du  32"**  which  had  a  long  run  in  London  in  1887  as  Tk$ 
Old  Guard,  and  La  CanHniire,  which  was  translated  into  English 
as  Nectarine,  though  never  produced.  In  1882  Rip  van  WinUo 
was  produced  in  London,  being  subsequently  given  in  Paris  as 
Rip,  in  both  cases  with  remarkable  success.  The  libretto,  an 
adaptation  by  H.  B.  Farnie  of  Washington  Irving's  famous  tale, 
brought  out  what  was  best  in  Planquette's  talent.  In  1884  the 
phenomenon  of  an  opera  by  a  French  composer  being  produced 
in  London  previoiidy  to  being  heard  in  Paris  was  repeated  in 
Nell  Gwytme,  which  was  toloably  successful,  but  failed  com* 
pletely  when  produced  in  Paris  as  La  Princesse  Cohmbino, 
It  was  followed  by  La  Crimaimre  (Paris,  1885),  Sureouf  (Paris, 
1887;  London,  as  Paul  Jones,  1889),  Captain  Thirho  (London, 
1887),  La  Cocarde  tricolore  (Paris,  1892),  Le  Talisman  (Paris, 
1892),  Pasturge  (Paris,  1895)  and  Mam'aetle  Qna^sous  (Paris, 

1897).  

PLAMTAOEVET,  a  surname  conveniently,  but  onfaistori- 
cally,  applied  to  the  royal  line  descended  from  the  union  of 
Geoffrey,  count  of  Anjou,  with  the  em|»ess  Maud,  who  are  now 
styled  by  historians  the  Angevin  house.  It  was,  historically, 
only  a  personal  nickname  of  Geoffrey,  as  was  *'  Beauclerc  "  of 
Us  father-in-law  (Henty  I.)  and  "  Curtmantel "  of  his  son 
(Heniy  II.),  and  was  derived  from  his  wearing  in  his  cap  a  sprig 
of  the  broom  (gene^  plant,  "which  in  early  summer  makes  the 
open  country  of  Anjou  and  Maine  a  blaxe  of  li\'iog  gold."  When 
the  fashion  of  personal  nicknames  passed  away,  the  members 
of  the  royal  house  were  usuaUy  named  from  thdr  birthplace, 
as  Thomas  "  of  Brotherlon."  Thomas  "of  Woodstock,"  Edmund 
"  of  Woodstodc,"  Edmund  "  of  Langley,"  Liond  "  of  Antwerp," 
and  so  forth.  But  Edward  L  and  his  younger  brother,  the 
founder  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  had  still  nicknames  respec- 
tively, as  "  Longshanks  "  and  "  Crouchback."  In  the  later 
days  of  the  dynasty  the  surname  of  Beaufort  was  adopted  by 
the  legitimated  issue  of  John  of  Gaunt  by  Katherine  Swynford, 
but  that  of  Plaatagcn«t  waa  bestowed  on  Arthur.  naAural 


726 


PLANTAIN— PLANTATION 


of  Edward  IV.,  who  was  created  Viacottiit  Lisle.  It  appears, 
however,  to  have  been  adopted  as  a  stxmame  by  Richard  duke 
of  York  (fatherof  Edward  IV.)  some  twelve  years  before  hisdeath. 

At  the  death  of  Geoffrey'sgraod&on,  Richard  I.,  the  succession 
was  in  doubt,  John's  elder  brother  Geoffrey  having  left,  by  the 
heiress  of  Brittany,  a  son  and  a  daughter.  But  at  that  epoch 
the  law  of  inheritance  was  in  such  a  case  unsettled,  and  their 
right  was  not  dear.  Arthur's  fate  is  well  known,  aiul  Eleanor, 
the  daughter,  was  kept  captive  Ull  her  death  in  i24r.  John's 
younger  son  Richard,  king  of  the  Romans,  left  a  son  Edmund, 
earl  of  Cornwall,  with  whom  his  line  ended;  his  elder  son  Henry 
III.  left  two  sons,  of  whom  the  younger  was  created  earl  ot 
Lancaster  and  was  grandfather  of  Henry,  earl  of  Lancaster, 
whose  heiress  married  John  of  Gaunt  (i.0.  Ghent).  Edward  L, 
the  elder  son,  was  grandfather  of  Edward  III.,  the  marriages 
of  whose  numerous  children  gieaUy  affected  English  history. 
Edward  his  heir,  the  "Black  Prince,"  left  an  only  son,  who 
succeeded  his  grandfather  as  Richard  IL,  on  whose  death  (1399) 
this  line  became  extinct.  Lionel,  the  next  surviving  brother 
of  the  Black  Prince,  left  an  only  child  Philippa,  iriio  manied 
the  earl  of  March,  in  whose  heirs  was  the  right  to  the  succes- 
sion. But  John  of  Gaunt,  the  next  brother,  who  had  married 
the  heiress  of  Lancaster  and  had  been  created  duke  of  Lancaster 
in  consequence,  refounded  the  Lancastrian  Hne,  which  obtained 
the  throne  in  the  person  of  his  only  son  by  her,  Henry  IV.,  on 
the  deposition  of  Richard  II.,  to  the  exdusion  of  the  hifant 
earl  of  March.  His  next  brother,  Edmund  of  Langlcy,who  was 
created  duke  of  York  (1385),  founded  (he  Yorkist  line,  and  was 
father,  by  a  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  king 
of  Castile,  of  two  sons,  Edward,  second  duke,  who  was  skin  at 
Aginoourt,  and  Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge,  who  by  marrying 
the  granddaughter  and  eventual  heiress  of  Lionel's  daughter 
Philippa,  brought  the  right  to  the  succession  into  the  house 
of  York. 

Between  their  son  and  Henry  VI.  (grandson  of  Henry  IV.) 
and  Edward  and  Henry,  sons  and  heirs  of  these  rivals,  was 
fought  out  the  dynastic  struggle  known  as  "  the  Wars  oi  the 
Roses,"  which  proved  fatal  to  several  members  of  both  houses. 
Richard,  the  son  of  Richard  and  Anne  Mortimer,  became  third 
duke  of  York  (1435),  and  was  made  protector  of  the  realm 
1454-1455,  being  finally  declared  hdr  to  the  throne  on  the 
triumph  of  his  side  in  r46o;  but  he  was  slain  at  tbo  battle  of 
Wakdidd  (Dec.  3r,  r46o).  Of  his  four  sons,  Edward,  the  ddest, 
became  king  as  Edward  IV.  within  three  months  of  his  death; 
Edmund,  the  second,  was  shun  with  his  father  at  Wakefidd; 
George,  the  third,  duke  of  CUrence,  was  put  to  death  in  1478; 
and  Richard,  the  fourth,  duke  of  Gloucester,  became  king  as 
Richard  HI.  in  1483  and  was  slain  on  Bosworth  Field  in  1485. 
King  Edward  IV.'s  two  surviving  sons,  Edward  and  Richard 
(the  princes  in  the  Tower),  had  been  mysteriously  put  to  death 
in  X483,  so  that  the  only  male  descendant  of  the  house  of  York, 
and  indeed  of  the  whole  Plantagenet  race,  was  the  duke  of 
Clarence's  son  Edward,  earl  of  Warwick  (grandson  of  "  the 
Kingmaker";,  who  was  imprisoned  by  Richard  III.  (his  father's 
younger  brother)  in  1483,  and  finally  executed  on  Tower  Hill, 
under  Henry  VII.,  in  1499. 

Of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  the  only  son  of  Henry  VI.  was 
slain  after  the  battle  of  Teiricesbury  (1471),  while  Edmund 
(Beaufort)  duke  of  Somerset,  a  grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
was  slain  at  the  first  battle  of  St  Albans  (1455),  and  all  his 
three  sons  were  slam  or  beheaded.  On  the  death  of  Henry  VI. 
and  his  son  in  1471,  so  complete  was  the  extinction  of  thdr  Une 
that  its  representation  vested  in  the  hdrs  of  the  two  daughters 
of  John  of  Gaunt  by  the  heiress  of  Lancaster,  vis.  Philippa 
queen  of  Portugal  and  Elisabeth  countess  of  Huntingdon. 
But  by  his  second  wife,  the  hdress  of  Castile,  John  had  left  an 
only  daughter,  wife  of  Henry  HI.,  king  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
who  also  left  descendants,  and  from  hb  third  but  ambiguous 
vnion  sprang  the  house  of  Beaufort,  whose  doubtful  daims  to 
his  hdrship  passed  with  his  great-granddaughter  Margaret,  by 
her  husband  Edmund  Tudor,  to  their  son  Henry  VII.  Although 
Vmay  wu  careful  to  dalm  the  crown  hi  his  own  right  (1485), 


he  soon  fortified  that  daim  by  manying .  EUtabetb,  ddeil 
daughter  of  Edward  IV.  and  rightful  heiress  to  the  throne. 
The  marriage  of  their  ddest  daughter  Margaret  to  James  IV. 
of  Scotland  in  1503  resulted  in  the  accession  of  James  VL  of 
Scotland,  a  century  later,  as  nest  heir  to  the  throne  (see 
Stbwasx), 

Although  no  other  dynasty  has  reigned  so  hmg  over  Kngland 
since  the  Norman  Conquest,  the  whole  legitimate  male  issoe 
of  Count  Geoffrey  Plantagenet  is  dearly  proved  to  have  become 
extinct  kt  r499.  Of  its  iUegitimate  descendants  the  house 
of  Cornwall  was  founded  by  lUchard,  a  natural  son  of  Richard, 
king  of  the  Ronums  and  earl  of  Cornwall,  who  was  ancestor  of 
Lord  Comewall  of  Fanhope,  temp.  Henry  VI.,  of  the  Conewalls, 
"  barons  of  Burford,"  and  other  ^uniUes;  but  the  priodpal 
house  is  that  whidi  was  founded,  at  a  later  date,  hy  Sir  Charles 
Somerset,  natural  son  of  Henry  (Beaufort)  duke  of  Somerset 
(beheaded  1464),  vho  was  created  eari  of  Worcester  in  1513, 
and  whose  descendant  Henry,  marquess  and  earl  of  Worcetter, 
obtained  the  dukedom  of  Beaufort  in  1682.  From  him  descend 
the  ducal  house,  who  bear  the  ahdent  arms  of  France  and 
England,  quarterly,  within  a  bordure.  <J.  H.  R.) 

PLANTAIll  (Liat.  pUmiaga)^  a  luune  given  to  certain  plants 
with  broad  leaves.  This  is  the  case  with  certain  species  of 
PUmtago,  Alisma  Mid  Jtf  km,  to  all  of  which  the  term  is  popnlariy 
applied.  The  spedes  of  PlotUago  are  mostly  weeds  with  a  dense 
tuft  of  radical  leaves  and  scapes  bearing  terminal  spikes  of  small 
flowers;  the  long  spikes  of  P.  major,  when  in  s^bd,  are  used  for 
feeding  cage-binls;  P.  laneetJaia,  so  called  from  its  narrow 
lanceolate  3HS-ribbed  leaves,  is  popularly  known  as  ribwoct; 
Alisma  P.  b  the  water^lantain,  so  called  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  broad  ribbed  aerial  leaves  to  those  of  P.  SM^ar.  The 
tropical  fruit  known  as  plantain  belongs  to  the  genus  Mms* 
(see  Banana). 

PUkNTATION  (Lat.  ftanUtrty  to  phmt),  literally  the  placing 
of  plants  in  the  ground,  hence  a  plsce  planted  or  a  collection  of 
growing  things,  &c,  particnlariy  used  of  ground  planted  with 
sroung  trees.  The  term  was  eariy  applied, in  afigurative  sense,  to 
the  settlement  of  people,  and  particulariy  to  the  mVmiiation  of 
North  America  in  the  early  part  of  the  r  7th  century  and  to  the 
settlement  of  Scotch  and  En^^ish  in  the  foffdted  lands  in  Irdand 
(see  bdow).  The  practioe  of  sending  convicted  criminab  to 
serve  on  the  plantations  in  the  cdoniea  became  common  in 
the  ryth  century  (see  Dspoktahon).  These  planUtioos  were 
chiefly  in  the  ootton,  sugw  and  tobacco  growing  cdonies,  and 
the  term  **  (dantation  "  is  thus  particulariy  ^j^ied  to  estates 
in  tropical  or  semi-tropical  countries;  the  proprieton  ai  sudi 
estates  are  spedfically  styled  **  planters." 

The  negroes  on  the  plantations  of  the  Southern  States  of 
North  America  sang  their  songs  and  hymns  and  danced  to 
tunes  whidi  were  traditiona],  and  are  frequently 
known  aa  **  Plantation  Songs."  It  has  been  claimed 
for  some  of  them  that  they  represent  the  folk  songs 
brought  by  the  first  slaves  from  Africa;  but  the  more  generally 
accepted  view  is  that  they  were  those  European  hymn  and 
song  tunes  which  the  negroes  picked  up  from  the  revK-alist 
preachers  or  from  the  Europeans  around  them,  and  adapted 
to  their  own  strongly  marked  rhythms,  whidi  are  certainly  of 
African  origin,  llie  eariie^t  song,  which  beoune  fsmiKar  to 
those  outside  the  Southern  States  was  "  Jim  Crow,"  sung  by 
Dan  Rice,  and  introduced  to  £n|^d  about  ift36.  The 
"Jubilee  Smgera,"  a  troupe  from  Fisk  Uaivenity,  Nashvffle, 
Tennessee,  toured  the  United  States  and  Euope  in  1871;  but 
the  great  popularity  of  the  negro  songs  and  dances,  sad  the 
traditional  instruments,  the  bones  and  tambourine  (the  banio 
was  not  originally  used  by  the  genuine  negro),  was  doe  to 
the  ao-csUed  "negro  minstrd"  troupes,  of  whidi  the  best 
known  in  En|^d  were  Christy's,  wh«ice  the  generic  nazne  of 
Christy  Minstrds,  and  later  of  the  Moore  and  Burgess  troupe 
at  St  James's  Hall,  London,  started  in  -186a  and  fnally  das^ 
solved  in  1904. 

The  best  collection  of  genuine  "plantation  10008 **  aad 
words  b  ^av*  Strngs  of  ihe  United  StaXts  (New  York,  1871):  aei 


PLANTIN 


737 


C.  L.  Edwtrdt,  gatemn  Swfr  tnd  Sltrits  (6«itoni  1895)  s  J*  B.  T. 
KUrah*  The  Story  of  the  Jubilee  Singers  (Boston,  1895) ;  and  articles 
by  G.  W.  Cable  on  "  The  Creole  Slave  Dance  "  and  *'  Creole.  Slave 


PtanSaHon  of  Ulster.-^Tbe  Irish  rebellion,  which  bad  dis- 
turbed Ulster  during  the  closing  years  of  Eiicabeth's  reign, 
was  followed  under  James  I.  by  further  trauble,  due  partly  to 
the  inability  of  the  J^glish  government  to  understand  the 
system  of  land  ownership  prevident  in  Ireland.    At  tlus  time 
the  chief  offenders  against  the  authority  of  England  were  the 
earls  of  Tyrconnell  and  Tyrone,  but  in  September  1607  these 
ontt  powerful  nobles  fled  from  the  country.     The  English 
lawyers  declared  that  the  extensive  estates  which  they  held, 
not  in  their  personal  capacity,  but  as  the  heads  respectively 
of  the  tribes  of  O'Neill  and  O'Donnell,  had  become  the  property 
of  the  English  crown;  and  the  problem  which  now  confronted 
James  I.  and  his  advisers  was  what  to  do  with  the  land,  which 
was  much  too  large  to  be  cultivated  properly  by  the  scanty 
populaticui  living  thereon.   The  idea  of  a  plantation  or  cdoniza* 
tion  of  Ulster,  which  was  put  forward  as  an  answer  to  this 
question,  is  due  mainly  to  Sir  Arthur  Chichester,  the  Irish  lord 
deputy;  its  object  was  to  secure  the  better  cultivation  of  tlie 
land  and  to  strengthen  the  English  influence  in  Ulster  by  granting 
estates  to  English  and  Scottish  settlers.    Chichester  proposed 
that  the  native  inhabitants  should  be  allowed  to  occupy  as  much 
land  as  they  could  cultivate,  for  he  said,  "  that  many  of  the 
natives  in  each  county  daim  freehold  in  the  lands  they  possess, 
and  albeit  these  demands  are  not  justifiable  by  law,  yet  it  is 
jiard  and  almost  impossible  to  displant  them."    Even  if  this 
advice  were  carried  out  on  a  generous  scale,  the  deputy  con- 
sidered that  there  would   be  i^undance  of  land  to  offer  to 
colonists,  and  also  to  reward  the  class  of  men  known  as  servitors, 
those  who  bad  served  the  English  king  in  Ireland.  He  submitted 
his  ideas  to  Sir  James  Ley  and  Sir  John  Davies,  two  of  the  minis- 
ters of  Janes  L;  th^  reported  to  the  English  privy  council, 
which  signified  its  approval,  and  after  the  question  had  been 
illuminated  by  Bacon's  great  intellect,  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed  to  make   the  necessary  arrangements.     But    those 
responsible  for  the  plantation  made  one  cardinal  mistake,  a 
mistake  which  was  to  cost  the  country  much  in  the  future. 
Tliey  rejected  Chichester's  idea  of  allotting  land  to  the  natives 
on  a  liberal  scale,  [deferring  to  turn  them  out  and  to  parcel 
out  the  whole  of  the  forfeited  district  anew. 

The  forfeited  lands  lay  in  six  counties,  Tyrone,  Donegal, 
Armagh,  Fermanagh,  Cavan  and  Coleraine  (Londonderry), 
and  the  scheme  for  the  plantation  having  been  drawn  up,  the 
necessary  survey  began  in  May  1609.  This  was  very  inaccurate, 
but  it  served  its  purpose.  The  land  was  divided  into  three 
sections.  One  block  was  set  apart  for  English  and  Scottish 
settlers,  who  were  not  to  be  allowed  to  have  any  Irish  tenants; 
another  was  allotted  to  the  servitors,  who  might  have  either 
English  or  Irish  tenants;  and  a  third  was  resenred  for  the  Irish. 
Applications  were  then  entertained  from  those  willing  to  take 
up  the  land,  and  under  diichester's  direction  the  settlement 
Was  proceeded  with.  The  land  was  divided  into  portions  of 
xooo,  1500  and  2000  acres,  each  colonist  undertaking  in  return 
for  his  grant  to  build  a  castle  or  a  walled  enclosure,  and  to  keep, 
train  and  arm  sufiicient  men  for  its  defence.  Moreover  he  must 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy  to  James,  and  must  not  alienate  his 
estate  to  an  Irishman.  He  was  given  two  years  in  which  to  do 
the  necessary  building;  during  this  period  he  was  freed  from 
paying  rent,  but  afterwards  he  must  pay  a  quit-rent  to  the 
Crown.  A  scale  of  rents  was  drawn  up,  the  native  Irish  paying 
at  a  higher  rate  than  the  English  and  Scottish  settlers.  Out 
of  the  forfdted  lands  provision  was  made  for  the  maintenance 
of  churches  and  schools,  which  were  to  be  erected  in  conformity 
with  the  scheme. 

The  woHc  progressed  very  slowly  and  mudi  of  the  building 
was  not  even  begun  within  the  required  time.  Then  in  161 1 
James  t.,  who  had  from  the  first  taken  a  lively  interest  in  the 
plantation,  sent  Lord  Carew  to  report  on  iL  Carew's  inspection 
did  not  Mveal  a  very  farovrable  condition  of  afliairs,  and  in 


16x5  Sir  Josiali  Bodlcy  was  sent  to  malce  a  f^irther  report  about 
the  progress  of  the  woric.  A  third  report  and  survey  was  made 
three  years  later  by  Nicholas  Pynnar,  who  found  in  the  six 
counties  1974  British  famlh'es,  with  63x5  men  capable  of  bearing 
arms.  He  said  that  even  on  the  lands  occupied  by  the  cokmlsta 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  still  very  mudi  neglected  The 
words  spoken  by  Bacon  in  16x7  with  reference  to  the  phintation 
had  come  true.  **  Take  it  ttwi  me,"  he  said,  '*  that  the  bane 
of  a  plantation  is  when  the  undertai^aB  or  planters  makesudi 
haste  to  a  little  mechanical  present  profit,  as  disturbeth  the 
whole  frame  and  nobleness  of  the  work  for  times  to  come." 
Another  survey  took  place  in  1632,  when  various  changes  were 
suggested,  but  no  serions  alterations  were  made.  On  the  whole 
the  plantation  had  been  a  failure.  Very  few  of  the  settlers 
had  carried  out  their  undertaking.  In  many  cases  the  Irish  had 
remained  on  the  land  allotted  to  the  colonists,  living  under 
exactly  the  same  conditions  as  they  had  done  before  the  pUnta- 
tion,  and  holding  on  **  whether  the  legal  landlords  liked  it  or 
not."  As  actually  carried  ouf  the  plantation  dealt  with  5x1,465 
acres.  Two-fifths  of  this  was  assigned  to  British  cdonists, 
being  divided  about  equally  between  Englishmen  and  Scotchmen. 
Rather  more  than  one-fifth  went  to  the  Church  and  about  the 
same  amount  to  the  servitors  and  the  natives.  The  best  settlera 
were  the  Scots,  although  their  tendency  to  marry  with  the 
Irish  was  noted  and  oondenmed  durmg  the  eariy  years  of  the 
settlement. 

An  important  part  of  the  plantation  was  the  settlement  <^ 
thecounty  of  Coleraine  by  the  corporation  of  the  dty  of  London. 
Receiving  a  grant  of  practically  the  whole  of  the  county  the 
corporation  undertook  to  spend  £fe,ooo,  and  within  two  yean 
to  build  aoo  houses  in  Derry  and  too  in  Coleraine.  Tliis  was 
the  most  successful  pert  of  the  settlement,  and  to  it  Londonderry 
owes  its  present  name. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Irish  fitom  the  land  in  which  by  lawand 
custom  they  had  a  certain  proprietary  and  hereditary  right, 
althoogh  not  carried  out  on  the  scale  originally  contemplated, 
naturally  aroused  great  indignation  among  them.  Attacks 
on  the  settlers  were  followed  by  reprisals,  and  the  plantation  may 
fairly  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the  terribte 
massacre  in  Ulster  in  1641.  During  Elizabeth's  reign  a  scheme 
for  the  plantation  of  Munster  was  considered,  and  under  Charles 
I.  there  was  a  suggestion  for  the  plantation  of  Connaught,  but 
eventually  both  were  abandoned. 

The  "Orders  and  Conditions  of  Plantation**  are  printed  in 
Walter  Harris's  Hihernica  (Dublin,  1770);  and  in  George  Hilfs 
HiitorieiU  Account  of  the  Plantation  in  Ulster,  /<$o9-i($2o(  Belfast,  1 877). 
See  also  S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of  England  (1899),  voL  i.;  and 
R.  Bagwell,  Ireland  under  Ike  Stuarts  (1909),' vol.  i. 

PLANTIN,  CHRISTOPHB  (xsm-xsSq).  French  printer,  was 
bom  in  a  village  near  Tours  (probably  Saint- Avertin).  He 
learned  bookbinding  and  bookselling  at  Caen,  and,  having 
married  in  that  town,  settled  in  1549  as  bookbinder  in  Antwerpi 
where  he  was  soon  known  as  the  first  in  his  profession.  A 
bad  wound  in  the  arm  seems  to  have  been  the  cause  that  first 
led  him  (about  1555)  to  apply  himself  to  typography.  The 
first  known  book  printed  in  his  offi^  was  La  InstUulione  di  unn 
fanciuUa  nata  nobilmcKle,  by  J.  M.  Bruto,  with  a  French  transla« 
tion,  and  this  was  soon  followed  by  many  other  works  in  French 
and  Latin,  which  in  point  of  cxecutioja  rivalled  the  best  printing  of 
his  time,  while  the  masters  in  the  art  of  engraving  then  flourish^ 
ing  in  the  Netherlands  illustrated  many  of  his  editions.  In  156a) 
Plantin  himself  being  absent  in  Paris,  his  workmen  printed 
an  heretical  pamphlet,  which  caused  his  movables  to  be  seized 
and  sold.  It  seems,  however,  that  he  recovered  a  great  deal 
of  the  money,  and  in  1563  he  associated  ftimself  with  some 
friends  to  carry  on  his  business  on  a  larger  scale.  Among 
them  were  two  grand-nephews  of  Dan.  Bombcrg,  who  furnished 
him  with  the  fine  Hebrew  types  of  that  renowned  Venetian 
printer.  His  editions  of  the  Bible  in  Hebrew,  Latin  and 
Dutch,  his  Corptts  juris,  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  and  many 
other  works  produced  at  this  period  are  renowned  for  their 
beautiful  executioit  and  accuracy.    A  much  greater  ttAttpnst 


728 


PLANTS 


ICLASSIFICATK»I 


was  plaaned  by  him  in  tboae  yean*^lie  pubUcatlon  of  a  Biblia 
pdy^oUa,  which  should  fix  the  original  text  of  Old  and  New 
Testaments  on  a  scientific  basis.  In  spite  of  clerical  opposition 
he  was  supported  by  Philip  U.  king  of  Spain,  who  sent  him  the 
learned  Benedictus  Arias  Montanus  to  take  the  leading  part  in 
the  work  of  editorship.  With  his  zealous  hdp  the  work  was 
finished  in  five  years  (x 569-1573,  8  vols,  folio).  Plantin  earned 
little  profit,  bat  received  the  privilege  of  printing  all  liturgical 
books  for  the  states  of  King  PhiUp,  and  the  officeof "  prototypo- 
graphus  regius."  Though  outwardly  a  faithful  son  of  the 
church,  he  was  till  his  dmth  the  parUsaa  of  a  mystical  sea  of 
heretics;  and  it  is  now  proved  that  many  of  their  books  published 
without  the  name  of  a  printer  came  from  his  presses  together 
with  the  missals,  breviariesi  ta.,  for  the  Roman  Catholit 
Church. 

Besides  the  polyglot  Bible,  Plantin  published  in  those  years 
many  other  works  of  note,  such  ss  editions  of  St  Augustine  and 
St  Jerome,  the  botanical  works  of  Dodonaeus,  Qusius  and 
Lobelius,  the  description  of  the  Netherlands  by  Guicdardini, 
&C.  In  1575  his  printing-office  reckoned  more  than  twmty 
presses  and  seventy-three  workmen,  besides  a  similar  number 
that  worked  for  the  office  at  home.  But  in  November  1576 
the  town  was  plundered  and  in  part  burnt  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  PUintin  had  to  pay  an  exorbitant  ransom.  He  established 
a  branch  of  his  office  in  Paris;  and  when  in  1583  the  states  of 
Holland  sought  a  typographer  for  the  newly  erected  university 
at  Leiden,  he  left  his  much  reduced  business  in  Antwerp  to  his 
sons-in-law  John  Moerentorf  (Moretus)  and  Frauds  van  Ravel- 
ingben  (Raphelengius),  and  settled  there.  When  in  1585 
Antwerp  was  taken  by  the  prince  of  Parma  and  affairs  became 
there  more  settled,  he  left  the  office  in  Leiden  to  Raphelengius 
and  rettimed  to  Antwerp,  where  he  laboured  till  bis  death  on 
the  xst  of  July  1589.  His  son-in-law,  John  Moretus,  and  his 
descendants  continued  to  print  many  works  of  note  "  in  offidna 
PUntiniana,"  but  from  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century 
the  house  began  to  decline.  It  continued,  however,  an  the 
possession  of  the  Moretus  family,  which  religiously  left  every- 
thing in  the  office  untouched,  and  when  in  1876  the  town  of 
Antwerp  acquired  the  old  buildings  with  all  their  contents, 
for  1,200,000  francs,  the  authorities  were  able  with  little  trouble 
to  create  one  of  the  most  remarkable  museums  in  existence 
(the  Mus6e  Plantin,  opened  August  19, 1877). 

See  Max  Rooaes,  Ckrisiopke  Plantin  tmprimeitr  atnenois  (Ant- 
werp, 1883);  Au^.  de  Backer  and  Ch.  Ruclcns,  Annales  de  Vim- 
primtrU  Pianlinienn*  (Brussels,  1865};  Degouige,  La  Malum 
Plantin  (and  ed.,  Brusaels,  1878}.  (P.  A.  T.) 

PLANTS.  In  the  most  generally  used  sense,  a  plant  is  a 
member  of  the  lower  or  vegetable  order  of  living  organized  things; 
the  term  is  also  popularly  applied  to  the  smaller  herbaceous 
plants,  thus  excluding  trees  and  shrubs.  The  early  use  of  the 
word  is  for  a  twig,  shoot,  cutting  or  sapling,  which  was  the 
meaning  of  Lat.  plania  (for  planctat  the  root  being  that  seen  in 
^11115, flat,  cf.Gr.irXar6f,  broad;  ^nta  thus  meant  a  spreading 
shoot  or  sucker).  Other  meanings  of  *'  plant "  are  derived  from 
the  verb  "  to  plant  "  (Lat.  flanlare,  to  fix  in  position  or  place). 
It  is  thus  used  of  the  fixtures,  machinery,  apparatus  necessary 
for  the  carrying  on  of  an  industry  or  business,  and  in  colloquiid 
w  slang  use,  of  a  swindle,  a  carefully  arranged  plot  or  trap  laid 
w  fixed  to  deceive;  d.  also  Plantation.  In  the  following 
sections  the  botanical  sense  of  the  word  is  followed,  the  term 
being  used  generally  as  opposed  to  "  animals.' 


If 


CutssifxcATioN  or  Punts 

Some  account  of  the  history  of  plant  classification  and  the 
development  of  a  natural  system  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to 
show  the  actual  relationships  of  plants,  is  given  in  the  article 
Botany.  The  plant  world  falls  into  two  great  divisions,  the 
higher  or  flowering  plants  {Phanerogams),  characterized  by  the 
formation  of  a  seed,  and  the  lower  or  flowerless  planu  {Crypto* 
gaau),  in  which  no  seed  is  formed  but  the  plants  are  disseminated 
by  means  of   unicellular  bodies  termed  tpora.    The  term 


(Cryptogam  is  archaic,  implying  a  hidden  method  of  icproductioa 
as  compared  with  the  obvious  method  represented  by  the  flower 
of  the  Phanerogam;  with  the  aid  of  a  good  microscope  it  is, 
however,  easier  to  follow  the  process  of  fertilization  in  many 
Cryptogams  than  in  the  ftowering  plants.  These  two  great 
divisions  are  moreover  of  unequal  value,  for  the  Cryptogams 
comprise  several  groups  differing  from  each  other  by  charactecs 
as  marked  as  those  which  separate  some  of  them  from  the 
Phanerogams.  The  following  groups  or  sub-kingdoms  are 
those  which  are  now  generally  recognized.*-* 


illL 


ThallQphyta. 
Cryptogams    A  II.  Bryopnyta. 

UIL  Pteridophyta. 
Phanerogams  or  IV.  Spermatophyta. 


ThaOopkyla  are  the  most  k>wly  organized  plants  and  inclode  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  the  vegetative  portion  of  which  oonsbta  of 
a  single  cell  or  a  number  of  cells  forming  a  more  or  lets  braodied 
thallus.  They  are  characterized  by  the  abaenoe  of  that  differentia- 
tion of  the  body  into  root,  stem  ana  leaf  whidi  is  ao  marked  a  feature 
in  the  higher  plants,  and  by  the  simplidty  of  their  internal  structure. 
Both  sexual  and  asexual  reproduction  occur,  but  there  b  usnaDy 
no  definite  succession  of  the  two  modes  marking  that  altematkMi 
of  sexual  generatbn  ^metophyte)  and  asexual  generatioo  (spno- 
phyte)  which  characterizes  the  higher  groups.  The  gntup  has 
until  recent  years  been  regarded  as  comprising  three  dssses  dis- 
tinguished by  wdl-marked  physiologkal  features— the  Algae  (imlod- 
ing  the  Seaweeds)  which  contain  chlorophyll,  the  Fungi  which  have 
no  chtorophyll  and  therefore  lead  a  sapropnytic  or  paxaaitie  mode  of 
life,  and  the  Lichens  which  are  oompoaite  organisma  nrnrrfing 
of  an  alga  and  a  fungus  living  togetner  in  a  mutual  parasitisai 
(symbiotts);  Bacteria  were  rcgardca  as  a  section  of  FnngL  Soch 
a  system  of  dasafication,  although  convenient,  is  not  the  most 
natural  one,  and  a  sketch  of  the  system  whidi  better  expresses  the 
relationahi|»  between  the  various  subdivisions  is  given  hetc^  It 
has  however  been  deemed  advisable  to  retain  the  older  groupa 
for  purpose  c^  treatment  In  this  work,  and  artides  will  be  found 
under  the  headings  Algab.  Fungi,  Bactbru,  and  Lichens.  The 
study  of  phylogpny  has  suggested  fourteen  classes  arraneed  in  the 
folkiwing  sequence:  (t)  Bacteria;  (a)  CyMnphyoeae  (Bine-grccn 
algae);  u)  FUgclIatae;  (4)  Myxomycetes  (Sliroe>rungi) ;  (5)  P^ 
dineae;  (6)  Conjugatae;  (7)  Diatomaccae  (Diatoms);  (8)  Hctcxo- 
contcae;  (9)  Chforophyccae  (Green  Algae):  (10)  Characeae  (Stoae- 


dineae;  (6)  Conjugatae;  (7)  Diatomaccae  (Diatoms);  (8)  Hctcxo- 
contcae:  (9)  Chforophyccae  (Green  Algae):  (10)  Characeae  (Stoae- 
worts):  (11)  Rhodophyceae  (Red  Algae);  (12)  Eumycetes  (Fanp); 
13)    Pbycomycetes    (Algal   fungi);    (14)   Phaeophyceae    (Bffwra 


a 


Igae).  Bacteria  (see  BACTEaioi.OGv)  and  Cyanophyccae  (see 
Algab).  which  are  often  grouped  together  as  Schizc^yta,  are 
from  points  of  view  of  both  structure  and  reproduction  extremely 
simple  organisms,  and  stand  apart  from  the  remaining  z^iaja, 
which  are  presumed  to  have  originated  directly  or  iodiroct^  lra« 
the  Flagcllatac,  a  group  of  unicellular  aquatic  organisms  conibaB^ 
animal  and  plant  characteristics  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
starting-point  of  unicellular  Thallophytcs  on  the  one  hand  and  of 
the  Protoaoa  on  the  other.  Thus  simple  forms  included  is  the 
Heteroconteae,  Chlorophyccae  and  Phaeophyceae  show  ao  cbivioMs 
connexion  with  the  Flagcllatac;  the  Peridineae  may  be  Rcanied 
as  a  further  developed  Branch;  the  Conjugatae  and  tKatomaotae 
cannot  be  directly  connected;  the  origin  of  the  Rhodophyceae  a 
also  obscure;  while  the  Characeae  are  an  advanced  and  tsc^ated 
group  (sec  Algab).  The  Mycetoioa  («.».)  or  Myxomycetes  are  a 
saprophytic  group  without  chlorophyll,  of  simple  structure  ami 
isolated  position.  The  algal  fungi.  Phycomycctes,  are  obviously 
derived  from  the  Green  Algae,  while  the  remaining  Fungt,  the 
Eumycetes,  appear  to  have  soniiig  from  the  same  stock  as  the 
Rhodophyceae  (see  Fungi}.  Owing  to  the  similarity  of  structure 
and  mode  of  life  it  is  convenient  to  treat  the  Lichens  {qjo.}  aa  a  distinct 
class,  while  recognizing  that  the  component  fungus  and  alga  are 
representatives  of  their  own  classes. 

The  Bryopkyta  and  Pteridophyta  have  sprang  from  tire  Ugha' 
Thallophyta,  and  together  form  the  larger  group  Arcbcnniatae. 
so^allod  from  the  form  of  the  organ  (archeiontfim)  in  which  the 
egg-cell  is  developed.  The  ArehcsoniaUe  are  characterized  by  a 
well-marked  alternation  of  gametopfiyte  and  sporophyte  getirratkats: 
the  former  bears  the  sexual  oigans  iriiidi  are  of  charactcraric 
structure  and  known  aa  antberidut  (male)  and  archegonia  (fnaihl 
respectivdy:  the  fertilized  egg-oell  on  germination  gives  rbe  to 
the  more-bearing  ^eration,  and  the  spores  on  germinatiofi  grve 
rise  directly  or  Indirectly  to  a  second  gametophyte. 

The  Mosses  and  Liverworts  (see  BRYormrTA)  include  ferms  with 
a  more  or  less  leaf-like  thallus,  such  as  many  of  the  Kvcmi^ 
and  forms  in  which  the  plant  shows  a  differentiation  into  a  s»e« 
bearing  remarkably  simple  leaves,  as  in  the  true  mosses.  TUy 
have  no  true  roots,  and  thdr  structure  is  purely  cdlular  or  conduct  ir^ 
bundles  of  a  very  simple  structure  are  present.  The  indcptinka 
pbnt  which  is  generally  attached  to  the  soil  faw  hair4Sfce  strartaRS 
IS  the  sexual,gcsetatioat  tha.sporopbytc  iaa  staSbed  or  I 


iOUTOUYI 


PLANTS 


729 


which  remains  always  attached  to  the  gametophyte  from  which 
it  derives  the  whole  or  part  of  its  nourishment. 

The  Ferns  and  fern-like  plants  (see  Ptbridophyta)  have  on 
the  other  hand  a  well  developed  independent  sporophyte  which 
is  differentiated  into  stem,  leaf  and  root  with  nighly  organised 
internal  structure  including  true  vaacufair  bundles.  In  general 
structure  they  approach  Che  Phanerogams  with  which  they  form 
collectively  the  Vascular  Plants  as  contrasted  with  the  Cellular 
Plants — ^Tnallophyta  and  Bryophyta.  The  gametophyte  b  a 
small  thalknd  structure  which  shows  varying  degrees  of  independence 
affording  an  interesting  transition  to  the  next  group. 

SpermtUopkyta  are  cnaracterized  by  an  extreme  reduction  of  the 

Sametophyte  generation.    The  sporophyte  is  the  plant  which  is 
ifferentiated  mto  stem.  leaf  and  root,  which  show  a  wonderful 
variety  of  form:   the  internal  structure  also  shows  increased  com- 
plexity and  variety  as  compared  with  the  other  group  of  vascular 
plants,  the  Pterioophyta.    The  spores,  as  in  the  neterosporous 
Pteridophyta,  are  of  two  lands — nucrospores  (pollen  grains)  borne 
in  microsporangia  (pollen  sacs)  on  special  leaves  (sporopnylls)  known 
as  stamens,  and  macrospores  (embryo-sac)  borne  m  macrosporangia 
(ovules)  on  sporophylls  known  as  carpels.    The  fertile  leaves  or 
sporophylb  are  generally  aggregated  on  special  dioots  to  form 
flowers  which  may  contain  one  or  both  kinds.    The  microspores 
are   set    free   from   the   sporan^um   and   carried   generally   by 
wind  or  insect  agency  to  the  vicinity  of  the  macrospore.  which 
never  leaves  the  ovule.     The  male  gametoph)rte  is  represented 
by  one  or  few  cells  and,  except  in  a  few  primitive  forms  where 
the  male  cell  stiU  retams  the  motile  character  as  in  the  Pterido- 
phyta. is  carried  passively  to  the  macnnpore  in  a  development 
of  the  pollen  gram,  the  pollen  tube.     The  Spermatophyta  are 
thus  land  plants  par  txuUenu  and  have,  with  tne  few  exceptions 
cited,  lost  ail  trace  of  an  aquatic  ancestry.    Aquatic  plants  occur 
among  seed  plants  but  these  are  readaptations  of  land  plants  to 
an  aquatic  environment.    After  fertilization  the  female  cell,  now 
calledf  the  oospore,  divides  and  part  of  it  develops  into  the  embryo 
(new  sporophyte).  whkh  remains  dormant  for  a  time  still  protected 
by  the  ovule  which  has  developed  to  become  the  seed.    The  seed 
is  a  new  structure  characteristic  of  this  group,  which  is  therefore 
often  referred  to  as  the  Seed-plants.    The  seed  is  set  free  from  the 

Parent  plant  and  serves  as  the  means  of  dissemination  (see  Ft.owER ; 
ollination;  Fruit,  and  Seed).  The  Spermatophyta  fall  into 
two  classes.  Gymnosperms  (9.W.)  and  Angiosperms  (q.v.) ;  the  former 
are  the  more  primitive  group,  appearing  earlier  in  geolojrical  time 
and  showing  more  resemblance  in  the  course  of  their  lue-history 
to  the  Pteridophyta.  A  recently  discovered  fossil  group,  the 
Pteridospermae  (see  PalabobotaKy)  have  characters  inter- 
mediate between  the  Pteridophyta  and  the  more  primitive  seed- 
plants. 

In  Gymnosperms— so^alled  because  the  ovules  (and  seeds) 
are  borne  on  an  open  sporophyll  or  carpel — the  microsporophylls 
and  macrosporophylls  are  not  as  a  rule  associated  in  the  same 
shoot  and  are  generally  arranged  in  cone-like  structures;  one  or  two 
small  prothallial  cells  are  formed  in  the  germination  of  the  micro- 
spore :  the  male  cells  are  in  some  older  members  ci  the  group  motile 
tnough  usualfy  passive.  The  ovule  b  not  enclosed  in  an  ovary, 
and  the  usually  solitary  macrospore  becomes  filkd  with  a  pro* 
thallus,  in  the  upper  part  of  which  are  formed  several  rudimentary 
archegonia.  The  fertilized  egg-cell  (oospore)  forms  a  filamentous 
structure,  the  proembryo.  from  a  restricted  basal  portion  of  which 
one  or  more  embryos  develop,  one  only  as  a  rule  reaching  maturity. 
The  embryo  consists  of  an  axis  bearing  two  or  more  cotvlcdons  and 
ending  befow  in  a  radicle;  it  lies  in  a  generally  copious  food-storing 
tissue  (endosperm)  which  b  the  remains  of  the  female  prothallus. 
The  plant  has  a  well-developed  main  root  (tap-root)  and  a  single 
or  branched  leafy  stem  which  b  provided  with  a  means  of  secondary 
increase  in  thickness.  The  leaves  are  generally  tough-skinned  and 
laJst  for  more  than  one  season. 

The  A.N'ciosPBRMS,  which  are  much  the  larger  class,  derive  their 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  carpel  or  carpeb  form  a  closed  chamber, 
the  ovary,  in  which  the  ovules  are  developed— assocUted  with  this 
b  the  development  of  a  receptive  or  stipaatie  surface  on  which  the 
pollen  grain  is  deposited.  The  sporophylls  (stamens  and  carpels) 
are  generally  assocbted  with  other  leaves,  known  as  the  perianth, 
to  form  a  flower;  these  subsidbry  leaves  are  protective  and  attrac- 
tive in  function  and  their  development  b  correbted  with  the 
transport  of  pollen  by  insect  agency  (see  Angiosperms;  PotLiNA- 
TioK.  and  Flower).  The  male  gametophyte  b  sometimes  lepMY- 
sented  by  a  transitory  prothallial  cell;  the  two  male  cells  are  carried 
passively  down  into  tne  ovary  and  into  the  mouth  of  the  ovule 
by  means  of  the  pollen-tube.  The  female  gametophyte  b  extremely 
reduced ;  there  is  a  sexual  apparatus  of  naked  celU,  one  of  which 
U  the  egg-cell  which,  after  fusion  with  a  male  cell,  divides  to  form 
a  large  suspensorial "  cell  and  a  terminal  embryo.  Endosperm 
is  formed  as  the  result  of  the  fusion  of  the  second  male  cell  with 
the  so-called  "  definitive  nucleus  "  of  the  embryo-sac  (see  Ancio* 
tpsRMS).  The  embryo  conssts  of  an  axis  bearing  one  (Mono- 
cotyledons) or  two  (Dicotyledons)  cotyledons,  which  protect^  the 
•tern  bud  (plumuU)  of  the  future  plant,  and  ending  oelow  in  a 
fadicle.  The  seed  is  enclosed  when  npe  in  the  fruit,  a  development 
ol  the  ovary  as  a  result  of  fertilization  of  the  egg-cell.    (A.  B.  R.) 


An ATOKT  or  Punts 


The  term  "Anatomy,"  originally  employed  la  biological 
tcicnce  to  denote  a  deacription  of  the  (acts  of  structure  revealed 
on  cutting  up  an  organism,  whether  with  or  without  the  aid 
of  lenses  f<>r  the  puipoocs  cl  magnification,  b  restricted  in  the 
present  article,  in  accordance  with  a  common  modem  use,  to 
those  facu  of  internal  structure  not  concerned  with  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  individual  utt,  the  structUFsi  unit  of  which  the 
plant  b  composed. 

An  account  of  the  .structure  of  plants  naturally  begins 
with  the  cell  which  b  the  proximate  unit  of  Mfanic  structure. 
The  cell  b  essentially  an  Individualised  maaa  of  protoplasm 
containing  a  differentiated  protoplasmic  body,  called  a  mtdeus. 
But  all  celb  which  are  permanent  tiasue-elemeats  of  the  plant- 
body  poaiesa,  in  addition,  a  more  or  less  rigid  Umidog  membrane 
or  ctU-vaU,  consbting  primarily  of  celluloae  or  some  allied 
substance.  It  b  the  cell-walb  which  connect  the  different  ceUs 
of  a  tissue  (see  below),  and  it  b  upon  their  characters  (thickness, 
sculpture  and  constitution)  that  the  qualities  of  the  tissue 
largely  depend.    In  many  cases,  indeed,  after  the  completion 


r«¥a 


F  0/  |fH  ^1 

Fig.  I. — Examples  of  the  dUferentbtk>n  of  the  cells  of  pbnta. 

A.  Cell  (individual)  of  the  unkellubr  Green  Alga  Pkwococtust 
as  an  example  of  an  undiffcrentbtcd  autonomous  assimibting 
cell,  pr.^  Cell  pnttopAtMni  a.,  nucleus;  dU.,  ehloroplast:  «.w.. 
cell-wall. 

B.  Pbnt  of  the  primitive  Siphoneous  Green  Alga  Protosipkon 
b«tryoid«9.  .The  primitive  cell  sends  colourless  tubelets  (rhisoids, 
rk.)  into  the  mud  on  which  it  grows.  The  subaerial  part  is  tubular 
or  ovoid,  and  contains  the  ehloroplast  {ckL).  There  are  sevemi 
audei. 

C.  Base  of  the  multicellular  fibmentous  Green  Alga  Cl^attomarpka 
osreo.  The  basal  cell  has  less  chlorophyll  than  the  others,  and  b 
expanded  and  fixed  firmly  to  the  rock  on  which  the  pbnc  grows  by 
the  basal  surface,  rk,  thus  forming  a  rudimenury  rhizoid. 

D.  Part  of  branched  fibmentous  thallus  of  the  multicetlubr  Green 
Alga  Oedocladium.  cr.  ox..  Green  axis  creeping  on  the  surface  of 
damp  soil;  rk.,  oolourkas  rhizoids  penetrating  the  soil;  ok.  ox., 
ascending  axes  of  green  cells. 

E.  Vertical  section  of  frond  of  the  complicated  Siphoneous  Green 
Alga  liotimeda.  The  substance  of  the  frond' b  made  up  by  a  single 
much-branched  tube,  with  interwoven  branches,  cond.  mud.. 
Longitudinally  running  comparatively  colourless  central  (medullary) 
bffanches,  which  conduct  food  substances  and  support  the  (ass.  tor.) 

f;rcen  assimibting  cortical  branches,  which  are  the  ends  of  branches 
rom  the  meduUa  and  fit  tightly  together,  forming  the  continuous 
surface  of  the  pbnt. 

F.  Section  through  the  surface  tissue  of  the  Brown  Aln  Ct^Uria 
muU^ida,  showing  the  surface  byer  of  assimilating  cells  densely 
packed  with  phaeoplasts.  The  layers  below  have  progressively 
fewer  of  these,  the  central  cells  being  quite  colourless. 

G.  Section  showing  thick-walled  ceib  of  the  cortex  in  a  Brown  Aba 
(seaweed).  Simple  pits  {p.)  enable  conduction  to  take  place  readily 
from  one  to  another. 

H.  Two  adjacent  celb  (leptoids)  of  a  food-conducting  strand  in 
Fuats  (a  Brown  seaweed).  The  wall  between  them  b  perforated, 
giving  passage  to  coarse  strands  of  protopbsm. 

I.  End  of  nydroid  of  the  thalloia  Liverwort  BiytHo,  showing  the 
thick  lignificd  wall  penetrated  by  simple  pits. 

of  the  cell-wall  (which  is  secreted  by  the  living  cell-body)  the 
protoplasm  dies,  and  a  tissue  in  which  this  has  occurred  consists 
solely  of  the  dead  framework  of  cell-walls,  enclosing  in  the 
cavities,  originally  occupied  by  the  protoplasm,  simply  water 
or  air.  In  such  cases  the  characters  of  the  adult  tissue  clearly 
depend  solely  upon  the  characters  of  the  cell-walb,  and  it  b 
usual  in  plant-anatomy  to  speak  of  the  wall  with  its  enclosed 


,"  ud  lbs  coaUlncd  pnxaplisiii  M  oibn 


Tliii 


witb  the  migiiul 

Id  Ihe  1 7th  cmluty  lo  ibe  aviiia  of  pIiBt-i>Bi»  i 
of  tbe  ccUl  of  hoDcyoiinb.  The  lat  ol  Ihc  Icim  to  man  inc 
individuoliicd  nucLuted  nuaa  oE  bving  protoplucn,  whjdi. 
wbelhcr  with  or  without  ■  limiiini  mcmbrine,  ptimiitvtty 
iiimite  hiilologiral  eitmttit  of  Ihi  body  of  ewry 


!i  froi 


iKIion  on  Cylnltty  of  Pta^i  bdaw)      In  lU  hul  the  veiy  ninpk 

UKdalcd  in  more  or  Icb  delinile  trayi.  In  Ibe  highei  (dw 
couipliciled)  plinti  the  cell>diflcr~vF[y  much  among  thcnuelvi 
ind  the  body  ii  conipned  of  de£ni1c  lyilemt  ol  Ihne  unii 
each  tynem  wiih  it>  own  charuleriillc  itnictun,  dEpciidin 


L.  Dptical  Kciion  of  cell  of  punnchyma  in  Ihc  unw  taem, 
Efnbedded  Is  th>  pRMoplwm  an  ■  number  of  HanJi  rraina. 

M,  PatI  of  elonfated  atncid  nf  a  Mem.  Note  durk  walli  and 
obliqiie  itit-lihe  pit*  »iih  oppoaiie  indinainiL  da  the  tnv  ladct  of 

N,  One  fide  of  tlie  vnd  of  hydroid  (tiachcid^  of  a  Pleridopliyle 

O,  OpticjJ  •ciiioB  of  t-wo  adjarent  leploida  (ileve.tute  Htmenti) 
of  Ptendophyte.  vilh  licn  plain  (i.  fl.)  on  oblique  esd-mall  ud 
•ide-nlla. 

Pr  Part  of  ipiral  hydroid  fincheid)  of  Phanerosim  (Ftovcnng 


T,  Part  ofveitiealiEctioiiIhroiighbUdeof  typical  k>I  of  Phanero 
Mni.  n.t..  Upper  epidcrmat  oelJf.  with  (f )  culick.    ip)  AHlTnilatini 


on  the  method  o(  Uiodation.  Such  a  tyttera  ia  called  a  Hiau- 
iyileni)  tbe  word  tinue  being  employed  for  any  collection 
(^  ceUa  witb  common  iltuclural,  developmental,  or  functional 
cbararten  to  which  it  may  be  conveniently  applied.  The  word 
ia  derived  from  the  leneral  resembbnce  oi  the  teiture  of  plant 
aubitance  la  that  of  a  teiiile  fabric,  and  dales  tron  a  period 

dividual  celb  was  not  yet  discovcied.     It  is  convenient  hen  to 


■he  plane  to  the  aobitntufn  iiftta 
Jilng  chtoiopliyH  and  connitu'int 
rhitoid  ihg-  1  C>.    In  c«rtjin  tipn 


rom'tht'.Xi'tatum  (fig,*  Band  D).  "  ""^ 
second  Type  of  differt:ntial^n  is  that  between 
id  assimibiine  appendages.    Tlie  celb  of  The  axi: 


the  ^phoneae  both  these  types  i 
-:— i-'i —  i 1 — ■  ...>-.|itta( 


chkM^hytl 


"Sil'lw. 


which  here  forma  the  plani -body,  Pmaiitlmi  (1^.  i  Bl  i>'u 
example  parallel  with  Ofiodadiumi  Brytpiii,  with  Dnpanali'S. 
In  CntUtrpQ  the  unifation  of  a  higher  plant  by  The  diAennriaiV4 


r  theSiphoiwaiii  family  of  Ctdiattet  the 
11  become  coft^dcnbly  fnlerf- —  — 


le  structiire  fa  often 


lDi«ltudina 


oijan.  ((1b."E). 
leeiiiiing^edSeaa 
Hie  Ihlllu.  in  all  c^ 


llnlnngly  compjrre. 
'besof  the  primiTbi-E 

ea  Aranches  et  the 


Df  ><•  ap^!  "^ 


.□le  stnidure  havinc  a  eylindrinl  form-  which  miy  bni 
ine  of  the  ihoft  cell-braoches  from  the  central  ihnd  | 
l^3nd  Iheieneral  aurian  and  foma  ia  Ila  turn  a  nrw  cr 
,  Imm  whoK  celh  arise  new  short  branebea.  Or  the  i)i 
ive  ■  leaf-like  foem,  the  branches  fnw  tbe  central  ihj 
rorm  the  midrib  ETOwing  out  mainly  In  one  plane  and  for 
iia.  eilended  rigGl  andlrfl  of  the  midrib.     Nuneroui  % 


maitity  for  conduction  of  lood  substances,  f  Iw 
brarKbes  themselves  are  packed  srith  chro 
'     chief  assimilating  tissue  of  tbe  plaRi. 


idy-fornsed  threads  in  a  lorti- 


:o  ftreninhen  the  Ihalliis 


ANATOMY) 


PLANTS 


73 « 


u  connected  with  its  net|:fab<Min  bdonginf  to  the  linie  thread  by 
two  depccsuoiis  or'  pita,  one  at  each  end.  The  common  wall  separat- 
ing the  pita  of  the  two  adjoining  cell*  is  pierced  by  strands  of 
protoplasm.  The  whole  structure,  conaistink  of  the  two  pits  and 
the  wall  between  is  known  as  a  g/nuiu  piL  Other  pits,  connecting 
ceUs  not  betooging  to  the  same  branch,  are,  however,  formed  at  a 
later  stage. 

Many  of  the  lower  forms  of  Brown  Seaweeds  (Phoeophyoeae)  have 
a  thallus  consisting  of  simple  or  branched  cell  threads,  as  in  the 
green  and  red  forma.    The  lateral  union  of  the  branches  to  form 
a  solid  thallus  is  not,  however,  so  common,  nor  is  it  carried  to  so  hiffh 
a  pitch  of  elaboration  as  in  the  Rhodophyceac.    In  a  few  of  tne 
lower  forms   (Sphacebuiaceae),  and  in  the  higher  forms  which 
possess  a  solid  thallus,  often  of  very  large  siae,  the  plant>body  ia 
no  lon^r  formed  entirely  of  branched  cxTUthroads,  but  consists  of 
what  IS  called  a  true  parenchymatous  tissue,  t.e.  a  solid  mass 
of  cells,  formed  by  cell  division  in  all  directions  of  space.     In 
the  LaminarJaceae  this  tissue  is  formed  by  cell  division  at  what  is 
called  an  vUtrfaiory  Rowing  pointy  f>.  a  merisiematic  (cell-dividing) 
region  occupying  the  whole  of  a  certain  transverse  zone  of  the  thallus* 
ami  cutting  off  new  cells  to  add  to  the  permanent  tissue  on  both  sides. 
In  the  Fucaceae,  on  the  other  hand,  there  la  a  single  prismatic 
a^al  cell  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  groove  at  the  growing  apex 
oi  the  thallus,  which  cuts  off  celb  from  its  sides  to  add  to  the 
peripheral,  and  from  its  base  to  ^d  to  the  central  permanent 
cells.   The  whole  of  the  tissue  of  the  plant  is  formed  by  the  division 
of  this  apical  cell.    In  whatever  way  the  tissues  are  originally  formed, 
however,  the  m^n  features  of  tmir  differentiation  are  the  same. 
According  to  a  law  which,  as  we  have  seen,  applies  also  to  the  green 
and  red  forms,  the  superficial  cells  are  packca  with  chromatophores 
and  form  the  assimilating  tissue  (fig.  i,  r )._  In  these  brown  types  with 
bodies  of  considerable  thickness  ^Laroinariaceae  and  FucaccaeJ,  there 
is,  however,  a  further  dif!erentiatioa  of  the  internal  tissues.    The 
cells  immediately  subjaceait  to  the  superficial  assimilating  layer 
form  a  colourless,  or  nearly  colourless,  parenchymatous  cortex,  which 
acts  as  a  food  storage  tissue  (fig.  i,  G),  and  surrounds  a  central  medtiUa 
of  doi^tcd  conducting  oelis.    The  Utter  are  often  swollen  at  the 
ends,  so  that  the  crosa-wall  separBdnsr  two  successive  cells  has  a 
Career  surface  than  if  the  cells  were  of  uniform  width  along  their 
entire  length.    Cells  of  this  type  are  often  called  trumpet-hyphu 
(though  they  have  no  connexion  with  the  hyphae  of  Fungi),  and  in 
some  genera  of  Laminariaoeae  those  at  the  per^ihery  of  the  medulla 
simubute  the  nesv-/sA«s  of  the  higher  plants  in  a  striking  degree, 
ev^n  (like  these  latter)  devefcming  the  peculiar  substance  caiiose  on 
or  in  the  periorated  cross-walls  or  sieve-plates.    A  specialized  con- 
ducting tissue  of  this  kind,  used  mainly  for  transmitting  organic 
substances,  is  always  developed  in  planta  where  the  regwn  of 
assimilative  activity  is  local  in  the  plant-body,  as  it  is  in  practically 
all  the  higher  plants.    This  is  the  case  in  the  Fucaceae,  and  in  a 
very  marked  ciegree  in  the  Laroinariacnae  in  question,  where  the 
assimilative  j^«fia  is  borne  at  the  end  of  %n  extremely  long  supporting 
and  conducting  stipe.    A  similar  state  of  things  exists  in  some  of 
the  more  highly  differentiated  Red  Seaweeds.   The  tissue  devek>ped 
to  meet  the  demands  for  conduction  in  such  cases  always  shows 
some  of  the  characters  described.     It  is  known  as  leptam,  each 
constituent  cell  being  a  Uptoid  (fig.  i ,  H).   In  addition  to  the  cdl  types 
described,  It  b  a  very  common  occurrence  in  these  bulky  forms  for 
rhi«oid-like  branches  of  the  cells  to  grow  out,  mostly  from  the 
cells  at  the  periphery  of  the  medulla,  and  grow  down  between  the 
cells,  ftrehgtfaening  the  whole  tissue,  as  in  the  Rhodophyceac^ 
This   process   may  result   in   a   consklerable   thickening  of  the 
thallus.    In  many  Laminariaoeae  the  thallus  also  grows  regularly 
in    thickness   by  dirision  of   its  surface  layer,   adding   to   the 
tuinatxat  permanent  tissue  and  thus  forming  a  setondary  meristem. 
The  simpler  Fungi,  like  the  simpler  Green  Algae,  consist  of 
•Ingle  cells  or  simple  or  branched  cell-threads,  but  among  the 
higher  kinds  a  massive  body  is  often  formed,  particu- 
JmatimOon^^^^  in  connexion  with  the  formation  of  spores,  and 
£7^^2(^this    may    exhibit    cottsideFable    tissue-differentiation. 
A  charactaristic  feature  of  the  fungal  vegetative  plant- 
body    (mycelium)   is   its  formation   from  indepenf^t  cocnocytic 
tubes  or  cell-threads.    These  branch,  and  may  be  packed  or  inter- 
woven to  form  a  very  solkl  structure;  but  each  grows  in  length 
Independently    of    the   others   and'  retains    its   own    individu- 
ality, though  its  growth  in  thoae  types  with  a  definite  external 
form  is  of  coorse  correlated  with  that  of  its  neighbours  and  is 
subject  to  the  laws  governing  the  general  form  of  the  body.    Such 
an  independent  coenocytic  manch  or  cell-thread  »  called  a  kypha. 
Similar  modes  of  growth  occur  among  the  Siphoneous  Green  AJgae 
and  also  among  the  Red  Seaweeds.     A  solid  fungal  body  may 
usually  be  seen  to  consist  of  separate  hyphae.  but  in  some  cases 
these  are  so  bent  and  closely  interwoven  that  an  appearance  like 
that  of  ordinary  parenchymatous  tissue  is  obtained  in  section, 
the  atiucture  being  called  paeudoparenikyma.    By  the  formation  of 
numerous  cross-walb  the  resemblance  to  mirenchyma  b  tncrMsed 
The  sttrfaee-layfer  of  t  he  body  in  the  massive  Fungi  differs  in  character 
according  to  its  function    which  is  not  constant  throughout  the 
class,  as  in  the  Algae,  because  of  the  very  various  conditions  of 
life  to  which  different  Fungi  are  exposed.     In  many  forms  its 
lijrphae  are  particularly  thick-walled,  and  may  strikingly  iMcmble 


the  epidemb  of  a  vascular  plant  Thb  b  capeeblly  the  case  In 
the  lichens  (aymbiotic  organisms  composed  of  a  fungal  myoelium 
in  .association  with  algal  cdls).  which  arc  usually  exposed  to  very 
aevere  fluctuations  in  external  conditions.  The  formation  of  a 
massive  body  naturally  involves  the  localization  of  the  absorptive 
region,  and  the  function  of  absorption  (which  in  the  simpler  fonaia 
b  carried  out  by  the  whole  of  the  vegetative  part  of  the  myceliuia 
penetrating  a  solid  or  immersed  in  a  liquid  substratum)  b  sutiservcd 
by  the  outgrowth  of  the  hyphae  of  the  surface-layer  of  that  region 
into  rkizMS,  which,  like  those  of  the  Algae  living  on  soU.  resemble 
the  root-hairs  of  the  higher  plants.  The  i»lemal  tissue  of  the  body 
of  the  aolid  higher  Fungi,  particulaHy  the  ekingatod  sulks  (Uipesi 
of  the  fructftficatMNis  oi  the  Agarics,  consists  of  hyphae  running 
In  a  longitudinal  direction,  which  no  doubt  serve  for  the  conduction 
of  organic  food  subaunces,  just  as  do  the  "  trumpct-byphae," 
simibr  in  appearance,  though  not  ia  origin,  of  the  higher  Brown 
Seaweeds.  (In  one  genus  Qjaclanus)  "  milk-tubes,"  recalling  the 
laticiferous  tubes  of  many  vascuUr  plants,  are  found.)  These 
elongated  hyphae  are  frequently  thkk-wallcd,  and  in  some  cases 
form  a  central  strand,  which  may  serve  toresbt  longitudinal  pulling 
strains.  This  is  particularly  marked  in  certain  lichens  of  shrubby 
habit.  The  internal  tissues,  either  consisting  of  obvious  hyphae 
or  of  pseudoparenchyma,  may  also  serve  as  a  storehouse  of  plastic 
fbod  substances. 

Looking  back  over  the  progress  of  form  and  tissue-differenti- 
ation in  the  Thallophyta,  we  find  that,  starting  from  the  simplest 
unicellular  forms  with  no  external  differentiation  of  the  body, 
we  can  trace  an  increase  in  complexity  of  organization  every- 
where determined  by  the  prindplca  of  the  division  of  physio- 
logical labour  and  of  the  adaptation  of  the  organbm  to  the  needs 
of  its  environment.  In  the  first  place  there  b  a  diffcrcnlialion 
of  fixing  organs,  which  in  forms  living  on  a  soft  nutrient  sub- 
stratum penetrate  It  and  become  absorbing  organs.  Secondly, 
in  the  AJgae,  which  build  up  their  own  food  from  inorganie 
materiab,  we  have  a  differentialbn  of  supporting  axes  from 
assimilating  appendages,  and  as  the  body  increases  in  size 
and  becomes  a  solid  mass  of  cells  or  interwoven  threads,  a 
corresponding  differentiation  of  a  superficial  assimilative  system 
from  the  deep-lying  parts.  In  both  Algae  and  Fungi  the  latter 
are  primarily  supporting  and  food-conducting,  and  in  some 
bulky  Brown  Seaweeds,  where  assimilation  is  strongly  localized, 
some  of  the  deep  cells  are  highly  specialized  for  the  latter  func- 
tion. In  the  hi^er  forms  a  storage  and  a  mechanically -strength- 
ening system  may  also  be  developed,  and  in  some  aerial  Fungi 
an  external  protective  tissue.  The  "  hyphal  "  mode  of  growth, 
i.e.  the  formation  of  the  thallus,  whatever  its  external  form, 
by  branched,  continuous  or  septate,  cocnocytic  tubes  (Siphoncae 
and  Fungi),  or  by  simple  or  branched  cell-threads  (Red  and 
many  Green  Algae),  in  both  cases  growing  mainly  or  entirely 
at  the  apex  of  each  branch,  is  almost  universal  in  the  groap, 
the  exceptions  being  met  with  almost  entirely  among  the  higher 
Brown  Seaweeds,  in  which  is  found  parenchyma  produced  by 
the  segmentation  of  an  apical  eel]  of  the  whole  shoot,  or  by  cell 
division  in  some  other  type  of  meristem. 

Bryoph^. — ^The  Bryophyta  [including  the  Liverworts 
(Hepaticae)  and  Mosses  (Musci)l,  the  first  group  of  mainly 
terrestrial  plants,  exhibit  considerably  more  advanced  tissue 
differentiation,  in  response  to  the  greater  complexity  in  the 
conditions  of  life  on  land.  In  a  general  way  thb  greater  complex- 
ity may  be  said  to  ctwsist  (i)  in  the  restriction  of  regular  absorp- 
tion of  water  to  those  parts  of  the  plant-body  embedded  in  the 
soil,  (3)  in  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  parts  exposed  to 
the  air  (transpiration).  But  these  two  principles  do  not  find 
their  full  expression  till  we  come,  in  the  ascending  scries,  to  the 
Vascular  Plants,  in  the  Bryophytes  water  b  still  absorbed, 
not  only  from  the  soil  but  also  largely  from  rain,  dew,  &c., 
through  the  general  surface  of  the  subaerial  body  (thallus), 
or  in  the  more  differentiated  forms  through  the  leaves.  The 
lowest  Hepaticae  have  an  extremely  simple  vegetative  structure, 
little  more  advanced  than  that  found  in  some  of  the  higher 
Green  Algae  and  very  much  simpler  than  in  the  large  Red  and 
Brown  Seaweeds.  The  plant-body  (thallus)  b  always  small  and 
normally  lives  in  very  damp  air,  so  that  the  demands  of  terres- 
trial life  are  at  a  minimum.  It  always  consists  of  true  paren- 
chyma, and  is  entirely  formed  by  the  culling  off  of  segments 
from  an  apical  cell. 


73^ 


PLANTS 


lAMATOMY 


A  Miflicinit  deteriptfon  of  the  thatlua  of  the  tivenm»ta  win  be 
found  in  the  article  Brvophyta.  We  mav  note  the  univcraal 
u^-  occurrence  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  thallus  of  fixinc 
T'-jv;  and  abtorbinc  rhizoid*  in  accordance  with  the  tenestrial 
^'"'*  life  on  mm]  (cf.  Ckdocladium  among  the  Green  Algae). 
The  Macdianttaceae  (see  article  BavoPHYTAT  show  oonsadenbie 
tissue-differentiation,  possessing  a  distinct  assimilative  vyrstem  of 
cells,  consisting  of  branched  cell  threads  packed  with  chlofx>plasts 
and  arising  from  the  basal  cells  of  large  cavities  in  the  uraer  part 
of  the  thsllus.  These  cavities  are  completely  roofed  by  a  layer  of 
cells:  in  the  centre  of  the  roof  is  a  pore  surrounded  by  a  nng  of 
special  cells.  The  whole  arrangement  has  a  strong  resemblance 
to  the  lacunae,  mesophyll  and  stomata,  which  form  the  assimilative 
and  transpiring  (water-evapofiting)  apparatus  in  the  leaves  of 
flowering  plants.  The  frondose  (tnalloid)  Jungermanniales  show 
no  such  differentiation  of  an  assimilating  tissue,  though  the  upper 
cells  of  the  thallus  usually  have  more  chlorophyll  than  the  resL 
In  three  genera — Btyttia^  Sympky^ana  and  Hymencpkyium 
there  are  one  or  more  strands  or  bundles  consisting  of  long  thick- 
walled  fibffe>like  (prosenchymatous)  cells,  pointed  at  the  eiids  and 
running  longitudinally  ihroueh  the  thick  roklrib.  The  waUs  of 
these  cells  are  strongly  lignined  (i.«.  consist  of  woody  substance) 
and  are  irregularly  but  rhickly  studded  with  simple  pits  (see 
Cytology),  which  are  usually  arranged  in  spirals  runnme  round  the 
cells,  and  are  often  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  spiral  (fig.  I,  1). 
These  cells  are  not  living  in  the  adult  state,  though  they  sometimes 
contain  the  disorganised  remains  of  protoplasm.  They  serve  to 
conduct  water  through  the  thallus,  rhe  assimilating  parts  of  which 
are  in  these  forms  often  raised  above  the  soil  and  are  comparatively 
remote  from  the  rhisoid-bearing  (water-absorbine)  region.  Such 
differentiated  water-conducting  cells  we  caU' hjfJ^oids,  the  tissue 
they  form  kydrom.  The  sporogonium  of  the  liverworts  is  in  the 
simpler  forms  simply  a  spore-capsule  with  arrangements  for  the 
development,  protection  and  distribution  of  the  spores.  As  such 
its  consideration  falls  outside  the  scheme  of  this  article,  but  in  one 
small  and  peculiar  group  of  these  plants,  the  Anthoceroteae.  a 
distinct  aasimilatiog  and  transpiring  system  is  found  in  the  wall 
of  the  very  lon^  cylindrical  capsule,  clearly  rendering  the  sporo- 

{;onium  largely  independent  of  the  supply  of  elaborated  organic 
ood  from  Uie  thallus  of  the  mother  plant  (the  gametophyte).  A 
richly  chlorophyllous  tissue  with  numerous  intercellular  spaces 
communicates  with  the  exterior  by  stomata,  strikingly  similar  to 
those  of  the  vascular  plants  -(see  below).  If  the  axis  of  such  a 
sporogonium  were  prolonged  downwards  into  the  soil  to  form 
a  fixing  and  absoiptive  root,  the  whole  structure  would  become  a 
physiwogicallv  indfcpendent  plant,  exhibiting  in  many  though  by 
no  means  all  respects  the  leading  features  of  the  sporopkyU  or 
ordinary  vegetativeand  spore-bearing  individual  in  Pteridophytesand 
Phanerogams.  These  facts,  among  others,  have  led  to  tne  theory, 
plausible  in  some  respects,  of  the  origin  of  thb  sporophyte  by 
descent  from  an  Anthoceros-like  sporogonium  (see  Ptbridophvta). 
But  in  the  Bryophytes  the  sporogonium  never  becomes  a  sporopkyU 
producing  leaves  and  roots,  and  always  remains  dependent  upon  the 
gametophyte  for  its  water  and  mineral  food,  and  the  facts  give  us 
no  warrant  for  asserting  homology  (i.e.  morphological  identity) 
between  the  differentiated  tissues  a  an  Anthocerotean  sponxonium 
and  those  of  the  sporophyte  in  the  higher  plants.  Opposed  to  the 
thalioid  forms  are  the  group  of  leafy  Liverworts  (Acrogynac),  whose 

Elant-body  consists  of  a  thin  supporting  stem  bearing  leaves.  The 
itter  are  plates  of  green  tissue  one  cell  thick,  while  the  stem  consists 
of  uniform  more  or  less  elongated  cylindrical  cells.  The  base  of 
the  stem  bears  numerous  cell-filaments  (rhiAuds)  which  fix  the  plant 
to  the  substratum  upon  which  it  »  growing. 

In  the  Mosses  the  plant-body  (gametophyte)  is  always  separable 
into  a  radially  o^nizcd,  st^porting  and  conducting  axis  (stem) 
MMamm,  *"^  ^\n,  flat,  assimilating,  and  transpiring  appendages 
mwmmm,  (leaves).  To  the  base  of  the  stem  are  attached  a 
number  of  branched  ccll-thrcads  (rAisoMf;)  which  ramify  in  the 
soil,  fixing  the  plant  and  absorbing  water  from  soil.  [For  the 
histology  of  the  comparatively  simple  but  in  many  respects 
aberrant  Bog-mosses  (Sphagnaceae).  see  Bryophyta.)  The  stems 
of  the  other  mosses  resemble  one  another  in  their  main  histological 
features.  In  a  few  cases  there  is  a  special  surface  or  epidermal 
layer,  but  usually  all  the  outer  layers  of  the  stem  are  compoaed  of 
brown,  thick-walled,  lignificd,  prosenchymatoos,  fibre-like  cells, 
forming  a  peri(daeral  Uereom  (mechanical  or  supporting  tissue) 
which  forms  the  outer  cortex.  This  passes  graaually  into  the 
thinner- walled  parenchyma  of  the  inner  cortex.  The  whole  of  the 
cortex,  stereom  and  parenchyma  alike,  is  commonly  living,  and  its 
cells  often  contain  starch.  The  centre  of  the  stem  in  the  forms 
Hving  on  sop  n  occupied  by  a  strand  of  narrow  elongated  hydroids, 
which  differ  from  those  of  the  liverwons  in  being  thin-walled, 
unit^nified,  and  very  seldom  pitted  (fig.  i.  J).  The  hydrom  strand 
has  in  most  cases  no  connexion  with  the  leaves,  but  runs  straight 
up  the  stem  and  spreads  out  below  the  aexual  organs  or  the  foot 
of  the  sporogonium.  It  has  been  shown  that  it  conducts  water 
with  considerable  rapidity.  In  the  stalk  of  the  sporogonium  there 
is  a  similar  strand,  which  is  of  course  not  in  direct  connexion  with, 
but  continues  the  conduction  of  water  from,  the  strand  of  the 
gametophytic  axis.    In  the  aquatic,  seiai-aquatk,  aad  ReraphUoua 


types,  where  the  whole  surface  of  the  plant  ibioibs  water,  pe^ 
petually  in  the  first  two  cases  and  during  rain  in  the  last,  the  hydrem 
strand  is  either  much  reduced  or  altogether  abaent  in  acconl* 
ance  with  the  general  principle  already  iodicatedt  it  is  only  where 
absorprion  is  tocaliaed  (t.a.  wnere  the  pbuit  lives  on  soil  from  whkk 
it  absorbs  its  main  supply  of  water  by  means  of  its  basal  liunid^ 
that  a  water-conducting  (hydrom)  strand  is  developed.  The  leaves 
of  most  mosses  are  flat  {nates,  each  consisting  of  a  sin|:te  layer 
of  square  or  oblong  assimilatiM  (cbloraphyllous)  cells.  la  many 
cases  the  cells  bordering  the  leaf  are  produced  into  teeth,  sad 
very  frequently  they  are  thick-walled  so  aa  to  form  a  supportiai 
rim.  The  centre  of  the  leaf  n  often  occupied  by  a  midrib  con«stin| 
of  several  faiyers  of  cells.  These  are  elongated  in  the  directioa 
of  the  length  of  the  leaf,  are  always  poor  in  chlorophyll  and  form 
a  channel  for  coodnctinjt  the  products  of  assimilation  away  fnxs 
the  leaf  into  the  stem.  This  is  the  first  indication  of  a  conductias 
foliar  strand  or  leaf  butuUe  and  forms  an  approach  to  Imtom,  thouga 
it  is  not  ao  spedauirod  as  the  leptom  of  the  higher  {%afeophyceae. 
Associated  with  the  conducting  pareocfajma  are  frequentnr  fouad 
hydroids  Mentical  in  character  with  those  of  the  central  stissd 
01  the  stem,  and  oo  doubt  serving  to  conduct  water  to  or  from  die 
leaf  according  as  the  latter  u  acting  as  a  tranq>iriag  or  a  wstc^ 
absorbing  organ.  In  a  few  cases  the  hydrom  strand  is  continued 
into  the  cortex  of  the  stem  as  a  ieaf-trace  bundle  (the  anaiooiicaliy 
demoiiMrable  trau  of  the  leaf  ^  tne  stem).  Thb  in  oevcrsl  cases 
runs  vertically  downwards  for  some  distance  in  the  outer  cortex. 
and  ends  blindly^the  lower  end  or  the  whole  of  the  trace  bcinf 
band-shaped  or  star-shaped  so  as  to  present  a  large  surface  for 
the  absorption  of  water  irom  the  adjacent  cortical  cala.  In  other 
cases  the  trace  passes  inwards  and  joins  the  central  hydrom  strand, 
so  that  a  connected  water-conducting  system  between  stem  aad 
leaf  is  csublished. 

In  the  highest  family  of  moasea,  Pdytrichaceac;  the  differentia' 
tion  of  conducting  tissue  reaches  a  decidedly  higher  levd.  la 
addition  to  the  water>conducting  tissue  or  kyvom  there  b  a  well- 
developed  tissue  {leptom)  infcrrra  to  be  a  conducting  channd  (or 
organic  substances.  Thb  leptom  is  not  so  hi^ly  differentbted  at  b 
the  most  advanced  Laminanaceae.  but  shows  some  of  the  charaaen 
of  sieve-tubes  with  great  distinctness.  Each  leptoid  b  aa  doogatcd 
living  cell  with  nucleus  and  a  thin  Uycr  of  protoplasm  lining  the 
wall  (fig.  I.  K).  The  whole  cavinr  of  the  cell  b  sometimes  tculled 
with  proteid  contents.  The  end  of  the  cell  b  slb^tly  swoDes. 
fitting  on  to  the  simOar  swollen  end  of  the  next  leptoid  of  the  raw 
exactly  after  the  fashion  of  a  trumpet-hyfrfia.  The  end  wall  is 
usually  very  thin,  and  the  protoplasm  on  artificial  contractioa 
commonly  sticks  to  it  just  as  in  a  sieve-tube,  though  no  perfocatios 
of  the  wall  has  been  found.  Associated  with  the  leptoids  ait 
similar  cells  without  swollen  ends  and  with  thicker  cross-walk 
BeskJes  the  hydrom  and  leptom,  and  situated  between  them,  that 
b  a  tissue  which  perhaps  serves  to  conduct  soluble  cartohydrato; 
and  whose  cdls  are  ordinarily  full  of  starch.  Thb  may  tie  called 
ofiyleiN.  The  stem  in  thb  family  falls  into  two  divisjom.  an 
undeivround  portion  bearing  rhiaoids  and  scales,  the  rAasomr,  and 
a  lea/y  aerial  stem  forming  its  direct  upward  continuataon.  TIk 
leaf  coimsts  of  a  central  midrib,  several  cells  thick,  and  two  vu^ 
one  cell  thbk.  The  midrib  bea^  above  a  aeries  of  closely  set.  verti- 
cal, kmgitudinally-running  plates  of  green  assimilative  cells  over 
which  the  wings  close  in  dry  air  so  as  to  protect  the  assisnilatnre  asd 
transpiring  plates  from  excessive  evaporation  of  water  The  midrib 
has  a  strong  band  of  sterrom  above  aad  below  la  its  centre  is  a 
band-shapea  bundle  consisting  of  rows  of  leptom.  hydrom  asd 
amylon  cells.  Thb  bundle  b  continued  down  into  thie  cortex  d 
the  stem  as  a  leaf -tracer  and  passing  very  dowly  through  the  sdeiea- 
chymatous  external  cortex  and  the  parenchymatous,  stardiy 
internal  cortex  to  johi  the  central  cylinder.  The  latter  has  a 
central  strand  cooswting  of  filer  of  large  hydroidik  separated  inm 
one  another  by  very  ttiin  walls,  each  file  beinj^  separated  troa 
its  neighbour  by  stout,  dark-brown  walls.  Thb  is  probably  boow- 
logous  with  the  hydrom  cylinder  in  the  stems  of  other  taossoL 
It  b  surrounded  by  (i)  a  thin-wallcd,  smaller-celled  hydron 
mantle;  (2)  an  amylom  sheath ;  (3)  a  leptom  mantle,  interrupted  here 
and  there  by  starch  cdls.  These  three  concentric  tissue  mancks 
are  evidently  formed  by  the  conjoined  bases  of  the  leaf  traces,  cac^ 
of  which  b  composed  of  the  same  three  tissues-  As  the  senal 
stem  b  traced  down  into  the  underground  rhiaome  portion.  tk«9 
three  mantla  die  out  almost  entirely—- the  centrsl  hydrom  strasd 
forming  the  bulk  of  the  cylinder  and  its  dements  becooHng  natd 
with  thKk-walled  stereids;  at  the  same  time  thb  central  hydroa- 
stereom  strand  becomes  three-lobed.  with  deep  furrows  bietvtcs 
the  lobes  in  which  the  few  remaining  Icptoxls  run.  separated  (nm 
the  central  man  by  a  few  starchy  cells,  the  remains  01  the  any^ 
sheath.  At  the  periphery  of  tne  lobes  are  some  comparativdy 
thin-walled  living  cells  mixed  with  a  few  thin-walled  hydraida 
the  remains  of  the  thiiwwalled  hydrom  mantle  of  the  aerial  stem 
Outside  this  are  three  arcs  of  large  cdb  showing  characters  typical 
of  the  endodermb  in  a  vascular  plant,  these  are  interrupied  Vl 
strands  of  narrow,  dongated,  thkk-walled  cdb.  which  send  braach« 
into  the  littie  brown  scales  borne  by  the  rhiaome.  The  surfaft 
layer  of  the  rhiaome  bean  rhiaokls,  and  its  whole  structure  urikit^J 
resamblcs  that  of  the  typkal  root  of  a  vascular  plant,  la  Catkenm* 


ANATOMY) 


PLANTS 


733 


mHdaiala  the  oortnl  bydram  afVtoder  ti  tlK  aeikl  atem  b  a  lone 
tiaue,  its  iatenticee  beiof  filled  op  with  thi»>«tlled.  atuchy 
parenchyma.  In  Damumia  superba,  a  krge  New  7#ahinrt  mon, 
the  bydroids  of  the  oenttal  cyuader  of  the  aerial  stem  are  mind 
with  thick- walled  stcreidft  forming  a  Jnrdn>i»«tcreom  atiand  •ome' 
what  like  that  of  the  rhiaome  in  other  Polytrichaceae. 

The  central  hydrom  atrand  in  the  aeta  of  the  aDorogonium  of 
moat  mosaea  haa  already  been  alluded  to.  Bcaidea  thia  there 
ia  ttiually  a  living  conducting  tiaaiie,  aometimea  diffeieatiated  aa 
leptom,  forming  a  mantle  round  the  hydrom,  and  bounded  es- 
ternaUv  by  a  more  or  kaa  wdl-differentiatcd  endodennia,  abutting 
on  an  irregularly  cylindrical  lacuna;  the  latter  acparatea  the  centiu 
conducting  cylinder  from  the  cortex  of  the  aeta;  which,  like  the 
cortex  ol  the  gametophyte  atem.  ia  uaually  differentiated  into 
an  outer  thkk-walled  atereom  and  aa  inner  atarchy  parenchyma. 
Frequently,  also,  a  considerable  differentaatioa  of  vegetative  tisaue 
occurs  in  the  wall  of  the  apore^apaule  itaelf,  and  in  aome  of  the 
higher  forma  a  apecial  assimilating  and  trmnapiring  otygtu  ntuated 
just  below  the  capaule  at  the  top  of  the  aeta,  with  a  nchly  lacunar 
chlofophylkMia  parenchyma  and  atomau  Hke  thoae  of  the  wall  of 
the  capaule  in  the  Anthooerotean  liverworta.  Thua  the  kiato* 
logical  differentiation  of  the  aporogoniura  of  the  higher  moaaes  ia 
one  of  oonaklerable  com|dexity;  bat  there  ia  here  even  leaa  reaaon 
to  auppoae  that  theae  tiaauca  have  any  homokigy  (phylogenetic 
community  of  oi^jn)  with  the  aimilar  onea  net  with  m  the  nigher 
planta. 

The  features  of  histological  structure  seen  in  the  Biyophytic 
series  are  such  as  we  shodd  expect  to  be  developed  in  recuse 
to  the  exigencies  of  increasing  -adaptatk>Q  to  terrestrial  lUe  on 
soil,  and  of  inoessing  size  of  the  plant'body.  In  the  liverworu 
we  find  fimtion  of  the  thallus  by  watei^absorbnig  thisoids;  in 
certahi  fonos  with  a  localised  region  of  water-absorption  the 
development  of  a  primitive  hydrom  or  water-conducting  system; 
and  in  others  with  rather  a  massive  type  of  thallus  the  differentia- 
tion of  a  spedal  assimilative  and  transpiring  sjrstem.  In  the 
more  highly  developed  series,  the  mosses,  thb  last  division 
of  labour  takes  the  form  of  the  differentiation  of  special  assimila- 
tive organs,  Uie  leaves,  commonly  with  a  midrib  containing 
elongated  cells  for  the  ready  removal  of  the  products  of  assimila- 
tion;  and  in  the  typical  forms  with  a  localised  absorptive  regk>n, 
a  well-developed  hydrom  in  the  axis  of  the  plant,  as  wdl  as 
similar  hydrom  strands  in  the  leaf-midribs,  are  constantly  met 
with.  In  hi^er  forms  the  conducting  strands  of  the  leaves 
are  continued  downwards  into  the  stem,  and  eventually  come 
into  connexion  with  the  central  hydrom  cyUnder,  forming  a 
complete  cylindrical  investment  apparently  distinct  from  the 
latter,  and  exhibiting  a  differentiation  into  hydrom,  leptom 
and  amylom  which  almost  completely  parallels  that  found 
among  the  true  vascular  plants.  Similar  differentiation, 
differing  in  some  detaib,  takes  pUce  independently  in  the  other 
generation,  the  sporogonium.  The  stereom  of  the  moss  is 
found  mainly  in  the  outer  cortex  of  the  stem  and  in  the  midrib 
of  the  leal 

Vasetdar  PlaiUs.^la  the  Vascular  Planta  (Pteridophytes, 
i.e.  ferns,  horse-tails,  dub  mosses,  ftc,  and  Phanerogams  or 
Flowering  Plants)  the  main  plant-body,  that  which  we  speak  of 
in  ordinary  language  as  "the  plant,"  is  called  the  sporopkyte 
because  it  bears  Uie  asexual  reproductive  cells  or  tporu. 
The  gametophsr^e,  which  bears  the  sexual  'organs  is  either 
a  free-living  thalltts  corresponding  in  degree  of  differentiation 
with  the  lower  liverworts,  or  it  is  a  mass  of  cells  which 
always  remains  enclosed  in  a  qxxe  and  is  parasitic  upon  the 
tpomghytt. 

The  body  of  the  sporophyte  hi  the  great  majority  of  the 
vascular  plants  shows  a  considerable  increase  in  complexity 
over  that  found  in  the  gametophyte  of  Bryophytes.  The 
principal  new  feature  in  the  external  conformation  «f  the  body 
is  the  acquirement  of  "  true  "  fM(f,  the  nearest  approach  to 
which  in  the  lower  forms  we  saw  in  the  "  rhixome  *'  of  Poly- 
trichaceae. The  primary  root  is  a  downward  prolongation  of 
the  primary  axis  of  the  plant.  From  this,  as  well  as  from 
various  parts  of  the  shoot  system,  other  roots  may  origtoate. 
The  root  differs  from  the  shoot  in  the  characters  of  its  surface 
tiasues,  in  the  absence  of  the  green  assimilative  pigment  chbro- 
pfayll,  in  the  arrangement  of  iu  vascular  system  and  ia  the  mode 
of  growth  at  the  apex,  all  features  which  are  in  direct  relation 
to  its  nonn^ly  iubterxmnean  life  and  its  fixative  and  absorptive 


functions.  Wkhin  the  Hmlts  of  the  tponphyte  genetation  the 
Pteridophytes  and  Phanerogams  slso  differ  from  the  Bryophytes 
in  possessing  ^)ecial  assimilative  and  transpiring  organs,  the 
leaves,  though  these  oigans  are  devdoped,  as  we  have  seen,  iv 
the  gametophyte  of  many  liverworts  and  of  all  the  mosses. 
The  leaves,  again,  have  spedal  histological  features  adapted  to 
the  performance  of  their  qsedal  functions. 

Alike  in  root,  stem  and  leaf,  we  can  trace  a  tkrte-fald  dmnam 
of  tissue  systems,  a  division  of  which  there  are  indications  among 
the  lower  plants,  and  which  is  the  expression  of  the  fundamental 
conditions  of  the  evolution  of  a  bulky  differ- 
entiated plant-body.  From  the  primitive  uniform 
mass  of  undifferentiated  assimilating  odls,  which 
we  may  conceive  of  as  the  starting-point  of  differentiation, 
though  such  an  undifferentiated  body  is  only  actually  realized 
in  the  thallus  of  the  lower  Algae,  there  is,  (x)  on  the  one  hand* 
a  specialization  of  a  surface  Uyer  regulating  the  *tw«i*»ii«»* 
relations  of  the  plant  with  its  surroundings.  In  the  typiodly 
submerged  Algc  and  in  submerged  plants  of  every  groiq>  this 
is  the  absorptive  and  the  main  aasinUIative  layer,  and  may  also 
by  the  prodwrtion  of  mucilage  be  of  use  in  the  protection  of 
the  body  in  various  ways.  In  the  terrestrial  plants  it  differs  iii 
the  subterranean  and  subaerial  parts,  being  in  the  former  pre- 
eminently absorptive,  and  in  the  latter  protective  proviaioft 
at  the  same  time  b^ig  made  for  the  gaseous  interchange  ol 
oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  necessary  for  re^tiration  and  feeiUng; 
This  surface  layer  in  the  typically  subaerial  "  shoot "  of  the 
spor<^hyte  in  Pteridophytes  and  Phanerogams  is  known  as  the 
epidenmt,  though  the  name  is  restricted  by  some  writess,  oo 
account  of  devdopmental  differences,  to  the  surface  layer  of 
the  shoot  of  Angiospenns,  and  by  others  extended  to  the  surface 
layer  of  the  whole  plant  in  both  these  groups.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  have  (>)  an  internal  differentiation  ol  eeiidmetwg  Hssue, 
the  main  features  of  which  as  seen  in  the  gametophyte  A  Bryo* 
phytes  have  already  been  fully  described.  In  the  Vascular  Plants 
this  tissue  is  collectivdy  known  as  the  vosador  system.  The 
remaining  tissue  of  the  plant^body,  a  tissue  that  we  must  regard 
phylogenetically  as  the  remnant  of  the  undifferentiiUed  tissue 
of  the  primitive  thallus,  but  whidi  often  undergoes  further 
differentiation  of  its  own,  the  better  to  fulfil  its  characteristically 
vital  functions  for  the  whole  plant,  b  known,  from  its  peripheral 
position  in  relation  to  the  primitivdy  central  conducting  tissue^ 
as  0)  t^c  cortex.  Besides  absorption,  assimilation,  conduction 
and  protection  there  is  another  very  important  function  for 
which  provision  has  to  be  made  in  any  plant-body  of  considerate 
size,  especially  when  raised  into  the  air,  that  «l  iw^j^srl  Special 
tissues  {slereom)  may  be  developed  for  this  purpose  in  the  cortex, 
or  in  immediate  connexion  with  the  conducting  system,  according 
to  the  varying  needs  of  the  particular  type  of  fdant-body. 
The  important  function  of  aertOUm,  by  which  the  inner  living 
tissues  of  the  bulky  plant-body  obtain  the  oxygen  necessary  for 
their  re^iratlon,  is  secured  by  the  devdopment  of  an  extensive 
system  of  intereeUular  spacet  communicating  with  the  external 
air. 

In  relation  to  its  characteristic  function  of  protection,  the  epf- 
dermis,  which,  as  above  defined,  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  ry^t 
has  typically  thkkened  and  cuticularited  outer  walla.  ^.^__  ._ 
These  serve  not  only  to  protect  the  plant  against  alight  ^■■•»'■"■ 
mechanical  injury  from  without,  ana  against  the  entry  of  smaller 
parasites,  sucn  as  fungi  and  bacteria,  but  alao  and  especially  to 
prevent  the  evaporation  of  water  from  within. 

At  intervals  It  is  interrupted  by  pores  {stemata)  leacfing  from 
the  air  outside  to  the  system  of  intercellular  q»cea  below.  Each 
stoma  is  surrouiKled  by  a  pair  of  peculiariy  modified  aa,— w 
epidermal  cells  called  ptaHredls  (fig.  i .  T).  which  open  and 
close  the  pore  according  to  the  need  for  transpiration.  The  atructors 
of  the  stomata  of  the  sporophyte  of  vascular  plants  is  fundamentally 
the  Same  as  that  of  the  stomata  on  the  sporogonium  of  the  true 
mosses  and  of  the  liverwort  AnOioeeros.  Stomata  are  often  situated 
at  the  bottom  of  pits  in  the  surface  of  the  kaf.  This  arrangement 
is  a  method,  of  checking  transpiiatbn  by  creating  a  still  atmoeiAere 
above  the  pore  of  the  stoma,  so  that  water  vapour  collects  in  it 
and  diminishes  the  further  outflow  of  vapour.  Thia  type  <tf  stni» 
ture,  which  b  extremely  various  in  its  detaib,  b  found  espedaHy, 
as  we  ahould  expect,  in  plants  which  have  to  economic  their  water 


be  gUddulBr  or  Kintiru,  aa  ip  Uit  a 
lop  of  Ihc  hair  ii  vrry  mill*,  caiily 
iMrp,  broken  end  pene»r"""  "■"' 


dnr  off  wbeii  touched.  The 

^  Into  the  illidit  nuad 

heir  b  injected. 

..  epideniuL  orpn,  the 

vuic^  ol  which  have  been 


4cl»oC 

It  Riearch.   The , -  ^----j 

,  _... on  fdiap  kav«,  lor  the eicreiioii ot 

ftKttf  la  liquid  fonn  irtiea  tianmntion  b  dimiiuifanj  »  tlut  the 
pietouR  in  (be  «atef<haniicl«  ol  the  plant  baa  CAmt  lo  excenL  a 
cntaia  limit.    They  are  «iik|y  diuilbuted.  but  an  panicularly 

ton  on  whAe  tbc  air  ii  nearly  aiutated  iiiih  mtet  vapour.  In 
OH  lype  Ihey  nay  take  the  [trm  el  •pedaUy-nadiaed  linfle 
epidtmal  ccUi  or  nmliicellulat  hain  without  nay  direct  (onneiwn 
wilb  the  vaicular  lyitcm-  The  cclli  cooceiTvd.  lilte  all  tecreting 
"*  '  ''  nt  protoplasm  with  Lain  nudd.  and  •omctincL 
he  cdl-wall  ia  modified  aa  a  fiher.    In  a  ■econa 


K 


leendiel 


[nupa  tl  ikUy  prouplaanie  cdia  betoatin|  u  tbe  cpidtnnli 
io  tbe  Invta  o(  many  taat},  or  to  the  fiAjaanl  liiHK  (ihe 

type  in  ADWcri»  piantrii  In  thia  It"  ""  '*"  """  '' 

e  'known  ai  epilStm,    The  epithon 

fine  loterceUular  ipuet,  wlii^  aiv  i 


Tbe  ephheni  ie  [nqaeuiy  lurinii 


tbe  hvdalbode. 
alb  of  cuticulari 
lacunae  oi  ibe  ncKiphyll.  Thiilan  iyiicDlby< 
laiMl  on  tbe  edte  o(  Ihe  leal.  Some  hydat 
■dj,  aeeretlBf  Ihe  water  they  cupel  Irom  tne-k 
lea  of  glanda  alio  euK.  ^IMr  in  conneuon  wi 
not,  ucb  u  ncctuio.  dlgnlivr  Klanda,  oil,  n 
ndt.  ftc.  They  irve  the  maa  varioui  pur 
the  plant,  but  ihry  are  not  of  lienifiiaace 

prtaenl  articit.J    The  lypicai  epidermia  of  lb 


^01  d^reciiy 

if.   IMwiyot 
Lth  the  eiudcti 


ik  with  in  Ibe  liaila  of 


where  ihey  cannot  depend  on  a  rceular  nmply  from  the  roolt  (f  t 
epiphytic  planta  and  doett  planteT  bave  anorpiive  haira  or  acalei 


Some  hydathodca  alio  an 

Uuidt) 


spable  of  abaort^ng  aa 


frpra  the  epidennii 


-  '-J  abaoib  readily  '*" 


,  ,_ Jlnia^w 

V).    Thon<M^>>< 


tea.  aa  haa  boe 


U^ll 


the  nne  time  the  (ella  ol  the  meaophyll  am  tnnifiriDC  odb-ii 
(be  evapontion  oI  water  irooi  the  Kaigoea  on  &oo  ibciBiAtoTk 
inleialbiar  iiacea.    The  only  puhwaya  lor  die  laaei  which  iMa 

„,_!_.__  .i.,_ii.  j.i ihvltandlheouliideiir.inh 

atvaya  to  protect  ittdl  ipiH 


irrnwni^ltml  <fi|. 


Lmly  or  eacLntively  on  Ibe  k 


RK^tht)^ 


h  dimet  comDiiaicatloD  whh  the  ample  ayiiem  ol  intrrrellnlar  ipvti 
which  la  lound  in  the  looiely  arranged  mewiphyll  (iMir  M-id 
en  thai  aide.  TUa  b  the  main  trini|:irui(  liiauF,  and  ia  proucid 
fnn  direct  tHuminakM  ud  eoniequcnt  too  ^tai  evann<>» 

epiderada,  wb^  it  ia  well  illiiminated,  and  conuaia  of  ohkait  olB 
dentely  packed  with  chlorapluti  and  with  Ibeii  king  am  frr}n- 
dicular  to  Ibe  urtace  (paliiadi  fiiiw).  Tbe  intcnelblir  ipKS 
an  here  yerv  aannw  channel!  between  the  pilitade  celU.  !«'» 
lormallv  heM  in  a  Tertical  poiitioB  pomai  iuL>i^ 


id  atcmata  on  totb  lidea  (ti 


I  am  cyllndric 
1    The  leava 


In  Oahy  leavea  whidi  mun 
o  tbcii  cliloiophrU  cnaieti.  <k 
no  cbLorophyll  and  acta  aa  nu^ 
f  Item  a  uaually  greefi.  and  i^ 


in  pnividtng  iha  Kemom  ol  Ihe  plant.  In  tbe  Ical-^iladi  i« 
•ometimei  appeara  aa  a  layer  of  thickened  lubepiderpial  cctLv  '^ 
Jkypodtnii.  olien  also  as  lubepidermal  bundles  of  iclereDchy=ii'' 
fibre*,  or  ai  dnular  bundles  enending  right  «to»  tbe  kal  fr™  ■'' 
epidemii  w  the  other  and  thua  acting  as  aliula.  Itoliml  t"" 
(idwUuli),  Ihkkened  fai  vaiiaaa  wna,  are  not  uncnwalr  ^"--^ 
•apponing  the  liaauea  of  the  leaf,  tn  Ihe  larger  vans  ol  ibt  i^ 
especially  in  tbe  midrib,  in  Ihe  petiole,  and  in  ibe  vounB  ncir.  j- 
eTtrcmely  fre«iiicnt  type  of  mechanical  tisaue  is  aUcvltyna  i*^ 
consiBa  oT  etongaled  telli  wl''"  ~ii,>i~i.  — n.  aAiL-l,  u*  ko.^ 
thiclrened  along  tbe  original  i 

ne^ed  t^comparalively  t> 


F  the  cells,  leducior  t«  Im" 
cnical  pillam  ol  ctllukae  i* 
form  ST  framework  cJi* 
and  is  mailly  lonmd  f-^ 
It  proTwJes  ihe  firfl  prtir**™ 

thn  cones.  Knndiog  1°  ^ 
r  bvndka  ulSbna  ait  « 


ANATOUYi 


PLANTS 


735 


The  innermost  layer  of  the  cortex,  abottiog  mi  the  cential 
cylinder  of  tlve  stem  or  on  the  bundles  of  the  leaves,  is  called  the 
-^.  fUoeoUrma,  and  is  often  differentiated.     In  the  leaf- 

r*"**"  blade  it  *takes  the  form  of  n>edal  parenchymatous 
"""*  sheaths  to  the  bundles.  The  celli  of  these  sheaths  are 
often  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  mesophyll  by  cont^ning 
little  or  no  chlorophyll  Occasionally,  however,  they  aue  par- 
ticularly rich  in  chloroplasts.  These  bundle  sheaths  are  important 
in  the  conduction  of  carbohvdratep  away  from  the  assimilating 
cells  to  other  part»  of  the  plant  Rarelv  in  the  leaf,  frequently 
m  the  stem  (particularly  in  Pteridopnytes),  and  universally 
in  the  root,  the  pbloeoterma  is  developed  as  an  emiodetmis  (see 
below).  In  other  cases  it  does  not  diner  histolof^ically  from  the 
parenchyma  of  the  rest  of  the  cortex,  though  it  is  often  dis- 
tinguished by  containing  particularly  abundant  starch,  in  which 
case  it  is  known  as  a  sUurch  sheath. 

One  of  the  most  striking  characters  common  to  the  two  highest 
groups  of  plantSj  the  Pteridophytes  and  Phanerogams,  is  the 
..       .        possession   of   a   double    (hydroro-leptomj   conducting 


I"""       system,  such  as  we  saw  among  the  highest  mosses, 
^^  but  with  sharply  characterized  and  peculiar  features, 

probably  indicating  common  descent  throughout  ooth  these  ^[roups. 
It  is  comined  to  the  sporophyte,  which  forms  the  leafy  plant  m  these 
groups,  and  is  known  as  uie  vascular  system.  Associated  with  it  are 
other  tissues,  consisting  of  parenchyma,  mainly  starchy,  and  in  the 
Phanerogams  particularly,  of  special  stereom.  The  whole  tissue 
system  is  known  as  the  Uelar  system  (from  the  way  in  which  in 
primitive  forms  it  runs  through  the  whole  axis  of  the  plant  in  the  form 
of  a  column).  The  stclar  system  of  Vascular  Plants  has  no  direct 
phylogenetic  connexion  witn  that  of  the  mosses.  The  origin  of 
the  Pteridophyta  (^.v.)  is  very  obscure,  but  it  may  be  regarded  as 
certain  that  it  is  not  to  be  sought  among  the  mosses,  which  are 
ah  extremely  specialized  and  peculiarly  differentiated  group. 
Furthermore,  both  the  hydrom  and  leptom  of  Pteridophytea  have 
marked  peculiarities  to  which  no  parallel  is  to  be  found  among 
the  Bryophytes.  Hence  we  must  conclude  that  the  conduct- 
ing system  of  the  Pteridophytes  has  had  an  entirely  separate 
e\'olution.  All  the  surviving  forms,  however,  have  a  completely 
established  double  system  with  the  specific  characters  alludoi 
to,  and  since  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  condi- 
tions of  evolution  of  the  primitive  Pteridophyte  must  have 
been  essentially  similar  to  those  of  the  Biyopnytes,  the  various 
stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  conducting  system  of  the  latter 
(p-  733)  ^^  v^^  useful  to  compaie  with  the  arrangemeats  met 
with  in  the  former. 

The  hydroid  of  a  Pterklophyte  or  of  a  Phanerogam  is  character- 
istically a  dead,  usually  elongated,  cell  containing  air  and  water,  and 
«-^  either  thin-waUedwIth  lignified  (woody)  spiral  (fig.  i,  P.) 
rakMMfs.  ^'  annular  thickenings,  or  with  thick  lignified  wads,  in- 
ammmmia-  completely  {lerf orated  by  pits  (fig.l,  Q.)  (usually  bordered 
pits)  of  various  shapes,  e.g-  the  pits  may  be  separated  by  a  network 
of  thickenings  when  the  tracheid  is  reticulate  or  they  may  be  trans- 
vcrsely  elongated  and  separated  by  bars  of  thickening  like  the 
rungs  of  a  ladder  (scalariform  thkkcning).  When,  in  place  of  a 
number  of  such  cells  called  tracheids,  we  have  a  continuous  tube  with 
the  same  kind  of  wall  thickening,  but  composed  of  a  number  of  cells 
whose  cross  wd-lls  have  disappwared,  the  resulting  structure  is  called 
a  vessel,  Vessds  are  common  in  the  Angiospermous  group  of  Hower-. 
ing  Plants.  The  scalariform  hydroids  of  Ferns  (fig.  1,  N.)  have  been 
quite  recently  shown  to  possess  a  peculiar  structure.  The  whole  of 
die  middle  lamella  or  originally  formed  cell-wall  separating  one 
from,  another  disappearv  before  the  adult  state  is  reached,  so  that 
the  walls  of  the  hydrokls  consist  of  a  framework  of  lignified  bars 
with  open  communication  between  the  cell  cavities.  The  trachekls 
or  veMds,  indifferently  called  tracheal  dements^  together  with 
the  immediately  associated  cdls  (usually  amylom  in  Pteridophytes) 
constitute  the  x-^em  of  the  plant  This  is  a  morpholo^cal  term 
given  to  the  particular  type  ol  hydrom  found  in  both  Ptendophytes 
and  Phanerogams,  together  with  the  parenchyma  or  stereom, 
or  both,  included  within  the  boundaries  of  the  hydrom  tissue  strand. 
The  leptoid  of  a  Pteridophyte  (fig.  i,  o.)  is  also  an  dongated  cell, 
with  a  thin  lining  of  protoplasm,  but  destitute  ci  a  nucleus,  and 
always  in  communication  with  the  next  cell  of  the  leptom  strand 
by  perforations  (in  Pteridophytes  often  not  easily  demonstrable), 
through  which  originally  pass  strings  of  protoplasm  which  are 
bored  out  by  a  ferment  ana  converted  into  relatively  coarse  "  slime 
strings,"  along  whkh pass,  we  must  suppose,  the  oiganic  substances 
which  it  is  the  special  function  of  the  leptoids  to  conduct  from  one 
part  of  the  plant  to  another.  The  peculiar  substance  called  callase, 
chemically  allied  to  ceUuloae,  is  frequently  fonned  over  tht  surface 
of  the  perforated  end-walls.  The  structure  formed  by  a  number 
of  such  cells  placed  end  to  end  as  called  a  sieve-tube  (obviously 
comparable  with  a  xylem-vessel);  and  the  end-wall  or  area  of  end* 
wall  occupied'  by  a  «Dup  of  perforations,  a  sieve-flate.  Whtn  the 
sieve-tube  has  ceased  to  function  and  the  protoplasm,  slime  strings, 
and  callose  have  disappeared,  the  perforationa  through  which  the 
slimo  strings  passed  are  left  as  relatively  large  holes^  easily  visible 
in  some  cases  with  low  powers  of  the  microscope,  piercing  the 
riev^li^te.  The  sieve-tubcs,  with  their  accompanying  paren> 
cbyma  or  stereom,  constitute  the  tissue  called  phloem.    This  is 


the  term  for  a  nDrphokvkally  defined  tissue  matem,  «'A.t|ie  leptom 
found  in  Pteridophytes  and  Phanerogams  with  its  associated  c^s, 
and  is  entirely  parallel  with  the  xylcm.  The  sieve-tubes  differ, 
however,  from  the  tracheids^  in  being  immediately  associated, 
apparently  constantly,  not  with  starchy  parenchyma,  but  with 
4>arenchymatous  cells,  containing  particularly  abundant  proteld 
contents,  which  seem  to  have  a  function  intimately  connected  with 
the  conducting  function  of  the  sieve-tubes,  ana  which  we  may 
call  proteid-ceus.  In  the  Angiosperms  there  are  always  sister- 
cells  of  sieve-tube  segments  and  arc  called  companion-cells 
(fiff.  I,  R,), 

The  xylem  and  phloem  are  nearly  always  found  in  close  assor 
elation  in  strands  of  various  shapes  in  all  the  three  main  organa 
of  the  sporophyte — root,  stem  and  leaf — ^and  form  a  connected 
tissue-system  running  through  the  whole  body.  In  the  prinuuy 
axis  of  the  plant  among  Pteridophytes  and  many  Phanerogams^ 
at  any  rate  in  its  first  formed  part,  the  xylcm  and  phloem  are 
associated  in  the  form  ol  a  cylinder  (stele),  with  xylem  occupying 
the  centre,  and  the  phloem  (in  the  upward-growing  part  or  primary 
stem)  formins  a  mantle  at  the  periphery  (fig.  4).  In 
the  dowitwara  growing  part  of  the  axis  (primaiy  root).  ^'"W" 
however,  the  peripheral  mantle  of  phloem  is  interrupted,  S^"  f? 
the  xylcm  coming  to  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  ^^^^L^ 
along  (usually)  two  or  (sometimes)  more  vertical  lines.  c^n\^^ 
Such  an  arrangement  of  vascular  tissue  is  called  radial,  ^yaimen 
and  is  characteristic  of  all  roots  (figs.  %  and  10).  The  cylinder  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  mantle  of  one  or  more  layers  of  parenchymatous  cells, 
the  t^ricyae,  and  the  xylcm  is  generally  separated  from  the  phloem  in 
the  stem  by  a  similar  layer,  uie  mesocyae  (corresponding  with  the 
amylom  sheath  in  mosses).  The  pericycle  and  mesocycte  together 
form  the  conjunctne  tissue  of  the  stele  in  these  simplest  types. 
When  the  diameter  of  the  stele  is  greater,  parenchymatous  conjunc- 
tive tissue  often  occupies  its  centre  and  is  frequently  called  the  pith. 
In  the  root  the  mesocyde,  like  the  phloem,  is  interrupted,  and 
runs  into  the  pericycle  where  the  xylem  touches  the  latter  (fig.  3). 
The  whole  cylinder  is  encbsed  by  the  peculiarly  differentiated 
innermost  cell-layer  of  the  cortex,  known  as  the  endodermis.  This 
layer  has  its  cells  dosely  united  and  sealed  to  one  another,  so  to 
speak,  by  the  conversion  of  the  radial  and  transverse  walls  (which 
separate  each  cell  from  the  other  cells  of  the  layer),  or  of  a  band 
running  in  the  centre  of  these,  bto  corky  substance  (ng.  i,  v.),  so  that 
the  endodermal  cells  cannot  be  split  apart  to  admit  cT  the  formation 
of  intercellular  spaces,  and  an  air-tight  sheath  is  formed  round  the 
cylinder.  Such  a  vascular  cylinder  is  called  a  haploslele,  and  the 
axis  containing  it  is  said  to  be  haplosldic  In  the  stele  of  the  root 
the  strands  oT  tracheids  along  the  lines  where  the  xylem  touches 
the  pericycle  are  spiral  or  annular,  and  are  the  xylem  elements 
first  fonned  when  the  cylinder  is  developing.  Each  strand  of 
spiral  or  annular  first-formed  tracheids  is  called  a  protox^dan 
strand,  as  distinct  from  the  metax^dem  or  rest  of  the  xylcm,  which 
con«sts  of  thick-walled  tracheids,  the  pits  of  which  are  often  scalari- 
form. The  thin- walled  spiral  or  annular  tracheae  of  thcprotoxylem 
allow  of  longitudinal  stretching  brought  about  by  the  active  growth 
in  length  of  the  neighbouring  living  parenchymatous  cells  of  a  grow- 
ing organ.  During  the  process  the  thin  walls  are  stretched  and  the 
turns  of  the  spiFaT become  pulled  apart  without  rupturing  the  wall 
of  the  tracheid  or  vessel.  If  the  pitted  type  of  tracheal  element 
were  similarly  stretched  its  continuously  thickened  walls  would 
resist  the  stretching  and  eventually  break.  Hence  such  tracheae 
are  only  laid  down  in  organs  whose  growth  in  length  has  ceased. 
The  atde  is  called  mouarcht  diarchy  .  .  .  palyarch  according  as  it 
contains  one,  two,  ...  or  many  protoxyfems.  When  the  proto- 
xylem  strands  are  situated  at  the  periphery  of  the  stele,  abutting 
on  the  pericycle.  as  in  all  roots,  and  many  of  the  more  primitive 
Pterido|rfiyte  stems,  the  stele  is  said  to  be  exarcK  When  there 
is  a  single  protoxylem  strand  in  the  centre  of  the  stele,  or  when,  as 
is  more  commonly  the  case,  there  are  several  protoxylem  strands 
situated  at  the  internal  limit  of  the  scylem,  the  centre  of  the  stem 
bein^  occupied  by  parenchyma,  the  stele  Is  endatch.  This  is  the 
case  m  the  stems  of  most  Phanerogams  and  of  some  Pteridophytes. 
When  the  protoxylems  have  an  intermediate  position  the  stele  is 
mesarch  (many  Pteridophytes  and  some  of  the  more  primitive 
Phanerogams).  In  many  cases  external  pro^fMoem,  usually  con- 
sisting of  narrow  sieve-tubes  often  with  swollen  walls,  can  be 
distingui^ed  from  metaphloem. 

As  the  primitive  stele  of  a  Pteridophyte  is  traced  upwards 
from  the  primary  root  into  the  stem,  the  phloem  becomes  con- 
tinuous round    the   xylem.     At    the   same    time   the    BvotuOaa 
ttele  becomes  more  bulky,   all  its  elements  increaa-    ^VT^^^ 
ing  in  number  (fig.  4).     Soon  a  bundle  goes  off  to    »if,|>t 
the  first  letf.    This  connats  of  a  few  xylcm  dements,    h^JLZ. 
a  segment  of  phloem,  pericycle,'  and  usually  an  arc  of  ^y»mm 
eadcMcrmw,  which  closes  round  the  bundle  as  it  detaches   '"^^^^ 
itsdf  from  the  stele.    As  the  stele  is  traced  farther  upwards  ft 
becomes  bulkier,  as  do  the  successive  leaf-bundles  which  leave  it. 
In  many  Pteridophytes  the  solid  haplostele  is  maintained  through- 
out the  axiai    In  others  a  central  parenchyma  or  primitive  piuh;' 
a   new   region   of   the  primitive  stelar  conjunctive — ^appears  in 
the  centre  of  the  xylem.     In  most  ferns  internal  phloem  appeara 
instead  of  a  parenchymatous  pith  (fig.  5).  Sometimes  this  conditioo. 


736  PLANTS 

Au  <if  the  —WaWt  tafbMe,  b  nnliuilBed  tbM^out  tlic 
■doll  MCB  (UadHja).  loUiei»)iintyo(fam,«»WilKrlwdj 
■Itir  tbi  iCds  hi*  IncnuKl  iitatly  w  Gunner,  ■  tu(*-cdltd 
tntpM  '  • •- "- ~  '-  '■-  -■ ' 


n  wUck  It  it  RfKiMcd  by  u 
I,  (ppnn  In  cbe  cotn.    not  ■uccBBVr  new 

.  ,„ _.  in  Ifac  UBtn  of  tba  ud*.  u  tli*  Mtm  of  a  highn 

fnii  b  (need  upnida  fncn  iti  fint  fonncd  putat  are  all  in  coo- 
tinnliy  wkh  tbe  lapective  csrmimidiiia  eaaerna]  diaun  »  the 


axb.  Tba  type  flt  dphonoMel*  dMftetofatlc  rf  naiy  (sa.  la 
whkb  an  found  kitCToal  pUocn,  aad  aa  luefnal  mtoiknik 

la  a  HtowWifa.  IV  aolenMite  of  Un  hraa  it^^iei  b  tk 
dcputiBB  of  each  Icaf-baDdle.  the  outer  aod  inner  cadwhriH 
iouiina  m  that  the  etde  becoowa  beneihiae-«haped  and  the  aim 
untiuKW  with  the  pith  (St.-  e).  Such  a  tnili  <•  bam  •• 
a  lat-t^  A  little  nbove  the  depanun:  of  the  Ical-tuaDc  Ibr 
Mde  asain  doers  up,  only  10  be  Mgtm  brohrq  by  the  dqannn 
of  the  next  kal-buruO.    Where  the  Leavr*  are  nawAoA,  i  rntti 

Of  lection    (%,   7).      la   the 
__   J    u_    _i_.>.i.    (teooenriy   reH 


2r**    lOMiblli*  the 

"™         utnhtr  brini 

■Mb  baTlaf  a  "  frannd-iuiae  pith.' 
ehldtm.  <•  th«  the  aane  h'hUuiI 
ItfltM,  ^ancteftatic  -I  the  rM 


—l  K  >H>T>H  •■  Okai  p..  KMl^BI  BL  BlUirk^  IH^  lA  «■  •'■oM  PlO;  <" 

;  joioinc  with  the  ctneyopding  cater  mtiututj  tr 

tir  ayiteni  hu  iTiie  type  of  trmcture  iwd  to  be 

tic.  the  tmi  '•  nele  '^  bong  innifinTd  from  th> 

/imSa  of  the  axil  and  appUtd  tn  the  vumh 

(Dfiai  value,  and  it  ia  better  to  otU  wch  1 

HajtUdt,    The  epiittinc  mi 


•tuchy  ttlim-parmdtjma,  wUdi.  vhen  the  nlem  b  balky,  umany 
appear  amooe  the  tracheide,  the  phloen  alto  olten  bBw  pent 
mied  by  rinilu  bandi  of  fUitm-fQmclitmt.) 

Id  the  other  groupt  t/  PteriODphytet  internal  phloem  it  dk 
found  and  an  IdibuI  •ododomit  Inl  nrelT.    Tlw  centre  of  the 
~"'~   ^  !r  often  occupied  by  ■  luge-celled  pith 


lAmherwithorwi 


"SSS 


l«f-gtH     In  I 


,^^  hatfT 

of  the  <ucnbrt>lii 


AtrATomt] 


PLANTS 


III  Other  GMes  the  laef-«epe  are  vecy  braed  and  toag;  the  mensteks 
araaimtu^K  them  betnc  rraoced  to  comparatively  tleader  Mraad». 
wnile  there  is  preeent  in  each  sap  a  netwoflc  o(  fine  vascular  threads. 
lome  of  which  ma  out  to  the  leu,  while  others  form  crosa-coanexions 
between  these  *'  leaf*tiaoe  "  strends  and  aim  with  the  mau  cauhnc 
neristeles.  Finally  the  cauitne  mensteles  tlientselves  may  be 
resoi^wd  into  a  number  of  fine  threads.  Such  a  stnicture  may  be 
spoloen  of  as  a  dissected  dtayosteU. 

In  some  solenoetehc  ttnA,  and  in  many  dictyosteUc  ones  additional 
vascuhu'  strands  are  piesent  which  do  not  form  part  of  the  pnmary 
vasoular  tube.  They  usually  run  freely  in  the  pith  and 
'^^vQ'^*  tout  the  pnmary  tube  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
leaf-gapa  Sometimes  a  complete  internal  vaxular  cyluider. 
having  the  same  structure  as  the  pnmary  one.  and  concentnc  with 
it,  occurs  in  the  pith,  and  others  mav  appear,  internal  to  the  first 
(J/oloMM,  Sauohma).  functions  of  the  first  internal  cy  Under 
are  made  with  the  pnmary  (external)  cylinder  at  the  leaf- 
gaps,  and  of  the  second  mteraal  cylinder  with  the  first  m  the  same 
neighbourhood  (fig  8)  In  dictyostehc  ferns  similar  internal  (dicty- 
ostetic)  cylinders  are  found  tn  some  forms,  and  occasionally  a  large 
series  of  such  concentric  cyUnders  is  developed  (Maratctaceae)  (fig  9)- 
In  such  cases  the  vascular  system  is  said  to  be  polycydtc  in  contrast 
with  the  ordinary  monoeydtc  condition.  These  internal  strands 
or  cylinders  are  to  be  regarded  as  pecufiar  types  of  elaboration  of 
the  stele,  and  probably  act  as  reservoirs  for  w-ater-storage  which 
can  be  drawn  upon  when  the  water  supply  from  the  root  is 
deficient. 

The  vascular  supply  of  the  leaf  Oeaf-trace)  connsts  (A  a  «n^Ie 
strand  only  in  the  haplostelic  and  some  of  the  more  phmiu\'e 
siphonostelic  forms.  In  the  *' mtcnophyllous  groups 
^flStoL**"  Pteridophytes  (Lycopodiales  and  Eouisetales)  m 
^-  \IftJ^  which  the  leaves  are  small  relatively  to  tne  stem,  the 
Sfr^^^  sugle  bundle  destined  for  each  leaf  b  a  small  strand 
whose  departure  causes  no  disturbance  in  the  cauline  stele  In 
the  "  megaphYllous  "  forms,  on  the  other  hand.  (Ferns)  whose  leaves 
are  large  ruatively  to  the  stem,  the  de|»rture  of  the  correspondingly 
\axfBt  trace  causes  a  gap  (leaf-gap)  in  the  vascular  cylinder,  as 
already  described.  In  the  haplostelie  ferns  the  leaf -trace  appears 
as  a  single  strand  with  a  tendency  to  assume  the  shape  of  a  hone- 
ahoe  on  croro  section,  and  this  type  is  also  found  in  the  more  primi- 
tive solenostelic  ^pea.  In  the  more  highly  developed  forms, 
as  already  Indicated,  the  leaf-trace  is  split  up  into  a  number  of  strands 
which  leave  the  base  and  sides  of  the  leaf-gap  independently  In 
the  petiole  these  strands  may  increase  in  number  by  branching, 
and  though  usoally  reducible  to  the  outline  of  the  primitive  "  horse- 
ahoe,"  more  or  Ims  elaborated,  they  may  In  some  of  the  complex 
polycylic  dictyosteUc  types  (Marattiaceae)  be  arranged  in  several 
concentric  circles,  thus  imitating  the  arrangement  of  strands 
formed  tii  the  stem.  The  evolution  of  the  vascular  structure  of  the 
petiole  in  the  higher  ferns  b  strikingly  parallel  with  that  of  the 
stem,  except  in  some  few  special  cases. 

There  b  good  reason  to  believe  that*  the  haplostele  b  primitive 

in  the  evolution  of  the  vascular  system.    It  b  found  in  most  of 

jkf  A#    those  Pteridoph)rtes  which  we  have  other  reasons  for 

\^r~''        considering  as  primitive  types,  and  essentially  the  same 

Oi»«qff»4r     type  is  found,  as  we  have  seen.  In  the  independently 

"*^ developed  primitive  conducting  system  of  the  moss- 

nymt»«vr»  stem.  Thb  type  of  stem  b  therefore  often  spoken 
of  as  proiastdic.  In  the  Perns  there  b  clear  evidence  that  the 
ampbiphloic  haplostele  or  protostele  succeeded  the  simple  (ecto- 
cMolc)  protostele  in  evolutfon,  and  that  this  in  its  turn  ^ve  rise 
to  the  solenosUle^  which  was  again  succeeded  by  the  dutyostde. 
Polycycly  was  derived  independently  from  monocycly  in  soleno- 
stelu;  and  in  dictyoetdic  forms.  In  the  formation  of  the  stem  of 
any  fern  characteriaed  in  the  adult  condition  by  one  of  the  more 
advanced  types  of  vascular  structure  all  stages  <A  increase  in  com- 
plexity from  the  haplostele  of  the  first-formed  stem  to  the  par* 
ticular  condition  characterbtic  of  the  adult  stem  are  mdually 
Tfnnr^  through  bv  a  series  of  changes  exactly  parallel  with  those 
^yhich  we  are  lea  to  suppose,  from  the  evidence  obtained  by  a 
comparison  of  the  adult  forms,  must  have  taken  place  in  the 
evolution  of  the  race.  There  is  no  more  striking  case  tn  the  plant- 
kingdom  of  the  parallel  between  ontogeny  (develoimient  of  the 
individual)  and  imylo^nv  (development  of  the  race)  so  wdl  known 
in  many  gttmp*  ^'  ammals. 

The  atde  ot  most  Lycopods  b  a  more  or  less  modified  protostele, 
but  in  the  genus  hycopoatum  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  xvtem 
and  phloem  b  found,  in  which  the  latter,  instead  of  being 
confined  to  a  peripheral  mantle  of  tissue,  forms  bands 
running  across  the  stele  and  alternating  with  nroilar 
S3t9fmB9r  bands  of  xylem  (fig.  la).  In  Sdapndta  the  stelar  system 
PteiMa-  shows  profounder  modificatioiuk  In  some  forma  we  find 
pkf*fa»  a  simple  pratottele,  exarch-polyarch  in  one  species 
IS  s^nosa)i  exarcn-darch  in  several  (fig.  10)  In  other  species,  how- 
ever a  peculiar  type  of  priysuly  b  lOet  with,  in  which  the  original 
diarch  atele  gives  me  to  Bo<alled  dorsal  and  ventral  stdar  "  cords  '* 
which  at  firat  lie  on  the  surface  of  the  primary  stele,  but  eventually, 
at  a  bi^ier  level  separate  from  it  and  form  distinct  "  secondary  * 
r^^u^  reaembUng  tha  primary  one.  Similar  cords  may  be  formed 
^y^^^  laay  a^pMata  itom.  theea  seo^odary  steles,  thus  giving  riM 


737 

to  a  secies  of  ilalea  amiiiad  hi  a  ihfle  file  (fig.  11).  la  the 
crsepuig  stem  of  one  specks  (5.  Lyaiht)  a  polycydic  solenostela 
IS  found  exactly  parallel  with  that  of  the  rhisome  of  fcma  The 
gaps  in  the  outer  tubular  stele,  however,  are  formed  by  the  departure 
of  aenal  branch-traces^  instead  of  leaf-traoea  as  in  tiie  ferns.  The 
first  formed  portwa  of  tie  stem  in  all  species  of  Sdagmdla  which 
have  been  in\iestigated  possesses  an  exarch  haplostde.  The  stele 
of  Emusetum  is  of  a  very  peculiar  tm  whose  relatkms  are  not 
completely  clear.  It  consists  of  a  ring  of  endaich  oollateral  bundlo^ 
surrounding  a  hollow  pith.  The  protoxylem  of  each  is  a  leaf-^ 
trace,  while  the  metaxylem  consbting  of  a  right  and  a  left  portba 
forms  a  ouite  dbtinct  cauline  system.  AH  the  nietax>'lems  join 
at  the  nodes  into  a  complete  ring. of  xylem.  The  whole  stele  may 
be  surrounded  by  a  common  external  endodermb;  sometimes 
there  is  an  internal  endodermb  in  addition,  separating  the  bundles 
from  the  pith ;  while  in  otlier  cases  each  bundle  pesaesses  a  separate 
endodermb  surrounding  it.  At  the  nodes  tae  relatk>n  of  the 
endodermb  to  the  bundles  undergoes  rather  complex  but  definite 
changes.  It  b  probable  that  this  type  of  stele  is  a  modificatkM 
of  a  primitive  protostele,  in  which  the  main  mass  of  stebr  xylem  Iwa 
become  much  reduced  and  inddentally  separated  from  the  leaf- 
traces. 

During  recent  years  a  number  of  foaal  (Carboniferous  and  Permbn) 
plants  have  been  very  thoroughly  investigated  in  the  light  of  modem 
anatomical  knowled^,  and  as  a  result  It  has  become  »...__ ., _ 


clear  duit  in  those  times  a  brge  series  of  plants  existed  ^~zl 
mtermedbte  in  structure  between  the  modem  ferns  "*"  ^ 


and  the  modem  Gymnosperms  (espedally  Cycads), 
and  to  these  the  general  name  "  Cycadofilices  has  been  applied. 
We  now  know  that  many  at  last  of  the  Cycadofilkes  bore  seeds^ 
of  a  type  much  more  complex  than  that  of  most  modem  seed 
Grants,  and  in  some  cases  approximating  to  the  seeds  of  existing 
Cycads.  Among  the  Cj'cadofilices  a  series  of  stages  b  found 
leading  from  the  primitive  fera-protostele  to  the  type  of  siphono- 
stele  diaracteristic  of  the  Cycads  which  agrees  in  essentbb  in  all 
the  Spermophytes.  The  main  events  in  thb  transition  appear 
to  have  been  (i)  disappearance  of  the  central  xylem  of  the  proto- 
stele and  replacement  by  pith,  leading  to  the  survival  of  a  number 
of  (mesarch)  colbteral  bundles  (see  below)  at  the  periphery  of  the 
stele;  (2)  passage  from  mcsarchy  to  endarchy  of  these  Dundles  cor- 
related witn  a  great  increase  in  secondary  thickening  of  the  stde. 
The  leaves  of  the  more  primitive  members  of  this  aeries  were  enthrdy 
fera-Kke  and  possessed  a  fern-like  vascubr  strand:  while  In  the  later 
members,  including  the  modern  Cycads,  the  leaf  bundles,  remaimng 
unaffected  by  secondary  thickening,  are  mesarch,  while  those  of  the 
stem-stele  have  becoine  endarch.  Besides  the  types  forming  this 
series,  there  are  a  number  of  others  (MedulkMeae  and  allied  forms) 
which  show  numerous,  often  very  complex,  types  of  stelar  structure, 
in  some  cases  polystelic,  whose  origin  arid  relationship  with  the  simpler 
and  better  known  types  b  frequently  obscure.  Among  the  existing 
Cycads,  though  the  type  of  vascular  system  conforms  on  the  whole 
with  that  of  the  other  existing  seed-plants,  peculbr  structures  are 
often  found  (e.f.  indications  of  polystely,  frequent  occurrence  of 
extra-steUr  concentric  bundles,  anomalous  *'  secondary  thicken- 
ing) which  recall  these  omnples  typea  of  ctdar  stracture  in  the 
fossil  CycadofUicea. 

The  typical  stmcture  of  the  vascular  cylinder  of  the  adult 
primary  stem  in  the  G)rmnosperms  and  Diootyledooa  is,  lilw 
that  of  the  higher  ferns,  a  hoUow  cylinder  of  vas-  s^wtana/ 
cuUr  tissue  enclosing  a  cential  parencnymatous  pith.  4^  suit  m 
But,  unlike  the  fems,  there  is  in  the  seed-plants  no  in-  ^..^  ,,.,^ 
temal  phtoem  (except  as  a  special  development  in  ^v'vT^ 
certain  families)  and  no  internal  endodermis.  The  xylem  and  (Xiloen 
also,  mrely  form  perfectly  continuous  Uyers  as  they  do  in  a  soleno- 
stelic fem  The  vascular  tissue  b  typically  separable  into  dbtinct 
foUatetai  bundles  {fif^  13,  33)1  the  xylem  of  which  b  usually  wed|^ 
shaped  in  cross-section  witti  the  protoxylem  elements  at  the  inner 
extremity,  while  the  phloem  forms  a  band  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
xylem,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  band  of  ooojunctive  tissue 
{mtsodtsm).  These  collateral  bundles  are  separated  from  one  another 
by  bands  of  conjunctive  tissues  called  primary  m§d$diary  raw, 
which  may  be  quite  narrow  or  of  considerable  width.  When  the 
mth  b  Urge  celled,  the  xylems  of  the  bundles  are  separated  from  it 
by  a  distinct  byer  of  conjunctive  tissue  called  the  tndccyeU,  and 
a  simibr  byer,  the  tencytU,  separates  the  phkiem  from  the  cortex 
The  inner  layer  of  the  cortex  {pUoeUtrma)  may  form  a  well-marked 
tmdodenmi,  or  differ  in  other  ways  from  the  rest  of  the  cortex. 
The  peritycle,  medulUry  rays,  endocyde  and  mesoderm  all  form 
parts  of  one  tissue  system,  the  external  canjundat,  and  are  only 
topographically  separable.  The  external  conjunctive  b  usually  a 
living  comparatively  small-celled  tissue,  whose  celb  are  consider- 
ably ekincaced  in  ^ttt  direction  of  the  stem-axb  and  frequenriy 
contain  abundant  starch.  Certain  regions  of  it,  particubriy  the 
whole  or  part  of  the  pericyde,  but  sometimes  also  the  endocycle. 
are  typically  converted  into  thick-walled  hard  (sclerencfaymatoua) 
tissue  usually  of  the  prosenchymatous  (fibrous)  t)rpe,  which  b 
iraporunt  in  strengthening  the  stem,  partkularly  in  enabling  it 
to  resist  bending  sirains.  The  relatively  peripheral  po^tkwi  in 
the  stem  of  the  pericyclc  b  important  in  this  connexion.  Varipua 
teeandary  wurisUme  (sea  p.  74t)  aled  arise  in  the  external  conjunctivk 


738 

Mob  tl 

■fphwIOkUte  are  kal 
travd  tinuiib  the 


codibcnL  bunftd  of  Ehii  BpermDpliytic  type  (rf 


PLANTS 

In  1)m 


in  Ihe  dictyiwulei  of  [enii  <n  an  <n  Che  Sciverinc  fJanii.  Tb* 
Ic^  tnce  dE  Any  pvm  leaf  nnly  conxK*  of  *  tiniie  bundle  only 

«dd;  i)iey  may  eiiber  be  hiihirI  all  luigtilKr  beloT  Ihiy  leave 
tlie  iHle  ot  iber  nuy  be  dlmibutod  ■(  iniecvali  round  ihe  Hele. 
Tbe  median  bundle*  ol  the  tra»  are  lypiciJly  ibe  laneei.  aiid  ai 
any  aivca  Levd  of  the  arem  ihe  bundlea  detdned  for  ihc  neit  leal 
abo^  an  aa  a  whole  larfer  than  the  oiben  ih'bicli  afT  dealified 
to  lUpply  hii^her  leavn>     Leaf-fapa  are  fofmed  in  eHCOtialljr  the 

trace  ibe  bundlea  are  diuribuied  at  inwivali  lound  tbe  cylinder 
It  b  nbvfdua  ibat  leveiaL  apa  muit  b«  fonned  ai  the  diffeient 
bundlei  leave  the  Kcle,  Tlie  g^pei  ate.  hnwevei.  often  £lled  ai 
they  are  lamed  by  Ibe  devtlopinont  of  eateroal  coniuactiM  tiuue 
immediately  abovt  ihe  pointi  at  «hkb  tbe  bundlealitiin  to  bend 
out  ot  the  itelt  n  ibai  iliaciily  defined  open  tapa  wch  at  occur  ii 
fein-<triei  ace  but  iinly  met  with  in  flowecing  planli.  Tbe  con- 
'    'it  Btele  of  a  Soweiiog  plant  CDtinly  from  endacch 


collateral  bundlei,  which  ai 


oi  inc  Hcm-natc  oi  _iiow 

oftcnairanfled  Ln  relaiioA 
c  fibcea  fulnttance.  olrea 


often  confined  to  tht  umiu>  «,  ^ 
phloem  of  each  bundle,  erluic  the 

In  (ome  cue*  tliii  IndividuaLjaai 


nlrady  cvtccnd  to,  bei 
Eea  and  pidi  frequently  fa 
ia  carried  further,  Ihe  cor 


in -a  ring  correipondjng  with 
atele,  tbwgh  the  continuoui  cy 
der  no  louiEvr  exist*  (tpecin 
Ranunculut).     Thja  cwtitlnn 

KCID9  (Nymphacaceae)  the  num 

^  bundlea  ia  greatly  locrtaied  i 

-    (hey  are  icattered  throughout 

FTOund  liaue.   A  "  polynelic  "  c 


^  widely  lepataied  cenei 


number  of  bundlea  pi 


aupcrfickally  obi 

>    SDKBHflun^fH.     aao  Liyer,    ot    diiai 
BUiadlLC^innmciv-  IfTg.  3).    Tha  c 


S!Tt,^ , 

the  oiialna]  bundle-tint  i^  the  prisilivc  cyliiidcc. 


ing  itidf  alter  Ita  eicape  f rt 


of  the  vaicuiar  ayttem.  eapecially  of  the  ii> 


,     -tht  vaacular  t> 

fonn   of  A   nuAjber  of  ic^rale,  uiuaUy  brwhing  and 

Keieom.  (orni  a  kind  of  ltame«ork  which  ia  of  gnat 

cbieCty.    ihey   provide   a   number  of  chaniiela,  p 


i  conveyed  tth  and  elaboratM  f< 


If  Ihe  leal.,  aloni 

.'"The  bundle-i 
e  conmiuoua  Willi  that  of  toe  petHue 
•Mm.  Tbe  leaf-burrdlea  ace  alwayi 
oaf  (Ihe  phkxm  being  turned  down- 
I  and  rbc  aylem  upwudi).  even  in 
I.  where  the  petiolar  Kiandt  are  con- 

and    pendsm    ol    tlv    collateral 

ially  oppoaiie  the  phloem,  and  to  a 

tcrmioatioo   in  the  metophyU  the 
camic  aicrtom   firR  diaappcar^   tbe 


'h  wata  aird  ddsolvtd 


mm 


and  many  Fhaneroaama  bat  been  pitcady   taHiuia^  la^Wwflk. 

or  tetmcb.  the  large  primaiy  root-atelet  ol  many  advenuiu;.! 
cooia  are  fn^luently  po]>^JUi,  Hmetiniea  wirh  a  very  iacfc 
nurnber  of  pntoxylemi.  Sucb  a  acde  teldoox  haa  tbe  cenirv 
Elled  up  with  aylem.  thia  being  nplacid  by  ■  larfi-rrjlir; 
pith.  BO  Ibat  a  uplionoatelic  KTUCtur*  ia  acquired  (bg.  l<- 
Somelinaea.  however,  the  anlre  of  a  hulliy  not  itA  ha> 
nrandi  of  metaaylem  (to  which  may  be  added  etimiidt  tj  Birt» 
phloem)  acatlered  tbrough  it,  the  interatkva  beui^  hlkd  aaiik 
conjandivt.  The  conjunctive  of  a  rDot-etck  pn—ing  a  pmA  m 
often  lelfjufd  between  the  piib  and  the  pcncyrlc  ^ooninet 
all  [he  paimchyma  within  the  iTelc  undnioca  thn  change.  Is 
the  roota  of  Kme  palcua  and  oichidj  a  '"^polyMelic  '"   auucTbrt 

/nuiiuiu  it  met  with.    ThiiuJiaa  iJaa  fnRB  ol  Ioib  Boaal^ 


It  aaMf  la  ■  Iod^wUmI  dfaccdoa.    Thcr  P°""i  ■  dtlleau 
, -^  ,_-  byr  of  fwitBiihin,  iridi  dbbhiru  Kiiin  bikIcI  KaiBf 
IH  if>lU»  wfaUB  tbe  kMcriDT  of  tte  tube  (coRiwoiidiDg 


be  adult 

Eions  ol 
called  k 


K  body 


The  body  of  »■  VMCuUr  plant  is  developed  In  the 
by  icpekted  divuion  al  the  feililiud  egg  and  the 
Orrcimff-  ''•  pnxtucii  of  division.  Tht  body  ih 
mrmt*t  is  called  tbe  embryt,  and  Ibis  develupi  intc 
Prhnair  plaDtr  TLOt  by  continued  growth  of  all  ill 
'*"*""  in  aa  atiimal,  but  by  localiiatlon  of  Ibe 
celi-diviiioD  and  gromb,  such  ■  locBliied  [e|ion  bcii 

free  ends  of  the  primary  tiis,  Ihe  descending  pan  t 

the  primary  loot,  and  the  ascending  the  primary  sho 

tbe  »iis  branchea  by  the  foimalioo  of  new  giowing-j 

Id   this  way  the  romplei  system  of  aiti  lorming 

of  the  ordicaTy  vsKular  plant  i»  buill  up.     In  Ihe  nowenng 

plants  the  embryo,  allei  developing  up  to  a  certain  point,  stopa 

crowing   and  resla,  endoted  wiHin  the  ««f,     ll  ii  only  on 

■-  germination  "  of  Ibelattei  that  Ihe  development  ol  the  embiyo 

iota  the  free  plant  is  begun.  In  Ihe  Pteridophylo,  on  ibe  oihet 

hand,  development  from  the  egg  ii  continuous. 

Tbe  tnple  tCvidon  of  ilaiies  n  laid  i/ytm  in  most  caves  at  a 
very  early  period  ol  dcvelopiDent — in  (be  flowering  plants  usually 
bclore  "he  i«lii«  JU«e  i>  in^lHl-,  In  ™ny  Ptendophytn  the 
6rst  leaf  la  formed  very  early,  and  the  first  vascular  tfnnd  is 
developed  at  ils  base,  usually  bBDmini  eantlnuDus  vilh  the  cylinda 
of  the  loot;  the  nnnd  of  Ibe  hcsihJ  leal  itflortned  in  a  similar  way 
and  rynadowntojoin  thalof  Lhel^nt.  lotbat  ihCFttmsIdelsEornied 
by  the  joined  hasei  ol  ihe  leal-tracei  In  other  eaen.  however,'  a 
CDotinuotta  pHitiitive  atcle  ii  drv^loptd,  extending  from  the  primaiy 
Btvn  to  tin  primaiy  root,  the  hat-tncas  ariibc  hter.    TUi  is 


IVNTS  739 

ecadatad  alth  aanavaBOTChrhtBfciBaliea  aid  iBBll  4n«lo|K 
aeal  of  tbe  brat  Mna-  T^  eTideiM  scarcely  adnin  af  a  Julifcm 
aa  Eo  which  oJ  tbcaa  aaetlndB  IB  b>  be  resBided  as  pfiB^ve  in  dnnit* 
In  ihe  seed-lofmiiu  plants  {J'kAntrttsms)  dm  or  nHnpriman  leawa 
ffittjttiiMi}  aiiE  afrcady  formed  in  Ihe  Rating  emb^ro.  Jd  caaea 
irikRc  the  development  of  tbe  embryo  i<  advanced  at  die  rcaridf 
pctiod,  tracearuq  fmn  tbe  cotyfedona  and  determine  the  symmetry 
of  tbe  ftele  of  the  primitive  asds,  the  upper  pan  of  aiich  ohen  shows 
slem-Knictqe,  inionie  respects  at  least,  and  is  called  the  hypocoty- 
ledonaiy  stam  or  hffatatyl,  while  tba  lower  part  la  the  primary  toot 


,  ,,_ _he  hypocoiyl  usually  eltr 

the  firmt  loliaee-leavei.     Further  growth  in  length  ol 

the  coiyledoni.     In  olher  caiea  thia  grovire-poinl  be 
at  onee.  Ihoe  bttog  liltle  «  no  elongation  of  the  hj^pa 
cotyledon  or  cotyledons  lemainini  in  the  seed. 
The  structure  of  tbe  growiog- points  oi  apical  mer 

lar^  opual  uU  at  the  end  of  each  slem  and  root  u 

baae  occupyiog  the  surface  ol  the  body  of  the  a: 


le  ol  tbe  temhedroi 
is  formed  <fig,  jj)     I 


rsJs's 


H  underiying  tisa 
I  wadge-shapcd.  ii.  _ 

he  stem.    In  other  a 


wnrdi  tbe  body  el 


PLAINTS 


n  lluB  OH  taycT  ot  •QltiaU  (fig.  II)  Tliroiijhsul  tht  Anrio- 
inni  tbc  epidnmii  of  iht  ihoot  otipaiin  train  irpinu  iniioU. 
icb  ttvtr  divide  uii(niiiiUy.  » ihal  ibc  yoing  dioM  u  CDvnd 
■  liaclc  bya  of  dividinf  celli,  Ibe  iamalttU.    Btlow  It' 


>1  cyUDdcr     WlMhs  Ibac  an 

ite  u  Dot  known,  but  li  u  nnaln 
,  .  .innM  tx  dutinfuiifaKd,  Thb, 
gularily  at  diviHoa  And  diipUcemait 
VHit  anttoym%  the  obvioHi  layered 

B  Ihtn  i<  t  prrfiTtly  g-'-—  "^ ' 

<f  cylindrr  IfGamt)  iM 

1  Hod  pleroow 
»  UFle  <i(  Ibt 

Bt.  ind  pfrrun  ■auaUy  dpitfwt.  ihc 
dw  ■hoBt  intaUft     U  thii  CM  (iB, 


bcSntylt: 


!dbdDWIkiiH<i(dwballo>n , 

m  Hoit  ciH  vrbtre  Ikcn  !■  Jtyaremly  a  veftmufad  pit  nil 
Utkaipa.thiali  really  the  ifluc  pith,  t be  diniDeii--  *--' '*- 

■BpniiiUe  to  nala  em.    The  yonaf  time  of  tbe 

dmewMn. dilen  Icon  the adic^dH  pith 
«liiieud  cdb.  ■  dtSemice  pnduced  by  lb 
and  the  locnuol  icequcocy  of  toiifilud] 

opMUlly  tbt  CHe  in  Ibc  younf  vucslic  t 

nun  iHwIi)  The  piMoxykn  uid  pratnpblunii  uc  oentopu 
■  In  nlU  Iron  Ih*  ham  >nd  oalir  aur^ai  ren«lively  ol  ibi 
deukocHi  itiVDdr  the  ikvioccnic  tiiooe  left  over  gtvioi  riie  to  tbc 
iet»a»>  dI  pufacyde  uid  pcrieyde  cvpina  the  buodlc  DitlB- 
CBtiuuii  id  Lbt  xykn  ptOfnKs  ouiwwfk  of  the  phlonn  inwrdfc 
but  the  1*0  Ii^Dea  pcner  ■■«  la  the  oentta.    SBiHtimi  develop- 

itapt  ahetetbtr,  aad  a  law  of  «-■■" ' ■ ' 

alaiiilieiiilliVfl  liilaiiiilli _. 

"%  kaepina  pace  by  theit  tawKitial  divWa 

of  llwR  on  each  ade.    iBtbcaa  tbe  (ai 

9  MnifM  wcr  iala  (he  ton 

bium.  (nd  ao  line  eaa  be  dnn 


the  cadocyrlF  and  parti  of 
mJt  than  Ibt  fonnatua  of  tl 
k>efy  fnqiKnr  cun  whoc  the  L. 
r(y.  tlte  fibroua  "  pencyrLif  "  ca 

in  fudi  caie*  it  it  pan  o£  tbc  pendenn  or  iheith  ot  cloofated  w 

:elled  tinue  Hirmindini  the  iadividual  bundle 
The  lepaniioB  bT  hyen  in  the  apical  mtriitm  of  II 

juatiy  very  much  D»re  Dbviau  than  in  that  c4  the  (t 
jutcrmon  it  the  alyMnvn,  whrf-h  nwH  tup  ta  ilv  rwkw^ 
Dmyledoni  lo  the  pi£[tRM 
_-■■  'ijj^  ^1  ii^  apeiL  pr«<i>^ 

beloDfa  IS  MoBom 
alwavi  ihaiply  Hmartttd 

cyliKfcr     K  atew  ™_ -..-  

are  not  tnccabk     The  praicnYkau  and  Ibe  phioem  Uiandi  an 
developed  altenwidy.  juU  naua  the  outs  liinil  of  the  >osiit 

Slindcr     The  diAerenliaiion  of  metaxylctn  loUoas  acxo^mc  to 
t  type  of  raoi-ilele,  aad,  finally,  any  nefecxn  there  nuy  be  it 
developed    Difleraaliatlon  ii  very  mi-'- '    -  - -' — -- — - 


ipei.  than  ia  the  ca 


are  cooipletHy  fonaed  much  nearer  to  the  api 
the  atem.    Thla  la  owing  to  tbe  elowtini  re 
ivlem  and  protophloem  alone  are  dlncrcntial 
•bortcr  than  in  the  Mem,     Tbe  ront  hairt  rrai 
layer  immediately  bwnd 


'  tbe  biler.    Thik  u  known  ag  aomoia  hnneh-Connaiioit. 
at,  on  rhe  other  hand,  the  origin  of  brmochei  is  ni4afen^-u 

.  of  the  pencYcle,  uiuilly  oppovre  a  pnMcnryi^  «rm»1. 

.  bud  do*n  burravB  ihrau|h  the  cortR  ot  the  MHther-core 

lit  parrot  am  arr  made  acTog  iht  peiicycie  o^  the  hirer. 

pmrycle,     AttXTililuu  f«Il,  jriiini  from  atenu.  niuarT 
.,in  in  the  peritytle.  but  Kunnimo  from  other  pmiti  ol  the 

oai  oF  Ihe  tililing  Pten'doptiytei,  tn  the  MoDocolylcdoBi. 
annual  plantt  amoni  the  Dicolykdont,  tkn  ia  B 
further  powih  of  murh  nructuial  impoilance  in  the  «^^^_ 
tflet  dilfcKmlation  from  the  primiriF  ineri.  y,^,, 
~       '  riy  all  peienniil  Dicoiyledoni, 


ANATOMY)  rl^A 

snd  In  bon  PteriiJotAyla  beton^nf  la  d  Iht  gmt  (rmpi, 
uruin  Uyera  o(  ctlli  itmiin  mfrisLcniilic  imong  Ihf  pennintnt 
tiBUB.  ol  iflec  puling  thniiich  a  rating  Huge  mcquiix  ncri- 
ftcbulie  propeTtia,  and  give  rtic  to  Mttndary  Htnu,    Such 

I)Ki  dilcE  Kcondacy  metiileini,  Iht  miiiiiHiii  mnd  Ihe  flicllo[cn. 
The  lonuLion  of  lecandaty  Uuuei  u  chutctuiiiic  ol  oiaii 
woody  pluls,  to  whatever  din  thty  belong.  Bveiy  gieat 
group  or  phylum  of  vucu^r  pluiti,  when  it  hu  become  domi- 
JUmt  io  the  vegclalion  of  the  world,  bu  produced  memben  nilh 
Ihe  tR«  blbit  uiiing  by  the  formition  of  &  thick  woody  tiunk, 

The  iMmbium  in  the  typial  eaie.  which  h  by  fu  the  most 
frctliienl^  cDoiinucs  the  [nimiry  dilTertoiiaiior  c^  hylein  ind 
phloem  ID  the  desmoeni  mand  (*ee  above),  or  antes  in  the  retting 
moddanior  nmocycleaAdiddinch  iKcoridAryJkylemind  phloem 
Id  the  piiiniry  tuwet.     New  tangcntiii  walU  aiiie  in  the  ceili 

isde.  llternacely  contributina  to  the  xylpm  uid  [o  the  phlwcn      A 


(Jl  .  «!«..««    or  14)  .  H 

la  the  Uu  cue  the  moiher-o 


loiher-ocll  ol  the  phloeoi  wy  | 


of  bofuonnl 


pUie  of  pareachYmi  i 


ireachymi  eelli  w  Io*  ned  Mretchiw  in  ofie  plane  throug 
ud  phben.   Such  a  cell-pUle  ii  called  a  wudiMary  ra; 


accoinpinied  by  intcnxUiilar  ehaflaeli 

dT  ojiygeii  tOp  and  carbon  dioititle  from,  the 
of  the  wooti,  which  would  otherwiie  ' 
rewiiratioii.    The  jtylem  and  phloem 


Hare  In  winiet     They  are 
>.  the  living  cell!  in  Iheinterioi 

revjiectt  to  the  medullary  ay 

between  the  layc 

The  xylem  parenchyi 


The  6brDiu  bindiai 
""■n"S!e"-thiin 


ie..  The  hbrei  ire  frequenit)'  found  in 


^bTSimbe 


i''lLIf»'b:™T'"il^'S-' 


.iriout  tranHlioni  bcinc  U 
K  thm-w>lled  Rill  of  the 


rrequeatly  atorv  aurch.  ind  the  hbrea  theinaelve*.  ihough  utually 
i^d.  eoowtinaea  reiain  their  protoplaun.  — '  '-  ■""" -*-^ 


and  typical  iracheidi.  Th«e  Jttr4-ir*tlitiks  are  cai^  conluied 
en  lupcrficial  view  with  the  true  wood-libra  belonging  to  the  paren- 
chyriutoiia  ayetem;  but  their  pita  art  alwaya  bwdend.  though  in 
the  tmremc  type  they  are  reduced  u  mere  illti  ia  the  wall'  The 
lieve-tube*  of  the  lecondary  phloem  uuilly  hive  very  oblique 
end'Willa  bearing  a  row  of  IKve-pUta;  plilea  alio  occul  on  the 

The  tiwue-elementi  iuat  deKrtbed  an  found  only  in  the  mare 
complicaled  lecoadary  vasulir  liiwin  of  cenaia  DiCDtyledoaa. 
A  conaidciable  evolution  in  eatniileiity  on  be  tncFd  bi  paainf 
Irom  the  umpleH  f«ini  of  lylem  aad  phkieni  found  in  the  primary 
vaicular  tiwuei  both  among  Pteridophyiei  and  Phinmnami 
to  tbea  hwhiy  diSeienliiKd  type*.    In  the  ahnpleM  CDiidilion  we 

perenchyin*.  which  in  the  former caic  ia  otuilly  onylom.  l(.  CDwiue 
ol  uirch-coauining  cella.  and  in  the  taller  ol  proleid  celtii  Thli 
type  if  fourvd  in  nearly  all  Pteridophyiei  and.  lo  far  at  It  known,  io 
CycadoitioB.  both  in  primwy  aad  imiajwy  limit.   Th*  MenoB 


by  Um  w^h  at 

Lm  le  conSi  ^S.    "  1' 

iwf  1  little  imylom ;  while  the  phloem-parenchymafoi 


drib  or  bv  lb 
re^abayy  hi 


of  the  phWiem-pareachyniL  but  occupy 
mwt  ot  the  medullary  laya,  the  ludiDri 

oarThy  rvlla.   The  top  and'' 

dei^laped    u     iinegularly- 

withihT^in^tTic^Jdi 
pill.     The  primary  viku' 


Sirs 

n  do  not  form  part 
and  bottom  celt 

.-- lietiaf  of  ordinary 

.  of  the  Bykm  raya  are  often 
"  rily-eleagated    tnrhcidt 

idaiy  Tylem  by  large  bordered 


in  the  primary  and  teconitiry  time,  uthat  thejvoleid  eelltof  the 
phloem  are  here  alwayt  iitter<eUt  of  the  leptoidi  and  ire  known 
ai  uw^avw-crffr  in  the  iccondiry  liauet  of  Dleotyledou  we 
miy  hive,  u  ilready  dncribed.  eondderably  more  difterentlatioii 
of  the  ce^lt>  all  the  varietiei  being  referable,  however,  on  the  one 
liand  to  the  tracheal  or  wve-iube  type,  on  the  other  to  lite  paren- 
chyma typV'    The  main  feature  ia  tiw  deveSopment  d  tperiil  vb» 

Ac-,  may  be  developed  anwng  the  onliniry  Kcondiry  vikuIit 


(charmcEeriied  by  the  »f 


Dod  of  the  nejit  year,  with  itt  abeence  fit 
lirge  tracheae-  The  abundance  of  water- 
in  relatioB  to  the  need  for  a  large  and  np«4 
-  --ilolding  leavet  in  the  uring  and  culy 
rhrre  veatelt  aod  lib*vt  air  abient. 


d  of  radilHy  nan 
Jing  epring  beini 


of  the  vyiem.  particularl; 


BTpurpoiei.    The  greal 


....  _, kl  coloiiring  matlcra  of 

urinwood.  ebany.  Ac.  are  conhnHl  Io  the 
mhe  hart-wood,  intJad  of  becominftprei' 

rmni  at   vrry  differrtil  epDcht  in  the   UI* 
.  the  ipeciri-rT.  after  fcftes  to  nesty 


In  I 


«1  pere«nia]  PttTidophyUi  ud  . 


•*"•■     KindG'V  pu" 
gf  ibf  * 


lorocoty)«don9. 


D  br  enlirdy  /ojci 
EIchednduljy.Dr 


divlde1Dk«ppaa  wiikl  iheBKjwIil 
Dccun  bv  meam  of  t  hicilifvd 

, J   ».».».  »<.>»»»..*   Ihe  cainbial   Uycn  od   ad;A«nt 

buadlca,  an  iiUnJucintar  it  ioniwd  in  addliion  to  the  (a^lculu- 

bundlci,  and   trt   dLiun(Ui»tiKr  u   «r.Mi>/«];i 
ifeUnhKapiii.Bihaiihc 


iiptcd  only  by 


or  in  ftddiinn  lo,  ihe  Dnglu]  anUiid  rylinder. 
qudntly  uaocialed  vlih  irrcfuLviiiet  in  (he  aciivity 

woody  dicolylcaaaouft  pUnli.  mnilv  irhonK  the  *i 
knnm  u  litMti,  chanctrrWiic  of  iropacal  And  fub-u 


«nn  (ncu  ol  at  ciitumEtmn  tbta  >kMi  oibcn. 
■n  tont  ia  orinnil  cylindriul  lonrt  ind  Lemna 
llbfd  in  tfctiad.  In  othan  Ihc  Kcondary  phloem  a  prmuna  imrr 
■bunduily  io  tbea  pbcs  vbm  (he  irrtmitty  lylem  i>  defiant, 
•o  Ihml  ihc  Men  nnui«  cylindnal  in  leTilon,  die  phloen  oixiipylni 
tilt  (aye  Ml  In  Ihe  lylem  mu.  Somctimo  in  toch  cu>  ibr  ani; 
biuiB  ouB  HI  ba  aeliM  caund  Ilmt  biya  and  joint  inwt  <)w  wi- 
■idt  «<  tba  bay,  when  it  rsBmei  iu  mniHl  activity,  tbin  iioltiinc 
■  pfaloiH  itnnd,  or.  at  il  it  unctiinei  oiled,  a  tltrm  ulamd.  la  i& 
midHcillbtiyltiii.  Tbetlf^kniHai 


niauc)  ii  produced,  quite  impovible  lo  [nlerprec  unku  ti'  ujtH 
tti  their  devetooment  have  been  followed.     SofnaiinKt  it  tam 

An  arUnarycaidbiumHietncely  ever  found  in  tlie  tAomMYte^tn, 

the  primary  biindln.  and  pvet  nte  extematly  to  a  btlie  Kondjnr 
conev,  trd  in(erully  to  a  teeondiry  narewhymi  in  which  m 
deveioiwd  numerous  unca  of  addiiioul  bundle*,  ututlly  of  canafr 
(ric  trnictvrc,  with  phloem  wrrcunded  by  kylem. 

The  cambiu(n  in  Iht  rnoc,  vlnch  it  found  lenenUy  In  thcH  phn 
which  potseai  a  eanbium  in  the  ttem,  alwayt  taefini  ia  ftno* 

loimi  new  (leeDndaiy)  phloem  in  contact  with  the  ^  p.^.. 
pnmary,  and  Kcondtry   xylem   tntn 

(Luuei  is  to  proceed  further,  arc*  of  .  _._  .. 

pericyde  evttrrul  (o  the  primary  xylenw.  and  the  two  lettofctrM 

(trsi-formed  leeondaiy  aylem,  the  1b*ya  are  pinlied  outwaidi  ir 

the  primary  aylcmt,  the  cambium  ei(her  ifl}  foma  parenchrva  ra 
l»(h  bdc«,  makinf  a  bnsd,  eecondary  (principal)  ny,  which  inr^ 
_ —  ^i_ , 'r^and  ii  divided  f'--' — i— fc-.i- 


lvltructun  of^an  ^  IlnckHied  mot  apn^duRt 
hickcKd  Hem,  and  to  far  at  the  vaxuli 

«  only  ba  diiiinguithed  from  (he  latter 
ion  of  the  primary  " 


IhetiHueiottheprimirvint^  Tbei 
In  rooli  [Dlk>w  the  unw  linei  at  thoK 

an^?«teiiBUy't(k'bui  In  <■'■» 
ibe  cambium,  and  producin|  lilie  I 


eondm  lypicAliir  of  elcna-Allina  falyen  of  cella  with  cmnfilr^^ 
luberiied  walla,  intended  ia  repltce  the  epidemia  at  the  eiurw 
pnsiuive  layer  of  Ibe  plant  when  Ihe  liner,  incapable  ■•  '"J 
luriher  (roHih  after  id  oritlnal  formadon,  it  broken  and  c»'  i* 
by  the  incRiK  in  ihickneia  of  Ibe  item  ihrouth  the  acliviir  •'  ■" 
cambium.  Coik  it  ain  [armed  timilarly  in  ihe  rooc  afitt  ihe  1u» 
hat  paiaed  ihrvoffh  iia  primary  ttace  at  an  abaorptrve  onat,  aM 

nl  liuue  fommt  tn;  (he  pbellofen  ii  known  at  ftMlo^ina,  b«I  (* 

in  'he'«m''pUcB.  ™wy'ii™e  oTihc  ajii.  enemal  lo'tbe  m^ 
nicular  (imuis— >.<.  in  the epidermii  iudl  (rarely f,  in anyltjer" 
theconex,  «r  in  ihepencycle.  fit  mott  umal  teat  of  cmpntf  t" 
nem  it  the  eiKnunayer  of  tbe  cone,  immediately  Mn  ^ 
epidermlt,  faitheniai.  (hi  pcricycle.  All  the  timet  encnat  loi'' 
— 1. n  ,...  .,..  _,._.     ™. 'devetopoirat  ■ 


■e  Bpedal  or^ra  wbicb  j 


ven  spot  divldinr  wy  actiu 
undad  cella  wlUcB  toon  Ive 
in  pan  to  (hetlmetbelow  (fe.  15). 


it  lormed  by  the  pbOam  u; 
and  Bivii^iW  to  a  Wat  (faant  ^ 


ir.  efien  forminf  a  (&(^  '"'£ 


l«h  c«k  ud  pbcllodenn  ma 
Tht  femur  olitn  li»  iti  «ll<  iitninn 
re  liytn  irf  hard  and  lofi  nils.    Thi 
I,  and  may  alio  be  the  ant  at  orwjq  i 
tdait—t^.  Ki^flaaaiuiy  vucnlar 


tba  icR  of  ihacpidR- 


phrlkigcix  B  rtpLaced  by  uuxr 


rr  nrw  phrUofpaic  \xytn  at  deeper 


la  tier,  keeping  pact  In  their  inward 

^- -.  „- ---■■h  kecoadary  phloem  by  the  cam- 

bium.  The  campkx  lynam  of  dud  and  dvina  tiiiuefl  cut  oS  by 
IheK  auocttive  pnidcmiH.  tfveiher  with  the  latter  thcmiejvn— 
in  faci,  everything  ouCMde  the  innermrHt  phelloffen.  canstUuIei 
whaL  ia  oJien  known  bulamcally  as  the  barkrA  the  tree.    Jtkyiiilemt 

1i«hcd  in  popidar  uar  to  mean  all  the  tiiaue  tlxal  cwi  easily  be 
peeled  flfl — i.e.  cverylhin|  down  to  the  wood  a!  the  tree.  The  n>ii£h 
turfaceol  thebarkof  many  (ree«  jiduelo  thefliicfettivephcllofcni 
iiat  ariiwl  in  iqular  conceiiKic  tonea.  but  forming  in  area  wliich 
join  with  Ihe  earlJer-fDcmed  am.  and  thui  eaunni  ibe 
(a  come  od  in  flakta  or  thick  chunka.  A  lava  nl  cock  la  rem 
formed  in  nual  Phancrocami  aero 

leaf  fiotn  Ihe  item.  Special  "  woi 
round  accidental  injurin  ■>  aa  to  p 
by  (he  aoakiag  in  _g|  rain  and  the 

phellogen  in  Ihe  aohmerged  or^ni( 
cr   nursh-lnvinK  planta.     Thjt  ma) 


o*  periderm  is ToraM 


Hillary  onrf  fliWiDpu^y.— Th»  uudy  of . 
begun  in  Ihe  middle  of  the  •evenleeath  cenluiy 
result  o(  the  coiialniction  of  Dilcniacopei,  vitta  which  ■  dear 
vieiT  of  the  itntcture  of  plant  tiaauca  uuld  be  obLalned.  The 
Engliahnun  Grw  and  the  Italian  MalpigU  alnxat  aimul- 
taneouftly  publiahed  illuatraled  worka  on  iha  subject,  in  which 
they  described,  for  Ihe  moai  pan  very  accuratel)',  what  theyiaw 
»ith  the  new  iDslnimenta.  The  Kib(ect  waa  praclirsUy  domialil 
for  nearly  ■  century  and  a  half,  largely  owing  to  the  dominmce 
of  clauilicatory  botany  under  the  IngueAce  of  IJnM^t.  It 
wa£  revived  by  several  German  workera,  prominent  Among 
whom  were  Treviranna  and  Link,  and  later  Moldenhavcr,  aa 
well  OS  by  ihe  Frenchmen  Mfrbel,  at  Ibe  beginning  of  Ibe  iQth 
century.  The  new  iratk  largely  cenlred  round  a  diicuiaion 
of  the  nature  and  otigfn  of  Kiiefj.  conspicuoua  fealurea  in 
young  plinl  (ASua  which  thus  acquired  an  Importance  in  Iho 
conlempomry  HterMIuTt  out  of  piopwtion  lo  their  real  ugnifi- 
cance  In  ihe  (oulrnctkm  of  the  vascular  plant.  The  whi^ 
of  the  wrfiiitgs  of  llili  time  are  dominated  by  ■  preoccupation 
with  the  (anctions  of  the  different  limes,  in  itself  an  eicdlent 
alnndpofnt  for  invesllgallon,  but  fretinently  leading  in  the  case 

of  (he  fnet»  of  striciure.    The  pkmeer  of  modem  (^ant  anatomy 
WM  Hu(«  van  U«U  (jl.  1S40),  who  canfully  biveniptcd  aad 


to  hi  them  into  preconce 
produced  a  solid  body  of  accuraldy  < 


Mohi  d< 


aubaeqi 


niR  without  attttiapliiw 

of  their  Dieanjng.  H* 
scribed  facts  whkh  iiaft 
cnl  advaace.     Fnun 


wn  to  the  eighih  dccacie 
aouaniy  wt»  erilircly  in  Ihe  hauls  of  a  group  ol  Cc 
gatots.  pionineni  among  whom  were  several  of  the  Bust  eminent 
foundcn  of  modem  adcniihc  botany — such,  for  inaiuKe,  a> 
Nkgeli.  Sanio  and  De  Bary.  To  the  £nt  we  owe  Ibe  sccun 
iDundatian  of  ow  knowledge  cA  Ihe  structure  and  rhum  of  ibe 
vaacular  siisnds  of  the  hi^r  planli  ("  Uebei  den  Bau  uad  di« 
Anordnung  der  GefHsshUndel  bei  dea  Sluiun  und  Wurwl  der 
Fhanerogamen,"  BnOati  aw  wiaumikajOitlm  SxHimik,  Heft 
i.,  L,eipiig,  1S59);  10  ibe  second  the  eaiabliilimmt  of  Ihe  sound 
n>«phak«ical  doctrine  of  the  central  cylinder  of  Ihe  uia  u 
Ihe  •laning-poiBi  for  ibe  coiBkieration  of  the  general  anlaI^^ 
menl  of  tlte  tisaues,  and  Ibe  fint  dear  dislinclkin  beLweea 
primary  and  secondary  tiaauea  (JiMasfuAr  Ztilimt,  iMi  and 
1863)1  to  (be  laal  the  pulling  lofciher  of  Uie  facu  of  pLani 
anatomy  known  up  10  the  middle  of  the  eighih  decade  of  lb* 
century  in  (hot  great  encyckpaedia  of  plant  anaiomy,  Ibe 
Va^oiAmie  Analtmit  dir  Vitttalimarttm  iti  im  Fkantf 
tame%  mud  Faiun  (Stultgan,  iSrfi;  Enf-  Irana.,  CamfariOat 
Amiiirmy  of  llu  Vitnaliti  Ortont  ej  iIh  PJUiteni^mnnid  Fan, 
Oifonl,  iSSi}.  In  1870-1871  Van  Ticghem  publiahed  hh 
gteal  work,  "Sur  la  Racine."  .I...  w.  nal.  .'-o*.  (Paris). 
Thin  WHS  DOC  only  in  itaelf  an  importani  contribution  to  plant 


by   Van   Tleghem  and   in  pupil 

advanced  our  knowledge  of  the  details  ol  bislokigy,  and  alao 
culmiiwled  in  the  foundation  of  Lhe  doctriiw  ol  the  stale  (Van 
Tieghem  and  Douliot,  "Sur  la  polyslclie,'  Ann.  res.  «(.  i<t., 
188];  Van  Tieghem,  TrciU  de  MHifu  (and  ed.  Paiia, 
i88«-i8gi).     This  has  hud  ■  moat  imparUni  efled  on  Iha 

In  the  progress  of  the  last  three  decades,  since  the  publication 

dislinguisfaed.  Ftnt.  the  knowledge  of  the  H^iaik  ff^,^,, 
'  hiitakigy  hag  of  (nurse  advanced  gmlly  in  iheAatnH*' 
ection  through  Ihe  ceaseku  activity  of  very  thtS^fi^ 
merous.  mainly  Gotnan,  workers,  though  no  fundamen-' 
(ally  new  types  of  tissue  have  been  discovered.  Secondly,' 
the  hlMolo^  of  fo^  plants,  paniculiily  woody  plaou 
if  the  cafbonifeiDui  period,  hia  ban  placid  on  a  sound  basis, 
jsiniiated  with  genera)  biMologiul  diKInne,  and  has  consider- 
ibly  enlarged  our. conceptions  of  plant  anaiomy  as  a  uhole, 
hough  again  without  revealing  any  entirely  new  lypei  of 
Iructure.  Thia  branch  of  the  subject,  founded  by  Corda,' 
Oftpperl,  Slefinl  and  others  in  Germany,  was  enormously 
advanced  by  Williamson's  work  on  the  Coal  Meaium  plants, 
recorded  In  the  nugniliccnl  letiit  of  memoirs,  "RcHsrchet 
Oigiuuiuionaf  FoasU  Planttof  the  Coal  Mcasucea  "  l,Pkii. 
TrtMi.  Ray.  Sac.,  vols,  i.-xix.,  i8;i-ig«}).  The  work  of  Solras 
'  .ch  in  Gerrruny,  Renault  and  Bennnd  in 


them  jn  England,  has  advanced 
vindog  us  (hat  the  plants  of  past  ages 


il  life,  I 


tta,  ope  of  the  main  lesults  of  this  line  of  work  has  been  it 
naX  important  data  enabling  us  lo  £11  wrious  gap*  in  oui 
Drphological  knowledge  and  lo  obtain  a  more  complete  pictun 
the  evolution  of  toaues  in  the  vascular  pUnu.  One  ol  thi 
3at  striking  inddeols  in  the  fqvgreu  hiLS  been  Lhe  recognilioi 
tMn  the  last  few  yean  of  the  eiiHcnce  ol  an  eilinci  group  o 
mil  lyiog  on  the  botdeiland  between  Filiciles  and  Gymno 
crms.  and  known  as  tbe  Cycadnfilicea,  a  group  in  which 
riously  eDOogh,   the  Kptoducl' 


e  after  t 


ny  of  the  v 
d  dear  c 


of  ll 


744 


PLANTS 


[PHYSIOLOGY 


progreaa  In  our  knowledge  of  distinctfvrly  morphological 
anaiomy,  t^.  ihe  study  of  tissues  from  the  siandpomt  of 
evoluuon.  The  Russian  plant  •anatomist,  Russow,  may  be  said 
to  have  founded  the  consideration  of  plant  tissues  from  the 
point  of  view  of  descent  ( Vergteichende  U ntersuckungen  uber  die 
LeUbUnddkryptogameH,  St  Petersburg,  1872,  and  Bttracktungen 
Uber  LeUbundd  und  Crundgti»ebe,  Dorpat,  1875).  He  was  ably 
followed  by  Strasburger  ( Ueber  deH  Bau  und  die  Verrichlungen 
der  LeitMngsbahnen  tn  dem  Pfianzen^  Jena,  iSqi),  Haberlandt 
and  others.  The  explicit  adoption  of  this  point  of  view  has 
had  the  effect  of  clearing  up  and  rendering  definite  the  older 
morphological  doctrines,  which  for  the  most  part  had  no  fixed 
criterion  by  which  they  could  be  tested. 

Since  about  1805  this  branch  has  been  most  actively  pursued  in 
England,  where  the  work  of  Boodle  and  of  Gwynne-Vaughan 
especially  on  Ferns)  has  been  the  most  important,  leading  to 
a  coherent  theory  of  the  evolution  of  the  vascular  system  in 
these  plants  (Tansley,  Evolution  of  Ike  FUicinean  Vasctdcr 
System^  Cambridge,  1908);  and  in  America,  where  Jeffrey  has 
published  important  papers  on  the  morphology  of  the  vascular 
tissues  of  the  various  groups  of  Ptcridophytes  and  Phanerogams 
and  has  sought  to  express  his  conclusions  in  a  general  morpho- 
logical theory  with  appropriate  terminology.  As  a  result  of  this 
activity  Van  Ticghem's  so-called  "Stelar  theory"  has  been 
revised  and  modified  in  the  light  of  more  extended  and  detailed 
anatomical  and  developmental  knowledge.  Schoute's  Die 
SleUU'Theofie  (Grdningen,  1902),  gives  an  important  critical 
account  of  this  subject 

Fourthly,  attention  must  be  called  to  the  great  development 
of  what  b  called  "  Systematic  Anatomy,"  i.e.  the  study  of  the 
anatomical  features  charaaeristic  of  the  smaller  groups  of 
flowering  plants,  i.e.  the  orders,  families,  genera  and  species. 
Radlkofer  (1883)  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the 
great  importance  of  this  method  in  systematic  botany,  as 
providing  fresH  characters  on  which  to  base  a  natural  classifi- 
cation. Solereder's  great  work,  Systemaliseke  Atiatomie  der 
Dicolyledcnen  (Stuttgart,  i8g8-iQo8:  Eng.  trans.,  SysktMlk 
Anatomy  of  Dicotyledons^  Oxford,  IQ08),  brings  together  so  many 
of  the  facts  as  are  at  present  known  in  an  orderiy  arrangement. 
Theoretically  this  branch  of  the  subject  should  connect  witJi 
and  form  the  completion  of  "morphological  anatomy,"  but 
the  field  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  explored  to  allow  of  the 
necessary  synthesis.  The  true  relation  of  "systematic"  to 
*'  ecological "  anatomy  (see  below)  also  awaits  proper  elucidation. 

Fifthly,  we  have  to  record  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
study  of  "  physiological  anatomy  "  (i.e.  the  study  of  the  specific 
functions  of  the  various  tissues)  by  Schwendcner  {Das  meehan" 
iscke  Frincip  im  Bau  der  Monocatj^en^  1874,  and  other  works), 
followed  by  numerous  pupils  and  others,  among  whom  Haber- 
landt (Physiologische  Pflanzen-Analomie^  Leipzig,  xst  ed.,  1884, 
4th  ed.y  1909,  and  other  works)  is  pre-eminent.  The  pursuit 
of  this  study  has  not  only  thrown  valuable  light  on  the  economy 
of  the  plant  as  a  whole,  but  forms  an  indispensable  condition  of 
the  advance  of  morphological  anatomy.  A  great  deal  of  work 
still  remains  to  be  done  in  this  department,  which  at  the  present 
time  affords  one  of  the  most  promising  fields  oL  anatomical 
investigation. 

Finally  we  may  mention  "  ecological  anatomy,"  i.e.  the  study 
of  anatomical  features  directly  related  to  the  habitat.  A  very 
considerable  body  of  knowledge  relating  to  this  subject  already 
exists,  but  further  work  on  experimental  lines  is  urgently 
required  to  enable  us  to  understand  the  actual  economy  of  plants 
growing  under  different  conditions  of  life  and  the  true  relation 
of  the  hereditary  anatomical  characters  which  form  the  subject 
hiatter  of  "  systematic  anatomy  "  to  those  which  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  Conditions  in  which  the  individual  plant  is  placed. 
On  these  lines  the  future  of  anatomical  study  presents  almost 
inexhaustible  possibilities.  (A.  G.  T  ) 

Pbysiolocy   or   Plants 

Hie  so-caHed  veg^ble  physidogy  of  a  generation  ago  was  in 
arrear  of  onimal,  and  paitictUarly  of  kuman^  physiok^iy,  the 


study  of  the  latter  benig  foltowed  by  many  more  observen, 
and  from  its  relative  degree  of  advancement  being  the  more 
capable  of  rapid  development.     It  was  fully  recognized  by 
its  followers  that  the  dominating  influence  in  the  structure 
and  working  of  the  body  was  the  protoplasm,  and  the  divisioo 
of  labour  which  It  exhibited,  with  the  accompanying  or  result- 
ing differentiation  into  various  tissues,  was  the  special  subject  of 
investigation.     Many  who   followed  the  study  of  vegeuble 
structure  did  not  at  that  time  give  an  equal  prominence  to  this 
view.    The  early  histological  researches  of  botanists  led  them 
to  the  recognition  of  the  vegetable  cell,  and  the  leading  writers 
in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  pointed  out  the  probable 
identity  of  Von  Mohl's  "  protoplasm  "  with  the  "  sarcode  **  of 
zoologists.    They  laid  great  stress  on  the  nitrogenous  nature 
of  protoplasm,  and  noted  that  it  preceded  the  formation  of  the 
ccll-membrane.    But  by  the  ordinary  student  of  thirty  yean 
later  their  work  was  to  some  extent  overiooked,  and  the  cell-v^ 
assumed  a  prominence  to  which  it  was  not  entitled.    The  study 
of  the  diferentiation  of  protoplasm  was  at  that  time  seldom 
undertaken,  and  no  particukr  attention  was  paid  either  to 
fixing  it,  to  enable  staining  methods  to  be  accurately  applied  to 
it,  or  to  studying  the  action  of  chemical  reagents  upon  it.    It  is 
only  comparatively  recently  that  the  methods  of  histological 
investigation  used  by  animal  physiologists  have  been  carefully 
and  systematically  applied  to  the  study  of  the  vegetable  organ- 
isms.    They  have,  however,   been  attended  vriih   wonderful 
results,  and  have  revolutionized  the  whole  study  of  vcgeubfe 
structure.     They  have  emphasized   the  statements   oC  Vca 
Mohl,  Cohn,  and  other  writers  alluded  to,  that  the  protoplasn 
is  here  also  the  dominant  factor  of  the  body,  and  that  all  the 
peculiarities  of  the  cell-wall  can  only  be  interpreted  in  the  light 
of  the  needs  of  the  living  substance. 

TUe  Nature  of  the  Organisation  of  the  Plants  and  tie  Rrtaticms 
of  Ike  Cell-Membrane  hud  Ike  Protoplasm. — This  view  ol  the 
structure  of  the  plant  and  this  method  of  investigation  lead  as 
to  a  greatly  modified  conception  of  its  organoatton,  and  ufiori. 
more  completely  an  explanation  of  the  peculiarities  of  tors 
found  in  the  ve^table  kingdom. 

The  study  of  simple  organisms,  many  of  which  ooosat  of 
nothing  but  a  little  mass  of   protoplasm,   exhibiting    a    rery 
rudimentary  degree  of  differentiation,  so  far  as  our  inetkoi''s 
enable  us  to  determine  any  at  all,  shows  that  the  duties  d 
existence  can  be  discharged  in  the  absence  of  any  cell-*.;.^ 
Those  organisms  which  possess  the  latter  are  a  little  higher  ia 
the  scale  of  life  than  those  which  rcnuin  unclothed  by  it,  hai  a 
comparison  of  the  behaviour  of  the  two  quickly  enables  us  is 
say  that  the  membrane  is  of  but  secondary  importance,  and 
that  for  those  which  possess  it,  it  b  nothing  more  than  a  protec- 
tive covcripg  for  the  living  substance.    Its  physical  properti& 
permeability  by   water,   extensibility   and  elasticity,    receiTe 
their  interpretation  in  the   needs  of  the  latter.     Wc    ooce. 
accordingly,  to  regard  it  as  practically  an  exoskclcton,  and  its 
functions  as  distinctly  subordinate  to  those  of  the  protoploiff 
which  it  clothes.    If  we  pass  a  little  higher  up  the  scale  of  La: 
we  meet  with  forms  consisting  of  two  or  more  cells,  each  d 
which  contains  a  similar  minute  mass  of  living  substance.    A 
study  of  them  shows  that  each  is  practically  indq>endcnt  of  tbe 
others;  in  fact,  the  connexion  between  them  is  so  slight  t>a: 
they  can  separate  and  each  become  free  without  the  slightest  dis- 
advantage to  another.    So  long  as  they  are  connected  t<^ethrr 
mechanically  they  have  apparently  the  power  of  infiuendrf 
one  another  in  various  ways,  and  of  passing  liquid  or  sMseam 
materials  from  one  to  another     The  conjoined  ocganissB  is. 
in  fact,  a  colony  or  association  of  the  protoplasmic  units.  iboQ0 
each  unit  retains  its  independence.     When  we  pass»  a^^ia. 
from  these  to  examine  more  bulky,  and  consequently   sacst 
complex,  plants,  we  find  that  the  differences'  which  can  be  r^ 
served  between  them  and  the  simple  lowly  forms  are  capal' 
of  being  referred  to  the  increased  number  of  the  fMvtoplassk 
units  and  the  consequent  enlarged  bulk  of  the  mass  or  oolcr . 
Every  plant  is  thus  found  to  be  composed  of  a  number  of  t!^'- 
protoplasmic  units,  or.  as  they  may.  prefcrab^  be 


nnsiouMsyi 


PLANTS 


745 


pntofhtU,  all  of  which  are  at  fint  eactly  alike  ia  appeaianoe 
and  in  prapertiea.  Thit  is  evident  in  the  case  of  such  plants  as 
have  a  boidiy  oonsbting  of  filaments  or  |dates  of  cells,  and  is 
Mttle  kai  oonqMCuoits  in  those  whose  mass  is  but  small,  thoui^ 
the  c^lls  are  evidently  capable  of  eomputation  in  three  dtmenf 
sions.  It  docs  not  at  fiiBt  appear  to  be  the  same  with  the 
baUuer  plants,  sndi  as  the  onlinaiy  green  herbs,  shrubs  or  trees, 
but  a  study  of  their  earlier  development  indicates  that  they  do 
not  at  the  outset  differ  in  any  way  from  the  simple  undifferen- 
tiated fonns.  Each  cmnmences  iu  eadstence  as  a  simple  naked 
protoplast,  in  the  embroyo^ac  or  the  archegonium,  as  the  esse 
may  be.  After  the  curious  fusion  with  another  similar  proto* 
plaat,  which  constitutes  whiU  we  caU  fertiiisatiou,  the  next 
staipe  in  oompleadty  already  noted  may  be  obaerved,  the  proto- 
plann  becoming  cfethed  by  a  cell-membrane.  Very  soon  the 
angle  cell  gives  rise  to  a  chain  of  cells,  and  this  in  turn  to  a  cell 
mass,  the  individual  units  of  which  are  at  fint  quite  uniform. 
With  increase  of  number,  howevtf ,  and  consequently  enlarge^ 
ment  of  bulk  in  the  colony,  differentiation  becomes  compulsory. 
The  requiremmts  of  the  several  protopUsts  must  be  met  by 
supplies  from  without,  and,  as  many  of  then  are  deep  seated, 
varietiesL  of  need  arise,  so  that  various  members  of  the  ookmy 
are  set  apart  for  special  duties,  masses  of  them  being  devoted 
to  the  discharge  of  one  functk>n,  others  to  that  of  another,  and 
so  on.  Such  limitations  of  the  powers  and  pn^>erties  tA  the 
individuals  have  for  their  object  the  well-being  of  the  csommunity 
of  which  those  individuals  are  constituents. 

PhysioUiiad  and  MorpMogkal  Dijfereniialiom.-^The  fint 
indicatfon  of  this  dlfferentiatk>n  in  the  vegeutive  body  of  the 
plant  can  be  seen  not  only  in  the  terrestrial  green  plants  which 
have  been  particulariy  referred  to,  but  afao  in  the  bulkier  sea- 
weeds. It  is  an  extension  of  the  fint  differentiation  which  was 
observable  in  the  simple  protoplasts  fint  discussed,  the  formation, 
that  is,  of  a  protective  covering.  Fmcus  and  Its  allies,  which 
form  ODospicttous  memben  of  the  larger  Algae,  have  their 
external  cells  much  smaller,  more  closely  put  together,  and 
generally  much  denser  than  the  rest  of  their  tissue.  In  the  lowly 
as  well  as  the  higher  green  plants  we  have  evidence  of  spedal- 
ixation  of  the  external  protoplasts  for  the  same  purpose,  which 
takes  varfois*  shapes  and  shows  different  degrees  of  complete- 
ness, culminating  in  the  elaborate  barks  which  clothe  our  forest 
trees. 

The  second  prominent  differentiation  which  presents  itself 
takes  the  form  of  a  provision  to  supply  the  living  substance 
with  water.  This  is  a  primal  necessity  of  the  protoplsst,  and 
every  cell  gives  evidence  of  its  need  by  adopting  one  of  the 
various  ways  in  which  such  need  is  supplied.  What  little 
differentiation  can  be  found  to  exist  in  the  protoplasm  of  the 
simple  unicellular  organism  shows  the  importance  of  an  adequate 
water-supply,  and  indeed,  the  dependence  of  life  upon  it.  The 
naked  cells  which  have  been  alluded  to  live  in  water,  and  call 
therefore  for  no  differentiation  in  connexion  with  this  necessity; 
but  those  which  are  surrounded  by  a  cell-waQ  always  develop 
within  themselves  a  tacwle  or  cavity  which  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  their  interior,  and  the  hydrostatic  pressure  <rf  whose 
contents  keeps  the  protoplasm  in  contact  with  the  membrane, 
setting  up  a  condition  of  turgidity. 

The  need  for  a  constant  supply  of  water  is  partly  based  upon 
the  constitution  of  protoplasm,  so  far  as  we  know  it.  The 
apparently  structureless  substance  n  saturated  with  it;  and  if 
once  a  cell  is  completely  dried,  even  at  a  low  temperature,  in  the 
enormous  majority  of  cases  its  life  is  gone  and  the  restoration 
of  water  fails  to  enable  it  to  recover.  Besides  this  intimate 
relationship,  however,  we  can  point  to  other  features  of  the 
necessity  for  a  constantly  renewed  water  supply,  The  proto- 
plasm derives  its  food  from  substances  in  solution  in  the  water; 
the  various  waste  products  which  are  incident  to  its  life  are 
excreted  into  it,  and  so  removed  from  the  sphere  of  its  activity. 
The  raw  materiab  from  which  the  food  is  constructed  are  ab- 
sorbed from  the  exterior  in  solution  in  water,  and  the  latter  is 
the  medium  through  which  the  gaseous  constituents  necessary 
for  life  reach  the  protoplasm.    Moreover,  growth  is  essentially 


dependent  upon  water-«nppiy.  There  is  ffttle  wonder,  then, 
that  in  a  cotony  of  protoplasts  such  as  constitute  a  large  plant 
a  considecable  degree  of  differentiatioa  is  evident,  beating  upon 
the  question  of  water  supply.  Certain  cells  of  the  exterior  are 
set  apart  for  absorption  of  water  from  the  soil,  this  being  the 
source  from  which  supplies  are  derived.  Othen  are  devoted 
to  the  work  of  caxiying  it  to  the  protophists  situated  in  the 
interior  and  at  the  extrsmitiea  of  the  pknt,  a  centfticfMf  system 
of  considerable  complexity  being  the  result. 

Other  collections  of  cells  are  in  many  cases  set  apart  for  giving 
rigidity  and  strength  to  the  mass  of  the  phmt.  It  is  e^ent 
that  as  the  latter  increases  in  bulk,  more  and  more  attention 
must  be  paid  to  the  dangen  of  uprooting  by  winds  and  storms. 
Various  mechanisms  have  been  adopted  in  different  cases,  some 
connected  with  the  subterranean  and  othen  with  the  sub-aerial 
portions  of  the  phmt.  Another  kind  of  differentiatioa  in  such  a 
cell-mass  as  we  are  dealing  with  is  the  setting  apart  of  particular 
groups  of  cells  Cor  various  metabolic  purposes.  We  have 
the  formation  of  numerous  mechanisms  which  have  arisen  in 
connexion  with  the  question  of  food  supply,  which  may  not 
only  involve  particular  cells,  but  also  lead  to  differentiation 
in  the  protoplasm  of  those  cells,  as  in  the  development  of  the 
chloroplasticb  of  the  leaves  and  other  green  parts. 

The  inter-relations  of  the  memben  of  a  huge  colony  ot  proto- 
plasts such  as  constitute  a  tree,  demand  much  adjustment. 
Relations  with  the  exterior  are  continually  changing,  and  the 
needs  of  different  regions  of  the  interior  are  continually  varying, 
from  time  to  time.  Two  features  which  are  casentiiUly  proto- 
plasmic assume  a  great  importance  when  we  consider  these 
relations.  They  are  the  power  oi  receiving  iraprenioos  or 
stimuli  from  the  exterior,  and  of  communicating  with  each 
other,  with  the  view  of  co-ordinating  a  suiuble  response.  We 
have  nothing  structural  which  corresponds  to  the  former  of 
these.  In  this  matter,  differentiation  has  proceeded  very 
differently  in  animals  and  plants  respecthrely,  no  nerves  or  sense 
organs  being  structurally  recognisable.  Communication  between 
the  various  protoplasts  of  the  colony  Is,  however,  carried  on 
by  means  of  fine  protoplasmic  threads,  which  are  continuous 
through  the  ceU-waUs. 

AU  the  peculiarities  of  structure  which  we  encounter  conse- 
quently support  the  view  with  which  we  started,  that  the  proto- 
plasm of  the  plant  is  the  dominant  factor  in  vegcuble  structure, 
and  that  there  need  be  but  one  subject  of  physiok>gy,  which 
must  embrace  the  behaviour  of  protoplasm  wherever  found. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  no  fundamental  difference 
between  the  living  substance  of  animab  and  jriants,  for  many 
forms  exist  which  cannot  be  referred  with  certainty  to  either 
kingdom.  Free-swimming  organisms  without  oell-membrenes 
exist  in  both,  and  from  tlbem  .series  of  forms  can  be  traced  in 
both  directions.  Cellulose,  the  material  of  which  vegetable 
cell-waUs  are  almost  universally  composed,  at  any  rate  in  their 
early  condition,  is  known  to  occur,  though  only  seldom,  among 
animal  organisms.  Such  forms  as  Vohox  and  the  group  of  the 
Afyxomycetes  have  been  continually  referred  to  both  kingdoms, 
and  their  true  systematic  position  is  still  a  subject  of  controveny. 
AU  physiology,  consequently,  must  be  based  upon  the  Identity 
of  the  protoplasm  of  all  living  beings. 

This  method  of  study  has  to  a  large  extent  modified  our  ideas 
of  the  relative  importance  of  the  parts  of  such  an  organism  as 
a  large  tree.  The  interest  with  which  we  regard  the  latter  no 
longer  turns  upon  the  details  of  the  structure  of  its  trunk,  limlM 
and  roots,  to  which  the  living  substance  of  the  more  superficial 
parts  was  subordinated.  Instead  of  regarding  these  as  only 
minbtering  to  the  construaion  of  the  bulky  portions,  the  living 
protoplasts  take  the  fint  place  as  the  essential  portion  of  the 
tree,  and  all  the  other  features  are  important  mainly  as  minister- 
ing to  their  individual  well-being  and  to  their  multiplication. 
The  latter  feature  is  the  irotolk  of  the  tree,  the  well-being  of  the 
protoplasts  is  its  life  and  health.  The  interest  passes  from  the 
bulky  dense  interior,  with  the  elaborate  features  of  its  cell-walls, 
to  the  superficial  parts,  where  its  life  is  m  evidence.  We  see 
herein  the  reason  for  the  great  subdivision  of  the  body,  with  its 


74* 


PLANTS 


IPHVSUiLOGy 


finely  eat  twigt  and  Uieir  ultimate  expansions,  the  leaves,  and 
we  recognize  that  this  subdivision  is  only  an  expression  of  the 
need  to  place  the  living  substance  in  direct  relationship  with  the 
environment.  The  formation  and  gradually  increasing  thickness 
of  its  bark  are  explained  by  the  continually  increasing  need  of 
adequate  protection  to  the  living  cortex,  under  the  strain  of  the 
increasing  framework  which  the  enormous  moltiplication  of 
its  living  protoplasts  demands,  and  the  development  of  which 
leads  to  continual  rupture  of  the  exterior.  The  increasing 
development  of  the  wood  as  the  tree  grows  older  is  largely  due 
to  the  demands  for  the  conduction  of  water  and  mineral  matters 
dissolved  in  it,  which  are  made  by  the  increased  number  of  leaves 
which  from  year  to  year  it  bears,  and  which  must  each  be  put 
into  communication  with  the  central  mass  by  the  lormation 
of  new  vascular  bundles.  Similar  considerations  apply  to  the 
peculiar  features  of  the  root-system.  All  these  points  of  struC" 
ture  can  6nly  be  correctly  interpreted  after  a  consideration 
of  the  needs  of  the  indivkual  protopiastSt  and  of  the  large 
colony  of  which  they  are  members. 

Caseous  ItUerckangts  and  their  Mechanism. — ^Another  feature 
of  the  constniciion  of  the  plant  has  in  recent  years  come  into 
greater  prominence  than  was  formerly  the  case.  The  organism 
is  largely  dependent  for  its  vital  processes  upon  gaseous  inter- 
changes.  It  must  receive  a  large  constituent  of  what  ultimately 
becomes  its  food  from  the  air  which  surrounds  it,  and  it  must  also 
take  in  from  the  same  source  the  oxygen  of  its  respiratory 
processes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  aerial  environment  presents 
oonsideiable  danger  to  the  young  and  tender  parts,  where  the 
protoplasts  are  most  exposed  to  extremes  of  heat,  cold,  wet,  &c 
These  must  in  some  way  be  harmonized.  Ko  doubt  the  primary 
object  of  the  cell-wall  of  even  the  humblest  protoplast  is  pro- 
tection, and  this  too  is  the  meaning  of  the  coarser  tegumentary 
structures  of  a  bulkier  plant.  These  vary  considerably  in 
compteltness  with  its  age;  in  its  younger  parts  the  outer  cells 
wall  undergdes  the  change  known  as  cuticularisation,  the  material 
being  changed  both  in  chemical  coroposilion  and  in  physical 
properties.  The  corky  layers  which  take  so  prominent  a  share 
in  the  formation  of  the  bark  are  similarly  modified  and  subserve 
the  same  purpose.  But  these  protective  layers  are  in  the  main 
■impermeable  by  gases  and  by  either  liquid  or  vapour,  and  prevent 
the  access  of  either  to  the  protoplasts  which  need  them.  Investi- 
gatbns  carried  out  by  Blackman,  and  by  Brown  and  Escombe, 
have  shown  clearly  that  the  view  put  forward  by  Boussingault, 
that  such  absorption  of  gases  takes  place  through  the  cuiicuLar 
covering  of  the  younger  parts  of  the  plant,  is  erroneous  and  can 
no  longer  be  supported.  The  difficulty  is  solved  by  the  provision 
of  a  complete  system  of  minute  intercellular  spaces  which  form 
a  continuous  series  of  delicate  canals  between  the  cells,  extending 
throughout  the  whole  slibstance  of  the  plant.  Every  protoplast, 
except  in  the  very  young  regions,  has  part  of  its  surface  abutting 
on  these,  so  that  its  wall  is  accessible  to  the  gases  necessary 
for  its  vital  processes.  There  is  no  need  for  cuiicularization 
here,  as  the  external  dangerous  influences  do  not  reach  the 
interior,  and  the  processes  of  absorption  which  Boussingault 
attributed  to  the  external  cuticularized  cells  can  take  place 
freely  through  the  delicate  cell-walls  of  the  interior,  saturated 
as  these  are  with  water.  This  system  of  channels  is  in  com- 
munication with  the  outer  atmosphere  through  numerous 
small  apertures,  known  as  stomata^  which  are  abundant  upon 
the  leaves  and  young  twigs,  and  gaseous  interchange  between 
the  plant  and  the  air  is  by  their  assistance  rendered  constant 
and  safe.  This  system  of  intercellular  spaces,  extending 
throughout  the  plant,  constitutes  a  reservoir,  charged  with  an 
atmosphere  which  differs  somewhat  in  its  composition  from  the 
external  air,  its  gaseous  constituents  varying  from  time  to  time 
and  from  place  to  place,  in  consequence  of  the  Interchanges 
between  itself  and  the  protoplasts.  It  constitutes  practically 
the  exterior  environment  of  the  protoplasts,  though  it  is  ramify- 
ing through  the  interior  of  the  plant. 

The  importance  of  this  provision  in  the  case  of  aquatic  vascular 
plants  of  sturdy  bulk  is  even  greater  than  in  that  of  terrestrial 
organisms,  as  their  environment  offers  considerable  obstacles 


to  the  renewal  of  the  air  in  their  mtcrior.  They  axe  witlnvt 
stomata  on  their  submerged  portions,  and  the  entry  of  pan 
can  only  take  place  by'dlffiiskm  from  the  water  through  tlidr 
external  cells,  which  are  not  cuticularized.  Those  which  m 
only  partially  submerged  bear  stomala  on  their  exposed  ponioQt, 
so  that  their  environment  q^roximates  towuds  that  of  a 
terrestrial  plant,  but  the  oommimicatioa  even  in  their  cue  is  nuidi 
Jess  easy  and  complete,  ao  that  they  need  a  much  laiger  reservoir 
of  air  in  their  interior.  This  is  secured  by  the  developmat 
of  much  larger  intercellular  spaces,  amountmg  to  lacuoc  or 
passages  of  very  considerable  size,  which  are  found  ranifjiog 
in  different  xrays  in  their  interior. 

TrampiraiioH. — ^In  the  case  of  terrestrial  plants,  the  contimal 
renewal  of  the  water  contained  in  the  vacuoles  of  the  ptoto{^asti 
demands  a  copious  and  continuous  evaporation.  This  sows 
a  double  purpose,  bringing  up  from  the  soil  continually  a  supply 
of  the  soluble  mineral  matters  necessary  lor  their  netiboik 
processes,  which  only  enter  the  plant  in  solutions  of  extiarc 
dilution,  and  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  plant  cool  by  the 
process  of  evaporation.  The  latter  function  has  been  found  to 
be  of  extreme  importance  in  the  case  of  plants  ei^wsed  to  the 
direct  access  of  the  sun's  rays,  the  heat  of  which  woul^  rapidly 
cause  the  death  of  the  protoplasts  were  it  not  emptoyed  in  the 
evaporation  of  the  water.  Brown  and  Escombe  have  sfao«ii  that 
the  amount  of  soUr  energy  taken  up  by  a  green  leaf  may  ofia 
be  fifty  times  as  much  as  it  can  utUIze  in  the  construcliv'e  pro* 
cesses  of  which  it  is  the  seat.  If  the  heat  were  alk>wed  to  acco* 
mulate  in  the  leaf  unchecked,  they  have  computed  that  iis 
temperature  would  rise  during  bright  sunshine  at  the  nic  of 
more  than  1 2"  C.  per  minute,  with  of  course  very  rapidly  fai2l 
results.  What  is  not  used  in  the  constructive  proccasa  is 
employed  in  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  the  leaf  being.ibus 
kept  cool.  Whether  the  leaf  is  brightly  or  only  nioder&tdy 
illuminated,  the  same  relative  proportions  of  the  total  er.a0 
absorbed  are  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  compositioo  and  ob- 
struction respectively.  Hiis  large  evaporation,  which  constitstct 
the  so-called  transpiration  of  plants,  takes  place  not  ioto  ibc 
external  air  but  into  this  same  intercellular  space  system,  bdas 
possible  only  through  the  delicate  cell'walls  upon  which  it  aboEs, 
as  the  external  coating,  whether  bark,  cork  or  cutkle,  is 
impermeable  by  watery  vapour.  The  latter  ultimately  rcacba 
the  external  air  by  diffusion  through  the  stomata,  whose  dintf* 
sions  vary  in  proportion  as  the  amount  of  water  in  the  q>iderBul 
<^ls  becomes  pester  or  less. 

Mechanism  and  Function  oj  Stomata. — It  is  not  quite  exact 
to  speak  of  cither  the  gaseous  interchanges  or  the  transpintioa 
as  taking  place  through  the  stomata.  The  entry  of  gases  into. 
and  exit  from,  the  cells,  as  well  as  the  aaual  exhalatkin  of  watfl} 
v.-ipour  from  the  latter,  uke  place  in  the  Intercellular  spact 
system  of  which  the  stomata  are  the  outlets.  The  opening  acd 
ckising  of  the  stomau  is  the  result  of  variation  in  the  turgidityc/ 
their  guard  cells,  which  is  immediately  affected  by  theoondiii<a 
of  turgidily  of  the  cells  of  the  epidermis  contiguous  to  ihca. 
The  amount  of  watery  vapour  in  the  air  passing  throu^  * 
stonui  has  no  effect  upon  it,  as  the  surfaces  of  the  guard  cclb 
abutting  on  the  air  chamber  are  strongly  cuticularized,  and  thett- 
fore  impermeable.  The  only  way  in  which  their  taigidity  is 
modified  is  by  the  entry  of  water  into  them  from  the  contiguoss 
cells  of  the  general  epidermis  and  its  subsequent  withdrawal 
through  the  same  channel  This  opening  and  ck>5iAg  of  Oit 
stomata  must  be  looked  upon  as  having  a  direct  bearing  oob' 
on  the  emission  of  watery  vapour.  There  is  a  distinct  advanuge 
in  the  regulatk>n  of  this  escape,  and  the  mechanism  is  d^*^'7 
connected  with  the  greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  water  in  (Ik 
plant,  and  especially  in  its  epidermal  cells.  This  power  d 
varying  the  area  of  the  apertures  by  which  gases  enter  the 
internal  reservoirs  is  not  advantageous  to  the  gaseous  mttf- 
changes— indeed  it  may  be  directly  the  reverse.  It  may  ksd 
to  an  incipient  asphyxiation,  as  the  supply  of  oxygen  may  he 
greatly  interfered  with  and  the  escape  of  carbon  dioxide  nay  he 
almost  stopped.  It  may  at  other  times  lead  to  great  diffinii^ 
in  the  supply  of  the  gaseous  constituents  which  are  used  ia  the 


PHYSIOLOGY) 


PLANTS 


747 


manufacture  of  food.    The  inporhmce  of  trftnsplratios,  is, 
however,  ao  great,  that  these  risks  must  be  run. 

The  Ascent  of  Waier  in  Trees.—Tht  supply  of  water  to  the 
peripheral  protopbsts  of  a  tree  is  consequently  of  the  first 
importance.  The  means  by  which  such  a  supply  is  ensured  are 
by  no  means  clearly  luiderstood,  but  many  agencies  are  probably 
at  work.  The  natural  source  of  the  water  is  io  all  cases  the  soil, 
and  few  plants  nonnally  obtain  any  from  elsewhere.  The  water 
of  the  soil,  which  in  well-drained  soil  is  met  with  in  the  form  of 
delicate  films  surrounding  the  particles  of  solid  matter,  is 
absorbed  into  the  pUnt  by  the  delicate  hairs  borne  by  the  young 
roots,  the  entry  being  effected  by  a  process  of  modified  osmosis. 
Multitudes  of  such  hairs  on  the  branches  of  the  roots  cause  the 
entry  of  great  quantities  of  water,  which  by  a  subsequent  similar 
osmotic  action  accumulates  in  the  cortex  of  the  roots.  The  great 
turgidity  which  is  thus  caused  exerts  a  considerable  hydrostatic 
pressure  on  the  stele  of  the  root,  the  vesseb  of  the  wood  of  which 
are  sometimes  filled  with  water,  but  at  other  times  contain  air, 
and  this  often  under  a  pressure  Usa  than  the  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure.  This  pressure  of  the  turgid  cortex  on  the  central 
stele  islcnown  as  root  pressure,  and  b  of  very  considerable  amount. 
This  pressure  leads  to  the  filling  of  the  vessels  of  the  wood  of 
both  root  and  stem  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  before  the  leaves 
have  expanded,  and  gives  rise  to  the  exudation  of  fluid  known  as 
bleeding  when  young  stems  are  cut  in  early  spring. 

Root  pressiure  is  one  of  the  forces  co-operating  in  the  fordng 
of  the  water  upwards.  The  evaporation  which  b  associated  with 
transpiration  b  no  doubt  another,  but  by  themselves  they  are 
insufficient  to  explain  the  process  of  lifting  water  to  the  tops  of 
*^aU  trees.  There  is  at  present  also  a  want  of  agreement  among 
botanists  as  to  the  path  which  the  water  takes  in  the  structural 
elerhents  of  the  tree,  two  views  being  held.  The  older  b  that  the 
water  traveb  in  the  woody  cell-walls  of  the  vascular  bundles, 
mainly  under  the  action  of  the  forces  .of  root  pressure  and  trans- 
piration, and  that  the  cavities  of  the  vessebcontain  only  air.  The 
other  b  that  the  vesseb  are  not  empty,  but  that  the  water  traveb 
in  their  cavities,  which  contain  columns  of  water  in  the  course  of 
which  are  large  bubbles  of  air.  On  this  view  the  water  flows 
upwards  under  the  influence  of  variations  of  pressure  and  tension 
in  the  vessels.  These  forces  however  fail  to  fumbh  a  complete 
explanation  of  the  ascent  of  the  current,  and  others  have  been 
thought  to  supplement  them,  which  have  more  or  less  weight. 
Westermaier  and  Godlewski  put  forward  the  view  that  the  living 
cells  of  the  medullary  rays  of  the  wood,  by  a  species  of  osmosb, 
act  as  a  kind  of  pumping  apparatus,  by  the  aid  of  which  the 
water  b  lifted  to  the  top  of  the  tree,  a  series  of  pumping-stations 
being  formed.  Though  thb  at  first  met  with  some  acceptance, 
Strasburger  showed  that  the  action  goes  on  in  great  lengths  -of 
sten)  the  celb  of  which  have  been  killed  by  poison  or  by  the 
action  of  heat.  More  recently,  Dixon  and  Joly  in  Dublin  and 
Askenasy  in  Germany  have  suggested  the  action  of  another 
force.  They  have  showu  that  columns  of  water  of  very  small 
diameter  can  so  resbt  tensile  strain  that  they  can  be  lifted  bodily 
instead  of  flowing  along  the  channel.  They  suggest  that  the 
forces  causing  the  movement  are  complex,  and  draw  particular 
attention  to  the  pull  upwards  in  consequence  of  disturbances  in 
the  leaves.  In  these  we  have  (x)  the  evaporation  from  the  damp 
delicate  cell-walls  into  the  intercellular  spaces;  (a)  the  imbibition 
l>y  the  cell-wall  of  water  from  the  vacuole;  (3)  osmotic  action, 
consequent  upon  the  subsequent  increased  concentration  of  the 
cell  sap,  drawing  water  from  the  wood  cells  or  vesseb  which  abut 
upon  the  leaf  parenchyma.  They  do  not,  of  course,  deny  the 
co-<^>eration  of  the  other  forces  which  have  been  suggested, 
except  so  far  as  these  are  inconsbtent  with  the  motion  of  the 
water  in  the  form  of  separate  columns  rather  than  a  flowing 
stream.  This  view  requires  the  exbtence  of  certain  anatomical 
arrangements  to  secure  the  isolation  of  the  separate  columns,  and 

cannot  be  said  to  be  fully  established. 

Nature  of  the  Food  of  Plants.— The  recognition  of  the  fundamental 
identity  of  the  Itring  substance  in  animals  and  pbnts  has  directed 
attention  to  the  manner  in  which  pbnts  are  nourished,  and  especblly 
to  the  exact  nature  of  theirJood.  The  idea  was  till  recently  currently 
accepied,  that  anything  wnicfa  plants  absorbed  from  wfthout,  and 


which  went  to  build  op  their  orgamc  subetknoe,  or  to  lupiriy  them 
with  oaergy,  or  to  exert  some  beneficbl  influence  upon  their  meta«> 
boliam.  constituted  theirJood.  Now,  as  the  materiab  which  plants 
absorb  are  caiboa  dioxide  from  the  air.  and  various  inoraank 
compounds  from  the  soil,  together  with  water,  it  b  clear  that  ifthb 
view  b  conect,  vegetable  protoplasm  roust  be  fed  in  a  very  different 
way  from  animal,  and  on  very  different  materials.  A  study  of  the 
whole  vmtabfe  kingdom,  however,  negatives  the  theory  that  the 
compounds  absorbed  are  in  the  strict  sense  to  be  called  food.  Fun^ 
and  phanero{gamic  parasitee  can  make  no  use  of  such  substances  as 
carbon  diooode,  but  draw  ebborated  products  fnom  the  bodies  of 
their  hosts.  Those  Fungi  which  are  sMwophytic  can  only  live 
when  supplied  with  ofganic  compounds  .of  some  comi^exity.  which 
they  demre  from  decomposing  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  Even 
in  the  hiriier  flowering  plants,  in  which  the  processes  of  the  absor]^ 
tion  of  substances  from  the  eavinnunent  has  been  most  fully  studied, 
there  is  a  stage  in  their  life  in  which  the  nutritive  processes  approxi* 
mate  very  closely  to  those  of  the  group  last  mentioned.  When  the 
your^  sporophyte  first  begina  its  mdependent  life — when,  that  is. 
It  exists  in  the  form  0^  the  embryo  in  the  seed — its  living  substance 
has  no  |>ower  of  utilizing  the  simple  inornnic  compounds  spoken  of« 
Its  nutritive  pabulum  is  sutpplicd  to  it  in  Die  shape  of  certain  complex 
organic  substances  which  nave  been  stored  in  some  part  or  other  of 
the  seedj  sometimes  even  in  its  own  tissues,  by  the  parent  (^ot 
from  which  it  springs.  When  the  tuber  of  a  potato  b^ins  to  ger* 
minate  the  shoots  whkh  it  puts  out  derive  their  food  from  the 
accumubted  store  of  nutritive  material  which  has  been  bid  up  in 
the  cells  of  the  tuber.  If  we  examine  the  seat  of  acti^ve  growtn  ia 
a  young  root  or  twig,  we  find  that  the  cells  in  which  the  otgank 
substance,  the  pn>t<»laMn,  of  the  plant  bbeingformHand  increased, 
are  not  supplied  witn  carbon  dioadde  and  mineral  matter,  but  with 
such  elaborated  material  as  sugar  and  proteid  substances,  or  others 
closely  allied  to  them. 

Identity  of  the  Food  e§  Animals  and  Plants. -^h  b  evidently  to  the 
actual  seats  of  consumption  of  food,  and  of  consequent  nutrition 
and  increase  of  living  substance,  that  we  s^uld  tuna  when  we  wish 
to  inquire  what  are  the  nutritive  materials  of  pbnts.  If  we  go  back 
to  the  first  instance  cited,  the  embryo  in  the  seed  and  its  dcvetopment 
during  germination,  we  can  ascertain  what  is  necessaiv  for  its  life 
by  inauiring  what  are  the  materials  which  are  depositee  in  the  seed, 
and  which  become  exhausted  by  consumption  as  growth  and  develop* 
ment  proceed.  We  find  them  to  consut  of  representatives  of  tne 
great  classes  of  foodstuffs  on  which  animal  protopbsm  is  nourished, 
and  whose  presence  renders  seeds  such  valuable  material  for  animal 
consumption.  They  are  mainly  carbohydrates  such  as  starch  and 
sugar,  proteids  in  the  form  of  globulins  or  albumoses.  and  in  many 
cases  fats  and  oils,  while  certain  other  bodies  of  simitar  nutritive 
value  are  Ie?is  widely  dbtributed. 

The  differences  between  the  nutritive  processes  of  the  animal 
and  the  pbnt  arc  not  therefore  fundamental,  as  they  were  formerly 
held  to  be.  The  general  vegetable  protopbsm  has  not  the  capacity 
of  being  nourished  by  inorganic  substances  which  are  denied  to  the 
living  substance  of  the  animal  worid.  Differences  connected  with 
the  mode  of  supply  of  nutritive  material  do  exist,  but  they  are  mainly 
eorrcbted  with  the  structure  of  the  organisms,  which  makes  the 
method  0^  absorption  different.  The  cell-walls  of  pbnts  render  the 
entry  of  solid  material  into  the  organism  impossible.  The  food 
must  enter  in  solution  in  order  to  pass  the  walls.  Moreover,  the 
stationary  habit  of  pbnts.  and  the  almost  total  absence  ojf  locomo^ 
tion,  makes  it  impossible  for  them  to  seek  their  food. 

The  Special  Apparatus  df  Plants  for  constructing  Food.— 'The 
expbnation  of  the  apparent  difference  of  food  sui>pty  is  very  simple. 
Plants  are  furnished  with  a  constructive  mcchausm  by  which  they 
are  enabled  to  fabricate  the  food  on  which  they  live  from  the  inof> 
ganic,  gaseous  and  Ikjuk)  matters  whkh  they  absorb.  The  fact 
of  such  absorption  does  not  render  these  substances  food :  they  aie 
taken  in  not  as  food,  but  as  raw  materials  to  be  subjected  to  the 
action  Of  thb  constructive  mechanism,  and  by  it  to  be  converted 
Into  substances  that  can  nourish  protoplasm,  both  vegetable  and 
animal.  It  is  sometimes  forgotten,  when  discussing  questions  of 
animal  nutrition,  that  all  the  food  materials  of  all  living  oraanisms 
are  prepared  originally  from  inorganic  substances  in  exactly  the  same 
way.  in  exactly  the  same  pbce,  and  by  the  same  machinery,  whkh  n 
the  cklorophyU  apparatus  of  the  vegetable  Idngdom.  A  consideration 
of  these  facts  emphasizes  still  more  fully  the  vkw  with  which  we  set 
out,  that  all  living  substance  is  fundamentally  the  same,  though 
diffcrentbted  both  anatomically  and  physiologically  In  many  direc- 
tions and  in  different  degrees.  All  b  nourished  alike  on  materbb 
originally  prepared  by  a  mechanism  attached  to  the  higher  vegetable 
Ofganism,  and  capable  of  being  dissocbted,  in  theory  at  least, 
from  its  own  special  means  of  nutrition,  if  by  the  latter  term  we 
understand  the  appropriation  by  the  protc^lasm  of  the  materials 
so  constructed. 

The  chlorophyll  apparatus  of  pbnts  demands  a  certain  descrip- 
tion.^ It  consists  essentially  of  a  number  of  minute  corpuscles  4r 
pbstids,  the  protoplasmic  substance  of  whkh  b  impregnated  with  a 
green  colouring  matter.  These  bodies,  known  technkally  as  chhro- 
Plasts,  arc  found  embedded  in  the  protopbsm  of  the  cells  of  the  meso* 
phyll  of  folbge  leaves,  of  certain  of  the  cclb  of  some  of  the  leaves  of 
the  flower,  aiu  of  the  cortex  of  the  young  twigs  and  petioles.  Usually 


748 


PLANTS 


(PHYSIOU)GY 


thev  are  abtent  firom  the  oelte  of  the  epidennlSr  thottgh  in  tooie  of 
the  lower  plants  they  are  met  with  there  also.  The  plastids  are  not 
rigidly  embedded  in  the  cytoplasm,  but  are  capable  of  a  certain 
amount  of  movement  thcrem.  Each  »  a  small  protoplasmic 
body,  in  the  meshes  of  whose  substance  the  gieen  colourinc  matter 
cUore^yll  is  contained  in  some  form  of  solution.  Various  solvents, 
such  as  benaene,  alcohol  and  chloroform,  will  dissolve  out  the 
pigment,  leaving  the  piastid  colouriess.  ChlorophjrU  is  not  soluble 
in  water,  nor  in  acids  or  alkalies  without  decomposition. 

These  plastids  are  especially  chaiged  with  the  duty  of  manufactur- 
ing carbohydrates  from  the  carbon  dioxide  which  the  air  contains. 
aiM  which  IS  absorbed  from  it  after  it  has  entered  the  intercellular 
passages  and  has  so  reached  the  cells  containing  the  plastids.  This 
action  is  found  to  take  place  only  in  the  presence  of  light,  preferably 
moderate  sunlight.  The  reason  for  the  distribution  of  the  chloro- 
plasts  described  above  b  consequently  seen.  The  relation  of  the 
chlorophyll  to  light  has  been  studied  by  many  observers.  If  a 
solution  of  the  pigment  is  placed  in  the  path  of  a  beam  of  light  which 
ia  then  allowea  to  fall  on  a  prism,  the  resulting  spectrum  will  be 
found  to  be  modified.  Instead  of  presenting  tm  appearance  of  a 
continuous  band  in  which  all  the  ooloura  are  represented,  it  i» 
interrupted  by  seven  vertical  dark  spaces.  The  rays  which  in  the 
absence  of  the  solution  of  chlorophyll  would  have  occupied  those 
spaces  have  no  power  to  pass  through  it,  or  in  other  woids  chlorophyll 
absorbs  those  particular  rays  of  light  which  are  missing. 

The  absorption  of  these  rays  implies  that  the  pigment  absorbs 
radiant  energy  from  the  sun,  and  gives  us  some  explanation  of  iu 
power  of  constructing  the  carbohydrates  which  has  been  mentioned 
as  the  special  work  of  the  apparatus.  The  working  of  it  is  not  at 
all  completely  understood  at  present,  nor  can  we  say  exactly  what 
ia  the  part  played  by  the  pigment  and  what  is  the  rfile  of  the  proto- 
plasm of  the  piastid.  It  is  not  certain  either  whether  the  action 
of  the  chlorophyll  apparatus  b  confined  to  the  manufacture  of 
carbohydrates  or  whctner  it  is  concerned,  and  if  so  how  far.  with 
the  construction  of  protcids  also. 

As  the  action  of  the  chlorophyll  apparatus  b  directly  dependent 
upon  light,  and  the  immediate  result  <rf  its  activity  b  the  building 
up  of  complex  compounds,  it  has  become  usual  to  speak  of  the 
processes  it  sets  up  under  the  name  of  pkotosynthesu, 

Fkolotynikesis. — In  the  presence  of  light  and  when  the  plant  b 
subjected  to  a  suitable  temperature,  photosynthesb  commences, 
provided  that  the  plant  has  acce»  to  air  containing  its  normal 
amount  of  carbon  dioxide,  about  3  parts,  or  rather  less,  in  10.000. 
The  process  involves  the  inter-action  of  water  also,  and  thb,  as  we 
have  seen,  b  always  present  in  the  cell.  In  addition,  ccnain  in- 
organic salts,  particularly  certain  compounds  of  potassium,  are 
apparently  necessary,  but  they  seem  to  take  no  part  in  the  chemical 
changes  which  take  place.  The  original  hypotnesb  of  Baeyer  sug- 
yrsted'that  the  course  of  events  b  the  followii^ :  the  carbon  dioxioe 
m  decomposed  into  carbon  monoxide  and  oxygen,  while  water  b 
simultaneously  split  up  into  hydrogen  and  oxygen;  the  hydrogen 
and  the  carbon  monoxioe  unite  to  form  formaldehyde  and  the  oxygen 
is  exhaled.  This  explanation  is  unsatislactory  from  many  points 
of  vbw.  but  till  quite  recently  no  acceptable  alternative  has  been 
advanced.  There  b  no  eviocnce  that  carbon  monoxide  b  ever 
produced,  indeed  there  are  strong  reasons  for  dbbelbving  in  its 
occurrence.  The  formation  of  formaldehyde  has  till  recently  not 
been  satisfactorily  proved,  though  it  has  been  obuined  from  certain 
lesves  by  distillation.  Cenain  Algae  have  been  found  capable  of 
forming  nutritive  carbohydrates  in  darkness,  when  supplied  with 
a  compound  of  thb  body  with  sodium-hydrogen-sulphite.  But  it 
b  certain  that  it  can  only  be  present  in  a  cell  in  very  small  amount 
at  any  moment,  for  an  extremely  dilute  solution  acts  as  a  poison 
to  protoplasm.  If  formed,  as  it  probably  is,  it  b  iromecbtely 
changed  into  some  more  complex  combination,  and  so  rendered 
incapable  of  exerting  its  poisonous  action. 

Bacyer's  hypothesb  was  entertained  by  botanists  partly  because 
it  explained  the  gaseous  interchanges  accompanying  photosynthesb. 
These  show  that  a  definite  intake  of  carbon  dioxide  b  always 
accompanied  by  an  exhalation  of  an  equal  volume  of  oxygen. 

Recent  investigations  have  confirmed  Baeyer's  view  of  the  forma- 
tion of  formaldehyde,  but  a  different  explanation  has  been  recently 
advanced.  The  nrst  chemkal  change  suggested  b  an  interaction 
between  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  under  the  influence  of  light  acting 
throush  chlorophyll,  which  leads  to  the  simultaneous  formation  01 
formaldehyde  ana  hydrogen  peroxide.  The  formaldehyde  at  once 
undergoes  a  process  of  condensation  or  pdymerization  by  the  proto- 
plasm of  the  piastid,  while  the  hydrogen  peroxide  b  said  to  be 
decomposed  into  water  and  free  oxygen  by  another  agency  in  the 
cell,  of  the  nature  of  one  of  the  enzymes  of  which  we  shall  speak 
later. 

Polymeriaation  of  the  aldehyde  was  also  a  feature  of  Baeyer's 
hypothesis,  so  that  this  view  oocs  not  very  materblly  differ  irom 
those  he  advaiKed.  More  emphasis  is,  however,  now  laid  on  the 
actioi.  of  the  piastid  in  polymerization,  while  the  initial  stages  are 
still  not  definitely  explained. 

The  steps  which  lead  from  the  appearance  of  formaldehyde  to 
that  of  the  first  well-defined  carbohydrate  are  again  matters  of 
specuUtion.  There  are  many  possibilities,  but  no  definite  body 
01  simpler  compositioa  than  a  sugar  has  so  far  been  detected.   Nor 


is  the  nature  of, the  first  fonncd  sugar  certain:  the  general  opinioa 
has  been  that  it  is  a  simple  hcxose  such  as  glucose  or  fruaow. 
CtHiiOc  Brown  and  Morris  in  1892  advanced  strong  reasons  for 
thinking   that  cane-augar,   CuHnOn,   b    the    first  carfoohydait 

rthesised,  and  that  tlie  hexoses  found  in  the  ptaint  result  (roai 
decomposition  of  thb.  The  whole  story  of  the  difieivnt 
sugars  exbting  in  the  plant — their  relations  and  their  several 
functions — requires  renewed  investigation. 

The  firat  visible  carbohydrate  formed,  one  which  zppan  » 
rapidly  on  the  commenoement  of  photosyotiwsb  as  to  nave  been 
regaroed  as  the  first  evidence  of  the  setting  up  of  the  process,  is 
starch.  This  b  met  with  in  the  form  of  smau  granular  specks  ia 
the  substance  of  the  chloroplast,  specks  which  assume  a  Uue  cokxtr 
when  treated  with  a  solution  of  iodine.  Its  very  prompt  appeu- 
ance.  as  soon  as  the  apparatus  became  active,  led  to  the  opuias 
formerly  beU,  that  the  ytork  of  the  latter  was  complete  only  whea  the 
starch  was  formed.  We  have  seen  that  the  starch  is  preceded  by  the 
formation  of  sugar,  and  its  appearance  b  now  interpreted  as  a  aiga 
of  surplus  manufacture.  As  much  sugar  m  b  pradoced  in  exen 
of  the  inunedbte  requirements  of  the  cell  b  converted  into  the 
insoluble  form  of  starch  by  the  plastidsof  the  chlorophyll  appsntuv 
and  is  so  withdrawn  from  the  sphere  of  action,  thereby  enaUms 
the  construction  of  further  quantities  of  sugar  to  take  ^aoe.  Be 
presence  of  too  much  sugar  in  solution  in  the  sap  of  the  cell  mhibin 
the  activity  of  the  chtoroplasta;  hence  the  necessity  for  its  seinovaL 
Starch,  indeed,  wherever  it  appean  in  the  plant  seema  to  be  a  resent 
store  of  carbohydrate  material,  deposited  where  it  b  found  fc( 
longer  or  shorter  periods  till  it  b  needed  for  consumptioa.  TIk 
readiness  with  which  it  b  converted  into  sugar  fits  h  capedally  to 
be  a  reserve  or  Mored  laateriai. 

Protnd  FormaiioH. — We  have  seen  that  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  chlorophyll  apparatus  may  perhaps  be  concerned  in  the  naou- 
facture  of  proteids  as  well  as  of  carbohydrates.  If  not.  there  mast 
exist  in  the  green  plant,  aide  by  side  with  it,  another  mectttwins 
which  b  concerned  with  the  manufacture  of  the  complex  compoiBidt 
in  which  nitrogen  b  present..  The, independence  of  the  two  is  sug- 
gested by  the  lact  that  fungi  can  live,  thrive  and  grow  in  nutritive<»' 
media  which  contain  carnihydratca  together  with  oertam  bIo 
of  ammonia,  but  which  are  free  from  proteids.  It  b  ontab  that 
their  protoplasm  cannot  be  nourbhed  oy  inoraanic  compounds  of 
nitrogen,  any  more  than  that  of  animals.  We  must  therefore 
surmise  theirposscssion  of  a  mechanism  which  can  construct  proteids. 
if  supplied  with  these  compounds  of  nitrogen  together  with  sugar. 

The  probability  is  that  thb  mechanism  b  to  be  found  b  cites 
plants  in  the  leaves— at  any  rate  there  b  a  certain  body  of  evioencx 
pointing  in  thb  direction.  It  may  be,  however,  that  there  b  no 
specbl  mechanism,  but  that  thb  power  is  a  particular  differentiatios 
of  a  physiological  kind,  existing  in  all  vegetable  protoplasm, oris 
that  of  certain  cells.  The  idea  of  an  identity  of  protoplasm  60a 
not  iiivolve  a  denial  of  special  powen  devek>pcd  in  it  in  dificrtat 
situations,  and  the  possession  of  such  a  power  fay  the  vegetate 
cell  is  not  more  striking  than  the  location  of^the  powcra  of  co^iss* 
tion  and  thought  in  the  protoplasm  of  cells  of  the  human  braiiL 

But  if  we  accept  either  view  we  have  still  to  examine  the  praoni 
of  construction  in  detail,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  stages  ty 
which  protetd  b  built  up.  Hcxe  unfortunately  we  fimd  ouneltei 
in  the  region  of  speculation  and  hypothesis  rather  than  in  that  of 
fact.  The  nitrogen  is  absorbed  by  the  i^nt  in  some  form  of  coeili- 
nation  from  the  soil.  The  green  pbnt  ptden  aa  a  rule  nitatcs  of 
various  metab,  such  aa  calcium,  magneaum  or  potasEium.  The 
fungus  seems  to  do  better  when  supplied  with  compounds  d 
ammonia.  The  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  b  ix>t  caltra  bto  tt- 
quisition,  except  by  a  few  plants  and  under  special  oroditioat,  as 
will  be  expUined  later.  The  fate  of  these  inotsanic  ooofMwsdi 
has  not  been  certainly  traced,  but  they  give  rise  later  on  to  the 
presence  in  the  plant  of  various  amino  acid  amides,  such  as  letjcA. 

E*  ^in.  asparagin,  &c.  That  these  are  stages  on  the  way  toprottkii 
s  been  inferred  from  the  fact  that  when  proteids  are  spht  up  by 
variotn  means,  and  especially  by  the  digestive  secretioas,  tbe« 
nitrogen-containing  acids  are  arooitg  the  producta  which  resiilL 

While  we  know  little  oi  the  processes  of  protet4rconstructi(M,  «t 
are  almost  completely  in  the  dark  also  as  to  what  axe  the  panicultf 
proteids  which  are  first  constructed. 

Opinions  are  conflicting  also  as  to  the  oonditions  under  vluch 
proteids  are  formed.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  evidence  that  at 
any  rate  in  some  cases  light  b  necessary,  and  that  the  violet  (>}« 
of  the  spectrum  are  chiefly  concerned.  But  the  subject  requires 
elucidation  from  both  chemical  and  biological  points  of^view. 

The  normal  green  plant  b  seen  thus  t»  be  in  posBesaion  of  s 
complete  machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  in  own  food.  The  «sr 
in  which  such  food  when  manufactured  b  incorporated  iato,  am 
enabled  to  build  up.  the  living  substance  b  again  hidden  in  obscuriry- 
This  is,  however,  also  the  case  with  the  nutrition  of  animal  ptoio- 
pUsm. 

The  building  up  and  nutrition  of  the  living  subatance  fay  t» 
foods  manufactured  or  absorbed  b  properly  spoxen  of  as  the  aasic»- 
lation  of  such  food.  Up  to  very  recently  the  orbinal  abaorptio* 
and  subsequent  treatment  of  the  carbon  dioxide  ami  the  con^P"'"^ 
of  nitrogen  has  been  called  by  the  same  term.  We  frequently  aw 
the  expression  used,  "the  'aaaimibition'  of  carbon  dioskk,  or«> 


ptiysiou)GV) 


PLANTS 


749 


nitrosen.**  Aa  thn  is  not  the  iaoarporation  of  either  into  (he  living 
lobstance,  but  is  only  its  manufacture  into  the  complex  substancet 
which  we  find  in  the  plant,  it  Beenw  ixeferable  to  limit  the  term 
"  assimilation  "  to  the  processes  by  which  foods  are  acttially  taken 
into  the  protoplasm. 

Symbiosis. — ^Though  green  plants  thus  ixissess  a  Tciy  complete 
mechanism  for  the  manufacture  of  their  different  foodstuffs,  it  is 
not  always  exercised  to  the  fullest  extent.  Many  of  them  are  known 
to  supplement  it.  and  some  almost  entirely  to  replace  it,  by  absorb- 
ing the  food  they  need  in  a  fully  prepared  condition  from  their 
environment.     It  may  be  that  they  procure  it  from  dccomposii^ 


not  even  speciarixcd  in  any  of  these  dirpctions,  to  abiiorb  certain 
carbohydrates,  particularly  sugars,  from  the  soil  was  demonstiated 
by  Acton  in  1889.  Similar  observations  have  been  made  in  the 
case  of  various  compounds  of  nitrogen,  though  these  have  not  been 
to  complex  as  the  proteids.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  regard 
as  parasites  all  those  plants  which  inserted  roots  or  root  •like  organs 
into  the  tissues  of  other  plants  and  absorbed  the  contents  oTthe 
latter.  The  roost  conspicuous  caste,  perhaps,  of  all  these  is  the 
mistletoe,  which  flourishes  luxuriantly  upon  the  aople,  the  poplar 
and  other  trees.  Bonnior  has  drawn  attention  to  the  fact  tmt  the 
mistletoe  in  its  turn,  remaining  grren  in  the  winter,  contributes 
food  material  to  its  host  when  the  latter  has  lo»t  its  k^avcs.  The 
relationship  thus  existing  he  showed  to  he  mutually  beneficial,  each 
at  one  time  or  another  supplying  the  necessities  of  the  other.  Such  a 
relationship  is  known  as  symbiosis^  and  the  large  majority  of  the 
cases  of  so<a11ed  parasitism  among  green  plants  can  be  leferTCd  to 
it.  Bonnier  showed  that  the  same  relationship  could  be  proved  in 
the  cases  of  such  plants  as  the  rattle  {Rktrutnthus),  the  e>t>bright 
iEupkrasitt),  and  other  members  of  the  Natural  Orders,  Scrophulari- 
aceae  and  Santalaceae,  which  effect  a  union  between  their  roots  and 
the  roots  of  other  plants  growing  near  them.  The  unkm  taking 
pbicc  underground,  while  the  bulk  of  both  partners  in  the  symbk>sis 
rises  into  the  air,  renders  the  association  a  little  difficult  to  see, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  plants  in  question  do  afford  each  other 
assistance,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  partnerehio.  The  most 
pronounced  case  01  parasitism,  that  of  Cuscuta,  the  dodder,  whkh 
infests  particulariy  clover  fields,  appears  to  differ  only^  in  degree 
from  those  mentioined,  for  the  plant,  bare  of  leaves  as  it  is,  ycX  con* 
tains  a  little  chlorophyll.  The  advantages  it  can  offer  to  its  host 
are.  however,  infinitesimal  when  compared  with  the  injury  it  does 
it.  Many  other  cases  of  symbiosis  have  been  investigated  with 
some  completeness,  especially  those  in  which  lower  plants  than  the 
Phanerogams  are  concerned.  The  relatbns  of  the  Alga  and  the 
Fungus,  whkrh  have  formed  a  close  assocbtionship  in  the  structure 
known  as  the  Lichen,  were  established  many  years  ago.  Snce  about 
1880  our  knowledge  of  the  species  which  can  enter  into  such 
relationships  has  been  materially  extended,  and  the  fungal  con^ 
stiiuents  of  the  Lichens  are  known  to  include  Basidioraycetes  as 
well  as  Ascomycetes. 

My€Ofktxas.~^'T\x  most  interesting  cases,  however,  in  which 
Fungi  form  8ymbk>tic  relationships  with  green  plants  ha\'e  been 
discovered  in  connexion  with  forest  trres.  The  roots  of  many  of 
the  latter,  while  growing  freely  in  the  soil  are  found  to  be  surrounded 
with  a  dense  feltwork  of  funnal  mycelium,  which  sometimes  forms  a 
mass  of  considerable  siae.  The  plants  showing  it  are  not  all  forest 
trees,  but  include  also  some  Pteridophytes  and  some  of  the  prothallia 
of  the  Ferns,  Club^mosses,  Liverworts  and  Horsetails.  The  true 
nature  of  the  relationship  was  first  recognised  by  Pfcffer  in  1877, 
but  few  cases  were  known  till  recent  years.  Very  compkie  examina* 
tion.  however,  has  now  been  made  01  many  instances,  and  the  name 
mycorkita  has  been  given  to  the  symbiotic  union.  Two  classes  are 
recognised.  In  the  first,  which  are  called  etMropir,  the  fungal 
filaments  form  a  thick  felt  or  sheath  round  the  root,  either  completely 
enclosing  it  or  leaving  the  apex  free.  They  seldom  penetrate  the 
living  cells,  though  they  do  so  in  a  few  cases.  The  root -hairs  pene- 
trate between  masses  of  the  hyphae  of  the  Fungus.  This  type  of 
mycorhixa  is  found  among  the  Poplars,  Oaks  and  Fir  trres.  The 
otner  type  is  called  endetropic.  The  funni  filaments  either  pene- 
trate the  epidermis  of  the  root,  or  enter  it  from  (he  stem  am!  ramify 
in  the  interior.  Some  make  their  wy  throufsh  the  cells  of  the  outer 
part  of  the  cortex  towards  the  root-tip.  and  form  a  m>-celium  or 
feltwork  of  hyphae.  which  generally  occupies  two  or  three  la>Tre  of 
cells.  From  this  branches  pass  into  the  middle  region  of  the  cortex 
and  ramify  through  the  interior  half  of  its  cells.  They  often  cause 
a  considerable  hypertrophy  of  the  tissue.  From  the  outer  cortical 
mycelium,  a^in,  branches  pass  through  the  epidermis  and  grow 
out  in  the  soil.  In  such  cases  the  roots  of  the  plants  are  usually 
found  spreading  in  soils  which  contain  a  brge  amount  of  humus, 
or  decaying  ve^able  matter.  The  organic  compounds  of  the  latter 
are  absorted  by  the  protruding  fungal  filaments,  which  take  the 
place  of  root-hairs,  the  tree  ceasing  to  develop  the  latter.  The  food 
so  absorbed  passes  to  the  outer  cortical  mycelium,  and  from  this  to 
the  inner  hyphae.  which  appear  to  be  the  organs  of  the  interchange 
of  substance,  for  they  are  attracted  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
nuclei  of  the  cells,  which  they  enter,  and  in  whkrh  they  form  agglom- 
erations of  interwoYen  filaments.    Tbe  prothalli  of  the  Pterido- 


phytes, w%ic1i  form  stmilir  tymWoKt,  ilioir  «  somewhat  diflferent 
mode  of  arrangement,  the  Fungi  occupying  the  external  or  the  lower 
layen  of  the  thaUoid  body. 

The  discovery  of  the  wMespread  occurrence  of  this  mycorhizal 
symbwsis  must  beheM  to  be  one  of  the  most  imporUnt  results  of 
research  upon  the  nutritive  processes  of  plants  during  the  closing 
decade  of  the  19th  century.  Among  green  pUnts  the  symbionts 
include  Conifere.  Orehkis,  Heaths,  Qsks.  Poplara  and  Beeches, 
though  all  do  not  derive  equal  advanugcs  from  the  assoctatwn. 
if MMfrepof  afford  an  extreme  case  of  it.  having  lost  their  chlorophyll 
almost  entirely,  and  conte  to  depend  upon  the  Fungi  for  their  nutri- 
ment. The  fungal  constituents  vary  considerably.  Each  necies 
of  green  plant  may  form  a  mycorhia  with  two  or  three  difrerent 
Fungi,  and  a  single  species  01  Fungus  may  enter  into  symbiosis 
with  several  {peen  plants.  The  Funri  that  have  been  discovered 
taking  part  m  the  union  include  ISmoHum.  Pylhinm,  Boletus, 
Agancfts,  Lactunus,  PeniciUium  and  many  others  of  less  frequent 
occurrence.  All  the  known  species  belong  to  the  Oiomycetes,  the 
Pywnomycetes,  the  HymeiuMnycetes  or  tlie  Gasteromycctes.  The 
habit  of  forming  mycorhisas  is  found  more  frequently  in  warm  cli- 
mates than  colcl:  indeed,  the  percentage  of  the  flora  exhibiting  this 
peculiarity  seems  to  increase  with  a  certaun  regularity  from  the 
Aretic  Circle  to  the  equator. 

Fixation  0/ JVii»vgeii.— Another,  and  peihaps  an  even  more  impor- 
tant, insunce  of  symbiotk:  association  has  come  to  the  front  during 
the  same  period.  It  b  an  allbnce  between  the  pbnts  of  the  Natural 
Order  Lcguminosae  and  certain  bacterium-like  forms  which  find  a 
home  within  the  tissues  of  their  roots.  The  importance  of  the 
s^-mbMsu  can  only  be  understood  by  conudering  the  rebtionship  in 
whkh  pbnts  stand  with  regard  to  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air.  Long 
ago  the  view  that  thu  gas  might  be  the  source  of  the  combined 
nitrogen  found  in  different  forms  within  the  pbnt,  was  critkally 
examined,  particubrly  by  Bouasingault,  and  bter  by  Lawes  and 
Gilbert  ana  by  Pugh,  ami  it  was  ascertained  to  be  erroneous,  the 
pbnts  only  takiiw  nitrogen  into  their  substance  when  it  b  presented 
to  their  roots  in  the  form  of  nitrates  of  various  metab,  or  compounds 
of  ammonia.  Msny  writen  in  recent  years,  among  whom  may  be 
named  espccbDv  Hellriegel  and  Wilfarth,  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  and 
Schkning  and  Laurent,  have  shown  that  the  Legumtnosae  as  a 
group  form  conspicuous  exceptions  to  this  rule.  While  they  are 
quite  capable  of  taking  up  nitrates  from  the  soil  where  and  so  long 
as  these  are  present,  they  can  erow  and  thrive  in  soil  whkh  contains 
no  combined  nitrogen  at  all,  deriving  their  supplies  of  thb  element 
in  these  cases  from  the  air.  The  phenomena  have  been  the  subject 
of  very  careful  and  critical  examination  for  many  years,  and  may  be 
reearded  as  satisfactorily  established.  The  power  of  fixing  atmo* 
spheric  nitrogen  by  the  nigher  pbnts  seems  to  be  confined  to  thb 
solitary  group,  thouj^h  it  has  been  stated  by  various  observers  with 
more  or  less  emphasis  that  it  b  shared  by  others.  Frank  has  cbimed 
to  have  found  oats,  buckbeans,  spurry,  turnips,  mustard,  potatoes 
and  Norway  maples  exercUing  It ;  Nobbe  and  others  have  imputed 
its  possession  to  Elaeatnus.  There  b  little  direct  evidence  pointing 
to  this  extensbn  of  the  power,  and  many  experimenters  directly 
contradict  the  statements  of  Frank. 

The  po»-er  exercised  by  the  Legnminoaae  b  aaaocbted  with  the 
presence  of  curious  tubercular  swellings  upon  their  roots,  which  are 
developed  at  a  very  eariy  age,  as  they  are  cultivated  in  ordinary  soil. 
If  experimental  pbnts  are  grown  in  sterilised  soil,  these  swellings  do 
not  appear,  ancf  the  pbnt  can  then  use  no  atmospheric  nitnogen. 
The  swellii^  have  been  found  to  be  due  to  a  curious  hypertrophy 
of  the  tissue  of  the  part,  the  celb  being  filled  with  an  immense  num- 
ber of  minute  bac(eriuni*ltke  oiganbms  of  V,  X  or  Y  shape.    The 
development  of  these  structures  has  been  studied  by  many  observers, 
both  in  Kngbnd  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe.    Iney  appear 
to  be  present  in  large  numbers  hi  the  soil,  and  to  infect  the  Legumin- 
ous pfant  by  attacking  its  root-hairs.    One  d  these  haire  can  be 
teen  to  be  penetrated  at  a  particubr  spot,  and  the  entering  body 
b  then  found  to  grow  along  the  length  of  the  hair  till  it  reaches  the 
cortex  of  the  root.    It  has  the  apfxarance  of  a  delkrate  tube  which 
has  granubr  conients,  and  n  provided  withan  apex  that  sppcars  to 
be  open.  The  wall  of  the  tube  is  very  thin  and  dclirate,  ana  does  not 
teem  to  be  composed  of  cellulose  or  any  modificatkm  of  it.     Careful 
staining  diows  that  the  granubr  substance  of  the  interior  really 
consists  of  a  brge  number  of  delkate  rod-like  bodies.   As  the  tube 
grows  down  the  hair  it  maintains  its  own  independence,  and  does 
not  fuse  with  the  contents  of  the  root-hair,  whose  protoplasm  re- 
mains quite  distinct  and  separate.    After  making  its  way  into  the 
interior,  the  intruder  sets  up  a  considerable  hyper  trophy  of  the  tissoe. 
causing  the  formatkm  of  a  tubercle,  which  soon  shows  a  certain 
differentbtion,  branches  of  the  vascubr  bundles  of  tbe  toot  being 
supplied  to  it.    The  rod-like  bodies  from  the  interior  of  the  tube, 
which  has  considerable  resembbnce  to  the  loogloca  of  many  Bacteria* 
are  liberated  into  the  interior  of  the  cells  of  the  tubercb  and  fill  iti 
increasing  by  a  process  of  branching  and  fistton.    When  thb  stage 
b  reached  tne  invading  tubes  ana  their  ramifications  frequently 
disappear,  leaving  thecdb  full  of  thebacterioids,as  they  have  been 
calbd.    When  the  root  dies  bter  such  of  these  as  remain  are  di»* 
charged  into  the  soil,  and  are  then  ready  to  infect  new  pbnts.    In 
some  cases  the  soogloea  thread  or  tube  has  npt  been  seen,  the  orfsii- 
I  bm  consisting  entutly  cf  the  bacterioids. 


75P 


PLANTS 


KPHYSIOLOGir 


Thb  peculiar  fcUtiouUp  •uggett*  M  oaee  a  «vmbiot{t»  ibe  Fumub 
gaining  its  nutriment  mainly  or  entirely  from  tbe  g,ntn  (rfant.  wfiiie 
the  latter  in  some  way  or  outer  is  able  to  utilise  the  free  nitrogen  of 
the  air.  The  exact  way  in  which  the  utilixation  or  fixatio*  of  the 
nitrogen  is  effected  remains  undecided.  Two  vie«rs  are  still  receiving 
certain  support,  though  the  second  of  them  appears  the  more  prob- 
able. Thesa  are:  (i)  That  the  green  plant  is  so  stimulated  by  the 
symbiotic  association  which  leads  to  the  hypertrophy,  that  it  is 
able  to  fix  the  nitrogen  or  cause  it  to  enter  into  oombination.  (i) 
That  the  fixation  oif  the  gas  is  -carried  out  by  the  fungal  oiganism 
either  in  the  soil  or  in  the  plant,  and  the  nitrogenous  substance  so 

e reduced  is  absorbed  by  the  ocganism,  which  ts  in  turn  consumed 
y  the  green  plant.    Certain  evidence  which  supports  this  view 
will  be  refercea  to  later. 

^liichevcr  opinion  is  held  on  this  point,  there  seems  no  room 
for  doubt  that  the  fixation  of  the  nitrogen  is  concerned  only  with  the 
root,  and  that  the  green  leaves  take  no  part  in  it.  The  nodules,  in 
particular,  appear  to  play  the  important  part  in  the  process.  Mar> 
shall  Ward  has  directed  attentbn  to  several  points  of  their  structure 
which  bear  out  thb  view.  They  are  sups>{ied  with  a  regular  system 
of  conducting  vascular  bundles  communicating  with  those  of  the 
roots.  Their  cells  during  the  period  of  incubation  of  the  symbiotic 
organism  are  abundantly  supplied  with  starch.  The  cdh  in  which 
the  fungoid  oiganism  is  vigorously ^Sourishing  areexceedinglv  active, 
showing  targe  sixe,  brilliant  nuclei,  protoplasm  and  vacuole,  all  of 
which  give  signs  of  intense  metabolic  activity.  The  sap  in  these 
active  tissues  is  alkaline,  which  has  been  interpreted  as  being  in 
accordance  with  Loow's  suggestion  that  the  living  protoplasm  in 
presence  of  an  alkali  and  tree  nitrogen  can  build  up  ammonium 
nitrate,  or  some  simibr  body.  It  is,  however,  at  present  entirely 
unknown  what  substances  are  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  atmo- 
spheric  nitrogen. 

The  idea  that  the  atmospheric  nitrogen  is  gradually  being  made  use 
of  by  plants,  although  it  is  dearly  not  easily  or  commonly  utilized, 
has  been  growing  steadily.  Besides  the  phenomena  oC  the  symbiosis 
just  discussed,  certain  experiments  tend  ta  show  that  we  have 
a  constant  fixatk>n  of  this  gas  in  the  soil  by  various  Bacteria. 
Researches  which  have  been  carried  out  since  1865  by  Berthelot, 
Andr6e.  Laurent  and  Schloesing.  and  more  recently  oy  Kossowitsch, 
seem  to  establish  the  fact,  though  the  details  of  the  process  remain 
undiscovered.  Berthelot  iroiwtes  it  to  the  actran  of  several  species 
of  soil  Bacteria  and  Fungi,  including  the  Bacterium  of  the  Legu- 
minosae.  when  the  latter  is  cultivated  free  from  its  ordinary  host. 
Laurent  and  Schloesing  affirm  that  the  free  nitrof^en  of  the  air  can 
be  fixed  b}r  a  number  of  humble  green  plants,  prinapally  lowly  green 
Algae.  Thev  must  be  exposed  freely  to  lignt  and  air  dunne  the 
process,  or  tney  faU  to  dfcct  it.  Frank.has  stated  that  Peniculium 
tiadiostcHoiits  can  flourish  in  a  medium  to  which  no  nitrogen  but 
tbat  of  the  atmosphere  has  access.  Kossowitsch  claims  to  have 
proved  that  fixation  of  nitrogen  takes  place  under  the  influence  of  a 
■ymbiosis  0/  certain  Algae  and  soil  Bacteria,  the  process  being  much 
facilitated  by  the  presence  of  sugar.  The  Al|pae  include  Ifostoc, 
Cpiiococnu.  Cylindrospermum  and  a  few  other  rorms.  In  the  sym- 
bious  the  Algae  are  supplied  with  nitrogen  by  the  bacteria,  and  in 
turn  they  construct  carbohydrate  material,  part  of  which  goes  to  the 
microbes.  This  is  supported  by  the  fact  tnat  if  the  mixed  culture 
is  placed  in  the  light  there  is  a  neater  fixation  than  when  it  is  left 
in  darkness.  If  there  b  a  plentiful  supply  of  carbon  dioxide,  more 
mtro|sen  is  fixed. . 

.  Nurificatun  atid  DenitrifieatioH  «i  Uu  Soil, — Another  aspect  of  the 
nitrogen  question  has  been  the  subject  of  much  investigation  and 
controversy  since  1877.  The  round  of  changes  which  nitrogenous 
organic  matter  undergoes  in  the  soil,  and  how  it  is  uliimatcly  ouide 
use  of  again  by  plants,  presents  some  curious  features.  We  have 
seen  that  when  nitrogenous  matter  b  present  in  the  condition  of 
humus,  some  plants  can  absorb  it  by  tneir  roots  or  by  the  aid  of 
mycorhizas.  But  the  changes  in  it  in  the  usual  course  of  nature 
arc  much  more  profound  than  these.  It  becomes  in  the  soil  the  prey 
of  various  microbes.  Ammonia  appears  inunediately  as  a  product 
ci  the  disruption  of  the  nitrogen-oontaining  organic  molecule.  Later, 
oxklation  processes  take  place,  and  the  amanonia  gives  rise  to 
nitrates,  whkh  are  absorbed  by  plants.  These  two  prooesaes  go  on 
cuccesftively  rather  than  simultaneously,  so  that  it  is  only  towards 
the  end  of  the  decomposition  of  the  or^uiic  matter  that  nitrification 
of  tbe  ammonia  whicn  b  formed  b  set  up.  In  thb  process  of  nitri- 
fication we  can  distin^ish  two  phases,  first  the  formation  of  nitrites, 
and  secondly  their  oxidation  to  nitrates.  Tlie  researches  ol  Warinjg- 
ton  in  England  and  Winogradsky  on  the  Continent  have  satis- 
factorily shown  that  two  dustinct  organisms  are^  concerned  in  it, 
and  that  probably  more  than  one  species  of  each  exists.  One  of  them 
comprbing  the  genera  Nitrosomonas  and  NitrosocMcus,  has  the  power 
of  oxidising  salts  of  ammonium  to  the  condition  of  compounds  of 
nitrous  acid.  When  in  a  pure  culture  thb  stage  has  been  reached 
no  further  oxidation  takes  place.  The  oxidation  of  the  nitrites  into 
nitrates  b  effected  by  another  organbm.  much  smaller  than  the 
first.  The  name  NitrohacUr  has  been  given  to  thb  genus,  most  of 
our  knowledge  of  which  b  due  to  the  researches  of  Winogradsky. 

The  two  kinds  of  organism  are  usually  both  present  in  tne  same 
■oil,  those  of  the  second  type  immediately^  oxidising  the  nitrites 
which  thgae  of  the  first  form  from  ammpoium  salts.  .The  HUfp^ 


baeler  focna  not  only  eanoot  ooddise  the  httcr  boifies,  but  tbey  are 
ver)r  injuriously  affected  by  the  presence  of  free  ammonia.  Whca 
cultivated  upon  a  suitable  nutntive  material  in  the  laboratory, 
the  organbm  was  lolled  by  the  presence  of  •0.15  %  of  thb  gas,  aod 
seriously  inoonvenienocd'by  one>third  as  much.  Except  in  das 
respect,  however,  the  two  classes  show  great  similarity.  A  very 
interesting  peculiarity  attadiitic  to  them  b  their  dbtaste  for  organic 
nutriment.  They  can  be  cultivated  most  readily  on  masses  of 
gelatinous  silica  impregnated  with  the  appropriate  compounds  of 
nitrogen,  and  their  growth  takes  place  most  oopioosly  in  the 
absence  of  light.  They  need  a  little  carbonate  in  tbe  nutrient 
matoial.  and  the  source  of  the  carbon  which  is  found  in  the  increased 
bulk  of  the  plant  b  partly  that  and  partly  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the 
air. 

We  have  in  these  pbnts  a  power  which  appean  special  to  theni, 
in  the  poesession  of  some  mccnanism  for  the  construction  of  organic 
substance  which  differs  essentially  from  the  chlorophyll  apparams 
of  green  plants,  and  yet  brings  about  substantially  similar  results. 
The  steps  by  which  this  carbon  dioxide  b  built  up  into  a  compound 
capable  of  being  assimilated  by  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells  are 
not  known.  The  energy  for  the  purpose  appears  to  be  sttpplicd  by 
the  oxidation  of  the  molecules  containing  nitrogen,  so  that  it  b 
dependent  upon  such  oxidation  taking  place.  Winogradsky  has 
investi|;iited  thb  point  with  great  care,  and  he  has  oorae  to  the 
oonclusKMi  that  about  35  milligrammes  of  nitrcwen  are  oaddiaed  fos 
each  milligramme  of  carbon  absorbed  and  ftxeo. 

DeposUum  and  Digtslion  of  Resav*  Moterialt  ta  PlaatU  end 
Animals, — ^As  we  have  seen,  the  tendency  of  recent  reyarcfa  b  to 
prove  the  identity  of  the  mode  of  nutrition  of  vegetable  and  animal 
organisms.  The  material  on  which  Ihcy  feed  b  <u  the  same  descrip- 
tion  and  its  treatment  in  the  body  is  precisely  similar,  in  bot^ 
groups  we  find  the  presence  of  nutritive  material  in  two  forma,  one 
specially  fitted  for  transport,  the  other  for  storage.  We  have  seen 
that  in  the  pbnt  the  processes  of  construction  go  on  in  the  seau  of 
manufacture  faster  than  those  of  consumption.  We  have  the  sur- 
plus sugar,  for  instance,  deposited  as  starch  in  the  chloroplasts 
themselves.  The  manufacture  goes  on  very  actively  so  long  as 
light  shines  upon  the  leaves,  and  we  find  towards  night  a  very  great 
surplus  stored  in  the  cells.  This  excess  of  manufacture  b  one  <»  tbe 
features  of  plant  life,  and  is  exhibited,  though  in  varioos  degw^o, 
by  all  green  plants.  The  accumulated  material  b  made  to  minister 
to  tbe  need  01  the  plant  in  various'wa^;  it  may  (x  by  increasiog  the 
bulk  of  the  plant,  as  by  the  formation  of  the  wood  of  the  trunk, 
branches  and  roots;  or  it  may  be  by  laying  up  a  store  of  nutritive 
materials  for  purposes  of  prc^gation.  as  in  tubers,  corms,  seeds,  dx. 
In  any  case  the  surplus  is  continuously  being  removed  frotn  the  seats 
of  its  construction  and  deposited  for  longer  or  shorter  periods  in 
other  parts  of  the  structure,  usually  near  the  regions  at  which  Us 
ultimate  consumptbn  will  take  place.  We  have  the  deposition  cf 
starch,  alcurone  grains,  amorphous  proteids,  fats,  Ac.,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  growing  points^  cambium  rings  and  pbeUosriK; 
also  the  more  prolong;cd  storage  in  tubers,  ice<u  and  other  repro- 
ductive bodies.  Turning  to  the  animal,  we  meet  with  similar  pro- 
visions in  the  storage  of  glycogen  in  the  liver  and  other  ports,  oi  fa: 
in  various  internal  regions,  aiid  so  on.  In  both  we  find  the  reserve 
of  food,  so  far  as  it  is  in  excess  <rf  immedbte  need,  existiog  in  t«o 
conditions,  the  one  suitable  for  transport,  the  other  for  stonge. 
and  we  see  continually  the  transformation  of  the  one  into  the  other. 
The  formation  of  the  stora^  form  at  the  expense  of  the  tra^reUtqg 
stream  b  due  to  the  activity  of  some  protoplasmic  structure — it 
may  be  a  plastid  or  the  general  protoplasm  of  the  cell — and  b  a  pro* 
cess  of  secretion.  The  converse  process  is  one  of  a  true  digwtion. 
which  deserves  the  name  no  less  because  it  b  intnoellubu'.  We 
find  processes  of  digestion  strictly  comparable  to  those  of  the 
alimentary  canal  of  an  animal  in  the  case  of  the  iosectivonms 
Nepenthes,  Droaera  and  other  similar  plants,  and  In  the  saprophytic 
Fungi.  Those  which  now  concern  us  recall  the  utiliaatioa  of  the 
glycogen  of  the  liver,  the  stored  fats  and  protdds  of  other  parts  of 
the  animal  body  being  like  them  intracellular. 

£MSvm«i.— The  agents  which  cfFect  the  digestive  chaiwes  in  plaats 
have  been  studied  with  much  care.  They  have  been  found  to  ^le 
mainly  eiuymes,  which  are  in  many  cases  identical  with  those  oi 
animal  origin.  A  vast  number  of  them  have  been  diacofvered  a.'sd 
investigated .  and  tbe  majority  call  for  a  brief  notice.  Their  number, 
indeed,  renden  it  necessary  to  classify  them,  and  rather  to  look  at 
groups  of  them  than  to  examine  them  one  by  one.  They  are  usuaBv 
classified  according  to  the  materials  on  which  they  work,  and  we 
may  here  notice  especially  four  principal  groups,  the  members  A 
which  take  part  in  the  dicestbn  01  reserve  roatcriab  as  well  as  in  tbe 
processes  of  external  digestion.  These  decompose  respectivel> 
carbohydrates,  glucosides.  proteids  and  fats  or  oib.  The  action  d 
the  enzyme  in  nearly  every  case  b  one  of  hydration,  the  body  acted 
on  being  made  to  take  up  water  and  to  undergo  a  sobaeqacfU 
decomposition. 

Among  those  which  act  on  carbohydrates  the  most  important  are: 
the  two  varieties  of  diastase,  which  convert  stareh  into  maltose  or 
malt  sugar;  innlase,  which^  forms  fructose  from  iaulin;  inmHast, 
which  converts  cane  sugar  into  glucose  ^rape  sugar)  and  fructose; 
^uease  or  maltase,  which  produces  grape  sugar  from  mdUooe;  and 
Qtaw,  which  hydrolyici  odluloae.    Aaotiiar  ensyme  whidi  does 


PHYSHILOCy) 


PLANTS 


7S« 


not  appear  to  be  ^mcermd  with  digestion  to  (fifcetly  as  the  othen  is 
peetase,  whkh  (orms  vegetable  jelly  from  pectic  substances  occurring 
in  the  (xU-wall. 

The  ensymes  which  act  upon  glocondcs  are  many;  the  best  known 
are  emulsinAnd  myrostn,  which  split  up  respectively  omyedatiH,  the 
special  glucoside  of  certain  plants  of  the  Kusaceae;  and  smifrin, 
which  has  a  wide  distribution  among  those  of  the  Cnidferae.  Others 
of  less  frequent  occurrence  are  eryikroxym,  rkoMUuuc  and  giud- 
tkerast. 

The  proteolytic  enzymes,  or  those  which  digest  protetds,  are 
usually  divided  into  two  groups,  one  which  breaks  down  ordinary 
protcids  into  diffusible  bodies,  known  as  peptones,  which  are  them- 
selves proteid  in  character.  Such  an  enzvme  is  the  pepsin  of  the 
stomach  of  the  higher  animals.  The  other  jgroup  attacks  these 
peptones  and  breaks  them  down  into  the  ammo-acids  of  which  we 
nave  spoken  before.  This  group  is  represented  by  the  erepsin  of 
Uie  pancreas  and  other  organs.  A  third  enzyme,  the  trypsin  of  the 
pancreas,  possesses  the  power  of  both  pepsin  and  erepun.  The 
relationships  existing  between  these  enzymes  are  still  the  subjects 
of  experiment,  and  we  cannot  regard  them  as  exhaustively'exammcd. 
It  is  not  quite  certain  whether  a  true  pepsin  exists  in  plants,  but  many 
trypsins  nave  been  discovered,  and  one  form  of  erepsin,  at  least,  is 
very  widespread.  Among  the  trypsins  we  have  the  fapdin  of  the 
Papaw  fruit  (Carica  Papaya),  the  bromclin  of  the  Ptne-appte,  and 
the  enzymes  present  in  many  germinating  seeds,  in  the  seedlings  of 
several  plants,  and  in  other  parts.  Another  enzyme,  rennet,  which 
in  the  animal  body  is  proteolytic,  is  frequently  inet  with  in  plants, 
but  its  function  has  not  been  ascertained. 

The  digestion  of  fat  or  oil  has  not  been  adeauatdv  investigated, 
but  its  decomposition  in  germinating  seeds  has  been  found  to  be  due 
to  an  enzyme,  which  has  been  called  lipase,  it  splits  it  into  a  fattv 
acid  and  glycerine,  but  seems  to  have  no  farther  action.  The  details 
of  the  further  transformations  have  not  yet  been  completely  followed. 
Oxidases. — Another  class  of  enzymes  has  been  discovered  in  both 
animals  andplants,  but  they  do  not  apparently  take  any  part  in 
digestion.  They  set  up  a  process  of  oxidation  in  the  substances 
which  they^  attack,  and  have  consequently  been  named  mndases. 
Very  little  is  known  about  them. 

In  many  cases  the  digestion  of  reserve  food  materials  is  effected 
by  the  direct  action  of  the  protoplasm,  iirithout  the  intervention  of 
enzymes.  This  property^  ot  living  substance  can  be  proved  in  the 
case  of  the  cells  of  the  higher  plants,  but  it  is  especiauy  prominent 
in  many  of  the  more  lowly  organisms,  such  as  the  Bacteria.  The 
processes  of  putrefaction  may  be  alluded  to  as  affording  an  instance 
of  such  a  power  in  the  vegetable  or^^nisms.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  secretion  of  enzymes  by  Bacteria  is 
of  widespread  occurrence. 

Snpply  and  Distribution  of  Energy  in  Planis.-^U  is  well  known  that 
one  of  the  conditions  of  life  ts  the  maintenanofe  of  the  process  which 
is  known  as  respiration.  It  is  marked  by  the  constant  and  continu- 
ous absorption  of  a  certain  quantity  of  oxvgen  and  by  the  exhalation 
of  a  certain  volume  of  carbon  dioxide  and  water  vapour.  There  b 
no  direct  connexion  between  the  two,  the  oxygen  is  absorbed  almost 
immediately  by  the  protoplasm,  and  appears  to  enter  into  some  kind 
of  chemical  union  with  it.  The  protoplasm  b  in  a  condition  of 
instability  and  is  continually  breaking  down  to  a  certain  extent, 
giving  rise  to  various  substances  of  different  degrees  of  complexity, 
some  of  which  are  a^ain  built  up  by  it  into  its  own  substances,  ana 
others,  more  simple  in  composition,  are  given  off.  Of  these  carbon 
dioxide  and  water  are  the  most  prominent.  These  respiratory  pro- 
cesses are  associated,  with  the  liberation  of  energy  by  the  protoplasm, 
energy  which  it  applies  to  various  purposes.  The  assimilation  of 
complex  foods  consequently  may  be  regarded  as  supplvine  the  proto- 
plasm with  a  potential  store  oi  energy,  as  well  as  building  up  its 
substance.  Whenever  complex  bodies  are  built  up  from  simple  ones 
we  have  an  absorption  of  energy  in  some  form  and  its  conversion 
into  potential  energy;  whenever  decomposition  of  complex  bodies 
into  simpler  ones  takes  place  we  have  the  liberation  of  some  or  all 
of  the  energy  that  was  used  in  their  construction. 

Since  about  1880  considerable  attention  has  been  directed  to  the 
question  of  the  supply,  distribution  and  expenditure  of  ene^ 
in  the  vegetable  kingdom:  This  is  an  extremely  important  quest  ion, 
since  the  supply  of  energy  to  the  animal  world  has  been  found  to 
depend  entirely  upon  the  vegetable  one.  The  supply  of  ener^  to 
the  several  protoplasts  which  make  up  the  body  01  a  plant  is  as 
necessary  as  is  the  transport  to  them  of  the  food  they  need;  indeed, 
the  two  things  are  inseparably  connected.  The  source  of  energy 
which  is  the  only  one  accessible  to  the  ordinary  plant  as  a  whole 
is  the  radiant  energy  of  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  its  absorption  b 
mainly  due  to  the  properties  of  chlorophyll.  This  colouring  matter, 
as  shown  by  its  absorption  spectrum,  picks  out  of  the  ordinary  beam 
of  light  a  large  proportion  of  its  red  and  blue  rays,  together  with  some 
of  the  green  and  yellow.  This  energy  is  obtained  especially  by  the 
chloroplastids,  and  part  of  it  is  at  once  devoted  to  the  construction 
of  carbohydrate  material,  being  thus  turned  from  the  kinetic  to  the 
potential  condition.  The  other  constructive  processes,  which  are 
dependent  partly  upon  the  oxidation  of  the  carbohydrates  so  formed, 
and  therefore  upon  an  expenditure  of  part  of  such  energy,  also  mark 
the  storage  of  energy  in  the  potential  form.  Indeed,  tne  construc- 
tion oi  protoplasm  itself  indicates  the  same  thing.    Thus  even  la 


these  conatniettvt  pMCMtM  tSierftocam  a  ooBflttnt  paiMt»  of  eneity 
backwards  and  forwards  from  the  kinetic  to  the  potential  condition 
and  vice  versa.  The  outcome  of  the  whole  round  of  changes,  how- 
ever b  the  fixation  of  a  certain  part  of  the  radiant  energy  absorbed) 
by  the  chlorophyll.  The  rays  of  the  visible  spectrum  do  not  supply 
all  the  energy  which  the  plant  obtains.  It  has  been  suncsted  by 
several  botanists,  with  considerable  plausibility,  that  the  uUra-violfet 
or  chemical  rays  can  be  absorbed  and  utilized  by  the  protoplasm 
without  the  intervention  of  any  pigment  such  as  cnlorophyll.  There 
b  some  evidence  pointing  to  the  existence  of  thb  power  in  the  cells 
of  the  higher  plants.  Again,  we  have  evidence  of  the  power  of 
plants  to  avail  themsdvcs  of  the  heat  rays.  There  b,  no  doubt,  a 
direct  interchange  of  heat  between  the  plant  and  the  air,  which 
in  many  cases  results  in  a  gain  of  heat  by  the  pkint.  Indeed,  the 
tendency  to  absorb  heat  in  thb  way.  either  from  the  air  or  directly 
from  the  sunlight,  has  already  been  pointed  out  as  a  darker  which 
needs  to  be  averted  by  transpiration. 

There  b  probably  but  little  transformation  of  one  form  of  kinetic 
energy  into  another  in  the  plant.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
red  pigment  Antkocyan,  which  is  found  very  commonly  in  young 
developing  shoots,  petioles  and  midribs,  effects  a  conversion  of  ligfai 
rays  into  heating  ones,  so  facilitating  the  metabolic  processes  of  the 
plant.  Thb  is,  however,  rather  a  matter  of  speculation.  The 
various  electricaj  phenomena  of  plants  also  are  obscure. 

Certain  plants  possess  another  source  of  energy  which  is  common  to 
them  and  the  animal  world.  This  is  the  absorption  of  elaborated 
compounds  from  their  environment,  by  whose  decomposition  the 
potentbl  energy  expended  in  their  construction  can  be  liberated. 
Such  a  source  is  commonly  met  with  among  the  Fungi,  the  insecti- 
vorous plants,  and  such  01  the  higher  plants  as  have  a  saprophytic 
habit.  Thb  source  is  not,  however,  anything  new,  for  the  elaborated 
compounds  so  absorbed  have  been  primarily  constructed  by  other 
plants  through  the  mechanbm  which  has  just  been  described. 

The  question  of  the  distribution  of  this  stored  energy  to  the 
separate  protoplasts  of  the  plant  can  be  seen  to  be  the  same  problem 
as  the  distribution  of  the  food.  The  material  and  the  energy  go 
together,  the  decomposition  of  the  one  in  the  cell  setting  iree  the 
other,  which  is  used  at  once  in  the  vital  processes  of  the  cell« 
being  in  fact  largely  employed  in  constructing  protoplasm  or  storing 
various  products.  The  actual  liberation  in  any  cell  b  only  very 
gradual,  and  generally  takes  the  form  of  heat.  The  metabolic 
changes  in  the  ceUs,  however,  concern  other  decompositions  side  by 
side  with  those  which  involve  the  building  up  of  protoplasm  from 
the  products  of  which  it  feeds.  So  long  as  food  b  supplied  the 
living  substance  is  the  seat  of  transformations  which  are  continu- 
ally proceeding,  being  partblly  decomposed  and  again  constructed, 
the  new  food  being  incorporated  into  it.  The  changes  involve  a 
continual  liberation  of  energy,  which  in  most  cases  b  caused  by  the 
respiration  of  the  protoplasm  and  the  oxidation  of  the  substances 
it  contains.  The  need  of  the  protoplasm  for  oxygen  has  already 
been  spoken  of:  in  its  absence  death  soon  supervenes,  respiration 
being  stopped.  Respiration,  indeed,  b  the  expression  of  the  libera- 
tion of  the  potential  energy  of  the  protopbsm  itself.  It  is  not 
certain  how  lar  substances  in  the  protoplasm  are  directly  oxidized 
without  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  living  substance, 
though  this  appean  to  take  place.  Even  their  oxidation,  however, 
is  effected  by  the  protoplasm  acting  as  an  oxygen  carrier. 
"  The  supply  of  oxygen  to  a  plant  is  thus  seen  to  be  as  directly 
connected  with  the  utilization  of  the  energy  of  a  cell  as  is  that 
of  food  concerned  in  its  nutrition.     If  the  access  of  oxygen  to  a 

Erotoplast  is  interfered  with  its  normal  respiration  soon  ceases, 
ut  frequently  other  changes  supervene.  The  partial  asphyxiation 
or  suffocation  stimulates  the  protoplasm  to  set  up  a  new  and  perhaps 
supplementary  series  of  decompositions,  which  result  in  the'libera- 
tion  of  energy  just  as  do  those  of  the  respiratory  process.  One  of 
the  constant  features  of  respiration — the  exhalation  of  carbon  dioxide 
— can  still  be  observed.  Thb  comes  in  almost  all  such  cases  from 
the  decomposition  of  sugar,  which  b  split  up  by  the  protoplasm 
into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  Such  decoinpositions  are  now 
generally  spwken  of  as  am^olne  respiration.  The  decomposition 
of  the  complex  molecule  of  the  sugar  liberates  a  certain  amount  of 
energy,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  study  of  the  fermentation  set  up 
by  yeast,  which  is  a  process  of  this  kind,  in  that  it  b  intensified 
by  the  absence  of  oxygen.  The  liberated  energy  takes  the  form  of 
heat,  which  raises  the  temperature  of  the  fermenting  wort.  It  has 
been  ascertained  that  in  many  cases  this  decomposition  is  effected 
by  the  secretion  of  an  enzyme,  which  has  been  termed  zymaM. 
This  body  has  been  prepared  from  active  yeast,  and  from  fruits  and 
other  parts  which  have  been  kept  for  some  time  in  the  absence  of 
oxygen.  The  protoplasm  appears  to  be  able  also  to  bring  about  the 
change  without  secreting  any  enzyme. 

Expenditure  of  Energy  by  Plants.— The  energy  of  the  plant  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  derived  originally  from  the  kinetic  radiant  energy  of 
the  sun.  In  such  cells  as  arc  capable  of  absorbing  it,  by  virtue  of 
their  chlorophyll  apparatus,  the  greater  part  of  it  is  converted  into 
the  potential  form,  and  by  the  transport  from  cell  to  cell  of  the 
compounds  constructed  every  part  of  the  plant  is  put  into  possession 
of  the  energy  it  needs.  The  store  of  energy  thus  accumulated 
and  distributed  has  to  subserve  various  purposes  in  the  economy 
of  the  plant.   A  certain  part  of  it  is  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of 


75* 


PLANTS 


tbe  f mmewoile  of  the  ItMe  of  die  edi,  and  the  eoottnictioii  of  a 
continuously  increaMiw  skeleton;  part  b  used  in  maintaining  the 
noMnmal  temperature  oT the  plant,  part  in  constructing  various  sub- 
atances  which  are  met  with  in  the  interior,  which  serve  various 
purposn  in  the  working  of  the  vital  mechanism.  A  great  part  again 
n  utifind  in  that  increase  of  the  body  of  the  plant  which  we  call 
growth. 

Growth,  as  usually  spoken  of,  includes  two  essentially  different 
processes.  The  first  ol  these,  whkrh  may  be  regarded  as  growth 
proper,  is  the  manufacture  of  additional  quantities  of  -livini^  sub- 
stance. The  second,  which  b  usually  included  in  Che  term,  ts  the 
increase  of  such  accessories  of  living  substance  as  are  necessary  for 
its  well-being.  These  include  oelTwaUs  and  the  various  stored 
products  found  in  growing  cells.  There  b  clcariy  a  diffcnmce 
between  these  two  categories.  The  formation  of  living  substance 
b  a  process  of  building  up  from  simple  or  rclativdy  simple  materiab; 
the  construction  of  its  cellulose  framework  and  supportrng  substance 
b  done  by  the  living  substance  after  its  own  formation  b  completed, 
•nd  iii  attended  by  a  partial  decomposition  of  such  living  substance. 

Growth  b  always  going  on  in  plants  while  they  arc  alive.  Even 
the  oldest  trees  put  out  continually  new  kaves  and  twigs.  It  docs 
not,  of  course,  follow  that  increase  of  bulk  is  always  conspicuous: 
in  such  trees  death  b  present  side  by  side  with  life,  and  the  one  often 
counterbalances  the  other.  As,  however,  we  can  easily  sec  that  the 
constructive  prorrsses  are  much  greater  than  those  which  lead  to  the 
disappearance  of  material  from  the  plant-body,  there  b  generally 
to  be  seen  a  convpicuous  increase  in  tlw  substance  of  the  plant.  This 
b.  in  nearly  all  cases,  attended  bv  a  permanent  change  in  form. 
Thb  b  not  perhaps  so  evident  in  tne  case  of  axial  oraans  as  it  is  in 
that  of  loaves  and  their  modificatbns,  but  even  in  (hem  it  can  be 
detected  to  a  certain  extent. 

In  the  towlkrst  plants  growth  may  be  co<«xtenuvc  with  the  plant- 
body  :  in  all  plants  of  any  considerable  mzC;  however,  it  is  kxralizcd 
in  particular  regions,  and  in  them  it  b  assocated  with  the  formation 
of  new  protoplasts  or  cells.  These  regions  have  been  caXied  pvwing 
pcints.  In  such  stems  and  roots  as  increase  in  thickness  there  are 
other  growing  regions  which  consbt  of  cylindrical  sheaths  known  as 
eambium  layrrs  or  ffhetlo^ens.  By  (he  multiplkation  of  the  proto* 
plasts  in  these  merismatic  areas  the  substance  of  the  plant  b  in- 
creased. In  other  words,  as  these  growing  regions  consist  of  cells, 
the  growth  of  the  entire  organ  or  plant  wUI  depend  upon  the 
behavKMir  of  the  celb  or  protoplasts  of  which  the  merismatic  tissues 
ere  composed. 

The  growth  of  such  a  cell  will  be  found  to  depend  niunly  upon 
five  conditions:  (i)  There  must  be  a  supply  of  nutritive  or  plastic 
materials,  at  the  expense  of  which  the  increase  of  its  living  substance 
can  take  place,  and  which  supply  the  needed  potential  energy. 
j(3)  There  must  be  a  supply  of  a-ater  to  such  an  extent  as  to  set  up  a 
certain  hydrostatic  pressure  in  the  cell,  for.  only  turrad  celb  can 
grow.  (31  The  supply  of  water  must  be  associated  with  the  formation 
of  osmotic  substances  in  the  cell,  or  it  cannot  be  made  to  enter  it. 
(4)  The  cell  must  have  a  certain  temperature,  for  the  activity  of  a 
protoplast  is  only  possible  within  certain  limits,  which  differ  m  the 
case  of  different  plants.  (5)  There  must  be  a  supfJy  of  oxygen  to 
the  growing  cell,  for  the  protoplast  b  dependent  upon  this  gas  for 
the  performance  of  its  vital  functions,  and  particularly  for  the  libera- 
tion of  the  energy  which  b  demanded  in  the  constructive  processes. 
Thb  b  evident  Trom  the  consideration  that  the  growth  of  the  cells 
b  attended  by  the  growth  in  surface  of  the  cell  wall,  and  m  the  latter 
b  a  secretion  from  the  protoplasm,  such  a  decomposition  cannot 
fcadtly  take  place  unless  oxygen  b  admitted  to  it.  . 

When  these  conditions  are  present,  the  course  of  the  growth  of  a 
cell  appears  to  be  the  following:  The  young  cell,  immedbtely  it  U 
cut  off  from  its  fellow,  absorbs  water,  in  consequence  of  the  presence 
in  it  of  osmotically  active  substances.  With  the  water  it  takes  in 
the  various  nutritive  substances  which  the  former  contains  in  solu- 
tion. There  b  set  up  at  once  a  certain  hydrostatic  pressure,  due  to 
the  turndity  which  ensues  upon  such  absorption,  and  the  extensible 
cell  wail  stretches,  at  first  in  all  directions.  The  growth  or  increase 
of  the  protoplasm  at  the  expense  of  the  nutritive  matter  for  a  time 
keeps  pace  with  the  increased  size  of  the  cell,  but  by  and  by  it  be- 
comes vacuolated  as  more  and  more  water  b  attracted  into  the 
interior.  Eventually  the  protoplasm  usually  forms  only  a  lining 
to  the  cell  wall,  and  a  large  vacuole  filled  with  cell  sap  occupies 
the  centre.  The  growth  <m  the  protoplasm,  though  coiuuderable, 
b  therefore  not  commensurate  with  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
cell.  The  stretching  of  the  cell  wall  by  the  hydrostatic  pressure  b 
fixed  by  a  secretion  of  new  particles  and  their  de|>osition  upon  the 
original  wall,  which  as  it  becomes  slightly  thicker  b  capable  of  still 
greater  extension,  much  in  the  same  way  as  a  thick  band  of  indla- 
niU)er  b  capable  of  undergoing  greater  stretching  than  a  thin  one. 
The  increase  in  surface  of  the  cdl  wall  b  thus  due — firstly^  to  the 
stretching  caused  by  turgidity,  and  secondly  to  the  formation  and 
depotttioo  of  new  substance  upon  the  old.  When  the  limit  of 
extensibility  b  reached  the  cell  wall  increases  in  thickness  from  the 
continuation  of  the  latter  of  the  two  processes. 

The  rate  of  growth  of  a  cell  varies ^ladually  throughout  its  course; 
it  begins  slowW,  increases  to  a  maximum,  and  then  becomes  slower 
till  it  stops.  The  time  during  whk:h  these  regular  changes  in  the  rate 
can  be  ooscrved  b  genssally  spoken  of  as  the  jraa4  pmod  ^ffvwlk. 


If  we  cuUHhIet  the  befaaTioar  of  a  growiaf.oigaii  snch  as  a  root, 
we  find  that,  like  a  cell,  it  shows  a  grand  period  of  growtk.  Just 
behind  its  apex  the  cells  arc  found  to  be  all  in  process  of  active 
divbion.  Growth  b  small,  and  consists  mainly  in  an  increase  of  the 
quantity  of  protoplasm,  for  the  celb  divide  again  as  soon  as  they  have 
reached  a  certain  sixe.  As  new  cells  arc  continually  formed  in  the 
merbmatk:  mass  those  which  are  farthest  from  the  apex  gradually 
cease  to  divide  and  a  different  process  of  growth  takes  place  in  them, 
which  b  associated  more  particubriy  with  the  formation  of  the 
vacuoles,  consequent  upon  the  cstablbhment  of  considerable  faydro- 
statK  pressure  in  them,  thus  causing  the  bulk  of  the  celb  to  be  greatly 
enlarged.  Here  it  b  that  the  actual  extension  in  length  of  tne  idoC 
takes  place,  and  the  celb  reach  the  maximum  point  of  the  grand 
period.  They  then  gradually  lose  the  power  of  growth,  the  oldeat 
ones  or  those  farthest  from  the  apex  parting  with  it  finrt,  and  they 
pass  gradually  over  into  (he  condition  of  the  permanent  tiisaea. 

The  same  order  of  events  may  be  ascertained  to  take  place  in  the 
stem ;  but  in  thb  region  it  b  complicated  by  the  occurrence  of  nodes 
and  intemodcs.  growth  in  length  being  confined  to  the  latter,  many  of 
which  may  be  growing  simultaneously.  The  region  of  growth  in  the 
stem  is,  as  a  rule,  much  longer  than  that  of  the  root.  The  growth 
of  the  leaf  is  at  first  apical,  but  thb  is  not  very  pn>k>nged,  and  the 
subscQuent  enlaigcment  b  due  to  an  iutercalaiy  gmmag  region 
near  the  base. 

The  tumdity  in  the  cells  of  a  growing  member  b  not  uniform,  bat 
shows  a  fairly  rhythmkral  variation  in  its  different  parts.  If  the 
member  b  one  which  shows  a  difference  of  structure  on  two  aides, 
buch  as  a  leaf,  the  two  sides  freouently  show  a  difference  of  degree 
of  turgklity,  and  consequently  01  rate  of  growth.  If  we  consider  a 
leaf  of  (he  common  fern  we  find  that  in  its  young  condition  it  b 
closely  rolled  up,  the  upper  or  ventral  surface  being  quite  concealed- 
As  it  gets  older  it  gradually  unfolds  and  expands  into  the  adote 
form.  Thb  b  due  to  the  fact  ^  that  while  wung  the  tuigklity  and 
consequent  growth  are  greater  in  the  dorsal  side  of  the  leaf,  ao  that 
it  becomes  rolkkl  up.  As  it  develops  the  maximum  turgidiw  and 
growth  chaiuro  to  its  upper  side,  and  so  it  becomes  unfoUwd  or 
expanded.  These  two  conditions  are  generally  described  under  the 
names  of  hyponasty  and  epinastv  respectively. 

Cylindrical  organs  may  evhioit  similar  jmenomena.  One  side  of 
a  stem  may  be  more  turgid  than  the  opposite  one,  and  the  wa'^inHtra 
turgidhy,  with  its  consequent  growth,  may  alternate  between  two 
opposite  sides:  The  growing  apex  of  such  a  stem  will  alteraatdy 
incline,  first  to  one  uSc  and  then  to  the  other,  exhibiting  a  kind  dF 
nodding  movement  in  the  two  directions.    More  frequently  the  f«> 

fion  of  maximum  turgidity  passes  gradually  round  the  grosni^  sooe. 
'he  apex  in  this  case  will  describe  a  circle,  or  rather  a  spiral,  as  it  b 
elongating  all  the  time,  pointing  to  all  points  of  the  compass  in 
succession.  Thb  continuous  duui^  of  position  hu  been  csJkd 
circmmnutation,  and  b  held  to  be  umversal  in  all  growim^  cyttadncai 
organs.  The  passage  of  the  maximum  turgidity  round  the  stem  may 
vary  in  rapidity  in  different  places,  causing  the  circle  to  be  replaced 
by  an  elhpse.  The  bending  to  two  si<&s  alternately,  deacnbed 
above,  often  called  simble  nuUUion,  may  be  regarded  aa  on^  an 
extreme  instance  of  the  latter. 

Nervous  System  of  Plants. — ^So  far  we  have  considered  the 
plant  almost  cxdu^ely  as  an  individual  organism,  canyiog 
out  its  own  vital  processes,  and  unaffected  by  its  surroufu^ngs 
except  in  to  far  as  these  supply  it  with  the  materials  for  iu 
wcU-bcing.  When  we  consider,  however,  the  great  variability 
b  those  surroundings  and  the  consequent  changes  a  plant  must 
encounter,  it  appears  obvious  that  interaction  and  adjuslmest 
between  the  plant  and  its  environment  must  be  constant  arJ 
well  balanced.  That  such  adjustment  shall  take  (dace  postulates 
on  the  part  of  the  plant  a  kind  of  perception  or  appreciation  of  the 
changing  conditions  which  affcc^  it. 

Careful  examination  soon  shows  an  observer  that  such 
perceptions  exist,  and  that  they  arc  followed  by  certain  puiposc^ 
ful  changes  in  the  plant,  sometimes  mechanical,  aomeiian 
chemical,  the  object  being  evidently  to  secure  some  advantage 
for  the  plant,  to  ward  off  some  danger,  or  to  eztricMe  it  from 
some  difficulty.  Wc  may  speak,  indeed,  of  the  plant  as  powrsswl 
of  a  nidimcntaiy  nervous  system,  by  the  aid  of  whidi  neccsaary 
adjustments  are  brought  about.  The  most  constantly  occurrir.g 
changes  that  beset  a  plant  are  connected  with  ilhunination, 
temperature,  moisture,  and  contact  with  foreign  bodies.  Setting 
aside  other  susceptibilities,  we  have  evidence  that  most  plants  are 
sensitive  to  all  these. 

'  If  a  growing  stem  receives  stronger  illumination  on  one  side 
than  another,  its  apex  slowly  turns  from  the  vertical  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  light  source,  continuing  its  change  of  positioB  uatJ 
it  is  in  a  direct  line  with  the  incident  rays.  If  a  root  is  similarly 
illumioatedj  a  simiUr  change  of  direction  of  growth  foUows^  bat 


PHYSIOIXXSYl 


PLANTS 


753 


in  this  case  the  organ  glows  away  from  tlie  Hght.  Hiese  move- 
ments are  spoken  of  as  kelialroptc  and  aphdiotropk  curvatures. 
The  purpose  of  the  movements  bears  out  the  contention  that  the 
plant  b  trying  to  adjust  itself  to  its  environment.  The  stem,  by 
pointing  directly  to  the  light  source,  secures  the  best  illuraination 
possible  for  all  of  its  leaves,  the  latter  being  distributed  sym- 
metrically around  it.  The  root  is  made  to  press  its  way  into  the 
darker  cracks  and  crannies  of  the  soil,  so  bringing  its  root-hairs 
into  better  contact  with  the  particles  round  which  the  hygroscopic 
water  hangs.  Leaves  resp<md  in  another  way  to  the  same  influ- 
ence, placing  themselves  across  the  path  of  the  beam  of  light. 

Similar  sensitivenesses  can  be  demonstrated  in  other  cases. 
When  a  root  comes  in  contact  at  its  tip  with  some  hard  body, 
such  as  might  impede  its  progress,  a  curvature  of  the  growing 
part  is  set  up,  which  takes  the  young  tip  away  from  the  stone,  or 
what-not,  with  which  it  is  in  contact.  When  a  sensitive  tendril 
comes  into  contact  with  a  foreign  body,  its  growth  becomes  so 
modified  that  it  twines  round  it.  Many  instances  might  be 
given  of  appreciation  of  and  response  to  other  changes  in  the 
environment  by  the  growing  parts  of  plants;  among  them 
we  may  mention  the  opening  and  closing  of  flowers  during  the 
days  of  their  expansion.  One  somewhat  similar  phenomenon, 
differing  in  a  few  respects,  marks  the  relation  of  the  plant  to  the 
attraction  of  gravity.  Observation  of  germinating  seedlings 
makes  it  clear  that  somehow  they  have  a  perception  of  direction. 
The  young  roots  grow  vertically  downwards,  the  young  stems 
vertically  upwards.  Any  attempt  to  interfere  with  these  direc- 
tions, by  placing  the  seedlings  in  abnormal  positions,  is  frustrated 
by  the  seedlings  themselves,  which  change  their  direction  of 
growth  by  bringing  about  curvatures  of  the  different  parts  of 
their  axes,  so  that  the  root  soon  grows  vertically  downward 
again  and  the  stem  in  the  opposite  direction.  Other  and  older 
plants  give  evidence  of  the  same  perception,  though  they  do  not 
respond  all  in  the  same  way.  Speaking  generally,  stems  grow 
upwards  and  roots  downwards.  But  some  steins  grow  parallel 
to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  while  the  branches  both  of  stems  and 
roots  tend  to  grow  at  a  definite  angle  to  the  main  axis  from  which 
they  come.  These  movements  are  spoken  of  as  different  kinds 
of  geotropic  curvatures.  This  power  of  perception  and  response 
is  not  by  any  means  confined  to  the  growing  organs,  though  in 
these  it  is  especiaHy  striking,  and  plays  a  very  evident  part  in 
the  disposition  of  the  growing  organs  in  advantageous  positions. 
It  can,  however,  be  seen  in  adult  organs,  though  instances  are 
less  numerous. 

When  the  pinnate  leaf  of  a  Mimosa  pudka,  the  so-called 
sensitive  plant,  is  pinched  or  struck,  the  leaf  droops  rapidly 
and  the  leaflets  become  approximated  together,  so  that  their 
upper  surfaces  are  in  contact.  The  extent  to  which  the  disturb- 
ance spreads  depends  on  the  violence  of  the  stimulation — it  may 
be  confined  to  a  few  leaflets  or  it  may  extend  to  aU  the  leaves  of 
the  plant. 

The  leaves  and  leaflets  of  many  plants,  e.g.  the  telegraph  plant, 
Desmodium  gyrans,  behave  in  a  similar  way  imder  the  stimulus  of 
approaching  darkness. 

A  peculiar  sensitiveness  is  manifested  by  the  leaves  of  the  so- 
called  insectivorous  plants.  In  the  case  of  Dionaea  tnuscipula  we 
find  a  two-lobed  lamina,  the  two  lobes  being  connected  by  a 
midrib,  which  can  play  the  part  of  a  kind  of  hinge.  Six  sensitive 
hairs  spring  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  lobes,  three  from 
each;  when  one  of  these  is  touched  the  two  lobes  rapidly  dose, 
bringing  their  upper  surfaces  into  contact  and  imprisoning  any- 
thing which  for  the  moment  is  between  them.  The  mechamsm  is 
applied  to  the  capture  of  insects  alighting  on  the  leaf. 

Prosera,  another  of  this  Insectivorous  group,  has  leaves  which 
are  furnished  with  long  glandular  tentacles.  When  these  are 
excited  by  the  settling  of  an  insect  on  the  leaf  they  slowly  bend 
over  and  imprison  the  intruder,  which  is  detained  there  mean- 
while by  a  sticky  excretion  poured  out  by  the  glands. 

In  both  these  cases  the  stimulation  is  followed,  not  only  by 
movement,  but  by  the  secretion  of  an  add  liquid  containing  a 
digestive  juice,  by  virtue  of  which  the  insect  is  digested  after 

XXI    t3 


The  purposeful  character  of  all  these  movements  or  changes  of 
position  indicates  that  they  are  of  nervous  origin.  We  have  in 
them  evidence  of  two  factors,  a  perception  of  some  features  of  the 
environment  and  following  this,  after  a  longer  or  shorter  interval, 
a  response  calculated  to  secure  some  advantage  to  the  responding 
organ.  We  find  on  further  investigation  that  these  two  con- 
ditions are  traceable  to  diffcrgot  parts  of  the  organs  concerned. 
The  perception  of  the  changes,  or,  in  other  words,  the  reception 
of  the  stimulus,  is  associated  for  example,  with  the  tips  of  roots 
and  the  apices  of  stems.  The  first  recognition  of  a  specially 
receptive  part  was  made  by  Charles  Darwin,  who  identified  the 
perception  of  stimulation  with  the  tip  of  the  young  growing 
root.  Amputation  of  this  part  involved  the  cessation  of  the 
response,  even  when  the  conditions  normally  causing  the  stimu- 
lation were  maintained.  Francis  Darwin  later  demonstrated 
that  the  tips  of  the  plumules  of  grasses  were  sensitive  parts. 
The  responding  part  is  situated  some  little  distance  farther  back, 
being  in  fact  the  region  where  growth  is  active.  Thb  bending 
part  has  been  proved  to  be  insensitive  to  the  stimuli.  There  is 
consequently  a  transmission  of  the  stimulus  from  the  sensitive 
organ  to  a  kind  of  motor  mechanism  situated  some  little  way  off. 
We  find  thus  three  factors  of  a  nervous  mechanism  present,  a 
receptive,  a  conducting,  and  a  responding  part.  The  differen- 
tiation of  the  plant's  substance  so  indicated  is,  however, 
physiological  only;  there  is  no  histological  difference  between 
the  cells  of  these  regions  that  can  be  associated  with  the  several 
properties  they  possess.  Even  the  root  tip,  which  shows  a  certain 
differentiation  into  root  cap  and  root  apex,  cannot  be  said  to  be  a 
definite  sense  organ  in  the  same  way  as  the  sense  organs  of  an 
animal.  The  root  is  continually  growing  and  so  the  sensitive 
part  is  continually  changing  its  composition,  cdls  being  formed, 
growing  and  becoming,  permanent  tissue.  The  cells  of  the  tip 
at  any  given  moment  may  be  sensitive,  but  in  a  few  days  the 
power  of  receiving  the  stimulus  has  passed  to  other  and  younger 
cdls  which  then  constitute  the  tip.  The  power  of  appreciating 
the  environment  b  therefore  to  be  associated  with  the  protoplasm 
only  at  a  particular  stage  of  its  devdopment  and  b  transitory  in 
its  character. 

What  the  nature  of  the  stimulation  b  we  are  not  able  to  say. 
The  protoplasm  is  sensitive  to  particular  influences,  perhaps  of 
vibration,  or  of  contact  or  of  chemical  action.  We  can  imagine 
though  perhaps  only  vaguely,  the  way  in  which  light,  tempera- 
ture, mobture,  contact,  &c.,  can  affect  it.  The  perception  of 
direction  or  the  influence  of  gravity  presents  greater  difTicuIly, 
as  we  have  no  dear  idea  of  the  form  which  the  force  of  gravity 
takes.  Recently  some  investigations  by  Ilaberlandt,  NoU, 
Darwin  and  others  have  suggested  an  explanation  which  has 
much  to  recommend  it.  The  sensitive  cells  must  dearly  be 
influenced  in  some  way  by  weight — ^not  the  weight  of  external 
organs  but  of  some  weight  within  them.  Thb  may  possibly  be 
the  cell  sap  in  their  interior,  which  must  exercbe  a  slightly 
different  hydrostatic  pressure  on  the  basal  and  the  lateral  walbof 
the  celb.  Or  more  probably  it  may  be  the  wdght  of  definite 
particulate  structures  in  thdr  vacuoles.  Many  experiments 
point  to  certain  small  grains  of  starch  which  are  capable  of  dis- 
placement as  the  position  of  the  cell  is  altered.  Such  small 
granules  have  been  observed  in  the  sensitive  cells,  and  there  b  an 
evident  correlation  between  these  and  the  power  of  receiving  the 
geotropic  stimulus.  It  has  been  shown  that  if  the  organ  con- 
taining them  b  shaken  for  some  time,  so  that  the  contact  between 
them  and  the  protoplasm  of  the  ceUs  b  emphasized,  the  stimulus 
becomes  more  efficient  in  producing  movement.  Thb  reduces 
the  stimulus  to  one  of  contact,  which  is  in  harmony  with  the 
observations  made  upon  roots  similarly  stimulated  from  the 
exterior.  The  stimidating  partides,  whether  starch  grains  in 
all  cases,  or  other  partides  as  weU,  have  been  termed  statoliths. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  absence  of  structural  differentiation 
in  the  sense  organs.  There  b  a  similar  difficulty  in  tracing  the 
paths  by  which  the  impulses  are  transmitted  to  the  growing  and 
curving  regions.  The  conduction  of  such  stimulation  to  parts 
removed  some  distance  from  the  sense  organ  suggests  paUis  of 
transmission  comparable  to   those  which   transmit   nervous 

id 


75+ 


PLANTS 


fPATHOLOGT 


impulses  in  animals.  Again,  the  degree  of  differentiation  is 
very  slight  anatomically,  but  delicate  protoplasmic  threads  have 
been  shovm  to  extend  through  all  cell-walls,  connecting  together 
all  the  protoplasts  of  a  plant.  These  may  well  serve  as  con- 
ductors of  nervous  impulses.  The  nervous  mechanism  thus 
formed  is  very  rudimentary,  but  in  an  organism  the  conditions 
of  whose  life  render  locomotion  impossible  great  elaboration 
would  seem  superfluous.  There  is,  however,  very  great  delicacy 
of  perception  or  appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  sense  organ, 
stimuli  being  responded  to  which  are  quite  incapable  of 
impressing  themselves  upon  the  most  highly  differentiated 
animal. 

The  power  of  response  is  seen  most  casQy  in  the  case  of  young 
growing  organs,  and  the  parts  which  show  the  motor  mechanism 
are  mainly  the  young  growing  cells.  We  do  not  find  their 
behaviour  like  that  of  the  motor  mechanism  of  an  animal.  The 
active  contraction  of  muscular  tissue  has  no  counterpart  in  the 
plant.  The  peculiarity  of  the  protoplasm  in  almost  every  cell 
b  that  it  is  especially  active  in  the  regulation  of  its  permeability 
by  water.  Under  different  conditions  it  can  retain  it  more 
strongly  or  allow  it  to  escape  more  freely.  This  regulation  of 
turgor  is  as  characteristic  of  vegetable  protoplasm  as  contraction 
is  of  muscle.  The  response  to  the  stimulus  takes  the  form  of 
increasing  the  permeability  of  particular  cells  of  the  growing 
structures,  and  so  modifying  the  degree  of  the  turgidity  that  is 
the  precursor  of  growth  in  them.  The  extent  of  the  area  affected 
and  of  the  variation  in  the  turgor  depends  upon  many  circum- 
stances, but  we  have  no  doubt  that  in  the  process  of  modifying 
its  own  permeability  by  some  molecular  change  we  have  the 
counterpart  of  muscular  contract  ibility. 

The  response  made  by  the  adult  parts  of  pbnts,  to  which 
reference  has  been  made,  is  brought  about  by  a  mechanism 
similar  in  nature  though  rather  differently  applied.  If  the  leaf  of 
Mimosa  or  Destnodium  be  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  at  the 
base  of  each  leaflet  and  each  leaf,  just  at  the  junction  with  the 
respective  axes,  is  a  swelling  known  as  a  puhinus.  This  has  a 
relatively  large  development  of  succulent  parenchyma  on  its 
upper  and  lower  sides.  In  the  erect  position  of  the  leaf  the  lower 
side  has  its  cells  extremely  turgid,  and  the  pulvinus  thus  forms 
a  cushion,  holding  up  the  petiole.  On  stimulation  these  cells 
part  with  their  water,  the  lower  side  of  the  organ  becomes  flaccid 
and  the  weight  of  the  leaf  causes  it  to  fall.  The  small  pulvini 
of  the  leaflets,  by  similar  changes  of  the  distribution  of  turgidity, 
take  up  their  respective  positions  after  receiving  the  stimulus. 
In  some  cases  the  two  sides  of  the  pulvini  vary  their  turgidity  in 
turns;  in  others  only  the  lower  side  becomes  modified. 

Simibr  turgesccnce  changes,  taking  place  with  similar  rapidity 
in  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  of  Dionaea^  explain  the  closing  of  the 
lobes  upon  their  hinge.  More  slowly,  but  yet  in  the  same  way, 
we  may  note  the  change  in  turgidity  of  certain  cells  of  the 
Droscra  tentacles,  as  they  dose  over  the  imprisoned  insect. 

Organic  Rhythm. — It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  during  the 
proce^  of  growth  we  meet  with  rhythmic  variation  of  such 
turgidity.  The  existence  of  rhythm  of  this  kind  has  been  ob* 
served  and  studied  with  some  completeness.  It  is  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  phenomena  of  drctmmutation,  each  cell  of  the 
drcumnutating  organ  showing  a  rhythmic  enlargement  and 
decrease  of  its  dimensions,  due  to  the  admission  of  more  and  less 
water  into  its  interior.  The  restraint  of  the  protoplasm  changes 
gradually  and  rhythmically.  The  sequence  of  the  phases  of  the 
rhythm  of  the  various  cells  are  co-ordinated  to  produce  the 
movement.  Nor  is  it  only  in  growing  organs  that  the  rhythm 
can  be  observed,  for  many  plants  exhibit  it  during  a  much 
longer  period  than  that  of  growth.  It  is  easy  to  realize  how  such 
a  rhythm  can  be  modified  by  the  reception  of  stimuli,  and  can 
consequently  serve  as  the  basis  for  the  movement  of  the  stimu- 
lated organ.  This  rhythmic  affection  of  vegetable  protoplasm 
can  be  observed  in  very  many  of  its  functions.  What  have  t)een 
described  as  "periodicities,"  such  as  the  dally  variations  of 
root-pressure,  afford  familiar  instances  of  it.  It  reminds  us  of  a 
similar  property  of  animal  protoplasm  which  finds  its  expression 
in  the  rhythmic  beat  of  the  heart  and  other  phenomena. 


AuTBoamES.— Sachs,  Ledmrta  «m  tkt  PkysUUty  9f  Plamta, 
lated  by  Marshall  Ward ;  Vines,  Leawe*  on  tiu  PhysuUoty  tf  PlcmU  ; 
Pfcffcr,  Tk«  Physiology  of  Plants,  trans,  by  Ewait;  Reynolds  Crten. 
Introduction  to  Vegetable  Physiology;  The  SolubU  Ferments  and  Fer- 
mentation; Detmcr.Pracltcal  Plant  Physiology,  trans,  by  Moor; 
Darwin  and  Acton,  Practual  Physiology  t^PtaiUs;  DavenpMt,  CB., 
Experimental  Mor  biology » vols.  i.  and  ii. ;  Verwoni,CciKr«/  Physialeo* 
trans,  by  Lee;  BQtscnUj  InveaigfUion  on  Microscopic  Forms  amd  «■ 
Protoplasm,  trans,  by  Mmchin.  (J.  R.  Ga.) 

Pathology  of  Plants 

'*  Phytopathofegy  "  or  phuit  pathology  (Gr.  ^vrim,  plant), 
comprises  our  knowledge  of  the  symptoms,  course,  causes  and 
remedies  of  the  maladies  which  threaten  the  life  of  plants,  or 
which  result  in  abnormalities  of  structure  that  are  regarded, 
whether  directly  injurious  or  not  to  life,  as  unsightly  or  undesir- 
able. In  its  systematized  form,  as  a  branch  of  botanical  study, 
it  is  of  lecoit  date,  and,  as  now  understood,  the  subject  first 
received  special  attention  about  1850,  when  the  nature  d 
parasitism  began  to  be  intelligible;  but  many  disjointed  refer- 
ences to  diseased  conditions  of  planu  had  appeared  long  bdore 
this.  The  existence  of  blights  and  mildews  of  cereals  had  been 
observed  and  recorded  in  very  andent  times,  as  witness  the  Bibl«. 
where  half  a  dozen  references  to  sudi  scourges  occur  in  the  Oid 
Testament  alone.  The  epidemic  nature  of  wheat-rust  was 
known  to  Aristotle  about  350  B.C.,  and  the  Greeks  and  Romaics 
knew  these  epidemics  well,  their  philosophers  having  shrmd 
speculations  as  to  causes,  while  the  people  held  characterisck 
superstitions  regarding  them,  which  found  vent  in  the  dedication 
of  spedal  festivals  and  deities  to  the  pests.  Pliny  knew  th^i 
flies  emerge  from  galls.  The  few  records  during  the  middle  i§ri 
are  borne  out  by  what  is  known  of  famines  and  pestilence. 
Shakespeare's  reference  in  King  Lear  (Act  m.,  sc.  iv.)  may  be 
quoted  as  evincing  acquaintance  with  mildew  in  the  17  th  century, 
as  also  the  interesting  Rouen  law  of  Loverdo  (1660).  Malpi^ 
in  1679  gave  excellent  figures  and  accounts  of  leaf-roUing  and 
gait  insects,  and  Grew  in  1683  equally  good  descriptions  of  a  leaf- 
mining  caterpillar.  During  the  x8th  century  more  academic 
treatment  of  the  subject  began  to  replace  the  scattered  noteSb 
Hales  (1737-1733)  discussed  the  rotting  of  wounds,  cankers^  &c, 
but  much  had  to  be  done  with  the  microscope  before  any  ml 
progress  was  possible,  and  it  is  easily  intelligible  that  until  ih« 
theory  of  nutrition  of  the  higher  plants  had  been  foimdcd  by  tbs 
work  of  Ingenhouss,  Priestley  and  De  Saussure,  the  way  was  not 
even  prepared  for  accurate  knowledge  of  cryptogamic  parasites 
and  the  diseases  they  induce.  It  was  not  till  De  Bary  (tS6^.- 
made  known  the  true  nature  of  parasitic  Fungi,  based  on  his 
researches  between  1853-1863,  that  the  vast  domain  of  epidesck 
diseases  of  plants  was  opened  up  to  fruitful  investigation,  and 
such  modem  treatises  as  those  of  Frank  (x88o  and  1895),  Soraot: 
(1886),  Kirchner  (1890),  were  gradually  made  possible. 

Plant  pathology  embraces  several  brandies  of  study,  and  may 
be  conveniently  divided  as  follows^— 

I.  The  observation  and  accurate  description  of  syxnptoois 
{Diagnosis). . 

a.  The  study  of  causes  or  agendes  indudng  disease  (Aeiidcg}' 

3.  The  practise  of  preventive  and  remedial  measures  (rAerh- 
peutics). 

In  plants,  however,  the  symptoms  of  disease  are  apt  to  txhxt : 
themselves'  in  ft  very  general  manner.  Our  perceptions  diffcrci^ 
tiate  but  imperfectly  symptoms  which  are  due  to  very  differe::' 
causes  and  reactions,  probably  because  the  organization  of  ih« 
plant  is  so  mudi  less  highly  ^>edalLzed  than  that  of  highv: 
animals.  The  yellowing  and  subsequent  casting  of  leaves,  for 
instance,  is  a  very  general  symptom  of  disease  in  plants,  and  mi} 
be  induced  by  drought,  extremes  of  temperature,  insuJSdeot  < ' 
excessive  iUumination,  excess  of  water  at  the  roots,  the  action  ce 
parasitic  Fungi,  insects,  worms,  &c.,  or  of  poisonous  gases,  and  so 
forth;  and  extreme  caution  is  necessary  in  dealing  with  amau'^' 
descriptions  of  such  symptoms,  especially  when  the  untraic«>'' 
eye  has  taken  no  cognisance  of,  or  has  only  vaguely  observed*  the 
numerous  collateral  drcumstances  of  the  case. 

The  causes  of  disease  may  be  provisionally  classified  soccewha: 
as  follows,  but  it  may  be  remarked  at  the  outset  that  no  one  <tf 


PATHOLOGYI 


PLANTS 


7SS 


these  prozinud  cauMs,  or  agents,  Is  ever  solely  respondbk;  and  it 
is  very  easy  to  err  in  attributing  a  diseased  condition  to  any  of 
them,  unless  the  relative  importance  of  primary  and  subordinate 
agencies  is  discoverable.  For  instance,  a  Fungus,  epidemic  is 
impossible  unless  the  climatic  conditions  are  such  as  to  favour 
the  dispersal  and  germination  of  the  spores;  and  when  plants  are 
killed  off  owing  to  the  supersaturatlon  of  tbe  soil  with  water,  it 
is  by  no  means  obvious  whether  the  excess  of  water  and  dissolved 
materials,  or  the  exclusion  of  oxygen  from  the  root-hairs,  or  the 
lowering  of  the  temperature,  or  the  accumulation  of  foul  products 
of  decomposition  should  be  put  into  the  foreground.  In  every 
case  there  are  chains  of  causation  concerned,  and  the  same  factors 
will  be  differently  grouped  in  different  cases. 

Bearing  in  mind  these  precautions,  we  may  classify  the 
proximal  causal  agents  of  disease  as — 

I. — External  agencies. 


A.  Non-Uving[. 
a.  Material. 

1.  Physical— 
ScmL 
Water. 
Atmosphere. 

2.  Chemical — 
SoiL 
Water. 
Atmosphere. 


b.  Non-materiaL 

1.  Teini>erature. 

2.  lUumination. 

3.  Otheri^eacies. 
B.  Living. 

a.  Animalfl. 

I.  Vertebrata. 
a.  Invertebrata. 

b.  Plants. 

1.  Phanerogams. 

2.  Cryptogams. 


II. — Internal  agencies. 
While  such  a  classification  may  serve  its  purpose  as  a  sort  of 
index,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  limits  of  its  usefulness  are 
soon  reached.  In  the  first  place,  the  so-called  **  internal  causes  " 
of  disease  is  probably  a  mere  phray  covering  our  ignorance  of  the 
factors  at  work,  and  althoujsh  a  certain  convenience  attaches 
to  the  distinction  between  those  cases  where  tender  breeds  of 
plants  apparently  exhibit  internal  predisposition  to  suffer  more 
readily  Uian  others  from  parasites,  low  temperatures,  excessive 
growth,  &c. — as  is  the  case  with  some  grafted  plants,  cultivated 
hybrids,  &c. — ^the  mystery  involved  in  the  phrase  "internal 
causes  "  only  exists  until  we  find  what  action  of  the  living  or  non- 
living environment  of  the  essential  mechanism  of  the  plant  has 
upset  its  equilibrium. 

I.— Passing  to  the  recognized  external  afitncUst  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soU  is  a  fruitful  source  of  disease.  If  too  closely 
packed,  the  soil  particles  present  mechanical  obstaclca  to  growth; 
u  too  retentive  01  moisture,  tiie  root-hairs  suffer,  as  already  ninted: 
if  too  open  or  over-drained,  the  plant  succumbs  to  drought.  All 
those  properties  of  soil  known  as  texture,  porosicv,  depth,  inclina- 
tion to  the  horizon,  &c..  are  concerned  here.  Many  maladies  of 
plants  are  traceable  to  the  chemical  composition  of  soilsr— «.f. 
deficiency  of  nutritive  salts,  especially  nitrates  and  phosphates: 
the  presence  of  poisonous  salts  of  iron,  copper,  Ac,  or  (in  the  soil 
about  the  roots  of  trees  in  towns)  of  coal-gas  and  so  forth.  But 
it  is  worthy  of  special  attention  that  the  mere  chemical  com- 
position of  agricultural  and  garden  soils  is,  as  a  rule,  the  least  im- 
portant feature  about  them,  popular  opinion  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding.  Ordinary  soils  will  almost  sdways  provide  the 
necessary  chemical  ingredients  if  of  proper  physical  texture,  depth, 
&c.  (sec  Fungi  and  Bacteriology).         ^ 

As  regards  vnUeft  its  deficiency  or  excess  is  a  relative  matter,  and 
although  many  of  the  minor  maladies  of  pot-plants  in  windows 
and  greenhouses  controlled  by  amateurs  depend  on  its  misuse, 
water  alone  is  probably  never  a  primary  cause  of  disease.  Its 
over-supply  is,  however,  a  frequent  cause  of  predispositbn  to  the 
attacks  of  parasitic  Fungi— e.f.  th&  damping  off  of  seedling*— and 
in  saturated  soils  not  only  are  the  roots  and  root-hain  killed  by 
asphyxiation,  but  the  whole  course  of  soil  fcrmcntatran  is  altered, 
and  it  takes  time  to  "sweeten"  such  by  draining,  because  not 
only  must  the  noxwus  bodies  be  gradually  washed  out  and  the 
lost  salts  restored,  but  the  balance  of  suitable  bacterial  and  fungal 
life  must  be  restored. 

The  atmosphtrt  is  a  cause  of  disease  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
chemical  works,  laige  towns,  vokanoes,  6bc,  in  so  far  as  it  carries 
acid  gases  and  poisons  to  the  leaves  and  roots;  but  it  is  usual  to 
associate  with  it  the  action  of  excessive  humidity  whkrh  brings 
about  those  tender  watery  and  more  or  less  etiolated  conditions 
which  favour  parasitic  Fungi,  and  diminish  tranq)iration  and  there- 
fore nutrition.  It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  disastrous  effects 
of  cold  winds,  snow,  hail  and  frost,  lightning,  &c.,  under  the  heading 
of  atmospheric  influences,  which  only  shows  once  more  how  im- 
possible it  is  to  separate  causes  individually. 
^Turning  to  the  non-maUrial  txUmal  ag/entSt  probably  no  factors 
•n  fooro  Ksponsible  for  ill-health  in  plants  than  Umptralun  and 


I  Kghi.    Every  plant  k  eoostraiaed  to  cany  out  its  functions  of 

Eermination,  growth,  Autrition,  reproduction,  &c,  between  certain 
mits  of  temperature,  and  somewhere  between  the  extremes  of 
these  limits  each  functwn  finds  an  optimum  temperature  at  whkJi 
the  working  of  the  living  machinery  is  at  its  best,  and,  other  things 
being  equal,  any  great  departure  from  this  may  induce  pathdogical 
coiuutiotts;  and  many  disasten  arc  due  to  the  failure  to  provide 
such  suitable  temperatures — eg.  in  greenhouses  where  plants 
requiring  very  different  c^timum  temperatures  and  illumination 
are  kept  together.  Equally  disastrous  are  those  climatic  or  tw^aoonaj 
changes  which  involve  temperatures  in  themselves  not  excessive 
but  m  wrong  sequence;  how  many  more  useful  plants  could  be 
grown  in  the  open  in  the  United  lungdom  if  the  oecepti^y  mild 
springs  were  not  so  often  followed  by  frosts  in  May  and  June  I 
The  indirect  effects  of  temperature  are  also  important.  Trees,  of 
which  the  young  buds  are  "  nipped  "  by  frost,  would  frequently 
not  suffer  material  injury,  were  it  not  that  the  small  frost<facks 
serve  as  points  of  entry  for  Fungi ;  and  numerous  cases  are  known 
where  even  high  temperatures  can  be  endured  on  rich,  deep,  reten- 
tive soils  by  plants  which  at  once  succumb  to  drought  on  shaUow 
or  non-retentive  soils. 

All  chlorophyll  pkuits  require  /*£ H  but  in  very  different  degrees^ 
as  exemplified  even  in  the  United  Kingdom  by  the  shade-b^^ng 
beech  and  yew  contrasted  with  the  Tight-demanding  larch  and 
birch ;  and  as  with  temperature  so  with  light,  every  plant  and  even 
every  organ  has  its  optimum  of  illumination.  The  "  drawn  "  or 
etblated  condition  of  over-shaded  plants  is  a  case  in  point,  though 
here  again  the  soft,  watery  plant  often  really  succumbs  to  other 
disease  agent»-ne.£.  parasitic  Fungir-supcrveniog  on  its  non- 
resistant  condition. 

Animals  and  plants  as  agents  of  disease  or  injury  form  part  of 
the  larger  subject  of  the  struggle  for  existence  between  living 
organisms,  as  is  recognized  even  by  those  who  do  not  so  readily 
apprehend  that  diseased  conditions  in  general  are  always  signs  01 
defeat  in  the  struggle  for  existence  between  the  suffering  organism 
and  its  environment,  living  and  non-living. 

The  Vertebrata  come  within  the  scope  of  our  subject,  chiefly  as 
destructive  a^nts  which  cause  wounds  or  devour  young  shoots 
and  folia^,  &c.  Rabbits  and  other  burrowing  animals  injure 
roots,  squirrels  and  birds  snip  off  buds,  horned  cattle  strip  off  bariL 
and  so  forth.  It  is  among  the  Invertebrata  that  epidemics  01 
destruction  are  referred  to,  though  we  should  bear  in  mind  that 
it  is  only  the  difference  in  numerical  proportion  that  prevents  our 
speaking  of  an  epidemic  of  elephants  or  of  rabbits^  though  we  use 
the  term  when  speaking  of  blight  insects;  there  is  ktth:  consistency 
in  the  matter,  as  it  is  usual  to  sp^k  of  an  invasran  or  scourge  <» 
locusts,  caterpillars,  &c.  Insect  injuries  are  very  varied  in  degree 
and  in  kind.  Locusts  devour  all  before  .them ;  caterpillars  defo&te 
the  plant,  and  necessitate  the  premature  utilization  of  its  reserves; 
other  insects  (fi.g.  GraphclUka)  eat  the  buds  or  the  roots  {e.g.  wire- 
worms),  and  so  maim  the  plant  that  its  foliage  suffers  from  want 
of  water  and  asumilation  is  diminished,  or  actual  withering  follows. 
Many  aphides,  ftc,  puncture  the  leaves,  suck  out  the  sap,  and 
Induce  various  kx:al  deformations,  arrest  of  growth,  pustular 
swellings,  &c.,  and  if  numerous  all  the  evils  of  defoliation  may 
follow.  Others  {fi.g.  miners)  tunnel  into  the  leaf  parenchyma, 
and  so  put  the  assimilating  areas  out  of  action  in  another  way. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  a  single  complete  defoliation  of  a 
herbaceous  annual  may  so  incapacitate  the  assimilation  that  no 
stores  are  available  for  seeds,  tubers,  &c.,  for  another  year,  or  at 
roost  so  little  that  feeble  plants  only  come  up.  In  the  case  of  a 
troe  matters  run  somewhat  differently;  most  large  trees  in  fuU 
foliage  have  far  more  assimilatory  surface  than  is  immediately 
necessary,  and  if  the  injury  is  connnod  to  a  single  year  it  may  be 
a  small  event  in  the  life  of  the  tree,  but  if  repeated  the  cambium, 
bud-stores  and  fruiting  may  all  suffer.  Many  larvae  of  beetles, 
moths,  &c.,  bore  yaxo  bark,  and  injure  the  cambium,  or  even  the 
wood  and  pith;  in  addition  to  direct  injury,  the  intcrfcrcno:  with 
the  transpiration  current  and  the  access  of  other  parasites  through 
the  wounds  are  also  to  be  feared  in  proportion  to  the  numbers  of 
insccta  at  work.  Various  local  hypertrophies,  including  galls, 
result  from  the  increased  growth  of  young  tissues  irritated  by  the 
punctures  of  insects,  or  by  the  presence  of  eggs  or  larvae  left  behind. 
They  may  occur  on  all  parts,  buds,  leaves,  stems  or  roots,  as  shown 
by  the  numerous  s^ies  of  Cynips  on  oak.  Phylloxera  on  vines,  &e. 
The  local  damage  is  small,  but  the  general  injury  to  assimilation, 
absorption  and  other  functions,  may^  be  important  if  the  numbere 
increase.  In  addition  to  insects,  various  kinds  of  worms,  molluscs, 
&c.,  arc  sometimes  of  importance  as  pests.  The  so-called  eel- 
worms  {Nematodes)  may  do  immense  damage  on  roots  and  in 
the  grains  of  cereals,  and  every  one  knows  now  predatory  slugs 
and  snails  arc.    (See  Economic  Entomology.) 

Plants  as  agents  of  damage  and  disease  may  be  divided  into 
those  larger  torms  which  as  weeds,  epiphytes  and  so  forth,  do 
injury  by  dominating  and  shading  more  delicate  species,  or  by 
gradually  exhausting  the  soil,  &c..  and  true  parasites  which  actually 
five  on  and  in  the  tissues  of  the  plants.  ^  It  must  be  remembered 
that  phanerogams  also  include  parasitic  species — e.g.  Cuscuta, 
Lcranikus,  Viscum.  Thesium,  Rhinantkus,  &c. — with  vanous  capac- 
ities for  injury.    These  enemies  are  as  a  rule  so  conspicuous  that 


756 


PLANTS 


(PATHOLOGY 


we  do  not  look  on  their  depredations  as  diseases,  though  the  gradual 
deterioration  of  hay  under  the  exhausting  ^ects  of  root-parasites 
like  RhinafUkuSf  aiid  the  onslaught  of  Cuscula  when  unduly  abund- 
ant, should  teach  us  how  unimportant  to  the  definition  the  question 
of  size  may  be. 

It  is,  however,  among  the  Fungi  that  we  find  the  most  disastrous 
and  elusive  agents  of  disease.  Parasiiie  Fungi  may  be,  as  regards 
their  direct  action,  purely  local — e.g.  Scluntiat  which  forms  gall- 
like swellings  on  the  roots  of  rushes;  Cymnosperangiumt  causing 
excrescences  on  juniper  stems;  numerous  leaf  Fungi  such  as  Puc- 
ciniOt  Aeeidium,  Sehtoria,  &c.,  causine  yellow,  brown  or  Mack 
spots  on  leaves;  or  Usiilago  in  the  anthers  of  certain  flowersL  In 
such  cases  the  immediate  damage  done  may  be  slight;  but  the 
effects  of  prolonged  action  and  the  summation  of  numerous  attacks 
at  numerous  points  are  often  enormous,  certain  of  these  leaf- 
diseases  costing  millions  sterling  annuaUy  to  some  planting  and 
agricultural  communities.  In  other  cases  the  Fungus  is  virulent 
and  rampant,  and,  instead  of  a  local  effect,  exerts  a  general  de- 
structive action  throughout  the  plant — e.g.  Fythium,  which  causes 
the  "  damping  off  "  of  seedlings,  reducing  them  to  a  putrid  mass  in 
a  few  hours,  and  PkytopktkarOj  the  i^nt  of  the  potato  disease. 
Many  Fungi,  in  themselves  not  very  aggressive,  slowly  bring  about 
important  and  far-reaching  secondary  effects.  Thus,  many  Hymeno- 
mycetea  ([Agarics,  Polyporci,  &c.)  hve  on  the  wood  of  trees.  This 
wood  is  in  great  part  already  dead  substance,  but  the  mycdium 
gradually  invades  the  vessels  occupied  with  the  transmission  of 
water  up  the  trunk,  cuts  off  the  current,  and  so  kills  the  tree;  in 
other  cases  such  Fungi  attack  the  roots,  and  so  induce  rot  and  starva- 
tion of  oxygen,  resulting  in  **  fouling.  Numerous  Fun^,  though 
conspicuous  as  parasites,  cannot  be  said  to  do  much  individual 
injury  to  the  host.  The  extraordinary  malformations  known  as 
*'  Witches'  Brooms."  caused  by  the  repeated  branching  and  tufting 
of  twigs  in  which  the  mycelium  of  Exoascus  (on  birch)  or  Auidium 
(on  silver  fir)  are  living,  may  be  borne  in  considerable  numbers 
for  years  without  any  very  extcn^ve  apparent  injury  to  the  tree. 
Again,  the  curious  distortions  on  the  stems  of  nettles  attacked  by 
the  Aecidium  form  of  the  heteroecious  Puccina  Carieis  (see  Fungi. 
for  Hcteroecism),  or  on  maize  stems  and  leaves  attacked  by  Usiilago 
Maydis,  or  on  the  infiorescence  of  crucifers  infested  with  Cystopus, 
&c.,  are  not  individually  very  destructive;  it  is  the  cumulative 
effects  of  numerous  attacks  or  of  extensive  epidemics  which  eventu- 
ally tell.  Some  very  curious  details  are  observable  in  these  cases 
'of  malformation.  For  instance,  the  Aecidium  elatinum  first  referred 
to  causes  the  new  shoots  to  differ  in  direction,  duration  and  arrange- 
ment, and  even  shape  of  foliage  leaves  from  the  normal;  and  the 
shoots  of  Euphorbia  infected  with  the  aecidia  of  Uromyces  Pisi 
depart  so  much  from  the  normal  in  appearance  that  the  attacked 
plants  have  been  taken  for  adiffcrent  species.  Similarly  with  A  nenume 
infested  with  Puccinia  and  Vaccinium  with  Calyptosfora,  and  many 
other  cases  of  deformations  due  to  hypertrophy  or  atrophy.  In- 
stances of  what  we  may  term  tolerated  parasitism,  where  the  host 
plant  seems  to  accommodate  itself  very  well  to  the  presence  of  the 
r  ungus,  paying  the  tax  it  extorts  and  nevertheless  not  su(xumbing 
but  managing  to  provide  itself  with  sufficient  material  to  goon  with, 
are  not  rare;  and  these  seem  to  lead  to  those  cases  where  uic  mutual 
accommodation  between  host  and  guest  has  been  carried  so  far 
that  each  derives  some  benefit  from  the  association — symbiosis 
(see  Fungi). 

II.  The  hinas  of  disease  due  to  these  various  agencies  are  very 
different.  A  plant  may  be  diseased  as  a  whole,  because  neariy 
all  its  tissues  are  in  a  morbid  or  pathological  condition,  owing  to 
some  Fungus  pervading  the  whole — e.g.  Pylhium  in  seedlings— or 
to  a  poison  diffusing  from  cell  to  cell;  in  the  case  of  unicellular 
plants — e.g.  an  alga  infested  with  a  Ckytridivm — indeed,  matters 
can  hardly  be  otherwise.  But  the  case  is  obviously  different 
where  a  plant  dies  because  some  essential  oi^n  or  tissue  tract  has 
been  destroyed,  and  other  parts  have  suftened  because  supplies 
are  cut  c^ — e.g.  when  the  upper  parts  of  a  tree  die  off  owing  to 
destruction  of  the  roots,  or  to  the  ringing  of  the  stem  lower  down, 
and  consequent  interference  ^ith  the  transpiration  current.  In 
a  large  number  of  cases,  however,  the  disease  is  purely  local,  and 
docs  not  itself  extend  far  into  the  oi^n  or  tissue  aflectea. 

If  a  mass  of  living  plant-tissue  is  cut,  the  first  change  observed 
is  one  of  colour:  the  white  "  flesh  "  of  a  potato  or  an  apple  turns 
brown  as  the  air  enters,  and  closer  examination  shows  that  cell 
walls  and  contents  are  alike  affected.  The  cut  cells  die,  and  oxidized 
products  are  concerned  in  the  change  of  colour,  the  brown  juices 
exuding  and  sfloking  into  the  cell-walls.  The  next  change  observ- 
able after  some  hours  is  that  the  untouched  cells  below  the  cut 
grow  larger,  push  up  the  dead  surface,  and  divide  by  walls  tangential 
to  it,  with  tne  formatbn  of  tablokl  cork-cells.  The  layer  of  cork 
thus  formed  cuts  out  the  dead  debris  and  serves  to  protect  the 
uninjured  cells  below.  Such  healing  by  cork  formation  is  accom- 
panied by  a  rise  of  temperature:  the  active  growth  of  the  dividing 
cells  is  accompanied  by  vigorous  metabolism  and  respiration,  and 
a  state  of  "  wound  fever  "  supervenes  until  the  healing  is  completed. 
The  phenomena  described  occur  in  all  cases  d  cicatrization  of 
wounds  in  nature— «.g.  l<^-tissue,  young  stems,  roots,  &c.,  when 
cut  or  pierced  by  insects,  thorns  and  so  forth.  They  are  con- 
oemod  in  the  ocausaon  of  broken  twigs  and  of  falling  leaves,  and 


it  is  from  the  actively  growing  "  callus  "  devdoped  at  tbc  snrface 
of  the  wounded  tissues  of  cuttings,  buddings,  pruninga,  &c,  that 
the  healing  and  renewal  of  tissues  occur  of  which  advantage  is 
taken  in  the  practice  of  what  mij^ht  well  be  termed  plant  surgery. 
A  third  phenomenon  observable  m  such  healing  tissues  k  the 
increased  flow  and  accumulation  of  plastic  materials  at  the  aeat  of 
injury.  The  enhanced  meubolism  creates  a  current  of  drau^i 
on  the  supplies  of  available  food-stuffs  aroifnd.  The  phenomeooa 
of  irritability  here  concerned  is  well  shown  in  certain  cases  where 
a  parasitic  orranism  gains  access  to  a  cell— «.g.  Pleolrachdus  causes 
the  invaded  PiloMus  to  swdl  up»  and  changes  the  whole  course 
of  its  cell  metabolism,  and  similarly  with  Flaswudiopkara  ia  the 
roots  <A.  turnips,  and  many  other  cases. 

Irritation  and  hypertrophy  di  cells  are  common  sfgna  of  tlie  pres- 
ence of  parasites»  as  evinced  by  the  numerous  malformations,  gaDs, 
witches -brooms,  &c.,  on  disused  plants.  The  now  wcU-koowa 
fact  that  small  doses  of  poisonous  substances  may  act  as  stimuS 
to  living  protoiMasm,  and  that  respiratory  activity  and  gramih 
may  be  accelerated  by  chloroform,  ether  ana  even  powerful  mixieral 
poisons,  such  as  roeicuric  chloride,  in  minimal  doaefl»  offers  some 
explanation  of  these  phenomena  of  hypertrophy,  "  wound  fever,** 
and  other  responses  to  the  presence  of  irritating  agents.  &1II 
further  insight  is  afforded  by  our  increasing  knowledge  of  the 
enzymes,  and  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  both  poisons  and  cnxymfes 
are  very  common  in  just  such  parasitic  Fungi  as  induce  diacotora- 
tions,  hypertrophies  and  the  death  of  cells — e.g.  Bctrylis,  Ergot,  &c 
Now  it  is  dear  that  if  an  organism  gains  access  to  all  parts  of  a 

Elamt,  and  stimulates  all  or  most  of  its  cells  to  hypertn^y,  we  msy 
ave  the  latter  behaving  abnormally — Le.  it  mi^  be  diseased  throusb- 
out;  and  such  actually  occurs  in  the  case  01  Euphorbia  pervaded 
with  Uromyces  Pisi,  the  presence  of  whkh  alters  the  whole  aspea 
of  the  host-plant.  If  such  a  general  parasite  carries  Its  activitks 
farther,  every  cdl  may  be  killed  and  the  plant  forthwith  destroyed— 
e.g.  PhytopUkora  in  potatoes.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  irritatiiis 
agent  is  local  in  its  action,  causing  only  a  few  cdls  to  react,  we  have 
the  various  pimples,  excrescences,  outgrowths,  Ac,  eachibited  ia 
such  cases  as  Ustilago  Maydis  09  the  maize,  various  galla,  witches'- 
brooms,  &c. 

It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  living  cdls  of  the  plaat  react 
upori  the  parante  as  well  as  to  all  external  agencies,  and  the  aatuie 
ot  disease  becomes  intelligible  only  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  it  as- 
sists in  such  altered  metabolism— <leflected  physiology~-as  is  here 
implied.  The  reaction  of  the  cells  may  be  in  two  directioes, 
moreover.  For  instance,  suppose  the  effect  of  a  falling  temperatue 
b  to  so  modify  the  metabolism  of  the  cells  that  they  fill  up  isc:e 
and  more  with  watery  sap;  as  the  freezing-point  is  reached  this 
may  result  in  destructive  changes,  and  deatn  tram  coM  may  result. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  gradual  cooling  is  met  by  a  corcespovMLrz 
depletion  of  the  cells  of  water,  even  intense  coU  may  be  sustained 
without  injury. 

Or,  take  another  case.  If  the  attack  of  a  parante  is  met  by  the 
formation  of  some  substance  in  the  protoplasm  which  is  ciiei&> 
tactically  repulsive  to  the  invader,  it  may  be  totally  incapable  of 
penetrating  the  cell,  even  though  equipped  with  a  whole  armo^Ty 
of  cytases,  diastatic  and  other  enzymes,  and  poisons  whidh  wo<ui 
easily  overcome  the  more  passive  resistances  offered  by  inert 
cell-walls  and  cell-contents  of  other  plants,  the  protoplaim  of  which 
forms  bodies  chemotactically  attractive  to  the  r  ungus. 

The  various  degrees  of  parasitism  are  to  a  certain  extent  cxplaiaed 
by  the  foregoing:  In  order  that  a  Funcus  may  enter  a  puuic.  it 
must  be  able  to  overcome  not  merely  the  resistance  of  oeft-«aIb, 
but  that  of  the  living  protoplasm ;  if  it  cannot  do  this,  it  must  reia^a 
outside  as  a  mere  epiphyte,  e.g.  Fumago,  Ilerpetrickia^  Ac,  or,  a 
most,  vegetate  in  the  intercellular  spaces  and  anchor  itadf  to  (he 
cell-walls,  e.g.  THchosphaeria.  The  inability  to  enter  the  ctDs 
may  be  due  to  the  lack  of  chemotactic  bodies,  to  incapacity  t» 
form  cellulose-dissolving  enzymes,  to  the  existence  in  the  b'>s:- 
cells  of  antagonistic  bodies  which  neutralize  or  destroy  the  acitH. 
enzymes  or  poisons  formed  by  the  hyphae,  or  even  to  the  forsvi- 
tion  and  excrctbn  of  bodies  which  poison  the  Fungus.  But  evra 
when  inside  it  does  not  follow  that  the  Fungus  can  kill  the  ct  I 
and  many  cases  are  known  where  the  Fungus  can  break  thrc  .  ^ 
the  cell's  first  lines  of  defence  (cell-wall  and  protoplasmic  Itninv '  - 
but  the  struggle  goes  on  at  dose  quarters,  arid  variom  degrees  at 
hypertrophy,  accumulation  of  plastic  bodies  or  sccretio&s  d  t> 
coforatbns,  Btc,  indicate  the  suffering  of  the  still  living  eel. 
Finally,  cases  occur  where  th^  invaded  cdl  so  adapts  itaelf  to  the 
presence  of  the  intruder  that  life  in  common— symbicsia-  -resitl;*. 

The  dissemination  of  plant  parasites  is  favoured  by  many  m^ 
cumstanccs  not  always  obvious,  whence  an  air  of  mystery  reg^^tf? 
epidemics  was  easily  created  in  earlier  times.  The  spores  J 
Rusts,  Erysipheae  and  other  Fungi  may  be  conveyed  from  pbM 
to  plant  by  snails;  those  of  tree-killing  poly  pom,  &c.,  by  mire, 
rabbits,  rats,  &c.,  which  nib  thdr  fur  against  the  hymrBoplM3rr«. 
Bees  carry  the  spores  of  ScUr<ainia  as  they  do  the  pollen  of  t^ 
bilberricsj  and  flies  convey  the  conidia  of  ergot  from  grain  to  er^  ^~ 
Insects,  mdeed,  are  largely  concerned  in  disscminatinc  T-ur: 
either  on  their  bodies  or  via  the  alimentary  canal.  Worms  bn  . 
spores  to  the  surface  of  soil,  ducks  and  other  birds  coavry  thrc: «« 
their  muddy  feet,  and,  as  b  well-known,  wind  and  otfettr  i^vwca^ 


PATHCMjOGY] 


PLANTS 


757 


agencies  are  very  eflScicnt  in  <Ii«emiiiation.  The  part  played  by 
roan  also  counts  for  much.  Gardeners  and  farm  labourers  convey 
^Mres  from  one  bed  or  field  to  another;  carted  soil,  manure,  Ac, 
may  abound  in  spores  of  Smuts»  F$uariumt  Piolyporei  and  in  sderotia ; 
ami  articles  through  the  post  and  so  forth  often  carrjr  infective 
spores.  Every  time  a  carpenter  saws  fresh  timber  with  a  saw 
recently  put  uirough  wood  attacked  with  dry-rot,  he  risks  infect- 
ing it  with  the  Fungus;  and  similariy  in  pruning,  in  propagating 
by  cuttings,  dec. 

The  annual  losses  due  to  epidemic  plant  diseases  attain  pro- 
txMiions  not  easily  estimated.  As  regards  money  value  ahsne  the 
following  figures  may  serve  in  illustration.  In  1883  the  United 
States  was  calculated  to  have  lost  £40.000,000  to  £60,000.000  from 
insect  and  other  pests.  The  wheat-rust  oosts  Australia  ^^,000,000 
to /3.ooo,QOO  annually,  and  in  1891  alone  the  loss  whicn^  Prussia 
suffered  from  grain-rusts  was  estimated  at  £20.000,000  sterling. 

The  terrible  losses  sustained  by  whole  communities  of  farmers. 

Elaaten,  foresters,  &c.,  from  plant  diseases  have  naturally  stimu- 
ited  the  search  for  remedies,  out  even  now  the  search  is  too  often 
conducted  in  the  spirit  of  the  believer  in  quack  medicines,  although 
the  agricultural  world  is  awakening  to  the  fact  that  before  any 
measures  likely  to  be  successful  can  oe  attempted,  the  whole  chain 
of  causation  of  the  disease  must  be  investigated.    Experience  with 
epidemics,  dearly  bought  in  the  past,  has  shown  that  one  fruitful 
.cause  is  the  laymg  open  to  the  inroads  of  some  Fungus  or  insect, 
hitherto  leading  a  quiet  endemic  life  in  the  fields  and  forests,  large 
ttracts  of  its  special  food,  ak>ng  which  it  may  range  rampant  without 
check   to  its  dispersal,    nutrition  and   reproduction.     Numerous 
wild  hypotheses  as  to  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  host-plant. 
Icaduui^  to  supposed  vulnerability  previously  non-existent,  would 
probabty  never  have  seen  the  lignt  nad  the  lull  significance  of  the 
truth  been  grasped  that  an  epidemic  results  when  the  external 
factors  favour  a  parasite  somewhat  more  than  they  do  the  host. 
It  may  be  that  in  particular  cases  particular  modes  of  cultivation 
disfavour  the  host;  or  that  the  soil,  climate  or  seasons  do  so;  but 
ovcrwhelminj^  evidence  exists  to  show  that  the  principal  causes  of 
epidemics  reside  in  circumstances  which  favour  the  spread,  nutrition 
and  reproduction  of  the  pest,  and  the  lesson  to  be  learnt  is  that 
precautions  against  the  establishment  of  such  favouring  conditions 
must  be  sought.     Nevertheless,  epidemics  occur,  and  practical 
measures  are  devised  to  meet  the  vark>us  cases  and  to  check  th.; 
ravages  already  begun.    The  procedure  consists  in  most  cases  in 
spraying  the  ancctcd  plants  with  poisonous  solutmns  or  emulsions, 
.or  in  dusting  them  with  fungicidal  or  insccticidal  powders,  or  apply- 
ing 4«he  fumes  of  lethal  gases.    For  the  composition  of  the  numerous 
liouids  and  powders  special  works  must  be  consulted,  but  the 
■following  principles  apply  generally.     The  poison  must  not  be 
strong  enough  to  injure  the  roots,  leaves,  &c.,  of  the  host-plant, 
or  allowed  lo  act  long  enough  to  bring  about  such  injury.    Care 
,and  intcUigcace  are  especiauy  ncedfiu  with  certain  insecticides 
such  as  poisonous  sases,  or  the  operators  may  suffer.    It  is  worse 
tKan  useless  to  apply  drastic  remraies  if  the  main  facts  of  the^  life- 
history  ctf  ^e  pest  ara  not  known;  e.g.  the  application  of  ordinary 
antiseptic  poiKQcrs  to  leaves  inside  which  a  Fungus,  sudi  as  a  Undo 
.  or  UstHa^,  ,is  gsowing  caa  only  result  in  failure,  and  similarly  if 
tobacco  fumes,  ior  instance,   are  applied  when  the  insects  con- 
cerned are  hibernating  in  the  ground  oeneath.    Such  applications 
.at  the  moment  when  spfves  are  germinating  on  the  waves,  e.g. 
.  PeroMspora,  or  to  the  yomg  mycelia  of  epiphytic  parasites,  r.g. 
Erys{f>kif,  or  the  steeping  in  not  water  of  thoroughly  ripe  hard  nains 
to  whkh  spoms  are  attached,  «.f .  U^tUago,  and  fillmg  a  grccnnouse 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  when  yoiu^  .^lsects  are  commencing 
their  ravages,  e.g.  Rcd'spider — all  these  aAd  similar  procedures 
timed  to  catch  the  pest  at  a  vulnerable  stage  are  intelligent  and 
profitable  prophylactic  measures,  as  has  been  repeatedly  shown. 
Numerous  special  methods  of  prcventijig  the  spread  of  Fungi,  or 
'  the  migrations  of  insects,  or  of  trapping  various  animals:  of  leaving 
.  infested  ground  fallow,  or  of  growing  another  crop  Jiacless  to  the 
pest,  &c.,  are  also  to  be  foti^  in  ine  praaieaj  treatises     More 
.  indirect  methods,  such  as  the  grafting  of  less  rcsistaot  scions  on 
.  rooic  vigorous  stocks,  of  raising  special  late  or  early  varieties  by 
.  crossuig  or  selcctbn,  and  so  on,  have  also  met  with  success;  but 
it  must  be  understood  that  "  rcsisUnt "  in  such  cases  usually 
means  that  some  peculiarity  of  quick  i^rowth,  early  ripening  or 
•other  Jife-foature  in  the  plant  is  for  the  time  being  taken  advantage 
•of.  ^  Among  the  most  interesting  modern  means  of  waging  war 
.against  epidemic   pests  is  that  of   introducing  other  epidemkrs 
»mong  the  pest^  themselves — t.g.  the  infection  of  rats  and  mke 
with  disease  badUi,  or  of  locusts  with  insect-killing  Fungi,  and 
mgnaof  the  successful  carrying  out  of  such  measures  arc  not  wanting. 
That  the  encouragement  of  msectivorous  birds  has  been  profitable 
is  wcIl,cstabUshedI  and  it  u  equally  well-known  that  their  destruc* 
tisid  txkiky  lead  to  diaaetrous  iijaect  plagues. 

Dheons^nd  Symptom^^fhe  symptoms  of  plant  diseases  are, 
as  aire&dy  said,  apt  to  be  very  general  in  their  nature,  and  are 
sometiaaes -so  vasuely  defined  that  lit  tie  caa  be  learned  from 
them  as  to  the  causes  at  work.  W«  may  often  distinguish 
.between  pAmsry  symptoms  and  secoodaiy  or  sujUoEdioate 


^mptoms,  but  for  the  purposes  of  dasufication  in  an  article  of 
this  scope  we  shall  only  attempt  to  group  the  various  cases  under 
the  more  obvious  signs  of  disease  exhibited. 

1.  Dtscohnlious  are  among  the  commonest  of  all  signs  that  a 
plant  is  "  sickly  "  or  diseased.  The  prindpal  symptom  may  show 
Itself  in  general  palbr.  indudina;  all  cases  where  the  normal  healthy 
green  hue  u  replaced  by  a  skkly  yellowish  hue  indicating  that  the 
chlorophyll  apparatus  is  defident.  It  may  be  due  to  insufficient 
illumination  (E/Mlaiuw),  as  seen  in  geraniums  kept  in  too  shaded 
a  situation,  and  is  then  accompanied  by  soft  tissues,  elongation 
of  intemodes,  leaves  usually  reduced  in  sixe,  &c.  The  laying  of 
wheat  a  a  partkular  case.  False  etiolation  may  occur  from  too 
low  a  temperature,  often  seen  in  youn^  wheat  in  cold  springs. 
Cases  of  pallor  due  to  too  intense  illumination  and  destructran  of 
chlorophyll  must  also  be  distinguished.  Chlorosis  is  a  form  of 
pallor  where  the  chlorophyll  remains  in  abeyance  owing  to  a  want 
of  iron,  and  can  be  curea  by  adding  ferrous  salts.  Lack  of  other 
ingredients  may  also  induce  chlorouc  conditions.  Yellowing  is  a 
common  ugn  of  water-logged  roots,  and  if  accompanied  by  wilting 
may  be  due  to  drought.  Over-transpiration  in  bright  wintry 
weather,  when  the  roots  are  not  absorbing,  often  results  in  ydlow- 
ing.  In  other  cases  the  presence  of  insects.  Fungi  or  poisons  at 
the  roots  may  be  looked  for.  Albinism,  with  whidi  variegated 
foliage  may  be  considered,  concerns  a  different  set  of  causes,  still 
obscure,  and  usually  regarded  as  internal,  though  experiments 
go  to  show  that  some  vanegations  are  infectious. 

2.  S^oUed  LtoMs,  fire— -Discoloured  spots  or  patches  on  leaves 
and  other  herbaceous  parts  arc  common  symptoms  of  disease,  and 
often  furnish  clues  to  identification  of  causes,  though  it  must  be 
remembered  that  no  sharp  line  divides  this  class  of  symptoms  from 
.1.^  ir         D..  t     ..i  ..         •_!        #  ^x)t -diseases  are  due 

liseascs  "  described, 

.     ,     - —  spot  or  patch  is  an 

area  of  injury;  on  (or  in)  it  the  cell-contents  arc  suffering  destruc- 
tion from  shading,  bkxking  of  stomata,  loss  of  substance  or  direct 
mechanical  injury,  and  the  plant  suffers  in  proportion  to  the  area 
of  leaf  surface  put  out  of  action.  It  is  somewhat  artificial  to  classify 
these  diseases  according  to  the  colour  of  the  spots,  and  often  im- 
possible, because  the  colour  may  differ  according  to  the  age  of  the 
part  attacked  and  the  stage  of  injury  attained;  many  Fungi,  for 
instance,  induce  yelk>w  spots  which  become  red,  brown  or  black 
as  they  get  older,  and  so  on.  "White  or  grey  spots  may  be  due  to 
Peronospora,  Erysiphe,  Cystopus,  Entyloma  and  other  Fungi,  the 
mycelium  of  which  will  be  detected  in  the  discoloured  area ;  or  they 
may  be  scale  insects,  or  the  results  of  punctures  by  Red-spider,  &c. 
YeUow  spots,  and  especially  bright  orange  spots,  commonly  indicate 
Rust  Fungi  or  other  Uredineae;  but  PkyUosticia,  Exoascus,  ClasUro- 
sporium,  Synckytnum,  &c.,  also  induce  similar  symptoms.  Certain 
Aphides,  Ked-spidcr,  Phylloxera  and  other  insects  also  betray 
their  presence  by  such  spots.  It  is  a  very  common  event  to  find  the 
eariy  stages  of  injury  indicated  by  pale  yellow  spots,  which  turn 
darker,  brown,  red,  black,  Ac,  later,  e.g.  Dilopkta,  Rhytisma,  &c. 
Moreover,  variegations  deceptively  like  these  disease  spots  are 
known,  e.t,  Senocio  Kaempferi.  Red  spots  may  indicate  the 
presence  of  Fungi,  t.g,  Pclysltma,  or  insects,  t.g.  Phyto^us.  Brown 
spots  arc  characteristic  of  Phylohhihora,  Pucctnia,  &c.,  and  black 
ones  of  Fiuicladium,  Usiilago,  Rkytismat  &c.  Both  are  common 
as  advanced  symptoms  of  destruction  by  Fungi  and  insects.* 
Brilliantly  coloured  spots  and  patches  follow  the  actk>n  of  acid 
fumes  on  the  v^etation  near  towns  and  factories,  and  such  parti- 
coloured loaves  often  present  strikipg  resemblance  to  autumn 
foliage.  Symptoros  of  scorching  owing  to  abnormal  insolation — 
t.g.  In  greenhouses  where  the  sun's  rays  are  concentrated  on 
particular  spots— and  a  certain  class  of  obscure  diseases,  such  as 
"  silver-leaf "  in  plums,  "  foxy  leaves  "  ip  various  plants,  may  also 
be  placed  here. 

3.  Wounds. — ^The  prindpal  phenomena  resulting  froig  a  fipnple 
wound,  and  the  response  of  the  irritated  cells  in  healing  by  cork  • 
and  in  the  formation  of  callus,  have  been  indkated  above.  Any 
.clean  cut.  fracture  or  bruise  which  injures  the  cambium  over  a 
hpiitcd  area  is  met  with  the  same  response.  The  injured  cells  die 
and  ^,urn  brown ;  the  living  cells  beneath  grow  out,  and  form  cork, 
and  under  the  released  pressure  bulge  outwards  and  repeatedly 
divide,  forming  ^  inass  01  succulent  regenerative  tissue  known  as 
callus.  Living  ccfls  of  ^  pith,  phloem,  cortex,  &c.,  may  also 
co-operate  in  this  formation  of  rc^ncrativc  tissue,  and  if  the  wound 
is  a  mere  knife-cut  In  the  "  bancr**  the  protruding  lips  of  callus 
formed  at  the  edges  of  the  wound  soon  meet,  and  tne  slit  is  healed 
ovet^-^occluded.  If  a  piece  of  bark  and  cortex  9!ti  torn  off,  the 
occlusion  takes  longer,  occause  the  tissues  have  to  cjrcep  over  tha 
exposed  area  of  wood;  and  the  same  is  true  of  a  transverse  cut 
severing  the  branch,  as  may  be  seen  in  any  properiy  pruned  tree. 
Wounds  may  be  artificially  grouped  under  such  heads  xis  the 
following:  Burrows  and  excavations  in  bark  and  wood  due  to 
boring  insects,  especially  beetles.  Breaka^  and  abrasions  due 
to  wind,  snow,  Ugntning,  and  other  climatic  agents.  Cuts,  break- 
ages,  Ac,  due  to  man  and  other  vertebrate  animals.  Erosions  of 
leaves  and  herbaceous  parts  by  caterpillars,  slugs,  earwigs  and  so 
focth.    Frost-cracks,  scotching  of  baric  by  sun  and  fire,  &c.,  and 


7S8 


PLANTS 


PATHOLOGY 


wounds  due  to  pbnt»  which  entwine,  pierce  or  otherwise  materially 
injure  trees.  &c.,  on  a  brge  scale. 

4.  Exereuences. — Outgrowths,  more  or  less  abnormal  in  character, 
are  frequent  signs  of  diseased  organs.  They  are  due  to  hyper- 
trophy of  young  tissues,  which  may  undergo  profound  alterations 
subsequently,  and  occur  on  all  parts  of  the  plants.  The  injury 
which  initiates  them  may  be  very  slight  in  the  first  place — a  mere 
abrasion,  puncture  or  Fungus  infection — but  the  minute  wound  or 
other  disturbance,  instead  of  healing  over  normally,  is  frequently 
maintained  as  a  perennial  source  of  irritation,  and  the  regenerative 
tissues  grow  on  month  after  month  or  year  after  year,  resulting 
in  extraorainary  outgrowths  often  of  lan;e  size  and  remarkable 
shape.  Excrescences  may  be  divided  into  those  occurring  on 
hcroaceous  tissues,  of  which  Calls  are  well-known  examples,  and 
those  found  on  the  wdodv  stem,  branches,  &c..  and  themselves 
eventually  woody,  of  whicn  Burrs  of  various  kinds  afford  common 
illustrations.  Among  the  simplest  examples  of  the  former  arc  the 
hairs  which  follow  the  irritation  of  the  cells  by  mites.  These  hairs 
uften  occur  in  tufts,  and  arc  so  coloured  and  arranged  that  they 
were  long  taken  for  Fungi  and  placed  in  the  "  genus  "  Erineum. 

Cecidia  or  galls  arise  by  the  h>Txrtrophy  of  the  subepidermal 
cells  of  a  leaf,  cortex,  &c.,  which  has  been  pierced  by  the  ovipositor 
of  an  insect,  and  in  which  the  egg  is  deposited.  The  irritation  set 
up  by  the  hatching  egg  and  its  resulting  larva  appears  to  be  the 
stimulus  to  development,  and  not  a  poison  or  enzyme  injected  by 
the  insect.  The  extraordinary  forms,  colours  and  textures  of  the 
true  galls  have  always  formed  some  of  the  most  interesting  of 
biological  ouestions,  for  not  only  is  there  definite  co-operation 
between  a  given  species  of  insect  and  of  plant,  as  shown  by  the  facts 
that  the  same  insect  may  induce  galls  01  different  kinds  on  different 
plants  or  organs,  while  different  insects  induce  different  galls  on 
the  same  plant — e.i.  the  numerous  galls  on  the  oak — but  the  gall 
itself  furnishes  well  adapted  protection  and  abundant  stores  of 
nutriment  to  its  particular  Larva,  and  often  appears  to  be  borne 
without  injury  to  the  plant.  This  latter  fact  is  no  doubt  due  to 
tlie  production  of  an  excess  of  plastic  materials  over  and  above 
what  the  tree  requires  for  its  immediate  needs.  Calls  in  the  wide 
sense — technically  Cecidia — are  not  always  due  to  insects.  The 
nodules  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants  arc  induced  by  the 
presence  of  a  minute  oi^anism  now  known  to  do  no  injury  to  the 
plant.  Those  on  turnips  and  other  Cruciferae  arc  due  to  the 
infection  of  Plasmodiophora,  a  dangerously  parasitic  Mvxomycete. 
Nodules  due  to  "  eel-worms  "  (Nematodes)  are  producca  on  numer- 
ous classes  of  plants,  and  frequently  result  in  great  losses — <.g. 
tomatoes,  cucumbers,  &c.;  and  tlie  only  too  well  known  Phylloxera, 
which  cost  France  and  other  vine-growing  countries  many  millions 
steriing.  is  anotlicr  case  in  point.  Fungus-galls  on  leaves  and  stems 
are  exemplified  by  the  "  pocket-plums  "  caused  by  the  Exoasceae, 
the  black  blistering  swellings  of  Ustilaio  Maydis,  the  yellow  swellings 
on  nettles  due  to  Aecidium,  &c. 

In  many  cases  the  swellings  on  leaves  arc  minute,  ana  may  be 
termed  pustules — e.g.  those  due  to  Synckytrium,  Protomyces,Cystopus, 
many  Ustilagincae.  &c.  These  cases  are  not  easily  distinguished 
superficially  from  the  pustular  outgrowth  of  actual  mycelia  and 
spores  (stromata)  of  such  Fungi  as  Nectria,  Puccinia,  &c.  The 
cylindrical  stem-swellings  due  to  Calypiospora,  Epichloe,  &c..  may 
also  be  mentioned  here,  and  the  tyro  may  easily  confound  with 
these  the  layers  and  cushions  of  eggs  laid  on  similar  organs  by 
moths.  There  is  a  class  of  gall-like  or  pustular  outgrowths  for 
which  no  external  cause  has- as  yet  been  determined,  and  which  arc 
therefore  often  ascribed  to  internal  causes  of  disease.  Such  arc 
the  cork-warts  on  elms,  maples,  &c.,  and  the  class^  of  outgrowths 
known  as  Intumescences.  Recent  researches  point  to  definite 
external  conditions  of  moisture,  affecting  the  processes  of  rospira-* 
tion  and  transpiration.  &c..  as  being  responsible  for  some  of  these. 
Tlie  "  scab  "  of  potatoes  is  another  case  in  point.  Frost  blisters 
are  pustular  swellings  due  to  the  up-growth  of  callus-tissue  into 
cavities  caused  by  tne  uprising  of  the  superficial  cortex  under  the 
action  of  intense  cold. 

Turning  now  to  outgrowths  of  a  woody  nature,  the  well-known 
burrs  or  knaurs,"  so  common  on  elms  and  other  trees  are  cases 
in  point.  They  arc  due  to  some  injury — e.g.  bruising  by  a  cart- 
wheel, insects — having  started  a  callus  on  which  adventitious  buds 
arise,  or  to  the  destruction  of  buds  at  an  early  stage.  Then,  stores 
of  food-material  being  accumulated  at  the  injured  place,  other 
buds  arise  at  the  base  of  or  around  the  injured  one.  If  matters 
arc  propitious  to  the  development  of  these  buds,  then  a  tuft  of 
twigs  is  formed  and  no  burr;  but  if  the  incipient  twigs  are  also  de- 
stroyed at  an  early  stage,  new  buds  arc  again  formed,  and  in  larger 
numbers  than  before,  and  the  continued  repetition  of  these  processes 
leads  to  a  sort  of  conglomerate  woody  mass  of  fused  bud-bases, 
not  dead,  but  unable  to  grow  out,  and  thus  each  contributing  a 
crowded  portion  of  woody  material  as  it  slowly  grows.  There  arc 
many  varieties  of  burrs,  though  all  woody  outgrowths  of  old  trees 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  them.  e.g.  the  "  knees  "  of  Taxo- 
dium.  Sec  ^  Many  typical  burrs  might  be  described  as  witches'- 
brooms,^  with  all  the  twigs  arrested  to  extremely  bhort  outgrowths. 
Witchcs'-brooms  are  the  tufted  bunches  of  twigs  found  on  silver 
firs,  birches  and  other  trees,  and  often  present  resemblances  to 
birds*  nests  or  clumps  of  mistletoe  if  only  seen  from  a  distance. 


They  are  branches  in  which  a  perennial  Fungus  {Aecidium,  Exoascus, 
&c.)  has  obtained  a  hold.  This  Fungus  stimulates  the  main  twi{ 
to  shoot  out  more  twigs  than  usual;  the  mycelium  then  enieti 
each  incipient  twig  and  stimulates  it  to  a  repetition  of  the  procrss, 
and  so  in  the  course  of  years  large  broom-like  tufts  result,  oftes 
markedly  different  from  the  normal. 

But  undoubtedly  the  nKMt  important  of  the  woody  excrescences 
on  trees  are  cankers.  A  canker  is  the  result  of  repeated  frustrated 
attempts  on  the  part  of  the  callus  to  heal  up  a  wound.  If  a  clein 
cut  remains  clean,  the  cambium  and  cortical  tissues  soon  form  callus 
over  it,  and  in  this  callus — regenerative  tissue— new  wood,  &c.. 
soon  forms,  and  if  the  wound  was  a  small  one,  no  trace  u  \\<\h\t 
after  a  few  years.  But  the  occluding  callus  is  a  mass  of  delioK 
succulent  cells,  and  offers  a  dainty  morsel  to  certain  insects— 
e.g.  Aphides — and  may  be  easily  penetrated  by  certain  Fungi  yy  h 
as  Petita,  Nectria;  And  when  thus  attacked,  tne  reoeatcd  con^ifi> 
between  the  cambium  and  callus,  on  the  one  hana,  trying  to  heal 
over  the  wound,  and  the  insect  or  Fungus,  on  the  other,  d«troNin? 
the  new  tissues  as  they  are  formed,  results  in  irregular  growths 
the  still  uninjured  cambium  area  goes  on  thickening  the  bnnrh. 
the  dead  parts,  of  course,  remain  unthickened,  and  the  portion  in 
which  the  Fungus  is  at  work  may  for  the  time  being  grow  ir<>fc 
rapidly.  Such  cankers  often  commence  in  mere  insect  puncture^ 
frosted  buds,  cracks  in  the  cortex,  &c.,  into  which  a  germiiuiini; 
spore  sends  its  hypha.  The  seriousness  of  the  damage  done  ii 
illustrated  by  the  ravages  of  the  larch  disease,  apple  canker,  &c 

5.  Exudations  and  Rotting.— The  outward  symptoms  of  many 
disuses  consist  in  excessive  discharges  of  moisture,  often  acrom- 
panied  by  bursting  of  over-tureid  cells,  and  eventually  by  puirc- 
factive  cnanges.  Conditions  of  hyper-turgescence  are  common  in 
herbaceous  plants  in  wet  seasons,  or  when  overcrowded  snd  in 
situations  too  moist  for  them.  This  unhealthy  state  u  frcqucr.:!y 
combined  with  etiolation:  what  is  termed  ranKncss  is  a  parti' ubr 
case,  and  if  the  factors  concerned  are  removed  by  drainage.  *ct<l 
ing  out,  free  transpiration,  &c.,  no  permanent  harm  may  rv5u!t. 
With  seedlings  and  tender  plants,  however,  matters  are  frequently 
complicated  oy  the  onslauchts  of  Fungi — e.g.  Pythinm,  Pe':':> 
spora,  Completoria,  VoluteUa,  Botrytis,  &c.  That  such  orr- 
turgcscenre  should  lead  to  the  bursting  of  fleshy  fruits,  such  a 
gooseberries,  tomatoes  and  grapes,  is  not  surprising;,  nor  can  *f 
wonder  that  fermentation  ana  mould  Fungi  rapidly  spread  in 
such  fruits;  and  the  same  is  true  for  bulbs  and  herbaceous  or^irt 
generally.  The  rotting  of  rhizomes,  roots,  &c..  also  corac«  ir:j 
this  categor>';  but  while  it  is  extremely  difficult  in  eivcn  case?  n 
expbin  the  course  of  events  in  detail,  certain  Fungi  and  hacttni 
have  been  so  definitely  associated  with  these  roots — e.g.  bect-rrt. 
turnip  disease,  wet-rot  of  potatoes — that  we  have  to  consider  rath 
case  separately.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  do  this  here,  but  I 
will  briefly  discuss  one  or  two  groups  of  cases. 

Honey-dew. — The  sticky  condition  of  leaves  of  trees  e.g.  liire- 
in  hot  weather  is  owing  to  exudations  of  sugar.  In  many  ca«-> 
the  punctures  of  Aphides  and  Coccideae  are  shown  to  be  respon^iUc 
for  such  exudations,  and  at  least  one  instance  is  known  where  a 
Fungus — Claviceps — causes  it.  But  it  also  appears  that  honc>- 
dew  may  be  excreted  by  ordinary  processes  ol  ovcr-turgcsccnnp 
pressing  the  llauid  through  water-pores,  as  in  the  tropical  Ccrni- 
pinia,  Calliandra^  &c.  That  these  exudations  on  lca\TS  shoui 
afterwards  serve  as  pabulum  for  Fungi — e.g.  Fumago,  Animncr^ 
— is  not  surprising,  and  the  leaves  ol  limes  are  often  black  «ith 
them. 

Flux. — A  common  event  in  the  exudation  of  turbid,  frothis; 
liquids  from  wounds  in  the  bark  of  trees,  and  the  odours  of  pt'rr 
faction  and  even  alcoholic  fermentation  in  these  are  sufFicicr.N 
explained  by. the  coexistence  of  albuminous  and  saccharine  nutters 
with  fungi,  yeasts  and  bacteria  in  such  fluxes.  It  is  clear  that  m 
these  cases  the  obvious  symptom — the  flux — is  not  the  pritr-ir. 
one.  Some  wound  in  the  succulent  tissues  has  become  infaci 
by  the  organisms  referred  to,  and  their  continued  action  pfv\f''' 
healing.  At  certain  seasons  the  wound  "bleeds,"  and  the  c'  t 
isms — some  of  which,  by  the  bye,  are  remarkable  and  intcn^'  "v 
forms — multiply  in  the  nutritious  sap  and  ferment  it.  The  pIktj- 
menon  is,  in  fact,  very  like  that  of  the  fermentation  of  palm  »i« 
and  pulque,  where  the  juices  are  obtained  from  artificial  cuts. 

ComjKirable  with  these  cases  is  that  of  Cuckoo-spti,  due  to  x^f 
juices  sucked  out  b>  Aphroph&tora  on  herbaceous  plants  of  2:1 
kinds.  Outflows  of  rrsin — ResinosiS'-^ho  come  under  this  gcmrii 
heading;  but  although  some  resin-fluxes  are  traced  to  the  dc$tn:ci"-t 
action  of  Agaricus  melleus  in  Conifers,  others,  as  wvU  as  a*niii< 
forms  of  Gummosis,  arc  still  in  need  of  explanation. 

Bactcriosis. — Many  of  the  plant  diseases  involving  rot  ha\T  bers 
ascril>ed  to  the  action  of  bacteria,  and  in  some  cases — e.^.  cal-Ki^ 
rot,  bulb-rot  of  hyacinths,  &c.,  carnation  disease — there  isrvidtcvf 
that  bacteria  are  causally  connected  with  the  disease.  It  b  nc4 
sufficient  to  find  bacteria  in  the  rotting  tissues,  however,  oor  c^eo 
to  be  successful  in  infecting  the  plant  through  an  artificial  »curx. 
unless  very  special  and  critical  precautions  are  taken,  andinnuE' 
of  the  alleged  cases  of  bactcriosis  the  saprophytic  bacteria  in  the 
tissues  are  to  be  regarded  as  merely  secondary  a^nts. 

6.  Necrosis. — A  number  of  diseases  the  obvious  symptcms  « 
which  arc  the  local  drying  up  and  death  of  tissues,  in  many  csj» 


ECOLOGY) 


PLANTS 


with  Kcondaxy  retnlts  on  organs  or  pirts  of  oi^ns,  may  be  brought 
together  under  this  heading.  No  sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between 
these  diseases  and  some  of  the  preceding,  inasmuch  as  it  often 
depends  on  the  external  conditions  whether  necrosis  is  a  dry-rot, 
in  the  sense  I  employ  the  term  here,  or  a  wet-rot,  when  it  would 
come  under  the  preceding  category.  The  "  dying  back  "  of  the 
twigs  of  trees  and  shrubs  is  a  frequent  case.  The  cortical  tissues 
gradually  shrink  and  dry  up.  turnmg  brown  and  black  in  patches 
or  all  over,  and  when  at  length  the  cambium  and  medullary  ray 
tissues  dry  up  the  whole  twis  dies  off.  This  may  be  due  to  frost, 
especially  in  "  thin>barked  ''^  trees,  and  often  occurs  in  beeches, 
pears,  &c.;  or  it  may  result  from  bruising  by  wind,  hailstones, 
gun-shot  wounds  in  coverts.  &c.,  the  latter  of  course  very  k>cai 
It  is  the  common  result  of  nres  passing  along  too  rapidly  to  bum 
the  trees;  and  "  thin-barked  "  trees— hornbeam,  beech,  firs,  Ac- 
may  exhibit  it  as  the  results  of  sunburn,  especially  when  exposed 
to  the  south-west  after  the  removal  of  shelter.  The  effects  of  frost 
and  of  sunburn  are  frequently  quite  local.  The  usual  necrosis  of 
the  injured  cortex  occurs— drying  up,  shrivelling,  and  consequent 
stretching  and  cracking  of  the  dead  cortex  on  the  wood  beneath. 
Such  frost-cracks,  sun-crscks,  &c.,  may  then  be.  slowly  healed  over 
by  callus,  but  il  the  conditions  for  necrosis  recur  the  crack  may  be 
again  opened,  or  if  Fungi.  &c.«  interfere  with  occlusion,  the  healing 
is  prevented;  in  such  cases  the  local  necrosb  may  give  rise  to 
cankers.  The  dying  back  of  twigs  may  be  brought  about  by  many 
causes.  GeneFsl  attacks  of  leaf-diseases  invariaoly  lead  to  starva- 
tion and  necrosis  of  twigs,  and  nmilarly  with  the  ravages  of  cater- 
pillars and  other  insects.  Drought  and  consequent  defoliation 
result  in  the  same,  and  these  considerations  help  us  to  undemand 
how  old-established  trees  in  parks,  &c.,  apparently  In  good  general 
health,  become  "  stag-headed "  by  the  necroMs  of  their  upper 
twigs  and  smalka*  branches:  the  roots  have  here  penetrated  into 
subsoil  or  other  unsuitable  medium,  or  some  drainage  scheme  has 
deprived  them  of  water,  &c.,  and  a  dry  summer  just  turns  the  scale. 
Such  phenomena  are  not  uncommon  in  towns,  where  trco  with 
their  roots  under  pavement  or  other  impervious  covering  do  well 
for  a  time,  but  suddenly  fail  to  supply  toe  aown  suflkicntly  with 
water  during  some  hot  summer. 

7.  WdnstrosUies. — A  brge  class  oi  cases  of  departure  from  the 
normal  form,  depending  on  different  and  often- obscure  causes, 
may  be  grouped  together  under  this  heading;  most  of  them  arc  of 
the  kind  termed  TeratohgictU,  and  it  is  difficult  to  decide  how  far 
they  should  be  regarded  as  pathological  if  we  insist  that  a  disease 
threatens  the  existence  ol  the  plant,  since  many  of  these  malforma- 
tions— €.f.  double  l!owers,  phyllody  of  floral   parts,   contortions 
and  fascinations,  dwarfing',  malformed  leaves,  &c. — can  not  only 
be  transmitted  in  cultivation,  but  occur  in  nature  without  evident 
injury  to  the  variety.    In  many  cases,  however,  monstrositkss  of 
flowers  have  been  shown  to  be  due  to  the  irritating  action  of  minute 
insects  or  Fungi,  and  others  are  known  which,  although  induced 
by  causes  unknown  to  us,  and  regarded  as  internal,  would  not  be 
likely  to  survive  in  the  srild  condition.    Th»  subject  brings  the 
domain  of  pathology,  however,  into  touch  with  that  of  varktion, 
and  we  are  profoundly  ignorant  as  to  the  complex  of  external 
conditions  which  would  decide  in  any  given  case  how  far  a  variation 
in  form  would  be  prejudicial  or  otherwise  to  the  continued  existence 
of  a  species.    Under  the  head  of  malformations  we  place  cases  of 
atrophy  of  parts  or  general  dwarftng,  due  to  starvation,  the  attacks 
of  Fungi  or  minute  insects,  the  presence  of  unsuitable  food-materials 
and  so  on;  as  well  as  cases  of  transformation  of  stamens  into  petals, 
carpels  into  leaves,  and  so  forth.    Roots  are  often  flattened,  twisted 
ana  otherwise  distorted  by  mechanical  obstacles;  stems  by  excess 
of  food  in  rich  soils,  the  attacks  of  minute  parasites,  overgrowth 
by  climbing  plants,  &c.    Leaves  are  especially  apt  to  vary,  and 
although  the  formation  of  crests,  pitchers,  puckers,  &c.,  must  be 
put  down  to  the  results  of  abnormal  development,  it  is  often  difficult 
to  draw  the  line  between  teratological  and  merely  varietal  pheno- 
mena.   For  instance,  the  difference  between  the  long-stalked  and 
finely-cut  leaves  of  Anemone  attacked  with  rust  and  the  normal 
leaves  with  broad  segments,  or  between  the  urccolate  leaves  oc- 
casionally found  on  cabbages  and  the  ordinary  form — in  these 
cases  undoubtedly  pathok>gical  and  teratologkal  respectively — is 
nothing  like  so  sreat  as  between  the  upper  and  bwer  normal- 
leaves  of  many  Umbelliferae  or  the  submerged  and  floating  leaves 
of  an  aquatic  Ranunculus  or  Cabomha,   When  we  come  to  pheno- 
mena such  as  proliferations,  vivipary,  the  development  of  "  Lammas 
shoots,"  adventitious  buds,  epicormic  branches,  and  to  those  mal- 
formations of  flowers  known  as  peloria,  phyllody,  yiresccnce,  &c 
while  assured  that  definite,  and  in  manycases  recognizable,  physio- 
logical disturbances  are  at  work,  we  find  ourselves  on  the  borderland 
Ijctwcen  pathological  and  physiological  variation,  where  each  case 
must  be  esanuned  with  due  regard  to  all  the  circumstances,  and 
no  generalization  seems  possible  beyond  what  has  been  sketched. 
This  is  equally  true  of  the  phenomena  of  apogamy  and  apospory 
in  the  light  of  recent  researches  into  the  effects  of  external  con- 
ditions on  reproduction. 

This  sketch  of  an  enormous  sabject  shows  us  that  the  pathology 

of  plants  is  a  special  department  of  the  study  of  variations  which 

threaten  injuiy  to  the  plant,  and  passes  Imperceptibly  into  the 


759 


Study  of  variations  in  general.  Moreover,  we  have  good  reasons 
for  inferring  that  different  constellations  of  external  causes  may 
determine  whether  the  internal  physiological  disturbances 
induced  by  a  given  agent  shall  lead  to  pathological  and  dangerous 
variations,  or  to  changes  which  may  be  harmless  or  even  advan- 
tageous to  the  plant  concerned. 

Authorities.— General  and  Historical.— Berkeley,  "Vegetahk 
Pathotegy,"  Gardener's  Ckronicle  (1854)  p.  4;  Plowright,  Britiih 
UredtwsM  emd  UstUanmiu  (1M9);  Eriksson  and  Henning,  Die 
G**l^oste  {StocVhtAm,  1896);  De  Bary,  OmpwatiBe  Jdorpk, 
and  Bwt.  of  the  fungi,  Sfc.  (1887);  Frank,  Die  KrankkeiUn  4er 
P/laiisfii  (1805-1896);  Sorauer.  Handbuch  der  PfianxenkrankheiUn 
0906);  Ward,  Dtsease  in  Plants  (1901).  Causes  of  Disease,  &c.— 
Pleflcr.  Pkinuion  of  Phmis  (Oxford,  1900);  Sorauer,  TreaHse  on 


Phytuion 
fsiuogy  •/ J 

MycoU^ 
Proc.  Ko 


cuUure  (1898);  Lafar,  Technical 

"^T^f  (1894);  MarshaU  Ward. ,_, ^^, 

and  Ttmber  and  some  of  iti  Diseases  (London,  1 8)8(9).    Fungi.— 
See  Fungi  and  Bactbria;  also  Marshall  Ward,  Diseases  of  Plants 
(Romance  of  Scwnce  Scries),  S.P.C.K.;  Massoe,  Text-Book  of  Plant 
Diseases  (1809) ;  Tubeuf,  Diseases  of  Plants  (London.  1 897);  Insects.— 
Ormerod,  Manual  of  Injurious  Insects  (1890) ;  C.  V.  Riley,  Insect  Life, 
y.S.  Deoartment  of  Agriculture  {1888-1895);  J  udeich  and  Mitsche, 
Lekrbueh  der  mUteleuroMiscken  Forstinsektenkunde  (Vienna,  1889). 
Healing  of  Wounds,  &&— Shattock,  "On  the  Reparatory  Pro- 
cesses which  occur  in  VeajcUble  Tissues,"  Joum.  Linn.  Soc.  (1882) 
XIX.  i;  Richards,  "The  Respiration  of  Wounded  Plants,"  Ann.  of 
Bot.  (189O),  X.  511;  and  "The  Evolution  of  Heat  by  Wounded 
Plants,"  Ann.  of  BoL  (1897),  xi.  29.    Enzvmcs.— Cwn.  The  Soluble 
ft^*?**^  ^  Ffrmentatian   (1899).     Cliemotaxis.  &c— Miyoshi. 
Die  Durchbohrung  von  Mcmbranen  durch  Pilzfaden."  Ptingsk, 
Jahrb.,  B.  (1805),  xxviii.  ate,  and  literature.     Pbrasiusm,  Ac- 
Marshall  Ward,  "  On  some  Relations  between  Host  and  Parasite, 
Sk.,"  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  xKii.  393;  and  "Symbiosis,"  Ann.  rtT  BoL 
(1899)1  »u.  S4J9i  with  literature.    Specialization  of  Pansitism.-- 
Salmon,  in   Massce's   Text-Book  of  Fungi  (1906),   pp.    I46«i57. 
Siatistks.— Sec  Wyatt,  Agricultural  Ledger  (Cakutta,  1895),  p.  71; 
Balfour,  The  AmcuUural  Pests  of  India  (1887).  pw  13;  Eriksson  and 
Henmng,  Die  Cetretderosle',    the  publications  of  the    U.S.    Agri> 
cultural  Department;  the  Kent  BuUeiin;  Zeitschrift  fir  PfUnuen- 
krankheiten,  and  elsewhere.    Spraying,   &c.— See  Loderoan.    The 
Spraying  of  Plants  (1896),  and  numerous  references  in  the  publica- 
tions of  U.S.  Agricultural  Department,  Zeilschr.  f.  PflanMenkrank' 
heiten,    the    Gardener's    Chronicle,   Ac.    Etiolation.    Ac— Pfeffcr. 
Physiology  of  Plants,  and  other  works  on  physiokwy.    Albinism.  &c. 
—Church,  ^'A  Chemical  Study  of  Vegetable  Albinism,"  Joum. 
Ckem.  Soc.  (1879,  1880  and  1886);  Beijerinck,  "  Ueber  ein   Con- 
Ugium,"  Ac,  in   Verhandl.  d.  kon.  Acad.  v.  Wet.    (Amsterdam, 
1898);  Koning  in  Zeilschr.  f.  Pflantenkranhh.  (1899),  ix.  65;  Baur, 
Ber.  dentschen  bot.  Ges.  (1904).  xx^  453;  Sitxungsber.  berlin.  Ahad. 
(Jan.  6.   1906);  Hunger.  Zeilschr.  f.  PfanztnkrankheHen  (1905) 
XV.  Heft  5.     Wounds,  Ac— Marshall  Ward,   Timber   and   somt 
of  Us  Diseases,  p.  210;  Hartig.  Diseases  of  Trees  (London,  1804). 
Cccidia  and  Galls.— KUster,  '^Bcitrilge  zur  Kenntniss  der  Caltcn- 
anatomic,"  Flora  (1900),  p.   117;  Patkologische  PfUtnaenanatomie 
U903);  MoUiard,  Reoue  ginirale  de  bot.  (1900).  p.  157.    Canker- 
Frank.  Kranhheiten  der  P/lanaen,  and  papers  in  Zeituhr.  f.  PfUtnun' 
krankh.    Rotting,  Ac— Mieula./Trt/.  Ueber sicht  derjenigen  Pflanten- 
kronkkeilen,  todcke  angeUich  durch   Bakierien  oerursaeht  werden 
(1892);  Smith.  "Pseudomonas  campestris."  Cent.  f.  Bakt.  B.  iit. 
284  (1897);  Arthur  and  BoUcy,  Bacteriosis  of  Carnations,  Purdue 
Univ.  Agr.  Station  (1896),  vii.  17;  A.  F.  Woods,  "Stigmonose,  a 
Disease  of  Carnations,^'   Veeetable,  Physiol,  and  Path^.  Bull.  19 
U.S.  Department  of  A^cullure   (1900);  Sorauer,  Handbuch  der 
Pflanunkranhheiten  (1905).  i*-93-    Frost.  Drought,  Ac— Hartig, 
Lehrbuch  der  A  not.  und  Phys.  der  Fflansen;  Fischer,  Forest  Protection  r 
iv.  of  Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry.     Teratology,  Ac. — Masters, 
VegetabU    Teratology,   Ray   Society   (1869);    Molliard,   "C^idies 
floraha,"  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  wir.  8,  i.  (bot.)  p.  67  (1895).      (H.  M.  W.) 

Ecology  of  Plants 

Introduction. — ^The  word  ecology  is  derived  from  oTkoy,  a 
house  (habitat),  and  X670C,  a  discourse.  As  a  botanical  term, 
ecology  denotes  that  branch  of  botany  which  comprises  the 
study  of  the  relations  of  the  individual  phut,  or  the  species,  or 
the  plant  community  with  the  habitat.  Following  Schrttler* 
(FlahauU  and  Scfarbter,  1910  :  24),  the  term  outccoiogy  may  be 
used  for  the  study  of  the  habitat,  conditions  in  relation  to  the 
single  species,  and  the  term  synecotogy  for  this  study  in  relation 
to  plant  communities. 

From  the  phytogeographical  standpoint,  ecology  is  frequently 
termed  ecological  plant  geography.   Thus  Warming'  (1901:1  and  2) 

*  Flahault  and  Schr5ter,  Phytogeographicat  Nomejichture:  reports 
and  Propositions  (Zurich,  iQio). 

*  Warming,  Oecology  of  Plants  (Oxford,  1909). 


760 


PLANTS 


tECOLCX^Y 


« 

subdivided  plant  geography  into  fioristic  plant  geography  and 
ecological  plant  geography.  The  former  is  concerned  with  the 
division  of  the  earth's  surface  into  major  districts  characterized 
by  particular  plants  or  taxonomic  groups  of  plants,  with  the 
subdivision  of  these  floristic  districts,  and  with  the  geographical 
distribution  (both  past  and  present)  of  the  various  taxonomic 
units,  such  as  species,  genera,  and  families.  On  the  other  hand, 
ecological  plant  geography  seeks  to  ascertain  the  distribution 
of  plant  communities,  such  as  associations  and  formations,  and 
enquires  into  the  nature  of  the  factors  of  the  habitat  which  are 
related  to  the  distribution  of  plants — ^plant  forms,  species,  and 
communities.  In  a  general  way,  floristic  plant  geography  Is 
concerned  with  species,  ecologiod  plant  geography  with  vege- 
tation. The  study  of  the  distribution  of  species  dates  back  to 
the  time  of  the  early  systematists,  the  study  of  vegetation  to  the 
time  of  the  early  botanical  travelers.  Humboldt,*  for  example, 
defined  his  view  of  the  scope  of  plant  geography  as  follows: 
"  C'est  cette  science  qui  considSre  les  v^etaux  sous  les  rapports 
de  leur  association  locale  dans  les  diffirents  dimats  "  (1807: 
14). 

The  Halntat. — The  term  habitat,  in  its  widest  sense,  includes 
all  the  factors  of  the  environment  which  affect  a  plant  or  a  plant 
community,  though  the  term  is  frequently  used  to  signify  only 
some  of  these  factors.  The  factors  of  the  habitat  may  bie 
grouped  as  follows:  geographical,  physical,  and  biological. 

Geographical    Factors. — Gcoeraphical    position    determines    the 

firticular  species  of  plants  which  grow  in  any  |>articular  locality, 
his  matter  is  bound  up  with  the  centres  of  origin  and  with  the 
past  migrations  of  species;  and  such  questions  are  usually  treated 
as  a  part  of  floristic  plant  geography.  Here,  therefore,  floristics 
and  ecology  meet.  Flahault  and  ScnrOter,'  in  defining  the  term 
habitat,  appear  to  exclude  all  gcoeraphical  factors.  They  state 
that  "  the  term  habitat  is  understood  to  include  everything  relating 
to  the  factors  operative  in  a  geographically  defined  locality,  so  far 
as  these  factors  influence  plants  (1910:  24);  but  the  exclusion  of 
geographical  and  historical  factors  from  the  concept  of  the  habitat 
does  not  appear  to  be  either  desirable  or  logical. 

Physical  Factors.— These  are  frequently  classified  as  edaphic  or 
soil  factors  and  climatic  factors:  but  there  u  no  sharp  line  of  de- 
marcation  between  them.  Edaphic  factors  include  all  those 
relating  to  the  soil.  The  water  content  of  the  soil,  its  mineral 
content,  its  humus  content,  its  temperature,  and  its  physical  char- 
acteristics, such  as  its  depth  and  the  size  of  its  component  particles 
are  all  edaphic  factbrs.  Climatic  factors  include  all  those  relating 
to  atmospheric  temperature,  rainfall,  atmospheric  humidity,  ana 
light  and  shade.  Factors  connected  with  alritude,  aspect,  and 
exposure  to  winds  are  also  climatic:  such  are  often  spoken  of  as 
physiopaphical  factors.  The  difficulty  of  sharply  delimiting 
edaphic  and  cKmatic  factors  is  seen  in  the  case  of  temperature. 
Soif  temperature  is  partly  dependent  on  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 
partly  on  the  colour  and  constitution  of  the  soil,  and  partly  on  the 
water  content  of  the  soil.  Again,  the  temperature  of  tfie  air  is 
affected  by  radiation  from  the  soil;  and  radiation  differs  in  various 
soils. 

Biological  Factors. --These  include  the  reactions  of  plants  and 
animals  on  the  habitat.  Here  agam.  no  sharp  boundary-line  can 
be  drawn.  In  one  sense,  the  accumulation  of  humus  and  peat  is 
a  biological  factor,  as  it  is  related  to  the  work  of  organisms  in  the 
soil;  but  the  occurrence  or  otherwise  of  these  organisms  in  the  soil 
is  probably  related  to  definite  edaphic  and  climatic  conditions. 
Again,  the  well-known  action  of  earthw(mns  may  be  said  to  be  a 
biological  work;  but  the  resulting  aeration  of  the  soil  causes  edaphic 
differences;  and  earthworms  are  absent  from  ceruin  soils,  such  as 
peat.  The  poUinatk>n  of  flowers  and  the  dispersal  of  seeds  by 
various  animals  are  biological  factors;  but  pollinat'ion  and  dis- 
persal by  the  wind  cannot  be  so  regarded.  The  influence  of  man 
on  plants  and  vegetation  is  also  a  biological  factor,  which  is  fre- 
quently ignored  as  such,  and  treated  as  If  it  were  a  thing  apart. 

When  the  nature  and  effect  of  ecologkal  factors  have  become 
more  fully  understood,  it  will  be  possible  to  dispense  with  the  above 
artificial  dassiflcation  of  factors,  and  to  frame  one  depending  on 
the  action  of  the  various  factors;  but  such  a  classification  is  not 
possible  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge. 

Ecohgy  and  Physidogy.—VfhUst  our  knowledge  of  the  nature 
and  effect  of  habitat  is  still  in  a  very  rudimentary  conditk>n, 
much  progress  has  been  made  in  recent  years  in  the  study  of 
plant  communities;  but  even  here  the  questions  involved  in 
rdattng  the  facta  of  the  distribution  of  plant  communities  to  the 

■  HumboMt  and  Bnnoland,  Essai  sitr  la  ilotraphie  des  plantes 
(Pans,  1807). 
*  Flahault  and  Schroter  {op.  cii.). 


factors  of  the  habitat  are  very  imperfectly  understood.  This  is 
due  to  a  lack  of  precise  knowledge  of  the  various  habitat  factors 
and  also  of  the  responses  made  by  pbnts  to  these  factors.  Until 
much  more  advance  has  been  made  by  ecologists  in  the  investi- 
gation of  the  nature  of  habitat  factors,  and  until  the  effect  of  the 
factors  on  the  plants  has  been  more  dosely  investigated  by 
physiologists,  it  will  remun  impossible  to  place  ecology  00 
a  physiological  basis:  all  that  is  possible  at  present  is  to  give  a 
physiological  bias  to  certain  aspects  of  ecological  research. 
Obviously  no  more  than  this  is  possible  until  physiologbts  are 
able  to  state  much  more  precisely  than  at  present  what  is  the 
influence  of  common  salt  on  the  plants  of  .salt-marshes,  of  the 
action  of  calcium  carbonate  on  plaints  of  calcareous  soils,  and  of 
the  action  of  humous  compounds  on  plants  of  fens  and  peat 
moors. 

Ecological  Classes. — Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  divide 
plants  and  plant  communities  into  classes  depending  on  habitat 
factors.  One  of  the  best  known  classifications  on  these  lines  is 
that  by  Warming.'  Warming  recognized  and  defined  four 
ecological  classes  as  follows: — 

Hydrophytes, — These  live  in  a  watery  or  wet  substratum,  with 
at  least  80%  of  water.  Warming  included  pbnts  of  pcat-bogt 
among  his  hydrophytes. 

Xerophyles. — ^r  hese  are  plants  which  live  in  very  dry  places, 
where  the  substratum  has  less  than  Jio%  of  water. 

HaUphytes. — These  are  plants  living  in  situations  where  the  sub- 
stratum contains  a  high  proportion  of  sodium  chloride. 

Mesophytes. — These  are  plants  which  live  in  localitKs  which  are 
neither  specially  dry  nor  specially  wet  nor  specially  salty. 

Such  terms  as  hydrophytes,  xerophytes,.and  halophytcshad 
been  used  by  plant  geographers  before  Warming's  time  e.g.,  by 
Schouw;*  and  the  terms  evidently  supply  a  want  felt  by  botanists 
as  they  have  come  into  general  use.  However,  the  terms  are 
incapable  of  exact  definition,  and  arc  only  useful  when  used  in  a 
very  general  way.  The  above  classification  by  Warming, 
although  it  was  without  doubt  the  best  ecological  classification 
which  had,  at  the  time,  been  put  forward,  has  not  escaped  criti- 
cism. The  criticisms  were  directed  chiefly  to  the  inclusion  of 
sand  dune  plants  among  halophytcs,  to  the  exdusion  of  halo- 
phytes  from  xerophytes,  to  the  indusion  of  '*  bog  xeropbytcs  ■* 
among  hydrophytes,  to  the  inclusion  of  all  conifers  among 
xerophytes  and  of  all  deciduous  trees  among  mesophytes,  and  10 
the  group  of  mesc^hytcs  in  general 

Schimper*  made  a  distinct  advance  when  he  distinguished 
between  physical  and  physiological  dryness  or  wetness  of  the 
soil.  A  soil  may  be  physically  wet;  but  if  the  plants  atraorb  llx 
water  only  with  difficulty,  as  in  a  salt  marsh,  then  the  soil  is.  as 
regards  plants,  physiologically  dry.  All  soils  which  are  physi- 
cally dry  are  also  physiologically  dry;  and  hence  only  the 
physiological  dryness  or  wetness  of  soils  need  be  considered  is 
ecology. 

Schimper  used  the  term  xerophytes  to  include  plants  which  live 
in  soils  which  are  physiologically  dry,  and  the  term  kygropkytn 
those  which  live  in  soils  which  are  physiologically  wet  or  damp. 
Schimper  recognized  that  the  two  classes  are  connected  by  transi- 
tional forms,  and  that  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  give  the  matter 
a  statbtical  basis.  It  is  only  in  a  general  sense  like  Schimper *s 
that  such  ecological  terms  as  xerophytes  have  any  value;  and  it 
is  not  possible,  at  least  at  present,  to  frame  ecological  classes, 
which  shall  have  a  high  scientific  value,  on  a  basis  of  thb  nature:. 
Whilst  Schimper  objected  to  the  constitution  of  a  special 
category,  such  as  mesophytes,  to  include  all  plants  which  arc 
neither  pronounced  xerophytes  nor  pronounced  hygrophytcs, 
he  recognized  the  necessity  of  a  third  class  in  which  to  place  ihost 

*Warmini 
trans, 
gcographie 
1902). 

*Schouw,  Grun^aeh  til  en  almindeUg  Plamtefeognifie  (Kjobrs- 
havn,  1822);  German  trans.,  "Grundzflge  eunr  alkgemeiiics 
Pflanzengeographie  "  (Berlin,  1823). 

*  Schimper,  PJUuuengeogra/Aie  euf  pkysielojfiseher  Crumdlast 
(Bedin.  1898) ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Fi<her.  "  Plant  Geography  npoa  a 
Pl^ysiologicd    ^m  "  (Oxford.  I903-I904)- 


ECOLOGY] 


PLANTS 


761 


plants  which,  like  deciduous  trees  and  bulbous  plants,  are  hygro- 
phytes  during  one  season  of  the  year  and  zerophytes  during 
another  sc^ison  of  the  year.  Such  plants,  which  comprise  the 
great  majority  of  the  species  of  the  central  European  Hora^ 
Schimper  termed  tropcpkytes. 

Recently,  Warming*  (1909  :  136),  assisted  by  Vahl,  has 
modified  his  earlier  classification,  and  adopted  the  following  .**- 

A.  The  iotl  (in  the  widest  sense)  is  very  wet,  and  the  abundant 
water  t»  available  to  the  plant  (at  least  in  nydrophytes). 

1.  Hydrophytes. — ^These  include  plants  of  the  planktoH,  or  micro- 
phytes that  float  free  on  water,  of  the  pteuston,  or  macrophytcs 
which  float  on  or  are  suspended  in  water,  and  of  the  bintkos,  or 
all  aquatic  plants  which  are  fixed  to  the  sabstratum. 

2.  Hdopkytes. — ^These  are  marsh  plants  which  normally  have 
their  roots  in  soaking  soil  but  whose  branches  and  foliage  are  more 
or  less  aerial.  Warming  admits  there  is  no  sharp  limit  between 
marsh  plants  and  land  plants:  and  it  seems  equally  obvious  that 
there  is  no  sharp  limit  between  some  of  his  helophvtes  and  some  of 
his  hydrophytes.     For  example,  the  difference  between  aquatic 

1>lants  with  floating  leaves,  such  as  the  yellow  water-lily  {Nymtkaea 
uUa)  and  those  with  erect  leaves,  such  as  Tyfha  ongusMolia,  is 
prolMbly  more  apparent  than  real.  Among  helophytes,  Warming 
places  plants  of  the  reed  swamp,  and  includes  such  trees  as  the  alder 
{Alnus  rolundifolia)^  willows  {e.g..  Salix  alba,  S.  fragilh,  S.  cinerea, 
S,  Pentandra),  birch,  and  (>ine,  when  these  grow  in  marshy  places. 

B.  The  soil  is  physiologically  dry. 

3.  OxyUtPkyles. — These  plants,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  **hoi 
xeropkytes, '  grow  in  soils  which  contain  an  abundance  of  free 
hunnous  compounds,  and  include  plants  which  grow  on  fens  and 
moors. 

4.  PsY€krof^ytes.'—The9c  include  the  plants  which  grow  on  the 
cold  soils  of  subntveal  and  polar  districts. 

5.  Halopk^s. — These  are  plants  which  grow  on  saline  soils. 

C.  The  soil  is  physically  dry. 

6.  Lilhopkyles.—'Thewt  are  plants  which  grow  on  "  true  rock," 
but  not  "  on  the  loose  soil  covering  rock,  even  though  this  may 
entertain  species  that  are  very  intimately  associated  with  the  rock. 
Still  to  this  limitation  an  exception  must  be  made  in  favour  of  the 
vegetation  growing  in  clefts  and  niches  "  (Warming,  1909  :  340). 
Many  Algae,  lichens,  and  mosses  are  included  among  lithophytes. 
and  also  Saxifraga  Ahoem,  S.  opposUifotia,  Silene  acatUts,  and 
CHaphalium  luteo-album. 

7.  FMmmapkytes. — These  are  plants  which  grow  on  sand  and 
travel.  Plants  of  sand-dunes,  whether  in  maritime  or  inland 
Mcatities,  are  psammophytcs.  as  well  as  plants  (such  as  Cattuna 
vulgaris)  of  dune  heatns,  dune  **  bushland  "  or  scrub,  and  dune 
forest. 

8.  CkersopkyUs. — Here  are  placed  certain  "  xerophytic  perennial 
hert>s  "  which  occur  on  "  particular  dry  kinds  of  soil,  such  as  lime- 
stone rocks,  stiff  clay,  and  so  forth  "  (Warming,  1909  :  389). 

D.  The  climate  is  very  dry,  and  the  properties  of  the  soil  are 
decided  by  climate. 

9.  EremopkyUs. — Under  this  term,  are  placed  plants  of  deserts 
and  steppes. 

10.  PsUctkyies. — Here  are  placed  plants  found  in  "savannah- 
vegetation,  vis.  (i.)  "  thorny  savannah-vegetation,  includif^*  (a) 
orchard-scrub,  (6)  .thorn-bushland  and  thorn-forest;  (ii.)  true 
savannah :  tropical  and  sub-tropical  savannah ;  (iii.)  savannah-forest, 
including  bush-forest  in  Africa  and  '  campos  serrados  *  in  Brazil  " 
(Warming,  1909  :  393  et  secj.). 

11.  SclerepkyUcus  formations,  e.r.,  garigues,  mSquis,  and  forests 
of  evergreen  oaks  (<Q.  lUx^  Q.  Boliota,  Q.  Suber),  and  of  Eucalyptus 
•pp. 

E.  The  soil  is  physically  or  physiologically  dry. 

12.  Coniferous  forest  formations,  e.g.,  of  Pinus  syheHris,  Picea 
exeelsa,  Abtes  pecltnala,  Larix  sibirica,  L.  decidua. 

F.  '*Sotl  and  climate  favour  the  development  of  mesophilous 
format'ions." 

13.  Mesofhytes. — Wanning  defines  mesophytes  as  "  plants  that 
show  a  preference  for  soil  and  air  of  moderate  humidity,  and  avoid 
soil  with  standing  water  or  containing  a  great  abundance  of  salts  " 
(1909  :  317).  Under  mesophytes.  Warming  pbces  plants  occurring 
in  "  Arctic  and  Alpine  nut-grassland  and  mat-herbage,"  in  "  mat- 
vegetation  of  the  Alps,'*  in  meadows,  in  pasture  on  cultivated  soil, 
in  "  mesophytic  bushland,"  in  deciduous  dkotyledonous  forests, 
and  in  evergreen  dicotyledonotxs  forests. 

This  new  system  of  Warming's,  whilst  probably  too  involved 
ever  to  Tome  into  general  use,  must  betaken  as  superseding  his 
okler  one;*  and  perhaps  the  best  coune  open  to  botanists  is  to 
select  such  ternts  as  appear  to  be  helpful,  and  to  use  the  selected 
terms  in  a  general  kind  of  way  and  without  demanding  any  pre* 
dse  defimtkma  of  them:  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 

■Warming  (1909,  op.  eU.), 
*  Ibid.  (1894,  op.  cit.). 


various  classes  are  neither  mutually  exclusive  nor  of  equivalent 
rank.  From  this  point  of  view,  the  following  terms  will  perhaps 
be  found  the  most  serviceable: — 

Hydrophytes  (submerged  aquatic  plants). — Plants  whose  vege- 
tative oreans  live  wholly  in  water;  e.g.,  most  Algae,  many  mosses, 
such  as  FonUnalis  spp.,  and  liverworts,  such  as  Jungermannia  spp. ; 
a  few  Pteridophytcs,  such  as  PUuiaria  spp.,  Isoeies  spp.,  several 
flowering  pbacs,  such  as  PotamogtiUm  Peciinaius,  Ceratopkyilum 
spp.,  Hotkmia  palustris,  UtriaUaria  spp..  LiUoreUa  tacustris. 

Hemi-kydropkytes  (swamp  plants,  marsh  plants,  Ac). — Plants 
whose  vegetative  organs  are  partly  submerged  and  partly  aerial; 
Ksiidhersa  lerresteis,  PkUemoUs  foeUana,  Scapamia  umdulata.  Mar* 
silia  spp.,  Sahinia  moIom.  Ateua  spp.,  EqutseUam  timosum,  Typka 
angustifoiia,  Pkragmiles  communis,  Sdrpus  lacuslris,  Hympkaea 
lulea,  OenanUie  fislulosa,  Bidens  cemua. 

Hygropkyles. — Plants  which  are  sub-evergreen  or  evergreen  but 
not  sdcrophyUous,  and  which  live  in  moist  soils  i  e.g.,  Loifroes 
FUix-mas,  Poa  pratensis,  Carex  sso/u,  PlaiUago  lanceolata,  and 
AckiUaea  IfiUefoUum. 

Xeropkytes. — Plants  whkh  grow  in  very  dry  soils;  e.g.,  most 
lichens,  Ammopkila  {Psamma)  arenaria,  Elymus  arenar\us.  Ana* 
basis  aretioides,  Zilla  macroplera,  Sedum  acre,  BupUurum  sptuasum, 
Artemisia  /b<rte-al6a,  ZoUiko£erui  arborescons, 

Ualopk]^, — Plants  which  grow  in  very  saline  soils;  ex  •  Trigfockin 
marilimum,  Salicomia  spp.,  Zygo^yUum  eornutum.  Aster  Tri- 
poiiumt  Artemisia  maritima.  It  should  be  recogniicd.  however, 
that  '*  a  halophyte,  in  fact,  is  one  form  of  xeiophyte  "  (Warming, 
1900:  ai9). 

SeUropk^dious  Plants. — ^These  are  pbnts  with  evergreen  leathery 
leaves,  and  typical  of  tropical,  sub-tropical,  and  warm  temperate 
regions;  e.g.,  Quercus  Suber,  Ilex  Aquifolsum,  Hedera  Helix,  Eucalyp- 
tus Globulus,  Rosmarinus  officinalis,  Sclerophyllous  leaves  are 
usually  characterized  by  entire  or  sub«nlire  margins,  a  thick  cuticle, 
small  but  rarely  sunken  stomata,  a  well-devebped  and  dose-set 
palisade  tissue  and  a  feeble  system  of  air-spaces. 

Hydro-xerophytes  ("bog  xeropkytes*'). — Plants  which  live  in 
wet,  peaty  soils,  and  which  possess  aeration  channels  and  xero- 

ShiloM  leaves;  «.g.,  Cladimm  Marifcus,  Enophorum  angusltMium, 
'.ubus  Ckamanuurus,  and  Vacdnium  ViiiS'Idaea.  The  term  oxyk>- 
phyte  **  is  open  to  the  objection  that  some  peaty  waters  are  alkaline, 
and  not  acidic  as  the  term  implies.  Many  plants  of  peaty  soils 
are  sclerophyllous. 

rropep]iy£».*-Plants  which  are  hygrophytes  during  some  favour- 
able part  of  the  year  and  xerophytes  dunng  the  rest  of  the  year; 
e.g.,  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs,  deciduous  nierbaceous  plants  with 
underground  perennating  organs,  and  annuals  and  ephemerals. 

Planl  Communilies. — ^The  study  of  plant  communities 
iFormalioHslekre  or  synecohgy)  has  made  much  progress  in 
recent  years.  Even  here,  however,  general  agreement  has  not 
been  reached;  and  the  questions  involved  in  relating  the  facts 
of  the  distributkm  of  plant  communities  to  the  factors  of  the 
habitat  are  vecy  imperfectly  understood.  Plant  communities 
may  be  classified  as  follows:— 

A  pianl  assaciatiou  is  a  community  of  definite  florist  ic  com- 
position: it  may  be  characterized  by  a  single  dominant  species; 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  characterized  by  a  number  ol 
prominent  species,  one  of  which  is  abundant  here,  another  there, 
whilst  elsewhere  two  or  more  species  ouiy  share  dominance. 
The  former  are  pure  associations^  and  are  well  illustrated  by  a 
heather  moor,  where  CoUuna  vtdgaris  is  the  dominant  plant. 
The  latter  are  mixed  associations,  such  as  fens,  where  different 
facies  are  produced  by  the  vaiying  abundance  of  characteristic 
plants,  such  as  Cladium  Mariscus,  Pkragmltcs  communis,  Molinia 
coerulca,  Calamagrostis  lanceolata,  and  J  uncus  obtusifiorus.  The 
different  facies  are  possibly  related  to  slight  differences  in  a 
generally  uniform  habitat:  it  is  unscientific  to  regard  them  as 
due  to  chance;  still,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  causes  of  the 
different  facies  have  not  been  demonstrated.  A  local  aggre- 
gation of  a  species  other  than  the  dominant  one  in  an  associ- 
ation brings  about  a  plant  society,  for  example,  societies  of  Erica 
Tdraiix,  of  Scirpus  caespilosus,  of  Udinia  coerutea,  of  Carex 
curia,  of  Nartkccium  ossifragum,  and  others  may  occur  within 
an  association  of  Calluna  vulgaris.  The  plant  societies  are  ahn 
doubtless  due  to  slight  variations  of  the  habitat. 

The  plant  associatron  is  sometimes  referred  to  in  technical 
language^  the  termination  -etum  is  added  to  the  stem  of  the 
generic  name,  and  the  specific  name  is  put  in  the  genitive.  Thus 

'Sec  Moss.  "The  Fundamental  Units  of  VcgeUtion:  historical 
devck>pment  of  the  concepts  of  the  plant  association  and  the  plant 
formation."    Bolany  Sckool  (Cambridge,  1910). 


762 


PLANTS 


{ECOLOGY 


an  association  of  Quercus  sessil^fiora  may  be  referred  to  as  a 
Quercetum  sessilifiorat. 

A  plant  fornuLlion  is  a  group  of  associations  occupying  habitats 
which  are  in  essentiab  identical  with  each  other.  Thus,  associ- 
ations of  Agropyrum  {Triticum)  junceum,  of  Carex  arenaria,  of 
AmmophUa  (Psamma)  arenaria,  and  of  other  plants  occur  on 
sand  dunes:  the  associations  are  related  by  the  general  identity 
of  the  habitat  conditbns,  namely,  the  physiological  dryness 
and  the  loose  soil;  but  they  are  separated  by  differences  in 
florislic  composition,  especially  by  different  dominant  species, 
and  by  minor  differences  of  the  common  habitat.  The  whole 
set  of  associations  on  the  sand  dimes  constitutes  a  plant 
formation. 

The  plant  formation  may  be  designated  in  technical  language 
by  the  termination  -ion  added  to  a  stem  denoting  the  habitat, 
llius,  a  sand  dune  formation  may  be  termed  an  Arenarion.  The 
associational  term,  in  the  genitive,  may  be  added  to  the  forma- 
tional  term  to  indicate  the  relationship^  of  the  formation  and  the 
association;  thus,  a  plant  association  of  AmmophUa  arenaria 
belonging  to  the  plant  formation  of  the  sand  dunes  may  be 
designated  an  Armarion  AmmophUat-arenariae  (cf.  Moss,  op.  cit. 
1910: 43).  ^ 

The  question  of  universal  names  for  vegetation  units  is  bound 
up  with  that  of  the  imiversality  or  otherwise  of  particular 
formations.  "  Remote  regions  which  are  florist ically  distinct 
,  .  .  may  possess  areas  physically  almost  identical  and  yet  be 
covered  by  different  formations"  (Clements,*  1905:203).  For 
example,  the  sand  dunes  of  North  America  and  those  of  western 
Europe  are  widely  separated  in  geographical  position  and  there- 
fore in  floristic  composition,  yet  they  are  related  by  common 
physical  factors.  This  relationship  may  be  indicated  by  the 
addition  of  some  prefix  to  the  formational  name.  For  example, 
an  Arenarion  in  one  climatic  or  geographical  region  might  be 
termed  an  a-Arcnarion  and  one  in  a  different  region  a  j3-Arena- 
rion,  and  so  on  (Moss,  loc.  cil.). 

It  is,  however,  frequently  desirable  to  consider  such  allied 
formations  as  a  single  group.  Such  a  group  of  formations  may  be 
designated  a  plant  federation:  and  this  term  may  be  defined  as  a 
group  of  formations,  which  arc  characterized  by  common  edaphic 
factors  of  the  habitat,  and  which  occur  in  any  geographical 
region.  Thus,  different  geographical  or  climatic  regions  are 
characterized  by  salt  marshes.  The  latter  all  agree  in  their 
edaphic  characteristics;  but  they  differ  climatically  and  in 
floristic  composition.  The  salt  marshes  of  a  given  region  con- 
stitute a  single  plant  formation :  the  salt  marsh  formations  of 
the  whole  world  constitute  a  plant  federation. 

Again,  it  b  possible  to  arrange  plant  associations  into  groups 
related  by  a  common  plant  form.  Thus  woodland  associations 
may  be  classified  as  deciduous  forests,  coniferous  forests,  sclero- 
phyllous  forests,  &c.  These,  in  a  general  way,  are  the  "forma- 
tions "  of  Warming,*  and  (in  part)  the  "  climatic  formations  " 
of  Schimper."  Thus  the  various  reed-swamps  of  the  whole  world 
constitute  a  **  formation  "  in  Warming's  sense  (1909:  187). 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  among  ecologisls  and 
plant  geographers  as  to  which  of  these  points  of  view  is  the  most 
fundamental.  Among  British  authorities,  it  is  now  customary 
to  adopt  the  position  of  Clements,  who  states  (1905:292) 
that  "  the  connexion  between  formation  and  habitat  is  so  close 
that  any  application  of  the  term  to  a  division  greater  or  smaller 
than  the  habitat  is  both  illogical  and  unfortunate,"  and  that 
(1905:18)  *'  habitats  are  inseparable  from  the  formations  which 
they  bear  "  (cf.  Moss,  1910). 

From  the  standpoint  of  plant  communities,  it  is  convenient 
to  divide  the  earth's  surface  into  (i)  tropical  districts;*  (2)  sub- 

*  F.  E.  Cements,  Research  Methods  in  Ecology  (1905),  Lincoln, 
Neb..  U.S.A. 

'  Warming  (1909,  op,  eit,).        *  Schimiwr  (1898,  ot>.  cit.). 

*  The  nomenclature  of  the  terms  (floristic  as  well  as  ecological) 
used  in  gcosraphicat  botany  is  in  a  very  confused  state.  In  the 
present  article,  the  term  "  district "  is  used  in  a  general  sense  to 
indicate  any  definite  portion  of  the  earth's  surface.  For  a  dis- 
cussion of  such  phytogeographical  terms,  see  FUhault.  '*  Premier 
esaai  de  nomenclature  phytogfographiqtie,*'  in  Bull.  Soc.  langue- 
dodinnt  4e  Giogr.  (1901);  and  also  in  Bittt.  Torr.  Bt.  Club  (1901;. 


tropical  and  warm  temperate  districts;  (3)  temperate  districts; 
(4)  cold  temperate  and  frigid  districts. 

I.  Tropical  Districts. — The  vegetation  of  tropical  districu  h«s 
been  subdivided  bv  Schimper  (1903:260,  et  scq.)  ;s  follows:— 
(i.)  Tropical  woodland:  (a)  rain  forest,  (b)  monsoon  forest,  (c) 
savana  forest,  (</)  thorn  forest,  (ii.)  Tropical  grassland:  («) 
savana.  (6)  steppe,  (iii.)  Tropical  desert:  (a)  scrub,  {b)  suoculat 
plants,  (t)  perennial  herbs. 

Schimper  regards  the  minor  divisions  as  groups  of  **  climatic 
formations";  and  he  also  distinguislies  certam  tropical  "  edapbc 


formations."  such  as  mangrove  swamps.  He  states  that  laia 
forests  and  high  monsoon  forests  in  the  tropics  occur  when  tb« 
average  rainfall  is  over  70  in.  (178  cm.)  per  annum,  and  that  tropkal 
thorn  forest  may  prevail  when  the  mean  annual  rainfall  n  belo* 

35  •"• 

A  tropical  rain  forest  exhibits  great  variety  both  of  species  o( 
plant  and  of  plant  forms.  There  is  great  diversity  in  the  tre«i 
and  masses  of  tangled  liancs,  and  a  wealth  of  flowers  in  the  \eaij 
forest  crown.  Humboldt'  points  oui^  that  whilst  tern pentc 
forests  frequently  furnish  pure  associations,  such  unifornuty  ci 
association  is  usually  absent  from  the  tropics.  Some  tro^cal 
forests  exhibit  dense  foliage  from  the  forest  floor  to  the  topowat 
leafy  layer;  and  the  traveller  finds  the  mass  of  foliage  almost  is- 
penctrable.  Olhcr^  tropical  forests  afford  a  free  passage  and  a 
clear  outlook.  It  is  obvious  that  trooical  forests  will  evcntuaU) 
be  subdivided  into  plant  associations;  out  the  difliculties  of  deter* 
mining  the  relative  abundance  of  the  species  of  plants  in  the  upper 
layers  of  tropical  rain  and  monsoon  forests  are  very  great.  Oae 
of  the  best  known  results  of  the  great  struggle  for  light  which  takes 
place  in  tropical  forests  is  the  number  of  epiphytic  plants  whi^ 
grow  on  the  nigh  branches  of  the  trees. 

The  leaves  of  the  trees  are  frequently  of  leathery  conststeflcy. 
verv  glossy,  usually  evergreen,  entire  or  nearly  so.  and  acidoin  hair> ; 
and  thus  they  agree  closely  with  the  leaves  of  •clerophyllous  ioaai 
generally. 

Monsoon  forests  are  characteristic  of  localities  with  a  seajsoaal 
rainfall.  The  trees  usually  lose  their  foliage  during  the  dry  aea^ofi 
and  renew  it  during  the  monsoon  rains.  With  a  less  abundart 
rainfall,  savana  forest  and  thorn  forest  occur.  Less  precipiUt«:a 
induces  tropical  grassland,  whiciL  according  to  Schimper  (i^j- 
346)  is  of  the  savana  type:  but  Warming  (1909:337)  tninks  tkac 
all  grassland  In  the  tropics  is  artificiar  Still  greater  droBtg^ 
induces  desert  vegetation;  but,  as  deserts  are  more  charactenstic 
of  subtropical  districts,  they  are  discussed  later  on. 

Mantrove  swatnps,  or  tropical  tidal  forests,  occur  in  saline  «r 
brackisn  swamps  on  flat,  muddy  shores  in  the  tropics:  and.  beiag 
almost  independent  of  atmo^heric  precipitations,  Schinprr 
regards  them  as  "  edaphic  formations."  However,  thev  are  cliieatc 
communities  in  the  sense  that  they  occur  only  in  not  districts. 
Cases  such  as  this  illustrate  the  oiflliculty  of  regarding  the  dis- 
tinction between  "  climatic  formations  "  and  "  eda^ic  formatioes  " 
as  absolute.  The  plants  exhibit  markedly  xerophilous  structures; 
and  many  of  the  fruits  and  seeds  of  the  mangrove  trees  and  shrub* 
are  provided  with  devices  to  enable  them  to  float  and  with  curio«B 
pneumatophores  or  "  prop  roots."  The  latter  serve  as  suppcm 
and  also  as  a  means  of  supplying  air  to  the  parts  buried  in  the  roi«i 
The  seedlings  of  characteruttc  species  of  Rhizophoraceae  germimte 
on  the  Irecs,  and  probably  perform  some  assimilatory  work  b) 
means  of  the  hypocotyl. 

Other  tropical  "  edaphic  formations  '*  occur  on  sandy  sbofes, 
where  the  creeping  ipomoea^  biloba  iPes-caprat)  and  trees  of 
Barringtonia  form  cnaracteristk  plant  associations. 

The  succession  of  associations  on  new  soils  of  a  tropical  shoie 
has  recently  been  described  by  Ernst.* 

2.  Warm  Temperate  and  Subtropical  Districts. — In  subtropicjl 
and  warm  temperate  districts,  characterized  by  mild  and  raianr 
winters  and  hot  and  dry  summers,  we  find  two  types  of  forests. 
First,  there  are  forests  of  evergreen  trees,  with  thick,  leather) 
leaves.  Such  forests  are  known  as  sclerophyllous  forests,  and  thcv 
occur  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  in  soutn-west  Africa,  in  so<ttc 
and  south-west  Australia,  in  central  Chile,  and  in  western  CaliJora:a. 
In  the  Mediterranean  district,  forests  of  this  type  are  aonetinies 
dominated  by  the  Cork  Oak  (Quercus  Suber),  sometimes  by  the 
Holm  Oak  {Q.  Ilex).  When  these  forests  become  degcoera'.c. 
m^ciuis  and  garigucs  respectively  are  produced.  MAquis  Aod 
garigues  are  characterized  by  the  abundance  of  shrubs  and  un<k-r* 
shruDs,  especially  by  shrubby  Leguminous  plants,  and  by  speccs 
Cistus  and  Lavandula.  Secondly,  there  are  forests  of  coAiicrobs 
trees.  In  the  Mediterranean  region,  even  at  comparatively-  low 
altitudes,  forests  occur  of  the  maritime  pine  (Piimr  mantimm'\ 
and  of  the  Aleppo  pine  (P.  halepensis):  and  these  forests  are  abe 
related  to  mftquis  and*garigues  respectively  in  the  same  way  xs 
the  evergreen  oaks.  The  occurrence  of  forests  of  this  type  In  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  Arctic  regions,  whose  dominant  species  belo<tf 
to  the  same  genus  jPinus)  and  to  the  same  plant  form,  renderv  it 

*  Humboldt.  Eng.  trans,  by  Sabine,  Aspects  •J  Naturt  (London 
1849). 

*  Eng.  trans,  by  Seward.  The  New  Flora  ^  lk$  Voktmc  idaaad  ef 
Krakatau  (Cambridge,  1908). 


ECOLOGY! 


PLANTS 


763 


difficult  to  regard  "conlferoua  forests'*  at  a  natural  ecological 
group.  At  much  higher  altitudes,  in  the  south-wrest  of  the  MecHter- 
ranean  region,  forests  occur  of  the  Atlantic  cedar  {Cedrus  aUatUica). 
These  occur  from  about  4000  ft.  (1219  m.)  to  about  7000  ft.  (2153  m.) 
on  the  Atlas  Mountains.  Sonie  sderophylloua  forests  of  the  eastern 
Atlas  Mountains  are,  owii^  to  a  comparatively  high  rainfall, 
chaiactefrized  by  many  deciduous  trees,  such  as  Fraxinus  oxjf- 
ph^la,  Ulmus  campeslris  (auct.  alg.),  Alnus  rotundifolia,  Salix 
peaic^lata,  Frunia  ovtMin,  &c.;  and  thus  they  have  some  elements 
m  common  with  the  deciduous  foiests  of  central  Europe. 

The  forests  of  these  subtropical  and  warm  temperate  regions 
arc  situated  near  the  sea  or  in  mountainous  regions,  and  (as  already 
stated)  are  characterized  by  winter  rains.  In  inland  localities, 
where  the  rainfall  is  much  lower,  suppes  occur.  For  example, 
in  southern  Algeria,  a  region  of  steppes  is  Mtuated  on  a  flat  plateau, 
about  3000  ft.  (914  metres)  high,  between  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Tell  Atlas  and  the  northern  sbjjes  of  the  Saharan  Atlas.  The 
rainfall,  which  occurs  chiefly  in  winter,  only  averages  about  10  in. 

{254  mm.)  per  annum.  Here  we  find  open  plant  associations  of 
ialfa  or  Esparto  Grass  {Slipa  tenaeissima)  alternating  with  steppes 
of  Chih  (Artemisia  herba-alba)i  and  each  plant  assoaation  extends 
for  several  scores  of  miles.  In  the  hollows  of  this  steppe  region, 
salt  water  lakes  occur,  known  as  Chotts;  and  on  the  saline  soils  sur- 
rounding the  Chotts,  a  salt  marsh  formation  occure,  with  species 
of  Salicornia,  some  of  which  are  undcrshrubs. 

Where  the  rainfall  is  still  lower,  deserts  occur.  At  Ghardaia, 
in  south-eastern  Alf^cria,  the  mean  annual  rainfall,  from  1887  to 
1892,  was  about  4}  m.  (114  mm.).  In  tSoo,  it  fell  as  low  as  2  inr. 
(53  mm.)  (Schtmper,  1903  :  606).  At  Bcni  Ounif  and  Colomb 
Bcchar.  in  south-wcsicrn  Algeria.  I  was  informed,  in  March  1910, 
that  there  had  been  no  rain  for  about  three  years.  Here  the  gravelly 
desert  is  characterized  by  "  cushion  plants,"  such  as  Anabasis 
aretioidesi  by  "switch  plants,"  such  a%Ketama  Retam ;  and  specially 
by  spiny  plants,  such  as  Zityphus  Lotus  and  Zilta  macropteris: 
wnereas  succulent  plants  are  rare.  Both  in  the  steppe  and  in 
the  desert,  small  ephemeral  species  occur  on  the  hare  ground 
away  from  the  large  plants  and  especially  in  the  wadis*  Steppe 
and  desert  formations  are  of  the  open  type. 

3.  Temperate  Districts. — Temperate  districts  are  characterized 
by  forests  of  deciduous  trvcs  and  of  coniferous  trees,  the  latter  being 
of  different  species  from  those  of  the  warm  temperate  districts, 
but  frequently  of  the  same  plant  form.  The  identity  of  plant  form 
of  many  of  the  conifers  of  both  temperate  and  of  warm  temperate 
districts  is  probably  a  matter  of  phylogenetic  and  not  of  ecological 
importance. 

Britain  is  faiHy  typical  of  the  west  European  district.  In  these 
islands,  we  find  forests '  or  woods  of  oak  {Quercus  Robnr  and  Q. 
sessiliflora),  of  birch  (Betula  tomentosa),  of  ash  (Praxinus  excelsior), 
and  of  beech  {Fagus  syhatica).  In  central  Scotland,  forests  occur 
of  Pinus  syhestris;  and,  in  south-eastern  England,  extensive  planta- 
tions and  self-sown  wdods  occur  of  the  same  species. 

Just  as  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  the  degeneration  of  forests 
has  given  rise  to  m&quis  and  garigues,  so  in  western  Europe,  the 
degeneration  of  forests  has  brought  about  different  types  of  grass- 
land, heaths,  and  moors. 

4.  Cold  Temperate  and  Frigid  Districts. — In  the  coldest  portion 
of  the  north  temperate  zone,  forests  of  dwarfed  trtws  occur, 
and  these  occasionally  spread  into  the  Arctic  region  itself  (Schimper, 
190.1:  685).  Schimper  distinguishes  moss  tundra,  Polytriehum 
tundra,  and  lichen  tundra;  and  the  lichen  tundra  is  subdivided  into 
Cladonia  tundra,  Platysma  tundra,  and  Alectoria  heath.  Where 
the  climate  is  most  rigorous,  rock  tundra  occurs  (p.  685). 

The  types  of  vegetation  (tropical  forests,  scleropbyllous  forest, 
temperate  forests,  tundra,  &c.)  thus  briefly  outlined  are  groups  of 
Schimper's  "  climatic  formations."  Such  groups  arc  interesting 
in  that  they  are  vegetation  units  whose  physiognomy  is,  in  a  broad 
sense,  related  more  to  climatic  than  to  edaphic  conditions.  For 
example,  Schimper,  after  describing  the  sclerophylloua  woodland 
of  the  Mediterranean  district  and  of  the  Cape  district,  says: 
"  The  scrub  of  West  and  South  Australia  hi  its  ecological  aspect 
resembles  so  completely  the  other  sclerophyUous  formations  that 
a  description  of  it  must  seem  a  repetition."  This  resemblance, 
however,  only  has  reference  to  the  general  aspect  or  physiognomy 
of  the  vegetation  and  to  the  plant  forms:  the  floristic  composition 
of  the  various  sclerophyUous— and  other  pbysiognomically 
allied  ^associations  in  the  various  geographical  districts  is  very 
different;  and  indeed  it  is  true  that,  just  as  the  general  physio- 
gnomy of  plant  associations  is  related  to  climate,  so  their  floristic 
composition  is  related  to  geographical  position.  Hence,  in  any 
cosmopolitan  treatment  of  vegetation,  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
the  groups  of  plant  communities  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
climatic  or  geographical  district  in  which  they  occur;  and  this 

*  See  Moss,  Rankin,  and  Tansley.  **  British  Woodlands."  Botany 
School  (Cambridge,  1910).  I 


indeed  is  consistently  done  by  Schimper.  Finally,  within  any 
district  of  constant  or  fairly  constant  climatic  conditions,  it  b 
possible  to  distinguish  plant  communities  which  are  related 
chiefly  to  edaphic  or  soil  conditions;  and  the  vegetation  units  of 
these  definite  edaphic  areas  are  the  plant  formations  of  some 
writers,  and,  in  part,  the  "edaphic  formations"  of  Schimper. 

When  a  district  like  England  is  divided  into  edaphic  areas,  a 
general  classification  such  as  the  following  may  be  obtained.' — 

1.  Physically  and  physiotogieaUy  wet  habitats,  with  the  accom- 
panying plant  communities  of  lakes,  reed  swamps,  and  marshes. 

2.  PhysicaUy  wet  but  pk^sudogicaUy  dry  habitats,*  with  the 
accompahYin|[  plant  communities  of  Jens,  moors,  and  salt  marshes. 

3.  Physically  and  ph^si(dogicaUy  dry  habitats,  with  the  accom- 
panying plant  commumties  of  sand  dunes  and  sandy  heaths  with 
fittle'humus  in  the  soil. 

4.  Habitats  of  medium  wOness,  with  the  accompanying  plant 
communities  of  woodlands  and  grasslands.  This  class  may  be 
subdivided  as  follows: — 

a.  Habitats  poor  in  mineral  salts,  especially  calcium  carbonate, 
often  rich  in  acidic  humous  compounds,  and  characterized  by 
oak  and  birch  woods,  siliceous  pasture,  and  heaths  with  much 
acidic  humus  in  the  sand^  soil. 

b.  Habitats  rich  in  mineral  salts,  especially  calcium  carbonate, 
poor  in  acidic  humous  compounds,  and  characterized  by  ash 
woods,  beech  woods,  and  calcareous  pasture. 

Ecdogitai  Adaptations. — ^It  is  now  possible  to  consider 
the  ecological  adaptations  which  the  members  of  plant  com- 
munties  show  in  a  given  geographical  district  such  as  western 
Europe,  of  which  England  of  course  forms  a  part.  In  the  present 
state  of  knowledge,  however,  this  can  only  be  done  in  a  very 
meagre  fashion;  as  the  effect  of  habitat  factors  on  plants  is  but 
lillle  understood  as  yet  either  by  physiologists  or  ecologfsts. 

Hydrophytes  and  hemi-h^^o^ytes  (aquatic  plants).— Of  marine 
hydrophytes,  there  are,  m  this  country,  only  the  grass- wracks 
{Zoitera  marina  and  Z.  naiio)  among  the  higher  plants.  Even 
these  species  are  sometimes  left  stranded  by  low  spring  tides, 
though  the  mud  in  which  they  are  rooted  remains  saturated  with 
sea-water.  Although  many  plants  typical  of  fresh  water  are  able 
to  grow  also  in  brackish  water,  tbcrc  arc  onl^  a  few  species  which 
appear  to  be  quite  confined  to  the  latter  habitats  in  this  country. 
Such  species  perhaps  include  Ruppia  maritima,  R.  spiraliSt 
Zannichetlia  maritima,  Z.  pUycarpa^  Potamogeton  inlerrupius 
(  «  P.^bellatus),  and  Naias  marina. 

In  freshwater  takes  and  ponds,  especially  if  the  water  is  stagnant, 
aquatic  plants  are  abundant.  Aquatic  vegetation  may  be  con- 
veniently classified  as  follows: — 

Aquatic  plants  with  submerged  leaves:  Chora  spp.,  Naias  spp., 
Polamogeton  pectinatus,  CoratophyUum  spp.,  Myrtopkyilum  spp., 
Hottonia  palustris,  Utricularia  spp. 

Aquatic  plants  with  submerged  and  floating  leaves:  Clycetia 
fluitans.  Ranunculus  pellatus,  Nymphaea  {Nuphar)  lulea.  Colli- 
trtche  stagnalis,  Polamogeton  polygonijoltsu. 

Aquatic  plants  with  floating  knives:  Lemna.  spp.,  Hydrocharis 
Morsus-ranae,  Castalia  {Nympluea)  alba. 

Aquatic  plants  with  submerged  leaves  and  erect  leaves  or  stems: 
Sagittaria  sagittifolia,  Scirpus  laeustris,  Hippuris  vulgaris^  Sium 
lattfolium. 

Aquatic  plants  with  erect  leaves  or  stems  (reed  swamp  plants) : 
^utsetum  patustret  Phrogmites  communis,  dyctria  agualica,  Carex 
riparia.  Iris  PseudacoruSi  Rumex  Hydrolapatkumt  Oenautke  fistulota, 
Btdens  spp. 

Marsh  plants:  Alopecnrus  genicidatus,  Carex  disticha,  Juncus 
spo.,  Cattha  palustris.  Nasturtium  palustre. 

In  many  aquatk  plants,  the  endosperm  of  the  seed  is  absent 
or  very  scanty.  The  root-system  is  usually  small.  Root-hairs 
are  frequently  missing.  The  submerged  stems  are  slender  or 
hollow.  Strengthening  tissue  of  all  kmds  (and  sometimes  even 
the  phloem)  is  more  or  less  rudimentary.  The  stems  are  frequently 
characterized  by  aeration  channels,  which  connect  the  aerial  parts 
with  the  parts  which  are  buried  in  practically  airiess  mud  or  silt. 
Submerged  leaves  are  usually  filamentous  or  narrowly  ribbon- 
shaped,  thus  exposing  a  large  amount  of  surface  to  the  water,  some 
of  the  dissolvca  gases  of  which  they  must  absorb,  and  into  which 
they  must  also  excrete  certain  gases.  Stomata  are  often  absent, 
absorption  and  excretion  of  gases  in  solution  being  carried  on 
through  the  epidermal  layer.  Chloroplastids  are  frequently 
present  in  the  epidermal  cells,  as  in  some  shade  plants.  Very 
lew  aquatic  plants  are  pollinated  under  water,  but  this  is  well- 
known  to  occur  in  species  of  Zostera  and  of  Naias.  In  such  plants, 
the  pollen  grains  are  sometimes  filiform  and  not  spherical  in  shape. 
In  the  case  of  aquatic  plants  with  aerial  flowers,  the  latter  obey 


*  As  very  little  experimental  work  has  been  done  with  .regard 
to  physiological  dryness  in  phyrically  wet  habitats,  any  dasanca- 
tion  svch  as  the  above  must  be  of  a  tentative  nature^ 


764 


PLANTS 


fECOLOGY 


the  ordinary  laws  of  pollination.  Heterophylly  is  rather  common 
among  aquatic  plants,  and  is  well  seen  in  several  aquatic  specie^ 
of  Ranunculus,  many  species  of  Potamogeton,  Sagittaria  saiitli- 
folia,  Scirpus  lacustns,  Castalia  (Nymphaea)  alba,  Hippuris  vul- 
iaris,  CaUuriehe  sppk,  Sium  latifolium. 

Insectivorous  species  occur  among  aquatic  plants;  e.f.  Utrkularia 
spp.,  which  are  locally  abundant  in  peaty  waters,  are  msectivorous. 

XerobhyUs. — These  plants  have  devices  (a)  for  procuring  water, 
(4)  or  for  storing  water,  (c)  or  for  limiting  transpiration ;  and  these 
adaptations  are  obvbusly  related  to  the  physically  or  phvsio* 
logically  dry  habitats  in  which  the  plants  live.  Plants  of  pnysi- 
cally  dry  habitats,  such  as  deserts  and  sand  dunes,  have  frequently 
long  tap-roots  which  doubtless,  in  some  cases,  reach  down  to  a 
subterranean  water  supply.  The  same  plants  have  sometimes 
a  superficial  root  system  in  addition,  and  are  thus  able  to  utilize 
immediately  the  water  from  rain  showers  and  perhaps  also  from 
dew,  as  Volkens*  maintains.  Root-hairs  give  an  enlarged  super- 
ficial  area  to  the  roots  of  plants,  and  thus  are  related,  to  the  pro- 
curing of  water. 

The  stems  of  some  xerophytes,  e.g.  Cactaceous  and  Crassulaceous 
plants,  may  be  succulent,  i.«.  they  have  tissues  in  which  water 
IS  stored.  Some  deserts,  like  those  of  Central  America,  are  specially 
characterixed  by  succulents;  in  other  deserts,  such  as  the  Sahara, 
succulents  are  not  a  prominent  feature.  Other  xerophytes  again 
are  spinous.  "Switch  plants,"  such  as  Retama  Retam  and  broom 
(Cytisus  scoftarius),  have  reduced  leaves  and  some  assimilating 
tissue  in  their  stems;  and  stomata  occur  in  grooves  on  the  stem. 

The  transpiring  surface  of  xerophytes  is  frequently  reduced. 
The  ordinary  leaves  may  be  small,  absent,  or  spinous.  In  "  cushion 
plants  "  the  leaves  are  very  small,  very  close  together,  and  the  low 
habit  is  protective  against  winds.  The  latter,  of  course,  greatly 
increase  transpiration.  A  "cushion  plant"  {Anabasis  aretioidei) 
of  the  north-western  Sahara.  frc<iucntKr  shows  dead  leaves  on  the 
exposed  side  whilst  the  plant  is  in  full  vigour  on  the  sheltered 
side.  The  buds  and  leaves  on  the  exposed  side  arc  probably 
killed  by  sand  blasts.  Manv  xerophytes  are  hairy  or  have  sunken 
stomata  which  may  be  further  protected  by  partial  plugs  of  wax: 
the  stomata  are  frequently  in  grooves:  the  leaves  are  frequently 
rolled — sometimes  permanently  so,  whilst  sometimes  the  leaves 
roll  up  only  during  unfavourable  weather.  These  adaptations 
tend  to  lessen  the  amount  of  transpiration  by  protecting  the 
stomata  from  the  movements  of  the  air.  In  species  of  Eucalyptus, 
the  leaves  are  placed  edge-wise  to  the  incident  ravs  of  light  and 
heat.  The  cornceous  leaves  of  "  sclerophyllous  plants  "  also,  to 
some  extent,  are  similarly  protective,  in  such  leaves,  there  are 
a  well-marked  cuticle,  a  thick  epidermis,  a  thick  hypodermis  ac 
least  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  well-developed  palisade  tissue, 
and  a  poorly  developed  svstem  of  air-spaces.  Such  adaptations 
are  welf  seen  in  the  leaf  01  the  holly  {lUx  aquijolium).  Warming, 
however,  sutes  that  "  Ilex  aquifdium  is  undubitably  a  meso- 
phyte"  (1909  ••  »35)« 

HalopkyUs,  or  plants  which  live  in  saline  soils,  have.xerophytic 
adaptations.  A  considerable  proportion  of  halophytes' are  succu- 
lents, i.e.  their  leaves  and,  to  some  extent,  their  stems  have  much 
water-storing  tissue  and  few  intercellular  spaces.  Some  halo- 
phytes tenato  lose  their  succulence  when  cultivated  in  a  non- 
saline  soil;  and  some  non-halophytes  tend  to  become  succulent 
when  cultivated  in  a  salty  soil;  there  is,  it  need  scarcely  be  stated, 
little  or  no  evidence  that  such  characters  are  transmitted.  British 
salt  marshes  furnish  few  instances  of  spinv  plants,  though  such 
occur  occasionally  on  the  inland  salt  marshes  of  continental  dis- 
tricts. Salsola  Kali  is  British,  and  a  hemi-halophyte  at  least; 
and  it  is  rather  spiny.  Warming  states  that  "  the  stomata  of  true, 
succulent,  littoral  Kalophytic  herbs,  in  cases  so  far  investigated, 
are  not  sunken  "  (1909  :  33 1).  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the 
absence  of  sunken  stomata,  and  the  occurrence  of  some  other 
halophytic  features,  are  related  merely  to  the  succulent  habit  and 
not  to  halophytism,  for  succulent  species  often  occur  on  non-saline 
soils.  Simuarly,  the  small  amount  of  cuticular  and  of  epidermal 
protection,  and  of  lignification  in  succulent  hak>phytes  may  also 
be  related  to  the  same  circumstance.  Forms  of  stone  cells " 
or  "  stereids  "  occur  in  some  of  the  more  suffruticose  halophytes. 
as  in  Artkrocnemum  flaucum.  The  interesting  occurrence  ol  certain 
halophytes  and  hemi-nalophytes  on  sea-shores  and  also  on  mountains 
»  probably  to  be  explained  by  the  past  distribution  of  the  species 
in  questk>n.  At  one  time,  such  plants  were  probably  of  more  general 
occurrence:  now  they  have  been  extirpated  in  the  mtermediate 
localitieK,  chiefly  owing  to  the  cultivation  of  the  land  in  these 
places  by  man.  In  the  west  of  Ireland  and  in  the  Far<Ses,  where 
cenain  inland  and  lowland  localities  are  still  uncultivated.  Plantaro 
wuirilima  and  other  habphytes  occur  in  quantity  and  side  by  side 
with  some  "  Alpine  species,    such  as  Dryas  oelopetala. 

The  effect  of  common  salt  on  the  metabolism  of  plants  is  not 
underatood.  Lesage*  has  shown  that  the  height  of  certain  plants 
n  decreased  by  cultivation  in  a  saline  soil,  and  that  the  leaves  of 

■Volkens,  Dit   Flora  der    dgyptisek-arabiscken   WAsle   (Beriin. 

*  Ijesage.  "  Recherchea  exp6rimenta1es  sur  les  modifications  des 
feuaics  chea  les  plantes  maritimes."  in  Rn.  gtu.  da  bot,  (1890),  vol  ii. 


Klants  under  such  conditbns  become  smaller  and  more  succulent. 
le  showed  further,  that  the  increase  of  common  salt  in  the  soil 
is  correlated  with  a  reduction  in  the  number  and  sixe  of  the  chlon^ 

K last  ids,  and  therefore  in  the  amount  of  chlorophylL  On  the  other 
and,  some  plants  did  not  respond  to  the  action  of  comrooo  salt, 
whilst  others  were  killed.  Warming  (1909:  330)  quotes  Griifoa 
(1S98),  to  the  effect  that  "  the  assimilatory  activity  is  leas  in  the 
halophytic  form  than  in  the  ordinary  form  of  the  same  species.'* 
Schimper  had  previously  maintained  that  the  action  of  common 
salt  in  the  cell-sap  is  detrimental  as  rmrds  assimilatioa.  Many 
marine  Algae  appear  to  be  able  to  regulate  their  osmotic  capacity 
to  t  he  surrounding  medium ;  and  T.  C.  Hill '  has  shown  that  the  root- 
hairs  of  Salicomia  possess  this  propwty.  There  has,  however, 
been  performed  upon  hak>phytes  very  little  physiologically  ex- 
perimental work  which  commands  general  acceptance. 

Bofi  Xerophytes  live  in  the  peaty  soil  of  fens  and  moors  which  are 
physically  wet,  but  which  are  said  to  be  physiologically  dry.  Related 
to  the  physiological  drought,  such  plants  possess  some  xerophytic 
characters;  and.  related  to  the  physical^ wetness,  the  plants  possess 
the  aeration  channels  which  characterize  many  hydrophytes  and 
hemi-hydrophytea.     The  occurrence  of  xerophytic  characters  is 

rlants  of  this  type  hali  given  rise  to  much  difference  of  opioioa 
t  is  sometimes  maintained,  for  example,  by  Schimper,  that  their 
xerophytic  characters  are  related  to  the  pnysiobgipal  dryness  of 
the  habitat:  this,  however,  is  denied  by  others  who  mainiaia 
(Clements,  1905:  137)  that  the  xerophytism  is  due  to  the  perav 
tence  of  ancestral  structures.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  that  each 
explanation  is  correct  in  particular  cases,  as  the  views  are  by  no 
means  mutually  exclusive.  With  regard  to  the  occurreiKe  of 
plants,  such  as  Juncus  effusus,  which  possess  xerophytic  characters 
and  yet  live  in  situations  which  are  not  ordinarily  of  marked  physio- 
logical dryness,  it  should  be  remembered  that  such  habitats  are 
liable  to  occasional  physical  drought ;  and  a  plant  must  eventuaQx 
succumb  if  it  is  not  adapted  to  the  extreme  conditions  o(  its  habt(at. 
The  xerophvtic  characters  being  present,  it  is  not  surprising  c^at 
many  marsn  plants,  like  Juncus  effusus  and  Iris  pseudacorus,  are 
able  to  survive  in  dry  situations,  such  as  banks  and  even  pLnka 
rockeries. 

Tropopkytes.-^Thett  plants  are  characterized  by  bein^  xerof&ytic 
during  the  unfavourable  season.  For  example,  deciduotis  tncs 
shed  their  leaves  in  winter:  geophytesgo  through  a  period  of  dor- 
mancy by  means  of  bulbs,  rhizomes,  or  other  underground  orgaia 
with  buds;  whilst  annuals  and  ephemerals  similarly  protect  them- 
selves by  means  of  the  seed  habit.  All  such  plants  agree  in  reduc- 
ing transpiration  to  zero  during  the  unfavourable  season.  a]thow£% 
few  or  no  xerophytic  characters  may  be  demonstrable  durii^  tie 
period  favourable  to  growth. 

Hygrophytes. — Living,  as  these  plants  do,  under  medium  ca»- 
ditions  as  regards  soil,  moisture  and  climate,  they  exhibit  no  cha- 
racters which  are  markedly  xerophytic  or  hydrophytic  Heaoe. 
such  pkints  are  frequently  termea  mesopkytes.  Assimilatkan  gos 
on  during  the  whole  year,  except  during  periods  of  frost  or  when  tbe 
plants  are  buried  by  snow.  An  interesting  special  case  of  h\ffo- 
phytes  is  seen  with  regard  to  plants  which  live  in  the  dia^  d 
forests.  Such  plants  have  been  termed  sciophytes.  Their  stooau 
are  frequently  not  limited  to  the  underside  of  the  leaves,  but  omv 
occur  scattered  all  over  the  epidermal  surface.  The  epsdenaal 
cells  may  contain  chlorophylL  Strengthening  tissue  is  feA-\ 
developed.  Many  sciophytes  are  herbaceous  trapcmhytes^  xp6 
are  dormant  for  more  than  half  the  year,  usually  during  late  saimrfr. 
autumn  and  early  winter.  It  may  be  that  this  is  a  beredsun 
character  (cf.  "  bog  xerophytes "),  or  that  the  physical  drou;^: 
of  summer  is  unfavourable  to  shade-loving  plants.  In  this  c-:'^ 
ncxion,  it  is  interesting  that  in  the  east  of  England  srith  the  lovesr 
summer  rainfall  of  this  country,  many  common  sciophytes  9X 
absent  or  rare  in  the  woods,  such,  for  example,  as  Ifeltea  mmtH^rt, 
Allium  ursinum.  Lychnis  dioica,  Oxalis  AcetoieUa^  and  Asfe*^^ 
odorata.  However,  the  cause  of  the  absence  or  presence  of  a  gi^-rs 
species  from  a  given  kwality  is  a  depanment  of  ecology  wh^h 
has  been  studied  with  little  or  no  thoroughness. 

Cakiiole  and  Calcifuge  Species.-— Plants  which  invariably  inhabit 
calcareous  soils  are  sometimes  termed  calcicoles;  cakifaee  ^lecies 
are  those  which  are  found  rarely  or  never  on  such  soils.  The  eiiect 
of  lime  on  plants  i»  less  understood  even  than  the  effect  «f  coomer 
salt.  Doubtless,  the  excess  of  any  soluble  mineral  salt  or  saJt« 
interferes  with  the  osmotic  absorption  of  the  roots;  and  ahhouek 
calcium  carbonate  is  insoluble  in  pure  water,  it  U  aUghily  soluUr 
in  water  containing  carbon  dioxide.  In  England,  the  follo«-<« 
species  are  confined  or  almost  confined  to  calcareous  soils:  Aspiemi^m 
Kuta'muraria,  Mdica  MMlaiu,  Carex  digUata,  Atefs  nn^t^paphmt, 
Ophrys  apifera,  Tkalictrum  minus,  Ifetiantkemmm  ChamacciTTt: 
viola,  htrta,  Linum  perenne.  Geranium  luddum^  Hippecrtpis  c»aHSC 
PotentHUi  verna.  Viburnum  Lantana,  Galium  asperum  (»C.  s^- 
vestrc).  Asperuta  cynanthica,  Seneeio  eamjbestris.  Tlie  foBow< 
plants,  in  England,  are  calcifuge:  Lasiraea  Ortopierit,  Halaa  sMfia. 
Carex  etkinata,  Spergula  arteusis,  Ptdygala   serpyUatem,   Cjttuf 

>  T.  G.  Hill.  "  Observatk>ns  on  the  Osmotic  Pft»erties  itf  tk 
Root-Hairs  of  certain  Salt  Marsh  Plants,"  in  Tha  New  i 
(1908).  voL  viL 


CYTOUXJY) 


PLANTS 


765 


Kcparius,  PoUniiOa  proemmbens,  Galium  kercynieum  (^G.  saxatile), 
Gnaphalium  s^^voticum.  Digitalis  purpurea.  Other  plants  occur 
indine'rently  both  on  calcareous  and  on  non-calcareous   soils. 

It  is  sometimea  said  that  lime  acts  as  a  poison  on  some  olants 
and  not  on  others,  and  sometimes  that  it  is  the  phyaiologicail  dry- 
ness of  calcareous  soils  that  is  the  important  factor.  In  relation 
to  the  latter  theory,  it  is  pointed  out  that  some  markedly  calcicole 
species  occur  on  sand  dunes;  but  thb  may  be  due  to  the  lime  which 
is  frequentfy  present  in  dun^  sand  as  well  as  to  the  phyucal  dryness 
of  tbe  soil.  Furtlwr,  no  theory  of  calciolous  and  cakafugous 
pbnts  can  be  reearded  as  satisfactory  which  fails  to  account  for 
the  fact  that  both  kinds  of  plants  occur  amonj;  aquatic  as  well  as 
among  terrestrial  plants.  Schimper  (1903:  102)  thinks  that  in 
the  case  of  aquatic  plants,  the  difference  must  depend  on  the 
amount  of  lime  in  the  water,  for  the  physical  nature  of  the  sub- 
stratum is  the  same  in  each  case.  Again,  acidic  humus  does  not 
form  in  calcareous  soils;  and  hence  one  does  not  expect  to  find 
plants  characteristic  of  acidic  peat  or  humus  on  calcareous  soils, 
some  such  species  ate  Blecknum  horetUe,  Aira  fiexuosa,  Catluna 
tuigariSf  VaeeimuMt  MyrtiHus,  RiAia,  Ckatwtemorus,  Empetrum 
nigrum,  Drosera  spp.  Some,  at  least,  of  these  species  possess  my- 
corhiza  in  their  roots,  and  are  perhaps  unable  to  live  in  soils  where 
auch  organisms  are  absent. 

In  England,  the  number  of  calcicole  species  is  greater  than^  the 
number  of  nltcolous  species.  It  would  therefore  be  curious  if  it 
were  proved  that  lime  acts  on  plants  as  a  poison.  It  is  said  that 
some  plants  may  be  calcicoles  in  one  geographical  district  and  not 
in  another.  However,  until  more  b  known  of  the  exact  chemical 
composition  of  natural — as  contrasted  with  agricultural — soils, 
and  until  more  is  known  of  the  physiological  effects  of  lime,  it  is 
impossible  to  decide  the  vexed  question  of  the  relation  of  lime- 
loving  and  lime-shunning  filants  to  the  presence  or  absence  of 
calcium  carbonate  in  the  soil  From  such  points  of  view  as  this, 
it  is  indeed  true,  as  Warming  has  recently  stated.  "  that  ecology 
is  only  in  its  infancy."  (C.  £.  M.) 

Cytology  of  Plants 

The  elementary  unit  of  plant  structure,  as  of  animal  structure, 
is  the  cell.  Within  it  or  its  modifications  all  the  vital  phenomena 
of  which  living  organisms  are  capable  have  their  origin.  Upon 
our  knowledge  of  its  minute  structure  or  cytok)gy,  combined  with 
a  study  of  its  phy^ological  activities,  depends  the  ultimate 
solution  of  all  the  important  problems  of  nutrition  and  growth, 
reception  and  conduction  of  stimuli,  heredity,  variation,  sex  and 
reproduction. 

Tkg  Ceil  Theory. — For  a  ^neral  and  historical  account  of  the  cell 
theory  see  Cytology.  It  is  sufficient  to  note  here  that  cells  were 
first  of  all  discovered  in  various  vegetable  tissues  by  Robert  Hooke 
in  1665  (Micrographta) ;  Malpighi  and  Grew  (i674*-i682)  gave  the 
first  Clear  indications  of  the  importance  of  celb  m  the  buflding  up 
of  plant  tissues,  but  it  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century 
that  any  insight  into  the  real  nature  of  the  cell  and  its  functions  was 
obtained.  Hugo  von  Mohl  (1846)  was  the  first  to  recognise  that  the 
essential  vital  constituent  of  the  plant  cell  u  the  slimy  mass — proto- 
plasm— inside  it,  and  not  the  cell  wall  as  was  formerly  supposed. 
The  nucleus  was  definitely  recognised  in  the  plant  cell  by  Robert 
Brown  in  1831,  but  its  presence  had  been  prevkMisljy  indicated  by 
various  observers  and  it  had  been  seen  by  Fontana  in  some  animal 
cells  as  early  as  1781.  The  cell  theory  so  far  as  it  relates  to  plants 
was  established  by  Schteiden  in  1838.  He  showed  that  all  the 
organs  of  plants  are  built  up  of  cells,  that  the  plant  embryo  originates 
from  a  single  cell,  and  that  the  physiolojgical  activities  of  the  plant 
are  depenoent  upon  the  individual  activities  of  these  vital  units. 
This  conception  of  the  plant  as  an  aggregate  or  colony  of  independent 
vital  units  governing  tne  nutrition,  growth  and  reproduction  of  the 
whole  cannot,  however,  be  maintained.  It  is  true  that  in  the  uni- 
cellular  plants  all  the  vital  activities  are  performed  by  a  single  cell, 
but  in  tbe  multicellular  plants  there  is  a  more  or  less  highly  developed 
differentiation  of  physiological  activity  giving  rise  to  ouferent  tissues 
or  groups  of  cells,  each  with  a  special  function.  The  cell  in  such  a 
division  of  labour  cannot  therefore  be  re^rded  as  an  independent 
unit.  It  is  an  integral  part  of  an  individual  organiatbn  and  as 
Buch  the  exercise  of  its  functions  roust  be  governed  by  the  organbm 
as  a  whole. 

General  Sbrudttre  and  Dijferentialicn  of  the  VegjOahU  Cdl.— 
The  simplest  cell  forms  are  found  in  embryonic  tissues,  in  repro- 
ductive cells  and  in  the  parenchymatous  cells,  found  in  various 
parts  of  tbe  plant.  The  epidermal,  conducting  and  strengthciv- 
ing  tissues  show  on  the  otlier  hand  considerable  modifications 
both  in  form  and  structure. 

The  protoplasm  of  a  living  ccU  consists  of  a  semifluid  granular 
substance,  called  the  cytoplasm,  one  or  more  nuclei,  and  some- 
times centrosomes  and  plastids.  Cells  from  different  parts  of  a 
plant  differ  very  much  in  their  cell-contents.    Young  cells  are 


full  of  cytoplasm,  old  ceDa  generslly  contain  a  laige  vacuole  or 
vacuoles,  containing  cell-sap,  and  with  only  a  thin,  almost 
invisible  layer  of  cytoplasm  on  their  wails.  Chlorophyll  grains, 
chromatophores,  starch-grains  and  oil-globules,  all  of  which  can 
be  distinguished  either  by  their  appearance  or  by  chemical 
reagents,  may  also  be  present.  Very  httle  is  known  of  the  finer 
structure  of  the  cytoplasm  of  a  vegetable  cell.  It  is  sometimes 
differentiated  into  a  dearer  outer  layer,  of  hyaloplasm,  commonly 
called  the  ectoplasm,  and  an  inner  granular  endopUsm.  In 
some  cases  it  shows,  when  submitted  to  a  careful  examination 
under  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope,  and  especially  when 
treated  with  reagents  oi  various  kinds,  traces  of  a  more  or  less 
definite  struaure  in  the  form  of  a  mesbwork  con^ttng  of  a  dear 
homogeneous  substance  containing  numerous  minute  bodies 
known  as  microsomes,  the  spaces  being  filled  by  a  more  fluid 
ground-substance.  This  structure,  which  is  visible  both  in  living 
cells  and  in  cells  treated  by  reagents,  has  been  interpreted 
by  many  observers  as  a  network  of  threads  embedded  in  a 
homogeneous  ground-substance.  Biltsdili.  on  the  other  hand, 
interprets  it  as  a  finely  vacuolated  foam-structure  or  emul- 
sion, comparable  to  that  which  is  observed  when  small  drops 
of  a  mixture  of  findy  powdered  potash  and  oil  are  placed  in 
water,  the  vacuoles  or  alveoli  being  spaces  filled  with  liquid,  the 
more  solid  portion  rq>resenting  the  mesh-work  in  which  the 
microsomes  are  placed.  Evidence  is  not  wanting,  however,  that 
tbe  cytoplasm  must  be  regarded  as,  fundamentally,  a  semifluid, 
homogeneous  substance  in  which  by  its  own  activity,  granules, 
vacuoles,  fibrils,  &c.,  can  be  formed  as  secondary  structures. 
The  cytoplasm  is  la^dy  concerned  in  the  formation  of  spindle 
fibres  and  centrosomes,  and  such  structures  as  tbe  cell  membrane, 
cilia,  or  flagella,  the  coenocentrum,  nematoplaOs  or  pibrioids  and 
physodes  are  also  products  of  Its  activity. 

PrtOoplasmic  Movemenis. — ^In  the  cells  of  many  plants  the 
cytoplasm  frequently  exhibits  movements  of  circulation  or 
rotaliou.  The  cells  of  the  staminal  hairs  of  TradescatUia  virginica 
contain  a  large  sap-cavity  across  which  run.  In  all  directions, 
numerous  protoplasmic  threads  or  bridges.  In  these,  under 
favourable  conditions,  streaming  movements  of  the  cytoplasm  in 
various  directions  can  be  observed.  In  other  forms  such  as  Elodea, 
NiteUaf  Ckara^  &c.,  where  the  cytoplasm  b  mainly  restricted 
to  the  periphery  of  the  sap  vacuole  and  lining  the  cell  wall,  the 
streaming  movement  b  exhibited  in  one  direction  only.  In 
some  cases  both  the  nucleus  and  the  chromatophores  may  be 
carried  along  in  the  rotating  Kream,  but  in  others,  such  as  Nitclla, 
the  chloroplasts  may  remain  motionless  in  a  non-motile  layer  of 
the  cytc^Iasm  in  direct  contact  with  the  cell  wall.^ 

Desmids,  Diatoms  and  OsciUaria  show  creeping  movements 
probably  due  to  the  secretion  of  slime  by  the  celb;  the  swarm- 
spores  and  Plasmodium  of  the  Myxomycetes  exhibit  amoe))oid 
movements;  and  tbe  motile  spores  of  Fungi  and  Algae,  the 
spermatozoids  of  mosses,  ferns,  &c.,  move  by  means  of  delicate 
prolongations,  alia  or  flagcUa  oif  the  protoplast. 

Chromatophores. — The  chromatophores  or  plastids  are  proto- 
plasmic structures,  denser  than  the  cytoplasm,  and  easily 
distinguishable  from  it  by  their  colour  or  greater  refractive  power. 
They  are  spherical,  oval,  fusiform,  or  rod-like,  and  are  always 
found  in  the  cytoplasm,  never  in  the  cell-sap.  They  appear  to 
be  permanent  organs  of  the  cell,  and  are  transmitted  from  one 
cell  to  another  by  division.  In  young  cells  the  chromatophores 
are  small,  colourless,  highly  refractive  bodies,  principally  located 
around  the  nucleus.  As  the  cell  grows  they  may  become  con- 
verted into  leucoplasts  (starch-formers),  chloroplasts  (chlorophyll- 
bodies)  ,  or  chromoplasts  (colour-bodies) .  And  all  three  structures 
may  be  converted  one  into  the  other  (Schimper).  The  chloro- 
plasts are  generally  distinguished  by  thdr  green  colour,  which  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  cUorophyll;  but  in  many  Algae  this  is 
masked  by  another  colouring  matter — Phycoerythrin  in  the 
Floridcae,  Pkycophaein  in  the  Phaeophyceae,  and  Phycocyanin 

*  Ewart,  On  Ae  Physics  and  Physiology  of  Protoplasmic  Stream^ 
ing  in  Plants.  (Oxford,  1903).  gives  an  excellent  account  of  the 
phenomena  of  protoplasmic  streaming  with  a  full  discussion  of  the 
probable  causes  to  wotch  it  is  due. 


766 


PLANTO 


(CYTOLXY 


in  the  Cyanopbyceae.  These  substances  can,  however,  be 
dissolved  out  in  water,  and  the  green  colonring  matter  of  the 
chloroplast  then  becomes  visible.  The  chloroplast  consists  of 
two  parts,  a  colourless  ground  substance,  and  a  green  colouring 
matter,  which  is  contained  either  in  the  form  of  fibrils,  or  in  more 
or  less  regular  spherical  masses,  in  the  cdourless  ground-mass. 
The  chloroplasts  increase  in  number  by  division,  which  takes 
place  in  higher  plants  when  they  have  attained  a  certain  size, 
independent  of  the  division  of  the  cdl.  In  Spirogyra  and  allied 
forms  the  chloroplast  grows  as  the  cell  grows,  and  only  divides 
when  this  divides.  The  division  in  all  cases  takes  place  by  con- 
striction, or  by  ajsimultaneous  splitting  along  an  equatorial  plane. 
Chloroplasts  are  very  sensitive  to  light  and  are  capable  in  some 
plants  of  changing  their  position  in  the  cell  under  the  stimulus  of  a 
variation  in  the  intensity  of  the  light  rays  which  fall  upon  them. 
In  the  chromatophores  of  many  Algae  and  in  the  Liverwort 
Antkoceros  there  are  present  homogeneous,  highly  refractive, 
crystal-like  bodies,  called  fiyrenoids  or  starch-centres,  which  axe 
composed  of  proteid  substances  and  surrounded  by  an  eovel(^ 
of  starch-grains.  In  Spirogyra  the  pyrendds  are  distinctly 
connected  by  cytoplasmic  strands  to  the  central  mass  of  cyto- 
plasm, which  surrounds  the  nucleus,  and  according  to  some 
observers,  they  increase  exclusively  by  division,  followed  by  a 
^>litting  of  the  cytoplasmic  strands.  Those  chromatophores 
which  remain  colourless,  and  serve  simply  as  starch-formeis  in 
parts  of  the  plant  not  exposed  to  the  light,  are  called  leucoplasts 
or  amyloplasts.  They  are  composed  of  a  homogeneous  proteid 
substance,  and  often  contain  albuminoid  or  proteid  crystals  of  the 
same  kind  as  those  which  form  the  pyrenoid.  If  exposed  to  light 
they  may  become  converted  into  chloroplasts.  The  formation  of 
starch  may  take  place  in  any  part  of  the  leucoplast.  When 
formed  inside  it,  the  starch-grains  exhibit  a  concentric  stratifi- 
cation; when  formed  externally  in  the  outer  layers,  the  stratifi- 
cation is  excentric,  and  the  hilum  occurs  on  that  side  farthest 
removed  from  the  leucoplast.  As  the  starch-grains  grow,  the 
leucoplasts  gradually  disappear. 

Chromoplasts  are  the  yellow,  orange  or  red  colour-bodies  found 
in  some  flowers  and  fruits.  They  arise  either  from  the  leucoplasts 
or  chloroplasts.  The  fundamental  substance  or  stroma  is  colourless 
and  homogeneous.  The  colour  is  due  to  the  presence  of  xantho- 
phyll,  or  carxjtin  or  both.  The  colouring  matters  are  not  dissolved 
m  the  stroma  of  the  chrorooplast,  but  exist  as  amorphous  granules, 
with  or  without  the  presence  of  a  protein  crystal,  or  in  the  form  of 
fine  crystalline  needles,  frequently  curved  and  sometimes  present  in 
large  numbers,  which  are  grouped  together  in  various  ways  m  bundles 
and  give  the  plastids  their  fusiform  or  triangular  crystalline  shape. 
Such  crystalhnc  plastids  occur  in  nuny  fruits  and  flowers  (e.g. 
Tamus  communis,  Asbaragus,  Lonicera,  berries  of  Solaneae,  flowers 
of  Cacalia  coccinea,  Tropaeolum,  bracts  of  Strelitzia,  &c.),  and  in  the 
root  of  the  carrot.  In  some  cases  the  plastid  disappears  and  the  • 
crystalline  pigment  only  is  left.  In  the  red  variety  of  Cucurbita 
pepo  these  crystals  may  consist  of  rods,  thin  plates,  flat  ribbons 
or  spirals.  Starch  grains  may  often  be  seen  in  contact  with  the 
pigment  crystals.  The  crystalline  form  appears  to  be  due  entirely 
to  the  carotin,  which  can  be  artificially  crystallized  from  an  alcohol 
or  ether  solution.  In  addition  to  the  plastids,  there  arc  found  in 
some  plant-cells,  e.g.  in  the  epidermal  cells  of  the  leaf  of  species  of 
Vanilla  (Wakkcr),  and  in  the  epidermis  of  different  parts  of  the 
flower  of  Funkia,  Omithogalumt  &c.  (Zimmcrmann),  hiehly  refrac- 
tive bodies  of  elobular  form,  daioflasts,  which  consist  oi  a  granular 
protein  cround-substanoe  contaimn^  drops  of  oil.  They  are  stained 
deep  reuin  dilute  solution  of  alkanm. 

Smbstances  contained  in  the  Prtaopiasm* — ^Starch  may  be  found 
in  the  chlorophyll  bodies  in  the  form  of  minute  granules  as  the 
first  visible  product  of  tlie  assimilation  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  it 
occurs  in  large  quantities  as  a  reserve  food  material  in  the  cells 
of  various  parts  of  plants.  It  is  highly  probable  that  starch  is 
only  produced  as  the  result  of  the  activity  of  chromatophores, 
either  in  connexion  with  chromoplasts,  chloroplostsorleucoplasts. 
Starch  exists,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  in  the  form  of  grains, 
which  are  composed  of  stratified  layers  arranged  around  a  nucleus 
or  hilum.  The  stratification,  which  may  be  concentric  or 
excentric,  appears  to  be  due  to  a  difference  in  density  of  the 
various  layers.  The  outer  layers  are  denser  than  the  inner,  the 
density  decreasing  more  or  less  uniformly  from  the  outside  layers 
to  the  centre  of  hilum.  The  outermost,  newly  formed  layer  is 
composed  of  a  more  homogeneous,  denser  substance  than  the 


inner  one,  and  can  be  distinguished  in  all  starch-grains  that  art  ia 
process  of  development.  The  separate  layers  of  the  starch-gniio 
are  deposited  on  it  by  the  activity  of  the  chiomatopborc,  and 
according  to  Meyer  the  grain  is  always  surrounded  by  a  thia  layer 
of  the  dhxomatophore  which  completely  separates  it  from  the 
cytoplasm.  The  layers  appear  to  be  made  up  of  elements  vbkb 
are  arranged  radially.  These  are,  according  to  Meyer,  acioilar 
crystals,  which  be  calls  trickiia.  The  starch  grain  may  thus  be 
regarded  as  a  crystalline  structure  of  the  nature  of  a  ^r^ 
crystal,  as  has  htca  suggested  by  many  observers. 

Whether  the  formation  of  the  starch  grain  is  due  to  a  seaciico 
from  the  plastid  (Meyer,  1895)  or  to  a  direct  transformation  ci 
the  proteid  of  the  pkstid  (Umberlake,  xgox)  has  not  been  definitely 
established. 

Aleurone. — Aleurone  is  a  protdd  substance  which  occurs  in  xcds 
especialljr  those  containing  oil,  in  the  form  of  minute  granuk^  w 
large  grains.  It  may  be  in  the  form  of  an  albumen  crysul  iamt- 
times  associated  wiin  a  more  or  less  spherical  body — globoid— rca- 
posed  of  a  combination  of  an  organic  substance  wtth  a  double  pKo$- 

f>hate  of  magnenum  and  calcium.    Albumen  crystals  are  also  10  be 
ound  m  the  cytoplasm,  in  leucoplasts  and  rarely  in  the  nucleus. 

Clycoien^  a  subsunce  related  to  starch  and  su^r,  is  found  in 
the  Fungi  and  Cyanophyccac  as  a  food  reserve.  1 1  gives  a  charactn- 
istic  tea-brown  region  with  iodine  solution.  In  the  yeast  cell  it 
accumulates  and  disappears  very  rapidly  accoctling  to  the  Gondiiicm 
of  nutrition  and  is  sometimes  so  abundant  as  to  fill  the  cell  atm»t 
entirely  (Errera,  1883,  1895:  Wager  and  Peniston,  1910). 

Volutin  occurs  in  the  cytoplasm  of  various  Fungi,  Bacteria,  C)^«>- 
phyceae,  diatoms,  Stc.,  m  the  form  <A  minute  granules  whkh  ha\t 
a  characteristic  reaction  towards  methylene  blue  (Me>'er).  1( 
appears  to  have  some  of  the  characteristics  of  nucleic  add,  and  accud- 
ing  to  Meyer  may  be  a  combination  of  nucleic  add  with  an  uaksdti 
orranic  base. 

Numerous  other  substances  are  also  found  In  the  cytof^so. 
such  as  tannin,  fats  and  oil,  resins,  mucilaoe.  caoutchouc,  gctu- 
percha,  sulphur  and  calcium  oxalate  crystals.  The  cell  sap  cor- 
tains  various  substances  in  solution  such  as  sugars,  inulin.  allcab^k 
glucosides,  organic  acids  and  various  inorganic  salts.  The  coHi 
of  flowers  are  due  to  colouring  matters  contained  in  the  sap  o(  ihicH 
the  chief  is  anthocyaoin. 

Reference  must  also  be  made  here  to  the  enzymes  or  unorganb'^ 
ferments  which  occur  so  largely  in  the  cytoplasm.  It  is  ptolbiVe 
that  most,  if  not  all,  the  mctaoolic  changes  which  take  piart  in  i 
cell,  such  as  the  transformation  of  starch,  protcids.  sugar,  ccUi:l«^ 
and  the  decomposition  of  aumeroua  other  organic  subsucrc^ 
which  would  otherwise  require  a  high  tempemture  or  po*t^'-i 
reagents  is  also  due  to  their  activity.  Their  mode  of  action  u  iam:ut 
to  that  of  ordinary  mechanical  catalytic  asents,  such  as  fiv't 
divided  platinum  (see  Bayliss,  The  Nature  of  Enayme  Actwi,  asd 
J.  R.  Green,  The  Soluble  Ferments), 

The  Nucleus. — The  nucleus  has  been  demonstrated  in  aB 
plants  with  the  exception  of  the  Cyanopbyceae  and  Baciena,  M 
even  here  structures  have  been  observed  which  resemble  nycio 
in  some  of  their  characteristics.  The  nucleus  is  regarded  is  a 
controlling  centre  of  cdl-activity,  upon  which  the  growth  aad 
devdopment  of  the  cdl  m  large  measure  depends,  and  as  \^ 
agent  by  which  the  transmission  of  specific  qualities  from  ere 
generation  to  another  is  brought  about.  If  it  is  absent,  the  i-ei* 
loses  its  power  of  assimilation  and  growth,  and  soon  dies.  Haber- 
landt  has  shown  that  in  plant  ceUb,  when  any  new  formatioQ  c( 
membrane  is  to  take  place  in  a  given  spot,  the  nucleus  is  fouLd  .1 
its  immediate  vicinity;  and  Klcbs  found  that  only  that  por'vjc* 
of  the  protoplasm  of  a  cell  which  contains  the  nucleus  is  capab.e 
of  forming  a  cell^wall;  whilst  Townsend  has  further  shown  th:^ 
if -the  non-nudeated  mass  is  connected  by  strands  of  protcplip 
to  the  nucleated  mass,  dther  of  the  same  cell  or  of  a  neighbouiiaf 
cell,  it  retains  the  power  of  forming  a  ceU-membrane. 

The  Structure  of  the  Nueleus.^-^ln  the  livhig  condition  the  rest- 
ing nudeus  appears  to  consist  of  a  homogeneous  ground  sub- 
stance containing  a  large  number  of  small  chromatin  granule  a-' - 
one  or  more  large  spherical  granules— nudeoU--the  whole  bdsf 
suzxounded  bV  a  limiting  membrane  which  sepaxmtes  it  iron  tJK 
cytoplasm.  When  fixed  and  stained  this  giBaular  maas  b 
resolved  into  a  more  or  less  distinct  granular  network  whick 
consists  of  a  substance  called  Lmm,  only  slightly  stained  by  tk 
ordinary  nudear  stains,  and,  embedded  in  it,  a  moct  decpi; 
stainable  substance  called  Chromoliu.  The  nudcohis  appcsn  to 
form  a  part  of  the  Linin  network,  but  has  usually  also  a  stracf 
afiinlty  for  nuclear  stains.    The  staining  reactions  of  the  vsrio* 


7*7 


n>  of  ihc  oudni*  dcpeod  to  iotm  cn«t  upon  their  choniol 
latimtiDn,  The  cbtomtiin  is  practicEiUy  idrDiicel  wiih 
^ciD.  This  has  a  llrang  ettracLioD  for  buic  Aniline  dyes,  and 
t  usualJy  be  dislinguished  from  other  parts  oE  the  cell  which  ue 
re  easUy  coloured  by  acid  aaJLines.  But  the  staiiunE  reactions 
nuclei  may  vary  at  different  stages  of  theii  devebpme^it; 
i  it  is  piobable  that  there  is  no  method  ol  sijuning  nhlch 


tuenU  oi  the  nuclei 
Our  knowledge  ol 
KMitl  ajuTa  l™i" 


n,  Flou,  MiHcber 


(America',  [be 


ontaiiuflg  phoaphonis  a' 


It  walk  of  Schmiedebai  udSleiulel 


Ivar  Bang  fSwcden)  and  Waller  Jon 


ordiSerc 


c  of  o 


:  and  a  heioae  carbahydnlE,  the  identity  o(  which 

;y  ol  plant-nuclei,  both  in  tli 

is  found,  in  addition  to  tli 

.  ^    stained   spherical   or  alight) 

>  a  homogeneous  body  with  no  visible  aiiurtui 

The  special  funclion  of  this  organ  has  been 

veny  during  Ih*  past  tew  years,  and  mue 

ExisLa  as  to  ita.^ue  nature.    It  forma  a  part  c 


tmpccgnattd  with  vatyiug  quantiliei  of  cl 
uM  in  the  foimaliDn  of  ihe  chcomtnair 
(Ciiviiia.  The  relation  of  Ihe  nudeotus 
dearly  lecn  in  Ihe  r«oiutni«ioo  of  the  daughler  nude 
division  in  I  be  edit  of  ibe  root-apoc  of  fJrauaJu  (fig.  i,  A 
The  chtoraosomea  (fig.  i.  A)  unite  (o  form  an  irreguLii 
(fig.  I,  B)  out  of  which  is  evolved  the  nucleolus  and  nucle: 
■oili  (figs.  I,  E,  F)  by  a  fusion  oi  the  diromosofMi  (fig.  i, 

granule  Found  in  the  cyioptasin  o(  some  celli  hi  the  neighboui 
hood  of  the  tLudeus.    It  K  generally  aurrounded  by  a  graiuild 


.  tad  other  Dudear 
the  chromosomes  is 


:,D), 


bos  been  demonsL  rated  L 
In  the  higher  plants  the 

lo  allow  of  Ibis  inlerprelat 
of  ibem  are  probably  not 


the  Thallophytes 


on  being  ptacedupon  them,  and  many 
hing  more  than  granules  of  the  frag- 
cntrosomes  in  plants  do  not  appear 
the  cell.  They  ore  prominent  during 
ippear  in  the  resting  stage.    They  are 


which  Ibc  radiating  fibin  in  ihr  cytopUam  converge  (see  b 
J,  E  G).  The  ceolrosom*  or  cenlrospherc  is  usiully  regarded  i 
the  dynamic  centre  of  ihe  cell  and  a  special  organ  of  diviuoi 
but  its  absence  in  many  groups  of  planu  does  not  lend  support  1 


Hiular  Ditis 


—The  f( 


xlbyor 
ol  tne  nucleus,  in  muii(nucltal< 
nucleus  is  <ndei>endcnt  ot  the  di 

accompanied  by  a  series  of  compti 

place  by  dmple  direct  diviaion, 

foniterty  soppcied  to  be  Ihe  cue. 


lai  is  to  aay  It  may  either  b< 
ated  changes  in  the  nudeai 
Kjii  (fig.  0.  or  it  may  taki 
imiUiii,  or  tragmenlalbn 


t  may  also  take  phuz  where  rafdd  [HuUfentfon  ol  the  cc 
oing  on,  aa  in  the  budding  of  the  Yeast  plant.  It  takes  [ 
a  the  intemodal  cells  of  Cbaraceae;  in  the  old  ioteniodal  eel 


Traducatiliii;  ■ 
power  of  divisii 


It  baa 


Qudci  of  Fhasialai- 
which  h 


d  when  they  arc  placed  again 

.is  is  probably  connected  by  ■ 

nth  karyokinesis. 

ilileaii.— In  indirect  nudear  division  the  nucleus  undergoes 

a  scries  of  complicated  charigts,  which  result  in  an  eiiual  division 

ol  the  chromatic  substance  between  Ihe  two  daughter  nndd. 

Four  stages  can  be  recogniied.    (r)  A^^Aoie.— The  nudeui 

thread  takes  its  place  (fig.  a,  B).  The  chromatin  substance 
increases  in  amount ;  the  thread  stains  more  deeply,  and  in  most 
cases  presenls  a  homogeneous  appearance.  This  is  commonly 
called  Ihe  spu-cn-figure.    The  chromatin  thread  neit  becomes 


ryinnuir 


nuclear  membrjne  c 


the  plane  of  I 
figure  Ihere  c 
cytoplasm,  a 


miber  of  sr 

:rent  ^Kcies 

»  (fig.  2,  C,  D).    Coin 


.rB»Kj-»hich 
uilhe 


re  fairly  CO 


— The  chromeaomcs 


768 


■piiidle-Gbm  in  audi  a  my  that  tliey  foim  t  radiiling  aai- 
ibtpfi  fijure— ^ifci^-whtn  s«n  from  the  pole  ol  Ihe  Jpindle. 
Tb>>  uoUed  the  nucl»r  plate  (fig.  i,E,F,G.H).  Aatbeypiss 
into  tbis  poulion  they  uniletgo  1  kngitudinil  apliiting  by  which 
ihe  chroBUthi  hi  each  thromnjome  brtomes  divided  into  equal 


aotonia 

iscompl 

led  by  the  lime  they 

iBve  t 

ken 

poBiion  in  (he  nuc 

eac  plate,  and 

he  ha1v« 

chroR 

Ihen  bcgi 

dong  the  spi 

dle-fibret 

osite 

Ihe  ipin 

Ic  (fig.  , 

I,])-     M«y 

hold 

Ibech™ 

re  pulled  apa 

t  by  the 

Gbraia 

which  Ihe 

f  are  a.uched 

(l)  rrf 

phase 

-Wh 

reach  th 

poln  the 

luetve 

agaii 

l«ni  of 

inr»-Oi 

rkr-wilh  jp 

die-fibre,  exten 

ding 

llicni(Gg 

2,  K), 

use  I 

(!Cth 

tofocm. 

[ingle  th 

ead(fig.  i.L), 

unudeolu.  appear,,  a 

d,  and  daugbl 

,  uudci 

which  poucu  tilt  some  struct  uri 

ngre 

mother  0 

TbeecH 

■ssa 

i>  prabahly  <h 

e.pre«o 

noCfcittelw 

?_'."£'? 

t  the  pgrpoK  qI  aii«ng 

thendndle-GbiHbeinE  comparable  to  the Tinnol  loieeina  rnatnelis 
GcM  and  pouIUy  due  to  eleclrkal  diflenncei  in  the  cell.  The  >pindle 
arliei  partly  from  the  cytoplasm,  partly  from  Ihe  nuclcut,  or  il  may 
be  derived  entirety  from  Ihe  nudcui— intra  nuckar  ipindle— at 
occurs  in  many  o(  the  lover  plant!  (Fungi.  Sc.}.  The  formation  of 
the  ss^ndlc  begini  in  the  prophaan  al  diviuon.    A  layer  of  deliWe 

or  at  ill  piJca,  oat  of  which  the  apindle  ii  forrud.  Ai  divison 
proceeds,  the  Alamenloiu  nature  of  thii  eytoplaim  becomes  more 
prominent  and  the  threads  begin  dlhcr  to  converge  tovards  the 
poles  of  the  nucleus,  lo  form  a  bipolar  spindle,  or  may  converge 


»fcaks  down,  and  the  cyto 
;  s|diid1e  diflen  in  deiaili 


The  significance  of  this  complex  secies  ol  changes  is  very 
largely  hypolbclicat.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  an  equal 
quanliuiive  division  and  disliibuiion  of  the  chromalin  lo  the 
daughter  cells  ii  brought  about;  and  if,  as  bu  been  suggested, 


the  chromatin  consL 

IS  ol  minute  panicles 

or  units  w 

ich  are 

reditaly  characteristics 

the  nuclear 

»!so  probably  raults 

n  the  equal  division  an 

ddistributio 

nofoM 

half  ol  each  oI1he» 

units  10  each  daughter 

cell. 

Rtduclion    Diiisie 

I   (Meiosis).— The   d 

place  leading  lo  the  f 

cmalionoftheaciualc 

llsshowar< 

in  the  number  of  ch 

-ceisary 

sion  of  two  nuclei  in  Ic 

ilialion,u 

less  the 

be  doubled  at  each 

vascular  cryptogams 

and  phanerogams  il  lak 

es  pkcE  in  the  spore 

mother  cclU  and  the 

reduced  number  is  foui 

d  in  all  the 

cells  of 

e  full  number  in  those 

of  the  spo 

■ophyte. 

We  know  very  hitleo 

the  del  ails  olreduclio 

inlhelowe 

ptanU, 

b«  h  proba.ly  ocn, 

rs  at  some  stage  in  th 

life  hitory  of  aU 

plants  in  which  ihu 

al  nuclear  fusion  takes 

place.    Th 

itduc- 

tinn  is  bmught  abou 

simply  by  the  scgmen 

alion  of  th 

thread  into  baU  the 

lead  of  the 

number.    In  order  to 

effect  this  the  individual  chromosoir 

Kisraust 

luclei.     Tlie  tu 


rcduci 


in  the  division  which 
I  of  Ihe  s 


3  place, 


LS  Hdtmlypc  and  Hemolyfi  (Flemming),  or  according  lo 
Ihe  lerminokigy  of  Farmer  and  Moore  (1903)  as  the  wtMk  pluie. 
In  Ihe  heterolype  division  Ihe  spiren  thread  is  divided  longi- 
ludinally  before  the  segmentation  occurs  (fig.  1,  B),  and  this 
is  preceded  hy  a  peculiar  contraction  of  Ihe  thread  around  Ihe 
nucleolus  whidi  has  been  termed  rynofrir  (Eg.  1,  A).  A  second 
conlraction  may  take  place  later,  immediately  preceding  the 
segmenlalion  of  the  thread.  II  has  been  suggested  that  synapsis 
nuiy  be  connected  wiih  Ibe  early  longitudinal  splitting  of  the 
thread,  oc  with  Ihe  pairing  of  the  chromosoDcs,  but  ii  Is  ponible 


that  it  may  be  connected  with  (he  tiaodeiena  ol  noife 
vubstance  to  the  nuclear  thread.  The  segments  of  cad  duv 
some  are  usuaUy  twisted  upon  each  other  and  may  be  di 
contorted  (fig.  1,  C.  D}.  and  appearances  are  observed  ■( 
suggest  a  second  longitudinal  division,  but  which  are  n 


nL  by  which  th_. 
IS  parallel  to  eadi  other,  and  form  vinuiilr 
snapeo  ngures  01  greater  or  less  regularity  (fig-  r,  E).  "^ 
cbrofDosomes  now  become  attached  10  the  ipindle-fibns  (4 
j,  F,  C)  and  u  the  daughter  chromosomes  bccomi  . 
they  of  leu  appear  more  or  less  V-shaped  so  that  each  pair  ippBis 
as  a  closed  ring  of  irregular  shape,  the  ends  of  the  V's  bett  * 
contact  lhui-<>  (fig.  s,  H,  I.  J,  K).     Iliis   V  has  IMS 

scnts  a  limtilidiiiai  half  of  the  original  segment  of  the  ipiieiK 
others  thai  it  is  a  hall  of  the  segment  produced  by  Iraars 
division  by  means  of  which  a  true  qualiialive  separatino  f^  ^ 
cbromalin  is  brought  about-  Tbe  problem  is  a  very  difficJ 
one  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  definitely  settled,  but  it  i>  <li&n> 
to  undentand  vhy  all  this  additional  complcdly  in  the  dr 
of  the  nucleus  should  be  necessary  if  ibe  fioil  remit  it  " 
quantUalin  separation  of  the  chromatin.  It  seenu  to  be 
well  established  th     '     '         *    '     '         " 


I  hy  tl 


g  of  t 


CYTOLOCYl  FLA 

chramouinn  to  tht  diughtcr  ancld.  Thenutbod  b;*Uditlus 
ja  brought  ibout  Lb,  boweveii  the  subject  of  much  comrovmy. 
There  in  two  quid  tbcoric*:  (i)  that  the  chnnnosiinH  which 
finally  Kpinle  an  M  Cut  palled  liile  by  lide  (AUcd,  Grfginre, 
Bccghs,  Suatbuigei  and  oihen),  and  (i)  that  they  an  joioed 
together  or  paired  end  to  end  [Farmer  and  Mooie.  Gregory, 
Mottier  and  others).  Good  cytological  evidence  has  been  ad- 
duced in  favour  of  both  thcoricj,  but  further  investigation  is 
necessary  before  any  definite  cnnclusion  can  be  arrived  at.  The 
•econd  or  bomoiype  divition  which  immediately  lollovrt  nverli 
10  the  nomial  type  eicept  that  the  already  split  chiomosomcs  at 
once  keparaie  to  form  the  daughter  nuclei  without  the  intervene 
'    lion  of  a  resting  slage- 

Cdi  Diasun. — With  the  etceptton  n[  a  few  plants  unong 
the  ThaUophytci,  tilth  coniist  of  a  sin^e  multinudeate  cell. 
Canlirfa,  Vancitria,  &c..  the  division  of  the  nucleus  i*  followed 
by  (he  division  of  the  cell  either  at  once,  in  uninucleate  celli,  or 
after  a  certain  number  of  nuclear  divisions,  in  multinucleate 
cells.  This  may  take  place  in  various  uraya.  In  the  higher 
{dants,  ailer  the  sepinlion  oi  the  diughlei  nuclei,  minule 
gnniiUr  awellings  appear,  in  the  equatorial  re^on,  on  the 
connecting  fibres  which  still  persist  between  the  two  nvdd,  lo 
form  what  is  called  the  cell-pUle.  These  [use  logelher  la  form  a 
membrane  (&g.  i,  C,  D{  which  splits  Into  two  layers  between 

lich  the  new  cell-wall  is  laid  down.    In  the  Thallophytes  the 


ln-growi!i  of 
and  CJuld^t 

the  qnrei  in 

In  a  few  ci 
which  the  foi 
new  cells  ar 
cylopiasm  ii 
rest  of  tbe  i 
free  cell  form 

In  Fu. 


w  ceU  waU  from  tbe  old  oi 


y  the  aggregation  of  p 


I  in  Spirit?"' 
le  furrows  in 

ig  lalui  place 


ideidi 


^yloplasi 


Cdt  ifmVam.— The  membra 


!  which  sunounds  the  proto- 
pically  cDsposcd  of  cellulose, 
hstancea  which  are  known  as 
pectic  compounds.  Some  of  these  hay*  a  neutral  reaction, 
others  react  as  feeble  adds.  They  can  be  dittinguished  by  their 
insolubilily  in  cupiammania,  which  disserves  ccllulou,  and  by 
their  bebivleui  towards  suins,  some  of  which  stain  pectic 

italm.  pectic  substances  for  basic  stgiu.  The  cell-membrane 
may  become  modiGcd  by  the  process  of  ligcificaiion,  suberlu- 
lion,  cuticulariiation  or  gelaliniiation.  In  the  Fungi  it  is 
usually  composed  of  a  modi£ed  form  of  cellulose  known  as 
fungui  cellulose,  which,  accoiding  to  Mangb,  consbts  of  callose 
fo  combination  either  with  celluloM  or  pectie  compounds.  The 
growth  oCtbe  cell-wall  takes  place  by  the  addition  of  new  layers 
to  those  alresdy  formed.  These  layers  an  secreted  by  tbe 
protoplum  by  the  direct  apposition  ol  substance*  on  lh»c 
already  in  existence  land  they  may  go  on  Increating  inlUckaess, 
both  by  appotition  aiul  by  the  lotussuiception  of  particles 
probably  carried  in  thiou^  tbe  protoplatmic  fibres,  which 
penetrate  tbe  cell-wall  as  long  as  the  cell  lives-  The  growth  of 
the  cell-wall  u  very  rarely  uniform.  It  Is  thickened  more  in 
aome  placa  than  in  others,  and  thus  are  formed  the  spiral, 
annular  and  other  markings,  as  well  as  tbe  pits  which  occur  on 
Tuious  cells  and  vesaels.  Besides  the  intenud  oc  ccnliipetal 
growth,  some  cell-willi  an  thickened  on  the  outside,  loch  as 
poUen  grains,  oospores  of  Fungi,  cells  of  PeiiArieae,  tic  This 
centrifugal  growth  must  sppatently  take  place  by  the  activity 
of  proloplism  external  10  the  cell-  The  outer  piatective  walls 
of  the  oospores  of  some  Fungi  arc  formed  out  of  protoplasm 
containing  numerous  puclei,  which  is  at  an  eaity  stage  sepai- 
aled  Eron  iht  pfotoplaun  of  the  oospore.    In  the  Peridineae, 


NTS  769 

Diatoms  and  DeuDids.accordingto  recent  reuirebes,  thethick- 

protoplasm  from  the  inteiiot  of  the  cell  to  the  outside,  Ihiough 
pBTd  which  an  found  perforating  tbe  wall  on  all  aides. 
Cell-wBlls  may  become  modified  by  the  impregnatioii  of  various 

compounds  which  are  imperfectly  known.  Lignified  tiswes  are 
coloured  yellow  by  aniline  wilphale  or  aniline  cMoride,  vtokt  with 
phloroglucm  and  hydraehloik  acid,  and  chancleriitic  naeiion 
are  alB  given  by  m&ituiH  eonuining  phenol.  indoL  skatol.  thallia, 
•ulpliate,  ftc.  (set  Zunmetmann  •  MitnUthniaiit),  Staining  Teiwntt 
alio,be^uscd  to  difierenliat*  lignified  ccU-walk.    CutKubritcd 

e  function.    Theyue  impervioui  la  water  and 

— I J  -^j  -jbcrised  membranes  arc  inuluble 

■H  yellow  or  broun  in  a  wluiion 
tjje  that  Iht  corky  or  suberiied 

bcir  outer  layers,  cellulote  Inner 
-AC  luberiiea  and  cuticulDTiced 
fatly  body  called     ■     ' 


comiJet 

aeiual  diSereni 

"-cpp™ 

of  the 

trm  nuclei  in  the 

atioTthi 

egg-cell  is  quies 

egg-ceU. 

cent;  the  male  cell  may 

«  motile  or  n 

1c     In 

he  Fungi  the  non-motile 

leusls 

arried 

by  means 

of  a  fertilizing  tube  act 

ally  into  the 

fnterio 

of  th 

cgg-ceU, 

and  Is  ntruded  through  the  apei  in  dose  pioi 

mity 

0  the  eeg 

nucleus- 

In  the  Floride 

t.  Lichens  a 

male  ce 

spcrmalium 

which 

scam 

emale  0 

rgan  by  moveme 

Mrtkari,, 

one  oft 

e  lower  Fungi,  in 

some  Algae, 

in  the 

ascula 

1  Cryplo- 

grams,  i 

Cycads  (Zsnii 

indC)«oi),andinCi 

>i*!0.a 

n  isolated 

genus  0 

Gymnosperms. 

he  male  ceU 

simo 

with  two  or  mare  cilia. 

In  the  Algae 

such 

a  Fwa 

J,  VriTiFI, 

0.d.g»- 

KM,  B<dh6chBae 

and  In  (he 

Fungu 

M.n 

Ihespe 

all  oval  or 

elongat 

cell 

onlaining 

cytoplasm  and  St 

tidt     I 

n  tbe  Characeae, 

he  Vase 

dC«o 

.and 

n  Ci^H'. 

helper 

te  01  less  hichlv  modlBed 

cells  wilb 

two  or  moK  dUa,  and  leseodile  in  mai^  respects,  botb  iti  iheir 

ilnicturc  ud  mode  of  loTmitlan,  il 
In  Chancoe  «od  Mmcineie  ihcjr 
aod  consiit  ol  an  elongale  deiuc  nui 


S  [CVTOLOGT 

.    Kith  nucltar  Ihmd.  and  nudeolu*  with  nucltalui— k  cob- 

,     plclcly  thit  the  upinK  cooitltuenti  of  thr  nucin  arc  dm 

vinble.     It  -was  at  one  time  thought  that  Lhc  centtofioma 

played  an   LmpoTlBnt  part  in  the  lertiliaation  of  plants,  but 

I  rcxirchu  aeesn  to  iiuUcite  that  thii  is  doi  lo.     E^-cb 

nc  aaa  (then  the  dlia  band,  whicb  it  the  pioducl  ol  Ibc 

Homt-like  body  or  l'     '         ' 


a  large  n 


tins  attached 
:  number  oj 


u  oi  ten 


in  the/ 


of  Ibe 
Cuicnard 


Ibe  cytopiumi 

poition  ol  the  jpiral.    In 

Zunia  {fig.  4.  A),  Cy(« 

\  ccUs  with  a  coiled  bind 


llitheceU.  They 


Ihrough  1  small  quantity 

_j^  mopherc.    In  the  olhei 

Fig.  4.— Speimatoioid  and  Fertiliza-     Pl-uieragsnu   If"   m^ 

by  means  of  a  pollen  lube.  In  the  spennaloioidi  of  Cham, 
Vascular  Ctyplogsmi,  and  in  those  olCyiai,  Zamia  and  Giiiigo. 
the  cilia  arise  ttom  a  cenltosomc-like  body  whicb  is  found  on  one 
tide  of  the  nucleus  o[  the  ipermatoioid  molhet-cell.  This  body 
has  been  called  a  tJiphatepliul,  and  in  the  Fleridophytes,  Cycads 

(oioied.  BelajeS  regards  it  as  a  true  centiosonic;  but  Ibis  is 
doubtful,  for  while  in  some  cases  it  appeals  10  be  connected  with 

laifling  a  ungle  luge  nucleus, 
Its  oi  pbtlids.  In  plants  with 
r,  Pocnuipata  and  Vautiiria, 
Serenlialed  by  separa 

mullinudeale,  and  In  Spkatrtfltt  it  may  contain  mot 
one  nucleus.    In  some  cases  Ibe  region  where  the  pent 
ol  the  male  organ  lakes  place  is  indicated  on  the  oosphe 
hyaline  receptive   spot   <Oedg{iinJHiii,  I'aiuAeria,  liL.), 
a  receptive  piinlli  consisling  of  hyaline  cytoplasm  (Peiona- 
sporeae},     Fertiliiaiion  is  eBecIed  by  lhc  union  of  two  nuclei 
in  ijl  those  cases  whith  have   been  eaiefuUy  investigated. 
Even  ia  the  multinucleate  oosphcie  of  AHmgi  blUi  the  nuclei 
fuse  in  pain;  and  in  Ibe  ooipbercs  of  Sfkaaafka,  which  may 
contain  mom  than  one  nucleus,  the  egg  nucleus  is  formed  by  the 
fusion  of  one  only  of  tbae  with   the  spermata    ' 


it  has  been  sbnwn  by  the 

embryo  sac,  one  fusing  with  the  oosphere  nucleus^  the  other  with 
the  polar  nucln  (Gg.  j.  A,  B ).  A  double  (eitiliation  thus  taha 
place.  Both  nuclei  are  elongated  vermiform  itiuclan^  and  as 
they  enter  the  embryo  sac  present  a  twisted  a^^warancr  like  a 
spermatouid  without  cilia  (fig.  3,  A,fi),  It  has  since  been  sbo*i 
by  other  observers  that  ibji  double  leililiution  occurs  in  many 
Dthec  Angiospeims,  both  Dicotyledons  and  Monocotyicdons,  » 
that  it  is  probably  of  general  occuirince  Ibioughout  the  gnup 
(see  ANCiosraaiis). 

The  Hutitui  ia  Kdalim  It  HeriJily.—Tbat  'a  ■  ceitiia 
imounl  of  cytologicil  evidence  to  show  that  the  nucltns  it 
largely  concerned  with  tbe  transmission  of  hereditary  cbataclert 
WbetbcT  this  is  entirely  confined  to  tbe  nucleus  is,  bovri-er,  ddi 
ceitain-  The  strongest  direct  evidence  seems  lo  be  thai  ibr 
nuclear  substances  are  tbe  only  puts  o(  Ihe  ceOa  which  an 
always  equivalent  in  quantity,  and  that  in  tbe  higher  plinis 
and  animals  the  male  organ  or  speimato&Hd  is  composed  alaxat 
entirely  of  tbe  nucleus,  and  that  tbe  male  nucleus  is  csmied  ono 
the  female  cell  without  a  panidc  of  cytoplasm.' 

Sina,  however,  the  nucleus  of  the  female  cell  is  alnn 
accompanied  by  a  lirger  or  smaller  quantity  of  cylopUsm,  sal 
that  in  a  large  majorilyof  the  power  plants  and  animals  the  auk 
cell  also  contains  cytophum.  it  cannot  yet  be  definitely  staled 
that  the  cytoplasm  does  not  play  some  part  in  the  pnccs.  0> 
Ibc  other  hand,  the  complex  structure  of  the  nuclna  with  ia 
separate  units,  Ihe  cbmmcaomea.  and  possibly  even  smaller 
units  represented  by  the  chromatin  granules,  and  Ibe  ma^ 
taken  thiough  the  complei  phenomeoi  ol  mitosis  to  ensurt  Ihal 
ID  exact  and  equal  division  of  the  chiomosomei  shall  lake  place. 
emphasius  the  inponance  of  the  nucleus  in  heredity.     Funhn. 

chancicrs  in   hybrids  » 


n  by  whic 


lich  are  due  apparently  u 


■e  higher  Fuul 
basidia  or  asci  which  invdve  tbe  unii 
which  may  be  regarded  as  physlologi 
fusion.    Tbe  union  of  the  germ  nuci 

Mosses,  Algae  and  Fungi,  and  presc 
u  all.  In  neatly  aU  cases  the  nut 
resting  ilige  (fig.  j.  C).  In 
nucleus  penetrates  Ihe  female 
(Blickman.  Ikeno).  In  other 
selves  aide  by  side,  the  nui 
disappein.  and  the  contents 


ir  fusi 


•0  (fig.  T.  A)  n, 


diflei  in  siae  from  the  atbeis.  These  difieteoce*  indicate  s 
separation  of  different  elernents  in  the  formation  cd  Ibe  cfamofr 
somes  and  have  been  definitely  associated  with  the  dMennisatiia 
of  sea-  It  is  possible,  however,  thai  the  fcgregalfoii  of  charac- 
teta  in  the  gametes  may  depend  upon  something  tar  dbr  wbtk 
and  elusive  than  the  chiomcsomes  or  even  ol  possible  conbisa- 
lions  of  unili  irithin  the  chromosomes,  but  so  lar  as  we  can  sr 
at  present  these  are  the  only  slmciurcs  In  the  cell  with  wUck 
it  can  be  sitislactoiily  associated.  Boveii  in  tact  hai  pgi 
forward  the  view  that  the  chromosomes  ait  elementary  naiti 
which  maintain  an  organic  continuity  and  independent  existeu 
In.  the  celt.  The  cylological  evideoc«  for  this  appears  to  be  made 
sicoDgec  for  animal   ihan  lor  plant   cells.     Fmn   noDeroB 

through  the  various  stages  of  tbe  nuclear  ontogeny  of  plant  cdtL 
it  appears  that  tbe  individuality  and  conlinuily  of  ibe  Amaa- 
hie  ii  we  sssumc  ihe  esii- 
[thing  like  cbroi 


b«D  developed  tor  the  r 
tnpanie  lo  light,  gravity  md 
knonledce  of  ih^  itnictuiu . 


pmiKiion..   1 
er  Dnneo:  (i 


ilivfl  pBpilUe1< 
d  (3)  ■-■■■- 


pmoplum. 
Retponie  Eo  the  Action  ot  jnvity  apwAfs  to  be  anociai 

which  pmfure  is  Hertcd  on  i1i«  cyroplum  aod  a  nimuLu 
whtch  mullt  in  the  fitolropic  feiponw- 

Thi  TciponK  lo  Ihe  Mtion  ol  lishl  ir  -■' '-  ' '-   - 

to  Hitwrdndl.  due  to  thr  pmnm 
tliaped  like  a  km,  or  wiih  itna-sliap 

bauf  wails  of  I  be  ef^dermii  celli,  by  *hii;' 
in  Ehe  orieafalion  ol  the  ieaf  a  l>roughl  alwi 


■'fis:; 


it  l>rougbl  about.    Fig.  5,  A 


,  ErMtrnal  • 


»../«( 


in  the  bual  Wilis  ol  It 


aaphotoRTaph 


convrreence  of  the  light  to  a  bnght  fpot 
epidermal celii of  Jaii/raHjtiriWiiin  andfit.;.! 
ukrn  f  torn  ii[t  Ihmigb  the  epidninat  nU>  M  1 
III.    NMwhhHaadiH  lbs  fact,  howenr.thM  thcw  cella  an  capable 
d1  acting  aa  very  efflcieni  knica  the  car^anation  pvva  by  Kaber- 
Landt  has  not  beei  widHy  accepted  and  evidence  both  piorpnokigical 
and  phycioiopeal  liaa  hm  hnni^fai  forwacd  aB^imt  i1. 
The  preieneeo'  ."-"•-.""  in  ■—■■-  -«.ii.  ..-i~ii..I.»  Ain.  •■d 

hollow  ol  the  red  pi(meni-.pol  ((f.  *>i«|d  i«  h 
the  rods  and  conei  of  the  animal  eye  witn  thci  | 
'e  granule  and  bcinf    1 


SK.Si 

Tkt  JVkJ 


dy 


le  love  Ph<il!,~1l  I>  onl  n  CODipa 
recent  limn  Ibal  il  has  been  ponible  lo  determ  w  h  an 
itgrce  ot  certainty  that  the  mioule  deepy  a«  nab  bodiea 
dejcribed  more  especially  by  Sthmili  (1870)  m  Algaeand 
Funtf  cmild  be  regarded  a>  true  nuclei.  The  reseaichea  of  ihe 
last  iwenly  yean  have  slwwn  that  the  ilructure  of  ihe  nudeui 
■nd  the  phenomena  of  'nuclear  divijion  in  the«  lower  lormi 
coDforms  in  atl  esenlial  details  to  thoie  in  the  highei  pUnls. 
Thus  in  Ihe  Bastdiomycets  (<ig.  ;)  the  nuclei  poiso*  all  the 

chromatin  network  and  nudeohu  (fig.  7,  B),  and  in  the  proccai 


nones,  nucleai  spindle  and 

■,  C-G).    The  invHtigalioM  of  Di 

,  Mb>  Fra»er  and  many  others  hi 


?7i 


•"^.:- 


0 


Euflfna  tlioving  the  flagellum  ' 

ol  the  eye-fipor, 

shown  that  in  (he  Aacomyce 


ups  of  plants  in  which  typical  nuclei  bav< 
the  Cynnophyccu,  Bicleria  and  Yeasi  F 


/'■ 


(Tna  Mi  4— b  ^  awn  oilL  tB.  ud  (3.) 
Fic.  ;,— Nuclei  and  Nuckar  DiviiiDn  in  Ihe  BaudioniycRe*. 

A  10  D.  Aaanilt  nauanui;  E  lo  G.  Uwcia  tf^ii^lui. 
.\.  Basidium  wiih  two  .nuclei.     B,  Hnftc  nucleus  due  to 

i»g!™D,  NikWwSS^  wiSehmnimoin.-.    -.  

Ihe  tpindle.    F.  Separation  of  Ihe  chtonwaomH  into  two 

G,  Chromo»nies  erouped  al -■-    '  "■- ""-  ■ 

Ihe  dau(hler  nudci. 


'Kiucinr  Ihrea 
E.  Chron 

the  ipindle  Eo  form 


773  rLfl 

Ib  Ihc  Cytnophycoe  the  conleati  o(  (he  ctB  an  diSenDiiiled 
into  a  ccalrat  colourLcti  re^on,  and  a  peripheral  laya  coolainins 
Ibe  chlaraph/ll  and  oLher  colouiing  mil  I  en  togelbn  iritta 
iraiiules  ol  a  leKive  lubsUnce  called  cyanaphydo.  ChionulJn 
b  conUined  iA  the  ceninl  patt  together  vriih  granuLa  knowa  aa 
volutin,  (he  function  oF  wbich  ii  unknown.  The  ceatraJ  body 
prohatJy  playi  Ibe  pjjt  of  a  nudeui  and  tome  oburven  foo^der 
that  it  haa  the  cbaracten  of  a  lypical  oudeua  with  mitotic 
diviaion.  But  tUa  ia  vecy  doubtful.  Tlie  central  body  aeema 
(0  coiuLst  merely  oi  a  aponsy  mass  of  slightly  stainable  aubslance, 
more  01  lest  impregnated  wiib  chromalin,  which  divides  by 
CDBitiicliaD.  At  a  certain  Mage  in  the  division  Gguiet  aie 
produced rcscmbtiog an  8,  ij,  whidi are iui[,  in 


Cyanophw 
iMinj.  (,i  0 


niled  thiougboul  tli 
lay  bo  regarded  as.i 
I  Hcnwig   haa  designated,   in 


In  the  yeast  cell  (he  nuclei 
granule,  probably  of  a  nucleal 
to  some  eiLenl  impregnated  by  chiomatil  am 
with  a  vacuole  which  often  bas  chroniatiD  at 
conliins  one  or  more  voluiin  granulea  which 


lied  liy  a  homogenous 
ided  and  perhaps 

[s  periphery,  and 
ippcar  to  consist 
iwn  base.  Some 
iseaies  a  (ypicai 


ibservcrs  consider  (hat  (he  yeai 
luclear  structure,  and  eihibiis 

c  foe  this  ii  not  very  uiisfaciory. 

ff . — The  component  pans  of  (he  tissues  of  which  plant; 

iposed  may  consist  of  but  slightly  modified  cells  witli 
III,  or 


J  protoptairaic 
Ed  in  various  wa. 
the  protoplasmic 


lya  to  peifo 


tubes  or 


,     IS  d  the  higher  , 

to  Ihe  ebngalion  of  single  cells  or  to  Ihe  fusion  of  cells  (i 
in  rows  by  the  aburpcion  of  (he  cell-wiUs  separating 
Such  cell-fujions  may  be  pitlial  or  complete.  Cues  of  co 
fusion  occur  in  the  formation  o(  lalidlennia  vesseb,  and 
ipiral,  annular  and  reticulate  vessels  of  the  lylem.  Inco 
fusion  occun  in  ieve  tubes.  Tubes  formed  by  the  dm 
of  an^  cells  are  found  in  but  fibres,  (TSdHJdcs,  and  et[ 


i^ii|  narencfayma-cella  hivt  been  tero- 

Apocynaccae,  Urticactae,  Asclepiadactae,  consist*  of  lof^  ti 
equivalent  to  sineLe  muUinuc  kale  cdls,  which  ratnify  in  all  f^irvi^ 

Ihrouohoul  the  Sant.    Laticileraut  vetaels  --~  '—  •■■ 

of  ocipnaUy  distinct  «lls.   Th-~ii-  — ™ 

■hich  fuH  with  othcn  of  •  111  

They  are  found  in  ih^  Composirae  (Ciritff^accof^  Camianulaccat 

Musaceae.  and  in  Eupboriiiaceae  (Wanksf,  Hrwa).    The  aula 
af  (he  oriElnal  cells  pcnist  in  the  omtoplasmic  m 
ron  ol  .cells  from  wBch  the '-■-■' ' 


TTieabiorpiiDnollhcccU'Wallstalieipiace 

fin*  Ta^i.—Tbe 
cells  the  (lansverse 

opemPC*.  (hrouEh  wbKn  ijv raucnu m  iiwcri 
each  other,  and  which  alter  a  reruua  Ume  i 
formatioa  of  callus  on  the  vevc  plates.  The 
'*--- "-inglayn'of  pniTojilai -■--■-— 1>-  i 


:.    Starch  erains  are  sometiinem  present.    In  closi 
'  with  the  Hcve  tubes  by  deUcale  proti^Usmic  am 


Fretiplaimit  Cn/umify.— Except  in  the  uoiccDuIaT  pUstl 
the  cell  is  not  an  independcDt  unit.    Apart  tram  (lieir  drpea- 
dence  in  various  ways  upon  neithbouiing  cells,  [he  protDplasts 
oi  all  plants  IK  probably  connected  (iige(her  by  £ne  atraads 
of  praloplasm  which  pass  tbrough  the  cell-wall  (Tangl,  Kuasov. 
Gardiner,  Kieniu-GerloS  and  others)        ■ 
(fig.  g).     In  Pintu  the  pieience  of       ■ 
connecting  threads  has  recently  been   "  I 
demoDstrated    thiougbout    all     the        2 
(issues  of  (he  plant.    These  proto-         I 
plasinic  strands  are,  except  in  the         I 
case  of  sieve  lubes,  to  delicate  thai         I 
special  methods  have  to  be  employed         I 
'      '  uble.     The  basis  of        I 


these 


(ofth 


U-wall  by  meant  ol 
BBC  chloride,  tftd 

mt  ttaining  with  H oflnunn's      . 

other  iniline  dyes.  The  '  ^ 
0  far  obtained  show  ihs(  the  ~^ 
ng  (breads  may  be 


ollhe 
cell-wiils    (Gg.    «,    B),    or 
threads  "  which  are  | 
wall  ol  Ihe  cell  {fig. 


■lORPHOLDGYI 


srs'j 


fi'iS 


;.ys 


(1898).  1 
npund*  . 


PLANTS 


773 


i.  M   G«(ifyTl9M),  Vaii  if  i  RoKnbHK. 


rMKiHlircIu.-  Ki>i|l.  noita  KMuto^uiteJ.  knidl.  (looq).  vol 
■liv.Salm,  "Zur  nAhtnn  Kcnnlniu  dcr  SiuktkomcT.'' PHntii. 
^■trt  llMl.Stctunl.  "TV  Fomution  ol  the  Sciuil  Nuclei  in 
f.ili>iMifvlat«,l.andll."^in.<«gf  (■S96-iS«;).voU.x.and<l.; 
"  RcocDI  Woik  on  Ihc  Hnulu  >/  FcnDiaiiw  in  Ai>cia.pma>." 
Ann.  Bj  BM.  (IWO).  vol,  liv.;  Schimjicr.  "Sur  I'Amidiin  FI  In 
Uvritn."  Ann.iri  Ht.  Ml.  (toll  (1887);  Scon,  "  Drvclopmrnlol 
Ankubni]  Utidfrmui  y™cV'  O^n.  Jmii.  Min.  S<i.  (lesi): 


ucilum."  Jotri.  in 


iJiStn^bun 


(ian>.  nL  39:  W« 


t  Hyne 


vol  Ixxil.  1  Wafer  and  PniiUDn,  "'Cytolancal  dUcrvaiTcni  on  ihc 

" ~ ilim.   «f  A*.   69'ol.^^ " 

if  (he  Anlhcrataiili  of  Za._ 
Tti  CfU  in  Dnrhpmenl  ai 
ina   LAnnon.   1900);   ZimntFrmann,  " Samnwi 
>tainin(Ict«eU  dn-  ZtllrnkliR."  5Hkfflt  turn  . 
ind    taii):     DU    UBT^clefii    M**    fljrwfaf 


■■iwn.    /.™.«(«i  (i8m).  vet  vi         

RcpTDdueiiDn  of  CyiiqpuB  nndidm^"  ^Ihii.  of  Bof. 

'"nwCdlSduclunorihc  Cyanophyciar,"  Proc.  K ,. 

vol  Ixxil.  1  Wafer  and  PmhiDn,  "Cvtolaracal  Otwrvaiicni  01 
Ycait   Ptant,"  ilin.   if  Ax.   (1910).  voTuiv  ;  Wibbrr.  '  _ 
DcvdopncDl  of  (he  Anlhcrntoidi  of  Zamia. '  Bd.  Cat.  Utm),  v 
iiiv.i  fviUon.  TU  CfU  in  Dnrhpmenl  ani  Mmunu  No  Vo 


MoiraoLocv  or  riAim 
The  Una  mtrp/itlttyi  ■bkh  nu  inlrodund  into  Ki«i«  by 
Gocihe  (iSit),  dnlgiutei,  in  the  fini  pbux.  Ihc  aludy  a(  (he 
fonn  and  coinpa>i[ion  o[  the  body  and  dI  the  [una  of  which 
the  body  may  conaiil;Kcr>iid1y,  the  relations  of  the  [urtsof  the 
U111IC  body;  Ihiidly,  the  coinpatiuii  ol  the  bodin  01  piili  of 
the  bodin  o[  pJinti  o[  didercnt  kinds;  foutlhly.  the  study  ol 
Ihc  dcvclopnicnt  oF  the  body  and  of  its  pam  (Bnlnteny);  hithly, 


1  o[  diderc 

lion  ol  the  hiUoricit  origin  and  descent  01  tne  Dody 
I  (fliytoiny),  and,  lastlypVhe  coniidnalion  of  tbe 
I  of  the  pant  ol  the  body  to  (bcic  various  lunclioiu,  ■ 
s  sr{oia;ra^y. 


It  is  this  last  department  of  moqihology  that  wai  ine  am 
10  be  pursued.  The  CBrLieal  HJenliRc  icsuLl  ol  the  study  ol 
plantt  wai  the  recognilion  of  the  fact  that  the  various  pans  of 
the  body  (re  uwcialed  with  the  pcrformann  of  dilTcrenl  kinds 
of  physiological  workj  that  they  are,  in  fact,  erpiiii  discharging 
spcdal  funclions.  Tbe  origin  ol  Ihc  organography  of  Ihc  prewnl 
day  may  be  traced  back  (o  Aristotle,  who  dtacribcd  the  parts 
ol  plants  aa  "  organs,  though  very  tiinple  ones."  It  was  not 
until  many  centuries  hod  passed  that  the  parts  began  to  be 
regarded  (ran  Ihe  point  nl  view  oi  Uieir  essential  nature  and  o( 
their  nniual  relations;  (hat  is,  BiorphologkaJly  instead  ol 
organofTaphically.  Joachim  Jung,  In  his  /Mfjjp  piylmiepiia 
(i67S),recogntied  that  the  plant-body  CO ' 


fonn  and  by  (heir  mi 
lurther  developed  in  t 
Woin    (Tlitma   una 


d  Ihcm  by  ll 


It  the  giowlng-poin 


r  they  be  lo 


He  observed  that  Ih< 

leaves,  an  developed  in  II 

leaves,  or  parts  of  tbe  fic 

"  In  the  entile  plant,  nboK  parli  ve  wonder  u  u  bei 

first  glance,  so  BiiimordinarUy  diverse.  I  finally  pci 

teeogniie  nothing  beyond  leaves  and  stem  (lor  the  ra 

regarded   aa  a  uem).    Consequenily  all   parls  o(   I 

eicepi   the   stem,   are   modilied   leaves."    SimiUi  v 

arrived  it  by  Goethe,  though  by  the 

inductive  method.  «nd  were  propoundt 

Vmw^k   Ait   Uclamapiesi   4a    Pfc 

fmm   which   the  foUowing  is  1  quol 

relationship  between  tbe  various  eit 

such  aa  (he  leaves,  the  olyi,  the  Co 

develop  one  alter  the  other  and,  as  il  were,  out  t 

has  long  been  generally  recognlied  by  invesligali 

fact  been  specially  studied,  and  the  opera'' 

and  the  same  orgi 

been  termed  Mtlamerfliasis  aj  flatus  " 

Pun  ilirfiMiiy.— Tbiu  it  became  apparent  iliat  Iba 


en  (1750)-! 


n  vartout  lornu  hai 


774 


PLANTS 


(MORPHOLOGY 


and  various  organs  of  plants  are,  lor  the  most  part,  different 
forms  of  a  small  number  of  members  of  the  body,  which  have 
been  distinguished  as  follows,  without  any  reference  to  function. 
The  thallus  (thallome)  is  a  plant-body  which  is  not  differentiated 
into  the  members  root,  stem  and  leaf;  it  is  the  morphologically 
simplest  body,  such  as  is  of  common  occurrence  in  the  lower 
plants  {e.g.  Tbaliophyta).  In  a  differentiated  body  the  stem 
(caulomc)  is  an  axis  capable  of  bearing  leaves  and  (directly  or 
indirectly)  the  proper  reproductive  organs.  The  Uaf  (phyllomc) 
is  an  appendicular  member  only  borne  by  a  stem,  but  differing 
from  it  more  or  less  obviously  in  form  and  development,  though 
co-ordinate  with  it  in  complexity  of  structure.  The  root  is  an 
axis  which  never  bears  either  leaves  or  the  proper  reproductive 
organs  (whether  sexual  or  asexual)  of  the  plant.  The  hair 
(trichome)  is  a  superficial  appendage  of  simple  structure,  which 
may  be  borne  by  any  of  the  other  members.  The  emergence 
is  also  an  appendicular  member  of  more  complex  structure 
than  the  hair  {e.g.  the  prickles  of  the  rose).  Further,  it  has 
been  found  convenient  to  designate  the  leaf-bearing  stem  as  a 
whole  by  the  term  shoet,  so  that  the  body  may,  as  Sachs 
suggested,  be  primarily  analysed  into  shoot  and  root. 

At  the  present  time  some  objection  is  being  taken  to  this 
purely  morphological  conception  of  the  body  and  its  parts  as 
being  too  abstract.  It  is  urged  that  the  various  parts  are,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  organs;  and  that  it  is  therefore  inadmissible  to 
ignore  their  functions,  as  is  done  in  the  foregoing  definitions. 
To  this  it  may  be  replied  that  pure  morphology  and  organo- 
graphy are  not  alternatives,  but  are  two  coroplementaiy  and 
equally  necessary  modes  of  considering  the  composition  of  the 
plant-body.  Moreover,  the  abstract  terms  "stem,"  "leaf," 
"  root,"  &c.,  arc  absolutely  indispensable;  and  arc  continually 
used  in  this  sense  by  tha  most  ardent  organographers.  It  has 
not  yet  been  suggested  that  they  should  be  replaced  by  organo- 
graphical  terms;  were  this  accomplished,  descriptive  botany 
would  become  impossible. 

It  is  also  urged  against  these  definitions  that  they  are  not  of 
universal  applicability;  that  there  are  exceptional  structures 
which  cannot  be  brought  within  the  limits  of  any  one  of  them. 
But  admitting  the  validity  of  this  criticism,  and  even  going  so 
far  as  to  question  the  possibility  of  ever  devising  absolutely 
inclusive  and,  at  the  same  time,  exclusive  dclinitions,  no  sufficient 
reason  is  adduced  for  giving  up  all  attempt  at  morphological 
analysis. 

Homology. — All  members  belonging  to  the  same  morphological 
category  are  said  to  be  homologous,  however  diverse  their 
functions.  Thus,  in  a  phanerogam,  the  sepals,  petals,  stamens 
and  foliage-leaves  all  come  under  the  category  Icaf^  though  some 
are  parts  of  the  perianth,  others  are  spore-bearing  organs 
{sporophylls),  and  others  carry  on  nutritive  processes.  The 
homology  of  members  was  based,  in  the  first  instance,  upon 
similarity  of  development  and  upon  similar  relations  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  body,  that  is,  upon  ontogeny.  But  since  the 
general  adoption  of  the  theory  of  evolution,  similarity  of  descent, 
that  is  of  phytogeny,  has  come  to  form  an  essential  part  of  this 
conception;  in  other  words,  in  order  that  their  homology  may 
be  established  the  parts  compared  must  be  proved  to  be  homo- 
genetic. 

The  introduction  of  the  phylogenetic  factor  has  very  much 
increased  the  difficulty  of  determining  homologies;  for  the 
data  necessary  for  tracing  phylogeny  can  only  be  obtained  by  the 
study  of  a  scries  of  allied,  presumably  ancestral,  forms.  One 
of  the  chief  difficult ics  met  with  in  this  line  of  research,  which  is 
one  of  the  more  striking  developments  of  modern  morphology, 
is  that  of  distinguishing  between  organs  which  are  "  reduced," 
and  those  which  are  really  "  primitive."  The  object  of  the 
phylogenetic  study  of  any  organ  is  to  trace  it  back  to  its  primitive 
form.  But,  as  will  be  pointed  out  later,  organs  are  often  found 
to  have  undergone  "  degeneration  "  or  "  reduction,"  and  such 
reduced  or  degenerate  structures  may  easily  be  mistaken  for 
primitive  structures^  and  so  the  investigator  may  be  misled. 

The  effect  of  the  phylogenetic  factor  in  homology  may  be 
illttstxated  in  the  following  cases.    The  leaves  of  the  true  mosses 


and  those  of  the  club-mosses  {Lycopodium,  Seiagindla)  being 
somewhat  alike  in  general  appearance  and  in  ontogeny,  might 
be,  and  indeed  have  been,  regarded  as  homologous  on  that 
ground.  However,  they  belong  respectively  to  two  different 
forms  in  the  life-history  of  the  plants;  the  leaves  of  the  mosses 
are  borne  by  the  gametophyte,  those  of  the  dub-mosses  by  the 
sporophyle.  In  accordance  with  the  prevalent  antithetic  view 
of  the  alternation  of  generations  in  these  plants  (see  Plants, 
Reproduction  of),  the  forms  distinguished  as  sporophyte  and 
gametophyte  are  not  honmgenetic;  consequently  their  leaves 
arc  not  homologous,  but  are  only  functionally  similar  (homo- 
plastic; see  infra). 

Another  effect  is  that  diffetcnt  degrees  of  homology  have  to 
be  recognized,  just  as  there  are  different  degrees  of  relationship 
or  affmity  between  individual  plants.  When  two  organs  can 
be  traced  along  the  same  line  of  descent  to  one  primitive  form, 
that  is  when  they  are  found  to  be  monophyletic,  their  horaolc^y 
is  complete;  when,  however,  they  are  traceable  to  two  primitive 
forms,  though  these  forms  belong  to  the  same  morphological 
scries,  they  arc  pdyphylctic  and  therefore  only  incompletdj 
homologous.  For  instance,  all  the  leaves  of  the  Bryophyta 
arc  generally  homologous  inasmuch  as  they  are  all  developments 
of  the  gametophyte.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  they 
have  been  differentiated  quite  independently  in  various  groups, 
such  as  the  Marchantiaceae,  the  Jungermanniaceac,  and  the 
mosses  proper;  consequently  their  phylogeny  is  not  the  same, 
they  are  polyphyletic,  and  therefore  they  are  not  complelely 
homologous,  but  are  parallel  developnutits. 

Analogy. — Considering  the  parts  of  the  body  in  relation  to 
their  functions,  that  is  as  organs,  they  arc  found  to  present  pecu- 
liarities of  form  and  structure  which  are  correlated  with  the 
functions  that  they  have  to  discharge;  in  other  words,  the  oigaa 
shows  adaptation  to  its  functions.  All  organs  performing  the 
same  function  and  showing  similar  adaptations  are  said  to  be 
analogous  or  homoplastic,  whatever  their  morphological  nature 
may  be;  hence  organs  are  sometimes  both  homologous  and  analo- 
gous, sometimes  only  analogous.  The  tendrils  of  a  vetch  and 
of  a  cucumber  are  analogous,  and  also  homologous  because  they 
both  belong  to  the  category  leaf;  but  they  are  only  analogous 
to  the  tendrils  of  the  vine  and  of  the  passion-flower,  which  bcloog 
to  the  category  stem. 

Afctamorphosis. — It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  each 
kind  of  member  of  the  body  may  present  a  variety  of  fonns. 
For  example,  a  stem  may  be  a  tree-trunk,  or  a  twining  stem,  or  a 
tendril,  or  a  thorn,  or  a  creeping  rhizome,  or  a  tuber;  a  leaf  may 
be  a  green  foliage-Icaf,  or  a  scale  protecting  a  bud,  or  a  tendril, 
or  a  pitcher,  or  a  iloral  leaf,  either  sepal,  petal,  stamen  or  carpel 
(sporophyll);  a  root  may  be  a  fibrous  root,  or  a  swollen  tap-root 
like  that  of  the  beet  or  the  turnip.  All  these  various  forms  are 
organs  discharging  some  special  function,  and  are  examples  of 
what  Wolff  called  "  modification,"  and  Goethe  "  metamor- 
phosis." It  may  be  inquired  what  meaning  is  to  be  attached 
to  these  expressions,  and  what  are  the  conditions  and  the  nature 
of  the  changes  assumed  by  them.  The  leaf  of  the  bi^er  plants 
will  be  taken  as  the  illustrative  case  because  it  is  the  most 
"  plastic  "  of  the  mci&bers,  the  one,  that  is,  which  presents  the 
greatest  variety  of  adaptations,  and  because  it  has  been  most 
thoroughly  studied. 

In  this,  as  in  all  morphological  inquiries,  two  lines  of  investi- 
gation have  to  be  followed,  the  phylogenetic  and  the  ontagenetic 
Beginning  with  its  phylogeny,  it  appears,  so  far  u  present 
knowledge  goes,  that  the  differentiation  of  the  shoot  of  the 
sporophyte  into  stem  and  leaf  first  occurred  !n  the  PteridophytAi 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  Bower  {Origin  of  a  Land- 
Flora),  the  primitive  leaf  was  a  reproductive  leaf,  a  spon^yll, 
from  which  the  foliage-Icaf  was  derived  by  progressive  sterili2a- 
tion.  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  this  view  is  not,  and  could 
not  be,  based  upon  actual  observation,  nor  is  it  universally 
accepted;  however,  it  seems  to  correspond  more  doficly  than  any 
other  to  the  facts  of  comparative  morphology.  It  was  Hitmct^ 
assumed,  and  the  view  is  still  held,  that  the  foliage-leaf  was  the 
primitive  form  from  which  all  others  were  derived,  mainl>'  oa 


nORPHOLDGYI 


PLANTS 


775 


the  ground  that,  in  ontogeny*  the  foUagc>leaf  genenlly  precedes 
the  sporophyll.  The  phylogeny  of  the  various  floral  leaves, 
for  instance,  was  generally  traced  as  follows:  foliage-leaf,  bract, 
lepal,  petal,  stamen  and  carpel  (sporophylls)— in  accordance 
with  what  Goethe  termed  "  ascending  metamorphosis."  Recent 
researches,  however,  more  especially  those  of  Celakovsky,  tend 
to  prove  that  the  periantfi-leaves  have  been  derived  from  the 
stamens  (i.e.  from  sporophylls);  that  is,  they  are  the  result  of 
"  descending  metamorphosis."  Moreover  there  is  the  fact  that 
the  flowers  of  nearly  all  the  primitive  phanerogams,  such  as  the 
Gymnosperms,  consist  solely  of  sporophylls,  having  no  perianth. 
There  is  thus  a  considerable  body  of  evidence  to  support  Bower's 
view  of  the  primitive  nature  of  the  sporophyll. 

Accepting  this  view  of  the  phylogeny  of  the  leaf,  the  perianth- 
leaves  (sepals  and  petals)  and  the  foliage-leaves  may  be  regarded 
as  "  modified  "  or  "  metamorphosed  "  sporophylls;  that  is,  as 
leaves  which  are  adapted  to  functions  other  than  the  bearing  of 
spores.    The  sepals  are  generally  organs  for  the  protection  of 
the  flower-bud;  the  petals,  for  attracting  insects  by  their  con- 
spicuous form  and  colour;  the  foliage-leaves,  for  the  assimilation 
of  carbon  dioxide  and  other  associated  functions.    But  this 
phylogenctic  difterentiation  of  the  organs  was  not  what  Wolff 
and  Goethe  had  in  mind;  what  they  contemplated  was  an  onto- 
genetic change,  and  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  such 
changes  actually  occur.    Taking  first  the  conversion  of  members 
of  one  morphological  category  into  those  of  another,  this  has 
been  actually  observed,  though  rarely.    Goebel  {Organography) 
gives  several  instanos  of  the  conversion  of  the  root  into  a  shoot 
in  ferns,  and  a  few  in  phanerogams  {Lislera  ovata,  NeoUia  nidus- 
avis,   Anlhuriupt  longijolium).    Much   more  common   is   the 
conversion  of  one  form  of  a  member  into  another  form.    The 
most  varied  changes  of  this  kind  have  been  described,  and  are 
generally  familiar  as  "  monstrosities ";   the  study  of   them 
constitutes,  under  the  name  of  teratology,  a  distinct  department 
of  biology.    A  simple  case  is  that  of  '*  double  "  flowers,  in  which 
the  number  of  the  petals  is  increased  by  the  "  metamorphosis  " 
of  stamens;  or  again  the  conversion  of  floral  leaves  into  green 
leaves,   a   change   known   as    "  chloranthy."    These  changes 
may  be  brought  about  by  external  causes,  such  as  the  attacks 
of  insects  or  of  fungi,  alterations  in  external  conditions,  &c.,  or 
by  some  unexplained  internal  disturbance  of  the  morphological 
equilibrium.    They  can  also  be  effected  experimentally.    Goebel 
has  shown  that  if  the  developing  foliage-leaves  of  the  fern 
Onodea  struthiopleris  be  removed  as  they  are  formed,  the 
subsequently  devdc^sed  sporophylls  assume  more  or  less  com- 
pletely the  habit  of  foliage-leaves,  and  may  be  sterile.    Similarly 
bud-scales  can  be  caused  to  develop  into  foliage-leaves,  if  the 
buds  to  which  they  belong  are  caused  to  grow  out  in  the  year  of 
their  formation  by  the  removal  of  the  existing  foliage-leaves. 

Useful  and  suggestive  as  they  often  are,  tcratological  facts 
played,  at  one  time,  too  large  a  part  in  the  framing  of  morpho- 
logical theories;  for  it  was  thought  that  the  "  monstrous  "  form 
gave  a  clue  to  the  essential  nature  of  the  organ  assuming  it. 
There  is,  however,  no  sufhcient  reason  for  regarding  the  mon- 
strous form  as  necessarily  primitive  or  ancestral,  nor  even  as  a 
stage  in  the  ontogeny  of  the  organ.  For  when  the  older  morpho- 
logists  spoke  of  a  stamen  as  a  "  metamorphosed  "  leaf,  it  was 
implied  that  it  originated  as  a  foliage-leaf  and  subsequently 
became  a  stamen.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  stamen  is  a  stamen 
and  nothing  else,  from  the  very  beginning.  The  development 
of  the  organ  is  already  determined  at  its  first  appearance  upon 
the  growing-point;  though,  as  already  explained,  the  normal 
course  of  its  ontogeny  may  be  interfered  with  by  some  abnormal 
external  or  internal  condition.  The  word  "  metamorphosis  " 
cannot,  in  fact,  be  used  any  longer  in  its  original  sense,  for  the 
change  which  it  implied  does  not  normally  occur  in  ontogeny, 
and  in  phylogeny  the  Idea  is  more  accurately  expressed  by  the 
term  "differentiation."  However,  it  may  still  be  useful  is 
describing  "monstrosities,"  and  perhaps  also  those  cases  in 
which  an  organ  serves  first  one  purpose  and  then  another,  as 
when  a  leafy  ^oot  eventually  becomes  a  thorn,  or  the  base  of  a 
foliage-leaf  becomes  a  bud-scale. 


DiJertnHatioH.-^Any  account  of  the  general  morphology  of 
living  organisms  is  incomplete  if  it  docs  not  include  some  attempt 
at  an  explanation  of  its  causation;  though  such  an  attempt 
cannot  be  carried  far  at  the  present  time.  A  survey  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  indicates  that  evolution  has  proceeded,  on 
the  whole,  from  the  simple  to  the  complex;  at  the  same  time,  as 
has  been  already  mentioned,  evidence  of  reduction  or  degenera- 
tion in  common.  Thus  in  the  series  Bryophyta,  Pteridophyla, 
Phancrogamia,  whilst  the  sporophyte  presents  progressive 
development,  the  gametophyte  presents  continuous  r^uction. 

Evolution  means  the  gradual  development  of  "highly 
organized  "  from  "  lowly  organized  "  forms;  that  is,  of  forms 
in  which  the  "  physiological  division  of  labour  "  is  more  com- 
plete, from  those  in  which  it  is  less  complete;  of  forms  possessing 
a  variety  of  organs,  from  forms  possessing  but  few.  Differentia- 
tion means  the  development  and  the  specialization  as  organs 
of  various  parts  of  the  body.  It  presents  itself  in  two  aspects: 
there  is  morphological  differentiation,  which  can  be  traced  in 
the  distinction  of  the  piembers  of  the  body,  root,  stem,  leaf,  &c.; 
there  is  physiological  differentiation,  which  can  be  traced  in  the 
adaptation  of  these  members  to  various  functions.  But,  in 
actual  operation,  these  two  processes  are  simultaneous;  every 
member  is  developed  as  an  organ  for  the  performance  of  some 
special  function. 

Factors  in  Evolution, — Evolution  in  the  race  involves  progres- 
sive differentiation  in  the  individual;  hence  the  causes  of  evolu- 
tion and  of  differentiation  must  be  the  same.  The  evolution  of 
higher  from  lower  plants,  it  is  generally  assumed,  has  proceeded 
by  variation.  With  regard  to  the  causation  of  variation  Darwin 
says  {Origin  oj  Species,  ch.  v.) :  "  In  all  cases  there  are  two 
factors,  the  nature  of  the  organism,  which  is  much  the  most 
important  of  the  two,  and  the  nature  of  the  conditions.  The 
direct  action  of  changed  conditions  leads  to  definite  or  indefinite 
results.  In  the  latter  case  the  organization  seems  to  become 
plastic,  and  we  have  much  fluctuating  variability.  In  the  former 
case  the  nature  of  the  organism  is  such  that  it  yields  readily, 
when  subjected  to  .certain  conditions,  and  all  or  nearly  all  the 
individuals  become  modified  in  the  same  way." 

In  spite  of  the  statement  that  the  "  nature  of  the  organbm  " 
is  the  most  important  factor  in  variation,  the  tendency  amongst 
evolutionists  has  been  to  take.much  more  account  of  the  influence 
of  external  conditions.  Exceptions  to  this  attitude  are 
Lamarck,  who  speaks  with  regard  to  animals  (but  not  to  plants!) 
of  "  la  composition  croissanie  de  I'organisation  "  (Philosopkie 
zodogique,  t.  i.),  and  Nageli,  who  attributes  variation  to  causes 
inherent  in  the  "  idiopksm,"  and  has  elaborately  worked  out 
the  view  in  his  AbstammungsUhre. 

The  position  assumed  in  this  article  is  in  agreement  with 
the  views  of  Lamarck  and  of  Nagcli.  All  but  the  lowest  plants 
visibly  tend  towards  or  actually  achieve  in  various  degrees  the 
differentiation  of  the  body,  whether  sporophyte  or  gametophyte, 
into  stem,  leaf,  root,  &c.,  that  is,  the  differentiation  of  parts  not 
previously  present.  It  is  inconceivable  that  external  conditions 
can  impart  to  an  organism  the  capacity  to  develop  something 
that  it  does  not  already  possess:  can  impart  to  it,  that  is,  the 
capacity  for  variation  in  the  direction  of  higher  complexity. 
The  alternative,  which  is  here  accepted,  is  that  differentiation 
is  essentially  the  expres»on  of  a  developmental  tendency  inherent 
in  the  protoplasm  of  plants.  Just  as  every  crystallizable 
chemical  substance  assumes  a  definite  and  constant  crystalline 
form  which  cannot  be  accounted  for  otherwise  than  by  regarding 
it  as  one  of  the  properties  of  the  substance,  so  every  living 
organism  assumes  a  characteristic  form  which  is  the  outcome 
of  the  properties  of  its  protoplasm.  But  whereas  the  crystalline 
form  of  a  chemical  substance  is  stable  and  fixed,  the  organized 
form  of  a  living  organism  is  unstable  and  subject  to  change. 

Infivenu  oJ  External  Conditions. — This  position  does  not, 
however,  exclude  the  influence  of  external  conditions;  that 
influence  is  undeniable.  Darwin's  expression  "the  nature  of 
the  organism  "  has  been  interpreted  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
to  mean  an  inherent  tendency  towards  higher  organization; 
that  interpretation  may  now  be  completed  by  adding  that  the 


776 


PLANTS 


CMORPHOLOCV 


organism  is  susceptible  to,  and  can  respond  to,  the  action  of 
extemal  condilions.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
plants  are  as  "  irritable  "  to  varying  external  conditions  as  they 
are  to  light  or  to  gravity.  A  change  in  its  external  conditions 
may  act  as  a  "  stimulus,"  evoking  in  the  organism  a  response 
of  the  nature  of  a  change  in  its  form.  As  Darwin  has  pointed 
out,  this  response  may  be  direct  or  indirect.  In  illustration 
of  the  indirect  response,  the  evolution  of  the  Bryophyta  and  of 
more  highly  organized  plants  may  be  briefly  considered.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  life  originated  in  water,  and  that  the 
earUcst  plants  were  Algae.  The  study  of  existing  Algae,  that  is 
of  plants  that  have  continued  to  live  in  water,  shows  that  under 
these  conditions  no  high  degree  of  organization  has  been  reached, 
though  some  of  them  have  attained  gigantic  dimensions.  The 
primitive  water-plants  were  succeeded  by  land-plants,  a  land- 
flora  being  gradually  established.  With  the  transition  from 
water  to  land  came  the  progressive  development  of  the  sporo- 
phyte  which  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  morphology  of 
the  Bryophyta  and  of  all  plants  above  them  in  the  scale  of  life 
(see  Bower,  Origin  of  a  Land-Flora).  This  evolution  of  the 
sporophyte  is  no  doubt  to  be  correlated  with  the  great  change 
in  the  external  conditions  of  life.  There  is  no  conclusive  ground 
for  regarding  the  action  of  this  change  as  having  been  direct,  it 
is  more  reasonable  to  regard  it  as  indirect,  having  acted. as  a 
general  stimulus  to  which  the  ever-increasing  complexity  of  the 
sporophyte  was  the  response. 

Adaptation. — ^The  morphological  and  physiological  differentia- 
tion of  the  plant -body  has,  so  far,  been  attributed  to  (i)  **  the 
nature  of  the  organism,"  that  is  to  its  inherent  tendency  towards 
higher  organization,  and  (2)  to  the  "  indefinite  results  "  of  the 
external  conditions  acting  as  a  stimulus  which  excites  the 
organism  tb  variation,  but  docs  not  direct  the  course  of  variatk>n. 
The  "  definite  results  "  of  the  action  of  extemal  conditions  have 
still  to  be  considered. 

It  is  a  familiar  observation  that  climatic  and  edaphic  (nature 
of  soil)  conditions  exert  an  influence  upon  the  form  and  structure 
of  plants  (see  Plants  :  Ecology  oQ  •  For  instance,  some  xer(^hytes 
are  dry  and  hard  in  structure,  whilst  others  are  succulent 
and  fleshy.  Thb  so-callcd  direct  effect  of  external  conditions 
upon  the  form  and  structure  of  the  body  differs  from  the 
indirect  effect  in  that  the  resulting  variations  bear  a  relation,  of 
the  nature  of  adaptation,  to  those  conditions;  the  effect  of  the 
conditions  is  not  only  to  cause  variation,  but  to  cause  variation 
in  a  particular  direction.  Thus  all  existing  hygrophytes 
(excepting  the  Algae)  are  considered  to  have  been  derived  from 
land-plants  which  have  adapted  themselves  to  a  watery  habitat. 
The  effect  can  also  be  demonstrated  experimentally:  thus  it 
has  been  observed  that  a  xerophyte  grown  in  moist  air  will  lose 
its  characteristic  adaptive  features,  and  may  even  assume  those 
of  a  hygrophyte. 

Climatic  and  edaphic  conditions  are  not,  however,  the  only 
ones  to  affect  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  body  or  its 
parts;  other  conditions  are  of  importance,  particularly  the 
relations  of  the  plant  to  animals  and  to  other  plants.  For 
instance,  the  "  animal  traps  "  of  carnivorous  plants  (Drosera, 
Nepenthes f  &c.)  did  not,  presumably,  originate  as  such;  they 
began  as  organs  of  quite  another  kind  which  became  adapted 
to  their  present  function  in  Consequence  of  animals  having  beeft 
accidentally  caught.  It  is  also  probable  that  the  various  forms 
of  the  angiospermous  flower,  with  its  many  specialized  mechan- 
isms for  pollination,  may  be  the  result  of  insect-visits,  the 
flowers  becoming  adapted  to  certain  kinds  of  insects,  and  the 
insects  having  undergone  corresponding  modification.  Paraates, 
again,  were  derived  from  normal  autotrophic  plants,  which,  as 
the  parasitic  habit  became  more  pronounccii,  acquired  the 
corresponding  characteristics  of  form  and  structure;  there  is, 
in  fact,  the  group  of  hemi-parasites,  plants  which  still  retain 
autotrophic  characters  though  they  are  root-parasites. 

Though  adaptation  to  the  environment  seems  sometimes  to 
be  considered,  especially  by  neo-Lamarckians,  as  equivalent  to, 
or  at  least  as  involving,  the  evolution  of  higher  forms  from 
lower,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  evidence  that  this  is  the 


case.  The  effect  of  external  conditfom  b  confined  to  the  modi- 
fication in  various  directions  of  members  or  organs  already 
existing,  and  one  very  common  direction  is  that  of  reductwn 
or  entire  disappearance  of  parts:  for  instance,  the  foliage-leaves 
of  certain  xcrophsrtes  {e.g.  Cactaceae,  Euphorbiaceae).  of 
parasites,  and  of  saprophytes.  Moreover,  had  the  evolution 
of  plants  proceeded  along  the  line  of  adaptation,  the  vegeuble 
kingdom  could  not  be  subdivided,  as  it  is,  into  the  morphological 
groups  Thallophyta,  Bryophyta,  Pteridophyta,  Phanerogamia, 
but  only  into  physiological  groups,  Xerophyta,  Hygrophyta, 
Tropophyta,  &c. 

In  endeavouring  to  trace  the  causation  of  adapution,  it  is 
obvious  that  it  must  be  due  quite  as  much  to  pr(q)erties  inherent 
in  the  plant  as  to  the  action  of  extemal  conditions;  the  plant 
must  possess  adaptive  capacity.  In  other  words,  the  plant 
must  be  irritable  to  the  stimulus  exerted  from  without,  and  be 
capable  of  responding  to  it  by  changes  of  form  and  structure. 
Thus  there  is  no  essential  difference  between  the  "  direct  "  and 
the  "  indirect  "  action  of  external  conditions,  the  difference  is 
one  of  degree  only.  In  the  one  case  the  stimulus  induces 
indefinite  variation,  in  the  other  definite;  but  no  hard-and-fast 
line  can  be  drawn  between  them. 

Adaptive  characters  are  often  hereditary,  for  instance,  the 
seed  of  a  parasite  will  produce  a  parasite,  and  the  same  is  trae 
of  a  carnivorous  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  adaptations, 
especially  those  evoked  by  climatic  or  edaphic  conditions^  may 
only  be  shown  by  the  seedling  if  grown  under  the  appropriate 
extemal  condition^;  here  what  is  hereditary  is  not  the  actual 
adaptation,  but  the  capacity  for  responding  in  a  particular 
way  to  a  certain  set  of  external  conditions. 

Summary. — ^The  general  theory  of  differentiation  pn^xxinded 
in  this  article  is  an  attempt  at  an  analysis  of  the  faaors  tenned 
by  Darwin  "  the  nature  of  the  organism  "  and  "  the  nainie 
of  the  conditions."  It  is  assumed,  as  an  inevitable  conclusion 
from  the  facts  of  evolution,  that  plant-protoplasm  possesses 
(1)  an  inherent  tendency  towards  higher  organization,  and  (2) 
that  it  b  irritable  to  external  conditions,  or  to  changes  in  them, 
and  can  respond  to  them  by  changes  of  form  which  may  be  either 
indefinite  or  definite  (adaptive).  Thus  it  b  that  the  variations 
are  produced  upon  which  natural  selection  has  to  work. 

Material  Cause  of  DifertntuUion. — It  may  be  inquired,  in 
conclusion,  if  there  are  any  facts  which  throw  light  upon  the 
internal  mechanism  of  differentiation,  whether  spontaneous  or 
induced;  if  it  is  possible  to  refer  it  to  any  matoial  cause.  It 
may  be  replied  that  there  are  such  facts,  and  though  they  are 
but  few  as  yet,  they  suffice  to  suggest  an  hypothesis  that  may 
eventually  prove  to  be  a  law.  Sachs  was  the  first  to  formulate 
the  theory  that  morphological  differences  are  the  expccssioii  of 
differences  in  material  composition.  He  con^dered,  for  instance, 
that  stems,  leaves,  roots  and  flowers  differ  as  they  do  because 
the  plastic  substances  entering  into  their  structure  are  diverse. 
This  view  he  subsequently  modified  to  thb— that  a  rdativdy 
small  proportion  of  diverse  substance  in  each  of  these  parts 
would  suffice  to  account  for  their  morphological  differences. 
This  modification  b  important,  because  it  transfers  the  fonnativ« 
influence  from  the  plastic  substances  toilhe  prot<^lasm,  suggest- 
ing that  the  diverse  constituents  are  produced  (whether  spon- 
taneously or  as  the  result  of  stimulation)  as  secretions  by  the 
protoplasm.  It  is  an  obvious  inference  that  if  a  small  quantity 
of  a  substance  can  affect  the  development  of  an  entire  orsan 
it  probably  acts  after  the  manner  of  an  enzyme.  Bcycriock 
has,  in  fact,  gone  so  far  as  to  speak  of "  formative  enzymes." 

It  b  not  possible  to  go  into  all  the  facu  that  might  be  adduced 
in  support  of  this  view:  one  case,  perhaps  the  most  pregnant, 
must  suffice.  Beyerinck  was  led  to  take  up  the  decided  postkni 
just  mentioned  by  hb  researches  into  the  conditions  detemnni^g 
the  formation  of  plant-galb  as  the  result  of  injury  by  insects. 
He  found  that  the  development  of  a  gall  b  due  to  a  temponry 
modification  of  the  part  affected,  not,  as  b  generally  tboughc, 
in  consequence  of  the  deposition  of  an  egg  by  the  insect, 
but  of  the  injection  of  a  poisonous  substance  which  has  the  effect 
of  stimulating  the  protoplasm  to  develop  a  gall  instead  of 


DISTRIBUTION) 


PLANTS 


777 


Structure.  If  this  be  so,  it  may  justifiably  be  inferxed  that  both 
normal  and  abnormal  morphological  features  may  be  due  to 
the  presence  of  enzymatic  substances  secreted  by  the  protoplasm 
lliat  determine  the  course  of  devel<^mait.  At  any  rate  thb 
hypothesis  suggests  an  explanation  of  many  hitherto  inexplicable 
facts.  For  instance,  it  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  artide  on 
the  reproduction  of  plants  that  the  effect  of  the  fertiliiation  of 
the  female  cell  in  the  ovule  of  a  phanerogam  is  not  confined 
to  the  female  cell,  but  extends  more  or  1^  widely  outside  it, 
inducing  growth  and  tissue-change.  Tlic  ovule  develops  into 
the  seed;  and  the  gynacccum  and  even  more  remote  parts  of 
the  flower,  develop  into  the  fruit.  The  facts  arc  familiar,  but 
there  is  no  means  of  explaining  them.  In  the  light  of  Sachs's 
theory  the  interpretation  is  this,  that  the  act  of  fertilization 
causes  the  formation  in  the  female  cell  of  substances  which  arc 
transmitted  to  adjacent  structures  and  stimulate  them  to  further 
development. 

LiTBRATURB.~As  thc  scopc  ol  this  article  limits  it  to  the  gCfMral 

Eindplcs  of  thc  morpholoey  of  pbnts,  comparatively  few  facts 
vc  been  adduced.  Full  morphological  and  ornmographical 
details  arc  given  in  the  articles  on  thc  various  grxHips  of  pbnts,  such 
as  those  on  thc  Al^c,  Br\-ophyta.  Ptcridophyta,  Angiosperms, 
Gymnosperms,  &c.  The  following  works  may  also  be  coniuttcd. 
Schimpcr.  Ptant-Ceograpky  (Clarendon  Press,  Oxford);  Gocbd, 
Organopaphy  (Clarendon  Press,  Oxford) ;  Bower,  Thc  OritiH  of  a 
Land- flora  (Macmillan);  Beyerinck,  "  Ucber  CccMicn, '  {oot. 
Ztitung,  1888).  (S.  H.  V.*) 

DxsTUBxmoN  or  Plants 

Common  experience  shows  that  temperature  is  the  most 
important  condition  which  controls  the  distribution  of  plants. 
Those  of  warmer  countries  cannot  be  cultivated  in  British 
gardens  without  protection  from  the  rigours  of  winter;  still  less 
are  they  able  to  hold  their  own  unaided  in  an  unfavourable 
ch'mate.  Temperature,  then,  is  the  fundamental  limit  which 
nature  opposes  to  thc  indefinite  extension  of  any  one  q)ecies. 
Buffon  remarked  "  that  the  same  temperature  might  have  been 
expected,  all  other  circumstances  being  equal,  to  produce  the 
$ame  beings  in  different  parts  of  the  globe,  both  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms."  Yet  lawns  in  the  United  States  are 
destitute  of  thc  common  English  daisy,  thc  wild  hyadnth  of 
the  woods  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  absent  from  (jemuuiy,  and 
the  foxglove  from  Switzoland.  We  owe  to  Buffon  the  recogni- 
tion of  thc  limitation  of  groups  of  species  to  regions  separated 
from  <me  another  by  "  natural,  barriers."  When  by  thc  aid  of 
man  they  surmount  these,  they  often  dominate  with  unexpected 
vigour  the  native  vegetation  amongst  which  they  arc  colonists. 
The  cardoon  and  milk  thisUe,  both  European  pbnts,  cover 
tracts  of  country  in  South  America  with  impe.netrable  tliickets 
in  which  both  man  and  beast  may  be  hopdcssly  lost.  The 
watercress  blocks  the  rivers  of  New  Zeabnd  into  which  it  has 
been  introduced  from  Europe.  Thc  problem,  then,  which  pbnt- 
dlstribution  presents  is  twofold:  it  has  first  to  map  out  the 
earth's  surface  into  "  regions  "  or  "  areas  of  vegetation,"  and 
secondly  to  trace  the  causes  which  have  brought  them  about 
and  led  to  their  restriction  and  to  their  mutual  relations. 

The  earliest  attempts  to  deal  with  thc  first  branch  of  the 
inquiry  may  be  called  physiognomical.  They  endeavoured 
to  define  "a^tects  of  vegetation"  in  which  the  "forms" 
exhibited  an  obvious  adaptation  to  their  climatic  surroundings. 
This  has  been  done  with  success  and  in  great  detail  by  Griscbach, 
whose  Vegetation  dcr  Erdc  from  this  point  of  view  is  still  unsur- 
passed. With  it  may  be  studied  with  advantage  the  unique 
collection  at  Kew  of  pictures  of  pbnt-life  in  its  broadest  aspects, 
brought  together  by  thc  industry  and  munificence  of  Miss 
A^Iarianne  North.  Crisebach  declined  to  see  anything  in  such 
"  forms  "  but  the  production  by  nature  of  that  which  re^wnds 
to  external  conditions  and  can  only  exist  as  long  as  they  remain 
unchanged.  We  may  agree  with  Schimpcr  that  such  a  point  of 
view  is  obsolete  without  rejecting  as  valueless  the  admirable 
accumulation  of  data  of  which  it  admittedly  fails  to  give  any 
rational  expbnation.  A  single  example  %vLl  be  sufikient  to 
illustrate  this.  The  genus  Stnechf  with  some  looo  species, 
is  practically  cosmopolitan.    In  eztemal  haUt.  these  exhibit 


adaptations  to  every  kind  of  climatic  or  physical  condition: 
they  may  be  mere  weeds  like  groundsels  or  ragworts,  or  dimbert 
masquerading  like  ivy,  or  succulent  and  almost  leafless,  or  they 
may  be  shrubs  and  even  trees.  Yet  throughout  they  agree 
in  the  essential  structure  of  their  floral  organs.  The  cause  of 
such  agreement  is,  rrcoiding  to  Grisebach,  shrouded  in  the 
deepest  obscurity,  but  it  finds  its  obvious  and  complete  explana- 
tion in  the  descent  from  a  common  ancestor  which  he  would 
unhesitatingly  reject. 

From  this  point  of  view  it  is  not  sufTident,  in  attempting  to 
map  out  the  earth's  surface  into  **  regions  oi  vcgrtaiion,"  to 
have  regard  alone  to  adaptations  to  physical  conditions.  We 
are  compeUcd  to  take  into  account  the  actual  affinity  of  the 
plants  inhabiting  them.  Anything  short  of  this  is  merely 
descriptive  and  empirical,  and  affords  no  rational  basis  for 
inquiry  into  the  mode  in  which  the  distribution  dT  plant-life 
has  been  brought  about.  Our  regions  will  not  be  **  natural " 
unless  they  mark  out  real  discontinuities  both  of  origin  and 
affinity,  and  these  we  can  only  seek  to  expbin  by  reference  to 
past  changes  in  the  earth's  history  We  arrive  thus  at  "  the 
essential  aim  of  geographical  botany,"  which,  as  staled  by 
Schimpcr,  is  "  an  inquiry  into  thc  causes  of  differences  existing 
among  thc  various  floras."  To  quote  further;  "Existing 
fbras  exhibit  only  one  moment  in  the  history  of  the  earth's 
vegetation.  A  transformation  which  is  sometimes  rapid,  some- 
times slow,  but  always  continuous,  is  wrought  by  the  reciprocal 
action  of  the  innate  variability  of  pbnts  and  of  the  variability 
of  the  external  factors.  This  change  is  due  partly  to  the  migra- 
tions of  pbnts,  but  chiefly  to  a  transformation  of  thc  pbnts 
covering  the  earth."  This  transformation  is  due  to  new  charac- 
ters arising  through  variation.  "  If  the  new  characters  be  useful, 
they  are  selected  and  perfected  in  the  descendants,  and  consti- 
tute the  so-called  '  adaptations '  in  which  the  external  factors 
acting  on  the  plants  are  reflected."  The  study  of  thc  nature 
of  these  adaptations,  which  arc  often  extremely  subtle  and  by 
no  means  merely  superficial,  is  termed  EcoUtgy  (see  above). 

The  remark  may  conveniently  find  its  place  here  that  pbnts 
which  have  reached  a  high  degree  of  adaptive  spccbUzation 
have  come  to  the  end  of  their  tether:  a  too  complicated  adjust- 
ment has  deprived  them  of  the  elasticity  which  would  enable 
them  to  adapt  themselves  to  any  further  change  in  their  surround- 
ings, and  they  would  pass  away  with  conditions  with  which 
they  are  too  inextricably  bound  upw  Vast  floras  have  doubtless 
thus  found  their  grave  in  geologic  change.  That  wrought  by 
man  in  destroying  forests  and  cultivating  the  land  will  be  nd 
less  effective,  and  already  specimens  in  our  herbaria  alone 
represent  species  no  longer  to  be  found  in  a  living  slate.  Extinc- 
tion may  come  about  indirectly  and  even  more  surely  This 
is  easy  to  happen  with  plants  dependent  on  insects  for  their 
fertilization.  Kronfeld  has  shown  that  aconites  are  dependent 
for  this  on  the  visits  of  a  Bombus  and  cannot  exist  outside  thc 
area  where  it  occurs. 

Thc  actual  and  past  distribution  of  plants  must  obviously 
be  controlled  by  the  facts  of  physical  geography.  It  is  concerned 
with  the  bnd-surface,  and  this  is  more  symmetrically  disposed 
than  would  at  first  sight  appear  from  a  gbnce  at  a  map  of  the 
world.  Lyell  points  out  that  the  eye  of  an  observer  pbced 
above  a  point  between  Pembroke  and  Wexford,  bt.  52*  N.  and 
long.  6'  W.,  would  behold  at  one  view  the  greatest  possible 
quantity  of  bnd.  while  the  of^sosite  hemisphere  would  contain 
the  greatest  quantity  of  water.  The  continental  area  is  on  one 
side  of  the  sphere  and  the  oceanic  on  the  other.  Love  has  shown 
{Nature,  Aug.  i,  1907.  p  328)  that  this  is  the  result  of  physical 
causes  and  that  the  existence  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  "  shows  that 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  thc  earth  does  not  coincide  with  thc  centre 
of  figure."  G^e  half  of  the  earth  has  therefore  a  greater  density 
than  the  other.  But  "  under  the  influence  of  the  rotation  the 
parts  of  greater  density  tend  to  recede  further  from  the  axis 
than  the  parts  of  less  density  .  .  .  the  effect  must  be  to  produce 
a  sort  of  furrowed  surface."  The  furrow*s  are  the  great  ocean 
basins,  and  these  would  still  persist  e\xn  if  thc  land  surface  were 
enlarged  to  thc  2400  fathoms  contour.    These  considerations 


778 


PLANTS 


piSTRlBCmON 


preclude  the  possibility  of  solving  difficulties  in  geographical 
distribution  by  the  construction  of  hypothetical  land-surfaces, 
an  expedient  which  Darwin  always  stoutly  opposed  {Lije  and 
LetlerSt  ii.  74-78).  The  furrowed  surface  of  the  earth  gives  the 
land-area  a  star-shaped  figure,  which  may  from  time  to  time 
have  varied  in  outline,  but  in  the  main  has  been  permanent. 
It  is  excentric  as  regards  the  pole  and  sends  tapering  extensions 
towards  the  south.  Sir  George  Darwin  finds  a  possible  cipUina- 
tion  of  these  in  the  screwing  motion  which  the  earth  would 
suffer  in  its  plastic  state.  The  polar  regions  travelled  a  little 
from  west  to  east  relatively  to  the  equatorial,  which  lagged 
behind. 

The  great  primary  divisions  of  the  earth's  flora  present  thetia- 
lelves  at  a  glance.  The  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn  cut  off 
with  siirprising  precision  (the  latter  somewhat  less  so)  the  tropical 
from  the  north  and  south  temperate  zones.  The  north  tem- 
perate region  is  more  sharply  separated  from  the  other  two  than 
the  south  temperate  region  from  the  tropicaL 

I.  North  Tbmfbratb  Region  (^ofere/tc).— This  is  the  largest 
of  all.  circumpoUr,  and  but  for  the  break  at  Bering  Straits,  would 
be,  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  continuous  in  Jboth  the  old  and  new 
worlds:  It  is  characterucd  by  its  needle-leaved  Contferae,  its 
catkin«bearin^  (Amcnuceac)  and  other  trees,  deciduous  in  winter, 
and  its  profusion  of  herbaceous  species. 

II.  South  Temperate  Region.— This  occupies  widely  separated 
areas  in  South  Africa,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South  America. 
These  are  connected  by  the  presence  of  peculiar  types,  Proteaccae, 
Restiaceae,  Rutaceae,  &c.,  mostly  shrubby  in  habit  and  on  the  whole 
somewhat  intolerant  of  a  moist  climate.  Individual  species  are 
extremely  numerous  and  often  very  restricted  in  area. 

III.  Tropical  Region. — ^This  is  characterixed  by  the  presence 
of  gigantic  Monocotyledons,  palms,  Musaceae  and  bamboos,  and  of 
evergreen  poljrpetalous  trees  and  figs.  Herbaceous  planu  are  rare 
and  mostly  epiphytic. 

A  consideration  of  these  redons  makes  it  apparent  that  they  are 
to  a  large  extent  adaptive.  The  boreal  is  cold,  the  austral  warm, 
and  the  tropical  affords  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  to  which  the 
vegetation  of  the  others  would  be  intolerant.  If  we  take  with  Drude 
the  number  of  known  families  of  flowering  plants  at  340.  oa  are 
generally  dispensed,  17  are  more  restricted,  while  the  remainder  are 
either  dominant  in  or  peculiar  to  separate  regions.  Of  these  40  are 
boreal,  23  austral  and  69  tropical.  If  we  add  to  the  latter  figure 
the  families  which  are  widely  dtspereed,  we  find  that  the  tropics 
possess  161  or  almost  exactly  two-thirds  of  the  large  groups  compnacd 
m  the  world's  vegetation.  M.  Caaimir  de  Candolle  has  made  an 
iodcpcndcnt  investigation,  based  on  Hooker  and  Bentham's  Cmera 
plantarum.  The  result  is  unfortunately  (1910)  unpublished,  but  he 
mforms  the  present  writer  that  the  result  leads  to  the  striking  con- 
elusion:  "  La  vdg€tation  est  un  ph6nomine  surtout  intertropical, 
dont  nous  ne  voyons  plus  que  restes  affaiblis  dans  nos  rd^ions  tem- 
p^rdes."  In  attempting  to  account  for  the  distribution  of  existing 
vegetation  we  must  take  into  account  palaeontological  evidence. 
The  results  arrived  at  may  be  read  as  a  sequel  to  the  article  on 
Palaeobotanv. 

The  wgeution  of  the  Palaeozoic  era,  till  towards  its  dose,  was 
apparently  remarkably  homogeneous  all  over  the  worid.  It  was 
characterized  by  arborescent  vascular  Cnrptogams  and  Gymno- 
sperms  of  a  type  (Cordaiteae)  which  have  left  no  descendants  bieyond 
it.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  Palaeozoic  flora  appears  ulti- 
mately to  have  been  profoundly  modified  by  a  lowering  of  tempera- 
ture and  the  existence  of  glacial  conditions  over  a  wide  area.  It  was 
replaced  by  the  ClossobUns  flora  which  is  assumed  to  have  originated 
in  a  vast  continental  area  (Gondwana  land),  of  which  remnants 
remain  in  South  America.  South  Africa  and  Australia. 

The  ClossopUris  flora  gradually  spread  to  the  northern  hemisphere 
and  mterminglcd  with  the  later  Palaeozoic  flora  which  still  persisted 
Both  were  in  turn  replaced  by  the  Lower  Mesozoic  flora,  which  again 
is  thought  to  have  had  its  birth  in  the  hypothetical  Gondwana  land, 
and  in  which  Gymnosperms  played  the  leading  part  formeriy  taken 
by  vascular  Crypto^ma.  The  abundance  01  Cycadean  plants  b 
one  of  iu  most  striking  features.  They  attained  the  highest  degree 
of  structural  complexity  in  the  Bennettitcae,  which  have  been 
thought  even  to  foreshadow  a  floral  orzanization.  Though  now  on 
the  way  to  extinction,  Cycadeae  are  still  widely  represented  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  by  genera  whkJi,  however,  have  no  counterpart 
in  the  Mesozoic  era.  Amonfist  Conifers  the  arehaic  genera,  Ctnkto 
^r\A  Araucaria  still  persist.  Once  widely  distributed  In  the  Jurassic 
period  throughout  the  world,  they  are  now  dying  out  •  the  former 
IS  represented  by  the  solitary  maiden-hair  tree  of  China  and  Japan; 
the  latter  by  some  ten  species  confined  to  the  southern  hemisphere, 
once  perhaps  their  original  home.  Vhth  them  nay  be  assoaated 
toe  anomalous  Sciadopuvs  of  Japan. 

^  So  far  the  evolution  of^thc  vegetable  kingdom  has  proceeded  with- 
out any  conspicuous  break.  Successive  types  have  arisen  in  ascend- 
ing sequence,  taken  the  lead,  and  in  turn  given  way  to  others.    But 


the  later  period  of  the  Mcsosoic  era  saw  the  almost  sudden  adveat 
of  a  fully  developed  angioqjermous  vegetation  which  rapidly  ocxn- 
pied  the  earth's  surface,  and  which  it  is  not  easy  to  link  on  with 
any  that  preceded  it.  The  dosed  ovary  implies  a  mode  of  fertilizs- 
tion  which  is  profoundly  different,  and  which  was  probably  correlated 
with  a  siroultaiieotts  development  of  insect  life.  This  was  acooo- 
panied  by  a  vegetative  organization  of  which  there  is  no  obvioos 
foreshadowing.  As  Clement  Reid  remarked.  "World-wide  floras, 
such  as  seem  to  characterize  some  of  the  older  periods,  have  ceased 
to  be,  and  plants  are  distributed  more  markedly  according  to 
geographical  provinces  and  in  dimatic  zones."  The  field  of  evolu- 
tion has  now  been  transferred  to  the  northern  hemisphere.  Tboiigii 
Angiospcrms  become  dominant  in  all  known  plant-bearing  Upper 
Cretaceous  deposits,  their  origin  dates  even  earlier.  In  Europe 
Heer's  Popttlus  pnmaeva  from  the  Lower  Cretaceous  in  Greenlaod 
was  kmg  accepted  as  the  oldest  dicotyledonous  pJant.  Other  oa- 
doubted  Dicotyledons,  though  of  uncertain  affinity,  oi  similar  age 
have  now  been  detected  in  North  America.  The  Cenomaman  racks 
of  Bohemia  have  yielded  remains  of  a  sub-tropical  fl<»a  which  has 
been  compared  with  that  existing  at  present  m  Australia.  Upper 
Cretaceous  formations  in  America  have  yielded  a  copious  flora  <d 
a  warm-temperate  clinwte  from  which  it  is  evident  that  at  least  the 
generic  tvpes  of  numerous  not  dosdy  related  existing  dicotyledonoys 
trees  had  already  come  into  existence.  It  may  be  admitted  that 
the  identification  of  fragmentary  leaf-remains  is  at  most  precarioos. 
Even,  however,  with  this  reservation,  it  is  difficult  to  resist  the  mass 
of  evidence  as  a  whole.  And  it  is  a  plausible  conjecture  that  the 
vegetation  of  the  globe  had  already  in  its  main  features  been  consti- 
tuted at  this  period  much  as  it  exists  at  the  present  moment.  There 
were  oaks,  beeches  -(srarcely  distinguishable  from  existing  specks), 
birches,  planes  and  willows  (one  closely  related  to  the  bving  Sdts 
Candida),  laurels,  represented  by  Sassafras  and  Cinnamommm, 
magnolias  and  tulip  trees  (Liriedendrtm),  myrtles,  LiqtndamUcr, 
Diospyros  and  ivy.  This  is  a  flora  which,  thinned  out  by  losses, 
practically  exists  to  this  day  in  the  southern  United  States.  And 
one  essentially  similar  but  adapted  to  slightly  cooler  coiiditioa 
existed  as  far  north  as  the  latitude  of  Greenland. 

The  tertiary  era  opens  with  a  chmate  in  which  during  the  Eocene 
period  something  like  existing  tropical  conditions  must  have  obcaioed 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  remains  of  palms  (Sabot  and  Mipa) 
as  well  as  of  other  large-leaved  Monocotyledons  are  preserved. 
Sequoia  (which  had  alre»iy  appeared  in  the  American  upper  Cre- 
taceous) and  the  deriduous  cypress  (7az0rfiiMt  dtsitckum)  are  found 
in  Europe.  Starkie  Gardner  has  argued  with  much  plausibility  thai 
the  Tertiary  floras  which  have  been  found  in  the  far  north  must 
have  been  01  Eocene  age.  That  of  Grinnell  Land  in  lat  81  *  consisted 
of  Conifers  (including  the  living  spruce),  poplars  and  wilkya-s,  sudi 
as  wouki  be  found  now  25"  to  tne  south.  The  flora  of  Disco  Island 
in  lat.  70**  contained  SeouatOt  planes,  maples  and  nugnolias,  aad 
closely  agrees  with  the  Miocene  flora  of  central  Europe.  Qi  this 
copious  remains  have  been  found  in  Switzerland  ana  have  bc«B 
investijsated  with  grrat  ability  by  O.  Heer.  They  point  to  co^tter 
conditiofu  in  the  northern  hemisphere:  palms  and  tropical  types 
diminish:  deciduous  trees  increase.  Stqu^ia  and  the  tulip-cree 
still  remain:  figs  are  abundant;  laurels  are  represented  by  Sassafras 
and  camphor;  herbaceous  plants  (Ranunculaccae,  Crucifcne. 
Umbelltferac)  are  present,  though,  as  might  be  expected,  only  frag- 
menrarily  preserved. 

We  may  draw  with  some  certainty  the  oondusion  that  m.  general 
movement  southward  of  vegeration  had  been  brought  about. 
While  Europe  and  probably  North  America  were  occupieaby  a  warm 
temperate  flora,  tropical  types  had  been  driven  southward,  while 
the  adaptation  of  others  to  arctic  conditions  had  become  aocenttratcd. 
A  gradual  refrigeration  proceeded  through  the  Pliocene  prriod 
This  was  accompanied  in  Europe  by  a  drastic  weeding  out  of  Miocese 
types,  ultimately  leaving  the  flora  pretty  much  as  it  now  exists. 
This,  as  will  be  explained,  did  not  take  place  to  anything  like  the 
same  extent  in  North  America,  the  vegetation  of  «-hich  still  yr^ 
serves  a  more  Miocene  fades.  Toneya,  now  confined  to  North 
America  and  Japan,  still  lingered,  as  did  Oratos.  now  pwfui«hr 
devek>ped  in  the  tropics,  but  in  north  temperate  regions  ooly 
existing  in  the  Canaries  the  evergreen  ooks,  so  charactenstic  of  the 
Miocene,  were  reduced  to  the  existing  Quercus  ilex.  At  the  dose  of 
the  Pliocene  the  European  flora  mas  apparently  tittle  different  frco 
that  now  existing,  though  some  warmer  types  such  as  the  watrr- 
chestnut  (Trapa  naUnuj  had  a  more  northern  extension.  The 
glacial  period  effected  in  Europe  a  wholesale  exterminatioo  of 
temperate  types  accompanied  by  a  southern  extension  of  the  arctic 
flora.  But  its  operation  was  in  great  measure  local.  The  Plkx^me 
flora  found  refuges  in  favoured  localities  from  which  at  its  close  the 
lowlands  were  restocked  while  the  arctic  plants  were  left  bdhuid 
on  the  mountains.  During  the  milder  interglacial  period  aomc 
southern  types,  such  as  Rhododendron  ponticum,  still  befd  their  own. 
but  ultimately  succumbed. 

The  evidence  which  has  thus  been  briefly  sammari»d,  points 
nnmisukably  to  the  conclusion  that  existing  vmtatioooriginatrd 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  under  climatic  conditions  conupocid- 
ing  to  what  would  now  be  termed  sub-tropical  It  occupied  a  con- 
tinuous drcumpolar  area  which  allowed  free  communication  bctmccn 
the  old  and  new  worlds.    The  gradual  differentiation  of  thctr  floras 


DISTRIBimONl 


PLANTS 


779 


has  been  brou|^t  about  rather  bv  extermtnatiDn  than  apedalisation, 
and  their  diaiuictive  fades  by  the  development  and  multiplication 
of  the  surviving  types. 

The  distribution  of  mountain  barriers  in  the  Old  and  New  Worids 
n  in  striking  contrast.  In  the  former  they  run  from  east  to  west; 
in  the  latter  from  north  to  south.  In  tl>e  Old  World  the  boieal  zone 
is  almost  sharply  cut  off  and  aifonlcd  no  means  of  escape  for  the 
Miocene  vegetation  when  the  chmate  became  more  severe.  Thus  in 
the  Mediterranean  region  the  large  groups  of  palms,  figs,  myrtles 
and  laurels  are  each  only  represented  by  sineie  surviving  species. 
The  great  tropical  family  Of  the  Gesneraceae  has  left  behind  a  few 
outliers:  Ramcndia  in  the  Pyrenees,  Haberlea  in  the  Balkans,  and 
Jankaea  in  Thessaly ;  the  Pvrenees  also  possess  a  minute  Diouorca^ 
sole  European  survivor  of  the  yams  of  the  tropics. 

In  North  America  there  is  no  such  barrier:  the  Miocene  flora 
has  been  able  to  escape  by  migration  the  fluctuations  of  climate  and 
to  return  when  they  ameliocated.  It  has  preserved  its  character- 
istic types,  such  as  Magn^ia,  Lrriodendron^.LiqHidambor^  Torrtya, 
Taxodium  and  Sequoia.  While  it  has  been  customaiy  to  describe 
the  Miocene  flora  of  Europe  as  of  a  North  American  type,  it  would 
be  more  accurate  to  describe  the  latter  as  having  in  groat  measure 
preserved  its  Miocene  character. 

If  mountains  serve  as  barriers  which  arrest  the  migration  of  the 
vegetation  at  their  base,  their  upper  levels  and  summits  afford  lines 
of  communication  by  which  the  floras  of  colder  rcpons  in  the 
northern  hemtsphcxe  can  obtain  a  southern  extension  even  across 
the  tropics.  They  doubtless  equally  supply  a  path  by  which  southern 
temperate  types  may  have  cxtendoa  northwards.  Thus  the 
characteristic  assemblage  of  plants  to  which  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  has 
given  the  name  Scandinavian  "  is  present  in  every  latitude  of  the 

flobe,  and  is  the  only  one  that  is  so  "  {Trans*  Linn.  Soc  xxiii.  253). 
n  the  mountains  of  Peru  we  find  such  characteristic  nocthcm  genera 
as  Draba,  Akkemitla,  Saxijraga,  Vckriana^  CenHana  and  Bartsia. 
High  elevations  reproduce  the  phyrical  conditions  of  high  latitudes. 
The  aqueous  vapour  in  the  atmosphere  is  transparent  to  luminous 
but  opaque  to  obscure  bcat^rays.  The  latter  are  retained  to  warm 
the  air  at  lower  levels,  while  tt  remains  cold  at  higher.  It  results 
that  besides  a  horizontal  distribution  of  pbnts,  there  is  also  an 
altitudinal:  a  fact  of  cardinal  importance,  the  first  observation  of 
which  has  been  attributed  to  Tournefort. 

Speaking  generally,  all  plants  tend  to  exhaust  particular  consti- 
tuents of  the  soil  on  which  they  i^w.    Nature  therefore  has  pro- 
vided various  contrivances  by  which  their  seeds  auv  (tisseminatod 
beyond  the  actual  portion  they  occupy.    In  a  large  number  of  cases 
these  only  provide  for  migration  within  sufficient  but  narrow  limits; 
such  plants  would  be  content  to  remain  local.    But  other  physical 
agencies  come  into  pby  which  may  be  briefly  noticed.   The  hrst  of 
tnese  is  wind:  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  small  seeds  can  be  swept 
up  like  dust  and .  transported  to  considerable  distances.    This  is 
certainly  the  case  with  fern-spores.    The  vegetation  of  Krakatoa 
was  completely  exterminated  In  18S3  by  a  thick  coat  of  red-hot 
pumice.    Yet  m  1886  Trcub  found  that  it  was  beginning  to  cover 
Itself  again  with  plants,  including  eleven  species  <x  ferns;  but  the 
nearest  source  of  suppl)r  was  10  m.  distant.    Seeds  arc  carried  with 
more  facility  when  p>rovided  with  plumes  or  wings.   Trcub  found  on 
Krakatoa  four  species  of  composites  and  two  graaees.    Water  is 
another  obvious  means  of  transport.    The  littoral  vegetation  ci 
coral  islands  is  derived  from  sea-Domc  fruits.    The  act^s  of  West 
Indian  plants  are  thrown  on  the  western  shores  of  the  British  Ides, 
and  as  they  are  capable  of  germination,  the  species  are  only  pn> 
vented  from  establishing  themselves  by  an  uncongenial  climatew 
Travers  picked  up  a  seed  of  Edwardsia  in  the  Chatham  Islands, 
evident!^  washed  ashore  from  New  Zealand  {Linn.  See.  Joum.  ix. 
186^).    Klvere  bring  down  the  plants  of  the  upper  levels  of  their 
basins  to  the  lower:  thus  species  characteristic  of  the  chalk  are 
found  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames  near  London.    Birds  are  even 
more  effective  than  wind  in  transporting  seeds  to  long  distances. 
Seeds  arc  carried  in  soil  adhering  to  their  feet  and  plumage,  and 
aquatic  plants  have  in  consequence  for  the  most  part  an  exception- 
ally  wide  range.    Fruit-pigeons  are  an  effective  means  of  transport 
in  the  tropics  by  the  undigested  seeds  which  they  void  in  their 
excrement.    Ouadnipeds  also  play  their  part  by  carrying  seeds  or 
fruits  entangled  in  their  coats.    Xanikium  spinosum  has  spread  from 
the  Russian  steppes  to  every  stock-raising  country  in  the  world, 
and  in  some  cases  has  made  the  industry  impossible.    Even  insects, 
as  in  the  case  of  South  African  locusts,  have  been  found  to  be  a  means 
of  distributing  seeds. 

The  primazy  regions  of  vegetation,  already  indicated,  and  th<»r 

subordinate  provinces  may  now  be  considered  more  in  detail. 

I.  North  Temperatb  Region.— Many  writers  on  the  distribution 
of  animals  prefer  to  separate  this  into  two  regions  of  "  primary  rank  ** : 
the  Palaearctk  and  the  Nmrctie.  But  to  justify  such  a  division  it 
is  necessary  to  establish  either  an  exclusive  possession  or  a  marked 
predominance  of  t^^pes  in  the  one  which  are  correspondingly  deficient 
m  the  other.  This  cannot  apparently  he  done  for  insects  or  for 
birds;  Newton  accordingly  umtes  the  two  into  the  Holofctic  region. 
It  equally  fails  for  plants.  To  take,  for  example,  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  features  of  the  Palaearctic  region,  its  catldn-bcaring 
deciduous  trees:  in  North  America  we  find  precisely  the  same^genera 


as  in  the  Old  Worid-'-Hnks,  chestnuts,  beeches,  hanls,  hornbeams, 
birehes,  alders,  willows  and  pO|dars.  Or  to  take  the  small  but  well- 
defined  group  of  fivc-lcavcd  pines,  all  the  species  of  which  may  be 
seen  growing  side  by  side  at  Kcw  under  identical  conditions:  we 
have  the  Weymouth  pine  {Pinus  Strobus)  in  eastern  North  America, 
P.  matUuola  and  the  sugar  pine  {P.  Lambfrtiana)  in  California, 
P.  AyacahutU  in  Mexico,  the  Arolla  pine  {P.  Cembra)  in  Switzerland 
and  Siberia,  P.  Peiut  in  Greece,  the  Bhotan  pine  (P.  txtdia)  in  the 
Himalayas^  and  two  other  species  in  Japan.  Amongst  broad- 
leaved  trees  Ju^ans  has  a  umilar  Holarctic  range,  descending  to 
the  West  Indies;  so  has  Aescnlus,  were  it  not  laclung  in  Europe; 
it  becomes  tropical  in  South  America  and  Malaya.  If  we  turn  to 
hcibaccous  plants,  Hemsley  has  pointed  out  that  of  the  thirteen 
genera  of  Ranunculaceae  in  California,  eleven  are  British. 

While  the  tropics  preserve  for  us  what  remains  of  the  pre- 
Tcrttary  or,  at  the  latest.  Eocene  vegctatbn  of  the  earth,  which 
formeriy  hod  a  much  wider  extension,  the  flora  of  the  North  Tem- 
perate ref^n  is  often  described  as  the  sunaval  of  the  Miocene. 
Engfer  therefore  calls  it  Arcto-Tertiary.  We  must,  however,  agree 
with  Starkie  Gardner  that  it  is  only  Miocene  as  regards  its  present 
position,  which  was  originally  farther  north,  and  that  its  actual 
orietn  was  much  carticr.  There  has  been  in  effect  a  successive 
shifting  of  zones  of  vegetation  southwards  from  the  pole.  Their 
distinctive  and  adaptive  characteristics  doubtless  began  to  be 
established  as  soon  as  the  phanerogamic  flora  was  constituted. 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  pccuUarities  of  the  arctic 
flora  are  more  modem  than  those  of  any  other,  though  there  is  no 
fossil  evidence  to  prove  that  it  was  not  so. 

The  North  Temperate  region  admits  of  subdivision  into  several 
well-marked  sub-regions.  The  general  method  by  which  this  is 
effected  in  this  and  other  cases  is  statisticaL  As  A.  de  Candollc, 
however,  points  out,  exdusive  reliance  on  this  may  be  misleading 
unkss  we  also  take  into  account  the  character  and  affinities  of  the 
plants  dealt  with  {Geogr.  Bot.  i.  1 166).  The  numerical  predominance 
of  certain  families  or  their  absence  affords  criteria  for  marking  out 
boundary  lines  and  tracing  relationships.  The  analysis  of  the  flora 
of  the  British  Istes  w^ill  afford  an  illustration.  This  was  first 
attempted  in  1835  by  H.  C.  Watson,  and  his  conclusions  were  en- 
forced ten  years  later  by  Edward  Forbes,  who  dealt  also  with  the 
fauna.  Watson  showed  that  Scotland  primarily,  and  to  a  less  extent 
the  north  of  England,  possessed  species  which  do  not  reach  the  south. 
Such  are  the  crowbcrry  {Empeirum  nigntm),  Trienlaiis  europaea, 
Rubus  saxatilis  and  the  globe-flower  (Trollius  europceus).  He 
further  found  that  there  was  an  etement  which  he  termed  "  boreal 
.  .  .  in  a  more  intense  degree,"  which  amounted  to  about  "a 
fifteenth  of  the  whole  flora.  Thb  was  not  confined  to  the  north 
but  may  occur  on  the  mountains  of  England  and  Wales:  S<^ix 
herhacca,  SUene  aatulis  and  Dryas  octopetala  will  serve  as  examples. 
Even  so  small  an  area  as  that  of  Britain  illustrates  what  has  already 
been  pointed  out,  that  the  species  of  a  flora  change  both  with  latitude 
and  altitude.  Watson  further  brought  out  the  striking  fact  that  the 
west  and  east  of  Britain  each  had  species  peculiar  to  it ;  the  former 
he  characterized  as  Atlantic,  the  latter  as  Germanic.  The  Cornish 
heath  {Erica  vagans)  and  the  maiden-hair  fern  {Adtantum  Captlins' 
Veneris)  may  serve  as  instances  of  the  one,  the  man-orchis  {Aceras 
anthropifpkora)  and  Reseda  lutea  of  the  other.  Ireland  illustrates 
the  same  fact.  It  possesses  about  1000  species,  or  about  two-thirds 
the  number  of  Britain.  On  its  western  shores  there  are  some 
twenty,  such  as  Saxifraga  umbrosa,  Erica  mediterranea  and  Arbutus 
uttedot  which  arc  not  found  in  Britain  at  all.  The  British  Phanero- 
gamic flora,  it  may  be  remarked,  docs  not  contain  a  single  endemic 
species,  and  ^8%  of  the  total  number  are  common  to  the  three 
northern  continents. 

The  analysis  of  hrgcr  areas  yields  results  of  the  same  kind.  Within 
the  same  region  we  may  expect  to  find  considerable  differences  as 
we  pass  from  one  meridian  to  another.  Assuming  that  in  its  cir- 
cumpolar  origin  the  North  Temperate  flora  was  fairly  homogeneous. 
it  would  meet  in  its  centrifugal  extension  with  a  wide  range  of  local 
conditions;  these  would  favour  the  preservation  of  numerous  species 
in  some  genera,  their  greater  or- less  elimination  in  others.  Thus 
comparing  the  Ncarctic  and  Palaearctic  floras  we  find  strikins  differ- 
ences overiying  the  points  of  agreement  already  indicatca.  The 
former  is  poor  in  Crucifcrae,  Caryophyllaccae,  Umbclliferae,  Primul- 
aceae  and  Labiatac;  but  for  the  occurrence  of  Calluna  in  Newfound- 
land it  would  have  no  heaths.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  rich  in  Com- 
positae,  especially  Solidago  and  Aster^  Polemoniaceae,  Asclepiad- 
aceae,  Hydrophyllaceae  and  Cyperaccae,  and  it  has  the  endemic 
Sarracenta,  type  of  a  family  structurallyallied  to  poppies,  of  which 
of  the  remaining  genera  Dariingtonia  is  Califomian,  ana  Heliampkora 
Venezuelan.  These  distinctions  led  ^r  Joseph  Hooker  to  claim  for 
the  two  divisions  the  rank  of  primary  regions.  Darwin  doubted, 
however,  whether  they  ought  to  be  separated  {Life,  iii.  230).  Lyell, 
dtscu^ng  the  facts  of  zoological  distribution,  admits  that  the 
farther  we  ^  north  . . .  the  more  the  discordance  in  genera  and 
species  diminishes  "  (Principles,  ii.  340) ;  and  Hemsley  finds  that 
not  less  than  75%  of  the  efenera  in  the  flora  of  eastern  North  America 
''  are  represented  in  the  old  world,"  and,  according  to  Asa  Gray,  50  % 
in  Europe. 

Latitudinally  the  region  subdivides  naturally  Into  several  well- 
marked  sub-regions  whtch  must  be  briefly  discussed. 


M  bv  tlHi 

_  _Jd  «ad  have  ban  ibowt  ._  _  . 
mipcrmtim  cvm  ai  liquHl  bydrofcn-  ..  .  . 
brief  inwtk  ud  Bowa  at  •  tonpcniun  link 
axl  in  deinileM  for  tbor  boil  on  the  d' 
CbumcMriidc:  repRmtiliva  uc  Ptpiart 
tftMiUltHa,  which  fofmi  ■  prsfuig  orpci 
Siicb  punlt  pcrbipa  utntd  to  tbe  moat  » 
Inown.  OoMavKNh.inWaRlKiiiil'iltUB 
Nun  round  tbil  "  wfcuikw  m  IiirJv  n 
quantity  In  tbv  poppy,  Kudfiw  and  imaft  tu 
compart  tbii  with  cxtrane  alpuw  conditioni 
Aletacb  f  bcict  at  a  briibt  of  10,701  It.  BaD 
oae  inch  bdow  the  iitnacc  to  be  0A*,  and  he 
nciea  In  flows."  Takjpg  cbc  whole  v 
Hooka  found  that  tit  ociui 
an  ScandinaviaB.  Bnrood  tl 
■  quaitcr,  an  coDtnol  to  Ibi 
and  <A  "  aliU  nwn  aoulhm 


'  -■— ive  Irwing-point, 

Dryiu  tOcpa^. 
BJ's',  Sir  Cwcje 


:.alu«lo( 


Ibl  Mber.  ,T|iii> 

, ^wbluiabiwTbalT. 

the  Alpa  have  171  endemic  ipcclea  and  at  leai 

at  Iniad  in  the  Fyreoeea.  while  the  latter  rani 
vBdemk  qxciea  with  levcal  (ilx  or  eevt"^  — *■ 
Alpa."  Drudc  hav  accordingly  lu^toted 


Kf  rcgardi  ai  mivlead  ini 


high  novntaini  of  the  North Tempcntc  region  it  eeneially  attributed 
to  the  dcbanse  which  took  place  durii^  Che  rlacial  penod-  Tbia 
wai  5rat  aufseatcd  by  Edward  Forbeain  iftit,  lbou|h  the  idea  had 
carKer  HgiateditadF  to  Darwin  (jU/ciM).  Ittook  place  aoatb- 
waida,  for  the  arctic  Am,  la  mvarkabljr  onifonn,  ana,  aa  Cbodat 


«  depodta  connected  whh  the  boiildei 


liowD  that  durinf  the  facial  poiud  Ehr  eiiil 
by  an  arctic  ooe  reprciented  by  auch  pUni 
iwH.  £  niKiilala  and  Atfnla  luiu.   At  th 

JttinE  alpine  florae  dcacended  to  lower] 

may  afne  with  Ball  that  they  did  not  necetBrily  bi 
lidwroncaailongaa  any  land-wrfaceiniiained  unco 
t  UK  ctoae  rA  Ibe  Elacial  period  tbc  alpine  fkiraa  reti 

:.. :_i  ■_.  — jj  tontiiiient,  ll 

5efii^g£ru,(aj 


ai  S^f  ftlcrii,  S.  IMwH. 
thW(h  we  may  afne  with  6a1^ 


lie  glacial  epoch  the  north  Ai 
iidi  inla  Eursoe  and  inlerniiB^  with  lb 
me  Hjecief,  Hjch  aa  ^  wiifiHH  ef^mo.  which  a 
n  oTihe  Old  World,  he  thinlo  muH  have  I 


^"^i 


baUa  deciL.... 
•ad  larches  of  w 


"SS 


iietinFae--f)inea,  I 
,  ualikm  tiaeld 


alder  lypaa,  na  irprMmtaliva 


rnsnuBunoN 

be  patbopibDw* 

_, , jidut  in  Deanurh 

m  the  Roman  period.  It  wai  aucceeded  by  [he  teadle-fnaled  oak. 
which  wu  in  turn  wipplanied  by  the  peduicahte  form  of  the  Hme 
tree.  Qaatiu  Katur  hu  left  no  tnce  in  the  Tertiary  dtpoaiu  ct 
Europe  and  it  b  nun  nearly  alliid  to  eoK  Aiialk:  •oecie*.  The  oak 
in  turn  baa  been  almoB  wpeneded  in  OenmarV  by  Uie  bcerh.  whHi. 
if  we  nuy  truer  Juliui  Caeur,  had  km  reuhcd  Britun  in  hii  linK 
though  it  ekined  there  in  the  pre-glacial  period,  but  a  nor  natiTe  ia 
either  Scotland  or  Ireland.  Ira  ^diem  limit  in  Europe  ia  a  line 
from  KonicsberE  to  the  Caucaaui;  thence  rhmigh  China  it  b  no- 

BiQadly  Biieakiiir,  the  Ajnerkan  poitjoncif  the  Kib-tqiin  cmwMi 

cnCj  partly  occupied  by  the  Rwky  Mountains  partly  by  mlervcninc 
plainf.  lie  arboreal  vesetation  n  richer  twih  in  leneia  and  ^ledrt 
than  that  cormpoBdlaf  10  it  in  Ibe  Olit  World.  Glacial  dimlaaiio* 
baa  been  leaa  leven.  tw  rather  ibeic  hai  been,  at  any  me  on  the 
Allaalhiiide,  an  nalmpeded  return  of  Miocene  typea.  The  Atlantic 
ana  faaa  bvt  nafiHliB^  a  tuHp  tree,  aa  Aiwnacea  (Aiimvt*),  i*d 
l^natnenlaceae  (ShiarMa  and  Ctriimia).  LifMiiamtar,  Viui  (the 
fox-fnpe,  F.  Lomuco,  reappcan  in  JapanX  and  othert;  an  atiera- 
blaK  aa  lofw  amo  pointed  out  by_  Asa  Gray,  which  can  only  be 
panlUed  In  tbe  Chin>-Japaneae  nsion,  another  centre  of  preaer^^ 
IkMofHioceaetypet.  All  theae  are  wintini  in  the  Pao&c  area. 
thourii  then  an  Indicationa  in  ite  fold-benrine  Eraveli  (hat  it  ontt 

pa d  them.  On  tbeotherhlntT  tbelaiier^' iirichincDaiTeioua 

typea  beyond  any  cotintry  except  Japan  "  (A.  Cray),  but  till  wt 
nach  Calitoniia  theae  are  boreal  in  type.  The  Aibatic  flm  hu 
tion.    Thev  were  abundant  in  Tertiary  Europe^  aa  chey  are  now  b 

inXI!ied  ab^r'lh^«h'ianiw'cenlnl''America  nd  IhcVeM 
India  have  pmerved  a  numtierof  CKino-Japaneie  type* — Pa^r^t^ 
DnOmt.  Attlia.  Ac.— not  net  with  Htewhcre  in  the  New  Wi 

STbe  iriiiltMmiH«.Ori«lif  »' 
the  Inlcmediate  Chan  the 
Aaorea  and  Canariea,  the  Medi 
'-         the  Atlat  and  Sahara,  * 
-■--'---iSind.be'--' 
the  Cu 


..jka  aad  Conilen  _ .- 

The  Aitan  tree  {AtamiaStdttftyltn},  which  fonna  foccatain  MortKco^ 
h  a  remarliable  aurvivor  of  a  tropfcal  family  (SapotMeic).  Ainoiitat 
ConttEra  Ctina  ia  eipeciallv  noteworthy  i  it  ia  reprtittnled  by  leo- 
trapbieal  racea  io  tbe  Dorth.wc]t  Himalaya,  In  Syria,  Cyprua  ud 

Tbia  wejl-marhed  lub-region  haa  a  de^m  Intncil  than  the 
botanicaL  it  baa  been  the  cradle  ol  dviliniioB,  and  to  kiaduF  the 
majority  of  cultivated  ptanta.    Such  are  the  date  in  Meaopotuua 

ia  lecond  tpedea  of  Pkotnix  occurm  In  Ibe  CanarieaJ ;  a»al  Eruop^m 
ruin,  t.f.  the  vine.  hi.  mulberry,  cbsiy.  apiicDl.  walnut:  puhea. 
t.1.  the  bean,  pe*  and  knlil:  pot-hirt>%  i^.  letnce,  endin.  beet. 


Shortly. 


regard  Che  Hinudayan  Aon  aa 


eenen  which  Hooker  dnalea  uut  aa  the  largeit  In  Sifchrm.  m  Chi^a 
C^ryUii  ha>  76  ipeciea.  Soitfnta  Jt.  Fcdinftrir  ii*.  and  Aioda 
17.. .OC  XMWn^m  than  an  134  ifKcica.     UpnnJ*  ol  loaw 


DISTRIBUTION! 


PLANTS 


781 


•pedes  are  known  out  oC  «  nnhtiilk  total  of  not  I 

'  li  are  endemic.    The  number  of  species 


than  11,000, 
and  of  these  more  than  half  are  endemic.  The  number  of  species 
to  a  flenus,  3.  is  only  half  that  found  in  other  larve  anas.  This 
apregation  of  geneia  and  of  endemic  species  is  chafacteriatk  of  the 
arcumferenlial  portiomi  of  the  earth's  Und  surface,  the  eKoansioo 
of  the  one  and  the  further  advance  of  the  other  is  arrested.  The 
sub<region  is  probably  sharply  cut  off  from  the  Intermediate. 
Maximowica  finds  that  40  %  01  the  plants  of  Manchuria  are  common 
to  Europe  and  Asia,  but  the  proportion  Calls  sharply  to  16%  in  the 
case  of  Japan.  Its  connexion  with  the  Meditenaneo-Oriental  sub- 
region  is  still  more  remote.  China  has  no  Cistus  or  heath,  only  a 
single  FtrtUa,  while  AstragtUus  is  reduced  to  35  species.  There  are 
two  species  of  Piftada  and  four  of  LtfiitiaMMr.  The  alKmty  to 
Atlantic  North  Amerka  is  strongly  marked  as  it  has  long  been  known 
to  be  in  Japan.  China  has  ^  species  of  QutrcuSt  35  of  VUu,  2  of 
Aesctdus,  4a  of  Actr,  33  Magnoliaoeae  (including  two  species  of 
Liriodendron),  12  Anonaceae«  71  Ternstroemiaoeae  (mcluding  the 
tea-plant),  and  |  of  Cktkrat  which  has  a  solitary  western  represen- 
tative in  Madeira.  Trackycarfitu  and  Rkapu  are  characteristic 
palms,  and  Cycadeae  are  represented  by  Cytas. 

5.  The  MtxicO'Amtrican  sub'Ttgion  has  as  its  northern  boundary 
the  parallel  of  lat.  36*  as  far  as  New  Mexico  and  then  northwaras 
to  the  Pacific  coast  at  lat.  ao*.  The  eastern  and  western  halves 
are  contrasted  in  climate-— toe  former  being  moist  and  the  latter 
dry— and  have  been  distinguished  bv  some  aoologists  as  distinct  sub- 
regions.  They  are  in  fact  tn  some  degree  comparable  to  sub-rmons 
3  and  4  in  the  Old  VVorM.  The  absence  of  marked  natural  boundaries 
makes  any  precise  north  and  south  limitation  difficult.  But  it  has 
been  a  centre  of  preservation  of  the  Taxodieae,  a  tribe  of  Coniferae 
of  great  antiquity  Taxodium  (with  single  species  in  China  and 
Mexico)  is  represented  bv  the  deciduous  cypress  {T,  diauhum), 
which  extends  from  Florioa  to  Texas.  The  two  species  of  Stqtma, 
the  "  Wellingtonta  "  iS.pt^ntw)  and  the  redwood  {S.  stmpernreus). 
are  confined  to  California.  In  the  eastern  forests  the  prevalenoe  of 
Magnoliaceae  and  of  CUlhra  and  Rhododendron  continues  the  alliance 
witn  eastern  Asia.  Florida  derives  a  tropical  elMnent  from  the 
Antilles.  Amongst  palms  the  Corypheae  are  represented  by  Sabal 
and  Tknnax,  and  there  is  a  solitary  Zamia  amongst  Cycads.  The 
western  dry  areas  have  the  old-workl  leguminous  AstratUtu  and 
Proiopis  (Mesquit),  but  are  especially  characterired  by  tne  north- 
ward extension  of  the  new-world  tropical  Cactaceae.  MammiUaria. 
Cereus  and  Opuntia,  by  succulent  Amaryllideae  such  as  Agave  (of 
which  the  so-called  "  American  akie  "  is  a  type),  and  by  arbomcent 
Liliaoeae  {Yucca).  Amongst  palms  (KoMtngloiiia,  Braked  and 
Erythea  (all  Corypheae)  replace  the  eastern  genera.  On  the  west 
coast  Cuftressus  Lawsoniana  replaces  the  nortnem  Thuya  giianUa, 
and  a  laurel  {UmbtUularia  of  isolated  affinity)  forms  forests. 
California  and  Arinna  have  each  a  species  of  PUHttnus,  a  dying-out 

Enus.  Elsewhere  it  Is  only  represented  by  P,  occidentalism  the 
rgest  tree  of  the  Atlantic  forests  from  Maine  to  Oregon,  am)  by 
P.  orientalis  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean.  Otherwise  the  C^lifor- 
nian  flora  is  entirely  deficient  in  the  characteristic  features  of 
that  of  eastern  North  America.  Nor,  with  perhaps  the  interesting 
exccptwn  of  CastanopsiM  chrysopkytta,  the  solitary  repreaenutive 
in  the  New  World  of  an  east  A^tk  genus,  which  ranges  from  Oregon 
to  California,  has  it  any  affinity  with  the  Chino-Japanese  sub-region. 
Its  closest  connexion  is  with  the  South  American  Andine. 

II.  The  TaoncAL  Rbciom.— The  permanence  of  continents  and 
great  oceans  was  first  insisted  upon  by  J.  D.  Dana,  but,  as  already 
stated,  has  later  received  support  on  purely  physical  grounds.  It 
precludes  the  explanation  of  any  common  features  in  the  dissevered 
porrions  of  the  tropical  area  of  vegetatkin  by  lateral  communi- 
cations, and  throws  back  their  origin  to  the  remotest  geological 
antiquity.  In  point  of  fact,  resemblance  is  in  the  main  con- 
fined to  the  higher  groups,  such  as  families  and  large  senera;  the 
smaller  nnera  and  qiecies  are  entirely  different.  No  genus  or 
nedes  of  palm,  for  example,  is  common  to  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. 
The  ancient  broad-leaved  Gymnosperm  Cnetum  has  a  few  surviving 
wecies  scattered  through  the  tropics  of  both  worlds,  one  reaching 
rolynesia. 

f.  African  md-resMM.— Western  Arabia  must  be  added  to  the 
African  continent j  uniich,  with  this  exception  and  possibly  a  former 
European  connexion  in  the  far  west,  has  had  apparently  from  a 
very  early  period  an  almost  insular  character.  Bentham  remarks 
(journ,  Linn.  Sec.  xiiL  492) :  "  Here,  more  perhaps  than  in  any  other 

Krt  of  the  globe,  in  Compositae  as  in  so  many  other  orders,  we  may 
ncy  we  see  the  scattered  remains  of  ancient  races  dwindling 
down  to  their  last  representatives^"  It  b  remaricable  that  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  Miocene  flora,  which  in  other  parts 
of  the  world  have  spread  and  developed  southwards,  are  conspicu- 
ously absent  from  tne  African  tropical  flora.  It  has  no  Magnolia- 
ceae, no  maples,  Pomaceae,  or  Vacciniaceae,  no  Rhododendron 
#nd  no  Abietineae.  Perhaps  even  more  striMngis  the  absence  of 
Cupuliferae;  Quercus,  in  particular,  whkh  fromTertiary  times  has 
been  a  conspicuous  northern  type  and  in  Malayan  troincal  conditions 
has  developed  others  which  are  widely  divergent.  Palms  are 
■trikingly  deficient:  there  are  only  three  out  of  70  genera  of  Areceae, 
and  the  Conrpheae  are  entirely  absent.  But  including  the  Ma»- 
carene  Islands  and  Seychelles  the  Borasseae  are  exclusively  African. 
Aroideae  are  poorly   represented  compared   with  either  South 


Amerka  or  Malays.  A  peculiar  feature  in  whkh  tropica!  Africa 
sunds  alone  is  that  at  least  one-fifth  and  probaMy  more  of  the 
qiecies  are  common  to  both  sides  of  the  continent  and  presumably 
stretch  right  across  it.  An  Indian  element  derived  from  the  north- 
east is  most  marked  on  the  eastern  skie:  the  Himalayan  Ciortosa 
will  soflke  as  an  example,  and  of  more  tropkal  types  Pkeentx  and 
Calamus  amongst  palms.  The  forest  flora  of  Madagascar,  though 
including  an  endemk  family  Chlaenaceae,  is  essentially  tropical 
African,  and  the  upland  flora  south  temperate. 

2.  The  Indo-htal^n  sub-reiion  includes  the  Indian  and  Malayan 
peninsulas,  Cochin-China  and  southern  China,  the  Malayan  archiiiet- 
ago.  and  Philippines,  with  New  Guinea  and  Polynesia;  excluding  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  Probably  in  point  of  number  of  species  the  pre- 
ponderant family  is  Oichidcae,  though,  as  Hemslcy  remarks,  they 
do  not  "  give  character  to  the  scenery,  or  constitute  the  bulk  of  the 
vcgcution."  In  Malaya  and  eastward  the  forests  are  rich  in  arbor- 
escent figs,  laurels,  myrtles;  nutmegs,  oaks  and  bamboos.  Diptcro- 
carpcac  and  Nepenthaceae  only  extend  with  a  few  outliers  into  the 
African  sub-region.  Screw  pines  have  a  closer  connexion.  Com- 
positae are  dcncknt.  Amongst  palms  Areceae  and  Calameac  are 
preponderant.  Cycads  are  represented  by  Cycas  itself,  which  in 
several  species  ranges  from  southern  India  to  Polynesia.  In  India 
proper,  with  a  dryer  climate,  passes  and  Leguminosae  take  the  lead 
in  the  number  of  species.  But  it  has  few  distinctive  botanical 
features.  In  the  north-west  it  meets  the  Mediterraneo-Oriental 
and  in  the  north-east  the  CkinO'JaPanese  sub-regions,  while  south 
India  and  Ceybn  have  received  a  Malayan  contribution.  Bengal 
has  no  Cycas,  oaks  or  nutmegs.  Apart  from  the  occurrence  of  Cycas, 
the  Asiatk  character  of  the  Pblyncsian  flora  »  illustrated  by  the 
distribution  of  Meliaceae.  C.  de  Candolle  finds  that  with  one  excep 
tion  the  species  belong  to  genera  represented  in  one  or  other  of  tne 
Indian  peninsulas. 

3.  The  Souik  Americast  sub-retion  is  perhaps  richer  in  peculiar 
and  distinctive  types  than  cither  of  the  preceding.  As  in  the  Indo- 
Malayan  sub-re^mn.  epiphytic  orchids  are  probably  most  numerous 
in  point  of  species,  but  tne  genera  and  even  sub-tnbes  are  far  more 
restricted  in  their  range  than  in  the  Old  World;  4  sub-tribes  with  74 
genera  of  Vandeae  are  confined  to  South  America,  thou^  varying 
m  range  of  climate  and  altitude.  Amongst  arboreous  families 
Leguminosae  and  Euphorbiaceae  are  prominent ;  Heeea  belonging 
to  the  latter  is  widely  distributed  in  various  specks  in  the  Amazon 
basin,  and  yklds  Para  and  other  kinds  of  rubber.  Amongst  Rubia- 
ceae,  Cinchoneae  with  some  outliers  in  the  Old  World  nave  their 
httdquartere  at  cooler  levels.  In  Brazil  the  myrtles  are  represented 
by  "  monkey-pots  "  (Lecyfhideae).  Nearly  related  to  myrtles  are 
Melastomaceae  whkh,  poorly  represented  in  the  Old  World,  have 
attained  here  so  prodigious  a  development  in  genera  and  species, 
that  Ball  looks  upon  it  as  the  seat  of  origin  of  the  family.  Amongst 
Temstroemiaceae,  the  singular  Maregravieae  are  endemic.  So  also 
are  the  Vochvsiaceae  alhed  to  the  milkworts."  Cactaceae  are 
widely  spread  and  both  northwards  and  southwards  extend  into 
temperate  regions.  Screw  pines  are  replaced  by  the  nearly  allied 
Cyclanthaceae.  The  Amazon  basin  is  the  richest  arfca  in  thie  world 
in  palms,  oJF  whkh  the  Cocoineae  are  confined  to  South  America, 
except  the  coco-nut,  which  has  perhaps  spread  thence  into  Polynesia 
and  eastward.  The  singular  shrubby  Amaryllkls,  Vellozieae,  are 
common  to  tropical  and  South  Afnca,  Madagascar  and  Brazil: 
Aroids,  of  which  the  tribes  are  not  restricted  in  their  distributkn, 
have  two  large  endemic  genera,  PhUodendrcn  and  Anlkunum. 
Amongst  Cycads,  Zamia  is  confined  to  the  New  World,  and  amongst 
Conifers,  Araucaria,  limited  to  the  southern  hemisphere,  has  scarcely 
less  antiquity;  Pinus  reaches  as  far  south  as  Cuba  and  Nicaragua. 

The  flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  has  complicated  relational 
Out  of  the  860  indigenous  plants,  80  y^  are  endemic,  but  Hillebrand 
finds  that  a  large  number  are  of  Amencan  affinity. 

III.  The  South  Tempbkatb  Region  contrasts  remarkably  with 
the  northern.  Instead  of  large  continuous  areas,  in  which  local 
characteristics  sometimes  blend,  it  occupies  widely  dissevered 
territories  in  which  specialization,  intensified  by  long  separation,  has 
mostly  effaced  the  possibility  of  comparing  species  and  even  genera, 
and  compels  us  to  seek  for  points  of  contact  in  groups  of  a  higher 
order.  The  resemblances  consist,  in  fact,  not  so  much  in  the  exis- 
tence of  one  general  fades  running  through  the  regions,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  northern  flora,  but  in  the  presence  of  peculiar  types,  such  as 
those  belonging  to  the  families  Restiaccae,  Proteaceae,  l^ricaceae, 
Mutisiaceae  and  Rutaceae. 

I .  The  Soutk  African  sub-regton  has  a  flora  richer  perhaps  in  number 
of  species  than  any  other;  and  these  are  often  extremely  local  and 
restricted  in  area.  It  exhibits  in  a  marked  degree  the  density  of 
species  which,  as  already  pointed  out.  is  explicable  by  the  arrest  of 
further  southern  expansion.  Hemsley  remarks  that  the  northern 
genus  Erica,  which  coven  thousands  of  square  miles  in  Europe 
with  very  few  species,  is  represented  by  hundreds  of  species  in  a 
comparatively  small  area  in  South  Africa.**  There  is  an  interesting 
conne»on  with  Europe  through  the  so-called  Iberian  flora.  Ben- 
tham (Pres.  addr.  Linn.  Sec.,  1869,  p.  25)  points  out  that  "  the  west- 
European  species  of  Erica,  Genisteae.  Lobetia,  Gadi<dus,  &c.,  are 
some  of  them  more  neariy  allied  to  corresponding  Cape  species  than 
they  are  to  each  other;  and  many  of  the  somewhat  higher  races, 
groups  of  species  and  genera,  have  evidently  diverged  from  stocks 


782 


PLANTS 


msmBunoH 


aaywhoe  bat  10  Sootli  Africa.**  This  flan 
CKtcnd>  fran  Irdaad  to  the  Caaann  and  icappean  on  the  highlanrfa 
olF  Annla.  On  the  eaatcm  side  the  •ottthera  flora  finda  icfMewnta- 
fives  in  AbyMnia,  twriiwting  Prolea,  and  on  the  mtwintains  of  equa- 
totkl  AMa,  Cclodtmarem  caftnte  oocurnac  on  KiUmannrak  This 
is  the  cnost  northern  lepresentative  of  the  Rutaoeoos  Diosneae, 
«4iich  ase  fcfrfaced  in  Austxalia  by  the  Boronieae.  The  Proteaoeoaa 
fenus,  Famrea,  oocura  in  Anfola  and  Mariagasrar.  The  chancter- 
astk  Kenus  Pdargemimm  has  a  few  Moditenaaean  representatives, 
and  one  even  occurs  in  Asia  Minor.  In  all  these  cases  it  is  a  nice 
question  a^iecher  we  ase  ttacuiK  an  ascending  or  descending  stream. 
Darmn  thoo^t  that  the  migration  southwards  would  always  be 
pepooderant  {Origim  tf  Species,  nh  td^  4^).  Other  characteristic 
Matures  of  the  flora  are  the  abonasnoe  of  Compositae.  Asclcpiadeae, 
and  petaioid  Monocotyiedoos  generally,  but  especially^  Orchideae 
(terrntrial  species  predominating)  and  Iridaocae.  There  is  a  marfced 
tendency  towards  a  succulent  Imbit.  The  nearly  related  Ficoideae 
replaoe  the  new-world  Cactaoeae,  but  the  habit  at  Uie  lattter  is  nmo- 
hted  by  fleshy  Euphorbias  and  Asdepiads,  just  as  that  of  Ame  is 
by  the  liliaoeoua  Aloe.  Soitth  Africa  bas  only  two  palms  {Pkoemix 
and  Hypkaaie).  In  the  Gnetaoeoua  Wdmttsdua  it  possriarB  a 
type  whose  extraordinary  peculiarities  malce  it 


ttion  much  as  some  strange  and  extinct 
form  would  i  suddenly  endowed  with  life.  Conifer*  arc 
acantily  represented  by  CsililKsaad  Podocar^ai,  which  is  common  to 
•n  thi«e  sub-fcgions:  and  Cycads  by.tfae  endemic  Emcepkalartes 
madStamtma. 

2.  The  AmsinKan  stA-regiem  consists  of  Australia,  Tasmania, 
New  Caledonia  and  New  Zealand,  and,  though  portly  lying  within 
the  tropic  is  most  naturally  treated  as  a  whole.  They  are  linked 
together  by  the  prtstum  01  Proteaoeae  and  of  &Mfndeae,  which 
s  the  place  of  the  nearly  allied  heaths  in  South  Africa.  The  most 
dominant  order  in  Australia  is  Lesuminoaae,  including  the  acacias 
with  leaf-like  phyUodes  (absent  in  New  Zealand).  Myrtaceae  comes 
next  with  EmcalypiMS,  which  forms  three>fourtl»  of  the  forests,  and 
Mdakmm;  both  are  absent  from  New  Caledonia  and  New  Zealand: 
a  few  species  of  the  former  extend  to  New  Guinea  and  one  of  the 
latter  to  Malaya.  Cupullferae  are  absent  except  Fap^s  in  Australia 
aad  New  Zealand.  The  so<alled  "  oaks  "  of  Australia  are  Casuar- 
MO,  which  also  occurs  in  New  Caledonia,  but  is  wanting  in  New 
Zealand.  The  gtaot  rushes  XomikorTkeea  and  Kingia  are  peculiar 
to  Australia.  Alms  are  poorly  represented  in  the  sub-fepoo  and 
are  of  an  lnd»>Malayan  t>^  Amongst  Conifers,  Podecarpus  is 
found  tfarouriiout,  AgeHus  is  common  to  Australia,  New  Zealaml 
and  New  Caledoola;  Aramcaria  to  the  first  and  last.  Of  Cycads, 
Australm  and  New  Caledonia  have  Cycas,  and  the  former  the  eridemic 
ifacrssafltia  and  Bcmenia.  The  Australian  land-surface  must  be 
of  ^[reat  antiouity,  possibly  Jurassic,  and  its  isolation  scarcely  Ins 
ancient.  In  Lower  Eocene  times  its  flora  appears  to  have  been 
distinctly  rdated  to  the  existing  one.  Little  conndence  can,  however, 
be  placed  in  the  identification  of  Proteaceous  or,  indeed,  of  any 
distmctively  Australian  plants  in  Tertiary  deposits  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  The  Australian  flora  has  extensions  at  high  levels  in 
the  tropics;  such  exists  on  Kinabalu  in  Borneo  under  the  equator. 
The  Proteaceous  ijenus  Hdicia  reaches  as  far  north  as  China,  but 
whether  it  b  starting  or  returning  must  as  inothercases  be  left  an 
open  question. 

While  the  flora  of  New  Caledonia  b  rich  in  species  (3000),  that  of 
New  Zealand  b  poor  (1400).  While  so  man)r  conspicuous  Australian 
dements  are  wantii^  in  New  Zealand,  one^ghth  of  its  flora  belongs 
to  South  American  genera.  Especially  noteworthy  are  the  .Undine 
Atmena^  Cunnerat  Fuchsia  and  Caleedaria.  By  the  same  path  it 
has  received  a  remarkable  contribution  from  the  North  Temperate 
region;  such  familiar  genera  as  RanuneiduSt  EpSebium  and  Venmiea 
form  more  than  9%  of  the  flowering  plants.  And  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  while  the  tropical  forms  01  Qvercns  failed  to  reach  Aus- 
tralia from  Malaya,  the  temperate  Paius  crept  in  by  a  bock  door. 
Three-quarters  of  the  native  Kiecies  are  endemic ;  they  soem,  however, 
to  be  quite  unable  to  resist  tnc  invasion  of  new-comets,  and  already 
600  plants  of  foreign  origin  have  succeeded  in  establtdiing  themselves. 

feThe  Audine  sub-rtxien  extends  from  Peru  to  the  Argentine  and 
ws  roughly  the  waterrfied  of  the  Amazon.  In  the  New  Worid, 
as  already  ex|Jained,  the  path  <^  communication  between  the  north- 
cm  and  southern  hemispheres  has  always  been  more  or  less  open,  and 
the  template  flora  of  southern  America  does  not  exhibit  the  isolation 
characteristic  of  the  southern  region  of  the  Old  Worid.  Taking, 
however,  the  Andean  flora  as  t3mical,  it  contains  a  very  marked 
endemic  dement;  Ball  finds  that  naif  the  genera  and  four-fifths  of 
the  species  are  limited  to  it;  on  the  other  hand,  that  half  the  ^xcies 
of  Garoopetalae  bdong  to  cosmopoUtangenera  such  as  Vawriana, 
Ceutiaaa,  Bartsia  and  Gnapkalium.  The  relation  to  the  other 
sub-iccions  is  slight.  Eriocae  are  wholly  absent,  and  it  has  but  a 
single  Epacrid  in  Fuegia.  Proteaoeae  are  more  marked  in  Guevina 
and  EmbotkriMM,  Of  Restiaceae,  a  singk:  Leplecarpus  has  been 
found  in  Chile.  On  the  other  hand,  it  b  the  headquarters  of  Muti- 
•laceae,  represented  in  South  Africa  by  such  genera  as  OUenburgia 
and  Ger6era  and  by  Trickcdine  in  Australia.  Tropaeolum  takes  tne 
place  of  the  neariy  allied  South  African  PetarteniMm.  There  has 
been  an  interchange  between  it  and  the  Mexico  Anerican  sub-region, 
but  as  usual  the  northern  has  been  preponderant.    Prosopis  extends 


to  the  Aigeatiae;  other 

Celhmia,  Hdtampmm  aad  BntiOdmm,  la  the 
may  be  mentioned— Larrea,  a  small  genus  of  ZygnphylBae 
headquarters  in  Faiagoay  ami  Chile,  of  "  ~ 
mnimm,  m  the  ocnsote  plant  of  the  Colorado 
forms  dense  scmb;  Acseaa;  the  I  nssireae.  of 
reaches  North  America,  Petamia  ai 
a  quarter  of  the  Andean  flora,  whidi  b  a 
any  ia  the  world.  Boedharir,  irith  some  250 
whole  oootineiit  from  the  Scraiu  of  Magdiaa  and,  with  aeve 
to  California.  Mdastomaoeae,  copiously  represented  ia 
America,  arc  more  feebly  so  ia  rav  aaa  wholly  waattiag 
A  few  Cactaoeae  extcad  to  Chile.  Of  Cnpufiferae,  Qmertms  m 
only  reaches  Colombia,bnt  Agas,  with  oidy  a 


lorth  America,  b  represented  by  several  from  Chile 
thenoe  extends  to  New  Zeakad  aad  Tasmania.   The 


genus  Drunyr,  with  a  single  species  in  the  new  world,  follows  the  1 
track.    Bromefiaoeae  arc  icptcsentcd  by  Rkeiastmky* 
perate  Puya.     Palms  as  usual  arc  few  and  aot  rvarly 
WeUinia  occurs  in  Peru,  Trilkrimax  in  Chile  with  the 
/ahsM,  JwauiOy  also  inonotypic,  b  confined  to  Ji 
Amongst  Comferae  Pedecotpus  n  common  to  thb  aad 
sub-regionB;  LUeeedna  extends'  from  California  to  Nev 
and  New  Caledonia;  fs(wop»  b  found  ia  Chile  and  Ta 
Ammcaria  in  its  moat  familiar  spedes  occurs  ia  Chfle^ 

4.  The  AmIartUe'AMme  ngimt  b  the  complement  of  the 
Alpine,  but  unlike  the  Utter,  iu  scattered  diacributioa  ovi 
isolated  points  of  land,  remote  from  great  cootinental 
which,  during  migrationa  like  those  attending  the  glacial  period 
the  iKirthera  henusiriierc,  it  coukl  have  been  recruited,  at  on 
accounts  for  its  fimited  number  of  species  and  their 
rai^  in  the  world.    On  the  whole,  it  consists  of  local 
some  widdy  distributed  northern  genera,  such  as  Canx,  Pea, 
cmlus,  Ac,  with  al|nne  types  of  strictly  south  temperate 
characteristic  of  the  separate  localities.     The  monotypsc 
lea  antiuerbmhea,  the  "  Kergoden  Isbnd  cabbage,'*  has 
ally  in  the  southern  hemiqiherc,  but  b  doady  related  to  the  I 
Cechleatta^ 


Such  a  summafy  of  the  salient  facts  in  the 
dbtributlon  of  plants  sufficiently  indicates  the  tangled  fabric 
of  the  earth's  existing  floral  covering.    Its  complexity 
the  corresponding  intricacy  of  geognphical  and 
evolution. 

If  the  surface  of  the  ^be  had  been  symmetrically 
into  sea  and  land,  and  these  had  been  distributed  in  bands 
bounded  by  paralJds  of  latitude,  the  chancier  of  ^pcgetaxioa 
would  depend  on  temperature  alone;  and  as  regards  its  aggre- 
gate mass,  we  should  find  it  attaining  its  w»^**i"«i-t  at  the 
equator  and  sinking  to  its  minimum  at  the  pedes.  Under  aacA 
circumstances  the  earth's  vegetation  irould  be  very  dlSocat 
from  what  it  b,  and  the  study  of  plant  distribution  would  be  a 
simple  affair. 

It  b  true  that  the  earth's  physical  geograi^y  presents  ccttaia 
broad  fealures  to  whidi  plants  are  adapted.  But  witbin  these 
there  b  the  greatest  local  divetsity  of  moisture,  ekvation  and 
isolation.  ^Plants  can  only  exist,  as  Darwin  has  said,  wbcR 
they  musl,  not  where  they  can.  New  Zealand  was  pooriy 
stocked  with  a  weak  flora;  the  more  robust  and  aggressrvc  ooe 
of  the  north  temperate  region  was  ready  at  any  moment  to 
invade  it,  but  was  held  back  by  physical  barriers  whidi  bamaa 
aid  has  alone  enabled  it  to  surpass. 

Palaeontological  evidence  conchisivdy  proves  that  the  snrface 
of  the  earth  has  been  successivdy  occupied  by  vegetative  forms 
of  increasing  complexity,  rising  from  the  simplest  algae  to  the 
most  highly  organized  flowering  plant.  We  find  the  ohimale 
explanation  of  thb  in  the  facts  that  all  organisms  vary,  and  that 
thdr  variations  are  inherited  and,  if  useful,  perpetuated. 
Structural  complexity  b  brought  about  by  the  snpeipositiaa 
of  new  vatiatioos  on  preceding  ones.  Continued  existcnoc 
implies  perpetual  adaptatlmi  to  new  conditions,  and,  as  the 
adjustment  becomes  more  refined,  the  correspondmg  sttnctuxal 
organization  becomes  more  daborate.  Inheritance  ptcserrcs 
what  exists,  and  thb  can  only  be  modified  and  added  to.  Thus 
Asclepiadeae  and  Orchideae  owe  their  extrsoidinary  floral 
complenty  to  adaptation  to  insect  fertilization. 

All  organisms,  then,  are  closely  adapted  to  their  surnmndings. 
If  these  change,  as  we  know  they  have  changed,  the  oiganisntt 
must  change  too,  or  perish.  In  mme  cases  they  survive  by 
migratKm,  but  thb  is  often  prohibited  by  physical  bairien. 


PLANUDES— PLASSEY 


783 


These,  however,  have  often  protected  them  from  the  com* 
petition  of  more  vigorous  invading  races.  Pagus,  starting 
from  the  northern  hemiq>bere,  has  more  than  held  its  own  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  has  all  but  died  out  in  North  America, 
finding  conditions  favoniaUe  for  a  fresh  start  in  Australaifa. 
The  older  types  of  G3rmnoq>enns  are  inelastic  and  dying 
out.  Even  Pinut  has  found  the  task  of  crossing  the  tropics 
insuperable. 

The  whole  story  points  to  a  general  distribution  of  flower- 
ing plants  from  the  northern  hemisi4>ere  southwards.  It 
confirms  the  general  belief  on  geological  grounds  that  this 
was  the  seat  of  thdr  devdopment  at  the  dose  of  the  Mesosoic 
era.  It  is  certain  that  they  originally  existed  under  warmer 
conditions  of  climate  than  now  obtain,  and  that  progressive 
refrigeration  has  supplied  a  powerful  impulse  to  migration. 
The  tropica  eventually  became,  what  they  are  now,  great  areas 
of  preservation.  The  Northern  Temperate  region  was  denuded 
of  its  floral  wealth,  of  which  it  only  retains  a  comparetivdy 
scanty  wreck.  High  mountain  leveb  supplied  paths  of  com- 
munication for  stocking  the  South  Temperate  region,  the 
floras  of  which  were  enriched  by  adapted  forms  of  tropical  types. 
Such  profound  changes  must  necessarily  have  been  accompanied 
by  eiwrmous  elimination;  the  migrating  hosts  were  perpetually 
thinned  by  falling  out  on  the  way.  Further  development  was, 
however,  not  stopped,  but  in  many  cases  stimulated  by  migra- 
tion and  settlement  in  new  homes.  The  northern  Quercus, 
arrested  at  the  tropic  in  the  new  world,  expanded  in  that  of 
the  okl  into  new  and  striking  races.  And  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  profusion  of  Melastomaceae  in  South  America  was  not 
derived  from  elsewhere,  but  the  result  of  local  evolution.  There 
is  some  evidence  of  a  returning  stream  from  the  south,  but  as 
Hooker  and  A.  de  CandoIIe  have  pointed  out,  it  is  insignificant 
as  compared  with  the  outgoing  one.  Darwin  attributes  this 
to  the  fact  that  "  the  northern  forms  were  the  more  powerful " 
lOrigiM  of  Species,  sth  ed.,  p.  45^). 

The  result  of  migration  is  that  races  of  widdy  different  origin 
and  habit  have  had  to  adapt  themselves  to  similar  conditions. 
This  has  brought  about  superficial  resemblance  in. the  floras  of 
different  countries.  At  first  sight  a  South  African  Euphorbia 
might  be  mistaken  for  a  South  American  CacHu,  an  Aloe  for 
an  il^atf,  a  Senuio  for  ivy,  or  a  New  Zealand  Veronica  for  a 
European  Salicornia.  A  geographical  botany  based  on  such 
resemblances  is  only  in  Ttahty  a  study  of  adaptations.  The 
investigation  ol  these  may  raise  and  solve  interesting  phy8k>- 
logical  problems,  but  throw  no  light  on  the  facts  and  genetic 
relationship  which  a  rational  explanation  of  distribution 
requires.  .  If  we  study  a  population  and  sort  it  into  soldiers, 
sailors,  ecclesiastics,  lawyers  and  artisans,  we  may  obtain  facts 
of  sociological  value  but  learn  nothing  as  to  its  radal  origin  and 
composition. 

In  the  attempt  that  has  been  made  to  map  out  the  land 
surface  of  the  earth,  probable  community  of  origin  has  been 
relied  upon  more  than  the  possession  of  obvious  characters. 
That  sub-regions  framed  on  this  prindple  should  show  inter- 
relations and  some  degree  of  overlapping  is  only  what  might 
have  been  expected,  and«  in  fact,  confirms  the  validity  of  the 
prindple  adopted.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  though 
deduced  exdusivdy  from  the  study  of  flowering  plants,  they 
are  in  substantial  agreement  with  those  now  generally  adopted 
by  xoologisu,  and  may  therdore  be  presumed  to  be  on  the 
whole  "natural." 

AuTHORiTiBS.-'A.  de  Candolle,  La  Ciograpkie  hoUmiqua  roisonnie, 
(Pant  and  Geneva,  1855):  A.  Griaebach,  La  Vit/ttolMa  du  globe, 
traiul.  by  P.  de  Tchihatchef  (Paris.  1875);  Engler,  Versuek  einer 
EnttricUurngsteschickU  der  PfianunweU  (Leiprig,  1870-1883);  OKar 
Dnide.  Manuel  it  giograpkie  bolattiftie,  tnoHL  by  G.  Poimuk  (Pane, 
1897) :  A.  F.  W.  Schimper,  Plant  Geography,  txaul.  by  W.  R.  Fuher, 
(Srfocd.  1903).  (W.  T.  T.-D.). 

PLAMITDII,  HAXnUS  {c.  1260-1330),  Byantine  grammarian 
and  theobgian,  flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Michael  VIII. 
and  Andronicus  H.  Palaeologi.  He  was  born  at  Nicomcdia 
in  Bithynia,  but  the  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  Con- 
stantinople, where  as  a  Bonk  he  devoted  himself  to  study 


and  teaching.  On  entering  the  monastery  he  changed  his 
original  name  Manuel  to  Maximus.  Planudes  possessed  a 
knowledge  of  Latin  remarkable  at  a  time  when  Rome  and  Italy 
were  rei^rded  with  hatred  and  contempt  by  the  Byzantines. 
To  this  accomplishment  he  probably  owed  his  selection  as  one 
of  the  ambassadors  sent  by  Andronicus  II.  ini327  to  remonstrate 
with  the  Venetians  for  their  attack  upon  the  Genoese  settlement 
in  Pen.  A  more  Important  result  was  that  Planudes,  especially 
by  his  translations,  paved  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  the 
Greek  language  and  literature  into  the  West. 

He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works  ^  notably  a  Greek  grammar 
intheformof  question  and  answer.Uke  the  'R^Hr^iMtraof  Moachopulus, 
with  an  appendix  on  the  to-called  "  political  "  verae;  a  treatise  on 
tyntaz;  a  biography  of  Aetop  and  a  prote  vertion  of  the  fables; 
scholia  on  certain  Greek  authors;  two  hocameter  ooems,  one  a  eulogy 
of  Claudius  Ptotemaeus,  the  other  an  account  of  the  sudden  chanp 
of  an  ox  into  a  mouse;  a  treatise  on  the  method  of  calculating  m 
use  amongst  the  Indians  (ed.  C.  T.  Gerhardt,  Halle,  1865) ;  and  ichoUa 
to  the  first  two  books  of  the  A  rilkmelic  of  Diophantus.  His  numerous 
translations  from  the  Latin  included  Cicero's  Somnium  SciUonis 
with  the  commentary  of  Macrobius:  Caesar's  Gallie  War\  C>vid't 
Heroides  atul  Metamor^ioses;  Boetius,  De  conwlaUone  phUoiophioo', 
Au^ttinei  De  trinitale,  Thete  trantlations  were  very  popular 
during  the  middle  a^es  as  textbooks  for  the  study  of  Greek.  It  u, 
however,  as  the  editor  and  compiler  of  the  collection  of  minor  pocma 
known  by  his  name  (see  Anthology:  Creek)  that  he  is  chiefly 
remembered. 

See  Fabridus,  BibHoOteca  gfraeca,  ed.  Harles,  ».  682;  theological 
writii^  in  Migne,  Patralogta  graecat  cxlvii;  correspondence,  ed. 
M.  Treu  (1890),  with  a  valuable  commentary;  K.  Krumbacher, 
Gesckichte  der  byKarUiniuhen  LiUeratnr  (1897);  J.  E.  Sandys,  Hist, 
of  Class.  Schol.  (1906),  vd.  1. 

PLAQUSL  a  French  t^hn  for  a  small  flat  plate  or  tablet, 
api^ied  particularly  to  rectangular  or  circular  ornamental 
plates  or  tablets  of  bronze,  silver,  lead  or  other  metal,  or  of 
porcelain  or  ivory.  Small  plaques,  plaqueltes,  in  low  relief  in 
bronxe  or  lead,  were  produced  in  great  perfection  in  Italy  at 
the  end  of  the  xsth  and  beginning  of  the  x6th  centuries,  and 
were  usually  copies  of  andent  engraved  gems,  earlier  goldsmith 
work  and  the  like. 

PLASENCIA,  a  city  of  Spain  and  an  episcopal  sec,  in  the 
north  of  the  province  of  Caceres.  Pop.  (1900),  8208.  Plasenda 
is  situated  on  the  river  Jerte,  a  subtributary  of  the  Tagus, 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  sierras  of  Bejar  and  Vera.  The  place 
has  some  interest  on  account  of  its  fiine  walls,  built  in  x  197  by 
Alphonso  VIII.  of  Castile,  and  its  cathedral,  begun  in  1498,  a 
ftivourable  q>edmen  of  the  ornate  Gothic  of  its  period.  The 
Hieronsrmite  convent  of  Yuste,  the  scene  of  the  hst  years  of 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  (1500-1558),  is' 24  m.  east. 

PLA8SBY  (Paldsi),  a  village  Of  Bengal  on  the  river  Bhagi- 
rath!,  the  scene  of  Clive's  victory  of  the  23rd  of  June  1757, 
over  the  forces  of  the  nawab  Suraj-ud-Dowlah.  The  fall  of 
Calcutta  and  the  "  Black  Hole  "  atrodty  led  to  instant  action 
by  the  East  India  Company,  and  Clive,  with  as  many  troops  as 
could  be  ^>ared,  undertook  a  campaign  against  the  nawab,  and 
soon  reoccupied  Calcutta.  Long  and  intricate  negotiations, 
or  rather  intrigues,  followed,  and  at  the  time  of  the  battle  the 
loyalty  of  most  of  the  nawab^s  generals  had  been  effectually 
undermined,  though  assistance,  active  or  passive,  could  hardly 
be  counted  on.  With  this  doubtful  advantage,  Clive,  with 
iioo  European  and  2100  native  soldiers,  and  10  field-pieces, 
took  the  field  against *the  nawab,  who  had  50,000  men,  53  heavy 
guns,  and  some  French  artillery  under  M.  de  St  Frais.  Only 
the  river  Bhagirathi  separated  Clive's  little  force  from  the 
entrenched  camp  of  the  enemy,  when  the  English  leader,  for 
once  undedded,  called  a  council  of  war.  Clive  and  the  majority 
were  against  fighting.  Major  Eyre  Coote,  of  the  39th  Foot,  and 
a  few  others  for  action.  Coote's  soldierly  advice  powerfully 
impressed  Clive,  and  after  de^p  consideration  he  altered  his 
mind  and  issxied  orders  to  cross  the  river.  After  a  fatiguing 
march,  the  force  bivouacked  In  a  grove  near  Plassey  early  on 
the  23rd.  The  nawab's  host  came  out  of  its  lines  and  was 
drawn  up  in  a  huge  semicircle  almost  enclosing  the  little  force 
in  the  grove,  and  St  Frais'  gunners  on  the  right  wing  opened 
fire.  Clive  replied,  and  was  soon  subjected  to  the  converging  fire 
of  50  heavy  guns.   For  hours  the  unequal  fight  was  maintained. 


784 


only  loyal  gtnti 


11.    Tfae  Entlii 

10  >uch  preciutli 

iswah'i  uiny,  IhLtiliiiig  Ihit  Clivc'i 
lunt  weie  as  umims  u  bii  own,  made  a  diuitroiu  cavalry 
charge  ypon  Ihem;  he  Loat  his  own  Ufc,  and  hia  coUncuts  ibta 
had    tha   game  io    IhcLi  hands.     Afir  Ja^ar   persuaded   the 

unlil  one  ot  Ctive'a  ofliccra,  Major  Kilpalrick,  ncmsfuUy 
dfovt  bim  in.  Clive  lolloned  up  Ibii  success  by  cannonading 
Ihe  camp  at  dose  range.  But  tbe  riok  and  file  of  Lbe  native 
amy,  ignorant  of  the  treachery  of  Iheir  leadera,  made  a  furious 
sortie.  For  a  tune  Clive  was  hard  pressed,  but  his  cool  genenl- 
ehip  held  ilt  own  against  the  undiscipUned  vatoui  o(  the  enemy, 
and,  noticing  Mir  Jagar's  division  io  his  tear  made  no  move 
against  him,  he  led  hil  troops  straight  against  the  Korks. 
Aflei  a  short  lesisiaiKe.  made  chiefly  by  St  i-'rais,  the  whole 
camp  (HI  into  his  hands.  At  a  cost  of  13  killed  and  49  •niundrd 
Ihll  day's  work  decided  the  fate  of  Bengal.  Tbe  hiilohc  grove 
of  maDgoei,  in  which  Clive  encsmped  on  Ihe  previous  nigbi, 
has  been  entirely  washed  away  by  changes  ig  the  conne  ol  Lbe 
river;  but  other  relics  of  the  day  remain,  and  a  monument  has 
tecenlly  been  erected. 

PLASTER.  >  iniituie  of  lime,  hair  and  sand,  used  to  cover 
rough  walling  of  laihwoik  between  timbers  (see  Pusru- 
wor«)i  also  a  fine  white  ptisler  of  gypsum,  generally  known 
as  "  plaster  ol  Paris."  Tlie  word  (also  as  "  plaister  ")  is  used  in 
medicine  ot  adheuve  miiluies  employed  atemally  for  Ihe 
prolecilon  of  iniuied  surfaces,  for  luppoil  of  weak  muscular 
or  other  atmctares,  or  *a  counter4tritan1s,  sooJbidg  applicatbons 
ftc    Tbeuitimale  dciivalion  of  the  word  is  tbe  Gr.  ijiTXasTfur 

PLUTEB  CP  PARIS,  a  variety  of  calcined  gypsum  (cskiuRi 
sulphate)  which  forms  a  hard  CEmeni  when  trcaied  witb  water 
(see  Ceuemt).  The  substance  obtained  its  name  in  consequence 
ol  being  largely  manufactured  in  tbe  neighbourhood  of  Paris. 

PLA$rEB.«ORK.  in  building.  Plastering  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  of  handicrafts  employed  in  connexion  with  building 
operations,  lbe  earliest  evidence  showing  that  the  dwellinp  ol 
pcimiiive  man  were  erected  in  a  tiin^  fashion  with  siickt  and 
plastered  with  mud.  Soon  a  more  lasting  and  tightly  material 
was  found  and  employed  10  lake  the  place  of  mud  or  slime,  and 
that  perfection  in  the  compounding  of  plastering  materials  was 
approached  at  a  very  remote  period  is  made  evident  by  the 
fact  that  some  of  tbe  eiilicst  plastering  which  has  tcmained 
undisturbed  ucels  in  its  tcicntific  cooiposition  Ibat  wbicfa  we 
use  at  the  present  day.  Tbe  pyramids  in  Egypt  contain  plaster- 
■  ausand  years  ago  (probably  much 


PLASTER— PLASTER- WORK 

covered  up  tbni 


Id  yet  e> 


It  the  I 


tools  of  lbe  plasleiei  of  that  time  were  practically  identical  in 
design,  (hape  and  purpose  with  those  used  to-day.  For  their 
finest  work  the  Egyptians  used  a  plaster  made  from  calcined 
gypsum  just  like  the  "plaster  of  Palis"  of  the  present  time, 
and  their  methods  of  plastering  on  reeds  resemble  in  everyway 

to  streDfthen  tbe  "stuff,"  and  the  whole  finished  somcwbat 
imder  an  inch  thick.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture we  And  Ihe  use  oi  plaster  of  a  fine  white  lime  stucco. 
Such  ha>  been  found  at  Mycenae.  The  art  had  reached  peifeciioo 
in  Greece  mote  than  five  centuries  before  Christ,  and  plaster 
was  frequently  used  to  cover  templet  eilernally  and  internally, 
.  where  the  building  was  ol  mitbk.    Iifonned 


.splen. 
ol  Crec 


id  for 


which  al 
very  high  degree  of  b 


of  Ihe  best  quality  and  tempered  a 

wanted  for  use.  The  Credis,  besides  "■^■■*fl  their  alum 
work  hard  with  thin  coals  of  msrUe-dusl  (Jaster  poltdied  with 
chaik  or  marble,  caused  (he  plaster  when  being  miaed  to  be 
beaten  with  wooden  staves  by  a  great  number  of  mm  Sonu 
persons  culling  slabs  of  such  plaster  from  ancient  walls  use 
them  for  tables  and  mimn."  Pliny  tbe  elder  telk  ns  thsl 
"  no  builder  should  employ  lime  which  had  not  been  llaked  al 
least  three  years,"  and  that  "  the  Greeks  used  lo  iriDd  thai 

the  walls  of  large  houaet 
above  tbe  wminsr^ing  1 
plaster  ceilings  of  Ihe  1 
Jamesl.,  are  still  the  adm 
specimens  of  Ihe  plesterei 
ornamented  (tontt  of  half 
smaller  buildings, 
lages,  Ihe  ger 
date;  for 


did  both  in  Engtin'd  and  on  the  Conti 


ot  implements.  The  materials  of  the  workman  an 
.h  naits,  lime,  sand,bair,  plasler  of  paris,  and  a  variety 
Its,  together  with  various  ingredients  lo  form  colouriiig 


wide,  and  are  made  in  three  IhickncBes;  "  lingle  "  (t  10  A  ia.  tkickh 
"  lath  and  a  half  "  (1  in.  IhickK  and  '■  donfatT"  (f  to  )  in.  tkkkl. 
The  thictcer  laths  should  be  used  in  ceilings,  to  tiand  the  extra  siiaiii, 


LTKIiTIe'fonlfeJyall 
are  now  made  by  madii 


Ulbs  arc  usually  u 
in  to  form  a  key  for  ll 

latbik    Rem  lathi  gi^ 


as  Ib^  sfiiit  in  a  line  with  ib*  grain  of  ihe  wt 
r  and  not  so  liable  to  twist  as  machine-made  h' 

"-■- illy  cut  in  Ihe  procn.  of ». 

ik  ioint  in  bays  three  or  fo 
Drt  lbe  other.  By  breakirt 
_  tbe_  lertdenry  (or  the  plasi 


must  be  nailed  so  as  to  bi 
ol  the  lathii^  in  tUi  wa) 


ng.    Lallo 


uUty-    There  are  vety  m 


Ihe  belTcr  cUu  of  work  they  are  galvanired  to  prevent  ruvtiiV- 
The  lime  prindislly  laed  for  internal  plaiterin^  Is  thai  cildnid 

referred  10  in  the  anicin  Biicuwail  ai^^oarAS,  an  '^"* 
also  used  by  lbe  pUnerer,  ehiily  lot  ealenul  work.  Perita 
slaking  of  the  eakined  line  before  bedv  iKd  h  very  fancnaM 
as.  if  used  In  a  jianiaRy  daked  eonditiiin.  it  wU  "  blow  "  wb*  ia 
pontkin  and  blister  the  work.  Lbne  should  Iheiefoie  be  nan  as 
•son  at  Ihe  building  Ii  begun,  and  al  teail  duee  wnia  ibeiiU  elspie 
between  the  operation  of  running  the  line  and  1l>  use. 

Hair  »  utnT  in  plaaler  as  ■  Hndiiw  nedinn,  and  ghes  ItiHilT 
lo  the  naleriaL  Dii.hiir.  whkh  k  aoid  hi  thit*  qad*i.  fa  At 
kind  usually  spedficd;  but  boraehair,  whidi  is  aberter.  '  ^^ 
is  KHDctiines  substituted  In  its  tlead  or  mlied  wllh  (bt  ^^ 
OS-hair  in  the  lower  qualhles.  Good  hair  should  be  lou.  ■tnag' 
and  free  InBi  gnase  and  din,  and  belin  use  SUM  be  wfii  bwn 


PLASTER-WORK 


785 


chough  it  h  not  to  strong  as  <»4iair.  The  quantity  used  in  good 
work  is  one  pound  of  hair  to  two  or  three  cubic  feet  of  coarse 
stuff. 

Manila  hemp  fibre  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  hair.  As 
a  result  of  experiments  to  ascertain  its  strength  as  compared  with 

.  ,^^  that  of  other  materials,  it  was  found  that  plaster 
f"**'™*  •***»  «>»<*«  »«th  Manila  hemp  fibre  broke  at  195  B>, 
'^f"*"''  plaster  mixed  with  Sisal  hemp  at  150  flb,  jute  at  145  lb, 
and  goats*  hair  at  144}  Ih.  Another  test  was  made  in  the  following 
manner.  Two  barrels  oi  mortar  were  made  up  of  ec^ual  proper- 
tions  of  lime  and  sand,  one  containing  the  usual  quantity  01  goats* 
hair,  and  the  other  ManiU  fibre.  Alter  remaining  in  a  dry  cellar 
for  nine  months  the  barrels  were  opened.  It  was  found  tnat^  the 
hair  had  been  almost  entirely  eaten  away  by  the  action  of  the  lime, 
and  the  mortar  consequently  broke  up  and  crumbled  quite  easily. 
The  mortar  containing  the  Manila  hemp,  on  the  other  hand;  showed 

Jrcat  cohcMon,  and  required  some  effort  to  pull  it  apart,  the  hemp 
bre  being  apparently  quite  uninjured.  'Sawdust  ha£  been  used  as 
a  substitute  Tor  hair  and  also  instead  of  sand  as  an  aggregate.  It 
will  enable  mortar  to  stand  the  effects  of  frost  and  rough  weather. 
It  is  useful  sometimes  for  heavy  cornices  and  rimilar  work,  as  it 
renders  the  material  light  and  strong.  The  sawdust  should  be 
used   dry. 

Some  remarks  are  made  on  the  ordinary  sands  for  building  in 
the  articles  on  Brickwork  and  Mortar.  For  fine  plasterer's 
c>  <t.  viork  special  sands,  not  hitherto  referred  to,  are  used, 

^*"^  such  as  silver  sand,  which  is  used  when  a  light  colour 

and  fine  texture  are  required.  In  England  this  fine  white  sand  is 
procured  chiefly  from  Leigh  ton  Buzzard. 

For  external  work  Portland  cement  is  undoubtedly  the  best 
nviterial  on  account  of  its  strength,  durability,  and  weather  resisting 
.  properties.  The  nrst  coat  or  rendering  is  from  |  to 
w^S^  *  "*'  ^^^*  ^^  '^  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  from 
'^^''^  one  {xtrt  of  cement  to  two  of  saoa  to  one  part  to  five 

of  sand.  The  finishing  or  setting  coat  is  atx)ut  ^  in.  thick,  and 
is  worked  with  a  hand  float  on  the  surface  of  the  rendering,  srfiich 
must  first  be  well  wetted. 

Stucco  is  a  term  loosely  applied  to  nearly  all  kinds  of  external 
plastering,  whether  composed  of  lime  or  of  cement.  At  the  present 
-^^  time  it  has  fallen  into  disfavour,  but  in  the  early  part 

*""*  of  the  19th  century  a  great  deal  of  this  work  was  done. 

The  principal  varieties  of  stucco  are  common,  rough,  trowelled  and 
bastard.  Cement  has  largely  superseded  lime  for  this  work. 
Common  stucco  for  external  work  is  usually  composed  of  one  part 
hydraulic  Ume  and  three  parts  sand.  The  wall  should  be  ^suffi- 
ciently rough  to  form  a  key  and  well  wetted  to  prevent  the  moisture 
being  absorbed  from  the  plaster. 

Rough  Uuceo  is  used  to  imitate  stonework.  It  is  worked  with 
a  hand  float  covered  with  rough  felt,  which  forms  a  sand  surface 
on  the  plaster.  Lines  are  ruled  before  the  stuff  is  set  to  represent 
the  joints  of  stonework.  Trowelled  sttueo,  the  finishing  coat  of 
this  work,  consists  of  three  parts  sand  to  two  parts  bne  stuff.  A 
very  fine  smooth  surface  is  produced  by  means  of  the  hand  float. 
Bastard  slueeo  is  of  similar  composition,  but  less  labour  is  expended 
on  it.  It  is  laid  on  in  two  coats  with  a  skimming  float,  scoured  off 
at  once,  and  then  trowelled.  Coloured  stucco:  lime  stucco  may 
be  executed  in  colours,  the  desired  tints  being  obtained  bjr  mixing 
with  the  lime  various  oxides.  Black  and  greys  are  obtained  by 
using  forge  ashes  in  varying  proportions,  greens  by  jfreen  enamel, 
reds  by  using  litharge  or  red  lead,  and  blues  by  mixing  oxide  or 
carbonate  of  copper  with  the  other  materials. 

Rou^h-casi  or  Febble-dash  plastering  is  a  rough  form  of  external 
plastertng  in  much  use  for  country  houses.  In  Scotland  it  is 
termed  "  harlina."  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  external 
plastering.  In  Tudor  times  it  was  employed  to  fill  in  between  the 
woodwoik  of  half-timbcrcd  framing.  When  well  executed  with 
good  material  this  kind  of  plastenng  is  very  durable.  Rough- 
casting is  performed  by  first  rendering  the  wall  or  laths  with  a  coat 
of  weH-haired  coarse  stuff  composed  either  of  good  hydraulic  lime 
or  of  Portiand  cement.  This  layer  is  well  scratched  to  give  a  key 
for  the  next  coat,  which  is  also  composed  of  coarse  stuff  knocked 
up  to  a  smooth  and  uniform  consistency.  While  this  coat  is  still 
soft,  gravel,  shingle  or  other  small  stones  are  evenly  thrown  on 
with  a  small  scoop  and  then  brushed  over  with  thin  lime  mortar 
to  give  a  uniform  surface.  The  shingle  is  often  dipped  in  hot  Jime 
paste,  well  stirred  up,  and  used  as  required. 

Sgraffito  (Italian  tor  "  scratched  ")  is  scratched  ornament  in 
plaster.  Scratched  ornament  is  the  oldest  form  of  surface  decora- 
tion, and  at  the  present  day  it  is  much  used  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  especially  in  Germany  and  Italy,  in  both  external  and 
internal  situations.  Properly  treated,  the  work  is  durable,  effective 
and  inexpensive.  The  process  is  carried  out  in  this  way:  A  first 
coat  or  rendering  of  Portland  cement  and  sand,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  to  three,  is  laid  on  about  1  in.  thick;  then  follows  the  colour 
coat,  sometimes  put  on  in  patcnes  of  different  tints  as  required 
for  the  finished  design.  When  this  coat  is  nearly  dry,  it  is  finished 
with  a  smooth-skimming,  1^  to  i  in.  thick,  of  Parian,  selenitic  or 
other  fine  cement  or  lime,  only  as  much  as  can  be  finished  in  one 
day  being  laid  on.  Then  by  pouncing  through  the  pricked  cartoon, 
the  design  is  transferred  to  the  plastered  surface.     Broad  spaces 

XXI    i^« 


of  background  are  now  exposed  by  removing  the  finishing  coat, 
thus  revealing  the  coloured  plaster  beneath,  and  following  uiis  the 
outlines  of  the  rest  of  the  design  are  scratched  with  an  iron  knife 
through  the  outer  skimming  to  the  underlying  tinted  surface. 
Sometimes  the  coats  are  in  uree  different  colours,  such  as  brown 
for  the  first,  red  for  the  second,  and  white  or  grey  for  the  final  coat. 
The  pigments  used  for  this  work  include  Indian  red,  Turkey  red, 
Antwerp  blue,  German  blue,  umber,  ochre,  purple  brown,  bone 
black  or  oxide  of  manganese  for  black.  Combinations  of  these 
coburs  are  made  to  produce  any  desired  tone. 

Lime  plastering  is  composed  of  lime,  sand,  hair  and  water  in 

rtroportions  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done, 
n  all  cases  good  materials,  well  mixed  and  skilfully  ^^ 

applied,  are  essential  to  a  perfect  result.  Plaster  is  «^2? 
applied  in  successive  coats  or  layers  on  walls  or  lathing,  •*'«'■• 
and  gains  its  name  from  the  number  of  these  coats.  "  One  coat  " 
work  is  the  coarsest  and  cheapest  class  of  plastering,  and  is  limitcd- 
to  inferior  buildings,  such  as  outhouses,  where  merely  a  rough 
coating  is  required  to  keep  out  the  weather  and  draughts.  This  is 
described  as  "  render  "  on  brickwork,  and  "  lath  and  by  "  or  "  lath 
and  plaster  one  coat  **  on  studding.  *'  Two  coat  "  work  is  often 
used  for  factories  or  warehouses  and  the  less  important  rooms  of 
reudences.  The  first  coat  b  of  coarse  stuff  finished  fair  with  the 
darby  float  and  scoured.  A  thin  coat  of  setting  stuff  is  then  laid  on. 
and  trowelled  and  brushed  smooth.  "  Two  coat  "  work  is  described 
as  "  render  and  set  **  on  walls,  and  "  lath,  plaster  and  set,"  or 
*'  lath,  lay  and  set  '*  on  laths.  "  Three  coat "  work  is  usually 
specified  lor  all  good  work.  It  consists,  as  its  name  implies,  of 
three  layers  of  material,  and  is  described  as  "  render,  float  and 
set "  on  mralls  and  "  lath,  plaster,  float  and  set,"  or  "  lath,  lay, 
float  and  set,"  on  lathwork.  This  makes  a  strong,  straight,  sanitary 
coating  for  walb  and  cdlings.  The  process  for  three  coat"  work 
is  as  tottows:  For  the  firet  coat  a  layer  of  well-liaired  coarse  stuff, 
about  I  in.  thick,  is  put  on  with  the  laying  troweL  This  is  termed 
"  pricking  up  "  in  London,  and  in  America  **  scratch  coating."  It 
should  be  laid  on  diagonally,  each  trowelful  overlapping  the  previous 
one.  When  on  laths  the  stuff  should  be  plastic  enough  to  be 
worked  through  the  spaces  between  the  bths  to  form  a  key,  yet 
so  firm  as  m^  to  dcoo  off.  The  surface  while  still  soft  is  scratched 
with  a  lath  to  give  a  key  for  the  next  coat,  which  is  known  as  the 
second  or  "  floating  coat,"  and  is  i  to  I  in.  thick.  In  Scotland 
thb  part  of  the  process  is  termed  "  straigntcning  "  and  in  America 
"  browning[,"  and  is  performed  when  the  first  coat  .is  dry,  so  as  to 
form  a  straight  surface  to  receive  the  finishing  coat.  Four  operations 
are  involved;  in  laying  the  second  coat,  namely,  forming  the  screeds; 
filling  in  the  raaces  between  the  screeds;  scoqring  the  surface; 
keying  the  face  tor  finishing.  Wall  screeds  are  pluifafced  and  ceiling 
screeds  levelled.  Screeds  are  narrow  strips  of  plastering,  carefully 
plumbed  and  levelled,  so  as  to  form  a  guide  upon  which  the  floating 
rule  is  run,  thus  securing  a  perfectly  horizontal  or  vertical  surface, 
or,  in  the  case  of  circubr  work,  a  uniform  curve. 

The  *'  filling  in,"  or  "  flanking,"  consists  of  laying  the  spaces 
between  the  screeds  with  coarse  stuff,  which  is  brought  flush  with 
the  level  of  the  screeds  with  the  floating  rule. 

The  *'  scouring  "  of  the  floating  coat  is  of  great  importence,  for 
it  consolidates  the  material,  and,  besides  hardening  it,  prevents 
it  from  cracking.  It  is  done  by  the  plasterer  with  a  hand  float 
which  he  applies  vigorously  with  a  rapid  circular  motion,  at  the 
same  <ime  sprinkling  the  work  with  water  from  a  stock  brush  in 
the  other  hand.  Any  small  holes  or  inequalities  are  filled  up  as 
he  proceeds.  The  whole  surface  should  be  uniformly  scoured  two 
or  three  times,  with  an  interval  between  each  operation  of  from 
six  to  twenty-four  hours.  This  process  leaves  the  plaster  with  a 
close-grained  and  fairly  smooth  surface,  offering  little  or  no  key 
to  the  coat  which  is  to  follow.  To  obtain  proper  cohesion,  however, 
a  roughened  face  is  necessary,  and  this  is  cbtaincki  by  "  keying 
the  surface  with  a  wire  brush  or  nail  float,  that  is,  a  hand  float  with 
the  point  of  a  nail  sticking  through  and  projecting  about  iin.; 
sometimes  a  point- is  put  at  each  corner  01  the  float.  After  the 
floating  b  finished  to  tne  walb  and  ceilirig,  the  next  pert  of  internal 
plastenng  b  the  running  of  the  cornice,  followed  by  the  finishing  of 
the  ceiling  and  walls. 

The  third  and  final  coat  b  the  "  setting  coat,"  which  should  be 
about  )  in.  thick.  In  Scotland  it  is  termed  the  "  finishing,"  and  in 
America  the  '*  hard  finish  "  or  "  putty  coat."  Considerable  skill  is 
required  at  this  juncture  to  bring  the  work  to  a  perfectly  true  finish, 
uniform  in  colour  and  texture.  Setting  stuff  should  not  be  applied 
until  the  floatinj^  is  quite  firm  and  nearly  dry,  but  it  must  not  be 
too  dry  or  the  moisture  will  be  drawn  from  the  setting  stuff. 

The  coarse  stuff  applied  as  the  first  coat  is  composed  of  sand  and 
lime,  usually  in  proportions  approximating  to  two  to  one,  with 
hair  mixed  into  it  In  quantities  of  about  a  pound  to  two  or  three 
cubic  feet  of  mortar.  It  should  be  mixed  with  clean  water  to  such 
a  connstency  that  a  quantity  picked  up  on  the  point  of  a  trowel 
holds  well  together  and  does  not  drop. 

Floating  stuff  is  of  finer  texture  than  that  used  for  "  pricking 
up,"  and  IS  used  in  a  softer  state,  enabling  it  to  be  worked  wefl 
into  the  keying  df  the  first  coat.  A  smaller  proportion  of  hair 
is  also  used. 

Fine  staff  mixed  with  sand  b  used  for  the  setting  ooat.    nne 


786 


PLATA,  RIO  DE  LA 


id  cdtl  b  not  illowHl 


workwUI 
I.  KHoe'a, 


•tuff,  ■»  liae  putty,  h  pure  Km  aliich  lu»  bctn  ilalH]  mml  ther 
BiHd  orilh  walcr  to  ■  icnii-fluid  camiitcncv.  ind  ilkriwJ  to  HaiKl 
ulil  it  hu  dnrchipcd  into  a  toft  putc  Fot  uie  in  Klling  il  u 
■iiied  irhh  fine  mihn]  Hnd  in  tl 

Fot  toraloM  mud  tor  tettinj  wl  . 
time  10  dry  pnpcrly,  a  tpeciaL  comptHiiid  mi 
olnn  "g»ii(id  itulf,  compowd  of  thm  a 
purtv  kod  one  part  of  pbarer  of  Paru.  mixni  L 
iraiiiHiatcIv  btfon  uie.  The  pl««ttr  in  the  ma 
npidly.  bui  U  It  ii  pretcnt  in  too  Iuec  ■  pro| 

Tbg  hard  nmenli'  usn]  (or  plutcTing,  lucli 
and  Mirlin'i,  aie  laid  nncnJIy  in  two  miil> 
and  BDd  )  to  I  in.  in  iGkknni,  iIh  iKond  oi 
RmcniaboutlVtllicll.,  Thwiiidtiinillrun..u»^.<a„„u.,... 

alum,  ixmx  or  cirbonle  of  nda.  i>  addrd.  and  On  whole  biVcd  or 
olcincd  at  a  low  tenipcntuic.  The  plailH  Ibey  coouin  cauKi 
tWm  to  Kt  quicldy  with  a  vciy  bud  imootti  urfaH.  vhich  may 
be  painted  or  papered  within  a  lew  houn  nl  lli  being  finiihed. 

TiM  by-law*  made  by  tbe  London  Counw  Council  uader  i  31  o[ 
the  LetukM  Council  (CenenI  Powcn)  Act  ibo  let  (ortb  the 
deacriptioB  and  quality  ot  the  Hibuaiicei  of  which  jriauerini  ii 
totemadelorueehibiiildinEa^icted  pnderltajunidEiiBn^ 

'  irquind  I 


Bltheet  Heel  of  vnrious  lenithi.  tbm  01 
*  wide,  ana  about  onc-tighth  inch  thick,  with  one  end  cut 
la  ol  about  »*■    In  Koe  cave  the  iteel  pkiiE  it  kt  into  a 
or  handle  of  hardwood, 
in  plutetini  may  be  cawed  by  lettlement  of  the  building. 

w  me  ni  inFrrinr  nutrriala  or  by  bad  WOrknUiUhip,  but 

d  takiDf  the  matenaU  and 


labour  m  bnng  of  the  u 


Auied  throuih 


lymg  of  pluter 


the  too  fail  drying 

on  dry  walU  which ^ , 

to  enable  it  to  let,  by  the  application  of  eitenial  beat  or  the  beat 
of  the  lun,  by  tbe  la^ng  of  a  coot  upon  one  which  has  not  pnperly 
■et,  the  cncking  in  tbii  cue  beinf  cauted  by  unequal  contraction, 
or  by  the  uie  oTtoo  Bdatl  a  proportion  of  nod. 
.  .  For  partitiona  and  ceilidn,  plaater  ilaba  are  now  in  very  genenl 
uie  tdicn  work  haa  to  be  finiihtd  quickly.  Forceilings  they  rrquLre 
..■._  limply  to  he  naUed  to  the  joim,  ihe  jointi  being  made 
■nth  planer,  and  the  whole  Bniihed  with  a  thin  tetiing 


It.    In  tame  caao,  with  Bte-prool  doi 

!  hungup  iriih  win  hangen  »  u  ti 

■iKhet  between  the  wilGt  of  the  concrete  noai 

panitiou  the  alabi  fmquently  have  the  edfe? 

partition  11  bound  tocetber.  a>  it  were,  with  1 
iny  (reat  MnnEth  la  nquired  tbe  work  i 
■nail  imn  codi  tHinifh  the  alaba.    Thii  for 


Ind  l'Jt^ling"^« 
rongucd  and  RnAved 
T  ait  holed  AiIDUgh 
uid  pbsler.  the  whole 


nMt,  and  wfcei  gaithed  ncuuiea  only  Ir 
lUclc.  Tbe  ibba  may  be  obtvned  eitiier 
Miich  nqvirei  finnhing  with  ■  wtting  co 
or  ceiling  it  in  powtion.  or  a  jmooth  Tini 
be  papered  or  punted  immediately  the  joir 
made.  Partitioca  an  a1»  foimed  with  one 
of  metal  lathing  previoj^y  referred  to.  Ii» 
jAuieied  on  both  aid  -     "     i  the 


with  ■  k^  ><; 


upon  the  working  of  o 

^_  Deschy,  a  Trench  mod 


Si^  i^Sielhop" 
ei  the  delay  of  leo  1 


ler.  took  out  in  list  *  MIent  For 

uldingi,  omamentt  and  other  worki 

."  with  the  aid  of  plaster,  glue.  wood. 

.._. ,.  _...,.  ..jwt  fabric-    The  modem  uae  of  thii 

iduter  was  known  and  practiied  by  the  Egyptlar     '         '    ' 


loaked  in  glue  arid  plaaier  and  laid 


UK  in  Great  Britain  up  to  the  mUdle  of  tiK  Uc  b 

buiklingi.  "  '"'" 

The  principal  booka  ol  telemtce  1 
PlvUrmi,  Flam  siul  Zlnimlnc:    ( 
UtrUn  ant  Utuiei      -  ' 
Pan  111.."  Building 
Ruben  and  Jamea  Ad 

PLATA,  RIO  DB  LA,  or  RiVEi  Pute,  1  lunnel  shaped 
oluaiy.  on  the  eau  aide  of  South  America,  eiLending  W.X.1A. 
from  the  M*  about  170  m.  The  diicoveiy  of  the  South  Sci 
by  Btlboa,  then  governor  of  Cuiilla  del  Oro,  ol  which  Dinca 
(ormed  a  part,  cicatcd  e,  lively  desire  to  lelm  wmelhing  of  its 
roaii-lina,  and  the  year  foUowing  (in  1514),  the  Spaniib  nwni.-ck 
concluded  a  navigation  contnct  with  Juin  Diaz  de  SoJii.  tbcn 

with  the  newly  found  ocean,  eiplore  the  coajis  of  the  latter  and 
com  musical  e  with  Pedtatia*  de  Avila,  ibe  new  govcmttc  of 
Caslilla  del  Oro;  and,  ii  it  were  found  to  be  an  itUnd,  to  report 
to  the  superior  authoritin  of  Cuba.  De  Solii  Ht  ujl  frotn  the 
port  ot  Lepe  on  the  8tb  of  October  1515,  reached  the  Bay  of 


,c  Jan. 


stercd  the  | 

i  the  Mar  Dulcc.    Ascendin 
Matlin  Garcia,  near  the  m 
Ikiliedio 


It  ol  January  ijib,  . 


led  ibede 
il  to  the  vicioity  of  the 
ith  of  ihe  Fatuii  rit-ei. 
he  early  part  ot  ijiti  b/ 

caplute  lome  of  Ihto. 

eiplnred  the  Rio  6e  la 
!   year,   discovered    and 


Ihe  Ftst: 
Solii  ani 

islood  of  Matlin  Garcia, 
de  Soli]  wa)  amhuahed  ai 
Guarani  Indiana  while  a 
In  Ihe  first  months  of  t 
PlaLa,  and  afterwaMi, 
navigated  the  sErails  which  bear  his  name.  This  discovery  led 
to  Ihe  voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  who  fitted  out  an  upedition  in 
1526  to  reach  Ihe  Spice  Islands  by  the  Magellan  route.  Owmg. 
however,  to  shortness  of  provisions  and  the  insubordiiialiDa  af 
his  men  Cabot  abandoned  his  proposed  voyage  to  the  Moluccas, 
and,  iscenilintl  Ihe  Mat  Dulce,  diHovered  the  ParanA  Hvs 
and  reached  a  point  on  the  Paraguay  near  the  die  of  the  prrseot 
city  of  Aauncion.  Here  he  met  manyCuaranl  Indians  wearirg 
■liver  ornaments,  probably  obtained  in  trade  acrosa  Ihe  Gria 
Chaco,  from  the  frontier  of  the  Inca  Empire.  In  eichaogt  ks 
beads  and  trinkels  Cabol  acquired  many  of  Ihtse  onumenu 
and  sent  them  to  Spain  as  evidence  of  the  richness  of  the 
country  in  precious  metals  and  the  great  ImportaAcc  of  ha 
discoveries.  The  receipt  of  these  silver  bauhlca  caused  tlte  Dame 
of  Rio  de  la  Plata  lu  be  applied  to  the  third  (pcrbape  the  Ktoot' 
irealest  river  of  Ihe  Weslem  Continenl. 

stteme  bieadlh  of  Ibc  livei  at  its  mouth  is  i  jS  m.  L 
TOWS  quickly  to  ;;  >"-  at  Montevideo,  and  at  its  bead,  wbrie 
receives  the  united  Famni  and  Uruguay  tiven.  its  widlk 
ibout  ij  m.  lis  northern  or  Uruguayan  shore  is  somewhal 
™ted  and  rocky,  while  the  southern  or  Buenos  Airian  om 
rery  low.  The  whole  estuary  is  very  shaliow,  and  in  no  place 
ive  Montevideo  eiceeds  ]6  It,  in  depth  when  the  river  b  k*. 
■       of  enormoii  -         - 


The 


d  »iih  fn 


la  ft.  o(  wi 


ind  P 


11  ft.  depth  only,  10  within  14  sl 

channel.    The  Plata  is  liciply 
mighiy  streams,  Uie  Vnicuaf 


Farific  ^ope  of  the  Andes,  and  comprisci  tbe  mon  fertile, 
hcalihjest  and  b«I  part  of  BtaEil,  a  large  portion  of  tbe  Argtntke 
Republic,  the  whole  of  Paraguay  and  Kuth-etftein  Bolivia,  and 
most  of  Uruguay. 
The  ITrusuav  r;i.-i.r  Ku  a  length  of  about  1000  m.  Many  anal 
slope  of  the  BrajUian  Sem  c>d  .Mar 


e.  In  about 

n  of  Saiita'uillarina 'a 
ir  as  }i*  W..  near  which 

■*!"  "°  5*"  "^  jj*  3 


1   Rio  C 


rtjs 


o    Sul. 


PLATA,  RIO  DE  LA 


787 


oitkm 


The  Pepfri-guaxit  was  one  of  the  limits  between  the  possessions 
of  Portugal  and  S{>ain.  Us  lower  course  is  about  250  ft.  wide, 
but  higher  up  it  narrows  to  about  30  ft.,  and  runs  with  great  violence 
between  high  wooded  banks.  It  is  navigable  for  canoes  for  about 
70  m.  above  its  mouth,  as  far  as  its  first  fail.  The  Rio  Nqrro  has  a 
delta  of  several  large  islands  at  its  confluence  with  the  Uruguay 
Its  head-waters  are  in  the  southern  port  of  Rk>  Grande  do  Sul, 
but  the  main  river  belongs  entirely  to  the  state  of  Uruguay,  which 
it  cuts  midway  in  its  course  from  north-east  to  south-west.  Its 
lower  reaches  are  navirable  for  craft  of  moderate  draught. 

From  the  time  the  Urueuay  leaves  the  coait  range  of  Brazil  it 
runs  for  a  long  distance  through  a  beautiful,  open,  hilly  country, 
but  afterwards  enters  a  forest  belt  of  high  lands.  At 
the  river  Pepiri-guaztl  it  turns  suddenly  to  the  south- 
west, and  continues  this  course  to  its  junction  with  the 
Parent  and  Plata.  Near  Fray  Bentos,  61  m.  before 
reaching  the  Plata,  it  forms  a  great  lake,  about  56  m.  long  and 
from  4  to  6  m.  wide.  At  Punta  Gorda,  where  it  debouches  into 
the  Plata,  it  is  only  X  m.  to  li  m.  wide,  but  is  90  ft.  deep.  From  the 
Pepiri-guaid  junction  its  banks  are  high  and  a>verea  with  forest 
as  far  down  as  27*  30'  S.,  where  the  river  is  2300  ft.  wide  and  from 
10  to  40  ft.  deep.  The  Uruguay  is  mudi  obstructed  by  rocky 
terriers.  Four  miles  below  its  confluence  with  the  Pepiri-guazu 
St  has  a  cataract,  about  8  m.  lon^,  with  a  total  fall  of  26  ft.  at  low 
water.  The  river  near  the  Pei»n-guazu  is  1550  ft.  wide,  but  about 
i|  m.  before  reaching  the  cataract  its  width  is  reduced  to  600  ft, 
Along  the  cataract  it  is  dosed  in  between  bieh  precipitous  walls 
of  black  rock  only  70  ft.  apart.  Above  Punta  Goraa,  212  m.,  is  the 
Salto  Grande,  which  has  a  lensth  of  IJ  m.  of  ra{Mds,  the  greatest 
single  fall  beine  12  ft.,  and  the  difference  of  level  for  the  entire  length 
of  the  reefs  25  tt.  These  cross  the  river  diagonally,  and  during  floods 
all.  excepting  a  length  of  i )  m.  of  them,  are  submerged.  Nine  miles 
below  the  &Ito  Grande  is  the  Sadto  Chico,  which  bars  navigation 
during  six  months  of  the  year/but  in  flood-time  may  be  passed  in 
craft  drawing  5  ft.  of  water.  The  Uruguay  can  be  navmated  at  all 
seasons  by  vessels  of  4}  ft.  draught  as  far  up  as  the  &ito  Chico, 
and  of  14  ft.  up  to  Paysandti  for  a  greater  part  of  the  year.  Fray 
Bentos  may  be  reached  all  the  year  round  oy  any  vessel  that  can 
ascend  the  raran&.  Above  the  navigable  lower  river  there  is  launch 
and  canoe  navigation  for  many  hundreds  of  miles  upon  the  main 
artery  and  its  branches,  between  the  rapids  which  are  met  with  from 
time  to  time.  The  Uruguay  has  its  annual  floods,  due  to  the  rains 
in  its  upper  basin.  They  begin  at  the  end  of  July  and  continue  to 
Novemoer,  attaining  their  maximum  during  September  and  October. 
At  the  aarrow  places  the  river  rises  as  high  as  30  ft.,  but  its  average 
rise  is  16  ft.  It  flows  almost  for  its  entire  course  over  a  rocky  bed, 
generally  of  red  sandstone,  at  times  very  coarse  and  then  again 
of  extremely  fine  composition.  Except  in  floods,  it  is  a  dear-water 
stream,  and  even  at  its  highest  level  carries  comparativdy  little 
silt. 

The  Parafti  (the  "  Mother  of  the  Sea  '*  in  Guarani)  drains  a  vast 
area  of  southern  Brazil.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  Paran&hyba,  and  is  about  1600  m.  long 
from  its  extreme  source  in  Goyaz  to  its  function  with 
the  Paraguay,  and  thence  600  more  to  the  Plata  estuary. 
Its  average  width  for  the  latter  length  is  from 
I  to  3  m.  Its  Rio  Grande  branch  descends  from  the 
slope  of  the  Serra  da  Mantiqueira,  in  the  region  where  the  orographic 
8)  stem  of  Brazil  culminates  near  the  peak  of  Itatlaia-aasd,  almost  in 
sight  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  is  about  080  m.  long,  but  only  navigable 
in  the  stretches  between  the  many  reefs,  falls  and  rapids  which 
interrupt  its  regular  flow.     Amon^  its  numerous  affluents  the 

fxincipal  one  is  the  Rio  das  Mortes,  rising  in  the  Serra  Manticjueira. 
t  is  180  m.  long,  with  two  sections,  of  a  total  of  120  m.,  which  are 
navigable  for  launches.  The  main  branch  of  the  Paran&,  the 
Paran&hyba,  rises  in  about  l^  30'  S.,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Pyreneos  Mountains.  It  drains  a  little-known  region  of  Goyaz  and 
western  Minas  Geraes,  lying  upon  the  immediate  southern  water- 
shed of  Brazil. 

Besides  these  rivers,  the  Faran&  has  many  long  and  powerful 
affluents  from  the  Brazilian  states  of  S&o  Paulo  and  Parana.  Most 
of  them,  although  obstructed  by  rapids,  are  navigable  for  launches 
and  canoes.  Among  the  eastern  tributaries  are  the  Ti£t6,  the 
Paran&^panema,  formerly  known  as  the  Anemby,  and  the  Iguazd. 

The  Ti£t6.  over  700  m.  long,  rises  in  the  Serra  Paranipicaba 
and  flows  in  a  nortn-weat  direction.  Its  course  is  broken  by  fifty- 
four  rapids,  and  the  lower  river  by  two  falls,  the  Avanhandava, 
44  ft.  drop,  and  the  Itapurfi.  65  ft. 

The  Parand-panema  is  about  600  m.  long,  and  rises  in  a  ramifica- 
tion of  the  Serra  Faran&picaba  which  overlooks  the  Atlantic  Ocean- 
Its  general  course  is  north-west.  It  is  ruivigable  for  a  distance  of 
only  about  30  m.  above  its  mouth,  and  for  its  whole  course  it  has 
so  many  obstructions  that  it  is  useless  for  commercial  purposes. 

The  lgu&t^,  also  called  the  Rio  Grande  de  Curutiba.  nas  its  sources 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Serra  do  Mar  of  Brazil,  and  flows  neariy  west, 
through  thick  forests,  along  the  line  of  26"  S.  Its  navigation  is 
difficult  even  for  small  craft,  as  it  is  full  of  reefs,  rapids  and  cataracts. 
Sixteen,  miles  above  its  mouth  is  the  magnificent  Salto  del  Iguazd. 
sometimes  called  the  Victoria  Fall,  round  which  canoes  have  to  be 
traiuported  37  m.  before  quiet  water  is  reached  again.    The  width 


Pmrmuk 
madKa 


of  the  falls,  measured  tMong  their  crest  or  edge,  is  a}  m. ;  part  of  the 
river  ukes  two  leaps  of  about  100  ft.  each,  but  a  portion  of  it  plunges 
down  the  whole  depth  in  unbroken  mass.  Its  mouth  is  about 
800  ft.  wide,  and  the  depth  in  mid-river  ^  ft. 

The  Paran&,  at  a  point  28  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  Tlftti,  is 
interrupted  by  the  udls  of  Urubuponga,  but  betow  these  it  has 
unobstructed  navintion  for  about  ioo  m.,  as  far  down  c,_. 
as  the  falls  of  Guaira,  in  24*  3'  S.,  where  the  river  forma  iSS!^ 
a  lake  4|  m.  k>ng  and  2|  m.  wide,  preparatory  to  Mnli. 
breaching  the  Serra  de  MbaracayiJ,  which  there  disputes  'wnaA 
its  right  of  way.  It  has  torn  a  deep  gori^  through  the  mountains 
for  a  length  of  about  2  m.,  where  it  is  divided  into  several  channeb, 
filled  with  rapids  and  catitracts.  It  finally  gathers  its  waters  into 
a  single  volume,  to  plunge  with  frightful  velodty  through  a  long 
caflon  only  about  200  ft.  wide.  From  these  so-called  falls  of  Guaixa, 
or  **  Sete  Quedas,"  as  far  as  its  confluence  with  the  Paraguay  river, 
the  Paranft  has  carved  a  narrow  bed.  throui^  an  immenae  cap  of 
red  sandstone,  along  which  it  sometinaes  flows  with  great  rapidity, 
occasionally  being  interrupted  by  dangerous  narrows  and  rapids, 
where  the  banks  In  some  places  dose  in  to  a  width  of  450  to  600  ft., 
although  the  average  b  from  1200  to  1600  ft.  At  the  south-east 
angle  of  I^raguay  the  PanuiA  is  prevented  from  continuing  ita 
natural  southern  course  to  the  river  Uruguay  by  the  hiriuands 
which  cross  the  Argentine  province  of  Miaiones,  and  connect  those  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul  with  the  Caa-guazfi  range  of  Riiraguay.  Here, 
therefore,  it  is  turned  westwards;  but  before  escaping  from  its  great 
sandstone  bed  it  is  obstructed  by  several  reefs,  noubiy  at  the  rapids 
of  Apip^  which  are  the  last  Imore  it  joins  the  phucid  Paraguay, 
130  m.  farther  on.  From  the  Apip6  rapids  there  is  a  vast  triangular 
space  at  the  south-western  comer  ot  Paraguay  but  little  above 
sea-level,  consisting  of  low,  sandy  ground  and  morasses,  at  times 
flooded  by  the  Paraguay  river.  Thja  district,  united  to  the  equally 
enormous  area  occupied  by  the  Yber&  lagoon  and  its  surrounding 
morasses,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Argentine  province  of  Cor- 
rientes,  was  probably  the  delta  <^  the  Parani  river  when  it  emptied 
into  the  ancient  Pampean  Sea. 

The  river  Paraguay,  the  main  aflluent  <rf  the  Parani,  rises  in 
Matto  Grosso,  in  the  vidnity  tA  the  town  of  Diamantino,  about 
i±*  2\'  S.  It  flows  south-westwards,  as  far  as  Villa 
Maria,  alorig  the  foot  of  the  high  plateau  which  divides 
it  from  the  Cuyab&  River  to  the  east,  and  then,  turning 
southwards,  soon  reaches  the  morasa  eiqnnsbn  of  Xarayes,  whidi 
it  traverses  for  about  100  m.  A  few  miles  bdow  Villa  Maria  it 
receives  an  affluent  from  the  north-west,  the  Jaur&v  which  has  iu 
source  nearly  in  contact  with  the  head-waters  of  the  Guapor^ 
branch  of  the  river  Maddra.  The  Cuyab&,  which  Is  known  as  the 
SSo  Lourenso  for  90  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the  Paraguay, 
has  iu  sources  In  13®  as'  S.,  almost  in  touch  with  those  of  the 
Tapajos  branch  of  the  Amazon.  Above  the  town  of  Cuyabi  it  is 
from  150  to  400  ft.  wide,  and  may  be  navigated  up  stream  by  can  les 
for  ijo  m. ;  but  there  are  many  rapids.  The  town  may  be  reached 
from  the  Paraguay  River,  at  low  water,  by  craft  drawing  18  in. 
According  to  the  observations  of  Clauss,  Cuyab&  is  only  660  ft.  above 
sea-level  From  the  iunctwn  of  the  Sfto  Lourenso  (or  Coyab4)  with 
the  river  Paraguay,  the  latter,  now  a  great  stream,  moves  sluggishly 
southwards,  spreading  its  waters,  in  the  rainy  season,  for  hundreds 
of  miles  to  the  right  and  left,  as  far  south  as  20*,  turning  vast  swamps 
into  great  lakes — in  fact,  temporarily  restoring  the  region,  for 
thousands  of  square  miles,  to  its  andent  lacustrine  eonditkm. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  upper  Paraguay,  between  about  17*  ^o' 
and  19*  S.,  are  several  large,  shallow  laptnas  or  lakes  which  receive 
the  drainage  of  the  southern  slopes  01  the  Chiquitos  -  -—,--- 
sierras,  but  represent  mainly  the  south-west  overflow  "ygr^r* 
of  the  vast  morass  of  Xarayas.  The  prindpal  of  these  J^iMMr 
lakes,  naming  them  from  north  to  south,  are  the  Uberaba^^  ranga^* 
the  Gaiha,  Mandtord  and  the  "  Bahia  "  de  Caceres.  Tlie  Uberaba 
is  the  largest.  The  northern  division  of  the  lake  belongs  entirely 
to  Brazil,  but  the  southern  one,  about  two-thirds  of  its  area,  is 
bisected  from  north  to  south  by  the  boundary  line  between  Brazil 
and  BoHvia,  according  to  the  treaty  of  1867.  It  is  in  great 
part  surrounded  by  high  ground  and  hills,  but  its  southern  coast 
IS  swampy  and  flooded  durifig  the  rainy  season.  The  west  shore  is 
historic.  Here,  in  1543,  the  conmnstadcr,  Martinez  de  Irala, 
founded  the  *'  Puerto  de  los  Reyes,^'  with  the  idea  that  it  might 
become  the  port  for  Peru;  and  from  Lake  Gaiba  several  expeditions, 
in  Spanish  colonial  days,  j>enetrated  $00  m.  across  the  Chaoo  to  the 
frontier  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas.  At  the  Puerto  de  los  Reyes 
Bolivia  laid  out  a  town  in  December  1900,  in  the  foriom  hope  that 
the  "  Port  "  mav  serve  as  an  outlet  for  that  commercially  suffocated 
country,  there  odng  no  other  equally  good  accessible  point  for 
Bolivia  on  the  Paraguay  River. 

South  of  the  SSo  Lourengo,  the  first  river  of  importance  which 
enters  the  Paraguay  from  the  east  is  the  Taquar^,  about  19®  S. 
It  rises  in  the  Serra  Cayap6,  on  the  southern  extension 
of  the  Matto  Grosso  table-land.  South  of  this  stream 
about  50  m.  a  considerable  river,  the  Mondego,  with 
many  branches,  draining  a  great  area  of  extreme  south- 
ern Matto  Grosso.  also  flows  into  the  Paraguay;  and  still  farther 
south,  near  21  ^  is  the  Ap&  tributary,  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  Paraguay  and  Brazilian  Matto  Grosso. 


otdn 


788 


PLATA,  RIO  DE  LA 


The  Pikonuiyo  is  of  more  tmportanoe  from  its  length  than  froni 

its  volume.     It  rises  among  the  Bolivian  Andes  north  of  Potosi 

and  north-west  of  Sucre,  races  down  the  mountains  to 

•y their  base,  crosses  the  Chaco  plains,  and  ^urs  into  the 

rmcmaMyo*  ^y^  Paraguay  near  Asuncion.  Nor  does  it  receive  any 
branch  of  importance  until  it  reaches  about  31*  S.,  where  it  is  joined 
from  the  80«rth-west  by  the  river  Pelaya,  upon  which  Tupiza,  the 
most  southerly  city  of  Bolivia,  is  situated.  The  Pelaya  rises  upon 
the  lofty  inter-Andean  plateau,  and,  taking  an  easterly  course,  saws 
its  way  across  the  inland  Andean  range,  turns  northwards  and  then 
eastwards  to  unite  with  the  Pilcomayo,  which  it  is  said  at  least  to 
equal  in  volume.  Just  below  the  junction  is  the  fall  of  Guara- 
petendi.  33  ft.  high.  From  this  point  to  the  mouth  of  the  Pilcomayo 
the  distance  in  a  straight  line  is  480  m.,  although  bv  the  curves  of 
the  river,  which  is  extremely  tortuous,  it  is  about  double  that  dis- 
tance. According  to  Storm,  who  quotes  Captain  Baldrich,  the  river 
bifurcates  at  3 1 "  51 '  S.,  but  again  becomes  a  ungle  stream  at  33*  ^3', 
the  right  channel  being  the  (n^eater  in  volume.  It  is  probable 
that  between  33*  and  24*  S.  it  throws  E.S.E.  three  great  arms 
to  the  river  Paraguay,  the  upper  portions  of  which  have  yet 
to  be  explored,  but  the  lower  parts  have  been  examined  for  100  to 
300  m.  up  from  the  Paraguay.  Enumerating  from  north  to  south, 
they  are  cdled  the  Esperanza,  the  Montelindo  and  the  Maci.  From 
180  to  300  m.  above  its  mouth  the  Pilcomavo  filters  through  a  vast 
swamp  about  100  m.  in  diameter,  through  which  there  b  no  principal 
channel.  This  swamp,  or  perhaps  shallow  lagoon,  is  probably  partly 
drained  by  the  river  Confuso,  which  reaches  the  Paraguay  between 
the  Pilcomayo  and  Mac4.  A  northern  branch  of  the  Pilcomayo, 
the  Fontana,  the  junction  being  at  34"  56'  S.,  is  probably  also  a 
drainage  outlet  of  the  same  great  swamp. 

For  the  first  100  m.  below  the  fall  of  Cuarapetendi  the  Pilcomayo 
is  from  600  to  1000  ft.  wide,  but  it  so  distributes  its  waten  through 
its  many  bifurcations,  and  loses  so  much  from  infiltration  and  m 
swamps,  and  by  evaporation  from  the  numerous  lagoons  it  forms 
on  eitner  side  of  its  course,  that  its  channel  is  greatly  contracted 
before  it  reaches  the  Paraguay.  From  Sucre  to  the  Andean  margin 
of  the  Chaco,  a  distance  of  about  350  m.  by  the  river,  the  fall  is  at 
least  8000  ft. — a  sufficient  indication  that  its  upper  course  is  useless 
for  purposes  of  navigation. 

Tne  missionaries  in  1556  first  reported  the  existence  of  the  Pilco- 
mayo, which  for  a  long  period  of  time  was  known  as  the  Araguay. 
In  1 731  Patifio  and  Rodriguez  partially  explored  it,  and  since  then 
numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  test  its  navigability,  all  of 
which  have  been  failures;  and  several  of  them  have  ended  in  disaster 
and  loss  of  life,  so  that  the  Pilcomayo  now  has  a  sinister  reputation. 

The  Bermejo  river  flows  parallel  to  the  Pilcomayo,  and  entcn 
the  Paraguay  a  few  miles  above  the  junction  of  this  with  the  Parani. 
-^  Its  numerous  sources  are  on  the  eastern  frontase  of  the 

^*  inland  Andes,  between  the  Bolivian  town  c3f  Tariia 

*'™*'"*  and  the  Argentine  city  of  Jujuy,  Its  most  northerly 
tributary  is  the  San  Lorenzo,  which,  after  beingaujpnentcd  by  several 
small  streams,  takes  the  name  of  Rio  de  Tanja.  This  running 
cs^,  and  then  taking  a  general  south-easterly  course,  joins  the 
Bermejo  in  33*  50'  S.  at  a  point  called  the  Juntas  de  San  Antonio. 
Thence,  flying  southwards,  tne  Bermejo  finally,  in  33*  50'  S.,  receives 
its  main  affluent,  the  San  Francisco,  from  the  south-west.  The 
latter  has  its  source  in  about  33*  30^  S.,  and,  under  the  name  of  Rio 
Grande,  runs  directly  southwards,  in  a  deep  mountain  valley,  as  far 
as  Jujuy.  It  tl)en  turns  eastwards  for  50  m.,  and  is  joined  by 
the  Lavayen  from  the  south-west.  These  two  streams  form  the 
Ssn  Francisco,  which,  from  their  junction,  runs  north-eastwards 
to  the  Bermejo.  The  average  width  of  the  San  Francisco  is  about 
400  ft. :  it  is  seldom  over  3  ft.  deep,  and  has  many  shoals  and  sand- 
banks. From  iu  junction  with  the  latter  stream  the  Bermejo  flows 
south-eastwards  to  the  Paraguay  with  an  average  width  in  its  main 
channel  of  about  650  ft.,  although  narrowing  at  tiroes  to  160  and 
even  loa  In  its  course,  however,  it  bifurcates  and  ramifies  into 
many  channels,  forming  enormous  islands,  and  frequently  leaves 
old  beds  for  new  ones. 

Since  the  exploration  of  the  Bermejo  by  I^tifio  in  1731,  jt  has 
often  been  examined  from  its  sources  to  its  mouth,  with  a  view  to 
ascertain  its  navigability.  Captain  Page  in  i8sa  and  1859  found 
it  impracticable  to  ascend  it  over  135  m.  in  the  dry  season,  with  a 
little  steamer  drawing  3t  in.  of  water ;  out  in  flood-time,  in  December 
187 1,  he  succeeded,  in  60  days,  in  reaching  a  point  730  m.  from  its 
mouth,  in  the  steamer  "  Alpna,"  53  ft.  bng  and  30  in.  draught.  He 
afterwards  penetrated  another  100  m.  up  stream.  The  round  voyage 
took  a  year,  owing  to  the  swift  currents,  shoals,  qukksands,  snags 
and  fallen  trees. 

The  Salado.  about  350  m.  south-weft  of  and  approximately  parallel 
to  the  Bermejo.  is  the  only  great  tribuury  which  the  Parana  receives 
from  the  west  bebw  its  confluence  with  the  Paraguay. 
J*»  Its  extreme  head-waters  are  in  the  Argentine  province 

s»udo.  of  Salta,  and  they  drain  a  much  broken  Andean  region 

lying  between  34*  and  26*  ^o'  south.  The  most  westerly  sources  are 
the  rivers  Santa  Maria  ana  Calchaqui.  which  unite  near  the  town  of 
San  Carlos  and  form  the  river  Guichipas.  Having  received  the 
Arias,  the  Gu&chipas  runs  north-eastwards  about  50  m..  and  then  it 
changes  its  name  to  the  Juramento.  which  is  retained  until  the  river 
reaches  the  Chaco  plains  at  the  base  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Andes. 


Here  it  becomes  the  Salado,  a  name  k  preserves  for  tht  ccfBaisd^ 
of  its  course.  It  joins  the  ParanA  near  Santa  F6  in  31*  39'  scrj 
and  60*  41 '  west.  Explorers  of  the  Salado.  inclusive  <A  Captain  P^gt 
in  1855,  claim  that  its  lower  half  is  navigable,  but  the  m^ny  edcrL^ 
which  have  been  made  to  utilize  it  as  a  conunerdal  route  haw  <J 
resulted  in  failure. 

As  the  Pilcomayo,  the  Bermejo  and  the  Salado  wander  about  ibt 
country,  ever  in  search  of  new  channels,  they  erode  and  tear  a«^-< 
great  quantities  of  the  Pampean  material,  dissolve  it  into  silt,  ir-c 
pour  it  into  the  Paraguay  and  Paran4  rivers.  The  engincrr  PeUesc- 
estimates  that  "  the  soil  annually  subtracted  from  the  territor>  i 
the  Chaco  by  the  Bermejo  alone  equals  6.400,000  cubic  yards." 

South  of  its  confluence  with  the  river  Paraguay,  the  Parari 
washes  the  western  foot  of  a  series  of  sandstone  bluns  for  jo  mV^ 
Thence  for  340  m.  the  bordering  hilb  are  about  80 
ft.  high,  but  at  Goya  the  country  is  almost  on  a  level 
with^  the  river.  Near  the  boundary-line  between 
Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios  the  banks  are  very  low  on 
both  tides  of  the  river,  and  continue  so  for  nearly 
100  m.;  but  farther  down,  for  150  m.,  the  kft  bank  is  margiDci 
as  far  as  Diamante,  by  a  range  of  hills  from  135  to  icio  1. 
high,  at  times  boldly  escarped.  At  Diamante  they  trend  inkr>i 
south-eastwards,  for  about  50  m.,  and  probably  once  bordered  u 
ancient  channel  of  the  river.  From  3i"jo'  south  to  the  head  of  t^ 
Plata  estuaiy  the  western  bank  of  the  I^rani  is  a  predpttous  bl.n 
of  reddish  day,  varying  from  35  to  75  ft.  above  mean  river  Irt^i 
It  is  being  gradually  undermined,  and  tumbles  into  the  wat^ 
in  great  bloclo,  adding  to  the  immense  volume  of  silt  which  the  xv-r' 
carries.  According  to  Ramon  Lista,  "  the  lowest  level  of  iht 
Paran4  is  in  October  and  November,  and,  save  an  occasional  f  reahci. 
it  remains  stationary  until  the  bcginnine  of  summer,  when  its  ihia:rr> 
b^in  to  rise,  reaching  their  maximum  about  the  middle  of  Februar< 
in  the  lower  part  of  tneir  course."  The  difference  between  low  isk 
high  river  is  gencarally  about  I3  ft.,  depending  upon  the  var>-u% 
quantity  of  rains  in  Brazil  and  the  melting  of  the  Andean  socnrv 
ficlow  Its  junction  with  the  Paraguay  the  Parani  has  an  average 
current  of  2^  m.  an  hour,  and  the  nver  varies  in  width  from  i  to  3  icl, 
at  low  water;  but  in  floods  it  seems  almost  a  continuous  lake,  broad- 
ening to  10  and  30  m.  and  burying  many  of  its  numerous  islaids 
and  marginal  swamps  under  a  vast  sheet  of  water,  and  oblitcratir; 
its  many  parallel  lateral  channels  and  intricate  systems  of  connectii^ 
canals* 

In  the  middle  Paran&,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Iguazfi  to  the  moutM 
of  the  Pasas;uay  river,  there  are  many  islands,  some  of  them  laTge, 
rocky  and  nigh  above  the  livcr.    From  Paraguay  to        ^.  .  . 
the  dty  of  Kosario,  islands  are  numerous,  many  of       **— ^  * 
them  ot  ^reat  area ;  and  again  below  Rosario  they  soon       ^snsaa. 
increase  m  number  and  size  until  the  Pbta  estuary  is  reachcl 
In  flood-time  the  upper  portion  of  the  tiee»  being  out  of  water,  tho 
have  the  appearance  of  floating  forests.    Then  the  river  often  rtUla 
wild  work  with  its  banks,  and  builds  up  or  sweeps  away  entire  ialao>i' 
leaving  deep  channeb  instead.    Mouchez  in  1857,  searching  for  r>  .^ 
islands  the  position  of  which  he  had  fixed  in  the  previous  year,  fousd 
in  their  pUce  3^  and  33  ft.  of  water.   The  lower  delta  of  the  Panri 
does  not  share  in  these  phenomena;  its  bbnds  and  main  channel 
appear  more  fixed.    This  probably  is  due  to  the  less  elevatioo  st- 
taincd  by  the  wai^rs  in  flood-time,  and  the  numerous  branches  «  hkh 
dbtribute  them  into  the  Pbta  estuary.    This  must  have  extended. 
in  a  very  recent  geological  period,  inbnd  from  its  present  head  to 
at  least  33*  S.;  but  the  enormous  quantity  of  silt  which  the  Panci 
receives  from  its  Paraguay  afllucnt,  and  from  the  tributaries  whk^ 
reach  it  from  the  Andes,  has  filled  thb  length  of  about  330  ra.  irith 
these  muddy  islands,  which  rest  upon  a  sandy  bed  of  great  depth. 

The  frontage  of  the  Parani  delta  b  40  m.  across,  almost  in  a 
straight  line  from  north  to  south.  Through  this  the  river  finds 
its  way  to  the  Pbta  by  eleven  outlets,  brge  and  small, 
the  two  principal  ones  being  the  P&ranA-gnaz6  and  the 
Parani  de  las  Palmas. 

The  mean  flow  of  the  Misasdppi  river  at  New  Orleans  b  675.000 
cub.  ft.  pa  second,  and  its  flood  maximum  about  1,000.000  ft. 
The  minimum  of  the  Pbta  past  Buenos  ^re^  b  534.000.  the  man- 
mum  3,145.00a  It  may  therefore  be  fairiy  assumed  that  the 
yeariy  discharge  of  the  great  North  American  river  b  not  superior, 
and  may  be  inferior,  to  that  of  the  Pbta. 

^  The  Parani  b  navigable  at  all  times  as  far  up  as  the  Sio  Lourcn^ 
river  by  craft  drawinjg  a  ft.  of  water,  and  to  within  a  few  miln 
of  Asuncion,  the  capital  of  Paraguay,  by  vesseb  drawing  9  fu 
The  city  of  Parani  may  always  be  reached  snth  a  draught  of  13 
and  Rosario  with  15  ft.  of  water. 

The  commercbl  development  oi  the  Pbta  badn  may  be  coa- 
veniently  illustrated  by  statistics  for  the  year  1632,  wludi  marks 
the  beginning  of  independent  rule  in  its  republics;  for  ^ 
1854,  when  the  steamooat  and  the  railway  first  began  ^•■■•s^ 
to  pby  a  part  in  this  quarter  of  the  world;  and  in  1898  and  1899. 
as  indicating  approximately  the  state  of  affairs  at  the  end  cd  the  i9tk 
century.  In  Buenos  Aires,  for  example,  the  foreign  trade  (entrrH 
and  cleared)  in  1833  aggregated  107,170  tons;  in  i8j$4, 343^63  tons: 
and  in  189^.  5.046,817  tons.  The  coasting  and  nver  trade  of  the 
same  port  increased  from  150.741  tons  in  1854  to  3.695.088  ton*  is 
1899.     But  taking  into  accoimt  all  the  Argentine  portSt  cacepc 


PLATAEA— PLATE 


789 


those  which  lie  to  the  loiith  of  the  Plata,  there  was  for  the  «x  yean 

ending  withi899 an  annual  average  of  14,000,000  tons  fortheovcraeat 
commerce  and  11.000,000  tons  for  the  river  and  coasting  trade. 
On  the  other,  or  northern,  bank  of  the  stream  the  chief  port  is  Monte- 
video; and  its  foreign  commerce  increased  from  an  aggregate  of 
50,000  tons  in  1823  to  1^,000  tons  in  18^  and  to  i/)69,870  tons  in 
1898,  the  river  and  coasting  trade  having  increased  from  50,000  tons 
in  1822  to  150,000  tons  in  1854  and  to  3,915,421  tons  in  1898.  The 
total  foreign  trade  of  the  Plata  valley  thus  increased  from  over 
157.000  tons  in  1822  to  nearly  18.100,000  tons  in  1898-1899. 
Its  growth  since  the  opening  of  the  20th  century  has  been  phenomenal 
ancTpromiscs  to  become  gigantic  The  Andes  on  the  west,  the  in- 
terior of  South  America  on  the  north,  great  rivers,  and  the  Brazilian 
mountains  on  the  east  of  the-Pbta  basin  are  obstacles  which  compel 
the  rich  and  varied  products  of  at  least  1,500.000  sq.  m.  of  fertile 
country  to  aeek  access  to  the  ocean  by  a  single  avenue — the  Plata 
estuary.  (G.  E,  C.) 

PLATAEA,  or  Plataeae,  an  ancient  Greek  city  of  Boeotia, 
situated  close  under  Mt  Cithaeron,  near  the  passes  leading 
from  Peloponnesus  and  Attica  to  Thebes,  and  separated  from 
the  latter  dty's  territory  by  the  river  Aaopus.  Though  one 
of  the  smallest  Boeotian  towns,  it  stobbomly  resisted  the 
centralizing  policy  of  Thebes.  In  519  b.c.  it  invoked  Sparta's 
help  against  its  powerful  neighbour,  but  was  referred  by  king 
Cleomencs  to  Athens  (for  the  date,  see  Crote's  History  of  Greece, 
ed.  1907,  p.  82,  note  4).  The  Athenians  secured  Plataea's  inde- 
pendence, and  thus  secured  its  enduring  friendship.  In  490 
the  Plataeans  sent  their  full  levy  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Athenians  at  Marathon,  and  during  the  invasion  of  Xerxes  they 
joined  eagerly  in  the  national  defence.  At  Artemisium  they 
volunteered  to  man  several  Athenian  diips,  and  subsequently 
abandoned  their  town  to  be  burnt  by  Xerxes.  In  479  they 
fought  against  the  Persians  under  Mardonius  in  the  decisive 
battle  which  bears  the  name  of  the  city.  In  this  campaign  the 
Persian  commander,  retiring  from  Attica  before  the  combined 
Pclopoiuiesian  and  Athenian  levy,  bad  encamped  in  the  Asopus 
pbun  in  order  to  give  battle  on  ground  suited  to  his  numerous 
cavalry.  The  Greeks  under  the  Spartan  regent  Pausanias  at 
first  did  not  venture  beyond  the  spurs  of  Cithaeron,  but,  encour- 
aged by  successful  skirmishing,  advanced  towards  the  river  and 
attempted  a  flanking  movement  so  as  to  cut  Mardonius  off  from 
his  base  at  Thebes.  The  operation  miscarried,  and  in  their 
exposed  condition  the  Greeks  were  severely  harassed  by  the 
enemy's  horse,  which  also  blocked  the  Cithaeron  posses  against 
their  supply  columns.  Pausanias  thereupon  ordered  a  night 
retreat  to  the  hilly  ground  near  Plataea,  but  the  movement  was 
badly  executed;  for  whereas  the  Pdoponnesians  in  the  centre 
retired  beyond  their  proper  station,  the  Spartans  and  Athenians 
on  the  wings  were  still  in  the  plain  at  daybreak.  The  Persians 
immediately  fell  upon  these  isobted  contingents,  but  the  Spartan 
infantry  bore  the  brunt  of  the  attack  with  admirable  steadiness, 
and  both  wings  ultimately  rolled  back  their  opponents  upon 
the  camp.  When  this  was  stormed  the  enemy's  resistance 
collapsed,  and  Mardonius's  army  was  almost  annihilated.  This 
great  victory  was  celebrated  by  annual  sacrifices  and  a  Festival 
of  Liberation  (Eleulkeria)  in  every  fourth  year  at  Plataea,  whose 
territory  moreover  was  declared  inviolate. 

In  spite  of  this  guarantee  Plataea  was  attacked  by  Thebes 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Pdoponnesian  War  (431)  and  formally 
besieged  by  the  Peloponnesians  (42^37).  The  garrison  after 
capitulating  was  put  to  death,  and  the  city  razed  by  the  Thcbans. 
The  remaining  Plataeans  received  a  qualified  franchise  in  Athens, 
and  in  421  were  settled  on  the  territory  of  Scionc.  Expelled 
by  Lysander  in  404  they  returned  to  Athens,  until  in  387  Sparta 
restored  them  in  their  native  town  as  a  check  upon  Thebes. 
The  city  was  again  destroyed  by  Thebes  in  373,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants once  more  became  citizens  of  Athens.  Plataea  was 
rebuilt  by  Philip  and  Alexander  of  Macedon,  and  during  the  rest 
of  antiquity  enjoyed  a  safe  but  obscure  existence.  It  continued 
to  flourish  in  Byzantine  and  Prankish  times.  The  waOs  of  the 
town,  which  at  various  periods  occupied  different  portions  of 
the  triangular  ledge  on  which  it  stood,  remain  partly  visible. 
Recent  excavations  have  discovered  the  Heraeum;  but  the 
temple  of  Athena  the  Warlike,  built  from  the  Persian  spoils  and 
adotned  by  the  most  famous  artists,  has  not  been  ideatifiod. 


^Ain-BOBiTns.->-Stnbo  P*  411;  Pausanias  ix.  1-4;  Herodotus 
VI.  108,  viiL  I,  ix.  25-85;  Plutarch,  Arutides,  ii-2i:  Thucydidcs 
u.  1-16, 71-78.  iii.  20-24.  S2-68:  Isocrates,  Plataicus\  G.  B.Grundy, 
The  Topompky  0/  the  BaUte  of  Plataea  (London.  1894)  and  Great 
Persian  War  (London,  1901),  ch.  xi.:  W.  Woodhouse  19  Journal  of 
HelUnic  Studies  (t^)*  PP*  33-»;  H.  B.  Wright,  The  Campaign 
of  Plataea  (New  Haven.    "^^    "'   "        *  " <^  ' 


lix;  w7m.  Leake, 


-     *  -ii  Macan,  Herodotus,  vii.-tx. 

(London,  1908),  appendix;  W.  M.  Leake,  Travels  in  Northern  Greece, 
ch.  xvi.,  pp.  323-367  (London,  1835);  Amer.  Joum.  of  Arckaeo- 
Isgy,  1890.  pp.  4457475;  1891,  pp.  390-405:  B.  V.  Hrad,  Hiitoria 
xtnmruM,  p.  294  (Oxford.  1887).  (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

PLATE.  The  word  "  plate  "  (connected  with  Gr.  -fkarin,  flat, 
Late  Lat.  plate  lamina,  and  Span,  ^/ato,  stiver),  in  the  sense 
to  which  it  is  restricted  in  the  following  article,  is  employed  to 
denote  works  in  silver  or  gold  which  belong  to  any  class  other 
than  those  of  personal  ornaments  or  coins.*  As  implying  a 
thin  sheet  oi  metal,  the  term  has  come  to  be  used  in  various 
technical  connexions,  and  has  been  transferred  by  analogy  to 
other  materials  {e.g.  glass).  A  "  plate,"  as  the  common  name 
for  the  table  utensil  (of  whatever  material),  derives  its  usage 
partly  from  the  metal  prototype  and  partly  from  an  etymological 
connexion  with  French  plat,  dish,  Latin  plattus,  flat.  (See  also 
Pewter;  SRErnELo  Plate;  Metal-Wo«k.) 

On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  gold  can  be  worked  and 
the  pure  state  in  which  it  is  generally  found,  it  is  probable  that 
this  was  the  first  meul  used  by  man;  and  it  is  certain  that,  in 
some  countries  at  least,  he  attained  to  the  most  marvellous 
skin  in  its  manipulation  at  a  time  when  the  other  arts  were  in 
a  very  elementary  condition.  As  an  instance  of  this  we  may 
mention  a  sword  of  the  bronze  age,  found  in  a  barrow  near 
Stonehenge,  and  placed  in  the  museum  at  Devizes.^  The  hilt 
of  this  sword  is  covered  with  the  most  microscopically  minute 
gold  mosaic.  A  simple  design  is  formed  by  fixing  tesserae,  or 
rather  pins,  of  red  and  yellow  gold  into  the  wooden  core  of  the 
handle.  Incredible  as  it  may  appear,  there  are  more  than  two 
thousand  of  these  gold  tesserae  to  the  square  inch.  The  use  of 
silver  appears  to  belong  to  a  rather  later  period,  probably  because, 
though  a  widely  spread  metal  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  woHd, 
it  is  usually  found  in  a  less  pure  state  than  gold,  and  requires 
some  skill  to  smelt  and  refine  it.  Though  both  these  precious 
metals  were  largely  and  skilfully  used  by  prehistoric  races,  they 
were  generally  employed  as  personal  ornaments  or  decorations 
for  weapons.  Except  in  Scandinavian  countries,  but  little  that 
can  be  called  "  plate  "  has  been  discovered  in  the  early  barrows 
of  the  prehistoric  period  in  western  Europe. 

Ancient  Egypt, — An  enormous  amount  of  the  precious  metals 
was  annually  brought  as  tribute  to  the  Egyptian  kings;  accord- 
ing to  Diodorus,  who  quotes  the  authority  of  Ilccataeus,  the 
yearly  produce  of  the  royal  gold  and  silver  mines  amounted  to 
32  millions  of  nihiae — that  is,  about  133  millions  sterling  of 
modem  money.  Though  this  estimate  is  probably  an  exaggera- 
tion, the  amount  must  have  been  very  great.  Jhe  gold  chiefly 
came  from,  the  Nubian  mines  in  the  western  desert  in  the  Wadi 
'AIAVI  &nd  the  neighbouring  valleys.  A  map  of  these  mines, 
dating  from  the  time  of  Rameses  II.  (1300  B.C.),  has  been  pre- 
served. Silver  was  not  mined  in  Egypt  itself,  and  came  mostly 
from  Asia  Minor  even  at  the  earliest  period.  Then  gold  was 
comparatively  common,  silver  a  great  rarity.  Later,  gold 
appears  to  have  been  rdatively  more  abundant  than  silver, 
and  the  difference  in  value  between  them  was  very  much  less 
than  it  is  now. 

In  the  language  of  the  hieroglyphs  silver  is  called  "  white 
gold,"  and  gold  is  the  generic  name  for  money — unlike  most 
languages,  in  which  sliver  usually  has  this  special  meaning — 
a  fact  which  points  strongly  to  the  priority  of  the  use  of  gold, 
which  archaeological  discoveries  have  rendered  very  probable. 
Among  the  treasures  of  the  "  royal  tombs  "  at  Abydos,  dating 
to  tbe  1st  and  Ilnd  Dynasties,  much  gold  was  found,  but  no 

*  In  medieval  English  the  term  "  a  plate  **  was  occasionally 
used  in  the  sense  of  a  silver  vessel.  A  curious  survival  of  this  use 
of  the  word  still  exists  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  the 
servants  may  yet  be  heard  asking  at  the  buttery  for  so  many 
"  plates  of  beer,"  that  is.  silver  tankards. 

'  Hoore,  Ancimd  WiUskirt  (1840). 


790 

•aver.   On  the  w»11s  of  one  of  the  lonil» 
is  an  inlr  .         .  . 


gold-  I 


Oinng 


ring  wilb   (he  blni 
and  pat[$hing  the  almost  fiaished  be 
Egyptian  practice  of  burying  nilh  Iheir  dead  persona]  i 
and  jewdry,    ratha  than  other   possessions  l 
connected  with  the  pawn  of  the  deceased,  but 
of  other  gold  or  silver  pble  have  aun-ived  (oouf 
the  anwunt  of  gold  JcwcUy  that  has  ' 
laige,  and  shows  the  highest  degree  oC  skill  in  woi 
precious  meUls.    We  can,  honevcr,  form  some  notioo 
1  gold  ai 


guiltocbe  patterns,  hieroglyphs, 

■  animals.     Fig.   i  shorn  a 

of  the  time  ol  Teihmosis 

1}  III.     (Dynasty  XVIII. 

0  B.C.),  taken  from  a  wall 


gold."   Others  appear 

flguccs  in  silver  01  gold 

:tal.  Vass  of  this  type 

if  those  represented  in 

Ti"  ■".   .^'IZ  ^^-tl'^'"    ^"e  meuaniomuswcrctribute,  mostly 

illpaintinp  .t  IKbH.  ^  rhocdcian  workmanship.    Already 

as  early  as  the  lime  of  Tethmosis  III.,  when,  is  we  know,  the 

Phoenician  citits  had  alica 

ships  of  Arvad,  of  Bybtos 

bouts  of  the  Delta,  and  even  Dringing  Inbute  ol  lojeign  vases 
to  the  rivcc  qiayi  of  Thebes  Itself.  We  ennnot  doubt  that 
much  of  (he  precious  plate  of  gold  and  silver  used  by  the  Egyp. 
liansal  this  lime  and  specifically  dcscrihed  as  fordgn  tribute  nas 
made  in  Egyptian  01  egypliang  style  by  Phoenician  artists. 
But  plate  of  really  lorcign  type  as  well  as  ori^n  was  also  brought 
to  Egypt  at  tluB  time  by  the  Phoenician  "  Kefti  ships  "  from 
Kefti,  the  island  of  Crete,  where  the  "  Minoau "  culture  of 
Cnos.ws  and  ITiaestus  was  now  at  its  apogee.  Ambassadors 
from  Kefti  also  biought  gold  and  silver  vases  as  presents  lor 
the  Egyptian  king,  and  on  the  walls  af  the  tomh  of  Senmut, 
Queen  Hatshepsui's  architect,  ai  Thebes,  we  sec  a  Kcliian 
carrymg  a  vase  ol  gold  and  silver  which  is  tlie  duplicate  of  an 
actual  vase  dhcoveied  at  Cnossos  hy  Dr  Arthur  Evans.  The 
■It  of  the  "  Minoan  "  and  "  Mycenaean  "  goldsmiths  eierdsed 
considerable  influence  upon  that  of  the  ^yptians;  under  the 
XXlh  Dynasty,  about  iiso  B.C.,  we  find  depicted  on  the  tomh 
of  Kameses  III.  golden  Itimip-vascs  IBiitflkaTUm)  of  the  well- 
known  Mycenaean  type,  and  in  that  ol  Imadua,  an  officer  of 
Rameses  IX.,  golden  vases  imitating  the  ancient  CrelSD  shape 
of  the  cups  of  Vaphio.  In  lad.  it  is  more  than  probable  (hat 
the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians  mar-jfartured  plate  of  "  ilinoan  " 
and  "  Mycenaean  "  types  long  after  the  andent  culture  of 
Crete  and  the  Aegean  had  come  to  an  end.  In  the  time  of 
ttamcscs  III.,  about  rjco  n.c,  a  dearly  defined  Asiatic  infiu- 
enee  appears  in  the  decoration  of  some  of  the  gold  plate. 
A  gold  basket  rqireaenied  in  the  lomb  of  this  king  at  TTiebes, 
has  on  its  side  a  relief  of  the  sacred  tree  between  two  beasts. 


)f  Egyptian  plate  are  five  sil 


The  chief  existing  qiecin 
^Ifwoi  (bowls),  found  a( 
and  noa  In  the  Cairo  Museum  (Mas.  4S1-4S6  In  the 
These  are  modciled  in  the  form  of  a  lotus  blossom,  m 
in  design,  hut  are  apparently  not  earlier  than  the  , 
BX.    Of  the  splendid  toreutic  art  ol  a  thousand  y 


of  Khich  we  gtSn  in  idea  bom  the  nO-palmings  oentioud 
above,  bm  few  actual  spedmcns  have  survived.  The  Louvit 
possesses  a  fine  gold  patera,  6)  in.  across,  with  figures  ol  laha 

shows  it  to  have  belonged  to  Thutii,  an  officer  ol  Telhniosit  UL 


:e  bowls  which 


which  w 


ly  fragments  (especially  Iron  Dor 
el'Dahri)  are  in  our  museums  These  were  imitated  from  miti! 
originals,  just  as  most  of  the  early  Cretan  pottery  vessels  mrt. 
A  ^Ictidid  bronie  bowl,  which  shows  lis  what  lope  of  th 
finer  gold  and  silver  plate  was  hke,  was  found  in  the  toaiti 
Helasi,  a  dignitary  of  the  XVIIIth  Dynasty,  at  Thebes  a  [e> 
years  ago,  and  is  now  In  the  Cairo  Muscom  {Ko.  355J  in  vol 
Btssing's  catalogue).  The  engraved  decoration,  represeDlini 
birds  and  animals  in  the  pspynis-morshcs,  is  very  fine  ai 
evidently  of  native  Egyptian  work.  The  silver  bowl  at  Balia, 
said  by  di  Cesnola  to  have  come  from  Alhirnou  in  Cyprus,  is 
certainly  of  X  VIII Ih  Dynasty  date,  but,  though  purely  Eg>pliu 
'~  style,  more  probably  of  Phoenidan  than  Egyptian  voit- 


manship, 

^iiyriga  inl  P/wnidan  Plait 
silver  plate,  whctha-  it  originated 
Crete  or  not,  was  evidently  on  il 


-The  a 


I  Crete. 


Egypt  through  the  Ph 
whether  any  of  the  bro 
ate  of  Assyrian  manu 
imports.    The  British 
(hrae  bowls,  tnostly  four 
from  the  9th  and  gth 
Sargon}.   Though  they  are  ma 
ornamented  with  a  few  silvi 
production  of  art  iits  who  were  1 
metals,  some  of  them  in  fact  h 
design  with  the  silver  phialae 


f  making  gold  ai 

id  in  Egypt  and  in 

nans.  In  fact,  it  may  be  douhtoi 
imitations  of  plate  found  in  As>rii 
ire;  they  are  probably  PhoenidiD 
leum  possesses  a  fine  collectioa  d 
thep[ilaceat  Fv'imnid.andsodatinf 
Euries  (reigns  of  Assur-oaair-pal  to 
nade  of  brotue,  sad  only  DccasiDnaDT 
Iver  studs,  they  are  evidently  the 


identical  in  form  and 
dum  and  cbewfaoe  ia 
ddicate  and  oinutt 
liier,  partly  by  incised  lines,  and  partly  by  the  rtftmiit 
process,  finally  completed  by  chasing.     Their  designs  consisl 


Cyprus,  with  repouui  itUef>  ol  Egyptian  aad  Asayriaa  «yle. 

bands  round  it  of  figures  of  gods  and  mea,  with  vanoui  laimab 

and  [dants.  such  as  sntdopes  amid  p^yri,  which  an  doiied 

the  Egyptian  daignt  of  the  XVIUIh  DynaVy.     OftB 

is  ■  atrange  admuture  of  Assyrian  and  Etypliu  Sylt 


PLATE 


791 


Bulb,  for  instance,  are  usually  represented  as  with  a  single 
mighty  horn,  curving  to  the  front  (in  the  style  of  the  ancient 
Babylonian  seals),  rather  than  with  both  horns  showing,  in 
Egyptian  fashion.  When  figures  of  gods  and  men  arc  shown, 
the  principal  groups  are  purely  Assyrian  imitations  of  Assyrian 
tempIe-rcUefs,  in  fact — such  as  the  sacred  tree  between  the 
two  attcndmnt  beasts,  or  the  king  engaged  in  combat  and  van- 
quishing a  lion  fiiogie-handed;  while  minted  with  these  are 
figures  and  groups  purely  Egyptian  in  style,  such  as  the  hawk- 
headed  deity,  or  a  king  slaying  a  whole  crowd  of  captives  at 
one  blow.  Occasionally  one  sees  traces  of  the  ancient  Mycenaean 
influence,  or  perhaps  rather  of  the  young  Ionian  art  which  had 
now  arisen  out  of  the  ashes  of  that  of  Mycenae.  These  Phoeni- 
cian imitative  designs  are  still  good  imitations.  But  a  century 
or  so  later  we  meet  with  them  again  on  the  silver  bowls  and 
dishes  from  Cyprus,  in  which  the  imitations  have  become  bad. 
The  same  mixture  of  subjects  was  still  in  vogue,  but  confusion 
has  been  superadded  to  mixture,  and  we  find  kings  in  Assyrian 
robes  and  Egyptian  wigs  slaying  Syrian  dragons  with  Egyptian 
wings,  and  so  on.  Fig.  a  gives  a  silver  dish  from  Curium  con- 
taining examples  of  the  above-mentioned  subjects.  It  is  a 
characteristic  specimen  of  this  mixed  Phoenician  art,  of  which 
di  Cesnola  socms  to  have  collected  a  remarkable  number  of 
examples.  In  addition  to  the  numerous  silver  phiaJac  some  were 
found,  with  similar  decoration,  made  of  pure  gold.  To  the 
same  period  as  these  bowls  from  Cyprus  belong  the  similar 
specimens  of  Phoenician  plate  from  Etruscan  graves  at  Praencste 
and  Cervetri  in  Italy.  Those  from  the  Rcgulini-Gabssi  tomb 
can  hardly  be  earlier  than  the  6th  century,  so  that  this  peculiar 
Aiischkunsl  of  the  later,  type  may  well  be  dated  to  the  7th-s^ 

centuries. 

References. — Von  Bissing.  "  MctallKcfussc "  Cairo  Museum 
Catalogue  (1901);  "  Eine  Bronzcschalc  mykcnisrhcr  Zcit,"  Jahrb. 
Inst.  (i8q8):  L.  p.  di  Cesnola,  Cyprus;  La  yard.  Ninevek,  &c. 

^  (H.  R.  H.) 

Prehisiork.  Greece:  "  Minoan  "  and  "  Mycenaean  "  Periods. — 
In  the  early  history  of  the  goldsmith's  art  no  period  is  more 
important  than  that  of  the  Greek  Bronze  age,  the  period  of 
the  prehistoric  civilization  which  we  call  "  Minoan "  and 
"  Mycenaean,"  which  antedated  the  classical  civilization  of 
Greece  by  many  centuries,  and  was  in  fact  contemporary  and 
probably  coeval  with  the  ancient  culture  of  Egypt.  In  Greece 
during  this,  her  first,  period  of  civilization,  metal-work  was 
extensively  used,  perhaps  more  extensively  than  it  ever  was  in 
the  history  of  later  Greek  art.  So  generally  was  metal  used  for 
vases  that  even  as  early  as  the  ''  Middle  Minoan  "  period  of 
Cretan  art  (some  2000  years  B.C.)  the  pottery  forms  are  obvious 
imitations  of  metal-work.  The  art  of  the  metal-worker  domi- 
nated and  influenced  that  of  the  potter,  a  circumstance  rarely 
noted  in  Egypt,  where,  in  all  probability,  the  toreutic  art  was 
never  so  much  patronized  as  in  Minoan  Greece,  although  beautiful 
specimens  of  plate  were  produced  by  Egyptian  and  Phoenician 
artists.  Also  but  few  of  these  have  come  down  to  us,  and  we 
are  forced  to  rely  upon  pictured  representations  for  much  of  our 
knowledge  of  them.  It  is  otherwise  in  early  Greece.  We 
possess  in  our  museums  imrivalled  treasures  of  ancient  toreutic 
art  in  the  precious  metals  from  Greece,  which  date  from  about 
3500  to  1400  B.C.,  and  as  far  as  mass  and  weight  of  gold  are 
concerned  are  rivalled  only  by  the  Scythian  finds.  These  are 
the  well-known  results  of  the  excavations  of  Schliemann  at 
Troy  and  Mycenae  and  of  others  elsewhere.  They  do  not  by 
any  means  suffer  in  point  of  additional  interest  from  the  fact 
that  they  were  made  and  used  by  the  most  ancient  Grcck.^, 
the  men  of  the  Heroic  age,  probably  before  the  Greek  language 
was  spoken  in  Greece. 

The  most  ancient  of  these  "treasures"  is  that  discovered 
by  Schliemann  in  2873  buried,  apparently  in  the  remains  of  a 
box,-  deep  in  the  fortification  wall  of  Hissarlik  the  ancient  Troy. 
It  consists  of  vases  and  dishes  of  gold  and  silver,  and  of  long 
tongue-shaped  ingots  of  silver.  In  consonance  with  the  early 
dale  (perhaps  about  2500  B.C.)  to  which  they  are  probably  to  be 
assigned  (Schliemann  ascribes  them  to  the  second  Trojan  <jity) 
these  objects  are  all  of  simple  type,  some  of  the  vases  being 


unomamented  jugs  with  tubular  suspension-handles  on  the 
sides.  Here  we  have  metal  imitating  stonework,  as,  later, 
pottery  imitates  metal.  These  are  of  silver.  A  unique  form 
in  gold  is  a  boat-shaped  cup  with  handles  at  the  sides  (Plate  I., 
fig.  23),  at  Berlin,  which  weighs  600  grammes.  One  vase  is 
of  efectrum  (one  part  of  silver  to  four  of  gold). 

A  treasure  of  much  the  same  date  (the  second  "  Early  Minoan  " 
period,  about  3500  B.C.  or  before)  was  discovered  in  May  1908 
in  graves  on  the  island  of  Mochlos,  off  the  coast  of  Crete, 
by  R.  B.  Scager.  This  Is,  however,  of  funerary  character, 
like  part  of  the  treasures  discovered  in  the  shaft-graves  of 
Mycenae,  and,  while  including  diadems,  golden  flowers,  olive 
branches,  chains,  and  so  forth,  for  the  adornment  of  the 
dead,  does  not  include  much  gold  used  by  the  deceased  during 
life. 

The  much  later  Mycenaean  treasures  include  both  funerary 
objects  of  thin  gold  and  objects  of  plate  that  had  actually  been 
used.  Among  the  former  should  be  especially  noted  the  breast- 
plates, diadems  and  masks  which  were  placed  on  the  bodies  of 
the  chieftains  whom  Schliemann,  great  in  faith  as  in  works, 
honestly  believed  to  be  Agamemnon  and  his  court  (and  he  may 
not  have  been  very  far  wrong).  Among  the  latter  we  may 
mention  the  small  flat  objects  of  gold  plate,  little  sphinxes  and 
octopuses  modelled  in  relief,  small  temples  with  doves,  roundels 
with  spiral  designs,  and  so  on,  which  were  ornaments  for  clothing, 
and  the  golden  plate  decorations  of  weapon-handles.  The 
great  cast -silver  bull's  head  with  the  gold  rosette  on  its  forehead 
may  perhaps  have  been  regarded  simply  as  a  beautiful  object 
of  price,  and  buried  with  its  owner.  Similar  protomce  of  bulls 
(of  gold  or  silver)  were  brought  by  Minoan  ambassadors  as 
presents  to  the  Egyptian  court  in  the  reign  of  Thothmes  III. 
Gold  and  silver  vases  were  found  both  in  the  shaft-graves,  in 
the  treasure-pit  close  by,  and  in  chamber  tombs  at  Mycenae. 
The  most  usual  shape  in  the  shaft-tombs  is  that  well  known  to 
us  from  the  vases  of  Vaphio,  described  below;  among  other 
types  may  be  mentioned  specially  the  him  iifi4>ix0rt\kov  with 
doves  feeding  above  its  handles  (Plate  I.,  fig.  21 ;  from  a  restored 
reproduction)  —  dotal  6^  rcXei&dcf  &/x^is  ixaffTov  xP^ctAt 
vffti0ovTo;  the  golden  jug  with  spiral  decoration  from  the 
fourth  grave;  and  the  cup  with  lions  of  Egyptian  appearance 
chasing  each  other  round  its  bowl,  found  in  grave  5.  The 
fragment  of  a  silver  vase  with  a  scene  in  high  relief  of  slingers 
and  bowmen  defending  their  town  against  besiegers  from  grave  4 
(Plate  I.,  fig.  22),  is  an  object  unrivalled  in  ancient  art.  On  this, 
as  on  the  bull's  head,  we  have  gold  overlaid  on  silver  (with  an 
intermediate  plating  of  copper) ;  on  a  silver  cup  from  the  same 
grave  we  find  gold  inlay,  and  on  another  silver  cup,  from  a 
chamber-tomb,  enamel  and  gold  inlaid.  How  the  Minoan 
goldsmith  could  combine  silver  with  gold  and  the  two  with  bronze 
we  see  on  the  marvellous  inlaid  dagger-blades  from  Mycenae, 
with  their  pictures  in  many-coloured  metals  of  lion-hunts, 
cats  chasing  birds,  and  so  forth,  which  show  that  he  was  perhaps 
the  greatest  master  of  all  time  in  this  art 

We  speak  of  him  as  "  Minoan,"  because  most  of  the  metal 
objects  found  at  Mycenae  are,  if  not  of  actual  Minoan  workman- 
ship  and  imported  from  Crete,  at  any  rate  designed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Minoan  taste  of  the  "  Great  Palace  Period  " 
(Late  Minoan  i.  and  ii.)  at  Cnossus.  They  are  only  "  Mycenaean  " 
in  the  sense  that  they  were  found  at  Mycenae.  Of  the  art  of 
the  gold  vase  maker  in  the  Mycenaean  period  properly  speaking 
(Late  Minoan  ili.)  we  obtain  an  idea  from  the  pictures  of  golden 
Btigdkanncn  with  incised  designs  of  zigzags,  &c.,  represented 
on  the  walls  of  the  tomb  of  Ramcses  III.  at  Egyptian  Thebes. 
The  objects  from  the  Mycenaean  shaft -graves  are  much  older 
than  this,  as  are  also  those  from  the  next  treasure  we  shall 
mention,  that  from  Aegina,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
gold  cups  and  other  objects  of  this  treasure,  with  their  fine  but 
simple  decoration,  are  certainly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  best 
Minoan  period,  although  when  first  published  Dr  A.  J.  Evans 
was  inclined  to  assign  them  to  so  late  a  date  asc.  A.p.  800. 
They  are  surely  some  seven  hundred  years  older,  having  no 
characteristic  of  the  decadent  **  sub-Mycenaean "  period,  as 


Dr  Evaia  would  doubilcu  now  agm.    That  objccu  uttt 
probably  fognd  in  a  lomli. 

Dr  Evam'k  cicavilioiu  il  Cnosius  those  at  the  Italiani 
*t  PhasLos  and  Hagia  Triada  and  those  oJ  the  Drilish  school 


r.  though  tpicitdid 
as  do  also  Ibe  gUt 


}t  gold  a 


the  Minoan  goldiinlih's  an  in  his  o»i>  c 
bnmic  bowls  aad  vucs  have  been  leun 
Idea  ol  whai  the  plaie  musi  have  been 

which  was  broughl  10  Egypt  by  the 
llatihFpsut't  lime  (haco  in  the  lomb  of  Scnmul).  I 
posses  a  bne  silver  cup  (of  Ibe  Aliddlc  Minoan  periodl  from  t 
American  eicavations  at  Goumia,  and  two  examples  of  I 
finest  Minoan  gold  plalc,  which  were  discovered  outside  Crete, 


poraiy  with 


receiving  or  bidding  farewell  lo  a  wariCor  wiib  his  armi 
lollawcB,  which  have  been  found  by  the  llatiaiu  at  Hag 
Tiiada  in  Crete.    Ilicse  were  originally  overlaid  with  gold  lea 

embossed  vases  of  the  same  style  as  those  found  at  Viphio. 

'     order  of  lime  came  the  objects  of  gold  and  ^Ivi 


bMus> 


f  longer  be  regardi 


u  bclonEing  to  the  very  late  [ 
itsigned.  One  silver  va»  found  al  Enkomi  is  of  the  "  Vapbia  " 
■hape,  which  lint  appears  in  Cretan  pottery  as  early  as  the 
Middle  Minoan  period,  contemporary  with  the  Xllth  Egyptian 
Dynasty  (c.  kk»  B.C.),  and  even  then  is  clearly  an  imitation 
of  a  metal  oritfnal.  Slightly  modified,  ibis  type  remained 
laic  in  use,  as  we  find  il  reprcicnicd  among  other  golden  vases 
on  the  walls  of  the  tomb  of  Imisib  or  Imadua,  an  Egyptian 
official  of  the  time  of  Ramesct  IX.  (<.  iioo  b.c.1  *t  Thcbra. 
But  some,  at  least,  of  the  Enkomi  finds  must  be  earlier  than  this. 
The  Egyptian  representations  of  ftlinoan  vases  of  gold  and 
silver  in  the  tomb  ol  Scnmul  at  Thebes  (c.  ijoo  B.C.)  and  ol 
btcr  Mycenaean  golden  Butdkoiimi  in  thai  of  Ramiscs  III. 
(c.  iijon.c.l  have  been  meniioned  already.  During  the  ageot 
Mycenaean  and  tub-Mycenaean  decadence  Ihe  art  ol  the  Creek 
goldsmith  necessarily  passed  through  a  period  of  eclipse,  to 

probatdy.  The  Homeric  poems  preserved  for  later  days  i 
liadiiional  echo  of  the  glorious  works  of  the  raetat-workcrs  ol 
the  Heroic  age. 

HCM.— Tray  and  Mycenae; 


190;),  Hagte  Triada:  SavlEnoni,  Penuer  and  olhen.  KauluriUi 
Mia  B,  Aaa4iMia  4ti  Liniri  (Rome,  i90i-iaa6J:  Coumlli  Mri 
Boyd  Hawci,  Crurnii  (Philadelphia.  igoSJ.  A.  c.;  Mochloi  (un- 
puUiihed).  For  Eaypiian  relerenccs  ■«  Hall.  .Ha.  &!•.  Alk. 
[1904),  •■  KeCiu  and  the  Praplesof  the  Sea  "  (1905);  "  The  Krftiu- 

Eiriacan  KoCc.— The  Etruscans  were  ipedalty  renowned  for 
their  skiU  in  working  all  the  metals,  and  above  all  in  their  gold 

in  Etruscan  tombs,  including,  in  addition  to  smaller  objects, 
leeplns,  wreaths  ol  olive,  and  plates  deiocatcd  with  filigree- 
work  and  animal  (iguro,  which  were  used  as  personal  ornaments 
(breastplates,  girdles,  diadems,  &c.).  In  the  Mu- 
•    '-        •  ^-    .Qi  specimen  of  the  last  Ion 


little  1 


"  Regulini-Calassi  "  tomb  at  Caere 
be  classed  undei  the  had  of  plate  1 


.n(Mu: 


I  Dl  omamcnl 
ettes  ol  lion 
o  Gregoriant 


work  then  produced  in  the  pr 
placed  on  the  head  ol  corpses 
Ztiliat,  1884.  pis.  viii,,  ii.;  c 


I  gold  diadna 
iterred  at  Athens  lArcUiUtnii, 
AIMtHutit  ifillArifMiim,  itt6, 


nd  G.  PcTTOt  and  C.  Chip 

•,   vii.    )4s).    The    period 

[d  by  the  flndt  ol  gold  ornai 

Rhoda  (see  GtlEK  Ait,  fig.  1 1),    Fig.  j  shorn 


trc  Je  riul  ioi 
III  influcKe  il 
!c  at  Cnninn  is 


,  aho  foui 


,  apparently  a 


itcIO* 


Bnd  of  gold  objects  w: 
in  loDj  af  veiiersiejoe  in  Drandentmrg;  Ibe  prindpu  t*"c 
was  a  gold  Ash  (see  Cheek  A«t,  fig.  lo)  with  omumenu  in  reM. 
These  objects  recall  by  their  style  early  Ionic  art,  but  »m 
probably  produced  inoneol  the  Black  Sea  colonies,  since  simibr 
objects  have  been  found,  together  with  later  work,  in  Criima 
graves  (see  below),  nnd  eichanged  lor  the  amber  of  the  Ballk 
(oasls.     Croesus  especially  encouraged  Ihe  act,  and  paid  rm- 

anlsii  of  his  time,  luch  as  Claucuj  and  Thtodorus  the  Samiit 


AgrigniluB.  now  ia  tit 
o  below.    It  it  s  ia.  ■ 


EOflh 


Fio.  4  —  Airhaie  Gold  Phiilr,  loun< 
British  Muicum.    Ic  is  shown  in  to 

omphalos  f^i&Xq  /ucAfi^Xa)  which 

lained  a  large  jewel.     Round  the  insii 

ol  oien  rrfauiit  [n  relief,  and  at  o 

by  punched  dots.     A  delicale  twisted  moulding  summnds 

edge;  the  wgtkmaoship  of  the  whole  is  vei^  skillul  (see  fig.  il 

Pliny  (fl.  H.  mdii.  154  sqq.)  gives  a  brief  valuable  aeco 
ol  the  art  ol  silver  chasing  (iiieijdmi,  Cr.  roe«iT«^). 

In  the  best  times  of  Greek  an  the  chief  worts  Id  tfU  1 
silver  seem  to  have  been  dediealed  to  rdigious  purposes,  ant 
have  been  seldom  used  for  theostenlalion  of  private  individu 
VesMli  lot  Ihe  UK  of  the  lcm[jcs,  Iripodi  ia  add  «c  d 


si  (he  riclint  work,  ■ 


ts  of  the  godi  wcte  tbc  dild  objecti 


The  gold  used  by  the  Gleets  pnibibly  cam*  !r(noA»i»  Minor 
or  Egypt,  while  the  mino  of  Uurium,  in  Ilie  mountilm  whith 
lorm  the  pTDinanlary  ol  Sumuio  in  Allies,  lupplied  an  ibonduit 
amount  of  lilvcT  lot  muy  centuries.    Accixding  lo  Flioy, 


.  weit  ^vea  hy  wealthy  Romuu  [oi  «Di 
by  dialingutshed  Greek  iitiits;  Aceonlii 
lenliooed  cop,  which  weighed  i  m.,  wm 
ii  (ii$a).  Ii  i>  wonhy  o!  note  liti  * 
niiu  juraed  by  Fliny  weic  naliva  or  ; 


Fig.  S-— Crtc 

Sil.cr  Viie,  4ih 

Pheldi 

Awulhefintaculpto 

who  produced  woi 

ki  of  gmt  merit 

precioiu  raeuli;  he 

of  other  Creek 

«rtiM. 

who  were  (clebnled 

or  this  dui  of  wo 

h,  but  doe*  not 

pvelh 

iidiiei.     Tbe  chief 

flbeKwereMenta 

T  and  Uyi  (both 

ol  the  slh  cmlury  B.C.),  Aengu,  Boelhin,  the 

Kulptor.  Myroo 

I  in  lihi 


.    (Jii» 


ih.) 


be   ipccially  m 

cmboHcd  urith  i 

Are<q>agilr  toun 

'  The  enid  lajlr 


,  at  well  ai  the  well.known  Piuitclo  and  ScDpu. 
many  worki  in  gold  uid  vivet  by  tbcae  anitu 
Rhodci  and  ebewbeie.     AiaoDg  later  wnken 

enlionm  Zopyroj,  who  nude  two  «ilver  cupi, 
ihc  (ccne  ol  the  judgmeni  of  Orcstei  by  the 

1.'  ud  Pvihcu,  who  Dude  a  bowl  with  reiiefi 
rtrd  ornphatoi  at  DdphI  were  actable 

ihoughi  [hat  a  liiver  cup  in  tbe  Cerau  coUecIiDii 


h;idtt  leut    i 


icbool  of  lilvenmilht 
much  influence  on  RODun  cadaliaa  as  thM 
importance    hu   been   ovenaled   by 


rf    Alexandiia,    i 
Schrciber. 

The  final  ntant  enunples  ol  Greek  ptalc  are  Ihoie  found  in 
the  tumuli  of  south  RuBia,  opeciaUy  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Kertcb,  the  icdeDt  rinllcapoeum.  Fig;.  ;  ihows  ■  silver  vaie 
found  in  lUi  at  Nikopol  in  the  tomb  of  a  native  Scylbiao 
prince.    The  native  hoise-lamen  of  the  steppes  are  rEptesenled 

beyond  doubl  that  of  an  Athenian  anisl  of  the  4lh  century  B.C. 
SfJcndid  eiamplcs  ol  goldwork.  were  found  in  the  lumului  of 
Kutoba,  about  61  kilometres  from  Kertch,  which  was  ucavaled 
in  igjo  and  found  to  be  the  burial-place  of  a  Scylhiin  prince 
and  his  wile.  Tbe  lewelry  and  plate  found  in  this  lomb,  which 
were  dearly  ol  Greek  origin,  comprised  (amongst  other  obje.'ls) 
an  eleclrum  v«ie  ij  cm.  high,  lepiwenting  Scythians  in  (heir 

another  binding  up  a  wound,  a  third  elringing  a  bow,  besides 
several  sDver  vases  and  two  gold  mtdallioni  wiih  tepniduclioni 
ol  the  bead  of  the  Athena  Panhenos  of  Fhcidias.  In  these 
Crimean  tombs  are  often  found  golden  crowns  in  Ihe  form  of 
oak  leaves,  tome  ol  which  belong  In  bte  Roman  times.  The 
finest  extant  example  of  a  gold  wreath,  however,  is  thai  discovered 
at  Armenio  in  south  Italy  and  preserved  in  the  Anliquarium  at 
Mnnkbi  it  bears  an  inscription  of  Ihe  4th  century  tx:.,  showing 
that  it  WIS  dedicated  by  a  certain  Kreilbonios.  In  1811  Dr 
Lee  discovered  al  Ithaca  *  beautiful  enter,  j|  in.  high  {tee 
fig  6),  and  a  phiale  or  patera,  4)  in.  acmas,  both  of  bilveT.  rc- 
pouist  and  chased,  with  very  rich  and  graceful  patterns  of  leava 
and  floweiB  picked  out  with  gilding,'  These  are  probably  not 
later  than  tbo  5lh  ceolary  B.C.  Many  silver  mirTor.cases,  with 
tifmjil  figuie-lubjecla  in  high  relief,  have  been  found  al  various 
places;  as,  for  instance,  one  with  a  beautiful  sealed  figure  of 
Aphrodite  found  at  Tarentuna  and  now  in  the  British  Museum.' 


The  Victoria  ud  Atbcrt  Miueum  conUlm  in  aquii 

tilver  viK,  lound   in  Ihe  baihi  of  Apollo  U  Vici 

Italy   (fie-   7)1  enriched 


centurya.c  ThcBriiishMuwum 
has  a  bttle  vase  of  sbailar  form 
and  almost  equal  bcaury,  though 
pertiips    laict    '       '  ' 


>rat«l    »ith   bands   of    vine 
branches  in   a  graceful   flowing 
patLen.  and  is  partly  gilt. 
Cmete-Romni   iVo/t.— During 

rlhe  bst  century  of  ihc  Republic 
the  gnxHog  lutuiy  and  uien- 
lalioa  of  the  wealthy  Romans 
found  eipns^n  in  the  coUectton 
mens  ol  pble. 
the  old  Greek 


T.;— Creek  Silver  Va«t 


B  Pasitelcs,  ibo  attaint 
y  dislinctioa   in   Ibis   bnincb    1 
•howntaiowinfATnii'iWnocii  »":     AJnongst     the     numeroi 
and  .Ubcn  Museum.}  finds    ol    sdver   plate   made    1 

(d)  temple  treasures  made  of  up  of  votive  offerini^,  such  as  i^ 
ticasuie  of  Betnay  in  Fnnee  (dep.  Eure),  discovcird  In  iS, 
■nd  pieseivcd  in  the  Cntuoet  des  Mtdaillcs.  which  belonged  1 
tbe  shiine  ol  Merculiol  Canetonnensis,  (t)  private  collccIioD 


8.— Savei 


nter.  is)  in.  high,  from  the  Hilduheim  find 
(BcAin  Muvun.) 


>f  these  aie  tbe  Hildcsheiin  treasure,  in  the 
liscovered  id  1S69,  which  has  been  thought 
e    leason)    to   have    fonoed   pan    of    (he 

and  Ibe  Boico  Reale  tmsun,  louDd  in  iSq;  in  a  villi  nw 
Pampeii,  iri»nce  its  owner  was  endeavouring  to  remove  it 
when  boned  by  the  eiuption  ol  Vesuvius.  lliBsc  collections 
sontain  piecei  of  various  dales.    The  Benuy  Ireaiure,  in  part 

with  mythological  lubjecti  in  relict  inspired  by  classical  Creek 
Diodds— Ifae  tbeft  ol  the  Palladium  was  the  lubjecl  of  a 
(amoiu  cup  ol  Pytbeas,  mentioned  by  Pliny— which  must 
belong  to  the  early  imperiil  period.  The  Hildeshcim  treasure, 
■C>in,  contains  two  barbaric  vases,  without  feet  at  handlM, 
together  with  such  fine  piecci  as  the  crater  figured  (fig.  8), 


Athena   in   high    relic 
bowl,   which   appeals 


»  of  Roman 


.t,  typifying  the  pKniMi 
cring  to  a  sihooth  fil^'cT 


Among  later  specimens  of  Roman  plate  ihc  most  TCrnuk.*!^ 
I  the  gold  patera,  nearly  to  in  in  diameter,  found  al  Rcnna 
1  177;,  and  now  in  the  Paris  Biblioihcquc — a  work  ol  ihi  nxe 
larvelloui  debcacy  and  bigb  finish— almost  gem-bke  ia  iu 
iinuiencsi  of  detail.    Though  not  earlier  Ibin  about  no  A.n, 

sbgbL  dmnsineas  in  the  proportion  of  its  embossed  ifuiri 
I  the  only  visible  sign  ol  decadence.  The  outer  rim  ia  ki  nh 
iitcen  fine  gold  corns — ouro"  ol  various  members  of  tbe  Anionint 
imily  from  Hadliau  to  Cct?.  The  central  tnbiema  or  mcdillin 
(presents  Ihe  drinking  contest  between  Bacchus  and  HenulQ. 
nd  round  this  medallion  is  a  band  ai  repvuiii  figures  shovjr^ 
he  triumphal  procession  of  Bocchos  after  winning  tbe  (onLcfT. 
ie  sits  ttiumtJianl  in  bis  leopard-drawn  car,  while  Hcicuks  » 
^  along,  helplessly  inloucated,  supported  by  bacdhviak 
L  long  line  of  nymphs,  fauns  and  sa\yrs  complete  Iht  cinijbi 


Late  Ro 


lan  plate  is  also  represented  by  a 
jngly,  appbcd.    These  were  used  fa 


1  AchilkSi'  the  "shield  ol  Hannibal,"'  chiefly  remaikible  fa 


<m.'    Other  well-known  eumpla  of  Ibis  form  of  ai 
>Cf.  S,  Rciimch  in  r^Mu  i.,  k.l..^^rf.  riSnhv 
•a.  E.  Babckin. 

ranu  (iSoo).  p.  ajS. 
•  Cf.  E.  Kk.  in  CuUU  orcMcAt^  tll»). 


"•Udd  «f  TtKodatlui"  >l  Mufaid  (fig.  «),  irliidi 

ihe  fmpenir  Kaled  between  ViknliidJui  II.  tad  akuuib 

Uk  "  ihidd  d1  Vikntiniui "  U  Genevt  ■;  tlM  "  thiehl  at  Aipai 

at  Florence ' ;   uid  a   fioe  dbh  Cound  ftt  AquOm,  DO* 

Vienm." 

Ttie  Btiikh  MuKUm  CODtolns  lomi  fine  apedmeni  of  UM 
■toman  lilvet  woilc,  found  on  Ihe  Fiquiliae  [n  174J  (d.  Viiconti. 
Una  Suprilraik  d'lutenlo,  Rome,  iSiy,  tbc  objects  ire  publiihed 
tnd  described  in  Ui  Dilton'i  CnlufsfiK  11/'  lie  fiarijr  Chrulian 
ATdiqialHt  M  U(  Srilifit  VuniiH,  pp.  61  iqq..  pi).  iiD.-(X.). 
The  most  nmukable  of  Ihese  ui:  (i.J  s  silver  caikel  dscoiited 
in  rffmsl.  with  the  iiucription  SECONDE  ET  PROJECTA 
VIVATIS  IN  CRISTO,  doubllcu  b  wedding  giil  - 
besring  tbc  nama  trf  Secundui  isd  Fmjecti,  whose  portraits 
sppear  in  a  medallion  on  tbe  centre  of  Ihe  bd;  (ifil  loui  itatuctln 
npiesenting  penonified  dtit*— Rome,  Conitsntinople,  Antiocli 
and  AkuDdiia  (d.  F.  Gardiner  in  J.  H.  S..  ii»*.  ii.  77  iqq.)- 
Thi)  treasure  appears  to  lletong  in  (he  main  10  the  jlh  onluiy 
UI.,  though  some  minor  picui  may  be  eulier. 


PLATE 

and  bottles 


;■  (wii 


nwhkh  lifer  w'the'Vn'wiiriw  found  "in 'oS^I 
luttilttt  Not,  1167-1105;  HUny'i  accounl  ii 

Kudied  in  K.  Jn-Blake  and  E.  Scllcn,  Tin  . 

Plimyi  Chmfltri  Q»  Ot  Hiiltty  0/  AH,  pp.  a  sqq.  Tlie  finds  made 
in  KHjihem  Runia  wen  piibliihcd  in  ibe  AxlujuiUi  4u  Baipkcrt 
cimmirin  (Sr  PclPriburgH  1*54);  the  Comf'Ui  ren^HS  d^  ta  torn- 
miitim  imfMall  (Si  PHcnEurf.  1S59  (qql;  and  the  Rtmnl 
ilsaiiHfxilii  dt  la  SCyllnt  <lMi6-l§73|.    Tbe  ftm  of  these  imrks. 

M,  Salnmon  Rein^h.  in,  hi>  A^ufUgiic  dtl  nv>vi>ciiU  fiiuril 
(Puis.  1B93)  with  note;  and  ill  the  raorr  iraporlanl  obictl.  im 
fifn.red   in   :4»il     -      '     ■     "      '        ■    -      '      ■      "     ■  •- " 


I  RusiU  miridienolt. 


udt.   by   Koni 
For  CrMco-1 


^-:":' 


jothor  and  M.  ThMcii 

iHS™'^'/)(?^JdeiMi<Kr  iSbafuid.  bv  E.  Perldct  intl^Winier 
IB.^'Tlin,  1901).  KrfeiHicc  should  also  be  nude  w  T.  Schrcibcr, 
"  Die  ileiandriDiKlie  Tnreulik,"  {AVaMymic  ia  litht.  CarUiik. 
irr  H'liunirtaniii.  1894,  vol.  nv.).  whue  Ihioiies  an:  tomewhat 
eisiErcratrd;  .ind  A.  Odobewn.  U  TrUar  it  Pilmia  (las^-iMxi). 
which  dejis  with  n   find  of  barbaric  plate  and  jewelry  made  in 

rprcarly  Greek  work,  ace  R.  Schneider,  "doldtypcndeaanecbiacben 
OiTMls.''  Bi'iMi  ir,  lotii.  Crir«HW<  d(r  WSinsdl^U*  (1891, 
D.  in,),  and  A.  FunwinEler,  Dn  GMfunJ  n«  VaunfeUe  (1SS3). 
For  glcuican  metal-work,  n  J.  Man>ia.  L'An  hn,,,^,  ch.  ivii. 

m^iah'Sl"b?  found  in  ^^."cook-^I^ftilar^vi&ri^S^ 
Greek  tnd  Ktman  A'li^ilia  i*  Iht  Briliik  Mutim.  PI>lS^  ■QI- 

OritM^,  ..l/ncasfJaCt,  fine.— Some  very  curious  piecaofpbte, 
both  in  gold  and  in  silver,  have  been  loiuid  in  nortbcm  IntU*  in 
which  country  the  goldsmith '<  art  Is  of  great  intiquitv;'  these 
appear  (0  be  of  native  workmanship,  but  the  subjects  with 
which  they  are  emboHed.  and  the  modelUog  of   (he  figurrs. 

in  some  cases  possibly  even  Greek  influence  in  a  highly  degraded 
state,  banded  down  liom  (be  Itne  of  Aleiandct'i  Indian  con- 
quests. A  line  gold  casket  (Buddhist  relic)  said  to  date  [mm 
about  so  B.C.  h  worthy  <A  note.*  In  the  Brilidi  Museum  are 
in  Indian  silver  dish  (3td-4lb  century  a.d.)  '  and  *o  eitliRone, 


s6th 


<  CI.  E.  Habflci.  Dir  aniikn  Sifdnrti  i< 
'  A.  OdobMcu.  U  Trhur  it  Parana,  pp. 
■  D.  Bmcci,  AiircrUtirw  lepra  un  if.pco 
•See    R.    V.    Schneidtr.    Alitm    amtrl. 


UaJhd,  M>. 

1  5J  sqq  .  fi» 


•SirCTiirtlwood,  . 


pkiisiiin  I 


DMde  (fig.  10).    Those  iriikh  «iD  ea 
B  cunv^  miiiying  of  atuknt  Assyrian  arl  with  that  < 
Id  its  decline.  RcUcIsr. 
pnseatisg  wingid  linni, 

iu  aiiendant  beasts, 
alternate  with  aubjectt 
from  Roman  mythology, 
such  as  (he  rape  of 
Ganymede;  but  al!  are 
treated  alike  with  much 
origjnolity,  aixd  in  a 
hi^y  dncoiative  man- 

iqlhc«ntury(dalediSi7) 
is  the  drcular  gold  dish, 
richly  enamcUed,  which 


large    ooUection    of 
ludied.    Here  may  bo 


seen  a  gold  rose-water       Flo.  10,— SusaoianGoMBonle.aboul 
sprinkler  of   gold,   en-   loii.  b%h.    In  the  Vienna  MuKiun. 
tirely  covered  with  richly 

enamelled  flowere,  Mogul  work,  ijth  century;  fine  Burmese 
gold  work  found  In  a.n.  1484-1^;  in  a  Buddhist  temple. 
Rangoon ;  remaikahle  gold  ornaments  of  the  Burmese 
regalia;  and  a  large  elqihanl  bowdah,  from  the  Punjab,  made 
of  silver,  parcel  gilt,  the  top  covered  with  silver  plates  of  large 
rcfouiU  foliage.  Tibetan  craftsmen  work  is  rcpiescnted  by 
numerous  vessels  lot  sacred  and  domestic  purposes,  mostly  of 
metal,  partially  mounted  in  sUw,  which  display  the  skill  of  the 
Tibelani  in  the  lolh  century.  Of  (he  skill  of  the  Hindus  as 
goldsmiths,  abundant  evidence  is  afforded  by  the  Ramayona 
lUid  iiahSbhSrata,  though  very  little  of  their  andenL  gold  snd 
silver  work  has  survived-  In  India  the  people  of  the  Cash- 
mere  valley  have  long  been  famous  for  thdr  natural  superiority 
as  craftsmen,  as  was  Lucknow  for  its  utensils  of  gold  and  silver, 
much  of  it  richly  enamelled  in  (he  iStb  and  tgth  centuries, 
Cbanda  in  the  Central  Provincea  waa  once  celebrated  for  its 
skilled  goldsmiths,  and  the  plate  of  Cutch  and  Gujarat  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency  has  enjoyed  a  well-deserved  reputation. 
The  imcontaminaled  indigenous  designs  of  the  5ind  goldsmiths' 
work  call  for  qiecial  notlco.  Indian  plate,  as  Is  quite  natural, 
has  often  been  influenced  by  European  designs:  for  iristance, 
tbe  beautiful  gold  and  lilvei  work  of  Cutch  is  Dutch  io  origin, 
white  the  omale  throne  of  wood  covered  with  pla(cs  of  gold, 
early  iqth  century,  used  by  Ranjit  Singh  (at  South  Kensington) 
'  0  di^ilays  European  intluence-  Much  of  the  Siamese  decora- 
e  plate  of  the  rSth  and  igth  centuries  is  of  silver-gilt  and 
lloed.  In  the  Rijks  museum,  Amsterdam,  Is  a  collection  of 
I'cr  disha.  botes  of  gold  and  silver,  jewelry,  Itc,  all  of 
:tllcnl  workmanship,  from  Lomhok.  African  goldsmiths' 
rk  is  represented  in  tbe  British  Museum  by  the  gnld  otns- 

m  graves  in  Central  Ameiiia  and  Cobmbia-    Ancient  Abyt 

the  gold  chalice,  gold  crown  ol  the  Abuna  of  Abyssinia, 

3(heT  more  ornate  crown  of  silver-gilt,   a  fine  shield  with 

rer-gilt  fEllgm.  and  olher  objects. 

rhe  gold  and  silver  work  of  Russia  Tcsembtes  in  style  that  of 
Byxantium  at  an  early  period.  Shrines  and  other  magirificent 
pieces  of  plate  tn  the  treasury  of  the  cathedral  a(  Moscow  (see 
iVellmann,  Le  Trlser  dt  JUtiam,  i8£t},  though  executed  at 
be  end  of  the  i5(h  and  T6(h  cen(uryi  are  simPar  In  design  to 
Byiantine  work  of  the  nth  or  nth  century,  and  even  sinoe 
but  little  change  or  devdopment   of   style    has   taken 

The  caliphs  of  B^ad,  the  sultans  of   Egypt,  and  other 
[oslem  ititcti  wen  once  lamed  lor  their  rich  stores  of  plate. 


796 


PLATE 


which  ^ns  probably  of  eztzeme  beauty  both  Id  dolSD  and  irock- 
maoship.  Little  or  nothing  of  this  Moslem  plate  now  laDoalns, 
and  it  is  only  possible  to  judge  of  its  style  and  magnificeooe  from 
the  fine  works  in  brass  and  other  less  valuable  metals  >vbich  have 
survived  to  our  time. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  xoth  century  the  Rhine  vaDqr  became 
the  centre  of  a  school  of  goldsmiths,  who  produced  q^endid 
examples  of  their  work — a  mixture  of  Byzantine  art  wiUi  their 
own  original  designs.  The  book-covers,  portable  altars  and  other 
objects,  preserved  at  Trier  and  Aix-la-Chapelle,  are  notaUe 
examples  produced  at  that  centre.  The  magnificent  book-cover 
from  Echtemach,  now  at  Gotha,  is  of  the  school  of  Trier. 

Early  Medieval  Plate.— -Tht  Gothic,  Gaulish  and  other 
semi-barbarian  pe<^les,  who  in  the  6th  century  were  masters  of 
Spain,  France  and  parts  of  central  Europe,  produced  great 
quantities  of  work  in  the  precious  metals,  especially  gold,  often  of 
great  magnificence  of  design  and  not  without  some  skill  in  work- 
manship. The  Merovingians  encouraged  the  art  of  the  gold- 
smith by  spending  immense  sums  of  money  on  plate  and  jewelry, 
though  only  two  examples  of  their  great  wealth  in  church 
vessels  have  survived— the  gold  chalice  and  paten  of  Gourdon, 
now  at  Paris.  Fine  examples  of  Carlovingian  work,  which  was 
mainly  wrought  in  the  monasteries  in  the  north  of  the  Frankish 
dominions  and  on  the  Rhine,  may  be  studied  in  the  covers  for 
the  Gospels,  in  the  Btblioth^que  Nationale  in  Paris.  In  1837 
a  large  number  of  pieces  of  very  massive  gold  plate  were  found 
at  Petrossa  in  Rumania;  much  of  this  find  was  unfortunately 
broken  up  and  melted,  but  a  considerable  portion  was  saved, 
and  is  now  in  the  museum  at  Bucharest.  These  magnificent 
objects  are  all  of  solid  gold,  and  consist  of  large  dishes,  vases, 

ewers,  baskets  of  open  work,  and  personal 
ornaments  (fig.  xi).  Some  of  them  show  a 
strong  Roman  influence  in  their  design, 
others  are  more  purely  barbaric  in  style. 
To  the  first  of  these  classes  belongs  a  very 
fine  phiale  or  patera,  10  in.  in  diameter.  In 
the  centre  is  a  seated  statuette  of  a  goddess, 
holding  a  cup,  while  all  round,  in  high  relief, 
are  standing  figures  of  various  male  and 
female  deities,  purely  Roman  in  style. 
Though  the  execution  is  somewhat  dumsy, 
there  is  much  reminiscence  of  classical  grace 
in  the  attitudes  and  drapery  of  these  figures. 
A  large  basket  and  other  pieces,  made  of 
square  bars  of  gold  arranged  so  as  to  form 
an  open  pattern  of  stiff  geometrical  design, 
have  nothing  in  common  with  the  vessels  in 
which  Roman  influence  is  apparent,  and  can 
hardly  be  the  work  of  the  same  school  of 
goldsmiths.^  The  date  of  this  Petrossa  treasure 
is  supposed  to  be  the  6th  century.  The 
celebrated  Gourdon  gold  cup  and  tray  now 
preserved  in  Paris  belong  to  about  the 
same  date.  They  are  very  rich  and  magni- 
ficent, quite  free  from  any  survival  of  classic 
influence,  and  in  style  resemble  the  Merovin- 
gian gold  work  which  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  Childeric  I. 
The  cup  is  3  in.  high,  shaped  like  a  miniature  two-handled 
chalice;  its  companion  oblong  tray  or  plate  has  a  large  cross  in 
high  relief  iu  the  centre  They  arc  elaborately  ornamented 
with  inlaid  work  of  turquoises  and  garnets,  and  delicate 
filigree  patterns  in  gold,  soldered  on. 

In  the  6th  century  Byzantium  was  the  chief  centre  for  the 
production  of  large  and  magnificent  works  in  the  precious 
metals.  The  religious  fervour  and  the  great  wealth  of  Justinian 
and  his  successors  filled  the  churclies  of  Byzantium,  not  only 
with  enormous  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  chalices,  shrines, 
and  other  smaller  pieces  of  ecclesiastical  plate,  but  even  large 
altars,  with  tall  pillared  baldacchini  over  them,  fonts,  massive 
candelabra,  statues,  and  high  screens,  all  made  of  the  precious 
metals.  The  wealth  and  artistic  splendour  with  which  St  Peter's 
*  Soden  Smith,  Trtasurt  of  Petroua  (1869). 


Fio.  II. — Gold 
Ewer,  15  in.  high, 
from  the  Petrossa 
treasure. 


in  Rome  and  St  Sophia  in  Consuntinople  were  enxkbed  b  no« 
almost  inconceivable.  To  read  the  mere  inventories  of  tbese 
treasures  dazzles  the  imagination— such  as  that  pven  in  tbe 
Liber  pontiJUalis  of  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius,  whidi  induda 
the  long  list  of  treasures  given  by  Constantine  to  St  Peto't 
before  he  transfeiTed  his  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium  (330),  and 
the  scarcely  less  wonderf  td  list  of  gold  and  silver  plate  pccsented 
to  the  same  baalica  by  Pope  Symmachus  (498-5x4).* 

Some  eariy  Byzantine  plate  of  the  6th  century  is  in  the  Biidsh 
Museum;  an  inscribed  paten  of  the  xoth  and  xxth  oentuies  isia 
Halberstadt  Cathedral  in  Germany,  and  numerous  *'^''*^'«**^' 
vessels  are  in  the  Treasury  of  St  Mark's,  Venice. 

Eariy  in  the  medieval  period  France  and  other  Wcsten 
countries  were  but  little  behind  Italy  and  Byzantium  in  their 
production  of  massive  works,  both  sectilar  and  religious,  in  tbe 
precious  metals.  At  this  time  every  cathedral  or  abbey  dnudi 
in  Germany,  France  and  even  En^^d  began  to  accumuUte 
rich  treasures  of  every  kind  in  gold  and  silver,  enriched  viih 
jewels  and  enamel;  but  few  specimens,  however,  stUl  exist  of 
the  work  of  this  early  period.  The  most  notable  are  Gla^l^ 
magne's  regalia  *  and  other  treasures  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  a  fr« 
preserved  at  St  Peter's  in  Rome,  and  the  remarkable  set  ol 
ecclesiastical  utensils  which  still  exist  in  the  cathedral  of  Mona 
near  MiUn — ^the  gift  of  Queen  Theodelinda  in  the  eariy  part  of 
the  7th  century.*  The  treasure  of  Nagy-Szent-MikIos,coasist- 
ing  of  several  vessels  of  gold,  of  Hxmgarian  origin  (8th-9tb 
century),  b  in  the  Imperial  Museum  at  Vienna. 

The  existing  examples  of  magnificent  early  work  in  the  prcdoos 
metals  mostly  belong  to  a  somewhat  later  period.  The  chief 
are  the  gold  and  silver  altar  in  Sant'  Ambrogio  at  Milan,  of  the 
9th  century;  the  "  Pala  d'Oro,"  or  gold  reuble,  in  St  Marii's  at 
Venice,  b^n  in  the  loth  century;  the  silver  altar-front  in 
St  Domenico's  Chiu^  at  Palermo;  the  shrine  of  ^ver-gill  («itii 
later  additions)  in  the  church  of  St  Simeon  at  Zara,  Dahnalia, 
by  Francesco  di  Antonio  of  Sesto  near  Milan,  1380;  and  the 
gold  altar-frontal  given  by  the  emperor  Henry  II.  and  his  vife 
Cunigunde,  at  the  beginning  of  the  nth  century,  to  the  cathednl 
at  BaseL  The  last  is  about  4  ft.  high  by  6  ft.  long,  repousU  is 
high  relief,  with  figures  of  Christ,  the  three  archangds,  and  St 
Benedict,  standing  under  an  arcade  of  round  arches;  it  is  nov 
in  the  Mus£e  Cluny  in  Paris.'  A  similar  gold  frontal,  of  eqiul 
splendour,  was  that  made  for  the  archbishop  of  Sens  in  999. 
This  was  melted  down  by  Louis  XV.  in  1760,  but  fortunatd; 
a  drawing  of  it  was  preserved,  and  is  publishcid  by  Du  Sommcnzd 
(Album,  9th  scries,  pi.  xiii.).  RcUquarics  of  great  splendoui 
were  made  of  the  precious  metals,  one  of  the  most  notable  being 
that  containing  the  skulls  of  the  throe  kings  in  Cologne  CathednL 
This  shrine,  which  resembles  in  form  a  building  of  twu  store)-!, 
was  wrought  in  the  X2th  century.  The  covers  of  the  Textos 
in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  are  hi^ly  impoitiat 
examples  of  goldsmiths'  work;  they  are  of  gold  and  silver, 
decorated  with  enamel  and  set  with  stones,  probably  dating 
from  the  12th  century. 

Cellk.— The  skill  in  metal-working  of  the  Celtic  people  ia 
the  British  Islands,  espedally  in  Ircbnd,  in  Pagan  and  Christiia 
times,  is  well  known,  and  need  hardly  be  emphasized  here. 
While  much  has  perished,  much  happily  remaixts  in  proof  of  ibcir 
extraordinary  skill  in  working  gold  and  silver,  particularly  ia 
jewelry.  The  most  remarkable  specimen  of  their  technical  skill 
and  artistic  perception  is  tbe  famous  Ardagh  chaUce  ol  the  9th- 
loih  century  (in  the  museum  at  Dublin)  (Plate  II.,  fig.  31). 
which  is  composed  chiefly  of  sflver,  with  enrichments  of  gold  asd 
gilt  broose,  and  with  exquisite  enamels.  The  intcrland  omnnoit 
is  a  feature  of  Celtic  work,  and  may  further  be  studied  in  tbe 
celebrated  Tara  brooch,  with  its  seventy-six  varieties  of  designs 
as  well  as  in  other  exquisite  examples  of  jewelry.  Fuither 
evidence  of  Celtic  skill  is  forthcoming  in  the  shiines  for  ike 
sacred  bells  in  Irdand,  not  to  mention  other  ecctesiaiiiat 


*  See  D'Agincourt,  Hisloirt  de  Fart  (1823). 

*  Bock,  Du  Kleimidiem  des  heil.  rimiukem . 

*  Arch.  JouTf  ziv.  8. 
'  Arckaeologia,  xxx.  X44'-i48. 


(1864). 


:  inleriiced 


onumtnu.    Thne  in  ol  great  bauly,  ind  tin 

ol  ihc  btU  of  Si  Pairick  (logi-uos)  dispbyi 

Kcoll  oiiumcn(  in  a  iiFikins  ikgt«,     Wiib  ihe  inirDauction 

ol  Coihic  an.  into  Britain  ihe  special  chanctcriiiici  ol  ChriiUan 

Cdlic  art  in  Ireland  gradually  died  out. 

Anflo-Siatii. — Judged  by  the  eiani|>lM  oi  Anglo-Saton 
jeuelry  diKovered.  the  Anglo-SiiDn  ciaflsmtD  brought  their 
art  loahighltatc  of  pcrfpciLon.  though  hardly  equal  in  nerit  to 

ircquenlly  enriched  Kith  gold  and  enamel.  Happily,  there  a 
preserved  one  priceless  specimen  of  the  goldsinilh'ft  art  of  thb 
peiiixl— namdy,  the  famous  AKtcd  jexJ  at  gold,  now  in  (he 
AshmoleaA  Museum  at  Oiford,  with  a  portrait,  believed  to  be  of 
Alircd  the  Great,  in  ttahottnt  enamel.  Another  notable  sped- 
men  is  Ihe  Ethelwull  ring  in  the  British  tluscum.  Though 
ecclesiastical  vcsseh,  doubtless  at  the  precious  metals,  appear 
in  Anglo-Saion  illuminated  manusctiplt,  the  only  piece  of  pliLe 
of  thai  lime  a(  prcseni  known  it  the  [^ain  silver  cup  ol  the  latter 


31  Trcvrhiddle  i: 


oundvrilh  gold  ar 


ir  in  (be  Uritish 
Museum.'  There  it,  bowever.  an  Important  eiample  ol  metal, 
work  embcHished  vriih  tilvtr  plalei — namdy,  the  portable  altar 
ol  St  Cuthbert  at  Durham. 

A  most  valuable  description  of  the  vaiioui  methods  of  work 
pracLised  by  gold-  and  silversmilhi  in  Ihe  iiih  and  itth  cen- 
turies is  given  by  the  monk  Tlieophilus  in  his  0igerninin  arlium 
sikriida  (Hendrie's  ed,,  184;}-  He  minutely  describes  every 
possible  process  that  could  be  employed  in  making  and  orna- 
menting elaborate  pieces  of  ecclesiastical  plate— such  as  smelting, 
refining,  hammering,  chasing  and  rtpovsU  work,  soldering, 
catting  (by  Ihe"  cire  perdue  "process),  wire-dmwing.  gilding  with 
■nercury  amalgam,  and  the  applies  tion  ol  niello,  enamel  and  gems. 

The  tilvenmith  of  those  days,  as  in  cbssical  times,  was  Dot 
only  a  thorough  artist  with  a  complete  sense  of  beauty  and  fitness 
in  his  work,  but  he  was  also  a  craftsman  ol  the  most  varied 
lenility  of  resource,  and  nude  himself  thoroughly  responsible 
lor  every  part  of  his  work  and  tvtry  stage  through  which  it 
passed—*  mtnt  linking  conirjst  to  the  modem  lubdivisioa 
of  labour,  and  eagerness  to  produce  a  show  of  neatness  without 
regard  to  real  excellence  ol  work,  which  is  the  cune  ol  all  irjih- 
cenlury  handicrafit,  and  one  of  Ihe  main  leaions  why  our 
modern  productions  ace  in  Ihe  main  neither  works  ol  true  art 
nor  objects  of  real  lasting  utility. 

Iialian  Plaii.—Beton  the  laiiec  part  of  the  ijlh  century, 
large  pieces  of  silver  work  were  made  more  for  ecdesiasllcal 
use  than  for  the  gratification  of  private  luiury.  The  great 
silver  shrine  in  Orvielo  Cathedral,  made  to  conuin  the  blood- 
stained corporal  of  Ihe  famous  Bobena  miracle,  is  one  ol  the 
chiel  ol  these.  It  is  a  very  brge  and  elabonle  work  In  solid 
lilver.  made  to  imiiaie  the  west  front  of  a  cathedral,  and  decor- 
relief,  and  a  wonderful  series  ol  mloiaturc-like  piaures  embossed 
in  low  relief  and  coveted  with  irinsluccot  enamels  of  various 
brillianl  colours.  This  snlendid  piece  of  silver  work  was  eieculed 
.  i3j8  by  Ugohi 


The  01 


pecesol 

silver  work  In  Italy 

re  the  front 

1  and  rclabic  of  St 

^mesin 

lie  cathedral  at  PijLo 

a 'and  the  a 

arof  San  Giovanni 

at   Flore 

ice.    On  these  two 

works   were 

employed  ^a^wMe 

series  ol 

be  chief  Tuscan  an  is 

of Ihe  i4lh 

many  of  whom,  though  of  grea 

reputation 

n  other  branches  of 

IS  pamling.  sculpture 

n  a  large  sea 

did  not  ditdiin  (0  devote  their 

utmost  skill  and  years  ol  labour. 

■oworki> 

hich  we  now  as  a  rule 

consign  10  CI 

afiimenofthevety 

smallest 

capacity.    The    following    celeb 

ated    artists    were 

emi^oyed 

upon   the   altar   at 

^nlonio   Pollaiuolo. 

MicbeloBo,  Verrocchio,  as  well 

aslesspromi 

em  arlificers,  Bel  to 

Geri,Leo 

nardo  di  Ser  Giovann 

andBellod 

Francesco  Belli. 

Among 

'Viclcn 

^  Hiacnuf  C^-tsea. 

'E.Allrtd  Jones'.  "'The  Aluro 

Pliwia."  rW&fi^ryOaniBry, 

IE  797 

the  space  ol  one  ceiiury  only,  the  ijih.  worked  in  gold  and 
silver,  Ihc  Wlowing  may  be  given  to  suggest  the  high  tank 

Chibeni,  Denalelto,  Luca  delb  Rgbbii.  the  two  Pollaiuoul 
Yermcchia,  Micheloizo.  Chitlanddo,  Bollicilli.  Lorcnlo  di 
Credi.  Baccio  Baldlnl  and  Francia.  The  cities  of  Italy  which 
chieRy  eicellcd  in  this  religiaus  and  beautiful  class  of  silver 
work  during  the  14th  and  1  jlh  centuries  wen  Florence,  Siena, 
Arette.  Pisa,  Pistoia.  Bologna,  where  there  arc  fine  i4th-ceniury 
silver  nliquaries  eicculed  by  Jacopo  Roseto  da  Bologna  for 
the  heads  of  St  Dominic  and  St  Fctronlo  in  the  chureh  of  St 
Siefano,  Perugia,  when  Paolo  Vanni.  Rotcetto  and  olhen 
worked  in  Ihc  i4lh  and  early  ijih  centuries,  and  Rome. 

Owing  10  the  tlemorallzalion  and  Increase  of  luxury  which 
grew  in  Italy  with  such  startling  rapidity  during  the  early  yeatl 
of  Ihc  i6lh  century,  the  we;illh  and  artisLic  skill  which  in  the 
lus  centuries  had  been  mainly  devoted  to  religiaus  object* 


pan  absorbed  in  the  produciioi 


ichann 


the  Renaissance.  This 
workers,  among  whom 
haps  the  ablest  and  cer 
autobiography  m  '      ^ 


™and  created  a  new  school  of  metal- 


pf  the  wonderlut  i6lh  ci 


,c  of  Ihe  ft 
1  century,  i 
ilngfcd  with 


b^lial  tcll-indul^nce  was 

lor  art.  The  large  sall-ceuar  mane  jor  rjancis  J.,  now  ai 
Vienna,  is  Ihc  only  piece  of  pkte  which  can  be  definitely  assigned 
10  Cellini.  The  splendid  Famese  ciskel,  with  crystal  plaques 
engraved  by  Giovanni  di  Bemardi,  in  the  Naples  Musetim,  has 

of  plate  was  very  great,  nol  only  in  Italy  and  France,  but  also 
in  Germany.*  During  the  17th  century  fine  pieces  ol  plate 
were  produced  in  Iiily.  many  ol  them  still  retaining  some  of  ihe 


The  papal  Ir 


ie  eariier  Rem 


ling  priceless  examples   ol  the 
_._.     .._    .  nlirelydcpietedbypiut  VI.  topay 

[y  demanded  by  Napoleon.    The  tiara  of  Juliui  II. 
■M,    and    the 


specially    lamed 


h  open  work,  6lled  in 


798 


among  Ihc  nvM  imporUnl  piccn  oi  plait  During  Ihc  i 
century  Augabuig  and  Nuremberg,  Long  wlebtated  [or  I 

pioduclions  hive  oiltn  b«en  ucribcd  lo  Ihe  great  Cc 
bEmiclf.  la  ihe  firii  decade  of  the  i6Lh  century,  Paul  Mull 
a  Nuremberg  goldsmith,  fumiihcd  Frederick  the  Wiie  i 


e  Jan 


Nuremberg,  chief  among  them  being  Wenliel  Jamnilzrr, 
one  of  whOM  maiterpiecei,  an  eiumclled  silver  renlrepiece, 
belangi  to  the  baronns  Jimei  de  Rothschild  oC  Paris. 
Mathaeus  Wallbaum  of  Augsburg  was  anolhtr  celebrated 
goldsmith  of  the  i6lh  century.  His  chiel  norkt  arc 
1  o(  ebony  mounted  in  (ilver,  and  Ihe  Pom- 


riiiler  KanlKlaaii. 


n  the  Kunstgewerbe  Mu» 


n.  Berlin 


be  chief  German  goldsmith  ol  Ihc  i6th 
Cisenhoil  ■  of  Warburg,  who  wrought  the  line  crucirn  (1580), 
the  chalice  and  other  ecclc$ias(icat  vetsels  which  belong  to  the 
Ftlnlenbcrg  iamily.  Other  notable  crallimen  ol  Ihis  period 
were  Hans  Pelzolt  and  Melchioc  Bayr,  the  laitir  having  made 
the  lilvec  titai  {with  scenes  from  the  Life  o(  Cbrial  alter  DOrec) 


t  Drotubly  tiy  Paul  Flint. 


E  of  Deni 


ark.     A  lar; 


roihisc 


Moiej,  the  youngei.  eiecuied  the  tilver  aliar  at  Frederiki 
in  the  IJIh  century.  In  Germany  Ihe  traditions  of  ei 
C^hic  art  were  less  rapidly  broken  wilh,  and  many  p 
Gothic  forms  survived  there  till  Ihe  end  of  the  i6lh  cen 
and  Gothic  decorative  lealures  even  later.  In  the  lint  hi 
the  17th  century,  though  Ihe  lechoical  skill  of  the  German 


mitl.s  n 


cher  in  secular  plate  than  1 
le  royal  collections  of  plate  ; 


K  lalUng 

m  tneir  designs, 
olher  country. 


The  lemaiki 

at  Dresden, 

Germany,  induding  the  Ireasuce  oILDneburg  at  Berlin,  afford 

eicclleni  opponuniiies  [or  the  study  oi  the  ijerman  goldamilh's 

an,   the  remarkable  chnlice,  uth  century,  of   St    Gothird's 

church,  Hildetheim;  the  celebrated  Kr  '     '    '        '  "      '       ' 


and  Milhias  Cor 
of  Gostar,  14;;, 


y;  the  cup  given  by  Ibe  emperor  Fiedetick  IH 


/  public  collect  loi 
l'addesdon"[ntfa 


erman  plile  wonhy 
A  Museum,  and  ibe 
lis  dispersal  amor>g 


Ulmann  collecLion,  acquired  by  Mr  J.  Piir- 
ins  many  rare  pieces,  ss  does  that  of  the 
and  Salomon  de  Rolhschild  in  Paris. 
.{  beautiful  vctselt  of  ctyilal.  agate,  ke.. 


»ih  centuries  household  plan 
nlly  decorated  with  painlAJ 
1  Augsburg.  Dinglinger  ol 
lis  time  cicrcitcd  con^iderabli 
namebls  in  pearl  and  nthei 


r  the  i( 


n  for  the 


\  eiitl  c^  Ihe  models  of  cup 

One  of  these,  at  the  Victor 
I  to  have  been  wrought  by  M 


dhill 


>y  of  Ihe  fim 


I,   Israel    < 


Museum 

ol  Nuremberg  in 

and  I  iSth  century  artists— such  a* 
Mecken,  Aldegrever,  Altdotler, 
Brosamcr.  Peter  Fliitnet.  the  Behams,  Hopfer  and  Hans  Holbeio 
Ihe  younger,  supplied  the  silveismilhs  with  designs  lor  pbte. 
Several  of  Holbein's  original  designs,  Including  one  for  the  gold 
cup  pnbabty  wnuighl  by  his  friend,  John  of  Aniwcip,  for  (juecs 
Jane  Seymour,  are  In  the  PtinI  Room.  British  Museum,  when 
Ihere  is  also  an  original  design  for  a  table  fountain  by  the  cele- 
brated atlist,  Albrechl  DUrer.  Virgil  Soils  ol  Numnberg 
(i;r4-t;6))  was  especially  fertile  In  designing  plate,  and  he 
eicculed  a  large  series  of  etchings  of  designs  for  vases,  cups, 
eweis,  lacK.  tic'    Many  ol  the  German  silver  ewers  and  basin 

Francois   BrioL   and   Caspar  Endetldn.   who   migraled    Iron 


England  by  Ihe  three  En] 
of  Winchesler.  and  Parkh 
hospiuliiy  afforded  then 
reign  ol  IJueen  Mary  1 

«>u'iis.-ln  no  counlT] 
of  greater  inieieal  than 

Byiinline.  Oriental.  Gol 
age  "  of  eccleiiuiical  an 


■  the  tntk,  a  pointed  01 


el  ol  Salisbury.  Horn 

■  te  was  wTDughl  ai 
ical  and  secular  plate 


.  undoubtedly  t 


17th  c. 


in  Ihe  precioua  metals.  Enameb  el 
i  been  inlroductd  there  by  HuQ^riia 

bowl  eidusively  Russian  in  form  and 
IB.  was  largely  made  <sec  the  fine  one 
tt  with  precioui  slonei,  in  Ihe  mysl 
ns  a  smaUet  boiri.  called  atria,  wiik 
T  secular  veiset.  peculiarly  RuBian, 


d  by  thai  of  western  Co 


:  after  Peter 


with  3 


Paiand. — Though  n 


PLATE 


799 


ecclesiastical  plate  of  Poland  *  came  under  the  influence  both 
of  Germany  and  Hungary.  Many  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  late 
medieval  times  are  decorated  with  enamels  and  niello.  In  the 
17th  century  ecclesiastical  vessels  encrusted  with  corals  are 
met  with,  such  as  those  given  by  Michael  Wisniowiecki,  king  of 
Poland,  to  the  church  of  Czcustochowa.  A  magnificent  xyth- 
century  chalice  of  gold,  beautifully  enamelled,  given  by  the 
bishop  of  Plock  and  Breslau,  son  of  Sigismund  III.,  is  in  Plock 
cathedral.  Many  important  pieces  of  plate  still  exist  in  churches 
in  Poland,  though  a  Polish  origin  is  not  claimed  for  them;  for 
instance,  the  lotb-century  chalice  at  Trzemeszno,  where  there 
is  also  another  chalice  of  about  the  same  period.  The  cathedral 
of  Cracow  contains  many  priceless  examples,  such  as  the  14th- 
century  gold  cross  given  by  Casimir  the  Great;  the  gold  crucifix 
of  Mathias  Corvinus,  and  the  gold  reliquary,  i6th  century,  of 
St  Stanislas,  bishop  of  Cracow. 

France. — France,  like  England,  has  suffered  grievous  losses 
in  its  plate,  though  it  cart  show  a  larger  array  of  medieval 
church  vessels  than  can  England.  The  chief  specimens  of 
medieval  pUite  are  the  Qth-century  casket  and  the  seated 
statuette  of  St  Foy  (loth  century)  in  the  treasure  of  Conques; 
the  cross  of  Laon  (c.  1200)  in  the  Louvre;  the  ciborium  (early 
X3th  century)  in  the  treasury  of  Sens;  the  cross  of  the  same 
period  in  Amiens  Cathedral;  the  caskets  of  St  Taurin  {c.  1350); 
the  reliquary  of  St  Epine,  given  by  St  Louis;  the  virgin  of  the 
abbey  of  Roncevaux  (Navarre,  14th  century);  and  the  virgin 
given  by  Queen  Jeanne  d'Evreux  to  St  Denis  in  1339.  One  of 
the  most  cherished  possessions  of  the  British  Museum  is  the 
celebrated  gold  and  enamel  cup  of  the  kings  of  England,  French, 
work  of  the  X4th  ctilitury.  No  doubt  the  visit  to  Paris  of  Cellini 
exercised  a  great  influence  in  the  goldsmith's  art  there,  though, 
unfortunately,  no  examples  have  survived.  The  extravagances 
of  Louis  XIV.  and  his  court  led  to  the  destruction  of  all  the  royal 
plate  of  France,  as  did  the  Revolution  of  1789  of  vast  quantities 
of  domestic  plate.  It  was  not  until  the  early  part  of  the  i8th 
century  that  any  signs  of  revival  arc  visible  in  the  art  of  the 
ulversmith.  Chief  among  the  Paris  goldsmiths  of  that  time  are 
Claude  Ballin  the  younger,  Thomas  Germain,  and,  later  in  the 
century,  Francois  Thoma$  Germain,  who  made  the  royal  plate 
of  Portugal  and  several  pieces  for  the  court  of  Russia. 

The  Low  Countries. — Flemish  silversmiths  of  the  late  medieval 
period  were  as  skilful  as  they  were  in  the  Renaissance.  So 
little  Flemish  plate  remains  that  pictures  of  the  Flemish  school 
are  recommended  as  the  chief  sources  of  study  of  ecclesiastical 
vessels.  A  fine  covered  silver  beaker,  decorated  with  open 
work  and  translucent  enamel  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
and  another  covered  with  figures  and  foliage  in  niello,  in  the 
print  room  of  the  British  Museum,  are  notable  examples  of 
Flemish  work  of  the  15th  century.  A  large  triptych,  13th 
century,  is  in  the  Rothschild  bequest  to  the  Louvre.  Ornate 
rosewater  ewers  and  basins,  which  came  in  with  the  Renaissance, 
such  as  the  important  pair  dated  1535  in  the  Louvre,  were 
made  at  Antwerp  and  other  places. 

The  Utrecht  silversmith,  Paul  van  Vianen  (early  i  jlh  century) 
wrought  many  fine  pieces  of  plate,  including  the  silver  bas-reliefs 
in  the  Rijks  Museum  at  Amsterdam,  where  there  are  five  fine 
bas-reliefs  in  silver  by  the  Belgian  silversmith,  Mathias  Mclin. 
Two  other  members  of  the  same  family,  Adam  and  Christian 
van  Vianen,  were  also  prominent  silversmiths  of  this  time. 
An  earlier  Dutch  silversmith.  Christian  van  Vianen  of  Utrecht, 
made  the  vessels  for  the  altar  of  St  George's  Chapel,  Windsor, 
for  Henry  VIII. 

Two  important  pieces  of  Dutch  plate  are  the  covered  tazza- 
■haped  cup  of  William  the  Silent,  date  about  1573,  belonging 
to  the  earl  of  Yarborough,*  and  another  large  cup  of  the  same 
form  (1595),  known  as  the  "  Breda  cup,"  in  the  possession  of 
the  Hohenlohe  family.  Considerable  quantities  of  plate  were 
produced  at  Amsterdam  (where  Johann  Lutma  the  elder — d. 
1669 —  was  a  well-known  silversmith),  Haarlem,  the  Hague  and 
many  other  places.    The  numerous  17th-century  Dutch  pictures 

*  Poxcxdzlecke  and  Rastawjecki,  PoftjA  5i7i!«r  Work  (1853-1869). 
'  Archaeologia,  lix.  83. 


of  stilMife  and  other  subjects  afford  opportunities  for  the  study 
of  tazze,  beakers  and  other  domestic  vessels  in  silver.  Hcndrik 
janssens,  a  Dutch  engraver  of  about  1640,  executed  many  designs 
for  goldsmiths  and  jewellers. 

Spain  and  Portugal. — Spanish  plate  was  largely  influenced 
in  the  middle  ages  by  that  of  France  and  Flanders  and  the  art 
of  the  Moors.  But  little  medieval  plate  exists  in  Spain,  most  of 
it  having  been  destroyed  at  the  time  when  a  taste  for  more 
elaborate  ornaments  sprang  up  as  a  result  of  the  introduction  of 
fresh  wealth  from  the  colonies  in  the  New  World.  The  following 
examples  may  be  singled  out:  a  cross  of  wood,  covered  with  gold 
fiUgree  work,  set  with  stones  (a.d.  808),  in  Oviedo  Cathedral, 
where  there  is  also  a  larger  cross  of  wood  and  gold,  dating  from 
later  in  the  same  century.  A  Moorish  casket  of  wood  covered 
with  thin  silver  plates  is  in  Gerona  Cathedral.  The  reliquary  of 
Alphonso  III.  and  his  queen  (a.d.  866-896  covered  with 
embossed  silver  plates  of  the  symbols  of  the  evangelists;  the  nth- 
century  chalice  at  Silos;  chalices  of  the  13th  and  eariy  14th 
centuries  in  the  cathedrals  of  Santiago  and  Toledo;  and  Don 
Martin's  great  armchair,  of  wood  covered  with  elaborate  silver- 
gilt  plates,  in  Barcelona  cathedral.  The  Spanish  monstrances 
of  the  isth  century  are  noticeable  because  of  the  Flemish 
influence  displayed,  while  those  of  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
century,  such  as  that  by  the  celebrated  silversmith,  Enrique 
Arfe,  in  the  cathedral  of  Cordova,  is  remediable  for  its  ornate 
character.  The  latter's  grandson,  Juan  de  Arfe  y  Villafane 
(who  wrote  De  varia  conmensuracionj  1585,  on  silvcrwork  and 
other  arts)  became  a  chief  maker  of  these  magnificent  mon- 
strances; for  instance,  the  celebrated  example  in  Seville  cathedral. 
He  was  associated  with  Pacheco  in  executing  statues.  About 
the  15th  century  Barcelona  became  famed  as  a  centre  for  the 
silversmith's  art,  and  the  Libras  de  pasantia,  or  silversmiths' 
examination  books,  still  preserved  in  that  city,  contain  a  large 
number  of  designs  for  jewel-work.  Seville  likewise  had  an 
important  gild  of  silversmiths,  as  did  the  following  cities:  Toledo, 
Valladolid,  Burgos,  Cordova  and  Salamanca.  The  celebrated 
family  of  Becerril  wrought,  fine  plate  at  Cuenca  in  the  i6th 
century.  Many  chalices  and  some  domestic  plate  of  the  x6th 
and  early  17th  centuries  are  embellished  with  small  enamelled 
disks,  some  of  which  show  Saracenic  influence  in  details.  The 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  possesses  a  fine  collection  of 
Spanish  goldsmith's  work. . 

Portuguese  plate  displays  in  its  Gothic  features  a  very  florid 
style,  in  imitation  of  that  adopted  by  architects  in  the  reign  of 
Don  Manuel  (1495-1521).  A  typical  example  of  this  extrava- 
gance of  Gothic  motives  may  be  seen  in  the  monstrance  of  Belem, 
which  was  made  from  gold  brought  from  the  East  by  Vasco  da 
Gama. 

Austria  and  Hungary. — Austrian  plate  is,  like  that  of  Switzer- 
land, largely  based  on  German  models.  The  ecclesiastical  plate 
of  Hungary  in  the  xsth  and  i6th  centuries  is  celebrated  for  its 
enamelled  work  of  a  flowered  design  enclosed  in  filigree  wire — 
introduced  from  Italy.  This  enamelled  decoration  was  con- 
tinued in  the  X7th  century,  but  without  the  filigree  wire,  and  it 
is  then  described  as  "  Transylvanian."  Much  of  the  secular 
plate  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  in  north  and  east  Hungary 
is  influenced  by  German  plate,  while  that  in  Transylvania  is 
frequently  inspired  by  Oriental  designs. 

English. — ^There  is  strong  evidence  of  the  importance  attached 
to  English  medieval  plate  by  Continental  [>eoples,  as  there  was 
to  the  magnificent  English  illuminated  MSS.,  and,  later,  to  the 
embroidered  vestments,  opus  anglicanum.  But,  unfortunately, 
the  ruthless  destruction  of  plate  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 
the  Reformation  and  the  Great  Rebellion  has  spared  but  few 
medieval  pieces  to  which  we  can  point.  Under  the  name  of 
Protestantism  every  ecclesiastical  vessel  with  a  device  savouring 
of  '•  popish  superstition  "  was  instantly  destroyed.  The  inven- 
tories of  the  great  cathedrals  and  religious  houses  plainly  reveal 
their  marvellous  wealth  in  gold  and  silver  vessels. 

Norfolk  is  richer  than  any  other  county  in  pre-Reformation 
chalices  and  patens.'  The  well-known  "  Gloucester  "  candlestick, 

•  Norfolk  Arch.  rm.  85. 


8oo 

Ihough  a 


PLATE 

iUnitnlioii  of  thi 


iRipOKd  of  inferior  m 
wnugtit  m   England 
the  ancient  anotnting  spoon  ol  it 

Tower  ol  London  Is  an  historical  lelic  of  ine  ena  oi  loe  ittn 
ccntuiy  (with  the  bowl  lltered  (oc  Ctauls  U.).  The  eul  of 
Caryslort  is  the  Fonunite  possessor  of  a  silver-gill  censer  of 

Ki  Mere  in  iS;o,  and  [onncriy  belcnging  to  Rimscy  Abbey.' 
Only  one  pre-Reionnnlton  English  gold  cbilice  hu  survived, 
which  with  its  palcn  ind  «  silver  crosier  was  given  lo  Corpus 
Chlisti  College,  Oilord,  by  its  lounder,  Bishop  Foie  (Plate  II., 
fit.  96}.  Both  bear  the  London  dale-letter  ior  ijo^-isaB. 
Anolherhislorical  relic  which  has  come  down  to  the  present  day, 
Ihough  in  a  restored  (oim,  is  the  gold  ampulla  ol  about  the  end 


mdled  down  by  (he  Gndets.  Utile  ot  tM*  period  thai  cu 
called  plate  has  been  discovered  in  the  British  Isles — uniikt 

Demoark  and  other  Scandinavian  countries,  where  the  eiavi. 
i  tombs  has  in  many  cases  yielded  rich  resuha  in  the  vij 
Bive  cups,  bowls,  ladles  and  horns  of  solid  gold,  nndj 
Lted  with  simple  design*  of  spirals,  concentric  dnlcs,  a 
ired  grotesques.  Olhen  arc  at  silver,  patcd-gih,  ml 
have  figure  subjects  Id  low  relief  (fig.  ij).  Id  bkt 
3,  during  the  Saxon  period,   though    gold  aikd  btrer 

jewdry  was  common,  yet  liltie  plate  af^ieari  lo  have  bed 
'■  "  "■        '  shrines,  altar-froi "  '         ■      -  ^ 


of  ll 


»of  L 


ol  Oifonl  and  Cambridge,  though  sadly  depleted  of  tt 


ll  show 


rinking  horn,  both  of  the  rjlh 
College.  Oxford,  and  Corpus  Chrisli  Callcg«,  Cambridge.  Olher 
notable  horns  are  Ihe  fitsey  bom';  the  celebrated  Bruce  horn 
with  the  seals  of  John  of  Gaunt  attached,  and  one  at  Christ's 

Maier  bowls,  made  of  wood  mounled  in  silver  ind  even  in 
gold,  and  Ircquently  engnved  with  scriptural  and  oihcr  inscrip- 
tions (see  Plate  I^  fig.  iS),  were  popular  drinking  vessels  In 
England  in  medieval  times.  Many  of  these  have  survived,  the 
earbest  specimen  being  one  ol  Edward  II.  at  Harblcdown 
hospital.  They  ceased  10  be  made  allei  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
lArckatolofia,  i.  1)9).  Medieval  coco-nut  cups,  mounled  in 
silver,  are  ol  frequent  occurrenee  in  England,  the  best  known 
examples  being  in  Ihe  possession  of  the  colleges  at  Oxford  and 
Cambriilge  and  several  of  the  city  componies.  As  has  been  men- 
tioned before,  but  few  eumplcsoleariyplatc  eibi;  the  (oHowing 
isahricltist  of  some  of  the  mostnoti^lcpicccs.oLher  than  those 
previously  enumerated:  the  "  Sokbom  "  cup  (c.  145°).  >nd  the 
"  AnMhcnia"cup(i4ai-i48i)al  Pembroke  College. Cambridge; 
the  Leigh  cup  (t49o)  at  Mercers'  Hall;  the  ivory  and  silver  cup 
(1515-1516)  ol  the  duke  of  Noriolk;  the  pastoral  stalf  (f.  1561)  at 
New  College.  Oiford;  the  Kidimoiul  cup  (l.  1510)  at  Armourers' 
Halll  the  "  election  cup  "  (r.  1510)  at  Winchester  College;  and 
the  Foundress'  plate,  consisting  of  a  fine  covered  cup  (i4}i-i44o). 
two  sails  (i.  1500).  a  bealier  and  cover  (ijOT-isoS),  and  a  salt 
(i507-i5oS)alChrisl'sCollege. Cambridge.  01  Elisabeth's  reign. 
Ihc  finest  examples  are  probably  the  salt  of  the  Vintners'  Com- 
pany (Plate  II.,  fig.  >;).  and  the  rosewaler  dish  and  ewer  of  the 


.    Stonc' 


om  West  Mailing 


(.581) 

were  elaboiatdy  mounled  < 
Elizabethan  times,  a  goodly  pn 
portion  of  the  former  havlti 
been   done   by   goldsmiths    i 


England  and  Irebnd  appeal 
have  possessed  great  wealil 
gold  and  silver,  but  esped 

to  have  been  mostly  used  In 

ments,  such  as  torques,  fib' 


Flo.  IS.— Silver  Cup.  aj 
iiEh.  with  emboued  gold  bi 

if''zcaiand  fl>enmarl.). 


11  Mold  in  Flintshire,  a 
DOW  in  the  British  Mu! 
It  of  old  jewelry  fouiHi  in  Ireland  during  the 
IS  been  enormous;  but,  owing  10  Ihe  unlort 
■sure-trove,"  by  far  the  greater  part  was  immediately 
llustrated  in  dd  Cviibndgt  ^aif.  pp.  [oa-i03. 


slical  V 


^nglatid 

Bust   have 

SUKt     Witl 

English  sen 

lar  plate,  thoogh  but  few 

ariyeiu^to 

stiU  exist 

from  vario 

«  records,  such  as  wiUi  >ad 

s,  that  Ihe 

ury  was  one  in 

which  evB) 

rich  lord 

or  burgher  prided  bin 

uelf  on  his  fin 

coUeclion 

of  silver  V 

BSels;  on 

estive  occaSaons 

this  was  dis. 

pUyed,  It 

at  only  on 

he  dinner 

able,  but  also 

m  aideboanb, 

arranged 

steps,  one 

above  the  other 

toiatosbn 

velghly  si  .      _ 

it  was  loaded.  The  central  object  on  everr  tkh 
was  the  "  nef " — a  large  silver  casket,  usually  (u 
Ihe  name  suggests)  in  the  form  of  a  ship,  and  arraicd 
the  host's  napkm,  goblel.  spoon  and  knife,  wub 
eni  of  spices  and  salt.  No  old  Engliah  "nth' 
town.  Cireal  sums  were  often  spent  on  this  hrft 
He  |»e<e  ol  plate,  Lg.  one  made  for  the  dale  ol 
the  t4lh  century  weighed  34S  marks  of  (did. 
The  En^sh  silvervaftht  ef  this  pcfiad  were  hifll; 
skilled  in  their  art,  and  produced  objects  o(  great  baaj 
design  and  workmanship.  One  of  the  fi»e« 
t>l  Ed  ward  llL's  plate  which 


Lrnn.   llisgracclulandchalice-likein 


form,  skilfully  chased, 
way  with  cohiurcd  In 
youlhs,  several  with  I 


with  Fio.     17.— SiI«r-«> 

bably  Salt-cellar,  lit  ia.  h(S 

i4(h  Given  to  New    Cdk|t 

Oxford,  ia  MU- 
id  decorated  in  a  very  lidi  and  clsbo'ii' 
buccal  enamels  (Eg.  iS)  ol  ladiu 'b1 

aboralc  pieces  ol  plate  produced  duriif 
cral  colleges  al  Oaford  and  Carabciiil' 


>e(fig.  rj);alav. 


m  richly  omamertled,  msdc  hctvccs 


Fig.  ai. — Golden  iiirnt  biifui{iwtk\-jy  from  Mycenae  (Late  Minoan  i.;  about  1600  B.C.) 

Fig,  11. — Fragment  of  a  Silver  Vase  with  Relief  Design,  showing  the  Defence  of  a  City;  from  Mycenae 

(Late  Minoan  i.). 
Fig.  23. — Golden  Cup  from  Troy  (Early  Minoan  iii.;  2500  B.C.  or  earlier). 
Fig.  24,  25. — Gold  Cups  of  Vaphio  (Late  Minoan  i.). 

Greek  Plate  of  the  Bronze  Age  (Prehistoric  Period). 


c!  J,  jMkMii,  F.S.A. 
Fig.  !«.— Gold  Cup  tad  Cover.  Cliailcs  11. 


Fij.  30.— Tudot  Cup. 


Fig.  17.— Salt  of  the  Vintnen'  Compiny  (Elimbethin) . 


Fi;.  iS.— Bnikenbildgc  Muei  Bowl. 


PLATE 


'.w  eirfst^E  ^perlmcn*  of  Envltih  plate  are  Dlder  than 
ining  of  llic  ijlh  CEntuf/  Among  ihe  [evi  ihil  Rmiin 
cipal  are  chalictt— such  as  the  two  iirgc  lilvcr-gflt 


Kluseum  Bulb  this  and  the  Yorli  chalicn  ire 
■nent.  and,  judging  (ron  Ihdr  ihapc,  appear  t 
ball  of  the  Tjlh  century,  whleli  is  Ihc  dale  dF  i 
chalice  and  paten  found  near  Dolgclly  some  yeai 
DOW  believed  io  soide  qunnera  lo  be  oF  Gcnnan 


be  oF  the  iiiji 
e  fine  medieval 

ijii  {Plate  11., 


11  Coiput  Chiisli  College,  OiFonl.  and  the  BodLJn  cup  (iS'S) 
of  the  Coiponlion  oF  ronimouth.  A  very  eiily  beiker  (1496) 
ii  in  a  private  collett  ion.  a»  is  aho  a  small  Tudor  bowl  (1515-1516). 


■5 


the  thaiie  ■bown  in  lie.  iS.  in  ordei  that  the  Prototanl 
puoion  cup;;  inl|lit  beir  no  rwmblince  10  (he  old  Catholic  ' 

o("En"Bil^h' m«^Mt  chalices  i^"^i°nJ  \t  by  v!^"H?S^ 
Hope  and  T.  M.  Fallow,  ia  AnSaalutt'.  voL  lUu. 

Scculu  plate  duiing  tbe  15th  and  i6tb  UDtuiiei  wi 
quenlly  ^milar  In  Mylc  lo  that  made  io  Getraany,  ibou^ 
English  lilvtiitnilhi  of  the  latter  century  never  quite  equalled 
the  skill  Of  artistic  tarenl  of  the  great  Nuremberg  and  Augsburg 
litver-worlcen.  In  tbe  i  ;th  century,  during  the  reignj  ol  Jame*  L 
and  Chaitci  I.,  many  fine  piKCt  of  plate,  eipedally  tall 
and  tanliaHla,  were  made  of  very  graceful  lonn  and  decora 
The  greater  part  oF  thii,  and  all  earlier  plate,  eipecjally  the 


■nd  the 

mciuaeof  lu 

luty  in  En^nd  caused  the  ptoduci 

of  many 

magnificent  p 

e«.  ol  pUte 

olleno 

a  large 

icale,su 

Mivicti,  win 

eH:ooleii,  ar 

d  even 

fire-dogs 

indolh 

(urniiiue. 

These  aie 

ery  florid  io 

their  or 

anenl. 

■S«Dene 

if.LaUa, 

(Paii^ 

Mj),*e. 

ol  the  (enlury  before  (lig.  ig  and  Pla 
part  of  Ihe  iSth  century  ihe  dtsigr 
some  extent  influenced  by  the  introc 
by  Ihe  large  band  of  French  silverar 
England  alter  Ihe  IcvoCBtton  of  tl 
among  these  Frenchmtn  (thougb  pi 
selO  was  Paul  Lameiie,  who  produce 
specimen],  the  largest  of  which  is  a  fij 
hilace,  S«  Petersburg.  Through  Ih 
of  George  III:  Engtiih  plate  is  more  renurkable  Ic 


it  lost  the  beaulitui  fonn 
ll-.fig.j9).  In  the  early 
oF  English  pUie  «ere  In 
tioioF  French  onumenis 
hs  itho  sought  refuge  in 
edict  of  Nantes.     Chief 

bably  not  a  refugee  him- 
1  btge  number  ol  notable 
winc-coolerio  tbe  Winter 

solidity 


in  for 


h  tbe  at 


!ni«l  architects,  the  biotheis  Adam,  came  a  taste  for 
plate  with  (lassical  chnracterislics.  The  South  Ken^ngion 
Huieuip  has  i  small,  though  fine,  collectioa  oF  ptate,  vaiyios 


Sci^lS 


by  'George  Hall.  Bubop  of  Cheuer. 
Id  date  liom  1170  to  i;BS.  In  the  Adam  style.    Many  of  Flair 

being  the  "  Shield  oF  Afbillei,"  in  silver.^t,  at  Windaot  Castle. 
Tbomaa  Stotbard.  the  painter,  eiecuted  several  de^gna  lor  gold- 
smith's work  For  RundeU  and  Bridge. 

Thf  Aiiaj  ej  GeU  t»i  SUvir  PiQlt— Tbe  primitive  metbod  ol 
tBiiag  the  purity  of  Ihe  metal  wu  by  marking  1  streak  wilb  it 
on  the  touchstone,  and  comparing  tbe  colour 


w  tavrr  of  kr 


rapidly  sinks  into 


weighed, 
aUoy  it  con 


.    There 


.by  it, 


ined.    Gold  Is  now  teiled  by 

chFioFc^l  process  by  which  Ihc 

tnai   bit   IS  dissolved  in  acid,  and   then 

which  can  be  examined  by  a  careful  quan-  jjri|^  ^iin'     Dfr 

titalive  analysis  (see  Ass.tinc).         _  ^p^      &      ^ 

The  Slandard  of  purily  required  m  the  brochers  AJam. 
lime  oF  Edward  I.  wai,  for  gold,  that  it 

BeFore  then  11  cania  was  (be  standard.  Silver  vu  to  be  "  of 
Ihe  sterling  alloy,"  vis.  11  oa.  1  dwt.  10  the  pound.  Eicept  lor 
a  lime  during  tbe  i6th  ctnLury  this  standard  ol  slvei  has  been 
kept  up.  and  is  slill  required  by  law. 

HaU~marti  m  SHrtr.—ln  tbe  tjlh  century  the  English  Gild 
of  CM-  and  Silver-smiths  had  giown  into-gieai  importance,  and 
had  acquiml  monopolies  and  many  special  privileges.  Inotdei 
to  keep  the  standard  up  to  the  required  purity  the  ayatem  ol 
requiring  each  article  10  be  stamped  with  certain  raarha  was 
introduced  by  royal  command.     The  first  of  tbeie  was  Um 


III.  c.  7).    Thii 


lion'i  btad  ciiiwiicd.    Tbit  wi 

rd  I.  {,9  Edw.  I,  tut.  3.  c.  JO) 
,  wu  innuglFd  in  ijfij  (jt  Edw 
y  bidge.or  inilial  cicuen  by  i ' 


,    The  ibitd  i 


1  Ihc  fair  JfUcr  c 


tuaytr'i  mark;  Ibis  wu  an  alphabet  oiu  kUe|  being  used 
for  1  year,  countins  from  the  day  of  (be  annual  election  of  ihe 
warden  of  Ibe  Coldimilhs'  Company.  When  one  alphabet  »a» 
eihaiuled  another  with  differently  shaped  letlen  wa>  begun. 
The  eatlietl  eiisiing  piece  o(  plate  which  has  the  three  maikj  i> 
(he  chalice  (with  paten,  1470-14S0),  at  Nettleconlbe,  Soniirtei. 
Olhei  miikt,  Eubiequendy  introduced,  wc 


:icign,  which  w. 


1  uud  f ri 


•  1S90,  nhen  Ibe  duty  on  gold  and  silvti  plate  ceased.  In 
Idilion  to  these  general  hall-rotrlil,  the  plate  made  in  various 
rovincial  towns  had  certain  ipecial  assay  and  ball-marki. 
Tbebefl  work  on  hall.inirlHd  plale  and  Ihe  marlo  themielvet, 
ith  Ihe  hiMory  ot  ihe  Coldimivh.'  Company,  ii  C.  J.  Jjcbwo*) 
■  ■  "  "  "  ■  ■■  i>  fifarki  (1905),  iwhere  will  be  lound 
>ijnd  on  plate  wrouchl  in  Scotland  and 
jvinciil  |;iWi-YDre,  Norwich.  Eicelcr. 
if  nii-minEham.  SheRielii  and  other 
Old  Enelisli  CM  FlnU  Ugoj). 


iltuttrKiont  ol  iMc  ,>,.,,. 

clloter'.  'Linc'olnr^c»c 

pljcrv     E.   Allrri   Jonps-.  bool,   0. 

UluMisleg  and  dekrribei  gold  pUie  or 

ud  Hindu 


.nly. 


It  £011.— Though  little  plate  of  real  artistic 
naae  in  Europe,  in  the  East  among  ibe  Moslem 
es  there  still  survive  some  real  taste  in  design  and 

places  in  India  and  Kashmir  slill  produce  a  quantity  ol  beautiful 
illverind  gold  work— chiefly  ewcn,  basins,  rose-water  sprinklers. 

covered  wiihrichre^oHr^work.oi'moreoflen  with  very  delicate 
chased  paltems.  Their  style  in  the  main  is  Moslem,  but  some 
...    ,._.      ■■'      --jj  Indian  surface  decoration. 


Thii< 


'ivol,  hi 


h  little  01 


miihs  ol  Persia,  Dam: 


They  are,  however,  more  occupied  in  the  production  of  personal 
OrnaiDUts  than  in  making  larger  works  ol  ulver  or  gold. 

I  Olid  Cillir  Pfulf.— Wonaae,  Pri- 
1849) :  /ftaWmii™  /-»  ^  Knttl-ft 
An.  ol  DenmarV,"   S.K.U.  Hani- 

"i"Madien."i/tiJrf»in^r  o/'™-'*' 

mt  Hi^nm  (iMl):  Hiiacbcaiid! 
ia,"  SK.U.  (iSSil;  Retve..  Sknut 
Me.  CflftJojuc  of  Atliqi'^u,!  of  CM. 
Mariaiei  Sloko.  Early  Cfrislian 
lilly  Allen,  CrIHi  An  in  Pacat,  uni 

""ija-Ti*.— C '  Njropi  Uddtltlur  end  donii  CiMi-iKirkymil 
(18S4J;  Bernhard  OI»n.  Dc  kjaixiikianiki  CMsmidti  Mvka  jra 
Tidrn  flir  Airtl.  iSoa  (iSoi). 

/(ofim.— L.  Caglieri.  Comfmlic  itUi  liU  del  null  wefiii  fi  arirn- 
titri  Ujiji:  II  Sanltarir  Mil  rilifmi  uiA  if  uun  iiUa  tdatita 
a  S.  AmUnit  Ji  Psittt  ligsi|i"5»ntiiia>entiec«iiraillperapere 
di  onkceria  (XIV,-XV.  cent,)."  rerugia:  K.Ctmmiuiimt  Ciotmitt. 
i.  l]li  i<><  lot,  IIS  (l*Ti-l<;4);  Filaniieri.  Dmamtiai  ptr  la  ilvia. 
Uaruele  induiuii  deOr  pntiwv  mMrlam  (i«B3-iS9i);  Antonio 
Paiini.  11  Tana  ii  Sa-i  Uartt,  I'nrzn  U  voli..  iBe!i-i8861^ 
"Orfevra  «  I'ocfevrerie  en  Savne,"  Chambrry:  Sx.  igwiiinnic 
mimairti,  tjdv.  519  <iB861;  A,  GuamfiS.  Ejfitiitiotit  4i  Paiirmo. 
Calaloeo  itlia  totlaiav  di  aniica  oreAitria  li  ortfnitria  (189O; 
L.  Fumi.  11  Sanluarit  dil  SS.  CrrMrali  xrf  <f uwn  d'  Ori'Io  (1  S9&) : 
Ci-pt™ ■--"--  -•  —  -'■  - ■'-  -  " 


(.*,7);   £™,r««  « 

nw««(i90J);0.  H 
CaltUnt  CMfrofe  de, 
(iaos):E.  Mai-'ri 
CiiHIti,   Oobin', 


Llifilioli.  i'lJ" 


a«<trpir3M(i905):P.  Pie- 


diLmd't  (190s):  F.  F 

'  Sec  Dirdwood.  I^iduilnal  Ant  oj 


S,t5,? 


'irh  valiial>1e  bibliography,  Paptri  1 
iv.  (19a;);  CalaUnBdMa  moUni  (To 
7) ;  (jimdo  Ricd.  U  Palaaa  fniklia 

A.  Misk^l"  'g^ilal  An  onj".!™ 
e  Li™.  L,,  O^f'""^  lofjiTTr-i,  . 

?'"'(iS9T->9oi); 


lapeH.    1.897-19011^  ). 
■"zi.r'GeKhidite  del  Wiener  Got/'snd  "ifSSmi.dekii'nB,™^ 

-■--■■■  ^*^;.w£S4>.;j; 

"Cn«D^&;.-Manu«r;pH  (W-Jamnitm),  "£.«  gor  *MUJufc7 
md  aoltiaitrU'  Sikie<biijck  mnpl  aOtrkawl  kmuaukm  iillm 
und  tr-iaUtn  ruxtfjuiidcn  Irulmmaiini  "  (iS«S).  col.  (ln»iii'; 
SilHnaeher,  E«HMrfi  ftr  CoUtchmiidt  {i«;9);  R.  Bergau.  UfS^ 
Jamnuar  (iSSoJj  ErKunifiH  dn  Siliir-SckmUdt  Kmll  «i  fc" 
If  til  ,S  Jahrh.  UMli-.'Luthmrr,  Drr  Sikali  da  FrnkmoK.^ 
KaOiiikM  {i  volt..  iBSj-lgas);  Lulhmer  and  SchuermSBn.  C'on- 
A^wfint-biiiicki  Sdtcriammtr  (1884);  C.  A. .von  [huh,  ilb" 
Silicn-biiUn  u  dro  k^.  Samtiimiilo  u  Cmillf  (1888):  Hi' 
Rownbcrj.  Dtr  CMdickmiidt  Mtrkmcktit  (iSvol;  J.  H.  Hdnir 
AllnKck.  PiultrU  CsldsckmicdHtrrkt  da  16.  Jikrk.  {ityD);  Mm 
Roacnberg,  tj  3laU  au  dtm  mttk^rt^iek  Idclaiuktn  SdkrrKiV 
im  ScUnitr  u  HVimr  (i8ot):  Dit  Kiaulkantmtr  wt  ptakmrt 
■   ■      ~     ■  -    ■     i,iia9a):SiiktekH3ltilH<adim 


kirKtlttck  AnkalUiihtK 

F.    £rTT.    Dil    trrn«. 

dtr  HaknunlltTn  im  kil.  ~  ~ 
■rd.  3  S,  ...  Ill  (1898): 


iickmildt    Ztnll    (|S9S);    F.    Sndd 

_..,._  ..   n,    silbn-   irwf  CMfU^ 

n  (1S9SI:  Cat.  dn  hoi 

Ibecit  und  W.  NeuBUm. 

Krral   (l8^>:    BoT^lmil 


n(rei  Arbfjdtr  far  de  daniki  Kkhht  Frrdtrik  If.  g(  Ckrillim  fr. 
(1901),  (Du  ArieiltK  dtr  Kaifbiirpicktn  CMllkmitlt  Jaai  Jfi«. 
Pslir  tind  Stkn,  Mr  d»  ddxtsckm  Kdnitc  Frtdrrici  II.  t^ 
aru(i(« /v.):  J,  Sembrii.r    ■■         ■  ■■      ■       ■  -'— 


nckt*  rid  Wait  (looj);  E.  Hintie, 
1906);  E.  Alfred  Jonei.  -The  gold  ar 
laitenau.  prince.arch1>i$hop  of  Salzb 


the   Piiii  FiUr.' 


irg,    in   the 

,   _ ,.^„ ittc   of   lU ^— 

Germany."  Conaoinriir,  nos.  Ji  and  H;  lllialnaid  Caulifv  i^ 
Early  Crrman  AH  (Burlington  Fine  Am  Club,  1008);  R^luiJ 
Craul,  Lnpiif"  Crid-  laJ  Siliierukmicdtiiiirittn  dii  Itilulalyn 
(1908):  A.  Wcisj.  Dai  HaHdmrrk  drr  CMiikrmtrdr  t*  AmtlklBt  ti' 
I6S1:  E.  von  Schaits!,  Dit  Sckalikammrr  dll  kaymnktu  Kawp- 
Aoiiiri;  "  Dtike  of  Fonland'i  Gold  Cup."  AKkultna.  lii.  11J. 

Froint,  Buriui'diah.  eri.— I.  C.  5elafas».  JtiiMcJfe  ilt'tV 
kuianjui.  tot.  (1771):  E.  Aubeit.  TrUar  dt  f'aUair  di  Si-a- 
Mauriir  d-AfaiLuc  (1873):  M-'-     '-  '<'-'■-  '■  '••——■  '■•'■'   >- 


!t  L..Man 


t.  U  Trtiat  dt 
Triar  it  la  Si 
•  (1887I:  C.  C 
f  li^.  It  Ct 


I  fa  eaiUiiton  dm  maritil  *' 

,  „8a9) :  LVrfhrnil  /rna(ni«  dUaauii  fflld 

XVIII:  litelt  (1S91);  E.  Mami.  Hintirt  dt  tori  fmdt^" 
aiiunu  (1S91 1 :  W.  Ccipps.  Old  FmuS  PtaM  (1893] ;  H.  Hxwd- 
■- -  '-  I'orpirtrii  fiantaiu  (1896)1  iirantairi  it  fc/*"" 


pifiei  d'srfivrtriifrt 
Ft:  li  Liilennt)  (18 
sii  xyill:  litelt  (^ 

Hiilaire   dt  I'orAvrli-.    .. , ,,.^,. 

tl  dtihyaiu  dt  Laais  I.  (19<m):  EL  Molinier;-  V%  UmimiM  d'e-:^ 
rrrit  fraiiaijt  in  XIIV.  t&lt.  Ssc.  d«  antiq.  de  France,  p  I^T 
(1904);  F.  Panuier,  "0bjel>pItcleu>delamaitandeFoiIauq<l>u^ 
in1F  silcle,"  SociMte  deg'bnu.  ani,  Uimtini  (1904):  L.  dc  Fanv. 


;x;. 


ii»»i.— Van  Loon.  fliiAH're  mlOlli^yt  da  Paf-iB 
:i-i  737) :  Schaepkenh  7>iUar  it  tail  avin  a  Brfpf' 

>ble,  m  Kriirlandukl  Kfillvit  [linl'.'Eip"'-'^ 
d'tkjrii  d'an  tm  tr  tl  tn  artt'l,  Artllttdam  {!»:'' 
I  rl  aniici  8  J  n«iili«i  aofumfa  telrr  (1 8S>)  ^  i^ru-^^ 
'rituk  Ctr,aal,chaP  (19")  ;  CafafojM  ./  lkr£rt<t*- 


PLATE 

CalalttM  tfUu  EiHUUail  tJi^  dvH;  J. 


Jpoiiiji,— Riaro,  ItiiiBrial  Art!  in  Jfoin  (l*n):  Davilliu, 
L'OrftrriTH  tn  Eifam  U»r9);  Mum  rifalbj  ie  anntuntaitt 
U»r9}\  ja«  Vniuml  y  tmam  (aa  Spaniit  cbilicn),  BiliU*  i-- 
la  mtiM  afaSeia  it  •HMriumtl  (April,  iSfJJi'EI  Taaa  it 
calidral  it  Sanlintii;  H.  P.  MiLchril.  Cafa^nii  iif  (fa  firKrinii;! 
Ifort  in  llu  Wviilhiim  Coot  Art  Callicliiin  (lOOJh  L.  William 
Aril  a%i  CrafU  cf  OUcr  Spain  |I»07);  Don  Ennquc  de  Lf<uli 
BiroD  di  li  Vera  de  i^  Li  PlaU  tlpafliila;  Cww,  D— 

Amc'kal.—  l  H.  Buck.  OU  PlaU  (1901);.  Xrniru. 
(Basion,  1906):  Cofonu/  Siktrmi'€  af  Ihc  I7lh  aKi  iSlh 
(I907):E.  Aliird  lonn,  "  Old  Amsiian  SOvET  PlaK."  CB 
(DEUDba.   190(1. 

EhiIuIi.—H.  Shaw.  DruHi  dni  Dcamlioiu  ^  At  UMle  Ata 
(leu):  DmnUne  Arli  of  Uk  Uvldlt  Ata  (iBji):  Bnv,  Ltji  1 ' 
SMiaid  (1851)1  CtUIofw  c/  iikt  ^nlioui/ui  okiI  Fsrb  a  A 
nl,ilnlel  al  Inmnmtttf  Hail  (iWi);  ialakiue  tf  Uu  Eiktbii^ 
tf  OhJKU  1^  Art.  Siui  KttaiMtIm  liHiJi  W.  Ctippa,  CWbH 
tnd  Cerporaiin  Pltlt  (iWi):  Old  Ettlui  FlaU  {gib  td.,  igat)^ 
R,  S.  FtmiBMi,  Tht  <M  Chunk  FlnU  irf  I*«  Duau  of  Carlalt 
(liii):  Andntan  and  Fqkft,  (»f  Cimiru(»'  PliUr  (iSSjIi  W  ' 
Scort  Rnbcrtvni,  C}mtcli  Plali  in  Kail  <ie«6);  R.  C.  Hope,  CI 
FlaU  in  AUfawl  (IM;);  J.  E.  NiElltliiEite.  nt  dunk  Fla 
ZtaiMil  [1M9]:  Tkt  Ckurck  Plait  efWilU  il»>l):  A  TroUops.  .  . 
Cliunk  Plait  at Ltiicilrrlki't  (1B90I;  7.  G.  Hillon  Price.  fUmanok 
cf  Linden  BiKir.i,  irilh  lamr  acitunl  of  Ihi  Early  CMskUIu  (t»i)o- 
iBoi)^  H.  D.  Ellit,  Tkt  Silcir  Plali  tf  Ikt  .tmDarm'  Campaaf 
(iSgil:  Tkt  Siltir  Plait  tf  Iht  UtrcliaiO  TaMtr^  Camtany  ilSaj). 
"  The  Plate  of  Chriu'a  Houital,"  rntu.  i^lf<  ZjihAh  utf  UuU^m 
A  rck.  Sac.  (190J.  new  K,ki.  vgf.  ■■  pi.  4) :  Sir  J.  Watney.  71c  PlaU 
eflki  Mmtfi  Campany  (iS^i);  Rev.  f:  Biimi.  I»<t  iiMIiit  Cam- 
mimm  PlaU  (iti«i):  /.  Siirkie  Girdner.  £iif(ujlt  £iumi/i  (1894); 
Old  SOmr  VTert,  iii^  EHtUik,  iilk  U  iSlk  ituwut  (1901). 
"  CluclH  IL  Savtr  KWdbecStT^Bi^lniUt  Uat  vol  viL  n«.  n 
■nil  Id-.  "  saver  Date  oT  Ibe  Duke  of  NewcsuIlcT'  Burl^Mm  Mat 
v(jl.  viil.  no.  iJi  "  Silver  Plate  ol  Ihe  Dukeof  Rutbiid,"  Buihxilc* 
Maf.  vDfa.,  viii.  aiKl  in.  Doa.  36  and  J7 ;  C.  A.  Markhan,  Tkt  Ckmk 
Plait  tf  tin  Camilyiiflaraamfitiiiligty.HamaaiHtFtrtirmHaa. 
Korlu  (1998);  E.H.  FiohfidtC  rb  Gmiimux  />laU  tfliii  Ckmlm 
■■  lAa  Cdv  tf  London  (1S94):  rii  ConinHaifli  PAilr  s/l^  Ccumly  tf 
Ijinden  (i99S);  TV  Ctmmnnio*  PlaU  et  iliddUiii  (1S97),  Tit 
Csnainin  Plalitf  Ettrx  (i»99):  Sb'  W.  Pridaui.  Mimonali  tf 
IHt  aUomOi-  Cimptny  (iB9Qf:  L.  J«itl  ud  W.  H.  Si  Jobii 
Hope,  rta  CitfnUm  PlaU.  iu..  tj  EnAat  and  Wait,  (1893): 
W.  ChaRen.  OUa  Auritatronm  \ii^-)-7y^  Uarhi  en  CM  ani 
Silorr  PlaU  Uviil;  Cyiil  DavtnpoR.  Tit  EntliA  Krralia  (taoT): 
Hatlewood,  Oiwrk  PbM  if  5i>f tiCT (1897);  G.  E.  Hillidiy.  IJaiulaJ 
Ckiaa  Plait  dtoi):  A.  Buder.  "Tbe  Old  Eofliih  Silver  al  lEe 
InTiliolden'  CsoBany."  C^wiiu(v(iooi),  L 136: "  The  Old  Enaliib 
S,[.cr  ol  IheSkiniiei.-  Conmany."  Cinntiiienrdvay,  v.  joi.  vi'jjj 
r.  icy  Mcduoid,  "  The  l^te  ol  WlncheXer  Co%f,"  BnrlinHm 
Hct.  livm  iL  149: "  Evolullaa  in  Enriiili  Plate,"  JurhniBn  Jtfar. 
!i9°j)  i  i«7.  S»:  7'*'  HiiUty  ,f  Eii/itk  Famiitn  {1904.  at ); 
Sianbope  and  Mollsci.  TJIa  CkmrA  PlaU  if  Ol  Ouitji  ifHirtftrd, 

S903];  Cuidt  It  Iht  Early  Ckriilian  and  Byainlint  Anliniliti, 
'ilHh  iffunmi  (1903)1  Ciniral  Cuidt  It  Iht  An  CKOrifons  (CiH 
-id  SiltrrJ.  Stirmt  oirf  Art  Mwiti-m,  Di-Uin   (1003):   MonUvue 

J  ™.  ._j_  '■— ■i,03)-E,Rad(ord,  "TheCbuicbPlirr 

-----    -  'iKH),  vii  71;  H.  F.  N 

lit  iSlh  Rtjininl  (1904): 


'i^^jii' 


ivaiH.  Tkt  Chun 


0  tf  lit  Cil'y 


»awtti,tMdtBndtnSJtiTh 

of  St  Lanimce  Jewry,''  C. 

Jourdain.  Hijtorv  0/  I*.  U, 

rm.  Fallow,  ■■Voifc^hiie- 

7tTrf.  ff^  OreJ  Britain   (19c 

FiW  ^f  JV*i«lii*n(  (1« 

(1906);    n.    Chunk    P&l 

/i^down.  Htla  on  Ihi  Cm 

ef  SI  AlboH  ti90S>i  H.  C. 

belhan  Churdi  Plate,"  S  ..    .  .. 

(uS£  (190^  iPc.'  MoSali,  Old  Hxffd  PUu  U9^).  J.  W 
CsIdicoII.  rtf  ValM  of  Old  Endah  Silttr  aid  SiuMtld  Ptaie 
(1906):  E.  AKred  Jonn,  "The  Old  Silver  Saciimental  Vnvli 
of  Eiwli.li  Nontontorraily."  Uai  "£  F'W  Ans  (1906).  i.  jgo,  371 : 
Tkt  auTik  PlaU  af  tkt  Diaau  ^  Bantar  (1906);  7ikr  Old  Chnrck 
PlaU  tf  tkt  lilt  if  Uan  (1907)1  Tkt  OU  SiUti  Sairamtnlal 
"  sill  ^  FoKIfll  PrMllanl  Churtkel  in  Enrland  (1907).  OU 
■JirhCM  PlaU ^1^):  IBuil-uIrd  CaUh[Ut  oJ^ljriptl<rdl  Kalki- 

Kioo.    i«7."     "  -"    "^      ""•' 

.  Cburcb  Con __ 

...  i.  no.  37  (Dec,  1907);  Til*  Old  Plait  al  Iht 
ri>uvri^LflHl'<<i(i9(ia):"  TbeCiviF  Plate,  Rei>li>,&<:..D(IheNoilo!k 
Borouihi."  Utmttiali  ef  Old  NoifM  li^r*):  TTuOldEnMsk  Plan 
al  Iht  Cur  ff  Buuia  (1909);  Tkt  Old  Plait  iif  Iht  Camtridit  CoUtfii 
O909I:  "Some  Old  l>lalc  bi  Ihe  poueJon  oT  Loid  %lD><yn." 
Bnrlintlan  Mar.:  "  TTie  Plate  ol  Tbuj  College.  OiJonl."  ¥  Cymm. 
rtdtr,  vol.  ivili  Cnidt  to  tiu  Mtditnl  Keem.  Briliik  Mnitnn 
09Oj);HitiBiiDawaoB.GiUimiai-  awd  Sihtrnmlla-  Walk  (1907)! 


EniU'h  CM  PlaU  (1907) :  IBnil-oUd  Cclahtui 
thild-i  CtllHhtn  e/fyOt  (1907):  Tso  JUml-a, 
--—  Mtrm-l  aetaita  ef  PlaU  (190-  - 
DubUn    Exhibit  ioa,    1907,"    C«" 


"Enilish  Plan 


863 

d  Fallow,  "En^ 


..-,-..  Andionc 
fitnqatr  el  tma 
■H™.  c.  1660,  I 


11: 


0903)  i  II 


aith.  Ad* 


T.  S.  Ban,  CkMrr  Cknch  PlaU  (i9«a);  R-  H.  Cocbi,  Owiri 

nmtTrtaiurat/Ou  Vnntii'  Company.  H ■■-.".      ..  - 

Medieval  Chilicu  lod  Pateu,"  Arck.  J 

Sickioa.  "The  Soooo  and  ila  KiODry.'  _._.  . , 
.  R.  FcTKli,  "tlie  Plate  of  the  Vininera'  Company,"  Lndan 
and  Mtddltitx  ArJLSec.  Tram.  vol.  iiL : "  The  Plate  o(  ilit  Ueiceia' 
Company."  Ltndan  and  M-ddlatx  ArA.  Sac.  Tram.  vol.  iv.: 
J.  C.  Nichola.  "  The  Plate  ol  tbe  Stationeti'  Company,"  Itndn 
dud  MuUltiiz  Ank.  Sac  Tram.  vol.  ii.l  Article  OB    '  priiduni  and 

StntrstI    Artk.    Sot.    ilv.    >;    Otfa^km   Anh.    Soe.   Prtc.    vola' 
iivi..  niv.;  Narftik  Arcka^dtty. 

'-        '    ZLudim,   100  Dtiifni  far  Silttrimilkl-   Warh, 

A.W.  Pupii.^lii>iai;«aiU-awf.S.Jaefn.ub, 

"  rtni  proprii  faur 

,_.,,_.    _    ._ itrfittirv    (fuh. 

Pa™.^  1660,  London^  iSSSl;  H.  "      '        " -" 

,_  —  (1«8«1  Lt  CaHntl ,.. 

li  (1893);  XMroAicligiu  af  PanI  Flindl'i  diitpu  far 

■art,  pobliabad  >»»»■,  Btpiaduaiem  1"  - 
irii   Ulandaiit    (ia9>-t90a)i    CoUecti 

Dig  SihaUianimrr  itt  Baytr-Ktmifi 

int  of  the  oriaiiiaE  dnwian  for  diver 

-  ■       ■  ■  w-;    .  . 

wme  Debuae  !'S19-i^3). 

'<taif  dti  ^iKjfj.  C.  rSi  (19  jahS.^I 
dBlau  uhr  tcUnt  ZtrTtOm  fir  CtldxJimitdt.  Ac;  diaidinl, 
Prtmflaaram  orlti  arffiuariai  (Rome.  i7SO)!  Holbein.  OrttnM 
Dtttrmftr  PItU,  la  Uw  Pltal  Rdom.  EbitUi  Muieiim.  and  In  the 
Bodlaan  «  Oxford  (tbe  South  Keminpon  Muaeum  alio  haa  a  lint 
eoUcclion  ol  oriffiiial  i64h<enlury  dendna  in  pea  and  ink):  Viaoc, 
MaMtafSOtn  Vutt,  bt.  (Utcolil.  iTtG  ceot.ti  Loie.  Brantri. 
^  -^ta»  ■—""  J-  — 1^.-«'-  ..J  v^..ffffx  dtttw  de  CHrndflar, 
dt  jtuaillirit,  l^t.  (Paiia, 

55.  Vdalrid  it  Afrat 

(Aunburg,  I(ii7)!  Muaoo.  Nim  Vtrtuit  ton  Sathtn  dit  auf  alitrlti 
Cel£a^WD  ^rM.  »c  (Abje^uii.  mo) ;  Chriatyn,  iWifu  Al  Piyi- 

Sai(l769l.val.Si.;Friii,ihaHric^UiL*ic>i>if«iaE»(lT74->79D): 
Shaw.  Awtitnl  Plait  from  Oifard  {l»S7l:  Du  Sommenild.  l<1.1rl]  an 
mtytn  ia  (1839-1848):  KrMz.  Dti  Dam  tk  Hildtihtim  (1840): 
Richardaon.  OU  ^iliik  Mtatitiu  and  lluir  PlaU  (1841-1848)1 
Onrwnfi  and  Skitditi  tf  ElitatMan  PlaU  (Loodon,  a  J.J:  TaiU. 
Trliort  dti  tiliia  dt  Pttmi  (1843)  t  Smith.  "  Specimena  of  Collete 
Plate."  Cam.  AnI.  Sac.  (igijhCahi^crand  Manio.  Uilania  d'anhS). 
Ittu  (1847-1836)1  Fffimonfi,  yiali,  JtmrOtry,  »c.  ID  On  Mniit 
d-Armma  al  St  PHtrskurt  (Moacow.  1849) ;  Sibotel.  U  CtHpt  da 
(SB  Kapm  (l8jo)i  H.  Emanuef,  Calala/ut  if  I*<  Frimipal  Warii 
of  Art  m  Gold,  Sdirr  and  Jrvrli  iWn  al  Ikt  InUrnalional  Kthiiilion 
flSai);  Kin|.  Melal  iVerk  ^  Iht  Middlt  A[ci  (18(9):  Becker  and 
Hefno^Alteneck,  Kinunttrht  Had  Ctrtltckaflcn  (FninkloR,  iSu- 
|9S7):  IHeurv.  Fr<igr  da  it  alitdralt  dt  Loan  (i8ss):  Heder. 
Uiiuloluilitkt  Kunsldtnhmalt  (1836-1860):  Dtr  Allaraufiaa  >■ 
KlaiUmtnttri  [I  S6D)  1  Aui'm  WeenS,  KimildenhniUr  dti  iknilluhin 
"ilUlalleri  >■  dtm  Khiinlandtn  (Leipiie,  iS;7-i86o)l  Teaier. 
(Iiemuin  d'grfinvrif  (1857)1  Beck.  Vaikiiliit  Kiln  (lisij;  Dtr 
FiligumHrktlt  ...»  Aatiin  (l»6a>i  Dir  AtnltnikUr  fiaiiin 
BarSanua  »  Aathtn  (i86j)i  Dh  lUrinaditn  dti  hi4.  rUmiuitn 
Btuhii  (1864)1  Viollet-lE-Duc,  Ditlionnatrt  dn  motilitr  (t8j8- 
i«75)l  Dane!,  artkka  In  Cat  du  teoM-arli,  "  L'Oiftvierie  du 
moyen-te"  (i8»)  1*.  M4.  "La  CollceBon  Soltjkidl  "  (1S61) 
la.  iii.^Lei  Tr&n  de  Cologne  "  (1861}  uiiL9B. "  LnTitaotide 
lacaihedialede  Reina"  (l^ljniiL  gt.  Way,  "Cold  Ciooni 
-      .  Toledo,  aad  S(  PUlan't  Cranr.'nn  .trijr.  Jonm.  (185?). 

xvl..  and  "Andoit  Onumenta,"  Ibid.  vol.  iii.i  F.  W.  Fair. 
Illniiraud  Caultpie  if  Ltii  LmdnbaravAi  Ct. 

r  (i860),  De  Laiteyiie.  TWur  de  CiurrBior  IParia.  li— 

dt  l-trihrtnt  (1875)1  CoutKmaker.  Orlttnrit  dn  XUf  iittlt 
[861):   Lioaa,  Orfitnrii  iii<rBnn^ii7irK_  (1B64);  L  ' 


UtdtliifSam  Few,  Ac  (Utrecht.  I7tb  cent. 
el  u/Tei  aannHa  de  arlhrttia,  and  jVflitaav 
Ac  (PUk.  tiA.i:  Maria,  Lima  it  iiuini  dt, 
n.d)!  Partifnilli  iemtmtnl  (Paria.  1841). 
MtKILtJUilotll. — Hettfelder.   Baalica   S. 


i860):  Hi'i- 

tm- :  ■ 

i/uiwe  ifei  »U  oi«"lW)«a^  (^B64-l86tf;"BardBV"'£(in(  d'D^ 
nnll  (Paria.  IS66),  OiartiAy  Stnta,  cidi.  333:  Sliada,  EnhtQrft 
fir  Pracklff ilH  "  SiOtr  and  CtU  (Vienna,  i860);  ZiUiiknfl  da 
"-—■ '•'-irifVmim  aa  M:lnihtn  (1871);  La  Crma.  Aril  in  Iht 
II  (l8;o);  Keller,  Aultlyfti  af  llalian  Driirns  far  Plait 
1870:  Auben^rrtjor  dt  fatta- ■'' ' "^■~  ■'•"■ 


1873):  J>rj 


■  880); 
A-.MV 


icydri 


'dUarcd'^feaiu(Faik 
,&c.  (Weimar,  1872):  Sclicn, 
Fi^ur.  .  .  diiditesiiSaKiu 
aiitr  (187S):  Hlrth.  Fermm- 
naiuanca  (Leipii^.  1877.  aeo.);  Danko,  Crontr  Dant^ 
3);  Luihmer.  cSiuhmndl  dtr  Rtnaiiiana  (Berlia, 
at  ley  and  Delamo  t  te,  J(  r<  Wor^  !■  CrWd  and  AJxt  1 1  »8l) ; 
Dai  TafanBxr  nnd  Silitrarhtilcn  ihrtr  td.  Btkttltn  da 

■■-   "-J- -  ""-liWiit  ».  Praaita.  Faltaehtnk  an 

Ftbrxar  iSil  iarpirackt  tn  frtnt- 


n.   dtr   Primtliin    WilMm 

\«lkiUtm  VtrmiUnnt  om  IT.  Ftbrx^ _,,. — 

liHktm  SUHtn  (i8<j-i>84) :  J.  aad  C.  Jeideli.CiiuIriii 


804 


PLATEAU— PLATEN-HALLERMUND 


PUTUn  {>  Fnncli  ttnp,  alder  ^nlrf,  (or  i  flii  pko  d 
wood,  mclll,  &c.,  fiom  jUaJ,  flu),  in  physiciJ  geognpIi)f.  •* 
dcvited  FEgioD  of  Icvd  01  (cntly  unduUtinc  lud-Hirlio.  lit 
tcim  being  lynonyinau*  milh  "  ublc-biid."  The  inii*I  dorir 
deBned  pliirtui  hive  >ttcp  flinki  tn  canlrul  irilti  Ihcir  Imi 


■Drrounillng  muotiv-  Indeed,  ii  i>  applied  u 
nni  u  the  hifh-lying  pliini  endnled  by  lit 
I  of  Ihe  And«,  ind  lo  thou  oi  Ihe  wtM  of  Nonk 

rise  almtHt  imperceptibly  Ttoqi  the  low  ctDUil 
4U  miy  have  iti  origin  eilbcr  in  the  upbavd 
jTOCTvc  their  origiul  horizontal  position  dvint 

ihepratopxed  denodalion  of  u  ori|pnilly  bnka 
lijhedmpccUvelyainiUia 

PLiTED  WARE,  aniclei  chiefly  intended  for  uUg  m 
coniitling  of  an  inferioe  metal  or  alloy  covered  by  one  oi  tk 
precioHi  metals,  with  Ihe  object  of  giving  Ihem  the  appeinon 
of  gold  or  silver.  Before  Ibe  introduclion  ol  e1ectro-pLatin|  ^ 
method  employed  for  lilvcT'plaling  (the  invcDLion  oi  which  ia 
r74i  is  tnodaled  llitfa  the  name  of  Thomas  Boliovn,  rf 
SbelSeld)  vti  to  (use  or  bum  together,  by  a  Sua  of  boni.t 
thin  sheet  of  silver  on  each  tide  ol  u  ingot  ol  bate  metal,  gtna- 
■lly  capper,  or  Ccnnan  tilver,  which  ism  alloy  of  copper.  Tbt 
silver  plates  -ere  firmly  wired  to  the  ingoi,  which  was  lh» 
placed  in  a  heated  furnace  and  brought  nearly  to  Ibe  InBSt 


>o  forms  ai 
id  PUliA' 


point 
withdraw  the  ii 


When 


>  rolled   down  l< 


and  liom  luch  iberts  "  tilvcr-plited  " 
Articles  like  dith-covera  were  originally  only  silver-plateil  o> 
one  tide,  and  after  being  woiled  Into  ^pe  were  tinned  iaiidt 
with  pure  tin.  In  Birjningham  bar-capper  was  the  base  inetil 
used;  whenbareof  silverlhiiibowedblaod-red.  The  SbcAtU 
manufacturers,  on.  the  other  hand,  used  (holHspper  mined  rilb 

In  this  way  they  got  rid  of  thercdijcisal  Ihe  copper  and  reodtird 
it  bitder,  Hid  thcif  product  is  Ihe  "  old  Sheilidd  plate  '"  (f-l 
that  has  become  fimoui  all  over  Ihe  worH.  This  method  cl 
plating  rapidly  declined  with  the  iniraduction  ol  the  ik>tt 
process  of  elect  ro-platiog  (f.a.),  by  which  it  has  been  wprrstdid. 
Plating  with  nickel  is  eilensively  used  for  bedsteads  and  Mho 
articles  of  UDholstery.  and  lor  vnrious  parts  ol  bicyclct.  una- 
ships,  tailway  otriages,  &c    Slecl  sheets  are  alto  plated  witl 

PI^TEII-HAllERIIUHDi  ADDDST,  Cur  voh  (i7g<- 
liiS).  Cermaa  poet  and  diamalist.  was  bom  on  the  itiid 
October  i;giS  at  Ansbich,  the  son  of  the  O^/nrjrnfliiir  in  ihi 
little  principality  of  that  name.  The  latter,  togetber  wilhHbn 
Francouian  principalities,  having  shortly  after  his  birth  btcon 
incorporated  with  Bavaria,  he  entered  the  school  ol  ciiltu 
IKadiUnitiKs)  in  Munich,  where  he  showed  early  proow  d 
poetical  talent.    In  ifiio  he  pasted  into  the  royal  tcboolofpafD 


f  .8is,  b 


lonlhs  near  Mannheini  and  in  the  department  ol  the  Vo^u. 
He  saw  no  fighting,  however,  and  returned  home  with  bii  "P- 
ment  towards  the  close  al  the  same  year.     Ponetied  ol  "■ 

irksome,  he  obtained  a  long  leave  of  absence,  and  afteraiauiis 
Swltterland  and  the  Bavarian  Alps,  entered  the  univenily  li 
WUnburgin  i8iS  as  a  student  ol  philosophy  and  philolsgy.  It 
the  following  year  be  migrated  to  that  of  Erlangen,  when  k 
sat  at  Ihe  Icct  of  F.  W.  J.  vop  Schelling,  and  became  oik  il  IM 
most  enthiitiaslic  idmirert.  As  a  result  of  his  Oriental  HihIih 
he  published  a  little  volume  of  poems — Cta.-(f«  (iSii),"*' 
consisting  of  ten  to  twenty  verses,  in  which  he  imitates  the  UTk 
ol  RUckerti  Lyrisckt  BUiltr  (iBii);  Sfittd  ia  Haiii  (iSirl: 
VirmiKlUt  ScMJIcn  USu):  tad  Nan  Ciaitln  liiiii-    Tlxn 


PLATERSPIEL— PLATINUM 


805 


ol  Ibcb  lOrm  mod  dkUm.  Tlniigli  Sc  on  U  fitu  Influenced 
by  tht  school  of  Romftntidam,  and  partituUrly  by  SpftDuh 
iTiciddi,  >«t  Ibe  pliyi  writlcn  during  hi*  univcnity  lilt  it 
EiUn<en,  Dtr  tlHitrne  PanlBgtl,  Dtr  Schati  da  SJmmfiiuil, 
Brrtatur.  Trait  tim  Trm,  Dtr  Turrn  mil  sidtn  P/mrlcn,  ibowi 
(Itirwu  ol  pbl  ud  cipm^iin  fonifn  to  the  Romantic  uylc. 
His  anta^nism  to  the  lilcralurc  of  hii  day  txcanu  more  aiuf 
more  pronounml,  iinil  ht  vrnttd  ha  indifnalion  it  Ihc  want 
oC  ait  •hovn  by  Ibc  later  Romanticisu.  the  inanity  of  the 
lyricisti,  and  the  bad  laite  ol  thi  lo-callid  talc  Iragedia 
(Si:liukialilrist3dirii),  in  the  willy  "  Arblo|ihtnk  "  CDrncdic* 
Dit  ttrMitptit—U»  Gaid  (.ttii)  and  Dtr  remanliidu  Oedifiit 
(ig.8). 

The  wul  of  intcntt,  unountlng  evm  to  bntilily.  with  which 
riilen't  enlhutiaim  for  the  puiity  and  dignily  o(  poetry  irai 
received  in  many  Hteraiy  drclei  in  Germany  increaied  the 
pocl'i  indicnalion  and  diiffuU.  In  iSi«  he  viiiicd  hsly,  which 
lie  henceforth  made  bii  home,  living  it  Florence,  Rome  and 
Nspla.  His  mean)  were  slender,  but,  though  fcequenlly 
necessitous,  he  fell  happy  in  the  life  he  had  chown.  that  of  a 
^'  wandeting  rh^isodist-"  Dtr  rffmanliuhe  Otdifns  earned  for 
him  the  bitter  enmity  of  Ksil  Immirmann  and  Hnnrich  Heine, 
and  in  the  litctary  fevd  whkh  ensued  Heine  launched  the  miKl 
baseless  calumnies  at  the  poet,  which  hid  the  cRect  of  prejudicing 
public  opinion  against  him.  But  he  retained  many  stanch 
admirers,  who  delighted  in  the  purity  of  the  subject  matter  of 
his  productions  and  (heir  beauty  of  form  and  diction.  In 
Niplcs.  where  he  formed  the  friendship  of  August  Kopisch,  the 
poet  and  painter,  were  written  hii  last  drama  Dit  Lift  mh 
Ctmbrai  [iS]])  and  Ibe  delightful  epic  fiiiy-Iale  Ci'i  AbtauUtn 
(1S30;  iBj4),  beude*  numecoui  lyrical  poems,  odes  and  ballads. 
He  also  essayed  hisloricil  woiIl  in  a  fragment,  CucUikltH  in 
Keiiipiitlis  Siafd  (iBjS),  without,  however,  achieving  any 
marked  success.  In  iSji  his  father  died,  and  alter  >n  absence 
of  eight  years  Platen  retuincd  to  Ccrmany  for  1  white,  and  in 
the  winter  af  iSji-i8jj  lived  at  Munich,  whereherevised  the  first 
complete  edition  of  his  poems,  CtdicUt  (iSjj).  In  the  luminet 
of  rS]4  he  lelumed  to  Italy,  and,  after  living  in  noience  and 
Naples,  proceeded  in  iB]5  to  Sidly.  Dteid  oi  the  cholera, 
which  was  at  that  lime  very  pRvilcnt,  induced  him  to  move 
from  pLice  to  place,  and  in  November  of  Ibal  year  he  was 
taken  ill  at  Svracusc,  where  he  died  on  the  slh  of  December 
i8j{.  Like  IJeine  himtcll.  Pbteo  failed  lo  Ihe  dranu,  but  his 
ode*  and  sonnets,  to  which  mnst  be  added  hi*  Poliniitdtr 
(igji),  in  which  be  gives  vem  10  hi*  warm  sympathy  for  the 
roles  in  Ibeir  rising  against  Ihe  rule  of  Ihe  Tssr,  —  '-  ' 


c  best 


<slly  fini) 
disaical  poems  of  modem  limes. 

Platen's  CMaoiuIfc  Wrrlt  one  Gut,  pubnAed  in  one  volume  fn 
b  tbki  edited  by  K.  CoedEkF  in  Coiu's  BiUialM  in  WMiltralnr 
(4  vols..  1W2).  Hii  Tucrttuk  (17«6-|H1S).  «•  publuhcd  in  ll> 
entirely  by  C.  vDn  Laubmann  and  L  von  SchtfBcT  (I  vols..  iS9«- 
1900J.  Sec  J.  Minckwits.  Craf  Pitim  all  Utniik  utd  Duiiir 
(tSii):  P.  Brwin.  Pltu*.  Unit  MHrapilifw  el  fiiNim're  [iB9t): 
O.  Craulich,  Plalm  LiuniMrkimiiJtiii  (lt)Ot)i  A.  Fries.  Plain- 
FerHkMticcH  (i90j)i  and  R.  Unger,  Ptala  in  Hiium  YirUIMir  u 
Catlki  (1903). 

PUTBRSPIIL,  ButTEirnTTE,  a  medieval  Amplified  lugpipe. 
consitliag  of  an  insufflation  tube,  a  bladder  and  a  chauoicr; 
the  dcuble  reed  in  Its  socket  at  the  lop  of  Ihe  cbaunler 
being  concealed  within  the  bladder.  In  the  plalenpiel  we 
recogni«  Ihe  early  medieval  ckarus,  a  word  which  in  medieval 
Latin  ws*  frequently  used  also  for  the  bagpipe.  In  the  earlier 
forms  of  platenpiels  of  which  we  possess  illusttalions,  such  as 
the  wcH-linown  example  of  ihc  ijth  century  reproduced  by 
Martin  Gerbert  from  a  MS.  al  Si  Blasius,  Ihe  bladder  Is  unusually 
Urge,  and  the  cKaunlcr  bra,  instead  of  a  bell,  the  grotesque 
head  of  an  animal  wiih  gaping  jaws.  At  liitl  the  chaunler 
was  a  straight  conical  tube  terminating  in  a  bell,  as  in  Ihe 
bagpipe.  The  later  inslrumenl*  have  a  pipe  of  larger  calibre 
more  or  less  curved  and  bent  back  as  in  the  irtmornt.  One  ol 
these  ippcars  In  ibc  ijth-ccDtuty  Spanish  US.,  known  a*  iIk 


Camtipo  it  Sula  Utria' 


M  Escarial,  together  with  a 

rhaunter  and  a  drone  side  by 
figureil  by  Vlidung  (ijti). 


ne,  the  only  diHinction  be 

iig  Ihe  l«m 

r  in  which  (he  reed  was  « 

(d  into  it  (hiough  the  iui 

The  earlier 

1  at  Ibe  end  of  the  >sih  n 

tury.  in  the 

.  known  as  Ibe  SJma  Bitk' 

Bril.  Ma,.}. 
old  Enilij; 

(he  pUterspicl  occurs  in  a 

were  pUying  on  various 

rt%'-i",sJr;4r„!:s£'? 

lai  the  platenpiel  niained 

Kigedinthe  bagpipe. 

(K.S.) 

/,™e,  «.  ground  plan), 

word  now 

.temporaiy 

building 'or7nlh?4«n  ail 

fnHowhicb 

urcs,  &c.,  can  be  detivoed  at  a  public 

PUTIORS  (Fr.  fialtftni 

generally  confined  to  a  raised  fli 
or  permanent,  erected  in  a  bull " 
speeches,  addresses,  lectures, 
or  other  meeting.  Similar  El 
are  used  in  railway  stations  at  sucb  «  level  above  the  raib  as  U> 
enable  paasengen  10  have  e.-uy  access  to  the  caniages;  and  in 
forlificstion  the  word  is  used  of  the  raised  level  surface  on  which 
guns  ate  mounted.  The  earlier  uses  of  Ihe  word,  such  as  for  a 
plane  geometiicat  figure,  Ibe  ground  plan  of  a  building,  and 
figuratively,  for  *  plan,  design,  scheme,  tic,  sre  now  obsolete. 
In  a  figurative  sense  the  term  is  applied  to  a  common  basis  on 
which  members  of  a  political  party  may  agree,  and  especially 
in  the  United  States  to  the  declaration  made  by  a  parly  at  a 

PLlTHnm  [symbol  Ft,  atomic  weigh!  19JO  (0-i6)l.  » 
metallic  cbemical  clement.  The  name,  derived  from  ^ufiiid,  ibe 
diminutive  of  Span,  flala  (silver),  was  lint  given  lo  a  mineral, 
pbtinum  ore  or  native  platinum,  originally  discovered  in 
Souih  America,  from  the  nsemblance  lo  ^Iver.  Russia 
furnishes  about  gi%  of  Ihe  world's  annual  supply  of  platinum. 

Native  platinum  occur*  usually  in  small  mtlallic  Ktlci  or 
Bat  grains,  sometimes  in  Ihe  form  of  irregular  nuggets,  and 
occasionally,  thou^  rarely,  in  small  ciyslab  belonging  la  Ihc 
~    ins  of  platinum  have  been  found  embedded, 


rith  c] 


„  probably  >e[>ataied  out  from  an  original  basic 
nagma.  It  is  said  to  occur  also  in  veins  in  syenitic  snd  other 
wki.  Usually,  however,  platinum  is  found  In  delrital  deposits, 
■specially  in  auriferous  sands,  where  it  is  associated  wilh  osmiil- 


propotiion  of  some  of  the  allied  metals— iridii 
luum,  ihodium  and  palladium.  From  ihi 
s  it  wa*  named  by  J.  F.  L.  Hausmann  polyien 
,  and  &m,  a  guest),  whilst  fiom  it: 


leul  In 


iferau*  alluvia  it 


e  plalh^um 


Plaliiia  ill  Pinle  was  the  name  by  which  na 
was  En(  introduced  Inlo  Europe  from  South  America  about 
the  middle  of  (he  iSth  cenlury.  Although  it  appears  to  have 
been  known  locally  much  earlier,  Ihe  atlenlionof  scientific  men  fn 
Europe  wa*  first  directed  to  it  by  Antonio  de  Ulloa  y  Garcia  de 
La  Torre,  a  Spaniard  who  joined  a  French  scientific  eipeditlcm 
to  Peru  in  1735.  and  published  in  i;t8  an  account  of  hb 
journey,  in  which  be  refers  to  platinum,  though  not  under  that 
name,  as  occurring  with  gold  in  New  Granada  (now  Colombia). 
Sir  William  Wilson,  an  Englbh  physicist,  had,  however,  in 
1741  received  some  grains  ot  ibe  mineral,  probably  from  (be 

<  Repmdund  by  ].  P.  RiaHo.  in  SlaOa  cf  Early  SpaaUk  Uaiic 

*  See  facsimile  cdl(nl  by  Or  C«fge  Warner.  pL  axviii.  fol.  ji. 
>Ser  F.  J.  Fumivall.  Capbam  tti.  kii  iJMi  aid  BtA;  or 
JMerl  Lamtkam'i  Ulltr  A.O.  Ijrs  (Lsndso.  iB^i).  cli.  «& 


8o6 


PLATINUM 


same  locality,  though  brought  by  way  of  Jamaica;  and  it  was 
he  who  first  described  it  in  1750  as  a  new  metaL 

Native  platinum  was  discovered  in  1819  in  the  gold  washings 
of  Verkhniy-Isctsk,  in  the  Urals,  but  it  was  not  until  1822  that 
its  true  nature  was  recognized.  The  chief  Russian  localities 
are  in  the  districts  of  Nizhne  Tagilsk  and  Goroblagodatsk, 
where  it  is  found  in  shallow  drift  deposits,  containing  pebbles  of 
serpentine,  which  represent  the  original  matrix.  The  Isel 
district  has  acquired  importance  in  recent  years.  Although  the 
platinum-bearing  gravels  usually  contain  a  very  small  pfx>por- 
tion  of  the  metal,  the  average  in  iSg5  being  only  i|  dwt.  to  the 
ton,  rich  discoveries  have  occasionally  been  made  in  the  history 
of  the  workings,  and  nuggets  of  exceptional  size  have  been 
unearthed.  The  largest  recorded  specimens  are  one  of  310  oz. 
from  Nizhne  Tagilsk,  and.  another  of  72I  oz.  from  the  Goro« 
blagodatsk  district. 

In  1831  platinum  ore  was  recognized  in  the  gold-bearing 
deposits  of  Borneo,  where  it  had  previously  been  regarded  as 
worthless,  being  known  to  the  natives  as  mas  kodok  (frog  gold). 
Although  recorded  from  various  parts  of  the  island,  its  occur- 
rence seems  to  be  definitely  known  only  in  Tanah-Laut,  in  the 
south-east  of  Borneo.  In  Australia  platinum  ore  has  been  found 
near  Fifield  (near  Condobclin),  New  South  Wales;  whilst  in  New 
Zealand  it  occurs  in  sands  and  gravels  in  the  Thames  gold-field, 
the  Takaka  River  and  the  Gorge  River  flowing  into  Awarua 
Bay.  Many  localities  in  North  America  have  yielded  platinum, 
generally  in  beach  sands  or  in  auriferous  alluvia,  and  in  some 
cases  the  deposits  are  of  commercial  importance.  The  metal  is 
found  in  Alaska,  British  Columbia,  Oregon  (Douglas  county)  and 
California  (Butte  county.  Trinity  county,  Del  Norte  county). 
It  has  been  recorded  also  from  the  states  of  New  York  and  North 
Carolina.  In  a  nickeliferous  sulphide  ore  worked  at  Sudbury, 
in  Ontario,  platinum  has  been  di.scovered  in  the  form  of  an 
arsenide  (Pt  As:),  which  has  been  called  spcrrylite  by  H.  L.  Wells, 
who  anal>'sed  it  in  1889,  and  named  it  after  F.  L.  Sperry,  of 
Sudbury.  It  belongs  to  the  pyrites  group,  and  is  interesting 
as  being  the  only  known  mineral  in  which  platinum  occurs  in 
combination  except  as  alloy. 

Native  platinum  seems  to  be  a  mineral  of  rather  wide  distri- 
bution, but  in  very  sparse  quantity.  The  sands  of  the  Rliine, 
derived  from  Alpine  rocks,  have  been  found  to  contain  plati- 
num in  the  proportion  of  0*0004^^  It  has  also  been  found  in 
the  sands  of  the  Ivalo  River  in  Lapland;  it  is  recorded  from 
Rdros  in  Norway;  and  it  was  detected  by  W.  Mallet  in  some  of 
the  gold-sands  of  the  streams  in  Co.  Wicklow,  Ireland. 

The  table  shows  the  ojiciai  amount  (in  ounces  Troy)  of 
platinum  produced  in  Russia  for  certain  years,  the  aciuoi  amounts 
are  much  larger: — 


Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

1890 

I1C.640 

1904 

161.950 

1895 

Ml. 757 

I90!l 

167.950 

1900 

163.060 

1906 

185.492 

1901 

203.257 

1907 
1908 

172.758 

1902 

>  97.024 
« 9^.970 

» 57,005 

1903 

(Rotbwcll's  Mineral  Industry,  1908.) 
Platinum  is  largely  used  for  the  manufacture  of  chemical 
apparatus,  incandescent  lamps,  thermo-couples;  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sulphuric  acid  by  the  contact  process,  in  photography, 
and  in  jewelry.  The  price  of  the  metal  has  risen  considerably, 
not  so  much  on  account  of  the  restricted  supply,  but  chiefly 
because  the  sources  of  supply  have  passed  into  the  hands  of  a 
few  individuals.  The  following  data  show  the  fluctuations  in 
the  average  price  of  platinum  ingot  per  once  Troy:-— > 

£    ».   d.  £    s.   d. 

5 

13 

15 

o 

^    a       ,       ^  ,  ^ 

Platinum  nay  be  extracted  from  its  ore  by  both  wet  and  dry 
procmae*.  In  the  latter  method,  due  to  H.  Sainte-Claire-Deville 
and  H.  J.  Debray,  the  ore  is  smelted  in  a  furnace  constructed  of 
two    blocks  of   fiffle,   and   the   meulUc   button   so  obtained   h 


1874-1898: 

1899-1905 : 

1906: 

1907: 

1908: 


I 
3 
4 
7 
9 


3 
6 
a 
o 


to 


»• 


2    2 
4  10 

7  19 

6  18 


o 

4 
8 
8 


6  (average)  price. 


re*melted  In  a  rewerfaefatory  furnace  wkh  galena  or  Uthaife.  ^ 

lead  platinum  alloy  being  then  .cupdcd,  and  the  pUtinum 
fused  into  an  ingot  by  re-smelting  in  a  lime  funuoe  (srt 
Dingier'*  Pdyteck.  Joum,  1859.  153.  p.  38;  1859,  154.  p.  3»x. 
1862.  165,  p.  205).  The  platinum  so  obtained  is  not  pure,  fi 
Wotlaston's  wet  method  the  ore  is  dis«olved  in  aqua  re(i4,  tke 
osmiridium,  ruthenium  and  rhodium  being  left  unattackui,  aad 
the  platinum  precipitated  as  ammonium  ptatinochloridc  by  adding 
ammonium  chloride  in  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  aod.  The 
double  chloride  ib  then  washra,  dried  and  igidtcd,  Icavini  a  nsAut 
of  metal.    G.  Matthcy  {Chcm.  Ntws,  1879,  39,  p.  1 75}  obtains  putt 

Elattnum  from  the  commercial  metal  by  fusing  the  latter  uith  a 
ti^c  excess  of  lead.  The  lead  alloy  is  then  treated  >klth  a  dilv'.r 
nitric  acid  and  the  insoluble  portion  taken  up  in  dilute  aqua  rrfu 
From  the  solution  fo  otMatned  lead  is  precipitated  as  nilplutf. 
and  platinum  and  rhodium  as  double  ammonium  chlorides.  lU 
rhodium  ammonium  chloride  is  converted  by  fusing  with  potassi»o 
and  ammonium  bi.«uTphates  into  rhodium  sulphate,  which  a  r^n 
removed  by  extraction  with  water,  when  a  residue  of  finclv  divvH 
platinum  remains.  The  German  firm  of  Heraus  (in  rbtio\Tr< 
heat  the  raw  ore  with  aqua  regia  and  water  under  prr«»un. 
evaporate  the  solution  to  dryness,  and  heat  the  residue  to  125'  ^ 
A  clear  aqueous  extract  of  the  residue  is  then  acidified  with  h}dr> 
chloric  acid  and  precipitated  with  ammonium  chloride.  Tk 
double  chloride  is  ignited  and  the  finely  divided  ptatiauai  » 
obtained  is  fused  in  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe. 

Platinum  is  a  greyish'*white  metal  which  is  exceedingl; 
malleable  and  ductile;  the  addition  of  a  sntall  quantity  ct 
iridium  hardens  it  and  diminishes  its  ductility  very  considerahlt 
Its  specific  gravity  is  20-85  to  91-71,  and  its  mean  specific  heit 
from  o  to  100^  C.  is  0-0323  (J.  Violle,  Compta  rendus,  1877.  !> 
P-  543);  W.  P.  While  (Amer.  J^mn.  Sri.,  1909,  iv.  28,  p.  3U 
gives  the  general  formula  S("*o>o3 198+3*4X10'^.  St  l«i)| 
the  specific  heat  at  /*C.  Its  temperatOK  of  fusion  is  in  tk 
neighbourhood  of  1700  to  i8oo*C.,  various  intermediate  vahoa 
having  been  obtained  by  different  investigators  (see  J.  A. 
Marker,  Chem^NetDs,  1005,91,  p.  262;  C.  F6ry  and  C.  Cb^oeveaa. 
Comptes  rendus,  1909, 148,  p.  401;  also  C.  W.  Waidnerand  G.  K. 
Burgess,  ibid.,  1909,  148,  p.  1177).  Its  latent  heat  of  fusion  a 
27-18  cafories  (Violle,  /tfc.  cit).  The  metal  has  been  obtaioej 
in  the  crystalline  condition  by  distillation  in  the  electric  funuct, 
or  by  decomposing  its  fluoride  at  a  red  heat  (H.  Moisiaa). 
Platinum,  like  palladium,  absorbs  large  quantities  of  hydicfn 
and  other  gases,  the  occluded  gas  then  becoming  more  ^'active ', 
for  this  reason  platinum  is  used  largely  as  a  attaljrtic  ageat 
Several  forms  of  platinum,  other  than  the  massive  fonn,  may  be 
obtained.  Spongy  plaiinum  is  produced  when  ammonius 
platinochloride  is  ignited;  ptatinum  black  on  the  xeduclin 
of  acid  solutions  of  platinum  salts;  and  colloid^  piali*uM  ty 
passing  an  electric  arc  between  two  platinum  wires  under  \k 
surface  of  pure  water  (G.  Brcdig,  Zeit.  phys.  Chem.,  1901. 3:. 
VP-  ii  323)>  Platinum  is  practically  nnoxidiaahle;  it  cooIhbs 
directly  with  phosphorus,  arsenic,  antimony,  siUcon,  boroo.  uA 
fluorine,  and  with  almost  all  other  metals.  It  is  piacticii|f 
unattacked  by  all  acids,  dissolving  only  in  aqua  regia  or  a 
mbctures  which  generate  chlorine.  When  fused  with  alkaliee 
hydroxides  in  the  presence  of  air  it  forms  platinatcs.  It  i) 
readily  attacked  by  fused  nitrates,  aod  by  potaauum  cysoiit 
and  fenocyanide.  All  the  platinum  compounds  when  heated 
strongly  decompose,  and  leave  a  residue  of  the  metal  Of 
platinum  salts,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  none  exist;  that 
is  no  carbonate,  nitrate,  sulphate,  8ec;  halide  salts,  hovtvtf, 
are  known,  but  are  obtained  in  an  indirect  manaer. 

Pitttinum  monoxide,  PtO,  obtained  b^r  heating  the  centspondiif 
hydrate,  is  a  dark-eolourea  powder  which  is  easily  ledaoea  to  tht 
metal  (L.  WOhler,  Ber.,  1903,  36,  p.  ^75).  The  faydiated  lorn 
PtO-aHtO,  is  obtained  impure  by  precipiutiog  the  dichloride  m: 
caustic  soda,  or  by  adding  caustic  soda  to  a  bolfins  soluti^c' 
pota.ssium  platinous  chlori<te,  KiPtCU,  the  precipiUCe  bctof  rap«S> 
washed  and  dried  iu  vacuo  (L.  Wohler,  ZeiU  amort-  Ckem,^  190^  4^ 
p.  433).  It  b  a  black  powder;  when  freshly  prepared  it  ii  ff*-^ 
in  concentrated  acids,  but  when  dried  it  is  insoluble.  It  is  as  ac^^.: 
oxide,  the  dioxide  being  both  acidic  and  basic.  It  hefcsw  a«^ii 
strong  oxidiring  and  reducing  agent.  C.  Engler  and  L.  «<»w 
(ZeU,  anorg.  Ckem.,  1901,  29.  p.  l)  have  shown  that  ptoucas 
black,  containing  occluded  oxygen,  is  soluble  in.  dilute  hyU-iOj 
chkaric  acid  and  also  liberates  iodine  from  potassium  iodide,  ^^r 
that  the  ratio  between  the  amount  of  platinur.i  dissolved  and  ^ 
amount  of  oxygen  occluded  agrees  with  the  formation  of  a  conipoiiK 
corresponding  to  the  formula  PtO.    Fhtimum  diaadt   (pist» 


PLATINUM 


807 


Diidf).  nOi  4H1O.  !■  abtiliwd  by 


£S:iW-i£.&; 


cooipowiE  inXQ  pll 
BliiUe  in  diluw  tc 


kaowa  (uinciy  tliv  pkiimtcB) 
ipctnuii^  lu  11,  iBMK  vt  LHE  alloti  Bwula  btiu  Hlubk  »  ' 
ind  pouDHiog  oD  hUuIIiw  ructido  (Mp  BloiKkr^i'i-  (Aini^ 
r^of  [viiij,  6j  p.  Ai)'    A  aunil^  ut  of  chlonoc-boldine  comp..  _ 
I  aTw  known,  the  chlorine  repbciiw  one  at  more  hydroiyl  Eronia 

Sving   riH  to  eoniplKn*  of  compoBtion,   HJPtCliiOH)!. 
l.(dH)J,  IUPtCI,(OUjJ  ud  mPtCKOH}..    Tlw  pliiiiuc 

-  ■     -       -^™.    P<n^  a^   «ILn»  «  bfDWn  ulilk.    wluf"-    -~ 


is. 


hydrogen  ■  dark  bi 


id  hydrogen^ 


>ca    cUonlo.      The 


1  of  plil 

impnaNe  poiiiteT  (L.  WOhlcr  and  V.  Manin,  fln-.,  1909,  41, 

FlaltMMm  McWorWc,  PtCb.  u  obuiocd  by  hraliiw  cUonliuiaic 
•eld  10  30O-3JO' C.  U.J.  Beiieli-'  —  -■— '  --^ -  ■-- 


by  uuioE  chLoi^ 


re  0(150' 


in  hydrochluHc  acid- 


iberji 

RbdowTu 

r.  Nilua.  Ja  - 


■.r^z% 


■alinv  chioi 
1  mih  DIOR 


,  .87-. 


!|^_ 


-It  u  diuolvcd  In  hyd 

the_faiirimn  lah  with  mlphiinc 


ini  Gompoundi  oC  conpoution,  PlCk.CO 
(P.  SchuiKnbcn(«,  Ant.  ckim.  (Afi..  1871 
wen  plaiTnochlonde  or  chlorptallnoua  aciJ 


the  dilinKhloiidei  or  chloiplit'nilci 

T  obfained  by  reduclnf  the  ehlorpLatinalcs  or  direcUy  Irom  th 
:j  ■-_...     T^ ,..  -J..!..  :.  ^,j,  ji^inj  ^  .oliiiion. 


.    Ill  ■](•,  the  d 
Rduclnf  the  ehl*.^  . 

italf.   Ttiey  iR  iiKntly  loluble  i 


arid  itself.   TJiey  in 
They  are  reidily  01 


.~  AMulaiit  flali<mU^iib  at  ihltrfiaiim 
by  redgcing  hydrosen  plaiinichlonde  wi 

linn,  (k6^„  B^.,  j«.,  v.  P-  'SfSl:  "  I 
1  lolulian  tl  plUinunI  Gichlaikle 


It  cty^aililH  in  dark  n 


bjcfiloade  u 

.(COUk  

ind  the  itcend  vUte  acicuUr  1 


I  amorpiwui 
Iwhlonde  u 

iinate  of  plilino. 

loride.PlcTiCCO). 

Mbaed.    Tlie  Bat 


^ ,. ...Je.Pta.CO „_ 

and  iriarbonyl  tetrachloride.  Pt>a,(CO)>,  It 

lornia  bMhl  yellow  needkt  and  the  ttcend  wl 

The  bichlnide  ■!«  oombina  with  phoigeae  to  loria  PtCki 

PlQlinic  tUi^idi,  PtCI,,  it  obtained  whea  chlMplatinic  acia  11 
bejicd  in  1  current  of  dry  hydrochloric  acid  (ai  to  165*  C.  (W. 
Pullineer.  /nrx.  Oum,  Sec.,  1891.61,  p,  uitorln  a  CBtreni  of  dry 
chlorine  at  >7J*  C.  (A.  Rotenhiin  aiid  W.  LAnmNamia.  ZtU. 
auart.  Ctrn..  1903.  j;,  p.  J94>.,  Illannianildul'  ' 

double  ulti  with  (he  metallic  ^loridct  and  with  Ihe  hydrochtorid 
olmoMotfanictaiei.   CiUgrfiteMK  ocii,  tiiPlCk-«KiO,  it  obuim 

c^loAc  addTor  by  the  an!«i  Vciilorinc  (d?HOIved'in^toc^ 
arid)  on  platinum  ipongc.  It  cryilallltei  in  needln.  which  •'•  v. 
deliiiuewntanddii«l«-- •■    '      ---..-..   ■-.-      - 

lea^  a  rel^ue  o(  comniiion  HI 

act  eriud  by  ihrir  eiiccedi  n^ly  small  boI 
Bolutloaol  the  acid  reddena  litnua  am 
bonatea.  Ita  tailt  nay  be  prrpared  b 
na  the  metallic  hydrwodei  or  carbo 
oranev  or  yellow  rnlnur  and  arr  moatl' 
tUerplali'uU.  K.PICI.,  it  obtained,  in 
lin*  pndpilata,  when  a  coticcntrutd 


iniv.^.;;^.;;^;^ 


™X" 


idiiiiD  lalt,  Na,PtCI..I 


.  of  chlorplalinlc  add-  It  cmtailin 
carccly  loluble  in  waicr,  and  practi 
cohol.  It  deeompo«c9  at  a  red  hcai 
potaHium  chk>iide.     The  compor 


«  platinum  at  5uQ-«oo* 


obtained  timultancDudy  by  H 
b),  u,  p.  l«l)  by  the  actiun  of 
C.    They  may  be  leparaled  by 


phur;  or  by  the  action  ai  tuJpharetied  hydnwen  on  the  chlorplali 
nile*.  it  ■•  a  dark  tolsured  powder  whadi  ■•  almoat  iuoluble  a 
aqua  rcaia.  It  decooipmea  when  healed  HRmily  kaviog  a  retidiH 
oi  metalJic  pUtiaum,  the  aanie  leduction  taking  place  at  com 


«Tphidi  I 


S,  and  PtA  luvr  bee"  dew'rfbed  ■[R,"schn(idFr.  ^U- 
1.  m.  p.  fcxt;  1S[J,  ij8.  p.  6jl;  1S73.  149,  p,  iSiJT 
compontion.  Pt(OH)..H^^H^,  hat  been  p-ipnird 
Kidri  Umi.  c»><n.  pky...  rooj,  (gj,  6,  p.  gl)  by  the  Miulion 
Imie  >l,Pi<OH)»  ij.  PtOi-4H^,  in  dilute  wlphuric  aein 
0*C.    On  the  additinn  oC  cold  concentrated  tulphuric  ■ 

_..  .. ...-_.,  ....  _. ,.  ■--- ^(^med  In  ,1, 

le  la  the  prcte 


'"■.  "904,  37.  p.  1913), 
ne 


;e  o( 

:he  action  of  tulphuric 

,rfnce  o(  an  alietiiaiinE 

!  i>  obLuaed,  which  it  aoluhle 

M>Pt<NOi),  are  maatly  obtained 


I  water  and  it  very  hytroaeopic. 
The  Maliruailnln  of  rompodlloi 
y  double  decompoeitioa  from  thi 
y  addinff  a  warm  aqueout  tolution  of  potanium  nitriie  to 
of  polattiuRi  chkrrpblinate.  They  are  nHntly  coTourlcn  or 
yeltaw  anlidi  which  an  more  or  le«  tnluMe  in  water  (L.  F, 
—  ■—  """^  "  '  '721).  The  cMTMpondini  plafino-oxalatea 
Ulned  by  J.  W.  bflber«ner  (Pou.  Aim.. 
clr  conHilulion  waj  dflermined  by  H.  G. 
r.  P-  5*7  f :  ^"'-  """t-  C*™-.  1894.  6. 
,  from  which  the  oihn  iie  oblaincd  by 

le.     0/  reci^nilS^  "  from  alkaline 

'      -  '  L  yellow  or  nranie  cryitali  (tee 

t),  r9.  p.  ajj),  The»  talti  air 


Bale 

Nilioa.  Sir..  1S76.  a.  p. 
M^Kfiih  were  fart 
181J.  104.  p.  iSo)  and 
SdaTrb^m  (Btr.,  iSM. 


itt^-al^lSJom' 


Cntplouvely  when  tuddenly 
lecnmpotini  the  lilver  aalt 


Flcli-um  tynUt,  Pt(CN)k  it  loi 

pliout  powder  which  it  Inioluble  in  -idii;!.  uviub 
•oliiUe  in  a  (Oliition  of  hydrocyanic  acid.  It  \a 
The  plelinDcyaaidea  are  derived  from  the  1 
vlucn  it  forrncd  by  the  dccodtpotilion  of  the  m 
■alt  with  aujphuretted  hvdrosen.  or  of  the  banum  tail  wiirt 
tulphuric  acid.  It  cryttalfixet  Tntn  water  In  dnnabar-red  pri&mt 
whK^h  contain  five  nrnlreule*  of  water  of  crystal liatlon;  in  the 
of  a  ydlowiih  jreen  oolour.    It  decon- 

repared  by  the  uiual  melhoda.  or  by  the 


H,Pt(CN).. 


nhydroua  ca 


,  3,  p.  ifo:  M. 
Thote  d(  the 
Many  combine 


H>F((Cliii'!at4H,o"nlH,Pl,_. ._ 

Blomttiand,  Bit..  1869,  a,  p.  101).    They  ai , - 

which  are  evceedinrly  aolubre  {n  water.    Polaitium  pialinecyof 
Kil>t(CNU3H,0,  ft  obtained  by  ditKilvixf  platinum  bjchk 

Hunfy  platinum;  or' by  hratini  ammonium  chlomlalinale  with 
Mainum  cyanide.  Il  erytlallim  in  necdlei  which  effloretce  readily. 
The  dry  lali  h  eireedincly  hygrotcopic  and  it  very  loluble  In 
water.    Wbea  boiled  with  aqua  regia  il  formi  the  chlorine  addillsn 


alinacyantdt. 
n  bichk>ride 


8o8 


PLATO 


product,  KtPt(CN)«-CIi.2H<0.  It  combines  directly  with  iodine. 
Barium  ptatinocyantdi,  BaPt(CN)«.4H|0.  is  prepared  by  the  action 
of  baryta  water  on  the  copper  salt;  by  disMlving  platinum  in 
barium  cyanide  under  the  influence  of  an  alternating  current;  by 
the  addition  of  barium  cyanide  to  platinum  bichloride  {  or  by  the 
simultaneous  action  of  hydrocyanic  and  sulphurous  acids  on  a 
mixture  of  baryta  and  chlorplatinic  acid  (P.  Bergsoe,  ZtU,  anorf. 
Chem.,  180^,  19,  p.  ^18).     It  crystallises  in  yellow  roonodimc 

i>risnis  ana  is  SMuble  in  hot  water.    It  is  employed  for  the  manu- 
acture  of  fluorescent  screens  used  for  the  detection  of  X-rays. 

The  platinum  salts  combine  with  ammonia  to  form  numerous 
derivatives  which  can  be  considered  as  salts  of  characteristic  bases. 
The  first  compound  ot  this  type  was  isolated  in  i8a8  by  Magnus, 
who  ol^ained  a  green  salt  by  the  action  of  amnMNiia  on  platinum 
bichloride.  Two  series  of  these  salts  are  known,  one  in  which  the 
metal  corresponds  to  bivalent  platinum,  the  other  in  which  it 
corresponds  to  tetravalent  platinum.  The  general  formulae  of 
the  ^ups  in  each  series  are  shown  below,  the  method  of  classi- 
fication being  that  due  to  Werner. 


Divalent  (i^tinous)  Salts. 


Tetrammine  salts{Pt(NHt)«lXa 
Triammine    „     tPt(NHtJsX]X 
Diammine 
Monammine 


saitsirt(iN»it)«lXa 
..     (PifNHO.X|X 
„     jPt(NH,),X,Y 
„     (Pt(NH,)X,lR 


Tetravalent  (platink)  Salts. 


Hexamminc  aalts(Pt(N  HOtlX* 

^Pt(NH^&,lX, 


Tetrammine  „ 
Triammine  „ 
Diammine  „ 
Monammine  ,, 


»t(NH,),XJX 

PtrNH,),X.L 
Pt(NHi)X.]R 


In  the  above  table  X  represents  a  monovalent  acid  radical  and 
R  a  monovalent  basic  radical.  For  methods  of  preparation  of 
salts  of  these  series  see  P.  T.  Cleve,  BuU.  soc,  ckim.  1867  ei  seq.; 
S.  M.  J6rgeii8cn,  Joum.  prak.  Ckem.  1877  et  seq.;  C.W.  Blomstrand. 
Btr,  1871  et  seq.;  and  A.  Werner,  Zeit.  aiMff.  Chem.  189^  et  seq. 
A  very  complete  account  of  the  method  of  classification  and 
the  general  theory  of  the  metal  ammonia  compounds  is  given 
by  A.  Werner,  Ber.  1907,  40,  p.  15. 

Platinum  also  forms  a  scries  01  complex  phosphorus  compounds. 
At  3^*  finely  dividedplatinum  and  phosphorus  pentachloride 
combine  to  form  PtClt.PCl«,  as  dark  claret-coloured  crystals.  With 
chlorine  this  substance  gives  PtCl|.PCl4  as  a  yellow  powder,  and 
with  water  it  yields  phosphoplatinic  acid,  PtClt.P(OH}a,  which 
may  be  obtainea  as  orange-red  deliquescent  prisms. 

The  atomic  weight  of^platinum  was  determined  by  K.  Seubcrt 
(^Nfi.  1888,  307,  p.  i;  Ber.  1888.  3i.  p.  2179)  by  analyses  of 
ammonium  and  potassium  platinocbloridcs,  the  value  I94'86  being 
obtained. 

PLATO,  the  great  Athenian  philoaopher,  was  bom  in  427  B.c., 
and  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty.  His  literary  activity  may  be 
roughly  said  to  have  extended  over  the  first  half  of  the  4th 
century  B.C.  His  father's  name  was  Ariston,  said  to  have 
been  a  descendant  of  Codnis;  and  his  mother's  family,  which 
claimed  descent  from  Solon,  included  Critias,  one  of  the  thirty 
tyrants,  and  other  well-known  Athenians  of  the  early  4th  cen- 
tury B.C.  That  throughout  his  early  manhood  he  was  the 
devoted  friend  of  Socrates,  that  in  middle  life  he  taught  those 
who  resorted  to  him  in  the  grove  named  Academus,  near  the 
Cephisus,  and  there  founded  the  first  great  philosophical 
school,  that  (with  alleged  inteiruplions)  be  continued  to  pre- 
side over  the  Academy  until  his  death,  are  matters  of  estab- 
lished fact.  It  is  said  by  Aristotle  that  he  was  at  one  time 
intimate  with  Cratylus  the  Heraclitean.  Beyond  this  we  have 
no  authentic  record  of  his  outward  life.  That  his  name  was  at 
first  Aristocles,  and  was  changed  to  Plato  because  of  the  breadth 
of  his  shoulders  or  of  his  style  or  of  his  forehead,  that  he  wrestled 
well,'^  that  he  wrote  poetry*  which  he  burnt  on  hearing  Socrates, 
fought  in  three  great  battles,'  that  he  had  a  thin  voice, 
that  (as  is  told  of  other  Greek  plulosophers)  he  travelled  to 
Cyrene  and  conversed  with  priests  in  Egypt,  are  statements 
of  Diogenes  LaCrtius,  which  rest  on  more  or  less  uncertain  tradi- 
tion. The  express  assertion— ^which  this  author  attributes  to 
Hermodonis^that  after  the  death  of  Socrates  Plato  and  other 
Socratics  took  refuge  with  Euclides  in  Megara,  has  a  somewhat 
stronger  claim  to  authenticity.  But  the  fact  cannot  be  regarded 
as  certain,  still  less  the  elaborate  inferences  which  have  been 
drawn  from  it.  The  romantic  legend  of  Plato's  .journeys  to 
Sicily,  and  of  his  relatioM  there  with  the  younger  Dionysius  and 
the  princdy  but  unfortunate  Dion,  had  obtained  some  degree 

■  Sec  Laws,  vii.  814  c. 

*  Some  epinams  in  the  Anthology  are  attributed  to  him. 

*  This  is  told  on  the  authority  of  Aristoisenua.  But  Plato  caanoc 
have  bees  at  DcBum. 


of  consistency  before  the  age  of  Cicero,  and  at  an  tmknown  bat 
probably  early  time  was  worked  up  into  the  so-called  EpuUes 
of  Plato,  now  all  but  universally  discredited.  Nor  is  there 
sufficient  ground  for  supposing,  as  some  have  done,  that  aa 
authentic  tradition  is  perceptible  behind  the  myth. 

The  later  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  witnessed  much 
mental  disturbance  and  restlewness  at  Athens.  Mocc  than 
at  any  time  since  the  age  of  Qeisthenes,  the  city 
was  divided,  and  a  man's  foes  were  often  men 
of  his  own  tribe  or  deme.  Contention  in  the  law- 
courts  and  rivalries  in  the  assembly  had  for  many  men  a  more 
absorbing  interest  than  questions  of  peace  and  war.  Herediiaiy 
traditions  had  relaxed  their  hold,  and  political  principles  wcr 
not  yet  formulated.  Yet  there  was  not  less  scope  on  this 
account  for  personal  ambition,  while  the  progress  of  demociaqr, 
the  necessity  of  conciliating  the  people,  and  the  apporticmiiiect  of 
public  offices  by  lot  had  a  distracting  and,  to  reflecting  persons, 
often  a  discouraging  effect.  For  those  amongst  whmn  Plato  vas 
brought  up  this  effect  was  aggravated  by  the  aeqjuel  of  the 
oligarchical  revolution,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  for  some  yean 
after  the  restoration  of  the  democracy,  a  new  stimulus  had  bete 
imparted,  which,  though  of  short  duration,  was  universally  fek. 

These  events  appear  in  two  ways  to  have  encouraged  the 
diffusion  of  ideas.    The  ambitious  seem  to  have  wdcomed  the-r 
as  a  means  of  influence,  while  those  who  turned  from  public  hit 
were  the  more  stimulated  to  speculative  disputation.    Howevr 
this  may  have  been,  it  is  manifest  that  before  the  beginning  oi 
the  4th  century  B.C.  the  intellectual  atmosphere  was  slretdy 
charged  with  a  new  force,  which  although  essentially  otkc  may  be 
differently  described,  according  to  the  mode  of  its  devclopmeci,  Mi 
^i)  rhetorical  and  (2)  theoretical  and  "sophistical.**    This  last 
word  indicates  the  channel  through  which  the  current  inflaeaces 
were  mostly  derived.    A  new  want,  in  the  shape  both  of  inter- 
ested and  of  disinterested  curiosity,  had  insensibly  created  a  new 
profession.    Men  of  various  fatherlands,  some  native  Atbemans, 
but  more  from  other  parts  of  Hellas,*  had  set  themselves  to 
supplement  the  deficiencies  of  ordinary  education,  and  to  train 
men  for  the  requirements  of  civic  Ufe.     More  or  less  conscioosJy 
ihey  based  their  teachings  on  the  philosophical  dogmas  of  aa 
earlier  time,  when  the  speculations  of  Xem^bancs,  Heraclita 
or  Parmenides  had  interested  only  a  few  '*  wise  men.**     Those 
great  thoughts  were  now  to  be  expounded,  so  that   *'  evcc 
cobblers   might   understand.*'*    The   self -appointed    ieachm 
found  a  rich  field  and  abundant  harvest  among  the  wcaltljer 
youth,  to  the  chagrin  of  the  old-fashioned  Athenian,  who  sighed 
with  Aristophanes  for  the  good  old  days  when  men  knew  ks  lad 
listened  to  their  elders  and  obeyed  the  customs  of  their  faibcv 
And  such  distrust  was  not  wholly  unfounded.     For,  amidsi 
much  that  was  graceful  and  improving,  these  novel  questioniafs 
had  an  influence  that,  besides  being  unsettb'ng,  was  aiinlcas  astd 
unreal.    A  later  criticism  may  discern  in  them  the  two  greai 
tendencies  of  naturalism  and  humanism.  But  it  may  be  doubiee 
if  the  sophist  was  himself  aware  of  the  directi<m  of  his  owa 
thoughts.    For,  although  Prodicus  or  HippiaS  could  debate  a 
thesis  and  moriflize  with  effect,  they  do  not  appear  to  have  bee:: 
capable  of  speculative  reasoning.  Wliat  passed  for  such  was  of  tea 
either  verbal  quibbling  or  the  pushing  to  an  extreme  of  SBcne 
isolated  abstract   notion.    That    prudens  quaeslio  ^ibich    :s 
dimidium  scieniiae  had  not  yet  been  put.   And  yet  the  hour  far 
putting  it  concerning  human  life  was  fully  come.    For  the  scs 
on  which  men  were  drifting  was  profoundly  troubled,  and  wou&i 
not  sink  back  into  its  former  calm.    Conservative  reaction  wis 
not  less  hopeless  than  the  dreams  of  theorists  were  nuschioc.3>> 
wild.     In  random  tal)c,  with  gay,  irresponsible  energ)-.  tV-e 
youth  were  debating  problems  which  have  exercised  great  sends 
in  Europe  through  all  after  time. 

Men*s  thoughts  had  begun  to  be  thus  disturbed  and  eager  wber. 
Socrates  (q.9.)  arose.  To  understand  him  is  the  most  necrsaarv 
preliminary  to  the  study  of  Plato.   There  is  no  reason  to  do«;bi 


« It  had  been  the 
foreigners  to  Athens. 
•  fhtotk  180  O. 


policy  of  Pericles  to  invite  dittaafukktC 


PLATO 


809 


the  general  truth  of  the  aaaertioii*  which  Plato  attributes  to 
,       him  la  the  Apoiogta,  that  he  felt  a  divine  vocation  to  examine 
g^gf^t^g,    himself  by  questioning  other  men.    He  was  really 
doing  for  Athenians,  whether  they  would  or  no, 
what  the  sophist  professed  to  do  for  his  adherents,  and  what 
such  men  as  Protagoras  and  Prodicus  had  actually  (kne  in  part. 
,       One  obvious  difference  was  that  he  would  take  no  fee.    But 
there  was  another  and  more  deep-lying  difference,  which  dis- 
tinguished him  not  only  from  the  contemporary  sophists  but 
'       from  the  thinkers  of  the  previous  age.    This  was  the  Socratic 
'       attitude  of  inquiry.    The  sceptical  movement  had  confused 
men's  notions  as  to  the  value  of  ethical  ideas.^    If  "  right  is 
one  thing  in  Athens  and  another  in  Sparta,  why  strive  to  fallow 
right  rather  than  expediency?  The  laws  put  restraint  on  nature, 
which  is  prior  to  them.   Then  why  submit  to  law?  "    And  the 
ingenuities  of  rhetoric  had  stirred  much  unmeaning -disputatioa. 
,      Every  case  seemed  capable  of  being  argued  in  opposite  ways. 
Even  on  the  great  question  of  the  ultimate  constitution  of  things, 
the  confUcting  theories  of  absolute  immutability  and  eternal 
change  appeared  to  be   equally   irrefragable   and   equally 
untenable.    Men's  minds  had  been  confused  by  contradictory 
voices— one  crying  "  All  is  motion,"  another  "  AH  is  rest " ; 
one  "  The  absolute  is  unattainable,"  another  **  The  relative 
alone  is  real " ;  some  upholding  a  vague  sentiment  of  traditional 
right,  while  some  declared  for  arbitrary  convention  and  some  for 
the  law  "  of  nature."   Some  held  that  virtue  was  spontaneous, 
some  that  it  was  due  to  training,  and  some  paradoxically  denied 
that  either  vice  or  falsehood  had  any  meaning.    The  faith  of 
Socrates,  whether  instinctive  or  inspired,  remained  untroubled  by 
these  jarring  tones.    He  did  not  ask  "  Is  virtue  a  reality?  " 
or  "Is  goodness  a  delusidn? "    But,  with  perfect  confidence 
that  there  was  an  answer,  he  asked  himself  and  others  "  What  is 
it?"   (rl  ^0;  or,  more  particularly,  as  Xenophon  testifies, 
*'VVbat  is  a  state?  What  is  a  statesman?  What  is  just? 
What  is  unjust?   What  is  government?    What  is  it  to  be  a 
ruler  of  men  ?  "  In  this  form  of  question,  however  simple,  the 
originality  of  Socrates  is  typified;  and  by  means  of  it  he  laid 
the  first  stone,  not  only  of  the  fabric  of  ethical  philosophy, 
but  of  scientific  method,  at  least  in  ethics,  logic  and  psychology. 
Socrates  never  doubted  that  if  men  once  knew  what  was  b^t, 
they  would  also  do  it.   They  ened,  he  thought,  from  not  seeing 
the  good,  and  not  because  they  would  not  follow  it  if  seen. 
This  is  expressed  in  the  Socratic  dicia:  "  Vice  is  ignorance," 
**  Virtue  is  knowledge."    This  lifelong  work  of  Socrates,  in 
which  the  germs  of  ethics,  psychology  and  logic  were  contained, 
was  idealized,  developed,  dramatized — first  embodied  and  then 
extended  beyond  its  original  scope — in  the  writings  of  Plato, 
which  may  be  described  as  the  literary  outcome  of  the  profound 
impression  made  by  Socrates  upon  his  greatest  follower.   These 
writings  (in  pursuance  of  the  importance  given  by  Socrates  to 
conversation)  are  all  cast  in  the  form  of  imaginary  dialogue. 
But  in  those  which  are  presumably  the  latest  in  order  of  compo- 
sition this  imaginative  form  interfera  but  little  -with  the  direct 
expression  of  the  philosopher's  own  thoughts.     The  many- 
coloured  veil  at  first  inseparable  from  the  features  is  gradually 
worn  thinner,  and  at  last  becomes  almost  imperceptible. 

Plato's  philosophy,  as  embodied  in  his  dialogues,  has  at  once 
an  intellectual  and  a  mystical  aspect;  and  both  are  dominated 
piato'm  by  a  pervading  ethical  motive.  In  obc^ying  the 
iUatofgaes,  Socratic  impulse,  his  specuUitive  genius  absorbed  and 
Iiarmoiuzed  the  various  conceptions  which  were  present  in  con- 
temporary thought,  bringing  them  out  of  their  dogmatic  isolation 
Into  living  correlation  with  one  another,  and  with  the  life  and 
experience  of  mankind.  His  poetical  foeling  and  imagination, 
taking  advantage  of  Pythagorean  and  Orphic  suggestions, 
surrounded  his  abstract  reasonings  with  a  halo  of  mythology 
which  made  them  more  fascinating,  but  also  more  difficult  for 
the  prosaic  intellect  to  comprehend.  Convinced  through  the 
conversations  of  Socrates  that  truth  and  good  exist  and  that 
they  are  inseparable,  persuaded  of  the  unity  of  virtue  and  of  its 
dependence  upon  knowledge,  he  set  forth  upon  a  ooune  of  inquiry, 

■  See  Caird.  Hegd,  p.  168. 


in  which  he  could  not  rest  until  the  discrepancies  of  ordinary 
thinking  Were  not  only  exposed  but  accounted  for,  and  resolved 
in  relation  to  a  comprehensive  theory.  In  this  "pathway 
towards  reality,"  from  the  consideration  of  particular  virtues 
he  passed  to  the  contemplation  of  virtue  in  general,  and  thence 
to  the  nature  of  univeisals,  and  to  the  unity  of  knowledge  and 
bdng.  Rising  still  higher  on  the  road  of  generalization,  he  dis- 
cussed the  problem  of  unity  and  diversity,  the  one  and  the  many. 
But  in  these  lofty  apeculations  the  facts  of  human  experience 
were  not  lost  to  view.  The  one,  the  good,  the  true,  is  otherwise 
regarded  by  him  as  the  moral  ideal,  and  this  is  examined  as 
realised  both  in  the  individual  and  in  the  state.  Thus  ethical 
and  political  speculations  are  combined.  And  as  the  method 
of  inquiry  is  developed,  the  leading  principles  both  of  logic  and  of 
psychology  become  progressively  more  distinct  and  clear. 
Notwithstanding  his  high  estimate  of  mathematical  prindples, 
to  him  the  type  of  exactness  and  certitude,  Plato  contributed 
little  directly  to  physical  science.  Though  he  speaks  with 
sympatic  and  respect  of  Hippocrates,  he  had  no  vocation  for 
the  patient  inductive  observation  of  natural  processes,  through 
which  the  Coan  physicians,  though  they  obtained  few  lasting 
results,  yet  founded  a  branch  of  science  that  was  destined  to  be 
beneficently  fruitful.  And  he  turned  scornfully  aside  from  the 
Atomists,  Leucippus  and  Democritus,  whose  first  principle,  the 
basis  of  so  much  in  modem  physics,  appeared  to  him  to  be  tainted 
with  materialism.  Yet  his  discursive  thought,  as  in  later  years 
he  held  high  intercourse  with  Archytas  and  other  contemporary 
minds,  could  not  fail,  unlike  his  master's,  to  include  a  theory 
of  the  Cosmos  in  its  purview.  In  this  regard,  however,  the 
poet-philosopher  brought  imagination  to  the  aid  of  reason,  thus 
creating  a  new  mythology.  Of  which  the  Timaeus  is  the  most 
conspicuous  example. 

Amidst  great  diversity,  both  of  subject  and  of  treatment, 
Plato's  dialogues  are  pervaded  by  two  dominant  motives,  a 
passion  for  human  improvement  and  a  persistent  faith  in  the 
power  and  supremacy  of  mind.  What  is  commonly  known  as 
his  doctrine  of  Ideas  is  only  one  phase  in  a  continuous  progress 
towards  the  realization  of  a  system  of  philosophy  in  which  the 
supreme  factor  is  reason  guiding  will.  But  the  objectivity, 
which  from  the  first  was  characteristic  of  all  Greek  thinking,  and 
his  own  power  of  poetic  presentation,  obscured  for  a  time,  even, 
for  Plato  himself,  the  essential  spirituality  of  his  conceptions,  and 
at  one  time  even  threatened  to  arrest  them  at  a  stage  in  which  the 
universal  was  divorced  from  the  particular,  the  permanent  from 
the  transient,  being  from  becoming,  and  in  which  the  first  prind- 
ples of  reality  were  isolated  from  one  another  as  well  as  from  the 
actual  work!.  Gradually  the  veil  was  lifted,  and  the  relation 
between  the  senses  and  the  intellect,  phenomena  and  general 
laws,  the  active  and  the  contemplative  powers,  came  to  be  more 
clearly  conceived.  The  true  nature  of  abstraction  and  general- 
ization, and  of  predication  and  inference,  began  to  be  discerned, 
and  speculation  was  verified  through  experience.  The  ideas  were 
seen  as  categories,  or  forms  of  thought,  under  which  the  infinite 
variety  of  natural  processes  might  be  comprised.  And  thus  the 
dialogues  present,  as  in  a  series  of  dissolving  views,  a  sort  of 
model  or  compendium  of  the  history  of  philosophy.  Plato's 
system  is  nowhere  distinctly  formulated,  nor  are  the  views  put 
forward  in  his  dialogues  always  consistent  with  each  other,  but 
much  especially  of  his  later  thought  is  systematized,  and  as  it 
were  crystallized  in  the  treatises  of  Aristotle;  by  whom  the  point 
of  view  which  Plato  had  approached,  but  not  finally  attained, 
was  made  the  starting-point  for  more  precise  metaphysical 
determinations  and  carried  into  concrete  theories  having  the 
stamp  of  a  more  rigid  logical  method.  The  departments  bf  ethics 
and  politics,  of  dialectic  and  of  psychology,  of  physics  and  meta- 
physics, thus  came  to  be  more  clearly  distinguished,  but  some- 
thing was  lost  of  the  unity  and  intensity  of  spiritual  insight 
whidi  had  vitalized  these  various  dements,  and  fused  them  in  a 
dynamic  harmony. 

The  student  of  philosophy,  whatever  may  be  the  modem 
system  to  which  he  is  most  inclined,  sensational,  intuitional. 
Gonceptional.  transcendental,  will  find  his  account  in  returning 


8io 


PLATO 


to  this  well-spring  of  European  thought,  in  whieh  all  previous 
movements  are  absorbed,  and  from  which  all  subsequent  lines 
of  reflection  may  be  said  to  diverge.  As  was  observed  by  Jowett 
{St  Paul,  1855),  "  the  germs  of  all  ideas,  even  of  most  Christian 
ones,  are  to  be  found  in  Plato." 

Two  great  forces  are  persistent  in  Plato:  the  love  of  truth  and 
zeal  for  human  improvement.  In  the  period  culminating  with 
MMorkMi  the  Republic,  these  two  motives,  the  speculative  and 
fpAwacv  the  practical,  are  combined  in  one  harmom'ous 
•/pCi<«.  working.  In  the  succeeding  period,  without  ex- 
cluding one  another,  they  operate  with  alternate  intensity.  In 
the  varied  outcome  of  his  long  literary  career,  the  metaphyseal 
**  doctrine  of  ideas  "  which  has  been  associated  with  Plato's 
name  underwent  many  important  changes.  But  pervading  all 
these  there  is  the  same  constant  belief  in  the  supremacy  of 
reason  and  the  identity  of  truth  and  good.  From  that  abiding 
root  spring  forth  a  multitude  of  thoughts  concerning  the  mind 
and  human  things — ^tuming  chiefly  on  the  principles  of  psycho- 
logy, education  and  political  reform — thou^ts  which,  although 
unverifled,  and  often  needing  correction  from  experience,  still 
constitute  Plato  the  most  fruitful  of  philosophical  writers.  While 
general  ideas  are  powerful  for  good  or  ill,  while  abstractions  are 
necessary  to  science,  while  mankind  are  apt  to  crave  after 
perfection,  and  ideals,  either  in  art  or  life,  have  an  acknowledged 
value,  so  long  the  renown  of  Plato  will  continue.  "  All  philo- 
sophic truth  is  Plato  rightly  divined;  all  philosophic  error  is  Plato 
misunderstood  *' — is  the  verdict  of  one  of  the  keenest  of  modem 
metaphysicians.^ 

Plato's  followers,  however,  have  seldom  kept  the  proportfons 
of  his  teaching.  The  diverse  elements  of  his  doctrine  have 
survived  the  spirit  that  informed  them.  The  pythagorizing 
mysticism  of  the  Timaeus  has  been  more  prized  than  the  subtle 
and  clear  thinking  of  the  Tkeaeteius.  Logical  inquiries  have  been 
hardened  into  a  barren  ontology.  Semi-mythical  statements  have 
been  construed  literally  and  mystic  fancies  perpetuated  without 
the  genuine  thought  which  underlay  them.  A  part  (and  not  the 
essential  part)  of  his  philosophy  has  been  treated  as  the  whole. 
But  the  influence  of  Plato  has  extended  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  Platonic  schools.  The  debt  of  Aristotle  to  his  master  has 
never  yet  been  fully  estimated.  Zeno,  Chrysippus,  Epicurus 
borrowed  from  Plato  more  than  they  knew.  The  moral  ideal  of 
Plutarch  and  that  of  the  Roman  Stoics,  which  have  both  so 
deeply  affected  the  modem  world,  could  not  have  existed  without 
him.  Ncopythagoreanlsm  was  really  a  crude  Neoplatonism. 
And  the  Sceptics  availed  themselves  of  weapons  either  forged  by 
Plato  or  borrowed  by  him  from  the  Sophists.  A  wholly  distinct 
line  of  infiltration  is  suggested  by  the  mention  of  Philo  and  the 
Alexandrian  school  (cf.  section  in  Arabian  PhUC'Sophy,  ii.  36bc, 
9th  edition),  and  of  Clement  and  Origen,  while  Gnostic  heresies 
and  even  Talmudic  mysticism  betray  perversions  of  the  same 
influence.  The  effect  of  Hellenic  thought  on  Christian  theology 
and  on  the  life  of  Christendom  is  a  subject  for  a  volume,  and  has 
been  pointed  out  in  part  by  £.  Zeller  and  others  (cf.  Neo- 
platonism). Yet  when  Plotinus  in  the  3rd  century  (after 
hearing  Ammonlus),  amidst  the  revival  of  religious  pagam'sm, 
founded  a  new  spiritualistic  philosophy  upon  the  study  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle  combined,  this  return  to  the  fountain  head  had 
all  the  effect  of  novelty.  And  for  more  than  two  centuries,  from 
Plotinus  to  Proclus,  the  great  effort  to  base  life  anew  on  the 
Platonic  wisdom  was  continued.  But  it  was  rather  the  ghost 
than  the  spirit  of  Plato  that  was  so  "  unsphered."  Instead  of 
striving  to  reform  the  world,  the  Neoplatonist  sought  after  a 
retired  and  cloistered  virtue.  Instead  of  vitalizing  science  with 
fresh  thought,  he  lost  hold  of  all  reality  in  the  contemplation  of 
infinite  unity.  He  had  skill  in  Sealing  with  abstractions,  but  laid 
a  feeble  hold  upon  the  actual  worid. 

"  Hermes  Trisme^stus  "  and  "  Dionysius  Areopag^ta  "  are 
names  that  mark  the  continuation  of  this  influence  into  the 
middle  ages.  The  pscudo-Dionysius  was  translated  by  Erigena 
In  the  oth  century. 

Two  more  "Platonic'*  revivals  have   \o  be  recorded— at 

» Fcrrier,  InaituUi  of  Uetapkysics,  p.  169  (§  i.  prop.  vi.  (  12). 


Florence  in  the  xsth  and  at  Cambridge  in  the  17th  eeaivy. 
Both  were  enthusiastic  and  both  uncritical.  The  transUt»3 
of  the  dialogues  into  Latin  by  Marsiito  Ficino  was  the  sso^ 
lasting  effect  of  the  former  movement,  which  was  tinged  ^:h 
the  unscientific  ardour  of  the  Renaissance.  The  preference  rJL 
accorded  to  the  Timaeus  is  a  fair  indicatk>&  of  the  tcndcsc>-  to 
bring  fumum  ex  fulgor*  which  probably  mazred  the  diacnsaicns 
of  the  Florentine  Academy  concerning  the  "  chief  good.'*  Tbe 
new  humanism  had  also  a  sentimental  cast,  which  was  alien  Iro= 
Plato.  Yet  the  effect  of  this  spirit  on  art  and  literature  «as 
very  great,  and  may  be  clearly  traced  not  only  in  Italian  bet  a. 
Engiidi  poetry. 

The  "  Cambridge  Platonists  "  have  been  described  by  PrindpsI 
TuUoch  in  his  important  wOrk  on  Ratumal  Tkeoiogy  im  Est^eU 
in  the  tyth  century,  and  again  by  Professor  J.  A.  Siewan  b  tis 
concluding  chapter  of  his  volume  on  the  Myths  of  Picto.  Tht^ 
views  were  mainly  due  to  a  reaction  from  the  phxlosophj  sc 
Hobbes,  and  were  at  first  suggested  as  much  by  Plotinus  » \y 
Plato.  It  is  curious  to  find  that,  just  as  Socrates  and  Amnicn.2s 
(the  teacher  of  Plotinus)  left  no  writings,  so  Whicfaoote,  tsf 
founder  of  this  school,  worked  chiefly  throu^  coaversaDca 
and  preaching.  His  pupils  exercised  a  considerable  infloeise  f  - 
good,  especiaBy  on  English  theology;  and  in  asiMratxon  if  not  s 
thought  they  derived  something  from  Plato,  but  they  ae^t  " 
have  been  incapable  of  separating  his  meaning  from  that  ei  i 
interpreters,  and  Cudworth,  their  most  consistent  writer.  -Km: 
once  more  systematic  and  less  scientific  than  the  Athen-. 
philosopher.  The  translations  of  Sydenham  and  Taylor  is  c- 
1 8th  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  xQth  aze  pfroofs  gf  ux 
continued  influence  of  Platonism  in  Eng^nd. 

The  critical  study  of  Plato  begins  frOm  ScMciennadier*  rko 
did  good  work  as  an  interpreter,  and  tried  to  arrange  the  ^alogaes 
in  the  order  of  composition.     His  attempt,  which, .   ou^ 
like  many  efforts  of  constructive  criticism,  went  far     Jikftrr. 
beyond  possibility,  was  vitiated  by  the  ground-falfauy  of  $:> 
posing  that  Plato  had  from  the  fint  a  complete  system  is  :s 
mind  which  he  partially  and  gradually  revealed  in  writing,    a: 
a  considerably  later  time  Karl  Friedrich  Hermann,  to  when  . 
students  of  Plato  are  indebted,  renewed  the  same  endea\'our  - 
the  far  more  plausible  assumption  that  the  diakgoes  faitbf- 
reflect  the  growth  of  Plato's  mind.   But  be  also  was  too  sangriT. 
and  exaggerated  the  possibility  of  tracing  a  connexion  bet^ .  ■ 
the  outward  events  of  Plato's  life  and  the  progress  of  his  thtng- 
This  great  question  of  the  order  of  the  dialogues,  which  has  t^-- 
debated  by  numberiess  writers,  is  one  which  only  admits  ci  la 
approximate  solution.     Much  confusion,  however,    has  beei 
obviated  by  the  hypothesis  (fhist  hinted  at  l^  Uebervoc.  iti 
since  supported  by  Lewis  Campbell  and  others)  that  tlie  S^dK.  -^ 
and  Polilicus,  whose  genuineness  had  been  called  in  qnestiec  i . 
Joseph  Socher,  are  really  intermediate  between  the  RepwH^  a: '. 
iht  Laws.   The  aUocation  of  these  dialogues,  not  only  on  grr3=  ^ 
of  metaphysical  criticism,  but  also  on  philological  and  oibr 
evidence  of  a  more  tangible  kind,  supplies  a  pMnt  o£  view  rv 
which  it  becomes  possible  fo  trace  with  confidence  tbe  geacr. 
outlines  of   Plato's  literary   and   philosophical    developir'-- 
Reflccting  at  first  in  various  aspects  the  impresaioiB  rvctrvr- 
from  Socrates,  he  is  gradually  touched  with  anin^MraticNa  «^-- 
becomed  his  own,  and  which  seeks  utterance  in  half -port:  . 
forms.    Then  first  the  ethical  and  by  and  by  the  raetapb^'^ 
interest  becomes  predominant.    And  for  a  while  this  Ust  :• 
absorbing,  as  he  confronts  the  central  problems  which  hc»  v  ■ 
thoughts  have  raised.    But,  again,  the  hard-won  ac<^^/^> 
of  this  dialectical  movement  must  be  fused  anew  with  ici^' 
nation  and  applied  to  life.    And  in  a  final  effort  to  use  '? 
intellectual  wealth  for  the  subvention  of  human  need  the  g^^ 
spirit  passed  away. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  recapitulate  the  steps  throng  w\  " 
the  above  position  respecting  the  order  of  the  diak^soes  c. 
become  established.  Lovers  of  Hegel  had  observed 
that  the  point  reached  in  the  Sopkistes  in  defining 
**  not  being "  was  dialectically  in  advance  of  the 
Republic.    But  Kantian  interpreters  might  obviously  ha\-e 


PLATO 


811 


the  same  of  the  Parmenidesi  and  Grote  as  a  consistent  ntflitarian 
looked  upon  the  Protagoras  as  the  most  mature  production  of 
Plato's  genius.  It  seemed  desirable  to  find  some  criterion  that 
was  not  bound  up  with  philosophical  points  of  view.  Dr 
Thompson,  the  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  had 
vindicated  the  genuineness  of  the  Sopkista  against  the  objections 
of  Sochcr,  but  had  not  accounted  for  the  pecuUariticsof  language, 
which  that  acute  critic  had  perceived.  By  comparing  those 
peculiarities  with  the  style  of  the  Laws,  Plato's  latest  work,  and 
with  that  of  the  Timaeus  and  Critias,  which  presupposed  the 
Republic,  Lewis  Campbell  argued  in  1867  that  the  Sophislcs  and 
PolUkus,  with  the  Philebus,  were  in  chronological  sequence 
intermediate  between  the  ReptMie  ^pA  the  Laws.  Thus  a 
further  defence  of  their  authenticity  was  at  the  same  time 
a  long  step  towards  the  solution  of  the  problem  which  Schleicr- 
macher  had  proposed.  Many  3rears  afterwards  the  more 
detailed  stylistic  investigations  of  W.  Dittcnbcrger,  Consta'ntin 
Ritter  and  others  arrived  independently  at  the  same  conclusion. 
It  was  vehemently  supported  by  W.  Lutoslawski  in  his  work  on 
Plato* s  Logic,  and  has  been  frankly  accepted  with  ample  acknow- 
ledgments by  the  high  authority  of  Dr  Theodor  Gomperz  (sec 
especially  the  Notes  to  his  Creek  Thinkers,  iii.  3x0,  3x5  of 
English  tran^tion). 

Tbe  Works  or  Px^xo 

The  Platonic  dialogues  are  not  merely  the  embodiment  of  the 
mind  of  Socrates  and  of  the  reflections  of  Plato.    They  are  the 
portraiture  of  the  highest  intellectual  life  of  Hellas  in  the  time 
of  Plato — a  life  but  distantly  related  to  military  and  political 
events,  and  scarcely  interrupted  by  them.    Athens  appears  as 
the  centre  of  the  excitable  Hellenic  mind,  profoundly  stirred  by 
the  arrival  of  great  sophists,  and  keenly  alive  to  the  questions  of 
Socrates,  although  in  the  pages  of  Plato,  eyen  more  than  in 
reality,  he  only  "  whispers  with  a  few  striplmgs  in  a  corner." 
For,  in  the  Platonic  grouping,  the  agora,  which  was  the  chief 
scene  of  action  for  the  real  Socrates,  retires  into  the  background, 
and  he  is  principally  seen  consorting  with  his  chosen  companions, 
who  are  also  friends  of  Plato,  and  with  the  acquaintances  whom 
he  makes  through  them.    The  scene  is  narrowed  (for  the  Academy 
was  remote;  from  the  bustle  of  resort,  and  Plato  judged  the  Hellenic 
world  securely  from  the  vantage-ground  of  partial  retirement) — 
but  the  figures  are  distinct  and  full  of  life.    In  reading  the  dia- 
logues we  not  only  breathe  the  most  refined  intellectual  atmo- 
sphere, but  are  also  present  witnesses  of  the  urbanity,  ihe  freedom, 
the  playfulness,  the  generous  warmth  of  the  "  best  sodety  "  in 
Athens.    For  JPlato  has   a  numerous  repertory  of  dramatis 
pcrsonae,  who  stand  in  various  relations  to  his  chief  character — 
the  impetuous  Chaerephon,  Apollodorus  the  inseparable  weak 
brother,  old  Crito  the  true-hearted,  Phaedo  the  beloved  disciple, 
Simmias  and  Cebes,  who  have  been  with  Philolaus,  the  graceful 
and  ingenuous  Phaedrus,  the  petubnt  Philebus,  Theaetetus  of 
the  philosophic  nature,  who  is  cut  off  in  his  prime,  and  the 
incorrigible  Alcibiades;  then  Plato's  own  kinsmen — Glaucon  the 
irrepressible  in  politics,  in  quarrel  and  in  love;  Adeimantus,  solid 
and  grave;  Critias  in  his  phase  of  amateur  philosopher*  and  not  as 
what  he  afterwards  became;  Charmides,  not  in  fiery  manhood, 
but  in  his  first  blopm  of  diffident  youth;  and  many  others  who 
appear  as  mere  acquaintance^,  but  have  an  interest  of  their  own 
— the   accomplished  Agathon,  the  gay  Aristophanes,  £iyxi- 
machus  the  all-worthy  physidan;  Meno,  light  of  spirit;  Callias, 
entertainer  of  sophists;  Callicles  the  wilful  man  of  the  world; 
Ccphalus  the  aged  father  of  Lysias;   and  Nicias  the  honoured 
soldier.    All  these  appear,  not  as  some  of  them  do  on  the  page  of 
history,  in  sanguinary  contention  or  fierce  rivalry,  but  as  peaceful 
Athenians,  in  momentary  contact  with  Soci^tes,  whose  electric 
touch  now  benumbs  and  now  exhilarates,  and  sometimes  goads 
to  fren^  of  love  or  anger.    Still  more  distantly  related  to  him, 
as  it  were  standing  in  an  outer  circle,  are  the  imposing  forms  of 
Gorgias  and  Protagoras,  surrounded  with  the  lesser  lights  of 
Hippias,   Prodicus  and   Polus.    Thrasymacbus,   Euthydemus, 
Dionysodorus  bang  round  like  comic  masks,  adding  piquancy 
to  the  design.    The  adversaries  Anytus  i^d  Meletui  are  aUo>wed 


to  appear  for  a  moment,  but  soon  vanish.  The  older  philosophers, 
though  Socrates  turned  away  from  them,  also  make  their  entrance 
on  the  Platooic  stage.  Parmenides  with  his  magnificent  depth 
b  made  to  converse  with  the  imaginary  Socrates,  who  b  still 
quite  young.  A  stranger  from  Eka  plays  an  important  part  in 
some  later  dialogues,  and  Timaeus  the  Pythagorean  is  introduced 
discoursing  of  the  creation  of  the  world.  In  these  dialogues 
Socrates  is  mostly  silent;  in  the  PkUcbus  be  has  lost  himself  in 
Plato;  and  in  the  twelve  books  of  the  Laws,  where  an  unnamed 
Athenian  is  the  chief  speaker,  even  the  Platonic  Socrates  finally 
disappears. 

Now,  in  evolving  his  philosophy  from  the  Socratic  basis, 
Plata  works  along  three  main  lines — ^the  ethical  and  political, 
the  metaphysical  or  scientific,  and  the  mystical.  AU  three  are 
often  intimately  blended,  as  in  the  close  of  Rep.,  bk.  vi.,  and  even 
where  one  element  is  uppermost  the  others  are  not  wholly 
suppressed.  But  this  distinction,  like  that  sometimes  made  in 
modem  phitosophy  between  the  good,  the  true  and  the  beautiful, 
is  one  which,  if  not  unduly  pressed,  may  be  usefully  borne  in 
mnvd. 

Having  noted  this  once  for  aU,  we  pass  to  the  more  detailed 
consideration  of  the  several  dialogues. 

I.  Laches.  Charmides,  Lysis. — In  this  first  group  Socrates  is 
dealing  tentatively  with  single  ethical  notions.  The  result  in 
each  case  is  a  ccmfession  of  ignorance,  but  the  subject  has  been  so 
handled  as  to  point  the  way  to  more  fruitful  discussions  in  the 
future.  And  suggestions  aie  casually  thrown  out  which  antici* 
pate  some  of  the  most  far«reaching  of  Plato's  subsequent 
contemplations. 

The  Lackes  is  a  vigorous  sketch,  in  which  the  characters  of  the 
soldier,  the  aged  citizen,  and  the  prudent  general  are  well 
preserved;  and  Socrates  is  seen  conversing  with  his  .  ^^ 
elders,  although  with  reference  to  ihe  treatment  of 
the  young.  The  question  raised  is  the  definition  of  courage; 
and  the  humour  of  the  piece  consists  in  showing  that  three  men, 
all  of  whom  are  unquestionably  brave,  are  unable  to  give  an 
account  of  bravery,  or  to  decide  whether  courage  is  an  animal 
instinct  or  a  mental  accomplishment. 

Similarly,  in  the  dialogue  which  bears  his  name,  the  temperate 
Charmides,  of  whom  all  testify  that  (as  Aristophanes  has  it),^  he 
"  fills  up  the  gracious  mould  of  modesty,"  is  hopelessly  ctmrmUn, 
embarrassed  when  challenged  by  the  Socratic  method 
to  put  in  words  his  conception  of  the  modesty  or  temperance 
which  he  possesses,  and  which,  as  Socrates  assures  him,  is  a 
priceless  gift.  The  Charmides  contains  some  hints  of  Platonic 
notions,  such  as  that  of  knowledge  as  self-consciousness,  and  of 
virtue  as  *'  doing  one's  own  business." 

The  graceful  little  dialogue  which  bears  the  name  of  Lysis 
ends,  like  the  two  former,  with  a  confession  of  failure.  Socrates, 
Lysis  and  Menexenus  are  all  friends,  and  think  tytst, 
highly  of  friendship,  yet  after  many  efforts  they 
are  unable  to  tell  "  what  friendship  is."  Yet  some  of  the  sug- 
gestions which  are  here  laid  aside  are  afterwards  allowed  to 
reappear.  The  notion  that  "  what  is  neither  good  nor  evil  loves 
the  good  because  of  the  presence  of  evil "  is  expanded  and 
emphasized  in  the  Symposium.  And  the  conception  of  an  ideal 
object  of  friendship,  an  airrb  ^£Kov  (though  rejected  as  in  the 
criticism  of  Aristotle  by  the  characteristic  reduciio  ad  infinitum), 
is  destined  to  have  a  wider  scope  in  the  history  of  Platonism. 

II.  Protagoras,  lo,  Meno. — The  previous  dialogues  have 
marked  the  distinction  between  unconscious  and  conscious 
morality,  and  have  also  brought  out  the  Socratic  tendency  to 
identify  virtue  with  the  knowledge  of  good.  Now,  the  more 
strongly  it  is  felt  that  knowledge  is  inseparable  from  virtue  the 
more  strange  and  doubtful  appears  such  unconscious  excellence 
as  that  of  Laches,  Charmides  or  Lysis.  Hence  arises  the 
further  paradox  of  Socrates:  "  Virtue  is  not  taught,  and  that 
which  is  commonly  regarded  as  virtue  springs  up  spontaneously 
or  is  received  unconsciously  by  a  kind  of  inspiration." 

Protagoras,  in  the  dialogue  named  after  him,  is  the  professor 
of    popular,    unscientific,    self-complacent    excellence;    while 
>  Nub.,  995,  r«t  eSMt  |i4XX<it  rlyrnkst'  ^MvMi^ai. 


Socnlo  ippeui  In  tdi  [iic-leng  M*n4i  after  tlie  ideal  knowkilgc 

of  the  bol-    Tlie  two  own  are  lulunlly  al  ct«  purpova. 

n»J«nj»>  I'raUiJOra'  eonttndi  Ihal  virtue  a  laagbi  by  himjill 

add  othc'a  more  or  Ina  juwraifully,  and  h  not  one 

SocralH  diipuid  the  pouibdily  of  EcachLng  virtue 


ceaUm 


J,  but  afOrmi  ■ 

IncsDclimvely.     But  in  the  coune  oF  ii  Pbia  vivii 
Ihe  nalurol  oppoaition  between  Lhc  empiric  and  ici 

He  does  full  justice  to  the  tbeaii  oE  Frotagonu.  and  it  a  not  [o  be 
■uppOMd  that  he  wat  conieiiicd  to  lenain  in  ihe  attitude  which 
he  hu  here  atlribuled  10  Socrals.  In  hii  ideal  tlale,  uherc  the 
earlier  training  of  the  bat  dtiieni  ii  a  refinement  on  the  actual 
HcUenic  education,  he  hu  to  khik  eilcnt  reconciled  the  con- 
ceptions which  are  here  dr^nuticaliy  opposed- 

Tbe  preparations  for  the  encounter  gnd  [he  description  of  it 
include  many  life-like  louchd — such  as  the  eagenusa  of  the 
young  Athenian  gentleman  to  hear  the  sophist,  though  he  would 
be  ashamed  to  be  thought  a  sophist  hitRscIf;  the  confusion  into 
which  the  boute  of  Callias  hu  been  Ihiown  by  the  crowd  of 
sinogirs  and  by  [he  scU-importance  of  rival  professors;  the 
■taceful  dignity  of  the  man  who  has  been  forty  years  a  teacher, 
Ihe  grai^c  description  of  the  whole  scene,  the  choiacterutic 
speeches  of  Prodicus  and  Kippios  (from  which  lomE  ciiiics  have 
elicited  ■  theory  of  their  doctrines] ,  and  the  continued  irony  with 
which  Sociate)  bears  them  all  in  hand  and  tooibcs  ihe  gnat  man 
after  disconcerting  him. 

(which  Plata  afurwoTds  criiici 

in  jKctuliitinE  ■  ■cicntific  principle,  which  be  cipteBl] 

_. .  gr  futuie  coniSdcraiian,  would  have  It  tested  by  ihepowe 

of  calculating  the  ansount  of  pleasure.  Grote  dwell*  with  torn 
coiopUcency  on  Ihe  "  uiiliiartanism  "  of  Socrates  in  Ibe  Prolaff^ai 
And  it  b  true  thai  a  prhidple  of  utility  Is  ben  opposed  to  con 
venlional  sentimenl.  Bui  ihis  opposifon  n  inleflded  to  peepar 
the  way  for  the  wider  and  deeper  contrast  between  an  arbilran 
and  a  KienilSc  slandard.  or  bclw< —  ' ' —  — ' ~=~ 


wondcriid  thai  diilefe 


Providence  hu  d 


ihinldi«^     Y 


knowledie  is  all  in  itl.  what  at  « 

/^aod'M«o[urep™rwdai  on 

Sociaies  has  observed  thai  ihafDodisK  and  even  pocti  have  no 
definite  knowledge  of  the  things  which  Ibcy  >o  powerfully  repre- 
sent (cf.  Afal.  II;  Pkmd..  ttl  h.;  Rcf.  lii.  jqS  A). 
He  brings  the  ihapsodc  lo  to  admit  this,  and  10 
conclude  that  he  is  Ihe  inspir«l  medium  of  a  magnetic  inlluencc. 
The  Muse  is  ibctbief  magnet,  and  Ihe  poet  ii  ihcfirsl 


re  rings  of  inferii 


id  Ihe  a 


.  The  ircm  niscs  again  lhc  more  leiiouj  q 
isufht?  Sooaln  here  stales  eiplicilly  lb 
^^^  the  ffOlo(MBi  ended.  "  Vi 
therefore  virtue  can  be  taught 
UDghl.  Therefore  (in  ihehiEhctl  sense)  il 
And  be  repcau  several  of  bis  form. 
'Pkati.  aiB.Hif. 


statesmen  failed  to  Icicfa  tbeit  tans,  and  that  Ihe  edocalioB  g^s 
by  sophists  it  unniitfying.  (The  sophisls  are  here  demuKil 
by  Anytus,  who  is  aogered  by  Socralcs's  ironical  praise  of  them.) 
Bui  Ihe  paradox  is  softened  in  two  ways:  (i)  the  absennel 
knowledge  does  not  preclude  inquiiy.  and  (i)  though  ntiot 
cannot  be  taught,  yet  there  is  a  seme  in  wbicb  virtue  exisiL 

I.  Meno  begins  in  gaiety  of  hean  10  define  virtue,  bol  ii  vva 
"benumbed""  by  the  "'toTOdo'"  shock  of  Socrairs.  i"" 
"  HDWCanoneinquireabouitbaiwhichhedo*i~~~'~  ~    '  '" 


oikoo*f"  Sviara 


inoO  W 


...ft«..'rz: 

.'    About  the  middle  of  lhc  p 
cs  that  the  slave  ' 


a  Creek  tla^v  of  Kl 


Koining  coovious  of  ignorance,    lie  then  gradually  dnin 

nun,  liy  Icvling  qucition*.  the  po>d(l\'c  proof. 

louRh  viriuc  is  rwt  yel  dcnnnl-  il  may  be  affirnied  "  hyp» 


mode  of  life  Imied  on 
onlyt  Ihe  olhrr  spora 
relying  upon  true  opj 
fast  Ihrnugb  ricmonst 

his  lellows  like  Teirnii 


in^on'^'^-in 

eiemifie  principle,  ohich  hithi 
lie.  sprin^gini;  of  itvlf.  yet  of 


ihis  mystical  acrnuni  01  Dnlinary  muraliiy  b  in  kerpin^ 
the  ■emi.mychical  dFlcnrr  of  ihe  proce4  of  inquiry — that  an  I 
ledge  is  implicit  in  the  miod  fiwn  binb. 

III.  Etliytlm,  Aptloiu.  Crilo.  Wjnfo.— 1 
for  supposing  that  these  four  dialagun  were  nrniten  cnsrc-;- 
livcly,  or  that  ihcy  belong  Hricily  10  ihc  same  period  of  F'j.^i 
industry.  Em  they  are  linked  togcihcr  for  the  reader  by  :^-i 
common  reference  to  the  trial  and  death  of  Socralcs;  no  o-t  d 
ihem  has  been  pn>vcd  to  be  in  Ihe  author's  c-irliest  or  h':C 
manner;  and  they  may  Ihcrcfoie  fitly  end  the  series  of  dialetcs 
In  which  Ihe  penonal  train  of  the  hiitoiic  Socrates  are  c.v 
opparcnl,  and  Plata's  own  peculiar  doclrincj  an  as  yet  ba 
partially  disclosed. 

The  lillle  dialogue  known  by  the  name  of  Emtkypltn  Eirb 
have  been  classed  »'"''" 


nee.  in  keeping  wiih  the  gravity  of  :1t 
■  hat  Socrates  had  thougtit  more  de^'' 

T  mood  than  that  ol  tinUoary  idipiHS 


mS'iSfS 


hiavcr.  well-dis 
icnii^    They  m 


"   iUifjUn}  preliini 


. .  rajcsof  alined  iotpicly- 

mpoach  his  father,  who  has  uudvcr 
linal  bljourer.    The  piuphct  ft*h 


•eij  the  death  i*  1 .- 

,^  itlSi«^'i^«.'^  i 

ty  the  ifrrmB!  opinion  thus  evinced  mpeeting  Ihe  natuiv  e'  r^'^ 
Lnd  detains  Euihyphm  at  lire  eiuranee  of  the  coart,  that  he  k-< 

ified  against  Melelys.     He  lead*  his  rcspondcnc   fn>m   p-ji  it 


If  it  is  holy  beeauv  loved  by  God.  1> 
ana,  at  Is  thai  lighieout  which  is  ivilM  I 
Dmselvcs  wamlenng  round  and  ruund.  '- 
invdumar/  Daedalus  who  makes  optnior 


"  ft  pitues  Ibinu"     Again  wi 


PLATO 


813 


monlity,  which  the  great  poets  Aeachyhia,  Sophodes  am)  Pindar  I 
had  unconsciousljr  anticipated,  and  which  is  the  univenal  want  of 
all  men.  To  this  the  wothaaycf  adds  the  ceremonial  element, 
'attending  upon  the  gods.'  When  further  interrogated  by  So- 
crates as  to  the  nature  df  this  *  attention  to  the  gods,'  he  replies  that 
fuety  is  an  affair  of  business,  a  science  of  givin|(  and  asidng  and  the 
ike.  Soarates  points  out  the  anthropomorphism  of  these  notions. 
But  when  we  expect  him  to  go  on  and  show  that  the  true  service 
of  the  gods  is  the  service  of  tne  spirit  and  cooperation  with  them 
in  all  things  true  and  good,  he  stops  short;  thu  was  a  lesson  which 
the  soothsayer  could  not  have  been  made  to  understand,  and  which 
everyone  must  learn  for  himself."  *■ 

In  Plato's  i4^<?gy  the  fate  of  Socrates  is  no  longer  the  subject 
of  mere  allusions,  such  as  the  rage  of  Anjrtus  at  the  end  of  the 
^^^  MenOf  and  the  scene  and  occasion  of  the  Eutkypkro. 
*^^'^*^'  He  is  now  seen  face  to  face  with  his  accusers,  and  with 
his  countrymen  who  are  condemning  him  to  death. 

What  most  aggravated  hb  danger  (after  life-long  impunity)  is 
thus  stated  by  James  Riddell,  in  the  introduction  to  his  edition 
of  the  dialogue:  "The  imuKoa"  (clemency)  "of  the  rcstoreci 
people  did  not  last  long,  and  was  naturally  succeeded  by  a  sensi- 
tive and  fanatical  zeal  for  their  revived  political  instituti-tns. 
Inquiry  into  the  foundations  of  civil  society  was  obviovisly 
rather  perilous  for  the  inquirer  at  such  a  time  Socrates  knew 
the  full  extent  of  his  danger.  But,  according  to  Xenophon 
{Mem.  iv.  c  8,  §  i4)»  he  prepared  no  defence,  alleging  that  his 
whole  life  had  been  a  preparation  for  that  hour  " 

The  tone  of  the  Platonic  Apology  a  in  full  accordance  with  that 
saying;  but  it  is  too  elaborate  a  work  of  art  to  be  taken  literally  as 
a  report  of  what  was  actually  said.  Jowctt  well  compares  it  to 
"  those  speeches  of  Thucydides  in  which  he  has  embodied  his 
conception  of  the  lofty  character  and  policy  of  the  great  Pericles  " 
Yet "  it  is  significant  that  Plato  is  said  to  have  been  present  at 
the  defence,  as  he  is  also  said  to  have  been  absent  at  the  last 
scene  of  the  Phaedo.  Some  of  the  topics  may  have  been  actually 
used  by  Socrates,  and  the  recollection  of  his  vety  words  may  have 
rung  in  the  ears  of  his  disciple." 

The  Platonic  Apolory  is  in  three  parts:  (i)  before  conviction, 
(a)  after  conviction  and  before  sentence,  (3)  alter  the  sentence. 

I.  Socrates  cares  not  for  acquittal.     But  he  does  care  to  ex- 

Klain  his  life.  And  he  selects  those  aspects  of  it  which  there  is 
ope  of  making  his  audience  understand.  That  he  partly  suc- 
ceeded in  this  IS  shown  by  the  large  number  of  those  (220  out  of 
500)  who  voted  for  hu  acquittal. 

a.  His  answer  to  Mcletus.  as  least  important,  is  reserved  for  the 
middle  of  his  speech.  He  addrencs  himself  first  to  "  other  accusers  " 
— comic  poets  and  the  rest,  who  have  prejudiced  his  reputation  by 
falsely  ioentifying  him  with  the  physical  (>hilosophcrB  and  the 
sophists.  But  what  then  is  the  strange  pursuit  which  has  given  to 
Socrates  the  name  of  wise?  It  b  the  practice  of  crosS'exanuninK, 
to  which  he  was  first  impdled  by  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  and  which 
he  has  followed  ever  since  as  a  religious  mission.  The  god  said 
"  Socrates  is  wise,"  when  he  was  conscious  of  no  wisdom  great  or 
small.  So  he  went  in  search  of  some  one  wiser  than  himself,  but 
could  find  none,  though  he  found  many  who  had  conceit  of  wis- 
dom. And  he  inferred  that  the  god  must  mean  "  He  is  wisest  who, 
like  Socrates,  is  most  aware  of  hts  own  ignorance.'*  This  unceasing 
quest  has  left  him  in  great  poverty;  and  has  made  him  enemies, 
who  are  represented  by  Anytus,  Meletus  and  Lycon.  And  their 
enmity  b  further  embittered  by  the  pleasure  which  young  men 
take  in  seeing  pretence  unmasked,  and  in  imitating  the  process  of 
refutation.  Hence  has  arisen  the  false  charge  that  Socrates  is  a 
corrupter  of  youth. 

b.  Here  he  turns  to  Meletus.  "  If  I  corrupt  the  youth,  who  does 
them  good^"  Mel.  "The  laws,  the  judges,  the  audience,  the 
Athenians  generally  "  (cf.  Protagoras  and  Meno).  "  Strange,  that 
here  only  should  oe  one  to  corrupt  and  many  to  improi^;  or 
that  any  one  should  be  so  infatuated  as  to  wish  to  have  bad 
ncightMurs."  Mel.  "  Socrates  is  an  atheist.  He  believes  the  sun 
to  DC  a  stone."  **  You  are  accusing  Anaxagoras.  1  have  said  that 
I  knew  nothing  of  such  theories.  And  vou  accuse  me  of  introduc- 
ing novel  notions  about  divine  things.  How  can  1  believe  in  divine 
things  (ia»;i6n«)  and  not  in  divine  beings  (i«(|iont)?  and  how 
in  divine  beings,  if  not  in  gods  who  are  their  authors?" 

c.  That  is  a  sufficient  answer  for  hb  present  accuser.  He  re- 
turns to  the  general  long-standing  defamation,  which  may  well  be 
his  death,  as  slander  has  often  been  and  again  will  be  the  death  of 
many  a  man. 

Yet  if  spared  he  will  continue  the  same  course  of  life,  in  spite  01 
the  danger.  As  at  Potidaea  and  Delium  he  faced  death  where  the 
Athenians  posted  him,  so  now  he  will  remain  at  the  post  where  he 

*Jowett  " 


is  stationed  by  the  god.  For  to  fear  death  is  to  assume  pretended 
knowledge. 

One  thing  is  certain.  A  worse  man  cannot  harm  a  better  But 
if  the  Athcnbns  kill  Socrates  they  will  harm  themselves.  For 
they  will  kise  the  stimulus  of  hb  exhortations— and  his  poverty 
b  a  sufficient  witness  that  he  was  sincere.  Not  that  he  would 
eneage  in  politics.  If  he  had  done  that  he  would  have  perilled  k)ng 
before,*  as  he  nearly  did  for  his  independent  vote  after  the  battle 
of  Aneinusae,  and  lor  discrfieytttg  the  murderous  command  of  the 
Thirty  Tyrants. 

But  have  not  Socrates's  disciples.  Akribbdes,  Critias,  Charmidef. 
proved  bad  citizens?  He  has  no  disciples.  Any  one,  bad  or  good, 
may  come  and  hear  him,  and  the  talk  which  is  his  life-work  is  not 
unamusing.  But  why  are  no  witnesses  brought  to  substantbte 
this  charge?  There  are  elder  friends  of  his  companions,  who 
would  be  angry  if  he  had  used  his  influence  for  harm.  But  these 
men's  confidence  in  Socrates  is  unshaken. 

He  will  not  appeal  ad  misencordiam.  That  would  be  a  disgrace 
for  one  who  (rightly  or  not)  has  been  reputed  wise,  and  to  admit 
such  an  appeal  in  any  case  is  a  violation  of  the  juror's  oath. 

Socrates  has  told  the  Athenbns  the  whole  truth,  so  far  as  a 
mixed  audience  of  them  could  receive  it.  Ebboration  and  subtlety 
could  have  no  pbce  in  addressing  the  Hcliastic  court,  nor  could  that 
universal  truth  towards  which  nt  was  leading  men  be  made  intelli* 
gible  to  a  new  audience  while  the  clepsydra  was  running.  But 
nis  tone  and  attitude  must  have  made  a  strong  appeal  to  the  better 
nature  of  his  hearers.  With  Meletus  he  "  played  rather  than  fought," 
but  he  has  shown  clearly  that  he  has  no  fear  of  death,  that  he  chooses 
to  obey  God  rather  than  man,  and  that  for  very  love  of  the  Athenbns 
he  will  not  be  swayed  by  their  desires. 

2.  One  convicted  on  a  capital  charge  had  the  right  of  pleading 
before  sentence  in  mitigation  of  the  penalty  proposed  by  his 
accuser.  Socrates  was  convicted  by  fewer  votes  than  he  himself 
anticipated.  The  indictment  of  Metetua  was  ineffectual,  and  if  it 
had  not  been  for  the  speeches  of  Anytus  and  Lycon  the  defendant 
would  have  been  triumphantly  acquitted.  Could  he  but  have 
conversed  with  hb  judges  more  than  once,  he  might  have  removed 
their  prejudices.  In  no  spirit  of  bravado,  therefore,  but  in  simple 
justice  to  himself,  he  meets  the  cbim  of  Meletus  that  he  shall  be 
punished  with  death  by  the  oountercbiro  that  he  shall  be  main- 
tained in  the  piytaneum  as  a  public  benefactor.  He  cannot  ask 
that  death,  which  may  be  a  good,  shall  be  commuted  for  imprison- 
ment or  exile,  which  are  certainly  evils.  A  fine  would  be  no  evil : 
but  he  has  no  money — he  can  offer  a  mtna.  Here  Pbto  and  others 
interpose,  and  with  their  friendly  help  he  offen  thirty  minae. 

3.  He  is  sentenced  to  death,  and  tne  publk:  business  of  the  court 
b  ended.  But  while  the  record  is  being  entered  and  the  magis> 
tratcs  are  thus  occupied,  Socrates  is  imagined  as  addressing  (a)  the 
majority,  and  (b)  the  minority  in  the  court. 

a.  To  those  who  have  condemned  him  he  speaks  in  a  prophetic 
tone.  "  For  the  sake  of  depriving  an  old  man  of  the  bst  dregs  of 
life  they  have  given  Athens  a  bad  name.  He  would  not  run  away, 
and  so  death  has  overraken  him.  But  hb  accusere  are  overUken 
by  unrighteousness,  and  must  reap  the  fruits  of  it. 

"  Nor  will  the  Athenbns  find  tne  desired  relief.  Other  reprovera, 
whom  Socrates  has  hitherto  restrained,  will  now  arise,  not  in  a 
friendly  but  in  a  hostile  spirit.  The  only  way  for  the  dtisens  to 
escape  reproof  b  to  reform  their  lives." 

b.  To  the  minority,  who  would  have  acquitted  him,  he  speaks 
with  gentle  solemnity.  "  Let  them  know  to  their  comfort  that  the 
divine  voice  has  not  once  checked  him  throughout  that  day.  This 
indicates  that  death  is  not  an  evil.  And  reason  shows  that  death 
b  either  a  long  untroubled  deep,  or  removal  to  a  better  world, 
where  there  are  no  unjust  judges. 

"  No  evil  can  happen  to  a  good  man  either  in  life  or  after  death. 
Wherefore  Socrates  will  not  be  angry  with  his  condemnors,  who  have 
done  him  no  harm,  although  they  meant  him  anything  but  good. 
He  will  only  ask  of  them  to  do  to  the  sons  of  Socrates  as  Socrates 
has  done  to  them." 

Is  the  love  of  truth  consbtent  with  civic  duties?    Is  the 
philosopher  a  good  citizen?  are  questions  which  are  sure  to  arise 
where    the    truth    involves   practical  improvement.         ^^ 
In  the  Apchgy  Socrates  appeara  as   an    intrepid 
reformer;  the  Crito  gives  an  impressive  picture  of  him  as  a  loyal 
and  law-abiding  Athenian. 

Execution  had  been  debyed  during  the  annual  misMOn  to  Delos 
(during  which  no  one  could  be  put  to  death).  But  the  returning 
vessel  nad  just  been  reported  as  descried  from  Sunium.  At  early 
dawn  Crito,  the  oldest  friend  of  Socrates,  obtained  access  to  his  cell, 
and  found  him  sleeping  peacefully.  Presently  he  awoke,  and  Crito 
told  him  of  the  approach  of  the  fatal  ship.  Socrates  replies  by 
tdling  his  dream.    A  fair  form  stood  over  him  and  said, 

"  The  third  day  hence  to  Phthia  shalt  thou  come  ** 
And  it  would  seem  that  the  day  after  to-q^orrow  will  really  be  the 
day  for  going  home.  _ 

'  Cf.  Corg.  521 ;  Rtp.  vi.  496. 


8i4 


PLATO 


Crito  thea  reveals  his  plan  (or  an  escape  And  Socimtes  aivues 
the  question  in  the  old  lamiUar  way.  *'  Crito's  zeal  is  excellent, 
and  most  men  would  think  his  object  right.  But  the  few  who 
think  soundly  say  that  it  is  wrong  to  return  evil  for  evil.  The 
laws  of  Athens  (through  the  fault  oT  men)  are  doing  Socrates  harm. 
But  ought  he  therefore  to  infrinse  the  law  ?  Might  not  the  laws  of 
his  country  plead  with  him  and  say:  '  You  owe  to  us  your  birth 
and  breedmg:  and  when  grown  up  you  voluntarily  submitted  to 
us.  For  you  might  have  gone  elsewhere.  But  you  preferred  ua 
to  all  other  laws,  and  have  been  the  most  constant  resident  in 
Athens.  Even  at  the  last  you  accepted  death  rather  than  exile. 
If  you  now  break  your  covenant  you  will  ruin  your  friends  and 
will  be  rejected  by  ail  well-ordered  cities.  You  might  be  received 
in  Thessaly,  but  could  only  live  there  by  cringing  to  foreigners  for 
food.  Where  in  that  case  will  be  your  talk  about  virtue?  You 
would  not  take  your  sons  thither.  And  your  friends  would  be 
equally  kind  to  them  if  you  were  dead.  Think  not  of  life  and  children 
first  and  of  justice  afterwards,  but  think  of  justice  first,  that  you 
may  be  justified  in  the  world  below.'  *' 

Crito  admits  these  ai^uments  to  be  unanswerable. 

The  Mmo  referred  to  the  immortality  and  pre-existence  of  the 
soul  as  a  traditional  doctrine,  and  it  was  there  associated  with 
^^  the   possibility  of   inquiry.     In   the  Phaedo  Plato 

^**^  undertakes  to  substantiate  this  belief  and  base  it 
anew  by  narrating  the  last  hours  of  Socrates,  who  is  repfcsented 
as  calmly  discussing  the  question  with  his  friends  when  his  own 
death  was  immediately  at  hand.  The  argument  turns  chiefly 
on  the  eternity  of  knowledge,  and  is  far  from  satisfying.  For, 
granting  that  eternity  of  knowledge  involves  eternity  of  mind, 
does  the  eternity  of  mind  assure  continued  being  to  the  indivi- 
dual?^ Yet  no  unprejudiced  reader  of  the  Fhaedo  can  doubt 
that  Plato,  at  the  time  of  writing  it,  sincerely  believed  in  a 
consdous  personal  existence  after  death.  The  words  of  Socrates, 
when  he  declares  his  hope  of  going  to  be  with  other  friends,  arc 
absolutely  unambiguous,  and  his  reply  to  Crito's  question, 
*'  How  shall  we  bury  you  ?"  has  a  convincing  force  beyond  all 
dialectic:  "  I  cannot  persuade  Crito  that  I  here  am  Socrates — 
I  who  am  now  reasoning  and  ordering  discourse.  He  imagines 
Socrates  to  be  that  other,  whom  he  will  see  by  and  by,  a  corpse." 
This  and  similar  touches  not  only  stamp  the  Phaedo  as  a  marvel 
6f  art,  but  are  indisputable  evidence  of  the  writer's  profound 
belief.  They  may  be  inventions,  but  they  have  nothing  "  my- 
thical "  about  them,  any  more  than  the  charge  of  Socrates  to  his 
friends,  that  they  would  best  fulfil  his  wishes  by  attending  to 
their  own  lives. 

The  narrative,  to  be  appreciated,  must  be  read  in  full.  But  a 
short  abstract  of  the  argument  may  be  sivcn  here. 

I.  Death  b  merely  the  separation  of  soul  and  body.  And  this 
b  the  very  consumnution  at  which  philosophy  aims.  The  body 
hinders  thought.  The  mind  attains  to  truth  b^  retiring  into  her- 
self. Through  no  bodily  sense  does  she  perceive  justice,  beauty, 
goodness  and  other  ideas.  The  philosopher  has  a  fife-long  quarrel 
with  kxxlily  desires,  and  he  should  wek»me  the  release  of  hb  soul. 
Thus  he  alone  can  have  true  courage,  even  as  temperance  and  all 
the  virtues  are  real  in  him  alone. 

But  does  the  soul  exist  after  death? 

a.  An  old  tradition  tells  of  many  suooessive  births,  the  soul 
departing  to  Hades  and  retuminK  again,  so  that  the  living  arc 
bora  from  the  dead.  And  if  the  oead  had  no  existence,  this  could 
not  be,  since  from  nothing  nothing  can  arise.  Moreover,  experi- 
ence shows  that  opposite  states  come  from  their  opposites,  and  that 
such  a  process  b  always  reciprocal.  Death  certamly  luccceds  to 
life.  Then  life  must  succeed  to  death.  And  that  which  undergoes 
these  changes  must  exist  through  all.  If  the  dead  came  from  the 
fivinsr,  and  not  the  living  from  the  dead,  the  universe  would  ulti- 
mately be  consumed  in  death. 

This  presumption  is  confirmed  by  the  doctrine  (here  attributed 
to  Socrates,  oi.  Meno)  that  knowledge  comes  from  recollection. 
What  Is  recollected  must  be  previously  known.  Now  we  have 
never  since  birth  had  intuition  of  the  absolute  equality  of  which 
(through  association)  we  are  reminded  by  the  sight  of  things  approxi- 
mately equal.  And  we  cannot  have  seen  it  at  the  moment  ot  birth, 
for  at  what  other  moment  can  we  have  forgotten  it?  Therefore, 
if  ideals  be  not  vain,  our  souU  roust  have  exbted  before  binh,  and, 
according  to  the  doctrine  of  opposites  above  stated,  will  have 
Gontinura  exbtence  after  death. 

b.  To  cnarm  away  the  fears  of  the  "  child  within,"  Socrates  adds, 
as  further  considerations: — 

*  In  the  Timaeus  immortality  is  made  to  rest  on  the  goodwill  of 
God,  because  "  only  an  evil  being  would  wish  to  dissolve  that  which 
b  hartnoaious  and  happy  *'  {Tim.  41  A). 


i.  The  soul  b  unoompounded,  incorporeal,  invisible,  and  xhen- 
fore  indissoluble  and  immutable. 

ii.  The  soul  commands,  the  body  serves;  therefore  the  soul  h 
akin  to  the  divine. 

iii.  Yet  even  the  body  holds  together  long  after  death,  aad  tbe 
bones  are  all  but  indestructible. 

The  soul,  if  pure,  departs  to  the  invisible  world,  but,  if  ui'inl 
by  communion  with  the  body,  she  lingers  hovering  near  the  c  k 
and  b  afterwards  born  into  the  likeness  of  some  lower  form.  T  ^t 
which  true  philosophy  ha»^  purified  alone  rises  ultimately  to  ilx 
gods.    The  lesson  b  impresuvely  applied. 

2.  A  pause  ensues;  and  Simmias  and  Cebcs  are  invited  to  cxpiru 
their  doubts.  For,  as  the  swan  dies  singing,  Socraues  wouu  lU 
discoursing. 

a.  Simmias  desires  not  to  rest  short  of  demonstration,  tbou^ti 
he  b  willing  to  make  the  highest  attainable  probability  the  guk^- 
of  life. 

If  the  soul  ij»  the  harmony  of  the  body,  what  becomes  of  be 
"  when  titc  lute  is  broken  "  ? 

6.  Cebes  compares  the  body  to  a  garment  which  the  soul  fcr«(s 
weaving  at.  The  garment  in  which  the  weaver  dies  outlasts  !jt 
So  the  soul  may  have  woven  and  worn  many  bodies  in  one  liTcirf. 
yet  may  perish  and  leave  a  body  behind.  Or  even  supposing  Kr 
to  have  many  lives,  does  even  this  hypothesb  exempt  her  Um 
ultimate  decay? 

Socrates  warns  his  friends  against  losing  faith  in  ioqar,'- 
Theories,  like  men.  are  disappointing;  yet  we  should  be  ncltL*: 
misanthropists  nor  misologtsts.    Then  he  answers  his  two  friead^ 

a — i.  Tne  soul  b  acknowledged  to  be  prior  to  the  btxly.  Bat 
no  harmony  b  prior  to  the  elements  which  are  harmoaixed. 

ii.  The  soul  nas  virtue  and  vice,  t.c.  harmony  and  discord,  b 
there  harmony  of  harmony  ?  Cf.  Rep.  x.  609. 

HI.  All  soul  b  equally  soul,  but  all  harmony  is  not  equally  lur- 
monious. 

iv.  If  the  ioul  were  the  harmony  of  the  body  they  wuokl  bt 
agreed:  but,  as  has  been  already  shown,  they  are  perpetuly 
quarrelling. 

v.  The  soul  is  not  conditioned  by  the  bodily  elements,  but  i-i 
the  power  of  controlling  them. 

b.  Cebes  has  raised  the  wide  questkm  whether  the  soul  is  srif 
pendent  of  generatbn  and  corruption.  Socrates  owns  that  he  t;^ 
self  (i.e,  Plato?)  had  once  been  fascinated  by  natural  philose^... 
and  had  sought  to  give  a  physical  account  of  ever>thii^.  T>-'. 
hearing  out  of  Anaxagoras  tnat  mind  was  the  disposer  of  all,  he  t~ 
hoped  to  learn  not  only  how  things  were,  but  also  why.  But  he 
found  Anaxagoras  forsaking  hb  own  fint  principle  and  j-jinU.'< 
causes  with  conditmns.  ("The  cause  why  Socrates  sits  here  is  ore 
a  certain  dbposition  of  joints  and  sinews,  but  that  he  has  tbou^u 
best  to  undergo  his  sentence  dse  the  joints  and  sinews  v>^j:i 
have  been  ere  thb,  by  Crito's  advice,  on  the  way  to  ThessaJv 
Physical  science  never  thinks  of  a  power  whkJi  orders  ei-crythiij 
for  good,  but  expects  to  find  another  Atlas  to  auataia  the  word 
more  strong  and  lasting  than  the  reason  of  the  best. 

Socrates  had  turned  from  such  phUosopbers  and  found  for  hi* 
self  a  way,  not  to  gaxe  directly  on  the  universal  reason,  w:  J^ 
seek  an  image  of  it  .in  the  world  of  mind,  wherein  are  nrfltf  icj 
the  ideas,  as.  for  example,  the  idea  of  beauty,  thnouEh  part.uiii  ^ 
which  beautiful  things  are  beautifuL  Assuming  the  existeaor  or 
the  ideas,  he  felt  hb  way  from  hypothesis  to  hypothesis.  . 

Now  the  participation  of  objects  in  ideas  b  in  sonae  casesc5r:'ju 
and  inseparable.  Snow  b  essentblly  cold,  fire  hot,  three  odd. ;«« 
even.  And  things  thus  essentially  opposite  are  inclusive  ol  ears 
other's  attributes.  (When  it  was  said  above  that  opposites  c  « 
from  opposites,  not  opposite  things  were  meant,  but  opposite  rtr.;'* 
or  conditions  of  one  thing).  Snow  cannot  admit  heat,  nor  hrt  c"^. 
for  they  are  inseparable  vehicles  of  heat  and  cold  respcct»x.> 
The  soul  is  the  inseparable  vehicle  of  life,  and  therefore,  by  ps«» 
of  reasoning,  the  soul  cannot  adroit  of  death,  but  u  unmorul  ^ 
imperishable. •  ^ 

3.  What  follows  b  in  the  true  sense  mytkologtcal,  and  is  admittrt 
by  Socrates  to  be  uncertain:  "  Howbeit,  since  the  aoul  u  pw.™ 
to  be  immortal,  men  ought  to  charm  their  spiriuwith  such  taks. 

The  earth,  a  globe  self-balanced  in  the  midst  of  apace,  has  vaej 
mansions  for  the  soul."  some  higher  and  brighter,  some  lo«tf  mj 
darker  than  our  present  habitation.  We  who  d^-ell  abwit  t^ 
Mediterranean  Sea  are  like  frogs  at  the  bottom  ofapool.  Ibs<>« 
higher  place,  under  the  true  heaven,  our  souls  may  dwell  hereJfff. 
and  see  not  only  colours  and  forms  in  their  ideal  purity  bat  tfjt« 
and  justice  as  they  are. 

In  the  Pkaedo,  more  than  elsewhere,  Plato  preaches  »^'> 
drawal  from  the  world.    The  Delian  solemnity  is  to  Socnw 

•Cf.  Milton,  /;  penstroso,  88-9a— 

"  To  unsphere 
The  spirit  of  Plato,  to  unfold 
What  worlds  or  what  vast  regions  hold 
The  immortal  mind  that  hath  forsook 
Her  mansion  in  thb  fleshly  nook." 


PLATO 


8iS 


and  his  friends  a  period  of  "  retreat "  in  which  their  ejres  are 
turned  from  earthly  things  to  dwell  on  the  eternal.  The  theory 
of  ideas  here  assumes  its  most  transcendental  a^)ect,  and  it  is 
from  portions  of  this  dialogue  and  of  the  Pkaedrus  and  Timaeus 
that  the  popular  conception  of  Platonism  has  been  principally 
derived.  But  to  understand  Plato  rightly  it  is  not  enough  to 
study  isolated  passages  which  happen  to  charm  the  imagi- 
nation; nor  should  single  expressions  be  interpreted  without 
regard  to  the  manner  in  which  he  presents  the  truth  else- 
where. 

It  has  already  been  shown  (i)  that  Socratic  inquiry  implied  a 
standard  of  truth  and  good,  undiscovered  but  endlessly  dis- 
coverable, and  to  be  approached  inductively;  and  (3)  that  in 
Plato  this  implicit  assumption  becomes  explicit,  in  the  identifi- 
cation of  virtue  with  knowledge  (Lack.,  Charm.)  as  an  art  of 
measurement  (Prolag.)^  and  in  the  vision  (towards  the  end  of  the 
Lysis)  of  an  absolute  object  of  desire.  The  Socratic  "self- 
knowledge  "  has  been  developed  (Charm.)  into  a  science  of  mind 
or  consciousness,  apart  from  which  no  physical  studies  can  be 
fruitful.  (3)  Co-ordinate  with  these  theoretical  tendencies  there 
has  appeared  in  Plato  the  determination  not  to  break  with 
experience.  In  the  Phaedo,  a  long  step  is  made  in  the  direction 
of  pure  idealism.  The  ordinary  virtue,  which  in  the  Protagoras 
and  Mewf  was  questioned  but  not  condemned,  is  here  rejected  as 
unreal,  and  the  task  proposed  to  the  philosopher  is  less  to  under- 
stand the  world  than  to  escape  from  it.  The  universal  has 
assumed  the  form  of  the  ideal,  which  is  supposed,  as  elsewhere  in 
Plato,  to  include  mathematical  as  well  as  moral  notions.  The 
only  function  of  perception  is  to  awaken  in  us  some  reminiscence 
of  this  ideal.  By  following  the  clue  thus  given,  and  by  searching 
for  clearer  images  of  truth  in  the  world  of  mind,  we  may  hope  to 
be  emancipated  from  sensation,  and  to  lay  hold  upon  the  sole 
object  of  pure  reason. 

It  is  obvious  that  when  he  wrot^  the  Phaedo  Plato  conceived 
of  universals  as  objective  entities  rather  than  as  forms  of  thought 
The  notion  of  "  ideal  colours  "  (though  occurring  in  the  myth)  is 
an  indication  of  his  ontological  mood.  Yet  even  here  the  el^ 
arc  not  consistently  hypostatized.  The  notion  of  "what  is 
best "  has  a  distinctly  practical  side,  and  the  "  knowledge 
through  reminiscence  "  is  in  one  aspect  a  process  of  reflection  on 
experience,  turning  on  the  laws  of  association.*  It  is  also  said 
that  objects  '*  partake  "  of  the  ideas,  and  some  concrete  natures 
are  regarded  as  embodiments  or  vehicles  of  some  of  them.  Still 
if  regarded  as  a  whole,  notwithstanding  the  scientific  attitude  of 
Socrates,  the  Phaedo  is  rather  a  meditation  than  an  inquiry — ^a 
study  of  the  soul  as  self-existent,  and  of  the  mind  and  truth  as 
coctemal. 

IV.  Symposium,  Phaedrus,  Cralylus. — Socrates  is  again 
imagined  as  in  the  fullness  of  life.  But  the  real  Socrates  is  be- 
coming more  and  more  inextricably  blended  with  Platonic 
thought  and  fancy.  In  the  Apology  there  is  a  distinct  echo  of  the 
voice  of  Socrates;  the  Phaedo  gives  many  personal  traits  of  him; 
but  the  dialogues  which  are  now  to  folk>w  are  replete  with  original 
invention,  based  in  part,  no  doubt,  on  personal  recollections. 

The  Symposium  admits  both  of  comparison  and  of  contrast 
with  the  Phaedo.  Both  dialogues  are  mystical,  both  are 
spiritual,  but  the  spirituality  in  either  isof  a  different 
"  order.  That  is  here  Immanent  which  was  there 
transcendent;  the  beautiful  takes  the  place  of  the  good.  The 
world  is  not  now  to  be  annihilated,  but  rather  transfigured,  until 
particular  objects  are  lost  in  universal  light.  Instead  of  flying 
from  the  region  of  growth  and  decay,  the  mind,  through  inter- 
course with  beauty,  is  now  the  active  cause  of  production.  Yet 
the  life  of  contemplation  is  still  the  highest  life,  and  philosophy 
the  truest  iwwrudi. 

The  leading  conception  of  the  Symposium  has  been  anticipated 
in  the  Lysis,  where  It  was  said  that  "  the  indifferent  loves  the  good, 
because  of  the  presence  of  evil." 

The  banoueters  (including  Socrates),  who  are  met  to  celebrate 
the  tragic  victory  m  Agathon,  happen  not  to  be  disposed  for  hard 
drinking.  They  send  away  the  flute-giri  and  entertain  each  other 
with  IM  praise  of  Love.     Phacdrus  telb  how  Love  inspires  to 

^Cf.  77feae<.  184-166. 


hmuMuahle  deeds*  and  how  Aleeatis  and  AdiiUea  died  for  Love. 
Pauaanias  rhetorically  diatis^ubhcs  the  earthly  from  the  heavenly 
Love.  The  physician  Eryamachus,  admitting  the  distinction, 
vet  holds  that  Love  pervades  all  nature,  and  that  art  consists  in 
following  the  higher  Love  in  each  particular  sphere.  So  Empedocles 
had  spoken  of  Love  as  overcoming  previous  discord.  For  opposilcs 
cannot,  as  Heraclitus  fancied,  coexist.  Ariscophancs,  in  a  comic 
myth,  describes  the  origin  of  Love  as  an  imperfect  creature's  longing 
for  completion.  The  original  double  human  beings  were  growing 
impious,  and  Zeus  split  them  in  twain,  ever  since  which  act  the 
bereaved  halves  wander  in  search  of  one  another.  Agathon  speaks, 
or  rather  sings,  of  Love  and  his  works.  He  is  the  youngest,  not  the 
eldest  of  gods,  living  and  moving  delicately  wherever  bloom  is 
and  in  the  hearts  of  men — the  author  of  all  virtue  and  of  all  good 
works,  obeyed  b)r  gods,  fair  and  causing  all  things  fair,  making  men 
to  be  of  one  mind  at  feasts — pilot,  defender,  saviour,  in  whose 
footsteps  all  should  follow,  chanting  strains  of  love. 

Socrates  will  not  attempt  to  rival  the  poet,  and  begins  by  stipu- 
lating that  he  may  tell  the  truth.  He  accepts  the  distinction 
between  Love  and  his  works,  but  points  out  that,  since  desirs 
implies  want,  and  the  desire  of  Love  is  toward  beauty,  Love,  aa 
wanting  beauty,  is  not  beautiful.  So  much  being  established  in 
the  Socratic  manner,  he  proceeds  to  unfold  the  mystery  once 
revealed  to  him  by  Diotima,  the  Mantinean  wise  woman.  Love 
is  neither  beautiful  nor  ugly,  neither  wise  nor  foolish,  neither  ^od 
nor  mortal.  Between  gods  and  mortals  b  the  world  of  mediating 
spirits  (rdituftinow).  Am  Love  is  a  great  spirit,  child  of  Resource 
(the  son  of  Prudence)  and  Poverty  the  beggar  maid,  who  conceived 
him  at  the  birthday  feast  of  Aphrodite.  He  is  far  from  livii^ 
"delicately."  but  b  raffged  ami  shoeless,  always  in  difficulties, 
yet  always  brimming  with  invention,  a  mighty  hunter  after  wisdom 
and  all  things  fair;  sometimes  "  all  full  with  feasting  "  on  them, 
the  next  moment  "  clean  starved "  for  lackj  never  absolutely 
knowing  nor  quite  ignorant.  That  b  to  say,  he  is  a  "  philosopher. 
For  knowledse  b  tM  most  beautiful  thing,  and  love  b  of  the  beau- 
tiful. 

But  what  does  love  desire  of  the  beautiful?  The  possession  b 
enough.  But  there  is  one  kind  of  love — called  "  being  in  love  " — 
which  desires  beauty  for  a  peculiar  end.  The  lover  b  seeking,  not 
his  "  other  half,"  but  possession  of  the  beautiful  and  birth  in  beauty. 
For  there  b  a  season  of  puberty  both  in  body  and  mind,  when 
human  nature  longs  to  create,  and  it  cannot,  save  in  presence  p( 
beauty.  This  yearnins  b  the  earnest  of  immortality.  Even  in 
the  bird's  devotion  to  its  mate  and  to  its  young  there  is  a  craving 
after  continued  being.  In  individual  lives  there  b  a  flux,  not 
only  of  the  body,  but  in  the  mind.  Nay  the  sciences  themselves 
also  come  and  go  (here  the  contrast  to  the  Phaedo  is  at  its  height). 
But  in  mortal  things  the  shadow  of  continuity  is  succession. 

The  love  of  fame  is  a  somewhat  brighter  image  of  immortality 
than  the  love  of  offspring.  Creative  souls  woula  bring  into  being 
not  children  of  their  body,  but  good  deeds.  And  such  a  one  b 
readiest  to  fall  in  love  with  a  fair  mind  in  a  fair  body,  and  then  b 
filled  with  enthusiasm  and  begets  noble  thoughts.  Homer,  Hesiod, 
Lycurgus,  Solon,  were  such  genial  minds.  But  they  stopped  at 
the  threshold  (cf.  Prot.,  Meno),  and  saw  not  the  higher  mysteries, 
which  are  reserved  for  those  who  rise  from  noble  actions,  institu- 
tions, laws,  to  universal  beauty.  The  true  order  is  to  advance  from 
one  to  all  fair  forms,  then  to  fair  practices,  fair  thouahts,  and 
lastly  to  the  single  thought  of  absolute  beauty.  In  that  com- 
munion only,  beholding  b^uty  with  the  eye  of  the  mind,  one  shall 
bring  forth  realities  and  become  the  friend  of  God  and  be  immortal, 
if  mortal  man  may. 

Akibiades  here  breaks  in  and  is  vodferously  welcomed.  He  is 
crowning  Agathon,  when,  on  perceiving  Socrates,  he  declares  that 
he  will  crown  him  too.  Then  he  announces  himself  king  of  the 
feast,  and  insists  upon  hard  drinking  (thoueh  thb  will  make  no 
difference  to  Socrates).  Eryximachus  demanos  from  the  newcomer 
a  speech  in  praise  of  love.  But  Alcibiades  will  praise  no  one  else  when 
Socrates  is  near.  And  with  the  freedom  of  one  who  is  deep  in  wine 
he  proceeds  with  his  strange  encomium  of  "  this  Marsyas."  "  In 
face  and  outward  bearing  he  is  like  a  Satyr  or  Silenus,  and  by  hb 
voice  he  charms  more  powerfully  than  tney  do  by  their  -  pipings. 
The  eloauence  of  Pericles  has  no  effect  in  comparison  wttn  ms. 
His  words  alone  move  Alcibiades  to  shame,  and  fascinate  him  until 
ho  stops  his  ears  and  runs  from  him." — "  1  often  wish  him  dead. 
Yet  that  would  break  my  heart.  He  brings  me  to  my  wit's  end." 
— "  And,  aa  carved  Sileni  are  made  to  encase  images  01  gods,  ao  this 
Silenus-mask  entreasures  things  divine.  He  affects  ignorance  and 
susceptibility  to  beauty.  Thus  he  mocks  mankind.  But  he  cares 
nothing  for  outward  shows,  and  his  temperance  (9<a^pooifyn)  i$ 
wonderful."  To  prove  this  Alcibiades  reveals  his  own  heart-secret 
(He  b  not  ashamed  to  speak  it  amongst  others  who  have  felt  tbe 
pang  which  Socrates  inflicts).  And  he  makes  it  abundantly  mani- 
fest that  in  their  widely  rumoured  intercourse  (cf.  Prolog,  init.) 
Socrates  had  never  cared  for  anything  but  what  was  best  for  hb 
younger  friend-  Alcibbdes  then  relates  as  an  eyewitness  the 
endurance  shown  by  Socrates  at  Potidaea,  his  strange  persistence 
in  solitary  meditation — sunding  absorbed  in  thoueht  for  a  day 
and  a  night  together — and  his  intrepid  conduct  in  the  retreat  from 
Delium  (cf .  Laches).    "  The  Ulk  ot  Socrates  is  of  pack-asses  and 


8i6 


PLATO 


oobblert,  and  he  it  ever  Mying  the  atme  thIii(B  in  the  Mme  monUi 
but  one  who  Uftt  the  mask  and  IooIeb  within  will  find  that  no  other 
words  have  meaning."  Alcibiades  ends  by  warning  his  companion* 
against  the  wiles  ct  Socrates. 

Some  raillery  follows,  and  they  are  invaded  by  another  band  of 
revellers,  who  compel  them  to  drink  still  more  deeply.  The  soberiy 
inclined  (led  by  Eryximachus)  slink  off.  and  Aristodemus.  the 
reporter  of  the  scene,  only  remembers  further  that  when  he  awoke 
at  cock-crow  Socrates  was  still  conversing  with  Agathon  and 
Aristophanes,  and  showing  them  that  tragedy  and  comedy  were 
essentwlty  one.  He  talkeathem  both  asleep,  and  at  daybreaik  went 
•bout  his  usual  business. 

The  philosopher  of  the  Symposium  is  m  the  world  and  yet  not 
of  it,  apparently  yielding  but  really  overcoming.  In  the 
Pkaedo  the  soul  was  exhorted  to  "  live  upon  her  servant's  loss," 
as  in  Shakespeare's  most  religious  sonnet;  this  dialogue  tells  of  a 
"  soul  within  sense  "  in  the  spirit  of  some  more  recent  poetry. 
By  force  of  imagination  rather  than  of  reason,  the  reconciliation 
of  becoming  {ykvtats)  with  being  (obala),  of  the  temporal  with 
the  eternal,  is  anticipated.  But  through  the  bright  haze  of 
fancy  and  behind  the  mask  of  irony,  Socrates  still  appears  the 
same  strong,  pure,  upright  and  beneficent  human  being  as  in  the 
Apology,  Crilo  and  Pkaedo. 

The  impasuoned  contemplation  of  the  bcatitiful  is  again 
imagined  as  the  beginning  of  philosophy.  But  the  "limitless 
„  .  ocean  of  beauty  "  is  replaced  by  a  world  of  supra- 
mundane  forms,  beheld  by  unembodied  souls,  and 
remembered  here  on  earth  through  enthusiasm,  proceeding  by 
dialectic  from  multiform  impressions  to  one  rational  conception, 
and  distinguishing  the  "  lines  and  veins  "  of  truth.  The  Phaedrtu 
records  Plato's  highest  "  hour  of  insight,"  when  he  willed  the 
various  tasks  hereafter  to  be  fulfilled.  In  it  he  soars  to  a  pitch 
of  contemplation  from  whence  he  takes  a  comprehensive  and 
keen-eyed  survey  of  the  cotmtry  to  be  explored,  marking  off  the 
blind  alleys  and  paths  that  lead  astray,  laying  down  the  main 
roads  and  chief  branches,  and  taking  note  of  the  erroneous 
wanderings  of  others.  Reversing  the  vulgar  adage,  he  flies  that 
he  may  walk. 

The  transcendent  aspiration  of  the  Pkaedo  and  the  mystic 
glow  of  the  Symposium  are  here  combined  with  the  notion  of  a 
scientific  process.  No  longer  asking,  as  in  the  Protagoras,  Is 
virtue  one  or  many?  Plato  rises  to  the  conception  of  a  scientific 
one  and  many,  to  be  contemplated  through  dialectic — no  barren 
abstraction,  but  a  method  of  dasafication  according  to  nature. 
This  method  is  to  be  applied  especially  to  psychology,  not 
merely  with  a  speculative,  but  also  with  a  practical  aim.  For  the 
"  birth  in  beauty  "  of  the  Symposium  is  here  developed  into  an 
art  of  education,  of  which  the  true  riietoric  is  but  the  means,  and 
true  statesmanship  an  accidental  outcome. 

Like  all  imaginative  critics,  Plato  falls  to  some  extent  under 
the  influence  of  that  which  he  criticizes.  The  art  of  rhetoric 
which  he  so  often  travestied  had  a  lasting  effect  upon  his  style. 
Readers  of  his  latest  works  are  often'  reminded  of  the  mock 
grandiloquence  of  the  Phaedrus.  But  in  thb  dialogue  the  poetical 
side  of  his  genim  is  at  the  height.  Not  only  can  he  express  or 
imitate  ansrthing,  and  produce  any  effect  at  will,  but  he  is 
standing  behind  his  creation  and  disposing  it  with  the  mos( 
perfect  mastery,  preserving  unity  amidst  profuse  variety,  and 
giving  harmony  to  a  wildness  bordering  on  the  grotesque. 

The  person  of  Socrates  is  here  deliberately  modified.  He 
no  longer  (as  in  the  Symposium)  teaches  positive  wisdom  under 
the  pretence  of  repeating  what  he  has  heard,  but  is  himself 
caught  by  an  exceptional  inspiration,  which  is  accotmted  for  by 
the  unusual  circumstance  of  his  finding  himself  in  the  country 
and  alone  inth  Phaedrus.  He  has  been  hitherto  a  stranger  to  the 
woods  and  fields,  which  would  tempt  him  away  from  studying 
himself  through  intercourse  with  men.  But  by  the  promise  of 
discourse — especially  of  talk  with  Phaedrus— he  may  be  drawn 
anywhithcr. 

Phaedrus  has  been  charmed  by  a  diaoourse  of  Lysias,  which  after 
some  coy  excuses  he  consents  to  read. 

It  is  a  frigid  erotic  diatribe,  in  which  one  not  in  love  pleads  for 
preference  over  the  lover.  Socrates  hints  at  criticbm,  and  is  chal- 
lenged to  produce  somcthine  better  on  the  same  theme. 

I.  Distinguishing  desire  Troro  true  opinion,  he  defines   love  as 


at 


pcevailiog  agaimt  truth,  and  then  expatiates  on  the 
tendencies  of  tove  as  so  defined.  But  he  becomes  alarroe 
own  unwonted  eloquence,  and  b  about  to  remove,  when  the  "  dhriae 
token  "  warns  him  that  he  must  first  recite  a  '*  palinode  **  ia  praise 
of  love.    For  no  divine  power  can  be  the  cause  cm  eviL 

a.  Love  is  madness;  but  there  is  a  noble  madness,  as  ia  sbowB 
by  soothsayers  (called  ^Ajirmt  from  |t«(N»i«i).  And  of  the  higher 
madness  there  arc  four  kinds. 

To  explain  thb  it  b  necessary  to  understand  psychdogy.  The 
soul  b  self-eristent  and  self-moving,  and  therefore  eteraau  And 
her  form  b  like  a  pair  of  winged  steeds  with  their  charioteer,  [a 
divine  soub  both  steeds  are  good,  but  in  human  souls  one  of  then  b 
bad.  Now  before  entering  the  body  the  soul  lost  her  wings,  which  ia 
her  unembodied  state  were  nouris' .  d  by  beauty,  wisdom.  Spodc 
and  all  that  b  divine.  For  at  the  festival  of  soub,  ia  wfidi  t 
visit  the  heaven  that  b  above  the  heavens,  the  unruly  steed 
the  charioteer  to  tee  imperfectly.  So  the  soul  cast  her  feathecs 
and  fell  down  and  passed  into  the  human  form.  And,  accordiag 
to  the  comi>aFatlve  clearness  or  dimness  of  that  first  vinon,  her 
earthly  lot  b  varied  from  that  of  a  philosopher  or  artist  down 
through  nine  grades  (including  woman)  to  that  of  a  tyrant.  Os 
her  conduct  in  this  state  of  probation  depends  her  condition  when 
again  born  into  the  workl.  And  only  in  ten  thousand  vears  cas 
she  return  to  her  pristine  state,  except  through  a  life  of  pailosophy 
(cf.  Pkaedo)  or  of  pure  and  noble  love  (cf .  S^fmposium). 

The  mind  of  the  philosopher  alone  has  wingi.  He  b  ever  being 
initiated  into  perfect  mysteries,  and  hb  soul  alone  becomes  complete. 
But  the  vulgar  deem  him  mad  and  rebuke  him;  they  do  not  see 
that  he  b  inspired. 

Thb  divine  madness  (the  fourth  land  of  those  above  mentioaed} 
is  kindled  through  the  renewed  vision  of  beauty.  For  wisdom  ii 
not  seen;  her  loveliness  would  have  been  transportiajg  if  she  kid 
a  visible  form.  The  struggle  of  the  higher  passion  with  the  lower 
b  then  described  with  extraordinary  vividness,  under  the  inufc 
of  the  two  steeds.  When  the  higher  impulse  triumphs  the  iaoe 
b  a  phibsophic  friendship,  at  once  passionate  and  absolatriy  peic. 

3.  From  hb  "  palinoae "  Socrates  returns  to  Lyaias*  who  ii 
advised  to  leave  speech-writing  for  philosophy. 

a.  Phaedrus  remarks  that  the  speech-writer  b  despised  by  the 
politician.  Socrates  replies  that  speech-writing  and  poGtio  a<e 
one  concern.  The  real,  difference  b  between  those  who  base  their 
teaching  on  philosophy  and  those  who  are  content  with  niks  of 
art.  For  example,  if  tne  first  speech  of  Socrates  b  compared  vc^ 
that  of  Lysias,  the  one  b  found  to  distinguish  and  define,  the  tuba 
not;  the  one  observes  order  in  discourse,  the  other  "  begins  vherr 
he  should  end."  and  his  utterance  b  tike  a  disordered  chain.  A 
speech  should  be  an  organic  whole,  a  "  creature  having  bands  ajid 
feet."  So  in  the  "  palinode  "  there  was  a  classification  of  the  kin^ 
of  madness,  which  led  the  way  to  "  a  possibly  true  though  parK 
erring  myth."  This  approximation  to  truth  in  the  midst  of  muck 
that  was  playful  was  due  to  the  observance  of  two  prinLipkv 
generalixation  and  division  (ffw«TwY4.  fcmptrtt).  Whoever  aers  the 
one  and  many  in  nature,  him  Socrates  follows  and  walks  in  has 
footsteps,  as  if  he  were  a  god.  In  comrarison  of  dialectic,  as  thci 
conceived,  the  frigid  rules  of  Lysias.  Thrasymachus.  Theodon.%, 
Evenus.  Tbbs,  Cvof^ias.  Polus  and  Protagoras  are  futile  and  abseni 

b.  Another  condition  of  teaching  (or  true  rhetoric)  is  the  sdetta 
of  mind.  Whether  the  soul  be  one  or  many,  complex  or  mulife'm 
and  if  multiform  what  are  its  parts  and  kinds,  are  questions  vfcjdk 
the  teacher  must  have  already  solved.  And  he  must  likewise  fark« 
classified  all  arguments  and  know  them  in  their  various  appbc* 
ability  to  divers  souls.  An  art  of  speaking  that  should  fulfil  th« 
condition  is  non-existent.  Yet  how  can  even  verisimilitDde  be 
attained  without  knowledge  of  truth? 

c.  The  art  of  writing  is  kindred  to  the  art  of  speech,  hoi 
Socrates  maintains  that  oral  teaching  through  the  living  contact  d 
mind  with  mind  has  many  advantages  over  written  compoaitica. 
which  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a  dead  thing.  Men  may  write  Icr 
amuaement  or  to  record  the  intercourse  that  has  been.  Bat  the 
serious  occupation  of  the  true  thinker  and  teacher  is  the  cms- 
munication  of  truth  through  vital  converse  with  others  like>mindrc! 
—the  creation  of  "  thoughts  that  breathe "  in  spirits  consciewra 
of  their  value. 

In  conclusion,  a  friendly  hint  b  given  to  Isocrates  that  he  may  do 
better  than  Lysias  if  he  will  but  turn  his  attention  to  philosophy. 

The  Pkaedrus  anticipates  much  that  Plato  afterwards  slosdy 
elaborated,  and  retains  some  things  which  he  at  last  eliminatecL 
(i)  The  presence  of  movement  or  impulse  in  the  hi^cttregioa 
is  an  aspect  of  truth  which  reappears  in  the  Sopkislet  and  other 
later  dialogues.  It  has  been  thought  strange  that  it  mould  be 
found  so  early  as  in  the  Pkaedrus.  But  docs  not  thb  remark 
imply  an  unwarrantable  assumption,  viz.  that  Plato's  ideaKsa 
took  its  departure  from  the  being  of  Parmenides?  Is  it  not 
rather  the  fact  that  his  own  theory  was  formulated  befoie  the 
Megarian  ascendancy  led  him  to  examine  the  Eleatic  doctrioc, 
and  that  it  was  by  a  tendency  from  the  first  inherent  in  Fbtooisa 
that  that  doarine  was  modified  in  hb  final  teaching?    (a)  The 


Mtllms  of  method  whirh  are  thrown  ont  at  white  heat  fai  the 
PIntdrM  are  a  preparation  for  the  more  sober  treatment  of 
the  ideas  in  the  dialectical  dialoguea.  In  these,  however,  the 
conception  of  classification  is  somewhat  altered  through  contact 
with  Elealirism.  (3)  The  Phaedrus  aims,  not  merely  at  realizing 
universals,  but  at  graspmg  them  in  and  through  particulars. 
This  IS  an  Ideal  of  knowledge  which  was*^  lost  as  soon  as  seen/' 
but  one  which  in  some  of  his  latest  dblogues,  such  as  the  PdUuus 
and  Pkilcbus,  PUto  again  endeavoured  to  work  out.  (4)  The 
PhncdrHS  contains  the  elements  of  that  true  psychology  into 
which  the  ontological  theory  of  the  ideas  is  gradiully  transmuted 
in  Plato*s  more  advanced  writings,  when  the  difficulues  of  his 
ideal  doctrine  in  its  cruder  forms  have  been  clearly  felt  and  under* 
stood.  (5)  Pbto  here  appean  as  a  professor  of  education 
preferring  oral  intercourse  to  author^ip.  In  this  paradox  he  at 
once  exalts  the  work  of  Soccates  and  avows  his  own  vocation  as  a 
teacher.  The  passage  throws  an  interesting  light  upon  the  form 
of  dialogue  in  which  his  works  arc  cast  But  it  is  not  to  be  sup* 
posed  that  he  remained  long  unconscious  of  the  influence  he  was 
destined  to  wield  by  writing.  In  executing  a  great  task  like  the 
RtpubliCt  he  practically  diverged  from  the  untenable  view 
asserted  here;  and  in  the  Laws  he  recommends  his  longest  and 
least  dramatic  work  as  a  suitable  basis  for  the  education  of  the 
future.  (6)  It  must  always  appear  strange,  even  to  those  most 
familiar  with  the  conditions  of  Hellenic  life,  that  in  portraying 
the  idealizing  power  of  passionate  love  Plato  should  have  taken 
his  departure  from  unnatural  feeling. 

On  this  subject  he  has  sung  his  own  "  palinode  **  in  the  Laws, 
which  he  intended  as  his  final  legacy  to  mankind.'  Not  that  he 
ceased  to  exalt  genius  and  originality  above  mere  talent,  or  to 
demand  for  philosophy  the  service  of  the  heart  as  wdl  as  the  head, 
nor  yet  that  friendship  was  kaa  valued  by  him  in  later  years. 
All  this  remained  unchanged.  And  in  the  Repuldte  thtpzssion 
of  love  is  still  distantly  referred  to  as  the  symbol  of  ideal  aspira« 
tion.  But  a  time  came  when  he  had  learned  to  frown  on  the 
aberration  of  feeling  which  in  the  5ym^iuraiK and  Pkatdntshe 
appears  to  regard  as  the  legitimate  stimulus  of  inteUectnal 
enthusiasm.  And  already  in  the  Tkeaetelus  not  love  but  wonder 
is  described  as  the  only  beginning  of  philosophy. 

WhUe  calling  attention  to  this  change  of  sentiment,  it  la  right 
to  add  that  Platonic  love  in  the  "  erotic  "  dialogues  of  PUito  Is 
very  different  from  what  has  often  been  so  named,  and  that 
nothing  even  in  the  noble  passage  of  the  Laws  above  referred  to 
casts  the  slightest  shadow  of  blame  on  the  Socrates  of  the 
Symptisinm,  Such  changes  are,  amongst  other  things,  a  ground 
for  caution  in  comparing  the  two  steeds  of  the  Pkaedrus  with 
the  apivit  (fiunh^  and  desire  (hriBviila)  of  the  Reputiic  and 
Timaens.  fhc  Pkaedrus^  in  common  with  these  dialogues, 
asserts  the  eidstence  of  higher  and  lower  impulses  in  human 
nature,  but  there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  supposing  tHat  when 
Plato  wrote  the  Pkaedrus  he  would  have  defined  them  precisely 
as  they  are  defined  in  the  Republic, 

The  Cratytus  is  full  of  curious  interest  as  marking  the  highest 
poiAt  reached  by  the  "  science  of  language  "  in  antiquity,  but, 
j_^  as  this  dialogue  "  hardly  derives  any  light  from 
^  ^  Plato's  other  wriUngs/'*  to  neither  does  it  reflect 
much  light  on  them.  It  deab  dightly  with  the  contrast  betn^n 
Heracliteanism  and  Eleaticfsm,  the  importance  of  dialectic,  the 
difficulty  about  the  existence  of  falsehood,  and  ends  with  a  brief 
allusion  to  the  doctrine  of  idea»--but  these  topics  are  all  mow 
fully  discussed  elsewhere. 

I'hree  perMMia  maintain  different  views  mpecting  the  nature  and 
ori]j;in  of  language. 

Hcrmogcnes  affirms  that  language  is  conventional,  Cratylus  (the 
Heraclitean)  that  it  to  natural  Socrates,  mrdiatins  between  these 
•ophiMical  extremcSr  declares  that  bnguage,  like  other  institutions, 
is  rational,  and  therefore  (1)  is  baseoon  nature,  but  (t)  modified 
by  convention. 

In  his  dialectical  treatment  of  the  subject,  Socrates  displays  a 
tissue  of  «'ild  etymologies  in  reliance  on  the  "  inspiration  of 
Euthyphro.    Pretontly  a  disrinction  appears  between  primary  and 

*  Laws  viii.  836. 

*  Jowett — who  has,  notwithstanding,  thrown  much  light  on  the 
Cratytus  in  bis  bnUiaai  iatn>d«ction. 

XXI    14 


817 

ndary  wwda.  Many  primary  words  convey  the  notion  of 
movement  and  change,  ft  follows  that  the  legislator  or  word*nialcer 
held  Heraclitcan  views.  Socrates  thus  far  presses  on  Hermogenes 
the  view  of  Craiyhis.  Then  turning  to  Cratylus  he  asks  if  thciv  are 
no  false  names.  "  Fabe  bnguage."  Cnatytus  argues. "  is  impossible." 
Socrates  shows  that  a  true  image  may  be  inadequate,  so  that  we 
have  a  right  to  criiiciae  the  work  of  the  word-maker.  And  the 
facts  indicate  an  clement  of  meaningless  convention.  Nor  was  the 
original  word-maker  consistently  Hcraclitean.  For  some  impurunt 
words  point  not  to  motion  but  to  nest. 

But  the  question  returns — Arc  wc  sure  that  the  theory  o(  nature 
which  the  word-maker  held  was  true?  This  difficulty  cannot 
be  touched  by  verbal  arguments.  In  seeking  10  resolve  it  wc  must 
consider,  not  words,  but  things.  If  there  is  a  true  beauty  and  a 
true  good,  which  are  immutable,  and  if  these  are  accessible  to 
knowledge,  that  wrorld  of  truth  can  have  nothing  to  do  with  flux 
and  change. 

V  Corgiast  RepuUU.-^ln  the  Symposium  and  Phaedritt 
PLito  htrgely  redeems  the  promise  implied  in  the  Pkaedo,  where 
Socrates  lelk  his  friends  to  look  among  themselves  for  a  charmer 
who  may  soothe  away  the  fear  of  death.  But  he  was  pledged  also 
to  a  sterner  duty  by  the  warning  of  Socrates  to  the  Athenians, 
in  the  Ap/ihgy,  that  after  he  waa  gone  there  would  arise 
others  for  their  reproof  more  harsh  than  he  had  been.  To  this 
graver  task,  which  he  bad  but  partially  fulfilled  with  the  light 
satire  upon  Lysias  or  the  gentle  message  to  Isocrates,  the  philo- 
sopher now  directs  hb  powers,  by  hokiing  up  the  minor  of  what 
ought  to  be  against  what  b,  the  principles  of  truth  and  right 
against  tht  practice  of  men.  For  the  good  has  more  than  one 
aspects  The  beautiful  or  noble  when  realized  in  action  ticcomes 
the  just.  And  to  the  question.  What  b  just?  are  dosely 
aUijed  those  other  questions  of  Socrates— What  b  a.  state?  What 
IS  it  to  be  a  statesman? 

In  the  Corggas  Plato  asserts  the  absolute  supremacy  of  justice 
through  the  dramatic  portraiture  of  Socrates  in  hb  opposition 
to  the  world;  ha  the  Repmbik  he  strives  at  greater  length  to  define 
the  nature  of  justice  through  the  imaginary  creation  of  an  ideal 
community. 

In  the  (hrgias  the  Platonic  Socrates  appears  in  direct  antagon* 
bm  with  the  Athenian  world.  The  shadow  of  his  fate  is  impend- 
ing. Chaeccphoo  (who  is  still  aUve)  understands  gu^t. 
him,  but  to  the  other  interlocutors,  Gorgias,  Pdus,  ^^  ** 
Callides,  he  appears  perversely  paradoxical.  Yet  he  effectively 
dominates  them  all.  And  to  the  reader  of  the  dbk>gtte  thb 
inaee  of  "  Socrates  contra  mundtim  '*  b  hardly  less  impccssive 
than  that  other  image  of  Socrates  confronting  death. 

f .  Gofgbs  asserts  that  rhetoric  Is  an  art  concerned  with  justice, 
and  that  prrsuaston  is  the  secret  of  power. 

a.  Socrates,  after  suggesting  some  ironical  doubt*,  dccbres  his 
opiiuon  that  rhetoric  is  no  art,  but  a  knack  of  pleasing,  or  in  other 
wt)rds  "  the  counterfeit  of  a  subsection  of  statesmanship/'  This 
oracular  definition  rouses  the  interest  ol  Gorgias.  and  Socrates 
proceeds  with  the  folbiwing  "  geoeralization  and  division  "  >-> 


M«»S0(McMal 


I ^ 

Reak 

I     , 


Soii. 


t»»* 


J. 


■IT 


Body. 


PMt(tMM& 


1 

r 


lauoa. 


pnioEacb 


SapUrtk.  Rbelofk. 

i-n=L 


.    1 

CjrnuiMtic    Mcdkloc. 


X 


T 

CoHMtk. 

L 


J 


"1 

If 

Conk* 
Uoncry 


FUttoy. 

Fbttcry  infloencca  men  through  pleasure  without  knowledet. 
And  the  rhetor  is  a  kind  of  confectioner,  who  can  with  difficulty 
be  distinguished  from  the  sophist. 

b  .  Rhetoric,  then,  is  not  an  art.  And  persuasion  b  not  the 
•ecnrt  of  power  Here  Socrates  maintains  against  Polus  the  three 
paradoxes?*— 

The  tyrant  docs  what  he  chooses  but  not  what  he  wishes; 

It  is  less  evil  to' suffer  wrong  than  to  do  wrong; 

It  U  better  for  the  wrongdoer  to  be  punished  than  to  escape 
punishment. 

The  only  use  of  rhetoric,  therefore,  is  for  self-accusatmn,  and  (if 
It  is  ever  permissible  to  do  harm)  to  prevent  the  punishment  of 
one's  enemy. 

a.  Calliclcs  here  loses  patience  and  breaks  in.  He  propounds 
hb  theory,  which  b  based  oa  tha  oppositmn  ol  nature  and  custom. 

2a 


8i« 


PLATO 


"  There  b  no  natuial  right  but  the  right  of  the  acfonger.  And 
natural  nobility  b  to  have  strong  passions  and  power  to  gratify 
them.   The  lawful 

b  a  word  that  cowards  use. 
Deviled  at  first  to  keep  the  strong  ut  awe." 

Socrates  entangles  him  in  an  argument  in  which  it  b  proved  that 
pleasure  is  diflerent  from  good,  and  that  there  ans  good  and  bad 
pleasures. 

Now  the  question  is  whether  the  life  of  philosophy,  or  the  life 
which  Callicles  defends,  b  conducive  to  good.  Ami  it  has  been 
shown  that  rhetoric  is  one  of  a  class  of  pursuits  which  minuter  to 
pleasure  without  discriminating  what  is  good. 

Callicles  again  beonnes  impatient.  Did  not  Thembtocles, 
Cimon,  Pericles  labour  for  theu*  country's  good?  Socrates  then 
renews  his  demonstration,  proving  that  if  the  tust  man  b  wronged 
the  evil  lies  with  the  wrongdoer,  not  with  him,  and  that  it  is 
worst  for  the  wrongdoer  if  he  escape.  And  for  avoidance  of  thb 
greatest  evil  not  rhetoric  avaib  anything,  nor  any  of  the  arts 
which  save  life  (seeing  that  life  may  be  lued  well  or  ill),  nor  even 
such  an  art  of  politics  as  Themistoclcs,  Cimon,  or  Pericles  knew, 
but  another  science  of  politics  which  Socrates  alone  of  the  Athenians 
practbes.  The  pursuit  of  it  may  well  endanger  him;  but  hb 
strength  lies  in  Mving  done  no  wrong.  For  in  the  world  to  cone 
he  can  present  hb  soul  faultless  before  her  judge.  Not  the  show 
of  Justice  but  the  reality  will  avail  him  there. 

Thb  truth  is  enforced  by  an  impressive  myth.  And  Callicies  b 
invited  to  leave  the  life  which  relies  on  rhetoric  and  to  follow 
Socrates  in  pEactiaing  the  life  of  philosophic  virtue. 

The  valtte  of  justice  has  been  shown.  But  what  U  justice  ? 
Is  the  life  upheld  by  Socrates  sufficiently  definite  for  practical 
^pabUe.  Suidance?  The  views  of  Callidos  have  been  over- 
borne; but  have  they  been  thoroughly  examined? 
Socrates  claims  to  be  the  only  politician.  But  bow  can  that 
deserve  the  name;  of  policy  which  results  in  doing  nothing  ? 
These  and  cognate  questions  may  well  haVe  haunted  Plato  when 
he  planned  the  Republic^  the  greatest  of  his  wwks.  For  that 
which  lay  deepest  in  him  was  not  mere  speculative  Interest  or 
poetic  fervour,  but  the  practical  enthusiasm  of  a  reformer. 
The  example  of  Socrates  had  fired  Mm  with  an  ideal  of  wisdom, 
courage,  temperance  and  righteousness,  which  under  various 
guises,  ix>th  aJbstcact  and  concrete,  has  appeared  and  reappeared 
in  the  preceding  dialogues.  But  the  more  vividly  he  conceived 
of  this  ideal  life,  the  more  keenly  he  felt  its  isolation  in  the  present 
world— that  of  the  restored  Athenian  democracy.  For  to  a  Greek 
mind  above  ail  others  life  was  nothing  without  the  social  cnvirtm- 
ment,  and  justice,  of  all  virtues,  could  least  be  realized  apart  from 
a  community.  Hence  it  became  necessary  to  imagine  a  form  of 
society  in  which  the  ideal  man  mi^t  find  himself  at  home,  a  state 
to  which  the  philosopher  might  stand  in  harmonious  lelationsbip, 
no  longer  as  an  alien  sojourner,  but  as  a  native  dtisen,  not 
standing  aloof  in  lonely  contemf^tion,  but  acting  with  the 
full  consent  of  other  men  and  ruling  in  the  right  of  wisdom. 
Plato  did  not  regard  his  own  republic  as  a  barren  dream.  He 
believed  that  sooner  or  later  in  the  course  of  time  a  state  essen- 
tially resembling  his  ideal  commonwealth  would  come  into  being. 
Still  more  firmly  was  he  convinced  that  until  then  mankind  would 
not  attain  their  highest  possible  development.  To  ignore  this 
real  aqwct  of  hb  OMist  serious  wM'k  b  to  lose  much  of  the 
author's  meaning.  Yet  it  b  hardly  less  emmeous  to  interpret  a 
great  imaginative  creation  au  pied  dc  h  Idtret  as  if  examining  a 
piece  of  actual  legislation.  Even  in  his  Laws,  a  far  more  prosaic 
writing,  Plato  himself  repeatedly  protests  against  such  criticism. 
In  hb  most  aspiring  flights  he  b  well  aware  of  the  difference 
between  the  imaginary  and  acttml  embodiment  of  an  ideal,* 
although  as  a  literary  artist  he  gives  to  hb  creations,  whether  in 
anticipation  or  retrospect,  an  ur  of  sober  reality  and  matter-of- 
fact.  He  is  more  in  earnest  about  principles  than  about  details, 
and  if  questioned  would  probably  be  found  more  confident  with 
regard  to  moral  than  to  political  truth.  He  may  have  been 
wholly  unconscious  of  the  inconsistencies  of  his  scheme,  but  it 
would  not  have  greatly  disconcerted  him  to.  have  discovered 
them,  or  to  have  been  told  that  this  or  that  arrangement  would 
not  "  work."  He  would  have  trusted  the  correction  of  hb  own 
rough  draft  to  the  philosopher^kings  of  the  future. 

The  RtputHe  falls  naturally  into  five  portions.  (l^  Bk.  i.  b 
preltroinary.  raiwng  the  main  question  about  justice.    (2)  Bks.  ii.. 

*  See  cspeoiatty  ArJK  v<  47a;  l4fg.  v.  74Gb 


iai,  iv.  cootaift  Uie  outlines  of  the  perfect  state.  iadwiia|  tke 
education  of  the  "  guardians."  and  leading  up  to  the  defautna  at 
justice  (a)  in  the  state,  and  {b)  in  the  individuaL  (3)  Bb.  v.. 
vi.,  viL  (which  to  some  critics  present  the  appearance  of  an  after- 
thou^t  or  excrescence  on  the  original  design)  contain  the  cardinal 
provisions  (1)  of  onnnuinism  (for  the  guardians  only).  (2)  tkai 
philosfwbcn  shall  be  kings,  (5)  of  higher  education  for  ibp  rakn 
(viz.  tne  philosopher-kings).  Thb  third  provision  occupies  bk& 
vi.  and  vii.  (which  have  again,  as  some  think,  the  appearance  d 
an  outgrowth  from  bk.  v.).  (4)  Bks.  viiL  and  iz.,  resomin{  the 
ffenenTsubject  from  bk.  iv.,  present  the  levcne  of  the  medal  by 
showing  the  declension  of  the  state  and  individual  througk  io« 
stages,  until  in  the  life  of  tyranny  b  found  the  image  of  f^ 
iniustice,  as  that  of  justice  was  found  in  the  life  of  the  perfect  state. 
(5)  Bk.  X.  forms  a  concluding  chapter,  in  whkh  several  of  the 
foregoing  enactmeats  are  reviewed,  and  the  work  ends,  like  tht 
Ctatiatt  with  a  vision  of  judgment. 

^us  the  main  outlines  of  the  scheme  are  contained  a  bb.  a, 
liL,  iv.,  viii..  !x.  And  yet  bks.  v.,  vi.,  vii.  form  the  central  portioa. 
a  sort  of  inner  kernel,  and  are  of  the  highest  significancB. 

In  speculating  about  the  composition  of  the  tUpuUk  (zs  s 
the  fashion  of  some  interpreters)  it  b  important  to  bear  inmiiid 
the  general  character  of  Plato's  writings. 

**  The  conception  of  unity ,**  says  Jowett,»  **  really  appr«  « 
very  different  degrees  to  different  kinds  of  art— to  a  tutue,  for 
example,  far  more  than  to  any  kind  of  literary  oomooaitioa,  aad 
to  some  species  of  literature  far  more  than  to  others,  nor  doestk 
dialogue  appear  to  be  a  style  of  composition  in  which  the  requin- 
ment  of  unity  b  most  stringent;  nor  should  the  idea  of  unity  deri>rJ 
from  one  sort  of  art  be  hastily  transferred  to  another.  .  . .  Flat? 
subjects  himself  to  no  rule  01  this  sort.  Like  every  gnat  artist 
he  gives  unity  of  form  to  the  different  and  apparently  diatiactiai 
topics  which  he  brings  together.  He  works  freely,  and  is  not  ts 
be  supposed  to  have  arranged  every  part  of  the  dialogue  W>:>'( 
he  begins  to  write.  He  fastens  or  weaves  together  the  fraiw  ^ 
hb  dtaoourse  looady  and  imperfectly,  and  which  b  the  vxip  aad 
which  the  woof  cannot  always  be  determined." 

It  should  be  added,  that  as  Dialectic  was  still  a  "  worid  va 
realized,"  and  he  was  OMitinually  conscious  of  using  inperfcct 
methodt,  he  was  not  soUdtous  to  bind  himself  to  any  one  mcthMi 
or  to  watch  carefuUy  over  the  logical  coherence  of  his  «ffi 
*'  Sailing  with  the  wind  of  hb  argument,"  he  often  tads  and 
veers,  changing  hia  method  with  his  subject-matter,  laudi  as  1 
poet  might  adt^t  a  change  of  rhythm.  Absorbed  as  be  is  ■ 
each  new  phase  of  hb  subject,  all  that  precedes  is  cancelled  i^ 
the  time.  And  much  of  what  b  to  come  b  debberaidy  kept 
out  of  view»  because  ideas  of  high  importance  axe  rescncd 
for  the  place  where  their  introduction  will  have  most  effect 
Another  cause  of  apparent  inconsequence  in  Plato  b  vhat  N 
himself  would  call  the  use  of  hypothesis.  He  works  less  deduc- 
tively and  more  from  masses  of  generalized  cxpericnoe  li^ 
Platonists  have  been  ready  to  admit.  And  in  the  Rep^it  i* 
h  as  much  engafod  with  the  criticism  of  an  actual  as  vtti  tbe 
projection  of  an  ideal  condition  of  society.  If  we  ky  w  aore  d 
the  working  of  Attic  institutions  as  be  observed  them,  we  ^o^ 
often  understand  him  better. 

These  general  considerations  should  be  weig^ied  tpi^ 
the  ineqtulities  which  have  led  some  critics  to  suppose  thai 
the  "  first  sketch  of  the  sUte"  in  bks.  ii.-iv.  is  mudi  earlict  lb> 
the  more  exalted  views  of  bks.  v.-viL*  If  in  these  later  boob  u« 
conditions  for  choosing  the  future  rulers  are  allowed  to  erccT. 
if  in  discussing  the  higher  intellectual  virtues  the  simple  p}>^> 
logy  of  bk.  iv.  b  lost  sight  of  (it  reappears  in  the  Tiwieais).  a 
ihe  "  knowledge  of  the  expedient "  at  first  required  talk  f^' 
short  of  the  conception  of  knowledge  afterwarcb  attained.  ^^ 
thb  b  quite  in  keeping  with  Plato's  manner  elsewhere,  aad  cu> 
be  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  artistic  and  dialcctacai  resent 
It  can  hardly  be  an  altogether  fortuitous  circumstance  that  tbe 
culminating  crbis,  the  third  and  highest  "  wave  "  of  difficalt)'- 
thc  declaration  that  philosophers  must  be  kings  and  i^P 
pliilosophera — comes  in  precisely  at  the  central  poiiit  of  i^ 
whole  k>ng  work. 

The  great  principle  of  the  political  supremacy  of  mind,  ibo'**. 
thus  hdd  back  through  half  the  dialogue,  really  dominate  i]< 
whole.  It  may  be  read  between  the  lines  ail  through,  ota  i> 
the  institution  of  gymnastic  and  the  appraisement  of  the  ax^ 

*  Introd.  to  the  Phatirut. 

*  Krohn.  Der  ptaUmiuki  Stiai  (Halk,  l»76). 


PLATO 


819 


virtues.    It  i»  »  gemiliie  devdopmeat  of  Socntic  thomfat. 

And  it  is  tiiiB  more  than  any  other  singte  ieaJtnre  which  gives  the 
RipuhHc  a  prophetic  tigiitficaiioe  as  *'an  attempi  tovasdi 
anticipating  the  woik  of  futiut  geocrayons."  ^ 

Other  aspects  of  the  great  dialogue,  the  Dorian  frameworki 
10  inevitable  in  the  reaction  from  Ionian  life,  the  traces  of 
Pythagorean  influence,  the  estimate  of  oligarchy  and  deraoctacy, 
the  characters  o(  the  intertocuters  in  their  bearing  on  the  exposition, 
have  been  fuUy  treated  by  recent  writers,  and  (or  brevity's  sako 
are  here  passed  over. 

There  are  other  points,  however,  which  must  pot  be  omitted, 
because  they  are  more  intimately  related  to  the  geneial  develop- 
ment of  Plato's  thoughts. 

1  The  question  <kbated  by  Proclus  has  been  raised  before  and 
since,  whether  the  proper  subject  of  the  Re/nMtc  is  justice  or  the 
state.  The  doubt  would  be  more  suggestive  if  put  In  a  somewhat 
different  form:  Is  Plato  more  interested  in  the  state  or  the  indi- 
vidual? That  he  is  in  earnctit  about  both,  and  that  in  his  view 
of  them  they  are  inseparable,  is  an  obvious  answer.  And  it  is 
almost  a  truism  to  say  that  political  rcbtions  were  prior  to  ethical 
in  the  mind  of  a  Creek.  Yet  if  in  some  passages  the  political 
analogy  reacts  on  moral  notions  (as  in  the  definition  of  temperance), 
in  others  the  state  is  spoken  of  in  languajge  borrowed  from  individval 
life.  And  it  remains  qucstionabk  whether  the  ethics  or  the  politics 
of  the  Repkbiic  are  kss  complete.  On  the  whole  Plato  himself 
seems  to  be  conscious  that  the  ideal  derived  from  the  lifc>work  of 
Socrates  could  be  more  readily  starfipcd  on  individual  lives  than 
on  communities  of  men  (see  especially  Rep.  viL  528  A.  ix.  592). 

z.  The  analogy  of  the  individual  is  often  used  to  enforce  the 
requirement  of  political  unity  and  simplkity  (sec  especially  v  462  C). 
This  is  also  to  be  referred,  however,  to  Plato's  general  tendency 
to  strain  alter  abstracttontb  He  hod  not  yet  reached  a  point 
of  view  ffom  which  he  could  k>ok  steadily  on  partk:ulars  in  the 
light  of  nnfVersal  principfes.  I-Ie  recurs  often  to  experience,  but 
is  soon  carried  off  again  into  the  abstract  region  which  to  him  seemed 
higher  and  purer.*  *'  It  has  been  saki  that  Plato  flies  as  well  as 
walks,  but  this  hardly  exprcsaes  the  whole  truth,  for  he  flics  and 
walks  at  the  same  time,  and  is  in  the  air  and  on  firm  ground  in 
successive  instants"  (Jowett).  Plato's  scheme  of  communism 
had  been  suggested  to  hira  partly  by  Dorian  institutions  aud  partly 
by  the  Pythagorean  rule.  But  it  was  further  commended  by  the 
general  consideration  that  the  state  is  a  higher  and  more  abstract 
unity  than  the  family.  The  lower  obligation  must  give  way  to 
the  nighcr.  the  universal  must  overrule  the  particular  bond. 

3.  i^milarly  it  may  be  argpod  that,  while  the  subordination  of 
music  to  state  discipline,  and  the  importance  attached  to  rhythm 
and  harmony  in  education,  had  likewise  a  connexion  with  Sparta 
and  the  f*ythagoreans  severally,  Plato's  deliberate  attitude  towards 
poetry  and  art  could  hardly  be  other  than  it  is.  PhikMOf>hy, 
while  still  engaged  In  KcOeralization,  could  not  assign  to  the  imagina- 
tion its  proper  function.  "  Aesihetik  "  could  not  enter  into  her 
purview.  For  a  moment,  in  the  Symposium,  the  ancient  quarrel 
of  poetry  and  philosophy  had  seemed  to  be  melted  in  a  dominant 
tone,  but  this  was  only  a  fond  anticipKition.  Plato,  if  man  ever 
did  so.  had  felt  the  siren  charm,  but  he  is  now  embarked  on  a  more 
severe  endeavour,  and.  until  the  supreme  unity  of  truth  and  good 
is  grasped,  vagrant  fancy  must  be  subdued  and  silent. 

4  In  the  early  education  of  the  guardians  a  place  is  found  for 
the  unconscious  virtue  acquired  through  habit,  which  the  Prota*- 
"goras  and  Mtn»  stumbled  over  and  the  Phaedo  treated  with  disdain. 
In  the  ideal  state,  however,  this  lower  excellence  is  no  longer  a 
wild  plant,  springing  of  itself  through  some  uncovenantcd  grace 
of  inspiration;  but  cultivated  through  an  education  which  has 
been  Durifled  by  pMkisophy  so  as  to  be  in  harmony  with  reason.. 
But  if  Plato  were  cross^uestioned  as  to  the  intrinsk  value  tA  habiu 
so  induced  as  a  preservative  for  his  pupils  against  temptation, 
he  would  have  replied.  **  I  do  not  pretend  to  have  removed  all 
difficulties  from  their  path.  Enough  of  evil  still  surrounds  them 
to  test  their  moral  strength  1  have  but  chsared  the  well-springs 
of  the  noxious  weeds  that  have  been  fatal  to  so  maoy.  in  order 
that  they  may  have  little  to  unlearn,  and  be  exposed  only  to  such 
dangers  as  are  inevitable."  ,        ,    ^ 

5.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  and  worth  the  attention  of  those  who 
look  for  system  in  Plato,  that  the  definkkm  of  justice  here  so 
laboriously  wrought  out.  vit.  the  right  division  of  labour  between 
the  three  chisws  in  the  sute  and  between  the  three  corresponding 
faculties  in  the  individual  soul,  is  nowhere  else  repeated  or  applied, 
although  the  tripartite  division  of  the  soul  recurs  in  the  Timaeus, 
and  the  notion  of  justice  is  of  gfeat  Importance  to  the  arguments 
of  the-  PoliticHS  and  the  Lam. 

6.  Before  leaving  the  RgptMic,  it  is  important  to  mark  the 
stage  which  has  now  been  reached  by  Plato's  doctrine  of  ideas. 
The  statements  of  the  RepuUic  on  this  subject  are  by  no  means 
everywhere  consistent. 

•  Grote. 

*  See.  for  example,  the  admission  of  luxury  and  the  after*purifi- 
cation  through  "  music."  bks.  tl.  iiL 


a.  Towands  the  end  of  bk.  v.  philosophers  are  defined  as  bvera 
of  the  whole,  who  recognize  the  unity  of  justice,  goodness,  beauty, 
each  In  itself,  as  distinguished  from  the  many  just  or  good  or  bciutiful 
things.  The  former  are  said  to  be  objects  of  knowledge,  the  latter 
of  opimon,  which  is  intennediate  between  kaowlcclge  and  ignorance. 
Knowledge  k  of  being,  ignorance  of  the  non-existent,  opinion  of 
that  which  is  and  is  not. 

6.  In  bk.  vi.  there  u  a  more  etaborate  statement,  implying  a 
more  advanced  point  of  view.  The  "contemplation  of  alt  time 
and  all  existence  u  a  riper  conception  than  "  the  love  of  each  thing 
as  a  whole."  Ignorance  and  nonentity  have  now  disappeared, 
and  the  soale  ia^  graduated  from  the  most  evanescent  impression  of 
sense  to  the  highest  reach  of  absolute  knowledge.  And  in  the 
highest  region  there  is  again  a  gradation,  rising  to  the  form  of  good, 
and  descending  from  it  to  the  true  forms  m  all  things.  In  the 
applicatton  of  this  scheme  to  the  theory  of  education  in  bk.  viL 
there  are  still  further  refinements.  The  psychological  analysis 
becomes  more  subtle,  and  more  stress  is  laid  on  the  connexion  of 
ickas. 

€.  The  doctrine  reverts  to  a  cruder  aspect  in  bk.  x.,  where  <we 
are  told  of  an  ideal  bed.  wbkh  is  one  only  and  the  pattern  of  all  the 
many  actual  beds. 

i.  A  yet  different  phase  of  idealism  presents  itself  in  bk.  ix. 
{sMb  fin.),  in  the  mention  of  a  "  pattern  of  the  perfect  state  hiid 
up  in  heaven  which  the  philosopher  is  to  make  his  rule  of  life. 

What  is  said  above  concerning  Plato's  mode  of  composition  has 
some  bearing  on  these  inconsistencies  of  exprcsMon.  And  that 
bks.  vi.,  vii..  as  being  the  most  important,  were  finished  last  is  a 
not  untenable  hypothesis.  But  that  Plato,  in  preparing  the  way 
for  what  he  had  in  contemplation,  should  content  himself  with 
provisional  cxpressioos  which  he  had  himself  outgrown,  or  that 
m  a  casual  illustration  (as  in  bk.  x.)  he  should  eo  back  to  a  crude 
or  even  childish  form  of  his  own  theory,  is  equally  conceivable  and 
in  accordance  with  his  manner  elsewhere.  Socrates  in  the  Parme- 
ntdes  confessedly  wavers  on  this  very  point.  And  there  are  "  ideas  " 
of  the  four  elements  in  the  Timaeus. 

VI.  EuthyiUmus,  Parmenidest  Theaeielus,  Sophist,  SUUesman^ 
PMUtbns  (the  dialectical  dialogues). — Even  in  the  most  advanced 
meta|rftysiks  of  the  JUptMic  there  is  a  hyperbplical,  tran»- 
cendental  teodeocy,  from  which  Plato  ultimately  to  some  extent 
worked  hiraaelf  free.  But  it  was  not  in  conversation  with  '*  dear 
Glaucon,"  or  "  between  the  lines  "  of  an  ethico-poUtical  writing, 
that  this  partial  emancipation  could  be  effectually  attained.  We 
have  now  to  consider  a  series  of  dialogues,  probably  intended 
for  a  narrower  circle  of  readers,  in  which  Plato  grapples  directly 
with  the  central  diflkultics  of  his  own  theory  of  knowing  and 
being.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that  all  of  these  are  later 
than  the  Republic,  llie  position  of  the  Eulhydemus  and  Par- 
memdts  in  the  order  of  composition  is  very  uncertain.  The 
Tktaelehu  has  poinU  of  affinity  with  the  Republic.  The  Sophist, 
PMtietu  and  FkiUbus  are  in  a  later  style.  But,  on  account  of 
their  cognate  subject-matter,  these  six  dialogues  may  be  con> 
venicntly  classed  together  in  a  group  by  themselves.  And  the 
right  i^ce  for  such  a  group  is  intermediate  between  the  RepuUic 
andtheZontf. 

The  unity  of  the  object  of  defim'tion,  the  identity  of  virtue 
and  knowledge,  the  existence  of  an  absolute  good,  which  would 
be  universaUy  fcilowed  if  universally  known,  and  of  a  standard 
of  troth  which  is  implied  in  the  confession  of  ignorance,  were 
posUtlates  underlying  the  Socratic  process,  which  in  so  far  made 
no  claim  to  be  a  "  philosophy  without  assumptions."  Theso 
postulates,  when  once  apprehended)  drew  Plato  on  to  speculate 
concerning  the  natwe,  the  object  and  the  method  of  knowledge. 
Now,  to  far  a^  we  have  hitherto  followed  him,  his  speculation 
has  either  been  associated  with  ethical  inquiry,  or  has  been 
projected  in  a  poetical  and  semi-mythical  form.  In  the  Phaedrus 
however,  tlie  vj^on  of  ideas  was  expressly  conjoined  with  an 
outline  of  psychology  and  a  foreshadowing  of  scientific  method. 
And,  while  the  opposition  of  ideas  to  phenomena  and  of  know- 
ledge to  opinion  has  been  repeatedly  assumed,  it  has  also  been 
implied  that  there  is  a  way  between  them,  and  that  the  truth 
can  only  be  approached  by  man  throtigh  interrogation  of  experi- 
ence. For  it  is  nowhere  supposed  that  the  human  inquirer  is 
from  the  first  in  a  position  to  deduce  faas  from  ideas.  Much 
rather,  the  light  of  the  ideas  Is  one  which  fitfully  breaks  in  upon 
ejcperience  as  men  struggle  towards  the  universal. 

But  it  is  not  less  true  that  the  metaphysical  aspirations  from 
which  Socrates  had  seemed  to  recall  men's  thoughts  had  been 
reawakened  in  consequence  of  the  impulse  which  Socrates 


826 


PLATO 


himself  had  given.  From  asking,  Is  virtue  one?  Can  virtue 
be  taught?  Plato  passes  on  to  ask.  What  is  unity?  What 
are  knowledge  and  being?  From  criticizing  imperfect  modes  of 
teaching  virtue,  he  has  begun  to  speculate  about  the  right  and 
wrong  uses  of  the  intellect,  and  (iota  dramatic  portraits  of  the 
individual  Protagoras  or  Gorgias  goes  on  to  the  ideal  delineation 
of  the  sophist.  He  ha3  entered  upon  the  "  longer  way,"  and  is 
DO  longer  contented  with  mere  *'  hjrpothescs."  With  this 
demand  for  scientific  precision  his  conception  of  the  ideas  them- 
selves is  modified,  and  he  strives  anew  to  conceive  of  them  in 
relation  to  one  another,  to  the  mind,  and  to  the  world.  As  the 
balance  of  ethical  truth  was  restored  by  admitting  an  uncon- 
scious  (or  inspired)  conformity  to  reason,  so  now  a  fresh  attempt 
is  made  on  the  intellectual  side  to  bridge  the  gulf  between  sense 
and  knowledge. 

This  endeavour  involves,  not  only  an  eiqMmsion  of  the  method 
of  Socrates,  but  an  examination  of  the  earlier  phOosophies  from 
which  Socrates  had  turned  away.  Their  influence  on  Plato  has 
been  traceable  jn  the  preceding  dialogues,  though,  except  in  the 
case  of  Pythagoreanism  {Corg.,  Pkced.,  Rep.)  it  has  been  mostly 
indirect  and  casual.  But  in  these  dialectical  dialogues  he  mani- 
fests his  serious  conviction  that  the  contemporary  fallacies  which 
formed  the  chief  hindrance  to  inquiry  were  deeply  rooted  in 
forms  of  thought  created  by  earlier  thinkers,  above  all  by 
Heraclitus  and  Parmenides.  To  the  exdusiveness  of  their  first 
principles  as  held  by  their  followers  Plato  attributed  the 
barrenncsss  and  impracticable  unreality  of  many  discussions, 
which  put  shadow-fighting  and  controversy  in  the  place  of  real 
investigation,  and  led  men  to  think  that  truth  was  unattainable* 
He  therefore  enters  into  conversation,  as  it  were,  with  the  great 
minds  of  former  times,  and  in  the  spirit  of  Socrates  compels 
each  of  them  to  yield  up  his  secret,  and  to  acknowledge  a  supple* 
mental  truth.  To  this  effort  he  may  very  probably  have  been 
stimulated  by  the  dialectical  activity  of  his  Socratic  friends  at 
Megara.  whose  logical  tastes  had  drawn  them  towards  Eleaticism. 
But,  unlike  them,  while  strengthening  his  metaphysical  theory, 
he  was  also  led  to  give  to  his  political  speculations  a  more 
practical  turn. 

The  Eutkydemus  is  a  treatise  ''  De  Sophisticis  Elenchis  "  in 
the  form  of  a  farce,  and  may  serve  to  introduce  the  five  other 
euthydeana.  <J^*W"^.  »*  t^^  encounter  with  Thrasymachus 
introduces  the  serious  part  of  the  Republic.  Under 
the  mask  of  mockery  there  is  more  of  concentrated  thought,  and 
also  more  of  bitterness,  in  this  dialogue  than  in  the  Protagoras  or 
the  Gorgias. 

A  sample  of  educational  dialectic-~in  which  Socrates  draws  out 
of  young  Cleinias  the  admissions  (i)  that  a  philosophy  is  needed, 
(a)  that  the  highest  philosophy  is  a  science  of  kingcraft,  which 
remains  for  the  present  undefined^is  contrasted  with  a  series 
of  ridiculous  sophisms,  propounded  by  DionySodorus  and  his 
brother  Euthydemus,  in  which  absolute  and  relative  notions, 
whether  affirmative  or  negative,  object  and  subject,  universal 
and  particular,  substance  and  attribute,  action  and  modality, 
are  capriciously  confused.  Crito,  to  whom  Socrates  narrates  the 
scene,  is  moved  to  contempt.  But  Socrates  warns  him  not  on 
this  account  to  despair  of  philosophy.  In  coAclttsion,  Isocrates, 
or  some  one  else,  who  prematurely  mixes  up  philosophy  with 
practical  politics,  is  cautioned  against  spoiling  two  good  things. 

Such  puzzles  as — How  can  I  learn  either  what  I  know  or  what 
I  do  not  know?*  How  can  things  become  what  they  are  not? 
How  is  falsehood  or  denial  possible?~allhough  treated  joculariy 
here,  will  be  found  returning  afterwards  to  *'  trouble  the  mind's 
eye." 

Plato  appears  in  the  sante  act  to  have  become  aware  of  his 
afftm'ty  with  Parmenides,  and  to  have  been  led  to  reconsider  the 
Pormemidtt  foundations  of  his  own  doctrine.  The  one  being 
*  of  Parmenides  was  a  more  abstract  notion  than 
justice,  beauty  or  the  good.  And  the  Zenonian  method  had 
more  pretension  to  exactness  than  the  Socratic.  But  it  remdned 
barren,  because  contented  to  repeat  its  own  first  essays  in 
the  destructive  analysis  of  experience,  without  rising  to  the 

*  Cf.  Ifcao. 


examination  of  its  own  firtt  princifiles.  For  this  highct  ctiiidai, 
of  whidi  he  bimaetf  also  stood  in  aeed»  Plato  kxAs  19  frco 
the  disciples  to  the  master  Paimcaidcs.  The  appeal  to  ha 
is  put  into  the  mouth  of  Socrates,  as  a  very  young  man.  vbo  b& 
framed  for  himself  a  theory  of  ideas,  and  would  gladly  sti  ib; 
Zenonian  process  applied  to  the  notions  of  sameness,  difcrcncc 
likeness,  unlikeness,  unity  and  being. 

Parmenides,  whom  Plato  treats  with  tender  reverence  »it 
unmixed  with  irony,  proposes  to  the  youth  a  series  of  qrxstiaai 
which  reveal  the  crudity  of  the  doctrine  of  &^.  (i)  Art  tLer 
ideas  of  trivial  things?'  (2)  How  do  things  '*  partake  "«i 
them?  (3)  Must  not  idealism  proceed  in  infinitvcmi  (41  li 
ideas  are  thoughts,  do  they  and  their  participants  think  ?  (.<> 
If  they  are  patterns,  and  things  resemble  them,  must  there  p  \ 
be  a  pattern  of  the  resemblance,  and  so  on  m  infinUitm  ?  (6, 1: 
absolute,  are  they  thinkable  by  man  ? 

These  difficulties  are  real,  and  yet  to  deny  ideas  is  todestic; 
philosophy.  (As  the  paradoxical  doubts  in  the  Prctagerc:  c-. 
not  shake  the  faith  of  Socrates  in  the  existence  of  good,  so  nci!  r 
does  Plato  here  intend  for  a  moment  to  derogate  from  the  !x'u: 
in  the  existence  of  the  One  and  the  Ttut.) 

Parmenides  advises  Socrates  to  arm  htmielf  for  the  furtfacr  "^ 
suit  of  truth  (i)  by  the  higher  application  and  (3)  by  the  ckirr.<;'. 
or  completion  of  tne  Zenonian  method.  (1)  The  method  is  to  br 
api>Iicd  to  abstractions.  (3)  It  is  not  enough  to  show  the  kdtna  '^ 
which  may  be  drawn  from  the  admission  of  an  hvpothcst,  K' 
account  must  also  be  taken  of  the  inferences  wfaicn  loikv  iu 
its  rejection. 

Parmenides  eieemplifies  his  suggestion  by  examining  bis  o«n  K 
principle  in  conversation  with  a  youth  who,  while  a  oontempcrv 
of  Socrates,  is  a  namesake  of  Plato's  pupil  Aristotle.*  Not  ocfu.' 
with  the  affirmative  and  negative  hypotheses,  he  pursuct  ci:!> ' 
atong  two  lines ,  according  as  either  term  of  the  propositior  >> 
cmpnanxcd,  and  this  not  only  as  regards  the  hypothesis  d  >»<'>• 
but  also  as  applied  to  the  attemative  hypothesis  of  plurality.  Tk 
result,  as  in  the  Protagoras,  is  purely  destructive,  and  the  dialosw 
ends  abruptly  without  a  word  01  reply  from  Socrates. 

The  second  part  of  the  Parmcxtdes  may  be  regarded  as  u 
experiment  in  which  Plato  "  assays  to  go  "  in  Elcatic  urtX'' 
Yet  the  strange  web  is  "  shot "  with  coioars  of  original  tbougtt. 
The  mode  of  conceiving  time  and  becoming,  and  the  viso^  ' 
nothingness  towards  the  end^  may  be  noted  as  c^)cc:i'< 
Platonic.  These  passages  may  be  regarded  in  the  same  ligl.>  a 
the  wise  words  of  Protagoras  or  the  sober  truths  which  ckiv 
amidst  the  wild  fancies  of  the  Cratylms.  They  should  not  m^'^ 
the  interpreter  into  a  search  for  recondite  meanings. 

The  Zenonian  method  has  been  carried  out  to  the  oiinc»: 
application  to  the  highest  subject,  and  has  led  the  mind  i&tu* 
maze  of  contradiction.    It  remains  tocall  in  question 
the  method  itself,  and  the  notion  of  absolute  identity 
and  «Uffercnce  on  whicli  it  hinges,  and  so  to  lay  anew  the  U^- 
dation-stone  of  thought.    Before  this  can  be  attempted,  bc*- 
'  ever,  another  set  of  difficulties  have  to  be  met,  and  anoiker  st*. 
of  philosophers  examined.     For  the  current  scepticism  ^^^ 
undermined  the  conception  of  knowledge  as  well  as  that  of  bc't 
and  the  fame  of  Heiaditus  was  hardly  second  to  chat  d  I^ 
menides.     Protagoras  appeared  in  a  former  dialogue  u  i>' 
champion  of  ordinary  morality;  he  is  now  made  the  expor^:' 
of  ordinary  thinking.    His  saying  "  Man  the  measure  "  is  *^^^- 
to  rest  on  the  unstable,  basis  <^  the  Heracliican  flux.  B>  i> 
elaborate  criticism  of  both  theories  knowledge  is  at  last  sepsr-' 
from  the  relativity  of  sense;  bat  the  sutoequent  attemt*  ' 
distinguish  on  abstract  grounds  between  true  and  false  op-  ' 
and  to  define  knowledge  as  true  opinion  with  a  reason  « 
Afeuo),  proves  ineffectvaL    Plato  still  shows  tnoes  of  llcpr*..* 
influence.    But  the  disjunctive  method  of  the  Parmay-^  * 
not  re$umed«     The  indirect  proofs  are  so  arranged  as  to  a^- 
the  skUl  of  Socrates  in  "  bringing  to  the  birth  "  the  gcrrs  .• 
thought  in  a  richly  endowed  and  "  pregnant "  young  r.:: 
Thcaetetus  is  the  embodiment  of  the  philosophic  laxan  <^ 
cribcd  in  Rep.  bk.  vi.,  and  has  already  been  trained  by  Ttox^^-; 
of  Cyrene  in  geometry  and  the  other  preparaloiy  scieoc^  *• 

»  a.  Rep.  X.  597-  .,  »^ 

'Cf.    the   younger  Socrates   of   the   PeUtkm.     It   wouki  ^ 
precarious  to  draw  any  inference  from  this  mlnuts  fact. 


PLATO 


821 


Bnp,  bk.  vii.  It  is  in  oanveiaatiofi  with  TiModonit  thai  Socntes 
impressively  contrasts  the  lives  of  the  lawyer  and  the  |>hilotopher. 
The  TMeaeSetut  marks  a  great  advance  in  dearncas  of  metaphysfc&l 
and  psychological  expression.  See  for  example  the  passage 
(184-186)  in  which  the  independent  function  of  the  nind  is 
asserted,  and  ideas  are  shown  to  be  the  truth  of  experience 
There  is  also  a  distinct  approach  towards  a  critical  and  liistorical 
method  in  philosophy,  while  the  perfection  of  style  continues 
unimpaired,  and  the  person  of  Socrates  is  as  vividly  lepitsented 
as  in  any  dialogue. 

Notwithstanding  the  persistence  of  an  indirect  and  negative 
method,  the  spirit  of  this  dialogue  also  is  the  reverse  of  sceptical. 
"  Socrates  must  assume  the  reality  of  knowledge  or  deny  himself " 
(197  A).  Perhaps  in  no  metaphysical  writing  is  the  balance  more' 
firmly  held  between  experience,  imagination  and  reflection. 
Plato  would  9ttm  to  have  made  a  compact  with  hinaelf  to  abstain 
rigidly  from  snatching  at  the  golden  fruit  that  has  so  often  ^ded 
his  grasp,  and  to  content  himself  with  laboriously  "cutting 
steps  "  towards  the  summit  that  was  still  unsealed. 

With  Platoi  as  with  other  inventive  writecs,  a  time  seems  to 
have  arrived  when  he  desired  to  connect  successive  works  in  a 
. .  series.  Thw  in  planning  the  S<^pkuies  he  haktd  it  to 
the  Tkiodetus  (which  had  been  written  without  aAy 
such  intention),  and  projected  a  whole  tetralogy  of  dialectical 
dialogues,  TkeactftuSt  SopkisUs,  PotUkui,  PkUtaofkHS,  of  which 
the  last  piece  seems  never  to  have  been  written. 

After  an  interval,  of  which  our  only  measure  Is  a  change  of 
style,  the  philosopher  returns  to  the  great  central  question  of 
knowledge  and  being.  The  obstacle  in  his  path,  on  which  he  has 
often  played  with  light  satire,  dramatic  portraiture  and  indirect 
allusion,  is  now  to  be  made  the  object  of  a  aetwusly  planned 
attack.  He  has  made  his  approaches,  and  the  enemy's  fortress 
is  to  be  forthwith  sapped  and  overthrown.  Thiaboaiile  position 
is  not  merely  the  "  Sophistik  "  which,  as  some  tell  us,  is  an 
mvcntion  of  the  Germans,  and  as  Plato  himself  declares  is  only 
the  reflection  or  embodiment  of  the  average  mind,'  but  the 
fallacy  of  fallacies,  the  prime  falsehood  (irpSnov  ifUos)  of  all 
contemporary  thought.  This  is  nothing  dse  than  tlw  crude 
absoluteness  of  affirmation  and  negation  which  was  ridiculed  hi 
the  Eulkydemui,  and  has  been  elsewhere  mentioned  as  the  first 
principle  of  the  art  of  controversy.*  For  dramatic  purposes 
this  general  error  is  personified.  And  the  word  "sophist." 
which  had  somehow  become  the  bUe  noire  of  the  Phitonic  school, 
thus  for  the  first  time  fixedly  acquires  the  signifiamce  which  has 
since  clung  to  the  name.  That  Plato  himself  would  not  adhere 
pedantically  to  the  connotation  here  im^Htd  is  shown  by  the 
admission,  at  the  opening  of  the  dialogue,  that  amongst  other 
disguises  under  which  the  philosopher  waJks  the  earth  the  S(q>hist 
is  one. 

In  the  So^UteSt  as  in  the  Parmenides,  a  new  method  is  intro- 
duced, and  agam  by  an  Eleatic  teacher.  This  method  is  repeated 
with  improvements  in  the  PUUieuSt  and  once  more  referred  to 
in  the  PkUtbut.  It  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  *'  syna- 
goge  "  and  "  diaeresis  "  of  the  Pkaednu,  bnt  is  applied  by  the 
"  friend  from  Elea  "  with  a  degree  of  pedantty  which  Socrates 
nowhere  betrays.  And  the  two  methods,  although  kindred, 
have  probably  oome  through  different  channela—the  chusifi- 
cations  of  the  Phaedrus  being  Plato's  own  generalisation  of  the 
Socratic  pcooess,  while  the  dichotomies  of  the  Sopkisks  and 
PoiiiicMS  are  a  caricature  of  Socrates  cast  hi  the  Megarian  mo^. 
Plalo  seems  to  have  regarded  this  method  as  an  implement  which 
might  be  used  with  advantage  only  when  the  cardinal  principles 
on  which  it  turned  had  been  fully  criticised. 

T.  After  various  attempts  to** catch  the  sophist,**  he  Is  defined 
as  the  maker  of  an  unfcal  likenen  of  truth.  Mere  the  difficulty 
begins — for  the  definitioo  implicft  the  existence  of  the  unreal.  t.e. 
of  not-beine.  In  our  extremity  it  u  necessary  to  "  lay  hands  on 
our  father  Parmenides." 

3.  The  contradictions  attendant  on  the  notkm  of  **bdng,'* 
whether  as  held  by  Parmenides  or  his  opponents  or  by  the  "  lesa 
exact  "  thinkers  who  came  after  them,  are  then  examined,  and  in 
an  extremely  subtle  and  suggestive  passage  (246-249)  an  attempt 


^R*p  vi  493. 

s*« 


•Avr(X«7M4 


IS  made  to  mediate  bctiwteu  ideaUam  and  asatcriallsm.  The  result 
is  that  while  consummate  being  b  exempt  from  chanse  it  cannot 
be  devoid  ol  life  and  motion.  "  Like  cfaiMren,  *  Give  us  both,' 
aay  we." 

,  3.  This  Icacb  up  to  the  main  question  (a)  are  different  notbns 
incommunicable,  or  {b)  are  all  ideas  indiscrinunatcly  communicable, 
or  (O  is  there  communioa  ol  some  kinds  and  not  of  others?  The 
last  view  is  akme  tenable,  and  b  confirmed  by  experience.  And 
of  the  tnte  combiaatmn  and  aeparetioo  of  kinds  the  philosopher 
b  judge. 

4  then  it  »  asked  (in  onler  to  "bfaid  the  soohist")  whether 
being  is<predicable  of  not>being. 

Five  chief  kinds  (or  categories)  are  now  examined,  via.  being, 
rest,  motran.  sameness,  difference.  Rest  and  motmn  are  mutualty 
incommunicable,  but  difference  b  no  less  universal  than  being  itself. 
For  everything  b  *'  other  *'  than  the  rest.  tJt.  b  not.  Thus  positive 
and  negative  not  onlv  coexist  but  are  coextensive 

5.  And.  in  spite  of  Psrmenklea,  we  have  discovered  the  existence, 
and  also  the  nature,  of  not'being.  It  folbws  that  the  mere  pursuit 
of  contradictions  b  chiMidi  and  usdeas  and  wholly  incompatible 
with  a  phikMophic  spirit. 

Negation,  falsity,  contradiction,  aie  three  notk>ns  which  PUto 
from  hb  height  of  abstraction  docs  not  hoM  apart.  Hb  position 
b  the  converse  of  the  Splnozbtic  sayfaig,  "  Omnb  determinatio 
est  negatio."  According  to  him,  every  negative  implies  an 
affirmative.  And  hb  main  point  b  that  true  negation  b  cor- 
reUtive  to  true  afinnation,  much  as  he  has  said  in  the  Pkaednu 
that  the  dialectician  separates  kinds  according  to  the  "  lines  and 
veins  of  nature."  The  Sophisks  b  a  standing  protest  against 
the  error  of  marring  the  finely-graduated  linnmenta  of  truth, 
and  so  destroying  the  vitality  of  thought. 

The  idealisu  whom  the  Eleatic  stranger  treats  so  gently  have 
been  identified  with  the  Megariaas.  But  may  not  Plato  be 
reflecting  00  a  Megarian  influence  operating  within  the  Academy? 

Here,  as  partly  already  in  the  Pamemidts  and  Tkautehu,  the 
ideas  assume  the  nature  of  categories,  and  being  b  the  sum  of 
positive  attributes,  while  negation,  as  the  shadow  of  affirmation, 
b  likewise  finally  comprehended  in  the  totality  of  being. 

The  remark  made  incidentally,  but  with  intense  emphasis, 
that  the  universe  lives  and  moves  "  according  to  God,"  *  is  an 
indication  of  the  religious  tone  whfch  reappears  increasingly  in 
the  Politicus,  PkUdmSf  Timaeus  and  Laws. 

In  passing  on  to  consider  the  statesman,  true  and  false,  the 
Eleatic  stranger  does  not  forget  the  lesson  which  has  just  been 
learned.  While  continuing  hb  method  of  dicho-  riiii»«a 
tomies,  he  b  careful  to  look  on  both  sides  of  each  (SiaiM- 
altcmative,  and  he  no  longer  insbts  on  dividing  ***^ 
between  thb  and  not-thb  when  another  mode  of  classification 
b  more  natural.  A  rule  not  hitherto  applied  b  now  brought 
forward,  the  rule  of  proportion  or  right  measure  (t6  /juhptov), 
as  dbtinguished  from  arbitrary  h'miutions.  Nor  b  formal 
logical  treatment  any  longer  felt  to  be  adequate  to  the  subject 
in  hand,  but  an  elaborate  myth  b  introduced  On  the  ethico- 
political  side  abo  a  change  has  come  over  Plato.  As  he  has 
stripped  hb  ideas  of  transcendental  imagery,  so  in  reconsidering 
hb  philosopher-king  he  turns  away  from  the  smiling  optlmbm  of 
the  Republic  and  looks  for  a  scientific  statesmanship  thai  shall 
lay  a  strong  grasp  upon  the  actual  worid.  He  also  feeb  more 
bitteriy  towards  the  demagogues  and  other  rulers  of  HeDas. 
The  author  of  the  Pdiliau  must  have  had  some  great  quarrel 
with  mankind.  But  so  far  as  they  will  receive  it  he  b  still  intent 
on  doing  them  good. 

I.  The  king  b  first  defined  as  a  herdsman  of  men.  who  as  "  slow 
bipeds  *'  are  distinguished  from  the  pig  and  the  ape.  But  the  king 
IS  not  all  in  all  to  his  chai]pes.  as  the  herdsman  b.  The  above 
definition  confuses  human  with  divine  rule. 

2  Now  the  universe  b  like  a  top,  which  Cod  first  winds  in  one 
direction  and  then  leaves  to  spin  the  other  way.  In  the  former 
or  divine  cycle  all  was  spontaneous,  and  mankind  who  had  all 
things  in  common,  were  under  the  immcdtare  care  of  gods.  They 
were  happy,  if  they  used  their  leisure  m  interrogating  nature.  But 
m  thb  reign  of  Zeus  it  b  far  otherwise  Men  nave  to  urda  their 
own  ways  and  try  to  imitate  m  some  far-cA  nynncr  the  ail-but 
forgotten  divine  rule. 

3.  Therefore  in  our  present  definition  the  term  *'  superintendent  '* 
muse  be  substituted  for  "  herdsman  ** 

What  -special  kind  of  supcriotcndencc  n  true  statesmanship? 


*  Scpk.  26s  D. 


2a 


822 


PLATO 


4.  By  way  of  an  example,  the  art  of  weaving  is  defined.  The 
example  shows  that  kingcraft  has  first  to  be  separated  from  other 
kfaidred  arts,  both  causU  and  cxMiperativc.  Nine  categories  are 
adduced  which  exhaust  social  functions.  Eight  are  eliminated, 
and  the  nmth,  the  class  of  ministers,  remains.  Of  these  (a)  slaves, 
{b)  hirelings,  (c)  tradera.  (d)  offictab.  («)  priests  are  agam  parted  off, 
although  the  last  are  only  with  difficulty  separated  from  the  king, 
when  (/)  a  strange  medley  of  monstrxMis  creatures  come  into  view. 
Some  arc  fierce  Uke  lions,  some  crafty  like  the  fox,  and  some  have 
mixed  natures  like  centaurs  and  satyrs.  These  are  the  actual  rulers 
of  mankmd,  more  sophistical  and  juggling  than  the  sophist  himself. 
And  they  too  must  be  separated  from  the  true  king. 

S*  The  familiar  tripartite  distinction  of  monanchy,  olif^rchy. 
democracy,  is  doubled  by  introducing  into  each  the  distinction 
involved  in  the  presence  or  atMence  of  wealth,  and  in  the  observance 
or  non-observance  of  Law.  But  no  one  of  the  six  carries  in  itself  a 
scientific  principle. 

The  true  goveroment  is  the  rule,  not  of  many,  but  of  one  or  of 
a  few.  "  And  they  may  govern,  whether  poor  or  rich,  by  free-will 
or  compulsion,  and  either  with  or  without  law,  so  k>ng  as  they 
govern  scientifically." 

6.  The  respondent,  a  youthful  namesake  of  Socrates,  b  locked 
at  the  remark  that  the  true  ruler  may  govern  without  law. 

Thb  leads  to  a  discussion  of  the  nature  of  law,  which  b  compared 
to  the  prescription  left  by  a  physician.  If  present,  he  might 
dispense  with  his  own  rule.  So  the  presence  of  a  competent  ruler 
b  better  than  the  sovereignty  of  law,  which  makes  no  allowance 
for  nature  or  circumstance,  but  tyrannically  forees  its  own  way. 
Imagine  medicine,  nav^tion,  &c,  similarly  conducted  by  time- 
honoured  prescription,  with  penalties  for  innovation;— -what  wouM 
become  01  civilization?  Yet  if  law  b  disregarded  by  rulers  who 
are  unscientific  and  warped  by  self-interest,  this  leads  to  far  worse 
evils.  For  the  laws  are  based  on  some  experience  and  wisdom. 
Hence,  in  the  continued  absence  oi  the  true  rufer,  the  best  course, 
though  only  second  best,  is  the  strict  observance  of  law.  And  he 
who  so  rules  in  humble  imitation  of  the  scientific  governor  may  be 
truly  called  a  king,  although  if  the  divine  lawgiver  were  to  appear 
hb  living  will  would  supersede  the  law. 

7.  As  it  b,  though  cities  sarvive  many  evils,  yet  many  are  dhip- 
wrccked  because  of  the  ignorance  of  those  at  the  helm.  The  order 
of  badness  in  the  actual  states ' 


— I.  Constitutional  monarchy. 
2.  Constitutional  oligarchy. 

C3.  Law-abiding  democracy. 
4.  Law-breaking  democracy. 
— 5.  Law-defying  oligarchy. 
— 6.  Tyranny. 


8.  It  renuins  to  separate  from  the  true  ruler  those  who  co-«perate 
with  him  as  subordinates,  the  general,  the  judge,  the  orator.  Hb 
own  peculiar  function  is  an  art  of  weaving  strength  (the  warp)  with 
gentleness  (the  woof),  when  education  has  prepared  them — ^and 
thb  (i)  by  administration,  (2)  by  marriage. 

The  four  preceding  dialogues  have  shown  (i)  the  gradual 
transformation  of  the  Pbtooic  ideas  (while  still  objective)  into 
forms  of  thought,  (2)  the  tendency  to  group  them  into  scries  of 
categories,  (3)  a  corre^ionding  advance  in  psychological  classifi- 
cation, (4)  an  increasing  importance  given  to  method,  (5)  the 
inclination  to  inquire  into  processes  (yariffHi)  as  well  as  into  the 
nature  of  being. 

Meanwhile  Plato's  approach  to  the  Eleatics,  though  in  the 
way  of  criticism,  has  brought  into  prominence  the  notions  of 
p^Mf^gg^  unity,  being,  sameness,  difference,  and  has  left  some- 
what in  abeyance  the  idea  of  good.  To  thb  "  highest 
of  all  studies  "  Plato  now  returns,  equipped  with  hb  improved 
instruments,  and  ready  to  forge  new  ones  in  the  same  laboratory, 
or  in  some  other,  should  occasion  serve.  Hb  converse  with 
Parmenides  ended  in  hb  assertion  of  an  element  of  difference 
pervading  all  things — in  other  words,  of  an  indeterminate  element 
underlying  all  determinations.  Tliis  brings  him  again  into 
relation  with  the  Pythagoreans,  who  had  similarly  asserted  the 
combination  of  finite  and  infinite  in  the  universe.  Taking 
advantage  of  their  help,  he  gains  a  more  advanced  (but  still  ideal) 
conception  of  the  concrete  harmony  of  thiogSi  and  approaches 
the  definition  of  that  which  in  the  JUptMic  he  but  shadowed 
forth.  With  thia  most  serious  inquiry  there  b  combined  (as  in 
the  SophUtes  and  Pciiticus)  an  ironical  and  controversial  use  of 
dialectic,  by  which  the  juggler  and  false  pretender  (who  is  in  this 
case  the  goddess  of  pleasure), after  claiming  the  highest  place,  b 
thrust  down  to  the  lowest. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  style  of  the  IPMUhus  b  far  from 
brilliant,  or  even  clear.    In  the  effort  of  connecting  abstractions 


Plato*s  movement  is  more  laboured  than  in  bb  first  glad  Rili2»- 
tion  of  them. 

Instead  of  attempting  here  to  follow  the  windngs  of  the 
dialogue,  it  must  suffice  to  state  the  main  result.  Ncithrr 
pleasure  nor  knowledge  b  the  highest  good,  and  the  good  dvda 
defkutioo,  but  the  shrine,  or  habitation,  of  the  good  is  s  cok{^ 
life  of  which  the  elements  are,  in  order  of  merit:  (1)  mesKirr, 
the  cause  of  all  right  mixture;  (2)  (a)  beauty,  the  effect,  mi  >' 
reality,  the  inseparable  condition;  (3)  Intellect;  (4)  sdenct,  st 
and  right  opinion;  (5)  pure  pleasure  unaccompanied  with  pa-s. 
**  Not  all  the  animal  kingdom  shall  Induce  us  to  put  pkisa 
first." 

The  PkiUbus  Introduces  us  to  the  interior  of  the  Aademr  h 
the  lifetime  of  the  master.  More  than  any  other  of  the  diakipa 
it  recalls  Arbtotle's  description  of  Plato's  teaching.  But.  rn 
his  followers  seem  eariy  to  have  fallen  under  the  domirunct  .1 
the  latest  phase  of  hb  doctrine,  Plato  himself,  even  ic  tk 
PhiUbus',  b  still  detached  from  any  servitnde  to  the  cmtrs 
of  his  own  mind.  He  manipulates  them  as  the  medium  kr 
expressing  ha  fresh  thoughts,  but  they  are  not  yet  ajsXiSSxi 
into  a  system. 

"  I  will  remind  you,*'  Socrates,  "  of  what  has  been  oniiiei 
says  Protarchus  at  the  concluaon  of  this  dialogue.  Hx  -^ 
(presumably)  of  Plato's  metaphysical  writings  thus  fitW  er-^ 
with  a  confession  of  incompleteness.  But  If,  as  Rensn  um 
*'  the  most  fatal  error  b  to  believe  that  one  serves  one's  crarn 
by  calumniating  those  who  founded  it,"  neither  b  it  for  tk 
interest  of  science  to  ignore  these  Imperfect  anticipatioas.  Bj 
methods  elaborated  in  the  course  of  centuries,  and  far  mcrr.c* 
than  any  which  Plato  had  at  hb  command,  mankind  have  fisd 
an  extent  of  knowledge  which  he  dreamt  not  of.*  Dul  the  Gmt 
metaphysician  is  none  the  less  a  pioneer  of  knowledge.-  «t^ 
the  ^)ecial  sciences  of  ethics  and  psychology  had  been  ami 
from  infancy  to  adolescence  in  a  single  lifetime. 

VIL  Timaeus,  Critias  [HcrmoeraUsl—f^  the  SopkiiUs  td 
Politicus  were  written  in  continuation  of  the  Tkeaeldut.  so,  t^ 
some  uncertain  time>  Plato  conceived  the  design  of  vrm* 
great  trilogy,  for  which  the  ideal  state  depicted  in  the  Rff^'" 
Sioukl  be  the  point  of  departure.  The  grand  outKne  t^- 
sketched  by  Socrates  was  now  to  be  filled  up  by  Critias  v: 
Hermocrates.  The  form  set  up  by  reasoning  shouM  be  raii 
alive,  the  "  airy  burghers  "  shoulcLbe  seen  "  making  hiccrT ' 
As  a  prelude  to  thb  magnificent  celebration,  Timaevs.  'i* 
Pythagorean  philosopher,  who  b  present  at  the  Panatberjc 
b  ittvked  to  discourse  of  the  origin  of  all  things,  and  to  br.*: 
down  the  glorious  theme  to  the  creation  of  man.  What  sbc;« 
have  followed  this,  but  is  only  commenced  in  the  f ragnrri ' 
the  Critias,  would  have  been  the  story,  not  of  a  faO,  but «'  '^ 
triumph  of  reason  in  humanity. 

In  the  Pkii4btn  (59  A,  cf.  6s  D)  Plato  speaks  with  a  !-<k 
of  contempt  of  the  life-long  investigatbn  of  nature,  «« ^*i 
concerned  only  with  this  visible  universe,  and  imrocned  ir  i" 
study  of  phenomena,  whether  past,  present  or  to  cone,  ci* 
admit  of  no  stability  and  therefore  of  no  certainty.  *'^ 
things  have  no  absohite  first  principle,  and  can  ncvtr  be  tk 
objects  of  reason  and  true  science." 

Yet  even  thb  lower  knowledge  b  there  admitted  as  sn  Aset 
of  that  lifo  which  is  the  habiution  of  the  good.  And  tkff  f 
not  wanting  signs  in  hb  later  dialogues  that  Plato's  ima|ii»<i* 
had  again  been  strongly  drawn  towards  those  physkal  sto^ 
which,  as  the  PJutedo  shows,  had  fascinated  him  in  yootb.  IV 
nature  and  the  world  proceed  "  according  to  God  tad  ac^ 
according  to  chance  "  is  the  belief  of  the  Eieatic  stnsgff  ^ 
which  he  perceives  that  TheaeUtua  wiU  be  irresistibly  dnn« 
he  grows  okler  iSopk,  265  D).  In  the  midst  of  diaiedc^ 
abstractions,  the  processes  of  actual  production  (7wl««*  "f 
been  increasingly  borne  in  mind.  And  the  myth  in  the  ^*^' 
turns  on  cosmotogical  conceptions  which,  although  <i^^ 
from  those  in  the  Timaeus,  and  more  accordant  witk  Pw*' 
bitterest  mood,  yet  throw  a  new  light  on  the  deeper  caneai  • 
*  See,  however,  Pdit.  272  C,  D. 
Jowett,  Introd.  to  the  Ti* 


PLATO 


8«3 


his  thteghu.  In  ehe  nme  ptsftge'O^^  Q  ihtteooGOn  the  fint 
dear  anlidpation  of  an  inknogatic  Moiura*. 

The  impulse  in  this  new  direaion,  U  not  Miginatedt  was 
manifesliy  reinforced,  through  doser  intercourse  with  the 
Pythagorean  school.  And  the  choice  o£  tlmaeus  the  Pythap 
gorean  aa  chief  speaker  is  an  acknowledgment  o£  this  obvious 
tendency.  If  in  the  course  of  the  dialogue  there  occur  ideas 
apparently  borrowed  from  the  AtoraistSf  whom  Plato  penfet- 
ently  ignored,  this  fact  ought  probably  to  be  veferxcd  to  some 
early  reaction  of  Atomic  on  Pythagorean  doctrine.  It  is  import- 
ant to  observe,  however,  that  not  only  the  Timaens,  but  the 
unfinished  whole  of  which  it  forms  the  introductica,  is  pro- 
fessedly an  imaginative  creation.  For  the  legend  of  prehistoric 
Athens  and  of  Atlantis,  whenof  Critias  was  to  rdate  wbal 
bek)nged  to  internal  policy  and  Hermocrates  the  conduct  of  the 
war,  would  have  been  no  other  than  a  prose  poem,  a  "  mytho- 
logical tie,"  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  the  ReptMiCt  and  in  the 
form  of  a  fictitious  narrative.  And,  therefore,  wlttn  Timaeus 
professes  to  give  only  a  probable  account  of  shadowy  truths, 
he  must  be  taken  at  his  word,  and  not  critldzed  in  too  exacting 
a  spirit.  His  descriptions  have  much  the  same  relation  to  the 
natural  philosophy  of  Plato's  time  that  Milton's  amnolajsy 
has  to  the  serious  investigations  of  Galileo  or  Copemicus^-cxcept 
that  all  physical  speculation  hitherto  partook  in  some  measure 
,  of  this  half-mythologicid  character,  and  that  Plato's  mind, 
,      although  working  in  an  unfamiliar  region,  is  still  that  of  a 

speculative  philosopher. 
^  As  Parmentdes,  after  demonstrating  the  aoneiltity  of  growth 

and  decay,  was  >'et  impelled  to  give  some  account  of  this  non* 
TJoiMtuM.  ^^^^^"^  '^"^  unintelligible  phenomenal  worid,  so 
Plato,  although  warned  off  by  Socrates,  must  needs 
attempt  to  give  a  probable  and  comprehensive  descr^tion  of 
the  visible  universe  and  its  creation.  In  doing  so  he  acknow- 
ledges an  imperfect  truth  in  theories  Which  his  dialectic  had 
previously  set  aside.  In  examining  the  eariier  phflosopheis 
be  has  already  transgressed  the  limits  prescribed  by  Socrates, 
and  the  effort  to  connect  ideas  has  made  him  mors  and  more 
conscious  of  the  gap  between  the  ideal  and  the  actuaL  He 
cannot  rest  until  he  hasdone  his  utmost  to  fin  up  the  chasm*— 
calling  in  the  help  of  imagination  where  reason  fails  him.  J^ 
dominant  thought  is  still  that  of  a  deduction  from  the  "  reason 
of  the  best,"  as  in  the  Pkofdo,  or  "  the  idea  of  good,!'  as  in  the 
RefiMic^  But  both  his  abstract  idealism  and  his  absohtte 
optimism  were  by  this  time  considerably  modified,  and,  although 
not  confounding  "  causes  with  conditions,"  as  he  once  accused 
Anazagoras  of  doing,  he  yet  assigns  moie  scope  to  "second 
causes  "  than  he  would  then  have  been  willing  to  attribute  to 
them.  This  partly  comes  of  ripening  experience  and  a  deepening 
sense  of  the  persistency  of  evil,  and  partly  from  the  feeling — 
which  seems  to  have  grown  upon  him  in  later  lile^^  the  distance 
between  God  and  man. 

Timacuji  benns  by  assuming  (i)  that  the  universe  bcln^  corporeal 
is  caused  and  nad  a  beginning,  and  (2)  that  its  mysterious  author 
made  it  after  an  everlasting  pattern.  Yet,  bong  bodily  and  visible. 
it  can  only  he  made  the  subject,  humanly  speaking,  of  probable 
discourse.  Thus  much  being  premised,  he  procccoa^  to  unfold-^ 
(a)  the  work  of  mind  in  creation,  (6)  the  effects  of  necessity,  including 
the  general  and  mecific  attributea  of  bodies,  (c)  the  principles  of 
physiology,  and  {d)  an  outline  of  pathology  and  medicine.  ^ 

To  give  a  full  account  of  such  a  comprehensive  treatise  is  beyond 
our  scope,  and  the  Timaeus.  however  areat  and  interesting,  has  ocen 
well  described  aa  an  out-building  of  the  great  fabric  of  original 
Platonisra.  A  very  few  scattered  observations  are  all  that  there  b 
^wce  for  here. 

a.  I.  In  the  mytholoay  of  the  Timaeus  some  of  the  conceptions 
wrhich  attained  logical  cleamcas  in  the  Sophist  and  Pkilebms  munie 
aui  ontological  form.  Thus,  in  compounding  the  soul-stuff  of  the 
uotverac.  the  father  of  all  takes  of  the  continuous  and  discrete  and 
fuses  them  into  an  essence  (the  composite  being  of  the  Phikhus). 
Again  he  takes  of  the  same  and  other  (cf.  the  Sophist),  over* 
comine  their  inherent  repugnance  by  his  sovveign  act. 

a.  The  notion  of  an  economy  or  reservation  in  Plato  has  been 
often  exaggerated  and  misapplied.  .  But  it  is  difficult  to  acquit 
him  of  intentional  obscurity  in  speaking  of  the  creation  of  the  Earth. 
It  is  clear,  though  Plato  does  not  say  so,  that  she  is  meant  tohave 
been  created  together  with  the  Heaven  and  together  wfth  Time. 
asnd  so  before  the  other  **  gods  within  the  heaven,"  *'.e.  the  sun  and 


SBOoo  and  five  phoets,  and  it  la  a  phtuaible  supposition  that  she  is 
the  "  artificer  of  day  and  ntgbt,*'  b)r  interposing  her  bulk  to  the 
sun's  rays.  If  the  word  dKSoiUn  in  p.  40  Implies  motion  (as 
Aristode  thought  *>,  it  cannot  be,  as  Grots  supposed,  a  motioa  con- 
,  sentaoeoua  with  that  of  the  outer  sphere,  but  either  some  far  dower 
'  morion,  perhaps  assumed  in  order  to  account  for  the  shiftirg  of  the 
seasons,  or  an  equal  retrograde  motion  which  is  supposed  to  neutral- 
izt  in  her  case  the  "  motion  of  the  same."  She  chngs  to  the  centre, 
as  he^  natural  abode.  And  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens 
u  due  not  to  any  mediaoical  force  but  to  the  soul  of  the  world 
extending  from  the  centre  to  the  poles  and  comprehending  all, 

3.  Immortalitv  is  in  the  rimaeii5 'dependent  on  the  will  of  the 
Eterxial.     And  tne  sublime  idea  of  eternity  is  here  first  formulated. 

4.  The  phenomena  of  vision  and  hearing  are  included  among  the 
worics  of  reason,  because  the  final  cause  of  these  higher  senses  is 
to  give  men  peroeptioo  of  number,  through  contemplation  of  the 
measures  of  time. 

b.  I.  It  has  been  commonly  said  that  the  four  elements  of  the 
TtSMKiii  aie  geometrieal  figures,  without  content  This  is  not  true. 
For  what  purpose  doce  Pbto  introduce,  "  bendes  the  archetype  and 
the  created  form,  a  third  kind,  dim  and  hard  to  conceive,  a  sort  of 
limbec  or  matrix  of  creation."  if  not  to  fill  up  the  triangles  which 
are  elements  of  elements,  and  to  be  the  .vehicle  of  the  forms  com- 
pounded  of  them?  It  has  been  supposed  that  this  "nurse  of 
generation  "  is  identical  with  "  spacc.^'  and  it  cannot  be  said  that 
they  aie  cleanly  kept  apart  by  Plato.  But  he  had  a  distinct  nomen- 
clature for  either,  and.  although  gravity  is  explained  away  (so  that 
his  molecules,  unlike  Clerk  Maxwell's,  may  be  called  imponderable), 
yet  extension,  or  the  property  of  filling  space,  is  sufficiently  implied. 

9.  The  diffecence  of  sue  in  the  triasgiles  and  varying  sharpness 
of  their  outlines  are  ingenious  though  inadequate  expedients,  adopted 
in  order  to  account  for  qualitative  difference  and  physical  change. 

3.  In  criticizing  the  illufory  notion  of  "up  and  down."  Plato, 
apparently  for  the  first  time,  broaches  the  conceptioa  of  antipodes. 

4.  More  disdnotly  than  in  the  PksUtus,  bodily  pleasure  is  el- 
plained  by  "  a  sudden  and  sensible  return  to  nature  (cf.  Ar.  RhsL 
1.  11,1^*  N.E.,  vii.  10). 

^.  Natural  philosophers  are%amcd  against  experimenting  on  the 
mixture  of  colours,  which  is  a  divine  process  and  forbidden  to  man 
{Tim.  6gD).    (Ancient  science  was  at  a  loss  for  a  theory  of  colouts.) 

e,  I.  Plato  tends  moee  and  more  in  his  later  writings  to  account 
for  moral  evil  by  physical  conditions,  thus  arriving  at  the  Socratic 
principle  of  the  involuntarincss  of  vice  by  a  different  road. 

Hence  in  the  Timaeus  not  the  body  only  is  made  by  the  hrferkw 
gods,  but  tiiey  also  create  the  lower  arid  mortal  parts  of  the  human 
wml:  the  prindplr  of  anger  whkh  is  planted  in  the  bceasjt,  within 
hearing  ot  reason,  and  that  of  appetite  which  is  lodged  below  the 
diaphragm  lilce  an  animal  tied  m  a  stall,  with  the  stomach  for  a 
crib  ana  the  liver  for  a  *'  soothsaying  "  looking-glass  to  soothe  or 
lerrifyit  when  tempted  to  break  loose. 

a.  The  brain-pan  was  left  base  of  piotcctiiU(  flesh  "  because  the 
■one  of  OqA  who  framed  us  deliberately  chose  for  us  a  precarious 
l^e  with  capability  of  reason,  in  preference  to  a  long  secure  existence 
with  obstruction  of  thought, 

3.  The  nails  ate  a  rudimentary  piovision  for  the  lower  animals, 
into  which  doeenease  aonls  were  afterwafds  to  be  transfonned. 

4.  Vcgetabfea  have  stnsation  but  not  motk>n. 

3.  By  way  of  illustrating  the  very  curious  account  here  given  of 
respiration,  it  is  asserted  that  whdt  is  commonly  thougnt  to  be 
the  attracriott  of  the  magnet  is  really  doe  to  rotatory  motion  and 
displawcement]  a  remarkable  anticipation  {Tim,  tec). 

Ow  When  the  original  particles  wear  out,  and  the  bonds  of  soul 
and  body  in  the  marrow  give  way,  the  soul  escapes  delightedly  and 
files  away.   This  is  the  painless  death  of  natural  decay. 

A.  I.  The  dependence  of  mental  disease  on  bodily  oenditlons  Is 
more  fully  recognixed  in  the  Timaeus  than  elsewhcee  in  Plato 
(conttast  the  Ckanmdes^  for  example). 

2.  He  has  also  changed  his  mind  about  the  treatment  of  disease, 
and  shows  more  respect  for  regimen  and  diet  than  in  the  Republic. 
Diseases  are  a  kind  of  second  nature,  and  sbouki  be  treated 
accordingly. 

3.  It  IS  also  a  remark  in  coatrast  with  the  RepubUc,  that  over- 
study  leads  to  head  complications,  which  physicians  ascribe  to 
chill  and  find  intractable.  , 

Lastly,  it  is  one  of  the  strange  irregulanties  in  the  compositioa 
of  the  Timaeus  that  the  creation  of  woman  and  the  relation  of 
the  sexes*  to  each  other  are  subjects  leservcd  to  the  end,  because 
this  is  the  place  givca  to  the  lower  animals,  and  woman  (cf.  the 
Phaedrus)  is  the  first  transmigration  from  the  form  of  man.  This 
order  is  protxibly  not  to  be  attributed  to  Plato's  own  thought,  but 
to  some  peculianty  of  Pythagorean  or  Orphic  tradition. 

VIII.  The  Lgws.—Tht  two  series  of  dialogues,  the  dia1ectk»l 
and  the  imaginative— .Stf^tes,  PdiUcus,  Piuhsophus^ 
Timaeus,  Critias,  Hermocr^Ues—men  left  incomplete.  For 
Plato  bad  concentrated  his  decfiniiig  powers,  in  the  eveniBg  of 

*  Aristotle,  however  uses  «ttoipiW  a  diffeient  word. 
'  There  is  an  antidpation  of  microscopic  observation  in  the  words 
i6par«  ifw6  vituplrrtrm  Mai  UtAwkmerm.  t$«*"Spermatoaoa, 


824 


PLATO 


his  life, '  upon  a  different  task.  He  was  resolved  to  leave  behind 
liim,  if  he  couid  so  far  overcome  the  infirmities  of  age,*  a  code 
of  laws,  conceived  in  a  spirit  of  concession,  and  such  as  he  still 
hoped  that  some  Hellenic  state  might  sanction.  The  motive 
for  this  great  work  may  be  gathered  from  the  PolUicus,  The 
physician  in  departing  is  to  give  a  written  prescription,  adapted 
as  far  as  possible  to  the  condition  of  those  from  whom  he  goes 
away.  This  u  the  second-best  course,  in  the  absence  of  the 
philosopher-king.  And,  as  the  Hellenic  world  will  not  listen 
to  Plato's  heroic  remedy,  he  accommodates  his  counsel  to  their 
preconceptions.    He  returns  once  more  from  abstract 

"^  discussions  to  study  the  84>plication  of  ideas  to  life, 
and  though,  by  the  conditions  of  the  problem,  his  course  is 
"  nearer  earth  and  less  in  light,"  this  long  writing,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  posthumous,'  has  a  peculiar  interest.  The  ripeness 
of  accumulated  experience  and  the  mellowness  of  wise  contem- 
plation make  up  for  the  loss  of  prophetic  insight  and  poetic 
charm. 

The  form  of  dialogue  is  still  retained,  and  an  aged  Athenian 
is  imagined  as  discoursing  of  legislation  with  the  Lacedaemonian 
Megillus  and  the  Cretan  Cleinias,  who  has  in  view  the  foundation 
of  a  new  colony,  and  is  on  his  way  with  his  two  companions 
from  Cnossus  to  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Zeus. 

Plato  now  aims  at  moderating  between  Dorian  and  Ionian 
law,  freely  criticizing  both,  and  refining  on  them  from  a  higher 
point  of  view.  "  The  praise  of  obedience,  the  authority  assigned 
to  elders,  the  prohibition  kA  dowries,  the  enforcement  of  marriage, 
the  common  meals,  the  distribution  and  inalienability  of  land, 
the  institution  of  the  Crypteia,  the  freedom  of  bequest  to  a 
favourite  son,  the  dislike  of  city  w^ — ^all  reflect  the  custom  of 
Sparta."  .  "  The  xise  of  the  lot,  the  scrutiny  of  magistrates, 
the  monthly  courses  of  the  council,  the  pardon  of  the  forgiven 
homicide,  most  of  the  regulations  about  testaments  and  the 
guardianship  of  orphans,  the  degrees  of  consanguinity  recognised 
by  law,  correqwnd  to  Athenian  laws  and  customs  "  (Jowett). 

The  philosopher's  own  thoughts  oome  out  most  strongly  in 
the  "  preludes  "  to  the  laws,^  and  in  the  regulations  concerning 
education,  marriage  and  the  punishment  of  impiety  (f.tf.  xst, 
atheism;  and,  denial  of  providence;  3rd  and  worst,  immoral 
superstition).  The  difficulty  which  is  met  in  the  PolUicus  by 
the  abandonment  of  the  world  for  a  time,  and  in  the  Timaeus 
by  the  lieutenancy  of  lower  gods,  here  leads  to  the  hypothesis 
of  an  evil  soul.  The  priority  of  mind  (often  before  asserted) 
and  the  increased  importance  attached  to  numbers  are  the  chief 
indications  of  Plato's  latest  thoughts  about  the  intelligiUe 
world.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  higher  education 
(answering  to  Rep.  vi.,  vii.)  is  expressly  reserved.*  Had  Plato 
written  his  own  Epinomis,  the  proportions  of  the  whole  work 
(not  then  "  acephalous  ")  might  have  been  vastly  changed. 

The  severity  of  the  penalties  attached  to  the  three  forms  of 
heresy,  especially  to  the  third  and  worst  of  them,  has  led  to  the 
remaric  that  Plato,  after  asserting  "liberty  of  prophesying," 
bad  become  intolerant  and  bigoted  in  his  old  age  (Grote).  But 
the  idea  of  toleration  in  the  modem  sense  was  never  distinctly 
present  to  the  mind  of  any  ancient  philosopher.  And,  if  in  the 
Lams  the  lines  of  thought  have  in  one  way  hardened,  there  are 
other  ways  in  which  experience  has  softened  them.  Plato's 
"  second-best "  constitution  contains  a  provision,  which  was 
not  admissible  in  the  **  perfect  state,"  for  possible  changes  and 
readaptations  in  the  future.  The  power  of  self-reformation  is 
hedged  round  indeed  with  extreme  precautions;  and  no  young 
or  middle-aged  citizen  is  ever  to  hear  a  word  said  in  depreciation 
of  any  jot  or  tittle  of  the  existing  law.  But  that  it  should  be 
provided,  however  guardedly,  that  select  commissioners,  after 

*  4(M»(  <*  ^  iuTfiwt  r«6  fitoif.  Leu-  vi.  770  A. 

*  4r  .  .  .  y4pwt  lirup«ru|Mr  7*  roniSro^,  Legg.  vL  75J  A. 

*  Published  by  Phtlipput  the  Opuntian. 

•See  eapcciaUy  iv.  716  aeq.;  v.  737  seq.;  735  seq.;  vi.  766;  vii. 

S73  >eqM777. 794t  S03aeq.,8ii,8l7:  viii.  «35  «q- ;  ix.  875 :  x-  M7  ^ea, 
97  seq.,  904  aeq.  ^ 

^Leu-  m-  968  E.  (Ath*)  "  I  am  wilUng  to  share  with  yort  the 
danger  of  Mating  to  you  my  views  about  education  and  nurture, 
which  IS  th«  queation  coming  to  the  surface  agaiii." 


travelling  far  and  wide,  should  bring  back  of  the  froit  d  tlia 
observations  for  the  consideration  of  the  noctiunal  coundl.  aad 
that  a  powvr  of  constitutionally  amending  the  laws  should  iksi 
be  admitted  into  the  state,  is  soffidently  remarkable,  vhco  \k 
would<be  finality  of  aadent  legislation  is  considoed.  Flit« 
even  comes  near  to  the  refleirion  that  "  constitutioos  ait  not 
made,  but  grow  "  (iv.  709  A). 

Plato  in  the  Laws  desists  finally  from  impersonating  Socnts. 
But  he  is  in  some  ways  nearor  to  his  master  in  q>irit  thaa  wbca 
he  composed  the  Pkaednu*  The  sympathy  with  cominoB  life, 
the  acceptance  of  Greek  religion,  the  deepening  homaDiiy, « 
no  less  essentially  Socratic  than  the  love  of  truth  which  bretiks 
in  every  page.  And  some  particular  aspects  of  Socnliai 
reappear,  such  as  the  question  about  courage*  and  that  cobcs- 
ning  the  unity  of  virtue.' 

Doubtful  and  Spurious  Works.— Ol  the  dialogues  fonaiai 
part  of  the  "  Platonic  canon,"  and  not  inchided  in  the  precedisi 
survey,  the  Lesser  Hippias,  First  AUibiados  and  Meuesam  vt 
the  most  Platonic,  though  probably  not  Plato's.  The  Gn^ 
Hippias  and  the  Clitopkou  am  also  admiUed  to  have  saae 
plausibility.  The  SecoudrAkibiadts  (on  Prayer),  the  Hippathi 
(touching  on  Peisistrattis  and  Homer),  Minos  ("d«  kge% 
Epinomis,  Erastae,  Theages,  are  generally  condemned,  tia^ 
most  of  them  are  very  eariy  forgeries  or  academic  czmisti' 
And  the  Atiockus  (though  sometimes  prized  for  its  sobjtd 
"  the  contempt  of  death  "),  the  Dejusto,  De  viriuU,  DenuiecA 
Sisyphus,  Eryxias  (a  not-uninterestmg  treatue  on  the  ost  ct 
money),  together  with  the  so<aJied  Definitions,  were  npuc 
inandent  ttmea,  and  are  marked  as  qmrious  in  the  MSS. 

EDinoNs.->>(i)  Complete:  Aldlne,  Ven.,  1^13:  H.  Stcftbca. 
3  vob.  (1578),  with  Latin  vtmon  by  Senanua  (s ^e.  De  Serre,  tbe  m 
editor),  (the  paging  of  this  edition  is  preserved  for  conveniciKta 
reference  on  the  margins  of  roost  subsequent  editions) ;  G.  StaJIba.?. 

ii2  vols.,  1821-1825);  G.  Stallbaum,  the  text  in  i  vol.  (1850);  CF 
lermann   (6  vols.,   1851-1853);  Inunanuel   Bekker  (i8i6-iS2i' 
the  Zurich  cditmn  by  Baiter,  l)neUi  and  Winkebnann  (i8j^i&4'^ 


_^     ,    *hafi'V 

Gorgtas,  Tluadttus,  Craiylus,  ParmenidesyEsUkyd^us.  P^^^ 
Sophist,  Protagoras;  PkUebus,  C.  Badham.  £.  Poste  (1861),  K  ^ 
Bury:  Apolotta,  J.  RiddeU  (with  Digut  of  Platonic  Idiom)  (i&^.i 
Protagoras,  Wayte  (1854)  tS?!;  Ttieaetetus.L.  Campbell  (1861)  iv- 
B.  Kennedy:  Sophist  and  Politieus,  L.  Campbell  (1867);  /'I*- 
W.  Geddes,  Areher  Hind ;  Timaeus,  Archer  Hind  (1888) ;  PamtrHt. 
WaddeU  (1894):  Meno,  J.  Adam,  Seymer  Tbonpeon ;  Apol»gi$,Cr'» 
Mono,  St  G.  Stock;  Eutkydemus.  Gifford ;  Phaedrus,  Corrias,  ^ J^ 
Thotnpoon:  Symposium.  Euthydemus.  Laches,  C  Badhain:  r-' 
menides,  Stallbaum.  Maguire,  Waddell;  Leges,  F.  Ast  (1S14'  ^ 
Ritter  {Commeulary)  (1896) ;  Republic  Jowett  and  Campbell  (1^ 
J.  Adam  (1903). 

TaANSLATiONS. — ^Latin:  A  Latin  version  of  the  Timom  t« 
Chalcfdtus  existed  in  the  middle  ages  and  was  known  to  lat' 
It  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1520  (Teubner.  1876).  The  corjf*?J 
rendering  by  Marsiglio  Ftdno  (149^)  formed  the  basis  of  other  Us 
transhitions,  such  as  that  of  Senranus  (supra),  which  uaim^' 
the  edition  of  Stephanus.  It  was  printecl  in  the  Basel  cditior  • 
1534.  English:  (r)  Complete:  Sydenham  and  Taylor  0S« 
Jowett  (1871-1892).  (2)  ParUal:  Republic,  Davies  and  Vaot^ 
Jowett  (in  a  separate  volume;  3rd  ed.,  2  vols.,  1008);  F*u« 
E.  Poste;  Ceorgtas,  Cope;  Timaeus,  Areher  Hind  (in  his  editw"^- 
Apology,  Crito.Phaedo, Church, lowtit  (reprinted  from  thecwnp*' 
translation  with  preface  by  E.  Caird);  Theaetetus,  Paley.  K«w^ 
German:  Schleicrmachcr  (1817-1828).  J.  H.  Mailer  (i850-i*«* 
French:  V.  Cousin  (13  vols.,  1822-1640).   Italian:  Bonghi. 

DISSBRTATIONS. — ^English;    F.    Schleierroacher'a    /«» 


translated  by  W.  Dobson  (1816);  Ed.  ZeWer's  Plato  oudOeOje 
Academy,  translated  by  F.  Alleyne,  Ac.  (1876);  B.  Jo«*«»/?^ 
ductioHS,  in  his  complete  translation,  final  editioii  (1892):  G.  u^- 
Plato  and  the  other  Companions  of  Socrates  (i860;  F.  C.  Con^t*^ 
on  an  Armenian  version  (1891;;  W.  Pater,  Plato  and  rtetr^ 
(1893);  R.  L.  Nettlcship,  Lectures  on  the  RepoMic,  «<•  f'J* 
(cf.  also  his  essay  In  HeUenica,  1880);  Th.Gompen.C3wi  Th^trv 
vols.  a.  and  iii.  inEng.  trans.  (1905);  W.  Lutoslawski.  J»to* i«V 
&c. :  L.  Campbell  on  Phto's  Republic  m  Murray's  "  Home  and  Sc?«i 
Series  "  (1902):  L.  Campbell.  Religion  in  Creek  LUerutute  (Lor^ 
1898):  J.  A.  Stewart.  The  Myths  tf  Plato  (1905);  A-  E.  Taytor,  ff 
(1908):  J.  A.  Stewart.  Plato's  DoctrJme  ej  Ideas  {ifj/oft).   CcraM- 

•  Cf.  Laches.  » Cf.  Protagoras. 

•  According  to  Schaarschmidt.  only  nine  dialogues  are  pe^ 
Prota^^  Phaodr..  Symp.,  Apol.,  Crito,  Phaedo,  Rep.,  Tim.,  ufP- 


PLATO— PLATTSBURG 


825 


C.  F.  Hermann,  GescMehUumd  System,  Ac.  (1839) ;  A.  Boeckh,  Unter- 
suckunten  (1852);  Ed.  Zeller,  GeackkkU  derjjr.  Philoao^ue;  Ft, 
nberweg,  Vntersuckitmteu  (1861):  S.  Ribbirw,  CeiuHsche  Darttdlunt 
1863) :  Fr.  Susemihl.  Cenetheke  En^imciUMJif  ^1855-1898) ;  E.  Alberti, 
teist  und  Ordnunt  (1864);  C.  SchAarachmidt.  Die  SammluHg  der 

gaUmischtn  Schriften  (1866);  M.  Vermehren,  Pint.  StuHen  (1870): 
.  Pciper«,  Untersuchungen  Hber  das  System  Plattms,  Xeil  i.,  "  Die 
Erkenntniastheorie  "  fLeipzig.  1874)  :0.  Apelt,  BeilrdgtnirCtsekukl$ 


« 


valuable)  (1886):  E.  Pfleiderer,  SccraUs  tutd  PiaUm  (1896):  H. 
Windenband.  Platan  (1900) ;  C.  Ritter,  UnitrsuckintieH ;  Th.  Gompers, 
Plaionische  A  nfsAtte :  Cruckisekt  Dsnkeft  vol.  ii. ;  P.  Natorp,  IH.  Idetn^ 
Ukre  (1903);  C.  Ritter,  Platim:  $ein  Lcten,  seime  Sckrifieu,  snm 
Lehre  (1909),  vol.  i.:  and  Neiu  UnUrsuckumgat  (1910).  Other  refer- 
ences will  be  found  in  the  volume*  nantra.  French:  V.  Couiin; 
T.  H.  Martin,  BttuUs  sur  la  Timie  (184 1 ).    Italian :  Felice  Toccow 

Dictionaries  and  Indicbs. — MitcheH'a  Indtx  la  Plalo;  F.  Ast, 
Lexicon  plalonieumi  E.  Abbott.  Index  ta  Plata  (Engtith.  1875). 
•  Ok  trb  MSS.— See  cspccialty  Belcker'c  edition:  Gaisfoitl't  Lee- 
Hones  plfUonicae  (1820) :  M.  Schanz's  edition  with  critical  notes; 
Jowett  and  Campbell's  Republic^  vol.  il.;  J.  Burnett^  Oxford 
edition.  The  important  Cedex  Clarkianms  in  the  Bodleian  library 
has  been  reproduced  in  facttnule,  with  a  preCace  by  T.  W.  Allen 
(1 898-1899).  (L.C.) 

PLATO*  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  (Md  Comedy,  6ouriahed 
between  438-389  B.C.  According  to  Suldos,  he  tnts  the  author 
of  thirty  comedies.  Some  of  these  deal  with  political  matters. 
Such  were  the  Cieaphon  and  Hyperbolus,  directed  against  the 
well-known  demagogues,  and  the  Symsmackia,  rdcrring  to  a 
coalition  formed  by  Nidas,  Aldbiades  and  PhMax  to  get  rid 
of  HyperboLus  by  ostracism.  His  later  plays  treat  the  vices 
and  failings  of  mankind  in  the  spirit  of  burlesque  and  parody. 
Such  were  the  Sopkistae^  akin  to  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes; 
the  Cinesias,  an  attack  on  a  contemporary  poet;  the  Festivals, 
satirizing  the  useless  expenditure  and  extravagance  common  on 
such  occasions;  mythological  subjects — Adonis,  Europe,  lo, 
the  Ants  (on  the  Aeginetan  legend  of  the  change  of  ants  into 
men);  Pkaon,  the  stoty  of  the  Lesbian  ferryman,  who  was 
presented  by  Aphrodite  with  a  marvellous  ointment,  the  use  of 
which  made  women  madly  in  love  with  him. 

p  See  T.  Kock,  Comkontm  altieomm  fngmenia,  h  (1880);  A. 
Mcineke,  Poetarum  comicorum  g^auorum  fragmenta  (1855). 

PLATON,  LEVSHIN  (1737-1813),  Russian  divine,  was  bom  at 
Chashnikovo  near  Moscow,  and  educated  in  the  academy  of 
that  city.  In  1763  the  empress  Catherine  II.  invited  him  to 
instruct  her  son  Paul  in  theology,  and  he  became  one  of  the 
court  chaplains.  Three  years  afterwards  Platon  was  appointed 
archimandrite  of  the  monastery  of  the  Trinity  (Troitskaya 
Lavra)  near  Moscow,  in  1770  archbishop  of  Tver,  and  in  1787 
archbishop  of  Moscow  and  metropolitan.  He  died  in  x8ia,  one 
of  his  last  acts  having  been  to  write  an  encouraging  letter  to 
the  emperor  Alexander  I.  in  view  of  the  French  invasion. 
Platon  was  a  brilliant  and  learned  man,  and  the  author  of  several 
works  which  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  their  time,  including 
A  Skori  History  ojtke  Russian  Ckurck,  which  has  been  translated 
into  English. 

PLATONIC  LOVE,  a  term  commonly  applied  to  an  affectionate 
relation  between  a  man  and  a  woman  into  which  the  sexual 
element  does  not  enter.  The  term  in  English  goes  back  as  far 
as  Sir  William  Davenant's  Platonic  Lovers  (1636).  It  is  derived 
from  the  conception,  in  Plato's  Symposium,  of  the  love  of  the 
idea  of  good  which  lies  at  the  root  of  all  virtue  and  truth. 
A  mor  platonicus  was  used,  e.g.  by  Marsilio  Ficino  (isth  century), 
as  a  synonym  for  amor  socralicus,  referring  to  the  affection 
which  subsisted  between  Socrates  uid  his  pupils. 
,  PLATOON  (Fr.  peloloH,  from  Fr.  pelote,  a  baU  or  peUet;  cl. 
Ger.  Haufe,  heap),  a  small  group  of  soldiers.  In  the  tvAy 
X7th  century  it  was  a  definite  tactical  unit  of  Infantry,  corre- 
sponding to  the  modern  section  or  half  company.  In  the  18th 
century  the  battalion,  irrespective  of  its  organiaatioa  into 
companies,  was  told  off  on  parade  into  six,  eight  or  ten  platoons 
of  equal  strength.  "Platoon  fire"  was  the  systematic  and 
regulated  fire  of  platoon  volleys,  the  platoons  firing  one  after 
the  other.    Hence  a  "  platoon  !1  sometimes  means  a  volley. 


The  fire  of  a  long  line  of  infantry  was  as  a  rule  conducted  on  the 
same  principles,  each  battalion  of  the  front  line  employing 
platoon  fire,  which  is  often  picturesquely  described  as  a  '*  rolling 
platoon  fire,"  or  *'  rolling  volleys."  The  word  is  obsolete  in 
the  British  army,  but  is  used  in  the  United  States,  and,  in  various 
ioraiB,  In  the  armies  of  France  and  other  Latin  nations. 

PLATT,  THOMAS  COLLIER  (1833-1910),  American  politician," 
was  bom  in  Owego,  Tioga  county,  New  York,  on  the  1 3th  of  July 
1833.  He  studied  in  1849-1852  at  Yale,  from  which  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  A.M.  in  1876.  He  made  money  in  lumber- 
iof  out  West,  and  returning  to  Owego  became  a  banker  and 
railway  director.  He  he^ied  to  organize  its  Republican  party  in 
Tioga  county,  and  in  1873-1877  was  a  representative  in  Congress. 
In  X877  he  was  chairman  of  the  ttate  Republican  Convention  at 
Rochester.  On  the  x8th  of  January  1881  he  was  elected  United 
States  senator,  but  resigned,  with  h^  colleague,  Roacoe  Conkling, 
on  the  i6tb  of  May  following,  chiefly  because  President  Garfield, 
in  spite  of  their  protest,  had  appointed  as  collector  of  the  port 
of  New  York,  Judge  William  H.  Robertson,  a  political  opponent*' 
Within  ten  years  he  became  the  acknowledged  RepublicaA 
"  boss  "  of  the  state,  and  he  again  served  in-  the  Unit^  States 
Senate  from  1897  to  1909.  But  his  power  waned  steadily  i^ter 
about  X903.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  6tb  ol  March 
19x0. 

PLATTB  (so  named,  from  the  French,  because  of  its  shallow- 
ness), or  NebbasxA,  a  river  system  of  Colorado,  Wyoming  and 
Nebraska,  tributary  to  the  Missouri  river,  which  it  enters 
immediately  north  of  Plattamouth,  Nebraska,  x8  ra.  below 
Omaha,  in  about  41°  3'  N.  lat.  Including  the  North  Platte  it 
is  about  900  m.  long  from  its  headwaters,  with  a  drainage 
basin  for  the  entire  system  of  90,000  sq.  m.  The  Platte  proper, 
is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  North  Platte  and  the  South 
Platte,  sometimes  called  the  North  and  South  Forks  of  the 
Platte,  immediately  below  the  city  of  North  Platte  in  Lincoln 
county,  Nebraska.  The  North  Platte  and  South  Phtte  rise 
respectively  in  North  Park  and  South  Park  in  Colorado.  The 
tributaries  of  the  main  stream  all  flow  in  from  the  north;  the 
most  important  being  the  Loup,  which  empties  immediately 
east  of  Columbus  ia  Platte  county,  and  the  Elkboro,  which 
joins  the  Platte  in  I^uglas  county,  due  west  of  Omaha. 

See  J.  C  Stevens,  Surface  Water  Supply  of  Nebraska  (Washington. 
1909). 

PLATTNER,  KARL  FRIEDRICH  (X800-1858),  German 
metallurgical  chemist,  was  bom  at  Kleinwaltersdorf,  near 
Freiberg  in  Saxony,  on  the  and  of  January,  1800.  His  father, 
though  only  a  poor  working  miner,  found  the  means  to  have 
him  educated  first  at  the  Bergschule  and  then  at  the  Berg- 
akademie  of  Freiberg;  and  after  he  had  completed  his  courses 
there  in  1820  he  obtained  employment,  chiefly  as  assayer,  in 
connexion  with  the  royal  mines  and  metal  works.  Having  taken 
up  the  idea  of  quantitative  mouth-blowpipe  assaying,  which  was 
then  almost  un^nown^-except  that  £.  Harkort  (1797-1835)  in 
i8»7,  while  a  student  in  Freiberg  Academy,  had  worked  out  a 
blowpipe  assay  for  silver— he  succeeded  in  devising  trustworthy 
methods  for  all  the  ordinary  useful  metals;  in  particular  h^ 
modes  of  assaying  for  nickel  and  cobaltquickly  found  favour  with 
metallurgists.  He  also  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement 
ol  qualitative  blowpipe  analysis,  and  summed  up  his  experience 
in  a  treatise  Die  Probierkunst  mU  dem  Ldlkrokr  (1835),  which 
became  a  standard  authority.  In  1840  he  was  made  chief 
of  the  royal  department  of  assaying.  Two  years  later  he  was 
deputed  to  complete  a  course  of  lectures  on  metallurgy  at  the 
Bergakademie  in  place  of  W.  A.  Lampadius  (x77a-x84a),  whom 
he  subsequently  succeeded  as  professor.^ He  died  at  Freiberg 
on  the  32nd  of  January  1858. 

In  addition  to  many  memoirs  on  metallurgical  subjects  he  also 
poblished  Die  melaUurgiseken  Rostprocesu  tkeeretiuk  belracktet 
11856).  and  posthumously  Vorlesungen  ilber  allgiemeine  HUttenkuuda 
(i860). 

PLATTSBURG,  a  city,  port  of  entjy  and  the  county-seat  of 
Clinton  county,  New  York,  U.S.A.,  situated  on  the  west  shore 
of  Lake  Cbamplain,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sannac  rivtr,  168  m« 


826  PL'ATTSMOUTH— PDITYELMIA 

(by  niO  N,N.E.  o(  Albuy.    fep.  (i8«s),  loio;  (i;oo),  Hji, 
at  whom  losj  v«re  fowign-borii;  (igic  '  "      ■■ 

il  served  by  Ihc  Deliwarc  ft  Hudun  ni 


((cs  aged  ai 


region  ol  lakes 
itidelightiuldimitebaveinadcit  asummei 
institutioiu  an  [he  Samuel  F.  Vila^  Home 
m  namen);  the  Home  [or  the  Friendless  of 
k  (1374),  (or  the  care  of  homeless  children; 
the  Platliburg  State  Normal  and  Training  School,  the  D'You- 
viUe  Academy  lor  girls  (founded  in  liio,  chartered  ia  1B71), 
under  the  direction  ol  the  Grey  Nuni;  the  Coll«et  St  Finn 
(Roman  Ciholic,  1903).  and  Iho  Chimplain  Valley  Hoipilal. 
The  baiTJicks,  about  a  mik  away,  is  in  important  niiliUry  post. 
CUa  Haven,  1  m.  Kutb,  is  the  seal  o(  the  Catbc^c  summei 
Kbool,  Platliburg  bos  a  fine  barbour  «nd  is  Ibe  part  of  entry 
ol  the  Champlain  customs  district;  in  1909  it>  uporu  were 
vtlued  at  tis.itq,so]  and  its  impoiu  at  t8,t67,si7-  Aneng 
the  cHy's  manuCactum  an  lumber,  »owl  pulp,  paper,  ihirii, 
■ewing-nwcbines  and  automobiles.  The  total  value  ol  thi 
toclory  pcoducii  in  igsj  was  (1,056,701. 

PUlttburg  wu  incorporated  as  1  vflloge  ia  1795,  and  derived 
JU  name  from  Zephaniah  Plait  (174B-1B07),  who  had  led  1 
colony  of  Mttlen  to  this  place  from  Long  Island;  it  became  j 
city  in  1901.  About  Valcour  lilanct  (;  m.  soulb-eut  o[  Flatts 
buTg),onlbeii[hofOc:IoberT776.a  British  Seel  under  Captain 
Thomas  Pringle  and  an  American  flotilla  under  Benedict  Amok 
engaged  in  the  fint  conflict  between  American  and  Britist 
fleets,  the  British  being  victorious.  On  the  outbreak  ol  the 
War  dI  iSi]  the  village  became  the  headquarters  ol  the  Amc 
army  on  the  northern  frontier.  On  the  nth  ol  September 
1S14,  in  Flaltsburg  (or  Cumberland)  Bay,  Captain  George 
Downie,  commanding  1  British  flolillE,  was  defeated  by  an 
American  flotilla  commanded  by  Commodore  -  Thomu  Mac- 
donough,  loHng  his  Ufe  in  the  engagsnent  (see  CaAtvuiH, 

PLAnSMOUTH,  a  dly  and  the  county-seat  of  Cass  county. 
Nebraska,  U.S.A.,  situated  in  the  valley  and  on  the  bluffs  of 

496t  (970  fotdgn-bani):  (iqio)  41S7.  It  Is  icrved  by  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  S  Quincy.  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  railway 
systems.  There  are  railway  cax-ihops,  ud  a  considerable  trade 
is  done  in  grain  and  cillle.  A  Itadingpost  licensed  by  the 
United  Stales  government  was  opened  bete  rn  iSjj,  and  a  town 
friatled  in  iSu.  Plitlsmoulh  ms  firel  incorporated  as  ■  city 
in  iSjs.  beJDg  one  of  the  oldest  settleraenii  and  diics  of  ibt 


PLATTELMIA, 

a   phylum   ol    Ih 

ammal   ki 

ngdoih   which 

asses,  Ihe  Planaria 

Ce^lodes.    Ilblh 

ictofcreepkg 

has  atst  become 

abitual.     In  aisoci 

alien  with  1 

in  a  dcAnite  dire< 

lion  Ihe  body  ha 

bilaterally  symme 

ricil.    One  end  of  the  body,  (h 

™gh™ntK°t, 

with  fresh  Inclso 

d  other  forms 

ol  stimuli,  hi>  bet 

ome  mote  sperialked  than  the 

rest,  and  here 

the  nervous  system 

re  more  densely  aggregated 

than  elsenbere,  lo 

-ontnlUng  1 

icomotion  and 

ictivitiesoltheinn 

rorganiwi 

h  the  varying 

stimuli  that  impin 

ge  upon  the  body 
ely.    ThePlanari 

The  form 

and  hibils  et 

the  group  vary  wi. 

ving  animals, 

the  Trematodes  a 

e  parasitic  upon  and  wfthin  am 

mils,  and  the 

Cestodes  are  whoU 

Slnuluv,— The  chief  leilu  m  which  Platyelmia  poaseaa  incommoi 
•It  the  [oUowing,  The  body  ii  not  metamericallv  segmented  and  is 
compotid  ol  a  museubr  tunic  coveted  otcinally  by  a  more  or  lew 
modified  cellular  layer.  Within  thli  moscuUr  tube  ties  a  paienchy- 
iD>lDUBtianicwhichnuybeuiiilann(Ceatodes)ordi9cRntiatediiitoa 
central  n-  digestive,  and  a  penpheral  portion  (some  TurbolUrii).  or 
liully  the  central  ponion  becomn  tuhulii  and  [omu  the  dlgeElivt 
aae  (Trematodes),  while  Ihe  peripheral  ponion  ig  sepanittd  frDm  it 
In'  a  ifiace  hned  in  aeme  lormt^  a  flaiiened  epilhdiurn  lirmt 
nan'n^u)-   It  isrhincterink  of  the  group  that  the  moulhthouM 

these  leiBu  an  used  in  hi^ier  Invinebratea.   The  peripheral  paten- 


chyna  ^ves  lite  to  protonepfaridla,  that  Is  to  celled  tubes  ceiudtt 

ing  in  pyriform  cells  containing  a  fldme'lilw  bundle  of  dlis  ind 
provided  with  branched  outgrowths,  and  comiDunkcalinG  *\tii  il< 
CKterior  by  long  convoluted  canals  which  open  at  the  surlan  of  ik 
body.  These  proronepbridia  are  the  ekcretory  organs.  Ibc  nfncwi 
system,  though  cemralLaed  at  one  end  of  the  body,  contains  i^uvd 


The  Platyelmia 
by^bkiteeanj 


!  at  ill 


Il  a  proiriiuble  penis.    This  organ  is  HDcnUy 
.      .  ._...  paired  and  occuionally  muhipie.    Ili>riF 

tuenlly  anntd  with  spines,  boohs  or  scykta,  and  is  luither  aimclr 
lied  by  the  addition  of  a  nutritive  secRtioo  (the  piutau  ihiall 

be  eiterioc.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  this  ameiaui 
ind  variable  apparatus  ia  used  for  stabbing  the  body  of  anoiWi 
inimal  and  that  beginning  as  a  weapon  for  catching  pny  il  hu 
lodilied  for  hypodemijc  impcvgnalion  and  only  MdvaLV 


are  no  leucamrJ—    . 
may  be  wigk,  double 


buna  CDpulalTiK.    The  iemMe  c 


1^     In  ihemajotily  ol.Plilxlxm 

1.'.  into  distinct  ovarian  and  vilellarian  retpons.  The  yolV  impBrnl 
by  the  latter  is  conducted  by  one  or  moie  •pesiariieil  docu  w  tW 

a  "  diell^land  "  which  aecietes  a  ptembrane  araund  the  con>tir.44 
mass  of  ovum  and  yolk.  From  this  junction  tlw  mrmb  ji 
oviduct  or  "  uterus  ■;  (piited  or  ungle)  which  before 


Frequently  alto 


I  yoUt  to  the 


le  Platyelmia  are  of  a  mon  uoudiidi  pBiuT 
le  phylum.  The  Tuibellaria  undoubtedly  Ic 
diviuon,  as  is  iho.n  by  Ibeit  free-Uving  l 
^oruus,    The  T""""'™!"  "*  •ftm^wluf  ■ 

le  vTih  the  Turbeliaria 


™E^'£'tara 
lion  ol  the  ovarii  v^ 

t  ol  the  three  mmh^ 


mPlHA' 


they  cihibil  wrti 

._  .- ria  that  their  taio' 

be  doubted,  and  iadeed  the  Temaon^ 

Ml  ideal  annectant  group  v^ 

irasitic  Irematodci  and  RhabckKoel  PluiaruDS.  T^ 

cr  Platyelmia.  Thrir  adaputions  to  inraHiir  Vi  i 
fimals  appear  to  have  involved  such  iDodi6caiiciu  n 
development  that  theit  afSnilies  are  quite  problce:i'i- 
ir^  abseiKe  of  anv  trace  ol  a  distinct  alimentaTy  intr 


:ian  ol  the  body  uta  handieds  Dl'"pnigloIlidn^biKMed  oafie 


r*,  E^dfrrmli 
mt.  Momb. 


Kg.  StooiaA. 
pk.  f^iynz. 


PLATYPUS 


»'i 


dlvi»n^l 


..  , , m-Joij  dmiim 

to  Ihe  wholly  pauiiiic  lilt  ol  ihii 

/r  been  derived^ 


liapler  lwi>-lai»r«l  mckIi.   Thr  lormtr  hypotboU 
~^y  be  called  the  TTOcbosplwR-bypDtbeu*,  Ihc 


liinPolycljdTuibllliiria.' 

itjin  (pEo-1rocKul'a)  in  thedevtlopincni  of  Ehc  rrochoK4ieTe-lj 
Tlui  Tmlmpbcre  i.  ibe  — '-- ■ '  ■'-" —   ■  — 


fully  cKimded  Ihcy  tumd  the  diameter  of  the  uiuiul  tn-e  at  riji 

Ct^ifbiana  hu  been  found  in  tlullow  waicr  in  the  Red  Sra  and 

on  the  trav.  of  Jdran,    Cicimphora  poams  two  similar  long 

branched  lentacln.  a  ventral  n>ouih  and  donat  otolitb. 

and  vimc  Gephyrea ;  and  the  Rolifi-'ra  appear  to  rcm-iin  thriMigliDiiF 

Ufc  a4  modified  Tnxho*pherci.    It  h  a  iDp-ehaped.  fTte-Bwimmlng 

.««   .  M,^„i^  .»■  ~Titiirwnhrtiiia  and  «cW(oc0elc,    The  impDis 
■  * '■' the  widrfy  adopted 


C.janof.YmkalKtiw 
D.Ep.  The  donal  epidcrmi 
C.  Retringenl  coipuKt 
FC.     PaieiidiymHDiutc] 


view  OM  on  aiher  fnaadtl  thu  the  PatycUik  trt  ibt  nwH  orimi- 
live  cJ  iIk  TurbelSria,  !•  utindly  bawl.     The  crounds  for  thil 

oceumna  ol  namatocyiaa  in  /iumym^.  OMol  thi*in'o«  radially 
COnHrucied  Polyrladi.  and  Iwly  the  priKDce  ol  two  peculiar 
aninult  CfeiHpland  and  C«do0^Ki,  which  au«eit«  a  tiaiuiiiun  from 
Ctenopboia  to  Folyclads.    Ai  the  present  iiine.  however,  none  ol 


in  ago  U)^    The  aFfumnil 


yoriaio  (4 


Polydada  bmI  that  of  ctnajn  l^un 

.Li :.  conMdered  by  Hubrechi  Is) 

Polycladiaie  an  oirihooi,  and 


The  CaRraea-hypoIheiii  ig  lonndrd  on  quite  other  cnniideraiinni. 
lafHtCT  (6)  it  tracn  the  Tuifidlaria  10  iniall  ivo-layertd  orianiims 
;onii«ini  ol  an  outer  eiliated  epidcrmia  and  a  central  tyncjiial 
LiHue.  Such  an  mnruam  la  found  in  (he  peculiar  TrukoptaXt 
Lokmanntitla,  Sec.  'Hie  early  naKCa  of  masi  aniniala  [Bsa  throuch 
luch  a  usee,  whWi  It  known  »  a  ■'  lunula."  From  lueh  beeio- 
iilnp  the  evolution  of  the  TurtidbrialeadafiiAt  ihnnigh  the  Acocloua 
ornia  in  which  Ibt  ttotui  •jncylium  ii  pnrtly  diflennliated 
nta  diKeUivT,  miHcubr  aad  tkcletotrophic  fiiaue.  then  tn  thr 
noR  ipecialiqd  Rhabdocoelaj  and  to  throuiih  the  Alloeococla 
:o  the  Trkladi  and  finally  to  the  Polydadt.    Tbe  rircfuJ  av6y  of 

ihe  devflopmtnr  of  one  Acoelout  form  aad  of  cwt,-'-  "'--»"■ ■- 

laistnugthenedthlgbypothegiibyibowliigihai  nc 

Tbeitudyql 

pendeniiy  ol  ihcm.    This  leErcsatioa  of  ih«  perm  celli  and  Iheir 

informallDnas  10  the  evolulionol  the  complex  nniuluol  the  hiEher 
Turixllaria  we  cannot  bo^  10  understand  the  pretence  of  tuch 
hiEhl);  modified  Hruciurci  in  aiumtla  d(  in  ntherwiK  low  grade  or 

"f'.r^.'SJ.'air.-Recent  diicuuinn.  et  the  affinitiet  of  the  Platy- 
in(i)  A.Sedsaicli,  TrzHsatiij  Zsslott  llU)»].i. 
lAiblull  iir  Zcab-p/  (l<9l).  pp.  Jifr'SIb^  61 
AiHf-nic«K,  (Jena.  I^OJh  (4l  tl.  RayLankcner. 
19:  (S)  A.  A.  V/'}iubi>^}it.'jriia?!/*r^iiit%nflNi'Kl'l,^iilX- 
K*!^  Ii9nS).  pp.  I  S'-i?*!  (h)  Von  Grall.  We  ,4[«ef«.  p.sifl  (Leipjii, 
1S41).  For  the  cbvelopmeni  of  Rhabdocodida  tee  (;)  Breulau, 
ZcaukuStjar  vmxiacjilklir  Zmliitic  iiv>^),  viA.  ;6. 

_  (F.  W.  Ga.) 

PLATYPUS.  The  duck-tilled  platypus  (PliUypul  druIiiiHi] 
not  Ihe  name  auigntd  tg  one  of  Ihe  most  remarkable  o(  known 
animals  by  George  Shaw  (1751-181^),  who  had  the  good  tDciune 
to  introduce  it  to  tbe  notice  of  tbe  scicnlilic  world  in  the 
Nalu'dlsfa  UiudlaHy  (vol.  i.,  1799).  In  the  following  year  it 
was  independently  described  by  Blmnenbach  {V^i^s  Mateiin, 
S.  loj)  under  the  name  of  OtnillmkynckHS  paradaias.  Shaw'i 
generic  name,  although  hai-ing  priority  to  thsl  of  Blumenbach, 
could  not  be  retained,  as  it  had  been  used  at  1  siill  earlier  time 
{ >  T)i)  by  Herbil  lor  a  genus  ol  CoIfopIitx  OriiUkerhyntlnit 
(Cr.  ip¥a.  ifviBot,  bird,  and  ^I^X"-  ^H)  1)  Iberelore  now 
universally  adopled  ai  the  identific  designation,  although 
duch-blHcd  platypus  (Gr.  rXaiii,  flat,  and  xo£i,  foot)  may  be 
convdnicnily  retained  as  1  vecnacubr  appellation.  By  the 
colonisis  it  is  called  "  iratet-inale,"  but  its  afhnhica  with  Ihe 
irue  moles  are  ol  Ibe  sligblest  and  mosl  su[lerlicial  description. 

The  anatomical  diSercoces  by  which  the  plalypus,  and  Its 
only  allies  Ihc  echidnas,  are  separaled  from  all  other  mammals, 
to  as  to  form  a  distinct  tub-class,  att  described  in  the  article 
MoNOTKEiUTA,  wheit  also  will  be  found  Ihc  main  distinctive 
charicleis  of  the  two  ciisling  representatives  ol  Ihc  group.  It 
is  there  slated  that  the  early  stages  ol  the  devclopmenl  ol  the 
young  are  not  yet  fuOy  known.  Sir  R.  Owen,  and  later  E.  B. 
PouHon,  showed  that  the  ovum  ol  the  plalypus  was  large 
compared  with  thil  ol  olhcr  mammals,  whilst  W.  H.  Caldwell 
showed  thai  it  was  filled  with  yolk,  and  finally  eslablishcd  the 
(ail  that  Plalypus  as  well  as  E/buIiM  is  oviparous.  Two  eggs 
are  produced  al  a  time,  each  measuring  about  Ihree-lourths  of 
an  inchinitsloi^andhallan  inch  in  ita  short  aais.  anil  endnscd 
in  a  strong.  Ileiiblc,  wiiilc  shell. 

The  platypus  is  pretty  genemlly  dbtributed  in  silualions 
Buitable  to  lis  aquatic  hahitt.lhroughoul  Ihe  island  of  Tasmania 
atjd  the  southern  and  eastern  portions  of  Australia. 


PLAUEN— PLAUTUS 


The  length  o[  the  animal  ttin  (uU  grawn  ii  from  iS  to 
from  Iht  eitraniiy  oi  ihe  hcak  lo  the  end  ol  th*  tail,  ihi 
being  ilighlly  iaiger  than  the  [emlle.  The  lur  is  shait, 
and  rllhet  toft  to  the  touch,  and  compoied  ol  an  eitr 
fine  and  cIdh  under-fur.  and  ol  longer  hain  which  p 
beyond  this,  each  of  which  ii  very  slender  a1  the  haM 
expanded,  flattened  and  glossy  towards  the  free  end. 
general  colour  is  deep  hrown.  tiut  paler  on  the  under  paitt, 
laii  jsfhoTt,  broad  and  depressed,  and  covered  with  coaru 
which  in  dd  animals  generally  become  worn  oS  from  the  under 


Platypus. 
lurlace.     There  are  no  true  teeth  in  Ihe  ndult,  although  the 
young  possess  a  set  which  are  thtd  after  being  won  down  by 
friction  with  food  and  sand,  their  purposes  being  afterwiud 

those  in  the  from  narrow,  longitudinal.  shiri>4dged  ridgci,  and 
those  behind  broad,  Battened  and  molarilotm.  The  upper 
surface  of  Ihe  lateral  edges  of  Ihe  mandible  has  also  a  number  ol 
paraLel  line  transverse  ridges,  like  Ihose  on  the  bill  i^  a  duck. 
In  the  cheeks  are  tolerably  capacioiu  pouches,  which  appear  to  be 

The  limbs  are  strong  and  diort,  eadi  with  five  well-developed 
toes  provided  with  strong  daws.  In  the  fore  feet  the  weh  not 
only  tills  the  interspaces  belneen  the  toes,  but  eiicnds  consider- 
ably beyond  the  ends  of  the  long,  broad  and  somewhat  flattened 
nails,  giving  great  eipanse  lo  the  (ool  when  used  [or  swimming, 
though  "capable  oi  being  loldcd  back  on  Ihe  palm  when  the 
animal  is  burrowing  or  walking  on  the  land.  On  the  hind  loot 
the  oiils  are  long,  curved  and  pointed,  and  the  wtb  eiiendi 
only  10  thrir  base.  On  Ihe  heel  of  the  male  is  a  strong,  curved 
sharply  pointed,  movable  homy  spur,  directed  upwards  and 
backwards,  attached  by  itseipanded  base  to  the  accessory  bone 
of  the  lanus.    This  spur,  which  attains  Ihe  length  of  nearly  an 

ludinal  slit  near  the  point,  and  ronneclcd  a(  its  base  with  the 
duct  of  a  large  gland  situated  at  the  back  part  of  (be  thigh. 
The  whole  apparatua  is  so  exactly  analogous  in  structure  to  the 
poisoo-gUuul  and  tooth  of  a  venomous  snake  as  to  suggest  ■ 
thai  it  employs  this 


Ther 


IS  habits 


to  Ihe  margin  of  hikes  a 
g  and  diving  with  the  grealal  ease,  and  forming  lor  the 
riose  of  sleeping  and  breeding  deep  burrows  in  the  banks, 
rh  generally  have  two  orifices,  one  just  above  Ibe  water 
1,  concealed  among  long  grass  and  leaves,  and  the  other 
iw  the  turlace.    The  passage  at  tiral  runs  obliquely  opwords 


eggs  are  laid'  : 


le  young  I 


■  avity,  the  ftwr  o(  rtich  ii 
3,  and  in  which.  It  is  said,  Mi 
nught  up.    Thur  [ood  conuli 


In  btcomoUDTi 


caught  under  water,  the  sand  and  amall  stones  tx  the  botioiB 
being  turned  over  with  their  bills  lo  find  Ihem.  They  apprv 
at  first  to  depout  what  they  have  thus  coDecled  in  thdicbnt 
pouches,  and  when  these  are  filled  they  rise  to  the  suiiiEciiJ 
quietly  Iriiurnle  their  meal  wiib  the  homy  teeth  belore  swiUm- 
Ing  it.  Swimming  is  eHecied  chiefly  by  Ihe  a< 
forepaws.  Ihe  hind  feet  and  tail  taking  tittle  sb 
in  ibe  water.  When  asleep  they  roll  themselves  into  a  hilL  n 
shown  in  the  figure.  In  (heir  native  haunts  they  arc  eitRDCl) 
timid  and  wary,  and  very  dilHculi  to  approach,  bdnj  raidt 
seen  out  ol  their  burrows  in  ihc  daytime.  Mi  A.  B,  Crowthn. 
who  supplemented  the  olten  tiuoied  observaiiona  ol  Dr  l*«p 
Bennett  upon  the  habits  of  these  animals  in  confinaniDt. 
slates: "  nicy  soon  become  very  lame  in  captivity;  in  a  In  di^*^ 
the  young  ones  appeared  lo  recogniae  a  call,  swimming  njtii,^ 
lo  Ihe  hand  paddling  the  water;  and  it  is  curious  lo  sec  Ibrir 
aiiempis  to  procure  a  worm  enchBed  in  the  hand,  which  tbr. 
greedily  take  when  oflered  to  them.    I  have  noticed  that  Ibc^ 

in  the  closed  hand  (o  which  they  swim,  lor  they  desisled  irai 
Ihoir  eflorlt  11  an  empty  6sl  was  oflered,"      (W.  H.  F. ;  H,  5c.) 

PUDEH.  a  town  ol  Germany,  in  Ihe  kingdom  of  Siiony,  ii 
Ihc  Weisse  Elster,  6a  m.  south  of  Leipiig,  on  the  railway  id  M 
and  hlunich  and  at  the  junction  ol  lines  to  Eger  and  Cera.  Po)> 
(iSgo),  47,ooj;  dooo).  7^,841 ;  (igoj),  loj.jSj.  It  was  loraoh 
the  capital  of  VoglUnd.  or  Voigitand,  a  territory  govcmnl  h 
the  imperial  vogt,  or  bailiff,  and  this  name  aiiU  clings  in  popuU: 
speech  10  the  hilly  district  in  which  the  town  lie*.  Of  ilslhn 
Evangelical  churches  the  most  prominent  is  Ihe  fine  Gotbc 
church  dI  St  John,  with  Inin  ^ires.  which  was  restored  in  ttK 
Other  building  of  note  are  the  town  ball,  dating  from  ahocl 
1550.  and  Ihe  old  castle  of  Krad^hin,  now  used  asa  lawcoor. 
Flauen  is  now  the  chief  pbce  in  Ccrmany  lor  the  maoulaniir 
of  embroidered  white  goodsol  all  kinds,  lor  the  finishing  ol  mna 
cotton  fabrics,  known  as  Flauen  goods.and  for  the  miking  ol  ho. 

PlaueQ  was  probably  founded  by  the  Slavs.  First  mcnrioDCd 
in  ]i>>,  it  paated  under  the  authority  of  Bohemia  in  rjJ;  vid 
came  to  Saiony  in  i(M,  remaining  permanently  united  intb  lie 
laclure  of  while  goods  "i 


It  reduced  by  Swablan 


rial  pro. 


IS  been  I 


■  's'?-  : 


See  Fiedler,  nil  Sladl  Plavx  •>■  VotUonf  (Plauen.  iS;i):  lal 
UiUflf  nr  CuctiiiUe  iir  Sladl  Fltiun  (Plauen.  ■•76)1  MelBw- 
^viirfr  dunk  Fiamm  (1^3):  and  the  publicationa  cri  the  ^i^ 
•mninit  in  Flaim  [1675  >eq.). 

PLAUTtrS.  nrOS  HACCIDS  (ori^ully  perhapa  Uacnr; 
f.  .4iiii,  Frol,  ri),  the  great  comic  dramatist  of  ancient  Hoik. 
^B9  bom  at  Sarsina  in  Umhiia  acctirding  10  Ihe  lestimoAV  d 
'estus,  who  rsUa  him  Umitr  Sariinai,  and  Jerome.     The  dtit 


birth  depends  upon  an  inleren 

ce  based  on  the  Ralaa* 

ero  (D'  sctcUuli.  nv.  50)  that 

ewasanoldmanwhohi 

his   TT>a,aal»  and  PiaM 

KJ.     The  latter  pUy  «> 

ilhin  the  body,     Al  a  idenlific  meniil  '' 
of  London,  Oh  the  iTih  el  December  19CI' 

sd  a  letter  from  Mr  G.  MeteaHe,  wbe  an) 

uvea  many  yean  In  a  recioa  inhabited  bv  these  amwla.  He  M 
made  ipeciaf  inquiries  of  the  authorities  ol  the  Svdwy.  MdbevK- 
Brisbane  and  Hoban  inuteunas,  and  nnUisbed  auestHH  ia  1^ 
newepapen,  t»l  no  evidence  has  reached  hbn  that  the  i^  * 
OrniOiarkyaiia  have  ever  been  obt^ned  ennit  bv  the  duatiiiw  ■' 
Ibec.  Mr  Thomas  Wd  stress  on  what  had  bca  advA^ 
other  Bde  by  Mr  Calf     " '■    '  - 


Ktit?  fading*  "1^ 


PLAUTUS 


829 


produced  in  xqi  B.C.;  hence  we  get  254-251  B.C.  as  the  approxi- 
mate date  of  his  birth.  The  only  record  that  we  possess  as  to 
his  life  is  that  contained  in  Aulus  GcUius  iii.  3,  14  (based  on 
Varro),  the  historical  character  of  which  is  doubted  by  Leo 
{Platttiniscke  Fonchungen^  p.  60,  sqq.).  According  to  this 
statement  he  left  his  native  town  at  an  early  age  and  settled  at 
Rome,  where  he  got  employment  in  a  theatre,  though  it  is  not 
clear  in  what  capacity.  The  words  of  Gellius  in  operis  artificum 
scaenicoruMf  are  interpreted  by  F.  Marx  as  indicating  that 
Plautus  was  a  member  of  the  theatrical  staff  of  Livius  Andro- 
nicus.  At  Rome  he  saved  a  little  money,  and  embarked  on 
some  mercantile  enterprise,  probably  abroad.  Having  lost  his 
money  he  returned  to  Rome  penniless,  and  was  driven  to  support 
himself  by  manual  labour  in  a  mill  {cum  ...ad  ctrcumagtudas 
molas  quae  tnaatUes  apptUantur  operam  pislori  lpcass€l) ,  and  in 
this  pistrinum  he  wrote  three  of  his  plays  (the  Saturic,  the 
Addictus  and  another).  The  main  body  of  his  works  belongs, 
so  far  as  can  be  ascertained  from  the  scanty  evidence  which  wc 
have,  to  the  latter  half  of  his  life;  206  B.C.  is  the  approximate 
date  of  the  Miles  gloriosus\  cf.  line  211  seq.,  quoi  bint  custodes 
. . .  occubant  (present  tense),  which  aUudes  to  the  imprisonment 
of  Naevius,  an  event  which  cannot  be  proved  to  be  earlier  than 
206  B.C.  The  defects  of  construction  and  the  absence  of  '*  can- 
tica  "  in  the  Miles  also  point  to  this  as  one  of  his  earty  plays. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  hardly  likely  that  all  his  comedies  (which 
greatly  exceeded  In  number  the  exunt  twenty)  were  produced 
during  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life.  Radermacher  assigns 
the  Asinaria  to  a  date  as  early  as  212  B.C.  Of  the  extant  plays 
the  CisteUaria  and  the  Siickus  must  be  associated  with  the 
Miies  as  comparatively  early  works;  for  the  former  was  dearly 
produced  before  (though  not  long  before)  the  conclusion  of  the 
Second  Punic  War,  see  1.  201  seq.;  and  the  Stickus  b  proved  by 
its  didascalia  to  have  been  produced  in  200  B.C.  The  Pseudolus 
and  the  Truculenlus  fall  within  the  last  seven  years  of  his  life. 
The  dates  of  the  rest  of  the  extant  playa,here  given  in  alpha^ 
betical  order,  are  quite  uncertain,  namely,  AmphiiruOf  Avivdaria, 
Bacchides,  Captivi,  Casino^  Curcuiio,  Epidicus,  Menaechmi, 
M creator  (probably  later  than  the  Rudens,  as  shown  by  F.  Marx), 
liostellaria,  Persa^  Poentdus,  Rudens,  Trinummus  (later  than 
194  B.C.;  cf.  novi  aediles  in  I.  990).  Of  the  Vidularia  we  possess 
only  the  fragments  contained  in  the  Codex  Ambrosianus. 

The  plays  of  Plautus  are  all  based  on  Greek  originals.^  To 
what  extent  he  is  dependent  on  these  originals,  and  how  far  be 
departed  from  them,  we  shall  perhaps  never  know  exactly.  But 
such  evidence  as  we  have  points  to  a  pretty  close  imitation  on 
the  part  of  the  Roman  poet:  there  are  passages  in  which  he 
does  not  hesitate  to  take  over  from  his  originab  allusions  which 
can  hardly  have  been  intelligible  to  a  Roman  audience,  tf.f .  the 
reference  to  Stratonicus,  a  musician  of  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great  {Rudens,  932);  and  in  the  delineation  of  character 
we  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  he  improved  on  his  models 
(cf.  AuL  Cell.  ii.  23).  Even  the  prologues,  which  later 
researches  have  shown  to  be  in  the  main  by  the  hand  of  Plautus 
hinaself,  though  certain  passages  were  clearly  added  at  a  later 
date,  e.g.  Cos,  prot.  5-20,  may  in  most  cases  have  formed  part 
of  the  Greek  originaL  Plautus  must  therefore  be  regarded  as 
primarily  a  translator  or  adapter,  so  far  as  our  present  knowledge 
goes.  Where  he  varies  his  plot  on  lines  of  his  own  by  amalga> 
mating  the  plots  of  two  distinct  Greek  comedies  {e.g,  in  the  Miles 
and  the  Poenulus)  the  result  is  generally  not  happy;  and  the 
romanixation  of  the  plays  by  way  of  allusions  to  towns  in  Italy, 
to  the  streets,  gates  and  markets  of  Rome,  to  Roman  magistrates 
and  their  duties,  to  Roman  laws  and  the  businen  of  Roman 
law-courts,  banks,  comitia  and  senate,  &c,  involves  the  poet 
in  all  the  difficulties  of  attempting  to  blend  two  diCTerent  civilixa- 
tions.  The  inconsistency  of  his  attitude  is  shown  by  his  use, 
aide  by  side,  of  the  contemptuous  expresuons  barbarus  (applied 
to  the  Romans)  and  perg/raecari  (applied  to  the  Greeks).  In 
some  passages  the  poet  seems  to  take  delight  inxasting  dramatic 
iUuiuon  to  the  grinds  («.j.  Pseudolus^  720;  Poenulus,  550). 

■See  further  P.  E.  Legnnd.  Da^s:  tableau  ie h eatuHie grecque 

pendent  la  pMade  dite  notatdle  (igxo). 


But  as  a  translator  Plautus  is  nothing  less  than  masterly. 
His  command  of  the  art  is  such  that  his  plays  read  like  original 
works,  and  it  may  be  at  least  said  that  some  of  his  characters 
stand  out  so  vividly  from  his  canvas  that  they  have  ever  since 
served  as  representatives  of  certain  types  of  humanity,  e.g.  Euclio 
in  the  Atdtdaria,  the  model  of  Moliire's  miser.    Alliteration,  asso- 
nance, plays  upon  words  and  happy  coinages  of  new  terms,  give 
his  plays  a  charm  of  their  own.    "  To  read  Plautus  is  to  be  once 
for  all  disabused  of  the  impression  that  Latin  is  a  dry  and  unin- 
teresting language"   (Skulsch,  in   Die  CuUur  der  Cegenwart; 
1905).     It  is  a  mistake  to  regard  the  Latin  of  Plautus  as 
**  vulgar  "  Latin.    It  is  essentially  a  literary  idiom,  based  in 
the  main  upon  the  language  of  intercourse  of  the  cultivated 
Roman  society  of  the  day  (cf.  Cic.  De  aratore,  iii.  12,  45); 
though  from  the  lips  of  slaves  and  other  low  persons  in  the 
plays  we  no  doubt  hear  expressions  which,  while  they  are  quite 
in  keeping  with  the  characters  to  whom  they  are  allotted,  would 
have  diocked  the  ears  of  polite  society  in  the  2nd  century  B.C. 

The  characters  in  his  plays  are  the  stock  characters  of  the  new 
comedy  of  Athens,  and  they  remind  us  also  of  the  standing  figures 
of  the  Fabulae  aidlanae  (Maccus,  Bucco,  Dossennus,  &c.). 
We  may  miss  the  finer  insight  into  human  nature  and  thedelicate 
touch  in  drawing  character  which  Terence  presents  to  us  in  his 
reproductions  of  Menander,  but  there  is  wonderful  life  and  vigour 
and  considerable  variety  in  the  Plautine  embodiments  of  these 
different  types.  And  the  careful  reader  will  take  note  of 
occasional  touches  of  serious  thought,  as  in  the  enumeration  of' 
the  ten  deadly  political  sins  {Persa,  555  seq.)  and  allusions  to 
ethical  phibsophy  {Pseud.  972  seq.;  StUk.  124;  Trin.  305  sqq., 
320  sqq.,  363  seq.,  447;-  Rud,  767,  X235-1248,  &c.).  Virtue  is 
often  held  up  for  admiration,  and  vice  painted  in  revolting 
colours  or  derided.  The  plots  of  Plautus  also  are  more  varied 
than  those  of  Terence.  We  have  from  him  one  mythdogical 
burlesque,  the  Ampkitruo,  and  several  plays  dealing  with 
domestic  subjects  like  the  Captivi^  Cisteilaria,  Rudens,  Siickus 
and  Trinummus\  but  most  of  his  plays  depend  for  their  main 
interest  on  intrigue,  such  as  the  Pseudolus,  Baeckides,  Mostd- 
laria.  In  the  Menaeckmi  and,  as  a  subordinate  incident,  in  the 
Ampkitruo  we  have  a  "  comedy  of  errors." 

In  one  respect  Plautus  must  be  regarded  as  distinctly  original, 
viz.  in  his  development  of  the  lyrical  element  in  his  plays.  The 
new  comedy  of  Greece  was  probably  limited  for  the  most  part 
to  scenes  written  in  the  metres  of  dialogue;  it  remained  for 
Plautus,  as  Leo  has  shown,  to  enliven  his  pUys  with  contica 
modelled  on  the  contemporary  lyric  verse  of  Greece  or  Magna 
Graeda,  which  was  in  its  turn  a  development  of  the  dramatic 
lyrics  of  Euripides.  A  new  light  has  been  thrown  on  the 
irapaxXouaJA/poy  of  the  Curcuiio  (147-155)  by  the  discovery  of 
the  Alexanckian  erotic  fragment  published  by  Grenfell  and 
Hunt  (Oxford,  1896).  The  lyrical  metres  of  Plautus  are  wonder- 
fully varied,  and  the  textual  critic  does  well  not  to  attempt  to 
limit  the  possibilities  of  original  metrical  combinations  and 
devdopments  in  the  Rom^in  comedian.  Recent  investigation 
has  considerably  extended  the  list  of  his  numeri  innumeri. 

Plautus  was  a  general  favourite  in  the  daysrof  republican 
Rome.  Cicero,  though  he  found  fault  with  the  iambics  of  the 
Latin  comedians  generally  as  abiecli,  "prosaic"  {Orator,  Iv. 
184),  admired  Plautus  as  elegans,  wbanus,  ingeniosus,  Jacetus 
{De  offie.  i.  29,  104).  To  the  fastidious  critics  of  the  Augustan 
age,  such  as  Horace,  he  seemed  rude  (cf.  Ars  Poetica,  370-274), 
just  as  Addison  declared  Spenser  to  be  no  longer  fitted  to  please 
"  a  cultivated  age."  In  another  passage  {Epist.  ii.  i,  170-176) 
Horace  accuses  him  of  dumsiness  m  the  construction  of  his  plays 
and  the  drawing  of  his  characters,  and  indifference  to  everything 
excepting  immediate  success:  ge^U  enim  nummum  in  loculos 
demittere,  post  hoc  securus  cadat  an  redo  siet  fabula  tola.  That 
there  are  many  inconsistendes  and  signs  of  carelessness  in  his 
work  has  been  proved  in  detail  by  Langen.  But  that  he  found 
many  admirers,  even  in  the  Augustan  age,  Horace  himself  bears 
witness  (ibid.  1.  58),  where  he  says  that  Plautus  was  regarded  as 
a  second  Epicharmus:  Plautus  ad  exemplar  Siculi  properare 
1  Epickarm—eL  passage  which  is  important  as  suggesting  that 


830 


PLAY 


PUutus  was  under  some  obligation  to  the  Sicilian  representatives 
of  the  old  Dorian  comedy;  d.  Varro's  statement  (in  Priscion 
ix.  32},  dctndc  ad  Siculos  se  applicavit.  It  is  possible  that 
Plautus  may  have  been  working  on  the  lines  of  the  old  comedy 
in  the  tell-tale  names  which  he  is  so  fond  of  inventing  for  his 
characters,  such  as  Polymachaeroplagides  iPstud,  988),  Pyrgo- 
poUniccs  {Mil.  56),  Thcnsaurochrysonicochrysides  iCapt.  285) 
— names  which  stand  in  remarkable  contrast  to  the  more 
commonplace  Greek  names  employed  by  Terence. 

In  the  middle  ages  Plautus  was  Utile  regarded,  and  twelve 
of  his  plays  {Bacchidcs-Trucvlenlus)  disappeared  from  view 
until  they  were  discovered  (in  the  MS.  called  D)  by  Nicholas 
of  Treves  in  the  year  1429.  Apparently  some  early  archetype 
had  been  divided  into  two  volumes,  of  which  only  the  first 
(containing  eight  pUys,  Ampkilruo-Epidicw)  had  escaped 
oblivion  or  destruction.  After  the  revival  of  learning  Plautus 
was  reinstated,  and  took  rank  as  one  of  the  great  dramatists 
of  antiquity;  cf.  Shakespeare,  Handel,  i.  ii.  420,  where  Polonius 
says,  "  The  best  actors  in  the  world  .  .  .  Seneca  cannot  be 
too  heavy  nor  Plautus  too  light." 

M  ANUSC  RiPTS.— The  chief  MSS.  of  Plautus  belong  to  two  families, 
which  arc  proved  by  the  errors  which  they  have  in  common  to  be 
descended  irom  a  smgle  source  (Sicker,  "Novae  quaestiones  plau- 
tinac,"  in  PkiMogus  suppl.  ».  2;  1908):  (i.)  that  represented  by  the 
fragmemary  palimpaett  of  the  Ambrosian  Librai^  at  Milan  {A, 
4th  century  A.D.),  diacovertd  in  1615  by  Cardinal  Mai  and  nowaoces- 
iible  in  the  Aponapk  of  Studemund,  edited  by  Seyffert  (1889);  (ii.) 
that  represented  by  the  Palatine  MSS.  (P,  I0th-I2th  centunr). 
viz.  B,  now  in  the  Vatican,  containing  all  the  twenty  plajfs  preceded 
by  the  spurious  Querolus;  C,  now  at  Heidelberg,  containing  the  last 
twelve  plays.  i.e,  Batckides-TruemUntus;  D,  now  in  the  Vatican^ 
containing  the  Ampkitruo,  Asinaria,  Aultdaria.  half  of  the  Capiin 
and  the  last  twelve  plays:  to  the  same  family  belong  the  following 
less  important  MSS.:  £  (at  Milan),  V  (at  Leulen),  J  {in  the  British 
Museum),  0  (injhe  Vatican). 

Editions.— Tno  tdiiio  princepSt  baaed  mainly  on  a  transcript  of 
D,  was  printed  at  Venice,  1472 :  the  first  scientific  text,  baaed  on 
B,  C  and  D,  was  that  of  Oimerarius,  completed  1^2,  in  whose 
steps  followed  Lambinus  (with  a  commentary  which  is  still  useful), 
1576;  Taubmann,  1605-1621;  Pareus  (a  meritorious  edition),  1619 
and  1623:  Guyet,  edited  by  ManoUca,  1658;  Gronovius  (the 
"  Vulgate  %  i664-i6&4;then,  after  the  lapaeof  more  thanacentury, 
came  the  editions  of  Dothe,  1809-181 1:  Naudet,  1830;  and  Weiae. 
1837-1848.  A  new  era  began  with  the  great  critical  edition  of 
certain  plays  by  ^tschl,  1 848-1 854,  in  which  a  cdlation  of  A  was 
used ;  a  revised  and  completed  form  of  this  work  was  commenced 
by  Rjtschl  himself  and  continued  by  hb  disdplea  Goetz,  Loewe  and 
Schoell,  1871-1894:  and  of  this  an  entirely  rewritten  editio  minor 
by  Goetz  and  Schoell  appeared  in  1893-1896  (continued  by  a  2nd 
ed.  of  Fasciculus  ii.  in  i^ckf),  which  is  still  the  most  useful  of  modem 
editions  for  a  critical  study  of  the  text,  exhibiting,  as  it  does,  the  MS. 
tradition  with  only  such  emendations  as  are  securely  established 
by  the  results  of  modern  investigation.  The  other  modem  editions 
01  the  text  are  those  of  Fleckeisen  (containing  ten  plays,  excellent 
for  his  time),  1859;  Usaing  (with  a  commentary),  1875-1887,  2nd  ed. 
of  voL  tii.  1888;  Leo  (a  very  important  work),  i8q5>i896;  Lindsay, 
1904-1905.  Among  modem  editions  of  separate  plavs  with  commen- 
taries the  fdlowing  are  probably  the  most  useful:  Am^iirvo  by 
Palmer.  1890,  and  Havet,  1895;  Asinaria  by  Cr*:'.  1804;  Aultdaria 
by  Wagner,  1866  and  1876;  Cb^wi  by  Brix,  6th  ed.,  revised  by 
Niemc/er,  1910;  an  English  edition  of  this  woric  by  Sonnenschetn 
(with  introduction  on  prosody),  1880;  same  play  by  Undaay  (with 
metrical  introduction).  1900;  Epidicus  by  Gray,  1893:  Menaukmi 
by  Brix,  4th  ed.,  revised  by  Niemeyer,  1891;  UiUs  ^oriosiu  by 
Lorenz,  2nd  ed.,  1886;  by  Bnx,  tid  ed.,  revised  by  Niemeyer,  1901 ; 
by  Tyrrell.  3rd  ed.,  1894;  Mostdlana  by  Lorens,  snd  ed..  1883:  by 
Sornienachdn.  and  ed.,  1907;  Pseudclus  by  Lorenz,  1876;  Rtidtns 
by  Sonnenschetn,  1891,  editio  minor  (with  a  metrical  appendix), 
1901 :  Trinummus  (with  a  metrical  introduction)  by  Brix,  5th  ed., 
reviwd  by  Niemeyer,  1907;  by  Gray,  1897;  TrModentus  by  Speng^l 
and  Studemund.  1898. 

CRiTiciSM.-'Oood  characterisations  of  Plautus,  from  the  literary 
point  of  view,  are  given  by  Sellar  in  his  Roman  Poets  oftke  RepiMic, 
and  Wight  DufT,  in  his  Literary  History  of  Rome  (1909).  A  summary 
of  recent  critical  worls  beanng  on  the  text  and  interpnetation  is 
given  by  Seyffert  in  his  admirable  reports  (in  Burstan'a  Jakres- 
herickle  Hber  die  Foritekritle  der  Uassiscken  AUeriumswissemsckqft), 
1883-1885.  1886-1889,  1890-1894,  continued  by  Lindsay,  1895- 
1900.  Important  contributions  to  textual  criticism  are  contained 
in  RitschI  Parerga  (1845),  ffene  pianHniuke  Excurse  (1869),  and  his 
coltcctcd  Opuaemla  pkiMogUA\  Studemund,  Sindia  4n  priscsi 
striplores  latinos  (vol.  L  1873,  vol.  iL  J 891);  Langca.  BeHrdee 
(1877)  and  Plantinisfke  Sludten  (1886):  Leo,  PlatUintscke  Forsck- 
ungen  (1895):  Lindsay.  Codex  Tumehi  (1898).  Bentley's  Plauttne 
BmemiaHoms  were  puUiahed  by  Sonnenachda  partly  in  his  edition 


of  the  Captiri  (1880),  partly  in  the  Aneedola  ftxaniensia  torn 
(1883). 

METtB  AMD  Prosody.— The  most  important  treatiaes  (apart 
from  those  mentioned  under  "  Editions  ")  are  MQilcr,  PiauUmiukt 
Prosodie  (1869);  Spengel,  ReformporseUagfi  $ur  Metrtk  derlynukn 
VerMTten{l'i&2y.  Klotx,CrMndzugealtrdmtsckerMeirtk{t990).  bkutarh. 
Fersckungen  zur  latemtuken  Crammatik  uttd  Metrtk  (1892}.  lamben- 
kOrttint  nnd  Synttese  (Satura  Viadrina)  (1896).  continued  by  the 
author  in  a  work  called  ripa$  (1903);  Leo.  Pie  plauttntuken  CcaJka 
und  die  kellenisltuke  Lynk  (1897);  Maurenbrccher.  //Mini  tcU 
Versckleifung  tm  alien  Lalan  (1899):  Ahlberg, />e  trocdeusmatuu 
(1900),  De  correptione  tambtca  plautina  (iQOi);  Jacobaohn,  QMtiti- 
ones  fdautinae  (1904):  Radford,  on  the  ''Recession  of  the  Latin 
Accent  "  (in  Amer.  Joum.  Phi.,  1904),  **  Studies  in  Latin  Aaxsi 
and  Metric"  (in  7raiu.  Amer.  PkiL  Assoc.,  1904).  "Pbttiiflc 
synizesis  "  (ibid.,  1905,  continued  in  Amer.  Joum.  Pkil.,  1906),  it 
work  on  cognate  subjects  is  promised  by  Exon);  Sudhaus,  Da 
Aufbau  der  plautintschien  Cantiea  (190Q). 

brifiAX.— The  most  recent  works  bearing  on  <Hd  Latin  syMzi, 
are  Sjogren,  Zum  Cebrauek  des  Fulmmms  im  AUtatetnischen  {Vjfib-. 
Unduy,  Syntax  of  Plautus  (1907);  Sonnenachdn,  Tke  Vnitj  tf  ik 
Latin  Subjunctive  (1910).  A  work  by  H.  Thomas,  entitled  A 
catalogue  raisonni  of  tke  Subjunctive  in  Plautus,  in  support  «f  tit 
tktory  oj  tke  unUy  #/  ortgtn  oftke  Latin  Smbjnnctioe,  is  annoannd  as 
in  preparation. 

Lexica.— The  only  completed  lexkon  (apart  from  the  Jadica 
of  Naudet.  1832.  and  Weisse,  1838)  is  that  of  Pareus  (2nd  ed..  1634). 
New  lexica  have  been  begun  by  Waltzing  (1900;  apparently  not  to 
be  continued)  and  Lodge  (1901:  in  progress).  The  latter  work, 
when  completed,  will  be  indispensable. 

Translations  and  Adaptations. — ^A  comprehensive  view  of 
the  influence  of  Plautus  on  modern  literatures  is  given  by  Rdnhard- 
stoettner.  SpAtere  Bearbeitunfen  ptautiniscker  LustspieU  (i836}. 
Many  adaptations  for  the  Itahan  suge  were  produced  becwen  the 
yeara  i486  and  1550,  the  eariiest  (the  Menaeckmi)  under  thediicctieo 
of  Ercoie  U  duke  of  Ferrara.  iFrom  Italy  the  pcactioe  apiead  t» 
France,  Spain,  England  and  other  countries. 

Of  English  plays,  the  interlude  called  Jack  Jug^  (between  1347 
nnd  1553)  was  baaed  on  the  Ampkitrmo,  and  the  lost  play  cafitd 
the  Historie  of  Error  (acted  in  1577^  was  orobably  based  dS  the 
Menae-ckmi;  Nicholas  Udall's  Ralph  Royster  Doyster,  the  first  Ec^ 
comedy  (acted  before  1551,  first  printed  1566),  is  founded  on  tk 
Miles  gtoriosus;  Shakespeare's  Comedf  cf  Errors  (about  1591)  i^  ^ 
adaptation  of  the  Menaeckmi\  and  nis  Falataff  may  be  regankd 
aa  an  idealized  reproduction  or  devek)pnient  of  the  braggart  aoUier 
of  Plautus  and  Terenee — ^a  type  of  character  which  reappcais  is 
other  forma  not  only  in  English  literature  (jug.  in  Shakespeairs 
P^roHes  and  Ben  Tonson's  Captain  Bobadil)  but  also  in  most  of  tie 
literatures  of  mooiera  Europe.  Shakespeare's  Tamtng  of  Ike  Skm 
has  been  influenced  in  several  respects  (including  the  names  Tt^ 
and  Crumto)  by  the  Mostellaria.  Ben  Jonsoa  jiroduced  a  skiaia 
amalgamation  of  the  Aulularia  and  the  Captiot  in  hia  early  piav 
Tke  Case  is  Altered  (written  before  1599).  Thomas  Heymood 
adapted  the  Ampkitruo  m  his  Silser  Age  (1613).  the  Rudens  in  bs 
CapHots  Oioemed  1644).  and  the  Mostdlaria  in  his  Em^Usk  TretOf 
(1633).  Dryden's  A  mpkUryon  or  tke  two  Sosias  (1690)  is  based  pait>/ 
on  the  Amfwttruo.  partly  on  Molicrc's  adaptation  thereof;  FicMtn;  1 
Miser  (acted  1732)  on  Moli^'s  L'Avare  rather  than  on  the  Aidnlsns, 
and  his  Intrigmug  Ckambermaid  (acted  1733)  on  Regnaid's  Le  Retof 
imprten  rather  than  on  th«  Mosteliana.  There  was  00  Eotink 
translation,  strictly  ao  called,  of  any  play  of  Plautus  an  the  i6tfi  or 
17th  century,  except  that  of  the  Menaeckmi  by  W.  W.  (probaWy 
William  Warner),  first  printed  in  1595.  whicli  Shakespore  miv 
poasibly  have  used  (in  MS.)  for  bis  Comedy  of  Errors.  A  transbtioa 
of  the  whole  of  Plautua  in  "  familiar  blank  verae  "  by  BoooeQ  Tbore* 
ton  and  others  appeared  in  1767  (2nd  ed.,  1 769-1774)'  F>w  ^"^ 
have  been  translated  in  the  metres  of  the  original  by  Suj^cs  (i993J> 

PLAT,  a  word  of  which  the  primary  meaning  is  that  of  fne 
or  active  movement  or  exercise.  The  O.  Eng.  ^gan  or  pUgva, 
from  which  comes  the  substantive  picga,  play,  b  appartctly 
cognate  with  Ger.  pflegtn,  to  take  care  or  charge  of,  and  F/^< 
care,  and  the  connexion  in  sense  Is  to  be  found  in  the  primzn^ 
meaning,  that  of  exercise  or  active  movement.  In  its  piimaiy 
meaning  '*  play  "  is  used  of  the  rapid  changing  movement  of 
light  and  colotir,  and  also  figuratively  of  thought  or  fancy,  vA 
spedfically  6f  the  free  movement  of  parts  of  a  mechanhm  on 
each  other,  of  a  joint  or  limb,  &c.  To  play  a  musical  instruDat 
is  to  move  the  fingers  upon  it,  and  tmtil  the  18th  century  tke 
verb  was  intransitive,  and  **  on  "  or  "  upon  *  was  always  vsti 
with  the  name  of  the  instrument.  Tlic  very  general  use  of  ibe 
word  for  sport,  game  or  amusement,  is  an  early  and  easy  derdc^ 
ment  from  the  meaning  of  active  movement  or  cserdse  »  * 
recreatk>n  after  work;  that  of  s  dramatic  peiformanct  {^ 
Dsama)  is  very  early;  the  Nwm  EngjUsh  DkUonary  qnoco  fnff 
King  AUied's  Orosius  (c.  893). 


PLAYA— PLEADING 


»3« 


The  primitive  pity  inttiiitt  or  pUy  ianpulae  in  torn  ha*  been  nnidk 
dnoMMd  in  icccnt  years  by  psychologiata  in  cooncation  witii  child- 
ittidy  (see  Cbilo),  mod  wuh  the  cx{Newon  of  thccmoUons  (ace 
J.  Sully,  On  laughter,  1902,  Ac:  also  Aesthetics).  See  generatly 
Carl  Groos,  The  Ptay  of  Animals  (1898)  and  The  Pley  of  Man 
(1901):  and  Baldwin's  Dtct.  efPhilatophy,  t.9. 

PLATA  (a  Spanish  word  meaniDg  "  shore  ")» tlie  name  applied 
in  America  to  a  level  plain  formed  of  the  depouls  of  a  river 
which  lias  no  outlet  to  the  sea  or  a  lake.  If  at  seasons  of  high 
water  a  river  floods  any  area  and  temporarily  converts  it  into  a 
lake,  which  subsequently  dries  i^)  in  hot  weather,  the  tract  thus 
left  dry  is  called  a  playa.  The  barren  Black  Rock  Desert  in 
north-western  Nevada,  about  too  m.  in  length  by  15  in  breadth, 
is  typical. 

PLATFAIR,  JOHN  (174S-X819),  Scottish  mathematician  and 
physicist,  was  bom  at  Benvie,  Forfarshire,  where  his  father  was 
parish  minister,  on  the  loth  of  March  1748.  He  was  educated 
at  home  until  the  age  of  fourteen,  when  he  entered  the  university 
of  St  Andrews.  In  1766,  when  only  eighteen,  he  was  candidate 
for  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
and,  although  he  was  unsuccessful,  his  claims  were  admitted 
to  be  high.  Six  years  later  he  made  application  for  the  chair 
of  natural  philosophy  m  his  own  university,  but  again  without 
success,  and  in  1773  he  ^^^s  offered  and  accepted  the  living  of 
the  united  parishes  of  Liil  and  Benvie,  vacant  by  the  death  of 
his  father.  He  continued,  however,  to  carry  on  his  mathematical 
and  physical  studies,  and  in  1782  he  resigned  his  charge  in  order 
to  become  the  tutor  of  Ferguson  of  Raith.  By  this  arrangement 
he  was  able  to  be  frequently  in  Edinburgh,  and  to  cultivate  the 
literary  and  scientific  society  for  which  it  was  at  that  time 
specIaUy  distinguished;  and  through  Maskclyne,  whose  acquain- 
tance he  had  first  made  in  the  coui'se  of  the  celebrated  Schiehalllon 
experimenta  in  1774,  he  also  gained  access  to  the  scientific  circles 
of  London.  In  1785  when  Dugald  Stewart  succeeded  Ferguson 
in  the  Edinburgh  chair  of  moral  philosophy,  Playfair  succeeded 
the  former  in  that  of  nuitheroatics.  In  180a  he  published  his 
celebrated  volume  entitled  lOuslraticns  of  the  Htttlonian  Theory 
of  the  Earth.  To  its  publication  the  influence  exerted  by  James 
Hut  ton  on  the  progress  of  geological  knowledge  is  largely  due. 
In  1805  he  exchanged  the  chair  of  mathematics  for  that  of 
natural  philosophy  in  succession  to  Dr  John  Robison,  whom  also 
he  succeeded  as  general  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh.  He  took  a  prominent  part,  on  the  Liberal  side, 
in  the  ecclesiastical  controversy  which  arose  in  connexion  with 
Leslie's  appointment  to  the  post  he  had  vacated,  and  published 
a  satirical  Letttr  (1806)  which  was  greatly  admired  by  his  friends. 
He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1807,  He  died  in  Edinburgh  on  the 
20th  of  July  1 81 9. 

A  collected  edition  of  I^ayfair's  works,  with  a  memoir  by  J[ame9 
G.  Playfair,  appeared  at  Edinburgh  in  4  vols.  8vo.  His  writings 
include  a  numtier  of  essays  contributed  to  the  Bdinhwrth  Revuw 
from  1804  onwards,  various  papers  in  the  PhU.  Trans,  (including  his 
earliest  publication,  "  On  the  Arithmetic  of  Impossible  Quantities," 
1779,  and  an  "  Account  of  the  Litholocical  Survey  of  SchehaHibn," 
tSii)  and  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh 
(**C>n  the  Causes  which  aflTect  the  Accuiacy  w  Barometrical 
Measurements." Ac). alio  the  articles  "Aepimn"  and  "Physical 
Astronomy."  and  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Progress  of  Mathematical 
and  Physical  Science  since  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  Europe,"  in 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (Supplement  to  fourth,  fifth  and 
sixth  editions).  His  EJemenis  0/  Geometry  first  ap^red  in  1795 
and  have  passed  through  many  editions;  his  OuUinee  of^  Nalnrui 
Philosophy  (a  voU,  1812-1S16)  consst  of  the  propositions  and 
formulae  which  were  the  basis  of  his  class  lectures.  Playfair's  con- 
tributions to  pure  mathematics  were  not  considerable,  his  paper 
"On  the  Arithmetic  of  Impossible  Quantities,"  Jthat  "On  the 
Causes  which  affect  the  Accuracy  of  Barometrical  Measurements," 
and  his  Elements  of  Geometry,  all  already  referred  to,  being  the 
most  important.    His  lives  of  Matthew  Stewart,  Hutton,  Robison, 


many  01  his  reviews,  and  above  all  his 
utmost  value. 


Dissertation  '  are  of  the 


PLATPAIR,  LTOll  PUTFAIR,  ist  Bakon  (18x8-1898),  was 
bom  at  Chunar,  Bengal  province,  on  the  21st  of  May  18x8.  He 
was  sent  to  Europe  by  h»  father  at  an  early  age,  and  received 
his  first  education  at  St  Andrews.  Subsequently  ho  studied 
medicine  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh.  A  short  visit  to  India 
(id  1837-1858)  was  followed  by  his  return  to  Europe  to  study 


chemistry,  wluch  had  always  attracted  him.  *'  This  he  did  at 
University  College,  London,  and  afterwards  under  Llebig  at 
Giessen,  where  he  took  his  doctor's  degree.  At  Liebig's  request, 
Playfair  translated  into  English  the  former's  work  on  the 
CkemUtry  of  Apictdture,  and  represented  Liebig  at  a  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  at  Glasgow.  The  outcome  of  lus 
studies  was  his  engagement  in  1841  as  chemical  manager  of  tiie 
Primrose  print-works  at  Clitberoe,a  post  which  he  held  for  rather 
more  than  a  year.  In  1843  he  was  elected  honorary  professor 
of  chemistry,  to  the  Royal  Institution  of  Manchester,  and  soon 
afterwards  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  the  Health  of  Towns,  a  body  whose  investigations  may  be 
said  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  modem  sanitation.  In 
1846  he  was  appointed  chemist  to  the  geological  survey,  and 
thenceforward  was  constantly  cmi^yed  by  the  public  depart- 
ments  in  matters  of  sanitary  and  diemlcal  inspection.  The 
opportunity  of  his  life  came  with  the  X85X  Ezliibition,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  special  comnussioners.  For  his  services  in  tliis 
conneaion  he  was  made  C.B.,  and  his  work  had  the  additional 
advantage  of  bringing  him  into  dose  personal  relations  with 
the  Prince  Consort,  who  appointed  him  gentleman  usher  in  his 
household.  From  1856  to  1869  he  was  professor  of  chemistxy 
at  Edinburgh  University.  In  1868  he  was  elected  to  represent 
the  tmlvexsities  of  Edinburgh  and  St  Andrews  in  parliament, 
and  retained  his  seat  till  1885,  from  which  date  until  1892  be 
sat  as  member  for  Leeds.  In  1873  ^^  ^^  made  postmaster- 
general,  and  in  the  following  year,  after  the  di^lution  of 
parliament,  was  applied  to  by  the  incoming  Tory  government 
to  preside  over  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the  working  of  the 
civil  service.  Its  report  establishcNd  a  completely  new  system, 
which  has  ever  since  been  officially  known  as  the  ''Playfair 
scheme."  The  return  of  Mr  Gladstone  to  poWer  in  1880  afforded 
opportunity  for  Playfair  to  resume  his  interrupted  parliamentary 
career,  and  from  that  time  until  1883  he  acted  as  chairman  of 
committees  during  a  period  when  the  obstructive  tactics  of  the 
Irish  party  were  at  their  height.  On  his  retirement  from  the 
post  he  was  made  K.C.B.  In  1892  he  was  created  Baron  Playfair 
of  St  Andrews,  and  a  little  later  was  appointed  lord-in-waiting 
to  the  queen.  In  1895  ^^  ^"^^  given  the  C.C.B.  In  spite  of 
failing  health  the  last  years  of  his  life  were  full  of  activity,  one 
of  his  latest  public  acts  being  hts'suggestlon  that  Queen  Victoria's 
Diamond  Jubilee  of  1897  should  be  commemorated  by  the 
completion  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  He  died  in 
London,  after  a  short  illness,  on  the  29th  of  May  1898,  and  was 
buried  at  St  Andrews.  He  was  three  times  married.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  papers  on  scientific  and  social  topics, 
a  selection  from  which  he  published,  in  1889  under  the  title  of 
SubjeOs  of  Social  Welfare. 

A  memoir  by  Sir  Wemyss  Reid  was  published  In  1899.  ( 

PLEADING  (Fr.  plaider,  plaidoycr),  the  term  applied  in 
English  law  to  the  preparation  of  the  statement  of  the  facts  on 
which  either  party  to  a  crimiiul  prosecution  or  a  civil  action 
founds  Ills  claim  to  a  decision  in  his  favour  on  the  questions 
involved  in  the  proceeding;  and  also  to  the  document  In  which 
these  statements  are  embodied.  The  term  "  pleadings  "  is  used 
for  the  collected  whole  of  the  statements  of  both  parties;  the 
term  "  pleading  "  for  each  separate  part  of  the  pleadings.  The 
term  "  plea  "  i^aciiumt  plaid)^  is  now  applied  in  England  oftenest 
to  the  defence  made  by  an  accused  person.  To  "  plead  "  is  to 
make  a  pleading  or  plea.' 

All  a^tems  of  law  agree  In  making  it  necessary  to  bring  the 
grounds  of  a  claim  or  defence  before  the  court  in  a  more  or  less 
definite  and  tedmical  form. 

Homan  System. — In  Roman  law  the  action  passed  through  three 
stages  (see  Action),  and  the  manner  of  pleading  changed  with  the 
action.  Tn  the  earliest  historical  period,  that  of  the  ti^s  actionrs, 
the  pleadings  were  verbal,  and  made  in  court  by  the  parties  them- 
selves, the  proceedings  imitating  as  far  as  possible  the  natural 

*  In  Scots  and  eccledastical  law  the  word  "  plea  "  b  used  as  to 
the  statements  of  both  parties  to  a  cause. 

'  In  French  law  pUuder  and  plaidayer  are  still  applied  to  Jthe 
oral  arpiments  of  counsel,  ana  in  English  popular  speech  "  to 
plead  "  has  much  the  same  sense. 


83» 


PLEADING 


■pedal  privilege  to  favouttd  town 
law  fictkini,  equily  and  legnlatio 
law.    Id  England  this  rcsu 


Unflr  allaincd  by  lie 
:  cue  under  the  powtn 
be  Suiute  of  Wotminilei  the  StatoA  (iiSj),  and  by  ibe 
rnsiqn  of  Ibe  anion  of  <uiiimpiit  lo  non-lemnct.  Tie 
cullies  and  techslcililies  of  Ibe  cominon  law  ^lem  vcn 
by  elabotaiion  of  ithal  is  known  ai"  special  pleailinE."'  rikb 
became  an  art  of  the  utEHoat  nicely,  depending 


ri^di 


Hi  by  a 


nulliority,  and  he  waa  liabit  ID  an  Ktion 

.ir  CBHdioc  it.  He  could  not  amend  the  fsnnula:  that  could 
only  be  done  by  the  praetor^  In  the  third  «riad  the  Jsnnula 
did  not  exiflt,  the  puinlilTa  daim  appeajed  in  the  gumcnani 
(titcUu  immnimii),  and  the  ddesdaal  oiight  ulie  any  define* 
that  he  picaaad,  all  actkni  beuii  pUccd  on  the  faoiinf  oi  atrtioaa 
km  JJeL  The  imie  lo  be  tited  ku  detennined  by  the  iudie 
from  theonl  itatementi of  the  pattiei. 

En^iik  Sysltm.— The  English  lyilein  of  pleading  leemi  to 
have  drawn  lugely  (rom,  if  it  nu  not  dlRclly  baied  upon,  the 
Roman.  Bigcton  (Icr^f.  Heni>  ID.)  usa  many  ol  the  Roman 
lechnioJ  tenoa.  Pleading  was  oral  as  blc  »  the  leign  ol 
Henry  VUI..  but  in  the  ceign  ol  Edwaid  III.  pleadinis  beeu  to 
be  diawn  up  in  writing,  perhaps  at  Crat  more  for  the  purpose  of 
entry  on  the  court  tetotj*  than  for  the  instruction  ol  the  court 
(see  >  Reeves,  HiiWy  of  Eit^iik  Lav.  p.  joB).  The  French 
laogUBge  was  used  until  1363,  after  which  English  was  used  for 
oral  pleading,  but  Latin  for  enrolment,  except  for  a  short  period 
during  the  Commonwealth.  Latin  was  the  language  ol  written 
pleadings  at  common  law  until  lyjt.  The  period  of  the  Romaji 
fatHuIa  has  iu  analogue  in  the  period  of  the  ori|pnal  writ  in 

Cronn  to  a  judicial  officer  to  do  justice  between  the  partiei,  the 
claim  being  made  by  a  cotuit  (kkU,  nanaliK).  The  issue  of 
the  writ  was  part  of  the  prerogative  of  the  Crown,  unlimited 
until  the  Provision!  of  Oxford  (ujS)  forbade  the  issue  of  Ireih 
writs  eicepl  "  writs  of  course  "  Idt  euriu)  oitbout  the  consent 
of  the  council.  Gradually  the  writ  came  to  absorb  the  count 
ncluded  the  plaintifl's  clAini  and 


The  d 


It  pleat 


.    The  w 


bcCBine  the  tuiivcrsal  form  of  instimtiDg  proceedings  in  tJie 
king's  court,  irrespective  of  the  method  of  trial  which  followed, 
and  probably  grnr  fiicd  in  form  about  Ibe  reign  of  Henry  II, 
(see  Bigclow,  Hiilcry  of  Prxedim,  ch,  iv.).    At  a  later  date  ibe 
writ  again  tended  (0  approach  ill  earlier  fonn  and  10  split  into 
two  parts — the  writ  ol  summom  and  the  declaration  or  plaint  iH's 
claim.    The  writ  of  summons  wis  addressed  to  the  defendant, 
and  not,  as  the  ari^,ial  writ,  lo  a  judicial  officer.   The  pleadings 
became  ibe  ad  of  the  party,  differing  in  this  from  Roman  la 
in  which  they  were  a  judicial  act.    The  writs  became  precedei 
for  Ibe  fornn  ol  action,  which,  like  Ibe  wriis,  were  limited 
number.    The  plaintiff's  dadaration  wasasubstanti.iIrqMtiti 
of  the  writ.    In  the  writ,  as  b  the /Drmii/d,  the  slightest  faih 
ID  form  was  as  a  rule  fatal.    "  The  asngning  of  a  vrit  of  a  pi 

appropriating  proc<  " 


d  Ihe  I 


dered  pi 


illy  "  (1  Reeves.  Hisl.  cf 
les  were  levied  lor  millakes  in  pleading. 
IS  sometimes  granted  by  charter  as  a 
lultedladiiilriguish  it  fioai  the  jndi 
the  prom,  of  the  courl.  "-  ■"* 
arlamri  or  fitri  facial. 


.  In  bath  Roman  and  En^ 


P-  30J). 


ii  their 


were  called  special  pleaders.   They  nere  n 

to  practise  for  a  lii 
:.    Such  licences  1 


ss  to  frame  pleadic] 
t  necessarily  nif  mbe 


result  was  that  substaillive  la> 

ihtaseology  in  which  they  wm 
ostancF,  a  learned  judge  in  ihi 
ing  for  putting  the  year  without 


Uwsy 


,   Man. 


rdbyU 


^ral^ulc3olp^aElicemld(  thereunder.  Widepoitn 
of  amendment  were  given,  and  the  parties  were  allimcd  toraist 
and  try  claims  which  theretofore  could  have  been  dealt  >ilh 
only  in  courts  of  equity.  In  the  court  of  chancery  the  pladingl 
used  were  bill  (or  in  certain  pubUc  matlen  an  informiUos  by 
the  at  torney -general j,  answer  and  replication-'  Demurrert  wir 
tiled,  or  *'  eiceplions  "  could  be  taken  to  the  bill  or  answer. 
"They  differed  from  the  common  law  forms  by  bnng  moch  nwie 
iliSuse,  by  pleading  matters  of  evidence,  and  in  lb«t  the  ans*rf 
was  on  oath.  Beyopd  the  replication  chancery  proceedingi  d>il 
not  go,  the  place  of  further  pleadings  being  tuppUed  by  amnxl. 


creation  of  tne  dlvorl 
(and  still  are)  as  loUm 
oath),anawer(nbichis 
and  reply;  and  a  ^c 


y  pleadings  it 


he  bill  or 


.t  ihe  pleading  autboriaed  weie 

;  petition  (which  muU  he  vrrihed  b; 
veri&ed  if  it  goes  beyond  ■  mere  dcaiiJ) 
lI  i^eading  called  "act  on  pelilin' 


generally  used  for  the  detirminalion 
tpiestion  in  the  loil,  e.t-  the  domicile  of 
court  of  admiralty  the  pleadings  used 
reply  and  conclusion.  In  the  probate  c 
terms  were  used  {dedaiation,  pica  and 


rere  petltjia.  ani»". 
lurt  the  common  Lw 
refJicalion),  hut  ik 

i<u  modified  in  the  T«ib 

ire  cuunti  (unEfi),  or.mola 


'  The  ingeouify  ti  the  pleader  ahDwing  itadf  chietty  in  fivuf 
ipccial  as  opposed  to  geneial  pleaa.  Ibe  lerm  "  ivccial  «**'"^, 
grew  to  be  uted  for  the  whole  proceedlop  of  which  il  vas  tia 


"Enriiih  B 


PLEADING 


833 


forum  or  ftquired  spccud  ttetenMeot.  The  dedtialion  corrapoads 
to  the  Roman /ormioa  aod  inlentio, 

2,  Pica  by  the  defendant  to  the  counts  of  the  decIanitioD.  The 
plea  corresponds  to  the  Roman  exupiw. . 

3^  Replication  by  the  plaintiff  to  the  plea.  In  this  plcadii^  the 
plaintiff  usually  took  iisue  upon  the  statements  in  the  defence: 
but  be  might  do  what  was  termed  "  new  assign,"  e.g.  complain  of 
acts  in  excess  of  a  justification  alleged  in  the  pl«i.~ 

4.  Rejoinder  by  the  defendant  to  the  replicsition,  answering  to 
the  Roman  dn^t^a^M. 

5.  Surrejoinder  by  the  plaintiff  to  the  rejoinder,  answering  to 
the  Roman  tripiicatio. 

6.  Rebutter  by  the  defendant  to  the  mirrejunder. 

7.  Surrebutter  by  the  plaintiff  to  the  rebutter. 

Nos.  4i  5»  6  and  7  were  rarely  necessary,  as  the  parties  usually 
came  to  a  definite  issue  on  the  facts  in  the  replication,  and  the  last 
of  them  is  onlv  kept  in  legal  memory  because  Lord  Wendeydale 
(the  last  and  best  versed  of  the  old  commcm  law  pleaden)  was 
nicknamed  Chief  Baron  Surrebutter.  At  any  stage  of  the  plead- 
ings  after  (1),  the  party  might  instead  of  pleading  to  the  preceding 
document  demur,  t.e,  aidmit  the  facts  as  therein  stated  ana  contend 
that  assuming  the  truth  of  those  facts  the  document  was  insufficient 
in  law  to  found  a  claim  or  a  defence  as  the  case  mieht  be.  De- 
murrers (jq.v.)  were  general  or  special  according  as  tney  went  to 
the  substance  of  the  claim  or  pica  or  to  a  mere  defect  in  the  mode 
of  statement.  When  the  pleadings  had  reached  a  stage  at  which 
the  parties  were  in  flat  contradiction  on  matters  of  fact,  they  con- 
cluded by  joinder  of  issue,  upon  which  the  record  was  made  up 
aod  the  action  was  ripe  for  triaL 
Pleas  fell  into  the  toUowing  classes  >— 

1.  In  abatement,  also  described  as  temporary  or  dilatory  (terms 
of  Roman  law),  directed  cither  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court 
or  to  the  abatement  or  defeat  of  the  action  for  defects  of  form. 

3.  In  bar,  also  described  w  peremptory,  whkh  answered  the 
alleged  cause  of  action  by  denying  facts  stated  in  the  declaration 
which  were  material,  or  by  confessing  their  truth,  but  stating  jiew 
matter  of  fact  which  destroyed  Ihcir  l(*gal  effect. 

Some  of  these  were  by  way  of  justification  or  excuse,  r.f .  by  setting 
up  the  truth  of  matter  allqted  to  be  defamatory,  or  legal  warrant 
for  an  arrest  complained  of  as  illegal;  othera  were  oy  way  of 
discharige,  #.£.  of  an  alleged  debt  bv  payment. 

Pleas  in  denial  were  known  (a)  as  general  traverses  or  general 
issues,  when  they  denied  in  a  general  and  appropriate  form  one 
or  more  of  the  facts  alleged  («.g.  "  never  indebted  "  to  a  claim  in 
assumpsit  or  "not  guilty"  to  a  daim  for  tort);  (b)  as  specific 
traverses  of  separate  and  material  altegjations  in  the  declaration^ 
•etting  out  with  (tarticularity  the  facts  relied  on. 

It  was  permissible  to  plead  alternatively,  Le,  to  set  up'a  number 
of  different  answers  to  the  facts  on  which  the  claim  was  based. 
As  a  general  rule  a  plea  must  be  "  issuable,"  i.«.  must  put  the  merits 
of  the  cause  in  issue  on  the  facts  or  the  law,  so  that  the  decision  of 
judge  and  jury  thereon  would  put  an  end  to  the  action  upon  the 
ments. 

All  the  above  forms  of  pleading,  except  in  matrimonial  causes, 
were  abolished  by  the  Judicature  Acts,  and  a  new  system  was 
set  up  by  these  acts  and  the  niles  of  the  Supreme  Cotirt.  Under 
this  system  the  pleadings  proper  are  "statement  of  daim/' 
"  defence,"  "  reply,"  and,  if  need  be,  "  rejoinder." 

When  pleadings  are  allowed  they  must  contain,  and  contain 
only,  a  statement  in  a  summary  form  of  the  material  facts  on 
which  the  party  pleading  relies  for  his  daim  or  defence,  as  the 
case  may  be,  but  not  the  evidence  by  which  they  are  to  be  proved; 
and  must,  when  necessary,  be  divided  into  paragraphs,  numbered 
consecutively.  Dates,  sums  and  numbers  are  expressed  in 
figures  and  not  in  words.  Signature  of  counsel  u  not  necessary; 
but  where  pleadings  have  been  settled  by  counsel  or  a  special 
pleader  they  are  to  be  signed  by  him,  and  if  not  so  settled  they 
are  to  be  signed  by  the  solidtor  or  by  the  party  if  he  sues  or 
defends  in  person  (O.  19,  r.  4).*  There  has  been  a  growing  dis- 
position to  dispense  with  formal  pleadings  in  the  simpler  kinds 
of  action.  A  plaintiff  is  allowed  to  proceed  to  trial  without 
pleadings  if  the  writ  of  summons  is  endorsed  in  a  manner  sufficient 
to  indicate  the  nature  of  his  daim  and  the  relief  or  remedy  which 
be  seeks  (O.  i8a),  and  contains  a  notice  of  his  intention.  In 
no  case  is  a  statement  of  daim  other  than  that  endorsed  on  the 
writ  necessary  unless  the  defendant  on  appearand  asks  for  one, 
and  his  right  to  insist  has  been  cut  down  by  the  provisions 
presently  to  be  stated.  In  commercial  cases  a  statement  by 
the  parties  to  the  points  of  Uw  and  fact  which  they  propose  to 
jaiae  is  substituted  for  ordinaxy  pleadings.    In  cases  where 

t  Before  the  jfudicatore  Acts  equity  pleadings  were  ngned  by 
oottnsel*  but  common  law  pleadings  wen  not* 


the  demand  is  for  a  Uquldatcd  sum  certain,  or  to  recover  land 
from  a  tenant  on  expiration  of  his  term  or  its  forfeiture  for  non- 
payment of  rent,  the  statement  of  daim  must  be  endorsed  on 
the  writ;  and  in  all  other  cases  no  statement  of  daim  beyond 
that  on  the  writ  may  be  delivered  except  under  order  of  the 
master  or  judge  at  chambers  (Ords.  18a  and  30).  A  statement 
of  defence  may  not  be  delivered  except  under  order  made  on  the 
summons  for  directions  (which  must  be  taken  out  immediately 
after  the  appearance  of  the  defendant  in' answer  to  the  writ), 
nor  a  reply  without  special  leave.  The  result  of  tl»e  present 
practice  is  to  substitute  "  particukirs,"  i.e.  spedfic  statement 
of  the-deUils  which  the  parties  intend  to  prove,  for  the  more 
general  terms  in  which  pleadings  were  formerly  framed. 

Besides  the  rules  applicable  to  all  pleadings,  there  are  certain  rules 
specially  relating  to  statements  of  claim,  with  reference  to  the 
nature  of  the  causes  of  action  which  may  be  included  and  the  relief 
which  may  be  claimed  (O.  so).  As  to  the  defence  proper,  there 
are  also  special  rules  intended  to  prevent  evasive,  inadequate  or 
unnecessary  contradiction  of  the  plaintiff's  statements  (O.  19,  20). 
The  defendant  is  allowed  to  "  set  off  "  against  the  daim  suras 
due  to  him  from  the  plaintiff  or  to  raise  by  way  of  counter-daSm 
any  right  or  claim  against  the  plaintiff  or  a  third  ^rty,  whether 
'  sounding  "  as  damages  or  not.  The  counter-daim  is  in  substance 
a  conjoined  action  in  which  the  defendant  is  plaintiff  and  the  plsintiff 
or  third  party  affected  may  put  in  a  defence  to  it.  Except  in  such 
a  case  the  reply  and  subsequent  pleadings  arc  now  seldom  permitted. 
Both  the  parties  and  the  court  or  a  judge  have  large  powers  of 
amending  the  pleadings  both  before  and  at  the  triaC  Issues  are 
tn  certain  cases  settled  by  the  court  or  a  judge.  Demurrers  are 
abolished,  and  a  party  is  now  entitled  to  raise  by  his  pleading 
any  point  of  hw.  Where  deduon  of  a  point  of  law  woulo  put  an 
end  to  the  action  steps  may  be  taken  f^  obtaining  such  dcciskm 
so  as  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  trying  the  issues  of  fact  raised 
on  the  pleadings.  Forms  of  pleading  are  given  in  Appendices  C, 
D  and  E  to  the  Supreme  "Court  Rules,  In  all  actions  such  ground 
of  defence  or  reply  as  if  not  raised  would  be  likely  to  talee  the 
opposite  party  by  surprise,  or  would  raise  issues  of  fact  not  arising 
out  of  the  preceding  pleadings,  must  be  specially  pleaded.  Such 
are  compulsory  pilotage,  fraud,  the  Statute  of  Limitations,  the 
Statute  of  Frauds  and  the  Caming  Act.  The  Supreme  Court 
Rules  do  not  appiv  to  proceedings  tn  Crown  suits  or  in  the  Crown 
side. of  the  kings  bench  division.  In  actions  for  damages  by 
collision  between  ships  each  party  must  as  a  general  rule  file  a 
sealed  document  called  a  Praiminary  act  containing  details  as  to 
the  time  and  place  of  colltston,  the  speed,  tide,  lignts.  &c.  The 
case  may  be  tried  on  the  preliminary  act  without  pleadings,  but 
if  there  are  pleadings  the  act  may  not  be  unsealed  until  they  are 
completed  and  certain  consents  given.  The  document  was  peculiar 
to  the  court  of  admiralty,  but  may  now  be  used  in  all  oiviuons 
of  the  High  Court  (O.  19,  r.  28).  Tnc  High  Court  system  of  plead- 
ings has  been  adopted  in  the  chancery  courts  of  the  counties  palatine 
of  uincastcr  and  Durham.  The  place  of  the  "  reeerd  "  is  supplied 
by  c<wies  of  the  pleadings  delivered  for  the  use  of  the  judge  and  of 
the  officer  entering  the  judgment  (0. 36,  r.  30;  0. 41 ,  r.  i). 

In  the  county  courts  proceedings  are  commenced  by  a  ptainit 
followed  by  an  ordinary  or  default  summons.  No  "  pleadings  "are 
necessary,  but  the  defendant  is  precluded  from  setting  caaa» 
up  certain  special  defences  such  as  set-off  or  infancy,  T^H^Z. 
or  statutory  defences,  without  the  consent  of  the  ^  **"» 
plaintiff,  unless  he  has  given  timely  notice  in  writing  of  his  intention 
to  set  up  the  special  defence.  This  system  is  made  workable  by 
insisting  on  the  insertion  of  adequate  details  or  particulars  of  the 
nature  of  the  daim  in  the  plaint.  But  in  cases  where  a  special 
defence  is  not  reouired  considerable  inconvenience  b  caused  by 
uncertainty  as  to  the  line  of  defence. 

In  some  of  the  local  dviH  courts  of  record  which  have  survived 
the  creation  of  the  county  courts,  the  pleadings  are  still  in  the 
form  recognized  by  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Acts.     r-ihji«r 
This  b  the  case  in  the  Mayor's  Court  of  London.    In     yJ3' 
ethers  (f^f.  the  Liverpool  Court  of  P&ssage  and  the     comitof 
Salford  Hundred  Court)  the  system  (tf  the  Judicature     g^gcord. 
Acts  has  been  adopted  with  or  without  offidal  sanction. 
The  policy  of  the  lord  chancdlor  and  the  treasury  has  been  to 
refuse  reform  of  procedure  to  all  but  the  most  used  of  these  local 
courts  so  as  to  extin^ish  them  in  favour  of  the  county  courts.  ^ 

In  the  ecclesiastical  courts  the  statements  (rf  the  parties  are 
called  generally  fleas.  The  statement  of  the  plaintiff  in  dvtl 
suits  Is  called  a  Itbel;  of  the  promoter  in  criminal  suits 
articles.  Every  subsequent  plea  is  called  an  aUegation, 
To  the  responsive  allc^tion  of  the  defendant  the  pro- 
moter may  plead  a  counter<illeeation.  The  cause  (s  concluded 
when  the  parties  renounce  any  further  allentton.  There  exuts 
in  addition  a  more  short  and  summary  mode  of  pleading  called 
an  act  on  petition. 

In  Roman  criminal  procedon  the  indictment  {imeripth  or 


834 


PLEASURE— PLEBS 


CMvlnot 


libdlus  wciuaiumis)  was  usually  in  writing,  and  oontaioed  a 
iormal  sutement  of  ibe  offence.  In  some  cases  oral  acca- 
sations  were  allowed.  The  pleading  of  the  accused 
seems  to  have  been  informal.  In  English  criminal 
cases  the  expression  "  pleadings  "  is  limited  to  those  tried  on  in- 
dictment or  information  before  a  jury.  In  matters  dealt  with  by 
justices  of  the  peace  there  are  informations  sometimes  in  writing, 
but  they  are  never  regarded  as  "  pleadings."  English  criminal 
pleading  has  been  less  affected  by  legislation  than  civil  pleading, 
and  retains  more  of  what  is  called  the  common  law  system. 
Cases  in  which  the  Crown  was  a  party  early  became  known  as 
"  pleas  of  the  Crown  "  iplacita  coronae),  as  distinguished  from 
"common  pleas"  (jcommunia  placita),  or  pleas  between  subject 
and  subject — that  i»  to  say,  ordinary  civil  actions.  Pleas  of  the 
Crown  originally  included  all  matters  in  which  the  Crown  was 
concerned,  such  as  exchequer. cases,  franchises  and  liberties, 
but  gradually  became  confined  to  criminal  matters,  strictly  to 
the  greater  crimes  triable  only  in  the  king's  courts.  In  criminal 
pleading  the  Crown  states  the  case  in  an  indictment  or  informalum. 
The  answer  of  the  accused  is  a  plea,  which  most  be  pleaded  by 
the  accused  in  penson,  except  in  certain  cases  of  misdemeanour 
Iricd  in  the  High  Court  {Crown  Office  Rules,  1906).  The  plea, 
according  to  Blackstonc,  is  either  to  the  jurisdiction,  a  demurrer, 
in  abatement,  special  in  bar,  or  the  general  issue.  The  last  is 
the  only  plea  that  often  occurs  in  practice;  it  consists  in  the 
answer  (usually  oral)  of  "  guilty  "  or  "  not  guilty "  to  the 
charge.  A  demurrer  Is  strictly  not  a  plea  at  all,  but  an  objection 
on  legal  grounds.  Pleas  to  the  jurisdiction  or  in  abatement 
do  not  go  to  the  merits  of  the  case,  but  allege  that  the  court  has 
no  jurisdiction  to  try  the  particular  offence,  or  that  there  Is  a 
misnomer  or  some  other  technical  ground  for  stay  of  proceedings^ 
The  powers  of  amendment  given  in  1851  (14  &  15  Vict.  c.  ioo) 
and  the  procedure  by  motion  In'arrest  of  judgment  have  rendered 
these  pleas  of  no  practical  importance.  The  special  pleas  in 
bar  are  autrefois  convict  or  autr^ois  acquit  (alleging  a  previous 
conviction  or  aquitial  for  the  same  crime)  and  pardon  (see 
Pardon).  The  plea  of  autrefois  attaint  has  fallen  out  of  use 
since  the  abolition  of  attainder  by  the  Forfeitures  Act  1870. 
There  are  also  special  picas  of  justification  to  indictments  for 
defamatory  libel  under  the  Libel  Act  1843;  and  to  indictments 
for  non-repair  of  highways  «nd  bridges  the  accused  may  plead 
that  the  liability  to  repair  falls  upon  another  person,  lliese 
special  pleas  are  usually,  and  in  some  cases  must  be,  in  writing. 
When  there  is  a  special  plea  in  writii^  the  Crown  puts  in  a 
refutation  in  writing. 

Jreland.-^yhc  practice  as  to  civil  and  criminal  pleading  in  Ireland 
is  sabstaDtially  the  same  as  in  England,  though  to  loroc  extent 
Ibaaed  on  different  statutes  and  rules  of  court. 

Sco&and. — In  Scotland  an  action  in  the  Court  of  Sesaon  begins 
by  a  summons  on  the  part  of  the  pursuer,  to  which  is  annexed  a 
f&ndescendence,  containing  the  allegations  in  fact  on  which  the  action 
ts  founded.  The  pUas  in  lawt  or  statement  of  the  legal  rule  or  rules 
relied  upon  Gntroduced  by  the  Court  of  Session  Act  1825),  are 
subjoined  to  the  condescendence.  The  term  libel  is  also  used  (as 
in  Roman  law)  as  a  general  term  to  express  the  claim  of  the  pursuer 
or  the  accusation  fA  the  prosecutor.  The  statement  of  the  de- 
fender, including  his  pleas  m  law,  is  called  his  defences.  They  arc 
either  dilatory  or  peremptory.  There  b  no  formal  joinder  of  issue, 
as  in  England,  but  the  eamc  end  is  attained  by  aJjustment  of  Ura 
pleadings  and^  the  closing-  of  the  record.  Large  powers  of  amend* 
ment  and  revisal  are  given  by  the  Court  of  &ssion  Act  1868.  In 
the  sheriff  court  pleadings  arc  very  similar  to  those  in  the  Court 
of  Session.  They  arc  commenced  by  a  petition,  which  iachides  a 
condescendence  and  a  note  of  the  puraucr's  pleas  in  law.  The 
defender  may  upon  notice  lodge  defences.  The  procedure  is  now 
fioverned  by  the  Sheriff  Courts  Scotland  Act  1876.    The  term 

pleas  of  the  Crown  "  is  confined  in  Scotland  to  four  offences- 
murder,  rape,  robbery  and  fire-raising.  The  criminal  procedure 
of  Scotland  was  simplified  and  amended  in  1887.  The  old  pro- 
cedure by  criminal  letters  has  been  abolished,  and  prosecutions 
for  the  public  interest  whether  in  the  high  court  of  justiciary  or 
before  the  sheriff  with  a  jury  are  by  indictment  in  the  name  of  His 
Majesty's  advocate.  The  Scots  indictment  differs  from  the  English 
in  not  beine  found  by  a  crand  jury,  except  in  cases  of  high  treason, 
and ^  resembles  rather  tne  ex  omcio  information  of  English  Liw. 
Until  1887  It  was  in  the  form  oia  syllogism,  the  major  proposition 
stating  the  nature  of  the  crime,  the  minor  the  actual  offence  com- 
mitted a«d  that  it  coouKutts  the  cfooc  nuotd  hi  the  miyw*  the 


condusbn  that  on  eonvietton  of  the  panel  fie  ought  to  stlfer  paniA' 
ment.  Under  the  present  practice  it  Is  in  the  second  penos 
addressed  to  the  accused,  and  follows  the  forms  scheduled  10  Ute 
act  of  1887,  which  also  makes  specific  provisions  for  sumplifiatios, 
and  if  need  be  for  amendment  (s.  70).  A  copy  of  the  ladictmeBt 
with  a  list  of  the  witnesses  and  the  productions  most  be  lervcd  os 
the  accoted.  There  are  two  sittings  (diets)  to  deal  with  the  i»- 
dictment.  At  the  first*  hekl  before  the  sheriff,  the  accused  (tensed 
the  panel)  may  plead  guilty  or  raise  preliminary  objections  to  iHe 
relevancy  of  the  indictment,  &c.ror  otherwise  (such  as  want  d 
jurisdiction  or  res  Judicata);  or  trithout  taking^  such  objections, 
or  after  they  are.  overruled,  may  plead  not  guilty.  The  Kcoad 
diet  is  the  diet  of  trial.  If  the  tnal  is  before  the  sheriff  hb  nilisp 
at  the  first  diet  are  final,  if  before  the  court  of  justiciary  his  n&m 
may  be  reviewed.  At  the  second  diet,  besides  hi^  plea  of  sot 
guilty,  the  panel  may  rely  on  certain  specal  defences,  <.f.  inanitr 
or  alibi,  but  only  if  his  special  and  wntten  plot  was  tendntd  and 
recorded  at  the  nrst  diet  or  the  delay  explatacd.  and  he  caasot  oS 
evidence  in  support  of  these  pleas  except  on  written  notice  spcdf- 
ing  the  names  of  the  witnesses  and  the  documents  not  indudn)  a 
the  prosecutor's  lists  (s.  36).  (See  Macdonald,  Crimind  Lb*  4 
Scotmnd,) 

British  Dominions  Beyond  Seas.-^ln  nost  of  the  Aostnfiss 
states,  and  in  Ontario  and  New  Ze^nd,  civil  pleadings  are  govwncd 
by  rules  adopted  from  the  English  Jucficature  Acts.  In  Nev  Sooih 
Wales  a  qrstcm  based  on  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Aen  s 
retained.  Civil  pleadings  in  India  are  regdated  by  the  CtviJ 
Procedure  Code.  Indictments,  except  in  India,  are  lM5icd  00  the 
Englbh  system  as  modified  by  the  criminal  codes  or  other  lcg>4a* 
tion  of  the  colony.  Indictments  In  India  are  regulated  by  tiie 
Criminal  Procedure  Code  of  1898. 

United  States.-^ln  the  United  States  two  systems  of  plead!« 
in  civil  procedure  exist  side  by  side.  Up  to  1848  the  pkadinf  did 
not  materially  differ  from  that  in  use  in  England  at  the  same  ditt 
But  in  1848  the  New  York  Icgisbture  made  a  radical  cbas^e  ■ 
the  system,  and  the  example  01  New  York  has  been  foUowtd  fc* 
many  states.  The  New  York  Civil  Code  of  18^8  established  a 
uniform  procedure  called  the  civil  action,  applicaule  indiflerEst'jv 
to  common  law  and  equity.  The  pleadifKs  are  called  cmr^  *^ 
ansver  (which  Includes  counterclaim)  and  refdy.  The  dtmnfff 
also  is  still  used.  In  some  states  which  follow  this  procedure  tbe 
complaint  bean  the  name  of  -petition.  In  inferior  €X»arts,  sach  a 
courts  of  justices  of  the  peace,  the  pleadings  are  more  simple,  srd 
in  many  cases  oral.    In  states  which  do  not  adopt  the  amee^ 

grocedure  the  pleading  is  much  the  same  as  it  was  in  the  ^y*  d 
^lackstone,  and  the  old  double  jurisdiction  of  common  h«  aad 
equity  still  remains.  Criminal  pleading  is  on  the  lines  of  the  cofl»M 
bw  system  of  'England.  (W.  F.  O 

PLEASURE  (through  Fr.  {daisir  from  Lat.  placere,  to  pkax; 
Gr.  ^vii),  a  term  used  loosely  in  ordinary  language  as  pntcticali; 
synonymous  with  **  enjoyment."  As  such  it  is  applied  eqaifly 
to  what  arc  known  as  the  "  higher  "  or  "  intellectual "  pleasures, 
and  to  purely  "scnsualy"  "«niniar*  or  "lower"  pletsnres 
The  conditions  under  whidi  a  man  is  pleased  are  the  subject 
both  or  psychological  and  of  ethical  Investigation.  In  geo^fli 
It  may  be  said  that  pleasure  and  pain  follow  respectively  opta 
the  success  of  the  iaihiTe  of  some  effort,  mental  or  physical  net 
PisvcBOLocY) ;  they  may  also  attend  upon  purely  passive  ses&s* 
tiom,  e.g.  a  warm  sun,  n  hesvy  shower,  or  upon  assodatwm  ^^ 
previous  states  of  mind  (j.e.  a  man  may  enjoy  a  sensation  vhic^ 
is  intrinsically  painful*  if  it  has  pleasant  assodatioiis).  Reoc^ 
tion  ^  the  fact  that  mankind  seeks  pleaauee  and  avoids  pain  bas 
led  some  moralists  to  the  conchisiov  that  all  human  oondect 
is  actuated  by  hedonic  considerations:  this  is  the  direct  aniitbess 
to  ethical  theories  which  maintain  an  absolute  criterion  of  rig^i 
and  wrong  (see  Hedonisk;  Ethics).  Aristotle  took  a  nidflk 
view,  holding  that  pleasure,  though  not  the  end  of  virtnons  icuoi 
yet  necessarily  foIk>ws  upon  it  (hrcTcv&MvAr  n  rlXor). 

PLEBI8CITB  (lat.  plebisciluM,  a  decree  of  the  pkh),  a  tern 
borrowed  from  the  French  for  a  vote  of  all  the  electon  ia  t 
eountiy  taken  on  some  vpedBc  question  (ace  abo  RxfebekdoiX 
The  mott  iamiliar  cammple  of  the  use  of  the  plebiscite  in  Ftcs:^ 
history  was  in  x6j2,  when' the  coup  d'Hst  of  1851  was  c<a6xtpd 
and- the  title  of  emperor  was  given  to  Napoleon  IIL  In  Ro0» 
consritutional  law  the  pidnsckmm  was  a  decroe  cnaacd  is  tk 
assembly  of  the  ^ebs^  the  eomiiia  tribata,  presided  over  by  ^ 
plebeian  magistrate. 

PLEBS. (from  the  nqi  seen  In LaL  ptettus^  foil;  cf.  Gr. rXgAx'- 
the  "  multitude,"  or  unprivileged  class  in  the  eariy  Reaaa  stst^ 
For  the  origin  and  history  of  this  order  see  Patiicia)6  tfo 
NoBXuXY.     Its  disqualifimiioDft  were  origuiAUy  based  •& 


PLEDGE— PLEISTOCENE 


»35 


descent;  but  after  the  political  equaBzation  of  the  two  orders 
the  name  was  applied  to  the  lower  classes  of  the  population  with- 
out refereoce  to  their  descent.  Under  the  empire  the  word  is 
regularly  used  of  the  city  proletariate,  or  of  the  coohbods  as 
distinct  from  knights  and  senators. 

PLEDGE,^  or  Fawn,  in  law  "  a  bailment  of  personal  property 
as  a  security  lor  some  debt  or  engagement  "  (Story  on  BaUmenis, 
}  aS6).    The  term  is  also  used  to  denote  the  property  which 
constitutes  the  security.    Pledge  is  the  pignus  of  Roman  law, 
from  which  most  of  the  modern  law  on  the  subject  is  derived. 
It  differs  from  hypothec  and  from  the  more  usual  kind  of  mort- 
gage in  that  the  pledge  is  in  the  possession  of  the  pledgee;  it 
also  differs  from  mortgage  in  being  confined  to  personal  property. 
A  mortgage  of  personal  property  in  most  cases  takes  the  name 
and  form  of  a  biM  of  sale.   The  chief  difference  between  Roman 
and  English  law  is  that  certain  things,  4.g.  wearing  appsrcl, 
furniture  and  instruments  of  tillage,  could  not  be  pledged  in 
Roman  law,  while  there  is  no  such  restriction  in  English  law. 
In  the  case  of  a  pledge,  a  special  property  passes  to  the  pledgee, 
sufficient  to  enable  him  to  maintain  an  action  against  a  wrong- 
doer, but  the  general  property,  that  is  the  property  subject  to 
the  pledge,  remains  in  the  pledgor.    As  the  pledge  is  for  the 
benefit  of  both  parties,  the  pledgee  is  bound  to  exercise  only 
ordinary  care  over  the  pledge.    The  pledgee  has  the  right  of 
selling  the  pledge  if  the  pledgor  make  default  in  payment  at 
the  stipulated  time.    No  right  is  acquired  by  the  wrongful  sale 
of  a  pledge  except  in  the  case  of  property  passing  by  delivery, 
such  OS  money  or  negotiable  securities.  In  the  case  of  a  wrongful 
sale  by  a  pledgee,  the  pledgor  cannot  recover  the  value  of  the 
pledge  without  a  tender  of  the  amount  due. 

The  law  of  Scotland  as  to  pledge  ^nerally  agrees  with  that  of 
England,  as  does  aim  that  of  the  United  States.  The  main  differ- 
ence is  that  in  Scotland  and  in  Louisiana  a  pledge  cannot  be  sold 
unless  with  judicial  authority.  In  some  of  the  American  states 
the  common  law  as  it  existco  apart  from  the  Factors'  Acts  is  still 
followed;  in  others  the  factor  has  more  or  less  restricted  power  to 
give  a  title  by  pledge. 

See  also  Factor  and  Pawnbbokino. 

PLBHVB,  VIATSCHBSLAF  BONSTAMTUfOVICR  (tS4^i904), 
Russian  statesman,  was  bom  of  Lithuanian  stock  in  1846.    He 
was  educated  at  Warsaw  and  studied  law  at  the  univeislty  in 
St  Petersburg  before  he  entered  the  bureaucracy  in  the  depart- 
ment of  justice,  in  which  he  rose  rapidly  to  be  assistant  solicitor- 
general  in  Warsaw,  then  solicitor-general  in  St  Petersburg,  and 
in  1 881  diiector  of  the  state  polios.   As  assistant  to  th«  minister 
of  the  interior  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Alexander  III.  by 
the  skiU  he  showed 'in  investigating  the  circumstances  of  the 
assassination  of  Alexander  IL   He  received  the  title  of  secretary 
of  state  in  1894,  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  empire, 
and  in  1902  succeeded  Sipiaguine  as  minister  of  the  interior. 
Plehve  carried  out  the  *'  russification  "  of  the  alien  provinces 
within  the  Russian  Empire,  and  earned  bitter  hatred  in  Poland, 
in.J'ithuania  and  especially  in  Finland.     He  despoiled  the 
Armenian  Church,  and  was  credited  yciih  being  accessory  to  the 
Kishinev  massacres.    His  logical  mind  and  determined  support 
of  the  autocratic  principle  gained  the  tsar's  entire  confidence. 
He  opposed  commercial  devdopment  on  ordinary    European 
lines  on  the  ground  that  it  involved  the  existence  both  of  a 
dangerous  proletariat  and  of  a  prosperous  middle  class  equaBy 
inimical  to  autocracy.     He  -was  thus  a  determined  opponent 
of  M.  de  Wittc's  policy.   An  attempt  was  made  on  his  life  eariy 
in  1904,  and  he  was  assassinated  on  the  28th  of  July  of  the  same 
year  by  a  bomb  thrown  under  his  carriage,  as  he  was  on  his  way 
io  Peterhof  to  nuke  his  report  to  the  tsar;  the  asaaasia,  Saaonov, 
was  a  member  of  tlie  fighting  orgaiiization  oC  the  socialist 
revolutionary  party. 

PLEIAD  (Gr.  IlXct^),  in  Greek  literature,  the  name  given 

(by  analogy  from  Plziaoes,  befew)  by  the  Alexandrian  critics 

to  seven  tragic  poeU  who  flourished  during  the  idgn  of  Ptolemy 

>  The  word  "  pledge  "  is  adapted  from  the  O.  Fr.  pUgtt  mod. 
pleige,  security,  hostage,  Med.  Lat.  plmum.  This  is  a  formation 
form  Mtd.  Lat.  pl^vire  or  pUbire,  to  undertake  or  engage  for  some- 
one, cf»  "  replevin  ":  it  is  now  considered  to  be  a  wora  of  Teutonic 
origin  and  connected  with  Ger.  PjUgen  and  "  pUght." 


Philaddphiis  (S85-347  b.c.).  In  French  literature,  in  addition 
to  the  Pleiad  of  Charlemagne,  there  were  two  famous  groups  of 
the  kind.  Hie  first,  during  the  reign  of  Henri  IIL  (1574-1589), 
the  chief  member  of  which  was  PierR  de  Roasard,  sought  to 
Improve  the  French  language  and  literature  by  enthusiastic 
imitation  of  the  classics;  the  second,  under  Louis  XllL  (i6x»- 
1643),  consisted  of  authoit  who  excelled  in  the  composition  of 
Latin  verse. 

PLBl ADI8»  in  Greek  mythology,  the  seven  daughters  of  Athis 
and  Plelone,  and  sisters  of  the  Hyades.  Owing  to  their  grief 
at  the  death  of  their  sisters  or  at  the  sufferings  of  their  fathery 
they  were  changed  into  stars.  In  another  account,  the  Pleiades 
and  their  mother  met  the  htinter  Orion  in  Boeotia,  and  the  sight 
of  them  inflamed  his  pasrion.  For  five  yean  he  pursued  them 
through  the  woods,  until  Zeus  translated  them  all— Plelone  and 
her  daughters,  Orion,  and  his  dog — to  the  sky.  The  Pleiades 
rose  in  the  middle  of  May  and  set  at  the  end  of  October,  and  their 
connexion  with  spring  and  autumn  explains  the  legend.  As 
bringcrs  of  the  fertilizing  rains  of  spring,  which  .have  their  ori^n 
in  the  west,  they  are  the  daughters  of  Atlas;  as  the  forerunners 
of  the  storms  of  autumn,  they  are  represented  as  being  driven 
onward  by  Orion  in  pursuit.  The  word  is  probably  connected 
with  rXdbiP,  either  in  the  sense  of  "  many  in  number,"  since 
the  stars  formed  a  dose  group,  resembling  a  bunch  of  grapes 
(hence  sometimes  called  /S^pus),  or  as  "  more  in  number  "  than 
their  sisters.  Others  derive  the  name  from  rXeiv  (to  sail), 
because  navigation  began  at  the  time  of  their  ^rising.  They  are 
probably  alluded  to  in  Homer  (Odyssey,  xii.  62)  as  the  doves 
irtKiladH)  who  brought  ambrosia  from  the  west  to  Zeus.  One 
of  these  doves  was  always  lost  during  the  passage  of  the  PtcncUu 
(wandering  rocks),  referring  to  the  fact  that  one  of  the  seven 
Pleiades  was  always  invisible.  This  was  Merope,  who  hid  her 
light  from  shame  at  having  had  intercourse  with  a  mortal, 
Sisyphus.  All  the  Pleiades  became  the  ancestresses  of  divine 
or  heroic  families.  They  were  called  Vcrgiliae  (probably  con- 
nected with  vcr,  spring)  by  the  Romans. 

See  Hedod.  Works  and  Dcys^  ^83;  ApoUodonis  iii.  10;  Diod. 
Sic.  iii.  60;  Theocritus  xiiL  35;  liyginus,  Astromam,  iL  ai;  Ovid, 
Fasti,  iv.  169,  v.  599. 

PLEIADES,  Atlamtides  or  Vesciuae,  in  astronomy,  a 
group  of  stars  situated  in  the  a)nstellation  Taurus.  They  arc 
supposed  to  be  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament  (Job.  ix.  9, 
xxxviii.  31).  -This  group  is  particularly  rich  in  bright  stars,  and 
is  full  of  nebulosity,  but  there  are  fewer  faint  stars  than  in  equal 
areas  of  the  surrounding  sky;  the  central  star  is  Alcyone  (3rd 
magnitude);  Plefone  and  Atlas  are  also  of  the  3rd  magnitude. 

PLEISPTCK/ENE,  in  geology,  the  epoch  which  succeeded  the 
Pliocene;  it  is  the  last  of  the  Tertiary  periods,  and  hence  the 
lower  subdivision  of  the  quaternary  or  modem  era.  The  name 
was  introduced  by  Sir  C.  Lyell  in  1839  (from  Gr.  rXcioror, 
most,  and  xcuvdi,  recent),  the  rocks  of  this  period  containing 
a  higher  percentage  of  living  forms  than  the  youngest  of  the 
Tertiary  formations.  By  many  writers  "  Pleistocene  "  has  been 
regarded  as  synonymous  with  "  Glacial  Period "  or  the 
"  Diluvittm  *'  of  some  geologists.  In  the  northern  hemisphere 
the  protracted  period  of  glaciation,  with  its  predominating 
influence  upon  modem  topography  and  fannal  distribution,  was 
undoubtedly  the  outstanding  feature  of  the  time.  The  pheno- 
mena of  the  Glacial  period  {g.v.),  which  was  by  no  means  strictly 
limited  to  the  northern  latitudes,  are  dealt  with  under  that  head, 
but  thne  are  certain  other  characteristics  of  the  Pleistocene 
period  which  bear  no  direct  relationship  to  glaciation,  and  these 
will  be  dealt  with  here. 

The  gradual  inception  of  colder  conditions  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  which  lead  up  to  the  more  extrAne  <»nditions  of 
ghdation  clearly  began  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Pliocene  period, 
and  the  effects  of  this  cooling  are  seen  not  only  in  northera 
Europe  and  America  but  as  far  south  as  the  Mediterranean. 
The  result  of  this  is  that  there  is  a  certain  indefinitcness  as  to 
the  exact  base  Kne  to  be  adopted  for  the  Pleistocene  formations; 
thus  the  Forest  Bed  of  Cromer  and  certain-beds  in  Sicily  and 
Italy  are  by  some  authors  placed  in  this  period  and  by  others 


836 

tnthePU 


PLEONASM— PLESIOSAURUS 


w  (r.n).  Atfia  It  El  dm  thit  In  puu  et  nortbeia 
LuIopF,  aiocrU  and  North  Amcricn,  tb«  coodilNii*  dunctei- 
litic  of  ■  gltdii  pciiod  ue  tiill  eiitienc;  even  in  ScdlIuuI  and 
Norwiy  the  liu  tnca  ol  gladil  action  ue  remukabl;  fresh, 
and  liio  lail  remnaDla  oJ  great  glacial  centra  itill  Linger  in  the 
Alpt  and  otlier  lolly  »utbaiiinounIain(.  Many  ol  the  lonnalioai 
ol  this  powd  can  be  ibottn  by  thdr  loMii  (cnlenu  10  bdong 
to  eaily  tiualeniary  IJniF,  bat  aincc  ao  many  <^  these  depoaiti 
tn  itricUy  local  in  chajacter,  and  unce  the  Fauna  and  flora 
pnsent  in  any  one  spot  have  been  detcnnined  by  Local  geo- 
grapLiical  condiLions  which  have  ■■■>»'*^  or  retarded  tlw 
migration  of  certain  Eonna,  it  is  a  matter  of  extreme  dif&cully — 
one  may  say  impoesibiLily — to  reduce  the  Pleistocene  lonoaliiuii 
ID  any  (nieraUy  appLii^ble  duonoLogicsl  ocdd.  Foe  •imilai 
lessons  it  is  impouible  to  define  ilriclLy  the  ur^wi  Limit  of  the 
lontHlions  of  (his  period,  and  (0  say  whete  the  PItiwccene  cods 
and  when  the  ReccM  m  HoLocene  period  bcf^st. 

The  eampaniiDn  and  dluiibutian  of  Ilie  ["leiiloceM  fiuu  and 
Son  pCEHI  many  poinls  of  extrcnia  inlemt.  The  fcalun  ol  gml- 
eil  importance  is  Ihal  loaji  vxUted  mnewhcre  and  Ln  iomc  con- 
didon  before  and  in  this  period;  tiul  ho  really  Htivfaclory  pnnf 
hat  so  lat  been  fonhcaming  which  will  set  back  Ui  first  appear- 
ance before  the  btcinnin^  ol  the  glacial  period  (l>itt«»Hnfu 
trteita  louod  by  B.  l>ubw  in  Java  is  regarded  as  of  Pliooene  age). 
The  preitnie  cJ  ihc  irnaini  of  nan  or  of  Us  works  might  leaton- 
ably  be  uken  ai  ■  criterion  of  the  Fkistoccfw  age  ef  ■  depDilt— 
il  we  omit  the  TCmaini  of  historical  tine.  Bm  here  again  it  has  to 
be  bOTDC  in  mind  Ihat  historical  lime  is  conlinmlly  being  let  back 
*  ~  '  '  '.  re«3n:h.  and  funhcr,  the  diHicully  of  cmphiying 
as  chroiKikigical  indintan  is  shown  by  the  (act 
tK  preseni  day  implempnts  of  itone  are  still  in  use, 

of  dcvelopmeal  in  Plduocfne  ai  in  liter  ages.    It 
only  with  the  utmost  eauiiun  tlul  chranolocical 


arlrfaii  of 


used  in  anythlai  hul  liul  correlations  unless  the  evidence  is 
•UPported  by  satisfactory  foHils. 

Neat  to  the  appearance  ef  nun  the  most  striking  chsractniilic 
or  the  land  fauna  was  the  eiincnce  of  nunKTOus  large-bodied  mam- 
mals; £ft*lkaj  oMinu,  tot  instance,  attained  a  more  eicessive 
bulk  than  any  other  probescklean  either  before  or  since,  the  woolly 
rhltioceRis.  the  great  hippepotamus.  the  cave  bear,  cave  lloa  and 

enl  deer  were  all  laiger  than  their  hiring  representatives.     No 
I  strildng  Is  the  dinpoeaiaBce  of  these  large  forms  tofether 
vith  highly  "~''*"'*^  J^,~. 1.  ..  u^iiTL-j i-lK.  .■.. 


wUy  cCi^ 


and  spedaliied  reptiles  el  an  earlier  geological 
.!_-«..  _, — .1;,  .1  Europe  include  Elefkai 


rAuiu   (loiith-qtK   Europe), 

in  hinorical  lime).  Biiom  prtscui,  Btjn  europtuu:  (irill  Uving  in 
the  Caucauis  and  Lithunia).  Bm  IBataln)  pallan  (north  Eumpc). 
cameU  in  soiilh  Ruuia  and  Rumania,  ftirni  hailii  and  viiietin, 
CervH  iMttaaroi}  ripLmUn  (— JitAmnnir)  (the  great  liiih  ^'  elk" 
and  its  vanelies) :  Crnmi  daplau.  C.  altia.  Rantifit  lonaJu  and 
Jt.  irsnfudifat  (reindeer),  Ctpneliu  apra.  CtpM  iia,  St^ 
Mariu.  <Mtei  meatalia,  Friii  if€lmt,  Hyatna  ipdaea.  Vrtui 
jMtunu.  badger,  weasel,  glutton,  tiare,  lemming  (Jfw4ei  toreuhu 
and  if.  UmmiJ},  SfmupUIu,  Alatftt,  AiiUmyi.  CaiUt  jtter, 
logsai^,  TVagMtlerJinL  In  North  America  there  were  miBeroin 
mammals  common  to  Euiope  and  North  Asia,  inchidbig  the  mutk- 
oi.  mammoth  and  hone;  the  nanodon  held  on  Into  this  period 
In  America  but  not  in  Europe;  there  were  al»  bmas,  tapirs,  camds 
(Camdus  ■wtnia),  Uaihamdut,  UyMaa,  iVscyns.  Alto.     In 

South  America  ■■■ ' -i— /_._ ^.-■.. 

fauna  induding 
r«ad«,  Tyfad 


I,  CripMentm,  Ijiuiam, 

rsackiifa,  Cifyikira.  XHn. 


North  American  foms.    In  Australia  a  veiy  diBlact  assemUage 
ai  krfe  Dunupiak  and  msnotrnDes  lived  fa  the  fUstocene  pnindi 

incluiTini,  Pkaiti/Mi.  DipftUin.  Th}laaln,  NelMtritm    and  a 


EcktdmQ:  placental  mamr 
In  Madafsscar  the  A 
•  •  crealares  hs     ' 
at  of  glacial 


itfitnii.  littaUjatii.  and 

left  their  rensini. 

■ditlaaa  in  ngrthem  laiitudn 

.^  ., — and  plant  life,  and  was  Ibe 

(he  present  ^stribution  of  msiw  of  the  li^ng 
'■_»...      .    ■ "™  '"'SThigtir'mooriuin 


■e  the  reindeer  and  m 


•itted.     The  anarenlly  curious 
cgaided  Bi  tropical  or  sub-tropical 


at  are  noir  often  icgaided  as  tropical  < 


H  and  depbants)  whb 


elevated  marine  brnches. 
and  peat  beds,  laterite,  lo 
Some  of  the  prevalent 
glacial  formalionr  -<  -^ 
ClaCIAI.  PlBIOD.  .  . 
European  gcologisEsia  younjpT  division 

lUee-'  While  some  siiihors  ii^hide  ail  the  aWc  in  (be  -^ 
pennd,"  othen  would  place  the  Magdiiliilien  in  a  mg-f^ 
division.  The  terms  MatdaUnlen.  Ac.  are  really  anbsralDEiii 
based  upon  the  characters  of  the  implements  found  in  ihe  dr;^i 
and  like  the  ^milar  terms  "  eolithic  ^'  and  "  palaeohihic  "(hry  ar 
of  little  value  in  geological  chronology  unless  they  sre  ttappx^ 
by  palseontoloiIcaT  evidence 

See  E.  Cdaita,  Dti  OiarUr  an  aarrf  Enrtpa  (SiuIIgsn.  itU' 
with  very  fuU  nterencesj  T.  C  ChsmberUn  and  R.  D.  Sifidwt- 
Cenltty.  voL  in.  (New  York.  tooS},  for  references  10  Xmnn 
authorities.  (J,  A.  H.} 

PLEOHAIH  (Gr.  iXeanfffiJi,  from  irXsiia^eu,  to  aboud  I 
be  superfluous.  it\iap,  comparative  of  nikin,  many,  great,  kiff'- 
redundancy  or  superfluity  in  speaking  or  writing,  broce  a 

Latin  Enrm  "  pleonasmuSp"  is  used  In  pathotngy  of  an  sbncniul 
growth  or  formation. 

PUUOSAUHUt,  an  eilinct  miiiia  XpdLe  bdon^i  10  ^ 
Order  Sauroplery^.  which  characterized  the  iitaamc  pn^ 
and  had  an  tlmoH  workl-wide  distribution  (ace  Rumn' 
Tlie  animal  b  bcal  known  by  ncuiy  complete  ikeletcei  hm 
Ihe  Uai  of  Enciind  and  Germany.  It  ■*>  named  ?l<iw<n 
(Cr.  Bwn-Uuuil)  by  W.  D.  Cooybcan  In  i8)i.  10  indkilt  i^ 
It  wM  DHKh  BioK  iKuiy  (  Mnnal  reptile  thaa  the  nivf 


fuMHi-bh^emlsni. : 
/cbjlyaronnu,  which  had  been  found  in  the  sai 
tion  a  few  yean  pitviauity.  It  has  a  unall 
sLender  neck,  a  round  Iwdy,  a  very  short  tail,  and  («  I*" 
of  large,  ekxigaled  piddles.  Hit  snoot  is  short,  hot  tk  fn< 
of  the  mouth  is  wide,  and  (be  iaws  a>«  provided  with  1  in^ 
of  csnical  teeth  in  sodicU,  much  like  (hoK  oC  the  biim  P™ 

■  MsgdsMnien  from  the  caves  of  MadcUine,  I'eiigaid. 

■Chellnl  near  F^iis    Other  subordinale  scagn  an  tin  U* 
■Mrien  f  mm  Mouiiicr,  Dordognr,  and  AckeuUaa.  Saint  VkA 


PLEURISY 


837 


of  Indian  rivers.  The  ncek,  though  long  and  slender,  must  have 
been  rather  stiff,  because  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  nearly 
flat-ended,  while  they  bear  short  ribs:  it  could  not  have  been 
bent  in  the  swan-fashion  represented  in  many  restorations.  The 
other  vertebrae  are  similarly  almost  flat-ended  and  Srmly  united, 
but  there,  is  no  sacrum.  The  ribs  are  single-headed,  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  trunk,  between  the  supfMrts  of  the  paired  limbs, 
they  meet  a  dense  plastron  of  abdominal  ribs.  The  short  tail 
b  straight  and  rapidly  tapering,  but  one  spcdmcn  in  Berlin 
suggests  that  it  was  provided  with  a  rhomboidal  flap  of  skin  in 
a  vertical  plane.  The  bones  in  the  ventral  wall  of  the  body  which 
support  the  paired  limbs  arc  remarkably  expanded,  and  those 
of  the  pectoral  arch  have  often  been  compared  with  the  corre- 
sponding bones  of  turtles.  The  limbs  are  elongated  paddles, 
with  five  complete  digits,  of  which  the  constituent  bones 
(phalanges)  are  unusually  numerous.  The  only  traces  of  skin 
hitherto  discovered  suggest  that  it  was  smooth.  The  reptile 
must  have  been  almost  exclusively  aquatic,  feeding  on  cuttle- 
fishes, fishes  and  other  animal  prey.  It  propelled  itself  chiefly 
by  the  paddles,  scarcely  by  the  tail. 

The  typical  species  is  Piesiosaurus  dolickodexnts^  from  the 
Lower  Lias  of  Lyme  Regis,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  three 
metres.  Other  species  from  the  same  formation  seem  to  have 
measured  five  to  six  metres  in  length,  and  there  are  species  of 
allied  genera  from  the  Upper  Lias  which  are  probably  still 
larger.  A  fine  large  skeleton  from  the  Upper  Lias  of  WCrttem- 
berg,  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  is  named  Piesiosaurus  guUetmi- 
imperatoris  (see  figure  above).  Cryptodidus,  known  by  complete 
skeletons  from  the  Oxford  Clay  of  Peterborough,  differs  very 
little  from  Piesiosaurus.  The  Cretaceous  Cimoliosaurus,  found 
in  North  and  South  America,  Europe  and  New  Zealand,  Is  also 
very  similar.  The  fossilized  contents  of  the  stomach  in  some 
of  the  later  Plesiosaurs  show  that  these  reptiles  swallowed  stones 
for  digestive  purposes  like  the  existing  crocodiles. 

Reperencbs.— R.  Owen,  Fossil  ReplUia  of  Ike  Liassie  Formations, 
pt.  iii.  (Monogr.  Palacont.  Soc.,  1865);  W.  Daikiea,  paper  in  Abkandl- 
k.  prtuss.  Akad,  Wiu.  (1895).  P*  <•  (A.  S.  Wo.) 

PLEURISY,  or  Pleuritis  (Gr.  rXivpa-ribs),  inflammation 
of  the  pleura,  caused  by  invasion  by  certain  -specific  micro- 
organisms. (See  Respiratory  Systeh:  Palhdogy.)  Secondary 
pleurisies  may  occur  from  extension  of  inflammation  from 
neighbouring  organs. 

The  morbid  changes  which  the  pleura  undergoes  when  inflamed 
consist  of  three  chief  conditions  or  stages  of  progress,  (i)  In- 
flammatory congestion  and  infiltration  of  the  pleura,  which  may 
spread  to  the  tissues  of  the  lung  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  (hose 
of  the  chest  wall  on  the  other.  (2)  Exudation  of  lymph  on  (he 
pleural  surfaces.  This  lymph  is  of  variable  consistence,  some- 
times composed  of  thin  and  easily  separated  pellicles,  or  of 
extensive  thick  masses  or  strata,  or  again  showing  itself  in  the 
form  of  a  tough  membrane.  It  is  of  greyish -yellow  colour,  and 
microscopically  consists  mainly  of  coagulated  fibrin  ak>ng  with 
epithelial  cells  and  red  and  white  blood  corpuscles.  Its  presence 
causes  roughening  of  the  two  pleural  surfaces,  which,  slightly 
separated  in  health,  may  now  be  brought  into  contact  by  bands 
of  lymph  extending  between  them.  These  bands  may  break 
up  or  may  become  organized  by  the  development  of  new  blood 
vessels,  and  adhering  permanently  may  obliterate  throughout 
a  greater  or  le»  space  the  pleural  sac,  and  interfere  to  some  extent 
with  the  free  play  of  the  lungs.  (3)  Effusion  of  fluid  into  the 
pleural  cavity.   This  fluid  may  vary  in  its  character^ 

The  chief  varieties  of  pleurisy  are  classified  according  to  the 
variety  of  the  effusion,  should  effusion  take  place,  (i)  Some 
pleurisies  do  not  reach  the  stage  of  effusion,  the  inflammation 
termioating  in  the  exudation  of  lymph.  This  is  termed  dry 
pleurisy,  (a)  Fibrinous  or  plastic  pleurisy.  In  this  variety 
the  pleura  is  covered  by  a  thick  layer  of  granular,  fibrinous 
material.  Fibrinous  pleurisy  is  usually  secondary  to  acute 
diseases  of  the  lung  such  as  pneumonia,  cancer,  abscess  or 
tuberculosis.  (3)  Sero-fibrinous  pleurisy.  This  is  the  most 
common  variety,  and  produces  the  condition  commonly  known 
as  pleurisy  with  effusion.     The  amount  may  vary  from  an 


almost  inappreciable  cpiantlty  to  a  gallon  or  more.  When 
large  in  quantity  it  may  fill  to  distension  the  pleural  sac,  bulge 
out  the  thoradc  wall  externally,  and  compress  the  lung,  which 
may  in  such  cases  have  all  its  air  displaced  and  be  reduced  to  a 
mere  fraction  of  its  natural  bulk.  Other  organs,  such  as  the 
heart  and  liver,  may  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  the  fluid 
be  shifted  away  from  their  normal  position.  In  favourable  cases 
the  fluid  is  absorbed  more  or  less  completely  and  the  pleural 
surfaces  again  may  unite  by  adhesions;  or,  aU  traces  of  inflamma- 
tory products  having  disappeared,  the  pleura  may  be  restored 
to  its  normal  condition.  When  the  fluid  is  not  speedily  absorbed 
it  may  remain  long  in  the  cavity  and  compress  the  lung  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  render  it  incapable  of  re-expansion  as  the  effusion 
passes  slowly  away.  The  consequence  is  that  the  chest  wall 
falls  in,  the  ribs  become  approximated,  the  shoulder  is  lowered, 
the  spine  becomes  curved  and  internal  organs  permanently 
displaced,  while  the  affected  side  scarcely  moves  in  respiratbn. 
Sometimes  the  unabsorbed  fluid  becomes  purulent,  and  an 
empyema  is  the  result. 

The  symptoms  of  pleurisy  vary;  the  onset  is  sometimes 
obscure  but  usually  well  marked.  It  may  be  ushered  in  by 
rigors,  fever  and  a  sharp  pain  in  the  side,  especially  on  breathing. 
Pain  is  felt  in  the  side  or  breast,  of  a  severe  cutting  character, 
referred  usually  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  nipple,  but  it  may 
be  also  at  some  distance  from  the  affected  part,  such  as  through 
the  middle  of  the  body  or  in  the  abdominal  or  iliac  regions.  On 
auscultation  the  physician  recognizes  sooner  or  later  '*  friction," 
a  superficial  rough  rubbing  sound,  occurring  only  with  the 
respiratory  acts  and  ceasing  when  the  breath  is  held.  It  is  due 
to  the  coming  together  during  respiration  of  the  two  pleural 
surfaces  which  are  rous^ened  by  the  exuded  lymph.  The  pain 
is  greatest  at  the  outset,  and  tends  to  abate  as  the  effusion 
takes  place.  A  dry  cough  is  almost  always  present,  which  is 
particularly  distressing  owing  to  the  increased  pain  the  effort 
excites.  At  the  outset  ihdre  may  be  dyspnoea,  due  to  fever  and 
pain;  later  it  may  result  from  compression  of  the  lung. 

On  physical  examination  of  the  chest  the  following  are  among 
the  chief  points  observed:  (i)  On  inspection  there  is  more  or 
less  bulging  of  the  side  affected,  should  effusion  be  present, 
obliteration  of  the  Intercostal  spaces,  and  sometimes  elevation 
of  the  shoulder.  (2)  On  palpation  with  the  hand  applied  to  the 
side  there  is  diminished  expansion  of  one-half  of  the  thorax, 
and  the  normal  vocal  fremitus  is  abolished.  Should  the  effusion 
be  on  the  right  side  and  copious,  the  liver  may  be  felt  to  have 
been  pushed  downwards,  and  the  heart  somewhat  displaced  to 
the  left;  while  if  the  effusion  be  on  the  left  side  the  heart  is  dis- 
placed to  the  right.  (3)  On  percussion  there  is  absolute  dullness 
over  the  seat  of  the  effusion.  If  the  fluid  does  not  fill  the  pleural 
sac  the  floating  lung  may  yield  a  hyper-resonant  note.  (4)  On 
auscultation  the  natural  breath  sound  is  inaudible  over  the 
effusion.  Should  the  latter  be  only  partial  the  breathing  is 
clear  and  somewhat  harsh,  with  or  without  friction,  and  the 
voice  sound  is  aegophonlc.  Posteriorly  there  may  be  heard 
tubular  breathing  with  aegophony.  These  various  physical 
signs  render  it  impossible  to  mistake  the  disease  for  other 
maladies  the  symptoms  of  which  may  bear  a  resemblance  to  it, 
such  as  pleurodynia. 

The  absorption  or  removal  of  the  fluid  is  marked  by  the 
disappearance  or  diminution  of  the  above-mentioned  physical 
signs,  except  that  of  percussion  dullness,  which  may  last  a  long 
time,  and  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  thickened  pleura. 
Friction  may  again  be  heard  as  the  fluid  passes  away  and  the 
two  pleural  surfaces  come  together.  The  displaced  organs  arc 
restored  to  their  position,  and  the  compressed  lung  re-expanded. 
Frequently  this  expansion  is  only  partial. 

In  nu»t  instances  the  termination  is  favourable,  the  acute 
symptoms  subsiding  and  the  fluid  (if  not  drawn  off)  becoming 
absorbed,  sometimes  after  reaccumulation.  On  the  other  hand 
it  may  remain  long  without  undergoing  much  change,  and  thus 
a  condition  of  chronic  pleurisy  becomes  established. 

Pleurisy  may  exist  in  a  latent  form,  the  patient  going  about 
for  weeks  with  a  large  accumulation  of  fluid  in  his  thorax,  the 


838 


PLEURO-PNEUMONIA— PLEVNA 


onliiULry  acute  symptoms  never  having  been  present  m  any 
marked  degree  Cases  of  this  sort  are  often  protracted,  and 
I  heir  results  unsatisfactory  as  regards  complete  recovery. 

In  the  treatment  of  early  pleurisy,  pam  may  be  relieved  by 
a  hypodermic  of  morphia  or  the  appUcation  of  leeches.  A 
purgative  is  essential.  Fixation  of  the  affected  side  of  the  thorax 
by  strappmg  with  adhesive  plaster  gives  great  rehef.  The  ice- 
bag  is  useful  in  the  early  stages,  as  in  pneumonia.  The  open-air 
treatment  of  cases  is  recommended,  as  the  majority  of  the  cases 
are  of  tuberculous  origin.  When  effusion  has  taken  place, 
counter  imtation  and  the  exhibition  of  iodide  of  potassium  arc 
useful  Dry  diet  and  saline  purgatives  have  been  well  spoken 
of  The  most  satisfactory  method  of  treatment  is  early  and 
if  necessary  repeated  aspiration  of  the  fluid  The  operation 
{thoracentests)  was  practised  by  ancient  physicians,  but  was 
revived  in  modem  limes  by  Armand  Trousseau  (1801-1867) 
in  France  and  Henry  I.  Bowditch  (1808-1892)  in  America,  by 
the  latter  an  excellent  instrument  was  devised  for  emptying 
the  chest,  which,  however,  has  been  displaced  in  practice  by  the 
still  more  convenient  aspirator.  The  chest  is  punctured  in  the 
lateral  or  posterior  regions,  and  in  mo^  cases  the  greater  portion 
or  all  of  the  fluid  may  be  safely  drawn  off.  In  many  instances 
not  only  is  the  removal  of  distressing  symptoms  speedy  and 
complete,  but  the  lung  is  relieved  from  pressure  in  time  to 
enable  it  to  resume  its  normal  function. 

In  cases  of  chronic  pleurisy  after  the  failure  of  repeated 
aspirations,  Samuel  West  reports  well  of  free  incision  and  drain- 
age. He  has  reported  cases  of  recovery  of  effusion,  fifteen  or 
eighteen  months  standing.  Sir  James  Barr  has  advocated  the 
treatment  of  these  cases  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  fluid  and  the 
substitution  of  sterilized  air  and  solution  of  supra-renal  extract; 
others  have  introduced  physiological  salt  solution  or  formalin 
solution  into  the  cavity,  after  the  removal  of  the  fluid.  Vaquez 
injects  nitrogen  into  the  cavity  and  reports  a  number  of  cases 
in  which  it  prevented  recurrence. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA,  or  Lung-Plague,  a  contagious  disease 
peculiar  to  cattle,  generally  affecting  the  lungs  and  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  chest,  produdng  a  particular  form  of  lobar 
or  lobular  pleuro-pneumonia,  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
transmitted  by  the  living  diseased  animal,  or,  exceptionally, 
by  mediate  contagion.  It  cannot  be  communicated  to  animals 
other  than  those  of  the  bovine  race.  Inoculation  of  healthy 
cattle  with  the  fluid  from  the  diseased  lungs  produces,  after  a 
certain  interval,  characteristic  changes  at  the  seat  of  inoculation, 
and  though  it  does  not  develop  the  lung  lesions  always  observed 
in  natural  infection,  yet  there  is  a  lo^  anatomical  similarity 
or  identity.  Though  numerous  investigations  have  been  made, 
the  nature  of  the  infective  agent  remains  doubtful.  In  1888 
Arloing,  of  Lyons,  described  various  baciUi  obtained  from  the 
lesions,  but  the  pathogenic  organism  of- lung-plague  has  not  been 
discovered. 

The  earliest  notices  of  this  disease  testify  that  it  first  prevailed 
in  central  Europe,  and  in  the  xSth  century  it  was  present  in 
certain  parts  of  southern  Germany,  Switzerland  and  France, 
and  had  also  appeared  in  upper  Italy.  Though  Valentine 
described  an  epizooty  occurring  among  cattle  in  1693  in  Hesse, 
doubts  have  been  entertained  as  to  whether  it  was  this  malady. 
It  was  not  until  1769  that  it  was  definitely  described  as  prevailing 
In  Franche-Comt£  by  the  name  of  "  murie."  From  that  date 
down  to  X789  it  appears  to  have  remained  more  or  less  limited 
to  the  Swiss  mountains,  the  Jura,  Dauphin6  and  Vosges,  Pied- 
mont and  upper  Silesia;  it  showed  itself  in  Champagne  and 
Bourbonnais  about  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  when  its  ^read 
was  greatly  accelerated  by  the  wars  that  followed.  In  the  iQth 
century  its  diffusion  was  accurately  determined.  It  invaded 
Prussia  in  1802,  and  soon  spread  over  north  Germany.  It  was 
first  described  as  existing  In  Russia  in  1824;  it  reached  Belgium 
in  1827.  Holland  in  1833,  the  United  Kingdom  in  1841,  Sweden 
In  1847,  Denmark  in  1848,  Finland  in  1850,  South  Africa  in 
1854,  the  United  States— Brooklyn  in  1843,  New  Jersey  in  1847, 
Brooklyn  again  in  T850  and  Boston  in  1850;  it  was  also  carried 
to  Melbourne  in  1858,  and  to  New  South  Wales  in  i860;  New 


Zealand  and  Tasmania  received  It  in  1864,  bat  it  was  endkated 
in  both  countries  by  the  sanitary  measures  adopted  It  «as 
carried  to  Asia  Minor,  and  made  its  presence  felt  at  Damascus. 
It  prevails  m  various  parts  of  China,  India,  Africa  and  Australia, 
and  until  quite  recently  it  existed  in  every  country  in  Europe, 
except  Scandinavia,  Holland,  Spain  and  Portugal  lo  Great 
Bniain  cases  occurred  in  1897. 

Symptoms — The  malady  lasts  from  two  to  three  weeks  to 
as  many  months,  the  chief  symptoms  being  fever,  dimimsbe^ 
appetite,  a  short  cough  of  a  pecuhar  and  pathognomonic  cbarac 
ter,  with  quickened  breathing  and  pulse,  and  physical  mdicatioos 
of  lung  and  chest  disease.  Towards  the  end  there  is  great 
debility  and  emacuilion,  death  generally  ensuing  aftct  hectic 
fever  has  set  in     Complete  recovery  is  rare. 

The  pathological  changes  are  generally  limited  to  the  chest 
and  its  contents,  and  consist  in  a  peculiar  marbled-hke  appear- 
ance of  the  lungs  on  section,  and  fibrinous  deposits  on  the  plcuraL 
membrane,  with  oftentimes  great  effusion  into  the  cavity  id 
the  thorax. 

Wiilcmsof  Hassdt  (Belgium)  in  1852  introduced  and  rractised 
inoculation  as  a  protective  measure  for  this  scourge,  employing 
for  this  purpose  the  lymph  obtained  from  a  diseased  lung  Sioce 
that  time  inoculation  has  been  extensively  resorted  to,  not  only 
in  Europe,  but  also  in  Australia  and  South  Africa,  and  its  pro- 
tective value  has  been  generally  recognixed.  When  properiy 
performed,  and  when  certain  precautions  arc  adopted,  it  would 
appear  to  confer  temporary  immunity  from  the  disease.  The 
usual  seat  of  inociilation  is  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  the  virus 
being  introduced  beneath  the  skin  by  means  of  a  syxingie  or  a 
worsted  thread  impregnated  with  the  lymph.  Protection  agair*;? 
infection  can  also  be  secured  by  subcutaneous  or  intravenous 
injection  of  a  culture  of  Arloing's  pneumo-badllus  on  Manm's 
bouillon,  and  by  intravenous  injection  of  the  lymph  from  a 
diseased  lung,  or  from  a  subcutaneous  lesion  produced  in  a  call 
by  previous  inoculation. 

PLEVNA  (Bulgarian  Pleven),  the  chief  town  of  the  department 
of  Plevna,  Bulgaria;  85  m.  N.E  of  Sofia,  on  the  Tutrhipiiaa, 
an  affluent  of  Vid,  which  flows  north  into  the  Danube  and  ou 
the  Sofia- Varna  railway  (opened  in  189Q).  Pop.  (1906),  21,^08. 
A  branch  line,  25  m.  long,  connects  Plevna  with  Samovit  ou 
the  Danube,  where  a  port  has  been  formed.  After  the  events 
of  1877,  it  was  almost  entirely  forsaken  by  the  Turks,  and  most 
of  the  mosques  have  gone  to  ruin;  but,  peopled  now  mainly  by 
Bulgarians,  it  has  quite  recovered  its  prosperity,  and  has  a  large 
commerce  in  cattle  and  wine. 

BatUes  of  i5'77.— Plevna,  prior  to  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of 
1877  (see  Russo-TuRUSH  Wars)  a  small  and  unknown  town 
without  fortifications  became  celebrated  throughout  the  votM 
as  the  scene  of  Osman  Pasha's  victories  and  his  five  months' 
defence  of  the  entrenched  camp  which  he  constructed  around 
Vhe  town,  a  defence  which  upset  the  Russians'  pbns  and  induced 
them  to  devote  their  whole  energies  to  its  capture.  Qsmaa 
Pasha  left  Widin  on  the  13th  of  July  with  a  column  consisting 
of  19  battalions,  6  squadrons  and  9  batteries,  a  total  of  12,000 
men  and  S4  guns.  Hearing  that  he  was  too  late  to  rcfieve 
Nikopol,  he  pushed  on  to  Plevna,  where  there  was  a  garrisoo 
of  3  battalions  and  4  guns,  under  Atouf  Pasha. 

Pasung  through  Plevna  on  the  afternoon  of  the  tpth  of  July 
he  at  once  took  up  a  position,  previously  selected  by  Atcof 
Pasha,  on  the  hills  covering  the  town  to  the  north  and  east 
The  column  had  been  joined  en  route  by  3  battaJioos  from  the 
banks  of  th6  Danube,  so  that  Osman's  command  now  consisted 
of  25  battalions.  He  was  none  too  soon.  General  Sdulder- 
Schuldner,  commanding  the  5th  division  of  the 
IX.  corps,  which  had  just  captured  Nikopol,  had 
been  ordered  to  occupy  Plevna,  and  his  guns  were 
already  in  action.  The  Turkish  batteries  came  into  actSoo 
as  soon  as  they  arrived  and  returned  the  fire.  A  desultory 
artillery  duel  was  carried  on  till  nightfall,  but  no  attack  was  made 
by  the  Russians  on  the  tQth.  Osman  distributed  his  troops 
in  three  sections:  on  the  Jaolk  Bair,  facing  north,  were  13 
battalions  and  4  batteries,  with  advanced  posts  ol  a  battaliors 


PLEVNA 


839 


and  I  battety  each,  at  Openttz  and  Bokova,  facing  cast  and 
north-east,  5  battalions  and  lo'guns  were  posted  on  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Janik  Bair;  to  the  hills  south  of  the  Bnlgaieni  load 
4  battab'ons  and  2  batteries  were  allotted,  and  on  eithet  side 
of  the  road,  under  cover,  in  rear  of  them,  most  of  the  cavalry 
was  placed.  The  remaining  troops  formed  a  general  resave, 
which  was  posted  on  the  hfll  just  east  of  the  town.  The  hiUs 
to  the  north  and  east  of  Plevna  were  perfectly  bare.  Hie  TUrkS 
had  covered  the  1x5  m.  from  Widin  in  seven  days,  in  trying 
heat,  and  were  exhausted,  bat  a  few  trenches  were  thrown  up. 
On  the  aoth  of  July  at  5  a.m.,  having  made  no  preliminary 
reconnaissance,  the  Russian  commander  brought  his  guns  into 
action,  and,  after  a  short  bombardment,  advanced  his  infantry 


fleBt  a  feice  <d  6  battaUona  and  1  batttiy  mider  Rifaat 
Pasha  to  occupy  Lovtha  (Lovatz),  where  they  entrenched 
themselves, ' 

The  Plevna  garrison  now  numbered  20,000  (35  battalions, 
8  squadrons,  57  guns  and  400  mounted  irregulars),  who  were 
otguiiaed  in  two  win^  with  a  general  reserve.  Adil  Pasha 
oonmanded  the  Mt  wing  eoosisting  of  xa  battalions,  3  batttfies 
and  3  squadrons,  and  held  the  ground  from  the  Vld  bridge 
to  Grivitsia,  Hassan  Sabri  Pasha  commanded  the  lic^  wmg, 
of  equal  strength,  covering  from  Grivitaa  to  the  south.  The 
remainder,  as  general  reserve,  was  posted  on  the  crest  and  slopes 
of  the  hill  ea&t  of  the  town,  with  one  battalion  in  Plevna  itself. 
Hie  west  front  was  not  fortified  till  October.    Trenches  wero 


PLEVNA 


-4 


in  four  separate  oJumns.:  On  the  north  flank  they  pressed 
into  Bukova,  and  also  succeeded  in  driving  bade  the  Turkish 
right  wing;  btit  in  both  casta  Tarftish  reinforcements  arrived 
and  with  vigorous  counter-attacks  pressed  back  the  Russians, 
with  the  result  that  by.  noon  they  wero  in  loll  retreat,  having 
lost  2800  men  out  of  a  total  of  8ooa  The  Turks  lost  3000. 
Osman  made  no  attempt  to  reap  the  fruits  of  his  victory  by 
pursuit.  He  at  once  drew  up  plans  for  the  fortification  of 
the  position,  ^nd  the  troops  were  employed  u'gbt  and  day 
constructing  redoubts  and  entrenchments.  A  plentiful  supply 
<tf  tools  and  daily  convoys  of  stores  reached  Hevna  from 
Orchanie,  and  on  the  24th  of  July  Osman's  strength  was 
increased  by  14  battalions  and  a  baucry  from  Sofia.  In  order 
to  secure  Ids  line  of  conunuaications.  on  the  asth  of  Ju^.ha 


4  ft.  deep  and  the  redoubts  had  a  command  of  xo  to  16  ft., 
with  parapets  about  14  ft.  thick.  In  addition  to  the  trenches 
to  the  flaaiks,  there  were  in  some  cases  two  haes  of  trench  U>  the 
front,  thus  giving  three  tiere  of  fire. 

In  accordance  with  orders  from  the  Russian  headquarters 
at  Titnova,  a  ittsh  attadc  was  made  by  General  Kriidener  on 
thb  30th  of  July.  He  had  been  reinforced  by  three  brigades 
of  infantry  and  one  of  cavalry  under  General  Shakovskoi,  and 
his  force  numbered  over  30.000  with  176  guns.  After  a 
pwllminaty  cannonade  the  infantry  advanced  at  3  pjn.,  as 
before  in  widely  spread  columns.  The  columns  savoa4 
attacking  from  the  north  and  north-east  were  Bmtu»9i 
repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  Shakovskoi  advancing  '**'■*' 
from  Radisci)euo.  Ids  left  .flank  safeguarded  by  Skobdcv  from 


840 


PLEYEIr— PUGHT 


the  ndgfaboufhood  of  Kriihin,  temponufly  occupied  two  redoubts, 
but  a  heavy  counter-stroke  by  tlie  Tutkiah  reserves  foiced  bim 
back  with  severe  loss.  The  Russians  retreated,  the  northern 
column  to  Tristenik  and  Ksfsgakh,  the  southern  to  Poradim. 
Their  losses  amounted  to  7300,  while  the  Turkish  losses 
exceeded  sooa  Had  the  Turkish  garrison  of  Lovcfaa  been 
called  in,  the  icsnlt  wouM  have  been  still  more  dissstroos  to 
the  Russians. 

The  victory  was  decisive,  but  Osman  again  failed  to  puxsoe. 
His  troops  were  elated  by  success,  the  moral  of  the  enemy 
severely  shaken,  the  undefended  Russian  bridge  over  the  Danube 
was  within  40  m.  of  him,  but  he  lost  his  opportunity,  and 
contented  himself  with  strengthening  his  defensive  works.  It 
is  said  that  he  was  tied  down  to  Plevna  by  orders  from 
Constantinople. 

The  Russians  now  concentrated  all  their  available  forces 
against  Plevna  and  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Rumanians.  By 
the  end  of  August  tbey  had  assembled  a  force  of  74*000  infantry, 
10,000  cavalry  and  440  guns,  including  24  siege  guns,  about 
100,000  men  in  all.  On  the  30th  of  August  Osman  moved  out 
of  Plevna  with  all  his  cavalry,  3  batteries  of  artiUery  and  19 
bittalions  of  infantry,  and  on  the  3tst  attacked  the  Russians 
about  Pelishat.  He  returned  to  Plevna  the  same  evening. 
The  Turks  lost  1300  and  the  Russians  1000  men.  The  Russians 
determined  to  occupy  Lovcha,  and  so  cut  Osman's  communi- 
cations before  again  attacking  Plevna.  After  three  days' 
fighting  this  was  accomplish^  by  Skobelev,  acting  under 
tmeretinski,  with  a  force  of  20,000  men,  on  the  3rd  of  September. 
Osman  moved  out  to  the  relief  of  the  garrison  that  day  with  a 
strong  column,  but,  finding  he  was  too  late,  returned  to  Plevna 
on  the  6th.  The  survivors  from  Lovcha  were  re-formed  into 
3  battalions,  including  which  Osman  had  been  reinforced  t^ 
13  battalions,  2)  batteries  of  artillery  and  iz  squadrons  of 
cavahry.  His  strength  was  now  30,000,  with  72  guns,  46 
battalions,  19  squadrons  and  12  batteries.  This  force  was 
oiganised  in  4  approodmately  equal  commands,  the  northern, 
south-eastern  and  southern,  and  a  general  reserve. 

The  Russians  moved  to  their  preliminary  portions  on  the 
night  of  September  6th-7th.  Their  plan  was  for  the  Rumanians, 
ThM  tbe  IX.  and  IV.  corps  and  Imeretinski's  column  to 
Batthwf  attack  the  north-east,  south-east  and  south  fronts 
Pif^^a^  simultaneously.  An  artillery  bombardment  began 
at  6  a.m.  on  the  7th  of  September,  was  carried  on  tiU  3  p.m.  on 
the  nth,  when  the  infantry  advanced.  The  Rumanians  took 
one  Grivitza  redoubt;  Skobelev  oocnpied  two  redoubts  on  the 
south  front,  but  the  centre  attack  on  the  Radishevo  front  fafled. 
On  the  X2th  the  Turks  recaptured  the  southern  redoubts,  the 
Rumanians  remained  in  possession  of  the  Grivitxa  redoubt, 
but  the  Russian  losses  already  amounted  to  18,000  and  they 
withdrew,  and  entrenched  themselves  on  a  hne  Verbitza- 
Radishevo,  with  cavalry  on  either  flank  to  the  Vid.  The  Turkish 
losses  totalled  5000,  of  whicii  only  a  few  hundred  were  caused  by 
the  artilleiy  fire  of  the  first  few  days.  There  was  no  question  of 
pursuit.  The  Russians  were  greatly  superior  in  numbers  and  the 
Turks  were  completely  exhausted. 

Sevend  causes  contributed  to  the  Russian  defeat.  The 
Russian  bombardment,  at  ranges  beyond  the  powers  of  their 
guns  and  lacking  the  co-operation  of  the  infantry  to  give  them 
a  target,  had  been  useless.  No  reconnaissance  had  been  made 
of  the  position.  The  intantxy  attacks  were  not  simultaneous, 
and  were  beaten  in  detail,  besides  which,  they  were  spread  over 
the  whole  of  a  strongly  fortified  front  in  equal  strength,  instead 
of  being  pressed  home  at  definite  points.  The  lack  of  um'ty  of 
command,  in  that  the  commander-in-chief  interfered  with  the 
dispositions  and  conduct  of  the  operations  as  arranged  by 
the  commander  of  the  Plevna  forces  also  militated  against  the 
Russian  success. 

This  was  the  last  open-foroe  attack  on  Osman's  lines. 
lannmemi  General  Todleben,  the  defender  of  Sevastopol,  was  now 
am^p»w  entrusted  with  the  condnci  of  the  siege,  and  he  de- 
•fpirrs*  temiined  to  complete  the  investment,  which  was 
aeoompliahed  by  the  24th  of  October,  Osman's  request  to  nttre 


from  Plevna  having  been  icf used  by  Constanrtiwpic;.  fluinifci 
eventually  gave  out  and  a  sortie  on  the  ught  of  the  ^OmckM 
d  December  failed,  with  the  result  that  he  and  fais 
capitulated. 

Plevna  is  a  striking  example  of  the  futility  of  the 
passive  defence,  which  is  doomed  to  faflnre  Imwevet 
carried  out.  Osman  Fssha  repelled  three  Russian  attacks  and 
practically  held  the  whole  Russian  anny.  It  remained  fcr  tbs 
other  Turkish  forces  in  the  field  to  take  the  offensive  sad  by  a 
vigorous  oountcntr^ce  to  reap  the  initu  of  Ida 
Victories  which  are  not  followed  up  are  usdeis.  War 
strategy  is  mere  butchery.  The  positian  of  Plevna, 
the  Russian  bridge  and  ofunmrniifarions,  was 
important,  but  thoe  was  no  necessity  for  the  Russians  to  attack 
the  position.  On  the  eastern  flank  was  an  anqy  stroacer  thaa 
Osman's  and  the  fortress  of  Rustchuk  was  nearer  the  biidfe  thaa 
Plevna,  but  they  did  not  consider  it  necessary  to  attack  them. 
They  might  have  contained  Osman's  force  a»  they  did  the  army 
under  Mehemet  All,  and  either  awaited  his  attack  or  »f*»^»^ 
when  he  evacuated  the  podtlon.  They  failed  to  xealiae  the 
resisting  force  of  in^novlsed  fortifications  and  the  sticagth 
conferred  by  extensive  and  well-plaoed  entrendunents^  and 
despising  their  advenaiy  made  direct  frontal  attacks  on  a  wcO- 
forUfied  position,  instead  of  aiming  at  a  flank  or  the  rear.  The 
part  played  by  Plevna  in  the  war  was  due  in  the  first  place  to  the 
imaginary  importance  aet  by  the  Russians  on  iu  capture,  sad 
later  to  their  faulty  procedure  in  attack  on  the  one  hand,  and  to 
the  skill  evinced  by  the  Turks  in  fortifying  and  defending  the 
position  on  the  other.  (J.  H.  V.  C) 

See  W.  V.  Herbert.  TV  D^enee  ef  Plemta,  1877  (Loodoo,  189s): 
F.  V.  Greene,  Fke  Russum  Army  and  it$  Campiufm  ns  Tmiey 
{Londoa^  1880):  General  Kuropatldn  <Ger.  trans,  by  Krahnrr). 
Kriiiscke  RMcUlidU  amf  ien  russisek-^Hrkisekem  Kri^;  Mouafier 
Pacha  and  Talaat-  Bey,  DHense  de  PUvna\  Krahmer's  Gcraaa 
translation  of  the  Ruarian  Ofiicial  History;  General  H.  LaagfcM. 
Lessons  of  Two  Recent  Wars  (Eng.  trans..  War  Office.  19x0):  Tk 
von  Trotha.  Kampf  mm  PUwna  (Beriin,  1878);  Vacareaoo  (Ga. 
trans.),  Rmn&niens  AntheU  am  Kriete,  tS/T-ifys  (Leipi«.  iSBS). 

PLBTBU  I&HAZ  JOSEPH  (x757-z8iO>  Austrian  mosidaa, 
was  bom  at  Ruppersthai,  near  Vienna,  on  the  rst  of  June  175;, 
the  twenty-fourth  son  of  a  poor  village  schoolmaster.  He 
studied  the  pianoforte  under  Van  Hsl  (known  la  Rngiatwi  a 
Vanhall),  and  in  1772  learned  ocMnposition  from  Haydn,  who 
became  his  dearest  friend.  He  was  appointed  tenq>oraiy  mtai^ 
de  chapeUe  at  Strasburg  In  Z783,  receiving  a  permanent  appoiai- 
ment  to  the  office  in  1 789.  In  1791  he  paid  a  sucoeasfnl  visit  10 
London.  He  narrowly  escaped  Uie  guillotine  on  rctunung  to 
Strasbuig,  and  was  only  saved  by  the  existence  of  a  cantata 
which  he  had  written,  and  in  whidi  the  Inspiration  could  fairiy 
be  daimed  to  be  on  the  side  of  liberty;  so  that  he  was  permitted 
to  remain  until  1795,  when  he  migrated  to  Paris.  Here  he  openo! 
a  large  music  sh<^,  published  the  finl  complete  edition  of  Hayda't 
quartets,  and  founded,  in  1807,  the  pianoforte  maaDfactocy 
which  still  beara  his  name.  The  latter  yean  of  his  life  woe 
spent  in  agricultural  punults.  The  July  revolution  of  xSjo 
inflicted  upon  him  a  severe  shock,  and  on  the  X4th  of  November 
X831  he  died  in  Paris. 

Masia  Pleyxl,  nte  Moke  (x8xi-z875),  the  wife  of  his  eldest 
son,  Camille,  was  one  of  the  most  srmmpBshed  r»*»»8f*t  of  hff 

PUOHT,  an  homonymods  word  now  oaed  chiefly  with  two 
meanings,  (i)  pledge,  and  (a)  condition  or  state  The  fint 
amiean  more  generafly  in  Che  veri>al  form,  "to  pG^  one^ 
troth,"  Ac,  and  the  second  with  a  direct  or  implied  sense  cf 
misfortune.  The  derivations  xi  the  two  words  diow  they  are 
quite  distinct  in  origin.  The  O.  Eng.  flikl  meant  danger  or  risk, 
hence  riak  of  obligation  (cf .  Gee.  P/Udd^  Dil  fiichi,  care,  duty). 
The  root  ^feA-  or  $ietr  is  probably  also  to  be  seen  in  the  mach 
disputed  word  "  pledge.'*  The  M.  Eng.  fiU  or  fiyi^  on  the  och« 
hand,  is  an  adaptation  of  O.  F^.  fUit^  fold,  and  therefove  adoofalet 
of  **  plait,"  but  appean  in  the  14th  oentniy.  with  tihe 
sense  of  rendition  or  state  in  gtwcfP- 


PLIMER,  A.— PLINY,  THE  ELDER 


841 


^UMBIL  AMBRBW  (e»  176^*18^7),  EngUih  minutiire 
painter,  was  the  son  of  a  dock-maker  at  Wellington.  Disliking 
bis  father's  business,  he  and  his  brother  Nathaniel  joined  a 
party  of  gypsies  and  wandered  about  with  them,  eventually 
reaching  London,  where  he  presented  himself  to  Mrs  COsway  in 
1781  and  was  engaged  by  her  as  studio  boy.  His  skill  in  painting 
was  quickly  detected  by  Cosway,  who  sent  him  to  a  friend  to 
learn  drawing,  and  then  received  him  into  his  own  studio, 
where  he  remained  until  17S5,  when  he  set  up  for  himself  in 
Great  Maddox  Street.  It  was  of  this  artist  that  Cosway  said 
"  Andrew  will  be  my  EUsha,"  adding  with  characteristic  vanity, 
"  if  I  am  not  constrained  to  carry  my  mantle  up  to  Paradise  with 
roe."  Plimer  married  Joanna  Louisa  Knight,  whose  sister, 
Mary  Ann,  was  his  pupil  and  a  weU-known  artist.  He  had  £ve 
children,  only  one  of  whom,  Louisa,  married.  He  exhibited 
many  times  in  the  Royal  Academy,  resided  for  awhile  in  Exeter, 
travelled  a  good  deal  through  En^and,  and  died  at  Brighton  and 
was  buried  at  Hove.  His  miniatores  are  of  great  brilliance  and 
in  considerable  demand  among  collectors.  They  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  peculiar  wiry  treatment  of  the  hair  and  by 
the  large  full  expressive  eyes  Plimer  invariably  gave  to  his  female 
sitters,  eyes  resembling  those  of  his  own  wife  and  daughters. 

See  Andrew  and  Natkanid  Plimer,  by  G.  C.  WUliamaon  (London, 
1903).  (G.C.W.) 

PUMEIU  MAIHANIEL  (1757-c.  1832),  Eng^h  miniature 
painter,  was  the  brother  of  Andrew  Plimer  (q.v,).  He  worked  for 
a  while  with  Henry  Bone  the  enamdler,  eventually  entering 
Cosway's  studio.  He  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  from 
1787  until  181 5,  when  he  is  lost  si^t  of,  although  he  is  said  to 
have  lived  un^  1832.  He  had  lour  daughters,  one  of  whom 
married  the  piunter,  Andrew  Geddes,  and  left  children.  He 
exhibited  twenty^eix  wocks,  and  many  of  his  smaller  portraits 
are  of  extreme  beauty. 

See  Andrew  and  Sathanid  Plimer,  by  G.  C.  Williamson  (London, 
1903).  (G.  C.  W.) 

PUMSOLU  SAMUEL  (1824*1898),  BriUsh  poUtidan  and 
soda!  reformer,  was  bom  at  Bristol  on  the  roth  of  February  1834. 
Leaving  school  at  an  early  age,  he  became  a  clerk,  and  rose  to  be 
manager  of  a  brewery  in  Yorkshire.  In  1853  he  endeavoured  to 
set  up  a  business  of  Us  own  in  London  as  a  coal  merchant.  The 
venture  proved  a  failure,  and  PlimsoUwas  reduced  to  destitution. 
He  has  himself  related  how  for  a  time  he  lived  in  a  common 
lodging-house  on  78.  ^\d.  a  week.  Through  this  experience  he 
learnt  to  sympathize  with  the  struggles  of  the  poor;  and  when  the 
success  of  his  enterprise  placed  him  in  possession  of  a  competence, 
he  resolved  to  devote  his  leisure  to  the  amelioration  of  their 
lot.  His  eflforts  were  directed  more  especially  against  what  were 
known  as  "  cofiin-ships  "~ainseaworthy  and  overioaded  vessels, 
often  heavily  insured,  in  which  unscrupulous  owners  were  allowed 
by  the  law  to  risk  the  lives  of  their  crews.  PlimsoU  entered 
parb'ament  as  liberal  member  for  Derby  in  x868,  and  endeavoured 
in  vain  to  pass  a  bill  dealing  with  the  subject.  In  1872  he 
published  a  work  entitled  Our  Seamen^  which  made  a  great  im- 
pression throughout  the  country.  Accordingly,  on  PlimsoU's 
motion  in  1873,  a  royal  commission  was  appointed,  and  in  1875 
a  government  bill  was  introduced,  which  PlimsoU,  though  regard- 
ing it  as  inadequate,  resolved  to  accept.  On  the  2 and  of  July, 
the  premier,  Disraeli,  announced  that  the  bill  would  be  dropp^ 
PlimsoU  lost  his  self-control,  applied  the  term  "villains"  to 
members  of  the  house,  and  shook  his  fist  in  the  Speaker's  face. 
Disraeli  moved  that  he  be  reprimanded,  but  on  the  suggestion 
of  Lord  Hartington  agreed  to  adjourn  the  matter  for  a  week  to 
allow  PlimsoU  time  for  reflection.  Eventu^y  PlimsoU  made  an 
apology.  The  country,  however,  shared  his  view  that  the  biU  had 
been  stifled  by  the  pressure  of  the  shipowners,  and  the  popular 
agitation  forced  the  government  to  pass  a  bUl,  which  in  the 
following  year  was  amended  into  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act. 
This  gave  stringent  powers  of  inspection  to  the  Board  of  Trade. 
The  mark  that  indicates  the  limit  to  which  a  ship  may  be  loaded 
is  generally  known  as  PUmsoIHs  mark.  PUmsoU  was  re-elected 
fiox.jDerby  at  the  general  election  of  x83o  by  a  great  xaajority,  but 


gcve  up  hit  seat  to  Six  W.  HatoooA,  In  the  beUeC  that  the  btter, 
as  home  secretary,  could  advance  the  sailors'  interests  more 
effectively  than  any  private  member.  Though  offered  a  seat  by 
some  thirty  oonstiiuendcs,  he  did  not  reenter  the  house,  and 
subaequenUy  became  estranged  from  the  Liberal  leaden  by  what 
hie  receded  as  their  breach  of  faith  in  neglecting  the  question  oi 
shipping  ref<Hrm.  He  hdd  foe  some  years  the  presidency  of  the 
Sailors'  and  FSiemea's  Unkm»  laiaed  a  further  a^tation,  marred 
by  obvious  exagseration,  abcntt  the  hoaois  of  the  cattle-ships. 
Later  he  visited  the  United  States  with  the  object,  in  which  he 
did  good  service,  of  securing  the  adoption  of  a  less  bitter  tone 
towards  England  in  the  historical  textbooks  used  in  American 
schools.   He  died  at  FoMaestoae  on  the  3rd  of  June  i8q8. 

PUNUMHOH  {,Pipdmmo»t  Fumpluman,  Fnmlumon, 
Penkemon:  Pumlumon  is  the  name  used  locaUy:  pump. 
means  five:  fasMW,  chimney,  flag  or  beacon;  pen,  head),  a 
mountain  of  Wales  of  the  height  of  3463  It.,  equidistant 
(about  xo  m.)  from  MachynUeth  and  Llanidloes.  Much 
inferior  in*  elevation  to  Snowdon  or  Cadcr  Idiis,  PUnlim- 
mon  is  certainly  the  most  dangerous  of  the  Welsh  hilb 
because  of  its  qualdag  bogs.  The  scenery  is  comparatively  poor, 
oonsistittg  chiefly  of  sheepKlowns  (in  Montgomeryshire)  and 
barren  turbaries  (in  Cardiganshire).  11  the  name  means  "  five* 
beacons,"  only  three  of  these  axe  high,  with  a  camedd  (stone^pile, 
probably  a  military  or  other  landmark,  rather  than  the  legendary 
barrow  or  tomb)  on  each  of  the  three.  PlinUnunon  is  notaUe 
as  the  source  of  five  streams— three  smaU:  the  Rhetdol,  the 
Uyfnant  and  the  Clywedog;  and  two  laiger  and  famous:  the 
Wye  iGwy)  and  the  Severn  (Ha/ren). 

The  morasses  of  PUnUmmon  saw  many  a  strug^,  notably  the 
war  to  the  knife  between  Owen  Cyfeilog  (Jl.  c»  900),  prince  of 
Powys,  and  Hywel  ab  Cadogan.  Here  also  Owen  Glendower 
unfurled  the  burner  of  Welsh  independence;  from  here,  in  Z40X, 
he  harassed  the  country,  sacking  Montgomery,  bumingWelshpool, 
ana  destn^dng  Cwm  HIr  (long  "  combe,"  or  vaUey)  abbey,  of 
which  some  columns  are  said  to  be  now  in  Llanidloes  old  church. 
On  the  aide  of  PUnUmmon,  some  2  m.  from  the  Steddfagurig  inn, 
is  Blaen  Gwy  (the  point  of  the  Wye),  the  oouxse  of  the  streamlet 
being  tcaceable  up  to  Pont-rhyd-galed  (the  hard  ford  bridge), 
some  4  m.  distant  from  the  inn.  Near  this  bridge  are  numerous 
barrows  and  cairns,  on  the  right  from  Aberystwyth.  There  are 
slate  quarries,  with  lead  and  copper  mines.  MadiyiiUeth  (per* 
haps  UagUma  in  Roman  times)  has  Owen  Glendower's  "  senate 
house  "  (1403),  and  is  known  as  the  scene  of  Glendower's  at- 
tempted assassination  by  Dafydd  Gam.  Llyn  pen  rhaiadr  (the 
waterfaU-head  pool),  or  PistyU  y  Uyn  (pool  spout),  is  some  6  m4 
south  of  MadqmUeth.  Llaioddloes  hi^  a  tnde  in  PUnlimmoo 
dates  and  mtnerah  besides  flannel  and  wool  manufactures. 

PUNTH  (Gr.  rXMnt,  a  squaro  tile),  the  term  in  architecture 
given  to  the  lower  moi^dings  of  a  podium,  pedestal  or  skirting 
also  to  any  rectangular  block  on  which  a  statue  or  vase  is  placed 
and  in  the  CUuBic  Orders  to  the  square  block  of  moderate  height 
under  the  base  mouldings  of  the  column  or  pedestaL 

PUHY,  THE  HiDER.  Gaius  PUnius  Secundns  (c,  aj).  33-79)«^ 
the  author  of  the  NateuraUs  hisUrria,  was  the  son  of  a  Roman 
eques  by  the  daughter  c^  the  senator  Gaius  CaeciUus  of  Novum 
Comum.  He  was  bom  at  Comum,  not  (as  is  sometimes  supposed) 
at  Verona:  it  is  only  as  a  native  of  GaUia-Transpadana  that  he 
caUs  CatuQus  of  Verona  his  anUerraneus,  or  f eUow-countryman, 
not  his  mumeeps,  or  feUow-townsman  {Praef,  (  x).  Before  a.ix 
35  {N.  H.  xxxvii.  81)  his  father  took  him  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  educated  under  his  father's  friend,  the  poet  and  miUtary 
commander,  P.  Pomponius  Secundus,  who  inqnred  hhn  with  a 
Ufdong  love  of  learning.  Two  centuries  after  the  death  of  the 
GraccU  PUny  saw  some  of  their  autograph  writings  in  his 
preceptor's  Ubrary  (xiii.  83),  and  he  afterwards  wrote  that 
preceptor's  Life,  He  makes  mention  of  the  grammarians  and 
rhetoridans,  Remmius  Palaemon  and  AreUius  Fuscus  (xiv.  49^ 
xxxui.  X53),  and  he  may  have  been  instructed  by  them.  In 
Rome  he  studied  botany  in  the  garden  of  the  ugied  Antonius 
Castor  (xxv.  9),  and  saw  the  fine  old  lotus-trees  in  the  grounds 
that  had  once  belonged  to  Ciassus  (xvii.  5}...  He  also  viewed  the 


84a 


PLINY,  THE  ELDER 


.vast  structure  raised  by  Caligula  (zxxvi.  xii),  and  probably 
witnessed  the  triumph  of  Claudius  over  Britain  (iii.  119;  a.d. 
44).  Under  the  influence  of  Seneca  be  became  a  keen  student  of 
philosophy  and  rhetoric,  and  began  practising  as  an  advocate. 
He  saw  mflitary  service  under  Corbulo  in  Lower  Germany 
(a.d.  47),  taking  part  in  the  Roman  conquest  of  the  Chaud  and 
the  construction  of  the  canal  between  the  Maas  and  the  Rhine 
(xvi.  a  and  5).  As  a  young  commander  of  cavalry  {praefectus 
aloe)  he  wrote  in  his  winter-quarters  a  work  on  the  use  of  missiles 
on  horseback  {d«  jaculatione  equasiri),  with  some  aooount  of  the 
points  of  a  good  horse  (viii.  162).  In  Gaul  and  Spain  he  learnt 
the  meanings  of  a  number  of  Celtic  words  (xzx.  40)*  He  look 
note  of  sites  associated  with  the  Roman  invaaon  of  Germany, 
and,  amid  the  scenes  of  the  victories  of  Drusus,  he  had  a  dream 
In  which  the  victor  enjoined  him  to  transmit  his  exploits  to 
posterity  (Plin.  Epp,  in.  5,  4).  The  dream  prompted  Pliny  to 
begin  forthwith  a  history  of  all  the  wars  between  the  Romans 
and  the  Germans.  He  probably  accompanied  his  father's 
friend,  Pomponius,  on  an  expedition  against  the  Chatti 
(a.d.  50),  and  vi^ted  Germany  for  a  third  time  (57)  as  a  comrade 
of  the  future  emperor,  Titus  {Praef.  f  3).  Under  Nero  he  lived 
mainly  in  Rome.  He  mentions  the  map  of  Armenia  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  was  sent  to  Rome  by 
the  staff  of  Corbulo  in  a.d.  58  (vi.  40).  He  also  saw  the  building 
of  Nero's  "golden  house"  i^ter  the  fire  of  64  (xncvi.  in). 
Meanwhile  he  was  completing  the  twenty  books  of  his  History 
of  the  German  Wan^  the  only  authority  expressly  quoted  in  the 
first  six  books  of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus  (i.  69),  and  probably  one 
of  the  principal  authorities  for  the  Germania,  It  was  superseded 
by  the  writings  of  Tacitus,  and,  eariy  in  the  5th  century,  Sym- 
machus  had  little  hope  of  finding  a  copy  (Epp.  xiv.  8).  He  also 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  wndng  on  the  compamtively  safe 
subjects  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  A  detailed  work  on  rhetoric, 
entitled  StudiosuSf  was  fo^pwed  by  eight  books,  Dubii  sernumis 
(a.d.  67).  Under  his  friend  Vespasian  he  returned  to  the 
service  of  the  sufite,  serving  as  pracnraior  in  Gallia  Narbonrasis 
(70)  and  Hispania  Tarmconensis  (73),  and  also  visiting  the 
Provinda  Belgica  (74).  During  his  stay  in  Spain  he  ^became 
famfliar  with  the  ^riculture  and  the  mines  of  the  country, 
besides  paying  a  visit  to  Africa  (viL  37).  On  his  return  to  Italy 
he  accepted  office  under  Vespasian,  whom  he  used  to  visit  before 
daybreak  for  instructions  before  proceeding  to  his  official  duties, 
after  the  discharge  of  which  he  devoted  all  the  rest  of  his  time  to 
study  (Plin.  Epp.  ilL  5, 9).  He  completed  a  History  ojkis  Times 
in  thirtyMine  books,  possibly  extending  hem  the  reign  of  Nero 
to  that  of  Vespasian,  and  deliberately  reserved  it  for  publication 
after  his  decease  (i^.  ff .,  Praef,  so).  It  is  quoted  by  Tadtus 
{Ann.  xiii.  so',  xv.  53;  HisL  vL  39),  and  is  one  of  the  authorities 
followed  by  Suetonius  and  Plutarch.  He  also  virtually  com- 
pleted his  great  woric,  the  Naiuralis  historia.  The  work  had 
been  planned  under  the  rule  of  Nero.  The  materials  collected 
for  this  purpose  filled  rather  less  than  x6o  volumes  in  AJ>k  23, 
when  Lardus  lidnus,  the  praet(Mian  legate  of  Hispania  Tarra- 
conensts,  vsinly  offered  to  purchase  them  for  a  sum  equivalent 
to  more  than  £33oa  He  dedicated  the  work  to  Titus  in  a.d.  77. 
Soon  afterwards  he  received  from  Vespasian  the  appointment  of 
praefect  of  the  Roman  fleet  at  Misenum.  On  the  a4th  of  August 
a.D.  79  he  was  stationed  at  Misenum,  at  the  time  of  the  great 
eraption  of  Vesuvius,  which  overwhelmed  Pompeii  and  Hercu- 
lancum.  A  desire  to  observe  the  phenomenon  from  a  ntorer 
point  of  view,  and  also  to  rescue  some  of  his  friends,  from  their 
perilous  position  on  the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  led  to  his 
launching  bis  galleys  and  crossing  the  bay  to  Stabiae  (Casldla* 
fflare>,  where  he  perished,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  The 
story  of  his  last  hours  is  told  in  an  interesting  letter  addressed 
twenty*seven  yean  afterwards  to  Tadtus  by  the  Elder  Pliny's 
nephew  and  hdr,  the  Younger  Pliny  (Epp.  vi.  16),  who  also  sends 
to  another  correspondent  an  account  oi  his  unde's  writings  and 
his  manner  of  life  (iii.  s;."- 


'"  Me  began  to  work  long  before  daybrtak. ...  He  read  nothing 
without  matting  extracts;  he  used  even  to  say  that  there  was  no 
book  iO  bad  as  not  to  oontain  aomcthing  of  vaiiie.  _  lo  the  'country 


it  was  only  the  time  when  be  was  actaally  in  Us  bath  dat  «ai 
exempted  from  study*  When  travelling,  as  though  (rc4  bse 
every  other  care,  he  devoted  binucif  to  study  aJooe. ...  h 
short,  he  deemed  all  time  wasted  that  was  not  employed  b  vl'jI).' 

The  only  fruit  of  all  this  unwearied  industiy  that  has  sunv>:: 
to  our  own  times  is  the  NaturaUs  historia,  a  work  nrhidi  is  :j 
present  form  consists  of  thirty-seven  books,  the  first  b(x< 
including  a  characteristic  preface  and  tables  of  contents,  is  vi^ 
as  lists  of  aulhoritlcs,  which  were  originally  prefixed  to  eid  u 
the  books  scparatdy.  The  contents  of  the  remalxuDg  \»m 
are  as  follows:  ii.,  mathematical  and  physical  desciipum  ^f 
the  world;  iii.-vi.,  geography  and  ethnography;'  vii.,  anib' 
pology  and  human  physiology;  viii.-xi.,  aooldgy;  xil-ti>  . 
botany,  including  agriculture,  horticulture  and  materia  »et.^ 
xxvili.-xxxii.,  medical  zoology;  xxxiiL-xxxvii,  nuncRki;), 
especially  in  its  application  to  life  and  art,  induding  chasiq;  i 
silver  (xxxiii.  154-157),  statuary  in  bronze  (xxxiv.),  pai-t^ 
(xxxv.  15-149),  modelL'ng  (151-158),  and  sculpture  in  eutjc 
(xxxvi.). 

He  apparently  published  the  first  ten  books  himself  io  id  r. 
and  was  engaged  on  revising  and  enlarging  the  rest  duriri  t ': 
two  remaining  years  of  his  Ufe.  The  work  was  probably  (>.> 
lished  with  little,  if  any,  revision  by  the  author's  nephew,  t] 
when  telh'ng  the  story  of  a  tame  dolphin,  and  desciibtni  'i^ 
floating  islands  of  the  Vadimonian  Lake,  thirty  yxm  h-* 
(viii.  20,  ix.  33),  has  apparently  forgotten  that  both  aie  to  ^ 
found  in  his  uncle's  work  (iL  209,  ix.  26).  He  deKiibes  tir 
Naturaiis  kistoria,  as  a  Naturae  historia,  and  diaracttfixts  c  » 
a  "  work  that  is  learned  and  full  of  matter,  and  as  vamc  a 
nature  herself."  The  absence  of  the  author's  final  revinoo  r  • 
partly  account  for  many  repetitions,  and  for  some  anlT^'- - 
tions,  lor  mistakes  in  passages  borrowed  from  Greek  va^"^ 
and  for  the  insertion  of  marginal  additions  at  wrong  places  ic  tit 
texL 

In  the  preface  the  author  claims  to  have  stated  20,opo  (£'> 
gathered  from  some  aooo  books  and  from  100  select  autbon.  •' 
extant  lists  of  his  authorities  amount  to  many  more  thic  i 
including  146  of  Roman  and  327  of  Greek  ana  other  vnmr  ■ 
information.  The  listk  as  a  general  rule,  follow  the  order  d  r ' 
subject  matter  of  each  book.  This  has  been  clearly  tb^  ' 
Heinrich  Brunn's  Disputatio  (Bonn,  1856). 

Pliny's  prindpai  authority  is  Varro.    In  the  geographica]  ^'  ^ 
Varro  is  supplemented   by   the  topographical  oommcntari-}  • 
Agrippa  which  were  completed  by  the  emperor  Augustu*:  i ' ' 
zoology  he  relics  largely  on  Aristotle  and  on  Juba,  th^  sf' 
Maurctanian   king,   sluaiorum  claritate  memorahUiofW^^  '•• 
(v.  16).    Juba  is  also  his  prindpai  guide  in  botany.    TMcp^rJ-^'•* 
is  also  named  in  his  Indices.    In  the  History  of  Art  the  f  ■'■ 
Greek  authorities  are  Duxis  of  Samos  (bom  c  340  B.C.),  '-'■^ 
crates  of  Sicyon  (/I.  380),  and  Antigonous  of  Caivstus  (bcni  >  ->S 
B.C.).    The  anecdotic  element  has  oeen  ascribco  to  Dum  i^"-' 
61,  Lysippum  Sicyonium  Duris  netat  itttius  fuisse  dixiptivm  & 
the  notices  of  the  successive  devewpments  of  art,  and  the  ^'  ^ 
workers  in  bronze  and  painters,  to  Xenocrates^and  a  lar^  ur^'-'- 
of  miscellaneous  information  to  Antieonus.     The  last  t«'0  3i>''^ 
ritlcs  are  named  in  connexion  with  Parrhaaus  (xxxv.  68,  '>*- '' 
gloriam  concessere  Antigonus  et  Xenoctates,  qui  de  pictvoK^^^  -^ 
while  Antigonus  is  named  in  the  Induxs  of  xxxiiL>xxxiv.  as  ^  '[■' 
on  the  "  toreutic  "  art.    Greek  epigrams  contribute  tlwir  *^ 
m  Pun^ 
authorities 

author — 

xxxiii.-xxxvL  an  important  place  is  asagncd  to  Piuiteks  oi  >•• 
or.  88  B.C.).  the  author  of  a  work  in  five  volumes  on  fafliou«  •<  >^  \ 
art  xxxvi.  40),  probably  incorporating  the  substance  of  the  (• 
Creek  treatises;  but  Pliny's  indebtedness  to  Pasiteic$  >s  d"^'^'^ 
Kalkmann.who  holds  that  Pliny  used  the  chninofogiol«oHcotAr<  j 

doruB,  as  well  as  a  current  catalogue  of  artists.  FUoy's  kDC«l  <^ 
of  the  Greek  authorities  was  probably  mainly  due  to  Varro,  *•  * 
he  often  quotes  (e.f.  xxxiv.  56,  xxxv.  113,  156,  xxxxi.  17.  t- " . 


in  the  adjacent  Islandai,  Plinjj  was  indebted  to  the  l««^t!f « 
man,  orator  and  historian,  Gains  Licinius  Mudanus,  wfao«e<*  ^  - , 
A.o,  77.  Pliny  mentions  the  works  of  art  collected  h?  ^^ ;  . 
in  the  Temple  of  Peace  and  in  his  other  galleries  (miv.  .^j:  \^ 
much  of  hb  information  as  to  the  podtion  of  such  «er^  ^'^'^^ 
is  due  to  books,  and  not  to  personal  observation.  T^^^  ^^_ 
of  hb  account  of  ancient  art.  the  only  classical  woifc  <a^^'  \ 
Is  that  It  is  a  compilation  ultimately  founded  on  tbe  k:>;  '^ 
books  of  Xenocrates  and  on  the  biographies  of  Duns  aad  .\DC<a«» 


liny's  descriptions  of  pictures  and  statues.    One  of  the  r 
oritics  for  books  xxxiv.-xxxv.  is  Heliodorus  (/f.  150  ^■^.    ":' 
or  of  a  work  on  the  monuments  of  Athens.    In  tnc  Iti' ' 


PUNYy  THE  ELDER 


843 


He  shows  no  ^)ecsal  aptitude  for  art  cntictsm;  in  aevoal  passages, 
however,  he  gives  proof  of  independent  observation  (xxxiv.  38, 
46,  63.  XXXV.  17,  20»  116  sea.)*  He  prefers  the  marble  Laocoon  in 
the  palace  of  Titus  to  all  tne  pictures  and  bronzes  in  the  world 
(xxxvL  37);  in  the  temple  near  the  Flaminian  Circus  he  admires 
the  Ares  and  the  Aphrodite  of  Scopas,  "  which  wduld  suffice  to 
give  renown  to  any  other  spot.**  "  At  Rome  indeed  (he  adds)  the 
works  of  art  are  legion ;  besides,  one  effaces  another  from  the  memory 
and,  however  beautiful  they  may  be,  we  are  distiacted  by  the 
overpowering  claims  of  duty  and  business;  for  to  admire  art  we 
need  leisure  and  profound  stillness  "  Xibid.  26-37). 

Like  many  of  the  finest  spirits  imder  the  early  empire,  Pliny 
was  an  adherent  to  the  Stoics.  He  was  acquainted  with  their 
noblest  rq>resentative»  Thrasea  Paetus,  and  he  also  came  under 
the  influence  of  Seneca.  The  Stoics  were  given  to  the  study  of 
nature,  while  their  moral  teaching  was  agxeeable  to  one  who,  in 
his  literary  work,  was  unsdfishly  eager  to  benefit  and  to  instruct 
his  contemporaries  {PrceJ.  16,  xxviii.  3,  xadz.  x).  He  was  also 
influenced  by  the  Epicurean  aind  the  Academic  and  the  revived 
Pythagorean  schoolL  But  his  view  of  nature  and  of  Cod  is 
essentially  Stoic.  It  was  only  (he  dedaies)  the  weaknesa  of 
humanity  that  had  embodied  Uie  Being  of  God  in  many  human 
forms  endued  with  human  faults  and  vices  (iL  148).  The 
Godhead  was  really  one;  it  was  the  soul  of  the  eternal  worid, 
displaying  its  beneficence  on  the  earth,  as  well  as  in  the  sun  And 
stars(ii.i3seq.,  i54seq.)'  Theexistenceof  a  divine  Providence  was 
uncertain  (ii.  19),  but  the  belief  in  its  existence  and  in  the ptmish- 
ment  o£  wrongndoing  was  salutary  (ii.  26);  and  the  reward  of 
virtue  consisted  in  the  elevation  to  Godhead  of  those  who 
resembled  God  in  doing  good  to  man  (ii.  18,  Dtut  cH  moriali 
jusare  nwrtalem,  ei  kaec  ad  aeternam  ^oriam  via).  It  was  wrong 
to  inquire  into  the  future  and  do  violence  to  nature  by  resorting 
to  magical  arts  (iL  114,  xxx.  3);  but  the  significance  of  prodigies 
and  portents  is  not  denied  (ii.  92, 199,  232).  Pliny's  view  of  life 
is  gloomy;  he  regards  the  human  race  as  plunged  in  ruin  and  in 
misery  (ii.  34,  vii.  130).  Against  luxury  and  moral  corruption 
he  indulges  in  dedsmations,  which  are  so  frequent  that  (like 
those  of  Seneca)  they  at  last  pall  upon  the  reader;  and  his 
rhetorical  flouridies  against  practically  useful  inventions  (soch 
as  the  art  of  navigation)  are  wanting  in  good  sense  and  good 
taste  (xix.  6). 

With  the  proud  national  spirit  <rf  a  Roman  he  combines  an 
admiration  of  the  virtues  by  which  the  republic  had  attained  its 
greatness  (xvi.  14,  xxvii.  3,  xzxvii.  2or).  He  does  not  suppren 
historical  (nets  unfavourable  to  Rome  (xzxiv.  139),  and  while 
he  honours  eminent  members  of  distinguished  Roman  houses, 
he  is  free  from  Livy's  undue  partiality  for  the  aristo- 
cracy. The  digricultural  chisscs  and  the  old  landlords  of 
the  equestrian  order  (Cincinnatus,  Curius  Dentatus,  Serranus 
and  the  Elder  Cato)  are  to  him  the  pillars  of  the  state;  and  he 
bitterly  laments  the  decline  of  agriculture  in  Italy  (xviii  21  and 
3*5,  latijundia  perdiden  Italian^,  Accordingly,  for  the  early 
history  of  Rome,  he  prefers  following  the  prae-Augustan  writers; 
but  he  regards  the  imperial  power  as  indispensable  for  the  govern* 
ment  of  the  empire,  and  he  hails  the  sahUaris  exwHit  Vespasiani 
(xxxiii.  51).  At  the  conclusion  of  his  literary  labours,  as  the 
only  Roman  who  had  ever  taken  for  his  theme  the  whole  realm 
of  nature,  be  prays  for  the  blessing  of  the  universal  mother  on  his 
completed  work. 

In  literature  he  assigns  the  highest  place  to  Homer  and  to 
Cicero  (xvii.  37  seq.);  and  the  next  to  Virgil.  He  takes  a  keen 
interest  in  nature,  and  in  the  natural  sciences,  studying  them  in  a 
way  that  was  then  new  in  Rome,  while  the  small  esteem  in  which 
studies  of  this  kind  were  held  does  not  deter  him  from  endeavour- 
ing to  be  of  service  to  his  fellow  countrymen  (xxii.  15).  The 
scheme  of  his  great  work  Is  vast  and  comprehensive,  being 
nothing  short  of  an  encyclopaedia  of  learning  and  of  art  so  far 
as  they  are  connected  with  nature  or  draw  their  materials  from  it. 
With  a  view  to  this  work  he  studied  the  original  authorities  on 
each  subject  and  was  most  assiduous  In  making  excerpts  from 
their  pages.  His  indices  auclarum  are,  in  some  cases,  the  authori- 
ties which  he  has  actually  consulted  (though  in  this  respect  they 
are  not  exhaustive);  In  other  cases,  they  represent  the  principcd 
.writers  on  the  subject,  whose  names  are  borrowed  second-hand 


for  his  Immediate  authorities.  H» 'ftmnkly*  acknowledges  his 
obligations  to  all  his  predecessors  in  a  phrase  that  deserves  to  be 
proverbial  {Fraef.  21,  plenum  ingenui  pudoris  Jaleri  per  qucs 
profeceris).  He  had  neither  the  temperament  for  original 
investigation,  nor  the  leisure  necessary  for  the  purpose.  It  is 
obvious  that  one  who  spent  all  his  time  In  reading  and  in  writing, 
and  in  making  excerpts  from  his  predecessors,  had  none  left  for 
mature  and  independent  thoui^t,  or  for  patient  experimental 
observation  of  the  phenomena  of  nature.  But  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  was  his  scientific  curiosity  as  to  the  phenomena 
of  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  that  brought  his  life  of  unwearied 
study  to  a  premature  end;  and  any  criticism  of  his  faults  of  omis> 
slon  is  disarmed  by  the  candour  of  the  confession  in  his  preface: 
nee  dubitnmits  wulta  esse  quats  el  w»  praeterierint;  homines 
enim  sumus  et  ouupati  offieiis. 

His  style  betrays  the  unhealthy  influence  of  Seneca.  It  aims; 
less  at  clearness  and  vividness  than  at  ^Igrammatic  point.  It 
abounds  not  only  In  antitheses,  but  also  in  questions  and  excla- 
mations, tropes  and  metaphors,  and  other  mannerisms  of  the 
silver  age.  The  rhythmicid  and  artistic  form  of  the  sentence  is 
sacrificed  to  a  passion  for  emfihasls  that  delights  in  deferring  the 
point  to  the  dose  of  the  period.  The  structure  of  the  sentence  is 
also  apt  to  be  loose  and  straggling.  There  is  an  excessive  use  of 
the  ablative  absolute,  and  ablative  phrases  are  often  appended 
in  a  Iriod  df  vague  "  apposition  "  to  express  the  author's  own 
opinion  of  an  immediaJtely  previous  statement,  e.g,  xxzv.  80^ 
dixit  (Apellcs)  . . .  uim  se  praestare,  quod  manum  de  tabula  scir^ 
tolUre,  mamorabili  praacepto  nocerg  saepe  nimiam  dilig/tntiam, 

'  About  the  middle  of  the  3r1  century  an  abstract  of  the 
gccvraphicsl  portions  of  Pliny's  work  was  produced  by  Solinus; 
and,  eariy  in  the  4th,  the  medical  passages  were  collected  ia  the 
Medicina  PUnii.  Early  in  the  8tb  we  find  Bede  in  possession  of 
an  excellent  MS.  of  the  whole  work.  In  the  9th  Alcuin  sends  to 
Charles  the  Great  for  a  copy  of  the  earlier  books  {.Epp.  103,  Jaff6); 
and  Dicuil  gathers  extracts  from  the  pages  of  Puny  for  his  own 


Mensura  orbis  tenae  (c  825^. 
esteem  in  the  middle  ages.    The 

of  the 


Pliny  s  work  was  held  In  high 
number  of  extant  MSS.  is  about 
200:  but  the  best  of  the  more  ancient  MSS.,  that  at  Bamberg, 
contains  only  books  xxxii.-xxxvit.  Robert  of  Crickladc,  prior 
of  St  Frideswide  at  Oxford,  dedicated  to  Henry  II.  a  Defloratio 
consisting  of  nine  htnka  of  selections  taken  from  one  of  the  MSS. 
of  this  class,  which  has  been  recently  recognized  as  sometimes 
supplying  us  with  the  only  evidence  for  the  true  text.  Among  the 
later  M^.  the  codex  Vesontinus,  formerly  at  Bcsan^on  (i  ith  century), 
has  been  divided  into  three  portions,  now  in  Rome.  Paris  and 
Leiden  respectively,  while  there  is  also  a  transcript  <A  the  whole 
of  this  MS.  at  Leiden. 


Deutsche  Mytholagiet  writing  with  his  own  fellow-counto'men  in 
view,  has  commended  Pliny  for  oondocending,  in  the  midst  of  his 
survey  of  the  sciences  of  botany  and  zoology,  to  tell  of  the  folk- 
lore  of  plants  and  animals,  and  has  even  praised  him  for  the  pains 
that  he  bestowed  on  his  style.  It  may  be  added  that  a  special 
interest  attaches  to  his  account  of  the  manufacture  of  the  papyrus 
(xiii.  68-8i),  and  of  tl^e  different  kinds  of  purple  dye  (ix.  130), 
while  his  description  of  the  notes  of  the  nightingale  is  an  elaborate 
example  of  his  occasional  felicity  of  phrase  (xxix.  81  scq.).  Most 
of  the  recent  research  on  Pliny  has  been  concentrated  on  the 
investigation  of  his  authorities,  especially  those  which  he  followed 
in  his  chapters  on  the  history  ol  art— the  only  ancient  account 
of  that  subject  which  has  survived. 

A  camelian  inscribed  with  the  letters  C.  Plin.  has  been  re^ 
produced  by  Cades  (v.  211)  from  the  original  in  the  VannutcUi 
collection.  It  represents  an  ancient  Roman  with  an  almost  com- 
plctdy  bald  forehead  and  a  double  chin;  and  is  almost  certainly 
a  portrait,  not  of  Pliny  the  Elder,  but  of  Pompey  the  Great.  Seated 
statues  of  both  the  PIinies,.clad  in  the  garb  of  schMars  of  the  year 
1500,  maybe  seen  in  the  niches  on  cither  side  of  the  main  entrance 
to  the  cathedral  church  of  Como.  The  elder  Pliny's  anecdotes  of 
Greek  artists  supplied  Vasari  with  the  subjects  of  the  frescoes 
which  still  adorn  the  interior  of  his  former  home  at  Arexzo. 

Bibliography. — Editions  by  Hermolaus  Barbarus  (Rome, 
1492};  Dalccampius  (Lyons,  1587} ;  Gronovius  (Lcidon,  l66c>); 
Hardouin  (Paris,  1685);  Franz  (Leipzig.  1778-1791);  Silllg,  with 
index  by  Oi  Schnekler  ((^tha.  1853-1855);  L.  von  Jan  (Leipzig, 
185^-1865);  D.  Detlefscn  (Beriin,  1866-1873).  and  critical  edition 
of  the  geographical  books  (Berhn,  1905);  AlayhoS  (Leipzig,^  1906- 
);  Eng.  trans.,  Philemon  Holland  (London,  1601);  French, 
Litlre  (1855);  Chrestomaihia  Pliniana,  L.  Uriichs,  with  excellent 
Binkiiung  (Berlm,  1857);  The  Eider  PHm/s  Chapters  on  the  History 


««■ 


PUNY,  THE  YOUNGER 


The  IriBincnli  ai  ihc  ciihl  bantu.  DuUi  urmmii,  liav<  bttn 
colkclcd  by  t.  W.  B«k  (Lii^tit,  iB94>'  For  (unher  tnbliqgnphKil 
dtiaib.  m  Marnr,  Ui.  lil.  fiB;;).  I3^i3»:  ird  Sckam.  ffm.  L.ir. 
(Munich,  1901).  tf  tw-494-  U-  E-  S.') 

niHY.  THE  VOUKOER.     PubUiu  CiKiliui  Sccundiu,  '  ' 


M  Plini' 


a(*.D 


I'J), 


■Rood  ion  ol  Laciut  CucUiui  Ciki,  by  FlinU,  the  ib>«  of  the 
ElderPliny.  HewMbom.tNoviini  Coiniini,them(xteniCoino, 
the  due  al  bii  birth  bring  ippTaxIrulely  dcteimlned  by  the 
fict  thai,  he  wu  in  his  iSlh  year  al  the  death  of  bii  uncle  m 
Augujl  A.a  jg  (Eff.  vi.  10,  s)-  Having  U»l  hii  (alhir  at  an 
early  age,  he  owed  much  10  his  mother  and  10  his  guardian. 
Vciginiiis  Rufui.  oho  lisd  twice  filled  the  office  ol  comul  and 
bad  (vice  refuud  the  purple  (11.  i.  A).  He  Duted  Elill  mate  to  bii 
uncte.  When  the  Elder  Pliny  was  summoned  to  Rome  by 
Vespaiisn  in  *.D. ;  i,  he  mi  probably  accompanied  by  his  nephew, 
whs  Ihece  went  tbiough  the  usual  course  ol  education  in  Roman 
liletalure  aiyl  In  Creelt.  and  al  the  *ge  <>'  (ouritcn  compoied  a 
"  Creek  tragedy  "  (vil.  4, 1).  He  afterwards  studied  philoiophy 
■od  rbetoric  under  Njceiei  Sacenlos  and  Qulnlilian  (vi.  6,  j, 
H.  t4, 9),  and  modelled  his  own  onlcrical  style  on  that  o[  Demos- 
Ibencs,  Cicero  irtd  Calvus  (L  1)  The  Elder  Pliny  inspired  bis 
nephew  witb  something  of  hb  own  indomitable  industry;  and  in 
August  Js,  when  the  author  of  the  //i'i/otiu  ■olwa/ii  lo»l  hh 
life  in  the  famous  tTuptioii  of  Vesuvius,  it  nas  the  litter  of  the 
Eldei  and  the  mother  of  the  Younger  Flbiy  who  £nt  descried 

of  1  be  last  hou IS  of  his  uncle,  In  a  letter  addressed  to  Ihehisloriin 
Tacitu*  In.  16).  By  hii  will  ibe  Elder  PUny  had  made  his 
nephew  hit  adopted  ion,  and  Ibe  latter  now  aisumed  the  nonni 
and  pratnamtn  of  bis  adoptive  father. 


(v.  a,  g).  and  »on  aft 

twatds  became  am 

mbei  ol  the  board  of 

lamlii.  which  was 

associated,  witb  Ibe 

praetor  in  the  presidency  of  the  centum 

inl  court.  Early  in 

the  reign  of  Domiiian 

he  served  a>  a  mil 

ary  tribune  in  Syria 

(A.D.aior8j),devotia 

g  pan  of  his  leisure 

totbeiliidyolphilo- 

•opby  under  the  Sloi 

Eui^iratea  (i.  i». 

1).    On  returning  10 

Rome  he  was  nominat 

■d  to  the  honorary  office  of  im'r  tquUum 

clively  engaged  m 

a  pleader  before  the 

(tnlumiiri,  the  chancery  court  of  Rome  (v 

>'.  1)- 

His  olEcial  career  be] 

(an  in  i.n.  84,  when 

fae  was  nominated  by 

he  waa  made  tribune,  and,  duiing  hit  tenure  of  that  oAice,  with- 
drew (lom  pnctite  at  the  bu  (i.  13).  Etily  in  93  be  wu 
atipointad  praetor  (lii.  ir,  i),and,  in  bii  year  of  oflirc,  was  one  of 
the  couniel  for  the  impeachment  of  Baebius  Musa,  the  pro- 
cunlor  of  liiipania  Baelica  (iii.  1,  vi.  ig,  vli.  jj).  During  the 
laleu  and  darkest  years  of  Domitian  be  deemed  it  prudent  to 
withdraw  from  public  iflain,  but  his  finandal  (bililies  were 
recognised  by  his  nomioaiion  in  gaorgj  totbe^ree/ccfvaefrarfj 
■fliUrii  (ix.  IS.  11). 
On  tba  dcatb  ot  Danuliaii  and  the  accatioa  of  Ntm  be 


delivered  a  ipeedi  (nibitquently  pubUihed)  In  praccvtion  d 
Fublicius  Cetlui,  who  hod  been  foreinul  in  tbe  slt^a  ga 
Uelvidius  ihiicus  (ii.  ij).  Early  in  gS  he  waa  pnmoLed  (a  ik 
poaitiOD  of  prmelect  of  the  public  treasury  in  the  temple  ei 
Saturn.  Afler  the  iccesdon  of  Trajan  in  the  tame  year,  t'aj 
was  asudaled  with  Ticilut  in  the  impeadunut  of  Uui.i 
Priscus  for  his  maladmuiistuaao  at  the  provinte  of  Aliia 
(it.  ji).  The  trial  waibeld  under  tbe  presidency  of  Ibc  aaptrm, 
wfto  had  already  nominated  him  cenraf  nfftctmi  for  psnc4 
the  year  a.d,  loe.  The  (ormal  otallon  of  thanks  for  Ilia  noxi- 
natioD,  detcrif»d  by  Pliny  Mmtelf  ai 
13,  1  and  iS,  I),  ii  called  in  the  USS. 
iftclu. 

The  following  year  was  marked  by  the  death  of  Silio*  Italica 
and  hlartial,  who  an  gracefully  commenwiated  bt  t»«  fd  bs 
lituri  (iii.  7  and  it).  It  it  probable  that  in  105-104  be  m 
promoted  to  a  -  place  in  the  coUege  of  Augun,  vacated  by  ka 
friend  Frontioui  (iv.  8),  and  that  in  to;  be  waa  ippn-rrel 
curator  of  the  river  Tib«  (v.  14,  i).  In  the  tame  year  it 
emptoyed  part  of  fua  leisure  in  producing  a  volume  of  fic&kci. 
tyllabic  verse  (iv.  14,  v.  10).   He  usually  speat  the  vrinler  si  bi 

summer  al  one  of  bit  CDuntty  home*,  dlhet  among  the  Tuiu 
hilli,  near  Tiferaum,  or  en  tbe  lake  ol  Cono,  «  at  TibcvId:. 

It  was  probably  in  104,  and  again  la  106,  that  be  vaa  relaiaed 
for  the  defence  of  a  governor  of  Bithynia,  thus  becoming famikr' 
wiih  the  aStin  of  a  province  wlJch  needed  a  ihoniwgh  it- 
organization.  Acrordin^y,  about  in,  he  waa  lekcted  iij 
Trajan  as  govenur  of  Bilhynia,  under  tbe  special  title  of  "  k^iu 


September,  b 


1  office  for  fifteen  m 


His  bealOi  was  far  from  robust.  He  ipeaka  ol  hb  ddiaa 
frame  (f>uifi(iuiHii)itndhe  wiiipt  toiutlec  from  *eaknes  a 
lbeeyea(vu.  ii)andef  thethroaluchestdi.  11,  15).  Fmfd 
and  abstemious  in  hii  diet  (L  ij;  iii.  i  and  1*},  atucfina  u^ 
methodical  in  hii  habiti  (L  6,  v.  ti,  ix.  36  and  40),  Iw  looi  t 
quiet  delight  in  some  of  the  gentler  forms  of  Dutdoor  reenalia. 
We  are  startled  to  Bad  bira  telling  Tacjius  ol  his  iaieiBi  .1 
huntuig  the  wild  boar,  but  he  it  careful  to  add  that,  whik  lit 

taking  nolo,  thus  comf>ining  Ifie  cull  of  Minerva  wilb  ifui  d 
Diana(i.6).    Healio  tells  Ibe  historian  that,  when  hii  Bivhisi 

ho  preferred  to  atay  behind,  making  an  abstract  of  a  book  a 
Uvy  (vL  »,  s). 

Among  hit  ftitndt  were  Tacilut  ud  SiMloalm,  u  welt  h 
Frontinui,  Martial  and  SUiui  Italicuii  and  the  Stoks.  Miwbk 
and  Htlvidiui  Priscus.  He  wai  thrice  mkrriedi  on  the  iki:>i 
of  his  second  wife  iritbout  issue,  Trajan  confcircd  on  him  1^ 

wife  in  the  accompliihed  and  amiable  Calpuraia  (iv.  rg).  fl^ 
was  generous  in  his  privnie  and  bit  public  benefactions  (i.  iq.  ^ 
ii.  4, 1,  vi.  39).  At  bis  Tuscan  vilU  near  Tifecnum  TibuLiia 
(iv.  1. 4).  the  modem  Cttk  di  Cattello,  be  set  up  a  temple  u  ia 
own  eipense  and  adorned  it  with  itatuei  of  Nerva  and  Tnai 
(x.  S).  Ii  bb  lilelime  he  founded  ud  endooed  a  libraiy  i:  to 
native  place  (!.  8,  v.  j),  and,  besides  piomoiing  local  edacUJoi 
(iv.  13),  etiablithed  an  inililule  for  the  maintenaixe  an^ 
inttniclioo  of  Ihe  sons  and  daughters  of  free-turn  parents  <-.  '- 
t8).  By  hit  will  he  left  a  large  sum  for  the  huildiDg  and  lie 
perpetual  repair  of  public  baiha,  and  the  interest  of  a  still  Ur^ 
sum  for  the  bene£l  of  one  hundred  frcedmen  ol  the  lettatce  u^ 


It  waa  then  broken  inio 


the  gnat  church  of  Stat'  Amhrogio.  I 
only  one  snrvivo,  hul  wHib  the  aid  of 
three  mad«  tjy  Cyiiaciu  of  Anconk  ii 


PLINY,  THE  YOUNGER 


845 


restored  by  Mommaeii  [CJ.L.  v.  5361J.    It  h  to  the  folfcnring 

effect: — 

Gaius  Plinitts  Caecilius  <Secundus>,  son  of  Lucius,  of  the  Ufentine 
tribe;  <consul*,>  augur;  lerate-propraetor  of  the  province  of  Pontus 
and  Bithynia,  with  consular  power,  by  decree  of  the  senate  sent 
into  the  said  province  by  the  emperor  Ncrva  Trajan  <Aug^stus, 
Germanicus,  C^cicus,  pater  patriao ;  curator  of  the  bed  and  banks 
of  the  Tiber  and  of  the  <sewcrs  of  the  city> ;  praefect  of  the  Treasury 
of  Saturn;  praefect  of  the  Treasury  of  War;  <practor>  ,  tribune  of 
the  plebs;  emperor's  quaestor,  sevir  of  the  <Roman>  knights; 
military  tribune  of  the  <third>  Gallic  legion ;  <dcccrovir>  for  the  adp 
judication  of  <suits> ;  provided  by  will  for  the  erection  of  baths  at 
ft  cost  of  ...  ,  adding  for  the  furnishing  of  the  same  300,000 
sesterces  (£2400)  and  furthermore,  for  maintenance,  aoo,o(X> 
sesterces  (£1600);  likewise,  for  the  support  of  one  hundred  of  his 
own  frcedmen  <he  bequeathed>  to  the  township  1,866,666  sesterces 
(c.  £15.000),  the  eventual  accretions  <whereol>  he  devised  to  the 
townsfolk  for  a  public  entertainment;  .  .  .  likewise,  in  his  life- 
time>  he  gave  for  the  support  of  sons  and  daughters  01  the  towns- 
folk <5oo.ooo>  sesterces  (£4000),  dikewise  a  library,  and> ,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  library,  xoo,ooo  sesterces  (£800). 

With  the  exception  of  two  mediocre  sets  of  verses,  quoted  by 
himself  (viL  4  and  9),  his  poems  have  perished.  His  speeches 
were  apt  to  be  prolix,  and  he  defended  their  prolixity  on  principle 
(!.  20).  He  was  apparently  the  first  to  make  a  practice  of  reciting 
his  speeches  before  a  gathering  of  his  friends  before  finally 
publishing  them  (iii.  x8).  The  only  speech  that  has  survived  is 
the  Panegyric  on  Trajan,  first  delivered  by  Pliny  in  the  emperor's 
presence,  next  recited  to  the  orator's  friends  for  the  space  of 
three  days,  and  ultimately  published  in  an  expanded  form  (Epp. 
iii.  x8).  It  is  unduly  florid  and  redundant  in  style,  but  It  suppUes 
us  with  the  fullest  account  of  the  emperor's  antecedents,  and  of 
his  policy  during  the  first  two  years  and  a  half  of  his  rule. 

It  describes  his  entering  Rome  on  foot,  amid  the  rejoicings  of 
the  citizens:  his  liberality  towards  his  soldiers  and  to  the  citizens 
of  Rome,  a  libcrBlitv  that  waa  extended  even  to  persons  under  eleven 
years  of  age:  his  charities  for  the  maintenance  of  the  children  of 
the  poor;  his  remission  of  succession-duties  in  cases  where  the 

Eroperty  was  small  or  the  heirs  members  of  the  testator's  family: 
is  establishment  of  free  trade  in  com  between  the  various  parts 
of  the  empire;  hb  abandonment  of  vexatious  and  petty  prosecu- 
tions for  "  high  treason  " ;  his  punishment  of  iaformers;  his  abolition 
of  pantomimes;  his  repairs  of  public  buildinjQ  and  his  extension 
ana  embellishment  of  the  Circus  Maximus.  The  speech  was  dis- 
covered by  Aurispa  at  Mainz  in  1433,  as  part  of  a  collection  of 
Fnnegyrict;  and  waa  first  printed  by  Fr.  Puteolanus  at  Milan 
about  fifty  years  later. 

'    Besides  the  Panegyric,  ive  possess  the  nine  books  of  Pliny's 
Letters,  and  a  separate  book  containing  his  Correspondence  with 

Trajan. 

In  the  first  letter  of  the  first  book  Pliny  states  that  he  has 
collected  certain  of  hb  letters  without  regard  to  chronological 
order  {nm  ser^atQ  temporis  ordine),  Pliny's  learned  biographer, 
the  Dutch  scholar,  Jean  Masson  (i709)f  wrongV  assumed  that  this 
statement  referred  to  the  whole  of  the  collection.  He  inferred 
that  all  the  nine  books  were  publbhed  simultaneously;  and  he 
also  held  that  Pliny  was  governor  of  Bithynia  in  a.d.  103-IM. 
It  was  afterwards  maintained  by  Mommsen  (1868)  that  the  books 
were  in  strictly  chronological  order,  that  the  Utt/ers  in  each  book 
were  in  general  arranged  In  order  of  date,  that  all  of  them  were 
later  than  the  death  <rt  Domitian  (September  96),  that  the  several 
tx>oks  were  probably  published  in  the  following  order:  i.  (97}; 
it  (100);  iii.(ioi-ioa):  iv.  (105);  v.  and  vi.  (106);  vii.  (107);  viii. 
(108);  and  ix.  (not  later  than  109);  and.  lastly,  that  Pliny  was 
governor  of  Bithynia  from  a.d.  Iil-iia  to  113.  The  letter  which 
is  probably  the  earliest  (ii.  30)  has  since  been  assigned  to  the  last 
part  of  the  reign  of  Domitian, and  it  has beensuggested  by  Professor 
Merrill  that  the  nine  books  were  published  in  three  groups:  i.-iL 
(97  or  98) ;  iii.-vi.(io6) ;  vii.-ix.  (108  or  109). 

In  his  Letters  Pliny  presents  us  with  a  picture  of  the  varied 
interests  of  a  cultivateid  Roman  gentleman.  The  etiquette  of 
the  imperial  circle,  scenes  from  the  law-courts  and  the  recitation* 
room,  the  reunions  of  dilettanti  and  phikMophers,  the  busy  life 
of  the  capital  or  of  the  municipal  town,  the  recreations  of  the 
seaside  and  of  the  country — all  these  he  brings  vividly  before 
our  eyes.  He  elaborately  describes  his  Laurentine  and  his 
Tuscan  villa,  and  frankly  tcUs  us  how  he  spends  the>day  at  each 
(ii.  i7,v.6,ix.  36  and  40);  expatiates  on  his  verses  and  his  speeches, 
his  holiday-tasks  in  Umbria  (vii.  9,  ix.  lo),  and  hb  happy 
memories  of  the  l^ake  of  Como  (i.  6).  He  gives  an  enthusiastic 
account  of  a  statuette  of  Corinthian  bronze  he  has  recently 
pun:hased  (jn,  6).    He  is  interested  in  providing  a  teacher  of 


rhetoric  for  the  place  of  his  birth  (iv.  13);  he  exults  in  the  devo- 
tion of  hb  wife,  Calpumia  (vi.  19) ;  towards  hb  servants  he  b  an 
indulgent  master  (viiL  x6);  he  intercedes  on  behalf  of  the  f reed- 
man  of  a  friend  (ix.  ai),  and,  when  a  freedman  of  hb  own  b  in 
delicate  health,  sends  him  first  to  Egypt  and  afterwards  to  the 
Riviera  (v.  19).  He  consults  Suetonius  on  the  interpretation  of 
dreams  (i.  x8);  he  presents  another  of  hb  correspondents  with  a 
batch  of  ghost-4tories  (vii.  37)  or  a  marvcilous  tale  about  a  tame 
dolphin  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa  (ix.  33).  He  discourses  on 
the  beauties  of  the  Clitumnus  (viii.  8)  and  the  floating  islands  of 
the  Vadimonian  lake  (viii.  ao).  He  describes  an  eruption  of 
Vesuvius  in  connexion  with  the  last  days  of  the  Elder  Pliny 
(vi.  x6  and  20),  giving  elsewhere  an  account  of  hb  manner  oif 
life  and  a  list  of  hb  writings  (iii.  5).  He  laments  the  death  of 
Silius  Italicus  (iii.  7),  of  Martial  (iii.  ax),  and  of  Verginius  Rufua 
(ii.  x),  and  of  otbors  less  known  to  fame.  He  takes  as  hb 
models  Cicero  and  Tadtus  (vii.  ao),  whose  name  b  so  often  (to 
his  delight)  associated  with  his  own  (ix.  33).  He  rejoices  to 
learn  that  hb  writings  are  read  at  Lyons  (ix.  ix).  He  complains 
of  the  inanity  of  drcus-races  (ix.  6),  of  the  decay  of  interest  in 
public  redtations  (i.  13),  of  bad  taste  in  matters  of  hospitality 
(ii.  6),  and  of  the  way  in  which  time  is  frittered  away  in  the 
sodal  duties  of  Rome  (i.  9).  He  lays  down  the  principles  that 
should  guide  a  Roman  governor  in  Greece  (viii.  24) ;  he  maintains 
the  cause  of  the  oppressed  provinces  of  Spain  and  Africa;  and  he 
exposes  the  iniquities  of  the  informer  Regulus,  the  only  living 
man  whom  he  attacks  in  his  Letters,  going  so  far  as  to  denounce 
him  as  omnium  bipedum  nequissimus  (i.  5,  X4).'* 

The  Letters  are  modeb  of  graceful  thought  and  refined  expres- 
sion, each  of  them  dealing  with  a  single  topic  and  generally 
ending  with  an  epigrammatic  poinL  They  were  imitated  by 
Symmachus  (Macrobius  v.  x,  7)  and  by  Apollinaris  Sidonius 
(Epp,  ix.  X ,  x).  In  the  middle  ages  they  were  known  to  Ratherius 
of  Verona  (xoth  century),  who  quotes  a  passage  from  L  5,  x6 
(Migne,  cxxxvi.  p.  391).  Selections  were  induded  in  a  volume  of 
Flores  compiled  at  Verona  in  1329;  and  a  MS.  of  hks.  !.-vii.  and  ix. 
was  discovered  by  Guarino  at  Venice  in  X4t9.  These  books  were 
printed  in  the  editio  princeps  (Venice,  1471).  Part  of  bk.  viii. 
appeared  for  the  first  time  at  the  end  of  the  next  edition  (Rome, 
c.  X474).  The  whole  of  bk.  viii.  was  first  published  in  its  proper 
place  by  Aldus  Manutius  (Venice,  1508). 

Pliny's  Correspondence  with  Trajan  supplies  us  with  many 
interesting  details  as  to  the  government  of  Bithynia,  and  as  to 
the  relations  between  the  governor  and  the  central  authority. 
It  reflects  the  greatest  credit  on  the  strict  and  almost  punctilious 
consdentiousness  of  the  governor,  and  on  the  assiduity  and  the 
high  principle  which  animated  the  emperor. 

On  reaching  the  province,  Pliny  celebrates  the  emperor's  birth- 
day, and  proceeds  to  examine  the  finances  of  Prusa.  His  reauest 
for  a  surveyor  to  check  the  outlay  on  the  public  works  is  refused 
on  the  ground  that  the  emperor  has  hardly  enough  surveyors  for 
the  works  he  b  carrying  on  in  Rome.  Hie  asks  the  emperor  to 
sanction  the  repair  of  t^  ancient  baths  at  Prusa,  the  building  of 
an  aqueduct  at  Nicomcdia  and  a  theatre  at  Nicaea,  and  the  covering 
in  01  a  stream  that  has  become  a  public  nuisance  at  Amastris. 
When  he  consults  the  emperor  as  to  the  baths  at  Claudiopolis, 
the  emperor  sensibly  replies:  "  You,  who  are  on  the  spot,  will  be 
best  able  to  decide  "  (40).  When  Pliny  hesitates  about  a  small 
aflair  relating  to  Dio  Cnrysostom  (the  Bithynbn  friend  of  Nerva 
and  Trajan),  the  emperor  betrays  a  not  unnatural  impatience  in 
his  response:  potuisti  run  kaerere.  mi  Sectmde  carissime  (83). 
Pliny  also  asks  for  a  decUion  oa  the  status  and  maintenance  of 
deserted  children  (65),  and  on  the  custom  of  distributing  public 
doles  on  the  occasion  of  interesting  events  in  the  life  of  a  private 
dtisen.  The  emperor  agrees  that  the  custom  might  lead  to 
"  political  factions,"  and  should  therefore  be  strictly  contiolled 
(117).  C>wing  to  a  destructive  fire  at  Nicomedb,  Pliny  suggests 
the  formation  of  a  volunteer  fire-bri«ide,  Umited  to  150  members. 
The  emperor  b  afraid  that  the  fire-brigade  might  become  a 
"  political  club."  and  cautiously  contents  himself  with  approving 
the  provuion  of  a  fire-engine  (34). 

Trajan's  fear  of  factions  and  clubs  in  these  two  uat  cases  has 
sometimes  been  connected  with  the  question  of  hb  attitude  towards 
the  Christians  in  Bithynb.  Pliny  {Epp.,  96)  states  that  he  had  never 
taken  part  in  formal  trials  of  Chnstbns,  and  was  therefore  un- 
familbr  with  precedents  as  to  the  extent  of  the  investigation, 
and  as  to  the  degree  of  punishment.  He  felt  that  a  distinction 
might  be  drawn  between  adults  and  those  of  tender  years;  and  that 


846 


itUmnu  miHht  be  n 


:  of  Chriuun  or  onlv  >[  ht  v 
!d  wilh  that  name,''  Hithci 
rTDUffhi  bcCon  him,  be  bad  ail 
ct  Ihiy  wen  Chiutuni,  and, 


Chiiil.  Thtyai 
d'yliKhl'lo^ng^ 
dr  robbery,  tnd  1 


micht  to  be  puiusbcd.     Tticn 
who,  bdng  Boman  citiien,  woi 

«  had  come  under  his  awicc.    l 
"ihVt  Scy^'ever 
■he  godi,  to  adore  ll 


wmconsuh 

rared  to  be  woithy  of  Rich  a 
bcr  of  p€T»iu  <A  al) 


reymnE.  It  miiht  bi  lolemd  li 
'frajao  in  hii  reply  lEp^i.  07I  jaipj 

npD^ed  and  were  found  euihy,  t 
bawevec.  any  one  dciurd  Uiat  he  n 
denial  by  worvhipping  the  Bod»  al  F 


puni.h^.'"l7 


be  a  bad  jnecedcat  and  unworthy  o[  (heapirit  ol  thcage. 

The  view  that  the  Chrisliiiu  were  punished  lor  btiog  monbeii 
of  ).  aJln'""  or  ,«lalila,  (once  htid  by  E.  G.  Hardy,  and  Mill 
nuinlained  by  rroltssor  Mmill)  is  hard  lo  reconcile  wilh  riipy'a 
own  Matemeni  tbat  the  Chrisiians  had  prompily  obeyed  the 
empeior'i  decree  against  idlt^ia  ({  7).  Further  reasons  against 
this  view  have  been  urged  by  Ramsay,  who  aums  up  his  main 
renills  as  [i^ows:  (i)  There  was  no  express  bw  oclormal  edkl 
against   [be   Chiislians.     (>}   They  were  not    prosecuted  or 

0)  They  were  j'ui^  and 
full  approval)  by  virtue  ol 

ucardance  withlbe  tnitnictions  issuea  to  govennn  01  pravinc 
to  search  out  and  punish  ftcrilcgious  persons.  (4}  They  b. 
already  been  classed  as  outlaws,  and  [he  name  of  Christian 
itielf  en[ailcd  condemnation,  (j)  Ibis  tnalment  was  a  setd 
piiociplE  of  imperial  policy,  nol  established  by  the  caprido 
-■     .    -       j„,^    (6)  While  Tiaianteit  bound  to  car 


.1  the 


onal  vie* 


(;)  A  definite . 

alablishei.    (8)  Tbli  procedure  was  followed  by  Pliny  [W.  M. 
Ramsay,  The  Chmch  in  Ike  Somas  Eapiit,  p.  113). 

It  has  been  well  observed  by  E.  0.  Hardy  that  the  "  dtMt 
Upect  of  Tiajan'.  lescripl,  which,  while  it  theoretically  con- 
denned  Ibc  Chriilians,  practically  gave  them  a  certain  see uiily," 
eirplaltts  "  the  diflercnt  views  which  have  tince  been  lahen  of 
ll;  but  by  oast  of  the  church  writers,  and  perhaps  on  tbe  whole 
with  iuslice,  it  has  been  regarded  as  favourable  and  as  nlhei 
disconraging  peneculion  Uian  legaliring  it "  IPUn/s  Currc- 
tftnitnct  kUA  rrn/an.ej,  JIO-JI7). 

AuTBoariiES. — ^The  correspondence  with  Trajan  wai  apparently 
pievived  in  a  ijnftlc  Paris  MS.;  Epp.  4I-IJI  veJclirvi  n-,niHl  l,v 
Avanliu.  of  Verona  (1501);  and   Bpp.   I-40  by  Aldi 
dSoB).   The  oriwBal  his.  haa '"  " -  - 


and  £M.  1-4.   ., 

^iabedibut  the  "copy  "  1 


o(  text,  see  H.  Keil  a 
tlominscni  lor  pUin  tei 

as)  and  G.  E,  Cierig  (iTqi-IM);  <l 
'■  i^'JHi'  ond  Ibe  las  tniBHinVv  dia 
a  bki.  L  and  £.,  Cd*u  (iM«)^  li  a. 
by  C.  H.  RendJl):  of  vL,  DuS  lij. 
C.  Schwan  (1816);  of  the  Cmnp--.'" 
<y  <iS«a):  <^  ^alri  Ltiurt,  £.  T.  K^i 
byJ.D.Lewi>Jlt79). 


«; 


la  by]. 


•ij;s 


._  iMi)     0.:i 

ammicn,  in  Hcmu,  ii.  y-.'i 

,    ..,iel,  1B73);  nUicbiJbyScJIi 

noU  (Halle,  1S7I):  C  Pder  (Wi H- 
11*1.,  lasi):  and  Scfaulu  (BeiSii.  i» 
PI.  Holiteio[iMi-[K69):K.Kmii.-- 
;  and  Moiiltst  (CmoMe.  lUIJ.  0-   < 

Itoa) ;  vfiudcld,  in  Jakit.  dii  lU  h~ 
d  M^n,  is  rrau.  Arm.  fiU-  ti^ 

bi  ItabKr  and  Mayor'a  LA  UL  ('>:;' 
ua,  !Um.  Lit,  ft  444-449. 
n  Pliny  and  Ibc  Chn(Iians,secC.F.AR>^ 
M;)i  Liihlfaot,  ApHMit  Ftlin.  . 

<tt  rimiiclu  Slaat  »nd  tit  dk '  ' 

n.  In  f/iil.  Znlscltr<}>  (l8aa);  4 
IS  Em^n  (ed.  Itn),  ch.  IS 

liwan  ZTiiliry  (lao£].  pp.  I'l^ 
e  works  and  in  Scham.  Mm.  Ui 


«)!WjJbj-^ 


u  T^ch  they  eilubit  al  Ihepn^:-: 


1 

th 

beginnin 

g  of  the  period,  t:  " 

pans  ot  Ibe  tomb  -  '- 

reU  into  Belgi 

ini  and  Holland  «J.' 

northeni 

ar 

oie  disU 

ee  up  the  valW  -■ 

Guadalquivir  and  foroied  smaU  bays  on  Mveial  poaiu 
southern  coast  of  France;  and  up  the  Rhone  basin  a  conwk- 
guit  reached  »s  far  as  Lyons.  Early  in  the  ptrW  iV 
covered  much  of  Italy  and  Sidly;  but  tbe  easiwvd  citn 
of  the  ancient  Mediterranean  In  aouth^ist.  Eucf*^  '^'^ 
the  Danube  baain,  Ibe  Aral,  north  Caucasian  and  Ci^ 
rtgbns,  continued  to  auHer  the  pmcesa  of  cooven" 
lagooia  u>d  luK  Uke«  which  had  U^a  in  the  llM< 


PLIOCENE 


8+7 


Generally  all  over  tile  world  the  majorfty  of  Pliocene  for- 
mations are  non-marine,  and  the  Ktnlted  and  local  nature 
of  the  elevations  since  the  inception  of  the  period  haa 
exposed  to  view  only  the  shallow  marginal  marine  deposits. 
Tile  principal  exception  to  the  last  statement  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Pliocene  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  where  a  continuous  crustal  depres- 
sion permitted  the  accumulation  of  great  thicknesses  of  material, 
which  later  on,  towards  the  dose  of  the  period,  were  elevated 
some  thousands  of  feet.  With  these  deformatoiy  movements 
are  associated  the  Italian  volcanoes;  Etna  certainly  began  its 
career  beneath  the  sea,  for  its  older  tuffs  are  found  interstratified 
with  marine  beds,  and  possibly  scxne  of  the  others  had  a  similar 
origin.  At  the  same  time  volcanic  outbursts,  some  apparently 
comparable  to  that  of  Martinique  in  recent  times,  were  taking 
place  in  central  France,  while  far  away  in  southern  Sumatra 
thousands  of  feet  of  submarine  tuffs  were  being  thrown  out  and 
deposited,  and  great  lava  flows  were  being  erupted  in  Australasia. 

Considerable  differences  of  opinion  are  exiiibited  among 
geologists  as  to  the  lower  limits  of  the  Pliocene  formations; 
this  is  partly  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  absence  of  widelsF-spread 
marine  deposits,  and  partly  by  the  comparatively  short  time- 
differences  between  one  deposit  and  another,  and  hence  the 
similarity  of  the  faunas  of  contiguous  strata-groups  in  local 
vertical  series  of  beds.  Following  A.  de  Lapparent  (TmiU  d4 
gidogict  5th  ed.,  1906),  we  shall  regard  the  Pliocene  as  divisible 
into  three  stages:  an  upper  Sicilian  stage,  a  middle  Astian  stage, 
and  a  lower  Plaisandan  stage.  Other  writers,  however,  have 
selected  a  different  nomenclature,  which  often  invc^vcs  a 
different  grouping  of  the  formations;  thus  E.  Kayser  in  his 
Formatitmskunde  (3rd  ed.,  1908)  distinguishes  three  stages  under 
the  names  Amian  (upper),  Astian  (middle)  and  Messinfan 
(lower)  sZanclean.  The  lower  stage,  however,  mdudes  the 
Pontian,  Epplesheim,  Pikermi  and  other  formations  which  are 
here  placed  in  the  Miocene.  This  stage  has  been  referred  to  a 
so-called  Mio-PUocene  inter-period. 

*  The  Pliocene  rocks  of  Britain  now  occupy  but  a  small  area  in 
Norfolk,  Suffolk  and  part  of  Essex;  but  from  the  presence  of 
small  outlying  patches  in  Cornwall  (St  Erth  and  St  Agnes), 
Dorsetshire  (Dewlish)  and  Kent  (Lenham),  it  is  evident  that 
the  Pliocene  Sea  covered  a  considerable  part  of  southern  England. 
Moreover,  these  patches  show  by  their  present  altitude  above 
the  sea  that  the  Downs  of  Kent  must  have  been  elevated  more 
than  850  ft.,  and  the  west  coast  of  Cornwall  400  ft.  since  Pliocene 
times.  The  Pliocene  rocks  rest  with  strong  unconformity  upon 
the  older  strata  in  Britain.  In  the  eastern  counties  the  shelly, 
sandy  beds  are  called  "  Crag ";  this  name  has  come  into  very 
general  use  for  all  the  members  of  the  series,  and  it  is  frequently 
employed  as  a  sjrnonym  for  Pliocene. 

The  English  Pliocene  strata  are  classified  by  the  Geological  Survey 
of  England  and  Wales  as  follows: — 

Yoldia  {Leda)  myaiis  &«(f  (provisionally  placed  here). 
Forest-bed  group  and  Dewlish  gravels  with  Ekpkas 

nuridionaus. 
Weyboume  crag  (and  ChiUeaford  day?). 
Chillesford  crag. 

Norwich  crag  and  Screticntaria  crag. 
Red  crag  of  Butley. 
,  Red  crag  of  Walton,  Newboom  and  Oakley. 

■St  Erth  and  St  Agnes  beds. 
CoralKne  crag. 
Lenham  beds  (Diestian). 

Box-stones  and  phosphatic  beds  with  derived  early 
Pliocene  and  otner  fosnls^ 

The  box-stones  are  rounded  pieces  of  brown  earthy  sandstone 
containing  casu  of  fossUs;  the  phosphatic  beds  contam  the  phos- 
phatiaed  ooocs  of  whale,  deer,  mastodon,  pig*  tapir,  riunoceroa,  ftc., 
and  have  been  worked  aa  a  source  of  manure.  These  basal  con« 
glomerate  depodts  underKe  the  red  crag  and  sometimes  the  cprallino 
crag.  The  last-named  formation,  known  also  as  the  **  white  **  or 
"  Suffolk  crag,"  or  as  the  "  Bryosoan  crag  "  (it  was  the  presence  of 
Bryozoa  which  kd  to  the  name  coralline),  is  easentisllv  a  shell  beak. 
which  was  accumulated  at  a  depth  of  from  so  to  40  fathoms.  It  is 
best  exposed  near  Aldeburgh  and  Gedgrave  in  Suffolk.  The  Red 
Crags  are  sandy,  marine,  sluillow- water  deposits,  with  an  aliundant 
fauna ;  they  vary  rapidly  from  point  to  point,  and  in  general  the  more 
southern  localities  are  richer  m  southern  (older)  forms  than  those 
farther  north.    The  Norwich  crag  (fluvio-morioe  or  mammaliferous 


Newer 
Pliocene 


Older 
Plioceae 


crag)  is  not  always  very  deafly  marised  off  from  the  Red  Crags. 
Marine  fresh-water  and  und  atietla  are  found  ia  these  beds,  together 
with  many  mammalian  remains,  including  Cephas  antiquus,  Maslo- 
ion.  anemensiSf  EquMS  stenonis,  Cervus  tamtitorum,  and  dolphins, 
cod  and  other  fbh.  The  Forest-Bed  group  or  Cromer  forest-bed  is 
exposed  beneath  the  boulder  day  cliffs  of  the  Noriolk  coast ;  it  con- 
tarns  transported  stumps  of  tress  and  many  plants  still  familiar 
in  Briuin,  many  living  fresh-water  and  estuarine  molluscs  and  a 
large  number  of  mammals,  many  of  which  are  extinct  {Machaerodus, 
Cants  lupus,  Ursus  speUuus,  Hyaena  eroeuta.  Hippopotamus  amphu 
bius,  Rkimouns  dnucus,  Elepkas  autifums  and  £.  mendionalif. 
Bison  bomasMSt  Ombos  moaduHuSt  numerous  spedes  of  deer.  Equus 
cabaaus  and  £.  stenonis,  Castor  fiJbtr^  Taipa  emropata  and  many 
others).  The  only  record  of  Pliocene  remains  in  the  northern  part 
of  England  consitts  of  a  few  teeth  of  EUpkas  moridionalis  foead  in  a 
figure  in  the  limestone  at  Dove  Holes,  Derbyshire. 

The  Pliocene  deposits  of  Belgium  and  Holland  and  the  northern 
extremity  of  France  are  dosely  related  with  those  of  Britain,  though 
as  a  whole  they  arc  very  much  thicker.  The  older  marine  beds  may 
be  traced  from  Lenham  across  the  Channel  at  Calais  and  through 
Oissel  to  Dicst.  The  newer  marine  Pliocene  runs  in  a  parallel  belt 
to  the  north  of  The  older  beds  through  Antwerp.  Belgian  geologists 
have  divided  the  local  Pliocene  into  the  following  groups  (from  above 
downwardsX:  Poedcrlian,  Scaldiuan.  Casterlian,  Diestian.  F.  W. 
Harmcr  {Qnari.  Joum.  Geol.  Soc.,  1 898  and  1900)  proposed  the 
following  scheme  for  the  Pliocene  of  Britam  and  the  Low 
Countries:-— 

Cromerian  *  Forest-bed  of  Cromer. 

(Iccno-Cromcrian  —  Chille&ford  beds  and  Weyboume  crag. 
.  Icenian  ->  marine  crag  of  Norwich. 

'  Amstelian  *  Red  Crag,  comprising  the  Newboumian  and  But- 
leyan  sub-stages. 

Waltonian  «  Walton  crag  and  Poedcrlian  and  Scaldlsian. 

Gcdgravian  »  Coralline  crag  and  Casterlian. 

Lennamian  >  Diestian. 

In  addition  to  the  deports  just  mentioned  in  French  Flanders, 
the  early  Pliocene  sea  has  left  numerous  small  Mtchcs  of  marls  and 
sands  in  Brittany  and  Normandy.  In  southern  France  marine  sands, 
gravels  and  mans  of  Halsandan  and  Astian  ages  occur  in  the  de- 

Eression  of  Roussillon,  followed  by  Sicilian  marls  and  gravels.  In 
aneuedoc  (Montpellier,  N!mes,  Hosiers)  marine  marls  and  sands 
are  followed  by  cakareousconglomerate  (40  metres)  or  by  maris  and 
lignite;  gravels  and  loams  constitute  the  uppermost  beds.  In  the 
Rhone  Misin  the  earliest  deposits  are  the  Congeria  beds  of  Bollene 
(Vaucluse);  this  brackish  formation  differs  from  the  beds  of  the 
same  name  in.  Vienna,  but  resembles  those  of  Italy  and  Rumania. 
Then  followed  a  marine  invasion  {groupe  do  SotiO-^rsM);  these  beds 
are  iw>w  found  at  considerable  elevations  incnearing  northward 
and  westward.  The  later  formations  in  this  area  are  fiuviatile  or 
lacustrine  ia  origin,  with  remarkable  torrential  grevd  deposits  at 
several^  horiaoos.  The  marine  Pliocene  of  the  maritime  Alps, 
conasttng  of  blue  and  yeUow  clays  and  liroestoae,  are  now  devatcd 
170  metres  above  the  sea.  and  evea  up  to  350  m.  in  the  neighbourhood 
01  Nice.  In  central  France  no  marine  beds  are  found,  but  many 
interesting  and  in  some  cases  higUy  foesiliferous  deporits  occur  in 
association  with  volcanic  rocks,  such  as  the  lower  conglomerate  and 
u^per  trachytic  breccia  of  Perrier  (Issoire),  the  fine  tuffs  (cioentes) 
with  plants  of  Cantal,  the  lignitiferous  sandstones  beneath  the  basalt 
of  Collier,  the  diatomite  of  Cevssac,  Ac  In  Italy,  Pliocene  rocks 
form  the  low  ranges  of  hills  on  both  sides  of  the  Apennines,  hence 
the  term  *'  sub-Apeonlne  *'  given  to  these  rocks  by  A.  d'Orbigny. 
They  are  marine  marls  and  sands;  the  blue  marls  which  crop  out 
near  Rome  at  the  base  of  Mt  Mario  and  M  t  Vatican  with  the  succeed- 
ing sands  and  gravds;  the  conglomerate  followed  by  deep-sea  marls 
of  Calabria,  and  the  marlsj  sands,  limestones  and  blue  clay  of  Sidly, 
all  belong  to  the  Plaisanaan  stage.  To  the  next  stage  belong  the 
yellow  sands  full  of  massive  fossils,  including  the  conglomerate  of 
Castrovillari  in  Calabria  and  the  white  mans  of  the  Val  d'Arno. 
In  the  final  (Sicilian)  stage  fluvio-lacustrine  sands  and  gravels  arc 
found  in  Italy,  except  in  Calabria  and  in  Sicily  where  thick  marine 
beds  were  formed,  in  Switzerland  some  of  the  deposits  of  Na^dfiuk 
and  DecktnsckoUer,  glacial  plateau  gravels,  belong  to  the  Sicilian 
stage.  In  south-eastern  Europe  a  great  series  of  sands  and  marls 
with  lignites,  termed  the  Paludina  beds,  resU  directly  upon  the 
Pontian  formation.  From  their  great  development  in  the  Levant, 
they  have  been  given  the  rank  of  a  "  Levantine  stage  "  by  F.  von 
Hochstctter;  the^r  are  found  in  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Bosnia, 
Rumania,  Bulgaria,  southern  Russia,  the  Cydades,  and  the  Caspian 
region.  On  the  north  coast  of  Africa  marine  and  brackish  sands  and 
marls  occur  in  Morocco.  Algeria  and  Egypt;  and  the  "  lifts  "  of  the 
Red  Sea  and  Suez  have  been  assigned  to  this  period. 

In  North  America  marine  Pliocene  is  found  fringing  the  coasts^ of 
California  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the  latter  region  marine 
marls,  days  and  limestones  arc  best  developed  in  Florida  and  can  be 
traced  into  the  Carolinas  and  Virginia ;  they  have  been  classed  as  the 
Lafayette  group  (with  lignites),  the  Florida  group,  and  the  Caloo- 
shatchis  stage.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  manne  beds  have  attained 
great  thicknesses,  notably  in  the  Merced  series  of  San  Francisco.  In 
the  San  Luis  Obispo  region  the  non-marine  Paso  Robles  beds,  said  to 
be  1000  ft.  thick,  bdong  to  this  period.   Other  local  formations  of 


848 


PLCXX 


marine  origin  in  Caliroraia  are  thoee  of  San  Dieflo  and  Wild  Cat. 
In  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  large  lacustrine  formations  of  conndcr? 
able  thickm^  and  certain  conglomerates  in  Wyoming  and  Bishop 
Mountain  are  assigned  to  this  age.  The  sands  and  days  with 
gypsum  of  Entre  lUoa  in  South  America  contain  fossils  of  the 
Atlantic  type. 

Lignitiferous  shale  with  petroleum  and  great  thickness  of  volcanic 
tuffs  have  been  found  in  southern  Sumatra.  In  New  South  Wales 
Pliocene  river  terraces  and  alluvial  deposits  are  covered  by  Mid- 
Pliocene  lavas  and  from  these  "  deep  leads  "  or  buried  river  beds 
much  gokl  has  been  obuined.  In  Victoria  great  basaltic  and  dole- 
ritic  (lows  have  filled  up  the  Pliocene  river  valleys,  and  marine  beds 
have  been  found  at  elevations  of  1000  ft.  above  present  sea^leveL 
Very  similar  deposits  and  volcanic  rock,  belonging  to  the  Wanganui 
system  of  F.  W.  Hutton,  are  found  in  New  Z^atond. 


See  C  Rdd.  "TKe  PHocene  Deposlta  of  Bcltwn  **  (Vm.  Cat 

Survey,  1890):  E.  T.  Newton.  " The  Vertebrates  of  the  PU?r<-ae 
Dcpowts  of  Britain"  (Mem.  Geol.  Survey,  1891)  (both  cocuir  1 
bibliography):  C.  Rcid,  Origin  of  the  British  Ftora  (1899}:  a:-i 
"  Geologica]  Uteratttre  "  (Geot.  Soe.  Leudom  Annmil,  since  i&qC 

(J.  A.  a/ 

PUXKt  or  Plotsx,  a  government  of  Russiian  Poland,  on  t!ie 
right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  having  the  Prussian  provinces  d 
West  and  East  Prussia  on  the  N.  and  the  Polish  gDvcmmeeis 
of  Lorasa  on  the  £.  and  Warsaw  on  the  S.  Its  area  is  4160  sq.  rv 
Its  iUt  surface,  350  to  500  ft.  above  the  sea-tevel,  rises  gerjl? 
towards  the  north,  where  it  merges  into  the  Baltic  coast -ndir 
of  the  Prussian  lake  <tistricL    Only  a  few  hiUs  reach  600  ft.  abcr? 


TABLE  OF  PLIOCENE  FORMATIONS. 


SUges. 

Englax^ 

Belgium 

and 
Holland. 

Rhone  Basin. 

Languedoc 

and 
RoussaUon. 

Italy. 

Eastern 
Europe. 

Other  Cbvatrin 

1 
Sicilian. 

Cromer  Foiest 

Bed. 
Fluvio-marine 

Norwich 

crag. 
Red    crag    of 

Suffolk. 

Clays  ^  of 
Campine. 
Amstelun. 

Maris    of    St 

Cosme. 
Gravels  of 

Chagny. 
Conglomerates 

Chambaran. 
Sands   of  Tre- 

voux     and 

MoUon. 
Travertine     of 

Meximieux. 

Durfort     beds 
with  EUphu 
nundionolu. 

Sands  of  Val  d'Amo. 
Limestones  of  Paler* 

mo  and  clays  with 
northern  moUusca. 

Upper 
Paludlna 
(Viv^ra) 
beds. 

1 
1 

Marine  beds  s« 
Entre  Rios.        t 

Volcanic  tuSi  0. 
Sw  Sumatra.        ^ 

Astian. 

Base   of    Red 
crag. 

Poederlian. 

Scaldisian 
sands  with 
TropkoH 
anliquMM, 

Condomerates 
of  MontpelHcr 
and  Fourrcs. 

Sands  of  Rous* 
sillon    with 
Mastodon 
arvemensis. 

Maris  of  Val  d'Amo 
with  Mastodon 
arvemensis. 

Vdtow  sands  of  Asti. 
Plaisantin,    Monte 
Maria  and  Tuscany. 

Conglomerates       of 
Castrovtllari. 

Middle 
Paludina 
beds. 

Pbtroleu  m-bear  r  ^ 
beds  of  Sumaf^A 

Marine     sands    r-' 
MogSiafa       aiw , 
Mokatfa. 

Plaisancian. 

Coralline  crag. 
Lenham  beds. 

Sands   with 
Isocardia 
car. 
Dicstian 
sandstones. 

Marine     marls 
of        Bresse, 
Hauterives. 

Congeria    beds 
of^Bollene. 

Yellow  sands  of 
Montpellier. 

Blue   marls  of 
Millas. 

Blue  mails  of   Pia- 
cenza,    ^  Bologna, 
and  Vatican. 

Lower 
Paludina 
beds. 

Marine     beds    c* 

Florida. 
Lacustriae  beds  •:'. 

Rocky       Moc 

tains. 

L^e  of  the  Pliocene  Period.^^  C.  Lyell  defined  the  Pliocene  strata 
as  those  whkh  contained  from  36-95%  of  living  marine  molluscs. 
This  rule  can  no  lonj^cr  be  strictly  applied  to  the  widely  scattered 
marine  deponts,  and  it  is  of  course  inapplicable  to  the  very  numerous 
formations  of  lacustrine  and  fluviatue  ori^n.  On  the  whole  the 
marine  organisms  are  very  like  their  living  representatives,  and 
there  is  often  practically  no  specific  difference;  Nassa,  Yeinla^ 
Ckenopns,  DentiUium,  Pusus,  Area,  Peden,  Pectunenlus,  Panopoea, 
Cyprina  and  Maeira  may  be  mentioned  among  the  marine  senera; 
Coneeria  {Dreyssensia),  Auricula,  Paludina,  Melanopsis  ana  Hdix 
are  found  in  the  lacustrine  deposits.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
facts  exposed  by  the  study  of  the  mollusca  is  the  gradual  lowering 
of  the  temperature  of  Europe  during  the  period.  In  Britain  the 
early  PIraoene  was,  if  anything,  warmer  than  at  present,  but  the 
percentage  of  northern  forms  ascends  steadily  through  the  higher 
beds,  and  finally  arctic  forms,  such  as  Buccinum  groenlandicum, 
Trichopieris  borealis,  Mva  truncata,  Cyprina  islandica,  ftc,  appear 
on  the  coasts  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  some  of  the  northern 
species  even  reached  the  Mediterranean  (Sicily)  at  the  close  of  the 
period.  The  flora  exhibits  the  same  gradual  cKange,  the  large  palms 
and  camphor  trees  disappeared  from  Europe,  the  ssbal  palm  lin- 
gered in  Languedoc,  and  Chamerops  kumilis  lived  about  Marseilles 
until  the  end ;  the  sequoias  and  bamboos  held  on  for  some  time,  and 
the  aspect  of  the  vegetation  in  mid-Pliocene  times  was  not  unlike 
that  01  Portu^l,  Algeria  and  Japan  of  to-dav.  Not  a  few  species 
that  dwelt  in  Pliocene  Europe  are  found  in  tiie  forests  of  America. 
The  flora  of  the  Cromer  forest  beds  is  very  like  that  of  the  same  dis- 
trict at  the  present  time.  The  mammals  of  the  British  Pliocene 
show  a  curious  blending  of  northern  and  southern  forms;  they 
include  Machaerodus  (the  sabre-toothed  lion),  hyenas,  6og%,  fox. 
wolf,  glutton,  marten,  bears,  Ursus  arverrtensis  and  the  grizzly  and 
cave  bear,  seals,  whales,  dolphins,  bisons,  musk  ox,  gazdle,  the  red 
deer  and  many  others  now  extinct,  the  roebuck,  pigs  and  wild  boar. 
h{p[>opotamus,  hipparion  and  horse  (Equus  cahaUus  and  BSstenonis), 
several  species  ot  rhinoceros,  tapir,  hyrax.  elephants  (EUphas 
meridiomuis  and  B.  antiguus),  several  mastodons,  squirrel,  beaver, 
hare,  mke,  voles.  &c.  The  mastodon  disappeared  from  Europe 
before  the  ck)se  of  the  period,  but  lived  mucn  longer  in  America. 
No  generally  accepted  (ossi\  man  has  been  found  ui  the  Pliocene; 


Pitkeeanthropus  erectus,  found  by  E.  Dubois  in  Java,  is  the  nearest 
to  the  human  type.  Monkevs.  Maeaeus  and  Semnopilkecus,  occur 
in  the  Pliocene  oi  Europe.    At  this  time  the  Pliocene  mammals  of 


North  America  were  able  to  migrate  into  South  America,  arid  a  few 
of  the  southern  forms  travelled  northwards. 


the  sea,  while  the  broad  valley  of  the  Vistula  has  an  deva.**.* 
of  only  130  to  150  ft.  In  the  west  (district  of  Lipno)  bn.i: 
terraces,  covered  with  forces,  small  lakes  and  ponds,  and  \-  t 
poor  in  vegetation,  descend  from  the  Baltic  lakc^listrict  towir^ 
the  plains  of  Plock;  and  in  the  central  district  of  Mlawa  extcn:.-^ 
marshes  fill  the  upper  basin  of  the  Wkra.  The  Visttila  borio 
the  government  on  the  south,  almost  all  the  way  from  Wocsi^ 
to  Thorn,  receiving  the  Skrwa  and  Wkra.  Tlie  Drw^ca.  :: 
Drewenz,  flows  along  the  north-west  boundary,  while  ic-d 
small  tributaries  of  the  Narew  drain  the  north-castcra  disin.-t 
of  Gechanow.  Peat-bogs,  used  for  fuel,  and  marshes  contalEur^ 
bog-iron,  fill  many  depressions  in  the  north,  whik  the  rxs^ 
elevated  parts  of  the  plains  are  covered  with  fertile  days,  or  x 
kind  of  *'  black  earth."  Lacustrine  post  Glacial  deposits  f  \ 
all  the  depressions  of  the  thick  sheet  of  boulder  day,  «-.' 
Scandinavian  erratic  boulders,  which  extends. everywhere  over 
the  Tertiary  sands  and  marl»->these  last  containing  mases  cr 
silicated  wood  and  lignite.  Layers  of  gypsum  are  found  in  t^ 
hills  beside  the  Vistula. 

The  estimated  population  in  X906  was  6i9,ooow  About  ooe- 
third  are  Jews  and  36,000  Germans.  The  government  is  div!^ 
into  seven  districts,  of  which  the  chief  towns  are  Phxic,  Ciechascrv 
Lipno,  Mlawa,  Prasnysa,  Rypin  and  Sicrpc.  Agrtoilture  is  .be 
chief  industry.  The  principal  oops  are  xye,  oats»  barley,  v.\i£'J. 
andi  potatoes;  beetroot  is  cultivated  for  sugar,  especially  on  t^e 
large  estates  of  the  west,  where  modem  machinery  is  c^-^ 
Gardening  and  bee>keeping  are  extensive^  practised.  In  t^ 
north  the  property  is  much  divided,  and  the  landholders,  vc.7 
numerous  in  Ciechanow,  are  far  from  prosperous.  Tbe  forest 
have  been  lavishly  cut,  but  Plock  is  sUU  one  of  the  best  woocto: 
governments  (20%)  in  PoUnd.  Other  occupatioos  m«  pravidri 
by  shipping  on  the  Vistula,  mining  and  vaiions  domestic  in  jr:*' 
tries,  such  as  the  fabrication  of  wooden  cars,  sledges  and  who  i^ 
and  textile  industry.  The  nuuuifactares  include 
^saw-malls,   sugar  factoriesi  distilleriesi 


PLOCK— PLOTINUS 


849 


igffcuhtml  imfrfemeiit  workt»  mttcli  fictories  and  inmworka. 
There  ii  some  export  trade,  tuptdMUy  in  the  Lipno  district; 
but  itt  development  ii  hampend  by  lack  of  communications, 
the  best  being  those  offered  by  the  Vistula.  The  railway  from 
Warsaw  to  Danxig,  via  Ctecbanow  and  Mlawa,  aeivei  the 
eastern  part  of  the  government. 

After  the  second  dismemberment  of  Poland  in  1793,  what  is 
now  (he  government  of  Plock  became  part  of  Pruaaia.  It  fell 
under  Rus^an  dominion  after  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (1815),  and, 
in  the  division  of  that  time  into  five  provinces,  extended  over 
the  western  part  of  tho  present  government  of  Lomza,  which  was 
created  in  1864  from  the  dstrolenka  and  Pultusk  districts  of 
Plock,  together  with  parts  of  the  province  of  Augustowo. 

PLOCK,  or  Plotsk,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistub,  67  m. 
by  the  Vistula  WJ^.W.  of  Warsaw.  Pop.  27,073.  It  has  a 
cathedral,  dating  from  the  lath  century,  but  restored  in  1903, 
which  contains  tombs  of  PoUsh  dukes  and  of  Kings  Ladislaus 
and  Boleslav  (of  the  i  tth  and  1 2th  centuries).  There  Is  consider- 
able navigation  on  the  Vistula,  grain,  ilour,  wool  and  beetroot 
being  exported,  while  coal,  petroleum,  salt  and  fish  are  imported. 

PLOEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Schlcswig-Holstein,  beautifully 
situated  between  two  lakes,  the  large  and  the  small  Pk>ener-See, 
30  m.  S.  from  Kiel  by  the  railway  to  Eutln  and  Lubeck.  Pop. 
(1905),  373  5.  It  has  a  palace  built  about  1630  and  now  converted 
into  a  cadet  school,  a  gymnasium  and  a  biological  station. 
Tobacco,  soap,  soda,  beer  and  furniture  are  manufactured,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  timber  and  grain.  The  lakes 
afford  good  fishlhg,  and  are  navigated  in  summer  by  steamboats. 

Ploen  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  nth  century  as  a  Wendish 
settlement,  and  a  fortified  pbce.  It  passed  in  1559  to  Duke 
John  the  Younger,  founder  of  the  line  of  Holstein-Sonderburg, 
on  the  extinction  of  which,  in  1761,  it  fell  to  Denmark,  and 
in  1867,  with  Schleswig-Holstein,  to  Prussia.  The  sons  of  the 
emperor  William  IL  received  their  early  education  here. 

Sec  H.  Eggcrs,  Schlass  und  SUxdt  FUen  (Kiel,  1877),  and  T.  C. 
Kinder,  Urkundenbueh  tur  Chronik  der  Stadt  Ploen  (PlOn,  1890J. 

PL0ENNIE5.  LUISB  VON  (1803-1872),  German  poet,  was  born 
at  Hanau  on  the  7th  of  November  1803,  the  daughter  of  the 
naturalist  Philipp  Achilles  Leisler.  In  1824  she  married  the 
physician  August  von  Ploen nies  in  Darmstadt.  After  his  death 
in  1847  she  resided  for  some  years  in  Belgium,  then  at  Jugenheim 
on  the  Bergstrasse,  but  finally  at  Darmstadt,  where  she  died  on 
the  33nd  of  January  1873.  Between  1844  and  1870  she  published 
several  volumes  of  verse,  being  particularly  happy  in  eclectic 
love  songs,  patriotic  poems  and  descriptions  of  scenery.  She 
also  wrote  two  biblical  dramas,  Maria  Magdakna  (1870)  and 
David  (1873}. 

As  a  translator  from  the  English,  Lulae  von  Ploennies  published 
two  collections  of  poems.  Britannia  (1843)  and  EnglisclU  Lyriktr 
des  tgten  JakrkunderU  (1863.  3rd  ed.,  1867;. 

PLOfiRMBL.  a  town  of  western  France,  capital  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Morbihan,  36  m.  N.N.E.  of  Vannes 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1906),  town,  2492;  commune,  5424.  The  Renais- 
sance church  of  St  Armel  (i6th  century)  is  remarkable  for  the 
delicate  carving  of  the  north  facade  and  for  fine  stained  glass. 
It  also  possesses  statues  of  John  II.  and  John  III.,  dukes  of 
Brittany,  which  were  transferred  to  the  church  from  their  tomb 
.in  an  andent  Carmelite  monastery  founded  in  1273  and  destro3red 
by  the  Protestants  in  1592  and  again  at  the  Revolution.  The 
lower  ecclesiastical  seminary  has  an  apartment  in  which  the 
Estates  of  Brittany  held  several  meetings.  Remains  of  ramparts 
of  the  X 5th  century  and  some  houses  of  the  i6lh  century  are  also 
of  interest.  Farm-implements  are  manufactured,  slate  quarries 
are  worked  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  there  is  trade  In  cattle, 
wool,  hemp,  cloth,  &c.  PloSrmel  (Plou  Armel,  people  of  Armel) 
owes  its  name  to  Armel,  a  hermit  who  lived  in  the  district  in  the 
6th  century. 

PLOESCI  (Ploacii),  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Prahova, 
Rumania;  at  the  southern  entrance  of  a  valley  among  the  Carpa- 
thian foothills,  through  which  flows  the  river  Prahova;  and  at  the 
junction  ol  railways  to  Buicu.  Bucharest  and  Hermannatadt  in 


Transytvuiia.  Pop.  (1900),  A^fiSy-  As  the  name  Ploesd 
(^tfMMo,  rainy)  impltes,  the  climate  is  moist.  The  surrounding 
hflb  an  rich  In  petroleum,  salt  and  lignite.  There  are  cardboard 
factories,  roperies,  tanneries  and  oU  mills.  Ploescf  possesses 
achoob  of  commerce  and  of  arts  and  crafts,  several  banks,  and 
many  synagogues  and  chuiches,  including  the  Orthodox  chuKh 
of  St  Mar3f.  built  in  1740  by  Matthew  Bassarab. 

PLOMBIbRBS,  a  town  of  eastern  France,  in  the  department 
of  Vosges,  on  a  branch  Ifaie  of  the  Eastern  railway,  17  m.  S.  of 
Epinal  by  road  Pop.  (1906),  i88s.  The  town  is  situated  at 
a  height  of  14x0  ft.  in  a  picturesque  valley  watered  by  the 
Augionne.  It  Is  well  known  for  its  mineral  springs,  containing 
sodium  sulphate  and  sOidc  add,  varying  from  66*  to  x66*  F. 
Plombidres  has  a  handsome  modem  church  and  a  statue  of  the 
painter  Louis  Frao^ais,  bom  in  the  town  in  18 14.  The  waters 
were  utilised  by  the  Romans  and  during  the  middle  ages.  In 
later  times  Montaigne,  Richelieu,.  Stanislas,  duke  of  Lorraine 
and  Voltaire  were  among  the  distinguished  people  who  visited 
the  place.  Napoleon  III.  buDt  the  most  important  of  the  bathing 
establishments  and  made  other  improvements. 

PLOT,  ROBERT  (t64o*-i696),  English  naturalist  and  atiti* 
quary,  was  bom  at  Borden  in  Kent  in  164a  He  was  educated 
at  Wye,  and  at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A. 
in  i66t,  and  proceeded  to  M.A.  (1664)  and  D.C.L.  (1671).  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  folio  work  The  Natural  History  of 
Oxfordshire  (1677),  in  which  various  fossils,  as  well  as  other 
objects  of  interest,  were  figured  and  described.  It  was  regarded 
as  a  model  for  many  subsequent  works.  In  1677  Plot  was 
elected  F.R.S.,  and  he  was  secretary  for  the  Royal  Society  from 
1682  to  1684.  He  was  appointed  in  16S3  the  first  keeper  of  the 
Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford,  and  in  the  same  year  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry.  In  1686  he  wrote  The  ffaiurat  History 
of  Stafordshire.  Two  years  later  he  became  historiographer- 
royal.    He  died  on  the  30th  of  April  1696. 

PLOT,  a  term  originally  meaning  a  space  of  ground  used  for  a 
spedfic  purpose,  cspedally  as  a  building  site,  formerly  in  frequent 
usage  in  the  sense  of  a  plan,  a  surveyed  space  of  ground;  hence 
the  Uterary  sense  of  a  plan  or  design.  The  word  is  of  doubtful 
origin;  there  is  a  collateral  form  "  plat,"  which  appears  in  the 
i6lh  ccntuiy,  according  to  the  New  English  Dictionary ^  under 
the  influence  of  "  plat,  "  flat  place,  surface  (Fr.  plat.  Late  Lat. 
pUittMSt  probably  from  Gr.  rXarfe,  broad).  Skeat  (Btym. 
Did.)  refbrs  "  plot,"  in  the  sense  of  a  space  of  ground,  to  the 
0.  Eng.  fiaec.  Mid.  Eng.  pleck,  later  plateh,  patch.  '*  Plot,"  in 
the  sense  of  plan,  scheme,  would  then  be  identical  with  "  plot/' 
a  conspiracy,  which  may  be  a  shortened  form  of  "  complot," 
a  French  word,  also  of  doubtful  origin,  meaning  in  the 
X2th  century  "  a  compact  body  of  men  ";  in  the  X4th  century 
"  conspiracy." 

PLOTINUS  (a.o.  204-270),  the  most  important  representative 
of  Neoplatonism,  was  born  of  Roman  parents  at  Lycopolis  in 
Egypt.  At  Alexandria  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Ammonias 
Saccas  (q.v.),  the  founder  of  the  system,  until  243,  when  he  joined 
the  Persian  expedition  of  Goidian  III.,  with  the  object  of 
studying  Persian  and  Indian  philosophy  on  the  spot.  After 
the  assassination  of  Gordlan  in  244,  Plotinus  was  obliged  to 
take  refuge  in  Antioch,  whence  he  made  his  way  to  Rome  and 
set  up  as  a  teacher  there.  He  soon  attracted  a  large  number  of 
pupils,  the  most  distinguished  of  whom  were  Amdius,  Eusto- 
chius  and  Porphyry.  The  emperor  Gallienus  and  his  wife 
Salonina  were  also  his  enthusiastic  admirers,  and  favoured  his 
idea  of  founding  a  Platonic  Commonwealth  (Platonopolis)  in 
Campania  (cf.  Bishop  Berkeley's  scheme  for  the  Bermuda 
Islands),  but  the  opposition  of  GalUcnus's  counsellors  and  the 
death  of  Plotinus  prevented  the  plan  from  being  carried  out. 
Plotinus's  wide  popularity  was  due  partly  to  the  luddity  of  his 
teadiing,  but  perhaps  even  more  to  his  strong  personality. 
Assent  devdoped  into  veneration;  he  was  considered  to  be 
divinely  inspired,  and  generally  credited  with  miraculous 
powen.  In  spite  of  ill-health,  he  continued  to  teach  and  write 
until  his  death,  which  took  place  on  the  estate  of  one  of  his 
friends  near  Mintumae  in  Campania. 


850 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUOHING 


Under  Ammomus  Plotinua  becAot  imbued  arilh  Ihe  ednrtic 
■pint  ol  the  Aleisndriui  xliool.  Having  accepted  the  Platomc 
melipliyiiail  doctrine,  he  applied  to  it  the  Neo-PytbBgorean 
priDcipts  and  the  Oricalil  docliiae  ol  Emanation  (g.v.).    The 

a  scries  o(  fifty-tout  (originaliy  lotly-dghl)  treatisB,  orraogcd 
in  ail  "  Ennsds,"  niiich  constitute  the  roort  aulhorilaliie 
eiposilion  of  Neopbloniam.  Tliii  arrangement  ii  probably 
due  to  Potphyry,  Ui  wboH  editcsiat  caic  they  were  conaigonl- 
Tbere  was  lisa  uolher  ancient  edition  by  Eustochiua,  but  oU 
the  uistiDg  MSS,  an  bued  oa  Poiphyiy's  edition. 

The  EwuaJM  o(  i>k)t!BU(  wen  fint  made  knawn  In  t)K  Latin 
tnniUtiaii  of  Mamkio  Ficiiw  (FloTDice,  1491)  wliich  wai  repiinled 
at  Bawl  in  isBo.  with  the  Creek  text  ot  Petnia  Pcnu.  Later  cdiliona 
by  Creuar  and  Mo«i  f  Didot  Scries,"  1855).  A,  KirehhoH  (1856). 
H.  F.  MBIIct  (1876-1880),  R,  Volkmann  (1883-1884),  There  ii  an 
Enclidi  mniUtion  of  selected  poniona  by  Thonas  Taylor,  rc-criited 
In  Eoha'tJ'liiUic^kuai  Library  U<i9i-''m ''-'-""'' '  '"■""" 


IDs  Denerally  see  a 
.  and  above  alilbc  1 

tryj^-  Simon,  i.  (1845)1  and  £.  \ 
IciiK  wil  CiiilanlmUuiii  U 
Whktaker,  T*t  JV»Mnl«iu(i  (190 


,  and  Ihe  I 


3f  phiioHphy.    For  his  list  of  categories,  sc 


noOOB  AHD  FLOUGHIHG.  1^  enable  the  saH  to  grow 
good  crops  the  upper  layrr  must  be  pulverized  and  weathered. 
This  operation,  performed  in  the  garden  by  means  of  the  spade, 
b  carried  on  in  the  field  on  a  larger  scale  by  the  plough,'  which 
breaks  the  soil  and  by,  inverting  the  turrow-slicc,  eiposea  fresh 
surfaces  to  the  diuntegrating  influence  of  air,  rain  and  frost. 

The  first  recorded  form  of  plough  is  found  on  the  monuments 
of  Egypt,  where  it  consists  rimply  of  1  wooden  wedge  lipped  with 

pulled  by  men  01  oiet,  projecting  forwards.  Many  references 
to  Ihe  plough  are  found  In  the  (Xd  TesUment,  notably  that  in 
I  Sam.  liii.  10:  "  All  the  Israelites  went  down  la  the  Philistines 
to  sharpen  every  man  his  i^jrf  and  his  cmilltr,"  Descriptions 
ol  ploughs  found  in  Hesiod's  Wirti  and  Days  and  in  Virgil's 
Ccvriici  i.  i6g~i-is.  show  little  dcvelopmenl  in  the  implement. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Anglo-Suon  ploughs.  These  are 
shown  with  coulter  and  share  and  also  with  wheeb,  which  had 
in  earlier  limes  been  fitted  to  ploughs  by  the  Creeks  and  also 
by  the  natives  ol  Cis-Alpine  Caul  (Pliny,  Hill.  run.  iS,  iS).  A 
mattock  with  which  to  bieok  the  clods  is  often  found  represented 
in  Anglo  SiTon  drawings  as  subsidiary  to  the  plough.  All  tbese 
types  of  plough  are  virtually  hoes  pulled  through  Ihe  ground, 
breakingbutnot  inverting  the  soil.  In  the  first  half  o(  the  i8ih 
century  a  plough  with  a  shoit  convei  mould-board  of  wood 
'  '     n  the  Netherlinds  into  England  and,  as 


improved  1 


Rotherl 


At  t 


with  plat! 


brought  out  a  plough 

'The  O.  Eng.  form  is  plai.  vhkk  is  uuialf 
of  "  plougS  land."  a  unit  for  the  aucssment 
the  regular  O,  Eng,  word  for  the  impTeinent  b 

Ma.   The  ultimate  origin'ol  "  plough  "  is  u 

(5nEU(  ef  Lntmii,  1.  196)  CDnnecli  the 

£un)pean  root  lacaninfl  "  to  neat,"  Been  in  theCi- — -.-. 

■faip^  the  «a(ne  word  would  he  a[^icd  to  the  ship  "  plouahing  " 
through  the  wave*,  and  to  the  impWieot  "  ploughing  "  ihrough 
the  earth,  A  Celtic  origin  hu  been  Higgcsted,  connecting  the  word 
with  Gael.  pb,.  Bunp  o(  ■  tree,  aa  Ertning  the  oripnal  plough. 
The  form     plow  "  Hit  aisiinan  in  EngUsh  until  thoWnning  of 


word  with  the  Ind. 


■Ton,  iIh  tno«lii4ioanl  ot  caat  iron.  Tlie  shan.  wlien  miJtid 
the  same  material,  tetjuitcd  constant  sbarpcniag;  thia  necessity 
was  removed  by  the  device,  piIeMed  by  Robert  KuBame  a 
iSoj.  ot  chilling  and  so  hatdening  the  undEi«ii(ace  of  Ibe  ihatt; 
the  upper  surface,  which  ia  wft,  tboQ  wears  awi,y  roore  quicUy 
than  the  chilled  part,  whereby  a  thaip  edge  is  nlwaya  asued. 
Nowadays  the  mould-boanl  b  ol  steel  with  a  chilled  sod  polidirl 
autfue  to  give  greater  wearing  qualities  and  to  nduce  (rictin. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  loth  century  there  were  numooiB 
improvements  but  no  fundamental  altentions  in  the  conSriKiin 
(if  the  ordinary  plough. 

The  working  paris  o(  the  plough  are  the  conifer,  the  than. 
and  the  trail  01  nwnU.Iuirtf.  These  ire  carried  on  the  ittm, 
to  vAich  ate  attached  Ibe  kandUi  or  lUu  at  the  bmck,  aitd  He 
lain  or  cfeDii  and  drauthmnun  at  the  front.  T1>e  lukc  B 
notched  so  that,  by  moving  the  diaughl<haiD  higher  or  lirni 
thcteon,  the  plougb  [s  caused  to  go  more  01  less  deeply  into  the 
grouitd.  It  may  also  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  hei^t  of  the 
horae»  uacd.  The  hake  moves  laterally  on  a  quadrant  aul  it  n 
thus  pos^ble  to  give  Ihe  {dough  a  tendency  to  left  or  ri^ht  by 
moving  the  halie  in  the  reverse  direction.  A  Jramt  is  boiled 
10  the  beam  and  this  catiiea  Ihe  breast  or  mould-tuard  to  tlH 
fore-end  of  which  the  abare  a  fitted.    The  ndt-ap,  a  plau  oL 


Kewnule  Ptongh. 
iron  Gied  to  the  land-side  of  the  fram^  li  intended  to  keep  the 
edge  of  the  unploughed  soil  vertical  and  prevent  it  from  fallEnf 
into  the  furrow.  A  piece  of  iron  called  the  dad€  is  bolted  to  tte 
bottom  ol  the  frame,  and  Ihis.  running  along  the  sole  of  tht  Iw- 
row,  acts  as  a  base  to  the  whole  implement.  The  coultei  (eiihet 
knife  or  disk)  and  sometimes  a  iih'«-«iil/er  (or  joxnui)  tn 
attached  adjusuhly  to  tbe  beam,  so  as  to  act  in  the  fiooi  al 
the  share. 

The  coulter  is  >  knife  or  Tevdving  disk  which  is  fiied  so  i3ui 
its  point  dears  (be  point  ot  the  share.  The  skim-eoulia  is 
shaped  like  a  miniature  plough,  substituted  foi  or  &ied  in  hi-: 
of  the  coullet;  it  b  used  chiefly  on  lea  bnd,  10  paie  ofl  tif 
surface  ot  the  soil  together  with  the  vegetation  thereon,  and  0.-3 
it  intothepievious  furrow,  where  It  is  Immediately  buried  by  r-: 
fuirow  slice.  Two  wheels  ol  unequal  height,  aic  comni<.-y 
fitted  to  the  (rout  ol  the  beam.  By  means  ot  ihem  lie  dq-'* 
and  width  ot  the  furrow  are  regulated,  whereas  in  (be  case  v^ 
"  iwitit "  or  Khcdlai  ploughs  these  points  depend  chieUr  on  t^r 
■kill  of  (be  ploughman.  In  the  wheeled  plough  saioe  ol  Cc 
Vk-ei^C  and  downward  pull  due  to  its  action  on  the  pr^afni  a 
taken  by  the  wheels;  the  sliding  friction  a  thus  to  sotne  eiiei:: 
:i  into  a  rolling  friction,  and  the  draught  is  cDenspDni! 


ngly  di 


nished. 


Crested  FurWK. 

by  (be  share  and  (hen  Inverted  by  tbe  cdive  at  tbe  tnsst  u  ihr 
plough  moves  forward.  The  process  Is  indtcaied  in  the  iDasiTS 
lion  ol  diflennt  types  ot  (unow.    The  foim  ef  m  Inmiw  s 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING 


85. 


ngukud  br  Ihi  sh^e  uxl  vidth  oi  ibe  tbttt,  working  in 
CDDibiutian  viih  a.  proper  tliiped  bnait.  A  "  otsted " 
fuiTow  ii  obtuned  by  Ibe  uM  of  ■  ihm,  the  wing  of  mhkfa  is 
wt  al  a  higher  dtitude  Ihu  the  poisl,  but  this  type  of  luitow 


VrOt  Bnkcn  Furrow, 
is  lera  generally  found  than  the  "  recUngular  "  form  obtstned 
by  I  lewel^cdgcd  sh«n,  which  leaves  1  flat  boltoui. 
During  the  greater  pan  of  (he  lolh  cFnIury  Iheidnl  of  plsugh- 


DiitBioK  Plough. 

slices  gently  ind  gradually,  laying  them  over  againit  one  another 
*I  an  angle  of  45°.  thus  providing  itninage  ai  ihc  tnttom  of  (be 
tunow,  and  eaposing  Ihc  greatest  possible  surface  10  the  influ. 
ences  of  Ihe  weather.    Subsequently  (he  digging  plough  came 

(he  slice  is  Inverted  by  a  short  concave  mould-board  with  i 
sharp  (um  which  at  the  ume  lime  breaks  up  and  pulverius 
(be  soil  after  the  fashkiii  of  a  spade.  Eiccpl  on  ellrcmely 
heavy  soils  or  on  shallow  soils  with  a  subsoil  which  it  is  unwise 
to  biing  upon  the  surface,  the  modem  tendency  is  in  favour  ol 
the  digging  jJough. 

A  iJoo^ed  field  is  divided  into  lands  or  sections  of  equal 
iridlb  separated  by  furrows.  On  Ught  easy  draining  bnd  IJ  yds. 
is  the  usual  width;  on  (he  heaviegl  lands  it  may  be  as  little  as 
S  yds.,  and  in  (be  latter  case  (he  fumwi  will  act  as  drains  into 
which  the  water  flows  from  the  intervening  ridges.' 

Ccnain  important  varialiou  of  Ihe  ordinary  plough  demand 
contiderallon.    The  one-way  (dough  lays  the  furrows  aller- 


eodcDcy  lot  the  soft  to  wort  dowD  the  slope. 
One-way  ploughs  aba  leave  the  land  level  and  dispense  with  (he 
wide  open  furrows  between  (he  ridges  which  are  left  hy  the 
ordiaaiy  plough.  They  are  made  on  diflerent  principlrs.  One 
type  cxnnpriies  two  separate  ploughs,  one  ri^t  hand  and  otie 
left,  wliich  revolve  on  the  beam,  one  working,  white  Ihe  other 
stands  vertically  above  it.    In  another  Ibe  mould-board  and 


share  ate  shaped  so  that  they  can  be  swung  On  k  tirivd  noder 
Ibe  beam  when  the  lalter  ii  lifted.  A  third  type  is  made  as 
the  "'  balance  "  ptiodpip,  (HO  plough  beams  Bith  n«uld-bo«id« 
being  placed  at  right  angia  lo  one  another,  lo  (bat  while  Ibe 
tight-hand  pkiugb  is  at  work  the  lelt-hsnd  is  elevated  above  (be 
ground. 

or  more  ploughs  arranged  in  echelon  so  as  to  plough  two  or  more 
fiirTows.  The  weight  of  these  implemenis  necessitates  some 
provision  foi  tumiog  them  at  the  headlands,  and  this  is  supplied 
either  by  1  bowl  wheel,  enaUing  the  plough  to  be  luined  cm 
by  a  pair  of  wheels  cranked  so  that  (hey  canbeisiietl 


by  a 


when 


[0  bave  I 


Ridi^PkHigk. 
early  as  the  1  ;lh  ci 

■     ■     by  Ransom 


1 1873.  ca 


iKliy  "  or  ricfin;  plout/i  b  little  known  in  the  tTnlted 
Kingdom,  but  on  the  larger  arable  tracts  of  other  countries 
where  quick  work  is  essential  and  the  character  of  the  surface 
permits,  h  is  in  gencial  use.  In  this  form  ol  plough  the  frame 
is  mounted  on  three  wheels,  one  of  which  runs  on  the  land, 
and  the  other  two  in  the  furrow.  The  furrow  whetb  are  placed 
on  inclined  aites,  Ihe  plough  beam  being  carried  on  swing  links, 
gpcraied  by  a  hand  lever  when  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  plough 
out  ol  the  furrow.  The  land.wheel  and  the  forward  turron  wheel 
are  adjustable  vertically  wiih  refereuce  to  the  frame,  for  the 

In  Ihe  disk  plough,  which  is  buiU  both  as  a  riding  and  a  walking 
plough,  the  essential  feature  b  the  substitution  ol  a  concavo- 


852 


diik,  pivMcd  on  the  pkiiiiti  bmn,  for  the  mould-board 

m  ol  the  ordinary  plougb.    This  ditl  ii  carried  on  u 
dined  to  the  line  of  drau^t,  indslsotoa  venioJ  piuie. 


3  uid  tbiu  tuim  •  full 


Multiple  Diili  Plough. 


provided  lo  keep  the  dish  d 
CMitrolliog  levers  and  draught  i 
the"»uIky"plouEh.  Theadv, 
uiy  forn  is  in  (he  absence  d[  \ 
■od  porons  condiiion  in  which 
Disll  ploughs  ore  unsuilabli 


m  and  prevent  sticking.  The 
rangements  are  si  niilar  lo  those  in 
itageofthisploughoverlhEOrdi- 


onyland.bul 
t  dry  hard  s: 


Perha, 


earn  is  employed  u 
m  ploughing  is  gen. 


I    tbnl    DKBl    c 


liled  Kingdom 


field  Ic 


re  placed  . 
peraled  u| 


drawn  to  and  fro  betwiil  Ibem  by  ea 
the  engine  in  gear  is  coiling  in  its  re 
towards  itself,  the  rope  of  the  of 
perely  so  much  drag  on  It  as  lo  kce[ 
ravelled  on  (he  drum. 

In  the  United  States  and  FlK«h 
tbemaDumberofplDU|bs,aiiaiigcdii 


n  hied  tindemeilb 
■J  ai  Ihe  ends  of  the 


Tlie  tut-uH  flrutt  hu  the  bum  led  body  but  w  Ui 

mould-board  of  an  ordinary  plough.  Following  in  the  hr-t 
of  an  ordinary  plough  it  breaks  through  Ihc  sub-siHl  la  i  dr^:i 
of  several  inched,  making  it  potoni  und  peneinble  by  pbni  tku 

Criffixt  and  Aaininj  ffmgki  ate  employed  in  openiirii 
grips  and  trencbet  neceusiy  both  In  suilace  uid  usdsfng^ 
dniinage. 

See  DavidKtiandChaH.Panii  Valor]  uiJ  Forn  Uat:knirTj:'!aii 


I  L.  K.  E 


:y€lopatdia  (Loodoo.  I9D&},&i 


(Nn 


190;)  and  SIOHjard 

PLOVER,  a  bird  whose  name  (Fr.  pliaitr,  O.  Fr.  |J^: 
doubtless builaorigin in  the  Latin  plmin,  rain  (aswitusik 
GetDUn  equivalent  Rttatpliijtr,  raio-fifcr].     P.  Beira  IllSV 

in  accordance  with  modem  observation,  for  in  raiay  incbe 
plovers  are  wilder  and  harder  to  approach  than  in  tot.  (^ttri 
have  thought  it  is  Irora  the  ipolled  (as  though  with  rui|.4nfa' 
upper  plumage  of  two  of  the  commooest  speciea  of  plo%tn  ro 
which  the  oame  especially  belongs — the  Ckaradrini  flupi^ 
ol  Linnaeus,  or  golden  plover,  and  the  Sqitati^4ila  luhiiBia 
recent  omithologista,  or  grey  plover.  Both  these  bint  1-1 
very  similar  in  general  appearance,  hut  the  Iktter  is  llie  h-pi 
and  has  an  aborted  hind-toe  on  each  loot.'  It*  aiiUuy  la'i^ 
are  also  black,  while  in  the  golden  plover  they  are  pue  liic 
The  grey  plover  is  a  bird  o[  almost  drcumpolar  range,  liiti^ 
in  the  far  north  ol  America,  Asa  and  eastern  Europe,  frcqmitt 
in  spring  and  autimin  the  coasts  of  the  more  temperttr  prj 
of  each  continent,  and  generally  retiring  lartber  Kalli>i.-d 
in  winter— eiamplei  not  unfrequently  reaching  Cape  Ciik:i 
Ceylon,  Australia  and  even  Tasmania.    Ckaradriu  fw-- 


(arther  than 
more  elevate 


imerous.     Its  1 


.ing  perhaps    gteyish-bi 


Siberia,  but  iDcludr  :<i 
tish  Islands,  whence  in  tV-m 
:nse  (locks,  over  Ibc  culii'Vi- 
il  the  fields  be  sufficiently  open.  Here  some  lill  laa 
to  long  as  the  absence  of  Irost  or  snow  permits,  but  the  mirr-'^ 
make  (or  the  Mediterranean  baiin,  or  the  countries  iiyi-  - 
which  to  winter;  and  stragglers  find  their  way  to  the  i«;l«' 
eitremity  of  Africa.  Two  other  cognate  forma,  C.  lirpf'' 
■nd  C.  /k/hu,  respectively  lepreMOt  C.  ^nn'o/ii  in  Aaca 
and  eastern  Asia,  where  they  are  also  knowp  by  tke  H» 
English  name.  The  discrimination  ol  iheu  two  birds  Iras™ 
another  require*  1  very  acute  eye,'  hut  both  are  eisilj  ilH='- 
European  ally  by    '  ' 


nillniy  feathers,  »nd  their  proportioniUf  ixp 


I  lime,  are  frequently  leeti, 
Ihoneql  more  plough!  atlact 
1  a  large  variety  ol  ploughs  whi 


The  ridgiBt  pfcutk  is 


I  smaller  areas  petrol 
are  sometimes  used. 
diHer  in  their  purpose 

th  a  mould  board  on 


and  more  dender  legs.     AH,  however-and  the  same  bllt  t« 
with  the  grey  plover — undergo  precisely  the  Mine  imotil 

doubllcv  have  l«n  kept  by  orTiLibologiits  in  the  ia^  r*"^  '^ 

Ihey  agree  in  tnoir  other  ilmctural  cluiacien.  ,    , 

'ScStgel  (Wm../a,i-Bo>.  Ci-iorci.  p,  *{' ^Jf""^!?!, ^ 


PLUCK— .PLUCKER 


853 


change  of  coloar,  gmtly  altering  thdr  appearance  and  eqsafljr 
afifecting  both  sexes.  In  spring  or  eariy  snmmer  near^  the 
whole  of  (he  lower  phimage  ffom  the  chin  to  the  vent,  which 
during  winter  has  been  nesiiy  pure  white,  becomes  deep  Mack. 
A  corresponding  altwatlon  is  at  the  same  season  obsenrable  In 
the  upper  phimage. 

Though  the  birds- just  spoken  of  are  those  most  cmphaticalljr 
entitled  to  be  called  pbvers,  the  group  of  ringed  plovers  (see 
KxrioBiR  and  Lapwing),  with  its  allies,  has,  according  to  usage, 
hardly  less  daim  to  the  name,  which  is  also  extended  to  some 
other  more  disunt  forma  that  can  here  ha\'e  only  the  briefest 
notice.  Among  them  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  "  Zick* 
zack  "  (so-called  from  its  cry) — the  rpexl^^  of  Herodotus  (see 
HDimxNC-BiRD),  the  Plnriamn  or  ffyas  aegyptius  of  omithblo* 
gists,  cdebrated  for  the  services  it  ii  said  to  render  to  the  croco- 
dile— a  small  bird  whose  plumage  of  delicate  lavender  and  cream 
coloar  is  relieved  by  markings  of  black  and  white.  Tliis  belongs 
to  the  smaU  family  Ctveolidae,  of  which  the  members  best 
known  are  the  coursers,  Cursorins^  with  some  eight  or  ten 
species  inhabiting  the  deserts  of  Africa  and  India,  while  one, 
C.  galiicuSf  occasionally  stra>'S  to  Europe  and  even  to  England. 
Allied  to  them  are  the  curious  pratincoles  iqjp.),  also  pecuhar  to 
the  Old  World^  while  the  genera  Tkinocoris  and  AUagis  form  in 
outlying  group  peculiar  to  South  .America,  that  is  by  some 
systematists  regarded  as  a  separate  family  Tkmocaridae,  near 
which  are  often  pbced  the  singular  Sheathbilb  (9.V.).  By  moat 
authorities  the  Stone^urlews  (see  Cvklew),  the  Oyster-catchets 
(qjt.)  and  Turnstones  (q.t.)  are  also  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
family  CkaradriidM,  and  some  would  add  the  Avocets  (Jlecarn* 
rostra)  and  Stilts (f.«.)i  among  whkh  the  Cavalier,  or  Ciab-plover, 
Dramas  <irdeoUir-'^  form  that  has  been  bandied  about  from  omk 
family  and  even  order  to  another— should  possibly  find  its 
resting-place.  It  frequents  the  sandy  shores  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  Bay  of  Bengal  from  Natal  to  Aden,  and  thence  to 
Ceylon,  the  Malabar  coast,  and  the  Andaman  and  Nicobar 
Islands-***  white  and  black  bird,  mounted  on  kmg  legs,  with 
webbed  feet,  and  a  bill  so  shaped  as  to  have  made  some  of  the 
best  omithobgists  lodge  It  among  the  Terns  (f.v.). 

Though  the  various  forms  here  spoken  of  as  plovers  are  almost 
certainly  dosely  allied,  they  must  be  regarded  as  constituting 
a  very  indefinite  group,  for  hardly  any  strong  line  of  demarcation 
can  be  drawn  between  them  and  the  Sandpipers  and  Snipes  (f.«.). 
United,  however,  with  both  of  the  Utter  under  the  name  of 
Limicolae,  after  the  method  approved  by  the  most  recent 
systematists,  the  whole  form  an  assemblage  the  compactness  of 
which  no  ofaservant  ornithologist  can  hesitate  to  admit,  even  if 
he  be  unceruin  of  the  exact  kinship. 

For  "  plovers*  eggs  "  see  LArwiKC.  (A  N.) 

PLUCK,  to  puU  or  pick  off  something,  as  fiowers  fiom  a  pUnt, 
feathers  from  a  bird.  The  word  in  Ck  Eng.  is  piuuian  or  phccwn 
and'  is  represented  by  numerous  forms  in  Teutonic  language^ 
cf.  Ger.  pfiUchen,  Du.  ptuiken,  Dan.  fiakke,  &c  In  sense  and 
form  a  pbusiblo  identification  has  been-  found  with  IlaL  pilme- 
care,  to  pick  grapes,  hair,  feathers,  cf.  Fr.  iplueker,  pidi.  These 
romanic  words  are  to  be  referred  to  tAt.  pilus,  hair,  which  has 
also  pven  "  peruke  "  or  "  periwig  "  and  "  plush."  Difficulties 
of  phonology,  history  and  chronology,  however,  seem  to  show 
that  this  close  similarity  Is  onlv  a  ooinddeiice.  "  Pluck,"  in  the 
sense -of  courage,  was  originaUy  a  slang  word  of  the  prise-ring, 
and  Sir  W.  Scott  {Journal,  Sept.  4,  1827)  speaks  of  the  "  want 
of  that  article  blackguardly  called  pluck."  In  butcher's  parlance 
the  **  pluck  "  of  an  animal  is  the  heart,  liver  and  lungs,  probably 
so  called  from  their  being  **  plucked  "  or  pulled  out  of  the  carcase 
immediatdy  after  slauj^tering.  The  heart  being  the  typical 
seat '  of  courage,  the  transference  is  obvious.  In  imiversity 
colloquial  or  slang  use,  "  to  pludt  *'  is  to  refuse  to  pass  a  candi- 
date on  examination;  the  more  usual  colloquial  word  is  now  *'  to 
plough."  At  the  granting  of  degrees  at  Oxford  objection  to  a 
candidate  could  be  taken  for  other  reasons  than  failure  at 
examination,  and  the  person  thus  challenging  drew  the  atten- 
tion of  the  proctor  in  congregation  by  "  plucking  *'  a  piece  of 
black  silk  attached  to  the  back  of  his  gown. 


K.9CKBB«illUUS  (sAot-i86S),  German  matheniatidni  and 
physicist,  was  bom  at  Elberfdd  on  the  i6lh  of  June  iBot. 
After  being  educated  at  DttsseUorf  and  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn,  Heidelberg  and  Berlin  ha  went  in  xSaj  to  Paris,  where 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  the  great  soiori  of  French 
geomelen,  whose  founder,  Gaspard  Monge,  was  only  lecently 
dead.  In  1825  he  was  recehred  as  FriwUlnaU  at  Bonn, 
and  after  three  years  he  was  made  profesaor  extrtordinary 
The  title  of  his  **  habtlitationtKhrift,"  CentfaUm  mtalystos 
applicatioMm  ad  ta  quot  ^eowutriae  aUioris  el  meckamcw  basif  d 
fimdaimenta  sunt  e  aerie  Tayhria  dedueit  Jtdius  PUUker  (Bonn, 
1824),  indicated  the  course  of  his  future  researches.  The  mathe- 
matical influence  of  Monge  had  two  sides  represented  respec* 
tively  by  hb  two  great  works,  the  Ciomilrie  descriptive  and  the 
AppHctttion  de  Panalyse  d  la  gfomtlrie,  Plttcker  aimed  at  fui^ 
nisfaing  modern  geometry  with  suitable  analytical  methods 
*>  as  to  give  it  an  independent  aBial3rtiGal  development.  la 
this  effort  he  was  as  successful  as  were  his  great  oootempor* 
araea  Poncclet  and  J.  Steiner  in  cultivating  geometry  in  iu 
pmrely  siyiithetic  form.  From  his  lectures  and  researches  «t 
Bonn  sprang  his  fimt  great  work,  AualyHsck-geometriscke 
EaUwttkelungen  (voL  i.,  1828;  voL  ii.,  1831). 

In  the  fint  volume  of  this  treatise  Plttcker  introdiKed  for  the 
fiist  time,  the  method  of  abiidged  notation  which  has  become  one 
of  the  characteristic  features  of  modem  analytical  geometry 
(see  GBOMtfnv^  Anaiyticai).  In  the  first  volume  of  the 
EtUmckelungeH  he  applied  the  method  of  abridged  notaUon  to 
the  straight  line,  drde  and  oonic  sections,  and  he  subsequently 
used  It  with  great  cllect  in  many  of  his  leseuches,  notably  in 
his  theory  of  cubic  curves.  In  ^e  second  volume  of  the  £i«l- 
mckdungeH'  he  dearly  taubhsbed  on  a  firm  and  independent 
basis  the  great  principle  of  duality. 


Another  vubjeet  of  importance  which  PIQcker  took  up  In  the 
JBalHwMfmffii  wm  the  curioas  paradoK  noticed  by  L.  'Euler  and 
Cb  Cranieri  that,  viien  a  oertain  number  of  the  iatersectiona  of  two 
algebraical  curves  ai^  given,  the  rest  are  thereby  determined.  Gcr- 
gonne  had  shown  that  when  a  number  of  the  intersections  of  two 
curves  of  the  {p-^q)th  degree  Ue  on  a  curve  of  the  ^h  degree  the  rest 
lie  on  a  curva  of  the  9th  dcgreei  PlQckcr  finally  (Cergoime  Ann., 
1828^1829)  showed  how  manv  points  must  be  ukcn  on  a  curve 
of  any  degree  so  that  curves  of  the  same  degree  (infinite  In  number) 
may  be  drawn  through  them,  and  proved  that  all  the  points,  beyond 
the  ffiven  ones,  in  which  these  curves  intersect  the  given  one  are 
fixed  by  the  ori^nal  choice.  Later,  simultaneoosly  with  C  G.  J. 
Jacobi,  he  extended  these  results  to  curves  and  surfaces  of  unequal 
order.  Allied  to  the  matter  just  mentioned  was  PlQcker's  discovery 
of  the  six  equations  connecting  the  numbers  of  singularities  in  alge- 
btaical  curves  (see  Cvkvb)^  rlQcker  communicate  his  formulae  in 
the  first  place  to  Cretins  Journal  (183^),  vol.  xii.,  and  ||avea  further 
extension  and  complete  aooouat  of  ms  theory  in  his  Theorie  der 
algflmischen  Cuneu  X1839). 

In  1855'  Plfickev  left  Bonn  for  Berlin,  ythen  he  occupied  a 
post  in  the  Friedikh  V^lhebn's  Gynmasinm.  He  was  then 
called  in  1834  as  <Mriuiary  professor  of  mathemaUca  to  Halle* 
While  there  he  pofalidied  his  System  der  mulytisckeH  Ceomelrie^ 
oaf  ffe»e  BUruktsmpmeiuH  gegrUndetf  und  mtbeftudere  eine 
ataftthtlidie  TkeeHe  der  Cunen  driller  Ordimmg  entkaltetid 
(Berlin,  1855).  In  this  work  he  introduced  the  use  of  linear 
functions  m  frfaoe  of  the  ordiaaiy  coordinates;  he  also  made  thi 
fullest  use  of  the  principles  of  coUineation  and  reciprocity. 
His  discussion  of  curves  of  the  thud  order  turned  mainly  on 
fhe  future  of  their  asymptotes,  and  depended  on  the  fact  that 
the  equation  to  every  sudi  curve  can  be  put  into  the  form 
pqr-^fa^o.  He  g^ves  a  complete  enumeration  of  them, 
ioduding  two  bundled  and  nineteen  species.  In  ^836  CUkker 
returned  to  Bonn  as  ordinary  professor  of  mathematics.  Here 
he  pidilidied  his  Tkmrie  der  algebraisckeH  Caraan,  which  formed 
a  continnatioci  «f  the  System  der  amttkyHiehm  Ceomettie  The 
work  falls  into  two  parts,  which  treat  of  the  asymptotes  and 
singularities  of  sl^braical  corves  respectively;  and  extcnsiye 
use  is  mads  of  the  method  of  counting  constants  whkh  t!Uy$ 
so  bxge  a  part  in  modem  geometrical  researches. 

From  this  time  Plilckei's  geometrical  researches  pncticsllj 
ceased,  oidy  to  be  resumed  towards  the  end  of  hi*  life.  It  is 
tnifr  that  he  published  in  (846  his  System  dei  Geemetrie  du 


854 


PLUM 


Rttumes  m  netitr  omlyUuJuT  Bd^andbmgtweue^  but  this 
contains  merely  a  more  systematic  and  polished  rendering  of  his 
earlier  roults.  In  1847  he  was  made  professor  of  physks  at 
Bonn;  and  from  that  time  his  scientific  activity  took  a  new  and 
astonishing  turn. 

His  first  physical  memou:,  published  In  Peuetidorfs  AmmaUn 
(1S47),  yo\.  hcxii.,  contains  his  great  discovery  of  magnecrystaUic 
action.  Then  followed  a  long  series  of  researches,  mostly 
published  in  the  same  journal,  on  the  properties  of  magnetic 
and  diamagnetic  bodies,  establishing  results  which  are  now  part 
and  parcel  of  our  magnetic  knowledge.  In  1858  (Pogg,  Ann, 
vol.  ciii.)  he  published  the  first  of  his  classical  researches  on  the 
action  of  the  magnet  on  the  electric  discharge  in  rarefied  gases. 

PHlcker,  first  by  himself  and  afterwards  in  conjunction  with 
J.  W.  Hittorf,  made  many  important  discoveries  in  the  spectro^ 
scopy  of  gases.  He  was  the  first  to  use  the  vacuum  tube  with 
the  capillaiy  part  now  called  a  Geisaler's  tube,  by  means  of  which 
the  luminous  intensity  of  feeble  electric  discharges  was  raised 
sufiidently  to  allow  of  spectroscopic  investigation.  He  aatici* 
pated  R.  W.  Y.  Bunsen  and  G.  Kirchhoff  in  announcing  that  the 
lines  of  the  spectrum  were  characteristic  of  the  chemical  sub- 
stance which  emitted  them,  and  in  indicating  the  value  of  this 
discovery  in  chemical  analysis.  According  to  Hittorf  he  was 
the  first  who  saw  the  three  Imes  of  the  hydrogen  qiectrum, 
which  a  few  months  after  his  death  were  recognised  in  the  spec* 
trum  of  the  solar  protuberances,  and  thus  solved  one  of  the 
mysteries  of  modem  astronomy. 

Hittorf  tells  us  that  PlUcker  never  attained  great  mamial 
dexterity  as  an  experimenter.  He  had  always,  however,  very 
dear  conceptions  as  to  what  was  wanted,  and  possessed  in  a  hi^ 
.degree  the  power  of  putting  others  in  possession  of  his  ideas 
and  rendering  them  enthusiastic  in  canying  them  into  practice. 
Thus  he  was  «ble  to  secure  from  the  Sayner  Hiitte  in  1846  the 
great  electromagnet  which  he  turned  to  such  use  in  his  magnetic 
researches;  thus  he  attached  to  his  service  his  former  pupil  the 
sldlful  mechanic  Fessel;  and  thus  he  discovered  and  fuUy  availed 
himself  of  the  ability  of  the  great  glass-blower  Geissler. 

Induced  by  the  encouragement  of  his  mathematical  friends  in 
England,  Placker  in  1865  returned  to  the  field  in  which  he  first 
became  famous,  and  adorned  it  by  one  more  great  achievement 
^the  invention  of  what  is  now  called  "  line  geometry."  His 
first  memoir  on  the  subject  was  published  in  the  Pkilosopkiad 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  It  became  the 
source  of  a  large  literature  in  whidi  the  new  science  was  de- 
veloped. Pliicker  himself  worked  out  the  theory  of  complexes 
of  the  first  and  second  order,  introducing  in  his  investigation  of 
the  latter  the  famous  complex  surfaces  of  which  he  caused  those 
models  to  bo  constructed  which  are  now  so  well  known  to  th? 
student  of  the  hi|^  mathematics.-  He  was  engaged  in  bringing 
out  a  large  work  embodying  the  results  ol  bis  researches  in  Unc 
geometry  when  he  died  on  this  sand  of  May  z868.  The  woik  was 
00  far  advanced  that  his  pupil  and  ajwittant  Felix  Klein  was 
able  to  complete  and  publish  it  (see  GwoMjeacf,  hon).  Among 
the  very  numerous  honours  bestowed  on  Pliicker  by  the  various 
scientific  societies  of  Europe  was  the  Cofdey  medal,  awarded  to 
him  by  the  Royal  Society  two  jrears  before  his  death. 

Sec  R.  F.  A  Gebsch's  obituary-notice  (Ahh.  d.  Mn.  Get.  d.  Wits.  s. 
G(Mingen^  1871,  vol.  xvL),  to  which  is  appended  an  appreciation  of 
PlQcker's  phyaical  researches  by  Hitton,  and  a  list  of  Plflckcr*8 
works  by  F.  Klein.  See  also  C.  I.  Gerhardt,  Cesckickte  der  Mathematik 
in  Dtuluhland,  p.  282.  and  PlQcker's  life  by  A.  Drooke  (Bonn^  1871). 

PLUM*  the  English  name  both  for  certain  kinds  of  tree  and 
also  generally  for  their  fruit.  The  pfaxm  tree  belongs  to  the 
genus  PruHMS,  natural  order  Rosaceae.  Cultivated  {rfums  are 
supposed  to  have  ori^nated  from  one  or  other  of  the  species 
P,  domesUca  (wild  plum)  or  P.  imiUiia  (bullace).  The  young 
shoots  of  P.  domestica  are  glabrous,  and  the  fruit  oblong;  in 
P,  insOiiia  the  young  shoots  are  pubescent,  and  the  fruit 
more  or  less  globose.  A  third  ^tedes,  tht  common  alae  or 
blacktboni,  P.  spiM^sa^  has  stoit  spines;  its  flowers  expand 
before  the  leaves;  and  its  fruit  is  very  rough  to  the  taste,  in 
which  particulars  It  differs  fram  the  two  preceding.    These 


distinctions,  however,  are  not  maintained  with  modi  omstancy. 
P.  domestica  is  a  native  of  Anatolia  and  the  Caucastis,  and  is  csa- 
sidcred  to  be  the  only  species  naturalized  in  Eurc^ie.  P.  ittskitM 
is  wild  in  southern  Europe,  in  Armenia,  and  along  the  aluMcs  of 
the  Caspian.  In  the  Swiss  lakc-dweUings  stones  of  tlie  P. 
insUitia  as  well  as  of  P.  spinosa  have  been  found,  but  not  those 
of  P,  domestica.  Nevertheless,  the  Romans  cultlvnted  large 
numbers  of  plums.  The  cultivated  forms  are  extreindy  muner- 
ous,  some  ol  the  groups,  such  as  the  greengages,  tbe  daoasoBS 
and  the  egg  plums  being  very  distinct,  and  sometiaaea  reptodnc- 
ing  themselves  from  seed.  The  colour  of  the  fruit  varies  fnaa 
green  to  deep  purple,  the  size  from  that  of  a  small  chesiy  \a 
that  of  a  hen's  c^;  the  form  is  oblong  acute  or  obtuse  at  b^k 
ends,  or  globular;  the  stones  or  kernels  vary  in  like  manner;  and 
the  flavour,  season  of  ripening  and  duration  are  all  sobject  to 
variation.  From  its  hardihood  the  plum  is  one  of  the  moA 
valuable  fruit  trees,  as  it  is  not  particular  as  to  soil,  and  ibe 
crop  is  less  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  spring  frosts.  Francs 
and  French  plums  are  merely  plums  dried  in  the  sun.  Tbeir 
preparation  b  carried  on  on  a  large  scale  in  Bosnia  and  Sesvta, 
jis  well  as  in  Spain,  Portugal  bnd  southern  France. 

Plums  are  propagated  chiefly  by  budding  on  stocks  oi  the 
Mussd,  Brussels,  St  Julien  and  Pear  plums.  The  dam^tm. 
winersour  and  other  varieties,  planted  as  standards,  are  gcnexaJly 
increased  by  suckers.  For  planting  against  waUs,  trees  whkh 
have  been  trained  for  two  years  in  the  nursery  are  pacfcrred, 
but  maiden  trees  can  be  ytry  successfully  introduced,  and  by 
liberal  treatment  may  be  speedily  got  to  a  fruiting  state.  Any 
good  well-drained  loanliy  soil  is  suitable  for  phuns,  tbat  of 
medium  quality  as  to  li^tness  being  deddmlly  preferable. 
WaUs  with  an  east  or  west  aq;>ect  are  generally  allowed  to 
them..  The  horizontal  mode  of  training  and  the  fan  or  half48a 
forms  are  commonly  followed;  where  there  is  suffideat  helgdkt 
probably  the  fan  system  is  the  best.  The  shoots  sboold  be  laid 
in  nearly  or  quite  at  full  length.  The  fruit  is  produced  00  smal 
spurs  <m  branches  at  least  two  years  old,  and  the  same  spas 
a)Btinue  fruitful  for  several  years.  Standard  plum  trees  abonU 
be  planted  35  ft.  apart  each  way,  and  dwarfs  25  or  so  ft.  The 
latter  are  now  largely  grown  for  market  purposes,  being  more 
easily  supported  when  carrying  heavy  crops,  fruiting  eaibec 
and  the  fruit  bdng  gathered  more  ea^  from  the  dwarf  bush 
than  from  standard  trees. 

Tbe  following  is  a  selection  of  good  varieties  of  plmns,  with 
their  times  of  ripening  .-*- 


Dessert  Plums. 


Eariy  Green-gage  .  .  e. 
Early  Transparent  Gage  b. 
Dcnniston's  Superb 
OuUih'sGolden  .  . 

Green-gage    .  .  • 

M'taughlin'is     .  • 

Attgriioa  Burdett  . 


b. 


Sept. 


July  Transparent  Gage  .  « 

Aug.  Jeffenoa     .  .  .  «k  • 

b.  Aug.  Kiraes    .   .   .  .   ^  « 

Bu  Au|^  Coe'sGoldeaDrop.  . 

m.ej\ug.  Reine  Claude  deBavay  I  ^^^ 

e.   Aug.    Ickworth  Imptotrice       b.  Out. 

b.  Sept.  Late  Rivers    ....    |^  ^^ 

Ctdinary  Plums, 

e.   July  Victoria 

Aug.  White  Magnum  Boaum 

m.  Aug.  Pond's  Sceolisg 

e.   Aug.  Diamond    .  • 

e.  Aug.  Monarch     .  . 

e.   Aug.  Grand  Duke  . 

b.  Sept.  Wycdale     .  . 

DweaM«.— The  Plum  is  subject  to  several  dii 
origin.  A  widespread  disease  known  as  pocket-phims  or  bladder- 
plums  is  doe  to  an  ascomycetoos  fungus.  Exootcms  arwi.  the 
rayceliui»of  which  lives  paraaitically  in  the  tissues  of  theoost  pbm. 
pasaes  into  tbe  ovary  ol  the  flower  and  causes  the  <^tmractautic 
maUormation  of  the  fruit  which  becomes  a  deformed.  SQinetiBes 
curved  or  flattenedr  wrinkled  dry  structure,  with  a  hollow  oonpvii«g 
the  place  of  the  stone;  the  bladidef  |>lums  are  yellow  at  fint,  saW> 
quently  dingy  red.  The  reproductive  spores  aie  home  in  sacs  (asct) 
which  form  a  dense  layer  00  the  suifaoe*  appearing  like  a  blixMB  in 
July;  they  are  scattered  by  the  wind  and  propagate  the  (fiaease. 
The  only  remedy  is  to  cut  on  and  bum  the  diseased  bfancbes. 

Plunvlcaf  Mtscer  is  caused  by  PolysHtma  nAnm,  a  pvn 
ostous  fungus  which  fonas  thick  fleshy  reddish  patches  ooike 


Early  Prolific .  . 
Belle  de  Louvain 
Belgian  Purple  . 

Czar 

Perah(»e .... 
Prince  Englebert 
Mitchelsons'  .  . 


e  OcL 

of  iussffl 


PLUMBAGOS-PLUMBING 


8S5 


(After  Sadebeck.     Fram  Slnabuiscr*« 
UkrhmekdtrBoltuik.hr 
el  GttMv  Facher.) 


■ports  Oat  a«,^  with  veast-uke 
conidia  abstricted  irom  the 
spores. 

St,  Stalfc-ccfls  of  the  aaci. 
m,  FilanientBofthemycdioni 

cut  trantvcndy. 
cut,  Cuticle. 
€p,  Epidermis. 


Thv  feprDductlve  Bpora  are  focned  in  unbcuded  flcM^hapcd  reoep- 
taclcs  (ptfithcda)  and  acattered  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.    The 

spots  are  not  often  so  numerous 
as  to  do  much  harm  to  the  leaves, 
but  whew  the  disease  is  leriotts 
diseAscd  feavM  should  be  collected 
and  burned.  Sloes  and  bird- 
cherries  should  be  removed  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  plum-trees, 
as  the  various  diaease-pfoducing 
insects  and  fungi  live  also  on  these 
species.  The  branches  are  some- 
times atta^Rd  by  weevils  (RMyn- 
cites)  and  the  larvae  of.  various 
moths,  and  saw-flies  (chiefly  Etio- 
coMpa)  feed  on  the  leaves,  and 
young,  branches  and  leaves  are 
sometimes  invaded  by  Aphides. 
Leaf-feeding  beetles  and  larvae  of 
moths  are  best  got  rid  of  by 
shaking  the  branches  and  oDllecttng 
the  insects.  ^  Slug-worms  or  aaw-fly 
larvae  require  treatment  by  wash- 
ing with  soapsuds,  tobacco  and 

Taphrina  Pr«i.,-.-Transverse  ^"TV^Pa^  if^'^J^'^i!^ 

section  through  the  epidermis  *~  Aphides  by  syringing  Iran 

of  an   infect^   plum.     Four  ^^"^  •«?*  removing  all  surplus 

ripe  asci.  «..   «».   with   ei^ht  young  twigs. 

PUTHBAGO  (from  Lat  plum- 
bum, lead),  a  name  frequently 
applied  to  graphite  (f.v.),  in 
allusion  to  its  remote  tesem- 
blance  to  lead,  whence  it  Is 
fKjpuIariy  called  '*  black-tead." 
It  was  formerly  held  in  repute 
in  medicine,  but  is  now  regarded  as  having  no  medidnal 
properties  of  any  value. 

PLUMBAGO  DRAWtlfOS.  What  we  should  now  speak  of  as 
pencil  drawings  were  in  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries  tisually 
known  as  drawings  "in  plumbago/'  and  there  is  a  group  of 
artists  whose  work  is  remarkable  for  their  exquisite  portraits 
drawn  with  finely  pointed  pieces  of  graphite  aad  upon  vellum. 
In  some  books  of  reference  they  are  grouped  as  engravers,  and 
as  such  Horace  Walpole*  describes  several  of  them.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  many  of  their  fine  pencil  drawings  were  prepared  for 
the  purpose  of  engraving,  but  this  is  not  likely  to  have  been 
the  case  with  all,  and  we  have  evidence  of  certain  commissions 
executed,  by  Forster  for  example,  when  the  portrait  was  not 
required  for  the  preparation  of  a  plate.  One  of  the  earlie!^  of 
this  group  of  workers  was  Simon  Van  de  Pass  (x59S?'i647), 
and  in  all  probability  his  pencil  drawings  were  either  for  repro- 
duction on  silver  tablets  or  counters  or  for  engraved  plates. 
A  very  few  pencil  portraits  by  Abraham  Blootelf  ng,  the  Dutch 
engraver,  have  been  preserved,  which  appear  to  have  been  first 
sketches,  from  which  plates  were  afterwards  engraved.  They 
are  of  exceedingly  delicate  workmanship,  and  one  in  the  present 
writers  collection  is  signed  and  dated.  By  David  Loggan 
X163S-X700),  a  pupil  of  Van  dc  Pass,  there  also  remain  a  few 
portraits,  as  a  rule  drawn  on  vellum  and  executed  with  the 
utmost  dexterity  and  with  marvellous  -minuteness,  the  lines 
expressing  the  intricacies  of  a  lace  niflfe  or  the  curls  of  a  wig 
being  perfectly  rendered.  It  is  evident  that  these  were  not 
always  prepared  for  engraving,  because  there  is  one  representing 
Charles  II.,  set  in  a  beautiful  gold  snuff  box,  which  was  given  by 
the  king  to  the  duchess  of  Portsmouth  and  now  belongs  to  the 
duke  of  Richmond,  and  a  similar  portrait  of  Cromwell  in  the 
possession  of  Lord  Verulam,  while  several  others  belong  to  Lord 
Caledon,  and  there  are  no  engravings  corresponding  to  these. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  large  drawing  by  Loggan  in  the  writer's 
collection,  representing  Charles  II.,  is  the  sketch  for  the  finished 
engraving  and  bears  a  declaration  to  that  effect.  An  artist 
who  is  better  known  to  the  genera!  collector  is  William  Faithome 
(1616-1691).  He  was  the  pupil  of  Sir  Robert  Peake,  the 
engraver,  but  derived  much  of  his  skill  from  the  time  he  spent 
with  NanteuO,  whose  involved  minute  style  he  closely  followed, 
triumphing  over  technical  difficulties  with  great  success.  There 
a»  important  drawings  by  him  m  the  Bodleian,  at  Wdbeck 


Abbey  and  At  Montagu  House,  and  two  fine  portraits  in  the 
British  Museum.  Thomas  Fonter  (^  x69S-x7is)  was  one  d 
the  gicatcst  dxanghtsmen  in  this  particular  form  of  portraiture. 
His  drawings  are  both  on  vellum  and  on  paper,  as  a  rule  on 
vellum.  Of  the  details  of  his  life  very  little  is  known.  He 
engraved  a  few  prints,  but  tb^  are  of  the  utmost  rarity.  His 
finest  portraits  are  executed  with  very  great  refinement  and 
delicacy,  the  modelling  of  the  lace  beinf  quite  wonderful.  It  is 
in  fact  one  of  the  marveb  of  this  type  of  portraiture  how  such 
exquisite  lines  couk)  have  been  drawn  with  the  roughly  cut 
pieces  of  graphite  which  were  at  the  disposal  of  the  artists.  In 
some  faistances  in  Former's  work  the  lines  representing  the 
wodelKng  of  the  face  axe  so  fine  as  to  be  quite  indistii^iuishabie 
wkbout  the  aid  of  a  glass.  His  work  can  be  studied  at  Wdbeck 
Abbey,  in  the  Holburne  MuSdim  at  Bath,  in  the  >^ctoria  and 
Albert  Museum  and  elsewhere.  Two  other  EngUshmen  should 
be  referred  to,  Robert  and  George  White,  father  aad  soil  The 
former  (1645-1 704)  was  a  pupil  of  Loggan  and  a  prolific  engraver, 
and  most  of  I^  drawings,  executed  on  vellum,  were  for  the 
purpose  of  ei^graving.  George  White  (e.  i^&^ijsa)  was  Uu^t 
by  his  father,  and  finished  some  of  his  father's  plates.  His  own 
pencil  drawings  are  of  even  finer  execution  than  thoae  of  Robert 
White.  These  three  men,  Forster  and  the  two  Whites,  carefully 
signed  their  drawings  and  dated  them.  By  Robert  WhiU  there 
are  remarkable  portraits  of  Bunyan  and  Sir  Matthew  Hale  in 
the  British  Museum,  and  his  own  portrait  at  Welbeck;  and  by 
him  and  his  son  there  are  other  drawings  in  private  collections, 
depicting  Sir  Godfrey  KneOer,  Archbishop  Tennyson  and  others. 
The  two  Fabers  (i66o?-x7ax  and  x69S?-i7s6)  were  from 
Holland,  the  elder  having  been  born  at  the  Hague,  as  he  himseU 
states  on  his  portrait  which  was .  in  Vertue's  collection.  In 
additk>n  to  the  portraits  these  two  men  usually  added  beautiful 
drawn  inscriptions,  often  found  within  circles  around  the  por- 
traits and  occasionally  extending  to  many  lines  below  them. 
The  son  was  the  greater  artist  and  a  famous  mexzotinter.  The 
portrait  painter  Jonathan  Richardson  (1665-1745)  executed 
many  fine  drawings  in  pencil,  examples  ot  which  can  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum.  One  of  the  best  of  these  plumbago 
draughtsmen  was  a  Scotsman,  whose  work  is  of  the  utmost 
rarity,  David  Paton,  who  wcnrked  in  1670.  The  •chief  of  his 
drawings  belong  to  the  earl  of  Dysart  and  are  at  Ham  House, 
and  two  examples  of  his  portraiture  are  in  the  possession  of  the 
DalzcU  family.  Of  Pston's  history  nothing  is  known  save  that 
he  was  a  Clatholic  who  worked  for  more  than  one  Dominican 
house,  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Stuart  cause,  and  was  attached 
to  the  court  of  Charles  II.,  when  the  king  Was  in  Scothuid.  At 
that  time  he  drew  his  remarkable  portrait  of  the  king  now  at 
Ham  House.  There  are  drawings  of  the  same  character  as  his, 
the  work  of  (Seorge  Glover  (d.  x6i8)  and  Thomas  Ocill  (fi.  X630), 
but  they  are  of  extraordinary  rarity  and  were  evidently  first 
studies  for  engravings.  Of  Glover's  work  the  only  signed 
example  known  is  in  the  writer's  collection.  A  Swiss  artist, 
Joseph  Werner  (b.  1637)  or'  Waerner,  drew  well  in  pencil, 
adopting  brown  paper  as  the  material  upon  which  his  best 
drawings  were  done,  and  in  some  cases  heightening  them  wi|h 
touches  of  white  paint.  The  most  notable  of  his  portraits  is 
one  which  is  in  the  collection  at  Welbeck  Abbey. 

The  eariier  miniature  painters  also  drew  in  this  manner,  notably 
Hilltard  In  preparing  designs  for  jewels  and  seats,  and  Isaac  and 
Pteter  Oliver  in  portraits.  By  Isaac  Oliver  there  is  a  fine  drawing  in 
Lord  Dertiy's  collection;  and  one  by  Peter,  a  marvellous  likeness 
of  Sir  Bevil  Crenvillc,  in  that  of  the  writer.  The  later  men.  Hone, 
Grimaldi,  Lens  and  Downman,  also  drew  finely  in  plumbago.  Other 
notable  exponents  of  this  delightful  art  were  Thomas  Worlidee 


nng  (i6oa-i775).  George  vertiic  the  engraver 


(1700-1766),  F.  Steele  {e.  1714),  W  Robins  (e.  1730),  G.  A.  WolH- 

(1684-1756),  Johi 
n3-i8ro),  and  the  bwede,  (.harks  Bancks  (c.  i74o),  « 
resided  in  England  for  some  ytan,  (G.  C.  W.) 

PLUMBING,  property  working  in  lead  (Lat.  plumbum),  now  a 
term  embraang  all  work  not  only  in  lead,  but  also  in  tin,  zinc 
and  other  metals,  connected  with  the  installation,  fitting, 
repairing,  soldering,  kc.,  of  pipes  for  water,  gas,  dninage,  on 
cisterns,  roofs  and  the  like  in  any  building,  i.e.  the  general  work 
of  a  plumper.    (See  Bunnmo  and  Seweiaoe.) 


856 


PLUMFTRE-^PLUNKET,  BARON 


PLDnPTHi;  BDWAED  HATtt  (1891-1891);  EngUdi  <lmnc 
ftnd  scholar,  was  born  In  London  on  the  6th  of  August  1821. 
A  schdar  of  Univcnity  College,  Oxfonl,  he  graduated  «ith  a 
doubk>fint  class  in  1844,  and  in  the  same  year  ha  was  elected 
fellow  of  Bmaenose  College.  He  was  ordained  in  1847,  and 
shortly  afterwards  appohited  cbapkun,  and  then  professor  of 
pastoral  theology,  at  King*s  College,  London.  In  1863  ha  was 
given  a  prebendal  staU  at  St  Paul's,  and  from  1869  to  1874  he 
was  a  member  of  the  oommittee  appointed  by  Convocation 
to  revise  the  authorized  venioa  of  the  Old  Testament.  He 
was  B6yle  lecturer  in  1866-1867  ('*  Christ  and  Christendom  "), 
and  Grinfidd  lecturer  on  the  Septuagint  at  Oxford  i87«-z874. 
After  suBotssivehr  holding  the  livings  of  Pfaickley  and  Briddey 
in  Kent,  he  was  installed  in  1881  as  dea&of  Wells.  He  died  on 
the  xst  of  February  1891. 

I*hiinptre  was  a  man  of  great  venatllity  and  attshied  h^h  repu- 
tation as  a  translator  of  the  plays  of  Sophocles  (1865)  and  Aeaehylus 
(186ft),  and  of  the  Dinna  commedia  01  Dante  (1886}.  In  verie  his 
main  achievements  were  Lazarus  (1864),  and  Master  and  Schdar 
(t866).  Among  his  many  theological  works  may  be  mentioned 
An  BatpMition  of  the  BpisOes  to  the  Seeen  Chufckes  cf  Asia  (1877), 
The  Spirits  in  Pristm  (1884).  "  The  Book  of  Provobs  "  (which  he 
annotated  in  the  Speaker's  Commtntary)^^^  "  Synoptic  Gospels, 
Acts,  and  II.  Connthians.*'  in  Bishop  Ellicott's  Sew  Testament 
Commentary,  and  Life  of  Bishop  Ken  (1868). 

PLUXDER,  to  rob,  to  pillage,  especially  in  war.  The  word 
came  into  English  usage  directly  from  Ger.  fiundem  (derived 
from  a  substantive  Plunder  meaning  "household  stuff,"  bed- 
clothes, clothing,  8ec.),  particularly  with  reference  to  the  pillaging 
of  the  Thirty  Years*  War.  Thomas  May  {History  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  1647;  quoted  in  the  New  English  Dictionary)  says: 
"  Many  Tounes  and  Villages  he  (Prince  Rupert)  plundered, 
which  is  to  say  robb'd,  for  at  that  time  first  was  the  word  plunder 
used  in  England,  being  borne  in  Germany."  The  New  English 
Dictionary s  eariiest  quotation  is  from  the  Swedish  Intelligencer 
(163a). 

PLUXKET,  OUVBR  (1629-1681),  Irish  Korean  Catholic 
divine,  was  bom  at  Loughcrew,  Co.  Meath.  He  was  edu- 
cated privately  and  at  Rome,  whither  he  went  with  Father 
Scarampi  in  1645.  From  1657  to  1669  he  was  professor  of 
theology  at  the  CoUcgf  of  the  Propaganda,  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship of  the  historian,  Pallavicini,  and  acted  as  representative 
of  Irish  ecclesiastical  affairs  at  Rome.  Pope  Clement  IX. 
appointed  him  to  the  archbishopric  of  Armajfh  and  primacy  of 
Ireland  in  July  1669,  and  in  November  he  was  consecrated  at 
Ghent,  reaching  Ireland  in  March  X670.  Lord  Bericeley  of 
Stratton,  the  viceroy,  showed  him  much  kindness  and  allowed 
htm  to  establish  a  Jesuit  school  in  Dublin.  Plunket  showed 
amazing  diligence  in  furthering  the  cause  of  his  Church.  He 
was  in  very  straitened  drcumstances,  the  revenue  of  his  see 
being  only  £6»  in  good  years.  The  repressive  measures  following 
on  the  Test  Act  bore  hardly  upon  him,  and  in  December  1678  he 
Was  imprisoned  in  Dublin  Castle  for  six  weeks.  Accused  of  a 
share  in  the  Irish  branch  of  the  "  Pbpish  Plot,"  he  was  brought 
to  London,  and  in  June  x68x  arraigned  in  the  Ktng*k  Bench, 
charged  with  conspiring  to  bring  a  French  army  to  Cariingford. 
He  made  a  good  defence,  but  on  the  absurdest  of  evidence  the 
jury  convicted  him  of  treason,  and  on  the  ist  of  Jtdy  he  was 
hanged,  drawn  and  quartered  at  Tyburn. 

PLUNKET,  WILUAM  OONTNOHAM  PLtlNItBT,  xST  Baxon 
(1764-1854),  Irish  lawyer,  orator  and  sUtesman,  was  bom  in 
the  county  of  Fermanagh  In  July  X764.'  He  was  educated  first 
by  his  father,  a  Presl^erian  minister  of  considerable  ability 
and  reputation,  and  in  X779  he  became  a  student  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  was  conspicuous  as  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Historical  Sodcty,  the  debating  chtb  of  Trinity 
College,  then  full  of  young  men  of  remarkable  promise.  Having 
entered  Lincoto's  Inn  in  1784,  Plunket  was  called  to  the  Irish 
bar  ro  r787.  He  gradually  obtained  a  considerable  practice 
in  equity;  and  was  made  a  king^  counsel  in  1797. 

•  The  I^  Plunkets  are  dtstineutshed  by  the  spelling  of  the  name 
iram  the  PlunketU  of  the  families  of  the  barons  Dunsany  (cr.  1430) 
9ad  the  earb  of  Fingall  (cr.  1628).  though  the  earUcr  members  of 
these  houses  are  often  given  the  spelling  of  Plunket. 


In  X798  he  entered  the  Irish  poriianent  as  member  for  Charie- 
mont.  He  was  an  anti- Jacobin  Whig  of  the  achool  of  Boxke. 
not  ungracefully  filled  with  a  fervent  Irish  patriottsm.  But  he 
was  a  sinoere  admirer  of  the  constitutional  govenuoent  d 
England  as  established  In  t688;  he  even  justified  the  asoe&dancy 
it  had  given  to  the  Established  Church,  although  he  tbou^t 
that  the  time  had  anived  for  eztendmg  toleration  to  Romsa 
Catholics  and  dissenters.  To  transfer  it  to  IreJand  as  th» 
modified,  and  under  an  independent  legislature,  wes  the  oeJj 
reform  he  sotight  ff^is  cotmtry;  he  opposed  tht  umoa  becaiae 
he  thought  it  incompatible  with  this  object. 

When  Plunket  entered  the  Irish  parliament,  the  Irish  Wk^ 
party  was  almost  extinct,  and  Pitt  was  feeling  his  way  to 
accomplish  the  union.  In  this  he  was  seconded  ably  by  Lead 
Castlereai^,  by  the  panic  caused  by  a  wild  insurrection,  and  bv 
the  aeccssion  of  Grattan  from  politics.  When,  however,  tkie 
measure  was  brought  forward,  among  the  ablest  and  fiercest  d 
its  adversaries  was  Plunket,  whose  powers  as  a  great  orauv 
were  now  universally  recognised.  Hia  speeches  xmisrd  hia 
immediately  to  the  front  rank  of  his  party;  and  when  Grattaa 
re-entered  the  moribund  senate  he  took  his  scat  xkcxt  is 
Plunket,  thus  significantly  recognising  the  place  the  latter  had 
attained. 

After  the  union  Plunket  returned  to  the  ptadioe  of  bas 
profession,  and  became  at  onoe  a  leader  of  the  equity  bar.  Ii 
1803,  after  Emmet's  rebellion,  he  was  sekoted  as  one  of  the 
Crown  lawyers  to  prosecute  the  unfortunate  enthusiast,  and  a: 
the  trial,  in  summing  up  the  evidence,  ddivered  n  speech  d 
remarkable  power,  which  shows  his  characteristic  <&like  ct 
revolutionary  outbursts.  For  this  q>eech  he  was  exposed  :•> 
much  unmerited  obloquy,  and  more  especially  to  tlie  abuse  c: 
Cobbett,  against  whom  he  brought  a  successful  action  ix 
damages.  In  x8oj,  in  PiU's  second  admiaistxation,  he  becaznt 
solicitor-general,  and  in  1805  attomey-genexal  for  Irdaod;  5sd 
he  continued  in  ofiice  when  Lord  Crenville  came  into  power  .: 
J  806.  Plunket  held  a  seat  in  the  Imperial  parliament  durli^ 
this  period,  and  there  made  several  able  speeches  in  favour  c 
Catholic  emancipation,  and  of  continuing  the  war  with  Fncce. 
but  when  the  Gxenville  cabinet  was  disscdved  he  retaixcd 
once  more  to  professional  life. 

In  181  a,  having  amassed  a  considerable  fortune,  be  xc>entc:c: 
parliament  as  member  for  Trinity  College,  and  M«^»yiVf^  hlz-is£. 
with  the  Crenville  or  anti-Gallican  Whigs.  He  was  soon  ackcc«- 
ledged  as  one  of  the  first  orators,  if  not  the  first,  of  the  House  a 
Commons.  His  reverence  for  the  English  constitution  in  ch-^rd 
and  states  his  steady  advocacy  of  the  war  with  Napoleon.  £-- 
his  antipathy  to  anything  like  democrac^y  made  him  popc^* 
with  the  Tory  party.  In  xSas  Plunket  was  once  more  attcff»:>- 
general  for  Ireland,  with  Lord  Wdlcsley  as  lord-Ueuiec^-' 
One  of  his  first  official  acts  was  to  prosecute  for  the  **  bc*:^ 
riot,"  an  attempt  on  hb  part  to  put  down  the  Orange  f^ut^** 
in  Ireland.  He  strenuou^y  opposed  the  Catholic  Asodaikr 
which  about  this  time,  under  the  guidance  of  O'Connell,  be^ 
its  agitation.  In  1825  he  made  a  powerful  ^>eecfa  again$t  .: 
thus  the  curious  spectacle  was  seen  of  the  Ablest  diampk.r  J 
an  oppressed  church  doing  all  in  his  power  to  cbedc  its  efforts  ts 
emancipate  itself. 

In  1837  Plunket  was  made  master  of  the  n^  in  Ei;^Usd; 
but,  owing  to  the  professional  jealousy  of  the  \»r,  who  rcgardni 
an  Irishman  as  an  intruder,  he  resigned  in  a  few  days.  S.XC 
afterwards  he  became  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  is 
IreUnd,  and  was  then  created  a  peer  of  the  United  Eingdrr 
In  X830  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  and  bt..w 
the  office,  with  an  interval  of  a  few  months  only,  until  im*^ 
when  he  finally  retired  from  public  life.  He  died  on  the  4th  A 
January  1854,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  the  bish*^  -^A 
Tuam  ( 1 792-1 866)  as  2nd  baron.  The  4th  baron  (i838-:8c' 
was  bishop  of  Meath  and  afterwards  archbishop  of  DubCn  £r : 
primate  of  Ireland,  and  an  active  ecclesiastical  statesman;  £*' 
his  younger  brother  David  Plunket  (b.  1838),  soiidtor-sirr..rJ 
for  Ireland  in  1875-1877,  and  first  commissioner  of  works  ic  J^c 
Unionist  administration  of  1885-1892,  was  in  xSgs  created  B-.-w 


PLUNKETT— PLUTARCH 


«S7 


RaduBorc  William  Lee  Fhinket,  sth  baron  Q>,  1864),  was 
governor  of  New  Zealand  from  1904  to  19x0. 

PLUNKETT,  SIR  HORACE  CURZON  (1854-  ),  Irish 
politician,  third  son  of  Edward,  i6th  baron  Dunsanyl  was  bom 
on  the  34th  of  October  1854,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
University  College,  Oxford,  of  which  college  he  became  honorary 
fellow  in  1909.  He  spent  ten  years  (1879-1889)  ranching  in 
Montana,  U.S.A.,  where,  together  with  a  substantial  fortune, 
he  acquired  experience  that  proved  invaluable  In  the  work 
of  agricultural  education,  improvement  and  devdopment,  to 
which  he  devoted  himself  on  his  return  to  Ireland  in  1889.  At 
first  Plunkett  resolved  to  hold  himself  aloof  from  party  politics, 
and  he  set  himself  to  bring  together  men  of  all  political  views 
for  the  promotion  of  the  material  prosperity  of  the  Irish  people. 
In  1894  he  founded  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organization  Society, 
which  accomplished  a  work  of  yicalculable  importance  by 
introducing  co-operation  among  Irish  farmers,  and  by  proving 
to  the  latter  the  benefits  obtainable  through  more  economical 
and  efficient  management.  But  already  in  1892  he  had  felt 
compelled  to  abandon  his  non-political  attitude,  and  he  entered 
parliament  as  Unionist  member  for  south  Dublin  (county). 
Continuing,  however,  his  policy  of  conciliation,  Plunkett  sug- 
gested in  August  1895  that  a  few  prominent  persons  of  various 
political  opinions  should  meet  to  discuss  and  frame  a  scheme  of 
practical  legislation.  The  outcome  of  this  proposal  was  the  forma- 
tion of  the  "  Recess  Committee  "  with  Plunkett  as  chairman, 
which  included  men  of  such  diveigent  views  as  the  earl  of  Mayo, 
Mr  John  Redmond,  The  O'Conor  Don  and  Mr  Thomas  Sinclair. 
In  July  1896  the  Recess  Committee  issued  a  report,  of  which 
Plunkett  was  the  author,  contmning  Suable  accounts  of  the 
systems  of  state  aid  to  agriculture  and  of  technical  instruction 
in  foreign  countries.  This  report,  and  the  growing  influence 
of  Plunkett,  who  became  a  member  of  the  Irish  Privy  Council 
in  1897,  led  to  the  passing  bf  an  act  in  1899  which  established  a 
department  of  agriculture  and  technical  instruction  in  Ireland, 
of  which  the  chief  secretaiy  was  to  be  president  fx  oJfUio,  Plun- 
kett was  appointed  vice«president,  a  position  which  gave  him 
control  of  the  department's  operations.  It  was  intended  that 
the  vice-president  should  be  responsible  for  the  department  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  at  the  general  election  of  1900 
Plunkett  lost  his  seat.  An  extensively  signed  memorial,  sup- 
ported by  the  Agricultural  Council,  prayed  that  he  might  not 
be  removed  from  office,  and  at  the  government's  request  he 
continued  to  direct  the  policy  of  the  department  without  a  seat 
in  parliament.    He  was  created  K.C.V.O.  in  1903. 

On  the  accession  of  the  Liberal  party  to  power  in  1906,  Sir 
Horace  Plunkett  was  requested  by  Mr  Bryce,  the  new  chief 
secretaiy,  to  remain  at  the  bead  of  the  department  he  had 
created.  But,  having  sat  in  the  House  of  Comnu>ns  as  a  Unio&ist, 
Plunkett  bad  incuned  the  hostility  of  the  Nationalist  party, 
whose  resentment  had  been  further  excited  by  the  bold  statement 
of  certain  unpalatable  truths  in  his  book,  Ireland  in  Ike  New 
Ceniwy  (1904),  in  which  he  described  the  economic  condition 
and  needs  of  the  country  and  the  nature  of  the  agricultural 
improvement  schemes  he  bad  inaugurated.  A  determined 
cfifort  was  therefore  made  by  the  Nationalists  to  drive  from 
office  the  man  who  had  probably  done  more  than  any  one  ebe 
ol  his  generatioD  to  benefit  the  Irish  people;  and  in  moving  a 
resolution  in  the  House  of  Commons  with  this  object  in  1907, 
a  Nationalist  declared  that  his  party  "  took  their  stand  on  the 
t)rindple  that  the  industrial  revival  could  only  go  hand  in  hand 
with  the  national  movement.''  The  government  gave  way, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1907  Sir  Horace  Plunkett  retired  from 
office.  Since  the  year  1900  a  grant  of  about  £4000  had  been 
made  annually  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  the  Irish 
Agricultural  Organisation  Society;  but  the  new  vice-president, 
Mr  T.  W.  Russell,  who  had  been  himself  previously  a  member 
of  the  Unionist  administration,  withdrew  in  1907  this  modest 
support  of  an  association  with  which  Sir  Horace  Plunkett 
was  so  closely  identified,  and  of  which  he  continued  to  be  the 
guidiqg  spirit.  In  addition  to  the  publication  mentioned, 
Sir  Horace  Plunkett  published  Nabksse  Oblige:  An  Irish 
Jt^l    15 


SfdmH  (1908)*  and  AvBlIf/e  PrMtm^Of  UwUed Stam 
(1910). 

See  Sir  Horace  Plunkett.  Iretand  in  ike  Nem  Cenlnry  (London. 
1904) ;  RepoH  «/  Ike  CtmmiOu  0/  Imnury:  Department  ofAmeuUnn 
and  Techtntal  Instnulum  {Ireland),  \OL  337a)  (1907). 

PLURALISM  (Lat.  plus,  plnfes,  many,  several),  a  term  used 
generally  in  the  sense  of  pluimlity  (see  below),  and  in  philosophy 
for  any  theory  which  postulates  more  than  one  absolutely  dis- 
tinct being  or  principle  of  being,  opposed  to  monism.  Plural- 
istic systems  ate  based  on  the  difficulty  of  reconciling  with  the 
monistic  prindple  the  principles  of  variety  and  freewiQ.  The 
chief  difficulty  which  besets  any  such  view  is  that  if  the  elements 
are  absolutely  independent,  the  cosmos  disappcan  and  we  are 
left  with  chaos:  if,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  interrelatioD 
(as  in  Lotxe's  system),  the  elements  are  not  ultimate  in  any 
intelligible  sense. 

PLURALITY  (O.  Fr.  plwaltU,  Late  Lat  plvraHtas,  plural 
number),  in  a  general  sense,  a  word  denoting  more  than  one; 
applied  particularly  to  the  holding  of  two  or  more  offices  by 
the  same  person  (called  then  a  plnralisO>  In  ecdesdastical  law, 
pittnility  or  the  holding  of  more  than  one  benefice  or  preferment 
was  always  discountenanced,  and  is  now  prohibited  in  England 
by  the  Pluralities  Act  1838,  as  amended  by  the  Pluralities  Act 
r85o  and  the  Pluralities  Acts  Amendment  Act  1885.  By  the 
latter  act  a  proviston  was  made  that  two  benefices  might  be 
hdd  together,  by  dispensation  of  the  archbishop  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  bishop,  if  the  churches  be  within  four  miles 
of  each  other,  and  if  the  annual  vahie  of  one  does  not  exceed 
£aoo  (see  BsNBnCE).  It  was  formeriy  a  practice  to  evade 
cnaamenU  against  plurality  by  means  of  ccmmendanu,  i.e.  by 
committing  or  oommenduvg  a  benefice  to  a  holder  of  other 
benefices  until  an  incumbent  should  be  pioWded  for  it.  Com- 
mendams  were  abolished  by  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners 
Act  1836  (6  &  7  WiU.  IV.  c.  77,  §  18).  See  also  C«£fv.  Biskep 
0/  Co9entry,  x6r3,  Hob.  140  seq.,  where  much  learning  on  the 
subject  will  be  found. 

In  dections,  particularly  where  there  sr6  three  or  more 
candidates,  and  no  one  candidate  receives  an  absolute  majority 
of  votes,  the  excess  of  votes  polled  by  the  first  candidate  over 
the  second  is  often  termed  plurality,  especially  In  the  United 
Sutes. 

PLUSH  (Fr.  peluche),  a  textile  fabric  having  a  cut  nap  or  pile 
the  sane  as  fustian  or  velvet.  Origiiudly  the  pile  of  plush 
consisted  of  mohair  or  woisted  yam,  but  now  silk  by  itself  or 
with  a  cotton  backing  is  used  for  plush,  the  distinction  from 
vdvet  being  found  in  the  longer  and  Icsi  dense  pile  of  plush. 
The  material  h  laigdy  used  for  upholstery  and  furniture 
purposes,  and  is  also  much  employed  in  dress  and  millinery. 

PLUTARCH  (Gr.  HXo^rafocot)  (c.  A.o.  4^1  so),  Greek  bio- 
grapher and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  bom  at  Chaeronea  in 
Boeotia.  After  having  been  trained  in  philosophy  at  Athens  he 
travelled  and  stayed  some  time  at  Rome,  where  he  lectured  00  philo- 
sophy and  undertook  the  education  of  Hadrian.*  Trajan  bestowed 
consular  rank  upon  him,  and  Hadrian  appointed  him  procurator 
of  Greece.  He  died  in  his  native  town,  where  he  was  archon 
and  priest  of  the  Pythian  Apollo.  In  the  Conscialion  to  his 
Wife  on  the  loss  of  his  young  daughter,  he  tells  us  (ft  2)  that  they 
had  brought  up  four  sons  b^des,  one  of  whom  was  called  by  the 
name  of  Plutarch's  brother,  Lamprias.  We  leara  incidentally 
from  this  treatise  (S  xo)  that  the  writer  had  been  initiated  in 
the  secret  mysteries  of  Dionysus,  which  held  that  the  soul  was 
imperishable.  He  seems  to  have  been  an  independent  thinker 
rather  than  an  adherent  of  any  particuhur  school  of  philosophy. 
His  vast  acquaintance  with  the  literature  of  his  time  is  every- 
where apparent. 

The  celebrity  of  Plutarch,  or  at  least  his  popularity,  is  mainly 
founded  on  his  forty-six  Parallel  Lives.  He  is  thought  to  have 
written  this  work  ir  his  later  years  after  his  return  to  Chaeronea. 
His  knowledge  of  Latin  and  of  Roman  history  be  must  have 
partly  derived  from  some  years'  residence  in  Rome  and  other 

*  There  teems  no  authority  for  this  statement  earlier  than  the 
middle  ages.  jm 


8s* 


PLUTARCH 


ptrtt  of  Italy/  though  he  says  be-  was  too  nmch  encaged  in 
lecturing  (doubtless  in  Greek,  on  philosophy)  to  turn  his  attention 
much  to  Roman  literature  during  that  period. 

Plutarch's  design  in  writing  the  Paraild  Lhes — ^for  this  is 
the  title  which  he  g^ves  them  in  dedicating  Theseus  and  Romulus 
to  Sosius  Senedo— appears  to  have  been  the  publication,  in 
successive  books,  of  authentic  biographies  ik  pairs,  taking 
together  a  Greek  and  a  Roman.  In  the  introduction  to  the 
Theseus  he  speaks  of  having  already  issued  his  Lycurgus  and 
Numa,  viewing  them,  no  doubt,  as  bearing  a  resemblance  to 
each  other  in  their  legislative  character.  Theseus  and  Romulus 
are  compared  as  the  legendary  founders  of  states.  In  the 
opening  sentence  of  the  life  of  Alexander  he  says  that  "  in  this 
book  he  has  written  the  lives  of  Alexander  and  Caesar  "  (Julius), 
and  in  his  Demostheius,  where  he  again  (§  i)  mentions  his  friend 
Sosius,  he  calls  the  h'fe  of  this  orator  and  Cicero  the  fifth  book.* 
It  may  therefore  fairly  be  inferred  that  Plutarch's  original  idea 
was  amply  to  set  a  Greek  warrior,  statesman,  orator  or  legislator 
side  by  side  with  some  noted  Roman  celebrated  for  the  same 
qualities,  or  working  under  similar  conditions.  Nearly  all  the 
lives  are  in  pairs;  but  the  series  concluded  with  single  biographies 
^  Artaxerxes,  Axatus  (of  Sicyon),  Galba  and  Otho.  In  the  life 
of  Aratus,  not  Sosius  Senecio,  but  one  Polycrates,  is  addressed. 

The  Lives  are  works  of  great  learning  and  research,  long  lists 
of  authorities  are  given,  and  they  must  for  this  very  reason, 
as  well  as  from  their  considerable  length,  have  taken  many  years 
in  compilation.  It  is  true  that  many  of  the  lives,  especially  of 
Romans,  do  not  show  such  an  extent  of  research.  But  Plutarch 
must  have  had  access  to  a  great  store  of  books,  and  his  diligence 
as  an  historian  cannot  be  questioned,  if  his  accuracy  is  in  some 
points  impeached.  From  the  historian's  point  of  view  the 
weakness  of  the  biographies  is  that  their  interest  is  primarily 
ethicaL  The  author's  ^mp^thy  with  Doric  characters  and 
institutions  is  veiy  evident;  he  delights  to  record  the  exploits, 
the  maxims  and  virtues  of  Spartan  kings  and  generals. 
This  feeling  is  the  key  to  his  apparently  unfair  and  virulent 
attack  on  Herodotus,  who,  as  an  Ionian,  seemed  to  him  to  have 
exaggerated  the  prowess  and  the  foresight  of  the  Athenian 
leaders. 

The  voluminous  and  varied  writings  of  Plutarch  exclusive 
of  the  Lives  are  known  under  the  common  term  Opera  moralia. 
These  consist  of  above  sixty  essays,  some  of  them  long  and 
many  of  them  rather  difficult,  some  too  of  very  doubtful  genuine* 
ness.  Their  literacy  value  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  large 
number  of  citations  from  lost  Greek  poems,  e^;>ecially  verses  of 
the  dramatists,  among  whom  Euripides  holds  by  far  the  first 
place.  The  principal  treatises  in  the  Opera  moraUa  are  the 
following  ^— 

On  the  Bducation  ef  Children  (regarded  as  spurious  bv  some) 
recommends  (l)  good  birth^  and  sobriety  in  the  father;  (3)  good 
diMx>sition  and  good  training  arc  alike  neceasary  for  virtue;  (3) 
a  mother  ought  to  nurs^  her  own  offspring,  on  the  analogy  of  all 
animals;  (4)  the  paedoeogus  must  be  honest  and  trustworthy;  (5) 
all  the  advantages  of  life  and  fortune  must  be  held  secondarj^  to 
education;  (6)  mere  mob-oratory  b  no  part  of  a  good  education; 
(7)  philosophy  should  form  the  principal  study,  out  not  to  the 
exclusion  m  the  other  sciences;  (8;  gymnastics  are  to  be  practised; 
(9)  kindness  and  advice  are  better  than  blows ^  (10)  over-pressure 
in  learning  » to  be  avoided,  and  plenty  of  rslaxatioo  b  to  be  allowed ; 
(11)  self  •control,  and  not  least  over  the  tongue,  is  to  be  learned; 
{12;  the  grown-up  youth  should  be  under  the  eye  and  advice  of  his 
lather,  and  all  bad  company  avoided,  flatterers  included ;  (13)  fathers 
should  not  be  too  harsh  and  exacting,  but  remember  that  tney  were 
themselves  once  youns;  (14)  marriage  is  recommended,  and  without 
disparity  of  rankj  (15)  above  all,  a  father  should  be  an  example  of 
virtue  to  a  son. 

How  a  Young  Man  ought  to  Hear  Poetry  is  largely  made  tip  of 
quotations  from  Homer  and  the  tragic  poets.  The  points  of  the 
essay  are  the  moral  effects  of  poetry  as  combining  the  true  with  the 
falae,  the  praises  of  virtue  ana  heroism  with  a  mythology  depraved 
and  unworthy  of  gods,  detain  ipAn  ^oSK^t  oAk  dalp  0eo£  (|3i). 

'DffMoifk.  I  3.  Plutarch's  orthography  of  Roman  words  and 
names  is  Important  as  bearing  on  the  question  of  pronunciation. 
A  curious  example  (JDt  forhtn.  Rem.  |  5}  is  YirluUs  et  honoris, 
written  CMtpro&r{f  r<  sal  'Oi^pts..  The  Volsct  are  OfoXoOvKot,  ibid. 
.  •  It  Is  quite  evident  that  the  original  order  of  the  books  has  been 
altered  in  the  series  at  Lives  as  we  now  have  them. 


On  the  Ri^  Way  at  Hearinf  («wl  ro8  AnAnr)   advocates  the 

listening  in  nience  to  wnat  is  being  said,  and  not  giving  a  prociuuu 
reply  to  statements  which  may  yet  receive  some  aaditioa  or  modifica- 
tion from  the  speaker  (S  4).  The  hearer  is  warned  m>t  to  eive  too 
much  weight  to  the  style,  manner  or  tone  of  the  speaker  ^f  7),  not 
to  be  either  too  apathetic  or  too  prone  to  praise,  not  to  be  impatirat 
if  he  finds  his  faults  reproved  by  the  lecturer  (I  16).  He  coadudes 
with  the  maxim,  "  to  hear  rightG'  is  the  beginning  of  living  rightly," 
and  perhaps  he  has  in  view  throughout  ms. own  jmilcsflioa  as  a 
lecturer. 

How  a  FlaUerer  may  be  DisHnguishei  from  a  Friend  is  a  rather 
long  and  uninteresting  treatise.  The  ancient  writers  are  full  of 
warnings  against  flatterers,  who  do  not  seem  to  excrdse  mocli 
influence  in  modem  society.  The  really  dangerous  flatterer  (|  4} 
is  not  the  parasite,  but  the  pretender  to  a  disinterested  friendship 
— one  who  affects  similar  tastes,  and  so  insinuates  himsdf  info  your 
confidence.  Your  accomplished  flatterer  does  not  always  prase, 
but  flatters  by  act,  as  when  he  occupies  a  good  scat  at  a  iMblic 
meeting  for  the  express  purpose  of  resigning  it  to  his  patron  (§  15). 
A  true  friend,  on  the  contrary,  qjeaks  frtvly  on  iwopcr  t^^t^^t^'^. 
A  good.part  of  the  essay  turns  on  wpm^tm,  the  nonest  expressioa 
of  opinion.  The  citations,  which  are  fairly  numerous,  are  mostly 
from  Homer. 

How  one  may  be  Conscious  of  Tropess  in  Goodness  is  addressed  ts 
Sosius  Senecio,  who  was  consul  in  the  last  years  of  Ncrva,  and  more 
than  once  (99,  ica.  107)  under  Trajan.  If,  says  Plutarch,  a  maa 
could  become  suddenly  wise  instead  of  foolish,  he  could  not  be 
ignorant  of  the  change;  but  it  b  otherwise  with  moral  or  mental 
processes.  Gradual  advance  in  virtue  is  like  steady  sailing  o\Tr  a 
wide  sea,  and  can  only  be  measured  by  the  time  taken  and  the  foms 
applied  (§  ^).  Zcno  tested  advance  by  dreams  ((  12} ;  if  no  cxcoa 
or  immorahty  presented  itself  to  the  inugination  of  the  sleeper,  kls 
mind  had  been  purged  by  reason  and  philosophy.  When  we  kA-e 
the  truly  good,  ana  adapt  ourselves  to  their  kwks  and  manncrv 
and  thb  even  with  the  loss  of  worldly  pro^rity,  then  we  are  rcaOy 
getting  on  in  goodness  ourselves  (S  15).  Lastly,  the  avoidance  ai 
little  sms  b  an  evidence  of  a  scrupulous  conscience  (§  17). 

How  to  get  Benefit  out  of  Enemies  argues  that,  as  primitive  m2? 
had  savage  animals  to  fight  against,  but  Icamt  to  make  use  <^  thrir 
skins  for  clothing  and  their  flesh  for  food,  so  we  are  bound  to  ters 
even  our  enemies  to  some  good  pujpoae4  One  service  tbey  do  to 
us  is  to  make  us  live  warily  against  plots;  another  is,  tbey  induce  as 
to  live  honestly,  so  as  to  vex  our  rivals  not  by  scolding  them,  bat 
by  making  them  secretly  jealous  of  us  (I  4).  Again,  finding  fault 
leads  us  to  consider  if  we  are  ourselves  faultless,  and  to  be  ioumi 
fault  with  by  a  foe  is  Ukdy  to  be  plain  truth  ^lealdiVt  j^usmilm 
jtfrt  wofii.  T&r  h^pQm  r-^  dXMciCP  (|  6).  Jcaloustes  and  strifes,  sa 
natural  to  man,  arc  diverted  from  our  friends  by  being  legitimately 
expended  on  our  enemies  (§  10}'. 

On  Having  Many  Friends,  On  Chance,  On  Virtue  and  Vice,  aie 
three  short  essays,  the  first  advocating  the  oonoeotratkM  of  one  s 
affections  on  a  few  who  are  worthy  (rate  A^bv*  ^Mm*  Mmw*,  {  4). 
rather  than  diluting  them,  as  it  were,  on  the  many;  the  second 
pleads  that  intelligence,  ^pimitrit,  not  mere  luck,  is  the  ruKag 
principle  of  all  success;  the  thtrd  shows  that  virtue  and  vi 
but  other  names  for  happiness  and  misery.  All  these  ai« 
spersed  with  ciutions  from  the  poets»  several  of  than 
from  other  sources. 

A  longer  treatise,  well  and  clearly  written,  and  not  less  vahuhte 
for  its  many  quotations,  b  the  Consolation  addressed  to  ApeOoains 
(considered  8purioi|i  by  soine)  on  the  early  death  of  his  **  geacraBy 
beloved  and  religious  and  dutiful  son."  £quali^  of  ttiiaa  bodi  ia 
prosperity  and  in  adversity  b  recommended  (§  4),  since,  there  are 

ups  ana  downs  "  (G^t  koI  rumpirip)  in  life,  as  there  are  stoma 
ana  calms  on  the  sea,  and  good  and  baa  seasons  on  the  earth.  That 
man  b  bom  to  reverses  he  ulustcates  by  citing  fifteen  fine  verses  from 
Menander  (i  5).  The  ttsdessness  of  indulging  in  grief  b  pointed  oat, 
death  being  a  debt  to  all  and  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  evil  (||  io-t2). 
Plato's  doctrine  is  cited  (|  13)  that  the  body  b  a  burden  and  aa 
impediment  to  the  soul.  Death  may  be  annihilation,  and  therefore 
the  dead  are  in  the  same  category  as  the  unborn  (§  15).  Tbe  lament- 
ine  a  ileath  because  it  b  untiindy  or  premature  baa  sirmtthiny  of 
selfishness  in  it  ({  19),  besides  that  it  onfy  means  that  one  has  arrived 
sooner  than  another  at  the  end  of  a  common  journey.  -If  a  deatk 
is  more  grievous  because  it  is  untimely,  a  new-bom  mfant's  death 
wooki  be  the  most  grievous  of  all  (|  a^).  One  who  ban  <Sed  early 
may  have  been  spared  many  woes  rather  than  have  beea  dcptiwed 
of  many  blessings;  and,  after  all,  to  die  b  but  to  pay  a' debt  dae  to 
the  goos  when  they  ask  for  it  ({  28).  Examples  are  given  orK)rt]ti»dc 
and  resignation  umf6r  sudi  ufliction  ({  33).  If,  says  the  author 
in  conclusion,  there  is  a  heaven  for  tha  good  hereafter,  be  nure  that 
such  a  son  will  have  a  place  in  It.,  The  author  has  bonowed  from  the 
llflpi  rhOovt  of  Crantor. 

Precepts  about  Health  commences  as  a  dialogue,  and  extends  to 
some  length  as  a  lecture.  It  is  technical  and  difficult  thrDoghoet. 
and  contains  but  little  that  falls  In  with  modem  ideas.  MSk,  be 
says,  should  be  taken  for  food  rather  than  for  driak,  and  wine 
should  not  be  indulged  in  after  hard  work  or  mental  effort*  for  k 
docs  but  tend  to  Increase  the  bodily  disturbance  ((  17).  Better 
than  purges  or  emetics  b  a  temperate  diet,  which  iadttoes  dbe  bodily 


PLUTARCH 


8S^ 


linictioario  act  cf  tlicmiclvet  (I  ^.  Another  wise  taying  ia  that 
idlencw  docs  not  oonduoe  to  health  (oU*  iX^Ms  Irri  rd  ^aXAar  vyitdptuf 
rpdt  ^vxlo*  &70KTas)  ((ai),and  ^et  another  that  a  man  should  Icarn 
by  ex^rience  his  bodiiy  capabilities  without  always  consulting  a 
physician  (fi  a6). 

Adnc*  to  the  Afmrrud  h  addressed  to  his  newly  wedded  friends 
Pollianus  and  Edrydice.  It  is  umply  and  i^lainly  written,  and 
consists  chiefly  of  short  maxims  and  anecdotes,  with  but  few  citations 
from  the  poets. 

The  Banquet  of  the  Seeen  Wise  Men  (considered  sporlooa  by  some) 
is  a  longer  tfcatise,  one  of  tlie  several  "  Symposia  "  or  imaginary 
conversations  that  have  come  down  to  us.  It  is  soraosed  to  be 
given  by  Periander  in  the  public  banqucting-ioom  \J^ti9.t6p*c0) 
near  the  harbour  of  Corinth  (Lechaeum)  on  the  occasion  of  a  sacrifice 
to  Aphrodite.  The  whole  party  oonsuted  of  "  more  than  twice 
•even,"  the  friends  of  the  psindpal  guqsts  being  also  present.  Like 
Plato's  Symposium  this  treatise  takes  the  form  m  a  narrative  of  what 
was  said  and  done,  the  narrator  being  one  Dioclcs,  a  friend  of  Perian- 
der, who  professes  to  give  Nicarchus  a  Correct  account  as  having 
been  present.  The  dinner  was  simple,  and  in  contrast  with  the 
usual  splendour  of  "tyxants*'  (i4)>  The  oonversatioo , turns  on 
various  topics;  Solon  is  credited  with  the  remarkable  cminion  that 
**  a  king  or  tyrant  is  most  likely  to  become  celebrated  it  nc  makes  a 
democracy  out  of  a  monarchy"^(f  7).  There  is  mach  playful  banter 
throughout,  but  neither  the  wit  nor  the  wisdom  seems  of  a  very  high 
standard.  Solon  delivers  a  speech  on  food  being  a  necessity  rather 
than  a  pleasure  of  life  {%  16),  and  oneGorgus,  a  orothcrof  the  host, 
comes  in  to  relate  how  he  has  just  shaken  hands  with  Arion,  brought 
across  the  sea  on  the  back  of  a  dolphin  (f  18),  which  brings  on  a  dis- 
cussion about  the  habits  of  that  creature.  Among  the  s|>eakcr8  are 
Acsopu  Anacharsis.  Thales,  Chilo,  Cleobulus  aad  one  Chersiaa,  a  poet. 

A  snort  essay  On  Superstition  contains  a  good  many  quotations 
from  the  poets.  It  opens  with  the  wise  remark  that  if;norance  about 
the  gods,  which  makes  the  obstinate  man  an  atheist,  also  begets 
credulity  in  weak  and  (>1iant  minds.  The  atheist  fears  nothing 
because  he  belwves  nothing;  the  sinperstitioas  man  believes  there 
are  gods,  but  that  they  are  unfrienoly  to  him  (t  a).  A  man  who 
fears  the  gods  is  never  free  from  fear,  whatever  he  may  do  or  what- 
ever may  befall  him.  He  extends  his  fears  beyond  his  death,  and 
believes  in  the  "  gates  of  hell,"  and  its  fires,  in  the  darkness,  the 

E hosts,  the  infernal  judges,  and  what  not  ((  4).  The  atheist  does  not 
elieve  in  the  gods:  toe  superstitious  man  wishes  he  did  not,  but 
fears  to  disbdieve  (( ii)»  On  the  whole,  this  is  a  most  interesting 
treatise. 

On  Isis  and  Osiris  is  a  rather  long  treatise  on  Egyptian  sjnnbollsm , 
interesting  chiefly  to  students  of  Ejj^ptolonr.  It  gives  an  exposition 
of  the  strange  myths  and  superstitions  of  this  ancient  solar  cult, 
includifij^  a  full  account  of  the  great  antagonist  of  Osiris,  Ty{^on, 
or  the  EjByptiai)  Satan.  Plutarch  thus  lays  down  the  Zoroastrian 
theory  of  good  and  bad  agencies  (f  45):  *'  If  nothing;  can  happen 
without  cause,  and  good  cannot  funush  cause  for  evil,  it  follows  that 
the  nature  of  evil,  as  of  good,  roust  have  an  origin  and  principle  of 
its  own." 

On  the  Cessation  ef  Orades  !s  a  dialogue,  discussing  the  reasons 
why  divine  inspiration  seemed  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  old  seats 
of  prophetic  lore.  The  real  reason  of  their  decline  In  popuburity 
is  probably  very  simple;  when  the  Greek  cities  became  Roman 
provinces  the  fashion  of  consulting  oracles  fell  off,  as  unsuitcd^  to 
the  more  practical  influences  of  Roman  thought  and  Roman  politics. 
The  question  is  discussed  whether  there  are  such  intermediate 
beings  as  daemons,  who  aoooidSng  to  Plato  communicate  the  will 
of  the  gods  toymen,  and  the  prayers  and  vows  of  men  to  th<  gods. 

The  possibility  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  is  entertained,  and  ot  the 
pbnets  being  moro  or  less  composed  of  the  essence  of  the  five 
elements,  fire,  ether,  earth,  air  and  water  (f  37).  The  whole  treatise 
U  metaphysical  but  it  conclades  with  remarks  on  the  exhalations 
at  Delphi  having  different  effects  on  different  people  and  at  different 
times.  The  ancient  notion  doubtless  was  that  the  >'apour  was  the 
breath  of  some  mysterious  being  sent  up  from  the  uncfer-wortd. 

On  the  Pvtkian  ResponseSt  vthy  no  longer  given  in  Verses  is  also  a 
dialogue,  the  first  part  of  i^hich  Is  occupied  mainl^r  with  convef- 
Mtion  and  anecdotes  about  the  statues  ano  other  offerings  at  DslpbL 
It  is  rather  an  amusing  essay,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  kino  of 
appendix  to  the  last.  The  theory  propounded  ($  2^)  is  that  verse 
was  the  older  vehicle  of  philosophy,  history  and  religion,  but  that 
plain  prose  has  boooroe  the  later  fashion,  and  therefore  that  oracles 
are  now  {generally  delivered  "  in  the  sBiie  form  as  laws  speak  to 
citiaens.  kinp  renly  to  their  subjects,  and  scholars  hear  their  teachers 
speak."  Discredit,  too,  was  brought  on  the  verse-oracle  by  the 
facility  with  which  it  was  employed  by  impostors  (%  25).  Moreover, 
verse  is  better  suited  to  ambiguity,  and  oracles  nowadays  have  tess 
need' to  be  ambiguous  (§  88). 

On  the  E  at  ifdPhi  is  an  inquiry  why  that  krtter  or  symbol  was 
written  on  or  in  tne  Delphic  temple.  Some  thought  it  represented 
the  number  five,  others  that  it  introduced  the  inquiry  of  oracle- 
seekers,  //  so-and-so  was  to  be  done:  while  one  of  the  speakers,  Am- 
monius,  decides  that  it  means  K  ,  "  thou  art,"  an  address  to  Apollo 
containing  the  predication  of  existence  (1 17). 

On  Ai  Poft  ef  the  Moon's  Disk  h  a  long  and  curious  if  somewhat 
trifling  speculatioa,  yet  net  without  interest  from  ks  cakniations 


ef  the  sins  and  the  distance  from  earth  of  the  sun  and  moon  (|  10), 
and  from  the  contrast  between  andent  lunar  the«xies  and  modem 
mathematics.  The  cause  of  the  moon's  light,  its  peculiar  ookrar; 
the  ppsnbclity  of  its  being  Inhabited  and  many  kindred  4|UBBtions 
are  discussed  in  this  dialogue^  the  beginning  and  end  of  wtiidi  art 
alike  abrupt.  Some  of  the  "  guesses  at  truth  "  are  very  near  the 
mark,  as  when  it  is  suggested  (fS  91-22)  that  the  meon«  like  the 
earth,  contains  detp  recesses  into  which  the  sun's  Usht  does  sot 
descend,  and  the  appearance  of  the  "  face  "  is  nothing  but  the 
shadows  of  streams  or  of  deep  ravines. 

On  the  Late  VeuMuce  of  the  Deiiv  is  a  dialogue  consequent  on  a. 
supposed  lecture  by  Epicurus.  Aa  objection  is  raised  to  the 
ordinary  dealings  of  providence,'  that  long-delayed  punishment 
enoottfisges  the  sinner  and  disappmnts  the  injured,  the  reply  to 
which  is  (|  5)  that  the  god  sets  man  an  example  to  avoid  Iwsly 
and  precipitate  resentment,  and  that  he  u  willing  to  give  time  for 
repentance  (S  6).  Moreover,  he  may  wish  to  await  the  larth  of 
gcHxl  ^roceny  from  erring  parents  (§  7).  Another  fine  reflection  ia 
that  sin  has  its  own  pumshment  in  causing  misery  to  the  simicr, 
and  thus  the  longer  the  life  the  greater  is  the  share  of  misery  (|  9). 
The  essay  concludes  with  a  long  story  about  one  Thespcsius,  and 
the  treatment  which  he  saw,  during  a  trance,  of  the  souls  m  the  other 
world. 

OH'  Fate  (probably  spurious)  discussed  the  law  of  dianoe  as  i^ainst 
the  overruling  of  ^videnoe;  This  treatise  ends  abniptly ;  the  point 
of  the  ar^ment  is  that  both  fate  and  provklence  have  their  due 
influence  m  mundane  affairs  (f  9},  and  that  all  things  are  constituted 
for  the  best. 

On  the  Genius  ef  Socrates  ia  a  bnflr  essay,  and,  like  so  many  of  the 
rest,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.  The  experiences  of  one  flmaiehnt, 
and  his  supernatural  visions  in  the  cave  of  Trophonius,  are  related 
at  length  m  the  Platonic  style  <S  32),  and  the  true  nature  of  the 
tmlfiamt  is  revealed  to  him.  They  are  the  souls  of  the  just,  who 
still  retain  res^ard  fcM-  human  affairs  and  assist  the  good  in  their 
efforts  after  virtue  (f  28).  The  dialogue  ends  with  an  interesting 
narrative  of  the  concealment  of  Pcbpidas  and  some  of  the  Theban 
conqiiratons  against  the  Spartans  in  the  house  ot  Ciiaron. 

On  Exile  is  a  fine  essay,  rendered  the  more  interesting  from  Its 
numerous  quotations  from  the  poets,  including  several  from  the 
Phoenissae.  Man  is  not  a  plant  that  grows  only  in  one  soil;  he 
belongs  to  heaven  rather  than  to  earth,  and  wherever  he  goes  there 
are  the  same  sun,  the  same  seasons,  the  same  providence,  the  same 
laws  of  virtue  and  justice  (S  <),  There  u  no  discredit  in  being  driven 
from  one's  country;  Apollo  himself  was  banished  from  heaven  and 
condemned  to  live  for  a  time  on  earth  ((  18). 

The  Consolation  to  his  Wife,  on  the  early  death  of  their  only 
daughter  Timoxena  (f  7),  is  a  feeling  and  sensible  exhortation  to 
moderate  her  grief. 

Nine  books  of  Symposiaca  extend  to  a  great  length,  discussing 
inquiries  {rpofikt^tiaTe)  on  a  vast  number  of  subjects.  The  general 
treatment  of  these,  in  which  great  literary  knowledge  is  displayed, 
is  not  unlike  the  style  of  Athcnaeus. 

The  Amorous  Man  is  a  dialogue  of  some  kngth,  describing  a  con- 
versation on  the  nature  of  love  held  at  Helicon,  pending  a  quin- 
aiennial  feast  of  the  Thespians,  who  specially  worshipped  that  aeity 
ong  with  the  Muses.  It  b  amply  illustratcci  by  poetiatl  quotatmns. 
In  §  24  mention  is  made  ef  the  emperor  Vespasian.  It  is  followed 
by  a  short  treatise  entitled  Love  .Stoney,  giving  a  few  narratives  of 
sensational  adventures  of  lovers. 

Short  iShvKRgi  (Avo^Mrpcara),  dedicated  to  Trajan,  extend  to  a 
great  lenath,  and  are  divided  into  three  parts:  u)  of  kings  and 
commanders  (including  many  Roman);  (2)  of  Spartans;  (3)  of 
Spartan  women  (a  snort  treatise  on  Spartan  institutions  oeing 
interposed  between  the  last  two).  The  names  of  the  authora  are 
added,  and  to  some  of  them  a  laige  number  of  maxims  are  attributed. 

A  rather  bne  treatise  On  Uie  Virtues  of  Women  contains  a  series 
of  narratives  of  noble  deeds  done  by  the  sex  in  times  of  danger 
and  trouble,  especially  from  "  tyrants."  Many  of  the  stories  are 
interesting,  and  the  stvle  is  easy  and  good. 

Another  long  and  learned  work  tekrs  the  rather  obscure  title 
TU^dKaluif  earaypa^.  It  is  generally  known  as  Quaestionet  JRo- 
inanae  and  Craeeae,  in  two  parts.  In  the  former,  which  contains 
one  hundred  and  thirteen  headfaigs,  the  inquiry  (on  some  matter 
political,  religious  or  antiquarian)  always  commences  with  tti  rl, 
usually  followied  by  9&rtpo»,  with  alternative  explanations.  In  the 
Greeh  Questions  the  form  of  inquiry  is  more  often  rlt  or  rlwr,  not 
followed  by  v^«por.  This  treatise  is  of  great  interest  and  import- 
ance to  classical  archaeology,  though  the  inquiries  seem  ocratlosiiilly 
trifling,  and  sometimes  the  answers  are  clearly  wrong. 

Parallds  (spurious)  are  a  series  of  similar  incidents  which  occurred 
respectively  to  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  Greek  standing  first  and  the 
Roman  counterpart  foUoWing.  Many  of  the  charactert  are  mytho- 
k>gical,  though  Plutaroh  regards  them  as  historical. 

On  the  Fortune  of  the  Romans  discusses  whether,  on  the  whole, 
good  tuck  or  valour  had  more  influence  in  giving  the  Romans  the 
supremacy.  This  is  followed  by  two  discourses  on  the  same 
question  as  applicable  to  the  career  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
whether  the  Athenians  were  more  renowned  for  Won  or  for  Wisdom? 
The  conclusion  is  (§  7)  that  it  was  not  so  much  by  the  Lame  of  their 
poets  as  by  the  deeds  of  their  heroes  that  Athens  bccaiAe  renowned. 


86o 


PLUTARCH— PLUTO 


CryUus  is  a  most  amasine  dialogne;  in  which  Circe,  Odysseus  and 
a  talking  pig  Ulce  part.  Odysseus  wishes  that  all  the  human  bdnp 
that  have  Men  changed  by  the  sorceress  into  bestial  forms  should 
Jbe  restored;  but  the  pig  argues  that  in  morsl  virtues,  such  as  true 
bravery,  chastity,  temperance  and  general  simplicity  c^  life  and 
contentment,  animals  are  very  far  superior  to  man. 
:  Wkdker  Land  Animals  or  Water  Animals  are  the  Clatrer  is  a 
father  long  dialogue  on  the  intelligence  of  ants,  bees,  elephants, 
spiders,  dogs,  &c.,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  crocodile,  the  dolphin, 
the  tunny  and  many  kinds  of  fish,  on  tlie  other.  This  is  a  g^xxl 
essay,  much  in  the  style  of  Aristotle's  History  of  Animals. 

On  Fksh-eating,  in  two  orations,  discusses  the  origin  of.  the 
practice,  viz.  ncces»ty,  and  makes  a  touching  appeal  to  man  not 
to  destroy  life  for  mere  gluttony  {%  a).  This  b  a  short  but  very 
sensible  and  interesting  argument.  Questions  on  Plato  are  ten  in 
number,  each  heading  subdivided  into  several  speculative  replies. 
The  sid>jects  are  for  the  most  part  metaphyncal;  the  essay  is  not 
long,  but  it  concerns  Platonists  only.  Wnetker  Water  or  Fin  is 
more  Us^iU  is  also  short:  after  discussing  the  uus  of  both  dements 
it  decides  in  favour  of  the  bttcr,  since  nothing  can  exceed  in  im- 
portance  the  warmth  of  life  and  the  light  of  the  sun.  On  Primary 
Cold  is  a  i^ysical  speculation  on  the  true  nature  and  origin  of 
the  quality  antithetical  to  heat.     Physical  Reasons  {Quaestiones 


Why 


Why 


does  pouring  <m1  on  the  sea  pnxluce  a  calm  ?  "  On  the  Opinions 
accepted  by  the  Philosophers  (spurious),  in  five  books,  is  a  valuable 
compendium  of  the  views  of  the  Ionic  school  and  the  Stoics  on  the 
phenomena  of  the  universe  and  of  life.  On  the  lU-nature  of  Herodotus 
IS  a  well-known  critique  of  the  historian  for  his  unfairness,  not  only 
to  the  Boeotians  and  Lacedaemonians,  but  to  the  Corinthians  and 
other  Grecsk  states.  It  is  easy  to  say  that  this  essay  "  neither 
requires  nor  merits  refutation  ":  but  Plutarch  knew  history,  and  he 
writes  like  one  who  thoroughly  understands  the  charges  which 
he  brings  against  the  historian.  The  laves  of  the  Ten  OratorsHtxun 
Antiphon  to  Dtnarchus  (now  conndcred  spurious)  are  biographies 
of  various  lengths,  compiled,  doubtless,  from  materials  now  lost. 

Two  father  long  easstys.  Should  a  Man  engage  in  Politics  wftrii  he 
is  no  longitr Young,  and  Prece^for  Gooeming^MtruiA  rapayyi^vru), 
are  interspersed  with  valuable  quotations.  In  favour  of  the 
former  view  the  administrations  of  Pericles,  of  Agcsilaus,  of 
Augustus,  are  cited  (I  2),  and  the  preference  of  older  men  for  the 
pleasures  of  doing  good  over  the  pieaisures  of  the  senses  (§5).  I  n  the 
latter,  the  true  use  of  eloquence  is  discussed,  and  a  contrast  drawn 
between  the  brilliant  and  risky  and  the  slow  and  safe  policy  (S  10). 
The  choice  of  friends,  and  th^  caution  against  enmities,  the  dangers 
of  lovct  of  gain  and  of  ambition,  with  many  topicsof  the  like  kind, 
•re  sendbly  advanced  and  illustrated  by  examphis. 

(F.A.P.;  J.M.M.) 

BiBLiOGRArBY. — Editio  princeps,  by  H.  Stephanus  (1572);  other 
complete  editions  by  J.  T.  Rciske  (1774-1782),  J.  G.  Hutten  (1791- 
Ito4),  T.  Ddhner  and  F.  DQbner  (1846-185S).  Of  the  Lives,  there 
are  editkms  by  A.  Coray  (i8o9~t8i4>,  C  Smtenis  (183^1846;  ed. 
min*.  l874r-i88i),  and  of  many  separate  lives  by  Siefert-Blass, 
Sintenis-Fuhr,  Holdcn,  Hardy  and  others.  There  are  many  Engli^ 
translations,  of  which  the  most  popular  is  that  by  John  and  William 


l^nghome;  also  the  old  French  versTon  by  Jacques  Amyot  (1559) 
im  which  Sir  Thomas  North's  (157$^)  was  made,  newly  editod 
.' G.  Wyndbam  (1895);  n 
Uicd,  .with  notes,  by  George  Long.    The  hforalia  has  been  edited 


many 


fi's  (I 
of  th( 


e  Roman  lives  have  been  trans- 


by  D.  Wyttenbach  (1705-1830),  and  G.  N.  Bernardakes  (1888-1896). 
The  old  EMiish  translation  by  Philemon  Holland  (1603^)  kns  been 
revised  by  C.  W.  King  and  A.  K.  Shilkto  in  Bohn's  Classuoal  Library 
(1882-1888),  and  a  later  translation  by  various  hands  (London, 
1684-1694).  edited  by  W.  W.  Goodwin  with  introductk>n  by  R.  W. 
Emerson,  has  been  republidicd  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts  (1874- 
1878).  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  P.  Holland's  Romane  Questions. 
edited  with  introductory  dissertations  by  F.  B.  Jcvons  (1892) :  Roman 
Problems,  with  essay  on  "  Roman  Worship  and  Belief,*^  by  G.  C. 
Allen  (1904);  De  la  Musigue,  ed.  H.  Weil  and  Th.  Reinach  (1900); 
T.  OalKsmtth,  The  Religion  of  Plutarch  as  expounded  in  his  Ethics 
[1902);  Archbishop  Trench,  A  Popular  Introduction  to  Plutarch 
[1873):  O.  Gr6ard.X7e  la  Morale  de  Plularque  (1866);  R.  Volkmann. 
t«6tf»,  Schiiften  und  PhOosophie  des  Plutarch  (1869).  The  eariier 
literature  of  Plutarch  is  very  extensive,  for  which  W.  Engelmann, 
Scriplores  gfoed  (1881),  may  be  consuhed. 

PLUTARCH,  of  Athens  (c.  350-430),  Greek  philosopher, 
head  of  the  Neoplatonist  school  at  Athens  at  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  century,  was  the  son  of  Nestorius  and  father  of 
Hierius  and  Asdepigenia,  who  were  his  colleagues  in  the  school. 
The  oripn  of  Neoplatonism  in  Athens  is  not  known,  but  Plutarch 
and  his  followers  (the  "  Platonic  Succession  ")  claim  to  be  the 
disciples  of  lamblichus,  and  through  him  of  Porphsrry  and 
PlotinuSi  Plutarch's  main  principle  was  that  the  study  of 
Aristotle  must  precede  that  of  Plato,  and  that  the  student  should 
l>e  Uug^t  to  realize  piiiaanly  the  fimdamental  points  of  agree- 


ment between  them.    With  this  object  he  wrote  «  conmcntaxj 

on  the  De  anima  which  was  the  most  important  oontribntioa 

to  Aristotelian  literature  since  the  time  of  Alexander  of  Aphio- 

disias.    His  example  was  followed  by  Syrianus  and  others  of 

the  schooL    This  critical  spirit  reached  its  greatest  height  in 

Proclus,   the  ablest  exponent  of  this  latter-day    syncrclaro. 

Plutarch  was  versed  in  all  the  theurgic  traditions  of  the  school, 

and  believed  in  the  possibility  of  attaining  to  communion  with 

the  Deity  by  the  medium  of  the  thenr;^  rites.  -  Unlike  the  Alex- 

andrists  and  the  eariy  Renaissance  writers,  he  maintained 

that  the  soul  wbich  is  bound  up  in  the  body  by  the  tics  of  imag;ina- 

tion  and  sensation  does  not  perish  with  the  corporeal  media  01 

sensation.    In  psychology,  while  believing  that  Reason  is  the 

basis  and  foundation  of  all  consciousness,  he  interposed  between 

sensation  and  thought  the  faculty  of  Imagination,  whkh,  as 

distinct  from  both,  is  the  activity  of  the  soul  under  the  stlmalcs 

of  unceasing  sensation.    In  other  words,  ft  provides  the  raw 

material  for  the  operation  of  Reason.    Reason  b  present  ia 

children  as  an  inoperative  potentiality,  in  adults  as  working 

upon  the  data  of  sensation  and  imagination,  and,  in  its  pore 

activity,  it  is  the  transcendental  or  pure  intelligence  of  God. 

See  Marinus,  Vita.  Prodi,  6,  12:  Zcller's  History  of  Creek  PkSo- 
sophy;  Bouillct,  Enntades  de  Plotin,  ii.  667-^;  WindeRnsd. 
History  of  Philosophy  (trans.  }.  H.  Tufts,  p.  225). 

PLUTO  (nXo&rcop),  in  Gredd  mythology,  the  god  of  the 
lower  world.  His  oldest  name  was  Hades,  Aides  or  ASdoneus, 
"  the  Unseen."  He  was  the  son  of  Cronus  and  Rhea,  and  brcther 
of  Zeus  and  Poseidon.  Having  deposed  Cronus,  the  brothers  cast 
lots  for  the  kingdoms  of  the  heaven,  the  sea,  and  the  infenal 
regions.  The  last,  afterwards  known  as  Hades  from  thdr 
ruler,  fell  to  Pluto.  Here  he  ruled  with  his  wife  Tcacphost 
over  the  other  powers  below  and  over  the  dead.  He  is  slcn 
and  pitiless,  deal  to  prayer  or  flattery,  and  sacrifice  to  him  is  of 
no  avail;  only  the  music  of  Orpheus  prevafled  upon  him  to  reston 
his  wife  Eurydlce.  His  helmet,  given  him  by  the  C>xlopes 
after  their  release  from  Tartarus,  rendeced  him  invisihle  (fike 
the  Tarn— or  Nebelkappe  of  German  mythology).  He  is  hatad 
and  feared  by  gods  and  men,  who,  afraid  to  utter  his  xtame, 
both  in  daily  life  and  on  solemn  occasions  make  nse  of  ctqils- 
mistic  epithets:  Polydectes  (the  receiver  of  many),  Qjrmeniis  (the 
Illustrious),  Eubulus  (the  giver  of  good  counsel).  Later,  owu^ 
to  his  connesdon  with  Persephone  and. under  the  influence  of 
the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  the  idea  of  his  character  underarczt 
a  radical  change.  Instead  of  the  life-hating  god  of  death,  he 
became  a  beneficent  god,  the  bestower  of  grain,  minerals^  aad 
other  blessings  produced  in  the  depths  of  the  earth.  In  ths 
aspect  he  was  called  Pluto,  the  "  giver  of  wealth  **  (a  name  that 
first  occurs  in  the  Attic  poets  of  the  sth  centuiy),  and  at  most 
of  the  centres  of  hb  cult  he  was  so  worshipped;  at  EUs  alooe  he 
was  Hades,  the  god  of  the  dead.  The  plants  sacred  to  hia 
were  the  cypress  and  narcissus;  black  victims  were  sacrificed  to 
him,  not  wlute,  like  those  oflei^d  to  the  other  gods.  In  an  he 
was  represented  like  Zeus  and  Poseidon;  his  features  are  ^oocy, 
his  hair  falb  over  his  forehead;  his  attributes  are  a  stcptre  and 
Cerberus;  he  carries  the  key  of  the  world  below  (cf.  the  epithet 
TvK&prrp,  "  keeper  of  the  gate  "),  and  is  frcqucnUy  in  compax^y 
with  Persephone^  He  is  sometimes  represented  as  an  agri- 
caltuial  god,  carrying  a  camu  copiae  and  a  two-pitmgcd  task. 
Amongst  the  Romans  Hades  was  usually  called  Ois  pater  (the 
"wealthy  father")  and  Qrcus,  although  the  name  Fluto  is 
often  used.  Orcus,  however,  was  rather  the  actual  slayer,  tht 
angel  of  death,  while  Father  Dis  was  the  ruler  of  the  dead 
The  Etruscan  god  of  death  was  represented  as  a  sava^  old  r%za 
with  wings  and  a  hammer;  at  the  gladiatorial  games  of  Rome  a 
man  masked  after  this  fashion  removed  the  corpses  fron  the 
arena.  In  Romanesque  folk-lore  Orcus  (possibly  Kngtwh  '*  ogre,'' 
q.t.)  has  passed  into  a  forest-elf,  a  black,  hairy,  man-caticg 
monster,  upon  whose  house  children  lost  in  the  woods  are  apt 
to  stumble,  and  who  sometimes  shows  himself  kiadlj  and 
helpful. 

The  "  house  of  Hades  "  was  a  dreadful  abode  deep  doww  ia  the 
earthf  axid  the  god  was  invoked  by  mppiag  on  the  ground. 


PLUTOQRACY— PLYMOUTH 


86i 


CO  anotlMr  yicvi  the  realm  of  Hades  was  beyond,  tho  oooto  ta 
the  far  west,  which  to  the  Creek  was  always  the  region  of  darkness 
and  death,  as  the  east  of  light  and  lifCi  This  is  the  view  of  Hades 
presented  ia  the  Odvsuy.  Besides  this  gloomy  region,  we  find  in 
another  passage  of  the  Odyssey  (iv.  561  seq.)  a  picture  of  Elysium^ 
a  haopy  land  at  the  ends  of  the  earth,  where  caia  and  snow  fall 
not,  out  the  cool  west  wind  blows  and  men  live  at  ease.  After 
Homer  this  happy  land,  the  abode  of  the  good  after  death,  was 
known  as  the  Isles  of  the  Blest  (g^.).^  But  in  the  oldest  Creek , 
mythology  the  *'  house  of  Hades  "  was  simply  the  home  of  the  dead. 
good  and  bad  alike,  who  led  a  dim  and  shadowy  reflection  of  life 
on  earth. 

See  article  "  Hades."  in  ^axher'iZexikon  fer  SfythofStU',  Ptdler- 
Robert»  Criechische  SfytkohgU  (1894) ;  L.  FamdL  Ci/At  of  Ihe  Cfeek 
Stales,  voL  iii.,  who  regards  Hades  as  an  e\T>lution  from  Zeus  and 
his  counterpart:  according  to  J.  E.  Harrison,  id  CUusical  Review 
(Feb.  E906>.  Hades  is  the  uoder-world  son. 

PLUTOCRACY  (Cr.  TXovrOK/tarCa,  frokn  rXoCrof,  wealth, 
end  jqpdrot.  power)!  government  or  power  exercised  by  the 
possessors  of  wealth,  power  obtained  by  the  mere  possessioD 
of  riches ;  hence  a  body  or  ruling  class  whose  influence  is  due  only 
to  their  money. 

PLUTO  ■0HK8T,  a  gueoon.  Cercopithecus  {Mand)  kuarmPyx, 
nearly  allied  to  the  Mon'a  (q.v).  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
black  fur  of  the  imder-parts,  passing  into  blackish  grey  on  the 
head  &ad  back.  The  violet-eoloufed  face,  which  has  00  beard, 
is  fringed  by  large  bushy  whiskers  and  surmounted  by  a  white 
band  above  the  brows.  The  range  of  the  spedes  extends  from 
the  Congo  and  Angola  to  Nyasaland.    (Sec  Prixaies.) 

PLUTUS,  in  Greek  mytlK>logy,  son  of  lasion  and  Demeter, 
the  personification  of  wealth  (rXotrof).  According  to  Aristo- 
phanes, he  wiu  bUnded  by  Zeus  because  he  distributed  his  gifts 
without  regard  to  merit.  At  Thebes  there  was  a  statue  of  For- 
tune  holding  the  child  PIntus  in  her  arms;  at  Athens  he  was 
similarly  represented  in  the  arms  of  Peace;  at  Thespiae  he  was 
represented  standing  beside  Athena  the  Worker.  Elsewhere 
he  was  represented  as  a  boy  with  a  eornu  copiat.  He  is  the  subject 
of  one  of  the  extant  comedies  of  Aristophanes,  the  Fltdus. 

PLTTOUTH.  EARLS  0F»  a  title  first  borne  by  Charles 
(1657-1680),  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  English  king  Charles  U. 
by  Catharine  Pegge,  who  was  created  ead  in  1675.  '^^  ^c 
became  extinct  on  his  death  in  October  16S0.  In  1682  Thomas 
Windsor  Hickman-Windsor,  i\h  Baron  Windsor  de  Stanwel! 
{e.  1627-1687),  who  had  fought  for  Charles  L  at  Naseby,  was 
created  earl  of  Plymouth.  His  father  was  Dixie  Hickxnan  of 
Kew,  Surrey,  and  his  mother,  Elizabeth,  was  a  sister  of  Thomas 
Windsor,  6th  Baron  Windsor  de  StanwcU  (1596-1641):  ha\-ing 
inherited  the  estates  of  his  uncle  and  taken  the  additional  name 
of  Windsor,  the  abeyance  of  the  barony  of  Windsor  de  StanweH 
was  terminated  in  his  favour  and  he  became  the  7th  baron. 
From  1 661-1663  ^  ^*^  nominally  governor  of  Jamaica.  His 
grandson  Other  (t679~i725)  was  the  2nd  earl,  and  the  earidom 
became  extinct  when  Henry,  the  8th  earf,  died  in  December 
1843.  Called  again  out  of  abeyance,  the  barony  of  Windsor 
came  in  z^SS  to  Harriet,  a  daughter  of  Other  Archer,  the  6th 
eari  ( r7Sg-i  833) ,  and  the  wife  of  Robert  Henry  Clive  (i  789-1854) . 
a  younger  son  of  Edward  Clive,  ist  earl  of  Powis.  She  was 
succeeded  in  i860  by  her  grandson.  Robert  George  Wlndsor- 
CUve,  who  became  the  14th  Baron  Windsor.  After  serving  as 
paymaster-general  in  1891-1892  and  first  commissioner  of  works 
from  1002-1005,  Lord  Windsor  was  created  eari  of  Plymouth  in 
igoj. 

^  The  Samoa n  Islanders  unite  the  two  conceptions:  the  entrance , 
to  their  spirit'land  is  at  the  westernmost  point  of  the  westernmost 
island,  where  the  ghosts  descend  by  two  Mies  into  the  under-workl. , 
Long  ago  the  inhabitattts  of  the  French  coast  of  the  English  Channel  ■ 
believed  that  the  souls  of  -the  dead  were  ferried  across  to  Britain. ' 
and  there  arc  still  traces  of  this  belwf  in  the  folk-lore  of  Brittany 
(y y\or ;  Primittce  Culture,  ii.  64 1  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythoicgie.  n. 
694).     In  classical  mythology  the  underground  Hades  pre^'ailed 
over  the  western.    It  was  an  Etruscan  custom  at  the  foundation 
of  a  city  to  dig^  a  deep  hole  in  the  earth  and  close  it  with  a  stone: 
on  three  days  m  the  year  this  stone  «'as  removed  and  the  ghosts 
were  then  supposed  to  ascend  from  the  tower  wortd.    In  Asa  Minor 
caves  filled  With  mephittc  vapours  or  containing  hot  springs  were 
known  as  Plutonia  or  Charonia.    The  most  famous  entrances  to 
the  under-worid  were  at  Taenarum  in  Lacotiia,  Heradca  on  the 
Euxine,  and  at  the  Lake  Aveni«s  in  Italy. 


PLTVOmrH,  8  uumdpal  covAiy  (1688.  ettended  18^ 
AAd  pariianentAfy  boroogh  «nd  stitpoct  of  Devonshift,  E«gianft 
231-  m.  W.S.W.  of  LondoB.  Pop.-  (1910),  T26,266.  It  lies  at 
the  head  of  Plymouth  $ound,  stretching  wtstward  from  the 
liver  Plym  towards  the  mouth  of  tho  Tamar,  irou  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  township  of  East  Stonchodse  and  tJbe  borough 
of  Devooporti  the  t«a  later  constituting  »itb  it  the  "^  Three 
Towns."  The  prince  of  Wales  is  lord  high  stemutl  ol  the 
borough*  which  is  divided  into  14  \Mards,  under  a  mayor, 
14  aldfrmrn-  and  4^  couacillon.  The  parliamentary  borough, 
returning  two  members,  is  not  coextensive  with  the  municipal 
borough,  port  of  the  latter  being  in  the  Tavistock  (county)  division 
of  Pevon.  The  water  frontage  of  the  Three  Towns  consists 
of  Plymouth  Sound,  with  its  inlets,  in  order  from  east  to  west» 
the  Catwater,  Sutton  Pod,  MiU  Bay,  Stonehoose  Pool  and  the 
Hampaze.  The  Catwater  and  Hamoaze  are  flanked  on  the  east 
and  west  respectively  by  high  ground,  on  which  are  built  fort» 
that  command  the  harbour  and  its  approaches.  On  the  western 
side  of  the  entrance  to  Catwater  is  the  Citadel,  iounded  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  \TII.  and  rebuilt  by  Charles  II.  The  adjacent 
Hoe  extends  along  the  northern  edge  of  the  Sound,  and  from  it 
can  be  obtained  a  splendid  view,  embracing  the  rugged  Staddoh 
Heights  on  the  east  and  the  vpxxxicd  slopes  of  Blount  Edgcumbeoti 
the  west.  To  the  north  is  seen  the  town  of  Plymouth  rising  up 
to  the  hills  known  as  Mannamead.  On  the  site  of  an  old  Trinity 
House  obelisk  landmark  is  Smeaton's  lighthouse  tower,  removed 
from  its  original  position  on  the  Eddystone  Reef  in  1S84.  It 
is  now  used  as  a  wind-recooiing  station  in  connexion  with 
the  adjoining  Meteorological  Observatory.  On  the  Hoe  theite 
stands  the  striking  Drake  statue  by  Sir  Edgar  Boehm,  and  the 
Armada  Memorial,  while  at  the  north-east  end  is  an  obelisk 
monument  to  the  memory  of  troops  engaged  In  the  South  African 
War.  A  municipal  bowling-green  recalls  a  probable  earty 
use  of  the  Hoe.  Adjacent  to  the  Citadel,  at  its  south-west  angle, 
is  the  Marine  Biological  Station,  and.  further  west,  projects  the 
Promenade  Pier.  In  the  Sound  is  Drake's  (formerly  St  Nicholas's) 
Island,  now  strongly  fortified,  at  one  time  the  property  of  the 
corporation,  and  serving  in  Stuart  times  as  a  place  of  imprison- 
ment of  certain  Plymouth  Baptist  ministers.  Fewe\-idenccs, 
however,  oL  the  antiquity  of  the  to'tvn  remain.  Below,,  and  tx> 
the  north-east  of  the  Citadel,  is  the  Barbican  with  its  "  May- 
flower "  conunemoration  stone,  a  large  fish-buying  trade  beiqg 
done  on  the  adjacent  quay,  near  which  is  the  Custom  House. 
From  the  Barbican  winding  streets  lead  past  the  old  Guildhall 
(iSoo)  which  contained  the  municipal  library,  pending  its 
rem6^'al  to  more  commodious  quarters  in  the  new  museum, 
opposite  the  technical  and  art  schools,  situated  in  the  most 
northern  part  of  the  tou'n.  At  a  short  distance  west  stands 
the  new  Guildhall,  with  the  enlarged  post  office,  central  police 
station,  law  courts  and  municipal  buildings  in  close  proximity. 
Opened  in  1874,  the  Guildhall  is  built  in  a  bold,  rather  exotic. 
Early  Pointed  French  style.  The  tower  at  the  south-west  end 
is  190  ft.  high,  and  the  buHding  is  ornamented  with  ft  series  of 
coloured  xiindows  relating  to  events  in  the  history  of  Plymouth 
or  commemorating  men  and  famih'cs  connected  with  the  town. 
The  large  hall  contains  a  fine  organ.  In  the  mayor's  parlour 
is  a  contemporary  portrait  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  and  some 
interesting  prints  of  the  town  of  Pl>'mouth. 

Near  the  eastern  entrance  to  Guildhall  Square*  is  St  Andrews, 
the  mother  church  of  Plymouth,  erected  on  thfr  site  of  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin.  The  church  is  typical  of  the  Devon- 
shire Perpendicular  style  of  1456-1520,  but,  though  large,  pre- 
senu  few  features  of  artistic  or  archaeological  interest.  It 
underwent  complete  restoration  In  1874.  The  bur>-ing-ground 
on  the  north  side  has  been  levelled,  and  on  ft  erected  a  stohe 
monument.  The  church,  furnished  with  one  of  the  finest 
organs  in  the  west  of  England,  contains  the  tombs  of  a  son  of 
Admiral  Vernon,  of  Sir  John  Skelton  (a  former  governor  of 
the  CitadeH.  and  of  Charies  Mathews  the  comedian,  as  well  as 
portions  of  the  bodies  of  Frobisher  and  Drake.  Hero  Katherine 
of  Aragon  returned  thanks  for.  a  safe  voyage  from  Spain  to 
Plymouth.    In  1640  a  second  parish  was  formed  sritb  Chatbs 


Cluiitft<it;S)  Mill  boKLtbi  lul^MBcd  bciiig  popuUrfy  ioawa !, 
u  New  Oiiuch.  in  coDtndiitiiiclfoii  ra  SI  Andnm  or  "  Old 
Church."  Thit  Hen  Chuith  ii  ta  Inumtiiig  (pediata  ol 
Etiun  "dcbuot"  Colhic  uchiucture.  South  of  Asdnwa 
cbmch  JA  the  kite  of  a  Frandican  Fiiuy  with  lome  arij  I  ^th> 
cenlnry  nnuiB>-  Near  the  cbmcb  uc  ■  few  old  booio  i^lered 
(long  the  crooked  litik  umu  gojif  down  ts  tfaa  wMcr.  Ibete 
bouia  data  (ram  EliabMhia  tiniej,  t>ut  ue  not  ol  my  unimiLl 
bteRit.    Tbs  Citadel  (dow  uied  u  umy  beadqouten  *ad 


StOHhOuK  Crnll,  ii  undn-  tlv  is^  ni- 
itloB  o(  Ptymoutli,  SlsndKw  ud 


Tb«  towiuUp  of  E 
bavinc  PlynoiUh  m  the  eait,  h 
mted  frraa  Devonport  oa  the  «i*t  oy  ua 
StOMhouM  Foot  Creeh.  wliicb  a  cmw^ 
by  a  toU-bridfoaad  ihorougbbrc  kao«i 
.l(>[llly  as  the  "  Half-penny  Gale  Biidgi. ' 
A  nuioc  o<  the  Mount  Edanabc  isiiaS]. 
"    "  "'      '  urban  dblrvcl^  a 

ninty    of    I>Aca, 


united  fot  paiUimmtuy  pupoeca  nJi 
J>evonportj  with  which  it  rctume  Ivo 
memlien.  Within  the  boundaiis  rf 
Stonclwuie  are  the  Royal  Karal  Ho^ 
pilol  Ul6i),  the  Rojil  Maiina  Bamcb 
(1795)  in  Durnfonl  Sinec,  aiwl  tbt 
Koyal  William  VJiniaUing  Yud  iii:;). 
the  last-saoied  htring  favntage  on  tie 
Himniw,  which  iepuitt*  tba  Deia 
from  the  Cozniih  poitioa  of  the  StcnchosK 

The  Staochufe)  of  Domeaday  Bo^ 
ulLimalely  pancd  idio  tlie  banda  of  the 

home  ttood  on  the  Coniish  aide  o4  (hr 
~  (to  (juote  Carew'a  Swwjl 


to  old  n 


a  yet 


bamcks)  [1 1  fine  qwcboen  of  iTth-ontiuy  military  uch!lec- 
ture.  It  is  u  icregulu  butioncd  pcnlacon  in  Irace.  It  poi- 
teua  a  &ne  florid  '■^■*«*'-*l  gateway.  ^  In  the  centre  itanda  a 
dignjfled  Jacobean  boiue,  once  Ih«  niidencc  of  the  govemor 
ol  Plymouth. 

Plymouth  ii  the  seal  of  a  Romas  Catholic  tnibopric  founded 
in  iSji,  the  cathedral,  in  Wyodham  StTCet,  bdns  coaipleted  in 
iSjtl  thiODSh  the  eflorts  ol  Biihop  Vaughan,  who  wai  the  lecond 
occupant  of  the  see  (until  i^i).  Ihe  building  Ii  in  the  Early 
EDghih  ityle.  and  adjoining  ate  the  bisHop'j  house  and  Ihe 
convent  of  Notre  Dame.  In  the  immcdiite  vidnity  is  the  only 
Prohyterian  church  In  the  Three  Towns.  Nolewoithy  among 
the  many  Nonconformist  places  of  worship  are  the  Saptist 
cbape)  (George  Street),  wilfa  its  Ublet  recording  the  imprison- 
ment of  ffiinistrts  on  Drake's  Island;  Shcrwetl  (Congregatiooal) 
on  the  Tavistock  Road,  the  most  ornate  in  its  nyle  of  uthitec- 
ture^  the  Wesicyan  hiethodist  chapel  in  the  intin  thoioughfare 
of  the  residential  suburb  of  hlutlfy,  unique  ontonj  ^letJiodist 
edifices  ia  the  town  in  respect  ol  iti  fine  spire.  All  the  principal 
religious  bodies  have  pUcei  for  worship  or  for  assembly  in  the 
lovn.and  the  borough  has  given,  in  popular  speech,  the  name  ol 
"  Plymouth  Brethren  "  to  one  body. 

In  addition  to  the  Plyinoinh  Collide  (forhoyi],  there  are  sennl 
educational  (nttitulions  adrainistertil  by  the  boroueh  aiundl, 
corapriiing  a  icieim,  in  and  itchnleal  Khaol.  a  miitd  secondary 
_i„i  — 1.^._  ... ■ ^  j^ji^i  ^  EliMbKhan 


firm  the  nei^bouit'  report  thai  aen 
the  water'x  aide,  there  Hood  osKe  s 
towne  called  Wot  stooe  home  until  thf 
fKnch  (ijjo?)  by  hie  and  nroRl  onr 
thiewit." 

St  George-a  (179a]  la  ifae  oldra  d 
-  the  three  parishes  of  Stonehoqsc,  aad  « 
the  site  oE  the  preaent  church  stood  the  chapel  of  St  Geocpv 
in  which,  during  the  years  s63i-i632,  worshipped,  ia  add^iioe 
to  the  English  congregatioa,  one  compcaed,  ai  at  Ptymauih, 
of  Huguenots  who  Bed  frpm  France  at  the  RevocatioB  of  iht 
Edia  of  Nantes. 

Fadng  the  Sound  are  Stone  Hall  and  the  Vinlci  Villa.  Tk 
lotmer,  occupied  by  the  lords  of  ihe  minoi  belotc  the  '"iH'^ri 
of  Mount  Edgcnmhe  House,  mi  originally  a  castellated  buildiag, 
and  the  latter  was  built  primarily  as  an  aitemative  residence 
foraoountessof  MoUDtEdgcumbc.  A  hnkwiih  the  past  is  :bt 
Mm  Bridge  Ciiaewty,  over  what  was  the  "  Dead  Lake."  nca 
a  toad,  which,  at  the  head  ol  StonehoDW  Cnek.  is  the  Kc=ei 
approach  to  the  Stoke  Dametel  portion  cf  Devonport.  B-.J- 
ton-gue  honie  ar  -"'  - 


deportment,  reTflirioK. . 
DUKiating  some  twt  - 
abuttznjE  on  tlv  Ccee] 


le  Victualling  Yard.  *!th  ha 

^  armoury,  the  B.,.-.. 
d  the  Naval  Hoepiul  a( 


., ^  „,^.  _-^ —  I ,  the  Devonport  Coeporai 

Wotia,  a  clDtbing  ^ctory  and  port  of  Ih*  r.rvAr  w. 
Docks.    The  statiDnary  chsruler  of  ' 
iis  siluatioa  Is  lacapsblc  of  eiparuvo- 
ol  population ;(ieGl),  IJ,(Hi ;  (i»oi],  ij, 


PLYMOUTH 


863 


from  Richard  IL  In  1435  lixty-five  caxgocf  ncre  imported, 
and  in  the  reign  of  JEUubeth  it  rose  to  be  the  fofemost  port  in 
Enjsland.  The  i8th  century  saw  a  great  development  of  trade 
with  Virginia  and  the  West  Indies,  cesulting  In  the  establishment 
of  a  sugar-refining  industry  that  was  maintained  until  a  recent 
date. 

In  1749  the  '*  town's  water  **  was  carried  to  the  Barbican  .to 
supply  shipping.  The  port  of  Plymouth,  as  at  present  constituted, 
embraces  J'  the  waters  of  Plymouth  Sound  and  the  Hamoaae, 
including  all  bays,  creeks,  lakes,  pools,  ponds  and  rivers  as  far 
as'  the  tide  flows  within  or  to  the  northward  of  a  straight  line 
drawn,  across  the  entrance  of  Plymouth  Sonad  from  Penlce 
Point  on  the  west  to  the  Shagstone  on  the  easL"  The  chief 
water  area  within  the  limits  of  the  port  is  the  Sound  with  iu 
inlets,  the  Catwater  (200  acres),  Sutton  Pool,  Mill  Bay,  Stone- 
house  Pool  and  the  Hamoaze,  The  Sound  itself  covers  an  area, 
of  4500  acres  and  is  sheltered  from  south-west  gales  by  the 
breakwater  completed  in  1841  at  a  cost  of  li  million  sterling. 
It  lies  si  ffi.  south  of  the  Hoe,  and  is  nearly  a  mile  long,  360  ft. 
wide  at  the  base  and  45  ft.  at  the  top.  Its  cants  bend  inwards* 
at  angles  of  120'';  at  the  western  end  is  a  lighthouse  and  at  the 
eastern  extremity  is  a  pyramidal  beacon  with  a  cage  capable 
of  accommodating  several  men. 

The  town  is  served  by  the  Great  Western  and  the  London  A 
South-Westera  railways.  The  former  company  haa  a  main  line 
enteringfrom  the  .west  through  Devonport  and  going  cast  to  Exeter, 
having  Dartmoor  on  the  west;  the  latter  company  has  a  terminal 
station  in  the  eastern  qiorter  of  the  town,  and  iu  route  to  Exeter 
is  by  way  of  the  Tamar  valley,  and  the  western  and  northern 
moorland  districts. 

The  industries  of  Plymouth  include  soap  manufacture,  prepara- 
tion of  artificial  manure  and  sulphuric  acid  and  paper  staining. 
The  water  supply,  inaugurated  by  Drake  in  1590,  and  dmwn  from 
the  Dartmoor  watershed,  is  the  roost  important  municipal  under- 
takinjg.  The  service  of  electricity  both  tor  lighting  and  tramway 
traction  is  in  the  hands  of  the  town,  but  the  gasworks  belong  to 
a  private  company. 

Plymouth,  the  Suton  of  Domesday,  was  afterwards  divided 
into  the  town  of  Sutton  Prior,  the  hamlet  of  Sutton  Valletort 
and  the  tithing  of  Sutton  Ralph,  the  greater  part  bebnging  to 
the  priory  of  Plympton.  The  market,  establUhcd  about  1253, 
became  in  131  r  town  property,  with  the  mayor  as  clerk  of  the 
market.  In  1292  the  town  first  returned  members  to  parliament 
In  the  ;4th  century  it  was  frequently  the  port  of  embarcation 
and  of  diaembarcation  in  connexion  with  expeditions  to  France, 
and  suffered  considerably  at  the  hands  of  the  French.  In  141 2 
the  inhabitants  petitioned  for  a  charter,  which,  after  strenuous 
opposition  from  the  priors  of  Plympton,  was  granted  by  Henry 
VI.  in  X439.  In  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  it  played  a 
part  of  great  importance.  Cockerom,  a  native  of  the  town, 
sailed  with  John  Cabot  in  1497.  Sir  John  Hawkins  and 
his  father  William  were  also  natives,  the  forma  being  port 
admiral  and  (in  1571)  M.P.  From  Plymouth  in  1577  Drake 
set  out  on  his  voyage  round  the  world;  in  1581  be  became 
mayor  and  represented '  the  borough  in  parliament  during 
I592-KS93*  ^  Humphrey  Gilbert  (M.P.  157 1)  sailed  on  his 
second  cnlonizing  expedition  to  America  in  1583  from  the  port, 
and  hither  Drake  brought  the  remnant  of  Raleigh's  Vlrgim'an 
ccdony.  Plymouth  supplied  seven  ships  against  the  Armada,  and 
it  was  in  the  Sound  that  the  English  fleet  awaited  the  sighting 
of  the  Spaniards.  A  stone  on  a  quay  at  the  Barbican  records 
the  fact  that  this  was  the  hst  port  touched  by  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  on  their  voyage  to  America. 

During  the  Civil  War  Plymouth  was  closely  invested  by  the 
Royalists,  whoso  great  defeat  is  commemorated  by  the  monu- 
ment  at  Freedom  Park.  It  was  the  only  town  in  the  west 
that  never  fell  into  their  hands.  It  early  declared  for  William 
of  Orange,  in  whose  reign  the  neighbouring  dockyard  was 
begun. 

AvTHOirnBS/-*iSrMl0ries  of  Plymouth  by  Jewitt  and  Worth; 
Wright's  Plymouth  with  its  Surroundings  and  Story  0/  Plymouth; 
Whitfeld.  Plymouth  and  Devonport,  in  Itmes  ef  War  and  Peace; 
Municipal  Records  (Plymouth  Corporation) :  Worth,  "  Notes  on 
Bariy  History  of  Stonehouse  "  {PlymmUh  Instit,  ProcX 

CH.G.MtW4 


PLYMOUTH,  a  township  and  the  county-seat  of  Plymouth 
county,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  in  the  south-eastern  part  of 
the  state,  on  Plymouth.  Bay,  about  37  m.  S.£.  of  Boston.  Pop. 
(1905)  zx,iX9;  (1910)  12^141.  Itisservedby  the  New  York, New 
Haven  k  Hartford  railway,  by.inter-urban  electric  lines  and 
in  summer  by  steamers  to  Boston.  The  harbour  is  well  sheltered 
but  generally  shallow;  it  has.  been  considerably  improved  by 
the  United  States  government  and  also  by  the  state,  which 
in  X909  was  making  a  channel  x8  ft.  deep  and  150  ft.  wide  from 
deep  water  to  one  of  the  township's  wharves.  The  township 
has  an  area  of  107*3  ^*  Q^-*  i^  18  m.  long  on  the  water  front  and 
is  from  5  to  9  m.  wide.  Plymouth  is  a  popular  resort  for  visitors, 
having,  in  addition  to  its  wealth  of  historic  associations  and 
a  healthy  summer  climate,  thousands  of  acres  of  hilly  woodland 
and  numerous  lakes  and  ponds  well  stocked  with  fisL  Morton 
Park  contains  aco  acres  of  woodland  bordering  the  shores  of 
Billington  Sea  (a  freshwater  lake). 

'  Few,  if  any;  other  places  in  America  contain  so  many  interest- 
ing landmarks  as  Pl3rmouth.  The  famous  Plymouth  Rock; 
a  granite  boulder  on  which  the  Pilgrims  are  said  to  have  landed 
from  the  shallop  of  the  **  Mayflower,"  lies  on  the  harbour  shore 
near  the  site  of  the  first  houses  built  on  Leyden  Street,  and  is 
now  sheltered  by  a  granite  canopy.  Rising  above  the  Rock  is 
Cole's  HiU,  wh«re  during  their  first  winter  in  America  the 
Pilgrims  buried  half  their  number,  levelling  the  graves  and  sowing 
grain  over  them  in  the  spring  in  order  to  conceal  their  misfor- 
tunes from  the  Indians.  Some  human  bones  found  on  this  hill 
when  the  town  waterworks  were  built  in  1855  have  been  placed 
in  a  chamber  in  the  top  of  the  canopy  over  the  Rock.  Burial 
Hill  (originally  called  Fort  Hill,  as  it  was  first  used  for  defensive 
purposes)  contains  the  graves  of  several.  Pilgrims  and  of  many  of 
their  descendants.  The  oldest  stone  bears  the  date  z68z; 
many  of  the  stones  were  made  in  England,  and  bear  quaint 
inscriptions.  Here  also  are  a  taUet  marking  the  location  of 
the  oldJort  (1621),  which  was  also  used  as  a  place  of  worship, 
a  tablet  showing  the  site  of  the  watch-tower  built  In  1643,  and 
a  marble  obelisk  erected  in  1825  in  memory  of  Governor  William 
Bradford.  Pilgrim'  Hall,  a  large  stone  building  erected  by  the 
Pilgrim  Sodety  (formed  in  Plymouth  in  1820  as  the  successor 
of  the  Old  Colony  Gub,  founded  in  1769)  in  1824  and  remodelled 
in  1880,  is  rich  in  relics  of  the  Pilgrims  and  of  early  colonial 
times,  and  contains  a  portrait  of  Edward  Winslow  (the  only 
extant  portrait  of  a  **  Mayflower  "  passenger),  and  others  of  later 
worthies,  and  paintings  Ulustrating  the  history  of  the  Pilgrims; 
the  haH  library  contains  many  old  and  .valuable  books  and 
manuscripts—induding  Governor  Bradford's  Bible,  a  copy  of 
Eliot's  Indian  Bible,  and 'the  patent  of  1621  from  the  Council 
f9r  New  England— and  Captain  Myles  Standish's  sword.  The 
national  monument  to  the  Forefathers,  designed  by  Hammatt 
Billings,  and  dedicated  on  the  ist  of  August  1889,  thirty  ycara 
after  its  comer-stone  was  laid,  stands  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  town.  It  is  built  entirely  of  granite.  On  a  main  pedestal, 
4S  ft.  high,  stands  a  figure,  36  ft.  high,  representing  the  Pilgrim 
Faith.  From  the  main  pedestal  project  four  buttresses,  on 
which  are  seated  four  monolith  figures  representing  Morality, 
Education,  Law,  and  Freedom.  On  the  faces  of.  the  buttresses 
below  the  statues  are  marble  alto-rdiefs  illustratj^  scenes  from 
the  early  history  of  the  Pilgrims.  On  high  panels  between  the 
buttresses  are  the  names  of  the  passengers  of  the  "  Mayflower." 
The  court-house  was  built  in  1820,  and  was  remodelled  in  1857. 
From  it  have  been  transferred  to  the  fireproof  building  of  the 
Registry  of  Deeds  many  interesting  historical  documents, 
among  them  the  records  of  the  Plymouth  colony,  the  will  of 
Myles  Sundish,  and  the  original  patent  of  the  23rd  of  January 
Z630  (K.S.). 

Modem  Plymouth  has  varied  and  important  manufacttires 
comprising  cordage,  woollens,  mbber  goods,  &c.  In  Z905  the 
total  value  of  the  factory  products  was  $zx,zz5,7i3,  the  worsted 
goods  and  cordage  constituting  about  nine-tenths  of  the  whole 
product.  The  c^idage  works  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world, 
and  consume  immense  quantities  of  sisal  fibre  imported  from, 
Mexico  and  manila  from  the  Philippine  Islands;  binder-twine 


864 


PLYMOUTH— PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN 


for  binding  wheat  is  one  of  the  principal  products.  From  1900 
to  1905  the  capital  invested  in  manufactures  increased  83% 
and- the  value  of  the  product  xox%.  Large  ciuantities  of 
cranberries  are  raised  in  the  township.  Plymouth  is  a  port  of 
entry,  but  its  foreign  commerce  is  unimportant;  it  has  a  consider- 
able coasting  trade,  especially  in  coal  and  lumber.  The  town- 
ship owns  its  waterworks. 

Plymouth  was  the  first  permanent  white  settlement  in  New 
England,  and  dates  its  founding  from  the  landing  here  from  the 
"  Mayflower  "  shallop  of  an  exploring  party  of  twelve  Pilgrims, 
including  William  Bradford,  on  the  »iA  of  December  (n.s.) 
1620.  The  Indian  name  of  the  place  was  Patuxet,  but  the 
colonists  called  it  New  Plymouth,  because  they  had  sailed  from 
Plymouth,  England,  and  possibly  because  they  were  aware 
that  the  name  of  Pl>'mouth  had  been  given  to  the  place  six  years 
before  by  Captain  John  Smith.  When  and  how  the  town  and 
the  colony  of  Pl>'mouth  became  differentiated  is  not  dear. 
Plymouth  was  never  hicoiporated  as  a  township,  but  in  1633 
the  General  Court  of  the  colony  recognized  it  as  such  by  ordering 
that "  the  chief e  government  be  tyed  to  thetowne  of  Plymouth." 
In  16S6  the  colony  submitted  to  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  who  had 
been  commissioned  governor  of.  all  New  England,  and  chose 
representatives  to  sit  in  his  coundl.  Plymouth  remained  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  colony  until  1^3.  when  Plymouth 
Colony,  and  with  it  the  town  of  Plymouth,  was  united  to  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  .under  the  charter  of  1691  (see  Massachusetts: 
History).  Part  of  PI>'mouth.  was  established  as  Flympton  in 
1707,  and  part  as  Kingston  in  1726. 

BiBLiOGitAraY. — For  the  souroes  of  the  early  history  of  Plymouth 
consult  (George)  Mourt's  ReUUion^  or  Journal  of  Ike  PltuUslion  of 
PlymoiUh  (Boston.  -iSS^,  and  nuraerous  other  editions);  William 
Bradford's  History  of  the  Tlimouth  Plantation  (Bosconj  1858.  and 
levxral  later  editions),  the  most  important  source  of  mformation 
concerning  Plymouth  before  1646:  the  Plymouth  Colony  Records 
iti  vols.,  Boston.  i85S-i66t):  the  Records  of  Uu  Tovon  of  Plymouth 
{x  vt^,  Plymouth.  1889-1903);  J.  A.  Young's  Chronicles  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers  (Boston,  1841):  and  E^  Arber's  Story  of  the  Pilpim 
Fathers  (London,  1897).  the  two  last  containiAff  excerpts  from  the 
leading  sources.  See  also.  James  Thacher's  nistory  of  the  Tovn 
of  Plymouth  (Boston,  i8jj);  W.  T.  Davis's  History  of  the  Toon  of 
Plymotttk  (Philadelphia,  1885):  also  his  Ancient  Landmarks  ctf 
Plymouth  (Boston,  2nd  ei.,  1899):  and  his  Plymouth  Uemories 
of  an  Octogenarian  (Plymouth,  1906):  and  John  A.  Goodwin,  The 
Pilgrim  Republic  (Boston.  1889).  For  accounts  in  general  histories, 
see  J.  G.  Palfrey's  History  of  New  England,  I.  (Boston,  1858) :  the 
appreciative  sketch  by  J.  A.  Doyle,  m  hb  English  Colonies  in 
America,  II,  (New  York.  1889):  and,  especially,  the  monograph  by 
Franklin  B.  Dexter,  in  Justin  Winsor's  Narrative  and  Critical 
History  of  America,  vol.  iii.  (Boston.  1884).  As  to  the  truth  of  the 
tradition  that  the  Pilvrims  landed  on  Plymouth  Rock,  consult 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts- Histortcal  Society  (190^).  3nd 
series,  vot  xvii.  contaioine  articles  by  E.  Channing  and  W.  W. 
Goodwin;  the  article  by  Herbert  B.  Adams  in  the  Magazine  of 
American  History,  ix.  31  sqq.,  and  that  by  S.  H.  Gay  in  the  Atlantic 
Monthly,  xl vili.  6 1  a  sqq. 

PLYMOUTH,  a  borough  of  Luzerne  a)onty,  Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  north  branch  of  the  Susquehanna  river^  iznme* 
diately  west  of  and  across  the  river  from  Wilkes-Barre,  of 
which  It  is  a  .'-uburb.  Pop.  (19x0),  16,996.  Plymouth  Is  served 
by  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  railroad.  The 
borough  is  finely  situated  in  the  Wyoming  Valley  among  the 
rich  anthracite  coalfields  of  eastern  Pennsylvania,  and  its 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  coal  industry;  in  1906 
and  1Q07  (when  it  shipped  24,081,491  tons)  Luzerne  county 
shipped  riore  anthradte  coal  than  any  other  county  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1905  the  total  value  of  the  factory  products  was 
$903,758,  69-4%  more  than  in  1900.  Before  the  coming  of 
white  settlers  there  was  an  Indian  village  called  Shawnee  on 
the  site  of  the  present  borough.  The  township  of  Plymouth 
Wtis  settled  in  1769  by  immigrants  from  New  Eng)and--many 
originally  from  Plymouth,  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut, 
whence  the  name — ^under  the  auspices  of  the  Susquehanna 
Company,  which  claimed  this  region  as  a  part  of  Connecticut, 
and  Plymouth  became  a  centre  of  the  contest  between  the 
"  Pennamiics  *'  and  the  **  Yankees  "  (representing  respectively 
Pennsylvania  and  Cbnnecticut),  which  grew  out  of  the  conflict 
of  the  royal  cjiarter  of  Pennsylvania  (granted  in  1681)  with  the 


royal  charter  of  Connecticut  (granted  in  1662).  a  mAUer 
was  not  settled  until  1799.  (See  Wyoiong  Vaixcy.)  Ia  its 
earlier  history  the  region  was  agrictdtural.  Two  bcothe  rm,  Afai>ib 
and  John  Smith,  originally  of  Derby,  Conn.,  settled  is 
Plymouth  in  z8o6  and  began  shippiog  coal  tbence  in  1806, 
thk  was  the  beginning  of  the  anthradte  coal  trade  in  tlie  Unked 
States.  The  borough  was  incorporated  in  x866,  betng  tbea 
separated  from  the  township  of  Plymouth,  which  had  a  popola* 
tion  in  1890  of  8363  and  in  xgoo  of  9655. 

See  H.  B.  Wright's  Historical  Sketches  of  PtymomA  (Philadeif&a, 
1873).  

PLYMOUTH  BRETHIUS!f»  a  community  of  Chiistiaas  vbs 
received  the  name  in  1830  when  the  Rev.  J.  N.  Darby  illdJc^: 
many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Plymouth,  England,  to  assod^irt 
themselves  with  him  for  the  promulj^tion  of  his  of>i&ic;:& 
Although  small  Christian  communities  existed  in  Irelasd  sad 
elsewhere  calling  themselves  Brethren^  and  holdix^  ciwinar  vi^T^ 
the  accession  to  the  ranks  of  Darby  so  increased  their  numben 
and  influence  that  he  t9  usually  reckoned  the  foaiuler  of  f  1t> 
mouthism.  Daiby  (bom  in  Nov.  x8oo  in  London;  graduatec 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1819;  died  April  29,  si&z  n 
Bournemouth)  was  a  curate  ip  Mcklow  X83S-1837.  when  he  *ii 
himself  constrained  to  leave  the  Anglican  communion;  gotut  '^ 
Dublin,  he  became  associated  with  several  deN-out  p^>ple  «^ 
met  statedly  for  public  worship,  and  called  themselv^  "  B:Td- 
ren."  Among  these  were  A.  K.  Groves  and  J.  G.  Beiiett,  vi^ 
deserve  to  rank  among  the  founders  of  the  movemesL  Is 
1830  Darby  at  Plymouth  won  over  many  people  to  his  mj  ai 
thinking,  among  them  James  L.  Harris,  a  Plymouth  deT^sir, 
and  the  well-known  Biblical  scholar  Samuel  Prideauz  Ttcsel^s. 
The  Brethren  started  a  periodical,  The  Christian  IV-jmess, 
continued  from  1849  as  The  Present  TestimcHy/^iih  Hams  ts 
editor  and  Darby  as  the  most  important  contributor.  Du-izv 
the  next  eight  years  the  progress  of  the  sect  sras  rapid,  aii 
communities  were  founded  in  many  of  the  principal  towc& ;: 
England. 

Li  X83S  Darby  went  to  reside  in  French  Switzerland,  and  sior 
many  disdples.  O>ngregations  were  formed  in  Genre's  - 
Lausanne,  where  most  of  the  Methodist  and  other  A'««^  n 
joined  the  Brethren,  at  Vevey  and  elsewhere  in  Vaud.  F^ 
opinions  also  foxmd  their  way  into  France,  Germany,  Cfcrr-: 
Sviitzerland,  and  Italy;  but  French  Switzerland  has  al^-- 
remained  the  stronghold  of  Plymouthism  on  the  Coctin- 
and  for  his  followers  there  Darby  wrote  two  of  his  most  imyr. : 
tracts,  Le  MinisUre  considiri  dans  sa  nature  and  De  ta  Pir.  •- 
ct  dc  V action  du  S.  Esprit  dans  Pigfisc.  The  revolution  x=  ' 
canton  Vaud,  brought  about  by  Jesuit  intrigue  in  1845.  brc^. 
persecution  to  the  Brethren  In  the  canton  and  in  other  ; .'■ 
of  French  Switzerland,  and  Darby's  life  was  in  great  jecfurcj 

He  returned  to  England,  and  his  reappearance  was  foC"^:: 
by  divisions  among  the  Brethren  at  home.     These  ±rL.r 
began  at  Plymouth.     Benjamin  Wills  Newton,  head  «'  :.- 
community  there,  who  had  been  a  icUow  of  Exeter  C*.'-^ 
Oxford,  was  acnised  of  departing  from  the  tcstzmoi^*  of  'ri 
Brethren  by  reintroducing  the  spirit  of  dcricahsm.*    V^^.-i  I 
to  detach  the  congregation  from  the  teacher.  Darby  befi=  3 
rival  assembly.    The  majority  of  the  Brethren  out  of  Plitr^-::! 
supported  Darby,  but  a  minority  remained  with  Nevton.    Pt 
separation  t>ecame  wider  in  1847  on  the  discovery  of  ii^«pc«<-i 
heretical  teaching  by  Newton.    In  1848  another  dhisicn  i.  « 
place.    The  Bethesda  congregation  at  Bristol,  where  Gee?- 
Mollcr  was  the  most  influential  member,  received  into  ::•:> 
munion  several  of  Newton's  followers  and  justi5ed  their  aci'i 
Out  of  this  came  the  sq>aration  into  Neutral  Brethren,  h-:  } 
Mtillcr,  and  Exclusive  Biethren  or  Darbyitcs,  ^ho  refcse.  t 
hold  commum'on  with  the  foOowexs  of  Newton  or  MuDer.   T:* 
Exclusives,  who  wero  the  more  numerous,  suffered  hrrr.  s 
divisions.  An  Irish  dcfgjrman  named  Samuel  CVMalley  Caf  "^ 
adopted  views  similar  to  tht>se  of  Pearsall  Smith,  who  p:esct.i 
a  doarine  of  sanctificarion  called  **  Death  to  Nature  "  as  'i 
antidote  to  the  supposed  prevalent  Laodiceanisa,  and  v^*! 
these  were  repudiated  seceded  with  his  foUowezs.    The  ;.^ 


PLYMPTON  ST  MARY— PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH        865 


important  division  among  the  Exchiuvea  came  to  a  ciiiis  in 

1 88 1,  when  William  Kelly  and  Darby  became  the  recognized 
leaders  of  two  sections  who  separated  on  a  point  of  discipline. 
This  was  followed  (1885)  by  the  disruption  o(  the  strict  Darbyite 
section,  two  communions  being  formed  out  of  it  upon  points 
of  doctrine. 

There  were  thus  six  sections  o£  Flymouthists:  (x)  the 
followers  of  B«  W.  Newton,  who  promulgated  the  prophetic 
views  peculiar  to  their  leader;  {2)  the  Neutrals — open  brethren, 
leaning  to  Baptist  views  and  to  the  Congrcgationalist  idea  that 
each  assembly  should  judge  for  itself  in  matters  of  discipline, 
beaded  by  George  Mtiller;  (3)  the  Exdusives,  the  Darbyites, 
holding  what  maybe  described  as  a  Pauline  view  of  the  Church, 
who  claim  to  be  the  original  Brethren,  represented  by  J.  B. 
*  ^toney  and  C.  H.  Mackintosh;.  (4)  the  Exdlisives  associated 
in  Great  Britain  with  C.  E.  Stuart,  in  America  with  F.  W. 
Grant;  (5)  the  Exclusives  who  followed  \V.  Kelly,  giving  a 
general  adhesion  to  Darby  but  with  a  tendency  to  place  con- 
science above  church  action,  holding  the  Pauline  view  of  the 
Church  modified  by  Johannine  elements;  and  (6)  the  Exclusives 
who  followed  Cluff.  The  fundamental  principle  of  the  Exclu- 
sives, "  Separation  from  evil  God's  principle  of  uxiityr"  has 
led  to  many  unimportant  excommunications  and  separations 
besides  those  mentioned. 

The  theological  views  of  the  Brethren  differ  considefably  from 
those  held  by  evangelical  Protcittants  (for  a  list  of  divergences, 
see  Tculon,  History  and  Doctrines  of  the  Plymouth  Brethren),  They 
make  the  baptism  of  infants  an  open  question  and  celebrate  the 
Lord's  Supper  weekly.  Their  distinctive  doarincs  are  ecclesiastical. 
They  hold  that  all  official  ministry,  whether  on  Episcopalian, 
Presbyterian  or  ConeTcgationallst  tneorles,  is  a  denial  of  the 
sptritaal  priesthood  orali  believers,  and  sets  aside  the  Holy  Spirit's 
guidance.  The  jsradual  growth  of  this  opinion,  and  perhaps  the 
reasons  for  h(4du>^  it,  may  be  trscvd  in  Darby's  earlier  writings. 
While  a  curate  m  Ireland  he  was  indignant  with  Archbishop 
Maeec.  who  had  stojpped  the  progress  of  mission  work  among  Roman 
Catholics  by  imposmg  on  all  who  joined  the  church  the  oath  of 
supfBmacy.  This  led  Darby  to  the  idea  that  established  churches 
are  as  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity  as  the  pajpanr  is  ("  Con- 
siderations addressed  to  the  Archbishop  of  Dubun,  Ac,  CoU. 
Worhs,  \  I).  The  parochial  system,  when  enforced  to  the  extent 
of  prohibiting  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  within  a  parish  where  the 
incumbent  was  opposed  to  it,  led  htm  to  consider  the  whole  system 
«-  hindrance  to  the  proper  work  of  the  church  and  therefore  anti- 
Christian  C  Thoughuon  the  present  position  of  the  Home  Mission,*' 
Cb//.  Works,  i.  78).  And  the  waste  of  power  implied  in  the  refusal 
to  sanction  lay  preaching  seemed  to  him  to  leaa  to  the  conclusion 
that  an  offictal  ministry  was  a  refusal  of  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit  to 
the  church  .(".OoT  Lay  Preaching."  CM.  wirks,  p.  mo).  The 
movement,  if  it  has  had  small  results  in  the  formation  01  a  aect, , 
has  at  least  set  churches  to  consider  how  they  might  make  their 
machinery  more  elastic.  Perhaps  one  of  the  reasons  of  the  com- 
paratively small  number  of  Brethren  may  be  found  in  their  Idea 
that  their  mission  is  not  to  the  heathen  but  to  the  "awakened  in 
the  churches." 

The  movement  has  a  distinct  interest  for  students  of  church 
history:  (i)  as  illustrating  again  the  desire  of  certain  Christians  to 
pass  over  the  oamered  exncrience  of  the  centuries,  and  by  going 
straight  to  the  uible  to  make  a  fresh  atart  without  any  other  autho- 
rity, precedent  or  guidance;  (2)  in  its  development  alongside  the 
Evangelical,  Tractarian  and  Broad  Chuich  movements  of  the  i^h 
century  and  its  affinities  with  them  all.  A  certain  haphazardism 
that  has  always  marked  the  Brethren  is  responsible  for  the  present 
lack  of  qualified  leaders.  The  eariy  enthusiasm  has  waned,  and 
DO  provision  was  made  for  proper  theological  study* 

Authorities. — Darby,  Collecled  works  (^  vols.,  edited  by 
Kelly,  with  supplementary  volume,  1 867-1 883);  A.  Miller,  The 
Bfetkren,  their  Rts4,  Progress  and  Testimony  (1879):  Rogers.  Church 
Systems  of  the  Nineteenth  Century;  Teuton.  Hutory  end  Doctrines 
of  tk£  Plymouth  Brethren  (1883):  artkle  ''John  Nelson  DzAty" 
in  Contemp.  Rev.  (Oct.  1885);  W.  B.  Neatby.  A  History  of  the  Ply- 
mouth  Brethren  (London,  1Q02,  and  ed.).  (T.  M.  L. ;  A.  J.  G.) 

PLYMPTON  ST  MARY  and   PLYMPTON  MAURICE    (or 

Earl's),  two  small  adjacent  towns  in  the  southern  parliamentary 
division  of  Devonshire,  England,  s  ou  £.N.E.  of  Plymouth,  on 
the  Great  Western  railway.  Pop.  (igoO.Plympton  St  Mary, 
I587 ;  Plympton  Maurice,  1 130*  Plympton  St  Mary  contains  a 
fine  Decorated  and  Perpendicular  church,  with  a  lofty  tower  of 
the  later  period.  Near  it  are  remains  of  the  former  rich  Augus- 
tin  ian  priory  of  Plympton,  founded  by  William  Warelwast,  bi^op 
of  Exeter  (1  xo7~i  136).  They  include  an  Early  English  refectory 


wHh  Nonaan  undercrolt,  the  kitchen  and  other  fragmenls; 
but  there  are  no  remains  of  the  i^at  priory  church.  At  Plymp- 
ton Maurice  are  slight  ruins  of  the  castle  built  by  Richard  de 
Redvexs,  ist  earl  of  Devon  (whence  the  variant  ol  Ihs  name), 
in  the  time  of  Henry  I.  There  are  several  picturesque  old  houses 
in  the  town,  together  with  a  guildhall  dated  1696,  and  a  grammar 
school  founded  in  1658,  of  which  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  father 
was  master. 

Plympton  {Plinlona)  bean  traces  of  very  ancient  settlement, 
the  earthworks  on  which  in  the  xath  century  Richard  de  Redvem 
reared  his  Norman  castle  being  probably  of  British  origin,  while 
a  Saxon  document  dated  904  records  a  grant  by  Edward  the 
Elder  to  Asser,  bishop  of  Sherborne,  of  twelve  manors  in 
exchange  for  the  monastery  of  "  Plymentim."  According  to 
the  Domesday  survey  "  Plintona  "  was  a  royal  manor  assessed 
at  2^  hides,  and  the  fact  that  the  canons  of  Plympton  held  two 
hides  apart  from  these  shows  the  origin  of  the  later  division  into 
the  priory  parish  of  Plympton  St  Mary  and  the  secular  borough 
of  Plympton  Erie.  In  the  xsth  century  Plympton  appears 
as  a  mesne  borough  under  the  lordship,  of  the  Redvers,  earls 
of  Devon,  and  in  1224  the  burgesses  claimed  to  have  received 
a  charter  from  William,  the  6th  earl,  of  which  however  not  lung 
further  is  known,  and  the  first  charter  of  which  a  copy  is  extant 
was  issued  by  Baldwin  de  Redvers  in  1242,  granting  to  the 
burgesses  of  Plympton  the  borough,  with  fairs  and  markets, 
and  the  liberties  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  of  Exeter,  in  considera- 
tion of  a  yearly  payment  of  £24,  2s.  2d.  In  1437  a  charter  from 
Edward  IV.  granted  to  the  burgesses  an  eight-days'  fair  at  the 
Feast  of  the  Nativity  of  St  John  the  Baptist,  but  at  this  period 
the  growing  importance  of  Pl>'mouth  was  steadily  robbing 
Plympton  of  its  position  as  head  of  the  district.  In  1602,  in 
response  to  a  petition  of  the  burgesses,  Elizabeth  issued  a  charter 
of  incorporation,  instituting  a  common  council  to  consist  of  a 
mayor  and  8  principal  burgesses;  a  Saturday  market,  and  fairs 
at  the  Feasts  of  the  Ascension  and  the  Annunciation.  A  code 
of  by-laws  dated  1623  mentions  a  fair  on  St  Lake's  Day  in 
addition  to  the  three  above  mentioned.  The  borough  surren- 
dered its  charter  to  Charles  II.  in  1684,  and  in  16S5  received  a 
fresh  charter  from  James  II.  instituting  an  additional  market 
on  Wednesday  and  a  fair  on  the  ist  of  August.  This  charter 
was  declared  invalid  in  x6qo,  but  Its  provisions  were  reaffirmed 
in  1692,  with  the  addition  of  an  eight-days'  fair  to  begin  on  the 
14th  of  February.  The  borough,  which  had  returned  two 
members  to  parliament  since  1205,  was  disfranchised  by  the 
Reform  Act  of  1832  and  from  this  date  the  municipal  privileges 
gradually  lapsed,  and  in  1859  were  finally  abolished. 

See  Victoria  County  ttutory:  Devonshire;  William  Cotton,  Some 
Account  of  the  Ancteni  Borough  Totcn  of  Plympton  St  Maurice 
(London,  1859);  J.  Brooking  Rowc,  Ifotes  of  Plympton  Castle 
(Plymouth,  1880). 

PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH,  the  name  given  to  a  system  of 
transport  of  written  despatches  through  long  narrow  tubes  by  the 
agency  of  air  pressure.  It  was  introduced  in  1853  hy  J.  Latimer 
Clark,  between  the  Central  and  Stock  Exchange  stations  of 
the  Electric  and  International  Telegraph  Company  in  London. 
The  stations  were  connected  by  a  tube  i|  in.  in  diameter 
and  220  yds.  long.  Carriers  containing  batches  of  telegrams, 
and  fitting  piston- wise  in  the  tube,  were  sucked  through  it 
(m  one  direction  only)  by  the  production  of  a  partial  vacuum 
at  one  end.  In  1858  C.  F.  Varley  improved  the  system  by  using 
'compressed  air  to  force  the  carriers  in  one  direction,  a  partial 
vacuum  being  still  used  to  draw  them  in  the  other  direction. 
This  improvement  enables  single  radiating  lines  of  pipe  to  be 
used  both  for  sending  and  for  receiving  telegrams  between  a 
central  station  supplied  with  pumping  machinery  and  outlying 
stations  not  so  supplied. 

Radial  System. —In  the  hands  of  R.  S.  Culley  and  R<  Sabine 
the  rsdial  system  of  pneumatic  despatch  was  in  1870  brought 
to  great  perfection  in  connexion  with  the  telegraphic  department 
of  the  ISritish  post  office,  since  that  date  the  total  leagth  of 
tubes '(yrhich  are  employed  for  telegrams  only)  has  been  very 
largely  increased  (la  1909  th^e  was  in  London  n  total  kngth  of 


866 


PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH 


40iB.)>  whflit  in  an  bfige  uid  also  in  veiy  nuoiy  smaUer 
provincial  towna  there  are  instaUations;  these  are  constantly 
being  added  to,  as  it  is  found  more  economical  to  transmit  local 
message-work  by  tube  rather  than  by  wire,  as  skilled  telegraph- 
ists are  not  required,  but  only  tube  attendants.  In  some  cases 
only  a  uo^^e  tube  is  necessary,  but  three  or  four,  or  even  more, 
are  in  use  in  some  towns,  according  to  local  circumstances. 
Short  tubes,  known  as  "  house  tubes  "  are  in  use  in  a  great 
number  of  offices;  such  tubes,  which  are  worked  either  by  hand- 
pumps  (when  the  tubes  are  veiy  short  and  the  traffic  incon- 
siderable) or  by  power,  are  usually  i}  in.  in  diameter,  and 
are  used  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  messages  from  one 
part  of  a  telegraph  instrument-room  tonuiother,  or  from  the 
instrument-room  to  the  public  coudter.  The  underground, 
or  "  street "  tubes  are  chiefly  li  in.  in  diameter,  but  there  are 
also  a  number  of  j-in.  tubes  in  use;  those  in  the  large  provincial 
towns  (Birmini^iam,  Bradford,  Cardiff,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow, 
Grimsby,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Newport,  Leeds,  Newcastle, 
Southampton  and  Swansea)  are  s^  in.  in  diameter;  but  in 
Dublin,  Gloucester,  Lowestoft  and  Milford  xl-m.  tubes  are 
employed.  There  are  fifty  street  tubes  in  London,  var>ing  in 
length  from  too  to  2000  yds.  (central  office  to  the  Houses  of 
Parliament),  and  also  seventy-five  house  tubes;  the  pumps 
for  the  whole  system  are  worked  by  fbur  100  horse-power 
steam-eni^es.  At  CanUff,  Edinburgh,  Gloucester,  Leeds, 
Lowestoft,  Newport,  Southampton  and  Swansea  the  pumps 
are  driven  by  electric  motors;  at  Bradford  and  Grimsby  gas- 
engines  are  used,  and  at  Milford  an  oQ-cngine. 

The  tubes  are  in  all  cases  of  lead,  the  aH^-  tubes  weighing 
8  lb  per  foot  run  and  being  made  in  lengths  of  38  ft.;  they  are 
enclosed  in  j-in.  cast-iron  pipes  made  in  lengths  of  9  ft. 

Great  care  is  exerdaed  in  making  the  joints  in  the  lead  pipes. 
Before  the  tube  is  placed  in  its  trench  a  strong  chain  b  passed 
through  it,  and  a  polished  steel  mandrel,  6  in.  long  and  slightly 
lets  in  diameter  tnan  the  diameter  of  the  tube,  is  heatea  and 
attached  to  the  chain,  and  pushed  half  its  len^  into  the  end  of 
the  tube  already  laid;  the  new  length  of  tube  is  then  forced  over 
the  projecting  end  of  the  mandrel  until  the  tube  ends  (which  have 
been  previously  cut  flat)  butt  perfectly  together;  an  ordinary 
friumber's  joint  b  then  made.  By  this  means  the  tube  is  made 
perfectly  air-tight,  and  the  mandrel  keeps  the  surface  of  the  tube 
under  the  Joint  as  smooth  as  at  any  other  part  of  its  length.  After 
the  joint  u  completed  the  mandru  is  drawn  out  by  the  chain 
attacncd  to  it,  the  next  length  is  drawn  on,  and  the  above  process 
repeated.  The  tubes  are  laid  about  a  ft.  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 

The  tubes  radiate  from  the  central  to  the  branch  offices, 
the  principal  offices  having  two  tubes,  one  for  "  inward  "  and 
..  the  other  for  "outward"  traffic  .  At  the  smaller 
^'  offices  both  the  inward  and  the  outward  traffic  is 
carried  on  through  one  tube.  The  "  carriers  "  are  made  with  gutta- 
percha bodies,  covered  with  felt,  the  front  of  the  carrier  being 
provided  with  a  buffer  or  piston  formed  of  several  disks  of  felt 
which  closely  fit  the  tube;  the  messages  are  prevented  from  get- 
ting out  of  the  carrier  by  the  end  being  dosed  by  an  elastic  band, 
which  can  be  stretched  sufficiently  to  allow  the  message  forms 
to  be  inserted.  The  3-in.  carriers  w31  hold  75  ordinary  message 
forms,  the  s^-in.  carriers  25  forms,  and  the  i|-in.  carriers  20 
forms.  The  carriers  are  propelled  in  one  direction  (from  the 
central  oflke)  by  "  pressure,"  and  drawn  in  the  opposite  direction 
by  "  vacuum,"  the  standard  pressure  and  vacuum  being  xo  lb 
and  6}  lb  per  sq.  in.  respectively,  which  values  give  approxi* 
matdy  the  same  speed. 

The  time  of  tianst  of  a  carrier  through  a  tube  when  the  air 
pressure  does  not  exceed  20  lb  per  square  inch  is  given  very  ap- 
pronmatdy  by  the  empirical  formula : — 

l-K)087aV^: 

where  I"* length  of  tube  in  yards,  <f  •diameter  of  tube  in  inches, 
P«*effcctive  air-pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  /"*transit 
tine  In  seconds.    For  vacuum  the  formula  is  >* 


•00825 


\rW^^ 


1— 234VI5- 
whcBS  Pi«»cff«cciwe  vacuum  in  pounds  per  square  iock 


The  hufse^ponifi  required  to  propel  a  carrier  is  appfoaiaateiy, 
for  pressure?*"  

H.P.  -  (•574+-oonP)\/^; 
for  vacuum:— 

H.P.  -  (5-i87-i-2i4Vi5-5-P0PiV7' 

For  a  given  transit  time  the  actual  horse -power  required  is  mo^ 
less  in  the  case  of  vacuum  than  in  ttie  case  of  prcsaure  i»urkMn. 
owing  to  the  density  of  the  air  column  moved  odn^  much  ksk. 
thus,  for  example,  the  transit  time  for  10  lb  pressure  is  the  same 
as  for  6|  lb  vacuum,  but  the  horse-pouner  requued  in  tht  two  cases 
is  as  1*83  to  u  A  tube  i  m.  fong,  a^  in.  in  diameterj,«-aad  wortcd 
at  10  tt>  per  square  inch  pressure,  will  have  a  transit  tsme  td  2i 
minutes,  and  will  theoretically  require  3*35  hone-power  to  be 
expended  in  working  it,  although  actually  25  %  more  horae-pover^ 
than  this  must  be  allowed  for,  owing  to  leases  tfaroagh  wr^ 
causes.  The  transit  time  for  a  ai-in.  tube  »  i6%inorethaBfjr 
a  3-in.  tube  of  the  same  length,  when  both  are  worked  at  the  sane 
pressure,  but  the  horse-power  required  b  50%  less;  it  is  not  ad- 
visable, therefore,  to  use  a  tube  larger  than  'a  absolutely  necewaiy 
to  carry  the  volume  of  traffic  required. 

The  somewhat  complicated  pattern  of  *'  double  almce  vahv  " 
originally  used  at  the  central  stations  has  been  suptistdtd  bj 

a  simpler  form,  known  as  the  "D"  box — so  named 

from  the  shape  of  its  cross  section.  This  box  is  of  astf 
cast  iron,  and  is  provided  with  a  dose-fitting, 
brass-framed,  aKding  lid  with  a  ^Uss  pand.  This 
lid  fits  air-tight,  and  doses  the  box  after  a  carxier  has  bees 
inserted  into  the  mouth  of  the  tube;  the  latter  cntcis  s: 
one  end  of  the  box  and  is  there  bell-mouthed.  A  sappl; 
pipe,  to  which  is  coimected  a  "  3-way  "  code,  b  joined  «i  to 
the  box  and  allows  communication  at  will  with  cither  the 
"  pressure  "  or  "  vacuum  "  mains,  so  that  the  appiarattis  becosncs 
available  for  other  sending  (by  pressure)  or  receiving  (by  vacans- ! 
a  carrier.  Automatic  woridng,  by  which  the  air  sapt^y  b 
automatically  turned  on  on  the  introduction  of  the  carrier  tstu 
•a  tube  and  on  dosing  of  the  D  box,  and  is  cat  off  when  the 
carrier  arrives,  was  introduced  in  1909. 

On  the  long  tubes  (over  about  xooo  yds.)  a  xnodificatims  «f 
the  "  D  "  box  in  its  simplest  form  is  necessary;  this  naodilicatM 
consists  in  the  addition  of  a  "  sluice  "  valve  placed  at  n  Hfr!**^ 
of  about  9  in.  (i.c.  rather  more  than  the  length  of  a  earner' 
from  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  The  sluice  valve,  by  means  of  u 
interiocking  arrangement,  is  so  connected  with  the  shding  Ud 
of  the  box  that  the  lid  cannot  be  moved  to  the  open  posittfa 
unless  the  sluice  valve  has  closed  the  tube,  nor  can  the  sloice 
valve  be  opened  unless  the  sliding  lid  is  closed.  The  object  d 
this  sluice  valve  is  to  prevent  the  back  rush  of  air  which  wcJd 
take  place  into  the  tube  when  the  sliding  lid  is  opened  to  tike 
out  a  carrier  immediately  on  the  arrival  of  the  Utter ;  for  ahhoa^ 
the  vacuum  may  be  turned  off  by  the  3-way  cock,  yet,  o«i=9 
tathe  great  length  of  the  tube,  equilibrium  does  not  inun^iiaidF 
take  place  in  the  latter,  and  the  back  rush  of  air  into  the  vacaia 
when  the  lid  is  opened  to  extract  the  carrier  will  cnote  the  latter 
to  be  driven  back  into  the  tube.  The  sluice  also  prevents  s 
similar,  but  reverse,  action  from  taking  place  when  presnzr 
working  is  being  carried  on. 

As  a  rule,  only  one  carrier  is  deq>atched  at  a  time,  and  as 
second  carrier  is  inserted  in  the  tube  until  the  arrival  of  the 
first  one  at  the  farther  end  is  automatically  signalled  (by  v. 
electric  apparatus)  to  the  despatching  office.  On  aome  of  the 
long  tubei  a  carrier,  when  it  passes  the  midway  pomt  in  the 
tube,  strikes  a  trigger  and  sends  back  an  electrical  signal  indicat- 
ing its  passage;  on  the  receipt  of  this  signal  a  second  carrier  tc^y 
be  despatched.  This  arrangement  has  been  alnuKl  cnt;rily 
superseded  by  a  signalling  apparatus  which  by  a  dock  movestcc: 
acttiates  an  indicating  hand  and  moves  the  latter  to  "  tube  dear  " 
a  certain  definite  time  (30  to  40  seconds)  after  a  carxier  has  bec£ 
inserted  in  the  tube.  By  this  arrangement  carriers  can  be 
despatched  one  after  the  other  at  comparatively  short  inlervah 
of  time,  so  that  several  carriers  (separated  by  distinct  intcrvsls 
may  be  travelling  through  the  tube  simultaneously.  It  a 
necessary  that  the  carriers  be  separated  by  a  definite  interval, 
otherwise  they  tend  to  overtake  one  another  and  become  jaame: 


RHEUMATIC  GUN 


Uj 


is  the  tube.  Allium^  the  Uapfgc  of  ■  cuiicr  ia  ■ 
ciccediiJAly  nnt  occujicdcc,  it  doci  «t«aon«liy  I 
Ibnii4^  pidu  t>«iDg  driven  into  tlie  lube  by  wDriuncs 
Rpiin  to  gu  or  ntu  pipes,  bui  Lhe  laality  of  luch  ■  aopftse 
it  euily  deUnnioed  by  a  limple  iuptctioD  slong  tbe  nrutc  of 
tlu  lube.  In  do  cue  is  any  qxcial  mcuis  of  tesUsf  lor  the 
loci^ty  Uota  the  centra]  <j£cc  f<jujid  ncctaaaiy. 

Cn-cuf  .Syibm.^Analhcr  metliocl  o(  woiluof,  oUndvdy 
uted  in  Palis  aznl  oilier  o>atInerital  dtits,  b  the  ciicuiE  ^stern, 
lo  nhidi  uatiooB  are  grxiped  on  drcuUi  OE  loi^  liaet,  muid 
which  canien  tiavd  in  one  ctireciioa  only.  In  em  lonn  ol 
dioiit  lystem — that  ol  Mean  Siemens—*  cauinuous  ciuroit 
of  ail  is  kEpt  up  in  the  tube,  and  locking  switches  an  pioviiled 
bv  which  carrien  can  he  quiddy  iniroduced  or  removed  at 

ly  one  of  the  nations  on  tlie  line  iriihout  iilcrfcring  with  the 


uiualjy,  however,  t^ 


it  Bystem  ii  woiked  by  tk^utching 
omen,  or  tnina  oi  camera,  at  relatively  bODc  intervals,  the 
pRMure  or  Tacuum  which  gives  noiivt  power  being  applied 
only  while  luch  Inins  »n  on  the  line.  On  long  circuits  means 
tre  pnvided  at  tevual  (latigns  for  putiinc  oo  picssaie  or 
vacuum,  so  that  the  action  may  be  limiied  to  that  icOios  o(  the 
linconwhichlhecartienaietcavellingatanytinie.  InAmsico, 
in  New  Yc«t,  Boaton  and  PhiUdctphia,  tobo  (BalcbdJcr 
■yiltm]  up  to  S  In.  in  diameter  ar«  lo  uw.  The  tubta  air  «l 
eut  iroa  made  in  ii-It.  Icngtbi  and  are  cutbiUy  bored:  they 
rctemble  ordiiUTy  watci  lape.  Short  bends  are  made  in 
leunleai  brass  tuba  canfuHy  bent  to  a  untlonD  ndiui  ol  twelve 
times  the  diametu  of  the  lube,  the  tube  being  iliglnly  larger 
fo  diameter  than  IIm  main  tube.  The  sending  a[^iatalus.  or 
transnitteTi  la  ftmiUr  lo  the  Stemens  switch  before  described, 
and  couisti  of  two  sections  of  the  tube  loppoited  ia  a  iwingiiig 
frame  so  tnanged  that  either  settioa  cm  be  brought  into  line 
with  the  main  tube,  in  which  a  cuoeot  oi  air  i»  constantly 
Sowing.  One  ol  these  tube  sectBU  maintains  the  continuity 
of  the  uab  tube,  while  the  other  ia  iwung  to  one  «de  lo  receive 
■  carrier.  In  despatching,  a  canier  i 
placed  ia  an  iron  trough  and  Ibei 
pushed  into  the  open  lubesectiop. 
The  frame  cnrtyuig  the  two  tube  tec 


amer  is  brought  into 
with  the  main  tube,  wbeo  ihe 
carrier  i>  swept  along  with  the  euneni 
el  tb.  When  the  fraine  is  iwinging 
fnMn  one  position  to  Another  the  air 
is  prevented  Irom  escapiog  by  plates 
that  cover  the  ends  ol  the  tube,  snd 
M  by.pasi  ia  [tfovided  so  that  the  i 
current  is  not  Interrupted, 
taotnr,  consisting  of  a  cylinder  and  C 
piston,  lurBiibes  the  power  to  awing 
tlw  frame,  the  operalion  Rqoiring 
an  Instant  only.  When  the  con- 
Uolling  levur  is  pulled  and  lltched 


leather;  the  rear  end  is  doKd  by  a  Unged  Ud  MeoRd  by  ■  b^ 

The  shell  of  the  carrier  is  24  in.  long  and  7  iiL  In  dlsmtter  fqr 
the  ^m-  tube;  it  is  secured  by  two  bcaiing.ringi  of  woven 
cotton  fabric  defied  between  metal  rings;  tbe  linp  are  renewed 
after  about  >ooo  m.  of  tiavcL  The  tube*  are  worked  al  ■ 
pressure  of  6  lb  per  aq.  in.,  and  for  a  distance  of  151x1  il.  require 
about  JO  botie-power,  the  ttanst  ipced  being  yt  m.  per  hour. 

In  addiiioa  to  it*  use  for  postal  and  UlegnpKic  purpotes 
tbe  prieumatic  de^atch  Is  employed  for  Internal  CDmautiraitioii 
ia  offices,  hotels,  frc,  and  also  in  shops  for  the  Inntpoit  of 
money  acd  bills  between  the  cashier's  desk  and  the  counters. 

RinuiKES.— The  •yilEiii  as  SKd  la  the  Uidud  Kingdoni  b 
fully  detoibcd  in  a  paw  by  Mem  CuUey  and  Sabine  (Jfia.  Fm. 
/■id.Cit..£>ii.vol.>li£T.   Tbe  tame  vduasCDoainaadaci^ioa 

of  the  frneumallc  telMaphs  ol  I^aiis  and  of  enerlmenr ■!.— ^ 

by  M-  Dohteinpi,  ami  alw  a  diicuHlan  of  the  tbeory  of 

tnnwninien  by  Proimor  W.  C  Unw"      "' 

be  made  10  a  paper,  by  C.  SieDens 
vol.  xuUL),  deKi£<jiE  the  Siemeiw  cii_ 

papfaj,  by  M.  A.  L.  Tenumt  (Paili,  .-..,, 

Tirkiiaal  fwDwIim,  vol  x..  ''Pneumatic  Tubes";  Ken>pe'a 
Emtimtrf  Ym-Bttk  (19*  edkion).  (H.  R.  K.) 

PHEDMATIC  om.  Air  as  •  propclUitl  has  in  recent  ynrv 
been  applied  to  guns  of  large  calibre,  Iti  which  its  comparativrly 
gentle  action  has  proved  advantagemis  when  high  orploslvei 
contained  in  1he!r  shells  are  empU^ed  as  projectiles.  In  1883 
Mr  MeSord  of  Ohio  utilized  an  air  pr«*sDre  ol  500  lb  per  sq. 
In.  in  a  i.|n.  gun,  and  succeeded  In  propelling  a  projectile 
Jioo  yds.  The  airangemmt  wsj  of  the  simplest  fonn— ■ 
hose  with  an  ordinary  cock  by  which  the  air  was  admitted  Into 
the  gun  behind  the  projectile.  Tbe  question  was  then  taken 
up  by  Cipt.  E.  L.  ZiUniki  (TS49-1909)  of  the  United  Statcf 
Artillery,  who  In  iSSS  reduced  the  uH^ed  " dynamite  gun" 
lo  a  practical  ihape  and  ohtaftied  eiceHenl  firing  results. 

The  principal  featui™  o(  hi»  lyBim  are:  (0  An  enremely  in- 
iSiis  valve  ii  opnvd  and  cloM^  by  a  tlmpje  rngvement  ol  the  fmng 


je  doaUaln 

/■If.  Co.  Eh. 

uil  ivBen :  andlD  £<]  rlt- 

lBSI);_CiwiiI  Post  OJfn 


Dynamite  gun, 
LticaDy  inl 


passes  out  of  the  apparatus  it 
the   lever,   and  the   frame   iwir 

position  to  receive  aaothci  carrier.  To  prevent  earners  irom 
h*in(j  dctpotched  too  frequently  and  overtokiog  each  other  a 
time  lock  la  attached  lo  the  sending  apparatus]  this  locks  tbe 
cnntrolllag  vitve  when  •  carrier  Is  despatched,  and  keeps  it 
locked  for  a  given  period  of  lime,  varying  from  Cve  to  fifteen  or 
twenty  secoods,  according  to  the  adjustment  o(  the  lock.  Hw 
aitia  I*  recoved  at  the  fiither  eiid  of  the  tube  into  on  air 
cnihioD  formed  fay  closing  the  end  of  tbe  tube  with  a  iluice-gatc, 
and  allowing  the  ali  to  Bow  out  into  abnncb  pifie  throu^tlola 
In  the  tube  located  about  4  ft  hi  the  rear  of  the  sluice-gate. 
When  a  carrier  atrivea  it  passes  over  Ibe  dots,  enlen  tbe  air 
cushion  and  Is  bmughl  lo  rest  without  injury  or  shock.  The 
CBiiiea  are  thin  steel  cyliodera  closed  at  the  front  end  by  a 
eoBva  disk  of  the  same  natadal  cinying  a  buffer  of  ielt  uut  1 


Saady  Hook,  New  York  Barbour. 

and  conmiuently  the  nnje,  an  be  regulated.  W  A  Btht  Meel 
projectile  cnrryinj  the  bunting  rhargi.  and  pruvulfd  with  a  taU 
Id  whkh  vanei  are  attached  In  order  ID  nve  rMnixm.  (3)  Electnc 
Inset  of  enlirely  oripnal  design.    E*^ibeU^™Tw*a^«l  ballwyj 


.'Jr*.^, 


riboe'of  tb*  waicr.  ondinlu*  ibe  eharn  after 

delay  capeUe of  legulaikia.   For  aalety  aU  tWekdr-    '--■ 

made  10  pus  Ihroush  a  dix 
being  compleud  ubcII  the  ibel 

•mooth-bore  tiihe,  IS  in.  01  ..=.  — — •--.; 

(hdl  wdghi  toeo  II,  and  chih  a  bundng  duo*  of  <«  »  ^ 
blaKbig  gelatine,  nil  into  tbe  lonn  of  eheeees.  finleg  the  mtd 
enrelope.  and  pnivxkd  with  acmofdiy  guo<ottor  an  a  priwi. 
Sul^alitpie  projertika,  10  in.  and  B  in.,  can  alB  be  uKd.  In  their 
..».  H4>»^  it  niwn  Inl  vnAH  tw  finii  atiachcd  to  the  body  of  the 
tubea  clot*  w  ue  fuo, 
to  wlHdi  it  l»  dinaly 


86a 


PNEUMATICS— BNEUMATOLYSIS 


pumped  aft  a  pranttrti  ti.ikmit  fobo  lb,   Thtit  »  «hray*.t]ier^ 

fort,  a  coabidenible  reserve  of  power  available  without  pumping 
Pneumatic  guns  of  this  description  (sec  figure)  have  been  mounted 
for  the  protection  of  New  York  and  San  Francisco. '  With  a  fult- 
caltbre  shell  <iooo  lb)  thcat  grunt  havi»  a  range  of  2400  yds.;  with 
a  sub-oalibse  6-in.  shell  (250  b>)  the  maximum  ranee  b  6000  )id«. 
The  official  triaU  showed  remarkable  accuracy.  At  5ux>  yda. 
75%  of  t}ie  projectiles  fell  in  an  area  of  360  X90  ft.  vVTicn  the 
gun  was  tried  at  Shoeburvncss  the  accuracy  was  far  greater  than 
could  be  obtained  with  howttaer  sheila  propelled  by  explost\«s. 

a  I  account  of  the  power  of  txplodinji  the  shell  onder  water*  and 
us  securing  a  torpedo  action,  a  duvet  hit  upon  a  ship  is  not 
required,  and  the  target  offeivd  b  lagcely  in  excess  of  the  deck 
plan.  The  gun  is,  in  fact,  capable  or  replacing  systems  of  sub- 
marine mines  with  economy,  and  without  the  great  objcctkm  of 
interfering  with  A  waterway. 

The  only  employment  of  the  d3mamlte  gun  afloat  has  been 
in  the  cose  of  the  U.S.  gimboat  "  Vesuviiu,"  carrying  three  in 
the  bows.  These  guns  are  fixed  at  a  constant  an^  of  elevation, 
and  the  range  is  regulated  by  the  air  valve,  tinning  bcSng  ghren 
by  the  helm.  Tlius  mounted  on  an  matable  platform,  the 
accuracy  of  fire  obtainable  must  evidently  bo  much  less  than 
on  shore.  The  "  Vesuvius  "  was  employed  during.iJhe  Spanish- 
American  War  of  2898,  when  on  aeveial  wghts  in  snccqnion 
she  appioa<:hed  the  defences  of  Santiago  under  cover  of  dark- 
ness and  discharged  three  projectiles.  Fire  delivered  tuxler 
such  conditions  could  not  be  sufficiently  accurate  to  injure 
coast  defences;  but  the  shells  burst  well,  and  made  lazige  craters. 
A  small  dynamite  gun  on  a  field-carriage  was  used  in  the  land 
operations  Above  Santiago  in  the  same  war. 

PNEUMATICS  (Gr.  KPet/ui,  wind,  air),  the  branch  of 
physical  science  concerned  with  the  properties  of  gases  and. 
vapours  (soe  Gas).  A  pneumatic  trough  b  simp^  a  basiacon- 
taining  water  or  some  other  liquid  used  for  oollfcting  gases. 

PNtOBlATOLTSIS  (Gx.rytOua,  vapour,  and  X^fu^,  to  set  free), 
in  petrology,  the  discharge  of  vapours  from  igneous  magmas 
and  the  effects  produced  by  them  on  rock  masses  In  all  vol- 
canic  eruptions  the  gases  given  off  by  the  molten  lavas  are 
powerful  agencies.  The  slaggy  clots  of  lavi  thrown  out  from 
the  crater  are  so  full  of  gas  that  when  they  cool  they  resemble 
spongy  pieces  of  bread.  The  lava  streams  as  they  flow  down 
the  slopes  of  the  volcano  are  covered  with  white  steam  clouds, 
while  over  the  orifice  of  the  crater  hangs  a  canopy  of  vapour 
which  is  often  darkened  by  fine  partidcs  of  ash.  Most  authors 
ascribe  volcanic  explosions  to  the  liberation  of  steam  from  the 
magma  which  held  it  in  solution,  and  the  enormous  expansive 
powers  which  irec  water  vapour  possesses  at  veiy  high 
temperatures. 

Of  these  gases  the  principal  are  water  and  carbonic  add, 
but  by  analysis  of  the  discharges  from  the  smaller  fumarolcs, 
for  the  active  crater  b  generally  too  hot  to  be  approached  during 
an  eruption,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
hsrdrochloric  add,  boron,  fluorine,  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
and  sulphurous  acid  arc  iJ]  emitted  by  volcanoes.  A  i:ecent 
lava  flow  has  been  likened  to  a  great  fumarole  pouring  out 
volatile  substances  at  every  crack  in  its  slaggy  crust.  Slany 
minerals  are  deposited  in  these  fissures,  and  among  the  sub- 
stances produced  in  thb  way  are  ammonitmi  chloride,  ferric 
chloride  and  oxide>  copper  oxide  (tcnorite  and  cuprite)  and 
sulphur;  by  reacting  on  the  minerab  of  the  rock  many  zeolites 
fltnd  other  secondary  products  are  formed.  These. processes 
have  been  described  as  "  juvenile  "  or  "  post  eruptive,"  and 
it  is  believed  that  the  amygdales  which  occupy  the  cavities  of 
many  porous  lavas  are  not  due  really  to  weathering  by  sur- 
face waters  percolating  in  from  above,  but  to  the  action  of  the 
steam  and  ot  her  gases  set  free  as  the  lava  crystallizes.  The  zeo- 
lites are  the  principal  group  of  minerals  whkh  originate  in  this 
way  together  with  chlorite,  chalcedony  and  addte.  ITie  larger 
cavities  (or  geodcs)  arc  often  lihed  with  beautiful  crystal  groups 
df  natroUtc,  sookdte,  thomsonite,  stilbite,  and  other  nincr^ 
of  thb  order. 

The  active  gases  were  evidently  in  solution  in  the  mjigma  as 
it  rose  to  the  surface.  Some  geologists  believe  it  b  of 
subterranean  origin  h'ke  the  lava  itself,  and  is  an  essential  or 
ori^aal  component  of  the  magma.    They  point  to  the  aaitt- 


tntSt  of  gases  In  considerable  quantity  m  meteorites,  and.  com- 
paring the  earth  to  a  great  aerolite,  insist  that  it  should  cos- 
tain  gases  m  solution  uke  the  smaller  masses  of  Che  same  kind. 
Others  hold  it  more  probable  that  the  water  has  percolated 
&k  frOm  the  surface,  or  seeing  that  many  volcanoes  stand  near 
the  sea  maii^n  and  by  thdr  linear  disposition  may  be  dis- 
pos<5d  along  fissures  or  lines  of  weakening  in  the-  crust,  tker 
argue  that  tfa»  water  of  the  sea  may  have  filtered  down  e^Ts 
in  spite  of  the  great  ovtwaid  presstue  exerted  by  the  stcara 
generated  by  contact  with  the  intensely  heated  rock.  Tse 
abundance  of  chlorides  and  hydrochloric  acid  b  appealed  to 
also  in  favour  of  a  marine  origin  for  the  water.  AgBJnst  this 
we  may  phuc  the  fact  that  at  groat  depths  whence  actiw  mag- 
mas ascend  the  rocks  are  under  so  great  pressures  that  txcrr 
fissure  b  dosed  up;  In  fact  in  some  of  the  deepest  mines  the 
quantity  <rf  water  found  in  the  workings  is  often  excccdiD?-7 
small.  Probably  there  b  some  truth  in  both  theories,  but  the 
balance  of  probablb'ty  seems  to  incline  in  favour  of  the  vie* 
that  the  water  b  an  origmal  and  essential  part  of  the  magm 
.and  not  an  intrtxluction  from  above. 

Long  after  a  lava  has  cooled  down  and  become  rigid  the 
vapours  oontlnae  to  ooze  out  through  its  fissures,  niid  anmod 
many  volcanoes  which  are  bdieved  to  be  extinct  there  an 
orifices  discharging  gas  in  great  quantities.  This  state  of 
activity  b  said  to  be  **  solfatarie,"  and  a  gdod  example  of  i:  is 
the  volcano  called  the  Solfatara  near  Naples.  The  nomerocs 
''Sonfri^TCs"  of  the  West  Indies  are  fnnher  Instances.  The 
prevalent  gas  b  steam  with  sulphtiretted  hydrogen  and  car- 
bonic add.  At  the  Grotto  del  Cane  in  the  Fhlegmcan  Firids 
.  (Italy)  the  carbonic  add  rbing  from  fissures  in  the  bottom  of  a 
cave  covers  the  floor  as  a  heavy  layer,  and  a  dog  placed  in  the 
.  interior  of  the  cave  becomes  stupefied  by  the  narcotic  gas;  such 
gas-springs  have  been  called  "mofettes."  Around  thea 
there  b  often  a  deposit  of  sulphur,  produced  by  oxidation  of  the 
■sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  the  rocks  are  bleached,  softened 
and  •  decomposed.  White  crusts  of  alum,  various  sulphates^ 
and  sulphides  such  as  pyrites,  also  carbonates  of  soda  and  otbtr 
bases,  are  formed  by  the  action  of  the  add  vnpoors  on  the 
volcanic  rocks.  The  final  manifestation  of  volcanic  activitT 
in  such  a  region  may  be  the  discharge  of  heated  waters,  wbxk 
have  ascended  from  the  deep-seated  magma  far  below  the 
surface,  and  make  their  appearance  as  groups  of  hot  ^»iajEs; 
these  springs  persist  long  alter  the  volomoes  which  give  rise 
to  them  have  become  quite  extinct. 

It  b  now  bdieved  by  a  large  munber  of  geotoKista  and  witi:% 
engineere  that  these  ascending  hot  waters  are  of  paramoaci  uz* 
partance  in  the^gencab  of  some  of  the  most  important  r>'pr«  J 
ore  deposits.  Analyses  hax'v  proved  Jthat  the  igneous  nuclei  eft  1 
contain  distinct-thoush  .very  small  quantities  of  the  heavy  mr*Al5. 
it  i^  «Jso  established  beyond  doubt  that  vd  is  of  fold,  salver,  h^X 
tin  and  mercury  most  commonly  occur  in  t  le  vicmity  of  mtru&.'>e 
igneous  masses.  At  Steamboat  in  Nevada,  hot  springs.  prot^bW 
of  magmatic  origin,  are  forming  deposits  of  cianaoar.  At  CnppAt 
Creek,  Colorado,  and  in  many  other  pbccs  gold-bearing  vcm 
occur  in  and  around  intruuve  pluijp  01  igneous  rode  Tto  cm 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  are  found  10  assodatioo  with  tounna'i.<f 

f;ranites.  In  all  cases  the  veins  bear  evidence  of  having  been  fcJ«  i 
rom  below  by  hot  Waters  set  free  during  the  cooling  01  the  igfieov» 
intrusions.  Volcanic  rocks  are  consoauently  the  parent  MMmn 
of  many  valuable  mineral  deposits,  ana  the  agency  oy  which  dh-y 
were.  brought  into  their  present  situations  b  the  volatile  prodjcti 
dischargeaas  the  magma  crystallized.  The  process  was  no  do(<b-t 
a  long  one  and  it  b  most  orobable  that  both  steam  atKl  «ai«y 
took  part  fai  it.  Above  S65*  C.  water  b  a  gas  under  wM  presKRs 
and  the  action  b  stricuy  pntumaielytki  below  that  tempoatait 
steam  b  changed  to  water  bv  pressure^  and  the  actioa  may  be 
described  as  KydaiogeTUtic.  Tne  dbtinction  b  unesacDtial.  arxf  := 
our  Ignorance  of  the  temperatures  and  pressures  prevailing  at  o^> 
siderable  depths  we  lack  the  means  of  das^ficatioo.  In  vbat  err.- 
dition  the,  metallic  ores  are  dissolved  and  by  what  re»ctiaii»  I^>.v 
are  predpitated  depends  on  many  factors  only  partly  undeiTtui  «i. 
The  tin  ores  are  so  often  associated  with  minerals  containing  t«^n.  ~ 
and  fluorine  that  it  is  quire  probable  that  they  were  combined 
with  these  dements  in  name  way,  but  they  were  deposited  in  x»cir> 
all  cases  as  oDodes.  Other  gaseous  substances,  such  as  aulphuret  ted 
hydrogen,  carbonic  add  and.  hydrochloric  add,  probably  haxr 
an  important  part  in  dissolving  certain  metals:  and  the  aUcah  - 
carbonates,  sulphides  and  chlorides  have  been  shown  by  expenaM...! 
to  act.abo  as  solvents.    In  these  ore  deposits  not  only  the  heavy 


PNEUMONIA 


3^9 


metib  are  foiiiid,.but  often  a  nradt  hxccr  quantity  ol  muieraUi 
such,  as  calciie,  barytes*  fluorspar,  quartz  and  tourmaline  which 
•erve  as  a  matrix  or  gangue»  and  have  been  deposited  by  the  same 
agendcs,  and  often  at  the  same  time  as  the  valuable  minerals. 

In  thcar  passage  upwards  and  outwards  through  the  rocks  of 
the  earth's  crust,  these  leases  and  liquids  not  only  deposit  minerals 
In  the  fissures  along  which  they  ascendi.  but  attack  the  surrounding 
rocks  and  alter  them  in  many  ways.  The  granite  or  other  ptutonic 
mass  from  which  the  vapours  arc  derived  is  especially  liable  to  these 
transformations,  |irobaDlv  because  it  b  at  a  high  temperature, 
not  having  yet  completely  cooled  dowiu  Around  the  tin^beiring 
veins  in  granite  there  is  extensive  replacement  of  felspar  and  biotite 
by  quartz,  tourmaline  and  white  micas  (the  last-named  often  rich 
in  lithia).  In  this  way  certain  types  of  altered  granite  are  produced. 
mch  asgreisen  (^.v.)  and  schori  rock  (see  Schorl)-  in  the  slates  adja- 
cent  to  the  tin  veins  tourmalinization  also  goes  on,  converting  them 
into  schori-schists.  The  alteration  of  felspar  into  kaolin  or  china 
clay  is  also  a  pneumatolytic  process,  and  is  often  found  along  with 
tin  veins  or  other  types  of  mineral  deposit ;  probably  both  fluorine 
and  carbonic  add  operated  in  this  instance  along  with  water. 
Equally  common  and  important  is  the  silidfication  of  rocks  near 
nunenil  veins  which  carry  gold,  copper,  lead  and  other  metals. 
Granites  and  fel&itcs  may  be  converted  into  hard  chcrty  masses 
of  silica.  Limestones  undergo  this  transformation  very  readilv; 
at  the  same  time  they  are  regarded  as  rocks  very  favourable  to  the 
deposition  of  ores.  Probably  the  great  frequency  with  which 
fhey  undergo  silidfication  and  other  types  ol  metasomatic  replace- 
ment is  one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  abundance  of  valuable  deposits 
in  them.  The  process  known  as  "jpropylitization,"  which  has 
extensively  affected  the  andesites  of  the  Hungarian  goldfietds, 
SB  believeo  to  be  also  a  consequence  of  the  action  of  pneumatolytic 
gases.  The  andesites  change  to  dull,  soft,  greenish  masses,  and 
their  original  minerals  are  to  a  large  extent  replaced  bjr  quartz, 
epidote,  chlorite,  sericite  and  kaolin.  Around  granites  intrusive 
into  serpentine  and  other  rocks  containing  much  magnesia,  there 
is  often  extensive  *'  steatisatkm,"  orthe  dcpout  of  tak  and  steatite 
in  plu»  of  the  original  minerals  of  the  rock.  Some  of  the  apatite 
veins  of  Canada  and  Norway  accompany  basic  rocks  of  the  gabbro 
group;  it  has  been  argued  that  the  apatite  (which  contains  phos- 
phorus and  chlorine)  was  laid  down  by  vapours  or  solutions  contain- 
ing those  gases,  which  may  play  a  similar  part  in  the  basic  rocks 
to  that  taken  by  fluorine  and  boron  in  the  pneumatolytic  veins 
around  sranites.  In  the  country  rock  around  the  veins  scapolite 
(fl.v.),  a  hmc  alumina  silicate,  oontaining  chlorine,  often  b  substituted 
lor  lime-felspar. 

These  extensive  changes  attending  the  formation  of  mineral 
veins  are  by  no  means  common  phenomena,  but  in  many  plutonic 
masses  pncumatolytk:  action  has  contributed  to  the  formation  of 
pegmatites  (g.o.).  (J*  S  .F.) 

PNEUMONIA  (Gr.  irvcO/itfr,  lung),  a  term  used  for  inflam- 
matioQ  of  the  lung  substance.  Formerly  the  disease  was 
divided  into  three  varieties:  (x)  Acute  Croupous  or  lobar 
pneumonia;  (2)  Catarrhal  or  Broncho-pneumonia;  (3)  Inter- 
stitial or  Chronic  pneumonia. 

X.  AcuU  Croupous  or  Lobar  Pneumonia  (Pneumonic  Forer) 
is  now  classed  as  an  acute  infective  disease  of  the  lung,  char- 
acterized by  fever  and  toxaemia,  running  a  de^nite  course  and 
being  the  direct  result  of  a  ^>ecific  micro-orgaiusm  or  micro- 
organisms. The  micrococcus  lancei^tus  (pneumococcus,  or 
diplococcus  pneumoniae)  of  Frankel  and  Weichselbaum  b 
present  in  a  large  number  of  cases  in  the  bronchial  secretions, 
in  the  affected  lung  and  in  the  blood.  This  organism  is  also 
present  in  many  other  infective  processes  which  may  com- 
plicate or  terminate  lobar  pneumonia,  such  as  pericarditb, 
oidocarditis,  peritonitb  and  empyema.  The  badllus  pneu- 
moniae of  FriedlSnder  b  also  present  in  a  prc^rtion  of  cases, 
but  b  probably  not  the  cause  of  true  lobar  pneumonia.  Various 
othex  organisms  raay  be  associated  with  these,  but  they  are  to 
be  regaided  as  in  the  nature  of  a  aecondaxy  invasion.  Lobar 
pneumonia  may  be  considered  as  an  acute  endemic  disease  of 
temperate  climates,  though  epidemic  forms  have  been  de- 
scribed. It  has  a  dbtinct  seasonal  incidence,  being  most 
frequent  in  the  winter  and  spring.  Osier  strongly  supports  the 
view  that  it  b  an  infections  disease,  quoting  the  outbreaks 
repeated  by  W.  L.  Rodman  of  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  where 
in  a  prison  of  735  inhabitants  there  were  xi8  cases  in  one  year; 
but  direct  contagion  does  not  seem  to  be  well  proved,  and  it  is 
undoubted  that  the  pneumococcus  b  present  in  the  fauces  of 
numbers  of  healthy  persons  and  seems  to  require  a  lowered 
power  of  resistance  or  other  favouring  conditioa  for  the  pro- 
duction of  an  attack. 


Lolttr  Pneumonia  be^ns  by  the  setting  up  of  an  acute  in- 
flammatory process  in  the  alveoli.  The  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  lung  are  chiefly  three,  (x)  Congestion,  or  engorge- 
ment, the  blood-vesseb  being  dbtended  and  the  lung  more 
voluminous  and  heavier  than  normal,  and  of  daric  red  colour, 
lis  air  cells  sUll  contain  air.  (2)  Red  Uepatisatum,  so  called 
from  its  resembUnce  to  liver  tissue.  In  thb  stage  there  b 
poured  into  the  air  ceUs  of  the  affected  part  an  exudation  con- 
sbting  of  amorphous  fibrin  together  with  epithelial  ceUs  and 
red  and  white  blood  corpuscles,  the  whole  forming  a  viscid  mass 
which  occupies  not  only  the  cclb  but  also  the  finer  bronchi,  and 
which  spetdily  coagulates,  causing  the  lung  to  become  firmly 
consolidated.  In  thb  condition  the  cells  are  entirely  emptied 
of  air,  their  blood-vcsseb  are  pressed  upon  by  the  exudation, 
and  the  lung  substance,  rendered  brittle,  sinks  in  water.  The 
appearance  of  a  sectioi^of  the  lung  in  thb  stage  has  been  likened 
to  that  of  red  granite.  It  b  to  the  character  of  the  exudation, 
consbting  largely  of  coagulable  fibrin,  that  the  term  croupous 
b  due.  (3)  Grey  Hepatization.  In  U:ds  stage  the  lung  still  re- 
tains  its  liver-like  consbtence,  but  its  colour  b  now  gzey,  nd 
unlike  the  appearance  of  grey  granite.  This  b  due  to  the  change 
taking  place  in  the  exudation,  which  undergoes  resolution  by  a 
process  of  fatty  degeneration,  pus  formation,  liquefaction  and 
ultimately  absorption — so  that  in  a  comparatively  short  period 
the  air  vesicles  get  rid  of  their  morbid  contents  and  resume 
their  normal  function.  During  resolution  the  changes  in  the 
exudate  take  place  by  a  process  of  autolysb  or  peptonization 
of  the  inflammatory  products  by  tmorganized  ferments,  absorp* 
tion  taking  place  into  the  lymphatics  and  circulation.  The 
absorbed  exudate  b  mainly  excreted  by  the  kidneys,  excess  of 
nitrogen  being  found  in  the  urine  during  thb  period,  Thb  b 
happily  the  termination  of  the  majority  of  cases  of  lobar  pneu- 
monia. One  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  is  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  lung  tissue  cleats  up,  and  its  freedom  from 
alteration  or  from  infiltration  into  the  connective  tissue  as  fre* 
quently  takes  place  after  broncho-pneumonia.  When  resolution 
does  not  take  place,  death  may  occur  from  extension  of  the 
disease  and  subsequent  toxaemia,  from  circulatory  failure, 
from  the  formation  of  one  or  more  abscesses  or  more  rarely  from 
gangrene  of  the  lung  or  from  the  complication  mentioned  below. 
Chronic  interstitial  pneumonia  b  infrequent^  following  on  the 
acute  variety.  The  most  frequent  seat  of  pneumonia  b  the 
base  or  bwer  lobes,  but  occasionally  the  apices  are  the  only 
parts  affected.  The  light  lung  b  the  most  often  attacked.  Pneu- 
monia may  extend  to  the  entire  lung  or  it  may  affect  both 
lungs.  The  death  rate  of  acute  lobar  pneumonia  in  the  chief 
London  hospitate  b  20%.  With  an  orgam'sm  so  prevalent 
as  the  pneumococcus  it  fcrflows  that  alcoholism,  diabetes  and 
other  gcnoal  diseases  and  intoxications  must  render  the  body 
liable  to  an  attack.  Males  are  more  commonly  attacked  than 
females,  and  a  previous  attack  seems  to  give  a  special  liability 
to  another.  The  incubation  period  of  pneumonia  b  unknown; 
it  b  probably  very  short. 

The  symptoms  are  generall^r  well  marked  from  the  beginning 
The  attack  is  usually  ushered  in  by  a  rigor  (or  in  children  a  oooi- 
vulaon),  and  the  speedy  development  of  the  febrile  condition,  the 
temperature  rising  to  a  considerable  degree — loi"  to  104*  or  more. 
The  pulse  is  quickened,  and  there  »  a  marked  dbturbancc  in  the 
fcspiration,  which  b  rapid,  shallow  and  difiicult,  the  rate  being 
usually  accelerated  to  some  two  or  three  times  its  normal  amount. 
The  lips  are  livid,  and  the  face  has  a  dusky  flush.  Pain  in  the  side 
b  felt,  especially  diould  any  amount  of  pleurisy^  be  present,  as  is 
often  the  case.  Cough  b  an  early  symptom.  It  is  at  first  frequent 
and  hacking,  and  b  acooropahied  with  a  little  tough  cotourless 
expectoration,  which  soon,  however,  becomes  more  copious  and  of 
a  rusty  red  colour,  either  tenacious  or  frothy  and  liquid.  Micro- 
scopically thb  consists  mainly  of  epithelium,  casts  of  the  air  cells 
ana  fine  bronchi,  together  with  granular  matter,  blood  and  pus 
corpuscles  and  haematoidin  crystals.  The  micro-orgamsm*  usually 
present  axe  the  pneumococcus,  Fricdlandcr's  bacillus,  and  sometimes 
the  influenza  bacillus.  The  following  are  the  chief  physical  si^ 
in  the  various  stages  of  the  disease.  In  the  stage  of  congestion 
fine  crackling  or  crepitation  is  heard  over  the  affected  area :  some- 
times thiNe  IS  very  little  chai^  from  the  natural  breathing,  la 
the  stage  of  ted  hepatizatioa  the  affected  side  of  the  chest  b  eeea 
to  exiMuid  bas  freely  than  the  opposite  side;  there  b  dullness  oa 


870 


PN£UMONIA 


D»  and  rapid  b 
r  pan  cf  lh«  die 


3?, 


pubc  whkh  at  Gm  wu 

the  inltrruptipo  to  the 

in.^    OccA»oiuLly  dight  jaundiK  is  prc$enr, 

c  Rnvrally  occura  after  aix  or  o|ht  day*  a 
■d  by  a  rapid  fall  of  tht  tcmpciwun!  accom- 

""""si^i 


'!?S.? 


«K«1.  and  csprrialli 


He  pneumoria  aw  plearuy,  wbkb  b 

■ncviiauiir  piarni,ampyenu  (in  which  thapitctimCDKCUl 
Ely   prwcnt   and   occauanaily    tha  tlnplococcu^),    peri- 

for  a  lar^  fcitftniaBe  of  tbe  fatal  cawa.  Tht  pneuimcocrin  hta 
bren  found  in  the  exudalc.  Secondary  pncumoniaa  ducfty  fallow 
(lie  ipediK  feven.  ai  diphtheria,  eateiic  fevtr,  ineailH  and  lafluGu.' 

._j i 1.  J.  J: : — :-.     Bacleriolo^eany  a  numbi 

i,  tocher  Bith  the  i{«it 


ct  poUoninK-    1 


ii  hu  of  btc  undergane  ■ 
3  luadi:  (1)  CsDcnl 
nygmtc  iRauncni;  (i)  toe  ireausent  of  ipedal  (ymploiiis; 
(j)  ireatnwnt  by  vacdnei  and  leri.  The  same  treatnitnt  rf 
absolute  reit  ahould  be  earned  out  ai  in  entadc  fever^  ihia 
abuluta  rot  is  necessary  to  linuE  the  auto-iflocufation^hy  Ihe 
abiorptioD  of  toiinL  Freih  aii  in  abundaiice  and  even  open- 
air  treattqenl  if  poisiblc  has  been  attoidDd  with  good  raulta. 
In  poultjcsi  over  tbe  ■Seeled  part  m  lueful  in  tbo  relief  of 
IMilo,  ■hile  tepid  fponginf  and  tepid  ot  even  cold  bilba  may 
be  Snciy  given,  and  tbe  patient'i  (tTenglh  supported  by  milk, 
BDupft  and  other  light  forms  of  nounduneJiL  SUmulaati  may 
be  called  for,  and  ftrychniiK  and  Higitjilin  aie  tbe  most  vaiu- 
aUe;  diiinfectiOB  of  tbe  tpulum  ibould  be  lysemalically 
carried  out.  Many  trials  have  been  made  with  antipneunw- 
cokIc  aenim,  but  it  has  not  been  ahown  to  have  a  very 
DiuVtd  effect  In  cutting  ahon  tbe  diiease.  Tbe  palyvalent 
lenim  of  ROmer  haa  given  the  beat  remits.  Much  more  favour- 
able rendts  have  been  obtained  [mm  the  use  of  a  vacxine.  Tbe 
resulti  of  vaccine  treatment  obtained  by  fioellkt  in  30  cases  of 

The  V 


should  be  made  from  the  patient's  own  pi 


(j  to  50  million  desd  paciunocoixi)  being  regulated  by  llie 
guidancfl  of  the  cfflonic  ind^  The  ohjectioii  to  tbe  prepaia- 
tion  cpf  the  vacdne  from  the  patient's  own  organisms  is  ibe 
time  (several  dsyi)  which  is  required,  valuable  lime  being 
thereby  loet;  but  the  results  are  much  more  cenjdn  tbui  vrith 

I.  BinmJu-Pinmtnia  (Catarrhal 
Capillary  Bronchitis).     An  acute  form  of  lobular 
has  been  dcacribed,  having  all 


Thelei 
denote  a  widespread  ca 
bronchi  which  qjreads  11 
consolidatioa.  All  form 
Ibe  lavasifln  of  the  lung  b 


ha  hmcvet  been  eoutaatly  found  wUdi  can  be  slid  to  be 

specific,  as  b  lobar  pneumonia;  the  influeDia  bacillus.  micn>. 
coccus  catiinhallj,  pneumococcus,  FriedlJUidet's  batiJIui  iiJ 
various  slaphjlococci  hiving  been  found.  John  Eyre,  in 
Allbutt's  ^yifmi  nl  UtaUitu.  gives  £1%  of  miied  iafeclieo  in 
the  cases  iavesligaled  by  him.  Broncho-pnuunouia  may  ecrnr 
as  an  acute  primary  aSeclion  in  children,  but  is  more  usualhr 
secondary.  It  may  be  a  sequence  ol  inloctious  fevers,  measls. 
nhooping  <;ou^,  scarlet  fever  and  lometimes  lyphoid 


pLcil 


In  thesf 


t  form; 


The  large  majority  of  the  Uu 

•      '      In  adults  it  ma     '  " 

Blight's  disease  o 


d  often 


fatal    c 


>ji  of  pulmonary  tubemilosis. 


fibiinous  e 
In  favour: 

hand  they 


It  of  tl 


UD<lcr  Uk 


solution  takes  place  by  filty  degeocn- 
abborptlon  of  the  cells,  but  on  the  Mbs 
a  caseous  degenerative  changes,  absma 

developed,  in  both  of  which  cases  the  condiiion  passes  into  o» 
of  pulmonary  lubcrculosis.  Evidence  of  previaua  bronchilb 
is  usually  peescnt  in  the  lungs  aflccted  with  cattrrliat  poeu. 
monia.     In  the  great  majority  of  instances  calairhal  pacT- 

from  the  inQammation  posung  from  tbe  Boer  brondu  to  tbi 
pidmoDary  flir  vesicles,  or  frum  iu  aEecting  pottSons  of  hd^ 
which  have  undergone  eoUipae, 

The  s>mpIC[ni  characieriiinE  Ac  onset  ef  catarrhal  pne 
bronchitis  or  the  conval&ctnce  from  moile*  or  khooping 

or  a  sudden  and  marked  elevation  of  temperature. -*- 

--Itrncd  pulse  —■ '  ■ ■■  ■••"'■•—  '-  >-- 


Inhalationa  are  useful  to  relieve  the  cou^  tbd  om^Latori 
slimnlanta  Such  as  strychnine  are  vahiiUe,  together  viik  farDa- 
donna  and  oiygen.    When  orthopnoea  and  lividily  mc  pc^na. 

The  trealinent  of  broncho-pneumonia  by  aerum  and  rtcoTia 
is  not  so  BoccAsful  as  in  lobar  pneumonia,  owing  to  the  dlfltculcy 
of  ascertaining   the    precise    bacterial    inlectno.      Tie   gtrt 

of  pulmonary  tubcrculoeis. 

].  Ckmic  InltrMiat  Pvhhwho  (Cinborii  at  tk  L«4 
is  a  fibroid  change  in  tbe  lung,  chiefly  aflediiig  the  fitenu 
■troma  and  may  b>  dlbet  loal  ot  dUhae.  The  i  hingi  1  pn- 
duced  in  the  lung  by  this  disease  are  marked  chidy  l>7  <kc 
growth  of  nucleated  fil«ioid  liiaue  around  the  walla  of  the  fanncki 
and  vessels,  and  in  the  intervciicular  icpta,  wfasch  fucegds  14 
such  an  atent  as  to  tnvade  and  obliterate  tbe  air  cdk-  The 
lung,  which  a  at  first  oUarged,  becomes  shrunken,  daac  is 
texture  and  solid,  any  nnm*rmrt*tt  portjoni  bong  m|j4jiw.- 
tnatous;  tbe  bmnchi  an  dilated,  tbe  plenn  thittened.  tad  the 
lung  substance  often  dee|dy  pigmented,  cspecialy  in  the  «e 
of  minera,  who  ere  apt  to  suSer  from  (hit  di3«».  Tkc  etSa 
lung  is  always  greatly  esilarged  and  distended  from  enqAyA^oa; 
tbe  bean  beeomci  hypenmphied,  pattieulaily  the  tigkt  ■«- 
triclei  and  thett  may  be  mat'     '      '  "  " 


PNOM-PENH— POBEDON0ST8EV 


*7i 


blood  vessels.  L«ter  the  hmg  becomes  converted  into  a  series 
of  bronchiectatic  cavities.  This  condition  is  usually  present  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree  in  almost  aU  chronic  diseases  of  the  luiigs 
and  bronchi,  but  it  is  spedally  sipl  to  arise  in  an  extensive  form 
from  preexisting  catarrhal  pnenmonia,  and  not  unfrequently 
occurs  in  connexion  with  occupations  which  necessitate  the 
habitual  inhalation  of  partides  of  dust,  such  as  those  of  col- 
liers, flax-dressers,  stonemasons,  millers,  &c.,  to  which  the 
term  pneumonokoniosis  is  now  applied  (including  anthracosis, 
siderosis,  chalicosis  and  the  so-call^  "  grinder's  rot" ). 

The  symptoms  are  very  similar  to  those  of  chronic  phthisis  (see 
Tuberculosis),  especially  increasing  difficulty  of  breathing,  particu- 
larly on  exertion,  cough  dthcr  dry  cm-  with  cxpcctoratioD,  some- 
times copious  and  fetid.  In  the  case  of  coal-miners  the  sputum  is 
black  from  containing  carbonaceous  matter.  The  physical  n^s 
are  deficient  expansion  of  the  affected  ade — the  disease  being 
mostly  confined  to  one  lung — increasing  dullness  on  percussion, 
tubular  breathing  and  moist  sounds.  As  the  disease  progresses 
retraction  of  the  side  becomes  manifest,  and  the  heart  and  liver 
may  be  displaced.  Ultimately  the  condition,  both  as  regards 
physical  signs  and  symptoms,  takes  the  characters  of  the  later 
stages  of  pulmonary  phthisis  with  colliquative  symptoms,  in- 
creasing emaciation  and  death.  Occasionally  dropsy  is  present 
from  the  heart  becoming  affected  in  the  course  of  the  disease. 
The  malady  is  usually  of  long  duration,  many  cases  remaining 
for  years  in  a  stationary  condition  and  even  undergoing  temporary 
improvement  in  mild  weather,  but  the  tendency  is  on  the  whole 
downward. 

See  Allbutt  and  Rolleston.  System  of  Medkint  (1909) :  R.  W.  Allen. 
Vauine  Therapy  and  Ike  Opsonic  Method  of  frealment  (1908); 
Oetcr.  Practice  of  Medicine  (1909):  The  Practitioner  (May  1^8); 
Clinical  Journal  (fan.  1908) ;  A  merican  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences 
Clan.  1908);  W.  C.  Botanquet  and  J.  Eyre,  Serums,  Vacctnes  and 
Toxines  (1909). 

PNOM-PENH,  a  town  of  French  Indo-China,  capital,  ance 
1866,  of  the  inotectorate  of  Cambodia  and  seat  of  the  resident- 
superior.  P(^.  about  60,000,  coiuisting  .of  Cambodians,  An- 
Damese,  Chinese,  Malays,  (pdians  and  about  600  Europeans. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Mekong  about  173  m.  from  its  mouth  at 
the  point  where  it  divides  into  two  arms  and  is  joined  by  the 
branch  connecting  it  with  the  Great  Lake  (Tonl£-Sap).  Its 
position  makes  it  the  market  for  the  products  of  Cambodia, 
Laos,  Upper  Burma  and  part  of  Siam  (dried  fish,  rice,  cotton, 
indigo,  cardamoms,  &c.)  The  town  is  lighted  by  electricity. 
The  palace  of  the  king  of  Cambodia  occupies  a  large  space  in 
the  Cambodian  quarter.  The  town  gets  its  name  from  the 
Pn6m,  a  central  hiU  surmounted  by  an  ancient  pagoda. 

PO  (anc  Padus,  Gr.  Ilaj^),  a  river  of  northern  Italy,  and 
the  largest  in  the  whole  country,  with  a  total  length  of  about 
3x0  m.  direct  from  the  source  to  the  mouth,  but,  including  its 
many  windings,  of  some  417  m.  The  navigable  portion  from 
Casale  Monferrato  to  the  mouth  is  337  m.;  the  minimum  width 
of  this  portion  656  ft.,  and  its  minimum  depth  7  ft.  Owing 
to  the  prevalence  of  shallows  and  sandbanks,  navigation  is 
difficult. 

The  Po  is  the  dominating  factor  in  north  Italian  geography, 
north  Italy  practically  consisting  of  the  Po  basin,  with  the  sur- 
rounding slopes  of  the  Alps  and  Apennines.  For  a  description 
of  its  course,  and  a  list  of  its  principal  tributaries  see  Italy. 
The  area  of  its  basin,  which  includes  portions  of  Switaerland 
and  Austria,  is  estimated  at  26,798  sq.  m. 

In  the  first  21  m.  of  its  course,  down  to  Revello  (west  of  Saluzzo), 
the  Po  descends  no  less  than  53;^  ft.,  or  a  fall  of  47*3: 1000,  forming 
a  very  remarkable  contrast  to  its  fall  lower  down.  From  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Ticino  its  fall  is  about  0*3:1000;  from  the  beginning 
of  the  delta  below  Ferrara,  o-o8:tooo.  At  Turin  it  has  an  average 
width  of  400  to  415  ft.,  a  mean  depth  of  3!  to  5I  ft.,  and  a  velocity 
of  I  to  3  ft.  in  the  second.  The  mean  depth  from  the  confluence 
of  the  Ticino  (attitude  217  ft.)  downwards  is  6  to  IS  ft.  The  river 
is  embanked  from  Piacenza,  and  continuously  from  Cremona, 
the  total  length  of  the  embankments  exceeding  600  m.  Owing  to 
its  confinement  between  tliese  high  banks,  and  to  the  great  amount 
of  sedimentaiy  matter  which  the  river  brings  down  with  it.  its  bed 
has  been  gradually  raised^  so  that  in  its  lower  course  it  is  in  many 
places  above  the  level  01  the  surrounding  country.  A  result  of 
confining  the  stream  between  its  containing  banks  is  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  delta.  Lombardini  calculated  that  the  annual 
increase  in  the  area  of  the  Po  delta  during  the  period  1300  to  1600 
amounted  to  127  acres;  hut  during  the  period  1600  to  1830  it  rose 
CO  334  acrts.    MarinclU  >  estimated  that  between  the  years  1623 


and  1893  the  aoaual  iacreaae  was  at  the  aventge  nite  of  173  to 
175  acres,  and  the  total  accretion  at  about  20  sq.  m.;  and  the  total 
area  of  inundated  land  north  and  south  oi  the  delta  at  nearly 
60  sq.  ra.*  He  further  esdmated  that  the  Po  della  Maestra  advances 
282  ft.  annually,  the  Po  delle  ToUe  262  ft.,  the  Po  della  Gnocca 
mi  ft.,  and  the  Po  di  Goro2S9  ft.  The  low  ground  between 
the  lower  Po  and  the  fewer  Adige  and  the  sea  is  known  as  Polcune, 
a  name  the  derivation  of  which  is  much  discussed.  It  is  generally 
applrad  only  to  the  province  of  Rovigo,  but  is  sometimes  extended 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  Adria  and  Ferrara.  All  along  its  course 
from  Chivasso  (below  Turin)  down  to  the  delta  the  nver  is  con- 
nected with  several  of  its  tributaries  by  canals,  and  at  the  same  time 
other  canals  connect  the  tributaries  and  carry  off  their  waters  and 
the  waters  of  the  Po  purety  for  purposes  c^  irrigation. 

The  researches  of  Helbig  {Die  ItaUher  in  der  Po-Ebene,  Leipzig, 
1879)  show  that  the  lower  valley  of  the  Po  was  at  an  eariy  period 
occupied  by  people  of  the  Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic  stages  of 
civilization,  woo  built  houses  on  piles  along  the  swampy  borders 
of  the  streams.  It  is  possible  that  even  they  may  have  begun  by 
crude  dikes  the  great  system  by  which  the  waters  are  now  con- 
trolled; at  least  it  is  ocftain  that  these  works  date  their  origin  from 
pre-Roroan  antiquity.  Pliny  refers  them  to  the  Etruscans.  The 
reclaiming  and  protecting  of  the  riparian  lands  went  on  rapidly 
under  the  Romans,  and  in  several  places  the  rectangular  divisions 
of  the  ground,  still  remarkably  distinct,  show  the  military  character 
of  some  of  the  agricultural  cokmies.  During  the  time  of  the  bar^ 
barian  invasions  much  of  the  protective  system  was  allowed  to  fall 
into  decay;  but  the  Utter  part  of  the  middle  ages  saw  the  works 
resumed  with  great  energy,  so  that  the  main  features  of  the  present 
arrangement  were  in  existence  by  the  close  of  the  t^th  century. 

The  earlier  Roman  writers  speak  of  the  region  between  the 
northern  boundaries  of  Etruria  and  Urobria  and  the  Alps  as  Gallia 
Cisalpina.  It  was  separate  from  Italy  proper,  the  Aesis  first  and 
then  the  Rubicon  beuig  the  boundary  on  nie  cast,  and  the  Arnus 
the  boundary  en  the  west,  so  that,  for  example,  Luca  remained 
outside  the  boundaries  of  Italy  proper,  even  in  89  B.c.  Romaniza- 
tk>n  had,  however,  progressed  considerably,  the  foundation  of 
colonics  and  the  construction  of  roads  had  gone  on  during  the 
2nd  century,  and  the  whole  district  as  far  as  the  Psdus  was  given 
the  Roman  franchise  in  80  B.C.,  while  the  Transpadanes  received 
Latin  rights,  and  were  fully  enfranchised  forty  years  later.  Cis* 
alpine  Gaul  was  apparently  formed  into  a  province  by  SuUa  in 
81  B.C.  and  continued  to  be  so  until  the  fall  of  the  Republic. 

The  LIgurian  luime  of  the  Po  was  Bodlncus  or  Bodencus,  i.e. 
the  bottomless.  The  name  Padua  was  taken  from  the  Celts  or  the 
VenetL  Thus  we  find  Bodincomagus  as  a  town  name  (Industria) 
on  the  npper  course,  and  IlaU*  (Padua,  Catidk  95,  7)  as  a  name 
of  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  river.  The  name  'HpiJai^  (Eri- 
danus)  of  Greek  poetry  was  identified  with  it  at  a  comparatively 
late  period. 

POACH  (probably  from  Fr.  pocke,  bag,  or  Eng.  "poke,** 
thrust  into),  to  trespass  on  private  property  in  pursuit  of  game 
or  fish;  also,  generally,  to  catch  game  or  fish  by  means  or  at 
times  not  permitted  by  the  law,  or  in  an  unsporUmanlike 
manner  (see  Game  Laws).  The  etymology  is  rather  obscure,  but 
as  used  in  the  independent  sense  of  "  poaching"  an  egg,  i.e. 
cooking  by  breaking  into  boiling  water,  the  word  appears  to 
be  from  the  same  original. 

POBfiDONOSTSBV,  CONSTANTINB  PETROVICH  (1827- 
1907),  Russian  jurist,  state  official,  and  writer  on  philosophical 
and  literary  subjects.  Bom  in  Moscow  in  1827,  he  studied  at 
the  School  of  Law  in  St  Petersburg,  and  entered  the  public 
service  as  an  official  in  one  of  the  Moscow  departments  of  the 
senate.  From  i860  to  1865  he  was  professor  of  Russian  civil 
law  in  the  Moscow  University,  and  instructed  the  sons  of  Alex- 
ander II.  in  the  theory  of  law  and  administration.  In  1868 
he  became  a  senator  m  St  Petersburg,  in  1872  a  member  of  the 
council  of  the  empire,  and  in  1880  chief  procurator  of  the  Holy 
Synod.  He  always  showed  himself  an  uncompromising  Con- 
servative, and  never  shrank  from  expressing  boldly  his  opinions. 
Consequently,  in  the  so-called  Liberal  camp  he  was  always 
denounced  an  an  "obscurantist"  and  an  enemy  of  progress. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  II.  (1855-1881), 
PobMonostsev  maintained,  though  keeping  aloof  from  the 
Slavophils,  that  Occidental  institutions  were  radically  bad  in 
themselves  and  totally  inapplicable  to  Russia.  Parliamentary 
methods  of  administration,  modem  judicial  organization  and  pro- 
cedure, trial  by  jury,  freedom  of  the  press,  secular  education — 
these  were  among  the  principal  objects  of  his  aversion.     He 

*  See  G.  Marinclli.  in  AUi  inst.  veneto  set.,  8th  series,  voL  viiL 
(1896-1897);  and  "  L'Accrescimento  del  DclU  del  Po  nel  Seoolo 
XIX.."  in  Rio.  Georg.  Ital.  (1898).  vol.  k, 


872 


POCHARD— POCKET-MOUSE 


•ttbjected  all  of  them  to  a  levere  analysts  In  his  ReJUetums  cf  a 
Rtusian  SUUesman  (English  by  R.  C.  Long,  London,  1898). 
To  these  dangerous  products  of  Occidental  rationalism  he 
found  a  counterpoise  in  popular  vis  inertiae,  and  in' the  respect  of 
the  masses  for  institutions  developed  slowly  and  automatically 
during  the  past  centuries  of  national  life.  Among  the  practical 
deductions  drawn  from  these  premisses  is  the  necessity  of  pre- 
serving the  autocratic  power,  and  of  fostering  among  the  people 
the  traditional  veneration  for  the  ritual  of  the  national  Church. 
In  the  sphere  of  practical  politics  he  exercised  considerable 
influence  by  inspiring  and  encouraging  the  Russi£cation  policy 
of  Alexander  UL  (1881-1894),  which  found  expression  in  an 
administrative  Nationalist  propaganda  and  led  to  a  good  deal 
of  religious  persecution.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  he 
lost  much  of  his  influence,  for  Nicholas  II.,  while  clinging  to 
his  father's  Russiflcation  policy  and  even  extending  it  to  Fin- 
land, disliked  the  idea  of  systematic  religious  persecution,  and 
was  not  wholly  averse  from  the  partial  emancipation  of  the 
Russian  Church  from  dvil  control.  During  the  revolutionary 
tumult  which  followed  the  disastrous  war  with  Japan  Pobe- 
donostsev,  being  nearly  80  years  of  age,  retired  from  public 
affairs.   He  died  on  the  23rd  of  March  1907. 

POCHARD,  FocKAKO,  or  Pok£r,^  names  properly  belonging 
to  the  male  of  a  species  of  duck  (the  female  of  which  is  known 
as  the  Dunbird),  the  Anas  ferine  of  Linnaeus,  and  Nyroca  ferine 
of  later  ornithologists — ^but  names  very  often  applied  by  writers 
in  a  general  way  to  most  of  the  group  or  sub-family  FuliguHnae^ 
commonly  called  Diving  or  Sea-Ducks  (see  Duck).  The  Pochard 
in  full  plumage  is  a  very  handsome  bird,  with  a  copp)ery-rcd 
head,  on  the  sides  of  which  sparkle  the  ruby  irides  of  his  eyes, 
relieved  by  the  greyish-blue  of  the  basal  half  of  his  broad  bill, 
and  the  deep  black  of  his  breast,  while  his  back  and  flanks 
appear  of  a  light  grey,  being  really  of  a  dull  white  closely  barred 
by  fine  undulating  black  lines.  The  tail-coverts  both  above 
and  below  are  black,  the  quill  feathers  brownish-black,  and  the 
lower  surface  of  a  dull  while.  The  Dunbird  has  the  head  and 
neck  reddish-brown,  with  ill-defined  whitish  patches  on  the 
cheeks  and  chin;  the  back  and  upper  tail-coverts  are  duB  brown, 
and  the  rest  of  the  plumage,  except  the  lower  tail-coverts,  which 
are  brownish-grey,  resembles  that  of  the  Pochard.  This 
species  is  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  northern 
Asiar,  and  North  America,  generally  frequenting  in  winter  the 
larger  open  waters,  and  extending  its  migrations  to  Barbary 
and  Egypt,  but  in  summer  retiring  northward  and  inland  to 
breed.  The  American  Pochard  is  slightly  larger,  has  yellow 
eyes,  and  is  now  regarded  as  specifically  distinct  under  the 
name  of  Nyroca  americana;  but  America  has  a  perfectly  distmct 
though  allied  species  in  the  celebrated  canvas-back  duck, 
N.  vallisHeriOf  a  much  larger  bird,  with  a  longer,  higher  and 
narrower  bill,  which  has  no  blue  at  the  base,  and,  though 
the  plumage  of  both,  especially  in  the  females,  is  very  similar, 
the  male  canvas-back  has  a  darker  head,  and  the  black  lines 
on  the  back  and  flanks  are  much  broken  up  and  farther 
asunder,  so  that  the  effect  is  to  give  these  parts  a  much 
lighter  colour,  and  from  this  has  arisen  the  bird's  common 
though  fanciful  name.  Its  scientific  epithet  is  derived  from 
the  fresh-water  plant,  a  species  of  Vallisncria,  usually  known 
as  "  wild  celery,"  from  feeding  on  which  its  flesh  is  believed  to 
acquire  the  delicate  flavour  that  is  held  in  so  great  a  repute. 
The  Pochard  and  Dunbird  in  Europe  are  in  much  request  for 
the  table  (as  the  German  name  of  the  species,  TafeUnie,  testi- 
fies) when  they  frequent  fresh-watei;  birds  killed  on  the  sea- 
coast  are  so  rank  as  to  be  almost  worthless. 

AoKMig  other  specie*  nearly  allied  to  the  Pochard  that  frequent 
the  northern  hemisphere  may  be  mentioned  the  Scaup- Duck, 
Fuligula  mariia.  with   its  American  representative   F.  afinis,  in 

'  The  derivation  of  these  words,  in  the  first  of  which  the  (k  is 
pronounced  hard  (though  Dr  Johnson  made  it  aoft).  and  the  o 
m  all  of  them  pencratly  long,  is  very  uncertain.  Cotgrave  has 
f«checu!ifr  (modern  French  poche-tuUler),  which  he  renders 
'*  Shouelcr.**  nowadays  the  name  of  a  kind  of  duck,  but  in  his  time 
neaning  the  biid  we  commonly  call  Spoonbill  (q.v.).  Littr6  gives 
pochard  ^A  a  popular  French  word  signiiying  drunkard. 


both  of  which  the  male  has  the  head  bbclc,  gkMsed  vithbhteor 

green:  but  these  are  nearly  always  uneatable  from  the  nature  cf 
their  food,  which  is  mostly  gathered  at  low  tide  on  the  **  scaups  * 
or  "  scalps," — as  the  banks  on  which  mussels  and  other  marine 
molluscs  grow  are  in  manv  places  termed.  Then  there  aiv  the 
Tufted  Duck.  F»  crM/a/a'--4>lack  with  a  crest  and  white  flanks— 
and  its  American  equivalent  F.  coliaris,  and  the  White-eyed  Pochard, 
/^  nyroca,  and  the  Red-crested  Pochard,  F.  mfina — ^both  peculiar 
to  the  Old  World,  and  well  Known  in  India.  In  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere the  genus  is  represented  by  three  species,  F.  cepensis.  F. 
australis  and  F.  novae-tealandiae,  whose  reraective  nanes  indicate 
the  country  each  inhabits,  and  in  South  America  cadaas  a  some- 
what divergent  form  which  has  been  placed  in  a  distinct  gcnns  ss 
Metoptana  peposaca. 

Generally  classed  with  the  Fidiptlinae  Is  the  small  groap  ksova 
as  the  Eiders,  which  differ  from  them  in  several  respects:  the  b«lb 
at  the  base  of  the  trachea  in  the  male,  so  laraely  developed  in  tt-<e 
members  of  the  genus  Fidtgnla,  is  here  much  smaller  and  wiu^y 
of  bone;  the  males  take  a  much  longer  time,  two  or  even  three  yr  ars 
to  attain  their  full  plumage,  and  some  of  the  feathers  on  the  hr^i. 
when  that  plumage  is  completed,  arc  always  stiff,  glistenin?  and  of 
a  peculiar  pale-green  colour.  This  little  group  of  hardly  tarv: 
than  half  a  dozen  species  may  be  fairly  consioered  to  form  a  acpar.:te 
genus  under  the  name  of  Somateria.  Many  authors  indeed  ha%-c — 
unjustifiably,  as  it  seems  to  the  present  writer — ^brokcn  it  u^  into 
three  or  four  genera.  The  well-known  Eider,  5.  mtdltsstma,  ts  the 
brgcst  of  this  group,  and,  beautiful  as  it  is,  is  excelled  in  beaorv 
by  the  King-Duck.  S.  stectahUis,  and  the  little  5.  stelUri.  A  mc^st 
interesting  form  generally,  but  obviously  in  error,  placed  an-r.r.; 
them,  is  the  Logger-head,  Racehorse  or  Steamer-Duck.  Mur<ipt*^..i 
(or  more  probably  TacJiyerti)  ctnereus  of  Chile,  the  Falkland  I$lamfa 
and  Straits  of  Magellan — nearly  as  large  as  a  tame  goose,  and  sob^cct 
to  the,  so  far  as  Known,  unique  peculiarity  of  losing  its  powr  oi 
flight  after  reaching  maturity.  Its  habits  have  been  well  de- 
scribed by  C.  Darwin  in  his  Journal  of  Rcsea;  'hes,  and  Its  anaTorr^- 
is  the  subject  of  an  excellent  paper  in  the  Zoolwical  SocirT>  s 
Transactions  (vii.  493-501 ,  pis.  lviu.-lxii.)  by  R.  O.  Cunningham. 

(A.  N.) 

POCKETt  a  small  bag,  paiticulariy  a  bag-like  reccpude 
either  fastened  to  or  inserted  in  an  article  of  clothing.  As  a 
measure  of  capacity  *'  pocket"  i^  now  only  used  for  bops;  k 
equals  168  lb.  The  word  appears  in  Mid.  Eng.  as  poktt,  aod 
is  taken  from  a  Norman  diminutive  of  O.  Fr.  poke^  pouque,  mod 
pochtt  cf.  "  pouch."  The  form  "  poke  "  is  now  only  teed 
dialeaically,  or  in  such  proverbial  sayings  as  a  "  pig  in  a  poke." 
and  possibly  in  the  **  poke-bonnet,"  the  coal-scut iJe  bcantit 
fashionable  during  the  first  part  of  the  19th  century,  and  now 
worn  by  the  female  members  of  the  Salvation  Amy;  more 
probably  the  name  of  the  bonnet  is  connected  with  **  poke." 
to  thrust  forward,  dig.  The  origin  of  this  is  obscure.  Dutch 
has  pokcn,  pook,  a  dagger;  Swedish  pik^  a  stkk. 

POCKET-GOPHER  (i.e.  pouched  rat),  the  name  of  a  gnwp 

of,   chiefly  North,   American  rat-Iikt  lodcnis,   characterised 

by   the  possession   of   large  cheek-poudics,  the  openings  of 

whidi  are  external  to  the  mouth;  while  their  inner  surface 

is  lined  with  fur.    The  cheek-teeth,  which  comprise  two  pats 

of  premolars  and  three  of  mdars  in  each  jaw,  are  in  the  f  onn 

of  simple  prisms  of  enamel,  which  do  not  develop  rooCa.    The 

(ore  and  hind  limbs  are  of  approximately  equal  length,  but  the 

second  and  third  front-daws  are  greatly  enlarged,  and  all  the 

claws  are  furnished  at  the  base  with  bristles.    The  eyes  are 

small,  and  the  external  ears  rudimentary. 

Pocket'gophcrs,  which  typify  a  family,  the  domyiiae^  ^xnd 
the  whole  of  their  time  undecground,  *and  are  specially  or^a- 
izcd  for  such  a  mode  of  existence,  their  powerful  claws  tic.nK 
adapted  for  diggmg,  while  the  brisUcs  on  the  toes  prev'cnt  the  conN 
from  pjs^ng  between  them.  The  upper  incisor  teeth  arc  empkoT-i 
to  loosen  the  ground,  like  a  fork;  and  the  little  rodents  arc  &bie 
to  move  both  oackwards  and  forwards  in  their  ninSb  The  cheek- 
pouches  arc  employed  solely  in  carrying  food,  which  consists  lax^W 
of  roots.  In  the  typical  genus  Ceomys  the  upper  incisors  arc  grooved, 
but  in  the  allied  Thomomys  they  arc  smooth.  The  common  pocket- 
gopher,  Ceomys  bursarius,  of  the  Misassippi  Valley  measures  abcvt 
8  m.  in  length,  with  a  tail  of  between  2  and  3  in. :  ita  colour  facirf 
rufous  brown  and  greyish  beneath.  A  well-known  representative 
of  the  second  genus  is  Thomomys  tatpoides,  which  is  con&ldrrahh- 
smaller  than  the  former.  To  the  farmer  and  the  gardener  pockrt- 
gophcrs  are  an  unmitigated  source  ol  annoyance.    (See  Rookntia,) 

POCKET-MOUSE,  the  name  of  a  nttmber  of  small  jcrboa-h'ke, 
chiefly  North,  American  rodents  belonging  to  the  family  Cc»- 
myidaet  and  constituting  the  genus  Pcrvgucthns  and  HcUramys. 
Thty  are  nearly  allied  to  the  American  kaogaroo^raU  (sat 


P00CX:K— PODEBRAD 


873 


Kanoaioo-IUt),  but  differ  in  having  root«d  moUr  teeth.  The 
typical  pocket^mouse  P.  Jasci^us,  which  is  a  native  of  Mon- 
tana, Missouri,  and  Wyoming,  is  a  sandy-coloured  rodent 
marked  with  black  lines  above  and  with  white  beneath,  and 
BBessuring  about  6  in.  in  length,  this  length  being  equally  divided 
between  the  head  and  body  and  the  taiL    (See  Rodentia.) 

FOGOCK*  SIR  GEOROB  (1706-1792),  British  admiral,  son 
of  Thomas  Pocock,  chaplain  in  the  navy,  was  born  on  the  6th 
of  March  1706,  and  entered  the  navy  under  the  protection  of 
his  maternal  ancle,  Captain  Str^nsham  Master  (1682-1724), 
in  the  "^uperbe"  in  1718.  He  became  lieutenant  in  April 
1725,  commander  in  1733,  *i^d  post-captain  in  1738.  After 
serving  in  the  West  Indies  he  was  sent  to  the  East  Indies  in 
1754  as  captain  of  the  "  Cumberland"  (58)  with  Rear-Admiral 
Qiarlcs  Watson  (x 714*1 7S7)*  Watson's  squadron  co-operated 
with  Clive  in  the  conquest  of  Bengal.  In  1755  Pocock  became 
rear-admiral,  and  was  promoted  vice-admiral  in  1756.  On  the 
death  of  Watson  he  took  the  command  of  the  naval  forces  in 
the  eastern  seas.  In  1758  he  was  joined  by  Commodore  Charles 
Steevens  (d.  x  761),  but  the  reinforcement  only  raised  the  squadron 
to  seven  small  line-of-battle  sUps.  War  being  now  in  pro- 
gress between  France  and  England  the  French  sent  a  naval 
force  from  their  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  to  the  assistance  of  Pondlcherry.  To  intercept  the 
arrival  of  these  reinforcements  for  the  enemy  now  became 
the  object  of  Pocock.  The  French  force  was  indeed  of  less 
intrinsic  strength  than  his  own.  Count  D'Ach£  (x7oo?-i77s), 
who  commanded,  had  to  make  up  his  Une  by  including  several 
Indiamen,  which  were  only  armed  merchant  ships.  Yet  the 
number  of  the  French  was  superior  and  Pocock  was  reqxiircd 
by  the  practice  of  his  time  to  fight  by  the  old  official  ^ghting 
instructions.  He  had  to  bring  his  sbips  into  action  in  a  line 
with  the  enemy,  and  to  preserve  his  formation  while  the  en- 
gagement last^.  All  Pooock's  encounters  with  D'Achi  were 
indecisive.  The  first  battle,  on  the  29tb  of  April  1758,  failed  to 
prevent  the  Frenchmen  from  reaching  Pondicherry.  After  a 
second  and  more  severe  engagement  on  the  3rd  of  August, 
the  French  admiral  returned  to  the  Mauritius,  and  when  the 
monsoon  set  in  Pocock  went  roimd  to  Bombay.  He  was  back 
early  in  spring,  but  the  French  admiral  did  not  return  to  the 
Bay  of  Beng^  till.  Septembw.  Again  Pocock  was  unable  to 
prevent  his  opponent  from  reaching  Pondicherry,  and  a  well- 
contested  battle  between  them  on  the  loth  of  September  1759 
proved  again  indecisive.  The  French  government  was  nearly 
bankrupt,  and  D'Ach£  coiUd  get  no  stores  for  his  squadron. 
He  was  compelled  to  return  to  the  islands,  and  the  English 
were  left  in  possession  of  the  Coromandcl  and  Malabar  coasts. 
Pocock  went  home  in  1760,  and  in  176 1  was  made  Knight  of  the 
Bath  and  admiral.  In  9762  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  naval  forces  in  the  combined  ciqiedition  which  took 
Havana.  The  siege,  which  began  on  the  7th  of  JuiM^  and 
lasted  till  the  X3th  of  August,  was  rendered  deadly  by  the  climate. 
The  final  victory  was  largely  attributable  to  the  vigorous  and 
intelligent  aid  which  Pocock  gave  to  the  troops.  His  share  in 
the  prize  money  was  no  less  than  £122,697.  On  bis  return  to 
England  Pocock  is  said  to  have  been  disappointed  because 
another  officer,  Sir  Charles  Saunders  (1713-1775),  was  chosen 
in  preference  to  himself  as  a  member  of  the  admiralty  board, 
and  to  have  resigned  in  consequence.  It  is  certain  that  he  re- 
signed his  commission  in  1766.  He  died  on  the  3rd  of  April 
X792.  His  monument  is  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

POCOCKE,  EDWARD  (X604-169X),  Engli^  Orientalist  and 
biblical  scholar,  was  bom  in  X604,  the  son  of  a  Berkshire  clergy- 
man, and  received  his  education  at  the  free  school  of  Thame  in 
Oxfordshire  and  at  Corpus  Christ!  CoUcge,  Oxford  (scholar  in 
1620,  fellow  in  1628).  The  first-fruit  of  his  studies  was  an  edition 
from  a  Bodleian  MS.  of  the  four  New  Testament  epistles  (2  Peter, 
3  and  3  John,  Jfude)  which  were  not  in  the  old  Syriac  canon,  and 
were  not  contained  in  Europe:^  editions  of  the  Fcshito.  This 
was  published  at  Leiden  at  the  instigation  of  G.  Vossius  !n  1630, 
and  in  the  same  year  Pococke  sailed  for  Aleppo  as  chaplain  to  the 
English  factory.     At  Aleppo  he  made  himself  a  profound  Arabic 


scholar,  and  collected  many  valuable  MSS.  At  this  time  Wm. 
Laud  was  bishop  of  London  and  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Oxford,  and  Pococke  became  known  to  him  as  one  who  could 
help  his  schemes  for  enriching  the  university.  Laud  founded 
an  Aiabk  chair  at  Oxford,  and  invited  PoaxJte  home  to  fill  it, 
and  he  entered  09  his  duties  on  the  xoth  of  August  1636;  but 
next  summer  he  sailed  again  for  Constantinople  to  prosecute 
further  studies  and  collect  more  books,  and  remained  there  for 
about  three  years.  When  he  returned  to  England  Laud  was  in 
the  Tower,  but  had  taken  the  precaution  to  place  the  Arabic 
chair  on  a  permanent  footing.  Pococke  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  an  extreme  churchman  or  to  have  meddled  actively  in 
politics.  His  rare  scholarship  and  personal  qualities  raised  him 
up  influential  friends  anjong  the  opposite  party,  foremost  among 
these  being  John  Selden  and  John  Owen.  Through  their  offices 
he  was  even  advanced  in  1648  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew,  though  aa 
he  could  not  take  the  engagement  of  X649  he  lost  the  emolximenta 
of  the  post  soon  after,  and  did  not  recover  them  till  the  Restorar 
tion.  These  cares  seriously  hampered  Pococke  in  his  studies,  aa 
he  complains  in  the  preface  to  his  Butyckius;  he  seems  to  have 
felt  most  deeply  the  attempts  to  remove  him  from  his  parish  of 
Childrey,  a  ooUege  living  which  he  had  accepted  in  1643.  In 
X649  he  published  the  Specimen  kutoriae  arabum,  a  short 
account  of  the  origin  and  manners  of  the  Arabs>  taken  from 
Barhebraeus  (Abulfaragius),  with  notes  from  a  vast  number  of 
MS.  sources  which  are  still  valuable.  This  was  followed  in  1655 
by  the  Porta  Mosist  extracts  from  the  Arabic  commentary  of 
Maimonides  on  the  Mishna,  with  translation  and  very  learned 
notes;  and  in  i6$6  by  the  annals  of  Entyehius  in  Arabic  and 
Latin.  He  also  gave  active  assistance  to  Brian  Walton's  poly- 
glot bible,  and  the  preface  to  the  various  readings  of  the  Arabic 
Pentateuch  is  from,  his  hand.  After  the  Restoration  Pocockc's 
political  and  peamiaiy  troubles  were  removed,  but  the  reception 
of  his  Magnum  opus —  a  complete  edition  of  the  Arabic  history  of 
Barhebraeus  {Greg.  Abulfaragii  kisioria  compendiosa  dynasiia" 
rum)t  which  he  dedicated  to  the  king  in  1663,  showed  that  the  new 
order  of  things  was  not  very  favourable  to  profound  scholarship. 
After  this  his  most  important  works  were  a  Lexicon  hcptagloUon 
(1669)  and  English  commentaries  on  Micah  (1677),  Malachi 
(i677),Ho8ea(i68s)and  Jocl.(i69i),  which  are  stUl  worthrcading. 
An  Arabic  translation  of  Crotius's  De  verUaU,  which  appeared  in 
x66o,  may  also  be  mentioned  as  a  proof  of  Pococke's  interest  in 
the  propagation  of  Christianity  in  the  East.  This  was  an  old 
plan,  which  he  had  talked  over  with  Grotius  at  Paris  on  his  way 
back  from  Constantinople.  Pococke  married  in  1646,  and  died  in 
X69Z.  One  of  his  sons,  Edward  (1648-1727),  published  several 
contributions  to  Arabic  literature — a  fragment  of  Abdallatif*s 
description  of  Egypt  and  the  Pkilosophus  autodidactus  of  Ibn 
TufaiL 

The  theological  works  of  Pococke  were  collected,  in  two  volumes, 
in  1740.  with  a  curious  account  of  his  life  and  writings  by  L.  Twells. 

PODiBRAD,  GEORGE  OF  (1420-1471),  king  of  Bohemia,  was 
the  son  of  Victoria  of  Kunstat  and  Podcbrad,  a  Bohemian  noble- 
man, who  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  "  Orphans"  or  modem 
Taborites  during  the  Hussite  wars.  George  himself  as  a  boy  of 
fourteen  took  part  in  the  great  battle  of  Lipan,  which  marks  the 
downfall  of  the  more  advanced  Taborites.  Early  in  life,  as  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Calixtine  party,  he  defeated  the  Austrian 
troops  of  the  German  King  Albert  II.,  son-in-law  and  successor 
of  King  Sigismund.  He  soon  became  a  prominent  member  of 
the  national  or  Calixtine  party,  and  after  the  death  of  Ptacek  of 
Pirkstein  its  leader.  During  the  minority  of  Ladislas,  son  of 
Albert,  who  was  bom  after  his  father's  death,  Bohemia  was 
divided  Into  two  parties — the  Romanist  or  Austrian  one,  led  by 
Ulrich  von  Rosenberg  (1403-1462),  and  the  national  one,  led  by 
Pod£brad.  After  various  attempts  at  reconciliation,  Podibrad 
decided  to  appeal  to  the  force  of  arms.  He  gradually  raised  an 
armed  force  ]n  north-east^n  Bohemia,  where  the  Calixtine  cause 
had  most  adherents  and  where  his  ancestral  castle  was  situated. 
With  this  army,  consbtmg  of  about  9000  men,  he  marched  in 
Z448  from  Kutna  Hora  to  Prague,  and  obtained  possession  of  the 
capital  almost  without  resistance.    Civil  -war,  however,  broke 


874 


PODESTA— PODIUM 


out,  but  Podftrad  succeeded  in  defeating  tbe  Ronuiitist  nobles. 
In  1451  the  emperor  Frederick  III.,  as  guardian  of  the  yoting 
king  Ladislas,  entrusted  Pod£brad  with  the  administration  of 
Bohemia.  In  the  same  year  a  diet  assembled  at  Prague  also 
conferred  on  PodSbrad  the  regency.  The  struggle  of  the  Bohe* 
mians  against  Rome  continued  uninterruptedly,  and  the  position 
of  Podibrad  became  a  very  difficult  one  when  the  young  king 
Ladislas,  who  was  crowned  in  1453,  expressed  his  sympathies 
for  the  Roman  Church,  though  he  had  recognized  the  compacts 
and  the  ancient  privileges  of  Bohemia,  hi  1457  King  Ladislas 
died  suddenly,  and  public  opinion  from  an  early  period 
accused  Podibrad  of  having  poisoned  him.  The  Bohemian 
historian,  Palacky,  fifty  yean  ago  thoroughly  disproved  thb 
accusation,  and,  though  it  has  recently  been  revived  by  German 
historians,  it  must  undoubtedly  be  considered  as  a  calumny. 
On  the  27th  of  February  1458  the  estates  of  Bohemia  unani- 
mously chose  Podibrad  as  king;  even  the  adherents  of  the 
Austrian  party  voted  for  him,  not  wishing  at  that  moment  to 
oppose  the  popular  feeling,  which  demanded  the  election  of  a 
national  sovereign.  A  year  after  the  accession  of  PodSbrad 
Pius  II.  (Aeneas  Sylvius)  became  pope,  and  his  incessant  hostility 
proved  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  PodSbrad's  rule. 
Though  he  rejected  the  demand  of  the  pope,  who  wished  him  to 
consent  to  the  abolition  of  the  compacts,  he  endeavoured  to 
curry  favour  with  the  Roman  see  by  punishing  severely  all  the 
more  advanced  opponents  of  papacy  in  Bohemia.  Podibiad's 
persecution  of  the  newly-founded  community  of  the  Bohemian 
brethren  is  certainly  a  blemish  on  his  career.  All  PodCbrad's 
endeavours  to  establish  peace  with  Rome  proved  ineffectual, 
and  though  the  death  of  Pius  11.  prevented  him  from  carrying 
out  bis  planned  crusade  against  Bohemia,  his  successor  was  a 
scarcely  less  bitter  enemy  of  the  country.  Though  the  rule  of 
Pod£brad  had  proved  very  successful  and  Bohemia  had  under  it 
obtained  a  degree  of  prosperity  which  had  been  unknown  since 
the  time  of  Charles  IV.,  the  Calixtine  king  had  many  enemies 
among  the  Romanist  members  of  the  powerful  Bohemian  nobility. 
The  malcontent  nobles  met  at  Zelena  Hora  (Grtineberg)  on  the 
28th  of  November  1465,  and  concluded  an  alliance  against 
the  king,  bringing  forward  many — mostly  untrue — ^accusations 
against  him.  The  confederacy  was  from  its  beginning  supported 
by  the  Roman  see,  though  Podfibr^d  after  the  death  of  his  im- 
placable enemy,  Pius  IL,  attempted  to  negotiate  with  the  new 
pope,  Paul  II.  These  negotiations  ended  when  the  pontiff  grossly 
insulted  the  envoys  of  the  king  of  Bohemia.  On  the  ajrd 
of  December  1466  Paul  n.  excommunicated  Podibrad  and 
pronounced  his  deposition  as  king  of  Bohemia,  forbidding  all 
Romanists  to  continue  in  his  allegiance.  The  emperor  Frederick 
UI.,  and  King  Matthias  of  Hungary,  Podibrad's  former  ally, 
joined  the  insurgent  Bohemian  nobles.  King  Matthias  conquered 
a  large  part  of  Moravia,  and  was  crowned  in  the  capital  of  that 
country,  6rno(Briinn),  as  king  of  Bohemia  on  the  3rd  of  May  1469. 
In  the  following  year  Pod^brad  was  more  successful  in  his  resist- 
ance to  his  many  enemies,  but  his  death  on  the  32nd  of  March 
147 1  put  a  stop  to  the  war.  In  spite  of  the  misfortunes  of  the 
last  years  of  his  reign,  Podfbrad's  memory  has  always  been 
cherished  by  the  Bohemians.  He  was  the  only  king  of  Bohemia 
who  belonged  to  that  nation,  and  the  only  one  who  was  not  a 
Roman  Catholic. 

See  H.  Markgraf,  Ober  das  Verhdltniss  des  Kdnigs  Gem  vm 
Podibrad  Mu  Papst  Pius  IL  (1867);  Jordan,  Das  Kdntethum  Ceorgs 
90H  Podlbrad  (1861);  A.  Bachmann,  £t»  Jahr  bdhmischer  Geschickte 
(1876),  and  Urknndt^  ,  .  .  tur  otsientUkischai  (hsekiekte  .  .  . 
im  ZtilaUer  Gtorgs  wm  Padibrad  O879);  £•  W<  Kanter.  D4e 
Em^rdumg  Kdmig  LadisUuu  <i9p0]t:  Novotiy,  Ubsr  den  Tod  Kdnig 
Ladislaws  Postumus  (1906).  AH  histories  of  Bohemia,  particularly 
that  of  F.  Palacky  (1836-1^67),  contain  detailed  accounts  of  the 
career  of  King  George  of  Podibrad. 

PODESTA  (Lat.  poUslaSf  power),  the  name  given  during  the 
kter  middle  ages  to  a.high  official  in  many  Italian  cities.  Podes- 
tis  or  rectors  were  first  appointed  by  the  emperor  Frederick  L 
when  about  11 58  he  began  to  assert  his  Imperial  rights  over 
the  cities  of  northern  Italy.  Their  business  was  to  enforce 
these  rights;  from  the  first  they  were  very  tmpopular,  and  ttiai 


arbltraiy  behaviour  was  a  factor  in  bringlag  About  tbt  tontatiam 
of  the  Lombard  league  and  the  rising  ai^dnst  Frederick  ia 
Z167. 

Although  the  emperor's  experiment  was  short-lived  podestH 
soon  became  general  in  northern  Italy,  making  their  appeatance 
in  most  communes  about  1200.  These  officials,  however,  were 
now  appointed  by  the  citisens  or  by  their  representatives.  They 
exercised  the  supreme  power  in  the  city,  both  in  peace  and  war, 
both  in  foreign  and  domestic  matters,  but  they  only  hdd  office 
for  a  period  of  a  year.  In  order  to  avoid  the  intestine  strife 
so  common  in  Itdian  civic  life,  it  soon  became  the  custom 
to  select  a  stranger  to  fill  this  position.  Venetians  were  in 
special  request  for  this  purpose  during  the  12th  and  xjth  cen- 
turies, probably  because  at  this  time,  at  least,  they  were  less 
concerned  than  other  Italians  in  the  affairs  of  the  nvainlaod 
Afterwards  in  a  few  cases  the  term  of  office  was  extemled  to 
cover  a  period  of  years,  or  even  a  lifetime. 

During  the  later  part  of  the  12th  and  the  whole  of  tlae  13th 
century  most  of  the  Italian  cities  were  governed  by  podcstis. 
Concerning  Rome,  Gregorovius  says  that  in  1205  "  the  pope 
changed  the  form  of  the  civic  government;  the  executive  power 
lying  henceforward  in  the  hand  of  a  single  senator  <»-  pode^ 
who,  directly  or  indirectly,  was  appointed  by  the  pope."  Ia 
Florence  soon  after  xi8o  the  chief  authority  was  trajsafemd 
from  the  consuls  to  the  podesti,  and  Milan  and  other  cities 
were  also  ruled  by  these  officials.  There  were,  moreover,  pode^is 
in  some  of  the  cities  of  Provence.  Gradually  the  podcstis  be- 
came more  despotic  and  more  corrupt,  and  sometimes  a  spedai 
official  was  appointed  to  hear  complaints  against  them;  in  the 
13th  century  in  Florence  and  some  other  cities  a  copiism^  dd 
popolo  was  chosen  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  lower  daases. 
In  other  ways  also  the  power  of  the  podestis  was  reduced;  they 
were  confined  more  and  more  to  judicial  functions  untSthey 
disappeared  eariy  in  the  t6th  century. 

The  officials  who  were  sent  by  the  Italian  republics  to  ad- 
minister the  affairs  of  dependent  cities  were  sometimes  called 
podestis.  At  the  present  day  the  cities  of  Trent  and  Trieste  give 
the  name  of  podesti  to  their  chief  magistrate. 

The  example  of  Italy  in  the  matter  of  podcstis  was  sometimes 
followed  by  cities  and  republics  in  northern  Europe  in  the 
middle  ages,  notably  by  such  as  had  trade  relations  with  Italy. 
The  officers  thus  elected  sometimes  bore  the  title  of  podestd  or 
podestat.  Thus  in  East  Fricsland  there  were  podcstis  idcntio! 
in  name  and  functions  with  those  of  the  Italian  repub&s; 
sometimes  each  'province  had  one,  sometimes  the  federal  <Set 
elected  a  podesti-general  for  the  whole  country,  the  term  of 
office  being  for  a  limited  period  or  for  life  (see  J.  L.  Motley,  Dtadk 
Repuhlic,  i.  44,  ed.  1903). 

Lists  of  the  Italian  podestis  are  given  tn  Stokvis.  Manm^^hiapinx 
vol.  iii.  (Leiden.  1889).  See  also  W.  F.  Butler,  Tha  Lomhmi 
Commmus  (1906). 

PODOORITSA  (Croatian,  Podgorica),  the  largest  town  in  Mon- 
tenegro; on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Moracha,  and  in  a  fcrtHe 
valley  which  strikes  inland  for  x8  m.  from  the  shores  of  Lake 
Scutari  to  the  mountains  of  central  and  eastern  Monteneg?a 
Pop.  (1900),  about  5500,  Spread  out  on  a  perfectly  flat  plain, 
Podgoritsa  has  two  distinct  parts:  the  picturesque  Turkish 
quarter,  with  its  mosques  and  ruined  ramparts,  and  the  Moace- 
negrin  quarter,  built  since  1877,  and  containing  a  prison  and  an 
agricultural  college.  These  quarters  are  separated  by  the  river 
Ribnitsa,  a  tributary  of  the  Moracha.  A.fine  old  Turkish  bdd^ 
crosses  the  main  stream.  Podgoritsa  receives  from  the  eastern 
plains  and  the  north-eastern  highlands  a  great  quantity  of 
tobacco,  fni|t,  cereals,  honey,  silk,  livestock  and  other  commocS- 
ties,  which  it  distributes  through  Plavnitsa,  its  port  on  Lake 
Scutari,  and  through  Riyeka  to  Cettigne  and  Cattaro.  After 
being  captured  from  Turkey  in  1877,  Podgoritsa  was  in  1S7S 
recognized  as  Montenegrin  territory  by  the  T^%aty  of  Beiiin. 

PODIUM  (Gr.  vbiuov,  diminutive  of  «ov»,  foot},*  the  name  is 
architecture  for  a  (continuous  pedestal,  or  low  wall  on  whkh 
columns  are  carried,  consisting  of  a  cornice  or  capping,  a  dado  or 
die,  and  a  moulded  plinth.  In  Che  Etroactn  and  Roman 


POIXXilA^POE 


87s 


the  wbflle  ttnittnre  uriM  nfiaed  on  a  podium,  «ilh  a  fligbt  of  steps, 
on  th«  piindpal  inmt,  encloaed  between  the  proloogstkm  of  the 
podium  wsU. 

PODOUA*  a  ^vonment  of  south<westeni  Russia,  haviog 
Volhynia  od  the  N.,  Kiev  and  Kherson  00  the  E.  and  S.,  Bess- 
arabia on  the  S.W.,  and  Galida  (Austria)  on  the  W.,  from  which 
h  is  separated  by  the  Zbnic8»  or  Rodvooha».  a  tiibutaiy  of  the 
Dniester.  It  has  an  area  of  i6,ai^  iq^  0^1  extendinkg  for  200  m. 
from  NwW.  to  S.E.  on  the  lefthai&k  of  the  Dniester.  In  the 
same  direction  the  government  is  traversed  by  two  ranges  of. 
bBh  se|>aratcd  by  the  Bog,  lamificationaof  the  Avratyosk  heights. 
These  hills  nowhere  exceed  an  elevatiott  of  1185  ft  Two  large 
riven,  which  numerous  tributaries^  drain  the  govenunent-^the 
Dniester,  whidi  forms  its  boundary  with  Bessarabia  and  is 
navigable  (hrooghont  its  lengthy  and  the  Bug,  which  flows  ahnest 
parallel  to  the  former  in  a  higher,  soneiimea  swampy,  valley, 
and  Is  interrupted  at  several  places  by  rapids.  The  Dniester  is 
an  important  diannel  for  tnde,  com,  spirits  and  timber  being 
exported  from  Mogilev,  Kalus,  Zhvancts,  Ftuog  and  other 
Podolian  xiver-ports.  The  rapid  smaller  tributaries  of  the 
Dniester  supply  numerous  flour^nills  with  motive  power.  The 
•oil  is -almost  throughout  "  black  earth,"  and  Podolia  is  one  of 
the  most  fertile  govemmenU  of  Russia.  Forests  cover  nearly 
15%  ot  the  total  area.  Marshes  occur  only  beside  the  Bug. 
The  climate  is  moderate,  the  average  temperature  of  the  year  at 
Kameneta  behig  46*3*'  (a^'S"  i^  January^  69*  in  July). 

The  estimated  population  in  1906  was  3,543,700,  It  consists 
chiefly  of  Little  Russians,  Poles'  (3^  %),  and  Jews  < 1 3  %).  There 
are  besides  a  few  Armenians,  some  Germans,  and  50,000  Moldav* 
iana.  There  are  many  Nonconformists  (18,000)  among  the 
Ruffiians,  Tulchin  being  the  seat  of  their  bishops  and  a  centre  of 
propaganda.  After  Moscow,  Podolia  is  the  most  densely  in* 
habit^  government  of  Russia  outside  Poland.  It  is  divided 
into  twelve  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which  are  Kamenets- 
Podolskiy,  the  capital,  Balta,  Bratslav,  Gaistn,  Lclicbev,  Litin, 
Mogilev<on-Dniester,  Novaya-Ushitsa,  Olgopbl,  Ptoskurov, 
Vinnitsa  and  Yampol.  The  chief  occupations  of  the  people  an 
agriculture  and  gardening.  The  princ^  crops  are  wheat,  rye, 
oats,  barley,  maize,  hemp,  flax,  potatoes,  beetroot  and  tobacco. 
Podolia  is  famous  for  Its  cherries  and  mulberries,  its  melons, 
gourds  and  cucumbers.  Nearly  67,000  gallons  of  wine  art 
obtained  annually.  Large  numbers  of  horses,  cattle  and  sheep 
are  bred,  the  cattle  being  famous.  Bee>keeping  is  an  important 
industry.  Sugar  factories,  distilleries,  flour-mills,  woollen  mills, 
tanneries,  potteries,  tobacco  factories,  breweries,  candle  and  soap 
factories^  have  an  annual  output  valued  at  ^£4,000,000.  An 
active  trade  i^  carried  on  with  Austria,  espedaily  through  the 
IsakovetS  and  Gusyatin  custom-llooses,  corn,  cattle,  horses; 
skins,  wool,  linseed  and  hemp  seed  being  exported,  in  exchange 
for  wooden  wares,  linen,  Woollen  stuffs^  cotton,  glass  and  agri- 
cultural implements.  'Hie  tl^e  with  the  interior  is  also  carried 
on  very  briskly,  especially  at  the  twenty-six  fairs,  the  chief  of 
which  are  Balta  and  Yarmolintsy.  Poddia  is  Iraversod  by  a 
railway  which  runs  parslkl  to  the  Dniester,  from  Lemberg  td 
Odessa,  and  has  two  branch  lines,  to  Kiev  (from  Zhmerinka) 
and  to  Poltava  (from  Balta). 

History. — ^The  country  has  been  inhabited  since  the  be^pnning 
of  the  Nedithic  period.  Herodotus  mentions  it  as  the  scat  oi  the 
GracoKScythian  Alazbnes  and  the  Scythian  Neuri,  who  were 
followed  by  the  Daciaas  and  the  Gelae.  The  Romans  left  traces 
of  their  rule  in  the  Wall  of  Trajaut  which  stretches  through  the 
modern  districts  Hi  Katnenets,  Usidtsa  and  Proskuiov.  During 
the  great  migrations  many  nationalities  passed  through  this 
territory,  or  settled  within  it  for  some  time,  leaving  traces  in 
numerous  archaeologica]  remains.  Nestor  mentions  that  the 
Bu janes  and  Dulebes  occupied  the  Bug;  uriiile  the  TiVertsi  and 
Ugliches,  apparently  all  four  Slav  tribes,  were  settled  on  the 
Dniester,  lliese  peoples  were  conquered  by  the  Avan  in  the 
7th  ceiWUry.  Oleg,  prince  of  Kiev;  extended  his  rule  over  this 
territory->tbe  Potrixir.at"  fowlands,"  which  became  bter  a  part 
of  the  principtSities  of  Volhynia,  Kiev  and  Gsiida.  In  the  13th 
century  the  Ponlaie  was  plundered  by  the  Mongols;  a:  hundred 


years  aftennuds  Olgierd^priaqe  of  Lithuania,  freed  it  from  their 
rule,  annexing  it  to  his  own  territories  under  the  name  of  Podolia, 
a  word  which  has  the  same  meaning  as  Ponixie.  After  the  death 
(1430)  of  the  Lithuanian  prince  Vttovt,  Podolia  was  annexed  to 
Poland,  with  the  exception  of  iu  eastern  part,  the  province  of 
Bratslav,  which  remained  under  Lithuania  until  its  um'on 
(1501)  with  Poland,  The  Poles  retained  Podolia  until  the 
third  divisfon  of  their  country  in  1793,  when  it  was  uken  by 
Russia.  (P.A-K.J  J.T.Be.) 

.  PODOUIKf  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Moscow, 
a6  m.  S.  of  the  dty  of  Moscow,  at  the  junction  of  the  two  main 
roads  from  Moscow  to  the  Crimea  and  to  Warsaw.  Pop.  (1881), 
t  i,OQo;  (1897),  3808.  It  is  picturesquely  built  on  the  hilly  banka 
of  the  Pakhra,  here  crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge  for  carriages 
as  well  as  by  the  railway  bridge.  Down  to  1781  the  wealthy 
village  of  Podol  was  a  dependency  of  the  Danilov  monastery  in 
Moscow.  Before  the  opening  of  the  southern  railway  the  cara- 
vans of  wagons  and  slcdgea  to  and  from  Moscow  used  to  halt  here; 
the  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  was  innkeeping  and 
supplying  the  caravans  with  provisions  and  other  necessaries 
of  travel.  •  The  limestone  quarries,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Desna  and  the  Pakhra,  supply  the  capital  with  good  building 
material;  and  there  are  a  cement,  lime  and  brick  factory  and  a 
paper-ntiu. 

PODOPHYUiN,  a  drug  obtained  from  the  rhizome  of  the 
American  mandrake  or  may  apple.  Podophyllum  pdialum,  an 
herbaceous  perennial  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Berberi- 
daceae,  indigenous  in  woods  in  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
The  plant  is  about  i  ft.  high,  bearing  two  peltate,  deeply- 
divided  leaves,  which  are  about  5  in.  in  diameter,  and  b^ 
in  the  axil  a  solitary,  stalked,  white  flower,  about  the  sire  and 
shape  of  the  garden  anemone,  with  six  or  more  petals  and  twice 
as  many  hypogynous  stamens.  <  The  fruit  is  ripe  in  July,  and 
is  an  oval,  ycUowish,  fleshy  berry,  oontaining  twelve  or  more 
seeds,  each  surrounded  by  a  pulpy  outer  coat  or  ariL  The 
rhizamej  as  met  with  in  commerce,  occurs  in  cylindrical  pieces 
1  or  3  in.  long  and  about  }  in.  in  diameter,  of  a  chocolate  or 
purplish-brown  colour,  smooth,  and  slightly  enlarged  where  the 
juncture  of  the  leafy  stem  is  indicated  by  a  circular  scar  on  the 
upper  and  a  few  broken  rootlets  on  the  under  side.  The  odour 
is  heavy  and  disagreeable,  and  the  taste  acrid  and  bitter. 

Podophyltin  is  a  resinous  powder  obtained  by  predpitatiiiff  an 
alcoholic  tincture  of  the  rhixome  by  means  of  water  acidulated 
with  hydrochloric  add.  It  varies  in  colour  from  greyish  to  bright 
yellow  or  greenish-brown,  the  first-named  being  the  purest.  The 
powder  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  strong  solutions  of  alkalis,  such 
as  ammonia.  Its  composition  is  somewhat  complex.  There  are 
certainly  at  least  two  resins  in  the  powder  (which  is  known  offici' 
ally  as  FodophyUi  resina),  one  of  them  being  soluble  and  the  other 
insoluble  in  ether.  Each  of  these  contains  an  active  substance, 
which  can  be  obtained  in  crystalline  foim,and  is  known  as  podo- 
phyltotoxin.  It  ts  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform  and  boiline 
water.  Alkalis  decompose  it  into  picto-podophylUc  acid  and 
picro-podophyUin,  minute  traces  of  both  of  which  occur  in  a  free 
state  an  the  ihizome.  The  add  is  inert,  but  picro-podophyllin  is 
the  acjtive  principle.  It  is  a  crystalline  body,  soluble  only  m  con- 
centrated alcohol.  Hence  the  inutility  of  the  pharmacopeial 
tinctura  pddopkylli,  which  cannot  be  diluted  before  administration. 
The  properties  of  podophyllin  resin  vary  with  the  reaction  of  the 
tissue  with  which  it  is  in  contact ;  where  this  is  acid  the  drug  is  inert, 
the  picro-ixxlophyUin  being  prcdpitatcd. 

Tne  resin  does  not  affect  the  unbroken  skin,  but  may  be  ab- 
sorbed from  a  raw  surface,  and  will  then  cause  purging.  When 
taken  internally  it  is  both  a  secretory  and  an  excretory  cbolasogue, 
but  BO  irritant  and  poweriul  that  its  use  in  cases  of  jaundice  is 
generally  undesirable.  Its  value,  however,  in  certain  cases  of 
constipation  of  hepatic  origin  is  undeniable.  It  is  largely  used  in 
patent  medldnes,  usually  as  an  auxiliary  to  aloes.  The  best  metliod 
of  prescCibing  podophyllin  is  in  pill  form.  In  toxic  doses  podo* 
phyllin  causes  intense  enteritis,  with  all  its  characteristk:  symptoms, 
and  severe  depression,  which  may  end  in  death.  The  treatment 
is  symptomatic,  there  being  no  specific  antidote. 

POi^  EDGAR  ALLAN  (1809-1849),  American  poet,  writer  of 
fiction  and  critic^  was  bom  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  xglh 
of  January  1809.  The  family  was  of  English  origin,  but  was  settled 
in  Ireland,  whence  the  poet's  great-grandfather  emigrated  to 
Maiyland.    His  grandfather,  David  Poe,  served  with  credit  as  a 


876 


POERIO 


soldier  in  the  War  of  iLndependenoe,  was  known  to  Washington, 
and  was  the  friend  of  Lafayette.  His  son  David  Poe  was  bred 
as  a  lawyer,  but  deeply  offended  his  family  by  marrying  an  actress 
of  English  birth,Mrs  Elizabeth  Hopkins,fi^  Amold,and  by  himself 
going  on  the  stage.  In  i8zx  he  and  hb  wife  died,  leaving  three 
children— William,  Edgar,  and  a  daughter  Rosalie — wholly  des> 
titute.  William  died  young,  and  Rosalie  became  mad.  Edgar 
was  adopted  by  John  Allan,  a  tobacco  merchant  of  Scottish  ex- 
traction, seemingly  at  the  request  of  his  wife,  who  was  childless. 
The  boy  was  indulged  in  every  way,  and  encouraged  to  b^eve 
that  he  would  inherit  Mr  Allan's  fortune.  Mr  AUan,  having 
come  to  England  in  1815,  placed  Edgar  In  a  school  at  Stoke 
Newington,  kept  by  a  Dr  Bransby.  In  1820  Mr  Allan  returned 
to  Richmond,  Virginia,  and  Edgar  was  first  placed  at  school  in 
the  town  and  then  sent  to^the  university  of  Virginia  at  Char- 
lottesville in  1826.  Here  the  effects  of  a  very  unwise  training 
on  a  temperament  of  inherited  neurotic  tendency  were  soon  seen. 
He  was  fond  of  athletics,  and  was  a  strong  and  ardent  swimmer; 
but  he  developed  a  passion  for  gambling  and  drink.  His  dis* 
orders  made  it  necessary  to  remove  Mm,  and  he  was  taken  away 
by  Mr  Allan,  who  refused  to  pay  his  debts  of  honour.  He  enlisted 
on  the  36th  of  May  1837  at  Boston,  and  served  for  two  years  in 
the  United  States  army.  As  a  soldier  hh  conduct  must  have 
been  exempbry,  for  he  was  promoted  sergeant-major  on  the  tst 
of  January  1839.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  throughout  his  life, 
when  under  orders,  Poe  could  be  a  diligent  and  capable  subor- 
dSnate.  In  May  1839  Mr  Allan  secured  his  disdiarge  from  the 
army,andin  i83oobtained  a  nomination  for  him  to  the  West  Point 
military  academy.  As  a  student  he  showed  considerable  faculty  for 
mathematics,  but  his  aloofness  prevented  him  from  being  popular 
with  his  comrades,  and  he  neglected  his  duty.  When  court- 
martialled  he  made  no  answer  to  the  charges,  and  was  expelled  on 
the  6th  of  March  1 83 z .  Mr  Allan 's  generosity  was  now  exhausted. 
The  death  of  his  first  wife  in  1839  had  doubtless  removed  an 
influence  favourable  to  Poe.  A  second  marriage  brought  him 
children,  and  at  his  death  in  1834  he  left  his  adopted  son 
nothing.  A  last  meeting  between  the  two,  dtoitly  before  Mr 
Allan's  death,  led  only  to  a  scene  of  painful  violence. 

In  1837  Poe  had  published  hu  first  volume  of  poetry,  Tamer' 
lane  and  other  Poems^  at  Boston.  He  did  not  publish  under  his 
name,  but  as  "  A  Bostonian."  In  1831  he  published  a  volume 
of  Poemt  under  his  name  at  New  York.  His  life  immediately 
after  he  left  West  Point  is  very  obscure,  but  in  1833  he  was  living 
at  Baltimore  with  his  paternal  aunt,  Mrs  Qenun,  who  was 
throughout  life  his  protector,  and,  in  so  far  as  extreme  poverty 
permitted,  his  support.  In  1833  he  won  a  prize  of  Ixoo  offered 
for  the  best  story  by  the  Baltimore  Saturday  Visitor^  He  would 
have  won  the  prise  for  the  best  poem  if  the  judges  had  not 
thought  it  wrong  to  give  both  rewairds  to  one  competitor.  The 
story,  IfS.  found  in  a  Boale^  is  one  of  the  most  mediocre  of  his 
talcs,  but  his  success  gave  him  an  introduction  to  editors  and 
publishers,  who  were  attracted  by  his  striking  personal  appear*- 
ancc  and  his  fine  manners,  and  were  also  touched  by  his  mani- 
fest poverty.  From  1833  till  his  death  he  was  employed  on 
different  magazines  at  Richmond,  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 
His  famous  poem  "  The  Raven  ^'  was  published  first  in  1843, 
and  soon  became  extraordinarily  popular;  but  Poe  only  got 
£2  for  it. 

The  facts  of  his  life  have  been  the  subject  of  very  ill-judged 
controversy.  The  acrimcmioas  tone  of  the  biography  by  Rufus 
Griswold,  prefixed  to  the  first  collected  edition  <^  his  wtwks  in 
1850,  gave  natural  offence,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  show 
that  the  biographer  was  wrong  as  to  the  facts.  But  it  is  no  real 
kindness  to  Poe's  memory  to  deny  the  sad  truth  that  he  was 
subject  to  chronic  alcoholism.  He  was  not  a  boon  companion, 
and  never  became  callous  to  his  vice.  When  it  seized  him  he 
drank  raw  spirits,  and  was  disordered  by  a  very  little.  But  when 
he  was  free  from  the  maddening  influence  of  alcohol  he  was 
gentle,  wcU-brcd,  and  a  hard  worker  on  the  staff  of  a  magaihie, 
willing  and  able  to  write  reviews,  answer  correspondents,  pro- 
pound riddles  or  Invent  and  solve  cryptograms.  Hisviliie  ks  a 
contributor  and  sub-editor  secured  faim  successivo  fpgygfnmiti 


on  the  Southern  Literary  Mesumier  of  Richmond,  00  the  Kc* 
York  Quarterly  Raiew,  and  on  Graham**  Magamne  at  PfaOa^ 
dclphia.  It  enabled  him  in  1843  to  have  a  magazine  of  his  ova, 
the  Stylus.  His  mania  sooner  or  later  broke  off  all. 
ments  and  ruined  his  own  venture.  In  1835  he  manied 
cousin,  Virginia  Clemm,  a  beautiful  girl  of  fourteen  ytu%  of 
A  false  statement  as  to  her  iage  was  made  at  the  time  of  tht 
mairiage*  She  died  after  a  long  decline  in  1847.  Poe  made  ttro 
attempts  to  marry  women  of  fortune^Mis  Whitman  aad  Ma 
Shelton.  The  6at  of  these  engagements  was  brokea  off.  The 
second  was  terminated  by  his  death  in  hospital  at  Balfinswf, 
Md.,  on  the  7th  of  October  1849. 

His  life  and  death  had  many  precedents,  and  will  always 
among  Bohemian  men  of  letters  and  artists.  What  was 
\reduai  in  Poe,  and  what  alone  renders  him  memocable,  was  las 
narrow  but  profound  and  origfaul  genius  (see  AsfEsacAH  LzrzaA- 
ture).  In  the  midst  of  much  hack-work  and  unit  a  few  fathva 
in  his  own  field  he  produced  a  small  body  of  verse,  and  a  hand- 
ful of  short  stories  of  rare  and  peculiar  exceUence.  The  pooos 
express  a  melancholy  sensuous  emotioa  in  a  penetrating  metody 
all  his  own.  The  stories  give  form  to  horror  and  fear  with  an 
exquisite  exactness  of  touch,  or  construct  and  uncavd  mystczks 
with  extreme  dexterity.  He  was  a  oonsdentioi»  literary  artist 
who  revised  and  perfected  his  work  with  care.  His  critidsB, 
though  often  commonplace  and  sometimes  illinatared,  as  whcs 
he  attacked  LongfeUow  for  plagiarism,  was  ticuchaai  aad 
sagadous  at  his  belt. 

BiauocaAPHT.*-rk«  Life  and  Ltttert  of  Edgar  AOam  Poe,  by  J.  A. 
Harrison  (New  York,  190^  and  The  Life  of  Edgar  AUan  Poe  (Boaeca. 
new  cd.  1909).  by  C.  E.  Woodberry,  are  the  best  bioKTaphic^.  The 
standard  edition  of  his  Works  is  that  published  in  1894-1 895  atCU- 

"  ^       '7ooal 


cago,  in  ten  volumes,  by  E.  C.  Stedman  and  G.  E.  Woodberry. 
have  been  many  partial  reprints.  For  Pce's  influence  in  Frave^ 
which  has  been  great,  see  C.  Bauddaiie.  Histoires  e^Oracrdim&va 
(Paris.  i8s6);  S.  Mallarnid,  Pchmes  d'Edpir  Poe  (Brussels,  t8;^9;; 
and  Les  Nivrosh,  by  ArvMe  Barine  (Paris,  1899).  (D.  H.) 

POERIOl  AUSSSANDRO  (1802-1848),  Italian  |x>et  and  patriot, 
was  descended  from  an  old  Calabrian  family,  his  father,  Baroa 
Giuseppe  Poerio,  being  a  distinguished  lawyer  of  Naples,  la 
1815  he  and  his  brother  Carlo  accompanied  their  father,  who  hxd 
been  identified  with  Murat's  cause,  into  exile,  and  settled  at 
Florence.  In  18x8  they  were  allowed  to  return  to  Naples,  aai 
on  the  proclamation  of  the  constitution  in  1820  the  Poeiks  vtte 
among  the  stoutest  defenders  of  the  newly-won  f rcedonu  Alks- 
sandro  fought  as  a  volunteer,  under  General  Gugliclmo  Pcpe. 
against  the  Austrians  in  1821,  but  when  the  latter  reoccaj^ed 
I^ples  and  the  king  abolished  the  constitution,  the  family  ms 
again  exiled  and  settled  at  Giats.  Alessandro  devoted  faintsdi 
to  study  in  various  Germaa  universitios,  and  at  Womar  he 
became  the  friend  of  (joethe.  la  1833  the  Poerios  retanied  to 
Naples,  and  Alessandro,  while  practising  law  with  his  father. 
published  a  number  of  lyrics*  In  1848  he  accompanied  Pcpe  as 
a  volunteer  to  fi^t  the  Austrians  in  northern  Italy,  and  on  the 
recall  ot  the  Neapolitan  Qontii^gent  Alessandro  followed  Pepe  to 
Venice  and  displayed  great  bravery  during  the  siege.  He  «as 
severely  wounded  in  the  fighting  round  Mcstre,  and  died  on  tbe 
3rd  of  November  1848.  His  poetry  "  reveals  the  idealism  oi  a 
tender  and  ddicate  mind  which  was  diligent  in  storing  x^ 
sensations  and  images  that  for  otben  would  have  been  at  laaei 
the  transient  impressions  of  a  moment."  But  be  coukl  aho 
sound  the  darioQ  note  of  patriotism,  as  in  his  stirring  poca 
It  RisorgimeMta* 

His  brother  Cario  C1803-1867),  after  letumiog  to  Kapks. 
practised  as  an  advocate,  and  from  1837  to  1848  was  frequcmJy 
arrested  and  imprisoned',  but  when  King  Ferdinand,  moved  by 
the  demonstration  of  the  27th  of  January  of  the  latter  >Tsr, 
promulgated  a -constitution,  he  was  made  minister  of  edcicatiox 
Discovering,  however,  that  the  king  was  acting  in  bad  faith,  be 
resigned  ofike  in  April  and  returned  to  Naples  to  take  his  seat  ia 
padiamenl,  where  he  led  the  jconstitutional  oppositioo.  The 
Austrian  victory  of  Novara  (Match  1849)  set  the  king  free  to 
dissolve  parliament  audi  trample  on  the  constitution,  and  on  the 
i9tb  eA  July  1^9  Poerio  was  arrestcdi  tried,  and  condemned  to 


877 


nineteen  yens  In  itons.    Chained  in  pairs,  he  tnd  other  political 

priaonen  were  confined  in  one  small  room  in  the  bagno  of  Nisida, 

near  the  laaaretlo.    The  eloquent  exposure  (1851)  of  the  horrors 

of  the  Neapolitan  dungeons  by  Gladstone,  who  emphasised 

especially  the  case  of  Poerao,  awakened  the  universal  indignation 

<^  Europe,  but  he  did  not  obtain  his  liberty  till  1858.    He  and 

oiher  exiles  were  than  placed  on  board  a  ship  bound  for  the  United 

States,  but  the  son  of  Settembrini,  another  of  the  exiles,  who  was 

on  board  in  disguise,  coropdled  the  crew  to  land  them  at  Cork, 

whence  Poerio  made  his  way  to  London.    In  the  following  year 

he  returned  to  Italy,  and  in  i860  he  was  elected  deputy  t<f  the 

parliament  of  Turin,  of  which  he  was  chosen  vice-president  in 

x86i.    He  died  at  Florence  on  the  38th  of  April  1867. 

See  Baldachini,  Dtlla  Vita  e  dt'  tempt  di  Carlo  Poerio  (1867): 
W.  E.  Gladstone,  Tvto  Letten  to  Ike  Earl  ^  Aberdeen  (1851);  Corlo 
Poerio  and  the  Neapolitan  Police  (London,  1858);  Vannucci,  / 
Martiri  delta  liberty  ttaliana,  vol.  iit.  (Milan,  1880):  Imbriani,  Ales- 
sandro  Poerio  a  Venetia  (Naples,  1884);  Del  Ciudice.  /  FrateUi 
Poerio  (Turin,  1899);  Countess  Martinengo  Cesareaco,  Italian 
Characters  (London,  1901). 

POETRY.  In  modem  criticism  the  word  poetry  {i.e.  the  art 
of  the  poet,  Gr.  iroiip^it,  maker,  from  irocecir,  to  make)  is  used 
sometimes  to  denote  any  expression  (artistic  or  other)  of  imagin* 
ative  feelings  sometimes  to  designate  a  precise  literary  art, 
which  ranks  as  one  of  the  fine  arts.  As  an  expression  of  imagin* 
ative  feeling,  as  the  movement  of  an  energy,  as  one  of  those 
great  primal  human  forces  which  go  to  the  development  of  the 
race,  poetry  in  the  wide  sense  has  played  as  important  a  part  as 
science.  In  some  literatures  (such  as  that  of  England)  poetic 
energy  and  in  others  (such  as  that  of  Rome)  poetic  art  is  the 
dominant  quality.  It  is  the  same  with  individual  writers. 
In  classical  literature  Pindar  may  perhaps  be  taken  as  a  type  of 
the  poets  of  energy;  Virgil  of  the  poets  of  art.  With  aU  his 
wealth  of  poetic  art  Pindar's  mastery  over  symmetrical  methods 
never  taught  him  to  "  sow  with  the  hand,"  as  Corinna  declared, 
while  his  poetic  energy  always  impelled  him  to  "  sow  with  the 
whole  sack."  In  English  poetical  literature  Elizabeth  Barrett 
Browning  typifies,  perhaps,  the  poets  of  energy;  while  Keats 
(notwithstanding  alt  his  unquestionable  inspiration)  is  mostly 
taken  as  a  type  of  the  poets  of  art.  In  French  literature  Hugo, 
notwithstanding  all  his  mastery  over  poetic  methods,  represents 
the  poets  of  energy. 

In  some  writers,  and  these  the  very  greatest — in  Homer, 
Aeschylus,  SOphodes,  Dante,  Shakespeare,  Milton,  and  perhaps 
Goethe — poetic  energy  and  poetic  art  are  seen  in  something  like 
equipoise.  It  is  of  poetry  as  an  art,  however,  that  we  have 
mainly  to  speak  here;  and  all  we  have  to  say  upon  poetry  as  an 
energy  b  that  the  critic  who,  like  Aristotle,  takes  this  wide  view 
of  poetry — the  critic  who,  like  him,  recognizes  the  importance  of 
poetry  in  its  relations  to  man's  other  expressions  of  spiritual 
force,  claims  a  place  in  point  of  true  critical  sagacity  above  that 
of  a  critic  who,  like  Plato,  fails  to  recognize  that  importance. 
And  assuredly  no  philosophy  of  history  can  be  other  than  in- 
adequate should  it  Ignore  the  fact  that  poetry  has  had  as  much 
effect  upon  human  destiny  as  that  other  great  human  energy  by 
aid  of  which,  from  the  discovery  of  the  use  of  fire  to  that  of  the 
electric  light,  the  useful  arts  have  been  developed. 

With  regard  to  poetry  as  an  art,  most  of  the  great  poems  of  the 
world  are  dealt  with  elsewhere  in  this  work,  either  in  connexion 
with  the  names  of  the  writers  or  with  the  various  literatures  to 
which  they  belong;  consequently  these  remarks  must  be  confined 
to  general  principles.  Under  Verse  the  detailed  questions  of 
prosody  are  considered;  here  we  are  concerned  with  the  essential 
principles  which  underlie  the  meaning  of  poetry  as  such. 

All  that  can  be  attempted  is  to  inquire*  (1)  What  is  poetry? 

(2)  What  is  the  position  it  takes  up  in  relation  to  the  other  arts  ? 

(3)  What  is  its  value  and  degree  of  expressional  power  in  relation 
to  these?  and,  finally,  (4)  What  varieties  of  poetic  art  are  the 
outcome  of  the  two  great  kinds  of  poetic  impulse,  dramatic 
f  magination  and  lyric  or  egoistic  imagination  ? 

*  t!  What  is  i»<»/ry?— Definitions  are  for  th«  most  part  alike 
unsatisfactory  and  treacherous;  but  definitions  of  poetry  are 
proverbially  so:    Is  it  posable  to  lay  down  invariable  principles 


of  poetry,  such  as  those  famous  ^'invariable  principles'*  of 
William  Lisle  Bowles,  which  in  the  eariier  part  of  the  century 
awoke  the  admiration  of  Southey  and  the  wrath  ^^,^^^ 
of  Byron  ?  Is  it  possible  for  a  critic  to  say  of  any  **"*"•* 
metrical  phrase,  stanza  or  verse,  *'  This  is  poetry,"  or  '*  This  is 
not  poetry "  ?  Can  he,  with  anything  like  the  authority  with 
which  the  man  of  science  pronounces  upon  the  natural  objects 
brought  before  him,  pronounce  upon  the  qualities  of  a  poem  ? 
These  are  questions  that  have  engaged  the  attention  of  critics 
ever  since  the  time  of  Aristotle.  Byron,  in  his  rough  and 
ready  way,  answered  them  in  one  of  those  letters  to  his 
publisher  John  Murray,  which,  rich  as  they  are  in  nonsense,  are 
almost  as  rich  In  sense.  '*  So  far  are  principles  of  poetry  from 
being  invariable,"  says  he,  **  that  they  never  were  nor  ever  will 
be  settled..  These  principles  mean  nothing  more  than  the 
predilections  of  a  particular  age,  and  every  age  has  its  own  and  a 
differmt  from  its  predecessor.  It  is  now  Homer  and  now  Virgil; 
once  Dryden  and  since  Sir  Walter  Scott;  now  Comeille  and  now 
Racine;  now  Cr6bUlon  and  now  Voltahe.*'  This  is  putting  the 
case  very  strongly — perhaps  too  strongly.  But  if  we  remember 
that  Sophocles  lost  the  first  prize  for  the  Oedipus  tyrannus;  if  we 
remember  what  in  Dante's  time  (owing  partly,  no  doubt,  to  the 
universal  ignorance  of  Greek)  were  the  relative  positions  of 
Homer  and  Virgil,  what  in  the  time  of  Milton  were  the  relative 
positions  of  Milton  himself,  of  Shakespeare,  and  of  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher;  again,  tf  we  remember  Jeffrey's  famous  classification 
of  the  poets  of  hb  day,  we  shall  be  driven  to  pause  over  Byron's 
words  before  dbmissing  them.  Yet  some  definition,  for  the 
purpose  of  this  essay,  must  be  here  attempted;  and,  using 
the  phrase  "  absolute  poetry  "  as  the  musical  critics  use  the 
phrase  "  absolute  music,"  we  may,  perhaps,  without  too  great 
presumption  'submit  the  following}— 

Absolute  poetry  is  the  concrete  and  artistU  expression  of  the 
human  mind  in  emotional  and  rhythmical  language. 

This  at  least  will  be  granted,  that  no  literary  expression  can, 
properly  ^)eaking,  be  called  poetry  that  fs  not  in  a  certain  deep 
sense  emotional,  whatever  may  be  its  subject-matter,  concrete 
in  its  method  and  its  diction,  rhythmical  in  movement,  and 
artistic  in  form. 

That  the  expression  of  all  real  poetry  must  be  concrete  in 
method  and  diction  is  obvious,  and  yet  thb  dictum  would  exclude 
from  the  definition  much  of  what  b  called  didactic  poetry.  With 
abstractions  the  poet  has  nothing  to  do,  save  to  take  them  and 
turn  them  into  concretbns;  for,  as  artist,  he  is  simply  the  man 
who  by  instinct  embodies  in  concrete  forms  that  "universal 
Idea"  which  Gravina  speaks  of— that  which  b  essential  and 
elemental  in  nature  and  in  man;  as  poetic  artbt  he  is  simply 
the  man  who  by  instinct  chooses  for  hb  concrete  forms  metrical 
language.  And  the  questions  to  be  asked  concerning  any  work 
of  art  are  simply  these — Is  that  which  b  here  embodied  really 
permanent,  universal  and  elemental?  and.  Is  the  concrete  form 
embodying  it  really  beautiful— acknowledged  as  beautiful  by 
the  soul  of  man  in  its  highest  moods?  Any  other  question  b  an 
impertinence. 

As  an  example  of  the  absence  of  concrete  form  in  verse  take  the 
following  lines  from  George  Eliot's  Spanish  Cypsy: — 

"  Speech  is  but  broken  light  upon  the  depth 
Of  the  unspoken:  even  your  loved  words 
Float  in  the  larger  meaning  of  your  voice 
As  something  dimmer." 

Without  discussing  the  question  of  blank  verse  cadence  and  the 
weakness  of  a  line  where  the  main  accent  falls  upon  a  positive 
hiatus, "  of  the  unspoken,"  we  wotiki  pomt  out  that  thb  powerfihi 
passage  shows  the  spirit  of  poetry  without  its  concrete  form. 
The  abstract  method  b  substituted  for  the  concrete.  Such 
an  abstract  phrase  as  "the  unspoken"  bdongs  entirely  to 
prose. 

As  to  what  u  called  ratiodnative  poetry,  it  ihight  perhaps  be 
shown  that  it  does  not  exist  at  all.  Not  by  syllogism,  but  per 
saltum,  must  the  poet  reach  in  every  case  hb  conclusions.  We 
listen  to  the  poet — we  allow  him  to  address  us  in  rhythm  or  in 
rhyme — we  allow  him  to  sing  to  us  while  other  men  are  only 


gyg 


POETRY 


allowed  to  talk,  not  becaiue  he  aigaet  more  ]o^adfy  than  they, 
but  because  he  feels  more  deeply  and  porhaps  toiore  traly.  It  is 
for  his  listeners  to  be  knowing  and  ratiocinativei  it  is  for  him  to 
be  gnomic  and  divinely  wise. 

That  poetry  must  be  metrical  or  even  rhythmical  io  movement, 
however,  is  what  some  have  denied.  Here  we  touch  at  once  the 
very  root  of  the  subject.  The  difference  between  all  literature 
and  mere  "  word-kneading  "  is  that,  while  literature  is  alive, 
word-kneading  is  without  life.  This  literary  life,  while  it  is 
only  bipartite  in  prose,  seems  to  be  tripartite  in  poetry;  that  ts  to 
say,  while  prose  requires  intellectual  life  and  emotional  life, 
poetry  seems  to  require  not  only  intellectual  life  and  emotional 
life  but  rhythmic  life,  this  last  being  the  most  imporunt  of  all 
according  to  many  critics,  though  Aristotle  is  not  among  these. 
Here  indeed  is  the  "  fork  "  between  the  old  critics  and  the  new; 
Unless  the  rhythm  of  any  metrical  passage  is  so  vigorous,  so 
natural,  and  so  free  that  it  soems  as  though  it  could  live,  if  need 
were,  by  its  rhythirr  alone,  has  that  passage  any  right  to  exist? 
and  should  it  not,  if  the  substance  is  good,  be  forthwith  demetri* 
dzed  and  turned  into  prose?  Thoreau  has  affirmed  that  prose, 
at  its  best,  has  high  qualities  of  its  own  beyond  the  ken  of  poetry; 
to  compensate  for  the  sacrifice  of  these,  should  not  the  metrical 
gains  of  any  passage  be  beyond  all  cavil? 

This  argument  mic^ht  be  presied  farther  stilt.  It  might  teem 
bold  to  asaert  that,  m  many  cases,  the  mental  value  of  poetry 
may  actually  depend  upon  form  and  colour,  but  would  it  not  be 
true  ?  The  mental  value  of  poetry  must  be  judged  by  a  standard 
not  applicable  to  prose;  but,  even  with  regard  to  the  different 
kinds  of  poetry,  we  must  not  compare  poetry  whose  mental  value 
consists  in  a  distinct  and  logical  enunciation  of  ideas,  such  as  that 
of  Lucretius  and  Wordsworth,  and  poetry  whose  mental  value 
consists  partly  in  the  sugcestive  richness  of  passion  or  symbol 
latent  in  rhythm  (such  as  that  of  Sappho  sometimes,  Pindar  often, 
Shelley  always),  or  latent  in  colour,  such  as  that  of  some  of  the 
Imornlaium  ^^^**^^  poets.  To  discuss  the  question.  Which  of  these 
^ffqf^tnl  two  kinds  of  poetry  is  the  more  precious  ?  would  be 
ft^mttamm  idle,  but  are  we  not  driven  to  admit  that  certain 
^^  poems  whose  strength  is  rhythm,  and  certain   other 

poems  whose  strength  is  colour,  while  devoid  of  any  losical  state* 
ment  of  thought,  may  be  as  fruitful  of  thoughts  and  emotions 
too  deep  for  words  as  a  shaken  prism  is  ftuitful  of  tinted 
lights  ?  The  mental  forces  at  wonc  in  the  production  of  a 
poem  like  the  Exatrsian  are  of  a  very  different  kind  from  the  mental 
toroes  at  work  in  the  production  ol  a  poem  like  Shelley's  "Ode  to 
the  West  Wind."  In  the  one  case  the  poet's  artistic  methods, 
like  those  of  the  Creek  architect,  show,  and  are  intended  to  show, 
the  solid  strength  of  the  structure.  In  the  other,  the  poet's  artistic 
methods,  like  those  of  the  Arabian  architect,  contradict  the  Idea 
of  solid  strength — make  the  structure  appear  to  hang  over  our 
heads  like  the  cloud  pageantry  of  heaven.  But,  in  both  cases, 
the  solid  strength  is,  and  must  be,  there,  at  the  base.  Before  the 
poet  begins  to  write  he  should  ask  himself  which  of  these  artistic 
methods  is  natural  to  him;  he  should  ask  himself  whether  his  natural 
impulse  ia  towards  the  weighty  iis.mbic  movement  whose  mimary 
(unction  is  to  state,  or  towards  those  lighter  movements  which  we 
still  caU,  for  want  oi  more  convenient  words,  anapaestic  and  dactylic, 
whose  primary  function  is  to  suggest.  Whenever  Wordsworth 
and  Keats  pass  from  the  former  to  the  latter  they  pass  at  once 
into  doggerel.  Nor  is  it  difikult  to  see  Hrhy  English  anapeektie 
and  dactylic  verse  must  suggest,  and  not  state,  as  even  so  compara- 
lively  successful  a  Umr  de  force  as  Shelley's  "  Scn.sitive  Plant " 
shows.  Conciseness  b  a  primary  virtue  of  all  statement.  The 
moment  the  English  poet  tries  to ''  pack  "  hte  anapaestic  or  dactylic 
line  as  he  can  pack  his  iambic  line,  his  versification  becomes  rugged, 
harsh,  pebbly — becomes  so  of  necessity.  Nor  is  this  all:  anapaestic 
and  dactylic  verse  must  in  English  be  obtnisively  alliterative, 
or  the  same  pebbly  effect  begins  to  be  felt.  The  anapaestic  line 
is  so  full  of  syllables  that  in  a  language  where  the  consonants 
dominate  the  vowels  (as  in  English),  these  syllables  grate  against 
each  other,  unless  their  comers  are  artfully  bevelled  by  one  of  the 
only  two  smoothing  processes  at  the  command  of  an  English  versifier 
— ^trusive  alliteration,  or  an  obtrusive  use  of  liquids.  Now  these 
demands  of  form  may  be  turned  by  the  perfect  artist  to  good 
aoooant  if  his  appeal  to  the  Ustener'a  so«H  is  primarily  that  of 
suggestion  by  sound  or  symbol,  but  if  his  appeal  is  that  of  direct 
and  logkal  statement  the  diffuseness  inseparable  from  good  ana- 
paestic and  dactylic  verse  is  a  souroe  of  weakness  such  as  the  true 
artist  should  find  intolerable. 

Using  the  word  "  form  "  in  a  wider  sense  stOI,  a  sense  that 
includes  "  composition,"  it  can  be  shown  that  poetry,  to  be  entitled 
to  the  name,  must  be  artistic  in  form.  Whether  a  poem  be  a 
Welsh  trihan  or  a  storndh  improvised  by  an  Italian  peasant  girl, 


whether  it  be  in  ode  by  Keats  or  a  tragedy  by  Sopbocks,  it  is 
equally  a  work  of  art.  The  artist's  command  over  fom  may 
be  flbown  in  the  peasant  girl's  power  of  spontaoeowaljr 
rendering  in  simple  veiae,  in  her  stomtlh  or  witpHU, 
her  emotions  through  nature's  symbols;  it  may  ht 
shown  by  Keats  in  that  perfect  fusion  of  all  poetic  elraicsits  of 
which  he  was  such  a  muter,  in  the  manipuiatioa  of  langmge  ae 
beautiful  both  for  form  and  colour  that  thought  and  nvoRb  seem 
but  one  blended  loveliness;  or  it  nay  be  shown  by  SophorW 
in  a  mastery  over  what  in  painting  is  called  oompositioa,  in  the 
exeftise  of  that  wise  vision  of  the  artist  which,  looking  before  sad 
after,  sees  the  thing  of  beauty  as  a  whole,  and  enables  him  to  ^ns^ 
the  eternal  laws  of  cause  and  effect  in  art  and  bend  thcna  to  his 
own  wizard  will.  In  every  case,  indeed,  form  is  aa  casentul 
pan  of  poetry;  and,  although  George  Sand's  saying  that  "  L'art 
est  une  forme  "  applies  perhaps  more  strictly  to  the  plastic  trs 
(where  the  soul  is  reached  partly  through  mechanical  mcas&.i. 
its  application  to  poetry  can  hardly  be  ocaggerated. 

Owing,  however,  to  the  fact  that  the  word  vot^r^  (fint  nsed 
to  designate  the  poetic  artist  by  Herodotus)  meatts  maker, 
Aristotle  seems  to  have  assiuned  that  the  indispensable  bass 
of  poetry  Is  jnventioiL  He  appears  to  have  thought  that  a  poei 
is  a  po^  more  on  account  of  the  composition  of  the  action  than 
on  account  of  the  0QnBposltk>n  of  his  verses.  ladised  he  said  zs 
much  as  this.  Of  epic  poetry  he  declared  emphatically  thr 
it  produces*  its  imitations  either  by  mere  artioilate  words  or 
by  metre  superadded*  Iliis  is  to  widen  the  definition  oi  poeny 
so  as  to  Include  all  imaginative  literature,  and  Plato  seems  to 
have  given  an  equally  wide  meaning  to  the  word  votfvis.  Ob^, 
while  Aristotle  considered  xoivcrts  to  be  an  imitation  of  the  fads 
of  nature,  Plato  considered  it  to  be  an  imitation  of  the  dreaas 
of  man.  Aristotle  ignored,  and  Plato  alighted,  the  impoctaaee 
of  versification  (though  Plato  on  one  occasion  admitted  that 
he  who  <tid  not  know  rhythm  could  be  called  neither  maskiaa 
nor  poet). 

Perhaps  the  first  critic  who  tacitly  revolted  agalii^  the  dictva 
that  f  ubstance,  and  not  form,  is  the  indispensable  basis  of  poeiiy 
was  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  whose  treatise  upoa  the  arrai^ie- 
ment  of  words  is  really  a  very  fine  piece  of  literary  criiicboa.  la 
his  acute  remarks  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  wotds  in  (he 
sixteenth  book  of  the  Odyssey^  as  compared  with  that  in  the  storr 
of  Cyges  by  Herodotus,  was  perhaps  first  enundaied  clearly  the 
doctrine  that  poetiy  is  fundamentally  a  matter  of  style.  The 
Aristotelian  theory  as  to  invention,  however,  dominaxcd  al 
criticism  after  as  well  as  before  Dionysius.  When  Bacoo  caar 
to  discuss  the  subject  (and  afterwards)  the  only  dtvision  bctwees 
the  poetical  critics  was  perhaps  bjctween  the  followers  of  Aristoik 
and  those  of  Plato  as  to  what  poetry  should,  and  what  it  sbodd 
not,  imitate.  It  is  curious  to  speculate  as  to  what  would  ha«e 
been  the  result  had  the  poets  followed  the  critics  in  th»  matter. 
Had  not  the  instinct  of  the  poet  been  too  stnwg  for  the  sthock. 
would  poetry  as  an  art  have  been  lost  and  mersedinsaci 
imaginative  prose  as  Phito's  ?  Or  is  not  the  instinct  for  form  too 
strong  to  be  stifled  ?  By  the  poets  themselves  mctxe  wasalaajs 
considered  to  be  the  one  indispensable  requisite  of  a  poem,  thoegk, 
as  regards  criticism,  even  in  the  Lime  of  the  appearance  of  tbe 
WoMrky  Ncnds,  the  Quarterly  Review  would  sonnetiaics  speak  d 
them  as  "  poems  ";  and  perhaps  even  later  the  same  might  be 
said  of  romances  so  concrete  in  method  and  diction,  and  so  foil  <i 
poetic  energy,  as  WtUkering  Heigkis  and  Jane  Eyre,  where  «« 
get  absolutely  all  that  Aristotle  requires  for  a  poem.  Oc  ihe 
whole,  however,  the  theory  that  versification  Is  not  an  icdis- 
pensable  requisite  of  a  poem  seems  to  have  become  seari? 
obsolete.  Perhaps,  indeed,  many  critics  would  now  90  so  far  is 
the  contrary  direction  as  to  say  with  Hegel  {Aeslkehk,  a.  ^K:l 
that  "  metre  is  the  first  and  only  condition  absolutely  dbcmaadtd 
by  poetry,  yea  even  more  necessary  than  a  figurative  picturesque 
cUction."  At  ail  events  this  at  least  may  be  said,  that  the  divisica 
between  poetical  critics  is  not  now  between  Aristotelians  aad 
Baconians;  it  is  of  a  different  kind  altogether.  While  one  grc{.p 
of  critics  may  still  perhaps  say  with  Dryden  that  **  a  poet  a  a 
maker,  as  the  name  signifies,"  and  that  **  he  whocamiot  aakx; 


POETRY 


879 


tiiat  iS|  invent,  iiaa  fab  name  for  nothing/*  another  group  con- 
tends that  it  is  not  the  invention  but  the  artistic  treatment,  the 
form,  which  determines  whether  an  imaginative  writer  is  a  poet 
or  a  writer  of  prose'  contends^  in  short,  that  emotion  is  the 
basis  of  all  true  poetic  expression,  whatever  be  the  subject- 
matter,  that  thoughts  must  be  exprnsed  in  an  emotional  manner 
before  they  can  be  brought  into  poetty,  and  that  this  emotive 
expression  demands  even  yet  aometldng  dse,  vis.  style  and 
form. 

Although  many  critics  are  now  agreed  that  **  L*art  est  une 
forme,"  that  without  metre  and  without  form  there  can  be  no 
TA#  Impw  P^^^y*  ^***'*  ^^  '*^  ^^  would  contend  that  poetry 
uaotcf  can  exist-  by  virtue  of  any  one  of  these  alone,  or 
MMw«»tf  even  by  virtue  of  all  these  combined.  Quite  inde- 
■**"'•"'*■  pendent  of  verbal  melody,  though  mostly  accompany- 
ing it,  and  quite  independent  of  ''composition,"  there  is  an 
atmo^ere  floating  around  the  poet  through  which  he  sees 
everything,  an  atmosphere  which  stamps  his  utterances  as 
poetry;  for  instance,  among  all  the  venifiers  contemporary  with 
Donne  there  was  none  so  rugged  as  he  occasionany  was,  and  yet 
such  songs  as  "  Sweetest  love,  I  do  not  go  for  weariness  of  thee  " 
prove  how  true  a  poet  he  was  whenever  he  could  master  those 
technicalities  which  far  inferior  poets  find  comparatively  ea^y. 
While  rhythm  may  to  a  very  considerable  degree  be  acquired 
(though,  of  course,  the  highest  rhythmical  effects  never  can), 
the  power  of  looking  at  the  world  through  the  atmosphere  tlut 
floats  before  the  poet's  eyes  is  not  to  be  learned  and  not  to  be 
taught.  This  atmosphere  is  what  we  call  pottic  imaginalion. 
But  first  it  seems  necessary  to  say  a  word  or  two  upon  that  high 
temper  of  the  soul  which  in  truly  great  poetry  gives  birth  to 
this  poetic  imagination. 

The  "  message  "  of  poetry  must  be  mora  unequivocal,  more 
thoroughly  accentuated,  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  fine  arts. 
With  regard  to  modem  poetry,  indeed,  it  may  almost  be  said 
that  if  any  writer's  verse  embodies  a  message,  true,  dhvct  and 
pathetic,  we  cannot  stay  to  inquire  too  curiously  about  the  degree 
of  artistic  perfection  with  which  it  Is  delivered,  for  Wordsworth's 
saying  **  That  which  comes  from  the  heart  goes  to  the  heart " 
applies  very  closely  indeed  to  modem  poetry.  The  most  truly 
passionate  poet  in  Greece  was  no  doubt  in  a  deep  sense  themost 
artistic  poet;  but  in  her  case  art  and  passion  were  one,  and  that 
Is  why  she  has  been  so  cruelly  misunderstood.  The  most  truly 
passionate  nature,  and^rhaps  the  greatest  soul,  that  in  recent 
years  has  expressed  itself  in  English  verse  is  Elizabeth  Barrett 
Browning;  at  least  it  is  certain  that,  with  the  single  exception 
of  Hood  in  the  "  Song  of  the  Shirt,"  no  writer  of  the  19th  century 
really  touched  English  hearts  with  a  hand  so  powerful  as  here-~ 
and  this  notwithstanding  violations  of  poetic  form,  or  defective 
rhymes,  such  as  would  appal  sc»ne  of  the  contemporary  versifiers 
of  En^and  and  France  *'  who  lisp  in  numbers  for  the  numbers 
(and  nothing  else)  come."  The  troth  is  that  in  order  to  produce 
poetry  the  soul  must  for  the  time  being  have  reached  that  state 
of  exaltation,  that  state  of  freedom  from  self-consciousness, 
depicted  in  the  fines: — 

"  I  started  onoe,  or  seemed  to  start,  in  pain. 

Resolved  on  noble  things,  and  strove  to  speak. 
As  when  a  great  thought  strikes  along  the  brain. 
And  flushes  all  the  cheek." 

Whatsoever  may  be  the  poet's  "  knowledge  of  his  art,"  into 
this  mood  he  must  always  pass  before  be  can  write  a  truly  poetic 
line.  For,  notwithstanding  all  that  may  be  said  upon  poetry  as 
a  fine  art,  it  Is  fn  the  deepest  sense  of  the  word  an  **  hopiration." 
No  man  can  write  a  line  of  genuine  poetry  without  having  been 
*'  bom  again  "  (or,  as  the  true  rendering  oif  the  text  says,  **  bora 
from  above  ");  and  then  the  mastery  Over  those  highest  reaches 
of  form  which  are  beyond  the  ken  of  the  mere  vecsifier  comes  to 
him  as  a  result  of  the  change.  Hence,  with  all  Mis  Browm'ng's 
metrical  blemishes,  the  splendour  of  her  metrical  triumphs  at 
her  best. 

For  what  is  tbt  deep  distfaiction  between  poet  and  proseman? 
A  writer  may  be  many  things  besides  a  poet;  he  may  be  a  warrior 
1^  Aeadiyhis.  a  man  of  businesa  tike  Shakespeare,  a  coortier 


like  Chaucer,  or  a  cosmopolitan  philosopher  Kke  (3oethe;  but  the 
moment  the  poetic  mood  is  upon  lum  aU  the  trappings  of  the 
woiid  with  whidi  for  years  he  may  perhaps  have  been  clothing 
his  soul — the  world's  knowingness,  its  cynicism,  its  self-sccking, 
its  ambition— fall  away,  and  the  man  becomes  an  inspired  child 
again,  with  ears  attuned  to  nothing  but  the  whispers  of  those 
spirits  from  the  Gdden  Age,  who,  according  to  Hesiod,  haunt 
and  bless  the  degenerate  earth.  What  such  a  man  produces  may 
greatly  delight  and  astonish  his  readers,  yet  not  so  greatly  as  it 
delights  and  astonishes  himself.  His  passages  of  pathos  draw 
no  tears  so  deep  or  so  sweet  as  those  that  fall  from  his  own 
eyes  while  he  writes;  his  sublime  passages  overawe  no  soul  so 
imperiously  as  his  own;  his  htmiour  draws  no  laughter  so  rich 
or  so  deep  as  that  stirred  within  his  own  breast. 

It  might  almost  be  said,  indeed,  that  Sincerity  and  Conscience, 
the  two  angels  that  bring  to  the  poet  the  wonders  of  the  poetic 
dream,  bring  him  also  the  deepest,  truest  delight  of  form.  It  might 
almost  be  said  that  by  aid  of  sincerity  and  conscience  the 
poet  is  enabled  to  see  more  dearly  than  other  men  the  eternal 
limits  of  his  own  art— to  see  with  Sophocles  that  nothing,  not 
even  poetry  itself,  is  of  any  worth  to  man,  invested  as  he  is  by 
the  whole  army  of  evil,  unless  it  is  in  the  deepest  and  highest 
sense  good,  unless  it  comes  Unking  us  all  together  by  doser  bonds 
of  sympathy  and  pity,  strengthening  us  to  fight  the  foes  with 
whom  fate  and  even  Nature,  the  mother  who  bore  us,  sometimes 
seem  in  league — to  see  with  AGlton  that  the  high  quality  of 
man's  soul  which  in  En^sh  is  expressed  by  the  word  virtue  is 
greater  than  even  the  great  poem  he  prized,  greater  than  all  the 
rhythms  of  all  the  tongues  that  have  been  spoken  since  Babd — 
and  to  see  with  Shakespeare  and  with  Shelley  that  the  higji  passion 
which  in  English  h  called  love  is  lovelier  than  all  art,  loveh'er 
than  all  the  marble  Mercuries  that  "await  the  dusd  of  the 
sculptor  '*  in  all  the  marble  hills. 

3.  What  Position  does  Poetry  take  up  in  Rdation  to  the  other 
Artsf — ^Notwithstanding  the  labouiS  of  Lessing  and  his  followeia, 
the  pontion  accorded  by  criticism  to  poetry  in  p^ttgyt^ 
relation  to  the  other  arts  has  never  been  so  uncertain  Ktut/^m  to 
and  anomalous  as  in  recent  years.  On  the  one  hand  Jjjj"'**'' 
there  are  critics  who,  judging  from  their  perpetual  '*"* 
comparison  of  poems  to  pictures,  claim  her  as  a  sort  of  handmaid 
of  painting  and  sculpture.  On  the  other  hand  the  disdples  of 
Wagner,  while  professing  to  do  homage  to  poetry,  have  daimed 
her  as  the  handmaid  of  music  With  regard  to  the  relations  of 
poetry  to  painting  and  sculpture,  it  seems  necessary  to  glance 
for  a  moment  at  the  saying  of  Simonides,  as  recorded  by  Plutarch, 
that  poetry  is  a  speaking  picture  and  that  painting  is  a  mute 
poetry.  It  appears  to  have  had  upon  modem  criticism  as  much* 
influence  since  the  publication  of  Lessing's  taocoon  as  it  had 
before.  Perhaps  it  is  in  some  measure  answerable  for  the 
modem  vice  of  excessive  word-painting.  Beyond  this  one 
saying,  there  is  little  or  nothing  in  Greek  literature  to  show  that 
the  Greeks  recognized  between  poetry  and  the  plastic  and 
pictorial  arts  an  affinity  doser  than  that  which  exists  between 
poetry  and  mxisic  and  dandng.  Understanding  artistic  methods 
more  profoundly  than  the  modems,  and  far  too  profoundly  to 
suppose  that  there  is  any  spedal  and  peculiar  afiinity  between 
an  art  whose  medium  of  expression  is  marble  and  an  art  whose 
medium  of  expression  is  a  growth  of  oral  symbols,  the  Greeks 
seem  to  have  studied  poetry  not  so  much  in  its  relation  to  painting 
and  sculpture  as  in  its  relation  to  music  and  dancing.  It  is 
matter  of  familiar  knowledge,  for  instance,  that  at  the  Dionystan 
festival  it  was  to  the  poet  as  *' teacher  of  the  chonis" 
(xopoStddffKaXos)  that  the  prize  was  awarded,  even  though  the 
"  teacher  of  the  chorus  "  were  Aeschylus  himself  or  Sophocles. 
And  this  recognition  of  the  rdation  of  poetry  to  music  is 
perhaps  one  of  the  many  causes  of  the  superiority  of  Greek  to 
all  other  poetry  in  adapting  artistic  means  to  artistic  ends.  In 
Greek,  poetry,  even  in  Honker's  description  of  the  shield  of 
Achilles,  even  in  the  famous  description  by  Sophocles  of  his 
native  woods  in  the  Oedipus  coloneus,  such  word'painting 
as  occurs  seems,  if  not  inevitable  and  unconsdous,  so  afive 
wfth  haDagiaalive  feeBng  as  to  become  part  and  parcel  of  the 


88o 


POETRY 


dramatic  or  lyric  movement  itself.  And  whenever  description 
is  so  introduced  the  reader  of  Creek  poetry  need  not  be  told 
that  the  scenery  itself  rises  before  the  listener's  imagination 
with  a  deamess  of  outline  and  a  vigour  of  colour  such  as 
no  amotuit  of  detailed  word  painting  in  the  modem  fashion  can 
achieve.  The  picture  even  in  the  glorious  verses  at  the  end  of 
the  eighth  book  of  the  Iliad  rises  before  our  eyes — seems  actu- 
ally to  act  upon  our  bodily  senses — simply  because  the  poet's 
eagerness  to  use  the  picture  for  merely  uListrating  the  solem- 
nity and  importance  of  his  story  lends  to  the  picture  that  very 
authenticity  which  the  work  of  the  modem  wordrpainter  lacks. 
That  the  true  place  of  poetry  lies  between  music  on  the  one 
hand  and  prose,  or  loosened  ^)eech,  on  the  other,  was,  we  say, 
taken  for  granted  by  the  one  people  in  whom  the  artistic  instinct 
was  fully  developed.  No  doubt  they  used  the  word  music  in  a 
very  wide  sense,  in  a  sense  that  might  include  several  arts.  But 
it  is  .1  suggestive  fact  that,  in  the  Greek  language,  long  before 
poetic  art  was  called  "making"  it  was  called  "singing."  The 
poet  was  not  iroarrds  but  &oMs.  And  as  regards  the  Romans  it 
is  curious  to  see  how  every  now  and  then  the  old  idea  that  poetry 
is  singing  rather  than  making  will  disclose  itself.  It  will  be 
remembered  for  insiance  how  Terence,  in  the  prologue  of 
Fkormiot  alludes  to  poets  as  musicians.  That  the  andents  were 
right  in  this  could  well  be  shown  by  a  history  of  poetry:  music 
and  the  lyrical  function  of  the  poet  began  together,  but  here,  as 
in  other  things,  the  progress  of  art  from  the  implidt  to  the  explidt 
has  separated  the  two.  Every  art  has  its  special  funaion,  has  a 
certain  work  which  it  can  do  better  than  any  one  of  its  sister 
arts.  Hence  its  right  of  existence.  For  instance,  before  the 
"sea  of  emotion"  within  the  soul  has  become  "curdled  into 
thoughts,"  it  can  be  expressed  in  inarticulate  tone.  Hence, 
among  the  fine  arts,  music  is  specially  adapted  for  rendering  it. 
It  was  perhaps  a  perception  of  this  fact  which  made  the  Syrian 
Gnostics  define  life  to  be  "  moving  music"  When  this  sea  of 
emotion  has  "curdled  into  thoughts,"  articulate  language 
rhythmically  arranged — words  steeped  in  music  and  colour,  but 
at  the  same  time  embodying  ideas-— can  do  what  no  mere  word- 
less music  is  able  to  achieve  in  giving  it  expression,  just  as 
unrhythmical  language,  language  mortised  in  a  foundation  of 
logic,  that  is  to  say  prose,  can  best  express  these  ideas  as  soon  as 
they  have  cooled  and  settled  and  deared  themsdves  of  emotion 
altogether.  Yet  every  art  can  in  some  degree  invade  the  domain 
of  her  sisters,  and  the  nearer  these  sisters  stand  to  each  other  the 
more  easily  and  completely  can  this  invasion  be  accomplished. 
Prose,  for  insiance,  can  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  Plato,  do 
some  of  the  work  of  poetry  (however  imperfectly,  and  however 
trammelled  by  heavy  conditions);  and  sometimes  poetry,  as  in 
Pindar's  odes  and  the  waves  of  the  Greek  chorus,  can  do,  though 
in  the  same  imperfect  way,  the  work  of  music. 

The  poems  of  Sappho,  however,  arc  a  good  case  in  point.  Here 
the  poet's  passion  is  expressed  so  completely  by  the  mere  sound 
of  her  verses  that  a  good  recitation  of  them  to  a  person  ienorant 
of  Greek  would  convey  something  of  that  passion  to  the  listener; 
«nd  similar  examples  almost  as  felidtous  might  be  culled  from 
Homer,  from  Aeschylus  and  from  Sophocles.  Nor  is  this  power 
confined  to  the  Greek  poets.  The  students  of  VirgU  have  often 
and  with  justice  commented  on  such  lines  as  Aen.  v.  481  (where 
the  sudden  sinking  of  a  stricken  ox  is  rendered  by  means  of  rhythm), 
and  nich  lines  as  Ceorg.  ii.  441,  where,  by  means  of  verbal  sounds, 
the  gusts  of  wind  about  a  tree  are  rendered  as  completely  as  though 
the  voice  were  that  of  the  wind  itself.  In  the  case  of  Sappho  the 
effect  is  produced  by  the  intensity  of  her  passion,  in  the  case  of 
Homer  by  the  intensity  of  the  dramatic  Vision,  in  the  case  of  Virgil 
by  a  MipMrae  poetic  an.  But  it  can  also  be  prodncod  by  the  mere 
ingenuity  of  the  artist,  as  in  Edgar  Poe's  "  Ulalume."  The  poet's 
object  in  that  remarkable  tour  de  force  was  to  express  duU  and 
hopeless  gloom  in  the  same  way  that  the  mere  musacian  would 
have  expressed  it — that  is  to  say,  by  monotonous  reiterations, 
by  hollow  and  dreadful  revcrberatioioi  of  gloomy  founda-^hough 
as  an  artist  whose  vehicle  was  aniculate  tpcccn  he  was  obliged 
to  add  gloomy  ideas,  in  order  to  give  to  nis  work  the  intdiec- 
tual  coherence  necessary  for  its  existence  as  a  poem.  He 
evidently  set  out  to  do  this,  and  he  did  it,  and  *Ulalnme" 
property  nitoned  would  produce  something  like  the  tame  effect 
upon  a  listener  knowing  no  word  Of  English  that  it  produces 
upon  us. 

On. the  other  hand,  musk  can  trench  very  far  upon  .the 


domain  of  articulate  speech,  as  we  perceive  in  the  wondcrfS 
instrumentation  of  Wagner.  Yet,  while  it  can  be  shown  tkit 
the  place  of  poetry  is  scarcely  so  close  to  sculpture  and  painting 
as  to  music  on  the  one  aide  and  loosened  speech  on  the  other,  the 
affinity  of  poetry  to  music  must  iM>t  be  exaggerated.  We  must 
be  cautious  how  we  follow  the  canons  of  Wagner  and  the  men 
enthusiastic  of  his  disdples,  who  almost  seem  to  think  thai 
inarticulate  tone  can  not  only  suggest  ideas  but  express  them— 
can  give  voice  to  the  Verslandy  in  short,  as  well  as  to  the  Vtmndi 
of  man.  Even  the  Greeks  drew  a  fundamental  distinciios 
between  melic  poetiy  (poetry  written  to  be  sung)  and  poetiy 
that  was  written  to  be  redied.  It  is  a  pity  that,  while  moden 
critics  of  poetry  have  understood,  or  at  least  have  giv^ 
attention  to  painting  and  sculpture,  so  few  have  poasesaed  an? 
knowledge  of  music — a  fact  which  makes  Danle'a  treatise  Dt 
vulgari  doguio  so  important.  Dante  was  a  miwirian,  asd 
seems  to  have  had  a  considemble  knowledge  of  the  nlatkss 
between  musical  and  metrical  laws.  But  he  did  not,  we  thak, 
assume  that  these  laws  are  identicaL 

If  it  is  indeed  possible  to  estabUsh  the  identity  of  musica]  aad 
metrical  laws,  it  can  only  be  done  by  a  purely  sdentific  inresii* 
gallon;  it  can  only  be  done  by  a  most  searching  inquiry  into  the 
subtle  relations  that  we  know  must  exist  throughout  the  unrrene 
between  all  the  laws  of  undulation.  And  it  is  cttrkyus  to  le* 
member  that  some  of  the  greatest  masters  of  verbal  melody  ha^ 
had  no  knowledge  of  music,  while  some  have  not  even  shown  as; 
love  of  it.  All  Greek  boys  were  taught  music,  hot  wheths 
Pindar's  unusual  musical  skill  was  bom  of  natural  instinct  a^ 
inevitable  passion,  or  came  from  the  acddental  drounstance  ^iA 
liis  father  was,  as  has  been  alleged,  a  musician,  and  that  he  %^ 
as  a  boy  elaborately  taught  musical  sdence  by  Lasus  of 
we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  Nor  can  we  now  learn  how 
of  Milton's  musical  knowledge  resulted  from  a  like  e 
"  environment,"  or  from  the  fact  that  hb  father  was  a 
But  when  we  find  that  Shelley  seems  to  have  been  wiiboot  ik 
real  passion  for  music,  that  Rosaetti  disliked  it,  and  tbat 
Coleridge's  appreh^ision  of  musical  effects  was  of  tbe 
ordinary  nebulous  kind,  we  must  hesitate  before  acccptx^  tk 
theory  of  Wagner. 

The  question  cannot  be  pursued  here;  but  if  it  fliioisid  ctk  Ji^ 
quiry  be  foimd  that,  although  poetry  is  more  dosely  xdbled  tr 
music  than  to  any  of  the  other  arts,  yet  the  power  over  verbil 
melody  at  its  very  highest  is  so  all-suffiajjg  to  its  possessor,  ss  ji 
the  case  of  Shdley  and  Coleridge,  that  absolute  ntuaic  beccnis 
a  superfluity,  this  would  only  be  another  illustration  of  \i^ 
intense  egoism  and  concentration  of  force — the  impulse  of  u 
high  artistic  energy — which  is  required  in  order  to  achieve  \:it 
rarest  mirades  of  art. 

Wilh  regard  to  the  relation  of  poetry  to  prose,  Coleridse  crct 
ass^ted  in  conversation  that  the  real  antithesis  ol  poeto'  *^ 
not  prose  but  science.  If  he  was  right  the  difference  in  LI'-: 
lies,  not  between  the  poet  and  the  prose  writer,  but  betwees  .u 
literary  artist  (the  man. whose  instinct  is  to  mampulate  langc^:: 
and  the  man  of  facts  and  of  action  whose  instinct  Impeb  h  r::  t~ 
act,  or,  if  not  to  act,  to  inquire.  One  thing  is  at  least  cc:  :.-'. 
that  prose,  however  fervid  and  emotional  it  may  become,  c:^ 
always  be  directed,  or  seem  to  be  directed,  by  the  reins  of  Icpc 
Or,  to  vary  the  metaphor,  like  a  captive  balloon  it  can  sc^s 
really  leave  the  earths 

Indeed,  wilh  the  literature  of  knowledge  as  oppoeed  to  i^ 
literature  of  power  poetry  has  nothing  to  do.  Facta  hav^  x 
place  in  poetry  imlil  they  are  broi^ht  into  rdation  with  i^i 
humimsouL  Butameiecatalogueof  ships  may  become  poet  d. 
if  it  lends  to  show  the  strength  and  pride  and  glory  of  the  warn^cs 
who  invested  Troy;  a  detailed  description  of  the  designs  c^^  = 
a  shield,  however  beautiful  and  poetioJ  in  itsdf,  becomes  s*  . 
more  so  if  it  lends  to  show  the  skill  of  the  divine  artificer  aoc  t  *<: 
invindble  splendour  of  a  hero  like  Achilles.  But  mcse  c^ 
exactitude  of  imitation  is  not  for  poetry  but  for  loosened  ^mlv':^ 
Henoe^  most  of  the  so-called  poetiy  ol  Hesiod  is  not  pocx-y 
at  all.  The  Muses  who  spoke  to  him  about  '*  truth  '*  oa.  Ui 
EeUom  msde  the  common  misuke  of  oonfounding  fad  witb 


POETRY 


88i 


truth.  And  liere  une  totidh  upoti  a  vtry  important  matter. 
The  retaon  why  in  prose  speech  is  loosened  Is  that,  unlrammeilcd 
by  the  laws  of  metre,  language  is  able  with  more  exactitude  to 
imitate  nature,  though  of  course  speech,  even  when  **  loosened," 
cannot,  when  actual  sensible  objects  are  to  be  depicted,  compete 
in  any  real  degree  with  the  plastic  arts  in  accuracy  of  imitation, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  its  media  are  not  colours  nor  solids 
but  symbob-^-arbitrary  symbols  which  can  be  made  to  indicate, 
but  never  to  reproduce,  colours  and  solids.  Accuracy  of  imita- 
tion is  the  first  requisite  of  prose.  But  the  moment  language 
has  to  be  governed  by  the  laws  of  metre — ^the  moment  the  conflict 
begins  between  the  claims  of  verbal  music  and  the  claims  of 
colour  and  form — then- prosaic  accuracy  has  to  yield;  sharpness 
of  outline,  mere  fidelity  of  imitation,  such  as  is  within  the  com- 
pass of  prose,  have  in  some  degree  to  be  sacrificed.  But,  just 
as  with  regard  to  the  relations  between  poetry  and  music  the 
greatest  master  is  he  who  borrows  the  most  that  can  be  borrowed 
from  music,  and  loses  the  least  that  can  be  lost  from  metre,  so 
^with  regard  to  the  relations  between  poetry  and  prose  the  greatest 
master  is  he  who  borrows  the  most  that  can  be  borrowed  from 
prose  and  loses  the  least  that  can  be  lost  from  verse.  No  doubt 
this  is  what  every  poet  tries  to  do  by  instinct;  but  some  sacrifice 
on  either  side  there  must  be,  and,  with  regard  to  poetry  and 
prose,  modem  poets  at  least  might  be  divided  into  those  who 
make  picturesqueness  yield  to  verbal  melody,  and  those 
who  make  verbal  melody  yield  to  picturesqueness. 

With  one  class  of  poets,  fine  a*  is  perhaps  the  melody,  it  is  made 
subservient  to  outline  or  to  colour;  with  the  other  class  colour 
and  outline  both  yield  to  metre.  The  chief  aim  of  the  first  class 
is  to  paint  a  picture;  the  chief  aim  ol  the  second  is  to  sins  a  song. 
Weber,  in  driving  through  a  beautiful  country,  could  only  enjoy 
its  beauty  by  translating  it  into  music.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  some  poets  with  regard  to  verbal  melody.  The  supreme  artist, 
however,  is  he  whose  pictorial  and  musical  power  are  so  interfused 
that  each  seems  born  of  the  other,  as  is  the  case  with  Sappho, 
Homer,  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  and  indeed  most  of  the  great  Greek 
poets.  Amorw  English  ppets  (leaving  the  two  supreme  masters 
undiscussed)  Keats  and  Coleridge  have  certainly  done  this.  The 
colour  seems  bom  of  the  music  and  the  music  bom  of  the 
colour.  In  French  poetry  the  same  triumph  has  been  achieved  in 
Victor  Hugo's  magnificent  poem  "  En  marchant  la  nuit  dans  un 
bob,"  which,  as  a  rendering  through  verbal  music  of  the  witchery 
of  nature,  stands  alone  in  the  poetry  of  Trance.  For  there  the 
poet  conquers  that  crowning  dimculty  we  have  been  alluding  to, 
the  difficulty  of  stealing  from  prose  as  much  distinctness  of  colour 
and  clearness  of  outline  as  can  be  imported  Into  verse  with  as  little 
sacrifice  as  possible  of  melody. 

If  poetry  can  in  some  degree  invade  the  domain  of  prose,  so 
on  the  other  hand  prose  can  at  times  invade  the  domain  of  poetry, 
and  no  doubt  the  prose  of  Plato — what  is  called  poetical  prose — 
Is  a  legitimate  form  of  art.  Poetry,  the  earb'est  form  of  litera- 
ture, is  also  the  final  and  ideal  form  of  all  pure  literature;  and, 
when  Landor  insists  that  poetry  and  poetical  prose  are  antago- 
nistic, we  must  remember  that  Landor's  judgments  are  mostly 
based  on  feeling,  and  that  his  hatred  of  Plato  would  be  quite 
sufficient  basis  with  him  for  an  entire  system  of  criticism  upon 
poetical  prose.  As  with  Carlyle,  there  was  a  time  in  his  life  when 
Plato  had  serious  thoughts  of  becoming  a  poet.  And  perhaps, 
like  Carlyle,  having  the  good  sense  to  see  his  true  function,  he 
himself  desisted  from  writing,  and  strictly  forbade  other  men  to 
write,  in  verse.  If  we  consider  this,  and  if  we  consider  that 
certain  of  the  great  English  masters  of  poetic  prose  of  the  X7th 
century  were  as  incapable  of  writing  in  metre  as  their  followers 
Richter  and  Carlyle,  we  shall  hardly  escape  the  conclusion  on  the 
one  hand  that  the  faculty  of  writing  poetry  is  quite  another 
faculty  than  that  of  producing  work  in  the  arts  most  closely 
allied  to  it,  music  and  prose,  but  that  on  the  other  hand  there  is 
nothing  antagonistic  between  these  faculties. 

3.  Comparative  Value  in  Expressional  Power, — ^There  is  one 
great  point  of  superiority  that  musical  art  exhibits  over  metrical 
art.  This  consists,  not  in  the  capacity  for  melody,  but  in 
the  capacity  for  harmony  in  the  musician's  sense.  The  finest 
music  of  Aeschylus,  of  Pindar,  of  Shakespeare,  of  Milton, 
is  after  all  only  a  succession  of  melodious  notes,  and,  in 
endeavouring  to  catch  the  harmonic  intent  of  strophe,  anti' 
strophe  and  epode  in  the  Greek  chorus  and  in  the  true  ode  (that 


of  Pindar),  we  can  only  succeed  by  pressing  memory  into  our 
service.  We  have  to  recall  by  memory  the  waves  that  have  gon6 
before,  and  then  to  imagine  their  harmonic  power  in  relation  to 
the  waves  at  present  occupying  the  ear.  Counterpoint,  therefore, 
is  not  to  be  achieved  by  the  metridst,  even  though  he  be  Pindar 
himself;  but  in  music  this  perfect  ideal  harmony  was  fore- 
shadowed perhaps  in  the  earliest  writing.  We  know  at  least 
that  as  early  as  the  zalli  century  counterpoint  began  to  show  a 
vigorous  life,  and  the  study  of  it  is  now  a  familiar  branch  of 
musical  science.  Now,  inasmuch  as  *'  nature's  own  hymn  "  is 
andrmost  be  the  harmonic  blending  of  apparently  j.^^^ 
independent  and  apparently  discordant  notes,  among  "* 

the  aru  whose  appeal  is  through  the  ear  that  which  can  achieve 
counterpoint  must  perhaps  rank  as  a  pmre  art  above  one  whidi 
cannot  achieve  it.  We  are  of  course  speaking  here  of  metre  <mly. 
We  have  not  ^nce  to  inqtilre  whether  the  counterpoint  of  absolute 
poetry  is  the  harmony  underlying  apparently  discordant  emotions 
— the  emotion  produced  by  a  word  being  more  persistent  than  the 
emotion  produced  by  an  Particulate  sound.    But  if  poetry  falla 
behind  mtisic  in  rhythmic  scope,  it  is  capable  of  rendering  emotion 
after  emotion  has  become  disintegrated  into  thou|^ts,  and  here, 
as  we  have  seen,  it  enters  into  direct  competition  with  the  act  of 
prose.    It  can  use  the  emphasis  of  sound,  not  for  its  own  sake 
merely,  but  to  strengthen  the  emphasis  of  sense,  and  can  thus 
give  a  fuller  and  more  adequate  expression  to  the  soul  of  man 
than  music  at  its  highest  can  pve.    With  regard  to  prose,  no 
doubt  such  writing  as  Phito's  description  of  the  chariot  of  the 
soul,  his  description  of  the  island  of  Atlantis,  or  of  Er's  visit  to 
the  place  of  departed  sotils,  comes  but  a  short  way  behind 
poetry  in  imaginative  and  even  rhythmic  appeal.   It  is  impossible, 
however,  here  to  do  more  than  touch  upon  the  iubject  of  the 
rhythm  of  prose  in  its  relation  to  the  rhythm  of  poetry;  for  in 
this  matter  the  genius  of  each  individual  language  has  to  be 
taken  into  account. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  said  that  deeper  than  all  the  rhythm  of  art 
is  that  rhythm  which  art  wotUd  fain  catch,  the  rhythm  of  nature; 
for  the  rhythm  of  nature  is  the  rhythm  of  life  itself.  This 
rhythm  can  be  caught  by  prose  as  well  as  by  poetry,  such  prose, 
for  instance,  as  that  of  the  English  Bible.  Certainly  the  rhythm 
of  verse  at  its  highest,  sudi,  for  instance,  as  that  of  Shakespeare's 
greatest  writings,  is  nothing  more  and  nothing  less  than  the 
metre  of  that  energy  of  the  spirit  which  surges  within  the  bosom 
of  him  who  speaks,  whether  he  speak  in  verse  or  in  impassioned 
prose.  Being  rhythm,  it  b  of  course  governed  by  law,  but  it  is  a 
law  which  transcends  in  subtlety  the  conscious  art  of  the  metridst 
and  b  only  caught  by  the  poet  in  his  most  inspired  moods,  a  law 
which,  being  part  of  nature's  own  sanctions,  can  of  course  never 
be  formulated  but  only  expressed,  as  it  b  expressed  in  the  melody 
of  the  bird,  in  the  inscrutable  harmony  of  the  entire  bird-chorus 
of  a  thicket,  in  the  whisper  of  the  leaves  of  the  tree,  and  in  the 
song  or  wail  of  wind  and  sea.  Now  b  not  thb  rhythm  of  nature 
represented  by  that  **  sense  rhythm  "  which  prose  can  catch  as 
well  as  poetry,  that  sense  rhythm  whose  finest  expressions  are 
to  be  found  In  the  Bible,  Hebrew  and  English,  and  in  the  biblical 
movements  of  the  English  Prayer  Book,  and  in  the  dramatic 
prose  of  Shakespeare  at  its  best?  Whether  it  b  caught  by  prose 
or  by  verse,  one  of  the  virtues  of  the  rhythm  of  nature  b  that  it  b 
translatable.  Hamlet's  peroration  about  man  and  Raleigh's 
apostrophe  to  death  are  as  translatable  into  other  languages  as 
arc  the  Hebrew  psalms,  or  as  b  Manu's  magnificent  passage 
about  the  singleness  of  man: — 

*'  Single  U  each  man  bom  into  the  worid;  single  he  dies;  single 
he  receives  the  reward  of  his  aood  deeds,  and  single  the  purashment 
of  his  evil  deeds.  When  he  ales  hu  body  lies  like  a  fallen  tree  upon 
the  earth,  but  his  virtue  accompanies  his  soul.  Wherefore  let  man 
harvest  and  garner  virtue,  so  that  he  may  have  an  inseparable  com- 
panion in  traversing  that  gloom  which  is  so  hard  to  be  traversed." 

Here  the  rhythm,  being  the  inevitable  movement  of  emotion 
and  "  sense,"  can  be  caught  and  translated  by  every  Uterature 
under  the  sun.  While,  however,  the  great  goal  before  the  poet 
b  to  compel  the  listener  to  expect  hb  cacsuric  effects,  the  great 
goal  before  the  writer  of  poetic  prose  is  in  the  very  opposite 
direction;  It  b  to  make  use  of  the  concrete  figures  and  impassioned 


682 


POETRY 


diction  of  the  poet,  but  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the  recognized 
and  expected  metrical  ban  upon  which  the  poet  depends.  The 
moment  the  prose  poet  passes  from  the  rhythm  of  prose  to  the 
rhythm  of  metre  the  apparent  sincerity  of  his  writing  is  destroyed. 

As  compared  with  sculpture  and  painting  the  great  infirmity 
of  poetry,  as  an  "  imitation  "  of  nature,  is  of  course  that  the 
medium  is  always  and  of  necessity  words— even  when 
fSSSa^^  °<>  words  could,  in  the  dramatic  situation,  have  been 
spoken.  It  is  not  only  Homer  who  is  obliged  some- 
times to  forget  that  passion  when  at  white  heat  is  never  voluble, 
is  scarcely  even  articulate;  the  dramatists  also  are  obliged  to  for- 
get that  in  love  and  in  hate,  at  their  tensest,  words  seem  weak  and 
foolish  when  compared  with  the  silent  and  satisfying  triumph  and 
glory  of  deeds,  such  as  the  plastic  arU  can  render.  This  becomes 
mai^est  enough  when  we  compare  the  Niobe  group  or  the  Lao- 
coon  group,  or  the  great  dramatic  paintings  of  the  modem 
world,  with  even  the  &kest  efforts  of  dramatic  poetry,  such  as  the 
speech  of  Andromache  to  Hector,  or  the  speech  of  Priam  to 
Achilles,  nay  such  as  even  the  cries  of  Cassandra  in  the  AganuM' 
uottt  or  the  wailings  of  Lear  over  the  dead  Cordelia.  Even  when 
writing  the  words  uttered  by  Oedipus,  as  the  terrible  truth  breaks 
in  upon  hb  soul,  S^hodes  must  have  felt  that  in  the  holiest 
chambers  of  sorrow  and  in  the  highest  agonies  of  suffering  reigns 
that  awful  silence  which  not  poetry,  but  painting  sometimes,  and 
sculpture  always,  can  render.  What  human  sounds  a>uld  render 
the  agony  of  Nic^,  or  the  agony  of  Laoooon,  as  we  see  them  in 
the  sculptor's  rendering?  Not  articulate  speech  at  all;  not 
words  but  wails.  It  is  the  same  with  hate;  it  is  the  same  with 
love.  We  are  not  speaking  merely  of  the  unpacking  of  the  heart 
in  which  the  angry  warriors  of  the  Iliad  indulge.  Even  such 
subtle  writing  as  that  of  Aeschylus  and  Sophocles  falls  below  the 
work  of  the  painter.  Hate,  though  voluble  perhaps,  as  Qytaem- 
nestra's  when  hate  is  at  that  red-heat  glow  which  the  poet  can 
render,  changes  in  a  moment  whenever  that  redness  has  been 
Canned  to  hatred's  own  last  complexion— whiteness  as  of  iron 
at  the  melting-point — when  the  heart  has  grown  far  too  big  to 
be  "  unpacked  "  at  all,  and  even  the  bitter  epigmms  of  hate's 
own  rhetoric,  though  brief  as  the  terrier's  snap  before  he  fleshes 
his  teeth,  or  as  the  short  snarl  of  the  tigress  as  she  springs  before 
her  cubs  in  danger,  are  all  too  slow  and  sluggish  for  a  soul  to 
which  bnguage  at  its  tensest  has  become  idle  play.  But  this  is 
just  what  cannot  be  rendered  by  an  art  whose  medium  consists 
solely  of  words. 

It  is  in  giving  voice,  not  to  emotion  at  its  tensest,  but  to  the 
variations  of  emotion,  it  is  in  expressmg  the  countless  shifting 
movements  of  the  soul  from  passion  to  passion,  that  poetry 
shows  in  spite  of  all  her  infirmities  her  superiority  to  the  plastic 
arts.  HamUi  and  the  Agamemnonf  the  Iliad  and  the  Oedipus 
TyrannuSt  are  adequate  to  the  entire  breadth  and  depth  of  man's 
soul. 

Varitiies  of  Podic  Art. — ^We  have  now  reached  the  inquiry: 
What  varieties  of  poetic  art  are  the  outcome  of  the  two  kinds  of 
poetic  impulse,  dramatic  imagination  and  lyric  or  egoistic  imagin- 
ation? It  would  be  impossible  here  to  examine  fully  the  subject 
of  poetic  imagination.  In  order  to  do  so  we  should  have  to  enter 
upon  the  vast  question  of  the  effect  of  artistic  environment  upon 
the  development  of  man's  poetic  imagination;  we  should  have 
to  inquire  how  the  instinctive  methods  of  each  poet  and  of  each 
group  of  poets  have  been  modified  and  often  governed  by  the 
methods  characteristic  of  their  own  time  and  country.  We 
should  have  X.6  inquire,  for  instance,  how  far  such  landscape 
as  that  of  Sophocles  in  the  Oedipus  Cohneus  and  such  landscape 
as  that  of  Wordsworth  depends  upon  difference  of  individual 
temperament,  and  how  far  upon  difference  of  artistic  envbon- 
mcnt.  That,  in  any  thorough  and  exhaustive  discussion  of 
poetic  imagination,  the  question  of  artistic  environment  must 
be  taken  into  account,  the  case  of  the  Iliad  is  alone  sufficient 
to  show.  Ages  before  Phrym'chus,  ages  before  an  acted  drama 
was  dreamed  of.  a  dramatic  poet  of  the  first  order  arose,  and, 
though  he  was  obliged  to  express  his  splendid  dramatic  imagina- 
tion through  epic  forms,  he  expressed  it  almost  as  fully  as  if 
he  hod  inherited  the  method  and  the  stage  of  Sophocles.   And  if 


Homec  never  lived  at  all,  then  an  entire  group  oC  dramatic  pocU 
arose  in  remote  times  whose  method  was  epic  instead  ol  dramatic 
simply  because  there  was  then  no  stage.  This,  contrasted  with 
the  fact  that  in  a  single  half'Centuiy  the  tragic  art  ol  Greece 
arose  with  Aeschylus,  culminated  with  Sophocles,  and  decaj-ed 
with  Euripides,  and  contrasted  alM  with  the  fact  that  in  England 
at  <me  time,  and  in  Spain  at  one  time,  almost  the  entire  poetic 
imaginatioQ  of  the  country  found  expression  in  the  acted  drama 
alone,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  a  poet's  artistic  methods  are 
very  largely  influenced  by  the  artistic  environments  of  his  country 
and  time.  So  vast  a  subject  as  this,  however,  is  beyond  our  scope, 
and  we  can  only  point  to  the  familiar  instance  of  the  troubadours 
and  the  trouvdres  and  then  pass  on. 

With  the  trouv^re  (the  poet  of  the  laniue  d'oU),  the  story  or 
situation  is  always  the  end  of  which  the  musical  language  is 
the  means;  with  the  troubadour  (the  poet  of  the  Uimgue  d'^o. 
the. form  is  so  beloved,  the  musical  language  so  enthralling,  that, 
however  beautiful  may  be  the  story  or  situation,  it  is  felt  ;o 
be  no  more  than  the  means  to  a  more  beloved  and  bcautiljJ 
end.  But  then  nature  makes  her  own  troubadours  and  her  omo 
trouvires  irrespective  of  fashion  and  of  time — irrespective  cl 
langue  d'oc  and  langue  d'oil.  And,  in  comparing  the  troubadours 
with  the  trouv^rcs,  this  is  what  strikes  us  at  once — there  axe 
certain  troybadours  who  by  temperament,  by  original  endow- 
ment of  nature,  ought  to  have  been  trouvcres,  and  there  are 
certain  trouveres  who  by  temperament  ought  to  have  beta 
troubadours.  Surrounding  conditions  alone  have  made  then 
what  they  are.  There  are  those  whose  impulse  (though  wriiir^ 
in  obedience  to  contemporary  fashions  l}'rics  in  the  langue  d'x) 
is  manifestly  to  narrate,  and  there  are  those  whose  impulse 
(though  writing  in  obedience  to  contemporary  fashions  faUiiax 
in  the  langue  d*dll)  is  simply  to  sing.  In  other  words,  there  are 
those  who,  though  writing  after  the  fashion  of  their  brother- 
troubadours,  are  more  impressed  with  the  romance  and  wonder- 
fulness  of  the  human  life  outside  them  than  with  the  romacce 
and  wonderfulness  of  their  own  passions,  and  who  cidigbt  ia 
depicting  the  external  world  in  any  form  that  may  be  the  popular 
form  of  their  time;  and  there  are  those  who,  thou^  writing  after 
the  fashion  of  their  brother-trouvercs,  are  far  more  occupied 
with  the  life  within  them  than  with  that  outer  life  which  the 
taste  of  their  time  and  country  calls  upon  them  to  paint — bom 
rhythmists  who  must  sing,  who  translate  everything  exterssl 
as  well  as  internal  into  verbal  melody.  Of  the  former  chss 
Pierre  Vidal,  of  the  latter  class  the  author  of  Le  Lay  de  Ttfucid, 
may  be  taken  as  the  respective  types. 

That  the  same  forces  arc  seen  at  work  in  all  literatures  iew 
students  of  poetry  will  deny — though  in  some  poetical  grocTS 
these  forces  are  no  doubt  more  potent  than  in  others,  as,  f^r 
instance,  with  the  great  parable  poets  of  Persia,  in- some  of  whoa 
there  is  perpetually  apparent  a  conflict  between  the  dominance 
of  the  Oriental  taste  for  allegory  and  subtle  suggestioa,  as 
expressed  in  the  Zoroastrian  definition  of  poetry — **  appaxtrt 
pictures  of  unapparent  realities  "  — ^and  the  oi^>osite  ycarrL-^ 
to  represent  human  life  with  the  freshness  and  natural  freedc3 
characteristic  of  Western  poetry. 

Allowing,  however,  for  all  the  potency  of  external  influences, 
we  shall  not  be  wrong  in  saying  that  of  poetic  imagination  ibce 

are-two  distinct  kinds — (x)  the  kind  of  poetic  imagina-  

tion  seen  at  its  highest  in  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  «*^ 
Shakespeare  and  Homer,  and  (3)  the  kind  of  po^c 
imagination  seen  at  its  highest  in  Pin<br,  Dante  ici 
Milton,  or  dse  in  Sappho,  Heine  and  Shelley.  The  forrxr, 
being  in  its  highest  dramatic  exercise  unconditioned  by  *^ 
personal  or  lyrical  impulse  of  the  poet,  might  perhaps  lie  cal>d 
absaitUe  dramatic  vision;  the  latter,  being  more  or  less  condifiorei 
by  the  personal  or  lyrical  impulse  of  the  poet,  might  be  ca£«d 
relative  dramatic  vision.  It  seems  impossible  to  classify  pcets^ 
or  to  classify  the  different  varieties  of  poetry,  without  draw- 
ing some  such  distinction  as  this,  whatever  words  of  dcfiaitioQ 
we  may  choose  to  adopt. 

For  the  achievement  of  all  pure  Ijrric  poetry,  such  as  the  ode. 
the  song,  the  degy,  the  idyll,  the  sonnet,  the  stoaieOo^  it  is 


POETRY 


883 


cvitfent  t&at  tlie  lauiginatlve  force  we  bave  caUed  relative  vision 
will  saffice.  And  if  we  consider  the  matter  thoroaghly,  in  many 
other  fonsB  of  poetic  art— forms  which  at  first  sight  might  seem 
to  require  absolnu  visioR— we  shall  find  nothing  but  relative 
vfinonatwork. 

Even  In  Dante,  and  even  in  Milton  and  VirgH,  it  might  be 
diflScult  to  trace  the  working  of  any  other  than  relative  vision. 
And  as  to  the  entire  body  of  Asiatic  poets  it  might  perhaps  be 
found  (even  in  view  of  the  Indian  drama)  that  relative  vision 
suffices  to  do  all  their  work.  Indeed  the  temper  which  produces 
true  drama  is,  it  might  almost  be  said,  a  growth  of  the  Western 
mind.  For,  unless  it  be  Semitic,  as  seen  in  the  dramatic  narratives 
of  the  Bible,  or  Chinese,  as  seen  in  that  remarkable  prose  story, 
The  T'wo  Fait  Cousins,  translated  by  R6musat,  absolute  vision 
seems  to  have  but  small  place  in  the  literatures  of  Asia.  The 
wonderfulness  of  the  world  and  the  romanfic  possibilities  of  fate, 
or  drcumstance,  or  chance— n<^t  the  wonderfulness  of  tht 
character  to  whom  these  possibilities  befall — are  ever  present 
to  the  mind  of  the  Asiatic  poet.  Even  in  so  late  a  writer  as  the 
poet  of  the  Shdh  Ndmeh,  the  hero  Irij,  the  hero  Zal  and  the  hero 
Zohreb  are  in  character  the  same  person,  the  virtuous  young  man 
who  combines  the  courage  of  youth  with  the  wisdom  and  forbear-* 
ance  of  age.  And,  as  regards  the  earlier  poets  of  Asia,  it  was 
not  tiH  the  shadowy  demigods  and  heroes  of  the  Asiatic  races 
crossed  the  Caucasus,  and  breathed  a  more  bracing  air,  that 
they  became  really  individual  characters.  But  among  the  many 
qualities  of  man's  mind  that  were  invigorated  and  rejuvenated 
by  that  great  exodus  from  the  dreamy  phiins  of  Asia  is  to  be 
counted,  above  all  others,  hi»  poetic  imagination.  The  mere 
sense  of  wonder,  which  had  formerly  been  an  all-sufficing  source 
of  pleasure  to  him,  was  all-suffidng  no  longer.  The  wonderful 
adventure  must  im>w  be  connected  with  a  real  and  interesting 
individual  character.  It  was  left  for  the  poets  of  Europe  to 
show  that,  given  the  interesting  chanicter,. given  the  Achilles, 
the  Odysseus,  the  Helen,  the  Priam,  any  adventure  happening 
to  such  a  character  becomes  interesting. 

What  then  is  this  absolute  vision,  this  true  dramatic  imagina- 
tion which  can  hardly  be  found  in  Asia — which  even  in  Europe 
cannot  be  found  except  in  rare  cases?  Between  relative  and 
absolute  vision  the  difference  seems  to  be  this,  that  the  former 
only  enables  the  i)oet,  even  in  its  very  highest  exercise,  to  make 
his  own  individuality,  or  else  humanity  as  represented  by  his  own 
individuality,  live  in  the  imagined  situation;  the  latter  enables 
him  in  its  highest  exercise  to  make  special  individual  characters 
Other  than  the  poet's  own  live  in  the  imagined  situation. 

"That  which  exists  in  nature,"  says  Hegcl,  "  is  a  something, 
purely  individual  and  particular.  Art,  on  the  contrary,  is  essen- 
tially destined  to^  manifest  the  general."  And  no  doubt  this  is 
true  as  regards  the  plastic  arts,  and  true  also  as  regards  literary 
art,  save  in  the  very  highest  reaches  of  pure  drama  and  pure 
lyric,  when  it  seems  to  become  art  no  longer— when  it  seems  to 
become  the  very  voice  of  Nature  herself.  The  cry  of  Priam 
when  he  puts  to  his  lips  the  hand  that  slew  his  son  is  not  merely 
the  cry  of  a  bereaved  and  aged  parent;  it  is  the  cry  of  the  in- 
dividual king  of  Troy,  and  expresses  above  everything  else  that 
most  naive,  pathetic  and  winsome  character.  Put  the  words 
into  the  mouth  of  the  irascible  and  passionate  Lear  and  they 
would  be  ehtirely  out  of  keeping. 

It  may  be  said  then  that,  while  the  poet  of  relative  vision, 
even  in  its  very  highest  exercise,  can  dnly,  when  depicting  the 
Lyric  Bph  external  world,  deal  "With  the  general,  the  poet  of 
mad  absolute  vision  can  compete  with  Nature  herself 

OrmatMUe  and  deal  with  both  general  and  particular.  If  this 
*'^'*'*  is  really  so  we  may  perhaps  find  a  basis  for  a  classi- 
fication of  poetry  and  of  poets.  That  all  poets  must  be  singers 
has  already  been  maintained.  But  singers  seem  to  be  divisible 
into  three  classes:  first  the  pure  lyrists,  each  of  whom  can  with 
bis  one  voice  sing  only  one  tunc;  secondly  the  epic  poets,  save 
Homer,  the  bulk  of  the  narrative  poets,  and  the  quasi-dramatists, 
each  of  whom  can  with  his  one  voice  sing  several  tunes;  and 
thirdly  the  true  dramatists,  who,  having,  like  the  nightingale  of 
Gongora,  many  tongues,  can  sing  all  tunes. 


It  is  to  the  fust-named  of  these  dsaaH  that  most  pbets  belong. 
With  regard  to  the  second  class,  there  are  not  of  course  many 
poets  left  for  it:  the  first  absorbs  so  many.  But,  when  we  come 
to  consider  that  among  those  who,  witJi  eadi  his  one  voice,  can 
sing  many  tunes,  ore  Pindar,  Firdausi,  Jami,  Virgil,  Dante, 
Milton,  Spenser,  Goethe,  Byron,  Cbleridgc,  Shelley,  Keats, 
Schiller,  Victor  Hugo,  the  second  dass  is  so  various  that  no 
genenl^tion  save  such  a  broad  One  as  ours  could  embrace  its 
members.  And  now  we  come  to  class  three,  and  must  pause. 
The  third  class  is  necessarily  very  smalL  In  it  can  only  be 
placed  such  names  aS  Shakespeare,  Acschylos,  Sophodes, 
Hocner  and  (hardly)  Chaucer. 

These  three  kinds  of  poeu  represent  three  totally  different 
kinds  of  poetic  activity. 

With  regard  to  the  first,  the  pare  lyrists,  the  impulse  is  pure 
egoism.  Many  of  them  have  less  of  even  relative  vision  at  its 
highest  than  the  mass  of  mankind.  They  are  often  too  much 
engaged  with  the  emotkms  within  to  have  any  deep  sympathy 
with  the  life  around  them.  Of  every  poet  of  this  dass  it  may 
be  said  that  his  mind  to  him  "  a  kingdom  is,"  and  that  the 
smaller  the  poet  the  bigger  to  him  is  that  kingdom.  To  make 
use  of.  a  homely  image— like  the  chaffinch  whose  eyes  have  been 
pricked  by  the  bird-fancier,  the  pure  lyrist  is  sometimes  a  warbler 
because  he  is  blind.  Still  he  feels  that  the  Muse  loves  him 
exceedingly.  She  takes  away  his  eyesight,  but  she  gives  him 
sweet  song.  And  his  song  is  very  sweet,  very  sad,  and  very 
beautiful;  but  it  is  all  about  the  world  within  his  own  souL— its 
sorrows,  joys,  fears  and  aspirations. 

With  regard  to  the  second  class  the  impulse  here  is  no  doubt  a 
kind  of  egoism  too;  yet  the  poets  of  this  class  arc  all  of  a  different 
temper  from  the  pure  lyrists.  They  have  a  wide  imagination; 
but  it  is  still  rdatlve,  still  egoistic.  They  have  splendid  eyes, 
but  eyes  that  never  get  beyond  seeing  general,  universal 
humanity  (typified  by  themselves)  in  the  imagined  situation. 
Not  even  to  these  is  it  given  to  break  through  that  law  of 
centrality  by  which  every,"  me  "  feels  itself  to  be  the  central 
"  me  "—the  only  "  me  "  of  the  universe,  round  which  all  other 
spurious  "  me*s "  revolve.  This  "  me  "  of  theirs  they  can 
transmute  into  many  shapes,  but  they  cannot  create  other 
"  rae's  "—nay,  for  egoism,  some  of  them  scarcely  would,  perhaps, 
if  they  could. 

The  third  dass,  the  true  dramatists,  whose  impulse  is  the 
simple  yearning  to  create  akin  to  that  which  made  "  the  great 
Vishnu  yearn  to  aeate  a  world,"  are  "  of  imagination  all  com- 
pact "—so  much  so  that  when  at  work  "  the  divinity  "  which 
lamblichus  speaks  of  "  seizes  for  the  time  the  soul  and  guides 
it  as  he  will." 

The  distinction  between  the  pure  lyrists  and  the  other  two 
dasses  of  poets  is  obvious  enough.  But  the  distmction  between 
the  quasi-dramatists  and  the  pure  dramatists  bxmuiOk*  of 
requires  a  word  of  explanation  before  we  proceed  RetHhvaad 
to  touch  upon  the  various  kinds  of  poetry  that  spring  ^^*ob^ 
from  the  exerdse  of  relative  and  absolute  vision.  •**■• 
Sometimes,  to  be  siux,  the  vision  of  the  true  dramatists— ^ 
the  greatest  dramatistSr— will  suddenly  become  narrowed 
and  obscured,  as  in  that  part  of  the  Oedipus  tyrannus  where 
Sophocles  makes  Oedipus  ignorant  of  what  every  one  in  Thebes 
must  have  known,  the  murder  of  Laius.  And  again,  findy  as 
Sophocles  has  conceived  the  character  of  Electra,  he  makes  her, 
in  her  dispute  with  Chrysothemfs,  give  expression  to  sentiments 
that,  in  another  play  of  his  own,  come  far  more  appropriately 
from  the  lofty  character  of  Antigone  in  a  paralld  dispute  with 
Ismene.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  examples  of  rdative  vision 
in  its  furthest  reaches  can  be  found  in  abundance  everywhere, 
especially  in  Virgil,  Dante,  Calderon  and  Milton.  Some  of  the 
most  remarkable  examples  of  that  high  kind  of  relative  vision 
which  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  absolute  vision  may  be  found 
in  those  great  prose  epics  of  the  North  which  Aristotle  would 
have  called  poems.  Here  is  one  from  the  VUsunga  Saga. 
While  the  brothers  of  Gudrun  are  about  their  treacherous 
business  of  murdering  Sigurd,  her  husband,  as  he  lies  asleep  in 
her  urms,  Brsmhild,  Sigurd's  former  love,  who  in  the^fienzy.  of 


884 


POETRY 


'*  love  tuned  to  bate  "  has  instigated  the  mitideren  to  the  deed, 
hoveis  outside  the  chamber  with  Gunnar»  her  husband,  and 
listens  to  the  wail  of  her  rival  who  is  weltering  in  Sigurd's  blood. 
At  the  sound  of  that  waO  Brynhlld  laughs. — 

**  Then  said  Gunnar  to  her.  Thou  laughest  not  becauae  thy  heart 
roots  are  gladded,  or  else  why  doik  thy  vitage  vox  so  warn  ?  "  ^ 

This  is  of  course  very  fine;  but,  as  any  two  cbanKters  in  that 
dramatic  situation  might  have  done  that  dramatic  buaineas^ 
fine  as  it  is—as  the  sagaman  gives  us  the  general  and  not  the 
particular— the  vision  at  work  is  not  absolute  but  relative  at  its 
very  highest  exercise.  But  our  examples  will  be  more  interest- 
ing if  taken  from  English  poets.  In  Coleridge's  "  Andent 
&£unner  "  we  find  an  immense  amount  of  relative  vision  of  so 
high  a  kind  that  at  first  it  seems  absolute  vision.  When  the 
ancient  mariner,  in  his  narrative  to  the  wedding  guest,  reaches 
the  slaying  of  the  albatross,  he  stops,  he  can  proceed  no  fanher» 
and  the  wedding  guest  exclaims: — 

*'  God  save  thee.  Ancient  Mariner. 

From  the  fiends  that  plague  thee  thus  1 
Why  look'ftt  thou  so  ?  "    '^With  my  cross-bow 
I  shot  the  albatross.'* 

But  there  arc  instances  of  relative  vision — especially  in  the 
great  master  of  absolute  vision,  Shakespeare — which  are  higher 
still — so  high  indeed  that  not  to  relegate  them  to  absolute 
vision  seems  at  first  sight  pedantic.  Such  an  example  is  the 
famous  speech  of  Lady  Macbeth  in  the  second  act,  vrhere  she 
says.— ^  , 

"  Had  be  not  resembled 
My  father  as  he  slept,  I  had  done  't." 

Marvellously  subtle  as  is  this  speech,  it  will  be  found,  if 
analysed,  that  it  expresses  the  general  human  soul  rather  than 
any  one  special  human  souL.  Indeed  Leigh  Hunt  records  the 
case  of  a  bargeman  who,  charged  with  robbing  a  sleeping 
traveller  in  his  barge,  used  in  his  confesdon  almost  identical 
words — "  Had  he  not  looked  like  my  father  as  he  slept,  I  should 
have  killed  as  well  as  robbed  him."  Again,  the  thousand  and 
one  cases  (to  be  found  in  every  literature)  where  a  character, 
overwhelmed  by  some  sudden  surprise  or  terror,  asks  whether 
the  action  going  on  is  that  of  a  dream  or  of  real  life,  must  all, 
on  severe  analysis,  be  classed  under  relative  rather  than  under 
absolute  vision— even  such  a  fine  speech,  for  instance,  as  that 
where  Pericles,  on  discovering  l^farina,  exclaims^— 
"  This  is  the  rarest  dream  that  e'er  dull  sleep 
Did  mock  sad  fools  withal "; 

or  as  that  in  the  third  act  of  Tttus  Andnmiau,  where  Titus, 
beholding  his  mutilated  and  ruined  dau^ter,  asks:-' 
**  When  will  this  fearful  slumber  have  an  end?** 

even  here,  we  say,  the  humanity  rendered  is  general  and  not 
particular,  the  vision  at  work  is  relative  and  not  absolute.  The 
poet,  as  representing  the  whole  human  race,  throwing  himself 
into  the  imagined  situation,  gives  us  what  general  humanity 
would  have  thought,  felt,  said  or  done  in  that  situation,  not 
what  one  particular  individual  and  be  alone  would  have 
thought,  felt,  said  or  done. 

Now  what  we  have  called  absolute  vision  operates  in  a  very 
different  way.  So  vividly  is  the  poet*s  mere  creative  instinct 
at  work  that  the  ego  sinks  into  passivity — becomes  insensitive 
to  all  impressions  other  than  those  dictated  by  the  vision — by 
the  "  divinity  "  which  has  "  seized  the  soul."  Shakespeare  is 
full  of  examples.  Take  the  scene  in  the  first  act  of  Hamld 
where  Hamlet  hears  for  the  first  time,  from  Horatio,  that  his 
father's  ghost  haunts  the  castle.  Having  by  short  sharp 
questions  elicited  the  salient  facts  attending  the  apparition, 
Hamlet  says,  "  I  would  I  had  been  there."  Tb  this  Horatio 
makes  the  very  commonplace  reply,  "It  would  have  much 
amazed  you.".  Note  the  marvellously  dramatic  reply  of  Hamlet 

"Very  like,  very  like  I  Stayed  it  long?"  Suppose  that  this 
dialogue,  had  been  attempted  by  any  other  poet  than  a  true 
dramatist;  or  by  a  true  dramatist  in  any  other  mood  than 
his  very  highest,  Hamlet,  on  hearing  Horatio's  commonplace 
remarks  upon  phenomena  which  to  Hamlet  were  more  subversive 
'  1  Translation  of  Morris  and  Magnusson. 


of  the  very  order  of  the  univerBe  than  !f  a  doaeii  stais  had  falla 

from  their  courses,  would  have  burst  out  with:"  Amaaed  mtf 

and  then  would  have  followed  an  eloquent  dedamation  about 

the  "  amasing  "  nature  of  the  phenomena  and  their  effect  upon 

him.   But  so  entirely  has  the  poet  become  Hamlet,  so  oon^>letc|y 

has  "the  divinity  seised  hb  soul,"  that  all  language  seems 

equally  weak  for  expressing  the  turbulence  within  the  sdoI  oi 

the  character,  and  Hamlet  exclaims  in  a  sort  of  meditatm 

irony,  "  Very  like,  very  like  1 "    It  is  exactly  this  «ioe  naa 

Hamlet,  and  no  other  man,  who  in  this  situation  woidd  have 

so  expttased  himself.     Charles  Knight  has  sonoe  pcnineat 

remarks  upon  this  speech  of  Hamlet;  yet  he  misses  its  tnie  ytiat, 

pnd  treats  it  from  the  general  rather  than  from  the  particiibr 

side.    Instances  of  absolute  vision  in  Shakespeare  crowd  upoa 

us;  but  we  can  find  room  for  only  one  other.    In  the  pathetic 

speech  of  Othello,  josT  before  he  kills  nimself ,  he  dedans  hinsdlf 

to  be:— 

"  One  not  easily  jealous,  but,  twiag  womghi. 
Perplexed  in  the  extreme." 

Consider  the  marvellous  timbre  of  the  word  "  wrouglit,**  as 
coming  from  a  character  like  Othello.  When  writing  ths 
passage,  eH>ecially  wheii  writfng  this  word,  the  poet  liad  beocnt 
entirdy  the  simple  English  seldier-hero,  as  the  Moor  really  is— ke 
had  become  Othello,  looking  upon  himself  "  as  not  easQy  jealoi:&'' 
whereas  he  was  "  wrought  "  and  "  perplexed  in  the  extreme  ^ 
by  tricks  which  Handct  would  have  seen  through  in  a  moment. 

While  all  other  forms  of  poetic  art  can  be  vitalized  by  relatii;e 
vision,  there  are  two  forms  (and  these  the  greatest)  in  which 
absolute  vision  is  demanded,  viz.  the  drama,  and  in 
a  lesser  degree  the  Greek  epic,  especially  the  Uisd^ 
This  will  be  seen  more  plainly  perhaps  if  wc  now 
vary  our  definitions  and  call  relative  vision  egoistic 
absolute  vision  dramatic  imaginaiiaru 

Very  much  of  the  dramatist's  work  can  be,  and  in  fact  is, 
eHected  by  egoistic  imagination,  while  true  dramatic  imagination 
is  only  called  into  play  on  comparatively  rare  occasions.  Xct 
only  fine  but  sublime  dramatic  poems  have  been  written,  howoxr, 
where  the  vitalizing  power  has  been  entirely  that  of  ^Tkal 
imagination.  Wc  need  only  instance  the  Prometheus  Bcund  c! 
Aeschylus,  the  most  sublime  poem  in  the  world.  The  drasus 
of  Shelley  too,  like  those  of  Victor  Hugo  and  Calderon,  zrc 
informed  entirely  by  egoistic  imagination.  In  all  these  splcsdid 
poems  the  dramatist  places  himself  in  the  imagined  siloaiic^. 
or  at  most  he  places  there  some  typical  conception  of  univcisaJ 
humanity.  There  is  not  in  all  Calderon  any  such  display  ci 
dramatic  imagination  as  we  get  in  that  wonderful  speech  d 
Priam's  in  the  last  book  of  the  Iliad,  to  which  we  have  before 
alluded.  There  is  not  in  the  Cenci  such  a  display  of  dramatic 
imagination  as  we  get  in  the  sudden  burst  of  anger  from  the 
spoilt  child  of  gods  and  men,  Achilles  (anger  which  alarms  th« 
hero  himself  as  much  as  it  alarms  Priam),  when  the  prattle  d 
the  old  man  has  carried  him  too  far.  It  may  seem  bold  to  sxj 
that  the  drama  of  Goethe  is  informed  by  egoistic  ixhagicatka 
only— assuredly  the  prison-scene  in  Fausl  is  unsurpassed  ro 
the  literatures  of  the  world.  Yet,  perhaps,  it  could  be  shown  of 
the  passion  and  the  pathos  of  Gretchcn  throughout  the  cz.ure 
play  that  it  betrays  a  female  character  general  and  typical  rather 
than  individual  and  particular. 

The  nature  of  this  absolute  vision  or  true  dramatic  imagination 
is  easily  seen  if  we  compare  the  dramatic  work  of  writers  withc;:t 
absolute  vision,  such  as  Calderon,  Goethe,  Ben  Jonson,  Flctcber 
and  others,  with  the  dramatic  work  of  Aeschylus  and  of  Shaken 
speare.  While  of  the  former  group  it  may  be  said  that  each  po^ 
skilfully  works  his  imagination,  of  Aeschylus  and  Shakespeare 
it  must  be  said  that  each  in  his  highest  dramatic  mood  does  not 
work,  but  is  worked  by  his  imagination.  Note,  for  inst^oce, 
how  the  character  of  Clytaemnestra  grows  and  i^ows  under  the 
hand  of  Aeschylus.  The  poet  of  the  Odyssey  had  distinctly 
said  that  Acgisthus,  her  paramour,  had  strtick  the  blow,  bet 
the  dramatist,  having  imagined  the  greatest  tragic  female  ia 
all  poetry,  finds  it  impossible  to  let  a  man  like  Aegisthus  assist 
such  a  woman  in  a  homicide  so  daring  and  so  momentous.    And 


POETRY 


88s 


whta  in  lli»t  terrible  speerh  of  hers  she  Jusltfies  her  crine 
(ostensibly  to  the  outer  world,  but  reatly  to  her  own  conscience), 
Che  way  in  which,  by  the  sheer  magnetism  of  irresistible  person- 
ality, she  draws  our  sympathy  to  herself  and  her  crime  is  un- 
rivalled out  of  Shakespeare  and  not  surpassed  even  there.  In 
the  Great  Drama,  in  the  Agamannon,  in  OtMlo,  in  Handel^  in 
Macbdk,  there  is  an  imagination  at  work  whose  laws  arc  inexor- 
able, are  inevitable,  as  the  laws  by  the  operation  ol  which  the 
planets  move  around  the  sun.  But  in  this  essay  our  busjoess 
with  drama  is  confined  entirely  to  its  relations  to  epic. 

Constdcring  how  hx^  and  on  the  whole  how  good  is  the  body 
o(  modern  criticism  upon  drama,  it  is  surprising  how  poor  is 
Bpiemad  ^he  modern  criticism  upon  epic.  Aristotle,  compar- 
Dnmt  ing  tragedy  with  epic,  gives  the  palm  to  tragedy 
CMipa««A  gg  being  the  more  perfect  art,  and  nothing  can  be 
more  ingenious  than  the  way  in  which  he  has  marshalled  his 
reasons.  He  tdls  us  that  tragedy  as  well  as  epic  is  capable 
of  producing  its  effect  even  without  action;  we  can  judge  of 
it  perfectly,  says  he,  by  reading.  He  goes  so  far  as  to  say 
that,  even  in  reading  as  well  te  in  representation,  tragedy  has 
an  advantage  over  the  epic,  the  advantage  of  greater  deaivess 
ftnd  distinctness  of  impression.  And  in  some  measure  this  was 
perhaps  true  of  Greek  tragedy,  for  as  MOller  in  his  Dissertations 
on  the  Eumenides  has  well  said,  the  ancients  always  remained 
and  wished  to  remain  conscious  that  the  whole  was  a  Dionysian 
entertainment;  the  quest  of  a  commonplace  dir&n)  came  after- 
wards.  And  even  of  Romantic  Drama  it  may  be  said  that  in 
the  time  of  Shakespeare,  and  indeed  down  through  the  i8ih 
century,  it  never  lost  entirely  its  character  of  a  recitation  as  well 
as  a  drama.  It  was  not  till  melodrama,  began  to  be  recognized 
as  a  legitimate  form  of  dramatic  art  that  the  dialogue  had  to  be 
struck  from  the  dramatic  action  **  ftt  full  speed  "—struck  like 
sparks  from  the  roadster's  shoes.  The  truth  is,  however^  that 
it  was  idle  for  Aristotle  to  inqaire  which  is  the  more  important 
branch  of  poetry,  epic  or  tragedy.  Equally  W?e  would  It  be 
for  the  modem  critic  to  inquire  how  much  romantic  drama 
gained  and  how  much  it  lost  by  abandoning  the  chorus. 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  scope  and  the  limits  of  epic  and 
dramatic  poetry.  If  in  epic  the  poet  has  the  power  to  take  the 
Imagination  of  his  audience  away  from  the  dramatic  centre  and 
show  what  is  going  on  at  the  other  end  of  the  great  w%b  of  the 
world,  he  can  do  the  same  thing  in  drama  by  the  chorus,  and 
also  by  the  introduction  into  the  dramatic  circle  of  messengers 
and  others  from  the  outside  world.  But,  as  regards  epic  poetry, 
is  it  right  that  we  shouI4  hear,  as  we  sometimes  do  hear,  the  voice 
of  the  poet  himself  as  chorus  bidding  us  contrast  the  present 
picture  With  other  pictures  afar  ofT,  in  order  to  enforce  Its  teach- 
ing and  illustrate  its  pathos?  This  is  a  favourite  method  with 
modem  poets  apd  a  stiU  more  favourite  one  with  prose  nairaton. 
Does  it  not  give  an  air  of  self<onsciousness  to  poetry?  Does 
it  not  disturb  the  intensity  of  the  poetic  vision?  Yet  It  has 
the  sanction  of  Homer;  and  who  shall  dare  to  challenge  the 
methods  of  the  great  father  of  epic?  An  instance  occun  in 
Iliad  V.  158,  where,  in  the  midst  of  all  the  stress  of  fight,  the  poet 
leaves  the  dramatic  actkm  to  tell  us  what  became  of  the  in- 
heritance of  Phaenops,  after  his  two  sons  had  been  slain  by 
Diomedes.  Another  instance  occurs  in  iii.  243-344,  where  the 
poet,  after  Helen's  pathetic  mentwn  of  her  brothers,  comments 
on  the  causes  of  their  absence,  "  eritlci£es  life  "  in  the  approved 
modern  way,  generalizes  upon  the  Impotence  of  human  intcUi* 
gence — the  impotence  even  of  human  love — to  pierce  the  dark- 
ness in  which  the  web  of  human  fate  is  woven.  Thus  she  spoke 
(the  poet  telb  us>;  but  the  life-givmg  earth  already  possessed 
tbem,  there  in  Lacedaemon,  in  their  dear  native  land^~ 

ip  AoMdo/iiori  9X$i,  ^B  ''  'A^pKt  7>fs> 

Thi*,  of  coarse,  Is  "beautiful  exceedingly,"  but,  inasmuch  as 
the  imagination  at  work  is  egobtic  or  lyrical,  not  dramatic;  inas- 
much as  the  vision  is  relative,  not  absolute,  it  does  not  represent 
that  epic  strength  at  its  very  highest  which  we  call  specially 
"  Horocric"  unless  indeed  we  remember  that  with  Homer  the 


Muses  aM  onnisdent:  this  oertaioly  may  give  the  passage  a 

deep  dramatic  value  it  otherwise  seems  to  lack. 

The  deepest  of  all  the  distinctions  between  dramatic  and  epic 
methods  has  relation,  however,  to  the  nature  of  the  dialogue^ 
Aristotle  failed  to  point  it  out,  and  this  is  remarkaUe  until  wt 
remember  that  bis  work  is  but  a  fragment  of  a  great  system  of 
criticism.     In  epic  poetry,  and  in  all  poetry  that  narrates, 
whether  the  poet  be  Homer,  Chaucer,  Thomas  the  Rhymer, 
Gottfried  von  Stiasburg,  or  Turoldus,  the  action,  of  course^ 
moved  by  aid  partly  of  narrative  and  partly  by  aid  of  dialoguei 
but  in  drama  the  dialogue  has  a  quality  of  suggest! vcncss  and 
subtle  inference  which  we  do  not  expect  to  find  in  any  other 
poetic  torn  save  perhaps  that  of  the  purely  dramatic  ballad. 
In  ancient  drama  this  quality  of  suggestiveness  and  subtle 
inference  is  seen  not  only  in  the  dialogue,  but  in  the  choral  odes. 
The. third  ode  of  the  Agamemnon  is  an  extreme  case  in  point, 
where,  by  a  kind  of  double  entendre,  the  relations  of  Cly  taemnestra 
and  Aegisthos  are  darkly  alluded  to  under  cover  of  allusions 
to  Paris  and  Helen.    Of  this  dramatic  subtlety  Sophocles  is 
perhaps  the  greatest  master;  and  certain  critics  have  beoi  led 
to  speak  as  though  irony  were  heart-thought  of   Sophoclean 
drama.    But  the  suggestiveness  of  Sophocles  is  pathetic  (as 
Professor  Lewis  Campbell  has  well  pointed  out),  not  ironical. 
This  is  one  reason  why  drama  more  than  epic  seems  to  satisfy  the 
mere  intellect  of  the  reader,  though  this  may  be  eountetbalanced 
by  the  hardness  of  mechanical  structure  which  sometimes  dfeturbs 
the  reader's  imagination  in  tragedy. 

When,  for  instance,  a  dramatist  pays  so  much  attention  to 
the  evolution  of  the  plot  as  Sophocles  docs,  it  is  inevitable  that 
his  characters  should  be  more  or  leas  plot-ridden;  they  have  to 
say  and  do  now  and  then  certain  things  which  they  would  not 
say  and  do  but  for  the  exigencies  of  the  plot.  Indeed  one  of 
i^Ms  advantages  which  epic  certainly  has  over  drama  is  that  the 
story  can  be  made  to  move  as  rapidly  as  the  poet  may  desire 
without  these  mechanical  modifications  of  character. 

The  only  jkind  of  epic  for  Aristotle  to  consider  was  Greek  epic, 
between  which  and  alt  other  epic  the  difference  b  one  of  kind, 
if  the  Iliad  alone  is  taken  to  represent  Greek  epic,  j^,  m^j. 
In  speaking  of  the  effect  that  surrounding  conditions  j,^ 
seem  to  have  upon  the  form  in  w^hich  the  poetic  energy  ^^ 
of  any  time  or  country  should  ex()ress  itself,  we  instanced  the 
Iliad  as  a  typical  case.  The  imagination  vivifying  it  is  mainly 
dramatic.  The  characters  represent  much  more  than  the  mere 
variety  of  mood  of  the  delineator.  Notwithstanding  all  the  splendid 
works  of  Calderon,  Marlowe,  Webster  and  Goethe,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  as  a  born  dramatist  the  poet  of  the  Iliad  docs  not  come 
nearer  to  Aeschylus  and  Shakespeare  than  does  any  other  poet. 
Hb  passion  for  making  the  heroes  speak  for  themselves  is  almost 
a  fault  in  the  tliad  considered  as  pure  epic,  and  the  unconscious 
way.  in  which  each  actor  is  made  to  depict  hb  own  character  is  id 
the  highest  spirit  of  drama.  It  is  owing  to  this  spedalitv  of 
the  Ittad  that  !t  stands  apart  from  all  other  e|>ic  save  that  of  the 
Odyssey^  where,  however,  the  dramatic  vision  is  less  vivid.  It  is 
owing  to  the  dramatic  imagination  dispbycd  in  the  Iliad  that  it 
b  impossible  to  say.  from  internal  evidence,  whether  the  poem  ^ 
to  be  clasnficd  witn  the  epics  of  grow-th  or  with  the  epics  of  art. 
All  epics  are  clearly  divisible  into  two  classes,  first  those  which  are 
a  mere  acrretiort  of  poems  or  traditionary  tnllads.  and  qpcond,  those 
which,  though  based  indeed  on  tradition  or  history,  have  become 
so  fused  in  the  mind  of  one  great  poet,  so  stained,  therefore,  with 
the  colour  and  temper  of  that  mind,  as  to  become  new  crystalliza- 
tions— inventions,  in  short,  as  we  understand  that  Word.  Each 
kind  of  epic  has  excellcndes  peculiar  to  itself,  accompanied  by 
peculiar  and  indeed  necessary  defects.  In  the  one  wc  get  the 
frecdom-^pparently  schemeleas  and  motiveless — of  nature,  but,  as 
a  consequence,  miss  that  "  hard  acorn  of  thought  **  (to  use  the 
picturesque  definition  in  the  Vihw»^  Saga  of  the  heart  of  a  roan) 
which  the  mind  asks  for  as  the  core  of  every  work  of  art.  In  the 
other  thb  great  reouisite  of  an  adequate  central  thought  b  found, 
but  accompanied  oy  a  constriction,  a  lack  of  freedom,  a  cc4d 
artificiality,  the  obtrusion  of  a  pedantic  scheme,  which  would  be 
intolerable  to  the  natural  mind  unsophisticated  by  literary  study. 
The  flow  of  the  one  is  as  that  of  a  river,  the  flow  of  the  otlicr  as  that 
of  a  canal.  Yet,  as  has  been  already  hinted,  though  the  great 
charm  of  Nature  herself  U  that  she  never  teases  us  with  any  obtrusive 
exhibitions  of  scheme,  she  doubtless  has  a  scheme  somewhere,  she 
does  somewhere  hide  a  "  hard  acorn  of  thought  "  of  which  the  poem 
of  the  universe  Is  the  expanded  expression.  And,  this  being  so, 
art  should  have  a  scheme  too;  but  in  such  a  dilemma  is  she  placed 
in  thb  matter  that  the  epic  poet,  unless  he  b  evidently  tcUiAg  the 


886 


POfiTRV 


ASt. 


tiory  (or  iu  own  take,  aoornfol  of  parpoaes  ethic  or  aesthetic,  must 
sacrifice  illusion.  • 

Among  the  fonner  class  of  epics  are  to  be  olaced  the  great  epics  oi 
growth,  such  as  the  AtahObk/lrata,  the  Nibelung  story,  &c. ;  among 
(he  latter  the  Odyssey,  the  Aemidt  Paradise  Lost,  the  Cerusatemme 
iUterala,  the  Lauiadas. 

But  where  in  this  clasufication  are  we  Co  find  a  place  for  the 
Iliad?  The  heart-thought  of  the  greatest  epic  in  all  literature  is 
simply  that  Achilles  was  vexed  and  that  the  fortunes  of  the  world 
depended  upon  the  whim  of  a  sulky  hero.  Yet,  notwithstanding  all 
the  acute  criticisms  of  Wolff,  it  remains  difl&cutt  for  us  to  find  a 
idace  for  the //mi^  among  the  epics  of  growth.  And  why?  Because 
throughout  the  Jliad  the  dramatic  imaginatwn  shown  is  of  the 
first  order;  and,  if  we  are  to  suppose  a  multiplicity  of  authors 
for  the  poem,  w«  must  also  suppose  that  ages  before  the  time  of 
Pericles  there  existed  a  sroup  of  dramatisu  more  nearly  akin  to  the 
masters  of  the  Great  Uramai  Aeschylus*  Sophocles  and  Shake* 
noeare,  than  any  group  that  has  ever  existed  since.  Yet  it  is  equally 
difficult  to  find  a  place  for  it  amongst  the  epics  of  art  In  the 
matter  of  artistic  mottpe  the  Odyssey  stands  alone  amoAg  the  epici 
of  art  of  the  worid,  as  we  are  going  to  see. 

It  is  manifest  that,  aa  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  epic  of  art 
is  that  of  recogniting  a  conscious  scheme,  if  the  epic  of  art  fails 
through  confusion  of  scheme  it  fails  altogether.  What 
is  demanded  of  the  epic  of  art  (as  some  kind  of  com^nsa- 
tion  for  that  natural  frbcdom  of  evolution  winch  it 
can  never  achieve,  that  sweet  abandon,  which  belongs  to  oatun 
and  to  the  epic  of  growth  alike)  is  unity  of  impression,  harroonbus 
and  symmetrical  development  of  a  conscious  heart-thought  of 
motive.  This  being  so.  where  arc  we  to  place  the  Aetuid,  and:  whcite 
are  we  to  place  the  •SAdA  Ndmehl  Starting  with  the  intention, 
as  it  seems,  of  fusing  into  one  karmonioua  whole  the  myths  and 
legends  upon  which  the  Roman  story  is  based,  Virgil,  by  the  time 
he  reaches  the  middle  of  his  epic,  forgets  all  about  this  primary 
intent,  and  gives  us  his  own  thoughts  and  reflections  on  things  in 
general.  Fine  as  is  the  speech  of  Anchises  to  Aeneas  in  Elysium 
{Aen,  vi.  724-755).  its  incongruity  with  the  general  scheme  Of  the 

Ejero  as  developed  in  the  previous  books  shows  how  entirely  Viigit 
eked  that  artistic  power  shown  in  the  Odyssey  of  making  a  story 
UKome  the  natural  and  inevitable  outcome  01  an  artistic  Idea. 

In  the  Shdh  Ndmeh  there  is  the  artistic  redaction  of  Virgil,  but 
with  even  leas  attention  to  a  oential  thought  than  Vtc^il  exhibits* 
Firdaua  relies  for  his  effects  upon  the  very  4|uabties  which 
characteriae  not  the  epic  of  art  but  the  epic  of  ^wth— a  natural 
and  not  an  artificial  flow  of  the  story:  so  much  indeed  that,  if  the 
SkSh  Ndmeh  were  studied  in  connexion  with  the  ttiad  on  the  one 
hand  and  with  the  Kakvala  on  the  other,  it  might  throw  a  light 
upon  the  way  in  which  an  epic  may  be  at  one  and  the  same  time  an 
aggregation  of  the  national  ballad  poems  and  the  work  of  a  single 
artifi^r.  That  Firdausi  was  capable  of  working  from  a  centre 
not  only  artistic  but  philosophic  his  YQsufand  Zulethha  shows;  and  if 
we  consider  what  was  the  artistic  temper  of  the  Persians  in  Firdausi'a 
time^  what  indeed  has  been  that  temper  during  the  whole  of  the 
Mahommedan  period,  the  subtle  temper  of  the  parable  poet — the 
Skih  Ndmeh,  with  its  direct  appeal  to  popular  sympathies^  is  a 
standing  wonder  in  poetic  Uterature. 

.   With  regard,  however,  to  Virgil's  defective  power  of  working 
from  an  artistic  motive,  as  coQ^pared  with  the  poet  of  the  Odyssey, 
this  is  an  infirmity  he  shares  with  all  the  poets  01  the  Western  wodd. 
Certainly  he  shares  it  with  the  writer  of  Paradise  Lost,  who,  sotting 
out  to  *^ justify  the  ways  of  God  to  man,"  forgets  occasionally  the 
original  worker  of  the  evil,  as  where,  for  instance,  he  substitutes 
chance  as  soon  as  he  comes  (at  the  end  of  the  second  book)  to  the 
point  upoa  which  the  entire  epic  movement  tums^  the  escape  of 
satan  from  hell  and  his  journey  to  earth  for  the  ruin  of  man: — 
"  At  last  his  sail-broad  vans 
He  spreads  for  flight,  and,  in  the  surging  smoke 
Uplifted,  spurns  the  ground^  thence  many  a  leaguCi 
As  in  a  cknidy  chair,  ascending  rides 
Audacious;  but,  that  seat  soon  failiiqu  meets 
A  vast  vacuity;  all  unawares, 
Fluttering  his  pinions  vain,  plumb  down  he  drops 
Ten  thousand  lathoms  deep,  and  to  this  hoor 
Down  had  been  falling,  had  not,  by  ill  chamcb, 
The  Mroo^  rebuff  of  some  tumultuous  cloudy 
Instinct  with  fire  and  nitre,  hurried  him 
Aa  many  miles  aloft." 

lA  MntOn*s  case,  however,  the  truth  is  that  he  made  the  mbtake 
of  trying  to  disturb  the  motive  of  the  story  for  artistic  purpose^-^ 
a  fatal  mistake,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  speak  <rf  the 
Nibelungenlied  in  relation  to  the  old  Norse  cpk:  cycle. 

Though  Vondel's  mystery  play  of  Lncifer  is.  in  its  execution, 
rhetorical  more  than  poetical,  it  aid.  beyond  all  question,  influence 
Milton  when  he  came  to  write  Paradise  Lost.  The  famous  Une 
which  b  generally  quoted  as  (he  keynote  of  Satan's  chaiacter^ 

"  Better  to  reign  in  hell  than  serve  in  heaven  **-^ 

seems  to  have  been  taken  bodily  from  Vondefs  play,  and  Mi1ton*s 
entire  epfc  shows  a  study  of  it.    While  Marfowe*^  majcstfe  move- 


ments alone  ate  tncedble  In  Satan's  speech  (written 
before  the  te$i  of  Parodist  Lost,  when  the  dramatic  aod  not  the 
epic  form  had  been  selected).  Milton's  Satan  became  afterwards  a 
splendid  amalgam  not  of  the  Mephistopheles  but  of  the  Fanstas 
of  Marlowe  and  the  Lucifer  of  Vondd.  Vondel's  play  moat  have 
possessed  a  peculiar  attraction  lor  a  poet  of  Miltou'a  views  dk 
numan  progress.  Defective  as  the  pUy  is  in  execution,  ic  is  far 
otherwise  in  motive.  This  motive,  if  we  consider  it  aright,  i» 
nothing  less  than  an  explanation  of  man's  anomalous  coodicitM 
on  the  earth— «pirit  incarnate  in  matter,  created  by  God.  a  little 
lower  than  the  angela — in  order  that  he  may  advance  by-  oMaas 
Of  these  very  manacles  which  imprison  him,  in  order  tliat  be  niay 
ascend  by  the  staircase  of  the  world,  the  ladder  of  fleshly  colklXcaon^ 
above  those  cherubim  and  seraphim  who,  lacking  the  cducatioa 
of  sense,  have  not  the  knowledge  wide  and  deep  w^ich  brings 
close  to  God. 

Here  Milton  found  his  own  favourite  doctrine  of  huasan 
ment  and  self-education  in  a  concrete  and  vividly  artistic  fona. 
Much,  however,  as  such  a  motive  must  have  struck  a  man  of  MHton's 
instincts,  his  intellect  was  too  much  chained  by  Calvinism  to  pcimit 
of  hia  treating  the  subject  with  Vondel's  philosophic  beeadtk. 
The  cause  of  Lucifer'a  wcath  had  to  be  changed  from  jeahainy  of 
human  progress  to  jealousy  of  the  Son's  proclaimed  aupeiiotiry. 
And  the  history  of  poetry  shows  tliat  once  begin  to  tamper  with 
the  central  thought  around  which  any -group  of  incidents  has 
crystalKaed  and  the  entire  story  becomea  thereby  rewritten,  as  we 
have  aeen  in  the  case  of  thei4gamriiur0n  of  Aeachylua.  Of  tbe  macnc 
of  his  own  epic,  after  he  had  abandoned  the  motive  of  Vondd, 
Milton  had  as  little  permanent  grasp  as  Virgil  had  of  hia.  As 
regards  the  Odyssey,  however,  we  need  scarcely  say  that  its  moisxt 
Is  merely  artistic,  not  phiIos6phic.  And  now  we  come  to  pbiloaopbic 
motive. 

The  artist's  power  of  thought^  is  properly  shown  not  in  the 
direct  enunciation  of  ideas  but  in  mastery  over  motive.  Heic 
Aeschylus  Is  by  far  the  greatest  figure  in  Western  poetry- — a  proof 
perhaps  among  many  proofs  of  tne  Oriental  strain  of  hi 


(Aa  reynds  pare  diai^a.  hoeieuer,  impactant  as  is  motii 
oi]ganic  vitality  in  every  part,  is  01  more  importance  tkaa  even 
motive,  and  in  this  freedom  and  easy  abandonment  the  coocludiag 
part  of  the  Orcsteia  is  deficient  as  compared  with  such  a  play  as 
Othello  or  Lear.)  Notwithstanding  the  q>lendtd  except iuo  of 
Acachyhaif  the  mitb  aecma  to  be  that  the  faculty  of  developing  a 
poetical  narrative  from  a  philosophic  thought  is  OrientaL  and  oa 
the  whole  foreign  to  the  genius  m  the  Western  mind.  Neither  ia 
Western  drama  nor  In  Western  epic  do  we  find,  save  in  soch  rare 
cases  as  that  of  Vondd,  anythine  like  that  power  of  develop«rf 
a  story  from  an  idea  which  not  only  jami  but  all  the  pnnable  patt% 
of  Persia  show. 

In  modern  Endish  poetry  the  motive  of  Shdiey's  dramadc 
poem  Prometheus  unbound  is  a  notable  illustration  of  what  is  here 
contended.  Starting  with  the  full  intent  of  developrng  a  draiea 
from  a  motive— starting  with  a  unii^enalism,  a  befief  that  good 
shall  be  the  final  goal  of  ill— Shelley  cannot  finish  his  firai  three 
hundred  lines  w^ithout  shifting  (in  the  curse  of  Prometheus)  iato 
a  Manicbaeism  as  pure  as  that  of  Manes  himself: — 

"  Heap  on  thy  soul,  by  virtue  of  this  curse, 
III  deeds,  then  be  thou  damned^  beholding  good; 
Both  infinite  as  is  the  universe.** 

According  to  the  central  thought  of  the  poem  hrnnan  natoie. 
through  the  herok  protest  and  struggle  of  the  human  mind  typified 
by  Prometheua,  can  at  last  dethrone  that  aupematoral  terror  asd 
tyranny  (Jupiter)  which  the  human  mind  had  itself  installed 
But.  after  its  dethronement  (when  human  nature  becomes  infinite^ 
perfectible),  how  can  the  supernatural  tyranny  exist  apart  fren 
the  human  mind  that  imagined  it?  How  can  it  ba  aa  "  tafinite  as 
the  universe  "i 

The  motive  of  Paradise  Lost  is  assailed  with  much  vinottr  by 
Victor  Hugo  in  his  poem  Reliiions  et  Religion.  But  when  Hufo,  in 
the  after  parts  of  the  poem,  having  destroyed  Milton's  "  God," 
sets  up  an  entirety  Frenoi  **  Dieu  "  otais  own  and  tries  **  to  justify  * 
him,  we  pcroeive  how  pardonable  was  MiHon'a  failure  after  aB. 
Compare  such  defea  of  mental  grip  and  such  nebulosity  of  thoog^ 
as  Is  displayed  by  Milton,  Shelley  and  Hugo  with  the  strength  of 
hand  shown  in  the  "  SAlftmin  "  aod  "  Abal  "  of  Jams,  and  tndecd 
by  the  Sufi  poets  generally. 

There  is,  however,  one  excntion  to  this  nile  that  Wotei 
is  nebulous  as  to  motiva.  There  h,  beskles  the  ilsnd, 
that  refuses  to  be  classified,  though  for  entirely  different 
This  u  the  Nibelung  story,  where  we  find  unity  of  pumoae  and  aIss 
entire  freedom  of  mov^men^  We  find  combined  liere  benaties 
which  are  nowhere  else  combmed — which  are,  in  fact,  at  war  «i^ 
each  other  everywhere  else.  We  find  a  scheme,  a  real  "  ncora  of 
thought*"  in  an  epic  which  is  not  the  aelf-consdous  work  of  a  sia^ 
poetjc  artificer,  but  Is  as  much  (he  slow  growth  of  varloos  times 
and  various  minds  as  hi  the  AlisMfrMrate,  in  wMch  the  henrt-tbongbt 
is  merely  that  the  Kainavas  deftated  their  relttivca  at  dee  and 
refused  to  disgorge  their  wioainga. 

This  Northern  epicrtrce,  as  we  find  it  In  the  Icelandic  aacu»  the 
tfoms  themselves  nluat  have  watered;  for  it  combines  ihe  viitacs 


POETRY 


887 


of  the  epic  of  growth  with  thoM.of  the  epic  of  art.  Though  not 
wiitten  III  metre,  it  may  usefully  be  compared  with  the  epics  of 
Greece  and  of  India  and  Persia.  Free  in  movement  as  the  wind, 
which  "  bloweth  where  it  listeth,"  it  Bsteth  to  move  by  law.  Its 
action  is  that  of  free  will,  but  free  will  at  play  within  a  ring  of 
necessity.  Within  this  ring  there  throbs  all  the  warm  and  passionate 
life  of  the  world  outside,  and  all  the  freedom  apparently.  Yet 
from  that  world  it  is  enisled  by  a  cordon  of  curses — by  a  zooe  of 
defiant  flames  more  impregnable  than  that  which  girdled^  the 
beautiful  Brynhild  at  Hmdlell.  Natural  laws,  familiar  emotions, 
are  at  work  everywhere  in  the  story:  yet  the  "  Ring  of  Andvari," 
whose  circumference  is  but  that  of  a  woman's  finger,  encircles 
the  wliole  mimic  world  of  the  sagaman  as  the  Midgard  snake  encircles 
the  earth.  For  this  artistic  perfection  in  an  epic  of  growth  there 
are,  of  course,  many  causes,  some  of  them  traceable  and  some  of 
them  beyond  all  discovery— causes  no  doubt  akin  to  those  which 

Sive  birth  to  many  of  the  beauties  of  other  epics  of  growth, 
riginally  Sinfiotli  and  Sigurd  were  the  same  person,  and  note 
how  vast  has  been  the  artistic  effect  of  the  separation  of  the  two ! 
Again,  there  wefe  several  different  versions  of  ttie  story  of  Brynhild. 
The  sagamen,  finding  all  these  versions  too  interesting  and  too 
much  Moved  to  be  discarded,  adopted  them  all — worked  them  up 
into  one  legend,  so  tlvat,  in  the  Vwunga  Sagfl  we  have  a  heroine 
possessing  all  the  charms  of  goddess,  demi-goddess.  earthly  princess 
and  amazon — a  heroine  surpassing  perhaps  in  fascination  all  other 
heroines  that  have  ever  figured  in  poetry.  ^ 

It  is  when  we  come  to  consider  such  imaginative  work  as  this 
that  we  arc  compelled  to  pause  before  challenging  the  Aristotelian 
doctrine  that  metrical  structure  is  but  an  accidental  quality  of  epic. 

In  speaking  of  the  Nibclung  story  we  do  not,  of  course,  speak  of 
the  German  version,  the  NxMunghUied^  a  fine  epic  still,  though  a 
degradation  of  the  eklcr  form.  Between  the  two  the  differences 
.are  fundamental  in  the  artistic  sense,  and  form  an  excellent  illustra- 
tion of  what  has  just  been  said  upon  the  disturbance  of  motive  in 
epic,  and  indeed  in  all  poetic  art.  It  is  not  merely  that  the  endings 
oi  the  three  principal  characters,  Sigurd  (Siegfried),  Gudrun 
(Kriemhilt),  and  Brynhild  arc  entirely  different:  it  is  not  merelv 
that  the  Icelandic  version,  by  missing  the  blood-bath  at  Fafpirs 
lair,  loses  the  pathetic  situation  of  Gudrun's  becoming  afterwards 
an  unwilling  instrument  of  her  husband's  death;  it  is  not  merely 
that,  on  the  other  hand,  the  German  version,  by  omitting  the  eaHy 
love  passages  between  Brynhild  and  Sigurd  at  Hindfdl,  misses 
entirely  the  tragk  meaning  of  her  story  and  the  terrible  hate  that 
is  love  resulting  from  the  breaking  of  the  troth ;  but  the  conclusion 


prietjr,  be  called  Gudrun's  Forgiveness. 

If  it  be  said  that,  in  both  cases,  the  motive  shows  the  same 
Titanic  temper,  that  Is  because  the  Titanic  temper  i*  the  spccbl 
Tajaoarai  ^characteristic  of  the  North- Western  mind.  The  temper 
£l^^L^  of  revolt  against  authority  seems  indeed  to  belong 
^^1,  to  that  energy  which  succeeds  in  the  modem  develop- 
ment of  the  great  racial  struggle  for  life.  Although 
no  epic.  Eastern  or  Western,  can  exist  without  a  struggle  between 
gooa  and  evil — and  a  stnifizle  upon  apparently  equal  terms — it 
must  not  be  suDOOsed  that  the  warring  of  conflicting  forces  which 
is  the  motive  oi  Eastern  epic  has  inuch  real  relation  to  the  warring 
of  conflicting  forces  which  is  the  motive  of  Western  epic. 

And,  as  regards  the  machinery  of  epic,  there  is,  we  suspect,  a 
deeper  sigmficance  than  Is  commonly  apprehended  in  the  fact  that 
the  Satan  or  Shaitan  of  the  Eastern  world  becomes  in  Vondel  and 
Milton  a  sublime  Titan  who  attracts  to  himself  the  admiration  which 
in  Eastern  poetry  belongs  entirely  to  the  authority  of  heaven. 
In  Asia,  save  perhaps  among  the  pure  Arabs  of  the  desert,  underlying 
all  feli^ous  forma*  there  »  apparent  a  temper  of  resignation  to  the 
irresistible  authority  of  heaven.  And  as  regards  the  Aryans  it 
is  probable  that  the  Titanic  temper--the  temper  of  revolt  against 
authority-^did  not  begin  to -show  itself  till  they  had  moved  across 
the  Caucasus.  But  what  concerns  us  here  is  the  fact  that  the 
farther  they  moved  to  the  north-west  the  more  vigorously  this 
temper  asserted  itself,  the  prouder  grew  man  in  bis  attitude  towards 
the  gods,  tiH  at  last  in  the  bcandinavkm  cycle  he  became  their  equal 
and  struggled  alongside  them,  shoulder  to  shoulder,  in  the  defence 
of  heaven  against  the  assaults  of  heO.  Therefore,  as  we  say,  the 
student  of  epic  poetry  must  not  suppose  that  there  is  any  real 
parallel  between  the  attitude  of  Vishnu  (as  Rama)  towards 
Havana  and  the  attitude  of  Prometheus  towards  Zeus,  or  the  atti- 
tude of  the  human  heroes  towards  Odin  in  Scandinavian  poetry. 
Had  Havana  been  clothed  with  a  properly  constituted  autnority, 
had  he  been  a  legitimate  god  insteaa  of^  a  demon,  the  Eastern 
doctrine  of  recognition  of  authority  would  most  likely  have  conw 
in  and  the  world  would  have  been  spared  one  at  least  of  its 
enormous  epics.  Indeed,  the  Ravana  of  the  RAmHyana  answers 
somewhat  to  the  Fafnir  of  the  Volsunffi  '%$''•  **^  ^^  P'^^  against 
demons  is  not  to  rebel  against  authority.  The  vast  field  of  Indian 
epic,  however,  is  quite  beyond  us  here. 

Nor  can  we  do  more  than  glance  at  the  JColndb.  From  one  point 
«f  view  that  group  of  botlads  might  be  takcti.  no  doubt,  as  a  simple 
record  of  how  the  men  of  Kalevala  were  skitful  in  capturing  the 


sisters  of  t^e  Pojobia  «ien.  But  ttom  another  point  tt  vkw  tAe 
universal  struggle  of  the  male  for  the  female  seems  typified  in  this 
so-called  epic  of  the  Finns  by  the  picture  of  the  '^Lady  of  the 
Rainbow  "  sitting  upon  her  flowing  arc  and  weaving  her  goMen 
thready  while  the  hero  is  doing  battle  with  the  malevolent  ftMicea 
of  natures 

But  it  is  in  the  Nibelung  story  that  the  temper  of  Western  t$Ac 
is  at  its  best — the  temper  of  the  simple  fighter,  whose  business 
it  is  to  fight.    The  ideal  Western  fighter  was  not  known  in  Greece 
till  ages  after  Homer,  when  in  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  the  com- 
panions of  Leopidas  combed  their  long  hair  in  the  aun.   The  business 
of  the  fighter  in  Scandinavian  ^ic  is  to  yield  to  no  power  whatso- 
ever, whether  of  earth  or  heaven  or  hell-^to  take  a  buffet  from  the 
AlUather  himself,  and  to  return  it;  to  look  Dntiny  herself  in  the 
face,  crying  out  for  quarter  neither  to  gods  nor  demons  nor  Norns. 
This  is  the  tro^  temper  <tf  pure  "  heroic  poetry  "  aa  it  haa  hitherto 
flourished  on  this  side  the  Caucasus — the  temper  of  the  fighter 
who  is  invincible  because  he  feeJs  that  Fate  hcrseli  falters  when 
thehero  of  the  true  strain  defito    the  Ira^ter  who  feels  that  the  very 
Noma  theaselvoB  mint  cringe  at  last  before  the  simple  courage  oi 
man  standing  naked  and  bare  of  hope  against  all  assaults,  whether 
of  hcavcQ  or  hell  or  doom.    The  proud  heroes  of  the  VShunpi 
Saga  utter  no  moans  and  shed  no  Homeric  tears,  knowing  as  they 
know  that  the  day  prophesied  is  sure  when,  shoulder  to  shoulder, 
gods  and  men  ahafl  stand  up  to  fight  file  entire  brood  of  nigbt.Mid 
«viL  storming  the  very  gates  of  Asiard* 

That  this  temper  u  not  the  highest  from  the  ethical  point  of 
view  is  no  douot  true.  Against  the  beautiful  re»gnation  of 
Buddhism  it  may  seem  barbaric,  and  if  moral  suasion  could  supplant 
physical  force  in  epie-«if  Siddartha  could  take  the  place  of  Acnillee 
or  Sigurd— it  nMgbt  be  better  for  Che  bumao  race. 

But  we  must  now  give  undivided  attention  to  pure  egoistic 
or  \yjnt  imagination.  This,  as  has  been  said,  is  sufficient  to 
vitalize  all  forms  of  poetic  art  save  drama  and  the  tkt  Lytic 
Greek  epic.  It  would  be  impossible  to  discuss  Imunimm 
adequately  here  the  Hebrew  poets,  who  have  pro-  *'■■' 
duced  a  lyric  so  different  in  kind  from  all  other  lyrics  as  to 
stand  in  a  ctass  by  itself.  As  it  is  equal  in  importance  to 
the  Great  Drama  of  Shakespeare,  Aeschylus  and  Sophocles, 
we  may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  call  it  the  "  Great  Lyric." 
The  Great  Lyric  must  be  religious— it  must,  it  would  seem, 
be  an  outpouring  of  the  soul,  not  towards  man  but  towards 
God,  like  that  of  the  God'intoxicated  prophets  and  psalmists 
of  Scripture.  Even  the  lyric  fire  of  Pindar  owes  much  to  the 
fact  that  he  had  a  childlike  belief  in  the  myths  to  which  so  many 
of  his  contemporaries  had  begun  to  give  a  languid  assent.  But 
there  is  nothing  in  Pindar,  or  indeed  elsewhere  in  Greek  poetry, 
like  the  rapturous  song,  combining  unconscious  power  with 
unconscious  grace,  which  we  have  called  the  Great  Lyric.  It 
might  perhaps  be  said  Indeed  that  the  Great  Lyric  Is  purely 
Hebrew.  But,  although  we  could  hardly  expect  to  find  it  among 
those  whose  language,  complex  of  syntax  and  alive  with  self- 
conscious  inflexions,  bespeaks  the  scientific  knowingness  of  the 
Western  mind,  to  call  the  temper  of  the  Great  Lyric  broadly 
"  Asiatic  "  would  be  rash.  It  seems  to  belong  as  a  birthright 
to  those  descendants  of  Shcm  who,  yearning  always  to  look 
straight  into  the  face  of  God  and  live,  could  (when  the  Great 
Lyric  was  sung)  see  not  much  else. 

Though  two  of  the  artistic  elements  of  the  Great  Lyric, 
unconscfousness  and  power,  are  no  doubt  plentiful  enough  in 
India,  the  element  of  grace  is  lacking  for  the  most  part.  The 
Vedic  hymns  are  both  nebulous  and  unemotional,  as  compared 
with  Semitic  hymns.  And  as  to  the  Persians,  they,  it  would 
seem,  have  the  grace  always,  the  power  often,  but  the  uncon- 
sciousness alihost  never.  This  is  inevitable  if  we  consider  for 
a  moment  the  chief  characterhtic  of  the  Persian  imagination— an 
imagination  whose  wings  are  not  so  much  "  bright  with  beauty  " 
as  heavy  with  it — heavy  as-  the  wings  of  a  golden  pheasant- 
steeped  in  beauty  like  the  '*  tiger-moth's  deep  damasked  wings." 
Now  beauty  of  this  kind  docs  not  go  to  the  making  of  the  Great 
Lyric. 

Then  there  comes  that  poetry  which,  being  ethnologically 
Semitic,  might  be  supposed  to  exhibit  something  at  least  of  the 
Hebrew  temper— the  Arabian.  But,  whatever  may  bcr  said  of 
the  oldest  Arabic  poetry,  with  its  deep  sense  of  fate  and  pain, 
it  would  seem  that  nothing  can  be  more  unlike  than  the  Hebrew 
temper  and  the  Arabian  temper  as  seen  in  later  poets.  It  is  not 
with  Hebrew  but  with  Persian  poetry  that  Arabian  poetry  can 


888 


POETRY 


be  usefully  compared.  If  the  wings  of  the  Persian  imagination 
are  heavy  with  beauty,  those  of  the  later  Arabian  imagination 
are  bright  with  beauty— brilliant  as  an  Eastern  butterfly,  quick 
and  agUe  as  a  dragon-fly  or  a  humming-bird.  To  the  eye  of 
the  Persian  poet  the  hues  of  earth  are  (as  Firdausi  sa3rs  of  the 
garden  of  Afrasiab)  "  like  the  tapestry  of  the  kings  of  Ocmuz, 
the  air  is  perfumed  with  musk,  and  the  waters  of  the  brooks  are 
the  essence  of  roses.*'  And  to  the  later  Arabian  no  less  than  to 
the  Persian  the  earth  is  beautiful;  but  it  is  the  clear  and  sparkling 
beauty  of  the  earth  as  she  **  wakes  up  to  life,  greeting  the  Sabaean 
morning  **;  we  feel  the  light  more  than  the  colour.  But  it  is 
neither  the  Persian's  instinct  lor  beauty  nor  the  Arabian's 
quendilcss  wit  and  exhaustleas  animal  qpirits  that  go  to  the 
making  of  the  Great  L3rric;  far  from  it.  In  a  word,  the  Great 
Lyric,  as  we  have  said,  cannot  be  assigned  to  the  Asiatic  temper 
generally  any  move  than  it  can  be  assigned  to  the  European 
temper. 

In  the  poetry  of  Europe,  if  we  cannot  say  of  Pindar,  devout 
as  he  is,  Uiat  he  produced  the  Great  Lyric,  what  can  we  say  of 
7fe*0*L  '^^y  other  European  poet?  The  truth  is  that, like 
the  Great  Drama,  so  Straight  and  so  warm  does  it 
seem  to  come  from  the  heart  of  man  in  its  highest  moods  that 
wc  scarcely  feel  it  to  be  literature  at  all.  Passing,  however, 
from  this  supreme  expression  of  lyrical  imagination,  we  come 
to  the  artistic  ode,  upon  which  subject  the  present  writer  can 
only  reiterate  here  what  he  has  more  fully  said  upon  a  former 
occasion.  Whatever  may  have  been  said  to  the  contrary, 
enthusiasm  is,  in  the  nature  of  things,  the  very  basis  of  the  ode; 
for  the  ode  is  a  mono-drama,  the  actor  in  which  is  the  poet 
himself;  and,  as  Marmontcl  has  well  pointed  out,  if  the  actor 
in  the  mono-drama  is  not  aflected  by  the  sentiments  he  expresses, 
the  ode  must  be  cold  and  lifeless.  But,  although  the  ode  is  a 
natural  poetic  method  of  the  poet  considered  as  prophet*- 
aUhough  it  is  the  voice  of  poetry  as  a  fine  fren^-~it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  there  is  anything  lawless  in  its  structure. 
"  Pindar,"  says  the  Italian  critic  Cravina,  "  launches  his  verses 
upon  the  bosom  of  the  sea;  he  spreads  out  all  his  sails;  he  con- 
fronts the  tempest  and  the  rocks;  the  waves  arise  and  arc  ready 
to  cogulf  him;  already  he  has  disappeared  from  the  spectator's 
view;  when  suddenly  he  springs  up  in  the  midst  of  the  waters, 
and  reaches  happily  the  shore."  Now  it  is  this  Pindaric  dis- 
cursiveness, this  Pindaric  unrestraint  as  to  the  matter,  which 
has  led  poets  to  attempt  to  imitate  him  by  adopting  an  unre- 
straint as  to  form.  Although  no  two  odes  of  Pindar  exhibit 
the  same  metrical  structure  (the  Aeolian  and  Lydian  rhythms 
being  mingled  with  the  Doric  in  different  proportions),  yet  each 
ode  is  in  itself  obedient,  severely  obedient,  to  structural  law. 
This  wc  feel ;  but  what  the  law  is  no  mctricist  has  perhaps  ever 
yet  been  able  to  explain. 

It  was  a  strange  misconception  that  led  people  for  centuries 
to  use  the  word  "  Pindaric  "  and  irregular  as  synonymous  terms; 
whereas  the  very  essence  of  the  odes  of  Pindar  (of  the  few,  alas! 
which  survive  to  us)  is  their  regularity.  There  is  no  more  diflicult 
form  of  poetry  than  this,  and  for  this  reason:  when  in  any 
poetical  composition  the  metres  are  varied,  there  must,  as  the 
present  writer  has  before  pointed  out,  be  a  reason  for  such 
freedom,  and  that  reason  is  properly  subjective — the  varying 
form  must  embody  and  express  the  varying  emotions  of  the 
singer.  But  when  these  metrical  variations  are  governed  by 
no  subjective  law  at  all,  but  by  arbitrary  rules  supposed  to  be 
evolved  from  the  practice  of  Pindar,  then  that  very  variety 
which  should  aid  the  poet  in  expressing  his  emotion  crystallizes 
it  and  makes  the  ode  the  most  frigid  of  all  compositions.  Great 
as  Pindar  undoubtedly  is,  it  is  deeply  to  be  regretted  that  no 
other  poet  survives  to  represent  the  triumphal  ode  of  Greec^^ 
the  digressions  of  his  subject  matter  are  so  wide,  and  his  volu- 
bility is  so  great. 

In  modem  literature  the  ode  has  been  mined  by  theories 
and  experiments.  A  poet  like  La.  Mothe,  for  instance,  writei 
execrable  odes,  and  then  writes  a  treatise  to  prove  that  all  odes 
^ould  be  written  on  the  same  modeL  Then  is  much  confusion 
i>f  mind  prevalent  among  poets  as  to  what  is  and  wbai  is  tkoi 


an  ode.   All  odes  are,  no  doubt,  divisible  into  t«o 

those  which,  following  an  arrangement  in  stanzas,  arc  coammdr 

called  regular,  and  those  which,  following  no  sudi  amngcmeat, 

are  commonly  called  irregular. 

We  do  not  agree  with  those  who  assert  that  irregular  metre*  an 
of  necessity  immical  to  poetic  art.  On  the  contrary,  we  bei«>e 
that  in  modern  prosody  the  arrangement  of  the  rfayinet  aad  tke 
length  of  the  lines  in  any  rh^ed  metrical  passage  may  be  deco- 
mined  cither  by  a  fixed  stanzaic  law  or  by  a  law  in^itely  deeper  by 
the  law  which  impels  the  soul,  in  a  state  of  poetic  exahatioo,  t» 
seize  hold  of  every  kind  of  metrical  aid,  such  as  rhyme,  caesuia.  &c 
for  the  purpose  of  accentuating  and  marking  off  each  shade  d 
emotion  as  it  arises,  regardless  of  any  demands  of  staoza.  Bt£ 
between  the  irregularity  of  makeshift,  such  as  we  fsnd  it  aa  Ce«iet 
and  his  imitators,  and  the  irresularitv  of  the  **  fine  frensy  **  of  saA 
a  poem,  for  instance,  as  Coleridge's  Kuhla  Kkan,  there  w  a  diUcfcwx 
in  kind.  Strange  that  it  is  not  in  an  ode  at  all  but  ia  this  uiiiq« 
lyric  Kubia  Kmh,  descriptive  of  imaginative  landscape,  that  as 
English  poet  has  at  last  conquered  the  crowning  difliculty  of  vntaa 
in  irregular  metres.  Having  broken  away  from  att  reatraiau  v 
couplet  and  stanza — ^having  caused  his  rhymes  and  paines  to  ul 
iuKt  where  and  just  when  the  emotion  demands  that  they  shocU 
fall,  scorning  the  exigencies  of  makeshift  no  less  than  the  exifcracis 
of  stanza — he  has  found  what  every  writer  of  irregular  Engli^  odes 
has  sought  in  vain,  a  music  as  entrancing,  as  natural,  and  at  ^it 
same  time  as  inscrutable,  as  the  music  of  the  winds  or  of  the  sea. 

The  prearranged  effects  of  sharp  contrasts  and  anttpbonal  mim- 
ments,  such  as  some  poets  have  been  able  to  compass,  do  not  d 
course  come  under  the  present  definition  of  irregular 
metres  at  all.  If  a  metrical  passage  does  not  gain 
immensely  by  being  written  inoepcndently  of  stanzaic 
law,  it  loses  immensely;  and  for  this  reason,  perhaps,  that 
the  great  charm  of  the  music  of  all  verse,  as  distinsui^bcd 
from  the  music  of  prose,  is  incvitablencss  of  cadence.  In  ngda 
metres  we  enjoy  the  pleasure  of  feeling  that  the  rhymes  vfl 
inevitably  fall  under  a  recognized  law  of  couplet  or  stanza.  6a 
if  the  passage  flows  independently  of  these,  it  must  stiU  ftc« 
inevitably — ^it  must,  in  short,  show  that  it  is  governed  fay  aaotber 
and  a  yet  deeper  force,  the  inevitableness  of  emotional  expRssiosL 
The  lines  must  be  long  or  short,  the  rhyntcs  must  be  arranged  after 
this  or  after  that  interval,  not  because  it  is  convenient  so  to  amop 
them,  but  because  the  emotion  of  the  poet  inexorably  dctc^aes 
these  and  no  other  arrangements.  When,  however.  Coleridrr  case 
to  try  his  hand  at  irregular  odes,  such  as  the  odes  "To  tbe 
Departing  Year  "  and  "  To  the  Duchess  of  Devonshire."  be  ccrtaialr 
did  not  succeed. 

As  to  Wordsworth's  magnificent  "Ode  on  Intimations  of  ha> 
mortality,"  the  sole  impeachment  of  it,  but  it  is  a  grave  one.  is  tfait 
the  length  of  the  lines  and  the  arrangement  of  the  rhymes  arc  rrt 
always  inevitable;  they  are,  except  on  rare  occasions,  guwiwi 
neither  by  stanzaic  nor  by  emotional  law.  For  instance.  «te 
emotional  necessity  was  there  for  the  following  rbynle-a^aB|^ 
mcnt^ 

*'  My  heart  is  at  your  festival. 

My  head  hath  its  coronal. 
The  fulness  of  your  bliss  I  feel— I  feel  it  alL 

Oh,  evil  day!  if  I  were  sulkn 

While  earth  herself  is  adorning, 

This  sweet  May  mornine: 

And  the  children  are  culling. 
On  every  side. 

In  a  thousand  valleys  far  and  wide. 
Fresh  flowers." 


Beautiful  as  is. the  substance  of  this  entire 


fir  Irea 


([ainine,  it  loses  by  rhymc^-hMcs,  not  in  ncrmicuity,  lor  Wc 
ike  all  his  contemporaries  (except  Shellev)  is  mostly  , 
but  in  that  metrical  emphasis  the  quest-of  which  is  one  df  the  impatn 
that  kads  a  poet  to  write  in  rhyme.  In  spite,  however,  of  its  netml 
defects,  this  famous  ode  of  Wordsworth's  is  the  finest  inrsvUr 
ode  in  the  language:  for.  although  Coleridge's  **  Ode  to  tbe  De- 
parting Year  "  excels  it  in  Pindaric  fire,  it  is  below  Worrisvortb's 
masterpiece  in  almost  every  other  quality  save  rhythos.  Aimag 
the  writers  of  English  ii regular  odes,  next  to  W<MxSsworth.  etandi 
pryden.  The  second  stanza  of  the  "  Ode  for  St  CecOaa's  I^  " 
is  a  great  triumph. 

Leaving  the  irregular  and  turning  to  the  regular  ode,  it  is  natsfsl 
to  divide  these  into  two  classes:  (i)  those  which  are  really  Pindinc 
in  so  far  as  they  consist  of  strophes,  antistrophcs  and  epodrs, 
variously  arranged  and  contrasted ;  and  (2)  those  which  consist  d  a 
regular  succession  of  regular  stanzas.  IVrhaps  all  Pindaric  adn 
tend  to  show  that  this  form  of  art  is  in  English  a  mistake.  It  a 
easy  enough  to  write  one  stanza  and  call  it  a  strophe,  another  is 
a  different  movement  and  call  it  an  antistrophe.  a  third  m  a  (fiAetesl 
movement  still  and  call  it  an  cpode.  But  in  modern  proeody 
disconnected  as  it  is  from  mnncai  and  from  tcrpsithofcan 
what  are  these?  No  port  and  no  critic  can  say. 

W*hat  is  requisite  is  that  the  mr  of  the  reader  should  catch  a 
metrical  scheme,  of  wbkh  these  three  varietica  of 


POETRY 


889 


are  neccMary  part«— fthould  catch,  in  •hort,  tliat  Inevkablenen 
of  structure  upon  which  wte  have  already  touched..  In  order  to 
jiMtify  a  poet  m  writing  a  poem  in  three  different  kinds  of  move- 
ment, governed  by  no  musical  and  no  terpsichorean  necessity, 
a  necessity  of  another  kind  should  make  itself  apparent:  that  is, 
the  metrical  wave  moving  in  the  strophe  shouu  be  metrically 
answered  by  the  counter>wave  moving  in  the  aatistrophe,  while  the 
apode — which,  as  originally  conceived  by  Stesichorus,  was  merely 
a  standing  still  after  the  oalanced  movements  of  the  strophe  and 
antistrophe — should  clearly,  in  a  language  like  oare,  be  a  blended 
echo  of  these  two.  A  mete  metrical  contrast  such  as  some  poetl 
labour  to  effect  is  not  a  metrical  answer.  And  if  the  reply  to  this 
criticisro  be  that  in  Pindar  himself  no  such  metrical  scheme  Is 
apparent,  that  is  the  strongest  possible  argument  in  support  oC 
our  position.  If  indeed  the  metrical  scheme  of  Pindar  is  not 
apparent,  that  is  because,  having  been  written  for  chanting,  it  was 
aubordinate  to  the  lost  musical  scheme  of  the  musician.  It  has 
been  contended,  and  is  likely  enough,  that  this  musical  scheme  was 
aimple — as  simple,  perhaps,  as  the  scheme  of  a  cathedra!  chant; 
but  to  it,  whatever  it  was,  the  metrical  scheme  of  the  poet  was 
aubordinatcd.  It  need  ecarcely  be  said  that  the  phrase  metrical 
acheme  "  a  aatd  here  not  in  the  narrow  sense  as  indicating  the 
fxwition  and  movement  of  strophe  and  antistrophe  by  way  of 
aimple  contrast,  but  in  the  deep  metrical  sense  as  indicating  the 
value  of  each  of  these  component  parts  of  the  ode,  as  a  couoter-wave 
balancing  and  explaining  the  other  waves  in  the  harmony  of  the 
entire  composition.  We  touch  upon  this  matter  in  order  to  show 
that  the  moment  odes  ceased  to  be  chanted,  the  words  strophe, 
antistrophe.  and  cpode  lost  the  musical  value  they  had  among  the 
Greeks,  and  pretended  to  ^  complex  metrical  value  which  their 
actual  metrical  structure  dioes  not  appear  to  jnstify.  It  does 
not  follow  from  this  that  odes  should  not  be  so  ananged»  but  it 
does  folbw  that  the  poet's  arrangement  should  justify  itself  by 
disclosing  an  entire  metrical  scheme  in  place  of  the  musical  scheme 
to  which  the  Greek  choral  lyric  was  e^dently  subordinated.  But 
even  if  the  poet  were  a  safficiontly  skilled  metricist  to  compan  a 
acheme  embracing  a  wave,  an  answering  wave,  and  an  echo  gathering 
up  the  tones  of  each,  i-e.  the  strophe,  the  antistrophe  and  the 
epode,  the  car  of  the  reader,  unaided  by  the  musical  emphasis 
which  supported  the  rhythms  of  the  old  choral  lyric,  is,  it  should 
eeem,  incapable  of  gathering  up  and  renemberin^  the  sounds 


epode  at  the  end  of  a  group  of  strophes  and  anttstrophes  (as  in  some 
of  the  Greek  odes)  has,  of  course,  a  different  functioa  altogether. 

The  great  difiicttity  of  the  English  ode  is  that  of  preventing  the 
apparent  spontaneity  of  the  impulse  frum  being  marred  by  the 
apparent  artifice  of  the  form ;  for,  assuredly,  no  writer  subsequent 
to  Coleridge  and  to  Keats  wouM  dream  of  writing  an  ode  on  the  cold 
Horatian  principles  adopted  by  Wanon,  and  even  by  Collins,  in  his 
beautiful ''  Ode  to  Evening." 

Of  the  second  kind  of  regular  odes,  those  conusting  of  a  regular 
succession  of  regular  stanzas,  the  so-called  odes  of  Sappho  are,  of 
course,  so  transcendent  that  no  other  amatory  lyrics  can  be  compared 
with  them.  Never  before  these  songs  were  sung  and  never  iince 
did  the  human  soul,  in  the  grip  of  a  fiery  pes»on,  utter  a  cry  like 
hers;  and  from  the  executive  point  of  view,  m  directness,  in  lucidity, 
in  that  high  imperious  verbal  economy  which  only  nature  herself 
can  teach  the  artist,  she  has  no  etiuaf,  and  none  worthy  to  take 
the  place  of  second— not  even  in  Heine,  nor  even  in  Burns.  Tmniog, 
however,  to  modern  poetry,  there  are  some  magnificent  examples 
of  this  simple  form  of  ode  in  English  poetry — Spenser's  immortal 
**  Epithalamion  **  leading  the  way  in  point  of  time,  and  probably 
a1«o  in  point  of  excellence. 

Fervour  being  absolutely  essential,  we  think,  to  a  great  English 
ode,  fluidity  of  metrical  movement  can  never  be  dispensed  with. 
The  more  billowy  the  metrical  waves  the  better  suited  are  they  to 
render  the  emotions  expressed  by  the  ode,  as  the  reader  will  see  by 
referring  to  Coleridge's  "  Ode  to  France  "  (the  finest  ode  in  the 
English  language,  accofding  to  Shelley),  and  giving  special  atten* 
tion  to  the  first  stanaa— to  the  way  in  which  the  first  metrical 
wave,  after  it  bad  gently  fallen  at  the  end  of  the  first  ouatrain, 
leaps  up  again  on  the  double  rhymes  (which  are  expressly  intro- 
duce(<  for  this  effect),  and  goes  bounding  on.  billow  alter  bnlow,  to 
the  end  of  the  stanza.  Not  that  this  fine  ode  is  quite  free  from  the 
great  vke  of  the  English  ode,  rhetoric.  If  we  except  Spenser  and, 
in  one  instant,  Collins,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  any  English 
writer^  before  Shelley  and  Keats  produced  odes  independent  of 
rhetoric  and  supported  by  pure  poetry  alone.  But  fervid  as  are 
Shelley's  "  Ode  to  the  West  Wind  '*  and  KeaU's  odes  "  To  a  Night- 
ingale"  and  "On  a  Grecian  Urn,"  they  are  entirely  free  from 
rhetorical  flavoor.  Notwithstanding  that  in  the  "  Ode  on  a  GrerLan 
Urn  "  the  first  stanxa  does  not  match  in  rhyme  arransement  with 
the  others,  while  the  second  stanza  of  the  "  Ode  to  a  Nightingale  *' 
varies  from  the  rest  by  running  on  four  riiyme-sounds  instMd  of 
five,  vexing  the  ear  at  first  1^  cHsappointcd  expectation,  these 
two  odes  are.  After  Coleridge's  "  France,"  the  finest  regular  odes 
perhaps  in  the  English  language. 

With  regard  to  the  French  ode,  Malheite  yru  the  fint  writer 
XXI  15* 


tfesSsafr 


vrtio  brought  it  to  perfection.  Malherbe  showed  also  more  variety 
of  mood  tnan  it  is  the  fashion  just  now  to  credit  him  with.  Thui 
may  be  especially  noted  in  hU  *^  Ode  to  Louis  Xlll."  His  disciple 
Racan  is  not  of  much  account.  There  is  certainly  much  vigour 
in  the  odes  of  Rousseau,  but  it  is  not  till  we  reach  Victor  Hugo  that 
we  realize  what  French  poetry  can  achieve  in  this  line;  and  cofv 
temporary  poetry  can  hardly  be  examined  here.  We  may  say. 
however,  that  some  of  Hugo's  odes  are  truly  magnificent.    As  a 

Eure  lyrist  his  place  among  the  greatest  poets  of  the  world  is  vtry 
igh.  Hero,  though  writing  in  an  inferior  language,  he  ranks  with 
the  greatest  mastera  of  Greece,  of  England,  and  m  Germany.  Had 
he  attempted  no  other  kind  of  poetry  than  lyrical,  bis  would  stiU 
have  been  the  first  name  in  French  poetry,  whatever  is  defective 
In  his  work  arises,  as  in  the  case  of  Euripides,  from  the  importation 
of  lyrical  force  where  dramatic  force  is  mainly  needed. 

The  main  varietiea  of-  lyrical  poetry,  such  as  the  idyll,  the 
salhM,  the  ballad,  the  tonnet,  &c.,  ate  tieated  in  separate  attidea; 
but  a  word  or  two  mutt  be  said  here  about  the  song 
and  the  elegy.  To  write  a  good  song  nqajres  that 
simi^ity  of  grammatical  stnictuve  which  is  foreign  to  many 
natures^that  mastery  over  direct: and  simple  speech  whi^ 
only  true  passion  and  feding  can  give, and  irhich  "coming  fiom 
the  bean  goes  to  the  heart."  Without  going  so  far  as  to  say 
that  no  man  is  a  poet  who  cannot  write  a  good  song,  it  may 
certainly  be  said  that  no  man  can  write  a  good  song  who  is  not 
a  good  poet.  In  modem  times  we  havo,  of  course,  nothing  in 
any  Way  rapresenting  those  choral  dance*songs  of  the  Greeki, 
which,  originating  in  the  primitive  Cretan  warnlances,  became. 
In  Pindai't  time,  a  splendid  blending  of  song  and  ballet.  Nor 
havB  we  anythfaig  exactly  representing  the  Greek  scolia,  those 
short  drinking  songs  of  which  Teipander  is  said  to  have  been 
the  inventor.  That  these  scolia  were  written,  not  only  by  poeta 
like  Alcaeus,  Anacrcon.  Praxilla,  Simonidcs,  but  also  by  Sappho 
and  by  Pindar,  shows  in  what  high  esteem  they  were  held  by 
the  Greeks.  These  songs  se«n  to  have  been  as  brief  as  the 
stomelli  of  the  Italian  peasant.  They  were  accompanied  by 
the  lyre,  which  was  handed  from  singer  to  singer  as  the  time 
for  each  scolion  came  rotmd. 

With  regard  to  the  stornello,  many  critics  seem  to  confound 
it  with  the  rispetto,  a  very  different  kind  of  song.  The  Italian 
rispcUo  consists  of  a  stanza  of  inter-rhyming  lines  ranging  from 
six  to  ten  in  number,  but  often  not  exceeding  eight.  The  Ttiscan 
and  Umbrian  ilorndlo  is  much  shorter,  consisting,  Indeed,  of  a 
hemistich  naming  some  natural  object  which  suggests  the  motive 
of  the  little  poem.  The  nearest  approach  to  the  Italian  stornello 
appears  to  be,  not  the  rispetto,  but  the  Welsh  triban. 

Perhaps  the  mere  difficulty  of  rhyming  in  English  and  tHe 
fadlity  of  rhyming  in  Italian  must  be  taken  into  account  when 
we  inquire  why  there  is  nothing  in  Scotland — of  course  there 
could  be  nothing  in  England — answering  to  the  nature-poetry 
of  the  Italian  peasant.  Most  of  the  Italian  rispetti  and  stomelli 
seem  to  be  improvisations;  and  to  improvise  in  English  is  as 
difficult  as  to  improvise  is  easy  in  Italian.  Nothit\g  indeed  is 
more  interesting  than  the  improvisatorial  poetry  of  the  Italian 
peasants,  such  as  the  canzone.  If  the  peasantry  discover  who 
is  the  composer  of  a  canzone,  they  will  not  sing  it.  The  spedality 
of  Italian  peasant  poetry  is  that  the  symlx)!  which  is  mostly 
erotic  is  of  the  purest  and  most  tender  kind.  A  peasant  girt 
will  improvise  a  song  as  impassioned  as  "  Come  into  the  Garden, 
Maud,"  and  as  free  from  unwholesome  taint. 

With  regard  to  English  songs,  the  critic  cannot  but  ask— 
Wherein  lies  the  lost  ring  and  charm  of  the  Elizabethan  song- 
writers ?  Since  the  Jacobean  period  at  least,  few  have  succeeded 
in  the  art  of  writing  real  songs  as  distinguished  from  mere  book 
lyrics.  Between  songs  to  be  sung  and  songs  to  be  read  there 
is  in  our  time  a  difference  as  wide  as  that  which  exists  between 
plays  for  the  closet  and  plays  for  the  boards. 

Heartiness  and  melody— the  two  requisites  of  a  song  which 
can  never  be  dispensed  with— can  rarely  be  compassed,  it  seems, 
by  one  and  the  same  individual.  In  both  these  qualities  the 
Elizabethan  poets  stand  pre-eminent,  though  even  with  them 
the  melody  is  not  so  singable  as  it  might  be  made.  Since  their 
time  heartiness  has,  perhaps,  been  a  Scottish  rather  than  an 
English  endowment  of  the  song-writer.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine 
an  Englishman  writing  a  song  like  *'  Tullochgorum  "  or  a  song 


890 


POGGENDORFF--POGGIO 


like  "  Maggie  Lauder/'  where  the  heortincM  and  impafae  of 
the  poet's  mood  conquer  all  impediments  of  close  vowels  and 
rugged  consonantal  combinations.  Of  Scottish  song-writen 
Burns  is,  of  course,  the  head;  for  the  songs  ol  John  Skinner, 
the  heartiest  song-writer  that  has  appeared  hi  Great  BrUain 
(not  excluding  Herrick),  are  too  few  in  number  to  entitle  him  to 
be  placed  beside  a  poet  so  prolific  in  heartiness  and  mdody  as 
Bums.  With  regard  to  Campbell's  heartiness,  this  is  quite  a 
different  quality  from  the  heartiness  of  Bums  and  Skinner, 
and  is  in  quality  English  rather  than  Scottish,  though,  no  doubt, 
it  is  of  a  fine  and  rare  strain,  especially  in  **  The  B&tlle  of  the 
Baltic."  His  songs  illustrate  an  infirmity  which  even  the 
Scottish  song-writers  share  witli  theEngUsh — a  defective  sense 
of  that  true  song-warble  which  we  get  in  the  stomdli  and  ri^ietti 
of  the  Italian  peasants.  A  poet  may  have  heartiness  ii^  pknty, 
but  if  he  has  that  love  of  oonsonantal  effects  which  Donne 
displays  he  will  never  writes  first-rate  song.  Here, indeed, 
is  the  crowning  difficulty  of  song-writing.  An  extreme  simplicity 
ci  structure  and  of  diction  must  be  aooompanied  by  an  instinctive 
apprehension  of  the  melodic  capabilities  of  verbal  sounds,  and 
of  what  Samuel  Lover,  the  Irish  song-writer,  called  "  singing  " 
words,  which  is  rate  in  thb  country,  and  seems  to  bek>ng  to  the 
Celtic  rather  than  to  the  Saxon  ear.  "  The  spog;writer,"  says 
Lover, "  must  frame  his  song  oi  open  vowds  with  as  few  guttural 
or  hissing  sounds  as  possible,  and  he  must  be«>ntent  sometimes 
to  sacrifice  grandeur  and  i^goor  to  the  necessity  of  selecting 
singing  words  and  not  reading  words."  And  he  exemi^ifies 
the  distinction  between  singing  words  and  mding  words  by  a 
line  from  one  of  Shelley's  songs — 

** '  The  fresh  earth  in  new  leases  drest.' 

"  where  nearly  every  word  shuts  up  the  mouth  insleaid  of  opening 
iL"  But  closeness  of  vowel  sounds  is  by  no  means  the  only 
thing  to  be  avoided  in  song-writing.  A  phrase  may  be  absolutely 
unsingable,  though  the  vowels  be  open  enough,  if  it  is  loaded 
with  consonants.  The  truth  is  that  in  song-writing  it  is  quite 
as  important,  in  a  consonantal  language  like  ours,  to  attend  to 
the  consonants  as  to  the  vowels:  and  perhaps  the  first  thing  to 
avoid  in  writing  English  songs  is  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the 
sibilant.  But  this  applies  to  all  the  brief  and  quintessential 
forms  of  poetry,  such  as  the  sonnet,  the  elegy,  &c. 

As  to  the  elegy— a  form  of  poetic  art  which  has  more  relation 
to  the  objects  of  the  external  world  than  the  song,  but  less  rela- 
tion to  these  than  the  stomello — its  scope  seems 
'  to  be  wide  indeed,  as  practised  by  such  various 
writers  as  Tyrtaeus,  Theognis,  Catullus,  Tlbullus,  and  our  own 
Gray.  It  may  almost  be  said  that  perfection  of  form  is  more 
necessary  here  and  in  the  sonnet  than  in  the  song,  inasmuch  as 
the  artistic  pretensions  are  more  pronounced.  Hence  even  such 
apparent  minutiae  as  those  we  have  hinted  at  above  must  not 
be  neglected  here. 

We  have  quoted  Dionynus  of  Haltcamassus  in  relation  to  the 
arrangement  of  word*  in  poetry.  His  remarks  on  sibHants  are 
equally  deserving  of  attention.  He  goes  so  far  as  to 
■ay  that  9  is  entirely  disagreeable,  and,  when  it  often 
recurs,  insapportable.  The  hiis  seems  to  him  to  be 
more  appropriate  to  the  beast  than  to  man.  Hence  certain  writem, 
he  layft,  often  avoid  it,  and  employ  it  with  regret.  Some,  he  tells 
us,  have  composed  entire  odes  without  it.  But  if  aibilation  is  a 
defect  in  Greex  odes,  where  the  softening  effect  of  the  vowel  sounds  is 
so  potent,  it  is  much  more  so  in  English  poetiy,  where  the  con- 
sonants  dominate,  thouRh  it  will  be  only  specially  noticeably  in 
the  brief  and  quintessential  forms  such  as  the  song,  the  sonnet,  the 
ekgy.  Many  poets  only  attend  to  their  sibilants  when  these  clog 
the  rhythm.  To  write  even  the  briefest  song  without  a.nbilant 
woold  be  a  lour  de  force;  to  write  a  good  one  wouM  no  doubt  be 
next  to  impossible.  It  is  singular  that  the  only  metridst  who  ever 
attempted  it  was  John  Thelwall.  the  famous  "Citizen  John," 
friend  of  Lamb  and  ColeridEe.  and  editor  of  the  famous  Champion 
newspaper,  where  many  of  Lamb's  efni^ms  appeared.  Thelwall 
gave  much  attention  to  metrical  questions,  ana  tried  his  hand  at 
various,  metres.  Though  "  Citiaen  John's"  sopphks  miaht  cer- 
tamly  have  been  better,  he  had  a  very  remarkable  critical  insight 
into  the^  rationale  of  metrical  effects,  and  his  *'  Song  without  a 
Sibilant  "  Is  extremely  neat  and  ingenious.  Of  course,  however. 
It  wouki  be  mere  pedantry  to  exaggerate  this  ol^ection  to  sibikmts 
even  in  these  brief  forms  of  poetry.  (T.  W.-D,) 


POOemOOBFP.  JOHAMM  CHRISnAir  dyg^iS??).  Germas 

physicist,  was  bom  tn  Hamburg  on  the  agth  of  December  ij^ 
His  father,  a  wealthy  manufacturer,  having  been  all  but  ruiced 
)>y  the  French  siege,  he  had,  when  only  aixtcen,  to  appxco:xs 
himself  to  an  apothecary  in  Hamburg,  and  when  twcnty-tso 
began  to  cam  h^  living  as  an  apothecary's  assistant  at  Itaekoe. 
Ambition  and  a  strong  inclination  towards  a  scientific  cana 
led  him  to  throw  up  his  business  and  remove  to  Berlin,  whcK 
he  entered  the  university  m  iftao.    Hetv  his  abilities  vcv 
speedily  recognised,  and  in  1833  he  was  appointed  n>eteoni]oga=J 
observer  to  the  Academy  of  Sdences.   Even  at  this  eariy  peri.<J 
he  had  concaved  the  idea  of  founding  a  physical  and  dkemial 
scientific  journal,  and  the  realization  of  this  plan  wros  hastoec 
by  the  sudden  death  of  L.  W.  Gilbert,  the  editor  of  C&eru 
Annalfu  der  Physik,  in  1824.     Po^ndorff  inunediatdy  pe! 
himself  in  communication  with  the  publisher,  Bairth  of  Lctpz.;. 
with  the  result  that  he  was  instalkd  as  editor  of  a  adesLiu 
jounuil,  Amutlen  der  Pkysik  mtd  Ckemie,  whi^  was  to  be  a 
continuation  of  CUberts  AnrtaUn  on  a  somewhat  extended  fhz. 
Poggendorff  was  admirably  qualified  for  the  post.    He  had  se 
extraordinary  memory,  well  stored  with  scientific  knowkt^ 
both  modem  and  historical,  a  cool  and  impartial  judgment,  a::^ 
a  strong  preference  for  facts  as  against  theory  of  the  apecuia'HT 
kind.   He  was  thus  able  to  throw  himself  into  the  spirit  oi  modrt 
experimental  sdence.    He  possessed  in  abundant  measure  tiic 
German  virtue  of  orderliness  in  the  arrangement  of  knowiedpc 
and  in  the  conduct  of  business.    Further  he  bad  an  eogxprf 
geniality  of  manner  and  much  tact  in  dealing  with  men.   Tboc 
qualities  soon  nude  Poggeniorjfs  Annakn  the  loiemost 
journal  in  Europe. 

In  the  course  of  his  fifty-two  years*  editorship  tA  the 
Poggendorff  could  not  fail  to  acquire  an  unusual  acquaintaace 
with  the  labours  of  modem  men  of  science.  This  hnowied^ 
joined  to  what  he  had  gathered  by  historical  reading  of  eqG2i.< 
unusual  extent,  he  carefully  digested  and  gave  to  the  vorid  a 
his  Biograpkisck-littrarisches  HatidwMerbuch  mmt  CeukicAu  ie 
exaden  H^tarcsucAa/](«n,  containing  notices  of  the  lives  and  laboos 
of  naathematicians,  astronomers,  physicists,  and  clieausts,  <rf  i- 
peoples  and  all  ages.  This  work  contains  an  astounding  col- 
lection of  facts  invaluable  to  the  sdentific  biosropber  ui 
historian.  The  first  two  volumes  were  published  in  1865;  xts 
his  death  a  third  volume  appeared  in  189S,  covering  the  pcood 
1858-1883,  and  a  fourth  in  1904,  coming  down  tothebc;^3BBg 
of  the  20tb  century. 

Poggendorff  was  a  physicist  of  high  although  not  of  the  vcs? 
highest  rank.  He  was  wanting  in  mathematical  ability,  ue 
never  displayed  in  any  remarkable  degree  the  still  mose  iofsr- 
tant  power  of  sdentific  generaUzation,  which,  whether  accee- 
panied  by  mathematical  skill  or  not,  never  fails  toosarkibe 
highest  genius  in  physical  sdence.  He  was,  however,  aa  sb« 
and  conscientious  experimenter,  and  was  very  fertile  a.*^ 
ingenious  in  devising  physical  apparatus.  By  far  the  greats 
and  more  important  part  of  bis  work  related  to  dectxidty  asd 
magnetism.  His  literary  and  sdentific  icputatioB  speeder 
brought  him  honourable  recognition.  In  1830  he  was  made  royi 
professor,  in  1834  Hon.  Ph.D.  and  extraordinary  professor  m  ibc 
university  of  Berlin,  and  in  1839  member  of  the  Berlin  Acadtrr 
of  Sdences.  Many  offers  of  Mdinary  professorships  were  inaie 
to  him,  but  he  declined  them  all,  devoting  himself  to  his  deus 
as  editor  of  the  AnnaleH,  and  to  the  pursuit  of  his  sdecuSc 
researches.   He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  34th  of  January  1877. 

POOOIO  (t38o-r4S9).  Gian  Francesco  Poggio  BracdoSai. 
ItaUan  scholar  of  the  Renaissance,  was  bora  In  1380  at  Tern- 
nuova,  a  village  in  the  territory  of  Florence.  He  stodicd  Lstir 
under  John  of  Ravenna,  and  Greek  under  Manocl  Chrysoka&. 
His  distinguished  abilities  and  his  dexterity  as  a  copyist  of  l^SS^ 
brought  him  into  early  notice  with  the  chief  scholars  of  florcace 
Colucdo  Salutati  and  Niccolo  de*  Niccoli  befriended  hxm,  snd 
in  the  year  1403  or  1403  he  was  recdved  into  the  service  of  lb 
Roman  curia.  His  functk>ns  were  those  of  a  secretary;  aoi 
though  he  profited  by  benefices  conferred  on  him  in  hca  of  salary, 
he  remained  a  layman  to  the  end  of  his  life.    It  i 


POGLIZZA 


891 


that,  while  he  held  his  office  in  the  curia  through  that  momentow 
period  of  fifty  years  which  witnessed  the  Councils  of  Constance 
and  of  Basel,  and  the  final  restoration  of  the  papacy  under 
Nicholas  V.,  his  sympathies  were  never  attracted  to  eccl«iiaslical 
affairs.  Nothing  marks  the  secular  attitude  of  the  Italians  at 
an  epoch  which  decided  the  future  coarse  of  both  Renaissance 
and  Reformation  more  strongly  than  the  mundane  proclivkica 
of  this  apostolic  secretary,  heart  and  loul  devoted  to  the 
resuscitation  of  classical  studies  amid  conflicts  of  popes  and 
antipopes,  cardinals  and  councfls,  in  all  of  which  he  bora  an 
official  part.  Thus,  when  his  duties  called  Mm  to  Constance 
in  14 14,  he  employed  his  leisure  in  exf^oring  the  libraries  of 
Swiss  and  Swabian  convents.  The  treasures  he  buought  to 
light  at  Rcichenau,  Wcingarten,  and  above  all  St  Gall,  restored 
many  lost  masterpieces  of  Latin  literature,  and  sopptlM  students 
with  the  texts  of  authors  whose  works  had  hitherto  been  acces- 
sible only  in  mutilated  copies.  In  one  of  his  cpbtles  he  describes 
how  he  recovered  QuintiNan,  part  of  Valerius  Flaccus,  and  the 
commentaries  of  Asconius  Pcdianus  at  St  Gall.  MSB.  of 
Lucretius,  Columella,  Silius  Italicus,  Manflius  and  VHruvius 
were  unearthed,  copied  by  his  hand,  and  Commimicated  to  the 
learned.  Wherever  Poggio  went  he  carried  on  the  same  industry 
of  research.  At  Langres  he  discovered  Cicero's  Ofation  for 
Caecina^  at  Monte  Cassino  a  MS.  of  Frontinus.  He  also  could 
boast  o(  having  recovered  Ammiamis  Marcellinus,  Nonius 
Marcellus,  Probus,  Flavius  Cape?  and  Eutyches.  If  a  codex 
could  not  be  obtained  by  fair  means,  he  was  ready  to  use  fraud, 
as  when  he  bribed  a  monk  to  abstract  a  LIvy  and  an  AmmtanuA 
from  the  convent  library  of  Heisfieki.  Resolute  In  rccogniaing 
erudition  as  the  chief  "concern  of  man,  he  sighed  over  the  folly 
of  popes  and  princes,  who  spent  their  time  in  wars  and  eccte> 
siastical  disputes  when  they  might  have  been  more  profitably 
employed  in  raving  the  lost  learning  of  antiquity.  This  point 
of  view  is  eminently  charattcristtc  of  the  earlier  Italian  Renais- 
sance, f  The  men  of  that  nation  and  of  that  epoch  were  bent 
on  creating  a  new  intellectual  atmosphere  for  Europe  by  means 
of  vital  contact  with  antiquity.  Poggio,  like  Aeneas  Sylvius 
Piccolomint  (Plus  II.),  was  a  great  traveller,  tmd  wherever  he 
went  he  brought  enli^tened  powers  of  observation  trained  in 
liberal  studies  to  bear  upon  the  manners  of  the  countries  he 
visited.  We  owe  to  his  pen  curious  remarks  on  English  and 
Swiss  customs,  valuable  notes  on  the  remains  of  antique  art 
in  Rome,  and  a  singularly  striking  portrait  of  Jerome  of  Prague 
as  he  appeared  before  the  judges  who  condemned  him  to  the 
stake.  It  is  necessary  4o  dwell  at  length  upon  Poggio's  devotion 
to  the  task  of  recovering  the  classics,  and  upon  his  disengage- 
ment from  all  but  humanistic  interests,  because  these  were  the 
most  marked  feature  of  his  character  and  career.  In  literature 
he  embraced  the  whole  sphere  of  contemporary  studies,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  an  orator,  a  writer  of  rhetorical  treatises, 
a  panegyrist  of  the  dead,  a  violent  impugner  of  the  living,  a 
translator  from  the  Greek, an  epistolographer  andgrave  historian 
and  a  facetious  compiler  of  fabliaux  in  Latin.  On  his  moral 
essays  it  may  suffice  to  notice  the  dissertations  On  NobUityt  On 
Vicissitudes  cf  Fortune^  On  Ike  Misery  of  Human  L^e,  On  the 
Infelicity  of  Princes  and  On  Marrioge  in  (Hd  Age.  These  com- 
positions belonged  to  a  ^}cdes  which,  since  Petrarch  set  the 
fashion,  were  very  popular  among  Italian  schemes.  They  have 
lost  their  value,  except  for  the  few  mattcn  of  fact  embedded 
in  a  mass  of  commonphice  meditation,  and  for  some  occasionally 
brilliant  illustrations.  Poggio's  History  of  Florence^  written 
in  avowed  imitation  of  Livy's  manner,  requires  separate  mention, 
since  it  exemplifies  by  its  defects  the  weakness  of  that  merely 
stylistic  treatment  which  deprived  so  much  of  Bnini'si  Carlo 
Arctlno's  and  Bembo's  work  of  historical  weight.  A  somewhat 
different  criticism  must  be  passed  on  the  Facetiae,  a  collection 
of  humorous  and  indecent  tales  expressed  in  such  Latinity  as 
Pog^o  could  command.  This  book  is  chiefly  remarkable  fbr 
its  unsparing  satires  on  the  monastic  orders  and  the  secular 
clergy.  It  is  also  noticeable  as  illustrating  the  latinizing 
tendency  of  an  age  which  gave  classic  form  to  the  lightest  essays 
of  the  fancy.    Poggioj  it  may  be  observed,  was  »  flutat  «ad 


copious  wric«r  (n  the  latin  tongue,  but  nM  aii.elegant  schoftir. 
His  knowledge  of  the  ancient  authors  was  wide,  but  his  taste 
was  not  select,  and  his  erudition  was  superficial.  His  transbMSon 
of  Xenophon^  Cyropatdia  into  Latin  cannot  be  praised  for 
accuracy.  Among  contemporaries  he  passed  for  one  of  tiM 
most  formidable  polemical  or  gladiatorial  rhetoricians;  and  a 
considerable  section  of  his  extant  works  are  invectives.  One 
of  these,  the  Diaiogue  against  Hypocritos^  was  aimed  in  a  spirit 
of  vindictive  hatred  at  the  vices  of  ecclesiastics;  another,  written 
at  the  request  of  Nicholas  V.,  covered  the  anti-pope  Felix  with 
scurrikMis  abuse.  But  hb  most  famous  compositions  in  this 
kind  are  the  petsonal  invectives  which  he  dischaiKcd  agafaist 
FileKb  and  Valla.  All  the  resources  of  a  copious  and  unclean 
Latin  vocabulary  were  employed  to  degrade  the  objects  of  his 
satire;  and  every  crime  of  which  humanity  is  capable  was 
ascribed  to  them  without  discrimiAation.  In  FOelfo  and  Vallti 
Poggio  found  his  match;  and  It^  was  ainused  for  years  with 
the  spectacle  of  their  indecent  combats.  To  dwell  upon  sucli 
literary  infamies  would  be  below  the  dignity  of  the  historian, 
were  it  not  that  these  habits  of  the  eariy  ItaUan  humanbts 
imposed  a  fashion  upon  Europe  which  extended  to  the  later  age 
of  ScaUger's  oontentkma  with  Sdoppius  and  Milton's  with 
Salmasius.  The  greater  part  of  Poggio's  long  life  was  spent 
in  attendance  to  his  duties  in  the  papal  curia  at  Rome  and  else- 
where. 3ut  about  the  year  1452  he  finally  retired  to  Florence; 
where  he  was  admitted  to  the  burgheiship,  and  on  the  death  of 
Carlo  Afetino  in  1453  was  appointed  chancellor  and  historio* 
grapher  to  the  republic.  He  had  already  built  himself  a  vills 
in  Valdamo,  which  he  adorned-  with  a  collection  tA  antique 
sculpture,  coins  and  inscriptions.  In  143  s  he  had  manitd  a 
girl  of  eighteen  named  Vaggia,  of  the  famous  Buonddmont^ 
blood.  His  declining  days  were  spent  ii\  the  disdiaige  of  his 
honourable  Florentine  office  and  in  the  composition  of  hk  history. 
He  died  in  14S9,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Croce.  A  statue  by  Donatdlo  and  a  picture  by  Antonio  del 
Pollajuolo  remained  to  commemorate  a  dtixen  who  chiefly  for 
his  services  to  humanistic  literature  deserved  the  notice  of 
posterity. 

Pogrio's  works  were  printed  at  Basel  in  1S38,  "  ex  aedibns  HenricI 
Petri. '^  Dr  Shepherd's  Ufe  oj  Potpo  Brouiotini  (1802)  b  a  cood 
authority  on  his  bioerapby.  For  his  position  in  the  history  of  the 
revival,  see  Voigt's  Wiederbdtbung  des  dassiscken  Allertkums,  and 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy,  (J.  A.  S.) 

POOLIZZA  (Serbo-Croatian,  IV>ljica),  a  tract  of  mountainous 
Umd  in  Dalmatia,  Austria;  formerly  the  seat  of  an  independent 
republic.  The  territories  of  Poglizsa  lay  chiefly  within  the 
south-easterly  curve  inade  by  the  river  Cetins  before  it  enters 
the  Adriatic  at  Almiasa  (Omil).  They  also  comprised  the 
fastnesses  of  the  Mossor  range  Usoo  ft.)  and  the  fertile  strip, 
of  coast  from  Almissa  to  Stobres,  to  m.  W.N.W.  The  inhabi* 
tants  lived  in  scattered  villages,  each  ruled  by  its  count,  and  all 
together  ruled  by  the  supreme  count.  These  officers,  with  the 
three  judges,  were  always  of  noble  birth,  though  elected  by  the 
whole  body  off  dtisens.  There  were  two  orders  of  nobles;  the 
higher,  including  about  20  families,  claimed  Hungarian  descent ; 
the  lower,  claiming  kinship  with  the  Bosnian  aristocracy.  Bdowv 
these  ranked  the  commoneis  and  the  serfs.  At  a  very  early 
date  the  wariike  highlanders  of  Poglixza  became  the  friends  and 
allies  of  the  Almissan  corsairs,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  harass 
the  seaborne  trade  of  their  neighbours  without  fear  of  a  sudden 
attack  by  land.  Alml»a  received  a  charter  from  Andrew  II. 
of  Hungary  in  1207,  and  remained  under  the  nominal  protection 
of  Hungary  until  1444,  when  both  Almissa  and  Poglizza  accepted 
the  suxerainty  of  Venice,  while  retaining  their  internal  freedom. 
The  populatfon  of  Poglizsa  numbered  6566  in  1806.  In  the 
following  year,  however,  the  republic  incurred  the  enmity  of 
Napoleon  by  rendering  aid  to  the  Russians  and  Montenegrins 
in  Dalmatb;  and  it  was  invaded  by  French  troops,  who  plundcxid 
its  villages,  massacred  iu  inhabitants,  and  finally  deprived  it 
of  independence. 

See  the  Annuario  Dalmatico  for  1885  (pubttshed  at  Zara);  and 
A.  Foftisj  TromU  into  Dalmatia  (London.  1778). 


89& 


POINCARE^POINT  PLEASANT 


fOIKCARfc  RAYMOND  <x8$o-  ),  Frcach  suteraian,  was 
bom  at  Bar-le-duc  on  Ihe  20th  of  August  i860,  the  son  of  Nicolas 
Atttoinio  H^line  Poincac^,  a  distinguished  civil  servant  and 
meteorologist.  Educated  at  the  university  of  Paris,  Raymond 
was  called  to  the  Paris  ba^,  and  was  for  some  time  law  editor 
of  the  Voltaire.  He  had  served  for  over  a  year  in  the  depart- 
ment of  agriculture  when  in  1887  he  was  elected  deputy  for  the 
Meuse.  He  made  a  great  reputation  in  the  Chamber  «s  an 
economist,  and  sat  on*  th6  budget  commissions  of  tSgo-iSgi 
and  189a.  He  was  minister  of  education,  fine  arts  and  religion 
ill  the  first  cabinet  (April-Nov.  1893}  of  Charles  Dupuy,  and 
minbter  of  finance  in  the  second  and  third  (May  iS94'*Jan.  1895). 
In  the  succeeding  Ribot  cabinet  Poincari  became  minister  of 
public  instruction.  Although  he  was  excluded  from  the  Radical 
cabinet  which  followed,  the  revised  scheme  of  death  duties 
propiOsed  by  the  new  ministry  waa  based  upon  his  proposals 
of  the  previous  year.  He  became  vice-president  of  the  chamber 
in  the  autumn  of  1895,  and  in  spite  of  the  bitter  hostility  of  the 
Radicate  retained  his  position  in  1896  and  1897.  In  1906  he 
teturned  to  the  ministry  of  fioanee  in  the  short-lived  Sarrien 
ministry.  Potncar6  had  retained  his  practice  at  the  bar  during 
his  political  career,  and  he  published  several  volumes  of  essays 
on  literary  and  political  subjects. 

His  brother,  Lucien  Poincar^  (b.  i86a),  famous  as  a  physicist, 
became  inspector-general  of  pubUc  instruction  in  1909'.  He  te 
tbft  author  of  La  Physique  modtmt  (1906)  and  L*£leetneHiXiqoih 
Jules  Henri  Poincar6  (b.  1854),  also  a  distinguished  physicist, 
belongs  to  another  branch  of  the  same  faraUy.    . 

FOINSEITIA.  The  PoinseUia  pukkerrima  of  i^rdena  (EMphor* 
Ua  ptdskerfima  of  botanists),  a  native  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America;  with  its  brilliant,  scariet  bracts,  atands  uorivaUed 
amongst  decorative  plants.  The  white-bracted  sort,  var.  aUtat  iA 
not  so  effective,  but  the  double*flowered,  var.  ptenissimat  in 
which  the  brilliant  inflorescence  Is  branched,  is  as  brilliant  as 
(he  type^  and  keeps  long  in  fkvwer.  They  are  increased  by 
cuttings  in  spring,  which  when  taken  off  with  a  heel  strike  freely 
in  brisk  heat.  They  require  good  turfy  loam,  with  an  addition 
of  one-sixth  of  leaf-mould  and  a  little  sand,  and  should  be  kept 
in  a  heat  of  from  65*^  to  70**  at  atght,  with  a  rise  of  zo**  by  day. 
To  prevent  their  growing  lanky,  they  should  be  kept  with  their 
heads  almost  touching  the  glass;  and  as  the  pots  get  filled  with 
roots  they  must  be  shifted  Into  others,  7  or  8  In.  in  diameter. 
About  August  they  may  be  inured  to  a  heat  of  50*  at  night,  and 
dKHiId  be  brought  to  bear  air  night  and  day  whflst  the  weather 
b  wwQ,  or  they;may  be  placed  out  of  doors  for  a  month  under 
a  south  wall  in  the  fuU  sun.  This  treatment  matures  and  pn- 
pares  them  for  flowering.  In  Sjutumo  they  must  be  remi>ved 
to  a  house  where  the  temperature  is  50**  at  night,  and  by. the  end 
of  September  some  of  them  may  be  put  in  the  stove,  where  they 
will  come  into  flower,  the  remainder  being  placed  under  beat 
later  for  succession.  When  in  bloom  Ihey  may  be  kept  at  about 
55*  by  nighty  and  80  placed  will  last  longer  than  if  kept  io  a  higher 
temperature. 

•  rOIin(yt,  LOSIS  (1777-1^59)*  French  matheteaUcaan,  was 
bora  at  Paris  :on  the  jrd  of  January  1777.  In  1794  he  became 
a  scholar  at  the  £cole  Folytechoique,  whkh  he  left  in  1796  to 
act  as  a  civil  engineer.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  at  the  Lycfie,  in  1809  professot  of  analysis  and 
mechanics,  and  in  1816  examiner  at  the  £cole  Polytechnique. 
On  the  death  of  J.  L.  Lagrange,  in  i8]3»  Poinsot  was  elected  to 
his  i^ace  in  the  Acad^mie  des  Sciences;  and  in  i(S40  he  became 
a  member, of  the  superior  coundl  of  public  instruction.  Io  J84O 
he  was  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour;  and  on  the 
formation  of  the  senate  in  1 85 a  he  was  chosen  a  xnember  of  that 
body.  .  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  sth  of  December  i8so< 

Poinsot 's  earliest  work  was  his  £iimens  de  sialique  (1803; 
9th  edition,  1848),  in  which  he  introduces  the  idea  of  statical 
couples  and  investigates  their  properties.  In  the  Thiorie 
mowMe  de  la  rouaiam  des  corps  (1834)  he  treats  the  motion  of  a 
rigid  body  geometrically,  and  shows  that  the  most  general  motion 
of  such  a  body  can  be  represented  at  any  instant  by  a  rotation 
about  an  axis  combined  with  a  iraaslatioo  parallel  to  this  axis, 


and  that  any  motion  of  a  body  of  which  one  point  is  find  ma; 

be  produced  by  the  rolling  of  a  cone  fixed  in  the  body  on  a  coce 

fixed  in  space.    The  previous  treatment  of  the  motioa  of  a  rigid 

body  had  in  every  case  been  purely  analytical,  and  so  gave  ns 

aid  to  the  formation  of  a  mental  picture  of  the  body's  motioa. 

and  the  great  value  of  this  work  lies  In  the  fact  that,  as  Poics.»t 

himself  says  in  the  introduction,  it  enables  us  to  repcescnt  ta 

ourselves  the  motion  of  a  rigid  body  as  dearly  as  that  q(  i 

moving  point.   In  addition  to  publishing  a  number  of  works 

on  geometrical  and  mechanical  subjects,  Poinsot  also  c(»tTibu:ec 

a  number  of  papers  on  pure  and  applied  mathematics  to  Li^^ 

tUle's  Journal  and  other  scientific  periodicals.^ 

See  J.  L.  F.  Bertrand,  Distours  au*  funtraiUes  do  Pvinsei  (Paris 
i860). 

POINT  PUSASANT,  a  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Mass 
county.  West  Vir^nia,  U.S. A.,  on  the  Ohio  ri\*er,  at  the  motii) 
of  the  Kanawha  river,  and  about  midway  betw^n  Pittsbui 
and  Cincinnati.  Pop.  (1900)  1934;  (1910)  2045.  It  is  serrM 
directly  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  the  Kanawha  &  Mkh^ 
(controlled  by  the  Hocking  Valley)  railways,  and  by  the  Hoclkf 
Valley  railway  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Ohio  river.  Tk 
Kanawha  river  is  navigable  (by  the  use  of  locks  njod  dams)  Us 
90  m.  above  the  town,  and  Point  Pleasant  is  a  re-shipping  past 
for  Kanawha  coal.  Coal  and  salt  are  mined  in  the  \idsi:;, 
but  the  surrounding  country  is  principally  agriculturaL 

The  battle  of  Point  Pleasant,  the  only  important  engageaeat 
in  "'  Lord  Dunnoore's  War,"  was  fou^t  here  on  the  loth  d 
October  1774  between  about  iioo  Virginia  militiamen,  esda 
General  Andrew  Lewis  (c.  i'j20-i7$i)^  and  about  1000  Shavsea 
and  their  alh'es,  under  thdr  chief,  Cornstalk  (c  1720-17;:'.* 
Lewis  had  been  ordered  to  meet  Lord  Dunmore  here  with  a  body 
of  militiamen  (recruited  from  Botetourt,  West  Aogusxa  aad 
Fincastle  counties),  but  when  he  reached  the  movth  of  the 
Kanawha,  after  matching  160  m.  from  Fort  Union  (now  Lcvi- 
burg,  W.  Va.),  Dunmore's  force,  which  waa  to  have  gooc  o^tr 
the  Braddock  tmii  to  Fort  Pitt,  and  thence  down  the  O^as 
river,  had  not  arrived.  £arly  on  the  morning  of  the  loth  ck 
Indians  suddenly  attacked,  and  the  battk  continoed  fiercdr 
throu^iout  the  day.  At  night  the  Indiana  crossed  the  Ctx 
river,  leaving  behind  many  of  their  dead.  The  whites  lost  abo;:t 
144  In  killed  and  wounded,  Colonel  Charies  Lewis  (1731-17:4 . 
a  brother  of  the  conunanding  officer,  being  among  the  idmcz. 
In  December  Lonl  Dunmore  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Indjans, 
by  which  they  surrendered  their  daim  to  hmda  south  of  tk 
Ohio  and  agreed  not  to  molest  whites  travelling  to  the  vestex 
country.  The  battle,  which  overawed  the  Indiana,  and  tx 
treaty,  which  was  not  seriously  broken  for  three  ytas&,  miic 
possible  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  western  country,  esperiaity 
of  Kentudcy,  during  the  early  years  of  the  War  of  lodepea* 
dence.*  Four  years  before  the  battle  the  Virg;inia  Hoose  d 
Buigesses  had  awarded  to  Geoenal  Lewis,  for  his  caitier  Berrien 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War,  9876  acres  of  land,  Indndii^  the 

*  General  Lewis  wais  horn  In  Donegal,  Ireland :  aenred  with  W«^ 
rngtort  at  Fort  Keeeiisity  and  at  Bftiddoek*i  defeat ;  wns  caoxmasin^ 
from  Virginia  to  conclude  the  ticaty  with  the.  Six  Natioiw  at  f  cr 
Staowix  T1768):  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Bns^pCksa 
for  several  years;  served  as  a  bnKadler-general  in  the  War  d 
Indepcndcrtce;  and  in  1776  forced  Lord  Dunmore  to  rttin  fro« 
Gwynn*s  Island,  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  where  he  had  taltm  refo^ 

'  Conutalk  and  his  son  were  ktUed  within  the  foct  at  Point  Pkafaai 
in  November  1777  by  Virginian  soldiers  (contrary  to  the  proticsts  d 
their  commandii^  officers^,  who  thus  avenged  the  death  of  a 
comrade.  He  was  at  the  time  wamina;  the  garrisou  of  hi»  iiali^-T 
to  hokl  the  Shawnees  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1774.  Thm  f^  3 
granite  oionuroent  (erected  in  1899)  over  faw  gravw  in  the  >d.-4 
of  the  court4iouae» 

•  Various  American  writers  have  asserted  that  Lord  Owrir  - 
Incited  the  Indians  to  attack  the  frontier  in  order  to  divert  tV 
cdoimts  from  their  opposition  to  Greet  Britain,  and  that  W 
purfxnely  rcfcained  from  effecting  a  junction  with  Lcwi%  so  that 
Lewis  might  be  defeated  and  Virginia  thus  be  gnatly  cripyJed  oe 
the  eve  of  the  threatened  war  with  the  mother  country:  and  t.  . 
battle  itself  has  accordingly  frequently  been  refemrd  tc»  as  t'^, 
first  battle  oC  the  War  of  Independence.  The  assertions  wi!» 
ragait)  to  Lord  Dunmore.  however,  rest  on  circa 
alone,  and  have  never  been  conclusively  proved. 


POfSOTT 


89^ 


ItKM&t  site  of  lMntncfaaAt;iIie  iuni^  of  tUa;  grant  was  made 
by  Goorge  Washington.  After  the  battle  General  Lewis  sent 
a  detachment  to  build  a  fort  (called  Fort  Blair)  here;  in  1776 
Fort  Randolph  (abandoned  in  1779)  was  erected  on  the  same 
site,  and  in  17&5  (from  which  year  the  perniaoent  settlement 
of  the  town  may  be  dated)  a  third  fort  was  built  here.  Daniel 
Boone  lived  here  from  1788  until  about  1799.  &i  1794  the 
village  of  Point  Pleasant  was  platted;  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1833.  A  granite  monument  (86  ft.  hi^)  oommeraorat- 
ing  the  battle  was  unvdled  on  the  xoth  of  October  1909. 

See  J.  T.  ^fcAllister*s  article.  "  The  Battle  of  Point  Pleasant.'' 
in  the  Virtinia  Magaain*  4iJ  History  a$id  Biography  (1901-1900). 
vol.  X.,  and  Virgil  A.  Lewis,  History  of  Ou  BattU  of  FoitU  PUatanl 
(Charleston,  W.  Va.,  1909). 

POISON.  An  exact  definition  of  the  word  "poison"  (dctived 
through  Fr.  from  Lat.  poUo,  polionem,  a  drink;  ».«.  a  deadly 
draught)  is  by  no  means  easy.  There  is  no  kgai  definition  of 
what  constitutes  a  poison,  and  the  definitions  usually  proposed 
are  apt  to  include  either  too  much  or  too  little.  Generally,  a 
poison  may  be  defined  to  be  a  substance  having  an  inherent 
deleterious  property,  tendering  it  capable  of  destroying  life  by 
whatever  avenue  it  is  taken  into  the  system;  or  it  is  a  substance 
which  wben  introduced  into  the  system,  or  applied  externally, 
injures  health  or  destroys  life  irrespective  of  mechanical  means 
or  direct  thermal  changes.  In  popular  language  a  poison  is  a 
substance  capable  of  destroying  life  when  taken  in  small 
quantity;  but  a  substance  which  destroys  life  by  medianlcal 
means  as,  e.g,  powdered  glass,  is  not,  strictly,  speaking,  a  poison. 

The  subject  of  toxicology  forms  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  medical  jurisprudence  (q.v.).  The  medical  jurist 
should  be  familiar  with  the  nature  and  actions  of  poisons,  (he 
symptoms  which  they  produce,  the  drcumstances  which  modify 
their  irorking,  the  pathological  results  of  tbeir  action,  and  the 
pethods  of  combating  these. 

Action  of  Poisons. — Poisons  may  exert  a  twofold  action. 
This  may  be  either  local,  or  remote,  or  both  local  and  remote. 
The  local  action  of  a  poison  is  usually  one  of  corrosion,  inflam- 
mation, or  a  direct  effect  upon  the  sensory  or  motor  nerves. 
The  remote  actions  of  poisons  are  usually  of  a  ^>ecific  character,, 
though  some  writers  group  the  remote  effects  of  pMsons  under 
two  heads,  and  speak  of  the  common  and  the  specific  remote 
effects  of  a  poison.  The  local  action  of  a  poison  of  the  corrosive 
class  is  usually  so  well  marked  and  obvious  that  the  fact  of  the 
admimstxatjon  of  a  poison  <rf  this  class  is  generally  unmistakable. 
The  same  may  be  said,  in  a  less  degree,  of  the  irritant  poisons, 
especially  the  mineral  irritants;  but  here  the  symptoms  some- 
times so  closely  simulate  those  of  natural  disease  as  to  render 
the  recognition  of  the  administration  of  poison  a  matter  of 
difficulty.  Hence  an  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  remote 
spedfic  effects  of  the  various  poisons  b  indispensable  to  the 
medical  Jurist.  The  class  of  poisons  which  has  been  adminis- 
tered or  taken  will  thus  be  suggested  to  his  mind  by  the  observa- 
tion of  the  sjonptoms;  and  not  unfrequcntly  the  specific  poison 
takefi  will  be  suspected.  It  Is  almost  tmiversaUy  admitted 
that  absorption  of  a  poison  Is  necessary  for  the  production  of 
its  specific  remote  effects,  and  the  old  notion  that  a  poison  may 
kill,  by  its  action  thiouc^  the  nervous  system,  without  absorp- 
tion, is  abandoned. 

Modifying  Circumstances.—'Tht  ordinary  action  of  a  poison 
may  be  greatly  modified  by  the  largeness  of  th^  dose,  by  the  state 
of  aggregation,  admixture,  or  of  chemical  combination  of  the 
poison,  by  the  part  or  membrane  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  by 
the  condition  of  the  patient.  Thus,  for  example,  opium  nny 
be  a  medicine  or  a  poison,  according  to  the  dose  in  which  it  is 
given;  and  a  dose  of  the  drug  which  may  be  beneficial  to  an 
adult  in  certain  states  of  the  system  may  be  fatal  to  a  child,  or 
to  an  adult  when  suffering  from  some  forms  of  disease.  All 
barium  salts,  again,  are  poisonous,  except  the  quite  insoluble 
sulphate.  The  simple  cyanides,  and  many  double  cyanides, 
are  highly  poisonous;  but  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  which  is  a 
double  cyanide  of  iron  and  potassium,  b  almost  without  action 
upon  the  system.  The  part  or  tissue  to  which  a  poison  u  applied 


greatly  tffecu  the  mtivvkfhttL  poadoroiring  tor  the  vaiymg 
rapidity  with  which  absorption  takes  place  through  the  cut»> 
neous,  mucous  and  serous  surfaces,  and  by  the  other  tissues  of 
the  body.  CunurCy  an  arrow  poisoa,  may  be  swaUowed  in  oon* 
siderable.  quantity  without  appreciable  result,  uriiilst  a  Bunute 
quantity  of  the  same  substance  introduced  into  a  wound  li 
speedily  fatal.  IdioayBara^y  has  an  important  bearing  in 
toxicology.  Fork,  mutton,  certain  kinds  of  fish,  more  especially 
shell-fish  80<alled,  and  mushrooms  have  each  produced  all  tht 
symptoms  of  violent  irritant  poisoning,  whibt  other  persons 
who  have  partaken  of  the  same  food  at  the  same  time  have 
experienced  no  iH  effects.  Some  persona  are  sUted,  on  good 
authority,  to  be  capable  of  taking  with  impunity  such  poisons 
as  opium,  corrosive  sublimate,  or  arsenic,  In  enormous  doses— 
and  thb  irrespective  of  habit,  which  b  known  to  have  such  an 
influence  in  modifying  the  effects  of  some  poisons,  notably  the 
narcotics.  A  tobnutce  of  poisons  b  sometimes  engendered  by 
disease,  so  that  a  poison  may  fail  to  produce  its  customary 
effect.  Thus,  opium  b  tolerated  in  large  quantities  in  tetanu$ 
and  in  delirium  tr^aens;  and  mercurul  compounds  may  in  some 
febrile  affections  fail  to  pfoduce  the  usual  constitutional  effects 
of  the  metal.  On  the  other  hand,  diseases  which  impede  the 
elimination  of  a  poison  may  intensify  its  effects. 

The  eoidenu  that  a  poiscai  has  been  admmbtered  b  based 
upon  the  symptoms  produced,  on  the  appearances  met  with  in 
the  body  after  death,  on  the  analysis  of  articles  of  food  and  drink, 
of  excreta  and  cjccta,  and  of  the  organs  of  the  body  after  death, 
and  on  physiological  experiments  made  with  substances  extracted 
from  the  sanw  artidn.  These  physiological  experimtnts  are 
usually  made  upon  animals,  but  in  some  cases,  as  for  instance 
when  aconite  has  to  be  searched  for,  the  physiological  experi- 
ments must  be  made  also  upon  the  human  subject.  The 
evidence  obtained  from  one  or  more  of  these  sources,  as  compared 
with  the  properties  or  effects  of  various  known  poisons,  will 
enable  the  medical  jurist  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  adminbtra^ 
tion  or  non-adminbt ration  of  a  pobon. 

The  symptoms  exhibited  by  the  patient  during  life  rarely  fail 
to  afford  some  clue  to  the  poison  taken.  Persons  may,  however, 
be  found  dead  of  whose  hbtory  nothing  can  be  learned.  Here 
post  mortem  appearances,  chemical  analyus,  and,  it  may  be, 
physiological  experiments^  are  all-important  for'the  duddation 
of  the  nature  of  the  case. 

Poisoning  may  be  acute  or  chronic.  The  general  condittons 
which  should  arouse  a  suspidon  of  acute  poisoning  are  the 
sudden  onset  of  serious  and  incrcasin^y  alarming  symptoms  in  a 
person  previously  in  good  health,  espedally  if  there  be  pain  in 
the  region  of  the  stomach,  or,  where  there  b  complete  prostra- 
tion of  the  vital  powers,  a  cadaveric  a^^ect,  and  speedy  death* 
In  all  such  cases  the  aid  of  the  analytical  chembt  must  be  called 
in  dther  to  confirm  well-founded  or  to  rebut  SU-founded 
suspidons. 

The  mode  of  treatment  to  be  adopted  in  the  case  of  poisoned 
persons  varies  greatly  according  to  the  nature  of  the  poison. 
The  first  indication,  when  the  poison  has  been  swallowed*,  b 
to  evacuate  the  stomach;  and  this  may  usually  be  done  by  means 
of  the  stomach-pump  when  the  poison  b  not  of  the  corrosive 
dass;  or  the  stomach  may  be  gently  washed  out  by  means  of  a 
funnel  and  flexible  siphon-tube.  In  many  cases  emetics  are 
valuable.  Antidotes  and  counter-poisons  may  then  be  given* 
The  former  are  such  substances  as  chalk  to  ncutralixe  the  mineral 
acids  and  oxalic  acid;  the  latter  have  a  physiological  counter- 
action, and  are  such  as  atropine,  which  b  a  cotmter-poison 
to  morphia.  These  may  usually  be  administered  most  effec- 
tivdy  by  hypodermic  injection.  The  stomach  may  to  a  certain 
degree  be  protected  from  the  injurious  effects  of  irritants  by 
the  adminbtratSon  of  mucilaginous  drinks;  alkaloids  may  be 
rendered  sparingly  soluble  by  means  of  astringent  substances 
containing  tannin;  and  pain  may  be  relieved  by  means  of 
opium,  unless  contra-indicated  by  the  nature  of  the  poison. 
The  effects  of  the  convulsant  poisons,  such  as  strychnine,  may 
be  combated  by  means  of  the  inhalation  of  diloroform. 

The  dassification  of  poisons  b  a  matter  of  difficulty.   Varioua 


894 


POISON 


»tteiii!»ts  liave  been  mtde  to  daaaity  them  scieiitiiictUy,  but 
with  no  ngnal  succeis;  and  pcihaps  the  best  system  is  that 
which  gnmps  the  various  poisons  according  to  the  mote  obvious 
Ormptoms  wbkh  they  produce.  Our  knowledge  of  the  more 
intimate  action  of  poisons  is  still  too  imperfect  to  admit  of  any 
useful  classification  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they 
specifically  affect  the  vital  organs.  Poisons  may  in  the  manner 
indicated  be  classified  as  (i)  Con§nm,  (a)  InUants,  (5)  Nti^ 
rotics,  and  (4)  Gaseem  Poisons, 

f •  CoftostdoSm 

The  typical  member  of  this  das*  to  corrosive  sublimate*  the 
soluble  chloride  of  mercury.  In  it  are  included  also  the  oonoen- 
trsted  mineral  acids  ^phuric,  nitric  and  hydrochloric);  oxalic 
acid ;  the  alkalies  (potash,  aoda,  and  ammonia)  and  their  carbonates; 
acid,  alkaline,  and  corrosive  aalts  of  the  metals  (such  as  bisulphate 
of  potash,  alum,  butter  of  antimony  and  nitrate  of  silver);  also 
carbolic  add. 

The  symptoms  produced  by  the  mineral  adds  and  the  alkalies 
arc  almost  altogether  referable  to  local  action '^  but  some  corrosive 
poisons,  such  as  carbolic  acid,  produce,  besides  a  local  action. 
remote  and  specific  constitutional  effects.  The  symptoms  of 
cocrasive  poisoning  are  marked  and  unmistakable,  eaoept  m  infants. 
Immediately  on  swallosrinf  the  corrodve  substance,  an  add,  caustic 
or  metallic  burning  sensation  b  experienced  in  the  mouth,  fauces, 
guHet  and  region  of  the  stomach,  and  this  speedily  extends  over 
the  whole  bcfly;  as  a  rule  vomiting  speedily  follows.  In  the  case 
of  the  minersi  adds,  and  in  oxabe  add  poisoning,  the  vomit  is 
so  add  that  if  it  falls  upon  a  marble  or  concrete  door  effervescence 
ensues.  No  relief  follows  the  evacuation  of  the  stomach.  Tho 
ejected  matters  contain  blood,  and  even  fragments  of  the  corroded 
walls  of  the  alimentary  canal.  The  belly  becomes  distended  with 
gas  and  horribly  tender.  High  fever  prevails.  The  mouth  Is 
found  to  be  corroded.  Death  usually  ensues  within  a  few  hours; 
or,  if  the  patient  survives,  he  or  she  may  perish  miserably,  months 
after  the  poison  was  taken,  through  starvation  consequent  ui>on 
the  gradual  contraction  of  the  gullet,  brought  about  by  its  corrosion 
and  subsequent  healing. 

The  treatment  of  conoMve  pmsonlng  couHsts  in  very  gently 
emptying  and  washing  out  the  stomach  by  means  of  a  soft  siphon- 
tube.  The  sboroach-pump  cannot  be  used  with  safety  in  con- 
sequence of  the  weakening  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach  by  corrosion. 
Demulcents  and  opiates  may  be  subaeouently  administered.  After 
death  from  corrosive  pdsonmg  the  walla  of  the  stomach  are  found 
corroded  and  even  penoratcd. 

I.  O>rrosi9$  Sublimate. — Here  all  the  dgns  and  symptoms  of 
corrosive  poisoning  are  produced  in  thdr  severest  form.  A  grain 
or  two  of  this  poison  may  prove  fatal.  Fortunately  there  is  an 
efficient  antidote  in  white  of  egg.  the  albumen  of  which,  if  adminis- 
tered at  once,  renders  the  salt  insoluble.  The  eggs  should  be  divested 
of  their  yolks,  beaten  up  with  water,  and  given  promptly,  repeatedly, 
and  abundantly,  followed  by  emetics.  Poisoning  by  corrosive 
sublimate  may^  be  followed  by  the  spedfic  toxic  effects  of  mercury, 
such  as  salivation  and  tremor. 

Workers  in  mercury,  such  as  watcr-gilders,  looking-glass  makers, 
and  the  makers  of  barometers  and  thermometers,  arc  apt  to  suffer 
from  a  peculiar  form  of  shaking  palsy,  known  as  "  the  trembles," 
or  mercurial  tremor.  This  disease  affects  most  frequently  those 
who  are  exposed  to  mercurial  fumes.  The  victim  is  affected  with 
tremors  when  an  endeavour  is  made  to  exert  the  muscles,  so  that  he 
b  unable,  for  instance,  to  convey  a  glass  of  water  to  the  lips  steadily, 
and  when  he  walks  he  breaks  into  a  dandng  trot.  The  treatment 
eonsists  in  removal  from  the  mercurial  atmoyhere,  baths,  fresh  air, 
and  the  administratloa  of  iron  and  other  tonics. 

a.  Mineral  Acids. — These  are  oil  of  vitriol  or  sulphuric  add, 
aqua  fortb  or  nitric  acid,  and  spirit  of  salt  or  hvdrochloric  (muri- 
atic) acid.  These,  when  taken  in  a  concentrated  form,  produce  well- 
marked  symptoms  of  com>»on.  When  they  are  diluted,  the  symp- 
toms are  those  of  an  irritant  Ppison.  Nitnc  acid  stains  the  mouth 
nnd  skin  of  a  ydkyw  cdour.  The  treatment  consbts  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  alkalies  or  other  carbonates,  chalk,  whiting,  or  even 
uncoloured  plaster  scraped  off  the  walls  or  ceiling,  with  the  view 
of  neutralizing  the  add. 

3.  Oxalic  odd  b  a  vegetable  add.  When  taken  in  the  state  of 
concentrated  solution  it  acts  as  a  corrosive,  but  when  diluted  as  an 
irritant.  But  it  also  exerts  a  soedfic  effect,  killing  the  patient  by 
cardiac  syncope  not  unfrequentiy  within  a  few  minutes.  When  a 
person  alter  taking  a  crystalline  substance,  tasting  strongly  add, 
dies  within  15  or  30  minutes,  after  the  manifesution  of  great  weak- 
ness, small  pulse  and  failure  of  the  heart's  power,  poisoning  by 
oxalic  add  Is  almost  certain.  The  treatment  consists  in  promptly 
administering  an  emetic,  followed  by  chalk,  whiting,  or  any  sub* 
stance  containing  carbonate  of  cakinm.  The  alkaline  carbonates  are 
valueless,  for  the  alkaline  oxalates  are  almost  as  poisonous  as  oxalic 
add  Itself. 

'  4.  The  Alkciis. — Caustic  potash  and  caustic  soda  produce  sym^ 
toms  resembling  those  of  the  mineral  adds,  except  that  purging  is 
'  '  aooompaniment* 


5.  CsfteMr  atii  wfaes  tahen  in  the  form  df  a 

acts  as  a  corrosive,  causing  whitening  and  shrinking  of  oB  tke 
animal  membranes  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The  puieot, 
however,  becomes  speedily  comatose,  the  poison  acting  proloundly 
upon  the  great  nervous  oenties^    A  curious  phenomenon — black  or 

liter 


dark  green  urine— u  commonly  observed  after  the  admiitlattatioa 
of  thb  poison.  Saocharated  lime-water,  diluted  and  dniak  fnehi 
and  a  soludon  of  sulphate  of  aoda  are  perhaps  the  moat  usditt 
remedies. 

a.  Irritant  Poisons. 
Irritant  poisons  are  of  two  ciaascs'  metallic  irritants  and  vege- 
table and  animal  irritants,  these  latter  betqg  for  convemenoe  goaiped 
together.  Perhaps  none  of  the  irritants  act  purely  as  such,  the 
irritant  symptoms  bdng  usually  accompanied  b^  wdl-wiarked 
effects  upon  the  nervous  system.  An  Irritant  to  a  substance  whkb 
causes  inflammation  of  the  part  to  which  it  b  a| 


the  alimentary  canaL  Arsenk  b  by  far  the  moss  important 
the  metallk  irritants*  Other  irritants  are  the  moderately  4&uted 
adds,  many  metallic  mtts.  such  as  those  of  antimony,  lead,  copper, 
zinc  and  diromlum.  Etoterium,  gamboge,  aloes,  cokicyntb  sad 
croton  oil  are  good  examples  of  vegetable  irritants;  and  cantharides 
of  animal  irritants.  Animal  and  vegetable  food  when  dcooaspoacd, 
or  infested  with  certain  organisms  known  as  bacteria,  may  prodiKT 
violent  irritant  symptoms.  The  symptoms  produced  by  imtsju 
poisons  are  uauaUy  more  rfow  in  their  devaopmeot  than  srfcoe 
a  corrosive  has  been  administered.  Usually,  after  an  iattrai. 
greater  or  less  according  to  the  specific  nature  of  the  irricaM 
swallowed,  a  burning  pain  b  felt  in  the  mouth,  throat  and  gunet. 
with  a  sense  of  oonstncrion  of  the  parts,  and  followed  by  tMrnioc 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  stomach.  Thb  b  inacased,  and  not 
alleviated,  by  pressure,  a  mark  which  serves  to  distirigipsh  tfac 
attack  from  one  of  ordinary  colic.  Nausea,  vomiting  and  thint 
ensue,  speedily  followed  by  distension  of  the  whole  abdomen,  wii:  b 
IS  exceedingly  tender  to  the  touch.  Ordinarily  the  vonutii^  k 
followed  by  profuse  dbrrhoes.  Should  the  poison  aot  be  specif 
diminatod  in  the  vomited  and  faecal  matters,  inflanuaatory  frtxr 
sets  in,  followed  by  collapse;  and  death  may  ensue  in  a  few  boon. 

There  is  danger  of  confounding  irritant  poisoning  with  some  fones 
of  natural  disease,  such  as  gastritis  and  gastric  ulcer,  colic,  peiTto> 
nitis,  diolera  and  rupture  oithe  intestines. 

t.  Arsenic  b a  specific  irritant  pmson.  Almost  all  the  oonpoen^ 
of  this  metal  arc  poisonous.  The  term  "arsenic**  is,  hovots. 
most  commonly  applied,  not  to  the  metal  itself,  but  to  its  lomft 
oxide,  arscnious  oxide,  which  to  also  known  as  iirinto  orsrmc.  By 
whatever  channel  anienic  to  introduced  into  the  system,  it  nvaM- 
ably^  affects  spedfically  the  stomach  and  intestines,  cansjng  cos- 
gcstion  or  inflammation.  The  common  sources  of  arsenical  pouoai«s 
are  the  taking  of  white  arsenic,  which  causes  acute  poisoniz^.  sad 
the  inhalation  of  dust  from  arsenical  wall-papers  and  textile  fabric^ 
whereby  a  chronic  form  of  poisoning  is  inouocd. 

The  symptoms  and  treatment  of  arsenical  poiwming  are  deaoihBd 
under  Arsenic  (^.o.). 

Arsenic-eating,  or  the  abHity  of  some  persons  to  taVe  leladMhf 
brge  doses  of  arsenk  habitually,  is  a  well-established  fact.  The 
cause  of  thb  singular  immunity  from  the  ordinary  reairitn  of  annic 
bttnknavns. 

a.  Lead. — The  salts  of  lead,  more  espedally  the  acetate  (sogar  of 
lead),  are  irritant  poisons  of  no  very  great  activity;  and.  thouci 
occasionally  death  ensues,  recovery  b  the  rule.  Chrome  yrllcc 
or  lead  chromate.  is  a  powerful  Irritant  poison.  All  chramatcs  are. 
indeed,  irritant  poisons.    (See  Lead  Poisohing.) 

8.  Copper. — ^The  soluble  salu  of  cof^)er.  such  as  blue  vitriol  (^ 
>hate)  and  verdigris  (subcarbonate  and  subaoetate),  are  narx 
ana  irritant  salts.  Their  emetic  effects  usually,  but  not  invarubH 
secure  thdr  prompt  rejection  by  the  stomach.  Oocasioaaily  br»] 
effects  have  resulted  from  thdr  administration.  Copper  beccsMn 
aoddentally  mixed  with  artides  of  dietary  in  a  varietv  ol  saode^ 
It  b  also  used  for  improving  the  odour  of  preserved  fruits  aoi 
vegetables.  Its  deleterious  properties  when  thus  used  in  aapsic 
quantities  have  been  both  asserted  and  denied.  There  is^  " 
a  huge  body  of  evidence  in  favour  of  the  at  all  cvemt: 
poisonous  effects  of  minute  quantities  of  copper. 

4.  Zinc  satis  and  barium  salts^  except  the  quite  insolable  bariaa 
sulphate,  are  irritant  pdsons;  and  barium  compoiissds  act  sVs 
upon  the  central  nervous  system. 

5.  ChnmaUSr  o.g.  bkhromate  of  potash,  are  violent  irritasts 
Chrome  yellow,  or  lead  chromate,  has  already  been  asentiooed. 

6.  Pkosphorus.—<X  the  two  chief  forms  of  the  dements— ri« 
yellow  or  ordinary  and  the  red  or  amorphoot— the  foiw  oeij 
IS  poisonous.  Rarely  there  is  met  with  a  chronic  form  ef  pooomsc 
among  workere  in  the  material,  arising  from  the  iahniatioa  ei 
phosphorus  vapours,  lu  special  charsrirristir  b  a  pccuUr 
necroms  or  death  of  the  bony  structure  of  the  lower  jaw.  Acart 
phosphorus  poisoning  is  more  common.  Phosfdioms  ia  used  for 
tipping  mattes,  and  is  also  the  basb  ol  several  vermis  itoniiijni. 
(Seie  I^osPHOBUs  and  Match.) 

7.  VegeuMe  Jrriiamls.^''The»t  produce  dmstic  purgative  effects. 
Frequently  the  nature  of  the  Illness  may  be  ascertained  by  t^c 
discovery  of  portions  of  the  vegetable  substance — recogaiastde 
by  the  micrpscope-'-in  the  matlen  ejected  by  the  patient. 


POISON 


895 


8.  CM/terilrJL^The  .«dm1n!ftfMioii  «f  anibatidei  -^.9.)  is 
followed  by  vomiting,  purging,  strangury,  or  even  entire  inability 
to  pass  the  urine^  In  the  cjecta  portions  of  tne  shining  elytra  or 
wing-cases  of  the  fly  may  often  be  recognized.  There  n  often  great 
excitement  of  the  sexual  proclivities.  The  active  prindole  of  the 
flv,  cantharidin,  may  be  extracted  from  suspected  matters  oy  means 
01  dilocoform,  and  the  residue  left  after  the  evajxttation  of  this 
blisters  the  Up  or  any  tender  mucous  surface  to  which  it  is  applied. 
Demulcent  remedies,  with  opiate  eoemata  and  injections,  ^onl  the 
best  relief  by  way  of  treatment. 

3.  Nettroticsl 

T.  PruiHe  or  Jtyiroeyanie  Acid. — HydrOc)^ntc  add  is  one  of  the 
best  known  poisons,  and  a  very  deadly  one.  In  the  pore  state  it  is 
said  to  kill  with  lightmag'like  rapidity.    It  is  met  with  in  coinmerce 


Less  than  a  teaspoonful  of  the  3  %  acid  has  caused  death.  Given 
in  fatal  doses,  toe  svmptons  of  pnaaic-maA  poisoning  set  in  with 
great  rapidity;  aad,  m  cooaequeoee  of  the  feadiqcsa  wuh  which  the 
poison  IS  absorbed  from  the  stomach  and  diffused  through  the 
circulation,  the  onset  of  symptoms  is  reckoned  by  seconds  rather 
than  by  minutes.  Occasionally  the  victim  may  be  able  to  perform 
«  few  volunury  actkms  befoce  alarming  symptoms  are  devck»ped. 
There  b  first  «  very  brief  stage  of  difficult  breathing,  and  slow 
action  of  the  heart,  with  a  tendency  for  the  organ  to  stop  m  the  sute 
of  dilatation.  With  widely-dilated  pupils  of  the  eye,  tne  patient  is 
then  seized  with  violent  irregular  convul«ve  movements.  The 
rhythm  of  the  respiratory  movements  la  dntuibed,  and  the  coun- 
tenance becomes  of  a  bhiish  cast.  The  patient  now  sinks  to  the 
ground  with  complete  loss  of  muscular  power;  and  the  third,  or 
asphyxia!  sti^  is  reached,  in  which  there  are  slow  gating  respira- 
tions, loss  of  pulse,  and  paralysis  of  motion.  Death  is  frequently 
preceded  bv  muscular  spasms.  The  feudroyoni  character  of  the 
tllness,  ana  the  speedy  death  of  the  patient,  coupled  with  the 
peculiar  odour  of  the  acid  in  the  breath  and  atmosphere  around  the 
Ixxly,  seldom  leave  any  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  case.  The 
treatment  consists  in  inhalation  of  fumes  of  strong  ammonia, 
drinks  of  warm  and  cold  water  alternately,  friction  of  the  limbs,  and 
artificial  respiration.  The  subcutaneous  injection  of  atrc^ne, 
which  acts  as  a  cardiac  stimulant,  may  prove  serviceable. 

Other  soluble  cyanides,  more  especially  cyanide  of  potasnum,  a 
salt  largely  used  in  photography  and  in  the  arts,  are  equally 
poisonous  with  hydrocyanic  acid.    (See  Pavssic  Acid.) 

a.  Opium. — In  consequence  of  the  extent  to  which  opium,  Its 
preparations,  and  its  active  alkaloid  morphia  are  used  for  the  relief 
of  pain,  poisoning  by  opium  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  is  largely 
used  by  suicides:  and  children,  being  very  susceptible  to  its  infloencc, 
frequently  die  from  misadventure  after  administration  of  an  over- 
dose of  the  drug.  The  ordinary  preparations  of  opium  are  the 
drug  itself,  which  is  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  orientat  poppy,  and 
the  tincture,  commonly  known  as  laudanum.  Opium  contains  a 
variety  of  more  or  less  active  principles,  the  chici  of  which  is  the 
alkaloid  morphia,  which  is  present  in  good  opium  to  the  extent  of 
about  10%  m  combination  with  mcconic  acid,  which  is  physio- 
togically  inactive.  Opium  is  largely  used  by^  Eastern  niations  for 
amoking,  and  there  is  great  discrepancy  of  opinion  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  opium  smoldng  is  deleterious.  The  preponderance  of 
opinion  is  in  favour  of  the  view  that  opium  smoking  is  a  demoral- 
izing, degrading,  and  pernicious  habit,  and  that  its  victims  are 
sufTcrers  both  in  body  and  mind  from  its  use.  (See  OnuM  and 
Morphine.) 

3.  Strycknitu  and  StrychntMe-yielding  Plants. — ^The  alkalokfs 
strychnine  and  brucine,  as  well  as  all  the  pbnts  in  which  they  are 
found,  all  act  in  the  same  manner,  being  highly  poisonous,  and 
causing  death  after  spasms  of  a  severe  character.  Many  vermin- 
killers  contain  strychnine  as  their  active  ingredient. 

Strychnine,  and  all  substances  containing  that  alkaloid,  prcxiuce 
their  effects  within  a  very  few  minutes — usually  within  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  The  patient  complains  of  stiffness  about  the  neck,  and  his 
aspect  exhibits  terror.  There  is  an  impression  of  impending 
calamity  or  death.  Very  speedily  the  bead  is  jerked  back,  the 
Jimbs  extended,  the  back  arched  (opisthotonos),  so  that  the  body 
may  rest  on  the  head  and  heels  only.  In  a  few  moments  these 
symptoms  pass  off,  and  there  is  complete  relaxation  of  the-spasm. 
The  spasmodic  condition  speedily  returns,  and  is  brought  about 
by  the  sl^htest  touch  or  movement  of  the  patient.  Accessions 
and  remissions  of  the  tetanic  state  ensue  rapidly  till  the  fnticnt 
succumbs,  usually  within  half  an  hour  of  tne  administration  of 
the  poison.  The  best  treatment  is  to  put,  and  keep,  the  patent 
under  the  influence  of  chloroform  tilt  time  is  given  for  the  excretion 
of  the  alkaloid,  having  previously  given  a  full  dose  of  chloral  hydrate. . 
(See  Strychnine.) 

4.  Aeonil4  Poisoning. — ^The  ordinary  blue  rocket,  wolfsbane  or 
monkshood,  Acontium  Napellus,  and  an  alkaloid  extracted  from  it, 
aconitine,  are  perhaps  the  most  deadly  of  known  poisons.  One- 
nxtcenth  of  a  nain  of  aconitine  has  proved  fatal  to  a  man.  All  the 
preparations  <n  aconite  produce  a  peculiar  burning,  tingling,  and 
numbness  of  the  parts  to  which  they  are  applied.   When  f^vea  to 


large  doses  they  pnduos  violent  vomiting,  as  a  rule,  more  or  less 
panlysb  of  motion  and  sensation,  and  great  depression  of  the  heart, 
usually  ending  in  death  from  syncope.  Intelligence  remains 
unaffected  till  almost  the  last.  The  treatment  consists  in  the 
hypodemac  injection  of  digitaltn,  which  is  a  counter-poison  in  its 
action  upoo  the  heart.  The  rocft  of  aconite  haa  been  eaten  in  misukt 
for  thatof  horse-radish. 

i.  Bdladmnna. — ^The  belladonna  or  deadly  nightshade,  Atropa 
Beuadotma,  contains  an  alkalmd,  atropine,  which  is  largely  used  by 
oculists  to  ptooire  dilatation  of  the  pupils  of  the  eye.  The  bright 
scarlet  bcriMs  of  the  plant  have  been  eaten  by  children,  who  aie 
attracted  by  their  tempting  appearance,  fielladonna  produces 
dilatation  of  the  pupils,  rapid  pulse,  hot  dry  flushed  skin,  with  an 
eruption  not  unlike  that  of  scarhitina,  soreness  of  the  throat,  with 
difficulty  of  swallowing,  intense  thirst,  and  gay,  mirthful  delirium. 
The  treatment  consists  in  evacuatioa  of  the  poison  by  means  of  the 
stomach-pump,  and  the  hypodermic  injectioa  of  mocp^  as  a 
counter-poison. 

.  _  ..  _.  4»  Caseous  Poisons^ 
The  effects  of  these  are  varied— some  of  them  acting  as  irritants, 
while  others  have  a  specific  effect,  apparently  in  consequence  of 
their  forming  cherafcal  compounds  with  the  red  pigment  of  the 
blood,  and  thus  destroying  its  capability  of  aaing  as  a  carrier  oi 
OKjfgen. 

1.  CUorino  and  bromiHo  act  as.nowefful  irritants.  TWey  provoke 
spasm  ojf  the  glottis  when  inhaled,  and  subsequently  induce  in- 
flammation of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane,  which  may  prove 
speedily  fatal.  Inhalation  of  diluted  ammonia  vapour  is  tne  best 
remedy. 

2.  Hydrockloric  or  muricHe  acid  pu  and  kydrofiuoric  or  fiwtric 
acid  gu  are  irritating  and  destructive  to  life.  The  former  is  more 
destructive  to  vegetable  life  than  even  chlorine.  They  are  emitted 
in  many  processes  of  manufacture,  and  especially  in  the  raanufao> 
ture  of  carbonate  of  soda  from  common  salt  by  Le  Blanc's  procsssb 
in  the  salt-glaaing  of  earthenwarei  aad  in  the  manufacture  of  arti> 
fidal  manures. 

3.  Sulphurous  Acid  Cai. — ^The  gas  given  off  by  burning  sulphur 
b  most  suffocating  and  irritating.  Its  inhalation,  even  in  a  highly 
diluted  sute,  may  cause  qiesdy  death  from  qissmodk'  dosoic  01 
the  ghittis. 

4|.  Nitrous  oapourst  or  gaseous  oxides  of  nitrogen  (except  nitrous 
oxide},  are  given  off  from  g^vanlc  batteries  excited  by  mtric  acid; 
also  tn  the  process  of  etching  on  copper.  They  produce,  when 
diluted,  little  immediate  irritatk>o,  but  are  exosedingly  dangerous* 
setting  up  extensive  and  fatal  iafiainmation  of  the  lungs. 

5.  Ammonia  gas  is  highly  irritant,  but  does  not  often  prove  fataL 

6.  Carbon  dioxide  gas  is  heavier  than  atmospheric  air,  is  totally 
frresplrable  when  pure,  and  is  fatal  when  present  in  large  quantities 
In  respired  air.  It  is  given  off  from  burning  fuel,  accumulates  ia 
pits  and  wcUs  as  choke-damp,  and  constitutes  the  deadly  after- 
damp of  coal-mines.  It  is  also  formed  during  sdcohoUc  fermen- 
tation, and  hence  accumulates  in  partially  filled  vats  in  which  fer- 
mented liquors  are  stored.  When  it  is  breathed  in  a  concentrated 
state,  death  is  almost  instantaneous.  Persons  descending  into  wdls 
foul  with  this  fas  sink  down  powerless,  and  are  usually  dead  before 
they  can  be  removed  from  the  vitiated  atmosphere.  In  these  cases 
there  is  true  asphyxia;  but  carbonic  acid  is  also  a  narcotic  gas. 
Persons  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  partially  composed  of  this  gas, 
but  not  kmg  enough  to  produce  fatal  results,  are  affected  with 
stertorous  breadiings,  oppreassoo,  flushed  face,  prominent  eyes^ 
swollen  tongue  and  feeble  pulse.  The  proper  treatment  is  removal 
from  the  foul  atmosphere,  alternate  cold  and  tepid  douches  to  the 
chest,  friction  of  the  limbs  and  trunk,  and  artificial  respiration. 
When  animation  is  restored  the  patient  should  be  put  to  ncd  and 
kept  quiet,  bat  diould  be  oarefully  watched  in  case  of  relapse. 

7.  Carbon  monoxide  g^s  is  given  off  by  burning  charcoal  and  other 
forms  of  fuel,  mixed  with  carbonic  acid.  The  poisonous  effects  of 
charcoal  fumes  are  perhaps  due  rather  to  the  more  poisonous  car> 
bonic  oxide  than  to  the  less  poisonous  carbonic  acid.  An  atmo* 
sphere  containing  less  than  i  %  of  carbonic  oxide  would  doubtless 
be  fatal  if  braathied  for  many  minutes.  Carbonic  oxide  forms  with 
haemoglobin,  the  red  pigment  of  the  blood,  a  bright  scarlet  compound. 
The  compound  is  very  stable,  and  the  oxide  cannot  be  displaced 
by  atmospheric  oxyi^.  Hence  the  blood  after  death  from  the 
inhalation  of  carbonic  oxide  is  of  a  liright  arterial  hue»  which  it 
retains  00  exposure  to  air. 

8.  Coal'g/as  acts  as  an  asphyxiant  and  narcotic.  The  appear- 
ances met  with  after  death — more  cspecblly  the  fluid  state  of  the 
blood— are  similar  to  those  observed  after  death  from  carbonk 
oxide  gas,  which  is  a  constituent  of  coal-gas,  and  to  wliich  the  chief 
effect  of  coal-gas  may  be  due. 

9.  SulphurelUd  hydrogen  gas  is  highly  poisonous  by  whatever 
channel  it  gains  access  to  tne  body.  In  a  concentrated  form  It 
produces  almost  instant  death  from  asphyxia.  Even  in  a  diluted 
state  it  produces  colic,  nausea,  vomiting  aad  drowsiness.  This 
may  pass  into  insensibility  with  lividity  and  feeble  rennration. 
The  skin  is  cold  and  clammy^  or  bathed  in  perspiratkni.  The  red 
blood  corpuscles  are  disintegrated.  The  treatment  conusts.in 
removal  from  the  oontamimited  atnoq»here.  frictkiQ  to  .die  surface 


896 


POISSON 


of  the  body,  wftrnlth,  and  the  tdmiaiitration  of  ftaiinilaatt.  The 
inhalation  of  chlorine  gas  has  been  recommended  on  chemical 
grounds;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  chlorine  b itself  poisonous. 

to.  Anaesthetics. — Nitrous  oxide,  or  laughing  gas,  and  the  cues 
or  vapours  of  other  anaesthetic  substances,  such  aa  dikiroionn. 
may.  if  imoroperfy  administered,  produce  death  by  asphyxia,  and 
perhaps  otherwise.  Obviously,  as  a  rule,  medical  assistance  is 
at  hand.  The  treatment  consists  in  artificial  respiration,  and  the 
use  of  ealvanic  current. 

1 1 .  Vapours  of  HydrocofbOtu.^-'Tht  volatile  vapours  of  the  natural 
hydrocarbons  known  as  benaoline,  petroleum,  &c,  are  p6isonoue 
when  inhaled  for  lengthened  periods.  (T.  S.*) 

POISSON,  SmteN  DENIS  (178X-X840).  French  mathemati- 
dan,  was  bora  at  Pithiviers  in  the  depainxnent  of  Loiret,  on  the 
aist  of  June  1781.  His  father,  Sim6an  Poisaon,  served  as  a 
common  soldier  in  the  Hanoverian  wars;  but,  disgusted  by  the 
ill-treatment  he  received  from  his  patrician  officers,  be  deserted. 
About  the  time  of  the  birth  of  his  son,  Simfon  Denis,  he  occupied 
a  small  administrative  post  at  Pithiviers,  and  seems  to  have 
been  at  the  head  of  the  local  government  of  the  place  during 
the  revolutionary  period.  Poisson  was-first  sent  to  an  uncle,  a 
surgeon  at  Fontainebleau,  and  began  to  take  lessons  in  bleeding 
and  blistering,  but  made  little  progress.  Having  given  promise 
of  mathematical  talent  he  was  sent  to  the  £colc  Ccntrale  of 
Fontainebleau,  and  was  fortunate  in  having  a  kind  and  sympa- 
thetic teacher,  M.  Billy,  who,  when  he  speedily  found  that  his 
pupil  was  becoming  his  master,  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  higher  mathematics  in  order  to  follow  and  appreciate  him, 
and  predicted  his  future  fame  by  the  punning  quotation  from 
Lafontaine*; — 

**  Petit  Poisson  deviendra  grand 
Pourvu  que  Dieu  lui  pr£te  vie." 

In  X798  he  entered  the  £coIe  Polytechnique  at  Paris  as  first 
in  his  year,  and  immediately  began  to  attract  the  notice  of  the 
professors  of  the  school,  who  left  him  free  to  follow  the  studies 
of  his  predilection.  In  1800,  less  than  two  years  after  his  entry, 
he  published  two  memoirs,  one  on  £.  Bczout*s  method  of  elimina- 
tion, the  other  on  the  niimber  of  integrals  of  an  equation  of 
finite  differences.  The  latter  of  these  memoirs  was  examined 
by  S.  F.  LacToix  and  A.  M.  Legendre,  who  recommended  that 
it  should  be  published  in  the  RecucU  its  savants  ilrangers,  an 
unparalleled  honour  for  a  youth  of  eighteen.  This  success  at 
once  procured  for  Poisson  an  entry  into  scientific  circles.  J.  L. 
Lagrange,  whose  lectures  on  the  theory  of  functions  he  attended 
at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  early  recognized  his  talent,  and 
became  his  friend;  while  P.  S.  Laplace,  in  whose  footsteps 
Poisson  followed,  regarded  him  almost  as  his  son.  The  rest  of 
his  career,  till  his  death  on  the  35th  of  April  1840,  was  almost 
entirely  occupied  in  the  composition  and  publication  of  his  many 
works,  and  in  discharging  the  duties  of  the  numerous  educational 
offices  to  which  he  was  successively  appointed.  Immediately 
after  finishing  his  course  at  the  &oIe  Polytechnique  be  was 
appointed  repetUeur  there,  an  office  which  he  had  discharged  as 
an  amateur  while  still  a  pupil  in  the  school;  for  it  had  been  the 
custom  of  his  comrades  often  to  resort  to  his  room  after  an 
unusually  difficult  lecture  to  hear  him  repeat  and  explain  it. 
He  was  made  professcwr  suppliant  in  x8o3,  and  full  professor  in 
auoccssion  to  J.  Fourier  in  x8o6.  In  x8o8  he  became  astronomer 
to  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes;  and  when  the  Faculty  des  Sciences 
was  instituted  in  1809  he  was  appointed  professew  de  la  mica^ 
nique  rationeUe.  He  further  became  member  of  the  Institute 
in  18x1,  examiner  at  the  mSitaxy  school  at  St  Cyr  in  1815,  leaving 
examiner  at  the  £coIe  Polytechnique  in  1816,  councillor  of  the 
university  in  X820,  and  geometer  to  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes 
in  succession  to  P.  S.  Laplace  in  1827.  His  father,  whose  early 
experiences  led  him  to  hate  aristocrats,  bred  him  in  the  stem 
creed  of  the  first  republic.  Throughout  the*  empire  Poisson 
faithfully  adhered  to  the  family  principles,  and  refused  to 
Worship  Napoleon.  When  the  Bourbons  were  restored,  his 
Jbatred  against  Napoleon  led  him  to  become  a  Le^timist — ^a 
eondunon  which  says  more  for  the  simplicity  of  his  character 
than  for  the  strength  or  logic  of  his  political  creed.  He  was 
faithful  to  the  Bourbons  during  the  Himdrcd  Days;  in  fact,  was 

•*  Thk  pradiction.ia.soiiietimcs  attributed  to  Laplaccs 


with  difficulty  dittuaded  fMtti  volunteering  to  fi^  in  tUr 
cause.  After  the  second  restoration  his  fidelity  was  recognised 
by  his  elevation  to  the  dignity  of  baron  in  1835;  but  be  never 
either  took  out  his  dij^oma  or  used  the  tiller.  Tbe  revolutioa 
of  July  X850  threatened  him  with  the  loss  of  all  hia  honooss; 
but  this  disgrace  to  the  government  of  Loais  Philippe  vss 
adroitly  averted  by  F.  Arago,  who,  while  his  "  revocation  "  w 
being  plotted  by  the  council  of  ministers,  prcxured  bam  an  vrn- 
tation  to  dine  at  the  Palais  Royale,  where  he  was  openly  sad 
elTusively  received  by  the  citizen  king,  who  "  remembmd  *'  hia. 
After  this,  of  course^  his  degradation  was  impossibfe,  and  seita 
yean  later  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France,  not  lor  potitiol 
reasons,  but  as  a  representative  of  French  science. 

As  a  teacher  of  mathematics  Poisson  is  said  to  have  been  irert 
than  ordinarily  successful,  as  might  have  been  expected  inm 
his  eariy  pr(»nise  aa  a  tepdUeur  at  the  £cole  Polytechnique.  .As 
a  scientific  worker  his  activity  has  rarely  if  ever  beoi  equaDci 
Notwithstanding  his  many  official  duties,  he  found  that  t? 
publish  more  than  three  hundred  works,  several  of  them  extes- 
sive  treatises,  and  many  of  them  memoirs  dealing  with  the  oc^ 
abstruse  branches  of  pure  and  applied  mathematics.  Tbrt 
are  two  remarks  of  his,  or  perhaps  two  versions  of  the  st^t 
remark,  that  explain  how  he  accomplished  so  much:  one,  "  U 
vie  n'est  bonne  qu'i  deux  choses — k  faire  des  onntb^^tiqaa 
et  ft  les  professeur; "  the  other, "  La -vie  c'est  le  travniL' 


rr 


the  more  important.  There  are  few  branches  of  matbcniatics  u 
which  he  did  not  contribute  iomcthing,  but  it  was  la  the  app^^i* 
tion  of  mathematics  to  physical  subjects  that  his  greatest  scrticLi 
to  science  were  performed.  Perhaps  the  most  oripiaal,  ^ai 
certainly  the  most  permanent  in  their  influence,  were  bis  tncc  n 
on  the  theory  of  electricity  and  magnetism,  which  virtually  crc^:.- J 
a  new  branch  of  mathematical  physics.  Next  (perhaps  in  :;« 
opinion  of  some  first)  in  importance  stand  the  memoirs  on  ce&caud 
mechanics,  in  which  he  proved  himself  a  worthy  auccrssor  ta 
P.  S.  Laplace*  The  most  important  of  these  are  his  loeinoirs  "  S.' 
les  in^^lit^  sdculalrca  des  movens  mouvcmcnts  des  planices.**  **  S.r 
la  variation  des  constantes  arbitrairca  dans  les  questions  de  id^- 


gra^ 

in  Mim.  d.  Vacad,  (1827),  &c.  In  the  first  of  these  memoirs  Pdi-^t 
discusses  the  famous  question  of  the  stability  of  the  planctan 
orbits,  which  had  already  been  settled  by  La^szanee  to  tbe  ^^s 
degree  of  approximation  lor  the  disturbing  forces.  Poissoo  s2k-«?d 
that  the  result  could  be  extended  to  a  second  approximatioo.  aod  t^  .<• 
made  an  important  advance  in  the  planetary  theory.  The  mc-  ~ 
is  remarkable  inasmuch  as  it  roused  Lagrange,  after  an  intcoi!  d 
inactivity,  to  compose  in  his  old  age  one  of  the  greatest  of  hj 
memoirs,  vie  that  Sur  ta  iMorie  aes  variations  des  tiimrmti  in 
piankUjt  et  en  particuUer  des  variaiions  des  grands  axai  de  l^^n 
orbites.  So  highly  did  he  think  of  Poisson's  memoir  that  he  e^ 
a  copy  of  it  with  his  own  hand,  which  was  found  amon^  his  paprt 
after  his  death.  Poisson  made  important  contributjoos  to  tk 
theory  of  attraction.  His  well-known  correction  of  Lapb.->:'s 
partial  differential  equation  for  the  potential  was  first  p«ibk>>*::4 
in  the  BuUetiu  de  la  sociiti  pkUomatique  (1813).  His  two  e>j»t 
important  memoirs  on  the  subject  are  "Sur  rattractioo  di 
sph6roides  "  {Connaiss.  d.  temps,  1829),  and  *'  Sur  I'attractks  <r.-: 
ellipsoide  homoc^ne  "  {Mtm.  d.  Vacad.,  1835).  In  concludli^  cv 
selection  from  his  physcal  memoirs  we  may  mention  his  siestar 
on  the  theory  of  waves  (Af^H.  d.  tacad.,  1825). 

In  pure  mathematics,  his  most  important  works  were  his  arJn 
of  memoirs  on  definite  integrals,  and  his  discuasion  of  Focnm 
series,  which  paved  the  way  for  the  classical  researches  of  L.  Din:^'*A 
and  B.  Riemann  on  the  same  subject:  these  are  to  be  found  k'W 
Journal  of  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  from  1813  to  1823.  and  is  f^' 
Memoirs  de  I'acadimie  for  1823.  In  addition  we  may  also  mtsz- ' 
his  essay  on  the  calculus  of  variations  {Mem.  d.  Cacad.,  1833^  iti 
his  memoirs  on  the  probability  of  the  mean  results  of  obscnabc-j 
{Connaiss.  d,  temps,  1827,  &c.). 

Besides  his  many  memoirs  Poisson  published  a  number  of  trf«ti»?w 
most  of  which  were  intended  to  form^  part  of  a  great  work  oci  m^tV 
matical  physics,  which  he  did  not  live  to  complete.  Amoag  tb-ic 
may  be  mentioned  his  Traili  de  micanique  (2  vols.  8vo.  1611  ui 
1833}.  which  was  long  a  standard  work;  Tkiorie  nomoelU  de  rsrr.« 
cappUlnire  (4to.  1831 ) :  Tkiorie  matki$Hatione  de  ta  ckeioKr  (410. 1^35  • 
SuppUment  to  the  same  Uto.  18^7}:  Recherches  sut  la  Jpraiahfihk  ar 
jmeements  en  maiihres  crimineUes.  &c.(4to,  1 837).  all  pubfitbcdat  f*^'^ 

See  F.  Araeo,  Biograbhie  de  Poisson,  read  before  the  Acadfiaie  d9 
Sciences  on  tne  16th  of  December  1850. 


POISSY—POITIERS 


897 


.POISST*  A  town  of  northern  Fcaacey  in  the  dtparUneat  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  17  m,  W.N.W.  of  Paris,  on  the  railway  from  Paris 
to  Rouen.  Pop.  (1906),  6045.  The  church,  supposed  to  have 
been  buflt  in  the  fint  half  of  the  lath  century,  and  eventually 
restored  under  the  direction  of  VioUet  le  Due,  is  of  special 
architectural  interest,  as  affording  one  of  the  earliest  and  best 
examples  of  transition  from  the  Romanesque  to  the  Pointed 
style.  The  bridge  of  Poissy,  a  veiy  ancient  foundation,  has 
been  widened  and  modernixed;  of  the  mills  which  formerly 
bordered  it  one  was  known  as  Queen  filanche's.  A  statue  of 
the  painter  J.  L.  £.  Meissonier  was  erected  in  1894,  dose  to  his 
house.  Peiasy  Supplied  butchers'  meat  to  Paris  during  six 
centuries,  but  in  1867  the  market  was  removed  to  the  metropolis. 
A  handsome  fountain  stands  in  the  old  market-place.  Distilling 
and  the  manufacture  of  chairs  And  flour-milling  equipment  are 
carried  on  and  ragstone  is  quarried. 

Poissy,  the  ancient  Pinciacum,  was  the  capital  of  the  oountry 
of  the  Camutes.  In  the  time  of  Chariemagne  it  had  a  roy^ 
palace,  where  during  the  9th  century  four  national  aasembliies 
were  held.  I«ater  it  became  a  favourite  residence  of  Blanche  of 
Castille,  and  her  son,  idfterwards  St  Louis,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  bom  there.  Philip  the  Fair  gave  the  castle  to  the 
Dominicans,  by  whom  it  was  completely  transformed,  and  it 
was  in  the  refectory  of  the  abbey  that  the  famous  conference 
(see  below)  between  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  took 
place  in  1561. 

POISST,  COLLOQUY  OV,  a  conference  held  in  1561  with  the 
object  of  effecting  a  reconciliation  between  the  Catholics  and 
Protestants  of  France.  It  was  initiated  by  Queen  Catherine 
de*  Medici,  regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Chartes  IX. 
In  the  policy  of  which  it  was  the  outcome  she  enjoyed  the  support 
of  the  Chancellor  lirlichel  de  I'HOpital  and  the  lieutenant-general 
of  the  kingdom,  Antho^  of  Navarre;  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  heads  of  the  Catholic  party  had  attempted  to  frustrate 
any  form  of  negotiation.  Theodore  Besa  from  Geneva  and 
Peter  Martyr  Vermigli  from  Zilrich  appeared  at  the  colloquy;  the 
German  theologians  to  whom  invitations  had  been  despatched 
only  arrived  in  Paris  after  the  discussion  was  broken  off.  The 
conference  was  opened  on  the  9th  of  September  in  the  refectory 
of  the  convent  <A  Poissy,  the  king  lumself  being  present.  The 
spokesman  of  the  Reformed  Church  was  Besa,  who,  in  the  first 
session,  gave  a  lengthy  exposition  of  its  tenets,  but  excited  soth 
repugnance  by  his  pronouncements  on  the  Communion  that  he 
was  interrupted  by  Cardinal  Tournon.  In  the  second  session 
(Sept.  16)  he  was  answered  by  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who 
discharged  his  task  with  skill  and  moderation.  On  the  motion, 
however,  ci  Ippolito  d'Este,  the  papal  legate,  exception  was 
taken  to  the  further  conduct  of  the  negotiations  in  full  conclave; 
and  a  committee  of  twenty-four  representatives,  twelve  from 
each  party,  was  appointed'-ostensibly  to  fadUtate  a  satisfactory 
deci^n.  On  the  Catholic  side,  as  was  speedily  demonstrated, 
there  existed  no  sort  of  tendency  to  conciliation.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  by  his  question  whether  the 
Calvinists  were  prepared  to  sign  the  Confes^on  of  Augsburg, 
attempted  to  sow  diasenaon  between  them  and  the  Lutheran 
Protestants  of  Germany,  on  whose  continued  support  they  calcu- 
lated. The  CathoUc  delegates,  moreover,  discovered  a  powerful 
auxiliary  when  Lainez,  the  general  of  the  Jesuit  order,  which 
had  been  admitted  into  France  a  short  time  previously,  entered 
the  debate;  and  the  acrimony  with  which  he  opposed  the  Protes- 
tants was  of  material  service  hi  clarifying  the  situation.  Still 
a  further  reduction  was  made  in  the  number  of  members,  and  a 
small  re^dttum  consisting  of  five  Catholics  and  five  Protestants 
undertook  the  task  of  devising  a  formula  on  which  the  two 
chorthes  mig^t  luite  with  regard  to  the  question  of  the  Com- 
munion. Their  difficult  labours  even  seemed  on  the  point  of 
success  when  the  assemblage  of  prelates  refused  assent,  and  the 
conference  broke  up  on  the9th  of  October — a  result  which  baned 
the  way  to  a  pacific  understanding  with  the  Huguenots. 

Sec  H.  KQpffel.  Le  CoOoquede Poissy  (Paris,  1868) ;  E.  Lacheinmann 
in  Heffsog-Hauck.  KatkncykhpOdit  J.  pr^etk  Tktologtc  (vd  cd.. 
1904).  XV.  497.  (C,  M.) 


POITIBBS,  a  town  of  westem  France,  fomerly  the  capital  oC 
Poitou,  and  now  the  chief  town  of  the  department  of  Vienne, 
61  m.S.S.W.  of  Tours  on  the  railway  to  Bordeaux.  Pop.(c9o6), 
town,  31,53  a;  commune,  39i3oa.  Poitiers  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Boivre  with  the  Clain  (a  tributary  of  the  Loire 
by  the  Vienne)^  and  occupies  the  slopes  and  summit  of  a 
plateau  which  rises  130  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  streams  by 
which  it  is  surrounded  on  three  aides.  The  town  is  picturesque; 
and  its  streets  are  interesting  foe  their  remains  of  ancient 
architecture,  especially  of  the  Romanesque  period,  and  the 
memories  of  great  historical  events.  Blosaac  park,  named  after 
the  intendant  of  the  "  generality  "  of  Poitien  (t7Si-s7S6),  and 
situated  on.the  south  side  of  the  town,  and  the  botanical  garden 
on  the  north-east,  ase  the  two  principal  promenades.  Tlli 
1857  Poitiem  contained  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  amphHhcatie 
more  extensive  than  that  of  Nimes;  remains  of  Roman  baths, 
constructed  In  the  ist  and  demolished  in  the  3rd  centuy,  were: 
laid  bare  in  rS??;  and  in  1879  &  burial-place  and  the  tombs  <>f  a 
number  of  Christian  nmrtyn  were  discovered  on  the  heights  to 
the  south-^ast-Hhe  names  of  some  of  the  Christians  being 
preserved  in  paintings  and  inscrtptionsr  Not  far  from  these 
tombs  is  a  huge  dobnen  (the  "  Pierre  Lev6e  ")>  22  ft.  long,  16  ft. 
broad  and  6  or  7  ft.  high,  around  which  used  t»  be  held  the  great 
fair  of  St  Luke. 

The  cathedral  of  St  Peter,  begun  in  ii6s  by  Heniy  11.  of. 
EngUnd  and  Eleanmr  of  Guienne.  on  the  ruins  of  a  Romaa 
basilica,  and  well  advanced  by  the  end  of  the  tath  century,  is  a 
building  in  the  Romanesque  and  Eariy  Gothic  style,  the  latter 
predominating.  It  consists  of  three  naves  almost  equal  in 
height  and  width,  both  of  which  decrease  towards  the  west,, 
thus  enhancing  the  perspective.  Its  length  is  308  ft.,  and  the 
keystone  of  the  central  vaulted  loqf  is  89  ft.  above  the  pavesaent. 
There  is  no  apse,  and  the  exterior  guierally  has  a  heavy  appear* 
ance.  The  principal  front,  the  widUh  of  whichisexeessive  in  pro- 
portion to  its  height,  has  unfinished  side-towers  105  and  ixo  ft. 
in  height,  begun  in  the  13th  century.  Most  of  the  windoHs  of 
the  choir  and  the  transepts  preserve  their  stained  ^ass  of  the 
lath  and  13th  centuries;  the  end  window,  which  is  certainly 
the  fixst  in  the  order  of  time,  cootains  the  figures  oi  Henry  U. 
and  Eleanor.  The  choir  staUs,  carved  betweeit  {135  and  ia57» 
are  among  the  oldest  in  France.  The  church  of  St  Jean. near 
the  cathedral  is  the  most  ancient  Christian  monumOkt  in  the 
country.  Built  as  a  baptistery  in  the  first  half  of  the  4th  century, 
it  was  enUirged  in  the  7th  century,  since  when  it  has  suffered 
little  structural  alteration.  It  contains  frescoes  of  the  zttli 
century  and  a  collection  of  tombs  .of  the  Merovingian  period; 
The  church  of  St  Hikire  was  .^ected  at  the  dose  erf  the  4th 
ceatniy  over  the  tomb  of  the  celebrated  bkhop.  At  fisat  aa 
oratory,  it  was  rebuilt  on  a  karger  scafe  .by  Clovis^  and  after* 
watds  became,i&  the  roth, nth  and  lath  oenluries,a  sumptuous 
collegiate  church,  of  which  the  nave  wss  flanked  by  triple  aisles 
and  surmounted  by  six  cupolas.  Great  damage  was  done  to  it 
in  the  Wars  o£  Religion  and  the  French  Revolution,  and  the 
facade  was  entirely  rebuilt  in  the.  r9th  century.  The  confes- 
sional or  oratory  under  the  choir  contains  the  relics  of  St  Hilary 
and  a  Chretian  sarcophagus  of  the  4th  century.  The  church  of 
St  Radegonde,  a  great  resort  of  pilgrims,  conunemorates  the 
consort  of  Clotaire  (d.  5S7),  and  preserves  in  its  crypt  the  tomb 
of  Radegonde,  who  founded  at  Poitiers  the  abbey  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  and  two  others  reputed  to  be  those  of  St  Agnes  and  St 
Disdola.  The  choir  and  tower  above  the  entrance  are  of  the 
nth  century,  while  the  nave  (late  r  atfa  century)  is  in  the  Angevin 
style.  In  a  recess  in  the  nave  known  as  the  Chapelle  du  Pas 
de  DIeu,  there  is  a  footprint  whidi  tradition  asserts  to  be  that  of 
Christ,  who  appeared  in  a  vision  to  Si  Radegonde.  Notre-Dame 
la  Grande,  which  dates  from  the  close  of  the  nth  centiury,  and 
represents  a  collegiate  church  of  one  or  two  hundred  years  older, 
has  a  sculptured  Romanesque  facade  rivalled  in  richness  only 
by  that  of  St  Pierre  of  Angoul£me.  The  first  stone  of  the 
church  of  Montienteuf  {Monasterium  Novum)  was  laid  in  X077 
by  William  VI.,  duke  of  Aquitatne  and  count  of  Poitiers,  who  is 
buried  within  its  walls;  and  the  choir  (in  the  r3th  century 


898 


POITIERS 


modified  by  the  erection  of  a  "  binteni  *')  was  solemnly  conse- 
crated by  Urban  II.  in  1096.  Mutilated  about  1640  and  during 
the  Revolutionf  the  building  was  partly  restored  between  1850 
and  i860.  The  tower  of  St  Porchaire,  a  precious  remnant  of 
I  ith-centuxy  architecture,  was  restored  in  the  igth  century  under 
the  auspices  cithtvr^knoyniSociiUd^santiquaires  de  fouest. 

Among  the  secular  buildings  the  first  place  belongs  to  the 
law  courts,  formerly  the  palace  of  the  dukes  of  Aquitaine  and 
counts  of  JPoitiers,  and  rebuilt  between  the  lath  and  the  15th 
century.  The  Salle  des  Pas  Perdus  forms*  a  fine  nave  t6o  ft 
long  by  56  ft.  wide,  with  a  vaulted  wooden  roof.  The  southern 
wall  is  the  work  of  duke  Jean  de  Berry  (d.  1416),  brother  of 
Charles  V.;  above  its  three  vast  fireplaces  are  mullioned  windows 
filled  with  stained  glass.  The  Maubergeon  tower  attached 
to  the  palace  by  the  same  duke  represented  the  feudal  centre 
of  all  the  lordships  of  the  oountship  of  Poitiers.  The  house 
known  as  the  prMti  ot  provost's  mansion,  built  about  1500,  has 
a  fine  facade  flanked  by  turrets,  and  there  are  other  houses 
of  the  xsth,  x6th  and  X7th  centuries.  In  the  H(ytel  de  Ville, 
erected  between  1869  and  1876,  are  museums  of  natural  history 
and  painting.  The  museum  of  the  Antiquaires  de  l^&tiest 
occupies  the  chapel  and  the  great  hall  of  the  old  univernty, 
adjoining  the  old  H6tel  de  ViUe;  it  is  a  valuable  collecfiofi  com- 
prising Roman  antiquities,  Merovingian  sculptures,  medak,  a 
fine  Renaissance  firqjlace,  kc  The  building  devoted  to  the 
faculties  also  contains  the  library.  The  municipal  records  are 
iVery  rich  in  charters  of  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  Philip  Augustus, 
Alphonse  of  Poitiers,  &c. 

Poitiers  is  the  scat  of  a  bishop,  a  prefect,  a  court  of  appeal 
and  a  court  of  assizes,  and  centre  of  an  educational  division 
{acedtmie)^  and  has  tribunals  of  first  instance  and  of  commerce, 
a  board  of  trade  arbitration,  a  diamber  of  commerce  and  a 
braadi  of  the  Bank  of  France.  Its  educational  institutions 
comprise  a  university  with  faculties  of  law,  science  and  letters, 
and  a  preparatory  Khool  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,  a  school 
of  theolo^,  training  colleges  for  both  sexes,  a  lyc£e  for  boys 
and  a  school  of  fine  art.  Tirade  is  in  farm  produce,  winb,  cattle, 
wool,  honey,  goose-quills  and  leather,  llie  industries  indude 
the  preparation  pf  goose-skins,  printing,  tanning,  and  the 
manufacture  of  brushes,  paint  and  candles. 

Poitiers,  called  lAmomum  at  the  time  pf  the  Roman  Conquest, 
afterwards  tpok  the  name  of  its  Gallic  founders,  the  Pictones  or 
Pictavi.  Christianity  was  introduced  in  the  3rd  century,  and 
the  first  bishop  of  Poitiers,  from  350  to  367,  was  St  Hilarius. 
Fifty  years  kter  the  city  Jiad  faUen  into  the  hands  of  thje  Arian 
Visigoths,  and  became  one  of  the  principal  residences  of  their 
kings.  Alaric  II.,  one  of  their  number,  was  defeated  by  Clovis 
at  Vottill^,  not  far  from  Poitiers,  in  507,  and  the  town  became  a 
part  of  the  Prankish  dominion.  This  was  the  first  occasion  on 
which  the  peoples  of  northern  and  southern  Gaul  met  in  conflict 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  which  was  destined  to  see 
them  so  frequently  join  battle.  By  his  victory  in  73a  over  the 
Mahommedans  at  Moussais-la-Bataille  in  this  region,  Charles 
Martel  proved  the  saviour  of  Christendom.  Eleanor  of  Guienne 
frequently  resided  in  the  dty,  which  she  embellfsh^  and  fortified, 
and  in  X199  entrusted  with  communal  rights.  Alphonse  of 
Poitiers,  ata  plenary  court  held  in  xa4x  in  the  great  hall  of  the 
Pafatis  de  Justice,  received  the  homage  of  hh  numerous  vassals. 
After  the  battle  oi  Poitiers  in  1356  (see  bdow),  Poitou  was  recog- 
nized as  an  English  possesion  by  the  treaty  of  Br6tigny  (1360) ; 
but  by  1373  It  was  recovered  by  Bertrand  Du  Guesdin.  It 
was  at  Poitiers  that  Charles  VII.  was  proclaimed  king  (1431); 
and  he  removed  thither  the  parlement  and  unlveisity  of  Paris, 
which  remained  in  exile  till  the  English  withdrew  from  the  capital 
in  1436.  During  this  interval  (1419)  Joan  of  Arc  was  subjected 
to  a  formal  inquest  in  the  town.  The  university  was  founded 
In  143  a.  Calvin  had  numerous  converts  at  Poitiers.  Of  the 
^violent  proceedings  which  attended  the  Wars  of  Religfon  the 
.dtyhad  its  share.  In  1569  it  was  ddended  by  Gul  de  Daillon, 
oorate  du  Lude,  against  Gaspard  de  CoUgny,  who  after  an 
unsoccciaful  bombardment  retired  from  the  siege  at  the  end  of 
•even  weeks. 


C&mOs of  PMHers.'^lh.  the  timcof  Charlemagne  tlie countstop 
of  Poitien,  which  was  then  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  AquitaiiK, 
was  represented  by  a  certain  Abbon.  Renoul  (Raou^h).  vbo 
was  created  count  of  Poitiers  by  the  emperor  Loub  the  Pkns  is 
839,  was  the  ancestor  of  a  family  which  was  distinguished  is  t&e 
9th  and  xoth  centuries  for  its  attachment  to  the  CaroEnpn 
dynasty.  One  of  his  successors,  Ebles  the  Bastard  (d.  93  s>. 
tack,  the  title  of  duke  of  Aquitaine;  and  his  descendants,  vhii 
bore  the  hereditaiy  name  oi  William,  retained  the  same  titk. 
William  IV.,  Fidrebrace,  joined  Hugh  Capet,  his  bxother-m-lsv. 
in  987.  William  V.  the  Great  (993-X030)  was  a  patron  d 
letters,  and  reodved  from  the  Italian  lords  the  oiffer  of  tbt 
imperial  crown  after  the  death  of  the  emperor  Hairy  IL  b 
X024.  William  DC.  (xo86'ixa7)  went  on  cnisade  in  xioo,  isd 
had  violent  quarrels  with  the  Papacy.  His  son  WilEaa  X. 
(xia7-ix37)  sided  with  the  anti-pope  Anadetus  against  Iimoceai 
II.  In  accordance  with  the  dying  wishes  of  William  X  ks 
daughter  Eleaiu>r  was  married  in  1x37  to  Louis,  the  son  of  Laea 
VI.  of  France.  Sole  heiress  of  her  father,  she  bcoag^  kt 
husband  a  large  dowxy,  comprismg  Poitou,  SaiBfon^e,  Aaes 
a  part  of  Touraine  and  Berry,  Mardie,  Angoumois^  Ffidgoed 
Attvefgne,  Limousin,  Bordelais,  Agdnois  and  Gasoony.  Afie 
the  dissensions  between  Louis  VII.  and  Eleanor  had  na^aA 
In  a  divorce  In  xisa,  Eleanor  married  the  count  of  As)r. 
Henry  Plantagenet,  ^o  became  king  of  England  as  Reaxy  IL 
The  west  of  France  thus  passed  Into  the  hands  of  £iig^l  t 
transfer  which  gave  rise  to  long  wars  between  the  two  kix^dc-3& 
Philip  Augustxis  reconquered  Poitou  in  X2C4,  and  the  pnmiKT 
became  in  succession  an  apanage  of  Alphonse,  son  of  Lee 
VII^.,  In  xa4i ;  of  Philip  the  Tall,  son  of  Phflip  the  Fair,  in  xjn . 
of  John,  son  of  Philip  of  Valois,  in  X344;  and  of  John,  dec  <k 
Berry,  son  of  John  the  Good,  in  X3s6;  and  passed  to  the  4t^^ 
John  (14x6)  and  Charles  (14x7),  sons  of  Charles  VL  Wbe 
Charles  VII.  ascended  the  throne  he  finally  united  the  cmn^stip 
of  Poitiers  to  the  Ciown. 


See  P.  Gu6rin,  RecueU  des  doctmtnls  amumanl  ie 
1880-1906);  and  A.  Richards,  Histoire  des  comtes  de 
1903). 


CParii 


Battle  of  PoitUrs,—TbM  battle,  fought  on  the  19th  of  SeptRS- 
ber  1356  between  the  armies  of  King  John  of  France  axkd  £d«ard 
the  "  Black  Prince,"  was  the  second  of  the  three  great  Et^ 
victories  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War.  From  Bocdeaux  tk 
prince  had  led  an  army  of  his  father's  Guienne  vassals,  visl 
which'  there  was  a  force  of  English  archers  and  men-at-ans. 
into  central  France  and  had  amassed  an  enormotts  boot?. 
King  John,  hitherto  engaged  against  the  army  of  John  of  Gsbss 
duke  of  Lancaster,  in  Normandy,  hurried  south  to  interD^ 
the  raiding  army  and  to  bar  its  homeward  road.  The  Bhd 
Prince,  by  forced  marching,  was  able  to  slip  past  the  Frocl 
but  reaching  MaupertuiSk  7  m.  south-east  of  Poitiexs,  with  the 
lung's  army  in  chase,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  chaose 
between  fighting  and'  abandoning  his  spoiL  He  chote  :k 
former  course,  in  spite  of  the  enemy's  great  eapeaaanij  ts 
numbers  (16,000  to  6500),  and  in  order  to  give  his  trains  tiE»  ti 
draw  off  took  up  a  defensive  position  on  the  i8th  of  Scpt^abcr. 
with  a  slight  hoUow  in  front  and  a  wood  behind,  bctveea  tkt 
Poitiers-Bordeaux  main  road  and  tht  River  Hausason.*^  J«^ 
instead  of  manoeuvring  to  envelop  the  Kngiish^  allowed  XM 
Cardinal  Talleyxand  de  Pirigord  to  attempt  to  nc«atiats  s 
peace  This  proving  vain,  the  French  army  attacked  wiihest 
any  attempt  at  manoeuvre  or  rocoimaissance,and  on  a  frad  m 
narrow  that  the  advantage  of  superior  numbers  was  focfeitcd. 
Moreover,  King  John  ordered  all  but  the  leading  line  to  dismaai.t 
and  to  attack  on  foot  (tactics  suggested  by  the  success  oa  ike 
defensive  of  the  dismoimted  English  men^at-anns  at  Oecy  aad 
the  Scots  at  Bannockbum),  and  thus  condemned  the  best  part 
of  his  army  to  a  fatiguing  advance  on  foot  acxoas  diffiadt  cmaay 
in  full  armour, 

The  French  arblasters,  who  might  have  crushed  the  rdative}* 


'The  view  adopted  fe  that  of 
Middle  Ages,  p.  631. 


Professor  Omaa.  AH  ef  Wf 


POITOU— POKER 


899 


tew  English  aichen  pttanA,  were  mingM  irith  the  300  picked 
mounted  men  in  fim  line,  but,  as  the  lifter  ihMXgpA,  their 
advance  maaked  the  fire  of  theaxUaiten  in  the  fixat  fewieooads, 
besidea  lemring  the  other,  disnw\iated»'  lines  iar  in  icac  Thus 
the  fint  attack  on  the  Black  Prince's  line,  whidi  ins  graatly 
atrengtheaed  by  trccs  and  hedges  in  front  ii  it,  was  pcomptly 
brought  to  a  sUndstill  by  the  arrows  of  th«  ncfaeis  lining  «, 
hedge  which  overlooked  the  hollow  in  front;  and  the  eaxl  of 
Oxford  hastily  drawing  oat  a  body  of  aichen  beyond  the  defen- 
ders' left,  into  the  low-lying  ground  of  the  Manaaion  valley, 
completed  their  nut  by  fizteg  up  the  hollow  into  thdr  flank. 
But  it  was  not  so  ea^  to  deal  with  the  second  line  of  dismounted 
raen-at>anns,  led  1^  the  dauphin,  which  waa  the  nest  to  airive 
on  the  FinKfa  side.  The  hedge  indeed  was  held«  and  the 
assailants,  unable  to  advance  beyond  the  hollow,  gave  way, 
but  to  achieve  this  the  prince  had  to  use  all  but  400  of  Us 
men.  Had  the  thiid  body  of  the  French  advanced  with  equal 
spirit  the  battle  would  probably  have  ended  then  and  then, 
Ixit  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who  commanded  it,  was  so  democalised 
by  the  retirement  of  the  dauphin's  divisun  that  he  led  his  whok 
force  off  the  field  without  striking  a  blow*  Thereupon  the  king 
himself  advanced  furiously  with  the  fouith  and  last  Use,  and  as  it 
came  on  the  situation  of  the  Englisb  seemed  so  desperate  that  the 
prince  was  advised  to  retreat.  But  his  determined  courage  was 
unshaken;  seeing  that  this  was  the  last  attadc  he  put  his  reserve 
into  line,  and  rallying  around  this  nucleus  all  men  who  could 
stiU  light,  he  prepared  not  only  to  repulse  but  to  counterattack 
the  French.  He  despatched  a  small  force  under  the  Captal  de 
Buch  lo  ride  round  the  flank  of  the  enemy  and  to  appear  in  their 
rear  at  the  crisis  of  the  flight.  Though  a  medieval  knight,  he 
knew  as  well  as  Napoleon  at  Areola  that  when  the  moral  force 
of  both  sides  has  passed  its  culminating  point  even  a  mktiwally 
insignificant  threat  serves  to  turn  the  balance.  And  so  it  fell 
out.  When  both  lines  wero  fighting  hand-to-hand,  the  fifty 
horsemen  of  the  Captal  de  Buch  appeared  in  rear  of  the  French. 
The  front  ranks  fought  on,  but  the  rear  of  the  French  melted 
away  rapidly,  and  at  last  only  a  group  of  thebmvest,with  Kin^ 
John  and  his  son  Philip,  a  boy  of  fourteen,  in  their  midst,  were 
left.  This  band  continued  their  hopdcss  rcsistanoe  for  a  time, 
but  in  the  end  they  wero  killed  or  captured  to  a  man.  The 
rest  of  the  French  army,  totally  dispersed,  was  pursued  by  the 
victors  until  nightfall.  Two  thousand  five  hundred  of  the 
French,  3000  of  them  knights  and  men-at-arms,  wero  killed, 
including  the  constable,  one  of  the  marshals,  the  standard- 
bearer  and  six  Other  great  lords.  The  prisoners  included  the 
king  and  his  son  Philip,  the  other  marshal  and  95  great  lords, 
and.  1933  knights  and  men-at-arms  as  well  as  500  others. 

POROV,  one  of  the  dd  provinces  of  France,  which  also 
formed  one  of  the  great  military  governments  of  the  kingdom, 
was  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Brittany,  Anjou  and  Tburaine;  on 
the  S.  by  Angoumois  and  Aunb;  on  the  E.  by  Touralne,  Berri 
and  Marcbe*,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  ocean.  It  was  divided  into 
Lower  Poitou,  which  corresponded  to  the  modem  department  of 
La  Vendue,  and  Upper  Poitou,  now  split  into  the  departments 
of  Deur-S^vres  and  Vienne.  The  principal  towns  in  Upper 
Poitou  were  Poitiers  the  capital,  Mirobeau,  Chfttellerault, 
Richeh'eu,  Londun,  Thouars,  Maulion,  Parthenay,  Niort,  &c.; 
and  in  Lower  Poitou  Fontenay-Ie-Comt£,  MaiUesais,  Lucon 
and  Roche-sur-Yon.  lie  d'Yeu  or  tle-DIeu  and  Noirmoutier 
belonged  to  the  province.  Ecdesxastlcally,  Poitou  was  a  diocese 
which  was  broken  up  in  131 7  to  form  two  new  dioceses  of  Lu{on 
and  Maillezais;  the  seat  of  Uie  latter  was  transferred  in  the  17th 
century  to  La  Rochelle.  For  the  adminbtration  of  Justice, 
Poitou  was  attached  to  the  parlement  of  Paris.  After  778  It 
formed  part  of  the  domain  of  the  counts  of  Poitiers  (^.v.).  Poitou 
(Poictou,  Pictavia)  takes  its.  naro^  from  the  PictoneaorPictavi, 
a  Gallic  nation  mentioned  by  Caesar,  Strabo  and  Ptolemy,  and 
described  by  Strabo  as  separated  from  the  Namnetcs  on  the 
north  by  the  Loire.  It  formed  part  of  the  territory  known  as 
Aquitaine  (ftv.)« 

For  the  history  see  the  Mimpins  of  the  Soci^^  des  Antiquaires 
de  I'Ouett  (18^  Kiq.)  and  the  documenta  publithed  by  the  Ankives 


Usloriamt  du  Poihu  {1B72  ■qq.h  also  the  DtcHonnain  iopotmpkiqiu 
d€  la  Vienne,  by  L.  Rfidct  (iBSi). 


FOKBBBRBT*  POKEWBED  (from  the  Amcrica|i>Indian 
Pocan,  applied  to  any  plant  yiekUng  a-  red  or  yellow  dye),  in 
botany,  the  popular  name  <^  Pkytolacea  deamdra,  a  strong- 
smellhig  perennial  herb,  a  native  ol  North  America,  with  ovate- 
lanoeoliOe  shaip-pointed  leaves,  racemes  of  smaU  greenish-white 
fiowersaad  flattish  berries  needy  ^  in.  in  diameter,  which  contain 
adimaonjuioe.  The  young  aaparaguS'like  shoots  are  sometimes 
used  as  a  pot-heri>,  but  the  loota  are.  poaaonous.  The  plant  is 
often  cultivated  in  Europe^  and  has  become  naturalised  in  the 
Mediterranean  segioii. 

POKBIUagameatcazda.    By  naost  writers  its  orighi  has  been 
ascribed  to  tlFrusM,  an  Italian  game  of  the  isth  century,  Uom 
which  the  game  of  Frkmeraf  called  in  Spain  Primero,  and 
La  Prim§  in  France,  in  whidi  country  it  was  elaborated  into 
L'AmbigB  or  Lb  MM.    In  Rt^liwiH  the  gaase  was  played  under 
the  name  of  Post  and  Poif,  of  which  the  modem  Brag  isooly 
a  variation.    But  Mr  R.  F.  Foster,  proves  that,  though  poker 
is  probably  a  descendant  pf  PriancrOf  and  perhaps  of  a  much 
moreandetit  Persiau  game  called  Asras,  it  is  not  a  development 
of  the  English  Bref ,  but  was  introduced  from  France  into  the 
colony  of  Louisiana,  the  name  being  merely  an  Enfl^  mispro- 
nunciation of  Poque,  a  game  described  as  early  as  1718  in  the 
Acadimie  minerseUe  det  /nor,  and  still  played  In  Germany 
under  the  name  Poekm.    The  earliest  mention  of  the  game 
in  America  is  in  G.  B.  Zieb^r's  Exposure  ^of  ike   ArU  and 
Miseries  oj  Gambling  (1843),  ^nd  it  is  probable  that  poker  was 
generally  played  on  the  Mississippi  steamboats  aa  early  as  1830, 
twenty  cards  being  uKd,  "lull-4eck  poker"  with  s>  cands 
being  invented  lata.    "Draw-poker"  was  introduced  about 
t86a 

Pdccr  b  played  for  money  stakes,  markcsa  or  "  chips"  of 
different  value  being  used.  These  are  either  divided  equally 
among  the  playecs,  or,  mwe  usmdly,  one  player  acts  as  banker 
and  sells  chips  to  the  other  players,  redeeming  them  at  the  tnd.of 
the  game*  There  are  sevtfal  varieties  <rf  the  game,  but  Dr^ 
Poker ^  played  by  from  a  to  6  or  even  7  persaos  with  a  pack  of 
53  cards,  is  the  most  popular.  The  pliqrer  who  wins  the  cut 
for  deal  Muffles  the  pack,  which  is  then  cut  by  the  player  at  his 
rig^t.  He  then  deals  five  cards,  one  by  one,  to  each  player. 
If  a  card  is  faced  during  the  deal  the  player  must  accept  it;if 
two  are  eqxMwd  a  new  deal  must  ensue.  Before  the  deal  is 
complete  the  pbyer  at  the  dealer's  left,  who  is  saul  to  hM  the 
age,  and  Is  cafled  "  the  age,"  places  (or  puis  up)  on  the  table  in 
front  of  him  half  the  stake  for  whkh  he  wishes  to  play.  This  is 
catted  hKnd,  The  i^yer  at  the  «g^'s  left  then  looks  at  his  hand 
and  announces  whether  he  will  play:  If  hia  hand  seems  too 
weak  be  throws  bis  cards  away  facedown  and  'i4lropB  out " 
of  the  game.  If  be  elects  to  play  he  puts  up  his  a$Ue^  which  is 
twitt  the  ssaount  of  the  blind.  The  other  phyers,  including  the 
dealer,  then  either  oome  in,  ».«.  dect  to  play,  each  putting  up 
his  offis,  or,  deeming  their  hands  worthless,  drop  out.  The  age, 
who  has  the  last  say,  may  then  himself  drop  out,  fotfeiting  his 
half-stake  already  put  up,  or  he  may  oome  in  and  make  good  kis 
anUy  i^  put  up  his  unpaid  half  of  tbt' blind.  Each  player  in  bis 
turn  has  the  privilege  of  increasing  the  stake  to  any  amount 
not  exceeding  the  limit,'  which  is  always  agreed  upon  before 
the  game  begins.  Thus,  if  the  limit  is  £1,  and  the  age  has  put 
up  6d.  as  his  bUnd,  any  phiyer  may,  when  his  turn  comes  to 
declare  whether  he  will  play,  say,  "I  play  and  make  it  los. 
(or  a  sovereign)  more  to  draw  cards,"  at  the  same  time  placing 
the  ante  phis  xos.  (or  a  sovereign)  in  the  middle  of  the  table. 
Thereupon  all  the  other  players,  each  in  turn,  must  see  ike  ndse^ 
ijs.  pay  in  the  additional  sum,  or  drop  out  of  the  game,  forfeiting 
what  they  have  already  paid  into  the  pod.  The  "  age  "  being 
the  last  to  comi^ete,  is  in  the  best  position  to  raise,  as  a  player 
who  has  already  completed  Is  less  likely  to  sacrifice  his  stake 
and  withdraw  from  the  game.    On  the  other  hand  each  player 

* "  Table  stakes  **  means  playing  strictly  for  cash;  **  unlimited  '* 
explains  itself,  although  even  when  this  is  the  rule  a  certain  high 
Kmit  b  pretty  geoentlly  observed. 


900 


POKER 


has  the  right,  In  fais  turn,  afttt  fmytng  the  extra  stake  called 
for,  of  raising  it  further  on  his  own  account,  and  this  goes  on 
until  the  players  who  have  not  dropped  out  have  paid  an  e^ual 
sum  into  the  pool  and  bo  one  caics  to  raise  further.  Each 
player  then  throws  away  as  many  of  his  five  cards  as  he  chooses 
and  receives  from  the  dealer  new  ones  in  their  place.  In  this 
supplementary  deal  no  player  may  accept  a  faced  card,  but 
receives  one  in  its  place  after  all  the  other  players  have  been 
served.  Use  number  of  new  cards  taken  by  each  one  should 
be  carefully  noted  by  the  other  players,  as  it  gives  a  valuable 
chie  to  the  probable  value  of  his  hand.  The  following  list 
shows  the  value  of  hands,  beginning  with  the  lowest. 

I.  One  Pair  (accompamed  by  three  cards  ai  different  denomi* 
nations).  If  two  plajrecs  each  hold  a  pair,  the  higher  wins;  if 
similar  pairs  {e^.  a  pair  of  kings  each)  then  the  next  highest  card 
win& 

3.  T\n  Pairs. 

3.  TripUts  or  Tkrett  of  a  Kind  (eg,  three  kings,  accompanied 
by  two  other  cards  not  forming  a  pair). 

4.  Straight,  a  sequence  of  five  cards,  not  all  of  the  same  suit. 
Sometimes,  but  vcrv  rarely,  these  straights  arc  not  admitted. 
An  aoe  may  other  begin  or  end  a  straight.  For  example:  ace, 
tang,  queen,  knave  and  10  is  the  highest  straight;  S.  4*  3,  a.  and  aoe 
is  the  lowest.  An  ace  cannot  be  in  the  middle*  For  example^'  3, 2, 
ace,  king,  queen  is  not  a  straight. 

5.  Hush,  five  cards  of  the  same  suit,  not  m  sequence.  If  two 
flushes  are  held,  that  containing  the  highest  card  wins;  if  the 
highest  cavds  ane  similar,  the  next  highest  wins,  &c 

6.  FuU,  or  FuU  Uonsct  meaning  three  cards  of  the  same  denomina- 
tion together  with  a  pair;  e.g.  three  sixes  and  a  pair  of  fours.  If 
more  than  one  player  nolds  a  full,  the  highest  triplet  wins. 

7.  Povrs,  or  four  cards  of  the  same  denomination;  e.g.  four 
queens*  whkh  beat  four  knaves  and  under. 

8.  Straight  Flush,  a  sequence  of  five  cards  all  of  the  same  suit ; 
€.g.  knave,  10. 9,  8,  7.  of  hearts. 

9.  Royal  Flush,  the  highest  possible  straight  flush ;  e.g.  ace,  king, 
queen,  knave  and  10  of  spades. 

If  no  player  holds  at  least  one  pair,  then  the  hand  containing  the 
higjiestcard  wins. 

Each  player  havmg  received  the  new  cards  called  for,  the 
betUng  is' opened  by  the  player  sitting  at  the  age's  left,  should 
Iw  conskler  his  hand  worth  it;  otherwise  he  throws  down  his 
catds  and  is  out  of  the  game,  and  the  next  player  (whom  we  will 
all  C)  makes  the  first  bet,  which  may  be  of  any  amount  up 
to  the  limit,  but  is  usually  a  small  one,  with  «  view  to  later 
developments.  The  next-  pUyer,  D,  eitba'  drops  out,  IraUSt 
i.9.  puts  up  the  amount  bet  by  C  (also  called  seeing  knd  caUing), 
or  raises  C's  bet;  in  other  words  puts  in  the  amount  bet  by 
C  plus  as  much  more  (within  the  limit)  as  he  cares  to  risk. 
This  raise  on  D's  paxt  means  either  that  he  thinks  he  holds  a 
better  hand  than  C,  or  that  he  is  trying  to  frighten  C  out.  The 
last  nuAODuvre  illustrates  the  prindple  of  tbe  Ut^,  the  oftost 
saUent  chanutteristic  of  the  game  of  Poker.  If  C,  with  twa 
small  patfs  In  the  hand,  b^s  half  a  crown,  and  D,  with  a  haiad  of 
no  vafaie  whatever,  covers,  or  sees  C's  bet  and  raises  it  to  a  note- 
reign,  it  is  very  likely  (hat  C  will  thttnr  down  his  cuds  rather 
than  risk  a  sovereign  on  his  own  by  no  means  strong  hand, 
in  this  case  C  has  been  bluffed  by  D,  who,  without  even  having 
to  show  kii  caids,  wins  the  pool,  although  intanaicaUy  his  hand 
was  far  inferior  to  C's.  The  ability  to  bluff  successfully  depends 
upon  self-command,  keen- observation,  judgment  and  knowledge 
of  character,  so  as  to  attempt  the  bluff  when  the  bluffer  is  sure 
that  these  are  no  very  strong  handd  out  against  him.  Other 
wise  he  will  suieiy  be  €iJkd  in  hitf  turn,  and,  having  nothing 
of  vahie,  will  lose  the  pool,  besides  suffering  the  ignominy  of 
throwing  away  his  money  for  nothing.^ 

Two  playtfs  witk  strong  hands  will  often  raise  each  other's 
bets  repeatedly,  tmtH  one  of  them  calls  the  other,  upon  which 
the  haiMki  are  shown  and  the  stronger  wins.  The  compile 
hands  of  the  caller  and  the  called  must  t)e  shown.  The  common 
practlceof  throwing  away  unshown,  for  purposes  of  concealment, 
a  losing  hand  that  has  called  is  Ulegal.  No  player  who  Is  not 
called  is  obliged  to  show  his  hand,  so  that  the  company*is  often 
in  doubt  whether  or  not  the  winner  has  bluffed.  When  .two 
hands  are  of  exactly  equal  value  the  pool  is  divided. 

The  game  is  often  varied  by  a  player  going  bliudt  i.e.  raising 
the  ante  before  the  deal.    Another  variatioA  Js  Saddling  ike 


Hind,  This  is  done  by  the  player  sitting  next  the  tftr  «1m>  ptdb 
up  twice  the  amount  of  the  blhxi  with  the  wocds  "  I  straddle.'' 
Ilus  has  the  effect  of  doubling  the  stake,  as  every  player  mast 
then  pay  twice  the  amount  of  the  straddle  (instead  cl  tLe  b&s^ 
in  order  to  play.  The  straddle  may  be  ^raddled  again  in  lis 
turn  if  the  aggregate  amount  does  not  pans  t^  Unit.  The 
straddle  does  not  cany  with  it  the  prxvll^ie  of  betting  last,  hA 
merely  raises  the  amount  of  the  stakes 

The  DQgtUar  Draw-Poker  game  is  usoaUy  varied  by  occaskmsl 
Jack-Pots^  which  are  played  once  in  so  many  deals,  or  whes 
aU  have  refused  to  play,  or  when  the  player  deib  who  lnoUs  the 
buck^  a  marker  placed  in  the  pool  with  every  jack-pot.  la  a 
jack-rpot  each  player  puts  up  an  eqtial  stake  and  eeoeives  a  hand. 
The  pot  must  then  be  opened  by  a  player  boldiiv  a  liaod  of  the 
value  of  a  pair  of  knaves  (jacks)  or  better.  If  ao  player  bdds 
so  valuable  a  band  the  deal  passes  and  each  i^yer  adds  a  sadl 
sum  to  the  pot  or  pool.  When  liie  pot  Is  opoied  the  opener 
does  so  by  putting  up  aoy  sum  he  chooses,  within  the  fiant, 
and  his  companion^  must  pay  in  the  same  amount  or  "  dropi" 
They  aJsO  possess  the  ri^t  to  raise  the  opener.  The  ne« 
cards  caUed  for  an  then  dealt  and  the  opener  starts  the  bettat 
the  play  proceeding  as  in  the  regular  game.  If  iVsfrenar 
Jcck'Pots  are  phiyed,  the  minimum  value  of  the  ^rtrtrg  hnd 
is  raised  one  degree  every  deal  in  which  the  pot  is  not  cpcael 
Thus  the  opening  hand  must  in  the  fimt  deal  be  at  least  a  pur 
of  knaves;: but  if  the  pot  is  not  opened  the  mfniminn  for  the 
second  deal  is  a  pair  of  queens,  for  the  third  a  pair  of  kings,  Ac 
Jack-Pots  were  introduced  about  1870. 

Straight  Poker,  or  Bl^g,  is  played  without  dxawiz^  ettm 
cards.  It  was  the  only  vsjciety  of  the  game  played,  althos^ 
59  cards  are  now  used  instead  of  ao^  as  formerly.  The  firs 
dealer  is  provided  with  a  marker  called  a  buck,  and  having,  beioa 
dealing^  put  up  the  antes  of  all  the  pUyezs,  passes  the  back  to 
the  next  dealer,  who  must  in  his  turn  ante  for  all  when  he  deak 
The  rules  for  betting,  raising,  &c.,  are  the  same  as  at  Doav- 
Poker.    The  hands,  of  course,  average  smaller. 

Stud'Poker  is  played  like  Draw-Poker,  exoq>t  that  there  a 
no  draw  and«  in  dealing,  the  first  card  only  is  dealt  face  dova. 
the  rest  being  exposed.  Each  player  in  turn  looks  at  his  turaed 
card  and  makes  his  bet  or  raise.  A  common  variation  of  Stod- 
Poker  consists  in  stop^ig  the  deal  after  two  cards,  one  face  ip 
and  the  other  face  down,  have  been  dealt,  and  betting  oa  tbse 
two  cards.  A  third  card  is  then  dealt  and  betting  again  take 
place,  the  process  being  repeated  after  the  fourth  and  fifth  canh 
have  been  dealt,  the  value  of  the  different  hands  ^K^wgi'rig  wsk 


each  added  card.    A  player  failing  to  "  stand  "  any  raise 
retire  from  that  pot. 

Whiskey-Poker  a  also  played  without  a  draw.  An  extra  hiad, 
called  the  widow,  is  dealt  to  the  table  face  dowiu  The  £is 
bettor  then  examines  his  hand  and  has  the  option  o<  taking  9 
the  widow  and  placing  hh  own  hand  on  the  table  face  n^  in  £s 
placet  or  of  passing  and  allowing  the  following  players  in  U!= 
the  choice.  After  an  exposed  hand  has  been  laid  on  tiie  tabk 
in  place  of  the  widow  the  next  player  may  either  take  iq>  «ge 
card  from  the  new  widow  replacing  it  with  one  fnm  his  ova 
hand,  or  he  may  exchange  his  entire  hand  for  the  widow,  or  be 
may  knock  on  the  table.  If  he  knocks  every  other  plajer  ■ 
turn  may  exchange  one  card  or  his  whole  hand,  and  the  brtti^ 
then  begins,  or  there  may  be  an  agreement  that  the  best  haai 
wins  from  all  the  rest,  or  that  the  poorest  hand  pays  a  ch^  to 
the  pool. 

Tecknteal  Terwis. 

Big  Dog.-^hoe  high  and  nine  low;  not  usually  played.  If  pitted 
it  beau  a  Little  Dog. 

Blase. — Five  court  cards;  not  usually  played.  If  jpfeycd  I 
beats  any  two  pairs. 

BoUau. — ^Four  cards  of  a  Hush  or  atnught,  the  fifth  card  sot 
filling. 

Bone. — The  smallest  counter  or  chi|X 

Buck.^A  marker,  to  show  when  a  jack>pot  is  to  be  played,  >it. 
when  It  is  the  holder's  deal. 

^«mi  Canf.'-Card  on  the  bottom  of  the  padc  timed  Vfpto  pccveoc 
beins  seen. 

Cmii^j.— Couatera. 


POLA 


901 


CM  Act— 'Any  excose  of  a  ivbner  for  kaviog  the  gaoM  beCors 

the  (ime  agreed  upon. 

Deadwood. — ^The  discan)  pile. 

Z7«ft.— Psaurk, 

FtK/M.— Adding  chips  and  a  fack-pot  after  a  failtifc  to  open. 

Freae  Otd. — A  game  in  which  a  pbyer  faavtog  lost  a  certain 
agreed  capital  must  stop  playing. 


Hungarian  monaRhy,  and  b  ittuated  near  the  aotAhern 
cxiremUy  of  Ihe  peniaaala  of  Isuiai:  It  lies  at  the.  head  of  the 
Bajraf  Pola,  and  possesses  a  saf 0  and  comaiodious  hait)Our  aimoat 
completely  landlocked.'  An  eatensivc  ifystem  of  fottifictttons, 
constructed  on  the  hiila,  which  enclose  the  harbour,  defends 
its  enifance,  while  it  also  possesses  a  good  veodstoadin  the  large 
channel  of  Fasana.  This  cfaannd  separates  the  mainland  ft«m 
the  Brioniao  Islands,  which  doAimate  the  sntiance  to  the- bay. 
The  harbour  has  an  area  of  j-jr  sq.  m.,  and  Is  divkied  Into  two 
basins  by  a  chain  of  three  small  islands.  The  inner  basin  in  sub* 
diWdod  by  the  targe  Olive  Utand  into  die  naval  harbovr,  lyin^  to 
the  south,  and  the  commercial  haxbour*  lying  to  the  north.  Tho 
Ollvo  Island  is  connected  with  the  coasi  by  a  cham.4rid8e,  and 
is  provided  with'whatfs  and  dry  antf  floating  docks.  The  town 
proper  lies  opposite  the  Olive  Island,  round  the  base  of  a  hiU 
formerly  crowned  by  the  Roman  c^tol  and  now  by  a  castle 
from  the  ryth  century  Besides  the  castle  the  Chief  buildingps 
are  the  c'alhcdral,  dating  from  the  zsth  ccntuiy;  the  new 
garrison  church,  completed  in  1808  in-  the  Ba^ca  style,  with 
a  fine  marble  facade;  the  Franciscan  convent  dating  from  the 
13th  century,  aiKl  now  used  as  a  military  magaaine;  the  huga 
infantry  barracks',  and  the  town-hatt,  dating  from  Che  beginning 
of  the  14th  century.  To  the  south-west,  along  the  coast, 
extends  the  marine  arsenal,  a  vast  and  well-planned  establish- 
ment posMsdng  all  the  requisites  for  the  equipment  of  a  laigo 
ileec.  It  contains  an  latetesitng'naval  museuat,  and  is  supple- 
mented by  the  docks  and  wharves  of  the  ScogUo  Ollvi  The 
artilleiy  laboratory  and  the  powder  magaaine  are  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  harbour.  Behind  the  arsenal  lies  the  suburb  of 
San  Policarpo,  almost  exclusively  oocuplid  by  the  naval  pefyula- 
tion  and  containing  large  naval  barracks  SAd  hospitals.  In  the 
middle  of  it  is  a  pleasant  park,  with  a  handsome  BBRMnonent  to 
the  emperor  Maximilian  of  Mexico^  who  had  been  a  Tewr-admiral 
In  the  Austrian  havy.  To  the  north,  between  S^  Fbllcarpo 
and  Che  town  proper,  rises  the  Monte  Zaio,  smwounted  by  an 
observatory  and  a  statue  of  Admiral  Tegetthofif.    Pola  has  no 

manufactnrts  outside  ol  its  navaf  stores^ 
but  its  shaping  trade  is  now  cbnsideraMe^ 
the  exports  consisting  of  fish,  timber  and 
quatu  suvd used  in  making  Venetian  glafls» 
and  the  imports  of  manufactutred  and 
colonial  wares.  Ts  many  people,  liowcver, 
the  chief  faiterest  of  Pola  centres  hi  its  fine 
Roman  remains*  The  most  extensive*  of 
these  is  the  amphitheatre  buih  in  a.ik 
198-^11,  in  faenoor  of  the  emperors  Sq>tik 
mlus  Severus  and  Caracalla,  which  is  79  ft*, 
high,  400  ft.  long  and  520  ft.  wide,  and 
cotdd  accommodate  90,000'  spectators.  •  It 
Is  remarkable  as  the  only  Roman  amphi- 
theatre of  which  the' outer  wbAs  have 
been  preserved  intaet;  the  interior,  how^ 
ever,  b  now  comoletely  baxe— though  -  the 
afsangcnsents  Tor  the  naumachiae,  or  naval 
ctonlests,  can  siffl  be  traced.  The  oldest 
Romin  relic  is  the  fine  triumphal  arch  of 
the  Scrgii,  in  the  Corinthian  style,  erected 
soon  after  the  battle  of  Actium;  and  of  not 
much  later  date  is  the  elegant  and  well- 
preserved  temple  of  Augustus  and  Koi^a 
erected  in  the  year  19  '  b.C.  Among  th^ 
other  antiquities-  are  three  of  the  old  town 
gates  and  a  fragment  of  a  temple  of  Diana. 

The  foundation  of  Pola  is  usually  carried 
back  to  the  mythic  period,  and   ascribed 
to  the  Colchlan  pursuers  of  Jason  and  the 
O^course  these  chances  are  somewhat  improved  by  the  fact  that.  1  Aigonatils.    In  all  probability  it  was  a  Thracian  colony,  -but 
actual  play,  pairs  and  threes  are,  on  account  of  careless  shuffling,    j^j  verifiable  history  begins  with  its  capture  by  the  Romans  m 
apt  to  lie  tcgether  more  or  lets.  ^      ^ 

POLA  (Gr.  IlJiXo  or  nAou;  Sbvene,  PtHJ),  a  seaport  of  Austria. 


Inside  Straight. — Intcrracdiaie  straight,  <.f .  2,  3,  5.  6 

Kilter.— H^n^  with  no  pair  and  no  card  above  the  ninci  seldom 
played. 

Kilty.-^h  fund,  to  pay  for  cards  or  refreshments,  nude  by  taking 
a  chip  from  each  jack-pot,  or  paid  by  a  winner  holding  a  valuable 
hand. 

LiuU  Dog. — ^Deuce  low  and  seven  high;  not  usually  played. 
When  playcxl  it  beats  a  strai^t. 

Afa/4rM£.— ShuflSing  by  taking  a  card  from  the  top  and  oaa  from 
the  bottom  of  the  pack  with  the  same  movement. 

Mistigris. — Poker  with  the  joker  added;  the' joker  may  be  called 
any  card  the  holder  chooses. 

Monkey  Rusk. — Three  cards  of  a  flush. 

Naiura  Jacks, — ^Jack-pots  played  because-  there  has  been  no 
ante  in  the  previous  deal. 

Openfrs. — A  hand  on  which  a  jack-pot  may  be  opened. 

Pat  Hand. — A   hand  to  which  no  card  is  drawn. 

Ptxrf. — ^Thc  chrps  in  the  middle  of  the  tabic. 

Skew'dovfn. — Laying  the  hands  facc>up  on  the  table  after  a  call. 

Show. — Part  of  a  pool  to  which  a  player  is  entitled  who  hasbet 
as  long  as  bis  capital  laiited  but  is  not  able  to  stand  further  raises. 
If  his  hand  is  the  best  he  wins  whatever  was  in  the  pool  at  the 
time  when  he  put  into  it  the  last  of  his  capital. 

Sky. — Not  having  pot  up  the  jack-pot  ante. 

Spliuing, — Having  opened  a  jack'pot  with  one  pair,  and  holding 
four  other  cards  of  one  suit,  to  throw  away  one  of  the  pair  on  the 
chance  of  making  a  Bush. 

Svjulen. — Chipping  to  a  jack-pot  after  a  failure  to  open. 

rn^/cli.— Three  of  a  kind. 

Undtf  Ike  Gm«.— -The  first  player  to  bet. 

WkangdoodU^ — Compulsory  round  of  jack-pots,  usually  agreed 
upon  to  follow  a  very  (large  Hand. 

Widow.— An  extra  hand  dealt  to  the  table,  as  in  Whbfcey-Poker; 

See  ProOical^Poker,  by  R.  F.  Foster  (1904).  the  most  authorita- 
tive work. 

.  A  very  important  attribute  of  a  successful  poker  player  is 
sound  judgment  in  discarding,  and  this  is  principally  based  on  the 
following  mathematical  table  of  approximate  chances. 

To  improve  any  band  in  the  draw,  the  chances  a^e^— 


Having  in  Hand 

To  make  the  Hand  beUw. 

The 
Chance  is 

I  pair 

To  get  two  pairs  (3<ard  draw)     .               .     . 

I  in  4I 

I  pair     .     .  '  .     .     . 

To  get  three  of  a  kind  (3-card  draw)      .     .     . 

1  In  9 

f  pair 

To  improve  either  way  average  value     .     . 

I  hi3 

I  pair  and  1  odd  card 

To  improve  either  way  by  drawing  two  cards 

1  in?  , 

2  pairs 

To  get  a  full  hand  drawing  one  card       .     .     . 

t  in  12 

3's     .....     . 

To  get  a /uHfaand  drawing  two  cacds     .     .     . 

I  in  15I 

3*8     ...     .     .     , 

To  get  four  of  kind  drawing  two  cards   ■     .     . 

1  In  23I 

3'9     .....     . 

To  improve  either  way  drawing  two  cards  . 

tin9i 

3*s  and  1  odd  card 

To  get  a  fuU  hand  by  drawing  one  card       .     . 

I  in  i5i 

3's  and  i  odd  card 

To  Improve  either  way  by  drawing  one  card 

tin  nS 

4  straight    .... 

To  fill  when  open  at  one  end  only  or  in  middle 
as346  7,orAa34 

1  in  It) 

4  straight     .... 

To  fill  when  open  at  both  ends  as  3  4  5  6    . 

t  In  6 

4  flush 

To  fill  the  flush  drawing  one  casd      .... 

1  m5 

4- straight  flush      .     . 

1                                     1                   II                                  J 

To  fill  the  st^ight  flush  drawing  one  card 

I  in  23) 

3-card  flush 

To  make  a  flush  drawing  two  cards  .     . 

I  in  94 

in 


in  latria,  86  m.  S.  of  Trieste  by  tail.    Pop.  (1909),  45,052-    It 
is   the  principal  naval  harbour  and  arsenal  of  the  Austro- 


178  B.C.  It  was  destroyed  by  Augustus  on  account  of  its 
espousal  of  the  cause  of  Pompey,  but  was  rebuilt  on  the  Inter- 
cession of  his  daughter  JuUa,  and  received  (according  to  PUny) 
the  name  of  Pietas  Julia.    It  became  a  Roman  colony  eitbdr 


902 


POLABS-^^PDLAND 


under  the  triumviri  or  under  Octavilui,  and  was  mainly  impor- 
unt  as  a  harbour  It  seems  to  have  attained  Us  greatest- 
prosperity  about  the  time  of  the  emperor  Septimius  Severus 
(i'Q3-3ii  A.O.),  when  it  was  an  important. war  harbour  and 
contained  35.000  to  50.000  inhabitants.  At  a  later  period 
Pola  became  the  capital  of  the  margraves  of  Istria,  and  was 
captured  by  the  Venetians  in  11 48.  It  was  several  times 
captured  and  plundered  by  the  Genoese,  and  recaptured  by  the 
Venetians.  In  1379  the  Genoese,  after  defeating  the  Venetians 
in  a  great  naval  battle  of!  the  coast,  took  and  destroyed  Pola, 
which  disappears  from  history  for  the  next  four  hundred  and 
fifty  years.  It  remained  undo:  Venetian  supremacy  down  4o 
1797,  and  has  been  permanently  united  with  Austria  since  1815 
In  1848  a  new  era  began  for  Pola  in  its  being  laelected  as  the 
principal  naval  harbour  of  Austria. 

See  Th.  Mommsen  in  Corp.  inscr.  latin,  v.  $  aqq.  (Berlin,  1883), 
T.  G.  Jackson,  Dalmaliat  tkt  Quamero  and  Jstria,  vol.  lii. 
(Oxford,  1887}. 

POLABS  (Po-on,  .Laba^Elht),  the  Slavs  (9.9.)  who 
dwelt  i^KMi  the  Elbe  and  eastwards  to  the  Oder  Their  chief 
tribes  were  the  Vagri  in  Holstdn,  the  Bodriii  or  Obotritae  in 
Mecklenburg,  the  Ljutid  or  Wiltai  in  western  Pomeraoia,  the 
Sprevane  on  the  Spree  and  the  Glomaii  or  Dalemintsi  in  Saxony^ 
Except  the  Lithuanians  they  were  the  last  Europeans  to  be 
christianixed;  their  chief  sanctuary  was  at  Arcona  on  the  Isle 
of  Rflgen.  They  wero  converted  and  conquered  by  the  xath 
century  and  systematically  germanized.  By  the  i7t]i  century 
Slavonic  survived  only  in  a  tiny  patch  in  the  east  of  Hanover 
about  Lttchow,  where  a  few  words  were  still  understood  at  the 
beginning  of  the  zpth  wntury.  The  population  of  the  district 
stUl  goes  by  the  name  of  Wendb  (q.v.).  The  chief  remains  of 
the  language  are  a  paternoster,  a  few  phrases  and  a  short 
vocabulaiy  written  down  by  Pastor  Chr.  Henning  (c.  1700),  and 
the  diary  of  J.  Paruns  Schultze  (d.  I734)>  Th^  were  edited 
by  A.  HUferding  (St  Petersburg,  1856),  and  a  grammar  was 
published  there  by  A.  Schleicher  (1871).  M.  Porzeztnski  and 
Fi.  Lorentz  are  the  .diidP  later  authorities.  Polabian  agrees 
mostly  with  Polish  and  KaSube  with  its  nasalized  vowels  and 
highly  palatalized  consonants.  It  had,  however,  long  vowels 
and  a  bet  accent.  The  remains  of  it  are  most  corrupt,  having 
been  written  down  when  the  language  was  lull  of  Low  German 
by  people  who  did  not  know  Slavonic. 

POLACCA.  the  Italian  name  for  a  three-masted  merchant 
vessel,  formerly  common  in  the  eastern  waters  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  masts  were  of  one  piece  and  the  sails  were  square 
or  lateen-fihaped.  The  name  appears  in  various  forms  in  other 
languages,  «,g.  Fr.  pUague  or  polacre,  Sp.  polacnif  Dn.  potaak  or 
Oct.  Piihckt  and  certainly  means  Polish,  although  there  is  no 
explanation  to  be  found  for  any  connexion  between  Poland  and 
auch  a  Mediterranean  vesseL 

POLAMD  (Polish  P«24J^  Gee  P<^)i  (see  Poland,  RtJSSiAN, 
below),  a  country  of  Europe  which  till  the  end  of  the  i8th  century 
was  a  kingdom  extending  (with  lithuanla)  over  the  basins  of  the 
Warta,  Vistula,  Dwina,  Dnieper  and  upper  Dniester,  and  had 
under  its  dominion,  besides  the  Poles  proper  and  the  Baltic 
Slavs,  the  Lithuanians,  the  White  Russians  and  the  Little 
Russians  or  Ruthenians. 

We  possess  no  certain  historical  data  relating  to  Poland  till 
the  end  of  the  loth  century.  It  would  seem,  from  a  somewhat 
obscure  passage  in  the  chronicle  compiled  from  older 
sources  by  Nestor,  a  monk  of  Kiev  (d.  c.  zzzs),  that 
the  progenitors  of  the  Poles,  originally  ^tablished 
on  the 'Danube,  were  driven  Irom  thence  by  the  Romans  to 
the  still  wilder  wilderness  of  central  Europe,  settling  finally 
among  the  virgin  forests  and  impenetrable  morasses  of  the  basin 
of  the  upper  waters  of  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula.  Here  the 
Lechici,  as  they  called  themselves  (a  name  derived  from  the 
injrthical  patriarch.  Lech),  seemed  to  have  lived  for  centuries, 
in  loosely  connected  communities,  the  simple  lives  of  huntsmen, 
Hcrdunen  and  tillers  of  the  soil,  till  the  pressure  of  rapacious 
■  ael^thbours  compelled  them  to  combine  for  mutual  defence. 
Of  this  infant  state,  the  sp^alled  kingdom  of  the  Piasts  (from 


Piast  its  tnppoaed  founder),  we  know  next  to  aotlung.    Its 
origin,   its  territory,  its  institutions  are  so  many   insdabie 
riddles.   The  earliest  Polish  chroniclers,  from  Callus  in  the  eariy 
tzth  century  to  Janko  of  Czarnkow*  in  the  14U1,  are  of  iiitk 
help  to  lis.    The  only  facts  of  importance  to  be  i^eaned  fne 
them  are  that  Prince  Zicmovit,  the  great-pandfatber  of  Mieszka 
(Mieczyslaw)  L  (962-<)92),  wrested  from  the  vast  but  tottering 
Moravian  Empire  the  province  of  Chrobacyja  (extending  frcs 
the  (>Tpaihtans  to  the  fiug)«  nnd  that  Christianity  was  fict 
preached  on  Che  Vistula  by  Gredi  Orthodox  rolsswnary  nocks 
Mieszko  himself  was  converted  by  Jordan,  the  cbaplain  of  hs 
Bohemian  consort,  Dobrawa  or  Bona,  and  when  Jordan  becaae 
the  first  bishop  of  Posen,  the  people  seem  to  have  followed  tk 
example  of  their  prince     But  the  whole  movement  was  afn^- 
ently  the  outcohie  not  of  religious  conviaion,  but  of  politksl 
necessity    The  Slavonic  peopl^,  whose  territories  then  cxLeoded 
tothe£ibei,and  embraced  the  whole  southern  shore  of  the  Baiuc. 
were  beginning  to  recoil  before  the  vigorous  impetus  of  tk 
Germans  in  the  West,  who  regarded  their  pagan  neashboors  a 
much  the  same  way  as  the  Spanish  Conquistadores  r^axikt!  tir 
Aztecs  and  the  Inau.   To  accept  Christianity,  at  least  fofia&nT, 
was  therefore  a  prudential  safeguard  on  the  part  of  the  SlaTOGisss 
This  was  thoroughly  understood  by  Mieszko's  son  Woi*tiat.<  l 
(992-1025),  who  went  aconsiderable  step  farther  tban  his  fatbr 
Mieszko  had  been  content  to  be  received  on  ^y^^ivnt  any  teas 
into  the  Christian  community,  Boleslaus  aimed  at  TTr"Wyg  ;k 
independence  of  the  Polish  Church  as  an  additional 
guarantee  of  the  independence  of  the  Polish  nation.  «•  < 
It  was  Boleslaus  who  made  the  church  at  Gneaen 
in  Great  Poland  a  national  shrine  by  translating  thither  tk 
relics  of  the  martyred  missionary,  St  Adalbert   of   Pra^ae. 
Subsequently  he  elevated  Gncsen  into  the  metropolitan  see  of 
Poland,  with  jurisdiction  over  the  bishoprics  <A  Cxaoow,  Brcski 
and  Kolberg,  all  three  of  these  new  sees,  it  is  important  to  notke. 
being  in  territory  conquered  by  Boleslaus;  for  hitherto  boii 
Cracow  and  Breslau  had  been  Bohemian  cities,  while  Koibet^  los 
founded  to  curb  the  lately  subjugated  Pomeranians^    Bolcsh^- 
was  also  the  first  Polish  prince  to  bear  the  royal  title,  wik: 
seems    to    have    been    conferred    upon    him    by 
Otto  III.  in   1000,   though  as  Boleslaus  crowned' 
himself  king  a  second  time  in  1025,  it  is  evident 
that  he  regarded  the  validity  of  his  first  coronation  a 
doubtful.    He  was  primarily  a  warrior,  whose  reign,  an  dsHs: 
uninterrupted  warfare,  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  vast  kiss- 
dom  extending  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Carpathians,  and  fioa 
the  Elbe  to  the  Bug.    But  this  imposing  superstructure  rtsst 
on  thie  flimsiest  of  foundations.     In  less  than  tv-enty  rec^ 
after  the  death  of  ils  founder,  it  collapsed  before  a  cooit:s:i 
attack  of  all  Poland's  enemies,  and  simultaneously  a  tm^ 
pagan  reaction  swept  away  the  poor  remnants  of  Christiia.7 
and  civilization.    For  a  time  Poland  proper  became  a  siacL-: 
wilderness,  and  wfld  beasts  made  their  lairs  in   the  t^ilzA 
and  desecrated  churches.     Under  Boleslaus  II.    (zosS-icr. 
and  B<Heslaus  III.  (1Z07-1139)  some  of  the  kst   proviace 
notably  Silesia  and  Pomerania,  were  recovered  and    Pcvi:*: 
was  at  least  able  to  maintain  her  independence  against  i^ 
Germans.    Boleslaus  III.,  moreover,  with  the  aid  of  St  (Xic 
bishop  of   Bambecg,   succeeded  in   converting    the 
Pomeranians  (1124-112^,  ^d  making  head  against 
generally. 

The  last  act  of  Boleslaus  III.  was  to  divide  his  territories 
among  his  sons,  whereby  ftoland  was  partitioned  into  no  ievir 
than  four,  and  ultimately  into  as  many  as  eight, 
principalities,  many  of  which  (Silesia  and  Great 
Poland,  for  instance)  in  process  of  time  split 
up  into  still  smidler  fractions  all  of  them  mote  or  ka 
bitterly  hostile  to  each  other.  This  partitloaal  pcnod,  • 
Polish  historians  generally  call  it,  lasted  from  stjS  to  ijc$. 
during  which  Poland  lost  all  political  dgnifioance,  and  becase 
an  easy  prey  to  her  neighbours.    The  duke  of  Litde  Pakaci. 

^ArchdeacoB  of  Cmcam  1367:   vfae<]iaaoellor  «f  Fotaid:  t 


MBTOkVI 


POLAND 


903 


Tatar 
laradom. 


CHI—, 


wlM  gueimlly  ttyfed  hiimell  dnkc  of  Mfead,  or  Aat  M&f 
Potrnmi,  claimed  a  tort  of  supremacy  among  these  Kttie  states, 
a  claim  materially  stiengtheoed  by  the  wealth  and  gro^wing 
importance  of  his  capital,  Ciacow,  espedally  after  Little  Poland 
had  nnnesed  the  central  principality  of  Siendia  (Sieradx). 
But  Masovia  to  the  north,  and  Great  Poland  to  the  north-'Vrest, 
refused  to  recogniae  the  supremacy  of  Little  Pobmd,  while 
Silesia  soon  beaume  completdy  germanlaed.  It  was  at  the 
beginning  of  this  period  too/  between  Z3i6  and  t3S4,  that 
Pomcfunia,  under  an  energetic  native  dynasty,  freed  henelf 
from  the  Polish  suaerainty.  Nearly  a  generation 
later  (1141)  the  Tatar  honles,  under  Batu,  appeared 
for  the  first  time  on  the  confines  of  PoliuuL  The 
Polish  princes  opposed  a  valiant  but  hieffectual  resistance;  the 
towns  of  Sandomir  and  Cracow  were  reduced  to  ashes,  and  all 
who  were  able  fled  to  the  mountains  of  Hungsry  or  the  forests 
of  Moravia.  Pursuing  hb  way  to  Sile^  Batu  overthrew  the 
confederated  Silesian  princes  at  Lle^Dita  (April  9),  and,  after 
burning  all  the  Silesiatt  towns,  invaded  Hungary,  where  he 
routed  King  Bela  IV.  on  the  baaka  of  the  Sajo^  But  this 
marked  the  limit  of  his  triumph.  Eihausted  and  dhninished 
by  the  stout  and  successful  opposition  of  the  Mora^ans  at 
OlraUtz,  the  Tatan  vanished  as  suddenly  aa  they  had  appeared, 
leaving  a  smoking  wilderness  behind  them. 

Batu's  invasi(»  had  an  important  influence  upon  the  social 
and  political  development  of  Poland.  The  only  way  of  filling 
FonigB  *^  ^^  B^P^  ^  ^^  popttktion  of  the  ravaged  land 
was  to  invite  foreign  immigrants  of  a  superior  class, 
chapmen  and  handioraf  tsmen .  not  only  given  to  peace* 
ful  punults  and  accustomed  to  law  and  ordor,  but 
capable  of  building  and  defending  strong  cities.  Such 
immigrants  could  naturally  be  obtained  only  from  the  dvilized 
west,  and  00  their  own  terms.  Thus  It  came  about  that  the 
middle  chss  element  was  introduced  into  Polish  society  for  the 
first  time.  Immediately  dependent  upon  the  prHice,  from  whom 
they  obtained  their  privileges,  the  most  impdrtant  of  which  were 
selfogovemment  and  freedom  from  taxation,  these  traders  soon 
became  an  important  factor  in  the  state,  counterpoising,  to 
some  extent,  the  influence  of  the  gentry,  enriching  the  land  by 
developing  its  resources,  and  promoting  dvilization  by  raising 
the  standiurd  of  comfort. 

Most  of  these  German  citiaens  in  process  of  time  were  absorbed 
by  the  Polish  population,  and  became  devoted,  heart  and  soul, 
ThaKmitjkia  to  their  adopted  country;  but  these  were  not  the 
^*^.  only  Germans  with  whom  the  young  Polish  state 
had  now  to  deal.  In  the  first  year  of  the  15th  century, 
the  Knights  of  the  Sword,  one  of  the  numerous  orders  of  cmsad* 
ing  military  monks,  had  been  founded  in  Livonia  to  '*  convert  " 
the  pagan  Letts,  and,  in  1208,  the  still  more  powerful  Teutonic 
order  was  invited  by  Duke  Conrad  of  Masovia  to  settle  itf 
the  district  of  Kulm  (roughly  corresponding  to  modem  East 
Prussia)  to  protect  his  territories  against  the  incurrions  of  the 
savage  Prussians,  a  race  closely  akin  to  the  Lithuanians.  Conrad 
has  been  loudly  blamed  by  Polish  historians  for  introducing 
this  foreign,  and  as  it  ultimately  proved,  dangerous  element 
Into  Poland.  But  the  unfortunate  prince  bad  to  choose  between 
dependence  and  extermination,  for  his  unaided  resources  were 
powerless  against  the  persistent  attadts  of  the  unconquerable 
Tta  Prussians.    The  Teutonic  Order,   which  had  just 

been  expelled  from  Hungary  by  Andrew  11.,  joyfully 
accepted  this  new  domicile,  and  its  position  in  the 
north  was  definitely  established  by  the  compact  of  Kruschwita 
in  1 230,  whereby  it  obfaihed  absolute  possession  of  the  maritime 
district  between  Pomerania  and  Courland,  and  southwards  as 
far  as  Thorn.  So  far  were  the  Poles  from  anticipating  any 
danger  from  the  Teutonic  Order,  that,  from  1243  to  1255,  they 
actually  assisted  it  to  overthrow  the  independent  Pomeranian 
princes,  the  most  formidable  opponents  of  the  Knights  In  the 
earlier  years  of  their  existe.ice.  A  second  Tatar  raid  in  1259, 
less  dangerous,  perhaps,  but  certainly  more  ruinous,  than  the  first 
Sttvasion'~for  the  principalities  of  Little  Poland  and  Sandomir 
were  systematically  ravaged  for'  three .  months ^stiil   further 


deprened  the  bad,  and,  at  Uda  very  time,  another  cnemjr 
appeared  In  the  east*-the  Lithuasians. 

Hkia  intensting  people,  whose  origin  b  to  thia  day  the  most 
baffling  of  ethnographical  pussies,  originally  dwelt  amidst  the 
forests  and  msoihes  of  the  Upper  Niemeo.  Thanks 
to  the  impcuetiahility  of  their  fastnesses^  they  ^tanT 
preserved  their  original  savagqry  longer  than  any 
of  their  neighbours^  sod  this  savagery  was  coupled  with  a  valour 
so  tenacimis  and  enterprising  as  to  make  them  formidable  to 
alt  who  dwelt  near  them.  Tlie  Jtussiaaa  fled  at  the  sight  of 
them,  *'like  ham  before  hunters."  The  Live  and  Letts 
were  as  much  the  prey  of  the  Lithuanians  **  as  sheep  are  the 
prey  of  wdves.''  The  German  chroniden  describe  them  aa 
the  most  terrible  of  all  the  barbariaaa.  The  Lithuanians  first 
emerge  mto  the  light  of  history  at  the  time  of  the  settlement 
of  the  Teutonic  CMer  in  the  North.  Rumours  of  the  war  of 
extermination  conducted  against  their  kinsmen,  the  wild 
Prussians,  by  the  Knights,  first  woke  the  Lithuanians  to  a  sensa 
of  thdr  own  danger,  and  induced  them  to  abandon  their  looaa 
communal  aystem  in  favour  of  a  monarchical  form  of  govern* 
ment,  which  concentrated  the  whole  power  of  the  state  in  a 
single  hand.  Fortimately,  too,  at  this  crisis  of  their  history, 
the  Lithuanians  were  blessed  with  an  altogether  exccptibnal  series 
of  great  rulers,  who  showed  themsdves  fully  capable  of  taking 
care  of  themselves.  There  was,  for  instance,  Mendovg  (1240- 
1363),  who  submitted  to  baptism  for  purely  political  reasons, 
chedcmated  the  Teutonk  Knighta  by  adroitly  seeking  the  protec* 
tion  of  the  Holy  See,  and[  annexed  the  prindpality  of  Plock  to 
his  ever*wideniBg  grand  ciuchy,  whidi  already  included  Blaofc 
Russia,  and  formed  a  huge  wedge  extending  southwards  from 
Courland,  thua  separating  Poland  from  Russia.  A  ^ill  greater 
prince  was  Gedymin  (x3is~x342)  ^ho  did  hn  utmost  to  civiliae 
Lithuania  by  building  towns,  introdnchig.  foreigners,  and 
loleratihg  all  religions,  though  ha  himself  remained  a  pagan 
for  political  reasons.  Gedjrmin  stiU  further  eiAeaded  the 
limits  of  Lithuania  by  annexing  Kiev,  Chernigov  and  other' 
old  Russian  prindpahties. 

At  the  very  time  when  lithnania  was  thus  becoming  a  comh 
pact^  united,  powerful  state,  Poland  aeemed  Uterslly  Uy  be 
dropphig  to  pieces.  Not  even  the  exhovUifons  of  -«_,-,|_^  , 
the  popes  could  make  her  soon  «f  princes  unite  gH^^i^  ' 
for  mutual  defence  against  the  balbarians  who  en^ 
vironed  them.  For  a  time  it  seemed  highly  probable  that  Poland 
would  be  completdy  gcxmaniaed,  like  Siksia,  or  become  a  part 
of  the  new  BohanSan  Empire  iriiidi  Wenc«Aaus  II.  (crowned 
king  of  Poland  in  1300)  had  inherited  from  hts  father,  Ottakar  II. 
From  this  fate  she  was  saved  by  the  valour  of  Wladislaus 
Lokiet^,  duke  of  Great  Poland  (1306-1333),  who  reunited 
Great  and  Little  Poland,  revived  the  royal  dignity  in 
1310,  and  saved  the  kingdom  from  annihilation  by  his  great 
victory  over  the  Teutonic  Knights  at  Plowce  in  1332.  The 
whole  rdgn  of  Wladislaus  I.  was  indeed  an  unceasing  struggle 
against  all  the  forces  of  anarchy  and  disintcgntion;  but  the 
fruits  of  his  hbours  were  richly  reaped  by  his  son  CsAimir  III( 
the  Great  (r333'*x37o),  PoUnd's  first  great  statesman  in  the 
modem  sense  6f  the  word,  who,  by  a  most  skilful  system  of 
matrimonial  alliances,  rdntroduced  isolated  Poland  CuhulrM 
into  the  European  system,  and  gave  the  exhausted  M«  Ortmtt 
country  an  inestimably  benefidal  breathing  space  'C^^'^ 
of  thirty-seven  years.  A  bom  ruler,  Casimir  introduced  a 
whole  series  of  administrative  and  econ<MnicaI  reforms.  He 
was  the  especial  protector  of  the  dties  and  the  peasants, 
and,  thou{^  averse  from  vident  measures,  punished  aristo* 
cratic  tyranny  with  an  iron  hand.  Casimir's  few  wars  were 
waged  entirely  for  profit,  not  glory.  It  is  to  liim  that  Poland 
owed  the  important  acquisition  of  the  greater  part  of  Red 
Russia,  or  Gaiicia,  which  enabled  her  to  secure  her  fair  share  of 
the  northern  and  eastern  trade.  In  ddault  of  male  issue, 
Casimir  left  the  Polish  throne  to  his  nq;>hew»  Louis  of  Hungary, 
who  ruled  the  country  (1370-1382)  through  his  mother,  Queen 
Elizabeth,  Wladislaus  Lokietek's  daughter.  Louis  well  deserved 
the  epithet  <A  *'  great  "  bestowed  upon  him  by  his  contemporaries; 


904 


POLAND 


^istm 


but  Poland  fonned  but  a  small  portion  of  hit  vast  domainSi 
and  Poland's  interests  were  sid)ordanated  to  the  larger  demands 
oi  an  imperial  policy  which  embraced  hall  Europe  within  its 
orbit 

On  the  death  of  Louis  there  ensued  an  interregnum  of  two 
years  marked  by  fierce  dvil  wars»  instigated  by  duke  Ziemovit 
of  Maaovia,  the  northernmost  province  of  P<rfand| 
U^^  which  continued  to  exist  as  an  indqxndent  prind- 
jaghOo,  Polity  alongside  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland.  Ziemo- 
Umha  9i  yit  aimed  at  the  Polish  crown,  proposing  to  marry 
LMbMaSf  ^***  infant  princess  Jadwiga  of  Hungary,  who,  as 
the  daughter  of  Louis  the  Great  and  the  grand- 
daughter of  Wladislaus  Lokietek,  had  an  equal  right,  by 
inheritance,,  to  the  thrones  of  Hungary  and  Poland.  By  an 
agreenkent  with  the  que^n  mother  of  Hungary  at  Kasaa  in 
1383,  the  Poles  finally  accepted  Jadwiga  as  their  queen,  and, 
on  the  z8th  of  February  1386,  greatly  against  her  wiU,  the 
young  princess,  already  betrothed  to  William  of  Austria,  was 
wedded  to  Jagiello,  grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  had  been 
crowned  king  of  Poland  at  Cracow,  three  days  previously,  under 
the  title  of  Wkdislaus  U. 

The  union  of  Poland  and  Lithuania  as  sepantte  states  under 
one  king  had  been  brought  about  by  their  common  fear  of  the 
Teutonic  Order.  Five  years  after  the  death  of  Gedynin, 
Olgierd,  the  most  capable  of  his  seven  sons,  had  been  placed  upon 
the  throne  of  Lithuania  by  his  devoted  brother  Kiejstut,  and 
for  the  next  two^and-thirty  years  (1345-1377)  the  two  princes 
stUl  further  extended  the  sway  of  Lithuania,  prindpaUy  at  the 
ciqpense  of  Muscovy  and  the  Tatars.  Kiejstut  ruled  the  western 
portion  of  the  land  where  the  Teutonic  Knights  were  a. constant 
menace,  vdule  Olgierd  drove  the  Tatar  hordes  out  of  the«outh- 
eastern  steppes,  and  compelled  them  to  seek  a  refuge  in  the 
Crimea.  During  01gierd*s  reign  the  southern  boundaries  of 
Lithuania  touched  the  Black  Sea,  including  the  whole  tract  of 
land  between  the  mouth  of  the  Bug  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Dnieper.  Olgierd  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jagiello  as  grand 
duke  in  1377,  while  Kiejstut  was  left  in  possession  of  Samogitia, 
Troki  and  Grodno;  but  the  Teutonic  Order,  alarmed  at  the 
growth  of  Lithuania,  succeeded  in  estranging  uncle  and  nephew, 
and  Kiejstut  was  treacherously  assassinated  by  JagieUo's  orders, 
at  Krewo,  on*  the  15th  of  August  1382.  Three  weeks  later 
Jagiello  was  compelled  to  cede  Sami^tia,  as  far  as  tke  Dubissat 
to  the  Knights,  and,  in  the  following  year  they  set  up  against 
liim  Kiejstut 's  son  Witowt.  The  eyes  of  JagicUo  were  now 
opened  to  the  fact  that  the  machiavellian  policy  of  the  Knights 
aimed  at  subjugating  Lithuania  by  dividing  it.  He  at  once 
made  peace  with  his  cousin;  restored  him  his  patrimony;  and, 
to  secnre  Lithuania  against  the  future  vengeance  of  the  Knights* 
Jagielk)  made  overtures  to  Poland  for  the  band  of  Jadwiga, 
and  recdved  the  Poli^  crown  along  with  it,  as  already  men- 
tioncd 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  JagicUonlc  period  of  Polish 
history,  it  is  necessary  to  cast  a  rapid  glance  at  the  social  and 
political  condition  of  the  country  in  the  preceding  Piast  period. 

The  paudty  and  taciturnity  of  our  sources  make  it  impossible 
to  give  anything  like  an  adequate  picture  of  Old  Pohmd  during 
Btt^atBg$  ^^®  ^^^  ^^^^  centuries  of  its  existence.  A  glimpse 
ottntPoMwb  here  and  there  of  the  political  development  of  the 
country  b  the  utmost  that  the  most  diligent  scrutiny 
can  glean  from  the  scanty  record  of  the  early  chron> 
ides.  External  pressure,  here  as  elsewhere,  created  a  patriotic 
military  caste,  and  the  sufasecpient  partirional  period,  when 
every  little  prince  hod  hb  own  separate  court,  sttU  further 
established  the  growing  influence  of  the  sstackta,  or  gentry,  who 
twere  ilot  backward  in  daiming  and  obtaining  spcdal  privileges 
in  Return  for  their  services.  The  first  authentic  pacta  comenla 
made  between  the  Polish  nobility  and  the  Crown  dates  from 
the  compact  of  Kassa  (September  17,  1374),  when  Louis  of 
Hungary  agreed  to  exempt  the  xUachla  from  all  taxation; 
except  two  Polish  groschen  per  hide  of  bnd,  and  to  compensate 
them  Cor  the  expenses  of  all  military  service  rendered  beyond 
the  confines  of  the  realm.    The  clergy  recdved  their  chief 


privileges  much  eaite.  It  was  at  the  synod  of  hoaja, 
nearly  a  century  before  the  compact  of  Kassa,  that  the  prai»tf 
of  the  Church  was  first  safeguarded  against  the  eocroackBtsa 
of  the,  stale.  The  beneficial  influence  of  the  Church  of  Pdud 
in  these  early  Umes  was  incalculaUe.  To  say  oothii^  of  tk 
labours  of  the  Cisterdans  as  colonists,  pioiieefs  and  dmn^ 
builders,  or  of  the  missions  of  the  Domioicaas  and  Fnsdscui 
(the  former  oC  whom  were  introduced  into  Pdaad  by  Iv«, 
bishop  of  Craoow,>  the  personal  friend  of  Dominic),  the  Cbtud 
was  the  one  stable  and  unifying  eleasent  in  an  age  <rf  ceatnfupJ 
particularism.  The  frequent  synods  represented  the  ^hk 
of  PolancC  and  kept  alive,  as  nothing  else  could,  the  vkid 
national  solidarity.  The  Holy  See  had  also  a  coosdenbie 
share  in  promoting  the  poiiilcal  devdopment  of  the  bad.  Ii 
the  15th  century  alone  no  fewer  than  forty-nine  papal  kpia 
visited  Poland,  and  thirty  {xovincial  synods  were  heldbyibai 
to  regidate  church  affairs  and  promote  good  govenuB6& 
Moreover  the  clergy,  to  thdr  eternal  honour,  ooaasiaiji 
protected  the  lower  from  the  tyranny  of  the  upper  classes. 

The  growth  of  the  towns  was  dower.  During  the  hex 
Boleslawic  period  there  had  been  a  premature  outcrop  d  c<i 
life.  As  eariy  as  the  nth  century  Knischwitz,  owa 
the  old  Polish  capital,  and  Gnesen,  the  metropolitan  ^'*' 
see,  were  of  considerable  importance,  and  played  a  "^ 
leading  peri  in  public  life.  But  in  the  ensuing  anardk  penvl 
both  dries  were  utterly  ruined,  and  the  centre  of  pii^ 
gravity  was  transferred  from  Great  Pobuid  to  Utile  Foizs: 
wh«re  Cracow,  singularly  favoured  by  her  poaition,  sooo  bec^ 
the  capital  of  the  monarchy,  and  one  of  the  wcsdthiest  aja 
in  Etvope.  At  the  end  of  the  X4lh  century  we  find  all  the  fx: 
trade  gjlda  established  there,  and  the  doLh  manufactured  :i 
Cracow  was  eageriy  sought  after,  from  Prague  to  Great  Nov-fsm: 
So  wealthy  did  Cracow  become  at  last  that  Ouinair  the  Gita:  k 
it  necessary  to  restrain  the  luxury  of  her  dtisens  by  sonpts.'^ 
ordinances.  Towards  the  end  of  the  X4th  century  the  F.  : 
towns  even  attained  some  degree  of  political  influence,  aad  tki 
ddegates  sat  with  the  nobles  and  dergy  hi  the  king's  oofssr- 
a  right  formally  conceded  to  them  at  Kadom  in  March  rv 
Even  the  peasants,  who  had  suffered  severely  Irom  the  vboliw 
establishment  of  prisoners  of  war  as  serfs  on  the  estates  &  •< 
nobles,  still  preserved  the  rights  of  personal  liberty  aadr^ 
transit  from  place  to  place,  whence  their  name  ot  Im^  T: 
only  portion  of  the  community  which  had  no  privileges  vtiti* 
Jews,  first  introduced  into  Poland  by  Boleslaus  the  h4 
duke  of  Gitat  Poland,  in  1264,  when  bitter  persecuticss  ^ 
driven  them  northwards  from  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  O ' 
the  Great  extended  their  liberty  of  domicile  over  the  «'•= 
kingdom  (1334).  From  the  first  they  were  better  utioi- 
Poland  than  elsewhere  though  frequently  exposed  to  w3>j^ 
oi  popular  fanaticism. 

The  transformation  of  the  pagan  LithuanisLn  chidLaiiiJ:r;> 
into  the  catholic  king  of  Poland,  Wladislaus  II.,  was  aa  ercs: 
capital  importance  in  the  history  of  eastern  Europe.      ^^^ 
Its  immediate  and  inevitable  consequence  was  the      m^ 
formal  reception  of  the  Lithuanian  nations  into  the     »^* 
fold  of  the  Church.    What  the  Teutonic  Order  had      ^^ 
vainly  endeavoured  to  bring  about  by  fire  and  sword, 
for  two  centuries,  was  peacefully  accomi^ished  by  Jagie^  ^ 
a  single  generation,  the  Lithuanians,  for  the  most  pan,  b    ■ 
yielding  to  the  arguments  of  a  prince  of  their  own  blooo.  • 
promptly  rewarded  his  converts  with  peculiar  aad  a^- 
privileges.    The  conversion  of  Lithuania   menaced  the 
existence  of  the  Teutom'c  Knights     OriginaUy  plaMe^^' 
Baltic  shore  for  the  express  purpose  of   christiamuc/ 
savage  neighbours,  these  crusading  monks  hsyd  fredy  or* 
the  wealth  and  the  valour  of  the  West,  ostcnsifaily  in  t>'  ^* 
of  religion,  really  for  the  purpose  of  foundii^  adoc*B>- 
their  own  which,  as  time  went  on,  lost  naore  and  men 
religious  character,  and  was  now  little  rnore  thaa  a  Gc^ 
military  forcpost,  extending  from  Pomerania  to  the  N^ ' 
which  ddiberately  excluded  the  Slavs  from  the  sea  aci  t^'  - 

lArdibiahop  off  Gmkb  1319-taSa    Died  at  Modcns  t:3» 


HBTOM} 


POLAND 


9*»5 


at  Ihdr  «iptnie.    Tbe  BOtre  imftinct «(  idfoprtservatlbQ  had, 
at  last,  drawn  the  ¥okB  aad  Uthuaniana  together  afainat  these 
nithlesi  and  masterful  intrndea,  and  the  coronation  of  JagieUo 
tt  Craoow  on  the  islh  of  February  1386,  was  both  a  warning 
and  a  challenge  to  the  Knights.  But  if  the  Order  had  now  become 
A  superfluous  anachronism,  it  had  still  to  "be  disposed  of,  and 
this  was  no  easy  task.    For  if  it  had  failed  utterly  as  a  mission 
m  paribus,  it  had  succeeded  in  establishing  on  the  Baltic  one 
of  the  strongest  military  ofgsnisations  in  Europe.    In  the  ait 
of  war  the  Kni^ts  were  immeasurably  superior  to  all  their 
neighbours.    The  pick  of  the  feudal  chivalry  composed  their 
ranks;  with  all  Europe  to  dAw  upon,  their  icsoufces  seemed 
inexhaustible,  and  centuries  of  political  eiperience  made  them 
as  formidable  in  diplomacy  aa  they  were  valiant  in  warfare. 
And  indeed,  for  the  next  twenty  years,  the  Teutonic  Order 
more  than  held  its  own.    Skilfidly  tiddng  advantage  of  the 
jealousies  of  Pdand  and  lithuama,  as  they  were  accentuated 
by  the  personal  anta^omsm  of  JagicUo  and  Wltowt  (q.v ),  with 
the  latter  of  whom  the  Knights  mora  than  once  contracted 
profitable  alliances,  they  even  contrived  (Treaty  of  SaKn,  S378) 
to  extend  their  territory  by  getting  possesubn  ol  the  province  oif 
Samogitia,  the  original  seat  of  the  Lithuanians,  where  paganism 
atili  pcrristed,  and  where  their  inhuman  crndtiea  finsily  excited 
the  horror  and  indignation  of  Christian  Europe.    By  this  time, 
however,  the  prudent  Jagiello  had  become  oonvinocd  that 
Lithuania  was  too  strong  to  be  ruled  by  or  from  Poland,  and 
yet  not  strong  enough  to  stand  alone,  and  by  the  compact 
of   Vilna  (January  k8,  1401,  confirmed  by  the  compact  of 
Radowo,  March  10)  he  surrendered  the  whde  grand  dudiy 
to  Witowt,  on  the  understanding  that  the  two  states  should 
have  a  common  policy,  and  th^  neither  of  them  should  elect 
a  new  prince  without  the  consent  of  the  other.   The  wisdom  of 
this  arrangement  was  made  manifest  in  14x0,  when  Jagiello 
and  Witowt  combined  their  forces  for  the  purpose  of  delivering 
Samogitia  from  the  intderable  tyranny  of  the  Knii^ts.    The 
issue  was  fought  out  on  the  field  of  Tannenberg,  or  Grttnewald 
(July  1$,  14  ro),  when  the  Knights  sustained  a  crushing  defeat, 
whicli  shook  their  political  organisation  to  its  very  foundations. 
A  few  weeks  after  the  victory  the  towns  of  Thorn,  Elbing, 
Braunsberg  and  Danrig  submitted  to  the  Polish  king,  and  all 
tlie    Prus^n    bishops    vohmtaiily  ofiFered    to    render    him 
homage.     But  the  excessive  caution  of  Jagiello  gave  the 
Knights  time  to  recover  from  the  blow;  the  Polish  levies  proved 
unruly  and  incompetent;    Witowt  was  suddenly  recalled  to 
Lithuania  by  a  Taur  invadon,  and  thus  it  came  about  that, 
when  peace  was  concluded  at  Thorn,  on  the  ist  of  February 
141 1 ,  Samogitia  (which  was  to  revert  to  the  Order  on  the  death  of 
Jagiello  and  Witowt),  Dobrzyn,  and  a  war  indenmity  of  100,000 
marks  payable  in  four  instalments,  were  the  best  terms  Poland 
could    obtain  from   the  KnighU,  whose   territory  practically 
ivmained  intact.     Jagiello's  signal  for  the  attack  at  the  battle 
of  Crtlnewald,  "Cracow  and  Vilna"  (the  respective  capitals 
ci  Poland  and  Lithuania)  had  eloquently  demonstrated  the 
solidarity  of  the  two  states.    This  solidarity  was  still  further 
strengthened  by  the  Union  of  Horodlo  (October  2,  14x3) 
wHch  enacted  that  henceforth  Lithuania  was  to  have  the 
same  order  of  dignitaries*  as  Poland,  as  well  as  a  council  of 
state,  or  senate,  similar  to  the  Polish  senate.    The  power  of 
the   grand-duke  was  also  greatly  increased.     He  was   now 
declared  to  be  the  equal  of  the  Polish  king,  and  his  successor  could 
be  elected  only  by  the  senates  of  Poland  and  Lithuania  in  con> 
junction.    The  Union  of  Horodlo  also  established  absolute 
parity  between  the  nobUity  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,  but  the 
privileges  of  the  kitter  were  made  conditwnai  upon  their  pro- 
fession of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  experience  having  shown 
that  difference  of  religion  in  Lithuania  meant  difference  of  politics, 
and  A  tendency  Moscow-wards,  the  majority  of  the  Lithuanian 
boyars  being  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Confession. 

i^All  the  chief  offices  of  state  were  conwqiicntly  duplicated,^  tf.f. 
the  ketman  wielki  koro^ny,  i.e.  "  grand  hctman  of  the  cromn,'  as 
the  polish  commanilcr-tn-chJcf  was  called,  had  his  counterpart  m 
Lithuania,  who  bore  the  title  of  tttielki  ketman  litewski,  «.«.  *^  grand 
hftimao  of  Utiuiania/'  aad  10  00. 


During  the  trmaindff  ol  the  vd^  of  Wtadldaiis  IL  the 
Teutonic  Order  gave  Poland  much  trouble,  but  no  serious 
anxi^y.  The  trouble  was  due  mainly  to  the  lepeated  eflbrts 
of  the  Kni|^  to  evade  the  fulfilment  of  the  obligations  of  the 
Tkeaty  of  Thorn.  la  these  endeavours  they  were  materidly 
assisted  by  the  emperor  Slgismund,  who  was  also  king  of  Hun- 
gary. Sigismuwi,  in  1422,  even  went  so  far  as  to  propose  a 
partition  of  Poland  between  Hungary,  the  empire  and  the 
SiksiaB  princes,  a  scheme  which  foundered  upon  Sigismund's 
inqpecunlostty  sind  the  leluctanoe  of  the  Magyaxs  to  injure  the 
P<jes.  More  than  once  Wladislaus  n.  was  even  obliged  to 
renew  the  war  against  the  Knights,  and,  la  1433,  he  compelled 
them  to  renounce  all  claims  upon  Samoc^tia;  but  the  long 
straggle,  still  midedded  at  his  death,  was  fought  mainly  with 
diplomatic  wo^wns  at  Rome,  where  the  popes,  generally  speak- 
ing, listened  rather  to  the  victorious  monarch  who  had  added 
an  eccleniastical  province  ^>  the  Church  than  to  the  discomfited 
and  tuihulent  Knights. 

Had  Wladislaus  IX.  been  as  great  a  warrior  as  Witowt  he 
might,  perhaps,  have  subdued  the  Knights  altogether.  But 
by  nature  be  was  pre-eminently  a  diplomatist,  and  it  must  in 
fairness  be  admitted  that  his  diplomacy  in  every  direction  was 
distinctly  beneficial  to  Poland.  He  successfully  thwarted  all 
the  schemes  of  the  emperor  Sigismund,  by  adroitly  supporting 
the  revolutionary  party  in  Bohemia  {q.v,).  In  return  Hussite 
mercenaries  fou^  on  the  Polish  side  at  Tamumbuig,  and 
Cxech  patriots  repeatedly  offered  the  crown  of  Bohemia  to 
Wladislaus.  The  Polish  king  was  always  ready  enough  to 
support  the  Cxechs  against  Sigismund;  but  the  necessity  of 
lustifjring  his  own  orthodoxy  (which  the  Knights  were  Ux  ever 
impugning)  at  Rome  and  in  the  face  of  Europe  prevented  him 
from  accepting  the  crown  of  St  Wenoeslaus  from  the  hands  of 
heretics. 

Wladislaus  IL  died  at  Lemberg  in  1434*  ftt  the  age  of  eighty- 
three.  During  his  long  reign  of  forty-nine  yean  Poland  had 
gradually  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  great  power,  a  result  due  in  no 
small  measure  to  the  insight  and  sagacity  of  the  first  Jagiello, 
who  sacrificed  every  other  oonsidention  to  the  vital  necessity 
of  welding  the  central  Slavs  into  a  compact  and  homogeneous 
state.  The  next  ten  yean  severely  tested  the  stability  of  his 
great  work,  but  it  stood  the  test  triumphantly.  Neither  a 
tutbnient  minority,  nor  the  neglect  of  an  absentee  king;  neither 
the  revival  of  separatist  tendencies  in  Lithuania,  nor  the  out- 
breaks of  aristocratic  lawlessness  in  Poland,  could  do  nmre 
than  shake  the  superstructure  of  the  imposing  edifice.  After 
the  death  at  Varna,  in  1444,  of  Jagiello's  eldest  son  and  successor, 
WladisUuB  III.  (whose  hislory  belongs  rather  to  Hungary  than  to 
Poland),  another  great  statesman,  in  nowise  inferior  to  Wladis- 
laus IL,  completed  and  ooaaolidated  his  worit.  This  was 
Wladislaus's  second  sen,  already  gmndduke  of  Lithuania, 
who  ascended  the  P<rfish  throne  as  Casimir  IV.  in  1447,  thus 
reuniting  P<dand  and  Lithiuma  under  one  monarch. 

Enormous  were  the  difficulties  of  (Casimir  IV.  He  instino* 
tlvdy  recognized  not  only  the  vital  necessity  of  the  maintenance 
of  the  union  between  the  two  states,  but  also  the  ^^  _ 
fact  that  the  chief  source  of  danger  to  the  union  lay  J^'^i^" 
in  Lithuania,  in  those  da>'s  a  maelstrom  of  conflicting 
political  currents.  To  begin  with,  Lithiumia  was  a  far  less 
composite  state  than  Poland.  Two-thirds  of  the  grandduchy 
consisted  of  old  Russian  lands  inhabited  by  men  who  spoke 
the  Ruthenian  language  and  professed  the  Orthodox  Greek 
religion,  while  in  the  north  were  the  Lithuanians  proper,  semi- 
savage  and  semi-catholic,  justly  proud  of  thebr  heroic  forefathen 
of  the  house  of  Ged>'min,  and  very  sensitive  of  the  pretensions 
of  Poland  to  the  provinces  of  Volhynia  and  Podolia,  the  fruits  of 
Uthuanian  valour.  A  Lithuanian  himself,  Casimir  strenuously 
resisted  the  attempts  of  Poland  to  wrest  these  provinces  from 
the  grandduchy.  I^foroover,  during  the  earlier  yean  of  hb 
reign,  he  was  obliged  to  reside  for  the  most  part  in  lithuank, 
where  his  tranquilizing  influence  was  needed.  His  supposed 
preference  for  Lithuania  was  the  real  cause  of  his  unpopulurity  in 
Poland,  wher^  to  the  very  end  of  his  reign,  he  was  regarded 


9o6 


POLAND 


listen 


with  sutpidon,  And  where  evay  dBort  »ts  mide  to  thwut  his 
far-aeciog  und  patriotic  poUtiail  combinftUons,  which  were 
beyond  the  comprehension  of  his  self-seeking  and  nanow- 
mindcd  contemporaries.  This  was  notably  the  case  as  regards 
his  dealings  with  the  old  coemy  of  his  race,  the  Teutoofc 
.Order,  whose  destruction  was  the  chief  aim  of  his  ambition. 

The  Teutonic  Order  had  long  since  Jailed  as  a  idigbus  institu- 
tion; it  was  now  to  show  its  inadequacy  as  a  pofitkal  organixa* 
tion.  In  the  domain  of  the  Knights  the  gentry,  parochial 
clergy  and  townsmen,  who,  beneath  its  protection,  had  attained 
to  a  hig^  degree  of  wealth  and  dviliaation,  for  long  remained 
without  the  slightest  political  inflnenoe,  though  they  bore  nearly 
the  whole  burdto  of  taxation.  In  14x4,  however,  intimidated 
by  the  growing-  discontent,  which  fre(|uently  took  the  form  of 
armed  rebeUioQ,  the  Knights  consented  to  the  establishment 
of  a  diet,  which  was  le-formed  on  a  more  aristocratic  basb  in 
143a  But  the  old  abuses  continuing  to  multiply,  the  PrusBian 
towns  and  gentry  at  last  took  tl^ir  affairs  into  their  own  hands, 
and  formed  a  so-called  Prussan  League,  which  demanded  an 
equal  share  in  the  government  of  the  country.  This  league  was 
excommunicated  by  the  pope,  and  placed  under  the  ban  of 
the  empire  almost  simultaneously  in  2453,  whereupon  it  placed 
itsdf  beneath  the  protection  of  its  nearest  powerful  neighbour, 
the  king  of  Poland,  who  (March  6,  1454)  issued  a  manifesto 
incorporating  all  the  Prussian  provinces  with  Poland,  but, 
at  the  same  time,  granting  theitn  local  autonomy  and  free 
trade. 

But  provmoes  are  not  conquered  by  manifestoes,  and  Caaimir's 
acceptance  of  the  homage  of  the  Prussiati  League  at  once 
involved  him  in  a  war  with  the  desperate  Teutonic  Knights, 
which  lasted  twdve  years,  but  might  easily  have  been  concluded 
in  a  twelvemonth  had  hie  only  been  lordly  s«;^pported  by  his 
own  subjects,  for  whose  benefit  he  had  embariied  upon  this 
great  enterprise.  But  instead  of  support,  Casimir  encountered 
obstinate  obstruction  at  every  point.  No  patriotic  Pole,  we 
imagine,  can  read  the  history  of  this  miserable  war  without 
feding  heartily  ashamed  of  his  countrsrmen.  THe  acquisition 
of  the  Prussian  knds  was  vital  to  the  eaistmre  of  PohuuL  It 
meant  the  excitton  oi  an  alien  element  which  fed  like  a  cander 
on  the  body  politic;  it  meant  the  recovery,  at  companttvcly 
little  cost,  of  the  command  of  the  prindpnl  riven  ol  PkiJand*  Uw 
Vbtula  and  the  Niemen;  it  meant  the  obtaining  of  a  seaboard 
with  the  corollaries  of  searpower  and  wodd-wide  ONnmcRW. 
Yet,  except  in  the  border  province  of  Great  Poland,  which  was 
interested  commercially,  the  whole  enterprise  was  regarded 
with  such  indifference  that  the  king,  in  Umb  very  crisis  of  the 
struggle,  could  only  with  the  utmost  difficulty  obtain  oootribu- 
tions  for  war  expenses  from  the  half-doaen  load  diets  of  Poland, 
which  extorted  from  the  hdpiesaness  of  their  distracted 
and  impecunious  sovereign  fresh  privileges  for  every  subsidy 
they  grudgingly  granted^  Moreover  Casimir's  difficulties  were 
materially  increased  by  .the  necessity  of  paying  for  Czech 
mercenaries,  the  pospolite  naaenie,  or  Polish  militia,  proving 
utterly  usdess  at  the  very  birgfntiing  of  the  war.  Indeed, 
from  first  to  Ust,  the  PoUsh  gentry  as  a  body  took  good  care  to 
pay  and  fight  as  little  as  possible,  and  Csisimir  depended  for 
the  most  part  upon  the  liberality  of  the  Churdi  and  the  Prussian 
towns,' and  the  valour  of  the  Hussite  infantry,  170,000  of  whom, 
fighting  on  both  sides,  are  said  to  have  perished.  Not  till  the 
victory  of  Puck  (September  i7i  1462),  one  of  the. very  few 
pitched  battles  in  a  war  of  raids,  skirmishes  and  deges,  did 
fortune  incline  dedsivdy  to  the  side  of  the  Poles,  who  maintained 
and  improved  their  advantage  till  absolute  exhaustion  compelled 
the  Knights  to  accept  the  mediation  of  a  papal  legate,  and 
the  second  peace  of  Thorn  (October  24,  1466)  concluded  a 
struggle  which  had  reduced  the  Prussian  provinces  to  a  wilder- 
ness.^ By  the  second  peace  of  Thorn,  Pobnd  recovered  the 
provinces  of  Pomerdia,  Kolm  and  Michalow,  with  the  bishopric 
of  Ermdand,  numerous  dties  and  fortresses,  induding  Marien- 

*iS,ooo  of  thdr  a  I, 000  villages  were  destroyed,  tooo  churches 
were  rued  to  the  ground,  and  the  population  was  diminishfd  by 
morethanaquarterofasRiUioo.  *  I 


burg,  Ellitng,Danalg  and  Thorn.  The  teiritoiy  of  tlie  K«|te 
was  now  reduced  to  Prussia  proper,  embndng,-n>sg)ily  spac- 
ing, the  district  between  the  Baltic,  the  lower  Vistda  aid  *it 
lower  Nienwn,  with  KSnigsberg  as  its  capitaL  Tor  this  tcn^ 
the  grand'masters,  within  nine  months  <A  thdr  dectioa,  nt 
in  future  to  render  homage  to  the  Polish  king;  but,  00  theocbe 
hand,  the  king  undertook  not  to  make  war  or  engage  in  & 
impMtant  enterprise  without  the  consent  of  the  Pnatu  p> 
vince,  and  vice  versa.  Thus  Prussia  was  now  confederated  ri 
Poland,  but  she  occupied  a  subordinate  podtlon  as  onpcK 
with  Lithuania,  inasmuch  aa  the  grand-master,  thoo^  £S^ 
the  first  pJaoe  in  the  n^yal  oouddl,  was  still  a  subject  d  ib^ 
Polish  crown.  Thus  the  hij^  faeries  entertained  by  Ceeir 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war  had  not  been  realized.  IIk  k. 
settlement  with  the  Poles  was  of  the  nature  of  a  caqvcsst 
Still  the  Knights  had  been  driven  beyond  the  Vistula,  asd  Fob: 
had  secured  a  seaboard;  and  it  was  doe  entudy  to  the  las.*: 
patience  and  tenadty  of  the  king  that  even  as  much  as  this  n 
won  at  last. 

The  Whole  foreign  poUcy  of  Casimir  IV.  was  more  or  is 
conditioned  by  the  Prussian  question,  and  here  abo  faiss^ee 
diplomacy  triumphantly  asserted  itself.  At  the  bcgiociaf : 
the  war  both  the  emjnre  and  the  pope  were  against  faisi,  b^> 
neutralized  thdr  hostility  by  allying  himself  with  Grapi 
Podvebrad,  whom  the  Husstes  had  jdaced.on  the  threat: 
Bohemia.  On  the  death  of  George,  Caaimlr's  ^est  sob  i1^« 
laus  was  dccted  king  of  Bohemia  by  the  Utnqulst  party,  des^ 
the  determined  opposition  of  Matthias  Corvinns,  kisg ' 
Hungary,  whose  ability  and  audadty  henceforth  mjieb 
Casimir's  most  dangerous  rivsL  Skire  of  the  9ix^  ^ 
the  pope,  Matthias  (7.*.)  ddiberatdy  net  about  tnioa 
all  the  plans  of  Cadmir.  He  encouraged  the  Tentflok  M? 
to  rebd  against  Poland;  he  entertained  at  his  cosit  cr- 
Polish -^embassies  from  Moscow;  he  encouraged  the  TUia- 
ravage  Lithuania;  he  thwarted  Casamir'a  p^iqr  ia  Moiibn 
The  death  of  the  btiUiant  adventurer  at  Vienna.is  1400  <* 
therdore  as  a  distinct  tdid  to  Poland,  and  all  daafff  ^ 
the  dde  of  Hungary  was  removed  In  1490  when  Caaisir^^ 
Wladldaus,  already  king  of  Bohemia,  was  elected  baf  & 
Hungary  also» 

It  was  In  the  reagn  of  Ckdmir  IV.  that  Polandidtcs 
Into  direct  coUidon  with  the  Turks.  The  Re|Mdi&  «»  >^ 
Indeed,  the  "Buckler  of  Christendara."  Thst^^^^ 
glorious  epithet  bdonged  of  right  to  Hunesiy,  whidi  ^r^ 
had  already  borne  the  brunt  of  the  sttugg^  with 
the  Ottoman  power  for  more  than  a  century.  It  is  tne'* 
WladUaus  IL  of  Poland  had  fallen  on  the  fidd  of  Vans.  ^' 
it  was  as  a  Magyar  king  zt  the  head  of  a  Magyar  anny  t)i£'* 
young  monarch  met  his  fiate.  Poland,  indeed,  was  far  ksp( 
to  oope  with  the  Turks  than,  compact,  wealthy  HuasaT*  J^ 
throughout  the  zsth  century  was  oaw  tA  the  moA  toti 
military  monaxchies  m  Europe.  The  JagieOaB,  ss  a  nt 
prudently  avoided  committing  themselves  to  any  p^ 
system  which  might  irritate  the  still  distaiat  but  mai^^Bisf 
Turk,  but  when  thdr  domlniaos  extended  so  far  socthic^ 
as  to  embrace  Moldavia,  the  observance  of  m.  stikt  vais^" 
became  exceedingly  difficult.  Poland  had  eatabli^hd  >  ^ 
of  susexainty  over  Moldavia  as  eady  ts  the  caid  d  the  i^ 
century;  but  at  best  it  was  a  loose  and  wagne  overioc3& 
which  the  Hospodan  repudiated  whenever  they  were  (^ 
enough  to  do  sow  The  Turks  themadveswcte  too  mock  co?^ 
dsewhere  to  pay  much  attention  to  the  l>annhian  pdet^^ 
till  the  middle  of  the  15th  oentuzy.  Ia  1478  MabotaR  - 
had  nideed  attempted  thdr  sulqu^taoo,  with  bat  mi^'^ 
success;  but  It  was  not  tiU  X4S4  that  tbe  Ottoaasos  betf* 
inconvenient  neighboun  to  Poland.  In  that  year  s  Ts3^ 
fleet  captured  the  strongholds  of  Kilia  and  Akkcnnaa,  oo^^ 
ing  respectivdy  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  Dnieatf-  ^' 
aggression  serioody  threatened  the  trade  of  Polaal  sadi:iir^ 
Cadmir  IV.  to  accede  to  a  general  league  against  the  ^^ 
In  X485,  after  driving  the  Turks  out  of  Moldavia,  the  P^ 
king,  at  the  head  of  so^ooo  men,  praceedsd  to 


WSIORYt 


POl^ANP 


Pruth,  whtre  B«y«iid  IL»  tlm  cmbairiMed  by  the  Egyptian, 
war,  offered  peace,  but  as  no  agreement  coacerning  the  ca|>tured 
fortresses  could  be  arrived  at,  hostilities  were  suspended  by  a 
truce.  During  the  remainder  of  his  reiga  the  Turks  gave  no 
trouble. 

It  was  a  fMlunate  thing  for  Poland  that,  during  the  first 
century  of  her  ascension  to  the  lanic  of  a  great  power,  political 
exigencies  compelled  her  to  appn^riate  ahnost  mwe  tetritoiy 
than  her  primitive  and  centrifugal  government  could  properly 
assimilate;  it  was  fortunate  that  throughout  this  period  of 
expansion  her  destinies  should,  with  one  brief  interval,  have 
been  controlled  by  a  couple  of  superior  statesmen,  each  of  whom, 
ruled  for  nearly  fifty  years.    Diuing  the  fourteen  years  (2493- 
X506)  which  separate  the  reigns  of  Casimir  IV.  and  Sigismund  L 
she  was  not  so  lucky.   The  controlling  hand  of  Casimir  IV.  was 
no  sooner  withdrawn  than  the  unruly  dements,  ever  present 
in  the  Republic,  and  ultimatdy  the  casue  of  its  ruin,  at  once 
burst  fortL    The  first  symptom  of  this  hiwlessness  was  the 
separation  of  Polaitd  and  Utbuaaia,  the  Lithuanians  proceeding 
to  elect  Alexander,  Casimir's  fourth  son,  as  their  grand-duke, 
without  even  consulting  the  Polish  senate,  in  flagrant  violation 
of  the  union  of  Horodlo.   The  breach,  happUy,  was  of  90  very 
long  duration.    A  disastrous  war  with  Ivan  IIL,  tlie  first 
Muscovite  tsar,  q>eedily  convinced  the  lithuanians  that  they 
were  not  strong  enough  to  stand  alon^  and  in  1499  they 
voluntarily  renewed  the  union.    Much  more  dangerous  .was 
the  political  revolution  proceeding  simultaneously  in  PoUnd, 
jMktff.       where  John  Albert,  the  third  son  of  Casimir,   had 
Aiscrt*       been  elected  king  on  the  death  of  his  father.    The 
t49i-iS9t.  nature  of  this  revolution  will  be  con^dered  in  detail 
when    we    come    to   speak    of    the   growth   of    the   ^Polish 
constitution.   Suffice  it  here  to   say  that  it  was  both  anti- 
monarchical  and  anti-democratic,  tending,  as  it  did,  to  place  all 
political  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  sdaeMUi,  or  gentry. 
The  impecunious  monarch  submitted  to  the  dictation  of  the 
diet  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  sufficient  money  to  prosecute  his 
ambitious  designs.    With  his  dder  brother  Wladislaus  reigning 
over  Bohemia  and  Hungary  the  credit  of  the  Jagiellos  in  Europe 
had  never  been  so  great  as  it  was  now,  and  John  Albert,  bent 
upon  military  glozy,  eageriy  placed  himself,  at  the  head  of  what 
was  to  have  been  a  great  anti-Turkish  league,  but  ultimately 
dwindled  down  to  a  raid  upon  Moldavia  which  ended  in  disaster. 
The  sole  advantage  which  J(^  Albert  reaped  from  his  champion- 
ship of  the  Christian  cause  was  the  favour  of  the  Curia,  and  the 
ascendancy  which  that  favouif  gave  him  over  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  whose  new  grand^master,  Albert  of  Saxony,  was  reluc- 
tantly compdled  to  render  due  homage  to  the  Polish  king. 
^^  Under  Alexander  (q.v.),.  who  succeeded  his  brother 
JiM?*  mw  *  ^  ^S^h  niatters  went  from  bad  to  worse.    Alex- 
andra election  cemented,  indeed,  onoe  for  all,  the 
union  between  Poland  and  Lithuania,  inasmuch  as,  on  the 
eve  of  it  (Oct.  3,  1501)  the  senates  of  both  countries  agreed 
that,  in  future,  the  king  <tf  Poland  should  always  be  grand-duke 
of  Lithuania;  but  this  was  the  sole  benefit  which  the  Republic 
derived  from  the  rcign  of  Alexander,  under  whom  the  Polish 
^venunent  has  been  weU  described  as  a  rudderless  ship  in  a 
stormy  sea,  with  nothing  but  the  grace  of  God  between  it 
and  destruction.    In  Lithuania  the  increasing  pressure  of  the 
Muscovite  was  the  chief  danger.   Till  the  accession  of  Ivan  IIL 
in  1462  Muscovy  had  been  a  negligible  factor   in 
Poli^  politics. :  During  the  earlier  part  of  the-  15th 
century. the  Lithuanian   princes    had    successfully 
contested  Muscovite  influence  even  in  Pskov  and  Great  Novgorod. 
Many  Russian  historians  even  maintain  that,  but  for  the  fact 
that  V^towt  had  simultaneously  to  cope  with  the  Teutonic 
Order  and  the  Tatars,  that  energetic  prince  would  certainly 
have  extinguished  struggling  Muscovy  altogether.    But  since 
the  death  of  Witowt  (1430)  the  miliury  efficiency  of  Lithuania 
bad  sensibly  declined;  sing^handed  she  was  no  fenger  a  match 
for  her  ancient  rival    Thli  was  owing  partly  to  the  evils  of  an 
oligarchic  government;  partly  to  the  weakness  Tesulting  from 
the  natural  attraction  of  the  Orthodox-Greek  ele«ie9t  m.Lithu- 


907 

ia  toaeanb  Moicoiy,  espedaHy  after  the  (aU  of  QiMtantSiiople; 
but  chiefly  to  the  administiative  superiority  of  the  highly  cen- 
tralised Muscovite  government.  During  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander, who  was  too  poor  to  maintain  any  adequate  standing 
army  In  Lithuania^  the  Muscovites  and  Tatars  ravaged  the 
whole  country  at  will,  and  were  prevented  from  conquering  it 
altogether  only  by  their  inability  to  capture  the  chief  fortresses. 
In  Poland,  meanwhile,  something  very  like  anarchy  prevailed. 
Alexander  had.  practically  surrendered  his  authority  to  an 
incapable  aristocracy,  whose  sole  idea  of  ruling  vrusystcmatically 
to  oppress  and  humiliate  the  lower  dasvs  In  foreign  affairs 
a  policy  of.  drift  prevailed  which  encouraged  all  the  enemies 
of  the  Republic  to  raise  their  heads,  while  the  dependent  sUtes 
of  Prussia  in  the  north  and  Moldavia  in  the  south  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  break  away  from  Poland.  Fortunately  for  the  integ- 
rity of  the  Polish  state  the  premature  death  of  Alexander  ia 
1506  brought  upon  the  throne  his  capable  brother  Sigismund, 
the  fifth  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  whose  bng  reign  of  .„_., 
forty-two  years  was  salutary,  and  would  have  been  '3Sf  jSoL 
altogether  recuperative,  had  his  statesmanship  only 
been  loyally  sup^rted  by  his  subjects.  Eminently  practical 
Sigismund  recognized  that  the  first  need  of  Poland  was  a' standi 
ing  army.  The  miserable  collapse  of  the  Poluh  chivalry  during 
the  Bukovinian  campaign  of  1497  had  convinced  every  one  that 
the  ruszaiie  PospoliU  was  useless  for  serious  military  purposes, 
and  that  Poland,  in  order  to  hold  her  own,  must  in  future  follow 
the  example  of  the  West,  and  wage  her  warfare  with  trained 
mercenaries.  But  professional  soldiers  could  not  be  hired 
without  money,  and  the  difficulty  was  to  persuade  the  diet  to 
loose  its  purse-strings.  All  that  the  gentry  contributed  at 
present  was  two  pence  (groschen)  per  hide  of  land,  and  this  only 
for  defensive  service  at  home.  If  the  king  led  the  nuzaiU 
pospciUe  abroad  he  was  obliged  to  pay  so  much  per  pike  out  of 
his  own  pocket,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  heavily 
mortgaged  crown  lands  were  practically  valueless*.  At  the 
diet  of  15 10  the  chancellor  and  primate,  Adam  Laaki,  propose^ 
an  income-tax  of  50%  at  once,  and  5%  for  subsequent  years, 
payable  by  both  the  lay  and  deilcal  estates.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  Poland  was  the  most  defenceless  country  in  Europe, 
with  no  natural  boundaries,  and  constantly  exposed  to  attacks 
from  every  quarter,  it  was  not  unreasonable  to  expect  even  this 
patriotic  sacrifice  from  the  privileged  classes,  who  held  at  least 
two-thirds  of  the  land  by  military  tenure,  lievertheless,  the 
diet  refused  to  consider  the  scheme.  In  the  following  year  a 
more  modest  proposal  was  made  by  the  Crown  in  the  shape  of 
a  capitation  of  six  gulden,  to  be  levied  on  every  nobleman  at 
the  beginning  of  a  campaign,  for  the  hiring  of  merceteries. 
This  also  was  rejected.  In  1512  the  king  came  forw^  with  a 
third  scheme.  He  proposed  to  (£vide  the  country  into  five' 
cirdes,  corresponding  to  the  five  provinces,  each  of  which  was 
to  undertake  to  defend  the  realm  in  turn  should  occasion  arise. 
Moreover,  every  one  who  so  desired  it  might  pay  a  commutation 
in  lieu  of  personal  service,  and  tile  amount  so  realized  was  to^be 
re-used  to  levy  troops.  To  this  the  dietines,  or  local  diets,  of 
Great  Poland,  and  Little  Poland,  agreed,  but  at  the  last  moment 
the  whole  project  foundered  on  the  question  who  was  the  proper 
custodian  of  the  new  assessment  rolls,  and  the  king  had  to  be 
content  with  the  renewal  of  former  subsidies,  varying  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  groats  per  hide  of  land  for  three  years.  "Well 
might  the  disappointed  monarch  exclaim: "  It  is  vain  to  labour 
for  the  welfare  of  those  who  do  not  care  a  jot  about  it  them- 
selves." Matters  improved  somewhat  in  1527,  when  the 
alackta,  by  a  special  act,  placed  the  mightiest  magnates  on  the 
same  level  as  the  humblest  squire  as  regards  military  service, 
and  proposed  at  the  same  time  a  more  general  assessment  for 
the  purpose,  the  control  of  the  money  so  realized  to  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  king.  In  consequence  of  this  4a^ .  the  great 
lords  were  compelled  to  put  forces  in  the  fidd  proportioned  to 
their  enormous  fortunes,  and  Sigismund  was  able  in  1539  to 
raise  300  foot  and  3200  horse  from  the  province  of  Podolia  alone. 
But  though  the  treasury  was  thus  temporarily  replenished  and 
the  army  increased,  the  gentry  who  had  hem  so  generous  at 


90S 


POLAND 


IHlSTCNtf 


tfie  expense  of  tbexr  richer  n^gfaboun  would  hear  of  no  addi- 
tional burdens  being  laid  on  themselves,  and  the  king  only 
obtained  what  he  wanted  by  sacrifidng  his  principles  to  his 
necessiUes,  and  helping  the  sdaichta  to  puil  down  the  magnates. 
This  fata)  parsimony  had  the  most  serious  pobtical  consequences, 
for  it  cnpplcd  the  king  at  every  step.  Strive  and  scheme  as 
he  might,  his  needs  were  so  oigent,  his  enemies  so  numerous, 
that,  though  generally  saccessfi^  in  the  end,  he  had  always  to 
be  content  with  compromises,  adjustments  and  semi-victories. 
Thus  he  was  obhged,  in  1525,  to  grant  local  autonomy  to  the 
province  of  Prussia  instead  of  annexing  it,  be  was  unable  to 
succour  his  unfortunate  nephew,  Louis  of  Hmigary,  against  the 
Turkish  peril,  he  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  occupation 
of  one  Lithuanian  province  after  the  other  by  the  Muscovite^, 
and  look  on  helplessly  while  myriads  of  Tktars  penetrated  to 
the  very  heart  of  his  domains,  wasting  with  fire  and  swcN'd 
everything  they  could  not  carry  away  with  them. 

Again,  it  should  have  been  the  first  duty  of  the  Repubhc 
adequately  to  fortify  the  itikie  pdd,  or  "savage  steppe,"  as 
the  vast  plain  was  called  which  extended  from  Kiev 
to  the  Black  Sea,  and  some  feeble  attempts  to  do  so 
were  at  last  made.  Thus,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander, 
the  fugitive  serfs  whom  tyranny  or  idleness  had  driven  into 
this  wUdemess  (they  were  subsequently  known  as  Kazaki,  or 
Cossacks,  a  Tatar  word  meaning  freebooters)  were  formed  into 
compani»  {c.  1504)  and  placed  at  the  di^[)osaI  of  the  frontier 
siarosUist  or  lord  marchers,  of  Kaniev,  Kamenets,  Czerkask  on 
the  Don  and  other  places.  But  these  measures  proved  inade- 
quate, and  in  1533  the  lord  marcher,  Ostafi  Daszkicwicz,  the 
hero  of  Kaniev,  which  he  had  successfully  defended  against 
a  countless  host  of  Turks  and  Tatars,  was  consulted  by  the 
diet  as  to  the  best  way  of  defending  the  Ukraine  permanently 
against  such  inroads.  The  veteran  expert  advised  the  populating 
and  fortifying  of  the  islands  of  the  Dnieper  Tw-o  thousand 
men  would  suffice,  he  said,  and  the  Cossacks  supph'ed  excellent 
military  material  ready  to  hand.  The  diet  unanimously 
approved  of  this  simple  and  inexpensive  plan;  a  special  com- 
mission examined  and  approved  of  its  dcuils,  and  it  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  next  diet,  which  rejected  it.  So  nothing  at  all 
was  done  officially,  and  the  defence  of  the  eastern  Ukraine  was 
left  to  providence.  Oddly  enough  the  selfish  prudence  of  Sigis- 
mund's  rapacious  consort,  (^een  Bona,  did  more  for  the  national 
defence  than  the  Polish  state  could  do.  Thus,  to  defend  her 
immense  possessions  in  Volhjmia  and  Podolia,  she  converted 
the  castles  of  Bar  and  Krzcmieniec  into  first-class  fortresses, 
and  placed  the  former  in  the  hands  of  her  Silesian  steward,  who 
acquitted  himself  so  manfully  of  his  charge*  that  "  the  Tatars 
fell  away  frOm  the  frontier  all  the  days  of  Pan  Pretficz,*'  and 
a  large  population  settled  securely  beneath  the  walls  of  Bar, 
henceforth  known  as  "the  bastion  of  Podolia."  Nothing, 
perhaps,  illustrates  so  forcibly  the  casual  character  of  the  Poli^ 
government  in  the  most  vital  matters  as  this  single  incident. 

The  most  important  political  event  during  the  reign  of  Sigis- 
mund  was  the  collapse  of  the  ancient  Hungarian  monarchy  at 
Mohacs  in  1526.  Poland,  as  the  next  neighbour  of  Hungary, 
was  more  seriously  affected  than  any  other  European  power 
by  this  catastrophe,  but  her  politicians  differed  as  to  the  best 
way  of  facing  it.  Immediately  after  the  death  of  King  Louis, 
who  fell  on  the  field  of  battle,  the  emperor  Ferdinand  and  John 
Zapolya,  voivode  of  Transylvania,  competed  for  the  vacant 
crown,  and  botb  wero  elected  almost  simtiltaneously.  In 
Poland  Zapolya's  was  the  popular  cause,  and  he  also  found 
powerful  support  in  (he  influential  and  highly  gifted  Laski  family, 
as  represented  by  the  Polish  chancellor  and  his  nephews  John 
and  Hieronymus.  Sigismund,  on  the  other  hand,  favoured 
Ferdinand  of  Austria.  Though  bound  by  family  ties  with  both 
competitors,  lit  regarded  the  situation  from  a  purely  political 
point  of  view.  He  argued  that  the  best  way  to  keep  the  Turk 
from  Poland  was  for  Austria  to  incorporate  Hungary,  in  which 
case  the  Austrian  dominion  would  be  a  strong  and  permanent 
barrier  against  a  Mussulman  invasion  of  Europe.    History  has 

■  Pretficz  won  no  fewer  than  70  engagements  over  the  Tatars. 


more  than  jiutificd  blm,  and  tbe  long  dud  wMdi 
Ferdinand  and  Zapolya  (see  Homgaat.  Htsiary)  enabled  tke 
Polish  monarch  to  mamtam  to  the  end  a  cautious  but  ofaecrvatt 
neutrality  More  than  once,  mdeed,  Sigismund  was  leriocsiT 
compromised  by  the  diplomatic  vagaries  of  Hserooisrmns  Lasb 
who  entered  the  service  of  Zapolya  (since  1519  tbe  protifge  c* 
the  sultan),  and  greatly  alarmed  both  the  emperor  wmd  the  pope 
by  his  disturbmg  philo-Turk  prodivities.  It  was  oiwuif  to 
Laski's  fotngues  that  the  new  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  Pietnic 
after  domg  homage  to  the  Porte,  intervened  in  tbe  struggle  a 
the  foe  of  both  Ferdinand  ahd  Sigismund,  and  besieged  itt 
Grand  Hetman  of  the  Crown,  Jan  Tarnowski,  ih  Obertjfn,  where. 
however,  the  Moldavians  (August  22,  1531)  sostauied  a  cn:^- 
mg  defeat,  and  Petrylo  was  slain.  Nevertheless,  so  anzkws  v^« 
Sigismund  to  avoid  a  collision  with  the  Turks,  that  be  forbuk 
the  victorious  Timowski  to  cross  the  Moldavian  frontier,  1:^ 
sent  a  letter  of  explanation  to  Constantinople.  On  tbe  death  oi 
John  Zapol3ra,  the  Austro-Polisb  alhance  was  still  fertise; 
cemented  by  the  marriage  of  Siglsmnnd's  son  and  beir,  Six!»- 
mund  Augustus,  with  the  archdudhess  Elizabeth.  In  the  rrps  at 
Sigismund  was  effected  the  incorporation  of  the  duchy  of  Moscni 
with  the  Polish  crown,  after  an  independent  existence  of  hr 
hundred  years.  In  1526  the  male  kne  of  the  ancient  dyvaeij 
became  extinct,  and  on  the  26th  of  August  Sigismund  reoemt! 
the  homage  of  the  Masovians  at  Warsaw,  the  capital  of  tk 
duchy  and  ero  long  of  the  whole  kingdom.  Almost  cvm 
acre  of  densely  ix>pulated  Masovia  was  in  the  hands  of  her  stsnh, 
ultra-conservative  squires,  in  point  of  culture  far  bdow  tJ^ 
brethren  in  Great  and  Little  Poland.  The  additional  revesae 
gained  by  the  Crown  from  Masovia  was  at  first  but  14,000 
gulden  ptr  annum 

The  four  and  twenty  years  Of  Sigismund  11  ^  r^gn  was  a 
critical  period  of  PoUsh  history.  Complications  with  t!x 
Turk  were  avoided  by  the  adroit  diplomacy  of  tbe  king,  wk3e 
the  superior  discipline  and  efficiency  of  the  Po&h  armies  CBr^tr 
the  great  Tarnowski  (q.v.)  and  his  pupib  overaw<6d  tbe  Tana 
and  extruded  the  Muscovites,  neither  of  whom  were  so  trocbk- 
some  as  tjbey  had  been  during  the  last  rrign.  AO  the  m^ 
disquieting '  was  the  internal  condition  of  the  countrr,  ^^ 
mainly  to  the  invasion  of  Poland  by  the  Reformation,  and  tbe 
coincidence  of  this  invasion  with  an  internal  revohnion  of  a 
quasi-democratic  character,  which  aimed  at  substitutuig  t^ 
rule  of  the  sdachla  for  the  rule  of  the  senate. 

Hitherto  the  Republic  had  given  the  Holy  See  but  £trie 
anxiety.  Hussite  influences,  in  the  beginning  of  tbe  rjt^ 
century,  had  been  superficial  and  transitory.  The 
Polish  government  had  employed  Hussite  mercen- 
aries, but  rejected  Hussite  propagandists.  Tbe 
edict  of  Wiclun  (1424),  remarkable  as  the  first  anti-1 
decree  issued  in  Poland,  crushed  the  new  sect  in  its  infoacr. 
Lutheranism,  moreover,  was  at  first  regarded  with  grare  99- 
picion  by  the  intensely  patriotic  Polish  gentry,  because  of  ta 
German  or1|^.  Nevertheless,  the  extremdy  severe  penal  edk^ 
issued  during  the  reign  of  Sigismund  I.,  though  sddom  aj^ic.^. 
seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  heresy  was  spreading  «iek'« 
throughout  the  country.  For  a  time,  therefore,  the  Protestu^ 
had  to  be  cautious  in  Poland  proper,  but  they  fooiKl  a  ss-e 
refuge  in  Prussia,  where  Lutheranism  was  already  the  esu^ 
lished  religion,  and  where  the  newly  erected  nniwfsity  «f 
KOnig^erg  became  a  seminaiy  for  Polish  ministers  a^d 
preadiers. 

While  Lutheranism  was  thus  threatening  the  P06A  Chrrt^ 
from  the  north,  C^vinism  had  already  invaded  her  froia  t^e 
west  (Calvinism,  indeed,  rather  recommended  itsdf  to  tbe  Po^ 
as  being  of  non-(3erman  origin,  and  Calvin  actually  <iedicatrd 
his  CommenUtry  on  Ike  Mass  to  tbe  young  krdeants  (or  creva 
prince)  Sigismund  Augustus,  from  whom  protestantism,  emch 
eously  enough,  expected  much  in  the  futttrs.  Meaiiw!L> 
conversion  to  Calvinism,  among  the  higher  dasnes  in  Pobri 
became  more  and  more  frequent.  We  hear  of  crowded  Cahnmfi 
conventicles  in  Little  Poland  from  154$  onwards,  and  CaNinnn 
continued  to  spread  throughout  the  Ungdom  during  the  latter 


Hisrony) 


mLANfif 


909 


yenrs  of  Stgignund  I.    An6thtr<  sect,  Which  uttioiatdy  foAnd 
even  more  favour  in  Poland  than  the  Cahrinists,  was  that  of 
the  Bohemian  Brethren,   We  first  hear  of  them  in  Great  Poland 
in  1548.    A  foyai  decree  promptly  banished  ihcm  to  Prussia, 
where  they  soon  increased  so  rapidly  as  to  be  able  to  hold  their 
own  against  the  Lutherans.    The  death  of  the  uncompromiung 
Sigismand  I.  came  as  a  great  relief  to  the  Protestants,  who 
entertained  \a^  hopes  of  his  son  and  Successor.    He  was  known 
to  be  familiar  with  the  works  of  the  leading  reformers;  be  was 
surrounded  by  Protestant   counseUors*  and   he  was  actually 
married  to  Barbara,  daughter  of  Prince  Nicholas  Radziwill, 
"  Black  I^adsiwiU/'  the  all-powerful  chief  of  the  Lithuanian 
dlvinists.    It  was  not  so  generally  known  that  Sigismand  II. 
was  by  conviction  a  sincere  though  not  a  bigoted  Catholic;  and 
nobody  suspected  that  beneath  his  diplomatic  urbanity  lay  a 
patriotic  firmness  and  statesmanlike  qualities  of  the  first  order. 
Moreover,  they  ignored  the  fact  that  the  success  of  the  Protestant 
propaganda  was  due  rather  to  political  than  to  religious  causes. 
The  Polish  gentry's  jealousy  6t  the  clerical  estate,  whose  privi- 
leges  even  exceeded  their  own,  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  -whole 
matter.   Any  opponent  of  the  established  clergy  was  the  natunst 
ally  of  the  sxlachla,  and  the  scandalous  state  of  the  Church  herself 
provided  them  with  a  most  formidid)le  weapon  against  her. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  condition  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Poland  was  almost  as  bad  as  it  was  In  Scotland  during 
the  same  period.    The  bishops  were,  for  the  most  part,  degant 
triflers,  as  pliant  as  reeds,  with  no  fixed  principles  and  saturated 
with  a  fake  humanism^    Some  of  them  were  notorious  <evil- 
livers.    "  Pint-pot "  Latuski,  bishop  of  Posen,  had  purchased 
his  office  for  12,000  ducats  from  Queen  Bona;  while  another 
of  her  creatures,  Peter,  popabrly  known  as  the  "  wcncher," 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Przcmysl  with'  the  promise  of  the 
reversion  of  the  still  richer  see  of  Cmoow.    Moreover,  despite 
her  immense  wealth  (in  the  province  of  Little  Poland  alone 
she  owned  at  this  time  a6  towns,  83  landed  estates  and  77s 
villages),  the  Church  claimed  exemption  from  all  public  burdens, 
from  all  political  responsibilities,  although  her  prelates  continued 
to  exercise  an  altogether  disproportionate  political  infiucnoe. 
Education  was  shamefully  neglected,  tlic  masses  being  left  in 
almost  heathen  ignorance — and  this,  too,  at  a  time  when  the 
upper  classes  were  greedily  appropriatmg  the  ripe  fraits  of  the 
Renaissance  and  when,  to  use  the  words  of  a  contemporary, 
there  were  "  more  Latinists  in  Poland  than  there  used  to  be  in 
Latium."    The  university  of  Cracow,  the  sole  source  of  know- 
ledge in  the  vast  Polish  realm,  still  moved  in  the  vicious  drcle 
of  scholastic  formularies.    The  provincial  schools,  dependent 
upon  so  decrepit  an  alma  mater,  were  suffered  to  decay.    Thh 
criminal  neglect  of  national  education  brou^t  along  with  it 
its  own  punishmenL    The  sons  of  the  gentry,  denied  proper 
instruction  at  home,  betook  themselves  to  the  nearest  univer« 
srties  across  the  border,  to  Goldberg  in  Silesia,  to  WUtemberg, 
to  Leipzig.   Here  they  fell  in  with  the  adherents  of  the  new  faith, 
grave,  earnest  men  who  professed  to  reform  the  abuses  which  had 
grown  up.  in  the  Church;  and  a  sense  of  equity  as  ranch  as  a  love 
of  novelty  moved  them,  on  their  return  home,  to  propagate 
wholesome  doctrines  and  clamoiur  for  the  reformation  of  their 
own  degenerate  prelates.    Finally  the  poorer  deigy,  neglected 
by  their  bishops,  and  exchided  from  all  preferment,  took  part 
with  the  sdackta  against  their  own  spiritual  rulen  and  eag^y 
devoured  and  imparted  to  their  flocks,  in  then:  own  Unguage, 
the  contents  of  the  religious  tracts  which  reached  themby  diVers 
ways  frMn  Goldberg  and  Kflnlgsberg.    Nothing  indeed  did  so 
much  to  popularize  the  new  doctrines  in  Poland  as  this  henefidal 
revival  of  the  long-neglected  vemacukir  by  the  reformers 

Such  was  the  situatk^n  when  Sigismund  II.  began  his  Nsgn. 
The  bishopB  at  once  made  a  high  bid  for  the  favovr  of  the  taew 
s^te-  I^ing  by  consenting  to  the  coronation  of  his  CalvinisI 

muadtf.,  consort  (Dec.  7,  1550)  and  the  king  five  days 
iS4*'tsn^  afterwards  issued  the  celebrated  edict  in  which  he 
pledged  his  royal  word  to  preserve  intact  the  vnity  of  the  Church 
and  to  enf'^^Te  the  law  of  the  land  against  heresy.  Encouraged 
by  this  pleasing  symptom  of  orthodaxy  the  bishops,  instead 


df  first  aUettj^ihi  to  pat  Hiijr'dwn  dilapidated  hxmst  in  «rdcr« 
at  once  proceeded  to  institute  prosecutions  for  heresy  against 
all  and  sundry.  This  at  once  led  to  an  expk)sion,  and  at  the 
diet  of  Piotrkow,  1552,  the  szlacMia  accepted  a  proposition  of 
the  king,  by  way  of  compromise,  that  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
clerical  courts  should  be  suspended  for  twelve  months,  on 
condition  that  the  gentry  continued  to  pay  tithes  as  heretofore. 
Then  began  a  religious  i$tlerim,  which  was  gradually  prolonged 
for  ten  years,  during  which  time  Protestantism  in  Poland 
flourished  exceedingly.  Presently  reformers  of  every  shade  of 
opinion,  even  those  who  were  tolerated  nowhere  else,  poured 
into  Poland,  which  speedily  became  the  battle-ground  of  all  the 
sects  of  Europe.  Soon  the  Protestants  became  numerous  enough 
to  form  ecclesiastical  districts  of  their  own.  The  first  Calvinist 
synod  in  Poland  was  held  at  Pinczow  in  1550.  The  Bohemian 
Brethren  evangeltxed  Little  Poland,  but  ultimately  coalesced 
with  the  Calvinlsts  at  the  s3mod  of  KozminHc  (August  1555)- 
In  the  diet  itself  the  Protestants  were  absolutely  supreme, 
and  invariably  elected  a  Calvinist  to  be  their  marshal.  At  the 
diet  of  1555  they  boldly  demanded  a  national  synod,  absolute 
toleration,  and  the  equdization  of  all  the  sects  except  the  Ami-* 
trinitorians.  But  the  king  intervened  and  the  existing  interim 
was  indefiniteiy  prolonged.  At  the  diet  of  Piotrkow,  1558-1 559, 
the  onslaught  of  the  stlackta  on  the  clergy  was  fiercer  than  ever, 
and  they  even  demanded  the  exclusion  of  the  bish(^  from  the 
senate.  The  king,  however,  perceiving  a  danger  to  the  constitu* 
tion  in  the  violence  of  the  szlacktOf  not  only  supported  the 
bishops,  but  quashed  a  subsequent  reiterated  demand  for  a 
national  synod.  The  diet  of  155^1^59  indicates  the  htgh-watcr 
mark  of  Polish  Protestantism^  From  this  time  forward  it  began 
to  subside,  very  gradually  but  tmmistakably.  The  chief  cause' 
of  this  subsidence  was  the  division  among  the  reformers  them* 
selves;'  Ftom  the  chaos  of  otcds  resulted  a  chaos  of  ideas 
on  al  imaginable  subjects,  politics  included.  The  Anti-trini-' 
tarian  proved  to  be  the  chief  dissolvent,  and  from  i56oonward» 
the  reiaitionfa  between  the  two  principal  Protestant  sects,  the 
Lutherans  and  the  Calvinlsts, '  were  fratricidal  rather  than 
fnUemal.  An.  auxiliary  cause  of  the  decline  of  Protestantasm 
was  the  beginning  of  a  Catholic  rcftctkm;  The  bulk  of  the  popu* 
latibn  still  hdd  perastently,  if  languidly,  to  the  faith  of  its 
fathers;  Che  new  bishops  were  holy  and  learned  men,  very 
unUkc  the  creadons  of  Qieen  Bona,  and  the  Holy  See  gave  to 
the  slowly  reviving  zeal  of  both  dergy  and  laity  the  very  neces- 
sary impetus  from  without.  For  Poland,  unUke  SccUand,  waa 
fortunatdy,  m  those  days  of  difficult  inter-connnunication,  not 
too  far  off,  and  it  Is  indisputable  that  in  the  first  Instance  it  was 
the  papal  nundos,  men  like  Berard  of  Camerino  and  Giovanni 
Cemmendooe,  who  reorganized  the  scattered  and  faint<>heartcd 
battalions  of  the  Cbnrch  militant  in  Poland  and  led  them  back 
to  victory.  At  the  diet  of  Piotrkow  in  1^3,  indeed,  the  king's 
sore  need  of  subsidies  induced  him,  at  the  demand  of  the  sdoekUi„ 
to  aboliah  akogether  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ecdesiastical  courts 
in  cases  of  heresy;  but*,  on  the  other  hand,  at  the  diet  oC  1564 
he  accepted  from  Commendone  the  Tridentine  decrees  and  issued 
an  edict  banishing  all  fordgn,'and  espedally  Anti-trinitarian, 
heretics  from  the  land.  At  the  diet  of  1565  Sigismund  went 
still  farther.  He  rejected  a  petition  for  a  national  ffg^ 
psdficatory  synod  as  unnecessary,  inasmuch  as  the  Co— lin 
council  of  Trent  had  already  settled  all  r^^'pow  ^TaSSl**' 
questions,  and  at  the  same  time  consented  to  the  '^'^'^ 
introduction  into  Poland  oC  the  most  formidable  adveruries  of 
the  Reformation,  the  Jesuits.  These  had  already  been  installed- 
at  Poltusk,  and  were  permitted,  after  the  diet  tost,  to  founds 
establishments  in  the  dioceses  of.  Posen,  Ezinehuid  and  Vilna, 
whidi  henceforth  became  centres  of  a  vigorous  and  victorious.' 
{Hopaganda.  Thus  the  Republic  recovered  her  catholidty  and' 
her  interoal  harmony  at  the  same  time. 

With  rare  sagadty  Sigismund  II.  had  thus  piloted  the  Republh:. 
through  the  most  diflficult  internal  crisis  it  had  yet  encountered.- 
In  purely  political  matters  also  both  initiative  and  fulfilment 
came  entirely  from  the  Crown,  and  to  the  last  of  the  Jigiellos 
Poland  owed  the  -ittportaut  acquisition  of  Livonia  and  the 


9IO 


POLAND 


diisTOity 


weMiBg  together  of  her  looffdy  coancct^j  oon^poieiit  ptrtt  iBt» 
ft  single  state  by  the  Uoioo  of  Lublin. 

In  the  middle  of  the  x6th  century  the  ancient  order  ol  the 
Knighta  o£  the  Sword,  whose  territory  embraced  Esthonia, 
Ltvoaia,  Courland,  Semgallen  and  the  islands  o{  Dagfi  and  Ocscl, 
was  tottering  to  its  fall  All  the  Baltic  powers  wexe  more  or  less 
interested  in  the  apportionment  of  this  vast  tract  of  land,  whose 
geographioU  position  made  it  not  only  the  K^tt  commercial 
Enk  between  east  and  west,  but  also  the  emporium  whence  the 
EagUshi  Dutch,  Swedes,  Danes  and  Germans  obtained  their 
oom>  timber  and  most  of  the  raw  producta  of  Lithuania  and 
Muscovy.  Matters  were  complicated  by  the  curious  political 
intricacies  of  this  long-coveted  domain,  vdiere  the  grand*master, 
the  archbishop  of  Riga,  and  the  estates  of  Livonia  possessed 
concurrent  and  generally  conflicting  jurisdictions.  Poland 
and  Muscovy  as  the  nearest,  neighbours  of  thik  moribund  state, 
which  had  so  lopg  excluded  them  from  the  sea,  were  vitally 
concerned  in  its  fate.  After  an  anarchic  period  of  suspense, 
lasting  from  1546  to  1561,  during  which  Sweden  secured 
Esthonia,  while  Ivan  the  Terrible  fearlessly  ravaged  Livonia, 
in  the  hope  of  making  it  valueless  to  any  other  potentate, 
Sigismund  XL,  to  whom  both  the  grand-mtster  and  the  arch- 
bis^iop  had  appealed  more  than  once  for  protection,  at  length 
intervened  decisively.  Both  he  and  bis  chancellor,  Fiotr 
Myszkowski  (^  is^t)»  were  well  aware  of  the  importance  of 
securing  a  coast-land  which  would  enable  Poland  to  become  a 
4iavat  power.  But  the  diet,  with  almost  incredible  short-sighted- 
ness, refused  to  waste  a  penny  on  an  undertaking  which,  they 
argued,  concerned  only  Lithuania,  and  it  was  not  as  king  of 
Poland,  but  as  grand-duke  of  Lithuania,  and  with  purely 
Lithuanian,  troops,  that  Sigismund,  in  2561,  occupied  Livonia. 
At  bis  caxpp  before  Riga  the  last  grand-master,  Gotthard  von 
Ketteler,  who  had  long  been  at  the  head  of  the  Polish  party  in 
Uvonia,  and  WiUiam  of  Brandenburg,  archbishop  of  Riga, 
gladly  placed  themselves  beneath  his  protection,  and  hy  a  subsc- 
<|uent  convention  signed  at  Vilna  (Nov.  28,  Z56i>,  Livonia  was 
incorporated  with  Lithuania  in  much  the  same  way  aa  Prussia- 
had  been  inoirporated  with  Poland  thirty-six  years  previously. 
Ketteler,  who  haid  adopted  Lutheranism  during  a  visit  to  Ger- 
many in  1553,  now  processed  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  be- 
came the  irst  duke  of  a  new  Protestant  duchy,  which  he  was  to 
hold  as  a  fief  of  the  Polish  crown,  with  local  autonomy  and  abso- 
lute freedom  of  worship.  The  southern  provinces  of  the  ancient 
territory  of  the  Order,  Courland  and  Semgallen,  had  first  been 
ceded  on  the  34th  of  June  1559  to  Lithuania  on  similar  condi- 
tions^ the  matter  being  finally  adjusted  by  the  compact  of 
March  1562. 

The  apathy  of  PoUnd  in  such  a  vital  matter  as  the  Livonian 
question  muit  have  convinced  so  statesmanlike  a  prince  as 
Sigomund  II.  of  the  necessity  of  preventing  any  possibility  of 
cleavage  in  the  future  bet.ween  the  two  halves  of  his  dominions 
whose  absolute  solidarity  was  essential  to  their  existence  as  a 
great  power.  To  this  patriotic  design  he  devoted  tht  remainder 
of  his  life.  A  personal  union,  under  one  monarch,  however 
dose,  had  proved  inadequate.  A  further  step  must  be  taken-" 
the  two  independent  countries  must  be  transformed  into  a 
single  state.  The  great  obstade  in.  the  way  of  this,  the  only 
true  solution  of  the  difficulty,  was  the  opposition  of  the  Lithu- 
anian magnates,  who  feared  to  lose  the  absolute  dominancy 
they  possessed  in  the  grand-duchy  if  they  were  merged  in  the 
aiadaa  of  the  kingdom.  But,  at  the  last  moment,  the  dread 
of  another  Muscovite  invasion  made  them  more  pliaUe  and,  at. 
aPolish  diet  held  at  Warsaw  from  November  1565  to  June  r  564, 
which  the  Uthuanians  attended,  the  question  of  an  absolute 
union  was  hotly  debated.  When  things  came  to  a  deadlock 
the  king  tactfully  Intervened  and  voluntarily  relinquished  his 
hereditary  title  to  Lithuania,  thus  pladng  the  two  countries 
on  a  constitutlOBal  equality  and  preparing  the  way  for  fresh 
negotiations  in  the  future.  The  death,  in  1565,  of  Black 
Radztwill,  the  chief  opponent  of  the  union,  still  further  weakened 
thcL  Lithuamails,  and  the  negotiations  were  reopened  with  more 
prospect  of  success  at  the  diet  which  met  at  Lublin  on  the  20th 


of  JsJiuaiy  is6$^  But  even  wm  the  fiir!mmi«i> 
posed  towards  a  complete  union,  and  finally  they  (jufttfld  Ike 
diet,  leaving  two  commissioners  behind  to  watch  their  iaieRsis. 
Then  Sigismund  executed  his  master  stroke.  Knowing  the 
sensitiveness  oC  the  Lithuanians  aa  regards  VcAywa  aad 
Podolia,  he  suddenly,  of  his  own  authority,  fonnaUy  iotoorponuA 
both  these  provinces  with  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  wlicre«|itti> 
amidst  great  enthusiasm,  the  Volhynian  and  Podoiian  depaties 
took  their  pUces  on  the  same  benches  as  thdr  PoUsli  brethfca. 
The  hands  of  the  Lithuanians  were  forced.  Even  a  ro«|iW» 
union  on  equal  ternis  was  better  than  mutilaied  independeace. 
Accordingly  they  returned  to  the  diet,  and  the^ 
union  was  unanimously  adopted  on  the  sst  of  July^ 
1569.  Henceforth  .the  kingdom  of  Poland  and  tbelJtti 
grand  duchy  of  Lithuania  were  to  constitute  one^^ 
inseparable  and  indivisible  body  politic,  under  one 
sovereign,  dected  in  common,  with  one  diet  and  <»e 
All  dependendes  and  colonies,  induding  Prussia,  and  Liveen, 
were  to  belong  to  Poland  and  Lithuania  in  cnmrnoB.  The 
retention  of  the  old  duality  of  dignities  was  the  one  icsmaB- 
cence  of  the  original  sqiaration.  No  dedsion,  however,  coiud 
be  come  to  as  to  the  successor  of  the  childless  kins,  1*^^ 
because  of  the  multiplidty  of  candidates,  partly  bccauoe  d 
Austrian  intrigue,  and  this,  the  most  momentous  question  of  al, 
was  still  unsettled  when  Sigismund  II.  expired  on  the  6th  of 
July  XS7S. 

The  JagidloniC  period  (1386-1573)  is  the  history  of  the  ooa* 
solidation  and  fusion  into  one  homogeneous,  political  vhdb 
of  numerous  national  elements,  more  <xt  less  akin 
ethnologically,  but  differing  immensdy  in  language, 
religion  and,  above  all,  in  degrees  of  civilization. 
Out  of  the  andcnt  Piast  kingdom,  mutilated  by  the 
loss  of  Silesia  and  the  Baltic  shore,  arose  a  republic 
Gon«8ting  at  first  of  various  loosdy  connected  entitles,  waXaa&f 
centrifujpLl,  but  temporarily  drawn  together  by  the  lar^gent  wxi 
of  combination  against  a  Superior  foe,  who  threatened  then 
separately  withextinction.  Beneath  the  guidance  d  a  dlymsty  of 
princes  which,  curiously  enough,  was  suppled  by  tlie  iasi 
dvilixed  portion  of  this  congeries  of  natiOQaiities,  the  sasocai 
republic  gradually  grew  into  a  power  which  snbjqgated  sa 
former  oppressors  and,  viewed  externally,  seemed  to  bear  vfm 
it  the  promise  of  empire.  Jt  is  dangerous  to  prophesy,  bat  ai 
the  facts  and  drcumstances  before  us  point  irresistiMy  to  tk 
condusion  that  had  the  Jagidlonic  dynasty  but  «Mlittcd  tbs 
promise  of  empire  might  well  have  been  realised, 
ordinary  thing  about  the  Jagiellos  was  the  equable 
of  thdr  genius.  Not  only  were  five  of  the  seven  greet  stati 
but  they  were  statesmen  of  the  same  stamp.  We  1 
by  no  such  sharp  contrasts  as  are  to  be  found  among  tbe  fb> 
tagenets,  the  Vasas  and  the  Bourbons.  The  Jagicilos  vet 
all  of  the  same  mould  and  pattern,  but  the  mould  was  a  stzc=j 
one  and  the  pattern  was  good.  Thdr  predominant  and  coast^t 
characteristic  is  a  sober  sagadty  which  instinctively  je^^ 
aright  and  imperturbably  realized  its  inspirations.  Tbe  JagieSci 
w<>re  rarely  brilliant,  but  they  were  always  peisijicatioo. 
Above  all,  they  alone  seem  to  have  had  the  gift  of  gus^mg  tht 
most  difficult  of  nations  properiy»  Two  centuries  of  JagidSaBC 
nde  made  Poland  great  despite  her  grave  external  difficekxs. 
Had  that  dynasty  been  prolonged  for  another  centuiy,  there  a 
every  reason  to  suppose  that  it  wQuld  also  have  dealt  satisfa^ 
torily  with  Poland's  still  more  dangerous  internal  f!lificd^B& 
and  arrested  the  development  of  that  snaffhif  1  opnatitsbaB 
which  was  the  ruling  factor  in  the  ruin  of  the  RqMiblic;. 

Simultaneously  with  the  transformaUon  into  a  girei 
of  the  petty  prindi>a]ities  which  composed  ande^ 
anothd:  and  equally' momentous  political  tianslonBatian  was 
proceeding  within  the  country  itself. 

The  origin  of  the  Polish  constitution  is  to  be  soof^  m  tbe 
wUc€  or  coundit  of  the  Polish  princes,  duxfng  tbe  paxtitwBi! 
period  (c.  1379-Z370).  The  privileges  conferred  upon  tbe  aaag^ 
nates  of  which  these  coundls  were  composed,  tssptoaSy  upea 
the  magnates  of  Little  Poland,  who  brought  the  Jag^dBas  m 


HISTORY] 


POLAND 


9" 


the  ihwUb,  itttettd  ihtit  poUcy,  and  gf««r  lidk  upon  their 
liberality,  reviolted  the  less  favoured  silackla,  :or  gentry,  who, 
rat  ftoJte*  towards  the  end  of  the  X4th  century,  combined  for 
CbaatMa'  mutual  defence  in  their  s^miki^  or  local  diets, 
^**^  of  which  originally  there  were  five,  three  in  Great 

Poland,  one  in  Little  Poland  and  one  iii  raen-Kalisz.*    In 
these  sefmiki  the  deputies  of  the  few  great  towns  were  also 
represented    The  Polish  towns,  notably  Cracow,  had  obtained 
their  privileges,  including  freedom  from  toUa  and  municipal 
government,  from  the  Crown  in  return  for  important  services, 
such  as  warding  off  the  Tatars,  while  the  cities  of  German 
origin  were  protected  by  the  Magdeburg  law.     Casimir  the 
Great  even  tried  to  make  munidpal  government  as  democratic 
as  possible  by  enacting  that  one  half  of  the  town  council  of 
Cracow  shoald  be  elected  from  the  dvic  patriciate,  but  the 
other  half  from  the  commonalty..   Louts  the  Great  placed  the 
burgesses  on  a  level  with  the  gentry  by  granting  to  the  town 
council  of  Cracow  jurisdiction  over  aU  the  serfs  in  the  extra-rural 
estates  of  the  citizens.    From  this  time  forth  deputies  from  the 
cities  were  summoned  to  the  sejmiki  on  all  important  occaaons, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  ratification  of  treaties,  a  right  formally 
conceded  to  them  by  the  s^mik  of  Radom  in  X584'    Thus  at 
this  period  Poland  was  a  confederation  of  half  a  dozen  senu- 
independent  states.    The  first  general  assembly  of  which  we 
have  certain  notice  is  the  sfcud  walny  iriiich  was  summoned  to 
Koszyce  in  November  1404,  to  relieve  the  financial  embarrass- 
ments  of  Wladislaus,  and  granted  him  an  extraordinary  subsidy 
of  twenty  groats  per  hide  of  land  to  enable  him  to  purchase 
Dobrzyn  from  the  Teutonic  Knights.     Such  subadies  were 
generally  the  price  for  the  confirmation  of  andent  or  the  con- 
cession of  new  privileges.   Thus  at  the  diet  of  Brzc^  Kujawski, 
in  1425,  the  sdaekia  obtained  its  first  habeas  corpus  act  in  return 
for  acknowledging  the  right  erf  the  infant  krdewict  Wladislaus 
to  his  father's  throne.    The  great  opportunity  of  the  szhchta 
was,  of  course,  the  election  of  a  new  king,  espedally  the  election 
of  a  minor,  an  event  always  accompanied  and  succeeded  by 
disorders.    Thus  at  the  election  of  the  infant  Wladislaus  TIL, 
his  guardians  promised  in  his  name  to  confirm  all  the  privileges 
granted  by  his  father.    If,  on  attaining  his  majority,  the  king 
refused  to  ratify  these  promises,  his  subjects  were  ipso  facl<^ 
absolved  from  their  obedience.    This  is  the  first  existence  of 
the  mischievous  prindple  de  prertanda  obedienthf  subsequently 
elevated  into  a  statute.    It  is  in  this  reign,  too,  that  we  meet 
with  the  first  rokon^  or  insurrection  of  the  nobility  against  the 
executive.    The  extraordinary  difficulties  of  Casimir  IV.  were 
freely  exploited  by  the  sdackta^  who  granted  tbat  ever  impecu- 
nious monarch  as  little  as  po^'ble,  but  got  full  value  for  every 
penny  they  grudgingly  gave.  Thus  by  the  Articles  of  Cerekwica 
presented  to  him  by  the  sejmik- or  dietine  of  Great 'Poland  in 
1454  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Teutonic  War,  he  conceded  the 
principle  that  no  war  should  in  future  be  begun  without  the 
consent  of  the  local  diets.'    A  few  months  later  he  was  obliged 
to   grant  the  Privileges  of  Nieszawa,  which  confirmed  and 
extended  the  operation  of  the  Articles  of  Cerekwica.     The 
sejmiki  had  thus  added  to  their  original  privilege  of  self-taxation 
the  right  to  dedare  war  and  control  the  national  militia.*   This 
was  a  serious  political  retrogression.    A  strongly  centralized 
government  had  ever  been  Poland's  greatest  need,  and  Casimir 
the  Great  had  striven  successfully  against  all  centrifugal  ten- 
dendes.     And  now,  eighty-four  years  after  bis  death,  Poland 
was  once  more  split  up  into  half  a  dozen  loosely  federated  states 
in  the  hands  of  country  gentlemen  too  ignorant  and  prejudiced 
to  look  bejTond  the  boundaries  of  their  own  provinces.    The 
only  way  of  saving  the  Republic  from  disintegration  was  to 
concentrate  all  its  political  factors  into  a  sejm-walny  or  general 
diet.    But  to  this  the  magnates  and  the  stlachla  were  equally 
opposed,  the  former  because  they  feared  the  rivalry  of  a  national 
assembly,  the  latter  because  they  were  of  more  importance 
in  their  local  diets  than  they  could  possibly  hope  to  be  in  a 

*  The  Red  Ranian  sejmik  was  of  later  orifin,  e.  1433. 

*  In  vitw  of  the  frequency  of  the  Tatar  inroads,  the  control  of  the 
CBilitia  was  re-transferrtd  to  the  Crown  in  1501. 


general  diet.  Th«  fint  f  e^  Co  legUite  for  tbe  whole  of  PolaAd 
was  the  diet  of  Fiotrkow  (1493),  summoned  by  John  Albert 
to  grant  him  subsidiesi  but  the  mandates  of  its  deputlea  were 
limited  to  twelve  months,  and  its  decrees  were  to  have  force 
for  only  three  years.  John  Albert's  second  diet  (1496),  after 
granting  gubsidies  the  burden  of  which  fell  entirely  on  the 
towns  and  peastotry,  passed  a  series  of  statutes  benefiting 
the  nobility  at  the  expense  of  the  other  clasfxs.  Thus  one 
statute  permitted  the  ulackla  henceforth  to  export  and  import 
goods  duty  free,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  towns  and  the 
treasury.  Another  statute  prohiUted  the  burgesses  from  holding 
landed  property  and  enjojdng  the  privileges  attaching  thereto. 
A  third  statute  disqualified  i^beians  from  being  elected  to 
canonries  or  bishoprics.  A  fourth  endeavoured  to  bind  the 
peasantry  more  dosely  to  the  soil  by  forbidding  emigration. 
The  condition  of  the  serfs  was  subsequently  (iS^o)  still  furtlier 
deteriorated  by  the  introduction  of  socage.  In  a  word,  this 
diet  disturbed  the  equilibrium  of  the  state  by  enfeebling  and 
degrading  the  middle  dasses.  Nevertheless,  so  long  as  the 
Jagiello  dynasty  histed,  the  political  rights  of  the  dties  were 
jealously  protected  by  the  Crown  against  the  usurpations  of  the 
nobility.  Deputies  from  the  towns  took  part  in  the  dection 
of  John  Albert  (1492),  and  the  burgesses  of  Cracow,  the  most 
enlightened  economists  in  the  kingdom,  supplied  Sigismund  I. 
with  his  most  capable  counsellors  during  the  first  twenty  years 
of  his  rdgn  (i  506-1 526).  Again  and  again  the  nobility  attempted 
to  exclude  the  deputies  of  Cracow  from  the  diet,  in  spite  of 
a  severe  edict  issued  by  Sigismund  I.  in  1509,  threatening  to 
prosecute  for  treason  all  persons  who  daxed  to  infrin^  the 
liberties  of  the  dtizens.  During  Sigbmund's  reign,  moreover, 
the  Crown  recovered  many  of  the  prerogatives  of  which  it  had 
been  deprived  during  the  rdgn  of  his  feeble  predecessor,  Alex- 
ander, who,  to  say  nothing  of  the  curtailments  of  the  prerogative, 
had  been  forced  to  accept  the  statute  nihil  nan  (1505)  which 
gave  the  stjnt  and  the  senate  an  equal  voice  with  the  Crown 
in  all  Executive  matters.  In  the  latter  years  of  Sigismund  I. 
<i  530-1548)  the  political  influence  of  the  sdachta  grew  rapidly 
at  the  expense  of  the  executive,  and  the  gentry  in  diet  assembled 
succeeded  in  curtailing  the  functions  of  aU  the  great  officers 
of  state.  During  the  rdgn  of  Sigismund  II.  (1548^x572)  they 
diverted  their  attention  to  the  abuses  of  the  Church  and  con- 
siderably reduced  both  her  weahh  and  her  privileges.  In  this 
respect  both  the  Crown  and  the  country  were  with  them,  so  that 
their  interference^f  vioIent,was  on  the  whole  distinctly  beneficial. 
The  childless  Sigismund  IL  died  suddenly  without  leaving 
any  regulations  as  to  the  election  of  his  successor.  Fortunately 
for  Poland  the  political  horizon  was  absolutely  jmm^ 
undouded.  The  Turks,  still  reeling  from  the  shock  ngamm, 
of  Lepanto,  could  with  difficulty  hold  thdr  own  ''W-**'* 
against  the  united  forces  of  the  pope,  Spain  and  Venice; 
while  Ivan  the  Terrible  had  just  concluded  a  truce  with 
Poland.  Domestic  affairs,  on  the  other  hand,  were  in  an  almost 
anarchical  condition.  The  Union  of  Lublin,  hardy  three 
years  old,  was  anything  but  consolidated,  and  in  Lithuania 
it  continued  to  be  extremely  unpopular.  In  Poland  proper 
the  sdachta  were  fierce^  opposed  to  the  magnates;  and  the 
Protestants  seemed  bent  upon  still  further  castigating  the  clergy. 
Worst  of  all,  there  existed  no  recognized  authority  in  the  bnd 
to  curb  and  control  its  jarring  centrifugal  political  elements. 
It  was  nearly  two  hundred  years  since  the  Republic  had  suffered 
from  an  interregnum,  and  the  precedents  of  1383  were  obsolete. 
The  primate,  on  hearing  of  the  demise  of  the  Crown,  at  once 
invited  all  the  senators  of  Great  Poland  to  a  conference  at 
Lowicz,  but  passed  over  the  szlachta  altogether.  In  an  instant 
the  whole  Republic  was  seething  like  a  caldron,  and  a  rival 
assembly  was  «multaneously  summoned  to  Cracow  by  Jan 
Feriej,  the  head  of  the  Protestant  party.  Civil  war  was  happily 
averted  at  the  last  moment,  and  a  national  convention,  composed 
of  senators  and  deputies  from  aU  parts  of  the  country,  assembled 
at  Warsaw,  in  April  1 573,  for  the  purpose  of  electing  a  new  king>. 
Five  candidates  for  the  throne  were  already  in  the  field.  Li.thu-; 
ania  favoured  Ivan  IV.    In  Poland  the  bishops  and  most  of 


qia 


POLAND 


pusrofKY 


Ifae  Catholic  ma^naGfis  trete  for  an  Aostrlatt  ardiduke,  while 
the  atrongly  anti-German  sslachta  were  inclined  to  accept  almost 
Any  candidate  but  a  German,  so  long  as  he  came  with  »  gift 
in  his  hand  and  was  not  a  Muscovite.  In  these  drcumsCances  it 
was  an  easy  task  for  the  adroit  and  energetic  French  ambassador, 
Jean  de  Montluc  (d.  1579)1  hrother  of  the  famous  marshal, 
and  bi^op  of  Valence,  to  procure  the  dection  of  the  French 
candidate,  Henry,  duke  of  Anjou.  Well  provided  with  funds,  he 
q>eedily  bought  over  many  of  the  leading  magnateSi  and  his 
popularity  reached  its  height  when  he  strenuously  advocated 
the  adoption  of  the  mode  of  election  by  the  gentry  em  masse 
(which  the  adactUa  proposed  to  revive),  as  opposed  to  the  usual 
and  more  orderly  "  secret  Section  "  by  a  congress  of  senators 
and  deputies,  sitting  with  dosed  doors.  The  religious  difficulty, 
meanwhile,  had  been  adjusted  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  parties 
by  the  compact  of  Warsaw  Oaiu  281  i573)>  which  granted 
absolute  religious  liberty  to  all  non-iCathollc  denominations 
(dissidentes  de  rtUgione,  as  they  now  began  to  be  called)  without 
exception,  thus  exhibiting  a  far  more  liberal  intention  than 
the  Germans  had  manifestni  in  the  religious  peace  of  Augsburg 
eighteen  years  before.  Finally,  early  in  April  1573,  the  dcclion 
diet  assembled  at  Warsaw,  and  on  the  nth  of  May,  in  the  midst 
of  intrigue,  corruption,  violence  and  confusion.  Henry  of  Valois 
was  elected  king  of  Poland. 

The,  election  had,  however,  been  preceded  by  a  cerredura 
jurum,  or  reform  0^  the  constitution,  which  resulted  in  the 
H9oty0i  famous  "Henrican  Articles"  which  converted 
Kaloiv,  ktag,  Poland  from  a  limited  monarchy  into  a  republic 
UI3-IST4.  ^th  ajj  elective  chief  magistrate.  Henceforward 
the  king  was  to  have  no  voice  in  the  choice  of  his  successor. 
He  was  not  to  use  the  word  kaeres,  not  being  an  hereditary 
sovereign.  He  was  to  many  a  wife  selected  for  him  by 
the  senate.  He  was  neither  to  seek  for  a  divorce  nor  give 
occasion  for  one.  He  was  to  be  neutral  in  all  religious 
matters.  He  was  not  to  lead  the  militia  across  the  border 
except  with  the  consent  of  the  sdachla,  and  then  only  for  three 
months  at  a  time.  Every  year  the  senate  was  to  appoint 
sixteen  of  its  number  to  be  in  constant  attendance  upon  the 
king  in  rotas  of  four,  which  scdecimvirs  were  to  supervise  all 
his  actions.  Should  the  king  fail  to  observe  any  one  of  these 
articles,  the  nation  was  ipso  facte  absolved  from  its  allegiance. 
This  constitutional  reform  was  severely  criticized  by  conlcm' 
tx>rary  politi(^  experts.  Some  strongly  condemned  the  clause 
justifying  renimciation  of  allegiance,  as  tending  to  treason  and 
anarchy.  Others  protested  against  the  anomalous  and  helpless 
position  of  the  so-called  king,  who,  if  he  could  do  no  harm,  was 
certainly  powerless  for  good.  But  such  Cassandras  proj^esled 
to  heedless  ears.  The  Republic  had  deliberately  cast  itself  upon 
the  downward  grade  which  was  to  lead  to  ruin. 
'  The  reign  of  Heniy  of  Valois  lasted  thirteen  months.  The 
tidings  of  the  death  of  his  brother  Charles  IX.,  which  reached 
him  on  the  Z4th  of  June  1574,  determined  him  to  exchange  a 
thorny  for  what  he  hoped  would  be  a  flowery  throne,  and  at 
midnight  on  the  i8th  of  June  1574  he  literally  fled  from  Poland, 
pursued  to  the  frontier  by  his  indignant  and  bewildered  subjects. 
Eighteen  months  later  (Dec.  14,  iS7S)t  mainly  through  the 
influence  of  Jan  Zamoyski,  Stephen  Bdlhory,  prince  of  Transyl- 
vania, was  elected  king  of  Poland  by  the  idachla  in  opposition 
to  the  emperor  Maximilian,  who  had  been  elected  two  days 
previously  by  the  senate,  after  disturbances  which  would  have 
rent  any  other  state  but  Poland  to  pieces. 

The  glorious  career  of  Stephen  B&thory  (1575-1586)  is  dealt 
with  elsewhere  (see  Stephen,  King  oj  Poland).  His  example 
sttph0M  demonstrates  the  superiority  of  genius  and  valour 
Bhhory,  over  the  most  difficult  circumstances.  But  his 
tSTS-tSM,     reign  was  too  brief  to  be  permanently  beneficial. 

The  Vasa  period  of  Polish  history  which  began  with  the 
election  of  Sigismund,  son  of  John  IH.,  king  of  Sweden,  was  the 
Sdn.  epoch  of  last  and  lost  chances,    liie  colbpse  of  the 

mtiadm.,  Muscovite  tsardom  in  the  east,  and  the  submersion 
!^~'*f^'^  M  the  German  Empire  in  the  west  by  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,,  presented  Poland  with  an  unprecedented  oppor- 


tunity of  cvntolidating,  once  for  all,  her  hai^ikmrpoaldoa  s 
the  dominating  power  of  central  Europe.    Everywhm  dicun»> 
stances  were  favourable  to  her,  and  in  ^Ikiewski,  ^^hodkifri 
and  Koniecpolski  she  possessed  three  of  the  greatest  captaiBs 
of  that  or  any  other  age.    With  all  the  means  at  ho*  diapnal 
cheerfully  placed  in  the  hands  of  sudi  valiant  and  cap&bk 
ministers,  it  would  have  been  no  difficult  task  for  the  Rcpubic 
to  have  wrested  tho  beat  part  of  the  Baltic  littoral  irom  the 
Scandinavian  powers,  and  driven  the  distracted    Muscorites 
beyond  the  Volga.    Permanent  greatness  and  secuUr  teoarAj 
were  within  her  reach  at  the  conunencement  of  the  Vasa  period; 
how  was  it,  then,  that  at  the  end  ctf  that  period*  ceily  Mt; 
years  later,  Poland  had  already  sunk  irredeemably  iato  n&  Ji 
the  same  position  as  Turkey  occupies  now,  the  postiocL  U  a 
moribund  state,  existing  on  sufEerance  simply  because  rxrt 
was  yet  quite  pr^>ared  to  administer  the  coup  de  ^^Scef    Tbsc 
is  only  one  answer;  the  principal  cause  of  this  complete  £f^ 
irretrievable  collapse  is  to  be  sought  for  in  the  foQy,  egotiss 
and  selfishness  of  the  Polish  gentry,  whose  insane  d^like  of  lu 
discipline,  including  even  the  sadutazy  disn'pline   ol  regabi 
government,  converted  Poland  into  something  very  like  a  pdai- 
tive  tribal  community  at  the  very  time  when  every  Eonptaa 
statesman,  including  the  more  eiUightened  of  the  Poles  thea- 
sclves,  dearly  recognized  that  the  political  future  belopgcd  t9 
the  strongly  centralized  moxurchies,  which  were  evczyvbcrt 
rising  on  the  ruins  of  feudalism.    0^  course  there  vere  otbsr 
contributory  causes.    The  tenacity  with  which  Sdgismand  III 
clung  to  his  hereditary  rights  to  the  Swedish  Cnmn  iiiv«vtii 
Poland  in  a  quite  unnecessary  series  of  wars  with  fT^A^  L\ 
and  Gusiavus  Adolphus,  when  her  forces  were  sorely  nee^^ 
elsewhere.    The  adhesion  of  the  same  morurch  to  the  Ir»g-  * 
of  the  Catholic  Keaction  certainly  added  to  the  Alffimlyi.^  ^ 
Polish  diplomacy,  and  still  further  divided  the  already  dstrscicJ 
diet,  besides  alienating  from  the  court  the  powerful  and  pcp-lr 
chancellor  Zamoyski.    Yet  Sigismund  HI.  was  a  far  mace  d:^- 
sighted  statesman  than  any  of  his  counsellors  or  oantjadktcrv 
For  instance,  he  was  never  misled  by  the  successes  of  the  Lk* 
Demetrius  in  Muscovy,  and  wisely  insisted  oa  leoovcnsg  -^s 
great  eastern  fortress  of  Smolensk   rather  than   attempt  -j 
the  conquest  of  Moscow.    His  much-decried  adliance  'wiik  :'^ 
emperor  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  eminc-  ;• 
sagadous.    He  perceived  at  once  that  it  was  the  only  «^>  J 
counteracting  the  restlessness  of  the  sultan's   pn^cgfe,  .-f 
Protestant  princes  of  Transylvania,  whose  undisciplined  b^r^  ::b 
scarcely  less  savage  than  their  allies  the  Turks  and  Tatars,  v  r.- 
a  perT)etual  menace  both  to  Austria  and  to  Poland.    Ys-ui 
he  was  bent  upon  reforming  the  Polish  constitution  by  sab^:i£- 
ing  the  decision  of  all  matters  by  a  plurality  of  voto  i^:  i 
unanimiVir  impossible  to  count  upon. 

When  we  turn  to  the  szlackta  who  absolutdy  oonticlkd  '.V 
diet,  we  find  not  the  slightest  trace,  I  will  not  say  of  pcLS.^ 
foresight — that  they  never  possessed — but  o£  coaumm  piir  .- 
ism,  or  ordinary   public  spirit.     The   most   uz^gent   Dau-"* 
necessities  were  powerless  to  stir  their  hearts  or  opec  ib.!' 
purses.     The  diets  during  the  reign  of  Si^smund  JH.  %'rt 
even  more  niggardly  than  they  had  been  under  the  Js^c'.-^ 
and -on  the  single  occasion  when  the  terrors  of  an  imr---. 
Tatar  invasion  constrained  them  to  grant  extrsordinary  >:- 
sidies,  they  saw  to  it  that  such  subsidies  should  i«st  eei.i' 
on  the  shoulders  of  the  burgesses  (who  had  in  the  mn^  ^ 
been  deprived  of  the  franchise)  and  the  already  ovetburJ-r.- 
peasantry.   In  the  very  crisis  of  the  Swedish  War,  the  di^Js.-    ■ 
army  of  the  victorious  Chodkicwicz  was  left  unpaid,  wiii  .' 
result  that  the  soldiers  mutinied,  and  marched  off  <x  »i 
Both  Chodkicwicz  and  Zplkiewski  frequently  had  to  ps>  vs^ 
expenses  of  their  campaigns  out  of  their  own  pockets,  an  ^  **  -  '> 
expected  to  conquer  empires  and  defend  hundreds  </  si^o 
frontier  with  armies  of  3000  or  4000  meA  at  nasi.    Hlk-a  tir. 
retreated  before  overwhelming  odds  they  were  pub£dv  acv-=s. : 
of  cowardice  and  incompetence.     The  delcrminatioa  to  I  - 
still  further  the  power  of  the  executive  was  at  thebottc-  . 
this  fatal  parsimony,  with  the  inevitable  cooscqucsce  * 


HISTORyi 


POLAND 


9»J 


%lttlc  tht  king  and  the  senate  nere  peweileai,  ewevy^gieat  noble 
or  locd-maiclier  was  fxee  to  do  what  he  chose  in  his  own  domaios, 
so  iong  as  he  flattered  his  '*  litUe  brothers/'  the  sxicekia.  In- 
credible as  it  may  seem,  the  expedition  to  place  the  fake 
Demetrins  on  the  Muscovite  throne  was  a  private  speculation 
of  a  few  Lithuanian  magnates,  and  similar  enterprises  on  the 
part  of  other  irresponsible  noblemen  on  the  Danube  or  Dniester 
brought  upon  unhappy  Poland  retaliatory  TaUr  raids,  which 
reduced  whole  pcovinces  to  ashes.  Every  attempt  to  Improve 
matters,  by  reforming  the  inqwssible  constitution,  stranded  on 
the  opposition  of  the  gentry.  Take,  for  instance,  the  tyj^cal 
and  highly  instructive  case  of  Zebrsydowski's  rebellion. 
Nicholas  Zebrzydowski,  a  follower  of  the  chancellor  Zamoyski, 
was  ode  of  the  weaitliiest  and  most  respectable  magnates  in 
Poland.  As  palatine  of  Cracow  he  held  one  of  the  highest  and 
most  lucrative  dignities  in  the  state,  and  was  equally  famous 
for  his  valour,  piety  and  liberality.  Disappointed  in  his  hope 
of  obtaining  the  great  seal  on  the  death  of  Zamoyski,  he  at  once 
coned vod  that  the  whole  of  the  nobility  had  been  insulted  in 
his  person,  and  proceeded  to  make  all  government  impossible 
for  the  next  three  years.  On  the  7  th  of  March  1606  Sigisround 
summoned  a  diet  for  the  express  purpose  of  introducing  the 
principle  of  ded«on  by  majority  in  the  diet,  whereupon  Zebrty- 
dowski  summoned  a  oounter-confedemiion  to  Slenczyn  in 
Little  Poland,  whose  first  act  was  to  open  negotiations  with  the 
prince  of  Transylvania,  Stephen  Bocskay,  with  the  view  of 
hiring  mercenaries  from  him  for  further  operations.  At  a  subse- 
quent confederation,  held  at  Lublin  in  June,  Zebrzydowski 
was  reinforced  by  another  great  nobleman,  ^tani^aus  Stadnicki, 
called  the  Devil,  who  "  had  more  crimes  on  his  conscience  than 
hairs  on  his  head,"  and  was  in  the  habit  of  cropping  the  ears 
and  noses  of  smaD  squires  and  chaining  his  seris  to  the  walls  of 
his  underground  dungeons  for  months  at  a  time.  This  champion 
of  freedom  was  very  eloquent  as  to  the  wrongs  of  the  sdachta, 
and  proposed  that  the  assembly  should  proceed  in  a  body  to 
Warsaw  and  there  formally  renounce  their  allegiance.  The 
upshot  of  his  oratory  was  the  summoning  of  a  rokosz,  or  national 
insurrection,  to  Sandomir,  which  was  speedily  joined  by  the 
majority  of  the  stlackla  an  over  the  country,  who  openly  pro- 
claimed their  intention  of  dethroning  the  king  and  chastising 
the  senate,  and  sent  Stadnicki  to  Transylvania  to  obtain  the 
armed  assistance  of  Stephen  Bocskay.  Only  the  dcrgy,  natur- 
ally conservative,  still  clung  to  the  king,  and  Sigismund  ill., 
who  was  no  coward,  at  once  proceeded  to  Cracow  to  overawe 
the  rokoszanie,  or  insurrectionists,  by  his  proximity,  and  take 
the  necessary  measores  for  his  own  protection.  By  the  advice 
of  his  senators  he  summoned  a  i^azo,  or  armed  convention,  to 
Wislica  openly  to  oppose  the  insurrection  of  Sandomir,  which 
tjazd  was  to  be  the  first  step  towards  the  formation  of  a  genera! 
confederation  for  the  defence  of  the  throne.  Civil  war  seemed 
inevitable,  when  the  sdachia  of  Red  Russia  and  Sicradt  suddenly 
rallied  io  the  king,  who  at  once  ordered  his  army  to  advance, 
and  after  defeating  the  insurrectionists  at  Janowlet  (in  October), 
granted  them  a  full  pardon,  on  the  sole  condlllon  that  they 
should  refrun  from  all  such  acts  of  rebellion  in  future.  Despite 
their  promises,  Zebrzydowski  and  his  colleagues  a  fei|r  months 
later  were  again  in  arms.  In  the  begitining  of  1607  they  sum- 
moned another  rokosz  to  Jendrzejow,  at  the  very  time  when  the 
diet  was  assembling  at  Warsaw.  The  diet  authorized  the  king 
to  Issue  a  proclamation  dissolving  the  rokostt  and  the  rokosz 
retorted  with  a  manifesto  in  which  an  insurrection  was  declared 
to  be  as  much  superior  to  a  parliament  as  a  general  council  was 
to  a  pope.  In  a  second  manifesto  published  at  Jczlcma,  on  the 
24th  of  June,  the  insurrectionists  again  renounced  their  allegiance 
to  the  king.  Oddly  enough,  the  diet  before  dissolving  had, 
apparently  in  order  to  meet  the  rokosz  half-way,  issued  the. 
famous  edict  De  non  praestanda  obedierUiaf  whereby,  in  case  of 
future  malpractices  by  the  king  and  his  subsequent  neglect  of  at 
least  two  solemn  warnings  there-anent  by  the  primate  and  the 
senate,  be  was  to  be  formally  deposed  by  the  next  succeeding 
diet.  But  even  this  was  not  enough  for  the  insurrectionists. 
It  was  not  the  contingent  but  the  actual  deposition  of  the  king 


that  Ihey  deouuidfai,  «Bd  Chey  had  their  caadidMe  for  the  throne 
ready  in  the  person  of  Gabriel  Bethlen,  the  new  prince  of  Tran- 
sylvania. But  the  limits  of  even  Polish  complacency  had  at 
last  been  reached,  and  iolklewski  and  Chodkiewicz  were  sent 
against  the  rdiels,  whom  they  rooted  at  Oransk  near  Guzow, 
after  a  desperate  encounter,  on  the  6th  of  July  1607.  But, 
though  driven  from  the  field,  the  notation  simmered  all  over 
the  country  for  nearly  two  yean  longer,  and  was  only  terminated, 
io  1600,  by  a  general  amnesty  which  excluded  every  prospect  of 
constitutional  reform. 

Wladlalaus  IV.,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1632,  was  the 
most  popular  monarch  who  ever  sat  on  the  Polish  throne. 
The  szlackia,  who  had  had  a  "  King  Log "  in  Sigis-  iKMb- 
mond,  were  determined  that  Wladslaus  shotUd  be  AmhIK. 
"  a  King  Bee  who  will  give  us  nothing  but  honey  "—  «»-*wfc 
in  other  words  they  hoped  to  wheedle  him  out  of  even  mom  than 
they  had  wrested  from  his  predecessor.  Wladislaus  submitted 
to  eveiything.  He  promised  never  to  declare  war  or  levy 
troops  without  the  consent  of  the  sejm,  undertook  to  fill  aU 
vacancies  within  a  certain  time,  and  released  the  sdachta  from 
the  payment  of  income-tax,  their  one  remaining  fiscal  obligation. 
This  boundless  complacency  was  due  to  policy,  not  weakness. 
llie  second  Polish  Vasa  was  a  man  of  genius,  fully  conscious  of 
his  powers,  and  determined  to  use  them  for  the  benefit  of  his 
country.  The  events  of  the  last  reign  had  demonstrated  the 
incompetence  of  the  Poles  to  govern  themselves.  Any  ameliora- 
tion of  the  existing  anarchy  must  be  extra-parUamentaiy  and 
proceed  from  the  throne.  But  a  reforming  monarch  was 
inconceivable  unless  he  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  nation/ 
and  such  confidence,  Wladislaus  naturally  argued,  could  only 
be  won  by  striking  and  undeniable  public  services.  On  these 
principles  he  acted  with  brilliant  results.  Within  three  years 
of  his  accession  he  compelled  the  Muscovites  (Treaty  of  Polyan- 
kova.  May  28,  1634)  to  retrocede  Smolensk  and  the  eastern 
provinces  lost  by  Sigismund  II.,  overawed  the  Porte  by  a  military 
demonstration  in  October  of  the  same  year,  and,  by  the  Truce 
of  Stumdorf  (Sept.  12,  1635),  recovered  the  Prussian  provinces 
and  the  Baltic  seaboard  from  Sweden.  But  these  achievements 
exdted  not  the  gratitude  but  the  suspicion  of  the  sdachta.  They 
were  shrewd  enough  to  guess  that  the  royal  triumph  might 
prejudice  their  influence,  and  for  the  next  five  years  they 
deliberately  thwarted  the  enlightened  and  far-reaching  projects 
of  the  king  for  creating  a  navy  and  incrcadng  the  revenue 
without  burdening  the  estates,  by  a  system  of  tolls  levied  on 
the  trade  of  the  Baltic  ports  (see  Wladislaus  IV.),  even  going 
so  far  as  to  refuse  for  nine  years  to  refund  the  expenses  of  the 
Muscovite  War,  which  he  had  defrayed  out  of  his  privy  purse. 
From  sheer  weariness  and  disgust  the  king  refrained  from  any 
intervention  in  public  atfalrs  for  neariy  ten  years,  looking  on 
indifferently  whUe  the  ever  shorter  and  stormier  diets  wrangled 
perpetually  over  questions  of  preferment  and  the  best  way  of 
dealing  with  the  extreme  dissenters,  to  the  utter  neglect  of  public 
business.  But  towards  the  end  of  his  reign  the  energy  of 
Wladislaus  revived,  and  he  began  to  occupy  himself  with  another 
scheme  for  regenerating  his  country,  In  Its  own  despite,  by  means 
of  the  Cossacks.  First,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  describe 
briefly  the  origin  and  previous  history  of  these  romantic  free-' 
hooters  who  during  the  second  half  of  the'  17th  century  were  the 
dciefminlng  factor  of  Polish  and  Muscovite  poUtics. 

At  the  be^nning  of  the  i6th  century  the  illimitable  steppe 
of  south-eastern  Europe,  extending  from  the  Dnieper  to'  the 
Urals,  had   no   settled    population.     Hunters    and 
fishermen  frequented  its  innumerable  rivers,  return-  ^.^^^^^^^ 
ing  home  laden  with  rich  store  of  fish  and  pelts, 
while  runaway  serfs  occasionally  settled  In  small  communities 
beneath  the  shelter  of  the  fortresses  built,  from  time  to  time, 
to  guard   the  southern   frontiers  of  Poland   and    Muscovy. 
Obliged,  for  fear  of  the  Tatars,  to  go  about  with  arms  in  their 
han^,.  these  settlers  gradually  grew  strong  enough  to  raid  their 
raiders,  selling  the  booty  thus  acquired  to  the  merchants  of 
Muscovy  and  Poland.    Moreover,  the  Turks  and  Tatars  being 
the  natural  enemies  of  Christendom,  a  war  of  extermination 


914' 


POLAND 


HiiSTOKr 


agftiast  them'  wu  regarded  by  the  OwwachH  m  a  facred  duty. 
Curioualy  enough,  these  champions  of  orthodoiy  borrowed  the 
name,  which  haa  stuck  to  them  ever  since,  from  their  "  do^ 
headed  "  adversaries.  The  rank  and  file  of  the  Tatar  soldiery 
were  known  as  Kaaaki,  or  Cossacks,  a  word  meaning  "free- 
booters," and  this  term  came  to  be  applied  indisciinunately  to  all 
the  free  dwellers  in  the  Ukraine,  or  border<lands.  As  time  went 
on  the  Cossacks  multiplied  exceedingly.  Their  daring  grew 
with  their  numbers,  and  at  last  they  came  to  be  a  constant 
annoyance  to  all  their  neighbours,  both  Christian  and  Muasul- 
man,  frequently  invdving  Poland  in  dangerous  and  unprofitable 
wars  with  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Indeed,  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that,  until  the  days  of  Sobieski,  the  Cossacks  were  invariably 
the  chief  cause  of  the  breaches  between  tho  Porte  and  the 
Republic.  We  have  seen  how  carefully  the  Jagiellos  avoided 
participating  in  any  of  the  crusades  directed  by  the  Holy  See 
against  the  arch-enemies  of  the  Cross.  So  successful  was  their 
prudential  abstention  that  no  regular  war  occurred  between 
Turkey  and  Poland  during  the  two  centuries  of  their  sway. 
The  first  actual  collisions,  the  Cecoxa  campaign  of  1620  and  the 
Khotin  War  of  1621  (for  John  Albert's  Moldavian  raid  does  not 
count),  were  due  to  the  depredations  of  the  Cossacks  upon  the 
dominions  of  the  sultan  by  land  and  sea,  and  in  all  subsequent 
treaties  between  the  two  powers  the  most  essential  clause  was 
always  that  which  bound  the  Republic  to  keq>  its  freebooters  in 
order. 

But  in  the  meantime  the  Cossacks  themsdves  had  become 
a  semi-independent  commimity.  The  origin  of  the  Cossack 
state  is  sUU  somewhat  obscure,  but  the  germs  of  it  are  visible 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century.  The  union  of 
Lublin,  which  led  to  the  polonization  of  Lithuania,  was  the 
immediate  occasion  of  a  considerable  eiodus  to  the  fewlandsof 
the  Dnieper  of  those  serfs  who  desired  to  escape  from  the  taxes 
of  the  Polish  government  and  the  tyranny  of  the  Polish  land- 
k)rds.  Stephen  B4thory  presently  converted  the  pick  of  them 
Into  six  registered  regiments  of  1000  each  for  the  defence  of  the 
border.  Ultimately  the  island  of  Hortica,  just  below  the  falls 
of  the  Dnieper,  was  fixed  upon  as  their  headquarters;  and  on  the 
numerous  islands  of  that  broad  river  there  gradually  arose  the 
famous  Cossack  community  known  as  the  ZaporaJukaya  Syeck, 
or  Settlement  behind  the  Falls,  whence  the  Dnieperian  Cossacks 
were  known,  generally,  as  Zapprozkians,  or  Barkfallsmen.'  The 
Cossack  kosh,  or  commonwealth,  had  the  privilege  of  electing 
its  hetman^  or  chief,  and  his  chief  officers,  the  sUurshins,  The 
hetman,  after  election,  received  from  the  king  of  Poland  direct 
the  insignia  of  his  office,  viz.  the  hdawOf  or  biton,  the  hunckuk, 
or  horse-tail  standard,  and  hia  official  seal;  but  Im  was  respon- 
sible for  his  actions  to  the  hosh  alone,  and  an  inquiry  into  his 
conduct  was  held  at  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office  in  the 
cAschaya  skkoda,  or  general  assembly.  In  time  of  peace  his 
power  was  little  more  than  that  of  the  responsible  minister  of 
a  constitutional  republic;  but  in  time  of  warfare  he  was  a 
dictator,  and  disobedience  to  his  orders  in  the  field  was  punish- 
able by  death. 

The  Cossacks  were  supposed  to  be  left  alone  as  much  as  possible 
by  the  Polish  government  so  long  as  they  faithfully  fulfilled 
their  chief  obligation  of  guarding  the  frontiers  of  the  Repubh'c 
from  Tatar  raids.  But  the  relations  between  a  community  of 
freebooters,  mostly  composed  of  fugitive  serfs  and  refugees, 
and  a  government  of  smaU  squires  who  regarded  the  Cossacks 
as  a  mere  rabble  were  bound  to  be  difficult  at  the  best  of  times, 
and  political  and  religious  differences  presently  supervened. 
The  Cossacks,  mostly  of  Lithuanian  origin,  belonged  to  the 
Oithodot  religion,  so  far  as  they  belonged  to  any  religion  at 
all,  and  the  Jagidlos  ha^  been  very  careful  to  safeguard  the 
rdigious  liberties  of  their  Lithuanian  subjects,  especially  as 
the  Poles  themselves  were  indifferent  on  the  subject.  But,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  xyth  century,  when  the  current  of  the  Catholic 
reaction  was  running  very  strongly  and  the  Jesuits,  after 
subduing  the  Protestants,  began  to  undermine  the  position  of 
the  Orthodox  Church  in  Lithuania,  a  more  intolerant  Spirit 
>  Cf.  American,  Backwoodsmen. 


began  to  prevail.  Tlic  old  Cdvinirt  noMity  of  T-Wnania 
speedily  recooveited;  a  Uniate  Church  in  mmnwrkm  with  Robx 
was  estaUished;  Gredi  Orthodox  congregations,  if  not  senenfiy 
peiaecuted,  were  at  least  dq;Nre8Bed  ajMi  straitened;  and  tbt 
CoiMicki  began  to  hate  the  Pom,  or  Polish  iosds,  not  mmly 
as  tyrants,  but  aa  heretics.  Yet  all  these  obstacles  to  a  good 
undeiatanding  ml^t,  perliape,  have  been  aunnoimtod  if  ooljr 
the  Polish  diet  had  treated  the  Coeiacks  with  oommon  francs 
and  common  aeme.  In  1619  the  Polish  govenuDCBt  «as 
obliged  to  prohibit  absolutely  the  piratical  raids  of  the  Coasads 
in  the  Black  Sea,  where  they  habitually  destroyed  ToikiA 
property  to  the  value  of  millions.  At  the  aamc  time,  fay  the 
compaa  of  Rastawica,  the  s^m  undertook  to  allow  the  CowafH 
partly  as  wages,  partly  as  oompensatwn,  40,000  (raised  by  the 
compact  of  Kurukow  to  60,000)  gaMeai  and  170  wagon  ti 
doth  per  annum.  These  terms  were  never  kept,  dc^ste  the 
earnest  remonstrances  of  the  king,  and  the  oompiaints  of  iht 
aggrieved  borderers.  Parsimony  prevailed,  as  usual,  <mr 
prudence,  and  when  the  Cossacks  showed  wnmistalraMr  apa 
of  restivenesB,  the  Poles  irritated  them  still  further  by  orderiqg 
the  construction  of  the  strong  fortress  of  Kudak  at  the  conflncEix 
of  the  Dnieper  and  the  Samara,  to  overawe  the  Zaporaxhin 
community.  This  further  act  of  repression  led  to  two  te^ 
rible  Cossack  risings,  in  1635  and  1636,  put  down  only  vsli 
the  utmost  difikulty,  whereupon  the  diet  of  i6j8  dqmved 
the  Cossacks  of  all  their  ancient  privileges,  f^"lr^^t1l  tk 
elective  hetmanship,  and  substituted  for  it  a  cxMOunissioa  ef 
Polish  noblemen  with  absolute  power,  so  that  the  rniiifh 
might  well  declare  that  those  who  hated  them  were  lords 
over  them. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the  Ukraine  wiica  Wfadis- 
laus  IV.  proposed  to  make  the  Cossacks  the  pivot  of  his  foic^ 
policy  and  his  domestic  reforms.  His  far-reaching  plans  «at 
based  upon  two  facts,  the  absolute  devotion  of  the  Zaporoabws 
to  himself  personally,  and  the  knowledge,  secretly  cun%t>ri 
to  him  by  Stanislaus  Koniecpolski  (f.v.),  that  the  whole  of  ibe 
Ukraine  was  in  a  f  ermenU  He  proposed  to  provoke  the  Taiaa 
to  a  rupture  by  repudiating  the  humiliating  tribute  with  wfatd 
the  Republic  had  so  long  and  so  vainly  endeavoured  to  bay  od 
their  incessant  raids.  In  case  of  such  rupture  he  meant,  ai  :k 
head  of  xoo,ooo  Cossacks,  to  fall  upon  the  Crimea  itself,  the  seA 
of  their  power,  and  exterminate  the  Khanate.  This  be  csk> 
lated  would  bring  about  a  retaliatory  invasion  of  Poiai^  bv 
^  Turks,  which  would  justify  him  in  taking  the  5eld 
them  also  with  all  the  forces  of  the  Republic.  In  case  of 
he  would  be  able  to  impose  the  will  of  a  victorious  king  upos  i 
discredited  diet,  and  reform  the  constitution  on  aa  £ag&a  < 
Swedish  modeL  Events  seemed  at  first  to  favour  this  aucboca 
speculation.  Almost  simultaneously  a  dvil  war  broke  oe:  3 
the  Crimea  and  the  Porte  declared  war  against  the  \tseja 
republic,  with  which  Wladislaus  at  once  concluded  an  ofie3r>« 
and  defensive  alliance  (r64S).  He  then  bade  the 
prepare  thdr  boats  for  a  raid  upon  th^  Turkish  g^Heyx 
secured  the  co-operation  of  the  tsar  in  the  Grim 
by  a  special  treaty.  Unfortunately,  Venice,  for  her  e*? 
safety's  sake,  insisted  on  the  publication  of  Wladislaos^  ar> 
Turkish  alliance;  the  Porte,  weO  Informed  of  the  oooise  <tf  Ft^ 
affairs,  remained  strictly  neutral  despite  the  most  oetr^ecs 
provocations;  and  Wladislaus,  bound  by  hia  ooroaazioa  azh 
not  to  undertake  an  offensive  war,  found  himself  at  the  ocrcy 
of  the  diet  which,  full  of  consternation  and  rage,  asKshied  at 
Warsaw  on  the  2nd  of  May  1647.  It  is  needless  to  my  iSax  ^ 
Venetian  alliance  was  repudiated  and  the  royal  power  t^ 
further  reduced.  A  year  later  Wladislaus  died  at  1^  ha^isr 
box  at  Merecz,  at  the  very  moment  when  the  lo^ia^oL'4 
tempest  which  he  himself  had  conjured  up  buiat  witL  over- 
whelming fury  over  the  territories  of  the  Republic. 

The  prime  mover  of  the  great  rebellion  of  1648,  wkkk  dKx>k 
the  Polish  state  to  its  very  foundations,  was  the  f**«p^**  Bobdas 
Chmiclnicki  (q.v.),  who  had  been  initiated  in  all  the  p^ans  ci 
Wladislaus  IV.  and,  with  good  reason,  feared  to  he  the  firs: 
victim  of  the  Polish  magnates  when  the  kind's 


HtSTORV] 


POLAND 


9'5 


unmasked  and  fritstreted.  To  save  Iiimself  lie  hit  upon  the  novd 
and  terrible  expedient  of  uniting  the  Tatars  and  the  Cossacks 
in  a  detenniiied  onslaught  upon  the  Republic,  whose 
inward  freakness,  despite  its  brave  outward  show, 
be  luui  been  quick  to  discern.    On  the  x8th  of  April 
1648,  at  the  general  assembly  erf  the  Zaporoahians,  he  openly 
expressed  his  intention  of  proceeding  against  the  Poles  and  was 
elected  betman  by  acclamation;  on  the  xgth  of  May  he  annihi- 
lated a  small  detached  Polish  corps  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Zhehndya  Vodui,  and  seven  days  later  overwhelmed  the  army 
of  the  Polish  grand-betman,.  massacring  8500  of  his  to.ooo  men 
and  sending  the  gnnd-hetman  himself  and  all  lus  officers  in 
chains  to  the  Crimea.    Hie  immediate  consequence  of  these 
victories  was  the  outburst  of  a  kklopskaya  dehCy  or  "  serfs' 
fury."   Throughout  the  Ukraine  the  gentry  were  hunted  down, 
flayed,  burnt,  blinded  and  sawn  asunder.    Every  manor-house 
and  castle  was  reduced  to  ashes.    Every  Unlate  or  dthoUc 
priest  who  could  be  caught  was  hung  up  before  his  own  high 
altar,  along  with  a  Jew  and  a  hog.    The  panic-stricken  inhabi- 
tants fled  to  the  nearest  strongholds,  and  soon  the  rebels  were 
swarming  over  the  palatinates  of  Volhynia  and  PodoBa.    Mean- 
while the  Polish  army,  40,000  strong,  with  xoo  guns,  was  assem- 
bling on  the  frontier.    It  consisted  almost  enthrely  of  the  noble 
militia,  and  was  tricked  out  with  a  spfendour  more  befitting 
a  bridal  pageant  than  a  battle  array.    For  Chmielnicki  and  his 
host  these  splendid  cavaliers  expressed  the  utmost  contempt. 
"  Hiis  rabble  must  be  chasisd  with  wbijps,  not  smitten  with 
sworcb,"  they  cried.    On  the  a3Td  of  September  the  two  armies 
encountered  neir  Pildawa,  and  after  a  stubborn  three  days' 
contest  the  gallant  Polisb  pageant  was  scattered  to  the  winds. 
The  steppe  for  miles  atound  was  strewn  with  corpses,  and  the 
Cossacks  are  said  to  have  reaped  10,000,000  guldens  worth  of 
booty  when  the  fight  was  over.     All  Poland  now  lay  at  Chihiel- 
nicki's  feet,  and  the  road  to  the  defenceless  capital  was  open 
Jobmn.      before  him;  but  he  wasted  two  precious  months  in 
Catimir,     vain  before  the  fortress  of  2!amo^  and  then  the 
'^•'•^  newly  elected  king  of  Poland,  John  Casimir.  Wladis- 
laus  IV. ^s  brother,  privately  opened  negotiations  with  the  rebel, 
ofiiclally  recognized  him  by  sending  him  the  Indttwa  and  the 
other  insignia  of  the  helman*s  dignity,  and  promised  his  "  faithful 
ZaporozhUns"  the  restoration  of  aJl  their  andent  liberties  if 
they  would  break  off  their  alliance  with  the  Tatars  and  await 
the  arrival  of  peace  commis»oners  at  Pereyadavl.    But  the 
negotiations  at  Pereyaslavl  came  to  nothing.    Chmielnlckl's 
conditions  of  peace  were  so  extravagant  that  the  Polish  com- 
missioners durst  not  accept  them,  and  In  1649  he  again,  invaded 
Poland  with  a  countless  host  of  Cossacks  and  Tatars.    Agaih, 
hoNvever,  he  made  the  mistake  of  attacking  a  fortress,  which 
delayed  his  advance  for  a  month,  and  gave  John  Casimir  time 
to  collect  an  army  for  the  relief  of  the  besieged.    By  the  com- 
pact ofZbor6w(Aug  21,  1649)  Chmielnicki  was  recognized  as 
ketman  of  the  Zaporozhians,  whose  registered  number  was  now 
raised  from  6000  to  40,000;  a  general  amnesty  was  also  granted, 
and  it  was  agreed  that  all  oflicial  dignities  in  the  Orthodox  palati- 
nates of  Lithuania  should  henceforth  be  held,  solely  by  the 
Orthodox  gentry.     For  the  next  eighteen  months  Chmielnicki 
ruled  the  Ukraine  like  a  sovereign  prince.    He  made  Chigirin, 
Jiis  native  place,  the  Cossack  capital,  subdivided  the  country  into 
sixteen  provinces,  and  entered  into  direct  relations  with  foreign 
powera.    His  attempt  to  carve  a  principality  for  his  son  out  of 
Moldavia  led  to  the  outbreak  of  a  thlid  war  between  suzerain 
and  subject  in  February  1651.    But  fortune,  so  long  Bohdan's 
friend,  now  deserted  him,  and  at  Berestecsko  (July  x,  1 651)  the 
Cossack  chieftain  was  utteriy  routed  by  Stephen  Czamieckt. 
AH  hope  of  an  independent  Cossackdom  was  now  at  an  end;  ytft 
it  was  not  Poland  but  Muscovy  which  reaped  the  frtiits  of 
Czamiecki's  victory. 

.  Chmielnicki,  by  suddenly  laying  bare  the  nakedness  of  the 
Polish  republic,  had  opened  the  eyes  of  Muscovy  to  the  fact 
that  her  secular  enemy  was  no  longer  formidable.  Three  years 
alter  Ms  defeat  at  Berestecsko,  Chmielnicki,  finding  himseU 
enable  to  cope  with  the  Poles  single-handed,  very  tchxctantly 


tnnsfin'fed  his  Idhgiance  to  the  tsar,  and  the  same  year  the 
tsar's  armies  invaded  Poland,  still  bleeding  from  the  all  but 
mortal  wounds  inflicted  on  her  by  the  COssacks.  The  war 
thus  begun,  and  known  in  Russian  history  as  the  Tk»  ffw' 
Thirteen  Yean'  War,  far  exceeded  even  the  Thirty  9iaMMiavmH 
Years*  War  in  grossness  and  brutality.  It  resembled  '**■•*' 
nothing  so  much  as  a  hideous  scramble  of  ravening  beasts  and 
obscene  fowls  for  the  dismembered  limbs  of  a  headless  carcase, 
for  such  did  Poland  seem  to  all  the  worid  before  the  war  was  half 
over.  In  the  summer  of  X655,  moreover,  while  the  Republic 
■was  still  reeling  beneath  the  shock  of  the  Muscovite  invasion, 
Charies  X.  of  Sweden,  on  the  flimsiest  of  pretexts,  larsBiom^i 
forced  a  war  upon  reluctant  and  inoffensive  Poland,  auumx, 
simply  to  gratify  his  greed  of  martial  glory,  andJJ^T*** 
before  the  year  was  out  his  forces  had  occupied  the 
capital,  the  coronation  city  and  the  best  half  of  the  land.  King 
John  Casimir, .  betrayed  and  abandoned  by  his  own  subjects, 
fled  to  Silesia,  and  profiting  by  the  cataclysm  which,  for  the 
moment,  had  swept  the  Pdish  state  out  of  existence,  the  Mus- 
covites, unopposed,  quiddy  appropriated  nearly  everything 
which  was  not  already  occupied  by  the  Swedes.  At  this  crisis 
Poland  owed  her  salvation  to  two  events— the  formation  of  a 
general  league  against  Sweden,  brought  about  by  the  appre- 
hendve  court  of  Vienna  and  an  almost  simultaneous  popular 
outburst  of  religious  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  Polish  people. 
The  first  of  these  events,  to  be  dated  from  the  alliance  between 
the  emperor  leopold  and  John  Casimir,  on  the  ayth  of  May  tt}57, 
led  to  a  truce  with  the  tsar  and  the  welcpme  diversion  of  all  the 
Muscovite  forces  against  Swedish  Uvonia.  The  second  event, 
which  began  with  the  heroic  and  successful  defence  of  the 
monastery  of  Czenstochowa  by  Prior  Kordecki  against  the 
Swedes,  resulted  in  the  return  of  the  Polish  king  from  exile, 
the  formation  of  a  national  army  under  Stephen  Czamiecki  and 
the  recovery  of  almost  all  the  lost  provinces  from  the  Swedes, 
who  were  driven  back  headlong  to  the  sea,  where  with  difficulty 
they  held  their  own.  On  the  sudden  death  of  Charies  X.  (Feb. 
13,  t66o),  Poland  gladly  seized  the  opportunity  of  adjusting 
aS  her  outstanding  differences  with  Sweden.  By  the  peace 
of  Oliva  (May  3,  x666),  made  under  French  mediation,  John 
Casimir  ceded  Livonia,  and  renounced  all  claim  to  the  Swedish 
crown.  The  war  with  Muscovy  was  then  prosecuted  wit|i 
renewed  energy  and  extraordinary  success.  In  the  autumn  Of 
x66x  the  Russian  commanders  were  routed  at  Zeromsk,  and 
neariy  aQ  the  eastern  provinces  were  recovered.  In  X664  a 
peace  congress  was  opened  at  Durovicha  and  the  prospects  of 
PoUnd  seemed  most  brilliant;  but  at  the  very  moment  when 
she  needed  all  her  armed  strength  to  sustain  her  diplomacy, 
the  rebellion  of  one  of  her  leading  magnates.  Prince  Lubomirsky, 
Involved  her  in  a  dangerous  dvii  war,  compelled  her  to  reopen 
negotiations  with  the  Muscovites,  at  Andrussowo,  under  far 
more  unfavourable  conditions,  and  after  protracted  negotiations 
practically  to  accept  the  Muscovite  terms.  By  the  truce  of 
Andrussowo  (Feb.  xx,  1667)  Poland  received  back7ft«7>K» 
from  Muscovy  Vitebsk,  Polotsk  and  Polish  Uvonia,  •'^<»*w' 
but  ceded  in  perpetuity  Smolensk,  Syeversk,  Cherni-***^'**'^ 
gov  and  the  whole  of  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  including 
the  towns  of  Konotop,  Gadyach,  Pereyaslavl,  Mirgorod,  Poltava 
and  Izyum.  The  Cossacks  of  the  Dnieper  were  henceforth  to 
be  under  the  joint  domim*on  of  the  tsar  and  the  king  of  Poland. 
Kiev,  the  religious  metropolis  of  western  Russia,  was  to  remain 
in  the  hands  of  Muscovy  for  two  years. 

The  "  truce  "  of  Andrussowo  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most 
permanent  peaces  in  history,  and  Kiev,  though  only  pledged 
for  two  years,  was  never  again  to  be  separated  from  the  Orthodox 
SUvonic  state  to  which  It  rightly  belonged.  But  for  the  terrible 
and  persistent  ill-luck  of  Poland  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
"truce"  of  Andrussowo  would  ever  have  htcn  signed.  The 
war  which  it  conduded  was  to  be  the  last  open  struggle  between 
the  two  powers.  Henceforth  the  influence  of  Russia  over 
Poland  was  steadily  to  increase,  without  any  struggle  at  all, 
the  Republic  being  already  stricken  with  that  creeping  paralysis 
which  tdtfrnately  tth  her  a  prey  to  her  neighboun.    Muscovy 


Ql6 


POLAND 


IBisTOfty 


had  dope  with  PoUnd  as  an  advenaxy,  and  had,  no  lon^  any 
reason  to  fear  her  ancient  enemy. 

Poland  had,  in  fact,  emerged  from  the  cataclysm  of  i648~z667 
a  moribund  state,  though  her  not  unskilful  diplomacy  had 
.enabled  her  for  a  time  to  save  appearances.    Her  territorial 
losses,  though  considerable,  were,  in  the  circumstances,  not 
excessive,  and  she  was  stiU  a  considerable  power  in  the  opinion 
of  Europe.    But  a  fatal  change  had  come  over  the  country 
during  the  age  of  the  Vasas.    We  have  already  seen  how  the 
ambition  of  the  oligarchs  and  the  lawlessness  of  the  szlachta  had 
reduced  the  executive  to  impotence,  and  rendered  anything 
tike  rational  government  impossible.    But  these  demoralizing 
and  disintegrating  influences  had  been  suspended  by  the  religious 
revival  due  to  the  Cathoh'c  reaction  and  the  Jesuit  propaganda, 
&  revival  which  reached  its  height  towards  the  end  of  the  i6th 
century.    This,  on  the  whoIe«  salutary  and  edifying  move- 
ment permeated  public  life,  and  produced  a  scries  of  great 
captains  who  cheerfully  sacrificed  themselves  for  their  country, 
and  would  have  been  saints  if  they  had  not  been  heroes.    But 
this  extraordinary  religious  revival  had  wellnigh  spent  itself 
by  the  middle  of  the  ijlh  century.    Its  last  manifestation  was 
the  successful  defence  of  the  monastery  of  Czenstochowa  by 
Prior  Kordecki  against  the  finest  troops  in  Europe,  its  last 
representative  was  Stephen  Czamiecki,  who  brought  the  fugitive 
John  Casimir  back  from  exile  and  reinstalled  him  on  his  tottering 
throne.   The  succeeding  age  was  an  age  of  unmitigated  egoism, 
qnwiag    in  which  the  old  ideals  were  abandoned  and  the  dd 
CompOoi  examples  were  forgotten.    It  synchronized  with,  and 
taPoiaaa.  yf^  partly  determined  by,  the  new  political  system 
which  was  spreading  all  over  Europe,  the  system  of  dynastic 
diplomatic  competition  and  the  imscrupulous  employment  of 
unlimited  secret  service  funds.    This  system,  which  dates  from 
Richelieu  and  culminated  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XXV,,  was  based 
on  the  secular  rivalry  of  the  houses  of  Bourbon  and  Habs- 
burg,  and  presently  divided  all  Euro|>e  into  two  hostile  camps. ' 
Louis  XIV.  is  said  to  have  expended  50,000,000  livres  a  year  for 
bribing  purposes,  the  court  of  Vienna  was  scarcely  less  liberal, 
and  very  soon  nearly  all  the  monarchs  of  the  Continent  and 
their  ministers  were  in  the  pay  of  one  or  other  of  the  antagonists. 
Poland  was  no  exception  to  the  general  rule.    Her  magnates, 
having  already  got  all  they  could  out  of  their  own  country, 
looked  eagerly  abroad  for  fresh  £1  Dorados.    Before  long  most 
of  them  had  become  the  hirelings  of  France  or  Austria,  and  the 
value  demanded  for  their  wages  was,  not  infrequently,  the 
betrayal  of  their  own  country.   To  do  them  justice,  the  machla 
at  first  were  not  only  free  from  the  taint  of  official  corruption, 
but  endeavoured  to  fight  against  it.    Thus,  at  the  election  diet 
of  1669,  one  of  the  deputies,  Picniaszek,  moved  that  a  new  and 
hitherto  unheard^f  clause  should  be  inserted  in  the  agenda  of 
the  general  confederation,  to  the  effect  that  every  senator  and 
deputy  should  solemnly  swear  not  to  take  bribes,  while  another 
sdacic  proposed  that  the  ambassadors  of  foreign  Powers  should 
be  excluded  permanently  from  the  Polish  elective  assemblies. 
But  the  flighty  and  ignorant  szlachta  not  only  were  incapable 
of  aay  sustained  political  action,  but  they  themselves  uncon- 
sciously played  Into  the  hands  of  the  enemies  of  their  country 
by  making  the  so-called  libcrum  veto  an  integral  part  of  the  Polish 
constitution.     The  liherum  veto  was  based  on  the  assumption 
9f  the  absolute  political  equality  of  every  Polish  gentlcmani 
with  the  inevitable  corollary  that  every  measure  introduced  into 
the  Polish  diet  must  be  adopted  unanimously.    Consequently, 
if  any  nngle  deputy  believed  that  a  measurp  already  approved 
of  by  the  rest  of  the  house  might  be  injurious  to  his  constituency, 
he  had  the  right  to  rise  and  exclaim  nie  possoalam,  "  I  disap- 
prove," when  the  measure  in  question  fell  at  once  to  the  ground. 
Subsequently  this  vicious  principle  was  cxtcodea  still  further. 
A  deputy,  by  interposing  his  individual  veto,  could  at  aiiy  ,time 
dissolve  the  diet,  when  all  measures  previously  passed  had  to  be 
re-submitted  to  the  consideration  of  the  following  diet.    The 
iiberuM  veto  seems  to  have  been  originally  devised  to  cut  short 
interminable  debates  in  times  of  acute  crisis,  but  it  was  generally 
used  eijlher  by  highly  placed  criminals^  anxious  to  avoid  an 


inqoiiy  into  their  misdeeds,*  ot  hy  makaiitcBts»  desirous  of 
embarrassing  the  executive.  The  origin  id  the  Jibemm  «ct# 
is  obscuie»  but  it  was  first  einployed  by  the  deputy  WUdidaus 
Sid^ski,  who  dissolved  the  diet  of  x6$3  by  means  of  it,  and  bcfoce 
the  end  of  the  17th  century  it  was  used  so  frequently  and  icck* 
lessly  that  all  business  was  frequently  brought  to  a  standstiO. 
In  later  days  it  became  the  chief  instrument  of  foreign  andtassa- 
dors  for  dissolving  inconvenient  diets,  as  a  deputy  could  always 
be  bribed  to  exercise  his  veto  for  a  handsome  considrrafion. 

The  Polish  cxown  first  became  an  object  of  universal  com- 
petition in  1573,  when  Henry  of  Valois  was  electedL:  In  1575, 
and  again  in  1587,  it  was  put  up  for  public  auaion,  when  the 
Hungarian  Bfilhory  and  the  Swede  Sigismund  respectivdy 
gainal  th^  prize.  But  at  all  three  elections,  though  moocy  and 
intrigue  were  freely  employed,  they  were  not  the  detcnnxning 
factors  of  the  contest.  The  Polish  gentry  were  srill  the  luaipices 
as, well  as  the  stake-holders;  the  best  candidates  gcaenBy  voo 
the  day;  and  the  defeated  competitors  were  driven  out  of  the 
country  by  force  of  arms  if  they  did  not  take  their  dismmfituie, 
after  a  fair  fight,  like  sportsmi^.  But  with  the 
election  of  Afidmcl  Wilniowiecki  in  1669  a  new  era 
began.  In  this  case  a  naUve  Pole  was  fredy  elected 
by  the  unanimous  vote  of  his  countrymen.  Vet  a 
few  weeks  later  the  Polish  commander-in-chief  formed 
a  whole  series  of  conspiracies  for  the  purpose  of  dethroning  hm 
lawful  sovereign,  and  opener  placed  himself  beneath  the  protec- 
tion of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  just  as  the  rebels  of  the  iSih 
century  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Catberioe  IL 
of  Russia^  And  this  rebel  was  none  other  than  John  Sobieski, 
at  a  later  day  the  heroic  deliverer  of  Vienna  1  If  heroes  could 
so  debase  themselves,  can  we  wonder  if  men  who  were  not  heroes 
lent  themselves  to  every  sort  of  villainy?  We  have  come,  in 
fact,  to  the  age  of  utter  shamelcssness,  when  disappointed 
place-huntcis  opedy  invoked  foreign  aid  against  their  own 
country.  Sobicski  himself,  as  John  III.  (he  sue-  jbtem. 
cecded  Michael  in  1674),  was  to  pay  the  penalty  ******* 
of  his  past  lawlessness,  to  the  uttermost  farthing.  *'^  '***• 
pespitc  his  brilliant  military  achievements  (see  Jobk  IIL, 
King,  of  Poland),  his  reign  of  twenty-two  years  was  a 
failure.  His  victories  over  the  Turks  were  fruitless  so  far  as 
Poland  was  concerned.  His  belated  attempts  to  reform  the 
constitution  only  led  to  conspiracies  against  his  life  and  crown, 
in  which  the  French  faction,  which  he  had  been  the  fir^t  to 
encourage,  took  an  active  part.  In  his  later  years  Lithuaxua 
was  in  a  state  of  chronic  revolt,  while  Poland  was  bonkruf^ 
both  morally  and  materially.  He  died  a  broken-hearted  maa, 
prophesying  the  inevitable  ruin  of  a  nation  which  he  himsdf 
had  done  so  much  to  demoralize^ 

It  scarcely  soemed  possible  for  Poland  to  sink  lower  tlian  she 
had  sunk  already.  Yet  an  era  was  now  to  follow,  compared 
with  which  even  the  age  of  Sobieski  seemed  to  be  an  age  of  geld. 
This  was  the  Saxon  period  which,  with  occasional  violent 
interruptions,  was  to  drag  on  for  nearly  seventy  years.  By  the 
time  it  was  over  Poland  was  irretrievably  doomed.  It  only 
remained  to  be  seen  how  that  doom  would  be  accomplished. 

On  the  death  of  John  III.  no  fewer  than  eighteen  candidates 
for  the  vacant  Polish  throne  presented  themselves.  Austria 
supported  James  Sobieski,  the  eldest  son  of  the  late , 
king,  France  Francis  Louis  Prince  of  Conti  (1664-j 
1709)^  but  the  successful  competitor  was  Frederick 
Augustus^  elector  of  Saxony,  who  cheerfully  renounced 
Lutheranism  for  the  coveted  crown,  and  won  the  day 
because  he  happened  to  arrive  Ust  of  all.  with  fre^  funds, 
when  tlie  agents  of  his  rivxds  had  spent  .all  their  money.  Be 
was  crowned,  as  Augustus  II.,  on  the  xsth  of  September  1697, 
and  hia  first  act  was  to  expel  from  the  country  the  prince  oC 
Conti,  the  elect  of  a  respectable  minoritv,  directed  by  the 
cardinal  primal  Michal  Radztejo«'ski  (1645-1705),  whom 
Augustus  II.  subsequently  bought  over  for  75,000  thalexs. 

'  *T1ftie  the  Sapiehas,  who  had  been  IMns  on  nfiiaa  for  ycaesi 
diasolvted  the  dtet  of  l€fi9  by  means  of  the  ^to  of  «ae  el 
lings,  loB  (ear  of  an  invcstitsatUm  into  their  caoduct. 


HISTORY] 


POLAND 


9«7 


Good  luck  attended  the  openinfl:  yean  of  tlie  new  reign.    In 

1699  the  long  Turkish  War,  which  had  been  going  on  ever  since 

1683,  was  ooncludcd  by  the  peace  of  Karlowitz,  whereby  Fodolia, 

the  Ukraine  and  Ibe  lortiesa  oT  Kameneta  Podolskiy  were 

rctroceded  to  the  Re|MibUc  by  the  Ottoman  Porte.      Immediately 

afterwards  Augustus  was  persuaded  by  the  plausible  Livonian 

exile»  JohBn  Reinbold  Patkul,  to  form  a  nefarious  league  with 

Frederick  of  Denmark  and  Peter  of  Russia,  for  the  purpose  of 

despoiling  the  youthful  king  of  Sweden,  Charles  XII.   (see 

Sweden:  History), .  This  he  did  as  elector  of  Saxony,  but  it  was 

WMTwMh     the  unfortttfiate  Polish  republic  which  paid  for  the 

CbaHttXn.  hazardous  speculation  of  its  newly  elected  king. 

•/Sweden,  xhroughout  the  Great  Northern  War  (see  Sweozm: 

History),  which  wasted    novthem    and    central    Europe    for 

twenty  yeaxB  (x700"X72o),  all  the  b^lUgerents  treated  Poland 

as   if  she  had   no   political  existence.    Swedes,  Saxona  and 

Russians  not  only  lived   upon   the   country,   but  |iAundered 

it  systematically.    The  diet  was  the  humble  servant  of  the 

conqueror  ol  the  moment,  and  the  leading  magnates  chose 

their  own  aides  without  the  slightest  regard  for  the  interests 

of  their  country,  the  Lithuanians  for  the  most  part  sujiporting 

Charles  XIL,  while  the  Poles  divided  their  allegiance  between 

fffg.-i.f«,>.  Augustus  and  Stanislaus  Lessczyfiski,  whom  Charles 

Lenieajrh'  placed  Upon  the  throne  in  1704  and  kept  there  till 

*^  ZTOQu    At  the  end  of  the  war  Poland  was  ruined 

materially   as  well  as  politically.    Augustus   attempted   to 

indemnify  himself  for   his    failure    to    obtain     Livonia,    his 

covenanted  share  of  the  Swedish  plunder,  by  offering  Frederick 

William  of  Prussia  Courland,  Polish  Prussia  and  even  part  of 

Great  Poland,  provided  that  he  were  allowed  a  free  hand  in  the 

disposal  of  the  rest  of  the  country.     When  Prussia  declined  this 

tempting  offer  for  fear  of  Russia,  Augustus  went  a  step  farther 

and  actually  suggested  that  "  the  four  ^  eafl^es  "  should  divide 

the  banquet  between  them.    He  died,  however  (Feb.  i»  1753) 

before  he  could  give  effect  to  this  shameless  design. 

.    On  the  death  of  Augustus  II.,  Stanislaus  Leszczyftski,  'who 

had,  in  the  meantime,  become  the  father-in-law  of  Louis  XV., 

attempted  to  regain  lUs  throne  with  the  aid  of  a  small  French 

army  corps  and  4.000,000  livres  from  Versailles.    Some  of  the 

best  men  in  Poland,  including  the  Czartoryscy,  were  also  in  his 

favour,  and  on  the  26th  of  August  1733  he  was  elected  king  for 

the  second  time'    But  there  were  many  malcontents,  principally 

among  the  Lithuanians,  who  solicited  the  interveittion  di  Russia 

fin  favour  of  the  elector  of  Saxony;  sctn  of  the  l^e  king,  and  in 

October  1733  a  Russian  army  appeared  before  Warsaw  and 

compelled  a  phantom  diet  (it  consisted  of  but  15  senators  and 

AugntaM    500  of  the  sdackto)  to  proclaim  Augustus  III.    From 

!//„  #74l«    the  end  of  1733  till  the  30th  of  June  1734  Staniskus 

'?^         and  his  partisans  were  besieged  by  the  Russians  in 

Danzig,  their  last  refuge^  and  with  the  surrender  of  that  fon* 

tress  the  cause  of  Stanislaus  was  lost.    He  retired  once  more 

to  his  Uttle  court  in  Lonraine»  with  the  title  of  king,  leaving 

Augustus  III.  ini  possession  of  the  kingdom. 

Augustus  III.  was  disqualified  by  constitutional  Indolence 
from  taking  any  active  part  in  affairs.  He  left  everything  to 
his  omnipotent  minister,  Count  Heinrich  BrClhl,  and  BrfUd 
entrusted  the  government  of  Poland  to  the  Czartoryscy,  who 
bad  intimate  relations  of  long  standing  with  the  court  of  Dresden. 

The  Czartoryscy,  who  were  to  dominate  Polish  politics  for 
the  next  half-century,  came  of  an  ancient  Rutheoian  stock  which 
had  intermarried  with  the  Jagielloa  at  an  early  date,  and  had 
always  been  remarkable  for  their  dvic  virtues  and  political 
sagacity.    They  had  powerfully  contributed  to  the  adoption 

Sf  the  Union  of  LubUni-  were  subsequently  received  into  the 
loman  Catholic  Church;  and  dated  the  begianing  of  their  infln- 
ence  in  PoUnd  proper  from  the  time  (1674)  when  Ftorian 
Czartoryski  became  primate  there.  Floiian's  nephews,  Fryderyk 
Michal  and  Augustus,  were  now  the  principal  representatives 
of  "  the  Family,"  ^  their  oppoaeaU  sarcastically  called  them. 
The  former,  through  the  influence  of  Augustus's  ministef  and 
favourite  Brtihl,  bad  beqome,  in  his  twenty-eighth  year, 
iThe  fourth  eagle  YM  the  WhHa  Eagle,  it.  Pobod. 


chancellor  and  subsequently  grand'  chancellor  «f  Lithuania. 
was  always  the  political  head  of  the  family.  His  brotJier  and 
Augustus,  after  fighting  with  great  distinction  against  the  Turka 
both  by  land  and  sea  (Prince  Eugene  dccoatcd  him  with  a 
sword  of  honour  for  his  valour  at  the  siege  of  Belgrade),  hait 
returned  home  to  marry  Sophia  Sicniawska,  whose  CabubiB 
dowry  won  for  her  hioband  the  sobriquet  of  '*tha  Family 
Croesus."  Their  sister  Constantia  had  already  married  Stanulaus 
Poniatowski,  the  father  of  the  future  king.  Thus  wealth, 
position,  court'  in/hience  and  ability  combined  gave  the  Czar* 
toryscy  a  commanding  position  in  Poland,  and,  to  their  honour 
be  it  said,  they  had  determined  from  the  first  to  save  the  Republic, 
whose  impending  ruin  in  existing  circumstances  they  cleariy. 
foresaw,  by  a  radical  constitutional  reconstruction  whkh  was 
to  include  the  aboUtion  of  the  Uberum  wdo  aind  the  formatkm 
of  a  standing  army. 

Unfortunately  the  other  great  famiUos  of  Poland  were  obstin- 
ately exposed  to  any  reform  or,  as  they  called  it,  any  **  vioIatSoa" 
of  the  existing  constitution.  The  Potoccy,  whose  posseaswna 
in  south  Poland  and  the  Ukraine  covered  thousands  of  sqliare 
miks,  the  RadziwiUowie,  who  were  omnipotent  in  Lithaanit 
and  included  half  a  dozoi-  millionaires'  ammigst  them,  the 
Lubomirscy  and  their  fellows,  hated  the  Czartoryscy  because 
they  were  too  eminent,  and  successfully  obstructed  all  their 
well-meant  efforts.  The  castles  of  these  great  lords  were  the  fod 
of  the  social  and  political  life  of  their  respective  provinces.  Here 
they  lived  h'ke  little  princes,  surrounded  by  thousands  of  ie> 
tainers,  whom  they  kq>t  for  show  alone,  making  no  attempt  to 
organize  and  discipline  this  excdient  military  material  for  the 
defence  of  their  defenceless  country.  Here  congregated  kundreda 
of  the  younger  szlachta^  fresh  from  their  school  benches,  whence 
they  brought  nothing  but  a  smattering  of  Latin  and  a  detennina-' 
tion  to  mdce  their  way  by  absolute  subservience  to  Uieir  '*  elder 
brethren,"  the  pans.  These  were  the  men  who,  a  little  later» 
at  the  bidding  of  thdr  "  benefactors,"  dissolved  one  inconvenient 
diet  after  another;  for  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  during  the 
reigns  of  the  tiro  Augustuses  every  diet  was  dissolved  in  this  way> 
by  the  hirelings  of  some  great  krd  or,  still  worse,  of  some  fotciga 
potentate.  In  a  word  constitutional  govemmeAt  had  practically 
ceased,  and  Pbknd  had  become  an  arena  ia  which  onntfsfint 
dans  strove  together  for  the  mastery. 

It  was  against  this  primitive  state  of  things  that  the  Csaiti 
toryscy  struggled,  and  struggled  in  vain.  Fust  they  attempted 
to  abolish  the  liharum  tdo  with  the  assistance  of  the  Saxon  court 
where  they  were  supreme,  but  fear  of  foreign  complications  and 
the  opposition  of  the  Potoccy  prevented  anything  behig  done. 
Then  they  broke  with  their  okl  friend  Brfiihl  and  turned  to 
Russia.  Their  chief  Intermediary  was  their  nephew  Stanishuls 
Poniatowski,  whom  they  sent,  as  Saaon  num*ster,to  the  Rustfatf 
court  in  the  suite  of  the  English  minister  fianbuiy  WiUiama^ 
in  1755.  The  handsome  and  inalnualing  IVwiatowrid  qiecdily 
won  the  susceptible  heart  of  the  gcandkiuchess  Cathaiine,  bat 
he  won  nothing  else  and  returned  to  Pohmd  in  1759  somewhat 
discredited.  Disappointed  in  their  hopes  of  Rossia,  the  Czazk>* 
toryscy  next  attempted  to  form  a  confederation,  for  the  depesii* 
tion  of  Augustus  IIL,  but  whUe  the  strife  of  factkms  was  stilt 
at  its  height  the  absentee  monarch  put  an  end  to  the  struggle 
by  expiring,  conreidentty,  on  the  5th  of  October  T763. 

The  interregnum  occurring  6n  the  death  of  Augustus  IIL 
befell  at  a  time  when  aK  the  European  powers,  cxhaustM^  bgr. 
the  Seven  Years'  War;  eemestfy  desired  peace.  The  position 
of  Poland  was,  consequently,  much  more  advantageous  thsA 
it  had  been  on  every  other  similar  occasion,  and  if  only  the 
contending  factions  had  been  able  to  agree  and  unite,  the  final 
catastrophe  mlg^t,  perhaps,  even  now,  have  bean  avciteik 
The  Csartoryacy,  of  all  men,  were  bound  by  their  principles 
and  professions  to  set  their  fellow  citisens  an  example  of  fraternal 
concord.  Yet  th^  rejected  with  soom  and  deriakm  the  p^dfic 
overtures  of  their  political  opponents,  the  Fbtoccy,  the  Radzi- 
wHlowie,  and  the  Bianiscy,  Prince  BIkhal  openly  declaring  that  of 
two  tyrannies  he  preferred  the  tyranny  of  the!  Muscovite  to  thct 

•  Miohal  Xssiaisa  RadshHU  alsns  was  worth  thirty  nOUiona; 


^i8 


POLAND 


IHISTORY 


tyranny  of  his  equals.  He  had  in  fact  already  summoned  a 
Russian  amqr  corps  to  assist  him  to  reform  his  country,  which 
sufficiently  explains  his  own  haughtiness,  and  the  onwonted 
compliancy  of  the  rival  magnates. 

The  simplicity  of  the  Czartoiyscy  was  even  mors  mischievous 
than  their  haughtiness.  When  the  most  enlightenecf  statesmen 
of  the  RepubHc  could  senously  believe  in  the  benevolent  in- 
tentions of  Russia  the  end  was  not  far  ofiF.  Their  naive  expecta- 
tions were  very  speedily  disappointed.  Catherine  II.  and 
Frederick  II.  had  already  determined  (Treaty  of  St  Petersburg, 
April  33,  1764)  that  the  existing  state  of  things  in  Poland  must 
be  maintained,  and  as  early  as  the  x8th  of  October  1763  Catherine 
had  recommended  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Poniatowski  as 
"  the  individual  most  convenient  for  our  common  interests." 
The  personal  question  did  not  interest  Frederick:  so  long  as 
Poland  was  kept  in  an  anarchical  condition  he  cared  not  who 
was  called  king.  Moreover,  the  opponents  of  the  .Czartoryscy 
made  no  serious  attempt  to  oppose  the  entry  of  the  Russian 
troops.  At  least  40,000  men  were  necessary  for  the  purpose, 
and  these  could  have  been  obtained  for  soo^ooo  ducats;  but  a 
congress  of  magnates,  whose  collective  fortunes  amounted  to 
hundreds  of  millions,  having  dedded  that  it  was  impbssiblp  to 
raise  this  sum,  there  was  nothing  for  it  but  to  fight  a  few  skirmishes 
and  then  take  refuge  abroad.  The  Czartoryscy  now  fancied 
themselves  the  nuisters  of  the  situation.  They  at  once  proceeded 
to  pass  through  the  convocation  diet  a  whole  series  of  salutary 
measures.  Four  spedal  commissions  were  appointed  to.  supers 
intend  the  administration  of  justice,  the  police  and  the  finances. 
The  extravagant  powers  of  the  grand  kdmans  and  the  grand 
marshals  were  reduced.  All  financial  and  economical  questions 
before  the-diet  were  henceforth  to  be  decided  by  a  majority  of 
StamiMiaBM  votes.  Shortly  afterwards  Stanislaus  Poniatowski 
n.  Pitaiam  was  elected  king  (Sept.  7, 1764)  and  crowned  (Nov. 
'^'^ni.  ^^^'  ^^^  '^  ^^  beginning  of  1766  Prince  Nicholas 
iH4-iT9S,  nepnin  was  sent  as  Russian  rninister  to  Warsaw 
with  instructions  which  can  only  be  deaczibed  as  a  carefully 
elaborated  phut,  for  destroying  the  Republic  The  first  w«^)on 
cmpbyed  was  the  dissident  question.  At  that  time  <  the 
population .  of  Mand  was,  in  round  numbers,  11,500,000, 
of  whom  kbout  i;,ooo,qoo  were  dissidents  or  dissenters.  Half 
of  these  were  the  Protestants  of  the  towns  of  Polish  Prussia  and 
Great  Poland,  the  other  half  was  composed  of  the  Orthodox 
ix>pulation  of  Lithuania.  The  dissidenU  had  no  political  rights, 
and  their  religious  liberties  had  also  been  unjustly  restricted; 
but  iwO'thirds  of  them  being  agricultural  labourers,  and  most 
of  the  rest  artisans  or  petty  tradesmen,  tbey  had  no  duire  to 
enter  public  life,  and  were  so  ignorant  and  iHiterate  that  their 
neifr '  protectors^  on  a  closer  acquaintance,  became  heartily 
•shamed  cf  than.  Yet  it  was  for  these  persons  that  Repnin, 
in  the  name  of  the  empress,  now  demandied  absolute  equality, 
political  and  rdigkras,  with  the  gentlemen  of  Poland.  He  was 
wdl  aware  that  an  aristocratic  and  Catholic  assembly^  like  the 
ujm  would  never  concede  so  preposterous  a  demand.  He  also 
cakulated  that  the  demand  itself  would  make  the  sMlachta 
suspicious  of  all  refocm,  including  the  Czartorysdan  reforms, 
cspeci^y  as  both  the  Idng  and  his  uncles  were  generally  un- 
popular, as  being,  innovators  under  foteign  influence.  His 
calculations  were  coitect*  '  The  stym  of  1766  not  ozdy  rejected 
the  dissident  bill,  but  rqpealed  all  the  Csartorytcian  reforms 
and  insisted  on  theietention  of  the  liherum  9Hc  as  the  foundation 
of  the  national  liberties.  The  discredit  into  which  Stan^laus 
had  now  fatten  cnoouzaged  the  Saxnn  patty,  led  by  Gabriel 
Plodoskt  (S7 19-1777)1  to  form  a  combination  for  the  pnrixtse  of 
dethroning  the  king.  Repnin  knew  that  the  allied  courts  wouUI 
never  consent  to  such  a  measure;  but  he  secretly  encouraged 
the  plot  for  his  own  purposes,  with  signal  success.  Early  in 
X767  the  malcontents,  fortified  by  the  adhesion  of  the  leading 
CMihvfftMtt  political  icfugeeSf  focned  a  oonfedezatioa  at  Radom, 
9iRm»f  whose  first  act  was  to  aend  a  deputaUon  to  St 
mm4Faia0d.  Petetilmrg,  petitioning  Catherine  to  guarantee  the 
libeittes  of  the  Retwblic,  and  allow  the  form  of  the  PoKsh 
ooBstitiitMn  to  be  settled  by  the  Rfuaisii  attibuMidOf  at 


Warsaw.  With  this  «irlc  tlantke  in  his  pocket,  Repias 
proceeded  to  treat  the  diet  as  if  it  were  already  the  slave  d 
the  Russian  empress.  But  de^te  tfn-eats,  wholesale  corrtip- 
tion  and  the  presence  of  Russian  troops  outside  and  even  inside 
the  izbaj  or  chamber  of  deputies,  the  patriots,  fielded  by  four 
bishops,  Wodaw  Hieronim  Sierakowskl  (i6g9>i784)  of  Lemberf, 
Pcliks  Pawel  Turski  of  Chelm  (1739*1800),  Kajetan  Ignaty 
Soltyk  of  Cracow  (x7x3^i7S8),  and  J6zef  Jendrzej  Zalioki  d 
Kiev  <T  703-1774),  offered  a  determined  resistance  to  Repeis's 
demands.  Only  when  brute  force  fii  its  extrcmest  form  had 
been  ruthlessly  employed,  only  when  three  senatois  and  sese 
deputies  had  been  arrested  in  full  session  by  Russian  grenadten 
and  sent  as  prisoners  to  Kaluga,  did  the  opposition  coOapse. 
The  libemm  veU>  and  all  the  other  ancient  abuses  were  now 
declared  unalterable  parts  of  the  Polish  constitution,  wchich  «3s 
placed  under  the  guarantee  of  Rusaa.  All  the  edicts  agaias 
the  dissidents  were,  at  the  same  time,  repealed. 

This  shameful  surrender  led  to  a  Catholic  patiiotic  oprisiri, 
known  as  the  Confederation  of  Bar,  which  was  formed  on  the 
39th  d  February  1768,  at  Bar  in  the  Ukraine,  by 
a  handful  of  small  squires.  It  never  bad  a  chance 
of  permanent  success,  though,  feebly  fed  by  French 
subsidies  and  French  volunteers,  it  lingered  on  for  foor 
till  finally  suppressed  in  1773.  But,  insignificant  itself,  it  w 
the  cause  of  great  events.  Some  of  the  Bar  confcdentesy 
scattered  by  the  Russian  regulars,  fled  over  the  Turkish  border, 
pursued  by  thdr  victors.  The' Turks,  already  alanned  al 
the  progress  of  the  Russians  in  Poland,  and  stimulated  by  Ver- 
geiines,  at  that  time  French  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  at 
once  declared  war  against  Rusaa.  Seriously  disturbed  at  the 
prospect  of  Russian  aggrandizement,  the  idea  occarred,  almost 
simultaneoudy,  to  the  courts  of  Berlin  and  Vienna  that  the  be& 
mode  of  preserving  the  equilibrium  of  Europe  was  for  all  three 
powers  to  readjust  their  territories  ai  the  expense  of  Pdaad. 
The  idea  of  a  partitk>n  of  Poland  was  nothing  new,  but  tbe  V3£' 
ness  of  the  country,  and  the  absence  of  suffidcntly  powerf  id  a-  i 
united  enemks,  had  hitherto  saved  tbe  RepuUic  from  spdiaika 
But  now  that  Poland  lay  utterly  helpless  and  sorroundcd  k> 
the  three  great  military  monarchies  of  Europe,  nothing  cesld 
save  her.  In  February  1769  Firederidc  sent  Count  Rocfecs 
Friedrich  Lynar  (i7o8-<>x783)  to  St  Petersbui^  to  soioad  the 
empress  as  to  the  expediency  of  a  partition,  in  August  Joseph  O. 
solidted  an  interview  with.  Frederick,  and  In  the  oonrse  of  tbe 
summer  the  two  monarchs  met,  first  at  Neisse  in  SilesU  its 
again  at.Neustadt  fn  Monivia.  Nothuig  definite  as  to  Pdari 
seems  to  have  been  arranged,  but  Prince  Raunpts,  .tbe  Asstrsia 
chancellor,  was  now  encouraged  to  tike  the  first  step  by  oon^ir* 
ing,  in  t77o,  the  county 'of  Zips,  Which  had  been  faypotheoted 
by  Hungary  to  PloUnd  in  1443  and  never  redeemed. .  This  izi 
dedded  the  other  confederates.  In  June  1770  Frvderidt  s8^ 
rounded  those  of  the  Polish  provinces  he  coveted  with  a  milrtarr 
cordon,  ostensibly  to  keep  out  the  cattle  plague.    Catherine  i 


I7ZL 


consent  had  been  previously  obtained  by  a  special 
Prince  Henry  of  Prussia  to  the  Russian  capital. 
The  first  treaty  of  partition  was  signed  at  St  Peters- 
burg between  Prussia  .and  Russia  on  the  6~i7tb  of 
February  1773;  the  second  treaty,  which  admitted 
Austria  also  to  a  share  of  the  spoil,  on  the  s^i^tb  of  August 
the  same  year.  It  is  unnecessary  to  recapitulate  tbe  oaheari- 
of  atrocities  by  which  the  consent  of  the  sefm  to  tins  act  d 
brigandage  was  at  last  extorted  (Aug.  18,  1773V  Russia 
obtained  the  palatinates  ^  Vitebsk,  Polotsk  Mseidaw:  icfS 
sq.  m.  of  territory,  with  a  population  of  ss^^oo  and  ea 
annual  revenue  of  930,000  Pol^  gulden*  Austfia  got  the 
greater  part  of  CaHcia,  rhlnui  Cracow:  17x0  sq.  m^  with 
a  population  of  816,000  and  an  annual  revenue  of  ry«o8.ooo 
gulden.  .  Prussia  received  the  xnaritime  palatiaate  mice 
Dansig,  thepalatinateof  Ktilm  minus  Thorn,  Great  Fdland  as  fzr 
as  the  Nitxa,  and  the  palatinates  of  Marienburg  ami  ^mdaad 
6»9  sq.  m.,  with  a  popiUation  of  378,000^  and  an  anncj! 
revenne  of  534*000  thalers.  '  In  fine,  P6Iand  lost  about  ene-fietfc 
of  her  popidation  and  o&o>fovtth  of  her  tertitoij. 


mstoKyi 


POLAND 


919 


In  lettmi  fAr  these  «nonMMi»  conoeisionB  the  partfttoning 
powers  presented  the  Pdes  with  ■  Constitution  supnior  to  any* 
thing  they  hftd  ever  been  sble  to  devise  for  themselves.  The 
most  mischievous  of  the  ancient  abuses,  the  elective  monarchy 
and  the  libtntm  veto^  were  of  course,  retained.  Poland  was  to 
be  dependent  on  her  despoilers,  but  they  evidently  meant  to 
make  her  a  serviceable  dependant.  The  government  was  hence- 
forth to  be  in. the  hands  of  a  rada  nieusta^aeoy  or  permanent 
council  <rf  thirty-sfac  members,  eighteen  senatois  and  eighteen 
deputies,  elected  bienniaUy  by  the  t<;M  in  secret  baUot,  sub- 
divided into  the  £ve  departments  of  foreign  aflUrs,  poUce,  war, 
justice  and  the  exichequer,  whose  principal  members  and  assist- 
ants, as  well  as  all  other  public  functionaries,  were  to  have  fixed 
salaries.  The  royal  prerogative  was  still  fwther  reduced.  The 
king  Iras  indeed  the  president  of  the  permanent  council,  but  he 
could  not  summon  the  diet  without  its  consent,  and  in  all  cases 
of  preferment  was  bound  toselect  one  out  of  three  of  the  council's 
nominees.  The  annual  budget  was  fixed  at  30,ooo;ooo  Polish 
gulden,^  out  of  which  ja  regvJar  army  of  30,000*  men  was  to 
be  maintained.  Sentiment  apart,  the  constitution  of  1775  was 
of  distlna  benefit  to  Poland.  It  made  for  internal  stability, 
order  and  economy,  and  enabled  her  to  develop  and  husband 
her  resources,  and  devote  herself  uninterruptedly  to  the  now 
burning  question  of  national  education.  For  the  shodc  of  the 
first  partition  was  so  far  salutary  tfuit  it  awoke  the  public  con- 
science to  a  sense  of  the  national  inferiority;  stimulated  the 
younger  generation  to  extraordinary  patriotic  eifforts;  and  thus 
went  far  to  produce  the  native  reformers  who  were  to  do  such 
wonders  during  the  great  quadrennial  diet. 

It  was  the  second  Turkish  War  of  Catherine  II.  which  gave 
patriotic  Poland  her  last  opportunity  of  re-establishing  her 
independence.  The  death  of  Frederick  the  Great  (Aug.  17, 17S6) 
completely  deranged  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  The 
long-standing  accord  betiveen  Prussia  and  Russia  came  to  an 
end,  and  white  the  latter  drew  nearer  to  Austria,  the  former 
began  to  look  to  the  Western  powers.  In  August  1787  Russia 
and  Austria  provoked  the  Porte  to  declare  war  against  them  both, 
and  two  months  later  a  defensive  alliance  was  concluded  be- 
tween Prussia,  England  and  Holland,  as  a  counterpoise  to  the 
alarming  preponderance  of  Russia.  In  June  1788  Gustavus  III. 
of  Sweden'  also  attacked  Russia,  with  50,000  men,  while  in  the 
south  the  Turks  held  the  Muscovites  at  bay  beneath  the  walls 
of  Ochakov,  and  drove  back  the  Austrian  invaders  into  Transyl" 
vania.  Prussia,  emboldened  by  Russia's  difficulties,  now  went 
ao  far  as  to  invite  Poland  also  to  forsake  the  Russian  alliance, 
and  placed  an  army  corps  of  40,000  men  at  her  disposal. 

It  was  under  these  exceptional  circumstances  that  the  "  four 
years'  diet**  assembled  (Oct.  6,  1788).  Its  leaders,  Stanislaw 
Rmtona^t  Malachowski,  Hugo*  KoUontaJ  and  Ignaty  Potocki, 
til*  Cow  wefe  men  of  character  and  capacity,  and  its  measures 
ItSl***  were- correspondingly  vigorous.  Within  a  few  months 
of  iti  assembling  it  had  abolished  the  permanent 
council;  enlarged  the  royal  prerogative;  raised  the  army 
to  55,000  men;  established  direct  communications  with  the 
Western  powers;  rejected  an  alliance  which  Russia,  alarmed 
at  the  rapid  progress  of  events,  had  hastened  to  offer;  declared 
its  own  session  permanent ;  and  finally  settled  down  to  the  crucial 
task  of  reforming  the  constitution  on  modem  lines.  But  the 
difficulties  of  the  patriots  were  commensurate  with  their  energies, 
and  though  the  new  constitution  was  drafted  so  early  as  Decem- 
ber Z789,  it  ins  not  till  May  1791  that  it  could  safely  be  presented 
to  the  diet.  Meanwhile  Poland  endeavoured  to  strengthen  her 
position  by  a&  advantageous  allx^ce  with  Prussia.  Frederick 
William  II.  stipulated,  at  first,  that  Poland  should  surrender 
I>anzig  and  Thorn,  and  I^tt  himself  endeavoured  to  persuade 
the  Polish  minister  Michal  Kleophas  Oginski  (i  765-^833)  that 
the  protection  of  Prussia  was  worth  the  sacrifice.  But  the  Poles 
proving  obstinate,  and  Austria  ^nmltaneoasly  disptayihg  a 
disquieting  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  Republic,  Prussia,  on 

^  t  Pol.  gulden  MS  silber  grocchen. 

*  At  the  very  next  diet*  1 776,  the  Poles  thtrmselves  reduced  the 
mraay  to  18,000  men. 


the  aoth  of  March  17^1,  concIiKfed  tn  aUiauce  wfth  Feland  which 
engaged  the  two  poweis  to  guaurantee  each  other's  possessions  , 
and  render  mutual  assistance  in  case  «ther  were  attacked* 

But  external  aid  was  useless  so  long  as  Poland  was  hampered 
by  her  anarchical  constitution.  Hitherto  the  proceedings  of 
the  diet  had  not  been  encouraging. "The  most  indispensable 
reforms  liad  been*  franticaUy  opposed,  the  debate  on  the  re- 
organisation of  the  army  had  alone  lasted  six  months.  It  was 
only  by  ah  audadous  surprise  that  KoUontaj  and  his  associates 
contrived  to  carry  through  the  new  constitution.  Takuig 
advantage  of  the  Easter  recess,  when  most  of  the  malcontents 
were  out  <rf  town,  they  suddenly,  on  the  3rd  of  May,  brought 
the  whole  question  before  the  diet  and  demanded  urgency  for 
it.  Before  the  opposition  could  remonstrate;  the  marshal  of 
the  diet  produced  the  latest  foreign  despatches,  which  unani- 
mously predicted  another  partition,  whereupon,  at  the  solemn 
adjuration  of  Ignaty  Potocki,  King  Stanidaus  exhorted  the 
deputies  to  accept  the  new  constitution  as  the  last  means  of 
saving  their  coimtry,  and  himself  set  the  t xample  by  swearing 
to  defend  it. 

The  revolution  of  the  3fd  of  May  1791  converted  Poland  Into 
an  hereditary*  limited  monarchy,  with  ministerial  responsibility, 
and  duennial  parliaments.  The  liberum  ut»  and  all  the  intricate 
and  obstructive  machinery  of  the  anomalous  old  system  were 
for  ever  abolished.  All  invidious  class  distinctions  were  done 
away  with.  The  franchise  was  extended  to  the  towns.  Serfdom 
was  mitigated,  preparatorily  to  its  entire  abolition;  absolute 
rdigious  toleration  was  established,  and  every  dtiten  declared 
equal  before  the  law^  Frederick  William  H.  .officially  congratu- 
lated Stanislaus  on  the  success  of  '*:the  happy  revdution  which 
has  at  last  given  Poland  a 'wise  and  regular  government,"  and 
dedared  it  should  henceforth  be  his  "chief  care  to  maintain 
and  confirm  the  ties  which  um'te  us."  -  Cobenal,  the  Austrian 
ininister  at  'St  Petersburg,  writing  to  his  court  immediatdy 
after  the  reception  of  the  tidings  at  the  Russian  capital,  describes 
the  empress  as  full  of  consternation  at  the  idea  that  Poland  undw 
an  hereditary  dynasty  might  once  more  become  a  considerable 
power.  But  Catherine,  still  in  difficulties,  iras  obliged  to  watch 
in  silence  the  collapse  dl  her  party  in  Poland,  and  submit  to  the 
double  humiliation  of  recalling  her  ambassador  and  withdrawing 
her  army  from  the  country.  Even  when  the  peace  of  Jassy 
(Jan.  9,  1792)  finally  freed  her  from  the  Turk,  she  waited 
patiently  for  the  Pdbh  malcontents  to  afford  her  a  pretext  and 
an  opportunity  for  dbect  and  decisive  interference.  She  had  not 
long  to  widt. .  Hie  constitution  of  the  3rd  of  May  had  scarce 
been  sigiied  when  Felix  Potocki,  Severin  Rxewuski  and  Xavier 
Branicki,  three  of  the  chief  dignitaries  of  Pohmd,  hastened  to 
St  Petersburg,  and  there  entered  into  a  secret  convention  with 
the  empress,  whereby  she  undertook  to  restore  the  old  constitu- 
tion by  force  of  arms,  but  at  the  same  time  promised  to  respect 
the  territorial  integrity  of  the  Repubh'c.  On  the  14th  of  May 
1793  the  conspirators  formed  a  confederation,  consisting.  In 
the  first  instance,  of  only  ten  other  persons,  at  the  little  town' 
of  Targowica  In  the  Ukraine,  protesting  against  the  constitution 
of  the  3rd  of  May  as  tyrannous  and  revolutionary,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  new  Russian  mlidster  at  Warsaw  presented  % 
formal  declaration  of  war  to  the  king  and  the  diet.  The  diet 
met  the  crisis  with  dignity  and  firmness.  The  army  was  at  onoft 
despatched  to  the  frontier;  the  male  population  was  called  to 
arms,  and  Ignatv  Potocki  was  sent  to  Berlin  to  claim  the  assist- 
ance stipulated  by  the  treaty  of  the  19th  of  March  1791.  The 
king  of  Prussia,  In  dircxrt  violation  of  all  his  oaths  and  promises, 
dechned  to  defend  a  constitution  which  had  never  had  his 
"  concurrence."  Thus  Poland  was  left  entirely  to  RnOg 
her  own  resources.  The  little  Polish  army  of  46,000  ovtrUuvmn 
men,  under  Prince  Joseph  Poniatowski  and  Tadeusz  JUJ^**** 
Ko4ciussko,  did  all  that  was  •  possible  under  the 
drcumstances.  For  more  than  three  months  they  kept 
back  the  invader,  and,  after  winning  three  pitched  battles, 
retired  in  perfect  order  on  the  capital  <see  Ponmiowsiu,  and 

*  On  the  death  of  Stanislaus,  the  croWn  was  to  pass  to  the  family 
of  the  elector  of  Saxony. 


9^o 


POLAND 


uus'ioicir 


KotoutfxD).  But  tlw  Eiog»  ud  even  Konontaj,  despairing 
of  success,  now  acceded  to  the  confederation;  hostilities  were 
suspended;  the  indignant  officers  threw  up  their  commissions; 
the  rank  and  file  were  distributed  all  over  the  country;  the 
reformers  fled  abroad;  and  the  constitution  of  the  3rd  of  May 
was  abolished  by  the  Targowicians  as  "  a  dangerous  novdty." 
The  Russians  then  poured  into  eastern  Poland;  the  Prussians, 
at  the  beginning  of  1793,  ahumed  lest  Catherine  should  appro- 
priate the  whole  RcpiU>lic,  occupied  Great  Poland;  and  a 
diminutive,  debased  and  helpless  assembly  met  at  Grodno  in 
order,  in  the  midst  of  a  Russian  army  corps,"  to  come  to  an 
amicaUe  understanding  "  with  the  partitioning  powers.  After 
StaDtftf Mvk  every  conceivable  means  of  intimidation  had  been 
tiuoa  •#  unscrupulously  aj^lied  for  twelve  weeks,  the  second 
.P^Uad,  treaty  of  partition  was  signed  at  three  o'clock  on  the 
morning  of  the  33rd  of  September  1703.  By  this  fia^um 
tntjectiatUt,  as  the  Polish  patriots  called  it,  Russia  got  all 
the  eastern  provinces  of  Poland,  extending  from  Livonia  to 
Moldavia,  comprising  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  square  miles, 
while  Prussia  got  Dobrzyn,  Kujavia  and  the  greater  part  of 
Great  Poland,  with  Thorn  and  Danzig.  Poland  was  now  reduced 
to  one-third  of  her  original  dimensions,  with  a  population  of 
about  three  and  a  half  millions. 

The  focus  of  Polish  nationality  was  now  transferred  from 
Warsaw,  where  the  Targowidans  and  their  Russian  patrons 
lfV/ilu«l'ih  '^"^  supreme,  to  Leipzig,  whither  the  Polish 
patriots,  Kokiuszko,  Kollontaj  and  Ignaty  Potocki 
among,  the  number,  assembled  from  all  quarters.  From  the 
first  they  meditated  a  national  rising,  but  their  ignorance, 
enthusiasm  and  simplicity  led  them  to  commit  blunder  after 
Uunder.  The  first  of  such  blunders  was  Kc^iuszko's  mission 
to  Paris,  in  January  1794.  He  was  full  of  the  idea  of  a  league 
of  republics  against  the  league  of  sovereigns;  but  he  was  unaware 
that  the  Jacobins  themselves  wero  already  considering  the  best 
mode  of  detaching  Prussia,  Poland's  worst  enemy,  from  the 
anti-Freoch  coalition.  With  a  hypocrisy  worthy  of  the  diplo- 
macy of  "  the  tyrants,"  the  committee  of  public  safety  declared 
that  it  could  not  support  an  insurrection  oi^neered  by  aristo- 
orats,  and  Kokiuszko  returned  to  Leipzig  empty-handed.  The 
nes.U>lunder  of  the  PoUsh  refugees  was  to  allow  thcmsel^^  to  be 
drawn  into  a  premature  rising  by  certain  Polish  officers  in  Poland 
who,  to  prevent  the  incorporation  of  their  regiments  In  the 
Russian  army,  openly  revolted  and  led  their  troops  from  Warsaw 
to  Cracow.  Kokiuszko  himself  condemned  their  hastiness; 
but,  when  the  Russian  troops  began  to  concentrate,  his  feelings 
grew  too  strong  for  him,  and  early  in  April  he  himself  appeared 
at  Cracow.  In  an  instant  the  mutiny  became  a  revolution. 
The  details  of  the  heroic  but  useless  stru^e  wiU  be  found  else- 
where (see  Ko§ciuszKO,  Kollontaj,  Potocki,  Ignaty,  Don- 
BROwau).  Throughout  April  the  Polish  arms  were  almost 
universally  successf uL  The  Russians  were  defeated  in  more 
than  one  pitched  battle;  three-quarters  of  the  ancient  territory 
was  recovered,  and  Warsaw  and  Vilna,  the  capital  of  Poland 
and  Lithuania  respectively,  were  liberated.  Kokiuszko  was 
appointed  dictator,  and  a  supreme  council  was  established 
to  assist  him.  The  first  serious  reverse,  at  Szczekodny 
(June  5),  was  mote  than  made  up  for  by  the  successful  defence 
of  Warsaw  against  the  Russians  and  Prussians  (July  9  to 
Sept.  6);  but  in  the  meantime  the  inveterate  lawle^ness  of 
jthe  Poles  had  asserted  itself,  as  UMial,  and  violent  and  ceaseless 
dissensions,  both  in  the  supreme  council  and  in  the  army, 
neutralized  the  superhuman  efforts  of  the  unfortunate  but  stUl 
undaunted  dictator.  The  death-blow  to  the  movement  was 
the  disaster  of  Maciejowice  (Oct.  10),  and  it  expired  amidst  the 
carnage  of  Praga  (Oct.  S9)»  though  the  last  JPolish  army  corps 
did  not  capitulate  till  the  x8th  of  November.  Yet  all  the  glory 
of  the  bitter  struggle  was  with  the  vanquished,  and  if  the  Poles, 
to  the  last,  bad  shown  themselves  children  in  the  science  of 
govemmenti  they  had  at  least  died  on  the  field  of  battle  like. 
men.  The  greed  of  the  three  partitioning  powers  very  nearly 
led  to  a  rupture  between  Austria  and  Prussia;  but  the  tact 
and  sUtesmanship  of  the  empress  of  Russia  finaUy  adjusted  all 


difficuUia.    On  the  S4th  of  October  1795  Pnisdik  acceded  to 
the  Austro-Russian  partition  compact  of  the  3rd  of  Jansuy, 
and.  the   distribution  of  the  conquered  provinces 
was  finally  n^ulatod  on  the  loth  of  October  1796W 
By  the  third  treaty  of  partition  Austria  had  to  be  ^^ 
content  with  Western  Galida  and  Southern  Masovia;  ^"^ 
Prussia  Uxk  PodUchia,  and  the  rest  of  Masovia,  with  Warsaw; 
and  Russia  all  the  rest. 

The  Immediate  result  of  the  third  paititioa  was  an  nameese 
emigration  of  the  more  high-minted  Poles  irfio,  during  the  next 
ten  years,  fought  the  battles  of  the  French  Republic  and  U 
Napoleon  all  over  Europe,  but  principally  against  tbeir  o«-a 
enemies,  the  partitioning  powers.  They  were  known  as  ik 
Pdish  lemons,  and  were  commanded  by  the  best  Polish  geaerik, 
e^.  Joseph  Poniatowski  and  Dombrowski  Only  Kokiiisz^o 
stood  aloof.  Even  when,  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  the  ir>de> 
pendent  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  was  constructed  «at  of  iht 
central  provinces  of  Prussian  Poland,  his  distrust  of  Kapokoa 
proved  to  be  invincible.  He  was  amply  justified  by  the  coune 
of  events.  Napoleon's  anxiety  to  conciliate  RussIa  eStcumlj 
prevented  him  from  making  Poland  large  and  strong  cnonfk 
to  be  self^upporting.  The  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  oiigiialiy 
consisted  of  about  1850  sq.  m.,  to  which  Western  GaLda. 
and  Cracow,  about  900  sq.  m.  more,  were  added  In  1809^ 
The  grand-duchy  was,  from  first  to  last,  a  mere  recnuting-grouad 
for  the  Frendi  emperor.  Its  army  was  limited,  on  paper,  to. 
30,000  men;  but  in  January  1812  65,000,  and  in  November 
the  same  year  97,000  recruits  were  drawn  bom  it.  The  cca- 
stitution  of  the  little  state  was  dictated  by  Napoleon,  and, 
subject  to  the  exigencies  of  war,  was  on  the  French  model 
Equality  before  the  law,  absolute  religious  toleration  and  kcd 
autonomy,  were  its  salient  features.  The  king  of  Sanmy,  as 
grand-duke,  took  the  initiative  in  all  legislative  matteis;  l»:s 
the  administration  was  practically  controlled  by  the  French. 

(R.X-B.) 

The  Congress  Kingibm,  ,i8ij-zS6j.— The  Csrand  Duchy  d 
Warsaw  perished  with  tl»  Grand  Army  in  the  retreat  frcs 
Moscow  in  xSxa.  The  Polish  troops  had  taken  a  pcommest 
part  in  the  inva^on  of  Russia,  and  their  share  in  ihe  ]^ande?i'4 
of  Smolensk  and  of  Moscow  had  intensified  the  racial  harrrci 
felt  f(»  them  by  the  Russians.  Those  of  them  who  suni^Tvi 
or  escaped  the  disasters  of  the  retreat  0ed  before  the  tsar's  trey 
and  followed  the  fortunes  of  Napoleon  in  1815  and  1814.  The 
Russians  occupied  Warsaw  on  the  iSth  of  February  1813  izd 
overran  the  gxand  duchy,  which  thus  came  into  their  posaessxa 
by  conquest.  Some  of,  the  Poles  continued  to  hope  ju^xmm^ari 
that  Alexander  wotdd  remember  his  old  favour  for  Mirrii^if 
them,  and  would  restore  their  kingdom  under  iiia 
own  rule.  Nor  was  the  tsar  unwiUing  to  enoomage  thcr 
delusion.  He  himself  cherished  the  desire  to  le-cstiUkk 
the  kingdom  for  his  own  advantage.  As  cady  as  the  ijtb  ci 
January  1813  he  wrote  to  assure  his  former  favourfcc  and  con- 
fidant, Prince  Adam  Czartoryski,  that,  "  Whatever  the  Pclcs 
do  now  to  aid  in  my  success,  will  at  the  same  tine  seni-e  u 
forward  the  realization  of  their  hopes."  But  the  schen-ics  u 
Alexander  could  be  carried  out  only  with'  the  oo-<qieiaik« 
of  other  powers.  They  refused  to  consent  to  the  Annexxlkm  ^ 
Saxony  by  Prussia,  and  other  territorial  arrangements  wikh 
would  have  enabled  him  to  unite  all  Poland  in  his  ywc*^ 
own  hand.  By  the  final  act  of  the  Congress  ol  j^«* 
Vienna,  signed  on  the  9th  of  June  18x5,  Poland  was  **■■•■ 
divided  between  Prussia,  Austria  and  Russia,  with  one  triiri: 
exception:  Cracow  with  its  population  of  61,000  was  crecei 
into  a  republic  embedded  in  Galicia.  Posen  and  Gncsea,  wi^^ 
a  population  of  810,000,  were  left  to  Prussia.  Austria  renuicei 
in  possession  of  Galicia  with  its  x  ,500,000  inhabitants.  liikuatui 
and  the  Ruthenian  Palatinates,  the  spoil  of  former  paitkioc^ 
continued  to  be  incorporated  with  Russia.  The  icBcant  was 
constituted  as  the  60<allcd  Congress  Kingdom  under  the 
emperor  of  Russia  as  king  (tsar)  of  Poland.  It  had  beoi  stlpv- 
lated  by  the  Final  Act  that  the  Poles  under  fore^  nde  shooU 
be  endowed  with  institutions  to  preserve  their  narional  critfyrjr 


i 


HISTORY] 


POLAND 


tjfZl 


.According  to  such  foraw  of  polittcsl  existence  as  tbe  governments 
to  which  they  belong  shall  think  fit  to  allow  them. 

Alexander,  who  had  a  sentimental  regard  for  freedom,  so 
long  as  it  was  obedient  to  himself,  had  promised  the  Poles  a 
n9New  constitution'  in  April  1815  in  a  letter  to  Ostrov* 
A»AiaCM*skiy,  the  president  of  the  senate  at  Warsaw.  His 
22?'"*  promise  was  publidy  proclaimed  on  the  25th  of 
May,  and  was  reaffirmed  in  the  Zamok  or  palace  at 
Warsaw  and  the  cathedra)  of  St  John  on  the  aoth  of  June. 
The  constitution  thus  promised  was  duly  drafted,  and  was 
signed  on  the  30th  of  November.  It  contained  165  articles 
divided  under  seven  heads.  The  kingdom  of  Poland  was 
declared  to  be  united  to  Russia,  in  the  person  of  the  tsar,  as 
a  separate  political  entity.  The  kingdom  was  the  Congress 
Kingdom,  for  the  vague  promises  of  an  extension  to  the  east 
which  Alexander  had  made  to  the  Poles  were  never  fulfilled. 
Lithuania  and  the  Ruthenian  Palatinates  continued  to  be 
incorporated  with  Russia  as  the  Western  Provinces  and  were 
divided  from  the  Congress  Kingdom  by  a  customs  barrier  till 
the  reign  of  Nicholas  I.  The  Idngdom  of  Poland  thus  defined 
was  to  have  at  its  head  a  lieutenant  of  the  emperor  {namiestnik), 
who  must  be  a  member  of  the  Imperial  house  or  a  Pole.  The 
first  holder  of  the  office,  General  Zajonczek  (1752-1826),  was 
a  veteran  who  had  served  Napoleon.  Roman  Catholicism  was 
recognized  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  other  religions  were 
tolerated.  Liberty  of  the  Press  was  promised  subject  to  the 
passing  of  a  law  to  restrain  its  abuses.  Individual  liberty,  the 
use  of  the  Polish  language  in  the  law  courts,  and  the  exclusive 
employment  of  Poles  in  the  dvil  government  were  secured  by 
the  constitution.  The  machmery  of  government  was  framed 
of  a  council  of  state,  at  which  the  Imperial  government  was 
represented  by  a  commissioner  plenipotentiary,  and  a  diet 
divided  into  a  senate  composed  of  the  princes  of  the  blood,  the 
palatines  and  councillors  named  for  life,  and  a  house  of  nuntii 
elected  for  seven  years,  77  chosen  by  the  "  dietines "  of  the 
nobles,  and  51  by  the  commons.  The  diet  was  to  meet  every 
other  year  for  a  session  of  thirty  days,  and  was  to  be  renewed 
by  thirds  every  two  years.  Poland  retained  its  flag,  and  a 
national  army  based  on  that  which  had  been  raised  by  and  had 
fought  for  Napoleon.  The  command  of  the  army  was  given 
to  the  emperor's  brother  Constantine,  a  man  of  somewhat 
erratic  character,  who  did  much  to  offend  the  Poles  by  violence, 
but  also  a  good  deal  to  please  them  by  his  marriage  with  Johanna 
Grudzinska,  a  Polish  lady  afterwards  created  Princess  Lowicz, 
for  whose  sake  he  renounced  his  right  to  the  throne  of  Russia 
(sec  Constantine  Pavlovich). 

The  diet  met  three  times  during  the  reign  of  Alexander,  in 
1818,  in  1820  and  in  1825,  and  was  on  all  three  occasions  opened 
by  the  tsar,  who  was  compelled  to  address  his  subjects  in  French, 
since  he  did  not  speak,  and  would  not  learn,  their  language. 
It  is  highly  doubtful  whether,  with  the  best  eCTorts  on  both  »des, 
a  constitutional  government  could  have  been  worked  by  a 
Russian  autocrat,  and  an  assembly  oflnen  who  inherited  the 
memories  and  characters  of  the  Poles.  In  fact  the  tsar  and  the 
diet  soon  quarrelled.  The  Poles  would  not  abolish  the  jury  to 
please  the  tsar,  nor  conform  as  he  wished  them  to  do  to  the 
Russian  law  of  divorce.  Opposition  soon  arose,  and  as  Alexander 
could  not  understand  a  freedom  which  differed  from  himself, 
and  would  not  condescend  to  the  use  of  corruption,  by  which 
the  andent  Polish  diets  had  been  managed,  he  was  driven  to 
use  force.  The  third  session  of  the  diet — 13th  of  May  to  15th 
of  June  1825 — was  a  mere  formality.  .All  publicity  was  sup- 
pressed, and  one  whole  district  was  disfranchised  because  it 
persisted  in  electing  candidates  who  were  disapproved  of  at 
court.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Poles  were  also  to  blame  for 
the  failure  of  constitutional  government.  They  would  agitate 
by  means  of  the  so-called  National  Masonry,  or  National 
Patriotic  Society  as  it  was  afterwards  called,  for  the  restoration 
of  the  full  kingdom  of  Poland.  The  nobles  who  dominated  the 
diet  did  nothing  to  remove  the  most  ciying  evil  of  the  country — 
the  miserable  state  of  the  peasants,  who  bad  been  freed  from 

personal  serfdom  by  Napoleon  in  1807,  but  were  being  steadily  1 
XXI  16 


driven  from  their  boldiags  by  the  Undlonb.  In  spite  of  the 
geoeral  prosperity  of  the  country  due  to  peace,  and  the  execution 
of  public  works  mostly  at  the  expense  of  Russia,  the  state  of 
the  agricultural  class  grew,  if  anything,  worse. 

Yet  no  open  breach  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Alexander, 
nor.  for  five  years  after  his  death  in  1835.  The  Decembrist 
movement  in  Russia  had  little  or  no  echo  in  Poland.  On  the 
death  of  Zajonczek  in  1836,  the  grand  duke  Constantine  be> 
eame  Imperial  lieutenant,  and  Us  administration,  7]^^  ^^^^^ 
though  erratic,  was  not  unfavourable  to  displays  OvteCde* 
of  Polish  nationality.  The  Polbh  army  had  no^'v^M. 
share  in  the  Turkish  War  of  1829,  Un^ely,  it  is  said,  at 
the  request  of  Constantine,  who  loved  parades  and  thought 
that  war  was  the  ruin  of  soldiers.  No  attempt  was  made  to 
profit  by  the  embarrassments  .of  the  Russians  in  their  war  with 
Turkey.  A  plot  to  murder  Nicholas  at  his  coronation  on  the 
34th  of  May  1839  was  not  carried  out,  and  when  he  held  the 
fourth  diet  on  the  30th  of  May  1830,  the  Poles  made  an  osten- 
tatious show  of  thnr  nationality  which  Nicholas  was  provoked 
to  describe  as  possibly  patriotic  but  certainly  not  dvil.  Never- 
theless,  he  respected  the  settlement  of  1815.  In  the  meantime 
the  Patriotic  Sodety  had  divided  into  a  White  or  Moderate 
party  and  a  Red  or  Extreme  party,  which  was  subdivided  into 
the  Academics  or  Repubhcans  and  the  Military  or  Terrorists. 
The  latter  were  veiy  busy  and  were  supported  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  did  little  for  the  Prussian  Poles  and 
nothing  for  the  Austrian  Poles,  but  was  active  in  harassing  the 
schismatical  government  of  Russia. 

The  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  in  1830  and  the 
revolt  of  Belgium  produced  a  great  effect  in  Poland.  The  spread 
of  a  belief,  partly  justified  by  the  language  of  PM»k 
Nicholas,  that  the  Polish  army  would  be  used  to  ^i^ivf 
coerce  the  Belgians,  caused  great  irritation.  At  last,  '^^ 
on  the  39th  ci  November  1830,  a  military  revolt  took  place  in 
Warsaw  accompanied  by  the  murder  of  the  minister  of  war, 
Hauke,  himself  a  Pole,  and  other  loyal  officers.  The  extra- 
ordinary weakness  of  the  grand  duke  allowed  the  rising  to  gather 
strength.  He  evacuated  Warsaw  and  finally  left  the  countiy, 
djring  at  Vitebsk  on  the  37th  of  June  1831  (see  Constantimx 
Pavlovich).  The  war  lasted  from  January  till  September  1831. 
The  fact  that  the  Poles  possessed  a  wdl-drilled  army  of  33,800 
foot,  6800  horse  and  108  guns,  which  they  were  able  to  recruit 
to  a  total  strength  of  80,831  men  with  158  guns,  gave  solidity 
to  the  rising.  The  Russians,  who.  had  endeavoured  to  over- 
awe Europe  by  the  report  of  their  immense  military  power, 
had  the  utmost  difficulty  in  putting  114,000  men  into  the  field, 
yet  in  less  than  a  year,  under  the  leadership  of  Diebitsch,  and 
then  of  Paskevich,  they  mastered  the  Poles.  On  the  polilical 
and  administrative  side  the  struggle  of  the  Poles  was  weakened 
by  the  faults  which  had  been  the  ruin  of  their  kingdom — 
faction  pushed  to  the  point  of  anarchy,  want  of  diKipline, 
intrigue  and  violence,  as  shown  by  the  abominable  massacre 
which  took  place  in  Warsaw  when  the  defeat  of  the  army  was 
known.  The  Poles  had  begun  by  protesting  that  they  only 
wished  to  defend  thdr  rights  against  the  tsar,  but  thiy  soon 
proceeded  to  prodaim  his  deposition.  Their  appeal  to  the 
powers  of  Europe  for  protection  was  inevitably  disregarded. 

When  the  Congress  Kingdom  had  been  reconquered  it  was 
immediatdy  reduced  to  the  position  of  a  Russian  province. 
No  remnant  of  Poland's  separate  political  existence  ^Mktftf  « 
remained  save  the  minute  republic  of  Cracow,  thmtiaa 
Unable  to  acquiesce  sincerely  in  its  insignificance  ^^^'"'^ 
and  even  unable  to  enforce  its  neutrality,  Cracow  was  a 
centre  of  disturbance,  and,  after  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria 
had  in  1846  agreed  to  its  suppression,  was  finally  occu- 
pied by  Austria  on  the  6th  of  November  1848,  as  a  ccmsequence 
of  the  troubles,  more  agrarian  than  political,  which  convulsed 
Galida.  The  administration  established  by  Nicholas  L  in 
Russian  Poland  was  harsh  and  aimed  avowedly  at  destroying 
the  nationality,  and  even  the  language  of  Poland.  The  Polish 
tmiversities  of  Warsaw  and  Vilna  were  suppressed,  and  the 
Students  compelled  to  go  to  St  Petersburg  and  Baev.    Polish 

2a 


9^2 


POLAND 


PilSlORY 


lecniSts  irere  distributed  in  Rnsiian  regiments,  and  the  use  of 
the  Russian  Ungxiage  was  enforced  as  far  as  possible  in  the  civil 
administration  and  in  the  law  courts.  The  customs  barrier 
between  Lithuania  and  the  former  Congress  Kingdom  was 
removed,  in  the  hope  that  the  influence  of  Russia  would  spread 
more  easily  over  Poland.  A  very  hostile  policy  was  adopted 
against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  But  t  hough  these  measures 
cowed  the  Poles,  they  failed  to  achieve  their  main  purpose. 
Polish  national  sentiment  was  not  destroyed,  but  Intensified. 
It  even  spread  to  Lithuania.  The  failure  of  Nicholas  was  in 
good  part  due  to  mistaken  measures  of  what  he  hoped  would 
be  conciliation.  He  siq^xnrted  Polish  students  at  Russian 
universities  on  condition  that  they  then  spent  a  number  o( 
years  in  the  public  service.  It  was  the  hope  of  the  emperor 
that  they  would  thus  become  united  in  interest  with  the  Russians. 
But  these  P<rfish  officials  made  use  of  theit  positions  to  aid 
their  countrymen,  and  were  grasf^g  and  corrupt  with  patriotic 
intentions.  The  Poles  in  Russia,  whether  at  the  universities 
or  in  the  public  service,  formed  an  element  which  refused  to 
assimilate  with  the  Russians.  In  Poland  itself  the  tsar  left 
much  of  the  current  civil  administration  in  the  hands  of  the 
nobles,  whose  power  over  their  peasants  was  hardly  diminished 
and  was  misused  as  of  old.  The  Polish  exiles  who  filled  Europe 
after  1830  intrigued  from  abroad,  and  maintained  a  constant 
agitation.  The  stem  government  of  Kidiolas  was,  however, 
10  far  effective  that  Poland  remained  quiescent  during  the 
Crimean  War,  In  which  many  Polish  scalers  fought  in  the  Russian 
army.  The  Russian  government  felt  safe  enough  to  reduce 
the  garrison  of  Poland  largely.  It  was  not  till  1863,  eight  years 
after  the  death  of  the  tsar  in  1855,  that  the  last  attempt  of 
the  Poles  to  achieve  independence  by  arms  was  made. 

The  rising  of  1863  may  without  injustice  be  Said  to  be  due 
to  the  more  humane  -policy  of  the  tsar  Alexander  II.    Exiles 

^^^were  allowed  to  return  to  Poland,  the  Church  was 
^Jj^l^'^  propitiated,  the  weight  of  the  Russian  administration 
was  lightened,  police  rules  as  to  passports  were 
relaxed,  and  the  Poles  were  allowed  to  form  an  agricultural 
society  and  to  meet  for  a  common  purpose  for  the  first  time 
after  many  years.  Poland  in  short  shared  in  the  new  era  <rf  milder 
rule  which  began  in  Russia.  In  April  1856  Alexander  II.  was 
crowned  king  in  the  Roman  -Catholic  cathedral  of  Warsaw, 
and  addressed  a  flattering  speech  to  his  Tchsh  subjects  in  French, 
for  he  too  could  not  speak  their  language.  His  warning,  "  No 
nonsense,  gentlemen  "  {Fdint  de  rtt^ies,  Messieurt),  was  taken 
in  very  ill  part,  and  it  was  perhaps  naturally,  but  beyond  question 
most  unhappily,  the  truth  that  the  tsar's  concessions  only  served 
to  encourage  the  Poles  to  revolt,  and  to  produce  a  strong  Russian 
reaction  against  his  liberal  policy.  As  the  Poles  could  no  longer 
dispose  of  an  army,  they  were  unable  to  assail  Russia  as  openly 
as  in  1830.  They  had  recourse  to  the  so-called  "unarmed 
agitation,"  whkh  was  in  effea  a  poBcy  of  constant  provocation 
designed  to  bring  on  measures  of  repression  to  be  represented 
(0  Europe  as  examples  of  Russfatn  brutality.  They  began  in 
x86o  at  the  funeral  of  the  widow  of  General  Sobinski,  killed  in 
^830,  and  on  the  sythof  February  x<86i  they  led  to  the  so-called 
Warsaw  massacres,  "when  the  troops  fired  on  a  crowd  which 
refused  to  disperse.  The  history  of  the  agitation  which  cul- 
minated in  the  disorderly  rising  of  1863  is  one  of  intrigue,  secret 
agitation,  and  in  the  end  of  sheer  terrorism  by  a  secret  society, 
which  Organised  political  assassination.  The  weakness  of  the 
Russian  governor.  General  Gorchakov,  in  1861  was  a  repetition 
of  the  feebleness  of  the  Grand  Duke  Conatantine  in  1830.  He 
allowed  the  Poles  who  organized  the  demonstration  of  the 
37th  of  February  to  form  a  kind  of  provisional  government. 
Alongside  of  such  want  of  firmness  as  this  were,  however,  to  be 
found  sttclx  measures  of  ill-timed  repression  as  the  ordet  given  in 
i860  to  the  agricultural  society  not  to  discuss  the  question  of  the 
settlement  of  t^e  peasants  on  the  land.  Concession  and  repres- 
don  v-ere  employed  alternately.  The  Poles,  encouraged  by  the 
one  and  exasperated  by  the  other,  finally  broke  into  the  partial 
revolt  of  X863-1864.  It  was  a  struggle  of  ill-armed  partisans, 
who  were  never  even  numerous,  agaiuit  regular  troops,  and  was 


marked  by  00  real  battle.  The  suppresston  of  the  lisng 
followed  by  a  return  to  the  hard  methods  of  Nidiolas.  TIk 
Polish  nobles,  gentry  and  ChuKh*~-the  educated  daases  gener&Cr 
—-were  crushed.  It  must,  however,  be  noted  that  one  das 
of  the  measures  taken  to  punish  the  old  goveroioff  piart  of  the 
population  of  Poland  has  been  very  favonrable  u>  the  majority. 
The  peasants  were  freed  in  Lithuania,  and  in  Ft^nd  proper 
much  was  done  to  improve  their  position.  The  Russian  goven- 
ment  has  benefited  by  their  comparative  pio^ierity.  and  by  iht 
Incurable  hatred  they  continue  to  (rel  for  the  classes  which  «ce 
once  their  oppressors.  The  national  history  of  PoUnd  doses  viih 
the  rising  of  1863.  (D.  H.) 

BiBttocaAPHV.— The  best  general  historj'  of  Poland  Is  stiU  Jli-f 

Szujski's  monumental  History  of  Poland  according  to  ike  laUsi  ^nza- 

tigatums  (4  vols.,  Pol..  I^mbcrg,  186^-1866).  a  work  which  lu»  il 

Che  authority  of  careful  criticism  and  easy  scholarship.    It  Mbjpsk 

throughout,   the  conatfvative>monarchical  standpoiat.     Seu)9ici'« 

book   )]as  superseded  even  Joachim  Lelcwd's  learned  HisL-'^.  .-^ 

Poland  (Pol.,  Brussels,  1837),  of  which  there  are  cxcellem  VurA 

(Paris,  1844)  and  German  (Leipsig,  1846)  editions.    The  t>»t  am- 

tempocaiy  general  history  is  August  Sokobwski's  Illusimed  HtsHry 

of  PokuufiPol,  Vienna,  1806-1900).   The  best  independeac  Cemai 

hiatorv  of  Poland  is,  on  the  whole.  Roepcll  (Richard)  and  C^.'» 

CJakaD)    Ceschuhte   PoUns    (Hamburg   and    Cotha.    1 840-1  •^^r- 

Scholars  dc«ring  to  explore  for  themselves  the  soorccs  of  Pd-^ 

history  from  the  nth  century  to  the  i8eh  have  Imneofle  fields  d 

research  lying  open  before  tncm  in  the  Ada  kutartca  /ci  tmn 

Polontae  uluslrautia  (1878.  &c.).  the  Scriptoru  rerum  ^aicKtczriu 

(1872.  &c.),  and  the  Historical  Dissertations  (Pol.,  1874.  Ac).  aXi  ihm 

collections  published,  under  the  most  careful  editorship.  In-  tbe 

University  of  Cracow.    To  the  same  order  txlong  Ladwik  Fiiikrrs 

Fonl€s  rerum  poUmtcarum  (Lemben.  1901,  &c.),  and  tbe  ianwacEiUe 

essays  and  articles  in  The  Historical  Quarterly  Renew  of  Pai&sd  ,r<Ju 

Lemoerg,  1887,  &c.).    The  soundest  history  of  Lithuania,  before  l'» 

union  with  I^oland.  is  still  I^lewePs  History  of  Litkuavta  (P<^ 

Leipzig,  1839),  of  whk:h  a  French  tiaaslation  was  published  ai  P»h 

in  1861.     rrocccdiog  to  the  eariier  history  of  roland.  LcW«v;.  > 

Poland  in  the  Middle  Ag/es  (4  vols.,  Posea,  1846-1651)  is  stiZl  ^ 

standard  work,  though  the  greatest  authority  on  Polish  aAtit^itt-^ 

is  now  Tadcusz  Wojctechowski,  who  unites  astotindtng   Icarci-^ 

with  a  oerfect  style.    His  Histories  Sketches  of  ike  Elewtnik  C«s*v« 

(Pol.,  Cracow,  1904)  is  a  very  notable  work.     Karol  Scainodui 

great  monograph,  justly  descnbcd  as  "  a  pearl  of  historic^  Itto 

turc,"  Jadwiga  ana  Jagiello  (4  vols.,  Lemberg,  1861).  the  r^rSB-'t  u 

twelve  years  of  exhaustive  study,  is  our  best  authority  on  thr  ?r%? 

union  between  Poland  and  Lithuania.     On  the  oaber  ha»d.  bt 

BoUslams  the  Bold,  &£,  (Lemberg,  1859)  would  noim  be  coask^errd 

too  romantic^  and  picturesque.     The  relations  between   PcL::J. 

Prussia  and  Livonia  are  adequately  dealt  with  by  two  sound  Gmr^i 

books,  Theodof  Schicmann  s  Russland,  Polen  und  Ltidond  Hj  nr 

xviti.  Jakrhundert  (Berlin.  1885-1887)  and  Max  Pcrlbach's  Prrxs- 

nsch'PoLtucke  Studiem  (Halle,  1B86).    A  good  guide  to  the  bxSion 

of  the  Jagiellonic  period.  1586-1573,  is  also  Adou  Pawinska's  i^v:.aar 

«»  the  15th  Century  (Pol., -Warsaw,  l88^-'i886).    Of  tiK  ttrsiBCTc^ 

works  relating  to  the  reign  of  the  heroic  Stephen  B4tfaor>%  :< 

1586,  Ignsty  Janicld's  Acta  ktsteriea  res  testas  Stoptkawi  Bed 

iUMUraniia  (Cracow.  1881).  and  Paul  Pieriing's  Un  «rMo«|r  ^  _ 

fical  entre  la  Potogne  et  U  Russie  xsSl-lsSg  (Brussels.  1890,)  caa  be 

recommended.    The  best  Polish  work  on  the  subject  ts  fHacenr? 

Zakrzewski's  The  Rngn  of  Stephen  Bdlhorr  (Pol.,  Gracov.  iS*7' 

Of  the  books  relating  to  the  Polish  Vasas  the  most  notable  n  S£2^ 

nocha's  Two   Years  of  omt  HtsUrry,  t6^i648  (Lcsabeic   1865; 

which  deals  exhaustively  with  the  little-known  but  reourkai^ 

attempt  (tbe  last  practical  attemf^  of  its  kind)  of  Ladistaca  rV*.  » 

aboKsn  the  incurably  vicious  Polish  constitution.     Anoclier  &-sr- 

class  work,  relating  to  the  same  period  and  deaKagapedfical^  wr^ 

the  mode  of  warfare  of  heroic  Polaad.  is  Jtef  Tieebsk!'*  E^s^ 

of  the  War  of  Ckeeim  (Pol..  Lemberg,  1893).    For  works  relad^  u 

the  Sobieskian,  Saxon  and  Partitional  periods  of  Poliiii  hbtzv^- 

the  reader  is  referred  to  the  bibliomphical  notes  appended  to  tbe 

biographies  of  John  IIL,  king  of  Pound,  Michal  Qtanorysta,  Sta^sd- 

laua  IL.  Tadeoas  Andrsej  Kofaiuszko,  J^aef  PoaiatowsU.  asKl  tte 

other  chief  actors  of  th^se  periods.    But  the  foUowii^  addjuin-jl 

authorities  should  idso  be  noted,    (i)  Lelewel's  History  of  ike  Msz^ 

of  Stanislaus  Augustus  (Pol.,  Warsaw,  1831;  Fr.  ed..  Ptois.  197;  : 

the  book  is  important  as  behg  based  on  unpubBshed  memoirs  in  the 

exclasive  oowesrion  of  the  author's  family,    (a)  Miateriais  far  smr 

History  0/  the  last  uniury  of  the  JUpmUic,  by  &  Korvia  (Ccws*. 

■890).    (3)  Die  letzte  pdtnische  KonigswoM,  by  Sayoion  Asfcewirr 

^Cracow.  1882-1886).    (4)  The  extremely  valuable  Prmce  JBr«^* 

ta  Poland  by  Aleksander  Kfaushar  fWarsaw,  1900).  one  of  tlie  es^< 

thorough  of  contemporary  Polish  Msioriana    imwiiimaMe  mc  the 

works  relating  to  the  Partatioaai  period.    Pcrhafw  else  bent  <3i  j- 

Is  Walcry  Jan  Kalinlcs*s  areat  work  in  four  voluaic&  Dor  wigrJAk*M 

pUniscke  Reichstag  (Berlin.  1896-1898).    Katinka  ts.  lKrire\-er    ' 

too  severe  upon  the  patriots  and  much  too  indulgent 


*i' 


LITERAItnuq 


POLAND 


^23 


fGiw  Stanislaus.  Albert  Sorel't  La  QuesHon  <rOri$ta  au  XVIII: 
tSkek  (Pari*.  1889)  Is  lucid  and  accurate,  but  somewhat  superficial. 
Wolfgang  Michael's  Englands  Stetiung  tur  ersten  Teilung  Potens 
(Hambun,  1890)  is  of  especial  interest  to  ElngUshmen.  Maryan 
Ddbieckis  JCarof  Frotar  (Pol.,  Cracow.  1897)  shows  with  what 
self-sacrificing  devotion  the  zeatryr  and  people  supported  Ko^iu« 
svko'a  rising.  For  more  complete  bibliography  sec  jozef  Korzeniow- 
ski's  CcUalogus  actorttm  et  aocumentarum  res  usUu  Pcloniae  iUuS' 
trantium  (Cracow,  1889),  and  Ludwik  FinkcVs  Bibliography  vf  Polish 
History  (Pol.,  Lembetg,  1891).  For  the  period  1815-1863  see- also 
N.  A.  Dajr,  The  Russian  GwvernmotU  in  Poland  (London,  1867): 
Thcodor  Schiemann*  Rusdand  unkr  Kaiser  Nikaaus  /.,  voL  L 
(Berlin,  1904). 

POUSH  UTUAIURE 

The  Polish  language  belongs  to  the  western  branch  of  the 
Slavonic  tongues^  and  exhibits  the  closest  affinities  with  the 
Czech  or  Bohemian  and  Lusatian  Wendish.  Unlike  the  people 
of  other  Slavonic  countries,  the  Poles  are  (»mp4nLtively,poor 
in  popular  and  legendary  poetry,  but  such  compositions  un- 
doubtedly existed  in  early  times,  as  may  be  seen  by  the^ritings 
o£  thetf  chroniclers*,  thus  Gallus  tianslated  into  Latin^a  poem 
written  on  Boleslaus  the  Brave,  and  a  few  old  Polish  songs  are 
included  in  Wojcicki's  Library  of  Ancient  Writers.  A  great  deal 
of  the  early  literature  written  in  Poland  is  in  Latin.  The  earliest 
specimen  of  the  Polish  language  is  the  so-called  Psalt^  of  Queen 
Margaret,  discovered  in  1826  at  the  convent  of  St  Florian.  The 
date  of  the  manuscript  appears  to  be  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century,  and  probably  in  its  present  form  it  Is  only  a  copy  of  a 
much  older  text,  there  is  also  a  translation  of  the  fiftieth  psalm 
belonging  to  the  13th  century.*  The  ancient  Polish  hymn  or  war 
song,  Pietn  Baga  Rodzica,  was  an  address  to  the  Vii^,  sung  by 
the  Poles  when  about  to  fight.  The  oldest  manuscript  of  this 
production  is  dated  z4o3,  and  is  preserved  at  Cracow  By  a 
legend  which  subsequently  grew  up  the  composition  of  it  waft 
assigned  to  St  Adalbert.  John  IxKUia,  bishop  of  Posen  from 
1335  to  1346,  composed  several  religious  songs  in  Latin. 

The  next  monument  of  Polish  literature  to  which  we  come  is 
the  Bible  of  Queen  Sophia  or  Bible  of  Ssarosspatak.  It  is  im- 
perfect, and  only  contains  the  early  books,  viz.  the  Pentateuch, 
Joshua,  Ruth  and  Rings;  there  are,  however,  fragments  of  three 
others.  It  is  said  to  have  been  written  for  Sophia,  the  fourth 
wife  of  Jagieilo,  about  the  year  145$.  It  has  been  edited  with 
great  care  by  Maleckl.  Five  religious  songs  in  Polish  dating 
from  the  15th  century  have  been  preserved;  they  are  ascribed 
to  Andrew  Slopuchowski,  prior  of  the  monastery  of  the  Holy 
Cross  on  Lysa  G6ra.  There  is  also  the  fragment  of  a  hymn  in 
praise  of  WydifTe.  To  these  fragments  may  be  added  the  prayer- 
book  of  a  certain  Wadaw,  a  sermon  on  marriage,  and  some 
Polish  gbsses.  These  are  all  the  existing  memorials  of  the  Pdish 
language  before  the  16th  century. 

Perhaps  a  few  words  should  be  said  concerning  the  writers 
Id  Latin.  Martin  Gallus  lived  in  Poland  between  1 1  lo  and  1 135. 
Th»L  ti  ^'^^™  ^^  name  he  has  been  supposed  by  some  to 
CttmJio^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^  Frenchman  or  Walloon,  and  we  must 
remember  that  Poland  swarmed  at  that  time  with 
foreign  ecclesiastics  Lelewel,  the  Polish  historian,  considers 
that  it  is  merely  a  translation  into  Latin  of  some  such 
name  as  Kura„  signifying  **  a  fowl."  Others  suppose  him  to 
have  been  an  Italian,  or  a  monk  froVn  the  convent  of  St  Gall  in 
Switzeriand.  He  haa  plenty  of  legends  to  tell  us,  and  writes 
altogether  in  a  poetical  style,  so  that  his  prose  seems  to  fall 
into  rhythm  unconsciously.  His  quotations  from  the -classics, 
Sallust,  Lucan  and  others,  show  the  extent  of  h» 'reading. 
Gallus  was  followed  by  Matthew  Cholewa  and  Vincent  Kadlubek, 
two  bishops  of  Cracow,  and  Bogufal  or  Boguchwal  (Gottlob), 
bishop  of  Posen,  tiho  all  used  Latin.  The  work  of  Kadlubek 
is  more  ornate  in  diction  thart  that  of  Bogufal,  and  for  a  long  time 
enjoyed  great  popularity.  He  was  bom  in  xi6o,  educated  at 
the  university  of  Paris,  and  died  in  Poland  in  1123  as  a  Cistercian 
monk.  His  Latin,  b'ke  that  of  Galkis,  is  far  from  classical, 
bat  he  writes  with  spirit  and  throws  a  good  deal  of  light  upon 

■The  Psalter  is  called  after  Margaret,  the  first  wife  of  King 
Louis,  who  dkid  in  1349,  by  a  mere  conjecture.  Caro  thinks  it 
more  probable  that  the  book  bekmged  to  Mary,  hi*  daughter. 


theeveattof  histime.  The  educfttloii  of  the  countiy  was  wheOy 
in  the  hands  of  the  ecclesiastics,  many  of  whom  were  foreigners. 
In  this  way  we  must  explain  the  great  prevalence  of  the  Latin 
language.  Such  a  system  ^vuld  be  sure,  to  stifie  all  national 
outgrowth,  and  accordingly  we  have  among  the  Poles  none  of 
those  early  monuments  of  the  language  which  o±er  countries 
boast.  For  instance,  there  are  no  Mint  or  legendary  poems, 
such  as  are  found  among  the  Russians,  although  many  passages 
in  the  ancient  chroniders  from  their  poetical  colouring  seem  to 
be  borrowed  from  old  songs  or  legends,  and  the  first  verses  <^ 
some  of  these  compositions  have  been  preserved.  Mention 
may  here  be  made  of  other  dironiders  such  as  Martin  the  Pole 
(Polonus),  who  died  in  1279  or  laSo,  and  Jan  of  Cxamkow,  who 
died  in  1389;  the  latter  was  the  historian  and  paneg3rrist  of 
Casimir  the  Great.  With  the  reign  of  Casimir  IIL  (1333-1370) 
must  be  associated  the  statutes  of  Wislica.  Jadwiga,  the  wife 
of  JagteRo,  was  mainly  instrumental  in  creating  the  univexaty 
of  Cracow,  which  received  a  charter  in  1364,  but  did  not-  come 
into  effective  existence  till  its  reconstitution  hi  1400.  In  thk 
institution  for  many  years  all  the  great  men  of  Poland  were 
trained-^mongothersGregoryof  Sanok,  DIugosxand  Copemicuft. 
Casimir  the  Great  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of 
this  university.  Having  obtained  the  consent  of  Pope  Urban  V., 
he  established  at  Cracow  a  studiumgeneraU  on  the  model  tA  the 
university  of  Bologna.  It  consisted  of  three  faculties— Koman 
law,  medicine  and  philosophy.  But  the  aristocratic  youth  stfll 
preferred  frequenting  the  universities  of  Prague,  Padua  and 
Paris,  and  accordingly  the  newly  founded  «/iMfiami  languished. 
Jadwiga,  however,  obtained  from  Boniface  IX.  permission  to 
create  a  new  chair,  that  of  theology;  and  the  university  of  Cracov( 
was  remodelled,  having  been  reorganized  on  the  same  basi» 
as  that  of  Paris.  Another  university  was  founded  later  at  Vilna 
by  Bitory,  and  one  at  Zamo66  by  the  chancellor  Zamoyski. 
There  were  also  good  schools  in  various  places,  such  as  thei 
Collegium  Lubranskiego  of  Posen  and  the  school  of  St  Maty  at 
Cracow.  In  the  year  1474  a  press  was  set  up  in  the  latter  city, 
where  Gflnther  Zainer  printed  the  first  book.  The  first  press 
from  which  books  in  the  Polish  language  appeared  was  that  of 
Hieronymus  Wietor,  a  Silesian,  who  commenced  publishing  in 
15x5.  A  few  fragments  printed  in  Polish  had  appeared  before 
this,  as  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  statutes  of  the  bishops  of  Breslau 
in  1475,  the  stocy  of  Pope  Urban  in  Latin,  German  and  Polish 
in  1505,  &c.;  but  the  first  complete  work  in  tLe  PbH^  language 
appeared  from  the  press  of  this  printer  at  Cracow  in  1521,  under 
the  title,  Speeches  of  the  Wise  King  Solomon*  Iht  translation 
was  executed  by  Jan  Kosaycki,  as  the  printer  informs  us  in 
the  preface,  and  the  work  is  dedicated  to  Anna  Wojnicka,  tho 
wife  of  a  castellan.  Irt  1533,  a  Polish  translation  of  Ecclesiastet 
appeared  from  that  press,  and  before  the  conclusion  of  that  year 
The  Life  0  Christ,  with  woodcuts,  translated  info  Polish  by 
Balthasar  Opec.  Many  other  presses  were  soon  eslAblished. 
Printers  of  repute  at  Craa>w,  during  the  i6th  and  beginning  of 
the  X7th  century,  were  Sybeneicher  and  Piotrkowcxyk. 

Little  as  yet  had  been  produced  in  Polish,  as  the  chronicferr 
stiir  adhered  to  Latin;  and  here  mentvon  must  be  made  of  Jan 
Dlugosa,  who  called  himself  Longinus.  He  was  bishop  pi,f-y„, 
of  Lemberg,  the  capital  of  Galicia,  and  has  left  us  a  very  ^^ 
valuable  history  which  has  merits  of  style  and  shows  considerable 
research.  So  anxious  was  Dhigosx  to  make  his  work  as  perfect 
as  he  could  that  he  learned  Hussian  so  as  to  be  able  lo  read  the 
Chronicle  of  Nestor.  The  best  part  of  his  book  is  that  which 
treats  of  the  period  between  1386  and  1480.  About  1500  was 
written  an  hitercsting  Kttle  work  entitled  '*  Memoirs  of  a  Polish* 
Janissary  "  (Pamutniki  ianausra  polaka).  Although  written 
in  the  Polish  language,  it  was  probably  the  production  of  a 
Serb,  Michael  Const  antinovich  of  Ostrovitza.  He  was- 'taken 
prisoner  by  the  Turks  in  1455  and  served  ten  years  among  the 
Janissaries,  after  which  •  he  escaped  into  Hungary.  About' 
this  time  also  flourished  Nicholas  Copernicus,  a  native  of  Thom» 
one  of  the  few  Poles  who  have  made  titemselvcs  known  bofoad 
the  limits  of  their  country. 

The  Poles  call  the  period  between  1548  and  1606  their  golden 


924 


POLAND 


IMTCRATURfi 


ige.  Ftoland  wtt  the  great  lind  of  cistem  Europe,  and  owing 
to  the  imiveisal  toleration  encouraged  by  the  government, 
Protestantism  was  widely  spread.  Many  of  the  chief  nobility 
were  Calvinists,  and  the  Sodni  came  to  reside  in  the  country. 
All  this,  however,  was  to  peas  away  under  the  great  Jesuit  re- 
action. At  Rakow  in  Pcdand  was  published  the  catechism  of 
the  Sodnian  doctrines  in  1605.  The  Jesuits  made  their  appear- 
ance in  Poland  in  X564,  and  soon  succeeded  in  getting  the 
achooUi  of  the  country  into  their  hands.  Besides  extirpating  the 
various  sects  of  Protestants,  they  also  busied  themselves  with 
destroying  the  Greek  Church  in  Lithuania.  Latin  poetry  was 
cultivated  with  great  success  by  Clement  Janicki  (1516-1543), 
but  the  earliest  poet  of  repute  who  wrote  in  Polish  is  Rej  of 
Naglowice  (x  505-x  569).  AJfter  a  somewhat  idle  youth  he  betook 
himself  to  poetry.  He  was  a  Protestant,  and  among  other 
religious  works  translated  the  Psalms.  His  best  WMk  was 
Zmerdadh  albd  tywot  poaciwego  ctlawUka  (The  Mirror  or 
Life  of  an  Honourable  Man) — a  somewhat  tedious  didactic 
piece.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  kind  of  plasr-^a  mystay« 
we  may  term  it,  and  productions  of  this  sort  seem  to  have  been 
common  in  Poland  from  a  very  early  time — entitled  Life  oj 
Jouph  in  Egypt.  This  piece  is  mterestmg  merely  from  an 
antiquarian  point  of  view;  there  is  but  little  poetry  in  it.  It 
teems  with  anachronisms;  thus  we  have  mention  of  the  masfl 
and  organs,  and  also  of  a  German  servant.  Lucas  Goinicki 
(1537^x603)  wrote  many  historical  woiks,  and  I>wantt$tm 
polski,  an  imitation  of  the  Cffrttgiano  of  CastigUone. 

Jan  Ko^anowaki^  (i 530-1 584),  called  the  prince  of  Polish 
poets,  came  of  a  poetical  family,  having  a  brother,  a  cousin 
and  a  nephew  who  all  enriched  the  literature  of 
their  country  with  some  productMQs.  Kochanowski 
studied  for  some  time  at  the  university  of  Padua, 
and  also  resided  in  Paris,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  oC 
Ronsard.  Returning  to  Poland,  he  became  in  1564  secretary 
to  Sigismund  Augustus.  He  has  left  Tiu  Came  of  Ckeu, 
an  imitation  of  Vida,  and  Prcponec  albo  held  pnuki  (The 
Standard  or  Investiture  of  Prussia),  where  he  describes  the 
Icalty  done  by  Albert  of  Brandenburg  to  Sigismund  Augustus. 
He  also  executed  &  translation  of  the  Psalms.  He  wrote  a 
play — a  fMece  of  one  act,  with  twelve  scenes — The  Despatch 
of  ih€  Creek  Ambassadors.  It  is  written  in  rhymelcss  five-foot 
iambics,  and  is  altogether  a  product  of  the  Renaissance, 
reminding  us  of  some  of  the  productions  of  George  Buchanan. 
Rhjrme  is  employed  in  the  choruses  only.  It  was  acted 
on  the  marriage  of  the  chancellor  Jan  Zamoyski  with  Christine 
RadziwiU,  in  the  presence  of  King  Stephen  and  his  wife, 
at  Ujazdowo  near  Warsaw  in  1578.  The  poet*s  most  popular 
work,  however,  is  his  Trcny  or  "  Lamentations, "  written 
on  the  death  of  his  daughter  Ursula.  These  beautiful  elegies 
have  been  justly  praised  by  Mickiewicz;  they  are  enough  to 
raise  Kochanowski  far  above  the  level  of  a  merely  artificial 
poet.  Besides  poems  in  Polish,  he  also  wrote  some  in  Latin. 
It  will  be  observed  that  we  get  this  double-sided  authorship 
in  many  Polish  writers.  They  composed  for  an  exclusive  and 
learned  circle,  certainly  not  for  the  Jew,  the  German  trader  of 
the  town,  or  the  utterly  illiterate  peasant.  It  may  be  said 
with  truth  of  Kochanowski  that,  although  the  formof  his  poetry 
is  classical  and  imitated  from  classical  writers,  the  matter  is 
Polish,  and  there  is  much  national  feeling  in  what  he  has  left 
us.  Mention  must  also  be  made  of  his  epigrams,  which  he  styled 
"  Trifles  "  (Fraszki);  they  are  full  of  spirit  and  genialUy.  Stan- 
tslaus  Grochowski  (1554-1612)  was  a  priest;  but  his  poetry 
if  of  little  merit,  although  he  was  celebrated  in  his  time  as  a 
writer  of  panegyrics.  His  satire  Babie  Koto  (The  Women's 
Circle)  gave  offence  on  account  of  its  personalities.  A  great 
partisan  of  the  Catholics  in  the  time  of  Sigismund  III.  was 
Caspar  Miaskowski,  whose  Walela  Wiosstsonotuha  (Farewell 
to  his  Native  Country)  deserves  mention.  Ssarqrfiski,  who 
died  young  in  i58x»  deserves  notice  as  having  introduced  the 

*Ht9  collected  works  were  printed  In  1584;  tfiey  were  many 
time*  rvprinted,  the  t>cst  edition  being  that  of  Wanaw  (4  vols., 
1W4).    Histifo  was  written  by.  Pnyborowski  (Paaen,  1857). 


sonnet  to  the  Poles.   This  spcdes  of  poctiy  was  afterward  to  be 
carried  to  great  perfection  by  Mickiewicz  and  GaszynakL 

Szymonowicz  (i  554-1624)  was  a  writer  of  good  paatoials 
Although  they  are  imitated  from  classical  writers,  he  has 
introduced  many  scenes  of  national  life,  which  he 
describes  with  much  vigour.  Among  the  best  are 
"  The  Lovers."  "  The  Reapers,"  and  "  The  Cake  " 
(/Coloa).  Mickiewicz  is  very  loud  in  his.  praise,  and  considen 
him  one  of  the  best  followers  of  Theocritus.  The  conditioa, 
however,  of  the  Polish  peasants- was  too  miserable  to  admit 
of  their  being  easily  made  subjects  for  bucolic  poeto'. 
There  is  an  artificial  air  about  the  idylls  of  Szymonowicz 
which  makes  one  feel  too  keenly  that  they  are  productions 
of  the  Renaissance;  one  of  their  best  features  is  the  bimane 
spirit  towards  the  miserable  peasantry  which  they  every- 
where diq>Uiy.  Another  ezcdlent  writer  of  pastorals  was 
Zimorowicz,  a  native  of  Lemberg,  who  died  at  the  early 
age  of  twenty-five.  Some  of  his  dbort  lyrics  are  very  elegant, 
and  remind  us  of  Herrick  and  Canew--«.;.  that  beginning 
''  Ukochana  LaneeUotot  Ciebie  me  proszf  o  tbio."  Another 
writer  of  pastorals,  but  not  of  equal  merit,  was  Jan  Gawinski, 
a  native  of  Cracow.  Some  good  Latin  poetry  was  written  by 
Casinur  Sarbiewski,  better  known  in  the  west  of  Eonpe  as 
Sarbievius  (d.  1640).  He  was  considered  to  have  approached 
Horace  more  nearly  than  any  other  modem  poet,  axid  a  gold 
medal  was  given  him  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  Martin  Kroner 
(151^1589)  wrote  a  history  of  Poland  in  thirty  books,  and 
another  volume,  giving  a  description  of  the  country  and  its 
institutions — both  in  Latin.  The  history  is  written  in  an  easy 
style  and  is  a  work  of  great  merit.  A  poet  of  some  impoftance 
was  Sebastian  Fabian  Klooowicz  (1545-1602),  who  btimard 
his  name  into  Acemus,  KUm  being  the  Polish  for  maple,  and 
wrote  in  both  Latin  and  PoUsh,  and  through  hb 
to  reform  drew  down  on  himself  the  anger  ol  Uie  clexsy- 
times  he  b  descriptive,  as  in  hb  Polish  poem  entitled  Flis  ("  The 
Boatman  "),  in  which  he  gives  a  detailed  account  oC  the  aoeneiy 
on  the  banks  of  the  Vistula.  There*  b  some  poetry  in  thb  oon- 
posilion,  but  it  alternates  with  very  prosaic  details.  In  another 
piece,  Rhoxolania,  in  Latin,  he  describes  the  beauties  of  Galkxa. 
Occasionally  he  is  didactic,  as  in  Worek  Judasum  (The  B»g 
of  Judas)  and  Victoria  deorumf  where,  under  the  allegory  «i 
the  gods  of  Olympus,  he  represents  the  struggles  of  parties 
in  Poland,  not  without  severely  satirizing  the  nobdity  and 
ecclesiastics.  A  curious  work  called  Quinctaix,  written  fay 
Orzcchowski  (i  515-1566),  is  concerned  with  religkms  polemics 
Andrew  Modrzewski,  a  Protestant,  in  hb  work  De  repmhiicM, 
emendanda  (i55r),  reconunended  the  establishment  of  a  «atSrK»«i 
church  which  should  be  independent  of  Rome,  something  npaa 
the  model  of  the  Anglican. 

A  florid  Jesuitical  style  of  oratory  became  very  popular  in 
the  time  of  Sigismund  IlL,  not  without  rhetorical  power,  but 
frequently  beconung  tawdry.  The  chief  representa-  ^ 
tive  of  this  school  was  Piolr  Skarga  (r  536-161 2),  one  ^^"^ 
of  the  main  agents  m  extirpating  Calvinism  in  Poland  uiA  the 
Greek  Church  in  Lithuania.  Among  his  numerous  writings  may 
be  mentioned  Lives  of  the  Saints,  Discourses  on  the  Setae  Smra- 
mcnts,  and  especially  hb  sermons  preached  before  the  diet,  hi 
which  he  lasbed  the  Poles  for  their  want  of  patriotism  and 
prophesied  the  downfall  of  the  country.  Mecherzynskt,  in  hb 
"  Hbtory  of  Eloquence  in  Poland  "  (Historya  wymomy  w  PoiueU 
especially  praises  hb  two  funeral  sermons  on  the  burial  of  Anna 
Jagiellonka,  widow  of  Stephen  B&toiy,  and  Anna  of  Austria,  first 
wife  of  Sigismund  III.  Besides  the  Latin  hbtorics  of  Wapowski 
and  Gwagnin  (Guagntni,  of  Italian,  origin),  we  have  the  first 
historical  work  in  Polish  by  Martin  Bielski,  a  Protestant,  viz. 
Kronika  polskOf  which  was  afterwards  continued  by  hb  son. 
author  was  bom  in  1495  on  hb  father's  estate,  Biala,  asKl 
educated,  like  so  many  other  of  hb  iUustrioos  coDtcnporaiics* 
at  the  university  of  Cracow.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty; 
but,  however  great  were  the  merits  of  hb  CkromeU,  it  was  kmg 
considered  a  suspicious  book  on  account  of  the  leaning  of  the 
author  to  Calvinism.   After  hb  death  hb  woric  was  contiwicd  hf 


UTERATVREI 


POLAND 


939 


his  fiOQ  Joachim  (x54^<S99)-  Thoe  is  ate>  a  CkronkU  by 
Bartholomew  Paprocki.  In  1582  was  also  published  the 
CMronide  of  Stiyjkowski,  fuU  of  curious  kaniiiig»  and  still  of 
great  use  to  the  student  ol  history.  Five  years  later  appeared 
the  Annates  PoUmiat  of  SarnickL^  The  last  three  works  are  in 
Latin. 

.  A  few  words  may  be  said  he»  about  the  H^read  of  Pko- 
testantista  in  PoUody  which  is  so  intimately  mixed  up  with 
the  development  of  the  national  language.     The 
^l^jf^  doctrines  of  Hus  had  entered  the  country  in  very 
«,-.  early  times,   and    we   find    Polish    recensions    of 

Bohemian  hymns;  even  the  hymn  to  the  Virgin 
previously  mentioned  is  supposed  to  have  a  Csech  basis.  Thit 
bishops  were  soon  active  against,  those  who  refused  to  conform 
to  the  doariocs  of  the  Roman  church. .  Thus  we  find  that  Bishop 
Andrew  of  Bnin  seized  five  Hussite  priests  and  caused  them  lo 
be  burnt  in  the  market  of  Posen  in  1439.  ^  hundred  years 
afterwards  a  certain  Katharina  Matcher,  on  account  of  hsc 
Utraquist  opinions,  was  condemned  by  Gamrat,  the  bishop  of 
Cracow,  to  be  burnt,  which  sentence  was  accordingly  carried 
out  in  the  ragmarket  at  Cracow.  As  early  as  1530  Lutheran 
hymns  were  sung  in  the  Polish  language  at-  Thorn.  In  Kdnigs- 
berg,  John  Seklucyan,  a  personal  friend  of  Luther,  published 
a  collection  of  Christian  Songs.  He  was  bom  in  Great  Poland, 
and  was  at  first  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  Posen,  but 
afterwards  embraced  the .  Protestant  faith  and  was  inidtcd 
by  Duke  Albert  as  a  preacher  to  Ronigsbeig,  where  he 
died  in  1578.  He  executed  the  first  tmnsIaUon  of  the  New 
Testament  in  1551.  Four  years  afterwards  appeared  a  com^ 
plete  Polish  Bible  published  by  Sdiatfienbcrg  at  Cracow.  In 
^553  i^peared  at  Brzcfid  the  Protestant  translation  of  the  whole 
Bible  made  by  a  committee  of  learned  men  and  divines,  and 
published  at  the  expense  of  Nicholas  RadziwiH,  a  very  rich 
Polish  magnate  who  had  embraced  the  Protestant  doctrines. 
This  book  is  now  of  great  rarity  because  his  son  Christopher, 
ha^9ng  been  induced  to  become  a  Roman  Catholic  by  the  Jesuit 
Skarga,  caused  all  copies  of  his  father's  Bible  which  he  could 
find  to  be  burnt.  One,  however,  is  to  be  seen  yi  the  Bodleian 
Library,  and  another  in  the  library  of  Christ  Church  at  Oxford. 
A  Sodnian  Bible  was  issued  by  Simon  Budny.in  1570  at  Nie^- 
vier,  as  he  professed  to  find  many  faults  in  the  version  issued 
under  the  patronage  of  RadsiwiH;  in  1597  appeared  the  Roman 
Catholic  veraion  of  the  Jesuit  Wujek;  and  in  1633  the  so-called 
Panzig  Bible,  which  is  in  use  among  Protestants  and  is  still 
the  most  frequently  reprinted. 

Up  to  this  time  Polish  Utcraturer  although  frequently  rhc- 
toriol  and  too  much  tinctured  with  dassicsd  influences,  had 
stiU  exhibited  signs  of  genius.  But  now,  owing 
to  the  frivolous  studies  introduced  by  the  Jesuits, 
the  so-called  macaronic  period  supervened,  which 
lasted  from  x6o6  to  1764,  and  was  a  time  of  great  degradation 
for  the  language  and  literature.  The  former  was  now  mixed 
with  Latin  and  classical  expressions:;  much  of  the  litemture  oon> 
sists  of  fulsome  panegyric,  verses  written  on  the  marriages  and 
funerals  of  nobles,  with  conceits  and  fantastic  ideas,  devoid  of 
aU  taste,  drawn  f  rt>m  their  coats  of  -arms.  The  poets  of  this 
period  are,  as  may  be  imagined,  in  most  cases  wMre  rhymesters; 
there  are,  however,  a  few  whose  names  are  worth  recapitulating, 
such  as  Waciaw  Potocki  {c.  i6ai-c.  1696),  now  known  to  have 
been  the  author  of  the  Wojna  Ckoeimska,  or  "  War  of  Khotin,*' 
the  same  campaign  which  afterwards  formed  the  subject  o£  the 
epic  of  Krasicki.  At  first  the  author  was  supposed  to  have 
been  Andrew  Lipski,  but  the  real  poet  was  traced  by  the  his- 
torian Szajnocha.  The  epk,  which  remained  in  manuscript 
till  1850,  is  a  genuine  representation  of  Polish  Hfc;  no  picture 
90  faithful  appeared  till  the  Pan  Tadeus%  of  Mickiewics.  More- 
over, Potockt  had  the  good  taste  to  avoid  the  macaronic  style 
so  much  ill  vogue;  his  language  is  pure  and  vigorous.  He  does 
not  hesitate  to  introduce  oo^ionaUy  satirical  remarks  on  the 
luxury  of  the  times,  which  he  compares,  to  its  disadvantage, 
with  the  simplicity  of  the  old  Polish  life.  There  is  also  another 
poem,  attributed  to  Potocki  called  the  New  Mtrcury.    In  one 


ptttage  he  «eteiifes  King  Ifichdel  for  c^din^  Podofia  to  iJi# 
Tuiiu.  SaiBuel  Twardowski  (1600-^1660)  was  the  most  pro- 
lific poet  ol  the  ))eriod  of  the  Vasas.  His  most  important  poem 
is  IT/cMfystoMf  IK.,  iCmjo/Pafomf,  in  Which  he  sii^  in  a  very 
bombsstic  strain  the  various  expeditions  of  the  Polish  monarch. 
A  bitter  satirnt  appealed  in  the  person  of  Christopher  Opahaski 
(1609^1656).  His  works  woe  published  nadcr  the  titk  of 
Jtmaulis  niivims,  and,  wlthongh  boasting  but  little  poetical 
merit,  give  us  very  curious  pictures  of  the  times-  Hierooymus 
Vespasian  Kohcowski  (1633-1699).  was  a  soldier-poet,  who  went 
through  the  campaigns  against  the  Swedes  and  Cossacks;  he 
has  left  several  books  of  lyrics  full  of  vivacity,  a  Christian  epic 
and  a  Polish  psafanody.  Another  poet  was  Andrew  Morsxtyn 
(bom  about  i6ao,  died  about  the  oommenceraent  of  the  i8th 
century),  an  astute  anirtier,  who  was  finince  minhter  {pod* 
skdrbi)  under  John  Casimir,  and  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  tbi 
French  party  at  court,,  in  consequence  of  which,  in  the  refgn 
6t  Sobieski,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  his  native  country  and 
settle  in  France.  His  poems  are  elegant  and  free  from  the 
conceits  and  pedantry  of  the  earlier  writem.  In  fact,  he  in- 
troduced, into  Poland  the  easy  French  manner  of  such  writers  aa 
Voiturc.  He  translated  the  Cid  of  Comelllo,  and  wrote  a  poem 
on  the  subject  of  Psydie,  based  upon  the  .well-known  Greek: 
myth.  History  in  the  macaronk;.  period  made  a  backward 
step:  it  had  been  written  in  the  Polfeh  language  in  the  gotddn 
age;  it  was  now  again  to  take  a  Latin  fbrm,  as  in  the  Chronica 
Gesbintm  in  Europa  siniularinm  61  the  ecclesiastic  Paul  Piaseekl 
(i  580-1649),  who  is  an  authority  lor  the  reigns  of  Sigismund  III.' 
and  Wladislaus  IV.,  and  Rudawski,  who  describes  evcnls' 
from  the  accession  of  John  Casimir  to  the  peace- of  Oliva  <i64B-> 
i6fio);  and  as  valuable  material  for  history  may  be  mentioned 
the  five  huge  volumes  of  Andrew  Chiysostom  Zahiskr  (1711), 
bishop  of  Wannia.  This  work  is  entitled  EpishAae  kistoricei^ 
familiares.  It  would  be  impooible  to  recapitulate  here  the 
great  quantity  of  material  in  the  shape  of  raenioira  which  has 
come  down,  but  mention  must  be  made  of  those  of  John  Chry- 
sostom  Pasek,  a  nobleman  of  Masovia,''wbo  has  left  us  very 
graphic  accounts  of  life  and  sodety  in  Pbland;  after  a  variety 
of  adventures  and  many  a  weQ-fought  battle,  he  returned  to' 
the  neighbourhood  of  Cracow,  whae  he  died  between  1699' 
and  X701.  Some  of  the  nwst  characteristic  stories  iHustrating 
Polish  history  are  drawn  from  this  book.  A  later  period,  that  of 
the  miserable  epoch  of  Augustus  III.,  is  described  very  graphic* 
ally  in  the  memoirs  of  Mi^usoewicz,  first  edited  by  Pawinski 
at  Warsaw  in  1876.  Relating  to  the  same  period  are  also  th^ 
monoirs  of  Bartholomew  MichalowsU  {Patmetniki  Barthmieja 
MtcktUewskugo),  A  curious  insight  into  the  coun»  of  education 
which  a  young  Polish  nobleman  underwent  is  furnished  by^ 
the  instructions  which  James  Sobieski,  the  father  of  the  ceie*' 
brated  John,  gave  to  Orduywski,  the  tutor  of  his  sons.  This 
has  been  twice  printed  in  toqipaeatively  recent  tones  (Imtmkcya 
JakAha  Sobieskiego  kasttdanb  Krckonakugo  dana  pamt  Onktno* 
skiemu  as  skony  tyn&w^  Vilna,  11840).  Tlie  old  gentleman  in' 
his  aristocratic  imperiousness  frequently  reminds  us  of  the^ 
amusing  directions  given  by  Sir  John  Wynne,  to  his  chaplain,' 
quoted  in  Pennant's  Tow  m  Wfda, 

A  Hislmy  ai  the  Uthnamons  in  Lathi  was  published  by<  the 
Jesuit  Koidtowicz;  the  first  volume  appeared  at  Dansig  in  1650.- 
A  valuable  work  on  the  oondition  of  Poland  was  written  by 
Stanishius  Lesscxynski,  who  was  twice  chosen  king,  entitled 
GioM  wotny  wUnoU  ubapieeat^qcy  (A  Free  Voice  Guariinteeing 
Freedom),  where  he  tells  the  Pnles  tone  homely  and  perhaps 
disagreeable  truths  illustrating  the  maadm  Snmma  kUfkw 
etiam   poire  toUntHme.  '    ^' 

A  notable  man  was  Joseph  Andrew  ZaiusU^  blshopt  of  ICIeV,! 
a  Pole  who  had  become  thorbughfy  frenchlfied-Hto  much  sb;* 
that  he  preached  in  French  to'  the  fashionafafe  congKgstion»- 
of  Warsaw.  He  csliocted  a  splendid  library  of  about  300,000 
volumes  and  15,000  manuscripts,  iduch  he  bequeathed  to  the 
PoUsh  nation;  but  it  was  slterwards  carried  off  to  Sc  Petfersbtirg^* 
where  it  formed  the  fcHindation  of  the  imperial  pabfic  libiwty.; 
According  to  Nitschmann  ih  his  GesckkkUder-  pohtisthmi 


9^6 


POLAND 


iMTCItATtJRB 


UtteraiHr-^^  ivoik  wUcfa  bat  been  of  service  in  the  preparation 
of  this  «nicIe-Htlie  books  were  transported  to  Rmasia  very  care* 
kaaly,  and  maqy  ci  them  injued  by  the  way.  It  was  especially 
deb  in  works  telating  to  Poli^  histoiy.  Konarski  edited  in  six 
volumes  n  valuable  work  entitled  VUumina  legume  containing 
a  OMnpIete  ooUection  of  Polisb  laws  f lom  the  time  of  the  statute 
of  W^ca.  He  did  lAuch  good  also  in  founding  throughout 
the  coontfy  Schoob  Ua  the  cdnoation  of  the  sons  of  the  upper 
cksKS,  but  as  yet  nothing  had  been  done  for  popular  educa- 
tion properly  so-called.  About  the  dose  of  this  period  we  have 
some  valuable  wiitea  on  Polish  histoiy,  which  now  bcpin  to 
be  studied  critically,  such  as  Haxtknoch  in  bis  AU'  und  Heuet 
Brtutscm  (1684),,  a  work  in  which  are  preserved  interesting 
specimens  of  the  old  Prussian  langoagc,  and  Lengnich  (1689- 
1774),  author  of  the  valuable  Jus  publicum  ngui  Pokfrnat, 
which  appeared  in  1742. 

We  now  come  to-  the  reign  of  the  last  Polish*  lung,  Stan- 
islaus Pontatowskit  and  the  few  quiet  years  before  the  final 
divbMMi  of  the  country,  during  which  the  French  taste  was  all- 
powerful.  This  is  the  second  great  period  of  the  develq>mcnt 
of  Pdish  literature,  wUch  has  known  nothing  of  medieval 
romanticism.  The  jiteratote  of  t'he  first  or  Renaissance  period 
^vcs  us  some  good  poets,  ^riio  although  occasbnally  imitators 
Are  not  without  national  feeling,  and  a  goodly  array  of  chron- 
iclers, most  of  whom  made  use  of  Latin.  In  the  second  or  French 
period  we  get  versc-makcrs  rather  than  poets,  who  long  to  be 
Frenchmen,  and  sigh  over  the  barbarism  of  their  ooontry; 
but  the  study  of  history  in  a  critical  spirit  is  beginning  under 
the  influence  of  Narussewicz,  Albcrtrandi  and  others.  In  the 
third  period,  that  of  modem  romanticism,  we  get  true  nation- 
alism, but  it  is*  too  often  the  literature  of  exile  and  despair. 
Here  may  be  mentioned,  although  living  a  little  time  before 
the  reign  of  Stanidaus,  a  Polish  poetess,  Elizabeth  Druzbacka 
(1^^1760},  whose  writings  show  a  feeling  for  nature  at  a  time 
when  verse-making  of  the  most  artificial  type  was  prevalent 
throughout  the  country.  The  portrait  prefimd  to  the  Leipzig 
edition  of  her  wc^ks  b  a  striking  one,  representing  a  hand- 
seme,  intellectual^looking  woman,  dressed  in  the  garb  of  some 
religious  order.  Her  Lift  of  David  in  verse  appears  tedious, 
but  many  of  the  descrit>tions  in  the  Seasons  are  elegant.  Un- 
fortunatdy  she  introduces  latinisms,  so  that  her  PoUsh  b 
by  no  means  pure.  A  national  theatre  was  foimded  at  Warsaw 
in  X765  under  the  influence  of  the  court,  but  it  was  not  till 
long  afterwards  that  anything  really  national  connected  with 
the  drama  appeand  in  Poland.  Thomas  Kajetan  W^erski 
(X755~>7S7}*  vho  was  chamberlain  to  the  king,  enjoyed  a  con- 
siderable reputation  among  hb  countrymen  for  hb  satirical 
writing.  He  was  a  kind  of  Polish  Churchill,  and  like  hb  Eng- 
lidi  parallel  died  young.  Hb  life  also  appears  to  have  been 
as  irregular  as  Churchill's.  In  consequence  of  an  attack  on 
the  empress  of  Russia,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Poland,  and 
aocordingly  made  a  tour  in  Italy,  France,  America,  and  Eng- 
land, dying  at  Marseilles  at  the  eariy  age  of  thirty-thiec.  Hb 
poetry  shows  the  influence  of  tiie  French  taste,  then  prevalent 
theoiij^out  Europe.  In  times  of  great  natioaial  disasters  be 
deserves  to  be  remembered  as  a  true  patriot;  but  the  spirit  of 
hb  poetry  b  altogether  udwhofesome.  It  b  the  wailing  cry 
of  a>  moribund  nation.  The  great  laureate  of  the  court  of 
Sunislaus  was  Trembecki  (1722-1812),  whose  sympathies 
were  too  nmcfa  with  the  Rnssbn  invaders  of  hb  country.  He 
was  litde  more  than  a  fluent  poetaster,  and  b  now  almost  for- 
gotten. One  of  hb  most  oelcbcBted  pieces  was  Zoffawka, 
wrktcfl  on  the  country  seat. of  Fc&  Potocki,  a  Polish  magnate, 
for  thb  was  the  age  of  descriptive  as  weil  as  didactic  poetry. 
PerhJpS  ike  EngUsh  gave  the  hint  in  such  productions  as 
•!  Cooper's  Hill."  The  oW  age  of  Trembecki  appeals  to  have  been 
ignoble  and  -negfeoted;  he  had  indeed  "  faUen  upon  evil  days 
and  evil  tongues  ";  and  when  he  died  at  an  advanced  age  all 
the  gay  courtiert  of  whom  he  had  been  the  parasite  were  either 
dead  or  had  wboitted  to  the  Muscovite  yoke.  He  comes  before 
ns  as  a  Mated  ispicurean,  whose  airy  tnfles  cannot  be  warbled 
in  k^  atmosphere  surcharged  with  tempesu  and  gunpowder. 


The  end  of  the  i8th  oentofy  was  not  the  period  for  a  court 
poei  in  Poland. 

The  most  consi^cuous  poet,  however,  of  the  time  was  Igflaiits 
Krasickl,  bishop  of  Warmia  <l735''i8oi).    He  was  the  fricodoj 
Frederick  the  Great  and  a  prominent   member   of     KwmkH, 
the  king's  literary  club  at  Sans  Souci.     Krasicki 
wrote  an  epic  (m  tbe  war  of  Kbotin — the  same  as  had  fumt&lied 
the  subject  of  the  poem  of  Potocki,  of  which  Krasacki  in  aO 
probability  had  never  heard,  and  abo  that  fA  the  Dalnutiia 
Gundalich.     Kraslcki's  poem  b  at  best  but  a  doll  affair,  ia 
fisct  «  pale  copy  of  a  poor  original,  the  HtnHadc  of  Voiuire. 
His  mock  heroics  are,  to  say  the  least,  amusing,  and  among  iIk» 
may  be  mentioned  Mysteis,  where  he  describes  how  Ring  Popic!. 
according  to  the  legend,  was  eaten  up  by  rats.    His  Memochs- 
mackia  b  in  six  cantos,  and  b  a  satire  upon  tbe  monks.    Tbe 
bbbop  was  abo  the  writer  of  some  pretty  good  comedies.    Is 
fact  most  styles  of  osnposition  were  attempted  by  bini— of 
course  satires  and  fables  among  the  number.    He  presents  hiirw 
self  to  us  much  more  like  a  transplanted  FreiKh  abb6  than  1 
Pole.    In  the  year  i8or  he  travelled  to  Bertin,  and  died  tfetre 
after  a  short  illness.    Among  bis  other  works  the  bislv^  pub> 
Ibhcd  in  1781-1782,  in  two  volumes,  a  kind  of  encyciopaedis 
df  bcUes  leans  entitled  ZbiAr  Wiadomotci.      Hb  estimates  n( 
various  great  poets  are  not  very  accurate.    Of  course  be  firds 
Shakespeare  a  very  "  incorrect "  author,  although  be  is  wiU^s 
to  allow  him  considerable  praise  for  his  vigour.     F.  ld«»av^c 
(X783-X861)   published  some  excellent   FaMes   (x8oo)  in  tbe 
manner  of  Krasicki,  and  in  185 1  an  epic  entitled  My  Cramifather't 
Farm.    Adam  Naruszewicz  (i735'-i796)  was  bishop  and  poeL 
The  exbtencc  of  so  many  ecclesiastical  writers  was  a.  natural 
feature  in  Polish  literature;  they  formed  the  only  really  cbI- 
tured  class  In  the  community,  which  consisted  besides  of  a 
haughty  ignorant  nobility  living  among  their  serfs,  and  (a:  1 
vast  distance)  those  serfs  themselves,  in  a  brutalized  condiikKi. 
Burghers  there  were,  properly  speaking,  none,  for  most  of  ih£ 
citizens  in  the  large  towns  were  foreigners  governed  by  the 
Jus  magdeburgicum.    Naruszewicz  has  not  the  happy  vivadtT 
of  Krasicki;  he.  attempts  all  kinds  of  poetry,  «q>ecial]y  saiu-e 
and  fable.    He  is  at  best  but  a  mediocre  poet;  but  he  has  s:.:- 
ceeded  better  as  a  historian,  and  especially  to  be  praised  is  iJi 
"  Hbtory  of  the  Polish  Nation  "  {Uistorya  narodu  polshu^:^ 
whidi,  however,-  he  was  not  able  to  carry  further  than  the  yns 
1386.    He  also  wrote  an  account  of  the  PoUsh  gepoal  Cbcd- 
klewicz,   and  translated  Tacitus   and   Horace.      lotexettiaf 
memoirs  have  been  publbhed  by  Kilinski,  a  Warsaw  sboemiker. 
and  Kosmbn,  state  referendary,  who  lived  about  thb  tire 
and'  saw  much  of  the  War  of  Independence  and  other  poLLcd 
affairs.    Among  the  smaller  poeu  of  this  period  may  be  --• 
tioned  Katpinski  (r74i-i828),  a  writer  of  sentimental  ek<r^ 
in  the  style  then  so  very  much  in  fashion,    and  Tracdszek 
Dyonizy  Kniaznin  (1750-1807),  who  nourished  hb  nisse  on 
donical  themes  and  wrote  several  plays.    He  was  the  oeort 
poet  of  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski  at  Pulawy,  and  fnnasKcd 
odes  in  commemoration  of  aU  the  important  events  vh^ 
occurred  in  the  household.    He  lost  his  reason  on  the  dowa- 
f<i]l  of  Poland,  and  died  after  eleven  3%ats'  insanity  im  iSc?.' 
Julian  Ursin  Niemcewicz  (1758-X841)  was  one  of  the  mc^ 
popular  of  Polish  poets  at  the  commencement  of  the  prescci 
century  (see  Niemcewicz).     Hb  most  popular  work  b  :bc 
"  Collection  of  Historical  Songs  "   iSpievy  kistorycsnt),  wh«e 
he  treats  of  the  chief  heroes  of  Polbh  history.    Besides  ihw*« 
he  wrote  one  or  two  good  plays,  and  a  novel  in  letters,  on  the 
story  of  two  Jewbh  lovers.    John  Paul  Worooicx  (1757- iSrv- 
bom  In  Volhynia,  and.  at  the  dose  of  hb  Gfe  bishop  of  Warscv 
and  primate  of  Poland,  was  a  very  eloquent' di\-me,  and  Yzs 
been  called  the  modem  Skatga.    A  valuable  w<xrker  in  tbe 
field  of  Slavonic  philology  was  Linde,  the  author  of  aa  excclknt 
Polbh  dictionary  in  six  volumes.    For  a  long  thne  the  ccl.i- 
vatloa  of  Polbh  philology  was  in  a  low  sUte,  owing  to  the  pce\'s- 
lence  of  Latin  in  the  17th  century  and  French  ia  the  zSth, 
No  Polbh  grammar  worthy  of  the  name  appeared  tifl  that  d 
Kopczynski  at  the  close  of  the  x8th  century,  but  the  reproach 


LITEIMTURZ] 


POLAND 


has  been  taken  teway  bi  modern'  times  by  tlie  exccRent  works 
by  Maiecki  and  Malinowaki.  Rakowiecki,  who  edited  the 
Rousskuia  Pratia^  and  Madeiowski  (who  died  in  i88j, 
aged  ninety),  author  of  a  valuable  work  on  Slavonic  law,  may 
here  be  mentioned.  Here  we  have  a  complete  survey  of  the 
leading  codes  of  Slavonic  jurisprudence.  At  a  later  period 
(in  1S56)  appeared  the  work  of  Heloel,  Siarodawnt  prawa  pot- 
skiigQ  pommiki  ("  Anckat  Memorials  of  Polish  Law  ").  Abyaius 
Felifiski  (lyji-tiio)  produced  an  historical  tragedy,  Barbon 
RadiiwiU,  and  some  good  comedies  were  written  by  Count 
PivOia  Alexander  Fr^ro  (1793-1876).  In  fact  Fredro  may 
Onmm,  \^  considered  the  most  entertaining  writer  for  the 
St  age  which  Poland  has  produced.  He  introduced  genuine  comedy 
among  bis  countrymen.  The  influence  of  Molidre  can  be  very 
clearly  seen  in  his  pieces;  his  youth  was  spent  chiefly  in  France, 
where  he  formed  one  of  the  soldiers  of  the  Polbh  legion  of 
Napoleon  and  joined  in  the  expedition  to  Russia.  His  first  produc- 
tion was  Pan  Ctidhab^  written  in  1819  and  produced  at  Warsaw 
in  1821.  From  1819  to  1835  he  wrote  about  seventeen  pieces 
and  then  abandoned  publishing,  having  taken  o£Fencc  at  some 
severe  criticisms.  At  his  death  he  left  several  comedies,  which 
were  issued  in  a  posthumous  edition.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
local  colouring  in  the  pieces  of  Fredro;  although  the  style  is 
French,  the  characters  are  taken  from  Polish  life.  From  him 
may  be  said  to  date  the  formation  of  anything  like  a  national 
Polish  theatre,  so  that  his  name  marks  an  epoch.  The  Poles, 
like  many  of  the  other  nations  of  Europe,  bad  religious  plays 
at  an  early  period.  They  were  originally  performed  in  churches; 
but  Pope  Innocent  II.  finding  fault  with  this  arrangement, 
the  acting  was  transferred  to  churchyards.  Mention  has 
already  been  made  of  plays  written  by  Rej  and  Kochanowski; 
they  are  mere  fruits  of  the  Renaissance,  and  cannot  in  any  way 
be  considered  national.  The  wife  of  John  Casimir,  a  French- 
woman, ^larie  Louise,  hired  a  troop  of  French  actors  and  first 
familiarized  the  Poles  with  something  which  resembled  the 
modern  stage.  The  Princess  Franciaaka  RadziwiH  composed 
plays  which  were  acted  at  her  private  residence,  but  they  are 
spoken  of  as  inartistic  and  long  and  tedious.  The  national 
theatre  was  really  founded  in  the  reign  of  Stanislaus  Augustus; 
end  good  plays  were  produced  by  Bohomolec,  Kami6ski,  Krop- 
i/^skl,  Boguslawski,  Zabfocki,  and  others.  Perhaps,  however, 
with  the  exception  of  ihc  works  of  Fredro,  the  Poles  have  not 
produced  anything  of  much  merit  in  this  line.  A  great  states- 
man and  writer  of  the  later  days  of  Polish  nationality  was 
Kollataj,  bom  at  Sandomir  in  1750.  He  was  a  man  of  liberal 
scDtlmcQts,  and,  had  his  plans  been  carried  out,  Poland  might 
have  been  saved.  He  wished  to  abolish  serfdom  and  throw 
open  state  employnents  to  all*  The  nobility,  however,  were  too 
infatuated  to  be  willing  to  adopt  these  wise  measures.  Like 
the  French  aristocrats  with  the  reforms  of  Necker,  they  would 
not  listen  till  ruin  had  overtaken  them.  During  the  last  war 
of  Poland  as  an  independent  country  KoHjitaj  betook  himself  to 
the  camp  of  Kokluszko,  but  when  he  saw  that  there  was  no 
longer  hope  he  went  to  Galicia,  but  was  captured  by  the 
Austrians  and  imprisoned  at  Olraiitz  till  1803.  He  died  in  181 3. 
An  active  co-operator  with  Koliataj  was  Salesius  Jezierski,  who 
founded  clubs  for  the  discussion  of  political  questions,  and 
Stanislaus  Staszic,  who  did  much  for  education  and  improved 
the  condition  of  the  university  of  Warsaw. 

The  reputation  of  all  preceding  poets  in  Poland  was  now 
destined  to  be  thrown  into  the  shade  by  the  appearance  of 
^^     Mickiewicz    (1798-1855),    the  great   introducer   of 

romanticism  into  the  country   (ace   Mickiewicz). 

Poland,  as  has  been  said  before,  is  not  rich  in  national 
songs  and  legendary  poetry,  In  which  respect  It  cannot  com- 
pare with  its  sister  Slavonic  cotmtries  Russia  and  Servia.  CoDec* 
tions  have  appeared,  however*  by  Wadaw  Zakskl,  who  writes 
under  the  pseudonyms  o<  Wadaw  %  Oleska,  Wojcicki,  Roger, 
Zcgota  Pauli,  and  especially  Oskar  Kolberg.  Poland  and 
Lithuania,  however,  abounded  with  superstitions  and  legends 
which  only  awaited  the  coming  poet  to  put  them  into  veiae. 
lo  the  year  1851  Romuald  Ziefkkiewics  published  ^Miff  9J  lA« 


FupU  ef  Tkuky  and  coBectioat  have  even  appeitfsd  of  those, 
of  the  Kashoubes,  a  remnant  of  the  Poles  living  near  Danzig. 
Mickiewicz  had  had  a  predecessor,  but  of  far  less  talent,  Casimlr 
Erodzinski  (1791-1835).  He  served  under  Napoleon  in  the 
Polish  legton,  and  has  left  a  small  collection  of  poems,  the  most 
important  being  the  idyl  Wiedaw,  in  which  the  manners  of  the 
peasants  of  the  district  of  Cracow  are  faithfully  portrayed. 
The  second  great  poet  of  the  romlmtic  school  who  appeared  in 
Poland  after  Mickiewics  was  Julius  Slowacki  (180^1849)^ 
bom  at  Krzemieniec.  In  1831  he  left  his  native  country  and 
chose  Paris  as  his  residence,  where  he  .died.  His  writings  are 
full  of  the  fire  of  youth,  and  show  great  -beauty  and  elegance 
of  expression.  We  can  trace  in  them  the  influence  of  Byron 
and  Victor  Hugo.  He  is  justly  considered  one  of  the  greatest 
of  the  modem  poets  of  Poland.  His  most  celebrated  pieces 
are  Hns»\  Mnich  ("The  t/iovlk*^; Lambr^,  a  Greek  corsair, 
quite  in  the  style  of  Byron;  AnUUi,  a  very  Dantesque  poem 
expressing  under  the  form  of  an  allegory  the  sufl^erings  of  Poland; 
Krol  inch  (*'  The  Spirit  King  '*)i  another  mysterious  and  alle» 
gorical  poem;  Wadim,  on  the  same  subject  as  the  Morya  of 
Malcaewski,  to  be  afterwards  noticed;  Bancwski,  a  long  poertl' 
in  oUapa  n'ms  on  this  strange  adventurer,  something  in  the 
style  of  Byron's  humorous  poems:  Kordyan^  of  the  same  school 
as  the  English  poet's  Manfred;  Lilla  Weneda^  a  poem  dealing 
with  the  eariy  period  of  Slavook  history.  The  Ufe  of  Slowacki 
has  been  published  by  Professor  Anton  Sidecki  in  two  volumes. 

Mickiewicz  and  Slowacki  were  both  more  or  less  mystka^ 
but  even  more  we  may  assign  this  characteristic  to  Sgismund 
Krasifiski,  who  was  bora  in  18x3  at  Paris,  and  died  there  (d 
X859.  It  would  be  impossible  to  analyse  here  his  extraordinary 
poem  Nieboska  komedja  ("  The  Undivine  Comedy  "),  Irydum, 
and  others.  In  them  Poland,  veQed  under  different  allegories 
is  always  the  central  figure.  They  are  powerful  poems  written 
with  great  vigour  of  language,  but  enveloped  in  clouds  of  mys- 
ticism. The  life  of  KrasiAdd  was  embittered  by  the  fact  that 
he  was  the  son  of  General  Vincent  Krasifiski,  who  had  become 
unpopular  among  the  Poles  by  his  adherence  to  the  Russian 
government;  the  son  wrote  anonymous^  In  consequence,  and 
was  therefore  called  "  The  Unknown  Poet."  Among  his  latest 
productions  are  his  "  Psalms  of  the  Future "  {Psalntj  pny» 
atosci),  which  were  attacked  by  the  democratic  party  as  a 
defence  of  aristocratic  views  which  had  already  rained  Poland 
His  friend  Sbwacki  answered  them  in  some  taunting  verses, 
and  this  led  to  a  quarrel  between  the  poets.  One  of  the  most 
striking  pieces  of  Krasi&ki  has  the  title  "  Resvtrecturis."  The 
sorrows  of  his  country  and  his  own  physical  sufferings  have 
communicated  a  melancholy  tone  to  the  writings  of  Krasi/bki, 
which  read  like  a  dirge,  or  as  if  the  poet  stood  always  by  an  open 
grave— and  the  grave  is  that  of  Poland.  He  must  be  considered 
as,  next  to  Mickiewicz,  the  greatest  poet  of  the  country.  Other 
poets  of  the  romantic  school  of  considerable  merit  were  Gorecki, 
Witwickl,  Odyniec,  and  Gaszynaki;  the  last-named  wrote 
many  exquisite  sonnets,  which  ought  udone  to  embalm  his  name. 
Witwicki  (1800-184  7)  was  son  of  a  professor  at  Krzemieniec^ 
He  was  a  writer  of  ballads  and  poems  deah'ng  with  raral  life, 
which  enjoyed  great  popularity  among  his  countrymen  and  had 
the  good  fortune  to  be  set  to  music  by  (Tbopin.  The  works  of 
Lclewel  have  separate  mention  (see  Lelewel)  ;  but  here  may  be 
specified  the  labours  of  Narbutt,  Dtuje  stanmytne  arodu 
Htewskitgo  i"  Eariy  Histoiy  of  the  Lithuanian  People  '*),  pub- 
lished at  Vilna  in  nine  volumes,  and  the  valuable  lionumetUa 
Polottiae  kisLtricat  edited  at  Lemberg  by  Bielowski,  of  which 
several  volumes  have  appeared,  containing  reprints  of  most  oi 
the  eariy  chroniclers.   Bielowski  died  in  1876.  » 

A  further  development  of  romanticism  was  the  so-called 
Ukraine  school  of  poets,  such  as  Malcaewski,  (josaczynski* 
and  Zaleski.  Anton  Malczewski  (i 793*1826)  wrote  tfitmim 
one  poem,  M4rya,  a  Ukrainian  tale  which  passed  sek9»L 
unnoticed  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  but  after 
its  author's  death  became  very  pc^ular.  Malczewski  was  one 
of  Napoleon's  officers;  he  led  a  wandering  life  and  was  ia* 
timate  with  Byion  at  Venice;  he  b  said  to  have  suggested  I0 


POLAND  MTotATUM 

.    Ukninti  Vakriui  WtdD^swiki   (iSfiS)  l^v*  fictiua  of  csoDT 

in  Siiijikl  (bcTo'in'rSlS).  and  ai»  Schoilt,  who  dM  in  to 

'-.1.   ^zu>Bki  GDmnmccd  his  littnTr  area-  !■  Ift^ 

......  ,-,.u.  -.»  ^umlBi  in  I860  wwcwl  hu  tLna  hklckri^  □»> 


uy-UAth  ycBr-  5zu>Bki  c 
ilh  poviDt  ftnd  dramiBi  in 
^ikm.JbBfdtaiM^ulgryi .. , ... 

rnibikailn  in  parti  ol  hnworfe  jintii  PtIsH  ("  The  Hiitarv  g< 
lud  "),  iba  mintiiic  o[  vhkb  ccued^  1U6.  ^Ite  nluc  •(  iha 
ik  k  nnl  IhmJi  on  ucwnt  ol  the  laeueh  k  diMibv*  lail  iB 
inikuptiical  and  Bnprcjudiood  Mvle.  Oik  of  tbt  taM  wpiii  of 
inijiU;  writlen  In  Ccnun,  iKc  Patn  lati  Xii(4«n  h  Cofiwi. 
jttncttd  ■  great  ifcol  o(  •lUBIlon  at  Ihe  tiow  of  iti  appearann. 
Schmill  tot  miicd  up  iriib  lonit  of  Ihe  pnlitial  quotioiii  o<  the  dir 
— bf  m  a  wlivt  t^Galida  *ad  Ihcctfoia  a  ubiect  e(  tke  Ausroi 
cnipcTor—and  n>  KHUaccd  ra  dalb  io  1S4C,  but  the  pmuI:; 

l«HdbylhFrevDlul<on(i(IS4S.  In  r^ he  look  »n  in  the  Pofet 
mbeUion,  nod  wa«  coDiDcUcd  to  fly  tDPairu»wbcivnr  ooly  ivtnnrj 
inlSri.  Hu<:birf'm<mta*tsBlilaijtiaePtlukFt*Afimm:t, 
Eiulial  Tima  lBHeyari763  (1854).  Siibry  •/  Pilamiim  lii  liA 

FartiStm  jiUfl).  nhkh  hi  canied  &<• 
lion  to  tbe  ofnnion  of  aiaay  hist 
Fslaiid  Idl  tbioiMh  the  aobiUty  se 
LeVnFd)  that  the  coui "- 


. 1B38.    Caumiil 

.lie  peliod  ot  the  JiEidtaiii:  and  Sannicvicx.  (r. 

it  the  univerviy  o(  Leinbtii.  ha*  ircltlen  on  Ibe  rarir  taiiirf 
da.  lliaddcui  Woklccboinki  hu  pobliibed^  lidti  mi 
ronk  inliqaitios.  Xavier  Wa,  bem  la  iSjB,  pndum  of 
ol  hiuorv  at  Leisbeti,  has  piibllibed  many  Kiitarial  caati 
iilcrible  value,  and  Kpaole  «r)[>  by  bin  haw  apimRil 
in  me  Genoon,  F«1uh,  Sweuib,  Danish  and  SpaiuA  iadensp*. 
ThE  "  Skclch  at  the  HiUoiy  o(  FeUitd"  (Dct^  PiUkii  w  wtrrm) 
by  Midiul  BabrzvA(ki.b«a  la  iBu  in  Cranw  fonfoBr  id  Fdok 
and  German  Liw),  is  a  vny  spirited  wotfc.a]Ki  bas  (hres  liie  loi 
rxvat  dra]  of  eontitnersy  oh  account  of  tbe  oppositKifi  of  nnir.v 
of  its  views  IS  those  of  ibe  school  ol  LtlesieL  Vment  Zaknenb 
profeBoTDrbislDfy  at  Craco*.  bas  writ  ten  some  woeka  irtkb  baxx 
atlTjclcd  miHideiable  attenlion.  sucb  as  Ok  Ike  Oritm  <md  Gnmit  if 
lie  Jtc/wMiUw*  >>  Ptiattd.  and  Aflir  Ot  FliiU  ifKimt  Ho-r,-  •' 
which  he  describes  the  condltiafl  ol  tbe  countiy  ouriof  ihe  inud 
between  that  IiIm's  depanuce  Iron  Poland  and  the  ckcOoa  a 
Stephen  Dalory.  Smollea  bas  published  a  hiMoty  eittiilcd  Ifimto 
OtiuiriadiuAp.  Wladytkw Wiskda ha> jnpaC  ' 
<4  manuscripts  ia  the  Ia£ieL1on  tibnry  at  Craon 
^mir  PlebatsU.  bcnSt  editing  tbe  BiUMrk, 
■  Terynlnablelilenry  tourOBl  which  atands  at  " 
of  Ibc  Und  ia  Polaad.  bas  aln 
on  tbe  JiArriHS  arfe,  which  put*  tha 
JcilniU.  the  previous  editor  b  ■!•<:  .^. 
pulillshed  in  it  tranststion  of  parts  ol  Homer, 


first  liav«  tlie  early  hiMofy  oE  Ft! 
fonowed  by  that  of  Michael  Wsinii^o . 

ivw.  only  exlemJg  to  the  ijth  centuiy.  an  -         -       . 

of  malenab  (or  sutaeiiueni  writers,  ihe  style  bdn*  veiy  bnn.  A 
"  History  of  ^oqucBce  ~  UfiiliirjFa  wjMflrvw  PWici)  wsi  pah&^ied 
by  Karl  Mcihcriyikt  An  elabomle  hutory  of  Pidi^  Uteia- 
Imt  hat  been  written  by  Anion  Mateclci.  wbo  is  the  uithei  of  tbe 
i>nt  Polish  ^mmmar  (Gramatyka  fc»fgn*«ff-frMi>oaacaa  >rtn4s 
Milifn,  a  voh.,  Lenbrri,  1870).  The  Priiih  bibBivn^  rf 
Karl  Eitnfebcr.  cBreclor  of  the  Jaalelloa  libcaiy  at  Cntnw.  iia  x^ 
at  IkcUiheUioiportaiux.  One  <^  Ibc  most  active  wrilcnoaPc&b 
philolisy  and  literature  is  IVladyslaw  Nchriu.  whose  nonnaa 
contributtoB  to  the  AfcUt  Jir  Oanukt  PkSilotii  of  FmlnMi 

jaric entitle hin  to  Ihe cnlitudriil  all  who  have de — ■-■ -■ ^- 

loSM«iJcMBdies._w£(liinirSF '■ ' 


laner  poetiol  wnhi  ahidi  appear  dut^  that  live 

=mes  many  idtenslinc  raolqeical  and  aatlwiBiolcciciI 
_  have  been  tarried  00  in  Poland.      Ia  iStiCihia 

TyssWewici  publi'"    ■'■■--  »         .. 

••——•-  ami  WiOir 


W|  has  greatly  e 

la  phDownhy  tlie  Poles  fai  the  Sl^vi  Eener^IIy)  have  pc 

-  '—  leniai^iable  names.     Coluchowift,   Ihe  brothera  . 

*  '        ■',  ths  latter  ol  whom  n'" 

r  Tintow<U.  Kvgl  Li 


POLAND,  RDSSrAN 


92« 


<n  Fnncc. 


hfr  Wand,  in  1(31.  to  Puy  nnr' _.__ ,_ 

Her  i»v(hKill«)oyfRUpepaUritr  inPolaiHl.  <X  >Ke  poctenci 
trf  later  tlna  GitaMe  Nuiy_a  Zmichomka  (iBij-iBisVMarii 
llnicka.iaad>toro(Sc«t'>£*tfifUtiilu,iDd  j>dvig«l.iiiKiFw- 

A  poft  ol  con^inblfl  merit  li  Adtn  Aml^  (1838-1897),  la 
Kii  mtiy  m  wan  to  tiKv  tbe  Mepi  betwen  mvunilciim  and  tbe 
DioJeni  raiisiic  •cbnal,  sick  ti  n  lee  in  rbe  Ruwan  poet  Nekmov. 
Iniomeii(Iliefli(hl>atlu>iniuclienniiiid>inof  Slainclii.  is  the 
ntetody  ol  hi>  vent  of  Zileiki.  Ba^da  dkninf  talent  ■<  a  poet, 
he  haa  alB  written  lome  good  ptay*.  u  "  The  Irtr"  (ZM),  CsJs 
di  Rinti,  and  KiijiiuL  Oib« jkKli  worthy  d(  incmiofli  an  Zaior- 
iIei,  CaerWienaldt  and  Maria  KonDpnicka.  irho  Ikaa  pirbliihed  two 
t-oNmct  of  poecni  that  have  been  very  favounbly  ixHiced.  Mentinn 
vuti  abo  be  nade  of  Bahield  (I81T-1001).  author  of  novdi 

<»>niRlie>.aRd  Nareynnia  (iSjfl-tSjI),  who  vuef ■■ '-  ■^- 

tuEqicnt  pano'hiiibortldemCracow.amiiorof  BviHcvny  |w|niMi 

BtTemptl  wlbch  have  been  made  id  dfnaElonaliie  thr  muntry,  ii 
ftiLrly  ac1i\Y,  arc  Cr^coWi  Posea^  Lernberi  and  Wanav,  A  rfaeap 
*ditian  <*  ihr  Iciding  Poliita  ciaiiii:!.  Weil  adapted  tar  diHtmiiuiion 
■moni  ihc  pFoplr,  hii  Imn  pibtiihed,  undti  the  liile  of  Biiliouta 
/■I'lte.  at  CtanjH.  NmonlyaiTihrprorcuortalCracDw  Umvtruty 
aomeolIbeaUHEemineDllivLnB  Pol^hut  it  iiaa  been  chcocn  aa  a 
place  of  reudence  by  many  Poliih  literary  men.  The  academy 
of  vieflce»»  Founded  in  187a.  eelefaraicd  tbc  bamtcnary  af  [ix  niuDi 
of  IN  <i«e  ol  Vienna  by  Sohleilri  by  publiihini  the  valuable  Alia 
Jnuiiii  lil.  njit  Palcnial.  Some  rood  Poliih  wdiIu  have  b«n 
kiuedat  Pom.     At  Um" —    -■■ =-'  -'  ■■— ^-  <--ii-;- 

;..!.: ; — ■— -latrjiglew 

cntirh'  RuHaniaed.  and  ita  Tt 

but  Poliih  world  of  neril  atilJ  laauc 

otben  the  leadirv  Poiiah  4i«rary  iounal, 

Poland  la  EIlb 


Ikt  Red-RuHian  de  Rinhenian, 


^r^SJ. 


Kt  ofihia  taleia  tobnd«ovarIhenlltiRwoea  the  lew 
ialiaa  ia  Poland.    Adoii  DyniUilir  wriia*  etenr  vilbwe 

Ihe  '-  Vaii-yard  "  achool,  oait  hBteeii  aoBeliaea  IHrnidin 


ic  hai  been  calted  Ike  Pnliih  Zola.  I.  . 
'ecadent  (cbeoi  which  we 
i^ic  tpiftt  ia  appannt,  u 
iiaca  lh«  dsath  oi  Amyli 
larya  Konopnicka  JlB^fi). 


or  weaUy  iiluBialed 

aa  «n>oyed  neat -i--^"* 

_,.  ..jrlhenlltMwoi 

and  Chrialiaa  ia  Polar*      ■■-■f-^  -    -  "-^    --- 
taleaol  the  "  Vailorard 

Enaland.     Wadaw  Siatoaxewiai  naa  wrwien  awna   fan  in 
LbM  tf  lit  Jtkmli,  a  contribuiion  to  the  liuntun  of  (oik-lort 
alhnnlDfly  wch  aa  aniy  a  TTal  artift  could  praducB.    Amo^ 
liIeK  poeli  m  may  aeulicia  Wyunnki.  KiiiUrwild,  RnriB..... 
Moic  iipeUte;  the  laller  i>  ibe  author  of  aoote  pawofu)  naliitk 
noviU  ind  playa,  and  'he  hai  been  ea'"-"  -■-  "^-i-  ■■-'-     ■-  ■- 
this  land  J  poetry  and  iracea  ol  the 
Sod  in  the  later  Polish  poeta.    A  pcati 
in  the  wtiliaaa  si  Wenmlaua  Benni. 
and  Ujejalii  the  moat  pcominenE  poet  11 

Some  good  critical  work  hat  beu  dona ^  ._-- , 

SwietochDwdct  and  othen*  Hittorical  work  haa  been  produced 
by  Hlnchbcrs.  Pnpp^,  Sobieild,  dermak  and  othcn.  and  lh> 
h'ltoriea  of  Poliih  literaluie  by  Slanidaua  TarnowtU  and  Piolr 
Chmickiwik!  anol  ibe  highot  value,  ibe  fomcrdcalincmnmiiih 
the  acHhetic  aide  al  lileralure  and  the  latter  oith  llie  hiitaiical. 
The  Pde>  are  buiy  In  rev)ni(  Iheir  Eteat  patt. 
<n  I  huii j>m  for  hiitatkal  Mudiea.  and  (he  SiWirleta  ^'lar 

Poland  in  the  16th  and  beainning 
Swihiewica  (f-v.),  the  bistotkar 

SiBLIOOIArHT.— ripia  and  Spafovkh.  /Uaru  tlariaiukiHi 
Z,i(fnMar  [in  Ruttian;  St  l^tanburi,  lln);CrKbctli  4rr  Hfaijan 
Lilmlur  von  Dr  A.  Brflckiier  (Ltipw.  [901 :  al»  written  >n  Polidi)^ 
Chn>iek>nki.  Hiuvy  tfPtliik  LUiralm  (in  nilish.  i  < 
Li.nTarDowiki.  H!iW^^Pii(uikLilssMr>(in  Pdi^} 


tuta  tittrnfatskick. 

-  — luTv.    In  Henryk 
d  haa^j  nodom 


:,  Poland 


1& 


POUHD,  BOSSIIH,  a  teiritor?  conilitliig  of  ten  (ovemin 


Vlilula,"  or  occaalaiuRT  M  Ifce  " icrtflofy  on  Ilie  Vhtuta* 
It  Is  boandcd  N.  by  the  Pnia^o  ptovincn  of  Wnt  and  East 
Pnissia,  W,  by  those  of  Poien  and  Pnisuin  Sflcaio,  S.  by  the 
Auitritn  crownUnd  ol  Galicia,  and  E.  by  Ihe  Rusilia  pivera- 
menlsof  Volhynia,  VHna.Crodtio,  and  Komo. 

nyiital  Fafarrr.— Tl»  tf  rrilory  consiiti  for  (he  most  psTt  ot 
an  undulating  plain,  300  lo  450  ft.  above  (he  sea,  which  connetli 
the  iowlanda  of  Bnuidenburg  on  the  wnt  with  the  gnal  plain 
p|  central  Rnssia  on  the  eail.  A  low  swelling  scpsHiIa  it  from 
the  Bailie  Sea;  wfaOe  In  the  math  it  rises  gradually  to  a  scric$ 


Of  plateaus,  which  mrigc  ImpcrupUbty  Into  Ibc  DOrtlieRi  llnir* 
ol  the  Cirpilhians.  These  plattaiu,  with  la  bvcii«<  ekvaliOD 
olSaeto  toBsft.i  an  moVly  covered  with  foretu  □(  oak,  beech 


crajgy,  aud  olhen  broad. ,» 


14  them  in  all  diiectttvi.  aad 


I  oi  Poland  they  ari  called  podbsld 


.    The  V 


teina 


great  pbln  of  Poland,  and  ihente  to  iht  Baltic,  lo  valley 
dhrtdes  (he  hilly  tracts  into  two  parls-the  Lublin  heights  on  the 
easi,«BdihaS?Joniicti(Saiidoinii)orcuiijalheighlson  the  west. 
These  last  act  diveraiied  by  scvual  lugea  which  ran  east- 
fouth-eait,  patallel  to  (be  Beikides  of  the  CaipaiMan  tynpnif 
(he  highcjl  of  them  bring  the  Lysa  G6ra,  which  retch  1910  ft. 
and  ioip  ll,  above  the  Ml.  Another  short  ridge,  the  Chtcioski 
hilis  in  Kiekc,  feUows  Ibe  sane  direction  along  the  Mida  river 
and  teachea  ii4sH. aoulh  ol  Ihe  Nida^  the  Olkuti  bilb;  Ihiked 
on  to  spun  of  Ihe  Beskldes,  fin  up  ihe  south-west  comer  of 
Fobnd,  leidung  ifiiQ  ft.,  and  conliiiuag  ihc  chief  Duoeiai 
wcallb  of  the  ODuntiyi  while  a  fourth  rangtv  looo  lo  ijooll. 
high,  rana  notth-veat  past  Ca^sloctiowa,  sepanrting  Ihe  Ode* 
from  the  Watta  (Warlhe).  In  the  north,  the  plsift  of  Poland  H 
bordered  by  a  flat;  htoad  swelling,  600  to  500  ft.  above  the  sta, 
dotted  wiih  lakefc  iJid  tccalling  iht  bcuiLrine  [c^db  oi  north' 
LTihes,  peat-bogs,  pondti 


n  laki 


H  thes 


9^< 


POLAND*  RUSSIAN 


Mil—fucii  Are  the  general  chancttcs  of  the  northern  border^ 
tegion  of  the  gmt  plain  of  central  Poland.  The  rivers  flow- 
across  the  plain  in  broad,  level  valleys,  only  a  few  hundred 
or  even  only  a  few  dozen  feet  bwer  than  the  watersheds; 
they  separate  into  many  branches,  enclosing  islands,  forming 
cxeeks,  and  drowning  wide  tracts  of  land  during  inundations, 
their  basins,  especially  in  the  west,  interpenetrate  one  another 
in  the  most  Intricate  way,  the  whole  bearing  unmlstakablct 
evidences  of  having  been  in  recent  geological,  and  partly  in 
historical  times  the  bottom  of  extensive  lakes,  whose  alluvial 
deposits  now  yield  heavy  crops.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
the  facility  of  communicatbn  by  land  and  by  water  have 
made  this  j^In  the  cradle  of  the  Polish  nationality.  The 
very  name  of  Poland  is  derived  from  it— WIelkopokka  and 
Wielkopohuie  being  the  Slav  terms  for  the  great  plain  and  iU 

inhabitants. 

Riters  and  CbiMif.-'Ruiitan  Pohnd  belongs  mostly,  though  not 
eotirely,  to  the  basin  of  the  Vistala— its  wettern  ports  extending 
into  the  upper  basin  of  the  Waru.  a  tributary  of  the  Oder,  and  its 
north-east  spur  (Suwalki)  penetrattnB  into  the  basin  of  the  Mcrodi 
ci  which  it  occupies  the  left  bantc  Tor  many  centuries,  however^ 
the  Poles  have  been  driven  back  from  the  mouths  of  their  rivers  by 
tSe  Gasman  race,  maintaining  only  the  middb  parts  of  their  bauos. 
About  Josef ow  (si*  N.)  the  Vistula  enters  the  great  central  plain 
and  flows  north  and  west-nonh-west  between  low  bonks,  with  a 
breadth  of  looo  yds.  Us  inundations,  dangerous  even  at  Cracow, 
become  stilt  more  so  In  the  plain,  when  the  accumulations  of  Ice 
ia  its  tower  course  obstruct  toe  outflow,  or  the  heavy  rains  in  the 
QftTpatmans  raise  its  level.  EmbankmenU  20  to  74  ft.  high  are 
maintained  for  60  m.,  but  they  do  not  always  prevent  the  river  from 
iiundadag  the  flains  of  Opols  In  Lublin  and  Kosienioe  inRadom, 
the  waters  sometisMSs  extending  for  i«>m.  to  the  east.  Thousands 
o^  raftsand  boats  of  aU  descriptions  descend  the  stream  every  year 
wirii  cargoes  of  com.  wool,  timber  and  wooden  wares,  giving  occupa- 
tion to  a  lane  number  ol  men.  Steamers  ply  as  far  as  Sandoroir. 
The  Wiepra  (180  m.>,  a  right-hand  uibutary  of  the  Vistula,  is  the 
chief  artery  of  the  lAibUn  epvcmment;  it  is  navigaUc  for  small 
boats  and  rafts  for  lOjS  m.  from  Krasoystaw.  The  Bug,  another 
right-hand  tributary  oT the  Vistula,  describes  a-  wide  curve  conccn* 
tne  with  those  of  tne  middle  Vistula  and  the  Navew.  and  separates 
the  Ptidish  governments  of  LAiblin  and  Siedke  from  the  Russian 
fovernmenu  of  Volhynja  and  Grodno.  Only  light  boats  {tahry) 
aia  floated  down  this  broad,  shallow  stream,  whose  flat  and  open 
valley  ts  often  inundated.  Its  tributary,  the  Narew  (250  m.), 
brings  the  forest-lands  of  Byclovyesh  in  Grodno  into  communication 
witfi  Poland,  timber  beius  floated  down  from  Surazh  and  light  boats 
from  Tykoein  in  Lomza.  The  Pilica,  which  joins  the  Vistula  from  the 
left  30  m.  above  Warsaw,  rises  in  the  south-western  comer  of  Poland, 
and  Hows  for  soo  m.  north  and  east  in  a  broad,  flat,  sandy  and  marshy 
valley,  of  evil  Mpute  for  iu  unhealthiness. 

The  Wana  (450  m.)  rises  in  the  Cs^astochown  hins,90O  ft  above 
the  sea,  and  Bows  north  and  west  past  Sieiada  and  Kolo.  Below 
Cz9nstochowa  it  tcavcrscs  a  flat  lowland,  whose  surface  rises  only 


The  Memel  flows  aIot\g  the  9prth-east  frontier  of  Poland,  from 
Crodno  to  Yurbufg,  separating  it  from  Lithuania.  The  yellowish 
sandy  phhn  on  its  left  will  grow  nothins  except  oats,  buckwheat 
and  some  rye.  The  river  often  changes  iu  bed.  and,  notwithstanding 
sepeated  Attempts  to  regulate  it,  offem  great  difficulties  io  mivigatioo. 
StiU,  large  amounts  of. com.  wool  and  rimber  ace  floated. down« 
cspKlalty  after  its  confluence  with  the  Black  Hancza. 

Though  navigabte  for  a  few  months  only,  the  rivers  of  FolaiMt 
have  always  bmi  df  considerable  importance  for  the  traffic  of  the 
9)untry.  and  their  importance  U  further  increased  by  several  canals 
connecting  them  with  the  Russian  and  German  rivers.  The  Mcmel 
b  connected  with  the  Dnieper  by  the  Onnsky  canal,  situated  In  the 
Russian  government  of  Minsk.  The  Dnieper  and  Bug  canal  in 
Grodno  connects  the  Mukhavets,  a  tribuury  of  the  Bug,  with  the 
Pina  in  the  basin  of  the  Pripet.  that  is,  the  Dnieper  with  the  Vistula. 
The  Vistula  is  connected  also  with  the  Oder  by  the  Brombcrg 
canal  in  Prussia,  which  links  the  Brabe.  in  the  basin  of  the  Vistula, 
With  the  Netsc,  a  tributary  cA  the  Warta.  All  these  canals  are. 
however,  beyond  Russian  Poland.  In  Poland  proper,  the  Augus- 
towo  canal  connects  the  Vistula  with  the  Menicl,  by  means  of  the 
rivers  Black  Hancza^  Netu.  Biebn  and  Narsw.  Another  canal, 
to  the  west  of  Leczyca,  connects  the  Bzura.  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula, 
with  the  Ner  and  the  Warta;  and  the  Uxl  of  the  lormer  has  been 
altered  so  as  to  obtain  regukur  irrigation  <tf  the  meadows  along  its 
banlo. 

Lukes. — ^I^kes  are  numerous  in  the  goveroment  of  Suwalki.  but 
are  all  small  and  mostly  hidden  in  thicK  coniferous  or  birch  forests, 
and  their  waters  penetrate  with  undefined  banks  amidst  marshes. 
Musdy  tracts  and  a^umulations  of  moss-grown  boulders.    Another 


group  of  small  lakes  is  situated  in 'the  basia  of  the  Watta  (• 
part  of  Kalisz).  the  largest  being  Gopfe^  18  m.  loiig  assd  too  ft. 
deep. 

aimate.— With  the  exception  of  the  Lysa  G6ra  hilly  tcads 
(Kieloe  and  south  Radom),  which  lie  within  the  iMtherms  of  41* 
and  42^  Poland  is  situated  between  the  isotherms  c(  42*  and  46'. 
The  isotheres  and  isocheims  <t.e.  lines  of  equal  mean  sonuner  and 
winter  temperature  respectively)  crossing  one  another  at  right  aogleiw 
and  the  former  running  east-north-east,  Poland  b  included  betwcea 
the  i^theres  of  64*  and  61*  and  the  isochoms  of  35-7*  su«i  39-z'. 
The  prevailing  winds  s»e  westeriv,  with  north-north-ciast  and  smth 
winds  in  autumn  and  winter,  ana  east  winds  in  spring.    There  is  an 


dbtribution  the  snow-«heet  in  Poland  b  not  very  thick,  aad  spring 
sets  in  eariy.  Still,  frosts  of  —4*  to  —as*  Fahr.  are  not  uacanunos* 
and  the  rivers  are  generally  icebound  for  two  and  a  half  to  thnr 
months— the  Waru  being  under  ice  for  70  to  80  days,  the  Vistda 
at  Warsaw  for  80  days  and  (exceptionally)  even  for  1 16»  aad  the 
Memd  for  100  (exceptionally  for  I40)u 

The  following  averages  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  climate  of 
Poland:— 


i 

Earliest  frost  ....... 

Latest  frost     ....... 

Absolute  maximum  temperature     > 
Absolute  minimum  temperature      , 
Annual  rainfall  (tolaO    .     ..    ^     . 

Warsaw. 

Viiiia 
OaRossfa). 

Oct.  18 
March  1$ 
95-5; 

aa*8m. 

Ott-  17 
March  ss 

89-3: 
39-0* 
7-6  bL 

fZoro. — The  flora  of  Poland  is  more  aldn  to  that  of  Geimny 
than  to  that  of  Rnssb,  several  middle  Euitipean  swedes  fiadiiK  tbtv 
north<east  limits  in  the  basin  of  the  Memel  or  ra  the  aasshM  of 
Lithuania.  Coniferous  -forests,  coosbting  mostly  of  pine  (Pi««s 
syheslris)  and  trinch,  cover  large  tracts  in  Mazovia  in  the  nwth.  extend 
across  the  Baltic  lake^rklge  southwards  as  far  as  the  confloeoce  of 
the  Bug  with  the  Narew.  and  join  in  the  south-east  the  Pdtyikt  cf 
the  Pnpet.  The  pine  covers  the  Lysa  G6ra  hills  aad  the  hffls  m 
the  extreme  soutfi-west.  The  larch,  which  three  cemuije»  age 
covered  large  tracts,  has  almost  entirely  disappeared.  .Pnu 
scmAra  b  omy  remembceed,  as  also  Tcxus  taanlc  P<^cmi  steesls 
b  cultivated. 

Of  deciduous  trees,  tlie  CAMUiuoa  beedi  b  the  most  typical:  it 
extends  from  the  Carpathbns  to  5s*  N.  and  reaches  three  degivcs 
farther  north  in  small  groups  or  isolated  specimens;  the  cotifharccc 
of  the  Bug  and  the  Narew  may  be  icgarded  as  its  eastera  linuc 
The  white  beech  (Carpinut  bHtUus),  the  aspen,  and  two  elms  (  VI^u 
campestrss,  U.  ^usa^  are  fonnd  nearty  everywhere.  The  lioe 
appears  in  groves  only  in  the  east  (Memel.  Pnpet,  Labita).  It  a 
the  most  popular  tree  with  the  Poles,  as  the  birch  with  the  RusRans; 
judgment  of  old  was  pronounced  under  its  shade,  aad  ail  tl»e  UA- 
soags  repeat  its  name.  The  oak— a  highly  venerated  tree  in  Potand, 
though  not  so  modi  as  in  Lithuania  giuws  In  forests  onl^  on  tte 
most  fertile  land,  but  it  is  of  coeunon  occurrence  ia  conjwnctioa  «*tk 
the  beech,  elm.  Ac.  The  maples  {Aetr  ptonaascditt  aad  A. 
plaiamu}  are  sonewhat  rare;  the  black  akler  {Alttks  g^mUnam) 
the  banks  of  the  riven  and  canals,  and  the  AUus  incana  is  < 
The  willow  and  orchard  trees  apple,  pesfi  filttm  and 
cultivated  everywhere. 

f aama.-^'Ilie  fauna  of  Poland  belongs  to  the  tniddle  Eunspeaa 
soologicsl  group;  within  the  historical  pertod  it  has  lost  sack  species 
as  formerly  gave  it  a  subarctic  chasaeter.  The  reindeer  now  occuts 
only  as  a  fossil;  the  sable,  mentioned  in  the  anaab.  has  angiatcd 
OBStsrards;  the  wild  horse,  described  by  theannab  as  niaermedbtt 
between  the  horse  aad  the  ass— protnMy  similar  to  the  Epms 
pneualdtU  of  central  Asia— b  reputed  to  have  been  lact  witi$  ia 
the  f  3th  oentury  in  the  basin  of  the  Warta,  and  two  oentarics  }anr 
hi  the  forests  of  Lithnanfau  The  wild  goat,  biaoir  aiid  elk  hxvt 
migrated  to  the  Lithuanbn  forests.  The  lyax  aad  beaver  have 
disappeared.  The  brown  bear  coorinues  to  haunt  the  forests  of  the 
south,  but  b  baoDming  rarer;  the  wi^f«  die  srtld  boar,  and  the  tes 
are  most  common  throi4;hout  the  great  |>lain<  as  also  the  hare  aad 
sevwad  species  of  Atvlala»  The  mammab  in  jhotaad.  hosrrvTr. 
do  not  eaoeed  fifty  spedes.  The  avi-fauna,  whidi  does  act  differ 
from  that  of  central  Europe,  is  represented  by  some  one  hundred 
and  twenty  spedes;  among  whidi  the  singing  birds  (Osaltnuftw 
and  OmitoHftte)  are  the  most  numerous.  On  the  whole.  Pobsd 
lies  to  the  westward  of  die  most  freouented  route  of  the  nigrstary 
birds,  and  b  less  visited  by  them  than  the  steppes  of  aouo-wot 
Russb.  Numerous  aquatic -birds  breed  on  the  waters  of  fCbt  Baltc 
lahe~re{^on. 

Population.— Tht  population  of  Poland,  6,193, /to  rn  1871. 
reached  7,31^,080  ia  1881,  and  10,500,000  hi  1897.  The  esti- 
mated population  In  1006  was  i^jaj,$oo.  Detail  for  1897 
are  shown  In  the  svbjoined  table. 


POLAND, 


Covenuncntf. 


KftUflK.    .  . 

Kieke.    .  « 

Loouui     .  . 

Lubltn     «  . 

Piotrkdw .  * 

Plock.     .  . 
JUdom    , 

Stedlce     .  . 

Suwalki    .  . 

Warsaw   .  . 

ToUl  .  . 


Area, 
sq.  m. 


4.390 
3.896 
4.666 
6joo 
4.728 
4.«99 
4.768 

5>S33 

4.845 
5.605 


49.«30 


Population, 
i«97. 


844.358 
765*3  la 

585.033 
1,165.12a 
1,406,437 

f57.»29 
18/144 
75.326 
10.154 
1,929,200 


I 


9.456.105 


^ 


Urban 
Population. 


113.609 

§.814 
,196 
S09.699 
£9,831 

94.318 

"0^995 
73.308 

791.746 


2.059.340 


Oienaity 

per 
•q.  m. 


Si 

125 

»79 
397 

"33 
171 

136 

344 


193 


The  non-domicilcd  population  numbered  about  1,000,000,  ami  by 
1904  the  total  was  estimated  to  have  increased  to  13.000,000,  the 
rate  of  increase  between  1889  and  1904  having  been  46-6.  Poland, 
with  193  (domiciled)  inhabitants  or  313  inhabitants  in  aH  to  the 
•quare  mile  in  1897,  and  940  to  the  square  mile  in  1904,  has  a  denser 
population  than  any  other  region  in  the  Russian  empire,  the  next  to 
IK  being  the  KDvemmenta  of  Moscow,  with  189  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile.  PDdolia  with  186.  and  Kiev  with  181.  The  drift  town- 
wards  of  the  rural  population  began  in  1890,  when  the  urban  popula- 
tion amounted  to  onlv  18%  of  the  whole,  whereas  in  1904  it  reached 
»4%,  as  compared  with  13%  for  the  urban  population  ol  Russia  as 
a  whole.  Of  the  towns  of  Poland  32  have  a  population  each  exoecd> 
ing  10,000.  the  largest  being  Warsaw  the  capital,  with  638.208  inhabi- 
tants in  1897  and  756426  m  1901 ;  Lodz,  with  315.209  in  1897  and 
351.570  in  1900;  CxcnstochoWa,  with  45.130  in  1897  and  53,650  in 
1900:  and  LubKn.  with  50.153  in  1897.    According  to  nationalities. 


iansancl  Letts  (3  %) ;  'withVfcw  thousands  each  01  Tatars,  Bohemians, 
Rumanians,  and  Esthonians,  and  a  few  Gypsiei  and  Hungarians. 

During  prehbtoric  times  the  basin  of  the  Vistula  seenu 
to  have  been  inhabited  by  a  dolichocephalic  race,  different 
from  the  brachycephalic  Poles  of  the  present  day;  but  from 
the  dawn  of  history  Slavs  (Poles),  intermingled  to  some  extent 
with  Lithuanians,  have  to  be  found  on  the  plains  of  the  Vistula 
and  the  Warta.  The  purest  Polish  type  exists  ia  the  basin  of 
the  middle  Vistula  and  in  Pbsen.  The  F^les  extend  but  little 
beyond  the  limits  of  Russian  Poland.  In  East  Prussia  they 
occupy  the  southern  slope  of  the  Baltic  swelling  (the  Maxurs), 
and  extend  down  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Vistula  to  its  moaUi 
(the  Kasznbes  or  Kassubians).  Westward  they  stretch  down 
the  Warta  as  far  as  Bimbaum  (100  m.  cast  of  Berlin);  and  in  the 
south  they  extend  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula  to  the 
river  San  in  western  Galida.  In  Russia  they  constitute,  with 
Jews,  Lithuanians,  Ruthenians  and  White  Russians,  the  Unm 
population,  as  also  the  landed  nobility  and  the  country  fentjy, 
in  several  governments  west  of  the  Dvina  and  the  Dnieper. 

According  to  the  kxratities  which  they  inhabit,  the  Poles  take 
different  names.  Thev  are  called  .Wiclkopolanie  on  the  plains  of 
middle  Poland,  while  the  name  of  Malopolanie  is  reserved  for  those 
on  the  Warta,  The  name  of  L^zycanic  is  given  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  auirshes  of  the  Ncr,  that  01  Kurpie  to  those  of  the  Podlasic; 
Kuiawiacy.  Szl^cy  in  the  Silesia,  and  G6rale  in  the  Carpathians. 

The  Kaszubes.  and  especially  the  Maznrs.  may  be  considered  as 
separate  stocks  of  the  Polish  family.  The  Mazurs  are  distinguished 
from  the  Poles  by  their  lower  stature,  broad  shoulders  and  massive 
frame,  and  still  more  by  their  national  dress,  which  has  nothing  of 
the  smartness  of  that  of  the  southern  Poles,  and  by  their  ancient 
customs;  they  have  also  a  dialect  of  their  own,  containing  many 
words  now  obsolete  in  Poland,  and  several  grammatical  forms 
bearing  witness  to  Lithuanian  influence.  They  submit  without 
difficulty  to  German  culture,  and  in  Prussia  are  Lutherans.  The 
langoaffc  of  the  Kasxubes  can  also  be  considered  as  a  separate  dialect. 
The  Poles  proper  are  oh  the  whole  of  medium  stature  (5  fL  4'6  in-). 
6nely  built,  dark  in  the  south  and  fair  in  the  north,  richly  endowed 
by  nature,  inclined  to  deeds  of  heroism,  but  perhaps  deficient  in 
that  energy  which  chatacteritts  the  northern  races  A  Europe,  and 
in  that  lenae  of  unity  which  haa  been  the  strength  6L  their  pnseat 
rulers. 

The  German  element  is  annually  incrcadng  both  in  number  and 
la  influence.  The  Lodz  manufacturing  district,  the  Polish  Birming- 
ham, b  becoming  more  German  than  Polish ;  and  throughout  the 
govittnnieBts  west  of  the  Vistula  German  immlgnitbn  b  goingoo  at 
a  sCeadiW  increasing  rate,  especially  in  the  governments  o(  Plock, 
KalisK.  nQtrk6w  and  Warsaw. 

The  Jews,  who  are  found  everywhere  throughout  Poland,  are 
powbeteagnctikur*!;  in  the  larger  towns  many  01  them  aie  artisans, 


'93« 

but  aa  the  viUafles  they  ane  afaaott  eneluaiviely  «n|Med  u  shop* 
keaier%  seoond-hand  traders,  dealers  on  conunMSiM.  ianfcaepers 
and  asunn.  In  the  country,  both  commence  and  agriculture  are 
in  the  hands  of  their  intimately  connected  trading  asaociatloas. 
Their  relations  with  Poles  and  Ruthenians  are  anything  but  corditl. 
and  "  Jcw>baiting  "  is  of.frequent  oocurrence.  Tney  arc  incvca«iig 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  alava. 

AgnetUlun. — From  remote  antiquity  Poland  has  been  odebraled 
for  the  production  and  export  01  grain.  Both,  however,  greatly 
declined  in  the  t8th  century;  and  towards  the  beginning  of  the  19th. 
the  peasants,  ruined  by  their  proprietors,  or  abandoned  to  the 
jews,  were  in  a  more  wretched  oMdicioD  than  even  their  Russian 
neighbours^  Serfdom  waa  abolished  in  1807;  but  the  liberated 
peasants  rccei\-ed  no  allotments  of  land,  and  the  old  patrimonial 
jurisdictions  were  retained.  Compelled  to  accept  the  Conditions 
imposed  by  the  landlords,  the  peasants  had  to  pay  rack-rents  and 
to  give  compulsory  bbour  in  various  forms  for  the  use  of  their  bnd. 
Only  a  limited  number  were  considered  as  permanent  farmers,  while 
nearly  one-half  of  them  became  mere  proUtair*$,  Pursuing  a  policy 
intended  to  reconcile  the  peasantry  to  Russbn  rule  and  to  oreak 
the  power  of  the  Pdish  nobility,  the  Russbn  government  promul- 
gated, during  the  outbreak  in  1864.  a  bw  by  which  those  peasanta 
who  were  holders  of  bnd  on  estates  bclon«ng  to  private  persons, 
institutions  (such  as  monasteries  and  the  incef,  or  the  Crewn  were 
recognized  as  proprie^on  of  the  soil — the  state  paying:  compensation 
to  tiie  bndbrds  m  bonds,  and  the  peasants  havinjg  to  pay  a  yearly 
annuity  to  the  sute  until  the  debt  Uius  centiacted  had  ooea  cleared 
off.  The  valuation  of  there  allotments  was  made  at  a  rate  much 
more  advantageous  than  in  Russia,  and  the  average  use  of  holding 
amounted  to  15  acres  per  family.  Of  those  who  held  no  bnd  m 
number  received  gnnts  out  of  the  confireated  estates  of  the  nobiKty 
and  monasteries.  At  the  same  time  the  self-govemnient  of  tlie 
peasants  was  organised  on  democratic  prindpbs.    The  soiled 

servitudes.*'  however — ^that  is,  the  right  to  pasture  on  and  take 
wood  from  the  landlord's  estates — were  maintained  for  political 
reasona  There  reforms  resulted  in  a  temporary  increare  of  pros- 
perity, or  at  any  nre  an  alleviation  of  the  previous  misery  of  the 
peasants.  But  whereas  between  1864  ana  1873  the  peasantry 
as  a  whob  purehaaed.  in  addition  to  the  bnd  granted  to  them 
by  the  government,  397,000  acres,  in  the  period  1873-189^,  they 
bought  540,000  acres  and  between  1 893  and  1905  as  much  as  1 ,020,000 
acres.  Thus  the  process  of  breaking  up  the  larger  estates  b  pro> 
ceeding  rapidly  and  at  an  nccebrated  rate.  In  ren  yean  (1864- 
187^)  the  area  of  cultivated  soil  increased  by  1,350,000  acres,  whSe 
during  the  fourteen  years  1845-1859  its  increare  had  been  only 
5JO,ooo  acres.  But  the  maintenance  of  the  **  servitudes,*'  the  want 
01  pasture^bnd,  the  bck  of  money  for  improvements,  and  the  very 
rapid  increare  in  the  price  of  bnd.  all  helped  to  counteract  the  bend- 
&ts  of  the  agrarian  measures  of  186a. 

In  1904  the  vilbge  communities  (peasantry)  owned  43-8%  of  the 
total  area;  private  owners,  mostly  nobles.  40-6%;  the  Crown  and 
imperial  family.  6%;  and  public  bodies,  such  as  towns  and  mona»> 
tenesr  a*6  %;  while  ^  %  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  The  holdings 
of  the  peasant  families  vary  generally  from  8  to  13  acres,  tne 
minimum  in  Ruasu  being  16  to  aa  acres.  By  a  bw  of  1891  further 
subdivision  below  8*3  acres  is  prohibited.  But  out  of  a  total  of  some 
7.000^000  peasants  no  fewer  than  3,000,000  possere  no  bnd.  In 
consequence  of  thb  every  summer  no  fewer  than  800,000  emigrate 
temporarily  to  Germany  m  ouest  of  work. 

Forests  cover  over  21*3%  of  the  surface,  of  whkh  ncariy  one- 
third  bebng  to  the  Crown,  Bad  only  515,000  acres  (7*7%)  to  the 
peasantry. 

Agriculture  in  Pobnd  is  on  the  whob  carried  on  according  to  more 
advanced  methods  than  in  Russia.  The  extensive  cultivation  of 
beetroot,  of  potatoes  for  distilleries,  and  of  fodder  crops  has  led  to 
the  introduction  of  a  rotation  of  several  years  instead  of  the  former 
"  three-fields  "  system;  and  agricultural  machinery  bin  more  general 
use,  especially  on  the  larger  estates  of  the  west.  Winter  wheat  b 
extensively  cultivated,  especblly  in  the  south,  the  Sandomir  (Sedo- 
mierz)  wheat  having  a  wide  repute.  Of  the  land  in  the  poswssion 
of  the  peasants  no  less  than  70  %  b  under  crops,  and  of  the  bnd  in 
the  biger  esutes  53^;  of  the  former  category  11  %.  and  of  the 
btter  8^  is  meadow.  Altogether  nearly  10  million  acres  of 
Russbn  Pobnd,  or  almost  one-half  of  the  total  area,  are  under  cropa^ 
principally  rye,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  potatoes  and  hay,  with  some 
flax,  hemp,  peas,  buckwheat  and  hops.  After  local  wants  are 
Supplied,  there  remains  every  year  a  surplus  of  about  3i  roillio* 
quarters  of  cereals  for  export.  Beetroot  is  brgely  grown  for  (he 
manufacture  of  sugar.  Potatoes  are  extensively  grown  for  uw  in 
the  distilleries.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  succe»fully  carriedCHi. 
especblly  in  the  governments  of  Warsaw,  Piock  and  Lublin.  The 
breeding  of  livestock  (cattb,  sheep  and  borres),  is  an  important 
source  of  income.  Fine  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle  are  kept  on  the 
brger  estates  of  the  nobility,  and  cattb  are  exported  to  Austria. 
Bee-keeping  is  widely  followed,  especblljr  in  the  south-easvt.  Fishing 
b  carried  on  remnoerativcly,  itoore  particubrly  on  the  Vistub  and 
its  tributaries. 

Mamrfactwes  and  Mines. — ^Stnce  1864.  and  more  especblly  siaee 
1875,  there  has  been  a  remarkabb  development  of  manufacturing 
enterprise  in  Poland,  the  branch  of  industry  whfch  has  shown  thi 


m^ 


POLARITY^KHARIZATION  OF  LIGHT 


grmtcst  promiB  being  Ae  tmtile.  Whcrats  in  1^64  the  annual 
producdon  01  all  -factorie*  in  Pdand  was  vahied  at  not  more  than 
..$4  miiliona  sterling,  in  i87S«  Mrhcn  the  worker*  numbered  27,000, 
the  output  was  estimated  at  even  less;  but  in  ii^s  the  value  of  the 
industrial  production  reached  S3  millions  sceritng.  The  principal 
•  industrial  centres  are  Loda  (textiles),  Warsaw  (sugar»  leather  and 
miscellaneous)  and  Bendzin — Sosnowice — Dombrowa,  in  Piocrk&w 
<  (miniiic).  The  atttar  factories  and  refineries,  situated  chiefly  in  the 
governments  of  Warsaw,  LuUin  and  Piock,  turn  out  approximately 
one  million  tons  oC  sugar  in  the  year,  the  Polish  sugar  industry  being 
e>Kcoded  in  Russia  only,  by  that  of  Kiev.  Cotton  is  the  principal 
product  of  the  mills  at  Loda  «ad  Lask,  both  in  Piotricdw;  though 
woollen  doth,  silk  and  linen  are  also  produced.  Tanning  b  centred 
in  Warsaw  and  Radom;  Polish  f«.«.  Warsaw)  boots  and  shoes  have 
a  great  reputation  throughout  the  Russan  empire.  Other  notable 
branches  of  manufacturing  industry,  besides  those  already  named, 
are  flourwoiills.  jute,,  hosiery,  lace,  paper,  cement,  hats,  habeidasfaery, 
jnachinery,  tobacco^  soap  and  candle  factories,  iron  and  steel  works, 
distilleries,  breweries,  potteries^  vinegar,  choodate,  varnish,  furni- 
ture, clothing  and  brickworks.  The  cottage  industries,  sadi-as  pot- 
tery and  basket-making,  forroeriy  of  considerable  tmportanoe,  are 
gfadually  bdng  replaced  by  the  factory  ^stem  of  woncing. 

Southern  Pwand  possesses  abundant  minerals,  esperi^ly  in  the 
Kiplce  mountains  and  the  region  adjacent  to  Prussian  Silesia.  The 
Devonian  sandstones  contain  malachite  ores  n^ar  Kielce,  and  copper 
has  been  worked  there  sine*  the  iSth  century,  though  the  mines  are 
now  neglected.  The  browa  iron  ores  of  Kielce  contain  no  leas  than 
.40%  of  iron.  The  zinc  ores  ol  the  Olkusz  district,  more  than  50  ft. 
thick,  contain  8  to  14^  sometimes  25%.  of  ainc.  The  tin  ores  of 
Olkutz  are  still  more  important,  and  were  extcnsiveljr  wrought 
as  early  as  the  i6th  century.  Brown  iron  ores,  appearing  in  the 
ncifi^bourfaood  of  Bendain  as  lenticular  masses  55  ft.  thick,  and 
contaioiiw  25  to  ^  %  of  iron,  accompany  the  anc  ores.  Spheffosid«h 
ites  and  brown  iron  ores  are  plentiful  also  in  the  "  Keuper  forma- 
tion." Sulphur  is  wioi^ht  in  the  district  of  EHAczow;  the  deposits^ 
which  contain  25  %  of  sulphur,  reach  a  thickness  of  7  to  70  ft.  Coal 
occurs  in  south-west  Poland  over  an  area  of  aoo  sq.  m.  in  the  districts 
of  fiendxin  and  Olkusz.  Brown  coal,  or  lignite,  which  appears  in 
the  Olkuss  district  in  beds  3  to  7  ft.  thick,  has  been  worked  out.  The 
output  of  coal  is  4/100,000  to  6,000,000  tons  in  the  year,  the  number 
of  hands  employed  being  18,000  to  20,000.  The  yield  of  lignite  is 
less  than  loo^ooo  tons  annually;  of  zinc  10,000  to  12,000  tons;  of 
xx>ppor  and  lead  small.  The  production  of  iron  and  steel  increased 
from  13,090  tons  in  i86a  to  about  500,000  tons  in  1905.  Of  other 
mineral  produce^  chalk,  exported  from  Lublin,  a  few  quarries  of 
•naible  and  many  of  building  stones,  are  worthy  of  notice.  Mineral 
waters  are  used  medicinally  at  Ciecfaocinck  in  Piock  and  Nal^czow 
in  Lublin. 

CommunicaHons, — The  railways  of  Pdand  have  an  agercgate 
length  of  1300  m.  A  line  of  great  importance,  conncctingv'ienna 
%itn  St  I^tersbun,  cnMses  the  countiy  from  sQuth-west  to 
north-east,  paasine  torough  the  mining  distnct  and  through  Warsaw, 
and  sendinfi;  a  snort  branch  to  Lodz.  Another  important  line, 
connecting  Danzig  with  Odessa,  crosaes  Poland  from  north-weat  to 
fouth-east.  A  bcanch  line,  parallel  to  thb  last,  connects  Skieraio' 
wice  with  Thorn  and  Bromberg;  while  a  military  railway  connects 
the  fortresses  of  Warsaw  and  Ivangorod  with  Brest-Utovsk,  via 
Siedlceand  Lukow.  The  line  from  Beriin  to  St  Petersburg  travetaes 
the  north  of  Suwalki  for  5a  nu  between  Eydtkuncn  and  Kovno. 

CoupMTCf.-'-The  ceocni  trade  of  Poland  is  merged  in  that  of 
Russia,  under  which  heading  it  is  treated.  With  ^e  extension  of 
the  railways  the  fairs  have  lost  much  of  their  troportance,  but  their 
aggre^te  yeariy  returns  are  still  estimated  at  £3,ooo,ooa  The 
pnncipal  fain  are  held  at  Warsaw  (wool,  hemp,  hope),  L^czyca 
M  Kaiisz,  Skaiyssew  in  Radam,  Ciechanoviec  in  Lomza,  and  Lowicz 
in  Warsaw. 

.  Adntuiistralum.'>^'Th»  entire  administration  of  Poland  is 
under  the  governor-general  residing  at  Warsaw.  He  is  at  the 
same  time  the  commander  of  the  miUtary  forces  of  the  "  Warsaw 
military  <Iistrict."  Justice  is  represented  by  the  gmtna  tribunals, 
which  correspond  to  those  of  the  mir  in  Rus»a;  the  justices  of  the 
peace  (nominated  by  government);  the  syezd,  or  "  court "  of  the 
justices  of  the  peace;  the  district  tribunals  (assizes)  in  each 
government;  and  the  Warsaw  courts  of  appeal  and  cassation, 
^land  has  had  no  separate  budget  since  1867.;  its  income  and 
expenditure  are  bduded  in  those  of  the  empire. 

After  the  insurrection  of  1863  all  towns  with  less  than  sooo 
iofaabiUnts  wei«  deprived  of  their  municipal  rights,  and  were 
inchided,  under  the  designation  of  fosais,  in  the  pmnas. 
Viewed  With  suspicion  by  the  Russian  government,  the  Polish 
towzxs  recdved  no  self-government  like  the  villages.  The  elective 
munidpal  coancils»  which  enjoyed  de  jurt  very  large  rights, 
including  that  of  maintaining  their  own  police,  although  in 
willty  they  were  ondn-  the  role  of  the  nobility,  were  practically 
gboUsbedj  and  Russua  officials  were  nominated  in  thei^  place 


and  entrusted  with  all  their  rights.  The  municipal  conndli 
were,  however,  maintained  to  carry  out  the  orders  of  the  mihtary 
chiefs.  The  new  municipal  law  of  1870,  first  tntroduced  at 
Warsaw,  reduced  the  functions  of  the  municipal  councfl  almnst 
to  nothing.  The  burgomaster  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
police  and  the  chief  of  the  district,  and  has  to  discharge  all  sons 
of  functions  (bailiff,  policeman,  &c.)  which  have  nothing  to  do 
with  municipal  affairs.  In  all  official  communications  the 
Russitm  language  is  obligatory,  and  a  gradual  rlimiMtioa  of 
Poles  Irom  the  administratk>n  has  been  effected. 

£>^/hKe.r— Poland  contains  the  first  line  of  defence  of  the  Russan 
empire  on  its  western  frontier.  The  marshy  lowlands,  coveted  vith 
forests  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Vistula,  are  a  natural  defoace 
against  an  army  advancing  from  the  west,  and  they  are  strenstheaed 
b^  the  fortresses  on  that  nver.  The  centre  of  these  latter  is  Wanaw. 
with  Novogcorgievsk,  formerly  Modlin,  in  the  north,  at  the  roooifc 
of  the  Bug,  and  Ivangorod,  formerly  DembUn,  in  the  south,  at  the 
mouth  of.  the  Wieprz.  NovQgeoiigievsk  is  a  strongiy  fortified  caap 
which  requires  a  garrison  of  12,000  men,  and  may  shelter  an  army  d 
50.000  men.  The  town  of  Sierock,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bug  sad 
the  Narcw,  ia  fortiSed  to  protect  the  rear  of  Novogeorgiiersk.  The 
Vistula  line  of  fortresses  labour^  however,  under  the  great  ciisadw»- 
tage  of  being  easily  turned  from  the  rear  by  armies  advauiciiig  fraa 
East  Prussia  or  Galicia.  Brest-Utovsfc,  at  the  western  tssuc  from 
the  marshes  of  the  Pripet,  the  towns  of  Dubno^  Lutak  aad  Bo^ 
ruisk  constitute  the  second  line  of  defence. 

Relinon  and  Bducalion. — The  prevalent  rctigion  is  the  Ronss 
CathoMc,  to  which  over  75%  of  tne  total  population  bdn^  Pro- 
testants (mostly  Lutheram^  amount  to  6%,  while  about  S^  ^^^ 
members  of  the  Orthodox  oreek  Church.  After  the  iAsurrectioB  of 
186^,  measures  were  taken  to  reduce  the  numbers  of  the  Rfloas 
Catholic  clergy  in  Poland.  One  diocese  (Podlaaie)  was  abolished* 
and  a  new  one  established  at  Kieke,  white  several  btriiops  wcie 
sent  out  of  the  country.  Pobnd  is  now  divided  into  four  dionw^  ' 
Warsaw,  S^domierz,  Lublin  and  Piock. 

The  educational  institutions  of  Poland  are  represented  by  a 
university  at  Warsaw,  with  1500  students.  Teaching  has  bees 
earried  on  in  Rusman  since  1073.  There  are  excdient  technkal 
schools,  an  institute  of  agriculture  and  forestrv  at  Nowa-AleoLndrya. 
and  several  seminaries  for  teachers.  At  Warsaw  these  is  a  good 
musical  conservatory.  The  Jewish  children  are  mostly  sent  to  the 
Jewish  schods,  but  they  receive  almost  no  instruction  at  alL 
Although  there  has  been  a  decided  increase  in  the  number  of  both  the 
primary  and  the  secondary  schools,  nevcrthekas  the  school  aocoimo- 
dation  has  in  neither  category  of  school  k<^t  pace  with  the  crowth 
of  the  population.  The  proportion  of  primary  schools  has  is 
fact  been  steadily  decreasing,  and  the  applications  for  arimiaif 
to  the  secondary  schools  and  oilleges  are  on  the  average  twice  as  great 
as  the  number  of  vacancies.    All  the  same,  Polamf  compares 


favourably  with  Rusaa  in  the  general  level  of  education, 
those  able  to  read  and  write  in  1807  amounted  in  Poland  to  30-$% 
of  the  population  (only  9*3%  in  1062),  in  Russia  it  was  19-8  %. 

(P.  A  IC;  J.  T.  Bt) 

P0LARIT7  (Lat.  Polaris^  polus,  pole),  having  two  pdcs  « 
parts  at  whidi  certain  properties  are  the  oppotite  to  one  anotte, 
as  in  a  magnet  the  ends  of  whidi  have  opposite  magnetic  chvac- 
ters.  The  act  of  produdng  polarity  is  termed  polati2atiQa. 
For  electrolytic  polarization  «ee  Batteky  and  Euczsolyss, 
and  for  optical  see  Polauzatiom  or  Lxcbt  below. 

POLARIZATION  OP  UGHT.  A  stream  of  light  ooounc 
directly  from  a  natural  source  has  no  relation  to  spmct  except 
that  concerned  in  its  direction  of  propagation,  toaod  vhidi 
its  properties  are  alike  on  all  sides.  That  this  is  not  a  necessary 
characteristio  of  light  was  discovered  by  Christian  Hu>'gea&. 
who  found  that,  whereas  a  stream  (4  sunlif^t  in  traversing  a 
rhomb  of  spar  in  any  but  one  direction  always  gives  rise  to  tvo 
streams  of  equal  brightness,  each  of  these  emergent  streaos 
is  divided  by  a  second  rhomb  into  two  portions  having  a  leiatrvt 
intensity  dependent  upon  the  position  with  respect  to  one  aBothet 
of  the  principal  planes  of  the  faces  of  entry  into  the  Tfaoinhs— the 
planes  through  the  axes  of  the  crystals  perpendicular  to  the 
refracting  surfaces.  In  certain  cases,  indeed,  one  portioa 
vanishes  entirely:  thus  the  stream  ordhiarily  rrfiaded  in  the 
first  rhomb  gives  an  ordinary  or  an  extraordinary  stream  alcme 
in  the  second,  according  as  the  principal  planes  axe  parallel  or 
perpendicular,  the  reverse  being  the  case  ^ith  the  cxiraordinu7 
stream  of  the  first  rhomb.  In  intermediate  cases  the  intensitks 
of  the  two  beams  ore  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  cosines 
of  the  angles  that  the  principal  plane  of  the  second  rhomb  maies 
with  the  positions  in  which  they  have  the  greatest  ialcnsilj^ 


POLARIZATION  OF  LIGHT 


933 


On  tike  other  hud,  if  the  etaeigent  streanu  overlap  and  the 
common  part  be  aasiined,  it  is  found  to  have  all  the  properties 
of  common  light.  To  this  phenomenon  E.  T  Mains  gave  the 
name  of  polaHaaliam,  «s  he  attributed  it,  on  the  emission  theoiy 
of  light,  to  a  kind  of  polarity  of  the  light-corpttsdes.  This 
term  hsis  been  retained  and  the  ordinary  sticam  is  said  to  be 
l^ane  polarized  in  the  principal  plane  of  the  face  of  entry  into 
the  rhomb,  and  the  extcsordinaiy  stream  to  be  plane  poJariscd 
in  the  perpendicular  plane. 

The  phenomenon  of  polarization  observed  by  Huygens 
remained  an  isolated  fact  for  over  a  century,  until  BCalus  in 
1808  discovered  that  polarization  can  be  produced  independently 
of  double  refraction,  and  must  consequently  be  something 
dosely  connected  with  the  nature  of  light  itself.  Ezamimng 
the  light  reflected  from  the  windows  of  the  Luzembuxg  palace 
with  a  doubly  refracting  prism,  he  was  led  to  infer  (though  more 
refined  eiq)eriments  have  shown  that  this  is  hot  strictly  the  case) 
that  light  reflected  at  a  certain  angle,  called  the  pclaridng  cngU, 
from  the  surface  of  transparent  substances  has  the  same  proper- 
ties with  respect  to  the  plane  of  incidence  as  those  of  the  ordinary 
stream  in  Iceland  spar  with  req)ect  to  the  principal  plane  of  the 
crystal.  Thus  in  accordance  with  the  definition,  it  is  polarized 
in  the  plane  of  incidence.  Further,  if  polarized  light  fall  at 
the  polarizing  angle  on  a  reflecting  surface,  the  intensity  of  the 
reflated  stream  depends  upon  the  azimuth  of  the  plane  of 
incidence,  being  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  cosine  of  the 
angle  between  this  plane  and  the  i^ane  of  the  polarization. 
At  angles  other  than  the  polarizing  angle  common  light  gives 
a  reflected  stream  that  behaves  as  a  mixture  of  common  light 
with  light  polarized  in  the  plane  of  incidence,  and  is  accordingly 
said  to  be  partially  poUrized  in. that  plane.  The  refracted 
light,  whatever  be  the  angle  of  incidence,  b  found  to  be  partially 
polarized  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  incidence,  and 
D.  F.  J.  Arago  showed  that  at  all  angles  of  incidence  the  reflected 
and  refracted  ttreams  contain  eqnal  quantities  of  polarised  light. 
The  polarizing  angle  varies  from  one  tran^Mirent  substance  to 
another,  and  Sir  David  Brewster  in  18x5  enunciated  the  law  that 
the  tangent  of  the  polarizing  angle  is  equal  to  the  refractive 
index  of  the  substance.  It  follows  then  that  if  a  stream  of  light 
be  incident  at  the  polarizing  angle  on  a  pile  of  parallel  transparent 
plates  of  the  same  nature,  each  surface  in  turn  will  be  met  by 
the  light  at  the  polarizing  an^  and  will  give  rise  to  a  reflected 
portion  polarized  in  the  plane  of  incidence.  Henoe  the  total 
reflected  light  will  be  polarised  in  this  plane  and  will  of  necessity 
have  a  greater  intensity  than  that  produced  by  a  single  surface. 
The  polarization  of  the  light  transmitted  by  the  pile  is  never 
complete,  but  tends  to  become  more  nearly  so  as  the  number 
of  the  plates  is  increased  and  at  the  same  time  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence for  which  the  polarization  is  a  maximum  approaches 
indefinitely  the  polarizing  anfl^  (Sir  G.  G.  Stokes,  Math,  and 
Pkys,  FaperSt  iv.  145). 

In  order  to  isolate  a  polarized  pencil  of  rays  with  a  rhomb 
of  Iceland  spar,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  crystd  of  such  a  thick- 
ness that  the  emergent  streams  are  separated,  so  that  one  may 
be  stopped  by  a  screen.  There  are,  however,  certain  aystals 
that  with  a  moderate  thickness  give  an  emergent  stream  of  light 
that  is  more  or  less  completely  polarized.  The  polarizing  action 
of  such  crystals  is  due  to  the  unequal  absorption  that  they  extft 
on  poUrized  streams.  Thus  a  plate  of  tourmaline  of  from 
I  mm.  to  amm.  in  thickness  with  its  faces  perpendicular  to  the 
optic  axis  is  nearly  opaque  to  light  falling  normally  upon  it,, 
and  a  plate  of  this  thickness  panllcl  to  the  axis  peniits  of  the 
passage  of  a  single  stream  polarized  in  a  plane  perpendicular 
to  the  principal  section.  Such  a  plate  acts  in  the  same  way 
on  polarized  light,  stopping  it  or  allowing  it  to  pass,  according 
as  the  plane  of  polarization  is  parallel  or  perpendicular  to  the 
principal  section.  Certain  artificial  salts,  eg.  k>do4ttlphate  of 
quinine,  act  in  a  similar  manner. 

From  the  above  instances  we  see  that  an  Instrumental 
appliance  that  polarizes  a  beam  of  light  may  be  used  as  a  means 
of  detecting  and  examining  polarization.  This  latter  process 
is  termed  aaalysation,  and  an  instrument  is  called  a  polariser 


or  an  analyser  according  as  it  is  used  for  the  first  or  the  second 
of  these  purposes. 

In  addition  to  the  above  facts  of  polarization  mention  may 
be  made  of  the  partial  polarization,  in  a  plane  perpendicular 
to  that  of  emisuon,  of  the  light  emitted  in  an  oblique 
direction  from  a  white-hot  solid,  and  of  the  polarization 
produced  by  diffraction.  Experiments  with  gratings  have 
been  instituted  by  Sir  G.  Gabriel  Stokes,  C.  H.  A.  Holtzmann, 
F.  Eiaenlohr  and  others,  with  the  view  oi  determming 
the  direction  of  the  vibrations  in  polarized  light  {vide 
tMfra),  but  the  results  have  not  been  consistent,  and 
H.  FTzean  and  G.  H.  Quincke  have  shown  that  they  depend 
upon  the  size  and  form  of  the  apertures  and  upon  the  state  of 
the  surface  on  which  they  are  traced.  The  polari^tibn  of  the 
light  reflected  from  a  g^aas  grating  has  also  been  investigated 
by  I.  FrShlich,  while  L.  G.  Gouy  has  studied  the  more  simple 
case  of  diffraction  at  a  straight  edge.  The  polarization  of  the 
light  scattered  by  small  partides  has  been  examined  by  G.  Govi, 
J.  Tyndall,  L.  Soret  and  A.  Lallemand,  and  In  the  case  of  ultra- 
microscopic  particles  by  H.  Siedentopf  and  R.  Zsigmondy 
{Dmde  Ann,  1903,  x.  x)i  an  interesting  case  of  this  phenomenon 
hi  the  polarization  of  the  light  from  the  sky — a  subject  that  has 
been  treated  theoretically  by  Lord  Raylei^^  in  an  important 
series  of  papers  (See  Skt,  Couoxti  or,  and  Ra^etgh,  Scientific 
Works t  i.  87, 104,  518;  iv.  397). 

An  important  addition  to  the  knowledge  of  pdarization  was 
made  in  x8i6  by  Augustin  J.  Fresnd  and  D.  F.  J.  Arago,  who 
summed  up  the  results  of  a  seardiing  series  of  experiments  in 
the  following  laws  of  the  interference  of  polarized  light: 
(i)  Under  the  same  conditions  in  which  two  streams  of  common 
lig^t  interfere,  two  streams  polarized  at  right  angles  are  without 
mutual  influence.  (2)  Two  streams  polar^ed  in  paralld  planes 
give  the  same  phenomena  of  interference  as  common  light. 

(3)  Two  streams  polarized  at  right  an^es  and  coming  from  a 
stream  of  common  light  can  be  brought  to  the  same  plane  of 
polarization  without  thereby  acquiring  the  faculty  of  interfering. 

(4)  Two  streams  polarized  at  right  angles  and  coming  from  a 
stream  of  polarized  light  interfere  as  common  Ught,  when 
brought  to  the  same  plane  of  polarization.  (5)  In  calculating 
the  conditions  of  interference  in  the  kst  case,  it  b  necessary 
to  add  a  half  wave-length  to  the  actual  difference  of  path  of  the 
streams,  unless  the  primitive  and  final  planes  of  polarization  lie 
in  the  same  angle  between  the  two  perpendicular  planes. 

The  lateral  characteristics  of  a  polarized  stream  lead  at  once 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  stream  may  be  represented  by  a 
vector,  and  sbce  this  vector  must  indicate  the  direction  in 
which  the  light  travels  as  well  as  the  plane  of  polarization,  it  is 
natural  to  inifer  that  It  is  transverse  to  the  direction  of  propaga- 
tion. That  this  is  actually  the  case  is  proved  by  experiments  on 
the  interference  of  polarized  light,  from  which  it  may  be  deduced 
that  the  polarization-vector  of  a  train  of  plane  waves  of  plane 
polarized  light  executes  rectilinear  vibrations  in  the  plane  of  the 
waves.  By  ^mmetry  the  polarization-vector  must  be  either 
paralld  or  perpcndictdar  to  the  plane  of  polarization:  which  of 
these  directions  is  assumed  depends  upon  the  physical  character- 
istic that  is  attributed  to  the  vector.  In  fact,  whatever  theory 
of  light  be  adopted,  there  ate  two  vectors  to  be  considered, 
that  are  at  right  anises  to  one  another  and  coimected  by  purely 
geometrical  rdations. 

The  general  expressions  for  the  rectangular  components  of 
a  vector  transverse  to  the  direction  of  propagation  (s)  in  the 
case  of  waves  of  length  X  travelling  with  speed  t  are^— 

u-*  cos  CT-a),  s-6  cos  CT-/J), 

where  T«  sr(tf 's)/V  The  path  of  the  extremity  of  the  vector 
is  then  in  general  an  dlipse,  traversed  in  a  right-handed  direction 
to  an  obsover  recdving  the  Ught  when  a--^  is  between  o  and  r, 
or  between  — r  and  "ir,  and  in  a  left-handed  direction  if  this 
angle  be  between  r  and  zr,  or  between  o  and  — sr.  In  conformity 
with  the  form  of  the  path,  the  light  is  said  to  be  dllptically 
polarized,  right-  or  left-handedly  as  the  case  may  be,  and  the 
of  the  elliptic  path  are  determined  by  the  planes  of 


9S+ 


POLARIZATION  OF  UOHT 


^yTimnni  and  minfttmm  poIarisaUon  of  the  light.  In  the  par- 
ticuUr  case  in  which  a^b  and  a  — /S*  ^  (aii  +  i)r/2,  the 
vibrations  are  circular  and  the  light  ia  said  to  be  circularly 
polarized. 

These  different  types  of  polarization  may  be  obtained  from 
a  plane  polarized  stream  by  passing  it  through  a  quarter-wave 
plate,  ix.  a  crystalline  plate  of  such  a  thickness  that  it  introduces 
a  relative  retardation  of  a  quarter  of  a  wave  between  the  com- 
ponent streams  within  it.  Such  plates  are  generally  made  of 
mica  or  selenite,  and  the  normal  to  the  plane  of  polarization 
of  the  most  retarded  stream  is  called  "  the  axis  ot  the  plate." 
If  this  axis  be  parallel  or  perpendicular  to  the  primitive  plane 
of  polarization,  the  emergent  beam  remains  plane  polarized; 
it  is  circularly  polarized  if  the  axis  be  at  45*  to  the  plane  of 
polarization,  and  in  other  cases  it  is  eUiptlcally  polarized  with 
the  axes  of  the  elliptic  path  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  plate.  Conversely  a  quarter-wave  pUte  may  be* 
emi^yed  for  reducing  a  circularly  or  eUipticaUy  polarized 
Stream  to  a  state  of  plane  polarization. 

Two  streams  are  said  to  be  oppositely  polarized  when  the  one 
is,  so  far  as  relates  to  its  polarization,  what  the  other  becomes 
when  it  is  turned  through  an  azimuth  of  90**  and  has  its  character 
reversed  as  regards  right  and  left  hand.  An  analytical  invest!- 
gation  of  the  conditions  of  interference  of  polarized  streams  of 
the  moat  general  type  leads  to  the  result  that  there  will  be  no 
interference  only  when  the  two  streams  are  oppositely  polarized, 
and  that  when  the  polarizations  are  identical  the  interference 
will  be  perfect,  the  fluctuations  of  intensity  being  the  greatest 
that  the  difference  of  intensity  of  the  streams  admits  (Sir  G.  G. 
Stokes,  Math,  and  Phys.  Papers,  iii.  333). 

It  remains  to  consider  the  constitution  of  common  unpolariced 
light.  Since  a  beam  of  common  light  can  be  resolved  into  plane 
polarized  streams  and  these  x>n  recomposition  give  a  stream 
with  properties  indistinguishable  from  those  of  common 
light,  whatever  their  relative  retardation  may  be,  it  is  natural 
to  assume  that  an  analytical  representation  of  common  light 
can  be  obtained  in  which  no  longitudinal  vector  occurs.  On  the 
other  hand  a  stream  of  strictly  monochromatic  light  with  a 
polarization-vector  that  is  entirely  transversal  must  be  (in  general 
elliptically)  polarized.  Consequently  it  follows  that  common 
li^t  cannot  be  absolutely  monochromatic.  The  conditions 
that  are  necessary  in  order  that  a  stream  of  light  may  behave  as 
natural  lifi^t  have  been  investigated  by  Sir  G.  Gabriel  Stokes 
(/oc.  cU.)  and  by  E.  Verdet  {OnmUt  L  281),  and  it  may  be 
^own  that  two  polarized  streams  of  a  definite  diaracter  are 
analytically  equivalent  to  common  light  provided  that  they  arc  of 
cqu^  intensity  and  oppositely  polarized  and  that  there  is  no 
common  phase  celation  between  the  corresponding  monochro- 
matic constituents.  Further  a  stream  of  light  of  the  most 
general  character  is  equivalent  to  the  admixture  of  common 
and  pohirized  light,  the  polarization  being  elliptical,  circular 
or  i^ane. 

We  see  then  that  Ihere  are  seven  possible  types  of  Ught: 
common  light,  polarized  light  and  partially  polarized  Ught; 
the  polarization  in  the  two  latter  cases  being  elliptical,  circular 
or  plane.  Common  light,  circularly  polarized  and  partially 
circularly  polarized  light  all  have  the  characteristic  of  giving 
two  streams  of  equal  intensity  on  pas^ng  through  a  rhomb  of 
Iceland  spar,  however  it  may  be  turned.  They  may,  however, 
be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  on  previous  transmission 
through  a  quarter- wave  plate  this  property  is  retained  in  the 
case  of  common  light,  while  with  the  two  other  types  the  relative 
intensity  of  the  streams  depends  upon  the  orientation  of  the 
rhomb,  and  with  dmtlBrfy  polarised  Ught  one  stream  may  be 
made  to  vanish.  Plane  polarized  light  gives  in  general  two 
Itrcams  of  unequal  intensity  when  examined  with  a  rhomb, 
and  for  certain  positions  of  the  crystal  there  is  only  one  emergent 
Stream.  Elliptically  polarized,  partially  elliptically  polarized 
and  partially  plane  polarized  light  give  with  Iceland  spar  two 
Streams  of,  in  general,  unequal  intensity,  neither  of  which  can 
be  made  to  vanish..  They  may  be  differentiated  by  first  passing 
the  light  through  a  qtuirter-wave  plate  with  its  axis  panUel  or 


perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  mtifnwim  polaiintioa:  for 
elliptically  polarised  light  thereby  beconws  plane  polaifaed 
and  one  of  the  streams  is  eatingiiished  00  rotating  the  ihomb; 
but  with  the  other  two  kinds  of  li|^  this  m  not  the  caae,  and  the 
Ught  is  partially  plane  or  partiaUy  elUptxcally  polained  acootdiqg 
as  the  plane  of  ma»imnm  paJariiatioo  lemains  tlie  same  or  is 
changed* 

Cclomn  qf  CrystaOme  fVate.^It  wns  known  to  B.  T.  Malm  ekm 
the  interpo«itk>n  of  a  doubly  refracting  place  bcstw«eQ  a  pofar'tctt 
and  an  analjner  regulated  for  extinction  has  the  effect  of  partiaUy 
restoring  the  light,  and  he  used  thb  property  to  discover  double 
refraction  ia  caiea  in  whldi  the  separation  of  the  two  refncttd 
•creams  was  too  aUght  to  be  directly  detected.  D.  F.  J.  Anfo 
in  181 1  found  that  m  the  case  of  white  Ught  and  with  modera^ov 
thin  plates  the  transmitted  Ught  ia  no  longer  white  but  cokximl, 
a  vanation  of  brightness  but  not  of  tint  being  produced  when  tbe 
polariser  and  analyser  being  crossed  are  rotated  together,  wliile  i^c 
rotation  of  the  analyaer  alone  produces  a  diange  of  <»lour,  vbid 
passes  through  white  into  the  complementaiy  tint.  This  phem> 
menon  was  subjected  to  a  detailed  investigation  by  Jean  Bapti»s 
Biot  daring  the  vears  iSi3  to  1814,  and  from  the  results  of  his  experi- 
ments T?iomas  Voung,  with  his  brilliant  acumen,  waa  led  to  trda 
that  the  colours  were  to  be  attributed  to  interfef«nce  berweea 
tbe  ordinary  and  extraordinary  streams  in  the  plate  of  crystii 
This  explanation  is  incotnplete,  aa  it  leaves  out  of  aocouot  the  *ctka 
of  the  polarizer  and  analyser,  and  it  waa  with  the  purpose  of  moG^isf 
this  defect  that  Fresnd  and  Arago  undertook  the  investigatk>3s 
mentioned  above  and  thua  wpplied  what  waa  wanting  in  Ycwng's 
explanation.  In  Biot's  eariier  experiments  the  beam  of  Uaht  ca»> 
ployed  waa  nearly  panUIcl:  the  phenomena  of  rings  and  bnidies 
that  are  seen  with  a  conical  pencil -of  light  were  disouvered  b>  Sr 
David  Brewster  in  the  caae  ot  uniaxal  crystals  m  1813  and  ia  thai 
of  biaxal  ciyatals  hi  1815. 

Let  a,  ^,  f  be  the  anglea  that  the  primitive  and  final  plaaes  cl 
polarization  and  the  plane  of  polarization  oC  tlM  quicfcer  vave 
within  the  plate  make  with  a  fixed  pUne.  and  let  p  be  the  relatii-e 
retardation  of  phase  of  the  two  streams  on  emereence  from  the  p':..e 
for  Ught  of  period  r.  On  entry  into  tbe  crystal  the  original  poV* 
lied  stream  la  resolved  into  components  represented  by 

o  coaOf-a)  coa  T,  a  sin  (i^^-a)  coa  T.  T»2*tfr, 
and  on  emergence  we  may  take  as  the  expression  of  the  waves 

o  cos  (f -«)  cos  T,  a  sin  (f -o)  coa  (T-^). 
Finally  after  tiaveraiag  the  analyser  the  sum  of  tbe  two  leaohnd 
components  ia 

acos  (f-e)  cos  (f-^cos  T+a  sin  (*-e)  sin  (f-^coa  (T-p). 
of  which  the  Intenrity  is 

(o  coa  (^-tt)  cos  Ofr-^)  +«  sin  (f-«)  sin  (f-/S)  00s  ^p-f 
a*sin*(^-«)  shi*(^-|8)  sin*  p- 

o»co^(/9-«)-oVn  s(f-a)  sin  9(^-/9)  aii^  ^ 

When  the  primitive  light  la  white,  this  expression  mast  be  sammcd  kx 
the  different  monochromatic  constituents.  In  strietne«s  tbe  a<^  4 
is  dependent  upon  the  frequency,  but  if  the  dispersion  be  week  iria- 
tlvely  to  the  double  refraction,  the  product  sin  a(^— «)flia  a(^-i^ 


has  aenaibfy  the  aame  value  for  all  terms  of  the  summation, 
may  write 

I-*caa*^-o)Za*-sin  9(^-a)  sm  3(^-/})2o«  kx^  U 
This  formula  contains  the  whole  theory  of  the  colours  of  oystsS.^ 
plates  in  polarized  tight.  Since  the  first  term  repcesents  a  strcaoi  of 
white  light,  the  plate  will  appear  uncoloured  whenever  the  pl^  cf 
polarization  of  either  stream  transmitted  by  it  coiocidea  vius  chVr 
the  primitive  or  final  plane  of  polarization.   In  intcrnoediatc  cases  tbe 


fiekf  is  coloured,  and  the  tint  changjes  to  Its  complementary  as  t^c 
plate  passes  throus^  one  of  these  eight  positions,  alnce  the  wtx>'4 
term  in  the  above  expression  then  cnanges  sign.  If«  howew,  tbe 
primitive  and  final  planes  of  polarization  be  paraUd  or  fjiwil.  tbe 
ndd  cxhfljits  only  one  colour  during  a  complete  revolution  of  the  pUia. 
The  crystaHine  plate  shows  no  colour  when  it  »  very  thin,  and  a'sc 
when  itsthicknesaesceedaa  moderateamount.  In  the  former  casr  tY 
retardation  of  phase  varies  so  little  with  the  period  that  tW  iotees  t 
Is  nearly  the  same  for  all  odours :  ia  the  latter  case  it  aken  an  tapkilV 
that  for  a  small  change  in  the  period  tbe  intensity  pnanea  mm  a 
maximum  or  a  minimum,  and  consequently  ao  many  constxtucti 
of  the  light  are  weakened  and  these  are  ao  dose  to  one  sonthcr  ia 
frequency!  that  the  light  presents  to  the  eye  the  appearance  of  htt-^ 
white.  The  true  character  of  the  Ught  in  this  caae  nay  be  mF«^?«i 
by  analysing  It  with  a  spectroscopy  when  a  ^)cctrani  is  <k>tai.<«il 
traversed  by  dark  bands  corresponding  to  the  constituents  thor  ..*e 
weakened  or  annulled.  The  phenomenon  of  colour  may.  howrver.  ^ 
obtained  with  thick  plates  by  superposing  two  of  them  in  a  stt::> 
able  manner,  the  combination  acting  aa  a  thicker  or  a  thiaaer  pla» 
according  aa  the  ptanea  of  polarization  of  the  quicker  waves  «-rtfc.a 
them  are  parallel  or  crossed.  In  thb  way  a  delicate  test  for  sh^^b^ 
traces  of  double  refraction  ia  obtained.  When  the  recardatirs  of 
phase  for  light  of  mean  period  b  t  or  a  small  nnittiple  of  r  a 
crystalline  pUte  placed  between  a  crossed  polariacr  and    '  * — - 


POLARIZATION  OF  UGHT 


935 


exhiUtt  In  white  Ugfat «  distliictlve  greyish  violet  colour,  known  as  « 
•ensitjve  tint  from  the  fact  that  it  changes  xapidiv  to  blue^or  red, 
when  the  retardation  is  very  slightly  increasecf  or  diminished. 
If  then  the  sensitive  plate  be  cut  in  natfand  the  two  parts  be  placed 
side  by  side  after  the  one  has  been  turned  through  90*  in  its  own 
plane,  the  tint  of  the  one  half  will  be  raised  and  that  of  the  other 
will  be  lowered  when  the  compound  plate  is  associated  with  a  second 
doubly  refracting  plate. 

When  light  from  an  extended  source  is  made  to  converge  upon 
the  crystal,  the  phenomenon  of  rings  and  brushes  localised  at  infinity  is 
obtained.The  exact  calculation  of  the  intensity  in  this  case  is  very  com- 
plicated and  the  resulting  expression  is  too  unwieldy  to  be  of  any 
use,  but  as  an  approximation  the  formula  for  thecase  of  a  parallel 
beam  may  be  employed,  the  quantities  jf^  and  p  thereia  occurring 
being  regarded  as  functions  of  the  angle  and  f^ne  of  incidence 
and^  consequently  as  variables.  In  monochromatic  light,  then> 
the  interference  pattern  is  characterized  by  three  systenu  of  curves: 
the  curves  of  constant  retardation  p  «  const.;  the  lines  of  like 
polarisation  ^  ■■  const.;  the  curves  of  constant  intensity  I  «•  const. 
When  p  ■•  2nv  and  also  when  \^  ■■  a  or  «;f  W2  or  4"^fi  or./i+v/3* 
that  is  at  points  for  which  the  streams  within  the  plate  are  polarized 
in  planes  ^rallel  and  perpendicular  to  the  planes  of  primitive  and 
final  polarization,  the  intenMty  (called  the  fundamental  intensity) 
is  the  same  as  when  the  plate  is  removed.  These  conditkms  define 
two  systems  of  curves  called 
constant  retardation  and  tli 
these  latter  lines  dividing  the 
is  alternately  greater  and  less  than  the  fundamental  intensity. 
When,  however,  the  ]danee  of  polarization  and  analysatioa  ajre 
parallel  or  crowed,  the  two  pairs  01  principal  lines  of  like  polarisation 
coincide,  and  the  intensity  is  at  all  points  in  the  former  case  not 
greater  than,  and  in  the  latter  case  not  less  than,  it  was  before  the 
introduction  of  the  plate.  The  determination  of  the  curves  of  con- 
stant retardation  depends  upon  expres»ng  the  retardation  in  Cerma 
of  ^the  optical  constants  of  the  crystal,  the  angle  of  incidence  and  the 
azimuth  of  the  plane  of  incidence.  P.  A.  Bertin  has  shown  that  a 
useful  picture  of  the  form  of  these  curves  may  be  obtained  by  taking 
sections,  parallel  to  the  plate,  of  a  surface  that  he  calls. the  "  iso 
chromatk:  surface,"  and  that  is  the  locus  of  points  on  the  crystal 
at  which  the  relative  retardation  of  two  plane  waves  passine  simul- 
taneously through  a  given  point  and  travelling  In  the  same  direction 
has  an  assigned  value*  But  as  this  surface  is  obtained  by  assuming 
that  the  interfering  streams  follow  the  same  route  in  the  cystaT 
and  by  neglecting  the  refraction  out  of  the  crystal,  it  does  not  lend 
itself  to  accurate  numerical  calculations.  To  the  same  degree  of 
accuracy  as  that  empbyed  fat  obtaining  the  exptesmon  tor  the 
intensity,  the  form  of  the  Unea  of  like  polarization  is  given  by  the 
section,  parallel  to  the  plate,  of  a  cone,  whose  generating  lines  are 
the  directions  of  propagation  of  waves  that  have  their  planes  of 
polarization  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  a  given  pUne:the  cone  is 
in  general  of^  die  third  degree  and  passes  tlwough  the  optic  axes  of 
the  crystal.  We  must  limit  ourNives  ia  this  article  to  indicating 
the  chidf  features  of  the  phenomenon  in  the  man  important  cases. 
(Reference  should  be  made  to  the  article  Cbystaxxocraphy  for 
ulustratioQs,  and  for  appUcatioaa  of  these  pheoomeiia  to  the  deter- 
mination of  crystal  form.) 

With  an  uaieunl  plate  perpendicular  to  the  optic  axis,  the  curves 
of  constant  retardatioo  are  concentric  circles  and  the  lines  of  like 
polarizatioaare  the  radii:  thus  with  polarizer  and  analyser  regulated 
lor  extinction,  the  pattern  consists  of  a  series  of  br^ht  and  dark 
circles  interrupted  by  a  black  cross  with  its  arms  (auallel  to  the 
planes  of  polarization  and  analyaation.  In  the  case  of  a  biaxal 
plate  perpeadkrular  to  the  bisector  of  the  acute  angle  between  the 
optic  axes,  the  curves  of  constant  retardation  are  appfoairaately 
(Tassini's  ovals,  and  the  lines  of  like  polarization  are  equilateral 
hyperbolae  passing  through  the  points  corret^ondlxig  to  the  optic 
axes.  yVitfa  a  crossed  piuarBcr  and  aa^lyser^  the ^  rings ^are  inter- 
rupted  *    *  ■  ••    "^      .  .L--  ^1--  _f         r  ^1-        -r- 

tion  and  analysatl...     . —   — „ — 

becomes  a  rectangular  cross  with  its  arms  parallel  and  i^rpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  optic  axes  when  this  plane  coincides'  with  the- 
plane  ot  primitive  or  nnal  polarization — the  normal  position. 

When  white  light  is  employed  coloured  rings  are  obtained,  pro- 
vided the  relative  retardation  of  the  interfering  streams  be  not  too 
great.  The  isochromatic  lines,  unless  the  dispersion  be  excessive, 
follow  in  the  main  the  course  of  the  curves  of  constant  retardation. 
and  the  principal  lines  of  like  polarization  are  with  a  crossed 
polarijKr  and  arnlyser  dark  brushes,  that  in  ccruin  cases  are  fringed 
with  colour.  This  state  of  things  may,  however,  be  considerably 
departed  from  if  the  axes  of  optical  symmetry  of  the  crystal  are 
different  for  the  various  colours.  The  examination  of  dispersion  of 
the  optic  axes  !n  biakaf  crystals  (see  REraACTtoN,  (  D&»Ue)  may  be 
conveniently  made  with  a  plate  perpendicular  to  the  acute  bisectrix 
placed  in  the  diagonal  position  lor  light  of  mean  period  between  a 
crossed  polarizer  and  analyser.  When  the  rings  are  coloured  sym- 
metrically with  respect  to  two  perpendicular  fines  the  acute  bttcc- 
trix  and  the  plane  of  the  optic  axes  are  the  same  for  all  frequencies, 
and  the  colour  for  which  the  separation  of  the  axes  is  the  least  is 
that  on  the  concave  side  of  the  mimnit  of  the  hyperbolic  bnishfi 


Croittd,  f«*'?i<vH  and  hociaontal  dhperaioo  are  chsncteited 
tively  fay  a  distribudon  of  colour  that  is  symmetrical  with  respect 
to  thecentze.alone,  the  plane  of  the  optic  axes,  and  the  perpendicular 
plane. 

The  phenomenon  of  interference  produced  by  crystalline  plates 
is  considerably  modified  if  the  light  be  circularly  or  eUiptically 
polarized  or  analysed  by  the  interpoaidon  of  a  duarter-wave  between 
the  crystal  and  the  polarizer  or  analyser.  Thus  ia  the  two  caacs 
described  above  the  brushea  disappear  and  the  rings  are  condnuoua 
when  the  light  is  both  polarized  and  analysed  circularly.  But  the 
roost  important  case,  on  account  of  its  practical  applicatiaii  u> 
determinmg  the  sign  of  a  crvstal.is  that  in  which  the  fight  is  plane 
polarized  and  circularly  analysea  or  the  revecsck  Let  us  suppose 
that  the  light  Is  circulaiiy  analysed  and  that  the  primidve  ana  final 
planes  of  polarization  are  at  nght  angles.  Then  with  an  unlaxal 
plate  perpendicular  to  the  optic  axis,  we  black  croas  is  replaced  by 
two  lines,  on  crossing  which  the  rings  are  disoontinnoua,  nrpnintmn 
or  contraction  occurring  in  the  quadrants  that  contain  the  axia  of 
the  quaTter>wave  plate,  according  as  the  crystal  is  posidve  or  aeea- 
dve.  With  a  biaond  plate  perpendicular  to  the  optic  axis  in  the 
diagonal  position,  the  hyperbolic  brush  becomes  an  hyperbolic  Une 
and  the  nngs  are  expanded  or  oontracted  on  its  concave  side,  with 
a  positive  plate,  according  as  the  plane  of  the  optic  axca  is  paallel 
or  perpemficular  to  the  axis  of  the  quarter-wave  plate,  the  levene 
being  the  case  with  a  negative  plate. 

With  acombiaadon  of  plates  in  plane-polarised  and  plane«naiyaed 
light  the  interference  pattern  witn  monochromatic  lipit  is  aeaeraily 
very  complicated,  the  dark  curves  when  polarizer  and  analyeer  are 
crossed  being  replaced  bv  isolated  dark  spots  or  segments  of  linear 
When,  however,  the  fieki  b  very  small,  or  when  the  primitive  liriit 
is  white  so  thaUnterference  is  only  visible  for  small  ruadve  retaraa* 
tions,  the  problem  becomes  in  many  cases  one  of  far  less  complexity. 
An  inirtance  of  considerable  importance  is  afforded  by  the  combia»* 
tibn  known  as  Savart's  plate.  This  consists  of  two  pbtea  of  aa 
nmaxal  nystal  of  equal  thickncas.  cot  at  the  same  inclination  of 
about  45*tothe«>ticaxisand  superposed  with  their  principal  planes 
at  ris^ht  angles.  The  interference  pattern  produced  fay  this  eombina* 
tion  IS,  when  the  field  is  small,  a  system  of  parallel  straight  Unea 
bisecting  the  angle  between  the  principal  planes  of  its  constitnentsk 
These  attain  thdr  maximum  visibility  when  the  plane  of  anat^satiDa  • 
is  at  4^*  to  these  planes,  and  vanish  when  the  puuic  of  polaniaition 
is  parallel  to  either  of  the  principal  planes. 

The  phenomena  of  chromatic  polarizadoo  aflecd  a  ready  means 
of  detecting  doubly  refracting  structure  in  cases,  such  as  that  pro- 
duced in  isotropic  bodies  by  strain,  in  which  its  effects  aie  very 
minute.  Thus  a  bar  of  glass  of  sufncicnt  thickness,  placed  in  the 
diagonal  position  between  a  crossed  polarizer  and  analyser  and  bent 
in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  that  of  vision,  exhibits  two  sets  of  coloured 
banos  separated  by  a  neutral  line,  the  double  refraction  being  pooi- 
tive  on  the  dilated  and  negative  on  the  compressed  side.  Again, 
a  system  of  rings,  similar  to  those  of  an  uniaxal  plate  pefpendicolar 
to  the  axis,  may  be  produced  with  a  glass  cylinder  by  tfsnsmitttng 
heat  from  its  surface  to  its  axes  by  immersion  in  heated  oil,  and  giasa 
that  has  been  raised  toa  red  heat  and  then  cooled  rapidly  at  itsMgea 
gives  in  polarized  light  an  interference  pattern  01  a  regular  form 
dependent  upon  the  shape  of  the  contour. 

KfiHury  PoUritalum. — )n  general  a  stream  <^  plane-polarised  Kght 
undergoes  no  change  in  traversing  a  plate  of  an  unianl  crystal  in- 
the  direction  of  its  axis,  and  when  the  emergent  stream  »  analysed, 
the  light,  if  originally  white,  is  found  to  be  cokMiriees  and  to  be 
extinguished  when  the  polarizer  and  analyser  are  crossed.  When), 
however,  a  plate  of  quartz  is  used  in  this  experiment,  the  light  b 
coloured  ana  b  in  no  caaeeut  off  by  the  analyser,  the  tint,  however, 
chan^ng  aa  the  analyser  b  rotated.  Thb  phenomenon  may.  be 
expbined,  as  D.  F.  J.  Aiage  pointed  out,  by  supposing  that  in  pasiinf 
through  the  plate  the  plane  ot  pobrization  of  each  monochromatic 
constituent  is  rotated  by  an  amount  dependent  upon  the  frequency 
— an  explatuition  that  may  be  at  once  verified  either  by  using  mono- 
chromatic fight  or  by  aiwlysing  the  light  with  a  spectroscope,  the 
spectrum  in  the  bttcr  case  being  traversed  by  one  or  more  dark 
bands,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  pbte,  that  pass  along  the 
spectrum  from  end  to  end  as  the  analyser  b  rotated.  J.  B.  Blot 
further  ascertained  that  thb  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization 
varies  as  the  distance  traversed  in  the  plate  and  very  ncariy  as  the 
inverse  square  of  the  wave-length,  and  found  that  with  certain 
specimens  of  quarta  the  rotation  is  In  a  clockwise  or  right-handed 
direction  to  an  observer  receiving  the  light,  while  in  others  it  b  in 
the  opporite  direction,  and  that  egual  plates  of  the  right-  and  left-  * 
hand  varieties  neutralize  one  anotncr's  effects. 

A  similar  rotary  property  b  possessed  by  other  umaxal  crystab, 
such  as  cinnabar  and  the  thiosulphatcs  of  pousnmn ,  lead  and  calcium. 


and  as  H.  C.  Pbckltngton  (Phil.  Mag..  1901  16).  li.  361)  and  J[.  H 
Dufet  (/(mm.  de  phj$.,  i^if4),  ni.  757)  have  ^own  cy  a  f^  biax^ 
crysuls,  stich  as  sugar  and  Rochellesalt,  the  rotation  produced  by  a 


given  thickness  being  in  general  different,  and  in  some  cases  of  oppo- 
site sign  for  the  two  optic  axes.  Further,  certain  cubic  crystals,  such 
as  sodium  chlorate  and  bromate,  and  also  some  liquids  and  even 
vapours,  rotate  the  plane  of  polarization  of  the  light  that  traverses 
them,  whatever  may  be  the  direction  of  the  stream. 
In  cQFStab  the  rotary  property  appeanto  be  sometimes  iafaereiit 


«6 

la  tb*  cnwanoB  amfliHant  a(  Ae  ndecufc*.  u  i  1 1 
or  latiitlBD,  aad  Ir "  "- —   — 

crVBtll  k  foiad  or  daiolvviL  In  ornnic  bod»  tlw  rotary  oroptrvr. 
» tht  wMndm  ol  J.  A.  L«  Bal,  jTh.  nn't  Rotf  nod  otfin  txvc 
otablUwd.  csRODoaili  to  tb*  piWDca  ol  a»  or  more  uymmclrie 
MoiH  o(  cmiboD— thtt  li,  itoBKdiraetly  uDHed  tDdoDinti  or  ndida 
■K  diBvBit  f raa  om  inntWr    »nd  la  *wiy  ou*  then  akt*  u 

....._ ..._.._.  ..  -  |„|,„ion  ^(fcj  lUDedtgne  la 

naiy  paver  wbea  aaymawlrie 
amedhy  uiLiitcnu]coDpai«- 
'     '  uic  add^w- 

i*  ci  bft'  and  iMn-hud  nriitn*,  tM*  biint 

ic  acid  that  ■■>  bcokea  by  Lod>  Fauour  into 

denm-tutailc  add  be*  Snaio-lainnuai). 
H  tkit  by  Ra«a  of  tb>  nniciui*  ar  utaiwuMat  il 
Dnr  moBcnka  iDtMc  tha  pboi  <i(  poUriialloa  an  laid  lo  be 
■tnactnnHy  tc&n.  aad  Ac  ntalioA  croducod  by  unit  l«iwt1i  {■ 
olkd  tbdi  ntuy  powr.  If  inU  rau  «(  a  idutkui  comiLn  m 
(lammMol  an  acthra  anbrtanct  tad  Ulbeibe  dcfuity  and  jibelK« 
nary  power  ol  tba  aoliitioa»  the  ipKlAc  rotary  power  it  dtfiiKd 
by  find,  and  (he  molfcular  rotary  power  ■  obnlned  from  tbi«  by 
■■uutiplyiiig  by  ilv  bondrvdtb  part  of  tbe  nwlBcoiar  vaia.    Thu 

ttcaneumikin  ol  tbi iduiiao ud  with  ibt  aaiun  of  the Kdveat. 
A  adktdn  of  tm  active  lubauncea,  or  evea  of  an  active  and  an 

Fieand  ibowed  that  rotary  polariiadDa  could  be  expUaed  Ido*- 
mtJcally  by  taf^aABg  that  a  ptane^pdaTijed  atnan  ii  reiolvod  oa 

TifbE-  or  teft-haniBd  accntlid(  aa  tha  rights  c  Wt-haaded  acnam 

The  polaiiaatKin-nctDrof  thep(jiBlti¥eimaiBbelBct'Soo*Bl. 
the  6iit  dreulaily  poliriatd  atream  after  tnvenlaf  a  diitaaca  (' 
la  tha  jaadiura  may  be  repnaented  by 

t,-ac«aW->.i),«-«<taOU->.'>. 
and  the  aceDad  by 

ti -a  CM  W-M.  *- -a  do  Oif-te>. 
~  ~    It  of  tbcK  b 


POLARIZATION  OP  LIGHT 


I  - 


-\».x«t 


-.. _.  _  ._ ._. , ctA  ■  tbc  luhl  is  plane  polariied 

■  pline  nukiiuaii  taflc  l|ii-*i)>-*()>i;*— V'}!-  with  tha  initial 
anaolpoUrinnian.  lta™li.b«iiflbewai»4Hig-'    -'-'-   ■--  '-- 


xaa,  arid  thouah  tbe  i 
H  ntraetin  iadkaa  bi  i 


•  tha  two  drcuUr  ancaai*  have  diaoeot  •pteda,  P. 

'  that  it  weald  ba  poaaihie  >a  npaiaie  theiB  by  obliqae 

B,  and  thouab  tbe  diverience  fa  aiBall,  dace  the  (flSerence 

Hisfquarti  landy  abouf  0  00007. 


•ad  by  Ernat  v.  Fldachl  lor  dcuaoanratiat  eiiEiilu 

,.^^ la  Hqulda.   IMajeault  la  not,  hawever.eoDcluiivci  lor 

>a  upticatloo  of  nayfeoa'a  pciocipla  Aowa  that  it  ■  a  oooacqueoce 
oC  the  nutlaa  el  the  plana  of  pelaEi^Aioa  by  ao  amouat  pnpot- 
tlaaal  to  tbe  diataaca  tmaiaed,  ndqieBdeally  ol  tb*  aUtt  of  aSain 
wiihln  tbe  active  BcdiuB.  Not  ann  coavincbf  b  a  Kood  aiperl- 
■ent  deviaed  tty  PieaML  If  In  the  Intorfaoct  amrimut  with 
Fie^'a  mirron  or  iHptiain  the  ilil  be  ilhulinalod  irilh  while  lithl 
that  haa  paaaad  thmub  a  palarlKr  and  *  qiiartiahia  cut  pcrpeadlcii- 
lark  M  th*  opdc  luS,  it  i>  found  on  aaalyuai  the  li(ht  that  in 
juldiiien  to  Ilie  ordieuy  central  au  of  ODloucedfriBgca  two  lateral 
ayiuma  aie  aeen,  one  on  either  ad*  of  it.  Aecordir^  to  Fmad'a 
T*'"'"-  tbe  liihtin  each  ol  Ihelatofiriiiratnaiaaoiiiailtaia 
two  tralna  ol  wnvea  thai  an  (ircularty  pslariatdlnDppoaile  £nclioa 
and  have  ■  relalivi  nUrdatloa  of  phaia,  talmdiKsd  b]    '  n 

thnHuh  th*quarta:theaentralfr1afeaaR  then  due  to  iy 

polanaid  wavea!  the  btetnl  ayateau  are  pioducad  by  tl  Iy 

poUriaiid  atrmaia.  thaaa  on  analyiatiaq  beiai  capable  (  t- 

A-  Kifhl  baa,  however,  pgiaicd  out  that  (iila  eiperie  be 

rrr^l^f^  by  the  fact  that  the  function  of  thequor  id 

(nalyierlB  to  eliinioau  the  conMltvantg  of  tbe  conpoi  of 

whit*  lUl  that  naifc  the  inteifenoce  acluallv  occurrin  b- 

Ilona  oTthe  latenl  lyncoa  of  fcingei,  and  that  *ay  oth  of 

reaoylnc  then  !•  equally  dieciivc.     In  fact,  tbe  lai  ni 

are  obuiaed  when  a  plue  of  «cWute  li  ■ubiillLited  fo  a. 

Sir  G'  B.  Airy  cxteaded  FreaiKl'a  hypMheau  to  diren  rd 

to  the  Hit  o(  uniual  crytlali  by  aaaumin^  that  in  any  •  hi 

tba  two  wavBi)  that  can  be  propagated  without  allenuuH  m  ^iwir 
■tala  of  pDlanation.  an  oppoaiteiy  d^pticany  polariied  with  tbrir 
pUoea  H  mavmum  poUnHlion  parallel  uuT  perpendicular  10  (he 
principal  plane  of  the  wave,  d^eae  becoaiing  practmlly  plane  ~"1->'- 


have  been  made  (o  te 


o(A»y^*ien;hn1ta 


be  nmefflbtred  thai  it  ia  only  ponihle  to  eaperinieal  la  nm 
after  they  have  left  the ctyiUl.udL.G.  Gauy(/i>m.diBtn.,iHj 
|>1,  iv.  itvJ  hai  ahoim  ^t  the  reaahadedaced  ftomAu/ima 
of  permanent  type  may  be  obtained  by  rceardinfl  the  aon  Ef  ik 

— " -<--  nipeipodtion  of  the  efiecta  ol  ordlaaiy  iiik 

Df  nn  mdependeirE  rotarv  power.  Aa  rcganb  tk 
nma  on  refraction  into  tnc  cryvtal,  il  b  founi  ihi 
by  the  Huyieaian  law  (aee  RirnAcrioii.  |  Pntt;, 
two  atrcariH  in  the  (tiitction  (rf  the  aah  have  difrr 
apheriol  tad  the  aphenidal  ibeeta  <d  ihe  iin- 

jMch  aa  In  the  caae  of  Inactive  unlafll  ayutk.  Oi 

Ffinclplea  Airy,  by  ao  elabonte  mathematical  tawdiaun. 
■fully  explainad  tbe  Intccfetence  pnllena  obtainad  wid  phu 
perpendicular  to  the  otitic  aida.   When  the  pAriai  ad 


to  tbe  cenin  of  the  Ud:  but  a>  the  analyaif 

croaa  begun  to  appanrM  the  ann  <<  the  field,  wb 

their  fom  and  Momr  ntsrly  •qoatca  with  twiadad  1 
the  ptanet  of  polarl»ilM  and  »naly«Iioa  are  at  4j 
plafea  at  eqoal  T***^***""*  and  tit  oppo^te  rotntieoa,  uc  i^l?- 
oniHtacda  aefica  ofdrdea  andof  foucalmilarBpinla  aortiiflna 
the  centtr,  each  aplral  bena  turned  Onngh  90*  fna  that  i£xsi 
to  it.  When  tbeligbt  ii  cUculaily  polariaed  or  drcutarly  ai^>M 
a  tingle  plate  pTca  two  mutually  inwrapplng  apirala.  and  liur 
•piraU  In  dmUrly  poiorind  light  an  obtained  with  pitta  d  a 
■etivB  Uaxal  cryHaf  pcipendli^idar  10  one  cd  the  opoc  am.  Ir 
waa  hi  Ihia  way  thai  the  mtaiY  pcopeny  ef  certun  biai^  afiok 
ma  Srat  eatabBihed  by  PocUiagten. 

F.  E.  Reoach  hat  ibown  that  a  packet  of  Identkal  faiaarw  ttrs 
arrangid  in  apital  faabion  givia  an  oniGcial  active  ayatem.  lai  U> 

k.i__~—  J  _— 1 *■ — ■■iu  crynit  imfcatci  a  Imwin" 

L-JSohncka  (MtiL  Ai 


T^^^ 


'  of  active  eaedia,  but  ia  the  IB 

ipinllty  tea  been  '  J     -     - 

optkal  ntatiaa  the  eoaiae.cnii 
with  tbe  WBVfrtaiftb  of  tbe  m 

i«a«i*»rTLf?nK  bISiI  (AmJ!^ 

^S.  t})  baa  riiown  the  calaniKe  of  a  n . 

gbaa  and  galathia,  the  ntaiiaa  behig  oppoalta  to  th.  ».» 
Ewlat.  But  a  far  bur  impottant  Inalancc  of  hidua 
la  (fWdad  by  Mlrharl  Faraday'adiaaivery  of  dm  mary  | 
,.....-»».l  with  >  tnHBCtie  ML    Than  ia,  banmer, 

-*-'-  laaaaiilk  iiilallm  and  that  of  a  1 

iaCttarftl 

ieftJmnded  wM  ri  '      " 


I  pladncad  Int  Rdactioa  frail  a  wi^^ 
ofamagaNfc  Md  wi  th*i»&i^" 

"StiaafM  anil  JMii<««L— Hoynoa  ntiAetoiay  cipUari  1 
lawaottcOictiDaandTrfraetloaoadka  nalarlrilaa  cd  aewm  u»^ 
aefaraathedhaettoaotthewaveaiacBaceniHl.bMBaulhafrt 
shea  BO  accoBitt  (■[  Ih*  latcoai  ty  and  tbe  piriariiBtloa  of  tha  iMr4 
UK.  Thl>naaanUedbyFnBail.vbo,itaitiafbBMaB>chi^ 
bnBthcria,  iAewacrbyIaa«daa>  bst  Mt  itiieily  dinaraical  «MI 
tCS^ianocldeat  atnon  hov*  BBk  uiplitade,  that  of  da  ■*(•< 
ttitui  will  be 

-da{f-r]/rin(f4-r)ortaa(i-rJ/laa{i-|-r). 
accoftlliig  a<  the  IncUent  Eght  ia  potariaed  in  or  perpn 
the  plane  of  inridence  i,  r,  hefrtK.lhe  anglciof  Incidence  an 

intR^ty  of  the  iefl«ud  lichl,  mcnsured  fay  the  aquare  «ri 
Hide,  ii|U~i)/(^+l)|' in  Eoth  rural  but  wbenasia  die 
intently  increaaea  unilomty  with  i  Co  the  vafne  aidty 


the  reflected  lighi  i>  polariied 

tan  fl— tan  a  cot  (f+flfcoe  ((-0. 
The  apm^Daa  for  tbe  inMnaiiy  of  the  refracted  Eiht  air  ?  1 
obtained  tioai  Ihoae  nlating  to  Iha  leBsttd  light  by  Ihcl"^ 
of  cmvy.  ■  lu  ardor  u  avoid  the  quotioB  of  ihe  naa-w^^ 
of  the  luanniy  in  diHcnal  medin,  U  laamvauent  to  nn>*  ^' 
Ihe  refracted  atrcani  tmenea  into  n  madini  amikr  M  ly  *"■?; 


POLARIZATION  OF  LIGHT 


937 


the  iquare  o(  the  amplitude  oC  the  tnctdeat  vtbratbnt  is  caual  to  the 
•um  of  the  squares  of  the  ampUtudea  of  the  reflected  aad  refracted 
vibrations. 

Fresnel  obtained  his  formulae  by  aseumini^  that  the  optical  differ- 
ence of  media  is  due  to  a  change  in  the  effective  density  of  the  ether, 
the  elasticity  being  the  same — an  assumption  inconsistent  with  his 
theory  of  double  refraction — ^and  was  led  to  the  result  that  the 
vibrations  are  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  polanxation  Franx 
Neumann  and  James  MacCullaghiStarting^from  tbeoppositeassump- 
tion  of  constant  density  and  different  elasticities,  arrived  at  the  same 
formulae  for  the  intensities  of  the  reflected  light  polarised  in  the 
principal  aximuths,  but  in  this  case  the  vibrations  must  be  r^arded 
as  parallel  to  the  plane  of  polarization.  The  diveii^eooe  of  these 
views  has  led  to  a  large  number  of  experimental  investigations, 
instituted  with  the  idea  of  deciding  between  them  In  the  main 
such  investigations  have  only  an  academic  interest,  as,  whatever 
theory  of  light  be  adopted,  we  have  to  deal  with  two  vectors  that 
are  parallel  and  perpendicular  respectively  to  the  plane  of  poiariza' 
tion.  Thus  certain  experiments  of  Otto  H.  Wiener  (Wtw  Ann.t 
1890,  xl.  203)  show  that  chemical  action  is  to  be  referred  to  the 
latter  of  these  vectors,  but  whether  Fresoers  or  Neumann's  hypo- 
thesis  be  correct  is  only  to  be  decided  when  we  know  if  it  be  the  mean 
Jcinctic  energy  or  the  mean  potential  enei^gy  that  determines  chemical 
action  Similarly  on  the  electromagnetic  theonr  the  electnc  or  the 
magnetic  force  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  polarization, 
according  as  chemical  action  depends  upon  the  electric  or  the  mag- 
netic energy.  Lord  Rayleigh  {Seienti^  Papers,  i  iQia)  has,  however, 
shown  that  the  polarization  of  the  ught  from  the  sky  can  only  be 
explained  on  the  elastic  solid  theory  by  Fresnel's  hypothesis  of  a 
diiterent  density,  and  from  the  study  of  Hertzian  oscillations,  in 
which  the  direction  of  the  electric  vibrations  can  be  a  priori  assigned, 
we  learn  that  when  these  are  in  the  plane  of  incidence  there  u  no 
reflection  at  a  certain  angle,  so  that  the  electric  force  is  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  polarization. 

It  has  been  supposed  in  the  above  that  the  medium  into  which 
the  light  enters  at  the  reflecting-surface  is  the  more  refracting  In 
the  contrary  case,  total  reflection  commences  as  soon  a9  sin  ^<■M''^  # 
bcin^  still  the  relative  refractive  index  of  the  more  highly  refracting 
medium;  and  for  greater  angles  of  incidence  r  becomes  imaginary 
Now  Fresnel's  formulae  were  obtained  by  assuming  that  the  incident, 
reflected  and  refracted  vibrations  <re  in  the  same  or  opposite  phases 
at  the  interface  of  the  media,  and  since  there  is  no  real  factor  that 
converts  cos  T  into  cos  (T+^).  he  inferred  that  the  occurrence  of 
imaginary  expresnons  for  the  coefficients  of  vibration  denotes  a 
change  of  phase  other  than  r,  this  being  represented  by  a  change  of 
s^n  If  this  be  so.  it  is  clear  that  the  (actor  V  ~  i  denotes  a  change 
01  phase  of  9/2,  since  this  twice  repeated  converts  cos  T  into  cos 
(T-|-ir)«»— cos  T,  and  hence  that  the  factor  a+^V —1  represents 
a  change  of  phase  of  tan'^(fr/a)  Applyiraj;  this  toterpr6tation  to 
the  formulae  given  above,  it  follows  that  when  the  incident  light  is 
polarized  at  an  azimuth  a  to  the  plane  of  incidence  and  the  second 
medium  is  the  less  refracting,  the  reflected  light  at  angles  of  incidence 
exceeding  the  critical  angle  is  cUiptically  pobrizcd  with  a  difference 
of  phase  A  between  the  components  polarized  in  the  principal  azi- 
muths that  is  given  by 

tan  (A/2) -cot  tV(i-ir*  cosec*  t). 

Thus  d  IS  zero  at  grazing  incidence  and  at  the  critical  angle,  and 
attains  its  maximum  value  t— 4  tan'''(i/M)  at  an  angle  of  incidence 
given  by  sin'  »«»2/0i*+»). 

It  is  of  some  interest  to  determine  under  what  conditions  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  a  specified  difference  of  phase  Solving  for  cot*  1 
we  obtain 

acot«f-(M»-l)»  *  V  l(;^-tan«(»-A)/4)f/i«-cot«  (»-A)/4ll. 

and  since  tan  |(»— A)/4J  is  less  than  unity,  i^must  exceed  cot  |(«— A)/4) 
if  cotH'  u  to  be  real.  Thus  if  H  *  ir/2,  u  must  exceed  t/8  or  2  A14,  that 
is,  the  substance  must  be  at  least  as  highly  refracting  as  a  duimond 
if  A  -  v/4.  M  Riust  be  greater  than  $r/i^  or  i  4966,  and  when  this  is  the 
case,  it  is  possible  by  two  reflections  to  convert  into  a  circularly 
polarized  stream  a  beam  of  light  polarized  at  45*  to  the  plane  cm 
incidence.  This  is  the  principle  of  r  rcsnel's  rhomb,  that  is  sometimes 
employed  instead  of  a  quarter-wave  plate  for  obtaining  a  stream  of 
circularly  polarized  light.  It  consists  of  a  parallelopipcd  glass  so 
constructed  that  light  falling  normally  on  one  end  emerges  at  the 
other  after  two  internal  reflections  at  such  an  angle  as  to  introduce 
a  relative  retardation  of  phase  of  v/4  between  the  components  polar- 
ized in  the  principal  azimuths. 

Fresnel's  formulae  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  most  piactical 
purposes,  but  that  they  are  not  an  exact  representation  of  the  facts 
of  reflection  was  shown  by  Sir  David  Brewster  and  by  Sir  0  B 
Airy.  Detailed  investigations  by  J  C  Jaroin,  G.  H  Quincke, 
C.  W.  Wernicke  and  others  have  established  that  in  general  light 
polarized  in  any  but  the  principal  azimuths  becomes  elliptkally 
polarized  by  reflection,  the  relative  retardation  of  phase  of  the 
components  polarized  in  these  azimuths  becoming  v/2  at  a  certain 
an|;le  of  incidence,  called  the  principal  incidence.  In  some  cases 
it  IS  the  component  polarized  in  the  plane  of  incidence  that  is  most 
retarded  and  the  reflection  is  then  said  to  be  positive*  in  the  case  of 
negative  reflection  the  reverse  takes  place     It  waa  at  first  sup()osed 


that  the  defect  of  Fresnel's  formulae  was  due  to  the  neglect'  of  the 
superficial  undulations  that,  on  a  rigorous  elastic  solid  theory  of 
the  ether,  are  called  into  existence  at  reflection  and  refraction^ 
But  the  result  of  taking  these  into  account  is  far  from  being  in  accor- 
dance with  the  facts,  and  experimenu  of  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Paul 
Drude  make  it  probable  that  we  ought  to  assume  that  the  transition 
from  one  medium  to  another,  though  taking  place  in  a  distance 
amounting  to  about  one  fiftieth  of  a  wave-length,  is  gradual  instead 
of  abrupt.  The  effect  of  such  a  transition-layer  can  earily  be 
calculated,  at  least  approximately;  but  it  is  of  little  use  to  take 
account  of  it  except  in  the  case  of  a  theory  of  reflection  that  atves 
Fresnel's  formube  as  the  result  of  an  abrupt  transition.  Lord 
Rayleigh  has  poiirted  out  that  all  theories  are  defective  in  that  they 
disre^rd  the  fact  that  one  at  least  of  the  media  is  dispernve,  and 
that  It  is  probable  that  finite  reflection  would  result  at  the  interface 
of  media  of  different  dispersive  powers,  even  in  the  case  of  waves 
for  which  the  refractive  indices  are  absolutely  the  same. 

A  more  pronounced  case  of  elliptic  polarization  by  reflection  is 
afforded  by  metals.  Formulae  for  metallic  reflection  may  be  ob*  ■ 
tamed  from  Fresnel's  expressions  by  writing  the  ratio  sin  I'/sih  r 
eaual  to  a  complex  quantity,  and  interpreting  the  imaginary  co* 
emcients  in  the  manner  explained  above  The  optical  constants 
(refractive  index  and  co-efficient  of  extinction)  of  the  metal  may  then 
be  obtained  from  observations  of  the  principal  incidcnoe  and  the 
elliptic  polarization  then  produced.  A  detailed  investigation  of 
theise  constants  has  been  made  by  Drude  {Wted.  Ann ,  1890,  xxxix. 
504),  who  has  found  the  remarkable  result  that  copper,  gold,  magne* 
sium  and  silver  have  refractive  indices  less  than  unity,  and  this  has 
been  completel)^  confirmed  by  observations  with  metallic  prisms 
of  small  refracting  angle  He  further  showed  that  except  in  the 
cases  of  copper,  lead  and  gold  the  dispersion  is  abnormal-~tlie  index 
for  red  light  being  greater  than  that  for  sodium  light.  The  higher 
the  co-efficient  of  extinction  for  light  of  a  given  period,  the  more 
copious  will  be  reflection  of  that  constituent  of  a  mixed  pencil. 
This  fact  has  been  employed  for  separating  waves  of  large  wave- 
length, and  in  this  wav  waves  of  length  0*061  mm.  have  been  isolated 
by  five  successive  reflections  from  the  surface  of  sylvite. 

The  Study  of  PolaritaHon. — The  best  method  of  obtaining  a  strong 
beam  of  polarized  light  is  to  isolate  one  of  the  streams  into  which 
a  beam  of  common  Tight  is  resolved  by  double  refract  km.  This  is 
effected  in  polarizing  prisms  of  the  earlier  type,  devised  by  A  M  de 
Rochon,  H  H  de  acnarmont  and  W  H  Wollaston,  by  blocking  off 
one  of  the  streams  u-ith  a  screen,  sufiicient  lateral  separation  being 
obtained  by  combining  two  equal  crystalline  prisms  cut  differently 
with  respect  to  the  optic  axia-<-an  arrangement  that  achromatizes 
more  or  less  completely  the  pencil  that  is  allowed  to  pass  In  a 
second  type,  called  Nicol's  prisms,  one  stream  is  removed  by  total 
reflection  Theoretically  the  best  construction  for  prisms  of  thn 
class  is  the  following*  a  rectangular  block  of  Iceland  spar,  of  len^h 
about  four  times  the  width  and  having  its  end  and  two  of  its  side 
faces  parallel  to  the  optic  axis,  is  cut  in  half  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the 
optic  axis  and  making  an  angle  of  about  14**  with  the  sides;  the  two 
halves  are  then  reunited  with  a  cement  whose  refractive  index 
is  between  the  ordinary  and  extraordinary  indices  of  the  spar  and 
as  neariy  as  possible  equal  to  the  latter  Thus  constructed,  the 
prism  produces  no  lateral  shift  of  the  transmitted  pencil;  a  conical 
pencil,  incident  directly,  has  nearly  constant  polarization  over  its 
extent,  and  consequently  the  error  in  detei  mining  the  polarizatioa 
of  a  parallel  pencil,  incident  not  ouite  normally,  is  a  minimum. 
In  a  Nicol's  prism  it  is  the  extraordinary  stream  that  passes,  in  a 
pnsm  suggested  by  E  Sang  and  sometimes  called  a  Bert  rand's  prnm. 
It  is  tlie  ordinary  stream  that  is  utilized  This  is  made  by  fixing  a 
thin  crystalline  plate  between  two  glass  prisma  turned  in  opposite 
directions  by  a  cennent  of  the  same  refractive  index  as  the  glass 
This  refractive  index  should  be  equal  to  the  greatest  index  of  the 
plate,  and  with  a  biaxal  plate  the  mean  axis  of  optical  symmetry 
should  be  parallel  to  its  faces  and  in  the  normal  sectk>n  of  the 
prisms,  while  with  an  uniaxal  plate  the  optic  axis  should  be  in  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  this  normal  section  These  prisms  have  the 
advantage  of  economy  of  material  and  of  a  greater  field  than  the 
ordinary  Nicol's  prism,  but  a  difficulty  seems  to  be  experienced 
in  finding  a  suitable  permanent  cement 

For  an  accurate  determination  of  the  plane  of  polarization  analy- 
sers that  act  by  extinction  are  not  of  much  practical  use,  and  a 
different  device  has  to  be  employed  Savart's  analyser  consists 
of  a  Savart's  plate  (see  above)  connected  to  a  Nicol  s  prism,  the 
pnncipal  section  of  whkh  bisects  the  angle  between  the  principal 
planes  of  the  plate,  the  plane  of  polanzation  is  determined  by 
turning  the  analyser  until  the  bands,  ordinarily  seen,  disappear, 
in  which  case  it  is  parallel  to  one  of  the  principal  planes  of  the  plate 
Half-shade  analysers  depend  upon  the  facility  with  which  the  eye 
can  distingui^  slight  differences  in  the  intensities  of  two  stzcama 
seen  in  iuxtapcmtbn,  when  the  illumination  is  not  too  bright  Thfc 
field  is  divided  into  two  parts  that  for  most  positions  of  the  analyser 
have  different  intensities,  and  the  setting  is  effected  by  tucAing  the 
analyser  until  both  halves  are  equally  dark  These  instninenta 
are  very  sensitive,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  errors  canted  by 
changes  in  the  relative  intensities  of  parts  of  the  source  of  light— 
a  precaution  that  is  sometimes  overlooked  in  furnishing  polannietefs 
with  these  analysers.    In  J.  H.  Jellet's  and  M  A  Cocnu's  anslysati 


93B 


POLAR  REGIONS 


fonmed^^tihe  one  from  two  parts  o£  a  rhomb  of  spjir.  the  othei*  hoiA 
twa  portions  of  a  Nicbl's  pnsm — the  two  halves  of  the  field  are  ana- 
lysed in  slightly  dilfereat  planes,  bat  these,  though  they  have  certain 
advantages,  are  now  seldom  employed,  partly  on  account  of  a  diA- 
tulty  in  their  ponstruction  ana  partly  because  their  «ensitiveMS8 
cannot  be  adjusted.  The  more  usual  half-shade  analyser  is  avails 
abk  for  light  of  only  one  frequency,  as  it  depends  upon  the  action 
of  a  half-wave  plate,  in  traversing  which  the  piano  of  polariaatlon 
is  turned  until  it  makes  the  same  angle  with  the  principal  section 
as  at  first  but  on  the  opposite  side:  half  the  field  is  covered  with  the 

f>late,  to  which  is  attached  a  Nicol's  prism  with  its  principal  section 
ocUncd  at  a  snmll  amte  to  that  of  the  plate.  The  eye  must  be 
focusscd  oo  the  edge  of  the  plate,  and  the  two  halves  of  the  field 
will  only  be  equally  dark  when*  the  principal  plane  of  the  plate  is 
parallel  to  the  primitive  plane  of  polartaation.  Another  plan,  due 
to  j.  H.  Poynting.  is  before  analysatioa  to  impress  unequal  rotations 
upon  the  plane  of  polarization  ot  the  two  parts  of  the  field,  either  by 
means  of  an  active  medium,  or  by  oblique  transmission  through 
glass  plates. 

EUiptically  polarized  light  is  investigated  by  the  reduction  of  the 
pencil  to  a  state  of  plane  polarisation,  and  a  determination  of  the 
resulting  plane  of  polarization.  One  method  consists  in  finding 
directly  the  elliptic  constants  of  the  vibration  by  means  of  a  quarter- 
wave  plate  and  an  analyser;  but  the  more  usual  plan  is  to  measure 
the  relative  retardation  of  two  recun^lar  con%ponents  of  the 
stream  by  a  Babinet's  compensator.  Thts  is  a  plato  made  of  two 
equal  wedges  of  quartz,  tliat  can  be  moved  over  one  anot^ec  so  as  to 
vary  its  thickness,  and  are  cut  so  that  the  faces  of  the  plate  are 
parallel  to  tbc  optic  axis,  which  in  the  first  wedge  is  perpendicular 
and  in  the  second  is  paFallcl  to  the  refracting  edge.  It  is  clear  that 
direct  transmission  through  the  plate  at  a  point  where  the  thick- 
nesses of  tfie  prisms  are  <f  i  and  dt  will  inuoduce  a  relative  retardation 
of  (m.  —m^)  iafii)  between  streams  polarized  in  planes  parallel  and 
perpendicular  to  the  ed^  of  the  prisms,  m*,  and  ^,  being  the 
ordinary  and  the  extraordinary  refractive  indices;  and  it  is  hence 
possible  by  an  adjustment  of  the'  thickness  to  reduce  elKptically 
polarized  to  plane  polarization  at  an  assigned  point  marked  off  by 
two  parallel  lines.  A  subsequent  determination  c^  the  plane  oif 
polarization  gives  the  ratio  ot  the  aroplitudc«  of  the  vibrations  In 
the  component  streams. 

For  the  observation  and  measurement  of  rings  in  ciystals  polari- 
Kopes  are  constructed  on  the  following  principle.  Light  ftom  an 
extended  source  passes  after  polarization  through  two  convex 
systems  of  lenses,  between  which  the  crystalline  plate  is  placed,  and 
ib.then  received  in  an  eyepiece  furnished  with  an  analyser.  If 
measurements  be  required,  tne  plate  must  have  a  motion  round  an 
axis  perpendicnhir  to  that  of  the  optical  systems,  and  also  about  an 
•zis  normal  to  its  faces;  the  polarizer  and  analyser  must  also  be 
capable  of  adjustment.  All  the  rays  through  a  given  point  in  the 
first  principal  focal  pbne  of  the  anterior  aystem  of  lenses  traverse 
the  plate  as  a  pamllel  beam  and  reunite  at  the  corresponding  point 
of  the  second  focal  pbne  of  the  posterior  system,  oach  in  its  passage 
being  divided  into  two  by  the  plate ihaving  a  given  relative  retarda- 
lion  It  is  on  this  latter  plane  that  the  eyepiece  must  bo  focmscd, 
ond  here  the  measuring  web  must  be  placed.  The  actual  details 
of  the  systems  of  lenses  depend  upon  the  (4ijcct  fof  which  the  pohirir 
acope  is  intended,  and  are  aivcn  for  some  of  the  principal  types  of 
instramrtits  in  Th.  Licbhch  s  Physikahscke  Knstallomrapkie, 

Of  polarimeten  for  the  study  of  rotary  polarization  there  ar^ 
three  principal  forms.  In  Wild's  polaristrdbomcter,  light  from  a 
aoda  name,  rendered  parallel  by  a  lens,  is  polarized  by  a  Nicol's 

Srism,  and  after  traversing  the  space  into  which  the  active  substance 
\  to  be  insetted,  falls  oh -a  Savart's  phite  placed  in  front  of  an  astro- 
nomical telescope  of  low  power,  tnat  contains  in  its  eyepiece  a 
Nkol's  prism,  which  with  the  plate  forms  a  Savart's  analyser.  A 
web  in  the  focal  plane  of  telescope  marks  the  point  in  the  field  at 
which  the  bands  are  to  be  made  to  disappear,  this  is  effected  by 
turning  the  polarizer  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pinion  worked  by  an 
«rm  from  the  obscrvcr'r  end  of  the  instrument.  The  polanztng 
prism  is  fixed  at  the  centre  of  a  circular  disk,  that  has  a  scale  on  its 
circumference,  which  with  a  fixed  vernier  determines  the  positions 
of  the  polarizer,  for  which  the  bands  disappear  at  the  assigned  poiilt 
of  the  fieM.  Laurent's  polarimcler  is  a  half-shade  instrument 
Soda  hght,  first  sifted  by  passage  through  a  plate  of  pocassium 
bichromate,  traverses  in  succession  a  lens,  a  Nicol's  pri^m.  and  a 
glass  idatc  half  covered  with  a  half -wave  plate  of  quartz,  that  is  cut 
parallel  to  the  optic  axis  and  has  its  principal  section  inclined  at  a 
•mall  ancle  to  that  of  the  prism.  Tnis  combination  forrhs  a  half- 
ahade  ponrizer,  the  sensitiveness  of  which  can  be  Varied  by  a  slight 
adjustment  that  can  be  given  to  the  NicoL  The  light  is  finally 
received  in  b  Galilean  telescope,  coQlaining  an  analyser  and  carried 
at  the  centre  of  a  circular  plate,  that  is  graduated  on  Us  rim  and  can 
be  turned  in  front  of  a  vernier  by  meaas  of  a  rack  and  pinion.  The 
telescope  must  be  focussed  on  the  edge  «f  the  quarts  plate,  and  in 
Older  tnat  all  points  of  the  field  may  be  illuminated  by  nie  same  part 
"of  the  source,  the  flame  must  be  so  placed  that  hs  image  is  thrown 
bv  the  lenaon  dw  diaphragm  of  the  object  glass  of  the  telescope 
Toe  chief  features  of  Soleii's  saccbarimeter  are  the  biqaarta  and 
'the  compeasator.  The  former  conasts  of  two  semicircular  plates 
«f  qaatts,  perpendicular  to  the  i^xic  axil  and  of  oppaaite  rotttiooa. 


placed  so  OS  to  have  a  common  diameter  and  havvrtg  4t«ch  a  thklenem 
that  each  rotates  the  plane  of  polarization  of  mean  ydlbw  light 
through  the  same  multiple  of  90*.  If  thcif  a  stream  of  poUriird 
white  light  traverse  the  biquarts.  it  is  possible  by  an  analyser  to 
cut  <^  the  mean  yellow  light  from  each  half  of  the  field,  and  the  vboie 
will  then  have  the  sensitive  tint ,  but  a  small  dianee  in  the  pisne 
ol  analysation  will  give  the  one  half  a  red  and  the  otncr  half  a  blse 
lone.  A  notation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  is  not,  however, 
measured  by  an  adjustment  of  the  analyser,  but  by  annalllng  the 
roution  «Hth  a  compensator,  Thu  is  made  of  two  plates  of  qiurtz, 
cut  normally  to  the  optic  axis  and  of  oppoute  rotations,  placed  th^ 
one  in  front  of  the  other:  the  thickness  ot  the  one  plate  is  fixed,  vt^de 
that  of  the  other  can  be  varied,  as  it  b  formed  01  two  equal  prii>ia 
that  can  be  moved  over  one  another  along  their  common  face. 
When  the  plates  are  of  equal  thickness,  their  combined  effect  is 
ml,  but  by  adjusting  the  second,  a  rotation  in  the  one  or  the  other 
dinx:tion  may  be  introduced,  a  scale  attached  to  one  prism  and  a 
vernier  to  the  other  giving  the  thickness  of  the  resultant  qoarcz 
plate.  At  one  end  of  the  instrument  is  placed  a  polarizer  ami  the 
Diqiiartz,  and  at  the  other  a  Galilean  telescope,  that  must  be  foctised 
on  the  edge  of  biquartc,  having  in  front  of  its  obiect -glass  the  cccs- 
penaator  and  an  analyser  that  ts  regulated  for  proaucing  the  senaitrve 
t«nt,  when  the  plates  of  the  compensator  have  the  same  thickness. 
The  sensitiveness  Of  the  instrument  depends  upon  the  exactness  of 
the  sensitrve  tinti  when  the  colour  of  the  two  halves  of  the  fidd  aie 
the  aamc,  and  this  is  hable  to  be  upset  by  absorption  in  the  substance 
under  investigation.  In  order  to  correct  this,  the  light  after  anah  -sa- 
libn  is  paitsed  through  another  plate  of  quartz  and  then  the  sensithT 
tint  may  be  more  or  less  restored  by  cutting  off  some  colour,  the  saaie 
for  the  whole  field,  by  a  Nicol's  prism  placed  in  the  eyepiece  of  itz 
teleacope.  Sokiil'a  saccharimeter.  as  its  name  implies,  b  desgited 
for  the  study  of  solutioitb  of  sugar,  and  it  is  clear  that  it  wtH  o«!j 
work  satisfactorily  with' active  media  that  have  nearly  the  sase 
rotary  dispersion  as  quartz. 
'BrauooRaPHV-*-A  bibliography  of  the  subjects  titated  ia  this 

SrtJcle  wfH  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  corresponding  chapters  of 
;.  Vcrdct'a  Lrfoiu  d'^ph^e  phyiique  (1869):  this  work  has  been 
brought' to  a  later  date  in  the  German  translatmn  by  Karl  Exsa 
(Braunachweig,  18^1);  references  to  later  papers  ivill  be  found  in 
J.  Walker's  Tk4  Amafylu^  Theory  0/  Light  (1904).  In  a<kSitkm  to 
the  above  the  reader  may  connilM  or  the  general  subject  of  pobriza- 
tion  iho  following  treatises:  Th.  Preston  (3rd.  ed.  by  C.  J.  Jdy), 
Tkt  Tknry  of  LtgM  ( lOOl ) .  A.  Schuster,  A  n  Introduction  to  Ike  Tktery 
Of  Optics  (1904);  R-  W.  Wood.  Pkysicol  Optics  (1905);  E.  Xiaacart. 
TVaatf  dropttqut  (1880);  and  for  the  phenomena  csdiibited  \m 
cryatals  P.  Pockei,  Lekrbuek  der  Kristaihptik  (1906);  Tb.  Lietas^ 
Physikaliscke  KrutoHozrapkk  (1891}.  (J-  Wat.*) 

POLAR  REGIONS,  a  general  term  for  the  regions  about  ^be 
North  or  South  Pole,  olherwise  called  the  Arctic  or  Antarctic 
regions.  .The  aocicnls  had  no  actual  knowledge  of 
4hc  VoLu  KC^ons.  They  had  probably  beard  rumours 
oi  -the  light  sumnr^  nights  and  the  dartt  winter  £■! 
nights  in  the  north,  as  is  shown  by  Homer*s  descriptkua  d 
the  Lacstrygoni  having  the  shArt  nights  and  the  Cimmcriaas 
Uving  in  peipctual  darkness.  By  asirononical  iqKculatioaf 
the  Creeks  had  coAie  to  the  conduston  that  north  of  the 
Arctic  Circle  there  must  be  midnight  sun  at  midsummer  a&4 
no  sun  at  midwinter  The  general  view  was  that  the  Puiai 
regions,  north  and  south,  belonged  to  the  uninhabitafafe  froscB 
zonesi  while  according  to  a  hu  scientific  notion  there  was  a 
happy  region  north  of  the  north  wind  (Boreas),  whctc  the  sua 
was  always  shmmg  and  the  Hyperboreans  led  a  peaceful  hit. 
The  first  iravetlcr  of  history  who  probaUy  approached  the 
Arctic  Circle  and  reached  the  land  of  the  midn^ht 
sun  was  the  Greek  Pytlieas  (^.v.),  frpm  Massalla 
(Marseilles),  who  about  325  B.C.  made  a  voyage  of  dUoovec)' 
northwards  along  the  west  coast  of  Europe,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  in  history.  He  visited  EngUitd,  Scotload. 
the  Scottish  isles,  and  probably  also  northern  Kontray,  vbidb 
be  called  Thule.  He  moved  the  limits  of  tKe  known  worid 
from  the  south  coast  of  England  northward  to  the  Arctic  Ciitie. 
It  iseems  probable  that  he  made  two  or  perhaps  several  voyages. 
He  also  discovered  the  northern  coasts  of  Gcnnany  as  far  east 
as  JuiUnd. 

We  hear  of  no  other  voyages  towarda  the  Arctic  regioas  before 
the  Irish  monk  Dicuil,  vrriting  abont  825,  mentions  the  cfiscovety 
by  Irish  monks  of  a  group  of  small  islands  (the  irhk 
Faeroes),  and  a  g,realcr  island  (Icelaad),  which  be 
calls  Thule,  where  there  was  haidly  any  night   at 
midsnmmer.    It  is  possible  that  Iceland  and  the  Faeroes  were 
inhabtted  by  h  attiU  Celtie  poptiHitioti  before  the  Iitsh  monks 


WMTis^UnttoMto 


NORTH 
POLAR  REGIONS 


EllflHltMliM 


<^ 


Wmi  yfVangMda         A 


,  POLAR  -REGIONS 


939 


Brklh9tM. 


caiM  ttilhtr  The  fact  that  Irish 'monki  lived  ill  Iceiaad  before 
the  Norsemen  settled  there  in  the  end  of  the  oth  cenlufy 
is  verified  by  the  Icelandic  sagas 

In  h&  tralislalaon  of  Orosius*  King  Alfred  uisens  the  {nteresting 
atoiy  of  the  irst  known  really  Arctic  voyage*  icki  him  by  the 
^^  Norwegian  Oitar  (Alfred  calls  him  Ohtbore),  who 
ftbotit  S70  rounded  the  North  Cape,  sailed  eastwards 
along  the  Murman  coast  4nd  discovered  the  White  Sea.  where 
he  reached  the  south  coast  of  the  Kola  Pcmnaula  and  the  bound- 
ary  of  the  icknd  of  the  Biarmians  (Beormas)  Ottar  told  King 
Alfred  that  "he  chiefly  went  thither,  m  addition  to  the  seeing 
of  the  country,  on  account  of  tho  walruaes." 

After  Ottar's  time  the  king  of  Norway  took  possession  of  all 
land  as  far  east  as  the  White  Sea  and  the  land  of  the  fiiarmians, 
and  the  native  "  Finns  **  had  to  pay  him  tiibute  Ma«y  vt^ages, 
mostly  of  hostile  nature  but  also  for  trade  purposes,  were  under- 
taken from  Norway  to  the  White  Sea,  and  even  kinga  went  as 
far  It  is  told  of  King  Eric,  calUid  Bkiodyxve,  who  died  as  lung 
of  York  in  £nglaod,  that  be  made  such  a  vioyage,  and  fought 
with  the  Biarmians,  about  gao,  and  about  965,  his  son  Harold 
Graafeld  defeated  the  Biarmians  and  killed  many  people  in  a 
great  battle  Atar  the  river  Dvina,  .where  Archangel  was  buUt 
later 

After  having  settled  in  Iceland  in  the  end  of  the  9th  century, 
the  Norsemen  soon  discovered  Greenland  and  settled  there 
The  first  who  is  reported  to  have  seen  the  coast  of  Greenland 
was  a  Norwegian,  GunnbjArn  Ulfsaon,  who  on  his  way  to  Ice- 
land was  storm-^iriven  westwards.  He  came  to  some  islands, 
afterwards  called  Gunnbjoraskier,  am)  saw  a  coast,  but,  without 
explori^  the  now  bind,  he  had' evidently  cominuod  his  way  |ill 
,he  reached  Icdand  The  real  dbcoverer  and  explorer 
of  Greenland  was  the  Norwegian,  Eric  the  Red, 
who,  with  his  falher  had  settled  m  Iceland  As  be  and  his 
men  had  there. been  declared  outlaws  for  having  killed  several 
people  they  had  to  leave  Iceland  (or  three  yean>  and  he  went 
westward  to  find  the  knd  which  Gunnbjbm  was  reported  to 
have  seen  He'exphned  the  west  coast  of  Grtenland  for  three 
years,  probably  about  982-^5.  He  then  returned  to  Iceland, 
but  founded  the  following  year  a  cotony  in  Greenland  (gv) 
Many  coloidsta  followed,  and  two  None  settlements  were  formed, 
viz.  the  EyHrabygd  {i  e  eastern  settlement)  on  (ho  south-eastern 
part  of  the  Greenland  Vfost  coast,  between  Cape  Farewell  and 
about  61"  N  hit.,  where  Eric  the  Red  had  his- bouse,  Btattalid* 
at  the  Eirjksfjord,  and  the  Vesirabygd  {i.e  western  settlement) 
in  the  region  of  the  present  Godthaab district,  between  65"  and 
66*^  N  lat  The  Norse  scttleis  carried  on  their  seal  and  whale» 
hunting  still  farther  north  along  the  wast  coast  beyond  the 
Arctic  circle,  and  probably  in  the  rcglbn  of  Disco  Bay  A 
runic  stone  was  found  in  a  cairn  on  a  sraatt  island  In  7a**<55'  N 
lat  north  of  Upemivik,  showing  that  Norsemen  had  been  there 
The  stone  probably  dates  from  the  i4tb  cciAuiy  Abbnt  tafi? 
an  especfition  was  sent  northwards  along  the  west  coaSl  and 
may  possibly  have  reached  some  detance  north  of  Upernivik 

The  last  known  communication  between,  the  Norse  settle*' 
ments  in  Greenland  and  Norway  'was  in  1410,  when  some 
Icqlandezs  rcturne<|,  who  four  years  previously  had  been 
storm*driven  to  Greenhind.  After  that  time  we  possess  no 
reliable  information  about  the  fate  of  these  settlements  When 
Greenland  was  rediscovered  in  the  i6lh  century  no  descendants 
of  the  Norse  settlers  were  found  Tho  probability  is  tihat  having 
gradually  been  cut  off  from  .all  comnranicatloos  with  Europe, 
the  remaining  settlers  who  had  not  retdrned  tothe  molheriand 
were  obliged  to  adopt  the  Eskimo  mode  of  life,  which  in  those 
surroundings  was  far  superior  to  the  European,  and  by  inter* 
marriage  they  would  then  soon  be  absorbed  amongst  the  more 
numerous  natives  There  is  evidence  t«  show  that  «n  expedi* 
tion  was  probably,  sent  from  Denmark  or  Norway  io  Greenland 

.  in  the  loiter  part  xif  the  i^h  century  (perhaps  about 

J^J^^      i476)tiader  Pining  and  Pothorst  (by  Purchas  called 

"Punnus  and  Pothorae  "),.  and  perhaps  with  Johan 

Scolws  as  pilot     It  b  prtrfMible  th^  this  expedition  had  mter> 

course  with  the  natives  ol  €;eenlaad,  and'possibly  eves  nached 


Labrador,  but  at  is  Unknown  whfethor  any  remains  of  the  Nocae 
settlements  were  found  on  the  Greenland  west  coast 

It  IS  reported  by  Adam  of  Bremen  (about  1070)  that  the 
Norwegian  king  HaroM  Haardroade  (m  the  nth  century)  made 
an  expedition  into  the  Arctic  Sea  (probably  north- 
wards) in  order- to  examme  how  far  it  extended,      tSSiu, 
but  we  know  nothmg  more  about  this  voyage. 

The  Icelandic  annals  report  that  a  hmd  called  Smlbardi  was 
discovered  in  1194     The  name  means  the  cold  side  or  coast 
The  -  land    was,  according  to  the  sa^as,  situated  ^^  .     ' 
four  days'  sailing  from  north-eastern  Iceland  north-  ^''*' 

wards  in  the  Hafsbaltt  (te  the  northern  termination  of  the 
sea,  which  was  supposed  to  end  as  a  bay)  t  There  can  be  no 
fioubt  that  this  land  was  Spitsbergen  The  Norsemen  earned 
on  seal,  walrus  and  whale  hunting,  and  it  is  beheved  on  good 
ground  thad  they  extended  their  hunting  expeditions  eastwards 
as  far  as  Novaya  Zcmlya  and  northwards  to  Spitsbergen. 

On  his  way  to  Greenland  from  Norway  in  the  year  1000 
Lcif  Ericsson  found  America,  probably  Nova  Scotia,  which  he 
called  Wmeland  the  Good.   A  few  years  laletf  Thorfinn  Karlscfni 
sailed  from  GrccnIaAd  with  three  ships  to  moke  a  settlement 
m  the  land  discovered  by  Leif     Tbcy  first  came  to  Labrador, 
which' they  caUtdHtltuIand,  then  to  Newfoundland,  which  was 
called  •A/arA/airi  (ie  woodland),  and  then  to  Cape  Breton  and 
Nova  Scotia  {Vinland,  Winciand)     After  three  years  they  had 
to  give  up  the  undertaking  on  account  of  hostilities  with  the 
natives,  probably  Red  Indians,  and  they  returned  Io  Grccniiad 
about  1006     Wo  know  of  no  later  expedition  of  the  Norsemen 
that  reached  Greenland,  it  is  st4ted  that  Eric  Uppri.  the  first 
bishop  of  Greenland,  went  in  11 21  to  sock  Vinki/id,  but  it  is  not 
reUtcd  whether  he  ever  reached  it,  and  tho  probability  is  that  he 
never  returned 

The  Icelandic  annals  state  that  in  134^  a  small  Greenland 
ship  which  had  sailed  to  Markland  (Newfoundland)  wasafter> 
w^rds  stomvdrivcn  to  Icdand  with  seventeen  men. 
This  is  the  last  knoWn  voyage  made  by  the  Norse*  Ar«w-«N»it< 
men  of  Greenland  which   with    certainty   reached 'M^ 
America 

The  discoveries  of  the  old  Norsemen  extended  over  the  north- 
ern' seas  from .  Novaya  Zcmlya  i»  the  east  to  Labrador,  New- 
foundland .and  No(vA  Scotia  in  the  west,  they  had  visited  all 
Arctic  lands  in  these  vegions,  and  had  explored  the  White  5ca, 
the  Barents  Sea,  the  Sphsbergon  and  Greenland  Sea,  Davis 
Strait,  and  even  some  part  of  BafTin  Bay  T}\ey  were  thft  first 
aairigaiSn  in  history  who  willingly  left  the  coasts  and  sailed 
aorbss  the  open  ocean^  and  they  crossed  the  Atlantic  between 
Norway  and  America,  thereby  being  the  real  discoverers  of  this 
oeean«  as  well  as  tlie  (lionoeis  in  oceanic  navigation.  They 
wiero  tho  teachers  of  the  navigators  of  later  centuries,  and  it  li 
hardly  an  accident  that  tho  anderfaJunga  of  England  towards 
the  west  started  from  Bristol,  where  many.  Norwegians  had 
sotllod,  and  which  from  the  beginning  of  iho  istli  century  had 
much,  trade  with.  Iceland. 

.  John  Cabot,;  sent  out  by  the  merchantsof  Bristol,  fcdlscovered 
the  Amfcricaft  rontinrnt  in  1497  He  came  to  Cape  Breton 
and  Nova  Scotia,  probably  thesanie  land  wheit^.  cmboL 
Leif  Ericsson  bad  landed  500  years  before.  John 
Cabot  started  on  a:ne^v  expedition  towards  the  west  in  1498; 
but  no  more  Is  kmywn  of  this  expedition,  not,  even  whether 
Cabol  retamed  or  not.  There  is  no  rdiable  eyidehce  to  prove 
that  John  Cabot  or  his  son  Sdbastiaa  evtst  discovered  Labrador, 
as  has  been  generally  believed. 

The  Portuguese  GSspor  Cort4|-Real  redisooverod  Greenland 
in  1500.  He  sailed  along  its  east  toast  withoot  being  able  to 
land  oA  account  of  the  ioo.  Whether  he  visits  -^^coh  -PeaL 
west  coast  is  uncertain.  In  1501  he  made  a  new  ' 
expedition  wlien  he  also  rediscovered  Nem'foundland  One  of 
his  ships  returned  home  to  Lisbon,  but  he  faiBnelf  and  his  ship 
disappeared.  His  brother  wrnit  in  search  of  him  the  .foUowing 
year,  but  was  heard  of  no  more: 

Cabot's  and  Corlo<>Rea}'s  discoveries  weve  followed  by  thf 
developmeot  of  the  Newfotmdlaod  and  Labrador  fisiiinrisB, 


940 


POLAR  REGIONS 


SthaaOMa 
Cabot. 


and  «  whole  fleet  of  English,  Portuguese,  Bas^e  and  Breton 
Gshermen  was  soon  met  with  in  these  waters,  and  they  prohably 
went  along  the  Labrador  coast  northward  as  far  as  Hudson 
Strait,  without  having  left  any  report  of  their  discoveries. 

It  is  believed,  on  good  grounds,  that  expeditions  (combined 
Eag^ish-Portttguese)  were  sent  out  to  the  newly  discovered 
regions  from  Bristol  in  1501  and  xso2.  It  is  unknown  what 
their  discoveries  were,  but  they  may  possibly  have  sailed  along 
the  coast  of  Labrador. 

It  is  possible  that  John  Cabot's  son,  Sebastian  Cabot,  made 
an  Arctic  expedition  in  1 50^-1  soq,  in  search  of  a  short  passage 
to  China  towards  the  north-west,  and  later,  in  1331, 
King  Henry  VIII.  made  an  attempt  to  persuade 
the  merchants  of  London  to  support  him  in  sending 
out  an  expedition,  under  Sebastian  Cabot,  to  the  north-western 
countries  It  is  uncertain  whether  it  ever  started,  but  it  is 
certain  that  it  achieved  nothing  of  imporunce 

John  Rut  sailed  from  Plymouth  in  1527,  in  order  to  seek 
a  passage  to  China  through  the  Arctic  seas  towards  the  north* 
.  west,  following  the  suggestion  of  Robert  Thorne  of 

JohaRA  Br^^i,  Hg  ^ct  ice  in  53"  N.  kit  and  returned  to 
Newfoundland.  Several  other  expeditions  were  sent  out  from 
various  countries  towards  the  north-west  and  west  during  this 
period,  but  no  disoovenes  of  importance  are  known  to  have 
keen  made  in  the  Arctic  regions. 

There  are  rumours  that  the  Portuguese,  as  early  as  14841 
ttnder  King  John  II ,  had  sent  out  an  expedition  towards  Nevaya 
Zemlya  in  search  of  a  north-east  passage  to  India. 
ctaftwfoM.  j^^  Gcnovese  Paolo  Centurione  probably  proposed 
to  King  Henry  VIII  of  England,  in  1525,  to  make  an  expedition 
in  search  of  such  a  passage  to  India  north  of  Russia,  and  there 
is  evidence  to  show  that  there  had  been  much  talk  about  an 
•ndertaking  of  this  kind  in  England  and  at  the  Engbsh  court 
during  the  following  period,  as  it  was  hoped  that  a  new  market 
might  be  fo«wd  for  English  merchandise,  especially  doth. 
But  It  led  to  nothing  until  1553,  when  Sebastian  Cabot  was  one 
of  the  diief  promoters.  Three  ships  and  112  men  under  Sir 
^^^  Hugh  Willoughby  sailed  from  RatdifTe  on  the  loth 
^'*^**^'  (20th)  May  1553.  Richard  Chancdor  commanded 
one  of  the  diips,  which  was  separated  from  the  two  others  in  a 
gale  off  northern  Norway  on  the  3rd  (13th)  August.  Willoughby, 
after  having  sighted  land  in  various  places,  probably  Kc^ev 
Island,  where  they  Unded,  the  coast  near  the  Pechora  hver 
and  Kiuiin  Nos,  came  on  the  i4lh  (24th)  September  to  a  good 
harbour  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Kola  Penmsula.  His 
one  ship  being  leaky,  Willoughby  resolved  to  winter  there,  but 
^^^  he  and  all  lus  men  perished.  Chancelor,  after  his 
^***  *  separation  from  the  two  other  ships,  rounded  the 
North  Cape,  to  which  hC  or  his  sailing-master,  Stephen  Borough, 
gave  this  name  He  reached  Vard&hus,  and  sJter  having  waited 
there  in  vain  for  Willoughby,  he  followed  the  route  of  the 
Norsemen  to  the  White  Sea  and  reached  the  bay  of  St  Nicholas, 
with  a  monastery  of  this  name,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dvina 
river,  where  JUdiangel  was  built  later.  Chancdor  undertook  a 
jonmey  to  Moscow,  made  arrangemenu  for  commercial  inter- 
course with  Russia,  and  returned  next  year  with  his  ship, 
which  was,  however,  plundered  by  the  Flemings,  bat  he  reached 
London  safely  with  a  lett^  from  the  tsar.  In  spite  of  the 
disasur  of  Wdloughby  and  his  men  thu  expedition  became  of 
fundamental  importance  for  the  development  of  English  trade. 
Chancetor's  success  and  his  so-called  discovery  of  the  passage  to 
the  White  Sea,  which  was  well  known  to  the  Norwegian  traders 
in  that  region,  proved  to  people  in  England  the  practical 
utility  of  polar  -nqrages.  It  led  to  a  charter  being  granted  to  the 
Association  of  Merchant  Adventurers,  ah»  called  the  Muscovy 
or  Russia  Company,  and  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  Arctic  dis^ 
covery.  Chancelor  undertook  a  new  expedition  to  the  White 
Sea  and  Moscow  In  X555,  on  his  way  home  in  the  following  year 
be  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Scotland  and  perished. 

In  I5s6  Stephen  Borough  (Burrough),  who  had  served  with 
Chancelor  was  sent  out  1^  the  Muscovy  Company  in  a  small 
pinnate  called  the  "Search-thrift,"  in  oidef  to  try  to  reach  the 


river  Ob,  of  whidi  rumOurs  had  been  heard.  Nowya  Zenlya, 
Vaigach  Island,  and  the  Kara  Strait  leading  into  the  Kara 
Sea,  were  discovered.  Borough  kept  a  careful 
journal  of  his  v<^rage..  In  1580  the  company  fitted 
out  two  vessels  under  Arthur  Pet  and  Qurles  Jadunao,  with 
orders  to  sail  eastwards  north  of  Russia  and  Asia  to  the  lands 
of  the«mperor  of  Cathay  (China).  They  penetrated 
through  the  Kara  Strait  into  the  Kara  Sea;  they 
possibly  saw  the  west  coast  of  Valmal,  but  met  with  much  ice 
and  were  oompdled  to  return.  The  two  ships  were  s^iaraied 
on  the  way  borne,  Pet  readied  London  on  December  26ih  b 
safety,  Jackman  wintered  with  his  ship  in  Norway  and  sailed 
thence  in  February,  but  was  never  beard  of  again. 

About  1574  the  Portuguese  probably  made  an  attempt  to 
find  the  north-west  passage  under  Vasqueanes  COrte-ReaL 
They  reached  "a  great  entrance,"  which  may  have 
been  Hudson  Strait,  and  they  "passed  above  twentie  ' 
leagues"  mto  It,  "without  all  impediment  of  ice," 
"but  thetf  victaUcs  fayling  them,  ,  ,  .  they  returned  Incke 
agayne  with  ioy." 

After  the  expeditions  in  search  of  the  north-cast  pnsage 
achieved  the  success  of  opening  up  a  profitable  trsde  with 
Russia,  via  the  White  Sea,  new  life  was  inspired  in  the  under- 
takings of  En^nd  on  the  sea,  at  the  same  time  the  power  of 
the  Hanseatic  merchants,  called  the  Easterlings,  was  modi 
reduced  It  wu  therefore  only  natural  that  the  plan  of  leckiag 
a  north-west  passage  to  China  and  India  should  again  cone  to 
the  front  in  England,  and  it  was  much  discussed.  It 
Martin  Frabisher  who  opened  that  long  series  oi 
expeditions  all  of  whkh  during  three  hundred  yeara 
were  sent  from  England  in  seardi  of  the  north-west  parage 
until  the  last  expedition,  which  actually  acramplished  it,  sailed 
Irom  Norway.  "  Bemg  persuaded  of  a  new  and  noerer  passage  to 
Cataya**  (China)  towards  the  north-west,  Frohisber**dctcnniDed 
and  resolved  wyth  himsclfe,  to  go  make  full  proofe  thereof  . . . 
or  dse  never  to  retourhe  againc,  knowing  this  to  be  the  ooely 
thing  of  the  worlde  that  was  left  yet  undone,  wheeeby  a  notable 
mind  raighte  be  made  famous  and  fortunate."  After  having 
attempted  in  vain  for  fifteen  years  to  find  support  for  his  enter- 
prise^  he  at  last  obtained  assistance'  from  An^yroae  Dudley,  cari 
of  Warwick,  and  throu^  him  the  mterest  of  Queen  FKiahrih 
was  also  secured*  The  Muscovy  Company  was  now  obliged  to 
give  a  hoenoe  for  the  voyage  in  1 574,  and  the  necessary  noBej 
was  found  by  London  merchants.  Aided  espedally  by  Mkhad 
Lok,  an  influential  merchant  and  diligent  student  of  geography, 
Frobisher  sailed,  on  the  7th  (17th)  of  June  1576,  from  Depiford 
with  two  small  vessels  of  20  and  25  tons,  called  the'*  Gsbrid  "  and 
"  Michael,"  and  a  small  pmnace  of  10  tons;  the  crews  anouBted 
to  SS  men  all  told.  On  the  8th  (i8th>  of  July  they  loot  ai^  d 
the  pinnace,  which  was  seen  no  more.  On  the  11th  (aist)  of  July 
they  sighted  a  high,  rugged  kind,  but  could  not  approach  it  iar 
ice  This  was  the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  but,  misled  by  his 
charts,  Frobisher  assumed  it  to  be  the  fictitious  Frislami,  wiwh 
was  the  fabrication  of  a  Venetian,  Niocolo  21eno,  who  is  iss^ 
pttbkslwd  a  spurious  narrative  and  map  (which  he  pretended 
to  have  found)  as  the  work  of  an  ancestor  and  hb  brother  ia 
the  14th  century.  The  Zeno  map  was  chiefly  iafavkated  oa 
the  basis  of  a  map  by  the  Swede  Glaus  Magnus  of  1537  and.  the 
map  by  the  Dane  Claudius  Clavus  of  the  xsth  cestury.  It 
accepted  at  the  time  as  a  work  of  high  attthority,aiKlttsfictiti 
names  and  islands  continued  to  appear  os  subsequent  asaps  for 
at  least  a  century,  and  have  puzaled  both  geographcts  at  hos» 
and  explorers  in  the  field.  These  i&Iaads  had  also  been  istm- 
dttced  on  the  charts  of  Mcrcator  of  1569  and  oi  Ortdius  of  z  570 
which  were  probably  used  by  FrobishfT.  Evidently  frightened 
by  the  sight  of  the  great  quantities  of  ice  off  the  Greenland 
coast,  one  ship,  the  "  Michad."  kft  him  secretly,  "  and  re- 
touited  home  wyth  greate  reporte  that  ho  was  cast  avayc.** 
The  gallant  Frobisher  continued  his  voyage  towards  the  ncrib- 
wcst  in  the  "Gabner*  alone,  although  his  mast  was  sprung,  his 
topmast  blown  overboaild,  and  his  "miaen-mast  **  had  had  to  be 
cut  away  in  a  gale.  On  the  J9th  of  Ja^  CAug.  8)  he  sighted  high 


POLAR  REGIONS 


941 


Lur^of 


land  which  he  called  Queen  £Iizabeth*i  Fordand.  This  was 
the  southern  part  of  Baflfm  Land  (Resolution  Island)  in  about 
63**  N.  lat/  He  was  stopped  by  ice,  but  nearly  two  weeks  later 
be  reached  the  coast  and  entered  an  inlet  which  he  considered 
to  be  the  strait  of  the  north-west  passage,  and  he  gave  it  his  own 
name  (it  is  now  Frobisher  Bay  on  Baffin  Land).  The  land  was 
called  "Meta  Incognita."  Frobisher  was  not  well  prepared 
for  going  much  farther,  and  after  his  boat  with  five  men  had 
disappeared  he  returned  home,  where,  unfortunately,  some 
"gold-finders"  in  London  took  it  into  their  heads  that  a  piece 
of  dark  heavy  stone  brought  back  contained  gold  ore.  This 
caused  great  excitement;  it  was  now  considered  much  more 
important  to  collect  this  precious  ore  than  to  find  the  north-west 
passage,  and  much  larger  expeditions  were  sent  out  in  the  two 
following  years.  As  many  as  fifteen  vessels  formed  the  third 
expedition  of  1578,  and  it  was  the  intention  to  form  a  colony 
with  a  hundred  men  in  the  gold  land,  but  this  scheme  was 
given  up.  Frobisher  came  into  Hudson  Strait,  which  was  at 
first  thought  to  be  Frobisher  Strait  and  therefore  called  Mistaken 
Strait.  There  was  an  open  sea  without  any  land  or  ice 
towards  the  west,  and  Frobisher  was  certain  that  he  could  sail 
through  to  the  "Mare  del  Sur" (Pacific  Ocean) and  "  Kathaya," 
hut  his  first  goal  was  the  "  gold  mines,"  and  the  vessels  returned 
home  with  fuU  loads  of  the  ore.  One  of  them,  a  buss  (small 
ship)  of  Bridgwater,  called  the  "  Emmanuel, "  reported  that  on 
her  voyage  home  she  had  first  sighted  Frisland  on  the  8th 
(i8th)  of  September,  but  four  days  later  she  had  sighted  another 
Land  in  the  Atlantic  and  sailed  along  it  till  the  following  day;  they 
reckoned  its  southern  end  to  be  in  about  57^**  N.  lat.  This  land 
soon  found  its  place  on  maps  and  charts  south-west  of  Iceland 
tinder  the  name  of  Buss  Island,  and  as  it  was  never 
seen  again  it  was  after  1745  called  "the  sunken  land 
of  Buss."  The  explanation  is  that,  misled  by  the 
maps,  Frobisher  assumed  Greenland  to  be  Frisland  of  the  Zcno 
map  and  Baffin  Land  was  afterwards  assumed  to  be  the  east 
coast  of  Greenland.  When  the  buss  on  her  way  home  sighted 
Greenland  in  about  tJ*  N.,  she  therefore  thought  it  to  be 
Frisland,  but  when  she  four  days  later  again  sighted  land 
near  Cape  Farewell  and  her  dead  reckoning  probably  had 
carried  ner  about  two  degrees  too  far  south,  she  naturally 
considered  this  to  be  a  new  land,  which  puzzled  geographers 
and  navigators  for  centuries.  Owing  to  a  similar  mistake,  not 
by  Frobisher,  but  by  later  cartographers  and  especially  by  Davis, 
it  was  afterwards  assumed  that  Frobisher  Strait  (and  also 
Mistaken  Strait)  was  not  in  Baffin  Land  but  on  the  east  coast 
of  Greenland^  where  they  remained  on  the  maps  till  the  x8th 
century. 

John  Davis,  who  made  the  next  attempt  to  discover  a  north- 
west passage,  was  one  of  the  most  sdcntificscamen  of  that  age. 
He  made  three  voyages  in  three  successive  years 
aided  and  fitted  out  by  William  Sanderson  and  other 
merchants.  Sailing  from  Dartmouth  on  the  7th  (x7th)  of  June 
1585,  with  two  ships,  he  sighted  on  the  20th  (30th)  of  July  "  the 
most  deformed,  rocky  and  mountainous  land,  that  ever  we  sawe." 
He  named  it  the  Land  of  Desolation,  although  he  understood 
that  he  had  rediscovenSd  "the  shore  which  in  ancient  time 
was  called  Greenland."  It  was  its  east  coast.  He  visited 
the  west  co«st,  where  Frobisher  had  also  landed  mistaking 
it  for  Frisland.  Davis  anchored  in  a  place  called  Gilbert's 
Sound  in  64**  10'  (near  the  present  Danish  settlement  of  Godthaab) 
and  had  much  intercourse  with  the  Eskimo.  He  then,  crossing 
the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  traced  a  portion  of  its  western 
shore  southwards  from  about  66*  40'  N.  lat.  and  came  into  Cum- 
berland Sound,  which  he  thought  to  be  the  strait  of  the  north-west 
passage,  but  returned  home  on  account  of  contrary  winds. 
In  the  second  voyage  (with  four  ships)  Davis  traced  the  western 
shore  of  Davis  Strait  still  farther  southwards,  and  sailed  along 
the  coast  of  Labrador.  In  the  third  voyage  (with  three  ships) 
in  1587  he  advanced  far  up  his  own  strait  along  the  west  coast 
of  Greenland  in  a  small  leaJcy  pinnace,  the  "Ellin,"  and  reached 
a  lofty  granite  island  in  72°  41'  N.  lat.,  which  he  named  Hope 
Sanderson.    He  met  with  ice  in  the  sea  west  of  this  place,  but 


OtHa, 


reported  that  there  was  not  "  any  yce  towards  the  noith,  hut 
IL  great  sea,  free,  large,  very  salt  and  blew,  and  of  an  unsearche- 
able  depth."    By  contrary  winds,  however,  he  was  prevented 
from  sailing  in  that  direction.  He  sailed  into  Cumberland  Sound, 
but  now  found  that  there  was  no  passage.    He  also  passed  on 
hb  way  southwards  the  entrance  to  Frobidier  Strait,  which 
he  named  Lumley  Inlet,  and  Hudson  Strait,  without  under- 
standing the  importance  of  the  latter.    When  Davis  came  to 
Labrador,  where  his  two  larger  ships  were  to  have  waited  for 
him,  they  had  sailed  to  England.    The  little  "  Ellin  "  now  struck 
a  sunken  rock  and  sprung  a  leak,  which  was  repaired,  and  he 
crossed  the  Atlantic  in  this  small  leaky  craft.    He  still  believed 
in  the  existence  of  a  passage  through  Davis  Strait,  but  ooukt 
find  no  support  for  another  Arctic  voyage.    Davis  was  not  the 
first  to  discover  this  strait;  it  was  well-known  to  the  Norsemen. 
Caspar  Corte-Real  had  possibly  also  t>een  there,  and  Frobisher 
had  during  his  voyages  crossed  its  southern  part  every  year. 
The  result  of  Davis's  discoveries  are  shown  on  the  Molyneux 
globe,  which  '^  now  in  the  library  of  the  Middle  Temple;  they 
are  also  shown  on  the  "New  Map"  in  HakJuyt's  Pfuuipal 
Navigations  (i598>x6oo).     When  Davis  was  trying  to  reconcile 
his  discoveries  with   the  previous  ones,  especially   those  oC 
Frobisher,  he  made  fatal  mistakes  as  mentioned  above. 

As  early  as  1565,  by  the  intervention  of  a  certain  Philip 
Winterkonig,  an  exile  from  Vardohus  in  Norway,  Dutch  mer- 
chants formed  a  settlement  in  Kola,  and  in  1578  t^uml 
two  Dutch  ships  anchored  in  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Dvina,  and  a  Dutch  settlement  was  established  where  Archangd 
was  built  a  few  years  later.  The  leading  man  in  these  under* 
takings  was  Olivier  Brunei,  who  is  thus  the  founder  of  the 
White  Sea  trade  of  the  Dutch;  he  was  also  their  first  Arctic 
navigator.  He  had  travelled  both  overland  and  along  the  coast 
to  Siberia  and  reached  the  river  Ob;  he  had  also  visited  Kostin 
Shar  on  Novaya  Zcmlya.  He  propounded  plans  for  the  dis- 
covery of  the  north-east  passage  to  China,  and  in  1581  he  went 
from  Russia  to  Antwerp  to  prepare  an  expedition.  He  probably 
started  with  one  ship  in  1582,  on  the  first  Arctic  expedition 
which  left  the  Netherlands.  Little  is  known  of  its  fate  except 
that  it  ended  unsuccessfully  with  the  wreck  of  the  ship  In  the 
shallow  Pechora  Bay,  possibly  after  a  vain  attempt  to  penetrate 
through  the  Yugor  Strait  into  the  Kara  Sea.  In  158J  we  find 
Olivier  Brunei  in  Bergen  trying  to  organize  a  NorwcgiaD  under- 
taking, evidently  towards  the  north-east,  but  it  is  uncertain 
whether  it  led  to  anything. 

The  Dutch,  however,  had  begun  to  see  the  importance  of  a 
northern  route  to  China  and  India,  especially  as  the  routes 
through  the  southern  seas  were  jealously  guarded  by  the  Spani- 
ards and  Portuguese,  and  after  1584  all  trade  with  Portugal, 
where'  the  Dutch  got  Indian  goods,  was  forbidden.  By  Brunei's 
efforts  their  attention  had  been  directed  towards  the  north-east 
passage,  but  it  was  not  until  1594  that  a  new  expedition  was 
sent  out,  one  of  the  promoters  being  Peter  Plancius,  the 
learned  cosmographer  of  Amsterdam.  Four  ships  sailed  from 
Huysdunen  on  the  5th  (15th)  of  June  1594.  Two  of  these 
ships  from  Amsterdam  were  under  the  command  of  Willem 
Barents,  who  sighted  Novaya  Zemlya,  north  of 
Matochlun  Shar,  on  the  4th  (14th)  of  July;  and 
from  that  date  until  the  ist  (nth)  of  August 
Barents  continued  perseveringjy  to  seek  a  way  through 
the  ice-floes,  and  discovered  the  whole  western  coast  as  far 
as  the  Great  Ice  Cape,  the  latitude  of  which  he,  with  his 
admirable  accuracy,  determined  to  be  77*  N.  Having  reached 
the  Orange  Islands  at  the  north-west  extremity,  he  decided 
to  return.  The  two  other  ships  under  the  command  of  Cornells 
Nay  had  discovered  the  Yugor  Strait,  through  which  they  sailed 
into  the  Kara  Sea  on  the  ist  (I'lth)  of  August.  They  reached 
the  west  coast  of  Yalmal;  being  sure  that  they  had  passed  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Ob,  and  finding  the  sea  open,  they  thought 
they  had  found  a  free  passage  to  Japan  and  China,  and  returned 
home  on  the  nth  (21st)  of  August.  A  new  e]q;>editk)n  was 
made  the  following  year,  1595,  with  seven  ships  under  the 
command  of  Cornells  Nay,  as  admiral,  and  Willem  Barents  as 


^♦a 


POLAR  REGIONS 


diief  pilot,  but  it  metdy  made  several  unsoccessful  attempts 
to  enter  the  Kara  Sea  through  the  Yugor  Strait.  The  third 
expedition  was  more  important.  Two  vessels  sailed  from 
Amsterdam  on  the  loth  (solh)  of  May  1596,  under  the  command 
of  Jacob  van  Hecmskerck  and  CorncHszoon  Rijp.  Barents 
accompanied  Hecmskerck  as  pilot,  and  Gerrit  do  Veer,  the 
historian  of  the  voyage,  was  on  board  as  mate.  The  masses 
of  ice  in  the  straits  leading  to  the  Sea  of  Kara,  and  the 
impenetrable  nature  of  the  pack  near  Novaya  Zemlya,  had 
suggested  the  advisability  of  avoiding  the  land  and,  by  keeping 
a  northerly  course,  of  seeking  a  passage  In  the  open  sea.  They 
sailed  northwards,  .and  on  the  9th  (19th)  of  June  discovered 
Bear  Island.  Continuing  on  the  same  course  they  sighted  a 
mountainous  snow-covered  land  in  about  80"  N.  lat.,  soon 
afterwards  being  stopped  by  the  polar  pack  ice.  This  important 
discovery  was  named  Spitsbergen,  and  was  believed  to  be  a 
part  of  Greenland.  Arriving  at  Bear  Island  again  on  the  1st  of 
July,  Rijp  parted  company,  while  Hecmskerck  and  Barents 
proceeded  eastward,  intending  to  pass  round  the  northern 
extreme  of  Novaya  Zemlya.  On  the  26th  of  August  (Sept.  5) 
they  reached  Ice  Haven,  after  rounding  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  land.  Here  they  wintered  in  a  house  built 
out  of  driftwood  and  planks  from  the  'tween  decks  and  the 
deck-house  of  the  vessel.  In  the  spring  they  made  their  way 
in  boats  to  the  Lapland  coast;  but  Barents  died  during  the 
voyage.  This  was  the  first  time  that  an  arctic  winter  was 
successfully  faced.  The  voyages  of  Barents  stand  in  the  first 
rank  among  the  polar  enterprises  of  the  i6th  century.  They 
led  to  flourishing  whale  and  seal  fisheries  which  long  enriched 
the  Netherlands. 

The  English  enterprises  were  continued  by  the  Muscovy 
Company,  and  by  associations  of  patriotic  merchants  of  London; 

n'mi  woirfft.  *"^  *^^**  ^^*  ^*^  Indra  Company  sent  an  expedition 
under  Captain  Way  mouth  in   1602  to  seek  for  a 
passage  l^  the  openfng  seen  by  Davis,  but  it  had  no  success. 

The  best  servant  of  the  Muscovy  Company  in  the  work  of 
polar  discovery  was  Henry  Hudson.  His  first  voyage  was 
Hm4aaa.  *i"*'crtakeft  in  1607,  when  he  discovered  the  most 
northern  known  point  of  the  cast  coast  of  Greenland 
in  73*  N.  named  "Hold  with  Hope,"  and  examined  the  ice 
between  Greenland  and  Spitsbergen,  probably  reaching  Hakluyt's 
Headland  in  79*  50'  N.  On  his  way  home  he  discovered 
the  island  now  called  Jan  Mayen,  which  he  named  '*  Hudson's 
Tutches."  In  his  second  expedition,  during  the  season  of  1608, 
Hudson  examined  the  edge  of  the  ice  between  Spitsbergen  and 
Novaya  Zemlya.  In  his  third  voyage  he  was  employed  by  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company;  he  again  approached  Novaya 
Zemlya,  but  was  compelled  to  return  westwards,  and  he  explored 
the  coasts  of  North  America,  discovering  the  Hudson  river. 
In  1610  he  entered  Hudson  Strait,  and  discovered  the  great  bay 
which  bears  and  immortalizes  his  name.  He  was  obliged  to 
winter  there,  undergoing  no  small  hardships.  On  his  way 
home  hb  crew  mutinied  and  set  him,  his  little  son  and  some 
sick  m«Q  adrift  in  a  boat,  and  the  explorer  perished  in  the  seas 
he  had  opened  up. 

.  The  voyages  of  Hudson  led  immediately  to  the  Spitsbergen 
whale  fishery.  From  ^609  to  1612  Jonas  Poole  made  four 
SpHsber^a  vojragcs  for  the  prosecution  of  this  lucrative  business, 
•*■*  and  he  was  followed  by  Fotherby,  Baffin,  Joseph, 
'**■•'•  and'£dge.  These  bold  seamen,  while  in  the  pursuit 
of  wf»a!es,  added  considerably  to  the  knowledge  of  the  archi- 
pelago of  islands  known  under  the  name  of  Spitsbergen,  and 
in  161^  Captain  Edge  discovered  an  bland  to  the  eastward, 
which  he  named  Wyche's  Land. 

About  the  same  period  the  kings  of  Denmark  began  to 
•end  expeditions  for  the  rediscovery  of  the  lost  Greenland 
p^^^  colony.  In  1605  Christian  IV.  sefnt  out  three  ships. 
IVafM.  v^^  ^hc  Englishmen  Cunningham  and  Hall  and 
a  Dane  named  Lindenov,  whidi  reached  the  western 
coast  of  Greenland  and  had  much  intercourse  with  the  Eskimo. 
Other  expeditions  followed  In  1606-1607. 

Meanwhile,  the  merchaat  idventurers  of  London  continued 


to  push  forward  the  western  discovery.    Sir  Thomas  Button, 
in  command  of  two  shtps^  the  "Resolution"  and  "Discovery," 
sailed   from   England   in   May   1612.  .  He  entered      j^^h^ 
Hudson   Bay,   crossed   to   its  western   shore^    and 
wintered  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  in  S7'  10'  N.  which  was  named 
Nelson  river  after  the  master  of  the  ship,  who  died  and  was 
buried  there.   Next  year  Button  explored  the  shore  of  Southamp- 
ton Island  as  far  as  65**  N.,  and  returned  home  in  the  autania 
of  16 13.     An  expedition  under  Captain  Gibbons  despatched 
in  1614  to  Hudson  Bay  was  a  failure;  but  in  1615  Robert  Bylot 
as  master  and  William  Baffin  as  pilot  and  navigator  in  the 
*'  Discovery  "  examined  the  coasts  of  Hudson  Strait  and  to  the 
north  of  Hudson  Bay,  and  Baffin,  who  was  the  equal  of  Davis  as 
a   scientific  seaman,  made  many  valuable  observa-       jm^ 
tions.    In  1616  Bylot  and  Baffin  again  set  out  in  the 
"  Discovery."    Sailing  up  Davis  Strait  they  passed  that  navi- 
gator's farthest  point  at  Sanderson's  Hope,  and  sailed  round  the 
great  channel  with  smaller  channels  leading  from  it  which  has 
been  known  ever  since  as  Baffin  Bay.    Baffin  named  the  most 
northern  opening  Smith  Sound,  after  the  first  governor  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  the  munificent  promoter  of  the  voyage. 
Sir  Thomas  Smith.    Lancaster  Sound  and  Jones  Sound  were 
named  after  other  promotera  and  friends  of  the  voyage.   The 
fame  of  Baffin  mainly  rests  upon  the  discovery  of  a  great  ctiaBod 
extending  north  from  Davis  Strait;  but  it  was  nnjostly  dimmed 
for  many  years,  owing  to  the  omission  of  Purchas  to  publiA 
iht  navigator's  tabulated  journal  and  map  in  hb  great  collectua 
of  voyages.    It  was  two  hundred  years  before  a  new  cxpeditiea 
sailed  north  through  Baffin  Bay.    It  nuiy  be  mentioiied,  as  an 
Illustration  of  the  value  of  these  eariy  voyages  to  modem  scicBce. 
that  Professor  Hansteen  of  Christiania  made  vex  fA  Bafia's 
magnetic  observations  in   the  compilation  of  his   series  M 
magnetic  maps.     In   1619  Denmark  sent  out   an  expedition, 
under  the  command  of  Jens  Munk,  in  aeardi  of  the  north-west 
passage,  with   two  ships  and  64  men.    TTtey  reached  the  west 
coast  of  Hudson  Bay,  where  they  wintered  near  Churchill   river, 
but  all  died  with  the  exception  of  one  man,  a  boy,  and  Munk 
himself,  who  managed  to  sail  home  in  the  smallest  ship. 

In  1631  two  expeditions  were  deH^afched,  one  by  the  nacr- 
chants  of  London,  the  other  by  those  of  Bristol.  In  the  Loadoa 
ship  "Charles"  Luke  Fox  explored  the  wcsteni 
side  of  Hudson  Bay  as  far  as  the  place  called  *'Slr 
Thomas  Roc's  Welcome."  In  August  be  en- 
countered Captain  James  and  the  Bristol  diip  "Maria'*  in  the 
middle  of  Hudson  Bay,  and  went  north  until  he  reached 
"North-west  Fox  hb  farthest," in  66*  47'  N.  He  then  returned 
home  and  wrote  an  entertaining  narrative.  Captain  James  had 
to  winter  off  Charlton  Island,  in  James  Bay,  the  southern  extieae 
of  Hudson  Bay,  and  did  not  return  until  October  163a.  Another 
English  voyager,  Captain  Wood,  attempted,  without  saccesa,  to 
discover  a  north-cast  passage  in  1676  throng  the  sea  roud 
the  North  Pole,  but  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Novaya  Zemlya. 

The  16th  and  17th  centuries  were  periods  of  discovery  and 
daring  enterprise.  Hudson  Strait  and  Bay,  Davb  Strait  ajsd 
Baffin  Bay,  the  icy  seas  from  Greenland  to  Spitd>ergen  and 
from  Spitsbergen  to  Novaya  Zemlya  had  all  been  explocrd, 
but  much  more  was  not  discovered  than  had  been  vcH  knowa 
to  the  Norsemen  five  or  sbc  centuries  earlier.  The  fofloving 
century  was  rather  a  period  of  reaping  the  results  of  fomer 
efforts  than  of  discovery.  It  saw  the  settlement  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Territory  and  of  Orecnland,  and  the  development  ai  the 
whale  and  seal  fisheries. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  incorporated  in  1670,  and 
Prince  Rupert  sent  out  Zachariah  Gillan,  who  wintered  at 
Rupert  river.  At  first  very  slow  progress  was  made.  A  voyace 
undertaken  by  Mr  Knight,  nearly  80  years  dd,  who  had  been 
appointed  governor  of  the  factory  at  Nelson  river,  was  onfortv- 
nate,  as  Hs  two  ships  were  lost  and  the  crews 
perished.  This  was  in  1 719.  In  17^2  John  Scnxggs 
was  sent  from  Churchill  river  in  search  of  the  "»»««■»§  sh^n, 
but  merely  entered  Sir  Thomas  Roe's  Welcome  and  ictamed. 
His  reports  were  believed  to  offer  decisive  prooli  of  the 


■POLAR  REOflONS 


m^ 


Moot, 


MJUtfM. 


of  t-iunige  into  the  Pacific;  and  a  ntva]  expcdftion  was  de- 
spatched under  the  command  of  Captain  Christopher  Middkton, 
„..„,.  consisting  of  the  "  Discovery  "  pink  and  the  *'  Fur- 
^'****"***  nace  »  bomb.  Wintering  in  ChurchiU  river,  Middle- 
ton  atarted  in  July  1743  and  discovered  Wager  river  and  Repiulae 
Bay.  In  1746  Captain  W.  Moor  made  another  voyage  in 
the  same  direction,  and  explored  the  Wager  Inlet. 
Later  in  the  century  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company^ 
servants  made  some  important  land  journeys  to  discover  the 
shores  of  the  American  polar  ocean.  Ffom  1769I0  1772  Samuel 
Hearpe  descended  the  Coppermine  River  to  the  polar  sea;  and 
m  1789  Alexander  Mackenzie  discovered  the  mouth  of  the 
Mackenzie  river.  (For  the  establishment  6i  the  modem  Danish 
settlements  in  Greenland,  see  Grebmla]«d.) 

The  6>antiymen  of  Barents  vied  with  the  countrymen  of 
Hudson  ia  the  perilous  calling  which  annually  brought  fleets 
Outefe  of  ships  to  the  Spitsbergen  seas  during  the  17th  and 
Wtuh  x8th  centttries.  The  Dutch  had  their  large  summer 
Fkbmy»  station  for  boiling  down  blubber  at  Smecrenberg, 
near  the  northern  extreme  of  the  west  coast  of  %>itsbergen. 
Captain  Vlambigh,  in  1664,  advanced  as  far  round  the  northern 
end  of  Novaya  Zemlya  as  the  winter  quarters  of  Barents.  In 
1700  Captain  Cotneiis  Roule  is  said  t^  Witsen  to  have  safled 
north  in  the  lohgitude  of  Novaya  Zemlya  and  to  have  seen 
an  extent  of  40  m.  of  broken  land,  but  Theunis  Ys,  one  of  the 
most  experienced  Dutch  navigators,  bdieved  that  no  vessel 
had  erer  been  north  of  the  Sand  pamlleL  In  1671  Frederick 
Martens^  a  German  surgeon,  visited  Spitsbergen,  and 
wrdte  the  beat  account  of  its  physical  features  and 
natural  history  that  estisted  previous  to  the  tihie  of  Scoresby. 
In  Z707  Captain  Cornelia  Gilfes  vent  far  to  the  eastward 
along  the  nortton  shores  of  Spitsbergen,  and  saw  land  to 
the  east  in  80*  N.»  which  has  since  been  known  as  GUies  Land. 
The  Dutch  geographical  knowledge  of  Spitsbergen  was  embodied 
in  the  famous  chart  of  the  Van  Keulens  (father  and  son),  i7oor 
1728.  The  Dutch  whale  fishery  continued  to  flourish  until  the 
French  Revolution,  and  formed  a  splendid  nursery  for  training 
the  seamen  of  the  Netherlands..  From  1700  to  1775  the  whaling 
fleet  numbered  xoo  ships  and  upwards.  In  17 iq  the  Dutch 
opened  a  whade  fishery  in  Davis  Strait,  and  continued  to  frequent 
the  west  coast  of  Greenland  for  upwards  of  aixty  years  from  that 
time. 

The  most  flourishing  period  of  the  British  fishery  in  the  ^its- 
bergen  and  Greenland  seas  was  from  1753  to  1820.  Bounties 
BHmii  of  408.  per  ton  were  granted  by  act  of  parliament; 
.ir*«i»  and  in  1778  as  many  as  255  sail  of  whalers  were 
AAtfT*  employed.  In  order  to  encourage  discovery  £5000 
was  offered  in  1776  to  the  first  ship  that  should  sail  beyond  the 
89th  parallel  (16  Geo.  HI.  c.  6),  Among  the  numerous  daring 
and  able  whaling  captains,  William  Sooresby  tak<s 
the  first  rank,  ^  alike  as.  a  successful  whaler  and  a 
scfentiflc  observer.  His  admirable  AecoutU  of  the  Arctic  Regions 
ft  still  a  textbook  for  all  students  of  the  subject.  In  1806  he 
succeeded  in  advancing  his  ship  "  Resolution "  as  far  north  as 
81"  xa'  4a".  In  1822  he  forced  his  way  through  the  ice  which 
encumbers  the  approach  to  land  on  the  east  coast  of  Greenland, 
and  survey^  that  coast  from  75°  down  to  69**  N.,  a  d^tance 
of  400  m.  Sooresby  combined  the  ckMscst  attention  to  his 
business  with  much  valuable  scientific  work  and  no  insignificant 
amount  of  exploration. 

The  Russians,  after  the  acquisition  of  Siberia,  succeeded  in 
gradually  exi^oring  the  whole  of  the  northern  shores  of  that  vast 
-.  ..  .  r(^i(»i.  In  164S  a  Cossack  named  Simon  Deahncff 
is  said  to  have  equipped  a  boat  expedition  in  the 
river  Kolyma,  passed  through  the  strait  since  named  after 
Bering,  and  reached  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr.  In  1738  a  voyage  was 
made  by  two  Russian  officers  from  Archangel  to  the  mouths  of 
the  Ob  and  the  Yenisei.  Efforts  were  then  made  to  effect  a 
passage  from  the  Yenisei  to  the  Lena.  In  1735  Lieut.  T. 
Chelyuskin  got  as  far  as  77**  25'  N.  near  the  cape  which 
bears  his  name;  and  in  1743  ^  rounded  that  most 
IHnthon  point  of  Liberia  in  skdges.  in  if  41!  N.    Captain 


Vitus  Bering,  a  Dan^,  was  appothied  by  Peter  the  Great- to 
command  an  expedition  in  172$.    Two  vesseb  were  built  at 
Okhotsk,  and  in  July  X728  Bering  ascertained  the      ^^ 
existence  of   a  strait  between   Aiia  and  America.  "* 

In  1740  Bering  was  again  employed.  He  sailed  from  Okhotsk 
in  a  vessel  called  the  '*  St  Paul,''  with  G.  W.  Stdler  on  board  as 
naturalbt.  Their  object  was  to  discover  the  American  side  of 
the  strait,  and  they  sighted  the  magnificent  peak  named  by 
Bering  Mt  St  Elias.  The  Aleutian  Islands  were  also  explored, 
but  the  ship  was  wrecked  on  an  island  named  after  the  tU-faled 
discoverer,  and  scurvy  broke  out  amongst  his  crew.  BciJng 
himself  died  there  on  the  8th  of  December  ifA^i 

Thirty  years  after  the  death'  of  Bering  a  Russian  aaicWit 
named  Uakhoff  discovered  the  New  Siberia  or  Liakfaoff  Islands, 
and  in  1771  he  obtained  the  exclusive  right  from  ^'•Oj-,^--^- 
empress  Catherine  to  dig  there  for  fosnl  ivory.  "* 

These  islands  were  more  fully  explored  by  an  officer  named 
Hcdenstr5m  in  1 809,  and  seekers  for  fossU  ivory  aantnUy  resorted 
to  them.  A  Russian  expedition  under  Captain  Chitscfaakoff, 
sent  t«  Spitsbergen  in  1764,  was  only  able  to  attain  a  latitude  of 
80P  zcf  N. 

From  X773  onwards  to  the  end  of  the  xgth  century  the  objects 
of  polar  exploration  were  mainly  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
in  various  brandies  of  science.  It  was  on  these  grounds  that 
Daincs  Barrington  and  the  Royal  ^Society  induced  the  British 
^vemraent  to  undertake  arctic  exploration  once  'more.  The 
result  was  that  two  vessels,  the  "Racefaoiae  **  and  "  iCarcaaa  " 
bombs,  were  commissioned,  under  the  command. of  .  phta^ 
CapUm  J.  C.  Phipps.   The  expcditioa  sailed  from  the  ^'^ 

Nore  on  the  2nd  of  June  1773, and  was  stopped  by  the  ioe  to  the 
north  of  Hakluyt  Headland,  the  north^wcstem  point  of  6piisr 
bergen.  Phipps  reached  the  Seven  Islands  and  discovered  .Wsidev 
island;  but  beyond  this  point  prdgrcss  Was  impossible.  When 
he  attained  their  highost  latitude  in  80*  48'  N.,  north  of  the 
central  part  of  the  Spitsbergen  gvoup,  thci  ice  at  the  edge  ^ 
the  pack  was  24  ft.  thick.  Captain  Phipps  returned  to  England 
in  September  1773.  Five  ycais  afterwards  James  ^^^ 
Cook  received  instructions  to  proceed  northward 
from  Kamchatka  and  search  for  a  north-east  or  north-west 
passage  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  In  acconkoce  with 
these  orders  Captain  Cook,  durii«  his  third  voyage,  reached 
Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  the  western  «ctremily  of  America,  on 
the  9th  of  August  177^  His  shipSii  the  "  Resolution  "  and 
"  Discovery,"  arrived  at  the  edge  of  the  ice,  after  passing  Bering 
Strait,  in  70*"  41'  N.  On  the  17th  of  August  the  farthest 
point  seen  on  the  American  side  was  named  Icy  Cape*  On  tht 
Asiatic  side  Cook's  survey  extended  to  Cape  North.  In 
the  following  year  Captabi  Ckrke,  who  had  succeeded  to  the 
command,  made  another  voyage,  bvt  his  ship  was  beset  ih 
the  ice,  and  so  much  damaged  that  further  attempts  werp 
abandoned. 

The  wars  following  the  Fk-ench  Revolution  put  an  end  to  voyages 
of  discovery  till,  after  the  peace  of  1815,  north  polar  research 
found  a  powerful  and  indefatigable  advocate  in  Sir  f^grfo^, 
John  Barrow.  Through  his  influence  a  measure^for 
promoting  polar  discovery  became  law  in  1818  (38  («ea  III. 
c.  20),  by  which  a  reward  of  £20^000  was  offered  for  making  the 
north-west  passage,  and  of  £soQo  for  nsaching  89**  N«,  while  the 
commissioners  of  longitude  wcxe  empowered  to  awaid'-pfft^ 
portionate  sums  to  those  who  might  achieve  certain  portions  <rf 
such  discoveries.  In  181 7  the  icy  seas  were  repovted  by  Captain 
Sooresby  and  others  to  be  remarkably  open,  and  this  circumstance 
enabled  Barrow  to  obtain  sanction  for  the  despatch  of  two 
expeditions,  each  consisting  of  two  whalers — one  to  attempt 
discoveries  by  way  of  Spitsbergen  and  the  other  by  Baffin  Bay. 
The  vessels  for  the  Spitsbergen  route,  the  '*  Dorotfiea  "  and 
"  Trent,"  were  commanded  by  Captain  David  Buchan  and 
Lieut.  John  Franklin,  apd  sailed  in  April  xSiB.  Driven 
into  the  pack  by  a  heavy  swell  from  the  lautK  I^MHh 
vessels  were  severely  nipped,  and  had  to  return  to  England. 
The  other  expedition,  consisting  of  the  "  Isabella  "  >  and 
"  Alexander^"  comnianded  by  Captain  John  Ross  and  Lient. 


944 


POLAR  REGIONS 


Edward  FWTy»  followed  in  the  wake  of  Baffin's  voyage  of  1616. 
Ro»  sailed  from  Engiand  in  April  1S18.  The  cliief  merit  of  his 
voyage  ?ras  that  it  vindicated  Bafl&n's  accuracy  as  a  discoverer. 
Its  practical  result  was  that  the  way  was  shown  to  a.  lucrative 
fishery  in  the  "  North  Water  "  of  Baffin  Bay,  which  continued 
to  he  frequented  by  a  fleet  of  whalers  every  year.  Captain  Ross 
thought  that  the  inlets  reported  by  Baffin  were  merely  bays,  while 
the  opinion  of  his  second  in  command  was  that  a  wide  opening 
to  the  westmird  existed  through  the  Lancaster  Sound  of  Baffin. 

Parry  was  selected  to  command  a  new  expedition  in  the 
following  year.  His  two  vessels,  the  "  Heda  "  and  "Griper, " 
Pmny*a  passed  through  Lancaster  Sound,  the  continuation 
nruam§  of  which  was  named  Barrow  Strait,  and  advanced 
9»Kmm4  westward,  with  an  archipelago  on  the  rig^t,  since 
yvyaa^  known  as  the  Parry  Islands.  He  observed  a  wide 
opening  to  the  north,  which  he  named  Wellington  Channel,  and 
sailed  onwards  for  300  m.  to  Melville  Island.  He  was  stopped 
by  the  impenetrable  polar  pack  of  vast  thickness  whidi  surroonds 
the  archipelago  to  the  north  of  the  American  continent,  and  was 
obliged  to  winter  in  a  harboior  on  the  south  coast  of  Melville 
Island.  Parrjr's  hygienic  arrangements  during  the  winter  were 
judicious^  and  the  scientific  results  of  his  expedition  were  valu- 
able. The  vessels  returned  in  October  1820;  and  a  fresh  ex- 
pedition in  the  "  Fury  "  and  "  Hecla,"  again  under  the  command 
of  Captain  Parry,  sailed  from  the  Nore  on  the  8th  of  May  1821, 
and  passed  their  first  winter  on  the  coast  of  the  newly  discovered 
Melville  Peninsula  in  66**  iz'  N.  Still  persevering,  Parry  passed 
his  secoAd  winter  among  the  Eskimo  at  I^oolik  in  69*  20'  N., 
and  discovered  a  channd  Jcading. westward  from  the  head  of 
Hudson  Bay,  which  he  named  Fury  and  Heda  Strait.  The 
expedition  returned  in  the  autumn  of  1823.  Meantime  Parry's 
ffVaaUto'a  friend  Franklin  had  been  cmpk>yed  in  aUempts  to 
t^m  reach  by  kind  the  northern  ^ores  of  America, 
iHwmy*  hitherto  only  touched  at  two  points  by  Heame  and 
Mackende.  Franklin  went  out  in  1819,  with  Dr  John  Richaid- 
■on,  George  Back  and  Robert  Hood.  They  landed  at  York 
factory,  and  proceeded  to  the  Great  Slave  Lake.  In  August  of 
the  following  year  they  started  for  the  Coppermine  river,  and, 
embarking  on  it,  reached  its  mouth  on  the  i8th  of  July  1821. 
From  that  point  550  m.  of  coast-line  were  explored,  the 
extreme  point  being  Called  Cape  Tumagain.  Great  sufferings, 
from  starvation  and  cold,  had  to  be  endured  duriiw  the  return 
journey;  but  eventually  Franklin,  Richardson  and  Back  arrived 
safely  at  Fort  Chlppewyan. 

It  was  thought  desirable  that  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
connect  the  Cape  Tumagain  of  Franklin  with  the  discoveries 
^rry't  made  by  Parry  during  his  second  voyage;  but  the 
TMn>  first  effort,  under  Captain  Lyon  in  the  "  Griper,"  was 
•^'**'  unsuccessful.  In  1824  three  combined  attempts  were 
organised.  While  Parry  again  entered  by  Lancaster  Sound  and 
pushed  down  a  great  opening  he  had  seen  to  the  south 
named  Prince  Regent  Inlet,  Captain  Beechey  was  to  enter 
Bering  Strait,  and  Franklin  was  to  make  a  second  journey  by 
land  to  the  shores  of  Arctic  America.  Parry  was  unfortunate, 
but  Beechey  entered  Bering  Strait  in  the  "  Blossom  '^  in  August 
1826,  and  extended  our  knowledge  as  far  as  Point  Barrow 
i»#  \n  7i*  23'  30"  N.  lat.  Franklin,  in  1825-1826,  de- 
scended the  Mackenzie  river  to  its  mouth,  and  ex- 
plored the  coast  for  374  m.  to  the  westward;  while 
Dr  Richardson  discovered  the  shore  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Mackenzie  and  Coppermine,  and  sighted  land  to  the  northward, 
named  by  him  Wollaston  Land,  the  dividing  channd  being 
called  Union  and  Dolphin  Strait.  They  return^  in  the  autumn 
of  1826. 

Work  was  also  being  done  in  the  Spitsbergen  and  Barents 
Seas.  From  1821  to  1824  the  Rusuan  Captain  LUtke  was 
g.^^  survejring  the  west  coast  of  Novaya  Zemlya  as  far  as 
Cape  Nassau,  and  examining  the  ice  of  the  adjacent 
sea.  In  May  1823  the  **  Griper  "  safled,  under  the  command 
^.|^^^  .  of  Captain  Clavering,  to  convey  Captain  Sabine  to 
^  the  polar  regions  in  order  to  make  pendulum 
^observations.    Clavering  pushed  through  the  ice  in  7^  30'  N., 


aAd  succeeded  in  readiing  the  east  coast  of  GreenlaiMl,  where 
observations  were  taken  on  Pendulum  Islan(|.  He  chatted  the 
coast-line  from  76*  to  72^  N. 

In  Parry's  attempt  to  reach  the  pole  from  the  northern  coast 
of  Spitsbogen  by  means  of  sledge-boaU  (see  Pauy),  the  highett 
latitude  reached  was  83"  45^  N.,  and  the  attempt  was  perse  vtied 
in  until  it  was  found  that  the  ice  as  a  whole  was  dsiftiag  to  the 
south  moretapidly  than  it  sras'  possible  to  travd  over  it  to 
the  north. 

In  1829  the  Danes  undertook  an  interesting  piece  of  cxplon- 
tion  on  the  east  coast  of  Greenland.  Captain  Gtaah  of  the 
Danish. navy  rounded  Cape  Farewell  in  boats,  witli 
four  Europeans  and  twdve  Eskimo.  He  advanced  ***>^ 
as  far  as  65"  18'  N.  on  the  east  coast,  where  he  was  stopped  by 
an  insurmountable  barrier  of  ice.  He  wintered  in  63*  22'  N., 
and  returned  to  the  settlements  on  the  west  side  of  Greenland  ia 
183a 

In  the  year  1829  Captain  John  Ross,  with  his  nephew  James 
Claric  Ross,  having  -been  fumnhed  with  funds  fay  a  wealthy 
distiller  named  Felix  Booth,  undertook  a  private,^  ^ 
expedition  of  discovery  in  a  small  vessd  called  the 
"  Victory. "  Ross  proceeded  down  Prince  Regent  Inlet  to  the 
Gulf  of  Boothia,  and  wintered  on  the  eastern  side  of  a  land  naaml 
by  him  Boothia  Felix.  In  the  course  of  exploring  excuisloos 
during  the  summer  months  James  Ross  crossed,  the  bud  and 
discovered  the  position  of  the  north  magnetic  pole  on  the  western 
side  of  it,  on  the  tst  of  June  1831.  He  also  discovered  a  land  to 
the  westward  of  Boothia  which  he  named  King  Wflfiam  Land,  and 
the  northern  shore  of  which  he  examined.  .  The  most  nofthcra 
point  was  called  Cape  Felix,  and  thence  the  coast  trended  south- 
west to  Victory  Point.  The  Rosses  could  not  get  their  little 
vessel  out  of  its  winter  quarters.  They  passed  three  wintcn 
there,  and  then  fdl  back  on  the  stores  at  Fury  Beach,  where  they 
passed  their  fourth  winter,  1832-1833.  Eventually  they  were 
picked  up  by  a  whaler  in  Barrow  Strait,  and  brought  hone. 
Great  anxiety  was  naturally  felt  at  their  prolonged  absence,  and 
in  1833  Sir  George  Back,  with  Dr  Richard  King  as  a 
companion,  set  out  by  land  in  search  of  the  "»«**»^g 
explorers.  Wintering  at  the  Great  Shive  Lake,  they  left  Fort 
Reliance  on  the  7th  of  June  1834,  and  descended  the  Great  Fish 
river  for  530  m.  The  mouth  was  reached  in  67"  1  x'  N.,  and  tbea 
the  want  of  supplies  obliged  them  to  return.  In  1836  Sir  Gcofge 
Back  was  sent,  at  the  suggestion  of  the.  Royal  Geognpfakal 
Sodety,  to  proceed  to  Repulse  Bay  in  his  ship,  the  "  Terror,  * 
and  then  to  cross  an  assumed  isthmus  and  examine  tJie  cnasl< 
line  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Fish  river;  but  the  sh^ 
was  obliged  to  winter  in  the  drifting  pack,  and  was  hroogfat  bonw 
in  a  sinking  condition. 

The  tracing  of  the  polar  shores  of  America  was  ccunplcled  by  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company's  servants.  In  June  1837  TbomasSmp- 
son  and  P.  W.  Dease  left  Chippewyan,  reached  the  ^^ 
mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  connected  that  position  ^^^ 
with  Point  Barrow,  whidi  had  been  discovered  by  the 
"  Blossom  *'  in  1826.  In  1839  Simpson  passed  Cape  l\imagab 
of  Franklin,  trodng  the  coast  eastward  so  as  to  connect  with 
Back's  work  at  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Fish  river.  He  landed 
at  Montreal  Island  in  the  mouth  of  that  river,  and  thca 
advanced  eastward  as  far  as  Castor  and  Pollux  river,  his 
farthest  eastern  point.  On  his  return  he  traveDed  along 
the  north  side  of  the  channd,  the  south  shore  of  the  Ki^ 
William  Island  discovered  by  James  Rosa.  Tbe  aoath- 
wcstem  point  of  this  island  was  named  Cape  Hersdbd,  and 
there  Simpson  built  a  cairn  on  the  26th  of  August  1839. 
Little  remained  to  do  in  order  to  complete  the  delineation  of  the 
northern  shores  of  the  American  continent,  and  this  task  was 
entrusted  to  Dr  John  Rae,  a  Hudson's  Bay  factor,  in  ^^ 

1846.  He  went  in  boats  to  Repulse  Bay,  where  he 
wintered  in  a  stone  hut  neariy  on  the  Arctic  Circle;  and  tkere  he 
and  his  six  Orkney  men  maintained  themsdves  on  the  deer  tbey 
shot.  During  the  spring  of  1847  Dr  Rae  explored  on  loot  the 
shores  of  a  great  gulf  having  700  m.  of  coast-Bne.  He  tb&s 
connected  the  work  of  Parry,  at  the  mouth  of  F^  mad  Heda 


POLAR  REGIONS 


945 


Sliail,  with  tha  wotk  of  Roh  on  tbo  coast  of  Booihim,  proving 
that  Bootbk  was  part  of  the  American  ccmtinent. 

While  British  explorers  were  thus  working  hard  to  soLvt  some 
of  the  geographical  problems  relating  to  Arctic  America,  the 
Russians  were  similarly  engaged  in  Siberia.  In  1821 
^^''''  Lieut.  P.  F.  Anjou  made  a  complete  survey  of  the 
.New  Siberia  Islands^  and  came  to  the  ctmclusion  that  it  was  not 
possible  to  advance  far  from  them  in  a  northerly  direction, 
owing  to  the  thinness  of  the  ice  and  to  open  water 
wrm^Mm,  ^^^^g  ^jthiQ  ao  or  30  m.  Baron  Wmngell  prose- 
cuted similar  investigations  from  the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma 
between  1820  and  1S23.  He  made  four  journeys  with  dog 
sledges,  exploring  the  coast  between  Cape  Chclagskoi  and  the 
Kolyma,  and  making  attempts  to  extend  his  journeys  to  some 
distance  from  the  land,  but  he  was  always  stopped  by  thin  ice. 
A»f  ^  '^3  Middendorf  was  sent  to  exptore  the  region 
^''^•*^' which  terminates  in  Cape  Chelyuskin.  He  reached 
Tkimyr  Bay  in  the  height  of  the  short  summer,  whence  he  saw 
open  water  and  no  ice  blink  in  any  direction.  The  whole  arctic 
shore  of  Siberia  had  now  been  explored  and  delineated,  but  no 
vessd  bad  yet  rounded  the  extreme  northern  point. 

The  success  of  Sir  James  Ross's  Antarctic  expedition  and  the 
completion  of  the  northern  coast-line  of  America  by  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company's  servants  gave  rise  in  1845  to  a  fresh 
e^l'fSLm.  ^^^^P^  ^<>  (nake  the  passage  from  Lancaster  Sound 
*  to  Bering  Strait.  The  story  of  the  unhappy  expedi- 
tion of  Sir  John  Franklin,  in  the  "  Erebus  "  and  **  Terror,"  is  told 
under  Fkankun;  but  some  geographical  details  may  be  given 
here.  The  heavy  polar  ice  flows  south-east  between  Mdville 
and  Baring  Islands,  down  M'Clintock  Channd,  and  impinges 
on  the  north-west  coast  of  King  William  Land.  It  was  this 
branch  from  the  "  palaeocrystic  *'  sea  which  finally  stopped  the 
progress  of  Franklin's  expedition.  On  leaving  the  winter 
quarters  at  Beechey  Island  in  1846  Franklin  found  a  channel 
leading  south,  along  the  western  shore  of  the  land  of  North 
Somerset  4iKovered  by  Parry  in  1819.  If  he  could  reach  the 
channel  on  the  American  coast,  he  knew  that  he  would  be  able 
to  make  his  way  along  it  to  Bering  Strait.  This  channel,  now 
called  Peel  Sound,  pointed  directly  to  the  south.  He  sailed 
down  it  towards  Ring  William  Ida!nd,  with  land  on  both  sides. 
But  directly  the  southern  point  of  the  western  land  was  passed 
and  no  longer  shielded  the  channel,  the  great  ice  stream  from 
Mclyille  Island,  pressing  on  King  William  Island,  was  encountered 
and  found  impassable.  Progress  might  have  been  made  by 
rounding  the  eastern  side  of  King  William  Island,  but  its 
insularity  was  then  unknown. 

It  was  not  until  1848  that  anxiety  began  to  be  felt  about  the 
Franklin  expedition.  In  the  spring  of  that  year  Sir  James  Ross 
was  sent  with  two  ships,  the  "  Enterprise  "  and 
*'  Investigator,  "  by  way  of  Lancaster  Sound.  He 
wintered  at  Leopold  Harbour,  near  the  north-east 
point  of  North  Devon.  In  the  spring  he  made  a  long  sledge 
journey  with  Lieut.  Leopold  M'Clintock  along  the  northern  and 
western  coasts  of  North  Somerset,  but  found  nothing. 
•  On  the  return  of  the  Ross  expedition  without  any  tidings,  the 
country  became  thoroughly  alarmed.  An  extensive  plan  of  search 
was  organized— the  **  Enterprise  "  and  *'  Investi- 
gator "  under  Collinson  and  M'Clure  proceeding 
by  Bering  Strait,  while  the  "  Assblance  "  and  "  Resolute," 
with  two  steam  tenders,  the  "  Pioneer"  and  "  Intrepid,"  sailed 
on  the  3rd  of  May  1850  to  renew  the  search  by  Barrow  Strait, 
under  Captain  Horatio  A  ust  in.  Two  brigs,  the  "  Lady  Franklin  " 
and  "  Sophia,"  under  William  Penny,  an  energetic andable  whal- 
ing captain,  were  sent  by  the  same  route.  He  had  with  him  Dr 
Sutherland,  a  naturalist,  who  did  much  valuable  scientific  work. 
Austin  and  Penny  entered  Barrow  Strait,  and  Franklin's  winter 
quarters  of  1845-184^  were  discovered  at  Beechey  Island;  but 
there  was  no  record  of  any  kind  indicating  the  direction  taken  by 
the  ships.  Stopped  by  the  ice,  Austin's  expedition  wintered 
(i85o>z85i)  in  the  pack  off  Griffith  Island,  and  Penny  found 
refuge  In  a  harbour  on  the  south  coast  of  Comwallis  Island. 
Austin,  who  had  been  with  Parry  during  his  third  voyage,  was 


AuMtJa. 


an  admirable  organizer.  His  arrangements  for 'passing  the 
winter  were  carefully  thought  out  and  answered  perfectly.  In 
concert  with  Penny  he  planned  a  thorough  and  extensive  system 
of  search  by  means  of  sledge*travelllng  in  the  spring,  and 
Lieut.  M'Clintock  superintended  every  detail  of  this  part 
of  the  work  with  unfailing  forethought  and  skill.  Penny  under- 
took the  search  by  Wellington  Channel.  M'Clintock  advanced 
to  Melville  Island,  marching  over  770  m.  in  eighty-one  da3rs; 
Captain  OmmannQr  and  Shcrard  Osborn  pressed  southward 
and  discovered  Prince  of  Wales  Island.  Lieut.  Brown  examined 
the  western  shore  of  Peel  Sound.  The  search  was  exhaustive] 
but,  excq>t  the  winter  quarters  at  Beechey  Island,  no  record  was 
discovered.  The  absence  of  any  record  made  Captain  Austin 
doubt  whether  Franklin  had  ever  gone  beyond  Beechey  Island; 
80  he  also  examined  the  entrance  of  Jones  Sound,  the  next  inlet 
from  Baffin  Bay  north  of  Lancaster  Sound,  on  his  way  home, 
and  returned  to  England  in  the  autumn  of  1851.  This  was  a 
thomugfaly  well  conducted  expedition,  especially  as  regards  the 
skKige-travclIing,  which  M'Clintock  brought  to  great  perfection. 
So  far  as  the  search  for  Franklin  was  concerned,  nftthlng 
remained  to  be  done  west  or  north  of  Barrow  Strait. 

In  185 1  the  "  Prince  Albert  "  schooner  was  sent  out  by  Lady 
Franklin,  under  Captain  Wm.  Kennedy,  with  Lieut.  Bellot  of 
th6  French  navy  as  second.  They  wintered  on  the 
east  coast  of  North  Somerset,  and  in  the  spring  of 
i6s3  the  gallant  Frenchman,  in  the  course  of  a  long 
sledging  journey,  discovered  Bellot  Strait,  separating  North 
Somerset  from  Boothia — thus  proving  that  the  Boothia  gomI 
facing  the  strait  was  the  northern  extremity  of  the  continent  of 
America. 

The  "  Enterprise*"  and  '*  Investigator  "  sailed  from  Enghuid 
in  January  1850,  bnt  acddentaOy  parted  company  before  they 
reached  Bering  Strait.  On  the  6th  of  May  1851  the 
"  Enteiprise  "  passed  the  strait,  and  rounded  Point 
Barrow  on  the  asth.  CoOinson  then  made  his  way  up  the 
narrow  Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  between  Banks  and  Prince  Albert 
Islands,  and  reached  Princess  Royal  Islands,  where  M'Chue  had 
been  the  previous  year.  Returning  southwards,  the  '^Enter- 
prise  "  wintered  in  .a  sound  in  Prince  Albert  Island  in  71*  35'  N. 
and  ity^  35'  W.  Three  travelling  parties  were  despatched  in  the 
spring  of  1852 — one  to  trace  Prince  Albert  Land  in  a  southerly 
direction,  while  the  others  explored  Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  one  of 
them  reaching  Melville  Island.  In  S^tember  1852  the  ship  was 
free,  and  Collinson  pressed  eastward  along  the  coast  of  North 
America,  reaching  Cambri()ge  Bay  (Sept.  26),  where  the 
second  winter  was  passed.  In  the  spring  he  examined  the 
shores  of  Victoria  Land  as  far  as  70^  26*  N.  an<l  roo*  45*  W.:  here 
he  was  within  a  few  miles  of  Point  Victory,  where  the  fate  0^ 
Franklin  would  have  been  ascertained,  ilie  **  Enterprise  " 
again  put  to  sea  on  the  5th  of  August  1853,  and  returned  west- 
ward along  the  American  coast,  until  she  was  stopped  by  ice  and 
obliged  to  pass  a  third  winter  at  Camden  Bay,  in  70"  8'  N.  and 
145*  29'  VV.  In  1854  this  remarkable  voyage  was  completed,  and 
Captain  Collinson  brought  the  "  Enterprise  "  back  to  England. 

Meanwhile  M'Clure  in  the  "  Investigator  "  had  passed  the 
winter  of  1850-1851  at  the  Princess  Royal  Islands,  only  30  m. 
from  Barrow  Strait.  In  October  M'Clure  ascended 
a  hill  whence  he  could  see  the  frown  surface  of 
Barrow  Strait,  which  was  navigated  by  Parry  in  1819-1820. 
Hius,  like  the  survivors  of  Franklin'^  crews  when  they  reached 
Cape  Hcrschel,  M'Clure  discovered  a  north-west  passage.  It  was 
impossible  to  roach  it,  for  the  stream  of  heavily  packed  ic« 
which  stopped  Franklin  off  King  William  Land  lay  athwart  their 
northward  course;  so,  as  soon  as  he  was  free  in  1851,  M'Clore 
turned  southwards,  round  the  southern  extreme  of  Bonks  Land, 
and  commenced  to  force  a  passage  to  the  northward  betwwa  the 
western  shore  of  that  land  and  the  enormous  fields  of  ice  which 
pressed  upon  it.  The  cliffs  rose  like  walls  on  one  side,  while  on 
the  other  the  stupendous  ice  of  the  "  palaeocrystic  sea  "  rose  from 
the  water  to  a  level  with  the  "  Investigator'^  "  tower  yards. 
After  many  hairbreadth  escapes  M'CIuro  took  refuge  in  a  bay  on 
the  north^  shore  of  Banks  Land,  which  he  nam«l  the  Ba/  of 


94*1 


POLAR  REGIONS 


God's  Mercy.  Here  the  "  Invectigator  "  remained,  never  to 
move  again.  After  the  winter  of  185 1-1852  M'Clure  had  made. a 
journey  across  the  ice  to  Melville  Island,  and  left  a  record  at 
Parry's  winter  harbour.  Abundant  supplies  of  musk,  ox  were 
fortunately  obtained,  but  a  third  winter  had  to  be  faced.  In  tho 
spring  of  1853  M'Clure  was  preparing  to  abandon  the  ship  with  all 
hands,  and  attempt,  like  Franklin's  crews,  to  ipach  the  American 
coast;  but  succour  arrived  in  time. 

The  Hudson  Bay  Qompaoy  continued  the  search  for  Franklin. 
tn  1848  Sir  John  Richardson  and  Dr  Rae  examined  the  Am<|rican 
,  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  to  that  of  the 

j^*  ,  Coppermine.  In  r84Q  and  1850  Rae  continued  the 
search;  and  by  a  long  sledge  journey  in  the  spring  of 
1 85 1,  and  a  boat  voyage  in  the  summer,  he  examined  the  shores 
of  Wollaston  and  Victoria  Lands,  which  were  afterwards  explored 
by  Captain  Collinson  in  the  "  Enterprise.  " 

In  185a  ,the  British  government  resolved  to  despatch  another 
expedition  by  Lancaster  Sound.  Austin's  (our  vessels  were 
recommissioned,  and  the  "  North  Star  "  was  sent  out  as  a  d^pdt 
ship  at  Beechey  Island.  Sir  Edward  Beldier  com- 
manded the  "Assistance,"  with  the  "Pioneer" 
under  Sherard  Osborn  as  steam  tenden  He  went  up  Wellington 
Channel  to  Northumberland  Bay,  where  he  wintered,  passing  a 
second  winter  lower  down  in  Wellington  Channel,  and  then 
abandoning  his  ships  and  coming  home  in  1854.  But  Sherard 
Osbofn  and  Com.  G.  H.  Richards  did  good  work  They  made 
sledge  journeys  to  Melville  Island,  and  thus  discovered  the 
northern  side  of  the  Parry  group.  Captain  KcUett 
received  command  of  the  "  Resolute,  "  iwiih  M'Clin- 
tock  in  the  steam  tender  "  Intrepid."  Among  Kellett's  ofHcecs 
were  the  best  of  Austin's  sledge-travellers,  M'ClintQck,  Meck^m, 
and  Vcsey,  Hamilton,  so  that  good  work  was  sure  to  be  done. 
George  S.  Nares.  leader  of  the  future  expedition  of  1874-1875, 
WflS'abvoii  board  the  "  Resolute."  Kelicit  pressed  onwards  to 
the  westward  and  passed  the  winter  of  1852-1858  at  Melville 
Island.  Puring  the  autumn  Mecham  discovered  M'Clure's 
record,  and  the  position  of  the  "  Investigator  "  was  thus  ascer* 
tained.  Lieut.  Pim.made  his  way  to  this  point  early  in  the 
following  spring,  and  the  ofBcers  and  crew  of  the  "  Investigator," 
led  by  M'Clure,  arrived  safely  on  board  the  "  Resolute  "  on  the 
1 7th  of  June  1853.  (They  reached  England  in  the  following  year, 
having  not  only  discovered  but  traversed  a  north-west  passage, 
though  not  in  the  same  ship  and  partly  by  travelling  over  ice* 
For  this  great  feat  M'Clure  received  the  honour  of  knighthood, 
and  a  reward  of  £10,000  was  granted  to  himself,  the  oth^ 
officers,  and  the  crcW,  by  a  vote  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  travelling  parties  of  KcUctt's  expedition,  led  by  M'Clin- 
tock,  Mecham  and  Vcscy  Hamilton,  completed  the  discovery  of 
the  northern  and  western  sides  of  Melville  Island,  and  the  whole 
outline  of  the  large  island  of  Prince  Patrick,  further  west. 
M'Clintock  was  away  from  the  ship  with  his  sledge  party  for  one 
hundred  and  five  days,  and  travelled  over  1328  ro.  Mecham 
was  away  ninety-four  days,  and  travelled,  over  1163  m.  Sherard 
Osborpi^  in  1853,  was  away  nincty-scv«n  days,  and  travelled  over 
93$  m.  The  "  Resolute"  was  obliged  to  winter  in  the  pack  in 
1853-1854,  and  in  the  spring  of  1854  Mecham  made  a  remarkable 
journey  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  news  of  Captain  Collinson  at  the 
Prineete  Royal  Islands.  Leaving  the  ship  on  the  3rd  of  April 
be  was  absent  seventy, days,  out  of  which  there  were  sixty-one 
and  a  half  days  of  travelling.  The  distance  gone  over  was  1336 
statute  miles.  The  average  rate  of  the  homeward  journey  was 
23 1  m.  a  day,  the  average  time  of  travelling  each  day  nine 
hours  twenty-five  minutes. 

Fearing  detention  for  another  winter,  ^ir  Edward  Belcher 
ordered  all  the  ships  to  be  abandoned  in  the  ice,  the  officers  and 
crews  being  taken  home  in  the  "  North  Star,"  and 
ia  the  "Phoenix"  and  "Talbot,"  which  had  come  out 
from  England  to  communicate.  They  reached  home  in  October 
1854.  In  1852  Captain  Edward  A.  Inglefield,  R.N.,  had  made 
a  voyage  up  Baffin  Bay  in  the  "  Isabel  "  as  far  as  the  entrance 
of  Smith  Sound.  Jn  1853  and  1854  he  came  out  in  the  "  Phoenix  *' 
to  commvuBicate  with  the  "North  Star"  art  Beechey  Island. 


'OrOTo/fte 


The  drift  of  the  "  Rcioluie  "  wm  a  mnuiable  pioof  of  tha 
direction  of  the  current  out  of  Barrow  Strait.  She  was  abaadomed 
in  74**  41'  N.  and  101**  11'  W.  on  the  14th  of  May  1854. 
On  the  loth  of  September  1855  an  American  whaler! 
sighted  the  "  Resolute  "  in  67"  N.  lat.  about  twenty 
miles  from  Cape  Mercy,  in  Davis  Strait.  She  had  drifted  nearly 
a  thousand  mUcs^  and  having  been  brought  into  an  Aflacricaa 
port,  was  purchased  by  the  United  States  and  presented  ta 
the  British  goveniment. 

Xn  1853  Dr  Rae  was  emplojred  to  connect  a. lew  points  which 
would  quite  complete  the  examination  of  the  coast  of  America, 
and  establish  the  insularity  of  King  Willian  Land. 
He  went  up  Chesterfield  Inlet  and  the  river  Quoicli, 
wintering  with  eight  nen  at  Repulse  Bay»  where 
venison  and  fish  were  abundant.  In  i&S4  he  set  out  on  a  jommcy 
which  occupied  fifty-six  days  in  April  and  May.  He  socceeded 
in  connecting  the  discoveries  of  Simpson  with  those  of  James 
Ross,  and  thus  established  the  fact  that  King  WiUiam  Land  was 
an  island.  Rae  also  brought  home  the  first  tidings  and  cdics  of 
Franklin's  expedition  gathered  from  the  Eskimo,  which  dccidod 
the  Admiralty  to  award  him  tJie  jCio.ooo  offered  for  jde&ntc 
news  of  Franklin's  fate.  Lady  Franklin,  however,  sent  cot 
the  "  Fox  "  under  the  command  of  M'CUntock  (see  Framkus). 
M'Clintock  prosecuted  an  exhaustive  search  over  part  of  the 
we&t  coast  of  Boothia,  the  whole  of  the  shores  o|  Kong  WlUiani 
Island,  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Fi^  River  and  Montreal  Island, 
and  Allen  Young  completed  the  discoVQry  of  the  aoutfaexn  sule 
of  prince  of  Wales  Island. 

The  catastrophe  of  Sir  John  Frankljo's  expedition  led  to 
7000  m.  of  coast-line  being  discovered,  and  to  a  vast  extent 
of  unknown  country  being  explored,  securing  very  ooosidczaUe 
additions  to  geographical  knowledge. 

The  American  nation  was  first  led  to  take  an  interest  ia  Polar 
research  through  a  noble  and  generous  sympathy  for  Franklin 
and  his  companions.  Mr  Grinnell  of  New  York  gave 
practical  expression  to  this  feeling.  In  1850  ^SSLma^m^ 
equipped  two  vessels,  the  "  Advance  "  and  "  Rescue/' 
to  aid  in  the  search,  commanded  by  Lieuts.  de  Haven  and  Griffith, 
^d  accompanied  by  Dr  E>  K.  Kane.  They  reached  Beechey  Island 
on  the  27th  of  August  1850,  ami  assisted  in  the  examination  eC 
Franklin's  winter  quarters,  but  returned  vntbout  wintering. 
In  1853  Dr  Kane,  in  the  little  brig  "Advance,"  of  X  20  ton^ 
took  to  lead  an  American  expedition  up  Smith  Sonod, 
the  ipiost  northern  outlet  from  Baffin  Bay.  The 
"  Advance  "  reached  Smith  Sound  on  the  7th  of  Aogost  xSs3, 
but  was  stopped  by  ice  in  78*  45'  N.  only  17  m.  from  the 
entrance.  Kane  described  the  coast  aacoasisllngof  precipitous 
cliffs  800  to  1200  ft.  high,  and  at  their  base  there  was  a  bek  of 
ice  about  18  ft.  thick,  resting  on  the  beach.  Dr  Kane  adopted 
the  Danish  name  of  "ice-foot  "  (is  fod)  for  this  permanent  Cioks 
ledge.  He  named  the  place  of  his  winter  quarters  Van  RtiiS> 
selaer  Harbour.  In  the  spring  some  interesting  work,  was  doae. 
A  great  glacier  was  discovered  with  a  sea  face  45-  m.  hmg  and 
named  the  Humboldt  glacier.  Dr  Kane's  steward,  Moctoa, 
crossed  the  foot  of  this  glacier  with  a  team  of  dcc^  and  reached 
a  point  of  land  beyond  named  Cape.  Conslltulion.  But  sickness 
and  want  of  means  prevcnted.nmch  from  being  done  by  travellir«g 
parties.  Scurvy  attacked  the  whole  party  during  the  second 
winter,  although  the  Eskimo-supplied  them  with  £resh  meat  and 
were  true  friends  in  need.  On  the  17th  of  May  1855  Dr  Kane 
abandoned  the  brig,  and  reached  the  Danish  settlemcBt  of 
Upemivik  on  the  6tn  of  August.  Lieut.  Hartsteae,  who  was  sent 
out  to  search  for  Kane,  reached  the  Van  Renfselaer  Harbour  after  he 
had  gone,  but  took  the  retreating  crew  on  board  on  his  letun 
voyage. 

On  the  loth  of  July  i860  Dr  I.  L  Hayes,  who  had  served  with 
Kane,  sailed  from  Boston  for  Smith  Soand,  in  the 
"  United  States,  "  of  130  tons  and  a  crew  of  fifteea 
men.    His  object  was  to  follow  up  the  line  of  reseaich 
opened  by  Dr  Kane.    Hf  wintered  at  Port  FouUce, 
17'  N.)  but  achieved  nothing  of  importaaciw  *od  his  nuntiwe 
is  not  to  be  depended  on. 


73- 


POLAR  REGIONS 


947 


ffofwtghtt 


Chiilm  HiU  (^t.)*  in  bit  lint  Jouniey  (i86o-i86s),  discovered 
remains  of  a  stone  house  which  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  buHt  on  the 
Gountesa  of  Warwick  Island  in  1578.  In  his  second 
expedition  (1S64-1869)  Hall  reachisd  the  line  of  the 
retreat  off  the  Franklin  survivors,  at  Todd's  Island  and  Peffer 
River,  on  the  south  coast  of  King  Wilham  Island.  He  heard  the 
story  of  the  retreat  and  of  the  wreck  of  one  of  the  ships  from  the 
Eskimo;  he  was  told  that  seven  bodies  were  buried  at  Todd 
Island;  and  he  brought  home  some  bones  which  are  believed  to 
be  those  of  Ueuu  Le  Vescomte  of  the  "  frebus."    Finally,  iii 

1871  he  took  the  "  Polaris  "  for  250  m.  up  the  channel  which 
leads  northwards  from  Smith  Sound.  The  various  ports  of  this 
long  channd  are  called  Smith  Sound,  Kane  Basin,  Kennedy 
Channel  and  Robeson  Channel.  The  "  Polaris  "  was  beset  in 
8^**  If'  N.  on  the  sothof  August;  heri^tntcr  quarters  were  in 
Thank  God  Harbour,  Si"*  38'  N.,  and  here  Hall  died. 

Tlie  Sf»tsbergen  seas  were  explored  during  last  century  by 
Norwegian  fishermen  as  well  as  by  Swedish  and  German  expedi- 
tions  and  by  British  yachtsmen.  In  1827  the  Nor- 
wegian geologist  Keilhau  made  an  expedition  to  Bear 
Island  and  Spitsbergen  which  was  the  first  purely 
sdentilic  Arctic  expedition.  The  Norwegian  Spiubeigen  fishery 
dates  from  1820,  but  It  was  only  in  the  latter  part  of  thecentury 
that  Professor  Mchn  of  Christiania  carefully  collected  information 
from  the  captahis  who  had  taken  part  in  the  work  when  at  its 
height.  In  1863  Captain  Carisen  circumnavigated  the  Spits* 
beigen  group  for  the  first  time  in  a  brig  called  the  "  Jan  Mayen." 
In  1864  Captain  Tobiesen  sailed  round  North^East  Land.    In 

1872  Captains  Altmann  and  Nils  Johnsen  visited  Wiche's  Land, 
which  was  discovered  by  Captain  Edge  in  16x7.  In  that  year 
there  were  twenty-three  sailing  vessels  from  TromsS,  twenty-four 
from  Hammerfest,  and  one  from  VardO  engaged  in  the  Arctic 
sealing  trade,  averaging  from  35  to  40  tons,  and  carrying  a  doaen 
men.  Exploratioi^went  on  slowly,  in  the  course  of  the  snling  and 
fishing  voyages,  the  records  of  which  are  not  very  full.  In  1869 
Carisen  crossed  the  Kara  Sea  and  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Ob. 
In  1870  there  were  about  sixty  Norwegian  vessels  in  the  Barents 
Sea,  and  Captain  Johannesen  circumnavigated  Novaya  Zemlya. 
fn  1873  C&Pt^n  Tobiesen  was  unfortunately  obliged  to  winter 
on  the  Novaya  Zemlya  coast,  owing  to  the  loss  of  his  schooner, 
and  both  he  and  his  young  son  died  in  the  spring.  Two  years 
previously  Captain  Carisen  had  succeeded  In  reaching  the  winter 
quarters  of  Barents,  the  first  visitor  since  1597,  an  interval  of 
two  hundred  and  seventy-four  years.  He  tended  on  the  9th 
of  September  1871,  and  found  the  house  still  standing  and  full 
of  interesting  relics,  iriiich  are  now  in  the  naval  museum  at 
the  Hague. 

Between  1858  and  1872  t(e  Swedes  sent  seven  expeditiona 
to  Spitsbergen  and  two  to  Greenland,  marking  a  new  scientific 
Sw94i$h  ^^  ^"  Arctic  exploration,  of  which  Keilhau  had  been 
B*p94Moaa,  the  pioneer.  All  returned  with  valuable  scientific 
results.  That  of  1864  under  A.  E.  Nordcnskitfid  and 
Duner  made  observations  at  80  different  places  on  the  Spitsbergen 
shores,  and  fixed  the  heights  of  numerous  mountains.  In  1868, 
in  an  iron  steamer,  the  "  Sophia,*'  the  Swedes  attained  a  latitude 
of  81*  42'  N.  on  the  meridian  of  18'  E.,  during  the  month  of 
September.  In  1872  an  expedition,  consisting  of  the  "  Polhem  '* 
steamer  and  brig  "  Gladcn,"  commanded  by  Professor  Norden- 
skidld  and  Lieut.  Palander,  wintered  in  Mossel  Bay  on  the 
northern  shore  of  Spitsbergen.  In  the  spring  an  important 
sledging  journey  of  sixty  days*  duration  was  made  over  North- 
East  Land.  "Ae  expedition  was  in  some  distress  as  regards 
supplies  owing  to  two  vessels,  whirh  were  to  have  returned, 
having  been  forced  to  winter.  But  in  the  summer  of  1873  they 
were  visited  by  Mr  Leigh  Smith,  in  his  yacht  *'  Diana,"  who 
supplied  them  with  fresh  provisions. 

Dr  A.  Petcrmann  of  Gotha  urged  his  countrymen  to  take 

their  share  in  the  work  of  polar  discovery,  and  at  his  own  risk 

he  fitted  out  a  small  vessel  called  the  "  Gcrmania,'* 

"'     which  sailed  from  Bergen  in  May  i868,  under  the 

command  of  Captain  Koldewey.    His  cruise  extended  to  Hin- 

l^>en  Strait  in  Spitsbergen,  but  was  merely  tentative;  and  in 


1870  Baton  von  UengUn  with  Count  Zcil  txptorod  the  Sier 
Fjord  in  a  Norwegian  schooner,  and  also  examined  Walter 
Thymen  Strait.  After  the  return  of  the  "  Cermania"  in  1868  ■ 
regular  expedition  was  organized  under  the  command  oi  Captain 
Koldewey,  provisioned  for  two  years.  It  consisted  of  the 
"  Germania,"  a  screw  steamer  of  140  tons,  and  the  brig  "  Hansa,'* 
commanded  by  Captain  Hcgemana.  iieut.  Julius  P&yer,  the 
future  explorer  of  Frans  Josef  Land,  gained  his  first  Arctic 
experience  on  board  the  "  Germania."  The  expedition  seded 
from  Bremen  on  the  15th  of  June  i869,.its  idestiuation  bemg  the 
east  coast  of  Greenknd.  But  in  latKude  70°  46'  N.  the  "  Uansa  " 
got  separated  from  her  consort  and  crushed  in  the  ice..  The  crew 
built  a  house  of  patent  fuel  on  the  floe,  and  in  this  strange  abode 
they  passed  their  Christmas.  In  two  months  the  cunent  carried 
them  400  m.  to  the  sooth.  By  May  they  had  drifted  iioo  m. 
on  their  ice-raft,  and  finally,  on  the  14th  of  June  i870i»  ihcy 
arrived  safely  at  the  Moravian  mission  sutien  of  Friedriktthal, 
to  the  west  of  Cape  Farewell.  Fairer  fortune  attended  the 
'  ■  Germania.'*  She  sailed  «p  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  as 
far  as  75^  30'  N.,  and  eventually  wintered  at  the  Pendulum 
Islands  of  Clavering  in  74"  30'  N.  In  March  1870  a  travelling 
party  set  out  under  Koldewey  and  Payer,  and  reached  a  distance 
of  100  m.  from  the  ship  to  the  noithwatrd,  when  want  of  pro*> 
visions  compelled  them  to  return.  A  grim  cape,  named  after 
Prince  Bismarck,  mailied  the  noilhem  limit  of  their  diBCOvefse^ 
As  soon  as  the  vessel  was  free,  m  deep  branching  f jocd,  named 
Franz  Josef  Fjord,  was  discovered  in  73'  is'  N.  stretching  far  a 
long  distance  into  the  Interior  of  Greenland*  The  expedition 
returned  to  Bremen  on  the  tith  of  September  1870.  > 

Lieut.  Payer  was  resolved  to  continue  in  the  path  of  pofatf 
discovery.  He  and  the  naval  officer  Weyprecht  chartered  a 
Norwegian  schooner  called  the  "  Isbjdm/''  and 
examined  the  edge  of  the  ke  between  Spiubergen  Sv^lX^'J^t 
and  Novaya  Zemlya,  in  the  summer  of.  1871.  Thdr 
observatbns  led  them  to  select  the  route  by  the  north  end  of 
Novaya  Zemlya  with  a  view  to  making  the  north-east  passage. 
It  was  to  be  an  Austro-Huogarian  expedition,  and  the  idea  was 
seized  with  enthnsiasm  by  the  whole  monarchy.  Weyprecht 
was  to  command  the  ship,  while  JuUiis  Payer  conducted  the 
sledge  parties.  The  steamer  "  Tegetboff,"  of  300  tons,  was 
fitted  out  in  the  Elbe,  and  left  TromsO  00  the  14th  of  July  i87y. 
The  season  was  severe,  and  the  vessel  was  closely  beset  near  Cape 
Nassau,  at  the  northern  end  of  Novaya-  Zemlya,  fn  the  end  of 
August.  The  summer  of  1873  found  her  still  a  close  prisoner 
drifting,  not  with  a  current,  but  chiefly  in  the  directfoft  of  the 
prevailing  wind.  At  length,  on  the  31st  of  August,  a  moun- 
tainous  country  was  siglited  about  14  m.  to  the  north.  In 
October  the  vessel  was  drifted  within  3  m.  of  an  island  lying 
off  the  main  mass  of  land.  Payer  landed  on  it,  arid  found  the 
latitude  to  be  79*  54'  N.  It  was  named  after  Count  Wilczek, 
one  of  the  warmest  friends  of  the  expedition.  Here  the  second 
winter  was  passed.  Bears  were  numerous  and  sixty-sevm  were 
killed,  their  meat  proving  to  be  an  efficient  preventive  of  scurvy. 
In  March  1874  Payer  made  a  preh'minary  sledge  journey  in 
intense  cold  (thermometer  at  -58^  F.).  On  the  24th  of  March 
he  started  for  a  more  prolonged  journey  of  thirty  days.  Payer 
believed  that  the  netvly  discovered  coonlry  equalled  Spits^ 
bcrgen  in  extent,  and  described  it  as  consisting  of  two  or  more 
large  masses— Wilczck  Land  to  the  east,  Zichy  Land  to  the  west^ 
Intersected  by  numerous  fjords  and  skirted  by  a  large  number  of 
Islands.  A  wide  channel,  named  Austria  Sound,  was  supposed 
to  separate  the  two  main  masses  of  land,  ahd  extend  to  82*  N. 
The  whole  country  was  named  Franx  Josef  Land.  Payer^ 
large  land-masses  have  by  later  discoveries  been  broken  up  into 
groups  of  islands  and  much  of  (he  land  bethought  he  saw  towards 
the  east  was  found  by  Nansen  not  to  exist.  Payer  returned 
to  the  "Tegelhoff"  on  the  24lh  of  April;  and  a  third  journey 
was  undertaken  to  explore  a  large  island  named  after  M'Clintock. 
It  then  became  necessary  to  abandon  the  ship  and  attempt  a 
retreat  in  boats.  This  perilous  vojrage  was  commenced- on  the 
2oth  of  May.  Three  boats  stored  with  provisions  were  placed 
on  sledges.   It  was  not  until  the  14th  of  August  that  they  reached 


9+8 


POLAR  REGIONS 


the  edge  of  (he  pack  in  77*  40'  N.,  lAd  launched  ih^  boats. 
Eventually  they  were  picked  up  by  a  Russian  schooner  and 
arrived  at  Vardi^on  the  5rd  o(  September  1874. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  problems  connected  with  the 
physical  geography  of  the  polar  regions  is  the  actual  condition 
of  the  vast  elevated  interior  of  Greenland,  which  is 
one  enormous  glacier.  In  1867  Mr  Edward  Whymper 
planned  an  expedition  to  solve  the  question,  and  went  to  Green* 
land,  accompanied  by  Dr  Robert  Brown;  but  their  progress  was 
stopped,  after  g(Mng  a  short  distance  over  the  ice,  by  the  breaking 
down  of  the  dog^ledgcs.  The  expedition  brou^t  home  geo< 
logical  and  natural  history  collections  of  value.  Dr  H.  Rink,  for 
many  years  royal  inqicctor  of  South  Greenland  and  the  most 
distinguished  authority  on  all  Greenlandic  questions,  also  visited 
the  inland  ice.  An  important  inland  joomey  was  undertaken  by 
MivMra-  Professor  A.  £.  Nordenskidld  in  1870,  accompanied 
MkHMim  by  Dr  Berggren,  professor  of  botany  at  Lund.  The 
0'w9tamd»  difficulty  of  traversing  the  inland  ice  of  Greenland 
is  caused  by  the  vast  ice-cap  being  in  constant  motion, 
advancing  slowly  towards  the  sea.  This  movement  gives  rise 
to  huge  crevasses  which  bar  the  traveller's  way.  The  chasms 
occur  chiefiy  where  the  movement  of  the  ice  is  most  rapid, 
near  the  ice  streams  which  reach  the  sea  and  discharge  icebergs. 
Nordenski5ld  therefore  chose  for  a  starting-point  the  northern 
arm  of  a  deep  inlet  called  Auleitsivikfjord,  which  is  4k>  m. 
aouth  of  the  discharging  glacier  at  Jakobshavn  and  240  north  of 
that  at  Godthaab.  He  commenced  his  inland  journey  on  the  19th 
of  July.  The  party  consisted  of  himself,  Or  Berggren,  and  two 
Grecnlanders;  and  they  advanced  30  m.  over  the  glaciers  to  a 
height  of  2200  ft.  above  the  sea. 

The  gallant  enterprises  of  other  countries  rekindled  the  zeal  of 
Great  Britain  for  Arctic  discovery;  and  in  1874  the  prime 
BHthb  minister  announced  that  an  expeditioA  would  be 
£jcpctf«fea  despatched  in  the  foUowing  year.  Two  powerful 
•'^W*  ateamers,  the  "Alert"  and  "Discovery,"  were 
selected  for  the  service^  and  Captain  George  S.  Nares  was 
recalled  from  the  "Ch^enger"  expedition  to  act  as  leader. 
Commander  Albert  H.  Markham,  who  had  made  a  cruise  up 
Baffin  Bay  and  Barrow  Strait  in  a  whaler  during  the  previous 
year,  Lieut.  Pelham  Aldrich,  an  accomplished  surveyor,  and 
Captain  Heniy  Wemyss  Fdldcn,  R.A.,  as  naturalist,  were 
also  in  the  *'  Alert."  The  "  Discovery  "  was  commanded  by 
Captain  Henry  F.  Stephenson,  with  Lieut.  Lewis  A.  Beau> 
mont  as  first  b'eutenant.  The  expedition  left  Portsmouth  on 
the  SQth  of  May  1875,  and  entered  Smith  Sound  in  the  last  days 
<rf  July.  After  much  difficulty  with  drifting  ice  Lady  Franklin 
Bay  was  reached  in  8x°  44'  N.,  where  the  "  Discovery  "  was 
established  in  winter  quarters.  The  "  Alert  "  pressed  onwards, 
and  reached  the  edge  of  the  heavy  ice  named  by  Nares  the 
palaeocrystic  sea,  the  ice-floes  being  from  80  to  100  ft.  in  thick- 
ness. Leaving  Robeson  Channel,  the  vessel  made  progress 
between  the  land  and  the  grounded  floe  pieces,  and  passed  the 
winter  off  the  open  coast  and  fadng  the  great  polar  pack,  in 
S3"  27'  N.  Autumn  travelling  parties  were  despatched  in 
September  and  October  to  lay  out  d^p6ts;  and  during  the  winter 
a  complete  scheme  was  matured  for  the  examination  of  as  much 
of  the  unknown  area  as  possible,  by  the  combined  efforts  of 
sledging  parties  from  the  two  ships,  in  the  ensuing  spring.  The 
parties  started  on  the  jrd  of  April  1S76.  Captain  Markham  with 
Lieut.  Parr  advanced,  in  the  face  of  great  difliculties,  over 
jthe  polar  pack  to  the  latitude  of  83**  20'  N.  Lieut.  Aldrich 
explored  the  coast'Une  to  the  westward,  facing  the  frozen 
polar  ocean,  for  a  distance  of  220  m.  Lieut.  Beaumont  made 
discoveries  of  great  interest  along  the  northern  coast  of  Green- 
land The  parties  were  attacked  by  scurvy,  which  increased 
the  difficulty  and  hardships  of  the  work  a  hundredfold.  The 
expedition  returned  to  England  in  October  1876.  The  *'  Alert  " 
reached  a  higher  blitudc  and  wintered  farther  north  than  any 
ship  had  ever  done  before.  The  results  of  the  expedition  were 
the  discovery  of  300  m.  of  new  coast  line,  the  examination  of  part 
of  the  froxcn  polar  ocean,  a  series  of  meteorological,  magnetic 
and  tidal  observations  at  two  points  farther  north  than  any  such 


observations  had  ever  been  taken  before,  and  large  gwioglcil  and 
natural  history  collections. 

In  the  same  year  1875  Sir  Allen  Yonng  ondcftook  a  voyage 
in  hn  steam  yacht  the  '*  Pandora  "  to  attempt  to  force  h»  vay 
dowa  Ped  Sound  to  the  magnetic  pole,  and  if  possiUe  T>npi 
to  make  the  north-west  passage  by  rounding  the  «#tt» 
eastemshoieofKingWiUiamlsland.  The  "Pandora"  "AH*n.- 
entered  Peel  Sound  on  the  a9th  of  August  1875,  and  proceeded 
down  it  much  farther  than  any  vessel  had  gone  Since  it  was  paaed 
by  Franklin's  two  sh^s  in  1846.  Sir  Allen  reached  a  latitude  of 
72"  14'  N.,  and  sighted  Cape  Bird,  at  the  northern  side  of  the 
western  entrance  of  Bellot  Strait.  But  here  ice  barred  hh 
progress,  and  he  was  obliged  to  retrace  his  track,  returning  t» 
England  on  the  i6th  of  October  1875.  In  the  foUowing  year 
Sir  AUen  Young  made  another  voyage  in  the  "  Pandora  "  to 
the  entrance  of,  Smith  Sound. 

Lieut.  Koolemans  Beynen,  9.  young  Dutch  officer,  win 
had  shared  Yotmg's  two  polar  voyages,  on  his  return  sucoessf aBy 
endeavoured  to  interest  his  countrymen  in  polar 
discovery.  It  was  wisely  determined  that  the  first 
expeditions  of  Holland  should  be  summer  reconnais- 
sanoes  on  a  small  scale.  A  sailing  schooner  of  79  tons  was  hoit 
at  Amsterdam,  and  named  the"  WiUemBanmts."  In  her  fizst 
cruise  she  was  commanded  by  Lieut.  A.  de  Bmyne,  with 
Koolemans  Beynen  as  second,  and  she  sailed  from  HoUa&d  on 
the  6th  of  May  1878.  Her  instructions  were  to  examine  the  ice 
in  the  Barents  and  Spitsbergen  seas,  take  deep-sea  sounriinfs 
aad  make  natural  history  collections.  She  was  also  to  ei«ct 
memorials  to  early  Dutch  polar  worthies  at  certain  designated 
points.  These  instructions  were  ably  and  xealously  carried  ouL 
Beynen  died  in  the  foUowing  year,  but  the  work  he  initiated  was 
carried  on,  the  "  Willem  Barents  "  continuing  to  make  animal 
polar  cruises  for  many  years. 

In  1879  Sir  Henry  Gore-Booth  and  Captain  A.  H.  Markham, 
R.N.,  in  the  Norwegian  schooner  "  Isbjdm  *  sailed  along  the 
west  coast  of  Novaya  Zemlya  to  its  most  northern 
point,  passed  through  the  Matochkin  Shar  to  the  east  «•' ' 
coast,  and  examined  the  ice  in  the  direction  of  Franx  **^ 
Josef  Land  as  far  as  78*  24'  N.,  bringinghomecoUections  in  various 
branches  of  natural  history,  and  making  useful  observations  on 
the  drift  and  nature  of  the  ice  in  the  Barents  and  Kara  Seas. 

In  1880  Mr  B.  Leigh  Smith,  who  had  previously  made  three 
voyages  to  SiMtsbergen,  reached  Franz  Josef  Land  in  the  pi^ar 
steam  yacht  "  £tra."  It  was  observed  that,  while 
the  Greenland  icebergs  are  generally  angular  and 
peaked,  those  of  Franx  Josef  Land  are  flat  on 
the  top,  like  the  Antarctic  bergs.  The  *'Ein,' 
along  the  south  side  of  Franz  Josef  Land  to  the  westward 
and  discovered  xzo  m.  of  coast-line  of  a  new  island  named 
Alexandra  Land,  until  the  coast  trended  north-west.  A 
landing  was  effected  at  several  points,  and  valuable  collec- 
tions were  made  in  natural  history.  In  the  followiag  year 
the  same  explorer  left  Peterhead  on  the  X4th  of  July;  Fxana 
Josef  Land  was  sighted  on  the  23rd  of  July,  and  the 
"  Eira  "  reached  a  point  farther  west  than  had  been  posaSbkc  ia 
her  previous  voyage.  But  in  August  the  ship  was  caught  in  tht 
ice,  was  nipped,  and  sank.  A  hut  was  buHt  00  shore  in  which 
Mr  Leigh  Smith  and  his  crew  passed  the  winter  of  xSSz-iSS^. 
their  health  being  wcU  maintained,  thanks  to  the  exertioos  of 
Dr  W.  H.  Keale.  On  the  21st  of  June  1882  they  started  ic 
four  boats  to  reach  some  vessels  on  the  Novaya  Zemlya  coast 
It  was  a  most  laborious  and  perilous  voyage.  They  were  first 
seen  and  welcomed  by  the  "  Willcm  Barents  "  on  the  2nd  of 
August,  and  soon  afterwards  were  taken  on  board  the  "Hope,* 
a  whaler  which  had  come  out  to  search  for  them  under  the 
command  of  Sir  Allen  Young. 

Professor  A.  £.  NordenskiSid,  when  he  projected  tBe  addcve^ 
meat  of  the  north-east  passage,  was  a  veteran  polar  explorer,  for 
he  had  been  in  six  previous  expeditions  to  Greenland  and  Spits- 
bergen. In  1875  he  turned  Ms  attention  to  the  possftiUty  of 
navigating  the  seas  along  the  northern  coast  of  Siberia.  Cap- 
tain Joseph  Wiggins  ol  Sunderland  was  a  pioneer  of  this  route. 


REGIONS 


949 


aad  Ub  voyages  in  1874,  XS75  and  1876  led  tbt.my  for  a  trade 
between  the  ports  of  Europe  ud  (he  mouth  of  the  Yenisei  River. 
ftl^,4gam  ^  J^'^*  f^75  Professor  .Nordeoskiftld  sailed  from 
ttmttmi  TtomsO  in  the  Norwegian  vessel,  the  "Proven," 
i^NA  icacfaed  the  Yenisei  by  way  of  the  Kara  Sea,  and  di»- 
^'"^t^  covered  an  excellent  harbour  on  the  eastern  side  of 
its  month,  wUch  was  named  Port  Dickson,  in  honour  of  Baron 
Oacar  Biduon  of  Gothenbuzg,  the  munificent  supporter  of  the 
Swedish  cqseditions.  It  having  been  suggested  that  the  success 
of  this  voyage  was  due  to  the  unusual  state  of  the  ice  in  1875, 
Nordenskidtd  undertook,  a  voyage  in  the  following  year  in  the 
^  Ymer,"  which  was  equally  sucoessfuL  By  a  minute  stocfy  of 
the  histofy  ef  f ormor  attempts,  and  a  careful  consideration  of  aU 
the  circumstances,  Professor  Nordenskidld  convinced  himself 
that  the  adiievement  of  the  north-east  passage. was  feasible. 


The  king  of  Sweden,  Baron  Oscar  Dickson,  and  M.  Sibixiakoflf,  a 
wealthy  Iberian  proprietor,  supplied  the  fmxis,  and  the  steamer 
*'Vega"  was  purchased.  NordenskiOld  was  leader  of  the 
expedition,  Lieut.  Palander  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  ship,  and  there  was  an  ^kient  staff  of  officcfcs  and  naturalists, 
including  Lieut.  Hovgaard  of  the  Danish  and  Lieut.  Bove 
of  the  Italian  nayy.  A'  smaU  steamer  -called  the  **  Lena " 
was  to  keep  company  with  the  **  Vega  "  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Lena,  and  they  sailod  from  Gothenburg  on  the  4th  of  July  1878. 
On  the  morning  of  the  loth  of  August  they  left  Port  Dickson,  and 
on  the  zgth  they  reached  the  moat  northern  point  of  Siberia, 
Cape  Chdyuddn,  In  77^  41^  N.  On  leaving  the  extreme  northern 
point  of  Asia  a  south-easte^y  course  was  steered,  the  sea  being 
free  from  ice  and  very  shallow.  This  absence  of  ice  is  to  some 
extent  due  to  the  mass  of  warm  water  discharged  by  the  great 
Siberian  rivers  during  the  summer.  On  the  27th  of  August  the 
mouth  of  this  river  Lena  was  passed,  and  the  "  Vega  "  parted 
company  with  the  little  "Lena,"  continuing  her  course 
eastward.  Professor  Nordenskidld  veiy*  nearly  made  the 
north-east  passage  in  one  season;  but  towards  the  end  of 
Septendwr  tht  **  Vega*'  was  frozen  in  off  the  shore  of  a  low 
plain  In  67*  /  N.  and  273*  ad'  W.  near  the  settlements 
of  the  Qiukchis.  During  the  voyage  vezy  large  and  impor* 
tant  natural  history  collections  were  made,  az>d  the  interest* 
ing  aboriginal  tribe  among  whom  the  winter  was  passed  was 
studied  with  great  care.  The  interior  was  also  explored  for 
flome  distance.  On  the  i8th  of  July  1879,  after  having  been 
imprisoned  fay  the  ice  for  394  days,  the  "  Vega  "  again  proceeded 
on  her  voyage  and  passed  Bering  Strait  on  the  soth.  Sir  Hugh 
WiUongbby  made  his  disastrous  attempt  in  1553.  After  a 
lapse  of  396  years  of  intennlttent  effort,  the  north-east 
passage  had  at  length  been  accomplished  without  the  loss  of 
a  stn^  Ufe  and  without  damage  to  the  vessel  The  "  V^^  " 
arrived  at  Yokohama  on  the  and  of  September  1879. 

In  1879  an  enteiprise  was  undertaken  in  the  United  States, 
with  the  object  of  throwing  further  lig^t  on  the  sad  history  of  the 
xetreat  of  the  o£Eboers  and  men  of  Sir  John  ]^!ranklin's 
expedition,  by  fxamlnfng  the  west  coast  of  King 
WilBam  Island  ih  the  summer,  when  the  snow  is  off  the  g^und. 
The  party  consisted  of  Lieut.  Schwatka  of  the  United  Sutes 
army  and  three  others.  Wintering  near  the  entrance  of  Chester- 
field Inlet  inHudson  Bay,  they  set  out  overhtnd  for  the  estuary 
of  the  Great  Fish  river,  aas^tcd  by  £ddmo  and  degs,  on  the 
xst  of  April  1879.  They  took  only  one  month's  .provisions, 
their  maiii  leliancs  being  upon  the  game  affordc4  by  the 
tcgion  to  be  travened.  The  party  obtained,  during  the 
journeys  out  and  home,  no  less  than  sas  rdndeer*  After 
collecting  various  stories  from  the  Eskimo  at  Montreal  Island  and 
St  an  inlet  west  of  Cape  Richardson*  Schwatka  crossed  over  to 
Cape  Heachd  on  King  William  Xand  in  June.  He  examined 
the  western  shore  of  the  island  with  the  greatest  care  for  relics  of 
Six  John  Rankltn's  parties,  as  far  as  Cape  Felix,  the  northern 
extremity.  The  return  journey  was  commenced  in  November 
by  ascending  the  Great  Fish  river  for  some  distance  and  then 
•wawMng  ovtT  the  intervening  region  to  Hudson  Bay.-  The  oold 
of  the  winter  months  in  that  country  is  intense,  the  thermometer 
falling  as  low  as— 70'  F.,  so  that  the  letum  jouraQr  was  aoft 


wmaikable,  and  reflects  the  highest  credit  on  Lieut.  Schwatka 
and  his  companions.  As  regards  the  search  little  was  left  to  be 
done  after  M'Chntodc,  but  some  graves  were  found,  as  well  as  a 
medal  befenging  to  Lieut.  Irving  of  ILM.S..  '*  Terror,'^  and 
some  bones  believed  to  be  his.  which  were  brought  home  and 
interred  at  Edinbuigh. 

Mr  Gordon  Bennett,  the  proprietor  of  the  Nem  York  Berald, 
having  resolved  to  despatch  an  expedition  of  discovery  at  his 
own  expense  by  way  of  Bering  Strait,  the  "  Pandora  "  ^  ^^ 
was  purchased  from  Sir  Allen  Young,  and  rechristened  ^^^ 

the  "  Jeannette^"  Laeot.  de  Long  of  the  United  Sutes  navy  was 
appointed  to  command,  and  it  was  made  a  national  undertaking 
by  special  act  of  Congress,  the  vessel  being  placed  under  martial 
law  and  officered  from  the  navy. ,  .The  "  Jeannette  "  sailed  from 
San^randsco'on  the  8th  of  July:x879,«nd  was  last  seen  steam- 
ing towards  Wrangeli  Land  on  the  3zd  of  September.  This  land 
had  been  seen  by  Captain  Kellett;  in  H.M.&  "  Herald  "  on  the. 
X 7th  of  August  1879, -but  no  one  had  landed  on  it,  and  it  was 
shown  on  the  charts  by  a.  long  dotted  hue.  The  "  Jeannette  " 
was  provisioned  for  three  yean,-  but  as  no  tidings  had  been 
receivod  of  her  by  x88r,  two  steamers  were  sent  up  Bering  Strait 
in  search.  One  of  thtte,  the  "  Rodgers,"  under  Lieut.  Berry, 
anchored  in  a  good  harbour  on  the  south  coast  of  Wrangeli 
Land,  in  70*  sf  N.,  on  the  a6th  of  August  t88x.  Tht  land  was 
explored  by  the  officers  of  the  "  Rod^rs  "  and  found  to  be  an 
island  about  70  m.  long  by  38,  with  a  ridge  of  bills  traversing  i^ 
east  and  west,  the  7iat  parallel  running  along  its  southern  shores 
Lieut.  Beny  then  proceeded  to  nramfne  the  ice  to  the  north- 
ward, and  attained  a  hJigher  latitude  by  ai  m.  than  had  ever 
been  reached  before  on  the  Bering  ^rait  meridian— namely, 
73*  44'  N.  No  news  was  obtained  of  the  *'  Jeannette,"  but  soon 
aftenwanb  melancholy  tidings  arrived  from  Siberia.  Attet 
having  been  beset  in  heavy  pack  ice  for  twenty-two  months,  the 
**  Jeannette  "  was  crushed  and  sunk  on  the  13U1  of  June  z88x,  in 
77*  is'  N.  lat.,  and  tsf  E.  long.  Tlie  officers  and  men  dragged 
their  boats  over  the  ice  to  an  Island  -which  was  named  Bennett 
Island,  where  they  landed  on  the  aQth  oi  Jtily.  They  reached 
one  of  the  New  Siberia  Islands  on  the  xoth  of  S^tember,  and  on 
the  xath  they  set  out  for  the  mouth  of  the  Loia.  But  in  the 
same  evening  the  three  boats  were  s^arated  in  a  gale  of  wind. 
A  boat's  crew  with  Mr  Melville,  the  engineer,  reached  the  Lena 
delta  and  searching  for  the  othtf  parties  found  the  ship's  books 
on  the  X4th  of  November,  and  resuming  the  search  at  the  earliest 
possible  moment  in  spring,  MelviUe  discovered  the  dead  bodies  of 
De  Long  and  two  of  his  crew  on  the  a3rd  of  March  x88a.  They 
bad  perished  from  exhaustion  and  wai^  of  food.  Three  survivors 
of  De  Long's  party  had  succeeded  in  making  their  way  to  a 
Siberian  village;  but  the  third  boat's  crew  was  lost.  The 
"  Rodgers  "  was  burnt  in  its  winter  cpiarters,  and  one  of  tbe 
officers,  W.  H.  Gilder  (X838-1900),  made  a  hasardous  journey 
homewards  through  north-east  Siberia. 

The  Norwegian  geologist  Professor  Amiind  HeUand  made  an 
expedition  to  Greenland  in  1875  and  discovered  the       ^^  ^^  .  v 
marvellously  npid  movements  of  the  Greenland 
glaciers. 

The  Danes  have  been  very  active  in  proeecuting  discoveries 
and  scientific  investigations  in  Greenland,  since  the  'journey 
of  Nordenskiold  in  x87a  Lieut.  Jensen  made  a 
gallant  attempt  to  penetrate  the  inland  ice  in  X878, 
collecting  important  observations,  and  Dr  Steenstrup, 
with  LieuL  Hammar,  closely  investigated  the  formation'  of 
ice  masses  at  Omenak  and  Jaogbshavn.  In  1883  an  expedi- 
tion under  Lieuts.  Hobn  and  Garde  began  to  exi^ore  the  east 
coast  ci  Greenland.  In  the  summer  of  X879  Captain 
Mourier,  of  the  Danish  man-of-war  **  Ingolf,"  sighted  the  eoast 
from  the  6th  to  the  xoth  of  July,  and  was  enabled  to  observe  and 
delineate  it  from  68^  10'  N.  to  65"*  55'  N.,  this  being  the  gap 
left  between  the  discoveries  of  Scoresby  in  x8aa  and  those  of 
Graah  in  X829.  Nansen  sighted  part  of  the  same  coast  in 
x88a.  Lieut.  Hovgaard  of  the  Danish  navy,  who  accompanied 
Nordenskidld  in  his  discovery  of  the  north-cast  passage,  plannea 
an  expedition  to  ascertain  if  land   existed  to  the  north  ot 


950 


POLAR  REGIONS 


Cap^  Chdyuskm.  He  fitted  oiii:  a  small  steamer  called  the 
"  Dymphna  "  and  safledirom  Copenhagen  in  JiUy  1882,  but  ivaa 
unfortunately  beset  and  obliged  to  winter  in  the  Kara  Sea.  In 
1883  Baron  A.  £.  Nordenskield  undertook  another  journey  oves 
the  inland  ice  .of  Gxtenlaad.  Starting  from  Auldtsivikf  jord  on 
the  4th  of  July,  his  party  penetrated  84  m<  eastward,  and  to  an 
altitude  of  50QP  ft.  The  Laplanders,  who  were  «f  the  party 
were  sent  fafther  on  snow-shoes,  travelli^  over  adeaert  of  anov 
to  a  height  of  7000  ft.  Useful  results  in  physical  geography 
and  biology  Were  obtained. 

On  the  i8th  of  September  1875  Lieut.  We3rpTedit,  one  of  tin 
disooveren  of  Praoa  Josef  Land,  read  apaperbcforealargemeet« 
£3kvB  oafu*  ^  ^  German  naturalists  at  Graz  on  the  scientific 
Sigt^^  results  to  be  obtained  from  pdar  fcsearch  and  the 
best  means  of  securing  them.  He  urged  the  im- 
portance of  establishing  a  number  of  stations  within  or  near  the 
Arctic  Cirde,  akid  also  a  ring  of  stations  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
Antarctic  Cirdc,  in  order  to  record  complete  aeiics  of  aynchronous 
meteorological  and  magnetic  observations.  Litait.  Weyprecht 
did  not  live  to  see  hia  suggestions  carried  into  execution, 
but  ihey  bore  fruit  in  due  time.  The  various  Qstioas  x>f  Europe 
were  tepcesented  at  an  iatemational  polar  conference  hdd  at 
Hamburg  fa»  1879  under  the  presidency  of  Dr  Qeorg  Neumayer, 
and  at  another  at  Beisie  in  18807  and  it  was  dcddcd  that  each 
nation  should  establish  one<»  more  stations  where  ^dmmous 
observations  should  be  taken  for  a  year  from  August  x8Ss. 
Hiis  five  pR^t  was  matured  and  autcesshdly  carried  into 
eaecotion.  The  stations  arranged  for  in  the  North  Polar  region 
were  it  the  following  localities>— 

Norwtgiaiis:  Boisekop,  Alten  Fjort^  Norway  (M.  Akael  S  Steca). 

Swedes:  lee  Fjmd*  Spstsbenscn  (i'soicMDr  M.-Ekholm). 

Dutch:  Port  Dickson,  month  oC  Voniaei,  Sibcna  (Dr  M.  Snellen). 

R*««U4t..  S  Sagaslyr  Island,  mouth  of  Lena,  Siberia  (Lieut.  JfOrgens), 

*^*»*»"*"* }  Novaya  Zcmiya,j2''  23'  N.  (Lieut.  C.  AndreicO- 

Finns:  SoiUnkyla,  FiiilatKl  (Professor  S.  LethstrSm). 

Amorist,!..  S  '^oint  Bttrre»,  North  America  (Liout  P.  H.Ray,U.S,A.). 

Ainencans.  J  £«iy /?raii«i«iJfl;r,8i»4^'N.(Licut.AVV.Grocfy,U.S.Ai. 

British :  Great  Slave  £aik«,'Dommion  otOuuida  (^icut.  H.  P«  Dawson). 

Germans:  Cumberland  Bay,  \wst  side  of  Davis  Strait  (DrW.  Gicsc). 

Danes:  Codthaab,  Greenland  (Dr  A.  f^ulsen). 

Austrians:  Jan  Mmyen^  North  Atlantsc*  71 "  N.  (Lient.  Wohlgemuth). 

•The  whole  scheme  was  successfully  accomplished  with  the 
ttoeptioa  of  the  part  assigned  to  the  Dutch  at  Port  Dickson. 
They  started  in  the  "  Varna  "  but  were  beset  hi  the  Kara  Sea  and 
obliged  to  winter  there.  The  "  Varna  "  was  lost,  and  the  crew 
took  refuge  on  board  Lieut.  Hovgaard's  vessel,  which  was  also 
forced  to  winter  in  the  pack  during  i88»-z883.  The  scientific 
observations  were  kept  up  on  both  vesseb  during  the  time  they 
were  drifting  with  the  ice. 

The  American  Matlons  commenced  work  in  1883  and  oAe  of 
these  fumisfaM  a  rare  example  of  heroic  devotion  to  duty  in 
^-    .  face  <tf  difficulties  doe  to  the  fault  of  those  who  should 

have  brought  relief  at  the  appointed  time.  Lieut. 
A.  W.  Oreel/s  party '  consisted  of  two  other  licutenaats, 
iyrenty  sergeants  and  privates  of  the  United  States  army,  and 
Dr  Pavy,  an  enthuslastM!  explorer  who  had  been  educated  in 
France  and  had  passed  the  previous  winter  among  the  Eskimo 
of  Greenland.  On  the  nth  of  August  i88r  the  steamer 
"Proteus'*  conveyed  Lieut.  Gredy  and  Ms  party  to  Lady 
Franklin  Bay  during  an  exceptionally  favoumble  season;  a  house 
was  built  at  the  "  Discoveiys"  winter  quarters,  and  they  were 
left  with  two  years'  provinons.  The  regular  series  of  observa-^ 
tions  was  at  once  commenced,  and  two  winters  n^e  passed 
without  accident.  Travelling  parties  were  also  sent  out  in  the 
summer,  de^  having  been  obtained  iat  Disco.  Lieut.  Loekwood 
with  twdto  men  and  eleven  sledges  made  a  joursfy  along  the 
north  coast  of  Greenland  and  reached  Lodcwood  Island  in 
83*  24' N.  and  4**  45'  W.,  the  highest  hititudc reached  up  to  that 
time.  Fmm  tUs  island  at  a  height  of  3600  ft.  on  a  dear' day  an 
tmbroken  expanse  of  ice  was  seen  stretching  to  the  northward, 
the  view  extending  far  beyond  the  84th  pondlel.  A  promontory 
of  the  north  coast  of  Greenland  seen  to  the  north-east  in  83*  3  )f 
N.  was  named  Cape  Washington.  Vegetation  was  found  at  the 
etticme  poeition  and  animal  life  was  represented  by  foxes»  hares, 


-lemmings  and  ptamdgan.  ITha  party  retuinod  to  Foil  €3ea0er 
ontheistof  June  x88a  after  an  absence  of  59  days.  GiBe^made 
two  journeys  westward  into  the  interior  of  (jtinsieU  Land  ^iSlow* 
ing  up  the  northem  branch  of  Chandler  Fjord  to  a  %,iwA  aheel 
of  fit>sen  fresh  water;  Haaen  Lake,  with  an  area  of  about  500 
iq.  m.  Beyond  this,.  175  m.  ftom  Fort  Conger,  he  climbed  Ifi 
Arthur,  4500  ft.;  the  hij^beA  stmunit  of  Grinnell  Land,  aad  saw 
distant  mountains  beyond  a  fjord  to  the  oouthwcst.  In  the 
spring  of  1885  LockwMd  made  still  mdre  extensive  jmmieyi, 
crossing  Grinndl  Land  to  Gtcely  F^oicd^  whid  enteredtJiewcsten 
sea.  'llie  central  depression  of  Grinndl  Land  ahonnded  in  aaA 
oxen  and  waa  free  from  ice,  though  the  higher  land  to  north  and 
south  lay  under  permanent  ioeopi^  -  Important  as  thoe  geo- 
graphical disoovcries  weee^  the  main  object  of  the  expedidoo  was 
the  series  of  sdenUfic  obaervatienB  at  the  headquarteny  and  thoe 
were  eaiiied  out  during  the  whole  period  with  the  most  acnqm- 
Ions  exactness.  As  neither  tlnre^  ship  which  was  to  have  Keen 
despatched  in  i88a,-nor  that  m  I883,  sent  the  expected  idief 
to  the  station  at  Fact  Ganger,  Lient.  Gredy  started  froan  Lady 
Franklin  Bay  with  hb  men  in  a  steam  hiundx  and  Usee  boats  on 
the  9th  of  August,  expeffing  to  find  a  vesad  in  Smitli  Sooad. 
The  boats  were  beset  and  had  to  tfe  abandoned,  the  party 
readiing  the  shorn  across  the  ice  with  great  difficuky/cazxyiag 
their  stqpf^lies  <rf  food,  now  npidly  diminishing.  On  the  axst  of 
October  tSSs  they  were  obligod  to  encamp  at  Cape  Sabine,  00 
the  western  shore  of  Smith  Sound,  and  buikd  a  hut  for  wintering. 
A  few  d£p6ts  were  f oond,  which  had  been  feft  by  Sir  Geoi^ 
Naxes  and  Lieut.  Beebe,  but  oil  suppKes  were  esdmasted 
before  the  firing.  Then  came  a  time  of.  indescribable  misexy 
and  acute  suffering.  The  party,  proved  htsubordiwite  and  the 
sternest  ncasuxcs  were  required  to  maintain  mSitary  diariplinr. 
When  the  sun  returned  in  X884  the  poor  fellows  be^an  to  die  of 
actual  starvation;  but  it  was  not  until  the  aand  of  June  1884 
that  the  rdievrng  'steamess  "  Thetis "  and  **  Bear  " 
Cape  Sabhie.  Lieut.  Oredy  and  six  suffering 
were  found  Just  alive,  'but  with  all  tfadr  scientific  itoeeda. 
Instruments  in  older  and  the  great  collections  of 
intact*  The  failuio  of  the  idief  expeditiona  to  ot 
difficulties  wUdi  were  child^  play  to  what  Groely  and  his 
companions  had  come  through  coily  enhances  the 
courage  and  determhiatiDn  of  die  heroic  survivors. 

Danish  expeditions  under  Lieut.  G.  Holm  exphned  the 
coast  of  Gteenland  freili  Cape  Farewell  northwards  in  Eafczrao 
boats  between  1883  and  1885,  and  at  AngmagsaaKk  they 
Micountered  a  tribe  of  £ddmo  who  had  never  seen  yAdtJs  men 
before.  Lieut.  Ryder  and  Lieut.  T.  V.  Garde  oomtinDcd  the 
exi^oration  of  B<at  Qreenhcod,  and  Ryder  o^hirad  the  great 
Sconsby  Fjord.  Captain  Hohn  established  a  missionaxy  and 
meteorological  atatioo  9X,  Angmagisalik  Fjocd  in  1894,  ftaaa 
which  the  Danish  government  take  dnrge  of  the  Eskimo  of  that 
region.  In  1892^1893  an  expedition  sent  out  1^  the  Bciia 
Geographical  Sodety  imder  Dr  Erich  von  Diy^Uski  studied  the 
ice  formations  oft  the  west  of  Greenkuid. 

In  July  1886  Ueut.  Robert  £.  Pieary,  dvfl  eogmecc,  XJ^ 
Navy,  accomt>amed  by  the  pane  Christian  Maigaard*  made  a 
journey  on  tike  inland  ice  of  i^ieenland  eastward  bom 
Bay  m  about  69**  30*  N.  They  reached  a  hdght  of 
7560  ft.,  when  aoo»tding  to  Peaiy'a  observations 
they  were  100  t&r  fimn  the  coast,  and  then  re- 
turned. Dr  Fridtjof  Nansen  with  Otto  Svefdrup  and  fiw 
companfons,  after  overoottdng  fftat  diffieuMca  in  peactxaciag 
the  ice-floes,  succeeded  tn  landin|^  on  the  east  coast  of  Giee^and 
in  August  1868  in  64^  t^f  N.  and  readied  a  hei|^  o|  8930  fL 
on  the  inland  foe,  which  was  cMMsed  on-  ski  to  the  wc 
The  InterikM'  was  fOund  to  bo  a  nearly  fiat  plateaa  «f 
iesembirng  a  ftoxcn  ocean,  and  at  the  hi^  akitode  of : 
8000  ft.  the  cold  was  fotenae.  The  cvoMteg  occupied  1 
two  weeks,  and  thh  party  not  having  dop  had  themaahres  to 
haul  all  thdr  gear  on  8le<l^ses.  Aa  they  apprOadied  the 
edge  of  theice  their  pfogr^  waschedted  by  daogerooa  < 
but  OB  the  >6th  of  September  they  sttceeeded  In  reachias  tfae^ 
toast  at  the  head  of  the  A&Malik  Fjord  la  64*  za'  K,  hai 


POLAR  REGIONS 


9S1 


tx^vtned  a6o  m.  of  glacier.  '  Nanicn  diapovovd  that  in  that 
latitude  th«  inland  ice  of  Greenland  hat  the  form  of  a  huge  shield 
rising  rather,  rapidly  but  regularly  from  the  east  coast  to 
nearly  9000  ft.,  flat  and  even  in  the  middle  and  falling  again 
regularly  toward  the  vestem  side,  completely  enveloping  thfc. 
land.  An  important  principle  acted  <»&  for  the  first  time  in 
Arctic  travel  on  this  journey  was  that  of  starting  from  the  less 
accessible  side  and  pushing  straight  through  with  no  possibility 
of  turning  htck,  at^  thus  with  no  necessity  for  forming  a  base 
or  traversing  the  ^lune  route  twice  over. 

Peaiy  spent  the  winter  of  L89X-1S92  at  In^^cld  Gulf  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  Greenland,  Mrs  Peary,  Dr  F.  A.  Cook, 
Eivind  Astrup  and  a  coloured  servant  l^Iattbew  Hcnson  being  in 
his  party,  and  a  large  number  of  the  Etah  Eskimo  in  the  vicinity. 
In  April  2892  he  set  out  for  a  journey  across  the  hiland  ioe  tothe 
north-eastward  in  the  hope  of  loching  the  east  coast  and  also 
the  nMtfacm  extremity  of  the  land.  After  getting  well  up  on 
the  ice-corvered  plateau  a  supporting  party  returned  to  winter 
quarten,  while  Peaiy  and  Astrup,  with  two  companions  and 
sixteen  doigs,  entered  on  the  serious  part  of  their  work.  The 
highest  part  of  the  inland  Ice  was  found  to  be  about  5700  ft., 
toad  as  usual  after  the  first  part  of  the  descent,  towards  the  north- 
east in  this  case,  the  surface  was  broken  by  numerous  dangerous 
crevasses,  progress  amongst  which  was  very  slow.  Great 
hardships  were  experienced  from  cold,  .insufficiency  of  food  and 
the  wearing  out  of  sledges  and  dothes,  but  on  the  4th  of  July, 
having  left  the  ice  and  got  on  bore  land  in  8x°  37'  N.»  where  musk 
oxen  and  other  game  were  foimd  and  flowers  were  growing,  Peary 
was  rewarded  by  a  glimpse  of  the  sea  to  the  north-eastward,  and 
muaed  it  from  tho  date  Independence  Bdiy.  He  also  traced  a 
channel  to  the  north  beyond  which  lay  a  new  land  largely  free 
from  snow,  no  doubt  the  southern  part  of  the  isknd  along  tho 
north  of  which  Markham  and  Lockwood  had  tmvelled  to  their, 
fardiest  north.  The  return  journey  to  Inglefield  Gulf  was  a 
mmderful  feat  of  endurance,  which  was  completed  on  the  4th  of 
August;  the  total  distance  marched  on  the  whole  journey  out  and 
home  was  1300  m.  Peaiy  returned  to  northern  Greenland  in  1 893 , 
having  tfpent  the  whole  time  between  the  two  expeditions  in 
writing  and  lectuilng  in  order  to  raise  funds,  for  he  travelled  at 
his  own  chatgts.  He  landed  on  the  shore  of  Inglefield  Gulf  on 
the  3rd  of  August  and  wintered  there  with  a  party  of  thir- 
teen, including  Mrs  Peary,  and  there  their  daughter  was  bom. 
Astrup  was  taken  ill  after  starting  on  the  great  journey  in  March 
1894,  which  was  to  have  «rtended  the  exjplorations  of  the  pre^ 
vJous  year,  and  had  to  return;  others  were  severely  frost-bitten, 
disease  broke  out  amongst  the  dogs,  and  a  month  after  the 
start  Peary  was  01^x30  m.  from  his  base  and  had  to  return. 
Peary  with  two  of  his  party,  Hngh  J.  Lee  and  Matthew  Hcnson, 
remained  at  Inglefield  Gulf  for  another  winter,  and  on  the 
xst  of  ApHl  X895,  with  deer  and  walrus  meat  in  place  of  pemmi- 
can,  the  supply  of  which  had  been  lost,  set  out  for  Independence 
Bay:  They  reached  the  ice-free  hind  when  their  food  ^was 
exhausted  and  fortimately  fell  in  with  a  herd  of  musk  oxen,  the 
meat  from  winch  made  It  possible  to  get  back  to  Inglefield  Gulf, 
thoUj^h  without  adding  anything  material  to  the  rcsuHs  of 
1899.  The  experience  of  icc-tmvel  and  of  Eskimo  nature  gained 
in  the  four  years'  almost  continicous  residence  in  northern 
Greenland  were  however  destined  to  bear  rich  fruit. 

Br  Nansen,  after  making  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  winds 
and  currents  of  the  Arctic  Sea,' and  influenced  largdy  by  the 
SMBtn;  occurrence  of  driftwood  on  the  shores  post  which  the 
DrUiotttt  ice-laden  waters  flowed  southward  between  Green- 
'•Ptnm,"  ijjnd  ^nj  Spitsbergen,  satisfied  himself  that  there  was 
a- general  drift  across  the  po^  basiii  and  perhaps  across  the  I'ole. 
HepIawMd  an  expedition  to  take  advantage  of  this  drift  on  tlie 
principle  whidi  guided  his  crossing  of  Greenland,  that  of  entering 
at  the  least  accessible  point  and  n6t  turning  back,  thus  having 
no  ffiie  of  retreat  and  making  a  relief  expedition  impossible.  He 
phmned  t  ship,  the/'  Fram,"  which  was  immensely  strong,  to 
resist  drushin^  and  of  such  a  section  that  if  ttipped  in  the  fee  the 
opposing  ice-tnasses  would  pass  under  her  and  lift  her  on  to  the 
mibat,    The  plan  of  the  expedition  was  bas^  on  sdentific 


reasoning,  but  the  methods  were  totally  at  variance  «rith  those 
of  .previous  explorers.  Otto  Sverdrup,  who  had  been  one  of 
Nansen's  party  in  crossing  Greenland,  was  captain  of  the 
**  Fxkm"  and  the  party  included  eleven  othen,  the' whole  ship*^ 
company  of  thuteca  livmg  together  on  terms  of  social  equality. 
Nanscn  paid  the  greatest  possible  attention  to  the  provisions, 
and  all  the  arrangements  for  the  health  and  happiness  of  those 
on  board  were  carefully  thought  out.  The  ck>thing  of  the 
expedition  was  as  origmal  in  design  as  the  ship;  instead  of  having 
lEurs,  thick  woollen  lindcrclothing  was  adored,  with  a  light 
wind-proof  material  for  the  outer  dress.  The  "  From  **  left 
Christiania  in  the  summer  of  1893  and  made  her  way  through  the 
Ks^a  Sea  and  along  the  north  coast  of  Asia  until  on  the  30th  of 
September  she  was  run  into  the  ice  in  77^  30'  N.^  off  the  New 
Siberia  Ishmds,  and  the  great  drift  commenced.  •  As  antic^ted, 
she  rose  to  the  pressure  of  the  ice  and  was  b<MDe  on  an  even 
keel  high  above  the  water  for  the  whole  duration  of  the  drift. 
Tho  movement  of  the  ice  was  irregular,  and  on  the  7th  of 
November  the  "  Fram  *'  was  back  at  her  starting-pointi  but  oi» 
the  whole  the  movement  was  north-westward  untU  the  15th''  of 
November  1895,  when  the  highest  ktitude  of  the  ship  wa^ 
attained,  85"  s?  N.  in  66*  31'  E.,  the  meridian  of  the  east  of 
Novaya  Zemfya;  then  St  was  westward  and  finally  southward 
until  the  ice  was  broken  by  blasting  round  the  ship  in  June  in 
83**  N.lat.;  and  after  being  afloat,  though  unable  to  make  much 
progress  tmtil  the  middle  of  July,  the  **  fVam  "  broke  out  of 
the  ice  off  the  north  coast  of  Spitsbergen  on  the  13th  of  August 
1896.  No  ship  before  or  since  has  reached  so  high  a  latitude. 
In  all  her  drift  the  "Fram "came  in  sight  of  nonewhtnd,tiut 
!  the  soundings  made  through  the  ice  proved  that  the  Arctic  Sea 
was  of  great  depth,  increasing  towards  the  Pole,  the  greatest 
depth  exceeding  3000  fathoms.  The  great  moss  of  water  filling 
the  polar  basin  was  comparatively  warm,  indicating  free  drcula- 
tion  with  the  Atlantic.  It  was  established  that  the  kc  formed 
off  the  coast  of  Asia  drifted  across  the  polar  basin  in  a  period  of 
-from  three  to  five  years,  and  the  hypothesis  on  the  truth  of  which 
Nanscn  risked  h&  success  was  abundantly  verified  by  facts.  The 
ship's  company  all  returned  in  perfect  health.  After  the  secohd 
winter  on  the  "  Fram  '*  at  a  time  when  the  northward  movement 
of  the*  drift  seemed  to  be  checked,  Nansen,  accompanied  hf 
Lieut.  Hjalmar  Johansen,  left  the  ship  in  order  to  explore 
the  regions  towards  the  Pole  by  travelling  on  ski  with  dog 
sledges  carrying  kayaks.  It  was  obviously  hopeless  to  attempt 
to  find  the  drifting  ship  on  their  return,  and  Nansen  intended  i^ 
moke  for  Spitsbergen  in  the  hope  of  mectmg  dnc  of  the  tourisL 
steamers  tlicit.  A  more  daring  plan  was  never  formed,  and  it 
was  justified  ^y  success.  Leaving  the  dhip  on  the  i4tK  of  March 
x89S  in.  84'  N.  xoa"*  E.,  they  made  a  fairly  rapid  mJircV 
northward,  reaching  a  latitude  of  86*  5*  N.  on  the  8th  of  April; 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  Pole  so  for  achieved.  Turning 
south-westwards  they  travelled  with  much  difficulty,  sometimes' 
on  the  ice,  sometimes  in  kayaks  in  the  open  lanes  of  water,  incur- 
ring great  danger  from  the  attacks  of  bears  and  wahus,  but  at 
length  reaching  a  gn^p  of  new  islands  east  of  Frams  Josef 
Land.  They  travelled  westward  through  this  archipelago  until 
the  28th  of  August,  when  they  buHt  a  small  stone  hut  roofed 
with  then*  light  silk  tent,  in  which  they  passed  the  winter  on  a 
land  since  called  Frederick  Jackson  Island.  There  they  Kved 
like  Eskimo  on  bear  and^  woh-us  meat  cooked  over  a  blubber 
lamp.  TTie  journey  south%vard  was  resumed  in  the  spring  of 
1896,  and  on  the  xsth  of  June  they  met  Mr  F.  G.  Jackson,  in' 
whose  relief  ship,  the  "  Windward,"  they  returned  to  Norway.' 
Nansen  and  Johansen  reached  Vardb  on  the  X3th  of  August- 
1896  full  of  anxiety  for  the  fate  of  their  old  comrades,  when 
by  a  coincidence  unparalleled  in  the  liistoty  of  exploration,  the 
"  Fram  "  was  on  that  very  day  breaking  out  of  the  ice  off 
Spitsbergen  and  the  original  party  of  thirteen  was  reunited  at 
Troms3  the  foIIowLng  week  and  returned  together  to  Christiania.^ 
Ou  this  remarkable  expedition  'no  life  was  lost  and  the  ship 
came  back  undamaged  under  the  skilled  guidance  of  Sverdrup 
with  a  grea^  harvest  of  scientific  results. 
Mr  Frederick  George  Jackson  plaimed  an  exploring  expeditleor 


953 


POLAR  REGIONS 


to  attain  «  h!g^  ktitnde  by  the  Tniat  Josef  Land  toute  and  yra» 
supported  finandally  by  Mr  A.  C.  Harmsworth  (Lord  North* 
/fffPf^P-  diffe).  He  was  accompanied  by  Lieut.  Albert 
iicnv«wortfe  Armita^e,  R.N.R.,  as  second  in  command  and  six 
Bxpeoaha.  adentl^  mcn>  induding  Dr  Reginald  Koettlitz; 
Pr  W.  S.  Bruce  also  was  one  of  the  number  in  the  second  3rear. 
The  Jaduon-Hannsworth  expedition  sailed  in  1894,  and  was 
landed  at  Cape  flora,  where  log  houses  were  bidlt.  In  the 
spring  of  2895  JaduMn  mode  a  journey  northward  to  81^  19'  N., 
the  highest  latitude  reached,  and  added  considerably  to  our 
imowledge  of  the  orcfaipdago  by  discovering  a  channd  between 
gioupe  ol  islands  west  of  the  Austria  Sound  of  Payer.  He 
made  numerous  other  journeys  by  land  and  in  boats,  and 
surveyed  a  considerable  portion  ol  the  islands  on  which  h^ 
landed,  the  most  interesting  being  that  of  1897,  to  the  western 
portion  of  the  group.  The  geok^cal  collections  were  of  some 
value  and  the  specimens  secured  indicated  that  Franz  Josef 
Land  and  Spitsbergen  were  parts  of  an  extensive  land  existing 
in  Tertiary  times.  The  expedition  returned  in  1897. 

In  1897  and  sulraequent  years  a  party  led  by  Sir  Martin 
Conway  cxplorcxi  the  interior  of  Spitsbergen.  Dr  A.  0.  Nathorst; 
the  Swedish  geologist,  explored  the  emtem  coast  and  off-lying 
islands^  and  made  important  observations  on  North«East  Land, 
circumnavigating  the  Spitsbergen  archipelago  in  1898.  In  X899 
Nathorst  visited  the  north-^ast  coast  of  Greenland' in  search  of 
Andre's  balloon  expedition,  and  here  he  mapped  Frana  Josef 
Fjord  and  disoovexed  the  great  King  Oscar  Fjord  in  waters 
that  had  never  been  navigated  before. 

In  subsequent  years  valuable  surveys  and  scientific  observa- 
tions were  made  by  the  Prince  of  Monaco  in  his  yacht  "Princesse 
Alice/'  by  Dr  W.  .S.  Bruce,  notably  on  Prince  Charles  Fordand, 
and  by  others.  Frans  Josef  Land  was  visited  by  the  American 
explorer  W.  Wellman  in  1898  and  1900,  and  his  companion 
E.  Baldwin  in  the  former  year  made  the  discovery  of  several- 
islands  in  the  east  of  the  archipelago.  A  wealthy  American, 
W.  Zeii^er,  also  sent  out  expeditions  to  Franz  Josef  Land  in 
190X  and  between  1903  and  1905,  in  the  course  of  which  A.  Fiala 
reached  the  high  latitude  of  83*^  4'  N.  in  the  "  America,"  but  the 
ship  was  afterwards  lost  in  TepUtz  Bay.  These  expeditions  added 
little  to  our  knowledge  of  polar  geography,  but  some -useful 
meteorological,  magnetic  and  tidal  observations  were  made. 

The  ItaUan  expedition  imdcr  the  command  of  I4.R.H.  Prince 
Luigi,  duke  of  the  Abruzzi,  was  the  most  successful  of  all  ihose 
which  have  attempted  to  tcadi  high  latitudes  by 
way  of  Franz  Josef  Land.  Embarking  in  the 
summer  of  1899  on  the  "  Stella  Polare  "  (formerly 
the  Kornrcgian  whaler  "  Jason  "  whidi  had  landed  Nansen  on 
the  east  coast  of  Greenland  in  x88S)  the  expedition  put  into 
T^litz  Bay  in  Rudolf  Land,  where  they  wintered  and  there  the 
ship  was  seriously  damaged  by  the  ice.  In  the  spring  of  1900  a 
determined  effort  was  made  to  reach  the  North  Pole  by  sledging 
over  the  sca-ioc.  The  duke  of  the  Abruzzi  having  been  d^bled 
by  frost-bite,  the  leadership  of  the  northern  party  devolved  upon 
Captain  Umberto  Cagni  of  the  Italian  navy,  who  started  on 
the  xith  of  March  1900  with  ten  men  (Alpine  guides  and  ItaUan 
sailors)  aiui  nearly  a  himdrcd  dogs.  His.pkn  was  to  sledge 
northwai^d  over  the  sea-ice,  sending  back  two  parties  as  the 
diminishing  stores  allowed  the  advance  party  to  take  on  the 
whole  of  the  supplies  destined  to  support  them  on  their  way  to 
the  Pole  and  back.  Before  losing  sight  of  Rudolf  Island  three 
men  forming  the  first  party  started  to  return,  but  they  never 
reached  winter  quarters  and  all  must  have  perished.  The  second 
party  went  back  from  latitude  Ss^  xo'  N.,  and  readied  their  base 
in  safety.  Cagni  pushed  on  with  three  companions,  determined 
if  he  could  not  reacli  the  Pole  at  least  to  outdistance  his  prede- 
cessor Nansra,  and  on  the  35th  of  April  1900  he  succeeded  in 
reaching  86^  34'  N.  in  65"  20'  E.  Diminishing  food  supplies 
made  it  necessary  to  turn  at  this  point,  and  although  he  had 
reached  it  in  45  days  it  took  Cagni  60  days  to  return.  The 
advance  of  summer  loosened  the  ice-floes,  and  the  westward 
component  of  the  drift  of  the  pack  became  a  more  and  more 
serious  danger,  threatening  to  carry  the  party  past  Franz  Josef 


OMtoofM* 


Land  without  t^tfag  It.  Fottunatdy  Gape  Mm,  a  heMfiand  fit 
characteristic  outline,  was  sifted  just  in  time,  and  with  this  as 
a  guide  the  party  succeeded  in  reaching  Tepliu  Bay,  havii^ 
eaten  the  bst  of  their  dogs  and  been  reduced  to  great  cxtiemitka 
At  the  farthest  north  no  land  was  visible,  the  nogh  sea-ice 
extending  to  the  horizon  on  every  side. 

As  eariy  as  1895  a  schone  for  an  eaqdoxing  ezpeditioo  m  a 
balloon  was  put  forward  setioasly,  and  in  1897  the  Swcdiih 
aeronaut  S.  A.  Andrte  curied  it  out.     He  had         .    . . 
brought  a  balloon  to  Danes  Island,  in  the  north,  ol 
Spitsbergen,  the  previous  year,  but  Uie  weather  was  uapnpKtioBs 
and  the  ascent  had  to  be  postponed..  On  the  xxth  of  July  1897 
be  started  ina  new  and  larger  balloon  with  about  five  tons  «jf 
suf^Iies  and  two  companions.  •  It  was  hoped  that  the  baOooa 
could  be  steered  to  some  extent  by  the  use  of  heavy  gtiide 
drag^ng  over  the  ice,  and  Andrfe  had  already  made 
flights  in  thia  way.    Rising  at  2.30  pan.  the  ballooB 
of  sight  of  Danes  Island  in  an  hour.   At  10  p.m.  Axidr£e  threw 
out  a  buoy  containing  a  message  which  was  recovered,  and  this 
stated  that  the  balloon  was  in  Ss**  N.  25**  £.,  moving  towards 
the  north-east  at  an  altitude  of  800  ft.  above  a  rugged  ice-field. 
This  was  the  last  news  received,  and  ahhoogh  scarcely  &  year 
has  passed  without  some  rumouf  of  tht  balloon  having  bcea 
found  in  Siberia  or  North  Aaicdca,  nothing  further  has  ever 
been  ascertained. 

In  XS99  Admiral  Makaioff  of  the  Russian  navy  amoved  fior 
the  trial  trip  of  the  great  ice^ireaker  "  Yermak,"  which  he 
designed,  to  take  the  form  of  an  expedition  into     ^,. . 
the  sea-ice  off  Spitsbergen.    Though  no  high  Isti* 
tude  was  attained  on  this  occasion  he  formed  the  opinkm  thai 
a  vessd  of  sufficient  size  and  power  could  force  a 
to  the  role.  The  Russian-Japanese  War  put  an  end  to 
projects  of  this  gifted  man  of  sdence. 

Captain  Otto  Sverdrup,  who  had  been  Nansen's 
on  his  two  polar  expeditions,  phmned  an  Arctic  voyige  for  the 

circumnavigation  of  Greenland,  and  th6  "Pram"     j^      

was  altcxed  and  refitted  to  suit  her  for  the  work.  "^ 

Starting  in  1899,  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  •♦♦^wif  to  get 
northward  through  Smith  Sound,  and  making  his  way  westward 
into  Jones  Sound  he  spent  three  years  in  expbring  and  tt**^ 
the  portion  of  the  Arctic  archipelago  which  lay  to  the  north  of 
the  field  of  labour  of  the  Franklin  search  ei^editioas.  «i**ww^ 
and  Grinnell  Lands  were  shown  to  be  part  of  one  large  land  mm 
called  King  Oscar  Land,  which  is  separated  by  a  nanow  *-k?"f^. 
Eureka  Sound,  from  an  extensive  island  named  Azd  H*^***^ 
Land.  Two  of  his  party  (Isachsen  and.  Hassd)  discovered  and 
explored  two  islands  west  of  Heiberg  Land,  and  Dr  Schei  made 
most  valuable  observations  on  the  geology  of  the  whole  oL  the 
district  examined.  Sverdrup's  journeys  deared  up  a  great  deid 
of  uncertainty  regarding  the  geojgraphy  of  the  least  kaamm 
portion  of  the  Arctic  archipelago,  and  leave  liule  mote  to  he 
done  in  that  quarter.  He  brou|^  the  "  Fraa  "  safely  back  t» 
Norway  in  X903. 

Many  American  whiders  working  in  the  sea  readied  thno^ 
Bering  Strait  believe  that  land  of  considerable  cxtcat  fies 
farther  west  than  the  Arctic  archipelago,  xu>rth  of  the  month  nL 
the  Mackenzie  River,  but  neither  the  En^ish  traveller  A.  H. 
Harrison  in  X905,  not  the  Dane  Einar  Mikkdsrn  iii  1907,  was 
able  to  find  any  trace  of  it,  though  the  latter  sledged  over  the 
sea  ice  as  far  as  72^  N.,  where  in  150"  W.  he  got  a  *«*"ffdiTg  cf 
339  fathoms  with  no  bottom.  This  depth  makes  it  somewhat 
improbable  that  land  exists  in  that  quarter. 

Russian  surveyors  and  e]q>loreis  continued  to  map  p«»»*yh— 
of  the  Siberian  coast,  and  in  x886  Dr  Buoge  and  Bora  To& 
visited  the  New  Siberia  Islands  and  made  known 
the  remarkable  remains  of  mammorhs  wluch  exist 
there  in  great  numbers. 'In  1893  Baron  ToU.made 
important  geological  expedition  to.  the  islands*  disoovedng 
many  weU-prescrved  remains  of  mammoths  and  other  extincx 
mammals  and  finding  evidence  that  in  the  mammoth  period 
trees  grew  at  least  as  far  as  74"  N.  Indefatigable  in  the  pursuit 
of  bis  atudiev-  ToU  set  out  once  xpore  in  iqoi  on  board  the 


POLAR  REGIONS 


953 


^  Zarys."  bopios  to  reach  Stn&ikoff  Islaiid,  the  mast  northern 
and  stil)  unviajted  portion  of  the  New  Siberia  firoup.  In 
August  1^3  he  reached  Benoet  Island  with  the  astronomer 
Seeherg  and  two  men;  he  found  the  island  to  be  a  plateau  about 
1 500  ft  in  elevation,  and  remained  there  until  November  studymg 
the  geological  features.  Nothing  more  was  heard  of  the  expedi- 
tion, and  a  rdief  expedition  in  1904,  under  Lieuts.  Brusneff 
and  Kolchak,  failed  to  find  any  trace  of  the  explorers  beyond 
a  record  left  on  Bennet  Island,  which  gave  a  summary  of  their 
movements  up  to  the  time  of  leaving  the  island. 

In  X901  Captain  Roald  Amundsen,  a  Norwegian,  who  had 
been  mate  on  the  "  Belgica  "  in  her  Antarctic  voyage,  planned 
an  expedition  to  the  area  of  the  north  magnetic 
pole  visited  by  Sir  James  Ross  in  1831,  in  order  to 
re-locate  it,  and  as  a  secondary  object  he  had  m  view  the 
accomplishment  of  the  North-West  Passage  by  water  for  the 
first  time,  M'CIure  not  having  carried  his  ship  through  from 
sea  to  sea.  A  smaU  Norwegian  sealing  ^oop,  the  "  Gjda."  the 
cabin  of  which  measured  only  9  ft  by  6,  «ras  fitted  with  a 
petroleum  motor  engine  of  39  h.p  for  use  m  calm  weather  and 
strengthened  to  withstand  ice-pressure.  She  left  Chnstiania 
on  the  17th  of  June  1903  with  a  total  company  of  six  men, 
second  in  command  being  Lieut  Godfred  Hansen  of  the 
Danish  navy  She  passed  through  Lancaster  Sound  and  worked 
her  way  dovrn  the  west  side  of  Boothia  Felix  m  August,  and  took 
up  winter  quarters  in  Gjda  Harbour  at  the  head  of  Petersen  Bay 
in  King  William  Land  Here  the  little  vessel  remained  for  two 
years  while  magnetic  and  meteorological  observations  were 
carried  out,  and  sledging  excursions  were  made  to  the  magnetic 
pole  and  akmg  the  coasts  of  Victoria  Land,  which  was  charted 
up  to  72"  N  In  August  1905  the  "  Gjda  "  proceeded  westward 
along  the  American  coast  but  was  frozen  in  off  King  Point  for  a 
third  winter  On  the  nth  of  July  1906  she  got  free,  and  after 
much  difficulty  with  the  ice  reached  Bering  Strait  on  the  30th 
cf  August  and  entered  the  Pacific,  the  first  ship  to  pass  from 
ocean  to  ocean  north  of  Patagonia. 

Danish  explorers  have  continued  to  concentrate  their  attention 
on  the  problems  of  Greenland,  and  especially  the  geography 
of  the  east  coast.  Lieut..  G.  D  Amdrup,  in  a  series  of  expedi- 
tions between  1898  and  1900,  charted  the  coaM-line  as  far  north 
AS  70°  15'  N.,  and  made  important  scientific  observation!^  and 
coUiections.  From  time  to  time  whalers  reached  the  east  Green- 
land coast  at  points  in  high  latitudes.  The  duke  of  Orleans 
in  the  "Belgica,"  under  the  command  of  Captain  Gertache, 
nade  an  important  voyage  in  1905,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
cruised  along  the  coast  of  Germania  Land  between  76*  and  78*  N  , 
and  fixed  the  general  outline  of  the  land  up  to  that  latitude. 
This  expedition  did  a  large  amount  of  scientific  work,  especially 
in  oceanography.  The  stream  of  sea-ice  which  presses  out- 
wards from  the  polar  basin  every  summer  bears  close  against 
the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  and  exploration  by  sea  has  always 
proved  exceedingly  cUfficult  and  precarious,  success  depending 
very  mttch  on  the  occurrence  of  chance  leads  amongst  the  ice. 
Taking  advantage  of  all  previous  experience,  the  most  important 
of  the  Danish  expeditions  was  planned  by  L.  Myltus-Erichsen 
in  1905,  the  expenses  being  partly  raised  by  private 
subscriptions  and  partly  provided  by  the  Danish 
government.  He  sailed  in  the  "  Danmark  *'  in  June 
1906  and  found  winter  quarters  in  Danmarkhaven,  75*  43'  N  , 
where  the  ship  remained  for  two  years,  wlule  systematic  magnetic 
and  meteorok>gical  observations  were  kept  up  at  the  base  and 
the  main  work  of  exploring  to  the  northward  was  carried  on  by 
dedge.  From  existing  maps  it  was  believed  that  about  620  m 
of  coast  separated  the  winter  quarters  from  the  northern  point  of 
.Greenland,  but  when  the  sledge  expedition  went  out  in  1907  the 
tout  was  found  to  curve  much  farther  to  the  eastward  than 
bad  been  anticipated,  and  the  outward  journey  extended  to 
800  m.  Having  left  the  winter  quarters  on  the  38th  of  March 
1907,  Mylius-Erichsen,  with  Captain  Koch,  Hagen.  an  educated 
^kimo,  Brftedund  and  two  others,  reached  North-East  Fore- 
land, the  eastern  extremity  of  Greenland  (8i*  ao'  N.,  n*  15*  W). 
Here  they  divided;  Koch  wfth  Berthcben  and  the  Eskimo 
XXI  i6* 


Tobias  went  north-westward  to  explore  the  esist  coast  of  Peary 
Land,  and  succeeded  in  reaching  the  northernmost  extremity 
of  the  land  beyond  Cape  Bridgman  in  83*  30'  N.  From  this 
great  journey  he  returned  in  safety  to  winter  quarters,  arri^ng  on 
the  a4th  of  June.  Meanwhile  Myh'us-Erichsen,  with  Hagen  and 
the  Eskimo  Brdnlund,  followed  the  coast  westward  into  what 
was  believed  to  be  the  Independence  Bay  seen  from  a  distance 
by  Peary,  this  turned  out  to  be  a  deep  inlet  now  named  Danmark 
Fjord  Keeping  to  the  coast,  they  entered  the  great  channel 
separating  the  mainland  of  Greenland  from  Peary  Land,  and 
surveyed  Hagen  Fjord  on  the  southern  shore  and  Bronlund 
Fjord  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  strait.  They  had  pushed  on 
to  Cape  Glacier  in  83*  N.  and  35*  W  by  the  14th  of  June  1907, 
within  sight  of  Navy  Cliff,  which  had  been  Peary's  farthest  coming 
from  the  west  side,  and  here  the  softness  of  the  snow  kept  them 
all  summer  When  they  could  travel,  more  than  a  fortnight  was 
wasted  adrift  on  a  floe  In  the  effort  to  cross  Danmark  Fjord. 
Here  the  sun  left  them,  while  they  were  without  food,  altnost 
worn  out  and  more  than  500  m.  from  the  ship  It  was  impossible 
to  attempt  the  long  journey  round  the  coast,  and  the  only  chance 
of  safety,  and  that  a  very  slender  one,  was  to  make  away  south- 
ward over  the  inland  ice  and  so  cut  off  the  eastern  horn  of  Green- 
land which  the  expedition  had  discovered.  Under  tho  moat 
terrible  difficulties,  with  only  four  starved  dogs,  and  their  equip- 
ment going  to  pieces,  they  accomplished  the  feat  of  marchiqg 
160  m  in  26  days,  and  reached  the  east  coast  again  in  79*  N. 
Hagen  died  on  the  way,  Mylius-Erichsen  hiniself  struggled  on 
until  he  nearly  reached  the  provisions  left  on  Lambert  Island 
on  the  northern  journey,  but  he  too  perished,  and  only  BrSnlund 
reached  the  supplies.  He  was  frost-bitten  and  unable  to  proceed 
further,  and  after  recording  the  tragedy  of  the  return  journey 
in  his  diary,  he  died  also  alone  in  the  Arctic  night.  His  body 
and  the  rea>rds  of  the  great  journey  were  discovered  In  the 
following  year  by  Koch,  who  started  on  a  relief  expedition  as 
soon  as  travelling  became  possible.  The  results  of  this  expedition 
are  a  splendid  monument  to  the  courage  and  devotion  of  the 
leader  and  his  followers.  The  channd  between  Spitsbergen 
and  Greenland  was  shown  by  their  efforts  to  be  far  narrower 
than  had  previously  been  supposed,  and  the  outline  of  Greenland 
itself  was  fixed  for  the  first  time,  and  that  by  an  extremely 
accurate  survey. 

There  only  remains  one  further  episode  to  bring  the  history 
of  polar  exploration  up  to  19x0,  hut  that  is  the  crowning  event  of 
four  hundred  years  of  unceasing  effort,  the  attain- 
ment  of  the  Pole  itself;  and  it  was  accomplished  by  **''*' 

the  undaunted  perseverance  of  one  man  who  would  never  accept; 
defeat.  After  the  return  of  the  Jackson-Harmsworth  expedi- 
tion. Lord  Northch'ffe  presented  the  **  Windward  "  to  Lieut. 
Peary,  who  resumed  in  1898  his  systematic  exi^orations  of  the 
Smith  Sound  region  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  way  to  the  Pole. 
He  was  not  restrained  by  the  precedents  of  earlier  travellers 
and  made  some  long  sledge  journeys  in  the  winter  of  1898-1899, 
having  his  feet  badly  frost-bitten  and  losing  eight  toes.  Even 
this  crippling  did  not  stop  his  work.  He  wintered  amongst 
the  Etah  Eskimo  in  1899-1900  and  next  spring  made  a  successfttl 
journey  to  the  most  northerly  land  north  of  Greenland  in  83"  3$' 
where  the  land  had  an  abundant  flora  and  fauna,  and  he  pushed 
north  over  the  sea-ice  for  twenty  miles  farther,  reaching  83*  $4* 
N  Peary  wintered  again  at  Fort  Conger  in  1900-1901,  and  for 
the  fourth  year  in  succession  he  werit  through  the  Arctic  winter, 
1901-1909,  at  I^3rer  Harbour.  In  the  spring  of  1903  he  made  a 
great  journey  to  Cape  Hecla  in  the  north  of  Grant  Land  and 
thence  northward  over  the  frozen  sea  to  84"  17'  N.  in  70°  W. 
Frequent  open  leads  of  water  and  the  moving  of  the  ice-iioes 
made  further  advance  impossible,  and  after  an  unparalleled 
sojoom  in  the  farthest  north,  Peary  returned  to  the  United 
States.  The  Peary  Arctic  Club  of  New  York,  formed  to  support 
this  indomitable  explorer,  provided  funds  for  a  new  expedition 
and  a  ship  differing  in  some  respects  from  those  hitherto  em- 
ployed and  named  the  **  Roosevelt.'*  In  her  he  proceeded  In 
the  summer  of  1905  through  Smith  Sound  and  the  northern 
channels  to  Cape  Sheridan  on  the  north  coast  of  Grant  land; 


954 


POLAR  REGIONS 


Captain  Robert  Baiilett  being  in  dofnmand  of  the  aldp  From 
this  point  he  advanced  by  sledge  to  Cape  Hecla,  whence  he  made  a 
most  strenuous  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  Organizing  his 
large  following  of  trained  Eskimo,  whose  confidence  in  him  had 
been  won  by  many  yean  of  friendship,  and  his  few  white  com* 
panions  in  separate  parties,  each,  complete  in  itself  and  well 
furnished  with  dogs  and  food,  he  set  off  at  the  end  of  February 
1906.  A  very  broad  lead  of  open  water  was  encountered  in 
84**  zS'  N.ji  and  as  the  party  did  not  carry  kayaks  much  time  was 
lost  in  getting  across.  The  floes  had  a  marked  eastward  drift 
and  it  was  diflkuit  to  make  progress  northward,  however, 
Peary  struggled  on  by  forced  marches  to  87*  6'  N.,  which  he 
reached  on  the  aist  of  April  1906,  the  most  northerly  point 
so  far  attained.  His  return  journey  was  the  moat  dangeiious 
in  his  eiqierience;  many  leads  had  to  be  crossed,  sometimes  on 
ice  so  thin  that  it  bent  beneath  the  weight  of  the  explorers, 
provisions  were  exhausted  and  the  men  were  reduced  to  eating 
their  dop  before  they  made  land  at  Cape  Neumayer  in  the  nortli 
of  Greenland,  wjiere  game  was  found,  and  whence  the  return 
to  the  ship  was  comparatively  easy 

Returning  to  Americai  Peary  prepared  for  a  last  attempt 
The  **  Roosevelt "  was  overhauled  and  vanoos  defects  made 
f%My*«.  good,  but  nQt  in  time  for  the  summer  of  1907. 
Jfiuivyto  Leaving  New  York  in  Jidy  r9o8  the  "  Roos«velt," 
th^Nortk  ^ain  un4er  the  command  pf  R.  Bartlett,  brought 
the  party,  with  the  Eskimo  who  were  picked  up  on 
the  way,  to  Cape  Sheridan  by  the  5th  of  Septcmbw.  I>«rii|g 
the  winter  all  supplies  were  tran^)Qrted  to  Cape  Columbia, 
farther  west  on. the  coast  of  Grant  Land.  Here  there  were 
ready  to  start  in  the  first  light  of  the  Arctic  day  seven  explorera, 
17  picked  Eskimo  and  133  of  the  best  dogs  in  Greenland  wit^  19 
sledges.  As  the  outcome  of  all  Peary's  experience  the  expedition 
was  sjrranged  to  consist  of  a  li|^tly  equipped  advance  pu-ty  to 
select  the  route  and  make  the  trail  by  clearing  a  way  through 
rough  ice,  and  a  main  party  composed  of  units  of  four  men  each 
with  sledges  containing  all  their  requirements  marching  one 
day  behixMi  the  pioneer  party.  From  this  unit  parties  were 
to  return  south wai^d  at  intervals  with  the  empty  sJcdgcs,  leaving 
the  diminished  main  party  to  push  on  fuUy  provisioned.  The 
"  big  lead  "  which  marks  the  edge  of  the  continental  shelf  in 
84^  N.  was  crossed  after  some  delay  and  here  the  sun  appeared 
for  the  firal  time  on  the  sth  of  Mardi  1909.  Dr  MacMillan  with 
three  Eskimo  and  three  sledges  returned  along  the  outward 
trail  after  the  7th  of  Match  from  84^  39'  N,  A  sounding  at  this 
pohit  showed  the  depth  of  the  sea  to  be  825  fathom^.  Alter 
five  more  marches  C.  Bonip  turned  back  in  85*^  33'  with  three 
Eskimo  and  three  ^dgcs,  the  best  Eskimo  and. dogs  remaining 
with  the  main  party.  From  this  point  the  advance  wts  regular, 
the  pioneer  party  started  from  the  snow-houses  they  had  built 
and  slept  in  when  the  main  party  arrived,  and  while  the  latter 
slept  the-  pio^ieers  marched,  selected  a  camp,  built  new  snow-* 
houses,  arul  slept,  till  the  main  party  came  up.  At  86**  38'  N 
Prof.  R.  G.  Marvin  turned  back,  as  usual  with  thethree  worst 
Eskimo  and  the  worst  dofs.  His  party  reached  the  ship,  but 
he  himself  was  drowned  in  j<^os&ing  the  "  big  lead,"  the  only, 
casualty  of  the  expedition,  .^t  88^  N.  Bartlett  turned  back  on 
the  xst  of  April  in  accordano;  with  the  system  with  two  Eskimo, 
one  sledge  and  y8  dqgs.  Up  to  this  point  Peary  had  saved  him- 
self as  much  as  possible^  leaving  the  p)ath-findtng  and  the  observa* 
tbns  to  his  very  competent  colleagues;  but  now  he  put  forth  all 
his  strength  for  the  arduous  140  m.  which  separated  him  from 
the  Pole.  He  was  accompanied  by  Henson  and  four  Eskimo. 
The  ice  improved  as  he  went  on  and  it  was  possible  to  do  as  m. 
in  a  daily  march  of  .10  hours,  and  on  one  occasion  30  m.  in  1^ 
houni.  On  the  6th  of  April  an  observation  gave  89^,57'  N.,  and 
here*  a  camp  was  made  and .  observations  taken  throughout 
H  houn^  to  fix  the  position,  as  well  as  excursions  a  few  mile» 
fsjthei  on  and  a  few  miles  to  right  and  left  so  as  to  be  sure 
ol  actually  reaching  the  Pole.  No  land  was  to  be  seen,  and  a 
sotunding  through  the  ice  gave  a  depth  of  j$oo  fathoms 
with  no  bottom.  The  American  flag  was  hoisted;  the  goal, of  aU 
the  age*  of  exiJoratton  had  been  reached. 


The  return  jonrn^  was  qufdt  and  easy  Hie  tracks  kept 
open  by  the  pas8as<c  of  the  various  return  parties  were  distna 
enough  to  follow,  the  snow-hooses  stood  ready  for  ahchoiag 
at  the  end  of  each  march,  and  a  northerly  gale  kept  the  ice 
pressed  well  together  and  the  leads  dosed.  On  tbie  33rd  of 
April  Cape  Columbia  was  reached  and  soon  after  the  party  was 
safe  on  board  the  **  Roosevelt "  Success  was  due  to  the 
accumnlated  experience  of  twenty-lhrce  years'  constant  Arctic 
work,  and  to  the  thorough  acquamtamce  with  the  Eskimo  and 
their  dogs,  whicb  enabled  the  blest  work  to  be  got  oat  of 


Dr  F  A.  Cook  spent  tWo  years  m  the  Arctic  rei^oos.  190^-1909. 
and  dauned  to  have  readied  the  Pole  by  dedging  alone  wntk  c«e 
Eskimo  a  year  before  Peary  He  submitted  the  cvi-  .  ^ 
dcnce  for  this  achievement  to  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, which  failed  to  find  it  satisfactory,  and  Dr  Copk  did 
appear  to  challenge  this  decision 

Physiography  op  the  Arctic  Reciov 

Cechfy  -*rAlthough  mudi  remains  to  be  done  in  the 
tion  of  the  North  Polar  area,  the  main  Ceatures  of  the  pfayskal 
geography  of  the  region  have  been  determined  beyond  aaj 
reasonable  doubt.  Within  the  Arctic  Circle  the  iratthcra 
portions  of  Europe,  Asia,  America  and  Greenland  suiToa»i  a 
central  area  of  deep  sea,  tiie  southern  margin  of  which  forms  a 
broad  continental  shelf  bearing  many  islands.  The  ring  <tf 
land  and  shallow  sea  is  broken  only  by  the  broad  channel  between 
Greenland  and  Europe  through  which  Atlantic  water  gains  aa 
enUance  to  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  physical  conditioBa  ol  this 
sea,  which  tpvtn  the  greater  part  of  the  Arctic  re 
dealt  with  later  in  detail;  but  there  is  less  to  be  said  n 
the  land. 

In  a.diroate  which  taxes  human  powers  to  the  atimst  to  cany 
on  I  the  simplest  route-surveys  in  the  course  ef  an  expiaro^ 
expedition,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  snow  coverfas  whidn  is 
permanent  on  all  high  ^und  and  only  disappears  for  a  short 
time  in  summer,  even  on  the  shores  and  islands,  it  is  obvioiis 
that  any  knowledge  of  the  geology  must  be  difficult  to  ebtaia. 
On  the  earlier  Arctic  expeditions  enthusiastic  odlectors  brought 
together  quantities  of  specimens,  many  of  which  it  was  foued 
impossible  to  bring  home,  and  they  have  been  found  ahandoeed 
by  later  travellers.  As  Arctic  e4>k>ration  Was  usually  cairkd 
out  on 'the  sea  or  over  the  sea-ice  even  those  expedftioiis  in  whick 
experienced  geologists  took  part  fumUlied  few  of^xkrtnniiics  for 
making  Invcntigatwna.  The  result  is  that  the  gcoleey  of  the 
Arctic  lands  has  to  be  inferred  from  observations  made  at  ia 
points  whore  the  fortune  ol  the  ice  stopped  the  ship,  or 
on  land  journeys  a  favonrablc  exposure  was  found, 
every  geological  formation  as  known  to  be  represented,  froB  tkc 
Archaean  to  the  Quat«nary,  and  there  is  a  general  rrsmthjaiKt 
in  the  known  geological  features  of  most  of  the  great  Arctic 
isUnds.  The  fundamental  rock  in  all  appears  to  be  Archness 
gnees.  In  the.  eaureme  north-east  Carboniferous  stmta  hate 
recently  heen  discovered  sunilar  to  the  Carbooifcrou$  rocks  of 
Sipilsbergen.  The  Jurassic  rocks  fadhcr  south  are  in  pbccs 
capped  by  Cretaceous  beds,  and  closely  resemble  thejonask 
rocks  of  Spitsbergen,  Frana  Josci  Land  and  the  northern  parts 
of  Norway  and  Russia.  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks  are  fosaA 
OD  the  west  coast  of  GreenlaiKl  coveou)  over  by  great  fiows  cf 
basalt,  probably  of  Tertiary  age,  at  Disco  Island,  Kugsaak 
Peninsula  and  various  points  farther  north.  The  only 
of  economic  value  found  in  Greenland  ia  cryolite,  which  is 
at  Ivigtut  in  the  south-west.  Native  iron  occurs  in 
masses  in  several  places,  some  of  it  undoubted^  of  tdivk 
origin,  though  some  is  probably  meteoric. 

The  second  "  Fram  "  expedition  confinned  and  extended  tke 
geological  observations  ol  the  Franklin  search  cxpediiiooa  on 
the  American  Arctic  archipelagOt  and  showed  the  ptesencjeabeive 
the  Archaean  rocks  of  Cambrian,  Silurian  and  Dcyonian  strata, 
the  Siluciaa  being  represented  by  a  widespread  brawn  lusessoae 
abounding  in  fossils.  Carboniferous.  limestones  also  occur  and 
less  extensive  beds  of  quarts  sandstonea,  schists  and  luncstfloni 
containing '  an^monites  and  other  Mesoaoic  fossils.     TcrtiMj 


POLAR  REGIONS 


POLAR  flfiOIONS 


^S 


iwkft  iiicludias  beds  ol  Ugnite  and  plant  fonOs  of  Miocait  age 
also  ooeor^  and  th^  are  interakratified  and  ovctspread  viUi 
baialta  and  other  eruptive  rocks  as  in  GreenUod.  In  Grant 
Land  Tertiary  coal  occurs  in  Lady  Franklin  Bay  (81**  45'  N.)i  iIk 
most  ndftherly  deposit  of  fossil  fuel  knovvn.  Arctic  Canada 
consists  of  Archaean  and  Palaeosoic  xocka  worn '  down  into 
pbteasx  or  phdns  and  bearing  mtiks  of  gladal<  action,  the 
abaencn  of  which  is  the  most  fenuskable  feature  of  the  tundra 
Ngioo'  of  Siberia.  The  Siberian  coast  is  superficially  formed  to  a 
Inrge  aateat  of  fiosen  soil  and  gravel  sometimes  interbcdded 
with  dear  lee,  and  in  this  soil  the  frozen  bodies  of  mammotlis 
and  other  Quatematy  animals  have  been  found  preserved  in  a 
fresh  cofidltmn  by  the  low  tempemtufe.  The  absence  of  a  glacial 
period  In  northern  Siberia  is  probably  indirectly  doe  to  the  very 
low  temperature  which  prevailed  there,  preventing  the  access 
of  water  vapour  from  without  and  so  stopping  the  supply 
required  to  produce  sufficient  predpitatioa  to  form  gtaciers  or 
ke-caps.  On  the  New  Siberia  Idands  SUunan  and  Tertiaiy 
locks  have  been  recognized,  the  latter  with  abundant  deports  of 
fossil  wood. 

The  geological  evidence  is  complete  as  to  the  eidstence  of  a 
genial  dimate  in  Tertiary  thncs  as  far  north  as  the  present  land 
extends,  and  of  a  climate  less  severe  than  that  of  tOKlay  In  the 
Quaternary  period.  The  existence  of  raised  sea  margins  in 
many  Arctic  lands  and  especially  in  the  American  Arctic  archi* 
pelago  bears  evidence  to  a  recent  devation  of  the  land,  or  a 
withdrawal  of  the  sea,  which  has  been  influential  in  formmg 
some  of  the  most  prominent  features  of  the  present  configuration. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  no  gn;at  mountain  range  runs  into  the 
Arctit  region.  The  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  west  and  the  Ural 
range  on  the  east  die  down  to  insignificant  devations  before 
reaching  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  plateau  ol  Greenland  forms  the 
loftiest  mass  of  Arctic  land,  but  the  thickness  of  the  ice  cap  is 
unknown.  The  one  active  volcano  within  the  Arctic  Circle  is 
on  the  little  island  of  Jan  Mayen. 

The  Arctic  Climate. — As  the  water  of  the  Arctic  Sea  is  free 
from  ice  around  the  margin  only  for  a  few  months  in  summer, 
and  is  covered  at  all  times  over  its  great  expanse  with  thick  ice 
in  slow  uneasy  motion,  there  is  less  contrast  in  climate  between 
land  and  sea,  espedally  in  winter,  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  The  climate  of  the  polar  area  may  be  described  as 
the  most  characteristic  of  all  the  natural  features,  and  obser- 
vations of  temperature  and  pressure  are  more  numerous  and 
systematic  than  any  other  scientific  oteervations.  The  Russian 
meteorological  system  includes  Siberia,  and  long  scries  of  obser- 
vations exist  from  stations  up  to  and  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 
The  Canadian  Meteorological  Service  has  seci'.red  like  observa- 
tions for  the  extreme  north  of  North  America,  though  the  records 
are  more  fragmentary  and  of  shorter  duration.  Norway  and 
Iceland  also  yield  many  records  on  the  margin  of  the  Arctic 
Circle.  The  international  drcum-polar  stations  maintained 
during  1882  connected  the  Siberian,  Norwegian  and  Canadian 
land  stations  with  the  more  fragmentary  work  of  the  various 
polar  expeditions  which  have  wintered  from  time  to  time  in 
high  latitudes.  The  most  valuable  records  and  practically  the 
only  data  available  for  the  climate  north  of  84*  are  those  of  the 
first  expedition  of  the  "  Fram  "  in  her  three  years*  drift  across 
the  polar  basin.  Later  expeditions  beyond  the  84th  parallel 
were  merely  dashes  of  a  few  weeks*  duration,  the  records  from 
which,  however  accurate,  are  of  an  altogether  different  order  of 
importance.  The  data  collected  by  the  "  Fram  **  were  discussed 
in  great  detail  by  Professor  H.  Mohn  in  1904,  and  that  eminent 
authority  combined  them  with  all  that  had  been  known  pre- 
viously, and  all  that  was  ascertained  by  later  explorers  up  to  the 
return  of  Captain  Svcrdrup  from  the  second  "  Fram  "  expedition, 
so  as  to  give  the  comptctest  account  ever  attempted  of  the 
climate  of  the  North  Polar  regions,  and  on  this  we  rely  mainly 
for  the  following  summary. 

Temperature. — From  Professor  Mohn*s  maps  of  the  isotherms 
north  of  60*  N.  it  is  evident  that  the  temperature  reduced  to 
sea-level  is  lowest  in  the  winter  months  within  an  area  stretching 
across  the  pole  from  the  interior  of  Greenland  to  the  middle  of 


Sibecia,  the  kini  axis  of  this  v«iy  odd  area  bdagiA  the  toeridiao 
of  40*  W.  and  140*  £.  For  every  month  from  October  to  AprU 
the  mean  temperature  of  this  cold  area  is  below  o"  F.,  aad  in 
the  two  coldest  months  there  are  three  very  cold  areas  or  poles 
of  cold  with  temperatures  below— 40**  ananged  along  the  axis. 
These  are  the  interior  of  Greenland,  en  area  around  the  North 
Pole  and  the  centre  of  Northern  Siberia.  Professor  Mohn  is 
satisfied  that  these  three  poles  of  cold  are  separated  by  somewhat 
warmer  belts,  as  observations  on  the  north  coast  of  Greenland 
show  a  tem|»eratare  higher  both  than  the  temperature  of  the 
interior  reduced  to  sea-levd  and  the  temperalure  on.  the 
fmeen  sea  further  north.  As  summer  advances  the  temperature 
risen*  to  the  fiaezing  point  most  rapidly  in  North  America,  the 
mean  temperature  for  June,  July  and  August  for  the  Amerkaa 
coast  and  the  Arctic  archipelago  being  above  the  freezing  point. 
In  July  and  August  the  Arctic  shores  in  America,  Asia  and 
Europe  have  a  mean  air-temperatoxe  of  about  40"  F.,  but  the 
intetior  of  Gnicnlandand  the  area  round  the  North  Pole  zemain 
bdow  3  a*,  those  two  poles  of  odd  penistiag  throughout  the 
year  while  the  winter  cold  pde  in  Ada  disappears  in  snmmer.* 
There -is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  in  winter  the  Asiatic  area  fo 
the  cddcst  part  of  the  Arctic  region,  and  as  it  is  pennanently 
inhabited  it  is  plain  that  low  temperature  alone  is  no  bar  to  die 
wintering  of  espeditions  in  any  part  of  the  North  Polar  region. 
The  lowest  temperature  experienced  during  the  drift  of  the 
"  Fram  '*  was  ^6»*  F.,  on  the  rath  of  March  1894  In  lat.  79"^  4t'f 
long.  X34*  17'  F..  The  minimum  temperatures  recorded  oh 
Sir  George  Nares'S  expedition  were -^  73 -S*  F.  on  the  'VAIeit  *<  in 
82*  27'  N.  and-7o-8*  on  the  "  Disoovei^  **  in  81*  44'  N.,  both  in 
March  1876,  and  the  minimum  on  Sverdrup's  expedition  in 
Jones  Sound  in  76"  50'  N.  was— 60*  F.  in  January  igot.  In 
February  i88t  Gredy  recorded— 66- »•  at  Fort  Conger,  Si*  44' 
N.,  and  at  Fort  Constance  in  Canada  (66*  40'  N.  ir^  W.)  a 
temperature  of  —72*  F.  was  noted  in  January  1851.  The  lowest 
temperature  ever  recorded  on  the  earth's  surface  was  probably 
that  experienced  at  Verkhoyansk  in  Siberia  (67*  34'  N.)  whete  the 
absolute  minimum  in  the  month  of  Febniary  was  *'93*6'*,  and 
minima  of  —  70*  or  more  have  been  recorded  in  every  winter 
month  from  November  to  March  IndodVe,  and  as  the  absdifte 
maximum  in  July  was  +92*7*  F.  the  told  range  experienced 
is  no  less  than  ^86*3*,  far  exceeding  that  known  ih  any  other 
part  of  the  world. 

The  normd  monthly  mean  temperatures  for  various  panflds 
6(  latitude  are  given  as  follows  by  Professor  Mohn,  the  lasi 
column  showing  the  calculated  conditions  at  the  North  Pole 
itself  expressed  to  the  nearest  degree. 


^ 

Normal  Air  Tempcrat 

ure  for  Latitudes  in  *F> 

65*  N. 

70*  N. 

ao»N. 

9o«N. 

Janttary   .     .     . 
February.      .     . 

-9.4 

-»5-3 

-J6-0 

-4a 

—  6*7 

-14-5 

-465 

-42 

March.    .     .     . 

+  30 

+  6-i 

-23- 1 

-3* 

April  .... 
Nfay    .... 
Tunc   .... 
July    .... 

190 

-  8-9 

-18 

^i 

74*1 
37-9 

+  140 
30-0 

■^4 

547 

450 

35-6 

30 

August     .     .     . 

506 

43a 

357 

^7 

September     .     . 

407 

325 

]8i 

9 

October    .     .     . 

246 

-'ti 

-    2-4 

-11 

November     .     . 

5'« 

-ll-O 

-«r 

Dccembtf     .     . 

^  5'i 

-10-5 

—  I9'l 

•36 

Year    .     .     . 

21-7 

12-9 

!•! 

„  'rr- 

The  interior  of  Greenland  is  iMlieved  to  be  hdowthe  nomtf 
temperature  for  the  latitude  in  allmbnths  and  so  is  the  regkui 
bd  ween  Bering  Strait  and  the  Pole;  the  Norwegian  Sea,  and  the 
region  north  of  it  as  far  as'lhe  Pole,  hai  a  tcMperature  above  the 
normal  for  the  latitude  in  alT  months;' while -the  temperatuft 

'It  must  be  remembered  that  for  carto«:ra|>hlca1  purposes 
temperature  is  reduced  to  its  value  at  sea-kvd.  aflowing  for  a  change 
of  I*  F.  in  about  300  ft.  Thus  the  actual  temperature  on. the 
wiowcap  of  Greenlartd  at  the  heisht  o(  90do  fL  is  30*  F.  bwer  at 
all  seasons  than  1»  shown  on  an  isothermal  map,  and  that  of  Verkho* 
yansk  (500  ft.)  is  only  1  s^  F.  bwcr  than  is  charted. 


95* 


POLAR  REGIONS 


in  the  northero  contiaaiu  it  b^mr  the  Bomial  in  winter  wd 
above  the  normal  in  summer. 

The  *'  Fram  "  observations  showed  that  while  the  ordinary 
diurnal  vange  of  temperature  prevailed  lor  the  months  when 
the  sun  was  above  the  horizon  during  some  part  of  the  day, 
ther6  was  also  a  diurnal  range  in  the  winter  months  when  the 
sun  did  not  appear,  the  mbiiinum  then  occurring  about  2  p jbl 
and  the  mazimum  about  i  a.m.,  the  "  day  '*  being  colder  than 
the  "night."  Except  in  July  and  August  the  temperature 
was  always  found  to  be  tower  with  the  weaker  winds  and  higher 
with  the  stronger  winds  inespective  of  direction.  Extraor- 
dinarily rapid  variations  of  tempcfatufe- have  been  observed 
in  the  winter  months,  on  one  occasion  in  February  1896  (north 
of  g4*  N.)  the  thermometer  rising  within  24  hours  from  '~4S'A* 
to  +2S«3*  F^  a  rise  of  6fj'j\ 

CUud  and  Preei^iiationj^Tht  amount  of  ctoud  in  the  far 
north  is  greater  in  the  daytime  than  at  night,  the  summer 
months  being  cloudy,  the  winter  very  dear,  and  the  amount  is 
greater  with  the  stronger  winds  and  less  with  the  weaker  mnds. 
Precipitation  is  moat  frequent  in  the  summer  months,  the 
"  Fram  "  results  showing  an  average  of  ao  days  per  month  from 
May  to  Sqstember;  while  from  October  to  April  the  average  was 
oiily  11)  days  per  month.  Rain  was  only  observed  in  the  months 
from  May  to  September;  but  snow  occurs  in  every  month  and  is 
most  frequent  in  May  and  June,  lesst  frequent  in  November  and 
.December,  which  are  the  months  of  minimum  precipitation.  It 
has  never  been  possible  to  oMke  satisfactory  measurementa  of 
the  amount  of  precipitation  in  the  Arctic  regions  on  sccoimt  of 
the  drifting  of  snow  with  high  wind.  Fogs  occur  most  frequently 
in  July  and  August  (20  or  16  days  per  month);  thcsy  are 
practiaUly  unknown  between  November  and  April. 

Pnsswrt. — ^The  "  Fram "  observations  enabled  Professor 
Mohn  to  revise  and  extend  the  isobaric  maps  of  Dr  Buchan, 
the  correctness  of  which  was  strikingly  confirmed.  The  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  tow  pressure  areas  are  found  at  all  seasons  on  the 
margin  of  the  Arctic  area,  the  positton  shifting  a  Uttle  in  tongjtude 
from  month  to  month.  The  two  tow  pressures  are  separated 
in  the  winter  months  by  a  ridge  of  high  pressure  (exceeding 
30-00  in.)  stretching  from  the  Canadian  to  the  Siberian  side  be- 
tween the  North  Pole  and  Bering  Strait ;  this  ridge  has  been  termed 
by  Professor  Supan  "  the  Arctic  wind  divide."  In  April  the  high 
pressure  over  Asia  gives  way  and  an  intense  tow  pressure  area 
takes  its  place  during  the  sununer,  uniting  in  Au^Ust  with  the 
less  intense  low-pressure  area  which  develops  later  over  Canada, 
and  reducing  the  Arctic  high  pressure  area  to  an  inegular  belt 
extending  from  North  Greenland  to  Frans  Josef  Land  on  the 
.Atlantic  side  of  the  P^.  The  general  pressure  over  the  polar 
area  is  much  higher  in  winter  than  in  summer  and  the  gradients 
are  steeper  also  in  the  cold  weather,  giving  rise  to  stronger  winds. 
The  isobaric  condittons  indicate  light  variable  winds  in  summer 
along  the  route  of  the  ''  Fram  "  from  the  New  Siberia  Islands  to 
the  north  of  Spit^iergen,  and  in  wf  nter  south^easteriy  or  easterly 
win^  of  greater  force:  this  is  in  accord  with  the  observations 
made  during  the  drift.  Professor  Mohn  believes  that  the 
maximum  pressure  at  the  North  Pole  takes  place  in  April,  when 
it  is  about  30*08  in.,  and  the  minimum  pressure  from  June  to 
September,  when  it  is  about  29-88  in.,  the  annual  range  of 
monthly  mean  pressure  being  thus  only  o-so  in.,  so  that  the 
Pole  may  be  said  to  be  in  a  region  of  permanently  high  atmo- 
spheric pressure.  Cyctonic  deprcsstons  crossed  the  region  of  the 
'*  Fram^  "  track  with  considerable  frequency,  73  b^g  experi- 
enced in  the  three  years,  the  frequency  being  greatest  in  winter 
but  the  wind  vdoctty  in  cyctones  greatest  in  summer;  the  most 
common  direction  .of  movement  waa  from  west  to  east.  The 
average  vetocity  of  the  cydonic  winds  encountered  by  the 
"  Fram  "  was  only  about  29  m.  per  hour,  the  highest  40  m.  per 
hour,  the  portton  of  the  Arctic  Sea  she  crossed  being  much  less 
stormy  than  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  lands,  where  winds  have 
been  recorded  of  far  greater  severity,  €.%.  45  m.  per  hour  in 
Spitsbergen  in  i88a,  5$  m.  per  hour  in  TepUtz  Bay,  Franz 
Josef  l.and,  in  1900,  62  m.  per  hour  On  the  Siberian  coast  in 
the  "  Vega  **  In  1879.  and  as  much  as  90  m.  per  hour  at  Karmakul 


in  Novaya  Zemlya  In  1883.  There  seems  little  dotte  tkat  the 
interior  of  the  pobr  area  is  a  fair  weather  zone  as  ttmpuek 
mth  its  margins^  where  the  contrast  of  the  aeaaosn  is  noR 
marked. 

F/of  A.— The  land  flom  of  the  Arctic  regtoni,  alfhnng^  neo» 
sarily  confined  to  the  tower  levels  which  arc  free  firom  snow  for 
aome  time  every  year,  and  greatly  reduced  in  luxodaaoe  aad 
number  of  q>ecics  as  compared  with  the  flora  of  the 
aonev  is  still  in  its  own  way  both  rich  and  varied,  and  it 
to  the  most  northerly  land  known.  In  some  of  tlie  fjords  «f 
western  Greenland  and  also  of  EUcsmeie  Land  alaaoct  on  the 
8oth  parallel  the  prevailing  cotour  of  the  landscape  in  auBsneris 
due  to  vegetatton  and  not  to  rack.  The  plants  which 
the  margin  of  the  Arctic  Sea  and  in  the  polar  iakodn 
the  hardier  species  of  the  Nwth  European,  Asiatic  and 
flora,  the  total  number  of  species  amounting  to  probably  aboat 
a  thousand  phanerogams  and  a  still  larger  nuxnber  of  ayiHs- 
gamsy  The  habit  of  all  is  lowly,  but  sonae  grasses  8;row  to  s 
height  of  I  fL  6  in.,  aad  the  mosses,  of  which  the  Fakimo  msb 
their  lamp-wicks,  frequently  form  cushions  more  tban  n  foot  ii 
depth.  Trees  are  absient  north  of  73*  N.,  which  ia  the  czticBe 
point  reached  in  Siberia,  or  they  are  dmfed  to  the  height  «f 
shrubs  as  in  southern  Greenland,  or  farther  north  to  that  of  the 
prevailing  herbage.  The  flowers  of  many  Arctic  apecaea  d 
phanerogams  have  an  intensely  brilliant  cotour.  The  plains  aad 
lower  slopes  of  the  plateaux  of  EUesmere  Land  and  Heibesg 
Land  and  the  plam  of  Peary  Land  north  of  Greenland  are  sufio- 
ently  dothed  with  vegetatton  to  su^wrt  large  nnnbca  d 
rodents  and  ruminants,  the  plants  occurring  not  as  wrssintitl 
curiosities,  but  as  the  iwrmal  summer  covering  of  the  gioaBi, 
playing  their  full  part  in  the  economy  of  nature.  The  cold 
of  winter  is  not  sufiident  to  put  a  stop  to  plant  life  even  at  the 
poto  of  cold  in  northon  Siberia;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  dosfat 
that  if  there  were  islands  dose  to  the  North  Pole  they 
bear  vegetation. 

Famna, — ^Animal  life  is  oomparatlvdy  abundant  in  the 
of  the  Arctic  Sea,  though  the  whaldx>ne  whale,  Jfarfacna 
cetiSf  has  become  almost  extinct  by  reason  of  the  energy  mhh 
which  its  pursuit  has  been  carried  on.    The  white  vhak  aad 
narwhal  still  abound  in  the  open  waters  as  far  north  as 
go.    The  walrus  and  several  spcdes  of  seal  prey  on  the 
Ufe,  and  the  polar  bear,  the  king  of  Arctic  beasta,  pcobabtr 
roams  the  whole  surface  of  the  frozen  sea  in  puisoit  of  seik 
and  the  larger  fish.     The  other  Arctic  camivora  inc]»k  the 
Arctic  fox  and  woli,  the  latter  attacking  all  the  land  ****'""«-» 
excq>t  the  polar  bear  and  old  musk-oxen.    The  wild 
is  still  foimd  in  all  the  circum-polar  lands  except  Franz  J< 
Land;  but  its  range  does  iK>t  extend  so  far  to  the  iNvth  as  tia: 
of  the  typical  ruminant  of  the  polar  lands,  the  musk-os  (Okiks 
moickaius),  which  now  abounds  only  in  Peary  Land,  north  Grecs- 
land  and  in  the  American  Arctic  Archipdago,  *bffnch  h  «■ 
formerly  drcum-polar  in  its  distribution.    The  Ardic  hare  s 
almost  equally  characteristic  and  more  abundant,   aad  t^ 
lemming  probably  more  common  stSl.    The  ermine  nnd  other 
valuable  fur-beanng  animals  also  occur.     The  *w«t»m1k  gst 
either  permanently  white  like  the  polar  bear,  or  chaise  thcff 
coats  with  the  season,  being  brown  In  summer  and  white  is 
winter  like  the  hares  and  lemmings.    Hie  birds  of  the  Arctk 
regions  are  all  migrants,  retreating  southward  in  winter  bdi 
nesting  in  incredible  numbers  on  the  Arctic  coast-lands,  and  is 
summer  probably  finding  their  way  as  individuals  to  every  part 
They  are  mainly  sea-birds,  though  the  snow  bunting,  the  Arctic 
owl  and  other  land  birds  are  amongst  the  summer  visitois.   h 
must  be  remembered  that  the  devated  plateaux  of  the  iateriv 
of  Greenland  and  of  many  of  the  large  islands  are  totally  deroid 
of  life  of  every  kind  on  account  of  their  unchangjuig  covesg 
of  snow  and  the  intensdy  rigorous  dimatc  due  to  their  grcs: 
altitude. 

Arctic  People — ^The  conditions  of  life  in  the  ccmtincatal  pails 
of  the  Arctic  regions  are  extremdy  severe  as  recards  t< 


ture  in  the  winter,  but  it  has  been  found  possible  for  ch-Sxed 
people  to  live  permanently  both  in  the  extreme  north  of  Kertk 


POLAR  REGIONS 


057 


America  and  m  the  north  of  Siberia.  In  the  north  of  Korway 
wher6  the  winter  h  rnikt  on  account  of  the  warm  south-westerly 
winds  from  the  open  Atlantic,  organized,  communities  dwdl 
within  the  Arctic  Circle  in  free  communication  with  the  south 
by  telegraph,  telephone,  steamer,  and  in  some  cases  by  rail  also, 
aU  the  year  round.  The  climate  on  the  coast  of  Norway  Is 
scarcely  less  favourable  in  the  north  than  in  the  south  except 
for  the  absence  of  Ught  in  winter  when  the  sun  never  rises,  and 
the  absence  of  darkness  in  summer  when  the  sun  never  sets. 
If  there  were  natural  products  of  sufficient  value  permanent 
settlements  might  arise  in  any  part  of  the.  Arctic  regions  where 
there  is  land  free  from  snow  in  summer;  but  as  a  rule  Arctic 
land  is  poor  in  mineral  wealth  and  the  pursuit  of  whales  and 
seals  requires  only  a  summer  visit.  The  original  people  of  the 
farthest  north  of  Europe  are  now  represented  by  the  Lapps, 
who  lead  a  migratory  life,  depending  mainly  on  fishing  and  on 
their  herds  of  reindeer.  Farther  east  their  place  is  taken  by  the 
Samoyedes  who  live  along  the  coast  of  the  Kara  Sea  and  the 
Yalmal  Peninsula;  they  have  also  a  smaU  settlement  in  Novaya 
Zemlya.  The  Samoyedes,  like  the  Lapps,  live  on  the  produce 
of  the  sea  in  summer  and  on  their  herds  of  reindeer,  moving 
rapidly  over  the  frozen  country  in  winter  by  means  of  reindeer 
and  dog  sledges.  Spitsbergen  and  Frana  Josef  Land  appear 
never  to  have  had  native  inhabitants.  Along  the  coast  of 
Siberia  there  is  no  continuous  population,  except  in  the  land  of 
the  Chukchis  in  the  extreme  east  between  the  Kolyma  river 
and  Bering  Strait;  but  small  settlements  of  many  tribes  of  pagan 
li3rperboreans  occur  here  and  there.  North  American  Indian 
tribes  wander  far  to  the  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  in  Canada  and 
Alaska,  keeping  their  hereditary  enemies  the  Eskimo  to  the  coast 
and  islands.  The  Eskimo  of  the  American  coast  are  inter- 
mingling not  <mly  with  the  American  whalers  but  also  with  the 
l^olynesians  who  come  north  as  part  of  the  crew  of  the  whalers, 
and  the  pure  race  b  tending  to  disappear.  The  traces  of  Eskimo 
encampments  in  the  Polar  archipelago,  where  no  Eskimo  now 
live,  may  mark  a  former  wider  range  of  hunting  grounds,  or  a 
greater  extension  of  the  population.  The  Greenland  Eskimo 
are  the  most  typical  and  the  best  known  of  thmr  race.  A  few 
hundred  Uve  on  the  east  coast,  where  they  were  formerly  much 
more  numerous.  The  greater  part  of  the  west  coast  Eskimo 
are  now  civilized  members  of  the  Danish  colonics,  and  it  b 
•tated  that  wiiereas  in  1855  only  about  30%  of  the  popuUtion 
were  half-breeds,  the  blending  of  the  Eskimo  and  Europeans  b 
now  so  complete  that  no  f  uU-bk)oded  Eskimo  remain  in  Danbh 
Greenland.  The  tribe  of  Eskimo  living  to  the  north  of  Melville 
Bay,  the  gladers  of  which  separate  them  from  the  people  of 
Danish  Greenland,  was  first  described  by  Sir  John  Ross,  who 
called  them  Arctic  Highlanders.  They  have  been  fully  studied 
by  Commander  Peary^  who  succeeded  in  utilizing  them  in  hn 
great  series  of  journeys,  and  to  their  aid  he  attributes  the  success 
of  his  method  of  Arctic  travelling. 

The  Arctic  Sea, 

According  to  its  geographical  position,  the  Arctic  Sea  might 
be  described  as  the  sea  situated  north  of  the  Arctic  Citde;  but 
aooording  to  its  natural  configuration,  it  b  better  defined  as  the 
gialf4ike  northern  termination  of  the  long  and  relatively  narrow 
Atlantic  arm  of  the  ocean  which  extends  north  between  Europe 
on  one  tide  and  America  on  the  other.  By  thb  situation  as  the 
northern  end  of  a  long  arm  of  the  ocean  its  physical  conditions 
are  to  a  very  great  extent  determined.  Thb  Arctic  gulf  b 
bounded  by  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe,  Siberia,  North 
America,  tho  American  Aictic  archipelago,  Greenland  and 
Iceland.  Its  entrance  b  the  opening  between  Europe  and 
Labrador  divided  by  Iceland,  Greenland  and  the  American 
Arctic  idaads;  and  its  natural  southern  boundary  would  be  the 
submarine  ridge  extending  from  Scotland  and  the  Shetland 
Islands  through  the  Faeroe  Islands  and  Iceland  to  Greenland,  and 
ooatiuiing  on  the  other  side  of  Grsoiland  across  Davb  Strait 
to  Baffin  Land.  Thb  ridge  separates  the  depression  of  the 
Arctic  Sea,  filled  with  cold  water  at  the  bottom,  from  the  deep 
dq^exSon  of  the  North  Atlaatic.  Tlie  Arctic  Sea  communicates 


with  the  Pacific  Ocean  through  Bering  Strait,  which  b,  however, 
only  49  m.  broad  and  27  fathoms  deep.  The  area  of  the  Arctic 
Sea  may  be  estimated  to  be  about  3,600,000  sq.  m.,  of  which 
nearly  two-thirds  (or  a,300,ooo  sq.  m.)  b  continuously  covered 
by  floating  ice. 

The  Arctic  Sea  may  be  divided  hito  the  following  parts: 
(i)  The  North  Polar  Basin  (including  the  Siberian  Sea),  bounded 
by  the  northern  coasu  of  Siberia  (from  Bering  Strait  to  the 
western  Taimyr  Peninsula),  Franz  Josef  Land,  Spitsbeigen, 
Greenland,  Giinnell  Land,  Axel  Heiberg  Land,  Ringnes  Land, 
the  Parry  Islands  and  Alaska;  (2)  the  Kara  Sea,  between  NoVaya 
Zemlya  and  the  Siberian  coast,  south  of  a  lins  from  the  north 
point  of  the  former  to  Lonely  Island  (Ensomheden)  and  Norden- 
skiold  Island;  (3)  the  Barents  and  Murman  Sea,  bounded  by 
Novaya  Zemlya,  Franz  Josef  Land,  Spitsbergen,  Bear  Island 
and  the  ncHthem  coasts  of  Norway  and  Russia;  (4)  the  Norwegian 
Sea,  between  Norway,  Spitsbergen,  Jan  MayoA,  Icdand  and  the 
Faeroes;  (5)  the  Greenland  Sea,  between  Spitsbergen,  Jatt 
Mayen,  Iceland  and  Greenland;  (6)  Baffin  Bay  and  Dams  SlraU^ 
between  Greenland,  Ellosmere  Land,  North  Devon  and  Baffia 
Land. 

Deaths, — ^The  Arctic  Sea  forms  an  extended  depression 
separating  the  two  largest  continental  masses  of  the  world 
— the  European-Asiatic  (Eurasia)  and  America.  Along  its 
centre  thb  depression  b  deep,  but  around  its  whole  margin, 
on  both  sides,  it  b  unusually  shallow — a  shallow  submarine 
plateau  or  drowned  plain  extending  northward  from  both 
continents,  forming  the  largest  known  continental  shelf.  North 
of  Europe  this  sholf  may  be  considered  as  reaching  Spitsbergen 
and  Franz  Josef  Land,  extending  over  more  than  xo  degrees 
of  latitude,  although  there  b  a  somewhat  (teeper  depression  in 
between.  North  of  Spitsbergen  it  reaches  beyond  Si**  N.,  and 
north  of  Franz  Josef  Land  probably  somewhat  north  of  6s*  N. 
North  of  Siberia  the  shelf  b  350  m.  broad,  or  more,  with  depths 
of  50  to  80  fathoms,  or  less.  In  longitude  135*  E.  it  reaches 
nearly  79*^  N.,  where  the  bottom  suddoily  sinks  to  form  a  deep 
sea  with  depths  of  2000  fathoms  or  more.  Farther  east  it 
probably  has  a  similar  northward  extension.  North  of  America 
and  Greenland  the  shelf  extends  to  about  latitude  94*  N.  Thb 
shelf,  or  drowned  plain,  evidently  marics  an  old  extension  of  the 
continents,  and  its  northern  edge  must  be  considered  as  the  real 
margin  Of  their  masses,  the  coasts  of  which  have  probably  been 
overflowed  by  the  sea  at  some  comparatively  recent  geological 
period.  On  thb  submarine  plateau  the  Arctic  lands  are  situated 
— Spitsbergen  (with  Seven  Islands  to  the  north.  Bear  Island  and 
Hope  Island  to  the  south),  Franz  Josef  Land,  Novaya  Zemlya, 
Lonely  Island,  the  New  Siberia  Islands,  Wrangel  Island,  the 
American  Arctic  archipdago.  The  depth  of  the  shelf  b,  especi- 
ally north  of  Siberia,  very  uniform,  and  usually  not  more  than 
50  to  80  fathoms.  North  of  Europe  it  b  Intersected  by  a  sub- 
marine f|ord-Iike  depression,  or  broad  channel,  extending  east- 
ward from  the  Nuwegian  Sea.  Between  Norway  and  Bear 
Island  thb  depression  b  about  340  fathoms  deep,  and  between 
Novaya  Zemlya  and  Franz  Josef  Land  100  to  150  fathoms  deep. 
It  gives  off  several  submei^ed  fjords  or  channeb  towards  the 
south-east  into  the  shallow  Murman  Sea,  e.g.  one  channel,  more 
than  zoo  fathoms  deep,  along  the  Murman  coast  towards  the 
entrance  of  the  White  Sea;  another  narrow  channel,  in  parts  too 
fathoms  deq>,  along  the  south-west  coast  of  Novaya  Zemlya 
through  Kara  Strait.  It  also  extends  into  the  Kara  Sea, 
rounding  the  north  point  of  Novaya  Zemlya  and  forming  a 
narrow  channd  along  its  eastern  coast.  On  the  American  side 
similar  but  much  narrower  submarine  depressions,  which  may 
be  called  submarine  fjords,  extend  from  Baffin  Bay  into  the 
continental  shelf,  northward  throu^  Smith  Sound,  Kane  Basin 
and  Kennedy  Chaimd,  and  westward  through  Lancaster  Sound 

The  greatest  depths  in  the  Arctic  Sea  have  been  found  In  the 
North  Polar  Basin,  where  depths  of  aioo  fathoms,  in"  about 
8x*  N.  and  130'*  E.,  have  been  measured  with  certainty.  It  b 
deeper  than  1650  fathoms  along  the  whole  route  of  the 
"  Fram,"  from  about  79*  N.  and  138*  E.  to  near  Spitsbergen. 
In  84I''  N.  and  about  7^  £•  the  dq>th  b  aoao  fatboma, 


958 


POLAR  RB3I0NS 


and  in  83*  N.  and  15*  E.  It  b  1860  fathoms.  The  northern 
and  eastern  extension  of  this  deep  basin  is  not  known. 
Commandef  Peaiy  reports  a  depth  of  1500  fathoms  with  no 
bottom  at  5  sea  miles  from  the  Pole  (about  So"  5^  N.)  whece 
he  tried  to  obtain  a  sounding.  It  was  formerly  believed 
that  still  greater  'depths  existed  west  of  Spitsbaseiit  ui  the 
0OH»Ued  Swedish  deepi  where  a^oo  fathoms  had  been  sounded, 
but  the  Nathorst  expedition  in  1898  found  no  greater  depths 
there  than  about  1700  fathoms.  The  Norwegian  Sea, 
forUier  south,  is  aooo  fathoms  deep  midway  between  Iceland  and 
Norway,  in  about  68^  N.  This  so-called  Norwegian  deep  ls»  as 
before  stated,  se|»rated  from  the  North  Atlantic  Basin  by  the 
Wyville  Thomson  rid^  and  the  Faeroe^Jceland  ridge.  Farther 
north  there  is  a  low  transverse  ridge  extending  eastwards  from 
Jan  Mayen,  in  about  72^  N.,  which  is  about  1300  fathoms  deep. 
North  of  this  the  sea  is  again  deeper~i985  fathoms  in  75*  N. 
From  the  north-west  comer  of  Spitsbergen  a  submarine  ridge 
extends  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  with  depths  of  about  430 
fathoms  in  81**  N.  and  about  4*  £.  How  far  this  ridge  extends 
is  unknown,  but  there  is  a  probability  that  it  reaches  Greenland, 
and  thus  separates  the  Swedish  and  the  Norwegian  deep  from 
the  deep  depression  of  the  Nerth  Polar  Ba»n.  Baffin  Bay 
forms,  probably,  a  relatively  deep  basin  of  about  zooo  or  xsoo 
fathoms,  which  is  sqioarated  from  the  West  Atlantic  Basin  by 
the  shallow  submarine  ridge  from  Greenland  to  Baffin  Land  in 
about  6s*  or  66*  N. 

The  deposit  composing  the  bottom  of  the  Arctic  Sea  contains 
in  its  northern  part,  in  the  North  Polar  Basin,  extremely  little 
outter  of  organic  origin.  It  is  formed  mainly  of  mineral 
material,  sandy  day  of  very  fine  grain,  to  an  extent  which  is 
hardly  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  oc«an  with  similar  depths. 
It  contains  only  from  t  U>  4%  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Farther 
south,  in  the  sea  between  Spitsbergen  and  Greenland,  the 
•mount  of  carbonate  of  lime  gradually  increases  owing  to  the 
shells  of  foraminifera  (especially  biloculinae) ;  west  of  Spitsbergen 
the  proportion  rises  to  above  30  or  even  30%,  while  in  the 
direction  of  Greenland  it  is  con»derably  lower. 

The  €itetUaiiM  of  the  ArcUc  Sea  may  be  eq>Ialned  firstly  by 
the  vertical  and  horizontal  distribution  of  temperature  and 
salinity  (•'.«.  density);  secondly,  by  the  influence  of  the  winds, 
especially  on  the  ice^x>vered  surface^  The  currents  in  this  sea 
may  t»  some  extent  be  considered  as  convection  currents, 
caosed  by  the  cooUng  of  the  water  near  the  surfiace,  which 
bcoomcs  heavier,  sinks,  and  must  be  replaced  on  the  surface 
by  wanner  water  coming  from  the  south,  which  is  also  influenced 
by  the  |Mevailing  winds.  On  account  of  the  rotation  of  tfaie 
earth  tlw  northward-miming  water  on  the  surface,  as  well  as 
the  sinking  water,  will  be  driven  in  a  north-easterly  or  easterly 
direction,  while  the  southward-flowing  water  alcmg  the  bottom, 
as  well  as  the  rising  water,  is  driven  south-west  or  westward. 
This  very  simple  circulation,  however,  is  to  a  great  extent 
eomphcated  on  the  one  hand  by  the  irregular  configuration  of  the 
aea-^ttom,  especially  the  transverse  submarine  ridge»--e.f . 
the  Spitsbergen  ridge,  the  Jan  Mayen  ridge,  and  the  Scotland- 
Faeroe-Iceland  ridge;  and  on  the  other  hand  by  the  drcurostance 
that  the  upper  water  strata  of  the  sea  are  comparatively  tight 
in  spite  of  their  low  temperature.  These  strata,  about  100  or 
lao  fathoms  thick,  are  diluted  by  the  addition  of  fresh  water 
from  the  NoOh  European,  Siberian,  Canadian  and  Alaskan 
rivers,  as  well  as  by  precipitaUon,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
cvaporatbn  from  the  surface  of  the  mostly  ice-oovered  sea  is 
insi^iificant*  The  Ught  surface  stcata  will  have  a  tendency  to 
Bpitad  over  the  heavier  water  farther  south,  and  thus  the  polar 
«ttrface  currents  nmning  southward  along  the  east  coasts  of 
Greenlaod)  Baffin  Land  and  Labrador  are  formed,  owing  their 
westerly  oouiae  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  Hiese  currents 
are  certainly  to  a  great  extent  helped  and  increased  by  the 
pferailiikg  winds  of  the  region.  The  winds  get  a  firm  hold  on 
the  rou^  surface  of  the  floating  ice,  which,  with  its  deep  hum- 
mocka  and  ridges,  gets  a  good  grip  of  the  water,  transferring  the 
movement  of  the  surface  immediately  down  to  at  least  5  or 
10  fatbeas. 


•  The  chief  currents  nioning  into  the  Arctic  Sea  aie  the  followaif?- 

I.  The  Ci4f  Stream,  or  Atlantic  drift,  paigtng  north-eastward 
over  the  Scotland-Faeroe-Iccland  ridee,  along  tne  west  coast  of 
Norway,  with  one  arm  branching  oft  eastward  round  the  Nonk 
Gape  into  the  Barents  Sea.  and  another  branch  miming  nerthwwd 
along  the  maxgin  of  the  i^df  between  Norway,  Bear  Ifitaod  aad 
Spitsbergen,  pa&sing  as  a  very  narrow  current  along  the  west  ooait 
of  the  latter,  over  the  Spitsbergen  ridge  (at  its  north-west  corDcr), 
and  into  the  North  Polar  Basin,  where  it  flows  gradually  northward 
and  eaitward  <on  acowtnt  of  the  rotation  of  the  eaith)  belov  the 
cold  but  lighter  layer,  loo  fathoms  thick,  of  polar  water,  aad  6fk 
the  whole  basin  below  100  or  120  fathoms  to  the  bottom  vitk 
Atlantic  water. 

a.  The  Irmingtr  CwrttU,  running  noith  aJong  die  west  coast  d 
Iceland.  One  part  branches  off  westward  and  aouthwrnnl  Maia 
in  Denmark  Strait,  following  the  Greenland  Polar  Currrat,  whfiac 
another  smaller  part  runs  northward,  eastward  and  south-eastward 
to  the  north  ancf  cast  of  Iceland. 

5.  An  Atlantic  current  mns  northward  akmg  the  west  cxiast  of 
Greenland,  passes  the'  ridee  across  Davis  Stnit,  aad  flows  tats 
Baffin  Bay,  fooning  its  ooeper  strata  bdow  the  polar  water  is 
a  similar  way  to  the  GuU  Stream  in  the  North  Polar  Basin.  Then 
is  a  pbssibnity  that  some  slight  portion  of  this  current  even  reaches 
the  latter  along  the  bottom  01  the  deep  channel  through  SmA 
Sound. 

4.  A  snuU  current  running  northward  into  the  North  Pohr 
Basin  through  Bering  Strait. 

The  Arctic  Sea  receives  also  a  contribution  of  fresh  water  ftia 
the  rivers  of  northern  Europe,  Siberia  and  America,  aa  wdl  as 
from  the  leaders  of  Greenlano  and  the  precipifcataon  Ofvcr  the  whok 
area  of  the  sea  itself. 

The  chief  currents  running  out  of  the  Arctic  Sea  are:  (i)  The 
Greenland  Polar  Current,  running  southward  along  the  east  coast 
of  Greenland,  and  dividing  into  two  branches  noras  of  Icdaad— 
(a)  the  east  Greenland  branch,  passinx  south  thronrii  Deaaamk 
Strait  and  rounding  Cape  Farewell:  {b}  the  east  loennd  bsaochk 
running  south-eastward  between  Iceland  and  Jan  Mayen.  towanfa 
the  Faeroes.  It  seems  as  if  only  a  small  portion  of  tlus  cnrrtxt 
actually  pssses  the  Faero>Iceland  ridge  and  reaches  liie  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  grttter  put  is  partly  mixed  with  the  watai  of  the 
GuU  Stream  and  is  turned  by  the  latter  in  a  north-eastetfy  dizvctioa. 
forming  a  kind  of  eddy  or  vortex  roovemcnt  in  the  soothttsa 
Norwegian  Sea.  (2)  The  Labrador  Polar  Current,  formed  bv  the 
water  running  soutn  through  Smith  Sound,  Lancaster  Soond  and 
Jones  Sound,  as  well  as  water  from  Baffin  Bay,  and  afao  fnias  c^ 
east  Greenland  current  rounding  Cape  Farewell  and  ceosaai 
Davis  Strait.  (3)  Along  the  south-east  coast  of  Spitsbctics  a 
polar  current  also  passes  in  a  south-westerly  or  westerly  directkn 
past  South  Cape,  where  it  meets  the  Gulf  Stream.  (4)  A 
current  probably  also  runs  out  ak»g  the  western  aida  of 
Strait. 

Temperotmn  and  Sa/inify.— While  the  tempenti 
tivdy  uniform,  with  small  variations,  the  diflferenoe  in 
between  the  upper  and  lower  strata  is  geeater  thui  i 
other  parts  of  the  ocean.  In  the  North  Polar  Basia  tlm 
distribution  of  temperature  as  well  as  aaiixiity  b 
same  in  all  places  examined.  Near  the  surface^  from  o 
100  fathoms,  the  water  is  below  the  frcexiiig  point  of 
water— with  a  minunum  of  between  s8*7*  (—1-8^  C)  nad 
(— x-9** C«) at adepth of abontaofatboma  andb moth. dftnd 
with  fresh  water  (see  above),  the  salinity  gradually  incieBsisg 
downward  from  about  39  or  30  per  mille  near  tlie  matace  \& 
nearly  35  per  mille  in  100  fathoms.  Below  too  fatboas  the 
temperature  as  wdl  aa  the  saUnlty  gradually  inrrmii,  maai 
they  approach  their  maximttm  in  about  160  or  too  fnthasps 
where  the  temperature  varies  between  32*$*  (^S*  C»K  itofth  «f 
the  New  Siberiia  Xsbuids,  and  about  33*^  (i**  C.)  ttoith  «€  Tom. 
Josef  Land;  and  thesalintty  is  about  3S*i  per  mille.  Fran  this 
depth  the  temperature  gradually  sinks  downward;  3a*  (o*  C.) 
is  found  at  about  490  fathoms  in  the  western  part  ol  the  l»aai&— 
e.g,  between  about  84^  N.  ts°  E.  and  85)**  N.  s^  £-•  WF^Het 
is  found  in  about  400  fathoms  farther  east— e.g.  in  St|^  K.  aaid 
1 33*  E,  In  depths  between  1400  and  1600  fathoms  the  \ 
ture  has  a  seoond  minimum  between  30'6*  (— p>8^  C.)  and . 
(-0*9^  C.V,  below  which  depth  the  tempeBstore  ag^i 
slowly,  a  few  tenths  of  a  degree  towards  the  hoCtoD.  In  d 
depths  below  300  fathoms  the  salinity  of  the  water  i 
much  the  same,  about  35-1  per  miUe^  wit-h  very  alight 
This  comparatively  warm  and  saline  water  evidently 
from  the  branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream  pansing  aocth  aaoss  the 
submarine  rklge  from  north-west  Spitsbergen, 
distributioo  of  tempentwe  and  salinity  is  way  mvcktWi 


the 

m 


POLAR  REGIONS 


959 


•numei  and  winter,  Umnig^Mut  the  North  Fblar  Buia,  except 
near  the  surface,  which  in  summer  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  fresh 
water  arising  from  the  melting  of  the  snow-covered  surface  of 
the  floe-ice.  This  fresh-water  layer  may  attain  a  thickness  of 
5  or  6  ft.  between  the  floes.  North  of  the  Siberian  coast  the  sea 
a,  during  summer,  covered  with  a  layer  of  warm  water  from  the 
Siberian  rivets,  and  the  temperature  of  the  surface  may  rise  to 
several  degrees  above  freezing-point. 

In  the  Norwegian  and  Greenland  Seas  there  are  greater  varia- 
tionsof  tempenittire.  Bdow  a  certain  limit,  which  in  the  northern 
part  (on  the  eastern  side)  is  about  550  fathoms  deep,  and  in  the 
sbutbem  part  between  300  and  400  fathoms  deep,  the  whole 
boshi  of  this  sea  is  filled  with  water  which  has  an  unusually 
uniform  salinity  of  about  34'$2  per  miUe,  and  the  temperature 
of  which  is  below  zero  centigrade,  gradually  sinking  downward 
from  the  above-mentioned  limit,  where  it  is  3a*  (0°  C.) ;  and  down 
to  »9'8*  f-i-a"  C.)  or  29-6'  (—  i  •3'*  C.)  near  the  bottom  in  X400or 
1600  fathoms.  This  cold  underlying  water  of  such  a  remarkably 
uniform  and  comparatively  low  salinity  is  formed  chiefly  in  a 
small  area  between  Jan  Mayen  and  Spitsbergen,  by  the  formation 
of  ice  and  cooling  down  of  the  AUaatic  surface  water  by  radiation 
of  heat  during  the  winter.  In  this  manner  the  surface  water 
becomes  heavier  than  the  underlying  water  and  gradually  sinks 
to  the  bottom.  This  water  seems  to  be  distinctly  different  from 
the  hitherto  known  water  filling  the  deep  of  the  North  Polar 
Basin,  as  it  has  a  lower  salinity  and  lower  temperature;  the 
known  bottom  temperature  of  the  North  Polar  Basin  being 
between  so* 7**  (—0-7°  C.)  and  30-4*  (— 0-9**  C),  and  the  salinity 
about  35*1  per  miHe.  This  £ict  seems  to  indicate  that  there  can 
be  no  direct  pommunication  between  the  deep  depression  (A  the 
North  Polar  Basin  and  the  Norwegian-Greenland  Sea,  which 
ace  probably  separated  by  a  submarine  ridge  running  from  the 
north-west  comer  of  Spitsbergen  to  Greenland. 

The  above-mentioned  layer  of  nniform  cold  water  of  the 
Norwegian-Greenland  Sea  is,  along  its  eastern  side,  covered  by 
the  warm  and  saline  water  of  the  Gulf  Stream  flowing  northward 
along  the  west  coast  <rf  Norway,  Bear  Island  and  Spitsbergen,  and 
forming  the  upper  strata  of  the  sea  about  300  to  500  fathoms 
deep.  The  maximum  temperature  of  this  water  is  on  the  surface 
about  46"  (8°  C)  to  50°  (10°  C.)  west  of  northern  Norway,  and 
about  37*  (3*  C.)  to  39*  (4*  C.)  west  of  SpiUbergen.  The  salinity 
is  generally  between  35-0  and  35-3  per  mille. 

Along  the  western  side  of  this  sea,  towards  the  east  coast  of 
Greenland,  the  underiying  cxM  water  is  covered  by  the  less 
saline  water  of  the  polar  current,  which  in  the  upper  strata  of  the 
sea,  from  the  surface  down  to  about  iqo  fathoms,  has  very  much 
the  same  temperature  and  salinity  as  in  the  upper  cold  and  less 
sAline  strata  of  the  North  Polar  Basin.  Near  the  east  coast  of 
Greenland,  a  layer  of  comparatively  warm  and  saline  water,  with 
a  tempemture  of  32-7"  (o-4*  C.)  and  a  salinity  of  35-2  per  raille, 
has  been  found  (by  the  Ryder  expedition  in  1891)  below  the  cold 
and  lighter  polar  water  in  a  depth  of  70  to  90  fathoms.  This 
warmer  pndercurrent  Is  a  continuation  of  the  warm  Spitsbergen 
current  sentfing  off  a  branch  westward  from  Spitsbergen,  and 
thus  forming  a  great  Vortex  movement  In  the  Spitsbergen- 
Gr.eenland  Sea  similar  to  the  one  mentioned  farther  soyth  in  the 
Norw^ian  Sea. 

In  Barents  Sea  the  t(*n^rat\ire  and  salinity  are  highest  in  the 
trestem  part  near  Norway  or  between  Norway  and  Bear  Island, 
where  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream  enters  and  where 
In  summer  the  salinity  generally  is  between  34-8  and  35  per  mille 
from  the  surface  down  to  the  bottom,  and  the  surface  tempera- 
ture generally  is  about  41'  or  43'  (s*  C.  or  S*  C),  and  the  bottom 
temperature  is  above  zero  centigrade.  The  eastern  part  of 
Barents  Sea  is  filled  with  water  of  a  little  lower  salinity,  the 
deeper  strata  of  which  are  v^ry  cold,  with  temperature  even  as 
low  as  2«-9*  (-r'7*  C),  but  often  with  salinity  above  350  per 
mille.  TUs  cold  and  saline  water  Is  formed  during  the  formation 
of  ice  on  the  sea-snrface.  The  bottom  Umperatnre  is  every- 
vrhere  In  the  eastern  part  bdow  tero  centigrkde  and  genenUy 
below  -1*  C. 

The  Kara  Sea  h  covered  near  the  surface  with  a  layer  of  cold 


water  much  diluted  by  the  fredi  water  from  the  Siberian  rivers, 
especially  the  Ob  and  the  Yenisei  The  salinity  varies  between 
29  and  34  per  mille;  near  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  it  is  naturally 
much  lower. 

The  vertical  distribution  of  temperature  and  salinity  in  B<ifin 
Bay  seems  to  be  very  similar  to  that  of  the  North  Polar  Basin, 
with  a  cold  but  less  saline  uf^r  stratum  of  water — with  a 
minimum  temperature  of  about  28*9^  ("^  i'7**  C) — and  a  warmer 
and  more  saline  deeper  stratum  from  zoo  to  aoo  fathoms  down- 
wards, with  a  maximum  temperature  of  33*6°  (0-9*  G.)  in  about 
200  fathoms,  and  the  temperature  slowly  decreasing  towards  the 
bottom. 

Arctic  Ice, — As  before  mentioned,  at  least  two-thirds  of  the 
Arctic  Sea  is  constantly  covered  by  drifting  ice.  This  ice  is 
mostly  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  itself  by  freesing,  the 
so-called  floe-ice  or  sea-ice.  A  small  part  is  a^  river-ice, 
formed  on  the  rivers,  especially  those  of  Siberia,  and  carried  into 
the  sea  during  the  spring  or  summer.  Another  comparatively 
small  part  of  the  ice  originates  from  the  glaciers  of  the  Arctic 
lands.  These  pieces  of  glacier-ice  or  icebergs  ore,  as  a  rule« 
easily  distinguished  from  the  floe-ice  by  their  sixe  and  structure* 
They  occur  almost  exclusively  in  the  seas  round  Greenland^ 
where  they  originate  from  the  glaciers  descending  into  the  sea 
from  the  inland  ice  of  Greenland.  Some  small  icebergs  are  also 
formed  in  Franz  Josef  Land,  Spitsb«gen,  Novaya  Zemlya» 
Grinnell  Land,  &c,  but  they  are  comparatively  insignificant,  and 
are  not  as  a  rule  carried  far  from  the  coasts.  Seance  or  floo-icp 
B  formed  during  the  autumn,  winter  and  spring,  espedally  in 
the  North  Polar  Basin,  but  also  in  the  Kara  Sea,.the  greater  part 
of  Barents  Sea,  the  northernmost  part  of  the  Norwegian  Sea 
(near  Bear  Island  and  towards  Jan  M%yen)>  Greenland  Sea  and 
Baffin  Bay.  The  floe-ice  does  not,  as  a  rule,  grow  thicker  than 
7  or  8  ft.  in  one  year,  but  when  it  floats  in  the  water  for  some 
years  it  may  attain  a  thickness  of  16  ft.  or  more  directly  by 
freezing.  By  the  constant  upheaval  from  pressure  much  greater 
thicknesses  are  attained  in  the  plled-up  hummocks  and  rubble 
which  may  be  20  to  30  ft.  high  above  the  water  when  floating. 
During  the  summer  the  floe-ice  decreases  again  by  melUng 
partly  on  the  surface  owing  to  the  direct  radiation  of  heat  from 
the  sun,  partly  on. the  under  side  owing  to  the  higher  temperature 
of  the  water  in  which  it  floats.  The  first  kind  of  melting  is  that, 
which  prevails  in  the  North  Polar  Basin,  which  the  second  occurs 
in  more  southern  latitudes.  The  floe-ice  is  constantly  more  or 
less  in  movement,  carried  by  winds  and  cuntntSL  The  changing 
wind,  and  also  to  a  great  extent  the  changing  tidal  current, 
causes  diverging  movements  in  the  ice  by  breaking  it  into  larger 
or  smaUer  floes.  When  the  floes  separate,  lanes  ind  channels  am 
formed;  when  they  meet,  ice-pressures  arise,  and  the  floes  are 
piled  up  to  form  hummocks  or  ridges,  snd  thus  the  nneven  polar 
ice  arises.  In  the  North  Polar  Basin  the  floe-ke  is  slowly  carried 
by  the  prevailing  winds  and  the  currents  in  an  average  direction 
from  Bering  Strait  and  the  New  Siberia  Islands,  north  of  Fmna 
Josef  Land  and  Spitsbergen,  near  the  North  Pole,  towards  the 
Greenland  Sea  and  southward  along  the  east  coast  of  Gieenland. 
Such  a  drift  of  an  ico<floe  from  the  sea  north  of  Bering  Strait  ta 
the  east  coast  of  Greenland  probably  takes,  as  a  rule,fowor  fivo 
years,  and  the  floes  found  in  this  part  of  the  sea  are  not,  therefore, 
generally  older.  What  the  drift  of  the  ice  is  on  the  American  side 
of  the  North  Polar  Basin  is  still  little  known.  But  there  it  is 
probably  more  or  less  blocked  up  in  its  southward  movement  by 
the  islands  of  the  American  Arctic  archipelago,  and  the  ice-floe^ 
may  thus  grow  very  old  and  thick.  Commander  Peary  found  a 
strong  easterly  movement  of  the  floes  in  the  region  north  of 
Grant  Land  in  1907.  The  southward  distribution  of  the  drifting 
floe-ice  (the  pack  ice)  in  Barents  Sea,  Norwepan-Greenland  Sen 
and  Davis  Strait  may  differ  much  from  one  year  to  another,  and 
these  variations  are  evidently  due  to  more  or  less  periodica) 
variations  in  the  currents  and  also  in  the  directloas  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds.  In  most  places  the  ice  has  its  most  southeriy 
distribution  during  the  late  winter  and  spring,  while  the  late 
summer  and  atttunm  (end  of  August  and  September  is  the  moilt 

OpthSOBMII. 


960 


POLAR  REGIONS 


Bichgicai  Conditions.— Tht  development  of  organic  life  is 
comparatively  poor  in  those  parts  of  the  Arctic  Sea  which  are 
o>ntinuously  covered  by  ice.  This  is,  amongst  other  things, 
proved  by  the  bottom  deposits,  which  contain  exceptionally 
little  carbonate  of  lime  of  organic  origin.  The  reason  is  evidently 
that  the  thick  ice  prevents  to  a  great  extent  the  development  of 
plant  life  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  by  absorbing  the  light ;  and  as 
the  plant  life  forms  the  base  for  the  development  of  animal  life, 
this  has  also  very  unfavourable  conditions.  The  result  is  that — 
e.g.  in  the  interior  of  the  North  Polar  Basin— there  is  exceptionally 
Httle  plant  life  in  the  sea  under  the  ice<overing,  and  the  animal 
life  both  near  the  surface  and  in  deeper  strata  is  very  poor  in 
individuals,  whilst  it  is  comparatively  rich  in  spedes.  Near  the 
outskirts  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  where  the  sea  is  more  or  less  open 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  the  pelagic  plant  life  as  well  as 
animal  life  is  unusually  rich,  and,  especially  during  the  early 
summer,  there  is  often  here  such  a  development  of  plankton  (i.e. 
pelagic  life)  on  the  sea-surface  as  is  hardly  found  in  any  other  part 
of  the  ocean.  It  seems  as  if  the  polar  water  is  specially  favourable 
for  the  development  of  pelagic  plant  life,  which  makes  the  flora, 
and  consequently  also  the  fauna,  flourish  as  soon  as  the  ice- 
covering  disappears  and  the  water  surface  is  exposed  to  the  full 
sunlight  of  the  long  Arctic  day.  At  the  same  time  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  rises,  and  thus  the  conditions  for  the  chemical 
changes  of  matter  and  nutritive  assimilation  are  much  improved. 
The  Arctic  Sea,  more  especially  the  North  Polar  Basin,  might 
thus  be  considered  as  a  lung  or  reservoir  in  the  circulation  of  the 
ocean  whore  the  water  produces  very  little  life,  and  thus,  as  it 
were,  gets  time  to  rest  and  aocumiilate  those  substances  necessary 
for  or^mic  life,  which  are  everywhere  present  only-  in  quite 
minimal  quantities.  It  is  also  ft  remarkable  fact  of  interest  in 
this  connexion  that  the  greatest  fisheries  of  the  world  seem  to  be 
limited  to  places  where  waters  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  from 
more  southern  seas  meet — t.g,  Newfoundland,  Iceland,  Lofoten 
and  Finmarkien  in  Norway. 

The  mammalian  life  is  also  exceptionally  rich  in  individuals 
along  the  outskirts  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  We  meet  in  those  waters, 
especially  along  the  margin  of  the  drifting  ice,  enormous  quantit  iea 
of  seaU  of  various  kinds,  as  well  as  whales,  which  live  on  the 
plankton  and  the  fishes  in  the  water.  A  sindlar  development  of 
mammalian  life  b  not  met  with  anywhere  else  in  the  ocean, 
except  perhaps  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  Bering  Sea,  where, 
liowever,  similar  conditions  are  present.  In  the  interior  of  the 
Arctic  Sea  or  the  North  Polar  Basin  mammalian  life  is  very 
poor,  and  consists  mostly  of  some  straggling  polar  bears  which 
flrobably  occasionally  wander  everywhere  over  the  whole  expanse 
of  ice;  some  seals,  especially  Pkocajoetida,  which  has  been  seen 
la  fu-  north  as  between  84"  and  85**  N.;  and  a  few  whales, 
especially  the  narwhal,  which  has  been  seen  in  about  85**  N. 

The  bird  life  is  also  exceptionally  rich  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
Arctic  Sea,  and  the  coasts  of  most  Arctic  lands  are  every  summer 
inhabited  by  millbns  df  sea-birds,  forming  great  colonies  almost 
on  every  rock.  These  birds  are  also  dependent  for  their  living 
on  the  rich  plankton  of  the  surface  of  the  sea.  In  the  interior 
of  the  Arctic  Sea  the  bird  life  is  very  poor,  but  straggling  sea- 
birds  may  probably  be  met  with  occasionally  everywhere,  daring 
summer-time,  over  the  whole  North  Polar  Basin. 

BiBLioCRAPRT. — FoT  vcnr  faU  references  to  polar  exploration  see 
A.  W.  Greely,  Handbook  of  Poiar  Disamry  (^th  ed.,  London  and 
t4e«  York,  1910),  and  for  a  nearly  complete  bibliography  of  earlier 
polar  literature  see  J.  Chavanne  and  others.  The  Literature  of  the 
Polar  Regions  (Vienna,  1878).  W.  Scoresby,  An  Auount  of  the 
Arctic  Regions  (2  vols..  Edihbuf^h,  1820):  w.  E.  Parry,  Attempt  to 
nock  the  North  Poto  (London,  i8a8) :  S.  Osbom.  The  Dtscooory  of  tho 
Korlh'Wett  Pntsage  (London,  l8S7);  M'CEntock,  A  Narrative  of  Iks 
Discooerj  of  tke  FaU  of  Sir  JoMm  Franklin,  &c.  (London,  18^9); 
C.  S.  Kares,  Voyage  to  the  Polar  Sea,  1875-1876  (2  vols.,  London, 
"     )t  A.  H.  Markham,  Tke  Great  Froten  Sea  (London.  1878,  &c.>: 

Oichaidsott.  Tke  Polar  Returns  (Edinburch.  1861):  A.  v.  Midden- 
,  "  Dcr  C^olfstrom  oatwflru  vom  NoMkap,"  Pstermanns  Mit' 
ffUnngeM  ((^ha.  1871);  A.  Petermann.  "  Di|e  Erschlie»ung  eines 
Tneiles  dea  nOrdlichen  Eismeeres  .  .  .  im  Karischen  Mecre.  1870/* 
Pelermanns  Mitteilnngen  (1871);  and  numerous  other  papers  in 
the  same  periodical;  C.  R.  Markham,  Tke  Tkrsskold  of  tke  Un- 
knomn  Regj^n  (London,   1873);  Die  tweite  dentecke  Nordpo^akrt 


ana  me  netgnoourtne  j^gtons,  puDiisneo  oy  tne  Aomtnuty  \,uoaaia, 
1875);  Arctic  Ceeiogy  and  Etknology,  published  by  the  Hety-^i 
GeografAiical  Society  (London.  1875);  C.  Weyprecht,  Die  MotB- 
~ "    '  on  the  tta^ 


la 


Ngm  Lemds 


875.  .  .        .        _ 

vnlktn  Ike  Arctic  Ctrcie  (a  vols.,  London.  1876): 
Scientific  Restdts  of  tke  U.S.  Arctic  Expedition,  C  F. 
mandtngt  vol.  L  (Washington.  1874);  Die  oenorikemisci 
Expedition  (Leipsig,  1879T;  Tke  Norwepan  Nortk  AlUntic  £x>^ 
tion,  1876-1878,  espcctally:  H.  Mohn.  "The  North  Oseaa:  2i 
Depths.  Temperature  and  Circulation*'  (ChrfstiaiUa,  18S7):  and 
"Chemittry,"  by  H.  Tomte  and  L.  Schmck:fc  (Chrittiania.  iSm^ 


I88a);  A.  E.  Nfordeaski6ld.  Tke  Voyage  oi  tks  "  Vetm  *"  a 
1881) :  several  reports  on  the  ux  voyages  pi  the  "  Wifleni  Bd 


I8B1; :  several  reports  on  tne  six  voyages  01  cne     wiucm  caiets 
in  the  summers  01  1878  to  1883,  pubfished  in  Dutch  (AmAcniam  aad 
Haarlera,  1 879-1 887):  De  Long.  Tke  VoyaM  of  tio  "  JmmmeOe': 
tke  Skip  and  Ice  Jonmals  of  Georgs  W.  Do  Lotur  (2  vola.^LoodDa. 
1883) :  Otto  Pettcrsaon,  "  Contributkns  to  the  HydrogrAphy  oi  the 
Siberian  Sea,"  in  Vegu-Expeditumens  oetenskapligia  Jaktlatidser,  tqI  i. 
(Stockholm,  1883):  Axel  Harabeig,  "  Hydios^rafisk  Kemiska  Ukt- 
tagelser  under  den  svenka  Exp«fitionen  tdl  GrGnfatnd.    18S3.* 
Buiang  till  k.  svenska  9et.-aked^  HandUtigar,  voL  tx.  No.  16  aad  ^ 
X.  No.  13  (Stockholm,  1884  and  1885):  O.  KrammcL  f/uwrfiii  d» 
Oteanograpkie  (a  vols.,  Stuttgart:  and  ed.,  1907,  &c);  C.  R|do. 
"Den    OstgrOnlandske    Expedition,"    ModdOdser    om    Criiad, 
pt.   xvii.    (Copenhagen.    1895):   Isforkoldene  i  Nordkaaet  187?- 
M892,  with  to  charts  (Copenhagen,  i8q6);  O.  PettcnBoo  aad  G. 
Ekman,  *'  Die  hydroenphiac^n  Verhaltaiase  der  obeffea  Wasxr- 
achichten  des  n6ralicoen  Nordmeerea  swiachen  Spitabeffgeji.  Gfoa- 
land  und  der  norwecischen  KOste  in  den  Tahren  1896  und  1897.* 
Bikang  till  der  K.  Svenska  VeL-Akad.  kandlingar,  vol.  sou.  pt.  £ 
No.  4;  Tke  Danisk  IngM  Expedition;  see  especially  II.  Kiiwlwa, 
"  Hydrography."  in  vol.  £  (Copenhagen,  1809);  F.  Nancn,  F^lkUi 
Nortk  (a  vols.,  London,  1897);  Tke  Norwegum  North  Polar  Expeie- 
tton,  18QJ-1896:  Scientific  Resnlts;  see  especially  F.  Naaaeaw  "  Tic 
Oceanography  of  the  North  Polar  Bann.    in  v<m.  fi.  Nou  9;  "  Sosk 
Results  of  the  Norwegian  Arctk  Expeditkm,   1893-1896,"  CeO' 
graphical  Journal  (London,  May  1897}.    By  V.  Gnrae  and  oihas 
there  arei  since  1895.  yeariy  reports  with  charts  of  the  state  of  tht 
ice  of  the  Arctic  seas,  in  the  Nautical-Meteorological  Anmmeit  «f  Ht 
Danish  JHeieorological  Institute   (Copenhagen).     Several    Ri 


(October  1897};  Prince  B.  Galitzm,  "  On  the  Extennon  of  the  G< 

Stream  in  tne  Arctic  Ocean,"  ibid.  (November   1898.   both 

Russian),  &c.:  N.  Knipovitch,  "  Hydrotogiscfae  Xhnts 

im  europOiachen  Eiameer,"  Ann,  d.  Hydr,  «.  wutriL 

(1905);  rilip  Akerbloow  "  Recherchea  ocianographk|ue. 

tion  de  M.  A.  G.  Nathorst  en  1809."  UpseHa  UniofsiteSs  Artsirs& 

(1903).   M<Uh,  ock  Naturtetenskap  11.  (tipeala,  1904) :  Axd  Hanhei^ 


"  Hydrographische  Arbeiten  der  von  A.  C. 
schwedischen  Polarexpediuon  1898,"  l^oi^ 
HaMdlingar^  vol.  xli.  No.  I  (Stockholm.  1906) ;  F.^aaaen.  *'  Nonhdra 
Waters.*^  Videnskahs  Selskabets  Skrifler,  vol.  i.  No.  3  (Chrisriasa. 
1906);  B.  Helland-Hansen  and  F.  Nansen.  '*  The  Niii  ycgian  Sea.' 
Report  on  Norwegiam  Fiskery  and  Marine  /metftgo/MAs,  voL  i. 
No.  a  (Bergen,  1909);  Due  d'Ori£ana,  Croitiiro  nf^inniitpii|li|n 
don;  la  Mer  du  Cr&mand  en  moos  (Brussels,  1909),  see  cnpeciaBy 
B.  Helkind-Hansen  and  E.  Kocioed,  Hydrograpkie. 

(H.  R.  ]i.:F.  N.) 

Antasctic  Kecion 
History  of  AjUarctic  Exphration.—Allhoixgltk  the  Aotarctk 
region  was  not  reached  by  the  first  explorer  until  the  Arcuc 
region  had  been  for  centuries  a  resort  of  adventurers 
in  search  of  the  route  to  the  East,  the  discovery  of 
the  south  polar  region  was  really  the  more  direct 
outcome  of  the  main  stream  of  geographical  expIora,tioa.  It  ns 
early  understood  by  the  Greek  geographers  that  the  known  wx\i 
covered  only  a  small  portion  of  the  northern  hemisphere  and  thai 
the  wh<4e  southern  hemisphere  awaited  exploration,  with  i--« 
torrid,  temperate  and  fiigid  cones  repeating  the  climatic  regie® 
familiar  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  habitable  land  of  the 
south  temperate  zone  being  separated  from  the  known  woda 
by  the  practically  impassable  belt  of  the  torrid  xone.  Dur.^ 
the  middle  ages  the  sphericity  of  the  earth  came  to  be  viewvd  as 
contrary  to  Scripture  and  was  generally  discredited,  and  it  «» 
not  until  Prince  Henxy  the  Navigator  began  in  14x8  to  encocnp 
the  penetration  of  the  torrid  zone  in  tbe  effort  to  reach  IcJa 
by  circumnavigating  Africa  that  the  exploration  of  tke  aoothe?a 
bemiipbere  began.   The  doubling  of  thie  Cape  of  Good  Hope  .s 


POLAR  REGIONS 


961 


14(7  bj  Battholomew  Diaz  fint  broo^  ezplofos  withia  touch 
of  tbe  AatarcUc  cold,  and  proved  tliat  the  ocean  separated  Africa 
from  any  Antarctic  land  that  might  exist.  The  passage  of 
Magellan's  Strait  in  1520  showed  that  America  and  Asia  also 
were  separated  from  the  Antarctic  continent,  which  was  then 
believed  toextoid  from  Tlerra  dd  Fuego  southwanL  The 
doubling  of  Cape  Horn  by  Drake  in  1578  proved  that  the  Tierra 
del  Fuego  archipelago  was  of  small  extent  and  that  any  continent 


ever  died  a  harder  death.  It  is  not  to  the  purpose  here  to  describe 
in  detail  how  Schouten  and  Le  Maire  rediscovered  the  southern 
extremity  of  Tterra  del  Fuego  and  named  Cape  Horn  in  z6i$, 
how  Quiros  in  x6c6  took  possession  for  the  king  of  Spain  of  all  the 
lands  he  had  discovered  in  Australia  del  Espiritu  Santo  (the  New 
Hebrides)  and  those  he  would  discover  "  even  to  the  Pole/'  or 
how  Tasman  in  1642  showed  that  New  Holland  (Australia)  was 
separated  by  sea  from  any  continuous  southern  continent. 


3#W«u  Lof«itiMh  B 


imT 


K 


SOUTH 
POLAR  REGIONS 

Enrr»h  MiiM 

)  .  400     tee     Sa»     i«a» 


Umit^^0tkln. 


'..Vt^& 


West  tfiTLoiiyitudc 


which  lay  to  the  south  mnst  be  within  the  rieipon  of  perpetual 
winter.  Before  this,  however,  vague  reports  of  land  to  the  south 
of  the  Malay  archipelago  had  led  European  geographers  to  coniiect 
on  their  globes  the  coast  of  Tiem  dd  Fuego  with  the  coast  of 
New  Guinea,  and  allowing  their  imaginations  to  run  riot  in  the 
vast  unknown  spaces  of  the  south  Atlantic,  south  Indian  and 
Pftd6e  oceans,  they  sketched  Che  outlines  of  a  vast  continent 
stretching  in  parts  into  the  tropics.  The  search  for  this  great 
•outh  Und  or  Third  World  was  a  leading  motive  of  explorcn  in 
the  i6th  sad  the  eniy  part  of  the  lytbccaturiei,  and  no  iUwion 


Voyagers  round  the  Horn  frequently  met  with  contrary  winds 
and  were  driven  southward  into  snowy  skies  and  ice-encumbered 
seas;  but  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained  none  of  them  before  1770 
reached  the  Antarctic  circle,  or  knew  it,  if  they  did.  The  stofy 
of  the  discovery  of  land  in  64°  S.  by  Dirk  Gerritsa  on  board  the 
"  Blijde  Boodschap  "  in  1599  has  recently  been  shown  to  bi 
the  result  of  the  mistake  of  a  commentator,  Kasper  Barlaeus,  in 
x6aa.  Much  controversy  has  arisen  as  to  whether  South  Georgia 
was  sighted  in  1675  by  La  Roche,  but  the  point  is  of  no  import* 
•nee  ia  the  devclcjpment  of  the  history  o(  exploraiiooi    It  may 


969 


POLAR  REGIONS 


safely  beuid  that  aO  the  navigators  Mio  fell  in  with,  the  aouthere 
ke  tip  to  1750  did  so  by  being  driven  off  their  course  and  not  of 
s^t  purpose.  An  exception  may  perhaps  be  made  in  favour  of 
Halley's  voyage  in  H.M.S.  "  Paramour  "  for  magnetic  investi- 
gations  In  the  South  Atlantic  when  he  met  the  ice  in  52'  S.  in 
January  1700;  but  that  latitude  was  his  farthest  south.  A 
determined  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Ftench  naval  officer  Pierre 
Bouvet  to  discover  the  South  Land  described  by  a  half  legendary 
sieur  de  Cionneville  resulted  only  in  the  discovery  of  Bouvet 
Island  in  54*  10'  S.,  and  in  the  navigation  of  48  degrees  of  longi- 
tude of  ice<umbered  sea  nearly  in  55*  S.  in  1739.  In  1771  Yves 
Jos^h  Kerguelen  sailed  from  France  with  instructions  to  proceed 
south  from  Mauritius  in  search  of  "  &  very  large  continent." 
He  lighted  upon  a  land  in  50'  S.  which  he  called  South  France, 
and  believed  to  be  the  central  mass  of  the  southern  continent. 
He  was  sent  out  again  to  complete  the  exploration  of  the  new 
land,  and  found  it  to  be  only  an  inhospitable  island  which  he  re- 
tkamed  in  disgust  the  Isle  of  Desolation,  but  in  which  posterity 
has  recognized  his  courageous  efforts  by  naming  it  Kerguelen 
Land.  The  obsession  of  the  undiscovered  continent  culminated 
in  the  brain  of  Alexander  Dalrymple,  the  brilliant  and  erratic 
bydrographer  who  was  nominated  by  the  Royal  Society  to  com- 
mand the  Transit  of  Venus  expedition  to  Tahiti  in  1769,  a  post 
he  coveted  less  for  its  astronomical  interest  than  for  the  oppor- 
tunity it  would  afford  him  of  confirming  the  truthfulness  of  his 
favourite  explorer  Qtfiros.  The  command  of  the  expedition  was 
|;iven  by  the  admiralty  to  Captain  James  Cook,  whose  geo- 
graphical results  were  criticixed  by  Dalrymple  with  a  force  and 
persistence  which  probably  had  some  weight  in  deciding  the 
admiralty  to  sen^  Cook  out  again  with  explicit  instructions  to 
solve  the  problem  of  the  southern  continent. 
'  Sailing  in  1772  with  the  "  Resolution,"  a  vessel  of  463  tons 
under  his  own  command  and  the  "  Adventure  "  of  336  tons  under 
.  -.  Captain  Tobias  Fumeaux,  Cook  first  searched  in  vain 
for  Bouvet  Island,  then  sailed  for  20  degrees  of 
longitude  to  the  westward  in  latitude  58*  S.,and  then  30^  east- 
ward for  the  most  part  south  of  60^  S.  a  higher  southern  latitude 
than  had  ever  been  voluntarily  entered  before  by  any  vessel. 
On  the  17th  of  January  1773  the  Antarctic  Circle  was  crossed  for. 
the  first  time  in  history  and  the  two  ships  reached  67**  15'  S.  in  39** 
3  5'  E. ,  where  their  course  was  stopped  by  ice.  There  Cook  turned 
northward  to  look  for  South  France,  of  the  discovery  of  which 
he  had  received  news  at  Cape  Town,  but  from  the  rough  determi- 
toation  of  his  longitude  by  Kerguelen,  Cook  reached  the  assigned 
latitude  zo"  too  far  east  and  did  not  see  it.  He  turned  south 
again  and  was  stopped  by  ice  in  61^  52'  S.  and  95°  E.  and  con- 
tinued eastward  nearly  on  the  parallel  of  60  ^  S.  to  147°  E.  where 
on  March  x6th  the  approaching  winter  drove  him  northward 
jfor'rest  to  New  Zealand  and  the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
in  November  1773  Cook  left  New  Zealand,  having  parted  com- 
pany with  the  "Adventure,"  and  reached  60"  S.  m  177*  W., 
whence  he  sailed  eastward  keeping  as  far  south  as  the  floating 
ice  allowed.  The  Antarctic  Circle  was  crossed  on  the  30th  of 
December  and  Cook  remained  south  of  it  for  three  days,  being 
compelled  After  reaching  67**  31'  S.  to  stand  north  again  in 
135°  W.  A  long  detour  to  47*  50'  S.  served  to  show  that 
there  was  no  land  connexion  between  ^ew.  Zealand  and  Tlerra 
del  Fuego,  and  turning  south  again  Cook  crossed  the  Antarc- 
tic circle  for  the  third  time  in  109**  30'  W.,  and  four  days  later 
liis  progress  was  blocked  by  ice  in  71**  zo'  S.,  zo6^  54'  W.'  This 
point,  reached  on  the  30th  of  January  Z774,  was  the  farthest 
south  attained  in  the  z8th  century.  With  a  great  detopr  to  the 
east,  almost  to  the  coast  of  South  America,  the  expedition 
regained  Tahiti  for  refreshment.  In  November  1774  Cook 
Started  from  New  Zealand  and  crossed  the  South  Pacific  without 
sighting  land  between  53^  and  57^  S.  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  then 
pasnng  Cape  Horn  on  the  a9th  of  December  he  discovered 
the  Isle  of  Georgia  and  Sandwich  Land,  the  only  ice-clad 
land  he  had  seen,  and  crossed  the  South  Atlantic  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  between  55°  and  60*  S.,  thereby  wiping  out 
Dalr3rmple*8  continent  from  all  the  oceans  and  laying  open  the 
tray  for  futute  Antarctic  exploration  by  exploding  the  myth  of  a 


habitable  aoathem  contincBt*    Cook's  tiioit  flout]hetly  ^Sbtomf 

of  land  lay  on  the  temperate  side  of  the  6otb  peraUri,  sad  k 
convinced  himself  that  if  land  lay  farther  south  it  was  pcactiaBy 
inaccessible  and  of  no  eticmomic  value. 

Soon  after  Cook^  return  scalers  set  otit  on  ▼oyagea  to  Sootb 
Georgia  both  from  England  and  America,  but  no  dear  acoomtts 
of  the  aouthem  limtta  *oi  their  voyagea  before  the 
year  1819  can  now  be  obtained.  In  February  of  that 
year  William  Smith  of  the  brig"  Wrniams**  tradnag  beti 
Monte  Video  and  Valparaiso,  rounding  the  Horn  with  a  friAt 
sweep  to  the  south,  saw  land  in  62^  40'  S.  Repeatinc  ^^  ^^"^ 
in  October  he  saw  the  land  distinctly,  and  named  it  New  sktb 
Shetland.  The  "  Williams  "  was  chartered  by  the  British  kmI 
commander  on  the  Pacific  station,  and  in  i8x>  Edward  Ba^ 
field,  master  R.N.,  surveyed  the  group  and  went  as  far  as  64"  ^ 
among  the  islands.  Meanwhile  American  sealers  from  Stoiuiif- 
ton,  Connecticut,  had  begun  operations  on  the  iwr-wly  dis- 
covered land,  and  one  of  these,  Nathaniel  B.  Palmer,  discoveni 
the  mountainous  archipelago  still  farther  south  which  kv 
bears  his  name.  In  i83i*z83a  George  PoweUr  app«r<mb''  1 
British  scaler,  discovered  and  surveyed  the  South  Okij^ 
Islands  which,  though  typical  Antarctic  lands,  lie  outs^  lbs 
Antarctic  region. 

A  voyage  only  second  in  importance  to  that  of  Cook  was  plaor«d 
in  Russia  and  sent  out  by  the  emperor  Alexander  L  under  tk 
command  of  Fabian  von  Bellingshausen  in  the 
"  Vostok,"  with  Lieut.  Lazareff  in  the  "  Mimi " 
in  company,  both  vessels  being  about  500  tonai  Tlie  objccf  ef 
the  expedition  was  to  supplement  that  of  Cook  by  drr^a- 
navigating  the  Antarctic  argi,  taking  care  to  keep  as  far  soutk  as 
possible  in  those  longitudes  where  Cook  had  mode  his  northvard 
detours.  Bellingshausen  entered  on  his  exploring  work  by  ^fM- 
ing  South  Georgia  at  the  end  of  December  x8i9»  discovered  the 
Traverse  Islands,  sighted  the  Sandwich  group  and  met  a  scl^ 
ice-pack  in  60*  S.,  to  get  round  which  he  made  a  wide  dtkrj:. 
sailing  east  to  the  south  of  Cook's  track,  and  getting  south  ei ;% 
6oth  paraDd  in  8^  W.  On  the  36th  of  January  he  crossed  taf 
AntarcticCirde  in  3**  W.  and  by  February  ist  had  reached  ^*  :^ 
in  z^  It'  W.,  a  latitude  which  has  never  been  surpassed  <» t^ 
meridian.  Being  stopped  by  ice,  Bellingshausen  turned  northvari 
and  then  continued  to  the  east  well  to  the  south  of  Cook's  tnri 
getting  south  again  as  the  ice  permitted  and  reaching  69*  6'  S.  a 
zS**  £.  On  this  occasion  he  was  able  to  sail  for  three  degrees  d 
longtitude  within  the  circle  before  being  forced  zxnth  of  k  h>  1 
succession  of  heavy  gales.  He  still  kept  eastward  south  of  65'  S 
and  crossed  the  circle  once  more  in  4Z^  £.,  where  the  n&iel«r 
of  birds  seen  suggested  the  proximity  of  land,  amd  in  aa 
Enderby  Land  was  not  very  far  off,  though  out  of  sight.  A 
storm  of  unexampled  violence  drove  the  ships  northward. b- 
they  still  held  to  the  east  south  of  60**  S.  as  far  as  87*  E.,  havjUE 
followed  the  edge  of  the  ice  through  those  meridiaas  aovtk  of 
Kerguelen  Land  where  Cook  had  made  a  great  detour  to  the 
north.  Bellingshausen  now  made  for  Sydney  to  rest  and  niL 
arriving  there  on  the  29th  of  March  1820.  after  131  days  cr  J^ 
sail  from  his  last  port.  At  Sydney  Bellingshausen  hcari  ^ 
the  discovery  of  the  South  *Shetland8,  and  leaving  esriy  .-. 
November  reached  the  sixtieth  parallel  a  month  later  in  kr  r- 
tude  143'  W.,  and  saQing  eastward  k^t  south  of  that  par;:-  £> 
through  ;45  degrees  of  longitude  during  sixty-five  days,  nc-f? 
out  of  sight  of  the  ice,  keeping  close  along  the  pack  edge  thr?<.|^ 
the  great  gap  left  by  Cook  south  of  New  Zealand.  He  man^sef 
to  cross  the  circle  three  times  more,  in  164*  30''  W.,  in  i?o*  V. 
and  in  93"  lo'  W.,  where  he  reached  69*  $^  S.,  the 
point  of  the  voyi^e.  As  the  cruise  was 
Cook's,  no  attempt  was  made  to  get  south  of  the 
where  that  great  navigator  made  his  highest  latitade.  On  i^ 
aand  of  January  1821,  the  day  after  reaching  his  highest  latrn<2at 
Bellingshauson  sighted  the  first  land  ever  seen  wsthis  tbg 
Antarctic  Circle,  the  little  island  named  after  Ffeter  I.  A  we^ 
later  another  and  kvger  land,  named  after  Aleaeandcrf.» 
at  a  distance  of  40  m.  and  sketches  made  of  its  h<rfd  ovthae 
which  the  black  sock. stood  oat  in  cxmtrsst  to 


POLAR  REGIONS 


9*3 


WMML 


BdllngBliauien  then  oiAde  for  the  South  Shetlands,  where  ho 
met  the  American  sealers,  and  thence  returned  to  Russia.  The 
voyage  was  a  worthy  pendant  to  that  oC  Cook;  it  was  carried 
out  with  a  faithful  devotion  to  instnictiois  and  consummate 
seamanship,  and  as  a  result  it  left  only  half  the  periphery 
of  the  Antarctic  Cirde  within  whidi  land  could  possibly  project 
beyond  the  Frigid  Zone. 

The  next  episode  in  the  histoiy  of  Antarctic  exploration  was 
the  voyage  of  James  Weddell,  a  retired  master  R.N.,  in  1833. 
Weddell  was  in  command  of  the  **  Jane,"  a  brig  of 
160  tons,  with  the  cutter  "  Beaufoy  "  of  65  tons  in 
company,  and  after  cruising  among  the  South  Orkneys  during 
January  he  started  for  the  south  on  exploration,  and  as  he  was 
well  equipped  with  chronometers  his  positions  may  be  taken  as  of 
a  far  higher  degree  of  accuracy  than  those  of  ordinary  sealers.  On 
the  30th  of  February  he  reached  the  hij^cst  latitude  3ret  attained, 
74*  1 5'  S.  in  34*  »  7'  W.,  having  seen  much  ice  but  no  impenetrable 
pack,  and  at  the  farthest  point  the  sea  was  clear  and  open,  but 
the  lateneto  of  the  season  and  the  length  of  the  return  voyage 
dedded  him  to  go  no  farther.  Weddell  made  interesting  collec^ 
tions  of  Antarctic  animals,  including  the  type  spedmen  of  the 
seal  which  bears  his  name,  and  the  book  in  which  he  describes 
his  voyage  testifies  to  the  keenness  of  his  observations  and 
the  soundness  of  his  reasoning.  The  sea  which  he  penetrated  so 
far  to  the  south  he  named  after  the  reigning  king,  George  FV., 
but  it  is  now  known  as  Wedddl  Sea.  ^ 

In  1839  Captain  Henry  Foster,  R.N,,  in  H.M.S.  **  Chanti> 
deer  "  spent  some  months  in  the  South  Shetlands  carrying  on 
pendulum  and  gravity  observations  at  the  most  southerly 
harbotir  that  could  be  found,  and  though  he  did  not  go  south  of 
63^  50'  S.  the  careful  observations  which  were  made  threw 
much  b'ght  on  the  physical  iX>nditions  of  the  Antarctic  regions. 

The  firm  of  Enderby  Brothers  of  London  took  a  conspicuous 
part  it  the  exploration  of  the  Antarctic  seas  during  the  first 
four  decades  of  the  z^th  century.  They  encouraged 
the  masters  of  the  whaling  and  sealing  craft  which 
they  sent  to  the  southern  seas  to  take  every  opportunity  that 
offered  for  exploration  and  to  fix  the  position  of  any  land 
seen  with  the  greatest  possible  accuracy.  The  voyage  of  the 
Endcrbys'  brig  "  Tula,"  under  the  command  of  John  Biscoe,  R.N., 
with  the  cutter  "  Lively  "  in  company,  is  worthy  to  rank  with 
Cook's  and  Bellingshausen's  expeditions,  for  it  repeated  and 
advanced  upon  their  achievements  with  a  mere  fraction  of  their 
resources.  Biscoe,  who  apparently  had  never  heard  of  Bellings- 
hausen's discoveries,  was  a  keen  explorer  and  a  man  given  to 
thinking  ovtt  and  reasoning  upon  all  that  he  saw,  and  in  many 
of  his  conclusions  he  was  far  in  advance  of  his  time.  At  the 
beginning  of  January  1831  Biscoe,  who  had  been  hunting  vainly 
for  seals  on  the  Sandwich  group,  started  on  a  voyage  easteriy  to 
look  for  new  islands,  and  in  trying  to  get  south  of  60^  S.  he  had  to 
coast  the  impenetrable  ice-pack  as  far  as  10*  W.,  and  continuing 
he  got  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  in  t"  E.  on  a  track  parallel  to 
that  of  Bellingshausen  but  farther  east.  Contrary  winds  delayed 
the  little  vessds,  no  seal-bearing  lands  were  to  be  found,  but  in 
spite  of  difficulties,  constant  danger  from  fogs  and  icebergs,  and 
(Usappointed  crews  he  held  on  eastward  for  five  weeks  far  to  the 
south  of  Cook's  track,  and,  except  at  one  or  two  points,  to  the 
south  of  BdHngshausen's  also.  Though  his  highest  latitude  was 
only  69*  S.  in  lo*  43'  E.  on  the  38lh  of  January,  he  remained 
south  of  the  Antarctic  Orde,  or  within  a  few  miles  of  it,  for 
another  tnonth,  when,  in  longitude  49**  iS'  E.,  he  was  rewarded 
by  the  discovery  of  land.  But  just  as  he  was  entering  on 
8  clear  lead  of  water  running  straight  for  a  promontory 
which  he  named  Cape  Ann,  a  terrific  storm  descended  on  the 
vessels,  damaged  them  seriously  and  drove  them  helpless  before 
it  with  the  driving  ice.  A  fortnight's  struggle  with  the  wind 
and  ice  brought  Cape  Ann  Into  sight  again  on  the  i6th  of 
March  bat  the  weather  was  not  to  be  conquered,  the  sea 
was  beginning  to  freeze  and  half  the  crew  were  helpless  with 
the  effects  of  exposure,  so  Biscoe  was  compelled  to  give  up  the 
fight  and  rductantly  let  the  land — now  known  as  Enderby 
Uuad-'drop  out  of  sight  astenL    With  only  three  men  ablo  to 


stand,  Biscoe  brought  the  "  Tula  **  into  Hobart  Town,  Tasmania, 
aiid  the  "  Lively,"  with  only  the  master,  one  man,  and  a  wounded 
boy  alive,  just  escaped  shipwreck  in  Port  Philip  Bay.  After 
recruiting  their  health  and  completing  their  crews  the  two 
captains  put  to  sea  again  and  s^nt  some  time  in  sealing  on  ihs 
shores  of  New  Zealand  and  neighbouring  islands.  They  started 
south  once  more,  and  crossed  60^  S.  in  131"  W.  on  the  36th  of 
January  1832.  Biscoe  kept  between  60**  and  the  Antarctic 
Circle,  north  of  Bdiingshansen's  route,  for  he  dared  not  risk  the 
lives  of  his  second  crew,  but  he  got  south  to  67"  S.  in  73°  W., 
and  here,  on  the  X4th  of  February,  he  again  sighted  land, 
which,  in  ignorance  of  Bellingshausen's  discoveries  in  the 
same  region,  he  believed  was  the  most  southcriy  hnd  3ret 
known.  He  named  it  Adelaide  Land  after  the  queen.  A 
few  days  later  he  passed  a  row  of  low  ice-covered  islands^-the 
Biscoe  Islands-^running  from  W.S.W.  to  E.K.E.  Beyond 
these  islands  lay  the  mountains  of  an  extensive  land  of  which 
Biscoe  took  possession  in  the  name  of  King'  William  IV.,  and 
to  which  the  name  of  Graham  Land  was  subsequently  gpven. 
Biscoe  returned  home  after  an  arduous  two  months'  sealing  in 
the  South  Shetlands,  and  the  splendid  results  of  his  relentless 
determination  as  an  explorer  won  for  him  the  gold  medals  of  the 
young  Geographical  Societies  of  London  and  Paris. 

In  1833  another  of  Enderbys'  captains  named  Kemp  reported 
the  discovery  of  land  in  66*  S.  and  60*  E.  about  xo*  east  of 
Enderby  Land.  The  last  of  the  great  voyages  of  BMtteay. 
exploration  due  to  Endetby  Brothers  was  the  cruise 
of  the  "  Elisa  Scott  "  under  the  command  of  John  Balleny,  with 
the  cutter  "  Sabrina  "  in  company.  This  voyage  is  interesting 
because  it  was  the  first  attempted  in  high  latitudes  from  east 
to  west,  and  all  those  made  in  the  opposite  direction  had  suffered 
much  from  the  buffetings  of  head  winds.  Balleny  left  Campbdl 
Island  south  of  New  Zealand  on  the  17th  of  January  1839  and 
crossed  the  Antarctic  Cirde  in  178*  E.  on  the  29th.  Heavy 
pack  ice  stopped  him  in  69*  S.,  a  higher  latitude  than  had 
previously  been  reached  in  that  region.  On  the  9th  of  February, 
after  the  little  vessels  had  been  working  north-westward  along 
the  edge  of  the  pack  ice  for  more  than  a  week,  land  was  seen 
and  found  to  be  a  group  of  mountainous  islands — the  Balleny 
Island»— one  of  which  rose  to  a  height  of  19,000  ft.,  and 
another  was  an  active  volcano.  Captain  Freen»n  of  the 
"  Sabrina  "  made  a  momentary  landing  on  one  of  the  islands 
and  was  nearly  drowned  in  the  attempt,  but  secured  a  few 
stones  which  showed  the  rocks  to  be  volcanic.  The  vessels 
held  on  their  way  westward  between  latitudes  63"  and  65°  S., 
far  south  of  any  earlier  voyager,  and  land,  or  an  appeaxw 
ance  of  land,  to  which  the  name  of  the  **  Sabrina  "  was  given,  was 
reported  in  1 21*  E.  In  103^  40^  E.  an  iceberg  was  paned  with  » 
rock  embedded  in  the  ice,  dear  proof  of  land  existing  to  the  south" 
ward.  A  few  days  later  the  "  Sabrina  "  was  lost  in  a  gale,  but 
Balleny  returned  in  safety. 

About  1835  the  importance  of  obtaining  magnetic  observatiottt 
in  the  far  south,  and  the  scientific  interest  of  the  study  of  the 
south  polar  regions  led  to  pLms  being  put  forward  for  -^^ 
expeditions  in  the  United  States,  France  and  Great  o^rviot, 
Britain.  The  French  were  first  in  the  fidd;  an  expe- 
dition, equipped  in  the  frigates  "  Astrolabe  "  and  '*  Zel6e  *'  under 
Jules  Dumont  D'Urville  for  ethnographical  research  in  the  Pacific 
Islands,  was  instructed  to  make  an  attempt  to  surpass  Weddell's 
latitude  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  this  D'Urville  tricdto 
do  with  conspicuous  ill-success,  for  he  never  reached  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle  though  he  spent  the  first  two  months  of  1838  round 
the  edge  of  the  ice-pack  south  of  the  South  Shetlands  and  the 
South  Orkneys;.  Some  portions  of  the  land  south  of  the  South 
Shetlands  were  charted  and  named  Joinvilte  Island  and  Louis 
Philippe  Land;  but  the  addition  to  knowledge  was  not  great. 
Two  years  later,  after  fulfilling  the  main  purpose  of  his  expedition 
in  lh9  Padfic,  D'Urville  resolved  for  the  glory  of  France  to  attempt 
to  reach  the  Magnetic  Pble,  towards  which  he  was  aware  that « 
British  and  an  American  expedition  were  directing  their  couiM. 
He  left  Hobart  Town  on  the  ist  of  January  1840,  and  on  the  toth 
ho  croflied  the  66th  parallei  in  140*  £.  and  discoTsred  land  3M0 


964 


POLAR  REGIONS 


or  4000  ft.  high)  which  he  oAmed  Adfliie  Land  and  took  poaies- 
aioQ  of  by  landing  on  a  rocky  islet  off  the  icebound  coast.  Ten 
days  later  in  64.**  30'  S.  D'Urville  cruised  westward  along  a  high 
ke-banier,  which  he  believed  to  be  connected  with  land;  from 
kwgitude  13  x**  £.  and  he  named  it  the  Clarie  Coast  A  few  days 
later  he  left  the  Antarctic  regions  for  the  Pacific. 

As  early  as  1836  the  United  States  Congress  had  authorized 
an  American  Exploring  Expedition  in  the  programme  of  which 
^^  Antarctic  exploration  had  a  leading  place.  Lieut. 
^^*'  Charles  Wilkes  was  appointed  to  command  the 
expedition  of  five  ve^els  in  August  1838,  and  his  instruaions, 
dated  in  that  month,  required  him  amongst  other  things  (i)  to 
follow  WeddeU's  route  as  far  as  possible,  (a)  to  visit  the  most 
southerly  point  reached  by  Cook  in  the  AnUrctic,  and  (3)  to 
make  an  "  attempt  to  penetrate  within  the  Antarctic  region, 
south  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  as  far  west  as  longitude  45°  £., 
or  to  Enderby  Land."  The  ships  were  in  bad  repair  and  ill- 
adapted  for  navigation  in  the  ice,  and  many  of  the  ofiicers  were 
not  devoted  to  their  chief;  but  in  spite  of  great  difficulties  Wilkes 
fulfilled  his  programme.  In  following  Weddell's  route  Wilkes 
in  March  1839  fared  no  better  than  D'Urville  in  the  previous 
year,  but  the  "  Flying  Fish  "  of  96  tons  under  Lieutenant  Walker 
rttched  70^  S.  in  105^  W.,  thus  nearly  reaching  Cook's  position 
of  ^774.  The  third  item  of  the  Antarctic  programme  was  made 
the  subject  oi  the  most  strenuous  endeavour.  Wilkes  sailed 
from  Sydney  in  the  "  Vincennes  "  on  the  26th  of  December  1839, 
accompanied  by  the  "Peacock"  under  Lieut.  William  L. 
Hudson,  the  "  Porpoise  "  under  Lieut,  Cadwaladar  Ringgold, 
and  the  "Flying  Fish"  under  Lieut.  Pinkney.  They  went 
south  to  the  west  of  the  Balleny  Islands,  which  they  did  not  see, 
and  cruised  westward  along  the  ice-barrier  or  as  near  it  as  the 
in-pack  allowed  towards  Enderby  Land  nearly  on  the  Antarctic 
Circle.  The  weather  was  bad  with  fogs,  snowstorms  and  frequent 
gales,  and  although  land  was  reported  (by  each  of  the  vessels) 
At  several  points  along  the  route,  it  was  rarely  seen  distinctly  and 
the  officers  wete  not  agreed  amongst  themselves  in  some  cases. 
Unfortunate  controversies  have  arisen  at  intervals  during  sixty 
years  as  to  the  reality  of  Wilkes's  discoveries  of  land,  and  as  to 
the  Justice  c^  the  claim  he  made  to  the  discovery  of  the  Antarctic 
continent.  Some  of  the  land  claimed  at  the  eastern  end  of  h& 
XDute  hasl>een  shown  by  later  expeditions  not  to  exist;  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Wilkes  saw  land  along  the  line  where 
Ad£Iie  Land,  Kemp  Land  and  Enderby  Land  are  known  to  exist, 
even  if  tiie  positions  he  assigns  are  not  quite  accurate.  No  one, 
however,  could  establish  a  chum  to  the  discovery  of  a  continent 
liom  sighting  a  discontinuous  chain  of  high  land  along  its  coast, 
without  Dudung  a  landing.  It  seems  no  more  than  due  to  a 
gallant  and  much-persecuted  officer,  who  did  his  best  in  most 
difficult  circumstances,  to  leave  the  name  of  Wilkes  Land  on  the 
map  of  the  region  he  explored. 

Unlike  the  other  two  expeditions,  that  equipped  by  the 
Biitisfa  government  in  1839  was  intended  solely  for  Antarctic 
1^  exploration  and  primarily  for  noagnetic  surveys  in 

***'  the  south  polar  seas.  There  were  two  ships,  the 
"  Erebus  "  of  3  70  tons^  and  the  "Terror  "of  340,  stoutly  built  craft 
specially  strengthened  for  navigation  in  the  ice.  Captain  James 
Clark  Ross,  R.N.,  was  in  command  of  the  "  Erebus  "  and  of  the 
expedition;  Comnuinder  Francis  Rawdon  Moira  Croxicr  of  the 
**  Terror."'  A  young  :;urgeon,  Joseph  Dalton  Hooker,  joined  the 
iRoyal  Navy  in  order  to  go  on  the  expedition,  and  he  lived  to  take 
a  keen  interest  in  every  subsequent  Antarctic  expedition  down 
to  that  of  Captain  Scott  in  1910.  Ross  had  intended  to  make 
stndght  for  (he  meridian  of  the  Magnetic  Pole,  but^  finding  that 
D'Urville  and  Wilkes  had  already  entered  on  those  seas  he  deter- 
mined to  try  to  make  a  high  latitude  farther  east,  and  leaving 
Hobart  Town  on  the  12th  of  November  1840  ho  crossed  the 
Antarctic  Circle  on  the  xst  of  January  1841  and  entered 
the  pack  ice  on  the  5th  in  174**  E.  Instead  of  proving 
an  impenetrable  obstacle,  the  pack  let  the  two  ships  work 
through  in  five  days,  and  they  emerged  into  open  sea. 
Sailing  towards  the  Magnetic  Pole  they  found  a  chain  of 
great  mountains  rising  from  a  coast  which  ran  due  south 


from  a  prominent  cape  (Cape  Adafe)  in  71*  Sw  Use  coatiaeoi 
was  taken  formal  possession  of  for  (Jueen  Victoria  by  laodiBg  oe 
Possession  Island,  the  mainland  being  inaccessible,  axwl  the  shipi 
continued  southward  in  sight  of  the  coast  of  Victoria  Land,  whoe 
the  loftiest  mountain  was  named  Mt  Melbourne  alter  the  Priaie 
Minister,  until  the  twin  volcanoes  named  Erebus  and  Tenw 
were  sighted  in  78"  S.  on  the  28th  of  January.  From  Cape  Ciozier, 
at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  a  line  of  lofty  diffs  of  ice  ran  cast- 
wards,  the  great  ice-barrier,  unlike  any  object  in  nature  ewer  sees 
before,  rising  perpendiculariy  from  the  water  to  the  height  oj 
300  or  300  ft.  and  continuing  unbroken  for  asf>  tn.  Akng 
the  barrier  the  highest  latitude  of  78*  4'  S.  was  attained,  aad 
the  farthest  point  to  the  east  was  167^  W.,  whence  Ross  tamed 
to  look  for  a  winter  harbour  in  Victoria  land.  Being  desiroes 
to  winter  near  the  South  Magnetic  Pole,  Ross  did  not  cspkxr 
McMurdo  Bay  between  Mt  Erebus  and  the  north-ramung  coast, 
where,  as  we  now  know,  a  harbour  could  have  been  fo>aiid,  aad 
as  he  could  not  reach  the  land  elsewhere  on  account  of  ice 
ext'.iuling  out  frem  it  for  15  or  16  m.,  after  sighting  ike 
Balleny  Islands  at  a  great  distance,  on  the  and  of  March  ibt 
ships  returned  to  Hobart.  This  was  the  most  rrmarki?Bf 
Antarctic  voyage  for  striking  discoveries  ever  made. 

In  November  1841  the  "  Erebus  "  and  "  Terror  "  retained  to 
Antarctic  waters,  steering  south-east  from  New  Zealand  and 
entering  the  ice-pack  in  about  60"  S.  and  146°  W.,  the  idea  bcioff 
to  approach  the  great  barrier  from  the  eastward,  but  by  the  esd 
of  the  year  they  had  just  struggled  as  far  as  the  Antarctic  Cirde 
and  they,  together  with  the  pack,  were  several  ttntes  dxiveo  £xr 
to  the  northward  by  heavy  gales  in  which  the  ships  woe  at  tbe 
mercy  of  the  floating  ice.  During  a  storm  of  terrible  aewaej 
on  the  z8th  of  January  the  rudders  of  both  ships  were  sraasbai, 
and  not  until  the  xst  of  Febrxutry  did  they  break  <mt  oi 
the  pack  in  67*  29'  S.,  159*^  W.  llie  barrier  was  sifted  ca 
the' 2 and  and  the  ships  reached  78**  10'  S.  in  lei"*  27'  W..  the 
highest  latitude  attained  for  60  years.  To  the  eastward  iht 
barrier  surface  rose  to  a  mountainous  height,  but  altlw&i^ 
Ross  believed  it  to  be  lan^  he  would  only  treat  it  ofiicia^ 
as  *'an  appearance  of  land,"  leaving  the  coofirmatioci  of  «3 
discovery  as  King  Edward  Land  to  the  next  century.  N« 
more  work  was  done  in  this  quarter;  the  **  £rehus  '*  aad 
"  Tenor  "  turned  the  edge  of  the  pack  to  the  northward  and 
on  getting  into  dear  water  sailed  eastward  to  Cape  Ham, 
meeting  the  greatest  danger  of  the  whole  cruise  on  the  way 
by  colliding  with  each 'Other  at  night  while  pawing  bctweea 
two  icebergs  in  a  gale. 

After  wintering  in  the  Falkland  Islands  and  making  geed 
thp  damage  received,  Ross  made  his  third  and  last  attack  a 
the  southern  ice,  and  for  six  weeks  he  cruised  amongst  the  pack 
off  Joinvilie  Island  and  Louis  Philippe  Land  trying  in  vais  io 
reach  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Failing  in  this  attempt  he  turned  t» 
follow  Weddell's  route  and  skirted  the  pack  eastward  in  65*  S.. 
crossing  Weddell's  track  on  the  14th  of  February  1843.  mxt 
than  a  degree  farther  south  than  D'Urville  in  his  auempt 
four  years  before,  but  on  the  edge  of  an  equally  impeneciablr 
pack.  Coasting  it  eastward  to  12"*  W.  the  '* Erebus"  a&d 
"  Terror  "  at  last  rounded  the  pack  and  found  the  way  opea  ly 
the  south,  crossing  the  circle  on  the  ist  of  March.*  Four  da>-s 
later  the  pack  was  met  with  again  and  the  ships  were  forced  i&id 
it  for  27  miles  to  latitude  71*  30'  S.  in  14**  51'  W.,  nineteca 
degrees  cast  of  Wedddl's  farthest  south.  No  sign  of  land  was 
seen,  a  deep-sea  sounding  showed  4000  fathoms  with  f» 
bottom,  and  although  this  was  a  mistake,  for  the  real  dcpck 
was  later  proved  by  Dr  Bruce  to  be  only  2660  fathoms,  tt 
showed  at  least  that  there  was  no  land  in  the  immwtof 
neighbourhood. 

This  was  Ross's  last  piece  of  Antarctic  work,  bat  the  magnefic 
observations  of  his  expedition  were  continued  by  Lieut.  T.  £.  L 
Moore,  R.N.^  in  the  hired  barque  *'  Pagoda,"  which  left  Siaoe's 
Bay  in  January  1845  and  proceeded  south-MSt,  crassiag  the 
Antarctic  Circle  in  30*  45'  E.  and  reaching  a  farthest  south  of 
67°  50',  nine  degrees  farther  east.  An  attempt  to  reach  Ecdcsby 
Land  was  frustrated  by  the  weather,  and  Moore  footiniird  his 


POLAR  RBGIONS 


9^5 


yoygit  to  Aitttialia  in  a  high  Utitade  beating  agalnat  oontxary 
gales,  a  condition  to  which  all  previous  expnience  pointed  aa 
likely  to  occur. 

No  further  attempt  at  South  Polar  exploration  was  made  for 
nearly  thirty  years,  except  a  short  cruise  by  Mr  Tlspsell  in  the 
"  Brisk/'  one  of  Enderby's  ships  which  in  February 
1850,  after  passing  the  Balleny  Islands,  proceeded 
eastward  to  143*  £.  at  a  higher  latitude  than  Wilkes 
without  sighting  land.  The  first  steamer  to  cross  the  Antarctic 
Circle  was  H.M.S. "  Challenger,"  on  the  i6th  of  February  1874: 
she  only  penetrated  to  66*  40'  S.,  in  78"  30'  £.,  south  of  Kerguelen 
Land;  but  she  continued  her  course  to  AustraUa  for  some  distance 
in  a  high  latitude,  passing  within  15  m.  of  the  position  assigned  to 
Wilkes's  Termination  Land  without  seeing  any  sign  of  land.  Her 
dredgings  and  soundings  yielded  evidence  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
unknown  region  farther  south.  Sir  John  Murray  believed  that 
the  soundings  showed  a  general  shoaling  of  the  ocean  towards  the 
Antarctic  ice,  indicating  the  approach  to  a  continent.  By  collect* 
ing  and  analysing  all  samples  of  deep-sea  deposits  which  had  been 
secured  from  the  far  south,  he  discovered  a  remarkable  symmetry 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  deposits.  The  glcbigcrina  ooae,  or  in 
deeper  waters  the  red  day,  carpeting  the  northern  part  of  the 
Southern  Oceans,  merges  on  the  southward  into  a  great  ring  of 
diatom  ooze,  which  gives  place  in  turn,  towards  the  Ice,  to  a 
terrigenous  blue  mud.  The  fine  rock  particles  of  which  the  blue 
mud  is  composed  are  such  as  do  not  occur  on  oceanic  islands,  and 
the  discovery  of  large  blocks  of  sandstone  dropped  by  icebergs 
proved  the  existence  of  sedimentary  rocks  within  the  Antarctic 
Circle. 

During  the  southern  summer  hi  which  the  "Challenger** 
visited  Antarctic  waters,  a  German  whale-ship,  the  "  GrSnland," 
nmu^gifg  under  Captain  Dallmann,  visited  the  western  coast 
*  of  the  Antarctic  land  south  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and 
modified  the  chart  in  several  particulars.  The  chief  discovery 
was  a  channel,  named  Bismarck  Strait,  in  65*  S.,  which  seemed  to 
run  betwee^  Palmer  Land  and  Graham  Land. 

When  the  International  Circumpolar  observations  were  set 
on  foot  in  1882,  two  scientific  stations  were  maintained  for  a  year 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  in  order  to  obtain  data  for  comparison 
with  the  observations  at  twelve  stations  round  the  North  Pole. 
One  of  these  was  occupied  by  French  observers  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego  in  55'  S-,  the  other  by  German  observers  at  Royal  Bay  on 
South  Georgia  in  54*  30'  S.  The  magnetic  and  meteorological 
observations  were  of  considerable  importance. 

In  1892  four  steamers  of  the  Dundee  whalmg  fleet — the 
**  Balaena,"  "  Active,'*  "  Diana  "  and  "  Polar  Star  "—went  out 
to  test  Ross's-  statemeAt  that  the  *'  right  whale  "  inhabited 
Antarctic  waters.  The  suigeons  of  two  of  the  vessels — on  the 
"  Balacna  "  Dr  W.  S.  Bruce,  on  the  "Active"  Dr  C.  W.  Donald 
—were  selected  for  their  scientific  tastes,  and  equipped  with  all 
requisite  instruments  for  observations  and  collecting.  The 
result  of  the  experiment  was  disappomting.  No  whales  were 
obtained,  and  the  ships  devoted  their  attention  to  sealing  on 
the  east  of  Joinville  Island  and  Louis  Philippe  Land,  not  gohig 
farther  south  than  65°  S.  {Geographical  Joumalt  1896,  vii. 
502-521,  625-643). 

A  Norwegian  sealer,  the  "  Jason,"  Captain  Larsen,  also  visited 
those  seas  in  the  same  season,  but  the  captain  landed  and  collected 
f  tf^mm,  fossils  at  several  pomts  north  of  65**  S.  In  1893-1 894 
the  **  Jason,"  accompanied  by  two  other  Norwegian 
vessels.the  "  Hertha  "  and  the  "  Castor,"  returned  to  the  Antarctic 
and  entered  the  ice-laden  waters  in  November  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  summer.  Captain  Larsen  in  the  "  Jason  "  made  hk  way  as 
far  south  as  68**  to'  in  60^  W.  on  the  eastern  side  of  Graham  Land, 
but  several  miles  from  the  coast,  which  was  bordered  by  a  high 
ice-barrier.  The  land  beyond  this  barrier  was  n^med  Foyn 
Land,  after  a  famous  Norwegian  whaleship  owner.  Returning 
northwards,  two  small  blands,  Lindenberg  and  Cbristensen,  were 
discovered  and  found  to  be  active  volcanoes.  Meanwhile  the 
"  Hertha,"  Captain  Evensen,  had  reached  the  South  Shetlands 
on  the  ist  of  November  1893,  and  worked  her  way  southward 
along  the  west  side  of  Palmer  Land  and  past  the  Blscoe  Ishmds, 


rtacbfaig  the  Antarcck  Chxie  on  the  plh  of  Nof«mber  without 
meeting  ice.  This  was  the  first  time  the  AnUrotic  CiKle  had 
been  crossed  suice  the  "  Challenger  "  did  so  twenty  years  before. 
Captain  Evensen  sighted  Alexander  Land,  and  without  exper- 
iencing any  trouble  from  ice-floes  he  reached  his  farthest  south, 
69*  10'  S.  in  76*  12'  W.  (MiUeUuHgen  ier  CeograpkischeH  GMeU- 
sckaftf  Hamburg,  1895,  pp.  245-304). 

In  1894  the  well-known  Norwegian  whaler,  Svend  Foyn,  sent 
out  one  of  his  vessels,  the  "  Antarctic,  "  Captain  Christensen,  to 
try  his  luck  off  the  coast  of  Victoria  Land.  The 
"  Antarctic "  sailed  from  Melbourne  in  September^  fSSSi. 
having  on  board  Caratens  Egeberg  Borchgrevink,  a 
young  Norwegian  resident  in  Australia,  who,  being  determmed  to 
take  part  in  a  voyage  he  could  join  in  no  other  way,  shipped  aa 
an  ordinary  seaman.  He  made  notes  of  the  voyage,  and  pubUribed 
an  account  of  it  on  his  return  to  Europe  {Report  of  Sixth  Inter" 
nalumcl  Geograpkical  Congress,  London,  1895,  pp.  169-175). 
The  "  Antarctic  "  entered  the  pack  in  62*  45^  S.,  171*  $</  E., 
on  the  8th  of  December  1894.  The  Balleny  Inlands  were  sighted 
on  the  14th  of  December,  and  Cape  Adare  on  Victoria  Land  two 
days  hter.  On  the  22nd  of  January  1895  the  farthest  point  was 
reached  at  Coulman  Island  hi  74*  S.;  the  sea  was  then  easily 
navigable  to  the  south.  On  the  23rd  of  January  a  small  party, 
including  the  captain  and  Mr  Borchgrevink,  landed  on  Uie 
mainland  near  Cape  Adare,  the  first  people  to  set  foot  on  the 
Antarctic  continent. 

Efforts  had  been  made  from  time  to  time,  by  Professor  Georg 
von  Neumayer  in  Germany  and  by  Sir  John  Murray  and  othen 
in  Great  Britaih,  to  induce  learned  societies  to  in- 
augurate  a  new  era  of  scientific  Antarctic  research  *!bSuu** 
under  Government  or  at  least  under  national  auspices. 
In  1895  Sir  Clements  Markham,  as  president  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  and  of  the  International  Geographical  Congress, 
also  took  the  matter  up,  and  interest  in  the  Antarctic  regions 
began  to  be  aroused  in  every  civilized  country.  Captahi  Adrien 
de  Geriache  organized  and  led  a  Belgian  expedition,  for  which  he 
raised  the  funds  with  difficulty.  M.  Georges  Lecointe,  captain  (rf 
the  "Belgica,"  and  Lieut.  Danco,  magnetic  observer,  were 
Belgians;  Mr  Roald  Amundsen,  the  mate,  a  Norwegian;  M. 
Arctowski,  the  geologist  and  physicist,  a  Pole;  M.  Racovitza,  the 
biologist,  a  Rumanian;  and  Dr  F.  A.  Cook,  the  surgeon,  an 
American.  On  the  14th  of  January  1898,  already  long  past  mid' 
summer,  the  "  Belgica,"  left  Staten  Island  for  Antarctic  waters. 
She  sighted  the  South  Shetlands  on  the  21st  and  proceeded  to 
Hughes  Gulf,  from  which  a  channel,  Geriache  Strait,  was  explored 
leading  south-westward  between  continuous  land,  named  Danco 
Land,  on  the  east  (the  northern  extension  of  Graham  Land),  and 
Palmer  Land  on  the  west.  Palmer  Land  was  found  to  be  a  group 
of  large  islands.  On  the  Z2th  of  February  the  "Belgica "  re- 
entered the  open  sea  to  the  west  at  Cape  Tuxen  in  65*  15'  S. 
Much  fog  was  experienced,  but  on  the  x6th  Alexander  Land  was 
sighted  in  the  distance.  Continuing  on  a  westerly  course,  the 
"  Bdgica  "  made  every  effort  to  enter  the  pack,  which  was 
successfully  accomplished  after  a  heavy  storm  on  the  28th. 
By  taking  advantage  of  the  leads,  the  expedition  advanced  to 
71*^  30'  S.  in  85**  15'  W.  by  the  2nd  of  March,  but  the  ship  was 
blocked  next  day  by  the  growth  of  young  ice  soldering  the  pack 
into  one  continuous  mass.  For  more  than  a  year  further  inde- 
pendent movement  was  impossible;  but  the  ship  drifted  with  the 
ice  between  the  limits  of  80*  30''  W.  and  102^  10'  W.,  and  of 
69*"  40'  and  7t*  35'  S.,  which  was  the  highest  latitude  attained 
(May  31,  1898).  The  sun  did  not  rise  for  seventy  days,  and 
all  on  board  suffered  severely  from  depression  of  spurits  and 
disorders  of  the  circulation,  which  Dr  Cook  attributed  to  the 
darkness  and  to  improper  food.  Lieut.  Danco  died  during 
the  period  of  darkness.  On  the  13th  of  March  1899,  when  a 
second  winter  in  the  ice  began  to  seem  probable,  the  "  Belgica  ** 
was  released  in  69*  50^  S.  and  102*  xo'  W.  The  geographical 
results  of  this  expedition  were  insignificant  so  far  as  the  dis' 
covery  of  land  or  penetration  to  a  high  latitude  is  concerned. 
The  ship  passed  several  times  to  the  south  and  west  of  Peter  L 
Island,  proving  that  the  land  seen  by  Bellingshausen  at  that 


966 


POLAR  REGIONS 


point  is  of  very  limited  exteot.  Diirinf  the  drift  in  the  kd  the 
soundings  were  usually  between  aoo  and  300  fathonos,  which, 
compared  with  the  great  depths  to  the  north,  clearly  indicated 
a  continental  shelf  of  considerable  bretdth,  probably  connected 
with  land  in  the  south.  The  scientific  collections  were  of  unique 
value  and  have  been  worked  up  and  the  results  published  at  the 
expense  of  the  Belgian  government. 

The  Hamburg  America  Company's  steamer  "  Valdivia," 
chartered  by  the  German  Government  for  a  scientific  voyage 
„y^l^^„under  the  Icader^ip  of  Professor  Carl  Chun  of  Leip' 
sig,  with  Dr  Gerhard  Schott  as  oceanographer,  left 
Cape  TowQ  on  the  13th  of  November  i8q8,  and  on  the  35th  was 
fortunate  in  rediscovering  Bouvet  Island  (54**  a6'  S.,  3°  24'  E.)» 
which  had  been  searched  for  in  vain  by  Cook,  Ross,  Moore  and 
many  other  sailors.  Steering  south,  the  '*  Valdivia,"  although 
aa  unprotected  steel  vessel,  foUowed  the  edge  of  the  pack  fcom 
8*"  E.  to  $8*"  C.  reaching  64°  1%'  S.  in  54*  20'  £.  on  the  i6th  of 
December.  At  this  point  a  depth  of  3541  fathoms  was  found, 
so  that  if  Enderfcy  Land  occupies  its  assigned  position,  104 
nautical  miles  farther  south,  the  sub-oceanic  slope  must  be  of 
quite  unusual  steepness.  The  rocks  dredged  up  contained 
specimens  of  gnci&s,  granite  and  schist,  and  one  great  block  of 
red  sandstone  weighing  s  cwt.  was  secured,  confirming  the  theory 
of  the  contiaental  nature  of  the  land  to  the  south. 

On  his  return  to  England  in  1895  Mr  Borchgrevink  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  organize  an  Antarctic  expedition  under  his 
own  leadership,  and  in  August  1898  he  left  the 
^m^uSm.  Thames  on  the  "  Southern  Cross,"  in  charge  of  a 
private  expedition  equipped  by  Sir  Ccorfpe  Newnes. 
Hh  scientific  staff  included  Lieut.  Colbcck,  R.N.R.;  Mr  Louis 
Bernacchi,  a  trained  magnetic  observer,  and  Mr  N.  Hanson, 
biologist.  About  fifty  dogs  were  taken  out,  the  intention  being 
to  land  at  Cape  Adare  and  advance  towards  the  magnetic,  and 
perhaps  also  towards  the  geographical  pole  by  sledge.  The 
"  Southern  Cross  "  sighted  one  of  the  Ballcpy  Islands  on  the  14U1 
of  January  1899J  and  after  in  vain  attempting  to  get.  south  about 
the  meridian  oif  164**  E.,  the  ship  forced  her  way  eastward  and 
emerged  from  the  pack  (after  having  been  beset  for  forty-eight 
days)  in  70**  S.,  174^  E.  She  reached  Cape  Adaxe,  and  anchored 
in  Robertson  Bay  on  the  1 7  th  of  February.  The  land  party,  con- 
sisting of  ten  men,  was  established  in  a  house  built  on  the  strip  of 
beach  at  the  base  of  the  steep  ascent  to  the  mountains,  and  the 
ship  left  on  the  2nd  of  March.  Mr  Borchgrevink  found  it  impos< 
sible  to  make  any  land  journey  of  importance  and  the  party  spent 
the  first. year  ever  passed  by  man  on  Antarctic  land  in  malting 
natural  history  collections  and  keeping  up  meteorological  and 
magnetic  observations.  The  "  Southern  Cross  "  returned  to  Cape 
Adare  on  the  28th  of  January  1900,  and  after  taking  the  winter 
party  on  board — diminished  by  the  death  of  Mr  Hanson — set  out 
for  the  south  on  the  2nd  of  February.'  Landings  were  made  on 
several  islands,  on  the  mainland  at  the  base  of  Mt  Melbourne,  and 
on  the  loth  of  February  at  the  base  of  Mt  Terror,  near  Cape 
Crazier.  From  this  point  the  ship  steamed  eastward  along  the 
great  ice*barrier  to  a  point  in  164^  10'  W.,  where  an  inlet  in  the  ice 
was  found  and  the  ship,  reached  her  highest  latitude,  78°  34'  S., 
on  the  i7tb  of  February.  The  edge  of  the  ice  was  found  to  be 
about  30  m.  farther  south  than  it  had  been  when  Ross  visited  it 
in  1842.  Mr  Borchgrevink  was  able  to  land  on  the  ice  with 
sledges  and  dogs,  and  advanced  southward  about  16  m.,  reach- 
ing 78**  50'.  S.  He  discovered  that  plant  life  existed  in  the  shape 
of  mosses  and  lichens  in  some  of  the  rocky  islands,  a  fact  not 
previously  known. 

In  the  autumn  of  1901  three  well^equipped  expeditions  lef^ 
Europe  for  Antarctic  expiration..  The  British  National  Ant- 
arctic expedition  was  organized  by  a  joint  committee  of  the 
Royal  Society  and  the  Royal  GeograjUucal  Society,  and  equipped 
under  the  superintendence  of  Sir  Clements  Markham.  Most  of 
the  cost  was  borne  by  the  government,  the  rest  mainly  by  Mr 
L.  W.  Longstaff,  who  provided  £30,000,  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  and  Mr  A.  C.  Haxmsworth  (afterwards Lord  Northdiffe). 
A  strong  wooden  ship  of  about  700  tons  register  (1700  tons  dis* 
pUcement)  was  built  at  Dundee,  and  named  the  "  Discovery." 


She  was  made  entirely  non>m«giietk  amid^ps,  so  thst  nupetk 
observations  might  be  carried  on  without  interference 
from  local  attraction.  The  expedition  sailed  under ttp^^.^. 
the  command  of  Commander  R.  F.  Scott,  Rlf .,  with 
Ueut.  Albert  Armitage,  R.N.R.,  as  second  in  ounmaad,  lietiii 
Royds  and  Barne,  R.N.,  Lieut.  Shackleton,  R.NJL,  aad 
Engineer-Lieut.  Skclton,  R.N.  The  crew  of  forty  oKn  wm 
almost  entirely  sailors  of  the  Royal  Navy.  The  scieoiik  sul 
included  Dr  Koettlitz,  who  had  shared  with  Hr  Anniuit 
in  the  Jackson-Harmsworth  arctic  ej^ditk)^;  Hx  Lou 
Bernacchi,  who  had  wintered  with  Mr  Borchgrevink  at  Cipt 
Adare,  Dr  £.  A.  Wilson,  Mr  Hodgson,  biologist,  iod  Mi 
JFerrar,  gedogist.  The  **  Discovery "  sailed  from  .Nev 
ZesUand  on  the  24ih  of  December  1901,  met  the  pejck  kt 
on  the  Antarctic  circle  and  was  through  into  the  open  sa 
in  175**  E.  on  the  8th  of  January  1902.  ,She  made  a  <pikk  ru 
to  Cape  Crozier  and  cruised  along  the  great  ice  barrier,  cooknici 
Borchgrevink's  discovery  that  it  lay  30  m.  farther  souih  iLa 
in  1842,  and  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  barrier  Scott  diaoovtti 
and  named  King  Edward  Land  where  Ross  bad  recordc>iia 
"appearance"  only.  The  sea  in  the  ndighbourbood  U 
shoaled  to  less  than  100  fathoms  and  the  ice-barrier  in  pbco  «^ 
so  low  that  the  "  Discovery  "  was  able  to  lie  alongside  a>  1:  i 
quay.  A  captive  balloon  ascent  was  made  from  the  bar<:  ^^ 
nothing  was  seen  to  the  south.  Returning  to  McMurdo  Bi;  '>^ 
"Discovery"  found  that  Mts  Erebus  and  Terror  were  oca: 
island,  the  "  bay  "  being  really  a  sound.  The  ship  wa>  socxd: 
in  winter  quarters  in  77**  49'  S.  166"  E.,  and  a  hut  ercclcvu 
shore.  From  this  base  land-exploration  in.  the  Antarctic  n! 
initiated,  and  the  history  of  exploration  entered  on  a  new  i^ 
Although  some  symptoms  of  scurvy  appeared  during  t^e  «^b 
they  were  checked  by  change  of  diet;  and  with  the  bcgl^ --( 
of  spring  sledge  journeys  v^ith  dogs  were  oommeoced  aii  ^ 
quantity  of  provisions  was  laid  down  in  depots  to  is^  uc 
great  journey  which  Scott  had  planned  to  the  soudi.  Ot 
the  2nd  of  November  r902  Captain  Scott,  with  Lieut  £■  H. 
Shackleton  and  Dr  £.  A.  Wilson,  set  out  with  dog-5lcdgcst;iR 
Ijng  south  over  the  suriace  of  the  barrier  in  sight  of  a  xvife  oi  s  • 
mountains  running  parallel  to  their  track  on  the  wnt.  T^^ 
conditions  of  travelling  were  unlike  those  in  the  Arctic  i^r^ 
the  weather  being  more  inclement  aiui  the  summer  tempe:-*^ 
much  lower  than  in  similar  latitudes  in  the  north.  There  *^' 
no  bears  to  menace  the  safety  of  the  travellers,  and  so  *^- 
or  foxes  to  plunder  the  depots;  but  on  the  other  hand  l!ba<  **^ 
no  game  of  any  sprt  to  be  met  with,  and  all  food  for  men  lai  ^4 
had  to  be  carried  on  the  sledges.  The  suriace  of  the  ioe  «a* ^ 
rough  and  much  crevassed,  especially  near  the  western  laixi.  s»-'< 
blizzards  frequently  occurred  making  travelling  impossibk  is-' 
the  heavy  sledges  had  at  first  to  be  brought  forward  by  rd:' 
making  it  necessary  to  march  three  miles  for  every  mile  of  v^ 
ing  made.  The  dogs  also  weakened  and  had  to  be  killed  one  t?  )^ 
to  feed  the  rest.  On  the  3olh  of  December  they  were  in  8j'  t:'- 
and  Scott  determined  to  try  to  reach  the  n:u>ttiitains  ^  ^ 
west;  but  on  approaching  the  lai>d  he  found  the  ice  so  sis^ 
crevassed  and  disturbed  that  the.  attempt  had  to  be  ^v..:  l. 
Great  peaks  in  83*^  S.  were  named  Mt  Markham  (15,100  ft  ■  "' 
Mt  Longstaff  (9700  ft.)  after  the  chi^  promoters  of  the  cxpe^i- 1 
The  outward  journey  of  380  m.  had  taken  59  da>^  s-tJ  ^■'^ 
splendid  achievement,  for  the  conditions  to  be  encounter.'^ « ^ 
totally  unknown,  and  new  methods  had  to  be  devised  is  -^ 
necessity  arose,  yet  no  previous  polar  explorer  had  ever  advi:-- 
so  far  beyond  his  predecessor  as  Scott  did.  The  return  jc-^* 
occupied  34  days  and  the  ship  was  reached  on  the  3rd  <A  '^^'f 
1903,  but  Shaddeton  had  broken  down  on  the  way  ami  fc?^' ; 
return  by  the  relief  ship  "  Morning  "  on  the  3rd  of  Marci,!^- 
Mulock,  R.N.,  taking  his  place  on  the  "  Discovery."  Duns?  -* 
absence  of  the  commander  in  the  great  aouthem  journey  Ar-^ 
age  and  Skellon  had  found  a  iray  to  ascend  by  a  g^adericT'^^ 
to  the  summit  of  the  vast  snow-covered  platean  \ef^  •* 
granite  summits  of  the  western  moimtains.  They  nu^  -  ^ 
tance  of  130  m.  from  the  ship  and  an  elevation  of  9000  ft  «^'| 
shorter  journeys  were  made;  Fcrrar  studied  the  geobor  <^^ 


POLAR  HHHONS 


^7 


nountams  and  HixI^mni  wai  indefattgable  ia  cottecting  mafiiw 
fauna,  while  Bemacchi  ke|>t  up  the  physical  and  metetmlogical 
observations.  The  second  wiater  waa  lightened  by  the  use  of 
acetylene  gas  for  the  first  time,  and  the  dark  months  were  passed 
in  better  spirits  and  better  health  than  in  the  caae  of  any  previous 
polar  wintering.  In  the  spring  of  1903-1904  Soott  undertook 
a  great  journey  on  thK  western  plateau,  starting  on  the  96th  of 
October  without  dogs.  By  the  30th  of  November  he  had  reached 
a  point  on  the  featureless  plateau  of  dead-level  snow,  300  m.  due 
west  from  the  ship,  the  poaition  being  77*  59'  S.,  146^  33'  E.  asid 
9000  ft.  above  sea4evel.  The  ship  was  reachisd  again  on  the 
95th  of  December,  and  on  the  5th  of  January  the  *'  Morning  " 
arrived  accompanied  by  a  larger  vessel,  the  **  Terra  Nova/'  sent 
out  by  the  Admiralty  with  orden  to  Captais  Scott  to  abandon 
the  "  Discovery  "  and  return  at  once.  Fortunately,  although 
all  the  stores  and  collections  had  been  transferred  to  the  relief 
ships,  the  **  Discovery  "  broke  out  of  the  ice  on  the  i6th  of 
February  1904  and  Captain  Scott  had  the  satisfaction  of  bringing 
her  home  in  perfect  or^r.  The  relief  ships  had  provided  so 
little  coal  that  a  most  promising  voyage  to  the  westward  of  the 
Batleny  Islands  had  to  be  abandoned  in  isS*  E.;but  it  showed 
that  the  land  charted  by  Wilkes  east  of  that  meridian  did 
not  ex?5t  in  the  latitude  assigned. 

Simultaneously  with  the  **  Discovery  **  expedition  and  in  full 
co-operation  with  it  as  regards  simultaneous  meteorological  and 
DrygaMJ:  magnetic  observations,  the  German  government 
•*amt»M.**  equipped  an  expedition  in  the  "Gauss'*  which  was 
specially  built  for  the  occasion.  The  expedition  was  under  the 
charge  of  Professor  Erich  von  Drygalski  and  the  scientific  staff 
included'  Professor  VanhfifTen  as  naturalist,  Dr  Emil  Phitippi 
as  geologist  and  Dr  Friedrich  Bidlingmaier  as  met^rologist  and 
magnetician.  The  ship  was  under  the  command  of  Captam  Hans 
Ruser  of  the  Hamburg-American  Une.  A  supplementary  expedi- 
tion set  up  a  station  for  simultaneous  observations  on  Kerguelen 
Land.  The  "  Gauss  "  crossed  the  parallel  of  «o'  S.  In  9»*  E. 
early  in  February  190I  and  got  within  60  m.  of  the  charted 
position  of  Wilkw's  Termination  Land,  where  a  depth  of  xjyy 
fathoms  was  found  with  no  sign  of  land.  The  pack  made  it 
necessary  to  turn  south-westward  and  land  was  seen  to  the -east- 
ward on  February  1902  on  the  Antarctic  Circle  in  the  direction 
of  Termination  Land.  Soon  afterwards  the  '*  Gauss "  was 
beset  and  spent  the  winter  in  the  ice.  Land  of  considerable 
extent  was  seen  to  the  south  and  was  named  Kaner  Wilhclm  IL 
Land;  the  most  conspicuous  feature  on  it  was  a  hill  of  bare  black 
rock  with  ait  elevation  of  about  tooo  ft.,  which  was  called  the 
Gaussberg,  and  was  situated  in  67*  S.,  90"  E.  This  was  the  oAIy 
bare  land  seen,  and  its  neighbourhood  was  thoroughly  investf- 
galcd  by  sledge  parties,  but  no  distant  journey  was  undertaken. 
In  February*  1903  the  **  Gauss  "  was  freed  from  the  ict;  but 
although  Drygalski  struggkd  for  two  months  to  thread  the  maze 
of  floes  to  the  eastward  and  south  he  could  gain  no  higher  latitude 
and  was  able  to  force  his  way  only  to  So*  E,.  before  seeking  the 
open  sea.  The  scientific  observations  and  collections  were  most 
extensive  and  of  great  value. 

Two  private  expeditions  organized  by  men  of  sdcrtce  were 
in  the  Antarctic  region  simultaneously  wfth  the  British  and 
Sordeask'  German  national  expeditions,  and  the  synchronous 
iSM.  meteorological    and    magnetic    observations    added 

to  the  value  of  the  scientific  results  of  all  the  parties. 
Dr.  Otto  NordenskjSld,  nephew  of  the  discoverer  of  the 
North-East  Passage,  led  a  Swedish  party  in  the  "  Antarctic,*' 
with  Captain  C.  A.  Larsen  in  command  of  the  ship,  and 
reached  the  Sopth  Shctlands  in  January  190J,  afterwai-ds 
exploring  on  the  east  sfde  of  Joinville  Island  and  Louis 
Philippe  Land,  and  wintering  on  shore  on  Snow  Hfll  Island  in 
64**  25'  S.  From  this  point  a  long  journey  on  ski'  over  the  flat 
sea  ice  bordering  King  Oscar  Land  was  made  to  the  south,  but 
the  Antarctic  Circle  was  not  reached.  Meanwhile  the  "  Ant- 
arctic "  had  succeeded  in  penetrating  the  pack  in  the  Wtddcll 
Sea  almost  to  the  circle  m  50*  W.,  where  D'Urville  and  Ross 
had  failed  to  get  so  far  south.  A  second  winter  was  Sjpfini  at 
the  base  on  Snow  Hill  Island,  and,  the  ship  havktg  been 


lost  in  the  Ice  OA  her  way  to  take  them  aB,  iht  party 
rescued  by  a  brilliant  dash  m  the  Argentine  gunboat  "  Uruguay,*' 
under  Captain  Irizar,  before  the  relief  ship  sent  from  SwMen 
arrived. 

McaawhHe  Dr  W.  S.  Bruce,  largely  aided  financially  by 
Mr  JaiMft  Coau  and  Captain    Andrew  Coats,  equipped  a 
Scottish  expedition  in  the  ^^  Scotia,"  with  Captain        ^^^^ 
Thomas  Robertson  in  comniaiid  of  the  ship,  and 
a  scientific  staff  including  Mr  R.  C.  Moesman  as  meteOroh)gist, 
M»  R.  N.  Rudmoae  Brown  as  naturalist,  and  Dr  J.  H.  H.  Pirie 
as  geologist.    The  principal  object  of  the  expedition  was  the 
exploration  of  the  Weddell  'Sea.    The  **  Scotia  "  s^ted  the 
South  Orkneys  on  the  3rd  of  Febniary  1903,  and    after  a 
short  struggle  with  the  pack    she  found  an  open  sea  to 
70*  95^  S.,  where  she  was    beset  on  the  sand  in  18**  W., 
and   whence  she  returned  by   a  more  westerly  course,   re- 
crossing   the   Antarctic    Citcle  in  40"*  W.      This   important 
voyage  midway  between  the  tracks  of  Weddell  and  Ross,  who 
alone  of  all  who  tried  had  reached  70*  S.  in  this  regjoo,  prac* 
cally  demonstrated  the  navigability  of  Weddell  Sea  in  favour* 
aMe  conditions,  and  the  oceanographkal  observations  made 
were  the  most  valuable  yet  carried  out  in  the  Antarctic 
region.     The  following   year,   starting  from    the   Sandwich 
group,  Bruce  crossed  the  Antarctic  Circle  about  22**   W.,  and 
was  able  to  make  a  straight  run  south  to  74"  i'  S.,  where  the 
"  Scotia  '*  wa»  stopped  by  the  ice  in  159  fathoms  of  water,  the 
sea  having  shoaled  rapidly  from  a  great  depth.    Prom  the  3rd  of 
March  to  the  t3th  the  "  Scotia  "  remained  in  shallow  water, 
catching  occasional  gUmpses  of  a  great  ice  wall  with  snoW- 
covered   heights  beyond    it,   along  a  line  of   150  m.,   and 
dredging  quantities  of  continental  rocks.    On  this  evidence  the 
name  Coats  Land  was  given  to  the  land  within  the  barrier. 
The  "  Scotia  "crossed  the  Antarctic  Circle  northward  in  zi*  W., 
having  in  the  two  years  explored  a  totally  unknown  sea  for  a 
distance  of  thirty  degrees  of  lon^ude.     A   meteorological 
station  was  estabKshed  by  Mr  Mossman  on  Laurie  Island,  in 
the  South  Okneys  (61^  S.)  in  March  1903,  and  kept  up  by  him 
for  two  years,  when  it  was  taken  over  by  the  Argentine  govern- 
ment, and  it  now  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  most 
southerly  etation  at  which  continubusf  observations  have  ever 
been  taken  for  over  five  years. 

In  Januaty  1904  Dr  Jean  B.  Charcot,  a  man  of  sdence  and 
an  accompli^ed  yachtsman,  left  the  Fuegian  archipelago  for 
the  Antarctic  in  the  **  Frantpais,'*  in  command  of  a  oukpL 
French  exploring  expedition  equipped  at  his  own 
instance.  He  cruised  through  the  islands  of  the  Palmer 
Archipelago,  and  wintered  in  a  cove  of  Wandcl  Island  65**  5'  S. 
near  the  southern  entrance  of  Gcrlache  Strait.  On  the  aslh 
of  December  1904  the  "  Francais"  was  free,  and  contbiued  to 
cruise  southward  along  the  c6ast  of  Graham  Land,  to  thb 
south  of  which,  on  the  isth  of  January,  when  nearly  Ih 
latitude  67*,  a  new  a>ast  appeared,  mountainous  and  stretch- 
ing to  the  south-west,  but  Charcot  could  not  determine 
whether  it  was  joined  to  Graham  Land  or  to>  Alexander 
Land.  While  approaching  the  land  the  "  Francais "  struck 
a  rock,  and  was  so  much  damaged  that  further  exploration 
Was  Impossible,  and  after  naming  the  new  discovery  Loubet 
Land,  the  expedition  returned.  Charcot  organized  a  second 
expedition  in  1908  on  boaid  the  "  Pourquoi  Pas?"  and, 
leaving  Punta  Arenas  !n  December,  returned  to  the  Palmer 
Archipelago,  and  during  January  1909  made  a  detailed  examina- 
tion of  the  coast  to  the  southward,  finding  that  Loubet 
Land  was  practically  continuous  on  the  nortli  with  Graham 
Land  and  on  the  south  with  Alexander  Land,  which  was 
approached  within  a  mile  at  one  point.  Adelaide  Island, 
reported  by  Biscoe  aa  8  m.  long,  was  found  to  be  a  large 
island  70  m.  in  length;  consisting  of  a  series  of  sumrrrils  rising 
out  of  an  icefield.  The  Biscoe  Island*  were  found  to  be  much 
more  numerous  than  was  formerly  supposed.  The  expedition 
wintered  at  Petermann^Island  in  t$^  10'  S.,  and  aftempts  were 
made  to  reach  the  mterior  of  Graham  Land,  though  with  little 
success.    A^ter  coaling  from  the  whalers*  d^t  at  Deception 


gC^S 


POLAR  REGIONS 


Island,  the  "  Poorquoi  Pits  ?  "  safled  on  the  6Ui  of  Januaxy  19x0 
to  the  south-west,  aad  reached  70**  S.  on  the  ixth,  whence  views 
Dt  Alexander  Land  were  obtained  from  a  new  position,  and  a 
new  land  discovered  farther  to  the  south-west.  The  highest 
latitude  reached  was  about  70"  30'  S.,  and  Charcot  was  able 
to  steam  westward  nearly  along  this  parallel  crossing  the 
region  of  the  "  Belgica's  "  drift,  passing  close  to  Fteter  I.  Island 
across  the  meridian  of  Cook's  highest  latitude,  where  the  ice 
seemed  to  promise  an  easy  way  south  if  cxMd  had  permitted,  and 
on  to  128?  W.  through  an  absolutely  unknown  sea,  from  which 
point  a  direct  course  was  made  for  Punta  Arenas.  Frequent 
soundings  and  dredgings  were  made,  and  Dr  Charcot  satisfied 
himself  from  all  the  appearances  that  along  the  20  degrees  of 
longitude  west  of  Gerlache's  farthest,  and  man  than  half-way 
from  Graham  Land  to  King  Edward  Land,  land  was  probably 
not  far  distant  to  the  south. 

After  his  return  invalided  from  the  "Dxscovny,"  Lieut. 
Shacklcton  planned  a  fresh  expedition,  which  he  equipped  at 
ttwifcfin  ^^  ^^^  expense,  aided  by  his  personal  friends,  and 
he  started  in  the  small  whaler  "  Nimrod  "  from 
Lyttelton,  New  Zealand,  on  the  ist  of  January  xgoS,  being 
towed  by  a  steamer  to  the  Antarctic  Circle,  in  order  to  save 
coal.  The  plan  was  to  land  a  shore  party  on  King  Edward 
Land  and  return  to  take  them  off  in  the  following  year,  but 
although  a  strenuous  effort  was  made  to  reach  the  land  the 
floe  ice  was  too  heavy,  and  it  would  have  been  madness  to 
establish  winter-quarters  on  the  barrier,  the  coast-line  of 
which  had  altered  greatly  since  1902,  and  was  obviously  liable 
to  break  off  in  great  ice-islands.  On  the  a6th  of  January 
the  "  Nimrod  "  began  to  return  from  the  extreme  east  of  the 
barrier,  and  the  landing  of  stores  commenced  on  the  3rd  of 
February  at  Cape  Royds,  at  the  base  of  Mt  Erebus,  20  m.  north 
of  the  "  Discovery's "  winter-quarters.  The  shore  party  in- 
cluded the  leader  and  fifteen  companions,  amongst  them 
Professor  T.  W.  Edgeworth  David,  of  Sydney  University; 
Lieut.  Jameson  Boyd  Adams,  R.N.R.;  Sir  Philip  Brockle- 
hurst,  Bart.;  Mr  James  Murray,  biologist;  Mr  Raymond  E. 
Priestley,  geologist;  Dr  Alistalr  Forbes  Mackay;  Dr  Eric 
Marshall;  Mr  Douglas  Mawson,  geologist;  and  Ernest  Joyce 
and  FranJc  Wild  of  the  Royal  Navy,  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
"  Discovery  "  expedition.  No  casualty  occurred  during  the 
whole  duration  of  the  eq;)edition,  special  care  having  been 
taken  to  supply  the  best  provisions,  including  fresh  bre%d 
baked  daily  and  dried  milk  in  unUmiled  quantity,  whUe 
abundant  artificial  light  was  secured  by  the  use  of  acetylene 
gas.  A  motor-car  was  taken  in  the  hope  that  it  might  be  used 
on  the  barrier  surface,  but  this  was  found  impracticable, 
although  it  did  good  work  in  laying  d£p6is  on  the  sea-ice. 
Another  and  more  successful  experiment  in  traction  was  the 
use  of  Manchurian  ponies.  Eight  of  these  extraordinarily 
hardy  creatures  were  taken  south  in  the  "  Nimrod,"  but  four 
died  in  the  first  month  after  landing.  The  others  did  good 
service.  Nine  dogs  were  also  taken,  but  the  experience  on  the 
"  Discovery  "  expedition  did  not  lead  to  much  dependence  being 
placed  on  them.  The  "  Nimrod  "  left  for  the  north  on  the  22nd 
of  February  and  the  scientific  staff  at  once  began  the  observations 
and  collections  which  were  kept  up  to  the  end.  The  discovery  of 
a  considerable  fresh-water  fauna  and  of  a  poor  but  charac* 
teristic  flora  was  one  of  the  most  unexpected  results.  Apart 
from  many  mipor  excursions  and  surveys,  the  expedition 
performed  three  journeys  of  the  first  importance,  each  of  them 
fturpassing  any  previous  land  work  in  the  Antarctic  regions. 
Before  winter  set  in.  Professor  David,  with  five  companions, 
made  the  ascent  of  Mt  Erebus,  starting  from  the  winter 
quarters  on  the  slh  of  March,  and  gaining  the  summit  at  an 
altitude  of  13,300  ft.  on  the  loth;  this  was  found  to  be  the  edge 
•of  an  active  crater,  the  abyss  within  being  900  ft.  deep, 
though  rarely  visible  on  account  of  the  steam  and  vapours 
which  rose  in  a  huge  cloud  looo  ft,  above  the  summit. 

The  second  achievement  was  the  attainment  of  the  South 
Magnetic  Pole  by  Professor  David,  with  Mr  Douglas  Mawson  and 
Dr  Mackay.    They  left  winter-quarters  on. the  6th  of  October 


X908,  dragging  two  sledges  over  the  sea-ice.  FrocccJiag  aloag 
the  coast  they  were  able  to  supplement  their  provxttons  aad 
fuel  by  seat-meat  and  blubber,  and  on  the  ist  of  Deaanber  tbty 
reached  the  Drygalski  ice  barrier  in  75*'  S.,  which  proved  very 
difficult,  to  cross.  Leaving  this  ice-tongue  on  the  191th,  they 
proceeded  to  ascend  the  plateau  with  one  sledge,  and  ran  gicat 
risks  from  the  crevasses  into  which  they  were  constantly  fall- 
ing. On  reaching  the  summit  of  the  plateau  travelling  became 
easier,  and  on  the  x6th  of  January  1909  the  nsasnetic  dip 
was  90*,  and  the  position  of  the  magnetic  pole  was  deter- 
mined as  72**  as'  S.,  155^  x6'  £.,  at  an  altitude  of  7260  fL 
and  260  m.  from  the  d£p6t  of  provisions  left  at  the  Dxygalriu 
glacier.  The  return  journey  to  this  point  was  aimmpliAcd  by 
forced  marches  on  the  3rd  of  February,  and  next  day  the 
paay  was  picked  up  by  the  "  Nimrod,"^  which  was  acooiiag 
for  them  along  the  coast. 

The  third  and  greatest  achievement  of  this  wimaTknhlr  ex- 
pedition was  Shackleton's  great  southern  journey.  D£p&5 
had  been  laid  out  in  advance  on  the  barrier  ice,  aad  the  main 
southern  party,  consisting  of  Messrs  Shackleton,  Adams,  MaxshaS 
and  Wild,  started  from  winter-quarters  on  the  29th  of  October 
1908,  with  the  four  ponies  and  four  11 -ft.  sledges;  a  sapport- 
ing  party  of  five  men  accompanied  the  main  division  foe  tea 
days.  In  order  to  avoid  the  disturbed  and  crevasaed  ke  near 
the  great  south-running  mountain  range,  Shackleton  kept  abooi 
40  m.  farther  to  the  cast  than  Scott  had  done.  The  ponies 
enabled  rapid  progress  to  be  made,  but  after  pacing  the  StA 
parallel  on  the  21st  of  November,  one  pony  broke  down  and 
had  to  be  shot,  the  meat  being  left  in  a  d£p6t  for  the  retaza 
journey.  In  spite  of  cold  weather  and  frequent  hig^  winds, 
progress  was  made  at  the  rate  of  15  m.  per  day,  and  on  the 
26th  of  November  the  farthest  south  of  the  "Dxscovexy** 
expedition  was  passed,  and  Mts  Markham  and  I^oi^saaff 
were  full  in  view.  New  mountains  continued  to  appear 
beyond  these,  and  the  range  changed  its  southerly  to  a  south- 
easteriy  trend,  so  that  the  path  to  the  Pole  led  through  the 
mountains.  On  the  28th  a  second  pony  became  used  up  aad 
was  shot,  and  a  dcp6t  was  formed  with  provisions  and  stoics 
for  the  return  in  82*  38'  S.,  and  progress  was  resxuned  viUi 
two  sledges.  The  surface  of  the  barrier  ice  fomied  great 
undulations  of  gentle  slope.  On  the  ist  of  December  a  thod 
pony  ha4  to  be  shot,  in  83*  x6'  S.,  and  horseflesh  became  the 
principal  article  of  diet;  the  remaining  pony  hauled  one  dedp, 
the  four  men  took  the  other.  On  the  4th  of  December  the 
(karty  left  the  barrier,  passing  over  a  zone  oT  much  disturi^ed 
ice,  and  commenced  the  ascent  of  a  great  glaaer  (the 
Beardmore  glacier)  which  descended  from  the  — vrfiin^i*''* 
between  magnificent  granite  cliffs  2000  ft.  high.  On  tbe 
7th,  when  toiling  amongst  a  maxe.  of  crevasses  an  tbe  s^ads. 
aooo  ft.  above  sea-level,  the  last  pony  fcQ  into  a  cicvasae 
and  was  lost,  though  the  loaded  sledge  was  saved;  tbe  pcsf 
was  to  have  been  shot  that  night  as  it  could  not  work  on  t)s 
disturbed  ice,  but  ils  loss  meant  so  much  less  food,  and  as  iu 
as  can  be  judged  this  alone  made  it  impossible  loir  tbe  parij 
to  reach  the  Pole.  For  the  next  few  days  of  laborious  zidwiX 
one  or  other  of  the  party  was  continually  falling  into  a  crerssse, 
but  the  sledge  harness  saved  tliem,  and  no  serious  baim  resulted 
After  climbing  upwards  for  xoo  m.  on  the  glacier,  a  dfpAt  was 
made  at  a  height  of  6100  ft.  of  everything  that  could  pocsUsr 
be  left  behind,  including  all  the  warm  doihing,  for  it  waa  fooai 
possible  with  Jaegers  and  wind-jMoof  Burbenys  to  meet  *3f 
weather  in  which  exertion  was  possible.  By  Christmas  Day 
the  plateau  surface  was  fairly  reached  at  a  level  of  9500  ft^  b 
latitude  85**  55'  S.,  and  there  was  no  more  difficuky  to  ova- 
dome  as  regarded  the  ground,  but  merely  the  effort  of  ccboc  m 
over  a  nearly  level  surface  with  Insufficient  food  in  a  very  L« 
temperature,  intensified  by  frequent  blizzards.  RatioBS  w<^ 
reduced  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  push  00  to  tbe  PoSe. 
Three  days  later  the  last  crevasse  was  passed  aad  tbe  au^ 
face,  now  12,200  ft.  above  sea-level,  grew  smoother,  alIov«| 
IS  m.  a  day  to  be  done  with  fair  weather.  At  4  ajn.  oa  the 
i  9th  of  January  1909  the  four  explorers  left  th^  sledge  asd 


POLAR  REGIONS 


96^ 


ftdog,  faaH  valkiJig,  balf  rauiiiv,  they  teached  88^  3/  S. 
in  i6a*  £.  at  9  a.111.,  the  height  above  sea  being  xt,6oo  ft 
The  utmost  bad  been  done,  though  more  food  would  have 
enabled  the  remainiag  97  geographiatl  mfles  to  the  South  Pole 
to  be  accomplished.  The  camp  was  reached  again  at  3  p.m. 
The  return  journey  of  over  700  m.  to  the  ship  was  one  long 
nightmare  of  toil  and  suffering,  but  the  length  of  the  marches 
was  unsurpassed  in  polar  travel.  Once  and  again  all  food 
was  exhausted  the  day  before  the  d^>6t,  on  vHhich  the  only 
hope  of  life  depended,  was  picked  up  in  the  waste  of  snow. 
Snow-blindness  aad  dysentery  made  life  almost  unendurable, 
but,  despite  it  all,  the  ship  was  reached  on  the  tst  of  March, 
and  the  geological  spedmens  from  the  southernmost  monn- 
tuns,  which  prevented  the  sledges  of  the  exhausted  men  being 
lightened  as  they  went  on,  were  safely  secured.  Never  in 
iht  history  of  pdar  exploration  had  any  traveller  outdistanced 
his  predecessor  by  so  vast  a  itep  towards  either  Pole. 

During  the  return  Journey  of  the  "  Nimxod  "  Shaddeton 
was  able  to  do  a  little  piece  of  exploration  to  the  south  of  the 
BaUeny  Islands,  tracing  the  coast  of  the  mainland  for  50  m. 
to  the  south-west  beyond  Cape  North,  thus  indicating  that  the 
Antarctic  continent  has  not  a  straight  ooast-line  running 
from  Cape  Adare  to  Wilkes  Land.  The  British  government 
contributed  £so,ooo  to  the  expenses  of  the  expedition  in 
recognition  of  the  great  results  obtained,  and  the  king  con- 
ferred a  knighthood  on  the  explorer,  the  first  given  for 
Antarctic  exptoration  since  the  time  of  Sir  James  Clark  Roes. 

Captain  R.  F.  Scott  left  England  in  the  summer  of  t9io 
with  a  new  expedition  in  the  **  Terra  Nova,"  promoted  by  his 
nffjMwiiftoes  irm  exertions,  aided  by  a  government  grant,  and 
^inW'  with  a  carefully  selected  crew  and  a  highly  com- 
1911.  petent  scientific  staff.    He  intended  to  arrange  for 

two  parties,  one  leaving  King  Edward  Land,  the  other 
McMurdo  Sound,  to  converge  on  the  South  Pole.  A  German 
expedition  imder  Lieut.  Wilhelm  Fikhner  was  announced 
to  leave  early  in  2911  with  the  hope  of  expiring  inland  from 
a  base  in  the  western  part  of  Weddell  Sea,  and  Dr  W.  S. 
Bruce  has  announced  for  the  same  year  an  expedition  to 
the  eastern  part  of  Weddell  Sea  mainly  for  oceanographical 
exploration.  It  appears  that  the  greatest  extension  of  know- 
ledge would  now  be  obtained  by  a  resolute  attempt  to  cruise 
round  the  south  polar  area-  from  east  to  west  in  the  highest 
latitude  which  can  be  reached.  This  has  never  been  attempted, 
and  a  modem  Biscoe  with  steam  power  could  not  fail  to 
make  important  discovexies  on  a  westward  circumnavigation. 

Physiography  of  Antarctic  Region.-^ln  contrast  to  the  Arctic 
region,  the  Antarctic  is  essentially  a  land  area.  It  is  almost 
certain  that  the  South  Pole  lies  on  a  great  plateau,  part  of  a 
land  that  must  be  larger  and  loftier  than  Greenland,  and  may 
probably  be  as  large  as  Australia.  This  land  area  may  be  com- 
posed of  two  main  masses,  or  of  one  continent  and  a  great 
archipelago,  but  it  can  no  longer  he  doubted  that  the  whole  is 
of  continental  character  as  regards  its  rocks,  and  that  it  is  per- 
manently massed  into  one  surface  with  ice  and  snow,  which  in 
some  parts  at  least  unites  lands  separated  by  hundreds  of  miles 
of  sea.  But  all  round  the  land-mass  there  is  a  ring  of  deep  ocean 
cutting  off  the  Antarctic  region  from  all  other  land  of  the  earth 
and  setting  it  apart  as  a  regk>n  by  itself,  more  unlike  the  rest  of 
the  world  than  any  continent  or  island.  The  expedition  of  the 
"  Scotia  "  showed  the  great  depth  of  the  Weddell  Sea  area,  and 
the  attention  paid  to  soundings  on  other  expeditions— notably 
that  of  the  "  Belgica  '^— has  defined  the  beginning  of  a  continental 
shelf  which  it  cannot  be  doubted  slopes  up  to  land  not  yet  sighted. 
In  the  Arctic  region  large  areas  within  the  Polar  Circle  belong 
to  climatically  temperate  Europe,  and  to  habitable  lands  of 
Asia  and  America;  but  in  the  Antarctic  region  extensive  Unds 
— Graham  Land,  Louis  Philippe  Land,  Joinville  Island  and  the 
Palmer  archipelago  outside  the  Polar  Circle— partake  of  the 
typically  polar  character  of  the  higher  Utitudes,  and  even 
the  islands  on  the  warmer  side  of  the  sixtieth  parallel  are  of  a 
sub-Antarctic  nature,  akin  rather  to  lands  of  the  frigid  than  to 
those  of  the  temperate  zone. 


Geology  — Definite  information  as  to  the  geology  of  Antarctic 
land  is  available  from  three  areas— Graham  Land  and  the 
archipelago  to  the  north  of  it.   Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land  and 
Victoria  Land.    In  the  Graham  Land  region  there  seems  to  be  a 
fundamental  rock  closely  resembling  the  Archaean.    Palaeozoic 
rocks  have  not  been  discovered  so  far  in  this  region,  although 
a  graptolite  fossil,  probably  of  Ordovician  age,  shows   that 
they  occur  in   the  South   Orkneys.     Mesozoic   rocks  have 
been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  archipelago,  a  very  rich 
Jurassic  fossil  flora  of  ferns,  conifers  and  cycads  having  been 
studied  by  Norden^jOld,  some  of  the  genera  found  being 
represented  also  in  the  rocks  of  South  America,  South  Africa, 
India  and  Australia.    Cretaceous  ammonites  have  also  been 
found,  and  Tertiary  fossils,  both  of  land  and  of  marine  forms^ 
bring  the  geological  record  down  probably  to  Miocene  times, 
the  fauna  including  five  genera  of  extinct  penguins.    Raised 
beaches  show  an  emergence  of  the  land  in  Quaternary  times, 
and  there  is  evidence  of  a  recent  glacial  period  .when   the 
inland  ice  on  Graham  Land  was  a  thousand  feet  higher  than 
it  is  now.    The  most  prominent  features  of  the  scenery  are  due 
to  eruptive  rocks,  which  have  been  identified  as  belonging  to 
the  eruptive  system  of  the  Andes,  suggesting  a  geologically 
recent  connection  between  South  America  and  the  Antarctic, 
lands.    Volcanic  activity  is  not  yet  extinct  in  the  region. 

As  regards  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land,  the  Gaussberg  is  a  volcanic 
cone  mainly  composed  of  leucite-basalt,  but  its  slopes  are  strewn 
with  erratics  presumably  transported  from  the  south  and  these 
include  gneiss,  mica-schist  and  quartdte,  apparently  Archacaa. 

Much  more  is  known  as  to  the  geology  of  Victoria  Land, 
and  the  results  are  well  summarized  by  Professor  David  and 
Mr  Priestley  of  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton's  expedition,  whom  we 
follow.  From  Cape  North  (71"  S.)  to  86°  S.  a  grand  mountain 
range  runs  south  curving  to  south-eastward,  where  it  vanishes 
into  the  unknown;  it  is  buQt  up  of  gneiss  and  granite,  and  of 
horizontal  beds  of  sandstone  and  limestone  capped  with  eruptive 
rock,  the  peaks  rising  to  heights  of  8000,  10,000  and  even 
15,000  feet,  the  total  length  of  the  range  so  far  as  known  being 
at  least  ixoo  miles.  This  range  rises  abruptly  from  the 
sea,  or  from  the  ice  of  the  Great  Barrier,  and  forms  a  slightly 
higher  edge  to  a  vast  snow  plateau  which  has  been  traversed 
for  several  hundred  miles  in  various  directions,  and  may  for 
aught  we  know  extend  farther  for  a  thousand  miles  or  more. 
The  accumulated  snows  of  this  plateau  discharge  by  the  hugest 
gladers  in  the  world  down  the  valleys  between  the  mountains. 
About  78°  S.  a  group  of  volcanic  islands,  of  which  Ross  Island, 
with  the  active  Mt  Erebus  is  the  largest,  rise  from  the 
sea  in  front  of  the  range,  and  at  the  northern  extremity  the 
volcanic  peaks  of  the  Balleny  Islands  match  them  in  height. 
The  composition  of  the  volcanic  rocks  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  volcanic  rocks  of  the  southern  part  of  New  Zealand. 
The  oldest  rocks  of  Victoria  Land  are  apparently  banded 
gneiss  and  gneissic  granite,  which  may  be  taken  as  Archaean. 
Older  Palaeozoic  rocks  are  represented  by  greenish  grey  slates 
from  the  sides  of  the  Beardmore  glacier  and  by  radiolarian 
cherts;  but  the  most  widespread  of  the  sedimentary  rocks 
occurring  in  vast  beds  in  the  mountain  faces  is  that  named 
by  Ferrar  the  Beacon  sandstones,  which  in  the  far  south 
Sbackleton  found  to  be  banded  with  seams  of  shale  and  coal 
amongst  which  a  fossil  occurred  which  has  been  identified  as 
coniferous  wood  and  suggests  that  the  place  of  the  formation  is 
Lower  Carboniferous  or  perhaps  Upper  Devom'an.  No  Mesosoic 
strata  have  been  discovered,  but  deposits  of  peat  derived  from 
fungi  and  moss  are  now  being  accumulated  in  the  fresh-water 
lakes  of  Ross  Island,  and  raised  beaches  show  a  recent  change 
of  level.  The  coast-line  appears  to  be  of  the  Atlantic,  not  the 
Pacific  type,  and  may  owe  its  portion  and  trend  to  a  great  fault, 
or  series  of  faults,  in  the  line  of  which  the  range  of  volcanoes^ 
Mt  Melbourne,  Mt  Erebus,  and  Mi  Disoovery. stand.  Bouklersof 
gneiss,  quartzite  and  sandstone  have  been  dredged  at  so  many 
points  between  the  Balleny  Islands  and  the  Weddell  Sea  that ; 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  existence  of  similar  continental  land  . 
along  the  whole  of  that  side,  at  least  within  the  Afitfkctic  CtrdB. 


97P 


POLAR  REGIONS 


Antarctic  Ice-Conditions. — It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether 
the  ice  of  the  polar  regions  should  be  dealt  with  as  a  geobgi- 
cal  formation  or  a  meteorological  phenomenon,  but  in  the 
Antarctic  the  ice  is  so  characteristic  a  feature  that  it  may 
well  be  considered  by  itself.  So  far  as  can  be  judged,  the 
total  annual  precipitation  in  the  Antarctic  region  is  very 
slight,  probably  not  mere  than  the  equivalent  of  lo  in.  of 
rain,  and  perhaps  less.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that 
the  immeiise  accumulation  of  snow  near  the  South  Pole 
produced  an  ice-cap  several  miles  in  thickness  which,  creeping 
outward  all  round,  terminated  in  the  sea  in  vast  icc-clnTs,  such 
as  those  of  Ross's  Great  Barrier,  whence  the  huge  flat-topped 
ice-islands  broke  off  and  floated  away.  Evidence,  both  in  the 
Graham  Land  and  in  the  Victoria  Land  areas.,  points  to  a 
former  much  greater  extent  of  the  ice-cap.  Thus  Shackleton 
found  that  the  summit  of  Mt  Hope,  in  83"  30'  S.,  which 
Stands  3000  feet  above  the  ice  of  the  surrounding  gladers,  was 
strewn  with  erratics  which  must  have  been  transported  by  ice 
from  the  higher  mountains  to  the  south  and  west.  In  McMurdo 
Sound,  as  in  Graham  Land,  evidence  was  found  that  the  surface 
of  the  ice-sheet  was  once  at  least  a  thousand  feet  above  its 
present  level.  These  facts  appear  to  indicate  a  period  of 
greater  snowfall  in  the  geologically  recent  past — i.e,  a  period 
of  more  genial  climate  allowing  the  air  to  carry  more  water 
vapour  to  the  southern  mountains.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  case  in  the  past  the  Antarctic  glaciers  are  now  greatly 
shruiiken  and  many  of  them  no  longer  reach  the  sea.  Others 
project  into  the  sea  a  tongue  of  hard  ice,  which  in  the  case  of 
the  Drygalski  glacier  tongue  is  30  m.  long,  and  afloat  probably 
for  a  considerable  distance,  Some  of  these  glacier  tongues  of 
smaller  size  appear  now  to  be  cut  off  at  their  shoreward  end 
from  the  parent,  glacier.  At  one  time  the  Victoria  Land  glacier 
tongues  may  have  been  confluent,  forming  a  great  ice  barrier 
along  the  coast  similar  to  the  small  ice-barriers  which  xlothe 
the  lower  slopes  of  some  of  the  islands  in  Gerlache  Strait.  The 
Great  Ice  Barrier  is  in  many  ways  different  from  these.  Cap- 
tain Scott  showed  that  it  was  afloat  for  at  least  400  m.  of  its 
extent  from  west  to  east.  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton  followed  it  for 
400  m.  from  north  to  south,  finding  its  surface  in  part  thrown 
into  long  gentle  undubtions,  but  with  no  evidence  of  the  sur- 
face being  otherwise  than  level  on  the  average.  The  all-but- 
forgotten  experiments  and  cogitations  of  Biscoe  convinced  that 
shrewd  observer  that  all  Antarctic  icebergs  were  sea-ice  thick- 
ened with  snow  "accumulated  with  time."  The  recent  expeditions 
seem  to  confirm  this  view  to  a  great  extent  in  the  case  of  the 
Barrier,  which,  so  far  as  the  scientific  men  on  the  "  Nimrod  " 
could  see,  was  formed  everywhere  of  compressed  nev6,  not  of 
true  glacier  ice.  Instances  have  been  seen  of  tabular  bergs 
flpatlng  with  half  their  bulk  above  water,  showing  that  they 


are  of  veiy  much  kss  den«ty  than  lolSd  ke.  The  thrust  ol 
the  glaciers  which  descend  from  the  western  monntainsupoa 
the  Barrier  throws  it  into  shoip  crevossed  (olds  near  the  point 
of  contact,  the  disturbance  extending  20  m.  from  the  tip 
of  the  Bcardmorc  glacier,  and  the  seaward  creep  o€  the  whole 
surface  of  the  Barrier  is  pouibly  dtie  to  this  impulse,  the  rate 
of  movement  at  the  eastern  side  ol  the  Barrier  mts  kmid  to  be 
at  the  rate  of  loo  yds  per  annum  for  the  seven  yeus  between 
Scott's  and  Shackleton '«  expeditions 

Pack  ice  composed  of  bioken-up  sea-ice  and  Irasmcnts  of 
icebergs  appears  to  form  a  floating  breakwater  romid  the  Ant- 
arciic  area.  It  is  penetrated  by  powerful  ateunart  wkh  ease 
or  with  difficulty  according  to  the  action  of  the  wind  which 
loosens  the  pack  when  it  drives  it  towards  the  open  sea.  and 
doses  it  up  when  it  drives  it  against  a  coast  or  a  huricr  of  fast  ice. 
At  every  point  but  one  around  the  circumpolar  area  the  pack, 
be  it  light  or  dense^  appears  to  extend  up  to  the  aoothcm  per- 
manent ice  or  land,  though,  as  in  the  Weddell  Sce^  the  pack 
seems  at  times  to  be  driven  bodily  away.  The  eaceptioaal 
region  is  the  openlnft  of  the  Ross  Sea  east  of  Cape  Adare,  where 
a  comparatively  narrow  band  <A  pack  ice  has  ahraya  been  peae> 
trated  by  the  resolute  advaace  even  of  aailins  shifM  and  fed  to 
an  extensive  open  lea  to  the  aouth.  No  doubt  the  act  of  the 
ocean  currents  accounts  for  this»  but  how  they  act  ia  still  obscure. 
The  great  flaC-topped  ice-islands  iriiidi  in  aorae  yeara  dnit  oitt 
from  the  Antarctic  area  in  great  numbers  are  oauall/  met  with 
in  all  parts  of  the  Southern  Ocean  south  of  50^  5 .  and  wan- 
down  icebergs  have  been  sighted  in  the  Atlantic  even  as  far 
north  as  s6°  3a'  S.  The  greater  frequency  of  iccheis^  in  the 
Southern  Ocean  in  some  yeara  is  attributed  to  eartfaqnakea  ia 
the  Antarctic  breaking  off  massea  of  the  floating  edge  of  tb« 
Barrier. 

Auiarak  Ctimo^.'^AUhdugh  a  vast  mass  oi  obicnratioes 
has  recently  been  accunndated,  it  is  not  yet  posaflde  to  treat 
of  the  climate  of  the  South  Polar  region  in  the  lane  bioad  way 
as  in  the  case  of  the  North  Polar  regioix.  The  lattowiaf 
table  shows  the  mean  temperatures  ci  each  aaonth  and  o<  the 
year  at  all  the  stations  at  which, the  Antarctic  viBtfer 
has  been  passed.  The  result  ia  to  show  that  while  the 
winter  is  on  the  wh<4e  less  severe  at  high  latitudes  thu 
at  equal  latitudes  in  the  north,  the  sammer  ia  very  aandi 
colder,  and  has  little  relation  to  latitude.  Even  ia  the 
South  OrkneySf  in  latitude  60*,  In  the  three  warmest 
months  the  ait  scarcely  rises  above  the  freesing  point  as  as 
average,  while  in  Shetlaad  (60*  N.)  tlie  tempencure  of  the 
three  summer  months  averages  54*  F.  But  on  tbe  other 
hand»  the  warmest  month  of  the  3fcar  even  in  77*  S.  has  had  a 
mean  temperature  as  hi|^  as  30"*.  A  ttudy  of  the  figures  quoted 
in  the  accompanying  table  shows  that  until  longer  reaxdi 


Ktf .  . 

Apr.  . 
Mv 

JlUMK  . 

Wr  . 

Auf. 

OeL  . 
Nov. 
Dec  . 
Vmt 

• 

Bdfka 

Cape  Adut 
71*  S. 

SaowRai       1 
•4*  so' 8.       1 

Gmim        1 

DlKOVOW 

77'51'S. 

.    ^?3W* 

S.(Miiear« 

6o'44^. 

Wcodtl  UmS  1 

«s's.        1 

6S-  »c  S      ! 

iM 

lioo. 

»«90. 

1900. 

tgea. 

IfiOl' 

l«Ofl. 

igoQ. 

>909. 

1Q03. 

•004. 

l»o» 

tooft. 

i»»J- 

i«o«. 

tgcM- 

IfBS 

tvA 

<«•«    1 

+it»S 

+w« 

+30-0 

+30< 

+•61 

+a»$ 

+»•« 

'+30*4) 

+3t3 

+3»'« 

[+-J«'5» 

+JO*f 

[4-t««) 

+a4-4 

(+15-0) 

f+«s-o) 

4-ir» 

(  +  71-5) 

+  »0'4 

+30-4) 

+3»^S 

+31  I 

-^Ul 

-J-iS-6 

+x;"7 

+  14  1 

+ifo 

+160 

+  80 

-  08 

+  49 

[+30») 

+314 

+afl  8 

-^33», 

-ftoB 

-1-10  3 

+  6  J 

+  «-7 

+  3^ 

-  7*» 

— »6o 

—  10-9 

4-<o-6 

+IJ» 

+»t» 

-m* 

-Ho  J 

-  4-* 

+  1-7 

-  1-6 

+  «• 

-iri 

xsS'O 

-  5S 

+«7i 

+IOS 

+  131 

-^f»t 

+  41 

-ii-B 

-  OM 

-  6-8 

+  ••$ 

— 16'0 

-13-8 

-  7t 

+  05 

+«68 

+lf8 

^*■x^ 

-10  J 

-  1-6 

-M'O 

—  0-a 

-  0-6 

-  81 

— »ii 

-170 

+  16© 

+  70 

-  a* 

t-j..  r 

+  tl7 

-13-4 

-  •  7 

+  3* 

-  7  4 

-|6S 

-16  3 

-»S7 

+»IS 

+1*7 

+»o4 

-rnl 

-  13 

-n» 

+  $  J 

+  03 

+  0T 

—  IfO 

-t8-6 

-  57 

+IS-* 

+tos 

+lff 

♦  «. 

+irt 

-  it 

+  s» 

+i«*o 

4'S6 

^«» 

-  «  8 

+  4$ 

4-«7-o 

+  1*4 

+rt-7 

-f  »-T 

-f(«'« 

+»7S 

+ift-s 

■ 

+  !«•« 

+  lfO 

+  I$4 

+  170 

+»9  3 

■  +  3IX 

+31S 

*njj 

■fslo 

+3*2, 

•\-lft 

+300 

+JJ1 

+  »$•? 

+iCO 

+31 S 

+»8'8 

+|ia 

+»3W 

+147 

+  70 

+  •■4 

+113 

+  04 

-  30 

+  34 

-♦•»«o 

+»a4 

+«•» 

[-1J4V 

IfUr.i 

to 

to 

M4t.  t 

to 
P4Su<S 

Feb.  ■• 

to 
FckiS 

Fib.« 
JML31 

j40-3t 

to 
Feb. 

- 

%B 

POLAR  REGIONS 


97» 


become  avaflablf  lC  fts  impeasible  to  speak  definitely  as  to  tlie 
aormaJ  distribulioB  of  monthly  temperature  throughout  the 
year,  for  even  at  the  same  station  in.  consecutive  years  the 
months  vary  greatly.  Thus  at  Snow  Hill  (6s"  SJ  the  mean 
temperature  of  August  3903  was  iy$'  higher  than  that  of 
August  1902,  though  June  had  been  7^  colder;  and  at  the 
" Discovery's"  winter  quarters  July  1003  was  13"  colder  than 
July  iQos  though  June  was  2*  wanner,  August  having  exactly 
the  same  mean  temperature  in  each  year.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  year  is  evidently  higher  in  the  position  of  the 
'*  BelgSca's  "  drift  than  in  Victoria  Land  at  the  same  latitude} 
but  it  is  noticeable  that  on  the  west  side  of  Graham  Land,  where 
Charcot  wintered,  the  average  mean  temperature  was  (taking 
the  average  of -his  two  winterings)  15**  higher  than  on  the  east 
side,  where  NordenskjiUd  wintered  in  nearly  the  same  latitude. 
The  observations,  however,  were  not  synchronous,  and  it  may 
ix>t  be  right  to  compare  them.  We  may  perhaps  say  that  along 
the  whole  of  the  known  Antarctic  coasts  the  temperature  in  the 
two  midsummer  months  is  within  a  degree  or  two  of  32°  F.,  and 
varies  little  from  place  to  place  or  from  year  to  year;  but  in  the 
winter  months  the  temperature  is  lower  as  the  latitude  increases 
and  is  subject  to  great  variations  from  place  to  place  and  from 
year  to  year.  It  seems  quite  possible  that  at  no  place  in  the 
Antarctic  region  do  the  mean  monthly  sea-level  winter  tem- 
peratures  fall  so  low  as  in  the  Arctic  poles  of  cold,  but  data  re- 
garding winter  temperatures  In  the  interior  are  .lacking.  All 
the  complete  yearly  series  of  temperature  show  that  the  winter 
six  months  from  Ap'ril  to  September  have  a  low  and  nearly 
equal  temperature,  there  being  a  very  abrupt  fall  in  Pebruary 
and  March,  and  an  equally  abnq>t  rise  in  October  and  November. 
The  warmest  day  experienced  at  the  "  Discovery's "  winter- 
quarters  had  a  inean  temperature  of  34*  7**,  and  the  coldest  MS' 7** 
tbc  extreme  range  of  daily  temperature  being  thus  80-4". 

The  absolutely  lowest  temperature  recorded  in  the  Antarctic 
region  was-^6'8°  on  a  journey  southward  from  the  "  Discovery's  " 
winter-quarters  by  lieut.  Barnc  on  the  15th  of  September 
1903;  the  lowest  temperature  at  the  winter-quarters  was 
-58'5*  on  the  aSth  of  September  1903.  On  Sir  Ernest  Shackle- 
ton's  expedition  (he  lowest  temperature  was  ~si^',  but  no 
other  expedition  met  temperatures  lower  than  -*45-6°  on  the 
'•  Belgica,"  -43  i'  at  Cape  Adare,  and  -41-4"  on  the  "  Gauss." 
Sudden  rises  of  temperature  during  storms  are  o)mmon  in 
the  Antarctic  region,  from  whichever  quarter  the  wind  blows. 

During  the  ascent  of  Alt  Erebus  the  temperature  was  found 
to  fall  as  the  height  increased  from  o"  F.  at  sea-level  to  -24^ 
at  5000  ft.;  it  remained  stationary  to  8600  ft.,  fell  to  -28'  at 
10,650  ft.,  and  then  rose  to  •^22*'  at  11,500  ft.,  and  fcU  a  few 
degrees  at  the  summit.  It  might  appear  as  if  the  "  isothermal 
layer"  of  the  upper  atmosphere  had  been  reached  at  a  re- 
markably low  elevation;  but  the  temperative  variations  may 
also  be  explained  by  differences  in  the  temperature  of  the  strong 
air  currents  which  were  passed  through. 

Pressure  and  Winds. — Jlie  normal  fall  of  pressure  south- 
ward, which  gives  rise  to  the  strong  westerly  winds  of  the 
roaring  forties,  appears  to  be  arrested  about  65*  S.,  and  to  be 
succeeded  by  a  rise  of  pressure  farther  south.  This  view  is 
supported  by  the  frequency  of  south-easterly  winds  in  the 
neigbbourhood  of  the  Antarctic  Circle  reported  by  all  explorers, 
and  the  hypothesis  of  a  south  polar  anticyclone  or  area  of  high 
pressure  over  the  Antarctic  continent  has  gained  currency  in 
advance  of  any  observations  to  establish  it..  The  complete 
data  of  Sir  Ernest  Sbackleton's  expedition  are  not  available 
at  the  time  of  writing,  but  the  yearly  mean  pressure  as  tc- 
corded  at  the  "  Discovery's "  winter-quarters  was  29-35  ui. 
for  190a,  and  29- 23  in,  for  X903.  At  Cape  Adare  it  was 
29- 13  in.  for  1899,  in  the  "  Belgica  "  99*31  in.  for  1898,  and  in 
the  "  Gauss  "  29- 13  in.  for  1902.  These  figures,  so  far  as  they 
are  comparable,  show  distinctly  higher  pressures  in  the  higher 
latitudes,  and  the  wind  observations  bear  out  the  inference  of 
a  8outh-po?ar  high  pressure  area,  as  at  the  *'  Discovery's " 
winter-quarters  80  %  of  the  winds  had  an  easterly  component, 
«nd  only  ^  %  a    westerly    component.  ^^It   b    bewildering. 


however,  to  find  that  on  the  sledge  joumeys  there  was  an 
equally  marked  preponderance  of  wind  with  a  westerly 
component,  and  in  discussing  the  result  in  the  published 
records  of  the  expedition  Mr  R.  H.  Curtis,  of  the  Meteoro- 
logical Office,  felt  compelled  to  ask  whether  the  correction 
for  variation  of  the .  compass  (in  that  region  about  145^) 
was  possibly  omitted  in  the  ^casc  of  the  sledge  journeys. 
The  "  Gauss  "  observations  and  those  at  Cape  Adare  bore  out 
the  frequency  of  easterly  winds,  and  on  the  "  Scotia  "  it  was 
observed  that  practically  all  of  the  easterly  winds  met  with  were 
to  the  south  of  the  Antarctic  Circle.  The  "  Belgica  '^  found 
rather  more  westerly  than  easterly  winds  in  her  drift;  easterly 
winds  predominating  in  summer,  westerly  winds  in  winter.  At 
Cape  Royds  Shackkton  found  easterly  winds  to  predominate, 
the  most  frequent  direction  being  south-east;  but  on  the 
great  southern  journey,  south-south-east  winds  prevailed, 
occasionally  swinging  roimd  to  south-south-west,  and  even  at 
the  farthest  south  (88^  S.)  the  ridges  into  yvhich  the  snow  was 
blown,  xo,ooo  ft.  above  the  sea,  showed  that  south-south- 
easterly winds  predominated.  On  the  journey  to  the  Magnetic 
Pole  Professor  David  found  that  along  the  coast  the  prevailing 
winds  were  south-westerly,  wHh  occasional  blizzards  from  the 
south-east,  but  he  noticed  that  the  westerly  winds  were  of  the 
nature  of  a  land  breexe,  springing  up  soon  after  midnight  and 
continuing  to  blow  fresh  until  about  10  a.m.  Thus  the  balance 
of  probability  inclines  towards  the  hypothesis  of  a  south-polar 
high-pressure  area.  An  upper  current  of  air  blowing  from  a 
north-westerly  direction  was  usually  indicated  by  the  clouds 
and  smoke  on  Mt  Erebus,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  great  erup- 
tion, when  the  steam  column  reached  more  than  20,000  ft. 
above  the  sea  it  entered  a  still  higher  stratum  of  wind  blowing 
from  the  south-east. 

The  intensity  of  the  blizzards  Is  worthy  of  remark,  for  the  velo- 
city of  the  wind  often  reached  40  or  even  60  m.  an  hour,  and 
they  were  usually  accompanied  by  a  rapid  rise  of  temperature. 

Observations  of  sunshine  made  at  the  "  Discovery's  "  winter- 
quarters  yielded  many  records  of  continuous  sunshine  extend- 
ing throughout  24  consecutive  hours,  and  in  the  summer  months 
about  50  %  of  the  possible  sunshine  was  often  recorded,  the 
maximum  being  490  hours,  or  66%  of  the  total  possible  for 
December  1903.  Thus,  although  the  sun  was  above  the  horizon 
only  for  246  days,  it  shone  sufficiently  to  yield  more  than  1725 
hours  of  tuight  sunshine  for  the  year,  an  amoimt  exceeded  in 
few  parts  of  England,  where  the  sun  may  shine  on  365  days. 
The  intently  of  solar  radiation  in  the  dear  weather  of  the 
Antarctic  makes  it  feel  exceedingly  hot  even  when  the  air 
temperature  is  far  below  the  freezing  pomt.  There  is  a  great 
difference  between  the  dear  skies  of  78'  S.  and  the  extremely 
frequent  fogs  which  shroud  the  coast  near  the  Antarctic  Circle 
and  render  navigation  and  surveying  exceedingly  difficult. 
Heavy  snowstorms  are  frequent  on  the  coast,  but  inland  during 
the  snow  bUzzards  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  whirUng 
snow-dust  is  falling  from  the  air  or  beir^  swept  from  the  ground. 
Professor  David  is  inclined  to  believe  that  the  surface  of  the 
snow-plains  is  being  lowered  more  by  the  action  of  the  wind 
sweeping  the  snow  out  to  sea  than  it  is  raised  by  precipitation, 
the  total  amount  of  which  appears  to  be  very  small. 

Flora  and  Fa«n<i.— Recent  expeditions  have  discovered  that, 
despite  the  low  temperature  of  the  summer,  in  which  no  month 
has  a  mean  temperature  appreciably  above  the  freezing  point, 
there  are  on  the  exposed  Antarctic  land  (Kttches  of  ground  with 
a  sparse  growth  of  cryptogamic  vegetation  consisting  of  mosses, 
lichens,  fungi  and  fresh-water  algae.  The  richest  vegeta- 
tion discovered  on  the  "  Nlmrod  "  expedition  consisted  of  sheets 
of  a  lichen  or  fungoid  growth,  covering  the  bottom  of  the  fresh- 
water lakes  near  Cape  Royds,  and  visible  through  the  dear  ice 
throughout  the  many  nK)Dths  when  the  water  is  frozen.  Ko 
dowering  plants  occur  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  or  in  the 
immediately  adjacent  lands. 

The  marine  fauna  is  very  rich  and  abundant.  ATI  the  ezpedv 
tions  obtained  many  new  species,  and  the  resemblance  whicb 
occurs  between  many  of  the  forms  and  tbose  which  inhabit 


POLDER— POLE 


>  tlic  bypoibsii  thit  cntiiii 
□I  otit  frigid  umc  to  tbe  Wbcr. 
L  all  the  fornu  i^ch  itwmble 
I  lie  cosmopolilin,  ind  occur 
111  tbi  •o-aiUcd  "  problera  of 


each  otliM  in  the  Iho  poLac 
tbo  in  the  Intermediiie  ui 

bipaliiiiy  "  U  still  uuciiled.  Bird  ISIe  od  >ea  mil  land  ii  Fiiily 
(buDduil,  the  most  comnion  lorms  beio(  the  tkoa  gult.  laoii 
petrcli,  and  the  viiioiu  ipcde*  «(  peaguins.  The  penguins  ire 
■peciiJIy  adapted  lot  an  iiualjc  life,  and  depend  [or  iheir  food 
enlicely  on  miripe  animala.  The  largest  ipedei,  tbe  eiDpeiot 
penguin,  inhabits  the  moat  sauLheTly  coast  koovn  on  the  edge 
of  the  C[e*t  Barrier,  and  there  it  breeds  at  mid-iiiiiler.  very 
luleresting  spedaliialions  of  atructun  and  babil  making  this 
(ppirently  impossible  leit  pnclicsble.  The  todal  organiu- 
tioD  and  habils  of  the  various  spede9  of  penguin]  have  been  caR- 
fuQy  studied,  and  show  that  these  birds  have  utived  at  i  stage 
of  what  might  almost  be  called  dvitiialion  worthy  of  the  most 


■pedes  of  whales,  hi 
■pedes  of  seals  which 


t  the  "  right  whale," 


.    Tht 


r  by  keeping  open 
land  aniraaJ 


except  a  few  spedes  of  mini 

type.  The  fresh-water  pondi  Icem  with  microscopic  lifi. 
tardigiada,  or  "  water  beara  "  and  mtifen  showing  a  remariubic 
power  ol  reaiitance  lo  low  temperature,  being  thawed  out  allvi 
liter  being  froteo  lotid  for  monthi  and  perhaps  for  years. 


VDyateo(Ihe''Balaeiu."  iSu-iSgj};  H.  J.  611II.  Tie  Cniu  ^lif 
"AiUvaic"  U  On  Seiilk  Fular  Rtrimi  (London.  ISqeJi  the 
voygi  u  Vkxoria  Land  in  iBM-IBgj)!  F.  A.  Cook,  ntreutS  IMm 


FOLDKR,  Ibe  Dutch  name  fn  ■  fita  ol  low-lytng.  manhy 
land  reclaimed  trom  the  lea  or  other  water  by  drainage  and 
diking  (see  Holluid). 

POLE  CruoLY).  Tbe  famOy  of  the  Polo,  earls  and  dukes  ol 
Suffolk,  which,  hut  for  Richard  UI.'s  defeat  it  Boiworth,  migbl 
have  given  the  neit  khig  la  En^nd,  hid  iu  origin  in  a  bouM 
of  mCTchanli  at  Kingston-upon-HuU,  It  bu  been  said  that 
these  Polea  nre  the  fint  English  peen  whose  fonanta  had  been 
founded  upon  riches  gained  in  trade;  but  the  Beiheleyt,  de- . 
(cendinlsof  RobenfitzHtidinctherichbiirtbenof  Cloacater, ' 


lauit peifiapa In ndMfMd behntbcn.  Tbdr ptjgwe be^ 
with  one  William  attiI>ol«  (d.c  t]i9],  ■  meichut  of  Kn- 
rode  who  settled  in  HuU,  whaa  hia  widow  becaioe  Ibc  wile  ol 
John  Rotenbering,  alu  a  OMfchanl.  Uii  yxii,  Sir  Rkhant  ti4 
Six  William  alte  Pole,  wen  both  iuMO*  fee  Ihdr  Btakh  u  a 
lime  when  the  Cniwn  bad  great  need  of  rich  men'*  aid.  Sa 
Richitd(d.  iM3),tbeking'>butle[in  ijiT,  removed  la  Lcndsa, 
ud  is  ilyled  a  London  dtlien  b  hit  ■ill.  Tbe  male  line  c< 
thl>,  tbe  elder  branch  of  tbe  Polei,  (ailed  wilh  a  grandsoD,  Juki 
Pcde.  nho  hy  bit  marriage  with  Joan,  daughter  <A  John,  Leid 
CoUiam,  wu  father  of  Joan,  L«dy  of  Cobham.  the  Keniith 
heiress  whose  land*  brought  her  five  knightly  hiiahinda,  the 
fourth  of  them  Sir  John  Oldcaiiie  the  Lollard. 

Sr  William  itle  Pole  (d.  1366),  the  second  lOB  oT  WiKa^ 
j(Hned  his  brother  in  advancing  large  lunu  to  tbe  fovemneat 
whDe  keeping  safely  apart  from  politin,  Tbe  6rM  miv« 
of  Hull,  he  sat  for  Hull  In  five  parliameoti,  and  waa  ndvanfrd 
to  be  ksigbt  banneret  and  a  baron  of  the  eicbequer.  He  ni 
counted  "  second  to  no  merchant  In  En^and,"  bwt  mfUr  ha 
time  hia  deacendanta  left  the  counting-boiac,  hia  foor  waa  li 
lerving  In  the  French  wan.  The  eklal  *on,  Hichul  Pole,  win 
had  fought  under  the  Black  Prince  and  John  of  Gwont,  m 
■ummoncd  as  a  baron  in  ijM,  before  the  father's  death,  isd. 
as  a  stout  supporter  of  the  Crown,  was  a[^»inled  ia  i]$i 
govemor  of  tbe  person  of  tbe  young  king  Richard  11.,  wfcuie 
marriage  with  tbe  Lady  Anne  of  fiohemia  be  had  anaaced 
on  a  villi  to  her  brother  Ibe  king  ol  tbe  Romana.  In  ijtj  he 
bcome  chinnlior  of  En^ind  and  thercafier.  u  ibc  iajtS 
servant  and  nearest  counsellor  of  the  king,  he  had  to  face  the 
jealousy  of  the  great  lords  and  the  hatred  of  (be  CoRunana. 
Bis  weallh  added  lo  tbe  envy  of  his  enemies,  for,  to  hiiintieriud 
YorkJiire  and  Lincolnshire  lands,  bis  marriage  wili  CatheTW, 
daughter  and  heir  of  Sir  John  of  WingHeld,  added  agr^uSoffeft 
estate,  where,  lonifying  the  nunor-houM  of  tbe  WtegMci, 
he  made  his  chief  scat.  In  1385  he  was  created  eari  of  SaffoU. 
a  grant  from  tbe  Crown  giving  him  the  caille  lad  booeu  el 
Eye  with  other  East  AngUin  lands  fotmeriy  held  by  the  UEeH 
eirla.  In  ij86  tbe  oppcsition,  led  by  Gloocester,  tbe  kicg'i 
unde,  pulled  biin  down.  He  was  dismissed  from  hb  duacelkr- 
■hip.  and  impeached  by  the  Commons  on  cbarges  which.  iasiB- 
dent  upon  the  face  of  Ihem,  secured  bb  CDnrictioa.  RichL-d 
waa  forced  to  send  his  minister  into  ward  at  Windaot  snii 
the  piiUament  was  dissolved,  when  Suffolk  once  uore  apfteaml 
as  the  leader  of  Ibc  king's  party,  fiut  the  oppoutioa  wn 
insistent,  and  Suffolk,  after  Richard  bad  been  cnmpelkd  1* 
pvc  bis  word  that  those  who  had  advised  him  ill  ihoold  tmwe 
for  it  to  the  neit  pariiament,  Sed  over  aea  to  Calao.  Os 
of  the  earliest  of  the  many  popular  songs  that  b«rk  agai^i 
the  Poles  tcUa  ioyfnlly  ol  this  Bight  of  Ibe  detested  ^Jakc* 
Sentence  of  death  by  the  gallows  was  paised  in  his  ataeax. 
The  over-iealou)  governor  of  Calais  who  {bund  bun  at  til 
gates,  dad  as  a  poor  Fleming,  his  chin  shaved,  packed  him  bici 
10  England,  whence  he  escaped  again,  dnuhllca  with  the  kings 
aid,  reaching  his  native  town  of  Hull,  wbare  be  inw  f or  tlv  bat 
time  bis  "  goodly  bouse  of  bridi."  Old  friendi  tcnmd  him  a 
ibip  that  landed  bim  in  tbe  Low  Countiies,  and  he  died  an  eA 
in  Paris  in  ijSq. 

Tbe  exile's  son  Michael,  who  had  married  Catherfar,  dasghiff 
oftbeeailof  Stafford,  was  restored  to  tbe  eiildora  in  1347,  aid, 
altbougfa  bis  father's  attainder  waa  tevived  by  tte  act  of  the 
firat  parliament  of  Remy  IV.,  the  earldom  was  reatond  osct 
again  in  1399,  together  with  the  castle  and  hnttaur  ot  Eye  Hit 
Q^  was  that  ol  a  soldier,  and  bo  was  with  the  host  bHonBu- 
ffeur  in  1415,  when  be  died  of  a  vlotent  dyientcry.  »«^>—» 
the  eldest  son  and  bar,  marched  from  his  fatber'i  deuMnl  ts 
Agincoun,  where  he  CeO,  Drayton's  ballad  tecallE^  bi>>  he 
plied  his  axe  on  tbe  great  day.  By  bis  wife,  a  daagbta-  el  the 
Erst  duke  of  Kottolk.  be  had  three  da    '  ' 

Ibem  marrying,  bis  lands  pined  with  tb 
WllUam. 


POLE 


973 


been  sent  boinc  sick  after  tlie  aiegib  He  returned  with  the 
"viage"  of  14171  leading  thirty  men-at-arms  and  ninety 
archerk  Henry  V«  made  him  adnunl  of  Normandy,  and  until 
the  crowning  of  Henry  VI.  in  Paris  in  14^1  he  served  in  France 
without,  by  his  own  account,  coming  home  or  teeing  England. 
•He  held  ihe  chief  command  before  Orirans  after  Salisbury 
had  fallen  to  a  cannon-shot  from  the  dty,  but  was  forced  to 
surrenderto  Joanof  Arc  at  Jargeau,  where  his  brother  Alexander 
was  lulled,  another  brother,  John,  being  Uken  prisoner  with  the 
earl.  A  fourth  brother, Thomas,  aclerk,  becamehostage  toDunois 
until  the  vast  ransom  of  the  earl  was  paid  down.  After  1431 
Suffolk  turned  to  English  politics.  Like  his  grandfather,  he 
found  a  king's  uncle,  another  Glohcester,  the  chief  of  his  enemies. 
Defeating  Gloucester's  project  of  an  Armagnac  match,  Suffolk 
arranged  for  the  young  king's  marriage  with  Margaret  of 
Anjou,  and  brought  honte  the  bride  to  Portsmouth  in  1445. 
In  the  .year  before  he  had  been  created  marquess  of  Suffolk, 
being  the  fourth  Englishman  to  take  the  style  of  marquess. 
His  party  and  the  queen's  were  on  the  point  of  overthrowing 
their  opponent,  Gloucester,  when  the  "  good  duke  "  died  sud- 
denly in  the  hands  of  those  who  had  arrested  him.  This  death, 
followed  by  that  of  Cardinal  Beaufort,  left  the  field  to  Suffolk. 
Under  a  patent  of  1443  Suffolk  became  eaii  of  Pembroke  at 
Duke  Humphoey's  death.  His  honoois  were  capped  in  1448 
with  a  dukedom  of  Suffolk,  he  being  then  admiral  of  England, 
governor  of  Calais,  constable  of  Dover,  and  warden  of  the 
Cinque  Ports.  But  it  seemed  that  long  service  in  the  foreign 
wars  had  not  purged  the  offence  of  the  name  of  Pole.  All  the 
<dd  enmity  which  had  driven  his  grandfather  into  exile  was 
gathering  against  Suffolk.  His  peace  policy  had  cost  the 
cession  of  Maine  and  Anjou,  while  the  blunders  of  his  ally, 
Somerset,  as  lieutenant  in  France,  lost  Normandy  to  England. 
Early  in  1450  the  Common^  in  spite  of  Suffolk's  appeal  to  his 
years  of  lo^  service,  accused  him  of  treason  and  he  was  sent 
to  the  Tower.  A  long  indictment  was  reinforced  by  new 
accusations,  and  the  king  could  do  no  more  for  his  minister  than 
set  hSm  free  under  a  sentence  of  five  years'  banishment.  He 
sailed  from  Ipswich  on  the  May  Day  of  1450,  but  before  be 
could  enter  the  port  of  Calais  he  was  cut  off  by  a  royal  ship,  the 
'*  Nicholas,"  whose  master  had  him  put  overboard  into  the  cock- 
boat, where  his  head  was  hacked  off  by  an  Irish  knave*s  rusty 
sword.  His  body,  cast  headless  upon  Dover  beach,  was  carried 
by  the  king's  orders  to  the  Poles'  vault  in  Wingfield  church, 
where  his  effigy  may  still  be  seen.  Who  sent  out  the  "  Nicholas," 
and  by  whose  orders  Suffolk  died,  are  questions  which  remain 
unanswered.  He  was  the  third  husband  of  Alice  Chaucer, 
whom  ha  married  as  the  widow  of  Thomas,  Earl  of  Sab'sbury, 
slain  before  Orieans.  She  was  the  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Thomas  Chaucer,  of  Ewelme,  and,  although  direct  evidence 
is  wanting,  the  granddaughter,  without  doubt,  of  Geoffrey 
Chaucer,  the  poet.  She  lies  at  Ewelme,  under  a  magmficent 
tomb. 

*  John  Pole  (1442-1491),  only  son  of  the  murdered  duke,  should 
have  succeeded  to  the  dukedom,  his  father  having  died  un- 
attainted.  But  the  honours  were  apparently  regarded  as 
forfeited,  and  the  dukedom  was  formally  restored  to  the  boy 
in  t455,  the  earldom  of  Pembroke  being  allowed  to  lapse. 
Although  three  generations  of  warrior  lords  lay  between  him 
and  the  Hull  wanehouses,  the  origin  of  his  house  was  still  fresh 
in  men's  memories.  John  Paston,  writing  in  1465,  could  tell 
every  name  in  the  duke's  pedigree  back  to  "  William  Pool  of 
HuO,"  who  had  been  "  first  a  merchant  and  after  a  knight," 
and  "  what  the  father  of  the  said  William  was  "  John  Paston 
knew  **  right  welL"  The  duke's  father  was  an  upstart  for  the 
crowd,  whofle  ballads  pelted  him  with  the  name  of  "Jac 
Napes,"  suggested  by  his  familiar  badge  of  the  ape's  clog  and 
chain.  Nevertheless  a  wife  d  royal  blood  was  found  for  the 
yowig  duke,  King  Edward  IV.'s  own  sister  Elizabeth.  The 
marriage  eonflrmed  him  a  partisan  of  the  White  Rose.  The 
son  of  Margaret's  faithful  minister  rode  against  her  man  at  the 
second  battle  of  St  Albans.  Before  he  was  of  age  he  was 
steward  oC  England  at  his  brother-in-law's  crowning,  and  at 


Queen  BUxabeth's  crowning  \»t  bore  her  sceptre.  Having 
held  many  offices  under  Edward  IV.  he  was  ready  to  bear  a 
sceptre  at  Richard's  coronation,  and,  after  Bosworth,  to  swear 
fealty  to  the  Tudor  dynasty  and  to  bear  another  sceptre  for 
another  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  died  in  1491,  having  safely 
kept  his  lands,  his  dukedom,  and  his  head  throu^^  perilous 
years. 

But  each  advance  in  rank  had  brought  danger  and  misfor- 
tune to  the  Poles.  Before  the  death  of  the  second  duke  they 
had  begun  to  pay  the  price  of  their  matching  with  the  royal 
house.  In  the  next  generation  their  name  was  blotted  out. 
John  Pole,  eldest  son  of  Duke  John  and  the  Lady  Elizabeth, 
had  been  created  Earl  of  Lincoln  by  his  uncle,  Edward  IV. 
Before  he  followed  Richard  to  Bosworth,  the  young  man  had 
been  chosen  as  heir  to  the  throne,  Clarence's  son  Warwick 
being  put  aside.  He  survived  King  Richard  and  Henry  VIZ. 
spared  him.  But  he  egged  on  Simnd's  plot,  joined  the  rebels 
in  Ireland,  and  was  killed  at  Stoke  in  1487,  leaving  no  issue  by 
hb  wife,  the  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Arundel.  Edmund,  his 
younger  brother,  (e,  1473-1513)  should  have  succeeded  in  1491 
as  duke  of  Suffolk,  but  on  coming  of  age  he  agreed  to  satisfy 
himself  with  the  title  of  eari  of  Suffolk,  the  king  grudgingly 
restoring  some  portion  of  the  estates  forfeited  by  his  brother. 
In  1499  he  suddenly  left  the  kingdom,  but  wu  persuaded  to 
return.  But  the  death  of  the  imprisoned  earl  of  Warwick  may 
have  suggested  to  him  that  Henry's  court  was  a  dangerous 
place  for  those  of  the  blood  of  York,  and  in  1 501  he  found  his  way 
to  the  emperor  Maximilian  in  Tirol  with  a  scheme  for  the 
invasion  of  England.  Although  the  kaiser  at  first  promised 
him  men  for  the  adventure,  nothing  came  of  his  promises.  Maxi- 
milian, persuaded  by  a  gift  of  English  money,  bound  himself 
not  to  succour  English  rebels.  Suffolk,  who  had  reassumed  Ihe 
ducal  style,  was  attainted  in  1504,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
seized  by  the  duke  of  Guelders.  From  the  duke's  hands  the 
prisoner  was  taken  by  Philip,  king  of  Castile,  who  surrendered 
him  to  England  on  a  promise  that  his  life  should  be  spared. 
But  in  15x3,  when  Richard,  his  brother,  was  in  urns  in  the 
French  service,  Edmund  Pole  was  taken  from  his  prison  In  the 
Tower  to  the  block. 

Richard  Pole,  who  In  1501  escaped  from  England  with 
Edmund,  had  been  received  by  the  king  of  Hungary,  and 
afterwards  by  Louis  of  France,  who  assigned  him  a  pension. 
Commanding  German  Lanzknechts  in  the  French  service,  he 
was  the  friend  and  companion  in  arms  of  the  chevalier  Bayard. 
At  the  death  of  his  brother  Edmund,  he  took  the  title  of  the 
duke  of  Suffolk,  claiming  the  throne  of  En^and.  In  1514 
Louis  gave  him  the  leading  of  x»,ooo  riotous  GernUm 
mercenaries  to  essay  the  conquest  of  England.  The  treaty 
of  peace  stayed  the  adventure,  but  Louts  refused  to  surrender 
Richard,  and  allowed  him  to  depart  for  the  imperii^  city  of 
Metz.  Francis  I.  continued  the  payment  of  his  aUowance, 
and  gave  him  employment.  In  1523  the  anonymous  writer 
of  a  journal  describes  the  coming  to  Paris  of  "  Richard  de  la 
Poulle,  soydfsant  due  de  Suffort  et  la  Blanche  Rose."  In 
i$2S  the  White  Rose  was  killed  by  the  French  king's  side  at 
Pavia.  With  him  died  the  last  descendant  in  the  male  line  of 
William  Pole,  the  Hull  merchant. 

By  one  of-  the  strange  chances  of  history,  another  family  of 
the  name  of  Pole,  having  no  kinship  with  the  house  of  Suffolk, 
owed,  like  the  Suffolks,  their  advancement  and  their  fall 
to  a  match  with  a  princess  of  the  royal  house.  Sir  Richard 
Pole,  a  Buckinghamshiro  knight,  was  the  son  of  Geoffrey  Pole, 
a  squire  whose  wife,  Edith  St  John,  was  sister  of  the  half-blood 
to  the  mother  of  Heniy  VII.  About  1490  or  1491  he  married 
the  Lady  Margaret,  daughter  of  George,  duke  of  Clarence.  He 
died  in  1505,  and  in  1513  King  Henry  VIII.  created  the  widow 
countess  of  Salisbury,  as  some  amends  for  the  judicial  murder  of 
her  brother,  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  Four  years  later,  the  barony 
of  Montague  was  revived  for  her  eldest  son  Henry.  Until  the 
king's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  the  countess  of  Salisbury  was 
about  the  court  as  governess  of  her  godchild,  the  Lady  Mary. 
Mfhen  her  son,  the  famous  Cardinal  Pole,  published  his  treatise. 


^4 


POLE,  CARDINAL 


De  tmUaU  euMattka,  the  iriiole  famUy  f^H  ander  the  dis- 
pleasoie  of  the  king,  who  resolved  to  make  an  end  of  them. 
The  Lord  Montague  was  the  first  victim,  beheaded  ia  1539 
on  a  charge  of  treasonable  conversations,  evidence  having 
been  wrung  from  his  unhappy  brother,  Sir  Geoffrey  Pole. 
In  1541  the  aged  countess,  attainted  with  her  son  Montague, 
met  her  death  at  the  barbarous  hands  of  an  unskUful  heads- 
man. Sir  Geoffrey  Pole,  seeing  that  his  house  was  doomed, 
fled  the  country,  and  joined  the  cardinal  in  exile.  He  returned 
with  him  at  Mary's  accession,  both  dying  in  1558.  His  sons 
Arthur  and  Edmund,  taken  in  1562  as  plotters  against  Queen 
Elizabeth,  were  committed  to  the  Tower  of  London,  where  they 
died  after  eight  years  of  imprisonment. 

See  T.  Rymcr's  Ftodtra',  C  Frost,  Hithry  «f  Hvtt  (1827): 
Ckrwiam  d4  MtUa  (Rolls  Series):  G.  £.  C.  ComUtU  Peerafs: 
Ttstatnenta  Eheractmia  (Surtees  Soc.) ;  Hon.  and  Rev.  n.  A.  Napier, 
Svincembe  and  Ewdme  (1S58);  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.v.  "Pole"; 
E.  Foos,  Judges  of  England  (1849-186^);  Chronicon  Anrltae  (Rolls 
Series);  Pastp»  Letters,  edited  by  J.  Gatrdncr;  Sir  I.  H.  Ramsay, 
lanauter  and  York  (1893):  Letters  and  Papers  of  Richard  HI. 
and  Henry  VJI,  (Rolls  Series);  Inquests  post  mortemt  Close  and 
Patent  Rolls,  Rolls  of  Parliament.  (O.  fiA.) 

POLE,  REGINALD  (1500-1558)*  English  cardinal  and  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  born  at  Stourton  Castle,  Staffordshire, 
was  the  third  son  of  Sir  Richard  Pole,  ICnight  of  the  Garter,  and 
Margaret,  countess  of  Salisbury,  a  daughter  of  Geoige,  duke  of 
Clarence,  and  therefore  niece  oif  Edward  IV<  He  was  intended 
for  the  church  from  his  youth;  and  when  seven  years  old  was 
sent  for  five  years  to  the  grammar  school  which  Colet  had  founded 
Bear  the  Canhusian  monastery  at  Sheen.  Here  he  had  Linacrc 
and  William  Latimer  as  teachers.  In  his  thirteenth  year  he 
went  to  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  two  years  after  took 
his  degree  in  arts.  In  1517  Henry  VIII.  appointed  his  young 
kinsman  to  a  prebend  in  Salisbury,  and  soqn  afterwards  to  the 
deaneries  of  Wimborne  and  Exeter.  He  was  a  friend  of  Sir 
Thomas  More,  who  says  that  Pole  was  as  learned  as  he  was 
noble  and  as  virtuous  as  he  was  learned.  In  1519,  at  the  king's 
expense,  he  went  to  Padua,  the  Athens  of  Europe,  according  to 
Erasmus;  and  there,  where  Cokt  and  Cuthbert  Tunstall  had 
also  been  educated,  the  "  nobleman  of  England  "  as  he  was 
called,  came  Into  contact  with  the  choicest  minds  of  the  Uter 
Italian  Renaissance,  and  formed  the  friendships  that  influenced 
his  life. 

In  1535  he  went  to  Rome  for  the  Jubilee,  and  two  years  after 
returned  to  England  and  was  initiated  by  Thomas  Cromwell 
into  the  mysteries  of  statesmanship,  that  master  telling  him 
that  the  main  point  consisted  in  discovering  and  following  the 
will  of  princes,  who  are  not  bound  by  the  ordinary  code  of 
honour.  When  the  divorce  question  arose,  Pole,  like  many  other 
excellent  men,  seems  at  first  to  have  been  in  its  favour.  He  prob- 
ably took  the  same  view  thai  Wolsey  had,  viz.  that  the  dispen- 
sation of  Julius  II.  was  insufficient,  as  of  two  existing  diriment 
impediments  only  one  had  been  dispensed.  When  however  the 
king  raised  the  theological  argument  which  eiuied  in  disaster, 
Pble  could  not  accept  it;  and,  alter  the  failure  of  Campcggio's 
mission,  when  the  king  asked  him  for  his  opinion,  he  excused 
himself  on  the  score  of  inexperience,  but  went  by  Henry's 
order  to  Taris  (1550)  to  obtain  the  judgment  of  the  Sorbonne, 
making  the  condition  that  another  should  be  joined  with  him 
to  do  the  necessary  business.  At  this  time,  he  says,  the  more 
he  saw  into  the  case  the  less  be  knew  how  to  act  as  he  was 
desired^  On  his  return  to  England  he  spoke  strongly  against 
the  project  to  the  king,  who  seems  to  have  dealt  gently  with 
him  In  the  hope  of  using  him  for  his  own  ends.  He  offered  him 
the  sees  of  York  or  Winchester,  and  kept  them  vacant  for  ten 
months  for  his  acceptance.  There  was  a  stormy  interview  at 
York  Place;  but  Pole  succeeded  in  mollifying  the  king's  rage 
10  far  that  Henry  told  him  to  put  into  writing  his  reasons  against 
the  divorce,  lliis  was  done,  and|  recognizing  the  difficulties 
of  the  situation,  the  king  gave  him  leave  to  travel  abroad,  and 
alk>wed  him  still  to  retain  his  revenues  as  dean  of  Exeter.  In 
'xS3S>  which  saw  by  the  deaths  of  Bishop  Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas 
More  a  chaage  in  Henry's  policy,  Pole  received  olden  to  send 


a  formal  opinian  on  the  nytl  supremacy,    aad  the  Uic 
proonised  to  find  him  suitable  employment  la  England,  even 
if  the  opinion  were  an  advene  one.   The-parting  of  the  ways  had 
been  reached.    Pde's  reply,  which  took  a  year  to  write,  and 
was  afterwards  published  with  additions  under  the  title  Pre 
tmitate  ecdesiae,  was  sent  to  En^and  (May  25,  1536)  sad 
was  meant  for  the  king's  eye  alone.    It  contained  a  vigorovs 
and  severe  attack  upon  the  royal  policy,  and  did  not  shrink  fnxi 
warning  Henry  with  temporal  punishment  at  the  hands  e(  the 
emperor  and  the  king  of  Fraiux  if  he  did  not  repent  of  his 
cruelties  and  return  to  the  (Zhurdi.    He  was  again  summoned 
to  return  to  England  to  explain  himself,  but  declined  urtd 
be  could  do  so  with  honour  and  safety;  but  he  was  on  tiie 
point  of  going  at  all  risks,  when  he  heard  from  his  mother  asd 
brother  that    the  whole  family  would  suffer  if  he   remained 
obstinate.    Paul  Ul.  who  had  prepared  a  bull  of  escommuia- 
cation  and  deposition  against  Henry,  summoned  Pole  to  Root 
in  October,  and  two  months  after  created  him  cardiaaL    la 
January  1537  he  received  a  sharp  letter  of  rebuke  fraia  the 
king's  coundl,  together  with  the  suggestion  that  the  difier- 
ences  mij^t  be  discussed  with  royal  deputies  either  in  Fnaee 
or  Flanders,  provided  that  Pole  would  attend  witboat  betog 
commissioned  by  any  one.    He  replied  that  he  was  williag  ud 
had  the  pope's  leave  to  meet  any  deputies  anywhere.    Panl  IIL 
in  the  early  spring  of  that  year  named  him  legate  «  lalen  ts 
Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  for  the  purpose  of  securiqg  thcr 
assistance  in  enforcing  the  boll  by  heli^ng  a  projected  risiog 
in   England   against   Henry's  tyranny.     Ihe  ini88i<m  failed, 
as  the  mutual  jealousy  of  the  sovereigns  wotild  not  aOow  eiiher 
to  begin  operations.    Moreover,  the  fear  of  Henry  was  sufi- 
cicnt  to  nuke  the  French  king  refuse  to  allow  one  who  *ss 
attainted  by  act  of  parliament  to  remain  in  the  Idncdon;  m 
Pole  passed  over  to  Flanders,  to  luit  for  the  possible  anivat  of 
any  royal  deputies.    The  propose^onference  never  took  place, 
and  in  August  1537  the  cardinal  returned  to  RomcL     There  be 
was  appointed  to  the  famous  ownmission  which   Paul  IIL 
established  for  considering  the  reforms  necessary  for  the  dicrdi 
and   Roman   curia.     The  report  ConsUiuim  deiecimium  car- 
dinalium  is,  in  its  plain-spoken  directness,  one  of  the  most  Bote> 
worthy  documents  of  the  history  of  the  period.    Towards  (he 
end  of  X539,  after  Henry  had  destroyed  the  shrine  of  St  Thor^ 
Becket,  another  attempt  was  made  to  Uuach  the  bwll  of  de^ 
position,  and  Pole  again  was  sent  to  urge  Charles  V.  to  asss;. 
Once  more  his  efforts  were  in  vain,  and  be  retired  to  his  frknd 
Sadoleto  at  Carpentras.    As  Pole  had  escaped  Henry's  power 
the  royal  vengeance  now  fell  on  his  mother,  who  was  caecatcd 
as  a  traitor  on  the  37thof  May  1 541.   When  the  news  caoK  to  the 
cardinal  he  said  to  his  secretary  Beccatelli  that  he  had  ieLci%e< 
good  tidings:  *'  Hitherto  I  have  thought  myself  inddiced  t» 
the  divine  goodness  for  having  received  my  birth  fpam  oiMt  of 
the  most  noble  and  virtuous  women  in  En^and;  hot  heoce> 
forth  my  obligation  will  be  much  greater,  as  I  undezsuad 
I  am  now  the  son  of  a  martyr.    We  have  one  p*tios  mm 
added  to  those  we  already  have  in  heaven  ";  and  retuiaiag  U 
his  oratory  Pole  found  peace  in  his  sorrow. 

On  the  a  I  St  of  August  1541  the  cardinal  was  appomted  l^sie 
at  ViterbO)  and  for  a  few  yean  passed  a  happy  and  ooogeniBl 
life  amid  the  friends  that  gathered  round  hioa.  Here  he  caae 
into  dose  relations  with  Vittoria  Coloima,  Omtarini,  Saidohto. 
Bembo,  Morone,  Marco  Antonio,  Flaminio,  and  other  ichoUts 
,  and  leaders  of  thought;  and  many  of  the 
by  the  Reformation  in  Germany  were  casedy 
the  drcic  of  Viterbo.  The  burr4ing  questioa  of  the  d^y, 
justification  by  faith,  was  a  ^tedal  subject  ol  <Uaciiama& 
The  "dolcc  libricdno,"  the  famous  TraUalo  ml8Usim»  id 
beneficio  di  Cesu  Christa  crocifesso  urso  i  ckHsHmu,  wK3 
was  the  composition  of  a  Sicilian  Benedictiiie  and  hj^d  bees 
touched  up  by  the  great  latinist  Flandniob  juat  appcaiH 
at  Mantua  in  1542  under  the  auspices  of  Moiooe,  aad  had  s 
wide  circulation  (over  40/)oo  copies  of  the  aeoaad  cdkioa, 
Venice  iS43t  were  sold).  Containing  eztiacts  from  ikc 
Hundred  and  Ten  Divine  Considerations  of  Jvaa  VaUct  (i^J^ 


POLE,  CARDINAL 


97^ 


U  WIS  10011  nguded  with  the  utmost  honor  by  many.  But 
4t.  Viterbo  it  was  in  favour,  and  the  orthodox  interpreta* 
tioh  was  regarded  rather  than  the  other  which  might  be 
takelt  in  the  Lutheran  sense.  Pole's  own  attitude  to  the 
question  of  justification  by  (aith  is  given  by  Viltoria  Colonaa, 
to  whom  he  said  that  she  ought  to  set  herself  to  believe  as 
though  she  must  be  saved  by  faith  alone  and  to  act  as  though 
she  must  be  saved  by  works  alone.  In  the  excited  temper  of 
the  times  any  defender  of  justification  by  faith  was  looked  upon 
by  the  old  school  as  heretical;  and  Polo»  with  the  circle  at  Viter bo« 
was  denounced  to  the  Inquisition,  with  all  sorts-  of  crimes 
imputed  to  him.  Though  -the  process  went  on  from  the 
pontificate  of  Paul  III.  to  that  of  Paul  IV.,  nothing  was  done 
against  the  cardinal  until  the  time  of  the  latter  pope,  who  was 
his  personal  enemy.  It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Pole  ever 
knew  about  the  process  begun  against  him;  and  immediate 
subsequent  events  show  that  no  credence  was  i^veo  to  the 
charges.* 

While  at  Viterbo  his  rule  was  firm  but  mild;  and  no  charge  of 
persecuting  heretics  is  made  against  him.  He  regained  many, 
such  as  his  friend  Flaminio»  by  patience  and  kindliness,  to  a 
reconsideration  of  their  errors.  During  this  time  also  ho  was 
still  engaged  in  furthering  a  proposed  armed  expedition  to 
Scotland  to  aid  the  papal  party,  nnd  in  1545  he  was  again  asking 
help  from  Charles  V.  But  the  Council  of  Trent  iq.v.),  first  sum- 
moned in  1536,  was  at  last  on  the  point  of  meeting,  and  this 
required  all  his  attention.  In  1542  he  had  been  appointed  one 
of  the  presiding  legates  and  had  written  in  preparation  his 
work  De  coneilio;  and  now  in  154 Si  after  a  brief  visit  to  RomQ» 
he  went  secretly,  on  account  of  fei^-  of  assassination  by  Henry's 
ivgentf,  to  Trent,  where  he  arrived  on  the  4th  of  May  1545.  At 
the  council  he  took  a  high  spiritual  line,  and  bis  learning  and 
devout  life  made  him  a  great  leader  in  that  assembly.  He 
advocated  that  dogmatic  decrees  should  go  together  with  those 
on  reform  as  affording  the  only  stable  foundation.  His  views 
on  the  subject  of  original  sin,  akin  as  it  is  to  that  of  justification, 
were  accQ)ted  and  embodied  in  the  decree.  He  was  present 
when,  the  latter  subject  was  introduced,  and  he  entreated  the 
fathers  to  study  the  subject  well  before  conunitting  themselves 
to  a  decision.  On  the  28th  of  June  1546  he  left  Trent  on  account 
of  ill- health  and  went  to  Padua.  While  he  was  tiicre  frequent 
communications  passed  between  him  and  the  council  and  the 
draft  of  the  decree  on  justification  was  sent  to  him.  His  sug- 
gc&lions  and  amendments  were  accq>tcd,  and  the  decree  cm- 
bodies  the  docuines  that  Pole  bad  always  held  of  justification 
by  a  living  faith  which  showed  itself  in  good  works.  This 
effectually  disproves  the  story  that  be  left  the  Council  of  Trent 
so  as  to  avoid  taking  part  in  an  adverse  decree. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  (Jan.  28,  1547),  Pole,  by  name,  was 
left  out  of  the  general  pardon;  and  in  the  subsequent  rising 
in  the  West  the  insurgents  demanded  that  he  should  be  sent 
for  and  made  the  first  on  the  record  in  the  council.  He  wrote 
several  times  to  England  to  prepare  a  conference,  but  only 
received  a  rude  reply  from  Somerset,  who  sent  him  a  copy 
of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  At  the  conclave  of  1549 
Polo  received  two-thirds  of  the  votes,  but  by  a  delay,  caused 
by  his  sense  of  responsibility,  he  lost  the  election  and  Julius  III. 
succeeded.  He  then  retired  to  Magazzano  on  the  Lake  of 
Garda  and  occupied  himself  by  editing  his  book  Pro  unitaie 
uclesiae^  with  an  intended  dedication  to  Edward  VI. 

The  accessbn  of  Mary  opens  the  third  period  of  his  life.  On 
the  sth  of  August  X553  he  was  appointed  legate  to  the  new  queen 
and  begaA .  his  negotiations.  But  many  difficulties  were  put 
in  the  way  of  return.  He  was  still  under  attainder;  and  the 
temper  of  England  was  not  yet  ripe  for  the  presence  of  a  cardinal. 

*Sec.  howtver,  Hcrsoe-Hauck.  Realetieykhpadii  (cd.  3)  f 
"  f\ile,"'  where  it  is  said  that  "  only  his  pracrasiinaiion,  and  then 
his  death  saved  him  from  ap>pcarin^  before  titc  jnquisition."  Within 
the  institution  of  the  Inouisition  his  name  continued  to  be  rccardfi! 
as  that  of  a  heretic  ana  mislcadcr  of  others,  as  is  proved  by  the 
mass  of  evidence  accumulated  against  him  in  the  Camffendium 
Liquiiilorum  {v.  archivio  detla  society  4i  storia  palria,  Rome, 
IMO).  p.  283,  Ac— (En.) 


The  project  of  the  quben's  martiKge  was  also  oa  obstacle. 
A  marriage  between  her  and  Pole,  who  was  then  only  a  deacon, 
was  proposed  by  some,  but  this  did  not  at  all  meet  the  views 
of .  the  emperor,  who  therefore  hindered  him  the  more  from 
setting  out  for  England.  The  marriage  with  PhiUp,  of  which 
Pole  did  not  approve,  having  taken  place  Gfuly  25, 1554),  and 
Rome  yielding  on  the  practical  difficulties  of  the  lay  holders 
of  Church  lands,  a  parUament  favourable  to  the  proposed  re- 
union now  assembled,  and  Pole  was  allowed  to  return  to  Eng- 
land  as  cardinal.  On  his  landing  he  was  informed  that  the 
attainder  had  been  reveiscd;  and  he  received  the  royal  patent 
authorizing  his  performance  of  the  Icgatine  duties  within  the 
realm.  Arriving  at  Whitehall,  where  he  was  received  with  joy 
by  Mary  and  Philip  on  the  30th  of  November,  he  proceeded  to 
parliament  and  thcra  absolved  the  kingdom  and  accepted  in  the 
pope*s  name  the  demands  respecting  ecclesiastical  property. 
He  entered  wisely  on  his  work  of  reformation,  for  which  he  was 
well  prepared.  One  of  the  most  important  matters  he  had  to 
deal  with  was  to  rectify  the  canonical  position  of  those  who  ha4. 
been  ordained  or  consecrated  since  the  breach  with  Rome* 
Acting  according  to  the  instructions  he  had  received  from  Ronnc, 
where  the  matter  had  been  fully  gone  into,  he  made  an  tnvcsti« 
gallon,  and  divided  the  clergy  ordained  after  that  period  into 
two  classes;  one  consisting  of  those  ordained  iii  schism,  indeed, 
but  according  to  the  old  Catholic  rite,  and  the  other  of  those 
who  had  been  ordained  by  the  new  rite  drawn  up  'by  Cranmcr 
and  enforced  by  act  of  parliament  1st  of  April  isso-  The 
first  class,  after  submission,  were  absolved  from  their  irregu* 
larity,  and,  receiving  penance,  were  reinstated;  the  second 
class  were  simply  regarded  as  laymen  and  dismissed  without 
penance  or  absolution.  At.his  firbt  convocation  he  exhorted  the 
bishops  to  use  gentleness  rather  than  rigour  in  their  dealings 
with  heretics;  and  Pole,  in  himself,  was  true  to  his  principle. 
He  was  not  responsible  for  the  cruel  persecution  by  which  the 
reign  was  disfigured.  On  the  4th  of  November  1555  Pole 
opened,  in  the  chapel  royal  at  Westminster,  a  legatine  synod, 
consisting  of  the  united  convocations  of  the  two  provinces,  for 
the  purpose  of  laying  the  foundations  of  wise  and  solid  re- 
forms.  In  the  Reformatio  Angtiae  which  he  brought  out  in 
1556,  based  on  his  Legatine  Constitutions  of  1555,  he  ordered 
that  every  cathedral  church  should  have  its  seminary,  and  the 
very  words  he  uses  on  this  subject  seem  to  have  been  copied 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the  twenty-third  session  (1563).  He 
also  ordered  that  the  Catechism  of  Caranza,  who,  like  him,  was 
to  suffer  from  the  Inquisition  for  this  very  book,  should  be 
tran^tcd  into  English  for  the  use  of  the  laity.  On  Cranmer'S 
deprivation,  Pole  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury;  and,  having 
been  ordained  priest  two  days  before,  he  was  consecrated  on  the 
22nd  of  March  1556,  the  day  after  Cranmer  suffered  at  Oxford. 
Soon  afterwards  the  clouds  began  to  gather  round  him.  His 
personal  enemy  Caraffa  had  become  pope  under  the  name  of 
Paul  IV.  and  was  biding  his  time.  When  Rome  quarrelled  with 
Spain,  and  France,  on  behalf  of  the  pope,  took  up  arms,  England 
could  no  longer  observe  neutrality.  To  injure  Spain  and  heed- 
less of  England's  need,  Paul  IV.  deprived  Pole  of  his  power 
both  as  legate  a  latere  and  legaius  natus  as  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (June  14,  1557);  he  also  reconstituted  the  process 
of  the  Inquisition  against  the  cardinal  and  summoned  him  to 
Rome  to  answer  to  the  crime  and  heresies  imputed  to  him.  Ko 
remonstrances  on  the  part  of  the  queen,  of  Pole  or  the  English 
clergy  could  induce  the  pope  to  withdraw  his  sentence  except 
to  declare  that  the  cardinal  still  held  the  position  of  Ugatus 
natus  inherent  in  the  primatial  sec.  In  a  dignified  but  strong 
letter  Pole  says:  "  As  you  are  without  example  in  what  you 
have  done  against  me,  I  am  also  without  an  example  bow  I 
ought  to  behave  to  your  Holiness  ":  and  he  drew  up  a  papei^ 
containing  an  account  of  the  various  acts  of  hostility  he  had 
experienced  from  the  pope,  but  on  second  thoughts  he  burnt 
the  document,  saying  it  were  not  well  to  discover  the  shame  of 
his  father.  Mary,  who  had  been  warned  by  her  ambassador 
to  the  pope  that  prison  awaited  Pole,  prevented  the  breve 
ordering  the  cardinal  to  proceed  to  Rome  from  befaig' deUvcredi 


97* 


POLE,  R.  DE  LA— POLE 


and  80  Pole  rem&ined  in  England.  Broken  down  as  much  by 
the  blow  as  by  ill-health  the  cardinal  died  at  Lambeth  on  the 
x7th  of  November  1558,  twelve  hours  after  Mary's  death  and 
under  the  unmerited  disgrace  of  the  papacy  in  defence  of  which 
be  had  spent  his  life.  He  was  buried  at  Canterbury  near  the 
spot  where  the  shrine  of  St  Thomas  Becket  once  stood. 

The  chief  sources  for  Pole's  biojpaphy  are  his  life  written  in 
lulian  by  his  secretary  Beccatelli,  which  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Andrew  Dudith  as  Vita  Pcli  cardinalis  (Venice,  IS^^I)* 
■nd  his  letters  {Epiitaiat  Reiinatdi  Poti)  edited  by  Gtrolamo  Quinni 
and  published  in  s  volumes  (Brescia,  1744-1 7S7)»  a  new  cdttion 
of  which  is  in  preparation  at  Rome  with  a^ttions  from  the  Vatican 
Archives.  S«e  also  the  State  Papers  (foreign  and  domestic)  of 
Henry  VII L,  Edward  VL  and  Mary:  the  Spanish  and  Venetian 
State  Papers;  vol.  i.  of  A.  Theincr's  Acta  zenuina  S.S.  Oeewmenici 
Catdhi  tndtnUmi  (187a);  the  Compndio  dei  firocesn  dd  santo 
nfiaio  di  Roma  da  Paolo  III,  a  Paola  IV.  (Societik  comana  di 
storia  patria,  Arcknia,  iii,  261  seq.);T.  Phillipp's  History  of  tka 
Lift  ot  R.  PoU  (Oxford.  1764-176^);  Athanasius  Zimroermann,  S.J., 
Kardtrud  PoU  sein  Liben  und  seine  Sekriflen  (Regensbufg,  1893); 
Martin  HasJie,  Uft/if  Rtgrnaid  PoU  (1910) ;  and  F.  G.  Lee.  Rninaid 
Pole.  (E.  Tn.) 

POLE,  RICHARD  DB  LA  (d. '1535),  pretender  to  the  English 
crown,  was  the  fifth  son  of  John  de  la  Pole  (1442-1491),  snd 
duke  of  Suffolk,  and  Elizabeth,  second  daughter  of  Richard, 
duke  of  York  and  sister  of  Edward  IV.  His  eldest  brother 
John  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Lincoln  (c.  1464-1487),  is  said  to  have 
been  named  h<»r  to  the  throne  by  his  uncle  Richard  III.,  who 
gave  him  a  pension  and  the  reversion  of  the  estates  of  Lady 
Margaret  Beaufort.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.,  however, 
Lincoln  took  the  oath  of  allegiance,  but  in  1487  he  joined  the 
rebellion  of  Lambert  Simnel,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Stoke.  The  second  brother  Edmund  (c.  1472-1513),  succeeded 
his  father  while  still  in  his  minority.  His  estates  suffered 
under  the  attainder  of  his  brother,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
pay  large  sums  to  Henry  VII.  fo(  the  recovery  of  part  of  the 
forfeited  lands,  and  also  to  exchange  his  title  of  duke  for 
that  of  earl.  In  1501  he  sought  the  German  King  Maximilian 
in  Tirol,  and  received  from  him  a  promise  of  substantial  assis- 
tance in  case  of  an  attempt  on  the  English  crown.  In  con- 
sequence of  these  treasonable  proceedings  Henry  seized  his 
brother  William  de  la  Pole,  with  four  other  Yorkist  noblemen. 
Two  of  them,  Sir  James  Tyrell  and  Sir  John  Wyndham,  were 
executed,  William  de  la  Pole  was  imprisoned  anfl  Suffolk  out- 
lawed. Then  in  July  1502  Henry  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Maximilian  by  which  the  king  bound  himself  not  to  countenance 
English  rebeisp  Presently  Suffolk  fell  into  the  hands  of  Philip, 
king  of  Castile,  who  imprisoned  him  at  Namur,  and  in  1506  sur- 
rendered him  to  Henry  VU.  on  condition  that  his  life  was  spared. 
He  remained  a  prisoner  until  1513,  when  he  was  beheaded  at 
the  time  his  brother  Richard  took  up  arms  with  the  French 
king.  Richard  de  la  Pole  joined  Edmund  abroad  in  1504,  and 
remained  at  Aix  as  surety  for  his  elder  brother's  debts.  The 
creditors  threatened  to  surrender  him  to  Henry  VII.,  but,  more 
fortunate  than  his  brother,  he  found  a  safe  refuge  at  Buda 
with  King  Ladislas  VI.  of  Hungary.  He  was  excepted  from 
the  general  pardon  proclaimed  at  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII., 
and  when  Louis  XII.  went  to  war  with  England  in  151 2  he 
recognized  Pole's  pretensions  to  the  English  crown,  and  gave  him 
a  command  in  the  French  army.  In  15 13,  after  the  execution 
of  Edmund,  he  assumed  the  title  of  earl  of  Suffolk.  In  15 14 
he  was  given  12,000  German  mercenaries  ostensibly  for  the 
defence  of  Brittany,  but  really  for  an  invasion  of  England. 
These  he  led  to  St  Malo,  but  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Eng- 
land prevented  their  embarcation.  Pole  was  required  to  leave 
France,  and  he  established  himself  at  Mctz,  in  Lorraine,  and 
built  a  palace  at  La  Haute  Pierre,  near  St  Simphoricn.  He 
tad  numerous  interviews  with  Francis  L,  and  in  1523  he  was 
permitted,  in  concert  with  John  Stewart,  duke  of  Albany,  the 
Scottish  regent,  to  arrange  an  invasion  of  England,  which  yns 
never  carried  out.  He  was  with  Francis  L  at  Fa  via.  and  was 
killed  on  the  field  on  the  34th  of  February  1525. 

SnUmnmiti  Papers  IttuMratm  of  tko  Rmau  ^RkhardllLtrnd 
Monry  VII..  edited  by  J.  Gairdner  (2  vols., "  Rolls  Series,"  24,  l^i): 


DomoMiU,  of  A§  A^ 


CaUndar  trf  LeUert  and  Papers,  Foroirn  and 
of  Henry  1/1/1.;  and  Sir  WUliam  Dugdale,  TH 
(London,  1675). 

POLE,  WIUIAM  (1814-1900),  English  engineer,  was  bora  it 
Birmingham  on  the  sand  of  April  1814.  He  was  a  mail  of  maay 
accomplishments.  Having  spent  his  eaiiicr  ytma  in  varioos 
enpneering  occupations  in  Sngfauid,  he  went  <mt  to  Imfia  m 
1844  as  professor  of  engineering  at  Elphinstone  CoQefep  Bodbay, 
where  he  had  to  first  organize  the  ooune  of  instractin  for 
native  students,  but  his  hoilth  obliged  him  to  return  to  Ea^sod 
in  1848.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  worked  in  Londoo  noder 
James  Simpson  and  J.  M.  Rendel,  and  the  high  RpatatioB  he 
achieved  as  a  scientific  engineer  gained  his  appomtmcat  in  iSso 
to  the  chair  of  dvil  engineering  in  University  CoOefe,  Loodoa. 
He  obtained  a  considershie  amount  of  offidal  woA  troa  the 
government.  He  served  on  the  committees  nhkh  fiwrMVied 
the  application  of  armour  to  ships  and  ftorttfkatioBS  (i06t-z864). 
and  the  comparative  advantages  of  Whitworth  and  Aznsuvv 
guns  (1863-1865).  He  was  secretary  to  the  Royal  Ctmsausaaa 
on  Railways  (i86$^i867),  the  duke  of  Richmond's  OMnmisiaB 
on  London  Water  (X867-X869),  also  taking  part  in  tkt  sabaeqaaA 
proceedings  for  establishing  a  constant  supply,  the  Kcytl  Con- 
mission  on  the  Disposal  of  London  Sewage  (1882*1884),  eni  the 
departmental  committee  on  the  science  mtaeums  at  Sooth 
Kensington  in  1885.  In  1871  he  was  emfrfoycd  by  the  War 
Office  to  report  on  the  Martini-Henry  rifle,  and  in  the  same  yesr 
was  appointed  consulting  engineer  in  London  to  the  Japaeese 
government,  a  position  through  which  he  eaerdsed  eoosidenhh 
influence  on  the  devdopment  of  the  Japanese  railway  system. 
He  was  dected  a  fieOow  of  the  R<^fal  Society  in  x8§i,  in  re- 
cognition of  some  Investigations  on  colour-Uindneas.  Miaic 
was  also  one  of  his  chief  interests.  At  the  age  of  twcsity^m 
he  was  appointed  organist  of  St  Mark's,  North  Andley  Street, 
in  open  competltron,  the  neit  sdected  candidate  being  Dr 
E.  J.  Hopkins  (z8i8-x90x),  who  subsequently  ms  for  fifty 
years  otganist  of  the  Temple  Chureh.  He  took  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Mtisic  at  Otford  in  x86o,  proceeding  to  his  doctor^ 
degree  in  X867,  and  in  1879  published  his  PkSoa^pky  of  Mmk. 
He  was  largely  concerned  in  the  institution  of  musical  degrees 
by  the  University  of  London  in  1877,  and  for  many  y«an  acted 
as  one  of  the  examiners.  His  mathematical  tastes  found  ooa- 
genial  occupation  in  the  study  of  whist,  and  as  an  csponfss 
of  the  scientific  principles  of  that  game  he  was  even  eaifier  a 
the  field  than  **  Cavendish.'*  His  liteiaiy  work  incfaided  treatises 
on  the  steam-eng^ie  and  on  iron  construction,  hiogiaplacal  ' 
studies  of  fomous  engineers,  including  Robert  Stephensou  and 
I.  K.  Brand,  Sir  WHIiarn  Fairbaim  and  Sir  W.  Siemens,  sevsi! 
books  on  musical  subjects  and  on  whist,  and  many  papcis  far 
reviews  and  sdentific  periodicals.  He  died  on  the  joth  «f 
December  1900.  His  son,  William  Pole  (x8sa-  >,  becaae 
known  as  an  actor  and  writer  under  the  stage-name  at  WlKui 
Poel,  more  especially  for  his  studies  In  Shakeq)eaxian  drama  and 
his  worit  in  connexion  with  the  Elixabethan  Stage  Society. 

POLE  (x)  (O.  Eng.  pdt,  cf.  Ger.  F/oAl,  Du.  pool,  from  Lat.  pAs, 
stake),  a  tapering  cylindrical  post  or  stake  of  some  considoabfe 
length,  used  as  a  support  in  scaffolding,  for  tdegr^th  or  tele- 
phone wires,  hops,  &c.,  and  as  a  means  for  taking  jumps  (»e 
Pole- Vaulting),  and  also  as  a  single  shaft  for  a  vehicle  dnwa 
by  two  or  more  horses.  As  a  measure  of  length  a  *  pefe." 
also  called  '*  rod  "  or  "  perch,"  is  equal  to  5I  y&^  (i6|  ft.),  is 
a  measure  of  area  it  is  equal  to  30}  sq.  yds.  (3)  (LaL  pidhs, 
adapted  from  Gr.  wSKotf  pivot,  axis),  one  or  other  of  thr 
extremities  of  the  axis  of  the  earth;  the  "  celestial  pole  *  is  out 
or  other  of  the  points  in  the  heavens  to  whidi  the  earths  am 
points;  in  the  northern  hemiaphere  this  point  is  hear  the  star 
Ursae  minoris,  better  known  as  the  Pole-star  or  Polazis 
(see  UasA  Major).  For  the  regions  lying  about  the  north  asi 
south  poles  of  the  earth  see  Polak  Regions. 

In  mathematics  the  word  note  has  several  mcaidngs;.  Tn 
tiigonomctry  the  "  pole  "  of  a  circle  on  a  sphere  is  the  poiitt 
the  diameter  of  the  sphere  perpendicular  to  the  plane  01  the  c 
intenecU  the  sphere.     In  crystallography  (f.*.)  the  "pole"  J 
a  face  b  the  intersection  of  a  line  perpendlcalar  to  the  lace  with 


t' 


"-fBil '"  o(  »  lint,  ttfOKil  ll 


F^ni  which  linn  ndialc.  b, 

Ibe  MOfDMry  erf  a 

'-^  «  LmaginuyJ  ><.  l^e  >wii.u  -»««  «■■«  mh=  u-v-«-  "—  «-...* 
e  GbHUTHV:  1  P/^teme}-    The  "  magnelk  pain'    of  the 
Ike  pointi  on  tEc  earth'i  lutfin  wncrt  the  dliipiiiE  nndle 

ue  the  poinn  of  Ibe  nHgnet  vbtn  the  miinetic  iatewItT 
t.     In  tlKtricity,  the  term  ii  ippUxl  to  the  ettnutt 
Qi  ■  ^uvftnlc  battery  (j.vOi  or  to  dx  tcrmuuli  oS  t  FrictKntl 
rtectnal  machine. 

POiaOAT,  the  cemmon  budb  iJven  Id  my  mtmba  of  the 
MiuIdiDe  geillu  Pulcriiu  (m  C*»(ovoiia).  The  polecats  lono 
a  Aoult  group  conflJiH  to  Iht  northern  hemuphoe,  of  tthEcb 
the  best  koon  ind  nunl  widely  distributed  ii  the  coimnon 
pdecml  o(  Europe  (P.  fttlidu  or  P:  fiiJsn'iu).  This  azunuJ, 
U  leut  10  fu  u  iu  disposllian,  size  and  proponions  ue  con- 
ctned,  b  well  known  in.  ii«  dotnesiicsied  condition  as  the 
lamed  albino  variety  of 


POLECAT— POLE-VAULTING  977 

tniitHd.  like  feneti,  for  nbUUaldilni.    ISa  pthat  h  wtij 


I.   The  tina  ia  aha  a^rlied 


jibdnc;  It  I)  al*»  Mid  10  ncdn  wUh  InpaaiV  tk«  bits 

of  Ihe  adder.    Iti  (elid  unell  haa  bcBOOM  pnvtfhjaL    Te  lUi 
'   is  indebted  Eor  iti  gcneic  nuia  Arisrfu  (dnind,  aa  an  aba 


lact  (■,«.  foul  matta) 
and  it*  other  En(liili  name^  filcbet,  fitchev.     Attempta  to 
for  Um  fin!  *yll*l>i*  of  1^  mcd  polecat  nit  mllidj  OB 


.    Then 


1  of  the  fimiliat 


ydhnrisfa-white  of  the  femt.  Is  oE  a  dark  brows  tint  above 
and  blalk  below,  the  face  being  vuiegaled  with  dark  br 
and  while  markinis.  Its  skull  Is  rough,  strong  IJdgcd, 
■Itogethtf  oF  a  Fat  nore  powerful  type  th^n  those  of 
■loau,  weasels  or  maTtens^  ^c  skull  ot  the  [enule  Is  very  m 
■mailer  and  lighter  than  that  of  the  male.  Tlie  fur  is  li 
Marse,  and  of  coniparitlvefy  small  value,  and  changes  Its  CO 
«iy  little,  U  at  »!i,  at  ihe  different  seasons  of  the  year. 


the  ' 


Tbe  Conmon  I 
inges  over  the  great 
southern  Sweden  ai 


he  region  0 
oulh,buL  i 


It  ranga  li 


iverywhere  thtoughoul  central  Europe.    In 

r  ahove  the  tree-line  during  the  sununer,  Dut 
irinter  to  lower  ground.  It  is  confined  to  tbe 
nties  of  England  and  Scotland,  wbac  it  it  becoming 
very  rare,  owing  (o  persecutions  (ram  game- keepers,  and  in 
Ireland  it  appe^  to  be  eltiniL  In  fine  weather  it  lives  either 
in  the  i^en  air,  in  holes,'  foji-cailhs,  rabbil -warrens,  under 
rocks  or  in  wood-stacks;  wbQe  in  winter  it  seeks  the  pro- 
tection of  deserted  buildings,  bams  or  stables.  Buring  the 
day  it  sleqn  In  its  hiding  place,  sallying  forth  al  night  to  plunds 
dovecots  and  hen-hoUKS.  It  climbs  but  little,  and  shows  fir 
less  activity  thMt  the  marten.  It  feeds  ordirarily  on  smalt 
irmnmats,  such  aa  rabbits,  hamster^  rata  and  mice,  on  such 
birds  as  it  can  czlch,  especially  poultry  and  pigeons,  and  also 
on  snake*,  liurds,  fiogl,  Slh  and  eggs.  Its  prey  is  devoured 
only  in  iU  lair;  but,  even  though  it  on  carry  away  but  a  single 
victim.  It  commonly  kills  ev^ything  that  comfs  in  its  way, 
often  destroying  al!  Ihe  Inhabitants  of  a  hen-bousc  in  order  to 
gralify  its  passion  for  slaughter.  Tbe  pairing  lime  is  towards 
the  end  of  the  winter,  and  Che  young,  from  three  to  eight  in 
number,  are  bom  in  April  or  May,  after  ■  period  of  gestation 
of  about  two  monllis.     The  young,  if  taken  early,  may  be  easily 


igjiMnJl  is  rsy  Hka  tb* 
rtions,  but  witii  bead  and 
td  akuU  mon  bcavily  hufll 


Tbe  Siboiao  poleat  (futariu 


Siberia,  extending  from  Tjbc 

,ed  or  Amtflcan  polecat  (PnUriia  nittititi 
It  ccDiral  plateau  of  the  United  Siaus,  and 
extends  southwards  into  Teaaa.  Il  ia  often  called  tbe  praiiJB- 
it  is  Dearly  always  Found  in  the  wanei)  of  that 
pn^THfl  The  fur  is  cream-yeUov,  the  legs  are  brown,  and  tho 
let  and  tail-t^  black. 

The  mottled  polecat  (fUsniu  larmaHtiu),  *  vedei  occur- 

ing  in  soulhd^  Russia  and  south-wstern  Asia,  and  ealendtng 

-om  eastern  Poland  to  Afghanistan,  diflen  from  otbcl  polecat! 

otb  by  its  smaller  siic  and  iU  remaikable  coloraliOD,  the  whola 

i  the  uppcf-parts  being  marbled  with  large  irregular  ***<^t* 

pots  on  a  white  ground,  while  the  under-side,  limba  and  tail 

re  deep  shining  black,     Iu  habitt  tppeu  to  be   much  like 

tbose  of  the  common  polecat.  (R.l-*) 

POLEMTA,  DA,  the  name  of  a  castle  in  Romagna.  fm  whicb 

,sie  the  nobte  and  aodeot  Italian  fuaily  of  Da  PokaU.    Tba 

founder  of  (he  house  is  said  to  have  been  Guldo^  suraamod 

I'AotJai  or  the  Elder,  who  widded  great  authority  b  Ravenna 

the  i3Lh  century.    His  gnndson  Guido  Novelhl  iqilieU  tbe 

wer  of  the  bouH  and  was  also  cafilana  id  pefeit  at  Boloplat 

was  oveithiDwii  in  ijii  and  died  the  following  year.     Hi* 

pilality  to  the  poet  Dante,  who  ImmoiUliied  tbe  tragic  history 
'  '  "  '  idaughtcr  Fnuicesca,  unhappily  married  (a  MalilffBa, 
lord  of  Rimini,  in  an  e^usode  of  the  In/tma.  Giudo's  Hnsmin 
Ostasio  1.  was  lord  of  Ceivia  and  Ravcoiu  from  ijii  (o  ijig. 
being  recogniied  as  a  vassal  ol  the  Holy  See,  again 
befune  independent  and  went  over  to  the  house  of  Este,  wbOA 
'  served  faithfully  in  their  struggles  with  the  Church  until  hia 
xth  in  1346-  Hia  son  B^narduio,  who  succeeded  him  as  lord 
Ravcnoa  in  im'i  was  deposed  in  1347  by  hia  brotbcn, 
idolfo  and  Lamberto  II.,  I    '  -...,-*  i- 


later 


unlU  hi 


I  IJSS;  i> 


grhis 


iSigacy  and  cruelty.  His  son  Guido  III.  ruled  more  mildly 
and  died  m  1390.  Then  followed  Oitaslo  C.  (d.  I3«6},  Obiin 
(d.  1431),  Piel")  (d.  1404).  Ahlobrandino  (d.  1406},  all  sooa  of 
Guido  IU.  Ostasio  IU.  (01  v.),  son  of  Obiiw,  was  at  finl 
allied  with  the  Venetians;  talef  be  went  over  to  the  Milaiicse, 
and,  although  he  again  Joined  the  Venetians,  the  latter  never 
forgave  bia  intrigue  with  their  cnemiea,  and  in  1441  tbey 
depiived  him  of  his  dominions.     Ue  died  in  a  nwoMtoy  ia 

POLK-TAirlTDia,  tbe  an  of  quiopng  over  an  obalacle 
with  the  aid  of  a  pole  or  staff.  It  Is  probable  that  an  aadtt 
of  tbe  kind  was  a  feature  of  Crock  gymnastio,  but  *dlb  this 

As  k  practical  means  ol  passing  over  such  natural  otxtada  aa 
canals  and  biooks  it  has  beei  nude  use  of  in  many  parta  of  tbe 
world,  for  instance  in  the  manhy  provinces  along  Ibe  Nonb  Sea 
and  the  great  level  of  the  fens  of  Cambridgeahiie,  Huntingdon' 
shire,  lincolnshire  and  NortoTk.  Tbe  artificial  draining  of 
these  marshes  brought  Into  ciisteDCe  a  neivork  of  open  dnina 
or  canals  intersecting  cacb  other  at  right  angles.  In  order  to 
cms  these  drythod,  andat  the  same  time  avoid  tedious  jound- 
about  jouraeys  over  Ibc  bridges,  a  alack  of  jumping  pole*  wa» 


97« 


POLICE 


kept  at  every  boose,  whidi  weit  ooramonly  used  tor  ^ultiQg 
mver  the  caaoalB. 
*  As  a  sport,  pole-vauhiog  msde  its  appearance  In  Germany 
in  the  first  part  of  the  19th  century,  when  it  was  added  to  the 
g)rmnastic  exercises  of  the  Turner  by  Johann  C.  F.  Guts- 
Muths  and  Frederich  L.  Jahn.  In  Groat  Britain  it  was  fiist 
commonly  practised  at  the  Caledonian  games.  It  is  now  an 
event  in  the  athletic  championships  of  nearly  all  nations.  Al- 
though strength  and  good  physical  condition  are  essential  to 
efficiency  in  pole-vaulting,  sidll  is  a  much  more  hnportant 
element.  Broad-hunping  with  the  pole,  though  the  original 
form  of  the  sport,  has  never  found  its  way  into  organized 
athletics,  the  high  jump  being  the  only  form  recognized.  The 
object  is  to  clear  a  bar  or  lath  supported  upon  two  uprights 
without  knodcing  it  down.  The  pole,  of  hickory  or  some  other 
tough  wood,  is  from  25  to  25  ft.  long  and  x|  in.  thick  at 
the  middle,  tapering  to  i^  in.  at  the  ends,  the  lower  of  which 
is  truncated  to  prevent  sinking  into  t)ie  earth  and  shod  with  a 
single  spike  to  avoid  slipping.  A  hole  in  which  to  place  the 
end  of  the  pole  is  often  dug  beneath  the  bar.  In  holding  the 
pole  th^e  height  of  the  cioss-bar  is  isA  ascertained,  and  the 
right  hand  placed,  with  an  wideigrip,  about  6  in.  above  this 
point,  the  left  hand,  with  an  over-grip,  being  from  14  to  30  in. 
below  the  right.  The  vaulter  th«i  runs  towards  the  bar  at 
full  speed,  pfauits  the  spiked  end  of  the  pole  in  the  ground 
about  18  in.  in  front  of  the  bar  and  springs  into  the  air, 
gruping  the  pde  firmly  as  he  rises.  As  he  neara  the  bar  he 
throws  his  legs  forward,  and,  pushing  with  shoulders  and 
arms^  clears  it,  letting  the  pole  fall  backwards.  In  Great 
Britain  the  vaulter  is  allowed  to  climb  the  pole  when  it  is  at 
the  peqiendicular.  Tom  Ray,  of  Uhrerston  in  Lancashu'e,  who 
was  champion  of  the  world  hi  1887,  was  able  to  gain  several 
feet  in  this  manner.  In  the  United  States  climbing  is  not' 
allowed.  Among  the  best  British  vaulters,  using  the  climbing 
privilege,  have  been  Tom  Ray,  E.  L.  Stones,  R.  Watson  and 
R.  D.  Dickmson;  Dickinson  having  cleared  xi  ft.  9  in.  at 
Kidderminster  in  1891.  The  record  pole-vault  is  xa  ft.  6)  in., 
made  by  W.  Dray  of  Yale  in  1907. 

POUCB  (Fr.  ptilke,  government,  dvfl  administration,  a 
police  force,  Or.  iroXirfia,  constitution,  condition  of  a  state, 
«6^,  city,  state),  a  term  used  of  the  enforcement  of  law  and 
order  in  a  state  or  community,  of  the  department  concerned 
with  that  part  of  the  civil  administratioh,  and  of  the  body 
or  forcx  which  has  to  carry  It  into  execution.  The  word  was 
adopted  in  Englif^  in  the  i8th  century  and  was  disliked  as  a 
sytnbol  of  foreigii  oppression.  The  first  official  use  appears, 
according  to  the  N€»  Bngfish  DicHonary,  in  the  appointment  of 
** Commissioncni  of  Police"  for  Scotland  in  1714.  A  police 
S3rstem  has  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  evils 
and  providing  benefits.  In  its  first  meaning  it  protects  and 
defends  sodety  from  the  dissidents,  those  who  decline  to  be 
bound  by  the  general  standard  of  conduct  accepted  by  the 
larger  number  of  the  law-abiding,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  prevention  and  pursuit  of  crime.  It  has 
a  second  and  more  extensive  meaning  as  applied  to  the  regula- 
tion of  public  order  and  enfordng  good  government. 

UniUd  Kingdom. — ^The  establishment  of  a  systematic  police 
force  was  of  slow  growth  in  England,  and  came  into  effect  long 
after  its  creation  abroad.  A  French  king,  Charles  V.,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  to  invent  a  police,  "to  increase  the 
happiness  and  security  of  his  people.'^  It  developed  into  an 
engine  of  horrible  oppression,  and  as  such  was  repugnant  to  the 
feelings  Of  a  free  people.  Yet  as  far  back  as  the  13th  century 
a  statute,  known  as  that  of  "Watch  and  Ward,"  was  passed 
in  the  13th  year  of  Edward  I.  (1283),  aimed  at  the  maintenance 
of  peace  in  the  city  of  London.  Two  centuries  later  (1585)  an 
act  was  passed  for  the  better  government  of  the  dty  and 
borough  of  Westminster,  and  this  act  was  re-enacted  with 
extended  powers  in  1737  and  soon  succeeded  by  another 
(1777)  with  wider  and  stricter  provisions.  The  state  of  London 
at  that  date,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  country  at  large,  was 
deplorable.    Crime  was  rampant,  highwaymen  terrorisied  the 


loads,  footpads  infested  the  streets,  burgflaries  were  of  eonstaaf 
occurrence,  river  thieves  on  the  Thames  committed  depredatioDS 
wholesale.  The  watchmen  appointed  by  parishes  vese  mdess, 
inadequate,  inefiident  and  untrustworthy,  acting  often  as 
accessories  in  aiding  and  abetting  crime.  Year  after  year  the 
shortcomings  and  defects  were  emphasized  and  soxne  better 
means  of  protection  were  constantly  advocated.  At  the  can* 
mencemcnt  of  the  19th  century  it  wai  computed  that  time  vss 
one  criminal  to  every  twenty-two  of  the  population.  The 
efforts  made  at  repression  were  pitifuUy  unequaL  In  the 
district  of  Kensington,  covering  15  sq.  m.,  the  protectkm 
afforded  was  dependent  on  three  constables  and  three  head- 
boroughs.  In  the  parish  of  Tottenham  nineteen  attexiq>u  at 
burglary  were  made  in  six  weeks,  and  sixteen  were  entirely 
successful.  In  Spitalfields  gangs  of  thieves  stood  at  the  street 
corners  and  openly  rifled  all  who  came  near.  In  other  parishes 
there  was  no  police  whatever,  no  defence,  no  prOtcctiaB 
afforded  to  the  community  but  the  voluntary  eiEcnions  <i 
individuals  and  "  the  honesty  of  the  thieves."  In  those  day% 
victims  ot  robberies  constantly  compounded  with  fekmics  and 
paid  blackmail  to  thieves,  promising  not  to  prosecute  oa  the 
restitution  of  a  portion  of  the  stolen  property. 

The  crying  need  for  reform  and  the  introduction  of  a  prapex 
police  was  admitted  by  the  government  in  1829,  when  Sir 
Robert  Peel  laid  the  foundatbn  of  a  better  system.  Mock 
opposition  was  offered  to  the  scheme,  which  was  deoounoed  as 
an  insidious  attempt  to  enslave  the  people  by  arbitrary  aad 
tyrannical  methods.  The  police  were  to  be  employed,  it  was 
said,  as  the  instruments  of  a  new  despotism,  the  enlisted  mcnabcn 
of  a  new  atanding  army,  under  the  centralized  authority,  ridii^ 
roughshod  over  the  peaceable  dtizens.  But  the  guardians  of 
order,  under  the  judicious  guidance  of  such  sensiMe  duels  as 
Colonel  Rowan  and  Sir  Henry  Maine,  soon  lived  down  the 
hostility  first  exhibited,  and  although  one  serious  and  iamratahk 
collision  occurred  between  the  mob  and  the  police  in  1S33,  it  was 
agreed  two  years  later  that  the  unfavourable  impresBian  at  «9e 
time  existing  against  the  new  police  was  rapidly  diminishing, 
that  it  had  fully  answered  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
Crime  had  already  diminished;  it  was  calculated  that  the 
losses  infHctcd  on  the  public  by  the  depredations  of  the 
classes  had  appreciably  fallen  and  a  larger  number  of  convictiDO 
had  been  secured. 

The  formation  of  the  metropolitan  police  was  in  doe  cmam 
fdlowed  by  the  extension  of  the  prindpte  to  the  proviaces. 
Borough  constabulary  forces  were  establiijied  by  the  Mubjc^ 
Corporation  Act  (1835),  which  entrusted  their  administratkie 
to  the  mayor  and  a  watch  committee,  and  this  act  was  revaed 
in  1883,  when  the  general  powers  of  this  authority  were  defined 
Acts  of  1839  and  1840  permitted  the  formation  by  the  justka 
of  a  paid  county  police  force.  Action  in  this  case  was  optso^al, 
but  after  an  interval  of  fifteen  years  the  Police  Act  of  1856  msde 
the  rule  compulsory,  it  being  found  that  an  effident  police  force 
throughout  England  and  Wales  was  neocssaiy  for  the  morr 
effectual  prevention  and  detection  of  crime,  the  suppresioB  of 
vagrancy  and  the  maintenance  of  good  order.  Local  acts  had 
already  endowe<l  Scotland  with  a  police  system,  and  in  1857,  aad 
again  in  1863,  counties  were  formed  into  police  districts,  and  'fcr 
police  of  towns  and  populous  places  was  generally  regulat?! 
Ireland  has  two  police  torces;  the  Dublin  metropolitan  pr-Tce 
originated  in  1808,  and  in  X829  the  provisions  of  Sir  Robert  reefs 
act  for  London  were  embodied  in  the  Police  Law  for  Ireiaod 

The  extent  to  whidi  the  metropolitan  police  ku  drvdo^ 
will  best  be  realized  by  contrastiiw  its  nuniben  on  first  crtaitim 
and  the  nature  ol  the  duties  and  functions  that  thea  arcKrcntr-i 
to  it.  The  first  act  (the  Metropolitan  Police  Act  1829)  ap-iVi 
to  the  metropolis,  exclusive  of  the  dty  of  London,  and  cocstita^fi 
a  pdioe  area  having  a  radius  of  la  01.  from  Cfaariqg  Crass.  Tv? 
justices  of  the  peace  were  appointed,  presently  named  ccas?^ 
sioiiers  of  police,  (o  adinlnister  the  act  under  the  immediate  liir-C' 
tton  of  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department:  The  £'X 
police  office  was  located  in  Whitehall  in  Scotland  Yard,  from  «fcki 
tt  was  removTd  in  the  autumn  Of  1890  to  the  new  aod  iiapa&iK 
edifice  on  the  Embankment,  in  which  all  branches  ave  no*  cc«^ 
oentrated,  known  as  New  Scotland  Yard.    The  first 


POUCE 


979 


tppooited  ««!«  3000  in  number,  who,  whm  ■worn  in,  enjoyed  all 
the  powera  of  the  old  constables  under  the  common  law,  for  pee- 
aervmg  the  peace,  preventing  robberies  and  other  felonies,  and 
apprehendiog  offenders.  The  subdivision  of  the  district  into  divi- 
sions, on  much  the  same  lines  as  now  exbting,  was  at  once  made 
for  administrative  convenience,  and  a  proportion  of  officers  man 
allotted  to  each  In  the  various  grades  then  first  constituted  and 
still  pRiervod,  comprising  in  ascending  order,  constables,  sergeants, 
inspectors  and  sudierintendents.  Some  time  later  the  grade  of 
district  sufieiintendent  was  created,  held  by  gentlemen  <^  superior 
status  and  intelligence,  to  each  of  whom  the  contnol  of  a  large  section 
of  the  whole  force,  embracing^  a  wide  area,  was  entrusted.    This 

Sade  has  since  been  merged  m  that  of  chief  constable,  of  whom 
ere  are  four  exercising  powera  of  disciplinary  supervision  in  the 
metropdiitan  districts,  and  a  fifth  .who  is  assistant  in  the  branch 
of  criminal  investigation.  The  supreme  authority  ie  vested  in 
the  4u>me  secretary,  but  the  immediate  command  and  control 
is  exerqiaed  by  the  chief  commissioner,  with  three  asasstanta,  re- 
placing  the  two  commissioners  provided  for  in  1&19. 

After  various  parliamentary  reports  and  some  legislation  by  way 
of  extension,  an  important  act  was  passed  in  1839  reciting  that 
the  system  of  police  established  had  been  found  very  inefficient 
and  might  be  yet  further  im[>roved  (Metropolitan  PoUoe  Act  18^9). 
The  metropoUtan  police  district  was  extended  to  1$  m.  from  Channg 
Cross.  The  whole  of  the  river  Thames  (which,  in  its  course  through 
London,  so  far  as  related  to  police  matters,  had  been  managed 
under  distinct  acts)  was  brougnt  within  it,  and  the  collateral  but 
not  exclusive  powers  of  the  metropolitan  police  were  extended  to 
the  roy^  palaces  and  10  m.  round,  and  to  the  oountiea  adjacent 
to  the  district.  Various  summary  powers  for  dealing  with  street 
and  other  offences  were  confeiTcd.  When  the  police  was  pat  on 
a  more  complete  footing  and  the  area  enlarged,  provision  was  made 
for  the  more  effectual  administration  of  justice  by  the  magistrates 
of  the  metropolis  (Metropolitan  Police  Courts  Act  1839).  The 
changes  that  occurred  in  magisterial  functions  are  scauroeiy  less 
remarkable  than  the  transition  from  the  pariah  constable  to  the 
organized  police.  The  misdirected  acti\nty  of  the  dvil  manstrate 
in  the  17th  century  is  illustrated  by  the  familiar  Gterature  of  Butlo', 
Bunyan  and  others.  The  teal  of  that  age  was  succeeded  by 
apathetic  reaction,  and  it  became  necessary  in  the  metropolis  to 
secure  the  services  of  paid  justices.  At  the  beginning  of  tne  19th 
century,  outMde  of  the  city  of  London  (where  magisterial  duties 
were,  as  now,  performed  by  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen),  there 
were  various  public  offices  besides  the  Bow  Street  and  Thames 
police  offices  where  magistrates  attended.  To  the  Bow  Street 
office  was  subseouently  attached  the  "  horse  patrol  ";  each  of  the 
police  offices  had  a  fijud  number  of  constables  attached  to  it,  and 
the  Thame*  police  had  an  establishment  of  constables  and  sur- 
veyors. The  horse  patrol  was  in  1836,  as  jucviously  intended, 
placed  under  the  new  police.  It  became  desirable  that  the  hone 
patrol  and  constables  allotted  to  the  several  police  offices  not 
interfered  with  by  the  Act  of  1828  should  be  incorporated  with  the 
metropolitan  police  force.  This  was  effected,  and'  thus  magisterial 
functions  were  completel]^  separated  from  the  dutks  of  the  executive 
police;  for  although  the  jurisdiction  of  the  two  justices,  afterwards 
called  commissioners,  as  magistrates  extended  to  ordinary  duties 
(except  at  courts  of  general  or  quarter  sessions),  from  the  first 
they  took  no  part  in  the  examination  or  committal  for  trial  of 
persons  chargea  with  offences.  No  prisoners  were  brought  before 
them.  Their  functions  were  in  practice  confined  to  the  discipline 
of  the  force  and  the  prevention  and  detection  of  offences,  their 
action  limited  to  havmg  persons  arrested  or  summoned  to  be 
dealt  with  by  the  ordinary  magistrates,  whose  courts  were  not 
interfered  with. 

The  aim  and  object  of  the  police  force  remain  the  same  as 
when  first  created,  but  its  functions  have  been  varied  and 
extended  in  scope  and  intention.  To  secure  obedience  to  the 
law  is  a  first  and  principal  duty;  to  deal  with  breaches  of  the 
rules  made  by  authority,  to  detect,  pursue  and  arrest  offenders. 
Next  comes  the  preservation  of  order,  the  protection  of  all 
reputable  people,  and  the  maintenance  of  public  peace  by 
checking  riot  and  disturbance  or  noby  demonstration,  by  enforc- 
ing the  observance  of  the  thousand  and  one  regulations  laid 
down  for  the  general  good.  The  police  have  become  the  minis- 
ters of  a  social  despotism  resolute  in  Us  watchful  care  and  control 
of  the  whole  community,  well-meaning  and  paternal,  although 
when  carried  to  extreme  length  the  tendency  is  to  diminish 
self-reliance  and  independence  in  the  indivMual.  The  police 
are  necessarily  in  close  relation  with  the  state;  they  are  the  direct 
representatives  of  the  supreme  government,  the  servants  of  the 
Crown  and  l^islature.  In  England  every  constable  when  he 
joins  the  force  makes  a  declaration  and  swears  that  he  will 
serve  the  sovereign  loyally  and  diligently,  and  to  acquires  the 
rights  and  privilq^ea  of  a  peace  oi&cer  of  and  for  tjl^e  Cn>vp:k 


The  state  employs  police  solely  In  the  interests  of  the  public 
welfare.  No  sort  of  espionage  is  attempted,  no  effort  made  to* 
penetrate  privacy;  no  claim  to  pry  into  the  secret  actions  of 
law-abiding  persons  is  or  would  be  tolerated;  the  agents  of 
authority  must  not  seek  information  by  underhand  or  unworthy 
means.  In  other  countries  the  police  system  has  been  worked 
more  arbitrarily;  it  has  been  used  to  check  free  speech,  to  inter- 
fere with  the  right  of  public  meetings,  and  condenm  the  expres* 
slon  of  opinion  hostile  to  or  critical  of  the  ruling  powers.  An 
all-powerful  police,  minutely  organized,  has  in  some  foreign 
states  grown  into  a  terrible  engine  of  oppression  and  made  daily 
life  nearly  intolerable.  In  Elnglaad  the  people  are  free  io 
assemble  as  they  please,  to  march  in  procession  through  the 
streets,  to  gather  in  open  spaces,  to  listen  to  the  harangues, 
often  forcibly  expressed,  of  mob  orators,  provided  always  that 
no  obstruction  is  caused  or  that  no  disoxder  or  breach  of  the 
peace  is  threatened. 

The  strength  of  the  metropolitan  police  in  1908  was  18,167. 
comprising  32  superintendents,  ^2  iaspoctors,  2378  sergeants  and 
15.185  constables.  At  the  head  is  a  commissioner,  appointed  by 
the  home  office;  he  is  assisted  by  four  assistant  commissioners, 
one  of  whom  was  appointed  under  the  Police  Act  1909.,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  recommendation  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  the 
MetrofXiUtan  Police  1906,  his  duty  especially  being  to  deal  with 
complaints  made  by  the  public  asaiost  the  police.  The  metro- 
politan police  are  divided  mto  ai  divisions,  to  which  letters  of  the 
alphabet  are  assigned  for  purposes  of  distinction.  There  is  in 
aadition  the  Thames  division,  recruited  mostly  from  sailors,  cfaaf]ged 
with  the  patrol  of  the  river  and  the  guardianship  of  the  shipping. 
To  the  inetropolitan  police  also  are  assigned  the  control  and 
guardianship  of  the  various  naval  dockyards  and  arsenals.^ 

The  city  of  London  has  its  own  distinct  police  organization  under 
a  commissioner  and  assistant  commissioner,  ^  and  its  functions 
extend  over  an  area  of  67^  statute  acres  containing  two  courts  of 
justice,  those  of  the  Guildhnll  and  Mansion  House,  where  the 
lord  mayor  and  the  aldermen  are  the  magistrates.  Although  the 
area  is  comfnratively  small  the  rateable  value  is  enormous.  The 
force  comprises  2  superintendents,  48  inspectors,  86  sergeants 
and  865  constables;  ailso  some  60  constables  on  private  service 
duty. 

The  total  police  force  of  England  and  Wales  in  1908  was  30t376* 
almost  equally  divided  between  counties  and  boroughs;  tnat  of 
Scotland  numbered  SS7S*  In  Ireland  the  Royal  Irish  Constabulary 
are  a  semi-military  torce,  numbering  over  10,5002  they  police  the 
whole  of  Ireland,  except  the  city  01  Dublin,  which  is  under  the 
Dublin  metropolitan  police,  a  particularly  fine  body.  ^ 

The  most  active  and  by  no  means  the  least  efficient  branch  of 
the  modem  English  police  is  that  especially  devoted  to  criminal 
investigation  or  the  detection  of  cnme.  The  detective  is  the 
direct  descendant  of  the  old  "  Bow  Street  runnere  "  or  "  Robin 


Redbreasts" — so  styled  from  their  scarlet  waistcoat*— officers  in 
attendance  upon  the  old-fashioned  police  offices  and  despatched  by 
the  sitting  magistrates  to  follow  up  any  very  serious  crime  in  the 
interests  of  the  public  or  at  the  urgent  request  of  private  perBOjOs. 
The  "  runners  had  disappeared  when  the  police  organization 
introduced  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  came  into  force  in  1839,  and  at  first 
no  part  of  the  new  force  was  especially  attributed  to  the  detection 
of  crime.  They  were  much  miiascd.  but  fifteen  years  elapoea 
before  Sir  James  Graham  (then  home  secretary)  decided  to  allot 
a  few  constables  in  plain  clothes  for  that  purpose  as  a  tentative 
measure.  The  first  "  detectives "  appmnted  numbered  only  a 
dozen,  three  inspectors  and  nine  sergeants,  to  whom,  however,  six 
constables  were  shortly  added  as  ''^auxiliaries,"  but  the  number 
was  gradually  enlarged  as  the  manifest  uses  of  the  system  became 
'more  and  more  obvious. 

Other  Countries. — Brilisk  India  is  divided  into  police  districts, 
the  general  arrangements  of  the  system  of  the  regular  polkre, 
which  dates  from  the  disappearance  of  the  East  India  Company, 
resembling  in  most  respects  those  of  the  English  police,  but  differ- 
ing in  details  in  the  different  presidencies.  AU  are  in  uniform,, 
tramed  to  the  use  of  firearms  and  drilled,  and  may  be  called  upon 
to  perform  military  duties.  The  superior  officers  are  nearly  all 
Europeans  and  many  of  them  are  military  officers.  The  rest  are 
natives,  in  Bombay  chiefly  Mahommedans.  The  or^aniaatioo  of 
the  police  was  not  dealt  with  by  the  criminal  code  winch  came  into 
force  in  1885,  but  the  code  is  full  of  provisions  tending  to  make  thei 
force  eificteat.  By  that  code  as  well  as  by  the  former  code  the  police' 
iiave  a  legal  sanction  for  doing  what  by  practice  they  do  in  Ea^land;. 
they  take  etidence  for  their  own  information  and  guidance  in  the 
investigation  of  cases  and  are  clothed  with  the  power  to  coropd> 
the  attendance  of  witnesses  and  question  them.    The  •mallncsa 


England  (Stephen).    The  difiicoltics  in  the  way 

of  nsnertnioing  the  truth  and  inveatigatidg  falsa  Kaitmenu  jsn^. 


9^ 


POLICE 


sapprataed  CMe«  are  very  grait.  As  r^nrds  the  rural  pohcc  of 
IndU  every  village  headman  and  the  vul^e  watchman  as  well  as 
the  village  police  office  are  required  by  the  code  to  communicate 
to  the  nearest  mafftstrate  or  the  officer  in  dunige  of  the.  nearest 
poUoe  station*  whichever  is  nearest*  any  bfonnation  reelecting 
offenders  On  the  whole  the  syBtcm  is  very  efficient.  The  police, 
which  has  numerous  duties  over  ana  above  those  of  the  i»«vention 
sjad  detection  of  crime,  greatly  aids  a  government  so  paternal  as 
that  of  India  in  keeping  touch  with  the  widely  extended  nasaes 
of  thf»  population* 

Francs.— It  is  a  matter  of  history  that  under  Louis  XIV^  who 
created  the  police  of  Paris,  and  in  succeeding  times,  the  most  un- 
popular and  unjustifiable  use  was  made  of  police  as  a  secret  instru- 
ment for  the  purposes  of  despotic  government.  Napoleon  availed 
Uauelf  laiimly  of  police  instruments,  ouMdaUy  thiongh  his  minister 
Foiich6.  &i  the  icstoratioo  of  cmistitutional  government  under 
Louis  Philippe,  police  action  was  less  dang^us.  but  tlie  danger 
revived  under  tlie. second  empire.  The  ministry  of  police,  created 
by  the  act  of  the  Directory  in  1706,  was  in  1818  suppressed  as  an 
independent  office,  and  in  1652  tt  was  united  with  the  ministiy 
of  tne  interior.  The  r^ular  police  organization,  which  preserves 
order,  checks  evil-doing,  and  "  runs  in  ''^ malefactors,  falls  naturally 
and  broadly  into  two  grand  divisions,  the  administrative  and  the 
active,  the  police  "  in  the  office"  and  the  police  ''out  of  doors.*' 
The  first  attends  to  the  clerical  boalness,  votuninoua  and  incessant. 
An  army  of  derks  in  the  numerous  bureaus,  hundreds  of  patient 
government  employ^,  the  ronis  de  cimt,  as  they  are  contemptuously 
called,  because  they  sit  for  choice  on  round  leather  cushions,  are 
engaged  constantly  writing  and  filling  in  forms  for  hours  and  hours, 
day  after  day.  The  active  army  of  police  out  of  doors,  which  con- 
stitutea  the  second  half  of  the  whole  machine,  is  diviaed  into  two 
danes:  that  in  uniform  and  that  in  plain  clothes.  Every  visitor 
to  Fsris  is  familiar  with  the  rather  theatrical-looking  policeman, 
in  his  short  frock-eoat  or  cape,  smart  hifi  cocked  on  one  ride  of  his 
head,  and  with  a  swoid  by  his  side.  Tne  first  u  known  by  the  title 
of  ogent,  sergent  de  tttfr,  fsfrftra  de  la  paix,  and  is  a  very  useful 
public  servant.  He  is  silmost  invariably  an  old  soldier,  a  sergent 
who  has  left  the  array  with  a  first-dass  character,  honesty  and 
sobriety  being  indbpensable  qualifications. 

These  uniformed  pdioe  are  not  all  employed  in  the  streets  and 
arrondlftaements,  but  there  is  a  large  reserve  composed  of  the  six 
central  brindes,  as  they  are  called,  a  very  smart  body  of  old 
soldien,  weu  drilled,  well  dressed  and  fully  equipped:  armed,  more' 
over,  with  rifles,  with  which  they  mount  gusra  when  employed 
as  sentries  at  the  doors  or  entrance  of  the  prefecture.  In  PSfis 
enrtial  the  men  of  these  rix  centrsl  brigades  are  nicknamed  "vau- 
seaux  **  (vessels),  because  they  carry  on  thetr  collars  the  badge  of 
the  city  of  Paris — an  ancient  ship-— while  the  semants  in  the  town 
districts  ^rear  only  numbers,  thetf  own  individual  number,  and  that 
of  the  quarter  in  which  they  serve.  These  sotfMaiur  dsim  to  be 
the  (iiu  of  the  force;  they  come  in  da&y  contact  with  the  Gardes 
de  Paris,  horse  and  foot,  a  fine  corps  01  dty  gendarmerie,  and,  as 
competing  with  them,  take  a  particular  pride  in  themselves.  Thdr 
comrades  in  the  quarters  resent  this  {wetension  and  declare  that 
when  in  contact  with  the  people  the  wtdsseaux  make  bad  blood  by 
thdr  arroeanoe  and  want  of  tact.  The  prindpal  business  of  four 
at  least  of  these  central  brindes  is  to  be  on  call  when  required  to 
rdnfonx  the  out-of-door  police  at  special  times. 

Of  the  two  remainintr  central  bngades  one  controls  public  car- 
riages, the  other  the  Hatics,  the  great  central  market  by  which  Paris 
is  provided  with  a  large  part  of  its  food.  Every  cab-stand  b  under 
the  charge  of  its  own  policeman,  who  knows  the  men.  notes  thdr 
arrival  and  departure,  and  marn  thdr  general  behaviour.  Other 
police  officers  of  the  central  brigades  superintend  the  street 
traffic. 

So  mudi  for  the  pdlee  in  uniform.  That  In  pidn  dothes,  en 
hMtrgeeiSt  as  the  Frendi  call  it,  is  not  so  numerous,  but  fulfils  a 
higher,  or  at  least  a  more  confidential  mission.  Its  members  are 
styled  inspectors,  not  asents,  and  thdr  functions  fall  under  four 
principal  heads.  There  is,  first  of  all,  the  service  of  the  SOret^— 
in  other  words,  of  public  safety—the  detective  department,  em- 
ployed enttrdy  in  the  pursuit  and  capture  of  criminals;  next  comes 
the  polke,  now  antalgamatcd  with  the  SOreti,  that  watches  over 
the  morals  of  the  capital  and  possesses  arbitrary  powers  under 
the  existing  bws  of  France;  then  there  is  the  Mgade  de  eomis,  the 
pdiee  chargMl  with  the  supervisioa  of  all  lodging-houses,  from  the 
commonest  **  sleep-sellers'  shop,  as  it  is  called,  to  the  nandest 
hotels.  Last  of  aB  there  is  the  brwade  for  enquiries,  whose  business 
it  is  to  act  as  the  eyes  and  can  ofthe  prefecture. 

The  pay  of  the  gardiens  de  U  teix  xs  from  1400  to  1700  francs; 
bripdiers  get  moo  fmncs;  sous-hngadiere  1800  fmncs;  ffieien  de 
fatx  yaoo  to  6000  francs.  The  proportion  of  pdioe  to  inhabitants 
IS  one  in  352. 

Cermanyj^TnUdag  the  Beriin  force  as  Olustrative  of  the  police 
^mem  In  the  German  Empire,  pdioe  duties  are  as  various  as  in 
France;  the  system  includes  a  pditkal  police,  eontrollinf  all  matters 
relatfnc  to  the  press,  societies,  dubs  and  pubUc  and  sodal  amuse* 
nents.  Polioe  duties  are  carried  out  under  the  direction  of  the 
royal  police  presideney,  the  esiecative  police  force  oomprising  a 
poiioe  oolonsl«  with,  beskfas  tibesmiiMriea  of  orlmiiial ' 


captains,  Ueiitenanta,  acQsg-tfntenanta,  acfieftfit- 
large  body  of  constables  {xkntamdnner). 

It  is  computed  that  the  proportion  of  poputatiOB  to  polioe  is 
Berlin  u  between  ^m  and  400  to  esdi  officer.  The  pay  of  the  poice 
b  prindpally  provided  from  fiscal  sources  and  varies  in  an  awriirfiiig 
scale  from  1135  marks  and  lodging  allowance  for  the  lovest  dass 
of  constable. 

itmfrso.— -Taklni^  Vienna  in  the  mam  way  as  BluaUative  of  the 
Austrian  polioe,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  tiMBre  are  tluee  fanaehes: 
(i)  administration;  (2)  public  safety  and  judicial  pcrfioe;  and  (3) 
the  government  police.  At  the  head  of  the  polioe  service  m  Vlesea 
there  b  a  president  of  polioe  and  at  the  head  of  each  of  thethree 
hnnchestherebaaOkr^eNksiralkordibf  ooraoilssasy.  Tfaehesd 
of  the  guwiunieiit  biaiich  aomctiima  fius  the  uflioe  of  pfessdest. 
Eadi  ofthe  branches  b  snbdivtded  into  departments^  aft  tlie  head 
of  wfaidi  are  PeUmeutke,  Passuig  over  ue  subdhrtdeos  of  the 
administrative  btanch,  the  public  saietv  and  jndidal  branch 
indudea  the  following  dspartments:  the  office  tor  pobllc  saifety.  the 
central  inquiry  office  and  the  record  or  Eeidemabmeam.  The 
government  police  biandi  comprises  three  departments:  the  govcra- 
ment  polioe  office,  the  press  omoe,  and  the  Vereinsb$irtnm  or  office 
for  the  nsistmtion  of  societies.  The  proportion  ci  poliee  cnsistabfcs 
to  the  inhabitants  b  one  to  4^. 

BeigiuMj^la  Bddan  amnidpattties  the  butconMSlets  are  the 
heads  of  the  force,  which  b  under  thdr  ooatreL  Tlie  admiaistKsiac 
of  public  safety  is«  however,  specially  under  the  minister  of  iusdoe. 
who  sees  that  the  laws  and  regubtions  affectiiy  the  pohoe  sre 
properiy  carried  out,  and  he  can  call  on  all  public  f  onctaoearies  to 
act  in  futtheiaaoe  of  that  object.  The  adminiatntior  of  adtXc 
safety  b  apedally  diafj^  with  the  administiatiosi  of  the  bw  in 
regard  to  aliens,  and  this  bw  b  applied  to  pereons  ctirriac  op  secb- 
tion.  The  duty  of  the  gendarmerie,  who  constitute  the  horse  asd 
foot  polioe,  b  generally  to  maintain  internal  order  and  peace:  la 
Brussels  as  elaewhere  the  burigomaster  b  the  hcsul,  bat  for  caeen  ' 
purposes  thens  b  a  chid  oommissaiy  (subject,  however,  to 
orders  of  the  buigwnaster),  with  assistant  commisaarieo*  eatd 
ndssaries  of  dividons  and  other  offioen  and  central  and  other 
bureaus,  with  a  body  of  agents  (police  constables)  in  cadi. 

There  are  two  main  rlsiSfs  of  police  functions  reoociueed  tqr 
law,  the  admlnistnitive  and  the  judicial  police,  the  fonacr  eag^n^ 
in  the  daHy  maintenance  of  peace  and  order  and  so  psevmiiag 
offences,  the  btter  in  the  investigation  of  crime  and  tracfaqe  offenders: 
but  the  duties  are  necessarily  performed  to  a  great  extent  by  ^e 
same  agents.  The  two  other  inactions  of  the  judicial  poGoe  aie. 
however,  limited  to  the  same  classes  of  officers,  and  they  peifonn  the 
same  duties  as  in  Paris-'the  bw  in  pnctioe  daere  bo^  t^x"'  "^y 
adopted  in   Brussels. 

In  SwiieeHandy  whidi  b  sometimes  classed  with  Ptigimn  ss 
among  the  least-policed  states  of  Europe,  the  bws  of  the  cai 
vary.    In  some  lespeus  they  are  stricter  than  m  Bdgiiraa  or 
in  France.    Thus  a  permis  de  sijour  b  sometimes  reqiwod 
none  b  in  pcactioe  necessary  in  Psris  or  Brussels. 

Russw  was  till  btdy  the  most  police-ridden  country  in  the  worM: 
not  even  in  Fiance  in  the  worst  days  of  the  monarchy  wemtiiepeny^ 
so  much  in  the  hands  of  the  police.  To  give  some  idea  of  the  widt- 
reaching  functiona  of  the  police  the  power  assumed  m,  nutters 
momentous  and  quite  insignificant,  we  may  quote  from  the  |^ 
of  drcttbre  tasoed  by  the  minister  of  the  interior  to  the  govemd 
of  the  various  provmces  during  four  recent  years.  The  g«wefnur» 
wert  directed  to  regulate  rdigious  instruction. in  ■*nllar  adioc^v 
to  prevent  hofse^oiling,  to  oontrd  subscriptions  OoOecied  for  tbr 
holy  places  in  Raiestine,  to  regubto  the  advertlserocats  <Df  mffr^-^* 
and  the  printing  on  dgaretto  papers,  to  examine  the  qoaity  <i 
quinine  soap  and  overlook  the  cosmetics  and  other  toSet  artides 
sudi  as  soap,  starch,  brillantine,  tooth-brushes  and  asect-powds 
—provided  oy  chemistSL  They  were  to  issue  regalatjens  kt  ite 
piroper  oonstniction  ^of  houses  and  villages,  to  *'«^i»ist'  am  active 
censorship  over  published  price-lists  and  printed  notes  of  in\*irat>x 
and  visiting  cards,  as  well  as  scab  and  rubber  stamps.  AD  prinsr 
meetings  and  public  gatherings,  with  die  cxpitssions  of  opinwo 
and  the  dasa  of  subjects  discussed,  were  to  oe  omtnQed  by  the 

police* 

The  political  or  state  police  was  the  invention  of  Nicbobs  L 
Alexander  I.  had  created  a  ministry  of  the  interior,  tmt  it  «» 
Nichobs  who  devised  the  second  branch,  wluch  he  dessguwl  far 
hb  own  piotectioa  and  the  security  of  the  state.  After  the  is- 
surrection  of  1865,  he  created  a  epeciaX  bulwark  for  hia  ddrsiT^ 
and  invented  that  secret  polioe  which  grew  into  the  noconi^*.* 
"  Thiid  Section  "  of  the  emperor's  own  dianceiy,  and  whfle  c 
lasted,  was  the  most  dreaded  power  in  the  empire.  It  sras  pnci  ^ 
ally  supreme  in  the  state,  a  ministry  indepeadeat  of  aB  ot^sr- 
ministries,  placed  quite  above  them  aind  w^wwisihte  oaly  to  1^ 
tsar  himseli. 

C^fftlnf  5teCef .— The  organization  of  bolice  fonses  ia  the  Vr.kei 
States  differs  more  or  less  in  the  diRerent  states  of  the  rdes. 
As  a  rule  the  force  in  dties  b  under  munkipal  eontiol,  b«c  to  tin 
rub  there  are  numerous  exceptions.  In  Boston,  far  iMCasn. 
the  throe  comnuasioners  at  the  head  of  the  foice  ase  appointed 
by  the  governor  of  Massachusetts.  The  force  ia  New  York  Or,, 
anhr  from  the  standpoint  of.  numbers  and  of  the  d 


POLICE  COURTS— POLISH  SUCCESSION  WAR 


q8i 


of  the  city,  is  the  most  important  in  the  United  States.  It  included 
in  1910  a  commissioner  amMinted  by  the  mayor  and  exerci«n^  a 
wide  nnge  of  authority;  tour  deputy  commissioners ;  a  chief  m> 
ffiector,  mdio  has  immediate  charge  of  the  force  and  through  whom 
all  orders  are  issued;  be  is  assisted  by  18  inspectoral  wm>  are  in 
charge  of  different  sections  of  the  city,  and  who  carry  out  the 
orders  of  the  chief;  87  captains,  each  of  whom  is  in  direct  charge 
of  a  precinct;  583  seiigeants;  and  last  of  ail,  the  ordinary  policemen; 
or  j^trolmen,  as  they  are  often  called  from  the  character  of  their 
duties,  lliere  is  a  separate  branch,  the  detective  bureau,  com- 
posed of  picked  men,  chaffed  with  the  investigation  and,  still  more, 
the  prevention  of  cnme.  The  total  number  oi  patrol  men  in  1909 
was  8962.  Appointments  are  for  life,  srith  pensions  in  case  of 
disabihty  and  aSfter  a  given  number  of  years  of  service. 

LiTBRATUSB. — Patrick  Colquhoun,  Treatiu  on  the  Police  of  Ike 
Metropolis  (1796);  Pierre  Clement,  La  Police  sous  Louis  XIV. 
66);  Maxime  Du  Camp,  Paris,  ses  or^ncst  sesfonctions  et  savie 
[  1 869-1 875);  Dr  Norman  Chevers,  Indtan  Medical  Jurisprudence 


Arthur 

Melville  Lee,  A  Bistorj  of  Police  in  England  (Methuen,  1901): 
Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb,  English  Local  Goeernmeni  (Longmans. 
1906-1908):  article  by  H.  B.  Simpson,  "  The  Office  of  Constable/' 
in  the  English  Historical  Review.  (Octohex  1895);  F.  W.  Maitland, 
Justice  and  Police  (Macmillan,  1885):  L.  F.  Fold,  Police  Admints- 
tratiom  (New  York,  1910).  (A.  G.) 

POUCB  COURTS,  courts  of  summary  jurisdiction,  held  in 
London  and  certain  large  towns  of  the. United  Kingdom  by 
specially  appointed  and  salaried  magistrates.  They  were 
originally  called  "public  offices "  (Middlesex  Justices  Act  1792), 
but  after  the  establishment  of  the  police  force,  in  1829,  they 
came  to  be  called  "  police  offices,"  although  no  change  had  taken 
place  in  their  nature.  They  arc  so  described  in  a  report  of  a 
select  committee  which  inquired  into  the  system  in  1837  and 
1838;  in  the  same  report  the  magistrates  who  presided  in  the 
courts  were  first  described  as  "police  magistrates."  Police 
oflices  were  first  officially  described  by  their  modem  title  in  the 
Metropolitan  Police  Courts  Act  1839.  In  1839  there  were 
nine  police  courts;  since  1792  there  had  been  three  magistrates 
to  each  court,  and  the  act  of  1839  retained  twenty-seven  as 
the  maximum  number  at  any  time  (s.  2).  In  1835  unsalaried 
justices  ceased  to  sit  in  the  police  courts  along,  with  the  paid 
magistrates.  The  MetropoUtan  Police  Courts  Act  1840  gave 
power  to  map  out  the  whole  of  the  metropolitan  police  district 
into  police  court  divisions,  and  to  establish  police  courts  wherever 
necessary,  the  artificial  limit  of  twenty-seven  magistrates  being 
at  the  same  time  preserved.  Additional  courts  have  from 
time  to  time  been  established  by  orders  in  council,  and  in  1910 
there  were  in  London  fourteen  courts  with  twenty-five  magis- 
trates. Their  divisions  are  regulated  by  orders  in  council  of 
1903  and  1905;  the  nine  original  courts  are  Bow  Street,  West- 
minster, Marylebone,  Marlborough  Street,  Worship  Street, 
Clerkenwell,  Thames,  Tower  Bridge  and  Lambeth. 

The  courts  are  held  eveiy  day  from  10  a.m>  to  5  p.ni.  except 
on  Sunday,  Christmas  Day,  Good  Friday  or  any  day  appcnnted  for 
a  public  fast  or  thanksgiving  or  bank  holiday.  ^  The  Greenwich 
and  Woolwich  court,  which  comprises  one  division,  is  held  at 
Greenwich  in  the  rooming  and  at  Woolwich  in  the  afternoon.  The 
chief  magistrate  (sitting  at  Bow  Street)  receives  a  salary  of  £1600 
a  year  and  the  other  magistrates  £1500  each.  The  magistrates  arc 
appointed  by  the  Crown:  Ihcy  must  have  been  practising  barristers 
for  seven  years  or  stipendiary  magistrates  for  some  place  m  England 
or  Wales.  One  police  ma^trate  has  the  same  powers  as  two 
justices,  but  may  not  act  m  anything  which  has  to  be  done  at 
special  or  petty  sessions  of  all  the  justkes  acting  in  the  division 
or  at  quarter  sessions.  He  can  do  alone  when  sitting  in  a  police 
court  any  act  which  any  justice  or  justices  can  do  under  the  Indict- 
able Offences  Act  1848,  or  under  the  Summary  Jurisdiction  Act; 
he  has  special  powers  under  the  Metropolitan  Fblice  Courts  Act 
1839,  and  is  also  given  special  ppwen  under  certain  other  acts. 
The  Bow  Street  court  has  jurisdiction  in  extradition.  The  pre- 
cedent of  appointing  salaried  magistrates  was  followed  for  certain 
towns  in  the  provinces  by  particular  acts,  and  in  f  863  the  Stipendiary 
Magistrates  Act  gave  power  to  towns  and  boroughs  of  25^000 
inhabitanta  and  upwards  to  obtain  a  stipendiary  magistrate. 

POUONAG.  an  ancient  French  family,  which  had  its  seat  !n  the 
Cevennes  near  Puy-en-Velay  (Haute  Ixnre).  Its  authentic 
pedigree  can  be  traced  to  the  9th  century,  but  in  1421  the  male 
line  became  extinct.    The  heiress  married  Guillaiune,  sire  de 


Chalancon  (not  to  be  confused  with  the  batons  of  Chalanson  in 
Vivarais),  who  assumed  the  name  and  arms  of  Polignac  The 
first  member  of  the  family  who  was  of  any  historical  iinportance 
was  Cardinal  Melchior  die  Polignac  (X66X-1742),  a  younger  son 
of  Armand  XVI.,  marquis  de  Polignac,  who  at  an  early  age 
achieved  distinction  as  a  diplomatist.  In  1695  ^^  ""^  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Poland,  where  he  contrived  to  bring  about  the 
election  of  the  prince  of  Conti  as  successor  to  John  Sobicski 
(1697).  The  subsequent  failure  of  this  intrigue  led  to' his  tem^ 
porary  disgrace,  but  in  1702  he  was  restored  to  favour,  and  in 
17x2  he  was  sent  as  the  plenipotentiary  of  Louis  XIV.  to  the 
Congress  of  Utrecht.  During  the  regency  he  becaune  involved 
in  the  CeUamare  plot,  and  was  relegated  to  Flanders  for  three 
years.  From  X725  to  1732  he  acted  for  France  at  the  Vatican. 
In  X726  he  received  the  archbishopric  of  Auch,  and  he  died  at 
Paris  in  1742.  He  left  unfinished  a  metrical  refuution  of 
Lucretius  which  was  published  after  his  death  by  the  abb£  de 
Rothelin  {AnH-Lucrelius,  1745))  and  had  considerable  vogue 
in  its  day.  Count  Jules  de  Polignac  (d.  18x7),  grandncphew  oC 
the  preceding,  was  created  duke  by  Louis  XVI.  in  1780,  and  in 
X782  was  made  postmaster-generaL  His  position  and  influence 
at  court  were  largely  due  to  his  wife,  Gabrielle  de  Polastron, 
the  bosom  friend  of  Marie  Antoinette;  the  duke  and  duchess 
alike  shared  the  unpopularity  of  the  court,  and  were  among  thft 
first  to  "  emigrate  "  in  X789.  The  duchess  died  shortly  after 
the  queen,  but  her  husband,  who  had  received  an  estate  from 
Catherine  n.  in  the  Ukraine,  survived  till  18x7.  Of  their  three 
so^  the  second,  Prince  Jules  de  Polignac  (1780-1847),  played  a 
con^icuous  part  in  the  clerical  and  ultra-royalist  reaction  after 
the  Revolution.  Under  the  empire  he  was  implicated  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Cadoudal  and  Picfaegru  (1804),  and  was  imprisoned 
till  x8x3.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  held  various 
offices,  received  from  the  pope  his  title  of  "  prince  "  in  1820,  and 
in  X823  was  made  ambassador  to  the  English  court;  On  the 
8th  of  August  X829  he  was  called  by  Charles  X.  to  the  ministry 
of  foreign  affairs,  and  in  the  following  November  he  became 
president  of  the  council.  His  appointment  was  taken  as 
symbolical  of  the  king's  intention  to  overthrow  the  constitution, 
and  Polignac,  with  the  other  ministers,  was  held  responsible 
for  the  policy  which  culminated  in  the  issue  of  the  Four  Ordi- 
nances which  were  the  immediate  cause  of  the  revolution  of 
July  X830.  On  the  outbreak  of  this  he  fled  for  his  life,  but,  after 
wandering  for  some  time  among  the  wilds  of  Normandy,  was 
arrested  at  GranviBe.  His  trial  before  the  chamber  of  peers 
resulted  in  his  condemnation  to  perpetual  imprisonment  (at 
Ham),  but  he  benefited  by  the  amnesty  of  1836,  when  the 
sentence  was  commuted  to  one  of  exile.  During  his  captivity 
he  wrote  ConsiditaHons  politiques  (X832),  He  afterwards  spent 
some  years  in  England,  but  finally  was  permitted  to  re-enter 
France  oh  condition  that  he  did  not  take  up  his  abode  in  Paris. 
He  died  at  St  Germain  on  the  29th  of  March  x$47. 

POLIGNY,  a  town  of  eastern  France,  capital  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Jura,  18  m.  N.N.  E.  ot  Lons-le-Saunier 
on  the  Paris-Lyons  railway.  Pop.  (1906),  3756.  The  town  lies 
in  the  valley  of  the  Glantine  at  the  base  of  a  hill  crowned  by 
the  ruins  of  the  old  castle  of  Grimont,  once  the  repository  of  the 
archives  of  the  county  of  Burgundy.  The  church  of  Monti- 
viUard,  its  most  remarkable  building,  dates  in  the  oldest  portions 
from  the  X2th  century,  its  chief  features  being  a  Romanesque 
tower  and  reredos  of  the  Renaissance  period.  Amongst  the 
other,  old  buildings  of  the  town,  the  church  of  St  Hippolyte,  of 
the  first  half  of  the  X5th  century,  and  a  convent-church  serving 
as  com  market  are  of  some  interest.  The  tribunal  of  first 
instance  belonging  to  the  arrondissement  is  at  Arbois.  Poligny 
has  a  sub-prefecture,  a  communal  college  and  a  school  of  dairy 
instruction.  Under  the  name  of  Paiemniacum  the  town  8ccm& 
to  have  existed  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation. 

POLISH  SUCCESSION  WAR  (1733-1 735),  the  name  given  to  a 
war  which  arose  out  of  the  competition  for  the  throne  of  Poland 
between  the  elector  August  of  Saxony,  son  of  August  11.  (the 
Strong),  and  Stanislaus  Leszcynski,  the  king  of  Poland  installed 
thirty  years  before  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  and  displaced  by 


98  a 


poLrriAN 


August  the  Strong  when  Charles's  projects  ooDapstid.  The  daiois 
of  Stanislaus  were  Supported. by  France,  Spain  and  Sardinia, 
those  of  the  Saxon  prince  by  Russia  and  the  empire,  the  local 
quarrd  being  made  the  preteait  for  the  settlement  of  minor 
outstanding  claims  of  the  great  powers  amongst  themselves. 
The  war  was  therefore  a  typical  x8th  century  "  war  with  a 
limited  object,"  in  whidi  no  one  but  the  cabinets  and  the  pro- 
fessional  armies  were  concerned.  It  was  fought  on  two  theatres, 
the  Rhine  and  Italy.  The  Rhine  campaigns  were  entirely 
unimportant,  and  are  remembered  only  for  the  last  a|q>earance 
in  the  field  of  Prince  Eug&ne  and  Marshal  Berwick-^the  latter 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Fhilippsburg— and  the  baptism  of  fire 
of  the  young  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  af torwards  Frederick  the 
Great.  In  Italy,  however,  there  were  three  hard-fought— 
though  indecisive— battles,  Parma  (June  29,  X734)»  Luzzara 
(Sept.  19,  1734)  and  Bitonto  (May  25,  i7ss)t  the  first  and  last 
won  by  the  Austrians,  the  second  by  the  French  and  their  allies. 
In  Poland  itself,  StanUlaus*  dected  king  in  September  1733,  was 
soon  expelled  by  a  Russian  army  and  was  afterwards  besieged  in 
Dansig  by  the  Russians  and  Saxons  <Feb.-June  X733)* 

POUTIAN  (i454-i494}>  Angek>  AmbiQgini,  known  in 
literary  annals  as  Angelo  Poliziano  or  PolitJanus  from  •his  birth- 
place,  was  bom  at  Montepuldano  in  Tuscany  on  the  X4th  of  July 
X454.  His  father,  Benedetto,  a  jurist  of  good  family  and  dis- 
tinguished ability,  was  murdered  by  political  antagonists  for 
adopting  the  cause  of  Piero  de'  Medici  in  Mont^MiIdano;  and  thb 
dicumstance  gave  his  eldest  son,  Angelo,  a  claim  on  the  family  of 
MedicL  At  the  age  of  ten  the  boy  came  to  prosecute  his  studies 
at  Florence,  where  he  learned  Latin  under  Cristoforo  Laadino, 
and  Greek  imder  Argyropulos  and  Andronicos  Kallistos.  From 
Marailio  Ficino  he  imbibed  the  rudiments  of  philosophy.  The 
precocity  of  his  genius  for  scholarship  and  poetry  was  early 
manifested.  At  thirteen  years  of  age  he  b^an  to  circulate 
Latin  letters;  at  seventeen  be  sent  forth  essays  in  Greek  vosifi- 
cation;  at  eighteen  he  published  an  edition  of  Catullus.  In  1470 
he  won  for  himself  the  title  of  Homericus  jtaenif  by  translating 
four  books  of  the  Jlutd  into  Latin  hexameters.  Lorenao  de' 
Medici,  who  was  then  the  autocrat  of  Florence  and  the  chief 
patron  of  learning  in  Italy,  took  PoUziano  into  his  household, 
made  him  the  tutor  of  his  children,  and  secured  him  a  distin- 
guished post  in  the  uiniversity  of  Florence.  Before  he  reached 
the  age  of  thirty,  Poliziano  expounded  the  humanities  with 
almost  unexampled  lustre  even  for  that  epoch  of  brilliant 
professors.  Among  his  pupils  could  be  numbered  the  chief 
students  of  Europe,  the  men  who  were  destined  to  cany  to  their 
homes  the  spolia  opima  of  Italian  culture.  Not  to  mention 
Italians,  it  will  suffice  to  record  the  names  of  the  German 
Reuchlin,  the  English  Gropyn  and  linacre,  imd  the  Portuguese 
Tessiras. 

Poliziano  bad  few  advantages  of  person  to  recommend  him. 
He  was  ungainly  in  form,  with  eyes  that  squinted,  and  a  nose  of 
disproportionate  length.  Yet  his  voice  was  rich  and  capal^  of 
fine  ixM>dulation^  his  eloquence,  ease  of  utterance  and  copious 
stream  of  erudition  were  incomparable.  It  was  the  method  of 
professors  at  that  period  to  read  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors 
with  their  class,  dictating  philological  and  critical  notes,  emend- 
ing corrupt  passages  in  the  received  texts,  ofXcring  elucidations 
of  the  matter,  and  pouring  forth  stores  of  acquired  knowledge 
regarding  the  laws,  manners,  religious  and  philosophical  opinions 
of  the  ancients.  Poliziano  covered  nearly  the  whole  ground  of 
classical  literature  during  the  years  of  his  professorship,  and 
published  the  notes  of  his  courses  upon  Ovid,  Suetonius,  Statius, 
the  younger  Pliny,  Quintilian,  and  the  writers  of  Augustan 
histories.  He  also  tmdcrtook  a  recension  of  the  text  of  the 
Pandects  of  Justinian,  which  formed  the  subject  of  one  of  his 
courses;  and  this  recension,  though  it  docs  not  rank  high  in  the 
scale  of  juristic  erudition,  gave  an  impulse  to  the  scholarly 
criticism  of  the  Roman  code.  At  the  same  time  he  was  busy 
as  a  translator  from  the  Greek.  His  versions  of  Epictetus, 
Herodian,  Hippocrates,  Galen,  Plutarch's  Erolicus  and  Plato's 
Ckarmides  delighted  contemporaries  by  a  certain  limpid  fluency 
of  Latin  style  and  grace  of  manner  which  distinguished  him  also 


as  an  original  writer.    Of  these  learned  labours  the  most  oh 
versally  acceptable  to  the  public  of  that  time  were  a  series 
of  discursive  essays  on  philology  and  criticism,  first  publidicd  is 
X489  under  the  title  of  Miscdlanea.    They  Ind  an  immedi&ie, 
a  lasting  and  a  wide  renown,  encouraging  the  scholars  of  the  cert 
century  and  a  half  to  throw  their  occasional  discoveries  in  the 
field  of  scholarship  into  a  form  at  once  so  attractive  and  so 
instructive.    Poliziano  was  not,  however,  contented  with  these 
simply  professorial  and  scholastic  compoations.     Nature  had 
endowed  him'  with  literary  and  poetic  gifts  of  the  highest  order. 
These  he  devoted  to  the  composition  of  Latin  and  Greek  verses, 
which  count  among  the  best  of  those  produced  by  men  of  oioden 
times  in  rivalry  with  ancient  authors.   The  Mant9,  m  vhkh  he 
pronounced  a  panegyric  of  Virgil}  the  Ambra,  which  contains  a 
beautiful  idyUic  sketch  of  Tuscan  landscape,  and  a  studied 
eulogy  of  Homer;  the  Rusticus,  which  celebrated  the  plessuns 
of  country  life  in  no  frigid  ot  scholastic  spirit;  and  the  iftt^ia*, 
which  was  intended  to  serve  as  a  general  introduction  to  tbe 
study  of  ancient  and  modem  poetiy — these  are  the  mastexpieoei 
of  PoUziano  in  Latin  verse,  displaying  an  authenticity  of  inspin- 
tion,  a  sincerity  of  feeling,  and  a  command  of  metrical  resources 
which  mark  them  out  as  original  productions  of  poetic  geaios 
rather  than  as  merely  professorial  lucubratiodos.     £zcq4.iGa 
may  be  taken  to  their  style,  when  compared  with  the  best  wok 
of  the  Augustan  or  even  of  the  Silver  age.    But  what  readccs 
them  always  noteworthy  to  the  student  of  modem  humasstk 
literature  is  that  they  are  in  no  sense  imitative  or  coaventioaal, 
but  that  they  convey  the  genuine  thoughts  and  emotions  of  a 
bom  poet  in  Latin  diction  and  in  metre  moulded  to  soil  tbe 
characteristics  of  the  singer's  tcmperaroenL 

Poliziano  was  great  as  a  scholar,  as  a  professor,  as  a  critic, 
and  as  a  Latin  poet  at  an  age  when  the  classics  were  atill  studied 
with  the  passion  of  assimilative  curiosity,  and  not  witlrthe  sc.'€»- 
tific  industry  of  a  later  period.  He  was  the  representative  bcso 
of  that  age  of  scholarship  in  which  students  drew  their  ideal  cf 
life  from  antiquity  and  fondly  dreamed  that  th^  might  » 
restore  the  past  as  to  compete  with  the  classics  in  production  aad 
bequeath  a  golden  age  of  resuscitated  paganism  to  the  naodera 
world.  Yet  he  was  even  greater  as  an  Italian  poet.  Bet«<c 
Boccacdo  and  Ariosto,  no  single  poet  in  the  mother  to^fw 
of  Italy  deserves  so  high  a  place  as  Poliziano.  l/^'hat  be  ndii: 
have  achieved  in  this  department  of  literature  had  he  lived  &t  1 
period  less  preoccupied  witli  humanistic  studies,  axMl  hsi  ^ 
found  a  congenial  sphere  for  his  activity,  can  otdy  be  gaesi^i 
As  it  is,  we  must  reckon  him  as  decidedly  the  foremost  :-i 
indubitably  the  most  highly  gifted  among  the  Italian  poets  v'  ^ 
obeyed  Lorenzo  dc'  Medici's  demand  for  a  resuscitation  of  ic 
vulgar  literature.  Lorenzo  ted  the  way  himself,  aiid  FtolizLr-* 
was  more  a  follower  in  his  path  than  an  initiator.  Yet  wLj 
Poliziano  produced,  impelled  by  a  courtly  wish  to  satt&fjr  *>j 
patron's  whiin,  proves  his  own  immeasurable  supenority  as  ;a: 
artist.  His  principal  Italian  works  are  the  stanxas  called  L£ 
Ciosira,  written  upon  Giuliano  de'  Medici's  vicU»y  in  a  tcsru- 
ment;  the  Orfeo,  a  lyrical  dmma  performed  at  Mantoa  w  1 
musical  acoompaniment;  and  a  collection  of  fogitivv  pieces, 
reproducing  various  forms  of  Tuscan  popular  poetry.  L; 
Ciostra  had  no  plan,  and  remained  imperfect;  but  it  decxz- 
strated  thecapacitiesof  theoctavestanzafor  rich,  hamxmiousasrt 
sonorous  metrical  effect.  The  Orfeo  is  a  slight  piece  of  vt< 
thrown  off  at  a  heat,  yet  abounding  in  unpremeditated  lyrrx 
beauties,  and  containing  in  itself  the  germ  both  of  the  p»sU .-. 
play  and  of  the  opera.  The  Tuscan  songs  are  distinguished  hr  1 
"  xoseate  fluency,"  an  exquisite  charm  of  half  roiBaalic,  >.  - 
hiunorous  abandonment  to  fancy,  which  mark  theza  ow:  a 
improvisations  of  genius.  It  may  be  added  that  m  aC  tr  «• 
departments  of  Italian  composition  Poliziano  showed  how  ii.r 
taste  and  learning  of  a  classical  scholar  cooki  be  dafiafted  c? 
the  stock  of  the  vernacular,  and  how  the  highest  periectioe  4^ 
artistic  form  might  be  atiaixaed  in  Italian  withcHxt  a  aacoSce  of 
native  spontaneity  and  natural  flow  of  language. 

It  is  difficult  to  combine  in  one  view  the  tci^^eca]  a^wca 
presented  to  us  by  this  maay-sidpd  man  of  Uteraxy  ^mim    Ai 


POLK,  J.  K. 


983 


*  period  irftcn  hnnatibrntook  the  lead  in  forming  Italian  charac- 
ter and  giving  tone  to  European  culture,  he  dimbed  with 
fiadlity  to  the  height  of  achievement  in  all  the  branches  of 
scholarship  which  were  then  most  seriously  priaed — in  varied 
knowledge  of  andent  authors,  in  critical  capacity,  in  rhetorical 
and  poetical  exuberance.    This. was  enough  at  that  epoch  to 
direct  the  attention  of  all  the  learned  men  of  Eurc^  on  Poliziano. 
At  the  same  time,  almost  against  his  own  inclination,  certainly 
with  very  little  enthusiasm  on  his  part,  he  lent  himself  so  success- 
fully to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici's  scheme  for  resuscitating  the  decayed 
literature  of  Tuscany  that  his  slightest  Italian  effusions  exercised 
a  potent  influence  on  the  immediate  future.    He  appears  before 
us  9S  the  dictator  of  Italian  culture  in  a  double  capacity — ^as  the 
man  who  most  perfectly  expressed  the  Italian  conception  of 
humanism,  and  brought  erudition  into  accord  with  the  pursuit 
of  noble  and  harmonious  form,  and  also  as  the  man  whose 
vernacular  compositions  were  more  significant  than  any  others 
of  the  great  revolution  in  favour  of  Italian  poetry  which  culmi- 
nated in  Ariosto.    Beyond  the  sphere  of  pure  scholarship  and 
pure  literature  Poliziano  did  net  venture.    He  was  present, 
indeed,  at  the  attack  made  by  the  Pazzi  conspirators  on  the 
persons  of  Lorenzo  and  Giuliano  de'  Medici,  and  wrote  an 
interesting  account  of  its  partial  success.    He  also  contributed 
a  curious  document  on  the  death  of  Lorenzo  de'  Mcdid  to  the 
students  of  Florentine  history.     But  he  was  not,  like  many 
other  humanists  of  his  age,  concerned  in  public  affairs  of  state 
or  diplomacy,  and  he  held  no  office  except  that  of  professor  at 
Florence.    His  private  life  was  also  uneventful.   He  passed  it  as 
a  house-friend  and  dependant  of  the  Media,  as  the  idol  of  the 
learned  worid,  and  as  a  simple  man  of  letters  for  whom  (with 
truly  Tuscan  devotion  to  the  Satumian  country)  rural  pleasures 
were  alwajrs  acceptable.    He  was  never  married;  and  his  morals 
incurred  suspidon,  to  which  his  own  Greek  verses  lend  a  certain 
amount  of  plausible  colouring.     In  character   Poliziano  was 
decidedly  inferior  to  the  intellectual-  and  literary  eminence 
which  he  displayed.    He  died,  half  broken-hearted  by  the  loss 
of  his  friend  and  patron  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  on  the  a4th  of 
September  1494,  just  before  the  wave  of  foreign  invasion  which 
was  gathering  in  France  swept  over  Italy. 

For  the  life  and  works  of  Politian,  sec  F.  O.  Mencken  (Leipzig, 
1736),  a  vast  repertory  of  accumulated  erudition;  Jac.  M&hly, 
Angdus  Potitianus  (Leipzig,  1864);  Carducci's  edition  of  the 
Italian  'pOems  (Florence,  Barbcra,  1863);  Del  Lungo's  edition  of 
the  Italian  prose  works  and  Latin  and  Greek  poems  (Florence, 
Barbcra,  i86;[):  the  Opera  omnia  (Basel,  1554);  GrcsweU's  English 
Life  of  Politian  (180^);  Roscoc's  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (loth  cd., 
1^51);  J-  Addin^on  Symonds* a  Renaissance  in  Italy ,  and  transla- 
tions from  Poliziano's  Italian  poems  in  Symonds'a  Sketches  and 
Studies  in  Italy,  which  include  the  Orfeo.  (J.  A.  S.) 

POLK.  JAMES  KNOX  (r795-i849),  eleventh  president  of  the 

United  States,  was  bom  in  Mecklenburg  county.  North  Carolina, 

on  the  2nd  of  November  1795.   In  1806  he  crossed  the  mountains 

with  his  parents  and  settled  in  what  is  now  Maury  county, 

Tennessee.    He  graduated  from  the  university  of  North  Carolina 

in  181S,  studied  law  in  the  office  of  Felix  Grundy  (i 777-1840)  at 

Nashville  in  iSi^-rSao,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  xSao,  and 

began  to  practise  in  Columbia,  the  county-seat  of  Maury  coimty 

After  two  years  of  service  (1893-1825)  in  the  state  House  of 

Representatives,  he  represented  the  sixth  Tennessee  district 

in  the  National  House  of  Representatives  from  1825  to  1839. 

In  the  party  conflicts  which  succeeded  the  presidential  election 

of  1824  he  sided  with  the  Jackson- Van  Burcn  faction,  and  soon 

became  recognized  as  leader  of  the  Democratic  forces.    He  was 

speaker  from  1835  until  1839,  when  he  retired  from  Congress 

to  become  governor  of  Tennessee.  His  administration  (i839-r84i) 

was  successful,  but  he  was  unable  to  overcome  the  popular  Whig 

movement  of  that  period,  and  was  defeated  in  184X  and  again  in 

1 843'    When  the  Democratic  national  convention  met  in  Balti- 

noore  in  1844  he  was  mentioned  as  a  possible  candidate  for  the 

vice-presidency,  but  was  suddenly  brought  forward  as  a  "  dark 

horse  "  and  selected  to  head  the  ticket.    Finding  it  impossible 

under  the  two-thirds  rule  to  nominate  their  candidate,  the 

foUowers  of  Van  Buren  brought  forward  F^lk,  who  was  popular 


in  thd  South,  in  order  to  defeat  Lewis  Cass  and  James  Buchanan. 
George  Bancroft,  the  historian,  has  asserted  that  this  suggestion 
came  originally  from  him,  and  Gideon  J.  Pillow,  Pdlk's  intimale 
friend,  did  much  to  bring  about  the  nomination. 

The  uneqtuvocal  stand  of  Polk  and  his  party  in  favour  of  the 
immediate  annexation  of  Texas  and  the  adoption  of  a  vigorous 
policy  in  Oregon  contrasted  favourably  with  the  timid  vacilla- 
tions of  Henr3e  Clay  and  the  Whigs.   Polk  was  elected,  receiving 
170  electoral  votes  to  105  for  his  opponent  Clay.    In  forming 
his  cabinet  he  secured  the  services  of  James  Buchanan  of 
Pennsylvania,  as  secretary  of  state,  Robert  J.  Walker  of  Missis- 
sippi, as  secretary  of  the  treasury,  William  L.  Marcy  of  New  York, 
as  secretary  of  war,  and  George  Bancroft,  then  of  Massachusetts, 
as  secretary  of  the  navy.^   There  is  no  doubt  that  each  of , these 
men,  and  Bancroft  in  particular,  influenced  the  policy  of  the 
administration,  yet  the  historian  James  Schouler,  who  has  made 
a  careful  study  of  the  Polk  papers,  u  doubtless  correct  In  saying 
that  the  president  himself  was  "  the  framer  of  the  public  policy 
which  he  carried  into  so  successful  execution,  and  that  instead 
of  being  led  (as  many  might  have  imagined)  by  the  more  famous 
statesmen  of  his  administration  and  party  who  surroimded  him, 
he  in  reality  led  and  shaped  his  own  executive  course."    Ban- 
croft's opinion  is  that  Polk  was  "prudent,  far-sighted,  bold, 
exceeding  any  Democrat  of  his  day  in  his  tmdcviatingly  correct 
exposition  of  Democratic  principles." 

The  four  chief  events  of  President  Polk's  administration  were 
the  final  establishment  of  the  independent  treasury  system,  the 
reduction  of  the  tariff  by  the  Walker  Bill  of  1846,  the  adjustment 
of  the  Oregon  boimdary  dispute  with  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty 
concluded  on  the  xsth  of  June  1846,  and  the  war  with  Mexico 
and  the  consequent  acquisition  of  territory  in  the  south-west  and 
west.  The  first  three  of  these  were  recommended  in  his  first 
annual  message,  and  he  privately  announced  to  Bancroft  his 
determination  to  seize  California.  The  independent  treasury 
plan  originated  during  Van  Buren's  adminbtration  as  a  Demo- 
cratic measure;  it  had  been  repealed  by  the  Whigs  in  1841,  and 
was  now  re-enacted.  Protectionists  contend  that  the  tariff 
legislation  of  1846  was  in  direct  violation  of  a  pledge  given  to 
the  Democrats  of  Pennsylvania  in  a  letter  written  by  Polk 
during  the  campaign  to  John  K.  Kane  of  Philadelphia.  Briefly 
summarized,  this  letter  approves  of  a  tariff  for  revenue  with 
incidental  protection,  whereas  the  annual  message  of  the  2nd 
of  December  1845  criticizes  the  whole  theory  of  protection  and 
urges  the  adoption  of  a  revenue  tariff  just  sufficient  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  government  conducted  on  an  economical  basis. 
It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  this  was  always  his  idea 
of  incidental  protection,  or  whether  his  views  were  changed 
after  1844  through  the  influence  of  Walker  and  the  example 
set  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  Great  Britain,  or  whether  he  was 
simply  "playing  politics"  to  secure  the  protectionist  vote 
in    Pennsylvania. 

The  one  Overshadowing  issue  of  the  time,  however,  was 
territorial  expansion.  Polk  was  an  ardent  expansionist,  but 
the  old  idea  that  his  policy  was  determined  entirely  by  a  desire 
to  advance  the  interests  of  slavery  b  no  longer  accepted.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  he  was  personally  in  favour  of  insisting  upon 
54°  40'  as  the  boundary  in  Oregon,  and  threw  upon  Congress  the 
responsibility  for  accepting  49^  as  the  boundary,  and  he  approved 
the  acquisition  of  Callfomia,  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  territory 
from  which  slavery  was  excluded  by  geographical  and  climatic 
conditions.  Furthermore  a  study  of  his  manuscript  diary  now 
shows  that  he  opposed  the  efforts  of  Walker  and  Buchanan  in 
the  Cabinet,  and  of  Daniel  S.  Dickinson  (r 800-1 866)  of  New 
York  and  Edward  A.  Hannegan  (d.  r859)  of  Indiana,  in  the 
Senate,  to  retain  the  whole  of  Mexico,  territory  in  which  slaver>| 
might  have  thrived.  At  the  dose  of  his  term  (March  4,  1849) 
Polk  retired  to  his  home  in  Nashville,  Tennessee,  where  he  died 
on  the  X5th  of  the  following  June. 

*  Bancroft  served  until  September  1846,  when  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  England.  He  was  succeeded  as  secretary  of  the  navy 
by  John  J.  Mason,  who  had  previously  hekl  the  office  of  attorney* 
general. 


98+ 


POLK,  L.— POLKA 


See  John  S.  Jenkins,  /sMel  Knn  Pdk  (Auburn  and  Buffalo. 
i8$o).  and  L.  B.  Chase,  History  oJ[  the  Folk  AdministratUm  (New 
York,  1850),  both  of  which  contain  some  documentary  material, 
but  are  not  discriminating  in  their  method  of  treatment.  Geor«e 
Bancroft  contributed  a  good  short  sketch  to  J.  G.  Wilsons 
Presidents  t^ikt  Unikd  States  (New  York,  2nd  ed.,  1894).  He  made 
copies  of  the  Polk  manuscripts  and  was  working  upon  a  detailed 
biography  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1891.  These  copies,  now 
deposited  in  the  Lenox  Library,  New  York  City,  contain  a  diary 
in  24  typewritten  volumes,  besides  some  correspondence  and  other 

Sivate  papen.  They  have  been  used  by  James  Schoulcr  m  his 
istoricai  Briefs  (New  York,  1896),  and  by  £.  G.  Bourne  in  an 
article  entitled  "  The  Proposed  Absorption  of  Mexico  in  1847- 
1848,"  published  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  American  Historxcal 
Association  for  iSqg,  L  157-169  (Washington,  1900).  Bourne  dis- 
cusses the  part  which  Polk  took  in  preventing  the  complete  absorp- 
tion of  Mexico.  Sec  also  the  Diary  of  James  K.  Polk  ....  1845  to 
J84Q  (Chicago,  4  vols.,  1910),  edited  by  M.  M.  Quaife. 

(W.  R.  S.*) 

POLK,  LBOHIDAS  (1806-1864),  American  soldier,  was  bom  at 
Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  on  the  joth  of  April  1806,  and  was  a 
cousin  of  James  Knox  Polk,  president  of  the  United  States.  He 
was  educated  at  West  Point,  but  afterwards  studied  theology  and 
took  orders  in  the  ProtesUnt  Episcopal  Church  in  1831.  In  1838 
he  became  missionary  bishop  of  the  South-West,  Arkansas, 
Indian  Territory,  Louisiana,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  in 
184X  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Louisiana.  His  work  in 
the  Church  was  largely  of  an  educational  kind,  and  he  played  a 
prominent  put  in  movements  for  the  establishment  of  lugher 


educational  institutions  m  the  Sooth.  At  the  oatbictk  ol  the 
Civil  War  in  1861  he  resigned  his  hlshopric  and,  tike  many  other 
deigjrmen  and  ministers  of  religion,  entered  the  army  vfakfa  was 
nu5ed  to  defend  the  Confedency.  His  rank  in  the  biemrchy 
and  the  universal  respect  in  which  he  was  held  in  the  South, 
nther  than  his  early  militaxy  education,  auaed  him  to  be 
appointed  to  the  important  rank  of  major-fenend.  He  forti- 
fied the  post  of  Columbus,  Kentucky,  the  foremost  Uat  of  defence 
on  the  Mississippi,  against  which  Brigadier-General  U.  S.  Grant 
directed  the  offensive  reconnaissance  oif  Belmcmt  in  the  autumn 
In  the  following  ^ring,  the  first  line  of  defence  h&ving  fallen, 
Polk  commanded  a  corps  at  Shiloh  in  the  field  army  commanded 
by  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  and  Beauregard.  In  October  XS62 
he  was  promoted  lieutenant-general,  and  thenceforward  be 
commanded  one  of  the  three  cor^  of  the  aranv  of  Tennessee 
under  Bragg  and  afterwards  was  in  charge  of  the  Departroei^ 
of  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  East  Louisiana.  He  was  killed  s 
the  fighting  in  front  of  Marifltta,  while  rcfonnoitring  near  FSae 
Mountain,  Georgia,  on  the  14th  of  June  1864. 

See  Life,  by  his  son  W.  M.  Pblk.  (1893). 

POLKA  (cither  from  the  Czech  pulka,  half,  with  sn  aBcsioa 
to  the  short  steps  characteristic  of  the  dance,  or  from  the 
Polish  Polka,  feminine  of  Polak,  a  Pole),  a  tivdy  dance  of 
Bohemian  origin,  danced  to  music  written  in  \  time.  (See 
Dance.) 


XND  or  TWENTV-nSST  VOLDHC 


..  wr  »•  ■■  vammeuzw  *  soas  cMVAitv.  cncACo.  on  "sitnAinarA  inom 
Mtsa."  MAMottcrvum  n  &.  0.  wmuh  •  ooiirAirr.  msmn.  mas.  tunnm.  m 
>.  f .  TA»i«  ca04irr.  mew  to«»,  aid  k.  b. oomwbuy  amms  eonrANT, 


u.'wo  r;ui  uuiuLAit 


3  bios  osH  ASH  aaa 


CECIL  H.  GREEN  LIBRARY 

STANFORD  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 

STANFORD,  CALIFORNIA  94305-6004 

(650)  723-1493 
grncircdsulmall.stanford.edu 

All  books  are  subject  to  recall. 
DATE  DUE